"id","conference","title","work_type","full_text","full_text_type","full_text_license","url","parent_session"
"1","1","Writing about It: Documentation and Humanities Computing","1","Documentation is arguably the most important part of a humanities computing project's long-term existence, in two senses. First, in the sense that without it a project cannot maintain continuity and consistency; and second, in the sense that without it a project cannot communicate its methods to other members of the larger community, offering them for critique if in need of improvement, and making them known if worthy of emulation.

Without documentation a project is effectively without ""self-knowledge"", by which I mean the information which the project itself as an entity needs to know in order to survive and to perpetuate itself. It is crucial to distinguish here between the knowledge belonging to individual participants in the project's work, and the project itself. What individuals know is not necessarily accessible to other project members, and this knowledge is taken away with them when they leave. What the project knows, on the other hand, is an explicit part of its internal and public existence, with several important consequences. It can be found without recourse to private knowledge; it does not depend on any individual and is not vulnerable to changes in staff. And finally, this kind of self-knowledge has a particular rhetorical status within the project and as a public expression of identity, in that it has an understood authority: it is explicitly endorsed by the project and its truth or applicability are not in question.

This is as much as to say that we need to take documentation seriously not only as a practical matter but also as a question of theory. Producers of documentation must negotiate between different rhetorical scenarios, from the didactic, developmental narrative of a training manual to the encyclopedic granularity of a reference guide. Treating this negotiation as a rhetorical problem seems to locate it in the writing itself. But in fact we can see, once we look more closely, that documentation is a specialized kind of data or content to be purveyed, and that these different scenarios amount to different approaches to data retrieval which must be accommodated. This complexity is compounded by the fact that we are concerned here with humanities computing documentation, to be used by humanists, with humanistic expectations about the relationship between that which is documentable - reproducible, deterministic, normative - and that which is subject to independent judgment and expertise.

Finally, the challenges documentation poses - its peculiar embodiment of the Arnoldian tension between ""Hebraizing"" and ""Hellenizing"", between doing and thinking - also resonate with issues central to humanities computing. Documentation both embodies a project's self-reflection and calls it to a close, requires that reflection conclude in order that action may commence. And yet the normative statements which documentation strives to offer about a project's practice are inevitably, in a project of any scope, the occasion for discovering further issues which have not yet been decided. The perpetually unfinished work of documentation thus holds the project in a state of dynamic suspension, always trying to resolve issues and get back to work, always trying to finish work so that it can be documented.

Some specific points are worth noting here, to be discussed at greater length in the finished paper. First of all is the issue already mentioned of the relationship between training documentation and reference documentation. The most apparent difference between these two forms is the kind of text being produced: in the first case, a developmental narrative which takes the trainee through the project's methods from basic to advanced in a way which maximizes memorability and comprehensibility; in the second case, a reference work which provides instant access to particular topics discussed as independent items with a high degree of granularity. These two modes are so different that it is often extremely difficult to convert from one to the other, increasingly so in proportion to how successfully the given mode has been realized. They also require quite different kinds of infrastructure to make them useful in the work environment: for instance, the reference model works best when accompanied by good metadata and a good retrieval system. It also requires attention to the level of granularity at which individual instructions are conceptualized, and to how related instructions will be identified and aggregated.

Producing documentation in either mode requires that one conceptualize the consumer's needs and habits in detail, and this raises a second point which has already been mentioned above. What role do humanists allot to documentation, broadly considered? This question points to a larger issue for humanities computing, namely the role of judgment and interpretation in the creation of humanities data, and in what areas the exercise of these things is appropriate. If the documentation is framed for a workplace in which comparatively unskilled workers require explicit instructions on making absolutely consistent choices, then the documentation itself needs to be equally determinate, authoritative, and exhaustive in the way it communicates. It must anticipate every alternative and leave no opening for variation; from the retrieval standpoint, it must ensure that the correct information is always discovered no matter how inept or tangential the search strategy. In short, it must make the work resemble as little as possible the kind of intellectual environment envisioned by a liberal humanities viewpoint. On the other hand, if the intention is to guide the worker in exercising judgment - that is, to indicate the principles to be applied rather than the act to be performed - then the documentation will necessarily imagine its readers as part of an ongoing investigation into the project's methods and standards.

To give these reflections some concreteness, the finished paper will also consider an actual documentation system currently in use in a major text encoding project, which has evolved over a period of seven years and is used both for training and reference. Although developed for a particular set of needs and by no means perfect, this system and the process of its development offer an example which may be of use to people currently designing or redesigning documentation systems of their own.","txt","2","",""
"2","1","Integration of Markup Languages and Object-Oriented Techniques in a Hypermedia Methodology","1","In this paper we present a hypermedia design and production methodology integrating markup languages and object-oriented techniques. This methodology tries to solve the main problems presented during hypermedia development, improving the communication between customers (content providers and interaction designers), and developers (software designers and programmers).

1. Introduction

Hypermedia production is a complex and costly task with a specific need to involve experts of very different fields during all the phases of the software development. Usually in traditional software production, the customer gives the functional and operational requisites to developers, who in a very independent way implement the program. On the contrary, in hypermedia production we need more implication of the customer providing all the information needed to build the application. We have learned all these lessons during the construction of Galatea, an educational hypermedia for French text comprehension, developed in collaboration with a linguists team (complementary information about Galatea can be found in [Fernandez-Manjon et al. 98]).

This customer presence, providing contents and interaction, originates a severe problem in the design phase. In this phase we need a systematic and well-defined formalism to represent the application in an abstract way that facilitates the relationship between customers and software designers.

Two main approaches have been used to solve this problem. One solution is the use of hypermedia models in the design and development of these applications. The other one is to use object-oriented diagrams to cover the design phase. In this paper we analyze both approaches [Navarro 98], and propose a production hypermedia methodology integrating hypermedia models and object-oriented techniques. Our methodology [Navarro&Fernandez-Manjon 00, Navarro&Sierra 00] tries to solve some of the problems identified in previous approaches facilitating the interaction between customers and developers, easing the code generation based on design phase, and improving the application maintenance.

2. Hypermedia models and object-oriented design and development techniques

Hypermedia models as Dexter Hypermedia Model [Halasz and Schwartz 94], Amsterdam Hypermedia Model [Hardman et al. 94], Hypertext Abstract Machine HAM [Campbell and Goodman 88], Hypergraph Model [Tompa 89], Trellis Model [Stotts and Furuta 89], and Hypertext Design Model HDM [Garzotto et al. 93] present important advantages [Garzotto et al. 93], and a few drawbacks. They are closed systems, making it impossible (or very difficult) to include complex computational activities in the hypermedia application, if the model doesn't support this activity; some of them are too hard to be managed by non computer science people; and none of them enables the design of an hypermedia application centred on the information structure, with a real independence of the presentation structure.

Object-oriented software development methodologies, as Booch [Booch 94] or UML [Rumbaugh et al. 98], are extensively and successfully applied in computer projects development, because they improve software quality and maintenance, but these methodologies also present some drawbacks. They are not primarily intended for the development of hypermedia applications; and they use diagrams which are valuable for software designers, but very difficult to be understood by a customer team.

Our approach combines ideas for both domains, and integrates them through the use of XML. XML, the Extensible Markup Language [W3C XML], is the evolution of the first attempt to represent markup languages in a standardized way, SGML, the Standard Generalized Markup Language [ISO/IEC SGML]. XML is based on descriptive markup (the tag semantic is not specified in the tag definition); the separation between the structure, content and treatment of a document; and the platform independence. To achieve these goals XML defines the set of tags that conform to the markup language (that is the document structure) through an XML construction called DTD (Document Type Definition). This DTD is the grammar that formally describes the structure of a class of text, and a document that includes the DTD tags to structure its content is called an instance of the DTD.

3. Our approach

As previously stated, our methodology tries to solve the problems identified in previous approaches, improving the communication between customers and developers. In our approach, developers are divided into software designers that must provide a representation of the application (code independent), and programmers that translate this representation into real code. Customers also play a double role. They are the content providers that organize the knowledge included in the application (this knowledge has a double structure: natural and hyperlink structure), and they are the interaction designers who decide the time and space of content presentation.

Interaction between the content providers team and the software designers team is one of the problems that our methodology solves. We use an XML DTD, called the content DTD, to represent the contents of the application, and the hyperlinks between these contents. The content provider team describes the structure of the contents (using natural language), and the software designers team use this information to build the content DTD. Then, the content provider team generates an instance of this content DTD that organizes the contents of hypermedia application in a formal way. The use of meaningful tags, and the inclusion of attributes (properties) in these tags, solves the problem of content providers and software designers interaction.

Our methodology also eases the communication problems between the interaction designers team and software designer team. We use another XML DTD, called the presentation DTD to characterize the presentational structure of hypermedia applications. The elements of the presentation DTD describe the application presentational elements (screens, windows, buttons, etc.) and the hyperlinks between them. This DTD is common to all (or most) hypermedias, and is provided by the software designers team. Moreover we are working in the assignment of a concrete semantic to the presentation DTD, based on an object-oriented windows class hierarchy, to provide a consistent connection between the markup view, and the object-oriented view of our methodology.

This separation from content and presentation provides the means to associate different presentations with the same content. The relationship between content DTD and presentation DTD is accomplished through the overmarkup. Overmarkup basic idea is a very simple one: when we build the instance of the presentation DTD, to describe the presentation and interaction framework of the application, the elements of the content DTD are the content of the elements of the presentation DTD.

We apply this overmarkup in two phases. In phase 1, structural overmarkup, there are no real contents, and when the interaction designers (helped by software designers) build the instance 1 of the presentation DTD, the elements of the presentation DTD overmark the elements (only the name of the element) of the content DTD, enabling a better understanding of the structure of the application.

In phase 2, content overmarkup, when the interaction designers (helped by software designers) build the instance 2 of the presentation DTD, the elements of the presentation DTD overmark the instances of the elements of the content DTD (the real content) to represent the final hypermedia application. If we need to represent some complex computational activity in the application (for example an exercise that evaluates the learner knowledge) we use object-oriented diagrams (mainly class and state transition diagrams) that are attached to instance 2 of the presentation DTD. This instance 2 is what we call the application design document, and provides a real representation of the total application used by customers and programmers. Customers (content providers and interaction designers) use the design document to evaluate if it conforms to its requirements, and make any change (obviously they ignore the object-oriented diagrams). Programmers use part of this document in the coding phase directly, whereas other parts represent the application design that they must translate in real code. This task is facilitated by the relation between presentation DTD and real object-oriented code, and facilitates the maintenance of the final application.

4. Conclusions and future work

We think that our approach provides a solution for the development of hypermedia applications, solving the problems of hypermedia models and object-oriented construction techniques. Indeed our solution is not closed (we have integrated all the power provided by object-oriented development techniques), and is specifically created to deal with hypermedia software. Our experience in the Galatea development has showed us that XML markup (and its supporting tools) is easy enough to be used by customers (a similar approach is used in [Nanard and Nanard 95]), and the design phase is totally covered by overmarkup.

Content and presentation DTD improve the communication between customers and developers, and provide the means to capture the content and presentation structure in different stages. Overmarkup phases integrate these structures: structural overmarkup represents a fast application ""prototype"", and the design document is a complete application representation that solves the interaction problem between customers and software designers. Moreover we can use the structure provided by the presentation DTD to generate part of the object-oriented code (improving the communication between software designers and programmers), and the existence of the design document facilitates the application maintenance.

Present work includes the total assignment of an object-oriented semantic to elements of presentation-DTD. The next step is the development of a CASE tool that facilitates the overmarkup process, and that provides different views of the application (overmarkup view, window view - an application preview - and object-oriented view).

5. References

Booch, G. (1994). Object-oriented analysis and design with applications. Second Edition. Benjamin Cummings Publishing Company.
Campbell, B. and Goodman, J.M. (1988). HAM: A general purpose hypertext abstract machine, Communications of the ACM 31(7) 856-861.
Fernandez-Manjon, B., Navarro, A., Cigarran, J. and Fernandez-Valmayor A. (1998). Using Standard Markup in the design and development of Web educational software. Proceedings de TeleTeaching 98.
Garzotto, F., Paolini, P. And Schwabe, D. (1993). HDM: A model-based approach to hypertext application design. ACM Transactions on Information Systems 11(1) 1-26.
Halasz, F. and Schwartz, M. (1994). The Dexter Hypertext Reference Model, Communications of the ACM 37(2) 30-39.
Hardman, L., Bulterman, D.C.A. and van Rossum, G. (1994). The Amsterdam Hypermedia Model: Adding Time and Context to the Dexter Model. Communications of the ACM 37(2) 50-62.
International Standards Organization (1986). Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), ISO/IEC IS 8879.
Nanard, J. and Nanard, M. (1995). Hypertext design environments and the hypertext design process. Communications of the ACM, 38 (8) 49-56.
Navarro, A. (1998). Aplicaciones de los lenguajes de marcado en la abstraccion del diseño de un sistema hipermedia. Trabajo de Investigacion Departamento de Sistemas Informaticos y Programacion Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
Navarro, A., Fernandez-Manjon, B., Fernandez-Valmayor, A. and Sierra J.L. (in press 2000). A Practical Methodology for the Development of Educational Hypermedias. Proceedings of ICEUT 2000, 16th IFIP World Computer Congress 2000, Information Processing Beyond Year 2000.
Navarro, A., Sierra, J.L., Fernandez-Manjon, B. and Fernandez-Valmayor, A. (in press 2000). XML-based Integration of Hypermedia Design and Component-Based Techniques in the Production of Educational Applications.Ref. M. Ortega and J. Bravo (eds) Computers and Education in the 21st Century: Invited papers from the Spanish Congress on Computers in Education (Conied'99), Kluwer Academic Publisher.
Rumbaugh, J., Booch, G. and Jacobson, I. (1998). Unified Modeling Language Reference Manual, Addison-Wesley Object-Oriented Series.
Stotts, P.D. and Furuta, R. (1989). Petri-Net-Based Hypertext: Document Structure with Browsing Semantics. ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems 7(1) 3-29.
Tompa, F. (1989). A Data Model for Flexible Hypertext Database Systems. ACM Transactions on Information Systems 7(1) 85-100.
World Wide Web Consortium (1998). W3C Extensible Markup Language XML. <http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml>","txt","2","",""
"3","1","A Workbook Application for Digital Text Analysis","1","Introduction

The workbook facility for scholars in the humanities aims to help them organize the results of their research in a convenient and easily accessible manner. The recent proliferation of marked-up electronic corpora has produced a need for tools that would allow structured search and extraction from texts. However, not all potentially interesting features of a text can be described in terms of the mark-up hierarchy: some features involve overlapping elements of markup, others are too fine-grained to be marked up. Thus we need a mark-up independent method of searching, and tools that combine both. The text region-based approach to processing digital text resources is the proposed method of searching and extracting both marked-up and non marked-up information from a collection of texts. The workbook facility is a prototype application of this method that allows extraction and linking of portions of XML-formatted texts. The selection of the regions can be based either on their structural characteristics or on other features.

Concepts

A text region (a.k.a. span) is a continuous portion of a document identified by its start and end offsets. It can be a complete XML element or just a string of characters. A text region can be created through a variety of operations described below. In our use of the concept, most XML elements are assigned a unique identifier within the document. The offsets for text regions are therefore relative to the nearest preceding ID within the document. A text occurrence object (TOO) consists of one or more text regions as well as notes and a user-defined name. The text regions can come from one or more documents and do not have to be contiguous. SGREP (structured grep) is a command-line search tool. It allows structured searches on XML and SGML formatted texts and collections of texts, as well as simple searches. The search results are returned as a set of text regions that can be organized into a text object occurrence. SGREP allows nested searches (for example an XML element labeled ""verse"" containing the word ""Hamlet"" within a DIV1 element) as well as unions and intersections of search expressions.

Workbook Facility

The workbook facility aims to help humanities scholars to organize the results of their research in a convenient and easily accessible manner. It provides a way to bookmark and annotate documents without changing the original texts, and to store and link annotated extractions from texts. The workbook consists of a set of TOO's, each of which contains one or more text regions that can originate from different documents. A TOO can thus link portions of texts from different places in a document or from different documents. The workbook facility has a built-in XML parser that creates a DOM structure. We are using IBM's Java-based parser, and the rest of the workbook is also written in Java. The following operations are available to the user:

 
Select a collection of XML documents with which he wants to work (the base collection).
For each document, view the raw text or the DOM (Document Object Model) structure resulting from parsing the XML document. The DOM structure is displayed in a tree control.
Create text occurrence objects in several different ways.
Select a complete XML element from the DOM, in which case the TOO will consist of a single text region.
Select any continuous portion of raw text from any document in the collection to create a TOO.
Run an SGREP search on one or more documents in the collection. If the search is successful, SGREP will return one or more text regions which will be put together into a TOO.
Name and annotate all TOO's in the same manner, regardless of how a particular TOO was created. The list of TOO's constitutes the workbook and is displayed separately.
By clicking on any text region within a TOO, view the spot within the document from which the text region originated. Thus, it is possible to view the larger context of a particular extraction.
Produce a word distribution list for any particular TOO, and compare word distributions between several TOO's. The word distribution list can be sorted by relative frequency of words or by alphabetical order, and two lists can be viewed side by side.
Order and re-order the TOO's within the workbook.
Organize the TOO's into folders with arbitrary depth of nesting, similar to how files are organized on a disk.
Save the workbook (i.e. the individual TOO's along with folders or TOO's) and re-open it later. The ability to return to the original documents remains after the workbook has been re-opened.
Save particular TOO's and sets of TOO's as separate XML documents and include them in the base collection.
Run SGREP searches on documents created from parts of the workbook in the same way as on the original ones.
Impact
The proposed workbook facility will be useful for several research goals. Extracting, ordering and naming textual fragments is a convenient way for an instructor to prepare for a lecture about a particular text. Scholars that study different versions of the same text (i.e. versions in different languages or different editions) can use the workbook to link parallel passages and annotate the resulting TOO. Since the creation of text regions can be markup-independent, this can be done even if the parallel passages in two documents are not contained within a single XML element. Moreover, extracting regions that share particular features can be automated with the help of SGREP. The word distribution feature of the program is intended to demonstrate that operations found in software like TACT and similar tools can be easily integrated with our workbook approach. Once a workbook is created, it still contains links to the original documents and the history of how the extractions were made. That is, the process is completely retraceable, and the user can view the context from which any text region came.

References

DOM (Document Object Model) standard <http://www.w3.org/DOM/>
Horton, Thomas B. (1999). A region-based approach for Processing Digital Text Resources, Digital Resources for the Humanities, King's College, London, Sept. 12-15, 1999, pp. 47-49.
Jaakkola, Jani and Kilpeläinen, Pekka. SGREP (structured grep), at the University of Helsinki, Finland.
<http://www.cs.helsinki.fi/~jjaakkol/sgrep.html>
XML standard <http://www.w3.org/XML/>
XML4J, the XML parser for Java produced by IBM: <http://www.alphaworks.ibm.com/tech/XML4>","txt","2","",""
"4","1","The Middle English Grammar Project","1","The study of linguistic variation in Middle English has undergone a revolution in recent years, with the publication of the ""Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English"" (McIntosh, Samuels and Benskin 1986) and other important surveys. However, no thorough-going attempt has as yet been made to harness this new information to a wider programme of linguistic description which is oriented from both structural and variationist perspectives. The Middle English Grammar Project, a British-Academy funded venture now underway at the University of Glasgow and at Stavanger College, Norway, is designed to address this gap, with the production of surveys covering the whole field of ME linguistic studies: spelling, phonology, grammar and lexicology. The Project is currently focused in the UK within the Institute for the Historical Study of Language, a research-centre within Glasgow's Faculty of Arts. The first research area being addressed by the Project is the creation of a new history of ME spelling and phonology. In order to carry out this analysis a corpus of machine-readable texts is currently being assembled. These texts are subsequently classified according to both Present-Day and etymological reflexes and the results of this process are entered in a database. This database includes a variety of extralinguistic information in addition to the classified spelling data, such as genre and script, which allows the corpus to be interrogated according to a number of different factors. This presentation will demonstrate this database and discuss its uses for the study of linguistic variation in Middle English, and historical linguistics more generally.","txt","2","","7169"
"5","1","Two Historical Linguistic Atlases","1","The principal aim of the ""Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English"" (LAEME ) and the ""Linguistic Atlas of Older Scots"" (LAOS) is to produce historical linguistic atlases complementary to ""A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English"" (LALME)1. Computer-based data-processing and analysis have been employed in the projects from their inception in 1987 . Their methodology differs radically from that used in LALME. Instead of recording data by a questionnaire of prescribed items, entire texts are diplomatically transcribed and keyed onto disk, where they can be analysed linguistically using programs written in-house. Each word or morpheme in a text is tagged according to its lexical meaning and grammatical function, and each newly tagged text is added to the corpus. The tagging creates a taxonomy of the linguistic material in the texts and permits systematic comparison of their dialects. Information on particular items (defined by one or more tags) may be abstracted from the corpus to identify spatial and/or temporal distributions of the forms associated with the item. The programs generate dictionaries, concordances, chronological charts and input files to mapping software. Maps are produced to show distribution of features or full text forms. This method of analysis has considerable advantages over the questionnaire. Items for study can be selected from a complete inventory of linguistic forms rather than from some predetermined sample. Tagged texts are immediately and constantly available to be processed and compared in whatever ways are desired. While not all the material in the corpus will be useful for dialectal analysis, it remains available for a wide range of future studies: historical phonology, morphology, syntax or semantics. We will demonstrate our method of lexico-grammatical tagging and illustrate how it may be exploited not only for linguistic geography, but also for phonological and for syntactic investigations.

Reference

1 McIntosh, Angus, Samuels, M.L. and Benskin, Michael (1986). A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English, 4 vols. AUP, Aberdeen.","txt","2","","7169"
"6","1","WebCAPE - Language Placement Testing over the Web","1","WebCAPE is a web-based implementation of the BYU Computer-Adaptive Placement Exam (CAPE) series. These exams use adaptive procedures to assess language ability, drawing from a large bank of calibrated test items. Tests are administered from a web server computer through the internet to a browser application on students' computers. Test security in WebCAPE is maintained through a combination of application design and standard web methods.

Background

Students entering a university language program come with a wide range of previous language training and experience. Thus, determining which class students should enroll in becomes an enormous task for language departments. A placement exam can be used, but paper-based standardized placement exams bring their own headaches: students have to be brought in at a fixed time and place, the test takes a long time to take and everyone has to wade through all the questions, and then you have to wait while the tests are sent in for scoring and for the results to come back.

The Humanities Research Center at Brigham Young University has developed a set of language placement exams that overcome these problems. The exams are delivered by computer and thus do not require a lock-step controlled environment. The exams are adaptive, effectively eliminating questions far above or below the students' ability. And since questions are drawn from a large bank of test items, each student gets what amounts to a unique test, thus avoiding problems with test security. The computer-adaptive approach also means the test need only take long enough to determine a particular student's ability level and produces a placement score on the spot.

Underlying the BYU CAPE (Computer-Adaptive Placement Exam) application is a large bank of calibrated test items. Initially, several hundred questions were written, testing a variety of language skills: vocabulary, grammar, reading comprehension, etc. These were then statistically calibrated for difficulty and discrimination among ability levels. Test item banks have been developed for Spanish, German, French, Russian, and most recently, English as a Second Language.

Originally CAPE tests were implemented as individual application programs. But more recently, a new implementation has been developed for an internet/web environment. This version, called WebCAPE, uses a web server for the core functionality and test item banks, but administers the actual tests over the internet through a standard browser application. Thus WebCAPE tests can be given on any computer with an internet connection and Netscape 4.0 or equivalent.

How It Works

Students enter WebCAPE through their school's menu page. This page is customized for the school, incorporating their seal or logo, a background campus scene, and school colors into the page design. Page content includes a brief explanation of the tests and how the school utilizes their results, along with basic instructions for taking the test.

When students select their language from the menu page, they go to a registration page. This page is also specific to the school. Students enter their identification information in the top section of the page. They may also enter their e-mail address for an e-mail copy of their test results.

Clicking the Begin Exam button takes students into the actual exam. After some initialization, a new browser window opens to the exam environment. This is served completely from the WebCAPE server and is the same for all tests. The top frame contains title information. The middle section displays the current test item. The bottom frame contains the exam control panel where the students indicate their answer, then click Confirm Response to register their response.

First, the exam presents six level check questions selected from the full difficulty range. Based on these answers, the algorithm computes a preliminary ability estimate. It then begins to probe with questions to fine-tune that estimate. In essence, it presents harder and easier questions until it can focus to a statistically reliable value. On average, the entire testing process takes 20-25 minutes.

When the exam finishes, students are returned to the registration page and their results are posted in the bottom section of the page. Here their final ability estimate is mapped to a recommended course by reference to a table of cut-off points established by the school. Beginning and ending time-stamps are also posted, for validation and timing purposes. In addition, the exam returns details of the students' session. These are not normally displayed for the student to see, but are sent to the school for analysis.

As a final step, students click Submit Results. This generates an e-mail message with all of the information to the school/department and a summary message to the student's e-mail address. A confirmation page is also generated by this process, which in turn takes them back to the menu page, ready for the next student.

Security

WebCAPE is designed to be reasonably secure for its intended use. Access control is maintained through the menu page, registration pages only accept entrance from a corresponding menu page, and the exam environment can only be entered from a properly configured registration page. Both are maintained on the WebCAPE server and isolated from outside access. The host school controls access to their menu page, typically by either setting up links or bookmarks in the lab where they administer the exam, or by only giving the URL to their properly registered students. When needed, the WebCAPE server can also be configured to restrict access to a particular IP address or range (a designated lab, for example), or to require a userID and password.

Test security is maintained mostly by the design of the page set. Test items are individual html files that do not contain answer information or other clues. The answer key is read into the programming of the control frame when it loads. And should a student manage to hack into the answer table, there is no way to identify which answer goes with which question. At the server level, hackers are thwarted by the built-in resistance of the server and operating system configuration.

Foolproofing security is more problematic. Because it uses a standard internet browser, WebCAPE cannot keep students from doing things the browser allows: like closing the window or using the back button or even quitting the browser program entirely. All that can be done is to write clear instructions and incorporate warning alerts. This suggests administering WebCAPE tests in a controlled environment (like a student lab) with a standardized browser configuration and a proctor to monitor things.

The biggest vulnerability to cheating in WebCAPE comes at the student workstations. The exam cannot prevent students from using a dictionary, getting help from friends or even having someone else take the test. This clearly demands a proctored environment.

WebCAPE test security measures mentioned thus far try to prevent cheating to get a higher score. But students taking a placement test may also try to get a lower score. The current version of WebCAPE does not directly address this problem. However the results message it sends to the department does include details of the test session, which can be analyzed when needed - an alert human would immediately suspect a test with all-wrong answers. Other suspicious patterns like all-one-letter answers or only a few seconds between answers can also be easily recognized by a human. The next version of WebCAPE will probably include processing to at least flag patterns such as these.

Ultimately there may still be a few students that get misplaced, either by faking out the test or by slipping through the statistical margin of error. These will still have to be dealt with by human administrative procedures. But WebCAPE should keep the number small enough to manage.

Implementations

WebCAPE is implemented as a service rather than as a program package. Schools pay for access for their students to take the tests rather than buy the program itself. For most schools, the best alternative is a flat fee for unlimited tests, but a lower-cost option for a fixed number of tests is also available. In each case there is also a one-time setup fee for creating the customized menu and registration pages. Planning is underway to also implement a pay-per-test entrance to WebCAPE. This would allow someone to take the test on their own initiative to see how they might place into college-level courses. A third configuration as a high school exit exam has been proposed. This would be for high school language programs, allowing students to find out where they would place into college courses.

Future

WebCAPE is currently available for French, German and Spanish, with Russian to be added shortly. For all four languages, the test items are strictly text-based questions. While different test items assess different aspects of language ability, they are still confined to written text. But the latest CAPE exam under development, English-as-a-Second-Language, goes beyond that text-only limit. ESL-CAPE incorporates sound clips into many test items and thus adds listening comprehension to the language skills it assesses. ESL-CAPE also has an option to calculate separate ability estimate scores for grammar, reading comprehension, and listening comprehension - the other exams only give a composite estimate. A stand-alone implementation of ESL-CAPE is now being piloted. Web implementation will be ready for production testing next year.

Selected Bibliography

Madsen, Harold S. and Larson, Jerry W. (1985). Computerized Adaptive Language Testing: Moving Beyond Computer Assisted Testing. CALICO Journal 2.3 (March 1985), pp 32-36.
Larson, Jerry W. (1989). S-CAPE: A Spanish Computerized Adaptive Placement Exam. William Flint Smith, ed., Modern Technology in Foreign Language Education: Applications and Projects. ACTFL Foreign Language Education series: National Textbook Co. Skokie, IL. pp 277-289.
Larson, Jerry W. (1996). Computerized Adaptive Placement Exams in French, German, Russian, and Spanish. Foreign Language Notes, Newsletter of Foreign Language Educators of New Jersey, Spring 1996, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 2, pp. 13-15.
Larson, Jerry W. (1996). An Argument for Computer Adaptive Language Testing. Methods and Applications of CALL for Foreign Language Education in Korean Universities. Proceedings of the Conference on Applications of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), Dongduck Women's University. Seoul, Korea, November 29, 1996. pp. 51-80.","txt","2","",""
"7","1","Technophobes, or the Nintendo Generation? A Study of the Use of ICT in Teaching and Learning in Modern Languages","1","Introduction

This paper discuses the results of the application of a methodology typical to information science to humanities computing. User studies are widely performed in the library and information science community. However, although some research has been carried out into the information needs of researchers in the humanities, very little research has been done into the actual use of electronic resources. (Warwick, 2000). Modern languages is an area in which the usage of electronic resources in teaching is known to be widespread. Yet the recent HEFCE report (1998) found that over one third of universities felt that computer-assisted learning (CAL) and information and communication technology (ICT) resources were being under-utilised. It concluded that there is a need for more research into their use in HE and recommends a ""focus on the information and knowledge needs of the real end-users"". This paper seeks to address this need, and considers the way that both teachers and students of Modern Languages use electric resources, and what their perceptions about them are. It is based on work conducted in the department by myself and a Masters student as part of her dissertation. (Pine-Coffin, 1999). We argue that such research is an important contribution to the area of humanities computing, since without an accurate idea of the way in which resources are used and perceived it is impossible to tell whether computer methodologies are useful and successful in aiding teaching and learning. Without this type of user study it is difficult to plan for possible future developments.

Methodology Research was of a mainly qualitative nature, and was undertaken by means of structured interviews and questionnaires. Questionnaires were given to students and both students and academics were interviewed. Three university Modern language departments were chosen as a sample, all of which were identified as having links with humanities computing projects, Sheffield (Humanities Research Institute), Hull (CTI Modern Languages) and Exeter (Project Pallas).

Results and discussion

Use of ICT: We found a surprisingly small amount of computer use by students. They used computers mainly for Word Processing, reading foreign newspapers and accessing the internet. Despite the advice available from the excellent CTI centre at Hull, the use of CAL packages at all universities surveyed lagged behind all these generic applications in terms of frequency of use. Despite promotion by libraries, there is also a worryingly low level of use of library web pages and of subject gateways, of BIDS and other bibliographic packages.

Attitudes to ICT usage: Preferences in terms of computer use (ie what applications the students liked using) do not always mirror frequency. For example, students found they often needed to use Word Processors, but did not especially enjoy doing so. We also found that despite what academics tend to assume, their students do not necessarily enjoy using electronic resources. The 'Nintendo generation' is, it appears, still technophobic and surprisingly conservative in its preference for paper resources. We also found that students make 'tactical' use of resources. Despite the perception amongst lecturers that students will enjoy playing with computers, once introduced to them, we found that they tended to use them only to the extent that they had been convinced of the necessity of doing so. If they became convinced that they could pass an assignment by limited use of an electronic resource, they were often unwilling to explore further or practise the use of it, even when some packages had been specifically designed for certain courses.

Departmental and academic attitudes

A constant theme of the research was that student reluctance to use electronic resources can be combated, at least to some extent, by the recommendations of their lecturers. This is not always easy to achieve, however, as the attitude of academics themselves is vital. We found some interesting and imaginative use of ICT, whether in the form of internet usage or of CAL tutorials. It is perhaps not surprising that CAL is what academics used most enthusiastically, since it could be used in a unique fashion which printed resources could not replicate. However, we also found a lack of awareness of ICT amongst academics, many of whom were also wary of computer use. Many felt there was little incentive to use ICT when traditional resources were adequate for the job in hand. With multiple demands on their time, computer sceptics were also unwilling to give up time to learn new ICT skills. Even those who were enthusiastic about the use of computers were wary of publishing their research in e-journals. They expressed anxiety about whether conservatism on RAE panels would lead to electronically published articles being dismissed as insufficiently prestigious. Some expressed a view that older, more established scholars who tended not to use computers were likely to be on RAE and promotion panels, and so computer enthusiasts might find their work was undervalued. This all led to a sense of conservatism in research, even if in teaching they tended to use ICT more widely.

Support

Even if students felt that the department was encouraging them to use ICT, the most important factor in its successful use was support. However, awareness of what support was on offer was still low, as was takeup of it. Students often hesitated to ask for help, even when aware of it, and chose always to ask friends for help in the first instance. They tended to prefer human advice to online help and would rather receive help from their academic tutors than computer support professionals. They tended to assume that lecturers were more important than 'some bloke from the computing services' who came in to show them how to use a package. Thus, if a lecturer could demonstrate use of ICT him/herself, students tended to presume that this was indeed important. The opposite assumption was also made, although lecturers were often unaware of the messages they were involuntarily delivering. We also found a large discrepancy between the level of support which students perceived they needed, and which academics thought was acceptable. Academics tended to assume that most students would cope easily with computer use, because they thought that all teenagers were computer enthusiasts who has been trained to a high level of ICT skill at school. Many students, however, felt that the amount and level of support was too low, and that they needed far more help than they received. In general the level of confidence which students expressed in the use of ICT was surprisingly low. Some students also felt that they lacked skills in important areas such as internet searching. The librarians we interviewed were aware of this problem, but the university lecturers tended not to be. Unfortunately, the librarians were pessimistic about their role in the official teaching of such skills, since they felt that students and academic staff alike tended to undervalue the skills they had to offer, and there seemed to be few channels of communication from librarians to academics.

Conclusions

The paper will discuss various conclusions which may be drawn from this data. The most important one, however, seems to be that despite enthusiasm about the potential of ICT in modern languages on the behalf of some academics and many humanities computing professionals, there are several problems in its practical implementation. It is only when user surveys are performed that such problems come to light, and we discover the reality of the situation, as opposed to what we think ought to be happening. Another strength of the technique is to discover attitudes that users have to the technology available, and we will argue that this is vital, since attitudes must shape the way in which computers are used. Our research has also uncovered a significant discrepancy between assumed and actual levels of usage and enthusiasm. It is clear that despite the expectations and assumptions made by lecturers, students do not necessarily enjoy using ICT, nor do they always find it easy to use. This has important implications for the use and support of ICT in the field of modern languages, and we will end the paper by discussing how our findings might be used to improve the experience of students and academics alike.

References

HEFCE (1998) An evaluation of the Computers in Teaching Initiative and Teaching and Learning Technology Support Network. Available at <www.niss.ac.uk/education/hefce/pub98/98_47.html>
Pine-Coffin, H. (1999) An investigation into the use of electronic resources in the field of Modern Languages. Unpublished MA dissertation, University of Sheffield.
Warwick, C. (2000) English literature, electronic text and computer analysis: an impossible combination? Forthcoming in Computers and the Humanities.","txt","2","",""
"8","1","Computer-Aided Acquisition of Language Teaching Materials from Corpora","1","Awareness of domain-tuned linguistic peculiarities present in expository texts is a relevant concept in helping students' reading and writing competency in terms of genre literacies.

Support for this point of view comes from the analysis of academic written genres, competing demands for limited resources, the tyranny of scheduling and from graduate students' verbal protocols about their reading process (Sengupta 1997).

Genre literacy or sublanguage approach in instructed SLA advocated in this paper tries to exploit lexical, morphological, syntactic and semantic restrictions on the specialized languages used by experts in certain fields of knowledge for communication or in particular types of texts (technical and scientific articles, instructions, installation manuals, etc.).

Notions of sublanguage distinctiveness rely on linguistic knowledge concerning different kinds of sublanguage regularities and restrictions. (Kittredge and Lehrberger 1982). Sublanguages are special subsystems of a natural language with restricted vocabulary and grammar which, on the one hand, share some properties with a language as a whole and, on the other hand, are characterized by some deviations from ""general"" language.

As far as language instruction is concerned, both defining the content of this knowledge and ways of sublanguage knowledge elicitation are problems which do not have a single answer. Despite a long-standing interest in the analysis of written genres (sublanguages), little research has focused on how to really use genre specificity in language instruction.

This presentation explores critical issues in the selection of an appropriate methodological framework for the analysis of profession-related texts. It aims to provide suggestions as to the kind of sublanguage analysis method that is supposed to form the basis for developing a system of typological parameters useful in acquisition of teaching materials and thus tuning language instruction to the needs of professional communication.

To describe a particular sublanguage it is necessary to study laws underlying natural language phenomena and laws which make a sublanguage differ from a language. Sublanguages can be described in many ways. Language instruction is influenced by such practical parameters as scope and nature of vocabulary, grammar specificity, potential for ambiguity, lexical and grammar correlation, if any, which can and should be discovered on the basis of corpus analysis (Biber et al. 1998; Wichmann et al. 1997).

This study focuses on verbs, as they are central to the structure of a sentence and consequently to text structure (Levin 1993; Aarts and Meyer 1995). The reason is that in professional reading most problems usually derive not from technical nouns and noun expressions which are relatively easy to find in specialized dictionaries but from grammar which is often characterized by extended sentences with frequently long and telescopic embedded structures.

The current study also proposes and tests a sublanguage-specific hypothesis of correlation between lexical meaning, morphological representation (tense, voice, finiteness) and syntactic realization (subject, object, predicate, attribute, etc.) of a particular verb in a sublanguage.

Material for the research includes five corpora of 50,000 words each from different technical sublanguages: aerospace engineering, automobile engineering, mechanical engineering, technology engineering and patents. The sample corpora are taken from four technical journals (Space Flight, Automobile and Tractor, Materials Engineering, and Machine Design) and a corpus of US patent claims.

The main method of analysis is a computer-aided corpus-based combination of qualitative and quantitative (statistical) techniques applied to a pre-tagged corpus, which proved to be useful for linguistic knowledge elicitation (Sheremetyeva 1998). Tagging, done manually by trained linguists, codes morphosyntactic realizations of sublanguage verbs. For example, in the sentence ""Making_TIA this apparatus they used_2IA a new technology"", the tag TIA means that the verb ""make"" is used as an adverbial modifier in the form of Present Participle, the tag 2IA shows that the verb ""use"" is realized as a predicate in the form of Past Simple Active.

This methodology allows for a standard automatic frequency count procedure to be applied to provide:

a) a verb inventory and its size in terms of verb occurrences;

b) a verb morphology and grammar inventory and their sizes in terms of occurrences of specific values of tense, aspect, voice, finiteness/nonfiniteness and syntactic functions as well as in terms of co-occurrence of grammatical features (for example, in the sublanguage of automobile engineering the most frequently used nonfinite realization of verbs is the Past Participle in the function of attribute, while no realization of verbs as Gerunds or Infinitives in the function of subject was found);

c) an inventory of lexical and morphosyntactic correlations (for example, in the sublanguage of automobile engineering the verb ""use"" is most often realized as the Past Participle in the function of attribute while the most frequent realization of the same verb in the aerospace engineering sublanguage is the Present Participle in the function of adverbial modifier).

Qualitative analysis of each of the above inventories included sense analysis. The number of senses for each lexeme in a sublanguage is, on average, much smaller than in the language as a whole. Thus, of the seven senses of the word engage in the Cobuild English Language Dictionary, the patent sublanguage uses only one, which includes this word in the following synonym set: engage, hold, attach, lock, join, clamp, fasten. Clearly,paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations are different in a sublanguage.

Conclusions

The paper presents a computer-aided methodology and the results of selecting teaching materials for optimizing students' reading and writing competencies in terms of genre literacies on the material of four technical sublanguages.

The results of the study show ""deviations"" of every sublanguage from the general language and from each other. They also confirm that there exists a correlation between lexical meanings of many sublanguage verbs and their morphosyntactic realizations. These deviations can be used for selecting professionally oriented language teaching materials to most effectively foster language proficiency development.

The approach was tested and proved to be very useful at the Department of Foreign Languages of South Ural State University (Russia). It is expected to be portable to other sublanguages and can be used both for developing theoretical and practical issues in applied linguistics.

References

Aarts, B. and Meyer, Ch.F. (eds). (1995) The Verb in Contemporary English: Theory and Description. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Biber, D., Conrad, S. and Reppen, D. (1998). Corpus Linguistics. Investigating Language Structure and Use. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Kittredge, R. and Lehrberger, J. (1982) Sublanguage: studies of language in restricted domains. Berlin.
Levin, B. (1993) English Verb Classes and Alternations. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Sengupta, S. (1997) Academic reading skills for L2 learners: Does teaching selective reading help? Proceedings of the Annual Conference of American Association for Applied Linguistics. Seattle, March 13-17.
Sheremetyeva, S. (1998) Acquisition of Language Resources for Special Applications. Proceedings of the workshop Adapting Lexical and Corpus resources to Sublanguages and Applications in conjunction with The First International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, Granada, Spain, May.
Wichmann, A., Fligelstone, S., McEnery, T., and Knowles, G. (eds) (1997). Teaching and large Corpora. Eddison Wesley Longman Inc., New York.","txt","2","",""
"9","1","Records to Go: Building the Humbul Humanities Hub","2","The Humbul Humanities Hub is a service of the Resource Discovery Network (RDN), receiving funding from the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC). The RDN comprises a number of hubs each of which offers a range of services to a broad subject-based community within the UK. A number of the hubs have evolved from centrally-funded subject gateways (e.g. SOSIG) whilst at least two of the hubs, including Humbul, are building their services from the foundations upwards.

Humbul has a comparatively long history, commencing life in the mid-1980s as a bulletin board for humanities scholars interested in information technology based within the University of Bath's Office for Humanities Communication. Since 1991 it has been based at and supported by Oxford University. Humbul evolved into a gateway to Web resources in 1994 and from static Web pages to a database in 1997 (Stephens, 1997). Humbul became part of the RDN in August 1999 and has three years' funding to develop both the service itself and also a business plan for financial viability beyond the period of central funding. Developing the Humanities Hub more than five years into the existence of the Web, four years after the launch of comparable UK subject gateways, surrounded by multi-million pound portals, is proving to be something of a challenge.

The poster session will outline two sides of developing the Hub: the vision and the diary.

The vision

The Humbul Humanities Hub seeks to combine structured metadata with the scholarly review process. The first milestone for the Hub to reach is the construction of a database which holds rich descriptions of Web resources relating to the study of selected humanities disciplines (English, history, archaeology, classics, European literature and language, religion, philosophy). Each record consists of fields following qualified Dublin Core metadata which enables us to record information about both the Web site and its intellectual content including location, creator, language, coverage (both temporal and spatial), date created and modified, and relationship to other resources. The qualifiers to the Dublin Core elements follow those proposed by the Dublin Core working groups. Each record itself has a set of metadata describing such things as the creator of the record, date created and edited, and rights associated with it.

It is essential for Humbul to build up a critical mass of data in the shortest time possible whilst remaining true to its claim to describe only sites which comply with the Hub's published selection criteria (in summary, resources fit for higher education teaching and research). Populating a subject gateway requires substantially more human effort than populating a Web search engine (which requires substantial computing effort). However, the key lies in finding a balance that can be struck between automation and manual work to ensure that labour is distributed in an appropriate fashion.

The process of getting data into the Hub should work something like this: an automated harvester gathers basic metadata from web sites linked from 'trusted' subject gateways (which in another context were referred to as 'amateur gateways' - see Fraser, 1999). Basic metadata includes title, URL, date modified, subject area and, where present, further metadata present in the page header. Records from the harvested metadata are then presented via a Web interface to the Hub's data providers for review, editing, completion of the metadata and submission to the Hub's main database. Of course, data providers may also create records from scratch but at least they may check that a basic or full record does not already exist for the site. To enable the delivery of relevant records to data-providers it is necessary to provide a means of authentication. Data-providers register with the Hub and, through the use of a username and password, can access their own customised editing environment. Within this environment records relevant to the provider's subject expertise may be created, edited, rejected. Records may also be reviewed and links automatically checked. And the combination of authentication (which automates the creation of the metadata about the metadata) and a customised environment allows data-providers to export the records they have created for use, for example, within their own site or imported into a library catalogue (exporting will be in the form of HTML, XML/RDF, and MARC in the first instance).

The reuse of records by data-providers also places them within the sphere of the Hub's users. Indeed, it is an aim of the Hub to market itself as a 'gateway provider' as well as a gateway. The development of systems which permit the exporting of data and its reuse locally will hopefully assist individuals and organisations who have the subject expertise to evaluate and describe resources but have neither the resources nor the desire to maintain links, develop databases, or code HTML. Eventually, we envisage a user, whether a researcher, librarian or student, visiting the Hub, searching and browsing for records relevant to their interests, selecting and saving records as they proceed through Humbul, and then, on finishing, being presented with some piece of code for insertion within their own local Web page. In this manner, a lecturer, for example, can continue to create course pages but, on pasting a piece of code within the local web page, records served direct from Humbul can be dynamically inserted within the page each time the page is accessed. The lecturer need only select the records, create a basic web page, insert the magic code, and leave the maintenance of the records (like link checking) to Humbul.

The Diary

By the end of June 2000 the new Humbul will hopefully have been launched complete with new input and retrieval systems together with enough data to make it worth visiting. The poster session will show via visual images and oral discussion a comparison between the partial vision outlined above and the actual process by which the modules were built and tied together; the combining of human and automated effort (and the risks inherent with undertaking either); an outline of how the Hub intends to cut costs and make money; and a summary of how collaborating with Humbul as an advisor, an evaluator, a describer, or a cataloguer might result in mutual and tangible benefits for all parties.

References

Fraser, M. (1999) ""Selecting Resources for a Subject Gateway: Who Decides?"" ACH-ALLC Conference 1999. University of Virginia.
Stephens, C. (1997) ""HUMBUL Updated: Gateway to Humanities Resources on the Web."" Computers & Texts 15: 23.","txt","2","",""
"10","1","LOOKSEE: Software Tools for Image-Based Humanities Computing","2","This poster will document LOOKSEE, a Web site and discussion list for image-based humanities computing <http://www.rch.uky.edu/~mgk/looksee/> (first announced at the 1999 ACH/ALLC in Charlottesville). Its primary focus is not imaging and image acquisition - areas with well-established technical literatures - but rather the creation and manipulation of images as structured data in digital editions, archives, and libraries.

LOOKSEE is therefore intended as a community focal point for discussion and development of next generation image-based humanities computing projects. Although the term ""image-based"" humanities computing has been in circulation for some time, we are now approaching a watershed: a number of pioneering projects (many of them begun in the early nineties) whose promise could heretofore be discussed only in speculative terms are now coming to fruition, while new software tools and data standards (notably JPEG 2000) are poised to redefine the way we create, access, and work with digital images. All of this activity, moreover, is transpiring at a moment when there is an unprecedented level of interest in visual culture and representation in the academic humanities at large.

At present, LOOKSEE consists of:

1. The Web materials at the URL above, collecting resources ranging from computer science to medical informatics to art history, as well as demos and proofs of concept to create a kind of sketchbook for image-based humanities computing.

2. A listserv discussion forum. Though the list is (technically) unmoderated, it is run as a structured discussion in which topics are brought forward at set intervals for the participants' consideration. The first discussion, held in November and December of 1999, revolved around humanities applications of techniques in medical image display and image processing; a second discussion (February/March 2000) will feature artist Johanna Drucker's Wittgenstein's Gallery, a series of over one hundred conceptual drawings constituting a working model of vision, perception, and (re)cognition. (We will use Drucker's work as the basis for a discussion of computer-assisted image analysis.) Later discussions will be given over to producing specs for a suite of open source image analysis tools and will attempt to identify the range of activities that can be supported by computational tools.

3. The LOOKSEE Web site will then expand to include source code, demos, and documentation.

A poster at ALLC/ACH will allow for an opportunity to present preliminary results - both technical experiments and conceptual formulations - to the international humanities computing community while (just as importantly) enlisting participants and establishing contacts with others working with images in humanities settings.

LOOKSEE is edited and directed by Matthew G. Kirschenbaum and hosted by the collaboratory for Research in Computing for Humanities at the University of Kentucky.","txt","2","",""
"11","1","A Wake Newslitter - Electronic Edition","2","The 'A Wake Newslitter - Electronic edition' reproduces in a hyperlinked and searchable format the complete print run of the seminal journal on Joyce's Finnegans Wake which started out as a mimeographed news-sheet passed between a few scholars in the early nineteen-sixties. Large areas of the scholarship contained in these journals has never been superseded and yet the journal itself is very hard to find as it was not published or archived in traditional forums.

Introduction

The Genesis

The Wake Newslitter Project had its Genesis in a chance remark made on the FWAKE-L electronic discussion list on the Internet in November 1996. The FWAKE-L list and its companion list FW-READ have filled some of the gaps left by the demise of 'A Wake Newslitter'. Although the expected brevity of email messages precludes posting in-depth studies, these lists have become effective forums for the discussion of both annotation and explication of Finnegans Wake.

It was in this context that a cry went up as to why 'A Wake Newslitter' was not being reprinted and as to whether there were any enterprising publishers prepared to take up the task.

Email inquiries were sent to Fritz Senn in Zurich and Clive Hart in Essex to canvas their views and also to offer possible solutions. Fritz Senn was amenable to the idea and Clive Hart actively supportive of any project.

The Problems

My own holdings of 'A Wake Newslitter' material were sparse and covered mainly the later issues. Initial tests made it clear that the journals would need to be retyped in order to digitise and edit the material. Clive Hart informed me that all the Old Series were produced using stencils and, even though I knew some of the issues were produced by letterpress, I decided that the whole publication run would need to be re-keyed into computers. A mammoth and error-prone task - I needed help.

So some issues were mimeographs; some issues were letterpress or litho and some were typed and photocopied. But there was more - some issues included illustrations, diagrams, tables and even a few halftone photographs and illustrations - it would be necessary to scan, redraw and source original material. Finnegans Wake scholarship and explication covers a very diverse range of cultures and languages. The typing and printing limitations of the time of original publication of the Newslitter meant that a large number of issues were retouched by hand to provide the appropriate accents or signs. The constantly changing methods of production had a strong impact on the ability to maintain any consistent editorial and typographical style. Typefaces, sizes, leading, paragraph styles and punctuation would vary from issue to issue, printer to printer and even sometimes page to page. Italic type was not always available and an overuse of bold face was inevitable in the original publications including the use of some very exotic faces in later volumes.

To compound all this 'A Wake Newslitter' had become a significant reference source in Finnegans Wake studies and therefore its material had been heavily cited in critical literature. Any new electronic edition would have to accommodate the pagination of the originals due to critical - page-specific - citation. This was even more daunting considering that the old series and the new series had vastly different page sizes. The Old Series was mimeographed on crown quarto paper (10x7.5in) with a text density of about 400 words per page. New Series issues started on demy octavo (8.75x5.5in approx.) at a text density of 450 words per page but by Volume X the page size was A5 (8.25x5.75in approx.) and the text density over 600 words per page. The type size in parts of some issues was as small as 6 point.

It was decided to set all the issues in A5 format and a basic template was created with running heads, rules and page numbers. This meant that the Old Series material was condensed down to A5 - which due to the monospaced original text was fairly easy - and a cover page conforming to the New Series was added. A number of liberties had to be taken with standard typographical practice in order to fit diverse material into the new format. Some pages had to be hit quite hard with the 'digital' equivalent of a mallet.

The Collaboration

As some issues required retyping into computers and all material would need proofreading, it was obvious I needed further help. I turned to the same forum that had voiced the desire for 'A Wake Newslitter' to be made available. An email was sent to the FWAKE-L requesting volunteers to type, and eventually proofread A Wake Newslitter issues. The response was immediate with about twenty volunteers coming forward in the first few weeks. Reflecting the membership of FWAKE-L and demographic access to the Internet the majority of the responses came from the United States but there were also offers of help from Australia, England, Finland, France, Italy and Thailand.

The Technology

Electronic mail and the Internet were the main communications tools of the project - enabling the speedy exchange of messages and the ability to view the progress of the project itself on the World-Wide Web. There was in excess of 700,000 words to be typed and then proofread by the team and this ultimately would be achieved by using both old and new technologies. Photocopies were posted to the members of the team and electronic copy returned using FTP (File Transfer Protocol) to an Internet drop zone.

As photocopies of the original issues were received from Clive Hart it became evident that a larger proportion of the New Series issues than had originally been expected were printed by letterpress or litho. This raised the possibility of avoiding the retyping of all the issues. A few trial issues were processed using scanners and OCR (Optical Character Recognition) software and the results were encouraging. Although the scanned material was by no means error-free the speed of input made the scanning of the letterpress and litho printed material a viable alternative to - the also error-prone - retyping option. Scanned material processed using OCR software - while offering a faster input mode - also requires more diligent proofreading due to the unique and sometimes insidious errors created by such processes.

All material whether typed or scanned would require formatting and typesetting using desktop publishing (DTP) software. Artwork and diagrams were either redrawn on computer or scanned and tables were rebuilt within the DTP software. Most accents and special characters were available on the computer systems but the Finnegans Wake sigla required the use and adaptation of a Wake typeface which is under development as part of another project.

From the outset it was determined that the electronic reproduction would be required to respect the pagination and layout integrity of the original material. The mechanism chosen for this was Adobe Acrobat PDF (Portable Document Format). Once the material has been desktop-published this software enables the replication of the individual pages of a publication within a single electronic document. The PDF format is designed to be platform-independent and offers a range of features such as indexing, keyword searching and hyperlinking. Another advantage of this format is that all text is indexed and multiple documents can be searched for keywords using Adobe Catalog software.
 
 

Editorial policy

The initial plan was to keep editing to a minimum with proofreading and fidelity to the original being the main criteria. Italic type was substituted where bold face had been overused and typographical features and references, (AWN instead of the earlier WNL), were standardised. Variations in punctuation and grammar were left untouched except in very obvious cases of setting errors. Proofreading threw up some errors in the original material, (Huge B. Staples instead of Hugh B. Staples), and these were generally amended only when they were factual matters such as names, page references and citations from Finnegans Wake. These citations were only corrected when it was obvious they were in error and would have no possible impact on the article interpretation. An instance reminiscent of the production of Ulysses occurred in New Series Volume III No 3 pages 51-53 where the typesetter appears to have corrected Joyce's Finnegans Wake passages by altering 'figuratleavely' to 'figuratively' and 'yoursell' to 'yourself'. Where corrections appeared in later issues these were only implemented in the original if the corrections were supplied by the original author. Danis Rose supplied an explanation of a correction to New Series Volume X No 3 page 45 which also updated the correction in Volume XI No 2 page 34. Roland McHugh confirmed what initially looked like a typo in a transcription of a FW notebook, ('girsl' in Volume XVI No 6 p83), and then on reflection and consultation amended the original entry.

Conclusion

The 1968 Sydney University Press publication A Wake Digest has been added to the archive. This contained selected and updated material from the Old Series of A Wake Newslitter along with some new articles. The conversion of A Wake Newslitter to digital format both preserves and opens up this valuable archive of material to a new and wider audience of Joyce scholars.","txt","2","",""
"12","1","Modeling the Crystal Palace","2","Introduction

The Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities at the University of Virginia is providing historians, architects and students new insights into the history, construction and appearance of the Crystal Palace. These insights are derived from the construction of 3-dimensional computer models and simulations. This project is a small part of the larger ""Monuments and Dust"". In ""Monuments and Dust"" an international group of scholars will assemble a complex visual, textual, and statistical representation of Victorian London - the largest city of the nineteenth-century world and its first urban metropolis. A full description of ""Monuments and Dust"" can be found online. See the ""WEB-LINKS"" section.

Background

Popularly known as the Crystal Palace, the 1851 London Exhibition Building was designed by Joseph Paxton for the Royal Exhibition. On June 20th 1850 Paxton delivered his original design to the Industrial Exhibition's executive committee. Only two weeks had passed since the building commission had introduced a clause to allow Paxton to submit a design. Controversy swirled around the exhibition as Col. Charles de L.Waldo Sibthorp's concern over the destruction of elm trees prompted the Times to question the sanity of constructing any permanent structure on the Hyde Park site. The commissioners responded by requesting that Paxton alter his design to include a barrel-vaulted transept that would cover and save the elms. The Industrial Exhibition's opening day was less than a year away on May 1st 1851. The Crystal Palace design received popular approval in the press. All other proposed designs for the exhibition building were monolithic masonry and could not be completed in time for the scheduled opening. With no other reasonable plan at hand the building commission accepted Paxton's design with the provision the building be removed from Hyde Park by June 1st 1852. As the foundations were being laid, Paxton's lack of architecture or engineering credentials drew criticism regarding the stability and safety of his design. The design is in essence an elaborately scaled copy of the Duke of Devonshire's Chatsworth Conservatory. Paxton designed the conservatory while employed as the Duke's gardener. In response to the criticism all iron girders were tested on site prior to installation. Wooden cross-bracing was added to visually reassure visitors the wrought iron trusses were sturdy and could withstand the load of the thousands of anticipated visitors. Paxton's reliance on his previous glass-enclosed conservatory design influenced the details of all the Crystal Palace's building systems. The primary role of the building was as exhibit space. The design is composed of a central transept and nave with the nave lined with a series of 24x24 foot structural bays. Second level galleries ring the bays below. The structural bays served to organize the 13,973 exhibitors. Red banners with white letters indicating specific exhibits hung from the 24-foot girders facing the nave. The nave, galleries and transept served as circulation corridors for the exhibition's more than 6 million visitors. The large expanse of overhead glass that serves as the enclosure and lighting systems and gives the building its nickname allowed excessive amounts of light and heat into the exhibit spaces. While this arrangement served Paxton well in the Chatsworth greenhouse, the crowded exhibit spaces quickly overheated. The decision to use extensive amounts of glass without regard to the comfort of the occupants is the primary failure of the design. To remedy this flaw the troughs of the roof system were retrofitted with canvas covers draped between the roof ridges. These tarps shaded the glass and visitors, reduced solar gain and provided a more diffuse and tolerable light in the galleries. The tarps had a seam down the middle to allow rapid water drainage into the Paxton gutters. The secondary role of the building was as exhibit. Initially there was much skepticism, doubt and criticism surrounding the design of the Crystal Palace and the Great Exhibition. But as the building rapidly grew above the trees of Hyde Park the press and public rallied around the glistening structure. The public began to realize and take great pride that the building was revolutionary in every way. The building handily satisfied its most demanding design criteria. It was large enough to accommodate tens of thousands of exhibitors and visitors. It fostered the orderly display of exhibits. It could be manufactured and assembled in a timely manner. It clearly demonstrated the nation's industrial and manufacturing competence. The Crystal Palace was a departure from the past and a vision of the future. The Crystal Palace was designed, manufactured and assembled in less than one year. This feat was made possible by manufacturing technology that should still be considered state of the art. The building is an integrated system or kit of parts, where each part serves multiple functions. The columns support the girders and act as downspouts for the gutters. The Paxton gutters shed rain-water and support the roof gables. The glass roof panels are both building enclosure and lighting system. Each part is machine manufactured by skilled labor under controlled conditions that insure accuracy and high quality. Once a machine or technique is devised to make a specific part, the part can be made very quickly and in large quantity. Parts were delivered to the site and erected as quickly as they were manufactured. The small size and light weight of each part made erection easy. Each structural bay is self-supporting so the 2,000 unskilled workers could assemble parts without waiting for whole systems to be in place. In contrast, other buildings of the time were made of stone and required years to construct. The stone was cut from quarries and transported at great expense to the building site, where skilled masons custom fit one block to another. It is important to study this building in context, as it is evidence of a fundamental cultural shift. As compared to the artifacts in the exhibition the Crystal Palace building has a clean sparse appearance with a minimum of ornament. With the exception of girder connection covers there are few components that could be considered ornamental. The real difference lies in the method of manufacture and the value placed on the resulting product by society. Once Londoners saw the efficiency and grace of its construction the Crystal Palace became a focus of pride. The design marks a cultural shift in values from garish hand made ornament of the past to the clean, streamlined machine-made products of the future. The Crystal Palace is more closely related to buildings of the next century, such as Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's 1929 Barcelona Pavilion and Phillip Johnson's 1949 Glass House, than with its monolithic, masonry contemporaries.

Methods

Three different types of 3-dimensional computer models are being created for the project. Working from original drawings, a high detail model of each unique building component is constructed in FormZ software. The components are assembled to illustrate the relationship of parts within larger sections of the building. Rendered images of these assemblies and the computer model itself is delivered through the Internet. Rendered orthographic views of the component assemblies are used as texture or image maps on a low detail VRML (virtual reality modeling language) model of the entire building. The VRML model can be viewed through a web browser. Given the state-of-the-art of photography in 1851 and the limits it imposes on our ability to understand and appreciate the lighting in the Crystal Palace our third model is a realistic lighting simulation. Radiance software, running on Supercomputers, enables us to render images and animations of the building's lighting as it existed in 1851. Test images have been rendered on a SGI Power Onyx at the San Diego Supercomputer Center (SDSC) and on SUN workstations at IATH. Additional images and animations will be rendered on a 64-Processor SUN HPC 10000 Supercomputer at SDSC.

Use

Architects, historians and students can gain a better understanding of the building and its significance by studying the images and models we have created. By freely providing the computer models, variations of the building's structure, lighting and design can be tested and used as a tool for teaching. Exploring the use of realistic lighting simulations (both quantitative and qualitative) on Supercomputers provides not only a new set of tools and methods for the humanities researcher but paves the road for interaction and collaboration with computer scientists.

Web-Links

""Modeling the Crystal Palace"" <http://www.iath.virginia.edu/london/model/>
""Monuments and Dust"" <http://www.iath.virginia.edu%2Flondon/>
The Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities <http://www.iath.virginia.edu/>","txt","2","",""
"13","1","Solutions for the Delivery of Thematically-Tagged Text","1","Introduction

The Orlando Project has developed prototype delivery software which gives end users access to our literary history textbase. Richly-tagged SGML data is automatically converted to XML, and presented to users through a custom application (which runs locally on their machine, and communicates with a back-end XML server). The design of the user interface has been developed through a formal user needs analysis, conducted with a local Pilot Users Group. In the process, we have learned a great deal about how to exploit the richness of a heavily-tagged textbase, and how to present this information selectively to end users (meeting their information requirements without overburdening them with complexity).

The Goals of our Project

The Orlando Project is applying state-of-the-art software technology to traditional fields of study in the humanities. We are writing a literary history of women's writing in Britain, as both a conventional published text and as an SGML tagged textbase. At present (November 1999) we have documents on 850 British women writers and documents on 590 other writers. For each author we have a pair of interdependent documents - a biography and a writing life history. This material is supplemented by 13,600 events, which are discrete dated items providing the further essential and enriching political, social and cultural background to the work. Events vary in their depth of coverage, but are in every case in one way or another related to the literary history which we are writing. Here are three examples of events:

1863: Selective chronology: British Women writers: Florence Nightingale privately printed an anonymous pamphlet, Note on the supposed protection afforded against venereal disease by recognizing and putting it under police regulation. [keyword: law and legislation] [keyword: body/health - venereal disease]

August 1863: Selective chronology: British Women writers: Florence Nightingale corresponded with Harriet Martineau, outlining the case against the Contagious Diseases Acts. (Vicinus 441)

by 1871: Comprehensive chronology: Social climate: The Royal Commission on the Contagious Diseases Acts rejected a suggestion that soldiers and sailors be required to submit to the same regular examinations required of the prostitutes they frequented. The commission believed ""there is no comparison to be made between prostitutes and the men who consort with them. With the one sex the offence is committed as a matter of gain; with the other it is an irregular indulgence of a natural impulse."" This illustrates the double standard that held women to be sexually unresponsive and men to be prey to strong desire; paradoxically, this belief coexisted with the notion that women were emotional and irrational, while men were more enlightened and controlled.

Delivery Plans

The Orlando Project received SSHRC funding in 1994. Our grant proposal at that time argued that SGML was the only feasible means to capture and encode the complex thematic approach to literary history which the project required. As to the ultimate means of delivery for this information, we anticipated that the technology landscape would be utterly changed 5 years on. We believed that there would be ways to deliver SGML to end users at the very end of the 20th century (we were also aware, in 1994, that there were perfectly acceptable ways of converting and delivering SGML information). We have found that XML is the means to the end which we hoped would appear. XML is a rapidly developing W3 Consortium standard, which will permit the direct delivery of tagged information to end users. An XML audit of our textbase, carried out in 1998, showed us that (for delivery purposes) our textbase could be transformed from SGML to XML without any loss of its intellectual value. We are able today to deliver our richly-tagged information to a client program (running in an XML browser, such as Internet Explorer 5; or in a custom application which support XML though third party software such as IBM's XML toolkit.

User Needs

Assessment

Having received a great deal of positive encouragement from the scholarly community that the information we are developing is of considerable interest to them, we began a formal process of user needs assessment. A richly-tagged textbase such as ours can be exploited by end users in a wide variety of ways:

subject-specific searches can create customized chronologies and research texts for reading
imposing chronological limits can highlight issues and create connections which standard ""period"" labels obscure
consistent tagging allows one or more documents to be compared ""side-by-side"", to reveal new insights about authors and their context
The most important issue for us was to ""bridge"" between the complex tag set which we have created and the terminology and information expectations which will characterise our end users. The strengths of our tagging are their rigour, and the highly detailed descriptions of their meaning. Their deficiency (from the point of the end user) is that this knowledge is locked up in a single tag name which may be opaque (such as our Cultural Formation tag) or dangerously obvious (such as our Name tag, which has a precise meaning and occupies a specific niche in a constellation of about a dozen ""personal name"" tags). In order to drive the development of the software from the users' point of view (rather than our own), we struck a Pilot Users Group. This group (about a dozen people) were drawn from representative communities who we expect will be interested in accessing our information, including:
professors, graduate students, and undergraduate students
scholars in fields such as English literature and History
librarians and information scientists
The program for this group was devised in order to elicit their expectations and desires for our software, without raising the question of what the software would look like or how it would work. We began with meetings where the group were given only written and oral accounts of our Project's goals and content; we elicited the group's own descriptions and terminology for our areas of interest. In the fall of 1999, building upon our team's sense of what kinds of access we could provide to end users, the Pilot Users Group was asked to comment on an on-screen mock-up of our delivery software. These sessions were conducted as formal focus groups [Greenbaum; Jordan]; the sessions were recorded and team notetakers wrote down the comments and suggestions from the users group. Because the software on-screen was truly ""throw away"", we are able to genuinely encourage the users to critique it and explore their preferences and expectations. We also surveyed the computer equipment and level of experience of the user group; we will expand this survey, to make sure we create delivery software which our target users can run, and which they will be able to learn to use effectively.
Software Architecture

Our prototype delivery software is being written in a client/server fashion. The client end is a Java program which uses XML-aware code to request XML documents from the server to process them (by sorting, selecting, and sub-setting), and then displays them using XSL (the XML stylesheet language). Although it is technically possible to execute this part of the process inside an XML-capable browser, the nature of our textbase and the kinds of interaction which we wish to provide are rather unlike the Web-page metaphor. Our textbase can be queried to draw together coherent document sub-sections from many documents at once, which can be presented to the user in various forms, such as a customised chronology or a synoptic view of relevant sections from the lives or works of many authors at once. For this reason we feel the creation of an independent delivery program is desirable. A similar consideration operates with respect to linking within our textbase. We are implementing a much richer form of linking that the web at present provides; a great deal of the linking which end users will be able to explore will be generated automatically through the carefully and consistently tagged text. Users who are viewing text of interest will be able to pursue that interest by traversing automatic links which will open up from our elaborately tagged text. The server side of this architecture will make available our tagged textbase (as an XML document collection) which will respond to user queries by selecting and sending XML documents to the client program. We have explored various technologies to provide this searching and delivery on the back-end, including Java and CGI formats (using both Perl and SGREP to handle the searching). The obvious advantage of this approach is that the server can be implemented in more than one way (and be revised and extended as new technologies appear), while the front end client program remains the same (or is extended and improved on an independent trajectory). We are making extensive use of standard technologies, such as XML, XSL, and HTTP (for the communication between client and server). This will aid the process of generalising this software to meet the needs of other users who wish to present SGML or XML text to users without ""rendering it down"" to display-only formats like HTML.

Issues

XML is an emerging standard. The software support for XML is beginning to appear; our strategy will be more effective as XML becomes ubiquitous and a variety of robust XML-capable tools emerge.

The current effort is a ""prototype""; the exercise of deploying it will have both successes and failures, from which we will learn.

We have been very careful to avoid using the ""Web"" metaphor - our textbase can be delivered in ways which are much more dynamic and more informative that a Web delivery metaphor would imply. This ambition is to some extent undercut by the expectations of our Pilot Users Group, who came to the material with ""Web on the brain"". A classic case of this was the specific comment that we ought not to use a certain shade of blue for text if it was not a link, because ""blue means link"".

References

Greenbaum, Thomas L (1997). The Handbook for Focus Group Research. Second edition; Sage Publications.
Jordan, Patrick W et al. (1996). Usability Evaluation in Industry. Taylor & Francis.
McConnell, Steve (1996). Rapid Development. Microsoft Press.
Butler, Terry and Fisher, Sue (1998). ""Orlando Project: Issues when Moving from SGML to XML for Delivery of Content-Rich Encoded Text"". Presentation at Markup Technologies '98, Chicago, Nov. 12-13, 1998.
Butler, Terry (1999). ""Can a Team Tag Consistently? Experiences on the Orlando Project"". Presentation given at ACH-ALLC 1999, Charlottesville VA, June 1999.","txt","2","",""
"14","1","Meaning and Interpretation of Markup","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
<?oxygen RNGSchema=""file:/remote/homed/saschmid/Desktop/teiConferenceAbstracts.rng"" type=""xml""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Meaning and Interpretation of Markup</title>
                <author>Markup is inserted into textual material not at random, but to convey some meaning. An author may supply markup as part of the act of composing a text; in this case the markup expresses the author's intentions. The author creates certain textual structures simply by tagging them; the markup has performative significance. In other cases, markup is supplied as part of the transcription in electronic form of pre-existing material. In such cases, markup reflects the understanding of the text held by the transcriber; we say that the markup expresses a claim about the text.

In the one case, markup is constitutive of the meaning; in the other, it is interpretive. In each case, the reader (for all practical purposes, readers include software which processes marked up documents) may legitimately use the markup to make inferences about the structure and properties of the text. For this reason, we say that markup licenses certain inferences about the text.

If markup has meaning, it seems fair to ask how to identify the meaning of the markup used in a document, and how to document the meaning assigned to particular markup constructs by specifications of markup languages (e.g. by DTDs and their documentation).

In this paper, we propose an account of how markup licenses inferences, and how to tell, for a given marked up text, what inferences are actually licensed by its markup. As a side effect, we will also provide an account of what is needed in a specification of the meaning of a markup language. We begin by proposing a simple method of expressing the meaning of SGML or XML element types and attributes; we then identify a fundamental distinction between distributive and sortal features of texts, which affects the interpretation of markup. We describe a simple model of interpretation for markup, and note various ways in which it must be refined in order to handle standard patterns of usage in existing markup schemes; this allows us to define a simple measure of complexity, which allows direct comparison of the complexity of different ways of expressing the same information (i.e. licensing the same inferences) about a given text, using markup.

For simplicity, we formulate our discussion in terms of SGML or XML markup, applied to documents or texts. Similar arguments can be made for other uses of SGML and XML, and may be possible for some other families of markup language.

Related work has been done by Simons (in the context of translating between marked up texts and database systems), Sperberg-McQueen and Burnard (in an informal introduction to the TEI), Langendoen and Simons (also with respect to the TEI), Huitfeldt and others in Bergen (in discussions of the Wittgenstein Archive at the University of Bergen, and in critiques of SGML), Renear and others at Brown University, and Welty and Ide (in a description of systems which draw inferences from markup). Much of this earlier work, however, has focused on questions of subjectivity and objectivity in text markup, or on the nature of text, and the like. The approach taken in this paper is somewhat more formal, while still much less formal and rigorous than that taken by Wadler in his recent work on XSLT.

Let us begin with a concrete example. Among the papers of the American historical figure Henry Laurens is a draft Laurens prepared of a letter to be sent from the Commons House of Assembly of South Carolina to the royal governor, Lord William Campbell, in 1775. Some words have lines through them, and others written above the line. The editors of Laurens's papers interpret the lines through words as cancellations, and the words above the lines as insertions; an electronic version of the document using TEI markup and reflecting these interpretations, might read thus:
<P><DEL>It was be</DEL> <DEL>For</DEL> When we applied to Your Excellency for leave to adjourn it was because we foresaw that we <DEL>were</DEL> <ADD>should continue</ADD> wasting our own time ... </P>
From the DEL elements, the reader of the document is licensed to infer that the letters ""It was be"", ""For"", and ""were"" are marked as deleted; from the ADD element, the reader may infer that the words ""should continue"" have been added. Software might rely on these inferences in the course of making a concordance or displaying a clear text; human readers will rely on them in interpreting the historical document. Note that the markup here stops short of licensing the inference that ""should continue"" was substituted for ""were"". The editors could license that inference as well by appropriate markup, if they wished. Human readers may make the inference on their own, given the linguistic context; software cannot safely infer a substitution every time an addition is adjacent to a deletion.

A simple way to capture the meaning of markup is to define, for each markup construct, a set of open sentences - sentences with unbound variables - which express the inferences licensed by the use of that construct. In formal reasoning, such open sentences may be transformed into logical predicates in the usual way.

For example, the TEI element type DEL is said by the documentation to mark ""a letter, word or passage deleted, marked as deleted, or otherwise indicated as superfluous or spurious in the copy text by an author, scribe, annotator or corrector"" (TEI P3, p. 922). We take this to mean that when a DEL element is encountered in a document, the reader is licensed to infer that the material so marked has been deleted. In formal contexts, we may write ""deleted(X)""; we can specify the meaning of the DEL element and of the logical predicate ""deleted(X)"" by means of an open sentence: ""X has been deleted, or marked as deleted, or ..."" etc. The variable X is to be bound, in practice, to the contents of the DEL element. If we imagine a variable named 'this', instantiated to each element of a document in turn, and a function 'contents' which returns the contents of its argument, then the meaning of the DEL element becomes ""deleted(contents(this)))"", or equivalently ""contents(this) has been deleted ..."" etc.

The TEI element type HI, similarly, ""marks [its contents] as graphically distinct from the surrounding text"" (TEI P3, p. 1013). We can capture the meaning of HI by the open sentence ""X is graphically distinct from the surrounding text"", or ""highlighted(X)"", where X is, as before, to be replaced by ""contents(this)"".

Attributes may be treated similarly. The 'rend' attribute on the <hi> element ""describes the rendition or presentation of the word or phrase highlighted"". In the example
<P><HI REND=""gothic"">And this Indenture further witnesseth</HI> that the said <HI REND=""italic"">Walter Shandy</HI>, merchant, in consideration of the said intended marriage ... </P>
the HI elements convey the information that the contents of those elements are distinct from their surroundings, while the 'rend' attributes on the HI elements specify how. The meaning of the 'rend' attribute is expressed by the open sentence ""X is rendered in style Y."" An HI element with a 'rend' attribute thus means ""X is graphically distinct from its surroundings, and X is rendered in style Y"".

Perhaps the simplest method of interpreting markup is to assume that

The meaning of every element type is expressed by an open sentence whose single unbound variable is to be bound to 'contents(this)'.
The meaning of every attribute is expressed by an open sentence with two unbound variables, one of which is to be bound to 'contents(this)' and the other to 'value(this,attribute-name)' (i.e. to the value of the attribute in question). In other words, each attribute defines some relation R which holds between the contents of the element and the value of the attribute.
All inferences licensed by any two elements are compatible.
The set of inferences applicable to any given location L is then the union of the inferences licensed by all the elements within which L is contained. Let us call this the 'union model' of interpretation.
The union model is simple, and provides a good first approximation of the rules of inference for marked up text. But it is not wholly adequate.

First, it fails to distinguish distributed properties (such as 'italic' or 'highlighted') from sortal properties (such as paragraphs, sections, or - as illustrated above - deletion). It is as true to say ""The word 'And' is in black-letter"" as to say it of the entire phrase, and the meaning of the example given above would not change if the HI elements were split into two or more adjacent pieces each with the same 'rend' value. Conversely, two HI elements with the same attribute values can be merged without changing the meaning of the markup. Other elements mark properties which are NOT distributed equally among the contents, and cannot be split or joined without changing the meaning of the markup. From the markup

<P>Reader, I married him.</P>

we can infer the existence of one paragraph, but we cannot infer that ""Reader"" is itself a paragraph. Such properties we call 'sortal' properties, borrowing a term of art from linguistics. Elements marking sortals are usefully countable; those marking distributed properties are not.

Second, the union model fails to allow a correct interpretation of inherited values and overrides, as illustrated by the TEI 'lang' attribute or the xml:lang attribute of XML. In fact, some inferences do contradict each other, and specifications of the meaning of markup need to say which inferences are compatible, and which are in conflict, and how to adjudicate conflicts.

Third, the union model allows inferences about a location L only on the basis of markup on open elements (those which contain L); in order to handle common idioms of SGML and XML, a model of interpretation must handle

upward propagation: the meaning of an element may depend in part on its contents; this is unusual in colloquial SGML/XML systems, but is a regular feature of proposals to eliminate attributes from markup languages.
context dependency: the meaning of an element may depend on its context; trivial examples include TEI's HI and FOREIGN, which can mean 'not-Roman' and 'not-English' in one context, and 'not-italic' and 'not-German' in others.
ordinal position, relative or absolute; dependence of meaning upon ordinal position is seldom an explicit feature of markup languages, but dependence of processing based on position is a standard feature of style-sheet languages.
milestone elements; these convey information by position in the beginning-to-end scan of the linear form of the document, rather than by position in the tree.
linking: out-of-line or 'standoff' markup conveys information about location L based not only on open elements, but on elements which point at L or some ancestor of L.
Other methods of associating markup with meaning are imaginable, but we believe a survey of existing DTDs will show that all or virtually all current practice is covered by any model of interpretation which encompasses the complications just outlined.
Essentially, these can be handled by extending the rules for binding variables in the open sentences which specify the meaning of a given markup construct. The simple union model allows only 'contents(this)' and 'value(this,attribute-name)'; the constructs listed above require more complex expressions, roughly equivalent in expressiveness to the TEI extended-pointer notation or to the patterns of the XPath language defined by W3C.

Complexity of the semantics associated with an element type or attribute may be measured by the number of unbound variables in the open slots, by the complexity of the expressions which are to fill them, and by the amount or kind of memory required to allow full generation of the inferences licensed by markup in a particular text.

References

DeRose, Steve et al. (1990). ""What is Text, Really?"" Journal of Computing in Higher Education 1: 3-26.
Huitfeldt, Claus (1995). ""Multi-Dimensional Texts in a One-Dimensional Medium."" CHum 28: 235-241.
Langendoen, D. Terence, and Simons, Gary F. (1995). ""Rationale for the TEI Recommendations for Feature-Structure Markup."" CHum 29.3: 191-209.
[Laurens, Henry.] (1985). ""Commons House of Assembly to Lord William Campbell."" The Papers of Henry Laurens, ed. David R. Chesnutt et al. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, S.C.. Vol. 10, pp. 305-308.
Pichler, Alois (1993). ""What is Transcription, Really?"" ACH/ALLC '93, Georgetown.
Renear, Allen, Durand, David G., and Mylonas, Elli (1995). ""Refining our notion of what text really is: the problem of overlapping hierarchies."" Research in Humanities Computing. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Originally delivered at ALLC/ACH '92.
Simons, Gary F. (1997) ""Conceptual Modeling versus Visual Modeling: A Technological Key to Building Consensus."" CHum 30.4: 303-319.
Sperberg-Mcqueen, C. M., and Burnard, Lou (eds) (1994). Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange (TEI P3). Chicago, Oxford: ACH, ALLC, and ACL, 1994.
Sperberg-Mcqueen, C. M., and Burnard, Lou (1995). ""The Design of the TEI Encoding Scheme."" CHum 29: 17-39.
Wadler, Philip (1999). ""A formal semantics of patterns in XSLT."" Paper presented at Markup Technologies '99.
Welty, Christopher, and Ide, Nancy (1999). ""Using the Right Tools: Enhancing Retrieval from Marked-up Documents."" CHum 33: 59-84. Originally delivered at TEI 10, Providence (1997).
                    <name>
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                        <forename type=""middle"">M.</forename>
                        <surname>Sperberg-McQueen</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">World Wide Web Consortium</name>, USA <email/>
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                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Claus</forename>
                        <surname>Huitfeldt</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">University of Bergen</name>, Norway <email/>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Allen</forename>
                        <surname>Renear</surname>
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                        <surname>Scott</surname>
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                <p>Markup is inserted into textual material not at random, but to convey some
                    meaning. An author may supply markup as part of the act of composing a text; in
                    this case the markup expresses the author's intentions. The author creates
                    certain textual structures simply by tagging them; the markup has performative
                    significance. In other cases, markup is supplied as part of the transcription in
                    electronic form of pre-existing material. In such cases, markup reflects the
                    understanding of the text held by the transcriber; we say that the markup
                    expresses a claim about the text.</p>
                <p>In the one case, markup is constitutive of the meaning; in the other, it is
                    interpretive. In each case, the reader (for all practical purposes, readers
                    include software which processes marked up documents) may legitimately use the
                    markup to make inferences about the structure and properties of the text. For
                    this reason, we say that markup licenses certain inferences about the text.</p>
                <p>If markup has meaning, it seems fair to ask how to identify the meaning of the
                    markup used in a document, and how to document the meaning assigned to
                    particular markup constructs by specifications of markup languages (e.g. by DTDs
                    and their documentation).</p>
                <p>In this paper, we propose an account of how markup licenses inferences, and how
                    to tell, for a given marked up text, what inferences are actually licensed by
                    its markup. As a side effect, we will also provide an account of what is needed
                    in a specification of the meaning of a markup language. We begin by proposing a
                    simple method of expressing the meaning of SGML or XML element types and
                    attributes; we then identify a fundamental distinction between distributive and
                    sortal features of texts, which affects the interpretation of markup. We
                    describe a simple model of interpretation for markup, and note various ways in
                    which it must be refined in order to handle standard patterns of usage in
                    existing markup schemes; this allows us to define a simple measure of
                    complexity, which allows direct comparison of the complexity of different ways
                    of expressing the same information (i.e. licensing the same inferences) about a
                    given text, using markup.</p>
                <p>For simplicity, we formulate our discussion in terms of SGML or XML markup,
                    applied to documents or texts. Similar arguments can be made for other uses of
                    SGML and XML, and may be possible for some other families of markup
                    language.</p>
                <p>Related work has been done by Simons (in the context of translating between
                    marked up texts and database systems), Sperberg-McQueen and Burnard (in an
                    informal introduction to the TEI), Langendoen and Simons (also with respect to
                    the TEI), Huitfeldt and others in Bergen (in discussions of the Wittgenstein
                    Archive at the University of Bergen, and in critiques of SGML), Renear and
                    others at Brown University, and Welty and Ide (in a description of systems which
                    draw inferences from markup). Much of this earlier work, however, has focused on
                    questions of subjectivity and objectivity in text markup, or on the nature of
                    text, and the like. The approach taken in this paper is somewhat more formal,
                    while still much less formal and rigorous than that taken by Wadler in his
                    recent work on XSLT.</p>
                <p>Let us begin with a concrete example. Among the papers of the American historical
                    figure Henry Laurens is a draft Laurens prepared of a letter to be sent from the
                    Commons House of Assembly of South Carolina to the royal governor, Lord William
                    Campbell, in 1775. Some words have lines through them, and others written above
                    the line. The editors of Laurens's papers interpret the lines through words as
                    cancellations, and the words above the lines as insertions; an electronic
                    version of the document using TEI markup and reflecting these interpretations,
                    might read thus:<lb/>
                    <eg>&lt;P&gt;&lt;DEL&gt;It was be&lt;/DEL&gt; &lt;DEL&gt;For&lt;/DEL&gt; When we
                        applied to Your Excellency for leave to adjourn it was because we foresaw
                        that we &lt;DEL&gt;were&lt;/DEL&gt; &lt;ADD&gt;should continue&lt;/ADD&gt;
                        wasting our own time ... &lt;/P&gt;</eg></p>
                <p>From the DEL elements, the reader of the document is licensed to infer that the
                    letters ""It was be"", ""For"", and ""were"" are marked as deleted; from the ADD
                    element, the reader may infer that the words ""should continue"" have been added.
                    Software might rely on these inferences in the course of making a concordance or
                    displaying a clear text; human readers will rely on them in interpreting the
                    historical document. Note that the markup here stops short of licensing the
                    inference that ""should continue"" was substituted for ""were"". The editors could
                    license that inference as well by appropriate markup, if they wished. Human
                    readers may make the inference on their own, given the linguistic context;
                    software cannot safely infer a substitution every time an addition is adjacent
                    to a deletion.</p>
                <p>A simple way to capture the meaning of markup is to define, for each markup
                    construct, a set of open sentences - sentences with unbound variables - which
                    express the inferences licensed by the use of that construct. In formal
                    reasoning, such open sentences may be transformed into logical predicates in the
                    usual way.</p>
                <p>For example, the TEI element type DEL is said by the documentation to mark ""a
                    letter, word or passage deleted, marked as deleted, or otherwise indicated as
                    superfluous or spurious in the copy text by an author, scribe, annotator or
                    corrector"" (TEI P3, p. 922). We take this to mean that when a DEL element is
                    encountered in a document, the reader is licensed to infer that the material so
                    marked has been deleted. In formal contexts, we may write ""deleted(X)""; we can
                    specify the meaning of the DEL element and of the logical predicate ""deleted(X)""
                    by means of an open sentence: ""X has been deleted, or marked as deleted, or ...""
                    etc. The variable X is to be bound, in practice, to the contents of the DEL
                    element. If we imagine a variable named 'this', instantiated to each element of
                    a document in turn, and a function 'contents' which returns the contents of its
                    argument, then the meaning of the DEL element becomes
                    ""deleted(contents(this)))"", or equivalently ""contents(this) has been deleted
                    ..."" etc.</p>
                <p>The TEI element type HI, similarly, ""marks [its contents] as graphically distinct
                    from the surrounding text"" (TEI P3, p. 1013). We can capture the meaning of HI
                    by the open sentence ""X is graphically distinct from the surrounding text"", or
                    ""highlighted(X)"", where X is, as before, to be replaced by ""contents(this)"".</p>
                <p>Attributes may be treated similarly. The 'rend' attribute on the &lt;hi&gt;
                    element ""describes the rendition or presentation of the word or phrase
                    highlighted"". In the example<lb/><eg>&lt;P&gt;&lt;HI REND=""gothic""&gt;And this
                        Indenture further witnesseth&lt;/HI&gt; that the said &lt;HI
                        REND=""italic""&gt;Walter Shandy&lt;/HI&gt;, merchant, in consideration of the
                        said intended marriage ... &lt;/P&gt;</eg><lb/> the HI elements convey the
                    information that the contents of those elements are distinct from their
                    surroundings, while the 'rend' attributes on the HI elements specify how. The
                    meaning of the 'rend' attribute is expressed by the open sentence ""X is rendered
                    in style Y."" An HI element with a 'rend' attribute thus means ""X is graphically
                    distinct from its surroundings, and X is rendered in style Y"".</p>
                <p>Perhaps the simplest method of interpreting markup is to assume that<list>
                        <item>1. The meaning of every element type is expressed by an open sentence
                            whose single unbound variable is to be bound to 'contents(this)'.</item>
                        <item>2. The meaning of every attribute is expressed by an open sentence
                            with two unbound variables, one of which is to be bound to
                            'contents(this)' and the other to 'value(this,attribute-name)' (i.e. to
                            the value of the attribute in question). In other words, each attribute
                            defines some relation R which holds between the contents of the element
                            and the value of the attribute.</item>
                        <item>3. All inferences licensed by any two elements are compatible.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>The set of inferences applicable to any given location L is then the union of the
                    inferences licensed by all the elements within which L is contained. Let us call
                    this the 'union model' of interpretation.</p>
                <p>The union model is simple, and provides a good first approximation of the rules
                    of inference for marked up text. But it is not wholly adequate.</p>
                <p>First, it fails to distinguish distributed properties (such as 'italic' or
                    'highlighted') from sortal properties (such as paragraphs, sections, or - as
                    illustrated above - deletion). It is as true to say ""The word 'And' is in
                    black-letter"" as to say it of the entire phrase, and the meaning of the example
                    given above would not change if the HI elements were split into two or more
                    adjacent pieces each with the same 'rend' value. Conversely, two HI elements
                    with the same attribute values can be merged without changing the meaning of the
                    markup. Other elements mark properties which are NOT distributed equally among
                    the contents, and cannot be split or joined without changing the meaning of the
                    markup. From the markup<lb/><eg>&lt;P&gt;Reader, I married
                    him.&lt;/P&gt;</eg><lb/>we can infer the existence of one paragraph, but we
                    cannot infer that ""Reader"" is itself a paragraph. Such properties we call
                    'sortal' properties, borrowing a term of art from linguistics. Elements marking
                    sortals are usefully countable; those marking distributed properties are
                    not.</p>
                <p>Second, the union model fails to allow a correct interpretation of inherited
                    values and overrides, as illustrated by the TEI 'lang' attribute or the xml:lang
                    attribute of XML. In fact, some inferences do contradict each other, and
                    specifications of the meaning of markup need to say which inferences are
                    compatible, and which are in conflict, and how to adjudicate conflicts.</p>
                <p>Third, the union model allows inferences about a location L only on the basis of
                    markup on open elements (those which contain L); in order to handle common
                    idioms of SGML and XML, a model of interpretation must handle<list
                        type=""bulleted"">
                        <item>upward propagation: the meaning of an element may depend in part on
                            its contents; this is unusual in colloquial SGML/XML systems, but is a
                            regular feature of proposals to eliminate attributes from markup
                            languages.</item>
                        <item>context dependency: the meaning of an element may depend on its
                            context; trivial examples include TEI's HI and FOREIGN, which can mean
                            'not-Roman' and 'not-English' in one context, and 'not-italic' and
                            'not-German' in others.</item>
                        <item>ordinal position, relative or absolute; dependence of meaning upon
                            ordinal position is seldom an explicit feature of markup languages, but
                            dependence of processing based on position is a standard feature of
                            style-sheet languages.</item>
                        <item>milestone elements; these convey information by position in the
                            beginning-to-end scan of the linear form of the document, rather than by
                            position in the tree.</item>
                        <item>linking: out-of-line or 'standoff' markup conveys information about
                            location L based not only on open elements, but on elements which point
                            at L or some ancestor of L.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>Other methods of associating markup with meaning are imaginable, but we believe a
                    survey of existing DTDs will show that all or virtually all current practice is
                    covered by any model of interpretation which encompasses the complications just
                    outlined.</p>
                <p>Essentially, these can be handled by extending the rules for binding variables in
                    the open sentences which specify the meaning of a given markup construct. The
                    simple union model allows only 'contents(this)' and
                    'value(this,attribute-name)'; the constructs listed above require more complex
                    expressions, roughly equivalent in expressiveness to the TEI extended-pointer
                    notation or to the patterns of the XPath language defined by W3C.</p>
                <p>Complexity of the semantics associated with an element type or attribute may be
                    measured by the number of unbound variables in the open slots, by the complexity
                    of the expressions which are to fill them, and by the amount or kind of memory
                    required to allow full generation of the inferences licensed by markup in a
                    particular text.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
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</TEI>","xml","2","",""
"15","1","A Formal Model for Lexical Information","1","1. Introduction

The structure and content of lexical information has been explored in considerable depth in the past, primarily in order to determine a common model that can serve as a basis for encoding schemas and/or database models. For the most part, descriptions of lexical structure have been informed by the format of printed documents (e.g., print dictionaries), which varies considerably over documents produced by different publishers and for different purposes, together with the requirements for instantiation in some encoding format (principally, SGML). However, the constraints imposed by these formats interfere with the development of a model that fully captures the underlying structure of lexical information. As a result, although schemas such as those provided in the TEI Guidelines exist, they do not provide a satisfactorily comprehensive and unique description of lexical structure and content.

We believe that in order to develop a concrete and general model of lexical information, it is essential to distinguish between the formal model itself and the encoding or database schema that may ultimately instantiate it. That is, it is necessary to consider, in the abstract, the form and content of lexical information independent of requirements and/or limitations imposed its ultimate representation as an encoded or printed object. This is especially important since these eventual representations will vary from one application to another; in particular, lexical information may be encoded not only for the purposes of publishing in print or electronic form, but also for creating computational lexicons, terminology banks, etc. for use in natural language processing applications. It is therefore essential to develop a model that may be subsequently transformed into a variety of alternative formats.

In this paper, we outline a formal model for lexical information that describes (a) the structure of this information, (b) the information associated with this structure at various levels, and (c) a system of inheritance of information over this structure. We then show how the structure may be instantiated as a document encoded using the Extended Markup Language (XML). Using the transformation language provided by the Extensible Style Language (XSL), we then demonstrate how the original XML instantiation may be transformed into other XML documents according to any desired configuration (including omission) of the elements in the original. Because of its generality, we believe our model may serve as a basis for representing, combining, and extracting information from dictionaries, terminology banks, computational lexicons, and, more generally, a wide variety of structured and semi-structured document types.

2. Overview of the theoretical model

The underlying structure of lexical information can be viewed as embedded partitions of a lexicon, in which no distinction is made among embedded levels. A model of lexical information can be thus described as a recursive structure comprised, at each level, of one or more nodes. This structure is most easily visualized as a tree, where each node may have zero or more children. That is, at any level n, a node is either a leaf (i.e., with no children) or can be decomposed as:

T=[T1, T2, ..., Tn]

where each Ti is a node at level n+1.

Properties may be attached to any node in the structure with the prop predicate:

PROP(T,P)

indicates that the property P is attached to node T.

Properties are associated with nodes either by explicit assignment, or they may be inherited from the parent node. The object of our model is to identify the ways in which properties are propagated through levels of structure. For this purpose, we consider properties to be Feature-Value pairs expressed as terms of the form FEAT(F,V), where F and V are tokens designating a feature (e.g., POS) and a value. In the simplest case, values are atomic (e.g., NOUN) but may also consist of sets of feature-value pairs. This representation is consistent with the base notation associated with feature structures, a common framework for representing linguistic information.

3. Propagating information across levels

We define three types of features:

Cumulative features that may take more than one value and may be thus inherited and combined along the structure. For example, for a cumulative feature DOMAIN, if the property FEAT(DOMAIN,NAVIGATION) is associated with a node at level n and FEAT(DOMAIN,LAW) is associated with its child at level n+1, by inheritance the node at level n+1 will be assigned the property FEAT(DOMAIN,NAVIGATION + LAW).
Overwriting features that take only one value at a time. This implies that only one instance of an overwriting feature may appear at a given node and that the corresponding properties are propagated along the structure unless and until a new value is specified for that feature. In such a case, the new value ""overwrites"" the earlier one and is subsequently propagated to nodes in its subtrees.
Local features, which apply only at the node with which they are associated; i.e., they are not propagated through the structure. Cross-references are an example of a local feature, since they apply only to the level of description with which they are directly associated.
The full paper will provide details of this formalism.
4. Creating representations

Lexical information can be represented as a tree structure reflecting, in large part, the natural hierarchical organization of entries found in printed dictionaries. This hierarchical organization (e.g., division into homographs, senses, sub-senses, etc.) enables information to be applied over all sub-levels in the hierarchy, thus eliminating the need to re-specify common information.

For example, consider the following definition from the Collins English Dictionary (CED):

EX.1: overdress

overdress vb. (zzzz) 1. To dress (oneself or another) too elaborately or finely. ~n. (yyyy) 2. A dress that may be worn over a jumper, blouse, etc.

This information can be represented in tree form as follows :

[ orth : overdress] [ pos : verb pron : zzzz def: To dress (oneself or another) too elaborately or finely] [ pos : noun pron : yyyy def : A dress that may be worn over a jumper, blouse, etc.]

Each node in the tree represents a partition of the information in the entry, and information is inherited over sub-trees. Thus in this example, the orthographic form ""overdress"" appears at the top node and applies to the entire entry; the entry is then partitioned into two sub-trees, for verb and noun, each of which is associated with specific information about part of speech, pronunciation, and definition.

The final paper will provide similar examples from dictionaries as well as terminological data banks.

5. Extracting information from the tree

We define a tree traversal as any path starting at the root of the tree and following, at each node, a single child of that node. A full traversal is a path from the root to any leaf; a partial traversal extends from the root to any node in one of its subtrees.

As a tree is traversed, each node is associated with a set of features including: (a) features associated with the node during tree creation, and (b) features determined by applying the rules for propagating overwriting, cumulative, and local features. Thus, at any node, all applicable information is available for some unique partition of the lexical space. Nodes near the top of the tree represent very broad categories of partition; leaf nodes are associated with information for the most specific usage of the entry.

6. Encoding the information in XML

We define an XML encoding format for the structures described above:

Elements

<struct> represents a node in the tree. <struct> elements may be recursively nested at any level to reflect the structure of the corresponding tree. <struct> is the only element in the encoding scheme that corresponds to the tree structure; all other elements provide information associated with a specific node.

<alt> alternatives are bracketed in parallel <alt> elements, which may appear within any <struct>. <brack> is a general-purpose bracketing element to group associated features.

Base elements corresponding to various features, such as (for dictionaries) orth, pron, hyph, syll, stress, pos, gen, case, number, gram, tns, mood, usg, time, register, geo, domain, style, def, eg, etym, xr, trans, and itype, (analogous to dictionary elements defined in the TEI Guidelines.)

Attributes

Attributes are used to provide information specific to the element on which they appear and are not inherited in a tree traversal.

The following shows the corresponding XML encoding for ""overdress"":

<struct> <orth>overdress</> <struct> <pos>verb</> <pron>zzzz</>

<def> To dress (oneself or another) too elaborately or finely</></> <struct> <pos>noun</> <pron>yyyy</> <def> A dress that may be worn over a jumper, blouse, etc.</></></>

7. Transforming the XML document

The Extensible Style Language (XSL) is a part of the XML framework that enables transformation of XML documents into other XML documents. The best-known use of XSL is the formatting of documents for display on web browsers. However, XSL also provides a powerful transformation language that can be used to convert an XML document describing lexical information by selecting, rearranging, and adding information to it. Thus, a document encoded according to the specifications outlined in the previous section can be manipulated to serve any application that relies on part or all of its contents. The current version of the XSL transformation language is available at  <http://metalab.unc.edu/xml/books/bible/updates/14.html>.

Lack of space prevents providing examples; the final paper will include these.","txt","2","",""
"16","1","Teaching Cybertext Writing, Design, and Editing: Language, Image, Linking, Thinking","1","Ira Shor, in Critical Teaching and Everyday Life, proposes a student-centered pedagogy which theorizes that everyone immersed in mass culture is ""habituated to a dizzying pace of life."" (63) Describing the factors today's teachers face, Shor writes about the ""addicting standard of stimulation"" set by radio, television and other illuminated media, certifiying that a ""hyped use of words in pictures fits into the whole accelerated gestalt of daily life."" (63-64)

Accepting this as contemporary circumstance, methods must be constructed and made readily available to help teachers bridge the gap between past and present in terms of technology and the humanities classroom. Digital technology is changing the whole nature of education in our society. This means that professors and students from all disciplines need to be prepared to read and transmit their work in new ways via the computer.

My essay will outline, then describe in detail, successful methodology established in teaching ""Electronic Publishing"" classes to graduate and undergraduate students with interests across multiple disciplines at New Jersey Institute of Technology. The primary objective of ""Electronic Publishing"" is to enhance a previously untrained student's ability to use computers effectively and intelligently to create and design texts in academic, commercial, or other settings. Projects in this course of study intend to build understanding and functional skills in the visual presentation and online structuring of information. Students learn how to create interactive online documents that incorporate language with visual aspects of computerized text by combining graphics, sound, animation, text, and video into compelling content. The approach to teaching cybertext writing and design I have developed at New Jersey Institute of Technology since 1997 is effective for students presenting research in every area of the humanities, including languages and literature, history, philosophy, music, art, film studies, linguistics, anthropology, archaeology, creative writing, and cultural studies.

As a pedagogue, I formulate this discipline as an investigative, processual endeavor that demands the understanding and application of two human principles in conjunction with four essential aspects of design. To learn and succeed as online producers of text, students must first embrace and attempt to embody the concepts of patience and organization; the fundamental areas of attention in creating hypertext documents are introduced as: language, image, linking, and thinking. Every technical and aesthetic aspect, or problem, of document construction may be addressed through a series of questions, and a checklist of formal considerations associated with these principles and areas of attention.

All of the dimensions or elements within the principles and aspects of design highlighted above will be fully addressed and explained in the paper. Among the multiple subjects that arise in this discussion of how to teach students to produce cybertext are: gathering and formatting content, conducting research on the Internet, presenting effective visual communication, strategizing and solving technical problems, interlinking and layering documents, and otherwise establishing objectives and sensible schemes for online documents. In ""Electronic Publishing,"" students are eventually introduced to a completely different language: the relentlessly precise language of computer programming, HTML, which intervenes with content and re-creates sense and vision within cybertext writing and editing. Code is language that handles the work of online producers: writing, image, and sound; sometimes it is relatively easy to understand and use, at others it may also be fearfully complicated. Methods of conceptualizing (for students) what HTML is, and how to make use of it in humanities projects, will be outlined in this presentation.

This essay will, in addition to covering materials listed above, offer a detailed account of the various components of the ""Electronic Publishing"" courses which consists of a month of unique design-oriented research followed by two months of ""hands-on"" work. Students in the course not only study electronic publishing, they do electronic publishing by editing two editions of a journal based on their personal academic or creative pursuits. An electronic portfolio of a student's work in every class they are enrolled in must also be completed as part of ""Electronic Publishing.""

The program of ""Electronic Publishing"" designs a technology plan for other Humanities-oriented departments interested in developing curricula around electronic publishing initiatives, Internet communication, and hardware/software management schematics. Methods of reading and presenting work using technologically sophisticated computers and networks are made clear by my process; students are quickly able to exhibit and exercise their learning in these courses. At the conclusion of my paper, I will present guidelines formulated for the assessment of student generated work.

For current ""Electronic Publishing"" course materials on the World Wide Web, see: <http://www-ec.njit.edu/~cfunk/353>, <http://www-ec.njit.edu/~cfunk/605>","txt","2","",""
"17","1","A Toolbox for the Electronic Classroom","1","Writing about the new economy, Jeff Madrick remarks that the kinds of good jobs increasing most rapidly ""require communication skills, social ease, and basic reasoning abilities ..."" Acquiring such skills, he believes, ""may only be possible through higher education, where students are exposed to a sophisticated culture, a variety of experiences, and varying disciplines that require analysis of facts and concepts"" (33). In our view, the conventional classroom on a college or university campus remains the best facility for such an education, and we think the new technologies can be used to make it even more powerful.

By contrast, much excitement about technology in governing bodies is lavished on various money-saving adaptations of distance education using the web. Perhaps as a result, some advocates of increased use of technology in higher education seem to believe the traditional classroom anachronistic (see Daniel, 1996 and 1997). In our opinion, such thinking bodes ill for the kind of learning we see as vital. Rather than using technology to replace teachers and conversation, we think it should take its place with more conventional tools as another way to enhance teaching and learning conceived in traditional ways.

In what follows, we describe (and illustrate in presentation) a technologically enhanced classroom and accompanying tools that operationalize a philosophy of pedagogy that puts technology at the service of active learning. While we have previously presented some of the tools we use in this classroom (Havholm and Stewart 1996, 1998), this presentation aims at showing a style of teaching we believe to be particularly promising. While it is too soon to claim more than anecdotal success, we know it promotes active learning because it demonstrably extends students' powers of inquiry.

We and colleagues increasingly favor this kind of use of technology - in a range of disciplines - at The College of Wooster. It saves no money in the short term, however. Rather than doing away with buildings or teachers, it adds technology to a conventional classroom housing a small number of people, one of whom is salaried. But over the long term, if we are right, our graduates have the intellectual and cultural capital that allows them to think and learn independently. They will not need expensive re-training every time their environment changes a little.

Our electronic classroom looks like a seminar room, with a table in the middle, surrounded by comfortable chairs. It differs in that along its walls twenty to thirty networked computers stand ready, each linked to one another, to a screen/video projector overhead, and to the internet. Such a classroom clearly values physically proximate talk, but it also brings the huge resources of the internet to any conversation that wishes them. Moreover, it makes possible the easy use of a range of new tools that encourage active learning.

For example, Peter Havholm and our colleague Jenna Hayward use a freeware beta version of PennMUSH in a course on dramatic structure to allow the class (of 29) to improvise a seven-episode serial drama. Students play characters and invent actions on-line, edit the logs of their online sessions into scripts, and then publish a final version on the web for friends (on- and off- campus) to read.

Because of the technology, they can write and publish a play that belongs to all of them. Most important, however, is that this exercise is not done in a playwriting class but in a study of drama. Rather than honing writing skills, writing and publishing a play in this class tests the principles of structure students are learning from their reading of a dozen plays and Aristotle's Poetics. And because the technology makes publication so easy, the whole project takes only about 15% of class time.

Having students write and publish a drama to test theoretical ideas was a natural development from another kind of project several of us in the English department use in our writing courses. In the Journalism course, in Introduction to Non-fictional Writing, and in English 101 as well as in the course Writing for Magazines, students spend two to five weeks writing, editing, designing, and producing a magazine, using page layout software, which they then either give away or sell on campus.

The publishing projects have pleased several of us because students so much enjoy writing to intrigue and amuse their peers - and because the projects make self-evidently necessary the tasks of re-writing, careful consideration of audience and voice, and editing. No need for exhortation about these activities; one cannot make a magazine to impress one's friends without them. We also believe that preparing writing for publication - with headlines, pullquotes, illustrations, captions, and the rest - provides valuable experience in imagining oneself as one's reader and in visual thinking.

Among the tools that have been particularly useful in courses in narrative or narrative theory is the Linear Modeling Kit (or LMK), a program the two of us designed and have worked with for several years (see Havholm and Stewart, 1996). The LMK is essentially an authoring system, and it allows users to create applications that generate any kind of text according to principles proposed by the user. For example, a student can use the LMK to create a ""folktale generator"" by entering what the student perceives to be the parts or elements of a folktale, any principles of order among those parts, and characteristic text for each part. Depending on the complexity of the input, the generator will produce hundreds, thousands, or millions of different texts. In our classes, students have created not only folktale generators but bildungsroman generators, romance generators, tragedy generators, and argument generators.

As do all the activities we discuss here, working with the LMK acts as an heuristic, forcing students to move back and forth between theory and practice. To produce an LMK generator, students must first abstract principles from narratives they have read and then turn them into instructions for their generators. The generator then operationalizes the student's theory; it produces narratives created according to the principles the student has derived.

Another of the tools we use in the electronic classroom is the Stylistic Analysis Kit (or SAK), a combination concordance and counting program with a nearly flat learning curve. Although the SAK is a fairly conventional program, its ease of use separates it from many of the tools used by professional researchers and makes it ideal for the student in the classroom.

When analyzing their own papers, students are almost always driven back to their texts by, for example, discovering their average sentence length to be half that of the person sitting at the next computer or by learning that ""the"" comprises 14.7% of their total words. Here, students move between the abstraction of statistics and their own practice as writers. Even those who seem generally to lack curiosity are fascinated by the statistical record of their writing and eager to determine what practices account for those statistics.

There has recently been much publicity about the ease with which new hardware and software can be used to create complex video projects. Our students have begun to find that - like desktop publishing software - the new video tools can be used to explore and test ideas. Ben Speildenner chose to make a video as his final project in our colleague Jenna Hayward's course in Post-Colonial Literature. In Urban Legends, he wanted to to evoke reflection congruent with one of the principal issues of the course. The class had talked about how easy it is to essentialize one's own culture while seeing other cultures as ""different."" Ben chose several urban legends - that Disney makes heavy use of phallic imagery in The Little Mermaid, that there's a boy with a shotgun in the background of a scene in Three Men and a Baby, that there's a hanged Munchkin in The Wizard of Oz if you look closely enough at the right moment, and that spiders can lay eggs on your face - to shake our presuppositions. He wanted his presentations of these legends to push his audience into problematizing their own culture. He thinks that our urban legends show us to be more ""different"" than we think we are. But he wanted to stimulate thought, not to impose his ideas on the class.

In Understanding and Cognition, Terry Winograd and Fernando Flores make a convincing case against the use of computers as ""restricted to representing knowledge as the acquisition and manipulation of facts, and communication as the transferring of information"" (78). Rather, they argue that we need to design computers as ""equipment for language"" so that they can ""create new possibilities for the speaking and listening that we do"" (79).

Our version of the electronic classroom and our use in it of the tools we have described reflect this understanding of technology. In every case, students use the tools to interrogate ideas in ways novel in humanistic study. In an important sense, each tool allows students to test their understanding: the effectiveness of a serial drama tests ideas about dramatic structure; reader response to a published magazine tests convictions about rhetoric; the variety of lawful stories an LMK generator produces tests the powers of the theory of narrative it has been ""taught""; the SAK's quantitative analysis leads to testing qualitative ideas about writing style; and his classmates' response to Spieldenner's Urban Legends tested his hypothesis that presenting urban legends can help us think in new ways about ""difference.""

In every case, we believe, the technology adds power to students' ability to question and therefore to understand - in the context of a kind of discussion as old as learning.

References

Boyer, Ernest L (1990). Foreword. Campus Life: In Search of Community. Princeton UP, Lawrenceville, NJ.
Daniel, J. S. (1996). The Mega-Universities and Knowledge Media. (Open & Distance Learning) Kogan, London.
Daniel, J. S. (1997). Why Universities Need Technology Strategies. Change, July/August, pp. 10-17.
Havholm, Peter and Stewart, Larry (1996). Modeling the Operation of Critical Theory on the Computer. Computers and the Humanities, 30:2, pp. 107 - 115.
Havholm, Peter and Stewart, Larry (1996). Using a Narrative Generator to Teach Literary Theory. ALLC-ACH '96 Conference Abstracts. Bergen, pp. 135 - 37.
Havholm, Peter and Stewart, Larry (1998). Computers and Active Learning: Using the Stylistic Analysis and Linear Modeling Kits. ALLC-ACH '98 Conference Abstracts. Debrecen, pp. 135 - 37.
Madrick, J. Computers: Waiting for the Revolution. The New York Review of Books, 29-33.
Winograd, Terry and Flores, Fernando (1987). Understanding Computers and Cognition: A New Foundation for Design. Addison-Wesley, New York.","txt","2","",""
"18","1","Ekphrasis and the Internet: Connecting the Verbal and the Visual with Computer-mediated Student Projects in an Undergraduate Humanities Class","1","In her exploration of ekphrasis, the relationship between visual and verbal arts, Amy Golahny reminds us that references to the interconnectedness of the language of pictures and words date at least from the fifth century B.C. when Simonides said, ""as in painting, so in poetry"". In the first century B.C., Golanhy adds, Horace said that ""painting is mute poetry and poetry a speaking picture"". Further consideration of the concept of ekphrasis by Murray Krieger and W.J.T. Mitchell brings our attention to this verbal-visual relationship up to date. However, at the end of the twentieth century, most undergraduate education in the humanities continues to approach these art forms separately or to focus on student-generated text alone for developing and communicating ideas.

The ease with which the Internet now allows students to exchange, create, and manipulate text and images offers new opportunities for engagement with the composing process. Because our goal as teachers of undergraduate writing and literature classes is creative as well as critical communication and because our pedagogy emphasizes active learning processes, we introduce our students to computing in and about the humanities. Dialogic writing within and beyond their classes enables students to enter into new discourse communities and to explore collaboratively the concepts of their courses. Creating, selecting, and manipulating visual images alone or in conjunction with text introduces students to expanded and contemporary composing processes. Publication of their compositions on the Internet provides them with an audience of other learners. They need not strive to be professional poets or painters to be makers of poems and paintings as a way to learn.

Although our students may read Blake at a Website or in an edition illustrated by his own drawings or read Auden's ""Musée des Beaux Arts"" accompanied by a reproduction of Brueghel's Landscape with the Fall of Icarus, the relationship between the visual and verbal has not been emphasized in undergraduate higher education, where science textbooks are likely to have more illustrations than literature anthologies. How do humanities teachers dramatize the connection between the visual and verbal for our students and thus help our students understand the interrelatedness of the linguistic and graphical arts? How do we revive their own creativity and cognitive skills with words and pictures? After all, our students probably illustrated their own words in elementary school but are seldom invited to do so in college.

New technologies, in particular the World Wide Web, are bringing words and pictures together for us and our students in ways that might bring those connections back to our college classrooms. Document design now extends beyond the one-inch margin requirements of MLA student manuscripts. Instead, our students are learning with us about screens and color and negative space and visual communication as integral to rather than decoration for the word.

We will describe undergraduate literature and writing projects in which student-generated words and graphics are central to communication of ideas. In these projects, publication of their compositions on the Internet encourages students to reflect on the connections between technology and art, word and image, private and public writing, and their own creative and critical processes. These projects give students opportunities to perceive and to communicate visually, orally, textually, kinesthetically - in other words, they provide multisensory learning experiences.

Theoretical foundations for student-generated compositions in this project come not only from Golahny, Krieger, and Mitchell but also from chapters on teaching in Learning Literature in an Era of Change: Innovations in Teaching. Terri Pullen Guezzar (""From Short Fiction To Dramatic Event: Mental Imagery, The Perceptual Basis of Learning in the Aesthetic Reading Experience"") applies the theories of Rudolf Arnheim and Allen Paivio, who argue that privileging the verbal over the visual limits our cognitive development and that separating verbal from visual perception fragments our understanding of and communication about literature. Pedagogical theory is featured in ""Figuring Literary Theory and Refiguring Teaching: Graphics in the Undergraduate Literary Theory Course,"" where Marlowe Miller maintains, ""Graphics help students conceptualize complex and abstract theories so that they can identify the central concepts and assumptions of those theories.""

Two accessible resources for teachers thinking about integrating new media into undergraduate education also are useful for encouraging colleagues to incorporate the Internet as a learning environment and to make computer-mediated student projects integral to the learning process. In Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education: Implementing with Technology, Arthur W. Chickering and Stephen C. Ehrmann describe ways the following tenets can be incorporated into computer-mediated instruction: contacts between students and faculty, reciprocity and cooperation among students, active learning techniques, prompt feedback, time on task, high expectations, respect for diverse talents and ways of learning. Cooperation among students and active learning techniques as well as respect for diverse learning styles all are supported by multisensory student online publications in which students create original works of art or combine text and images to learn and to communicate their learning.

Additional encouragement for teachers and students comes from Engines of Inquiry: Teaching, Technology, and Learner-Centered Approaches to Culture and History by Randy Bass, director of the American Crossroads Project, Georgetown University. Bass identifies ""six kinds of quality learning"" that ""information technologies can serve to enhance"": distributive learning, authentic tasks and complex inquiry, dialogic learning, constructive learning, public accountability, and reflective and critical thinking. Once again, collaborative student-generated projects are emphasized as effective learning strategies.

Teaching at two quite different types of institutions, Donna at a large multicampus urban-suburban open admissions community college on the Atlantic coast of Virginia and Art at a selective land-grant university emphasizing agriculture, engineering, science, and technology in the foothills of South Carolina, we both have found that opportunities to compose and share text and images has enriched learning for undergraduates. Examples from the work of our own students and of our colleagues' students will demonstrate some ways that novice scholars learn ""from the inside out"" by creating, selecting, combining, and manipulating text and images in electronic environments.

Using either a live Internet connection (preferable) or files on disk displayed through a Web browser as well as an overhead projector, we will present and analyze student work that illustrates the conjunction of visual and verbal knowledge and its significance for introducing undergraduate students to the artistic life of their community and to computer-mediated composing as well as for fostering their creative and cognitive development.

<http://onlinelearning.tc.cc.va.us/faculty/tcreisd/projects/achalc2k/>

References

Arnheim, Rudolf (1980). Visual Thinking. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Bass, Randy (26 Oct. 1998). Engines of Inquiry: Teaching, Technology, and Learner-Centered Approaches to Culture and History. <http://www.georgetown.edu/crossroads/guide/engines3.html>.
Chickering, Arthur W. and Ehrmann, Stephen C. (1997). Implementing the Seven Principles: Technology as Lever. <http://www.aahe.org/technology/ehrmann.htm>.
Chickering, Arthur W. and Gamson, Zelda (1987). Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education. AAHE Bulletin, March 1987.
Golahny, Amy, ed. (1996). The Eye of the Poet: Studies in the Reciprocity of the Visual and Literary Arts from the Renaissance to the Present.
Guezzar, Terri Pullen (2000). From Short Fiction To Dramatic Event: Mental Imagery, The Perceptual Basis of Learning in the Aesthetic Reading Experience. In Dona Hickey and Donna Reiss (eds) Learning Literature in an Era of Change: Innovations in Teaching, Stylus, 2000, Sterling, VA, pp. 74-86.
Krieger, Murray (1992). Ekphrasis: The Illusion of the Natural Sign. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
Miller, Marlowe (2000). Figuring Literary Theory and Refiguring Teaching: Graphics in the Undergraduate Literary Theory Course. In Dona Hickey and Donna Reiss (eds) Learning Literature in an Era of Change: Innovations in Teaching, Stylus, 2000, Sterling, VA, pp. 61-73.
Mitchell, W. J. T. (1995). Picture Theory. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Paivio, Allan (1971). Imagery & Verbal Processes. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.","txt","2","",""
"19","1","SMART Project: Methods for Computer-based Research of Premodern Chinese Texts","1","This presentation will start with a look at some of the problems encountered so far in a number of projects that tried to apply TEI [TEIP3] markup to premodern Chinese Buddhist texts. I have been working with the TEI Guidelines for more than seven years and published the first text, rather heavily marked up in TEI fashion, in 19951. Since then I became involved with some other projects digitizing Chinese Buddhist texts, most prominently the work by the Chinese Buddhist Electronic Texts Association (CBETA) 2. We now have about 200 MB of texts basically marked up3 according to the Guidelines.

All of these projects worked from printed editions published 80-100 years ago. One of the most obvious problems we encountered is the large amount of non-standard characters found in these texts, but TEI and SGML in general is quite able to handle this elegantly - nevertheless there are some important details that should be noted4. Some of the more subtle problems involve structural elements specific to texts of the sphere of Chinese cultural influence. Examples of these elements include the notion of a scroll, that is carried over from the time when the documents were actually written on scrolls, but still mark divisions in the printed editions. Being based on the physical medium, they fall into a similar category as the LB, PB and MILESTONE elements in TEI, but they are usually associated with some other heading-like text, colophons and the like. While this could be taken care of with the FW in some way, we decided to come up with our own solution, which was to introduce a new element, JUAN, (Chinese for scroll) and encode the information therein. Other structural elements that presented difficulties include colophons or other backmatter-like text at the end of a scroll, but in the middle of a DIV element that continued on the next scroll and sound glosses in the text.

A second part of this presentation will give an overview of the recent developments in the SMART (System for Markup and Retrieval of Texts) project5. This project aims at providing a working environment for research and markup on East Asian texts by utilizing the TEI Guidelines (see also [SpMcQ91]) and other international, open standards. The environment tries to enable network based collaboration and layered, private markup added to a central repository of texts, but it is intended to make it possible to use it on stand-alone machines without a live connection to the Internet. So far, the basic framework has been outlined and some of the utilities built. Originally, the plan was to develop this into a collection of open modules, that can interact through an open protocol in the spirit of presentations at ACH/ALLC 1999 by Michael Sperberg-McQueen, Jon Bradley and others. However, since such a protocol specification is far from being finalized, I found that I would rather have a concrete implementation to play with and to iron out problems. I therefore recently decided to build the tools I would need on top of the Zope6 Web-Application platform. This is an OpenSource&trade; project build mainly with Python, implementing an object-oriented database and a complete framework for developing dynamic Web-Applications. It has a strong support for XML and related standards and thus seems especially suited for the purpose at hand. All the methods are exposed through a URL-based interfaced, but also callable through XML-RPC.

The presentation in the context of the ALLC/ACH conference aims at contributing to a discussion of how such an open framework can be implemented, while at the same time showing some of the problems that arise when dealing with East Asian languages (see [ApWi96] and [CCAG80-85]). East Asian languages do not normally mark the word boundaries and even the definition of a word is highly disputed among linguists. In this situation, a list of all occurring words in the manner of a word-wheel cannot be applied. Additionally, the texts used here contain markup of textual variants, which complicates the creation of an index. Furthermore, different representations of the same character in machine-readable encodings have to be accounted for. An indexing method that takes these problems into account and also provides an abstraction from indexing of actual low-level locations in the text has been developed7.

The SMART project will be utilized in two different contexts:

1. As a retrieval and interface engine for the Buddhist text database produced by the Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association. SMART will allow for retrieval with enhanced queries, and add markup based on these queries, thus providing a powerful way to gradually enrich the markup.
2. As the central research platform for a research project of texts of the Chan school in Chinese Buddhism. A smaller corpus of texts is here used for building not only text with rich markup, but also supporting databases of proper names, sites and historical dates to allow for knowledge-base centered retrieval of the texts.

A demonstration of both applications will be given in this presentation.

Notes

1. The Chan-Buddhist genealogical history Wudeng Huiyuan (first printed in 1253) on the ZenBase1 CD-ROM, see [App et al 95].
2. The CBETA project website (mostly in Chinese) is at <http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/cbeta.>
3. This basic markup follows the general ideas lined out in [Wit96].
4. I will not go into detail for this audience, but some references to these problems can be found in the work by the Chinese Characters Analysis Group. More recently, we based our efforts on the work done by the Mojikyo Font Institute in Japan <http://www.mojikyo.gr.jp>.
5. The project website is at <http://www.chibs.edu.tw/~chris/smart/>.
6. For more information on Zope see <http://www.zope.org>.
7. More information can be found in [Wit99]
 
 

References

RHComN: Research in Humanities Computing, Oxford: Clarendon, 1991ff. N is the sequential number of the volume.
[ApWi96} App, Urs and Wittern, Christian (1996) A New Strategy for Dealing with Missing Chinese Characters, Humanities and Information Processing No. 10, February 1996, S. 52-59.
[App et al 95] App, Urs, Kumiko, Fujimoto and Wittern, Christian (1995). ZenBase CD1. International Institute for Zen Buddhism, Kyoto.
[CCAG80-85] Chinese Character Analysis Group (Ed.) (1980 - 85). Chinese Character Code for Information Interchange, Vol. I-III, Taipeh 1980, 1982, 1985.
[CaZa91] Calzolari, Nicola and Zampolli, Antonio ""Lexical Databases and Textual Corpora: A Trend of Convergence between Computational Linguistics and Literary and Linguistic Computing"", in: [RHCom1], p273-307.
[Lanca91] Lancashire, Ian (Ed.) (1991). The Humanities Computing Yearbook 1989-90 A Comprehensive Guide to Software and other Resources. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
[Latz92] Latz, Hans-Walter (1992). Entwurf eines Modells der Verarbeitung von SGML-Dokumenten in versionsorientierten Hypertext-Systemen Das HyperSGML Konzept, Diss. Berlin 1992.
[Neum96] Neuman, Michael (1996). ""You Can�t Always Get What You Want: Deep Encoding of Manuscripts and the Limits of Retrieval"", [RHCom5], p209-219.
[Rob94] Robinson, Peter M.W. (1994). ""Collate: A program for Interactive Collation of Large Textual Traditions"", [RHCom3], p32-45.
[SpMcQ91] Sperberg-McQueen, Michael, C. (1991). ""Text Encoding and Enrichment"", [Lanca91], p503f.
[TEIP3] Sperberg-McQueen, Michael C. and Burnard, Lou (Eds.) (1994). Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, Chicago and Oxford.
[Wit93] Wittern, Christian (1993). ""Chinese Character Encoding"", The Electronic Bodhidharma, Nr. 3, July 1993, p44-47.
[Wit94] Wittern, Christian (1994). ""Code und Struktur: Einige vorläufige Überlegungen zum Aufbau chinesischer Volltextdatenbanken"", Chinesisch und Computer, Nr.9, April 1994, S.15-21.
[Wit95a] Wittern, Christian (1995). ""The IRIZ KanjiBase"", The Electronic Bodhidharma, Nr. 4, June 1995, p58-62.
[Wit95b] Wittern, Christian (1995). ""Chinese character codes: an update"", The Electronic Bodhidharma, Nr. 4, June 1995, p63-65.
[Wit96] Wittern, Christian (1996). ""Minimal Markup and More - Some Requirements for Public Texts"", Conference presentation at the 3rd EBTI meeting on April 7th, 1996 in Taipei, Taiwan.
[Wit99] Wittern, Christian (1999). ""SMART: Format of the Index Files"", Technical note published on the Internet at <http://www.chibs.edu.tw/~chris/smart/smindex.htm >. (First published July 20th, 1999, last revised January 10th, 2000)
[Yas96] Yasuoka, Koichi and Yasuoka, Yasuko (1996) Kanjibukuro, Kyoto.
<http://m-media.kudpc.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~yasuoka/kanjibukuro/>","txt","2","",""
"20","1","Word Order in Latin Prose Applied to a Case of Authorship Attribution: Book IV of the Stratagemata by Sextus Iulius Frontinus (1st century AD). The Contribution of Quantitative Methods via Computerized Text Analysis","1","Background

For some time, the Servei de Lexicometria at the University of Barcelona has been working in conjunction with the Latin Linguistics Group (Catalan acronym GLLUB) of the same university on the promotion and application of quantitative methods and computerized analysis of texts in the field of corpus languages, in this case Latin. Most of the work carried out to date has focused on questions of authorship attribution. Our main object of study is Sextus Iulius Frontinus, a writer of technical prose who was active during the first century AD. Parts of his work present problems of attribution; to add to the difficulty, there are few other candidates for the authorship of the doubtful text.

Three texts by Frontinus have survived: De agrimensura (""Agrimensura"", fragments on land survey and its legislation), Stratagemata (""Stratagems"", a set of instructional anecdotes for Roman army officers, which illustrated the principles of the art of warfare via examples of strategems selected from Greek and Roman history) and De aquaeductu urbis Romae (""On the aqueducts of the city of Rome"", a treatise on water supply for Rome). The problem of attribution arises with the fourth and last book of the Stratagemata. The hypotheses proposed by philologists for the date of book IV do not coincide: due to the lack of qualitatively distinctive linguistic features, the pseudo-Frontinus has been placed in the first century (thus a contemporary of the author himself), at the beginning of the second, and between the fourth and fifth. For this reason we decided to work on this text of doubtful authorship by applying quantitative statistical analysis methods with computerized support (Espinilla-Nofre: 1998). In that study, we used some of the quantitative methods that are generally accepted for questions of authorship attribution (Holmes: 1994): the ratio of simple forms/occurrences, the ratio of forms/occurrences with a fixed number of occurrences (fixed N), the ratio of simple occurrences/forms, the ratio of hapax legomena/forms, the R-HonorE function, the ratio of hapax dislegomena/forms and the study of the length of forms. These data allowed a comparison between the doubtful text and the rest of the works of Frontinus. The results in that first study highlighted two points:

Between the doubtful text and the texts reliably attributed to Frontinus there is no inconsistency (this finding underlines the difficulties facing traditional hypotheses).
Another point of reference is required, i.e. another author, with whom to compare the data obtained.
So as the second stage of the project we have decided to approach the problem from another perspective. Following on from previous studies (Tweedie-Frischer: 1999; Frischer-Holmes-Tweedie, et al: 1999) and others, we are keen to analyze the order of the forms in the text in question and to compare them (1) with the texts recognized as Frontinian, and (2) with another text of a later date (control author, Tweedie: 1998). This analysis assumes that there was a change in word order in the Latin sentence between the classical era and the later period (Linde: 1923, Marouzeau: 1953). In spite of the fact that the use of the computer is a considerable aid in performing quantitative analysis of the texts, our study has faced two particular problems from the very beginning:
The first derives from the premise of an established word order in Latin. The generalized opinion is that word order is basically S(ubject)-O(bject)-V(erb). However, there are a number of deviations, and certain scholars have questioned the assumption of this standard word order in Latin prose (Pinkster: 1991):
Deviations according to sentence type: unlike assertive sentences, in imperatives the verb is usually placed at the beginning.
Deviations according to type of clause (main or subordinate) and the use of different types of subordinate clauses.
Deviations deriving from the internal structure of the constituents of the sentence: the general tendency in Latin is to place the syntactically relevant constituents (the heavy material) on the right, and the constituents of less syntactic importance (the light elements) as near the beginning as possible, even though this tendency may be altered for pragmatic and semantic reasons; questions of theme and rheme, or topic and focus. Nonetheless, in our study, we subscribe in principle to the premise that in the classical era the most common order followed by authors in Latin prose was SOV, and, in the later period, SVO.
The second intrinsic difficulty when working with corpus languages can be summarized as follows (Ramos: 1996):
Productivity: the corpus does not show which of the linguistic rules that can be extracted are the most productive.
Grammaticality: to clarify the grammatical differences observed between authors it is obviously impossible to consult a native speaker.
Representativity of the corpus: the corpus at our disposal is a set of materials that has been preserved due to a particular sequence of events. It is not specifically selected for study by linguists.
The Corpus Studied
For our study, we compared book IV of the Stratagema of Frontinus with books I, II and III, and also with the work of a control author: De diversis fabricae architectonicae, by Caetius Faventinus, another writer of technical prose who lived in the later period.

Methodology

Technical data
Computerization of the texts in the corpus (ASCII format)
The computer program used to analyze the corpus was TACT (Textual Analysis Computing Tools), version 2.1. gamma.
The corpus was coded with COCOA labels, following the marking guidelines of the MAKEBASE module in TACT.
The data were obtained using the USEBASE module in TACT.
Methods of analysis
We examine whether the verb is in final position in the various texts in our corpus.
We study the position of the direct object in relation to the verb that governs it.
We establish the type of clause (main or subordinate) in which the verb is found.
We establish differences between the position of the verb according to the type of subordinate clause.
We do not restrict ourselves to cases of direct objects represented by nouns or pronouns in the accusative, but also study cases of governed complement (in genitive, dative or ablative) and those in which the direct object is represented by a subordinate clause.
Working Hypothesis And Results Obtained
The aim of our study is to provide arguments to corroborate or reject our working hypothesis: following the traditional assumption of Latin word order, the text of the Stratagemata recognized as authentically Frontinian (books I, II and III) must follow word order SOV, while the work of the control author will predominantly follow word order SVO. According to the word order we find in the doubtful book IV we will be able to place it in one or other era. We will thus have a set of data which, though unable to date the writing exactly, will lend support to one of the traditional philological hypotheses.

Bibliography

Agud, A., Fernandez Delgado, J. A. and Ramos Guerreira, A. (eds) (1996). Las lenguas de corpus y sus problemas linguisticos, Ediciones Clasicas, Madrid.
Espinilla Buisan, E. And Nofre Maiz, M. (1998). ""Metodos estadisticos y problemas de autoria. El libro IV de las Estratagemas de S. Julio Frontino"". In S. Mellet (ed) JADT 1998. 4emes Journees Internationales d'Analyse statistique des Donnees Textuelles, Universite de Nice-Sophia Antipolis-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique-INaLF, Nice. 263-271.
Frischer, B., Holmes, D, Tweedie, F., et. al. (forthcoming). ""Word-order transference between Latin and Greek: The relative position of the accusative direct object and the governing verb in Cassius Dio and other Greek and Roman prose authors"", Harvard Studies in Classical Philosophy (forthcoming).
Holmes, D.I. (1994). ""Authorship attribution"". Computers and the Humanities. 28, 87-106.
Linde, P. (1923). ""Die Stellung des Verbs in der lateinischen Prosa"". Glotta. 12, 153-178.
Marouzeau, J. (1953). L'ordre des mots en latin. Les Belles Lettres, Paris.
Pinkster, H. (1991). ""Evidence for SVO in Latin?"". In R. Wright (ed) Latin and the romance languages in the Early Middle Ages. Routledge, London. 69-92.
Ramos Guerreira, A. (1996). ""El estatuto linguistico del corpus latino: algunas precisiones"". In A. Agud et. al. (eds) Las lenguas de corpus y sus problemas linguisticos. Ediciones Clasicas, Madrid. 35-54.
Siewirska, A. (ed) (1998). Constituent order in the languages of Europe. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin-New York.
Tweedie, F.J. (1998). ""The provenance of De Doctrina Christiana attributed to John Milton: a statistical investigation"", Literary and Linguistic Computing. 13, 2, 77-87.
Tweedie, F.J. and Frischer, B.D. (1999). ""Analysis of classical Greek and Latin compositional word-order data"", Journal of Quantitative Linguistics. 6, 1.","txt","2","",""
"21","1","Back to the Cave of Shadows: Stylistic Fingerprints in Authorship Attribution","1","Introduction

Attempts to assign authorship of texts have a long history. They have been applied to influential texts such as the Bible, the works of Shakespeare and the Federalist Papers. A wide variety of techniques from many disciplines have been considered, from multivariate statistical analysis to neural networks and machine learning. Many different facets of texts have been analysed, from sentence and word length to the most common or the rarest words, or linguistic features. Holmes (1998) provides a chronological review of methods used in the pursuit of the authorial ""fingerprint"".

A key issue raised at the panel on non-traditional authorship attribution studies at the ACH-ALLC conference in Virginia, 1999, by Joe Rudman is whether authorial ""fingerprints"" do in fact exist. Is it truly the case that any two authors can always be distinguished on the basis of their style, so that stylometry can provide unique stylistic fingerprints for any author, given sufficient data?

Despite the long history of authorship attribution, almost all stylometric studies have been carried out on the assumption that stylometric fingerprinting is possible. However, often control texts are inappropriately chosen or not available. In addition, the imposition of editorial or publisher's style can distort the original words of the author. To our knowledge, no one has yet carried out a strictly controlled experiment of authorship attribution, with texts of known authorship being analysed between and within genres as well as between and within authors.

In this abstract we present such an experiment. The next section describes the design of the experiment. This is followed by a description of the analysis carried out, then by the results and our conclusions.

Experimental Design

The experiment was carried out in Dutch. Eight students of Dutch literature at the University of Nijmegen participated in the study. All the students were native speakers of Dutch, four were in their first year of study, and four were in their fourth year. The students were asked to write texts of around 1000 words.

Each student wrote in three genres: fiction, argument and description. Three texts were written in each genre, on the following topics.

Fiction: a retelling of the fairy tale of Little Red Riding-Hood, a detective story about a murder in the university, and a romance of chivalry.
Argument: defending a position about the television program 'Big Brother', the unification of Europe, and smoking.
Descriptive: football, the upcoming new millennium, and a book-review of the book read most recently by the participant.
The order of writing the texts was randomised so that practice effects were reduced as much as possible. We thus have nine texts from each participant, making a total of seventy-two texts in the analysis. The main question is whether it will be possible to group texts by their authors using the state-of-the-art methods of stylometry. A positive answer would support the hypothesis that stylistic fingerprints exist, even for authors with a very similar background and training. A negative answer would argue against the hypothesis that each author has her/his unique stylistic fingerprint.
Analysis

There are many methods proposed for the analysis of texts in the attempt to identify authorship. In this abstract we describe three, and a fourth will be described at the conference. The first is that proposed by Burrows in a series of papers, see e.g. Burrows (1992), and used by many practitioners. Here we consider the frequencies of the forty most common words in the text. Principal components analysis is used to identify the most important aspects of the data.

The second method considered is that of letter frequency. Work by Ledger and Merriam indicates that the frequencies of letters used in texts may be indicators of authorship. We use the standardised frequencies of the 26 letters of the alphabet, with capital and lower-case letters being treated together. As above, the standardised frequencies are analysed using principal components analysis.

Thirdly, we consider methods of vocabulary richness. Tweedie and Baayen (1998) show that Orlov's Z and Yule's K represent two separate families of measures, measuring richness and repeat rate respectively. Plots of Z and K can be examined for structure.

Finally, we are planning to tag the text and to annotate the text for constituent structure. Baayen et al. (1996) show that increased accuracy in authorship attribution can be obtained by considering the syntactic, rather than lexical vocabulary. The results from this part of the analysis will be presented at the conference.

The texts written in this analysis are available from the authors upon request and, once all annotation has been completed, will be made available on the Web as well.

Results

Each student was asked to write around 1000 words in each text. In fact, the average text length is 908 words. The shortest text has 628 words and the longest 1342. The texts were processed using the UNIX utility awk and the R statistics package.

We first consider all of the texts together. The Burrows analysis of the most common function words shows no authorial structure. Genre appears to be the most important factor, with fiction texts having negative scores on the first principal component, while argumentative and descriptive texts have positive scores on this axis. In addition, argumentative texts tend to have higher values on the second principal component than descriptive texts. It appears that fiction texts are more similar to other fiction texts than they are to other texts by the same author. Analysis of letter frequencies gives similar results, while the measures of vocabulary richness show some indication of structure with respect to the education level of the writer. Those in their first year of studies appear to have lower values of K, and hence a lower repeat-rate. In addition, higher values of Z are the province of first-year students also, indicating a greater richness of vocabulary. When all of these measures are incorporated into a single principal components analysis the genre structure becomes even clearer. Fiction texts are found to the lower left of a plot of the first and second principal component scores, while the other genres are found in the upper right of the graph.

Given the structure evident in the principal components analysis, it seems sensible to split the texts by genre and consider each separately. In each case, within fiction, argumentative, and descriptive texts, again the education level is the only factor to be apparent.

Conclusions

It is apparent from the results described above that in this study, differences in genre override differences in education level and authorship. The absence of any authorial structure in the analyses shows that it is not the case that each author necessarily has her/his own stylometric fingerprint. Texts can differ in style while originating from the same author (Baayen et al., 1996; Tweedie and Baayen, 1998), and texts can have very similar stylometric properties while being from different authors. Of course, it is possible that larger numbers of texts from our participants might have made it possible to discern authorial structure more clearly. Similarly, it may also be that more fine-grained methods than we have used will prove sensitive enough to consistently cluster texts by author even for the small number of texts in our study. We offer, therefore, our texts to the research community as a methodological challenge. Given what we have seen thus far, we believe our results must alert practitioners of authorship attribution to take extreme care when choosing control texts and drawing conclusions from their analyses.

References

Baayen, R. H., van Halteren, H. and Tweedie, F. J. (1996). Outside the cave of Shadows. Using syntactic annotation to enhance authorship attribution. Literary and Linguistic Computing 11(3):121-131.
Burrows, J. F. (1992) Not Unless You Ask Nicely: The Interpretative Nexus between Analysis and Information. Literary and Linguistic Computing 7(2):91-109.
Holmes, D. I. (1998) The evolution of stylometry in humanities scholarship. Literary and Linguistic Computing 13(3):111-117.
Ledger, G. and Merriam, T. (1994) Shakespeare, Fletcher, and the Two Noble Kinsmen. Literary and Linguistic Computing 9(3):235-248.
Tweedie, F. J. and Baayen, R. H. (1998). How Variable May a Constant Be? Measures of Lexical Richness in Perspective. Computers and the Humanities 32(5):323-352.","txt","2","",""
"22","1","The Digital Performance Archive","2","While digital performance events and experiments proliferate and new performance genres are beginning to emerge, no central record or archive of these developments is currently being collated. The Digital Performance Archive (DPA) aims to fill that gap by archiving and critically analysing significant new interdisciplinary developments in performance which draw upon (or exist within) digital media in its varied forms. To this end, The Digital Performance Archive will undertake a comprehensive study and recording of the development of 'digital performance' in the last decade of the Twentieth Century.

The study will cover both digital resources used in performance and digital resources on performance created in the two year period 1999 to 2000 (with important precedents of the 90's also being catalogued). Digital resources in performance include theatrical productions and live-art installations that incorporate electronic media, to live-broadcast World Wide Web performances and Internet based collaborations, to interactive drama and the new performative 'virtual environments' of MUDS, MOOs and IRC. Digital resources on performance include those being used to document, analyse and critique performance: from performing arts databases, websites and mailing lists, to academic CD-ROMS and laser discs. The project aims to be of value to researchers across a wide range of academic disciplines, from drama and performance to art and design, from the social sciences to computer science and cybernetics.

The Digital Performance Archive will have several outcomes. Firstly it will collate an extensive searchable database on the World Wide Web, in order that the public will be able to gain access to work held by the DPA, in particular to the websites and digital files provided by practitioners. Secondly, as material for a DVD, the DPA will document exemplars of digital performance on video. This interactive DVD will also include other significant documents and examples of digitally related performance, all of which will be critically examined. Lastly, the DPA will produce an academic publication presenting a critical overview of the field. As already stated there is currently no other archive that is devoted specifically to this type of work. Perhaps the main reasons for this are that these types of works are so current, so diverse and developing at such an extraordinary rate that there is, as yet, no accepted methodology for dealing with them. Whilst one of the DPA's objectives is to create this web-searchable database archive of the works within the field, clearly it also has an important role to play in beginning to create a structure for the study of the works in its collection and of the field as a whole. It is these seemingly conflicting roles of provider of raw information on the web and of interpreter in such a fast moving 'discipline' that make the project so interesting and ambitious.

In no part of the project is this paradox more evident than in the Web based database of works. Here the archive benefits from a comparison with photographs and photographic archives. Sekula writes that,

The photographic archives' components are not conventional lexical units, but rather are subject to the circumstantial character of all that is photographable. Thus it is absurd to imagine a dictionary of photographs, unless one is willing to disregard the specificity of individual images in favor of some model of typicality ... Clearly one way of 'taming' photography is by means of this transformation of the circumstantial and idiosyncratic into the typical and emblematic. This is usually achieved by a stylistic or interpretive feat, or by a sampling of the archive's offerings for a 'representative' instance.
Clearly, as in the above description, the DPA, whilst dealing with files and information of similar types, will not be dealing with standard content within these types, especially in such a broad and shifting field. However, an interpretative ' taming' route will be taken with the material chosen by the DPA for the DVD and publication. This approach however is not viable for the searchable web database whose aim is to provide files to the researcher as the practitioner meant them to be seen. If this is not wholly possible visually, the files should at least be as free as possible from any interpretation that might be placed on them by the DPA.
Sekula continues:

Another way is to invent a machine, or rather a clerical apparatus, a filing system, which allows the operator/researcher/editor to retrieve the individual instance from the huge quantity of images contained within the archive. Here the photograph is not regarded as necessarily typical or emblematic of anything, but only as a particular image which had been isolated for purposes of inspection.

The creation of such a filing system is the ultimate aim of the DPA web database. However, Sekula creates a picture of an ideal situation in which a user finds exactly what they are looking for in the filing system. He does not consider that there are inherent biases in the creation of such a system. When attaching metadata to practitioners' files in order to allow database searches, the DPA must respect the descriptions attached to them by practitioners themselves, whilst also trying to create a system which is coherent and consistent (or typical and emblematic) across all the works. In addition, there needs to be some mediation between these two biases and the searches that the user brings to the database. It is a challenging aspect of the project.

This poster will provide delegates with the opportunity to see the breadth of works that the DPA must archive and define. It will be a chance to see how far the DPA has progressed with its acquisitions and with placing these acquisitions within its web 'filing system'. The poster will give delegates the opportunity to test this web searchable database and provide comment. The DPA will welcome the opportunity to discuss with delegates any similar problems and solutions they have encountered.

The archive is a joint project between Digital Research Unit of the Department of Visual and Performing Arts at The Nottingham Trent University, and the Media and Performance Research Unit, Department of Media and Performance at the University of Salford.

References

Sekula, A. (1996). 'The Body and the Archive'. In R. Bolton (ed). The Contest of Meaning: Critical Histories of Photography. The MIT Press, Cambridge MA.","txt","2","",""
"23","1","An Assistant Tool for Verse-making in Basque-based on Two-Level Morphology","2","Introduction

In this paper we present a specialised word generator, which aims to be an assistant tool for Basque troubadours. Such a tool allows verse-writers to generate all the words that match with a given word termination. We coped with some interesting aspects, i.e. the dimensions of the generated list and the need to establish an order of relevance among the listed items.

This work can be seen as a way of re-using computational linguistic tools in the context of the Basque cultural means of expression. The technical foundations of this tool lie in a two-level morphological processor. The way in which words must be generated (starting from the end of the word) leads us to inverse the generation process.

""Bertsolaritza"": What Is It?

""Bertsolaritza"" (the Basque term for verse-making) is an oral or written literary form with old tradition and great popularity in the Basque Country. Similar forms are manifested in other countries like Cuba.

While the written mode is similar to poetry, the oral mode has a peculiarity: troubadours sing verses without previously knowing the theme. In other words, a theme is given to the singers and in a few seconds they have to think of a set of verses adjusted to the theme. These verses must hold to the formal conditions (measurement and rhyme) of the discipline.

This verse-making task is quite difficult, so great expertise is required. Because of that, some schools are devoted to teaching how to improvise this type of verses. From our view, the tool we are presenting may be quite useful in the verse-schools. For some decades, an oral verse-making competition has been organised in the Basque Country every four years. The high diffusion of this event (thousand of Basques follow this competition with great interest, live or on TV) is a clear demonstration of the importance of this discipline. From this background was formed the idea of designing the tool here presented. We hope that such an application will be a useful assistance-tool in the task of finding rhymes, namely for those inexperienced troubadours.

Reversing Of The Morphological Description

To make this tool we have re-used a morphological analyzer/generator for Basque developed few years before (Alegria et al., 96) and integrated several tools such as spelling correctors and ICALL systems (Maritxalar et al., 97). The morphological description is based on the Koskenniemi's two-level morphology model (Koskenniemi, 83).

The two-level system is based on two main components:

A lexicon where the morphemes (lemmas and affixes) and the possible links among them (morphotactics) are defined. The lexicon is divided into different sublexicons and each lexicon entry specifies its morphotactical information by means of a continuation class which is a set of sublexicons. Combining sublexicons (nodes) and continuation classes (arcs) the graph of morphotactics is defined.
A set of rules which controls the mapping between the lexical level and the surface level (changes at surface level when morphemes are linked) due to the morphophonological transformations (morphophonemics).
In order to get our inverted morphological analyser/generator for Basque we needed to reverse this morphological description. The goal is to build an inverted morphological generator for Basque, which will control the order of the proposals according to their suitability for being a rhyme. The inverted morphological generator will obtain all the possible forms corresponding to a known ending, instead of generating the possible forms corresponding to the beginning. We took into account two choices to reverse the morphological description.
The first one consists of manipulating the automata that is created from the morphological description of the Basque. This option initially looked good because we did not need to manipulate the lexicon and the rules; we only manipulated the automata. But, analysing this option in depth, we realised that our inverted Deterministic Finite Automata (DFA) would actually become a Non-Deterministic Finite Automata (NDFA) in an intermediate state of the transformation process; and trying to re-convert the NDFA in a DFA would cause a combining explosion.
The second option consists of manipulating and reversing the lexicon and the rules directly, before using the compilers (Karttunen and Beesley, 92)(Karttunen, 93). This approach, therefore, involves the implementation of the programs that invert the lexicon, the morphotactics and the phonological rules automatically.
Considering the risks of the first choice, we decided to develop the second method. This process was divided into three steps:
Reversing the lexicon: This task deals with the inversion of all the morphemes. The order of the characters inside the morphemes is inverted. For instance 'big' would be converted to 'gib'.
Converting the continuation classes in ""backward classes"": The basis of the morphotactics in the two-level model is the continuation classes (Koskenniemi, 83). We have programmed a script to convert the continuation classes in ""backward classes"", so that we have a group of morphemes that can go before an inverted morpheme. This looks easy, but it has some problems. Lexicons containing final classes have to be defined as root lexicons, and consequently the backward class of the original root lexicons must be null.

 
 

For example: Let ADJECT be the continuation class in adjectives with two syllables or less. Suppose that this class has a unique lexicon containing the stems -er, and -est, and that the continuation class of these stems is null. Once the conversion has been made, -er and -est will be in the root lexicon and in their backward class will be included the adjectives with two syllables or less.

Reversing the rules: The rules are expressed as following:

 
 

<correspondence> <operator> <left context> _ <right context>

To reverse the rules only contexts have to be changed, interchanging between them and reversing each one. The contexts are regular expressions and it is necessary to distinguish between data (to be reversed) and regular operators and reserved characters.
For example, the rule y:i <=> _ +: s #:; will be converted to y:i <=> #: s +:_ ;
 
 

Application To ""Bertsolaritza"": Finding Words That Rhyme With An Ending

Once the inverted analyser/generator for Basque was developed, we tried to reuse it in an application that got the rhymes based on the final part of a word. We needed to invert the character sequence given by the user and then launch the generation with our inverted morphological generator tool. The output of the generation process - that is, all the words that match with the given ending - must be inverted before showing them to the user in a Tcl-Tk made screen. In this way our tool returns all the Basque words that have the same final sequence of characters as the sequence given by the user. So, the application finds all the words that rhyme with the word-ending given by the user.

In order to improve the usefulness of the application, we considered it necessary to face the problem of the huge quantity of generated words that match with the sequence given by the user. Two solutions were implemented:

1. Establishing a kind of categorisation or class-partition among the morphemes, so that only one example (representative of the class) is returned when all the elements of the class are suitable to be shown. For instance, if the input is 'est', instead of returning all the adjectives with the superlative form added (too long!)

big + est--> biggest
small + est --> smallest
thin + est --> thinnest
...

the application will return only one example and a short explanation:

BIG+ est --> biggest (ADJECTIVE + est)

2. Returning words sorted in the order that verse- makers appreciate more. The quality of the rhyme is better if the word is not composed or declined. In the example above it would be better to use rhymes like 'guest' than words declined like 'smallest'.
 
 

Conclusions And Future Improvements

Basque is a Pre-Indo-European language of unknown origin and quite different from the surrounding European languages. The declension of the Basque language has fourteen different forms for each singular, plural and undefined form. All of these forms are added at the end of the words. Besides, it is an agglutinative language which accepts morphemes being added to other morphemes. These characteristics show us the relevance of the final parts of the Basque words. That reason leads us to think that the inverted morphological analyser/generator would be useful for different applications. We have found an interesting use for such a generator in the world of the ""bertsolaritza"". Given that final parts of words (rhymes) are very important in verses, the inverted morphological analyser/generator can be an important assistant tool for writing verses. Furthermore, an automatic method for inverting the morphological description has been defined. Such a method can be reused in any other language, always starting from a two-level description.

We are considering as future works, (i) returning words with assonance rhyme; (ii) dealing with semantics in the selection module in order to improve the order of presentation, and (iii) publishing the application as a web page.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Xerox for letting us use their tools, and specially to Lauri Karttunen.

References

Alegria, I., Artola, X., Sarasola, K. and Urkia, M. (1996). Automatic Morphological Analysis of Basque. Literary and Linguistic Computing 11 (4): 193-203. Oxford University Press.
Karttunen, L. and Beesley, K.R. (1992). Two-Level Rule Compiler. Xerox ISTL-NLTT-1992-2.
Karttunen, L. (1993). Finite-State Lexicon Compiler. Xerox ISTL-NLTT-1993-04-02.
Karttunen, L. (1994). Constructing Lexical Transducers. Proc. of COLING«94. 406-411.
Koskenniemi, K. (1983). Two-level Morphology: A general Computational Model for Word-Form Recognition and Production. University of Helsinki, Dept of General Linguistics. Publications n* 11.
Maritxalar ,M., Diaz de Ilarraza, A. and Oronoz, M. (1997). From Psycholinguistic Modelling of Interlingua to a Computational Model. Proc. Of CONLL97 Workshop (ACL Conference). Madrid 1997.
Lekuona et al. (1980). Bertsolaritza. Jakin 14. eta 15. Donostia 1980.","txt","2","",""
"24","1","The Second Version of the ICAME CD-ROM","2","The demo will present the second edition of the ICAME CD-ROM. The CD contains 20 corpora, written, spoken and historical texts, with approximately 17 millions words. The CD-ROM comes with a full version of WordSmith and TACT and the retrieval component of WordCruncher (for DOS). Most of the material is indexed with WordCruncher. All the manuals are included in electronic form.

Reference: <http://www.hit.uib.no/icame/cd>","txt","2","",""
"25","1","Working with Alignment of Text and Sound in Spoken Corpora","2","The Bergen Corpus of London Teenage Language (COLT) has been transcribed and the cassette tapes have been digitized to Windows WAV-files (9 GB). The texts have been time aligned at the word level with the sound files by the company Softsound in the UK. The poster will describe how this material is made available through the Corpus WorkBench from IMS in Stuttgart. The user can search in the corpus by means of a Web-browser and from the resulting concordance play the corresponding sound to each occurrence (5-15 seconds). For this purpose a program was written to deliver small pieces of a sound file across the Web. These sound extracts can be saved by the user and further analyzed by signal processing programs.

Two Norwegian spoken corpora are also available for searching in this way. In the one corpus, a mark was put manually in the transcripts for every 10 seconds. A program then generated an interpolated time stamp for each word. In the other corpus, the program SyncWriter was used while transcribing the text. This program keeps track of time information for each unit which is transcribed. This information can be extracted from the data file together with the text. The time stamp for each word is interpolated between these values and the text and time information are indexed by the search software.

References:

COLT: <http://helmer.hit.uib.no/colt/>
Softsound Speech/Text alignment <http://www.softsound.com/SpeechText.html>
Corpus WorkBench <http://www.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/projekte/CorpusWorkbench/index.html>
SyncWriter <http://www.sign-lang.uni-hamburg.de/Software/syncWRITER/info.html>
Demo concordance <http://helmer.hit.uib.no/test-of-sound.html>","txt","2","",""
"26","1","Text Structure vs. Encoded Structure - Dealing with Mixed Genres and Ambiguous Texts","1","Introduction:

'Henrik Ibsen's Writings' aims at producing and publishing both an electronic version and a book version of all Ibsen's writings: dramas, poems, drafts, letters, articles, notes. All manuscripts and editions in Norwegian/Danish from the playwright's lifetime will be encoded using SGML/TEI. Our encoding is rather detailed, as we wish to reproduce every text witness in full accuracy.

In this paper we will examine some empirical problems which have surfaced when encoding text structure and textual features in Ibsen's plays. We will relate these to problems concerning how to encode the textual features in Ibsen's 'Norma' (1851). Based on genre one could define this text as a drama, but it could also be considered a covert article. An analytical perspective on the text would expose a good mixture of different genre elements. The text's physical representation, i.e. typography, shares the same ambiguity. These different approaches all form different 'logical' structures which overlap each other, and either approach forces us to consider an unfortunate priority in the encoding. To solve these problems we have looked into different solutions for encoding text structure and overlapping text features. Briefly we have asked the basic questions: What is text, what defines structure and other textual features, and how does this affect the encoding of texts?

These questions have been much discussed within the text encoding society in the past, but the approach in this paper is somewhat different from much of the earlier work. We will try to examine the questions from a more practical point of view, with focus on the encoding of 'Norma', and we hope that we thus will be able to add a new perspective to the discussion.

Ibsen's 'Norma':

The problems of overlapping and ambiguous textual features and structures are particularly manifest when one has to deal with texts with mixed features which cannot easily be combined. Ibsen's 'Norma', which was written and published in the newspaper 'Andhrimner' in 1851, is an example of such a text. Choosing which textual features to encode in 'Norma' is not easy, as it is problematic to define the text as a drama, but even more problematic to define it as something else. We have chosen to regard it as a drama, but several textual elements in 'Norma' are difficult to incorporate in the drama structure. Particularly problematic is e.g. a 'speech' from 'the curtain' (which has no reference in the cast list) typographically rendered not as speech, but as a stage direction. Other problems concern footnotes (both in the cast list and in the speeches), speeches in brackets that do not seem to be 'asides' (asides are marked by stage directions) etc. These problems, and others like them, will be presented and further discussed at the conference.

Encoding Text Structure:

The nature of a text has been much discussed, in several different contexts. One answer to what a text is, is that it is made of several interwoven features, or content objects, which together form 'a text'. The nature of a text is thus complex, and it seems difficult, or even impossible, to find a single structure that 'is' the text. Some would argue that texts even seem to be able to include things 'outside' themselves. Another view on the text, much discussed within the text encoding society, is the claim that 'text is an ordered hierarchy of content objects', the so called OHCO-thesis. This claim has been thoroughly examined by Renear et al. (1993), and further discussed e.g. in Biggs & Huitfeld (1997). We will leave this discussion aside here, and only point out that the OHCO-thesis (at least in its simplest form) may be appealing from a text encoding perspective, but that it is far from unproblematic.

When encoding texts one generally chooses either declarative markup languages based on SGML, or its subset XML. We are using SGML/TEI, but are considering moving over to XML. As Sperberg-McQueen & Huitfeldt (1998) have pointed out, SGML markup in its simplest forms uses a straightforward model for markup: elements nest within each other so that the SGML document forms a hierarchical structure. The basic model of SGML associates single occurrences of features with single SGML-elements. Tagging a textual element as a SGML-element of a particular type and giving it particular attribute values, thus claims that this element exhibits the textual features associated with that same element type and those attribute values. The relationship between SGML element types and text features depends, however, on the encoder's understanding and interpretation of the genre, structure and perspective of the text. The encoder defines text objects in elements matching the chosen hierarchical structure.

One of the large challenges for application of SGML to existing texts is finding suitable representations in SGML's tree-based data model for multiple hierarchies and textual features which overlap each other. Such overlapping textual features seem to be an inescapable fact of textual life, but present a problem in the simple SGML-model because while two textual features/hierarchies may overlap, two SGML-elements may not.

Encoding Overlapping Features:

The problem of overlapping features has been discussed before. In the TEI Guidelines there are several ways to overcome some of the problems: one may e.g. use 'milestone' elements, in which a feature is predicated by the span of text between one milestone element and the next. Other techniques rely on the fragmentation of one element into multiple SGML elements and then knitting the fragments into a whole; this is the method used for example in the part attribute of the <l>-element and in the <join>-element. There are also several possibilities permitting 'true' overlapping features. Within SGML/TEI the 'concur'-feature allows a document to be marked up concurrently using more than one DTD, with each tag labelled with the name of the DTD to which it belongs. Other none-SGML systems include MECS (Multi-Encoding-System), a system developed at the Wittgenstein Archives at the University of Bergen. MECS permits any two codes to overlap, but has on the other hand no specific document grammar, and therefore no SGML-alike document validation is possible.

We have chosen not to use such systems in our project, as they do not seem suitable for our purposes, partly because they make text encoding too complex. Furthermore, encoding 'true' overlapping structures with concur, MECS, or similar systems, does not really solve the problem of deciding how to structure the text: you have the possibility to encode overlapping features, but you still have to decide which feature(s) to encode, and even which not to encode.

The boundaries of the different features are not always clear and text features seem to exist both dependent and independent of each other. Our project uses the first printed editions as base texts for the edition. When encoding texts, we try to reproduce these texts as accurately as possible. When choosing to use standard TEI, we thus have to deal with the problem of encoding the textual features into hierarchical SGML-documents. This also means choosing which text features to encode and which not to encode, when that is necessary.

Encoding 'Norma':

In the case of 'Norma' we have ended up encoding the text as an ordinary drama. The additional features of the text that do not seem to be part of a 'normal' drama structure, but still can easily be encoded into the drama structure (e.g. footnotes and speeches in brackets), are also incorporated, even though this means 'violating' the logical structure of a drama. On the other hand additional features that depend on redefining the whole conceptualization of dramas (e.g. speeches in stage directions) so far are ignored in the encoding (but documented elsewhere, e.g. in the header of the document). 'Norma' is an ambiguous text, and while we want to incorporate as much as possible of this ambiguity in the encoded version of it, not all ambiguity can be kept, and however the encoding is done, the encoded text could possibly be ambiguous in new ways.

It may seem like a paradox that the encoding of features necessary to give possibilities for electronic processing and analysis of texts, at the same time includes interpretation that may restrict the use of the texts. There is no simple way out of this problem, but if the interpretation in the encoding is restricted at a reasonable level, the encoding can open up the text more than delimit it. Renear et al. (1993) state that 'It should be a commonplace that machine-readable texts are ""subjective"" and ""interpretive"", but not especially subjective or interpretative.', and that encoding a text in this aspect is much like making a traditional edition.
Bibliography:

Biggs, Michael and Huitfeldt, Claus (ed) (1997). ""Philosophy and Electronic Publishing. Theory and Metatheory in the Development of Text Encoding"" Monist 80:3. <http://hhobel.phl.univie.ac.at/mii/mii/mii.html>
Ibsen, Henrik (1851). ""Norma"", in ""Andhrimner"" 9 & 10. 1851.
Renear, Allen, Mylonas, Elli and Durand, David (1993). ""Refining our Notion of What Text Really Is: The Problem of Overlapping Hierarchies"". <http://www.stg.brown.edu/resources/stg/monographs/ohco.html>
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. and Huitfeldt, Claus (1998). ""Concurrent Document Hierarchies in MECS and SGML"", ALLC/ACH98, Debrecen. <http://www.oasis-open.org/cover/sperbergACH98.html>
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and Burnard, Lou (eds) (1994). ""Guidelines for Text Encoding and Interchange"" Text Encoding Initiative, Chicago and Oxford.","txt","2","",""
"27","1","Perdita's Progress: Raising Standards in a TEI-based Approach to Cataloguing Early Modern Manuscripts","1","The Perdita Project was established in 1997 at the Nottingham Trent University, by Elizabeth Clarke and Victoria Burke of the English & Media Studies department, with Martyn Bennett of the History department, funded initially by the Nottingham Trent University. A substantial AHRB grant in 1999 meant that we could appoint research fellow Jonathan Gibson and researchers Jill Seal and Gillian Wright. Claire Warwick from the Department of Information Studies at Sheffield is electronic publication consultant to the project, which runs until 2002.

We regard this paper as a collaborative exercise. In it we aim to introduce some of the dilemmas which we have faced during the project. We hope that our progress may be of interest to those at the conference, and that our discussions with the humanities computing community will also be of help to us in the continuation of the project.

The Perdita Project is producing a comprehensive guide to manuscript compilations of early modern women. We are carrying out research on over 450 manuscripts written or compiled by women, which include miscellanies, commonplace books, account books, medical and cookery receipt books, religious writing, and autobiographical material. Our descriptions of the manuscripts will be encoded in SGML to allow extensive searching capacity, and will be published on the Internet in 2002.

The interdisciplinary nature of the project is vital to our work, and is something that we will discuss throughout the paper. By describing previously unpublished materials by women of the 16th & 17th centuries, we aim to be a resource for scholars both literary and historical, enabling access to manuscript sources which are often very difficult to trace in comparison with published texts. We see ourselves as part of the movement to rewrite literary history, moving the emphasis from printed text and male and/or canonical works to a fuller picture of the writing of the period (Ezell, 1993). Electronic publication also allows us to address important issues to do with the dissemination of text in an electronic medium. This seems uniquely appropriate, since as Woodmansee (1994) argues, the transmission of scholarly electronic text shares some features with the coterie traditions of manuscript dissemination which we are studying in the early modern period.

In the paper we shall explore some of the challenges we face in attempting to combine the two traditions and when working with the different media of manuscript, print and electronic text. We will discuss why we have chosen to encode manuscript descriptions rather than the texts themselves, and how far we should interpret the manuscripts in the descriptions that we provide. To what level, and in what way should these descriptions be encoded, and how will this affect their usefulness? How far should we try to consider the present user community? Standards, whether in manuscript description or in electronic text encoding, are also vital to our work.

Projects which deal with the electronic publication of manuscripts tend either to provide users with digitised images of manuscript pages, and/or to transcribe and encode the text. However, we have chosen a different strategy, since we are not presently intending to transcribe entire manuscripts. Rather, we will present descriptions, which will take the form of an extended catalogue entry, including a list of contents, a physical description, and a biographical article on the compiler(s). We believe that there are valid scholarly reasons for doing so.

There is already a certain amount of literary text available in electronic form, much of which is lacking any kind of commentary or contextual material. Given the time and financial constraints of our project, we therefore preferred to concentrate on a more novel research area. Our methodology has been designed as a response to the shift in focus in manuscript studies from the search for authoritative texts to the historical circumstances of manuscript production and circulation (Beal, 1980-, Marotti, 1995, Woudhuysen, 1996, Hobbs, 1992, Love, 1993). Rather than simply producing large amounts of transcribed text with no accompanying commentary or contextual research, we prefer to make an important scholarly contribution to this research area.

We also consider that it is important that our resource should lead scholars to visit archives, and consult the manuscripts themselves, when possible. Since the provision of digital surrogates tends to increase the amount of usage of the original material (Lee 1998, Chapman, Kingsley & Dempsey, 1999), we feel that out efforts should be directed to descriptive scholarly research to aid researchers in their use of original documents.

We do, however, acknowledge the problematic nature of our task and of classifications such as authorship, function and gender in looking at manuscript compilations, and pledge ourselves to giving ""as much information as possible to facilitate useful readings of the manuscript compilations"". But what are ""useful"" readings, how much information should we give, and in what form? We therefore intend to conduct a study of our potential user community in collaboration with Sheffield University DIS to try to answer these, and other, questions.

However, we are aware of the potential problems of trying to ensure that the resource remains usable and accessible by a community of future users whose needs we cannot hope to predict. This means that we need to apply, and in some cases set, standards in various areas. Most obviously, we must apply the highest standards in manuscript cataloguing and description. There are also other areas which we are particularly well-equipped to explore, for instance, a standard vocabulary for describing handwriting. Most fascinating of all is the question of what a woman's hand might look like. Electronic delivery will provide us with an ideal opportunity to contribute to this discussion, by providing visual samples of women's hands.

We are also concerned with the standards necessary for electronic publication. We must be aware of how far the standards necessary for text encoding and useful searching impose interpretations on the manuscript, since already, in our editing and cataloguing process, we are working at several removes from the original text (see fig. 1).We are conscious that the decisions we make in encoding the descriptive material must not be so prescriptive that they hinder usage, but at the same time we aim to aid searching by appropriate markup. We therefore approach this project in the spirit of the text-encoding initiative. However, further complications are caused by the fact that what we are encoding is essentially metadata, not simply transcribed text.

We would like to explore the ideological, conceptual and practical differences between the TEI, metadata systems, and the use of controlled vocabulary. In the world of electronic resources there appears to be a culture clash between a post-structuralist, qualitative 'search for anything you like - create your own text' ideology and the controlled, quantitative approach to classifying objects taken by museums. This may represent the difference between dealing with text and dealing with objects, or the difference between English and History, where computing projects tend to deal with statistics. However, we at Perdita are faced with the problem of trying to balance the two approaches. We are aware that the TEI header is ideal for a project which wants to shape the data in the form of the original text, even if it does not encode it. Some historians are now beginning to recognise that 'data' is deeply embedded in text, which is why we believe that TEI is the best ideological option.

Yet, database pioneers such as The Getty Institute in LA are encouraging us to adopt database methodology and to use terminology and Thesauri, because of their more systematic nature. This view is supported by research by DIS at Sheffield, which suggests that when constructing and using metadata, many users find the lack of a controlled vocabulary inhibits the ease with which they can search electronic resources. (Whittaker 1999) At the British Women Writers' Conference at Albuquerque in September, everyone recognised the need for a standard set of keywords. Unfortunately no such resource yet exists.

We have therefore decided to view our work in the light of future users. We will describe our attempts to combine both standards and to provide some sense of the original text, using TEI markup, with a standardised search vocabulary for ease of searching.

References

Beal, P. (1980-). Index of English Literary Manuscripts (2 vols, 2 pts). Mansell, London.
Chapman, A., Kingsley, N. and Dempsey, L. (1999). Full Disclosure. Releasing the Value of Library and Archive Collections. UKOLN, Bath.
Ezell, M. (1993). Writing Women's Literary History. Johns Hopkins U. P., Baltimore
Hobbs, M. (1992). Early Seventeenth-Century Verse Miscellany Manuscripts. Scholar Press, Aldershot.
Lee, S. (1998). Scoping the Future of Oxford's Digital Collections. <http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/scoping>, last accessed 4/5/99.
Love, H. (1993). Scribal Publication in Seventeenth-Century England. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Marotti, A. (1995). Manuscript, Print, and the English Renaissance Lyric. Cornell U. P., Ithaca.
Whittaker, S. (1999). The construction of Dublin Core Metadata by non-specialist users. Unpublished MA dissertation, University of Sheffield.
Woodmansee, M (1994). ""On the Author Effect: Recovering Collectivity"". In Martha Woodmansee and Peter Jaszi (eds) The Construction of Authorship: Textual Appropriation in Law and Literature. Duke U. P., Durham, NC.
Woudhuysen, H. R. (1996). Sir Philip Sidney and the Circulation of Manuscripts 1558-1640. Clarendon Press, Oxford.","txt","2","",""
"28","1","Image Description at the William Blake Archive","1","The larger objective of this paper is to follow the lead of Matthew Kirschenbaum and the participants in his panel at last year's ALLC/ACH conference in Charlottesville, Virginia, in thinking about visual electronic resources as structured data. More specifically, I propose to turn the spotlight on a significant portion of the William Blake Archive's metadata: its SGML-encoded image descriptions. Introductory remarks will emphasize the image descriptions as a design feature intended to maximize use of and complement the Archive's other image resources, but the balance of the paper will consider more foundational issues: what exactly are image descriptions in formal terms? What is their relationship to their first-order objects? What kinds of problems do they present for the project team? What functions do they serve? My aim is to provide a broad overview of our practices and the challenges we face (both theoretical and practical) in describing images. The full version of this presentation will attend closely to the discursive features of the image descriptions and their principles of inclusion of pictorial data on the grounds that they serve as a barometer of the general reliability of the search and retrieval functions.

The image descriptions and their characteristic terms - which are best considered as a unit - are an integral part of the Archive's paradigm of image search and retrieval. General descriptions are available via a link to a separate window from all Object View pages in the Archive, and more specific descriptions are returned in the course of an image search. The descriptive commentary is also available to the user who invokes an Inote session from any of several windows and pages. (Inote, which has received much press in humanities computing circles since its public debut, is a java-based image annotation tool developed at IATH that superimposes a four-quadrant grid on an image. Clicking an area of interest opens a separate annotation viewer containing the editorial commentary targeted to the selected region.) The image descriptions are conceptually inextricable from the Archive's characteristic terms, a menu of which the user selects from when launching an image search. Though it is tempting to devote a portion of the paper to an evaluation of how the Archive's controlled vocabulary measures up when compared to other established classification and vocabulary browsers (such as IconClass, the Art and Architecture Thesaurus, and the Library of Congress Thesaurus for Graphic Materials), that subject is sufficiently complex to warrant separate treatment at some future date.

Strictly speaking, the Archive's search engine consults only the SGML-encoded characteristic terms when returning hits to a user. The exact function of the prose that appears between <illusobjdesc> tags is more difficult to define. My provisional account of the purpose of the descriptions is threefold: first, they illustrate that the visual-to-verbal transposition isn't a simple one-step operation: more complexly, images are first captured in prose and from the prose we extract smaller searchable units. Second, the descriptions provide a system of checks and balances that allow the user to cross-reference them with the characteristic terms, making the underlying logic of the hits returned in the course of a search session explicit. Third, they offer us a space where Willard McCarty's metadata rule of disambiguation can be violated: as I will explain in more detail in my talk, a fair amount of uncertainty and doubt is built into the descriptions as a response to iconographic ambiguities in the source material; this interpretive uncertainty is, if not effaced entirely, at least diluted at the characteristic level. These functions aside, it is my sense that the descriptions aren't being mined for information as effectively as they could be, though the beta version of WBA 2.0, scheduled for public release later this summer, should make it possible to harvest their data in new ways.

Because the Archive's image search and retrieval software, Dynaweb, must consult an SGML information base that is, of course, textual rather than pictorial in content, the descriptions and their corresponding characteristic terms serve as a verbal proxy for their visual objects. To put it otherwise, the annotations function as metatext (rather than, as in conventional print relationships, paratext) to the primary data, creating an unusual onus of responsibility for the editors and assistants to provide descriptions and terms that show as much fidelity as possible to the originals in order to guarantee optimum results for the user searching across the visual collection.

This process of faithfully, accurately, and thoroughly translating from one medium (the visual) to another (the verbal) is, as one would expect, beset by difficulties. But we are not without precedent or aid. In particular, the problems we encounter in the course of composing our image descriptions can be profitably understood by looking to the growing body of literature in Humanities Computing on encoding transcripts of source materials. My suggestion assumes that at heart the two endeavors (describing images and transcribing texts) are first and foremost acts of translation - the former from pictorial data to linguistic data, the latter from - to take the example of the Beowulf Project - chirographical marks in a codex manuscript to the descriptive codes of SGML - and as such are prey to all the difficulties inherent in the translation process.

At last year's ALLC/ACH conference, Paul Caton and Julia Flanders raised the issue of the measurability of data as an important consideration for project teams interested in encoding renditional information: they stressed the necessity of

""having a clear sense of what the units of information are, how to identify and distinguish them consistently, and how to record them accurately. It [the criterion of measurability] represents/requires an attempt to decide . . . what threshold of perceptibility will be maintained: . . . what will be considered either too small or too costly or difficult to record.""

At the Blake Archive, our efforts to extract iconographic content from the source material for the purposes of image description are routinely complicated by just the kinds of measurability and perceptibility difficulties outlined by Caton and Flanders. Should Blake's interlinear motifs be captured in as much detail as the large-scale designs? Should the hatched lines that appear meaningless in the 100 dpi image but representational in the 300 dpi be described (and thus made searchable)? Should we even avail ourselves at all of the 300 dpi images as resources to transform our unaided human eyes into Argus eyes, or is this approach contrary to the central tenets of diplomatic editing? What about the left arm of that central figure on plate 16 in copy D of The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, which was printed but colored on the impression so that it blends almost imperceptibly with the adjacent figure's gown? Is that wispy line extending from the ascender of the letter ""b"" a bird or a vine, or is it both? Indeed variations on the last question may reflect the most common kind of perceptual ambiguity the annotator of Blake encounters, attributable in part to Blake's almost profligate use of metaphors; his peculiar syncretic insight makes it dangerous to ever rule out the possibility that a design motif has multiple referents: flora and fauna are often indistinguishable, a human figure may be a composite of several characters, and a lock of hair easily morphs into a coiled serpent.

The final version of the paper will address our working solutions to the problems enumerated in the foregoing paragraph. I will conclude by briefly shifting the emphasis from the creation of image descriptions to their potential use, offering some parting thoughts and caveats on the kind of knowledge that the image descriptions might produce when used in conjunction with the Archive's other image tools and resources.

References

Caton, Paul and Flanders, Julia (1999). ""Encoding Rendition in Primary Source Texts Using TEI."" Unpublished essay, 1999. Presented at ACH-ALLC 99. University of Virginia, Charlottesville. 12 June 1999.
Eaves, Morris, Essick, Robert N., and Viscomi, Joseph (eds) The William Blake Archive <http://www.iath.virginia.edu/blake/>.
Inote. Software from the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities. <http://www.iath.virginia.edu/inote/>.
Kirschenbaum, Matthew, et al. (1999). ""Refining Our Notions of What (Digital) Images Really Are."" ACH-ALLC 99. University of Virginia, Charlottesville. 10 June 1999.
McCarty, Willard. ""Humanities Computing as Interdiscipline."" <http://www.iath.virginia.edu/hcs/mccarty.html>.","txt","2","",""
"29","1","Kirrkirr: Software for Browsing and Visual Exploration of a Structured Warlpiri Dictionary","1","This paper discusses the goals, architecture, and usability of Kirrkirr, a Java-based visualization tool for XML dictionaries, currently being used with a dictionary for Warlpiri, an Australian Aboriginal language.

While dictionaries on computers are now common, there has been surprisingly little work on innovative ways of utilising the capabilities of computers for visualization, hypertext linking and multimedia in order to provide a richer experience of dictionary content. Most electronic dictionaries present the search-dominated interface of classic information retrieval (IR) systems, which are only effective when the user has a clearly specified information need and a good understanding of the content being searched. The ability to browse often makes paper dictionaries easier and more pleasant to use than such electronic dictionaries. Search interfaces are ineffective for information needs such as exploring a concept. Some work in IR has emphasised the need for new methods of information access and visualization for browsing document collections (Pirolli et al. 1996), and we wish to extend such ideas into the domain of dictionaries, in part because indications are that current interfaces are unlikely to have much direct educational benefit for students (Kegl 1995).

Our goal has been to provide a fun dictionary tool that is effective for browsing and incidental language learning. In particular we attempt to address Sharpe's (1995) ""distinction between information gained and knowledge sought"". The speed of information retrieval that e-dictionaries deliver, and the focused decontextualized search results they provide, can frequently lead to loss of the memory retention benefits and chances for random learning that manually searching through paper dictionaries provides.

Within the Australian context, indigenous dictionary structure and usability are often dictated by professional linguists, while the needs of others (speakers, semi-speakers, young users, second language learners) are not met. Another major goal has been to design an interface usable by, and interesting to, young users and other language learners. From this viewpoint, the low level of literacy in the region, and the inherently captivating nature of computers suggests that an e-dictionary is potentially more useful than a paper edition. Among other benefits, we can provide an interface less dependent on good knowledge of spelling and alphabetical order.

Our dictionary interface initially targeted Warlpiri, a language of Central Australia, for which there has been an extensive on-going project for the compilation of semantically-rich lexical materials (Laughren and Nash 1983, Hale and Laughren [to appear]). We converted this data from a non-standard format into a richly-structured XML version (XML 1999). The current version uses ad hoc indexing of this textual version for efficient access, but we expect to move to XQL, as this standard matures. Our system is written in Java, using the Swing API, and runs on all major platforms (Windows, Mac, Unix).

For dictionaries with plain textual content behind them, there is little that they can provide in the way of output but an on-line reflection of a printed page. In contrast, XML allows definition of the precise semantics of the dictionary content, while leaving unspecified its form of presentation to the user. We exploit this flexibility in our application, by having the program mediate between the lexical data and the user. The interface can select from and choose how to present information, in ways customised to a user's preferences and abilities.

One dimension is that as well as the definitions of words, users frequently want to know their relationships to other words, and the patterning in these relationships. Kirrkirr provides a color-coded network display of semantic links between words, which can be explored, manipulated and customised interactively by the user (Jansz et al. 1999) using the animated graph-drawing techniques of (Eades et al. 1998, Huang et al. 1998). In their spring algorithm, a network of words become nodes which are held apart by gravitational repulsion, but kept from becoming too far apart by springs which have a natural length. This graph algorithm differs from most others by providing iterative updating of the graph layout, which means that users can drag nodes across the screen, and the algorithm will cause other nodes to flee out of the way, while words related to another word are dragged along. The detailed semantic markup of the dictionary, with many kinds of semantic links (such as synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, and other forms of relationships) allows us to provide a rich browsing experience. For example, the ability to display different link types graphically as different colors solves one of the recurring problems of the present web, with its one type of link: users have some idea of what type of relationship there is to another word before clicking. Thinking of the lexicon as a semantic network with various kinds of links was a leading idea of the WordNet project (Miller et al. 1993), but the simple text based computer interface they provide fails to do justice to the richness of the underlying data. Others have attempted to remedy this lack (e.g., Plumbdesign 1998), but we feel that our work is better aimed at providing the kind of simple network display suitable for our users.

To augment traditional semantic relations in the dictionary, we provide also linkages derived automatically from collocational analysis (of the limited amount of online Warlpiri text), and present an interface derived from semantic domains. These interfaces both address the notion of ""terminology sets"" - words that belong together, a notion which seems particularly salient for native speakers (Goddard and Thieberger 1997). We discuss the determination of collocational bonds, using the method of Dunning (1993), and the limitations of what we can do with the data available.

Formatted dictionary entries, displayed using HTML, are produced from the underlying XML by the use of XSL stylesheets (XSL 1999). These provide conventional hypertext for navigating between entries, in particular providing a color-coding of different kinds of semantic relationships between words which is consistent with that in the network display. A variety of XSL stylesheets are provided, which can give different formatting to the dictionary content appropriate to different users. For instance, items such as abbreviations for parts of speech, and other grammatical notes, and detailed decompositional definitions can be confusing for most Aboriginal users (Corris et al. 1999), and style sheets can provide just the desired information in large easy-to-read type.

In addition to the above, the dictionary incorporates multimedia - the user can hear words and see appropriate pictures - and a conventional search interface. The dictionary provides a user-friendly console where search results can be sorted and manipulated. As well as standard keyword search, which can optionally be restricted to appearance within a specified XML entity, the system provides two features targeted towards two principal groups of users. Linguists often want to search for particular sound patterns (such as certain types of consonant clusters), and so the system allows regular expression matching for such expert users. On the other hand, the limited literacy level of many potential users means that they will have particular problems looking up words. In part this is due to particular problems whereby the phonetic orthography of Warlpiri does not match very closely to the (rather arcane) spelling rules of English in which their literacy skills are usually based. To alleviate this problem, we have implemented a ""fuzzy spelling"" algorithm which attempts to find the intended word by using rules which capture common mistakes, sound confusions and alternative spellings.

We have performed some preliminary trialling of the dictionary through visits by Mim Corris to Yuendumu and Willowra, and Jane Simpson to Lajamanu. This has involved completing dictionary tasks, and observational use with primary and lower secondary students and trainee Warlpiri literacy workers, and comments from teachers and other adults. In general reactions have been quite enthusiastic, and the dictionary does appear to succeed in creating and maintaining interest. We have received suggestions on how to make it a better basis for classroom activities, which we hope to incorporate in future versions.

The diversity of areas researched in this work is rare relative to past work in electronic dictionaries, which often addresses the problems of storage, processing and visualisation/teaching as unrelated. Despite some significant research into the construction of lexical databases that go beyond the confined dimensions of their paper ancestors, there has been little attempt at seeing this work through to benefiting people such as language learners, who could truly gain from a better interface to dictionary information. Additionally, the range of potential users here is considerably more diverse than encountered in typical studies of dictionary usability (e.g., Atkins and Varantola 1997). For instance, issues such as low levels of literacy are rarely touched on. Our system has attempted to reduce the importance of knowing the written form of the word before the application can be used, while having ample opportunities to learn written forms. Features such as an animated, clearly laid out network of words and their relationships, multimedia and hypertext aim at making the system interesting and enjoyable to use. At the same time, features such as advanced search capabilities and note-taking make the system practical as a reference tool. Having designed the system to be highly customisable by the user, it is also highly extensible, allowing new modules to be incorporated with relative ease. We thus think that it is a good foundation for an electronic dictionary, and while the focus of this research has been on Warlpiri, this research (and the software constructed) can be easily applied to other languages.

References

Atkins, B.T.S., and Varantola, K. (1997). Monitoring dictionary use. International Journal of Lexicography 10(1):1-45.
Corris, M., Manning, C., Poetsch, S., and Simpson, J. (1999). Using dictionaries of Australian Aboriginal languages. Paper presented at the Applied Linguistics Association of Australia Annual Congress, Perth.
Dunning, T. (1993). Accurate methods for the statistics of surprise and coincidence. Computational Linguistics 19:61-74.
Eades, P., Huang, M., and Wang, J. (1998). Online Animated Graph Drawing using a Modified Spring Algorithm. Proceedings of the 21st Australian Computer Science Conference, pp. 17-28.
Goddard, C. and Thieberger, N. (1997). Lexicographic Research on Australian Languages 1968 - 1993. In M. J. Walsh and D. Tyron (eds) Boundary Rider: Essays in Honour of Geoffrey O'Grady, pp. 175-208. Pacific Linguistics, Canberra.
Hale, K. L. and Laughren M. (to appear). The Warlpiri Dictionary.
Huang, M. L., Eades, P., and Cohen, R. F. (1998). WebOFDAV: Navigating and visualizing the Web on-line with animated context swapping. Proceedings of the 7th International World Wide Web Conference, pp. 638-642.
Jansz, K., Manning, C. D., and Indurkhya, N. (1999). Kirrkirr: Interactive Visualisation And Multimedia From A Structured Warlpiri Dictionary. Proceedings of AusWeb99, the Fifth Australian World Wide Web Conference, pp. 302-316.
Kegl, J. (1995). Machine-Readable Dictionaries and Education. In D. Walker, A. Zampolli and N. Calzolari (eds) Automating the Lexicon: Research and Practice in a Multilingual Environment. Oxford University Press, Clarendon.
Laughren, M. and Nash, D. G. (1983). Warlpiri Dictionary Project: Aims, method, organisation and problems of definition. Papers in Australian Linguistics No. 15: Australian Aboriginal Lexicography, pp. 109-133. Pacific Linguistics, Canberra.
Miller, G., Beckwith, R., Fellbaum, C., Gross, R. and Miller, K. (1993). Introduction to WordNet: An On-line Lexical Database. In C. Felbaum (ed) (1998). WordNet: An electronic lexical database. MIT Press.
Pirolli, P., Schank, P., Hearst, M. A., and Diehl, C. (1996). Scatter/Gather Browsing Communicates the Topic Structure of a Very large Text Collection. Proceedings of the ACM SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '96).
Plumbdesign (1998). Visual Thesaurus Java applet <http://www.plumbdesign.com/thesaurus>
Sharpe, P. (1995). ""Electronic Dictionaries with Particular Reference to an Electronic Bilingual Dictionary for English-speaking Learners of Japanese"", International Journal of Lexicography, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 39-54.
XML (1998). Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.0 W3C Recommendation 10-February-1998. In T. Bray, J. Paoli, and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen (eds) <http://www.w3.org/TR/1998/REC-xml-19980210>.
XSL (1998). Extensible Stylesheet Language (XSL) Version 1.0 Working Draft. In J. Clark and S. Deach (eds) <http://www.w3.org/TR/WD-xsl>.","txt","2","",""
"30","1","New Paths in Middle High German Lexicography: Dictionaries Interlinked Electronically","1","I. Topic:

Since September 1997, a small team of lexicographers and computer scientists at the University of Trier (Germany) have been developing an integrated electronic dictionary of Middle High German applying TEI Guidelines. The resulting integrated digital dictionary is expected to be finished by August 2000 and be published on CD-ROM as well as on the Internet. It is not only meant to facilitate the simultaneous use of the dictionaries concerned, but also to offer advanced query options to provide essentially new insights for those involved in vocabulary studies, metalexicography, and the composition of a new MHG dictionary.
II. Digitization as a necessity:

The most important dictionaries of the MHG language were written in the last century and need to be replaced urgently by a new major work. This necessity arises not only from the enormous increase in the number of editions of MHG texts since the end of the 19th century, but also from changed insights into the structure of vocabulary and new ways of describing word usage. Consequently five years ago, two teams of lexicographers at the Universities of Trier and Goettingen started to lay the foundations for a new MHG Dictionary by creating an electronic archive of texts and quotations. It will probably take up to 25 years, however, for the whole dictionary to be finished, thus scholars of all disciplines having to deal with MHG sources will still have to use the older dictionaries for quite a while.

The dictionaries that already exist, i. e. the ""Mittelhochdeutsches Woerterbuch"" by Georg Friedrich Benecke/Wilhelm Mueller/Friedrich Zarncke (1854-1866), the ""Mittelhochdeutsches Handwoerterbuch"" with its supplement, the ""Nachtraege"", by Matthias Lexer (1872-1878), and the ""Findebuch zum mittelhochdeutschen Wortschatz"" by Kurt Gaertner et al. (1992), are very closely interconnected and can only be used simultaneously, which is due to the fact that they must be considered, briefly speaking, as a kind of series of supplements to supplements to supplements. Therefore they were ideal candidates for the composition of an integrated digital dictionary. One of the major aims of the digitization is to make the lexicographical information of the dictionary entries accessible via a database and thus to enable sophisticated searches over all four dictionaries independently of headwords. Applying TEI Guidelines to machine readable versions of the printed dictionaries seemed the easiest and fastest way of creating the digital ""compound dictionary"".

III. (Semi-)Automatically generated markup according to TEI Guidelines:

The MHG dictionaries consist of eight volumes with about 1,100 printed pages, containing more than 80,000 headwords. Therefore it is obvious that TEI compliant markup of the dictionary entries had to be generated automatically as far as possible. For the purposes of encoding we used TUSTEP, the Tuebingen System of Text Processing Programs with its variety of parameter-controlled functions for user-defined textdata-processing that facilitate structured entry-input.

Some parts of the TEI design scheme were especially relevant for the dictionary encoding. Some advantages and problems when applying TEI have to be discussed in detail, such as the hierarchical embedding of elements within the articles, the use of global attributes for the markup of a wide range of lexicographical information, and the recoverability of articles. It should also be mentioned that TEI Guidelines should be improved with regard to the encoding of dictionaries of older stages of a language, for the description of such languages poses some problems seldom encountered when describing modern languages.

It is apparent, however, that most problems which arose when using TEI did not stem from the application of TEI Guidelines as such, but were primarily due to the fact that the dictionary entries often appeared to lack clear structure and were rather discursive in style. This has often made automatic SGML encoding a difficult task. In many cases only manual markup led to TEI compliant documents. Nevertheless, the results achieved so far fully justify the decision in favour of TEI Guidelines.

IV. New ways of using dictionaries:

Through the electronic version, the MHG dictionaries can be used much more easily and comfortably: hyperlinks connect all the corresponding headwords, the search for cross-references only takes a mouse-click's time; pop-up menus contain the relevant information about all sources of citation; bookmarks and notes can be created easily. PostScript files of all dictionary pages are interlinked with the electronic articles so that the compound digital dictionary can be used and cited as a work of reference in exactly the same way as its printed precursors.

Far more important is the access to a database containing the relevant information for the entire contents of the four dictionaries within the composite whole. Access via that database not only offers full-text retrieval but also retrieval of selected information, e.g. of parts of speech, of word forms in MHG quotations, of definitions or of strings in the etymology sections of dictionary entries. Highly important for advanced and complex query options is the linking of a list of all dictionary sources with the electronic dictionary itself: all sources have been sophisticatedly classified according to geographical provenance, chronology and genre, categories that can be used to limit data base queries to a small, self-defined corpus of texts cited within the entries. Which words were directly borrowed from Italian, but not through Latin or French? Which words are only quoted from sources concerning legal issues? Which MHG words denote the same concepts? These are some of the questions that can now be answered without great expense of time. What is still more, the integrated electronic dictionary is especially important for the lexicographers involved in the creation of the new MHG dictionary where the older dictionaries are used as pointers to words for which references rarely exist.

V. Institutional frame:

Some years ago, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG = German Research Council) initiated a program for the so-called ""Retrospective Digitization of Library Materials"". The main goal of the program is to facilitate the access to library holdings that may be rare or highly important for scholarly interests by providing electronic versions of these holdings. From the beginning, the program encouraged the use of SGML for full-text encoding.

Since September 1997, the DFG has been funding the creation of an integrated digital dictionary of Middle High German to be published on CD-ROM as well as on the Internet. It is intended to serve as a prototype for the digitization of other historical dictionaries, including the digitization of the famous ""Deutsches Woerterbuch"" of Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm

References:

Burch, Thomas, Fournier, Johannes and Gaertner, Kurt (1998/2). Mittelhochdeutsche Woerterbuecher auf CD-ROM und im Internet. Der Einsatz von SGML in der Retrodigitalisierung lexikographischer Standardwerke. In Akademie-Journal. Mitteilungsblatt der Konferenz der deutschen Akademien der Wissenschaften, p. 17-24.
Fournier, Johannes: Digitale Dialektik. Chancen und Probleme mittelhochdeutscher Woerterbuecher in elektronischer Form. In Woerterbuecher in der Diskussion IV. Vortraege aus dem Heidelberger Lexikographischen Kolloquium. Hrsg. von Herbert Ernst Wiegand. Tuebingen 2000 (Lexikographica; Series Maior 100), p. 85-108.
Burch, Thomas and Fournier, Johannes (forthcoming). Zur Anwendung der TEI-Richtlinien auf die Retrodigitalisierung mittelhochdeutscher Woerterbuecher. In Probleme und Perspektiven computergestuetzter Lexikographie. Hrsg von Ingrid Lemberg, Bernhard Schroeder und Angelika Storrer. Tuebingen 2000 (Lexikographica; Series Maior).

Further information on the topic proposed is available at this location <http://gaer27.uni-trier.de/MWV-online/MWV-online.html>","txt","2","",""
"31","1","Stephen Crane and the 'New-York Tribune': a Case Study in Traditional and Non-traditional Authorship Attribution","1","Introduction

This paper presents seventeen previously unknown articles that we believe to be by Stephen Crane, published in the 'New-York Tribune' between 1889 and 1892. The articles, printed without byline in what was at the time New York City's most prestigious newspaper, report on activities in a string of summer resort towns on New Jersey's northern shore. Scholars had previously identified fourteen shore reports as Crane's; these newly discovered articles more than double that corpus. The seventeen articles, witty and often hilarious, confirm how remarkably early Stephen Crane set his distinctive writing style and artistic agenda; more than a century after their publication in the 'Tribune' they remain delightful reading. Stephen Crane began his career as a professional writer in the summer of 1888, when he was sixteen [1]. His assignment was to assist his brother J. Townley Crane, Jr., almost twenty years older than Stephen, who had established Crane's New Jersey Coast News Bureau in 1880 when he arranged to serve as correspondent for the Associated Press and the 'New-York Tribune'. For three-quarters of the year, Townley Crane's duties must have been light, as he ferreted out news in the sparsely populated shore towns of Monmouth County. However, during the summer months, the news bureau's duties exploded. New York City newspapers of the1880's devoted remarkable amounts of space to chronicling the summer vacations of the city's upper and upper-middle classes. Every Sunday edition of most New York newspapers and, during July and August, most daily editions as well, carried news articles from the summer resorts popular with the more affluent citizens of Gilded Age New York. The format of these articles was standardized: a lead proclaimed the resort's unique beauties and the unprecedented success of the current summer season, a few brief paragraphs recounted recent events, such as a fund-raising carnival or the opening of a new hotel, and the article concluded with a lengthy list of names of recent arrivals and where they were staying. Working within the boundaries of this restrictive format, Stephen Crane developed a highly original, distinctive style. His shore reports are as ruthlessly ironic as 'Maggie', the novel he was writing during the same period, but, instead of directing his irony towards the inhabitants of the Bowery, he aimed it at the hotel proprietors and summer visitors of the New Jersey shore.

Discovery And 'Traditional' Attribution

During the 1940's and 1950's, scholars familiar with Crane's style and interests were able to identify several other unsigned articles in the 'Tribune' as his. By coincidence, all of these articles originated in three adjoining towns on the Jersey shore: Asbury Park, Ocean Grove and Avon-by-the-Sea. When Fredson Bowers began editing his massive volume of Crane's works [2], he evidently decided to limit his search for additional unsigned 'Tribune' articles by Crane to reports with datelines from those three resorts. Combing the 'Tribune' during the summer months from 1888 to 1892, Bowers identified as Crane's three articles overlooked by previous scholars, bringing the total of New Jersey shore reports to fourteen. No one questioned Bowers' decision to focus on the three adjoining shore communities. However, during research on a book concerning Stephen Crane's journalism, we came across an item in the Schoberlin collection at the Syracuse University Library that threw into doubt Bowers' procedure. A one-page prospectus for Crane's New Jersey Coast News Bureau was found which provided evidence of an attempt by Townley Crane to expand his business. In particular, the body of the prospectus lists shore towns ranging from Atlantic Highlands in the north to Seaside Park in the south. With this evidence of the Crane news bureau's wide geographical range, we began to question why all of the shore articles attributed to Stephen originated from Asbury Park and the two towns just south of it. Would it not make sense for Townley to send his teenaged brother to cover news in the resorts a few miles distant from their home base of Asbury Park and save himself the trouble? We searched the 'New-York Tribune' for the summers of 1888 to 1892, when Stephen was fired, looking for articles with a dateline from the wider base of New Jersey shore towns named in Townley Crane's prospectus. The Crane brothers' writing styles are widely divergent. Reading Townley's articles (written before Stephen began his journalistic career), it is evident that his style is that of brief, invariably flattering prose, while Stephen delighted in gleeful irony. This search revealed seventeen articles datelined from the shore towns of Long Branch, Belmar, Spring Lake and Sea Girt that appear to have the style of Stephen Crane. Hotel proprietors, baggage handlers and ""summer maidens"" are all written about with disdain. The articles are so stylistically distinctive in their irony and verbal inventiveness that they clearly look to be from Stephen's hand rather than from Townley's.

'Non-Traditional' Attribution: Stylometry

Stylometry provides an alternative and objective analysis. The stylometric task facing us was to examine the seventeen articles and attribute them to either Stephen or Townley Crane. Suitable control samples in more than one genre are required, so, within the genre of fiction, several textual samples of about 3,000 words were obtained from 'The Red Badge of Courage' and Joseph Conrad's 'The Nigger of the Narcissus', the latter being chosen because we know that Crane and Conrad read and admired each other's novels. For journalistic controls, we turned to Richard Harding Davis and Jacob Riis, who were, along with Crane, the most prominent American journalists of the 1890's. Examples of Stephen Crane's New Jersey shore reports, New York City journalism, and war correspondence were taken from the University of Virginia edition of Crane's work; samples of Townley Crane's journalism were taken from the 'New-York Tribune'. The seventeen anonymous articles were first merged, the resultant text then being split into two halves of approximately 1800 words each. The ""Burrows"" technique [3], which works with large sets of frequently occurring function words, is a proven and powerful tool in authorship attribution. Essentially it picks the N most common words in the corpus under investigation and computes the occurrence rate of these N words in each text or text-unit. Multivariate statistical techniques are then applied to the resultant data to look for patterns. The first phase in the investigation was designed to establish the validity of the Burrows technique on the known textual samples detailed above. Using principal components analysis, the Crane and Conrad fiction samples are clearly distinguishable from each other. Turning to the three genres within Crane's journalism, the principal components analysis on the occurrence rates of non-contextual function words shows, quite remarkably, how their rates of usage differ between his New York City, shore and war journalism, yet remain internally consistent within these genres. A final analysis incorporating the samples of journalistic writing from Townley Crane, Richard Harding Davis and Jacob Riis provides further validation of the Burrows method with a clear distinction visible between the shore journalism of Townley Crane and Stephen Crane. Discarding the control samples, which have served their purpose, we then focus on the main task, namely the attribution of the seventeen anonymous articles to either Stephen or Townley. Both cluster analysis and principal components analysis provide mutually supportive results in attributing the anonymous articles to the youthful ironist Stephen Crane. The ""non-traditional"" analysis has supplied objective, stylometric evidence which supports the ""traditional"" scholarship on the problem of authorship. We believe that this joint interdisciplinary approach should be the way in which attributional research is conducted.

References

1. Wertheim, S. and Sorrentino, P., eds. (1988). The Correspondence of Stephen Crane. 2 Vols. Columbia UP, New York.
2. Bowers, F. ed. (1973). Tales, Sketches and Reports. Vol. 8 of The University of Virginia Edition of the Works of Stephen Crane. UP of Virginia, Charlottesville.
3. Burrows, J. L. (1992). ""Not Unless You Ask Nicely: The Interpretive Nexus Between Analysis and Information"". Literary and Linguistic Computing, 7, pp. 91-109.","txt","2","",""
"32","1","Making MITH a Reality: The Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities, Year Two","3","Making MITH a Reality: 
The Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities, Year Two http://www.mith.umd.edu 
key words for session: digital libraries, feminism and writing technologies, film editing, intercultural learning center 
Participants: Dr. Martha Nell Smith, MITH Director; Dr. Charles Lowry, Dean of Libraries, University of Maryland; Dr. Jo Paoletti, MITH Fellow; Jason Rhody, MITH Programs Coordinator & MITH Networked Associate; Lisa Antonille, MITH Networked Associate; Dr. Neil Fraistat, MITH Internal Advisory Board Chair & General Editor, Romantic Circles. 

In December 1998, the University of Maryland (UM)'s College of Arts and Humanities, Libraries, and Office of Information Technology were awarded a $410,000 grant from the United States' National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) to develop MITH (the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities) in order to foster faculty development and coordination of advanced technological resources and humanities applications of technology beyond early adopters into the university mainstream and out to the wider educational community and the community at large. 

This roundtable will begin with a brief introduction by MITH's Director, Martha Nell Smith, followed by presentations by five of MITH's key participants.  
- ""READY, FIRE, AIM: Responding to the Paradigm Shift, the University of Maryland Libraries and MITH,"" Charles Lowry (Dean of the Libraries);  
- ""Intercultural Learning Center on MITH's Virtual Plaza,"" Jo Paoletti (MITH Fellow Spring 2000, Associate Professor of American Studies, UM);  
- ""Reconstellating Relationships: Practical & Effective Teamwork,"" Jason Rhody (MITH Programs Coordinator); 
- ""Symbiosis, Virtually and Face-to-Face: MNAP,"" Lisa Antonille, (MITH Networked Associate Fellow);  
- Neil Fraistat (General Editor of Romantic Circles [ http://www.rc.umd.edu ] and Chair of MITH's Internal Advisory Board).  
These members of the MITH team will discuss how their individual and institutional collaborations have worked during MITH's first year of operations, what unforeseen challenges they faced, and what unanticipated opportunities presented themselves so that MITH became operational four months ahead of time, and now offers support for faculty fellows at UM and networked associates within and without UM; faculty/student colloquia; a graduate student web-authoring collective; undergraduate Honors Humanities; and graduate English and Comparative literature courses.

UM, a designated national supercomputing and Internet2 center, is one of the best networked and computer-supported universities in the world. UM boasts more wired classrooms than most other institutions of higher learning. These include multi-platform teaching theaters and classrooms, foreign language teaching facilities, and a variety of technology-enhanced departmental classrooms and laboratories. Computing resources for scholarship and research in the humanities are comparably strong. The establishment of MITH gives critical mass to the UM's substantial and significant pioneering efforts. MITH creates an essential unifying physical presence as well as, through its web-based projects and programs, a virtual campus for this dispersed College, thereby creating an intellectual identity based on shared discourse and interests. Additionally, as a central (literal and virtual) coordinating facility dedicated to producing projects in the College's various departments and to providing access to materials, MITH provides an umbrella organization for the conception, production, maintenance, and enhancement of electronic resources indispensable for realizing UM's twenty-first century teaching, research, and outreach missions. As a laboratory for the humanities, MITH offers a center for sharing information, tools (hardware and software), and opportunities for synergistic development, creating a dynamic field for diffusion of innovation in humanities technology available to the world-wide community as ideas and projects of individual scholars influence one another in the production of new knowledge. The goals, then, of MITH are threefold:

to generate and foster the development of innovative projects that respond to the traditional interests of the humanities while nurturing emerging modes of scholarship and learning; 
 to guarantee aggressive outreach of these new technological approaches not only to the faculty members and students of UM, but also to the state educational community in grades K-12 and community groups committed to educational reform; 
and, in support of goals one and two, to provide advanced technological resources for the creation, deployment, and dissemination of technology-based scholarship and instruction.

To begin the roundtable presentation, Dean Lowry will discuss the pragmatic institutional responses that the University of Maryland Libraries faculty are making with colleagues in the College of Arts & Humanities to the many challenges in the higher education environment, including teaching, information technology, and transformation of scholarly communication. Lowry's presentation highlights human, technological, and physical resources assembled in the effort and in initial project activities. Lowry's probative examples focus on the ""price revolution"" in the cost of scholarly information; diversification in scholarly information (such as GIS, online government information, e-journals, and the ""electronic ephemera"" of our time, internet resources); digitizing the Libraries own collections; the ""informating process"" and the transformational effects inside libraries (to organization and to staff). Via Digital Libraries Operations (DLO), the Electronic Text & Imaging Center (ETIC), and the support of an Instructional Development Coordinator, UM's Libraries are collaborating with MITH to present a range of projects video- and audio-streaming of the English department's Writers Here & Now Program, a decades-old series presenting major (Pulitzer and Nobel prize-winning) writers from around the U.S. and the world, as well as to produce digital archives of Beckett Directs Beckett, a UM Visual Press series featuring Beckett directing his own Waiting for Godot, Krapps's last tape, and Endgame, as well as presenting an extended televisual interview with the Nobel laureate. Another digital presentation involving film will be a critical treatment of Lovelace & Babbage, iconic figures in the early history of computing. Part of the award-winning Women & Power Series (Flare Productions), Lovelace & Babbage (under production in 2000) will be key to theoretical interrogations of a graduate seminar offered by one of the film's producers in MITH's computer studio in Spring 2000 as well as of UM's digital libraries project. MITH's collaborations with Flare contribute both to the making of the film and enhancing UM's digital libraries' project, and Lowry outlines future plans of UM's Digital Libraries projects and ways in which collaborations with MITH will augment both the faculty fellows and outreach (to K-12 teachers) programs in ways not anticipated in the original MITH proposal. 

MITH Fellow Jo Paoletti focuses on her development of an Intercultural Learning Center (ICLC), which provides a crossroads where college and 7-12 students from diverse backgrounds interact through discussion groups, shared projects, and carefully designed exercises. Enabling teachers and students to discuss controversial issues of race, ethnicity, and identity in a ""safe"" space, learn about each other through shared papers and essays, and collaborate on meaningful community-oriented projects, the ICLC that Paoletti has been building during her semester at MITH elaborates and extends her leadership of and participation in UM's Web Initiative in Teaching (WIT), which developed four distinct but related distance-learning courses American Studies Department's Diversity in American Culture; the English Department's Cross-cultural Communication course; and two courses in English for speakers of other languages offered by the Maryland English Institute. The ICLC pilot spaces are situated in two different platforms, WebCT (a course management tool) and Active Worlds (a 3-D web browser with built-in communication features). The development of a web-based ICLC includes many of the features available in WebCT (i.e., chat, threaded conferences, space for individual and collaborative projects, readings, and other resources), plus others which are not available because of WebCT's design limitations, such as a queuing mechanism for partnering students as keypals or speaking partners. Having designed and tested a beyond-WebCT ICLC during her semester at MITH, Paoletti will critique the means and contents of knowledge production generated by college students serving as editors and mentors in their reading and responding to materials written by high school students; by high school students and college students sharing family histories and using bulletin boards to discuss the process of Americanization (the high school involved in this research project has a large immigrant population); and by groups of students listening to or reading interviews with former slaves, discussing them online, and publishing an online collection of their own poems and other writings in critical response to these personal histories. 

MITH Programs Coordinator Jason Rhody describes the constantly reconstellating relationships involved in MITH's Fellows, colloquia, seminar, and distinguished speaker programs. Among the many functions MITH has served at UM is as a forum for teachers and researchers of diverse disciplines to come together in a collaborative setting to brainstorm, present, assess, share, and reconfigure work plans for the most effective knowledge transfers taking advantage of innovations in technology. As MITH Distinguished Speaker this past spring, Irvin Kershner, Director of The Empire Strikes Back, remarked ""when one of my movies goes exactly according to my plan, turns out exactly as I envisioned it, then I know that something has gone terribly, terribly wrong,"" thus making explicit the dynamism and change necessary for successful (practical) implementation of virtual dreams. Illustrating what we have learned and what we know we must unlearn, Rhody draws on our first year's case studies Katie King's Feminism and Writing Technologies project, which analytically plumbs and extends pedagogical imaging and imagination by involving graduate and undergraduate students in research that places ""new"" technologies within a broad synthetic historical and cultural framework (specifically by building a virtual 17th-century women's print shop, one designed so that students working in the print shop can make their own broadsides, which, electronically translated into 17th-century styles of handwriting, instruct students in the paleography of manuscript study); the Dickinson Electronic Archives projects, in which four UM computer science undergraduates have embarked on a scholarly production of a 3-D Dickinson Homestead online, replicating her house to build a virtual study center, open to anyone with a web browser; John Fuegi's video biography of Ada Lovelace, the daughter of Lord Byron who invented the first computer, and MITH's critical edition of that; Mitch Lifton's Beckett Directs Beckett Digital Narrative project which brings research into the undergraduate classroom and MITH's collated outtakes to produce a critical edition of the video project itself by involving students in the production of digital resources and collaterally hones their critical assessment skills as they learn to evaluate both content and software; Classics 170, a web-based introductory humanities course housed at MITH; and our work on XML mark-up of selected documents from UM's Prange Collection of Japanese publications during the US occupation following World War II. 

MITH Networked Associate Fellow Lisa Antonille analytically reports on MNAP, the MITH Networked Associate Fellowship Program, and how it makes a wide variety of resources available to graduate students, adjunct faculty, independent researchers, and researchers at other institutions. Currently, there are four Networked Associate projects, including two online journals (Schulkyll and ethos: Hypertexts in the Humanities; http://www.mith.umd.edu/ethos ), a Resource Center for Cyberculture Studies (RCCS; http://otal.umd.edu/~rccs ); an Intercultural Learning Center (ICLC) with ties to the University of North London; and a web activism site mounted by the musical group Sweet Honey in the Rock. Nearly five more projects are beginning the application process. This unique program facilitates the growth of innovative projects that may otherwise suffer from lack of access to necessary hardware, software, technical support, and like-minded individuals and projects. Furthermore, MITH provides a physical space and a community of scholars committed to visionary and practical applications of technology to advance research and teaching in the humanities in which Networked Associate Fellows become active participants and via which they can bring their projects to fruition. For more developed associates, MITH also encourages a wider dissemination of projects and assists in the iterative process of project development and improvement. Conversely, MITH benefits from MNAP in the reciprocal, symbiotic exchange among fellows, associates, and staff. 

Neil Fraistat, Chair of MITH's Internal Advisory Board and General Editor of Romantic Circles, will discuss ways in which his experimental peer-reviewed and peer-built scholarly website focused on the literature and culture of the British Romantic Period collaborates with MITH. Besides featuring a virtual Dickinson Homestead, a virtual Intercultural Learning Center, a virtual early twentieth-century artistic salon hosted by composer Arthur Schelling, a virtual Empire Strikes Back set, and a virtual platform for website activism, the MITH Plaza will feature a portal to Romantic Circle High School. Through reviewing various intersections between RC and MITH, Fraistat shows that there are enormous opportunities for each and both together to become important agents for change in the way the Humanities in the university, across grades K-16, and across the community at large reconceives its most fundamental goals, as well as its scholarly and instructional practices. 

Smith concludes with brief remarks reflecting a bit on the extensive collaborations necessary to make MITH succeed, on unforeseen problems and possibilities, and by asking the audience for analytical feedback to improve MITH's future. MITH is especially interested in fostering and developing cross-institutional collaborations (and has already initiated connections with IATH at the University of Virginia and the Women's Writers Project at Brown University), and this session is designed to provide opportunity for analytical dialogue. Critical dialogue with the audience and with one another is a crucial component of our evaluation process so that we might share and analyze key failures and frustrations as well as key successes and thereby propose questions about institutional collaborations and their necessity for producing digital resources in the humanities, being realized particularly at UM in MITH.","txt","2","",""
"33","1","EDINA: Edinburgh Data and Information Access","2","EDINA, based at Edinburgh University Data Library, is a JISC-funded national datacentre. It offers the UK tertiary education and research community networked access to a library of data, information and research resources. As a JISC (Joint Information Systems Committee) national datacentre, EDINA is part of the Distributed National Electronic Resource (DNER) and works closely with the Arts and Humanities Data Service (AHDS), among others, in bringing together different JISC-funded services.

Since its launch as a national datacentre in 1996, EDINA has expanded steadily and now offers bibliographic and geographic services in all subject areas.

In the area of Arts and Humanities, EDINA offers H W Wilson's Art Abstracts and Art Index Retrospective and, newly launched, Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts, from Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, and the MLA International Bibliography, produced by the Modern Language Association of America. Also new is EconLit, which indexes and abstracts more than 550 international economic journals, and PAIS International, produced by the Public Affairs Information Services, Inc. In addition to these web-based services, EDINA will soon launch a web version of Palmer's Index to The Times.

EDINA's geo-spatial data services, relevant across all subject areas, include Digimap, which gives access to online Ordnance Survey map data, and UKBORDERS, providing digitised boundary datasets of census and administrative areas.

General reference databases are Ulrich's International Periodicals Directory, and SALSER, a freely accessible virtual union catalogue of Scottish academic libraries serials holdings.

All EDINA services are available free of charge to members of UK tertiary education institutions for academic use, although institutional subscription and end-user registration is required for most services.

More information on EDINA and all its services is available at http://edina.ac.uk","txt","2","",""
"34","1","A Prolog System for the Automatic Generation of Bilingual Dictionaries","2","Introduction

There are a number of systems available which are capable of producing concordances from parallel corpora (see Berber Sardinha 1996; Bonhomme & Romary 1997; St. John & Chattle 1998). Text alignment is usually carried out at either the rank of sentence or the rank of paragraph. As a result, concordances do not specifically identify translation equivalents of the particular lexemes under investigation. Only entire sentences which provide the context for the translation equivalents are given. Lemmatisation is usually achieved by entering all the variant forms for the lexeme under investigation. However this method achieves only partial lemmatisation as it is also necessary to disambiguate homographs. Use of wildcards to implement a fuzzy search for a particular lexeme frequently finds words which are not part of the paradigm under investigation. Post-editing of lemmatised concordances is, thus, usually necessary in order to remove unwanted items that are not part of the paradigm under investigation.

Existing tools for working with parallel corpora therefore seem to lack two things: firstly the means to uniquely identify lexemes, and secondly the means to identify those items which share translation equivalence in a bitext. These problems are interrelated since it is between lexemes (rather than graphical words) of a language pair that equivalence tends to exist. In order to solve these problems, firstly the system must be able to find and retrieve any given segment of text; secondly the bitext must be fully lemmatised; and thirdly the bitext must be aligned at the rank of lexical item.

Critical Tokenisation

A token is a segment that corresponds to a particular linguistic unit on the scale of rank. For the purposes of lexicography, we are usually concerned with tokens at the ranks of morpheme, word and multiword lexeme. Such tokens correspond to lexical items, and I shall call these lexical tokens. So the set of all tokens in a text is a subset of the set of all possible segments in that text.

Mills (1998) describes how critical tokenisation may serve as a basis for the construction of text databases in Prolog. It is necessary to represent a text in such a way that both individual tokens and individual types can be identified. Segments and points form a basis for tokenisation. A critical point in a text is that which delimits two adjacent segments. Conversely a critical segment is that which is delimited by two points in the text. Segments are, thus, located in time and space. Segments can be observed, pointed to and given unique names. Segments and strings are not the same. Segments are instances of strings. Two segments may be instances of the same string. Segments may, thus, correspond to tokens, whereas strings correspond to types. Tokenisation is achieved by numbering the critical points that delimit tokens in the text. The text is converted to a Prolog text database in which each token is represented by a three place predicate. The first and second arguments are the critical points which delimit the token. The third argument is the word type of which the token is an instance.

type((35, 36), 'I' ).

type((36, 37), am ).

type((37, 38), a ).

type((38, 39), poor ).

type((39, 40), fisherman ).

Various types of search may be conducted on the text database. For example, if one wants to know what word type is found between critical points 36 and 37, one sets the goal,

?- type((36,37),T).

The system returns

T = am

Conversely, if one wants to know in what text positions the word type 'am' is found, one sets the goal,

?- type((X,Y),am).

The system returns,

X = 36

Y = 37

If one wants the phrase found between critical points 35 and 40, one sets the goal,

?- get_segment((35,40),Segment).

The system returns,

Segment = [I, am, a, poor, fisherman] .

This system thus provides the requirement of being able to find and retrieve any given segment of

text.

Lemmatisation

Lexical items are selected from the corpus on which the dictionary is based whilst simultaneously the dictionary provides information concerning the lemmatisation of the corpus. The processes of dictionary lemmatisation and corpus lemmatisation are, therefore, interdependant. An ideal system for corpus lexicography is one in which the corpus database and the dictionary are interactive. Mills (1999) shows how a logical approach to the lemmatisation of computational lexica may be implemented in Prolog. The counterpart of a Prolog dictionary is the lemmatised Prolog text database.

For the purposes of corpus lemmatisation, the lemma should ideally uniquely identify the lexical item. Part of speech tagging goes some way towards this. Tagging with the baseform further disambiguates the item. Clauses are added to the Prolog text database to represent lemmatisation. VOLTA (Mills 1995) is a program that lemmatises a corpus by relating word tokens as they are encountered in the corpus to a lexicon that has capacity to expand as new items are are added. The phrase, ""I am a poor fisherman"", is lemmatised thus:

lemma( (35, 36), ('I', pron) ).

lemma( (36, 37), (be, v) ).

lemma( (37, 38), (a, art) ).

lemma( (38, 39), (poor, adj) ).

lemma( (39, 40), (fisherman, n) ).

The tokenisation and lemmatisation of the Cornish translation of this English phrase is as follows.

type( (29, 30), thearra ).

type( (30, 31), vee ).

type( (31, 32), dean ).

type( (32, 33), bodjack ).

type( (33, 34), an ).

type( (34, 35), puscas ).

lemma( (29, 30), (bones, v) ).

lemma( (30, 31), (vy,

pron) ).

lemma( (31, 32), (den, n) ).

lemma( (32, 33), (boghosek, adj) ).

lemma( (33, 34), (an, art) ).

lemma( (34, 35), (pysk, n) ).

lemma( (31, 35), ('den an puskes', n) ).

Within the bitext, the English word FISHERMAN is translated by the Cornish multiword lexeme DEN AN PUSKES (literally DEN = a man, AN = of the, PUSKES = fishes). The system is very flexible. Not only can the multi-word lexeme, DEN AN PUSKES, be lemmatised as a single lexical item but its component lexemes DEN, AN and PYSK may be simultaneously individually lemmatised. The appearance of the lexeme, PYSK, in its plural form, puskes, within the multiword lexeme, DEN AN PUSKES, does not present a problem to the system. Nor does it present a problem that, due to interruption by the lexeme, BOGHOSEK, the multiword lexeme, DEN AN PUSKES, is, in this instance, discontinuous.

The lemma database thus records that the segment between critical points 31 and 35 contains five lexemes: DEN between points 31 and 32, BOGHOSEK between points 32 and 33, AN between points 33 and 34, PYSK between points 34 and 35, and the multiword lexeme DEN AN PUSKES between points 31 and 35.

Alignment

Equivalence exists between the lexical units of a bitext rather than its word types. For this reason alignment takes place between lexical tokens rather than graphic word tokens. Equivalents may be entered into the system as 2 place predicates in which the first argument specifies the critical points that bound the Cornish lexical unit, whilst the second argument specifies the critical points that bound the lexical unit which

is its English translation.

equivalent( (29,30), (36,37) ).

equivalent( (30,31), (35,36) ).

equivalent( (31,35), (39,40) ).

Thus the Cornish lexeme, BONES, found at token (29, 30), is translated by the English lexeme, BE, found at token (36, 37). Similarly the Cornish lexeme, VY, found at token (30, 31), is translated by the English lexeme, I, found at token (35, 36). And the Cornish multiword lexeme, DEN AN PUSKES, found at token (31, 35), is translated by the English single lexeme, FISHERMAN, found at token (39, 40).

It is important to note that this alignment refers to the lexemes listed in the lemma database and does not refer to the types listed in the original tokenisation. If it did, then the English type, ""fisherman"", found at token (39, 40), would be the translation of the Cornish phrase, ""dean bodjack an puscas"", found at token (31, 35), which is not the case. ""Dean bodjack an puscas"" translates into English as a ""poor fisherman"".

A number of predicates are defined which enable the corpus to be used as a dictionary. For example, the predicate, gloss_lemma/2, finds the English gloss for a Cornish item or vice versa. The predicate, entry/1, displays the full dictionary entry for the requested item.

Discussion

The system is able to retrieve any given segment of text, and uniquely identifies lexemes and the equivalences that exist between the lexical items in a bitext. Furthermore the system is able to cope with discontinuous multiword lexemes. The system is thus able to find glosses for individual lexical items or to produce longer lexical entries which include part-of-speech, glosses and example sentences from the corpus. Insofar as the system is able to identify specific translation equivalents in the bitext, the system provides a much more powerful research tool than existing concordancers such as ParaConc, WordSmith, XCorpus and Multiconcord. The system is able to automatically generate a bilingual dictionary which can be exported and used as the basis for a paper dictionary. Alternatively the system can be used directly as an electronic bilingual dictionary.

References

Barlow, Michael (1995) ""A Guide to ParaConc"" Available http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~barlow/pc.html .

Berber Sardinha, A. P. (1996) ""Review: WordSmith Tools"" Computers & Texts No. 12 p. 19. ISSN 0963-1763.

Bonhomme, Patrice & Laurent Romary (1997) XCORPUS - Version 0.2: A Corpus Toolkit Environment: User Manual Available: http://www.loria.fr/projets/XCorpus/manual/ .

Mills, Jon (1995) ""Computer Assisted Lemmatisation of a Diachronic Corpus of Cornish"" Proceedings of TCIPA II, University of Luton, 7 July 1995. pp. 9.1-9.16.

Mills, Jon (1998) ""Lexicon Based Critical Tokenisation: An Algorithm"" Actes EURALEX'98 Proceedings: Papers Submitted to the Eighth EURALEX International Congress on Lexicography in Liège, Belgium Liège: University of Liège, English and Dutch Departments. pp. 213-220.

Mills, Jon (1999) ""A Logical Approach to the Lemmatisation of Computational Lexica"" Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Social Communication, Santiago de Cuba, 25-28 January 1998 . pp. 598-605.

St. John, Elke & Marc Chattle (1998) ""Review of Multiconcord: The Lingua Multilingual Parallel Concordancer for Windows"" ReCALL Newsletter No 13, March 98 . ISSN 1353-1921.","txt","2","",""
"35","1","Humanities Computing and Campus Computer/Information literacy","2","","","2","",""
"36","1","John Venn and the Alumni Cantabrigienses - an example of applied natural language processing techniques in enhancing the utility of a historical database","2","The poster provides a general summary of my thesis. This can be broadly divided into three interrelated areas: 
1. the historical background to this biographical dictionary. 
2. This is of great significance to the project since it provides added understanding to what is shown to be a unique source structure. 
3. Automatic indexing provides a flexible method of access to this structure, which is largely under exploited.

1. The life of John Venn, the Cambridge logician and antiquarian provides important background to the evolution of the Alumni idea. Previously, biographies have separated the various phases in his life. My research has shown however that these strands were intimately related. Descended from a professional, clerical elite, he was concerned with the logic of taxonomy and measurement of empirical data. In later life he applied these techniques in the construction of his college directories and eventually the Alumni Cantabrigienses- a biographical dictionary of Cambridge men. He is in many ways one of the first information scientists.

2. The Alumni records are compiled from thousands of sources. The records and fields are not, therefore, semantically equivalent to each other. However it is preferable to view these records as a catalogue of Cambridge men which has been constructed in a scientific manner. This allows for individual variation within the records, but there are also logical consistencies. The most important fields are the dynamic career structures which allow us to view examples of multi-dimensional professional activity, and inter-university careers and inter collegiate careers.

3. Alumni data in the printed volumes has previously been analysed in very general, quantitative studies. These have forced the rich career data into two dimensional tables and broad social taxonomies. Much of the information is therefore under exploited. In order to maximise the utility of the source, the classification of the fields identified in the structural analysis needs to made explicit in order to create indices into the records. These can be tagged manually. However, this is costly and labour intensive. Information extraction systems provide a sophisticated tool for automatically indexing fields within unstructured electronic data. These offer a solution for parsing fields from OCR edited text.","txt","2","",""
"37","1","The ""Biblioteca Italiana Telematica"" Project (http://cibit.unipi.it): a Progress Report","1","The Biblioteca Italiana Telematica (Italian Library Online) is a digital library of representative texts of the Italian cultural tradition from the Middle Ages to the 20th Century (literature, language, history, philosophy, art, music and cultural history in its general sense). The library aims to be a major research and teaching facility at the service of researchers and students of Italian language and culture throughout the world.

The library has been set up by the CIBIT (Centro Interuniversitario Biblioteca Telematica Italiana), which includes interdisciplinary research groups in 16 Italian universities and also sees to the library's management. The project's software implementation has been entrusted to Eugenio Picchi of the Institute of Computational Linguistics (ILC) of the Italian National Research Council (CNR).

The project is financed by the Italian Ministry of Higher Education (MURST): research programmes of relevant national interest, Biblioteca Telematica Italiana: the Italian cultural tradition on the Internet (1998-99), and Textual memory: editions, studies and tools for computer analysis of the Italian heritage (2000-2001).

The design of the Biblioteca Telematica Italiana has been quite complex due to the many different functions that had to be developed for and integrated within it. The purpose of the present paper is to illustrate:

the project's objectives;
the competencies deemed to be necessary and how they have been provided for;
system choices made and development procedures performed up to now;
the results achieved to date; further lines of ongoing development.
Objectives
The objectives established for the project can be summarised as follows:

to create an online reference and research tool that satisfies the demands of a broad public of varying characteristics, including:
the simple student or general user interested in retrieving a text, obtaining bibliographical information on it, reading and/or downloading it;
the researcher aiming at philological and linguistic research on single texts or on sub-corpora of texts that can be defined dynamically on the basis of numerous selection parameters;
the researcher interested in carrying out advanced philological and linguistics research on particular sub-corpora of texts marked up according to various criteria (grammar, metrics, concepts, etc.);
managing texts that include graphics and sound;
bringing the whole textbase into conformity with SGML-TEI standards;
to endow the library with a true catalogue, that is, a rich professional body of bibliographical information on the texts; this, for two reasons:
 
to furnish multiple access points for the selection of sub-corpora to be queried according to the most varied research demands;
creating a catalogue able to interface with the online catalogues (OPAC) of the large libraries with the aim of integrating the data and making consultation of the Biblioteca Italiana Telematica available from such OPACs;
securing the textbase by restricting download of texts through suitable login procedures and, possibly, download charges.
Competencies
The project includes three main kinds of specialised expertise:

content-related (literature, language, history, philosophy, art, music, etc.), spread widely throughout the research project participants;
linguistic-computational (the team directed by Eugenio Picchi at the ILC-CNR);
bibliographical - library science (A. Petrucciani, University of Pisa - A. Scolari, University of Genoa);
digital graphics (Studio X-Lab, Pisa).
System choices and development procedures
Particular attention has been paid to the quality of the services offered and their optimisation. Besides offering the possibility of reading and downloading texts, we have also aimed to provide online all of those text-analysis tools offered in stand-alone linguistics, philology and computational lexicography applications. We hold such tools to be crucial features for the very concept of an online library.

The procedures for storage, analysis and querying of the chosen text corpus is the DBT system (Data Base Testuale) developed at the Pisa ILC by Eugenio Picchi. The main efforts in integrating the text-analysis tools with the telematics library have been directed at providing the same functionality and uses as the local programs over a network connection.

Procedures for reading and querying texts are by far the services demanded most frequently. The utmost attention has therefore been devoted to response times, the ability to serve the greatest number of users contemporaneously, and to offering the maximum possible guarantee of recovery from most problems that may arise. Such considerations underlie the decision to develop the consultation and query system in the Java language, as it is able to satisfy a wide range of requirements: it is a stable tool on both the server and client ends; it makes the service accessible to all Internet-capable hard- and software platforms through a suitable browser; it provides state-sensitive sessions, that is, able to maintain information regarding the dynamics of the varied requests made by each user. A set of specialised applets is therefore able to guarantee access to the library's consultation functions: searching the catalogue of the available e-texts in order to select the desired text and/or sub-corpora using a whole series of pre-set bibliographical selection keys; reading single texts; querying the selected texts through the typical querying and text-analysis procedures of DBT. The applets have been developed with the aim of maintaining the greatest possible compatibility with the DBT system, to which many users are accustomed.

While for the foregoing, most-used functions, our efforts were largely directed at providing optimal service, for other, more specialist functions, it was decided instead to favour simplicity of use, a feature furnished more readily by a development and access technology other than Java. The techniques adopted here are ISAPI/CGI scripts, which enable establishing lighter client/server connections, with on-the-fly creation of HTML pages in response to different user requests and interactions. Such scripting has been applied to the querying of lemmatised texts, that is, texts for which morpho-syntactic analysis and classification have been performed beforehand. Queries can thereby be launched also on the para-textual data containing a wide range of information on each word, such as: its lemma, the lemma's grammatical classification, the form's morpho-syntactic classification. Such a wealth of information stored in a text allows for qualitatively more precise and far more productive search functionality.

Particular tools for the online querying of texts with metric markers have been developed using MS-Access. In anticipation of the forthcoming Java or ISAPI applications necessary to make such tools directly available online, they have for the moment been implemented using the Windows NT Terminal Edition that, through a special plug-in, allows browser access to the server-side OS through an Internet connection.

Finally, by integrating the contributions of the different specialists outlined in the preceding section, we have set up the Biblioteca Telematica Italiana Web site (http://cibit.unipi.it), within which easy access to the different functions has been organised ergonomically from four fundamental points of entry: Reading, Catalogue, Collections and Advanced Searches.

Results

The textbase currently online (Dec. 1999) contains about 900 texts. The Biblioteca Italiana Telematica currently offers the following services through the Internet:

consulting the general catalogue through different cross-indexed access points (Author, Prose/Poetry, Literary genre, Language, Chronology); these stem from a relational database of records containing bibliographical information concerning the text itself, its reference edition and its electronic edition;
consultation of the graphics catalogue;
accessing the texts and relative text-attributes, iconographic and sound add-ons (through the DBT Java applet described above);
querying individual texts with advanced computational-linguistics search functions (through the DBT Java applet);
querying the entire corpus or selected subsets (through the DBT Java applet);
querying a sub-corpus (Dante Alighieri's vernacular and Latin works) with grammatical markers (through the lemmatised ISAPI/CGI DBT application described above);
querying a sub-corpus (medieval-Renaissance lyric poetry) with metric markers (through the Windows NT Terminal Edition described above);
downloading texts in varied formats, including SGML/TEI, upon completion of suitable identification and login procedures.
Further lines of development
Development of tools for online query of texts with metric markers (corpus of medieval-Renaissance lyric poetry), as well as musical texts (corpus of 17th century Italian poetry for music).
Enhancing the search system to allow consultation of bibliographical databanks according to structured DBT procedures.
Implementing a prototype able to natively process SGML/XML files, particularly in TEI format (Text Encoding Initiative).
Testing procedures for interaction between, on the one hand, library catalogues and other bibliographical databanks based on the UNIMARC international standard and, on the other, digital libraries using forthcoming standards for network delivery (meta-data, particularly Dublin Core). Inter-communication and the greatest possible integration between the two environments is in fact essential to avoid a rift between the two major sources of publicly available information.
Implementation of a terminological repository containing thesaurus relationships and the relative procedures for conversion to and from the UNIMARC and Dublin Core standards.
Testing procedures for importing and exporting standard UNIMARC format data to and from the Biblioteca Italiana Telematica catalogue. This, with the aim of storing the electronic resources of the Biblioteca Italiana Telematica within various library OPACs, starting with those of the universities co-operating in the project.","txt","2","",""
"38","1","Poetic Prosthetic","1","1. Introduction

One of Chomsky's early distinctions separated 'rule-governed creativity' and 'rule-changing creativity'. In the first, applications of a rule within a formal system produce new output, while in the second, some mechanism is used to change the set of rules themselves. While the overall concept of language as a rule-governed creative system has now gained general currency in linguistics, the distinction itself has found less favour. One group, however, which has used the concept, if not the term, is OuLiPo, the 'Ouvroir de Littérature Potentielle' (Potential Literature Working Group), a group of French poets, novelists and mathematicians which for the past several decades has dedicated itself to the exploration of constraints as a device for enhancing poeticity. Most notable among them have been authors like Raymond Queneau and Georges Perec. Two well-known examples of their work are 'Cent mille milliards de poèmes' (One hundred billion poems) by Queneau, which uses sheets of substitutable lines of a sonnet to produce 10 to the 14th power individual poems, and 'La Disparition' (The Disappearance) by Perec, a 300 plus page novel in which the letter e never appears. (See references for details.)

More generally, OuLiPo has set as its goal the formulation and exemplification of a wide range of formal constraints which may be used to enhance and enrich poetic production. In what follows, we will survey some of the basic types of constraints. We will then show how some of these constraints may be embodied in a natural language generation system. The goal will be to illustrate how such a system may provide a prosthetic extension to humans' ability to exhaustively draw out the implications of a particular rule. Finally, we will show how such a system may also be used to modify the constraints themselves.

2. A brief overview of some OuLiPo constructs

The operations described in OuLiPo texts may apply at all linguistic levels, from phonemes, to letters, to words, sentences and texts. On the systemic level, they include addition and subtraction of elements and restriction of choices, while on the serial level they include concatenation and permutation. Operations may be purely formal, or involve semantics as well. Finally, the elements involved may be comparable or disparate. Let us consider some examples:

Phonemes or letters

Lipograms: texts in which one or more letters is/are lacking (La Disparition, for example)
Shared initial letter: le chat, le chien, le chameau, ... for example, where all words in the list are based on the orthographic constraint
Sequences of letters: les agents, les ballons, les cambrioleurs... for example
Anagrams: for example, the various permutations of a word such as 'rose', including 'eros'
Lexical level:
Synonymy: production of a text followed by systematic replacement of an initial lexical choice by a synonym
S + 7: replacement of each noun in a text by the seventh following noun in the dictionary
Word formation: for example, Raymond Queneau takes as a starting point the word 'dèvisager' (to stare someone in the face - le visage) and replaces this particular body part by two others: 'poitrine' (the chest) and 'jambe' (the leg) to create the new words 'dèpoitriner' (to stare someone in the chest) and 'dèjamber' (to stare someone in the leg). There is also an ironic secondary sense of 'removal of a body part'.
Word contamination: for example, Queneau blends 'formation' (training) and 'sillon' (furrow or groove) to produce 'formasillon', with its ironic identification of training and the straight and narrow path.
Syntactic level:
Homosyntactic structures: repetition of the same syntactic frame. La Disparition contains many series of the sort, for example:
L'Alhambra brûlait, l'Institut fumait, l'Hôpital Saint-Louis flambait. (The Alhambra burned, the Institute smoked, Saint-Louis Hospital flamed.)
l'iris malin d'un cachalot colossal, narguant Jonas, clouant Cain, fascinant Achab. (the evil iris of an enormous sperm whale, mocking Jonas, striking Cain, fascinating Ahab)
Suicida-t-il? Appuya-t-il un canon sur son zygoma? S'ouvrait-il au rasoir dans un bain chaud? Avala-t-il un bol d'acqua-toffana? Lança-t-il son auto dans un trou sans fond tourbillonnant sans fin jusqu'au soir du Grand Jour, jusqu'au jour du Grand Soir? (Did he commit suicide? Did he put a barrel to his zygoma? Did he open his veins in a hot bath? Did he swallow a bowl of acqua-toffana? Did he drive his car into a bottomless pit which swirled without end until the evening of The Day, or the day of The Evening?)
3. Formalisation and generation of constructs
The examples described above are formalisable, but they have been generated by humans, using their intuition at a particular point in space and time. From the computational perspective, it is interesting to ask to what extent the computer may provide us with a prosthetic device to exhaustively explore the consequences of a particular construct. In this vein, we have used the VINCI generation environment to model examples such as those above.

Briefly, VINCI is a collection of metalanguages which allows a linguist to specify grammatical information, and an interpreter which produces utterances based on the specification provided. It includes the following components:

Context-free phrase structure rules for specifying sequences. These include terminals (N, V, etc.) and attributes (masc, human, etc.). Output is in the form of structured trees. Generation of successive levels may be controlled by the characteristics of the parent level.
Transformation rules, which allow systematic modification of initial trees.
A lexicon, including semantic information, formal characteristics, and pointers to related forms (synonyms, antonyms, etc.)
Word-formation rules, which may be applied either globally to an entire lexicon, or dynamically.
Morphology rules, for inflexion.
Lessard and Levison (1995) and Levison and Lessard (1995) provide additional details.
Most of the preceding examples can be captured by the VINCI formalism.

Shared initial letter

The following rule produces a sequence of masculine singular noun phrases, where each noun begins with the letter 'm'.

SN = DET[masc,sing,déf] N[masc,sing]/ ""m*""

Sample output includes:

le moyen, le maillot, le malheureux, le moment, le mètre, le mal

Lipograms in e

These are more complex, since they require several steps, including a pre-sorting of the lexicon, to remove words containing 'e' internally, as well as those words whose morphology rule adds an 'e' (cf. grand - grande). An additional step can include a device for choosing words which begin with a vowel, thereby allowing the masculine article (cf. l'ami), or which are feminine singular (la condition). The following simple rule illustrates a specification of a small part of this:

SN =

{Masculine singular human nouns starting in 'a'} ( DET[masc, sing] N[masc, sing, humain]/ ""a*"" ADJ[masc, sing, humain]

| {or}

{Feminine singular human nouns followed by adjectives whose feminin is identical to the masculine form ($13) thus avoiding 'e'} DET[fém, sing] N[fém, sing, humain] ADJ[fém, sing, humain]/$13

| {or} {etc. etc.}

Sample output includes:

l'ami obscur, l'amant amusant, l'avocat assis, la condition citron

S+7

This can be achieved by pre-processing the lexicon so that each noun points to its seventh successor. A transformation can then be applied which replaces each noun by the word pointed to. If the pointers are in lexical field 13 with tag s7, we may write:

ROOT = S7 : SN

SN = choose Ge : Genre, No : Nombre; DET[Ge,No] N[Ge,No]

S7 = TRANSFORMATION DET N : 1 2/ @13:s7

For the sake of clarity, we ignore a possible gender change.

Word formation

VINCI possesses a rich set of devices for forming new words. For example, given the example 'dèvisager' described above, the following rule systematically searches a lexicon for nouns having the semantic trait 'partieducorps' (bodypart) and produces appropriate output:

""*e""|N|partieducorps.suj|?|?|?| _makes_ [""dé"" + #1 + ""r""]|V| | | | | %

dévisager déventrer détêter dépoitriner dépatter déorganer déoreiller démembrer délanguer délèvrer déjouer déjamber dégorger défoier défacer déboucher débarber déailer déépauler

Again, we have left the rule underspecified. Additional steps are required to add an -s before nouns beginning with a vowel.

Homosyntactic structures

It is clear that all the previous rules can be used iteratively to produce multiple occurrences of the same syntactic structure.

4. Meta-generation

In the cases discussed above, the goal has been to generate utterances based on grammatical descriptions, the rationale being that humans are less good than computers at exhaustively enumerating the products of a grammatical rule. It is however possible to carry the process one step further. Since VINCI grammatical specifications are themselves only text files, it is possible to use VINCI itself to generate grammatical rules which in turn generate new utterances. The advantage of such an approach comes in cases where the computer can be made to generate a large number of potential new rules, each of which generates a large number of possible products. The result can be to cause the human to see previously unthought-of rule possibilities.

To illustrate this, consider the following problem. Languages like French (and English) allow for multiple prefixes to be added to a base form. For example, Queneau uses the word 'archidyssymètrique', which has two prefixes, while a form like 'non-anti-defoliant' is a possible English form. One way of capturing such possibilities would be to enumerate all rule combinations by hand. This would be tedious and prone to error. A better alternative would be to allow a meta-rule to generate a large number of possible prefixation rules and then to use these to produce typical examples. For example, consider the following meta-rules:

MANYPREFIXES = (PREFIX: MANYPREFIXES | PREFIX )
PREFIX = (PREFIX_NON | PREFIX_RE | ...)
ROOT = (MANYPREFIXES: N | MANYPREFIXES: V | MANYPREFIXES : ADJ )

where PREFIX_NON etc. are transformations.

When applied, these meta-rules produce grammatical rules like:

ROOT = PREFIX_NON : N
ROOT = PREFIX_NON : PREFIX_RE : V
ROOT = PREFIX_RE : PREFIX_NON : ADJ
ROOT = PREFIX_NON : PREFIX_NON : PREFIX_RE : ... V

and so on, which in turn can be used to generate actual utterances. Obviously, additional elements would be required to control more precisely the nature of the prefixes, but the essential principle should be clear.

An intermediate step is also possible, in which VINCI hands control temporarily back to a user. So, for example, a researcher might have put in front of him or her a partially developed meta-rule and be asked to insert particular values.

5. Conclusions

We assume, with OuLiPo, that poeticity hinges at least partially on dynamic playing with constraints. Similarly, we have as a premise that at least some aspects of inspiration or creativity involve finding previously unseen patterns. Given these premises, a device which puts potential patterns before us (which prosthetically increases our power to envisage new devices) is of interest.

In the proposed paper, we will illustrate these assumptions with a richer range of examples and with a more detailed discussion of the theoretical issues which underpin them.

6. References

Bens, J. (1980) OuLiPo 1960-1963. Christian Bourgeois, Paris.
Bergens, A. (1963) Raymond Queneau. Droz, Genève.
Lessard, G. and Levison, M. (1995). Le logiciel VINCI: lexigrammaire et génération automatique. Lexiques-grammaires comparès et traitements automatiques, (Édité par J. Labelle.) Université du Québec à Montréal, pp. 175-185.
Levison, M. and Lessard, G. (1995). New Words from Old: A Formalism for Word Formation. Computers and the Humanities 29:463-479.
OuLiPo (1981) Atlas de littérature potentielle. Gallimard, Paris.
OuLiPo (1981) La bibliothèque oulipienne. Slatkine, Paris.
Perec, G. (1969) La Disparition. Denoel, Paris.
Queneau, R. (1989) Oeuvres complètes, tome I. Edition établie par Cl. Debon.Gallimard, Paris.
Queneau, R. (1969) Chêne et chien. Gallimard, Paris.","txt","2","",""
"39","1","An American National Corpus: a Large Balanced Text Corpus for American English","1","Introduction:

The importance of corpora as resources has become more and more accepted over the years. Many types of corpora have been used for various different purposes but if one is searching for examples of ""general"" application and not restricting oneself to a particular sub-language, the development of a balanced corpus is of primary importance. Of equal importance is the adoption of a uniform standard annotation. The main areas of application of a text corpus are lexicography (also computational lexicography) and natural language processing, including specifically, adaptation to different domains and genres. For these purposes the corpus must be large (at least 100 million words), contemporary, heterogeneous, uniformly annotated and, for use in the United States, must contain American English. The size will ensure the adequate representation of infrequent words. The selection of contemporary texts is important for both lexicography and NLP, particularly in view of the significant changes in common text genres over the last few years brought about by electronic communication. Heterogeneity ensures that the range of language usage needed for the creation of ""general language resources"" is represented, and that one can explore a wide spectrum of language genres for NLP. Uniform annotation is paramount in any corpus and the collection of American texts ensures that the grammatical and lexical differences found in British English will not interfere with the classifying of American English.

Background:

The first American text corpus that strived for this balance was the Brown Corpus developed by Kucera and Francis at Brown University in the 1960's. It was the model for many corpora that followed and is still being used today. However, it is a small corpus (one million words) and somewhat dated (the texts are at least 30 years old). It is true that a written language changes rather slowly over time with regard to grammar but there are changes in the structure and there are quite frequent additions of new lexical items.

Recently, the British National Corpus (BNC) was released. It is a rather carefully balanced corpus and a very large corpus (one hundred million words). It also has the advantage of covering the time period from where the Brown Corpus left off until 1993. There are, nonetheless, two distinct disadvantages for Natural Language researchers and dictionary producers in the United States: (1) the corpus is, as yet, unavailable for use outside of Europe and (2) the corpus contains texts of British not American English.

Differences between American and British English:

The grammar of American English (A.E.) varies from British English (B.E.) quite significantly. For example, British English often makes use of a to-infinitive complement where American English does not. In the following examples from the BNC, ""assay"", ""engage"", ""omit"" and ""endure"" appear with a to-infinitive complement; there were no examples found in our corpus of this construction although the verbs themselves did appear.

Examples:

B.E. ""Jerome crept to the foot of the steps, and there halted, baulked, rather, like a startled horse, drew hard breath and ASSAYED TO MOUNT, and then suddenly threw up his arms to cover his face, fell on his knees with a lamentable, choking cry, and bowed himself against the stone of the steps.""

B.E. ""A magnate would ENGAGE TO SERVE with a specified number of men for a particular time in return for wages which were agreed in advance and paid by the Exchequer."" B.E. "" 'What did you OMIT TO TELL your priest?' "" A.E. ""`What did you OMIT TELLING your priest?'""

B.E. ""But Carteret's wife, who frequented health spas, could not ENDURE TO LIVE with him or he with her: there were no children.""

A.E. ""But Carteret's wife, who frequented health spas, could not ENDURE LIVING with him or he with her: there were no children.""

For the first two verbs, one can argue that there is not an equivalent verbal meaning in A.E. but, for the last two, the meaning can be paraphrased in A.E. by the gerund.

Adverbial usage is also different. The B.E. use of ""immediately"" in sentence initial position is not allowed in A.E. For example, B.E. ""Immediately I get home, I will attend to that."" is incorrect in A.E. where we would say ""As soon as I get home, I will attend to that.""

Other syntactic differences are formation of questions with the main verb ""have"". In B.E., one can say, ""Have you a pen?"" where A.E. speakers must use ""do"" (""Do you have a pen?""). Support verbs for nominalizations also differ. Note the B.E. ""take a decision"" vs the A.E. ""make a decision"".

With these considerable differences and the fact that lexical items may be over- or under-represented or not present at all, it is clear that a corpus of American English is needed.

The proposed American National Corpus:

As seen above, the corpora we have been working with are inadequate and the BNC although meeting our standards of size and balance does not deal with our language. In 1998, at the first LREC conference a proposal was made to create an American National Corpus (ANC) much on the lines of the BNC (Fillmore et al, 1998 [1]).

The corpus should be as far as possible, contemporary (1990's). It should be both static (like the BNC) and dynamic (COBUILD). We will add regular increments but retain the capability to return to the initial corpus as well as the static stages between increments.

The corpus will be both balanced and heterogeneous. The collection of more than 100 million words will make this possible. 100 million words of the ANC should be comparable in balance to the BNC to enable cross linguistic studies between British and American English. There is no set definition for what it means for a corpus to be balanced. The BNC made a principled effort to balance their corpus (see the BNC User's Reference Guide [2] for a break down of their corpus). The ANC will use this as a model. However, since it is also desirable to provide significant components from a wide range of styles, the remaining text will be varied rather than balanced (i.e. we will not try for differing percentages of texts according to their representative importance in the language but will try for smaller samples of a greater variety of texts). The corpus will be annotated at two levels, which serve two different user groups. Base Level will be annotated fully automatically with document, paragraph, sentence, token with POS marking. Level 1 will be heavily manual with the added text structure (titles, headers, footnotes, tables, captions, lists, etc.) which follow the CES standard (Ide, et.al [3]).

Progress towards the creation of the ANC:

The ANC has progressed since its genesis at LREC 98. In May of 1999 the first ANC meeting preceded the Dictionary Society of North America (DSNA) meeting at the University of California at Berkeley. It was attended by a number of representatives of publishing houses. The idea of an American National Corpus was well received and plans for a second meeting were agreed upon.

The second meeting took place at New York University. Invitees to this meeting included not only those present at the May meeting but publishers from Japan and representatives from various software companies from the U.S. and Europe. More substantial issues were discussed including the structure of the consortium, questions of balance in the corpus, funding, time schedules and licensing agreements. Some questions were decided, others such as balance and licensing were referred to committees for further discussion.

The shape of the consortium and future plans:

The licensing and base level annotation is to be done through LDC (UPenn). UPenn will obtain licenses from text providers and provide licenses to users. With regard to data rights, there will be multiple classes. The expectation is that there will be some subset of the data which can be made available under a form of general public license, and hence can be freely redistributed under this license.

The membership agreement provides for paid memberships from commercial organizations. These members will receive the data as soon as it is processed and have exclusive rights to this data for a period of three years. They are expected to make monetary as well as data contributions. The data will be freely available to non-profit educational and research organizations (aside from a nominal fee for licensing and distribution).

Our plan is for the base level to be paid for with consortium fees. We have a 3-year time-frame starting Jan. 2000, with 10% of the corpus deliverable by summer 2000. Level 1 annotation which will require external funding, will proceed dependent on this funding. Therefore, this may lag as much as a year behind the base level corpus. Our goal is a fully annotated level 1 corpus compliant with the CES standard.

References

[1] Fillmore, C., Ide, N., Jurafsky, D. and Macleod, C. ""An American National Corpus: A Proposal"". The Proceedings of LREC, Granada, Spain, May 28-30, pp. 965-969.
[2] Burnard, L. (ed) (1955). ""British National Corpus: User's Reference Guide for the British National Corpus"", Oxford University Computing Service, May, 1955, pp. 13-19.
[3] Ide, N., Romary, L. and Bonhomme, P. (submitted). ""CES/XML: An XML-based Standard for Linguistic Corpora"". Submitted to the Second International Language Resources and Evaluation Conference.
[4] Francis, W.N. and Kucera, H. (1964). ""Manual of Information to Accompany 'A Standard Sample of Present-Day Edited American English, for Use with Digital Computers'"". Department of Linguistics, Brown University, Providence, RI (revised 1979).","txt","2","",""
"40","1","Electric Theory (Truth, Use, and Method)","1","First Wave critics of the electronic environment - especially those critics who discuss hypertext in the late '80s and early '90s - make an interesting discovery about theory and computing: electronic literacy confirms post/structural theories of reading and writing. Given a computer environment, theory finds that its principles are indeed true.

Defining semiosis as the reading of codes and the writing of signs, J. David Bolter (1991) argues that ""the theory of semiotics becomes obvious, almost trivially true, in the computer medium"" (196). Similarly, George P. Landow (1992) extends Bolter's claim to encompass the theories of Barthes, Foucault, Bakhtin, and Derrida, pointing to the bilocation of ideas of textual openness, of the network, of polyvocality, and of decenteredness both in post-structural theory and computerized hypertextual writing. Thus, Landow concludes: ""something that Derrida and other critical theorists describe as part of a seemingly extravagant claim about language turns out precisely to describe the new economy of reading and writing with electronic virtual, rather than physical, forms"" (8). Even the hypertext novel can be an exemplar of literary criticism; for instance, Michael Joyce's Afternoon embodies both the content and the practice of psychoanalytic theory, using resistance as a literal compositional principle and placing desire at the center of the novel's reader-text interface.

This amazing convergence between post/structural theory and the computing medium suggests that hypertext's ability to stage the principles informing diverse (and even contradictory) literary theories defines a property of the electronic medium itself. Since the computer environment offers theory a self-validating medium, the question that once determined the authority of a theory - can its principles help the reader discover the truth of a text? - seems futile to ask. If Dillon is right and our technologies are actually embodiments of our theories (in Rouet, 8, emphasis mine), then this self-validating function of electrified theory undermines, by inevitable affirmation, the critical position of the reader-theorist. Because the electronic medium reconfigures the relation between the reader and the text, it literalizes the way that the reader brings theory to the text: In a medium where ""the text is a stage and reading is direction"" (Douglas, title), the very agency of the ""reader"" tends to strip away rather than develop critical distance. Thus, Espen Aarseth replaces the idea of the ""reader"" with the more ambivalent term ""user"" to describe the person who interacts with the electronic medium. User, Aarseth writes, ""suggest[s] both active participation and dependency, a figure under the influence of some kind of pleasure-giving system"" (Cybertext 174). Since a user-theorist of e-text operating under the print assumptions connecting theory to authoritative truth finds in electric theory the headiness of addiction to confirmation, electric theory necessitates attention to use itself.

To better define issues of user dependency and control in the convergence of theory with the electronic medium, I will examine two very different methods of computerized theoretical study that solve the problem of literalness: Earl Jackson, Jr.'s semiotics and psychoanalysis website and Havholm & Stewart's computer modeled structural narratology. Both methods arise from the computing environment and would be impossible without it. Whereas the former site places the user of electric theory in a webbed environment of emergent meanings and open-ended exploration, the latter practice programs theoretical principles in order to radically constrain theoretical outcomes. Either method's willingness to replace truth-value with use-value provides a way out of the self-confirming impasse created by the encounter between First Wave theoretical assumptions and the computer medium.","txt","2","","7168"
"41","1","French Neo-Structuralist Schools and Industrial Text Analysis","1","Parallel to, and to some degree in reaction to French post-structuralist theorization (as championed by Derrida, Foucault, and Lacan, among others) is a French ""neo"" structuralism built directly on the achievements of structuralism using electronic means. We will begin this talk by examining some exemplary approaches to text analysis in this neo-structuralist vein that have appeared over the past 10 years.

Some of these approaches have specific ""deliverables"" and are promising because of the well-defined focus of their research: Sator's topoi dictionary, E. Brunet's statistical software, and E. Brill's grammatical tagger will serve to illustrate projects of this type. Other research is more theoretical in nature and represents over-arching models of (electronic) textual study. Two examples we will consider are Jean-Claude Gardin's expert systems approach and François Rastier's interpretative semantics.

These practical and theoretical approaches have in common a fundamental hypothesis: archives of natural language texts are a valuable and as yet untapped resource for any project to formalise human understanding, whether that project be industrial or traditionally humanistic in nature. (Thus, for example, the Brill tagger uses the Frantext literary database to generate the rule base for the tagger.) In a very real and practical sense, authors are painstaking programmers. They formalise meaning and create, through their writing, databases of expertise in various domains, which range from how we use language to how we perceive the world and exchange information about it. That expertise is precisely what computers must acquire if they are to perform the more advanced tasks increasingly asked of them, whether in the context of humanities research or in an industrial setting.

Textual archives which combine texts and expertise are destined to play an important role in our increasingly electronic society because programmers face an information barrier. Advanced programming projects require that programmers describe real-world objects with exponentially increasing detail and precision. Such massive requirements for description cannot be met by the efforts of any single group of programmers: it may well be that only the mass of textual material, accumulated over the centuries in literary texts and scientific writing, has enough descriptive weight to allow programs to break the information barrier and perform qualitatively more advanced tasks.

Textual research itself faces the same kind of information barrier. In this paper, we will consider how this ""Wissenschaft"" accumulation of expertise is related to and complements the neo-structuralist approach. Ultimately, electronic critical studies will be defined by their strategic position at the intersection of the two technologies shaping our society: the new information processing technology of computers and the representational techniques that have accumulated for centuries in written texts. Understanding how these two information management paradigms complement each other is a key issue for the humanities, for computer science, and vital to industry, even beyond the narrow domain of the language industries. It will be the contention of this paper that the direction of critical studies, a small planet long orbiting in only rarefied academic circles, will be radically altered by the sheer size of the economic stakes implied by industrial text analysis.","txt","2","","7168"
"42","1","A Theory for Literature (Created for the World Wide Web, E-Mail, Chat Spaces, Databases, and Other Electronic Technologies)","1","Beginning with Michael Joyce's seminal hypertext, 'afternoon, a story', and moving to the recent webtext by Kathleen Yancey and Michael Spooner, 'Not (Necessarily) a Cosmic Convergence', Dene Grigar provides examples of the new literary writing generated by electronic non-print technologies, such as World Wide Web, MOOs, databases, and other types of computer-generated media, and discusses the theories that have emerged to explain them. Specifically, she looks at theories of hypertext, posited by Jay David Bolter, George Landow, Johndan Johnson-Eilola; of synchronous or real-time writing, found in MOOs and MUDs, developed by Cynthia Haynes and Jan Rune Holmevik, Mick Doherty, and Sandye Thompson; and of online writing and webtexts, articulated by John Barber, Victor Vitanza, and others. Although electronic writing remains at the early stages of development in this late age of print (Bolter 2) and early age of electronic writing (Barber and Grigar 12), it is fast becoming an important medium of literary expression. By bringing these examples and ideas together, the author suggests some guidelines for understanding and discussing electronic writing that will serve as the starting point for the development of an overarching literary theory for these emergent literary texts.","txt","2","","7168"
"43","1","Computer-Mediated Discourse, Reception Theory, and Versioning","1","This paper will address how computer-mediated discourse provides new opportunities and challenges in two areas of literary criticism, Reception Theory and Versioning. Although extremely different critical modes, they can be viewed as belonging to opposite ends of the space-time continuum, with Versioning taking advantage of the computer's ability to enhance our understanding of literature through space, and Reception Theory through time.

Versioning is a relatively new development in the area of textual criticism. Since the end of the Second World War, the basic theory under which most textual critics operated was to provide readers with a text that most closely mirrored authorial intention. This philosophy of editing produced texts which, by and large, never existed in the author's lifetime. They were eclectic texts: the editor, armed with his intimate knowledge of the author and the text, assumed the role of author-surrogate to create a text which mirrored final authorial intention. To do this the editor swept away corruption which had entered the text through the publication process by well-meaning editors, compositors, wives, heirs, etc. He also swept away any ambiguity left by the author herself. Thus, in the case of narrative, choosing a bit here from the copy text, a bit there from the first English edition, a sentence there from the second American edition, and a few lines from the original manuscript, that elusive but canonical authorial intention could be restored. In the case of poetry, editors were forced to choose one published version of a text over another, and substantively ignored authorial ambiguity, such as Emily Dickinson's, who left in many of her poems alternative readings of certain words.

By the mid-1980s, the monolithic approach to textual editing began to lose favour with a new generation of textual critics, such as Jerome McGann and Peter Shillingsburg, who, responding to new critical discourses, including Reception Theory, viewed the text as a product, not of corruption, but of social interaction between several of any number of agents: author, editor, publisher, compositor, scribe, translator. It was also recognised that authorial intention was often a fluid state; particularly in the case of poetry it was possible to have several ""definitive"" versions of any one work which represented the wishes of the poet at a particular point of time.

One reason, I would argue, that newer theories of textual criticism took so long to be developed was that until the advent of the HTML, the World Wide Web, and the spatial freedom of the Internet, textual critics had no suitable medium to display a fluid concept of authorship. Any attempts to demonstrate anything but a monolithic text which represented final authorial intention was doomed to failure. As early as 1968 William H. Gillman, et al. undertook what was to be a definitive edition of Emerson's Journals and Notebooks in six volumes. Lewis Mumford writing in the New York Review of Books put paid to this editorial method with his review article entitled ""Emerson Behind Barbed Wire"":

The cost of this scholarly donation is painfully dear, even if one puts aside the price in dollars of this heavy make-weight of unreadable print. For the editors have chosen to satisfy their standard of exactitude in transcription by a process of ruthless typographic mutilation.

In 1984 Hans Walter Gabler's Synoptic edition of Ulysses encountered the same resistance from both the editing community and the Joyceans. These early efforts at representing the fluidity of authorship were doomed to failure because of the two-dimensionality of the printed text. 'Reading' such texts as Gillman's and Gabler's became impossible for all the arrows, dashes, crosses, single underlining, double underlining, footnotes, endnotes and asterisks. I would thus argue that the theoretical stance to present anything but a monolithic text representing someone's final intention (which was more likely than not the editor's) was a product as much of the medium as of concurrent theoretical modes, eg New Criticism.

Hypertext has the spatial richness to overcome the limitations of the book's two-dimensionality to present, not only works in progress, but the richness and ambiguity of authorial intention. No longer do editors have to choose between the three Marianne Moore poems entitled ""Poetry"", but all three can be accommodated within the hypertextual archive. Furthermore, all of Moore's revisions can also be displayed. Depending on the skill, expertise and needs of the user, a single monolithic ""Poetry"" can be displayed (possibly for a secondary school class), two versions, or even all three versions could be viewed (for a Freshman poetry course), or all three versions and several of the manuscript drafts (for a graduate-level course on research methods). By utilising a markup language such as SGML, all these texts could be encoded to create an ""Ur"" version of the poem in which lines across versions can be displayed and compared.

No longer does space and the cost of publishing images in traditional formats have to guide edited editions. Facsimile versions which were only produced for the most canonical of authors now can be produced and ""published"" at extremely low cost. Furthermore, languages such as SGML or XML facilitate the linking of image and text files, annotation, notes, links to other relevant texts, and so on. As with my previous example, all or some of this apparatus can be turned on depending on the needs of the audience.

The needs of the audience brings me to my second theoretical mode than can find richer expression in digitisation, Reception Theory. Reception Theory seeks to provide present-day readers with a snapshot of a text's history across time, and how previous generations of reader-response have gone into shaping our conception of the text. It also seeks to make available to present-day audiences the historical, psychological, social and/or semantic codes of the text as it was received at some point in the past. If, meaning of a work is created in the interaction between text and reader, hypermedia has the potential to create a three-legged stool in which present-day readers overhear the dialogue created between past readers and the text.

As with my previous example, no longer does the cost associated with the production of printed material have to be the prime consideration in constructing a reception theory text. As it is now economically feasible to produce facsimile archives for un-canonical authors, reception theory archives can be constructed across time providing the reader access to objects that would have been unthinkable only a generation ago. For example, take the construction of a reception theory archive of W. B. Yeats's poetry. No longer does the author of the text have to content herself with providing one or two black and white reproductions of the first Cuala Press editions of Yeats's early poetry to demonstrate the semantic codes embedded in those early editions. In a digital edition, it is possible to include full colour shots of these texts, in addition to the Macmillan editions, which, as a standard trade publication, are stripped of those codes. Furthermore, the early reception of these poems was no doubt influenced by other objects of the Arts and Crafts movement in Ireland and England. These objects, prints, paintings, even wallpaper, could be digitised to create a lexia of non-textual meaning. As with my previous example on Versioning, it is possible to conceive a digital archive that could serve many audiences, with features turned on or off as necessary.

Hypertext can provide a vehicle for accessing the ways in which readers realised the aesthetic interpretation of the text if those readers left a record of that experience; that trail can be textual: critical (reviews, articles, critical texts), personal (letters, diaries), creative (the re-writing of a creative work). It can also involve other media, a painting or ballet based on a poem, myth or folktale. These acts of interpretation can be presented to present day users in much the same format as we are used to in a two-dimensional article, i.e., a block of text with hyperlinks (rather than footnotes) to relevant primary sources.

On the other hand, we have not yet realised a form of critical discourse which does not mirror the two-dimensional spaces we have used for the last 500 years to express ideas. Hypertext criticism in future will, no doubt, embody a new form for critical discourse which is shaped by the new medium. Criticism which takes advantage of the three-dimensional space of the computer is so new that the various paradigms of editorial/authorial intervention have not been fully realised, no less understood by both the creators and users. A case in point is that we still do not have appropriate language to describe these new objects of computer-mediated critical discourse: terms like ""article"", ""book"", ""collection of essays"", ""review"" etc. have meaning appropriate to the printed word, but possibly not to the digitised one.

And indeed there are costs associated with this new medium which will govern, to a large extent, the scope and content of archives: copyright costs, the production of machine-readable versions of texts, the cost of digitising images, hardware, software, etc. One's ideal archive is governed by a balancing of costs, and tradeoffs, such as deeper encoding vs encoding of a greater number of texts, will play a significant part in the creation of resources.

In addition, the searching, retrieval and display of objects in a digital archive will, by default, reflect the bias of both the editor/author and the system designer. Yet, unlike critical theory presented in a two-dimensional space, much of the bias will be invisible to the user, as it will be buried, for example, in SGML or XML encoding. Thus there will be new challenges in learning to ""read"" this new model of literary discourse, which will, in turn, no doubt, foster new theoretical modes.","txt","2","","7168"
"44","1","The FALMER Project: Toward an Electronic Critical Edition","1","What will be the critical editions in the electronic era? Hubert de Phalèse, a research center in La Sorbonne-Nouvelle University (Paris III), in accordance with its pragmatic approach to literary computing problems, decided to launch this debate by putting on line a critical edition of the complete works of Lautréamont / Isidore Ducasse (http://www.cavi.univ-paris3.fr/phalese/hubert1.htm). This edition is an integral hypertext (in which nearly every word of the text is linked with a comment), which gathers all that one usually finds in the critical editions, but on a scale which does not have equivalents on paper: variants, philological, literary and encyclopedic comments, biography, bibliography, iconography, index, etc.

This prototype poses, concretely, a certain number of problems, on several levels:

Technical: Which interface is to be used? The purely automatic search engines (including the uses of Java and other script languages) appeared unsuited and a new device of computer-assisted indexing was developed. It makes it possible to provide to the user a lemmatized index and, especially, lexical cards which can be enriched at will. The current solution of setting on line presents some inconveniences but it has the advantage of proposing to the greatest number of users the consultation of the edition and of inviting them to take part in it.

Contents: The new support is, virtually, infinite. What is a critical edition to contain now that we are not concerned any more with its volume? All the versions of the text, for example, can now be proposed with the reading. But does one have to publish the intertexts, contemporary works, criticism, etc? How can the interconnection, in network, of several resources enrich a critical edition? Under which scientific and legal conditions?

Validation: Can this type of edition be regarded as more reliable than the paper editions? According to which protocols will such editions be judged? One of the risks is the apparition of a great quantity of work without scientific guarantee. How will the possibilities of collective work and permanent updating will modify our design of what a philological work should be?

Publication: Who will deal with the building and the diffusion expenses of such electronic products? Will the redistribution of the budget headings in this type of edition lead the academics to transform themselves into diffusers or will the traditional editors change their practice? In addition, new prospects open with the critical edition, which it will be necessary to evaluate and explore to know the real potentialities of them.

Work in group: Data processing and the Internet support the participation of a growing number of speakers around an intellectual work. Which will be the roles of each one (project director, data processing specialists, humanists, students, active readers, etc.)? The concepts even of authors and readers will not have any more the same direction.

Real time: The possibility of permanent update offered by an Internet site makes it possible to revalue the traditional concepts. It is not indeed essential any more to put on line a completely completed work, and the noted errors can be immediately corrected. In addition, this type of edition makes it possible to account for the topicality of research in the field, which connects it with a review (of which the periodicity is much higher besides than for any scientific review).

Interactivity: The possibility of putting in contact creators and users of electronic publishing, by means of the electronic mail, also connects this type of edition to a permanent conference. It is possible, in the long term, that scientific communities (specialists in an author, for example) gather around great electronic projects, that they would make live by publishing the results of their work there.

Cost: The very low cost of setting on line such an edition (I except the working time of researcher)s makes it possible at the same time to consider some undertakings in the face of of which the traditional editors move back (very large corpus, work of interest only for few specialists) but also to allow researchers to publish under some good working conditions works of weak size or that don't fit in the framework of current university editions.

Multi-media: What can be the contribution of multi-media to a scientific work like a critical edition? All in this field remains to be invented, because the traditional edition accustomed us to purely textual tools, primarily for reasons of cost. The sound and visual illustrations will bring to the literary text a very interesting dimension (publication of manuscripts, interpretations, iconographic documents, contemporary pieces of music, etc), from the teaching point of view as in the research field, but it is necessary to be wary of the easy effects which accustomed us, the general public, to electronic publishing. It is all the more urgent to answer these questions that the share of electronic documentation in literary studies would have, as in the other documentary fields, to increase until gradually replacing the traditional supports. Consequently, the survival of the texts and their formal characteristics will be closely related to the devices which will ensure their transmission, their conservation and their reading.","txt","2","",""
"45","1","The Miguel Cervantes Digital Library: The Hispanic Voice on the WEB","1","This paper describes the philosophy behind what represents one of the most ambitious projects of its kind ever to have been undertaken in the Spanish-speaking world: The Miguel Cervantes Digital Library (http://cervantesvirtual.com/). It explains the reasons behind its creation, the private-public sector alliance which has made it possible, and the new ground being explored by its creators in terms of innovative application of digital methods and of new services it offers to its audience world-wide.

The Miguel Cervantes Digital Library is the result of a unique collaboration between Alicante University and Spain's biggest bank, the Banco Santander Central Hispano who have joined forces to create the world's biggest digital library containing Spanish-speaking works. It represents an example of successful partnership between university and business, with the Santandar Central Hispano Bank providing complete sponsorship for the full development of the project. The University, on the other hand, provides the academic expertise, technological know-how and qualified workforce necessary to fulfil objectives and ensures international use of the Library's resources by way of collaboration agreements with universities and institutions all over the world. The paper will address the issue of this partnering of academia and private enterprise as a case study of how two vastly different institutions have successfully worked together in the overall management and vision of a large, global project.

The Miguel Cervantes Digital Library hopes to act as inspiration to other non-English speaking cultures to create their own novel digital tools which can be used by a multiracial and multilingual student and academic community of Internet users world-wide. Far from being a static collection of digitised books, the Library is envisaged as a vehicle for the Hispanic academy to promote their works, as a window to Hispanic literature and culture for scholars of Hispanic languages and cultures, and as a voice for the Hispanic university community world-wide. The actual content of the Library reflects this ambition as it includes sections such as:
 

the digital publication of theses, which acts as a window to Hispanic research and a forum of academic debates
a voice library with quality recordings of top Hispanic voices who have volunteered to recite one of the Library's most visited works. Well known Hispanic poets and authors also take part in this section, reciting parts of their own work
a directory with over 3000 links to digital Hispanic resources and to outstanding digital collections, libraries and technology-related resources. All the links have a full explanation in Spanish for Hispanic users unfamiliar with the potential of the Web for study and research
personalised pages on Hispanic authors, debate forums, its own electronic news bulletin, and a facility enabling readers, collectors and editors to interact and locate rare books
initiatives aimed at bringing together ""the Old"" (printed material) and ""the New"" (electronically produced works). As well as a section called ""Trueque"" which brings together publishers, booksellers, collectors and readers in an attempt to locate rare and out-of-print editions, the project envisages traditional publication of text-books and critical studies accompanied by interactive electronic versions available in the Miguel Cervantes Digital Library ""Research"" section
a section where the Library encourages and publishes in its pages the results of research projects and collaborations related to educational software development undertaken in or considered to be of interest to the Hispanic world. With the help of Latin-American governments and universities, we aim to equip villages, schools and communities with educational, literary and cultural material which, without modern technology, would be beyond their reach.
Another feature of this project is the use of technology to preserve and promote minority Hispanic languages, and to affirm different Hispanic cultures by way of specialised gateways and portals. The design of these sections does not only entail the use of new techniques, but also involves collaboration agreements whereby staff from the Miguel Cervantes Digital Library travel to other centres, universities and institutions all around different areas of Spain and Latin America in order to digitise ""in situ"" documents, objects and works of art. Existing language portals include Catalan, Basque and Galician, and gateways on Hispanic cultures are being developed on Cuba, Argentina and Mexico in collaboration with key institutions in these countries. Visits and contacts between academic institutions in these countries and the Library have illustrated the ground we need to make up in order to reach standards already achieved in other parts of the world as far as the use of digitised content for the study of the humanities is concerned. By opening up different channels of communication and collaboration within the different Hispanic communities (Spain, Latin America and the United States), we aim to provide academics all over the World, and especially in Spanish-speaking communities, with a major new research tool and to create a new concept of a digital library.
During the past two years we have learned much from other worthy initiatives that are being undertaken in Spain, Latin America and further afield to digitise material reflecting Hispanic languages, literature and cultures. The author will provide a brief overview of the most notable projects in this area, and will offer a picture of the state of the art as to what techniques are being used to produce electronic resources in the Hispanic community at present and what the future holds.

The final section of the paper will deal with the technical underpinnings of this project at present and in the future. Techniques used for digitisation of texts, manuscripts, images and voices will be discussed, and advances in this area made possible by certain strategic partnerships with universities, libraries and other institutions in Spain and abroad will be acknowledged.","txt","2","",""
"46","1","Textual Variation, Electronic Editions and Hypertext","1","The advent of the electronic paradigm to the field of scholarly editing and textual criticism opens up new possibilities for both the production process and the delivery of products which may herald a new era in scholarly editing. A new practice including text encoding, automated tagging, automatic collation, the use of scripting languages, etc. creates new kinds of editions in which the record of textual variation becomes a central point of attention, both on the markup- and on the delivery-side. In this paper I will address both sides through a problematization of the apparatus criticus or variorum as an essential part of an electronic edition.

The new reality of scholarly editing in which for instance archives become editions and editions include archives (McGann 1996 and Robinson 1996), and hybrid editions come into being as a combination of critical, diplomatic, facsimile and reading editions (De Smedt & Vanhoutte 2000), calls for a new theoretical framework and a thorough critique of the theory and practice of paper-based critical philology. The existing rationales of textual criticism cannot simply be transposed from the hard-copy to the electronic paradigm. This would for instance mean a transposition of the unpracticality and illegibility of the apparatus criticus or variorum to a medium which is essentially structured differently. The editor of a paper-based edition tries to design the apparatus as an economic and compact model in which to store textual variety, often through a combination of variants. This more than once results in an unsuperable density and thus a malfunctioning of a tool which should above all be transparent and consultable. The apparatus criticus or apparatus variorum of a printed critical edition fails, through its form and formality, in what it intends to do, that is to provide a substitute and a documentation of each complex source in such a physical form that it is usable for the interested scholar (Vanhoutte 1998). The possibility to include digital facsimiles in an electronic edition discharges the apparatus from the theoretical imperative of being a substitute. The need for documentation of textual variety, however, remains, but in electronic editions, compactness is being overruled by explicitness. On the markup-side, this means the use of a system which can tag every reading as well as genetic commentary, meta-data variation and variation over structural boundaries (Smith 1999). On the delivery-side, this means the use of a system which can supply the user with the possibility to consult every witness on its own and - facultatively - in combination with a suggested orientation text to an acceptable level of granularity.

Over the past couple of years, several gentle solutions have been put into practice, which either function on the markup- or on the delivery-side (corresponding roughly with what Vanhoutte 1999 respectively calls the Archive- and Museum-function), but none of which provides a full answer to this documentation-maxim. Taking the three fundamental requirements of electronic scholarly editions - accessibility, longevity and intellectual integrity (Sperberg-McQueen 1994) - as parameters for an evaluation of possible designs of electronic editions, I will argue that there are at least three sorts of editions in the electronic paradigm: electronic editions, electronic editions with hypertext functionality and hypertext editions which do not meet the requirements of electronic editions. Further, this paper will (re)formulate additions to these requirements, focussing on modern literature.

Because hypertext is the visualization of linking which DeRose & Van Dam (1999) define as ""the ability to express relationships between places in a universe of information"" and which are explicitly marked or can be generated automatically by making use of some sort of markup, the syntax of this markup and the markup-language become essential in designing a hypertext and/or an electronic edition.

On the basis of the three fundamental requirements for electronic editions, the syntax of the markup (language) and the orientation towards a markup- or a delivery-side, I distinguish three sorts of editions in the electronic paradigm:

A. hypertext editions:

Are only concerned with accessibility: they explicitly link apparatus to base text, digital facsimile to base text, several versions to orientation text.
Make use of (a combination of) HTML, JavaScript (for pop-up boxes), frames.
Are being designed from a display point of view and are useful for didactic purposes and on-sight consulting. Hypertext editions of this sort are acceptable as a formatted output with a specific purpose for a specific audience, but are for visual purposes only.
B. electronic editions:
Are concerned with accessibility, longevity and intellectual integrity by making use of generic markup schemes in their design, such as those provided by the TEI (cf. chapter 19 of the P3 Guidelines), the MASTER scheme (Robinson, Burnard, Proffitt & Driscoll 1999), or a project specific SGML DTD.
Can be concerned with linking external or internal apparatus to a base or an orientation text.
Can be concerned with providing alternative views of the same document.
Are being designed from a markup point of view and are useful to the scholarly community.
Can be used to generate several spin-off products (including editions of category A).
C. electronic editions with hypertext functionality:
Same as B, but make extensive use of Pointer and Reference syntax to explicitly express relationships which can also be viewed in a browser, or make use of the present markup to programmatically generate linking.

 
 

From B and C it follows that the explicit documentation of textual variation in an apparatus criticus or variorum linked to a base text is no prerequisite anymore for an electronic edition. Textual variation can be documented implicitly by the textual description of each witness or document source. The extraction of alternative views of the witnesses, facultatively projected together with one version which functions as an orientation text, can be a possible solution to the problems concerning the instability of a (base) text. This paper will conclude with some notes on the use of XML and XSL in a construct which both caters for the markup- and the display-side.

References

DeRose, Steven, J. and Van Dam, A. (1999). Document Structure and markup in the FRESS hypertext system. Markup Languages: Theory & Practice. 1/1, 7-32.
De Smedt, Marcel and Vanhoutte, E. (2000). Stijn Streuvels. De teleurgang van den Waterhoek. Elektronisch-kritische editie. KANTL/Amsterdam University Press, Gent/Amsterdam.
Sperberg-McQueen, C.M. (1994). Textual Criticism and the Text Encoding Initiative. Paper presented at MLA '94, San Diego, 1994 <http://www.uic.edu:80/orgs/tei/talks/mla94.html>.
Sperberg-McQueen, C.M. and Burnard, L. (1994). Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. (P3). Text Encoding Initiative, Chicago and Oxford.
McGann, J. (1996). ""The Rationale of HyperText."", TEXT, 9, 11-32.
Robinson, P. (1996). Geoffrey Chaucer. The Wife of Bath's Prologue. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Robinson, P., Burnard, L., Proffitt, M. and Driscoll, M. (1999). Initiatives Towards a Standard Encoding for Manuscript Descriptions. Session at DRH99, London, 1999.
Smith, D. (1999). ""Textual Variation and Version Control in the TEI."", Computers and the Humanities, 33, 103-112.
Vanhoutte, E. (1998). ""Where is the editor? Resistance in the creation of an electronic critical edition."" Paper presented at DRH98, Glasgow, 1998.","txt","2","",""
"47","1","Computing in the School of English and Scottish Language And Literature (SESLL) at the University of Glasgow","2","The STELLA project (Software for Teaching English and Scottish Language and Literature) has served the School of English and Scottish Language and Literature at the University of Glasgow since 1987. We have produced teaching packages and brought research databases into use in teaching. All our programs have been thoroughly tested in the classroom, and have been subjected to comment and detailed criticism by thousands of students, and their teachers, since their first appearance.

Teaching Packages

English Grammar: an Introduction

This revised program takes the university student of English from identifying parts of speech in context through the more complex processes involved in parsing phrases and clauses. The central feature of the teaching package is the exercise. There are five types, from naming parts of speech in context through to parsing phrases and clauses. The grammatical model is Hallidayan, but the primary reference is to the online coursebook. (Professor CJ Kay & Dr J.B. Corbett)

The Basics of English Metre:

This package uses a traditional approach to introduce students to the main conventional metres used in English verse, especially iambic pentameter. It can be used both with students who require a straightforward grounding in the subject and with those who study it in greater depth. (Professor CJ Kay)

ARIES Assisted Revision in English Style:

ARIES is designed to help the user achieve competence in written style. It consists of interactive exercises, each focusing on problem areas in punctuation, grammar and spelling, with explanations and examples. (Professor CJ Kay)

The Essentials of Old English:

These courses teach the rudiments of Old English from scratch. The courses consist of graded sessions, each a combination of different kinds of materials, including gap-filling, parsing, word lists and comprehension exercises. There is substantial help and texts with translations and notes. The current set of programs falls into two parts: Basics - a single series of short exercises designed for beginners in the subject; Plus - a suite of five distinct sets of exercises, designed to support a structured learning-programme whereby students of Old English develop a thorough grounding in the principles of Old English grammar. (Dr JJ Smith)

A Guide to Scottish Literature:

Essays on Scottish Literature, covering the period from 1350 to 1920. The essays are followed by notes, questions and topics for discussion, and are suitable for use in courses from sixth-year studies upwards. The material is divided into three sections: Medieval and Renaissance Literature 1375-1700; Poetry and Fiction 1700-1900; Poetry, Fiction and Drama Since 1920. (Professor DG Gifford)

A Guide to Older Scots:

This package consists of a reference book for students of the Older Scots language. It contains an introduction, an historical outline, a summary of the chronology, information on spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and style, and comprehensive reading lists. (Dr JJ Smith)

An Anthology of 16th and Early 17th Century Scots Poetry:

The anthology contains works of twenty of the major Scottish poets of the period. It is linked to online teaching materials for a course in medieval and renaissance Scottish Literature. (T. Van Heijnsbergen)

STELLA also maintains a web site for Scots texts: STARN the Scots Teaching and Research Network <http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/COMET/level2.htm> and email discussion lists for Scottish Literature and Language <http://www.mailbase.ac.uk/lists/scotlanglit-all/sub.html>.

A Guide to Piers Plowman:

This is a full hypertext edition of the B- text, complete with notes and supplementary materials. It is intended for a spectrum of undergraduate users and provides assistance in areas such as glossing and explanatory notes. (DM O.Brien)

The Historical Thesaurus of English:

This is a major research database project which is creating the first historical thesaurus to be compiled for any of the world's languages, and will include almost the entire recorded vocabulary of English from Old English to the modern period. It will resemble works like Roget's Thesaurus in that words will be arranged according to their meanings rather than listed alphabetically. It will, however, differ from any other thesaurus so far produced by listing obsolete words and obsolete meanings of current words as well as treating contemporary English comprehensively.","txt","2","",""
"48","1","Experience and Expertise: The Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute, University of Glasgow","2","The mission of the Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute (HATII) is to encourage actively the use of information technology and information to improve research and teaching in the arts and the humanities.

The Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute builds on over 15 years experience in humanities computing at the University of Glasgow. The current expertise advances research and teaching practices through an expanding academic programme in humanities computing at introductory, honours, and postgraduate level. The undergraduate courses include Introduction to Digitisation for Research and Preservation and Cultural and Heritage Computing.

In addition to supporting collaborative research projects within the Faculty of Arts of the University of Glasgow, the Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute manages its own research programme in the area of humanities and heritage computing. Examples of research projects include:

Evaluation Strategy for the re-development of the displays and visitor facilities at the Museum and Art Gallery, Kelvingrove
Funding Information & Communications Technology in the Heritage Sector
Digital Archaeology: Rescuing Neglected and Damaged Data Resources
The Wiltshire Wills project
HATII also runs a range of conferences, summer schools, and short courses including the very successful International Glasgow Digitisation Summer School.
The six main areas of activity in HATII are:
 
 

it runs an academic programme in humanities computing at introductory, honours, and postgraduate level;
it has responsibility for overseeing the development and management of the departmentally based teaching laboratories and computer classrooms for the Faculties of Divinity and Arts;
it supports and assists in the development and use of computing in teaching within the two Faculties;
its technical team supplies a range of network services and desktop support to Faculties of Divinity and Arts staff (~300), postgraduates (~500), and undergraduates (~5000);
it acts to promote collaborative research projects within the two Faculties; it manages a research programme;
it is organising and developing a range of conferences, summer schools, and short courses.
See <http://www.hatii.arts.gla.ac.uk> for more information.","txt","2","",""
"49","1","A Case Study of an Evaluation Questionnaire Concerning the Integration of a Hypermedia Project in University Courses","2","Summary

The presentation will develop the results of a questionnaire survey following the introduction of hypermedia products in cultural history and humanities computing courses. This experiment concerns the use of a hypermedia CD-ROM on Georgian Cities (developed by the Research Centre 'Cultures Anglophones et Technologies de l' Information' CATI at the Université de Paris-Sorbonne), a prototype of which was demonstrated in a paper at ACH-ALLC 1999; in the academic year 1999-2000 it is used in teaching in four universities, Paris-Sorbonne, Nanterre, Lille and Mulhouse, both in classes on eighteenth-century cultural history and on humanities computing. Concurrently, a website was created, meant to serve as supporting material for the courses, containing chapters presenting the CD-ROM, sections on documentation methods and gateways to relevant websites on the 18th century (in particular 'virtual cities' sites developed by the Universities of Bath and Missouri), on literary resources, and on architectural history. This was part of a strategy to develop the teaching of documentation methods and electronic resources in humanities courses, with which the research centre was entrusted.

Presentation

The presentation will consist of a demonstration of the products based on the analysis of the questionnaires, highlighting the sections which were shown by this survey to be significant in terms of learner use of media. Illustrative material such as syllabus outlines, students' worksheets and documents used concurrently will be available, as well as samples of website pages.

The survey

It was based on four questionnaires, two for teachers and two for students, in each case one pre-program and one post-program. The questionnaires were worked out on the models recommended by the Oxford CTI (Porter) and by the Open University's Programme on Learner Use of Media (PLUM). The CTI questionnaire was used especially for its structure relating the general background of humanities computing courses and the details of the current experiment, and for its format. The PLUM recommendations which were particularly relevant were those on alternative conditions of use in the instructional context, and on the interaction between interface and contents, assessing improvements both in approach and in knowledge. The points emphasized in the present questionnaires focused on two main types of questions: 1) the integration of IT resources in the syllabus (Deegan) - apart from the present CD-ROM, and also including it 2) interface/navigation procedures for the present CD-ROM, and their relation with the contents, focusing on the potential of multimedia presentation for the development of interdisciplinary approaches (Zuern). The survey also included monitoring reports by the teachers, where they recorded the stages in the students' use of the CD-ROM, and their methods for resorting to other materials used in conjunction (for instance comparison with websites or paper documents, note-taking).

The results
areas selected by students: two main types of navigation paths emerged.
A large number of students focused on general chapters on demography or education; they had a particular project as a purpose and were using this program as a resource in which to look for explanations on the topic. A graduate student doing research on townscape painting in the 18th century consulted the CD-ROM to find documents on the subject and new approaches to it, taking notes; she was also interested in finding methods of presentation for visual questions which could hardly be conveyed in other media (modelling of changing shadow effects for instance).
Others selected topographical navigation in one of the cities. They were seeking multidisciplinary contextualisation to their subject studies (for instance in literature - e.g. Smollett - or in social history). Their comments were that it brought to life subjects which so far they had not visualized so clearly.
renewal of approach
IT / subject: This experiment was initially integrated into the current syllabus and tasks, to which it was meant to provide an extra dimension. Its more innovative benefits were that it opened vistas on new approaches to the subject, thus encouraging critical thinking about the relative interest of various methodologies (Talarico). It helped students to formulate such questions on the definition of subject approaches and make a more critical use of IT.
students' role: Their responses differed according to their previous experience of IT. The classes caused students' interest in the teachers' preparation work for the documents used in class (an attitude which is not so explicit for traditional methods of teaching). In the sections of the courses where the teachers (who do the authoring work) demonstrated how to construct a program like the one they had just seen as a finished product, they were interested in being taken behind the scenes, especially if they had previous experience of authoring programs themselves (for instance doing a personal website); it enabled them to compare their practice with the teacher's. In that case, having themselves experienced the difficulties of scripting, they were surprised to see that it worked first time (which seemed normal to those who have no experience of computers). It encourages students to relate their own extracurricular interests to their studies. Those who so far had used IT started realising that it was not beyond reach since they could see it done under their eyes. They were also asked to do follow-up work, finding relevant sites on the Internet, which helped them to practise navigation and to formulate queries (use of keywords, Boolean operators, interpretation of the results in terms of 'noise' and 'silence' where necessary). Generally speaking, students appreciated questions about possible improvements to the CD-ROM, and listed corrections they suggested, which gave them an active role.
conclusions for the teaching methods
It helps teachers identify issues in the pedagogical use of IT. The faculty members involved in the project took part in it because it enabled them to add a variety of approaches to the subject. They could compare the guided use of such resources - exploration according to a path selected by the teacher - and the individual use by students. In addition, other colleagues who taught courses on related subjects - e.g. a literature course on Smollett and Jane Austen - asked for a demonstration to be given to their class, both as background information on Georgian Bath and for the extracts of film adaptations of the novels. It was a means to introduce such material to faculty members who had not used it so far.
The analysis of the survey
A detailed analysis of the survey will show the results sorted according to several criteria, e.g. level of studies, or subject. It will also correlate the answers according to previous experience of IT in the curriculum.

References

Deegan, Marilyn (2000). 'From innovation to integration.' Villes visite virtuelle. PUPS, Paris. 7-19.
PLUM <http://iet.open.ac.uk/Plum/evaluation/contents.html>
Porter, Sarah, and Lisa McRory (1998). 'Digital Text in Humanities Teaching.' In Lou Burnard, Marilyn Deegan and Harold Short (eds) The Digital Demotic: A Selection of Papers from Digital Ressources in the Humanities 1997. King's College, Office for Humanities Communication, London.
Talarico, Kathryn Marie (1999). 'Cyberspace without Tears: Fundamental Approaches to the Uses of Technology in the Classroom.' Literary and Linguistic Computing 14.2 (June 1999)199-210.
Zuern, John (1999). 'Timelines OnLine: Hypermedia and Information Architecture in the Representation of Intellectual History.' Paper at ACH-ALLC, University of Virginia, 12 June 1999.","txt","2","",""
"50","1","Collaborative Campus: Rhetoric, Technology and Classroom Re-Composition","2","Our group proposes to demonstrate the technologies, methodologies, and assessment criteria used to develop a University System of Georgia grant-funded, multi-campus distance education project. The project, initiated in September 1999, links faculty and students on three campuses in a collaborative first year writing course through the use of synchronous and asynchronous Internet-based applications. The three schools participating in the project are uniquely diverse in student population and institutional and disciplinary objectives: Gainesville College (a two-year liberal arts school), the University of Georgia (a four-year liberal arts research university), and Georgia Institute of Technology (a four-year technical/engineering institute). The virtual learning community created with the technologies enables students to conduct group discussions, complete critical reading and writing assignments, and design hypertext research projects. The students' practical experience using these collaborative writing tools is reinforced by the course content: a cultural analysis of scientific and technological rhetorical representations. Using fiction, non-fiction, film, and new media, students explore how cultural perceptions of identity and community are transformed by innovative theories of ""progress."" In our presentation, we will 1) discuss the project's disciplinary and pedagogical objectives, 2) demonstrate the synchronous and asynchronous collaborative environments used to facilitate group discussion, conduct research, and implement hypertext documents, 3) discuss the methods used to promote the desired collaboration via these tools, and 4) present the preliminary results from our assessment of the course.

Collaborative Campus was motivated by our interest in exploring more efficient and pedagogically effective technologies for hybrid conventional/distance learning education, specifically for technology-infused writing courses. Developed in Fall Semester 1999 and delivered and assessed in Spring and Summer 2000, the project is one that promises to extend recent developments in technology and humanities research. Currently, a significant amount of the university interest in educational technology is being directed towards distance education initiatives. This is a mixed blessing for many of us in the computers and writing community. On the one hand, it can mean increased funding for equipment and for teaching initiatives focused on integrating computing technology into current curricula. On the other hand, it often requires vigilance in resisting the delivery-oriented, technology-based format that has become commonplace in many distance education courses. Although many humanities instructors have experience teaching with technology that promotes collaboration, the reality is that much of the current technology is either not technically suited or not sufficiently robust to facilitate distance education writing courses. Furthermore, the relationship between learning and pedagogy in local computer lab classrooms vs. delivery in virtual environments has been insufficiently explored. At present programs, such as Daedalus, are not internet-capable, and text-based environments, such as MOOs, are not conducive to modes of collaboration beyond informal conversation. In order to conduct truly collaborative computer-intensive writing courses in campus labs and in virtual classrooms, we need both tools and methods suited to this more dispersed teaching arrangement.

Georgia Institute of Technology's School of Literature, Communication, and Culture (LCC) has been committed to researching and developing technologies that will promote collaboration and increase rhetorical skills in both local and distance learning environments. From 1996-1999, the Pilot Writing Program in Electronic Environments enabled faculty and students to explore in increasing depth the use of Internet technologies in the humanities. Faculty working in LCC, including those in the New Media Center for Education and Research and in the Information Design and Technology graduate program, worked in the Pilot Program to develop strategies that combined pedagogical interests with technological development. Using the Pilot Program as a model and extending it to include a larger institutional community, the Collaborative Campus project continues to refine the use and design of educational technologies in computer lab and distance learning settings. Although Gainesville College and the University of Georgia had clearly established technologies in the writing classroom as a priority and had technical/pedagogical support services in place for faculty, our project allows for the continuing development of effective tools and teaching methods for computer-intensive education. The project faculty, teaching a diverse student population on each of the University System of Georgia campuses, is positioned to provide a broad spectrum of experience about the effectiveness of educational technologies in humanities courses and to advise others interested in developing interdisciplinary technology-infused curricula.

The collaborative writing technologies utilized by project participants (140 students and 7 faculty) support a variety of rhetorical and pedagogical purposes, while challenging the students to adapt their communication styles to the distinct capabilities of each. TechLINC, our custom-designed synchronous application, is a virtual campus with classrooms, design studios, and ""outdoor"" meeting spaces that adapts the Palace software, a popular Internet graphical chat environment, to the educational needs of our project. Like much of the traditional collaboration software used in writing courses, TechLINC allows students to conduct and log synchronous discussions; however, whereas most other programs work only on local-area networks, TechLINC is accessible from any computer on the Internet. Thus it facilitates the multi-campus collaboration necessary among project participants. More importantly, TechLINC radically changes the nature of distance collaboration by augmenting text-based discussions with visual and audio resources. TechLINC's ability to interface with web browsers and multimedia Internet applications allows students simultaneously to access web pages or to hear and see streaming audio and video as they conduct their discussions. These capabilities, in turn, make it possible for students, in real-time and at a distance, to do joint Internet research, collaboratively develop web pages, or listen and discuss a recorded news program or interview. They also provide a means for distance collaboration between instructors and students. Instructors teaching with TechLINC each have a virtual office in which they can meet with students to review assignments. Because of TechLINC's ability to interface with web browsers, instructors and students can also jointly examine and discuss assignments uploaded to the Web, or to Web Crossing, our asynchronous application. Web Crossing allows students to respond in threaded discussions to study questions, post drafts for collaborative peer-review, and link to Internet sites that document their research or preview their own hypertext projects. Because Web Crossing is accessible through a Web Browser, requiring no specialized software, it provides a very cost-efficient means for providing students with collaborative writing and research opportunities. As a counter-point to the more informal discussions generated in TechLINC, Web Crossing archives the real-time discussions of the chat application and provides a more structured electronic environment to post extended responses to critical reading, writing, and design-related issues.

Successfully integrating technology and teaching is a primary objective for the project participants, and the course content, along with the writing, on-line research, and hypertext design assignments were developed in conjunction with evaluative criteria to measure student learning using different pedagogic modes suited to each technology. Assessment methodologies, including pre- and post-course surveys, focus groups, and independent writing evaluations by non-participating teaching faculty will critique a number of areas relevant to collaborative computing technologies and rhetorical studies: synchronous vs. asynchronous communication styles, the rhetorical capabilities of hypertext vs. conventional essay writing, and student attitudes about technology as a writing and research tool. In general, the project is designed to foster among students a more rigorous imperative for discovering how electronic writing is used to communicate disciplinary content, while providing faculty with precise data to measure student success in diverse electronic environments.","txt","2","",""
"51","1","Machine Learning Support for Evaluation and Quality Control","1","Annotated material which is to be evaluated and possibly upgraded is used as training and test data for a machine learning system. The portion of the material for which the output of the machine learning system disagrees with the human annotation is then examined in detail. This portion is shown to contain a higher percentage of annotation errors than the material as a whole, and hence to be a suitable subset for limited quality improvement. In addition, the types of disagreement may identify the main inconsistencies in the annotation so that these can then be investigated systematically.

Background

In many humanities projects today, we see that large textual resources are manually annotated with markup symbols, as these are deemed necessary for efficient future research with those resources. The reason that the annotation is applied manually is that there is, for the time being, no automatic procedure which can apply the annotation with an acceptable degree of correctness, typically because the annotation requires detailed knowledge of language or even of the world to which the resources refer.

The choice of human annotators may be unavoidable, but it is also one which has a severe disadvantage. Human annotators are unable to sustain the amount of concentration needed for correct annotation for the amounts of time needed to annotate the enormous amounts of data present (cf. e.g. Marcus et al. 1993; Baker 1997). Loss of concentration, even if only partial and temporary, is bound to lead to a loss of correctness in the annotation. Awareness of this problem has led to the use of quality control procedures in large scale annotation projects. Such procedures generally consist of spot checks by more experienced annotators or double blind annotation of a percentage of the material. The lessons learned from such checks lead to additional instruction of the annotators, and, if the observed errors are systematic and/or severe enough, to correction of previously annotated material. Even with excellent quality control measures during annotation, though, it is likely that the end result will not be fully correct, and the measure of correctness can, at most, be estimated from the observations made in quality control. Obviously, it would be enormously helpful if there were automatic procedures to support large scale evaluation and upgrade of annotated material.

Methodology

Unfortunately, as mentioned above, automatic procedures are currently unable to deal with natural language to a sufficient degree to correctly apply most types of annotation. However, although automatic procedures cannot provide correctness, they are undoubtedly well-equipped to provide consistency. Now consistency and correctness are not the same, but both are desirable qualities and, unlike other pairs of desirable qualities such as high precision and recall, they are not in opposition. Complete correctness is bound to be consistent at some level of reference and complete consistency at a sufficiently deep level of reference is bound to be correct. More practically, a highly correct annotation can be assumed to agree most of the time with a highly consistent annotation, which means that disagreement between the two will tend to indicate instances with a high likelihood of error.

An example is provided by Van Halteren et al. (Forthcoming). One of the constructed wordclass taggers is trained and tested on Wall Street Journal material tagged with the Penn Treebank tagset. In comparison with the benchmark, the tagger provides the same tag in 97.23% of the cases. When the disagreements are checked manually for 1% of the corpus, it turns out that out of 349 disagreements, 97 are in fact errors in the benchmark. Unless this is an unfortunate coincidence, it would mean that we can remove about 10,000 errors by checking fewer than 40,000 words, a much less formidable task than checking the whole 1Mw corpus. In addition, the cases where the tagger is wrong appear to be caused in 44% by inconsistencies in the training data, e.g. the word ""about"" in ""about 20"" or ""about $20"" is tagged as a preposition 648 times and as an adverb 612 times. Such observations are slightly harder to use systematically, but can again serve to adjust inconsistent and/or incorrect annotation.

In principle, the use of such a comparison methodology is not limited to wordclass tagging. Any annotation task which can be expressed as classification on the basis of a (preferably small) number of information units (e.g. for wordclass tagging the information units could be the word, two disambiguated preceding classes and two undisambiguated following classes) is amenable to be handled by a machine learning system. Such a system attempts to identify regularities in the relation between the set of information units and uses these regularities to classify previously unseen cases (cf. e.g. Langley 1996; Carbonell 1990). Several machine learning systems are freely available for research purposes, e.g. the memory-based learning system TiMBL (http://ilk.kub.nl) and the decision tree system C5.0 (http://www.rulequest.com). If we have a machine learning system and if we can translate the annotation task into a classification task, we can train the system on the annotated material and then compare the system's output with the human annotation. The instances where the two disagree can then (a) be used as prime candidates for rechecking correctness and (b) point to systematic inconsistencies to be reconsidered.

Overview of the Paper

Using various types of annotated material and machine learning systems, this paper will attempt to answer the following questions:

For which types of annotation is this method useful?
How does the error rate in the 'highlighted' portion of the material compare to the overall error rate?
At which levels of correctness of the annotation is the method useful?
Are some machine learning systems better than others for the purpose at hand?
Can we benefit from the fact that we have more than one system at our disposal and, if so, how?
Should we use the full material in the training phase or is it better to use cross-validation?
References
Baker, J. P. (1997). Consistency and Accuracy in Correcting Automatically Tagged Data. In R. Garside, G. Leech and A. P. Mcenery (eds) Corpus Annotation. Addision Wesley Longman, London. 243-250.
Carbonell, J. (ed) (1990). Machine Learning: Paradigms and Methods. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
van Halteren, H., Daelemans, W. and Zavrel, J. (Forthcoming). Improving Accuracy in NLP through Combination of Machine Learning Systems.
Langley, P. (1996). Elements of Machine Learning. Morgan Kaufmann, Los Altos, CA.
Marcus, M., Santorini, B. and Marcinkiewicz, M. (1993). Building a large annotated Corpus of English: the Penn Treebank. Computational Linguistics 19(2). 313-330.","txt","2","",""
"52","1","A Corpus-Based Methodology for Identifying Non-nominal ""It"": Rule-Based and Machine Learning Approaches","1","In this paper, seven uses of ""it"" are identified in English. These uses involve noun phrase anaphora (eg. ""Do not sweep the dust when dry, you will only recirculate IT.""), verb phrase anaphora (eg. ""Raising money for your favourite charity can be fun. You can do IT on your own...""), reference to clauses (eg. ""Not every city would be suited to this approach, IT must be admitted.""), reference to entire discourse segments, (eg. ""Always use a tool for the job it was intended to do. Always use tools correctly. If IT feels very awkward, stop.""), cataphoric reference to entities (eg. ""When IT fell, the glass broke.""), pleonastic uses in which the pronoun has no reference and is used only due to a requirement of the grammar (eg. ""IT was {raining, 4 o'clock, All Saints' day, etc.}"", ""IT's recommended that..."", ""IT's easier to...""), and uses in idiomatic constructions (eg. ""I take IT you're going now.""). Due to the absence of a suitable term in the literature, the term ""non-nominal it"" is used to identify all the cases in which ""it"" is not in an anaphoric relationship with a noun phrase in the text. Numerous researchers have so far proposed hand-crafted rule-based pattern matching techniques to identify pleonastic ""it"". These methods have the drawback that they require recognition of potentially large and open-ended lists of trigger words and complex expressions in order to succeed. The goal here was to compare a rule-based method with a method devised to use machine learning to make the identification. It was hoped that information such as the position of the pronoun and its complex relation to the surrounding syntactic context would contribute to the accuracy of the identification. We implemented both methods. Corpora were constructed, annotated and used to classify and evaluate the accuracy of these programs. A comparison was made between them.

The literature makes it easy to infer the importance of recognising non-nominal uses of ""it"" in the fields of anaphora resolution, information retrieval, machine translation and text summarisation. The task is especially crucial when it is considered that almost one third of the uses of ""it"" in our corpus of randomly selected texts were non-nominal.

In the full paper, the treatment of pleonastic ""it"" in surveys of English usage is reviewed, as is work by Paice & Husk (1987), Lappin & Leass (1994) and Denber (1998) on methods for automatic recognition of pleonastic ""it"". The application of machine learning to a different problem in linguistics is described in the review of Litman (1996) on the automatic classification of cue phrases. One of the methods in the present paper applies machine learning to the automatic identification of non-nominal ""it"".

A novel resource was required for this corpus-based research. A corpus was therefore constructed using 77 randomly selected texts from the BNC and stripped down versions of the Susanne corpus. We implemented a software tool that facilitates SGML mark up of instances of ""it"" that appear in the corpus by a human annotator. Non-Nominal uses of ""it"" are marked <PLEO ID=""XX"">it</PLEO> whereas other instances are left unmarked by the annotator. On completion, the corpus contained 368830 words, 3171 occurrences of ""it"" and 1025 non-nominal uses. A DTD was defined for the annotated corpus and the SGML aware LT-Chunker (Mikheev 1996) was used to tokenise the corpus while preserving the prior mark up. The tokenised file was then processed by a Perl program written to report the paragraph, sentence and word positions of the non-nominal instances of ""it"". This information was written to a data file and used to evaluate the methods implemented and described later.

We implemented a program based on Paice & Husk's (1987) method for recognition of pleonastic ""it"". In the first step, a plain text version of the corpus was tagged using Tapanainen & Jarvinen's (1997) SGML-blind FDG-Parser. The output from the tagger was converted to an SGML format by our software and then processed by our program based on Paice & Husk's pattern recognition method. In this way a classification was assigned to each instance of ""it"". Evaluation was performed by comparing the output of the program with the contents of the data file produced earlier.

A machine learning approach was also implemented. It exploits Daelemans' (1999) TiMBL memory based learning method. TiMBL works by using a training file of feature-value vectors that have been given a classification: non-nominal; or not. The construction of the training file was made by processing a plain text version of the annotated corpus with the FDG-Parser and the SGML conversion program. The SGML file was input to a program that described each instance of ""it"" as a vector of feature values. The features used in our approach were designed to describe the position of non-nominal instances, the lemmas of significant ""following"" words such as verbs and adjectives, as well as the relation of ""it"" to other structures in the text, such as prepositions and noun phrases. A thorough description appears in the full paper. The vectors associated with the instances were classified by comparison with the data file constructed earlier. The set of classified vectors made this way was then used as the training file. TiMBL classifies query vectors according to their similarity to the examples in the training file. The method of ten-fold cross-validation was used to obtain an evaluation of the average accuracy of the technique over our corpus.

The results of our automatic evaluation showed no major differences in the level of accuracy between the two methods. However, it was noted that the method based on work by Paice & Husk was slightly more accurate over this text (78.81% vs. 78.68%) but had a stronger tendency to misclassify instances as non-nominal (false positives: 265 vs. 243). If false positives are undesirable to the user, then the machine learning approach is better.

Further experiments in which the classification of instances in the training set was extended using a 7-ary system, in accordance with the uses given in the introduction, showed some improvement in making the binary distinction between nominal and non-nominal uses. The classification accuracy rose to 78.74% and the number of false positive classifications fell to 209. Predictably, the detection rate for each of the different types of usage was low (50.35% on average).

Given that TiMBL is reliant on a training file, it will also be beneficial to extend our resource in terms of size as well as information content. The present file, with 3171 instances, cannot be considered to be of sufficient size. The availability of a suitable resource for evaluation is also important for the application of optimisation techniques. Of course, non-nominal pronouns appear in languages other than English, and it would be valuable to generate resources in order to explore machine learning based methods to identify non-nominal pronouns for them.

References

Burnard, L. (1995). Users Reference Guide British National Corpus Version 1.0. Oxford University Computing Services, UK.
Daelemans, W. (1999). TiMBL: Tilburg Memory Based Learner version 2 Reference Guide, ILK Technical Report - ILK 99-01. Tilburg University, The Netherlands.
Denber, M. (1998). Automatic Resolution of Anaphora in English. Eastman Kodak Co., Imaging Science Division.
Lappin, S and Leass, H.J. (1994). An Algorithm for Pronominal Anaphora Resolution. Computational Linguistics, Volume 20, Number 4.
Litman, D.J. (1996). Cue Phrase Classification Using Machine Learning. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, vol 5, pp.53-94.
Mikheev, A. (1996). LT_CHUNK V 2.1. Language Technology Group, University of Edinburgh, UK.
Paice, C.D. and Husk, G.D. (1987). Towards the Automatic Recognition of Anaphoric Features in English Text: The Impersonal Pronoun 'It'. Computer Speech and Language, 2 p.109-132, Academic Press, US.
Sampson, G. (1995). English for the Computer: The SUSANNE Corpus and Analytic Scheme. Oxford University Press, UK.
Tapanainen, P. and Jarvinen, T. (1997). A Non-Projective Dependency Parser. The Proceedings of The 5th Conference of Applied Natural Language Processing, pp. 64-71, ACL, US.","txt","2","",""
"53","1","Binomials and the Computer: a Study in Corpus-Based Phraseology","1","This paper presents the results of a large-scale corpus-based study (Hatzidaki 1999) of an important feature of English phraseology, namely binomial pairs (e.g. chalk and cheese, up and down, prim and proper, through and through, Laurel and Hardy). The purpose of the research was two-fold, firstly, to conduct, on the basis of a large and varied corpus of English textual data, a thorough and in-depth structural and functional analysis of a much-studied and yet not fully explored phraseological phenomenon; and secondly, to examine the hypothesis that the use of systematically collected samples of authentic language data results in more accurate and comprehensive descriptions of the form and function of linguistic phenomena than does the sole reliance on introspection. The analysis yielded an extensive and rigorous taxonomy of the various structural variations of binomials, as well as significant new information on their function in the communicative process.

Binomials, namely sequences of ""two or more words or phrases belonging to the same grammatical category, having some semantic relationship and joined by some syntactic device such as 'and' or 'or'"" (Bhatia 1994:143), have long been objects of interest for idiomatologists and stylisticians. The several existing studies of this phenomenon have mainly focussed on its marked occurrence in the works of certain literary authors such as Chaucer, Lydgate, Shakespeare, Swift, Shaw, etc. (see, respectively, Héraucourt 1939 and Potter 1972, Tilgner 1936, Nash 1958 and Gerritsen 1958, Milic 1967, and Ohmann 1962), as well as in English legal texts; the semantic and syntactic characteristics and idiosyncrasies of the various paired forms, especially the semantic relationship between the linked members of a binomial (synonymy, able and talented; antonymy, boys and girls; complementarity, bow and arrow; Malkiel 1959), or the notion of irreversibility, i.e. the tendency of binomials to occur in only one sequence, as in here and there and not *there and here, and the possible causes of this phenomenon (e.g. 'proximal before distal'; Cooper and Ross 1975); and the incidence of binomials in languages other than English (e.g. Fix 1985 for German; Abraham 1950 for French and Italian; Malkiel 1959 for Russian, Portuguese, Spanish, Ancient Greek and Latin; Gold 1991 for Yiddish; Koch 1983 for Arabic; Szpyra 1983 for Polish; etc.).

As opposed to literary studies, where binomials are treated as a flexible and interesting stylistic device which serves as a powerful means of expressing the authors' ideology and worldview, most studies of the occurrence of this feature in general language implicitly or explicitly regard binomials as a small and probably finite set of structurally and semantically idiosyncratic forms. Moreover, although many studies of the formal characteristics of binomials are available, there exists no comprehensive account of the full structural variability of the binomial pairs used by the average speaker, no detailed information on the distribution of the different patterns, and no organized taxonomy of forms. Finally, with the notable exception of studies of binomials as a distinctive feature of the language of the law which fulfils the requirements of legal draftsmanship for precision, clarity, unambiguity and all-inclusiveness (Mellinkoff 1963, Gustafsson 1984, Bhatia 1994), minimal attention has been given to the functions of binomials in non-literary language.

Crucially, with very few exceptions (notably Gustafsson 1975), previous treatises on binomials have been intuition-based. A glance at a general corpus, however, instantly reveals a number of new and interesting facts concerning this feature. Firstly, numerous paired forms emerge, which appear to have been modelled on an abstract dualistic structure of the A + link + B type, very few of which, however, represent familiar, idiomatic locutions such as the oft-quoted rough and ready and out and out: the majority of the couplets appearing in corpus data constitute novel sequences such as calm and united, gently and effectively, inflation and unemployment, etc., whose formation seems to be governed by the specific lexicogrammatical, discoursal and pragmatic rules pertaining to the production of the texts in which they are encountered. Secondly, although couplets are extremely varied in their structural details, they all seem to fall into a set of identifiable lexicogrammatical patterns. And thirdly, the occurrence of the various dualistic patterns in textual sources with different situational characteristics demonstrates substantial distributional fluctuations.

The above facts indicate that, in order to effectively account for the phenomenon of binomial pairing as it is observed in a corpus of texts, a new and more flexible data-driven framework needs to be devised. In the light of the data used in the present research, rather than a list of structurally and semantically peculiar couplets, binomials are analyzed as an abstract mechanism which speakers have at their disposal for the generation of a very wide range of paired types that serve a variety of important communicative purposes. As a theoretical model for the identification and extraction of binomials from the corpus and the classification of their various lexicogrammatical variants into a set of categories, we exploit the notion of phraseological frame or formal idiom, as posited and developed by Moon (1998:154f) and Fillmore, Kay & O'Connor (1988:505f). This, in very broad terms, represents an abstract structural formula which, as Fillmore et al. put it, 'serves as host' (ibid.:506) to institutionalized expressions as well as novel, spontaneously created forms.

Binomials emerge as a major frame which can be represented by means of the general formula A link B. Our data analysis, which results in the construction of a detailed and comprehensive data-driven taxonomy of binomial patterns, involves, firstly, the identification and extraction of the various binomial forms from our corpus of textual data; secondly, the devising of a prototypical system of abstract representations to which each extant pair is assigned on the basis of its lexicogrammatical attributes; thirdly, the detailed recording of any interesting lexicosemantic preferences displayed by the patterns (for instance their semantic prosodies; Louw 1993 and Sinclair 1996); and, finally, the calculation of the frequency of occurrence of each pattern in the corpus.

We also discuss in detail the important but rarely addressed issue of the function of binomials in the communicative process. Specifically, we examine the incidence of the various binomial patterns in each of the six subcorpora comprising our corpus (a set of written publications in book form, both fiction and non-fiction; a broadcasting medium; a semi-specialized periodical publication; two daily newspapers, a broadsheet and a tabloid; and a set of spontaneous and semi-spontaneous spoken texts), and seek explanations for the very substantial distributional perturbations. The main purpose of this exercise is to establish the nature and extent of the correlation between the form and structure of binomial patterns on the one side, and the extralinguistic and situational factors pertaining to each subcorpus on the other, and, thus, to determine the precise functions served by each binomial pattern in communication.

Our data strongly suggest that binomials constitute a phraseological device which makes a highly significant contribution to the communicative process. Our analysis demonstrates that, depending on their structure as well as the type of text in which they are encountered, binomials serve a wide range of communicative functions. For instance, it is shown that the abundant use of informationally dense binomials (e.g. government and parliament, political and monetary, commercial and investment banks) on the part of journalists serves most effectively the institutional requirements of the mass media for factuality, informativeness, precision, conciseness and stylistic uniformity (Crystal & Davy 1969, Tuchman 1978, van Dijk 1988, and elsewhere), whilst simultaneously disguising the highly fragmented process of production of news texts (Bell 1991).

On the other hand, the frequent employment of repetitive, vague or informationally sparse pairs in conversation (ages and ages, here and there, try and get) reflects the efforts of conversationalists in the face of the exigencies of real-time communication. In the context of unplanned talk, binomials act as a lexicalized and, therefore, elegant and well-integrated temporal space which speakers create automatically and with the minimum of cognitive effort whilst coping with delays in the formulation of thought and argument. Binomials in extemporaneous conversation act as a crucial discourse-cohesive device, which helps keep speech 'glued together' (Johnstone 1987), whilst minimizing the effect of fragmentation (Chafe 1982) created by phenomena such as false starts, random repetition (Norrick 1987), etc. At the same time, binomials may be used by speakers as a means of expressing emphasis and emotional involvement and of creating rhetorical presence (e.g. faster and faster, ringing and ringing).

On the whole, the corpus-based structural and situational analysis of binomials not only offers new and significant information on a well-known linguistic phenomenon, it also offers substantial empirical support for the hypothesis that phraseology plays a major part in the accomplishment of the communicative goals of speakers or writers (for a review of relevant studies, see Hatzidaki 1999).

Bibliography

Abraham, R.D. (1950). Fixed Order of Coordinates. Modern Language Journal 34, 276-287.
Bell, A. (1996). The Language of News Media. Blackwell, Oxford.
Bhatia, V. (1994). Cognitive structuring in legislative provisions. In J. Gibbons (ed) Language and the Law, Longman, London.
Chafe, W.L. (1982). Integration and Involvement in Speaking, Writing, and Oral Literature. In D. Tannen (ed) Spoken and Written Language. Ablex, New Jersey.
Cooper, W.E. & Ross, J. R. (1975).World Order. In R. E. Grossman, J. L. San and T. J. Vance (eds) Papers from the Parasession on Functionalism. Chicago Linguistic Society, Chicago.
Crystal, D. and Davy, D. (1969). Investigating English Style, Longmans, London.
Fillmore, C.J., Kay, P. and O'Connor, M.C. (1988). Regularity and Idiomaticity in Grammatical Constructions: The Case of Let Alone. Language 64(3), 501-538.
Fix, U. (1985). Wortpaare im heutigen Deutsch. Sprachpflege 34(8), 112-113.
Gerritsen, J. (1958). More Paired Words in Othello. English Studies 39, 212-214.
Gold, D.L. (1991). Reversible Binomials in Afrikaans, English, Esperanto, French, German, Hebrew, Italian, Judesmo, Latin, Lithuanian, Polish, Portuguese, Rumanian, Spanish and Yiddish. Orbis 36, 104-118.
Gustafsson, M. (1975). Binomial Expressions in Present-day English. Turun Yliopisto, Turku.
Gustafsson, M. (1984). The syntactic features of binomial expressions in legal English. Text 4(1-3), 123-141.
Hatzidaki, O. (1999). Part and Parcel: A Linguistic Analysis of Binomials and its Application to the Internal Characterization of Corpora, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Birmingham.
Héraucourt, W. (1939). Die Wertwelt Chaucers, Carl Winters, Heidelberg.
Johnstone, B. (1987). An Introduction. Text 7(3), 205-214.
Koch, B. J. (1983). Arabic Lexical Couplets and the Evolution of Synonymy. General Linguistics 23(1), 51-61.
Louw, B. (1993). Irony in the Text or Insincerity in the Writer - The Diagnostic Potential of Semantic Prosodie. In M. Baker, G. Francis and E. Tognini-Bonelli (eds) Text and Technology, John Benjamins, Amsterdam.
Malkiel, Y. (1959). Studies in Irreversible Binomials. Lingua 8, 113-160.
Mellinkoff, D. (1963). The Language of the Law. Little, Brown & Co, Boston.
Milic, L. T. (1967). A Quantitative Approach to the Style of Jonathan Swift. Mouton & Co, The Hague.
Moon, R. (1998). Fixed Expressions and Idioms in English. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Nash, W. (1958) Paired Words in Othello: Shakespeare's Use of a Stylistic Device. English Studies 39, 212-214.
Norrick, N. R. (1980). Semantic Relations and Motivation in Idioms. In E. Weigand and G. Tschauder (eds) Perspektive: Textintern Vol. 1, Niemeyer, Tübingen.
Ohmann, R. M. (1962). Shaw: The Style and the Man. Wesleyan University Press, Middletown.
Potter, S. (1972). Chaucer's Untransposable Binomials. In E. Ohmann, V. Vaananen and A. Kurvinen (eds) Studies Presented to Tauno F. Mustanoja on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday, Modern Language Society, Helsinki.
Sinclair, J. (1996). The Search for Units of Meaning. Textus 9, 75-106.
Tilgner, E. (1936). Die Aureate Terms als Stilelement bei Lydgate. Germanische Studien 182.
Tuchman, G. (1978). Making News. The Free Press, New York.
van Dijk, T. A. (1988). News Analysis. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey.","txt","2","",""
"54","1","ACAD - a Cambridge Alumni Database","1","1. Introduction

From 1922-27 Venn published the four volumes of Part I of Alumni Cantabrigienses, a biographical list of all known students, graduates and holders of office at the University of Cambridge, from the earliest times to 1751. This was followed from 1940-54 by the six volumes of Part II, covering 1752-1900. Subsequent archival research unearthed much more detail, and many more names, for the period up to 1500, and in 1963 Emden published his two-volume A Biographical Register of the University of Cambridge to 1500. Together, these twelve volumes cover approximately 180000 names, with some overlap.

It goes without saying that all this information is of the utmost importance for historical research, covering as it does a large proportion of the religious, legal, administrative, medical, academic, and royal appointments in Britain, the Empire, and the Colonies, as well as many other countries. A good deal of social history is also included, albeit patchily.

However, all these publications have a great defect for research: there is no index. Also, since Venn's work, many corrections and additions to the information have come to light, and without the incorporation of this new material it is easy to be misled by the original books. So, to find all the Vicars of Trumpington mentioned by Venn and Emden requires an exhaustive search of twelve large volumes and many card indexes of Addenda and Corrigenda.

2. Database

We therefore set about the creation of an on-line database to make all this information accessible. Other sources, such as the Tripos Lists (lists of degrees awarded), and College Registers (especially those of the women's colleges, which were ignored by Venn) have been included. It is envisaged that the database will be made freely available for public searching on the World Wide Web, though it is not yet clear what mechanism for searching will be provided.

Similar projects, based on Emden's Registers for Oxford and Cambridge, were undertaken in the 1970s.[3] In those studies, the data was highly coded to allow easy cross-tabulation. Several important articles using results from the studies have appeared.[1][2][4] There is, however, no resource for Oxford comparable to that of Venn for the later period.

For many years we were unable to find a simple and reliable way to put the data into machine-readable form. Venn's books are in small hand-set type, printed on thick rough paper, and are full of italics, all of which proved completely intractable to the OCR packages available until recently.

By chance, just as we had found suitable technology to cope with Venn's printing, we discovered that Ancestry.com had already prepared machine-readable versions of most of the volumes of Part II.

Negotiations between Cambridge University Press (the copyright holders) and Ancestry.com soon led to an agreement to share this data, as their product and ours are for essentially different purposes, theirs being mainly accessed for genealogical information. Ancestry.com are also planning to put the remaining volumes of Venn into the computer, and to make the data available to us.

Emden's Biographical Register, the Tripos Lists, and the registers of the women's colleges have proved relatively easy to read using OCR and the services of an excellent methodical proofreader.

3. Structural Analysis

A typical entry from Emden looks like this (with references abbreviated):

Dawson, John (Dauson).*
Entered in C.L. ET 1484;
grace that study for 6 yr in C. and Cn.L. suffice for entry in Cn.L. gr. 1488-9;
Inc. C.L., adm. June 1490 [Ref_1];
D.C.L.
R. of Debden, Essex, clk, adm. 17 May 1484;
till death [Ref_2].
Died 1492.
Will dated 10 Aug. 1492; proved 12 Feb. 1493 [Ref_3].
Requested burial in S. Michael's, Cambridge.

and has the following structure:

heading
event 1
event 2 ...

where each event in general comprises:

topic
type
place
date(s)
reference(s)

The initial form of the database is an SGML-tagged text, from which subsequent databases and searching/sorting structures can easily be obtained.

My first attempts at analysis were written in Perl, a widely available string-handling language which allows complex regular expressions. (A regular expression is just a pattern which is used to match parts of the data and extract those parts which can vary.) It soon became apparent that the complexity of the regular expressions needed for the recognition of large-scale structures such as these entries uses too much memory in Perl, and the programs frequently failed.

At Cambridge we have a locally-written programmable text editor called NE which has good regular expression handling. It may seem a retrograde step to use a one-off local program like NE in preference to a widely used standard such as Perl, but in our case only the product (the database) is useful; the process used to make the product is different for each text analysed, so the ephemeral nature of the analysis programs is not significant.

Events will in general be split over several input lines, so it was first necessary to combine the lines of a complete paragraph into a single line, then to split them at punctuation such as semicolons, and to put references on separate lines.

It was clear that some type of formal, structured, but readable output would be needed in the first instance. This could then be converted automatically as input to any required database package. SGML provides an adequate structure for these needs, and is widely used by publishers of machine-readable databases.

First attempts at analysis were very heuristic, but served to clarify the problems in my mind. Writing a DTD for the SGML structure was then very helpful, as it forced me to take decisions about nesting of fields, etc.

Initially, my regular expressions tried to match complete events, including place names and dates, but two problems arose: the programs ran out of time or store, or NE's regular expression processor found the structure too complex to analyse. Automatically pre-tagging identifiable structures such as dates and place names enabled simpler regular expressions to be written.

4. Results

A discussion of the complete DTD and the analytical processes used will be presented. Various types of results will be used to illustrate the processing, including complete updated entries amalgamated from all sources, and statistics about certain types of event such as religious appointments. The Figures (see below) are based on only part of the data (one volume of Venn), as the analysis is not yet complete. The Figures should be used with care, because although they represent approximately ten thousand individuals, they are constrained by having surnames beginning 'Abbey' to 'Challis', so a preponderance of one family attending one college may skew the results.

Figure 1 will show the range of ages at admission to all colleges, and holds no surprises. Age at admission is given in only about half of the entries in Venn. Most of the older admissions are men who have already been ordained.

Figure 2 will show the admissions to the two largest colleges, Trinity and St John's, between 1752 and 1900, and illustrates the general increase in size of all the colleges, and hence the whole university, in that period.

Figures 3 and 4 will show the admissions to other colleges during that period (except Downing, Selwyn, and the women's colleges, which were not founded until the nineteenth century). The outstanding feature of Figure 4 is the dramatic increase in admissions at Queens' College from 1821-1830.

Figure 5 will show the number of religious appointments (Curate, Vicar, or Rector) per county.

5. References

[1] Aston, T. H. (1977). 'Oxford's Medieval Alumni', Past and Present, 74.
[2] Aston, T. H., Duncan, G. D., and Evans, T. A. R. (1980). 'The Medieval Alumni of the University of Cambridge', Past and Present, 86.
[3] Evans, R. (1986). 'The Analysis by Computer of A.B. Emden's Biographical Registers of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge'. In N. Bulst and J.-P. Genet (eds) Medieval Lives and the Historian: Studies in Medieval Prosopography. Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo.
[4] Dobson, R. B. (1986). 'Recent Prosopographical Research in Late Medieval English History: University Graduates, Durham Monks, and York Canons'. In N. Bulst and J.-P. Genet (eds) Medieval Lives and the Historian: Studies in Medieval Prosopography. Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo.","txt","2","",""
"55","1","New Models for Electronic Publishing","1","Roger Chartier rightly warns us that reading on a computer screen is not the same as reading a book when he says that

""electronic representation of texts completely changes the text's status: for the materiality of the book, it substitutes the immateriality of texts without a unique location [...] in place of the immediate apprehension of the whole work, made visible by the object that embodies it, it introduces a lengthy navigation in textual archipelagos that have neither shores nor borders"" (18).

Hence any project in the electronic medium that lays claim to scholarly authority will require adaptations in both the presentation and the dissemination of its materials. My work on developing an electronic edition of Lyrical Ballads (by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, 1798-1805) helps illustrate how these changes may be realized. Bringing such an edition before the public has made it clear to me that the evolution of electronic publishing will necessitate innovations that are not just technological but also institutional.

On the technical side, Peter Shillingsburg has set out the minimum requirements for a scholarly electronic edition. Such works need to have 1) ""a full accurate transcription and full digital image of each source edition,"" 2) ""a webbing or networking of cross-references connecting variant texts, explanatory notes, contextual materials, and parallel texts,"" and 3) ""a navigational system"" so that readers can thread their way through this complex hypertext environment (Shillingsburg 28). In preparing an electronic Lyrical Ballads we have tried to meet these standards, first by painstakingly transcribing in text files each of the four lifetime editions of the collection, and by gathering together digital images of every page of every edition. These images will complement our e-texts by being presented in windows set side-by-side on the computer screen. Second, our e-texts will be encoded using TEI-conformant SGML to ensure the preservation of their complex logical structure and to enable hypertext linking that will create a webbing of cross-references and make possible their distribution in a networked environment. The scholars engaged in this project have recently formed a decided preference for online delivery over CD-ROM distribution. Not only is Internet dissemination more efficient and cost effective, it also permits easy correction of errors that are likely to plague any scholarly edition. More important, the fluid nature of the World Wide Web will allow us to take ready advantage of new standards and new forms of interface as they develop. We can constantly add new materials and we can explore new paradigms for their presentation that will help accomplish Shillingsburg's third goal of ready navigation through a multiplicity of variant texts. Lately our new method of marshalling scholarly apparatus which I have called ""dynamic collation"" has been enhanced by the addition of popup windows generated by javascript which preview variant readings whenever the reader passes the cursor over a revised passage in the electronic text. This reconceptualization of how variant readings can be presented in the digital medium grounds in actual practice David Greetham's proposition that ""dismembering scholarly apparatus"" will be a consequence of the transition to the new medium (329).

The real challenge for online publication, however, is what might be called the lack of mature institutional structures on the Web. So long as anyone can publish anything on the WWW, the quality of its materials remains questionable. Certainly, Matthew Kirschenbaum is right to remind us that ""publication entails a great deal more than simply the act of making public."" Hitherto, some degree of authority has been conferred on a website by its association with an institutional host such as a university, as well as by the reputation of its author. But the imprimatur of an established publisher would be an even greater guarantee of the reliability of these immaterial texts. We are in the midst of negotiations that would see the electronic Lyrical Ballads published under the auspices of Cambridge University Press, through the good offices of the website of ""Romantic Circles"", a reputable online journal hosted by the University of Maryland. By reporting on the progress of these negotiations and their outcome, I hope to indicate ways in which both the Net and established publishers will need to evolve in an electronic world in order to guarantee standards of authority.

The future of electronic publishing depends upon us asking questions about more than technical standards. Online scholarly archives must also meet standards of peer evaluation, editorial practice, and institutional approval that have traditionally ensured the quality of print publications.

References

Chartier, Roger (1995). Forms and Meanings: Texts, Performances, and Audiences from Codex to Computer. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
Greetham, D. C. (1999). Theories of the Text. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Kirschenbaum, Matthew (1998). ""E-dissertations?"" Online posting. 4 Oct. 1998. Humanist Discussion Group. 6 Oct. 1998 <humanist@kcl.ac.uk>.
Shillingsburg, Peter (1996). ""Principles for Electronic Archives, Scholarly Editions, and Tutorials."" In Richard J. Finneran (ed) The Literary Text in the Digital Age. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. 23-35.","txt","2","",""
"56","1","Academic Collaboration On Line: The SOL as a Case Study","1","Despite the Herculean labors and remarkable achievements of the Perseus Project, today many essential resources for the study of the ancient Mediterranean world still remain accessible only to a few specially trained researchers because they have never been translated into modern languages or provided with sufficiently convenient interpretive materials. Our current work represents the first step in an attempt to address that problem by engaging the efforts of scholars world-wide in the production of substantial translated and annotated texts that will be made available exclusively through the internet. The text with which we have chosen to begin is the Byzantine encyclopedia known as the Suda, a 10th century C.E. compilation of material on ancient literature, history, and biography. A massive work of about 32,000 entries, and written in often dense Byzantine Greek prose, the Suda is nevertheless an invaluable source for many details that would otherwise be unknown to us about Greek and Roman antiquity, as well as an important text for the study of Byzantine intellectual history.

The sheer size of the Suda (the most up-to-date printed edition runs to four hefty and tightly-printed volumes) and its lack of literary charm are sufficient to explain why no individual scholar has committed his or her career to translating it. Many scholars, each taking responsibility for selected entries or series of entries, can get the job done more effectively. Moreover, the vast breadth of subject matter covered by the Suda would challenge the expertise of even the most widely competent modern scholar. By sharing the load, individual translators can focus on those entries from the Suda that pertain to their area of expertise, thus producing better translations and more informed annotations.

Begun in January of 1998, the Suda On Line (SOL) already involves the contributions (or promised contributions!) of nearly seventy scholars throughout the world. The general plan of the project is to assemble an SGML-encoded database, searchable and browsable on the web, with continuously improved annotations, bibliographies and hypertextual links to other electronic resources in addition to the core translation of entries in the Suda. Individual work becomes available on the web as soon as possible, with only the minimum necessary proofreading and editorial oversight. A diverse board of area specialists will eventually edit every entry, altering and improving the content as needed. The display of each entry will include an indication of the level of editorial scrutiny it has received. We want to encourage the greatest possible participation in the project and the smallest possible delay in presenting a high quality resource to a wide public readership.

Collaborative efforts always generate questions about how to allot proper credit to individual contributors. Given the searchable database format of the SOL it is a simple matter for translators and editors to print out their own peer-reviewed work for inclusion in, for example, promotion and tenure dossiers. Moreover, we anticipate that translators will establish hypertextual links directly from their on-line rèsumès to their contributions in the SOL.

Our choice of the web as the medium for publishing the SOL is crucial to the project's conception. This format has many advantages, of which accessibility and ease of use are perhaps the most obvious. Users can access the project's web page and search the database in various ways: by strings in a full text search, with Boolean combinations, by keyword, by translator, etc. The display for each entry includes the headword in English and Greek (options for displaying Greek suit the requirements of different systems), the translation, footnotes and other annotations, and bibliographical references (where available and/or appropriate). The SOL's interface automatically generates links to the complete Greek text of the entry from the database of the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae and to the relevant entries in Liddell and Scott's Greek Lexicon (via the Perseus Project); further links to both external and internal resources can be created in the text of the translations and the annotations.

The on line format also allows for continuous editing and updating, which is crucial to our conception of the SOL as an evolving work forever subject to improvement by many hands. We believe that the specific ways in which we have enabled the process of editorial control and our plans for further enhancements are among the most sophisticated now available in any on-line scholarly resource: every aspect of communication among contributors is handled via web-based forms and dynamically generated e-mail. Any work goes onto the web immediately; individual authors do not have to wait for publication until the entire project is finished (as in the case of a print format). Thus, the project can be immediately useable even while the bulk of the work remains to be done. Furthermore, entries can be updated immediately whenever new information arises.

Perhaps the most exciting aspect of a web-based publication such as the SOL, however, is the potential for interoperability with other projects. The SOL is one of many projects involved in a consortial arrangement at the Stoa, which is actively exploring ways to promote the interconnection of distributed projects. Although our goal is to have as much annotation and documentation as possible within the SOL database itself, our translation takes advantage of the natural capacity of web-based documents to be linked with other sources of electronic information. We want the SOL to be one important model for a new generation of hypertext commentary on ancient texts; a SOL fully outfitted with links to other electronic resources will provide not only the Greek text of the Suda and its translation, but also a wide variety of links to other relevant Suda entries, to the ancient vitae of any major authors or other figures mentioned in the text, to all the testimonia, and to essays by various scholars (both public-domain and new essays written specifically for this project). The same model may be used for on-line commentaries for other ancient works, which may in turn be linked to relevant entries in the SOL. The prospects for the on-line production of true variorum editions are vast and exciting.

This copious annotation and hypertextuality will ensure that the on-line Suda is useful not only to classical scholars and historians, but to a much wider audience as well. Students at various levels will be able not merely to read the translated Suda entries but to understand their wider context. A bare translation would be of little use to most non-specialists, but a translation provided with a rich supply of links to other ancient works and to modern scholarship will open a whole world of information to the interested beginner and can still be a valuable research tool for the trained specialist.

The goal of the SOL is not just to be a useful tool for researchers, but to provide a sophisticated model for the kind of scholarship made possible by open source technology and the internet, scholarship that is cooperative rather than solitary, communal rather than proprietary, worldwide rather than localized and evolving rather than static. Accordingly we aim at two principal results: in addition to our development of the Suda On Line itself as a respected scholarly resource, we plan to make a generalized, well-documented version of our software freely available for other scholars to adapt for their own purposes.

References:

Adler, A. (ed) (1928-1938). Suidae Lexicon (5 volumes). Stuttgart.
Perseus: An Evolving Digital Library of Ancient Greece <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/>
The Stoa: A Consortium for Electronic Publication in the Humanities <http://www.stoa.org/>
The Suda On Line <http://www.stoa.org/sol/>
Thesaurus Linguae Graecae <http://www.uci.edu/~tlg>","txt","2","",""
"57","1","Dating Dickinson: an Experimental Approach to Stylochronometry","2","Stylometry is the statistical analysis of literary style, whose two primary applications are authorship attribution and chronological problems. It originated in 1851 when Augustus de Morgan suggested that it is possible to settle authorship by determining if one text ""does not deal in longer words"" than another (Holmes, 1998). Stylometry is based upon the notion that it is possible to detect an author's 'signature' by examining quantifiable features of written texts. The only difference between the two applications is that attributional studies claim that certain features in an author's style are manipulated unconsciously and therefore remain fixed, whilst chronological studies support the idea that stylistic fingerprints evolve smoothly throughout an author's life. The contradiction is overridden, though, by the choice of features.

Stylochronometry, a term used to cover the dating of texts from stylistic evidence, concerns itself with problems of specifying the sequence of composition of the works of a given author. Famous cases are the dating of Plato's dialogues, of certain of Shakespeare's plays, and the dating of the New Testament scriptures, although their true chronology will never be known since there is not enough external evidence to back up such stylometric findings.

Scientific approaches to chronology begin with the choosing of a group of texts that are more or less securely dated, then proceed with the application of stylometric methods that manipulate the chosen variables which will best correlate with the dates of the texts. Once the methods used assign the correct dates to the initial test set, the final step is to employ the same methods on disputed cases. Such stylometric variables include high frequency words, function and common words, type-token ratio, vocabulary richness measures and others.

A famous example comes from Brainerd (1980) on the chronology of Shakespeare's plays. Examining the percentage of occurrence of 120 lemmata, which were mainly related to high-frequency lexical items, additionally combined with the investigation of the average verse line length in words, the percentage of split lines and the type-token ratio, he concentrated initially on a group of plays that had fairly accurate dates of composition. Since only 20 out of the 120 lemmata proved to be useful discriminators for chronology, he used them in order to construct a function that would predict the dates of the control group. Once his method produced the desired results, the final step was to use it on those of Shakespeare's plays which were of disputed nature in terms of dates. Difficulties arose related to the possibility of multiple authorship in certain cases, authorial revision at some stage, and the status of manuscripts used for the preparation of the basic copy texts. However, multivariate statistics proved useful in order to detect which plays were likely to be products of multiple authorship.

In poetry though, it has not been possible to date texts of less than 500 words in length until recently. Forsyth (1999) at BSRU investigated a method of dating short pieces of text (averaging 114 words in length) and tested them on W.B. Yeats's work. This method, among others, will be used in our project, which aims at building on collaborative work begun by Dr Forsyth and Prof. Margaret Freeman of Valley College, California, on the investigation of chronological changes in the style of the American poet Emily Dickinson (1830-1886).

Born in Amherst, Massachusetts, Dickinson lived at her father's house most of her life and in her later years became a recluse. Because of her individualistic style, which, as it is accepted nowadays, set her ahead of her time, only 10 of her poems were published during her lifetime. Moreover, due to her difficult handwriting and her idiosyncratic punctuation, they were heavily edited, since the public was not yet prepared for her eccentric masterpieces. At the time of her death, 1775 poems were discovered arranged in 60 small packets. Following that, efforts were made by her relatives to get all the poems published; still, though, her poetry was heavily edited. Her impact on the American public gradually became intense, and in 1955 a complete edition of her work was published by Thomas H. Johnson, this time using her own punctuation and vocabulary. Today she is known for her startling originality, her bold experiments in prosody, her tragic vision, and the range of her intellectual and emotional explorations.

Johnson's edition provides approximate dates of composition (Johnson, 1961), according to Theodora Ward's study, who collaborated with Johnson, of the changes in her handwriting, apart from a few poems which have precise dates, either because Dickinson sent them as parts of letters to various friends or because she mentions contemporary events.

Our investigation will initially concentrate on control authors that have securely dated works, such as Christina Rossetti and W.B. Yeats. Both poets lived in the 19th century as Dickinson did. It is proposed to utilise a feature-finding program developed by Forsyth & Holmes (1996) at BSRU, a tagger such as TOSCA from Nijmegen University, and a content analysis tool. Thus we will tap into linguistic information of different kinds - lexical, syntactic and semantic. Our aim is to detect the type of linguistic information that is useful for discriminating between the early and late works of our poets with the intention of using the techniques applied on the control authors to date Dickinson's work.

Laan (1995) argues that there is no hard evidence to suggest that authors have both a conscious and an unconscious aspect to their writing style, as stylometry suggests. On the other hand, possibilities such as the existence of a stable and an adaptable part in an author's unconscious style, or the idea that some change their unconscious features of their styles and others do not, also exist as Laan (1995) admits. The question to what extent such claims are true has been investigated by Robinson (1992) and Keyser (1992) who both suggest proceeding from authors with known publication dates to authors with unknown publication dates.

Initial studies, to be reported at this conference, have investigated the idea that authors generally exhibit a trend towards decreasing complexity as they grow older. Using the Fog Index as a measure of the density of language, based on the proportion of long words and average sentence length, we have found equivocal results. But other measures do seem to show increased simplicity with time. We believe that this brings us a step closer to correct chronology.

References

Brainerd, B. (1980) ""The Chronology of Shakespeare's Plays: A Statistical Study"". Computers and the Humanities 14, 221-230.
Forsyth, R. S. (1999) ""Stylochronometry with Substrings Or: A Poet Young and Old"". Literary and Linguistic Computing. 14(4), 1-11.
Forsyth, R.S and Holmes, D.I. (1996) ""Feature Finding for Text Classification"". Literary and Linguistic Computing. 11(4), 163-174.
Holmes, D. I. (1998) ""The Evolution of Stylometry in Humanities Scholarship"" Literary and Linguistic Computing. 13(3), 111-117.
Johnson, T.H. (ed) (1961) The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson. Little, Brown and Company, Boston.
Keyser, P. (1992) ""Stylometric Method and the Chronology of Plato's Works (review article)"".Bryn Mawr Classical Review. 3(1), 58-74.
Laan, N.M. (1995) ""Stylometry and Method: The Case of Euripides"". Literary and Linguistic Computing. 10(4), 271-278.
Robinson, T.M (1992) ""Plato and the Computer"". Ancient Philosophy. 12, 375-382.","txt","2","",""
"58","1","A Comparison of Methods for the Attribution of Authorship of Popular Fiction","2","Introduction

In this poster we present the stylistic analysis of a number of popular fiction genres. Popular fiction generally receives less academic attention than literature, but its ability to draw the reader into the story is noteworthy. In previous work (Opas and Tweedie, 1999a, 1999b) we have examined measures of stance in an attempt to quantify this degree of reader involvement. In this paper we turn to measures used to discriminate between authors, in order to find consistent differences between genres and authors.

Textual Sources

We have taken texts from three distinct sources: romance novels, detective novels and American short stories. Our total corpus is 590,000 words. We have analysed romance novels published between 1990-1996 from the Harlequin Presents and Regency Romance series. We have also analysed Danielle Steel's works, which are classified as women's fiction or 'cross-overs'. The romance texts make up 245,000 words. The detective fiction part of our corpus is made up of popular contemporary female authors published in the 1990s, i.e. Cornwell, Grafton, James, Leon, Peters, and Rendell. Where an author has created many detectives, we chose the most well-known one to represent that author. Some of the detectives are male and others female and we expect them to express stance differently. These texts make up 295,000 words. Short stories were also taken from the works of Carver and Barth. These make up almost 50,000 words.

Methods

We will compare and contrast the results from three analyses of these texts. The analyses are based on methods used in determining authorship: the frequency of the most common words, letter frequency and measures of vocabulary richness. The data from each of these procedures is then used in a principal components analysis in order to identify the most important elements.

1) Word frequencies The use of principal components analysis of the most common words to determine authorship was proposed by Burrows in 1988 and has become an essential tool for stylistic analysis. Here, the most commonly-occurring forty words were employed. Their frequencies were measured and standardised for text length. A principal components analysis was then carried out and the texts plotted in the principal components space. The first two principal components corresponded to 32.2% of the total variation. The first principal component separates the romantic Steel texts, with high negative scores, from the American short stories which have high positive scores. Detective stories by Sue Grafton and Patricia Cornwell also have high positive scores on this axis. The second principal component appears to act as a rough genre separator; romantic texts tend to have positive scores and all of the detective novels have negative scores. Consideration of a loadings plot indicates that the Steel texts use a high proportion of ""she"", ""her"" and ""they"", while the short stories use ""at"", ""said"" and ""on"". The Grafton and Cornwell texts are written in the first person and this is highlighted by their use of ""me"", ""my"" and ""I"".

2) Letter frequencies Ledger and Merriam use letter frequencies in their analysis of Shakespearean texts with remarkable success. Here we consider the relative frequencies of 'A' - 'Z', with capital and lower-case letters amalgamated. These 26 variables are then subjected to principal components analysis. The results are plotted in the first two dimensions of the principal components space which account for 34.5% of the total variation. In this analysis the separation is not as good as the word frequency analysis. The American texts tend to have high negative scores on the first principal component, while the texts by P. D. James have very high positive scores.

3) Measures of Vocabulary Richness A great number of measures of vocabulary richness have been proposed. Tweedie and Baayen (1998) carry out a review of these measures and find that two, K and Z, contain the vast majority of the information from the author's vocabulary. Yule's K measures the 'repeat-rate' used by the author, while Orlov's Z measures vocabulary richness in the sense of the number of different words used. We therefore plot the texts in the K-Z plane. As might be expected, the American short stories are found to have a low repeat rate and high vocabulary richness. The Steel texts have a higher richness than the other romantic texts, but the detective and romantic fiction texts are not separated by this analysis.

3. Conclusions

These three analyses offer views of different facets of the style of popular romantic and detective fiction. The genres are most clearly separated when the most common words are used as data, while the letter frequency analysis is, not surprisingly, more affected by the particular names of heroes or heroines. The measures of vocabulary richness distinguish clearly between the more popular texts and the short stories. At the conference we shall also present the analysis of markers of stance, used in Opas and Tweedie (1999a, 1999b).

References

Burrows, J. F. (1987) Word patterns and stay shapes: the statistical analysis of narrative style. Literary and Linguistic Computing 2(2): 61-70.
Ledger, G. and Merriam, T. (1994) Shakespeare, Fletcher and the Two Noble Kinsmen. Literary and Linguistic Computing 9(3): 235-248.
Opas, L. L. and Tweedie, F. J. (1999a) The Magic Carpet Ride: Reader Involvement in Romantic Fiction. Literary and Linguistic Computing 14(1):89-101.
Opas, L. L. and Tweedie, F. J. (1999b) Come into my World: Styles of Stance in Detective and Romantic Fiction. Abstracts of the ALLC/ACH conference 1999, Virginia, 247.
Tweedie, F. J. and Baayen, R. H. (1998) How Variable May a Constant Be? Measures of Lexical Richness in Perspective. Computers and the Humanities 32(5): 323-352.","txt","2","",""
"59","1","Computational Methods for the Study of Multilingual Corpora","2","Corpus linguistics is becoming increasingly important for translation studies (cf. Baker, 1995; Granger, 1999). In the past, the application of corpus linguistic methods was limited to the applied branch of this discipline. In particular, they were used in the fields of terminology, translation aids (e.g., to develop translation memories or machine translation programs), translation criticism and translation training (to improve the final product with the help of corpus-based contrastive analysis and the study of translationese). Recently also, in the theoretical and descriptive branches of translation studies corpus linguistic methods have been introduced. In particular, one issue that is receiving more and more attention is the question about translation as a particular text type (Baker, 1996; Laviosa-Braithwaite, 1996; Teich, 1999; Hansen, 1999). In this paper, I present the analysis of a corpus of translated texts and its comparison with a corpus of originals produced in the target language in order to investigate the universal features of translations (cf. Baker, 1996). Furthermore, on the basis of the analysis of universal features, I analyse the source language texts in order to see what has happened during the translational process. Thus, my aim is to identify both the universal features of translation (comparing the translation corpus with the originals of the target language) and, on this basis, the translation procedures (comparing the translation corpus with the originals of the source language). In particular, I discuss the use of various standard corpus tools, such as concordance programs, aligners and taggers for the analysis of parallel and comparable corpora. But the use of these tools is limited: only parts-of-speech and grammatical categories can be analysed with the help of such tools. Thus, it is not possible to say anything about translation procedures, translation strategies or the translational process because the results gained through standard corpus tools are quantitative values (cf. Hansen & Teich, 1999). But we need qualitative data, i.e., a linguistic description of the phenomena which occur in the translations, to test hypotheses concerning the translational process and the universal features of translations. In order to use the information which is provided through the standard corpus tools and in order to carry out deeper investigations, we need tools which are able to analyse more abstract linguistic categories. For this reason, we use the tool TATOE (http://www.darmstadt.gmd.de /~rostek/tatoe.htm) with which we annotate the corpus using Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL; Halliday, 1978; Halliday, 1985). The systemic functional model, which allows the analysis of the relationships between the different linguistic levels (grammar, semantics, context), is used for various disciplines, e.g. for language teaching, for the area of functional stylistics, for grammatical text analysis, and for computational linguistics (in this discipline especially for automatic text generation (cf. Teich, 1995; Bateman, 1997), TATOE enables us to define systemic functional categories and, on this basis, to annotate the texts. These annotations make a systemic functional analysis of the parallel and comparable corpora possible, and thus a cross-linguistic description of the phenomena which occur in the texts. On this basis, hypotheses concerning the translational process and the universal features of translations can be tested and new ones can be generated.

Literature

Baker, M. (1995). Corpora in translation studies: An overview and some suggestions for future research. Target 7(2):223-243, 1995.
Baker, M. (1996). Corpus-based translation studies: The challenges that lie ahead. In H. Somers (ed) Terminology, LSP and Translation: Studies in Language Engineering in Honour of Juan C. Sager, pp. 175-186. Benjamins, Amsterdam.
Bateman, J. (1997). KPML Development Environment: multilingual linguistic resource development and sentence generation. Deutsches Forschungszentrum Informationstechnik (GMD), Institut für Integrierte Publikations und Informationssysteme (IPSI), Bonn (Birlinghoven).
Granger, S. (ed) (1999). Proceedings of Symposium 'Contrastive Linguistics and Translation Studies. Empirical Approache'', Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgien, February 1999.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1978). Language as social semiotic. Edward Arnold, London.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1985). An introduction to Functional Grammar. Edward Arnold, London.
Hansen, S. (1999). A Contrastive Analysis of Multilingual Corpora (English-German). Diploma Thesis, University of the Saarland, Saarbrücken.
Hansen, S. and Teich, E. (1999). Kontrastive Analyse von Übersetzungskorpora: ein funktionales Modell. J. Gippert Hrsg. Sammelband der Jahrestagung der GLDV 99, pp. 311-322. Frankfurt a. Main.
Laviosa-Braithwaite, S. (1996). The English Comparable Corpus (ECC): A Resource and a Methodology for the Empirical Study of Translation. PhD Thesis, UMIST, Manchester.
Teich, E. (1995). Towards a methodology for the construction of multilingual resources for multilingual generation. Proceedings of the IJCAI workshop on multilingual generation, International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI), Montreal, Canada, August 1995, 136-148.
Teich, E. (1999). Towards a model for the description of cross-linguistic divergence and commonality in translation. In E. Steiner and C. Yallop (eds) Beyond content: Exploring translation and multilingual text production. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin.","txt","2","",""
"60","1","A System for Dynamic Text Corpus Management (with an Example Corpus of the Russian Mass Media of the 1990s)","2","We present a system for text corpus processing which is oriented to the idea of a ""dynamic text corpus"". With its help a user can search for examples of usage (words, phrases, and even morphemes), build word lists and concordances, compile his own subcorpus. The software was used while compiling a text corpus on modern Russian mass media. It is a collection of texts from Russian newspapers and magazines of the 1990s with a total size of about 15 Mb. Each text of the corpus is classified by 6 parameters - source, date, author(s), genre, and topic(s). Later these parameters are used to generate the subcorpora that conform to users' needs.

Introduction

Corpus linguistics is part of the computational linguistics that deals with the problems of compilation, representation, and analysis of large text collections. One of the most complex problems in modern corpus linguistics is defining of the principles of the text corpus compilation. The text corpus should in the ideal case answer the criteria of representativeness and at the same time be much smaller than the whole dedicated field. On the other hand the representativeness of the text corpus is directly connected with the research objectives. For example, the research connected with text macrostructure needs quite different parameters than sociolinguistic research or the description of contexts of usage of a certain morpheme or a word. The difficulty of reconciling statistical representativeness and user demands leads to the fact that many of the existing corpora do not have any explicit and clear criteria for texts' selection. For example, there are no clear-cut criteria of the items' selection for the well-known Birmingham corpus of English texts; the situation is the same with the German text corpora. We suggest a definite strategy for text corpora compilation that allows a user to create his own subset of texts from a corpus for his own task (as a new subcorpus). We call the initial text corpus, which is the source for further manipulations and selection plus corresponding software, dynamic text corpus. For the compiling of our corpus we used texts from Russian mass media of the 1990s.

General strategy of initial text corpus compilation

Taking into account the requirement of representativeness we directed special attention to choosing the most prominent mass media editions with different political orientation which was fairly important for society during the period the research in question was covering (1990s) and their proportional representation considering their popularity and significance. We used as the criterion of popularity the results of the last elections when, roughly speaking, 25 percent voted for the communists, 10 for the ultra left, 25 for the right, and 40 for the center. The second important factor of the corpus compiling was quantity of texts. There should be enough texts to reflect relevant features of the dedicated field. The upper limit was connected only with pragmatic considerations, the disk space and the speed of the service software. In our case, during the project that took place in 1996-1998 we collected around 15 Megabytes of text. As we stated above the different users have different tasks and expect different things from the text corpus. It is also necessary to take into account the fact that some users may not be linguists. These people may be interested in the reflection in the mass media of certain events during a certain period. It is probable that they would like to read the whole texts and not just concordances. To consider possible different requirements it is necessary to compile the text corpus not of extracts from the texts but of whole texts. The idea of using extracts (so called sampling) was popular at the early stage of corpus linguistics, e. g., the famous ""Brown corpus"", which consists of 1000-word-long text extracts. It is also necessary to take into account that linguists from different linguistic areas have different requirements of text corpora. For example, for morphological or syntactic research a 1 million word text corpus would be sufficient. Sometimes it is even more convenient to use a relatively small corpus because the concordances of usage of function words may occupy thousands of pages and most of the examples will be trivial. However, even for grammar research it seems reasonable to have in the corpus the texts of different structure and genre. At the same time the text corpus should be large enough to ensure the presence of rare words. Only in this case is the corpus interesting for a lexicologist or a lexicograper. Thus, the task of compilers of a text corpus is to take into account all the different and sometimes contradictory users' requirements. We suggest allowing the user to construct his own subset of texts (his own corpus) from the dynamic text corpus. To ensure this possibility each document has a certain search pattern which allows the software to filter the initial corpus and construct the corpus which fits the needs of the user.

Encoding of corpus units

After the analysis of the text data the following parameters were chosen as corpus-forming.

Source (the mass media printed editions),
Author (about 1000 authors),
Title of the article (1369 articles),
Political orientation (left, ultra left, right, center),
Genre (memoir, interview, critique, discussion, essay, reportage, review, article, feuilleton),
Theme (internal policy, external policy, literature, arts, etc. In total 39 themes.),
Date (exact date of publication. In our case we used articles published during the period of the 1990s).
The following printed editions (magazines and newspapers) were used: VEK, Druzba Narodov, Zavtra, Znamia, Izvestiya, Itogi, Kommunist, Literaturnaya gazeta, Molodaya gvardiya, Moskovskiy komsomolec, Moskovskie novosti, Nash sovremennik, Nezavisimaya gazeta, Novyi mir, Ogonyok, Rossiiskaya gazeta, Russki vestnik, Segodnya, Sobesednik, Sovetskaya Rossiya, Trud, Ekspert, Elementy, Evraziiskoe obozrenie. Every text in the corpus is characterized by a set of these features. At the current stage it was done manually. The most representative are the following sources: Vek (8%), Zavtra (14%), Itogi (11%), Literaturnaya gazeta (6%), Moskovskie novosti (8%), Novy mir (8%).
Software description

The text corpus seems incomplete and hard to work with without software that assures the user-friendly interface and allows different kinds of processing. A general problem of the corpus software is selecting the texts to work with. If the user wants to deal just with certain parts of the corpus he has to do it manually by choosing file names. This is typical of corpus software and it is not convenient. The other possibility - to have all text files merged - simply does not allow any additional selection in the corpus. However, in our system it is possibile to select texts automatically using their feature sets. All the user has to do is to describe his requirements for his own corpus. We should mention that the collection of texts with descriptions are only rough material while in the traditional technology it is the final result. In the technology suggested in this article the 'big corpus' is a source for compilation of subcorpora answering the user's needs with greater accuracy. The initial text corpus is stored as a data base where each text is a record and each parameter is a field. The texts of articles are stored in a MEMO field. Importation of the manually marked articles into the data base is performed by a special utility. On the basis of this information a user can create his own corpus by indicating a set of parameters. He does it by going through a sequence of dialogue routines, answering questions or choosing from the lists. The resulting corpus is a text file containing the texts matching the selected parameters. The system allows the following main functions:

Standard browsing of the texts and their parameters.
Selection and ordering of texts according to the chosen parameters or their logical combinations. The system has a standard set of QBE queries which are translated automatically into SQL. The experienced users can write SQL queries directly.
Generating a text corpus that is a subset of the initial corpus on the base of a stochastic choice and the given percentage for each parameter.
. Generating a user's text corpus.
Browsing the user's text corpora and text processing: building concordances or word lists.
The program contains four standard variants of the initial corpus. In the whole corpus there are its proportional subsets containing 25% of the initial one for the parameters sources, themes, and genres.
Conclusions

We developed a system that implements dynamic text corpus management (the software is included in the notion of the dynamic corpus) for Russian mass media texts. The system is applicable to any corpus. All texts of the corpus are classified according to the parameters described above. The system ensures easy corpus processing for a user. The corpus is representative from the point of view of the chosen parameters. It means that all values and their combinations are presented in the corpus (except the impossible ones, e.g., the magazine Novy mir (a literature magazine) has no articles on finances, and the magazine Expert (a financial magazine) has no articles on literature).","txt","2","",""
"61","1","XSL - Characteristics, Status, and Potentials for Text Processing Applications in the Humanities","1","What XSL Is

The Extensible Style Language (XSL) is a specification currently being finalized (May 2000) by the W3 Consortium, the vendor consortium that proposes recommendations for web standards including HTML, CSS and now XML and its related technologies. XSL's immediate purpose is to support various kinds of presentation of arbitrarily marked-up documents in XML format. In an XSL system, any well-formed XML document could be formatted for print, displayed in hypertext (including on the web), or presented in other media, more easily and more effectively than is currently the case, and in a standards-based way. In a networked environment, processing documents for display on screen could happen on either server or client.

In order to support its task of presenting XML (that is, applying to an arbitrary tag set a formatting description for a user interface such as screen or printer), XSL evidently has to provide for granular access to markup structures, so as to be able, for example, to derive tables of contents, text for running heads, indexes, and other common (presentational) expressions of underlying document architecture. In the course of working out XSL it became increasingly clear that (as is often the case with computer data processing problems) this problem was more easily, and more powerfully, addressed, if it was treated as a special case of a more general capability, namely the ""transformation"" of one markup structure into another.

Accordingly, XSL is formally divided into two parts:

""XSL Transformations"" (XSLT): on a standalone basis, provides a language to describe many of the kinds of rearrangement and filtering of markup structures that a reasonably powerful XML presentation language requires.

""XSL Formatting objects"" (XSLFO): provides a vocabulary for describing, in a standard and abstract way, formatting of text for visual display in print or on screen (and possibly for alternative media presentation).

XSLT was accepted as an ""official"" W3C recommendation in November 1999. XSLFO is expected to be completed in mid-2000. The relative maturity of the specifications is reflected in the tools available: already by the end of 1999 a number of tools supporting XSLT were available on the Net for free. As of this writing, tools supporting XSLFO (which could, for example, convert XML via XSL into PDF format) are less mature.

XSLT, on the other hand, was instantly in use by mid-1999, primarily (though not exclusively) as a way of converting XML into HTML. Because XML becomes instantly useful as soon as HTML can be reliably created out of it, this has in effect jump-started the XML presentation industry, at the price of keeping on-line published versions of XML source documents limited to the capabilities of HTML, the current state of the art in browsing on the web. As a result, even before the ink is dry, we are beginning to get a sense of XSLT's capabilities for processing - while at the same time we are still unclear as to what XSL's own ""design language"" (its formatting objects) will look like.

XSLT's Capabilities

-Presentational XSLT
XSLT is already used to convert XML into HTML. In this, it is a ready alternative to a scripting approach (Perl, Omnimark etc.) or to the ISO standard DSSSL - and easier to learn than either. It also compares favorably in price: tools for XSLT conversions are free.

-Analytic XSLT
XSL processing is dependent on markup in the source text for navigation as opposed to (say) character offsets or line numbers. While very good at presenting information encoded in markup, it is not good at recognizing or construing implicit information such as character patterns. It does no tokenizing, hence cannot recognize ""word"" boundaries. By default, string processing and matching in XSLT is case-sensitive, and cannot readily be configured otherwise.

Somewhat surprisingly, however, XSL is nevertheless useful for certain kinds of analytical functions, including certain kinds of XML validation (cf. Rick Jelliffe's ""Schematron""). For example, one could write an XSL stylesheet that would check the conformance of an instance of a TEI Header to a certain model, that went beyond the DTD to specify element dependencies - for example, reporting a warning (or providing defaults) if the publication statement were not filled out according to house standards. This could be done with a stylesheet and would not require altering the DTD.

And because it can perform testing on strings, XSLT can also be used for generating rudimentary concordances. A concordancer in the form of an XSL style sheet will be demonstrated as a part of this presentation.

The thing to keep in mind about any computer-facilitated analytic work is that, without being supported by information from an external source (such as a thesaurus of terms or a morphological dictionary), no algorithm is able to reveal something about a text that is not implicit in the text already. That is, while a computer can rearrange information in a text, and therefore perform such operations as counting incidences or providing indexes, it cannot actually add any ""knowledge"". What it does, is present a text, and information derived about the text, in such a way that a careful reader can come to conclusions about it that would otherwise be very difficult to demonstrate. This is merely to point out that, for example, a concordance is not an analysis, and by itself makes no argument, although it may facilitate the development of one.

XSLT-based analytic work is no different, and since XSLT is not designed specifically with analytic work in mind, it is in some respects an unexpected benefit if it can support this work at all. Even given its fairly rudimentary capabilities, however, XSLT has certain incidental advantages:

1. It leverages investments made in markup:
Many repositories have XML texts, or texts readily convertible into XML. These are all ready for XSL processing, and can be enhanced to support more sophisticated processing.

2. It produces ""publishable"" results as a natural work product:
Since the end result of an XSL transformation can be HTML or an XML format ready for further processing, it is easy to generate results in a form that can be displayed as is.

3. An investment in XSL is worth making for other reasons:
Since XSLT processors are so inexpensive (free), the real investment is in time to learn it. And XSLT is so portable and versatile, it pays off this investment in expertise fairly quickly.

4. It can be combined with other methods:
An XSLT stylesheet can also be used to prepare XML texts for other kinds of work. An XSLT stylesheet can generate COCOA encoding from XML, that can be used to support TACT or another tool that takes advantage of COCOA markup of events in a text stream (such as chapter breaks or shifts in narrative voice). [An XSL stylesheet that creates COCOA markup from an XML TEI source can be demonstrated.]

Or, an XSLT stylesheet can be used to derive SVG (Scaleable Vector Graphics) files from descriptive XML source. SVG is a graphics format which is expected, by some, to revolutionize distribution of graphics for certain kinds of applications on the web. Graphic representations of phenomena accessible to XSL transformations can be already displayed in prototype SVG viewers. [SVG frequency distribution graphs of strings in an XML file can be demonstrated.]

These are only two examples of ways XSLT can be applied to help prepare XML texts for a variety of further uses. The basic principle being applied is a layered architecture: the source data is maintained in a stable format, such as TEI XML, useful over the long term. Applied ""on top"" of this repository layer a separate process can expose a ""view"" or presentation of the source data (some readers may be familiar with the ""model-controller-view"" model of computer application design), ready for the special format requirements of an arbitrary application.

Role Of XSL/XSLT In The Future

- Possibilities for XSL extension:
The XSL specification also provides allowance for its extension. Extension functions, in Java or an alternative scripting language, could be made available to an XSL processor. Tokenizing functions, sophisticated string processing and matching, database-integration services (for retrieving data such as morphological variants or checking values against an authority list) could all be addressable, given a good API, from within XSL stylesheets.

It is unlikely, however, that such extensions (at least, those especially suited for the types of analysis academic humanists are interested in) would be developed in the private sector - not that they would be without profitable application there. But academic researchers, with clear focus on their own functional requirements, have to lead the way.

-An XSL browser as ""analytical engine"":
XSL's potentials in these respects suggest that it could play a role in the markup-aware ""analytical engine"" that many of us keep envisioning (cf. the ELTA initiative). An XML browser that supported XSL stylesheets could be integrated with an editing environment allowing on-the-fly emendation of the stylesheets, and/or the extension functions they call. Stylesheets and function libraries could be pulled ""off the shelf,"" or written especially to address local problems and questions. Specialized functions would have the capability of integrating XSL's presentation/analytical capabilities with other tools such as databases or network applications.

Not only would such a system be very versatile; also, in it, research results could take the form of ready-made publishable material, in HTML or any other markup-based form. Since it would basically be an XML web browser, it could also be readily networked, especially as concerns the XML source text (the text under analysis), which could be located anywhere on the Internet. Analytical stylesheets in XSL would be portable and applicable to any text that conformed to the same (sufficiently constrained) document model.

Present Advantages [as of the end of 1999]

-XSL tools are freely available:
As of this writing, free XSLT processors are available in Java, and are not difficult to set up and run. Learning the stylesheet language itself is the biggest barrier to entry, and there are free and inexpensive resources for this as well.

-XSL is easy to get going with:
By design, XSL is a declarative language, abstracted at a fairly high level. As a result, it is not difficult to learn, at least for most ordinary operations, and is very portable (making it easier to learn from others' work).

Present Disadvantages [as of the end of 1999]

-XSL is somewhat arcane:
Although the rudiments of XSL are not difficult, some users take to it less easily than others. It is a ""functional"" and ""declarative"" language unlike most scripting languages, so expertise in other computer languages is not readily applicable to it. Naïve users seem to have less trouble learning it than experts. The model of the text on which it operates, the ""document tree,"" although it leverages document markup in a very simple and powerful way, is not a self-evident approach to developers used to looking at text as a stream of characters.

-XSL processing is XML-based; requires well-formed XML to start:
Obviously, XSL requires an XML text to operate on. Either this is a problem, or it isn't.

-Tools are rudimentary (although improving):
Strong support for internationalization, for example, is envisioned by the specification but not yet widely implemented in interfaces or tools.

As mentioned above, it is unlikely that the private sector would, on its own initiative, develop function libraries that would provide for all the kinds of functions wanted by scholars in the Humanities. (Some, like support for sorting texts in major European and Asian languages, can be hoped for, although not necessarily for free.)

Conclusions

-What XSL will be good for:
Presentation, filtering/rearrangement, markup-based processing such as indexing supported by markup. Some kinds of validation. Especially extended or in combination with other methods, XSL will also be capable of supporting sophisticated analytical functions on text marked up in XML.

-What the emergence of XSL tells us about our markup projects:
 

the up-front investment in the text (editorial work) remains the most difficult, interesting and important phase of work. Much or most further processing ""down stream,"" and the types of processing possible, are directly dependent on the features of the text represented through its markup.
investments in valid SGML/XML formats are demonstrating their resilience through readiness for new applications
Web Site
A web presentation of this paper will be made available at <http://www.mulberrytech.com/papers/achallc2000>","txt","2","",""
"62","1","Metainformation Strategies for Electronic Resources","1","This paper will address the theoretical and practical issues in devising and implementing a project-specific metainformation scheme for electronic resources. While one can argue that a scheme like the Text Encoding Initiative provides for encoding which greatly enhances plain text retrieval, in practice without extensive use of the keyword or indexing elements, retrieval of information is limited to what is explicit in the text. Searching for what is explicit in the text, even if that text has been encoded logically (as opposed to physically), does not provide the kind of functionality most humanists expect from digital archives.

This paper then is an exploration of the advantages and disadvantages in creating a meta-meta information or classification scheme for electronic resources. For this talk I will draw heavily on theoretical models (both pre-and post-computer indexing models) from library and information studies. I will also adopt the position that creators of electronic resources are encoding their primary material in a SGML or XML-based metainformation scheme, such as the Text Encoding Initiative. I will also assume that the project directors have already made certain specific decisions in encoding what is explicit in the text in accordance with the project's goals. In other words, I am assuming that a digital project is already taking advantage of the tagging structure afforded in a scheme like the TEI in providing for the encoding of titles of text, place, personal, geographic and organisation names, etc., as deemed important to a particular project.

There can be no doubt that this type of tagging greatly enhances retrieval, for example by distinguishing the occurrence of WB Yeats as a title as opposed to a personal name, or facilitating the searching of all strings within a <placename> element. And although this type of encoding of electronic resources gives users unprecedented access in locating very specific strings of text, in practice users are frustrated by limited and relatively simplistic search and retrieval strategies. In most electronic resources, users are limited to retrieving only what is explicit in the text, i.e. strings of text, some of which have been encoded logically. In the case of images, the situation is even more problematic. Unless a project has developed a header consisting of detailed metainformation, most images can only be retrieved by image title. Boolean and proximity searches go a very small way in solving the problem of retrieving more than single word searches, but do not provide the conceptually and theoretically rigorous searches most scholars in the humanities want and expect from electronic resources.

Specifically, this paper will address the practical and theoretical issues raised by devising a classification or indexing scheme which facilitates search and retrieval by going beyond encoding what is explicit in the text. To this end, several points will be raised:

although encoding what is implicit in the text facilitates retrieval of concepts not possible by explicit encoding, this process is much more subjective;
how this subjectivity influences retrieval;
the concept of granularity will be raised, and the problems of encoding to various levels;
the problems of encoding implicit metainformation which is transparent to users.
While at past ALLC/ ACH conferences many papers have discussed the difficulties in consistent encoding of explicit text in large projects in which many people participate in the encoding process, the possibilities for inconsistent encoding of implicit text multiplies exponentially. Yet, I would argue, that without the development of classification or indexing schemes, digital archives remain hidden behind front ends which may look resplendent, but which barely reveal their complexity and richness.
To this end, the rest of the paper will be divided into three parts. Part I will provide an overview of some of the major metainformation schemes which were developed in a pre-digital environment, such as AACR2, the Dewey Decimal Classification, and the Library of Congress Subject Headings. Topics to be covered will include:
 
 

the theoretical impetus behind these schemes;
how and why these schemes were conceived and made extensible;
why these schemes cannot be transferred to a digital environment without adaptation.
The second part of the paper will explore current applications of some of these schemes to a digital environment, such as the Art and Architecture Thesaurus and the Thesaurus for Graphic Materials. Specifically, I will address how these schemes have been adapted from facilitating indexing codex-based texts to digital ones. In addition, the special case of indexing images will also be discussed.
The third part of this paper will explore metainformation schemes devised for several specific digital archives, including The Blake Archive and The Thomas MacGreevy Archive, both published at the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities at the University of Virginia. In the case of the Thomas MacGreevy Archive, I will demonstrate how we, working within the TEI, developed a metainformation scheme which facilitated very specific genre searching for both texts and images.","txt","2","",""
"63","1","On Mock-scholarly, Faux-casual, and Cod Philosophy: Patterns of Diachronic Change in a British Newspaper","1","Introduction

In British newspapers, various 'vogue' prefix-like forms regularly appear (Renouf & Baayen, 1998; see also Baayen & Renouf, 1996, for standard affixation). This study considers three such forms: MOCK, COD, and FAUX. These forms are primarily used to modify nouns, as in

(1) he explodes in mock-outrage
    chain belts, studded with faux gems around the hips
   a quick snipe at the cod-mysticism

and to modify adjectives, as in

(2) a charmingly mock modest touch
   coming back on stage, faux sheepish
   a Russian night club - cod-glamorous

Occasionally, one finds instances of adverbial modification,

(3) Rabelais at his most mock heroically cloacal
   ordered him out of the house, faux-crossly

and for MOCK, examples also exist of verbal modification:

(4) he mock bows, gallantly
   he has to mock-apologise for his tedious bleating

This study addresses the productivity of MOCK, COD, and FAUX by investigating their use in a British newspaper, The Independent, from a diachronic perspective. To this end, we extracted all occurrences of these forms from a corpus of this newspaper, compiled from 1988 onwards, and currently containing some 360 million word forms. For each of the years 1989-1998, we measured the type and token frequencies of these words in 4 successive 3-month chunks. For 1988, the last 3-month chunk was also taken into account. The questions to be addressed are whether changes in the frequency with which these vogue forms are used across time can be observed, and whether the forms with a hyphen (as in FAUX-SHABBY) reveal different patterns from the forms without a hyphen (as in FAUX SHEEPISH), which would suggest that syntactic context would co-determine the productivity of these combining forms.

Results

Figure 1 will summarize the results obtained. The solid lines and the dots represent the numbers of tokens counted for the successive chunks. The dashed lines represent the numbers of new types observed across sampling time. Both line types were obtained using a non-parametric regression smoother (Cleveland, 1979). For reasons of space, we defer discussion of the type counts to the presentation at the conference. The left panels represent the forms without a hyphen, the right panels the forms with the hyphen.

The top panels of Figure 1 show the results obtained for MOCK and MOCK-. The left panel reveals a slow but steady increase for the token counts (r = 0.388, t(39) = 2.6294, p = .0122). The right panel suggests that the use of MOCK- did not change in the last 10 years (r = 0.194, t(39) = 1.237, p = .2234). A closer investigation of the MOCK data revealed that the increase in the number of tokens is primarily carried by the lowest-frequency types - the highest-frequency types have a relatively stable use across the years.

The central panels of Figure 1 concern COD (left) and COD- (right). For both forms, we observe a reliable increase over time, which appears to be more linear for COD- (r = 0.656, t(39) = 5.437, p = .0000) than for COD (r = 0.473, t(39) = 3.357, p = .0018). For both COD and COD-, an autocorrelation analysis suggests a reliable correlation at short lags, suggesting that the extent to which a form is used in a given month is co-determined by the extent to which it was popular or unpopular in the preceding months.

The bottom panels of Figure 1 suggest that FAUX and FAUX- were hardly used initially, but that in the second half of the sampling period they enjoyed greater productivity. Both non-parametric regression lines and parametric change point analysis suggest a breakpoint around the end of 1992, after which FAUX and FAUX- began to become more and more productive. What we probably are witnessing here is the birth of what may eventually become a fully-fledged new prefix of English.

Intriguingly, all three left panels show a (local) minimum at this point in time (marked in the plots by a vertical dotted line). Possibly, the general fashion for vogue modification with any of the near synonyms MOCK, COD, and FAUX reached an all-time low around the end of 1992, from which both MOCK and COD recovered. Note that Figure 1 shows that both forms show an increase in use during the immediately following chunks. This general fashion for vogue modification may have led in its wake to the upsurge in productivity of FAUX and FAUX-.

Conclusions

We have observed different patterns of diachronic change through an investigation of vogue modification in The Independent: a steady state (MOCK-), a linear increase over time (MOCK, COD-), a slightly oscillating pattern (COD), and a birth pattern (FAUX). The forms of MOCK- (with hyphen) show a clearly different pattern than the forms with MOCK (without hyphen), which shows that forms with and without hyphen should not be lumped together a priori. The syntactic contexts that favor hyphenation (e.g., modification of a prenominal noun or adjective) lead to slightly different diachronic patterns. Thanks to the accumulation of large diachronic computerized corpora, it is, at the end of the second millennium, finally becoming possible to directly monitor ongoing language change.

References

Baayen, R. Harald and Renouf, Antoinette (1996). Chronicling The Times: Productive Lexical Innovations in an English Newspaper. Language 72, 69-96.
Cleveland, W.S. (1979). Robust locally weighted regression and smooting scatterplots, JASA 74, 829-836.
Renouf, Antoinette and Baayen, R. Harald (1998). Aviating among the hapax legomena: Morphological grammaticalisation in current British newspaper English. In A. Renouf (ed) Explorations in Corpus Linguistics. Rodopi, Amsterdam. 181-189.","txt","2","",""
"64","1","Primroses and Power: a Study on Linguistic Excellence in Political Discourse","1","The aim of this paper is to focus on a linguistic corpus in order to detect, by statistical methods and computational tools, either correspondences or contrasts between the hypotheses made by the linguist and the applied procedures made by the software experts.

The corpus is selected from nineteenth century Victorian speeches; in particular, Parliamentary and political speeches delivered by Benjamin Disraeli, both as a member of Parliament and as Prime Minister.

Analogous types of research have been recently carried out [see Labbè, Bolasco, Lebart, Salem, 1995] with reference to contemporary politicians such as de Gaulle, Mitterand and the Italian Berlusconi. In fact, computational research in political discourse is a highly significant new brand of criticism, which contributes to the modern notion of political contest by some more hidden truths that can be revealed. Nonetheless, we should say that, in most cases, where contemporary politicians are concerned, the use of ""ghost writers"" for writing public speeches definitely undermines that language structure/personality relationship which justifies work in textual analysis.

Dealing with 19th century England, we have considered Victorian politics as being the first true ""arena"" for party politics and as constituting fundamental principles for political dialectics.

The main source of reference was the collection of Selected Speeches by T. E. Kebbel in two volumes, borrowed from the Parliament Library in Rome. Disraeli's personal letters written to Lady Bradford and Lady Chesterfield also constitute a valuable source of reference, in that they unveil psychological traits and personal idiosyncrasies of the statesman. Moreover, in classical biographies we have found revealing hints of modernity and wisdom that we think useful to compare to our times. In a further perspective, we would aim at setting up a series of parameters which might characterise English political discourse, defining also its specific contexts by comparing corpora (for example Tory vs Whig discourse or Conservative vs Radical, etc.).

Some intriguing questions have led us to pursue this goal, bearing in mind the old lessons of rhetoricians concerning oratory and trying to see them in the light of modern standard rules: how great is the analogy existing between oratorical qualities, original style and words, phrases and discourse markers more or less unconsciously uttered by an individual? By which standards can this analogy be assessed? And which is the ""benchmark"" for moral evaluative judgement, when we use a meta-linguistic code to filter the quintessence of discourse? Should, for instance, the most frequent items adhere in meaning and collocation to their speaker's actual socio-political presuppositions? And in which degree should their collocation be found in accordance with given parameters? Moreover, what can computational analysis discover beyond or in contrast to all previous evaluative criticism on the same subject to which so many scholars have contributed in the course of centuries?

We have tried to answer these questions by examining, through data processing, which linguistic marks might define or confirm the features for linguistic excellence.

Our stylometric study is concerned with the Victorian century, an age rich in syntactical perfection and lexical complexities.

We have selected thirty-four speeches given by Disraeli between 1830 and 1870, and have processed them through the software programme ""Lexico 2"" and SPSS. The corpus has 205,800 occurrences1, with a type/token ratio of 9.83% (known also as a measure of vocabulary richness) and a Guiraud's coefficient G=44.61.

In table 1, for all the sub corpora in the decades, we show the the number of occurrences (N), forms (V) and hapax (V1), the word with maximum frequency for each decade.

Hapax forms (words used only once) constitute nearly the 50% of the total amount of different words, which is a representative ratio marking a highly varied though integrated vocabulary.

In table 2, we show a list of the fifty most important words considered as truly connotative of Disraeli's mind and world, displayed according to total decreasing frequency, making a distinction between the decades, the absolute frequency (F) and the normalized occurrences (x 1000 words).

Moreover, we have disambiguated words (textual forms) in order to obtain the correct rank and we have made a distinction, for some forms, between pronouns, nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and conjunctions. The choice was made to build up the so-called lexical universe of Disraeli's discourse: the chosen words (i.e. power, principle, democracy, oligarchy, empire, etc.) have first been seen as collocates and, for them, we have built their lexical universe, in order to define specific contexts and co-texts through the relationship of proximity and distance.

We have patterned some meaningful words from a diachronic point of view, marking the evolution of his political thought, throughout his long parliamentary activity, detecting their characteristic trends and we have also carried out a factor analysis for some groups of words, clustered according to some semantic categories (i.e. self, key words, generic words, geography, negative words, etc.)

What clearly appears by means of statistical exploitation is as follows:
 
 

High occurrence of a limited number of forms (mainly unspecific in meaning);
High occurrence of hapax forms and of various different forms, used with a very low frequency;
percentage of polysyllabic adjectives of Latin origin, used according to alliterative and symmetric structures, creating an appealing effect of harmony and balance. The same effect is obtained by collocating meaningful words used in pairs and the same occurs with words plus adjectives often used in pairs;
High percentage of adjectives in relation to the corpus as a whole and most of them belonging to the semantic category of ""greatness"" and of ""positive feeling"".
We think that Disraeli's discourse is powerful, confident, determined, endowed with energy and a brand of sincere English imperialism. He certainly cared for England and for himself and a true interest was also Ireland.
What might appear strange is the zero occurrence of the word ""Judaism"", even considering the very low presence of all vocabulary concerned with race and religion. He supposedly divided with care his choice of language genres (novel, essays and speeches) according to some well defined goals to pursue.

The high occurrence of generic words, i.e. with a neutral connotative value, seems to confirm some critical judgements expressed by his opponents for which Disraeli's political commitment was in most cases supported only by generic principles of well re-constructed political heritage and, only in a lesser degree he offered detailed policies on various occasions.

A possible consequence that originates from this analysis and supports the original hypothesis made is that Disraeli's political success and his prolonged prominence as a first-rate politician (even when in opposition) was mainly due to his gifts of linguistic excellence and flamboyant oratory. From a different perspective, his Italian-Jewish ancestry adds an odd and mysterious flavour to his success, in the pure aristocratic context of Victorian England.

Notes

According to an empirical criterion, a corpus can be considered wide enough if it is greater than 200,000 words; moreover the ratio V/N (vocabulary or number of different words divided by total occurrences) is 9.8% (when this ratio is over 20%, the corpus is not to be considered wide enough. See Bolasco, Analisi Multidimensionale dei dati. Carocci Editore. Roma. 1999. p.203)

References

Blake, R. (1978). Disraeli. Methuen & Co. Ltd. London.
Bolasco, S. (1999). Analisi Multidimensionale dei dati. Carocci Editore. Roma.
Bolasco, S. (1994). L'individuazione di forme testuali per lo studio statistico dei testi con tecniche di analisi multidimensionale, SIS Atti della XXXVII Riunione Scientifica 1994, Vol.2, pp.95-103.
Bolasco, S. (1995). Criteri di lemmatizzazione per l'individuazione di coordinate semantiche. In S. Bolasco and R. Cipriani (eds) Ricerca qualitativa e computer: teorie metodi e applicazioni. Franco Angeli, Milano. pp.87-111.
Bolasco, S. (1997). L'analisi informatica dei testi, in L. Ricolfi, La ricerca qualitativa, NIS, pp.165-202.
Kebbel, T. E. (1882) Selected speeches of the Late Earl of Beaconsfield. 2 vols.
Holmes, D. I. (1985). The analysis of Literary Style-A review. J.R.Statistical Society, part 4, pp.328-41.
Labbé, D. (1990). Le vocabulaire de François Mitterand. Paris, Presses de la FNSP.
Labbé, D., Hubert, P. La structure du vocabulaire de Général De Gaulle. JADT 1995. Atti Analisi Statistica dei Dati Testuali, vol.II CISU. Roma.
Lebart, L., Memmi, D. (1984). Analisi dei dati testuali: applicazione al discorso politico. SIS Atti della XXXII Riunione Scientifica 1984, Vol. I, pp. 27-41.
Lebart, L., Salem, A. (1994). Statistique Textuelle. Paris, Dunod.
Lebart, L., Salem, A. Berry, L. (1998). Exploring textual data. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Levinson, S. C. (1995). Pragmatics. Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistic. Cambridge University Press.
Monypenny and Buckle, G.E. (1910-20). The life of Benjamin Disraeli Earl of Beaconsfield. 6 vols.
Oakes, M. P. (1998). Statistics for Corpus Linguistics. Edinburgh University Press.
Sinclair, J. (1991). Corpus, Concordance, Collocation. Oxford University Press.
Smith, P. (1996). Disraeli. A brief life. Cambridge University Press.
Tweedie, F. J., Baayen, R. H. (1998). How variable may a constant be? Measures of Lexical Richness in Perspective. Computers and Humanities, 32 (5): 323-352.
Zetland, Marques of (ed) (1929). The Letters of Disraeli to Lady Bradford and Lady Chesterfield. 2 vols.","txt","2","",""
"65","1","The Statistical Analysis of Style: How Language Means in Beckett","1","This paper will analyse narrative style in selected fiction of Beckett (French and English versions). It will use computational stylistics for a formalist discrimination of patterns of language in the texts and will thus begin with a descriptive base. Previous published work by Burrows, Love, Craig, Holmes, Forsyth, Tweedie, Baayen, and Smith has shown the strength of computational procedures, particularly in such areas as the identification of authorship, genre, period, and character. This present work builds upon these foundations by examining issues in narrative theory and translation theory, with particular reference to Bakhtin's ideas on the way different discourses interact. Whilst Bakhtin recognised ""the positive influence of Formalism"" (1986: 169) he exposed its limitations, recognising the need to extend analysis to broader cultural issues. If, as Bakhtin argues, all utterance is ideologically governed and can never be neutral then the differentiations in language patterns revealed in our work cannot be construed as merely linguistic phenomena. That would be to rest with the formalist approach that Bakhtin wished to move beyond. The cultural questions arise as soon as one applies Bakhtinian concepts. Beckett is highly appropriate for such an investigation given the complexity, subtlety, and significance of his narrative experiments. When Beckett came to consider an English version of Molloy, which had been written in French in 1947 and published in 1951, he talked of producing a ""new"" text. To ask in what sense the text might be ""new"" is to open the large question of what can be and what cannot be achieved in translation - a question whose implications range from the immediate practical realities of searching for the nearest equivalent of a given word to the philosophical issues pertaining to language and how it means. At the philosophic level, translation raises ontological questions, the very questions raised by Molloy himself early in the text: ""But my ideas on this subject were always horribly confused, for my knowledge of men was scant and the meaning of being beyond me"" (52). The reference to a distinctive phrase in Heidegger's work alerts us to the link between the problem of translation and central ideas in Beckett's trilogy: commentators such as O'Hara argue, for example, that Beckett's work 'could almost be seen as a literary exploration of Heideggerian metaphysics', and that Beckett's fundamental inquiry in the trilogy centres around the question of how language means. This question then becomes refocussed through consideration of what can be achieved in translation. Heidegger's reservations about the way in which translation violates meaning in the source text appear eventually to be taken up by Beckett, who is reported as stating during a London rehearsal of Endgame: ""The more I go on the more I think things are untranslatable"" (Cockerham 1440. This issue of 'untranslatability', Steiner argues, 'is founded upon the conviction, formal and pragmatic, that there can be no true symmetry, no adequate mirroring, between two different semantic systems' (1975: 239). Expanding this argument concerning 'semantic dissonance' Steiner writes that 'Because all human speech consists of arbitrarily selected but intensely conventionalized signals, meaning can never be wholly separated from expressive form. Even the most purely ostensive, apparently neutral terms are embedded in linguistic particularity, in an intricate mould of cultural-historical habit. There are no surfaces of absolute transparency.'

Patterns of prepositionality or conjunctivity, such as emerge in our analyses as a feature both of Beckett's English and French versions, impact upon our understanding of each text's meaning. How might these patterns influence our reading of Beckett? Does Beckett provide one work of literature called Molloy, or does that title mask two works of literature? How different is it really to read Beckett in French as opposed to reading him in English? These questions have not, I believe, been addressed in quite the way that this project proposes. The closest work is that of Opas (1995), who has studied translations of Beckett's How It Is and All Strange Away into Finnish, German, and Swedish. Using the University of Toronto's TACT program as the basis for her computational analysis, and applying the postulate of van Leuven-Zwart (1989,1990) that 'if there are enough consistent changes between a text and its translation on the microstructural level, it will affect the macrostructure of the text also', she has provided evidence of the ways in which common words influence syntactic structures and of how translations of them can influence the meanings we read in a text.

The research data used in this paper derives from analyses of word frequencies, using established statistical techniques (e.g. principal component analysis, t-test, Mann-Whitney test). In order to produce this computational evidence texts are first prepared for the computer programs in accordance with protocols developed by Burrows. Frequency counts are established for each of the 99 most common words in the texts. These counts are standardized to allow for the variations in the total size of each section of text and each count is correlated with every other count so as to produce a matrix (using the Pearson product-moment method of correlation). We also use a technique of multivariate statistics known as principal component analysis and plot the results so as to show the relationships between the variables in the data. The plots show which words behave most like each other and which sections most resemble each other in their word-frequency patterns.

The significance of this evidence is further tested by using distribution tests such as the t-test and Mann-Whitney test, which assess whether the variations in the data occur at a level of probability that statisticians would deem likely to be an effect of chance or a significant outcome. These procedures enable identification of the words that discriminate significantly - in computational terms - between narrative styles. The discriminating words will also be examined through ""scatter plots"" which generate the scatter of values for each word in each section of the text. This procedure will reveal how sporadically or consistently each word discriminates in a particular comparison.

Although this research therefore begins with computational evidence, it will move from the quantifiable data to consider the literary significance of a word's use in context. As McCarty (1996) writes, ""no tool is 'just a tool' but is an agent of perception and means of thinking"". Common words are significant because they point to the larger linguistic structures in which they participate. With Beckett's work, investigations of stylistic differentiation show how translated texts maintain in the second language similar kinds of discriminations as those operating in the first language. The present work on a range of Beckett's early, middle, and late fiction extends previously published work by McKenna, Burrows, and Antonia on Molloy (1999) and on the trilogy (1999 forthcoming).

References:

Bakhtin, M. (1981). The Dialogic Imagination. Univ. Texas, Austin.
Bakhtin, M. (1986). Speech Genres and other late essays. Univ. Texas, Austin.
Burrows, J. F. (1987). Computation into Criticism: a study of Jane Austen and an experiment in method. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Burrows, J. F. and Hassall, A. J. (1988). ""Anna Boleyn and the authenticity of Fielding's feminine narratives"", Eighteenth-Century Studies, 21 (1988) 427-53.
Burrows, J. F. and Love, H. (1999). ""Attribution Tests and the Editing of Seventeenth-Century Poetry"", The Yearbook of English Studies, 29 (1999) 151-70.
Burrows, J. F. and Sussex, L. (1997). ""Whodunit?: Literary Forensics and the Crime Writing of James Skip Borlese and Mary Fortune"", Bibliographical Society of Australia and New Zealand Bulletin, 21 (1997) 73-106
Burrows, J. F. (1997). ""Style"". In E. Copeland and J. McMaster (eds). The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, Cambridge Univ Press. 170-88.
Butler, L. St John (1984). Samuel Beckett and the meaning of being: a study in ontological parable, Macmillan, London.
Craig, D. H. (1992). ""Authorial Styles and the Frequencies of Very Common Words: Jonson, Shakespeare, and the Additions to The Spanish Tragedy"", Style 26 (1992) 199-220.
Craig, D. H. (1999). ""Authorial Atrribution and Computational Stylistics: If you can tell authors apart, have you learned anything about them?"". Literary and Linguistic Computing 14 (1999) 103-13.
Holmes, David I. (1998). ""The Evolution of Stylometry in Humanities Scholarship"", Literary and Linguistic Computing, 13 (1998) 111-17.
Holmes, David I. and Forsyth, R. S. (1995). ""The Federalist revisited: New Directions in Authorship Attribution"" Literary and Linguistic Computing. 10 (1995) 111-27.
Leuven-Zwart, K. Van (1989). ""Translation and Original. Similarities and Dissimilarities I"". Target 1.2 (1989) 151-81.
Leuven-Zwart, K. Van (1990).""Translation and Original. Similarities and Dissimilarities II"". Target 2.1 (1990) 69-95.
McCarty, Willard. ""What is humanities computing? Toward a definition of the field"", <http://ilex.cc.kcl.ac.uk/wlm/essays/what/what_is.html>
McCarty, Willard. (1996). ""Peering through the Skylight: towards an electronic edition of Ovid's Metamorphoses"". In Susan Hockey and Nancy Ide (eds) Research in Humanities Computing 4: Selected papers for the ALLC/ACH Conference, Oxford 1992. Clarendon, Oxford. 240-262.
McKenna, C. W. F., and Antonia, Alexis (1994). ""Intertextuality and Joyce's 'Oxen of the Sun' episode in Ulysses: the relation between literary and computational evidence"" Revue Informatique et Statistique dans les Sciences humaines 30 (1994) 75-9.
McKenna, C. W. F (1996). ""'A Few Simple Words' of Interior Monologue in Ulysses: Reconfiguring the Evidence"". Literary and Linguistic Computing 11 (1996) 55-66.
McKenna, C. W. F., Burrows, J. F., and Antonia, A. (1999). ""Beckett's Molloy: computational stylistics and the meaning of translation"". In M. Ramsland (ed) Variÿeatÿea: Perspectives in French Literature, Society, and Culture. Peter Lang, Frankfurt. 79-91.
O'Hara, Mary. unpublished thesis, quoted in Butler (1984) 7.
Opas, L.L. and Kujamaki, P. (1995). ""A cross-linguistic study of stream-of-consciousness techniques"", Literary and Linguistic Computing . 10 (1995) 287-91.
Smith, M. W. A. (1990). ""Attribution by statistics: a critique of four recent studies"". Revue Informatique et Statistique dans les sciences humaines, 26 (1990) 233-51.
Steiner, G. (1975). After Babel. Oxford UP, London.
Tweedie, F. and Baayen, H. (1998). ""How variable may a constant be? Measures of lexical richness in perspective"". Computers and the Humanities 32 (1998) 323-52.","txt","2","",""
"66","1","Border Crossing: Engineers, Papyrologists, and the Graphical Use Interface","1","The discovery of the writing and stylus tablets from Vindolanda, a Roman Fort built in the late 80s AD near Hadrian's Wall at modern day Chesterholm, has provided a unique resource regarding the Roman occupation of northern Britain and the use and development of Latin around the turn of the first century AD. However, although papyrologists have been able to transcribe and translate most of the writing tablets, the meaning of the majority of the stylus tablets remains obscure. These small wooden plaques with a hollow recess which was once filled with wax and written on by means of a metal stylus are well preserved; however, the wax has deteriorated leaving a wooden surface with small strokes where the stylus pen has occasionally breached the wax covering. Making sense of such minute indentations by eye alone has proved impossible for papyrologists, and the problem is compounded by the fact that many tablets were reused again and again leaving the remains of many texts on the damaged surfaces.

An EPSRC funded project at the Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, was initiated two years ago to analyse these tablets and develop new image processing techniques to retrieve information from small incisions in damaged surfaces (the techniques developed being applicable to a wide variety of engineering problems). Some headway has been made using wavelet filtering to remove woodgrain in images of the stylus tablets, and developing and appropriating Phase Congruency and Shadow Stereo techniques to identify candidate writing strokes. However, until some interface is put into place between these engineering techniques and the papyrologist, the stylus tablets' texts will not become decipherable because of the complex nature of the papyrology process and the difficulties encountered in expecting a non-mathematical user to utilise such algorithms.

This paper gives a brief background to the project, before discussing the steps taken and problems encountered whilst developing the computer application and user interface for this system. Focussing on the interaction between historians, papyrologists and the application developer, and the design of the graphical user interface, the paper discusses the benefits and problems surrounding such a multi-disciplinary project.","txt","2","",""
"67","1","Trajan's Column: Building a WWW Image-Database","1","One of the challenges when designing image databases in the humanities is to provide interfaces that are drawn from the object being represented rather than from the technology used. In this paper we will discuss an image database of over 400 images that was built by a team of graduate students and faculty at McMaster University. The images relate to carving technique on Trajan's Column, one of the most extensive and important surviving sculptural monuments of ancient Rome. In addition to various text-based search tools, we also created a cartoon sketch interface to the entire frieze of Trajan's Column that allows users to move around a virtual column to access the images and to see them in narrative context. This virtual column is an example of a content driven interface to an image collection that is based on the subject matter of the collection.

Trajan, Roman emperor from AD 98 to 117, has generally been remembered as a 'good' emperor. A gifted general, he was close to his soldiers and led them on a number of campaigns which substantially expanded the Roman empire. Two of these campaigns, the first and second Dacian wars, are commemorated on Trajan's column: a 100 foot tall marble column decorated with a continuous, upwardly spiraling, sculpted frieze. The scenes on this frieze are an invaluable source of information about many aspects of Roman military practice, imperial ideology, and also sculptural technique. The column still stands today in its original place in the Forum of Trajan in Rome, but, due to its great height, visibility of individual scenes from the ground is quite limited; students and scholars must often rely on old photographs and plaster casts for the study of many details.

In 1997 a team of graduate students and faculty at McMaster University were given access to a unique collection of over 400 slides taken by Peter Rockwell and Claudio Martini when Trajan's Column was being restored and had scaffolding around it. The images are primarily of details that show carving technique. In addition we were given access to a series of cartoon sketches of the entire column that show the narrative of the frieze. The challenge was to create an image database that would provide a context for these photographs so that scholars and students of Roman art could use these resources easily. The WWW site is located at <http://cheiron.humanities.mcmaster.ca/~trajan/>.

In this paper we will do the following:

1. Discuss the background of the project.

This project was initiated by Peter Rockwell who was looking for a venue for making his collection of slides available to the research and education community. While he had published on the column, the full collection of images on which his research was based could not be published economically. A WWW site seemed the most effective way to make this collection available. The team was limited by the fact that the slide collection was in Rome, Italy and could not be removed to Canada for digitization. In this paper we will discuss the steps taken to digitize the images on site and build the database from information gathered by Peter Rockwell as part of his research.

2. Discuss the technical design of the WWW site.

After initially experimenting with a design that used hundreds of static WWW pages we developed a dynamic database that could generate the pages for the individual images on the fly. This gave us the freedom to easily alter the interface of the image pages and make site-wide changes in real time. This in turn allowed us to refine the design of the site in an interactive fashion as suggestions came in and users reported back. Finally the design of the database allowed editors involved in the project to make corrections over secure connections. In the paper we will comment on the virtues of moving to dynamically generated information for projects that involve teams of people, continuous correction and iterative interface design. We will contrast the development of this site with two previous projects, the Emily Pauline Johnson Archive (http://www.humanities.mcmaster.ca/~pjohnson/home.html) and the Cradle of Collective Bargaining site (http://www.humanities.mcmaster.ca/~cradle/). Both of these other sites use static WWW pages to hold the images. We will also comment on the choice of image resolutions that we settled on. In the Trajan site we make available small thumbnail images within WWW pages for timely access and links to medium and high resolution copies of each image and cartoon. This allows the user to look at and download images suitable for teaching and research.

3. Discuss the interface problems we faced and the solutions we settled on.

The Trajan Project provides three ways for users to navigate the images. The first is to search the image database. The second is by using indexes generated from the database which give the user an overview of the keywords used. The third and most visual is to navigate the column using the cartoon sketches and click on the links to individual images. In effect we have two means of access that are driven by the technology and one that was driven by the content of the database. In the paper we will discuss at length the need for content-driven interfaces that provide access to users to images in ways that correspond to the original artifact. Content-driven interfaces cannot be standardized because they vary according to the artifact(s) represented, but they provide a way of organizing information that the user familiar with the area can use. In our case we used the column as a whole as a visual index to the collection. The visual index not only provides access but creates a context for the images which would be hard to abstract from the database. This visual context augments the interpretative essays that introduce the site.

4. Conclude by discussing uses and benefits of the site.

As part of this project we have been showing the site to interested academics to get their feedback on the interface and to get ideas about how it might be used. As many of the images were taken to document carving techniques used in the sculpting of the frieze, this site is of greatest use to those interested in Roman carving. Many of the images, however, contain enough detail to be useful to those interested in Roman sculpture in general or those interested in studying Roman military equipment and activities. The WWW site provides an economical alternative to print for research image collections to be made available. In addition, the cartoons provide a continuous sketch of the narrative of the column that can be downloaded and annotated by those interested in this depiction of the events around the Dacian wars.

Viewers invited to try the site have commented on how they could use the high-resolution images and cartoons for teaching purposes since they are freely available and easily accessed. These types of comments have led us to think about the image database as not only a coherent research and teaching collection, but as an accessible collection of free images that can be mined by those who are shifting to electronic teaching tactics. Whenever you make a digitized collection of images available you are also providing the equivalent to academic clip art which can be reused in ways that are only remotely connected to the original content. This unintended outcome from the digitization of images will be discussed in the conclusion of the paper.

Bibliography

Arnheim, R. (1969). Visual Thinking. Berkeley.
Baecker, R. M., et al. (1995). ""Vision, Graphic Design, and Visual Display."" In Ronald M. Baecker et al. (eds) Human-Computer Interaction: Toward the Year 2000. 2nd ed. San Francisco.
Bertin, J. (1983). Semiology of Graphics: Diagrams, Networks, Maps. Trans. W. J. Berg. Madison, Wisconsin.
Cichorius, C. (1896, 1900). Die Reliefs der Trajanssäule, Berlin.
Lepper, F. and Frere, S. (1988). Trajan's Column. Gloucester.
Marcus, A. (1991). Graphic Design for Electronic Documents and User Interfaces. New York.
Mitchell, W. J. (1992). The Reconfigured Eye: Visual Truth in the Post-Photographic Era. Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Monti, P.M. (1980). La Colonna Traiana. Rome.
Settis, S., et al. (1988). La ColonnaTraiana. Rome.
Rockwell, P. (1985). ""Prelimary Study of the Carving Techniques on the Column of Trajan"". Marmi Antichi Studi Miscellanei 26. pp. 101-111.
Rockwell, P. (1993). The Art of Stoneworking: a Reference Guide. Cambridge.
Tufte, E. (1983). The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Cheshire, CT.
Tufte, E. (1990). Envisioning Information. Cheshire, CT.","txt","2","",""
"68","1","Digital Images for Online Distance Education in the Humanities","1","This paper will describe the design and development of a web-based distance education course in Art History at the University of Glasgow. In planning such courses the interplay between new media, distance education and the existing systems in a campus-based institution raises numerous issues which need to be resolved before such a course is feasible. Not least of these are the obstacles still inherent in accessing and delivering online images: in terms of locating the desired resources, copyright and costing implications, institutional agreements with other bodies such as the CLA and its digitising licence and dual-mode delivery both on and off-campus. We suggest that, two years on from Dan Greenstein's call for ""new and creative ways to manage relations between those who 'own' rights in image resources and those who have an interest in acquiring access to them"" (1) no simple methodology, clear guidelines for use or satisfactory search interface yet exists.

In common with other distance education developments in recent years, the work has been carried out in close partnership between the academic department concerned and GUIDE (Glasgow University Initiative in Distance Education). Following successful small-scale, campus-based attempts to implement new educational methods in teaching Art History, and in response to encouragement within the department, the Level 2 class convenor approached GUIDE for advice on potential distance options. Accordingly, in keeping with institutional policies and national pressures to widen participation (in particular flexible, distance and part-time provision), a 'flagship' course is to be offered at level 2 of a undergraduate degree course from January 2001.

The course will consist of two 30 credit modules (a total of 600 notional learning hours). One module will be on Scottish Art and the other on Art, Culture and the Avant-Garde. On the understanding that development work is never right first time, the initial module will be run once, closely evaluated, analysed and amended where appropriate. If this proves to meet our goals in the second presentation it will serve as a template, or model, for the design of the second module. A record of the history of the production of the course is being kept, to show how and why decisions to use particular methods of delivery and/or technology are made. It is intended that such a record will contribute to decision-making in the design of similar online distance education courses.

This development work constitutes a new departure, raising research issues in several areas. One aspect of this is in the innovative nature of these plans, and their place within the existing setting. For GUIDE, and indeed the University as a whole, this will be one of the first ventures into part-time distance provision at undergraduate level.

If the course proves a success in pedagogical terms and there is sufficient demand, we envisage the development of future courses, with the long-term aim of offering a distance education route through access to postgraduate provision. Achieving this aim requires a long-term commitment to developing other part-time distance courses that articulate with these modules in a cross-disciplinary degree structure within the Humanities. Ultimately, it requires the existence of sufficient comparable courses to enable a broad range of studies on the basis of part-time distance learning, in any subject, and at any level across the institution. As a flagship undergraduate distance course, it must also meet University requirements to an exemplary degree, and specifically those Quality Assurance guidelines being developed by GUIDE for distance education. The template we produce must therefore be of the highest possible quality, whilst remaining reasonably adaptable to future requirements. The development experience must inform and enable GUIDE to better assist future projects employing digital resources.

GUIDE has been working with a lecturer in the History of Art department to develop the first module on which the template will be based. In the first year, the module will run parallel to the face-to-face one, although it will cover different themes and use very different methods. It is not simply a distance version of the existing campus-based module. The process of designing a new distance learning course is very different from that involved in attempts to translate existing teaching materials into distance learning format. Existing Level-2 provision is heavily reliant on lectures. It is partly in order to investigate more exploratory, active learning approaches that this course has been conceived. It will be largely, though not entirely, web-based, and make use of group and peer-learning methods. We see the medium of online distance learning as enabling the transformation of the relationship between student, lecturer and the sources of learning materials - a transformation which, according to constructivist advocates of networked learning, will be necessary for the success of these methods.

In the development of this course, therefore, we have sought to identify the main features of this transformation with particular reference to art history. We have designed the course with a view to minimising the negative effects of losing face-to-face contact and maximising the benefits of technology-assisted distance education. We do this with the understanding that this constitutes not merely a compromise, but a fundamental change in what it means to teach, learn and communicate.

The fit with existing provision is only one of the issues raised. Another results from these different aims for the distance modules. The teaching of the discipline of art history and indeed the discipline itself - would have been unthinkable without the photographic transparency. Although it is exponentially more portable than a work of art, the transparency is also exponentially less portable than its digital equivalent. The new methods and web-based delivery will only be adding value to lecture-based provision if the technology is harnessed to provide easy, 'on-demand' access to source materials, especially digital resources. Ironically, the emergence of the technology for high quality digitisation of images promises a utopia of accessibility whilst simultaneously aggravating the problem of copyright. It has sometimes seemed as though the complexity of copyright law has resulted in a situation where the ability to access and use images is more restrictive now than before digitisation.

Other complex issues in the course design include the need to retain and extend successful features of the on-campus provision in Art History without competing too heavily for recruitment from the full-time student population (especially in the early stages when the options for continuation by these methods will be severely limited), and generic issues in online teaching and learning, especially those affecting developments in the Humanities. The effects of these considerations will be demonstrated in the design and evaluation of the course which will, by July 2000, be preparing for delivery.

Some suggestions which might facilitate the use of visual resources in teaching, drawn from our experience, will be offered to digital image service providers. Specific complications we encountered will be explored and those solutions we have found described. We hope these will help to ease the path for future users of these exciting resources in Humanities teaching.

Reference

(1) Greenstein, Daniel (1997). Digital Images and Virtual Scholarly Collections. Abstract, Joint International Conference of the Association for Computers and the Humanities and the Association for Literary & Linguistic Computing, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, CANADA, June 3 - 7, 1997 <http://www.qucis.queensu.ca/achallc97/papers/s008.html>","txt","2","",""
"69","1","Books into Bytes: The ""Deutsches Wörterbuch"" on CD-ROM and on the Internet","2","I. Starting position, targets:

Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm's ""Deutsches Woerterbuch"" (DWB) comprises the most extensive documentation of the German language. Its outstanding position is confirmed by its history: for more than one hundred years - the longest period of publication for a German dictionary - generations of lexicographers have contributed about 350,000 entries to the DWB, which is divided into 16 volumes (bound as 32), containing a total of 67,744 columns.

The DWB reflects more than one hundred years of political, cultural, and institutional history. Moreover, it shows the influence of varying preferences of numerous philologists concerning practical lexicography as well as changed insights into philology and linguistics.

Digitizing the DWB not only means preserving the outstanding achievements of German lexicography but also opens up new possibilites in using the rich dictionary material. Since November 1998, a project at the University of Trier has been creating a computerized version of the DWB to be published on CD-ROM and also made available via the Internet. It is intended to provide user-friendly search and display software in order to get optimum opportunities for data retrieval. It will as a result appeal to anyone interested in the German language. In this way, the poor situation in the field of electronic dictionaries of German when compared internationally will be decisively improved.

II. Technical issues:

Taking into account the developments of international standards for text encoding, TEI Guidelines are used for a structured markup of the dictionary. This prepares the way for the production of the CD-ROM version by applying special SGML tools: starting-point for the application of CoST (Copenhagen SGML Tool) is our pool of SGML encoded files which have been created from the TUSTEP (TUebingen System of Text Processing Programs) data and validated by an SGML parser. CoST is a general-purpose SGML post-processing tool. It is a structure-controlled SGML application, that is, it operates on the element-structure information-set (ESIS) representation of SGML documents. CoST provides a flexible set of low-level primitives upon which sophisticated applications can be built. These include a powerful query language for navigating the document tree and extracting ESIS information, an event-driven programming interface, and a specification mechanism which binds properties to nodes based on queries. On the one hand CoST generates a set of HTML pages for displaying the dictionaries by traditional web browsers, on the other hand it transforms the SGML data into command scripts for Tcl/Tk for the graphical user interface of the CD-ROM. Tcl, the Tool Command Language, is a very simple programming language. Tcl provides basic language features such as variables, procedures, and control, and runs on almost any modern OS, such as Unix, Macintosh, and Windows 95/98/NT computers. Tk is a Tcl extension, written in C, designed to give the user a relatively high level interface to their windowing environment. Finally CoST is used to set up a database that contains all the information of the dictionary entries necessary to perform queries about the different components that might be interesting to those concerned with studying the German language from its very beginnings, such as etymology, language, quotations, including of course traditional full-text retrievals. The database is accessible from both platforms: the web browsers connect to it via CGI scripting, and the CD-ROM GUI uses an integrated Tcl interface.

III. Software demonstration:

The software demonstration will present the way in which valuable information can be extracted from an electronic version of the DWB by using full-text retrieval, links, and a database that facilitates complex queries.

The possibility of using different retrieval options enables the user of a CD-ROM or Internet version of the DWB to search for certain phenomena in up to 33 substantial volumes, independently of headwords. The information hidden within the different entries is made even more explicit in various ways: via hyperlinks, the index volume will be connected with the references appearing in the dictionary. The information needed in order to quote from the sources of the DWB can thus be accessed very easily via pop-up windows. As a common feature of electronic dictionaries, it will be possible by a preparation of a list of headwords to look up every one of the headwords just by activating the corresponding links and, moreover, to gain access to certain parts of the longer articles separately by using the original organization of the entries. Specific information as to the grammatical gender of headwords or sublemmata or the occurrence of certain words in quotations from certain authors or literature will be obtainable by a database generated from TEI compliant markup as mentioned before.

One of the major aims of the project is, however, not only to show the user different means of making use of the DWB for lexicographical, historical, or linguistic studies and to present the DWB in an appealing way, but to increase the use of the DWB in general, i.e. as a book in several volumes to be read by those interested in the German language and the history of German words. For such purposes, it is absolutely necessary to allow the user an easy access both to the electronic version of the DWB and to the information stored within the entries, and to the printed version of the DWB as presented on screen via PostScript files. Encoding the entries according to TEI Guidelines is as important as presenting the characters of the different languages exactly as they appear in print.

The procedure of digitizing the DWB is very closely connected to that of one of the other retrodigitization projects at the University of Trier, Digital Middle High German Dictionaries Interlinked. As the Middle High German Dictionaries are quoted very often within the DWB, it is also intended to include links to the electronic version of these dictionaries. Their CD-ROM is meant as a prototype for the retrodigitization of other historical dictionaries, thus the presentation of the Dictionaries Interlinked may conclude the software demonstration to show how the DWB will look in a final state.

At the time of the conference, at least two major volumes of the DWB including the index volume will be fully encoded, converted into a CD-ROM, and accessible for searches. Questions to be discussed when presenting the DWB in its prospective digital version might focus on the application of SGML/TEI to a dictionary as heterogeneously structured as the DWB, on the necessity for developing new entities for character representation, and the importance of a digital DWB for future research.

Literature:

Christmann, Ruth/Hildenbrandt, Vera/Schares, Thomas (forthcoming, 2000): Digitalisierung des Deutschen Woerterbuchs von Jacob und Wilhelm Grimm, Hg. von Nicolas Castrillo Benito et. al. TUSTEP educa. 6. ITUG-Jahrestagung. Burgos.","txt","2","",""
"70","1","Construction of Russian Corpus-Driven Dictionary Based and Monitor Corpora","2","1. Introduction

Monitor corpora are of interest to lexicographers and language learners who can trawl a stream of new texts looking for the occurrence of new words, or for changing meanings of old words (Collins COBUILD, 1995; McEnery T., Wilson A., 1996). Their main advantages are that they are not static and provide for a large and broad sample of language.

The application of language processing technologies for construction of shareable and multifunctional language corpora led to hopeful results (Varile G. B., Zampolli A., 1996).

Progress in Russian language processing affords an opportunity for applying its results for creating Russian monitor corpora strongly connected with the set of electronic dictionaries by the help of linguistic software. Our approach is particularly dependent on the language processor Russicon, and on wide usage of Russicon electronic dictionaries (Yablonsky S.A., 1998).

2. Composition of the corpora

The main part of the corpus was described in (Yablonsky S.A., 1999 a,b). Today's corpus is based on wide representation of Russian XIX and XX century literature, critics, philosophy, religion, newspapers, memoirs, law, business, computers, historical documents, stenographs, translations, folklore, Internet literature, ""underground"" literature etc.

The texts are taken from printed resources, CD - resources and the Internet. ASCII and Unicode text are the basic text type standards. Additionally SGML, HTML and XML markup is done by designing C-conversion programs. SGML configuring of texts is done by the SoftQuad SGML Publishing Suite. The text collection will continue to grow as resources are created and encoded. The open-ended (constantly growing) Russian monitor corpus helps in dictionary building as it enables lexicographers to keep on top of new words entering the language, or existing words changing their meanings, or the balance of their use according to genre etc.

3. Corpus-driven dictionary

The chief distinction of the corporus is its strong connection with the set of Russian electronic dictionaries and language processing tools, particularly dependent on the language processor Russicon.

Every word of the corpus simultaneously is the entry word of the corpus-driven dictionary and vice versa. For any form of a Russian word input, the dictionary outputs:

one or several lemmas (lexical homonyms);
one or several sets (in the case of morphological homonyms) of such grammatical characteristics: part of speech, case, gender, number, tense, person, degree of comparison, voice, aspect, mood, form, type, transitiveness, reflexive, animation;
the synonym row(s);
the antonyms;
the precise definitions;
the explanatory comments;
all or several examples of usage in the corpora;
At the same time users can search for patterns of word combination, check word frequencies, see examples of all the uses of particular words.
The pilot system is realized on IBM PC using Visual Basic 6.0 and MS SQL Server 7.0 and works in personal and local net mode.

References

Belyaev, B.M., Surcis, A.S. and Yablonsky, S.A. (1993). Russian Language Processor RUSSICON: Design and Applications. Proceedings of the East-West Artificial Intelligence Conference (EWAIC-93)(pp.175-180), Moscow.
Collins COBUILD on CD ROM. (1995). HarperCollins, London.
McEnery, T.,Wilson, A. (1996). Corpus Linguistics. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh.
Varile, G. B., Zampolli, A. (1996). Survey of the State of Art in Human Language Technology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Yablonsky, S.A. (1998). Russicon Slavonic Language Resources and Software. In A.Rubio, N. Gallardo, R. Castro and A. Tejada (eds) Proceedings of the First International Conference on Language Resources & Evaluation ( pp. 141-1147), Granada, Spain.
Yablonsky, S.A. (1999a). Russian Written Language Corpora Development. Proceedings of the International Seminar Dialog99, May 30-June 8, Tarussa, Russia.
Yablonsky, S.A. (1999b). Russian 20th Century Literature Digital Library for Language Teaching. Proceedings of the International Conference of the ACH/ALLC Digital Libraries for Humanities Scholarship and Teaching, JUNE 9-13, 1999, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA.","txt","2","",""
"71","1","The MATE Workbench - a Tool for XML Corpus Annotation","2","The MATE workbench is an annotation tool which allows transcription, annotation, display and querying of speech and text corpora. It is not tied to any particular annotation scheme, and allows users to define interfaces which suit their particular needs.

The main difference between the MATE workbench and other annotation tools is its flexibility. Any annotation scheme which can be expressed in XML [7] can be used with the workbench (for a discussion of overlapping hierarchies see below), and the display and annotation interfaces are defined using a language based on the stylesheet language XSLT [8]. The workbench is written entirely in Java and is therefore platform independent.

Annotation can be a very tedious task for humans, and many tools have been developed to make it easier. We conducted a review of some existing annotation tools before beginning development of the workbench [3], and many of them have in common a fixed user interface or a restriction to a particular coding scheme. One tool which has some similarities to MATE is GATE [1], which can also be used with any annotation scheme, but has a different internal architecture, based on the US Tipster architecture rather than XML, and a main aim of making it possible to integrate different automatic annotation components within one system. MATE aims to provide a framework where stylesheets can be used to provide user-defined annotation and display interfaces. Because the stylesheet language is quite high level, it is easier to write a stylesheet to provide a given interface than to write an entire coding tool from scratch.

The MATE project has developed annotation schemes for five sets of linguistic phenomena, and examples of markup using these schemes will be distributed with the workbench, along with stylesheets for their annotation and display. Users of the workbench are by no means limited to these schemes, however.

To display annotated data in the workbench, a user must have a MATE project file, which specifies one or more XML annotation or transcription files and sound files if appropriate, and a stylesheet which is to be applied to these files. Several examples of these will be provided with the workbench. When the workbench is started, a corpus folder window appears with a display of all the available project files. After selecting a project file, the user clicks on the ""run"" button, the specified files are processed, and one or more display or annotation windows appears, depending on what was specified in the stylesheet. A different stylesheet can be used with the same files to produce different behaviour.

The other major use of the workbench is in performing queries over a corpus. A query language [4] was developed within the project which is tailored to our internal representation of the data, including the treatment of multiple hierarchies as defined below. To perform a query, the user first loads in one or more documents, then opens a Query Window, which provides support for building complex queries. The results of the queries are saved in XML format within the workbench, and are then also displayed using a stylesheet, allowing a flexible representation of the results.

One question which often comes up when XML annotation schemes are being developed is multiple overlapping hierarchies of markup. The TEI [5] describes several possible ways to provide overlapping in SGML. One of these, 'concur', is not possible in XML, which was designed to be a less complicated and easier to use version of SGML, and therefore left out some features. We have chosen to take a different approach from any of these, but one which has been proven to be successful in at least one large-scale corpus annotation project [2]. Our solution is to keep each level of annotation, and each data-stream (in the case of multi-speaker conversations for instance) separate, and to link each level to a common base-level. This base level would normally be the smallest unit on which all the other annotations depend. This may often be the word level, but could also be phonemes in the case of speech, higher level units such as sentences or paragraphs or indeed anything else as appropriate. The MATE workbench will therefore deal appropriately with any data which are marked up in this way using hyperlinks, as defined in the XLINK proposal [6].

Another advantage of the generality of the MATE workbench is that it makes it easier to combine views of annotation done using different schemes on the same corpus. These annotations may be done on different sites without any contact, but if both use hyperlinks to the same base level, then it is possible to create stylesheets which display both the annotations at the same time. It is also possible to write a stylesheet which will display one level and allow annotation of another level at the same time.

The MATE workbench has just been completed, and testing and evaluation are about to begin. We will be able to provide a section on this evaluation for the final paper. We will be asking testers to use the workbench for a variety of different annotation tasks, and provide feedback on ease of use and power, and also evaluating whether the stylesheet language allows testers to define new annotation and display interfaces easily. We will also be submitting a proposal to ALLC/ACH 2000 for a demo of the workbench.

References

[1] GATE <http://www.dcs.shef.ac.uk/research/groups/nlp% 2Fgate/>
[2] Isard, McKelvie and Thompson (1998). Towards a Minimal Standard for Dialogue Transcripts: A New SGML Architecture for the HCRC Map Task Corpus. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Spoken Language Processing, ICSLP98, Sydney.
[3] MATE Deliverable D3.1: Specification of Coding Workbench <http://www.cogsci.ed.ac.uk/~amyi/mate/report.html>
[4] Mengel, A. and Heid, U. (1999). Enhancing Reusability of Speech Corpora by Hyperlinked Query Output, Eurospeech 99, Budapest, September 1999.
[5] Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. and Bournard, Lou (eds). TEI Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding <http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/TEI.html>
[6] XLINK <http://www.w3.org/TR/xlink>
[7] XML <http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml>
[8] XSLT <http://www.w3.org/TR/xslt>","txt","2","",""
"72","1","Austrian Academy Corpus - Doing literary markup by means of XML","2","The poster we intend to present is supposed to give some details concerning the pilot phase of the newly founded Austrian Academy Corpus (AAC). The AAC is a project which has been started with the perspective of building up a digital corpus tailored to the particular needs of scholars doing research in the field of literary studies. The build-up of electronic text collections has been the domain of linguists so far. Although literary texts are becoming available in ever-increasing numbers, many of these products originated from linguistic endeavours to gather data for lexicographic or learners' purposes. Literary scholars have rather neglected the whole issue. Most of the existing digital literary resources are poorly edited and serve for little more than simplistic word searches. As the exigencies of work on literary texts differ considerably from those of linguistic studies the AAC has been trying to work towards solutions that meet the necessities of the literary domain. The AAC proceeds in its work from the basis of digital data which have been collected at the Austrian Academy of Sciences during the last few years. At that time the department's focus was placed on literary sources which were classified as functional literary text types, i.e. magazines, diaries, sermons, speeches, letters, obituaries and the like. Thus the materials in the corpus display considerable variety as to contents and structure. The data was accumulated primarily for text-lexicographic purposes preparing a phraseological dictionary which was published in 1999. This text-dictionary was based on a literary satirical magazine which appeared for the first time in 1899 in fin-de-siecle Vienna and was published until 1936. This magazine, 'Die Fackel', which was very popular among intellectuals in its time, is still of utmost interest to scholars of German literature trying to understand this crucial period of history. The electronic text of 'Die Fackel' was generated in a first run by means of rather unsophisticated OCR, a process which was completed several years ago. During the compilation of the above-mentioned text-dictionary the quality of this electronic text was improved in several runs of proofreading and adding basic markup which was developed specifically for this purpose. Only very few tags were applied, indicating for example the position of images or identifying special characters, which were not supported by the standard code-pages of the user interface. The texts being digitised at the moment (primarily historical magazines) undergo several stages of processing, first being scanned and made readable by means of OCR, then being corrected several times. The application of markup is the last step in this process. Formatting information of the digitised texts is in the first instance conserved in file formats such as RTF or utilizing standardized style sheets which yield quite reasonable results. With the increasing availability of more advanced text encoding techniques the working group of the AAC started to think about a more general approach to cope with the manifold problems of integrating text and text-related secondary data. We had to look for a markup scheme which allowed for labelling different types of data within one coherent markup system. In their endeavours to find appropriate ways of describing the structure of texts, linking up data and facilitating structured searches the working group of the AAC started doing experiments applying XML (Extensible Markup Language) to their data. The issue of XML, especially the question of XML versus SGML, has been touched upon repeatedly in Humanities computing. XML, as the youngest descendant of the SGML/HTML family, is a subset of SGML and can be viewed as the logic further development of SGML. As a general rule one can assume that SGML-encoded data can easily be transformed into XML-data, to a certain extent even the other way round. The XML related experiments at our department started already in the early stages of XML's appearance on the scene, i.e. in 1998. As yet only parts of the corpora of the AAC have been provided with XML-conforming markup as we are still trying to fathom out the potential benefits of XML for our work. Basic markup (start and end of pages, line breaks), character encoding as well as concatination of hyphenated words was carried out by means of a special conversion engine. There are many different ways to perform such transformations. Many would prefer to accomplish such a task making use of scripting languages such as Perl which, of course, can be a quite practicable and efficient way to do it. We tried to use graphical user interfaces from the very beginning of our work in order to ensure the constant monitoring and controlling of the transformation processes. Therefore we developed our tools using the programming language Delphi, a RAD tool which helped to cut developing time. The absence of any XML compliant browser software in the early phase forced us to seek a solution of our own and consequently to develop a graphical interface to bring our data on screen and display them in a readable form. These experiments showed that the fundamentally strict structure of XML documents makes parsing pretty straightforward. Even in the absence of a definitive set of tags XML-files are still processible without parsing an attached DTD (Document Type Definition). As the texts we are working on contain passages in various languages and characters XML's compliance with the Unicode Standard proved to be extremely helpful. Unicode has brought about the unification of a huge number of diverging standards and will in the future ensure the exchangeability and interoperability of all sorts of textual data. XML does not only allow generic, highly specialised encoding, but also enables the flawless exchange of data among different systems.","txt","2","",""
"73","1","The Humanities Computing Job Market","3","The panelists will assess the current state of the humanities computing job market in both the academy (including faculty as well as other kinds of academic positions) and in industry. Topics will include the relationship between the job market and the ways in which humanities computing as a specialization or field is being conceptualized and institutionalized; what kinds of jobs there are now and what kinds of jobs there are likely to be more of in the future; what applicants can do to make themselves marketable in humanities computing; and what hiring committees or companies can do to attract humanities degree-holders who have advanced skills in computing and digital media. Special attention will be given to the role that the ACH can play in preparing graduate students for industry and academic careers in humanities computing.","txt","2","",""
"74","1","Textbases and Databases: Integrating Library Catalogs with Digital Libraries","1","Online Public Access Catalogs (OPACs) in libraries now include bibliographic records for WWW sites. In most or all cases, these records contain direct links to the web resources themselves, so that someone using a WWW-based catalog could go directly from a bibliographic description of a website to the website itself, just by clicking on the URL in the catalog record. OPACs also have records for individual items within digital libraries, so that readers will be aware of the existence of a particular text or digital object within larger collections.

However, once someone leaves the OPAC and enters a digital library on the WWW, the advantages of careful bibliographic control may be lost. Most digital libraries are based on SGML-encoded files, whether full-text TEI-encoded files, or Encoded Archival Description (EAD) formatted finding aids (or some other markup language) while library catalogs use records in the MAchine Readable Cataloging (MARC) format. It will become increasingly important to find ways to get these SGML-based digital libraries to interact with MARC-based library catalogs.

In cataloging an item, catalogers spend time determining bibliographic information and forms of names and titles as a way of making sure the item is exactly described. Also, subject headings for each item are determined. By not providing links to online catalog records or including full information within the digital library searching and browsing mechanisms, readers may be misdirected or misinformed. The issue is more complex than reproducing or reformatting a MARC record within the TEI or EAD Header. There are at least three reasons why digital libraries should be linked dynamically to online library catalogs:

The difficulties presented by names
Accepted forms of names and subject headings change
Digital libraries may combine both cataloged and uncataloged materials
Catalogers take great care in creating and maintaining Name Authority Files in an attempt to keep straight all of the various authors that might share the same or similar names, in addition to pseudonyms, variant spellings, and married or maiden names. Names are a source of contention among scholars, almost as much as texts themselves - the name by which any given author is known may change, and consistent rules for establishing standard names are difficult to establish. Just to give a few well-known examples, Charlotte Bronte published under the pseudonym ""Currer Bell,"" yet is known by her real name; Marian Evans published under the pseudonym ""George Eliot,"" and is known by her pseudonym. Following U.S. Library of Congress rules, works by Mark Twain were formerly filed under ""Samuel Clemens."" This changed a few years ago, and now are under ""Mark Twain."" There are countless such cases, much more vexed and complicated than these examples. The intent of a Name Authority File is to group together an author's works, no matter under which name it was published, so that they can be found by searching under any variant name or pseudonym. Of course, Name Authority Files are neither comprehensive nor perfect, but in developing digital libraries, it seems counterproductive to try to duplicate the effort already expended in creating a Name Authority File.
Catalogers also expend a great deal of effort in maintaining the information contained within library catalogs, and online catalogs are dynamic databases under constant revision. Accepted forms of subject headings and authors' names change over time, and libraries routinely perform global changes within library catalogs. If subject headings are included within the header of an electronic text, it is doubtful that the header will be updated should the accepted form be changed in the OPAC. Over time, the information in digital libraries will grow out of synch with the OPAC.

Not everything in a library collection is cataloged, and this is especially true for manuscript and archival collections. Catalogers and archivists have rules for what gets cataloged and what does not. Letters, photographs, and other items within manuscript collections generally are not cataloged separately with MARC records. Instead, catalogers create collection-level MARC records for the online catalog, and archivists then create finding aids that describe the contents of manuscript collections in more detail. Some archival collections combine cataloged materials, such as books, recordings, or films, with uncataloged items, such as photographs, sheet music, or letters. Digital libraries created from such collections will need to consider the various sources of bibliographic description available, which may include both MARC records and finding aids. As digital libraries become larger and more complex, it will become essential that they draw from and interact with online library catalogs. Digital libraries will not want to duplicate the bibliographic descriptions and subject headings available from online catalogs.

I will look at how two projects at Indiana University have begun to address this problem by integrating information from the online library catalog with digital library collections, and some of the problems and pitfalls encountered. The Hoagy Carmichael Collection <http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/collections/hoagy>, which has digitized most of the Carmichael collection available at Indiana University, combines three sources of information: an EAD finding aid for the music, lyrics, photographs, correspondence and other materials; MARC records for the sound recordings, extracted from the library catalog and converted to a MARC SGML format developed by the U.S. Library of Congress; and finally, the TEI-encoded full-text correspondence. At present, we are extracting MARC records and converting them to SGML using batch processes, but are working on ways that this interaction can occur in real time. I will focus here on the use of the MARC records as part of the overall metadata for the project, and the process of conversion to SGML.

Second, the Victorian Women Writers Project (VWWP) <http://www.indiana.edu/~letrs/vwwp> has begun a project to use the Name Authority File (NAF) records from the online catalog to keep track of authors and their variant names. The VWWP currently has works by only 42 authors, but even this small sample presents some complex issues surrounding authors' names. I will demonstrate the process by which Name Authority File records are integrated with the VWWP collection, allowing for more complete information on authors' names.","txt","2","",""
"75","1","Mapping 18th Century Structures of Knowledge: the Renvois System in Diderot's Encyclopédie","1","One of the crowning achievements of the 18th century Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, par une Société de Gens de lettres, edited by Diderot and d'Alembert. Published in Paris between 1751 and 1772, in 17 volumes of text and 11 volumes of plates, it contains 74,000 articles written by more than 140 contributors. The Encyclopédie was a massive reference work for the arts and sciences, as well as a machine de guerre which served to propagate Enlightened ideas. The impact of the Encyclopédie was enormous. Through its attempt to classify learning and to open all domains of human activity to its readers, the Encyclopédie gave expression to many of the most important intellectual and social developments of its time.

The scale and ambition of the Encyclopédie inspired the editors to adopt three modes of organization: dictionary, encyclopedic, and the renvois. The interaction of these three modes has led modern scholars to describe the Encyclopédie as the ""ancestor of hypertext"" and depict Diderot as ""l'internaute d'hier""[1]. Diderot makes the importance of the organization of knowledge explicit in the Discours Preliminaire:

As an Encyclopedia, it is to set forth the order and connection of the parts of human knowledge. As a Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades, it is to contain the general principles that form the basis of each science and each art ... and the most essential facts that make up the body and substance of each. [2]

Of the three modes of organization, the dictionary mode (organization of entries in alphabetical order) is certainly the simplest. The second mode of organization is encyclopedic, where each entry is assigned a ""class of knowledge"", placing it within the ""order"" of human knowledge, as was described by d'Alembert's Systême Figuré des connoissances humaines. Reflecting Enlightenment theories of epistemology, the tree of knowledge has a three-fold trunk comprised of memory, reason, and imagination, from which spring many branches, twigs, and leaves (Image of Pank's tree). Simply placing an entry into this hierarchy of knowledge was insufficient to indicate the inter-connections of knowledge. Thus, Diderot created an extensive system of renvois (cross-references), the third mode of organization, providing a lattice of inter-connections between individual leaves of the tree as well as between classes of knowledge. The reader is encouraged to follow the renvois, which unite fields of knowledge into what was hoped to be a seamless totality.

The ARTFL Project's creation of a computer implementation of the Enlightenment's ""war machine""[3] has attempted to provide this three-fold access and navigation to scholars and researchers. Furthermore, the electronic Encyclopédie provides a unique tool to study the interactions of these three modes of organization of knowledge. Systematic examination of Diderot's hypertext is important not only for the light it sheds on the function and construction of the Encyclopédie itself and the contours of 18th century knowledge, but may also be informative for modern conceptions of hypertext.

The two first modes of organization (dictionary order and encyclopedic classification of knowledge) can be envisioned directly by the reader of the Encyclopédie. The third, the structure of the renvois, is impossible to grasp as a whole because of its more diffuse nature. The 61,700 individual renvois are unevenly distributed across the 74,000 articles of the Encyclopédie, reflecting the wide variation in size and scope of articles. 22,955 articles or subarticles have one or more renvois. As might be expected, articles with renvois are significantly longer (568 words) than those without (158 words). The renvois simply refer to one or more articles by head word. Thus, these connections are what might be termed leaf to leaf (or node to node), which allow the user to traverse leaves, without regard to the classes of knowledge. As a reader, one can only see the links stemming locally from a particular entry: much as someone hiking in a chain of mountains, it is not possible to step back and get a general vision of the whole landscape.

The online version of the Encyclopédie allows us to draw a very coarse first map of the links ""landscape"". Our methodology was to group the entries into the classes of knowledge to which they belong and to measure the strength of relationships of all of the renvois between these classes of knowledge using a simple Z-score calculation. The resulting graph shows the statistically significant (or ""privileged"") links between classes of knowledge. A given renvois does not specify a precise sense of the word we should look for, and for any given word one often finds several distinct entries corresponding to different classes of knowledge (polysemy). There is no automatic way to determine the ""true"" link initially intended by the author - assuming that the author had a single sense in mind. However, a statistical study taking into account several independant renvois between classes allows us to get a more reliable picture and to disregard insignificant links.

The encyclopedic landscape shows some striking features. First, there is a high local connectivity between close classes - in other words, there are several different ways to go from ""physique"" to ""géometrie"", for example. Secondly we can see a clear division of the links landscape into two ""hemispheres"", namely, knowledge related to direct observation of nature (histoire naturelle), heuristic sciences (chimie, médecine), rural life (économie rustique) on the one hand; and knowledge related to or contructed by the human mind on the other (abstract sciences such as mathematics; philosophy; history; laws of human society). Not surprisingly, the ""human hemisphere"" is much more important than the ""natural hemisphere"" in terms of sheer size.

The general structure of the renvois can be related to the encyclopedic order pictured in d'Alembert's Systême Figuré. For example, mathematics, geometry, and arithmetic are closely grouped in our landcape drawn from the renvois and in the encyclopedic order defined by d'Alembert. The two hemispheres detected in this preliminary examination, however, do not clearly correspond to d'Alembert's general schema. The power of the Encyclopédie's ""hypertextuality"" arises from the combination of a general map of the structures of knowledge and the lattice of related cross-references. Rather than conceive of the renvois as simply node to node links, Diderot's hypertext assumes an abstract representation of knowledge. He writes, in the Discours Préliminaire,

On a tâché que l'exactitude & la fréquence des renvois ne laissât là - dessus rien à desirer; car les renvois dans ce Dictionnaire ont cela de particulier, qu'ils servent principalement à indiquer la liaison des matieres; au lieu que dans les autres ouvrages de cette espece, ils ne sont destinés qu'à expliquer un article par un autre. [...] Ainsi trois choses forment l'ordre encyclopédique; le nom de la Science à laquelle l'article appartient; le rang de cette Science dans l'Arbre; la liaison de l'article avec d'autres dans la même Science ou dans une Science différente; liaison indiquée par les renvois... [4]

The key role that abstract representation of knowledge plays in the construction of Diderot's hypertext may be particularly instructive for current hypertext designers. In addition to node to node links, hypertext design may be enhanced by working within the context of organizational framework such as Diderot's representation of classes of knowledge.

Notes

1. Brian, Eric (1998). ""L'ancêtre de l'hypertexte"". Les Cahiers de Science et Vie, 47 (oct. 1998), pp.28-38.
2. English translation cited in Nelly Hoyt and Thomas Cassier, ""Introduction"" to Encyclopedia (1965), p. xxiii (our emphasis).
3. Andreev, Leonid et al (1999). ""Re-engineering a War Machine: ARTFL's Encyclopédie"". Literary and Linguistic Computing Vol 14, No. 1 1999, pp. 11-28
4. Encyclopédie, Vol 1, p. xviii.","txt","2","",""
"76","1","Multi Dimensions Concept-Based Information Retrieval System","1","Introduction

Most of the problems in information retrieval systems occur from three sources: impreciseness of query and document representations, the changing state of mind in document relevant judgement, and the discrepancy of retrieval technique to match query and information need. The traditional approach to information retrieval systems, such as Boolean based retrieval technique, cannot solve these problems (Belkin and Croft, 1987). According to McCain (1989) and Pao and Worthen (1989), retrieval by keywords and cited documents will end up with different sets of documents retrieved. There were relevant documents retrieved by keywords but not retrieved by references, and vice versa. Hence, a new approach to retrieval technique is needed.

This study is intended to build a new approach to information retrieval systems by employing the inherent structure of a document collection in an effort to learn more about document components that might improve information retrieval performance. The document components examined are the pattern of keywords, citing documents, and cited documents. Three independent variables were studied: co-keyword, co-citing document, and co-cited document (Hasibuan, 1995). These three variables constitute the multi-dimensions concept-based information retrieval system. By providing such variables as entry points to search relevant documents, it is widening the naturalness of the system in order to accommodate users' information needs.

Methodology

A test collection was constructed from a collection of research articles published by National Atomic Research Agency (BATAN), covering the period 1985 through 1998. An automatic program was written to build indexes of keywords, citing documents, and cited documents for each document. The relationship that may occur between two documents can be depicted as in Figure 1. Pair-wise document similarity is calculated on those three variables. As in Figure 1, the similarities between documents A and B can be viewed in terms of documents Q and S, which cite documents A and B (co-cited), and documents Y and Z, which are cited by A and B (co-citing). In addition to that, the similarity of documents A and B can be counted on the number of shared terms (co-keyword).

Figure 1. Relationship of Two Documents (A and B)

Document similarity is measured by using the simple matching coefficient proposed by Van Rijsbergen (1979) and Salton (1989). The similarity of document A and B is calculated as follows:

Similarity (A, B) = | X Ç Y |

The variables X and Y represent the sets of index terms occurring in two documents. Hence, the similarity of document A and B is measured in terms of the number of shared index terms. These sets of index terms can be expanded to include values for citing documents and cited documents. The retrieval technique used is based on this document similarity.

Results

The preliminary results of the research showed that relevant documents retrieved by one component did not always agree with other components (see Figure 1). Figure 1 shows document 0376 and document 0419 have 11 shared index terms, two shared cited documents and three shared citing documents. As we expected, most of the document pairs have zero frequency of shared cited document and shared citing document. This finding is in line with our previous research finding in Hasibuan (1995). According to these results, it is suggested to build a multi-dimension concept-based retrieval system. The system built is able to provide users with a facility to search several interrelated options of search strategy. Given that kind of facility, a user can be more flexible to start his/her search by using one of the dimensions, says keyword, then navigates the system using other dimensions of document similarity. At any moment, the documents retrieved can be viewed, evaluated and judged for their relevance.

Figure 1. A Portion of Search Results of the Multi-dimension Concept-based Information Retrieval System

The search results shown in Figure 1 are posted in a hypertext based, so that a user can continue browsing uninterruptedly, in order to further his/her search to retrieve more on the other possible relevant documents. For each pair of documents retrieved, the system will provide the frequency of its co-keyword, co-cited documents and co-citing documents. Furthermore, the non-zero frequency of each entry in the columns of co-citing and co-cited documents becomes an active icon. If we click 2 in column co-cited, then we can see the documents that are co-cited by document 0376 and 0419 (see Figure 2). There are documents 0523 and 0531. The abstract of each document retrieved can be viewed by clicking the number of the document (see Figure 3).

Figure 2. An Example of Co-cited Documents

Figure 3. An Example of Abstract Document Retrieved

Conclusion

Multi-dimensions concept-based retrieval system provides relaxed facility in order to search information by utilizing the components of documents - co-keyword, co-cited documents, and co-citing documents. With this facility, the system can widely accommodate the range of user's search strategy in information seeking. The drawback of the system compared to the traditional system is that this new approach needs more space of computer storage in order to accommodate all its index files. Furthermore, it can slow down the search process. However, this trade-off is compensated for by the flexibility of the system to provide more search strategies, more comprehensive retrieval of relevant documents, and easy to browse from one document to another document. Ultimately, by utilizing these three components of a document, the system can reduce the possibility of low retrieval system performance due to the impreciseness of query and document representations, lack of relevant judgement, and lack of matching function between query and document.

References

Belkin, Nicholas J., and Bruce Croft, W. (1987). ""Retrieval Techniques."" Annual Review of Information Science And Technology 22: 109-145.
Hasibuan, Zainal A. (1995). Document Similarity and Structure: Using Bibliometric Methods and Index Terms As Approaches to Improving Information Retrieval Performance. Doctoral dissertation, School Of Library and Information Science, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana.
McCain, Katherine W. (1989). ""Descriptor and Citation Retrieval in the Medical Behavioral Sciences Literature: Retrieval Overlaps and Novelty."" Journal of the American Society for Information Science 40, 2: 110-114.
Pao, Miranda L and Worthen, Dennis B. (1989). ""Retrieval Effectiveness by Semantic and Citation Searching."" Journal of the American Society for Information Science 40, 4: 226-235.
Salton, Gerard (1989). Automatic Text Processing: The Transformation, Analysis and Retrieval of Information by Computer. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, New York.
Van Rijsbergen, S. R. (1979). Information Retrieval. Butterworth, London.","txt","2","",""
"77","1","Image Analysis as a Tool for Automating the Integration of Editorial Hypertext with Facsimile-based Digital Editions: the Experience of the Electronic Edition of Ruskin's Modern Painters I","1","Introduction

Since 1997, the Ruskin Programme at Lancaster University have been exploring various technical options in order to create a facsimile-based edition of John Ruskin's Modern Painters vol I. Editorially, we were above all interested in showing the history of the writing process and the context of the many revisions Ruskin made to this work over a twenty year period. We wanted to allow the user to choose, and toggle between, all the important editions of this work in facsimile, at the same time as bringing the editorial commentary to his or her attention. We wanted to do this in a way that did not impinge on the historical veracity of these facsimiles; we wished to find an unobtrusive way of displaying hyperlinks that did not result in a visually-compromised facsimile-based edition. At the same time the feature of central importance for any potential technical solution for our project was that it should allow us to automate the creation of this environment. There are around 500 pages in this work and as we are using five different editions (plus some manuscripts) there are over 2,500 images of pages, all of which will need to display editorial information to the user. After looking into commercially-available software options, we decided that the best solution was to build our own tools. With the help of computer scientists, we have now designed a suite of tools that allow us to analyse images of text in a variety of ways. We are now in a position to automate the production of our edition. This paper details what we required of these tools, looks at how we went about creating them, demonstrates their use in a high-volume processing environment and finally suggests further potential developments that could come out of this research, such as the possibility of enhancing searches of digitised resources that use facsimile images, and the possibility of automating mark-up of spatial textual features, such as paragraphs, indented verse, footnotes etc..

The Interface

In order to preserve the authenticity of the facsimile texts, the interface that suited our needs was one that did not impose hypertext links directly onto these images, but rather placed the hyperlinks beside the text, on the right-hand side of the screen, parallel to the pertinent word or phrase. These editorial links are not displayed as text; rather, in the interests of concision, an icon indicates which type of hypertext note (e.g. whether it concerns People, Places or Works) is available to the user, with a 'mouse-over' facility to display the title of the note should there be any uncertainty about the destination of these links (e.g. if there were more than one of a given category of note in a given line).

Creation of Resources

To adapt the facsimiles of the various editions of the printed book into this format, we needed three types of information: first, electronic versions of the texts containing mark-up indicating page and line breaks; second, the desired location and type of each note (which edition, page and line it belongs to) and which kind of note it is (e.g. People, Places or Works); finally we need to know the pixel co-ordinates of each individual line of text in each image (for 2,500 pages, that is around 100,000 sets of co-ordinates).

The electronic text

The electronic text is being produced by hand-checking OCR-generated versions of specific editions. A manually-generated collation of all editions is also being produced. This has been entered into a database, and this information is automatically compared with the various OCR-generated electronic versions. Mismatches between the various versions/collations and lists of note titles are then investigated and resolved manually.

Note identification

The identification of the location and type of hypertext links is achieved through codes associated with each note that contributors to the edition integrate into their submissions. These codes were established before any notes were written, but as the sequence of the notes is of importance within the automation process, we built into the code enough flexibility to allow us to add additional notes later while still maintaining the relationship between the linear succession of notes and the alphanumeric sequence of the codes.

Locating the pixel references within the images

We found Java the most suitable language for analysing images. First we wrote a program to straighten and crop the scans automatically. Once correctly aligned, the program then analyses the average colour values of horizontal lines of pixels to distinguish one line of text from the white space that follows it. The co-ordinates of each line of text are identified in this way and recorded in a database. Other procedures extend this paradigm.

Constructing the interface

The program loads in a page of facsimile, and ascertains whether there are any hyperlinking icons required for that page. By combining the information from the note identification codes and the electronic texts, the program can paste the appropriate icon(s) next to the appropriate lines of text and give them the desired functionality. A similar process allows context-specific information about collation to be pasted onto the right-hand side of the facsimile.

Conclusions

These tools are fairly flexible, and could be adapted to most printed material where appropriate (several projects have expressed an interest in utilising some of the tools we are developing). As this kind of procedure becomes increasingly straightforward, it can be envisaged that the pixel co-ordinates of any line (or word, or even letter) of a text could become a generally accepted aspect of mark-up for the digital scholarly edition (using the <MILESTONE> tag, for instance, and/or extended pointers). Certainly through automating and formalising the linking of the word to its original physical image, it will become possible to historicise electronic texts in an immediate and unambiguous way. Through integrating this analysis with mark up, we can facilitate a host of bibliographic analyses of texts that place 'traditional' modalities of scholarly work right at the centre of humanities computing.","txt","2","",""
"78","1","Automatical Text Aligning in a Parallel Text Corpus","2","Parallel text corpora supply researchers with very important data for multilingual lexicography and translation studies as well as for language typology. The crucial problem in compiling parallel corpora is aligning the texts. Manual aligning is impossible for large corpora, so ways of automatic aligning are to be found. The aim of the research project at the University of Tampere is to compile a Russian-Finnish parallel corpus and to develop the software for automatic aligning of the Russian and Finnish subcorpora.

1. General

Since the 60s and 70s text corpora development has become much easier. Electronic texts in a large variety of languages can be obtained on the Internet; scanning and OCR technologies have been much improved during the last ten years. Associations like TELRI and ELRA are helping linguists from different countries to join their efforts in collecting language resources in electronic form. The number of corpus-based projects is rapidly growing while the number of scholars that are skeptical about this innovation is reducing at the same speed. In most lexicographic projects text corpora are being used. Applied linguistic research is another field where text corpora are welcome as an inexhaustible source of empirical information, polygon for testing various linguistic tools - spell-checkers, OCRs, machine translation systems, NLP systems etc. At the same time, the corpora are quite useful for theoretical, 'armchair linguistics' [Fillmore, 1992] as well. Nowadays text corpora are quite widely used for compiling monolingual dictionaries. Nevertheless it is still a problem to use text corpora in bilingual lexicography. Of course it is possible to use two text corpora but it would have been more useful to have parallel texts and tools for looking up words and their translations as well as parallel contexts. Furthermore, the use of bilingual and multilingual text corpora is by no means limited to multilingual lexicography.

2. The Project

The aim of the research project running at the Department of Translation Studies of the University of Tampere is to collect a bilingual corpus of parallel texts (Russian and Finnish). The texts will be Russian classical or fiction texts and their translations into Finnish. The corpus will not be very big (4-5 million running words) but it will be equipped with efficient search tools for analysis of parallel texts. At present we have a substantial corpus of Russian prose (4.5 million words) and have started to collect the translations of Russian texts into Finnish and to modify the software for running the parallel text corpus. We have equipped the above mentioned text corpus of Russian prose with certain tools for building word lists and concordances. The present task is to collect Russian fiction texts and their translations into Finnish. As a result we shall have authentic Russian texts (normal Russian language) and Finnish texts influenced by the Russian original. It is quite evident that the language of translations is different from the original prose: the translator is under the influence of the language from which he/she is translating (that is why when I was a student our professors told us we should not use examples from translations for our research). Grammar forms, syntactic patterns, word frequencies in the Russian subcorpus will be more or less representative for the standard Russian language. This will not be so for the Finnish subcorpus. Grammar, sentence structure, and vocabulary of the translations are influenced by the original text. This means that the Corpus will be 'asymmetrical', centered on the Russian language.

3. Maintenance of the Corpus

The basic idea is to separate the texts from the tags. Usually the corpus software is 'anti-intellectual' - all those programs can do is to find strings of characters, show them or perform calculations on them. The corpora developers therefore have to make explicit all relevant information, i.e. to tag the texts. In our Corpus the texts are 'clean'. They are stored as ordinary text files. All relevant information is registered in the Microsoft Access database. The database is used for data processing as well. The user can get concordances for specified word(s) or word combination(s). He/she can also use the word list for query-making. It is quite easy to specify context size (in sentences) and comparison for the main and second search key (whole word / start of word / end of word / any part of word) as well as the second search key position (same sentence / next word). The approach for corpus compiling we use has many reserves - we are planning to add to the program lemmatizing routines which will make it possible to build another index - a grammatical one. This will make searching for grammar forms also possible.

4. Parallel Concordancing

However, the most difficult and most interesting part of the project will be to find out whether automated parallel concordancing is possible. The starting point was the idea that although the translator changes a lot in the translation in comparison to the original text - he may join or split the sentences, change clauses into phrases, omit or add certain words, use broader or narrower equivalents - still he translates something literally. Certain words cannot be skipped in the translation; otherwise we shall have an entirely new text. The words that in most cases are translated literally we shall call keywords. So, we presume that if equivalents for more than half of keywords of extract A from the original were found in extract B of the same size from the translation, extract B is likely to be the translation of extract A. What word classes shall be keywords? Of course we have to exclude prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, etc. We also have to exclude words with very broad meanings (e.g. idti - 'to go'). Some words are parts of idioms and therefore unpredictable in translations (bog - 'god', tchert - 'devil'). From what is left we also have to exclude words having high-frequency homonyms. E.g. we cannot include the Russian word 'petchen' - 'liver' - in the Russian-Finnish glossary of keywords because the Finnish equivalent for this word is 'maksa' which in many forms is homonymous with the verb 'maksaa' - 'to pay'. Another criterion is word frequency. Frequently used words may cause problems because they are everywhere. Words that occur only once also have to be excluded. Most useful for our research are words that have a frequency in the range of 2 to 6 occurrences. This is about 35% of the words in the analyzed text (Dostoyevski, Notes from the cellar). Most of these words and some of the more frequently used words will be included in the list of keywords. Together with Finnish dictionary equivalents they form the core of the system.

The system works as follows:

1) Extract A from the original is split into words.
2) Keywords are selected; weight of the sample is calculated.
3) Finnish equivalents B1, B2, ... Bn for the keywords are looked up.
4) Contexts for every keyword are looked up and checked by other keywords.

For each context the weight is calculated. If the weight of the context Bx is more than 60% of the weight of the extract A, Bx is considered a translation of A and presented to the user. If our hypothesis is true, the program will be able to find parallel places if a) the context is long enough (we cannot say at present what 'long enough' means); b) enough keywords were found; c) the translation is close enough to the original.

5. Applications of the Parallel Text Corpus

The parallel text corpus would be very useful in the fields of comparative studies, translation studies, and bilingual lexicography. It would make it possible to find how the word is actually translated, which is sometimes quite different from what is expected according to the dictionaries. It will be easy to find translations of quotations. It would also be quite possible to monitor usage of certain grammatical forms or constructions and ways of translating them into another language.

References

Fillmore C. (1992). ""Corpus linguistics"" or ""Computer-aided armchair linguistics"". Directions in corpus linguistics, Stockholm.
Parallel Corpora. <http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~barlow/para.html>
Rundell M. (1998). The corpus of the future, and the future of the corpus. <http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~barlow/futcrp.html>
Svartvik J. (1992). Corpus linguistics comes of age. Directions in corpus linguistics, Stockholm.","txt","2","",""
"79","1","A Pilot Study in the Use of E-Books for Learning","2","There are quite a number of educational electronic learning devices for children aged between 3 to 12 years old. These portable laptop look-alike devices are designed to make drill and practice exercises painless and more fun with elements of text, audio and animation. This paper describes a study on how children use and feel about learning with such a device. Preliminary findings suggest that the readability of the machine is poor and kids prefer a richer display of information, and for this reason producers of learning devices should look very carefully at representation issues.

1. Introduction

Paper books have been used as extremely useful aids for the support of many activities including teaching and learning for many years. However, another type of book, known as the electronic book, has emerged, with many companies engaging in manufacturing electronic reading devices used for displaying, reading and storing electronic information. Nuvomedia Inc.[14], SoftBook Press Inc. [16] and EveryBook Inc. [12] are examples of manufacturers of hand-held reading devices who are currently targeting only professionals that require access to lots of reference materials [6]. In contrast, Oregon Scientific [15], VTECH [17],and IQ Builders [13], are producing fun, friendly computer-based learning machines for children aged between 3 to 12 years old.

With these new and increasingly popular products it is important for educators and researchers to study and learn about the implications and appropriateness of the technologies on educational settings of their target customers. Before discussing a case study carried out on how children use and feel about the learning machine, this paper first describes the definition of an electronic book. It then introduces a specific learning machine to be the object of this study and the methodology followed in evaluating it. Finally, a number of observed qualitative findings are outlined.

1.1 Definition of an electronic book

An electronic book (e-book) is essentially a computer-based information storage/dissemination artefact that embeds a book metaphor [4]. More precisely, an electronic book is usually considered to be composed of a collection of reactive (screen based) pages of electronic information that are (usually) organised in a thematic way and that exhibit many of the characteristic features and properties of a conventional book [3].

There have been various attempts to categorise e-books according to their main features [2,3,7]. We thought that there was a need for a more flexible philosophy in order to accommodate the wide range of new objects produced nowadays, as they are all labelled e-books. We propose that e-books be classified according to what aspect of the book they emphasise (purpose, content, functionalities, appearance) and by taking into account the kind of audience they target. According to this bi-dimensional categorisation the pilot study described in this paper considers e-books whose purpose is mainly educational and whose audience is made up of children in primary school.

2. The Learning Machine

The machine considered in this pilot study is called 'Zip, the Robot Learning PC'. It is designed for 4-7 year olds and has 50 activities covering vocabulary, spelling, grammar, maths, music and games. It can be expanded with add-in smart cards. Like a real laptop, it has a QWERTY keyboard and a mouse to also introduce essential computer user skills. The machine is powered either by 4AA size batteries or a 9V AC adapter.

Game activities and questions come in groups of 10. Users are given 3 attempts to answer each question. Points are awarded according to the number of attempts taken to answer each question correctly. Each attempt to answer a question is timed 1 minute for levels 1-5 and 30 seconds for level 6. If users are unable to answer in time, it is counted as an incorrect attempt. The user is praised for each correct answer and prompted for action if the given time is exceeded.

The score is displayed at the end of each activity and users scoring 85 points or higher after a group of 10 questions can proceed to the next higher level of difficulty. Scores of 60 points or below go to the next lower level.

3. Observed qualitative study

Six 5-8 year old children were given the opportunity to play with the learning machine. All participants are considered as ""moderate technology users"" for their age as all have had many experiences playing with CD titles, video games and personal computers. Moderate technology experience is essential as this study assumed the children are used to computer interface metaphor and handling of input devices.

While using the machine, the kids were observed for reactions and at the end of the playing time, each kid was asked to answer some questions regarding selected parameters.

This initial study attempts to observe the children's preferences toward the learning device, thus, a study of display preferences by Wearden [11] is partially adopted. Navigability, physical format and overall preference were selected and used as observation parameters. However, instead of observing wait time, we measured the overall time each child takes to play with the machine. A major challenge for flat panel display technology is to reproduce the viewability or readability of ink on paper [5]. Realising the importance of the readability concept, this parameter is also observed in this study.

The observed parameters were further broken down into the following questions:
 

Navigability: (1) How easy is it to make game choices? (2) Are the input devices easy to use and handle?
Physical format: (1) How heavy is the machine? (2) Do you like the design of the casing, screen and keyboard?
Readability: (1) Are the texts clearly displayed? (2) Are the texts and graphics smoothly outlined or are they too jagged? (3) Do you like the black and grey display? (3) Is the audio clearly understandable?
Overall preference: (1) Do you prefer learning with CD-ROM, paper or the electronic learning machine?
4. Results and Conclusions
Although this study was done on a small controlled scale, the opinions of these young children should not entirely be ignored and there are still a few points to be taken into account when designing future products.

Some of this study's observed results are in agreement with other studies' findings. Take for example:

Doane stated that an important parameter of the e-book is its necessary weight limitation. It cannot be heavier than we normally expect a book to be [5]. When asked about the weight, the children agreed that the machine weight is ideal and they prefer collections of books in electronic form compared to paper books.
Jaggies' in LCD are found to be liked least [1] in a study by Gujar et al. The six kids in this observation study also complained about the too-jagged texts and graphics.
The readability of this machine is observed to be low in the eyes of the kids. Reasons are low resolution black and grey displays (Nielsen design guidelines state that low resolution monitors have poor readability [9] ), small display screens, dull grey display panels, and too many jagged texts and graphics.
These children prefer richer colourful multimedia displays, as opposed to the findings by Wearden who did a survey of 276 university students and found that the least important potential features of an e-book are animated graphics, audio and video [10]. It is possible to conclude that the age factor has some effects on this parameter, but further studies have to be performed to validate it.
One other issue that needs to be discussed is the average time each of the children took to play with the machine. Liu's study showed that multimedia technology with its use of video, audio and graphics could engage children for a longer period of time [8]. However, this is not the case in this case study. All of the six children seemed to manage to get excited and interested for not more than 20 minutes only - as opposed to an average time of about 50 minutes they spent on educational games or CD titles. This detected time suggests that there is not enough fun for the kids in the contents, displays and activities. Thus more attention has to be paid by the producers of such devices to the way they present information in order to make their overall appearance more appealing to the right audience.

References

1. Gujar, A. Harrison, B. and Fishkin, K. A. (1998). comparative evaluation of display technologies for reading, Proceedings of HFES' 1998, pp 527-531.
2. Barker, P.G (1999). An Object Oriented Approach to Hypermedia Authoring, Interactive Multimedia Learning Environments: Human Factors and Technical Considerations on Design Issues, NATO ASI Series, Springer-Verlag. pp.132-152.
3. Barker, P.G (1999). Electronic Libraries of the Future, Encyclopedia of Microcomputers, Volume 23, Supplement 2, Marcel Dekker, Inc. pp.121-152.
4. Barker, P.G (1998). The role of digital libraries in future educational systems, Online Information 98 Proceedings. pp.301-310.
5. Doane, J. W. (1998). A comparison of display technologies suitable for e-book. <http://www.jmc.kent.edu/futureprint/1998fall/christie.htm>
6. Judge, P.C. (1998). E-books : A library on your lap. BusinessWeek. Nov 5, 1998. <http://www.businessweek.com/1998/46/b3604010.html>
7. Landoni, M. (1997). The Visual Book System: A Study of the Use of Visual Rhetoric in the Design of Electronic Books. Department of Information Science of the University of Strathclyde (PhD Thesis), Glasgow.
8. Min Liu (1996). An Exploratory Study of How Pre-Kindergarten Children Use the Interactive Multimedia Technology: Applications for Multimedia Software Design, Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, Volume 7, Number 1/2,1996.
9. Nielsen, J. (1998). Electronic books - A bad idea., July, 26.<http:// www.useit.com/papers/webwriting>
10. Wearden, S. (1998) Electronic Books : A Study of Potential Features and Their Perceived Value. <http://www.jmc.kent.edu/futureprint/1998fall/Weadren.htm>
11. Wearden, S. (1998). Lanscape vs. Portrait Formats : Assessing Consumer Preferences.
<http://www.jmc.kent.edu/futureprint/1998summer/Wearden.htm>
12. <http:// www.iqbuilders.co.uk/> (Nov, 1999).
13. <http://www.everybook.net> (Oct, 1999).
14. <http://www.nuvomedia.com> (Oct, 1999).
15. <http://www.oregonscientific.co.uk> (Oct, 1999).
16. <http://www.softbook.com> (Oct, 1999).
17. <http://www.vtech.com/> (Nov, 1999).","txt","2","",""
"80","1","Developing and Teaching with Computer-based Courseware in History: the History Courseware Consortium","2","Summary

This demonstration illustrates one model developed in the UK for developing, producing and disseminating web-based courseware to enhance the teaching and learning experience of history students in higher education.

The demonstration covers the five key areas that the Consortium sought to address in overcoming the under utilisation of computers in history teaching: a pedagogical framework, quality, accessibility, flexibility and support. Examples of the courseware's use in UK Higher Education history teaching are also provided and the demonstration concludes with an assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the courseware.

Outline

Pedagogical Framework: Bridging the gap between 'traditional' and computer based methods of teaching meant that the History Courseware Consortium required a conceptual framework that provided both a familiar pedagogical context and incorporated the benefits of computer-based teaching. The metaphor adopted by the Consortium to achieve this was the 'Enriched Lecture'.

Academic Quality: To ensure the courseware matched accepted standards of academic scholarship the Consortium adopted a unique commissioning system. Editorial panels were established and subject specialists targeted. A key to this was the divorce of authorship from technical production.

Accessibility: Another barrier to the widespread use of computers was the technical skills required to operate software. One of the key requirements for the Consortium was that the material should be accessible. Writing the courseware in Hyper-Text Mark-up Language (HTML) permitted the materials to be viewed through a web browser. This minimised the amount of time spent learning 'computing' and maximises the amount of time spent learning 'history'. The consortium format, involving over 80 UK HE institutions, also proved a valuable format for creating a sense of ownership, community and acceptability.

Flexibility: In part this was provided by the technical features of HTML, but other aspects of the courseware design had to maximise this feature to help overcome the 'not written here' syndrome. An open-ended system, rich resources and multiple pathways were adopted as key design features. A facility for customisation was also adopted so local lecturers were able to add their own material, sources and evidence.

Support: To prevent the courseware 'withering on the vine' on-line, paper-based and staffed support systems were adopted. A particularly distinctive feature was a programme of on-going technical and academic support and training channelled through a 'Users Club'.

Use in Teaching: There was a widespread and rapid uptake in UK HE, but the courseware's use was not based on the 'Enriched Lecture' metaphor. This was not unexpected but perhaps an 'Enriched Tutorial' metaphor would have been more appropriate for dissemination. Examples of the courseware's use in teaching, including customisation, are provided from the Universities of Glasgow, Teeside and Sheffield.

Assessment: The model adopted by the Consortium was largely successful in UK HE, but the practical limitations of customisation and more recent technical advances must be acknowledged.","txt","2","",""
"81","1","Griffith in Context: a Multimedia Exploration of The Birth of a Nation","2","Summary:

D.W. Griffith's film The Birth of a Nation has the distinction of being at once one of the most revered and most criticized films in cinema's history. This conflicted reputation stems from the film's combination of pioneering technical innovations and racial propaganda; the result was a visual epic of the Civil War and Reconstruction that had far-reaching cultural effects. The Birth of a Nation helped establish new cinematic conventions as well as cinema's reputation as a serious artistic medium; at the same time, the film incited race riots, helped rationalize legal segregation and rampant lynching, and added momentum to the revitalization of the Ku Klux Klan.

Despite the significance of The Birth of a Nation as a cultural document, the film is under-utilized as a learning tool within academic areas to which it is directly relevant: film studies, American studies, African-American studies, and history. The factors responsible for the under-representation of Birth in undergraduate humanities classrooms include the film's length, its political volatility, and its unwieldiness in terms of contextualization. Our multimedia application Griffith in Context, sponsored by the [American] National Endowment for the Humanities and currently under development at the Georgia Institute of Technology, addresses these difficulties by delivering clips from the film and contextualizing corollary materials in an interactive format that makes the film's impact tangible. Griffith in Context, in fact, presents the film's cultural and cinematic impact as inseparable; it was the film's artistic and emotional power coupled with its racism that brought issues of race and American identity to the attention of the nation.

User-Centered Learning Through Multimedia:

Many of the instructors who have been most successful in conveying a sense of The Birth of a Nation's subtleties and significance typically use documents from the same era to historically situate the film. Lauren Rabinovitz at the University of Iowa uses Library of Congress materials and regional newspaper coverage to illustrate how the debate around the film got imbricated into local events such as Chicago's 1916 mayoral election. At Stanford University, Henry Breitrose uses a 1914 history textbook and the African-American press's critique of the film's historical portrait to demonstrate the collision of incredibly disparate notions of history that occurred with Birth's release. The challenge then is to build on the success of such strategies by making such materials available to all instructors while still developing an application that supports a diversity of learning goals and teaching methods.

The multimedia affordances of Griffith in Context allow us to meet these challenges by incorporating a diversity of materials pertinent to various undergraduate courses. The program handles the challenge of contextualizing the film by providing a means for students, outside of classtime, to develop their understanding of the film's cultural context. After viewing the film, students can to use Griffith in Context to review representative scenes and important issues, to investigate primary and secondary research material, and to experiment with editing techniques. Also, instructors can use modules of the program in class to help them illustrate lecture points about specific technical or contextual issues.

Organization And Interface:

The organization and interface of Griffith in Context differ in important ways from most other humanities-oriented multimedia programs - differences that we believe enhance student engagement with the program's humanities content. The primary goal of the program is to assist students in understanding that the ""meaning"" of this artifact is dependent on the cultural context in which it was produced and viewed and to explore specific discursive aspects of this context - the conversations, debates, representations, and responses - that surrounded the film's creation and early performance. To facilitate this process of understanding, we have organized the application around the material artifact in question - the film The Birth of a Nation - rather than allowing textual commentary about the subject to dictate the student's path through the application. Thus, instead of dividing the program into topic areas, we have mapped out nine sections, each corresponding with a three to four minute clip from the film. Within each of these sections, the student accesses the information and relevant documents through interaction with the film itself, using the following interface elements and accompanying modules:

1. The Annotated Filmstrip: This module allows a user to move back and forth through one of the nine selected filmclips and closely examine a particular sequence of frames; the filmstrip interface allows one to move the cursor to the right or left over the filmstrip, thereby controlling both the speed and direction of the filmstrip's movement. The user can stop the strip on any frame and begin playing the clip from that point. Surrounding the filmstrip are hypermedia links featuring a specific topic tied to the frames present on the screen at that moment; each of these links is associated with one of the program's four indices of analysis: filmic technique, historical re-creation, racial representation, and literary origins. When selected, each link brings up an expert interview on the stated topic which features primary documents, illustrations and photographs as well as scholarly commentary in audio form.

2. The Editing Room: Some of the hypermedia links associated with filmic technique bring up particular exercises that allow students to experience editing principles featured in the film and discussed in the expert interviews. Students will use this module's unique interface to re-edit Griffith's own footage and, in so doing, analyze differences in visual effect and cultural reaction that such re-editing might produce.

3. The Timeline: This module allows users to access historical information associated with the period depicted in a particular film clip. The timeline, like the annotated filmstrip, provides links to documents, historical accounts, and expert interviews pertaining to certain historical events depicted in the film. Students can use these divergent view of events to analyze Griffith's attempt to recreate history via film narrative and visual representation. Additionally, students can scroll through the timeline to access information about the film's production, its ""road show"" distribution, and the reaction it prompted as it moved from upscale symphony halls to smaller, inner-city segregated theaters.

4. The Document Server: This module is an archive of the documents, photographs, illustrations, and interviews presented throughout the program. It allows users to directly access these materials without going to the particular place in the program where they are presented. Students can quickly locate and review previously encountered contextual material. Each document or image referenced in the Timeline or presented within the Annotated Filmstrip module is marked with a document tag which may be used to relocate the artifact using the Document Server. The Document Server can be reorganized according to document name, document type, author, subject area, or date of publication/distribution. As a user moves the cursor over the name of a document, the cursor changes to a thumbnail image of the document, allowing users to confirm their selection by visual appearance.","txt","2","",""
"82","1","Developing a User Interface for the Historical Thesaurus of English Ingres Database","1","This is effectively a continuation of a paper published in Literary and Linguistic Computing Vol 7, 1992, which described the issues and processes involved in transferring the legacy database of the Historical Thesaurus of English (HTE) in dBase 11.4 into Ingres 6.1, chosen as being able to support the retrieval of complex information. During a long-term project like HTE, spanning decades rather than years, there will obviously be a huge change in the software available, and software in use will become obsolete. It is therefore vital to transfer the database into new options where feasible. The paper describes the problems encountered in developing a front-end for the Ingres database, now in OpenIngres O.I.2.0, which would cope with the multiple conditions of the queries required in what is essentially a research tool, but which would also be acceptably user-friendly. The user interface now in use is BI/query, the successor to GQL, and this will be described and demonstrated. The complexities of retrieval from the HTE arise from the data concerned with the currency of the words, taken from the Oxford English Dictionary. This consists of a) actual starting and finishing dates for periods of currency; b) the qualifiers ante and circa, as in the OED. (These are not used in the OED CD queries, but are necessary for retrieving e.g. words current before a specified date); c) indicators for continuous or discontinuous currency; d) indicator of present currency, e) Old English, covering all dates before 1150; f) style and status labels from the OED attached to periods of currency - a word may be labelled e.g. 'vulgar' for only part of its currency.","txt","2","","7841"
"83","1","The Electronic Scottish National Dictionary: Work in Progress","1","The Scottish National Dictionary (SND) is the standard historical dictionary of modern Scots, covering the period from 1700 to the present. This presentation will describe the current project to digitise the SND to produce the eSND, which will eventually be output on the Internet. It will include a brief description of the SND itself, outlining its history, content and structure, and describe how the eSND will differ from the printed text, in particular by integrating the original Supplement and adding new material from the SNDA's ongoing research. The various stages of the eSND project will then be discussed, using examples from the work in progress:

the data capture, which is being done through scanning and OCR of the printed text;
the conversion of the OCR data to full XML mark-up, including details of the actual mark-up scheme (which is based on the TEI guidelines), and how this has been adapted to suit the SND text;
the integration of the original Supplement and new material;
the development of search tools and a web interface.
Details will also be given of the new proposal to combine the eSND with an electronic version of the Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue (eDOST), sharing the same mark-up scheme, search software and interface, to produce a comprehensive electronic resource covering Scots from the early medieval period to the present day.","txt","2","","7841"
"84","1","Early Dictionaries of English and Historical Corpora","1","This paper discusses the implications for historical corpora of an examination of some early dictionaries of English. Comparison is made between Samuel Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language (1755) and works such as Thomas Blount's Glossographia (1656), Nathan Bailey's Dictionarium Britannicum (1730), and Robert Ainsworth's influential Linguae Latinae Compendiarius (1736). The claim that early English-English dictionaries contained many ""hard words"", i.e. words, often from classical sources, which had infrequent or nil occurrence in the language at the time, is examined by checking the occurrence of such words in historical corpora. This leads to an examination of the corpora themselves and comparison with corpora of modern English. Suggestions are made about how historical corpora might be developed in future, for example by offering domain-specific search facilities. Reference will be made to A dictionary of the English language on CD-ROM : the first and fourth editions, Samuel Johnson, edited by Anne McDermott (Cambridge : CUP in association with the University of Birmingham, 1996).","txt","2","","7841"
"85","1","Supporting Digital Scholarship: a Project Funded by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation","3","Summary:

To date, digital library efforts have focused on library-based production of digital primary resources. This project will, for the first time, address second-generation digital library problems, where the focus is on scholarly analysis, reprocessing, and the creation of digital primary resources. With $1m in support from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation over three years (2000-2002), the University of Virginia's Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities (IATH) and the University of Virginia Libraries' Digital Library Research and Development Group will address three closely related problems:
 
 

scholarly use of digital primary resources;
library adoption of ""born-digital"" scholarly research; and
co-creation of digital resources by scholars, publishers, and libraries.
We predict that these problems will confront all research universities within the next decade and - because both faculty-driven humanities research computing and digital library activities have been underway at the University of Virginia for most of the past decade - we believe we are uniquely positioned to address these problems now. The outcome of this project will be methods and guidelines for, and examples of, the management of digital objects across the scholarly information continuum, from creation (by libraries or scholars) to use in research, re-presentation in scholarship, and re-integration into library collections as scholarly publications and tools for research.
Institutional Background:

Since its inception in 1992, the Institute has focused intensive support and advanced computer resources on long-term humanities research proposed by faculty at the University of Virginia and elsewhere. To date, the Institute has supported more than forty fellows in architecture, landscape architecture, architectural history, art history, religious studies, classics, anthropological linguistics, medieval and 19th-century British literature, 19th-century American literature, American history, classical history, history of science, archaeology, film, and music, among other disciplines.

The majority of this research - indeed, most of the Institute's work - involves intensive collaboration among groups of scholars, and between scholars and the Institute's technical experts. The Pompeii Forum project, for example, sends an interdisciplinary group of researchers to Pompeii each summer, where a systematic survey of the Forum at Pompeii is being conducted using an extremely accurate surveying device known as a laser Total station, and feeding data from that device into a laptop in the field. These measurements are then brought back to the Institute, where they are processed into two-dimensional plans and three-dimensional CAD models. Further field-research provides an extensive photographic survey of the buildings at Pompeii, and these photographs are used in conjunction with advanced photogrammetric software to create accurate, photo-realistic surfaces for the three-dimensional CAD models. Finally, using modeling tools custom-built at the Institute, the researchers are able to combine individual building models into a model of the entire site and even render the walls transparent, in order to see both sides at once, thus producing an analysis of the Forum more detailed, more accurate, and more flexible than any other to date.

The University of Virginia Libraries have established a number of electronic data centers that work closely with the Institute's staff and fellows: the Electronic Text Center, the Geospatial and Statistical Data Center, the Digital Media Center, and the Special Collections Digital Center. Library digital centers have provided support to many of the same faculty involved in research with the Institute, and staff from these centers meet regularly with IATH staff and others in a digital library interest group. Most recently, the Libraries have established a Digital Library Research and Development Group, charged with long-range planning of digital library architectures, systems, and procedures. Having begun to assemble a broad digital collection, they recognize that no library management system yet exists to handle it and they have dedicated themselves to developing an appropriate solution to the problem.

Further information about library digital centers is available on the Web at <http://www.lib.virginia.edu/ecenters.html>

Information about Digital Library Research and Development is available at <http://www.lib.virginia.edu/dl/intro/>.

Project Goals:

Much of what has taken place in digital library contexts to date has aimed at producing large collections of digital data, often - in fact usually - without the involvement of the intended audience for that data, scholars and researchers. In this project, we aim to foreground the scholarly user - something we believe we are uniquely positioned to do - and from this perspective we will look at the issues of collections development, data management, metadata, and digital library systems. We expect to complete a number of trials in these areas, and although we do not believe the scope of this project is sufficient to provide universal or definitive solutions, we do expect to arrive at a better understanding of the problems that will be involved in the next generation of digital library activities.

So much hyperbole attends the current phase of digital library development that it may seem surprising to suggest there are things scholars need to do that digital libraries cannot support. Three scenarios are presented here as examples of some of those unsolved, second-generation digital library problems:

Scenario 1: Scholarly use of digital primary resources

A literary scholar researching the history of a particular poem knows that its author also painted the subject of the poem. She can find information about the poem and the painting in the digital library, and can even retrieve a digital image of the painting. The scholar knows that other dual-media works were produced by this author, and she suspects that the author's arrangements of his paintings in exhibitions might well be significant in understanding the related literary works: therefore, the scholar would like to use the digital library to find out when the painting in question was exhibited and, for a given exhibition date, would like to know what painting was to its left and what painting was to its right - and then see those paintings together in a virtual reconstruction of the exhibit.

In this example, we consider the possibility that the scholar of the very near future will want to do something more than browse or perform keyword searches in the digital library. The promise of the digital library is that it will enable scholars to frame questions that would have been inconceivable without this technology. And yet, in practice, we find that digital libraries support only very narrowly defined investigative activities. Partly this is because we tend to treat objects in the digital library as though they had no other temporal or spatial contexts - as though they had always and only existed, discrete and timeless, in our information systems. Partly, too, these limitations are a sign that the digital library is mainly concerned, at this point, with providing simple access to the discrete digital object, rather than with supporting context, comparison, or analysis - the building blocks of scholarship.

We could begin to grapple with this problem by producing several proof-of-concept example projects, in which data and metadata expressly support more complex kinds of ""behaviors"" in the digital library, and are associated with other objects in the digital library (e.g., Java applets) that actualize those behaviors on the end-user's machine. This follows the Fedora model that the library is already developing, specifically that aspect of Fedora that permits ""client access to multiple views, or disseminations, of the object's data through the transparent activation of external mechanisms that execute these content type behaviors""

<http://www2.cs.cornell.edu/NCSTRL/CDLRG/FEDORA.html>.

Scenario 2: Library adoption of ""born-digital"" scholarly research

An archaeologist spends decades producing detailed digital records of an important classical archaeological site. The records include CAD reconstructions of individual buildings, topographical maps, photographs, and maps locating particular artifacts in areas and layers of excavation, and large-scale computer models of the entire site. Upon retirement, the archaeologist offers his entire collection of digital records to the library (since no publisher has ever known what to do with them) - but he offers them on the condition that the library treat these records as a special collection, catalogue them, and make them available through the web to other researchers and students of archaeology.

This example makes plain the problems that libraries will inevitably face as they come to collect digital resources produced by scholars outside of library (and quite possibly, publishing) frameworks. The problem is likely to be especially acute in the areas of architecture and archaeology, where data is likely to have been produced by researchers in digital form, and where we have few (if any) established conventions for collecting, normalizing, cataloguing, providing, or preserving such data. A single map or CAD drawing could represent hundreds of hours of research, data gathering, and expert analysis - as valuable, in principle, as a monograph or a journal - and yet libraries might well be unable to accept it, for lack of appropriate systems and procedures.

As a pilot project in this area, we can recruit large existing collections of digital architectural and archaeological data (from The Pompeii Forum, Victorian London, The Waters of the City of Rome, Jefferson's Architecture, and other IATH projects), and use that data to experiment with cataloging, collections, and preservation issues raised in such contexts. At the end of three years, we would expect to have brought several such collections into the library.

Scenario 3: Co-creation of digital resources by scholars, publishers, and libraries

A historian, working together with technical experts in the library's Geospatial and Statistical Data Center, uses census data, eyewitness accounts, military records and contemporary GIS information to generate a time-indexed, geo-referenced reconstruction of troop movements in a famous civil-war battle. The research is going to be published by a university press, and the press has contributed original vector data for the underlying map. At different points in this process, the press, the historian, the historian's graduate research assistants, and library experts all need to share editorial control of the evolving data set. At the end of the process, the data set needs to be published by the press, collected in the library, and connected to textual records of the event.

Increasingly, we believe, scholars and libraries and publishers will enter into collaborative arrangements involving the production of digital primary resources by the library, a scholarly treatment of those resources, and electronic publication of the result. We have already seen many instances of this pattern in IATH research projects. In retrospect, it seems perfectly reasonable that the institution owning the primary resources (a rare book, a painting, a statue, a map) would want to produce its initial digital representation; once that digital representation exists, it seems inevitable that scholars will want to do what they have always done - edit, contextualize, re-present, and analyze the (now digital) object. And, if not inevitable, it seems at least likely that the result of this scholarly engagement with digital primary resources will be the stuff of scholarly publishing. There are many unanswered questions, though, behind these three reasonable assumptions: should it be a goal to have a single authoritative version of the digital object? If so, how might scholars and/or publishers register corrections or revisions to the original, if the original is produced (and presumably owned) by a library or museum? If several scholars disagree on the verisimilitude of the digital representation, how will their range of opinions be recorded and connected to that representation? If electronic editions of the artifact become the norm, instead of an authoritative version with apparatus, then how should those editions be derived and denoted?

At IATH, we already have several projects that raise this sort of problem - the Valley of the Shadow, the Walt Whitman Archive, the Victorian London project, and others. We have a document management system (Astoria) that will help to address some of the practical procedural issues involved in managing multiple authorship; we will experiment with integrating that system into the library's production strategies, to address those situations in which a single authoritative version is necessary or desirable, but we would also expect to experiment with managing and coordinating multiple divergent editions of a single base object, or multiple perspectives on an object.
 
 

In order to address the many problems - some technical, some social, some intellectual - raised in these three scenarios, we need to move beyond the simple production and cataloguing of digital collections, and begin to recognize that, in the library of the future as in libraries of the past and present, most materials will be produced by many hands, not few; most materials will incorporate many perspectives, not one; and most materials will need to support specialized and pointed research as well as general, blunt queries.

Recognizing these things, we will undertake a collaborative investigation of advanced digital library problems, including library absorption of scholar-produced digital resources, library/scholar co-creation of such resources, and analytical use of digital humanities data. Within this investigation, our emphasis will be on metadata practices, library systems, and production protocols that support scholarly use. And though we don't promise to solve all the problems that might be raised in this area, we will establish guidelines that will be useful to others, produce examples that others can imitate, and learn which problems are easy to solve and which are difficult.

Content:

We will focus in particular on visual and spatial data, with an emphasis on architecture and archaeology, but also considering visual arts, especially in complex spatial and temporal contexts. There are a number of research projects already underway in scholarly contexts that are producing and freely distributing digital data in architecture and archaeology. The problem these disciplines face is that there is no well-established institutional mechanism for collecting, preserving, or publishing digital objects of this sort (CAD drawings, digital topo-maps, 3D models, even digitized photo or slide collections). Moreover, the strategies for cataloguing and describing of art objects do not work very well with the more hierarchical and complex information structures that characterize architectural and archaeological data. With respect to visual arts, we are particularly interested in developing and applying metadata structures that would support comparison, contextualizing, and analysis of art works, and in producing some sample applications that would demonstrate to other libraries and scholars the value of spatial and temporal metadata.

Part of the budget for this project will go, in small one-year awards, directly to ongoing faculty research. A library/IATH committee will administer these funds, and they will be used to support experimentation, in the context of faculty research, the results of which would generalize readily to other contexts. Normalizing data, standardizing metadata, capturing new data in accordance with recently specified best practices - all of these are appropriate activities for this committee to fund.

Intellectual Property:

The University of Virginia will grant to The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation a non-exclusive, royalty-free right to access, use, and distribute for educational, social and/or charitable purposes, the software technologies, tools, and related documents developed as a result of this project and to incorporate such software technologies, tools, and related documents in other projects supported by The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.

Systems, Procedures, and Standards:

This project raises technical challenges at the level of information systems design and at the level of standards design and implementation, and it requires a coordinated investigation of these issues by IATH and the Library's Digital Library Research and Development Group. Fairly high-level staff will be needed for this: at IATH, we need to support cutting-edge technical work in architecture, archaeology, mapping, and other visual-data fields. We also need to hire a second person at IATH, to concentrate on database and document management systems, as the production end of a continuum that delivers data to library systems. In the Library, we would like to add a position to the Digital Library Research and Development Group to implement systems and standards for producing, managing, and disseminating visual and spatial data in library contexts, to ensure that those library systems respond appropriately to the needs of research users, and to work with IATH and others on the difficult issues of adoption and co-creation, mentioned above.

Software tools and environments for producing, managing, and publishing large image collections are of interest to IATH, and even more so to the Library, inasmuch as many of our research projects involve the creation and use of extensive image collections. IATH's principal interests in this area would be workflow and data management: on the library side, Thornton Staples has been working with the Cornell Digital Library Group (Carl Lagoze) on technical issues involved in the creation of digital repositories, and on the implementation of Lagoze's Flexible and Extensible Digital Object and Repository Architecture.

Both IATH and the Library are very interested in applications of SGML, XML, and HyTime to the problem of describing art, architecture, and archaeological sites. In particular, we believe there is significant work yet to be done in the description of art collections, the treatment of three-dimensional objects as information structures, and capturing the passage of time as an element of these collections and structures. Thornton Staples has been working in this area, developing something he calls the General Descriptive Modeling Scheme (GDMS), an Extensible Markup Language (XML) document type definition (DTD) that is intended to be used to create textual models describing real-world phenomena (such as creations, events, places and people) and giving a context for describing the content of, and relations among, digital objects.

All of these interests could have a direct relevance to Mellon's projected work in the areas of art, architecture, and archaeology, in ARTSTOR. In order for collections of two- and three-dimensional image data to be useful for teaching and research, the ARTSTOR collections will need to be embedded in data structures that can support annotation, multiple spatial and temporal arrangements of works and sites, and the representation of change over time.

Personnel:

Library and Institute staff directly involved in design aspects of this project throughout the three years, as part of their regular duties, include Worthy Martin, Technical Director, IATH and Associate Professor, Computer Science; Daniel Pitti, Project Director, IATH; Thornton Staples, Director, Digital Library Research and Development; John Unsworth, Director, IATH, and Associate Professor, English

Other Library personnel who would contribute some part of their time to implementation, as part of their regular library employment, would include Edward Gaynor (Special Collections); Rick Provine (Digital Media Center); David Seaman (Electronic Text Center); Ross Wayland (Digital Library Research and Development); Patrick Yott (GeoSpatial Information Center).

IATH fellows whose ongoing research will be directly involved in this project include: Ed Ayers et al., Valley of the Shadow; David Blair, WaxWeb; John Dobbins, Kirk Martini et al., The Pompeii Forum Project; Morris Eaves, Robert Essick, Joseph Viscomi, The Blake Archive; Lavahn Hoh, The Circus in Europe and America; Jerome McGann, The Rossetti Archive; Michael Levenson et al., Monuments and Dust (Victorian London); Kathy Poole, Boston Back Bay Fens; Ken Price et al., Walt Whitman Archive; Ben Ray, The Salem Witch Trials; Katherine Rinne, Waters of the City of Rome; Marion Roberts, Salisbury Cathedral; Ken Schwartz, Charlottesville Urban Design; Richard Guy Wilson, Jefferson's Architecture

Management Plan:

This project will be jointly managed by John Unsworth and Thornton Staples, with close cooperation among IATH personnel, faculty fellows, and library staff. Fellows will provide digital objects (maps, photographs, models, etc.) and the metadata to accompany those objects, as well as some functional specifications for scholarly use of those objects. The Digital Library Research and Development Group will work with IATH and its fellows to establish guidelines for the production of digital data and metadata to be collected and disseminated by library systems, and they will advise IATH and its fellows on the systems design and development issues that attend the adoption of information produced by IATH fellows. IATH staff will support data production to agreed-upon standards, will consult with fellows and library staff on the specification of those standards, and will work with library staff to prototype the functionality requested and specified by the scholars who produce (and intend to use) the data.

Work Plan:

Year One: Primary objectives in the first half of this year will be hiring, training, and information-gathering (which would include external consultation as well as a thorough analysis of our own data and systems). In the second half of the year, we will finalize a first version of the General Descriptive Modeling Scheme, while working with individual projects to establish and document standard procedures for producing descriptive, structural, and administrative metadata.

Year Two: In the second year, we will attempt to deposit information from the Waters of Rome, Boston Back Bay Fens, and the Pompeii Forum projects into the Digital Library, and we will experiment with Java applets provided via Fedora as disseminators for the comparison and analysis of visual art objects based on metadata, probably using projects on Blake, Rossetti, and Salisbury Cathedral.

Year Three: In the third year, we will focus on the difficult issues involved in co-creation of scholarly resources, both technical and social. We will experiment with multi-author/single version solutions (in the Valley project, Jefferson's Architecture, and Victorian London), and we will also look at multi-author/multiple edition solutions (with some of the same projects, plus Whitman, Salem, and others).

Dissemination:

Information about the problems encountered and lessons learned in the experiments described here will be reported at the conferences that project participants normally attend - annual meetings of the Association of Research Libraries, the Research Libraries Group, the Digital Libraries Federation, the American Association of University Presses, the Modern Language Association, the Association for Computers in the Humanities, the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing, the annual XML/SGML conference, the Markup Technologies conference; these results would be appropriate to publish in the journals associated with some of these professional associations as well. Our presentations at these and other conferences would be supported in many cases by the travel portion of the budget.

In addition to these venues, the Web itself is obviously an important medium in which to publish project results and documentation - for example, Document Type Definitions, production manuals, best practices, and reports on our failures and successes. Reusable technical products of the research such as DTDs or software will be freely distributed, updated, and documented through the Web. Finally, the web-based content that is produced in the different scholarly projects that participate in this research can provide links to ""how-to"" information.","txt","2","",""
"86","1","The Role of the Scholarly Associations in Humanities Education","3","The use of computer-based resources and techniques in higher education in the humanities disciplines is growing rapidly. Scholarly associations such as ALLC and ACH have played and continue to play a part in this, although the main imperatives are, of course, much more broadly based.

This session aims to provide a forum for open discussion of the role or roles, formal and informal, that scholarly associations such as ALLC and ACH could and/or should have in the future development and practice of learning and teaching in higher education in the humanities, specifically with reference to the inclusion of advanced computing, both as part of the curriculum and of teaching methodology.

From an ALLC perspective, this question has an immediate and direct relevance. The ALLC has been formally a partner in the ACO*Hum Project, and indeed has played a leading role in it, with a number of members of the ALLC Committee serving on one of the main working groups of the project, concerned with 'Textual Scholarship and Humanities Computing'. ACO*Hum is a 'thematic network' funded by the European Union as part of its SOCRATES programme. It is now approaching the end of its funding, and discussions are in progress about what should happen next. The ALLC is taking an active part in these discussions, including at national and European Union level.

Members of the panel will report on the work of ACO*Hum and will give their perspectives on the future development of computing in humanities education. They will address specifically (but briefly) the questions surrounding what role(s), if any, should be played by scholarly associations such as ALLC and ACH. A number of possible roles have been suggested, from continuing support for initiatives and projects such as ACO*Hum through to a formal role in the validation or accreditation of courses and diplomas. Allen Renear will present North American and ACH perspectives on the issues raised.

The brief presentations by each of the panelists will be followed by open discussion in which all those attending will be invited to comment on what the panelists have had to say, or to raise any additional issues they believe to be relevant. From the ALLC perspective, the session is a significant opportunity for dialogue on a range of issues that are important to the associations, and on which the coming months will offer opportunities and the need for decisions. Viewed in a wider context, now is a critical time for fundamental thinking, and for initiatives to be taken unless the associations decide they have no role to play.","txt","2","",""
"87","1","New Tools for Learners","2","In a recent essay in Salon, Christopher Ott argues that much of educational technology is used in the service of a model of education as ""a passive transfer of information ...."" As Ott says, ""Web sites and CD-ROMs are very good at delivering information, but not so good at teaching what it means or raising difficult questions about it."" During the last ten to twelve years, we have assembled a portfolio of technological tools which we believe lead students in the undergraduate classroom to ask those difficult questions and to become active learners rather than passive recipients. We have developed two of these programs, and the others are readily available. This demonstration will allow participants to experiment with several of these tools, to see examples of student work, and to consider how the tools might be used in their own classrooms. Of the tools we use, we propose to have four available for demonstration.

We will demonstrate the two programs we have developed (and, in earlier versions, discussed at ALLC/ACH '98): the Linear Modeling Kit (LMK) and the Stylistic Analysis Kit (SAK). As well, we have also used and will demonstrate a freeware beta version of PennMUSH and SemNet(r), a tool for creating conceptual networks. The Linear Modeling Kit or LMK is an authoring system which allows users to create applications that generate any kind of text according to principles proposed by the user. For example, a student can use the LMK to create a ""tragedy generator"" by entering what the student perceives to be the parts or elements of a tragedy, any principles of order among those parts, and characteristic text for each part. Depending on the complexity of the input, the generator will produce hundreds, thousands, or millions of different texts. The task of creating a generator calls for students to think abstractly insofar as they are dealing with stories, not simply a story. That is, students must know well a number of tragedies or romance novels or bildungsroman in order to abstract those qualities or elements that the texts share or that seem central to the genre. However, they must also think very precisely in order to translate their understandings into the unforgiving and unambiguous language of what is essentially computer programming. In essays or articles, we, as well as our students, know how to smooth over those things about which we are not quite sure; we know how either to hide ambiguity or to make it a virtue. Obviously, one cannot do that when creating a generator.

In short, students have to work at a level both of abstraction and of detail that may be greater than that forced by a paper. The Stylistic Analysis Kit is a combination concordance and counting program. When a text is opened from within the program, the SAK displays basic statistical information about word, sentence, and paragraph lengths and a word list, which can be arranged by frequency or alphabetically or which can show punctuation. Students can learn to use the SAK with less than five minutes of instruction, a significant factor in undergraduate education. In our classes, students have used the SAK to consider both literary texts and their own essays. In either case, students find themselves having to confront and explain the relationship between the abstract and the specific or concrete. When analyzing their own essays, for example, students constantly are driven back to their own texts to account for the statistics they have discovered. Nearly all find themselves, to return to Ott's phrasing, raising difficult questions about information. SemNet(r), by the SemNet Research Group, allows users to create layered and linked conceptual maps or networks. Our use of SemNet(r) has been primarily in writing courses although, again, students have used it both with professional writing and in the creation or analysis of their own essays. We have found that asking students to create Semnet networks causes them to think deeply about the relationships between concepts either in their own papers or in professional essays we have assigned. Creating a visual map of relationships forces students not only to be explicit about the connections between ideas but to recognize when those connections are missing.

In the demonstration, participants will be able to look at networks created by students and experiment with the program by creating their own networks. Students at our college have also used a MUSH to improvise an on-line serial drama as a laboratory section of an English course in dramatic structure. In the course, students play characters and invent actions on-line, edit the logs of their online sessions into scripts, and then publish a final version on the web. By writing and publishing a play, students in the class are testing the principles of structure they have learned from their reading of a dozen plays and Aristotle's Poetics. They are forced to confront the concrete implications of abstract ideas. While it would be impractical for this demonstration to set up a full-scale MUSH environment (which would require at least two Macintosh machines linked to the internet), we can show samples of student work in our MUSH and the ultimate form of those samples as a drama published on the web. The tools we will demonstrate engage students in making or doing, not in receiving information passively. Using such tools, students learn to use the new technology to explore and test ideas.","txt","2","",""
"88","1","Enriching Drawing","2","A three year project to develop a computer based learning package in drawing.

Until the latest round of funding, United Kingdom Higher Education (UKHE) through the Teaching and Learning Technology Programme (TLTP), despite an overall budget of around £75 million, had not made any sizeable investment in learning technology for art and design. Art schools have always been in the forefront of the use of computers as tools. In design, in layout, in the manipulation of images, and in the creation of art, lecturers and students have possibly formed the most expert group of computer users and their needs have driven some of the most innovative packages.

However, there has always existed a healthy scepticism as to whether computers have anything to contribute to teaching and learning in art schools. This is not surprising. Apart from the provision of ready access to resources through the internet, learning technology has been dependent on pedagogic situations where new skills or concepts had to be acquired by the student and where the class as a whole would move ahead in expertise which would be tested by the examination. The computer is ideal for a situation where, for example, the student has to learn the basics of a scientific discipline. Information can be given, processes can be simulated and at each stage of the package the student can discover whether they are understanding the material. Questions can be posed and often quite sophisticated feedback given to the student. Contrast that with the situation in art. In art there are few certainties. The emphasis is less on facts, the needs of the student are individual and the assessment of the student is through a piece of work demonstrating creativity and the development of ideas.

With a grant from TLTP of £300,000 and matching funds to give a budget of around £800,000 a consortium of art schools and universities led by the London Institute is engaged on a three year project to create interactive multimedia learning packages on drawing. Drawing is central to all that is produced within the broadest spectrum of art and design. It is the core around which the conceptual and intellectual development of students takes place. Drawing allows individuals to learn to look, to record what they see, and is used to develop thought and ideas for artwork and for design, in both two and three dimensions.

In 1995-96 almost 5% of students in UKHE were in art and design. If related subjects with a clear interest in drawing such as architecture, engineering and technology are included the total rises to almost 16%. This growth in numbers has created problems which the package seeks to address.

The approach adopted by the London Institute and its partners in the Falmouth College of Art, Ravensbourne College of Design and Communication and the Universities of Ulster and Brighton is intended to create materials which give full respect to the richness of the subject. The packages will come at drawing from many different angles and controversy will be welcomed rather than shunned. In addition to a thorough treatment of the basic skills such as drawing on paper, drawing with the computer and draughting, the programs will explore the historical development of our understanding of spatial representation from the origins of perspective, through drawing machines to 3D and computer graphics. In all the work the importance of how to see, how to interpret, and how to innovate will be paramount and due weight will be given to the theoretical, philosophical and contextual elements. Considerable use will be made of video to show practitioners at work and discussing their particular approaches to drawing.

The project got underway in June 1998 and the initial period was spent in blocking out the areas of drawing we wish to address, and researching our pedagogical approach. The second phase of the project was to write detailed descriptions of the planned modules focusing on the aims and objectives of the module and how the content was to be presented and made interactive. The project is now in the development stage which is using Director.

There is a considerable body of evidence that in order for learning to take place effectively on the computer, the user has to be involved in tasks where decisions have to be made. The learning should be active and consequently there is a continual pressure to find ways of engaging the student. While assessment within the field of drawing is difficult, we are convinced that the student will gain by reviewing what has been learned and by receiving sensitive feedback on progress, so we are exploring ways in which this can be possible.

In a project of this nature it is vital to expose ideas to the widest audience before committing them to development and we have been disseminating information about the project to art colleges and other institutions with an interest in drawing. To date, staff from more than ninety institutions in the UK and the USA have expressed an interest and we are allowing them access to our deliberations. We are eager for as wide a participation as possible and interested faculty can sign up to the list from our website at <http://tltp.linst.ac.uk/>.

The finished package will be distributed on DVD since that medium allows the packaging of the product on one disk with a more than adequate space for high quality graphics. The finished product will be available to UKHE at the beginning of 2001 though beta versions will be widely distributed for testing well before that date. As the project progresses, prototype modules will be trialled in the classroom situation, both in the consortium partners and also in a number of other interested institutions. From the evaluation of these prototypes, which will be carried out by the University of Glasgow, we will make changes to incorporate what we learn from student and staff use. The results of these evaluations will be widely disseminated. The project intends that the package will be made available outside of the United Kingdom though its primary audience is first year degree students in that country.

Since the project is probably the largest investment ever in learning technology in art it poses a considerable challenge. Its aims are ambitious and wide-ranging and while it in no way seeks to supplant the traditional relationship between staff and student, it intends to make a significant contribution to the richness of the learning environment in the area of drawing. It will do this by producing products which will emphasise the development of observation, skill and accuracy and the understanding of form and space. Though the package will encourage the use of the computer for drawing, the focus of the materials will remain on traditional drawing tools. However, it will certainly promote the new approaches to drawing which are made possible through technology, and will aim to improve the ability to utilise software applications for three-dimensional modelling and to enhance the teaching of formal drawing systems such as projection and perspective. When completed it will be a valuable resource for use in the classroom and for the independent student.

The proposed presentation will demonstrate examples of the development to date, deal with project management issues and invite discussion and participation from interested faculty.","txt","2","",""
"89","1","Caught in the Decameron Web: New Tools for Scholars and Teachers","2","Since 1995, Brown University's Decameron Web has endeavored to assist students with the study of Giovanni Boccaccio's life and works. From its humble beginnings as a series of hyperlinked student essays in a storyspace environment, the site has been in a constant state of regeneration, metamorphosing itself in new directions. Most recently, a National Endowment for the Humanities grant from the Division of Education and Technology has enabled our team to enrich the site with a variety of research and pedagogy tools for students, literary scholars, historians, and teachers, including an SGML-encoded text and correlated Detailed Search, a Pedagogy Module, and an electronic Boccaccio journal.

The text of the Decameron has been encoded in SGML using a DTD based on TEI-Lite. The software, Dynaweb 4.1, is currently used to deliver the SGML encoded text. The structural encoding embodied in SGML permits searching on selected structural units, such as whole text, frame, and novella. All named characters and geographic locations in the text are tagged and can be retrieved through an advanced search procedure.

The Decameron Web's new Detailed Search identifies and defines each character and location (both named and unnamed) in Boccaccio's masterpiece using a series of easily searchable encoded attributes. Characters are defined in terms of their age, sex, origin, estate, role, religion, marital status, and disguise; places are encoded to reflect their geographic location (city, region, country) and type (bridge, castle, church, etc.).

One of our greatest challenges has been to design an HTML interface that is comprehensive in terms of search options, but also intuitive and user-friendly. We settled on a design solution that divides the search into three principle categories: ""Characters,"" ""Geographic Locations,"" and ""Single and Multiple Words."" Within each of these categories, users may easily define their search by either (1) typing in the name of the character or place they are looking for (if they know it), (2) finding their subject by selecting a combination of attributes from pull-down menus, or (3) viewing the results of our pre-searched lists and tables. The results produced by these searches do more than merely provide researchers with textual references: they bring the user to the exact point in the online text where their character or geographic location appears. Additionally, many characters (for example, all historical characters and members of the brigata) have special philological notes that can be easily accessed through hyperlinks.

The Decameron Web's Detailed Search allows Boccaccio's text to be searched like never before. Humanities students and scholars will be able to instantly examine Boccaccio's characters based on their social status, sex, and profession, and a series of other attributes. How, for example, do Boccaccio's medieval representations of artists such as Giotto differ from contemporary ""portraits of the artist""? What is significant about Boccaccio's depiction of married vs. unmarried women in the text? And is there any correlation between a character's economic status and his/her fortuna?

Scholars interested in exploring the vast geography of Boccaccio's world will benefit greatly from the detailed geography search. This tool will enable researchers to determine, for instance, what thematic or representational differences exist between the novellas set in Italy and those set in other countries; and what role geography plays in the structure and organization of the Decameron. Having completed, together with STG (Scholarly Technology Group, Brown University), the prototype of our Detailed Search page at the closure of 1999, its functionality and design will be rigorously tested and refined by members of our Advisor Board and Brown students taking our Spring semester Boccaccio course. A public release date is expected by early Summer 2000.

Another recent addition to the Decameron Web has been the creation of a Pedagogy Module, providing high school and university teachers with supplementary classroom materials, including course syllabi, exams, class project ideas, and essay questions. Comprehension exercises and sections dedicated to ""Further Research"" and ""Topics of Discussion"" will be integrated with an eye to helping disseminate ideas for successful teaching approaches. These will be contextually linked to all other pertinent modules including Bibliography. There will also be a teacher's forum, where innovative pedagogical approaches to Boccaccio's works can be openly shared and discussed, and student guides to essay writing, Internet research, and classroom presentation. Finally, each semester we will accept nominations for ""the best"" Boccaccio student essay, which will subsequently be published on the site.

The Decameron Web's new electronic Boccaccio journal will be of particular interest to medieval literature specialists and students. It will serve as a forum where scholars can publish and debate their latest research on Boccaccio's works, discuss humanities computing initiatives and pedagogy, submit book reviews, and debut new translations of the author's works. The online journal will be multilingual and will accept submissions from an international community of scholars, all contributing their own unique didactic and interpretive perspectives. Unlike traditional print publications, the electronic Boccaccio journal will capitalize on its hypertext nature, facilitating greater editing and publishing efficiently of contributions, allowing users to comment on what they have read, and promoting joint scholarly projects on Boccaccio.

If properly utilized, we believe that these new research tools can bring a new dimension of excitement to the study and teaching of Boccaccio and his works. The Detailed Search will enable researchers to gain new insights into the complexities of Boccaccio's characters and geography; the Pedagogy Module will provide teachers with a broad range of Boccaccio-related activities and resources intended to challenge and engage their students; and the electronic Boccaccio journal will allow graduate students and literary scholars to publish, research, and discuss the latest advances in Boccaccio studies and humanities computing. Naturally, the success of all of these initiatives is ultimately contingent upon the active collaboration of an international community of Boccaccio students, teachers, and specialists.","txt","2","",""
"90","1","Like a Bird on a Wire: WWW and Remote Learners in British Columbia","2","The World Wide Web has not only the potential to expand our conceptions of the processes of teaching and learning, it also has the power to help overcome some of the physical limitations imposed by the standard approach to classroom based learning. This ""poster"" addresses issues of web delivery in remote access locations, specifically in Northern British Columbia, Canada. Examples from online course pilot projects at UNBC will be used to illustrate both advantageous and problematic areas related to instructor delivery, the WWW as a financial and time saving device, and more recent developments in web based delivery at UNBC.

Location:

In order to explain why the use of computer based instruction is particulary important to teaching and research in our own institution, we should give a short introduction to the physical situation of The University of Northern British Columbia. Prince George, the location of our main campus, is in the central interior of British Columbia. Although the city has over 70,000 inhabitants, the area served by UNBC is - on the whole - sparsely populated. Prince George is about 700 kilometres from the nearest city of any size: Vancouver to the south and Edmonton and Calgary to the east. Our mandated area covers an enormous physical space; larger than some European countries. UNBC was created, in part, because the inhabitants of Northern British Columbia petitioned the provincial government to establish a place for post secondary education which would not require the youth of the area to move to the south. In 1994 this political pressure resulted in the opening of a University in Prince George.

Distance Education:

Distance classes at UNBC are delivered to communities as far as 700 kilometres away from the central campus (Prince Rupert on the coast). Courses have been, and continue to be, successfully delivered by means of simple conference type telephone hook-ups, digital video transmission, and even some early courses delivered in part by means of video tapes sent by courier. In addition some departments have hired instructors to live in these areas to convene courses.

WWW at UNBC:

Through a government grant in 1995-96, the English Department at UNBC was able to launch three pilot web-based courses. The package developed for our English Web courses used a database structure to create virtual web pages of manageable size and transmit these on demand to the student. This greatly reduced the load on web connections and increased the load on the server. The package included monitoring software to allow instructors to have some idea of the time that students spent in various sections of the material as well as a web conferencing system which was designed to replace classroom discussion.

Design and Format:

At the time that this project started there were very few efficient web authoring packages, so it was assumed that instructors would write their class notes in simple word-processing form, convert them to ASCII text and these would be converted to the database format for delivery to students. Web page design was to be standardized and instructors could focus on the traditional business of writing up lecture notes. By the time the project was half-finished, commercial web design software had advanced far enough that all of the instructors in the pilot project rejected the standardized format and began to customize the look and feel of their lecture notes. We were able to accommodate this with some radical modifications of the software package, but there was never a comfortable interface between the commercial web design packages and the database software that was supposed to deal with the special problems of teaching over northern networks.

Instructor/WWW Conflicts:

At UNBC web teaching has always been considered to be a good way to overcome the logistic problems of our geographical location. Most people at our institution understand that teaching distance courses is going to be more difficult and expensive than teaching in our central location. However, there is the assumption that a web course is an automated one and that once created, the students can dispense with the instructor until it comes time to mark papers; for a variety of reasons, this is simply not the case.

New WWW Developments at UNBC :

In 1998 Dr. Stan Beeler received an Industry Partnership Grant with Ross Niebergall, a Mathematics Professor, to develop a software package to deliver science and technology courses in a northern environment where we launched a new project called W.I.D.E. WIDE concentrated on all of the above issues and its goal was to implement a successful teaching package that could be used over the world wide web with ease for both instructors and students.","txt","2","",""
"91","1","On Consensus between Tree-representations of Linguistic Data","1","1. Introduction

One of the aims of modern linguistics, particularly of the computational persuasion, is to infer from the ever-growing mass of actual data available, the implicit, virtual organization underlying the apparent disorder and diversity of surface phenomena.

This ever-present crucial duality is also at work in computational linguistics where the chief question is how to reach, beyond the teeming, bristling surface of observed individual facts, for the latent abstract organisation, thus enabling the observer (i.e. the linguist) to gain access to knowledge that can be generalized.

2. Trees

Tree-representation is a powerful means of evincing the inherent structure of mutually dependent data.

Scholars in the main fields of taxonomy regularly and successfully avail themselves of tree-structures, e.g. genealogies, pedigrees and phylogenies.

Chomsky's syntagmatic trees have grown under every clime but they are far from being the sole way of imaging linguistic dependence or independence of the represented objects by means of a hierarchic tree where clearly outlined categories are paired and embedded.

Frequently enough, modern linguists tend to be interested more in the relative closeness of objects than in their belonging to this or that closed class. Additive, as opposed to hierarchic, trees do away with watertight partitions between objects and lay the stress on notions such as proximity and opposition. Figure 1 illustrates this new way of representing textual data. The linguistic units under scrutiny here are modals and auxiliaries in a body of contemporary English poetry.

The information contained in figure 1 is rich and clear. The organisation of the whole structure rests on the notions of proximity and opposition. The present auxiliaries have and be are closely associated while their past form counterparts had, and was and were form another distinct pair in the opposite part of the tree. More generally, the top of the tree can be seen as gathering the past forms whereas the present tense forms congregate in the bottom part. Deleting one of the edges of the structure breaks the tree down into two connex components. The case of should and would is interesting in that the two modals occupy an intermediate position between past and present which reflects their specificities in the actual texts.

3. Going further with trees :

The unrooted-tree representation (figure 5) makes conspicuous properties of coordinating conjunctions that were, of course, impossible to discern in the table of occurrences, let alone in the lines of the original text (Day Lewis, complete poetry).

The figure opposes the very tightly-knit pair but-and to the rest of the data which, in turn, form three other groups of coordinators (respectively either-or-which, neither-nor, then-yet-than) that are similar in behaviour, although more independent of each other than the previous two (and-but).

Figure 6 illustrates the behaviour of the same grammatical units in a body of contemporary English novels.

Without going into unnecessary detail, it is clear that this tree imposes unity or, at any rate, very close proximity on elements that evinced more independence in the previous tree (figure 5), neither-nor and either-or now forming more conspicuous pairs, while than becomes more closely associated to the structure as it teams up with but.

3.1. Fusion of the previous two trees :

The question of course arises of the possibility of representing the two distinct sets of original data in one tree-figure, considering that they correspond to the same grammatical units at work in two provinces of literature (poetry and the novel) but in the same language and in the same period of time.

Since these two original sets of data are technically disparate, it is impossible to start from the initial numbers as such - for instance, by adding them up.

The only procedure available is to attempt to achieve a consensus by fusion of the original two trees by means of a new algorithm which we have just devised. Figure 7 is the product of this fusion algorithm.

It is interesting to observe first of all that this representation does sum up the information of trees 5 and 6. Not only are the properties of each single separate tree preserved, which is indeed a prerequisite, but there also emerges a more legible picture of the actual syntagmatic roles and affinities of the function-words under scrutiny here. The correlative conjunctions either-or and neither-nor are more satisfactorily grouped together, then enters into a close set with but and and, while the proximity of than and then on the tree is evocative of their common etymology, although they do not form a set stricto sensu.

3.2 The fusion algorithm

The fusion algorithm is derived from the topological properties of the tree.

Consider two trees A and B . Let VA and VB be the matrices of the corresponding neighbourhoods.

One notes as VAB the Cartesian product whose elements are (x,y) with x Î VA and y Î VB . We shall build on VAB a preorder induced by the preorders of the neighbourhood levels of VA and of VB and define a neighbourhood relation on VAB compatible with the topologies of A and B. The fusion of the two trees shall ensue.

Preorder :

Two elements (x,y) and (u,v) of VAB are :

- ordered by the relation < if and only if x+y < u+v

- equivalent by the relation @ if and only if x+y = u+v

Neighbours :

A set G of elements of X is made up of neighbours if and only if all the pairs of distinct elements of G are :

- minimal by the relation < in VAB and

- equivalent by the relation @ in VAB .

Algorithm

Calculate the matrices of the neighbourhoods of A and of B .

Build VAB.

(iter) : Look for the minimal elements of VAB . Use VAB in order to determine the neighbours.

- Each set of neighbours G is represented by a single of its elements z. For each set G, of k elements, remove from X the k-1 elements other than z. Delete in VAB the corresponding lines and columns.

If the numbers of lines and columns are larger than 3, goto (iter) else end of the algorithm.","txt","2","",""
"92","1","An Electronic Lexicon of Nominalizations: NOMLEX","1","New York University (NYU) has recently completed Nomlex, a dictionary containing detailed syntactic information about 1000 common English nominalizations. This dictionary, which has been developed for use in natural language processing, is freely available from NYU.

History:

Previous dictionary work at NYU includes COMLEX Syntax [Macleod'97], a large syntactic dictionary with detailed information on the syntactic properties of English words, especially with regard to complement structure. This dictionary is available through the Linguistic Data Consortium (LDC) and is being presently used by several natural language processing (NLP) groups.

Nominalizations present a special problem, in that one wants not only to analyze their syntactic structure, but also to relate them to corresponding verbal structures. This is essential for natural language interpretation in applications such as question answering and information extraction. For example, the answer to a question, ""How badly was the city bombed?"" could be phrased ""The city was destroyed completely"" or ""The destruction of the city was complete."" These answers though syntacticly diverse contain exactly the same information.

Dictionary structure:

The challenge in designing the NOMLEX entries is to provide, in reasonably compact form, all the lexically-specific syntactic information required to relate nominal arguments to the corresponding verbal arguments. This task is complicated because of the wide range of nominal argument structures, which makes a direct enumeration of all possible correspondences hopelessly unwieldy. In particular, the core arguments and oblique arguments behave differently in this respect.

The core arguments of the verb (subject, object, indirect object) may appear as possessive determiners (DET-POSS), noun noun modifiers (N-N-MOD) or in a prepositional phrase commonly preceded by ""of"" (PP-OF). Examples of this are: ""His death"" (where ""his"" represents the one who dies and therefore the subject of the verb ""die""), ""the price adjustment"" (where ""price"" is the object of the verb ""adjust""), and ""the discussion of the case"" (where ""case"" is the object of the verb ""discuss"" and the analysis would be ""X discuss the case"").

More complex verbal complementation such as sentential and verbal complements are found following the nominalization and often retain the same structure. For instance, the complement ""that he came"" is the same for the nominalization as for the verb, seen in the following examples.

""Someone report(ed) that he came.""
""The report that he came.""

Some verbal complements must have an introductory preposition in order to appear as nominalization complements. For example, ""Someone questioned whether it was a wise plan."" versus ""The question of whether it was a wise plan"". We encode all these possibilities in the lexical entries of the nominalizations. The NOMLEX entry for ""appointment"" is as follows.

(NOM :ORTH ""appointment""
:VERB ""appoint""
:PLURAL ""appointments""
:NOUN ((EXISTS))
:NOM-TYPE ((VERB-NOM))
:VERB-SUBJ ((N-N-MOD) (DET-POSS))
:SUBJ-ATTRIBUTE ((COMMUNICATOR))
:OBJ-ATTRIBUTE ((NHUMAN))
:VERB-SUBC ((NOM-NP :OBJECT ((DET-POSS) (N-N-MOD) (PP-OF)))
(NOM-NP-PP :OBJECT ((DET-POSS) (N-N-MOD) (PP-OF))
:PVAL (""for"" ""to""))
(NOM-NP-TO-INF-OC :OBJECT ((DET-POSS) (PP-OF)))
(NOM-NP-AS-NP :OBJECT ((DET-POSS) (PP-OF)))))

This sample entry, in combination with a set of defaults, provides us with a lot of information, including the following:
 
 

A homograph noun of the nominalization ""appointment"" exists
 
(""a dental appointment"" is not the act of ""appointment"")
The subject of the verb tends to be a human, company or other entity capable of communication.
The object of the verb is a human.
The nominalization is of type VERB-NOM, meaning that the nominalization does not play the grammatical role of any of the arguments of the verb. In contrast, ""fighter"" is a SUBJECT nominalization and ""interviewee"" is an OBJECT nominalization.
The subject of the verb can occur in three positions:
 
N-N-MOD - ""The IBM appointment of Mary Smith""
DET-POSS - ""IBM's appointment of Mary Smith""
PP-by - ""The appointment of Mary Smith by the president""
(PP-by is assumed as a subject marker by default.)
When the verb is followed by one noun phrase and no other complement phrases, that object may occur in the nominalized phrase (NOM-NP) in one of three positions:
DET-POSS - ""Mary Smith's appointment""
N-N-MOD - ""The Mary Smith appointment"" <
PP-OF - ""The appointment of Mary Smith by the president""
Object plus prepositional phrase complements (""for"" and ""to"") share the same object mappings as simple NP complements.
In addition, the prepositions in the verb complement are realized as the same preposition in the nominalization complement.
Complements consisting of an NP object plus either an infinitival complement or an AS-NP complement allow only DET-POSS and PP-OF complements. In addition, the verbal complement phrases TO-INF-OC and AS-NP map to these same types of phrases in the nominalization (by default).
Due to space considerations, we must leave out a lot of detail regarding the interpretation of this dictionary entry. In particular, we have a system of rules and defaults which prevent spurious ambiguity and allow us to keep the lexical entries compact. The example cited above is that PP-by is so often a marker of the subject of the verb, that we treat this as a default, marking nominalizations that do not allow this mapping with NOT-PP-by. For more detail about NOMLEX, please see our web site: <http://cs.nyu.edu/cs/projects/proteus/nomlex/index.html>
Using NOMLEX:

To demonstrate the utility of NOMLEX we constructed two NLP applications that depend on NOMLEX entries to analyze nominalization phrases.

A program that transforms a nominalization phrase into one or more sentences, corresponding to the possible senses of the nominalization phrase. For example, ""Rome's destruction of Carthage"" has exactly one sense, which our program would paraphrase as ""Rome destroyed Carthage"". The program takes a grammatical analysis (a parse) of a nominalization phrase as input and uses NOMLEX to create grammatical analyses of the corresponding sentences, copying noun phrases and complement phrases from the various nominal positions (N-N-MOD, DET-POSS, post-noun, etc.) into the appropriate sentential positions (SUBJECT, OBJECT, etc.). Actual sentences are then generated from these parses. The output of this program could be used as input to any NLP application designed to operate on full sentences.
A program which converts an information extraction pattern designed for sentences into a set of information extraction patterns designed for nominalization phrases ([Meyers'98]). For our purposes, an information extraction pattern is a pattern used to identify events in text and correctly mark the participants of these events. One such system extracts information about corporate hirings, firings, resignations, etc., including the identification of who left which company, who joined which company, the positions they left, the positions they attained, dates, etc. Our program converts a pattern that analyzes ""IBM appointed Alice Smith as Vice President"" into a pattern that analyzes: ""IBM's appointment of Alice Smith as President"", ""Alice Smith's appointment by IBM"", ""IBM's Alice Smith appointment"", ""IBM's appointee"", ""The appointee of IBM"", etc. Nomlex helps determine where information identified by a sentence pattern would be found in a nominalization phrase. This would enable an information extraction tool to easily extract information from nominalizations.
Process:
The menu-based entry program used for COMLEX was adapted to enter NOMLEX. As for COMLEX, the entry program gave us access to a large corpus of text (including the Brown Corpus and large amounts of newspaper articles) and we had limited access to the British National Corpus (BNC) as well. Two half-time ELFs (Enterer of Lexical Features) worked for 5 months and then one half-time ELF completed the lexicon in two years.

Concluding Remarks:

We have created a dictionary with the goal of solving a pervasive problem in NLP. Most grammatical analyses are designed to process sentences, but in order not to miss information these need to be applied to nominalization phrases, as well. NOMLEX provides a bridge in the form of: (1) a set of rules and defaults; and (2) a dictionary record of idiosyncratic mappings between nominalizations and their related verbs. Before the creation of NOMLEX, developers and researchers have had to adapt processes which handle sentences to enable them to handle nominalizations also. Due to the high overhead of this endeavor, many systems do not handle nominalizations at all or use simple, but imprecise heuristics. NOMLEX makes it less expensive to fully integrate nominalizations into an NLP system.

Future work:

In order to make NOMLEX an even more useful resource, we plan to add support verbs to the entries. The use of support verbs changes the relationship of the nominal and verbal arguments. For example, in ""his visit to Mary"" the possessive determiner is the subject of ""visit"" (i.e. ""he visit Mary""); in ""he made a visit to Mary"" the subject of the support verb ""make"" is now the subject of ""visit"" (i.e. ""he visited Mary.""). The demonstration that this is idiosyncratic and a matter for lexical interpretation is the appearance of ""he had a visit from Mary"" where the object of the preposition ""from"" is the subject of ""visit"" and the subject of the support verb becomes the object of ""visit"" (i.e. ""Mary visited him""). We have been exploring Mel'cuk's notation as a means of capturing these relationships for NOMLEX.

Bibliography

Macleod, C., Grishman, R. and Meyers, A. (1997/1998) COMLEX Syntax: A Large Syntactic Dictionary for Natural Language Processing. Computers and the Humanities (CHUM), Kluwer Academic Publishers, Vol. 31 No. 6.
Meyers, A., Macleod, C., Yangarber, R., Grishman, R., Barrett L., and Reeves, R. (1998). Using NOMLEX to Produce Nominalization Patterns for Information Extraction. Coling-ACL98 workshop Proceedings: the Computational Treatment of Nominal.","txt","2","",""
"93","1","CAT : A Jurilinguistic Application of Automatic Speech to Text Transcription","1","1. Introduction

British rule in Hong Kong made English the only official language in the legal domain for over a century. It was not until the reversion of sovereignty to China in 1997 that Chinese came to also enjoy official status in the Judiciary of Hong Kong. Legal bilingualism in Hong Kong has brought on an urgent need to create a Computer-Aided Transcription (CAT) system for Chinese to be on a par with the existing English CAT system. The production and retention of verbatim records of court proceedings is a cornerstone of the Common Law system. The creation of such facilities is vital for the successful retention of the Common Law system in Hong Kong, under the ""One Country, Two Systems"" principle, which brought about the creation of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China. Court proceedings had been kept only in English until recently. There is thus an urgent demand for the creation of Chinese CAT to produce and maintain the legally tenable records of court proceedings conducted in Cantonese, the predominant Chinese dialect in Hong Kong. (T'sou 1993, Sin and T'sou 1994, Lun et al. 1995) The existing monolingual English CAT system has to be adapted in order to produce the appropriate court proceedings. Furthermore, since English will remain to be frequently used in court in addition to Cantonese, the ultimate Cantonese CAT must operate in parallel to the English CAT so that the existing contingent of court stenographers can switch from one to the other easily. This paper discusses the Jurilinguistic Engineering undertaken to develop a Cantonese CAT system, with special reference to phonetically-based stenograph code to Chinese text conversion and other enhancement features.

2. Computer-Aided Transcription (CAT)

CAT is divided into three stages. First, the stenographer encodes speech into a sequence of phonetically-based shorthand code, or stenograph code. The code is recorded via a stenograph machine. Second, the Automatic Transcription System (ATS) will recover the original text {c1, . . . , cn} from a sequence of stenograph codes {s1, . . . , sn}. Finally, the post-editing step is needed to correct typing or transcription errors.

There are two major constraints in the development of the Cantonese CAT system. First, there are many homophonous characters which make the conversion of phonetically-based stenograph code into Chinese characters difficult. Cantonese (and also Mandarin Chinese) is basically a monosyllabic language and each logograph represents one syllable. Problematical homonymy is a persistent problem in the language. Second, the design of the Cantonese CAT system must capitalize on the existing equipment and the stenographer's skills in English stenography so that they can switch from one environment to the other easily. The user interface including keyboard design and input method should be made consistent across the two CAT systems.

3. Ambiguity Resolution - Bigram Model

ATS converts a sequence of stenograph codes {s1, . . . , sk} into a sequence of characters {c1, . . . , ck}. The challenge of the conversion lies in the one-to-many relationship between a stenograph code si and the set of homophonous characters ci that can be encoded by si. This is the homocode problem in theconversion from phonetic to textual representation. To resolve the ambiguity, we apply the bigram model (Bahl and Mercer 1976, Rabiner 1989, Waibel and Lee 1990, Charniak 1993), which has been extensively used in natural language modelling. The conversion procedure determines the most probable character sequence {c1, . . . , ck} for the input stenograph code sequence {s1, . . . , sk}. In conditional probability, (1) should be maximized.

(1) P (c1, . . . , ck | s1, . . . , sk)

where {c1, . . . , ck } denotes a sequence of k characters, and

{s1, . . . , sk} denotes a sequence of k input shorthand codes.

By making some approximation assumptions, the maximization of (1) is recast as the maximization of (2).

(2) Multiplication i=1,. . . ,k (P(ci | ci-1) * P(si | ci))

P(si | ci) and the bigram probability P(ci | ci-1) can be readily computed from the training data set. The Viterbi algorithm (Viterbi 1967) is implemented to efficiently compute the maximum value of (2).

To evaluate the accuracy of ATS, we conducted some transcription tests. Two prototypes were developed. The first one, CAT2, implemented the bigram model for conversion as described above. A baseline model, CAT0, was also built for comparison. It converts by selecting the character si with the highest P(si | ci)) value for the stenograph ci.

We compiled a training corpus of about 0.85 million character authentic court proceedings to obtain the conditional probabilities necessary for computation. A testing corpus of about 0.15 million character testing data was used. After training, CAT0 and CAT2 achieve an accuracy of about 78% and 92% respectively. The use of the bigram statistical model significantly improves the ambiguity resolution.

4. Enhancement Facilities

A consistent user interface for both Cantonese CAT and English CAT must be provided so that stenographers can easily operate in both Chinese and English. Two important features were offered to maintain consistency and to improve transcription efficiency.

4.1 ""Arbitrary"" (as defined in Glassbrenner and Sonntag (1986))

We have been assuming throughout that one keystroke corresponds to one syllable for the sake of simplicity. Nonetheless, such a requirement is not obligatory. A stenograph code may well represent a string of characters of any length. Although the English CAT system is syllable-based, it builds in functions to associate a unique user-defined stenograph code, or an ""arbitrary"", with a frequently used phrase or expression instead of a single syllable. ""Arbitrary"" is a critical feature for fast online recording as keystrokes can be significantly reduced.

Two requirements must be met in the incorporation of ""arbitraries"". First, each stenographer may not consistently use ""arbitraries"" even within the same recording session. An expression may be recorded using an ""arbitrary"" or be entered as a series of syllable-based stenograph codes. The system must be able to tolerate such variation. Second, the system must be flexible enough to allow the stenographer to create novel ""arbitraries"" at input time. The stenographer may invent new ad hoc codes at input time to speed up recording. The CAT system must be able to operate without defining the ""arbitrary"" before using it.

While ""arbitraries"" in the English CAT system are merely additional entries in the conversion dictionary, incorporating ""arbitraries"" into our conversion model is more complicated. A macro design is introduced which enables ""arbitraries"" to be fully integrated into the syllable-based scheme and our statistically-based ATS module. This is achieved by allowing the stenographer to define in an ""arbitrary dictionary"" an ad hoc macro for a stenograph code sequence plus its corresponding character string. The input is pre-processed so that the ad hoc code will be expanded into a sequence of syllable-based stenograph codes as defined. Subsequently, the expanded code will be subject to the statistically-based conversion. While the stenographer uses ad hoc codes at input time, the conversion procedure operates using the syllable-based code at transcription time.

4.2 Domain-Specific Transcription

In English CAT, automatic transcription is supported by special ""Job dictionaries"", containing specialized vocabularies. They can be dynamically activated depending on the case type recorded. Different case types have specific legal terms and lexical usage. For instance, chemical vocabulary in drug-trafficking offences is not likely to be found in fraud or traffic offences. Integrating all vocabularies in a training corpus of the Chinese CAT system may obscure the co-occurrence probabilities of some characters. To make the bigram probabilities more reliable, we exploit this domain-specificity of lexical items. Another test was conducted using transcripts pertaining to traffic offences. A training corpus and testing corpus of about 0.85 million and 0.15 million characters respectively were compiled. We observed that the system achieved a better transcription accuracy of about 95%. With this feature, the stenographer can choose a particular domain to work with before the automatic transcription. At present, the available categories include Assault, Civil, Robbery, and Traffic.

5. Conclusion

To summarize, the bigram statistical model has been applied to resolve ambiguity in stenograph code to Chinese conversion. Supplemented with the ad hoc codes and domain-specific transcription, the Cantonese CAT system offers a user-friendly environment that matches the English CAT. The resultant high transcription accuracy makes it viable to implement a Cantonese stenograph system on phonologically-based machines which are designed for English, and which can now accommodate both English and Cantonese as dictated by circumstances.

Acknowledgement

Support for the research reported here is provided mainly through the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong under Competitive Earmarked Research Grant CERG 9040326.

References

Bahl, L. R. and Mercer, R. L. (1976). ""Part of Speech Assignment by a Statistical Algorithm."" IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory, Ronneby, Sweden, June 1976. 
Charniak, E. (1993) Statistical Language Learning. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. 
Glassbrenner, M and Sonntag, G A. (1986). Computer-Compatible Stenograph Theory. 2 vols. Stenogrph Corporation, Illinois. 
Linguistic Society of Hong Kong (1997). Yueyu Pinyin Zibiao (Cantonese Jyutping Transliteration Word List). Linguistic Society of HK, Hong Kong. 
Lun, S., Sin, K. K., T'sou, B. K. and Cheng, T. A. (1997). ""Diannao Fuzhu Yueyu Suji Fangan."" (The Cantonese Shorthand System for Computer-Aided Transcription) (in Chinese) Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Cantonese and Other Yue Dialects. In B. H. Zhan (ed). Jinan University Press, Guangzhou. pp. 217""227. 
Rabiner, L. R. (1990). ""A Tutorial on Hidden Markov Models and Selected Applications in Speech Recognition."" Proceedings of IEEE. Reprinted in Waibel and Lee (1990). 
Sin, K. K. and T'sou, B. K. (1994). ""Hong Kong Courtroom Language: Some Issues on Linguistics and Language Technology"". Paper presented at the Third International Conference on Chinese Linguistics. Hong Kong. 
T'sou, B. K. (1993). ""Some Issues on Law and Language in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) of China."" Language, Law and Equality: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference of the International Academy of Language Law (IALL). In K. Prinslooet al. (Eds) University of South Africa, Pretoria. 314-331. 
Viterbi, A. J. (1967). ""Error Bounds for Convolution Codes and an Asymptotically Optimal Decoding Algorithm."" IEEE Transaction on Information Theory 13: 260""269. 
Waibel, A., and Lee, K. F. (eds) (1990). Readings in Speech Recognition. Morgan Kaufmann, San Mateo, CA.","txt","2","",""
"94","1","Shouting and Screaming: Manner and Noise Verbs in Communication","1","In many languages, words can be used in different domains from those in which they originated. In English, sound verbs are commonly used in the context of human communication (1-4).

(1) ('Shut up, Doreen,'[MESSAGE]) (Silas[SPEAKER]) barked, his face contorted by a scowl.
(2) ('Darling,'[MESSAGE]) (Conrad[SPEAKER]) cooed as Lee entered the living room.
(3) ('He's a thief, Hilary,'[MESSAGE])(he[SPEAKER]) grated almost savagely.
(4) (Grandson Richard[SPEAKER]) rumbled (a reply[MESSAGE]).

However, not all sound verbs have communication uses; the ones that do are restricted as to the type of message and/or speaker they can occur with. The syntactic patterns of sound verbs used for communication are not the same patterns found with true communication verbs. Several researchers (Goossens 1995, Miller & Johnson-Laird 1976, Levin et al. 1997) have explored these phenomena, paying particular attention to which verbs have or lack communication uses. Here we propose a unified and expanded corpus-based account of these cross-domain extensions in terms of Frame Semantics (Fillmore 1982) and with reference to theories of metaphor. This analysis has implications for the further description of the relationships between frames (e.g., inheritance and blending), and the development of cross-domain uses of words.

The FrameNet Project (P.I. Charles J. Fillmore) is creating a lexical database with 3 linked components: the expanded lexicon, the Frame Database, and annotated example sentences (Baker et al. 1998). Files which represent senses of lexical items within a particular domain and frame (represented as domain/frame) are created, and constituents are annotated with the Frame Elements which are realized with respect to the target word. This annotation, and subsequent marking of phrase type and grammatical function, is further analyzed for the combinations of syntactic and semantic patterns realized in various senses. Even while still in progress, this project has become a valuable resource for lexical and other linguistic analysis. The authors, both researchers involved in all stages of the project, have examined annotated files for 201 verbs in perception/noise, 23 verbs in communication/manner, and 60 verbs in communication/noise (there are 314 communication verb files overall).

Sound originates in the domain and frame of perception/noise. Since communication involves human verbal interaction, it necessarily overlaps with the sound domain. Two criteria determine which noise verbs can have communication uses. First, a noise verb is usable as a communication verb if the sound is produced by animate beings, especially animals (e.g. bark, yelp), but not when it is produced by objects (e.g. clink, thud). Nevertheless, some inanimate noises, such as rumble, are used for communication. It is possible that the physical profile of these sounds lends itself to a communication construal. Secondly, among animal sounds, imitative sounds (e.g. oink, quack) have no uses as communication verbs; the exact specification of the sound blocks the expression of a message (5).

(5) *(Mr. Baker[SPEAKER]) oinked (an invitation[MESSAGE]) across the table.

The noise verbs with communication uses (e.g. scream, bellow) do not behave like genuine manner of speech verbs (e.g. shout, whisper), differing from them both syntactically and semantically. We argue that this reflects the differences in the structure of the two domains and frames. In their home domain, noise verbs are usually intransitive, taking the sound SOURCE as subject (6-8).

(6) Somewhere behind her (a horn[SOURCE]) blared.
(7) (The long blades[SOURCE]) clashed and rang, their movement too fast for the eye to follow.
(8) The ducks began quacking and (the frogs[SOURCE]) croaking.

By comparison, communication verbs are normally transitive, with a SPEAKER subject and a MESSAGE object. ADDRESSEE and TOPIC prepositional phrases and MANNER adverbs frequently appear (9-11).

(9) ('How's the shop?[MESSAGE]) mumbles (one balding sweating man[SPEAKER]) (to another[Addressee]).
(10) One of his body squires heard (him[SPEAKER]) whispering (about it[TOPIC]) (to his Gascon favourite[Addressee]).
(11) 'If (you[SPEAKER]) so much as whisper (a word[MESSAGE]) (about Dame Agatha[TOPIC])(to the Lady Maeve[ADDRESSEE]), you will regret the day I ever plucked you out of Newgate!.'

Consider a communication use of the sound verb 'snarl' (`Do you have to?' she snarled at him as he took out a cigarette). Whereas `Do you have to?' [MESSAGE] and she [SPEAKER] look like canonical communication frame elements, (at him) is not a typical encoding of ADDRESSEE; compare the oddness of (I talked at John). The effect of (at him) is to make him seem more like the target of a directed sound emission as in (The dog barked at me). The difference between real manner of speech verbs and communication uses of noise verbs can also be observed in terms of complementation patterns and their frequencies. For example, more quoted MESSAGEs are found with noise verbs than with manner of speech verbs. The pattern is the reverse for that-clause MESSAGEs. ADDRESSEEs are less common with noise verbs used for communication than with regular manner of speech verbs (12).

(12) (The housekeeper[SPEAKER]) left the room, muttering (about ingratitude[TOPIC]).

This difference can be exemplified statistically by the analysis of proportional samples of representative verbs from each domain and frame.

Noise verbs used for communication do not only differ from manner of speech verbs as a class, but also exhibit interesting differences among themselves. For instance, many verbs are specialized as to what kinds of speakers they accept: older people and females are better cacklers, while men and people in positions of authority are more likely to rumble, bellow, or grunt (13-15).

(13) ('I'll warrant he is!'[MESSAGE]) (the old lady[SPEAKER]) cackled unexpectedly.
(14) We passed (the police sentry who[SPEAKER]) grunted (a sleepy greeting[MESSAGE]).
(15) ('Off now then?'[MESSAGE])chirped (the woman[SPEAKER]), dropping another sock.

Also, inasmuch as the manner of the speech act is being emphasized, the quoted [MESSAGE] component frequently contains an alphabetic representation supporting that emphasis (16).

(16) ('Th-that's b-blackmail,'[MESSAGE]) (she[SPEAKER]) spluttered.

This analysis shows that in these cross-domain uses, semantic and syntactic factors from both source and target domains play a role in determining the structure of the utterance. While the target domain supplies a syntactic structure, the source domain's semantics constrain the degree to which that syntactic structure can be exploited. Although some of the domains' interactions resemble metaphorical mappings, e.g. the SPEAKER-SOURCE correspondence, the relationship between the domains is not that of metaphor. Both domains are concrete, rather than one being concrete and one abstract. Instead of being discrete domains, they have something in common, i.e. the presence of a sound source. Nor are they simple cases of situational metonymy between speaking and producing sound. This kind of evidence and data can be used to describe more the complex interactions of frames which are evidenced in natural language: frame blends and inheritance, metaphor, complex frames, and other cross-domain uses. The synthesis of linguistic theory, lexicography, and work with large-scale corpora is necessary for significant coverage of the data. The frame semantic approach, with detailed lexical analysis, provides a semantically and syntactically informative account.

References

Baker, Collin F., Fillmore, Charles J., and Lowe, John B. (1998). The Berkeley FrameNet Project. COLING-ACL '98 Proceedings of the Conference, held August 10-14, 1998, in Montreal, Canada.
Fillmore, Charles J. (1982). Frame Semantics. In Linguistic Society of Korea (ed) Linguistics in the Morning Calm. 111-138. Hanshin, Seoul.
Goossens, Louis (1995). Metaphtonymy: The Interaction of Metaphor and Metonymy in Figurative Expressions for Linguistic Action. In Goossens et al. (eds) By Word of Mouth. John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia Publishing Co.
Lakoff, George, and Johnson, Mark (1980). Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press, Chicago/London.
Levin, Beth, Song, Grace, and Atkins, B. T. S. (1997). Making Sense of Corpus Data: A Case Study of Verbs of Sound. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, Vol. 2, No. 1. 23-64.
Miller, George A., and Johnson-Laird, Philip (1976). Language and Perception. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.","txt","2","",""
"95","1","The Style-Marker Mapping Project: a Rationale and Progress Report","1","Introduction

This paper explicates the what, why, and how of a substantially completed but ongoing project to identify and categorize all style-markers in written English that are quantifiable (e.g. type/token ratios, word length distributions, word length correlations, hapax legomena).

Section I treats the what - defining the project - and then addresses the why - the rational for the project. Section II outlines the how. Section III gives a status report of the project.

Although the final mapping will have value in various disciplines (e.g. stylistics, corpus linguistics, computational linguistics, and computer science), the impetus for the project is from non-traditional authorship attribution studies. Non-traditional attribution practitioners define style in the seemingly narrow framework of only those stylistic traits that are quantifiable.

The main hypothesis behind this project (and all non-traditional authorship attribution studies) is that every author has a verifiably unique style. If we look at style as an organism, style-markers are its genetic material - making this project analogous to the human genome project. This analogy is somewhat of a stretch because each style-marker is analyzed by an independent study, whereas all of the loci of an autoradiogram are obtained in one scientific analysis.

The identification of a quantifiable style-marker does not necessarily mean that that particular style-marker should be included in an authorship study (e.g. the orthography might be dictated by an editor or typesetter).

Section I

This section treats the what - defining the project - and then moves into the why of the project.

A short overview of what is in this section follows:

The style-marker mapping project is a study to identify every style-marker in written English that can be quantified. The project began in a preliminary fashion in 1983 when I started recording the various style-markers that were used in non-traditional authorship attribution studies so that I could use them in my studies of the canon of Daniel Defoe. The project continued in this vein (along with a few attempts on my part to come up with ""new"" style-markers) until five years ago when I realized the importance of identifying all of the quantifiable style-markers.

There is no one style-marker or even a combination of several style-markers that have proven to be a definitive discriminator in all non-traditional authorship studies. What works in one case often does not work in others. Word length distributions and sentence length distributions are two examples of style-markers that seemingly work in some cases but not in others. The idea is to look at style as a combination of all of the quantifiable style-markers and then to do the analysis as if each style-marker were a locus in the autoradiogram (See RUDMAN for a more detailed explanation).

Another reason for using all of the quantifiable style-markers is to eliminate any charges of statistical cherry-picking.

Section II

This section treats the how. References to all of the literature and techniques will appear in the final report. For example, HOLMES, DELCOURT, and ELLIOTT AND VALENZA are three of the references under non-traditional authorship studies.

1) Search the literature, e.g.:
 
 

Stylistics
Grammar
Non-traditional Authorship Attribution Studies
Linguistics
Computational
Corpus
Text
Rhetoric
Discourse Analysis
2) Query the practitioners in all of the above fields, e.g.:
 
 
Professor Erwin R. Steinberg of Carnegie Mellon for stylistics,
Professor Paul G. Hopper of Carnegie Mellon for Grammar - all of the active practitioners in the non-traditional authorship studies.
3) Establish a clearinghouse on a web page that allows anyone to query the up-to-date mapping and allows anyone to suggest ""new"" quantifiable style markers that would be added by the curator. This will lead to a continually updated list. Negotiations are under way to make this site an extension of the Carnegie Mellon University English Web Site.
4) Use various strategies to identify new style-markers. This is where the innovative work supplements the drudge work, e.g.:
 
 

Neural networks
Pattern searching programs
Brainstorming sessions
Section III
This section gives a status report of the project and reports a timeline for its ""completion."" References will be given for all of the style-markers in the final report, e.g. MOSTELLER AND WALLACE is one of the function word references. Only a few representative examples of each section are listed for this abstract.

1) META-WORD

Paragraph
Sentence
Phrases
Clauses
2) WORD
Part of speech
Ratios
Positions
Function Words
Most frequent words
3) SUB-WORD
Syllables
Letters
Phonemes
Morphemes
4) OTHER
Punctuation
Imagery
Rhetorical Devices
 
Zeugma
Chiasmus
Conclusion
The questions, ""Can this project ever be completed?"", and, ""Is the number of style-markers infinite?"", are addressed.

The success of this project will not solve all of the problems of non-traditional authorship studies. This project does not address the problems that gender, genre, time constraints, or conscious vs. unconscious style bring to the table. Nor does it treat the problem of lemmatization.

Identifying the style-markers is only a small part of the overall problems with non-traditional authorship attribution studies. The statistics that should be used in any study for each of these style-markers and the statistics for combining all of the markers into a ""final"" answer is the subject of another ongoing project.

Bibliography

Delcourt, Christian (1994). Stylometry. ALLC-ACH École Normale Supérieure de Lettres et Sciences Humaines, Paris, 14-15.04.
Elliott, Ward E.Y. and Valenza, Robert J. (1996). And Then There Were None: Winnowing the Shakespeare Claimants. CHum 30.3: 191-245.
Holmes, David I. (1985). The Analysis of Literary Style - A Review. J.R.Statist. Soc. A 148, Part 4: 328-341.
Mosteller, Fredrick and Wallace, David L. (1984). Applied Bayesian And Classical Inference: The Case Of The ""Federalist Papers."" 2nd Edition. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Rudman, Joseph (1998). The State of Authorship Attribution Studies: Some Problems and Solutions. CHum 31: 351-365.","txt","2","",""
"96","1","Comparative Study of the Lexical and Orthographic Variety in the Mediæval Slavonic Psalter","1","1. Introduction

1.1. Text variety in mediæval Slavonic texts

The mediæval Slavonic written tradition is characterised by a high level of variety on all linguistic levels. This is usually explained with the use of a vernacular language in the Mediaeval Slavonic texts. The spread of the texts to regions with substantial differences from the language in the region where the text originated reflected the transmission. In this setting, the study of text variety is an important source of information about the synchronic and diachronic development of the Slavonic languages. However, up till now the study of text variety was done by traditional research methods based extensively on human collection and processing of scattered data. Taking into account the substantial number of mediæval Slavonic manuscripts, one can imagine that the bulk of the texts can not be physically covered by traditional investigation.

1.2. Case Study

The Psalter has always had a leading role among the religious texts since its first appearance in the Slavonic countries, representing a very important source in the process of the development of the Slavonic written tradition.

Its importance is also linked to the didactic function it had in the Slavonic lands where a new alphabet was recently introduced. This led to the need to educate the scholars in the new literary environment. Due to its own rhythm, to its diffusion, the Psalter was then studied by heart by people in order to make acquaintance with the written culture.

That is why the Psalter has always been one of the most widespread texts [Karaèorova 89]. Its tradition is considered constant by almost all the researches, besides the structural differences that allow us to speak about different typologies of Psalter (simple, with commentaries, etc.).

In the light of these considerations (wide dissemination and lower variety due to its religious use), we decided to investigate some textual peculiarities of the Psalter's transmission.

1.3. Experimental Setting

We focussed our attention on six manuscripts, choosing the spatial and temporal settings of each manuscript as reference points. The linguistic peculiarities referring to an origination from a certain region are reported using the term 'revision'.

We used the following manuscripts:
 
 

Sinaitic Psalter (10th c., written in the Glagolitic alphabet; all other witnesses were written in Old Cyrillic)
Bolonian Psalter (13th c., Bulgarian revision)
Norovian Psalter (13th c., middle Bulgarian revision)
Serbian Psalter (13th c., Serbian revision)
Kievian Psalter (14th c., Russian revision)
Gennadian Psalter (15th c., Russian revision)
We used as text excerpts 15 Psalms scattered through the Psalter (1, 39, 40, 41, 44, 45, 64, 73, 74, 75, 89, 91, 98, 102, 134; the exception is the Serbian Psalter where the 1st psalm was damaged).
2. Study of the lexical variety

We started with a study of the lexical variety in order to follow the tradition of the Psalter diatopically and diachronically, to set out the lexical variants and to verify the unity of its tradition.

We used for this study the DBT (Data Base Testuale), a program of textual analysis developed at the ICL-Pisa, which produces different types of information in real time. Among its functions, the DBT provides lists of alphabetical frequencies, decreasing frequency order, concordances, co-occurrences, indices locorum, lists of suffixes and endings and lemmatization procedure.

Comparing our witnesses we found the following:
 

We obtained 115 pairs of variant words. Of these 115 pairs, only 38 times does the word vary in only one manuscript (77 times the same word varies in more then one manuscript).
The variants seem to be linked to some specific words and realia.
The typology of the variant pairs shows that the most frequently appearing are those whose semantics reflect eyesight, desire, law violation (in particular of the divine one), forgiveness, fire (as a symbol of purification), rebirth, oil, and unction. We can think that the scribe inserted these variants since he felt them to be more correct, both dogmatically and linguistically and, in any case, more specific for the different ages and chessboard of the written tradition.
We notice a tendency to use synonyms or words with a very small semantic difference from those of the Sinaitic Psalter.
We can consider the chosen texts divided in 4 blocks: 1) Sinaitic Psalter; 2) Bolonian and Serbian Psalters (the closest in time to the Sinaitic); 3) Norovian Psalter; 4) Kievian and Gennadian Psalters. In 115 variants as regards the Sinaitic Psalter, we noticed that:
 
78 belong to the Norovian Psalter (67%)
36 to the Serbian Psalter (31%)
29 to the Bolonian Psalter (25%)
57 to the Kievian Psalter (49%)
75 to the Gennadian Psalter (65%)
The Norovian Psalter is the text that more than the others is detached from the Sinaitic and, as Cesko says ""it's one of the first trials to normalize the literary language thanks to a correction based on the Greek model"" [Cesko o77].
On the other side, the Serbian and Norovian Psalters show a lower level of variants and they were written in a period very close to the creation of the Sinaitic Psalter.

Concerning the two Russian Psalters, the Norovian and Gennadian Psalters have almost the same number of variants (78 and 75). Thus we can think that they belong to the same revision. But this is not true: of the 78 variants present in the Norovian, 54 are different from those of the Gennadian, that only 28 times offers variants different from those of the Kievian. We can verify in this way the big linguistic similarity between the two Russian texts and the atypicality of the Norovian Psalter in respect to this group of texts.

In conclusion, we have the Norovian Psalter vs. all the others, that can be very well accepted if we consider the basic homogeneity of all the examined manuscripts and the declared adhesion of the Norovian to the Greek original.

This confirms the unity of the Psalter's tradition in the Slavonic countries.

3. Study of the Orthographic variety

We studied also a lower textual level - the orthographical one - in order to investigate the correlation between revisions and quantitative data on orthographic features. The traditional approach to the orthographic variety study is a qualitative one. The decision about the time when a text was written and the localization of its creation is based on the occurrences of specific orthographic features. Such features reflect the use of the jers; nasal vowels and groups containing - r - and - l - [OBG, 1993].

We studied the relative frequencies of all letters from the Old Cyrillic alphabet and all strings belonging to such characteristic groups. We aimed to check whether the qualitative characteristics relevant to the text origin lead also to differences in the quantitative study of the texts. The data were processed in STATISTICA for Windows. This data organization allowed us to choose a subset of texts, and some of the letters or groups for analysis. From the view-point of the specialist in Slavonic studies, this would mean that we are able to study the usage of all or selected graphemes in a chosen group of texts. We applied cluster analysis in order to check whether texts belonging to different revisions are grouped correctly.

The cross-study of the texts leads us to the following conclusions:

For experiments with texts from one revision the smallest size of the text excerpt should be 5,000 letters
For experiments with text from different revisions the size of the text excerpt leading to correct clustering is 2,000 letters
The best results are obtained when we use in the study the relative frequencies of 5 experimentally approved vowels
The results showed that the regional differences within texts, which form a common tradition in the mediaeval Slavonic literary history, reflect the orthographic quantitative characteristics of the texts
4. Conclusions
Our study showed the importance of conducting experiments on different linguistic levels.

The first approach was oriented towards a study of lexical variance aimed at investigating the distribution of synonyms in the different witnesses and at forming groups of similarity between the witnesses. This study confirmed the hypothesis about the unity of the Psalter's transmission amongst the mediæval Slavs.

The second approach was oriented towards a study of quantitative data on the distribution of orthographic characteristics.

The comparison of the results shows that the application of both approaches could help the specialists in mediæval Slavonic textual studies to acquire new data about the similarities and dissimilarities of their object of study. Moreover, the complexity of the studied field presupposes the use of methods applied to the different linguistic levels because they enlighten different aspects of the studied written tradition.

References

[Cesko o77] Cesko, E.V. (1982). Ob afonskoj redakcii slavjanskogo perevoda psaltyri v ee otnoshenii k drugim redakcijam, V: Jazyk i pismennost' srednebolgarskogo perioda. Moskva, p. 77 (in Russian).
[Karaèorova 89] Karaèorova, I. (1989). Kym vyprosa za Kirilo-Metodievskija starobylgarski prevod na Psaltira. V: Kirilo-Metodievski Studii, t.6, S., str.15-129 (in Bulgarian).
[OBG 1993] Duridanov, I. et al. (eds) (1993). Gramatika na starobalgarskija ezik, S., 1993 (in Bulgarian).","txt","2","",""
"97","1","Subject Specific Search Engines for the Humanities","2","The Internet has proven to be a vast and unruly resource. Students are happy to come to the library and use general engines such as AltaVista and directories such as Yahoo! to do their research on the Web, but often the results they generate are extraneous and from unreliable sources. To make matters worse, recent studies show the major engines index only a portion of the Internet, although Excite claims its recently-announced search engine will reach all the Web's pages. On a more modest scale, to help keep users on track with their Web searches, humanities librarians have begun to use subject-specific engines.

Subject-specific engines are a good tool for concentrating a search within the parameters of a particular discipline. These parameters naturally define a search and can help users obtain relevant results quickly. To help achieve this, these engines are set up with a variety of automated software packages such as Harvest and Ultraseek server.

Harvest is an integrated set of tools to gather, extract, organize, search, cache, and replicate relevant information across the Internet. It was developed originally at the University of Colorado by the Internet Task Force Group on Resource Discovery (IRTF-RD) and is maintained by a group of volunteers at the University of Edinburgh. It is used to gather information from selected sites so a user will receive only information relevant to the subject searched. For example, if searched for ""Horace,"" a subject-specific engine for the classics like Index Antiquus will return results relating to the Roman poet. The users of this subject-specific system are assured the hits returned will be relevant.

Harvest consists of two basic subsystems: the gatherer and the broker. The gatherer collects the information from sites selected by a person (in the case of Index Antiquus, sites relevant to the classics as determined by a librarian). This process is an evaluation using particular criteria - criteria such as accuracy, appropriateness, authority, organization, currency, and relevancy. To this list we must add stability. Even though a robot or link checker will help maintain links to active sites, you don't want the database changing radically every time it's renewed.

Once the information is returned to the local server, it is summarized and indexed. That is, it is stripped of any HTML code, and a database is created and indexed. The gatherer does not by itself automatically update the database; this is done by running the cron command to resend the gatherer. This can be done at a specified time, every month for instance, and because we are good Net citizens, early in the morning to keep the load down on host servers. The broker is basically the mechanism that accesses the database and returns the results; in other words, the broker is the search engine. The default engine for Harvest is glimpse, but you can use WAIS or Swish if you wish. Because Harvest is open source, you can download the source and compile the software yourself.

Infoseek has now made its Ultraseek Server port to Linux available. We are currently running Ultraseek 3.1 on on Red Hat Linux 6.1 and have also run it successfully on SuSE Linux 6.3. It's extremely easy to install but because it is a commerical product you are not given the code. It can be used on an Intranet or to collect documents from Web servers.

The Ultraseek Server automatically sends out its robot to selected sites and creates the index. The search interface is configurable and supports natural-language queries. Once the database is created, you can manage it remotely via your browser. The extensive documentation includes installation, administration, and customization guides. The version for Linux is available in i386.rpm file or tar ball format.

The presenter will demonstrate Index Antiquus running on Harvest and on Ultraseek server. As indicated, Index Antiquus is a subject-specific search engine for classical and early latin medieval texts. Interested parties will be invited to test Index Antiquus and the presenter will be pleased to answer any questions such as the use of this type of system for other humanities disciplines. The URL for Index Antiquus is < http://harvest.rutgers.edu:8765>","txt","2","",""
"98","1","The Academic vs. Subject Corpus: Development of Criteria for the Teaching of ESP According to Lexical Needs in Spanish Polytechnic Courses","2","The aim of this paper is to offer the details gathered from the lexical analysis of English texts read in Information Science related majors in Spanish universities. In such a textual collection, lexical items are arranged according to the notions of word frequency and range across text types and genres, or within given subject fields and topics in the Information science and technology disciplines. How strong these lexical combinations are, based on their statistical M.I. (Mutual Information) measurement, is also quite pertinent to our study. The degree of collocation is thus assessed in the light of common coreness. That these patterns are more or less consistent in our corpus is, indeed, a key characteristic to value so that a reference with the total number of texts and running words can be established. Finally, as the findings show that there exist representative lexical items for a limited or reduced number of texts, keywords must be explored. For the observation of results drawn according to the three approaches mentioned - word frequency / range, collocations and keywords - the focus is placed on both the text and the subject-matter. This is essentially done to follow the priority of working with language and content from the ESP (English for Specific Purposes) perspective. As a consequence, a categorization is made regarding a specified kind of context - e.g. text types.

As in the case of genre, the environments of text and discourse are of prime importance for the situation of lexical items in the scope of academic linguistic competence. Text types are approached in relation to how text is organized and reflects coherence and cohesion, while the second setting - genre - registers the writer's inclination and intentionality to produce discourse for a community (e.g. academic). There are two other parameters - subject and topic - on which the distribution of the lexical items of our corpus is based. In their case, a framework based on content is provided, and the findings yield the core lexis according to thematic / conceptual fields.

a. Word frequency and range.

In this first division, the most frequent text type words are provided according to how recurrent they are across six sets of ten texts. These are grouped as follows:

 1. Definitions.
2. Descriptions.
3. Classifications.
4. Exemplifications.
5. Discussions.
6. Conclusions.

The samples are taken randomly to represent the rhetorical functions and sub-sections of genres with which the learner must cope and come to grips.1 The relevant vocabulary analyzed from this perspective is classified as argumentative, procedural and discourse/grammar items, examined in demarcated domains such as distinctive subject fields and genres. 2

Our immediate concern thus lies in having all the interrelationships among the subject fields represented visually in order to make the selection of text samples accordingly.

We offer figures which refer to the number of sources belonging to four specified disciplines in Informatics-related majors - pointed out by abbreviations (e.g. 'C.S.' stands for Computer Science and so forth).

In addition, in our corpus, capital letters refer to the codes used for the subjects/topics within disciplines as shown in the Appendices (Appendix 1). As will be observed, in addition to all the labels A - F, each single subject field is also represented individually by some texts (not shared with other studies).

There are more texts in the 'F' category, which the four scientific areas share - Computer Science, Information Science, Audio-visual Communication and Optical/Wave communication. In contrast, the subject 'Communication Theory', included in the Audio-visual Communication, Information Science and Telecommunication programs of studies, is formed by only four sources. In turn, Audio-visual Communication is the discipline with the smallest amount of readings involved - only one text for each genre. 3

The selection of the texts is made by having as yardsticks the overall distribution and length of these in the corpus. As a result, if there are up to five descriptions (out of 10 possible ones) included in the 'F' or 'All disciplines' category, this is due to the fact that these passages are quite common in these readings. In addition, these five samples are not as long as other types, such as definitions in this division. Finally, that the balance in relation to the entire corpus be kept is, as has been pointed out, a chief consideration.

So that the text type findings based on frequency and range are also framed with the detailed knowledge of the subjects and topics comprised, the distribution of text type sources within each sub-category or label must be provided.

The maximum number of texts encompassed is three - e.g. in the case of Descriptions on the topic of 'Information infrastructure' (F6 category). This distinction reflects both the larger amount of readings existent in the corpus dealing with issues of this kind and the recurrence of this type of rhetorical function employed in sub-division F6. In contrast, where no samples are contained within a given sub-category, the reason is that the model was either less developed or not included at all in the content of the text (e.g. Conclusions in 'Perspectives on information' [F1], 'Media theory' [D2], 'Media documentation' [C2], 'Automated Knowledge-based systems' [B3], etc).

A final comment must be made regarding the importance of keeping a balance with the representation of three academic genres - textbooks, reports and research articles - in the construction of the corpus. The intent of this arrangement is to offer a weighed basis for text selection and analysis. Since the end of such an organizing procedure is to provide adequate ground for lexical sifting, this text type sub-corpus should incorporate as many different language and content settings - i.e. contextual factors - as possible. In this sense, even some text units as characteristic of one single genre as sections of research articles - Discussions and Conclusions, in this case - can be located in the other two genres (e.g. a discussion appearing in a textbook on Communication Theory [E1] or a conclusion taken from a report on Software Programming [A1], as figure 4 shows).

The end results should thus be adequate and fitting for the design of both written and oral lexical activities and tasks that reveal the importance of academic and subject lexis, based on the analysis of common texts across different disciplines.

Notes

1. Only these six types are chosen due to the fact that others, such as the discourse function signalling contrast, are contained by Discussions on five occasions, whereas illustrations are coped with in Exemplifications. In turn, the two sections of research articles included - Discussions and Conclusions - are given priority over Abstract, Introduction, Method and Results since these are already selected for the compilation of Descriptions, Classifications, Definitions and Exemplifications to a greater or lesser degree (see distribution of the text type sub-corpus).
2. How certain genres and types can be characterized by core or subject-core lexis is described, among others, by Carter (1997, 1988).
3. The correspondence of number of texts and disciplines obeys the aim of assembling core language and subject matter: the lower the measure of samples, the more subject-specific the texts tend to be.","txt","2","",""
"99","1","Hyperfiction Reading Research: An Experiment in Method","2","[1] Introduction

Hyperfiction reading experiments have been carried out as part of the author's PhD research. The experiment complements and, in significant ways, extends methods for critical metadiscursive commentary on non-linear literary texts, and can be considered a preliminary and partial response to a question posed in the title of an article by G. P. Landow: ""What's a Critic to Do"" (Landow, 1994). Screen recording software has been used to log readers' navigation of hyperfiction and to generate data amenable to informal qualitative and quantitative analysis. Although this is an exploratory study, it is expected that the data will provide a basis for testing the hypothesis that analysis of navigational choices made within a well-defined context can be used to suggest how a reader may have interpreted the text. The data will be integrated within the various models of reading hyperfiction and contribute to the growing methodological corpus of research on this topic. Whilst the value of results deriving from this meta-interpretational analysis may be questioned, it should nevertheless provide a point of departure for a very urgent and timely debate into the paths that technocriticism might take with regard to hypertext fictional narrative.

[2a] Analysis

Focusing on readings of a well-known hyperfiction, Michael Joyce's 'Afternoon: a Story', the experiment makes use of the fact that reading online allows the movement of a reader through a text to be monitored discretely, such as where the reader has visited and for how long. Readers sometimes 'hover' around the screen using a mouse, and the screen recording software captures this activity for use by the analyst/critic. In Readingspace (the viewing application for Storyspace texts) words selected by the reader are highlighted with a red outline. This is important to the success of the meta-interpretation because the words actually chosen by the reader, even where they do not activate a specific link, are significant in themselves as indicators of an intention on the reader's part. In this way, directions that readers take in fictional narratives may act as a kind of interpretative index for that reading. To this end, the experimental procedure requires analysis of each space visited to assess the relation between its semantic elements; this is referred to as ""immediate context analysis"". Not relevant to meta-interpretation of the reader, but nevertheless useful to the analyst/critic, is an analysis of the relation between link elements and their destination spaces: this is the ""narratological context analysis"". Finally, analysis of the connection of pathways along which the reader can negotiate the structure reveals what may be referred to as vortices, since recursal (returns to the same screen in the same reading) is subject to probability factors set up by the arrangement of links. This is referred to as ""probability analysis"" and its corresponding factors are centrifugal/centripetal.

[2b] Experimental factors

Two objections have to be contended with in this research: randomness and conformity. Between the two extremes of random selection of links by a reader, and a single predetermined reading sequence, this study aims to use reading research to find out what relationship exists, if any, between the content of the narrative and the choices made by the reader. These factors might be deemed to involve an unacceptable indeterminacy of variables, or to lack the rigour and exactitude of more ""scientific"" analyses, much less to contribute positively to the problem of hyperfiction criticism. Whilst it is acknowledged that no research can give a reliable or purely objective indication of the state of a reader's mind, the fact that engaged readers make conscious choices suggests that their decisions are amenable to objective analysis. Therefore, what this research cannot, and does not, aim to recreate is what is in the reader's mind in the course of navigation; it attempts to augment, using the data available, the range of critical tools necessary for critique of the hyperfictional literary text. Since decisions made by writers in their choice of words are open to stylistic analysis, it would seem reasonable to suppose that the choices made by readers can be considered in the same way. Some choices will be more considered than others and, as a result, measures to guard against undue interpretations are implemented. For example, the reader profile between some screens might suggest a skimming mode. However, in others, the strategy may change to one of close reading and more considered responses. Decisions occurring within a skimming mode would lead to a lower level of confidence in meta-interpretational analysis than in an intensive mode.

[3] Theoretical Perspectives

Although a strong argument can be made against anachronistic theoretical recontextualisations (Aarseth, 1997: 82ff) in a return to the parlance of such theories in the notion, for example, of ""form and content"" (Ryan, 1997:690), the powerful resonance of these ideas with issues prevalent in our own time often can be too irresistible. Such revisitations might also suggest an almost inevitable reconsideration of the material conditions of literature observed by Aarseth to be ""invisible"" to most literary theory (1997: 164). In the analyses outlined above (2a), terminology and ideas from existing models have been used. Complementing a standard grammatical analysis of the spaces (for example, that found in the later chapters of Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990: 394ff), and Gèrard Genette's 'Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method' (1980), is Aarseth's (1997) ""textonomy"" and discussion of 'Afternoon', as well as J. Yellowlees Douglas' (1994) analysis and interpretation of her own readings of the work. There are perhaps models better suited to, or more concomitant with, the aspirations of the research and it is anticipated that interested participants will be forthcoming with suggestions.

[4] Content of poster

1. Title and brief explanation of aims of experiment
2. Diagrams showing structure relevant to analysis
3. Charts plotting reading data
4. Separate key to diagrams and charts linked to interpretations
5. Interpretations linked to diagrams (handout)
6. Analysis of the results in bullet point format

[5] Bibliography

 Aarseth, Espen J. (1997). Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature. Johns Hopkins UP, Baltimore.
Alasuutari, Perrti (1995). Researching Culture: Qualitative Method and Cultural Studies. Sage, London.
Douglas, J. Yellowlees (1994). 'How do I stop this thing?"": In Landow (ed) Closure and Indeterminacy in Interactive Narratives.
Genette, Gèrard (1980). Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method (tr. Jane E. Lewin). Cornell University Press, Ithaca.
Greenbaum, Sydney and Quirk, Randolph (1990). A Student's Grammar of the English Language. Longman, Harlow.
Landow, George P. (ed) (1994). Hyper/Text/Theory. Johns Hopkins UP, Baltimore.
Landow, George P. (1994). 'What's a Critic to Do? Critical Theory in the Age of Hypertext'. In Landow (ed).
Robson, Colin (1993). Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and Practitioner-Researchers. Blackwell, Oxford.
Ryan, Marie-Laure (1997). 'Interactive Drama: Narrativity in a Highly Interactive Environment'. Modern Fiction Studies, 43:3, 677-707.","txt","2","",""
"100","1","Hyperlectures: Teaching Postmodern Culture on the Web","2","One of the major didactic difficulties, regardless of the kind of knowledge that must be learnt, seems to be that of ensuring a correct ""transfer"" of information from the teacher to the learner. This ""transfer"", as Plato already illustrated, may be problematic because of what happens in the ""head"" of the learner, something which ultimately influences what the learner herself can understand - see also (Ambroso 1999). In order to guarantee a successful information transfer, it is therefore necessary that the teacher adopts a series of strategies taking into account how information is processed by learners. Cognitive science may help in this respect to shed a new light on how information is received, processed, stored and ultimately retrieved when facing real-life situations - see, for instance, (Dix et al. 1993). From these characteristics, it is indeed possible to draw different learner profiles, different learning models.

Traditionally, according to van der Veer (1990), the individual characteristics that HCI (Human-Computer Interaction) takes into account while conceiving interfaces and user-friendly systems include:

learners' personality, mainly in terms of introvert or extrovert behaviour;
the cognitive styles that students follow while learning, either a verbal or a visual style;
the strategies they exploit for learning, namely a heuristic or systemic procedure;
finally, the structures they use to represent the knowledge they have acquired. These structures ultimately reflect the different long-term memory modalities employed to process information, i.e., semantic or episodic structures.
Once this assumption is accepted, the teacher must satisfy all these requirements in order to be able to support the learner in gaining the most efficient learning possible. IT (Information Technologies) take part in this dialogue by helping the teacher to assume perfectly her role of ""learning facilitator according to the learner's pace and modalities"" (Ambroso 1999).
It is with this intention in mind that we have started to develop a series of hyperlectures on postmodern culture and philosophy which are completely taught online. The term ""hyperlectures"" was originally coined by Frode Ulvund (1997) to indicate ""a multimedia lecture transferred on the internet"" and later rephrased by Rob van Craenenburg (forthcoming) in his series of online lectures on culture. In the context of this presentation, it will be used to indicate a courseware that has two characteristics: conceptually, it is adaptive, and structurally, it is layered (see below). These hyperlectures originate from the two separate courses on ""Interactive Narrative"" and on ""Technology and Culture"" which were taught last year within the MSc in Multimedia Systems at TCD. As such, they have a dual objective: on the one hand, they intend to show the development of hyperfiction, i.e., of electronic fiction, from its early attempts still in a paper-based medium to the current computer-based works. According to some scholars (see, for instance Landow 1997), there is indeed a strict relationship between the theory of literature and the theory of hypertext: the former theorises the open work, that the latter ultimately embodies and tests. In this respect, understanding hyperfiction implies a definition of both the medium hypertext and the more theoretical narrative principles implicit in any text: story formation, the notion of the plot, the role of both author and reader, the mutual actions they are required to play. On the other hand, since hyperfiction has emerged and imposed itself in recent years, it becomes important to understand the dominant way of representing and of thinking of reality, the present major philosophical discourse, what is referred to as postmodernism.

The hyperlectures on postmodern culture build on the expertise acquired through two previous experiences at developing Internet-based courseware: they include the development of an adaptive courseware to teach hypertext to MSc students in Computer Science, which is still in use and has been used by several universities in Europe, and an adaptive courseware to teach business Italian to MA students in Romance Philology, which has only been developed for experimental reasons. Whereas the former experience focused on the setting up of a methodology for knowledge acquisition on the Web that progressively keeps into account every student's learning proficiency within the field of a mainly technology-oriented education (Calvi and De Bra 1997), the other project examined the validity of this same framework in a more linguistic domain when combining the ""situated"" teaching of Italian with the acquisition of a domain-specific knowledge like the Italian present economic reality (Calvi in press). What these Web-based courses have in common is the approach that was used in designing and developing them, i.e., the need to adapt to users. User's adaptivity and customisation is a sort of number 0 rule to make an efficient use of the Web and to ensure that results will be significant in terms of learning. This also means being able to cope with the problems raised by knowledge globalisation and cultural differences. And still, preserving one's specific characteristics in the view of the safeguard of minority languages and cultural heritage that has become so prominent in EU policies. In the investigation of the educational possibilities of hypertext for learning, these issues have become relevant (see, for example, (Brusilovsky 1996):

the necessity to adapt information to users, i.e., to provide information according to users' learning needs, level of competence achieved thus far, goals, and preferences, in order to facilitate learning (a user-tailored approach to information presentation);
the complementary requirement of fostering both textual and conceptual coherence in structuring information;
the subsequent need to limit, if not to avoid completely, cognitive overload while users process information by appropriately determining the sequences of nodes and links to be consequently shown to users.
It is a sort of ""guided pulling"" (Perrin 1998), where it is up to the learner to choose which further step to take in the acquisition process in an intimately autonomous way because the system does not hinder in any way his/her exploratory behaviour. The process of progressively unveiling links does not indeed correspond to the common notion of ""guided tours"", although it is always the teacher/designer who determines not only how the content material can be presented to students, but also how it can be structured and how its concepts can be interconnected to one another.
The postmodern course is now being followed by two sorts of students: students enrolled in a Master's programme in Multimedia Systems at TCD, who have a very heterogeneous academic background (from engineering to biology, from communication studies to sculpture and painting), although the master is taught within the Computer Science department; and students enrolled in a Master programme in Romance Philology at the University of Antwerp, who have therefore a mainly humanistic background. By the end of the course (in a couple of months, therefore well before the conference is scheduled) data about their interaction modalities with be systems will become available for analysis. This will allow us to verify if the design guidelines that have been chosen have matched onto actual use.

During the presentation we will describe in details the hyperlectures from the point of view of both its design rationale and objectives and will relate it to the previously acquired experiences mentioned above in order to outline the methodological and pedagogical implications behind the use of hypertext in education.

The course can be found at the URL <wwwis.win.tue.nl/~calvi/pmw>.

References

Ambroso, S. (1999). ""Nuovi orientamenti nella didattica dell'italiano come L2"". Proceedings of the conference ""La didattica dell'italiano lingua straniera oggi. Realtà e prospettive"", VUB Press.
Brusilovsky, P. (1996).""Methods and Techniques of Adaptive Hypermedia"". User Modeling and User-Adapted Inetraction 6(2-3):87-129, 1996.
Calvi, L. (In press). ""Business Italian via a Proficiency-Adapted CALL System"", in D.P. O' Baoill (ed.), Special Issue of TEANGA 18, 1999.
Calvi, L. and De Bra, P. (1997). ""A Proficiency-Adapted Framework for Information Browsing and Filtering in Educational Hypermedia Systems"". International Journal of User Modelling and User-Adapted Interactions, 7:257-277.
Dix, A., Finlay, J., Abowd, G. and Beale, R. (1993). Human-Computer Interaction. Prentice Hall.
Landow, G. (1997). Hypertext 2.0. The Convergence of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology. The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Perrin, M. (1998). ""What Cognitive Science Tells us About the Use of New Technologies"". Paper presented at the Conference ""Languages for Specific Purposes and Academic Purposes--Integrating Theory into Practice"", Dublin, 6-8 March 1998.
van Craenenburg, R. (forthcoming). Teaching Culture in a multi-linear Environment. Intellect Books.
van der Veer, G. C. (1990). Human-Computer Interaction. Learning, Individual Differences, and Design Recommendations. Offsetdrukkerij Haveka B.V., Alblasserdam.
Ulvund, F. (1997). ""Hyperlectures - Teaching on Demand"". Paper originally presented at Cincinnati Symposium on Computers and History, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, May 2-3 1997 and at the XIIth International Conference of the AHC in Glasgow, UK, June 30 - July 3 1997, online reference.","txt","2","",""
"101","1","Preservation of Emotional Tone Patterns In Human and Machine Translations Between English and French","2","Problem and Method

The availability of two French dictionaries of connotative meaning made it possible to examine the preservation of emotional tone patterns in translations from English in children's stories (Anderson and McMaster, 1992; Anderson, McMaster and Mitchell, 1987). Good preservation was found for some of the stories but not others. It was not clear whether this was the result of poor translations or the indexing system was too sensitive to a few words in short and specialized text. In stylometric analysis Gurney and Gurney (1998) have shown that long texts cannot be assumed to be homogenous, so that reliance on sub-sets is dangerous. An examination of longer units of text would seem to be advisable before judgements of translation adequacy are based on emotional tone patterns.

The opportunity to consider larger units of French and English text arose as a consequence of an analysis of Saint Julian the Hospitaler (Anderson, 2000), which revealed that automated collection of the primary English emotional tone scores yielded values which agreed closely with those collected using operator disambiguation judgements. Since the two French dictionaries used in the LOGOS system (Anderson and McMaster, 1993) both collect the connotative meaning values by computer alone, processing of a large unit of text in both English and French guises could be undertaken.

It was proposed that the English text scores of evaluation, activity and potency generated by application of the 1000 words Heise dictionary (Heise, 1965) should be compared with the French text scores of emotionality and abstractness obtained with the 398 word Vikis-Freibergs dictionary (Vikis- Freibergs, 1976) and the scores of pleasantness obtained using the 904 nouns in the Messina dictionary (Messina, Moraid and Captaine, 1989). This would be done with word blocks of approximately 100 words, in corresponding units of Saint Julian the Hospitaler, using the French original of Flaubert (1890) and Grimaud's English translation (Berg, Moskos and Grimaud, 1982).

Grimaud's English human translation was assumed to be of the highest quality, so that correlations between corresponding scores would represent as much agreement as the system is able to capture. It was expected that the agreements between English and French patterns resulting from computer translation would be less, and that correlations between non-corresponding dimensions would be less than those between corresponding ones.

The testing of automated scoring in Saint Julian the Hospitaler that has been mentioned had been done with blocks of 100 total words. This division of the text was maintained in the present study with slightly different numbers of total words per block, so that in every case scores were available for 94 blocks. An English computer translation from the French original was made using SYSTRAN, (SYSTRAN, 1999) unloaded from the beyond.com web site. The correlations between these French and English texts were calculated for evaluation, activity and potency (English), emotionality and abstraction (French), and pleasantness (French).

Results and Conclusion

Within the French original the correlation of emotionality and pleasantness was 0.32, statistically significantly different from zero at the level p<.01, df=92, one-tailed. The correlations of these with the English human translation scores of evaluation were 0.20 and 0.18, respectively, p<.05 in both cases.

Other correlations across and between the scores were not statistically significant except that abstractness was negatively related to emotionality at the level -0.32, p<.01, one-tailed. It can be supposed that this is a consequence of some special quality of this fierce text. That may also be the explanation of the negative correlations with potency of all the evaluation corresponding scores. The correlations of potency with evaluation, emotionality and pleasantness were -0.47, -0.18 and -0.28 respectively, all significant at the 0.05 level or better. In this text lower levels of evaluation were accompanied by higher levels of potency, that is, more toughness. The agreements between the critical measures in the French original and the English human translation can be taken as supported by their common association with potency, and considered as revealing a considerable preservation of the emotional tone pattern in the English human translation.

The same correlations were calculated between the English computer translation and the French original. The intercorrelations within the French original were, of course, the same as had been observed before. The correlations of the French original text scores, emotionality and pleasantness, with the English translation scores of evaluation were 0.32 and 0.44 respectively, both significant at the level p<.01, df=92, one-tailed. These are larger values than the corresponding ones obtained before. The correlations of potency with evaluation, emotionality and pleasantness were -0.57, -0.11 and -0.08 respectively. In this case only that of dimensions within the English computer translation reached significance, the level being p<.01, df=92, one- tailed. So here potency correlations did not add evidence for the agreement of emotional tone patterns between the two texts, although the direct comparisons clearly did so. From the evaluation, emotionality and pleasantness agreements it appears that the computer translation had preserved the emotional tone pattern better than the human translation.

The differences in levels of emotional tone pattern agreement are not large, but they do fail to support the hypotheses with which the study was undertaken. The correlations between corresponding emotional tone dimensions was not greater than those with non-corresponding dimensions. The human translation correspondences were not higher than those achieved by computer translation.

If attention is focused on the corresponding dimensions in English and French it should be remembered that these scores were obtained entirely automatically and with separate dictionaries which were independently created using English subjects in the United States, and French subjects in Canada and Belgium. The two French measures correlate substantially with each other, yet they are independent enough that their relations with the English evaluation can both be taken as evidence of pattern similarity on this basic dimension of emotional tone.

These results suggest that a computer translation from French to English can retain the emotional tone of the original as well as a human translation, or better. This should be tested with another long text which has not the bloodthirsty quality of Saint Julian the Hospitaler, both to re-examine the comparative power of the computer translation to preserve emotional tone and to see if some of the large correlations with potency would disappear. The same research pattern should be extended to an examination of the preservation of emotional tone patterns in computer translation from English to French.

References

Anderson, C.W. (2000). Agreement between operator-assisted and fully automated scoring of emotional tone levels. Poster session submitted for the annual convention of the Canadian Psychological Association, Ottawa, ON, June.

Anderson, C.W. and McMaster, GE (1992). Connotation of emotional tone in French and English words and stories. Poster session presented at the annual convention of the Canadian Psychological Association, Quebec City, PQ, June.

Anderson, C.W. and McMaster, G. E. (1993). Pantextual indices of emotional tone. In Nardocchio, E. (Ed.), Reader Response to Literature. NY: Mouton de Gruyter, 35-56.

Anderson, C.W., McMaster, G. E, and Mitchell, T. A. (1987). Computer assisted enhancement of emotional tone accuracy in translated narrative. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 2, 1-6.

Berg, W.J., Moskos, G., and Grimaud, M. (1982). Saint/Oedipus, Psychocritical Approaches to Flaubert's Art. Ithica, NY: Cornell University Press.

Flaubert, G. (1890). ""La L�gende de Saint Julien L'Hospitalier"" from Trois Contes. Paris: G. Charpentier et Cie, Editeurs, Rue de Grenelle, 11, 89-164.

Gurney, P.J. and Gurney, L.W. (1998). Subsets and homogeneity: Authorship attribution in the Scriptores Historiae Augustae. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 13, No 3, 133-140.

Heise, P. R. (1965). Semantic differential profiles for 1000 most frequent English words. Psychological Monographs, 79, whole of 601.

Messina, D., Morais, J., and Contraine, F. (1989). Valeur affective de 904 mots de la langue Fran�aise. European Bulletin of Cognitive Psychology. 9, 2, 165-187.

SYSTRAN Translation Software (1999). AltaVista Connections Translation with SYSTRAN. Available at: http://bablefish.altavista.digital.com/cgi- bin/translate?

Vikis-Freibergs, V. (1976). Abstractness and emotionality values for 398 French words. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 30, 1, 22-30.","txt","2","",""
"102","2","Reality Check: Projects and Prospects in Digital Humanities","8","This paper reports on work in progress and describes the humanities computing community at University of Virginia as a context for thinking and rethinking the premises on which an array of projects are currently conceived. The projects range from personal research to institutional initiatives. They include reflections on the book and text as informed by the dialogue of electronic and traditional forms (the ""metalogic"" of the book and rhetoric of the text from page space to e-space), development of a participatory space for critical practice (Ivanhoe), thoughts towards the foundation of the curriculum in knowledge representation for the MA in Digital Humanities, and the planning process for a Center in Digital Initiatives within a larger complex (a future learning environment with residential, research, and educational facilities). Each instance has been shaped in dialogue with various members of this community -- faculty (Unsworth, McGann, Martin, Ayers, Thomas, Germano, Sullivan, Howard etc.), staff (Pitti, Staples, Ramsay) and students (Nowviskie, Laue, Sanmiguel). The importance of this context and the activity of community exchange is evident in every aspect of these projects.","txt","2","",""
"103","2","What's Interesting for Humanities Computing About Whitman's Poetry Manuscripts?","3","The full title of this session is ""What's Interesting for Humanities
Computing About Whitman's Poetry Manuscripts?"" This panel session,
featuring work of people associated with the Walt Whitman Hypertext
Archive <http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/whitman/>, argues that
editing Whitman poses questions of general interest for computing
humanists.  It would be especially fitting to feature this session on
the great poet of Manhattan and Brooklyn at a conference held in New
York City.

The panel opens with a presentation from one of the foremost Whitman
scholars, Ed Folsom. Folsom was the lead author for a recent
three-year NEH grant earmarked for support of the editing of Whitman's
poetry manuscripts. These fundamentally important documents have never
been transcribed and encoded, and they are scattered at various
libraries. Applying the TEI to manuscripts is something of a
challenge, a topic various participants in this session explore from a
variety of angles.

John Unsworth's talk will discuss how we are attempting to exert
control over this vast project undertaken by dispersed editors.  He
will discuss the use of a PHP/Mysql database to manage the assignment
and collection of manuscript transcriptions, the deployment of an
NT-based, Web-accessible Access database for controlling the unique
identifiers assigned to individual objects within the Whitman archive,
the implementation of the Astoria document management system for the
project, and Astoria's integration with the Epic SGML editing
software.

Alice Rutkowski will discuss her efforts in developing encoding
guidelines suited specifically for Whitman's manuscripts and the
challenges they pose.  She will discuss how Whitman's method of
composition causes both scholarly and technical problems for editors
interested in his manuscripts.

Terry Catapano will discuss his work in developing EAD records for the
Berg collection at the New York Public Library. Catapono is also
exploring with Ken Price the possibility of creating a virtual EAD of
Whitman's poetry manuscripts, a centralized finding aid that would
pull together finding records for all institutions holding Whitman
manuscripts. There is no single finding aid that will allow scholars
to discover where all the manuscripts related to, say, ""Song of
Myself"" can be found. (In fact the manuscripts tied to the gestation
of that poem number close to seventy and can be found at New York
Public Library, Duke University, University of Virginia, the Library
of Congress, and the University of Texas at Austin. This, fortunately,
is an unusually complicated case in the Whitman canon.) By working
cooperatively with many libraries Catapano hopes to help establish
standards through open discussion.


Brett Barney will describe some of the choices he has confronted in
the actual tagging of Whitman's poems. This work has forced an
examination of questions of basic structure and intention in Whitman's
poetry and at the same time illuminated some of the difficulties of
applying and adapting SGML encoding ""best practices"" to those poems,
some of which have enormously complicated genealogies.

Whitman stands as one of the four or five greatest American poets and
his work presents textual questions of extraordinary complexity. These
textual questions can best be addressed via the careful and
sophisticed use of the tools made available by humanities computing.
We look forward to a frank discussion of our victories and defeats
thus far, and will welcome the insights of the audience as we face new
and challenging questions.","txt","2","",""
"104","2","Beyond the Web: TEI and the Ebook Revolution""","1","*Introduction*

From August through November 2000, the Electronic Text Center at the
University of Virginia delivered over a million freely-available
electronic books to patrons in over 100 different countries.  Distributed
in a variety of formats, including .lit, .pdb, and .pdf, these ebooks have
provided proof-of-concept for the adaptive uses of TEI standards beyond
the World Wide Web -- standards that the Electronic Text Center has
employed since its inception in 1992. In this presentation, we will
discuss the mechanics of our ebook production and the conversion workflow
we hope to implement in the near future.  We'll also talk about the user
response to our ebook collection, and the advantages and disadvantages
that different formats offer to scholars and instructors in the
humanities.

For the purposes of this paper, an ebook is defined as an electronic
full-text resource designed to be read on a screen, in something other
than a web browser.  Thus an ebook can be read on a PC, a laptop, a PDA,
or a dedicated reading device, in one or more of the growing number of
available formats and software applications.


*Methods of Ebook Production*

In its first phase of ebook production, the Etext Center repackaged a
portion of its TEI-encoded collection as .lit files for use with the
Microsoft Reader.  Although the Reader is a proprietary piece of software,
it is compliant with the Open E-Book (OEB) format, an XML-based standard
to which TEI data can easily be adapted.  Using simple Perl scripts, we
automated the conversion of over 1,500 existing TEIXLITE files into
extended OEB, which allows most of the original tagging to be preserved
and accommodated with stylesheet instructions.  This conversion gave us a
body of core ebook documents that we could repackage, through the use of a
piece of commercial software, into the Reader format.  Later, with some
simple adjustments to the conversion scripts and the stylesheets, we were
able to output our OEB files to the .pdb format for the Palm system and
the .pdf format for the Adobe Reader.

At the moment all of our ebook files are static objects on the Etext
server.  However, with Xhub, the conversion application described and
proposed by the Scholarly Technology Group at Brown*, in mind, we are
working both to expand the number of formats we can process from SGML/XML
content and to create those formats on-the-fly.  Because the automation
for .lit and Palm systems is already in place and we are about to begin
dynamically transforming SGML/XML to PDF, the public auto-conversion
interface to generate ebooks from TEI data is imminent. Ultimately, we
envision a delivery system where visitors to our website can choose to
view and search our texts through the traditional web interface, or
download them instantly in an ever-growing number of ebook formats.
Patrons will have more control than ever before over the way they access
and use our materials.


*User Response, Statistics, and Feedback*

Like similar TEI-based text repositories, Etext has prided itself on the
usefulness of its encoded data for sophisticated searching and text
analysis.  Traditionally, though, we've considered issues of aesthetics,
design, and interface to be of secondary importance.  Our work with ebooks
represents a new focus on the technologies of reading and how they impact
our patrons. Early analysis of user statistics for our ebooks indicates
that, when users are given the choice between a downloadable MS Reader
version of a text and a web-delivered XML/HTML version, they choose the
former by a margin of about 2 to 1.  As we make additional ebook formats
available from our website, we will conduct careful analysis of usage
patterns, with a particular eye to how format preference varies among
individual titles or content categories. This analysis should prove useful
to academic institutions and commercial publishers alike, as we are
unaware of any substantial analysis of ebook usage patterns that has yet
been published.

*Pedagogical Challenges*

In converting richly-encoded TEI documents to ebook format for classroom
use, we provide students with the advantages of portability and a
user-friendly interface. However, the current ebook platforms limit the
utility of these texts because they are not SGML/XML-aware and do not
support, for example, the kinds of hierarchical searching and analysis
that TEI markup allows.  In our classroom pilot projects, we are therefore
searching for implementation solutions that combine the functionality of
encoded text with the ebook's ease of use.  For example, we are using the
original TEI texts to create stand-alone indices of all materials related
to a particular course. Students can then perform web-based searches that
take advantage of the markup and metadata, but will have the option of
retrieving their results in the ebook format of their choice.

As ebooks provide instructors with more control over the presentation of
classroom materials, we are recognizing the importance of working closely
with them to determine the optimal format for their purposes, as different
formats facilitate different types of scholarship.  For example, raw page
images loaded into a PDF-based ebook reader would have little utility for
a scholar doing linguistic analysis.  For an instructor interested in the
visual impact of book layout and typography, however, this presentation is
preferable to full-text transcription and encoding.  Thus we find that we
can't allow our own standard practices or assumptions about humanities
computing to limit the range of presentation options we offer to our
patrons.  Even within the scope of a single course, a variety of textual
formats may be needed to meet the instructor's pedagogical goals.


*Conclusion*

Since it was established, the Electronic Text Center has maintained its
two-fold mission of building SGML-based content while simultaneously
educating and serving the community that will use this content.  We see
ebook production as an important part of both the research and public
service aspects of our mission.  As methods of delivering content change,
and user expectations change with them, we must adapt to these changes and
incorporate them into our existing workflows.  Furthermore, we hope that
our presence the ebook world will, in some small way, help to foster a
commitment to structured data and open standards in an industry which is
increasingly dominated by big corporations and proprietary interests.

===============================================================
* See
http://www.gca.org/attend/2000_conferences/Extreme_2000/Papers/Mylonas/Mylonas-Mah.html
for a discussion on Xhub that Elli Mylonas and Carole Mah from STG gave at
the Extreme Markup Languages 2000 Conference, Montréal, Canada, Aug.
15-18, 2000.","txt","2","",""
"105","2","Dancing with DALF: Towards a Digital Archive of Letters written by Flemish authors and composers in the 19th and 20th century","1","Correspondences of authors and composers with colleagues, friends, family, journalists, critics, illustrators, musicians, editors, etc. contain an invaluable source of information for the study of the genesis, production, meaning and reception of their work, the reconstruction and a better understanding of the literary or musical contemporary society and mentality in which they lived, worked, loved, and interacted with an audience, and for biographical study. Historical and critical letter editions are the best ways to make such corpora of letters available for a wide(r) audience. Editions of this kind always comprise both the letters written by a given author or composer and those addressed to him or her, guarantee the reliability of the presented text, provide registers e.g. on people and titles, and contain contextualizing essays.

National location registers and union catalogues of manuscript materials are instrumental for the study of the literary and musical heritage in general, and the planning and production of such editions in particular. Up to now such registers have been unexistent in Flanders (Belgium). That's why Flanders missed participation in the by the Council of Europe initiated MALVINE programme (Manuscripts and Letters Via Integrated Networks in Europe - http://www.malvine.org). MALVINE wants to put catalogues of manuscripts and letters of European archives, musea, libraries, and documentation centres on-line by building an electronic network which is independent of heterogeneous technical solutions and cataloguing traditions locally used by the data providers, and which is accessible to the end user from all over the world via low cost personal computers and web technology (Lieder 1999).

Since August 1st 2000, the Centrum voor Teksteditie en Bronnenstudie (CTB - Centre for Textual Criticism and Document Studies), an independent research unit of the Royal Academy of Dutch Language and Literature (Ghent, Belgium), focuses on the study and valorisation of the Flemish literary and musical heritage on the basis of a gradually growing (i.e. project based) inventory of manuscripts and letters written by Flemish authors and composers of the 19th and 20th century. In this context, several letter editions are being prepared for publication. Since the CTB is the centre of expertise in electronic scholarly editing in the Low Countries, these new projects will take place in an electronic paradigm. Therefore, a methodology and an open system architecture must be set up (and agreed on) for the digitization, markup, and presentation in on-line, off-line and hard-copy spin-off products of correspondence material. The main issue is to make the contents of such letter editions available via the integrated approach which is potentially present with the SGML-based on-line catalogue Agrippa of the Archief en Museum voor het Vlaamse Cultuurleven (Archive and Museum of Flemish Cultural life), the central repository of modern manuscript material in Flanders (http://lib.ua.ac.be/AMVC).

The current research-project will result in a Guide to Good Practice which will be normative for every single letter editing project of the CTB, and which will be used by graduate and undergraduate students who prepare (partial) editions as part of their training. This way, the CTB wants to guarantee a permanent compatible input to a gradually growing Digital Archive of Letters written by Flemish authors and composers in the 19th and 20th century (DALF). Further, by making use of TEI-compliant or -based SGML and XML markup schemes for the markup of every single letter transcription, DALF can - under governing copyright legislation - result in an on-line text archive on the WWW, or generate several types of publications.

Taking Scheibe's ""Some Notes on Letter Editions"" (Scheibe 1988) as a starting point for an analysis of the kinds of materials to expect for inclusion in DALF, and my remarks concerning the problematic use of TEI for the markup of letters (Vanhoutte 1999), this paper will discuss the several approaches to the creation of letter editions currently being undertaken by different projects, and will confront them with the international theoretical differences which exist in the three main schools of scholarly editing: the German, French, and Anglo-American schools. From this the paper will draw a possible typology, and will conclude with a critical evaluation of the strenghts and weaknesses of the TEI guidelines for encoding manuscript letters.

References

Lieder, Hans-Jörg (1999). ""MALVINE — A Future Gateway to Manuscripts on the Internet."" editio. International Yearbook of Scholarly Editing, 13, 215-222.

Scheibe, Siegfried (1988). ""Some Notes on Letter Editions: With Special Reference to German Writers."" Studies in Bibliography, 41, 136-148.

Vanhoutte, Edward (1999). Ruling the Screen: compromising decisions and decisive compromises. Paper. DRH 99 (Digital Resources for the Humanities), London (UK): King's College London, 14 september 1999.","txt","2","",""
"106","2","Introducting Phelix: an open XML database system","1","At least one of the factors underlying the current success of XML is
its claim to subvert the traditional opposition between text and
database. XML systems, the claim goes, can combine the flexibility of
unstructured text retrieval with the discipline of a closely
structured database. This tension is pervasive in the humanities, but
one application area where it seems of particular relevance is that of
detailed descriptive bibliography. Traditional bibliographic systems
are good at enforcing consistent cataloguing practices, but the
form-filling ethos they exemplify is often at variance with the more
discursive practices which characterize the description of
manuscripts, incunabula, and cultural artefacts in general. Whatever
standards may be promulgated in these areas, individual scholars and
curators will continue to require the ability to wax lyrical on
unpredictable aspects of the objects in their care. All too often
unsympathetic systems designers have either forced scholarship into
the procrustean bed of a rigid record structure or simply abandoned
any attempt to reflect the logical structure of a well written
description in its encoding. 

In Phelix we have tried to get the best of both worlds, by supporting
any XML-defined structure in a traditional relational database. Our
testbed, and the major motivation behind the development of the
system, has been the requirements of the EU-funded Master project, but
Phelix is not limited to this application, and our presentation of it
will therefore focus on the general principles underlying our
architecture rather than the details of its implementation.


1. The MASTER project

MASTER (Manuscript Access through Standards for Electronic records) is
a 3 year project funded by the European Libraries Programme, the goal
of which is the definition of a standard for the representation of the
structure of manuscript catalogue records, together with pilot
implemntations of systems using that standard. The project is led by
the CTA at DMU, and its partners include the Royal Library of the
Netherlands, the Arnamaeghnaen Institute in Copenhagen, the IRHT in
Paris, and the Czech National Library in Prague. Our presentation will
not spend much time rehearsing the project's goals, deliverables, and
methods, as these have been presented at previous ALLC-ACH and DRH
conferences; for details consult the website at
http://www.cta.dmu.ac.uk/projects/master or the overview article cited
below (Robinson et al, 1999). The key points we wish to emphasize are:

- the distributed nature of the project (several different
  institutions with very different traditions and conventions)

- a consequent emphasis on multiple solutions converging on flexible
  standards in an open architecture

- the need to deliver demonstrable results within a short time scale

2. The MASTER DTD

We will only briefly review the key features of the document type
definition (DTD) developed for the Master project. This DTD, cast as a
set of extensions of the TEI scheme, supports records which vary
greatly in their complexity and level of detail. It can be used both
as the target for output from legacy systems and as a template for the
origination of new data: we will discuss the experiences of project
participants with respect to both modes of operation, and briefly
characterize the different software systems developed to support their
creation and validation of data for the Master database. 

The Master DTD is usually thought of as a means of defining the
structure of a manuscript description, either as a free standing
document (or as a free standing collection of such documents), It can
however be used to define such a description within the context of a
full TEI document, such as a complete electronic version of a
manuscript, combining digital images, a transcription, and a
description of it. This is achieved by redefining the TEI <sourceDesc>
element to include a new metadata element <msDescription>, which is
also added to the existing TEI ""chunk"" Class (see Sperberg-McQueen and
Burnard 1994)

In practice, even an apparently free standing collection of
<msDescription>s will typically need to be embedded in a larger TEI
conformant framework if the application is to support such important
features as authority checking for language codes, validation of
bibliographic records, or references to persons and places. Not the
least advantage of having developed the Master scheme in a TEI context
is the availability of predefined schemes for these and other
requirements.

3. Software to support the system

From the start of the project it was clear that different partners
would use different tools. At the Arnamaegnean Institute in Copenhagen,
one team lead by Matthew Driscoll customized a cheap ASCII editor to
generate XML and validate records. At the IRHT in Paris, the team led
by Muriel Gougerot and Elizabeth Lalou produced a customised version
of Microsoft Access which allowed forms-based entry of Master
conformant records. In Oxford and elsewhere experiments were made
using specialist software like Xmetal. And in the Netherlands and
Prague, software was customised to export records from pre-existing
relational databases in XML format. As of summer 2000, the Master
project had several hundred records each ranging in size from a few
hundred bytes to nearly a megabyte of XML data.

Our original project plan called for implementation of two independent
systems to manage all this data, one at De Montfort, and the other at
Oxford, as a means of demonstrating the system independence of the
project standards. This presentation will focus on the work we carried
out at Oxford rather than the more ambitious electronic publishing
system still being developed at De Montfort.

4. The Phelix Architecture

Our goal was to create an open system, which could be given away in
source form under the terms of the GNU licence, which would make full
use of the information encoded in the XML markup of our documents,
which would not be tied to any particular DTD or application area,
which would be relatively easy to use, and which could support a large
scale collaborative project like Master. The system would not directly
support creation or editing of XML data (the project had already found
no shortage of tools for that purpose), but instead would focus on the
storage, search, retrieval, and display of records held in a central
database, accessible over the web.

The key problem to be solved was how we could combine the proven
advantages of database technologies with the equally well-proven
advantages of XML as a data format. We think our solution is
relatively unusual in that, though we do not claim any particular
originality in its design, we know of no other comparably thorough
implementation.

An XML document is, as every schoolboy and girl now knows, a
serialised tree, in which the terminal nodes are document fragments,
and in which nodes can be decorated at any level with additional
attribute value pairs. Our approach is to represent each node as a row
in a relational database management system (RDBMS). Columns in each
row contain pointers (or keys) to the root element, to siblings of the
current element, and to its children, or (if it is a terminal) simply
contain data. We have very few tables in our database, since we do not
attempt to represent the semantics of the tree (i.e. what the
different node types mean or how they relate to each other) -- that
would simply duplicate information already present in the XML
rendition of the data. We rely heavily on the efficiency with which
modern database systems support key-based access to individual rows
and columns in the table -- but that is what such systems are designed
to optimize.

The user loads data into the table by submitting a single XML
document, or a collection of them via a web-based forms
interface. Each document is then parsed against the project DTD and
(if valid) decomposed from its tree representation into a set of rows
which are then stored in the RDBMS. Queries against the database,
expressed in XML terms, are internally translated into SQL queries and
the results returned are internally translated to XML document
fragments, which are returned to the interface. We use XSLT to control
all XML transformations: this means, for example, that the user can
specify not only which XML elements from a document are to be returned
and in what order but also how they should be rendered by the HTML
browser or other interface client.

The current implementation uses a freely available RDBMS called mySQL
(but could equally well use say PostGres or Oracle); XSLT
transformations are done using the Sablotron processor (but could
equally well use say XT or Saxon); the scripting language holding the
system together is PHP (but could equally well be ASP or Java).

The user interface we have developed uses an internet shopping
metaphor: it presents the virtual library as a customisable
supermarket, in which the user can reconfigure the arrangement of
goods on the shelf (for example by sorting manuscripts by their
centiury of production or country of origin), making an initial
selection of items of particular interest for inclusion in a ""basket"",
against which further research can be carried out. Facilities
permitting, we will be happy to give a live demonstration of the
system, either during the session or after it.

3. Conclusions

We have developed a general purpose TEI-compatible XML database system
using freely available public domain tools. The system is configured
to support a complex XML DTD and offers sophisticated searching and
retrieval facilities. It is currently being tested on a
collaboratively designed database of several hundred manuscript
descriptions. We expect the system to have many further applications,
and hope to discuss some of them with attendees at the conference.

Bibliography

Robinson, P., Burnard, L., Lalou, E. ""Vers un standard europeen de
description des manuscrits: le project Master"" In Andre, Jacques, and
Marie-Anne Chabin (eds): Les documents anciens. ""Document Numerique""
Vol 3, nos 1-2, June 1999.  Paris: Hermes Science Publications, 1999

Sperberg-McQueen, C.M., Burnard, L. ""Guidelines for Electronic Text
Encoding and Interchange"" ACH-ALLC-ACL Text Encoding Initiative,
Chicago and Oxford, 1994.","txt","2","",""
"107","2","International Strategic & Policy Issues in Networking Digital Resources in the Humanities","3","Introduction
 
This session will engage the audience in a discussion of strategic issues for implementing an integrated digital environment for the humanities. While emphasizing the overview or big picture of developments as a whole, the session will be keyed to specific initiatives as examples for envisioning the future. A key component to each of the presentations will be the international extensibility of models, strategies and practices.
 
The essential challenge for all of those engaged in networking cultural heritage is to create a system that is deeply useful through the integration and management of multiple approaches and rich divergence across a very broad sector, while creating a network in which “intellectual needs shape technical solutions.”
 
The National Initiative for a Networked Cultural Heritage (NINCH) is a diverse coalition of over 90 organizations--based in the United States although with international membership--created to assure leadership from the cultural community in the evolution of the digital environment. Over the last 5 years, NINCH has established a large body of work in support of this goal, including initiatives in the following areas:
 
*          Educating policymakers, the cultural community and the public about the critical importance of translating the vision of a connected, distributed and accessible collection of cultural knowledge into a working reality;
*          Creating a platform for the community to collaborate in sharing our ideas, resources, experience and research, learning from each other in order to advance the goal of an integrated, distributed body of cultural material accessible to all; and
*          Providing a framework to develop and advance projects, programs and partnerships to benefit the cultural community.
 
NINCH has identified many challenges and opportunities facing institutions involved in creating a network of cultural heritage organizations for the digital age. Museums, libraries, archives, academic institutions and organizations representing the arts in all media are all involved in developing strategies that will help create a sustainable, long-term digital infrastructure.
 
Panelists in this session will represent organizations that have worked with NINCH in pursuit of this goal, and who will share their experience in developing common goals and achievements and identifying strategies for museums, archives, libraries and academic institutions. This session is co-sponsored by NINCH and NYU.  NYU as an organization has worked closely with NINCH on a number of initiatives over the last 4 years, and this session will examine ways that working collaboratively with NINCH has facilitated the integration of technology in the Humanities at NYU.
 
There are many interconnected factors to be included in any strategic plan for creating an integrated digital environment for the humanities. We indeed to address the following issues during this presentation:
 
1. Advocacy & Public Policy/An Introduction to NINCH: the First Five Years
Speaker: David Green, Executive Director, NINCH
An overview of strategies developed to date for engaging a very broad community with different perspectives and work practices in developing a common agenda. How is this extensible internationally? What are the public policy issues here, for one country and across countries, and how important are they? Which advocacy tools are needed to educate funders and others about our needs? What examples are there for gathering and presenting best examples of our collective work to date?
 
2. New Operating/Business Models
Speaker: Stan Katz, Princeton
Research, development and implementation of necessary institutional change is crucial, but how do we best do it, from implementing new technology infrastructure to developing new roles and new operating/business models across universities, libraries, archives, museums and arts and media centers?
This presentation will refer to a joint inititative developed by NINCH and CLIR to address some of these challenges facing organizations, and an exploration of the strategies they need to develop in order to create, use and share long term, sustainable digital resources
 
3. Computer Science and the Humanities
Speaker: Chuck Henry, Rice University
Developing with computer and information scientists radically new kinds of tools and environments for and by scholars, teachers, curators and artists that respond to their needs and ways of working. Humanists need to take the lead in ensuring that “intellectual needs shape technical solutions.”
This presentation will be an overview of the NINCH project to determine what the humanities should be doing to take a more activist and thoughtful role in using and creating computing technology. This work would ultimately be able to contribute to the creation of what might be called an ""Humanities Informatics,"" a study of how the humanities create and use knowledge, that could itself be part of a needed study of the broader history, philosophy and sociology of the arts and humanities, which, unlike the sciences, it has never had.","txt","2","",""
"108","2","Image Retrieval Knowledge and Art History Curriculum in the Digital Age","1","Images are used intensively in the field of art history.  In a typical art history class, an instructor presents slides to students and they discuss the historical features of the slides.  Instructors get slides from a departmental slide library and students go to the library to find related images from reference materials, journals or monographs.  But computing technology is changing this scenario. Many museums and galleries digitize their collections and mount their digital images online.  With these digital resources, researchers, educators and students in the art history field can retrieve images from collections around the world.   However, these image resources apply different image management schema to control their digital collections and users have to acquire new knowledge to use these image resources. Before retrieving images, a user needs to know how to find appropriate images from different resources by using different skills and strategies.  The new knowledge and skills of using digital image management systems have not been studied comprehensively. 
            Two major indexing approaches--concept-based and content-based--exist in the image retrieval field (Rasmussen, 1997; Chen & Rasmussen, 1999). Many previous studies on art image retrieval focused exclusively on the concept-based approach (Besser, 1990, 1991; Enser, 1995; Enser & McGregor, 1992; Hastings, 1995a, 1995b; Layne, 1994; Markey, 1984, 1988; Petersen, 1990; Tibbo, 1994; Walker & Thoma, 1990; Zheng, 1999). Investigators from the computing technology community are interested in using a variety of approaches with algorithms and artificial intelligence techniques to index and retrieve images (Cawkell, 1994; Chang, 1989; Chang, et al., 1997; Faloutsos et al., 1994; Ma & Manjanath, 1999).
            New technologies have placed the emphasis on automatic image indexing and content-based retrieval, although it is not clear how the retrieval functionality found in these systems correlates with image information needs of real users. The use of image retrieval systems varies in different fields since users have their own specific information-seeking behavior, and need unique features designed for their tasks.  A user-centered study can provide in-depth understanding of the user's information needs and his/her cognitive abilities.  The understanding can be applied to design better user training, tutorials and system functions.  In order to develop such understanding this project studied the user's image retrieval behavior and addressed implications for the curriculum design of the art history field.
This study investigates end-users' image queries by comparing the features of the queries to those identified in previous studies proposed by Enser and McGregor (1992), Jorgensen (1995) and Fidel (1997) in order to discover the utility of these existing features for the art history field and identify any expansions or new features.  It also examines relationships between user search tasks and image query modes.      Enser and McGregor's categories of Unique and Non-unique, and Jorgensen's classes of Location, Literal Object, Art Historical Information, People and People-related Attributes received high degrees of matching by three reviewers. This finding can be applied to add more details to Enser and McGregor's four categories (Unique, Non-unique, Unique with refiners, and Non-unique with refiners) and to re-group Jorgensen's 12 classes of image attributes. 
            This study also found several significant relationships between the participants' retrieval tasks and query modes.  The participants who used fewer keywords from their topic title and topic description had a larger number of keywords or phrases they planned to use.  A significant difference was found between the mean of the search keywords or phrases participants planned to use and the mean of the search keywords or phrases they actually used.  Pearson correlation coefficients also found a significant difference between the describing task and the number of search keywords or phrases participants actually used.  The participants who submitted a higher number of keywords or phrases they planned to use were able to draw more pictures representing their topic title and the participants who had a greater number of keywords or phrases actually used also generated a larger number of post-search drawings.  A significant relationship was found between the level of success for the search results and the percentage of search keywords or phrases participants planned to use drawn from the topic title or topic description. A significant relationship was also found between the level of success and the number of keywords or phrases participants planned to use.  Implications for curriculum design in the art history field, library instruction, image indexing tools and image retrieval system design are proposed.
 
References:
Besser, H. (1990). Visual access to visual images: The UC Berkeley image experience with electronic databases project. Library Trends, 38(4), 787-789.
Besser, H. (1991). Imaging: Fine arts. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 42(8), 589-596.
Cawkell, A. E. (1994). A guide to image processing and picture management. Aldershot, Hampshire (UK): Gower Publishing Limited.
Chang, S. K. (1989). Principles of pictorial information systems design.  Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Chang, S., Smith, J. R., Beigi, M., & Benitez, A. (1997). Visual information retrieval from large distributed online repositories. Communications of the ACM, (40)12, 63-71.
Chen, H., & Rasmussen, R. (1999). Intellectual access to images. Library Trends 48(2), 291-302.
Enser, P.G.B. (1995). Progress in documentation pictorial information retrieval. Journal of Documentation, 51(2), 126-170.
Enser, P.G.B., & McGregor, C.G. (1992). Analysis of visual information retrieval queries.  Report on Project G16412 to the British Library Research and Development Department. London: British Library.
Faloutsos, C., Barber, R., Flickner, M., Hafner, J., Niblack, W., Petkovic, D., & Equitz, M. (1994). Efficient and effective querying by image content. Journal of Intelligent Information Systems, 3, 231-262.
Fidel, R. (1997). The image retrieval task: Implications for the design and evaluation of image databases. The New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia, 3, 181-199.
Garber, S. R., & Grunes, M. B. (1992). The art of search: A study of art directors. CHI Human Factors in Computing Systems, 157-163.
Hastings, S. K. (1995a). An exploratory study of intellectual access to digitized art images. Proceedings of the 16th National Online Meeting, 177-185.
Hastings, S. K. (1995b). Query categories in a study of intellectual access to digitized art images. Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the American Society for Information Science, October 9-12, 1995, Chicago, IL.  Medford, NJ:  ASIS.  3-8.
Jorgensen, C. (1995). Image attributes: An investigation (Indexing systems, retrieval systems, computerized). Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Syracuse University.
Layne, S. S. (1994). Some issues in the indexing of images. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 45(8), 583-588.
Ma, W. & Manjanath, B. (1998). Netra: A toolbox for navigating large image databases. Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Image Processing (ICIP97), 1, 568-571.
Markey, K. (1984). Interindexer consistency tests: A literature review and report of a test of consistency in indexing visual materials. Library & Information Science Research, 6(2), 155-177.
Markey, K. (1988). Access to iconographical research collections. Library Trends, 37(2), 154-174.
Petersen, T. (1990). Developing a new thesaurus for art and architecture. Library Trends, 38(4), 644-658.
Rasmussen, E. M.  (1997). Indexing images.  Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, 32, 169-196.
Tibbo, H. R. (1994). Indexing for the humanities. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 45(8), 607-619.
Walker, F. L., & Thomas, G. R. (1990). Access techniques for document image experience with electronic Experience with electronic databases. Library Trends, 38(4), 751-786.
Zheng, M. (1999). Metadata elements for object description and representation: A case report from a digitized historical fashion collection project. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50(13), 1193-1208.","txt","2","",""
"109","2","Mimetic Metadata: Linguistic Representations of Visual Objects in Image-Based Electronic Projects","1","Following a largely formalistic presentation on image description at 
ACH-ALLC 2000, the author of that paper was pressed during the Q&A session 
to talk at more length about the exact function of the descriptions at the 
William Blake Archive.  Though clearly operating within the same semantic
field as the Archive's indexing terms, the descriptions are, nonetheless, 
distinct from them and, moreover, beg the question of why we need their 
second-order mimesis at all given the availability of the digital images, 
expertly edited by Joseph Viscomi.  Theoretically at least the search 
vocabulary could function perfectly well without them, and certainly the pride
of place high-quality digital facsimiles have in the WBA makes obsolete the 
need for a prose description that functions as a surrogate for an absent image, in
much the way that descriptive catalogue raisonne entries did prior to
widespread photomechanical reproduction.  Divested of any immediately
obvious praxis, then, the descriptions might understandably be construed as
an expendable stratum within the Archive's editorial matrix.  Although
contestable in a variety of ways (see, for example, last year's ACH-ALLC
abstract for ""Image Description at the William Blake Archive""), the
perception of redundancy and lingering doubts about the usefulness of image
description deserve further consideration, all the more so given the
increasing visibility of descriptive metadata in a growing number of
electronic visual resource collections.

Taking the question of function to heart, I propose this year to open a
window onto the more expansive vista of what I'll call _mimetic metadata_ as
it is practiced across multiple image-based electronic projects.  Surveying
the metadata scene, one is struck by the relative lack of trenchant
theoretical scholarship addressing this category of image information. 
Among other things it quickly becomes clear that the problem of defining the
relationship between descriptive and more strictly classificatory categories
of information is endemic to the rapidly expanding field of computerized
image indexing.  In its recently published guidelines on the topic, for
example, the Digital Imaging Group (comprised of representatives from Kodak,
Canon, Hewlett-Packard, and Fuji, among a host of others) had this to say:
""once an image is retrieved, some data that describes the image but is not
useful when searching may be included.  For example--'Craig is the guy
asleep on the lounge' is not all that useful when searching, but is useful
when describing the content.""  Now it is not my intention to impugn the
recommendations set forth in this ambitious document (a milestone
achievement that attempts to establish much-needed jurisdiction over the
largely makeshift world of metadata production; its discussion on image
capture metadata, for example, is admirably comprehensive and
authoritative), but the tautology underlying this quotation (keywords in
first sentence: ""describes . . . useful . . . searching""; keywords in second
sentence: ""useful . . . searching . . . describing"") does little to help
clarify the nature of the interface between these respective data fields.  

Consider another example furnished by the Visual Resource Association's
recently published inventory of subject classification systems for image
collections: its author, Colum Hourihane, profiles controlled vocabularies
in considerable detail (e.g., primary, secondary, and tertiary indexing
levels; thesaurus formats; cross-referencing capabilities, etc.), but
generally appends little more than a brief mention of whether or not
free-text constitutes part of the individual systems under consideration. 
Consequently he glosses over the crucial question of how the prose
descriptions work in conjunction with the classificatory vocabulary, taking
recourse in the ambiguous terms ""supports"" and ""accompanies"" to suggest how
the one data type relates to the other.  Largely through perfunctory
treatment, then, both the VRA inventory and the Digital Imaging Group's
guidelines tend to relegate description to an ill-defined secondary status
(and this despite its strong showing in the systems under review), with
controlled vocabulary more clearly identified as the metadata workhorse. 

The foregoing examples suggest that while controlled vocabularies are a
favorite talking point among information managers, the free-text
descriptions that often accompany visual objects in a database haven't
always benefited from the same level or caliber of discussion.   The
burden is on us to more ably address these issues in the interest of
advancing the art and science of metadata.  What do humanists want to do
with mimetic metadata?  What do information managers want to do with it? 
What do we want the computer to do with it?  In a presentation of this
length, where it is necessary to forego comprehensiveness in favor of
suggestiveness, my objective is to lay the groundwork for a lengthier study
in four main areas: 

1.  Definition: I'll provide an extended statement about what mimetic
metadata is and isn't, briefly describe how it fits into the superordinate
class of metadata known as free-text, and illustrate the definition with
examples.  I propose the term ""mimetic metadata"" to designate a particular
class of so-called ""added-value"" information frequently attached to images
in digitized collections.  Specifically, mimetic metadata refers to finely
grained free-text representations of visual objects--what I have elsewhere
more generically labeled ""image description.""  The coinage consequently
excludes what W. J. T. Mitchell would call metapictures, i.e., pictures
about pictures (for example, image representations that occupy a curious
middle ground between mimetic and non-mimetic, such as Blobworld's
representations, developed within the framework of content-based search and
retrieval technology) in the interest of a narrower definition that
establishes an intermodal relationship between the primary and secondary
objects, between the visual data and its verbal metadata.  Mimetic metadata
is a linguistic imitation of a pictorial work.  As such, it participates in
the long tradition of ekphrasis--a poetic description of a work of art--and
indeed it is one objective of this paper (see below) to historicize the
practice of mimetic metadata, which has fared more or less indifferently in
the library science and art historical literature to date despite its
growing visibility in digital resource collections, including the William
Blake Archive, the Perseus Project, and various image databases being
developed under the tutelage of ICONCLASS evangelist Hans Brandhorst.  

2.  Function: I'll suggest how mimetic metadata might be deployed in the
research of two scholarly prototypes: the iconographer and the textual
critic.

3.  History: I'll point to the catalogue raisonne as a venerable art
historical genre whose traditions of image description merit our sustained
attention, instruct us about past uses and future possibilities of mimetic
metadata, and lend continuity and historical weight to present efforts.

4.  Futurity: I'll outline (necessarily cursorily) a speculative
interdisciplinary program that brings iconicity of syntax and the mapping of
visual performance to bear on the way we currently create and think about
mimetic metadata.  Though it has
become de rigueur for a scholar working in image/word studies to
invoke the ineluctable gap between the sister arts (Magritte's famous _ceci
n'est pas une pipe_ often serves as a favorite rallying point), new media,
technologies, and disciplinary emphases are challenging this pervasive
assumption in ways that are relevant to the future of mimetic metadata.  The
new SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) image format, for example, illustrates
that images can be generated precisely and accurately from linguistic code. 
Taking as my presupposition, then, a greater
degree of congruity between image and word than is perhaps customarily
assumed, I will conclude by looking at the possibilities of maximizing the
iconic (or non-arbitrary) relations that obtain between referent and code--
or in this case between visual object and its linguistic representation.  

References

Crane, Gregory, ed.  The Perseus Digital Library. 
<http://perseus.tufts.edu>.

The Digital Imaging Group.  DIG35 Specification: Metadata for Digital
Images.  Version 1.0.  August 2000. 
<http://members.digitalimaging.org/dls/dig35v1.0-Sept00.pdf>.

Eaves, Morris, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi, eds.  The William Blake
Archive.  <http://www.blakearchive.org>.

Hourihane, Colum.  Subject Classification for Visual Collections: An
Inventory of Some of the Principal Systems Applied to Content Description in
Images.  Columbus: Visual Resources Association, 1999.

Kraus, Kari.  ""Image Description at the William Blake Archive""  ACH-ALLC
2000.  University of Glasgow, Scotland.  22 July 2000. 
<http://www.nyu.edu/its/humanities/ach_allc2001/>.","txt","2","",""
"110","2","Digital Pedagogy in Film and Media Studies","1","Since 1998, the British Film Institute has pioneered the use of online technology in an educational context. In partnership with the British Universities' Film and Video Council, the bfi conducted a pilot project distributing high quality streaming (MPEG-1) video to students and lecturers in the Universities of Glasgow and Glamorgan in 1998-99, for the purposes of research and integration into teaching programmes. Since 1999, the bfi's own Online project has offered a range of materials in digital form, including some 35 hours of near-VHS quality MPEG-1 video, scripts, film stills, posters and publicity materials, recorded audio interviews. In early 2001, the bfi will begin a new pilot, introducing the service into selected specialist schools and Media Arts Colleges throughout the UK. In a parallel project launched recently in Belfast, the Northern Ireland Film Commission, with support from the bfi and a grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund, has developed a Digital Film Archive featuring around fifty hours of digital video representing Northern Ireland's cultural, political and social history, which will be made available at six locations across the province. In the longer term, the bfi is joining forces with other organisations, including the newsreel archive British Pathe, in a plan to develop a sizeable online film and television archive which will be made accessible free to schools and libraries throughout the UK.

Such initiatives represent a new and potentially powerful educational resource, with implications for formal pedagogy, lifelong learning and academic research. But while the technology in itself is undoubtedly seductive, there are a number of important lessons to be learnt if it is to fulfil its potential in the classroom, lecture theatre or library. The use of moving images alone is not especially innovative. Film and video have long been a part of the pedagogical toolbox - digital delivery may have identifiable advantages over traditional media - ease of access, sharing resources between multiple users, low storage costs etc., but it is hardly revolutionary. The real advantage of new media in pedagogy is the ability to develop rich media resources, integrating moving images, audio, still images and text into a whole which is greater than the sum of its parts. For example, through a range of materials developed around Hitchcock's 1929 Blackmail (widely credited as the first British 'talkie'), we are able raise important questions on the aesthetic shift initiated by the arrival of sound to cinema, demonstrating this by enabling students to watch parallel video clips of the film in both its silent and sound versions, while a mouse click can take them to a detailed article by a leading film academic comparing the two versions. Elsewhere a series of contemporary reviews from newspapers and journals allows users to judge the film's reception. Real care needs to be devoted to contextualising moving image materials in order best to harness their value in an educational environment.

So far, projects such as those identified above have necessarily been limited to closed networks and selected clients. Is the internet the next step? There are two problems here. First, the slow rollout of broadband provision. The broadband 'revolution' is considerably more advanced in the US than in the UK and Europe. It has already been several years since ADSL technology was first proposed as a way of getting new life from old copper wires: bandwidth of 2 Megabits per second (equivalent to around 40 times that available using a standard 56Kbps modem) should be possible with ADSL connections. But the technology has been slow to roll out, and most users still access the internet with a standard modem, which makes the delivery of anything other than highly-compressed, postage stamp-sized video a challenge. Moreover, many doubt that ADSL is anything more than a small step on the way to true broadband provision, which remains some way off. Few would deny, however, that broadband will transform the internet within the next five years.

The most important obstacle to internet provision of pedagogical material based around high quality moving images is the increasingly crucial issue of intellectual property rights. The notoriety surrounding the proliferation of mp3 files, and particularly the phenomenon of Napster and similar internet services like Gnutella and Scour, which allow users to exchange music and other files freely over the net, has terrified rights holders, with broadcasters and film studios very aware that the experience of the music industry now might be theirs in the approaching future. The result of such anxiety is that rights holders, with some exceptions, such as British Pathé, which has already begun the process of making its entire archive available online, are likely to shy off allowing material to appear on the net until they are convinced that pirates can be kept at bay.

This paper will draw upon the lessons of more than three years experience of digital pedagogy, chiefly, but not exclusively, in the field of film and media studies, identifying the major issues faced in taking film and media studies into the digital age and using the results of real applications of new technology to explore both the benefits and the pitfalls of such exercises.","txt","2","",""
"111","2","Building flexible language-learning systems: Perl and HTML vs. XML and XSL","1","The Humanities Computing Development Team at the University of Oxford has
recently (1999-2000) worked on the specification and development of two
new systems to aid and support language-learning. Each project provides a
different style and level of functionality, and uses new technologies such
as XML and Java to provide functionality for both end-users and systems
administrators that is not available in other language-learning software
and is, we believe, highly transferable to other similar projects. 

This abstract provides an overview of the technical development of each
system with the intention of providing this information to conference
participants in advance of the session.The conference paper will briefly
present the different development strategies taken in each case to best
balance the needs of the academic project partners, and the target
end-users, with the technologies that are currently available. We will
then focus the majority of the paper upon an evaluation of the success of
each project in developing a complex, interactive system where the content
can be chosen and administered by non-expert users.

Centre for Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language CD-ROM and web site
(version II)

The Centre for Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language at the University of
Oxford is leading a three-year project to develop IT-based learning
materials for Mandarin Chinese language with a strong cultural
element. Since 1998 the HCDT has worked with the CTCFL to develop a web
site and most recently a CD-ROM that provides twenty-two consecutive
lessons in basic grammar, vocabulary, character-drawing, and listening
comprehension. The way users interact with the system, and are led by it,
has been designed with close attention to pedagogic needs, incorporating a
variety of media. The software gives the user control over the choice of
exercises that they wish to explore and in which order, control over the
audio and video clips that can be played, and a higher level of learning
and self-testing through interactive Chinese character-drawing, and
exercises on specific language points.

The software uses a number of different technologies including Java,
Javascript and Perl. One of the key issues during the development of the
system was that the content for each lesson would be added incrementally
and by a number of different members of the project team with varying
amounts of IT experience, and that the layout and functionality of the
lessons should be completely standard. For this reason, we decided to
develop a set of administration interfaces linked to templates that would
allow the project team to add, edit and remove content to and from a
development server which was geographically remote from them. It also gave
us the opportunity to standardise the content that was provided for each
section of the site and to ensure that all the information needed was
supplied at each stage, something that is notoriously difficult when
editing and managing a large publication with a diverse team. These
administration interfaces proved to be extremely valuable to the
completion of content for this version of the web site.

We decided that we also wished to create a CD-ROM version of the web site
to allow remote users easier and cheaper access to the materials,
something that is particularly important because of the numerous video
clips and images that are used through the site. The requirement to
develop a CD-ROM version had not been taken into consideration during the
development of the first version of the web site and, in fact, conflicted
in many ways with the 'content independent' approach that we had taken to
the development of the lessons. To give a concrete example, the templates
and administration sections separated the content from the system and then
re-integrated the content on-demand for the user with Perl scripts, adding
some Javascript to give additional interactivity. When we planned the
production of the CD-ROM it was clear that the method used to build the
user interface would not work without a web server to run the Perl
scripts, and that some of the more complex functions that used Java would
not work properly 'off-line'. An achievable timescale was set for the
re-programming of the system to also include some design changes, and to
add some additional support materials to the CD-ROM version. The system
that has now been developed will now allow the systems administrator to
create a CD-ROM output of the site, and to have control over certain
parameters during this process. Ultimately, this additional administration
interface will allow the administrator to create a new, static version of
the web site that will be easy to use and maintain, and have less server
load. This re-development will be completed in December 2000 and the
CD-ROM distributed in early 2001.

Interactive Aural Comprehension Materials using XML

The Faculty of Modern and Medieval Languages at the University of Oxford
teaches a wide range of languages through traditional face-to-face
contact. Students are encouraged to make use of computer-based language
and literature programs for private study and personal research, but this
usage is rarely built in to the teaching program. In 1999 the Faculty
decided to initiate a faculty-wide project to develop a web-based system
to help undergraduates prepare for their final aural comprehension
examinations. The aim of the project was to build a system that would
allow the student to have 'virtual' experience of the examination
situation through a close replication of that experience, but to also give
the student access to 'practice' sessions where she / he could control the
flow of information to suit their own requirements. An essential
requirement of the system to be chosen was that it should be easily
updated and expanded whenever required, and that new sets of exercises
should be added for all languages over a period of time. Ideally, the
system should also be easily updated by a non-expert user through a series
of web forms or, as a minimum, through the use of a standard template to
capture the information.

In the first phase of the project (1999-2000) we decided to focus upon
audio files and not yet consider video files, as this would create more
complexity for capture of the video data. We did however decide to build
in functionality so that video could be easily added in the future if
required. One of the most challenging requirements for the design of the
user interface was that the audio files should be linked to specific
sections of the text of about two or three lines in length. To manually
break up each file into the requisite number of sections and then encode
the links to each section would be time-consuming and
error-prone. Instead, we decided to investigate the ability of
Synchronised Multimedia Integration Language (the XML standard for
encoding multimedia materials) to synchronise the text with specific parts
of the audio files (Groves, 2000). Our research led us to believe that
SMIL could deliver what was required and we proceeded to develop mock-ups
of the user interface using Javascript to control embedded RealMedia
controls, and HTML, with some Perl used to capture, store and retrieve
user responses to the questions. These interfaces were used to generate
some user feedback and to make improvements to the user interface, for
example to give the user added guidance to the process that they should
follow by using prompt screens between each stage of the exercise.

When the user interface had been agreed we could then develop the dynamic
system for storing the data in a non-proprietary format, and allowing the
systems administrators to easily add new sets of exercises without needed
to re-program the system. We decided to use XML to store the standard sets
of data, and the SMIL timings, and constructed (with advice from Lou
Burnard) a suitable Document Type Description to record the information to
be stored for each exercise-set. A separate part of the system was used to
temporarily store and pass on the user responses to the questions in each
exercise, and allow them to print or email their answers together with the
model answers; this is processed on the server using Sablotron and
Perl. XSL and Saxon are used to dynamically create the exercises and store
them on the server as new exercises were added, to build the contents
pages, and to integrate the content for each exercise with the set of
standard templates (including the SMIL controlled RealAudio files) and
output static HTML files to the web server. The end-user therefore has
access to a stored HTML version of the site rather than the server
generating the pages 'live' on-demand, something which saves on processing
time and server load, as well as providing a back-up. 

The systems administration interface was more complex to implement and we
finally decided to require the administrator to use a standard XML
template to add new text content. Standard audio manipulation tools (Real
Products) were used to create and record the audio files. This section of
the site will be completed in November 2000.

Compare and contrast

The most substantial section of the paper will compare and contrast the
success of each system. As we have seen, the two projects began with a
quite different target audience and brief, yet both had many common
requirements for high levels of interactivity for the end-user, and the
simple addition (or revision) of the content of the system by non-expert
systems administrators who were most likely to be academic staff with
limited time and IT experience. To create a complex interactive system
that requires the use of cutting-edge technologies is challenging; to
build in user-friendly systems administration tools to allow the control
and addition of content is an additional challenge. In the light of user
feedback that will be captured and analysed during January - June 2001, we
will examine how successful these two endeavours have been in meeting
these objectives, and draw some conclusions about the future possibilities
for the development of highly complex, user-controlled learning tools. 

","txt","2","",""
"112","2","The Time Course of Language Change","1","Although an infinite number of monkeys at typewriters might produce
the complete works of Shakespeare, we can say with confidence that
the one that does produce _Hamlet_ is somewhat unusual and a
primate of marked preferences.  For example, it obviously doesn't
like to type the letter 'z' and is rather 
attached to the letter sequence space-'t'-'h'-'e'-space.  These
preferences can be quantified accurately and, for instance, form
the basis of most compression programs (such as Stuffit or WinZip).
Common letters, frequent words, and hackneyed phrases are replaced
with short codes and abbreviations, while less frequent items -- in
the counting of the person/programming doing the measurements --
are left untouched or even lengthened.  Of course, the measurements
may not be exactly accurate, and the inaccuracies of measurement, such
as those that would be produced by using the preferences of one
monkey to compress the output of a second, can provide a precise
and detailed assessment of the ""distance"" between two monkeys.

Although information theory has known the above since the 1940s,
the volume of text required for reliable measurements (thousands
or millions of pages) has so far been prohibitive.  However,
recent work (Wyner, 1996; Juola, 1997, 1998) provides a method
to apply this to the detailed measurement of ""linguistic distance""
between two reasonably-sized (a few hundred to thousand characters).
Although the mathematics behind this new technique is somewhat complex,
the results are profound.  This technique has been shown to be
effective for problems ranging from authorship attribution, through
genre identification, language identification, and even extending
to the inference of linguistic familial relationship.  This paper
describes an experiment in using this technique to determine
rate of language change in _National Geographic_ magazine.

_National Geographic_ is an ideal experimental corpus for several
reasons.  First, unlike a book (which may be the product of thirty
years of continuous writing and rewriting), magazine text can be
fairly accurately dated.  Second, _NG_ is a closely-edited, high
prestige journal written in relatively formal English, and therefore
language change within this journal can be evidence of fairly widespread
and large-scale acceptance of the changes.  Third, it has been
in continuous publication since 1888, yielding over one hundred
years of data.  And, not least important for a researcher on a budget,
the entire corpus is available on CD-ROM for under $200 (US).
The experiment described here used data from the years 1939-2000,
taking between one and seven excerpts from each January issue.
The distance between each excerpt pair was determined and
plotted against the number of years between each excerpt pair.
For example, two excerpts, both from 1954, would have been
recorded as being zero years apart.  Similarly, two excerpts
from 1964 would be zero years apart, while a document from
1964 would be ten years apart from one from 1954.  Of course,
no document was paired with itself (which would have resulted in
a meaninglessly low near-zero difference).
Regressing measured differences to a linear fit with the number
of years then yielded a measurement of the effective ""linguistic
distance"" (change) per year, or the speed (distance over time)
of language change for the period studied. 

The results of this experiment are both significant and intriguing.
For example, all experiments show a clear [significant, p < 0.05]
result that language samples show a greater difference with
greater time, even over periods as small as a decade (ten years).
However, the absolute rate of change over any given ten-year
period varied by as much as fivefold, suggesting that some periods
(of the National Geographic) are characterized by significantly
faster change and suggesting that the English language itself
may have undergone similar periods of rapid or slow change.
In particular, the period of the Second World War and its
aftermath (1939-48) displayed particularly LITTLE change (less
than 0.004 bits/year), while the decade immediately following
had the greatest of all measured changes (0.0178 bits/year).
In fact, the language change over the 1940s was itself barely
above the threshhold of ""detectably and significantly different
from no change.""

We further found that language change itself seems undirected,
in the sense that individual changes do not appear to sum
conveniently to an overall rate of change.  The metaphor of
a drunkard walking around a street may be relevant here; although
s/he walks at a comfortable pace of one hundred meters per minute,
it may take much longer than two minutes to walk through a two
hundred meter alley, with the inevitable missteps, retracing
of footsteps, and random wanderings -- and in fact, the drunkard
might just as well enter the alley and come out again from the
same end s/he entered.  A similar pattern was found in the
pattern of linguistic change, where the overall effective rate of
change for the period 1939-78 was substantially less than the
effective rate for any single decade within that period.

Each observation above yields up further questions.  In particular,
the finding that the observed change is markedly slower over the
40s than over comparable periods is unusual and demands
explanation.  The measured difference over this period of time barely
achieved significance; in fact, had a two-tailed, instead of one-tailed,
test been used, the effective rate of change would not have been
significantly different from no change at all.
It is commonly believed and often argued that wars drive
technological innovation -- might they, paradoxically,
hinder linguistic innovation?  Although this theory is surprising,
counterintuitive, and therefore attractive, one must not lose sight
of other possibilities in explanation.   For instance, the National
Geographic itself may not be representative of the language of the 1940s,
or even of magazines of the 1940s.  The acute manpower shortage of
the war years may have limited the number of available writers and
editors, producing a more uniform production staff and document/writing
style.  Public interest may have been focused on a more limited set of
geographic areas, possibly resulting in more articles discussing the same
(war-related) topics and fewer articles of broad inquiry.  And, of
course, drawing conclusions about ""wars"" based on a single sample
describing a single war is statistically questionable, if not downright
irresponsible.   A better and more scientifically interesting
counterhypothesis would be simply that language, or at least,
the high-prestige register typical of {\em National Geographic}
is a lagging indicator of cultural change, with language change
appearing only after the editor/gatekeepers decide that a new
usage is now acceptable.  A less culturally conservative magazine
such as _Mad_ Magazine, also available on CD-ROM,  might show
different periods of activity/inactivity.  Much further work involving
a greater time period, a larger variety of text, and a detailed
historical inquiry into the publishing industry and the National
Geographic Society in particular, is clearly required.
                                                                                
These caveats aside, the findings are nonetheless intriguing and
suggestive.  Similarly, one is free to speculate about the possible
reasons for the 1950s to be (significantly) the time of the fastest
effective language change.  One possibility, for instance, is simply
that language change, especially in high-prestige registers, lags
social and technological change.  Another possibility is that
the tremendous change of the 1950s merely reflected some sort of
stored-potential, the change that had been suppressed during the
linguistically conservative 1940s.  In particular, most of the
technological inventions developed in the 1940s did not become
commonplace consumer items (and thus objects of discussion) for
some time.  Finally, the 1950s were the era of the development
and widespread use of television, and it would be odd indeed if
such a far-reaching device did not change language as well as culture.

The direct answers to these social, cultural, and historical 
questions aside, it is clear from these results that this technique
can provide an interesting and provocative source of information
about the time course of language change, that may or may not
be correlated with historical events and trends.  For example,
the ""moving averages"" beloved of financial analysts could be 
coopted into looking for sudden movements that correspond
to particular events that shape language, be they editorial
staff changes or new events (such as a disputed Presidential
election or a moon landing) that cause people to change what
they write or talk about.    Identifying and exploiting such
correlations can provide unending amounts of work for historians,
or alternatively will provide a valuable quantitative adjunct to
the study of history and a useful guide for the reading of historical
texts.  At the very least, however, this shows that information theory
can provide a valuable guide to the study of language change viewed
as a historical and cultural process.


References :

Farach, M. et al.  (1995).  ""On the entropy of DNA : Algorithms
and measurements based on memory and rapid convergence.""  In
the _Proceedings of the 6th Annual Symposium on Discrete Algorithms
(SODA'95)_.

Juola, Patrick. (1997). ""What can we do with small corpora?  Document
categorization via cross-entropy.""  In the _Proceedings of an
Interdisciplinary Workshop on Similarity and Categorization_,
Edinburgh, UK.

Juola, Patrick. (1998). ""Cross-entropy and linguistic typology.""
In the _Proceedings of New Methods in Language Processing 3_,
Sydney, Australia.

Juola, Patrick. (2000).  ""The rate of language change.""  Presented
at the _Third Conference on Quantitative Linguistics_, Prague,
Czech Republic.

Wyner, A. J. (1996).  ""Entropy Estimation and Patterns.""
In the _Proceedings of the 1996 Workshop on Information Theory_.
","txt","2","",""
"113","2","Building spell-checking facilities for ancient Spanish","1","The huge development of information technology has motivated the appearance of this new type of libraries, called digital libraries (Arms, 2000). The Miguel de Cervantes Digital Library (http://cervantesvirtual.com) is one of the most ambitious projects of its kind ever to have been undertaken in the Spanish-speaking world with more that 4000 digital books at present. This enormous amount of digitised works are mostly Hispanic classics from the 12th up to the 20th century. The development of these digital books require a lot of care from the point of view of correction and editing, but can be processed in a massive uniform way afterwards to produce the different publications formats and services offered to the readers.

Concerning human resources involved in the project, the biggest group by far corresponds to correction and markup people (Bia and Pedreño, 2000), who are in charge of the hardest-to-automate part of the production process, which involves reading and correcting digitisation errors, structurally marking up the texts, and taking important editing decisions that involve both rendering and functionality of the hypertext documents to be published. These humanists are highly skilled people with at least a bachelor degree in philology, or other humanistic disciplines. We want them to devote their time to higher intellectual tasks like taking editing or markup decisions, or preparing the texts for interesting Internet services (like text analysis or concordance queries), than to spend their energies in the tedious mechanical task of correction, the main bottleneck in our production workflow, and by far the most time-consuming task.

In the case of contemporary works, spell-checkers turned out to be a useful aid to the correction process, but for literary works written in ancient Spanish, commercially available modern spell-checkers may produce more mistakes than they can prevent. The reason for this is that spell-checker-dictionaries include only modern uses of the language, and when they are applied to old texts, the result is that they take correct ancient uses of words for mistakes and try to correct them. Unable to use spell-checking as an aid, correctors have to do a side by side comparison of the original and the digitised texts to detect the errors.

Being aware of the usefulness of spell-checkers on the correction of modern works, and lacking this facility for ancient texts, we decided to build dictionaries for ancient Spanish. These decision led to new problems and new questions. As there is no such thing as ancient Spanish, but instead a dynamically evolving language that changes through the centuries, how many old-Spanish dictionaries should we build? Should we set arbitrary chronological limits?

Taking advantage of the 4000 books already digitised and corrected at the Miguel de Cervantes Digital Library, as a corpus covering several centuries of Spanish writings, we’ve built a time-aware system of dictionaries that takes into account the temporal dynamics of language, to help solve the problem of ancient Spanish spell-checking.

In this paper we present the problems we have found, the decisions we have made and the conclusions and results we arrived at. We have also been able to extract statistical information on the evolution of the Spanish language through time. The final section of the paper deals with the technical details of this project and the innovative application of digital methods like the use of TEI ans XML markup.

References

William Arms 
Digital Libraries 
MIT Press, 2000, Cambridge, Massachusetts, ISBN 0-262-01880-8.

C.M. Sperberg-McQueen and Lou Burnard, editors. 
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange (Text Encoding Initiative P3), Revised Reprint, Oxford, May 1999.
TEI P3 Text Encoding Initiative, Chicago - Oxford, May 1994.

Alejandro Bia and Andrés Pedreño. 
The Miguel de Cervantes Digital Library: The Hispanic Voice on the WEB. 
LLC (Literary and Linguistic Computing) journal, Oxford University Press, (to be published soon) 2000. 
Presented at ALLC/ACH 2000, The Joint International Conference of the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing and the Association for Computers and the humanities, 21/25 July 2000, University of Glasgow.

David Hunter, Curt Cagle, Dave Gibbons, Nikola Ozu, Jon Pinnock, and Paul Spencer. 
Beginning XML. 
Programmer to Programmer. Wrox Press, 1102 Warwick Road, Acocks Green, Birmingham, B27 6BH, UK, 1st edition, 2000.

Alejandro Bia 
Automating the Workflow of the Miguel de Cervantes Digital Library 
Poster at the ACM-DL'2000 Digital Libraries conference, June 2000, Menger Hotel, San Antonio, Texas, USA.

Olumide Owolabi 
Efficient pattern searching over large dictionaries 
Information Processing Letters, v.47, n.1, 17-21, August 1993.

Real Academia Española 
Diccionario de la lengua española 
Espasa Calpe, 1992, Madrid.","txt","2","",""
"114","2","The Evolution of Standard written English: A Corpus approac","1","1. Introduction.

In this paper I describe and demonstrate an electronic corpus of Middle English [ME], and draw upon this corpus to assess the development and influence of standard written English. I conclude by highlighting the importance of extra-linguistic factors such as textual history, genre and register in describing the evolution and impact of standard written English. I also consider the significance of this discussion for the production and use of diachronic corpora more generally.

2. The standardisation of written English.

The standardisation of written English during the Middle Ages was a gradual process which was ongoing throughout the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries (Samuels 1972, 1989). The standard written language was focussed on the London dialect but was considerably influenced by the dialects of the Midlands counties throughout this period, as a result of large-scale immigration into the capital. It is generally accepted that the arrival of immigrants from the provinces caused sudden and dramatic changes in the London dialect. However this explanation is unsatisfactory for a number of important reasons. In many cases it is impossible to trace the origins of Londoners during this period and it is therefore difficult to determine which dialects were infiltrating London at particular periods (Wright 1996). It is also unclear as to why native Londoners should display such an eagerness to adopt the spoken and written features of these provincial immigrants. Furthermore analysis of these texts has often be based on unreliable data taken from outdated editions and transcripts. There is therefore a need for a reconsideration of the rise of standardisation and its dissemination based upon the original documents and drawing upon the techniques and resources of an electronic corpus.

 

3. The corpus.

The corpus used in this study is being compiled as part of the Middle English Grammar Project [MEGP] currently underway at the University of Glasgow and Stavanger University College, Norway. The first research-area being addressed by the Project is the creation of a new history of ME spelling and phonology. In order to carry out this analysis a corpus of machine-readable ME texts is currently being assembled. These texts represent all the localised and localisable vernacular texts produced between 1250 and 1500. These texts are subsequently classified according to both Present-Day and etymological reflexes and the results of this process are entered in a database. This database includes a variety of extralinguistic information in addition to the classified spelling data, such as genre and script, which allows the corpus to be interrogated according to a number of different factors (Horobin and Smith 1999). This approach allows us to consider the range of forms within an individual text and to identify the distribution of these forms across other texts from the same dialect area and throughout the ME dialect continuum. The database also allows us to trace the influence of the standard across texts copied throughout the fifteenth century in a variety of different dialect areas. In this section of the paper I demonstrate the uses of the database and show how this approach identifies the importance of factors such as genre, register and textual background in explaining the changes in the London dialect during this period.

4. Conclusions.

This paper suggests a number of important factors concerning the design and use of historical corpora. While historical corpora are extremely useful for analysis of this kind, it is important that the data be classified. A classification system must allow the data to be interrogated according to a number of intra-linguistic and extra-linguistic factors. This paper also stresses the importance of an understanding of the textual history of the texts under consideration. I conclude by emphasising the importance of supplementing broad linguistic analysis with detailed textual and philological interrogation.

References.

Horobin, S. and J.J. Smith, 'A Database of Middle English Spelling', Literary and Linguistic Computing 14 (1999), 359-373.

Samuels, M. L., Linguistic Evolution with special reference to English. (Cambridge, 1972), pp. 165-70.

- 'Some Applications of Middle English Dialectology', in M. Laing (ed.) Middle English Dialectology: essays on some principles and problems. (Aberdeen, 1989), pp. 64-80.

Wright, L., 'About the evolution of Standard English', in 'Doubt Wisely' Papers in honour of E.G. Stanley. (eds.) M.J. Toswell and E.M. Tyler (London, 1996), pp. 99-115.","txt","2","",""
"115","2","By the Orlando Project","1","The project of literary history is in large part the diachronic mapping of intertextuality, in the broad understanding of this and related terms--Kristeva’s is “transposition”, while Mikhail Bakhtin, on whom she draws, uses “dialogism”--to denote the extent to which all texts are produced and received dynamically as part of a rich and highly contested signifying field. The concept of intertextuality thus extends beyond the notion of source texts or influence to the question of how texts achieve meaning in an extensive set of processes that embody complex social relationships, past, present, and future.
 
            The concept of intertextuality thus poses a challenge to the attempt to devise an SGML encoding scheme for literary history: it cannot be excluded, since it speaks to our fundamental concerns, but a complete taxonomy of intertextual processes is impossible, if we consider Bakhtin’s evocation: “The living utterance, having taken meaning and shape at a particular historical moment in a socially specific environment, cannot fail to brush up against thousands of living dialogic threads, woven by socio-ideological consciousness around the given object of utterance” (Dialogic 276). A broad-based, integrating literary history such as the Orlando Project cannot hope to track such intertextuality fully. Its value lies precisely in its selectivity.
 
            This paper describes the project’s Intertextuality tag and discusses some of its preliminary results. This tag represents the collaborative thinking of scholars versed in women’s writing about what kinds of intertextual threads need to be given particular prominence within a history of women’s writing in the British Isles. Once designed, the tag was tested and revised, as part of a DTD devoted to critical discussion of individual writers’ careers and texts. It interacts (and can be used simultaneously) with a host of other tags that address other aspects of intertextuality broadly conceived, including tags for influences on and by a writer, tags for genre and generic issues, for different kinds of responses to texts, for the treatment of particular themes, topics, historical figures, places, and organizations that are all indices to the social web of textuality in which a text is embedded. The Intertextuality tag itself privileges the emphasis, common in critical applications of the term, of relationships between specific texts (cf. Clayton and Rothstein). So, although there are no required attributes or subelements to the Intertextuality tag, there is an optional attribute “Intertext” that defines fourteen kinds of intertextuality. Because gender is particularly germane to feminist literary history, an optional attribute can designate the sex of the author of the intertext. Some Intertextuality tags enclose statements about an author’s entire ouevre, or about some literary entity--Greek myth, for example, or fairy tales. In most cases, however, the Intertextuality tag demarcates a critical passage commenting on the way a writer’s text response to text by another writer, usually including the (tagged) name of the secondary author, and generally the (tagged) title of the intertext.
 
            The present, incomplete state of our textbase yields nearly a thousand instances of the Intertextuality tag. As the paper will show, searches on specific attribute values for these can focus attention on certain categories of textual relationship and their significance for writing by women. Those employing the “Answer” attribute, for instance, construct collectively a long series of women replying to texts by others. The findings offered by our system are suggestive rather than definitive: all require further investigation and evaluation, since intertextuality cannot be exhaustively tracked and team members do not encode intertextuality identically. But they offer a useful departure point for consideration of intertextual relations in British women’s writing, as do many of the other critical leads offered by tags in the Orlando textbase.
 
            The Orlando intertextuality tag can stand for our tagging enterprise as a whole insofar as it underscores that the tags we are devising do not necessarily denote something that inheres in texts in an objective sense. An intertextuality tag is an interpretive claim in itself; it points up the challenges to DTD design and implementation posed by encoding critical text for conceptual content. While all tagging may be understood as interpretive, all is not equally so. Many of the Orlando tags are radically interpretive and they freight our encoding with a different significance and pose different delivery challenges than less interpretive tags.
 
            The complexity of the issues outlined here invites us to evaluate our own assumptions about the purposes of text encoding. In particular, we might consider the extent to which we privilege certain notions of rigour–associated with a consistency of tagging, but also with gendered notions of scientificity and discipline–and in so doing limit the endeavours we undertake or the results we value. Our and others’ research has found indexing and hypertext linking consistency impossible for a team to achieve (Butler et al). Consistency is feasible, indeed crucial, in some contexts, but as qualitative social scientists have argued in considering inter-rater reliability, less so in others (Armstrong et al). Bakhtin distinguishes between the “exact sciences which constitute a monologic form of knowledge” and those that are “differently scientific” because dialogic in their engagement with “an infinity of symbolic contextual meanings” (Speech 160-1). The Orlando Project’s tags attempt to represent electronically a new and still emerging body of knowledge. In both encoding and content the project is dialogic: an invitation to debate the history of women’s writing, along with new methods of creating that history.
 
                                               
Armstrong, David, et al, “The Place of Inter-Rater Reliability in Qualitative Research: An Empirical Study.” Sociology 31.3 (1997): 597-606.
Bakhtin, M.M. The Dialogic Imagination. Austen: U of Texas P, 1981.
---. Speech Genres and Other Late Essays. Austin: U of Texas P, 1986.
Butler, Terry, and members of the Orlando Project. “Can a Team Tag Consistently? Experiences on the Orlando Project.” Markup Languages, forthcoming.     
Clayton, Jay, and Eric Rothstein, ed. Influence and Intertextuality in Literary History. Madison: U of Wisconsin P, 1991.
Kristeva, Julia. Revolution in Poetic Language. New York: Columbia UP, 1984.","txt","2","",""
"116","2","The DIY commentary; or, what the reference and the link told each other","1","Recent perspectives on the commentary genre across cultures and historical periods show it to be radically protean (Most 1999). Furthermore, the classicist Simon Goldhill has shown (1999), it is a socially constructed form: styles of knowing and styles of glossing are intimately interrelated, and both are subject to change in fashions, even within a discipline in a single national tradition. Although the historically contingent nature of commentaries is hardly surprising, this contingency raises questions about the form we have inherited. As Goldhill and Fowler 1999 argue for classics, the standard commentary is based on largely discredited ideas of language and is inadequate to the modern conception of a “plural” text. Might computational tools offer us something better, as Fowler suggests?

In the proposed paper I explore the possibilities of computational media – not so much for realising even the most modern ideas of the commentary but, as McGann 1997 says, for imagining what it might become. Contrariwise I ask, what might the most fully developed traditional examples teach us about designing and implementing better scholarly information systems? How might an electronic commentary fit into the developing world of digital resources? Bolter 1993 argues that the commentary already provides a model for hypertextual access that can more or less readily be adapted to the electronic medium. To accept that model so readily, however, would be to perpetuate the limitations Goldhill notes and to ignore the opportunities Fowler describes.

Although the genre is not easy to define, the two principal features Goldhill names – citation and morselisation – provide a most fruitful beginning. From these, two corresponding problems in design immediately follow: modelling the referential gestures of the commentary, and making best use of its natural segmentation. A hypertextual result seems both obvious and inevitable, but very little beyond that vague qualification is either obvious or inevitable.

The paper follows two convergent paths of research, one focused on the commentary form, the other on hypertext. The first is only logically prior, however; in practice the two intermingle. As McGann 1997 notes, one's view of a traditional artefact tends to be profoundly altered by the attempt to render it into electronic form. Translation is a powerful analytic tool.

I start, then, with a detailed structural and functional analysis of standard commentaries, such as Dodds 1960 or Austin 1977, using a method illustrated e.g. by Raymond & Tompa 1988 for the Oxford English Dictionary or non-technologically by Fraade 1999 for Midrash. Such analysis identifies the component parts of the commentary and the referential gestures that interconnect them. As component parts I allow not only those that are supplied, such as introductory essay, edited text, commentary proper and indexes; I also include those that are not physically included but are explicitly referenced, such as articles, monographs and other editions, and those that are in some sense assumed, such as the relevant lexicons and other standard reference works. (In other words, I allow all those components that are clearly part of the scholar's working environment and might form the whole of an electronic edition.) Analysis shows that the referential gestures of the commentary not only delineate subtle gradations of specificity, from exact bibliographical citations to indirect allusions, but also vary by intentional force, hence significance. Since my analysis is directed toward implementation, I necessarily attempt to disambiguate, but in the abbreviated, laconic style of commentary writing, it is not always possible to say what is intended; vagueness may be deliberate. (Note, for example, the useful but often abused “cf.”, for L. confer, “compare” – in what sense? A Wunderkammer of curiosities? A list of items whose relevance is left as a problem for the reader?) Except for the bibliographical citation, and perhaps not even then, a direct rendering into unambiguous terms will as a rule not be possible without significant loss. The point is dual: (1) pragmatically to derive from these ambiguous gestures a consistent, finite set of referential mechanisms more adequate to the task than current hypertext systems allow; (2) theoretically to use the discrepancy between mechanism and gesture better to understand the phenomenon of reference.

The second path is an examination of relevant directions in hypertext research. This is a complicated, rapidly changing, highly interdisciplinary and poorly surveyed area that is characterised by a number of isolating divisions. (See the rough, evolving attempt in McCarty 2000 to bring relevant bits and pieces together as a provocation to comment.) The most serious of the divisions – which, I argue, we need urgently to overcome – is between system-builders and the various subject-domain specialists, as Nürnberg, Leggett & Wiil 1998 point out. Indeed, the isolation of domain specialists from each other works against development of better scholarly tools and the better understanding they bring.

The scholar of commentaries, especially someone familiar only with HTML, has much to learn from the hypertext system-builders: specifically the implementable terms in which to think mechanically against problems of reference illuminated by the ancient form. Relevant are, for example, abstract hypertext models, typologies and specifications, especially XML Linking; adaptive and dynamic hypermedia; structural visualisation; even, perhaps, temporal capability. (See the cited works in McCarty 2000.) These, discussed briefly in the paper, are important not only for building systems, but like the systems themselves, they are the means by which ideas about hypertext are primarily expressed. In practical terms, perhaps most important of all is the open hypermedia principle (Nürnberg, Leggett & Wiil 1998), which dictates the opening up of formerly “monolithic” design so that the major components can be accessed, and so modified or substituted, hence better fitted to specialised scholarly purposes.

The demands of the commentary form highlight particular areas of work among the domain specialists. There are three such areas to be mentioned apart from the underpopulated one to which this paper is a contribution.

The first area is annotation and its generalisation to the digital library. As Marshall 1998 points out, annotation is fundamental to hypertext, though a minority interest to date; focus on it brings out problems of considerable importance to the electronic commentary, which is an annotative genre. Although the real-world practices studied in Marshall 2000 are not scholarly, the questions raised there point to the possibility of collaborative annotation, techniques for which could be of use in some kinds or applications of commentary. Digital library research and its extension to online research communities include such concerns within the broader context of printed and distributed electronic materials. In the subject area of the classical commentary the Perseus Digital Library persuasively demonstrates some of what can be done on a large scale to form a dynamic research environment (Smith, Rydberg-Cox & Crane 2000). With the help of such work we can begin to imagine what a distributed commentary might be like.

The second area is argumentation and rhetoric, which emphasises the academic writer's use of hypertext for persuasion. Two approaches: writerly requirements for hypertext systems (Rosenberg 1999; Kolb 1997), and strategies for the use of generic hypertext (Carter 2000). Carter notes that non-sequentiality problematises argumentation but goes on to show how arguments can be managed in a reader-determined order of presentation. Although traditional commentary makers write in a genre that explicitly caters to such non-linearity, they are still writers using language deliberately to direct and shape the reader's attention. Thus the relevance of work in this domain to the problems of the electronic commentary.

The third area is textual editing, whose current state in the new medium is well represented by Robinson & Gabler 2000. If electronic editions are designed to be interoperable components in a larger digital environment, just as commentaries should be, then the commentary maker can choose which edition or editions to incorporate, i.e. link to. If, as Robinson advocates, electronic editions are built from an eclectic base-text, which serves as “the best starting point for the reader's own explorations of the text” (2000: 10), then we must question what the relationship between commentary and edition will be, in fact how we define “commentary” and “edition”. This ontological matter leads to the larger question implied by my title: can we envision a do-it-yourself commentary?

The basic idea arises from the increasing availability of digital resources for scholarship online, such as texts, lexicons, grammars and the like, and the push toward interoperable components and the operating environments in which to combine them. Might it then be possible now to begin imagining a DIY commentary, or more accurately, interface to multiple commentaries that would better represent the plural text? In conclusion I will briefly explore the implications of such a form for scholarly communication.

Bibliography

[Austin 1977] Austin, R. G., comm. 1977. P. Vergili Maronis, Aeneidos Liber Sextus. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

[Boulter 1993] Boulter, Jay David. 1993. ""Hypertext and the Classical Commentary"". In Jon Solomon, ed. Accessing Antiquity: The Computerization of Classical Studies. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. Pp. 151-71.

[Carter 2000] Carter, Locke M. 2000. ""Arguments in Hypertext: A Rhetorical Approach"". San Antonio: Hypertext '00. www.acm.org/pubs/citations/proceedings/hypertext/336296/p85-carter/, 26/11/00.

[Dodds 1944] Dodds, E. R. 1944. Euripides Bacchae, edited with Introduction and Commentary. 2nd edn. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

[Fowler 1999] Fowler, Don. 1999. ""Criticism as commentary and commentary as criticism in the age of electronic media"". In Most 1999, pp. 426-42.

[Fraade 1991] Fraade, Steven D. 1991. From Tradition to Commentary: Torah and its Interpretation in the Midrash Sifre to Deuteronomy. SUNY Series in Judaica: Hermeneutics, Mysticism, and Religion. Albany: State University of New York Press.

[Goldhill 1999] Goldhill, Simon. 1999. ""Wipe your glosses"". In Most 1999, pp. 380-425.

[Kolb 1997] Kolb, David. 1997. ""Scholarly Hypertext: Self-Represented Complexity"". Southampton: Hypertext '97. journals.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~lac/ht97/pdfs/kolb.pdf, 26/11/00.

[Marshall 1998] Marshall, Catherine C. 1998. ""Toward an ecology of hypertext annotation"". Pittsburgh PA: Hypertext '98. www.csdl.tamu.edu/~marshall/pubs.html, 26/11/00.

[Marshall 2000] Marshall, Catherine C. 2000. ""The Future of Annotation in a Digital (Paper) World"". In Harum and Twidale, Successes and Failures of Digital Libraries. Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois Press. www.csdl.tamu.edu/~marshall/pubs.html, 26/11/00.

[McCarty 2000] McCarty, Willard. 2000. ""A serious beginner's guide to hypertext research"". Preliminary rough draft 11/00. ilex.cc.kcl.ac.uk/wlm/hyperbib/.

[McGann 1997] McGann, Jerome. 1997. ""Imagining what you don't know: the theoretical goals of the Rosetti Archive"". Charlottesville VA: IATH. jefferson.village.virginia.edu/~jjm2f/chum.html, 26/11/00.

[Most 1999] Most, Glenn W., ed. 1999. Commentaries -- Kommentare. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht.

[Nürnberg, Leggitt & Wiil 1998] Nürnberg, Peter J., J. J. Leggitt & U. K. Wiil. 1998. ""An Agenda for Open Hypermedia Research"". Pittsburgh PA: Hypertext '98. www.csdl.tamu.edu/~leggett/leggettpubs/conference, 26/11/00.

[Raymond & Tompa 1988] Raymond, Darrell R. and Frank W. Tompa. ""Hypertext and the Oxford English Dictionary"". Communications of the ACM 31.7 (July): 871-79. db.uwaterloo.ca/~fwtompa/publications.html, 26/11/00.

[Robinson 2000] Robinson, Peter. 2000. ""The One Text and the Many Texts"". In Robinson & Gabler 2000, pp. 5-14.

[Robinson & Gabler 2000] Robinson, Peter and Hans W. Gabler, eds. ""Making Texts for the Next Century"". Special issue of Literary and Linguistic Computing 15.1 (April).

[Rosenberg 1999] Rosenberg, Jim. 1999. ""A Hypertextuality of Arbitrary Structure: A Writers Point of View"". Darmstadt: Hypertext '99. www.well.com/user/jer/HAS.html, 26/11/00.

[Smith, Rydberg-Cox & Crane 2000] Smith, David A., Jeffrey A. Rydberg-Cox & Gregory R. Crane. 2000. ""The Perseus Project: a Digital Library for the Humanities"". In Robinson and Gabler 2000, pp. 15-25.","txt","2","",""
"117","2","NGSW: Putting Voices Online","1","This panelist is currently involved with in the organization and implementation of The National Gallery of the Spoken Word (NGSW). NGSW is a significant, carefully organized on-line repository of spoken word collections. A collaborative project among the humanities, engineering, and library science, the gallery, now in its second year of development, provides the first large-scale repository of its kind through the identification and digital preservation of crucial materials in tape libraries throughout the United States. It is pioneering developments in information storage as it creates a recognized set of standards for preservation and access, and constructs sophisticated and integrated search mechanisms. As important, the collaborators on this project are identifying a complex set of opportunities for research, teaching and outreach, because the most significant measure of the value of the project will be the users it attracts. High school teachers, college professors, government officials, journalists and engaged citizens will therefore be crucial collaborators in the creation of the NGSW. The NGSW will help create a history of sound in the age of its virtual reproducibility.

By bringing the spoken word across the Internet into living rooms, classrooms, research laboratories, libraries, and government offices, and by delivering the transformative power of language, rhetoric and speech via the Internet, the NGSW has the potential to create a worldwide virtual community. However, the difference between the classical polis and its online equivalent will be the potentially democratic and profoundly chaotic nature of online communities. This process is already occurring around the world, as is recorded by studies like Rhonda and Michael Hauben's Netizens, but it has been based primarily on writing: e-mail, online chat, bulletin boards. As Internet telephony becomes more feasible and popular, more and more online community-building discourse is likely to take the form of speech, but a form of speech that is without memory or history. This speaker will explore the implications of putting historical voices online and the possibilities for creating context and historical meaning for voices within virtual communities.","txt","2","",""
"118","2","Creating Reflecting Interfaces: Discipline, Project, and Audience Specific Internet Archives","1","The commercial internet company Qwest has run several national commercials commenting on the internet's ability to provide unparalleled access to information. In one commercial, a man walks into a small, dusty bar in the desert and asks the barkeeper what they have on the jukebox. The barkeep responds they have every song, ever written, in any language. Although the internet does not yet offer this volume of information, the commercial points (unconsciously) to the necessity of providing access to information in familiar packages and with familiar metaphors -- in this case a jukebox. Online archives, libraries, and institutions have thus far been concerned with issues of digitization, storage, and portability of information to the internet. Only recently have questions of interface and how interface influences user's access to these warehouses of information come into discussion. Search engines and archives have in large part created and used search interfaces for the faceless, general user or reproduced the environment of the professional researcher. Both of these search metaphors require either the language of the database, the researcher, or the archivist to access information. To use these resources, users must have a great deal of previous knowledge on their subject (to use keywords or browse topic galleries), or have existing technical knowledge (booleans or sql language) to wade through the large amounts of information at any one site.

Recently there has been a shift in emphasis away from large-scale digitization projects, general usability interfaces, and internet-wide search engines to small, user or topic based information resources. These projects create limited resources that speak to specific audiences and use familiar modes of language and metaphors to help these users find relevant information quickly and easily. This speaker will discuss this shift and the necessity of creating smaller, need or discipline specific information resources as well as creating interfaces that speak to the needs and questions of specific audiences. More specifically, this presenter will examine the scope of projects like IMDb - The Internet Movie Database (http://us.imdb.com/) and interface innovations seen in the Ask Jeeves search engine (http://www.askjeeves.com/) innovations we have used in creating Civics Online (http://www.civics-online.org), an online archive/resource created specifically for k-12 teachers and students studying U.S. History and Civics.","txt","2","",""
"119","2","Forensic Technologies and the Tracing of Identities","1","In the vastly popular narratives surrounding forensic science and criminalistics, especially, the fractures elements taken up in these discourses have become familiar pop-icons-fingerprints, hair fibers, semen, DNA samples-all now have a potent currency in a cultural epoch we could characterize by its fetishization of the easily accessible fact and technological exactitude. The elevation of the technologies that ""trace"" human identity, this speaker argues, stems from a spiraling cultural fascination and growing anxiety over the truth status of the anatomical, traceable, and irreducibly material human body. The most significant characteristic of the narratives surrounding the technologies of the trace is the manner in which they conflate the notion of ""individuation""-the forensic method the fragment of evidence is traced back to its originary source-with individuality or humanist notions of essence. As the body emerges as a discrete object of knowledge, it simultaneously dis-integrates into multiple realms of codification, leveled out and gridded into the networked computer database. The ever-increasing glut of narratives that fixate upon DNA, autopsy, trace evidence, imaging technologies and the status of the material body within technological culture, attests to these anxieties over the cultural status of the body as both severed sign, and substantive essence. This speaker will consider how the literal ""matter"" of the body has come to gain such critical potency within the interdisciplinary discourses of the humanities and social sciences. Within contemporary rhetoric surrounding digital technology, especially, the body has come to function culturally as a boundary concept between the human and the technological, becoming an ideological battleground for competing systems of meaning. Looking specifically at the technologies used to digitally represent the human body in forensics, biometrics and medicine, this presentation addresses the manner in which cultural representations of the body address and attempt to ideologically manage an inherently contradictory knowledge whereby technologies that collapse the body into an infinite series of abstract arts do so in the very name of reclaiming and reintegrating an originary, human identity. The continuous development of visualization techniques contributes to an escalating sense that we have come to ""know"" our bodies, and those of others, in progressively more complicated and contingent ways. As technology takes imaging to increasingly microscopic levels, these fragmented body parts are all taken up as elements in the construction of cultural identity.","txt","2","",""
"120","2","Disciplining the Traditional Student Subject in Computer-Composition","1","This speaker will examine the pedagogical, theoretical, and cultural impact of computer technology on composition's representation of the writing student. Considering computer-composition cultural artifacts (textbooks, handbooks, and online resources) this speaker argues -- based on the assumptions made by these artifacts; the beliefs, anxieties, and concerns that they reveal about students; and the narratives they tell about technology -- that much work being done in the area of computer-assisted writing pedagogy is still very traditional and relies heavily upon disciplinary technologies that are committed to molding passive student subjects. These resources also often fail to embody contemporary ideas about how technologically-mediated writing sites (in general) and hypertext (in particular) have the potential to complicate traditional ideas about texts and authors (Joyce 1995; Landow 1997; Johnson-Eilola 1998). This speaker therefore analyzes the contemporary cultural conjuncture in which technology and the rhetoric of liberation are combined, where it is often assumed that the computer-mediated subject in composition will automatically be freed from the humanist Enlightenment bonds of coherent rationality and the Romantic limitations of self-expression. Although the liberatory rhetoric surrounding computer-mediated communication may perpetuate our hopes and desires for technology to reconstitute the student subject as an active rhetorician, it also obfuscates our awareness of how such technologies may reinscribe or colonize the subject as passive or in need.","txt","2","",""
"121","2","The W3C Consortium and Standards","3","There have been a number recent events in the standards community that will almost certainly be very consequential for computing humanists. These include most obviously the completion or near-completion of important W3C standards like Schema, XLink and Xpointer and SVG; and the considerable recent commotion around RDF and the ""Semantic Web"", including related debates about how things like ontologies and Topic Maps fit in. These are definitely things our community should know about.

Among other things, SVG and XSL-FO promise new powerful purchase on image data and non-linquistic codes, and the current RDF/ontologies/Semantic Web activities are primarily focused on knowledge representation of non-textual material.

Fortunately we have available to us someone who can speak authoritatively on these events, and who also knows our community and its interests, namely Michael Sperberg-McQueen, Chair of the W3C Schema Working Group. We have proposed that the ""ACH Session"" be an update on W3C activities of interest to humanists, lead and coordinated by Michael. In addition John Unsworth, Chair of the TEI Consortium, has agreed to describe how the new TEI fits into this picture.","txt","2","",""
"122","2","The MA in Electronic Communication and Publishing at UCL","1","The postgraduate MA in Electronic Communication and Publishing,
which started in 1997, investigates aspects of multimedia and
digital communication and examines how convergent digital media
combine existing publishing practices with exciting new media
forms. Based in the School of Library, Archive and Information
Studies at UCL, the MA is a holistic degree, furnishing students
with a theoretical understanding of the issues and implications
of disseminating information through electronic publications
such as CD-ROMs, Intranets and Web pages, and teaching them
the practical skills for managing information communication.

The initiative for the creation of the MA came from the then Dean
of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities who with others perceived
the potential of combining humanities graduates' liberal arts and
creative backgrounds with cutting-edge computing skills, to enable
them to enter industry bringing a solid grounding in electronic
communication and liberal arts.

Initial funding for the creation of the lectureship in Electronic
Communication and Publishing and the equipping of a special
multimedia cluster was obtained from Xerox, The Document
Company. This enabled an initial intake of 13 students in September
1997.

Since this time, the programme has grown steadily and in less than
three years student numbers have doubled, to 28. Applications for
entry in September 2001 are already being received, and it is expected
the total number will number in excess of 100. Students on the
programme come from a variety of backgrounds and locations, all
of which contributes to the uniqueness of this MA degree.

Applications received not only from the UK, but also from across
the globe, including America, Japan, China, Taiwan, Burma, Malaysia,
Hong Kong, Singapore, India, Pakistan, Israel, Jordan, Nigeria, Ghana,
South Africa, Norway, Sweden, Luxemburg, Germany, Austria, Italy,
Greece, Turkey and Ireland. The students' background in humanities,
too, are equally diverse, including: Ancient and Modern History,
Business Studies, Economics, Education, Egyptology, English and
European Literature, Film and IT, Hispanic Studies, History of Art,
Journalism / Media Studies, Library studies, Linguistics, Performing
Arts, Philosophy, Political Sciences and Sociology.

Aims of the degree
The MA in Electronic Communication and Publishing is designed to
educate students to be capable of performing the role of editor,
project manager or information specialist. As a postgraduate degree,
it is aimed at students who have developed a significant body of
knowledge in a specialist area through undergraduate study and/or
who have a specialist knowledge of a specific area within the
traditional publishing industry.

In specifically taking humanities graduates and skilling them with
the ability to create, manipulate and manage electronic information,
the MA is producing people capable of overseeing the construction of
electronic systems for distributing and archiving vast quantities
of information. Graduates from the science disciplines have a role
to play in this construction process, but humanities graduates can
also bring to bear lateral and creative thinking in identifying and
addressing problems and issues facing humanities computing today.

Course structure
The MA in Electronic Communication and Publishing is organised to
provide a broad introduction upon which to build a platform for
greater specialisation. This enables students to identify preferred
speciality with a view to their eventual career intentions. The emphasis
throughout the MA is on a two-layer approach: a theoretical seam
reinforced by practical instruction.

The theoretical teaching looks at a range of approaches covering
all aspects of electronic commerce and culture, from cultural
theory to information science, linguistics to project management.
The MA is designed to introduce the students to all the relevant
areas of digital media culture, allowing them to specialise in a
particular area of research as the course progresses.

The practical instruction covers the relevant software and hardware
needed to create and manage electronic projects, including:

     *    SGML, HTML, XML and XHTML authoring for the Internet
     *    Designing for screen and the printed page
     *    Incorporating interactivity and dynamic content generation
     *    Database management
     *    Image acquisition, manipulation and management
     *    On-line digital video and audio development and integration

The MA is offered as either a twelve-month full-time degree or a
twenty-four month part-time degree. All students take the following courses:

     *    EF, Foundation Course (a general introduction to the nature of
          information and electronic communication)
     *    E1, Technical Aspects (where students gain the practical and
          critical skills needed for successful project design and production)
     *    E2, Management Aspects (which extends the E1 course to the
          management of larger projects and user access to information and
          services)
     *    E3, Legal Aspects (comprising a series of lectures covering the
          legal world and electronic communication and publishing)
     *    E4, Optional Course (from which students select one option, in
          publishing, education, computing in the humanities, XML,
          JavaScript or managing electronic records)

Furthermore, students have the facility to undertake an additional course,
the Practical Attachment. The purpose of this course is to introduce
students to the current working situation in industries related to
electronic communication and publishing.

The Practical Attachment is for a period of four weeks at a relevant
institution (publishing house, new media company, library, school,
archive, newspaper or magazine office, etc.). The MA has very good
links with industry, but students are not limited to these connections.
Students use the Practical Attachment to evaluate what areas of further
research and/or employment they may wish to pursue after graduation,
and thus undertake a placement at a company or institution which may
be a future employer.

Assessment
Students on the MA in Electronic Communication and Publishing are
assessed continuously. Each course within the MA requires two pieces
of coursework to be submitted: a 4,000-word essay (chosen from a range
of set questions); and an electronic project (normally a fully
working Web project) incorporating a 2,000-word commentary. This
commentary identifies the object of the project, any underlying
concepts, the legal issues affecting the content of the site, the
audience, the construction, main features and interactivity of the
site, and finally, the possible future directions and expansion of
the site.

To complete the MA, students are required to submit a Research
Project. This substantial piece of work takes at least three months
to complete and involves the writing of a dissertation of 10,000
words (or the electronic equivalent), on a topic of the student's own
choice. Alternatively, students have the facility to create a
substantial practical project together with a shorter written
commentary, instead of writing a dissertation.

Resources
The MA is dependent upon a specially-equipped, up-to-date,
dedicated suite of multimedia computers (both PC and Macintosh).
Students have access to industry-standard software and
hardware such as scanners, digital cameras, digital audio
and video suites and Web-conferencing cameras. Everything is
provided for creating paper-based, Internet and CD-ROM projects,
with a ratio of one computer to every three students.

In addition, the cluster is backed up by two servers, one running
the cluster network, and the other acting as a Web server, enabling
the students to access an Intranet in support of student-based
learning and teaching. The Intranet developed for, and in conjunction
with, the MA in Electronic Communication and Publishing acts as a
focal point for a diverse collection of information and resources
for students to consult and use in their studies and practical work.

Conclusion
Although having only accepted its fourth intake, the MA in Electronic
Communication and Publishing is proving to be a very popular and
stimulating course. The number of expressions of interest and
applications is steadily increasing. Moreover, the positions in
industry which graduates take up are the best indicators of the
potential for courses of this type. Graduates have been employed
by: Asiaweek / Time (Assistant Producer), BBC Education (Researcher),
BBC Educational Publishing (Marketing Assistant), BBC Online
(Webmaster), Elsevier Science (Editorial Support Co-ordinator),
FOCUs5.net (Singapore) (Marketing Communications Manager), Historical
Manuscripts Commission (Curatorial Officer), NCR Knowledge Labs
(Researcher), Nordstrom.com (USA) (Project Co-ordinator), Premier
Media Partners (Deputy Content Director, Online), RAI (Italy)
(Website editor), Virgin Net (HTML Designer) and the Visual Arts
Data Service (Data Management Officer).","txt","2","",""
"123","2","The M.Phil in History and Computing at the University of    Glasgow","1","The M.Phil in History and Computing, offered by the University of
   Glasgow, is now in its twelfth year.  It is a one-year taught postgraduate
   course providing specialised training in the application of computer-
   based methods to substantive problems in history.  It aims to give
   students a sound methodological grounding in the use of computers in
   history.  Emphasis is placed on the application of software to historical
   problems rather than on programming or quantitative methods.  The
   M.Phil is designed for students with a background in history or a related
   subject who wish training in the application of computers to history, and
   who hope to go on to pursue a research degree or another career (e.g. in
   archives, teaching or humanities computing) in which knowledge of
   computers may be of assistance.   No prior computing experience is
   required.

   The M.Phil grew out of the DISH Project, a project funded by a UK
   agency (the Computer Board) in 1985 to promote the use of computers in
   history teaching.  In the late 1980s DISH set up a laboratory of computers
   and launched an undergraduate course called 'Computing for Historians',
   to which many history academics contributed.  (Morgan and Trainor
   1990; Spaeth and Cameron 2000).  The infrastructure was therefore in
   place for a postgraduate programme.  The greatest obstacle in the early
   years of the course was the reluctance of one of the University's four
   history departments to co-operate with the course.  Ultimately, however,
   DISH provided the seeds for the coalescence of these and other
   departments in a School of History and Archaeology.  Since its
   beginnings the programme has been well-supported by the University,
   both in the continued updating of the computing facilities and in the
   provision of staff resources.  Staff include a Lecturer in Historical
   Computing (the author) and a Resource Development Officer for History,
   Archaeology, Art History and Classics (Ann Gow); the latter is part of the
   infrastructure provided by the Humanities Advanced Technology
   Information Institute.

   The M.Phil computing presents as a means to an end, rather than as an
   end in itself.  The course is intended to be relevant to all varieties of
   history, and not just to quantitative methods.  This approach differs from
   those of some other programmes, which see historical computing as a
   subset of either humanities computing or quantitative social science.
   (Spaeth et al. 1992; Davis et al. 1993).  Students take three courses,
   including two compulsory core courses, and write a substantial
   dissertation:  Core Course A: Methods and Techniques of Historical
   Computing; Core Course B: Issues and Debates in Historical Computing;
   and Select Course.  The structure of the programme is designed so that
   students either learn techniques in the context of an historical problem
   (Core Course A) or are provided with the interpretative context into
   which they can fit computer-based techniques (Core B and Select).  The
   intention is that the dissertation will then integrate history and 
computing.


   Core Course A is a lab-based course introducing key techniques and
   advanced methods in historical computing.  Instruction, which includes
   examples drawn from real case studies, emphasises historical
   interpretation as much as methods and techniques.  Term 1 focuses upon
   established methods for analysing historical source material, such as the
   census.  Students use database and spreadsheet software to query existing
   databases and apply their findings to substantive historical problems (e.g.
   the experience of the Irish in Britain); they also learn to model and design
   databases.  Term 2 investigates innovative approaches to historical
   computing, including digitisation, text mark-up and presentation,
   including delivering materials on the Internet.  Students also do a pilot
   study which helps them to begin work on their dissertations.

   Core Course B is a seminar course introducing theoretical issues and key
   historiographical debates.  Each seminar is led by a different member of
   academic staff with expertise in the topic under review, such as Electoral
   politics in eighteenth-Century England; Slavery in the American South;
   Consumer behaviour; or Wealth-holding in nineteenth-century Britain.
   The Select Course enables students to develop a deeper understanding of
   an historical period so that they can place new methodologies in their
   broader historiographical context, often leading to the dissertation topic.
   Students choose from options taught by different staff within the School
   of History and Archaeology.  Instruction is either by one-to-one tutorial
   or taught course, such as the course in the history of medicine taught by
   staff from Glasgow's Wellcome Unit for the History of Medicine.

   Assessment is most often by essay, since the purpose of the programme
   as a whole is to teach students to use the computer as an historical
   research tool.  For this reasons, must students choose to submit a 15,000
   word dissertation based upon computer-based research.  However, in
   recent years Core Course A has begun to enlarge its focus to encompass
   computer-based presentation of resources and results, as well as merely
   computer-based analysis, and the new modules may be assessed by
   practical work.  In October 2000, two students submitted multimedia
   dissertations on CD-ROM, in which they presented the results of their
   research, but also used the medium to provide the reader with primary
   sources (selected and highlighted in a manner akin to quotation in a
   conventional bound dissertation).  These multimedia dissertations were
   primarily assessed on their content; computing techniques were assessed
   insofar as they were used effectively to communicate and present
   historical results.

   The M.Phil in History and Computing has never had a large intake of
   students.  Cohorts have ranged in size from three to seven students.
   These numbers reflect both the specialist nature of the course and the
   difficulties which some applicants have in funding their studies.  The
   course is able to nominate to two ESRC Quota Studentships each year
   and nominates one to three students a year to studentships funded by the
   Wellcome Trust, for study of the history of medicine.  It is rare for more
   than one or two students a year to pay their own fees.  Unless more
   funding is made available, the course is unlikely to attract more students.
   This may raise questions about the course's viability (although Core
   Course A is also taken by other history postgraduates), since it limits the
   number of options that can be offered.  These numbers might be thought
   to reflect potential students' appraisal of the job market.  In fact, the
   course has had good success in placing graduates either in research
   studentships (enabling them to proceed to a Ph.D) or in jobs, most often
   supporting historical or humanities computing.

   The M.Phil in History and Computing is currently being reviewed, as part
   of a wider review of postgraduate programmes in the School of History
   and Archaeology.  One stimulus for this reform is to strengthen the
   research training element of the M.Phil, so that it continues to be eligible
   for studentships in the next few years.  Another is to bring these Master's
   programmes more in line with one another, increasing the number of
   students sharing options and reducing disparities in workloads which that
   students taking the M.Phil are required to submit more work (as they tell
   us!) than those doing other programmes.  The School of History and
   Archaeology continues  support the M.Phil in History and Computing
   strongly, and wishes to maintain its distinctiveness in the future.

   References

   V. Davis, et al., eds., The Teaching of Historical Computing: An
   International Framework (St Katharinen, 1993).

   N. J. Morgan and R. H. Trainor. 'Liberator or Libertine? The Computer
   in the History Classroom', in Humanities and the Computer, ed. D. S.
   Miall (Oxford, 1990), 61-70.

   D. Spaeth, et al., eds., Towards an International Curriculum for History
   and Computing (St Katherinen, 1992).

   D. Spaeth and S. Cameron, 'Computers and Resource-Based History
   Teaching: A UK Perspective', Computers and the Humanities 34 (2000):
   325-43.","txt","2","",""
"124","2","Toward a Dynamic, Generative Evaluation Toolbox: a Roundtable","3","
ACH paper proposals specify that papers ""that concentrate on the
development of new computing methodologies should make clear how the
methodologies are applied to research and/or teaching in the
humanities, and should include some critical assessment of the
application of those methodologies in the humanities.""  Granting
agencies such as the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary
Education (FIPSE) are quite insistent that evaluation play a major
role in any sponsored project, and evaluation is seen as increasingly
important by all major funders.  In 2000, the importance of measuring
results in education was not just a convenient U.S. Presidential
campaign slogan, but reports regularly appear in the Chronicle of
Higher Education about the value of and need for meaningful assessment
tools; in fact, the Chronicle recently featured a story about two
major foundations ""collaborating on a national survey [National Survey
of Student Engagement] aimed at measuring the extent to which students
are learning and colleges are performing"" (13 November 2000).  Indeed,
in all its various forms of outcomes and process assessment,
evaluation is a crucial component of humanities computing, both for
development of high quality projects and of audience.  Drawing on a
variety of experiences in humanities computing projects, this
roundtable seeks to probe the present state of evaluation tools and,
via critical discussion among the roundtable participants and with the
audience, propose dynamic methods of critical assessment especially
suited to new media.  The participants will approach the problem of
evaluation mechanisms from three major project type perspectives
digital research projects designed to produce knowledge; digital
pedagogical endeavors designed to distribute research results and
develop skills for rigorous critical inquiry in new media; and library
projects designed to facilitate and maintain access to resources.

A scholarly website dedicated to the study of the British Romantic
period, Romantic Circles features research and pedagogical work
scholarly editions, critical and theoretical articles, teaching
components, and art and music relevant to the literature that brought
the site into being.  Site Manager Lisa Antonille will describe
processes of evaluation for Romantic Circles dynamic, iterative,
constantly revisionary processes that examine the site's content and
interface, methods the project uses in evaluating and improving itself
as an academic resource and community.  In terms of content,
contributions to Romantic Circles Praxis Series are peer-reviewed to
guarantee the highest scholarly standards.  Antonille will discuss the
changing nature of peer review in a wired, networked environment.
Additionally, interface, including the site's usability, maintenance,
and accessibility, is equally important to the site's integrity.  As a
result, Romantic Circles performs a variety of usability studies to
assure that its interface and content send a unified message to its
audience, and this presentation will highlight the opportunities and
difficulties of rigorously evaluating a site's usability and content
as it exists in a medium which is always in media res.

With the changing nature of peer review and questions of how best to
assess usability on the table, the Dickinson Electronic Archives
Associate Editor and Project Manager Lara Vetter will begin by
outlining the project's partially implemented plans to bring
conscientious users into the critical review process formally, as
complements to the experts relied upon to evaluate the project's
quality instead of just relying on user feedback in an ad hoc fashion
or not at all.  Thus how innovations in assessment might effectively
extend critical review beyond peer review as well as incorporate
usability measures will also be addressed.  Vetter will then focus on
the importance of contextual presentations as crucial enhancements of
online scholarly editions not bound by the physical bibliographical
restraints that limit the presentations of, for example, a variorum,
and how these presentations of Dickinsonian writings unavailable for
the past century, of biographical and historical materials lost to
literary history (either through active suppression or through the
accidents of transmission), of contemporary poets commenting upon
Dickinson's legacy, and of postsecondary, secondary, and primary
students and classes using the Dickinson Electronic Archives in
poetry, literature, writing, and history courses and producing their
own critical papers, websites, and journal reflections are crucial to
evaluation processes.  What, if any, are the effects of vastly
different user levels (expertise both technically and intellectually)
on evaluation?  Vetter will conclude by analytically describing the
project's work in 3-D computer modeling with a theater professor at
the University of Maryland and the curators of both Emily Dickinson's
and her brother and sister-in-law's houses, nineteenth-century
cultural and architectural treasures, to develop virtual learning
centers and how that work has unexpectedly begun to serve as part of
the evaluation mechanism for the Dickinson Electronic Archives
critical editions.

A FIPSE-sponsored project, The Classroom Electric: Dickinson, Whitman,
& American Culture is a collaborative venture between the Dickinson
Electronic Archives and the Whitman Hyptertext Archive that brings
together 11 faculty members from around the United States to develop
pedagogical applications of these major research archives.  The
project participants are from different levels of institutions (from
the largest public universities on each coast to mid-size public and
private colleges to a small private college whose mission is to
educate the poorest members of rural America) and are, by the
project's design, not humanities computing specialist but are American
literature specialists who have agreed to devote part of their
intellectual energies and resources to developing practical
applications of these scholarly new media productions.  FIPSE requires
each of its projects to formulate evaluation strategies that do
something much more than record subjective impressions from students
and teachers, and Ken Price will reflect on the first three years of
this project and will begin to outline plans to enhance The Classroom
Electric's evaluation tools.  In the first three years, evaluation
became synonymous with frustration the professors involved were
resistant to control groups, and skepticism verging on hostility was
voiced by some humanists to the whole enterprise of evaluation.  Price
will open up the discussion to questions of what happens when the
better types of evaluation enjoyed by a project anecdotal evidence
from teachers and students, the archived email discussion list of the
project participants and of the classes using the resources produced,
examples of electronic work produced by students, journals kept by
participants, and critically reflective essays written by participants
are those least sanctioned by the project's major granting agency.
How can these more subjective evaluative tools be used responsibly and
effectively, how can the more objective evaluative tools be
effectively incorporated into a process whose participants are
actively resistant, and what hybrid evaluative tools might be forged
to analyze more comprehensively the project's goals and outcomes and
contribute directly to improving project performance and future
achievements.

All three of the projects discussed by this point in the roundtable
receive some of their validation from the mechanisms of publication
Romantic Circles is published by the University of Maryland and
partners with Cambridge University Press, and the Dickinson Electronic
Archives, its partner the Whitman Hypertext Archive, and their mutual
endeavor The Classroom Electric are published via one of the most
respected humanities computing centers in the world, the Institute for
Advanced Technology in the Humanities (IATH) at the University of
Virginia.  Using these as beginning examples, Susan Schreibman will
reflect and analyze publication standards and present a heuristic for
formulating more extensive critical review of dynamic publication.
Peer review in the bibliographical world usually focuses on content
and not the mechanisms of deliverability that, for example, design the
printed page, and peer review in the bibliographical world is also
focused on work that is static in that it is not readily and easily
updatable but must rely on the production of an entire new edition to
make substantive changes in any part.  Critical review in digital
media examines the methods of deliverability and design as
constitutive of the content of digital productions, and should also
develop methods that will judiciously evaluate dynamic productions.
Schreibman's discussion will also reflect on evaluation of text
encoding, imaging, and preservation standards as important components
of any review process.  Complications of evaluating institutional
support and what that actually means in terms of intellectual rigor
and quality will also be discussed.

The topics broached so far on the roundtable have had primarily to do
with project quality.  MITH Program Associate George Williams will
extend these discussions to focus more directly on evaluating students
by analytically describing the University of Maryland's involvement in
administering Tek.Xam, an Information Technology Certification Exam,
which explores student aptitudes in the operation of technology, in
retrieving, interpreting, and presenting information in digital forms,
and their awareness of IT legal and ethical issues.  The goal of the
exam is to provide liberal arts students with a mean to prove the
technical proficiency mandatory for success in an increasingly digital
world, and Williams will raise questions evaluating the exam and its
goals itself and offer perspectives on how to build on Tek.Xam's
successes and learn from its limitations.  Issues of evaluating
e-scholarship in the undergraduate classroom will also be examined,
including the reward systems (or lack thereof) for work such as
teacher-student, student-student email exchanges that, in their
immediacy and electronic transmission and archiving, seem ephemeral.
Steps MITH is taking to measure visual literacy and MITH's work with
disability studies experts and concepts of universal design will
deepen the roundtable's considerations of how best to formulate
dynamic evaluation tools.

Having examined evaluations of digital research projects, pedagogical
applications of digital research, and the work of a humanities
computing institute, the roundtable will then turn to considerations
of digital libraries.  Senior specialist LeeEllen Friedland of the
Library of Congress's National Digital Library Program will begin by
outlining basic ways in which the library perspective differs from
research and pedagogical points of view.  Digital libraries build on
traditions of access and management, and usually the library
perspective is more broad and deep than that of research and teaching
projects because librarians are thinking about the underpinnings and
mechanisms, the structure and architecture of digital library projects
that allow all of the pieces to work and be usable.  Librarians think
about resource discovery, maintenance, integrated access, and public
service in ways that individual project developers may well not, and
thus libraries go to great length to develop standards, and foster
community practice that optimizes potential for interoperability.
Friedland's presentation will build on the previous observations of
the other roundtable participants and will open up the discussion to
involve the audience as we collectively attempt to formulate dynamic
methods of critical assessment especially suited to new media.  Such
methods will undoubtedly involve extending critical (peer) review to
involve users, and may well build on the evaluation work of usability
studies, focus groups, control groups in order to improve outcomes
measures and process assessment.","txt","2","",""
"125","2","Categorisation techniques in computer assisted reading and analysis of texts (CARAT) in the humanities","1","1- Mathematical classification and categorizations strategies

There are two important recurring strategies in computer assisted reading and analysis of text (CARAT). A first one relates to the classification process which, through various clustering techniques must discover classes of segments on the ground of some type or other of similarity criterion. This is typical in lexical, semantic, narrative, thematic or stylistic analysis. The second strategy pertains to the categorisation, that is, in the information retrieval sense ( not the cognitive one): the attribution of tags from a finite set of tags to each segment, sentence, or word of the whole text. These tags are used as descriptor for some aspect of the content. They may be morphological (vg Masc. Fem) syntactical (e.g. Name, verb) but they may also be semantic. For instance, these last types may define the individual senses of words (Paliouras, Karkaletsis and Spyropoulos 1999, Rastier, 1994) by relating them to some conceptual, notional, ontological category such as ""HUMAN"", ""MATERIAL OBJECT"", ""ETHICAL SUBJECT"", etc... These two often interrelated operations have been regularly recognized as essentials components of text analysis (Beaugrande 1980, Landow & Delany 1993, Jansen 1992, Hearst 1994, Hayes 1979, Barrett 1989, Rastier 1994, Robert & Bouillaguet 1997). It is through these two main operations that content analysis and interpretation of texts are usually performed. Altough some of these operations can be computer assisted if they belong to basic grammatical level (lemmatisation, morphological tagging, syntactic tagging) they are seldom found at the more complex semantical and logical level. This is why systems such as NUDIST*, ATLAS,... are so welcome (Alexa & Zuell 1999a, 1999b). These systems assist and manage the manual classification and categorization process. But even so, these two operations are highly time consuming. For relatively small corpora, such manual operations may be possible, but for large and complex philosophical or literary text corporaor even a large corpora of psychological interview, the process is energy consuming and will be practically unrealizable. A possible solution to this problem calls upon more inductive or bottom-up strategies that are numerical and statistical. These classification and categorisation techniques are used in the information retrieval field and in what is more and more named text mining strategies (Hearst 1994, 1999). By comparison, these techniques are fast, easy to use and entirely or quasi-entirely automatics. The classification techniques are usually realized through various clustering strategies such as factorial analysis, k means, principal component analysis, etc. (Bouroche et Saporta 1980). The categorisation techniques are realized through neural nets (Wermter, Panchev and Arevian 1999), k-NN, linear regression (Yang and Liu 1999), decision trees (Lewis and Ringuette 1994), genetics algorithms (Tauritz, Kok & Sprinkhuizen-Kuyper 2000), etc. Both types of strategies may be combined. Both techniques are known to have obtained important success. And the categorizations algorithms in recent research (Sebastiani 1999) may even obtain more than 80% mark on breakeven point scale. But application of these techniques in the fields of humanities texts have not been frequents. Most of the time, the categorisation algorithms are used with simple and easy to process corpus (like the standards test corpus, the different Reuters Corpora); the humanities texts, and more so philosophical or literary texts or psychological interviews, need finer discriminations. 
Our research aims to find answers to the following question: Can these text classification and categorisation techniques be applied successfully to the reading and analysis or texts in the humanities and social sciences? A positive answer would allow important methodological innovations for the computer text analysis as practices in theses researches, because machine learning algorithms allows the reader to make there own categories without an explicit theory of necessary and sufficient conditions for belonging to the categories. Some researchers (Hearst 1999), think that these text mining tools should be used as new scientific tools, just as were microscopes or telescopes. For the moment, we think more modestly, that these methods have to be explored more systematically on large and complex corpora before we can pronounce ourselves on their strength and weakness. 
In our own research, we are exploring a few of these techniques and their combinations. We now know, through our own past research and other's works, that the classification methods allows a good empirical thematic exploration of a corpus (Meunier, Remaki, Forest, 1999; Memmi, Meunier, Gabi, 1998) and may be used in hypertextualisation of corpus (Nault, Rialle, Meunier, 1999). More specifically, in this paper we shall concentrate mainly on the problem of assisting the automatic categorization of small segments of a philosophical text into a set of thematic categories. The main goal in this experience is to make a ""proof of concept"": is the idea of using these Information Retreival tools in content analysis a viable idea ? More work must be done before we can have a definitive answer; but this experience can give a general idea of the possibility and the limit of the actual tools - the perceptron beeing one of the best ones.

2.- Methodology

Because of the particular complex nature of humanity texts, the design of our methodology contain 6 main steps. In the first one, the text is filtered. Here we may eliminate from the text all functional and subjectively non-pertinent words either manually or automatically. In the present experiment, for simplicity of evaluation we have skipped this step. In the second step, a set of categories or tags is chosen. This set of tags is the working hypothesis for the expert reader. They are usually taken from an a priori knowledge that the expert has about the corpus. In the third step, the original text is automatically transformed into a matrix, using the Vector Space Model (Salton, 1983; Manning and Schütze, 1999).Here, each segment is seen as a binary vector and each element of the vector represents the absence or presence of a specific word. The fourth step is the training one. Here, as usual in these algorithms, the expert reader, manually tags a sample set of segments. Then a neural net ""learns"" what ""counts"" as typical exemplars of a particular tag. Technically, this learning is realized by defining a partition of the vector space by an hyper plane, using linear regression. In the fifth step, the neural net now takes on the whole text. It then tags the rest of the segments of the text into each one of the categories. This is realized through the matrix built in the second step, and the categorisation techniques are then applied to the matrix. In the sixth step, the various segments of the text are then presented to the expert for analysis and evaluation. Here the expert may accept or reject the classification realized according to some type or other of templates (e.g. experts in the field or his own working hypothesis, etc.) Further development will explore the possibility of using some type or other of dynamic relevance feedback techniques (Salton and Buckley 1990) e.g. genetic algorithms. (Nault, 1999).

3.- The experiment

The preceding methodology has been applied to a philosophical text of Bertrand Russell (about 43 000 words). The text is segmented in 50 words segments. The set of categories chosen pertain to various dimensions of the various possible types of philosophical dimensions a russellian discourse can present. The ones chosen here were : PERCEPTION"", ""KNOWLEDGE"", ""MIND"". The categories are not exclusive and do not form a structured ontology. This computer processing was realized on an in-house system called CONTERM in which perceptron neural net modules has been included and specially programmed for this experiment. The one-layered perceptron algorithm is a classical but robust neural network. The current research seems to show that the multilayered perceptron is not better than the one-layered one in the text categorisation task.

4.- Results

After training our system on some first segments, the system then had to categorized the rest of the text. The results were positive. As example, it correctly categorised the following segment into the category ""KNOWLEDGE"": 
""In this respect our theory of belief must differ from our theory of acquaintance, since in the case of acquaintance it was not necessary to take account of any opposite. (2) It seems fairly evident that if there were no beliefs there could be..."" 
But the sentence : 
""Some relations demand three terms, some four, and so on. Take, for instance, the relation 'between'. So long as only two terms come in, the relation 'between' is impossible: three terms are the smallest number that render it possible. York is between London."" 
is rigthly rejected as not belonging to the category. As we can see the machine learning tool manages to categorize the first segment as belonging to the category, although the word ""knowledge"" does not appear in it. This illustrate the basic reason of using such tools: the definition of a category learned by the algorithm may be not a priori evident to the user. And it may heuristicaly deliver to the user segments that could not appear in a classical concordance or in a key word retrieval. 
More so, the system directly finds segments that can be considered as prototypical of a category because of the high synaptic weight it attributes to certain words in it. For instance words as ""acquaintance"" (7.5), ""knowledge"" (5.5), ""about"" (4.0), ""could"" (4.0), ""nature"", ""truths"", ""know"", ""should"" (3.0), ""reason"" (2.5) in a segment are among those found as having the more high weights. This is common in neural networks technologies (McLeod, Plunkett, Rolls 1998). 
By using this algorithm with the Russell corpus, we cannot hope to reproduce the 80% results obtain by others with this kind of algorithm. But the result are encouraging: without any pre-filtering, ( lemmatization, complex names, elimination of hapax, etc ) we have obtained more than we obtain a recall of 0.658 and a precision of 0.531 in test phase with the category ""Knowledge"". But for ""Mind"" and ""Perception"", the Perceptron results are near random, probably due to the low cardinality of the positive training set.

5. Discussion

We can see that categorizing a philosophical text is not like categorizing sports or business news. We think that because of the particular nature of philosophical texts some specific modifications should be added to the process before the perceptron or another similar algorithm can used with more precision in a content and thematic analysis. Although the results of this experiment were positive much more work has to be realized in order to discover the various pertinent factors that come into play in the application of these numerical classification and categorisation strategies to humanities texts and to increase the success of the categorization. Among these we can cite: 1) more complex pre filtering (lemmatisation, elimination of functional and subjectively non-pertinent words, use of compound-word detector 2) better understanding of the nature of categories set and training set for training purpose, 3) better parameters for correct segmentation for categorisation purposes (by words, by sentences or according to some predefinite criterion). 4) better design of the categorizing algorithm, especially for dynamical corpora. 5) specific evaluation strategy for bench marking text categorization according to text interpretations by expert of the domain. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
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BARRETT, E. (1985). The Society of Text. Hypertext, Hypermedia, and the Social Construction of Information. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press 
BEAUGRANDE, R. (1980) Text Discourse and Process. Longman. 
BOUROCHE, J.M., SAPORTA, G. (1980), L'analyse des données, Paris, Presses Universitaire de France. 
CARPENTER, G.A. & GROSSBERG, S. (1988) The ART of Adaptative Pattern Recognition by a Self-Organizing Neural Network, IEEE Computer 12(3): 77-88. 
HAYES, P. J. (1980). ""The Logic of Frames"". In D. Metzing (Ed.), Frame Conceptions and Text Understanding. New York: Walter de Gruyter. 
HEARST, M.(1994a) Context and Structure in Automated Full-Text Information Access. PhD thesis, University of California at Berkeley. 
HEARST, M.(1999) Untangling Data Mining, in the Proceeding of ACL'99 : the 37th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistic, University of Maryland, June 20-26. 
JANSEN, S., OLESEN, J., PREBENSEN, H., & THARNE, T. (1992). Computational approaches to text Undestanding. Copenhaguen: Museum Tuscalanum Press, 
LACHARITÉ, N. (1989), Introduction à la méthodologie de la pensée écrite, Presses de l'Université du Québec, Québec. 
LANDOW, G.P. & DELANY, P. (1993). The Digital Word: Text-Based Computing in the Humanities. Cambridge: MIT Press. 
LEWIS, D.D., and M. RINGUETTE (1994), A comparison of two learning algorithms for text categorization, Proceedings of SDAIR-94, 3rd Annual Symposium on Document Analysis and Information Retrieval, pp. 81-93. 
MANNING, C.D., SCHÜTZE, H. (1999), Foundations of statistical natural language processing, Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press. 
MCLEOD, P., PLUNKETT, K., ROLLS, E. T. (1998), Introduction to Connectionist Modelling of Cognitive Processes, Oxford University Press. 
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PALIOURAS, G., and KARKALETSIS, V. and C. D. SPYROPOULOS, Learning rules for large vocabulary word sense disambiguation, Proceedings of IJCAI-99, 16th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, pp. 674-679, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, San Francisco, US, 1999. 
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","txt","2","",""
"126","2","Reconstructing the stemma of a textual tradition from the order of sections in manuscripts","1","Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales exists in over 50 complete manuscripts
and early printed editions.  It consists of a series of tales told by
pilgrims travelling from London to Canterbury, more or less loosely
connected by linking passages.  Unlike other contemporary works of
literature having a similar form, the surviving manuscripts show many
different orders of the tales and links [Manly, J. M. & Rickert, E., pages
475-494 in Volume II of The text of the Canterbury Tales: studied on the
basis of all known manuscripts (eds. Manly, J. M. & Rickert, E.),
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1940].  Tales and links have been
inserted, deleted or moved from one position to another.  Previous studies
of the order of these sections have focussed on two main questions: the
order intended by Chaucer, and the possibility that differences in order
among manuscripts can reveal the genealogy of the manuscripts (the
stemma).  These studies have used verbal arguments about the internal
consistency of different orders, geographical references within the links,
and the plausibility of hypothetical rearrangements [e.g. Benson, L. D.
The order of The Canterbury Tales. Studies in the Age of Chaucer 3, 77-120
(1981)].

An analogous problem in evolutionary biology is the reconstruction of the
phylogeny (family tree) of a set of species from the order of genes on a
genome [Sankoff, D. Edit distance for genome comparison based on non-local
operations. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 644, 121-135 (1992)].  Genes
may be inserted, deleted, transposed (moved from one position to another)
or inverted (flipped from forward to reverse order).  One could measure
the edit distance between two genome orders as the minimum number of these
operations needed to convert one order into the other.  Similarly, the
distance between a pair of manuscripts could be measured as the minimum
number of insertions, deletions and transpositions needed to convert one
order into the other (inversions are not possible in manuscripts).  One
could then use well-known methods from evolutionary biology to reconstruct
a stemma from the matrix of pairwise distances among manuscripts.
Unfortunately, calculating edit distance is a very difficult computational
problem.  We describe two solutions.

First, the edit distance can be separated into the number of
transpositions and insertions/deletions.  The breakpoint distance between
a pair of sequences (manuscripts or genomes) is the proportion of items
(tales or genes) common to both sequences but having different right-hand
neighbours between the two sequences.  Breakpoint distance is simple to
calculate, and provides an approximate measure of the number of
transpositions provided that few transpositions have occurred [Blanchette,
M., Kunisawa, T. & Sankoff, D. Gene order breakpoint evidence in animal
mitochondrial phylogeny. Journal of Molecular Evolution 49, 193-203
(1999)].  For damaged manuscripts from which sections may have been lost
after writing, we cannot calculate the exact breakpoint distance but we
can set bounds on its possible value.  The deletion distance is the
proportion of items present in one but not both of the pair of sequences,
and is an estimate of the number of insertions/deletions.  However, we
cannot calculate the deletion distance for damaged manuscripts.  We
therefore use breakpoint distances alone to estimate the number of
transpositions among each pair of extant manuscripts in the Canterbury
Tales tradition, and produce stemmata based on these distances.  Second,
we present new maximum likelihood methods for estimating edit distance.
These methods are computationally intensive, but are more reliable than
breakpoint distance when the number of transpositions is large.

We compare stemmata produced using these more sophisticated methods with
those from breakpoint distance.  For both methods, we use biological
software [Swofford, D. L. PAUP*: Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony
(*and other methods), Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA, 1999] to search
for the stemma requiring the smallest sum of edge lengths necessary to
reproduce the observed pattern of distances among manuscripts, where
distance between two manuscripts on the stemma is measured as the sum of
the lengths of the edges (branches) linking the two manuscripts.  Although
we only allow topologically binary stemmata, edge lengths may be
arbitrarily close to zero, so relationships in which a single manuscript
has many descendants can be represented.  We do not discuss the methods
used by scholars such as Quentin, Dearing and Zarri, as we are working
with a distance matrix rather than a set of variants.

We suggest two methods for comparing different stemmata produced from the
same data set.  Again, these methods were developed for analogous problems
in evolutionary biology.  First, one can define a partition distance
between two stemmata [Penny, D. & Hendy, M. D. The use of tree comparison
metrics. Systematic Zoology 34, 75-82 (1985)].  Removing any edge linking
two manuscripts (whether extant or hypothetical) divides a stemma into two
sets of manuscripts.  The order of manuscripts within the sets is not
important.  If we can divide two stemmata into the same two sets of
manuscripts in this way, we say that the stemmata have an edge in common.
If there is no edge in the second stemma whose removal produces the same
two sets of manuscripts as the removal of an edge in the first stemma, we
say that the edge occurs in only one of the two stemmata.  The partition
distance is then the proportion of edges that occur in only one of the two
stemmata.  Partition distance is a simple summary of the number of
differences between two stemmata, and can be used to decide whether two
stemmata are more similar than one would expect by chance alone.  Second,
a consensus stemma [Page, R. D. M. & Holmes, E. C. Molecular evolution: a
phylogenetic approach (Blackwell Science, Oxford, 1998)] includes only
those edges that occur in all (or a specified proportion of) the stemmata
to be compared.  Parts of the consensus stemma for which the stemmata to
be compared contradict each other are left as unresolved, star-like
groups.  A consensus stemma provides a good visual representation of the
areas of uncertainty in the relationships among manuscripts.

We also consider methods for dealing with contamination.  For the distance
measure we discuss here, our preferred technique is to add edges to the
tree so as to minimize the sum of squared differences between observed
distances and shortest distances on the resulting network [Makarenkov, V.
& Legendre, P. in Data analysis, classification and related methods (eds.
Kiers, H. A. L., Rasson, J. P., Groenen, P. J. F. & Schader, M.) 35-40
(Springer, New York, 2000)].

The computer-based methods we describe here will not automatically tell us
why the manuscripts of the Canterbury Tales show so many different orders,
or decide which, if any, order best represents Chaucer's original
intention.  However, the combination of traditional scholarship and modern
technology may allow great progress towards answering these long-standing
problems.  In a companion paper [Bordalejo, B. and Spencer, M.  The Order
of the Canterbury Tales: Praxis of Computer Analysis] we discuss the
implications of our analyses for Chaucer studies.","txt","2","",""
"127","2","Co-Cited Author Maps as Real-Time Interfaces for  Web-Based Document Retrieval in the Humanities","1","We offer here a brief account of a Web-based visual information retrieval interface that gives humanists new powers in mapping scholarly literatures and retrieving documents from them. The maps make visible bibliographic structures otherwise hidden in a database and, by implication, the intellectual structure of a field as evidenced by citation data on its authors. In preparing writings such as reviews of literatures or histories of specialties, the maps are publishable documentation in their own right, regardless of whether they are used for retrieval.

In August 2000, we implemented the system presently called AuthorLink as an interface to the Arts & Humanities Citation Index (AHCI) for 1988-1997, a database with 1.26 million records that the Institute for Scientific Information, its publisher, gave our college for research purposes in 1998. The system is operational on the Web, although, because of site-licensing limitations on our infrastructural software, BRS/Search, we cannot yet handle multiple simultaneous visitors. Given a single author’s name as input, AuthorLink can create two different maps of interrelated author-names from AHCI. as seen in Figure 1. Both are interactive interfaces for document retrieval (White, Lin, & Buzydlowski, 2000; White, Lin, & McCain, 1998).

The relationship among the authors is co-citation—that is, counts of the number of articles that cite pairs of authors jointly in the journal literatures covered by AHCI . The tradition of author co-citation mapping actually began in the humanities with the work of Rosengren (1968), who studied ""co-mentions"" of authors such as Ibsen and Tolstoy in Scandinavian book reviews. It has been continued in a series of papers and dissertations (including some in the humanities) reviewed in White (1990a, 1990b) and White & McCain (1989, 1997). ""Authors"" should here be understood as oeuvres, not persons. For example, if any work by Faulkner is cited with any work by Hemingway in the notes of a journal article covered by AHCI, the count for the pair Faulkner–Hemingway would be incremented by one. (Whole citing articles, not their individual references, are being counted; were Faulkner and Hemingway both cited multiple times in a single article, that article would still add only one to the Faulkner–Hemingway count.) Over time, co-citation counts come to vary enormously, ranging from zero for pairs of authors who have never been jointly mentioned, to many hundreds for pairs who, like Faulkner and Hemingway, are frequently studied together. It is recurrent co-citation that signifies an important interrelation; the higher the co-citation counts between pairs of authors, the stronger their relationships as perceived by citers, and the more readily interpretable the maps based on them will be.

We can use as an input name any author or artist whose work was cited in AHCI 1988-1997. This means that we can map many thousands of people, famous or obscure, past or present, in the arts and humanities– from Thales to Martin Scorsese, from Palestrina to Erica Jong. The maps are created on the fly, in seconds, for 25 authors at a time. After a particular author’s name is entered (e.g., Albert Camus, entered as Camus-A), AuthorLink retrieves and rank-orders the names of the 24 other authors who are most frequently co-cited with the input author; their co-citation counts with him or her are shown as well. On request, all 25 are then systematically paired with each other, and their co-citation counts are retrieved from AHCI to be placed in a 25 x 25 symmetric matrix. BRS/Search, a commercial package similar to Dialog, is used in these ranking and retrieval operations.

The maps are based on the matrix of raw counts, which they usefully simplify by presenting only the strongest co-citation relationships. Authors most frequently seen by citers as ""belonging together"" are displayed as neighboring or linked points (depending on the mode of mapping). The points are labeled with authors’ names. Properly manipulated, these labels lead to retrieval, from the full 10-year database, of documents that co-cite the input author with other authors in the map. For example, one could retrieve all AHCI records of documents that co-cite Albert Camus and Simone de Beauvoir. The process may, of course, lead to further mappings and further retrievals based on the interest of names as they emerge.

The different two-dimensional display modes are (1) Kohonen feature mapping, programmed by Lin, who also designed the overall interface, and (2) Pathfinder networks (PFNets), programmed by Buzydlowski. The two are demonstrated in Figure 1, with Plato as the input name (on the actual maps, the input name is in red; all other names are in blue). The Kohonen display, a self-organizing map (SOM) produced by a neural networks algorithm (Kohonen, 1989), puts in contiguous spaces the authors that most frequently co-occur; the blocked areas shown are proportional in size to the magnitude of the counts. The PFNet display (Schvaneveldt, 1990) results from what may be thought of as a link-pruning algorithm. With count-data as weights on links, it examines the possible paths linking author-points and reproduces only those whose weights sum to the least amount. This has the effect of basing a link on the single highest (or tied highest) co-citation count between authors, because the weights on all other paths would sum to an even higher amount.

We maintain that both maps in Figure 1 have high face validity, and we think that literally thousands of similar AuthorLink maps will be judged to have it as well. One need not be Mortimer Adler to see the cogent groupings that arise from algorithmically finding the authors with the highest co-citation counts and rendering these as spatial metaphors. In Figure 1(a), Plato and Aristotle, the big two, are central. Surrounding them, the Greek and Roman historians are automatically placed at upper right; the Greek playwrights and poets all go to lower right; the Roman poets are aligned with the Greek poets along the bottom; the modern Continental philosophers are below the early moderns at lower left; and the Bible and Christian philosophers related to Plato are at upper left.

Figure 1(b) is not oriented the same way as Figure 1(a), but the connections made by the counts, because explicit, are even clearer. Diogenes Laertius, whose name is truncated in the ISI records, appears as a biographer of Plato (and many other classical philosophers). We will let the reader elucidate the other links, which of course are at considerable remove from the actual statements that are being made in the co-citing documents. Here we will simply point out some features of AuthorLink not apparent in Figure 1. If the cursor is passed over any name in either map, that author’s co-citation count with Plato (or whoever is the input author) will appear. If the ""Show Numbers"" button near the PFNet is clicked, the co-citation counts for all explicit links will appear (e.g., the count for Nietzsche and Derrida or for Homer and Hesiod). This helps the viewer see how big the document sets associated with various retrievals will be.

Retrieval is carried out by double-clicking on a name and dragging it to the ""Additional Authors"" box at right in both figures. The main author, in this case Plato, is automatically entered there when the map is formed; any additional authors will be searched in a Boolean AND relationship with the main author when the ""Search"" button is clicked. The search calls up an interface provided by BRS/Search that shows the authors and titles of documents retrieved from AHCI 1988-1997. A click on any one of these shows the full AHCI record, which consists of a bibliographic reference, sometimes an abstract (ISI only added these in recent years), and a list of items that the full document cites. In the latter, the co-cited authors that caused the retrieval are highlighted in blue.

We believe that AuthorLink is particularly congenial to humanists’ patterns of inquiry. Humanists tend to center their work on named persons. AuthorLink, moreover, requires only a single named person as input, rather than complex search strategies. The payoff for a single name is 25 names whose mapped connections are usually intriguing to interpret, allowing one to demonstrate one’s cultural literacy in a chosen domain. There may also be a factor of self-interest: any person reading this account can be mapped if his or her citation record is in our decade of AHCI.

References

Kohonen, Teuvo. (1989). Self-Organization and Associative Memory. 3rd ed. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Rosengren, Karl Erik. (1968). Sociological Aspects of the Literary System. Stockholm, Sweden: Natur och Kultur.

Schvaneveldt, Roger W., ed. (1990). Pathfinder Associative Networks: Studies in Knowledge Organization. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

White, Howard D. (1990a). Introduction [to Perspectives on...Author Co-Citation Analysis]. Journal of the American Society for Information Science 41: 430-431.

White, Howard D. (1990b). Author Co-Citation Analysis: Overview and Defense. In Bibliometrics and Scholarly Communication, Christine Borgman, ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. 84-106.

White, Howard D., Jan Buzydlowski, Xia Lin. (2000). Co-Cited Author Maps as Interfaces to Digital Libraries: Designing Pathfinder Networks in the Humanities. In Information Visualisation 2000, Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Information Visualisation, July 19-21, 2000, London, England. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. 25-30.

White, Howard D., Katherine W. McCain. (1989). Bibliometrics. Annual Review of Information Science and Technology 24. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 119-186.

White, Howard D., Katherine W. McCain. (1997). Visualization of Literatures. Annual Review of Information Science and Technology 32: 99-168.

White, Howard D., Xia Lin, Katherine W. McCain. (1998). Two Modes of Automated Domain Analysis: Multidimensional Scaling vs. Kohonen Feature Mapping of Information Science Authors. In Structures and Relations in Knowledge Organization, Widad Mustafa el Hadi, Jacques Maniez, Steven A. Pollitt, eds. Wurzburg, Germany: Ergon Verlag. 57-63

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1. Two Screen Displays from AuthorLink

 



Figure 1(a). Kohonen Display of the Co-Citation Map for Plato

 

 

 

 

 

 



Figure 1(b). PFNet Display of the Co-Citation Map for Plato","txt","2","",""
"128","2","More than Words: Astonishment and Special Effect in Multimedia","1","In this paper, I contend that current approaches to multimedia privilege
language and narrative over visual and auditory effect, and that such
privileging maintains Enlightenment hierarchical arrangements of word above
image, of mind above body, and of intellect above emotion.  Important areas
in humanities computing have operated within these binaries to their
academic benefit.  Yet, while a focus on language and narrative has helped
some lines of humanities computing gain academic legitimacy, it has also had
the effect of sustaining linguistics-based and narrative-based critical
approaches to multimedia that ultimately prove inadequate to understanding
works based substantially upon visual and auditory elements.  If we are to
understand the complexities of how we experience multimedia, then we need to
look more closely at how visual and aural elements function within
interactive environments.  This is a key critical task for humanities
computing scholars who are now working more and more with new media elements
such as image, animation, video, and audio.

I focus on the multimedia genre of computer games to demonstrate that the
attraction to computer games and, by implication, other genres of rich
multimedia, is not based so much upon linguistic and narrative meaning, as
some have argued.[1]  Rather, a significant component of the appeal of
computer games is our astonishment at special effects and, importantly, at
our participation in their technological performance.  In this respect,
analysis of multimedia may benefit from special effects film theory, in
which technological astonishment is key to understanding our fascination
with spectacular, special-effects driven film.  In short, some film
theorists argue that when we watch special-effects film we oscillate between
a willing suspension of disbelief and our astonishment at the technological
cinematic display.[2]  Our enjoyment of playing computer games is driven by
a similar oscillation between willing immersion and technological awe with
the added ingredient of our participation in the technological performance.

The major parts of this paper are:

1. Linguistic bias in the humanities and humanities computing
1.1. Humanities
1.2. Humanities Computing
1.3. Hypertext Theory
2. Narrative bias in major studies of multimedia art and entertainment
3. Special effects, astonishment, and film theory
4. Performing astonishment in multimedia
5. Conclusion: Humanities computing and computer games

1. Linguistic bias of humanities and humanities computing
Until recently, the primary object of humanities computing research has been
linguistic forms of text.  The word has taken precedence over image and
sound, and humanities computing research has chiefly focused on the problems
of linguistic text.  There are several reasons for this logocentrism:

1.1 The systemic privileging of the written word in the humanities:
Even with the substantial growth of academic areas such as film studies,
cultural studies, pop culture, and visual culture, written text remains the
privileged form of intellectual expression, both in the works we study and
in the works we produce.

1.2 The disputable assumption that word-based computational research is
easier to perform than image- or audio-based computational research:
Words may seem easier to analyze computationally because alpha-numeric
characters are discrete and definable units, whereas image and sound may
seem more difficult to reduce to the finite level of individual units for
computational analysis.

1.3 The academic success of hypertext theory:
As one of the most widely-accepted areas of humanities computing, hypertext
theory has enjoyed success for its intersections with the most influential
critical theories in humanities scholarship--post-structuralism and its
derivatives--which are built substantially upon linguistics-based
conceptions of meaning.

A linguistic focus may be suitable for studying written works, but
multimedia works normally include a mixture of word, image, and sound, or
they may even rely upon image and sound alone.  As such, multimedia should
be understood within a framework where the qualities of image and sound that
are different from written text can be recognized and understood as
different.  This seems especially important for multimedia theorists to
remember, for one of the defining features of multimedia is the combination
of different media types.  Oddly, the ""multi"" in multimedia is too often
neglected.

2. Narrative bias in major studies of computer games
In this section, I will quickly summarize dominant approaches to studying
computer games.  Although few significant humanities-based studies of
computer games have been published, those that exist, for all their
strengths, tend to prioritize narrative over other element.  Drawing from
Espen Aarseth’s Cybertext and Janet Murray’s Hamlet on the Holodeck, I
demonstrate that even when these studies try to build new frameworks for
studying computer games as interactive narratives, they emphasize narrative
over special effects, which are cast as empty and secondary to the potential
for computer games to move beyond the superficial.

3. Special effects, astonishment, and film theory
As a step to thinking about special effects in multimedia, I introduce
neo-formalist film approaches to special effects.  Using Tom Gunning’s
""Cinema of Attractions"" as a springboard, some film theorists argue that
special effects film should be analyzed not within the context of narrative,
an approach drawn from literary studies and applied to written and oral
works substantially different from film.  Instead, special effects film
should be analyzed from the perspective of the viewer’s astonishment at the
special effects, and especially at the technology that produces them.

4. Performing astonishment in multimedia
In the final section of this paper, I look directly at astonishment in
computer games.  In general, as players progress through today’s computer
games from level to level, the special effects tend to get more dazzling, as
if the prize for solving puzzles or beating opponents is the chance to test
their game play in a more difficult, but more visually and aurally stunning
environment.  In first-person shooters like Doom, Quake, and Half-Life,
monsters and opponents get bigger and more fantastical; in strategy games
like Age of Empires II, buildings, communities, soldiers and war machinery
get larger and more visually detailed; similarly, in simulation games like
the SimCity series, buildings and transportation systems grow in size and
become more visually prominent and futuristic looking; and in
puzzle-adventure games like the remarkably rich Eve from Peter Gabriel's
Real World Multimedia, mudflats become Edenic gardens and music studios
become populated with music samples and animated image sequences for the
user to assemble into interactive music videos.  In all cases, players are
given more astonishing special effects as they progress through the game,
suggesting that our experience of computer games is structured in
significant part by the increasing intensity of special effects.

Narrative is not absent from these computer games, but it is not the primary
reason for their appeal, nor would the games necessarily be any better if
narrative were strengthened.  It is the technological spectacle and the user
’s participation in performing the effects that makes computer games fun.
If there is a narrative at work in computer games greater than a frame upon
which to display technological magic, then it is the narrative of the
special effects technology itself.  Indeed, magazine and user reviews of
computer games frequently contextualize a game within the history of special
effects software and hardware.  In this way, the astonishment of computer
games not only includes our awe at performing the special effects
technology, but also our awe at having access to the technology at all.

This final point is important to emphasize, for it suggests that part of the
enjoyment of multimedia, whether computer game, home encyclopedia, scholarly
resource, or e-commerce web site, is our amazement at our access.

5. Conclusion: Humanities computing and computer games
In the conclusion to this paper, I connect the place of astonishment in
computer games with the academic goals of humanities computing by posing and
providing provisional answers to a series of related questions:  What is a
special effect and can the treatment of a special effect make it more
serious and less sensational?  How do we account for the role of
astonishment over computer technology’s ever-increasing power to handle and
manipulate word, image, and sound?  Should we avoid the temptation to
incorporate special effects in our academic computer productions, and
thereby avoid tainting the seriousness of our work?  Or do we treat
astonishment seriously and re-evaluate the role of emotional response in
building intellectual understanding?  As humanities computing scholars deal
more and more with non-linguistic elements in their work, these questions
may be fruitfully considered within the context of computer games and other
forms of multimedia art and entertainment.

Notes:

[1] See Aarseth and Murray.

[2] See Gunning, Landon, and Ndalianis.


Works Cited:

Aarseth, Espen.  Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature.  Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins UP, 1997.

Gunning, Tom.  ""The Cinema of Attractions: Early Film, Its Spectator and the
Avant-Garde.""  Early Cinema: Space, Frame, Narrative.  Eds. Thomas Elsaesser
with Adam Barker.  London: BFI, 1990, pp. 56 - 62.

Landon, Brooks.  The Aesthetics of Ambivalence: Rethinking Science Fiction
Film in the Age of Electronic (Re)production.  Westport, Conn.: Greenwood
P., 1992.

Murray, Janet.  Hamlet on the Holodeck: The Future of Narrative in
Cyberspace.  Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1997.

Ndalianis, Angela.  ""Special Effects, Morphing Magic, and the 1990s Cinema
of Attractions.""  Meta-Morphing: Visual Transformation and the Culture of
Quick Change.""  Ed. Vivian Sobchack.  Minneapolis, MN: U Minnesota P., 2000,
pp. 251 - 71.","txt","2","",""
"129","2","An e|mediated rhetoric of visuality","1","Event 1: e|mediated typo|graphicacy
'Funny Signs' was an Acrobat 'visual lecture' for graphic design students,
comprising firstly, a 'paper' on semiotic [de]sign-as-ideology, written and
designed as screen-statements of 7-30 words (with occasional hidden
rollovers), in large white text on a black background (36 point size on the
original Quark XPress). The second part was a 'slideshow' of about 80 of my
photographs of signage and graffiti, arranged into categories of
'funniness', such as '+-' (by-hand deletions|additions to original
signage), and 'juxtapositions' (odd, amusing 'found' signage). The event
was an entirely visual, non-performance in silence (soundtrackless,
notwithstanding the e|mediated context). It was read, in absorbed silence,
by a participating audience: first, 'word-screens', reading in effect as
imagery; then photographic imagery, representing the words of signage. It
was the typographic design which at once enabled, yet also challenged the
audience to focus attentively on each screen. It is this visual nexus of
typo|graphic design-as-image-as-screen|information design which preoccupies
me.

Event 2: from visuality back to literacy
After the 'lecture' I attempted to put the 'visual' paper' back onto paper
as a 'proper' paper. Since published in TypoGraphic 56 (Journal of the
International Society of Typographic Designers) as 'Typography: the signs
of ideas', the argument  which had seemed convincing in presentation,
didn't read well as literate, linear text.The process of deconstructive
typo|graphic designing by which a text is edited-by-design into concise,
sequential screen-views did not translate back directly into discursive
literacy, even though it had begun there originally. The compact,
juxtapositional purposiveness of typo|graphicacy and the almost televisual
disjunctiveness of its sequential continuity, which had seemed in
presentation to sustain meaning-making and seamless memorability for viewer
interaction with the rhythms of argument, were too short, too concise on
paper.

Furthermore, I had two papers, not one. The second part, about
responsibilities of the intellectual professional, which had 'worked' in
the 'visual lecture', didn't follow on paper. In its published iteration
the paper sketches the hegemonic privileging of reason with
written|typographic discourse, from Plato to Kant and Peirce, pointing to
the parallel presence of an 'other', peripheral humanistic tradition: a
recasting of the Romantic|Enlightenment paradigm-shift (Tarnas 10) within a
design context (Wilson). It suggests that e|media may signal a
""paradigmatic shift from the stasis of typographic textuality to a 'winged'
(Mitchell) remediation"", of 'imagic' typo|graphicality and argues that
graphic design exemplifies the five arts of rhetoric so deplored by Plato.
It concludes with the somewhat breathless hope that e|mediation might
instantiate an on-line 'globalocality' of public space and dialogic public
language (Arendt, Bauman) to counter the dominating dialectics of
technocratic corporatism. Finally it reiterates Lanham's suggestion that
e|media has facilitated a kind of secondary visual orality of email (and
now txt mssgng) in which dialogue returns to the centre of communication.

What that paper does not do, is to query the intrinsic rhetoricality of
typo|graphic design through application of rhetoric itself as an
'interpretive instrument' (Gaonkar 50) to mediate  a prevailing culture of
overwhelming rhetorical visuality in which graphic design is uncritically
accepted as a powerfully hegemonic medium of 'communication'. Nor does it
address the darker implications of a globalised network of 'broadcaught'
(Negroponte) media, in which, as Virilio has pithily put it, ""interactivity
is is to real space what radioactivity is to the atmosphere"".

Event 3: from literacy to a rhetoric of typo|graphic visuality
In presenting this paper I will attempt to demonstrate the rhetorical
efficacy of typo|graphic visuality as a public discourse-by-presentation.
What you are reading now is visibly, typographically literate, but not
typo|graphically visual. The typography of discursive codex-text (Lanham)
must be seen to be read, but it does not exemplify the graphicacy of what
we are familiar with as 'graphic design' in consumerist society. I will not
argue that grasping 'graphics' is as different from reading writing, as
'reading' books is different from 'viewing' television (a familiar
argument: see Paglia|Postman), but rather, reiterate that the rhetoricality
implicit in that difference can be  particularly significant in
e|mediation. The online screen is a uniquely responsive (interactive?)
visual mediation of otherness, yet one which has evolved within a culture
attuned to televisuality (e|media and television share the same
screen-format as I discuss below). On television typographic textuality
disappears. As Bolter puts it ""the text is absorbed into the video image"" .
But the e|medium puts graphic design back on screen, this time with an
expanded hermeneutic remit for designing an explicitly rhetorical
typo|graphic visuality.

Expressly, as an ideological medium of persuasion in corporatist society,
graphic design is complicit in the consumerism of over-expansionist
productivism.
Yet paradoxically graphic design visually exemplifies the five arts of the
rhetorical padaeia by which the participatory dialogue of the democratic
public sphere was performed. Wit is derived from the invention of
unexpected and original conceptual|visual juxtapositions. Argument may well
be sustained through 'copywritten' textuality, but moreso through the
overall coherence of the visual composition, the design of the three
constitutive elements: text, display text, and imagery. It is this 'imagic'
coherence of visuality which constitutes the true rhetorical heart of the
'performance'. (I have coined 'imagic' to describe the peculiar union of
image-as-imagery, with 'image' as 'perceived public reputation', which is
central to the rhetoricality of visual 'communication'.) Styling, in the
typo|graphic fashion or 'look' of the moment, can be so significant a
concern as to either dominate user-perception as the 'true' message (bad
'design'), or to be exploited by poor designers as a substitute for
invention and argument (even worse 'design'). And finally the artefact is
delivered through a highly finished technical grammar and technology of
reproduction.

Visual constraints of the e|medium
Print and 'onscreen' discursive visualities are different 'conduits'
through which the visible abstraction of language may be 'delivered' (Reddy
284) as designed visual 'communication'. Print and onscreen e|mediation are
privately accessed while presentations (whether e|mediated or not) are
publicly (group)read, and often employ conventions such as bullet-point
phrases which are rarely intended for contiguous reading, like  codex-text,
or to be comprehensively coherent as standalone documents.Yet a
presentation is onscreen e|mediation writ large, requiring only the
addition of way-finding conventions for direct user-access  and control.But
in designing appropriately for e|mediated graphicacy , there are other
visual considerations too.

The e|medium has inherited the landscape-format used universally in
traditional image-centred media (cameras, television,  cinema). Thus
'landscape' is associated with imagery. Even static, juxtapositional
typo|graphic design  seems to make more visual sense as 'landscape'. The
availability of unlimited free colour reinforces this bias towards imagery
(just like television) provoking implicitly 'imagic' expectations in the
screen-viewer. For, like print periodicals, screens are both 'viewed' and
'read'. But not only are screens wide they are small in size relative to
their resolution. A typical 17"" screen is A4 on its side, yet its
equivalent legible resolution is extremely coarse by comparison with
paper.Screen-wide, single-columns of small, print-size html text, then,
will be even more unreadable than on paper. Because visual 'real estate' is
limited onscreen, instincts are to pack every visible pixel with as much
'information' as possible, thereby ignoring the dual medium-specific
virtues of either unlimited virtual screen-size, and|or virtually-unlimited
screen availability. Worse it denies any need for design-sense.  As Edward
Tufte has noted, the problem in dealing with information overload is not
its complexity, but rather the quality of its designed organisation. As
such, 'authoring' e|media is as much about designing as writing, and
interrogates conventional perceptions of what either writing or
typo|graphic designing entails.

Practising typo|graphicacy
My 'writing|designing-as-I-go' process of translating linear text into
compact 'screen-bites' necessarily requires a literate editorial capability
informed by both visual and typo|graphic designing sensibilities. For the
writer, inventing a rigorous, seemingly rational, 'well-arranged' argument
will constitute the major task of writing, while 'style' and 'delivery',
will be construed as secondary. This is consistent with the Ramist
inheritance (Ong, Lanham) in which 'neutrality', 'authority' and
'rationality' became elided with typographic literacy. Because it was
self-contained, self-referential and abstract, typographic textuality
aspired to an 'objectivity' which eschewed any taint of the 'subjectively'
rhetorical. Not only did print beget the myth of the 'original' author
(Poster), but also the myths that neither 'originality' nor  'neutrality'
nor 'objectivity' were in themselves intrinsically rhetorical conceits.

But is not writing itself a design-mediated act? And if rhetoric is the
design art at the centre of writing then a designing consciousness must
drive all communication. The arts of rhetoric exemplify the inventive
ambiguity of human art-making in which originality and the rule-following
of practical craftship are seamlessly integrated. And similarly, as the
seams between intention and artefact in rhetoric seem particularly
transparent (Kaufer) so are they in typo|graphic designing: after all,
people have been reading type for five hundred years. Consumerist graphic
design is literally and functionally rhetorical, yet its true rhetoricality
is implicit as visuality. As an ubiquitous and overtly persuasive form of
cultural production, its hegemonic power operates through the paradoxical
invisibility of its visuality. Graphic design is so critically unquestioned
and so popularly accepted not just as normal as print, but as the defining
'image' of what print means as a 'communication' medium, that it is itself
the message; and the message is the rhetorical visuality of the imagic.

Animating typo|graphicacy
The 'dynamic rhetoric' (Bonsiepe 75) of animation introduces more than an
additional disciplinary dimension. Animated typographic 'figures of speech'
(Bonsiepe 72) facilitate a particularly explicit visual rhetoricality. For
example, in a very short animation 'What is 'creativity' in graphic
design?' (in my visual lecture 'The End of Graphic Design') animated
typography deconstructs and re-presents internally coherent textual
complexity as subtle variations on the same key concepts. E|mediated
animation also enables text to oscillate as dense and static linearity,
typo|graphics, and a time-base, imagic fusion of form and content;
simultaneously subject to both televisual disjunctivity and the associative
discontinuity of user-controlled hypertextual non-linearity.

Designing text to be both graphic|discursive, and static|dynamic opens
structural gaps by means of content-derived visual juxtapositions which
liberate meaning, clarify associated concepts, reveal otherwise inchoate
links, and designate visual hierarchies of emphasis. As a simultaneous
instantiation of meaningful formality, by design, typo|graphicacy can
mediate the paradoxical 'fissure' at the heart of rhetoric:  that ""division
of the logos into form and content"" (Hariman 227). It can emancipate a
hermeneutic understanding of the analytical processes and constraints to
which it is itself subject, thereby transcending the sleight of hand by
which 'commercial' graphic design conceals its complicity in the hegemonic
dissemination of top-down consumerist message-making.But only if it is
explicitly designed for this purpose. And it can expose the 'designing'
consciousness behind all literacy, the implicit rhetoricality of all
communication. Then it serves a  hermeneutic of ethical communications, a
kind of 'information design' which supports audience understanding,
reasoning and reflection, outside the hegemony of a mechanistic media
construct which excludes ""context, history, expectations, goals,
values,priorities, feelings, preferences and differences of intelligence""
(Frascara). It is in the deceptive visual simplicity of good graphic design
that the knowing, ironic oscillation of postmodern discourse is most
convincingly suasive, revealing what Thomas Frank and Judith Williamson
identify as the true rhetorical agenda of visual 'communication': its
'hipness'; its capacity for engendering a shared knowingness of
transgression. In short, what makes it 'cool'.

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"130","2","TEvent 1: e|mediated typo|graphicacy 'Funny Signs' was an Acrobat 'visual lecture' for graphic design students, comprising firstly, a 'paper' on semiotic [de]sign-as-ideology, written and designed as screen-statements of 7-30 words (with occasional hidden rollovers), in large white text on a black background (36 point size on the original Quark XPress). The second part was a 'slideshow' of abou...","1","ABSTRACT:
    One of the maddening limits of the deconstructive literature to this
point is its general focus on what Whorf called ""Standard Average
European"" (SAE) language practices, with only occasional glances at
languages that fall outside this grouping (and despite the elaborate
founding of the Grammatology on an example from Levi-Strauss involving
South American Indian languages). Not only do the apparent structural
differences between fully modern languages and nonmodern ones become
occluded from this perspective, though this is a matter for discussion
under another heading. In addition, what are in effect full-on linguistic
practices that have become highly specialized throughout the
techno-scientific, governmental and business communities are left out as
well. These international lingua francas, usually based on either SAE
languages or highly standardized and restricted parts of non-SAE ones,
nonetheless are very literally the languages of the technical ruling and
business classes of our world. To restrict the deconstructive operation to
the core conceptual texts of our academies is, to my mind,
problematic. For in these specialized languages of modernity we find
nothing less than the substance of actual ruling structures, which is to
say no less their failure than their instancing as structure.
    Perhaps the most pointed and the most challenging example of this
neglect is found in what are easily enough referred to as programming
languages. It is a familliar fact that the computerized economy is today
run by programs written in languages whose names some of us may know
well: Java, C, C++, VisualBasic, and others. These workhorses of the
computing infrastructure are supplemented by hundreds of less
widely-distributed languages that comprise the life's work of the many
engineers who make up a large segment of many of our largest
corporations. The written output of these engineers comprise no less than
tens of millions of lines of code each year.
    Our goal in approaching these materials from the perspective of
deconstructive cultural studies is not exactly to read Java programs (for
example) interpretively, so much as it is to outline and contrast the
syntactic and semantic patterns in the programming infrastructure with
those found to greater or lesser degrees in so-called natural language,
and just as much to help to disambiguate various registers of natural
language in broadly cultural-ontological terms. This is to suggest that
phenomena like what we call Java and C++ must be seen at least in part as
cultural-linguistic practices, ones deliberately different from patterns
in natural language but also reflecting a deep wish to bend language in
explicitly ideological ways, ones which often poorly reflect the full
spectrum of linguistic phenomena, even at a syntactic level.
    To start this analysis, I attempt to identify the critical penumbra
surrounding several critical concepts within today's programmatic
infrastructure, referencing in each case the systematic features that seem
to me to reflect an attempt to set off, to remake our
linguistico-ideological base in idealized terms.
    Those concepts would include notions such as script, or a univiocally
interpreted sequence of statements; executable, a program that can be in
its entirety run on a host; shell, or the environment with which the
writer interacts; instruction, or a direct order to the run-time
processor; the compiler and the parser, those who not only read but
actively-remake the statements into instructions.
    Briefly, two themes are uncovered in these concepts: the notion of
univocal interpretation and the notion of execution or running the
program, as specifically innovative with respect to previous technologies
of writing. Like the languages of mathematics and logic, the univocality
of programming languages tamps down much of the inherent polysemy in most
linguistic phenomena. But where logic and mathematics required human
intervention to be realized in human-level applications, programming
languages take English-style words as objects and include within them the
ability to execute. The difference between an executing script and one
that errors out is binary: either the function works as specified or it
does not.  There is no prior written technology wherein the writer can
directly check his or her work to discover whether it performs as required
by asking the text to ""run,"" and then seeing whether the output is as
expected.
    Some of these top-down aspects of programming are discussed, with a
specific orientation toward the recent widespread acceptance of
object-oriented languages and of visual programming interfaces. In
particular the idea of a variable and its declaration, and the
generalization of that procedure within object-oriented approaches, are
discussed as central formations of the computational environment.
    I conclude with some remarks on the omnipresence of a fragement of
English as a lingua franca in which nearly all popular programming
languages must be learned, and which is assumed for employment at most
companies using these popular languages. In addition to the very basic
questions often raised under the heading ""postcoloniality"" that this
phenomena suggests, it also leads to a consideration of some recent
attempts to generalize the language problem across the global computing
infrastructure and, thus, to the question whether a deconstructive
practice is in fact conceivable, practicable within the computational
base.
    There is a fine line of continuity from the focus on Logical Form
(LF) and its avatars within contemporary linguistics and philosophy to the
supposedly natural emergence of computing environments that rely on
univocal interpretation. While the details of that line are outside the
scope of this talk, it is clear that programming languages, as Logical
Form given spirit no less than life, offer an idealization of linguistic
practice that may do a disservice to those who speak them.","txt","2","",""
"131","2","The Visual Display of Literary Complexity in a Hypertext Critical Edition of William Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury","1","The proposed talk examines the visual display of textual information in the digital environment. In the case of appropriately chosen and designed texts, textual information can be visually displayed to reveal aspects that would otherwise remain unrecognized. In this talk we would like to discuss some more recent developments in the visual display of literary texts, including the work done by Antonio Gonzales-Walker with the Cornell Theory Group and David Small at the M.I.T. Media Lab, and then describe related work done within our hypertext edition of William Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury.
In  ""Rationale for Hypertext"" Jerome McGann argues that the examination or representation of a book through another book will yield only predictable results that are determined by the fact that the scale of subject and vehicle is the same:
""[W]e no longer have to use books to analyze and study other books or texts. That simple fact carries immense, even catastrophic, significance. Until now the book or codex form has been one of our most powerful tools for developing, storing, and disseminating information. . . . Brilliantly conceived, these works are nonetheless infamously difficult to read and use. Their problems arise because they deploy a book form to study another book form. . . . The problems grow more acute when readers want or need something beyond the semantic content of the primary textual materials -- when one wants to hear the performance of a song or ballad, see a play, or look at the physical features of texts.""
 
In the past decade, scholars have also begun to investigate the merits and possible shortcomings of digital literary editions and archives in a number of projects. These projects have ranged from regarding the computer as a way of enhancing indexing capabilities through SGML, to visually re-engaging the reader with a text's material conditions, to providing an archive of related information of a geographical, historical or biographical nature. The list of scholarly digital projects has lengthened considerably in recent years. It includes the many at University of Virginia’s Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, the British Library Board’s Electronic Beowulf and Canterbury Tales projects, University of Indiana’s Victorian Women Writers project, and more. The motivations behind the creation of these digital projects vary. Some, such as the Walt Whitman Archive at the University of Virginia, exploit the platform’s ability to include numerous manuscripts in order to show how the “range and scope of the [Calamus] imagined text is in fact too great, its ‘standards’ too broad in their simultaneity, to fit the reductive confines of print technology.” Others, such as the Rossetti Archive by McGann at the University of Virginia, exploit the visual capabilities of the digital environment: “all texts deploy a more or less complex series of bibliographical codes, and page design -- if not page ornament and graphic illustration -- in a rich scene of textual expression. Computerized tools that deploy hypermedia networks and digitization have the means to study visual materials and the visibilities of language in ways that have not been possible before.” Peter Robinson's Canterbury Tales project has still another mandate. The Tales are in a state of textual disarray and present the reader with many questions concerning the composition history and the status of the manuscripts. Robinson describes the project’s origins as lying “in the perception that the advent of computer technology offers new methods, which might help us ask these questions in a new and more fruitful manner.”
Yet as the MIT designer David Small notes, ""the display of information by computers does not often fulfill the promise of the computer as a visual information appliance."" Arguably the computer screen has in some sense brought us full circle, back from the codex to the roll. The change, however, does not seem to have challenged prevailing assumptions about what we might call the text's architectonic structure, the basic shape we give to the general idea of text. Texts, both printed and digitalized, are usually still conceived of as stable, static and finite, with clearly defined borders, that remain the same from one visit to another. They are also conceived of as collections of two-dimensional surfaces. Just a glance at Small's work on presenting texts as three-dimensional structures indicates a range of possibilities that have rarely been considered. We will discuss some recent examples of digital work that visually reconceives the information of a literary text. David Small's work, as described in his IBM Systems Journal article, is one example; another is Antonio Gonzalez-Walker's, which studies ""language/discourse phenomena in three-dimensional space.""
            We will then discuss and present the development of a particular, recently completed, critical hypertext edition of William Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury that exploits the potential for visually displaying complex textual information. The novel's narrative structure is highly complex; its frequent use of stream of consciousness creates great narrative density; it is highly allusive and intertextual throughout; and its chronologically restless first section is difficult to understand for most readers. It was this complexity that initially attracted the editors of this edition to the idea of placing The Sound and the Fury within a digital environment. The possibilities for visually displaying a text’s information and structures in a hypertext format are rich and productive, and the edition's intention is to exploit those possibilities to display the novel’s first two, chronologically most difficult, sections in a manner that is academically sound and editorially informed, and that maintains their textual integrity.
            Several issues emerge from and are addressed within the talk and presentation. (1) The digital environment requires reconceptualizing previous, non-digital, editorial practices and theory. (2) Some texts are better suited to a critical presentation within the digital platform than others. (3) Degrees of narrative (and other) complexity such as is found in The Sound and the Fury are capable of visual display that has a rich and learned tradition available to other disciplines in the social sciences and sciences but usually overlooked in literary studies.
Works Cited
 
Small, David. ""Navigating Large Bodies of Text."" IBM Systems Journal, Vol. 35, No. 3&4, 1996.
 
Gonzales-Walker, Antonio. ""Language Visualization and Multi-Layer Text Analysis.""
http://www.tc.cornell.edu/Visualization/contrib/cs490-95to96/tonyg/Language.Viz1.html
 
British Library Board. The Electronic Beowulf Project.     
     http://www.ukyedu/~kiernan/BL/kporticot
 
------------. The Canterbury Tales Project.   
     http://www.shf.ac.uk/uni/projects/ctp/index.html
 
McGann, Jerome. “The Rationale of Hypertext.”
      http://www.village.virginia.edu/public/jjm2f/rationale.html
 
---------. The Rossetti Archive. http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/rossetti/rossetti.html
 
Price, Kenneth M. and E. Folsom, eds. The Walt Whitman Hypertext Archive. 
     http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/whitman
 
Stoicheff, Peter, Joel Deshaye and Allison Muri. “A Hypertext Edition of William 
     Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury.” http://www.usask.ca/english/faulkner/
 
Willett, Perry, ed. The Victorian Women Writer’s Project. 
     http://www.indiana.edu/~letrs/vwwp/","txt","2","",""
"132","2","Immersive Textuality: The Editing of  Virtual Spaces","1","For some time now modern and postmodern installation artists have experimented with situating text in physical gallery or museum spaces, and with using text to create a sense of space within which the text is (reflexively) interpreted, producing a prototypical form of what we are calling ""immersive textuality.""  But this kind of experimental textualization of space and spatialization of text is greatly facilitated by digital media. As Janet Murray has noted in Hamlet on the Holodeck, digital environments are inherently procedural, participatory, spatial, and encyclopedic. For us, therefore, they provide the most vivid and powerful forms of immersive textuality: from virtual reality, to videogames, to hypertextual fiction and poetry, to MUDs and MOOs, to such imagined forms as the bio-cybernetic interface in the film eXistenZ and the Star Trek holodeck Murray invoked in the title of her book. In our multimedia presentation we'll take up the theoretical questions and practical issues raised by textual experiments in virtual spaces, particularly MOOs, in which the text is embodied and experienced spatially and architecturally, at the cognitive intersection of its linguistic and graphic codes.

Michael Heim and others have anatomized and explored immersive spaces, from the experimental installation art of the 1960s to Brenda Laurel's Placeholder project, to the surrounding projective environment of the CAVE, created at the Electronic Visualization Laboratory of the University of Illinois, Chicago.  But these examples are part of an even longer history of immersive textuality. We will present a genealogy of such spaces running through specific historicized examples, from a freestanding fireplace screen attributed to Lord Byron, covered in a dense collage of cut-out texts and images, to a recent installation by the Russian artist Ilya Kabakov at the Tate Modern, London--a drywall labyrinth recreating a Moscow apartment in which are hung a series of hypertextual lexias and images--to various experiments in MUDs and MOOs, including one of our own pedagogical editions of a Romantic poem, MOOzymandias.

Our more immediate point of departure is another experiment now underway at the University of Virginia by Jerome J. McGann and Johanna Drucker, who claim that the ""general field of humanities education and scholarship will not take up the use of digital technology in any significant way until one can clearly demonstrate that these tools have important contributions to make to the exploration and explanation of aesthetic works"" (http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/~jjm2f/Igamesummaryweb.htm). Their ""Ivanhoe Game"" exploits the theatrical possibilities of digital environments to create a space in which students are able, in effect, to perform Scott's novel-making individual critical decisions that change a collective database that is the story-world of the whole, effectively producing a joint and constantly evolving narrative that, in turn, conditions all subsequent critical decisions made by each student-player. For McGann and Drucker, the ""Ivanhoe Game,"" ultimately, is not only a game involving critical reflection and aesthetic interpretation, but also ""a game for studying and reflecting on those acts of critical reflection themselves."" And its very status as a game is crucial: ""Humanities scholarship without gameplay, even when the scholarship explicitly devotes itself to self-reflection, inevitably fails to engage with essential features of the
works it means to study, including the workings of the mind engaged with such works.""

We are particularly interested in how such immersive digital environments, with their  performative and critically reflective possibilities, might themselves be created and understood as textual editions. Traditionally, editions take different forms for different audiences of readers and editing protocols are determined in part by those forms. Mostly
this has meant conceiving of a text as for a scholarly, classroom, or popular audience. But the possibility of structuring virtual, immersive spaces around or in service of a text suggests ways to go beyond such distinctions--and even well beyond hypertext as it has heretofore been executed--to produce a complex spatial experience: a new kind of
""pedagogical edition"" that students build, mutate, and inhabit rather than merely read. With the advent of electronic virtual learning spaces, the encoded protocols of texts, especially imaginative texts, can be constructed and reconstructed architecturally as part of the dynamic experience of reading and learning the text.

We will show and discuss our own experiments in immersive pedagogical editions currently being conducted in the Villa Diodati MOO of Romantic Circles, our peer-reviewed and peer-built Website focused on the literature and culture of the British Romantic Period <http://www.rc.umd.edu>.  (At present, Romantic Circles contains over 3,500 HTML pages and has received 4 1/2 million hits since last January by users in over 120 countries around the world.) These experimental editions are being built in a new ""wing"" of the Villa Diodati MOO dedicated to Romantic Circles High School, a site built by and for high school students and teachers around the country in collaboration with us, through the support of a major grant from the NEH (http://www.rc.umd.edu/rchs/index.html). Our focus will be on three projects:  (1) the set of seven MOO rooms and attendant virtual objects created by high school seniors in San Diego in order to interpret Coleridge's seven-part Rime of the Ancient Marinere;  (2) a MOO-based, student produced edition that renders and interprets the text of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein in terms of the geography of its various settings; and (3) our own effort to produce Moozymandias, a model immersive pedagogical edition of Percy Shelley's famous sonnet, ""Ozymandias"" that translates the four nested narrative frames of the sonnet into a fourfold MOO space replete with related virtual objects, images, and sounds, through which students must travel to ""read"" the poem.

Ultimately, then, our multimedia demonstration and meditation on  immersive textual spaces will pursue such theoretical questions as  what it might mean to edit such spaces, what are the ""forms of editions"" they make possible (and might make possible in the future), and what is the role of visual literacy and the image in such ""editions?""  Through demonstrating a number of practical examples of graphical MOO spaces, in particular, which immerse the student in a virtual space of their own design, furnished with programmed objects of their own creation, structured around literary texts that first appeared historically in letterpress form, we hope to raise far-reaching theoretical questions about editing, textuality, and cognition in the digital age.","txt","2","",""
"133","2","The Pompey Project: Digital Research and Virtual Reconstruction of Romes First Theatre","1","Fig. 1: Computer reconstruction of auditorium of Theatre of Pompey showing Temple of Venus.
In 55 B.C. the triumphal general Pompey the Great dedicated Rome’s first permanent theatre and named it after himself. This was no ordinary theatre—probably the largest ever built—and it has long fascinated and intrigued scholars. Pompey’s sumptuous and grandiose edifice comprised, in addition to the Theatre itself (the stage of which was 300 feet wide), an extensive “leisure-complex” of gardens enclosed within a colonnade, and galleries displaying rare works of art. It also included a curia building available for meetings of the Senate, and it was in this building that Caesar was assassinated in 44 B.C.  As late as the 6th century A.D., the theatre was still sufficiently imposing for Cassiodorus to exclaim, “one would have thought it more likely for mountains to subside, than this strong building be shaken”.

When Vitruvius wrote his influential treatise, De Architectura, his account of how a theatre should be built was based upon Pompey’s recently-completed edifice; indeed, at the time he wrote, it was probably still the only stone theatre in the city of Rome. Thus, through Vitruvius, the Theatre of Pompey thus became the architectural Ur-text for the vast numbers of theatres built throughout the Roman Empire, and left its imprint upon theatre architecture in the Renaissance and beyond.

Now, however, there is little to see above ground; subsumed into post-antique structures, the monument can not be extensively excavated. To date, therefore, there has been no comprehensive analysis of the site.  Consequently, in the absence of new studies, questions of major importance remain entirely open, and highly controversial.

Where performance spaces of great historical importance, such as the Theatre of Pompey, no longer exist or have been significantly altered, the attempt to analyse historical performances in all their material and ideological phenomenology is greatly frustrated, leaving significant gaps in our capacity to interrogate past cultures.  VR technology can be used to draw together detailed architectural, archaeological, pictorial and textual evidence, to create three-dimensional ‘Virtual Performance Spaces’ which contain both the information-structure and the simulated appearance of the ‘Real’ (but lost) performance spaces.  These 3-D spaces immeasurably enhance our ability to analyse sightlines, stage architecture, scenery, the organisation and use of performing and audience space.  When allied with other Virtual Technologies, they in turn open up further, previously impossible, avenues of analysis into the ambient qualities of these spaces and performances: lighting, acoustics, and increasingly movement.

In the spring of 1999, therefore, a new chapter opened in the archaeological history of the Theatre of Pompey, when the UK’s Arts and Humanities Research Board granted Prof. Richard Beacham (University of Warwick) substantial funds to coordinate, together with Prof. James Packer (Northwestern University), a new archaeological study of the monument, and to create a reconstruction of it using digital, 3-D technologies. 
  
  



Fig. 2: Theatre of Pompey: site-plan of existing state, including post-antique structures. (Extant remains marked in dark shading.)
  
  

The Pompey Project will result in a highly sophisticated and integrated electronic resource, spanning the entire history of the site, from antiquity to the present.  It will include 3-D computer models, acoustical renderings, images of artefacts, all known previous textual references to and studies of the site, a comparative history of scholarship on the site based on 3-D models of previous attempts to reconstruct the theatre, and finally a 3-D comparative study of the theatre-architectural antecedents to, and descendents of, the Theatre of Pompey.

The Pompey Project both benefits from, and contributes to, a wider programme of digital-based research being conducted at the University of Warwick in which the application of I.T.—particularly VR—to Humanities research is being explored. Note 1  This paper, however, will attempt to assess the specific significance of the Pompey Project in these terms.

When we began our work, we tended to view Virtual Reality technologies primarily as a means of enhancing essentially traditional research methods.  Despite considerable advances in our thinking and our methods since then, these advantages remain valuable, and persuasive reasons for undertaking such research, and are exemplified by the Pompey Project.  They include:

the ability to process and manipulate huge datasets of several information-types in 3-D, leads to better analysis and hypotheses; for example in calculating and documenting degrees of probability in architectural reconstructions.
3-D models share certain properties, demands and advantages of CAD drawings: both rely on precise sets of co-ordinates, and require an absolute degree of exactitude – they are unforgiving in this respect.  Since 3-D models require the spatial relationship between objects to be calculated in 3-D, problems of relation, proportion, measurement, and design, which are difficult or impossible to identify during the creation of 2-D representations, become immediately apparent. The problems encountered when attempting to construct a coherent model based on existing data and hypotheses therefore lead to constant re-examination and re-interpretation of data, and advances in ways previously difficult or labour-intensive to the point of impossibility.
unlike manual drawings or solid models, virtual models can easily and quickly be altered to incorporate new data, or to represent alternative hypotheses.  The consequences of such modification for other elements in the model can instantly be seen.  Through assessing knock-on effects, or by analysing comparative data visually, rival hypotheses can quickly be evaluated, and/or multiple hypotheses disseminated as part of the final model.
3-D modelling enables different forms of model to be produced according to different modes of enquiry: e.g. CAD drawings for the calculation of volumes and measurements of a building, or cut-away models to enable the reader to investigate architectonic data and hypotheses, light, acoustics, levels of probability in the reconstruction, and the historical developments of space.
models of other cognate sites greatly facilitate detailed analysis of possible architectural antecedents and descendents of the building: an architectural genealogy.
research advances brought about by 3-D modelling, enable archaeologists more precisely to determine the locations in which excavation could take place, and assess its probable value.  This reduces the amount of invasive archaeology required.

The Project also exemplifies the considerable benefits of being able to disseminate the outcomes of scholarly research in digital form, such as:

relatively low dissemination costs
presentation of the complete data produced by and for the project incorporating a wide range of media. Through incorporating comprehensive databases, both free-standing and linked to models, such a publication is thus a potent combination of scholarly monograph, excavation notes, documentation, photographic record etc.
greatly-enhanced modes of interrogation, facilitating varied, sophisticated and efficient uses of the published data by researchers
the possibility of interactive modes of reception. This more fully liberates the “reader” of the multi-media electronic text from the critical perspectives and agendas of the producers of the resource; readers can interpret and exploit the resource according to their own needs, agendas and contexts (educational, research, museum…)
capacity to zoom in indefinitely on 3-D models, yielding great analytical and presentational advantages
the capacity to update the Project web site in response to advances in scholarship and the contributions of researchers. It can thus become a prime locus of scholarship, leading to fresh conceptualisations of the relationship between research and publication
the dissemination of content-dense, interactive, moving pictures. These are vastly superior to still pictures for educational/display purposes, engaging the imagination of readers by enabling them to interrogate the object and associated data according to their own interests. In a museum/educational context it could enable users to take a virtual walk-around – particularly when enhanced by digital audio and lighting technologies – providing an engaging, immersive, interactive experience. Note 2

 
  
  


Fig 3: Computer Reconstruction of Theatre of Pompey orchestra and stage facade.

As our work has progressed, however, we have developed new ways of conceptualising and implementing our research. Note 3  One of the most complex phenomena that we have encountered is the degree to which the production of different forms of textuality, whether real or Virtual, dictates correspondingly different epistemological imperatives.  In the above outline of the Project’s work, for instance, Virtual Reality appears as a tool that can enable, augment, and enhance traditionally-conceived processes of research and dissemination.  However, Virtual Reality technologies have been bringing about a quiet, but profound, revolution in the ways in which knowledge is produced and experienced.

Firstly, the technology both enables and requires the Project to be inherently interdisciplinary.  It thus draws upon expertise across a wide range of disciplines and skills, combining VR modellers, archaeologists, database experts, theatre and art historians, archaeological surveyors and urban historians; all united in the aim to produce a single, coherent, digital resource.  In contrast to purely archaeological, or historical, or archival projects, the organic nature of this collaboration, together with its scope and scale, gives the Project a distinctive character (and lends it a certain significance).

For the collaborators, the need to understand and respond cooperatively to the working methods of such a range of colleagues has been intellectually and imaginatively stimulating, opening up new modes of perception and ways of thinking. Only a few years ago, these people would have had little opportunity or reason even to discuss their work with one another, much less engage in a process of intensely creative collaboration.  Moreover, as each collaborator’s work is integrated into the resource, traditional boundaries between data and interpretation, evidence and argument, researcher and technician, are undergoing rapid transformations.

The very fact that this work is driven by the aim of creating a three-dimensional reconstruction of the theatre has, itself, far-reaching implications.  The extrapolation of a complete, three-dimensional form from fragmentary evidence, assorted comparanda and documentary evidence is quite different in character to the project of only documenting the existing remains of a structure; it profoundly affects the ways in which knowledge about the remains is created, documented, archived, and deployed.  Archaeologists and surveyors, for instance, work to exacting standards of evidence to enable their data to be recreated in millimetrically-accurate, three-dimensional form, and continually interpret evidence in the light of their ever-evolving attempt to relate each element to their current understanding of the ""ideal"" structure.  Scholars employing these technologies must therefore attempt to understand the epistemological shift produced by “Virtual research” and the unique textuality of the medium.

This is a particularly pressing concern for us, since it is not difficult to see how the task of translating survey data so exactly into visual form makes the lure of a positivist paradigm of reconstruction perilously attractive.  Such positivist tendencies can lead to an occlusion both of the distinctive positionality of methodology and interpretation, and of the provisionality of knowledge—an occlusion that, when embedded in the disseminated text, may be resisted only by the most self-conscious of readers, and even then, only belatedly.  The importance can scarcely be overstated, therefore, of the collaborators inducting themselves into the epistemological implications of VR-directed research.

Furthermore, for the knowledgeable interpreter, these 3-D texts are a source as much of anxiety as of information.  In bringing together both the information structures of the original building and a simulation of its decorative elements, the 3-D models acquire a ‘persuasiveness’ which can easily render invisible to the viewer crucial distinctions between known fact, scholarly deduction, and creative (albeit educated) guesswork.  As suggestive indices to a possible architectural past they function very well, but unless they can in some way display to us the state of knowledge (and ignorance) that they truly represent, their value as an instrument of scholarly communication is ultimately dubious. Among the central concerns of our various VR-based research projects, therefore, has been simultaneously to tap the extraordinary possibilities offered by the Virtual realm, and to explore how VR technologies can provide an adequate antidote to the unearned persuasiveness that such reconstructions can appear to claim.  Fortunately, it has quickly become apparent that VR technology can be harnessed just as persuasively to address, as to give rise to, such concerns.

While our work to date has, of necessity, concentrated on producing models of the main research hypotheses in order to facilitate the research process, as we bring the Project closer to publication we are increasingly generating models which represent multiple hypotheses, or varying levels of probability.

The very inclusion of interdisciplinary scholarship within the project implies a heterogeneity of critical perspectives, and this multi-focal approach visibly militates against the formation of an methodological or interpretative orthodoxy, thus serving to undermine the apparent claim of any single text within the resource—whether literary or graphic—to the status of ‘definitive text.’

More importantly, at every stage of the project, we are deploying a range of technologies to assert the interrogative, analytical and interpretative nature of the work—to demonstrate that every on-screen image is neither more, nor less, than an informed and closely-argued interpretation and/or hypothesis.  For this reason, the Pompey Project incorporates comprehensive documentation in which are set out the investigative, methodological and interpretative processes which have led to the creation of each element of each model.

Thinking towards dissemination, a further strategy is to incorporate, at an equal level within the information-hierarchy of the resource, variant reconstructive possibilities of sections or aspects of the complex for which the archaeological evidence is insufficient to reach firm conclusions, and where comparanda suggest a number of equally plausible options.  Looking even beyond the initial point of dissemination, these models will respond, in time, to post-publication feedback from users and experts, creating graphic representations of alternative interpretations of the data; they may in time even permit users to apply different textures and patterns—perhaps even proportions—depending on their preferred interpretation of the data produced and published by the Project.

Finally, we constantly assert the provisionality of our ‘virtual’ hypotheses by locating them within a history of reconstructions of the site.  Not only are we modelling the Theatre of Pompey according to the new knowledges arising from our work, we are also creating three-dimensional models of all previous significant attempts to reconstruct the theatre, and digitising a considerable collection of scholarship about, and documentation of the site.  While such a teleological narrative might, at this proximity, seem to be a strategy designed to aggrandize our work as the final culmination of a tradition of scholarship, we trust that scholarly and technological developments will quite quickly enable our work to be read in a longer perspective, namely: as the most recent, detailed and comprehensive study of the site to date, and a resource for future such research, but also necessarily—and ineluctably—provisional. 
  
  


Fig 4: Computer reconstruction of external facade of Theatre of Pompey.





In conclusion, our engagement with Virtuality has impacted upon every conceivable aspect of the Project’s work.  It has demonstrably enhanced the research process in both efficiency and efficacy, and will certainly enhance the dissemination process.  It may, perhaps, contribute to the creation of a more ‘open’ conceptualisation of publication as feedback from users is incorporated, and as the models migrate from generation to generation.  VR technology has also been a hard taskmaster, requiring of the collaborators exacting co-ordination of technical specifications across a diverse group of disciplinary practices, and exhaustive strategic planning and communication to ensure that the dictates and implications of Virtuality-orientated research are fully recognised and taken into consideration by each of the partners.

Looking to the future, we are now investigating the possibility of making such virtual spaces the sites of virtual performances.  All of this enables us to reflect upon the compelling synergies between the media and methodologies of theatre and Virtuality.  How will these performances negotiate between artistic and scholarly endeavour, real and virtual, 2-D and 3-D, persuasiveness and provisionality?  That is yet to be seen.  What is clear, however, is that as more and more scholarship either takes place in, or results in, Virtuality, we must face the challenge of developing ways of both creating and reading such texts with a keen attentiveness to the complexity of their unique textuality.","txt","2","",""
"134","2","From mathematical classification to thematic analysis of philosophical texts","1","Introduction
Since the 1970’s, research in cognitive sciences and information technologies (IT) has had an important impact on the reading and analysis of humanities texts. Various artificial intelligence  classification and categorization strategies, have been used to assist description and interpretation of texts.  Rules and concepts are predefined and applied systematically to a text.  It is a top-down analysis process. This type of strategy still highly influences what is called “qualitative analysis” (Glaser & Strauss : 1967), “Grounded theory”, “Computer assisted qualitative data analysis” (Barry : 1998, Alexa & Zuell : 1999a) or, in more general terms, “Computer assisted reading and analysis of text (CARAT)”. Nevertheless, “Qualitative research usually means the collection and analysis of unstructured textual material in order to develop concepts, categories, hypotheses, theories. Thus, most of the time during “qualitative data analysis” is spent on reading, rereading, interpreting, comparing and thinking on texts.” (Kelle : 1997a).
On the other hand, more and more bottom-up strategies are appearing for inductive text classification and categorisation. These strategies are traditionally applied to information retrieval problems, but their power can also be used in  computer assisted reading and analysis of text (CARAT) for lexical analysis, automatic generation of hypertext links, knowledge extraction and thematic analysis. In this paper, we present an application of these classification and categorization technologies to one of these fields : the thematic analysis of philosophical texts.
 
Classification
Text classification can be defined as an operation, that, when applied to texts described by some of their characteristics, builds equivalent classes on them : “Text classification is the automated grouping of textual or partially textual entities” (Lewis & Gale : 1994).
It is important to note that classification is usually not applied to entire texts but only to fragments of texts described by their “representors” (specific words, abstracts, summaries, etc.). Secondly, classification is not an end in itself. It is a first step in a complex cognitive process of computer assisted text interpretation (Meunier : 1996). Concretely, this means that text classification must link to the dynamic process of text interpretation and hence must be appreciated according to this end.
 
Methodology and experimentation
Our  thematic analysis process is realized through 5 distinct steps : 1) The text is prepared, 2) it is then transformed into a vectorial model, 3) a classifier is applied, 4) thematic links are extracted and 5) results are interpreted.
 
Text preparation
To be effective, text classifiers need to define two different types of entities : the Fragments of texts (FRAGS) and the units of textual information (UNIFS). Although quite simple to understand, this deconstruction of a text into FRAGS and UNIFS relies on many implicit postulates : some of them are linguistic in nature, others are mathematical.
In this experiment, the textual data was a philosophical text : Descartes’ Discours de la Méthode. This untouched text (except for basic printing noises) contains 21 436 words. In this case the UNIFS were the lemmatized words left after eliminating hapax and functional terms. For this preparation we used a in-house program called CONTERM.
 
Text transformation into a vectorial representation
From then on, the text is transformed into a vectorial model (Salton : 1989). This procedure requires that each vector represents a segment and describes its units of information (words, n-grams, etc.). From these vectors a matrix is built (FRAGS, UNIFS). The values given to each entry of the matrix depends on the model chosen (e.g. presence, absence, fuzziness, weighting, etc.). On this textual matrix, we now have to define the core of the classification operation; that is, the discriminant function. It is on this matrix that classifiers are applied.
 
The classifying application
In the literature of mathematical text classifiers, many types of classifiers have been proposed. All of which have their parameters; hence, fecundity and limits. The most common ones are statistically oriented (clusterizers, correlators, factorial analysis (Reinert : 1994), principal component analysis (Benzecri : 1973)). One successful implementation of these types of models has been, in the information retrieval community, the SMART system of Salton (Salton : 1989) or some variation of them such as the one found in Latent semantic approaches (Deerwester : 1990). Also, some more probabilistic techniques have been tested, such as Bayesian classification, Nearest neighbor (Hart : 1998), Neural Networks classifiers (Kohonen : 1982, Anderson : 1976), genetic algorithm (Holland : 1975), Markovian fields classifiers (Bouchaffra & Meunier : 1995b). All of these mathematical models have been applied to textual information processing.
In this experiment, we have chosen the neural ART classifier(Carpenter & Grossberg : 1991). We here  explore this classifier and study its relevance for the CARAT processing, focusing on its application to thematic analysis of philosophical corpus. The purpose of this experiment is not to demonstrate its validity for texts classification, as it is often done in classical IR experiments, but instead to show its fecundity in philosophical studies.
In this ART classifier, the discriminant function measures the difference of the input segments by their weighted features (words) but through a competition amongst the segments. That is to say, the fragments that belong to a set are the winners of their weight competition. In most models, this computation consists in accepting a segment only if the impact of all the features of an input  attains  a certain threshold (called RHO).
The  ART I classifier (Grossberg : 1988) is highly interesting. It allows plastic processing of information. When a new pattern is added, ART system classifies it in the set of classes formed by the means of a competition process undertaken during the training phase. The essential principle of this model is based on the interaction of two levels of neurons that enter into a resonance phase such as shown in the following figure.
 

 
 
The system receives in its first level (N1) the text fragments which are sent, after a modification of their distributed weights, to the second level of neurons (N2). This transmission implies various complex differential operations, variation of the activating forces, degradation, shunting, etc.
This second level will then possess many such modified patterns. Each of which serves as prototype for new-comers at the first level. Hence, each new input will be compared to the prototype according to a resonance criteria RHO. If the correspondence is positive then the input is entered in the class of the prototype. If not, it will be considered as an emergent prototype. The adaptability emerges by this constant modification of the levels’ interconnections. And this new emerging prototype will then serve for starting up a new class. As the learning goes on, there will be a consolidation of this resonance. 
 
At the end of this process, a set of classes of segments is produced.  And from each class of segments, the lexicon is extracted. We then have for each class a specific lexical list.  It is on these classes that the thematic analysis begins.
 
Thematic extraction
This analysis starts by a preferred  “thematic word” that can be found  in one of the segments of the classes produced. In this experiment we have started with the word (or concept) “reason”. From this word, thematic relations are then identified with other thematic words belonging to other classes. In the sample results shown below, a particular analysis of Descartes’ Discours de la Méthode  starts with the word “reason” found in the class 1. This class explores the metaphysical question of the human existence as found in Descarte’s philosophy. But,  by the same token, we also observe that the same word (reason) operates semantically in other contexts. Accordingly, the reader could then decide to discover (by exploring other classes where the word “reason” is also found) many other different fields of Descartes’ writing : the mind (class 4), the knowledge (class 38), the biology (class 66). According to this view, the reader is able to “direct” his analysis according to his own reading interests. With the help of the preliminary classification function, he can explore many different themes found in Descartes’ philosophy. This hypothesis or strategy is then applied to the entire text.
 
Results and analysis
The results have shown that many thematic links could be relevant for the reader. Here are some results obtained after the classification process : 
 

 
Also, these results, after being compared with the traditional Descartes’ commentators (Rodis-Lewis : 1966 and 1985, Gueroult : 1953, Laporte : 1950, etc.), were similar with the classical interpretations of Descartes’ philosophy for this particular theme.
 
Evaluation of classifiers for thematic analysis
From an epistemological point of view, this classification method usually relies on a benchmark  produced by a set of objective experts (judges). Results  are compared to these benchmark results. But we believe that reading and analysis of texts remains a subjective process. Therefore, this supposed ""objective"" evaluation methodology seems difficult to apply because, the discovery of the semantic content of a text is always a complex cognitive process  that is guided by the reader’s personal reading interests. For each reader, and mainly in philosophical texts, there is a personal interpretative path. Nevertheless, the use of such classification methods gives an objective orientation to the analysis. It does not impose any kind of strategy to the reader. But offers him a multitude of possible paths.
One possible way to evaluate the quality of a computer thematic classification would be to compare it to various best practices or to offer the user some type of relevance feedback measures produced by HMM strategies or genetic algorithms.
 
References
Alexa, M. & C. Zuell. (1999a). Commonalities, difference and limitations of text analysis software: The results of a review. ZUMA arbeitsbericht, ZUMA : Mannheim.
Anderson J. R.. (1976). Language, Memory and Tought. New York : John Wiley & Sons.
Barry, C.A. (1998). Choosing qualitative data analysis software : Atlas/ti and Nud*ist compared. Sociological research online 3(3).
Benzecri, J.-P. (collab). (1973). La Taxinomie. Vol. I. l'analyse des correspondances. Dunod, Paris.
Bouchaffra, D. & Meunier, J.-G.. (1995b). A Thematic Knowledge Extraction Modeling through a Markovian Random Field Approach. In the 6th International DEXA 95 Conference and Workshop on Database and Expert Systems Applications, Sept. 19-22, London, UK.
Carpenter, G. & Grossberg, G. (1991). An Adaptive resonnance Algorithm for Rapid Category Learning and Recognition.
Deerwester, S., Dumais. S. T., Furnas, G. Landauer. T. K. Harshman. (1990). Indexing by latent semantic analysis. In Journal of the American Society for Information science, pp. 391-407.
Glaser, B.G. & Strauss, A.L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago : Adline.
Grossberg, S. (1988). Neural Network and Natural Intelligence. Cambridge : MIT Press.
Gueroult, M. (1953). Descartes selon l’ordre des raison.  Paris : Aubier.
Hart, P. E. (1968). The condensed nearest neighbor rule. IEEE, Trans. on Informations theory. IT. 14 : 515.
Holland, J. (1975). Adaptation in Natural, and Artifial Systems. University of Michigan Press. Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Kelle, U. (1997a). Theory Building in Qualitative Research and Computer Programs for the Management of Textual Data. In Sociological Research Online, 2 (2)
Kohonen, T. (1982). Clustering, taxonomy and topological Maps of Patterns. In IEEE Sixth International Conf. Pattern Recognition, pp.114-122.
Laporte, J.M.F. (1950). Le rationalisme des Descartes. Paris : PUF.
Lewis, D.D. & Gale, W.A.. (1994). A sequential algorithm for training text classifiers. In W. Bruce Croft & C. J. van Rijsbergen (eds.). Proceedings of the seventeenth annual international ACM-SIGIR conference on research and development in information retrieval, pp. 3-12. Dublin : Springer-Verlag.
Meunier, J. G. (1996). La théorie cognitive: son impact sur le traitement de l'information textuelle. In V. Rialle et Fisette, D. (Eds. ). Penser l’Esprit, Des sciences de la cognition à une philosophie cognitive, pp. 289-305. Grenoble : Presses UG.
Reinert, M. (1994). Quelques aspects du choix des unités d'analyse et de leur contrôle dans la méthode Alceste. In L. L. S. Bolasco & A. Salem (eds.). Analisi Statistica dei Dati Testuali, vol. 1, pp.19-27. Rome : CISU.
Rodis-Lewis, G. (1966). Descartes et le rationalisme. Paris : PUF.
Rodis-Lewis, G. (1985). Idées et vérités éternelles chez Descartes et ses successeurs. Paris : J. Vrin.
Salton, G. (1989). Automatic Text Processing. Addison Wesley.","txt","2","",""
"135","2","Linguistic Description and Exploration using RDF","1","Introduction

In addition to the typical methods employed in information retrieval systems, e.g. calculating frequency of keywords, pattern matching involving keywords, we are proposing an approach to information search and retrieval based not only on the basic element set known as the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set (DCMES), which represents the content or bibliographical information of the data, but also based on the identification of linguistic information about the rhetorical structure of the text. This rhetorical structure information may be inferred from linguistic cues identified, which represent the textual information of the data. Both types of information are tagged using RDF (Resource Description Framework). The cues and criteria in identifying rhetorical structure information are based on those developed by Corston-Oliver(1998).

The text base in question consists of abstracts of linguistics journal articles drawn from a collection of over three hundred papers on the topic of Chinese Linguistics. Included in my text base are abstracts from linguistics journals in both Chinese and English. Information retrieval is web-based. Besides offering a search and retrieval capability, a web interface is also being developed for authors or publishers to submit their abstracts to the text base.

Role of RDF in the research

Tim, Berners-Lee (1998) describes the Semantic Web as ""a web of data, in some ways like a global database."" RDF makes it possible to declare a knowledge base, which may be further extended through inferencing. In many ways, RDF brings together the advantages of an object database and the programming power of a logic programming language like Prolog. Using RDF, linguistic data may be encoded in a machine-readable format from which inferences can be drawn by machine about the structure and meaning of texts.

The three important standards employed in the research include, the two encoding standards: Dublin Core Metadata Element Set (DCMES) and Resource Description Framework (RDF) as well as the linguistics theory: Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST). The information about the abstracts consists of both bibliographical and textual information. This knowledge base is represented using RDF, which is discussed in detail in this paper.

Representing the bibliographical information using Dublin Core and RDF

Dublin Core is a metadata encoding standard using XML syntax that is basically divided into three aspects, including Content, Intellectual Property and Instantiation. Dublin Core provides the underlying metadata framework for describing my collection of abstracts in terms of Title, Creator, Subject, etc., hence, the bibliographical information. The advantage of Dublin Core is that it uses ""a common vocabulary for classifying information"" (Laurent and Biggar, 1999, p. 225). It attempts to serve as a framework for interdisciplinary information, so that interoperability can be achieved. Moreover, Dublin Core can be easily extended using two types of extensions, one for refining or enhancing the meaning of elements, another for refining or enhancing the interpretation of values (Miller, Miller & Brickley, 1999).

According to Miller and Weibel (""Metadata With a Mission: Dublin Core"" published in XML.com Oct. 25 2000), ""members of the RSS community have recently been advocating RDF as a powerful, modular means of combining semantics defined by Dublin Core with additional vocabularies (syndication, aggregation, threading) to produce effective site summaries and syndication services"".

In the RDF schema proposed here, there are seven classes including Abstracts, Abstract, Clause, Journal, Person, Publisher and Source. Abstract is a sub-class of Abstracts, the root class.

In addition to attributes like abstractNumber, content, comment, keyword and language, the Abstract class contains certain attributes such as creator, clause and source, which point to the corresponding classes with the respective information. That is Person, Clause and Source respectively.

Representing textual information described by Rhetorical Structure Theory using RDF

Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST) was developed at USC Information Sciences Institute by William C Mann and Sandra A Thompson. RST is primarily aimed at describing those functions and structures that make texts effective and comprehensible tools for human communication (Mann, et.al. 1992:43). Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST) aims to describe natural texts, ""characterizing their structure primarily in terms of relations that hold between parts of the text"" (1987:1).

Using RST for text analysis, clauses or text spans are classified as being nuclei or satellites, clearly identifying which information is considered by the analyst to be more central. Also, the relations among the clauses or text spans are identified using RST in order to illustrate the development of a coherent text. By identifying the different relations in a text, one can better ascertain how the various spans in a text combine to form a coherent and meaningful text.

RST offers a systematic approach to interpretation of textual meaning. A recent attempt at automatic RST analysis (Corston-Oliver (1998)) has illustrated how linguistic cues, e.g. voice, grammatical dependency relations and conjunctions, may be used to determine the rhetorical structure. For example, the use of consecutive conjunctions or adverbials, like firstly, secondly, next, then, finally, indicate a sequential structure. Besides, there are criteria to be fulfilled in order to determine whether the text spans belong to a certain relation as the same linguistic cues can be used to indicate more than one relation. Corston Oliver also introduced a heuristic scoring procedure to aid in the determination of text relations. For example, if text spans contain the subordinate conjunction ""whereas"", 30 points would be assigned to indicate the likelihood of the AsymmetricContrast relation, which is one of the rhetorical relations defined in RST, between text spans. We intend to tag these linguistic cues and criteria in the texts as the basis for subsequent exploration of rhetorical relations using the inferencing capability of RDF.

Linguistics exploration through RDF

The rhetorical structure of texts also plays a significant role in facilitating search and retrieval. By identifying the nuclei and satellites of different text spans in texts, the core information of the texts can be differentiated from the more peripheral information. Mann and Thompson point out that if all the satellite spans were deleted, the remainder would still form a coherent text (1988:267). Since the contents of nuclear spans are the major concern of a text, it suggests the likelihood that keywords occurring only in satellite spans in a text may not be among the major findings or conclusions of the paper. Corston-Oliver suggests that the retrieval result from a statistical approach can be improved by weighting in favor of the nuclei spans (1999:238). Through the process in determining the rhetorical relations among text spans, it will be possible to identify nuclear spans.

Certain rhetorical relations appear more prominently in abstracts, e.g. solutionhood and interpretation. Typically, the nuclear span in an interpretation relationship highlights major findings and the conclusion. On the other hand, the nucleus in a solutionhood relationship may refer to the method of investigation, while the satellite(s) may refer to the theoretical framework. Our goal is to ascertain the kind of relations operating between text spans through a kind of linguistic exploration based on encoded linguistic cues. Exploration into possible rhetorical relations between text spans together with the identification of nuclear spans will enable search and retrieval of information along the lines of such queries as: 'retrieve all abstracts whose theoretical approach is based on optimality theory'; 'retrieve all abstracts whose methodology is qualitative and/or ethnographic'.

We are attempting to construct the RST structure of our data using the criteria and cues developed by Corston-Oliver.

Linguistics exploration through inferencing

Inference drawing can help achieve improved results from user queries. In this research, inferences can be drawn from the two different kinds of tagged information, (i) bibliographical details (i.e. following the standard Dublin Core set), and (ii) textual and grammatical information. In this paper, I will focus my discussion on the application of textual and grammatical information. On the basis of this information, inferences about the rhetorical structure will be drawn.

Various studies have been conducted into the discourse patterns typical of abstracts. Santos (1996), for example, based on his investigation of linguistics abstracts, notes that procedures may mark the onset of the description of the author's methodology. Tentatively, if we can show a sequential/chronological structure typifies spans in which one finds the author's account of their procedures, then the linguistic features which characterize 'sequential/chronological'-oriented discourse may point to discourse about the author's methodology, and should therefore be assigned a score with an appropriate weighting.

Moreover, given the assignment of relations as part of the rhetorical structure analysis of the text, we are looking into the possibility that where there are two spans related in terms of Solutionhood, the nuclear span in that relationship may also point to that section of the abstract dealing with methodology. The possibility that this might be the case - given that the methodology is all about finding the solution to the research question - is one reason why we assign to this rhetorical pattern a weighting which suggests it deals with methodology. Of course, how we go about assigning the amount of weighting is something which is still being investigated.

Given a scenario where the user is searching for abstracts containing keywords in the context of discussion about the author's methodology, then certainly having some indication of which span of text deals with the author's methodology may help to obtain a better result.

Conclusion

We are investigating to what extent a knowledge base which includes information about the rhetorical structure can contribute to web-based information retrieval. As the retrieval of information in the web-based application is in machine-readable format, we call it a 'smart' retrieval. We are focusing on improving this kind of 'smart' retrieval based on inferencing from a knowledge base which indicates information about linguistic features and hoping that the precision and recall of the retrieval will be improved as well.

References

1. Berners-Lee, T. (1998.10.14). Semantic Web Road map [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.w3.org/DesignIssues/Semantic.html

2. Corston-Oliver, S. (1998). Computing representations of the structure of written discourse. U.S.A.: UMI Company.

3. Laurent, S. & Biggar, R. (1999). Organizing information: RDF and Dublin Core. In Inside XML DTDs. U.S.A.:McGraw-Hill Companies Ltd.

4. Mann, W. (1999.9.10). RST, Programs and Tools [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.sil.org/linguistics/rst/toolnote.htm

5. Mann, W. (1999.11.23). The Two Frameworks Text [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.sil.org/linguistics/rst/2framewk/index.htm

6. Mann, W., & Matthiessen, C. (1991.12). Functions of language in two frameworks. Word, 42(3), 231-249.

7. Mann, W., Matthiessen, C., & Thompson S. (1992). Rhetorical Structure Theory and text analysis. In Mann, C., & Thompson, S. (eds) Discourse Description: Diverse linguistics analyses of a fund-raising text. U.S.A.: John Benjamins Publishing Co.

8. Mann, W., & Thompson, S. (1988). Rhetorical structure theory: Toward a functional theory of text organization. Text, 8(3), 243-281.

9. Miller, & Weibel (2000.10.25). Metadata With a Mission: Dublin Core [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.xml.com

10. Miller, E., Miller, P., & Brickley, D. (1999.7.1). Guidance on expressing the Dublin Core within the Resource Description Framework (RDF) [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/metadata/resources/dc/datamodel/WD-dc-rdf/

11. Santos, M. (1996). The textual organization of research paper abstracts in applied linguistics. Text, 16(4), 481-499.

12. Thompson, S., & Mann, W. (1987.7). Rhetorical Structure Theory: A framework for the analysis of texts. IPrA-Papers-in-Pragmatics, 1(1), 79-105.","txt","2","",""
"136","2","OpenText.org: An Experiment in Internet-based Collaborative  Humanities Scholarship","1","The OpenText.org initiative seeks to harness the collaborative effort 
and ideas of scholars of Hellenistic Greek, particularly the Greek of 
the New Testament, through the medium of the Internet. Modelled upon 
the Open Source Software (OSS) movement, it seeks to actively nurture 
the involvement of humanities scholars in the process of corpus 
building and annotation, as well as the analysis of texts and the 
development of tools for this analysis.

New Testament scholars have begun to realize the importance and 
potential of computer resources both for traditional exegetical 
analysis and for newer interpretative models such as discourse 
analysis. Currently there are a number of grammatically and lexically 
annotated texts available and accompanying software for 
concordance-based search and retrieval. These texts and tools have 
been developed by a small and devoted number of practitioners over 
the past 25 years. These developers have tended to follow a closed 
method of development, following what Eric Raymond (1999) has 
described as the 'cathedral style' of project building. This has 
limited the degree of participation for interested New Testament 
scholars, who have tended to fill the role of product consumers. The 
OSS movement adopts a different viewpoint on the role of users, 
seeking to facilitate their role as co-developers. This goal is 
achieved through open access to regular updates of source code and 
the use of Internet collaboration tools--through a mailing list, 
newsgroup or bulletin board (Udell 1999; Preece 2000). The contention 
of OSS enthusiasts, such as Raymond, is that software of quality 
equal or superior to that of commercial closed source products can 
result from such a process.

The OpenText.org project contends that the OSS model of development 
can be adapted to the realm of textual annotation and analysis. These 
are tasks that require detailed and time consuming analysis, yet hold 
long-term benefits for the whole scholarly community. Biblical 
scholars have tended to work independently in their study of texts, 
carrying out a great deal of linguistic and literary analysis 
summarized in their publications but not accesible to other scholars 
for future work. The Text Encoding Initiative has demonstrated the 
position of textual encoding as a valuable academic discipline in and 
of itself, rather than just a preparatory exercise (Sperberg-McQueen 
1991; DeRose et al. 1990; Renear, Myloans and Durand 1996). One of 
the goals of OpenText.org is to develop a series of specification 
documents to act as guidelines for the linguistic and literary 
annotation of Hellenistic Greek texts. These specifications are 
developed following the editorial process of the World Wide Web 
Consortium. These documents define XML schemas that can be used by 
scholars to mark-up a particular text or section of text. They are 
then encouraged to contribute the resulting document(s) back into the 
data repository, making them available for use and adaptation by 
other scholars. We are also exploring the possibilities of on-line 
annotation, allowing the logging, co-ordination and editorial review 
of the work carried out by users. The eventual goal of this 
arrangement is the full annotation (with linguistic, literary, text 
critical and contextual information) of a large corpus of Hellenistic 
Greek texts (O'Donnell 1999 and 2000). In addition, OpenText.org 
draws upon the insights of corpus linguistics and functional 
discourse analysis (Reed 1997; Porter and Reed 1999; Porter and 
O'Donnell 2000) to provide a theoretical basis and systematic model 
for the annotation and analysis of texts in a corpus.

This paper will provide an overview of OpenText.org and an outline of 
the principles behind the project. It will also describe and 
demonstrate the progress of the project in harnessing the 
collaborative potential of the virtual scholarly community during the 
first nine months. In addition, an analysis of some of the key issues 
faced in the project, such as, the difficulties in overcoming the 
individualistic practices of many humanities scholars, the fears 
concerning the loss of intellectual property, the use of an XML 
encoding scheme and the adoption of these schemes by non-technical 
scholars, and issues of copyright of ancient texts and editions. 
Aside from the sociological problems of building an on-line 
collaborative community, two key problems have become clear. The 
first concerns the legal and copyright issues surrounding both 
printed and electronic editions. The OSS movement makes use of a 
number of software licences (GPL, Apache, BSD) to protect the free 
distribution and reuse of the software it produces. OpenText.org is 
involved in producing new editions of Hellenistic texts, particularly 
the New Testament according to Codex Sinaiticus. There is some 
disagreement as to how 'open source' licences can be applied to 
machine-readable texts. The second difficulty relates to the high 
entry level set for participation in the project. It requires at 
least three elements: (1) a reasonable facility in the Hellenistic 
Greek language, (2) an acceptance and understanding of linguistics 
(for the linguistic analysis and annotation of texts) and (3) comfort 
with XML encoding. The first of these cannot easily be removed. The 
development of encoding standards and specification documents 
addresses the second. The use of XML editors and web-applications 
with a clear user interface can partially address the third issue.

This paper supports the view that the OSS process, when properly 
understand (including the different types of participants and the 
roles they fulfil) and adapted, is highly applicable to 
computer-based humanities projects.



References
----------


DeRose, S.J., D.G. Durand, E. Mylonas, and A.H. Renear, 'What is 
Text, Really?', Journal of Computing in Higher Education 1.2 (1990): 
3-26

O'Donnell, M.B., 'The Use of Annotated Corpora for New Testament 
Discourse Analysis: A Survey of Current Practice and Future 
Prospects', in Porter and Reed (eds.) 1999: 71-116.

O'Donnell, M.B., 'Designing and Compiling a Register-Balanced Corpus 
of Hellenistic Greek for the Purpose of Linguistic Description and 
Investigation', in S.E. Porter (ed.), Diglossia and Other Topics in 
New Testament Linguistics (JSNTSup, 193; Sheffield: Sheffield 
Academic Press), pp. 255-97.

Porter, S.E. and M.B. O'Donnell, 'Semantics and Patterns of 
Argumentation in the Book of Romans: Definitions, Proposals, Data and 
Experiments', in S.E. Porter (ed.), Diglossia and Other Topics in New 
Testament Linguistics (JSNTSup, 193; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic 
Press), pp. 154-204.

Porter, S.E. and J.T. Reed (eds.), Discourse Analysis and Other 
Topics in Biblical Greek (JSNTSup, 113; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic 
Press, 1999).

Preece, J., Online Communities: Designing Usability, Supporting 
Sociability (New York: John Wiley, 2000)

Raymond, E.S., The Cathedral and the Bazaar: Musing on Linux and Open 
Source by an Accidental Revolutionary (Cambridge, MA: O'Reilly & 
Associates, 1999).

Reed, J.T., A Discourse Analysis of Philippians: Method and Rhetoric 
in the Debate over Literary Integrity (JSNTSup, 136; Sheffield: 
Sheffield Academic Press, 1997).

Renear, A., E. Mylonas, and D. Durand, 'Refining our Notion of What 
Text Really Is: The Problem of Overlapping Hierarchies', in S. Hockey 
and N. Ide (eds.), Research in Humanities Computing 4: Selected 
Papers from the ALLC/ACH Conference, Christ Church, Oxford, April 
1992 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996): 263-80.

Sperberg-McQueen, C.M., 'Text in the Electronic Age: Textual Study 
and Text Encoding, with Examples from Medieval Texts', Literary and 
Linguistic Computing, 6 (1991), pp. 34-46.

Udell, J., Practical Internet Groupware (Cambridge, MA: O'Reilly & 
Associates, 1999).
","txt","2","",""
"137","2","The Virtual Lightbox: The Potential of Peer-to-Peer Humanities Computing","1","This paper will demonstrate and discuss the Virtual Lightbox, a newly developed image-based software tool (programmed primarily in Java) in the context of the network paradigm known as peer-to-peer computing. We believe that the Lightbox, which may be imagined as an image-based whiteboard for the Web, will be of broad interest to members of the international humanities computing and digital library community.
 
We are also particularly interested to discuss the Lightbox in terms of peer-to-peer computing, the best-known exemplar of which is probably Napster (the controversial MP3 trading application). Online projects in humanities computing have heretofore depended primarily on the client-server architecture underlying the World-Wide Web. As a number of commentators have recently pointed out, the popular emergence of peer-to-peer applications may represent the first major paradigm shift in network computing since the 1991 launch of the NCSA’s Mosaic browser (Tennant 2000); we will therefore present the Virtual Lightbox in the context of these developments and their implications for humanities computing.
 
The Virtual Lightbox is a newly developed open source software application, supported by the Center for Computational Sciences at the University of Kentucky and jointly designed and implemented by this paper’s authors. The Lightbox was conceived to function in a networked environment, as a browser helper application. It presents users with a display surface analogous to a real-world lightbox or tabletop; images may be imported into the display area through manual selection (from both local storage and remote http addresses), or (with suitable server side scripting) as the result of a search. Once placed on the surface of the Lightbox, images may be dragged, arranged, and layered at will to create juxtapositions for comparison. Images may also be enlarged and reduced in their proportions, from thumbnails to full size. At present, there is no comparable network-based tool that facilitates image selection and comparison. Comparison itself is an example of what John Unsworth has recently termed a “scholarly primitive.” Thus, the Lightbox is founded on the assumption that computational tools should reflect intellectual practice.
 
As participants in a recent discussion on the LOOKSEE (image-based humanities computing) listserv pointed out, image-based tools for the desktop are plentiful (Photoshop, for example, or the University of Maryland’s PhotoFinder); however, image-based tools for networked environments are comparatively scarce (but see the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities’ Inote, or the new tools that Luna Imaging is producing). In designing the Lightbox, we therefore sought to combine the need for an adequate image-based comparison tool with the collaborative potential embodied by networked environments. Participants in a Lightbox session may share images (including their actual on-screen configuration) with one another. Each user’s actions with the Lightbox are emulated in real-time for the other participants in the session. Thus, if one user slides an image across the surface of the Lightbox, all other participants in the session observe this behavior. Likewise, a suite of basic image processing features (sharpen, brighten, opacity, etc.) is available for collaborative use. (These features reinforce our analogy to the numerous text-based whiteboards that are now available.) Authority control is obviously important here, and users of the Lightbox can opt for different layers of authority to avoid initiating contradictory or exclusionary actions.
 
A typical usage scenario might resemble the following: Four scholars (each at a different
institution) who share an interest in Blake’s use of color schedule a day and time for a Lightbox session. At the appointed hour, each loads 6-8 images from their hard drive into the Lightbox for inspection by their distant colleagues. Each takes a turn at “directing” the virtual conversation, bringing his or her images to the fore, zooming them to highlight a detail, and offering commentary via a realtime chat facility that is part of the Lightbox. (Or perhaps they might agree to place a conference call instead.) The observing scholars may each individually annotate the images belonging to the current discussion leader, keying their notes to specific regions of interest on the image. At one point, one of the observing scholars wishes to bring an image into the viewing area and juxtapose it with an image belonging to the conversation’s current director (but without assuming authority over the conversation). When finished, the four scholars each save a copy of the chat session’s transcript for future reference.
 
Question: Could the tasks just described be performed asynchronously? Yes, probably. But most scholars will attest to the importance of dialogue and interaction with their colleagues, and robust tools for realtime distributed collaboration will enable those intellectual exchanges to flourish in fruitful and unexpected ways.
 
We also believe that the Lightbox has obvious pedagogical implications, particularly in the arena of distance learning. We think the Lightbox could potentially find an audience in a field as far removed as medical informatics.
 
In order to accomplish the above behavior, we have had to draw on some fairly advanced tools and protocols for building network architectures. These are bound to become more prevalent in humanities computing, and the Lightbox provides a useful example of how these network protocols have been implemented in a humanities context. In particular, we make use of the Java Shared Data Toolkit (JSDT) and Remote Method Invocation (RMI).
 
The JSDT is an API provided by Sun Microsystems. It provides a platform to support highly interactive, collaborative applications. The toolkit provides full duplex multipoint communication between connected applications. It also provides a common programming interface for multiparty communications. The wide variety of technologies that have been implemented below the interface -- such as T.12x (standards based multiparty communications protocol) and TCP/IP -- are not visible to the programmer. The API has taken ideas extensively from ITU T:122 recommendation for Multipoint Communication Service for Audiographics and Audiovisual Conferencing Service definition. RMI, meanwhile, allows parameters, return values, and exceptions to be serialized and sent from one Java Virtual machine to another across the network. For example, the movements of an image across the surface of the Lightbox are serialized as a set of x/y coordinates which are then distributed to participants in a session (thus eliminating the need to transmit the image across the network in its entirety). The fusion of RMI and JSDT in the Virtual Lightbox, makes it possible to efficiently send and receive both the image and control data over the network using a peer-to-peer model.
 
In this paper we will address the Virtual Lightbox not only from a technical standpoint, but also reflect on its potential significance in relation to the kinds of electronic scholarly resources we currently create in the humanities. We’re thinking in particular of the rise of the “archive” as the predominant trope in scholarly electronic editing. Many of the major scholarly electronic projects in the humanities -- the Blake Archive, the Rossetti Archive, the Dickinson Electronic Archives -- use that word conspicuously in their titles. One of the reasons why “archive” has been so naturalized in discussions of electronic editing is because it is clearly compatible with the basic assumptions of client-server computing: that there is a centralized repository (the archive) which houses material for users to retrieve on demand. The interactive nature of peer-to-peer computing, however, promises to inspire new kinds of electronic resources, whose locus is outside the archive. In particular, networked spaces may come to resemble laboratories; that is, venues for synchronous collaboration rather than remote collections of static resources. The Virtual Lightbox, for example, in conjunction with streaming video and (especially) emerging Internet 2 technologies (such as the NCSA’s Access Grid), would allow the Blake Archive to function as a site for sophisticated scholarly conferencing.
 
References
 
Inote and the ImageSizer
http://www.iath.virginia.edu/inote/
 
LOOKSEE: Resources for Image-Based Humanities Computing
http://www.rch.uky.edu/~mgk/looksee/
 
Luna
http://www.luna-imaging.com/
 
PhotoFinder
http://www.cs.umd.edu/hcil/photolib/
 
Tennant, Roy. “Peer-to-Peer Networking.” Current Cites 11.10 (October 2000). http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/CurrentCites/2000/cc00.11.10.html
 
Unsworth, John. “Scholarly Primitives: what methods do humanities researchers have in common, and how might our tools reflect this?”
http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/~jmu2m/Kings.5-00/primitives.html
 
The Virtual Lightbox: An Image-Based Whiteboard for the Web
http://www.rch.uky.edu/~mgk/lightbox/","txt","2","",""
"138","2","A New Framework for Web-based Contributory Encyclopedias","1","The current graph structure of the Web, which has been shown by recent
studies to be remarkably weakly connected, suggests in practical terms
the continued need for some centralizing mechanism for knowledge
organization, like traditional encyclopedias. However, such a mechanism
should extend current models of on-line encyclopedias to allow
self-selecting communities of people to easily author and contribute
articles to a common database. Furthermore, those articles should be
automatically indexed and interconnected in useful ways, and users
should be provided with sophisticated search mechanisms for locating
related collections of articles in the database. This is what Pierre
Levy calls a cosmopedia, an intentional knowledge space which is
""deterritorialized,"" yet can be easily located and used for developing a
""collective intelligence."" Such a system is referred to generically as a
contributory encyclopedia. Our framework for contributory encyclopedias
is called a Communipedia. It is a generic framework that allows the
creation of any number of distinct compilations of information. The
paper proposed for ACH/ALLC 2001 will detail motivations, design and
implementation of this framework for creating and managing Web-based
contributory encyclopedias.

The encyclopedia represents an early advance in the organization and
distribution of knowledge. Traditional encyclopedias - whether in print
form or, more recently, on CD-ROM - provide highly organized systems of
information, but they are static and are often seen as elitist.
Historically, encyclopedias have come to be seen as not simply forms of
knowledge organization, but as social processes which seek to define
which knowledge is valid and important. The editorial processes used to
create encyclopedias are usually closed to all but a select editorial
board, and both traditional and CD-ROM-based encyclopedias are expensive
to produce and own.

The World-Wide Web (WWW) addresses one aspect of this problem, in that
it represents a revolutionary step in democratizing the organization and
dissemination of knowledge. It has allowed people all over the world to
author and share information in a distributed and independent fashion.
Recent studies have shown, however, that most of the WWW is poorly
connected. This makes it difficult for users to find information in
large parts of the WWW. It also makes it less likely that others will
find the information that users intend to share. Overly simple indexing
and searching mechanisms employed within individual Web sites compound
the problem. One of the main virtues of the WWW is that it enables
distributed and autonomous information sharing, but this situation makes
clear that there is also a need for centralizing mechanisms for
knowledge organization and dissemination that are available to all.
WWW-based encyclopedias fill this role to a limited extent. On-line
encyclopedias can be dynamic and made accessible globally at a lower
cost than traditional and CD-ROM-based encyclopedia, but as with
traditional encyclopedias, contributions are restricted to an elite
group and their enabling technologies are usually not in the public
domain. Furthermore, the WWW-based encyclopedias do not yet take
advantage of more recent technologies, such as XML, for facilitating
better authoring, indexing and hyperlinking.

The focus of this project is to reconceptualize the form and function of
the encyclopedia so as to create a new form which will provide better
support for the organization of historical knowledge and on-line access
to that knowledge than existing WWW-based encyclopedias. This new form
seeks to move the encyclopedia from a static, linear, and elite type of
knowledge organizing to one which is contributory, multi-dimensional,
analyzable, and extensible. The design of this new form is geared toward
use by average users. We call this new form a Communipedia. The data
model supports the representation of composite documents and will be
amenable to both rich forms of hyperlinking and database indexing for
efficient searches.

An instance of the Communipedia framework is contributory in the sense
that any member of a self-selecting community will be able to submit
articles. It will be possible for new articles and revisions of existing
articles to be added to the Communipedia at any time. The framework is
designed to accept articles, provide sophisticated on-the-fly indexing
and hyperlinking of incoming articles, and store them in an XML database
which will support a sophisticated query mechanism. A complementary
design goal has been to allow sophisticated authoring processes for
articles and is at the same time easy to use.

The Communipedia framework is extensible in that it is designed to allow
any user to conveniently add features to its technical design. One
application of this aspect of the framework is the development by users
of new tools for analyzing a collection or new document type definitions
(DTDs) to represent new types of entries.

The basic element of any collection managed by a Communipedia is the
document. All documents exist as first class objects in the database
server and have unique identity. Documents may be one of three
semantically-related types: article, annotation, or map. All documents
are semi-structured data objects modeled in an XML-based schema. Various
built-in semantic relationships between these document types are
supported.

A document of type article corresponds generally to what is thought of
as an encyclopedia article, but also includes multimedia assets such as
images, audio and video. Each article, unlike traditional encyclopedia
articles, however, may be composite in the object-oriented sense,
containing other articles. Allowing composite articles will allow
authors to reuse existing articles in composing new ones.

A document of type annotation is associated with a document of article
type. An annotation may contain a natural language commentary on the
associated article for human consumption, or it may be used to represent
a workflow specification and log for the automated editorial workflow
processing of that article. A special case of the former is an
annotation consisting of only a link to another, already existing,
document. Each article document may be associated with zero or more
annotation documents.

Documents of type map serve as a higher-level form of knowledge
organization than database index structures by representing specific
semantic relationships and roles between articles. These are based on
the concept of the topic map. Each map has a user specified type, such
as ""is a"", ""authored by"", or ""is related to."" The Communipedia system
will have a set of built-in map types; however, users and other system
components will also be able to define their own map types. Each
document (i.e. article or map) which participates in a map has a role. A
map of type `authored by,"" for example, implies the participation of a
document which represents the author and the document authored by that
person. Since Communipedia may be linked to others for networked
searches, each map must have a specific scope which defines the
collection in which it exists. Map documents are intended to enable more
sophisticated types of browsing and searching through a collection. Maps
can be both the subjects and objects of queries and keyword searches
since they are first class database objects.

An instance of the Communipedia can be multi-dimensional in several
respects. On an article level, a Communipedia goes beyond the linearity
of traditional encyclopedias to provide dynamic hyperlinking between
articles tailored to the query being performed.

On an editorial level, the framework supports optional editorial layers
of articles. Using this feature, a Communipedia could be organized, for
example, into one or more collections of articles developed by
associated editorial boards, while other collections in the same
Communipedia might consist of articles contributed by users independent
of an editorial board. This project envisions a key scenario in which
this feature is critical. The ultimate goal of this work is the creation
of an Encyclopedia Africana through the use of both an editorial board
consisting of traditional, trained scholars along with independent
contributions from communities or individuals. Using this approach, an
entry on African American inventors written by trained historians, for
example, might be linked to contributions of related information by
independent scholars or individuals. Such a contributor might add
information about experiencing the introduction of an invention, an
encounter with the inventor, or a recording or image of the inventor
they own, or the results of their own research.

Other layers can be added dynamically to hold alternate versions or
perspectives of articles, or running commentaries on one or more other
layers. On an access level, Communipedias also support optional
networked interconnection with other Communipedias, using a
server-to-server, information exchange protocol to create so-called Web
syndicates at the server level.

The Communipedia is designed as an extensible, component-based system
consisting of: user interfaces for authors, editors and browsers, an XML
database server, an XML-based workflow management subsystem, and a
peer-to-peer communication system for interconnecting multiple
Communipedia. In addition to keyword search, general query expressions
are supported using an XML-based query language, as well as hyperlink
browsing. The workflow manager automates the routing of documents as
part of the editorial process selected by users of a Communipedia.
Workflows are configurable using specifications written in the WfMC
extension to XML.

This project makes contributions both to the technical aspects of
hypermedia systems and their impact on social systems for knowledge
organization and dissemination. African American Studies is the initial
context for its evaluation. New approaches to organizing, searching and
managing on-line encyclopedias using XML-based technologies have been
developed, which are, in turn, serving as the basis for new approaches
to pedagogy, collaboration, research, and writing in African American
studies and other disciplines. The Communipedia will serve as a
framework for examining a broad range of research issues, including
information needs and use models in marginal communities, comparative
studies of traditional versus vernacular historiography, technology
appropriation and collaborative design in marginal communities, and
universal access to information.","txt","2","",""
"139","2","Digitizing Difference: The Challenge of Heterogeneity in the Sources of Early Modern Science","3","One of the most pressing tasks that confront historians of science today is the need to incorporate into the standard narratives of science a mass of heterogeneous material that, for reasons of complexity, obscurity, or perceived irrelevance, has been hitherto overlooked or dismissed. The task before editors, interpreters, and teachers is no light one. The material often consists of notes or papers from well-known scientists that were never published during their lifetimes and indeed in some cases never intended for the eyes of others. In many cases the personal or even secretive nature of the undertaking has meant that the material exists in a form that makes traditional transcription difficult or impossible: obscure scribbles, cryptic notes, classificatory schemes meant to be intelligible only to their authors. Even when transcription of such material proves possible, an editor is still likely to find himself constrained by the printed page: a single page may not be able to represent the complex interrelationships which often characterize the material or, worse yet, may require that one plump for a single interpretation of these complex relationships where hundreds are possible. Even when the problems posed by heterogeneity in a single source have been overcome, one must cope with the differences in data brought together from related material in several sources. Here the sources of early modern science, which range over several languages, even within the corpus of a single author or within a single work, can prove particularly daunting, posing often insurmountable obstacles not only for editors, but also for scholars and students seeking some kind of reasonable access to the often very rich funds of information which they conceal.

What brings the three projects that make up this session together is that each has been directly inspired by these challenges and in a sense owes its existence to them. In order to overcome what have hitherto seemed like impassible obstacles to publication and comprehension, each project has turned to the digital medium, and in particular to the rich possibilities for digitization and consultation offered by a consistent digital rendering of diverse and discontinous source material. In all three cases, the potential payoff of successful digitization is immense: a fairly easy and uncomplicated access to material that might either never have appeared in print or have appeared in a form which sacrificed heterogeneity to the exigencies of presentation.

The latter possibility is in fact the point of departure for the Galileo Project, which has successfully digitized Galileo Galilei's MS 72, an often indecipherable palimpsest of notes made by Galileo over a long period of time, which raises all of the usual questions of contiguity, priority, and consistency in their acutest form. Where printed versions have entailed either leaving disjointed pieces of text that clearly belong together or pasting together texts physically separate and distinct, the electronic edition has made possible a representation that links location in the manuscript to transcribed text while at the same time permitting any desired concatenation of pieces of text.

In the case of the Boyle Project, the heterogeneity of the data is so formidable that, even if successfully digitized, it may never result in a single interpretation. The Project aims to digitize Boyle's copious laboratory and reading notes, most of which are endorsed with titles and numbers written in the margins, in what appears to have been an attempt at cataloguing, as well as a series of indices which appear to refer to these endorsements. The challenge for interpreters lies in determining what cataloguing system or systems, if any, were operative. Here the digital medium offers two clear advantages over printed media: first, the possibility of representing the material in a form which makes no judgment, implicit or explicit, about the internal relations of the data, and secondly, the opportunity to sift the data, once digitized, in ways difficult or impossible with a sequential reading or indeed with any traditional printed edition. And the advantages of such a digital representation increase exponentially if, as is possible, Boyle's cataloguing strategies changed over time or were simultaneously instantiated in multiple, possibly competing versions.

In contrast to the other two projects, which are concerned with heterogeneity within a single source, the Archimedes Project confronts the heterogeneity of data within a corpus of texts which, though written in a variety of languages and separated by great distances in time, all discuss ostensibly the same relatively small set of problems-the central problems of classical mechanics. How can this very diverse collection of data be brought together in a useful and accessible way? To address this problem, the project has developed a series of specialized tools designed to allow the user not only to interpret linguistically disparate data but also to gather together data that would otherwise never cross linguistic and conceptual boundaries, and to feed that data back into the library as a kind of seed for further data-analysis. One result has been the emergence of new and unsuspected patterns in material that, in contrast to the material dealt with by the other three projects, has become if anything overly familiar.

The three Projects will present the results of their constant grappling with the complexity of this source material, each from a different angle: the Boyle Project's digitization from the starting point, the Archimedes Project from the midst of digitization and design, and the Galileo Project as a fully-completed and award-winning site. It is our hope that a presentation of both the level and the range of our experiences in dealing with this material-and of the complicated questions that it poses-will offer useful insights for, and elicit welcome advice from, the rest of the digital community and not merely those whose projects are concerned with early modern scientific manuscripts.  

 

Sifting the Scholarly Waste-Basket: The Electronic Representation of Galileo's Private Notes on Motion (Jochen Büttner)

As a result of a joint project of the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, the Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza, both in Florence, and the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science in Berlin, an electronic representation of Galileo's notes on motion and mechanics has been made available through the Internet. These private notes that were taken over a time period of about 30 years are contained in a manuscript that consists of about 200 loose sheets of papers. This manuscript, preserved as part of Codex 72 in the collection of Galileo's manuscripts at the Biblioteca Nazionale, has, in spite of its importance, neither been translated in full, nor even been adequately published until today. The electronic representation of Galileo's notes on motion presents this historical document, together with the results of research on it, in a new way, it offers new tools for further research, and it is expected to become a backbone for a collaborative research effort on this important manuscript in the future.

It proved virtually impossible to publish the chaotic mixture of texts, calculations and drawings on the pages of Codex 72 using traditional editorial techniques. Even the masterful Edizione Nazionale (1890-1909) of Galileo's papers by Antonio Favaro, which is the canonical entry point to Galileo's work, proved to be insufficient in its representation of this codex. This is also true for a supplement to the Annali di Storia della Scienza (1979, Fasc. 2) by Stillman Drake which contains ""Galileo's Notes on Motion Arranged in Probable Order of Composition and Presented in Reduced Facsimile"" in which cut out fragments are stuck together in a piecemeal way according to their alleged order. In view of the steadily growing scholarly interest in Galileo's manuscripts, the project of a new and comprehensive edition of the Codex 72 hence had become a desideratum.

A solution to the problem of an edition of the Codex 72 was offered by the application of new media. Tools for realizing hypertexts have dissolved many of the obstacles of tackling a chaotic manuscript such as Galileo's notes on motion. It was thus possible to produce an electronic representation of the manuscript in which the folio pages of the original are represented in such a way that complex semantic networks can be traced and bold hypothesized connections can be elaborated by the simple click of a mouse. We consider this electronic representation of a manuscript to be a new form of edition which substantially differs from a traditional paper copy edition. It has its own editorial and technical principles. While there won't be time to go into these principles in detail, I nevertheless wish to illustrate the different character of the electronic representation of Codex 72 by discussing a few outstanding features.

The electronic medium offers far-reaching opportunities for handling data which are extensively exploited in our edition of Galileo's notes on motion. Thus, internal links between related pages of the chaotically arranged folios facilitate the comprehension of the internal consistency and development of Galileo's thought. Links to other sources, publications, and scholarly work, which are continually updated, provide entry points to the current research on individual pages of the manuscript. One of the most attractive modes of access that is entirely unparalleled in traditional editions is provided by automatically generated indices of words, numbers, and the lettering used in diagrams, as well as by a list of propositions. For us, the opportunities offered by electronic media have meant not only an ability to represent what was hitherto unrepresentable with traditional means, but also a complete rethinking of method of production and its implications for future research. First, it has allowed us to include material that is normally considered a by-product of research, rather than its goal. In fact, this is true of the whole project-our electronic representation was never conceived as a project in its own right; rather, it was a spin-off of our own research work on this particular manuscript. The content of the electronic representation consists largely of material produced as part of the research process-material that would normally go unpublished. Furthermore, most of the technical effort invested in the development of the electronic representation went into the development of a database containing this material as well as the results of our own research and analysis. This database was prepared mainly as a tool for our own work; making this tool available to others via the Internet proved to be comparatively easy. But not only do we make our research material and our working tools public; we even go so far as to make our own results available at an early stage, sometimes even before having published them in the traditional way. To us, the electronic representation of MS 72 represents an ""instrument in progress,"" and one which would simply not be possible in traditional media.

The Galileo Project is an ""instrument in progress"" in another sense, too. In a traditional edition, a small number of editors work together towards a final goal-the printed edition. Once the edition is printed, the only way to improve the results is to start all over again and produce a new edition. An electronic edition does not suffer from this limitation: it is, by its very nature, open-ended and capable of constant revision and improvement. Thus, the Galileo Project is conceived not only as an edition in the traditional sense, but also as a starting point for a new stage of scholarly work on the manuscript. It is our hope that, in place of the small band of editors who work on traditional editions, the scope of collaborators will now broaden to include virtually all scholars interested in this manuscript. The results of their work can be integrated into updated versions and produced in 15 minutes without any additional costs. A comparison with the time and cost necessary for producing a new paper edition highlights the essential qualitative difference between an edition as an end in itself and an edition which is the potential starting point for further cooperative research. The open-ended instrumental nature of our project is, in fact, its most distinctive feature and the one we are proudest of.

 

Working with an 'Indigested Heap': The Electronic Edition of the Work-diaries of Robert Boyle   (Littleton)

Robert Boyle (1627-91) was one of the leading scientists of the late seventeenth century. A founding member of the Royal Society, he was heavily involved in its programme of experimental discovery and demonstration, and published the results of his own innovative experiments copiously from 1660 to 1691-and thereafter many more of his experiments and observations were published posthumously. He is most celebrated for his experiments involving atmospheric pressure in his 'air pump', through which the principles of the Law bearing his name were derived, and for his espousal of the corpuscularian theory of matter. Boyle was a prolific writer, and his unpublished manuscripts, now kept at the Royal Society, are almost as extensive as his published works-but not nearly as well known. One group of these manuscripts is particularly important for our understanding of Boyle's intellectual and scientific development. From 1647 until his death, Boyle kept unbound sheets of paper on which he recorded experimental results, accounts of natural phenomena vouchsafed to him by travellers and virtuosi, and extracts from natural philosophical works he consulted. These were most often recorded by his many amanuenses, but frequently Boyle, or another amanuensis, would retrospectively write numbers, titles and/or endorsements in the margins of these entries, to be used as a cataloguing system for future data retrieval. Prof. Michael Hunter of Birkbeck College, who is currently editing the complete works of Robert Boyle, has dubbed these collections of notes 'work-diaries', as they appear to reflect Boyle's daily laboratory activity over a certain period of time. The work-diaries, the raw material for Boyle's scientific ideas and our most immediate evidence of his laboratory practice and techniques of data gathering, are the subject matter of a major electronic text edition now in preparation.(1)

My paper discusses the work of the Robert Boyle Project at Birkbeck College, London, in preparing the Boyle work-diaries for publication on the Web in late 2001. This fragmentary manuscript material is being encoded in the Extensible Markup Language using the Document Type Definition and markup guidelines developed by the Text Encoding Initiative. With generous funding from the Wellcome Trust, this project is now entering its final months. Approximately 500,000 words of manuscript text, written in a range of hands and often employing alchemical terminology and symbols, have been transcribed and encoded. Annotations and tags to facilitate searches are now being incorporated into the text, and an XSL stylesheet will be developed in order to deliver these transcriptions and their editorial apparatus over the Web. Readers of the webpages will be able to choose between accessing a 'clean' version of the text, in which interlineal insertions are silently included and deletions and corrections found in the original are hidden, and a version in which these deletions, insertions and corrections are visible and marked as such (using different colours, font, format, etc.). By employing the <index> and <rs> tags from the TEI DTD, we will make the work-diaries fully searchable by subject and word, and will eliminate the problems caused by the several forms and languages a concept such as 'mercury' or 'iron' can take in these early modern scientific writings. The scholarly results that can be attained through the use of digitization are great, although I concentrate here on the results of only one of our projects, in which we have sought to determine Boyle's system of cataloguing and using his notes. Near the end of his life, Boyle tried to organize his remaining notes in one last compendium of natural philosophical observations, which he tentatively entitled 'Paralipomena', or literally 'things left out', that is, observations omitted from his major body of work which he intended to produce as a supplement. The Paralipomena, however, was never published, and we are left with the 'indigested heap', as Boyle himself termed it,(2) of papers and work-diaries left behind and now collected quite randomly among the volumes of the Boyle Papers in the Royal Society. Much of the work-diary project has been involved with collating the various pages of the separate work-diaries from their various locations among the volumes of the Boyle Papers and organizing them in a coherent and chronological order. The next step, upon which we are presently embarked, is to discover the relations between the individual work-diaries themselves and between them and Boyle's published work, and those ambitious works, like the Paraliopmena, which were never published. Enticing clues for these questions are provided by what appear to be keys and indices to Boyle's notes still among the Boyle Papers. These are mainly lists of numbers with brief titles of observations and notes written next to them. It is clear that in some way the many marginal additions to the work-diary entries, often made retrospectively, in pencil and by somebody other than the original author, constitute a type of coding system related to these lists. Through the electronic markup of the text, we intend to determine the connections between these otherwise impenetrable guides and the many surviving work-diaries. Every marginal note is tagged separately from the main entry of the text, and important details such as the hand and medium (pen, ink, pencil) in which it is noted as an attribute value. Marginal notes with similar content or attributes can then be grouped together and compared to the indications in the indices. By isolating and grouping together other components of the work-diary entries-marginal numbers, dates, endorsements and even stray marks-we are able to develop several further insights into how Boyle conceptualized and organized his working notes.

This exercise enables us to understand better two important features of early modern science. It reveals significant information about Boyle's own organization of and approach to data. Here we can see Boyle's often abortive attempts to come to grips with his mass of apparently random material and the hesitant ways in which he tried to catalogue it according to his own priorities-showing us a Boyle far removed from the Olympian 'Father of Chemistry' so often presented in older accounts of the Scientific Revolution. The electronic edition can clearly reveal the patterns, continuities and disruptions in his plans to sort through his 'chaos', as he himself often called it.(3) More generally, this project enables us to see an example of the methods of document management in the seventeenth century. Indeed both these seventeenth-century texts and the modern electronic edition are concerned ultimately with the same goal-the efficient classifying, sorting, searching, retrieving and using of data-and this project will help us to compare the different methods and possibilities available when working with such dissimilar resources.

references

(1) Michael Hunter and Charles Littleton, ""The Work-diaries of Robert Boyle: a newly discovered source and its Internet publication,"" Notes and Records of the Royal Society (forthcoming, 2001).

(2) Royal Society, Boyle Papers, vol. 25, 217.

(3) Michael Hunter, ""Mapping the Mind of Robert Boyle: the Evidence of the Boyle Papers,"" in: Michael Hunter (ed.), Archives of the Scientific Revolution: the Formation and Exchange of Ideas in Seventeenth-Century Europe (London, 1998), 121-36, esp. 133-6.

 

The Archimedes Project: Integrating Heterogeneity in the Sources of Classical Mechanics (Fuchs)

The Archimedes Project is a collaborative project at the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science in Berlin and the Perseus Project at Tufts University, which aims to create a web-based working environment for studying the history of classical mechanics from its origins in the ancient world to the time of Galileo. The core of the project's work consists in the digitization of ancient and early modern texts on mechanical theory and practice, with the eventual aim of creating a digital research library. To date, the Project has digitized some 50 megabytes of sources texts in Greek, Arabic, Latin, Italian and English. In addition to the source texts, the site includes Greek, Latin, and Italian lexica, as well as morphological analyzers in these languages which allow the user to move easily between source text and dictionary entry. Over the next year we plan to add another 100 megabytes of text, and several new tools, including a lexicon and morphological analyser for classical Arabic. The Project is web-based but at the moment it is fully accessible only from within the Institute. We hope to make the library publicly available some time next year.

My paper will discuss the challenges the Project has encountered in digitizing the heterogeneous sources of classical mechanics and in making the information found in them accessible in a useful and meaningful way. In particular, I will concentrate on the problems we have encountered in building a working environment that can cope with such a wide variety of sources and the solutions we have found for them.

Heterogeneity of sources is a problem which continually confronts us at the Archimedes Project. The two other projects participating in this panel face primarily a problem of heterogeneity within a single source text or a corpus belonging to a single author. The kind of heterogeneity that the Archimedes Project must cope with is one that occurs not only across corpora but also across time and across cultures. In the most general terms, the problem is one of connection: how do we build links between pieces of data which, though similar in theme, are couched in widely differing cultural contexts, without at the same time sacrificing the distinctiveness of the data? Cooperation with the Perseus Project has enabled us to cope with linguistic difference. Each of the words in our texts is connected through a morphological analyzer to a dictionary entry, where the user gets not only an English definition, but also, in many cases, links to other instances of the word in texts available on the site. This enables one to check the appropriateness not only of the translation in the particular text being studied, but also of the definition in the dictionary itself. In addition, a synonym tool developed at the Perseus Project yields synonyms for Latin and Greek as well as cross-language equivalents-a particularly useful tool when dealing with technical terms, where synonyms and equivalents in other languages can yield important clues for connecting data both within a single text and across texts separated by linguistic barriers. But the most daunting problem the Archimedes Project faces in terms of heterogeneity is not primarily a linguistic one, though it is in fact nurtured by linguistic differences. Our source texts focus on a fairly narrow range of themes and conceptual models and it has always been the aim of the project to make its material accessible in terms of theme, so that changes in theme and thinking may be measured both against and apart from the particular form in which they happen to be expressed. In order to achieve this goal, however, particular care must be taken to keep digitization and commentary separate-more so thanis usually the case in digital projects, since a judgment about the structure of a text at an early stage may make the theme to which that structure provides a clue inaccessible at a later stage. This is particularly important with mathematical and geometrical texts, whose often complex structure may hide important clues as to provenance, influence, and innovation. To achieve this separation, we make use of a ""production line,"" which allows for a basic structure to be tagged in a source text at an early stage by people who are normally not experts in the history of science, while postponing to a later stage more complicated judgments about structure. When the later stage is reached, detailed annotation about the structure is added to the website in the form of pieces of commentary linked to locations in source texts-a point, a text region, or an SGML node. The commentary itself ranges over everything from the SGML structure of the text itself, revisions to the div structure, for instance, to the identification of technical terms, argumentative structures, and conceptual models. Nor need it be from a single commentator. It is fully envisaged that the commentary texts will normally be from groups of scholars working on the same text and will reflect a range of opinion. The data from the commentary text is then used as the basis for visualizations which link together similar themes in otherwise linguistically and culturally diverse texts. In scholarly terms, the initial results have been promising: a study of the first text of classical mechanics, the Mechanical Problems of ps-Aristotle, conducted using these tools, has revealed an unseen consistency in the argumentation and thinking of the treatise, and has if not strengthened the argument in favor of Aristotelian authorship, at least taken the wind out of most arguments against Aristotelian authorship, for which exhibit A has always been the apparent chaos of the treatise.

The results are pleasing to us not least because we feel that it is precisely on this score we differ from most other digital projects. Whereas the goal of a typical digital project is to make a given set of texts available in a final digital form, the Archimedes Project conceives of itself as an essentially open-ended project, in which scholarly commentary is continually added to the website as metadata to enrich the ""connectivity"" between texts without sacrificing the differences that separate them.","txt","2","",""
"140","2","Information extraction with INTEX","1","INTEX is a development environment that allows users to rapidly construct, test and maintain descriptions of specific patterns that occur in texts written in natural language. See an overview of the system in [Silberztein 1999]. Each description is represented by a local grammar, usually entered via the INTEX graph editor.

Local grammars can be used to represent:

-- character-based patterns, for the recognition of phone numbers (e.g. ""sequence of 3 digits, followed by a space or an hyphen, followed by 4 digits""), email or Internet addresses, hours or dates expressed numerically, reference or serial numbers, sentence endings, etc.

-- orthographical patterns, for the recognition of spelling variants (e.g. ""centre"" or ""center""), company names and their variants (""International Business Machines Corp. "", ""Big Blue""), etc.

-- morphological patterns, for the recognition of families of derived words (e.g. ""France, French, Frenchmen, frenchify"") and inflected forms (conjugation of verbs, inflection of nouns);

-- families of lexical entries, for the recognition and indexing of related terms and concepts (e.g. ""credit card, debit card, MasterCard, visa card..."");

-- morphosyntactic patterns, for the recognition of frozen or semi-frozen expressions, such as complements of dates and times (e.g. ""on Monday the 15th at 3PM"", ""two days ago in the early afternoon""), of locations, addresses, etc.

-- other morphosyntactic patterns for the recognition and co-indexing of transformed syntactic constructions (e.g. ""N0's trip to N1 = N0 went, traveled to N1""). These techniques involve the use of transducers and can therefore be applied to text encoding. A. Tutin, for example, has used INTEX for XLM encoding and for semi-automatic tagging of anaphora.

One important characteristic of INTEX is that each local grammar can be easily re-used in other local grammars. Developers typically construct simple, elementary graphs that are equivalent to finite-state transducers (FSTs), and re-use these elementary graphs to construct more complex graphs.

This process is similar to the method by which engineers build ""black boxes"" with Computer Aided Design systems to design for instance simple logical operators (AND, XOR) that are subsequently reused in elementary arithmetic operations (ADD), reused in large numbers in more complex arithmetic operations (ADD64), in ALUs, processors, etc. INTEX provides tools to help design, test, debug, refine and maintain large numbers of local grammars in libraries.

Another characteristic of INTEX is that all the objects processed (grammars, dictionaries and texts) are internally represented by FSTs. Therefore, all the functionalities provided by the system are expressed as a limited number of operations on FSTs. For instance, applying a grammar to a text is performed by computing the union of the grammar FSTs, and then the intersection of the resulting FST and the text FST. This architecture allows for very efficient algorithms (e.g. when applying a deterministic FST to indexed texts) and gives INTEX the power of a Turing machine (thanks to the ability to cascade FSTs).

I will describe the implementation of a large-coverage description of French determiners, based on the description available in Goosse & Grevisse (1986),Gross (1986) and Salkoff (1999). The grammar is organized by means of a hundred local grammars represented by Finite State Automata.

References:

Goosse, André; Grevisse Maurice. 1986. Le Bon Usage. Duculot : Paris-Gembloux.

Gross, Maurice. 1986. Grammaire transformationnelle du français : syntaxe du nom. Cantilène : Malakoff.

Salkoff, Morris. 1999. A French English grammar. John Benjamins Ed. Amsterdam, Philadelphia.

Silberztein, Max. 1999. "" Text Indexation with INTEX "". In Computer and the Humanities vol. 33. Kluwer Academic Publishers: Amsterdam.","txt","2","",""
"141","2","Parsing words and sentences ambiguous between opposite meanings using INTEX finite state grammars: You cant take ambiguity too seriously","1","Ambiguity poses a serious challenge to any computational system that attempts to extract a meaning or sense from an input sentence. Some ambiguities can be clarified by reference to the surrounding text. G. Miller has pointed out that the word line is at least six ways ambiguous considered only as a noun. The word right is ambiguous in meaning and can be at least four different parts of speech (noun, adj, adverb, verb) according to WordNet.

For a parser that analyzes a sentence one word at a time from left to right an ambiguous word can sometimes lead to ‘garden path’ phenomena, widely discussed in sentence processing literature, and most recently in Fodor and Inoue (eds.) A sentence like The horse raced past the barn died may ‘fool’ a parser into marking raced as the past of the verb race and assigning the string The horse raced past the barn a sentence structure. When the word died is encountered, this indicates that the analysis of the earlier string must be changed to yield a relative clause: The horse (that was) raced past the barn died. A garden path sentence contains (a) an ambiguous element that can be assigned two structures or meanings when the parser encounters it and (b) must be assigned only one of those meanings when the parser encounters a later element in the sentence, called the ‘disambiguator’.

My study focuses on garden path sentences that are ambiguous between opposite readings. In all cases, the ambiguous element is a verb (put, wash) such that a later element (a particle: out) changes the sentence to an opposite reading. I will discuss Quine’s ideas about the semantic analysis of sentences like You cannot take the newspapers too seriously, which can mean take them more seriously or pay them little heed. These ambiguities in a computerized natural language interface to a database are particularly pernicious. A simple ambiguity (line: telephone line, a new line of clothes, a line in the sand, she gave him a line, I have a line on it) may return information about Gucci’s latest line rather than AT&T’s lines. But an intelligent reader can sift the wheat from the chaff. The particle out is like the element not. It reverses the sense of the sentence, but the sentence is usually well-formed with or without the out.

I discuss the INTEX lexical entries required to deal with cases of ‘ambiguous’ semantic readings in ‘verb’ versus ‘verb particle’ constructions that occur with examples like pan and pan out. My theory of cognition panned out. This implies that my theory had some success and is a positive statement. The critic panned my theory of cognition. This implies that my theory had a setback and is a negative statement. For some, The play panned in London, means that it failed, while The play panned out in London means that it was successful. I present the INTEX finite state analysis for examples involving …pan… which would have a ‘negative’ interpretation until an …out… is encountered, whereupon …pan…out… would be given a ‘positive’ interpretation.

If pan is negative and pan out is positive, then out has the opposite effect with wash. The noun washout usually means ‘failed’ as in: Our complicated financial pans were a washout. But wash can mean ‘succeed’ or ‘come out even’ as in: Our complicated financial plans were a wash. As a verb, wash is ‘positive’ implying success, as in: Your financial plans will wash. Wash out is ‘negative’ implying failure, as in: Your financial plans will wash out. A left-right parser assigning semantic interpretations must ‘change’ its semantic interpretation for pan and wash. It worked and it worked out are both positive implying success. It flunked (out) and it punked (out) are all negative suggesting failure. I present the INTEX English grammar and lexicon of common examples found in English newspapers and machine readable journals by GlossaNet.

I am using INTEX to examine the occurrences of pan, pan out, wash, washout, and wash out in the New York Times, Wall Street Journal, and several other papers to study the possible ambiguities and specific interpretations in actual samples. Since there is a federal tax law popularly known as the ‘wash law,’ there are many examples with wash and wash out both in professional journals and in newspapers. INTEX has parsed the past two years of these newspapers. Research having native and non-native English speakers semantically tag texts suggests that non-native speakers of English – who are unaware of the meaning reversal in these verbs – misunderstand passages in leading newspapers. One must speak excellent native English to understand financial and political discussions in newspapers. Non-native speakers sometimes think a financial failure (pan, washout, wash out) is a success (pan out, wash). If this research pans out, it will wash, but if it pans, it will wash out and be panned as a washout.

Words that are ambiguous between opposite readings can cause havoc in two situations I discuss. Search engines may return cases that are the opposite of what you want with no indication that they are the opposite, for instance it may list projects that collapsed (panned, washed out) when you want projects that succeeded (panned out, washed). And, if the out is carelessly handled in translation machines, the machine may take an input sentence that claims some project succeeded and translate it to indicate that the project failed. My grammar and lexicon are INTEX finite state graphs. All my example sentences were located in machine readable text by GlossaNet.

References

Gross, Maurice. 1993. ""Local grammars and their representation by finite automata"", in Michael Hoey (ed.), Data, Description, Discourse, Papers on the English Language in honour of John McH Sinclair, Londres, Harper-Collins, p. 26-38.

Gross, Maurice. 1997. ""The Construction of Local Grammars"", in E.Roche et Y.Schabes (eds.), Finite State Language Processing, Cambridge, Mass., The MIT Press, p. 329-352.

Fodor, J. D. and Inoue, A. 1998. ""Attach anyway"". In Fodor, J. D. and Inoue, A. (Eds.), pp. 101-142","txt","2","",""
"142","2","Parsing a Web site with linguistic resources : GlossaNet","1","GlossaNet is an automated system that monitors Web sites. On dates and at intervals selected by the user, GlossaNet downloads the Web site, converts it to an electronic corpus and uses the INTEX programs (M. Silberztein 1993) and the linguistic resources of the LADL (electronic dictionaries and libraries of local grammars) to parse it (B. Courtois and M. Silberztein 1990). We present the on-line version of GlossaNet. This version is accessible on the Internet and offers an automatic service for making concordances (http://glossa.ladl.jussieu.fr). It is mainly designed for use by linguists, but it is also used by some for information retrieval purposes since the corpora available in GlossaNet are the daily updated on-line editions of 25 newspapers in French, English, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish.

Dynamic corpora

We borrow the term dynamic corpus from A. Renouf (1992, 1994) to characterize the way corpora are treated in GlossaNet. In linguistic studies, the term corpus is generally used to refer to a static and finite collection of texts gathered on the basis of criteria chosen according to the planned applications. Once the corpus has been set up, it does not change. But, as A. Renouf showed through the AVIATOR project (Birmingham University), it is possible to imagine another approach to corpora designing, where the corpus is viewed as a flow of electronical textual data. The technical difference between AVIATOR and GlossaNet is the full automation of GlossaNet: a module of GlossaNet called CorpusWeb downloads and converts a Web site into a corpus that feeds the flow of electronic data (see Figure ""GlossaNet Process""). In our system, Web sites are treated and parsed as corpora…in fact, as dynamic corpora, since their content changes over time (C. Fairon 1999). D. Walker (1999) has also used a Web crawler to create corpora.



GlossaNet Process

Here is the process that GlossaNet relaunches automatically each time the Web site is updated:

CorpusWeb (a Web grabber) downloads the updated Web site;
A filter converts the retrieved HTML documents into one simple text file (the new ""Corpus"");
If necessary, the system archives the new corpus (for later use);
The new corpus is processed using the INTEX methodology (the corpus is divided into sentences; large coverage dictionaries and grammars are applied onto the text);
Using the INTEX programs, the user's request is applied on the corpus.
On-line service

Users must register on the GlossaNet server to access the system. Once this one-time registration is completed, they have to choose a working language so that GlossaNet displays the list of available corpora for this language (i.e. Chicago Tribune, Los Angeles Times, Philadelphia Inquirer, New York Post, The Guardian, The Times, The Herald Tribune, etc. are available for English). The user chooses a corpus and composes his/her request under the form of a regular expression or a graph (Finite State Automaton). Here are examples of valid regular expressions that can be applied to an English corpus:

Example of regular expressions

Matched patterns

((<be><V:G> to)+<will>)<V:W>

<be>in(<DET>+<E>)<N>

the (FBI+Federal Bureau of Investigation+Bureau)

<be>a good <N+hum>

am going to rent, will check, etc.

was in a hurry, are in a sweat, etc.

the FBI, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Bureau

is a good man, was a good teacher

 

In theory, graphs are equivalent to regular expressions, but practically, they offer a more convenient interface to represent complex structures. For instance, the following graph is equivalent to the first regular expression in the frame presented above:



Each path of the graph defines a ""valid"" pattern that will be found if the graph is applied on a text.

Results are sent by e-mail to the user under the form of a concordance. If the user has opted for an HTML concordance, the pattern matched by the user’s request and presented in concordance is a hyperlink that enables the user to access the original Web page where the occurrence has been found. The occurrence is automatically highlighted in the original Web page.

Applications

The on-line version is mainly used by linguists for locating examples of lexical/syntactic structures but also by people who have to survey the press for professional reasons. This second category of users does not look for lexical or syntactic structures, but uses keywords instead.

For each language, GlossaNet includes several newspapers from various parts of the world, so GlossaNet can also be used for comparative studies (for example, in French, there are corpus from France, Belgium, Quebec and Switzerland).

Lately, the system has been used at the LADL (Laboratoire d’Automatique Documentaire et Linguistique, Université Paris 7) to update the DELA electronic dictionaries of English. Maintaining and extending these dictionaries is a considerable task, and an automated system that simplifies it is very useful. GlossaNet was used to automatically retrieve unknown common words in newspapers. Methodology and results are discussed in C. Fairon and B. Courtois (2000).

Because GlossaNet on-line requires no installation or special configuration on the user’s machine, it can be easily used for teaching.

Conclusion

GlossaNet combines several pre-existing technologies (a Web grabber, a corpora parser and linguistic resources) in order to parse Web sites as corpora.

The on-line system offers linguists a simple way of finding attestations of lexical and syntactic patterns in press corpora. It is no longer necessary to manipulate corpora and software to find new attestations: once the request is recorded, the system repeats the task automatically and sends a new concordance by e-mail every day or week.

During the first period of test, GlossaNet on-line was used by more than 450 persons and was sending more than 600 concordances on a daily basis.

References

Fairon, Cédrick ; Blandine Courtois. 2000. "" Corpus dynamique et GlossaNet : Extension de la couverture lexicale des dictionnaires électroniques du LADL à l'aide de GlossaNet "" in Actes du Colloque JADT 2000 : 5e Journée Internationales d'Analyse Statistique des Données Textuelles, Lausanne.

Fairon, Cédrick. 1999. ""Parsing a Web site as a Corpus"". In C. Fairon (ed.). 1998-1999. Analyse lexicale et syntaxique: Le système INTEX, Lingvisticae Investigationes Tome XXII (Volume spécial), Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Co., 450 p.

Renouf, Antoinette. 1992. "" A Word in Time : first findings from the investigation of dynamic text "", ICAME Conference, Nijmegen.

Renouf, Antoinette. 1994. "" Corpora and Historical Dictionaries "", in I. Lancashire et T. Russon Wooldridge (eds.), Early Dictionary Databases, Center for Computing in the Humanitie. University of Toronto, pp. 219-235.

Silberztein, Max. 1999. "" Transducteurs pour le traitement automatique des textes "". In B. Lamiroy (ed.), Le Lexique-grammaire. Travaux de Linguistique 37, pp. 127-142. Bruxelles: Duculot.

Walker, Derek. 1999. ""Taking Snapshots of the Web with a TEI Camera"". In Computers and the Humanities 33(1/2), pp. 185-192.","txt","2","",""
"143","2","Practical extraction of meaning from markup using XSLT","1","This paper takes up ideas presented by Simons (1997 and 1999), Welty and Ide (1999), Ramalho et al. (1999), and Sperberg-McQueen et al. (2000) and describes software which provides a practical instantiation of their ideas. By applying their ideas in practice we will be much better able to test the predictions made by these authors, and in some cases to deepen and extend their results.

Our immediate area of concern is the problem of providing a clear, explicit account of the meaning and interpretation of markup. Scores of projects in humanities computing and elsewhere assume implicitly that markup is meaningful, and use its meaning to govern the processing of the data, but it proves remarkably difficult to find, in the literature, any straightforward account of how one can go about interpreting markup in such a way as to draw all and only the correct inferences from it.

Simons (1997) exemplifies one approach to this problem. He describes a system for conceptual modeling, based on an underlying object-oriented knowledge-base system (CELLAR), and proposes that use of this and similar systems will make possible a better and easier exploitation of the information in marked up texts. For the kind of knowledge base Simons describes to work well, it should be able to export, and equally to import, documents in suitably marked up form. The former is easy enough to accomplish, but the latter is more challenging. Simons (1999) describes a specific technique for translating from marked up documents into the knowledge-base system described earlier, using architectural forms as defined in ISO 10744 (HyTime). The notion of meaning makes no explicit appearance in Simons's work, but the conceptual model at the heart of his discussion plays a similar role; one might regard the translation from a marked up document into the objects of the knowledge base as a way of making explicit the meaning of the document.

As a technique for capturing the meaning of the elements and attributes in a document type definition (DTD), however, architectural forms have the theoretical disadvantage that they cannot perform arbitrary transformations on the input document. (A precise description of the tree transformations expressible by architectural forms has long been a desideratum, but has never been given as far as we are aware.) On the practical side, architectural forms suffer from the fact that only one of the many SGML and XML parsers available has ever implemented them.

Welty and Ide (1999) make a somewhat more explicit link between the meaning of markup and the representation of documents in a knowledge-base system. They outline, in general terms, a program for applying knowledge-management systems to marked up text -- or, viewed the other way round, a program of representing the information in documents in knowledge-management systems. They show some examples of how knowledge stored in a knowledge-management system (in their case, CLASSIC) can be used to make simple inferences, and suggest that such inferences can improve search and retrieval operations against the documents. Their examples of inference as a way of enriching information suffer, however, from implausible assumptions. (They assume, for example, that no authors are corporate authors, so that any name given as that of an author may be inferred to be the name of a person [p. 60]. They also assume that all senders and recipients of government documents are government officials, which would suggest that private citizens are never the originators, or the addressees, of such documents.) They are vague, also, in their description of how they propose to transfer the information captured by markup into the knowledge-management system, or how a practical query system is to be built, and their examples of queries which would in their view be made possible, or much easier, by the use of this system are sketchy.

Ramalho et al. (1999) describe the application of a knowledge-representation system (CAMILA) to questions of quality control. They describe a method of expressing constraints on document elements in a general form (for example, the constraint that the birth date of an individual should fall before the death date of that individual) and associating those constraints with the declaration of appropriate elements in a DTD. They also describe translating information from document instances into objects in the knowledge system, so that the constraints can be checked. But they provide no details of these processes, and they do not appear to contemplate a full formal representation of the meaning of the document and its markup in the knowledge-representation system.

Sperberg-McQueen et al. (2000) describe at some length a 'straw man' proposal for defining the proper interpretation of markup in a given markup language. In particular, they identify the meaning of markup in a document as the set of inferences authorized by it, and propose that it ought to be possible to generate those inferences from the document mechanically, following certain simple rules. Having set the strawman up, they then proceed to dismantle it, noting a number of problems in the rules they have proposed for generating the inferences. They sketch in general terms how a better account of meaning and interpretation in markup could be constructed, but leave the actual construction as an exercise for the reader.

All of these papers have in common that they suggest that one way, and perhaps the best way, to make explicit the meaning of the markup in a document is to translate it into some formalism designed for knowledge representation, whether a conventional knowledge-representation system, a new knowledge-management system designed in part for textual material, or a traditional logical formalism. They also have in common a remarkable reticence about the difficulties involved in working out such a translation in full for a DTD with more than a few elements (even Simons, by far the most forthcoming with details, limits himself to thirteen elements out of the hundreds in the TEI DTD). A skeptical reader might almost suspect that none of these papers reflects experience with working out a full system for translating from a DTD of realistic size into any target notation. In the long run, proposals such as those described above will have theoretical and practical significance only if their details can be worked out successfully, not only for small examples but for production DTDs with scores or hundreds of element types.

This paper describes a concrete realization of the 'framework' model proposed in Sperberg-McQueen et al. (2000), and a full specification, in the form described there, of two widely used DTD, on the basis of which a better evaluation of that proposal should be possible. We describe notations or software implementing each part of the framework:

a notation (specifically, an SGML/XML DTD) for expressing in a generic form (sentence skeletons, for both natural-language English sentences and sentences in a formal notation) the meaning of constructs in a markup language; we use the W3C XPointer notation for the 'deictic expressions' needed to express notions like ""the contents of this element"" or ""the value of the type attribute on the nearest ancestor of type div""
uses of that notation to define the meaning of elements and attributes in the TEI Lite and HTML 4.01 DTDs, in the form of sentence skeletons
software (an XSLT transformation sheet) to generate the simple representation of XML documents in Prolog defined by Sperberg-McQueen et al.
software (another XSLT transformation sheet) to apply the sentence skeletons to documents of the appropriate type and generate sentences, in Prolog or some other logical notation, expressing the inferences licensed by the markup
software (a third XSLT transformation sheet) to read the sentence skeletons for a given DTD and generate the XSLT transformation sheet necessary to generate sentences for documents of that type
We use XSLT to generate the sets of basic sentences describing the meaning of the markup in a document, because XSLT provides a compact, declarative, non-proprietary, and widely understood notation for document transformations. XSLT might indeed be used as the notation for describing the meaning of constructs in a given DTD: the second of the two transformation sheets mentioned above might be regarded as an explicit and declarative expression of the meaning of the DTD for which it is written. We nevertheless define a specialized DTD for specifying skeleton sentences, on the grounds that XSLT is more powerful than is necessary for this task. A weaker notation helps ensure that the specification of the skeleton sentences for a DTD is more compact, easier to understand and interpret, and computationally more tractable, than an unrestricted XSLT transformation sheet.

We use Prolog as a target language for the logical statements about document structure and markup meaning, because it is a widely used and well understood formalism; time permitting, we expect also to perform experiments translating documents into other systems, including RDF (the W3C Resource Definition Format) and XTM (the XML Topic Map syntax).

The software described in this paper will be made available to conference participants as open-source software under the Gnu Public License.

References

Ramalho, José Carlos, Jorge Gustavo Rocha, José João Almeida, and Pedro Henriques. 1999. ""SGML documents: Where does quality go?"" Markup Languages: Theory & Practice 1.1 (1999): 75-90.

Simons, Gary F. 1997. ""Conceptual Modeling versus Visual Modeling: A Technological Key to Building Consensus."" CHum 30.4 (1997): 303-319.

Simons, Gary F. 1999. ""Using Architectural Forms to Map TEI Data into an Object-Oriented Database."" CHum 33.1-2 (1999): 85-101. Originally delivered in 1997 at the TEI 10 conference in Providence, R.I.

Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., Claus Huitfeldt, and Allen Renear. 2000. ""Meaning and Interpretation of Markup."" Paper delivered at ALLC/ACH 2000, Glasgow.

Welty, Christopher, and Nancy Ide. 1997. ""Using the Right Tools: Enhancing Retrieval from Marked-up Documents."" CHum 33 (1999): 59-84. Originally delivered in 1997 at the TEI 10 conference in Providence, R.I.","txt","2","",""
"144","2","Automatic DTD simplification by examples","1","This paper describes a method for the automatic generation of simplified DTDs from a source DTD and a set of sample marked up files. The purpose is to create the minimum DTD that the sample set of files comply. In this way, new files can be created and parsed using this simplified DTD but still being compliant to the original, more general DTD. The simplified DTD can be used to make the task of markup easier, specially for non-experienced XML writers.

The resulting tool was used at the Miguel de Cervantes digital library (http://cervantesvirtual.com/) to obtain simplified versions of the TEI.DTD (Sperberg-McQueen and Burnard, 1994). This work is part of a larger project in the field of text markup and derived applications (Bia and Pedreño, 2000).

Motivation

""Having standardized-XML-vocabularies for common things allows developers to reuse existing DTDs, saving the cost of developing custom DTDs. Custom DTDs isolate their users and applications from others that might otherwise be able to share commonly formatted documents and data. Shared DTDs are the foundation of XML data interchange and reuse"" (Hunter, 2000).

Saving the cost of developing our own DTD, and text interchangeability are some of the reasons why the teixlite.dtd (XML version of the SGML teilite.dtd of the TEI encoding scheme) has been chosen at the Cervantes digital library, but the TEIxlite is still too complex for markup beginners. Our markup team is composed mostly of humanists with some computer skills but who appreciate their computer work be simplified as much as possible.

On the other hand our XML documents do not use, and do not need all the markup options provided by the teixlite.dtd. So a simpler DTD was needed to simplify markup tasks and to avoid possible use of unwanted markup options. But we still wanted our files to be TEI compliant and benefit from the advantages of sharing a common DTD with other international digitization projects. In brief, we needed a simpler DTD, a TEI compliant DTD, that is a valid subset of the teilite.dtd.

We started by defining the kinds of modifications we will allow ourselves to make to the TEIlite DTD, in order to make it simpler to use but at the same time keeping our documents TEI-compatible (except for minor exceptions). In this sense we allowed the following changes:

To add normalized values to some attributes in order to force the use of fixed values instead of free data entry.
To add new attributes only in a few necessary cases (this is the only exception that may keep our files from being TEI compliant, but we thought that these added attributes can be easily eliminated anytime we wanted to comply the TEI standard).
To make restrictions in element inclusion rules (we wanted to eliminate the possibility of including certain elements at certain levels of the markup).
To make some optional elements/attributes mandatory to force following our specific markup norms.
To eliminate optional elements we will not use to simplify the markup task and to avoid possible errors (basically we wanted to eliminate the features we decided not to use)
It is clear that doing the simplifications by hand is tedious and error prone. Constructing a set of sample documents representative of all the types of documents we need to markup together with a program that simplifies the DTD automatically will alleviate this task.

Previous works

Document types are defined by extended context-free grammars where the right hand side of productions are unambiguous regular expressions (Bruggemann, 1998). Previous work has addressed the task of identifying a DTD from examples. A common difficulty in this approach is the need to find a correct degree of generalization. Some practical tools as FRED (Shafer, 1995) let the users customize their preferred degree of generalization. Ahonen builds a (k,h)-testable model (Ahonen, 1995; Ahonen, 1997; Ahonen, Mannila, and Nikunen, 1997).

Youg-Lai and Tompa (Young-Lai and Tompa, 2000) rely on a stochastic approach to control overgeneralization, based in turn on the algorithm by Carrasco and Oncina (Carrasco, 1998). Presumably, the stochastic approach needs large collections of hand-tagged documents.

Pizza-Chef (Burnard, 1997) is a tool to generate TEI-compliant DTDs suited to a particular task. In this case, predefined tasks and TEI DTDs are only allowed.

Objectives

However, a general DTD defining a global frame that a whole set of files must fulfill allows for a natural way to avoid overgeneralization. In this sense, any particularized, narrow scope DTD should not accept any document that is not accepted by the general, wide scope DTD.

Therefore, the objective of our approach is to automatically select only those DTD features that are used by a set of valid documents (validated against the more general DTD) and eliminate the rest of them, obtaining a narrow scope DTD which defines a subset of the original markup scheme. This ""pruned"" DTD can be used to build new documents of the same markup subclass, which in turn would still comply the original general DTD. Needless to say that working with a simpler DTD is easier.

General description

For the implementation of the DTDprune toolkit we needed both an XML and a DTD parser. We assumed that both the XML sample files and the source DTD would be well-formed and valid, so there would be no need to build validating parsers. Instead, we developed two simple parsers, based on the XML BNF Grammar described in (Harold, 1999). A diagram of the process is shown below in the figure.


Architecture of the DTD simplifier Architecture of the DTD simplifier
As the diagram shows, the general DTD is processed to extract the structure of the markup model with which we build a Glushkov automata (Caron and Ziadi, 2000). The XML sample files are preprocessed to extract the elements used and their nesting patterns. Based on the Glushkov automata that represent the regular expressions that define the possible element contents according to the general DTD, we keep track of the elements used in the sample files and mark the visited states of the automata. Finally, a simplification process takes place. This process eliminates unused elements and simplifies the right parts of element definitions, i.e. the regular expressions that define further nestings. The simplified DTD structure is used to generate the new simplified DTD.

Conclusions

Using this automated method, the simplified DTD can be updated immediately in the event that new features are added to (or eliminated from) the sample set of XML files (modifications to files of the sample-set must be done using the general DTD for validation). This process can be repeated to incrementally produce a final narrow-scope DTD. In this way, we use a complex DTD as a general markup-design frame to build a simpler working-DTD that suits a specific project's markup needs.

Another use of this technique is to build a one-document DTD, i.e. the minimum DTD derived from the general DTD that a given XML document would comply.

Another benefit of this technique is that we can produce statistics that may help markup designers improve their markup schemes. Information about the frequency of use of certain elements within others, helps us to detect unusual structures that could reflect mark-up mistakes, misuse of the DTD, or DTD features that may allow unwanted generalization. This statistical data on the use of markup may help us take decisions about adding new markup constraints, or on the contrary expand the simplified DTD.

References

C.M. Sperberg-McQueen and Lou Burnard, editors. 
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange (Text Encoding Initiative P3), Revised Reprint, Oxford, May 1999.
TEI P3 Text Encoding Initiative, Chicago - Oxford, May 1994.

Alejandro Bia and Andrés Pedreño. 
The Miguel de Cervantes Digital Library: The Hispanic Voice on the WEB. 
LLC (Literary and Linguistic Computing) journal, Oxford University Press, (to be published soon) 2000. 
Presented at ALLC/ACH 2000, The Joint International Conference of the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing and the Association for Computers and the humanities, 21/25 July 2000, University of Glasgow.

Anne Brüggemann-Klein and Derick Wood. 
One-unambiguous regular languages. 
Information and Computation, 142(2):182--206, 1 May 1998.

Keith E. Shafer. 
Creating dtds via the gb-engine and fred. 
Technical report, OCLC Online Computer Library Center, Inc., 6565 Frantz Road, Dublin, Ohio 43017-3395, 1995.

Helena Ahonen. 
Automatic generation of SGML content models. 
Electronic Publishing Origination, Dissemination, and Design, 8(2/3):195--206, June\September 1995.

H.Ahonen, H.Mannila, and E.Nikunen. 
Generating grammars for SGML tagged texts lacking DTD. 
Mathematical and Computer Modelling, 26(1):1--13, 1997.

H.Ahonen. 
Disambiguation of SGML content models. 
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 1293:27, 1997.

Matthew Young-Lai and Frank W. M. Tompa. 
Stochastic grammatical inference of text database structure. 
Machine Learning, 40(2):1, 2000.

Rafael C. Carrasco and Jose Oncina. 
Learning deterministic regular grammars from stochastic samples in polynomial time. 
RAIRO (Theoretical Informatics and Applications), 33(1):1--20, 1999.

Lou Burnard. 
The Pizza Chef: a TEI Tag Set Selector. 
http://www.hcu.ox.ac.uk/TEI/pizza.html, September 1997. 
(Original version 13 September 1997, updated July 1998; Version 2 released 8 Oct 1999).

David Hunter, Curt Cagle, Dave Gibbons, Nikola Ozu, Jon Pinnock, and Paul Spencer. 
Beginning XML. 
Programmer to Programmer. Wrox Press, 1102 Warwick Road, Acocks Green, Birmingham, B27 6BH, UK, 1st edition, 2000.

Pascal Caron and Djelloul Ziadi. 
Characterization of Glushkov automata. 
TCS: Theoretical Computer Science, 233:75--90, 2000.

Robert D. Cameron. 
REX: XML Shallow Parsing with Regular Expressions. 
Markup Languages: Theory & Practice, 1(3):61--68, Summer 1999.","txt","2","",""
"145","2","The Historical Event Mark-up and Linking Project","1","1. History on the World Wide Web

The web now forms one of the world's largest repository of information about the past. Historical web sites range in size and ambition from vast scholarly endeavors, such Athenians, a record of all known people who lived in ancient Athens, to small-scale personal efforts, like Genjirou Inui's My Guadalcanal. Such texts share one important similarity: as works of history, nearly all make assertions about events that took place in the past or argue about those events.

Despite this underlying similarity, each site publishes its information about historical events in a different way. For example, Le Musée virtuel de la Nouvelle-France provides a time-line with links, entitled Explorations européennes en Amérique; in contrast, the Prosopography of the Byzantine Empire comprises articles on individuals, with significant dates included in parentheses. Indeed, markup tools suited to the historian are simply not available. Although the Text Encoding Initiative does provide the means of encoding date and location elements, these are not easily combined into a element representing historical events, nor are there common tools available to manipulate the TEI date elements in a manner suited to historical markup.

The Historical Event Markup and Linking Project (http://www.heml.org) fills this need for a common historical markup language. It defines a common XML schema through which historical documents can be published on the web and provides useful transformations of data encoded according to that schema. The following example illustrates the potential of such a system.

2. An Example

Consider twelve diaries or memoirs, each a different view of the Siege of Sarajevo in 1994 and published on the web. They would include entries about events such as the stationing of troops or the evacuation of a certain region on such-and-such a day. If a standard form of mark-up were used to tag the text that recorded these events and their date and location, a computer could collect this information and associate it with the document. It would then be possible to search for descriptions of events on a certain day, or in a certain region or both, and retrieve references to the proper section of the pertinent memoir or memoirs.

Other alternative views of the events could be produced from these marked-up documents. It is common, for instance, for historical texts to include a chronological chart of events to aid the reader. From our twelve memoirs, each marked up in the same manner, we could create an exhaustive chronological chart detailing every event the texts' editors thought worthy of inclusion. Furthermore, the entries in our chronological chart would refer to their sources, either in printed citations or with a web link. Alternatively, if the mark-up scheme included information about the events' location, the documents could be used to produce historical maps or to search for events that took place in only a certain quarter of the city.

Consider now the usefulness of such a mark-up scheme if it were applied to even a fraction of the thousands of historical documents and web sites published on the web. It would be possible for a curious student to ask what happened worldwide between the years 1500 and 1200 BCE and to receive a list of events linked to scholarly sources or historical arguments. Time-lines and maps could be generated from disparate sources worldwide. Such a scheme would afford us a new and exciting means of communicating about our past.

3. Project Principles

HEML is built with the following principles in mind:

It is as fully internationalized as possible. Thus it encodes and translates between dates in disparate calendrical systems, including the Gregorian, Buddist, Islamic, Hebrew and Japanese. It also fully supports xml:lang tags and related parameters for linguistic localization.
It operates on as large a variety of computing platforms as possible. Because our software is written in XSLT and Java, it will function as part of a server operating on a wide variety of systems, including the Macintosh, Windows NT and free Unix platforms like Linux.
It is free of cost and open-sourced. This project has adopted the open-source model of developement; its source code is available to all from a Concurrent Versioning System server. Furthermore, HEML makes use of several other software packages, from IBM and the Apache group, all of which are similarly licensed. (None of this impedes those who would wish to implement this software in a commercial web server.)
It emphasizes results. Our design cycle begins with the simplest possible schema for an historical event, we then widely explore possible transformations for complying documents. By taking this approch we ensure that scholars considering the use of HEML can see the possible outcomes of their efforts and that improvements in the markup schema are informed by the needs and interests that arise from the problems of presentation.
With little additional effort, it is possible for an educated layperson familiar with HTML to mark up XHTML texts with HEML tags.
4. Technical Discussion

The current HEML project prototype includes:

An XML namespace and related schema to be used either with modularized XHTML or any other XML application. Currently, this defines an event as through composite 'date', 'location' and 'label' elements.
Chronological tables generated from XHTML documents. In order to convert between and compare heterogeneous chronological systems, we have written extensions to the Xalan XSLT engine which employ IBM's International Calendars for Java.
Timelines scaled and dynamically generated in Scalable Vector Graphics, allowing the image to contain links to the source materials from which the graphic was generated. (It is still possible to convert the SVG output into more commonly-used formats, such as GIF and PNG, if necessary.) This transformation is performed on the DOM, using Sun's Java 2DGraphics API and their SVG conversion library.
Historical maps of the events, also rendered in SVG and linked to sources.
5. Theoretical Considerations

Among historians and philosophers of history debate continues over what constitutes historical evidence and how it relates to the work of the practicing historian (Carr 1987:10-15; Elton 1969:112-13; Jenkins 1991:26, 48-50). This project does not seek to solve these problems, much less to impose one approach on the scholar who uses it; it hopes instead to provide a new medium for communicating about the past, one in which this debate can be continued. Though the concentration on `events' in this proposal might suggest that it is best suited for political history, we hope that non-traditional approaches to the study of the past will also be well served by this organizational tool, because it puts all encoded events on equal footing. For instance, so-called microhistory, whether temporal or spatial (Ginzburg 1993:14-15), can more easily be pursued in an organizational scheme in which the life of an Athenian slave, recorded in Traill (2000), is on the same footing as any other event.

It is also true, as Zuern (1999) points out, that the typographical representation of historical events is a rhetorical device. We hope that scholars using our tools will allow their audience to choose the format in which they view their information, as a 'pluggable rhetoric', thus opening it up to further interpretation and discovery.

6. Works Cited

Carr, E. H. 1987. What Is History? 2nd. ed. R. W. Davies London: Penguin.

Elton, G. 1969. The Practice of History. London: Fontana.

Ginzburg, C. 1993. ``Microhistory: Two or Three Things That I know about It'' Critical Inquiry 20, 10-35.

Jenkins, K. 1991. Re-Thinking History London: Routledge.

Zuern, J. 1999. Timelines Online: Hypermedia and Information Architecture in the Representation of Intellectual History.","txt","2","",""
"146","2","The Genre of Electronic Communication: A Virtual Barbecue Revisited","1","Background.

Recent research into cultural formations on the World Wide Web has led to a growing debate about the propriety of describing the users of newsgroups, discussion lists, Multi User Dungeons and chat rooms as members of a community (see, e.g. Gates, 1996; Jones, 1995; Mitra, 1996, 1997; Rheingold, 1994; Turkle, 1995). Moreover, there is no agreement on how to identify the formation of electronic communities. For example, some observers propose different ways of identifying virtual community, and consider the similarities and differences between virtual (online) community and embodied 'real space' community. Bruckman (1992) considers that technological features of the virtual environment combine with self-selected membership to create a community with a strong shared sense of values. She also argues that shared activity reinforces community, a theme which is developed in her later work on her created professional community environment, MediaMOO (Bruckman and Resnick, 1995). Reid (1994) identifies users of MUDs and MOOs as a distinct cultural group, which is characterized by their use of novel methods of textualizing non-verbal communication. Again, she considers that the group has its own distinct systems of meaning. A central issue for Reid is an examination of forms of social and technological control, which are employed to regulate interaction and penalize or exclude disruptive influences. Smith (1992) evaluates virtual community in terms of its capacity to create collective goods in the form of the provision of social networks, the production of 'knowledge capital' and communion; this last term is understood as a sense of membership, which is fostered by personal and emotional communication. Smith is also concerned with mechanisms of control, which can be used to overcome obstacles to community formation and deal with violations of community standards. Rheingold (1994) has proposed a definition of virtual communities as ""social aggregations that emerge from the Net when enough people carry on those public discussions long enough, with sufficient human feeling, to form webs of personal relationships in cyberspace."" The prerequisites of communicated, human feeling, and the concept of a shared system of meanings and/or values, are key factors in identifying the existence of virtual community as opposed to any other sort of group or aggregation. Other observers argue that Internet users do not form a community, but compose assemblies of like-minded people without the normative elements of community. A contra-indication of community, a ‘pseudo-community’ occurs when mass media is personalized such that recipients believe that a communication is meant for themselves alone when in fact it is aimed at a much larger set of recipients (Beniger, 1987; Peck, 1987; Resnick, 1997). Both ways of examining the authenticity of communities have presumed that communities can be defined around a set of criteria that have operated for a long period of time (Mitra, 1999; see, e.g., Bellah, 1996; Dewey, 1930; Selznick, 1996; Tönnies, 1963).

In a paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the ACH and ALLC in 1997, we argued that language is the medium of computer-mediated communication, and that empirical linguistic analysis should be both an alternative and fruitful way to understand the emergence and structure of a virtual community. A 'speech community' can be identified by linguistic convergence at a lexical and/or structural level. Because Computer Mediated communication is strongly oral in nature (December, 1993; Ferrara et al., 1991), we believe that speech accommodation theory (Giles and Powesland, 1975), Fish’s (1980) ""interpretive community"" and Bizzell’s (1982) ""discourse community"" are appropriate models by which to explain the acquisition by the group of shared meanings and understandings–shared cognition–which are vital elemenst in community formation (Sackmann, 1991).

Our methodology in that paper was strongly influenced by Stubbs's (1996) approach to corpus analysis in the British, neo-Firthian tradition. Stubbs proposes a model of meaning that is situated in the relationship between text, writer and reader; meaning is analyzed distributionally based on observed, objective textual evidence. Specifically, to paraphrase Firth, the meaning of a word can be deduced from the company it keeps--not only is meaning conveyed directly, but also indirectly through patterns of co-occurrence of words. Stubbs shows how corpus evidence such as the patterns of usage of keywords/focal words (Williams, 1976) (Firth, 1935) help to explain a linguistic structure that transmits and reinforces culture.

Our work indicated that usage of certain keywords and pivot words, especially as they related to jobs and the act of working, were used by an electronic discussion group as a means of sharing meaning and building cohesion among members. We also identified the process of adoption of words and abbreviations peculiar to the group. For example, new words and stylistic conventions were introduced to the group by members who made relatively small numbers of postings. These words and conventions were assimilated by the group only when one of the members who posted frequently used it. Our conclusion was that, in a linguistic sense, the formation of community can be ascertained through the computer-assisted analysis of discussion group logs. The electronic discussion group under study formed into a virtual community--a social aggregation in cyberspace which possessed a flexible but characteristic set of shared meanings, located in the speech community in the form of a consensus interpretation, and that meanings within the community differed significantly from the equivalent meaning possessed by the wider culture in which the virtual community was embedded. Members of that community communicated with a sufficient degree of emotion to create and maintain a sense of communion and shared presence. In addition, mechanisms of control, including sanctions, were used to regulate social interaction and shared social activities. These sanctions indicate shared normative behavior.

An open question, however, was what role the genre of electronic participation plays in the formation of electronic communities. For example, does linguistic, lexical, and stylistic convergence form faster in chat rooms than in discussion groups? Does the persistence of such features last longer in chat rooms than in discussion groups?

The current study.

This study addresses the question of the role of genre in the formation of electronic communities. To that end, we have compared two corpora: one of the original discussion group logs with those of a chat room established by the same discussion group participants. The discussion group logs consist of eight months' postings to one electronic discussion list consisting of 2,600 messages. The discussion list is composed of people who have little else in common except that they listen to a certain radio program in New York City, or obtain tapes of the show if they reside elsewhere. The show they listen to is Vin Scelsa's ""Idiots Delight,"" and the name of the mailing list is the Idiots Delight Digest (IDD). We gathered postings from the very first issue of the digest; through to when they organized their first face-to-face barbecue. During the period when the logs were made, members of the Digest established a chat room, and conducted weekly chats. We have collected ninety-seven weekly chat room sessions that parallel those of the discussion group. The current study compares chat room logs with the logs of the discussion group.

Experimental design.

Our preliminary investigation indicated that Stubbs’s approach is useful in discovering and measuring the emergence of and growth of a virtual community. We applied that same framework to both the discussion group and chat room corpora to discern the extent to which linguistic and stylistic patterns exist in both corpora, the time it takes to reach convergence, and the persistence of unique lexical, linguistic and stylistic features in both the discussion group and chat room corpora.

The period for data collection of the chat room data (the first six months of the life of the parent discussion group) is the same as that of the discussion group. The chat room participants themselves are a large subset of the discussion group participants: all participants of the chat room participate in the discussion group. Chat rooms occurred once a week at roughly the same time of day, often when Idiots Delight was on the air.

We have compared the chat room logs with the discussions logs in two ways. First, we have included all of the participants in the discussion group logs with those in the chat room. Second, we have compared only the contributions to the discussion group who have also contributed to the chat rooms. The second comparison, thus, allows us to isolate the discourse of the same participants using both genres. Discourse was analyzed using TACT as well as a series of small programs written by the author.

This is a quasi-experiment meant to examine causality between the genre of electronic communication and the emergence of community using Stubbs’s framework. There are limits to such a design. First, we define community as a set of shared cognitions that can be discerned by language by members of a group (Sackmann, 1991). Second, as in most quasi-experiments, we assume that one variable (genre) is thought to influence another variable (speed or features of language, lexical and stylistic convergence). Finally, as is common in all quasi experiments, there is no randomization of members, nor is there a true control group (see Cook, 1979). Despite these limitations, the design has provided us with results that we believe are applicable to the design and evaluation of systems supporting cooperative work, as well as electronic systems that support teaching and learning.

Preliminary findings.

We have limited our discussion here only to those members who have contributed to both the chat room and the electronic discussion. When examining contributions and interactions of participants in the chat room with the same participants in the discussion group, we find that the use of a chat room as a genre of participation results in a higher use of slang and shared language peculiar to the group, a higher use of shared abbreviations common to the group, a higher use of stylistic features common to the group, and a higher degree of shared emotion all in a shorter period of time. While the spread of linguistic and lexical features in the discussion groups were influenced by participants who contributed very much to the discussions, such influence was made by virtually all members of the chat room. Moreover, there was a greater use of reciprocal links among all members of the chat room. Often, a contribution by a discussion group went unnoticed by other members of the group. The use of reciprocal links and the high degree of lexical and stylistic convergence all indicate a building of shared cognitions. It also lends support to the Social Identification Model of Deindividuation Effects (Lea & Spears, 1995; Lea & Giordano, 1997; Lea, Spears, Watt, Rogers, in press) because participation was both individual and as a group member.

Of particular importance is that there was virtually no diffusion of lexical and stylistic features from the chat room to the discussion group. One would expect that discourse markers used in the chat room, such as ""well"", ""but"", and ""and"" (used to break up speech into parts) or the use of ""Oh"" (that prepared participants for a just-remembered item) would not travel well from a chat room to a synchronous discuss group. There was, however, almost no diffusion of slang, peculiar abbreviations or emotion from the chat room to the discussion group. Occasionally, a chat room member would alert discussion group members of what was ""said"" in the chat room.

Conclusions.

This quasi experiment supports the notion that community formation is faster and stronger in chat rooms than in discussion groups. There is a marked style of participation that is deeply influenced by genre of participation. The results of this analysis should support technical and design decisions of systems intended to support collaborative teaching and learning and other forms of collaboration that depend on shared ideas and outlooks.

References used to prepare this abstract.

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Baron N. S., (1984) ""Computer-mediated communication as a force in language change"" in Visible Language Vol XVIII (2), pp 118-141.

Baym N., (1995) ""The emergence of Community in Computer-Mediated Communication"" in Jones S. (ed.) Cybersociety: Computer-Mediated Communication and Society (Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications)

Bellah, R. N. (1996). Habits of the heart: Individualism and commitment in American life. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.

Beniger J.R., (1987) ""Personalization of Mass Media and the Growth of Pseudo-Community"" in Communication Research Vol. 14 No. 3 pp. 357-371.

Bizzell, P. (1982). Cognition, convention and certainty: What we need to know about writing. PRE/TEXT, 3, 213-143.

Bolinger D., (1975) Aspects of language (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich)

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Turkle, S. (1995). Life on the screen: Identity in the age of the Internet. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster","txt","2","",""
"147","2","Tracking Culture on the Web; An Experiment","1","A couple of years ago a friend suggested that a way to get people
interested in trends in popular culture would be to create an online
cultural stock market or ""horse race"" where people could bet on cultural
items and then watch their stock go up or down as the objects rose or fell
in popularity. The problem was how to measure the popularity of a cultural
item like ""Star Wars"" or ""XML"". It wasn't until later that it occurred to
us that we ask WWW search engines for the number of pages indexed that
included the word or phrase in question as a way of tracking the relative
popularity of the item. The problem was whether and how one could
systematically gather such information from search engines and whether such
information would provide a reliable guide to cultural shifts. This paper
reports on a two stage experiment that we ran, first to design a system
capable of tracking items, and second to gather a significant amount of
data so as to see if the system did in fact reflect known events in popular
culture and contemporary ideas. In effect we wanted to see if we could
treat the WWW as an enormous text corpus with the search engines as our
text-analysis tools for the purpose of cultural and intellectual study.

In the presentation we will do three things:

1. We will discuss the case for using the WWW to track ideas and culture.

2. We will report on the initial tests of a system for tracking selected
items and the resulting design.

3. We will report on the results of a four month study during which we
gathered data daily on selected items and compared it to known events.

In a paper that Rockwell and Bradley gave at the ALLC-ACH conference in
Paris in 1994, ""A Growing Fascination With Dialogue: Bibliographic
Databases and the Recent History of Ideas"", they reported on a technique of
using bibliographic databases for tracking the recent history of ideas.(1)
In that paper they argued that databases provide evidence of changes in the
symptoms of intellectual culture comparable to the types of evidence that
epidemiologists use to track epidemics.(2) The problem with the technique
they used is that bibliographic databases reflect academic work not popular
and commercial subculture. Bibliometrics is useful for tracking
bibliographic trends, less so for cultural trends. The WWW on the other
hand can be argued to be a better reflection of popular and commercial
subculture. The WWW has the additional advantage that it is the work of the
millions who write WWW pages and is therefore not keyworded by experts who
might, as cataloguers do in the case of bibliographic databases, impose
their organizational categories on the evidence. The WWW is a significant
expression of North American culture and therefore better represents the
relative complexity of the whole blooming buzzing confusion. Further, the
WWW is already digitized and in a relatively standardized format so that it
can be searched and indexed as a growing whole (with great difficulty.) It
is the accessibility of the WWW to quantitative methods that makes it ideal
for tracking the movement of ideas and popular culture.

The problem with the WWW as evidence is that it is not conveniently
organized into a database that one can search diachronically. For this
reason we turned to the popular search engines that index WWW pages and
provide statistics on demand as a reasonable source of evidence for the WWW
as a whole. This is not an original idea; in the presentation we will show
some ""voyeur"" pages that allow you to see what are the popular terms others
are searching for.(3) Unfortunately, when we contacted the owners of such
pages to see if they would collaborate with us we were rebuffed. Such
statistics are a closely guarded secret with commercial value. The tactic
we settled on was to then test the feasibility of a system that would
gather statistics from the search engines for terms we chose and we ran a
series of tests to see if we could gather data regularly from the search
engines. We also wanted to see what the resource implications of such
system were, given that ultimately we might want to track thousands of
items. One of the results of our test was that we found that statistics on
news articles gave us greater variation and more detail over short periods.
In effect WWW page statistics seem to be useful for tracking long term
change while news articles are more responsive to short term changes. In
the presentation we will review the tests and resulting statistics from
this first phase.

Once we demonstrated that this could be done we built a system that
gathered data from three search engines (Excite, Yahoo, and Thunderstone)
on both WWW page statistics and news article statistics for a selection of
words and phrases in three areas: guitars and popular music, popular movies
and characters, and text-analysis and markup languages. The system gathers
these statistics every night and writes them to a database to which we
built a front end that can plot items over time. (In the presentation we
will demonstrate the WWW front end where viewers can view the data by item,
by search engine, and by date range.) The system was run for four months
(September 1999 to January 2000) and the data was exported to Excel for
more analysis. We found in a number of cases a clear correlation between
spikes in activity and known events. For example, the release of the latest
James Bond movie was reflected in the data we gathered by a dramatic surge
in hits for news articles for the phrase. In the presentation we will
present the statistics for selected items over the period and comment on
what events we believe these statistics reflected. We believe these
correspondences empirically demonstrate the usefulness of this technique.

There are a number of theoretical problems with this approach to tracking
ideas and cultural items that will be discussed in the presentation. I
summarize them here with questions and tentative answers:

1. Does the WWW reflect popular culture or does it reflect only the culture
of the community of its authors? While the WWW undoubtedly reflects only
the interests of a geographically and economically limited set of people it
is still an enormous body of evidence and there are few alternatives if one
wishes to avoid impressionistic studies or use ""top ten"" lists generated by
the media on selected topics. Whatever the degree to which the WWW reflects
popular culture there are enough people authoring WWW pages to argue that
it is interesting what they are writing about if one can accurately measure
it.

2. Do counts of words or phrases accurately reflect interest in culture?
This is a problem common to any form of text-analysis. Certain cultural
topoi are no doubt not going to be tracked by a system that searches only
for words and phrases, that is what cultural historians are for.
Disambiguation is another problem. That said, we believe that information
about key words and phrases over time could provide useful evidence for
more sophisticated interpretation and aggregation if it can be shown to be
something that can be gathered and if it can be shown to reflect real
events. Further, searching for key words and phrases is the way many people
access information on the WWW so there is some justification for using this
approach.

More importantly our system is designed to track ""hits"" over time. We
believe that what is important is not the number of ""hits"" for an item, but
changes in the number and comparisons between items. It is hard to say what
it means if there are over 4 million WWW pages devoted to the ""Spice
Girls"", but if that number changes dramatically that may indicate a change
in interest in the subject.

3. Can we trust data gathered from search engines that are not open to
scrutiny? Certainly not. This is why we can't use the ""voyeur"" pages and
why we gathered statistics from more than one engine and for both WWW pages
and news articles. That said, the search engines are the best source of
statistics (without building our own spiders) and their statistics do seem
to match known events. Further, as mentioned above, the search engines are
used to find information - they are part of the culture of the Internet and
consequently would have to be taken into account anyway.

4. Is it ethical to gather such statistics from search engines? Given the
general climate of concern about the gathering and aggregation of data on
the Internet it is worth asking whether this system or ones like it pose
ethical problems. As we do not gather information about individual WWW
pages or authors it is unlikely that such a system could be used to predict
more than general trends, but the fact remains that systems like ours could
be designed to track the interests of an individual author over time. A
more pressing issue we faced arose when, in our initial tests to see what
was the correlation between the number of items searched for and the time
it took to conclude the searches, our server was denied access by one
particular search engine, Northern Light. In an e-mail exchange they
explained that their service was available for humans not robots and that
such robot searches depress click-through advertising rates which in turn
could cause financial harm to their investors. Respecting their wish we
dropped them from the list of engines to search.

Pragmatically, the best way to test the value of such statistics was to
implement it and see if the results correlated with events, which it did in
cases we could confirm. We believe our experiment shows that such
statistics can be a useful monitor of changes in culture, with certain
reservations, and we will conclude by discussing how we plan to implement
the system for targeted research and as a teaching tool. The system was
built so that it can now become a module in a larger system where students
could play at investing in culture or researchers can provide lists of
terms related to a field to track over a given period.

Notes

(1) Rockwell, Geoffrey and John Bradley, ""A Growing Fascination With
Dialogue: Bibliographic Databases and the Recent History of Ideas"" was
presented at the ALLC-ACH '94 conference in Paris in April 1994.

(2) For more on the epidemeology of culture and ideas see Dan Sperber,
_Explaining Culture: A Naturalistic Approach_. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996.
Sperber's project is more ambitious than ours and differs in interesting
ways. For him the epidemeology of culture should help us generate natural
explanations of how ideas are transmitted by linking cognitive psychology
and sociology/anthropology. We are skeptical that a technique such as ours
could do this. At best it can accurately track changes in the symptoms of
culture not explain what is happening in the minds of people.

(3) See www.searchterms.com. The idea that search engines are gathering
information about trends that could be used is not original. Eric Knight,
the owner of Searchterms.com, describes the Internet as a ""cultural
barometer"". The companies that run the search engines no doubt gather and
sell information about market trends; unfortunately they don't make it
available for academic study.","txt","2","",""
"148","2","USING NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING TECHNIQUES FOR MUSICAL PARSING","1","1. INTRODUCTION

We investigate whether probabilistic parsing techniques from Natural
Language Processing (NLP) can be used for musical parsing. As in natural
language, a piece of music can be segmented into groups or phrases which
can be conveniently represented by a phrase-structure tree
(Longuet-Higgins 1976; Lerdahl & Jackendoff 1983; Desain & Honing 1999).
One of the main challenges for musical parsers is the problem of
ambiguity: several different phrase structures may be compatible with a
given musical sequence while a listener typically hears only one
structure. In this paper we will consider three parsing techniques from
the NLP literature that use a probabilistic heuristic to solve ambiguity.
We develop a new parser which combines two of these techniques, and which
can correctly predict 86.5% of the phrases in the Essen Folksong
Collection (Schaffrath 1995).

Probabilistic parsing techniques have recently gained a vast interest in
NLP (see Bod 1998; Manning & Schuetze 1999). Instead of using a formal
grammar, a probabilistic parser learns how to parse new input by
generalizing from examples of previously annotated data. In case of
ambiguity, a probabilistic parser computes the most probable phrase
structure for a given input. With the current availability of large
annotated resources in computer-assisted musicology, we may wonder whether
we can also apply such probabilistic techniques to musical parsing.

In section 2 we will test three such techniques on the Essen Folksong
Collection which consists of 6,251 (mostly) European folksongs that are
encoded with the Essen Associative Code (ESAC). ESAC represents pitches by
scale degree numbers replacing the movable syllables ""do"", ""re"", ""mi"",
etc. Thus 1 corresponds to ""do"", 2 corresponds to ""re"", etc. Chromatic
alterations are represented by adding either a ""#"" or ""b"" after the
number. The plus (""+"") and minus (""-"") signs are added before the number
if a note falls resp. above or below the principle octave. Duration is
represented by adding a period or (one or more) underscores after the
number. A period increases duration by 50% and an underscore increases
duration by 100%. A pause is represented by 0, possibly followed by
duration indicators. ESAC uses hard returns [HRt] to indicate phrase
boundaries. To make a connection with NLP annotations, we converted ESAC's
phrase boundary indications to bracketing representations, where ""(""
indicates the start of a phrase, and "")"" the end of a phrase. For more
details on ESAC, see Selfridge-Field (1995).

The following gives an example of the ESAC encoding of the German children
song ""Ziehe durch durch die goldne Bruecke"", together with its phrase
structure (we leave out barlines and meter signature that will not be used
by our parsers):

(1)

(553_553_)(55654_2)(24422442)(244543_1)(55_355_3)(55565432_)

The only other information that we (automatically) added to the ESAC
encodings are label annotations for each phrase (the label P) and for the
whole song (the label S) such that we obtain a conventional parse tree for
each song. Thus, the structure in (1) becomes:

(2)

S( P(553_553_) P(55654_2) P(24422442) P(244543_1) P(55_355_3) P(55565432_))

2. THE PROBABILISTIC PARSING TECHNIQUES

We have considered three techniques from the NLP literature in building a
parser for the Essen Folksong collection: the Treebank grammar technique
(Charniak 1996; Bod 1993), the Markov grammar technique (Collins 1999),
and the Data-Oriented Parsing (DOP) technique (Bod 1998). We will see
that the best results are obtained by a parser which combines the
Markov grammar technique with the DOP technique. We should keep in mind
that each probabilistic parser is trained on a randomly selected training
set from the full data, while the remaining data is used to test the parser.

2.1 The Treebank Grammar Technique

The Treebank grammar technique simply reads the (context-free) rules off
the phrase structures in the training set. For example, the following
rules can be read from the structure in (2):

(3)

S -> PPPPPP
P -> 553_553_
P -> 55654_2
P -> 24422442
P -> 244543_1
P -> 55_355_3
P -> 55565432_

Next, each rule is assigned a probability by observing how often it is
used in the training data. That is, the probability of a rule R is
computed by dividing the number of occurrences of R by the total number of
occurrences of rules that expand the same nonterminal as R. The
probability of a phrase structure tree for a musical sequence (i.e. a
folksong) is computed by the product of the probabilities of the rules it
consists of. We used a standard best first parsing algorithm to compute
the most probable phrase structure for each folksong (see Charniak 1993:
chapter 5). Although we may already foresee that a Treebank grammar is
doomed to misparse test sequences if it is does not find the correct rule
in the training set, it will serve as the basis for our more sophisticated
parsing techniques.
 We randomly divided the Essen Folksong Collection into a training
set of 5,251 folksongs and a test set of 1,000 folksongs. The training set
folksongs were used to extract the Treebank grammar rules and their
probabilities. The resulting parser correctly predicted 28.7% of the
phrases for the test set folksongs.

2.2 The Markov Grammar Technique

An alternative to Treebank grammars which has become quite popular in NLP
is known as a Markov grammar (Collins 1999). While a Treebank grammar can
only assign probabilities to rules that have literally been seen in the
training set, a Markov grammar can assign a probability to any possible
rule. This is accomplished by decomposing a rule and its probability by a
Markov process (see Collins 1999: 44-48). For example, a third-order
Markov process estimates the probability p of a rule P -> 12345  by:
p(12345 | P) =  p(1 | P) x p(2 | P, 1) x p(3 | P, 1, 2) x p(4 | P, 2, 3) x
p(5 | P, 3, 4) x p(END | P, 4, 5). The conditional probability p(END | P,
4, 5) encodes the probability that a P-rule ends after pitches 4 and 5.
Thus even if the rule P -> 12345 does not appear literally in the training
set, we can still estimate its probability by using a certain finite
history of pitches. The extension to a larger history follows by obvious
generalization of the above example. We used the smoothing technique given
in Charniak (1993: 39-43) to back off to shorter histories if zero counts
were obtained for certain histories. The probability of a phrase structure
is computed by the product of the probabilities of the rules that partake
in the structure, just as with Treebank grammars.
 Using the same training/test set division as in 2.1, a Markov
grammar technique based on a history of four pitches correctly predicted
77.1% of the phrases in the Essen Folksong test set, which is a huge
improvement over the Treebank grammar technique. (Experiments with higher
or lower order Markov models resulted in an accuracy decrease.)

2.3 Extending the Markov Grammar with the DOP Technique

Although the Markov grammar obtained better results than the Treebank
grammar, it does not take into account global context in computing the
probability of a structure. In order to include global context, we
conditioned over the S-rule higher in the structure in computing the
probability of a P-rule. This approach corresponds to the Data-Oriented
Parsing (DOP) technique (Bod 1998) which can condition over any higher or
lower rule in a tree, and which has recently been integrated with the
Markov grammar technique (Sima'an 2000). As an example take again the
P-rule P -> 12345 and a higher S-rule such as S -> PPPP; then a third
order DOP Markov model computes the probability of this rule as p(1 | S ->
PPPP) x p(2 | S -> PPPP, 1) x p(3 | S -> PPPP, 1, 2) x p(4 | S -> PPPP, 2,
3) x p(5 | S -> PPPP, 3, 4) x p(END | S -> PPPP, 4, 5). The probability of
a phrase structure is again computed by the product of the probabilities
of the rules that partake in the structure.
 This DOP Markov parser correctly predicted 86.5% of the phrases in
the Essen Folksong test set (using a history of four pitches and the same
training/test set division as before), which is an improvement of 9.4%
over the Markov parser. We also checked our results on 10 random divisions
of training/test set data. The DOP Markov parser obtained an average
phrase accuracy of 86.2% with a standard deviation of 1.8%, while the
Markov parser obtained an average of 76.9% with a standard deviation of
1.3%. These differences were statistically significant according to paired
t-testing.

3. CONCLUSION

We have given an example-based statistical parsing technique for western
folksongs which obtains 86.5% on a randomly held-out test set from the
Essen Folksong Collection. While the Essen Folksong collection has
previously been used to investigate melodic arch contours (Huron 1996),
this work presents the first parser tested on this collection, to the best
of our knowledge. Our parser may be used as a baseline for Essen folksongs
against which other (e.g. rule-based) approaches can be compared. Our
parser may also be used to speed up the time-consuming annotation of newly
collected folksongs, thereby contributing to the creation of larger
musical databases. As future research, we want to investigate whether our
results can be improved by incorporating musical knowledge into the
parser.

REFERENCES

R. Bod, 1993. Using an Annotated Corpus as a Stochastic Grammar,
Proceedings EACL'93, Utrecht.
R. Bod, 1998. Beyond Grammar: An Experience-Based Theory of Language. CSLI
Publications, Stanford.
E. Charniak, 1993. Statistical Language Learning, Cambridge, The MIT
Press.
E. Charniak, 1996. Tree-bank Grammars, Proceedings AAAI-96, Menlo Park.
M. Collins, 1999. Head-Driven Statistical Models for Natural Language
Parsing, PhD-thesis, University of Pennsylvania, PA.
P. Desain and H. Honing, 1999. Computational Model of Beat Induction: The
Rule-Based Approach. Journal of New Music Research, 1999.
D. Huron, 1996. The Melodic Arch in Western Folksongs. Computing in
Musicology, 10, 2-23.
F. Lerdahl and R. Jackendoff, 1983. A Generative Theory of Tonal Music.
Cambridge, The MIT Press.
H. Longuet-Higgins, 1976. Perception of Melodies. Nature 263, October 21,
646-653.
C. Manning and H. Schuetze, 1999. Foundations of Statistical Natural
Language Processing. Cambridge, The MIT Press.
H. Schaffrath, 1995. The Essen Folksong Collection in the Humdrum Kern
Format. D. Huron (ed.). Menlo Park, CA: Center for Computer Assisted
Research in the Humanities.
E. Selfridge-Field, 1995. The Essen Musical Data Package. Menlo Park, CA:
Center for Computer Assisted Research in the Humanities.
K. Sima'an, 2000. Tree-gram Parsing: Lexical Dependencies and Structural
Relations, Proceedings ACL'2000, Hong Kong, China.","txt","2","",""
"149","2","INTEX Solves Pronunciation and Intonation Problems in Text to Speech Reading Machines","1","Problem Statement: If a human reads sentence (1) as written (with no question mark, exclamation mark, or period), a problem immediately arises concerning the pronunciation of the phrase can it and the intonation pattern assigned to it (which can be imperative or question). Sentence (1) can be given the semantic, syntactic, phonetic, and intonation analysis in (2) or (3).
 
(1)           If it makes money, do it, if it does not, can it
 
(2)           If it makes money, do it, if it does not, can it? Where can it bears question intonation, and can rhymes with flan and ban. Can it? means can it make money? The string can it rhymes with planet.
 
(3)           If it makes money, do it, if it does not, can it! Where can it bears imperative intonation, and can rhymes with pan and tan. Can it! means put it in the garbage can! The string can it rhymes with plan it.
 
Sentences like (1) pose a particularly difficult problem for any text-to-speech machine that processes the words of a sentence sequentially from left to right while attempting to produce the sentence in spoken form over a loudspeaker. These sentences also produce interesting data when a human speaker attempts to read them aloud. This paper attempts to answer two questions:
 
(A)         What is the optimal data structure to assign to sentences (1-3) in order to allow a text-to-speech machine to pronounce sentences like (1-3) with minimal internal processing? We compare three data structures: A simple string analysis of the sentence, as provided by AWK or SED. A list structure (phrase marker) analysis of the sentence, as one finds in most articles on sentence processing written by linguists and psychologists, see Fodor and Ferreira (eds.). And a finite state graph analysis, as one finds in INTEX, a parser developed by Maurice Gross and Max Silberztein at the University of Paris VII and IBM Yorktown Heights. See Fairon for intonation studies using INTEX.
 
(B)         What is the optimal structure of lexical entries in order to account for the lexical ambiguity of words like can, which can be a modal or a verb, can have two meanings and two pronunciations, and can occur in three different intonation patterns (question, imperative, and ënormalí declarative)? We contrast the lexical structures found in WordNet, Chomsky-type Boolean lexicons with subcategorizations and selection features, and finite state graphs, as one finds in INTEX.
 
Background: A garden path sentence contains an element (a lexical item, usually) that can be assigned more than one category (N, V, etc.) or representation (meaning, pronunciation, stress, intonation, etc.). This ambiguous element occurs before a disambiguating element (a lexical item, adverbial phrase, punctuation mark, etc.) that fixes the interpretation of the sentence (semantically and phonetically) by restricting the ambiguous element to a single category value, pronunciation, semantic reading, and so on. We usually represent the ambiguous element in boldface and the disambiguating element with an underline in examples below. Our definitions follow those of Marcus, Fodor and Inoue, Gibson, and Lewis.
 
            In the preface to their recent collection of papers devoted to garden path sentences as analyzed by psychologists, linguists, and computer scientists interested in how humans process garden path sentences, Fodor and Ferreira (eds.) state that there is little experimental work done using auditory stimuli: ìEarly work [on garden path sentences] used exclusively visually presented materials, but it has become more practicable now to store and manipulate auditory stimuli, and there has been a growing interest in the study of spoken language. As yet, relatively few experimental studies of reanalysis have been conducted; intuitions tend to predominate in the early stages of research on a topic. But the current trend, as evidenced in this volume, is towards development of a pool of broadly accepted facts against which theories can be tested.î (Fodor and Ferreira, 1998, p. xiii) Our experiments and observations forge into the uncharted territory of auditory studies of backtracking in garden path sentences.
 
            Our methodology and interests differ from the majority of work in the study of garden path sentences. Most researchers, including Bader, Church, Ferreira and Henderson, Fodor and Inoue, Gibson, Gorrell, Hicock, Kondo and Mazuka, Lewis (1995, 1998), Prichett, Weinberg, and everyone in the Fodor and Ferreira volume, are concerned with timing experiments which involve seeing how much time elapses between the moment the reader encounters the disambiguating element and the moment at which they ëunderstandí the required ëreadjustmentí that will render the string grammatical. We do not concern ourselves with ëtiming,í but focus on how far back the reading machine (or human) must go in order to offer a correct analysis of the string that includes the disambiguating element. Second, we are concerned less with semantics and meaning and more with pronunciation and intonation.
 
            Our basic experiment is to see how far back a human reader ñ who is reading aloud ñ will go back in order to ërecoverí from the ëmispronounced stringí when s/he encounters the disambiguating element. We agree with Fodor and Ferreira that it is difficult in these early stages to offer ëquantitativeí analyses and that ëintuitions tend to predominateí.
 
Our Experimental Data: English contains a number of words (4) that have two stress patterns. The verb has stress on one syllable, the noun on the other. Helping to make English even harder for the second language learner, there are words (5) that have two pronunciations ñ they differ in vowel quality ñ depending on whether they are nouns or verbs.
 
(4)           Words with N/V stress pattern change: contrast, conscript, implant, permit, protest, segment, combat, compound, conduct, conserve, contest, convert, digest, increase, pervert, rebel, recount, suspect, conflict, consort, insert, implant, progress, recall, reject, insultÖ
 
(5)           Words exhibiting vocalic change: affiliate, conglomerate, deviate, syndicate, aggregate, degenerate, duplicate, confederate, delagate, predicateÖ
 
Our research focuses on words that change pronunciation (stress and/or vowel) depending on whether they are nouns or verbs. The pronunciation of insult varies between N and V, but that of result does not. Many, perhaps most, words do not vary in pronunciation between N and V: polish, relish, cook, etc. There are two ways to read sentences (6) and (7).
 
(6)           The FBI discovered some record in the California CIA archive library.
1.     The FBI discovered some kind of a recordÖ (BOLD = stress)
2.     The FBI discovered that some spies recordÖ
 
(7)           The historian knew some rebel.
1.     The historian knew a rebelÖ
2.     The historian knew that some (rebellious types) rebelÖ
 
We designed sentences to force the adverb to pair with record and duplicate, such as:
 
(8)           The FBI secretly discovered some record in the Californian CIA archive library secretly.
 
(9)           The minister of the treasury has illegally discovered some duplicate banknotes in the California mint illegally.
 
What is the range of possible pronunciations for record and duplicate in (8-9) ñ before a left-right parser (reader) encounters the disambiguator (adverb)? If some record is (NP (det some) (N record)), then record, if it is (S (NP some) (VP record)), then record. If some duplicate is (NP (det some) (N duplicate)), then duplicate, but if (S (NP some) (VP duplicate)), then duplicate. The word some is syntactically ambiguous between Determiner and Noun, but always has the same pronunciation, subject to certain constraints. Some can have a reduced vowel when unstressed, hence, some can have two pronunciations. We discuss the related phenomena.
 
In (8-9) the bold word is lexically ambiguous both syntactically (N/V) and phonetically (location of stress, vowel quality). Similar considerations would apply to sentences using words exhibiting vocalic change, as in (5). The underlined words, adverbs, in (8-9) are disambiguators, much like the missing punctuation marks in sentence (1). If the adverb is present, then the only possible grammatical structure for the sentence has the bold faced word as a V, it cannot be an N.
 
Our Experiment: Our experiment examines what types of data structures English informant manipulates when asked to read sentences like (1-9) aloud. Our informants read aloud from a prepared text, where the sentences are presented in a list or in contrived paragraphs to force interpretations. The reader performs in front of multi-track digital video and audio recorders. The equipment is similar to that used for sign language research.
 
We ask one specific question concerning the data structures available to the reader. How does a reader recover from a fumble? We assume that by finding how far ëbackí a reader goes, we can decide the nature of the data structures ñ the shape and size of the grammatical puzzle pieces ñ that define backtracking. With every noise and gesture recorded on multi-track digital audio-visual, we can see clearly where the fumbles occur, and study how far back the informant goes to re-read the passage and recover the ball.
 
Using strings, we expect the reader back-up and start re-reading at the mispronounced word. A second lexical access gives the ëcorrectedí pronunciation for the ërevisedí part of speech. Only the ëincorrectí word need be re-pronounced. If the informant went back to the word some, then they are backtracking in terms of lists (or phrase markers), since some does not change in pronunciation or require a second lexical access. Our research shows the reader goes further back - back to the ëintonation boundary.í The finite state graphs of INTEX define the distance the reader ëbacks-upí to recover from the disambiguator. INTEX graphs correlate with the intonation patterns of a sentence. There is no notion of ëheadí involved. The correct concept is ëcollocationí as defined by INTEX.
 
 
 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 
Bader, Marcus. (1998) Prosodic influences on reading syntactically ambiguous sentences. In Fodor and Ferreira (Eds.), pp. 1-46.
 
Chomsky, N. (1963) Formal properties of grammars. In Luce, R. D., Bush, R., and Galanter, E. (Eds.) Handbook of Mathematical Psychology, Vol. 2. pp. 323-418. New York: Wiley.
 
Church, K. W. (1980). On memory limitations in natural language processing. Masterís Thesis, MIT. Distributed by the Indiana University Linguistics Club.
 
Chomsky, N. and Miller, G.A. (1963) Introduction to the formal analysis of natural languages. In Luce, R. D., Bush, R. and Galanter, E. (Eds.) Vol 2. pp. 269-322.
 
Chomsky, N. and Miller, G. A. (1958) Finite-state languages. Information and Control, I, pp. 91-112.
 
Dyer, L. (1999) Classifying self-embedded structures. Unpublished paper, NYU Linguistics Department.
 
Dyer, L. (2000) Availability of alternate representations in parsing. Unpublished paper, NYU Linguistics Department.
 
Fairon, Cedrick (Ed.) (2000) Lingvisticae Investigationes: Revue internationale de linguistique francaise et de linguistique generale. Volume special: Analyse lexicale et syntaxique: Le systeme INTEX. Tome XXII (1998/1999). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
 
Ferarri-Bridgers, F. (2000) Escaping from the garden path. Unpublished paper, NYU Linguistics Department.
 
Ferreira, F. and Henderson, J. (1993) Reading processes during syntactic analysis and reanalysis. In Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. (1993) 47:2, pp. 247-275
 
Fodor, J. D. and Ferreira, F. (eds.) (1998) Reanalysis in sentence processing. London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
 
Fodor, J. D. and Inoue, A. (1998) Attach anyway. In Fodor, J. D. and Inoue, A. (Eds.), pp. 101-142.
 
Gibson, E. (1998) Linguistic complexity: Locality of syntactic dependencies. Cognition 68: pp. 1-76.
 
Gorrell, Paul (1998) Syntactic analysis and reanalysis in sentence processing. In Fodor, J. D. and Inoue, A. (Eds.), pp. 201-246.
 
Hicock, TG. (1993) Parallel parsing: Evidence from reactivation in garden path sentences. In Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. Vol. 22: 2, pp. 239-249.
 
Kondo, T. and Mazuka, R. (1996) Prosodic planning while reading aloud: On-line examination of Japanese sentences. In Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. Vol. 25: 2, pp. 357-381.
 
Lewis, R. L. (1995) A theory of grammatical but unacceptable embeddings. Unpublished paper, Princeton University Psychology Department.
 
Lewis, R. L. (1998) Reanalysis and limited repair parsing: Leaping off the garden path. In Fodor, J. D. and Inoue, A. (Eds.), pp. 247-286.
 
Marcus, M. (1980) A theory of syntactic recognition for natural language. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
 
Miller, G. A. and Chomsky, N. (1963) Finitary models of language users. In Luce, R. D., Bush, R. R., and Galanter, E. (Eds.), Handbook of Mathematical Psychology, Vol II, pp. 419-491.
 
Prichett, B. L. (1991) Head position and parsing ambiguity. In Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. Vol. 20, pp. 251-270.
 
Silberztein, M. (1999) Finite state transducers and the processing of natural languages. Available from LADL, contact silbsrz@ladl.jussieu.fr
 
Silberztein, M. (1999) INTEX: A finite state transducer toolbox. Theoretical computer science. Vol. 231:1, pp. 33-46.
 
Silberztein, M. (1999) Text indexing with INTEX. Computers and the Humanities. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Vol 33:3, pp. 265-280.
 
Weinberg, A. (1993) Parameters in the theory of sentence processing: Minimal commitment theory goes East. In Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. Vol. 22: 3.","txt","2","",""
"150","2","Extracting multilingual lexicons from parallel corpora","1","1           Introduction

Extracting bilingual dictionaries from corpora can be seen as a very fine-grained alignment process, where the aligned units are not paragraphs or sentences but words and phrases. Most approaches to this problem rely on statistical means to build translation lexicons from bilingual texts, roughly falling into two categories: the hypotheses testing approach and the estimating approach. There are pros and cons for each type of approach, some of them discussed in  (Hiemstra 1997).
Our method hardly fits into one of these two categories, but is closer in spirit to hypotheses testing approach, by first generating a list of translation equivalence candidates and then extracting, in several steps, the most probable translation-equivalence pairs. The candidate list is constructed from the aligned translation units (TU).
2           A baseline and the iterative algorithm

The input data for the extraction algorithm is a sentence-aligned parallel text (bi-text) with each word in both parts of the bi-text being lemmatized and tagged. The algorithm is sensitive to tagging, lemmatization and alignment errors, but they will affect only the recall not the precision.  We showed that using a tiered-tagging approach with combined language models (Tufiş, 2000) and Tufis et al, 2000) one could construct, from clean training corpora, high accuracy taggers (close to 99%). For many languages lemmatization, following an accurate POS tagging, is also very accurate and sentence aligners with almost perfect job (at least for some types of texts) are not rare. Therefore, the prerequisites of our algorithm are not very difficult to meet.
Based on the alignment, the first step is to compute a list of translation equivalence candidates  (TEC). This list (TECL) contains several sub-lists, one for each POS considered in the extraction procedure. The TECs are generated by the Cartesian product of the sets of tokens (of the same POS) in the two parts of each TU. Finally, the pairs generated from all TUs are uniquely sorted and attached with the number of occurrences of the respective association. The core of the baseline algorithm is a selection procedure, which prunes the TECs considered to have occurred just by chance. This hypothesis may be tested by different statistical tests (we used various statistical measures such as chi-square, dice, mutual information, log-likelihood and left-Fisher). One could use also a minimal number of occurrences for <TS TT> (usually, as in our case, 3).
Our iterative algorithm is also very simple but significantly faster than the baseline. The algorithm gets as input the aligned parallel corpus and the maximum number of iterations. At each iteration step, the pairs that pass the selection  (see below) will be removed from TECL so that this list is shortened after each step and eventually may be emptied. From TECL, for each POS is constructed a contingency table (TBLk) as showed in Table 1. The rows of the table are indexed by the distinct source lemmas and the columns are indexed by the distinct target lemmas (of the same POS).
 
TT1
…
TTn
 
TS1
n11
…
n1n
n1*
…
…
…
…
…
TSm
nm1
…
nmn
nm*
 
n*1
…
n*n
n**
Table 1: TBLk - Contingency table with counts for TECs at step K

Each cell (i,j) contains the number of occurrences of the <TSi, TTj> pair. The marginal counts are ni*=, n*j=and n**=.
The equation (EQ1):  expresses the selection condition and represents the key idea of the extraction algorithm. In order to select, at step k, the pair <TSi, TTj> as a translation equivalence pair (TEP), the number of associations TSi has with TTj must be higher than (or at least equal to) with any other TTp (p¹j) and vice-versa. If TSi is translated in more than one way, the rest of translations will be found in subsequent steps (if frequent enough). 
3           Experiments

We conducted experiments on one of the few publicly available multilingual aligned corpora, namely the ""1984"" multilingual corpus (Dimitrova et all 1998) containing 6 translations of the English original. This corpus was developed within the Multext-East project, published on a CD-ROM (Erjavec et all 1998) and recently improved within the CONCEDE project (to be soon released on the CONCEDE's homepage: www.itri.brighton.ac.uk/projects/concede/). Each monolingual part of the corpus (Bulgarian, Czech, Estonian, Hungarian, Romanian and Slovene) was tokenised, lemmatised, tagged and sentence aligned to the English hub.
 
Language
Bulgarian
Czech
English
Estonian
Hungarian
Romanian
Slovene
No. of distinct words
15093
17659
9192
16811
19250
14023
16402
No. of  lemmas
8225
8677
6871
8403
9729
6626
7157
No. of >2-occ lemmas*
3350
3329
2916
2876
3294
3052
3189
Table 2:The lemmatized monolingual ""1984"" overview 
* the number of lemmas does not include interjections, particles, residuals

The number of lemmas in each monolingual part of the multilingual corpus as well as the number of lemmas that occurred more than twice are shown in Table 2. For validation purposes we set the step limit of the algorithm to 4. The evaluation was fully done for Estonian, Hungarian and Romanian and partially for Slovene (the first step was fully evaluated while from the rest were evaluated randomly selected pairs). The algorithm provides as output a list of TEPs and up to 10 examples of translation units where the respective pair appeared. The figures in Table 3 show the results and the evaluation. The precision was computed as usual but the recall (Rec*) was computed as the number of correct TEPs divided by the number of lemmas in the source language with more than 3 occurrences.
As one can see from the figures in Table 4, the precision is higher than 98% for Romanian and Slovene, almost 97% for Hungarian and more than 96% for Estonian. The recall (our defined Rec*) ranges from 50.92% (Slovene) to 63.90% (Estonian). We run the extractor for the Ro-En bi-text without imposing a step limit. The program stopped after 25 steps with a number of 2765 extracted pairs, out of which 113 were wrong. The precision decreased to 95,91%, but the recall significantly improved: 86,89%.
 
Language     
 
 Bg-En
Prec/Rec*
 Cz-En
 Prec/Rec*
Et-En
 Prec/Rec*
  Hu-En
  rec/Rec*
   Ro-En
 rec/Rec*
  Sl-En
 Prec/Rec*
Step 1
1336
NA/NA
1399
NA/NA
1216
99.50/42.07
    1299
  98.61/38.88
   1394
   99.71/42.74
1177
99.91/36.87
Step 2
1741
NA/NA
1886
NA/NA
1617
97.89/55.04
    1737
   97.63/51.48
   1867
   99.30/52.23
1489
99.52/46.47
Step 3
1896
NA/NA
2085
NA/NA
1807
96.63/60.84
    1863
   96.99/54.85
   2067
   99.03/54.84
1589
99.06/49.63
Step 4
1986
NA/NA
2188
NA/NA
1911
96.18/63.90
    1935
   96.89/56.92
   2182
   98.57/56.36
1646
98.66/50.92
Table 3: The results after 4 iteration steps and partial evaluation

In an initial version of this algorithm we used a chi-square test (as in the baseline algorithm) to check the selected TEPs. Since the selection condition (EQ1) is very powerful, the vast majority of the selected TEPs passed the chi-square test while many pairs that used to pass the chi-square threshold did not pass the condition (EQ1) and therefore we eliminated the time consuming statistical tests.
The extraction program is written in Perl and runs under practically any platform (Perl implementations exists not only for UNIX/LINUX but also for Windows and MACOS). The Table 4 shows the running time (Pentium III/600Mhz with 96 MB RAM) for each bi-text in the ""1984"" corpus.
 
Language
 Bg-En
 Cz-En
   Et-En
  Hu-En
Ro-En
  Si-En
4 steps
25 steps
Time (sec)
181
148
139
220
183
415
157
Table 4: Extraction time (in seconds) for each of the bilingual lexicons

The 6 bilingual lexicons as well as a 7-languages lexicon are available at www.racai.ro/~tufis.
A quite similar approach to ours (also Perl-based) is presented in (Ahrenberg et all 1998) and (Ahrenberg et all 2000). The languages considered by their experiments are English and Swedish. For a novel of about half length of Orwell's ""1984"" their algorithm needed 55 minutes on a Ultrasparc1 with 320 MB RAM and the best results reported are 96.7% precision and 54.6% recall. For a computer manual containing about 45% more token than our corpus, their algorithm needed 4,5 hours with the best results being 85,6% precision and 67,1% recall. Unlike us, they don’t rely on tagging and lemmatisation, although they use a “morphology” module that achieves stemming and grouping of inflectional variants. This strategy makes possible to link low-frequency source expressions belonging to the same suffix paradigm. The obvious advantage of not using POS categorisation is that their approach would be able to identify TEPs where the POS of the source token is different from the POS of the target token. The disadvantage is that search space is extremely large. An explanation of the much better response time in our case, besides not using statistical tests (they use t-test), is that the search space in our case is probably several orders of magnitude smaller.
4           Conclusions and further work

We presented a simple but very effective algorithm for extracting bilingual lexicons, based on a word to word model of translation equivalence. In case a language specific tokeniser is able to recognise and ""pack"" the compounds in a pre-processing phase, the 1:1 model will obviously discover multi-words translation equivalencies. The MULTEXT tokenizer for instance allows for recognition of generic multi-word expressions (dates, literally expressed numbers) or specific ones based on external resources containing lists of compounds, proper names and idiomatic expressions. If the compounds cannot be dealt with in the tokenizing pre-processing phase one may consider either extending the bilingual lexicon extractor's model to an explicit N:M paradigm or consider using monolingual tools for recognising the compounds in both languages. We are currently considering both options. For the first one we started the implementation of a new language independent tokeniser, including statistical collocation recognition (we use S. Banerjee's and T. Pedersen's BSP - Bigram Statistical Package). For the second option, we are carrying out some preliminary experiments with a version of the program presented in this paper. Conceptually, the modified version of the program can be seen as receiving the same text as source and target input file with all the sentence alignments being 1:1.
References

Ahrenberg L, Andersson M, Merkel M, 1998. A Simple Hybrid Aligner for Generating Lexical Correspondences in Parallel Texts. In Proceedings of COLING'98, Montreal, pp 29-35.

Ahrenberg L, Andersson M, Merkel M, 2000. A knowledge-lite approach to word alignment, in Véronis J (ed), Parallel Text Processing. Text, Speech and Language Technology Series, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp 97-116.

Dimitrova L, Erjavec T, Ide N, Kaalep H, Petkevic V, Tufiş D, 1998.  Multext-East: Parallel and Comparable Corpora and Lexicons for Six Central and East European Languages in Proceedings of COLING’98, Montreal, pp 315-319.

Erjavec T, Lawson A, Romary L, 1998. East Meet West: A Compendium of Multilingual Resources. TELRI-MULTEXT EAST CD-ROM, 1998, ISBN: 3-922641-46-6.

Hiemstra D, 1997. Deriving a bilingual lexicon for cross language information retrieval. In Proceedings of Gronics 21-26

Tufiş D, 2000. Using a Large Set of Eagles-compliant Morpho-Syntactic Descriptors as a Tagset for Probabilistic Tagging. In Proceedings of LREC2000, Athens, pp.1105-1112.

Tufiş D,  Dienes P, Oravecz C, Váradi T, 2000. Principled Hidden Tagset Design for Tiered Tagging of Hungarian. In Proceedings of LREC’2000, Athens, 1421-1426.

Word count (excluding tables and references): 1499","txt","2","",""
"151","2","Vocabulary Richness and Authorship Reconsidered","1","There has been considerable activity recently in applying statistical techniques to literary texts (e.g., Baayen, 1993, 1996; Burrows, 1987, 1992; Burrows and Craig, 1994; Craig, 1999a, 1999b; Holmes, 1994; Holmes and Forsyth, 1995; Tweedie and Baayen, 1998; Tweedie, Holmes, and Corns, 1998). While my interest is primarily stylistic analysis, I will focus here on the usefulness of vocabulary richness for authorship attribution, for if, and only if, vocabulary richness measures can reliably distinguish authors and texts can they usefully characterize authorial style. I will argue here that, for both theoretical and practical reasons, vocabulary richness measures are much less reliable than has been thought, and of only marginal value in stylistic and authorship studies.

Although a single vocabulary richness measure that can characterize an author or text is an attractive idea (see Yule, 1944), readers' perceptions of vocabulary richness are not necessarily accurate. Consider the first 50,000 words of Light in August; The Ambassadors; Sons and Lovers; The Picture of Dorian Gray; The Awakening; The Seawolf; The Red Badge of Courage; and Main Street. Few readers will recognize that the texts are in order of increasing vocabulary, from 4400 to 8300 words. Furthermore, peculiar effects arise from the way some measures are calculated. Thoiron (1986) examines Diversity and entropy, showing that they react surprisingly to textual alteration or doubling, and further tests show similar oddities for other measures.

Tweedie and Baayen (1998) present a thorough examination of 17 proposed constants, using 16 texts by 7 authors (Baum, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, and The Marvelous Wizard of Oz; Brontë, Wuthering Heights; Carroll, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass; Doyle, The Sign of Four, The Hound of the Baskervilles, and The Valley of Fear; James, Confidence and The Europeans; St. Luke, The Gospel According to St. Luke (KJV); The Acts of the Apostles (KJV); London, The Sea Wolf and The Call of the Wild; Wells, The War of the Worlds and The Invisible Man). They show that some constants are not even theoretically constant, and others are not empirically constant (323-34), and note that discourse-structure violates the randomness assumption underling many discussions of vocabulary richness (333-34) and perform sophisticated randomization experiments to uncover the behavior of constants throughout texts. They conclude that the constants capture some ""aspects of authorial structure,"" but do not correctly group all of the texts by each author nor correctly separate all texts by different authors (345-48), and show that principal component analysis of the 100 most frequent function words produces more accurate results.

To extend the study of vocabulary richness measures in authorship studies, I begin with 24,000-word sections of the Tweedie and Baayen texts and attempt to duplicate their results with more accessible techniques. Even using shorter sections, my cluster analysis based on types (or Herdan's K) and the frequency of the most frequent word (FMFW) is as accurate as theirs. A cluster analysis of the 16 complete texts based on Herdan's K and FMFW is also as accurate as their results for the full trajectories of all seventeen constants, or final values of Z and K, and only slightly less accurate than those for the full trajectories for Z and K (348). These results suggest that vocabulary richness may be useful in studies of authorship and style. Further analysis, however, shows that the texts by Doyle, James, and St. Luke cluster even on the basis of the frequencies of initial letters of words, and an analysis based on word tokens and the repeat rate of the most frequent word correctly groups all texts except those by London. This analysis uses the lengths of the texts as a variable, even though the main purpose of the ""constants"" was to eliminate the effect of text-size. Yet it clusters the texts more accurately than the best vocabulary richness tests of Tweedie and Baayen, and produces results as good as and very similar to their results using principal component analysis of the 100 most frequent words (347).

To investigate these strange results, I extend the analysis by adding additional texts. Vocabulary richness measures are not very effective in grouping 47 texts by 35 authors or 55 texts by 36 authors: fewer than half of the texts by authors with multiple texts cluster correctly. One final expansion of the number of texts under analysis points toward an explanation. I divide my 55 texts into as many 24,000-word sections as possible for analysis, on the assumption that sections of one text should cluster better than different texts by the same author. Yet the most accurate analysis I have been able to produce (using W, H, K, Skewness, word length, hapax legomena, and FMFW) still fails in quite a spectacular way, correctly clustering all texts of only two of the 16 authors with multiple texts (Carroll and St. Luke). It also correctly clusters single texts of Anderson and Crane, all sections of some single texts by authors with multiple texts (The Inheritors, The War of the Worlds, The Jungle Book, and To the Lighthouse), and correctly identifies two single-section texts as clusters (The Marvelous Wizard of Oz, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz). Two or more sections of text(s) by the same author also sometimes cluster together without any ""foreign"" texts. Vocabulary richness measures clearly capture some aspects of authorial style, but they are inadequate for the correct identification of large numbers of texts by many authors.

Considering the tremendous variation in vocabulary richness among texts and authors, it seems almost inevitable that vocabulary richness measures would fail to distinguish those texts and authors. For example, sections of A Portrait of the Artist rank from 49th to 173rd in vocabulary richness among the 188 sections, and Kipling's The Jungle Book ranks as low as 12th and his Kim as high as 161st. More concretely, the vocabularies of sections of Kipling's novels range from 2935 to 4450 words, while the vocabularies of eleven different texts by eleven different authors (occupying ranks 99-109) range only from 3876 to 3945 words. Clearly, as more texts are compared, a point is reached where no further distinctive values for the vocabulary richness measures are possible. On a practical level, texts like those analyzed above show that it would be unwise to place too much confidence in the presence of a set of texts for a single authorship claimant that display consistent figures for vocabulary richness: a disputed text displaying very different vocabulary richness cannot be reliably assumed to belong to a different author.

Two final cluster analyses dramatically illustrate the dangers of using vocabulary richness measures to group and distinguish texts: Figure 1 shows fourteen texts by seven authors that cluster perfectly, while Figure 2 shows sixteen texts by eight authors that show no correct clusters at all. The chief determinant of the accuracy of clustering is obviously the particular texts being analyzed. The texts Tweedie and Baayen use cluster well because they happen to be more similar to each other in vocabulary richness than they are to texts by other authors. An analysis of the texts in Figure 2 would have lead to radically different results. In retrospect, this is hardly surprising: the tremendous variety of their texts-from EModE religious texts to children's literature to detective fiction to science fiction-is so great that a perceptive reader of the texts should be able to correctly identify any 50-word passage from any of the texts simply by reading it.

Despite the attractiveness of vocabulary richness measures, and despite the fact that they are sometimes effective in clustering and discriminating texts, such measures cannot provide a consistent, reliable, or satisfactory means of characterizing an author or style. There is so much intratextual and intertextual variation among texts and authors that such measures should be used with great caution, and treated merely as preliminary indications of authorship, as rough suggestions about the style of a text or author, as characterizations of texts at the extremes, or as indicators of texts or sections of texts that may be fruitfully analyzed by more robust methods (see Hoover, 1999: 79-113).

Figure 1. Cluster Analysis of Fourteen Texts by Seven Authors Based on Herdan's Characteristic and the Repeat Rate of the Most Frequent Word: Best Case Scenari



Text Key: Baum, 1-2; Doyle, 3-4 (Hound, Return); Conrad, 5-6; Forster, 7-8; James, 9-10 (Confidence, Europeans); Kipling, 11-12; St. Luke, 13-14

Figure 2. Cluster Analysis of Sixteen Texts by Eight Authors Based on Herdan's Characteristic and the Repeat Rate of the Most Frequent Word: Worst Case Scenario



Text Key: Carroll, 1-2; Cather, 3-4; Doyle, 5-6 (Sign, Valley); Golding, 7-8; Hardy, 9-10; London, 11-12; Wells, 13-14; Woolf, 15-16","txt","2","",""
"152","2","A Widow and Her Soldier: The Case of the Pickett Letters","1","Background

This research project concerns the authorship of the so-called ""Pickett Letters"" from the Civil War era. In 1913 LaSalle Corbell Pickett, the wife of Confederate General George Pickett, published The Heart of a Soldier, presented as Pickett’s letters to his fiancée, some of them dated from the field of Gettysburg. She told readers that these wartime missives from her famous long-deceased husband had ""lain locked away from the world, the lines fading upon the yellowed pages, their every word enshrined in the heart of the noble woman to whom they were written"". This book was re-printed in 1995. Numerous historians cited them, and excerpts appeared in anthologies and collections. Michael Shaara mined them for hie Pulitzer Prize winning novel The Killer Angels, and Ken Burns highlighted them in his 1990 television documentary ""The Civil War"".

The letters of this volume however, at least those dealing with Gettysburg, fall under considerable suspicion. The first published discussion of the letters was a two-page appendix in George Stewart’s book Pickett’s Charge (1959) in which Stewart cites several reasons for his suspicions concerning their authenticity, in particular the facts that the writer knows a great deal more than Pickett could possibly have known at the time, and that the style of writing is effusively sentimental. LaSalle Pickett’s strongest defender has been Glenn Tucker, author of High Tide at Gettysburg (1958) who finds it significant that LaSalle published the letters at a time when many of her husband’s veterans were still alive and could have pointed out glaring errors. More recently Gary Gallagher (Lee and his Generals in War and Memory, 1998) argues that LaSalle Pickett concocted the letters ""relying on plagiarism and her own romantic imagination"". Gallagher argues that LaSalle’s motivation for fabricating the letters was both financial and the wish to bolster with her husband’s own testimony the intensely romantic portrait of him which existed. When Gallagher compared eleven unpublished handwritten letters in the Arthur Crew Inman Papers at Brown University with the published ones, he felt he had found undeniable evidence of LaSalle’s subterfuge. The handwritten letters, apparently in George’s actual handwriting, did not match the published ones in content or tone. Gallagher’s article, it seemed, would end the debate.

Gallagher’s article was persuasive, but some lingering questions remained. Could it be that when George wrote personal letters to his wife, his tone altered? This did not seem too far fetched considering that Victorian couples like the Picketts often communicated with one another in a more intimate way than they would with other people’s lives. This research project offers a fresh perspective on the problem of the authenticity of the ""Pickett Letters"" through stylometry, the statistical analysis of literary style.

Sampling and Textual Preparation

In order to attribute authorship of the ""Pickett Letters"", a large number of control texts are necessary, preferably in the same genre. Samples of letters written home by other Confederate officers were gathered, also samples of letters written home by Privates. For George Pickett, the largest collection of his genuine writings is found in his military reports published in the Official Records. Textual samples were taken from such reports. In addition, prewar and postwar letters written by Pickett to friends and family, some in his own hand and some transcribed from a typescript collection in the Virginia Historical Society, were added to the mix. Pickett’s widow produced numerous books, articles and short stories after the General’s death in 1875. Textual samples were taken from these works, and additional samples were obtained from collections at various university libraries.

Letters from The Heart of a Soldier, the prime concern of this study, were put into machine-readable form and subdivided into seven samples of text. In addition, the eleven handwritten letters in the Arthur Crew Inman Papers were transcribed and prepared in machine-readable form before being subdivided into three textual samples. The target length for each sample was 3,000 words.

Stylometric Analysis

Using frequencies of large sets of non-contextual function words (a proven methodology in stylometry), and multivariate statistical techniques such as principal components analysis and cluster analysis, the methodology was first tested on the known material. The letters home from Generals and Privates separated out by author, intriguingly the variation between Generals and Privates being greater than the variation within these two categories. With George’s known works, the personal and the official material appeared broadly similar in their usage of function words, leading to the identification of a ""George Pickett"" style or wordprint. LaSalle Corbell Pickett, by contrast, displayed two distinct styles, one emerging in her published works and the other in her private letters. Together, three distinctive styles had emerged for our two candidates.

For the attributional phase, the statistical technique of discriminant analysis was used. The textual samples from George Pickett were recombined and then split into 12 smaller samples. Similarly the textual samples from LaSalle were recombined and then subdivided into new samples of approximately 1,000 words each. With 26 new samples drawn from three known and distinct styles, the number of variables was reduced to the 25 most frequently occurring function words in the combined corpus.

The textual samples comprising the eleven handwritten letters in the Arthur Crew Inman papers were placed by the discriminant analysis into the George Pickett style group. Six of the seven textual samples from The Heart of a Soldier were placed in the ""LaSalle Published"" style group. The remaining sample, consisting of letters supposedly penned early in the war, were classified into the ""George"" group. Perhaps these particular letters contain cores of authentic George correspondence, enough to have them attributed to George by the discriminant analysis. In conclusion, stylometry has shown a clear difference between the styles of the letters in The Heart of a Soldier and the eleven handwritten letters, a difference confirming Gallagher’s suspicions of LaSalle’s subterfuge.","txt","2","",""
"153","2","Overview of Supporting Digital Scholarship Project","1","In 1992 the University of Virginia established the Institute for Advanced 
Technology in the Humanities to provide support and computing resources for 
long-term humanities research proposed by faculty at the University of 
Virginia and elsewhere.  In 1998 a Digital Library Research and Development 
Group was created within the university library to develop long-range 
planning of digital library architectures, systems, and procedures.  These 
two groups received funding in 2000 from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation 
for the Supporting Digital Scholarship Project (SDS) to address issues of 
digital resources in scholarly research particulary focusing on analysis, 
reprocessing, and the creation of digital primary resources.

During this session the panelists will give an overview of the Supporting 
Digital Scholarship Project and will discuss progress after one year of 
work in the areas of  collecting existing digital resources created with 
proprietary software, dynamic architectures for digital scholarship, and 
collecting existing HTML web sites of scholarly research for long-term use 
and preservation.","txt","2","",""
"154","2","The Salisbury Project: Collecting an Existing Digital Resource","1","The Salisbury Project is a large online archive of images designed to 
supplement existing scholarship published on the cathedral and town of 
Salisbury. It consists of a highly structured, navigable hierarchy of over 
500 images,  associated descriptions, teaching materials, bibliographies, 
and maps. Marked up in SGML, using the Encoded Archival Description DTD, 
the archive has made every effort to employ the standards available and has 
certainly reached a certain level of platform and display independence. 
However, in order to present the materials to the user in the dynamic and 
interactive fashion it requires, certain concessions had to be made. The 
lack of appropriate standards and supporting software at the time of its 
creation, made it necessary to rely on proprietary programs and formats for 
its look and feel. This obviously presents problems for the collection and 
preservation of such a complex object in the long term. The challenge for 
SDS was developing an approach that made it possible to recreate the 
Salisbury Archive using methods and tools that could be reused for 
subsequent projects. Therefore in this, the first of our collecting 
efforts, we decided  to take a two-step approach: re-encoding the document 
in the GDMS (General Descriptive Modeling Scheme) XML DTD and then using 
the newly developed XSLT standard to emulate the dynamic presentation 
software used by the original project. The combination of XSLT stylesheets 
with transformation engine  allows you to model complex dynamic behavior 
but unfortunately it will not provide the contextual searching essential to 
markup based projects. Fortunately another member of the IATH staff was 
working on just this problem.","txt","2","",""
"155","2","Planning Obsolescence: Dynamic Architectures for Digital Scholarship","1","Digital scholars have discovered the virtues of pastiche; scholarly 
projects of the sort developed at the Institute for Advanced Technology in 
the Humanities consist not merely of individually authored textual data and 
associated media, but large supporting archives, fragments of other 
projects, and links to outside materials.  Given this shift in the paradigm 
of authorship and scholarly production, one might assume that consumers of 
scholarly materials will likewise come to view the task of research itself 
as bricolage--the act of assembling and recombining digital media into ever 
more specific forms.  This paper seeks to theorize information retrieval in 
light of this fundamental shift, and to present some preliminary research 
undertaken as part of the Supporting Digital Scholarship project at the 
University of Virginia.

The Granby Suite, an xml-based search and retrieval system for full-text 
documents developed by the Virginia Center for Digital History and 
Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, employs an extremely 
modular architecture with strict separation between tiers devoted to 
search, document assembly, and rendering.  In this paper, I argue that such 
design principles are not merely a matter of good software engineering, but 
are in fact a consequence of the new paradigms of digital scholarship.  The 
digital library of the future should allow users to re-present materials 
from diverse media spread across a number of independent projects.  Such 
re-presentations will require that the underlying mechanics of the search 
and delivery system allow for constant remodification.  As such, the Granby 
Suite demonstrates that the technical exigencies of implementation and the 
functional requirements of humanities scholars must give rise to design 
methodologies flexible enough to allow for constant and sometimes sudden 
changes in the very architecture upon which the system depends.","txt","2","",""
"156","2","Collecting Existing HTML Web Sites","1","An area of future concern for universities and academic libraries will be 
the long term support of existing research stored and presented as HTML web 
sites.  There has been a recent proliferation of HTML as the final format 
of scholarly research projects and theses.  The long term viability of such 
resources is in question if they remain as free-standing islands of 
information, particulary if the originating researcher is no longer 
actively maintaining the site. Changes in HTML server and browser software, 
problems with server hardware, and policy changes in institutions may cause 
the material to become inaccessable.

One alternative is to ""collect"" the HTML webpages and move them into a 
library environment, possibly transforming the storage or access 
format.  Moving them into a centrally supported digital repository or 
archive and possibly transforming the HTML into some other format should 
extend the useful life of scholarly work that may be otherwise be lost.  We 
will discuss the pro's and con's of such a process and what problems arise 
in the effort. We will look at issues involved in deciding whether a site 
is suitable for collection, methods of limiting the scope of the site, 
problems involved in moving the contents and developing software to 
transfer and possibly transform the format, issues in trying to preserve 
the presentation look and feel, and possible format options for 
storage.  By way of example we will discuss the successes and failures 
encountered while developing a software tool as part of the Supporting 
Digital Scholarship project.","txt","2","",""
"157","2","Putting the dialog back together : Re-creating structure in letter publishing","1","Introduction

In this paper, I will describe a publication system where selected material from letter collections are presented as dialogs between two persons.

In the last 10 years, large digital collection of cultural heritage material have been created. There are now significant repositories of literature available on the web. In the years 1992-1997, the national Norwegian Documentation Project digitized approximately 100.000 pages of literature. These digital texts are letter-by-letter identical with the paper-based editions on which they are based, with line-breaks preserved. Only structural SGML tagging is added.

This material is now being published on the web. [1] It is important for us to show the close connection with the paper-based versions in our on-line versions; to a large extent we model our collections after the page layout of the printed editions, and keep the volumes together.

At the same time, we are examining ways to build different access systems to be used in addition to the print-based systems mentioned. By structuring the material in different ways, we try to display important features of the texts which have been hidden in the material as it has been presented.

Earlier, we have created hypertext links based on explicit references in historical material [2] and we have experimented with different ways to publish letters, including ways to present the dialogic aspects of letter exchanges. [3] In this paper I will discuss a framework for the publishing of balanced letter exchanges based on different sources. Ways to publish more letter exchanges, including use of external resources, will also be examined.

The history of letter publishing

The publishing of letters have a long history, from the letters of The New Testament and Cicero's letters up to modern editions of contemporary writers. In this paper, I will discuss actual letters written for one or several receivers, and not fictive letters such as those we find in letter novels or generally letters in fiction. The editions I discuss are collected and published by editors other than the author.

In most traditional editions of letters, one person has been singled out as the centre of the text. The letters preserved and edited by Cicero's secretary Tiro is both from and to Cicero, but the other writers have a secondary position: They are included because they wrote to Cicero. Only the names of Cicero and the editors and translators are typically presented on the title page. [4]

Few letter editions exist where the letters are presented as a balanced dialog between two equally important parts. Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson is one of the Norwegian authors from the period of the Modern Breakthrough who wrote most letters. While more than 2500 of his letters have been published on paper, his letter exchanges with only two persons have been published as balanced dialogs. One of these is with the author Amalie Skram and will be included in our system together with the dialogs we re-create.

The paper will discuss reasons why so few balanced letter exchanges have been published.

Our material: The letters of 'The Modern Breakthrough'.

The period known as 'The Modern Breakthrough', approximately from 1870 to 1910, is probably the period in which Norwegian writers had the greatest influence on the literature outside Scandinavia. This is also an age where letter writing is of special importance. There are several reasons for this, from the more prosaic of living abroad and the development of the modern post system to the literary program of naturalism: ""[...] letters had a particular significance for a generation of writers for whom the documentary aspect of literature was, in the light of literary naturalism, of great importance."" [5]

In our digital collections, we have letter editions of the following three Norwegian authors from the period:

Author born debut (approx.) dead Number of letters in our collections
Henrik Ibsen 1828 1850 1906 2400
Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson 1832 1858 1910 2590
Alexander L. Kielland 1849 1879 1906 1269
In addition, Amalie Skram's 50 letters to Bjørnson are included from the edition of their exchange. [6]

For each of these authors, the following number of letters written to the other two are in the material:

TO: Ibsen Bjørnson Kielland
FROM:
Ibsen  -- 35 0
Bjørnson  11 -- 112
Kielland  1 114 --
In this table, we see indications on which of the exchanges are suited for publication, the ones between Bjørnson and Ibsen and Bjørnson and Kielland, while the material contains few traces of contact between Kielland and Ibsen. In our system, these two exchanges, together with Bjørnsons exchange with Amalie Skram, where the digital version is based directly on the printed version, is included. The system will be demonstrated, and the background for which letter exchanges are suitable for such publication will be discussed, together with problems we had to solve in the process of selection and publication.

Beyond our collections

The system being demonstrated in the presentation is a running service, but the scale is quite small. There are two ways to expand the service further:

Create new contents ourselves
Connect our system to editions made by other contents providers
We have not been able to locate any external resources with web-published letters relevant to our collections. But I hope we will be able to co-operate with external contents providers in the future, as more material are published by others and as we publish more letters from our collections.

All publishing of letters in the future, both based on the original letters (who in a few years time might be born digital) and on earlier printed versions, will be performed in a world where the letters of other authors are available on the web, in many cases with answers to letters in the collection being published. I hope as many as possible of such letter collections being published will be made available in a form suitable for integration with other collections, and that the publishers have such possibilities in mind when they make digital editions of letter collections.

Traditionally, the editors of letter collections have emphasized the letters as parts of the collected works of an author. While this perspective will never cease to be important, I hope the dialogic aspect of letters will be more visible in the future. Both dimensions are important to understand our cultural history.

Bibliography

[1] http://www.dokpro.uio.no/

[2] Ore, Christian-Emil: ""Making Multidiciplinary Resources"" in: The Digital Demotic: A Selection of Papers from DRH97 (Digital Resources for the Humanities) / Edited by Lou Burnard, Marilyn Deegan and Harold Short. London, 1998, pp. 65-74.

[3] Eide, Øyvind: ""The Ibsen Letters - and Beyond"" / Øyvind Eide (paper at the ALLC/ACH conference in Virginia in June 1999), the text is available at http://www.uio.no/~oeide/artikler/

[4] See e.g.: Cicero, Marcus Tullius: Cicero : in twenty-eight volumes. D, Letters. Cambridge, Mass., [1912- .]. Vol. 22-28.

[5] Robinson, Michael: ""'The Great Epistolick Art' : An introduction"" in: Nordic Letters 1870-1910 / Edited by Michael Robinson and Janet Garton. Norwich, 1999, p. 12.

[6] ""Og nu vil jeg tale ut"", ""Men nu vil jeg også tale ud"" : brevvekslingen mellom Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson og Amalie Skram 1878-1904 Oslo. 1982. XVI, 236 pp.","txt","2","",""
"158","2","The Decameron Web. How does encoding help pedagogy?","1","In this paper we will focus on the pedagogical goals of the Decameron Web, and we will discuss how the SGML encoding of the primary text and the related retrieval system contribute to the teaching and learning experience in the digital environment. In addition, we will present the results of a user evaluation that will take place in the spring semester, 2001.

Introduction

The Decameron Web, previously presented in a poster at ACH/ALLC 2000 in Glasgow, is a growing on-line resource, conceived to support teaching and learning about Boccaccio's masterpiece, and various aspects of life and culture in Medieval times. It is available in the form of a website, containing a bilingual (Italian and English) text of the Decameron, interlinked with a wide variety of secondary sources.

The project started in 1995 at Brown University under the direction of Massimo Riva, Associate Professor in Italian Studies and Modern Culture and Media, with the collaboration of Michael Papio, who is now Assistant Professor of Italian at the College of the Holy Cross. During these five years, undergraduate and graduate students of Professor Riva's Decameron class, have contributed most of the secondary sources present in the website; scholars and teachers of Boccaccio in other universities and colleges are also active participants in its development.

Since 1998, the Brown University Scholarly Technology Group has been offering its expertise to improve the quality of the primary sources, and thus offer students and scholars of Boccaccio a reliable digital textual resource, designed to suit their research needs. Text encoding is central to these improvements, and we will further discuss and evaluate its impact in this paper.

In the fall of 1999 the project was awarded a two-year NEH grant, which, among other benefits, permitted the hiring of a full-time director, Michael Hemment, from Harvard University, and also of graduate student collaborators in Italian Studies.

During the year 2000, the Decameron Web has been undergoing a thorough redesign phase, which consists of improvements in graphic layout, content and functionality. One of the principal goals of this redesign is for Professor Riva and his teaching partners to have access to a resource that can accommodate changes and refinements based on their pedagogical needs. An example is the ongoing expansion of the Arts section, overseen by Evelyn Lincoln, Professor of History of Art and Architecture at Brown University, and new collaborator of the Decameron Web.

Teaching a Classic as Hypertext

Professor Riva's theoretical approach to the teaching of the Decameron is based on the consideration that Boccaccio's book can be considered a hypertext 'in a virtual sense'. He writes: ' ... the textual structure of the Decameron, with its combination of macro- and microcomponents --the so-called frame and the hundred novellas, virtually suggests ... a hypertextual, multilinear type of reading.'1

Students in his class learn to use the hypertextual Decameron Web which includes both the new visual and cognitive form of the virtual book, and the secondary information about Boccaccio and his times.2 During the semester, each student assumes the virtual identity of one of the ten narrators who make up the brigata, while the instructor takes responsibility for the virtual identity of the author-narrator. Like the brigata of young Florentines who narrate the tales of the Decameron, a learning brigata is formed, with leaders in charge of the class discussion, according to the order established by the text. Each student has to write a short commentary for the novellas told by the narrator he or she represents, and to develop ideas and content for additional contextual documents to add to the Decameron Web.

Text encoding and pedagogy

The pedagogical hands-on approach to the digital text: analyzing stories told by the same narrator and locating different levels of discourse in the text, presented several limitations when the primary sources were encoded in basic HTML. Identification and retrieval of the stories was based on a static HTML file containing a linked list of the relevant novellas for each narrator. Once users found a single novella file, they could only browse it and retrieve words with the browser's 'find' mechanism.

The need to access the text at a fine granularity, and to search it according to its divisions, narrative voices, people and places of interest, required text encoding appropriate for the task. At STG we decided to use SGML encoding, and to design a DTD based on TEILite that would suit the need for descriptive markup, without having the richness and complexity of full TEI. The practical considerations behind these decisions were that the SGML encoding would grant the requested accessibility and retrieval, and could easily be delivered over the World Wide Web with Dynaweb, an application already used successfully by the Women Writers Project, also at STG. Moreover, the TEILite version of the DTD would make future conversion to XML easy, reduce the overall encoding by only using a limited subset of TEI, and be appropriate for a project which didn't intend to encode the presentational aspects of the print artifact.

In choosing what to encode, we combined our knowledge of SGML and its capabilities with Professor Riva and his team's expectations for the new version of the Italian text. From the beginning of the text encoding process we all tried to anticipate possible questions and needs of the general public and of the students, both undergraduate and graduate. The five graduate students who participated in the encoding also gave constructive feedback. The principal aim of the encoding was to analyze the text, define the peculiarities of its narrative structure, including the different voices, and pay particular attention to all the proper nouns. We therefore chose to identify and encode the divisions of the text, narrative shifts in discourse, direct speeches and songs, named characters and places, and unnamed speaking characters and unnamed relevant places.3 To make the encoding of names easier, and more robust, each name is thoroughly encoded out-of-line in one file (at the moment stored in the back matter) which functions as a database. Inline references to people and places are extremely simple: they are only identified as a person or place, and given an IDREF, which points to its correspondent ID in the database.

The database file and the narrative divisions of the text, constitute the source data for the retrieval system we have designed. A set of search features, divided by character, geographic location and word search, allow the student, for example, to run an on-line query for all the young men with role of merchant in the narration of Fiammetta. Although the searches have been designed to provide teachers and students with access to the Italian text, they may also be of use to a general user who is not acquainted with the text and who doesn't read Italian. At the same time, they are powerful enough to benefit a researcher who wants to search the whole text at once using meaningful criteria. To make the text more accessible to naïve users, we also provide dynamically generated tabular lists of particular groups of people (e.g. non Christian), and of places (e.g list of all the named places in Italy). The information contained in these lists is derived directly from the database of names.

In addition to the Italian text, the website now offers a lightly encoded English translation, (J.M. Rigg, 1921), which is linked to and from the Italian version, down to paragraph and sentence number. The Italian version will remain the only searchable one, but we are currently developing a facing-text display, which will allow users to view both texts simultaneously. The facing texts will help non-Italian students enrich their understanding of the text by allowing them to rely on the English translation, but to browse in and compare with the original Medieval Italian text.

In order to give the Decameron more analytical context, we plan to add other works by Boccaccio, specifically the Corbaccio and the Elegia di Madonna Fiammetta, which will be encoded with the same DTD, and delivered with the same software, thus creating a collection of works by Boccaccio, and, ultimately, of their translations. In addition, we are developing audio files of the novellas read in Italian; this interactive tool will assist students in learning the Italian language, and its Medieval characteristics.4

Conclusions

The question of how the new Decameron Web section of the Texts of Boccaccio -- with the SGML-encoded Italian text, the recently added English translation, search features and lists based on the encoding-- is going to improve the teaching and learning of Decameron is still open.

A first testing of the detailed search features has been done during Professor Riva's spring 2000 class, when students have written their final papers after searching the on-line text. Their overall feedback was positive, but not carefully evaluated.

An evaluation form, designed to assess how useful students find the opportunity to search and view results on-line, and to compare original text and translation, will be used during spring 2001. Our main interest is to discover what kind of research tasks students find simplified and enhanced by the on-line tools, and whether they believe these tasks are useful for understanding the Decameron. This will give us feedback not only about the effectiveness of our new design and features, but also about the benefits and limitations of a pedagogical approach that uses a resource specifically based on text encoding. A new pedagogy module will also be tested at Brown in spring 2001: a set of reading pathways and homework activities will guide students through the new tools, and familiarize them with this different way of encountering the text. Our evaluation form will also be made available to other educational institutions which are already using the Decameron Web in their courses. Classes which return their forms will be asked for their syllabus, and be evaluated as a unit.

Our work follows an iterative development process: we have anticipated the user needs with our encoding and delivery choices; now we teach users how to use the new on-line resource; next, in the near future we look forward to making new developments in accordance with users' feedback.

Notes

1 See Massimo Riva, 'The Decameron Web: Teaching a Classic as Hypertext', in: Approaches to Teaching Boccaccio's Decameron, ed. James H. McGregor, New York, 2000, p. 173.

2 Inspiration for the creation of the hypertextual resource Decameron Web has been the work done at Brown University by IRIS, George Landow and Robert Coover. The Decameron Web, though, contains the bilingual text of Boccaccio's classic at the center of a hypertextual collection of essays.

3 Partial inspiration for these encoding choices, especially for the ones relating to places, has been The World of Dante (http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/dante/), ongoing at the University of Virginia under the editing supervision of Professor Deborah Parker.

4 The inspiration is the Princeton Dante Project (http://www.princeton.edu/dante/), in which Professor Lino Pertile reads the text of the Inferno.


REFERENCES

Boccaccio, Giovanni, Decameron, ed. Vittore Branca (Turin: Einaudi, 1992).

The Decameron of Giovanni Boccaccio, trans. J. M. Rigg (London: privately printed for the Navarre Society Limited, 1921).

Landow, George, Hypertext 2.0; Being a Revised, Expanded Edition of Hypertext: The Convergence of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology. (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).

Riva, Massimo, 'The Decameron Web: Teaching a Classic as Hypertext', in: Approaches to Teaching Boccaccio's Decameron, ed. James H. McGregor (New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 2000), pp.172-182.

On-line References:

The Decameron Text: http://www.stg.brow n.edu/dynaweb/boccaccio/decameron/

The Decameron Web: http://www.brown.edu/Research/Decameron/

The Princeton Dante Project: http://www.princeton.edu/dante/

The Victorian Web: http://landow.stg.brown .edu/victorian/victov.html

The Women Writers Project: http://www.wwp.brown.edu/

The World of Dante: http://jefferson.village.vir ginia.edu/dante/","txt","2","",""
"159","2","Versions of Interactivity: Meta-interpretive Response in Hypertext Fiction","1","Introduction

Traditional discourses upon literature have been predicated upon the ability to refer to a text that others may consult (Landow, 1994: 33). Texts that involve elements of feedback and non-trivial decision-making on the part of the reader (Aarseth, 1997: 1) therefore present a challenge to readers and critics. The purpose of this research has been to identify and interpret the ways that these elements influence or determine reader's choices. Since a persuasive case has been made against a critical method that sets out to 'identify the task of interpretation as a task of territorial exploration and territorial mastery' (Aarseth: 87), this paper explores how the recording and analysis of interactions can be used to show how a text is being interpreted by a reader. In this paper I will show how the experience of readers can be directed towards an empirically based theoretical approach to hypertext fiction, in a method that addresses Aarseth's concerns and illuminates interesting features of interactional processes in fictional environments.

Methodology

The boundaries and limits of interpretation are explored using the concept of 'meta-interpretation': a critical approach that emphasises the way that a reader's negotiation of a text can be used to say something about a) the signifying structures within the text b) how the reader has interacted with those signifying structures and c) whether that interaction can be treated as an index to interpretation. Since the aim is to test choice as a function of that index, the methodology treats data generated by the readings as a primary source of information and does not rely on interventions during the reading process. Readers are not asked to justify their decisions in the course of the reading (although subsequent debriefings are recorded and used in the final analysis). Screen recording software was used to map a targeted group of volunteer readers as they progressed through Michael Joyce's Afternoon: A Story. The readings were recorded and subsequently analysed (for a preliminary account see http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/allcach2k/Programme/session9 .html#943). By identifying and categorising textual spaces, target words and reader's choices using pragmatic, stylistic and grammatical analysis, I am able to suggest a number of well-defined strategies that readers have pursued in the course of reading. These strategies are explored in relation to immediate and narrative context. The immediate context refers to the content of the screen at any single point in time, which includes the choices open to the reader. The narrative context pays attention to the development of various pathways and considers how these lexia contribute to, and modify, the reader's experience of the text. Meta-interpretation thus relies on a definition of lexia as both a reader-oriented and a critical unit extending beyond the boundaries of any one screen; its use as an analytical, rather than structural, unit is preserved but at the same time related more closely to the activity of the reader.

Discussion

Meta-interpretation may be argued against on the grounds that, since the relationship between the two ends of the link in fictional works may be an arbitrary one, the reader's interaction with the text is fundamentally incidental. In this account, there would be no reason to suppose that a click on 'I', for example, would reveal any intention on the part of the reader to discover the identity of a narrator. Furthermore, it could be contested that even if the link resulted in a description of the narrator, in the absence of a universally defined system of relationships or link rhetoric, it would be based on an assumption. Consequently, the link between the action and interpretation would always be an incidental one. This research contends, however, that close analysis of reader interactions can provide data that point indirectly to assumptions, and which thus provide some insight into interpretive strategies. Analysis begins with a consideration of reading speed to see what it might tell us about a reader's negotiation strategies. When I studied time spent in each space, I found significant variations across spaces to be significant, variations that suggested patterns of behaviour that could be linked to interpretation. The use of the mouse pointer also revealed interesting ways that readers were engaging in the process of decision-making.

Some of the ways that hypertext fiction can mediate its readings through the patterning of its elements have been suggested (Bernstein, 1998). One of the most interesting problems this research has encountered is whether particular links, or link arrangements, designate preferred pathways--paths that readers would be more likely to follow. Why an author would want to generate 'preferred' readings is thus an obvious question to ask. It is, however, beyond the scope of the present study, which seeks primarily to address how far data generated from readings can be used to analyse the hyperfictional text. In comparing this research to similar studies that engage with the reader at an empirical level, we could begin by looking at a study by Joyce himself. In 'What the Fish Lady Saw' (Joyce, 1995) similar analytical procedures are used but they centre specifically upon the application of software to the exploration of learning processes-another closely related but distinct and well-defined area of research which will not be covered here. The issues raised by the formal and procedural features of hypertext fiction lead naturally, I would argue, to a consideration of the role that hypothesis-driven approaches, exploratory studies and quantitative/qualitative analysis might play in its study.

Conclusion

This paper outlines the possibility of a critique that is able to preserve some of the useful critical methods common to traditional text-based criticism while, at the same time, paying attention to some of the distinctive aspects of hypertext fiction. It also demonstrates the way that electronic texts within the computer environment have made it possible to combine empirical research with theoretical perspectives to explore some of the problems of criticism in interactive environments; meta-interpretation would contribute to an understanding of the part readers might play in the future development of criticism in this area.

Bibliography

Aarseth, Espen J., Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997)

Barthes, Roland, S/Z, tr. by Richard Miller (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990)

Bernstein, Mark, 'Patterns of Hypertext', Proceedings of Hypertext '98 (New York: ACM, 1998). Available http://www.eastgate.com/patterns

Culler, Jonathan, Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics and the Study of Literature (London: Routledge, 1975)

Eco, Umberto, Interpretation and Overinterpretation, ed. by Stefan Collini (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992)

Greenbaum, Sidney and Randolph Quirk, A Student's Grammar of the English Language (Harlow: Longman, 1990)

Joyce, Michael, Afternoon: A Story (Cambridge; Mass: Eastgate Systems, 1990)

Joyce, Michael, Of Two Minds: Hypertext, Pedagogy and Poetics (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995)

Landow, George P., Hypertext 2.0: The Convergence of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology, 2nd edn (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997)

Robson, Colin, Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and Practitioner-researchers (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993)","txt","2","",""
"160","2","3D Imaging and Processing of Damaged Texts","1","INTRODUCTION

This paper addresses the technical framework for using 3D imaging as a means of creating, manipulating, restoring and carefully measuring features on digital facsimiles of texts. This effort, which is part of the ""Digital Atheneum""[1] project at the University of Kentucky, is concerned with developing new techniques that will ultimately make severely damaged texts more accessible and useful to scholars. In particular, we address the problems and limitations of 2D imaging when a document is warped and damaged, and the difficulties this can present to subsequent image processing operations. 
The presentation is divided into two topics. We address why and when it is preferable to acquire 3D shape information, and how our system works. Second, we discuss the uses of the 3D representations beyond that of facsimile.

3D IMAGING 
An image of a text is a very useful representation that is familiar and easy to create with current technology. As a primary representation for preservation and manipulation, however, the 2D image has limitations. Modeled mathematically, a photographic image is a mapping of light rays onto a planar surface. If the image is not of a planar object, information is lost during the projection which creates the image [2]. This is generally not a problem because the majority of text collections are sufficiently flat. But the surface shape of many older and damaged items may be warped and bent. Although scholars may be able to discern from the image that the underlying surface is not flat, it can still be difficult to disambiguate the contribution of the shape distortion to the shape of the markings: is the shape of a letter-form accurately discerned by a scholar, or does it appear distorted as a by-product of the non-planar shape of the object? In addition, there are items that inherently have 3D relief, such as book covers, coins, wax seals, and other similar items. For these items, a quality facsimile must capture shape. Figure (1) compares a 3D model with its 2D counterpart. 
We advocate the use of 3D imaging when digitizing non-flat materials. A 3D representation more accurately preserves the ""look and feel"" of the original. To acquire a 3D facsimile, we have designed and implemented an acquisition system that integrates into 2D digitization setups based on a stationary digital camera. By augmenting the camera with a light projector[3], we are able to acquire 3D data points on the surface of the text through a triangulation-based computer vision technique known as ""structured-light"". Structured-light is similar to laser scanning, but uses a light projector in place of a laser. The projector emits a vertical or horizontal stripe of light onto the surface of the manuscript or artifact. The camera observes this stripe and can determine the 3D shape of the underlying material based on how the stripe is warped (see figure 2). The projector repeats this process, sweeping a line across the entire object until the shape has been recovered.

By design, the acquisition system integrates well with existing digitization setups. This minimizes operational costs and allows the digiteur or directing scholar the freedom, without a change in setup, either to acquire a complete 3D model or just the 2D image. This 3D image acquisition system uses the same 2D image that would otherwise have been captured; in essence, nothing changes in the overall digitization procedure except that shape information is also collected.

USES OF 3D DATA 
METRIC MEASUREMENTS 
Our 3D imaging technique creates a digital 3D model which has, to a very high level of accuracy, the same metric dimension as the corresponding physical material. This makes it possible to make accurate metric measurements on the surface of the digitized text. Although we as yet have no experience with how expert editors and scholars will use these capabilities in a production system for creating a digital edition, we envision that scholars will find it useful to make very accurate measurements of letter-forms, markings, and other regions of interest in damaged manuscripts. The acquired 3D shape representation provides the opportunity to extract accurate measurements, in millimeters for example, with these measurements correctly and exactly corresponding to the physical features of the object. Such measurements are impossible to make on the 2D image alone, and are likely impossible, or tedious at best, to make directly on the physical object. We also envision that experts may have interest in using metric measurements as another tool for monitoring damage, deterioration and deformation of a text or other object over time. These measurements would be possible by making periodic 3D scans to measure and track features such as the sizes of holes, tears, and crinkles.
DIGITAL FLATTENING OF A MANUSCRIPT 
We demonstrate preliminary work that uses 3D data to digitally flatten a warped and crinkled text. This is done by using a physics-based Mass-Spring model, similar to that used in computer graphics to model cloth. The Mass-Spring model uses Newtonian physics to approximate the motion of the acquired 3D points as they are pushed back to a flat surface, thereby flattening the 3D model. This restored 3D model represents what the original material might have looked like in its original, flat state, before the distortion due to aging and damage. The virtual, or digital, flattening of the 3D manuscript model can be especially useful when the original text cannot physically be flattened without the risk of further damage.

Virtual flattening serves two purposes. First, in many cases it will make the document more readable. Text that would appear warped by the underlying shape in a photograph will now look undistorted. This is a desirable outcome from a perceptual standpoint, and we hope in the future to obtain the opinion of manuscript experts as to the perceptual usefulness of the technique. The approach also serves a less subjective but very useful purpose. Images used to create electronic editions often are heavily processed. Some image operations, such as scaling and rotation, are not dependent on the content of the image. However, more sophisticated processing, such as those used to help the user automate or semi-automate extraction of information in the image, often rely on the assumption that original object is flat. For example, Optical Character Recognition (OCR) suffers if the input image is from a warped and crinkled text. In addition to OCR, there are many other useful and desirable automated image processing algorithms, such as line detection, word grouping, and image-based searches for user-specified regions (such as letter forms). The performance of these automated image processing algorithms can benefit greatly by using the ""flattened"" image as input instead of the image of the warped and crinkled document.

CONCLUSION 
The research presented in this paper reflects new technical approaches that we envision will be of value to those researchers who are interested in editing and manipulating damaged texts. The goal is to provide new technical approaches that will serve as a framework that can enable scholars to create, manipulate and process digital representations of physical materials in ways that were previously impossible. In many cases, the ""virtual restoration"" performs operations which physically are risky or impossible, or for which there is no physical analogue. Our work focuses on the need for the 3D representation of materials that are assumed flat but prove otherwise. When addressing very old and damaged texts containing profound shape distortions, the acquisition of a 3D model can serve many useful purposes. It provides a useful and effective representation of the original, and moreover, allows the possibility for making complex metric measurements, applying new restoration techniques, such as flattening, and monitoring deterioration over time.

NOTES

[1] ""The Digital Atheneum"" http://www.digitalatheneum.org/

[2] A photographic image is a projection of a 3D objects on a 2D image plane. One dimension, the ""depth"" of the object, is collapsed in the projection process and thus lost. Although cues in the image, such as shadows, give hints about the shape of the objects, actual depth values cannot be recovered without making assumptions about lighting and object properties.

[3] Standard XGA light projectors, such as those used by laptop and computers for presentations.

REFERENCES

Brown M. S. and W. B. Seales, ""Beyond 2D Image: Effective 3D imaging for library materials"", 5th ACM Conference on Digital Libraries , San Antonio 2000 

W. Brent Seales, James Griffioen, Kevin Kiernan, C. J. Yuan, and Linda Cantara. ""The Digital Atheneum: New Technologies for Restoring and Preserving Old Documents."" Computers in Libraries 20:2 (February 2000), 26-30. 

Kiernan, K. S. ""Digital Image Processing and the Beowulf Manuscript."", Literary and Linguistic Computing 6 (1991): Special Issue on Computers and Medieval Studies (Edited by Marilyn Deegan with Andrew Armour and Mark Infusino), 20-27 

Prescott, Andrew. ""The Electronic Beowulf and Digital Restoration."" Literary and Linguistic Computing 12 (1997), 185-95 

Lecolinet, E. et al ""An Integrated Reading and Editing Environment for Scholarly Research on Literary Works and Their Handwritten Sources"", 3rd ACM Conference on digital Libraries , Pittsburgh 1998 

M. Sonka, V. Hlavac, and R. Boyle, ""Image Processing, Analysis, and Machine Vision"", PWS Publishers , Second Edition, 1998

Xavier Provot. ""Deformation Constraints in a Mass-Spring Model to Describe Rigid Cloth Behavior"", In Proc. Graphics Interface '95, 1995, pp 147-154. 

Valkenburg R. J. and McIvor A. M., ""Accurate 3D measurements using a Structured Light System"", Image and Vision Computing 16:2, February 1998, pp 99-110","txt","2","",""
"161","2","The Order of the Canterbury Tales:  Praxis of Computer Analysis","1","This paper is designed as a complement of Matthew Spencer's proposal:
""Reconstructing the Stemma of a Textual Tradition from the Order of
Sections in Manuscripts."" It will discuss the results and implications
of our use of computer programs to produce stemmata based on the tale
order of the Canterbury Tales.

It is well known that Chaucer left the Canterbury Tales unfinished
when he died. But the degree to which they were unfinished becomes
more relevant: Chaucer never assigned a final order to his
Tales. Traditionally, scholars have seen the tales as divided into
fragments or sections1, which are more or less consistent from
manuscript to manuscript.  When we take into account these fragments,
we can see that probably what Chaucer did was to work on a particular
group of tales and place them in a certain position with respect to
the others. However, he worked more in some fragments than in
others. In practical terms this means that a group of tales such as
Fragment I (General Prologue, Knight's, Miller's, Reeve's and Cook's
tales) is much more consistent in the relationships between the tales
and its position in the manuscripts in general, than others. It seems
clear that Chaucer had not made a definitive decision about tales such
as the Man of Law's, the Merchant's or the Franklyn's, while he had
worked more on the relationship between the Wife of Bath's, the
Friar's and the Summoner's tales --although their position as a group
varies among manuscripts. For this reason some of the fragments are
difficult to locate and scribes and their supervisors, editors, and
scholars have had a hard time trying to make sense of the order of the
Canterbury Tales.

Most modern scholars have attempted to ""fix"" the order of the tales in
order to come nearer to Chaucer's intentions, and they have speculated
as to which if the extant orders is truly Chaucerian. When we started
this research our aim was not to discover Chaucer's intentions or
which manuscript reflected them in a more precise way. We wanted to
see if there was any kind of relationship between the order of the
tales and the text extant in each manuscript, or in other words if the
tradition of the tale order and that of the text go hand in hand or
not. As part of the STEMMA -- Studies of Textual Evolution of
Manuscripts by Mathematical Analysis-- Project's research we have been
using phylogenetic programs to reconstruct textual stemmata, and we
thought that it would be a good idea to try and use them with a
different aspect of the Canterbury Tales tradition. Phylogenetic
analysis2 has been successfully used by Peter Robinson to explain the
textual tradition of the Canterbury Tales,3 but we did not know if the
same kind of analysis would yield results when applied to a different
aspect of the tradition. However, the advantages, if we succeeded
seemed remarkable. In the first place, we would overcome the long-time
prejudice that has blinded the critics. They have assumed that
Ellesmere, one of the best extant manuscripts, has the best tale order
and also that it represents Chaucer's intentions, therefore any other
orders are less valuable if not irrelevant. In the second place, we
thought that the programs might cast some light on manuscripts that
have been unclassified before and also that they could make evident
relationships that have not been seen before.

The data that we used came from a series of tale-order tables, that
were based on the one produced by Manly and Rickert4 for their
analysis of the Canterbury Tales. The original table was modified to
conform to the Canterbury Tales Project notation; therefore most of
the links became separate units that had to be taken into
consideration5. In this sense, our data shows a profound difference
with that analyzed by Manly and Rickert because the number of discrete
units is about double that in their original table. Besides, when we
take into account all the links, we realize that they are liable to be
moved just as the tales are.

The tables were converted into computer readable data that was fed
into SplitsTree. The results yielded by this program were not as good
as we expected and we decided to attempt the same analysis with
PAUP. The results that we obtained show a relationship between the
textual tradition and that of the order of the tales. What this means
is that they suggest that even if there are rearrangements on tale
order these are not completely independent of the textual
tradition. The stemmata produced by the cladistic programs also shows
that the manuscripts that Manly and Rickert judged unclassified appear
to be related in different ways. The use of computerized tools has
allowed us to overcome our prejudices and guided us in new directions
that we will continue to explore.

1 . These fragments are a tale or group of tales that appear as a unit
in the manuscripts. What usually changes is the position of the
fragments.

2 . Dr. Matthew Spencer explains the technical aspects of the programs
in his proposed paper.

3 . Dr. Robinson confirmed the applicability of cladistic programs to
textual traditions by using it with Norse sagas, specifically in his
analysis of the textual tradition of Svipdagsmál.

4 .  John M. Manly and Edith Rickert, eds. The Text of the Canterbury
Tales: Studied on the Basis of All Known Manuscripts. 8 vols. Chicago:
Univ. of Chicago Press, 1940.

5 . The CTP notation was devised by Norman Blake (Cf. Norman Blake and
Peter Robinson, eds. The Canterbury Tales Project Occasional Papers
Volume II. OCH: London, 1997). He made decisions about which tales
function independently of the tales and which ones worked as units.
","txt","2","",""
"162","2","Reading the Papyrologist: Building Systems to Aid the Humanities Expert Keywords: Papyrology, Knowledge Elicitation, Cognitive Systems","1","The act of Papyrology, simply defined as obtaining “a body of knowledge …from the 
study of papyri”  and now taken to cover “ as a matter of convenience…all materials 
carrying writing… done by a pen”  (Turner 1968, p vi) is an important aspect to our 
understanding of ancient societies. The reading and analysis of ancient texts can 
provide a vast array of historical and linguistic information, providing an important, 
often first hand, companion to archaeological and scientific evidence of sites and 
peoples. Although there has been much written regarding the history of papyrology 
(Pattie and Turner 1974), and the contribution the transcription of such texts has made 
to both literary and non-literary classical studies (Turner 1968), the process entailed in 
transcribing a text has never been made explicit. Papyrology is in essence a “self 
consuming labor which leaves little or no trace of itself,” (Youtie 1963, p 11) and the 
expertise of papyrologists, as with the expertise of any professional, is a valuable but 
surprisingly elusive resource.

An EPSRC jointly funded project at the Department of Engineering Science, and the 
Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents (CSAD), University of Oxford,  was 
initiated three years ago to analyse ancient texts and develop new image processing 
techniques to retrieve information from small incisions in damaged surfaces, the 
techniques under development being applicable to a wide variety of engineering 
problems. The project is concentrating on the analysis of the Vindolanda stylus 
tablets: a collection of some 200 texts discovered near a Roman Fort built in the late 
80s AD near Hadrian’s Wall at modern day Chesterholm (Birley 1977; Bowman 
1983).  Some significant progress has been made using wavelet filtering to remove 
woodgrain in images of the stylus tablets, and developing and appropriating Shadow 
Stereo techniques to identify candidate writing strokes (Bowman, Brady et al. 1997; 
Molton 1999); these developments were presented at ALLC 2000. 

However, to be able to help the papyrologists, it is important to develop tools which 
can be utilised easily and confidently by them, and also provide techniques which can 
mobilise the disparate linguistic and visual knowledge accessed whilst transcribing 
such a text. In order to do this, it is first important to understand the process that they 
go through in analysing a text.  However, experts are notoriously bad at describing 
what they are expert at (McGraw and Harbison-Briggs 1989).  Experts utilise and 
develop many skills which become automated and so they are increasingly unable to 
explain their behaviour, resulting in the troublesome “knowledge engineering 
paradox”: the more competent domain experts become, the less able they are to 
describe the knowledge they use to solve problems (Waterman 1986).  A program of 
knowledge elicitation was undertaken to identify the areas in which a computer 
program could aid the papyrologists, and also how the development of such a system 
would add to our understanding of the papyrology process.


This has resulted in the development of a knowledge based program, firstly to try and 
make explicit the reading techniques that papyrologists use whilst deciphering such 
texts (which have so far remained implicit), and secondly, to provide a tool to aid the 
papyrologists in recording the recursive hypotheses they develop in the transcription 
of the texts. This program incorporates lexical and visual knowledge that the 
papyrologists rely on to help them read such ancient texts, and will compliment the 
development of the image processing techniques, eventually contributing to the 
development of a Cognitive Visual System which will aim to replicate the human 
ability to combine image processing, reasoning, memory, and knowledge.  (It should 
be stressed that this is not an attempt to build a prescriptive “expert system” that will 
automatically generate a reading of the texts, but a tool through which the 
papyrologists can record the various hypotheses and reasoning generated during the 
transcription of such texts.) Developing such a program requires much interaction 
with the papyrologists to understand the process of reading such ancient texts, 
analysis of existing linguistic sources from the same period, and development of 
appropriate computer skills to undertake the building of the program. 

This paper will present an overview of the project, and a demonstration of the 
computer program developed so far, followed by a discussion regarding what the 
development of such a program has revealed about the nature of the papyrology 
process and how experts approach and read ancient texts. 


Birley, R. (1977). Vindolanda, A Roman Frontier Post on Hadrian's Wall. London, 
Thames and Hudson.
 
Bowman, A. K. (1983). The Roman Writing Tablets From Vindolanda. London, 
British Museum Publications LTD.
 
Bowman, A. K., J. M. Brady, et al. (1997). “Imaging Incised Documents.” Literary 
and Linguistic Computing 12(3): 169 - 176.
 
McGraw, K. L. and K. Harbison-Briggs (1989). Knowledge Acquisition: Principles 
and Guidelines. London, Prentice-Hall International Editions.
 
Molton, N. and J. M. Brady (1999). “The Choice of Light Position for Shadow Stereo 
with Inscribed Tablets.” Forthcoming.
 
Pattie, T. S. and E. G. Turner (1974). The Written Word on Papyrus. London, British 
Museum Publications. . 
 
Turner, E. G. (1968). Greek Papyri, An Introduction. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
 
 
Waterman, D. A. (1986). A Guide to Expert Systems. Reading, MA, Addison-
Wesley.
 
Youtie, H. C. (1963). “The Papyrologist: Artificer of Fact.” GRBS 4 (1963): 19-32.
","txt","2","",""
"163","2","Markup vs. Character Encoding: The quandary of handling the epigraphical/papyrological ""underdot"" in computer representation","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Deborah</forename>
                        <surname>Anderson</surname>
                        <affiliation>Dept. of Linguistics, <name type=""org"">UC Berkeley</name>
                            <email>dwanders@socrates.berkeley.edu</email>
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                    <head>Problem</head>
                    <p>When dealing with ancient texts written on various media for detailed
                        scholarly publication, it is critical to convey information on the specifics
                        of the writing. After a photo, scanned image, or line drawing is made from
                        the original text, texts are commonly transferred to paper or an electronic
                        medium. In order to capture the information from the inscription,
                        transliteration and transcription schemes in Roman letters (or Greek, for
                        materials using Greek script) are often used to capture all the
                        characters--whether clearly legible, faint, damaged--and the empty
                        spaces.</p>
                    <p>Ancient texts, especially those in damaged condition, present difficulties,
                        for they must rely upon the subjective judgment of the transcriber (and
                        editor) in deciding what characters are present, whether an erasure is
                        identifiable, the amount of empty space(s), etc. Certain conventions on how
                        to represent these details have been created and are followed in various
                        fields (i.e., double square brackets [[ ]] enclose erasures, angle brackets
                        &lt; &gt; indicate letters made in err by the scribe). A common method in
                        transliteration and transcription for denoting a damaged character--or one
                        whose identity is uncertain--is a dot placed below a letter. This underdot
                        is common in ancient Greek texts and Latin, for example, at least those
                        editions intended for the scholar interested in paleography, philology,
                        etc.</p>
                    <p>A problem arises in how to handle the underdot in computer representation.
                        This question surfaced in a project done at UC Berkeley in conjunction with
                        the Berkeley Library, wherein the <title level=""j"">Indo-European Studies
                            Bulletin</title>, a publication affiliated with the UCLA Indo-European
                        Studies Program, was being put online, using XML, Unicode, and a TEI-Lite
                        DTD. The underdot appeared in a Sabellian inscription. Since our project
                        intended to test out the use of Unicode, we reviewed the options available
                        in Unicode and employed the combining underdot (U+0323) after the character.
                        On the surface level, this reflected the character represented in the
                        Sabellian article. However, the combining underdot raised a potential
                        problem: by interrupting the plain text string with the diacritic, searching
                        for the entire word could be impeded, unless the underdot was taken into
                        account when searching. More importantly, should the underdot actually be
                        encoded as a separate character? Is it on the same level as an “a acute”,
                        for example, where the diacritic is an essential part of the character? Or
                        should markup be used, such as denoting the sign with a &lt;damage&gt;
                        and/or &lt;unclear&gt; tag? Markup then could be visually rendered according
                        to one’s own convention or taste.</p>
                    <p>Since Unicode support is only just now becoming more prevalent in new
                        software and hardware, most computer projects have adopted ASCII
                        representations of the underdot and other epigraphic and papyrological
                        symbols. For Greek, the Beta Code of the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae has been
                        widely adopted by projects (such as Perseus). Eventually, a changeover to
                        Unicode will occur, and the need to decide how to handle it is becoming more
                        pressing: should one use a character encoding or markup?</p>
                    <p>The underdot is but one member of a long list of epigraphic and papyrological
                        symbols used in transcription and transliteration. An agreement amongst
                        scholars ought to be made if there is to be consistency in handling these
                        symbols within the same discipline and across disciplines, since similar
                        problems are faced in other fields. Currently, Unicode proposals on
                        cuneiform, Coptic, and Iranian await to see how the problem is resolved in
                        the Greek and Latin sphere, since it will influence their projects. Or are
                        the variations between fields (and lack of communication so great) that a
                        discipline-specific approach will prevail?</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Issues</head>
                    <p>A number of important issues arise when reviewing the problem more deeply:<list>
                            <item>--While the underdot is frequently used to indicate damage or
                                uncertainty, it is not necessarily consistently used with this broad
                                definition, even in ancient Greek materials. In a standard book used
                                for Greek dialects, Carl Darling Buck’s <title level=""m"">The Greek
                                    Dialects</title> (Chicago and London, 1955), he states: “The
                                occasional use of a dot under a letter indicates that it is
                                mutilated. But this is commonly disregarded if the proper reading is
                                reasonably certain” (p. 184). In Mycenaean materials (Emmett
                                Bennett, Jr., and Jean-Pierre Olivier, <title level=""m"">The Pylos
                                    Tablets Transcribed, Part I: Texts and Notes</title>, Rome,
                                1973), however, an underdot under a digit can indicate that there is
                                a question whether the number is in the text at all, a problem
                                regarding the identity of the number, or it may merely indicate that
                                the number is almost illegible” (p. 10). Indeed, if fine
                                granularity of a text is intended, “damage” and
                                “uncertainty” can and probably should be separated as two
                                distinct elements, and this is so done in a new proposal,
                                “Epidoc”, being worked by at the University of North Carolina by
                                Tom Elliott, Hugh Cayless, and Helen Hawkins (<ptr
                                    target=""http://asgle.classics.unc.edu/review/epidoc.htm""/>, <ptr
                                    target=""http://asgle.classics.unc.edu/review/epidoc.pdf""
                                />).</item>
                            <item>--In some languages, an underdot has a specific phonetic meaning.
                                In Sanskrit, it is used for a retroflex s. The phonetic sense
                                specific to the underdot is at variance with the unclear sign
                                meaning. Potential confusion with the phonetic sign is possible in
                                searching.</item>
                            <item>--One potential problem of character-encoding with Unicode is an
                                apparent ambiguity of certain signs for the naive user. A scholar
                                looking for a combining underdot when skimming through the Unicode
                                Standard (or scrolling down the choices under MS Office 2000’s
                                Arial Unicode MS font) may choose, quite incorrectly, U+093C, the
                                Devanagari sign nukta, which has very specific use. This error would
                                cause problems for searching and rendering.</item>
                            <item>--A number of characters for damaged signs are proposed in a
                                Unicode proposal for Egyptian hieroglyphs. While such signs would
                                appear with the hieroglyphic characters and not in a Roman-type
                                transliteration/transcription scheme, it significantly offers a
                                character-encoded model for conveying a damaged sign, and not one
                                based on markup. Could this option peacefully co-exist with a
                                markup-only approach used in other projects and is this
                                advisable?</item>
                            <item>--Unicode will allow using the ancient scripts more fully, since
                                the character encoding standard should allow for easier writing,
                                rendering, and printing of the original scripts, beyond what printed
                                publications have been able to offer in the past. (However, this is
                                only possible with necessary Unicode-enabled operating system,
                                software, and font support for the characters are present.) Hence, a
                                fuller representation of a text with the ancient scripts could be
                                added between the layers of photo/drawing and Romanized
                                transliteration/transcription. Instead of using an underdot to
                                indicate a faint letter, for example, markup could be used with the
                                original script (as well as the transliterated/transcribed version)
                                to make the sign (or letter) appear fainter or in a slightly
                                different color.</item>
                            <item>--A consistent markup scheme could be used with a style sheet to
                                render the faint/damaged letter in a variety of ways, as suggested
                                above, offering wide extensibility. If a text is intended for
                                beginners, the markup indicating the traces of letters or erasures
                                could be disregarded. If Hittite scholars regularly used a special
                                symbol for a mutilated sign, for example, this could also be
                                accommodated by changes to the style sheet.</item>
                            <item>--Since new Unicode character encoding proposals can take from two
                                to five years from the first proposal until approval into ISO 10646,
                                markup offers a much quicker solution. A “best practices” guide
                                to markup, similar to the Epidoc proposal, would be needed.</item>
                        </list>
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>A Possible Solution?</head>
                    <p>Markup seems to present the best option, for it allows flexibility and
                        provides a speedier means to put epigraphic/papyrological text information
                        on the Web. Also, the use of the underdot reflects information regarding
                        damage/uncertainty/etc. of a character, and hence is probably best not
                        encoded as a separate character. However, if markup is to be advocated as
                        the best approach here, can user-friendly software be created in the
                        foreseeable future for typing and rendering of such markup schemes? This
                        poster is intended to encourage further open discussion on the “underdot
                        quandary” and its ramifications, and to seek input from others,
                        particularly those with projects on ancient texts or whose expertise is on
                        markup and relevant technology.</p>
                </div>
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                <author>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Cokie</forename>
                        <surname>Anderson</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Oklahoma State University Library Digitization
                                Center</name>
                            <email>cokie@okstate.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Julia</forename>
                        <surname>Crawford</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Oklahoma State University Library Digitization
                                Center</name>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>New York University</name>
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                <pubPlace>New York, NY</pubPlace>
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                <p>When the OSU Library began its digitization program, the first work chosen for
                    digitization was <title level=""m"">Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties</title>, a
                    multi-volume collection of all U.S. laws and treaties dealing with Native
                    American tribes edited by Charles Kappler and published by the US GPO in 1913. A
                    key reason for choosing this item, in addition to high demand for it and its
                    limited availability, was its unique appearance and features. Mr. Kappler, in
                    addition to collecting all the laws treaties, added marginalia which is of great
                    assistance to researchers. The marginalia is not editorial comment, but selected
                    keywords indicating the subject matter of the passage and citations to related
                    legal materials. A researcher can scan the marginalia to find the portion of the
                    treaty or statute that deals with the subject in which he or she is interested
                    or to get a quick overview of all matters covered in that particular treaty or
                    law. A chief objective of the initial phase of the project was to preserve the
                    appearance of this feature in the web version. In 1996, when this project began,
                    web technology was fairly new and its possibilities were not yet fully
                    appreciated. The project team was focused on preserving the appearance of the
                    document, i.e., the marginalia literally in the margin next to the text. Grant
                    funding was obtained for this purpose. Much time and effort was expended to
                    acieve this goal, but nothing worked satisfactorily. The use of frames was
                    considered, but was ruled out because of their limited browser compatibility at
                    the time, and the hurdles they posed for the disabled user. In the end, it was
                    decided to place all margin notes at the beginning of the document with links to
                    the relevant passage so they could serve their original purpose as an overview
                    and browsing tool for the researcher. To preserve for the user the unique look
                    of the original , links to JPEG images of the book pages are provided at the top
                    of each treaty. In the second phase of the project, the site architecture was
                    redesigned to provide access to the text and page images from a variety of
                    points. The margin notes are again presented at the beginning of each document,
                    but this time in a table format that not only provides the text of the
                    marginalia but also indicates the section of the statute to which the marginalia
                    occurs. This gives the researcher a better sense of context for the notes. The
                    text hyperlinks to the exact place in the main document where the marginalia
                    appears in the book. JPEG images of the book pages may be accessed from a
                    referral link at the top of each document, and from links at each page break
                    throughout the document. Both form and function are thus preserved.</p>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Alejandro</forename>
                        <surname>Bia</surname>
                        <affiliation>Miguel de Cervantes Digital Library, <name type=""org""
                                >University of Alicante</name>
                            <email>abia@dlsi.ua.es</email>
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                    </name>
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                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
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                    <p>We describe the digital-book production process followed at the Miguel de
                        Cervantes Digital Library, from book acquisition up to Internet publishing,
                        highlighting the main requirements and design considerations of the workflow
                        system.</p>
                    <p>Our library covers many different areas, from a ""library of voices"" up to
                        academic thesis and it includes all kinds of multimedia material: text,
                        images, audio and video. However, the vast majority of our resources are in
                        text format. These are our 4000 digital books, public domain Hispanic
                        classics, from the twelfth century up to these days, including narrative,
                        theater, poetry, history and other subjects. Many professionals and
                        technicians take part in the development of our digital books: librarians,
                        scanner operators, correctors, markup specialists and computer technicians.
                        The poster describes the production process of the digital books and allows
                        the discussion of markup issues concerning our approach using XML-TEI
                        encoding.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <head>Architecture of the digital-book production process</head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>The production process begins with a bibliographic search to find interesting
                        available books to digitize. After selecting new literary works to add to
                        the collection, the librarians elaborate the orders to be sent to various
                        sources (conventional libraries, bookstores, publishers, private collectors
                        in the case of rare books, etc.).</p>
                    <p>Bibliographic information associated to each book is stored into a catalogue
                        database This information is used for many purposes: it helps in the control
                        of both the production process and the publication process, it allows
                        catalogue searches, and is provided to the readers in the form of a digital
                        bibliographic card accessible through the Internet.</p>
                    <p>The source physical books and the produced digital books do not always relate
                        in a one-to-one basis. In some cases, a physical book will give birth to
                        many digital books as is the case of collections or ""complete works"" that
                        may be split into several digital books (In a DL there is no reason to group
                        different literary works as it is done on a printed book, since the criteria
                        used for traditional books do not apply to their digital siblings. However,
                        there are exceptions. Literary experts may decide to group poems from
                        different collections into a single digital book.). Titles may differ also
                        since some works are known by many titles according to different editions. </p>
                    <p>Upon reception, the books are cataloged. Information like subject, authors
                        and collaborators, universal decimal classification and search keys that
                        will simplify the location and retrieval of the books is stored in a
                        database. At this point, the production process begins. The librarians mark
                        the received source titles as available for processing and a unique code
                        that will identify the d-book permanently is assigned. This code is used
                        within the workflow system, and also in the names of all the files related
                        to the book (during production and also for publication purposes).</p>
                    <p>At every stage of the production process start and end date-time information
                        is recorded along with the operator identification for follow up and
                        production control purposes. At any time, the librarians can access the
                        records of the d-books under development to modify bibliographic-catalogue
                        information.</p>
                    <p>The resulting output of the scanning process is a set of files of two
                        classes: first, scanned images, and then optical character recognition
                        (OCR), text documents. The former are stored in backup media for future
                        projects. The latter, after an automatic error recovery process, are passed
                        to the correction stage.</p>
                    <p>At quality control, if too many errors are detected, measures are taken to
                        adjust the scanning-OCR process to improve the resulting output, since a
                        high rate of mistakes rise the time-cost of the rest of the process.</p>
                    <p>As our library handles books of many centuries of Hispanic literature
                        (including Spanish, Catalan and Galician languages), peculiar problems arise
                        which are not trivial, like the spell-checking of ancient writings. Projects
                        to tackle this time-dynamics of language are being carried out by our
                        research team.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Correction</head>
                    <p>The next stage is correction, where specialists in literature, history and
                        linguistics use a text editor to correct not only OCR errors but also
                        mistakes in the original publication, sometimes making side-by-side
                        comparisons among different editions.</p>
                    <p>Although some works of long extension, may be fragmented to facilitate the
                        correction task, it is desirable that a single person corrects each book, to
                        take advantage of the specialized knowledge she/he acquires during the
                        correction process of its contents and its peculiarities.</p>
                    <p>If the work was fragmented for correction, the markup operator joins the
                        fragments. It is also advisable that the markup be accomplished by the same
                        person that performed the correction, due to her/his familiarity with the
                        contents, but sometimes a different highly skilled markup specialist may be
                        preferred. So the system was designed to allow flexibility of task
                        assignment.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Markup</head>
                    <p>Markup, consists of applying marks that describe the structure of the
                        documents, and also marks that indicate how the digital book should be built
                        later. These marks are concerned with index inclusion, chapter
                        fragmentation, hypertext linking and graphics insertion, among others.</p>
                    <p>One of our goals is to automate the markup process as much as possible. In
                        this sense, we have built parsing programs to convert documents from the two
                        major commercial text editors to TEI-XML, making use of the style
                        information to locate headings, deduct division borders, add TEI paragraph
                        marks, as well as &lt;text&gt;, &lt;front&gt; and &lt;body&gt; marks. The
                        result is an almost valid XML document, whose markup must be corrected and
                        completed. The markup effort is reduced substantially in this way, since the
                        most common tags like &lt;p&gt; are automatically added. Partial markup
                        processes like these save time, since they add the most common markers, and
                        generate almost-always valid (or valid with a few corrections) XML documents
                        to start with.</p>
                    <p>After markup, documents undergo a final revision before being passed to the
                        following stages. Documents that pass this check are considered final
                        products, and are preserved and backed-up accordingly.</p>
                    <p>From this point on, processing is automatic, and although we now generate a
                        few publishing formats, we expect to generate many more based on these
                        revised corrected marked-up files.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <head>Generation of different file formats from XML-TEI</head>
                    </figure>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Generation and publishing</head>
                    <p>Finally, the digital book generation stage is a fully automated process where
                        marked-up XML-TEI files are processed by a parsing program that produces
                        HTML digital book files ready for immediate Internet publishing.</p>
                    <p>The use of templates allows us to generate different sets of books with the
                        same look and functionality within a given set, and a different look and
                        functionality for other sets. We use this approach to maintain several
                        different portals of the same digital library: the original one, Miguel de
                        Cervantes with books in Spanish language, the Joan Lluis Vives with books in
                        Catalan language, and many others.</p>
                </div>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>References</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">C.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">M.</forename>
                                    <surname>Sperberg-McQueen</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Lou</forename>
                                    <surname>Burnard</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange
                                (Text Encoding Initiative P3)</title>
                            <edition>Revised Reprint, Oxford, May 1999</edition>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Chicago - Oxford</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Text Encoding Initiative</publisher>
                                <date when=""1994"">May 1994</date>
                                <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">Alejandro</forename>
                                    <surname>Bia</surname></name></author>
                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">Andrés</forename>
                                    <surname>Pedreño</surname></name></author>
                            <title level=""a"">The Miguel de Cervantes Digital Library: The Hispanic
                                Voice on the WEB</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">Literary &amp; Linguistic Computing</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol""/>
                                <biblScope type=""issue""/>
                                <biblScope type=""pp""/>
                                <date when=""2000"">(to be published soon)</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>Presented at ALLC/ACH 2000, The Joint International Conference of the
                            Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing and the Association
                            for Computers and the humanities, 21/25 July 2000, University of
                            Glasgow.</note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">M.</forename>
                                    <surname>Lousa</surname></name></author>
                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">A.</forename>
                                    <surname>Sarmento</surname></name></author>
                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">A.</forename>
                                    <surname>Machado</surname></name></author>
                            <title level=""a"">Expectations towards the adoption of workflow systems:
                                the results of a case study </title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">Proceedings of the Sixth International Workshop on
                                Groupware: CRIWG 2000</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"166","2","PhiloNet: creating semantic concordances for the analysis of         philosophical texts","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">PhiloNet: creating semantic concordances for the
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                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Luisa</forename>
                        <surname>Bentivogli</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">ITC-irst</name>, Trento
                                <email>bentivo@irst.itc.it</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Fabio</forename>
                        <surname>Pianesi</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">ITC-irst</name>, Trento
                                <email>pianesi@irst.itc.it</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Emanuele</forename>
                        <surname>Pianta</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">ITC-irst</name>, Trento
                                <email>pianta@irst.itc.it</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>New York University</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>New York, NY</pubPlace>
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                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                    <head>1. Introduction</head>
                    <p>The PhiloNet project is a joint effort between ITC-irst and the Department of
                        Philosophy of the University of Bologna that aims at providing students and
                        scholars of philosophy with new computing tools. In particular, we are
                        developing tools for computer-aided analysis of digitized (philosophical)
                        texts capable of overcoming the limits of traditional methods, by offering
                        greater flexibility, analytical power, and adaptation to the goals of
                        different users.</p>
                    <p>In the field of text analysis a number of already available software tools
                        can produce very accurate lists of words, word concordances, word
                        frequencies, collocations and so on (Biber et al., 1998). These
                        computational techniques are all word-based, and they hardly provide support
                        for more sophisticated analyses, like the targeting of concepts. It is
                        conceivable, however, that exactly the latter kind of analytical tools are
                        more suitable for a domain, such as philosophy, where the need for
                        accessing, elucidating, comparing, etc. concepts across and within texts is
                        an important part of the work of scholars. Thus, new computational
                        concept-oriented resources are needed. More precisely, resources must be
                        available that list concepts, enumerate their mutual relationships, and
                        point at their realization at the word level.</p>
                    <p>In this work we report on preliminary results obtained by developing
                        techniques to create concept-based concordances rather than word-based ones,
                        by using generic and domain-specific (philosophical) wordnets as tools.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>2. Semantic concordances for text-analysis</head>
                    <p>We use the term ""semantic concordance"" to refer to the set of text passages
                        in which a concept occurs. Concepts are expressed in texts through words and
                        therefore, to build semantic concordances, two lexical semantic issues must
                        be dealt with: polysemy (when a given word expresses different concepts) and
                        synonymy (when different words express the same concept). If one searches
                        for a concept on the base of a word ""w"" expressing that concept, polysemy
                        affects precision (the proportion of retrieved words that are actually
                        correct) because along with occurrences of ""w"" expressing the desired
                        concept, those expressing the other concepts conveyed by ""w"" will also be
                        retrieved. On the other hand, synonymy affects recall (the proportion of
                        correct words actually retrieved in answer to a search request) because all
                        the synonyms of ""w"", hence other possible occurrences of the target concept,
                        are missed. Thus, to move from a word-based to a concept-based text-analysis
                        it is necessary to disambiguate each occurrence of a word in a text, and to
                        have a list of the words that can express the same concept.</p>
                    <p>To this purpose, WordNet (Miller,1990) turns out to be a very useful tool.
                        WordNet is a lexical database, created at Princeton University, in which
                        nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are organized into sets of synonyms
                        (synsets), representing lexical concepts. Synsets are linked by means of
                        various relations, including hypo/hypernymy, meronymy, and antonymy. As far
                        as semantic concordances are concerned, WordNet synsets can be used to
                        extend the search for a word to all its synonyms. Moreover, the relations
                        between synsets can be exploited to search related concepts, something which
                        is absolutely not available with normal word-based techniques. For instance,
                        we can search for a concept and its hyponyms or hypernyms. WordNet can also
                        be useful for addressing the polysemy problem, as it is currently used as a
                        tool for word sense disambiguation (WSD), both automatic and manual. In
                        manual WSD, WordNet plays the role of extensive sense inventory; a
                        well-known effort of this kind is the SemCor project (Miller,1993) in which
                        a subset of the Brown Corpus was tagged with WordNet senses for educational
                        use.</p>
                    <p>Our proposal consists in manually annotating philosophical texts with synsets
                        selected from an extension of the generic WordNet called PhiloNet (which is
                        specialized for the philosophical domain, see below), and having a user
                        interface that given a synset/concept permits the accessing of all the
                        passages in which the concept is used.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>3. An example of semantic concordances for philosophical texts</head>
                    <p>In order to experiment with WordNet as a tool for creating semantic
                        concordances, we analyzed the different philosophical concepts expressed by
                        the word ""reason"" in Pearson's work ""The Grammar of Science"". The text was
                        digitized by the University of Bologna following the TEI guidelines and
                        using XML-based encoding schemes. The passages of the text relevant for our
                        example were then manually semantically tagged by using the synsets of the
                        specialized philosophical wordnet called PhiloNet.</p>
                    <p>Three different types of concordances have been tested on Pearson's work:
                        traditional word-based concordances, semantic concordances based on the
                        generic Princeton WordNet, and semantic concordances based on the
                        specialized PhiloNet.</p>
                    <p>A simple word-based concordance produces 125 occurrences of the word
                        ""reason(s)"", including verbs and nouns relating to different senses such as:<lb/>
                        <eg>about these conceptions we reason, endeavouring to ascertain their</eg><lb/>
                        <eg>ask whether we have any reason for conceiving atoms as</eg><lb/>
                        <eg>human powers of perception and reason, lies the mystery and the</eg><lb/>
                        <eg>universe to be guided by reason. But reason, because it is a directive
                            power</eg><lb/> ...... </p>
                    <p>As can be seen, with a word-based concordance it is the scholar interested in
                        the study of the philosophical concepts of ""reason"" who has to single out,
                        among the 125 occurrences found, the ones that are relevant to her purpose. </p>
                    <p>We expect semantic concordances based on WordNet to deliver more focused
                        information. In WordNet, the word ""reason"" occurs in six synsets, but only
                        the one reproduced here is relevant for our philosophical purposes: <lb/>
                        <eg>Sense 3 reason, understanding, intellect -- (the capacity for rational
                            thought or inference or discrimination)</eg><lb/>
                        <eg>hypernym => faculty, mental faculty, module</eg></p>
                    <p>This synset can be considered a philosophical concept, as it refers to the
                        British empiricist tradition starting with Locke, in which reason is broadly
                        viewed as the generic power or faculty of knowing.</p>
                    <p>Having Pearson's text tagged with WordNet synsets and by using the
                        philosophical synset above as a search key to find occurrences of the
                        relevant philosophical concept of reason, we obtain more focused results
                        compared to the ones obtained with the word-based concordance. In fact, 8
                        occurrences of the verb ""to reason"" and 40 occurrences of the noun ""reason"",
                        which were retrieved in the word-based concordance seen above, are now
                        dropped because expressing non-philosophical senses. The synset-based search
                        produces 22 occurrences of the philosophical concept as delivered by the
                        word ""reason"", along with previously undetected occurrences due to synonyms
                        of ""reason"": 2 occurrences due to the word ""understanding"", and 4 due to
                        ""intellect"", as for instance in:<lb/>
                        <eg>the only proof that our intellect has been keen enough to</eg><lb/>
                        <eg>in his Essay concerning Human Understanding, where he writes</eg></p>
                    <p> Furthermore, we can exploit the relations between synsets available from
                        WordNet to obtain information about concepts semantically related to the one
                        we are interested in. In our example we find 27 occurrences of the hypernym
                        of ""reason, understanding, intellect"", that is ""faculty, mental faculty, module"":<lb/>
                        <eg>the power of the reasoning faculty possesses of resuming</eg><lb/>
                        <eg>product of the reflective faculty, analyzing the process of
                            perception,</eg><lb/> ....... </p>
                    <p>It seems to us that even this simple experiment demonstrates the advantages
                        and power of the semantic concordance methodology based on the current,
                        generic WordNet. However Princeton WordNet, aiming at capturing common
                        linguistic knowledge, contains only one philosophically relevant concept for
                        ""reason"". Therefore, in a WordNet-based concordance, the other occurrences
                        of the word ""reason"" in different though philosophically relevant senses are
                        missed.</p>
                    <p>The results of the concept-based concordance of ""reason"" can be further
                        refined by having access to a specialized philosophical wordnet. To this
                        purpose we used PhiloNet, a wordnet specialized in the philosophical domain,
                        currently under development in conjunction with the University of Bologna.
                        PhiloNet is a component of MultiWordNet (Bentivogli et al., 2000), an
                        aligned multilingual lexical database built at ITC-irst on the basis of
                        Princeton WordNet. PhiloNet is developed in two stages. At the first stage,
                        philosophical synsets already existing in WordNet are identified, labeled as
                        philosophical, and imported into PhiloNet. At the second stage, new
                        philosophical synsets are added to PhiloNet and linked to the generic
                        WordNet. The criterion followed for the identification and for the creation
                        of philosophical synsets is to represent only current philosophical concepts
                        as found in philosophical handbooks. Moreover, PhiloNet allows context
                        labels to be attached to synsets, words, or relations to represent special
                        pieces of information that would be hardly captured by means of the usual
                        lexical and semantic relationships. For instance, if a philosopher or
                        philosophical school uses a idiosyncratic term to refer to a concept that
                        corresponds to a common philosophical concept, a context label can be added
                        to that word in the synset specifying the philosopher/s for which the
                        synonymy holds.</p>
                    <p>Coming back to our example, PhiloNet contains the synset ""reason,
                        understanding, intellect"" which has been imported from the generic WordNet
                        and other seven philosophical synsets:<list>
                            <item>(1) ""reason"", a generic synset in which the concept of reason is
                                broadly represented as the most distinctive characteristic of human
                                beings guiding them.</item>
                            <item>(2) ""reason, dianoia""</item>
                            <item>(3) ""reason, evidence, good sense""</item>
                            <item>(4) ""reason, self-consciousness""</item>
                            <item>(5) ""reason, calculus, computation""</item>
                            <item>(6) ""reason, foundation, essence""</item>
                            <item>(7) ""reason, law, natural law, law of nature"".</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>We can now perform more sophisticated analyses with respect to those possible
                        on the basis of the generic WordNet. As a result, we can see that in
                        Pearson's work synset (1) occurs 18 times, (6) occurs 28 times, (7) occurs
                        51 times (8 through the word ""reason"", 14 through ""law"", 22 through ""natural
                        law"", 7 through ""law of nature"") while the other concepts yield no
                        occurrences.</p>
                    <p>Summing up the results of our experiments with the concept of ""reason"" in
                        Pearson's work ""The Grammar of Science"", we can see that the three types of
                        concordance provide different levels of precision and recall of the
                        information retrieved:<list>
                            <item>-Word concordance: 125 lines all due to the word ""reason"" and not
                                distinguishing between relevant (77) and non relevant (48)
                                occurrences. Precision is 61.6% and recall is 61.1%.</item>
                            <item>-WordNet-based semantic concordance: 28 lines all relevant and
                                referring to one philosophical concept (22 due to ""reason"", 2 to
                                ""understand"", and 4 to ""intellect""). Precision is 100% and recall is
                                22.2%.</item>
                            <item>-PhiloNet-based semantic concordance: 126 lines all relevant and
                                distinguishing four different philosophical concepts. In these 126
                                lines, 77 are due to the word ""reason"", 2 to ""understanding"", 4 to
                                ""intellect"", 14 to ""law"", 22 to ""natural law"", and 7 to ""law of
                                nature"". Both precision and recall amount to 100%.</item>
                        </list></p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>4. Conclusion and prospects</head>
                    <p> In this paper we have introduced and discussed two levels of concept-based
                        textual analysis: a ""linguistic level"", relying on a generic WordNet, and a
                        ""domain level"", requiring a philosophical WordNet.</p>
                    <p>These two levels should be carefully identified and delimited. In particular,
                        it is important that the domain-based wordnet contains only concepts that
                        are widely accepted in the field. Respecting these guidelines will guarantee
                        that the tagging performed on a philosophical text can be used by students
                        and scholars of different theoretical background.</p>
                    <p>At still another level, very specialized wordnets relative to single books
                        make sense, and can be used in the proposed methodology. However, in this
                        case the theoretical background and aims of the scholar building the wordnet
                        and tagging the text become crucial. In a way, the resulting tagged text
                        should be seen more akin to an essay than to a reference work. On the other
                        hand, pushing the metaphor a little further, linguistic and domain-based
                        text analysis can be compared with general dictionaries and philosophy
                        handbooks, respectively.</p>
                    <p> In conclusion, the preliminary results of our research support the
                        feasibility and importance of a concept-based text analysis.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>References</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">L.</forename>
                                    <surname>Bentivogli</surname></name></author>
                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">E.</forename>
                                    <surname>Pianta</surname></name></author>
                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">F.</forename>
                                    <surname>Pianesi</surname></name></author>
                            <title level=""a"">Coping with lexical gaps when building aligned
                                multilingual wordnets</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">Proceedings of the Second International Conference on
                                Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2000), Athens,
                                Greece</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">D.</forename>
                                    <surname>Biber</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">S.</forename>
                                    <surname>Conrad</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">R.</forename>
                                    <surname>Reppen</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Corpus Linguistics: Investigating Language Structure
                                and Use</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Cambridge</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Cambridge University Press</publisher>
                                <date when=""1998"">1998</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <monogr>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">C.</forename>
                                    <surname>Fellbaum</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""u""> WordNet: an electronic lexical database</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""1998"">1998</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">G.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle""
                                    >A.</forename><surname>Miller</surname></name></author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">R.</forename>
                                    <surname>Tengi</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">R.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">T.</forename>
                                    <surname>Bunker</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">A Semantic Concordance</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">Proceedings of the ARPA Human Language Technology
                                Workshop, San Francisco</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""1993"">1993</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">K.</forename>
                                    <surname>Pearson</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">The Grammar of Science</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher>Thoemmes Antiquarian Books</publisher>
                                <date when=""1991"">1991</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                        <surname>Biber</surname>
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                            <email>hanno.biber@oeaw.ac.at</email>
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                    <p>The Austrian Academy Corpus (AAC) is a newly founded institution based at the
                        Austrian Academy of Sciences in Vienna. It was designed to set up a text
                        corpus and to conduct research in the field of electronic text corpora. The
                        AAC working group has had expertise in digital text studies and in
                        lexicography for more than ten years. For a long time electronic text
                        collections were primarily focused on linguistic studies and on
                        lexicography. Only recently has the perspective changed towards providing
                        material for scholars interested in texts from various fields of the
                        humanities. The AAC has been trying to find solutions that meet the needs of
                        textual studies and convey essential information about language and history.
                        The aim of the proposed poster is to investigate the potential of digital
                        resources for textual studies in various fields of the humanities. The
                        electronic text collections established at the AAC so far and its future
                        projects will mainly focus on electronic representations not only of
                        literary texts, literary magazines, journals and newspapers but also on a
                        carefully considered selection of texts from many cultural and social
                        domains.</p>
                    <p>The poster will consider the advance of new systems of digital representation
                        and its implications for the study of language, literature and cultural
                        history. Digital resources in the form of electronic text corpora should be
                        regarded as structures for representing complex information. Journals and
                        newspapers pose an especially difficult task when it comes to representation
                        in digital form. An equally difficult task is the analysis and description
                        of the mediaís decisive historical influences and contexts. The poster,
                        which will be a digital projection, will comprise three parts that will show
                        the range of interests pursued in the AAC research group. The first part
                        will deal with the general organisational structures of the AAC. The second
                        part will be concerned with the specific selection criteria for the great
                        variety of texts which will form the AAC. Finally, the third part will
                        examine practical issues in digitising the magazine ìDie Weltb¸hneî, giving
                        special attention to the applicability of XML Schemas in literary
                        computing.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>1) AAC Structures</head>
                    <p>Research projects in the field of humanities computing rely heavily on
                        cooperation, collaboration and the constant exchange of knowledge and
                        expertise. The AAC will eventually be accessible on the internet, where
                        innovative and collaborative presentation techniques and current graphic
                        design developments will be utilised. However, being a research unit within
                        the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the AAC is also set within the wider
                        framework of a trilateral research scheme organized and planned at the
                        Austrian Academy of Science in Vienna, the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of
                        Sciences and Humanities in Berlin and the Swiss Academy of Humanities and
                        Social Sciences in Berne. In such a wider perspective, the common and
                        individual settings and conditions of the German language will have to be
                        taken into consideration, as will their historical and contemporary
                        literatures of various kinds. The constant cultural exchange between the
                        three countries opens particular research areas and fields of study for the
                        linguists and scholars engaged in the establishment of digital resources and
                        in computing activities in the humanities in the three countries. Whereas
                        the efforts undertaken in Berlin and Berne are predominantly concerned with
                        providing selected data and texts of the 20th century mainly for
                        lexicographic purposes, the Austrian Academy of Sciences intends to tackle
                        the problem of digital representation of scholarly, journalistic and
                        political texts which were of considerable influence between 1848 and 1989.
                        The Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities has started its
                        project of a Digital Dictionary of the 20th Century German Language, the
                        main task being to develop a dictionary system and a prime source for
                        linguistic and lexicographic information. The Swiss Academy of Humanities
                        and Social Sciences in Berne has recently joined the efforts of this
                        trilateral cooperation.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>2) AAC Selection</head>
                    <p> To set up a text corpus several conditions and considerations are required.
                        In the past twenty years, electronic text corpora have been built up in
                        academic institutions of many European countries, such as France, Norway,
                        Sweden, Slovenia, Spain, the Czech Republic, and the UK. The setting up of
                        these corpora is motivated by the stateís will to document the national
                        language in a comprehensive manner and to make the corpora available for
                        scientific, especially linguistic, application. The AAC has a different
                        starting point. For the construction of an Austrian corpus one must consider
                        complicated issues relating to the history of the past two hundred years on
                        the one hand and to our own specific interests on the other. The text
                        selection for the AAC, which will take place at the same time as the corpus
                        work, will be guided by thematic and empirical criteria, as well as factors
                        specifically related to the type of text. The specificity of text type is
                        therefore a factor for the choice of texts, but also for their
                        categorisation in a corpus: letters by Oskar Kokoschka, anecdotes by Max
                        Liebermann, writings of Adolf Loos, narrations by Adalbert Stifter, feature
                        articles by Daniel Spitzer, funeral sermons and electoral speeches,
                        propaganda slogans and advertising slogans, pop song lyrics and political
                        speeches, comic books, instructions, travel guides, TV programmes, mailing
                        cataloguesthese and other text types as well as the various kinds of text
                        ëcarrierí are important for the choice of text.</p>
                    <p> In recent years, the establishment of large German language corpora has been
                        restricted to the field of linguistic and lexicographic studies. So far,
                        there have not been any large-scale endeavours in the area of text-centred
                        studies. Although more and more literary texts are becoming available, many
                        of these came into existence as by-products of efforts to amass data for
                        lexicographic research. Generally speaking, the historical period on which
                        the AAC is working is poorly documented in terms of digital literary texts.
                        This applies even more when it comes to collective text ëcarriersí such as
                        magazines, papers, year-books, commemorative volumes and similar materials.
                        To our knowledge there do not exist any large amounts of digitised
                        historical magazines or papers in the German language. The sources being
                        digitised for the AAC at the moment are historical literary magazines of
                        major importance. In the first instance there is ìDer Brennerî, which was
                        published by Ludwig Ficker in Innsbruck from 1910 until 1934. Among the
                        contributors to the ìBrennerî are figures as renowned as Carl Dallago,
                        Theodor Haecker, Else Lasker-Sch¸ler, Adolf Loos and Georg Trakl. The other
                        two magazines on which the AAC is working were both published in Berlin. The
                        journal ìDie Aktionî (1911 -1932) was edited by Franz Pfemfert. Among its
                        contributors were Peter Altenberg, Hermann Bahr, Walter Benjamin, Max Brod,
                        Richard Dehmel, Salomo Friedlaender, Georg Heym, Kurt Hiller, Max
                        Oppenheimer, Egon Schiele and August Strindberg. The last journal to be
                        mentioned here and perhaps the most important one of those being worked on
                        at the moment is the weekly Berlin journal ëDie Schaub¸hneí (1905 - 1918),
                        later renamed ëDie Weltb¸hneí (1918 - 1933,) which was edited by Siegfried
                        Jacobson, Kurt Tucholsky and Carl von Ossietzky. Among the writers who
                        contributed to the ëWeltb¸hneí were Henry Barbusse, Bertolt Brecht, Alfred
                        D–blin, Lion Feuchtwanger, Arthur Koestler, Heinrich Mann, Alfred Polgar,
                        Romain Rolland and Leon Trotsky.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>3) AAC XML-Schemas</head>
                    <p>To produce a digital version of the magazine ìDie Weltb¸hneî, the original
                        text has to undergo the usual stages of electronic processing: After being
                        scanned, the text is made readable by means of up-to-date OCR. Then pages,
                        paragraphs and lines are identified by automatic routines. The application
                        of markup is the last step in this process. Tags describing contents are
                        carefully inserted by literary scholars especially trained for this job.
                        This process, which takes several runs, is accompanied by proofreading
                        against the original and constant checking and validating of the achieved
                        results. Literary projects in the past used to employ SGML, very often in
                        connection with the TEI guidelines. The AAC also makes extensive use of
                        XMLís modular system of specifications. Aside from the basic XML
                        specification, several other specifications exist, all of them having their
                        more or less well-defined place within the overall framework. The exact
                        nature of some of these sub-specifications is not yet clear (XLink, XML
                        Query), as everything is very much in a state of flux at the moment. Those
                        that are classified as recommendations are XSLT (Extensible Stylesheet
                        Transformations) and XPath (a language for addressing parts of an XML
                        document). The implications of others such as XLink (Extensible Linking
                        Language), XPointer (an abstract language that specifies locations), and XQL
                        (Extensible Query Language) for literary computing will have to be
                        considered in due course. As XML comes of age, the issue of a standard way
                        of defining the structure of documents becomes more and more important. Both
                        traditional DTDs (document type definitions) and XML Schemas are
                        technologies that provide such descriptions of document structures. Whereas
                        DTDs in the traditional sense have been around for some time and are widely
                        accepted in the field of SGML-based text-encoding, XML Schemas must be
                        regarded as a fledgling technology that still has to win its spurs.</p>
                    <p>XML Schemas are commonly regarded as an attempt at an XML answer to the
                        problem of defining the structure, content and semantics of documents. There
                        are several arguments in favour of XML Schemas, among which are XML syntax,
                        object orientation, inheritance, polymorphism and datatyping. Firstly, XML
                        Schemas follow XML syntax rules, which makes it possible to parse them with
                        XML tools. Nowadays, authors of XML documents often regard traditional DTDs
                        as unwieldy and inconsistent with the structure of the overall XML system.
                        With XML Schemas, validating parsers can be built on the basis of XML
                        syntax. Secondly, XML Schemas may include explicit restrictions on the data
                        types an element may hold. They let the text programmer attribute data types
                        such as strings, numbers (integer, floating point), date and time formats,
                        boolean and others to elements constituting an XML document. In addition,
                        XML Schemas are also supposed to allow the text worker to define new data
                        types to refine the markup system being used. The AACís experiences in
                        applying this new technology, focusing on the issue of DTDs and XML Schemas
                        in processing text corpora will be described and some details will be given
                        of the pilot phase of the AACís project of establishing a corpus.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>Selected references</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Istvan</forename>
                                    <surname>Deak</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Weimar Germany's Left-Wing Intellectuals: A Political
                                History of the Weltbühne and its Circle</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Berkley and Los Angeles</pubPlace>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""1968"">1968</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Thomas</forename>
                                    <surname>Dietzel</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
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                            <title level=""m"">Deutsche literarische Zeitschriften, 1880-1945 : ein
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"168","2","Czech Approaching English : Verbal Forms With Personal Pronouns Across Styles in the Czech National Corpus","2","The poster concentrates on one feature of the contemporary colloquial Czech language: increasing frequency of the personal pronouns, esp. the pronouns „já“ (I) and „my“ (we).
In literary Czech, these pronouns are used esp. when it is necessary to emphasize the specific person, eg. „já, ne ty“ (me, not you). The grammatical forms of verbs are – in  the case of I and we - sufficient for determining of the corresponding person, e.g. in literary Czech „pracuji“ (I work), „pracujeme“ (we work), „pracoval jsem“ (I worked), „pracovali jsme“ (we worked)  while in colloquial Czech there is a strong tendency to use personal pronouns redundantly, e.g. in present tense  „já pracuju“ and in the past tense „já pracoval“ (with omitting of the form of the auxiliary verb „jsem“). The Czech grammars have not reflected this tendency in a more detailed description, yet.
These colloquial forms were studied on the basis of the representative text corpus of the contemporary written Czech language called SYN2000 (100 mil. word forms). The ratio of  the imaginative vs. informative texts in this corpus is 15% : 85%. The imaginative part is divided into several text types:
 
 
 
 

This percentage was compared to several collocation groups in the corpus SYN2000:
1.     já/my +  past participle, e.g. „já pracoval/my pracovali“ (I worked/we worked)
2.     já/my + word form + past participle, e. g. „já se ptal/my se ptali“ (I asked/we asked)
3.     já/my + 2 word forms + past participle, e. g. „já se ho ptal/my se ho ptali“ (I asked him/we asked him)
4.     já/my + 3 word forms + past participle, e. g. „já se ho minule ptal/my se ho minule ptali“ (I asked him last time/we asked him last time)
5.     regular literary form of the past tense with the auxiliary verb, e.g. „pracoval jsem/pracovali jsme“ (I worked/we worked)
In the groups 1-4 all the auxiliary verbs were omitted.
Results of the search in the corpus SYN2000:
 
 
I. Frequency
 
1st group:
pronoun „já“                                                  pronoun „my“           
imag. vs. inform.         66% : 34% = 2044 : 1017 occurences            47% : 53% = 216 : 240
within imaginative
NOV                           54% = 1122                                                   54% = 117
COL                           23% =  474                                                    14% =   30
FAC                           12% =  239                                                    16% =   34
VER                              4% =    71                                                    12% =   25
SON                             5% =  104                                                    3%  =     7
SCR                              2% =    34                                                    1% =      3
 
The graph compares the distribution of the forms like já pracoval in the outer circle and formas like my pracovali in the inner circle.
 
 
 
 

2nd group:
 
imag. vs. inform.         67% : 33% = 1654 : 780 occurences              42% : 58% = 121 : 166
within imaginative
NOV                           57%    = 944                                                  59% = 71
COL                           24%    = 397                                                  18% = 22
FAC                           10%    = 177                                                    9% = 11
VER                              4%    =   58                                                    8% =   9
SON                             3,5% =   51                                                    4% =   5
SCR                              2%    =   27                                                    2% =   3
 
 
The graph compares the distribution of the forms like já se ptal in the outer circle and formas like my se ptali in the inner circle.
 
 
 
 

                                                                       3rd group:
 
imag. vs. inform.         68% : 32% = 845 : 385 occurences                49% : 51% = 70 : 74
within imaginative
NOV                           58% = 487                                                     54% = 38
COL                           21% = 171                                                     16% = 11
FAC                           10% =  85                                                      17% = 12
VER                              4% =  37                                                      10% =  7
SON                             4% =  39                                                      3% =   2
SCR                              3% =  26                                                      0% =   0
 
The graph compares the distribution of the forms like já se ho ptal in the outer circle and formas like my se ho ptali in the inner circle.
 
                                  
 
 

4th group:
 
imag. vs. inform.         57% : 43% = 349 : 262 occurences                49% : 51% = 41 : 43
within imaginative
NOV                           64% = 226                                                     54% = 22
COL                           18% =   64                                                     12% =   5
FAC                           12% =   41                                                     12% =   5
VER                              3% =   12                                                     12% =   5
SON                             2% =   10                                                       8% =   3
SCR                              1% =     6                                                       2% =   1
 
The graph compares the distribution of the forms like já se ho minule ptal in the outer circle and formas like my se ho minule ptali in the inner circle.
 
 
 
 
 

The fifth group is very large as it is still the centre of the Czech grammar, i. e. past participle + auxiliary verb:    
singular           88 324 occurences, imag. vs. inform. 55 124 : 33 200, i. e. 62% : 38%
plural              38 429 occurences, imag. vs. inform. 11 647 : 26 782, i. e. 30% : 70%
 
It appears that the form „já + past participle“ is used – in comparison with the form „my + past participle“ much more freqently in storie while less frequently in poetry.           
 
The following two graphs show the distribution of the forms „pronoun já/my + past participle“ in each group
a)     in %
 
 
 

b)    in number of occurences
 
 
 
 

II. Lexical and semantic representation
 
Each group has its range of most frequent Czech verbs. Some of the verbs (translated into English) are common for more groups – „to be, to have, to want, to start, can, must“. Other verbs are given in the Table 1 (see Appendix):
 
 
                                                           III. Morphological representation
 
The groups 2-4 have also specific combinations of word forms (parts of speech) inserted between the personal pronoun and the past participle:
 
Table 2
 
 
JÁ
MY
2nd group
adverb
pronoun    
 
pronoun   
adverb
 
particle
particle
 
conjunction
conjunction
3rd group
pronoun-adverb
pronoun-adverb
 
adverb-adverb
preposition-pronoun
 
preposition-pronoun
adverb-adverb
4th group
preposition-pronoun-noun
pronoun-preposition-noun
 
pronoun-preposition-pronoun
pronoun-preposition-pronoun
 
pronoun-adverb-adverb
 
 
 
IV. Conclusion
 
The analytical verbal forms with pronouns are very close to those forms used in English, cf. Czech                   já         myslel             (instead of „myslel jsem“)
English            I          thought
Therefore a short investigation concerning the percentage of occurences from the literature translated from English was done: in the 3rd group it is 14% for the pronoun „já“ anad 9,5% for the pronoun „my“.
It is obvious that Czech and English become closer not only on the lexical but also on the grammatical level.
Literature:
F. Čermák: Czech National Corpus: A Case in Many Contexts, International
 Journal of Corpus Linguistics Vol. 2, 1997, 181-197
J. Kocek- M. Kopřivová – V. Schmiedtová, V.: The Czech National Corpus.
Proceedings of the 9th EURALEX International Congress, Heid U., Evert S.,
Lehmann E., Rohrer Ch. (eds.), Stuttgart 2000, 127 - 132
R. Blatná: The proliferation of the English -ing in the Czech Vocabulary.
In: Heid, U. - Evert, S. - Lehmann, E. - Rohrer, Ch., eds.:
Proceedings of the Ninth EURALEX International Congress, Volume II,
Universität Stuttgart 2000, 731-737
 
Appendix – Table 1
 
 
JÁ
MY
1st group
to know
to go
 
to think
to sit
 
to see
to stand
 
to go
to stay
 
to say
 
 
to stand
 
 
to feel
 
 
intellectual activity
body position and motion
2nd group
to know
to know
 
to see
to get
 
to consider
to wait
 
to say
to need
 
to try
to go
 
 
to think
 
intellectual activity
intellectual activity and obtaining sth
3rd group
to think
to say
 
to ask
to get
 
to get
to know
 
to know
to try
 
to say
to feel
 
to remember
to prepare
 
 
to answer
 
intellectual activity (getting information)
speech and preparation
4th group
to think
to get
 
to believe
to love
 
to say
to see
 
to try
 to hope
 
to attempt
 
 
to forget
 
 
to suspect
 
 
intellectual activity and feelings
esp.feelings
5th group
to say
to go
 
to see
to get
 
to know
to play
 
to go
to start
 
to ask
to know
 
to hear
 
 
to get
 
","txt","2","",""
"169","2","Phraseological Database Extended by Educational Material for Learning Scientific Style","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename type=""middle"">I.</forename>
                        <surname>Bolshakova</surname>
                        <affiliation>Center of Computer Investigations (CIC), <name type=""org""
                                >National Polytechnic Institute (IPN)</name>, Mexico City, Mexico
                                <email>elena@pollux.cic.ipn.mx</email>
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                    <p>Literary styles, as well as specialized sublanguages, accomplishing
                        communicative goals in particular fields of human activity, share main
                        features of natural language as a whole, and at the same time demonstrates
                        some deviations from it, with respect to their syntax, morphology, and
                        lexicon (Grishman and Kittredge 1986). As a rule, each functional style has
                        its own phraseology, i.e. a system of word stereotypes (cliche) exploited as
                        stable colloquial formulas that are ready for use and thus optimize
                        communication. </p>
                    <p>Among the others, the functional style of scientific and technical (sci-tech)
                        prose is admittedly the most distinctive one, primarily due to the intensive
                        use of scientific phraseology including special sci-tech terms (Mitrofanova
                        1973). The style covers documents of various genres and particular types -
                        manual, research paper, technical report, instructions, patents, etc.
                        Scientific phraseology provides economical ways to express ideas in sci-tech
                        texts with their factuality, informativeness, and precision.</p>
                    <p>Teaching and learning literary styles is of great importance not only for
                        students in the humanities, but also for students in technical and natural
                        sciences. Student's competence in particular fields should be supplemented
                        with the ability to write sci-tech documents of a sufficiently high quality.
                        Thus, education in technical and natural sciences should include some
                        humanity knowledge, in particular, knowledge of scientific style.</p>
                    <p>Phraseology of specialized scientific sublanguages includes both sci-tech
                        terms and the common scientific phraseology. Acquiring the latter presents
                        the major difficulty in learning scientific style, because terms can be
                        usually found in specialized dictionaries, while there are few available
                        dictionaries of typical scientific phraseological expressions. However,
                        students need certain educational information or/and an assistant system for
                        acquiring scientific phraseology.</p>
                    <p>We describe a computer system being under development over a period of two
                        years and integrating phraseological database of Russian scientific language
                        and explanatory educational material. It is intended to help students to
                        improve their linguistic competence in the scientific style and genres and
                        belongs to hybrid computer systems supporting both process of sci-tech
                        writing and learning its fundamentals. Another example of such hybrid
                        systems is an experimental system described in (Bolshakova 2000). While
                        designing the phraseology database, the principles of several computer
                        lexical databases were considered (Fellbaum 1998, Bolshakov 1994).</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Features of the System</head>
                    <p>>From the user's point of view, the system can be regarded as a linguistic
                        database supplied with a computer reference guide accumulating general
                        explanatory information about scientific style and phraseology. Text of the
                        guide has been specially written and structured for representation in
                        hypertext form, since usefulness of hypertext for learning is well
                        acknowledged (Brusilovsky 1996).</p>
                    <p>Thus, each page of the reference guide presents a relatively independent
                        topic and is connected by hypertext links with another pages of the guide
                        and pages presenting items of the phraseology database. In turn, hypertext
                        pages with phraseological expressions are both interconnected and connected
                        with guide pages explaining necessary concepts. Besides browsing through
                        various pages, the search of phraseological expressions containing fixed
                        words can be made, resulting in a relevant page.</p>
                    <p>The system is flexibly organized: it allow a free navigation through pages of
                        the reference guide and of the phraseological database, thus enabling to
                        view the information in a desirable sequence. At the same time, a student
                        can learn the educational material in a predetermined systemic way
                        recommended for beginners. Such flexibility envisioned by a liberal
                        humanities viewpoint proved to be more effective learning strategy.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Covered Phraseology</head>
                    <p>Phraseology represented in the database was gathered from several textual
                        dictionaries of common scientific phraseology - see, for example, (DICT
                        1973) and then complemented by phraseological data obtained through manual
                        scanning of scientific texts in several fields.</p>
                    <p>Units of common scientific phraseology, including domain independent word
                        stereotypes and colloquial templates specific for particular scientific
                        genres, was systemized and arranged according to their functions in texts.
                        The biggest group of expressions concerns words regarded as common
                        scientific variables, e.g. ""problem"", ""analysis"", ""result"". For instance,
                        phraseological expressions with such variables are: ""objective analysis
                        shows/yields "", ""to question the results"". Another group presents units of
                        metatext character, designing and organizing scientific text narrative. It
                        includes expressions serving as connectors of different textual parts (""in
                        addition"", ""mentioned above"", etc.), expressions indicating information
                        source (like ""in their/our opinion""), and estimating expressions (e.g., ""it
                        seems reasonable"").</p>
                    <p>Each item of the phraseological database integrates all semantically
                        equivalent variants (synonyms) of a particular expression that are described
                        by a semantico-syntactic pattern with associated information including an
                        explanation of its meaning and examples of typical sentences exploiting it.
                        Empty valences of the expression are indicated in the pattern, with
                        specification of their semantic roles.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Conclusions</head>
                    <p>We have described both the methodological framework and the main features of
                        a computer system intended for learning phraseology of Russian sci-tech
                        texts. Its interrelated components, i.e. phraseology database and
                        educational material represented in hypertext form, are partially
                        implemented with the aid of Borland Delphi environment tools.</p>
                    <p>Among directions of system improvement being now under consideration we
                        should point out further extension of phraseology lexicon. Text corpora
                        reflecting contemporary sci-tech language usage will supposedly be
                        exploited, since features of any style and sublanguage can be revealed
                        exhaustively on the basis of corpus analysis (Biber et al. 1998).</p>
                    <p>Another direction concerns merging into a common database of scientific
                        phraseologies of several natural languages. Preliminary comparative study of
                        scientific phraseology of Russian, English, and Spanish languages shows an
                        evident similarity of their word stereotypes. This fact can be used for the
                        systematical computer-aided teaching of foreign scientific phraseology.</p>
                </div>
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        </back>
    </text>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Frances</forename>
                        <surname>Condron</surname>
                        <affiliation>Humanities Computing Unit <name type=""org"">University of
                                Oxford</name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Helen</forename>
                        <surname>Beetham</surname>
                        <affiliation>Faculty of Education and Language Studies <name type=""org"">The
                                Open University</name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Catherine</forename>
                        <surname>Bennett</surname>
                        <affiliation>Dept of Psychology <name type=""org"">University of York</name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Peter</forename>
                        <surname>Twining</surname>
                        <affiliation>Faculty of Education and Language Studies <name type=""org"">The
                                Open University</name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
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                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>New York University</name>
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                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                    <p>The ASTER project (Assisting Small-group Teaching through Electronic
                        Resources) is a collaboration between the universities of Oxford, Surrey and
                        York (lead site), and University College Northampton. It is funded by the
                        Higher Education Funding Council for England, through the Teaching and
                        Learning Technology Programme phase 3. Since autumn 1998, ASTER has been
                        exploring how new technologies can support staff and students to make better
                        use of small-group teaching, be it as tutorials, seminars, workshops,
                        laboratories or other practical classes. This demonstration will introduce
                        two aspects of ASTER's work:<list>
                            <item>1. Findings from the survey of the use of information and
                                communication technologies to support small group teaching in a
                                range of humanities and other disciplines.</item>
                            <item>2. ASTER's collaboration with other projects in the UK to create a
                                prototype digital library of case studies.</item>
                        </list></p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>1. The ASTER survey (<ptr target=""http://cti-psy.york.ac.uk/aster/""
                        />)</head>
                    <p>In 1999, ASTER undertook a series of surveys in UK higher education
                        institutions to identify good practice in the use of new technologies for
                        small-group teaching. We were interested in the tools and resources being
                        used, and the contextual factors which determine the success or otherwise of
                        implementing new technologies in teaching and learning. Another key issue
                        was to identify disciplinary differences, and to explore why these came
                        about. A questionnaire was sent out by email to thousands of academics in
                        Britain and beyond; 40 academics were interviewed by telephone; 30 case
                        studies were carried out in 1999 and 2000. The case studies cover a range of
                        subjects: archaeology, art, chemistry, classics, engineering, english,
                        mathematics, physics, psychology, theology. The case studies and reports
                        from the surveys are available from the ASTER Web site (<ptr
                            target=""http://cti-psy.york.ac.uk/aster/""/>).</p>
                    <p>Findings show that a range of C&amp;IT tools is being used before, within,
                        and after classes, to support and enhance dialogue between students and
                        tutors. Moreover, there are disciplinary differences in the choice of tools
                        used to support teaching and learning. While some digital resources act as a
                        medium through which dialogue occurs (communication tools such as email,
                        chat and discussion lists), the majority of the ASTER case studies document
                        indirect support. Computer-mediated communication, and the communications
                        features of virtual learning environments, directly support dialogue, and
                        are popular in the arts, humanities, and psychology, though ASTER found
                        minimal use by physicists and chemists. Multimedia tutorials (often
                        providing introductions to subjects) and simulations, where available, can
                        ensure that students have sufficient skills to continue with the course -
                        thus they are popular in physics and engineering, covering mathematics;
                        language drillers are used to support vocabulary acquisition and grammar,
                        but not widely used in English literature or fine art, for example. The
                        ASTER survey found that students were directed to multimedia tutorials for
                        independent study, freeing up face-to-face meetings for more advanced
                        discussion. Finally, preparatory readings may be accessed via the Web,
                        through a Virtual Learning Environment, or on CD-ROM. Such resources offer
                        limited support for dialogue, though they are popular in the arts,
                        humanities and psychology (and presumably the social sciences); limited use
                        was made of such resources to support undergraduate teaching in the physical
                        sciences.</p>
                    <p>These differences in the use of new technologies to support small-group
                        teaching are a result of several interconnecting factors. An obvious reason
                        is that the subject content of any resource needs to fit the course being
                        taught, and digital resources are not currently available to cover all
                        university courses! However, we found that other factors are at play.
                        Discussion classes are vital to support students' acquisition of subject
                        expertise and jargon, and to engage in academic discourse, both verbal and
                        written. However, opportunities for discussion between students and tutors
                        are reliant on the balance of teaching methods used (lectures, practicals,
                        seminars etc.), and class size, both of which vary between disciplines and
                        institutions. Electronic tools can support discussion, mediating between
                        individuals, though previous experience in using tools either for research
                        or teaching by students and tutors influences their perception of the value
                        of these tools.</p>
                    <p>The ASTER project attempts to pull together these areas of research in
                        teaching practice and the use of new technologies. While the ASTER survey
                        has not been able to gather information on teaching practices across entire
                        institutions, or nationally for all departments in a given subject area, it
                        has nevertheless revealed differences in teaching practices between
                        disciplines. These differences are not clear cut, the number of ASTER case
                        studies is relatively small, and our findings cannot be taken as
                        representative of UK higher education as a whole. However, they raise issues
                        that deserve further attention (ASTER 2000 and Condron 2001 discuss the
                        findings in more detail).</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>2. Sharing expertise: the prototype digital library of case studies (<ptr
                            target=""http://mathetics.open.ac.uk/""/>)</head>
                    <p>One of the many problems facing those involved in making effective use of new
                        technologies in education is locating relevant information that can support
                        and enhance their endeavours and avoid duplication of effort. This is
                        particularly problematic in the area of new technology for a number of
                        reasons, including: the rapid rate of change of technology; the vast amount
                        of work taking place in the area; and the lack of adequate co-ordination of
                        information between the different organisations, institutions and
                        individuals involved.</p>
                    <p>The higher education funding councils of the UK have spent millions of pounds
                        on supporting staff development, through special units within institutions,
                        and research and dissemination projects such as the Teaching and Learning
                        Technology Programme (TLTP), the Forum for the Development of Teaching and
                        Learning (FDTL), and the Learning and Teaching Support Network (LTSN). These
                        programmes all support fixed-term projects. Such projects aim to disseminate
                        their findings and resources, and have an impact on higher education
                        practice within the limits of their funding, at least in part because these
                        are often measures against which their success is judged. In many ways,
                        projects are competing with each other to raise their individual profiles,
                        so that they are seen to be successful and are thus more likely to attract
                        further funding. For the user community, keeping informed of current
                        developments is challenging - there is currently no central service
                        coordinating the sharing of information between projects and the academic
                        community.</p>
                    <p>In order to start to support the user community more effectively, four TLTP
                        projects (all UK-based) came together in spring 2000 to develop a model for
                        supporting access to our case studies of teaching practice (the projects are
                            <ref target=""http://cti-psy.york.ac.uk/aster/"">ASTER</ref>, <ref
                            target=""http://sh.plym.ac.uk/eds/effects/"">EFFECTS</ref>, <ref
                            target=""http://mathetics.open.ac.uk/source/"">SoURCE</ref>, and <ref
                            target=""http://www.le.ac.uk/TALENT/"">TALENT</ref>). We ended up with a
                        model of a central service for staff development. This model was based on
                        the results of a national survey of staff developers, and a prototype
                        digital library of case studies on the use of information and communication
                        technologies in teaching and learning. As TLTP projects, we share a common
                        focus on learning technologies, though our model of a central service covers
                        higher education in general. Our projects are due for completion in autumn
                        2001, and no service is yet in place to archive and disseminate our tools
                        and resources after closure.</p>
                    <p>The prototype digital library that we have established consists of a central
                        database containing only descriptions of the case studies, and a
                        user-friendly interface. The case studies themselves remain on the server of
                        the project that created them. This simple description glosses over the
                        effort that went into creating the database - we saw the need to follow
                        international standards from the start, to support sharing of information
                        and use of common terminology. Case studies were described using metadata
                        (inspired by the Gateway to Educational Materials - GEM - in the USA)
                        populated with vocabularies drawn from the Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors
                        (educational terms). Further work is taking place to map terms across
                        various current national and international educational thesauri. The
                        original database is driven by Apple's Global Object Economy, but in
                        extending the metadata and technical interoperability standards we are
                        porting it to an SQL database.</p>
                    <p>The design of the user interface was the result of lengthy research. We ran a
                        national survey which helped us to identify four key groups of potential
                        users of a central library. This resulted in the design of four access
                        routes, aimed at academics (focussed on their subject), staff developers
                        (focussed on pedagogy), educational developers (concerned with technology)
                        and senior managers (with interests in strategy). Controlled vocabularies
                        were developed for each of these categories, and used to catalogue case
                        studies. An individual case study could contain information relevant to one
                        or more of the categories.</p>
                    <p>The process of designing a digital library of case studies highlighted the
                        need for projects to retain ownership of their work, both so that a user of
                        the database can recognise that the case studies it holds are the result of
                        diverse working practices, and for the projects to retain their visibility
                        and independent profile. This need for projects to have a high profile is
                        one of the greatest barriers to collaborations of this sort. It was overcome
                        by enabling each project to maintain its own customised Web interface to the
                        one shared database. In addition, the process of vocabulary development has
                        highlighted important areas of debate in understanding features of the
                        learning environment and learning interactions. Further research in this
                        area is clearly essential.</p>
                </div>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>References:</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name type=""org"">ASTER</name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Investigating the Use of Electronic Resources in
                                Small-Group Learning and Teaching</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>York</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>ASTER</publisher>
                                <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">F.</forename>
                                    <surname>Condron</surname></name></author>
                            <title level=""a"">Using electronic resources to support dialogue in
                                undergraduate small-group teaching: the ASTER project</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">ALT-J - Association for Learning Technology
                                Journal</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol"">9</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""issue"">2</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">39-46</biblScope>
                                <date when=""2001"">(forthcoming)</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
            <div>
                <head>URLs:</head>
                <note>ASTER (Assisting Small-group Teaching through Electronic Resources) <ptr
                        target=""http://cti-psy.york.ac.uk/aster/""/></note>
                <note>EFFECTS (Effective Frameworks For Embedding C&amp;IT with Targetted Support)
                        <ptr target=""http://sh.plym.ac.uk/eds/effects/""/></note>
                <note>SoURCE (Software Use, Re-use and Customisation in Education) <ptr
                        target=""http://mathetics.open.ac.uk/""/></note>
                <note>TALENT (Teaching and Learning with Network Technologies) <ptr
                        target=""http://www.le.ac.uk/TALENT/""/></note>
            </div>
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"171","2","Job Seeking in Humanities Computing","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Job Seeking in Humanities Computing </title>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Julia</forename>
                        <surname>Flanders</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org""> </name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Lorna</forename>
                        <surname>Hughes</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org""> </name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Matthew</forename>
                        <surname>Kirschenbaum</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org""> </name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Wendell</forename>
                        <surname>Piez</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org""> </name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Geoffrey</forename>
                        <surname>Rockwell</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org""> </name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                 <publisher>
                    <name>New York University</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>New York, NY</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
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                <respStmt>
                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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            <div>
                <p>Interested in a job in humanities computing? Wondering where to find jobs in the
                    field and what qualifications employers are looking for? The Job Seeking
                    committee of the ACH has compiled an analytic collection of academic and
                    industry job ads in the field. In this poster we will walk you through typical
                    job ads commenting on the skills and knowledge expected in the field. We will
                    present the following:<list>
                        <item>1. Information on where to look for jobs.</item>
                        <item>2. Examples of jobs across the academy and industry.</item>
                        <item>3. Commentary on how these ads are written and the qualifications
                            needed for such jobs.</item>
                        <item>4. Suggestion on how to learn the skills you need and how to document
                            that when applying for jobs.</item>
                        <item>5. Connection to mentors who can confidentially review your CV in
                            light of the types of humanities computing jobs you are interested
                            in.</item>
                    </list>
                </p>
                <p>This poster session is a chance to meet faculty and project administrators who
                    have experience hiring in the field to learn about how they write ads and what
                    they are looking for. It is an opportunity to think through the career you might
                    pursue in humanities computing.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
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"172","2","Remote Interactive Animated Projection","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Robert</forename>
                        <surname>Hamilton</surname>
                        <affiliation>School for the Arts <name type=""org"">McMaster University</name>
                            <email>hamiltr@mcmaster.ca</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
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            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>New York University</name>
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                    <name>
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                        <surname/>
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                <respStmt>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                    <head>Introduction:</head>
                    <p>A joint art based project that explores Remote Interactive Animated
                        Projections has been initiated between the Humanities Computing Department
                        of McMaster University and the Multimedia department of The School of the
                        Arts, also of McMaster University. The project will utilize a newly funded
                        video streaming facility that is currently being organized by the Humanities
                        Computing department to facilitate faculty research. The Remote Interactive
                        Animated Projection Project is being initiated in part to foster
                        interdisciplinary research between The School of the Arts and The Humanities
                        Computing Department.</p>
                    <p>The content of the work will largely be animation based. The content will be
                        generated in advance of the actual installation. Animation was chosen as an
                        art form because of its flexible nature and the relative ease in which it
                        can be digitized. Animation allows for a dynamic projection of inner
                        thoughts and ideas that are at best difficult to render in any other way.
                        Animation is often derived from abstract thought. At times there is a
                        struggle to simulate aspects of the world as experienced by an artist. In
                        this way, much like a draughtsman, the work becomes a distilled thought: a
                        studied observation. An observation that is somehow greater in its sum than
                        that of a photograph. In this way, one could suggest that animation is able
                        to express a remediation of how images are perceived.</p>
                    <p>One seductive aspect of animation is production time is usually lengthy and
                        anything but ""instant."" Production is slow and meticulous. At times the work
                        can be quite tedious. A thousand ideas come and go as while progressing
                        image by image. Ones mind wanders and the subconscious seems to permit
                        unusual thoughts to float to the top. New ideas and connections arise. In
                        its creation, animation seems to encourage lateral thinking; an intuitive
                        thought process. Suppressed thoughts gain currency and come to the
                        forefront. It is no wonder that some of the most inspired examples of
                        animation are strangely surreal and occasionally frightening. Examples would
                        be the work of Jan Svankmajer, The Brothers Quay or more recently; various
                        clips in the recent feature film The Fight Club: the animism of familiar
                        objects.</p>
                    <p>The Remote Interactive Animation project attempts to bridge artifice with
                        reality. The project investigated the creative application of interactive
                        media within an environment that would normally not be associated with
                        external media of any form. An example of this would is the potential of a
                        suburban neighborhood and itís track housing. To intrude upon this
                        environment presents many possibilities. The project will convert picture
                        windows in the front of a houses in to a large video screens that randomly
                        generate narratives which are triggered according to the movements or
                        reaction of the people passing on the street. The images would be streamed
                        from a central server directly from the University.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Streaming Video: New Potential for Expression</head>
                    <p>To augment existing structures and concepts within a community is to address
                        the possibility of integration or introduction of new media to an
                        environment that otherwise would not be deemed appropriate. The concern is
                        to conform media to an actual pre-existing neighborhood. The reason for this
                        is two-fold: to initiate interest in new media and animation within the
                        community and secondly, to explore and augment existing forms of community
                        communications.</p>
                    <p>In relation to existing forms of communication within a given community such
                        as television, the introduction of interactivity has begun to radically
                        alter the relationship between transmitter and audience. No longer passive
                        yet not entirely empowered, the audience has yet to determine the exact
                        nature of interactive communication.</p>
                    <p>An additional purpose is to explore the territory of media interface and
                        display. Although computers are excellent at creating and/or organizing the
                        content of media, they are not always the best suited to displaying the
                        results. This is a major concern: to free media from the confines of a
                        desktop computer. The goal is to augment an existent display system that
                        recreates interactive elements found in a computer terminal but within a new
                        context. In addition, the entire system will be portable, allowing for easy
                        transport and installation.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Implementation</head>
                    <p>Essentially, the project consists of streaming video from a central server of
                        animated figures through a portable projection system in a public space.
                        Viewers may influence the projection through body movement or other
                        criteria. The interactive projection is a viable means for creating a rich
                        experience for the viewer.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Conclusion</head>
                    <p>The Remote Interactive Animation Project is a work in process that will
                        evolve over the duration of approximately one year. The project will should
                        wrap-up by December 2001. The results of the research will be documented and
                        organized in to an online site. Anticipated results include the
                        dissemination of fine art based projects in both the immediate community and
                        abroad, expanding the potential sphere of presentation for art based
                        projects and the implementation of technology that will offer interactivity
                        with media at broadband speed.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
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"173","2","Building Belphegor: A Multilingual Electronic Journal using TEI","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Vivien</forename>
                        <surname>Hannon</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Dalhousie University Electronic Text Centre/Academic
                                Computing Services</name>
                            <email>Vivien.Hannon@Dal.CA</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Bruno</forename>
                        <surname>Roy</surname>
                        <affiliation>
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                                Computing Services</name>
                            <email>Bruno.Roy@Dal.CA</email>
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                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Dalhousie University</name> French Department
                                <email>Vittorio.Frigerio@Dal.CA</email>
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                        <forename type=""first"">John</forename>
                        <surname>Barnstead</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Dalhousie University</name> Department of Russian
                            Studies <email>John.Barnstead@Dal.CA</email>
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                            <name type=""org"">Dalhousie University Electronic Text Centre/Killam
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                            <email>Oriel.MacLennan@Dal.CA</email>
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                    <p><emph rend=""bold"">Belphegor</emph> is the first e-journal to be published at
                        the Dalhousie University Electronic Text Centre, and has presented
                        challenges because of its multilingual character. Readers may choose to view
                        the journal in one of six languages: French, English, German, Portuguese,
                        Spanish or Italian. Papers published in the journal may be in any one of the
                        languages; abstracts are offered in more than one language. All information
                        about the journal itself, the authors, the editorial committee, etc. is
                        offered in all six languages. Many images presented on the pages have
                        different versions for each of the languages.</p>
                    <p>While many e-journals are originally created in HTML, it was decided in this
                        case to create a single XML-compliant TEI-encoded file for each issue,
                        containing all the text required for the HTML pages, using entity
                        definitions for images. A ""mock-up"" partial set of pages was created in HTML
                        and used as a sort of design sketch to help with the creation of Belphegor's
                        TEI template. This template was created keeping in mind that we will be
                        working on other journals in the future; it can be easily customized.</p>
                    <p>Using a custom Perl script, a TEI file created using the template is then
                        converted to a set of HTML files. Another Perl script is used to translate
                        the TEI file to PDF, creating a version of the journal issue which is
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                        can easily be modified by adjusting the translator script and creating new
                        graphics if needed.</p>
                    <p>The search page is designed to take advantage of the TEI markup and allow
                        readers to search using various criteria; for example, authors' names,
                        titles of works, dates and places.</p>
                    <p>As a bonus, we will demonstrate to interested parties an example of the use
                        of digital media in humanities research in the <emph rend=""bold"">Kuzmin
                            Collection</emph>, which presents materials associated with the Russian
                        poet, novelist, dramatist, and composer Mikhail Kuzmin (1872-1936), a key
                        figure in the development of the twentieth century Russian avant-garde.
                        Research into neglected aspects of Kuzmin's musical compositions and
                        settings of his poetry by figures of the ""repressed Russian avant-garde"" has
                        been facilitated by use of computer-assisted music transcription. The
                        Electronic Text Centre allows the presentation of this research to a
                        widely-scattered scholarly audience at minimal expense, in a much more
                        useful form than would be possible using traditional forms of publication.
                        By giving students ""hands-on"" experience in ongoing scholarly research and
                        translation, and by providing the means to examine the interrelationships of
                        poetry, music, and the visual arts, the Dalhousie University Electronic Text
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                        <forename type=""first"">David</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">L.</forename>
                        <surname>Hoover</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">New York University</name>
                            <email>david.hoover@nyu.edu</email>
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                <p>Although statistical stylistics has never been a very popular area of study, it
                    is attractive because its powerful techniquesñwidely used in the sciences and
                    social sciencesñseem especially appropriate for the large amounts of information
                    that texts represent. I am working on a project that reexamines the statistical
                    techniques used by the most careful and respected of the practitioners of the
                    methodñspecifically, methods inspired by or derived from the work of John F.
                    Burrows (1987, 1989, 1992; Burrows and Hassall, 1988; Burrows and Craig, 1994;
                    Craig, 1999). Specifically, I am working with cluster analysis of the
                    frequencies of high frequency words. The high frequency and low semantic load of
                    the most frequent function words have led researchers to assume that their use
                    is likely to escape the conscious control of authors. If so, their frequencies
                    may reflect deeply ingrained linguistic habits and provide what might be called
                    ìwordprintsî for authors. If such wordprints exist, they may provide the kind of
                    objective measure of style that has been sought since the 18th century.</p>
                <p>The techniques pioneered by Burrows have been quite well received because they
                    are careful, reasonable, and compelling, and they have been extended to
                    examinations of the authorship of the Book of Mormon (Holmes, 1992), have been
                    tested on the Federalist Papers (Holmes and Forsyth, 1995), and have been
                    applied to the question of Miltonís authorship of De Doctrina Christiana
                    (Tweedie, Holmes, and Corns, 1998); see also Holmes (1994), Baayen, Van
                    Halteren, and Tweedie (1996), and Tweedie and Baayen (1998). This work tends to
                    confirm the accuracy and effectiveness of multivariate analysis in authorship
                    attribution, but in each case the field of claimants and the range of texts is
                    relatively limited. No one has taken up Burrows suggestion ìto match a natural
                    desire to work on celebrated cases like Henry VIII and The Revengerís Tragedy
                    with a more sober, though less immediately rewarding, concern for testing our
                    methods thoroughly on cases where the true answers are not in any doubtî
                    (Burrows, 1992, 174).</p>
                <p>I am interested mainly in the possible application of statistical techniques to
                    stylistic analysis, especially in the areas of character development, genre
                    definition, and stylistic variability within works or authors, but I would like
                    to demonstrate some of the work required for the task suggested by Burrows.
                    After all, only those statistical techniques that can effectively and reliably
                    distinguish known authors and known texts from each other seem likely to be
                    useful in characterizing and comparing the styles of those authors.</p>
                <p>My first experiment analyzed the first 3,000 words of opening chapters of a group
                    of 50 current novels by 27 authors, downloaded from <ptr
                        target=""HTTP://WWW.CONTENTVILLE.COM""/>. My second experiment analyzed the
                    first 30,000 words of 46 novels by 31 authors, mainly taken from Hoover (1999).
                    Another experiment analyzed the 4,000-word sections of 25 pieces of current
                    literary criticism by 14 authors, downloaded from Project Muse (<ptr
                        target=""http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/elh/""/>). Unfortunately, none of these
                    experiments showed the kind of results that one would hope. In fact, the best
                    result was less than 90% accurate in attributing texts to the correct authors.
                    This was true even when first and third person narration was separated and when
                    function word homographs were distinguished. Using the results of the analyses,
                    I then selected some of the most problematic texts in the second and third
                    groups for further analysis. When I analyzed the texts of only 2-4 authors,
                    cluster analysis still failed to group texts by the same author or distinguish
                    texts by different authors accurately. This lack of accuracy suggests that
                    further work is necessary before such techniques can be accepted as important
                    tools in authorship attribution or stylistic studies.</p>
                <p>In my presentation, I would like to show how the process of multivariate analysis
                    works, from the point when the texts have been collected to the production of
                    cluster graphs or PCA plots. Based on conversations with other humanities
                    computing people, I believe that there is a need for this kind of fairly
                    explicit and basic introduction to statistical analysis. At the same time, the
                    results of my experiments seem very interesting and significant in their own
                    right: although a proof of the accuracy of the techniques on large groups of
                    varied texts would have been more welcome, a demonstration of their inaccuracy
                    may, in the long run be just as useful.</p>
                <p>The main components of my own technique are TACT, used to analyze the word
                    frequencies of the individual texts and of a text that combines all of the
                    texts; FoxPro, a programmable database, used to import word frequency data, tag
                    it with author and text information, cull the data so that it includes only the
                    desired number of most frequent words (generally the 50-500 most frequent
                    words), and create zero- frequency records of frequent words that do not appear
                    in one or more of the individual texts (note: I am currently looking into the
                    feasibility of moving the techniques to Microsoft Access, with Visual Basic as
                    the programming language); and Minitab, a statistical analysis program, used to
                    perform the actual PCA and cluster analysis. The techniques I use allow for
                    quick and relatively painless analysis of many different groups of texts of many
                    different kinds, and so have the potential to provide a wide range of tests of
                    the techniques on extremely varied and extensive groups of textsñsomething that
                    has not, to my knowledge, been done before.</p>
                <p>For my poster presentation, I would need access to a PC running Windows 98 (NOT
                    2000 or MEñI need access to DOS, for running batch files), on which I could
                    install Foxpro (Access might be needed, if I get the conversion done in time),
                    Minitab, TACT, and a bunch of texts for possible analysis.</p>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Edda</forename>
                        <surname>Leopold</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">GMD German National Research Center for Information
                                Technology</name>
                            <name type=""org"">Institute for Autonomous intelligent Systems</name>
                            <email/>
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                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Jörg</forename>
                        <surname>Kindermann</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">GMD German National Research Center for Information
                                Technology</name>
                            <name type=""org"">Institute for Autonomous intelligent Systems</name>
                            <email/>
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                <p>We want to report from our results with Support Vector Machines for Text
                    Classification in order to promote the interdisciplinary dialogue. Our research
                    group consists mainly of statisticians and computer-scientists, and focusses on
                    the algorithmic side of text-classifica-tion. We want to discuss our experiences
                    with researchers working on other fields of linguistic computing and ask for the
                    implications of our results on linguistic approaches which use vector space
                    representations as for example ""semantic spaces"" and ""latent semantic
                    indexing"".</p>
                <p>The algorithm called ""Support Vector Machines"", can shortly be described as
                    follows (A more detailed description can be found in (Vapnik 1998)):<list>
                        <item>1 A set of labeled documents is needed for training. Documents are
                            mapped to their type-frequency vectors. These vectors span an high
                            dimensional input space (every type represents one dimension). This kind
                            of abstraction from syntagmatic structures is often refered to as
                            ""bag-of-words"" approach.</item>
                        <item>2. The algorithm searches for a hyperplane in input space which
                            optimally separates the training documents.</item>
                        <item>3. Documents of a test-set are attributed to one of the classes
                            depending on the side of the hyperplane they are located on. SVM have
                            proven to provide an effective means for text classification on
                            different languages (English and German) and textual domains (English
                            Reuters news; Ohsumed medical abstracts, e-mail newsgroups; German:
                            newspapers taz, FR, BZ, e-mail newsgroups) and different tasks (topic
                            identification, Authorship attribution, classification according
                            newspaper issues of different years). (Joachims 1997; Joachims1998;
                            Drucker et al.; Dumais et al. 1998; Diederich &amp; Kindermann &amp;
                            Leopold &amp; Paaþ 2000; Leopold &amp; Kindermann 2001)</item>
                    </list>
                </p>
                <p>The great advantage of SVMs is, that they can manage a very large number of
                    attributes (in our experiments we have worked with up to half a million
                    attributes), given that the attribute vectors are sparse. This makes it possible
                    to perform document-classification directly on the frequency spectra of
                    documents without any kind of feature selection. This is why we think that
                    results on the precision/recall performance of Support Vector Machines can be
                    interpreted as statements about frequency spectra of document collections, and
                    thus constitute a kind of linguistic evidence.</p>
                <p>Another advantage of SVMs is, that various kernel functions can be used. Kernel
                    functions correspond to a mapping of input vectors to a even higer dimensional
                    feature space and can heuristically interpreted as different geometries in input
                    space ((hyper)planes may be substituted by e.g. (hyper)spheres).</p>
                <p>The choice of the kernel function is crucial to most applications of support
                    vector machines. However in the case of text-classification Kernel functions
                    only slightly affect performance although they imply completely different
                    geometries of input space. So from the stand point of retrieval performance it
                    is nearly irrelevant if topic-boundaries are defined by planes or by
                    spheres.</p>
                <p>What does this mean for the bag-of-words approach which represents documents in
                    the form of type frequency vectors, and what does it mean for the quality of
                    co-occurrence of types within the context of a document? We will try to give an
                    answer in terms of stochastical dependency of types.</p>
                <p>Another observation we made is that lemmatization does not affect performance in
                    terms of precision and recall. In English our results on the Reuters news corpus
                    obtained without any linguistic preprocessing do not differ significantly from
                    those obtained by Joachims (1998) who has used the Porter stemmer. In German
                    lemmatization also did not yield an improovement of performance, which is
                    surprising because of the morphological richness of German. However our results
                    agree with those obtained with neural nets in French news data (Stricker 2000),
                    neural nets however need a reduction of dimensionality as opposed to SVM. An
                    explanation of this finding is that lemmatization leads loss of information,
                    because different word forms are mapped to the same lemma. A surprising result,
                    is that author identification is also best done on the bases of word-forms
                    rather than on the basis of bigramms of grammatical tags.</p>
                <p>We are currently working multi-class classification using Support Vector Machines
                    (Kindermann et al 2000). The problem here is to group the classes of documents
                    in an appropriate way. To this end we explore the inter- and intra-class
                    distance of type-frequency distributions.</p>
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            <div type=""bibliography"">
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                                    <surname>Kindermann</surname></name></author>
                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">Edda</forename>
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                            <title level=""a"">Text categorization with support vector machines:
                                learning with many relevant features</title>
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                            <title level=""m"">Proceedings of ECML-98, 10th European Conference on
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                            <title level=""s"">Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Number 1398</title>
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                                <pubPlace>Heidelberg, DE</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Springer Verlag</publisher>
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                                    <surname>Leopold</surname></name></author>
                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">Gerhard</forename>
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                            <title level=""a"">Multiclass Classification with Error Correcting
                                Codes</title>
                        </analytic>
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                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Edda</forename>
                                    <surname>Leopold</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Mathias</forename>
                                    <surname>Kirsten</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m""> Treffen der GI-Fachgruppe 1.1.3 Maschinelles
                                Lernen</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
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                                <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">56-64</biblScope>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
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                                    <surname>Leopold</surname></name></author>
                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">Jörg</forename>
                                    <surname>Kindermann</surname></name></author>
                            <title level=""a"">Text Categorization with Support Vector Machines. How
                                to Represent Texts in Input Space?</title>
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                                <biblScope type=""vol""/>
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                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
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                            <author><name><forename type=""first""
                                        >M.</forename><surname>Stricker</surname></name></author>
                            <title level=""a"">Réseaux de neurones pour le traitement automatique du
                                langage : conception et réalisatiion de filtres
                                d'informations</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <edition>Thèse de Doctorat de l'Université Pierre et Marie Curie - Paris
                                VI</edition>
                            <imprint>
                                <publisher>School of Library, Archive and Information Studies,
                                    University College London</publisher>
                                <date when=""2000"">200</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Vladimir</forename>
                                    <surname>Vapnik</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Statistical Learning Theory</title>
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                                <publisher>Wiley &amp; sons</publisher>
                                <date when=""1998"">1998</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
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                        <surname>Ng</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">University of Leeds</name>
                            <email>kia@kcng.org</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                <p>This paper presents a motion and colour detection system called Music via Motion
                    (MvM), which uses a video camera to survey a live scene and track visual
                    changes. Detected visual activity is used to generate musical events using an
                    extensible set of predefined musical mapping functions, and a database of
                    musical phrases. Additional sensing capabilities are provided by physical
                    sensors (e.g. pressure maps, vibration switches and others) installed on the
                    performance environments, for direct triggering of specific musical events. This
                    system allows anyone to control musical sounds with their physical movements in
                    front of the camera. For example, a simple wave of the hand would result in a
                    series of musical notes or sound corresponding to the speed and position of the
                    movement.</p>
                <p>The main objective of this project is to bring together multiple creative domains
                    to build an augmented and interactive audio-visual environment, which aims to
                    offer a new sensory experience to audiences. The user can be both the audience
                    and the performer, controlling the events both visually and musically. MvM is
                    portable and can be installed easily in a public environment, enabling it to be
                    accessible by anyone anywhere, including locations not usually associated with
                    contemporary exhibitions. The system is also designed to be intuitive and
                    user-friendly to minimise the time needed for familiarisation; users can
                    interact with the system with little or no guidance or training. There are
                    graphical user interfaces providing the ability to change the behaviour and
                    configuration of the software so that different musical sounds result from
                    specific forms of movement. The system has been tested in the form of a public
                    installation where audiences were able to explore it by themselves, and by
                    public performances with live dancers.</p>
                <p>Currently, MvM is equipped with several mapping functions, including a
                    distance-to-MIDI-events mapping with many configurable parameters, such as scale
                    type, pitch range and others. Parameters of motion such as proximity,
                    trajectory, velocity and direction can also be tracked and mapped onto musical
                    parameters such as pitch, velocity, timbre and duration. MvM also offers user
                    configurable ‘active regions’ where detected visual activities in certain areas
                    can be mapped onto different MIDI channels.</p>
                <p>This paper also reports recent interactive dance performances exploring MvM as an
                    automatic accompaniment system called CoIN (Coat of Invisible Notes), and
                    discusses design and installation issues for several ongoing interactive
                    installation-arts projects which explore both motion and sensor modules of MvM.
                    For CoIN performances, the costumes for the interactive dance performances were
                    specially designed to explore the colour detection module of the system. MvM is
                    configured to track the colour where visual changes were detected. Detected
                    colours are used to control the choice of musical sounds and effects. This
                    feature is fully explored and particularly clear in a section of the
                    choreography where the dancers are divided into two groups, wearing costumes in
                    different colours. The contrasting movements and interactions between the two
                    groups create interesting musical dialogues with two different musical strands.
                    A particular feature of these costumes is that they are reversible and can be
                    split apart, allowing the users to ‘re-assemble’ and ‘re-configure’ them to
                    achieve different visual effects. These various changes in turn are detected by
                    MvM and can be used to alter the character of the musical responses.</p>
                <p>MvM detects visual changes using computer-vision techniques, and enables the
                    participants (whether trained dancers or the general public) to enjoy complete
                    freedom of movement, without the need to wear any body-mounted physical sensors
                    or markers. Physical sensors are installed on the stage and the installations
                    are designed so they do not obstruct any physical movement. In addition to
                    musical mapping, MvM display a live-video window of the scene under inspection,
                    and a processing window highlights visual changes to provide musical and visual
                    feed-back to performers and audiences. MvM aims to offer audiences a new
                    experience in which they will have hands-on opportunities to explore their own
                    artistic expressive creativity. All of the design features offer a very exciting
                    experience for participants of any ability, allowing anyone to create their own
                    sensory experience.</p>
                <p>This paper discusses the low-level image processing modules for motion and colour
                    detection, various musical mapping functions, hardware setup, and physical
                    sensor installation on the performance stage for direct triggering of musical
                    events.</p>
                <p>In summary, this paper presents a research framework to explore the ‘trans-domain
                    mapping’ of one creative domain onto another using Computer Vision techniques
                    and electronic sensors. Technical details and setup are presented and
                    experiences from recent performances and installations are discussed. Plausible
                    future directions, including the use of multiple cameras and gesture detection,
                    are proposed. Mapping functions, sensors, and installation issues are
                    discussed.</p>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Kia</forename>
                        <surname>Ng</surname>
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                <p>Nowadays, the computer is an important instrument in music. It can not only
                    generate sound (audio synthesis) but is also able to perform a wide range of
                    time consuming and repetitive tasks, such as transposition and part extraction,
                    with speed and accuracy. However, a score must be represented in a
                    machine-readable format before any operation can be carried out. Current input
                    methods, such as using an electronic keyboard, are laborious and require human
                    intervention. Optical Music Recognition (OMR) provides an efficient and
                    automatic method to transform paper-based music scores into a machine
                    representation.</p>
                <p>The potential benefits of an Optical Music Recognition system were recognised
                    over thirty years ago. A robust OMR system can provide a convenient and
                    time-saving input method to transform paper-based music scores into a machine
                    readable format for widely available music software, in the same way as Optical
                    Character Recognition (OCR) is useful for text processing applications.</p>
                <p>In this paper, we present a brief survey of Optical Music Recognition
                    developments and currently available commercial packages for printed music
                    scores, followed by an introduction to handwritten manuscript recognition with a
                    discussion of the obstacles associated with it. We then discuss our framework
                    design and low-level pre-processing modules, and illustrate the modules with
                    example inputs and outputs. Our prototype takes a digitised music-score grey
                    image (300 d.p.i. with 256 grey) as input. An iterative thresholding method is
                    used to obtain a threshold value, and the image is binarised. Using the black
                    and white image, the skew of the input image, usually introduced during
                    digitisation process, can be automatically detected by reference to the
                    music-typographical features of the roughly parallel stave lines, and the image
                    is deskewed by rotation. This is follow by layout analysis to determine the
                    general normalisation factors including the stave line thickness.</p>
                <p>Stave line thickness and inter-stave-line spacing are used as normalisation
                    factors, as stave lines form a grid system for musical symbols, of which most
                    are related to the geometry of the staves: for example, the height of a note
                    head must approximate the distance between two stave lines plus the thickness of
                    the two stave lines. Hence, the sum of average distance between two stave lines
                    and the average stave-line thickness form the fundamental unit used by the
                    classification process.</p>
                <p>This paper focuses on our stroke-based segmentation approach using a hybrid of
                    edge detection technique and mathematical morphology. We make use of the edges,
                    curvature and variations in relative thickness to extract and segment the
                    musical objects from the underlying grid (stave lines) and disassemble them into
                    lower-level graphical primitives, such as vertical and horizontal lines, curves,
                    ellipses and others. These primitives are classified using a k-Nearest-Neighbour
                    (kNN) classifier with simple features such as the aspect ratio, normalised width
                    and height and other feature vectors. After recognition, these sub-segmented
                    primitives need to be reconstructed.</p>
                <p>As with other forms of optical document analysis, such as OCR, imperfections
                    introduced during the printing and digitising process that are normally
                    tolerable to the human eye can often complicated the recognition process.
                    Musical notation is highly interconnected, and features may connect horizontally
                    (for example beams), vertically (for example chords) or sometimes be overlaid
                    (for example, slurs cutting through stems or bar lines). Furthermore, when
                    symbols are grouped (beamed), they may vary in shape and size: for example,
                    consider the shape of isolated semiquavers and the many possible appearances of
                    four-semiquaver groups. To resolve any ambiguities, contextual information is
                    required, for example, a dot, classified by the kNN classifier, could be an
                    expression sign or a duration modifier depending on its relative position with
                    respect to a note-head nearby.</p>
                <p>After classification and reconstruction, basic musical syntax and a number of
                    high level musical analysis techniques are employed to enhance the recognition,
                    the reconstructed results are re-examined in the light of the analysis and
                    corrections and enhanced guesses are made if necessary. We attempt to detect
                    global information such as the key and time signatures and use them to provide
                    evidence in the detection and correction of possible mis-recognition. It is
                    clearly important that the OMR system should accurately detect the time
                    signature of a piece or section of a piece of music in order to produce an
                    accurate representation of the musical score.</p>
                <p>Many factors in the input source (for example, resolution, contrast, and other
                    inherent complexities) could influence the performance of the automatic
                    recognition and transcription process, especially for handwritten manuscripts.
                    In order to provide flexible and efficient transcriptions, we are designing a
                    graphical user-interface editor with built-in basic musical syntax and some
                    contextual intelligence to resolve uncertainties, assist the transcription and
                    output. The default output format is currently set to ExpMIDI, which is
                    compatible with the standard MIDI file format, and is capable of representing
                    and storing expressive symbols such as accents, phrase markings and others.</p>
                <p>We believe that the application of domain knowledge essential for complex
                    document analysis and recognition and it is particularly important in
                    hand-written-manuscript recognition since it takes years of experience for a
                    trained copyist or engraver to intelligently decipher poorly or inconsistently
                    written scores.</p>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Christian-Emil</forename>
                        <surname>Ore</surname>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Øyvind</forename>
                        <surname>Eide</surname>
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                <div>
                    <head>Background</head>
                    <p>Norwegian university museums are custodians of large bodies of knowledge and
                        data about societies, culture, nature and the environment in Norway, both
                        historical and current. An important role of the university museums has been
                        the compilation and dissemination of this information. It is no accident
                        that museums have formed the nucleus for the founding of Norwegian colleges
                        and universities.</p>
                    <p>Due to the magnitude and the organization of the university collections, they
                        have not been readily accessible for use in research, teaching and public
                        services or for inspection by the general public. In order to maintain their
                        position as the country's leading institutions and information pools for
                        object-based research, the university museums must revitalize their
                        collections. An important step in this process is the introduction of
                        information technology at all levels in the museums. However, this calls for
                        an extremely costly reassessment and conversion of existing archives into a
                        digital format, requiring extra effort and additional funding. In some
                        cases, establishing the databases will entail a complete revision of some of
                        the museum collections.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>The project</head>
                    <p>The Museum Project (1) was established in the spring of 1998 as a national
                        collaborative project involving all four Norwegian universities. It is
                        planned to run until 2005 with an annual budget of 1-2 million Euro. The aim
                        of the project is to develop common database systems for the management of
                        collections for all the Norwegian university museums. Ideally, these
                        database systems should be able to handle all reference information related
                        to artifact and specimen collections inside and outside the museums.
                        Important aspects include internal requirements regarding the management of
                        collections, fieldwork, research and dissemination, and external demands
                        from the authorities and the public concerning access to reference data.</p>
                    <p>The work is motivated by an ambition to develop IT-based systems that will
                        offer users centralized and efficient access to information regarding the
                        Norwegian cultural and natural heritage. With the help of common user
                        interfaces and links between data from different fields of study, it will be
                        possible to generate new information combinations and new insights in the
                        various disciplines.</p>
                    <p>The Museum Project includes a systems development group that is responsible
                        for modeling and constructing the databases. This group is a direct
                        continuation of the systems development group in the Documentation Project
                        (2). In addition the project employs at least one scientific consultant from
                        a relevant discipline for each of the sub-projects. The consultant is
                        responsible for the follow-up of the scientific aspects of the digitization
                        process and works in close co-operation with colleagues in the relevant
                        field and with the project's system developers.</p>
                    <p>The Museum Project involves the museums of natural history as well as the
                        museums of cultural history. It is organized in various subsections, with
                        sub-projects in the fields of archaeology, ethnography, cultural history,
                        botany, zoology, geology and paleontology. Each of the sub-projects is
                        responsible for the digitization of large collections, some so complex that
                        getting even an overview is difficult. Once the digitized material is
                        recorded, it undergoes a quality control procedure before being entered into
                        databases. The completed databases are all built on the same platform. This
                        implies that while each database accommodates the specific features of each
                        collection the different databases will nonetheless be compatible with one
                        another. The computer programs and methods used for the electronic recording
                        of data are determined by the structure of each collection, and to some
                        extent by the traditions of each discipline.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Technical solutions</head>
                    <p>The Norwegian University Museums cover a wide range of disciplines, from
                        archaeology and ethnography to natural history. The project organization has
                        taken over the responsibility for maintaining and developing the data base
                        systems for the department of lexicography (old Norse and modern Norwegian)
                        and place name studies.</p>
                    <p>The development of the new systems has been continuous process for the last 6
                        years done in parallel with giving assistance to the ongoing digitization of
                        the museum collections and various reference informations. The design and
                        implementation of the common systems and interfaces is now completed and
                        will be presented at the conference.</p>
                    <p>To make data base systems for the large number of disciplines is a challenge
                        for a small group. An extra challenge is the requirement for
                        interdisciplinary searches. The number of databases and the
                        inter-disiplinarity has forced us to try to make as generic data base
                        solutions as possible. The new information systems replace in turn older,
                        mostly stand alone database applications. This is fortunate since it is
                        easier to create new interconnecting systems instead of connection old ones,
                        although technologies like the Z39.50 standard have open for relatively easy
                        interconnection of databases.</p>
                    <p>The system group has tried to think generically along two axis:<list
                            type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>common interface tools and database functionality</item>
                            <item>common database solutions for common data types like geographical
                                data, bibliographical data, data about persons (legal and real),
                                classification systems in cultural and natural history and so
                                on</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>During the model phase, the collections of each discipline has been described
                        as a set of different object types. We will here use a simplified model for
                        archaeology as an example. The collections of an archaeological museum
                        consist of artifacts, classification and acquisition catalogues, excavation
                        and conservation reports, photos and so on. We have modeled this as object
                        types such as:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>a type of artifact objects</item>
                            <item>a type of finding circumstances (stray finds and excavation)
                                objects</item>
                            <item>a type of conservation objects</item>
                            <item>a transportation type</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>The latter used to describe the movement of the artifacts inside and outside
                        of the museum and is shared with other museums and collections. Other shared
                        object types are persons, publications and geographical places (both natural
                        formations and abstract geographical entities like counties and
                        municipalities).</p>
                    <p>All the object types are implemented as relational databases in Oracle8i.
                        This is not an object oriented DBMS, but the object view of the data is
                        taken care of by a common meta database containing a subset of the data
                        model of each database (scheme). The user interface applications comes in
                        two version, one advanced version implemented in DELPHI5 and a somewhat
                        simpler WWW-interfaced based on plain HTML and Java-scripts. Both versions
                        use the information in the meta database to automatically create a user
                        adjustable search forms and result tables or grids. In the DELPHI5 version
                        each object type is also supplied with one or more object viewers presenting
                        the data connected to a given object. That is, by clicking on a line in the
                        grid of result, a more detailed view of the data is presented. In the photo
                        database a digital photo filing card with detailed information and a thumb
                        is presented. In a dictionary database a formatted entry will occur.</p>
                    <p>The second common feature of the system is the so called list module. The
                        visual metaphor is the ordinary file hierarchy with nested folders and
                        files. The ""file icons"" represent stored queries, hand compiled lists of
                        parts of one or many search result. A list can consist of objects of
                        different types, say, photos from a site, information about artifacts and
                        excavation reports. The folder hierarchy is used to systematize the lists.
                        The lists and the folders can be global, shared by a group or private. When
                        opened, a heterogeneous list will be presented as a collection of icons and
                        some basic information. Each element can be inspected by a viewer
                        corresponding to its object type. A list of objects of the same type can
                        also be seen as a result grid with a predefined layout.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Work with Sites and Monuments Records (SMR)</head>
                    <p>Norway has five archaeological museums. They are situated in Oslo, Bergen,
                        Trondheim, Troms¯ and Stavanger. With the exception of Stavanger, all are
                        university museums. Each museum has a collection of items from its own
                        district. Previously, however, the geographical division between the museums
                        was not so rigid, resulting in the different museums having artifacts from
                        other museum districts. The five archaeological museums have traditionally
                        had the responsibility of keeping and updating the SMR for their part of the
                        country. In 1993 the responsibility, but not the actual records, was
                        transfered to a central body, the Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage
                        Research (NIKU). In 1998 the Museum Project was asked to design and develop
                        a central database solution for a national SMR. The task was completed in
                        March 2000 and the national SRM database is now operating. The system is a
                        client-server solution based on Oracle and a client application developed in
                        Borland Delphi. In addition the SMR has a WWW interface used by local
                        authorities throughout the country. The SRM system is developed so that it
                        will be a seamless part of the information system which is the main
                        objectives of the Project. The WWW version will be demonstrated at the
                        conference.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Electronic exhibitions</head>
                    <p>Based on the digital collections we are building up, we have designed and
                        authored some electronic exhibitions: a folk music exhibition installed on
                        an ambulating Nordic exhibition celebrating a Queen Margerethe the first and
                        the so called Kalmar union (1397 a.d.) and a exhibition over Norwegian
                        coinage the last 1000 years originally used as an exhibition kiosk in the
                        exhibition hall at the University's Coin Collection. The original exhibition
                        contains video and sound which are excluded from the web-version due to
                        copyright limitations. An English version of this coinage exhibition is
                        available on the web and will be demonstrated at the conference.</p>
                    <p>The Museum project has also developed an image database for the photo
                        collections at the university museums, both for storing and cataloging
                        photos. The conversion and cataloging is an ongoing process for the next
                        decade. There are currently 110 000 images in the system. The web version of
                        this system will be available for demonstration.</p>
                </div>
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                <head>References</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct n=""(1)"">
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                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
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                        <note><ptr target=""http://www.muspro.uio.no/ ""/></note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct n=""(2)"">
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m""/>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>The project ran from 1992 to 1997, see <ptr
                                target=""http://www.dokpro.uio.no/""/>.</note>
                    </biblStruct>
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"179","2","Revisiting Revisions: employing XML and XSL to display deeply encoded, multi-versioned text","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Revisiting Revisions: employing XML and XSL to display
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Susan</forename>
                        <surname>Schreibman</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">New Jersey Institute of Technology</name>
                            <email>susan.Schreibman@njit.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Jose</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">B.</forename>
                        <surname>Chua</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">New Jersey Institute of Technology</name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                <p> Many humanities computing projects working in SGML are contemplating porting
                    their data into XML for direct display on the Internet. In addition, for many
                    projects who found the barriers to working with SGML too great, XML and its
                    related technologies offers them the opportunity of working with low cost (free
                    in many cases), more human-friendly tools to encode and display their texts.</p>
                <p>One of the many areas that the suite of XML technologies promises much greater
                    functionality over SGML is in the area of display. Although the editors of a
                    digital project might develop a robust encoding scheme in SGML, unless they
                    could afford the $1000,000 price tag that went with DynaWeb, in addition to the
                    salary of a programmer to work with the system, their encoding was for
                    naught.</p>
                <p>XSL (Extensible Stylesheet Language) provides the breakthrough that projects with
                    limited resources have been waiting for to display deeply-encoded texts. The
                    display possibilities afforded by XSLT (Extensible Stylesheet Transformation
                    Language) provide new challenges and opportunities to the humanities computing
                    community in developing more complex inter- and intra-textual encoding which
                    displays several distinct yet interconnected objects.</p>
                <p>One of the areas begging for investigation in this regard is the use of XML/XSL
                    for versioning poetry. Encoding and presenting multiple versions of poetry has
                    been one of the most challenging areas of SGML encoding using the TEI. There
                    are, indeed, very few examples of it (notable exceptions are The Blake Archive,
                    The Rosetti Archive, and The Piers Plowman Archive).</p>
                <p>Our Poster Session will explore the encoding and display issues of XML-encoded
                    poetry across several versions, using XSL to display multiple views of the texts
                    and its related apparatus. XSL is particularly interesting in this regard in
                    that it is flexible enough to handle nested revisions easily, and can even
                    assign identification numbers based on an elementís nesting level (see Figure
                    1).</p>
                <figure>
                    <head>Figure 1: 3 nested-level identification Using XSL</head>
                </figure>
                <p>This type of identification makes it easier to determine the parent of the
                    revision, and the XSL stylesheet can attach and present it appropriately.</p>
                <p>Publishing textual apparatus has always presented editorial difficulties. In
                    print publication the conundrum of whether to place apparatus at the foot of the
                    text or at the end of the text was never successfully resolved. Digital editing
                    has only compounded these problems, and presenting apparatus across versions
                    presents even greater challenges. Placement depends on which line or lines the
                    note is referring to, and the existence of those lines depends on which version
                    is being viewed. One solution we are currently experimenting with is to place
                    the comment separately from the poem, and to assign linespan and versionspan
                    parameters. The versionspan parameter would indicate which versions the comment
                    is applicable to, and the presentation logic (XSL stylesheet) would suppress or
                    show the comment depending on what version was on display. The linespan
                    parameter would allow the presentation logic to determine where to place the
                    comment. This placement could run alongside the line it referring to, or could
                    be suppressed until a specific user action occurred.</p>
                <p>Since the same comment may be displayed across several versions, it would be
                    beneficial to the reader if he or she knew that a particular comment was already
                    read. However, persistence is not a goal of XML or XSL. The solution would lay
                    in either a server-side or client-side application logic language. The simplest
                    solution would be to give each comment an identification number. A persistence
                    datastore (either on the server or client side) would keep track of which
                    comments were already read and the application logic could then take appropriate
                    action. To give a more concrete example, if an XSLT document transformed an XML
                    document into HTML, a Javascript routine could mark unread and read comments in
                    different colors.</p>
                <p> Another particularly challenging editorial issue has been the representation of
                    the intra-textual writing process. When working with a particular manuscript
                    draft, an editor may make an educated guess as to when additions, deletions and
                    emendations were made on a particular manuscript draft (based on handwriting,
                    ink colour, the logic of the sentences, etc). Indeed, one of the beauties of
                    publishing facsimile editions of manuscripts is that no editorial statement need
                    be made in this regard ñ it is left up the reader to decide on the writing
                    process based on an examination of the evidence. Of course, this textual
                    ambiguity can be replicated in the digital environment by publishing scanned
                    versions of text. Unfortunately, however, encoded texts allow no such
                    ambiguity.</p>
                <p>Representing the intra-textual revision process in an encoded edition is a
                    particularly interesting and challenging problem. In these cases, relative
                    ordering may alleviate the encoding process. We are experimenting with assigning
                    ordering comparative identifications in XML, regardless of the exact revision
                    time relative to other emendations. In the case where two or more revisions
                    cannot be ordered, they are assigned the same ordering identification. It is
                    then up to the presentation logic to determine how to display it. These
                    revisions could be displayed side-by-side, or may require an explicit action on
                    the readerís part to be viewed. Figure 2 shows a very simple example of the
                    types of XML encoding we are experimenting with in encoding an intra-textual
                    variation with apparatus.</p>
                <figure>
                    <head>Figure 2: XML document snippet</head>
                </figure>
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"180","2","Cultures and Literacies: South African students and Western Visual design on the World Wide Web","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Marion</forename>
                        <surname>Walton</surname>
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                    <p>How do user cultures and literacies affect the interpretation of Western
                        visual design on the World Wide Web? The rules of Western visual design (as
                        classified by Kress and van Leeuwen 1996) have become generally accepted as
                        the industry rules of thumb for both usability and aesthetic appeal on the
                        World Wide Web (see Nielsen 2000, Spool et al, Siegel 1996). The conventions
                        of Western visual design are widely used to signify information structure
                        and hierarchy and to facilitate navigation - following Kress, this could be
                        termed a ""grammar of web design"". On the affective level, the somewhat less
                        culturally specific conventions of visual language (as identified by Bonnici
                        1999) are widely used to create user identification with an increasingly
                        'branded' web.</p>
                    <p>Following Kress and Bonnici, this study codifies a grammar of Western web
                        design language, and report the responses of novice users from culturally
                        diverse backgrounds to a selection of key design conventions. Following the
                        approach of the New Literacy Studies, it is to be expected that users with
                        well-developed literacies in Western visual design will be advantaged and
                        consequently more successful in their transition to the web as medium. The
                        consequences of this lack of fit between web designs and the majority of
                        South African users' prior literacies is likely to have significant
                        implications in both the educational and general media contexts</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Culture and web access in South Africa</head>
                    <p>Current understandings of South African web users and web user demographics
                        point to the vital importance of user identity in understanding web use. In
                        addition to user income, gender, age, race, and language have played
                        significant roles in limiting access to the web (Webcheck SA Web User
                        studies, MediaAfrica studies). Broadly speaking, addressing 'cultural'
                        issues will be crucial in extending real access to the web in South Africa
                        (rather than simply supplying infrastructure). Unfortunately, however, the
                        drive to broaden web access has focused primarily on the provision of
                        infrastructure in South Africa. This study focuses on novice web users, who
                        constitute 30% of the first year student intake in the Humanities at the
                        University of Cape Town.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Impoverished presentation values and the difficulties of establishing
                        cultural connections</head>
                    <p>The international web usability literature is not extremely helpful in
                        suggesting strategies to deal with this future demographic shift, neither is
                        the South African web industry adequately prepared for this challenge. Given
                        current demographics, the web industry has, of all South African media, been
                        least concerned with catering for a culturally diverse audience. Despite
                        accusations of racism, the South African media have, over the past decade,
                        become more diverse themselves, and more skilled at speaking to a broader
                        South African audience than they were in the apartheid era. Many of the
                        strategies that have been learned, are not, however, transferable to the
                        web. The web, to use Marshall McLuhan's terminology, is a 'hot' medium,
                        characterised by high interactivity. Consequently it requires a specialised
                        set of literacies which are not entirely transferable from broadcast or
                        print media. On the web, user engagement and involvement are governed by
                        very different factors.</p>
                    <p>In traditional media, presentation values have reigned supreme, and they play
                        a crucial role in manufacturing engagement and credibility. On the web,
                        however, the gratuitous use of rich media in a bandwidth-starved environment
                        has been a fundamental design flaw. On the other hand, without the full
                        power of image and sound, the media are deprived of the rich vocabulary they
                        have developed to convey culturally-inflected messages. On the web, new
                        vocabularies and new repertoires of communicative strategies need to be
                        developed which do not rely in the same way on rich media. This question has
                        not yet been studied to any significant degree, but it will be a crucial
                        determining factor in the uptake of the web in South Africa.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Prior knowledge, literacies, site navigation and searching</head>
                    <p>The major usability problem on the web relates to the characteristic
                        hypertextual disorientation of being 'lost in hyperspace' (first described
                        by Conklin,1987). Surprisingly large numbers of users cannot successfully
                        navigate sites or conduct fruitful searches. These users struggle to
                        construct coherence when interpreting both the text and navigational
                        conventions of a site. Sites are often poorly designed, and do not provide
                        adequate feedback, interaction or collaboration in the user's search for
                        meaning. Primarily, however, sites do not acknowledge the key role of
                        various literacies in determining the success of their users. When sites are
                        targeted at a broad spectrum of users, culturally and linguistically
                        speaking, this problem is intensified.</p>
                    <p>The active construction of coherence is vital to successful navigation of the
                        web. A user's construction of coherence depends on the existence of a
                        crucial set of well-developed prior knowledges. Users only experience web
                        sites as intuitively navigable when there is a close match between their
                        prior knowledge and that assumed by the designer of the site. The range of
                        literacies involved include but are not limited to:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>Knowledge of formal written registers of language (primarily
                                English),</item>
                            <item>Experience in interpreting Western visual design and visual
                                language (Bonnici 1999, Kress and van Leeuwen 1996),</item>
                            <item>Knowledge of web and GUI (Graphical User Interface)
                                conventions,</item>
                            <item>Domain knowledge.</item>
                        </list>
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Approach</head>
                    <p>Recent tendencies in the study of Human Computer Interaction (HCI) have
                        illustrated the limited value of laboratory studies based on a narrow
                        cognitive science approach. This study will draw on new paradigms of
                        research in HCI, which acknowledge that human activity is situated in both a
                        cultural and physical context. The insights of activity theory, in
                        particular, will form the major theoretical grounding of the study. In
                        approaches influenced by activity theory, the focus shifts from a narrow
                        view of humans interacting with computers, to a broader interest in human
                        activity, as mediated by computers (e.g. Nardi 1996).</p>
                    <p>In line with the activity theory approach, field studies have been conducted
                        to observe the web behaviour of 40 first year students.</p>
                    <p>Once they are given access to the internet, people still need the capacity to
                        know what information they want or need, where to find it, and then what to
                        do with it. So far, the South African web industry has ignored this issue.
                        Without a clearer understanding of how to engage a broader cross-section of
                        South Africans in internet use, we will not be able to address the challenge
                        of providing meaningful web resources once people have access.</p>
                    <p>Unfortunately, however, the role of culture and literacy in users'
                        interpretation of the web has been addressed at a rather superficial level
                        in existing studies of usability on the web. These studies tend to originate
                        from a concern with the export of software to culturally different contexts,
                        and consequently focus on the relatively crude practicalities of
                        ""internationalisation"" and ""regionalisation"". The issue of ""culture"" is
                        receiving an increasing amount of attention from the local CHI (Computer
                        Human Interaction) community in South Africa with some excellent theoretical
                        descriptions of the challenges in the field (e.g. Jackson and Lalioti 2000).
                        While this is an exciting development, it is important to guard against
                        approaches which unintentionally reduce culture into a reified social force
                        or homogenized national frame of mind. Given South Africa's history, this
                        stereotyped notion of culture (however well-meaning in intent) can be
                        problematic.</p>
                    <p>In contrast to this approach, important insights into the cultural and
                        literacy factors which influence usability could be gained through adopting
                        the methods of anthropologist Clifford Geertz. Geertz's ""semiotic"" view
                        understands culture as the frames of meaning actively woven as people live
                        their lives: <cit rend=""block"">
                            <quote>""culture is not a power, something to which social events,
                                behaviours, institutions, or processes can be causally attributed;
                                it is a context""</quote>
                            <bibl>(14).</bibl>
                        </cit></p>
                    <p>This study applies the more complex ethnographic methods of cultural analysis
                        in its report on South African students' interaction with visual design on
                        the World Wide Web.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Field studies of users</head>
                    <p>A culturally diverse group of students entering tertiary institutions
                        provides an interesting snapshot of the South Africa's future web users.
                        Field studies have been conducted, consisting of user observations,
                        interviews and bookmark walkthroughs. The following issues have received
                            attention:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>How is the grammar of Western visual design (Kress) manifest in
                                the conventions of web design?</item>
                            <item>How do users' visual literacy in Western design relate to their
                                success in navigational and searching tasks?</item>
                            <item>Are there any key conventions which exert disproportionate
                                influence on user success?</item>
                            <item>How does experience in interpreting Western visual design, relate
                                to successful navigation?</item>
                            <item>How quickly and completely are knowledge of web and GUI
                                conventions acquired?</item>
                            <item>What is the role of visual literacy in the construction of
                                coherence on the web?</item>
                        </list></p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
    </text>
</TEI>","xml","2","",""
"181","2","A  Masters Degree in Digital Humanities at the University of Virginia","1","Americas culture, and its cultural heritage, is migrating very rapidly to 
the World-Wide Web.  To manage that migration, and to take advantage of 
the new intellectual and creative possibilities it offers, we need trained 
professionals who understand both the humanities and information 
technology, and we need them in a number of different areas--museums, 
libraries, teaching, scholarship, publishing, government, communications, 
and entertainment, to name a few.  We can already see that this is true: 
the Library of Congress is putting millions of items in its collection 
online; every major art museum now has a Web site; computers have become 
part of the teaching of literature, history, religious studies, and other 
disciplines; the next generation of scholarly editions of major American 
authors will be electronic editions, and the next generation of paperbacks 
will be E-Books.

The University of Virginias Masters Degree in Digital Humanities 
(enrolling students beginning in Fall of 2002)  will prepare graduate 
students to meet this immediate cultural need, and it will offer them the 
training to apply information technology to the intellectual content of 
the humanities, and to experiment with the analytical possibilities that 
information technology offers the humanities.  At the end of the first 
year of this program, students will have a broad but practical sense of 
the challenges that one must overcome in making humanities content 
tractable to computational methods.  By the end of the second year, 
students will be able to meet such challenges, even if doing so requires 
building new tools or inventing new methods.

The Masters degree in digital humanities will provide students with 
experience in recognizing and articulating problems in humanities 
computing and working collaboratively to solve them, as well as providing 
hands-on experience in designing and creating digital media.  Students who 
complete this degree might go on to further graduate work, for example a 
Ph.D. in a traditional discipline of the humanities, or they might elect 
to seek employment in publishing, communications, commerce, cultural 
institutions, or any of a number of other areas in which their skills and 
intellectual training would have immediate value.

The course of study for the MA in Digital Humanities is a two-year cycle 
of core courses and electives: in order to complete the program, a student 
will take at least 27 hours of coursework at the 500-900 level.  In 
addition, a one-credit internship and a one-credit teaching seminar are 
required, and students will enroll in several non-topical research 
courses, for a total of 48 credit hours.  Successful completion of this MA 
program requires students to have, or to acquire, a working familiarity 
with major computer operating systems (PC, Macintosh, Unix) and software 
more specialized than the usual office applications (e.g., visual 
programming software, multimedia authoring tools, databases), as well as 
with markup languages (e.g., SGML, XML) and programming languages (e.g., 
Perl, Java).  Working with a faculty advisor, each student will develop a 
thesis project that consists partly of work in team-based environments and 
partly of individual writing and reflection. In addition to their course 
work and thesis project, students are required to complete internships: 
most will also lead discussion sections for Media Studies 110, an 
introductory undergraduate course.

Concentration Electives:  The purpose of these electives is to provide 
each student with in-depth graduate course work in a humanities subject 
area, as a context for that students humanities computing--for example, a 
student with background and research interests in medieval literature 
might choose to take these electives in medieval literature, medieval 
history, and linguistics, might choose to intern with an ongoing faculty 
research project in medieval studies, and might design a thesis project 
that applies humanities computing tools and techniques to a research 
problem with a particular medieval text.  Students will complete at least 
three humanities electives during the course of study for the M.A.. These 
courses must be at the 500-900 level and they must be chosen in 
consultation with the faculty advisor.  These courses may be chosen from 
approved humanities offerings outside the College of Arts and Sciences 
(for example, in Architecture, Education, or Law).

Programming Language Requirement: Entering students should be able to 
demonstrate competence in at least one computer programming language by 
passing a ninety-minute examination, administered by the Computer Science 
department at the University and designed to ascertain the students 
understanding of basic concepts and principles of computer programming. 
For students entering without this competence, an intensive summer course 
will be offered in conjunction with Computer Science; other options for 
acquiring this competence include taking an undergraduate course in the 
College of Engineering, provided that prerequisites are met, taking a 
course at Piedmont Virginia Community College, or learning through 
project-based self-instruction.   Whatever course is chosen, students must 
pass the competency exam no later than the beginning of the third semester.


TITLE: The MA in Humanities Computing at the University of Alberta
KEYWORDS: teaching; humanities computing
AUTHOR: Terry Butler
AFFILIATION: University of Alberta
E-MAIL: Terry.Butler@ualberta.ca

A new course of study, leading to the degree of Master of Arts in
Humanities Computing, will be offered to students at the University of
Alberta, starting in September 2001.  The programme has been created to
equip students with the critical and practical tools they need in order to
engage with new research methodologies in their academic study, and to
enter the workforce with knowledge as well as technical skills in the area
of electronic communications and digital media.

The initiative for this degree programme came from Professor Susan Hockey,
at that time Director of the Canadian Institute for Research Computing in
the Arts (CIRCA) at the University of Alberta.  Funding was secured from
the provincial government to initiate this new programme of study at the
Masters level. The anticipated enrolment is up to 15 students per year; the
course of studies is a two-year long, culminating in a MA thesis
(dissertation).

The development of this programme has been a model exercise in
interdisciplinarity, and the nature of the course of study broadens the
scope of Arts degree at our institution.  The programme raises interesting
challenges on a technical front as well, opening up the possibility of the
development of a suite of software tools which will have interest to many
arts disciplines as well as the wider humanities computing community.

A Description of the Programme
The originating request for funding emphasised the practical outcomes for
student of this course of study.  Our experience over the last 10 years has
amply demonstrated that students in arts who have worked with multimedia
and digital technologies as an ancillary to their studies have been very
successful in finding appointments after graduation, both within academia
and also in the private sector.  The Orlando Project is just one such
hot-house for successful graduates from our university.

The MA in Humanities Computing proposal argued that a formal and
well-balanced set of courses, which included the commitment necessary to
conceive and complete a thesis in this field, would provide an even more
solid base for students who wished to view this as their terminal degree.
They would be well equipped to contribute in leadership roles in the very
active fields of web development and design, electronic document delivery,
knowledge and information resource management, and technical
communications.

A broadly-based group of academics at our University has been engaged in
further refinement and development of the proposal, as it moves forward to
receive final University approval and implementation.  It is a striking
character of this workgroup that it includes scholars from a variety of
disciplines, inside the Faculty of Arts and beyond it (members come from
other areas of campus, including Computing Science, Library and Information
Science, and Extension).  Under this impetus, the programme has been
re-visioned to strengthen its second dimension.  It will be, we are
convinced, attractive to students who wish to pursue further studies (at
the doctorate level) in a conventional discipline, and who have a strong
attachment to the use of computing methodologies in their studies, and who
wish to explore the impact of the digital communications revolution on
their field.

The degree of ""Master of Arts in Humanities Computing"" will be offered with
the following specializations: Applied Linguistics, Arts and Design,
Chinese Literature, Classics, Comparative Literature, Drama, East Asian
Studies, English, French, German, History, Italian, Japanese Literature,
Latin American Studies, Linguistics, Music, Philosophy, Political Science,
Religious Studies, Russian, Spanish, and Ukrainian.  This shows that the
term ""humanities"" is being very broadly read by the participating 13
departments in Arts.  It also means the programme offers the very real
possibility of a intense interdisciplinary experience for its students and
instructors - something that many on our campus earnestly desire but which
is difficult to achieve within current academic configurations.

The two streams which this programme will accommodate are articulated in
the current draft of the programme description:

""The MA in Humanities Computing offers a balanced examination of both the
theoretical and practical issues that define Humanities Computing by
focusing on two dimensions of study.  The first is critical thinking about
how computing is enabling and transforming humanities research and teaching
methodologies.  In a set of core courses, students survey the humanities
computing discipline and its underlying technologies as they are employed
in humanities disciplines such as history, literature, languages, cultural
studies, religious studies, philosophy, arts, and music.  The second focus
of the programme is the acquisition of technical knowledge through hands-on
experience with methods, technologies, and principles underlying the
creation, delivery, and analysis of both complex electronic text documents
and non-textual data and images.""

Our intentions for this degree programme lead to an early decision to offer
it as a two-year MA (which is unusual in Arts, but not uncommon elsewhere
at our university).  The necessity of coursework in both humanities
computing and in one other arts discipline dictates this decision.

The course of study consists of 4 required courses in Humanities Computing,
an additional 6 courses (a minimum of  2 of these must be from Humanities
Computing options courses and a minimum of 2 from courses in the home
department), and a final thesis.  Home departments will determine the exact
number of courses, a minimum of 2 and a maximum of 4, a student must take
in his/her area of specialization.  Home departments can approve
discipline-specific and cross-listed courses.

The nature of the proposed programme can be illustrated by the following
list of course offerings:

           HUCO 500  Survey of Humanities Computing

           HUCO 510  Theoretical Issues in Humanities Computing
           (Relationship of computing methods to humanities research
           from several theoretical perspectives.)

           HUCO 520  Technical Concepts and Approaches in Humanities Computing

           HUCO 530  Project Design and Management in Humanities Computing
           (Design, implementation, management, and maintenance of
           Humanities Computing research projects.)

           HUCO 611  Computers and Culture
           (Cultural implications of telecommunications and computing
           technology.)

           HUCO 612  Electronic Texts
           (Creation, encoding, analysis, and management of
           electronic texts.)

           HUCO 613  Cyberspace and Networked Culture

           HUCO 614  Knowledge Management and Analysis in the Humanities
           (Databases, textbases, graphical and statistical analysis.)

           HUCO 615  Computer Tools for Humanities Teaching and Learning
           (Theory and practice of computer pedagogy in the Humanities.)

           HUCO 616  Multimedia for the Humanities
           (Exploration of the nature and cultural significance of
           multimedia.)

           HUCO 617  Topics in Humanities Computing

           HUCO 618  Directed Reading in Humanities Computing

The first four courses are required Humanities Computing courses.  Of
special interest is the Project Design and Management course, which
students would take in their first year.  As well providing students with
formal training in project design and management, during this course
students will be expected to develop their thesis proposal, with a goal of
completing the thesis at the end of the second year.

The programme intends to take full advantage of the technologies which
enable distributed learning, and to bring experts in the field from around
the world into the learning environment.

Student Profiles
The students we expect to apply to this programme may match one of the
following profiles:
* Arts graduates who wish to get advanced computing experience and enter
the workforce
* Arts students who wish to continue with further graduate study, and who
see electronic communications and digital technologies as essential to
their research approach, or as fundamental factors in their reading of
their field of study
* students who already have some training or work experience in multimedia
and digital communications, but lack the theoretical underpinnings in this
field and wish to acquire them to prepare for more senior work

We anticipate the outcomes for students to include:
* overview knowledge of the field of humanities computing
* practical skills with the management and manipulation of digital forms of
knowledge, tempered by an understanding of their processes of creations and
the limitations of their applicability to specific research problems
* reflective awareness of the issues at the intersection of traditional
fields of study and the potentialities of digital communications

Resources for the Programme
The Faculty of Arts is hiring two new tenure-track staff to support the
teaching and student supervision that this program entails.  Additional
teaching and supervision will be provided by faculty from the participating
departments, who will each teach (probably) one course.  Funding has also
been provided to the English department (who is providing an administrative
home for the program) for additional clerical support.  An additional
technical staff position has also been accommodated.

Assessment of Student Work
The students' thesis proposals are expected to range from traditional
academic studies using computing methodologies, to more practical
initiatives which may have a connection with computing problems outside
academia.  Assessment of this work may become an opportunity for  us to
partner with computing professionals elsewhere on campus and beyond it, and
with others in the business of media, communications, publishing, and
electronic commerce.

Computing Facilities
This new programme creates a difficult challenge when it comes to providing
appropriate computing resources.  The University of Alberta is well-endowed
with modern computing facilities, such as computer laboratories and
technology-enabled ""smart"" classrooms.  These facilities can be used by
programme participants effectively, we believe.

However, the variety of specializations which are involved will require the
provision of some unique, high-end computing facilities.  Areas such as
* electronic music
* digital image manipulation and production
* computer animation
* text encoding
* text corpus analysis
will require specialized facilities.  In these areas, instructors wish
students to work with the computer platform and software which is most
commonly used for this work in the commercial field.  This means the
students of the programme will need access to both powerful and up-to-date
Windows/PC systems, Macintoshes, and Unix workstations.   Partnerships with
local firms are being explored to develop a supply of appropriate computer
systems that can be refreshed in this frenetically changing technology
area.

However, beyond these specific software packages, there is a great
opportunity to establish a computing infrastructure for this programme
which is based upon principles of open source, shared software development,
and  client/server architecture.  These MA students will be gaining
experience with the manipulation of data from a variety of sources (text
corpora, data bases, search engines); we will want them to gain experience,
not with creating computer programs from scratch, but with an understanding
of programming concepts, and the ability to ""tweak, adjust, and tinker""
with computer programs.  The Unix-based software environment, using common
shared tools, is ideal for this.  The programme may choose to invest its
collective efforts in the development and enhancement of existing
humanities computing software which has been built with open source
software such as:
      Linux
      awk, sed
      perl
      php
      Java
The programme hopes to provide a computing infrastructure for instructors
and students which provides everyone with large capacity data storage,
access to Unix systems and common Unix command-line programs, SQL standard
servers, and web sites run with apache.

As for networking, our goal is to create a physical ""hub"" for the students
in this programme, as a place of social interaction as well as
collaborative work and learning.  To this end we are exploring the creation
of a wireless networked space for students and instructors, to which the
participants would bring laptop computers in order to network (in two
senses of the word). Laptop computers might be loaned out to students on an
as-needed basis, or possibly leased by the students for the duration of the
programme.  Smaller remote hubs could be created in one or two other
Faculty of Arts.","txt","2","",""
"182","2","Using the TEI to author web sites","1","The Text Encoding Initiative DTD is usually classified as descriptive,
suitable for encoding digital versions of existing books, or
for creating specialized publications such as dictionaries. Less
commonly, it is used for academic books and papers, and original
documents such as the TEI Guidelines themselves. In this paper, we
address the problems of using TEI markup in an even less obvious domain,
that of `normal' Web sites, using
the Oxford University Computing Services http://www.oucs.ox.ac.uk
site as an example. Some examples are also given from the TEI web site
itself. We cover:

 - the conversion of existing HTML documents (c.6000) to TEI XML
 - the (small) extensions to the TEI DTD which are needed, and usage notes
   (eg uses of `rend' and `type' attributes)
 - the development of a comprehensive, flexible, set of XSLT specifications to
   convert the TEI XML documents into a linked web tree
 - consideration of management issues

Why choose the TEI DTD for a web site? The most important reason is
that we can harness experience with TEI paragraph-level markup, but
another argument in favour of TEI is the mature metadata support in
<teiHeader>. Using this allows us the option of converting to RDF
later on (since teiHeader should be as rich), without the
unfamiliarity of new elements.

The conversion process is typical of an exercise that will have to be 
carried out my millions of people over the next few years; cleaning up
bad HTML is a well-understood process, but interpreting the result as
TEI is not always easy (structured divisions present special
problems). Less obviously, the conversion process often involves
manual stitching together of a set of HTML files into a single TEI
document for much easier editing and maintenance.

The TEI DTD proves (perhaps surprisingly) perfectly suitable for
general web pages. Some of the extensions needed are:
 - the standard TEI Lite extensions
 - addition of short-cut attributes to <xptr> and <xref> to allow
   URLs directly (rather than via entities)
 - similarly, provision of `file', `scale', `width' and `height'
    attributes to <figure>, for practical authoring
 - addition an element <email> to the allowed contents for <address>
 - addition of MathML as the content for <formula>

As with any TEI project, we need to build up a repertoire of `rend'
and `type' attribute values for various elements. These include
 - `fancy' and `doublespace' types for lists
 - `new' and `noframe' rend attributes for <xref> and <xptr>, to
    specify links which must start a new window, and escape from a
    frame, respectively
 - `code' rend attribute for <hi>, to mimic HTML's <b><code>
 - `interpret' type attribute for <xptr> to support transclusion
but of course most visible web effects are confined to the
stylesheets. XML processing instructions are used to generate some of
the HTML <meta> elements. It is likely that the tables will need more and more
`rend' support in future, and this is the most likely area where we
would drop TEI in favour of another table schema.

The greatest amount of work is in writing XSLT stylesheets to render TEI
to HTML (either dynamically on the web browser client, or on the web
server). The results are coupled with CSS stylesheets, but in this
system at present CSS is relegated to a fairly minor role, since we
need considerable amounts of the transformation for which XSLT is well
suited. Most obviously, we often want to convert a single TEI document
into a set of HTML web pages, but there are many other examples of
generated or rearranged text. The resulting set of XSLT specifications
(over 3000 lines of code) is notable in three ways:
 1. It makes heavy use of the `import' feature of XSLT, allowing for
    modular and cascading stylesheets; a group of pages can easilu have
    their own wrapper around the main stylesheets, and a particular page
    can have its own wrapper around the group one.

 2. There are over 60 points identified where the result is
    parameterized, allowing for simple overrides in a wrapper
    file. These cover everything from the words used for `Next page',
    through the depth at which <div> elements produce new pages, to a
    switch which generates an HTML frameset presentation.

 3. There is a web form which allows a new user to derive an XSLT
    wrapper around the stylesheets, in a manner analogous to the TEI
    Pizza Chef, without knowing very much about XSLT. More experienced
    programmers can override any aspects of the stylesheets, obviously.

The paper shows examples of how the same document can be presented
on the web in a variety of ways by minor changes to the XSLT
stylesheet.

The management of web pages is always an issue, whatever
authoring system is used. We prefer to use a conventional change
management system which interacts with the <teiHeader>, and provides
plenty of flexibility for controlling a multi-author environment.

In conclusion, this paper demonstrates that authoring static web pages
in the TEI is reasonable, and that XSLT stylesheets provide a powerful
tool for manipulating them.

","txt","2","",""
"183","2","Typographic Regularization in the WWP Textbase","1","Introduction

In English texts printed before 1630, the letters v, u, j, and i did not have the values that they have today. The word that we spell 'jury' was written 'iury'; the word that we spell 'ivory' was written 'iuory', etc. Another common typographical convention, characteristic of somewhat later texts, was to represent 'W' as 'VV' or 'Vv'. These archaic conventions make early texts difficult to read and compromises the matching of forms in information retrieval tasks. The Women Writers Project uses SGML tagging to encode a regularized spelling for such typographical variants, thereby allowing the option to display and search on either the original form or the regularized form.

In the first 300 or so texts encoded by the WWP from 1989 to 1999, nearly half contained some manifestation of typographical difference from modern English requiring regularization. Encoding this information by hand was time-consuming and inefficient, but about 90 texts were manually tagged with regularized forms by encoders. These provided a substantial body of useful data for understanding the nature, extent, and frequency of distribution of what we have termed 'vuji' and 'VV' phenomena.

The Scholarly Technology Group undertook to develop a system to automatically identify words subject to this typographic convention and tag them with the regularized form. This system has two major components: an SGML-aware wordlist-based program, and a set of pattern matching rules derived from linguistic principles for English consonants and vowels. Both components have been designed to work with WWP markup conventions for such things as word division across a line break, errors or abbreviations within a word, and structural elements to be excluded from regularization.

The wordlist-based program matches whole words with a dictionary list of known forms requiring regularization and replaces the word in the text with a form containing appropriate markup. The pattern-matching component uses a set of regular expressions to identify probable candidates for regularization that have not been found on the wordlist. Each such match found is presented to the encoder who can accept or reject regularization, as appropriate.

Encoding Early Printed Texts

Example of original text

    Anne A∫kewes an∫were vnto 
    Iohan La∫∫els letter.
    Oh frynde mo∫t derelye belo
    ued in God. I maruele not a lyt
    tle, vvhat ∫huld moue yow, to iud
    ge in me ∫o ∫ledre a faythe, as to
    feare deathe, vvhych is the ende
    of all my∫erye.
Askew, Anne. The lattre examinacyon of Anne Askewe, 1547 Marpurg, 1547. Women Writers Online. Women Writers Project, Brown University. Unpublished.
WWP encoding practice documents structural features of the text, such as paragraphs (p element), chapters, stanzas, etc. (div element with a type attribute); typographical features such as line breaks (lb element), page breaks (pb), and catchwords & signatures (mw with type attribute); renditional characteristics such as italicization and superscription; and links to textual annotations. Intra-word entity references are used for characters that are not on the modern computer keyboard, including soft hyphens (shy), long s (s), accented letters (e.g., eacute), and macrons (e.g., emacr) -- macrons are further documented with an abbr element whose expan attribute indicates the specific nasal consonant elided in the original. In addition to the expansion of macrons, intra-word elements often occur for a variety of reasons, including editorial insertion of omitted characters or soft hyphens (in the corr attribute of sic), editorial correction of other obvious errors (also in corr of sic), expansion of some abbreviations (in the expan attribute of abbr), and, of course, the tagging of 'vuji' and 'vv' characters with their modern form (in the reg attribute of orig).

WWP encoded text:

<speaker rend=""align(center)slant(upright)"">Anne A&s;kewes an&s;were <orig reg=""u"">v</orig>nto 
<lb><orig reg=""J"">I</orig>ohan La&s;&s;els letter.</speaker> 
<p>Oh frynde mo&s;t derelye belo<sic corr=""&shy""></sic> 
<lb><orig reg=""v"">u</orig>ed in God. I mar<orig reg=""v"">u</orig>ele not a lyt<sic corr=""&shy""></sic> 
<lb>tle, what &s;huld mo<orig reg=""v"">u</orig>e yow, to <orig reg=""j"">i</orig>ud<sic corr=""&shy""></sic>
<lb>ge in me &s;o &s;l<abbr expan=""en"">&emacr;</abbr>dre a faythe, as to<anchor id=""ter306"" corresp=""lat306"">
<lb>feare deathe, whych is the ende 
<lb>of all my&s;erye.

Critical editions of early texts usually retain old spelling and typographical features of the copy text. Editions for general reading usually normalize typographical conventions, even when they retain the ""old-spelling texture"" [1]. The SGML version makes it possible to display either the original (as above) or a regularized version (as below).

Regularized display:

    Anne Askewes answere unto
    Johan Lassels letter.
    Oh frynde most derelye belo-
    ved in God. I marvele not a lyt-
    tle, what shuld move yow, to jud-
    ge in me so slendre a faythe, as to
    feare deathe, whych is the ende
    of all myserye.
In addition to providing considerable improvement in readability, the WWP's encoding practice makes it possible to retrieve early attestations of forms that would otherwise not qualify as 'matches' to a search query. For example, a search for beloved within two words of God would fail to match against the appropriate line in the unregularized Askew text.[2]

Automated Markup Insertion

This paper describes

creating an initial wordlist
The procedure we used to create an initial list of words which would require 'vuji' markup based on the set of 90 or so texts that had already been manually tagged; the format of the wordlist itself; and constraints that we found to be necessary.
applying the wordlist program
characterizing the distribution of the phenomena
Careful analysis of the 90 or so manually tagged files along with some research into physical bibliography allowed us to determine the linguistic rules underlying the typographical convention of our texts.
creating the pattern matching program
Note: the complete paper discusses these algorithms in summary and in detail; during the presentation they will probably only be summarized.
the resulting process
Encoders can enter the original typography during initial capture, and use the 'vuji' programs in a final pass through the text to insert appropriate orig reg markup.
continual build-up of the wordlist
Part of the interactive pattern-matching process (the second component) is to add those words which required 'vuji' markup to the wordlist for the first component.
Conclusion

The project described in this paper tests the extent to which TEI encoding of 'vuji' phenomena can be automated, and characterizes the human intervention required to evaluate and process this feature of early modern English texts.

Notes

[1]
F. Bowers. ""Readability and regularization in old-spelling texts of Shakespeare."" The Huntington Library Quarterly, 50 (1987), 199-227.
[2]
The problem of retrieval of variant and archaic spellings remains; it is our expectation that the research involved in automating 'vuji' tagging will support the solution of this more difficult challenge.
Copyright © 2000 by Syd Bauman, Jacque Russom, and Brown University","txt","2","",""
"184","2","TEI and Topic Maps","1","Introduction

Over the last few years, a large number of texts and other resources have been encoded using markup according to the TEI guidelines1 and other document type definitions. While the TEI provides both a comprehensive theoretical framework for text encoding and a practical guide to its appliance to individual texts or even text groups, there is little to find that goes beyond the encoding of individual documents and gives advice at how to proceed with an analytic framework that might help encode not just concrete features of a text, but also aspects of the world as presented through the encoded texts.

With the growing number of encoded material, the absence of more abstract ways of encoding what a text talks about becomes all the more felt. There is so much interesting use these texts could put to, but so little to work with.

Topic Maps

One of the attempts of providing a path to a solution to this problem, or maybe more accurate, a way to approach this problem, has been the work that culminated in the ISO standard 13250, SGML Topic Maps2. This standard provides a model and architecture for the semantic structuring of information networks. It has the potential to provide a bridge between the information as contained in texts encoded with schemes like the TEI, other information resources and information about the world in general.

A good general introduction to topic maps is available in Steve Pepper, Euler, Topic Maps, and Revolution, in: Proceedings of XML Europe 99 Conference, GCA, Alexandria, VA, 1999, Steve Pepper, Navigating Haystacks, Discovering Needles, in: Markup Languages, 1999 and Hans Holger Rath and Steve Pepper, Topic maps at work, in: Charles F. Goldfarb and Paul Prescod (eds):XML Handbook, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall 2000.

The topic maps standard describes a model and interchange format for topic maps. A topic map is an SGML/XML document3 in which different element types are used to represent topics, occurrences of topics, and relationships (or `associations') between topics.

Application of topic maps to texts of the Chinese Chan-School

In this project, I am trying to use a topic maps mechanism to encode some information in a number of 10th to 13th century Chan-chronicles. The texts have already been marked up according to the TEI guidelines. With the TEI markup, the basic structure of the documents and features like names of persons and places, datable events and the like have been marked. Topic maps are now used to encode the following features in the text:

Topics and occurrences of Chan-masters and other persons, places, datable events
Quotations and allusions occurring in the text
Interjections and comments of later Chan-masters relating to a given anecdote
Information about the lineage of Chan-masters
Other external information related to these topics
Links to other resources relevant to topics occurring in the texts
In addition, a typology of anecdotes and their instances is in preparation. This typology will also be exposed as a topic map. This will allow to more easily trace and visualize the development and relationship of topoi in the anecdotes.
Preliminary results

As can be seen, the research reported in this paper tries to go beyond the encoding of individual texts and tries to overlay a layer of abstraction on it, that will allow the exploitation of this layer, as well as any external information attached through it, when analyzing these texts.

Although the technology surrounding the use of topic maps is still in its infancy, it is expected that by the time this paper will be presented, there will be browsers of topic maps, that allow accessing the encoded material directly through the maps. This will allow researchers to formulate and explore questions concerning the material in a way that is much closer to the needs of a researcher than is the case with current information retrieval technology. Possible questions with meaningful answers will include the following:

Can the development of topoi in these texts seen in the context of lineage affiliation?
Are there anecdotes with similar content attributed to masters in different lines?
Is the lineage affiliation interrelated strongly with the area of origin of a master?
Are lineages organized in geographic patterns?
Depending on the availability of sufficiently fine-grained data in the texts, and of course bearing in mind that the picture presented in the text is not necessary of historical accuracy, some of the following questions could possible also be traced in such a topic map browser:

Which masters have been at a given temple at a given time?
Could two masters (who are reported to have met) actually have met? If yes, where?
What other masters did a given master encounter? At which time in his life?
There are of course an unlimited number of questions that could be posed and, hopefully, meaningfully answered with such a browser.
Conclusions

Topic maps provide a new and efficient way to access the information in encoded texts. The research project described in this paper tried to use topic maps to overlay the texts with a layer of pointers and topic descriptions. Preliminary results have been encouraging and a great potential is seen in further research in this area.

It will be particularly interesting to see, how a hierarchical layer of topic maps could be build, which would allow to further tune the outlook on the available information by switching only to the (specialized) topic maps needed for a specific question. It would also be interesting to see, how a system could use the information provided by users of the topic map browser to add additional topics, relationships and occurrences on the fly. In particular, this would allow a functionality similar, but much more powerful, to the collaborative annotations promoted by the World Wide Web Consortium4.

Notes

1. The Association for Computers and the Humanities (ACH), The Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and The Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing (ALLC) Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, edited by C. M. Sperberg-McQueen and Lou Burnard, TEI P3 Text Encoding Initiative Chicago, Oxford, May 16, 1994.

2. International Organization for Standardization, ISO/IEC 13250, Information technology - SGML Applications - Topic Maps Geneva, 2000

3. Formally, the above mentioned standard ISO 13250 is developed in the family of SGML standards. Work is currently on the way, to translate the model to the XML family, which will allow for better integration with XML technologies like XLink, XPointer and XML namespaces, that are not available in SGML. A first specification of XML Topic Maps (XTM) is expected in the near future.

4. See this page on the World Wide Web Consortium's web server for an overview of the technology, which includes the use of RDF, XLink and XPointer to overlay annotations to Web pages.","txt","2","",""
"185","2","Symbiosis or serfdom?...""Are you/we/they being Served?""","1","1. Introduction  (Burnard)

We often talk rather glibly about the ""humanities computing community""
without much examination of the nature and needs of the communities
actually served. Perhaps if we understood the concerns and
requirements of our clientele a little better we would have a better
grasp on what distinguishes a a humanities computing unit from any
other kind of computing unit. In this session we will explore varied
perspectives on the relationship between the users and providers of
humanities computing services, as this has developed at our own
institution over the last quarter century.

We suggest that the key to understanding humanities computing is a
focus on the needs and requirements of our clientele. Because we are
located in a service department rather than an academic one, we have
grown up in a user-driven culture. At the same time, because
humanities computing was originally a minority enthusiasm, we have
also grown up with the need to stimulate demand, and to demonstrate
the benefits of leading edge technology to a sometimes skeptical
audience.

That audience has always extended beyond the immediate community of
academic teaching and research staff at our own University. Twenty
years ago, when perhaps only a handful of staff at UK universities
were aware of the potential uses of IT in teaching and research,
Oxford took a leading role in promoting and exploring its use
nationally and internationally.  Twenty years on, as we try to balance
the demand for local services with the need to satisfy external
committments, we find that, increasingly, evangelism is less important
than evaluation.

In this open-ended debate, each of four components of the HCU will
present its own perspective on the same basic issues: which parts of
the diverse and dispersed user community does it seek to serve; how
has it responded to those user-needs in the past; to what extent has
it helped articulate and direct user needs; and what development of
them does it now anticipate. We plan to leave ample time for attendees
to contribute their own experience and views to what we anticipate
will be a lively and wide-ranging discussion.


1. The Oxford Text Archive (Morrison)


Satisfying the expectations and needs of our users has been a constant
challenge for the Oxford Text Archive for almost twenty-five years.
Discovering what these needs are and how they can be met has proved to
be an evolving task. Some of the factors which motivated these changes
will be examined during this presentation, specifically we want to
look at how the OTA has responded to user feedback in the past, and if
this feedback has shaped our current and future policies.

Up until the early nineties, the core users of the OTA formed a
relatively small and geographically divers group of humanities
scholars and computer-scientists who had a vested interest in the
creation and use of digital textual material. These early users tended
to be knowledgeable about the technology they were utilizing and,
despite the cumbersome nature of the early methods of transferring
texts to and from the OTA, most were satisfied with the services
provided. In the nineties, the means of accessing the OTA was modified
in order to exploit the new possibilities offered by the web, and our
user base increased significantly. How OTA policy was modified to meet
the needs of these new users will also be discussed here.

The OTA's involvement with the Arts and Humanities Data Service has
led to an on-going requirement to assess and be responsive to users'
needs -- which have proved to be both demanding and sometimes
contradictory. This has encouraged us to review the extent to which
services like the OTA can and should be user driven, and whether both
the users and the wider community might be better served in the
long-term by services adopting a more proactive approach.

As part of the AHDS, the OTA works closely with bodies such as the
UK's Arts and Humanities Research Board to ensure that publicly funded
research producing digital outputs is carried out in accordance
with the latest thinking on standards and best practice. To this end,
we offer a consultancy service and a programme of workshops and
publications which are designed to encourage scholars to evaluate
their approach to the techniques and tools which are used to produce
and exploit digital resources -- not simply for their own benefit, but
also for the benefit of future generations of scholars. In this way we
not only respond to the needs of our users for advice and guidance, we
also hope to influence the nature and scope of those needs, and try to
ensure that scholars are asking the ""right"" questions of their
material, of themselves, and of us.

2. The Centre for Humanities Computing  (Lee)

The Centre for Humanities Computing (CHC) has been in existence for
over 12 years and its basic remit as the focal point of support for
the University of Oxford's humanities faculties has never actually
changed, though its user group has. As originally conceived, the CHC
was designed to fill the gap in IT provision for the humanities at
Oxford by providing a centralised centre of advice and for
hardware. This was needed because of the fragmented teaching structure
at Oxford, based on a collegiate system, which meant that Arts
lecturers had no central place to go to (such as a departmental IT
service). In this sense, our original user group consisted of the
small number of IT-literate Arts lecturers. In the early days their
demands were few but highly specialised, predictably to help them with
research projects.

Over the years this has changed. The user base expanded initially by
requests from graduates for access to specialised advice and
facilities, and then to undergraduates. As more and more of the
lecturers acquired personal computers in the nineties, a need
developed to make them aware of the potential use of IT in teaching
and research. We addressed this by running a full-day 'taster' course
billed as a 'Humanities Training Day' and open to staff and
postgraduates, which provided an overview of many areas of humanities
computing with guidance on follow-up courses. This turned out to be a
particularly effective strategy: in many cases, graduates attending
the course would then return to their faculties and enthuse their
supervisors. To date this course has been running for 10 years,
repeated 6-9 times each year, with average attandance numbering 25 on
each day).

Yet still the users demand more. Feedback to the CHC comes from a
variety of sources, the users themselves, and faculty IT
committees. Over the past three years the demand has been threefold:
specialised training for lecturers with direct reference to teaching;
specialised training for graduates to enhance their research skills;
and a structured course for humanities computing specialists. From a
handful of courses run on an idiosyncratic level throughout the early
nineties, the CHC now runs a prolonged and structured series of
courses throughout the entire academic year. In the first term these
mainly consist of training sessions for new humanities gradautes (many
of these are compulsory) followed in the second and third terms by a
series of modules (all voluntary) covering several areas in much
greater depth (e.g. XML, multimedia, databases, etc.).

In addition, throughout the year there are milestone one-day events
entitled 'Essential IT Skills for Humanities Lecturers', 'Humanities
Training Days', and 'Bibliographies and Bibliographic Concepts'. These
culminate in an annual national one-day colloquium held in the Oxford
Union Debating Chamber each May. In total the Centre trains or teaches
around 1,000 staff and students each year.

The CHC also maintains a user area which adapts to changing user
demands (i.e. by maintaining a stock of humanities computing titles)
and exapnding into new areas such as Digital Video. As more and more
computers become available to students aross campus (either through
the increase in personal computers or faculty computing rooms) the
need to make the CHC a centre for more specialised facilities has
increased (e.g. CD-ROM writing, scanning and OCR, software
depositories, etc.).

In presenting this history, we will try to assess the extent to
which changes have been reactive and the extent to which they been
proactive.  We will argue that user feed back is one reliable way of
detecting emergent trends and hence avoiding being wrong-footed by
future developments.


3. Humbul: the Humanities Hub (Stephens)

In the 15 years or so since its inception Humbul has undergone many
changes, both in its technology and its user community.  The early
Humbul gave its users a personalised service, mostly because there
were only a handful of users and they all seemed to be on first name
terms. As it grew in popularity this level of personalisation became
hard to maintain. With the move to the web in the mid 90s the feeling
that the individual user had any part to play in the information they
were presented with was almost completely lacking. The static nature
of the web, coupled with the lack of staff, time, or money meant that
Humbul became a fixed collection of links which, if anything,
reflected the interests of the few people who could spare the time to
keep it up to date.

Now, as a JISC funded service, we are again bringing user requirements
back into the picture. We are trying to greatly extend the number of
people involved in collecting and cataloguing links for the
collection. We have developed a web based cataloguing system so that
cataloguers can be distributed across the world and can work at their
own convenience.

The resulting records, stored in a database, are free from any fixed
way of viewing them. The user can already choose from a number of
different ways of looking at the data as records are catalogued, for
instance, under different resource types, intended audience, or
period. We are currently in the process of greatly extending this.

By tracking what our users do, and allowing them to set certain
options for themselves, we hope to be able to profile individuals and
set up a 'MyHumbul' view. The user can set parameters on the type of
records they are interested in, for instance: primary sources in
Philosophy or Religion & Theology records covering such and such a
period, aimed at postgrads. They can choose to be alerted by email
when new resources appear which fall within their criteria. They can
mark records as 'of interest' when browsing or searching the Humbul
collection and add them to their profile. They can submit a query to
the search service and be alerted by email if a resource which fits
their query becomes available.

The user also has various options for re-using the data
elsewhere. They can dynamically include Humbul content in their own
web site, they can also choose to have the data delivered to them in
XML, or as plain text, or maybe as a bibliographic record suitable for
importing into Endnote.

This is all a long way from the sort of personal individual service
with which Humbul began and implementing the technologies to allow
profiling and individualization in the present enviroment brings many
headaches. In this presentation I will give an idea of some of the
ways we are bringing Humbul back to its roots.



4. The Humanities Computing Development Team  (Porter)

The HCDT was set up to meet a specific need expressed by Humanities
users at the University of Oxford, when they were surveyed in 1998
about their use of technology in teaching and research. According to
the survey, Humanities staff would like to make more use of technology
but did not consider that they had the necessary expertise or time:
the HCDT was set up to meet both these needs, and thus to fill a gap
in the services provided by the other sections of the HCU, by
facilitating collaborative development of small, medium and
large-scale web sites with a specific teaching or research focus.

As a dedicated technical development unit, the HCDT has three different
levels of users with whom there are varying degrees of interaction: the
content creator; the system maintainer, and the end-user (which can in
itself contain several sub-categories of use).  There is regular contact
with the content creator so we can ensure that their needs are being
met; but it is more difficult to define the needs of the system maintainer
and end-user. We have developed a process to try to accomplish this
through a combination of informed prediction of needs, surveying expert
users, and focussed end-user feedback and discussion sessions.

We applied this three-stage process to the development of the Sphakia
Survey Internet Edition that was developed for, and is used by, a wide
range of users including everyday people with an interest in the
region; researchers in classical archaeology and history; and students in
these subject areas. This position paper will report upon the final
evaluation of the Edition by the end-users and use the findings to the
evaluate the success of this three-stage process in the design of
user-oriented, teaching and research web sites.","txt","2","",""
"186","2","Publishing originally digital scholarship at the University of Virginia","1","Driven by the ubiquity of the World-Wide Web and by an interest in the 
computer as a research tool for the humanities, scholars are producing 
originally digital publications with increasing frequency.  These are not 
E-books, not digital derivatives of print publications, and because they 
don't fit the traditional production, distribution, or economic practices 
of university-press publishing, they pose a new challenge to scholarly 
publishing.  Moreover, because university presses are not capitalized, they 
are not in a position to experiment while continuing their full 
book-publishing programs.  As a result, very few presses have any 
experience in publishing originally digital scholarship, there is very 
little information available to help presses decide when or how to get 
involved, and most originally digital scholarship is produced without the 
benefit of the editorial, design, marketing, and cost-recovery services 
that a press can offer.

Over the past eight years, the Institute for Advanced Technology has 
produced originally digital scholarly work in a number of different 
disciplines: some of these projects are currently being used to investigate 
the issues involved in collecting and preserving originally digital 
scholarly work, under a collaboration between the University of Virginia's 
Digital Library Research and Development Group and the Institute for 
Advanced Technology in the Humanities, funded last year for three years by 
the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.   John Unsworth, Director of the Institute 
for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, in collaboration with Nancy 
Essig, Director of the University Press of Virginia, has secured support 
from the office of the President of the University of Virginia, and has 
applied for new external support (to be announced in December 2000) that 
would allow the Press to establish an electronic imprint under which to 
experiment with these and other scholarly projects from universities across 
the country (and around the world), in order to explore what electronic 
publishing can mean and to investigate a range of strategies and options 
for cost recovery in the publishing of originally digital scholarship in 
the humanities.

The goals of this project are:

       To select and publish scholarly work of the highest standard
       To find innovative ways to apply the traditional publishing skills 
of editing, design, and marketing to new media
       To analyze the initial conditions for each publication (the nature 
of its publishable products, the cost of its production, the size of its 
audience, etc.)
       To develop for each project a publishing plan and a business 
strategy designed (with those initial conditions in mind) to maximize 
distribution while recovering the unfunded costs of producing the scholarly 
publication
       To document and analyze the success or failure of each of these 
plans, and to publish that information and analysis for the benefit of 
other academic publishers, policy-makers, and authors.

An electronic imprint at the University Press of Virginia has the 
opportunity to experiment with a range of very different scholarly 
products, and can therefore develop a number of different publishing plans 
and business models for originally digital scholarly publications.  One 
might well ask whether it wouldn't make more sense to develop one basic 
business strategy, and then apply it to a wide range of scholarly projects 
with minor alterations for each project.  We believe it is possible that 
such a prototype would emerge from the experiments we propose, but we also 
know that the range of initial conditions (costs of production, audience, 
marketable byproducts, etc.) varies widely for these originally digital 
scholarly publications.  Perhaps what should emerge is not one, but two, or 
three, or four such prototypes: if we begin by trying to make each case fit 
a standard solution, we would doubtless find that this solution works in 
some cases--but we would not then find the solution that works for the 
other cases.  In short, while we do not anticipate that a very large number 
of business strategies will be required, we doubt that one size fits all.

The experiment we propose will combine the traditional activities of 
publishing (list-building, evaluation, shaping, and promotion) with 
technological innovation, to produce publications that exceed the 
capabilities of print while retaining the core values of scholarship.  In 
any trial or experiment, one has to know at the outset what are the 
criteria by which success or failure will be measured, and what outcomes 
are expected.  Some that we know will be important include:
       Intellectual Criteria: An electronic imprint at the University 
Press of Virginia must contribute to realizing the core objective of the 
Press, namely to ""advance the intellectual interests not only of the 
University of Virginia, but of institutions of higher learning throughout 
the state.""  The imprint can do this in at least three ways:
       Dissemination: An electronic imprint should seek to deliver the 
goods it produces as inexpensively--and thereby, as widely--as 
possible.  If it is possible to do so and recover costs, the ideal 
situation will be for the online form of the scholarly publication to be 
free to its users.

       Experimentation: Since electronic publishing is still in its 
infancy, an electronic imprint should--within the limits of 
cost-recovery--not only accept but embrace change, experimentation, and 
even instructive failures.  This plan will offer an opportunity for 
authors, project developers, and publishing staff to work together in new 
ways and to consider together what publishing originally digital 
scholarship means.

       Education: Inasmuch as the medium of digital information is a 
matter of theoretical and historical research and instruction in other 
parts of the University, an electronic imprint should strive to enhance and 
extend in practical ways in those educational and research programs, and in 
particular Media Studies.

       Economic criteria: Given the outlook for future State subsidy of 
scholarly publishing, an electronic imprint should aim to recover its own 
costs and the unfunded costs of producing the scholarly work it publishes, 
though (see Dissemination, above) it should not expect to profit much 
beyond that.

       Service to Scholarly Publishing:  As noted above, an important 
outcome of this project, during its initial phase, will be the 
documentation and analysis of initial fiscal conditions, business 
strategies, and income results.  This documentation and analysis will be of 
use not only to the imprint itself, as a tool for assessment and planning, 
but also to other university presses trying to engage in electronic 
scholarly publishing without undue risk.","txt","2","",""
"187","2","Towards a Politics of Text Encoding","1","Increasingly important as a provider of scholarly resources, text
encoding is moving into the humanities mainstream [1]. I have argued
elsewhere that text encoding can and should play a central role in a
reformulated English department (Caton 2000); this paper argues the
corollary. Like any social practice, text encoding rests upon a set of
assumptions. Some of these, strongly rooted in an empiricist view of
textuality, have been articulated as theoretical statements (DeRose et
al. 1990; Renear 1997). Others remain operative but unspoken. The
history of the humanities and especially of literary studies over the
last three decades has repeatedly taught us that what is unsaid
because 'obvious' most needs interrogating. This paper offers one such
interrogation, examining what I believe to be one of the strongest
unspoken assumptions underpinning text encoding: its neutral,
apolitical nature. Critical perspectives from semiotics and
contemporary cultural theory help us see text encoding as a signifying
practice strongly implicated in a politically conservative humanist
ideology.

Customarily, text encoding cloaks itself in pragmatism as an
instrumental process: to achieve aim X we use means Y under conditions
Z. The tendency then is to locate political concerns in everything but
the concept or mechanics of the practice itself [2]. In this view,
politicality inheres in the performative aspects of the process: in
the choice of content to encode and/or the hoped-for effect of the
encoding activity (X); in the design of the tag set (Y); or in the
institutional and material circumstances under which the encoding
takes place (Z). This isolates a 'core' or 'essential' practice
(placing tags in a text according to a set of formal syntactic and
structural rules) the formality of which appears to preclude the
possibility of a politics.

And there, it seems, humanities text encoding has left this
(non)issue, despite the fact that precisely such moments--moments when
the political (figured as subjective) becomes unthinkable because
displaced by the 'objective'--have for a long time been the subject of
searching analysis by practitioners of literary/cultural
theory. However, when we understand how much these analyses unsettle
the traditional humanist world view, we also understand why most
contemporary theory remains text encoding's unacknowledged Other. This
paper focuses on the materialist critique of signification and its
implications for text encoding.
  
I begin by situating text encoding in a traditional semiological
framework, discussing the relationship between tag and signifier,
content and signified, and considering markup as a metalanguage in
terms of the well-known formulation of Barthes (following Hjelmslev),
E R [ERC], where [ERC] represents an entire signifying system being
signified by E (Barthes 1968, 90). I then trace how two successive
critiques transform this early semiotic approach, beginning with
deconstruction. Coward and Ellis (1977) argue that the radical
potential of Saussure's original insight into the nature of
signification gets suppressed by mechanistic tendencies that emerge as
structuralism develops into a 'scientific' methodology. The thrust of
these tendencies is to treat language as a structural system that mediates
between a transcendent subject and already-constituted
objects. Deconstruction turns structuralism upon itself, emphasizing
the *productivity* of the signifier. Rather than seeing signification
in terms of a static structure (which happens when undue emphasis is
put on its synchronic nature), deconstruction sees it as a process
where ""it is the play of difference of the signifying chain that
produces signifieds;"" (23).

Pragmatists argue that the deconstructive view is so abstract it is
divorced from the reality of our lives. Zavarzadeh and Morton's
distinction between the *Actual* and the *Real* proves helpful here
(1991). The Actual refers to the physical existence of things; it is
the stone Doctor Johnson kicks to refute Bishop Berkeley. The
existence of the Actual is not in question. Beyond simply existing,
however, things also *mean* for us. It is at this level, where the
Actual becomes intelligible, that Zavarzadeh and Morton locate the
Real, and the Real is an effect of signification. Humanism, Zavarzadeh
and Morton argue, confuses the Actual and the Real, and do so under an
ideological imperative to think meaning inherent to physical objects
and hence 'natural,' 'timeless,' and 'True.' ""Such an essentializing
closure which anchors meaning (knowledge) in the object politically
postulates the world 'as it is' as the world 'as it ought to be' and
thus obstructs the reconstitution of the real by any intervention""
(69).

While deconstruction, by locating meaning in the process of
signification, helps reveal the 'natural' to be political, ""it, like
other modes of ludic theory, finally situates the signifying process
as a formalist program"" (Zavarzadeh and Morton 90). The materialist
critique breaks from deconstruction on the ennabling conditions of the
social production of meaning. ""In the ludic space of playfulness, the
social relations of production are posited not as historically
necessary but as subject to the laws of the alea: chance and
contingency"" (194) Not surprisingly, the materialists take a more
determinist view: the state of social relations of production, which
follow an historically-determined logic of development, directly
affects the constitution of the Real. What kinds of meanings count as
Truth, what kind of subject-effect signification produces, what modes
of knowing gain authority, all ultimately have everything to do with
the dominant economic world-system.

We do not have to agree with this critique to appreciate the challenge
it presents. The uneasy relationship between the corporate world and
the humanities has been newly embodied in our own field with the
widespread adoption of structured encoding by businesses, which has
brought many of us closer to advanced capitalism in action than ever
before. For humanists the traditional ideological 'safe haven' from
the 'taint' of the corporate has been the moral superiority of
humanism's concern for Truth, its adherence to an authorized set of
protocols of reading and writing supposed to signify the disinterested
pursuit of knowledge. Text encoding has its own version of this. We
might consult on a DTD for a corporation, but our 'valuable' work is
to further the cause of the humanities (and, by extension, to better
society) by making available the culture's textual legacy. We show our
concern for Truth by admitting the interpretive nature of encoding but
resolutely limiting ourselves to encoding the structural 'essence' of
the text. We concentrate on representing texts objectively, 'as they
are,' and leave others to do with them what they will.

To finish as I began: text encoding has already started (re)producing
the culture's textual embodiment of itself and its history. We have in
our hands an ideological tool of some consequence. It seems to me
extremely important to realise that nothing we do is neutral, that
every time we unthinkingly reproduce the Real because we believe it to
be Actual it has political consequences which like grains of sand may
individually be unnoticeably small but in aggregate can change the
landscape.




[1] By text encoding here I mean the use of the TEI Guidelines or some
similar markup scheme to represent texts digitally, principally for
the creation of textbases, digital libraries, etc. I do not refer to
the creation of hypertext, a field already much-theorized by Landow,
Joyce, Aarseth, Coyne, and many others.

[2] See, for example, the essays in Chernaik, Davies, and Deegan
(1993).


Works cited

Caton, Paul. 2000. ""Text Encoding and the New English Department.""
Paper presented at Digital Resources for the Humanities 2000,
September 2000, University of Sheffield.

Chernaik, Warren, Caroline Davies, and Marilyn Deegan, eds.  The
Politics of the Electronic Text. Oxford: Office for Humanities
Communication, 1993.

Coward, Rosalind, and John Ellis. 1977. *Language and Materialism:
Developments in Semiology and the Theory of the Subject.* Boston,
London and Henley: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.

DeRose, S, and David Durand, Elli Mylonas, Allen Renear. 1990. What is
Text, Really? *Journal of Computing in Higher Education,* 1 (2): 3-26.

Renear, A. 1997. ""Out of Praxis: Three (Meta)Theories of Textuality""
in *Electronic Text: Investigations in Method and Theory.* Edited by
Kathryn Sutherland. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Zavarzadeh, Mas'ud and Donald Morton. 1991. *Theory, (Post)Modernity,
Opposition: An ""Other"" Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory.*
PostModern Positions, Vol. 5. Washington, D.C.: Maisonneuve Press.","txt","2","",""
"188","2","Electronic Publishing and Academic Credibility","1","In response to a call (by the Humanities and Social Sciences Federation of Canada [HSSFC]) for targeted research, a team assembled from among the faculty at Malaspina University-College, the University of Victoria, the University of New Brunswick, McMaster University and Université de Montréal took on an exploration of the urgent issues relating to the perception -- and ultimately the use -- of electronic publication within, and well beyond, the Canadian academic community.

The research team has, since, provided a critical assessment of the North American and European literature surrounding the notion of credibility in electronic scholarly publication and has made recommendations that take into account both that literature and factors unique to our national context. Assessment and recommendations have been made in distinct, though interrelated, areas of Peer Review and Imprint, Copyright, and Archiving and Text Fluidity / Version Control.

Our paper presentation will highlight our findings and outline the recommendations we have made to the HSSFC.  Our approach can be found in the materials attached below; a draft of our report -- still in progress, at November 2000 -- can be found at the following URL: 

http://web.mala.bc.ca/hssfc/Review/ReviewDraft.htm

 

Peer Review and Imprint

Peer review, seen by many as the most important factor to assuage the reluctance of scholars to publish electronically, is a process that has evolved over many generations of scholars; it has become the cornerstone of academic publication and is something that is highly valued in all scholarly activities (among them, the pragmatics of academic review processes on which promotion and tenure are based).  It is important to recognize that peer review is necessarily, and appropriately, a conservative process, and that any new scholarly endeavor will take time to gain general acceptance.
The team -- with the leadership of Jean-Claude Guédon (U Montréal) in this area -- has located, selected, and provided a representative bibliographic overview of pertinent literature, literature that helps us identify the characteristics of peer review processes suitable for electronic publication, literature that helps us consider the implications of such processes both for reviewers and authors, and literature that recommends best practices that accord as much as possible with those already accepted by the academic community for non-electronic scholarly publication.

Like peer review, a publisher's imprimatur, or imprint, is seen to be a very important indicator of qualitative assurance in academic culture. As part of its study of peer review, the team has also treated the subject of imprimatur as related to that of peer review, and in a similar manner -- chiefly directing the reader to literature that proposes best practices aimed at both traditionally-print publishers operating the in the electronic medium and newer academic publishing groups that operate solely in the electronic medium.

Recommendations on the topic of peer review and imprint remain largely implicit, but a suggestive overview of current thought is given, as is an annotated bibliography and a summary of the data gathered on these topics via the questionnaire that was circulated among a representative sample of publishers, scholars, reviewers for academic publishing granting agencies, reviewers for bodies giving grant funding to those in the humanities, university administrators and academic authors.
Copyright

Under the direction of Michael Best and Elizabeth Grove-White (U Victoria), the team has located, selected, and provided an overview of pertinent literature that highlights critical issues affecting the ownership of online resources, focusing on those resources that are text-based. The report also provides links to sites where the discussion of copyright is ongoing.

Work in this area, the report asserts, suggests that if copyright regulation is important for the traditional print publication mission of academic research institutions, it is doubly important in the context of new digital communication media, since international and national copyright principles and regulations were developed before networked digital media transformed the information and communication marketplace.

Broadly speaking, Canadian copyright legislation recognizes that copyright ownership rights belong to the creator of a work and those rights inhere in a work from the moment it is fixed in a tangible medium of expression.  But it is normal in the academic community for the author to cede copyright to the publisher; thus, it follows that most academic texts belong not to an individual but to a collective (a journal, a press).  

Academic authors are more concerned about the ""currency"" of the profession -- tenure, promotion, salary -- than about royalties or ownership of their work.  In those disciplines where the norm for scholarly interchange has been through monographs published by university presses, more often consulted in the library than bought individually by scholars or students, there  has been little challenge to the practice of ceding the ownership of scholarly work to the press. In the digital age, however, this practice is likely in due course to reduce substantially the potential readership of scholarly works, especially of journal articles.

At the same time as academic attitudes to copyright de-emphasize ownership issues that dominate the realms of the professional writer and press, they strongly underline the importance of wide promulgation of texts and transparent access for users.  Addressing copyright in the context of scholarly publication means addressing fundamental principles of academic culture, specifically the academic community's mission of advancing knowledge through creating, validating, and disseminating new knowledge, and through preserving the existing corpus of public knowledge.  Academic publication is central to these activities because it is the main process through which newly discovered knowledge is refined, certified, distributed and archived.  In addition to promulgating knowledge, publication provides the North American academy with the mechanisms for assessing the quality and quantity of contributions by individual faculty members that are used to determine faculty eligibility for tenure, promotion, grants and fellowships.

With the advent of the Internet and increasingly user-friendly technologies for online editing, publishing, and distributing available to faculty, an increasing number of disciplinary groups have turned to online journals and other online forums for disseminating their knowledge.  While the academic community continues to have reservations about this seemingly unruly new medium and the implications for the traditional academic activities for validating, authorizing and archiving new knowledge, the push for electronic forms of scholarly communication reflects a search for more timely, convenient, and economic means of announcing and certifying new research results.

But while the Internet is bringing steady and fundamental changes in the processes of scholarly communication and publication, these changes are occasioned less by the potential of the new media than by economic considerations occasioned by the changing world of academic publishing.  In response to this publication crisis, influential academic groups within Canada and beyond see digital publication as a strong alternative to the limitations of the current print environment and a non-commercial alternative to traditional scholarly communication. 

Because issues of copyright -- both ownership and fair use access -- have become so imbricated with perceptions of the economic potential in electronic publishing, questions about the distinctive operation, use, and unique copyright challenges posed by digital media have been poorly represented in these debates.  

Both the actual legislation concerning copyright, and the perception of intellectual ownership of data within the academic community are bound to evolve as the new medium both forces and encourages change.  It will be a major challenge in the next decade to find ways of making knowledge more freely available in electronic format, without reducing the legitimate needs of those who create content for a living.

Archiving and Text Fluidity / Version Control

Led by members of the University of New Brunswick Electronic Text Centre -- Alan Burk, James Kerr, and Andy Pope, a group that is currently involved in a larger study of journal metadata, citation linking and journal archiving -- the team has structured its review in this area to take into account a wide number of concerns associated with identifying and preserving academic work in the dynamic and evolving nature of the electronic medium.

While the internet is being populated with texts that are functionally indistinguishable from their print equivalents, it has also become a medium for new sorts of texts that do not fit well within the standard taxonomy of scholarly publication.  Academic web sites, and electronic scholarly texts, can incorporate traditional text, non-linear sequencing, various sorts of digital multimedia objects (image, audio, &c.), and a level of interactivity that goes far beyond the relation between reader and static print.  To read them may require specific hardware and software.  Given these new forms of publication, the archiving challenges are many. Also contributing significantly to the problem is how easy it is for individuals and groups to create or modify electronic publications and the variety of formats, some of which are proprietary, which are the carriers of the new electronic media.

Archiving

The report asserts that there are four processes that might preserve digital objects; they are as follows:

physical conversion to an accepted archival medium; 
digital conversion that parallels changes in the hardware and software environment; 
physical maintenance of the appropriate hardware and software environment; 
or virtual maintenance of the appropriate hardware and software environment. 
The literature describing these four processes or promoting one or another of them is complex and, necessarily, speculative.  The explicit speculation tends to focus on what is technically possible or administratively plausible.  The social and economic components of any digital preservation program are assumed more often than they are stated or examined.  No one knows what a national or international-level digital preservation program would cost or how its implementation would be structured.  However, institutions such as the National Library are trying to grapple with planning for a national level archiving and preservation program for the humanities and social sciences, looking at such issues as funding requirements, level of preservation, criteria for selecting objects to be preserved, and working over time with electronic objects where the original format and associated software have ceased to be generally supported. Their efforts are discussed in a forthcoming summary of an interview between the Electronic Text Centre and National Library staff, one of a series of interviews with key stakeholders.

Preservation of human artifacts has been largely a societal, rather than an individual or corporate, activity.  Funding for libraries, museums, and archives is implicitly contingent on their acceptance of various preservation responsibilities and the recognition by national and provincial level funding bodies of the need for digital preservation.  Digital preservation is different from traditional preservation in the sense that no agency is currently being funded to provide national level digital preservation.  The institutional will to create digital archives and the societal support to maintain them may develop, but if they do not, it really will not matter whether the technical problems raised by digital archives can be solved.

Adherence to standards is sometimes suggested as an additional method for digital preservation, but it is not a preservation process.   Standards are only as good as their level of social acceptance.  Even those that have wide acceptance may subsequently be rendered obsolete or irrelevant by changes in the external environment. 

No academic or research library aims to preserve the entire corpus of print publications.  Preservation of the scholarly record -- consisting of peer reviewed publications plus the indexing and abstracting tools to access this literature -- is generally considered essential to the role of academic and research libraries.  A pressing digital preservation problem is not in this mission but, rather, has to do with the incredible expansion over the last decade or so of the number and variety of digital objects that are not apart of the scholarly record, per se, but are cited within the scholarly record or might be the subject for future scholarly investigation.

Text Fluidity / Version Control 

The issue of text fluidity is a red herring as far as digital preservation is concerned.  A fluid is not fixed, firm or stable. A text is fixed, firm and stable, at least for the duration of any reading. The conjunction of the two concepts, ""text fluidity,"" produces one of those jarring metaphors intended to enlighten but inclined to mislead and confuse; a more neutral and clarifying phrase is ""version control.""

Any modifications to a text, of any sort, produce distinct versions, all related to the original text; modifications to a text do not produce a text that is fluid.   Naming versions of a text and specifying the differences between the revision and the original text are the two elements of version control.  Were one to consider or preserve multiple versions of a given text, every version of that text could be uniquely named and its relation to the first version (and others) could be specified, if such relational specificity was warranted given the texts or objects involved.

Simply because electronic publications can be changed with ease does not mean that the canons of scholarly publishing could be or should be modified to accommodate large numbers of variants on a single text.  Scholarly publishing can be expected to change in response to the opportunities offered by electronic texts, but the change will be incremental.  

The most likely scenario for version control remains as it is now: acceptance of variant texts will depend on the type of text and the discipline. Refereed journal articles, scholarly monographs, “grey” literature, and secondary scholarly texts form a continuum with regard to the toleration of changes to the text, with refereed articles being the least tolerant.

Web sites can incorporate material that goes far beyond the relation between reader and static print. Academics who invest their time, skills and creativity in the development of such web sites need a reasonable expectation that their efforts will not be dismissed as just a new form of grey literature.  Implementing some simple conventions for version control, particularly in conjunction with greater use of metadata by web site creators, would facilitate the archiving process for innovative scholarly web sites and would constitute a starting point for gaining academic acceptance -- but attaining academic respectability will likely require much more than formal version control, including some mechanism for peer review and criteria that a site or collection of digital objects need to satisfy to be considered scholarly.

Methodology, Survey / Questionnaire

Methodology

As noted above, the team has based its observations and recommendations on an analytical review of the growing bodies of literature, national and international, that is related to the areas specifically identified by the HSSFC as being integral to the perceived credibility of electronic scholarly publication -- combined with useful materials beyond those related to our specific mandate, with attention paid to initiatives that have particular relevance to the Canadian academic community, and taking into data materials gathered by two surveys: one, discussed immediately below, which addressed issues of importance to all areas addressed by this report, and another, discussed in the above section on Archiving and Text Fluidity / Version Control, which addressed issues specifically related to that section of the report that necessitated specialized expertise.

Survey / Questionnaire
As per our proposal, members of the team conducted a survey with a representative number of publishers, scholars, representatives of the Aid to Scholarly Publication Programme, reviewers, university administrators, and academic authors -- via a questionnaire; this survey has illuminated the international literature review, and has helped us to situate the results of that literature review specifically within the Canadian context that this report seeks to serve.

The questionnaire was designed with some consultation with people with experience in quantitative data gathering and analysis; its contents also reflect input into the full range of concerns addressed by this report.  Specifically reporting on this survey are Geoffrey Rockwell (McMaster U) and, via data analysis, Lynne Siemens (Malaspina U-C); the questionnaire itself was designed jointly by the research team, first collated and administered under the leadership of Joanne Buckley (McMaster U), then developed further and its delivery overseen by Ray Siemens (Malaspina U-C), Michael Best (U Victoria), and a team based at both the University of Victoria and Malaspina University-College.

","txt","2","",""
"189","2","TEI for Better or Verse","1","1. TOWARDS A STANDARD FOR VERSE ENCODING?
The TEI P3 Guidelines (Sperberg-McQueen & Burnard 1994) give some
fairly open suggestions on how to use the tagset included for verse
encoding. With the use of the element in the TEI header many and
varied formalisms for encoding metrical and rhyme information can be
used. Since there is no (or almost no) standard formalisms expected
for this kind of data in the TEI no existing formalisms run the risk
of being excluded. On the other hand even the use of the
metDecl-information is not enough to easily allow for automatic
comparison and search for information on metrical and rhyme data in
data using different formalisms.

The project Henrik Ibsen's writings (HIW) is in the process of
encoding all works by Henrik Ibsen, including verse both in verse
drama, individual poems and verse parts found inside other genres.
HIW has developed an internal standard for verse encoding using the
TEI verse tag sets. This standard is also, we believe, useful for
others who encode, or would like to encode, (Germanic) verse. The
verse theory and methods are based on the metrical formalisms
developed by Jørgen Fafner (Fafner 1989).

As a result of discussions at two conferences organized by the
Nordic Network for Scholarly Editing (1999 and 2000 conferences)
work is now being done on a Nordic verse database using the same
TEI-implemented formalisms as the work done in HIW. Among the main
reasons for creating such a database are the possibility of
comparing verse and of looking for verse with a similar metric or
rhymic structure to the text one might be working with. We are
developing tools for search/retrieval and comparison of these data.

2. ON THE IBSEN MATERIAL AND VERSE - AND OUR WISH FOR INTERACTIVENESS
Henrik Ibsen is best known for his prose dramas. Early in his
career, however, he wrote several dramas either completely or partly
in verse. Ibsen has also written a large number of poems. The verse
material is large and difficult to overview, and there has been
modest research on the whole. An electronic, searchable verse base
with possibilities for comparative analysis would be very useful for
this material.

3. POSSIBILITIES FOR MULTI-LANGUAGE VERSE BASES?
The TEI Guidelines offers some advice and possibilities for markup
of verse form (div, lg, l etc.), but give little advice for a more
detailed notation system for verse analysis. This is understandable,
the TEI standards is mostly fairly open and so will not exclude
varying practices. Verse is also very much depending on linguistic
and historical features, so an encoding formalism useful for Danish
and Norwegian poetry from the 19th century will not be very useful
for Danish and Norwegian poetry from the 11th century not to mention
poetry written in other languages or language families and within
other poetic styles. But it may be possible to create a stricter
standard, or advice on how to use TEI for a restricted set of verse,
e.g. Scandinavian verse from the renaissance to modern times or
maybe even including all verse in Germanic languages from this
period. For searching and comparative analysis the encoding
formalisms used for verse texts should be as standardized as
possible.

At the conference we will demonstrate a TEI/XML based electronic
archive of verse by mainly danish and Norwegian authors. In addition
there will be samples of English and German poetry and some
non-Germanic texts.

4. FORMAL DESCRIPTIONS OF VERSE
The aim for our project's (HIW's) general markup is to store
information about the texts with all their structural divisions
based on the typographical information available in the source texts
rather than on our impressions of structural divisions based on our
analysis of text content. For the verse material we add a specific
verse markup based on an analysis of the verses. The verse encoding
is then divided in two main parts, one typographic and one analytic.
The first part includes recording all occurrences of verse (vs.
prose), divisions, linebreaks, indents, emphasizing etc. The second
part implicates descriptions of genre, meter, rhyme scheme, stress
pattern etc.

The information on verse structure in a text is encoded in general
formulae located at the highest possible level within the textual
hierarchy (as recommended by TEI). Lower-level elements will inherit
the properties defined above, and any deviation from the general
verse system will be specified at the level where it occurs.

Our metrical formulae are based on the work done by Jørgen Fafner,
and his ""Danish Metrics"" (Dansk Verskunst), 1989-. Fafner has based
his notation on the arrangement of stressed and unstressed
syllables, which is the basic method for creating metrical
structures within the Germanic languages.

5. EXAMPLE OF VERSE NOTATION
One of Ibsen's earliest poems, ""Resignation"", may serve as an
example of how Fafner's notation is used:
RESIGNATION (1847)

Er de Glimt fra Sjælens Dunkle,
Der igjennem Mulmet brød,
Og som Lynblink monne funkle
Kun til evig Glemsel født? -

Var forgjæves al min Higen,
Var min Drøm kuns et Fantom,
Er mig nægtet Sjælens Stigen,
Var min Digten kold og tom! -

Tier da I Undertoner! -
Kan jeg eder ei forstaa, -
Lad mig iblandt Millioner
Leve glemt og glemt forgaa! - - -
The main verse information is stored in this formula:
""bi (8 7)2 (Ab)2""

The abbreviation 'bi' is short for 'bisyllabic' which tells us that
each measure consists of two syllables, one stressed and one
unstressed. The numbers (8 7) show the number of syllables in each
verse, and the figure two outside the parenthesis means that the
number of verses should be multiplied by two. Each stanza will then
include four verse lines. The letters (Ab) visualize the rhyme
pattern in the verses. Female and male rhymes are specified with
respectively upper case and lower case letters.

Our challenge is to include Fafner's notation in our electronic
texts according to the TEI Guidelines. The TEI Guidelines recommends
to markup larger units, such as poems in 'div' elements, verse lines
with the 'l' element, and groups of verse lines with the 'lg'
element. Smaller units than verse lines may be marked up by the
'seg' element. All these elements, except 'div', may contain the
attributes 'type', 'met', 'rhyme' and 'real' to specify respectively
genre/form/meter, metrical convention, rhymes and metrical
deviations.

We realized early that chapter 9 in the TEI Guidelines is a solid
starting point, but that the encoding has to be developed further
for us to be able to describe the often complicated verse structures
in actual texts. The poem ""Resignation"" has a simple verse
structure, which causes no problems when filling in the 'met' and
'rhyme' attributes. Based on Fafner's notation system we can define
the metrical convention for this poem as 'met=""bi (8 7)2""'. The
final rhymes are tagged with the attribute 'rhyme=""(Ab)2""'. So far
we have not encoded alliteration and internal rhyme, but this is not
a final decision.

Encoding problems arise with verse texts with various degrees of
variations and deviations. The TEI Guidelines offers no attribute
for showing deviations from the rhyme scheme. David Chisholm and
David Robey suggest (Chisholm & Robey 1995) creation of a new
attribute, 'realRhyme'. We have applied this solution, and have also
replaced the 'real' attribute with the new attributes 'realMet' and
'realRhyme'. There are also texts with more systematic variations,
as when female and male rhymes alter within a fixed rhyme scheme.
The number of syllables may also be varying, both within the
measures and within the verse lines. And there is not always a
regular pattern for anacrusis. In our texts we wish to include both
the general verse pattern and the variations and deviations from
this. We have discussed several alternatives for solving the
problems described above, and we will present our conclusions, along
with a more systematic overview of verse encoding at our project, at
the conference.

Bibliography:
Chisholm, David & David Robey 1995. ""Encoding verse texts"".
Computers and the Humanities, 29, 99-111.
Fafner, Jørgen 1989-2000. Dansk verskunst. Copenhagen. 3 volumes.
1. Digt og form: Klassisk og moderne verslære. 1989.
2. Dansk vershistorie 1: Fra kunstpoesi til lyrisk frigørelse. 1994.
3. Dansk vershistorie 2: Fra romantik til modernisme. 2000.
Sperberg-McQueen C.M. & Lou Burnard 16/5 1994. Guidelines for
electronic text encoding and interchange (TEI P3 Guidelines).","txt","2","",""
"190","2","Rhythm and metre in Italian Renaissance narrative verse","1","The work presented here derives from an earlier
computer-based project which I presented to ALLC-ACH 1999:
to produce a systematic representation of the accentual
rhythm of Dante's Divine Comedy by creating an electronic
text marked up in terms of accents and syllable divisions.
The core of this project is a set of criteria, mainly based
on word categories but supplemented by certain positional
rules, for the identification of accents in the verse line.
The criteria are predominantly linguistic rather than
metrical, in the sense that they make only the minimal
metrical assumption, which we know that Dante shared, that
each verse line in the hendecasyllable must have its last
accent on the tenth position. Otherwise they are intended to
generate a performance of Dante's text whose accentuation is
as consistent as it is reasonably possible to be within the
limits of normal parlance, since consistency must be an
overriding consideration in a project of this type. The
method is computer-aided and by no means fully electronic.
Manual intervention and the exercise of critical judgement
are not merely required for the identification of
word-accents that are not predictable from the word form;
they are also required for the elimination of accents where
the context requires it, and for the insertion of syllable
divisions, dialefe and diaeresis, in those cases where
adjacent vowels do not, contrary to the normal tendency of
Italian metrics, merge into a single syllable. The work on
the Divine Comedy is now complete, and both the method and
results are described in detail in the items referred to
below.

With the support of a substantial research grant from the
U.K. Arts and Humanities Research Board, which covered the
cost of two half-time research assistants for a year, I have
now been able to extend this computer-aided procedure for
representing accentual rhythm to the major narrative poems
of the Italian Renaissance: Pulci's Morgante, Boiardo's
Orlando innamorato, Ariosto's Orlando furioso, and Tasso's
Gerusalemme liberata and Gerusalemme conquistata. This
corpus presents special advantages from the point of view of
computer analysis because of the strong generic connections
between the five texts. For, with features of the kind we
are concerned with here, the kind of analytical results that
computers can help us achieve necessarily become more
interesting as they are placed in a larger comparative
context. A major limitation of analysing the Divine Comedy
in the terms described above is the difficulty of finding
appropriate texts with which to compare it. On the other
hand the Renaissance poems we are now considering are all in
the same metrical form of ottava rima, they were all written
within the span of little more than a century, and their
material is drawn from substantially the same epic and
romance traditions--similarities which greatly enhance the
significance of the differences that the computer analysis
can reveal. It should be added that, given the absence of a
close comparative context for the Divine Comedy, this corpus
of texts constitutes as appropriate a basis as any other for
the comparative study of the rhythm of Dante's poem; within
the Italian literary canon, the four poets we are
considering have as strong a claim as any to count among
Dante's successors. The present project thus provides a
greatly extended basis for testing the results of the
preceding one.
The results of this new project have confirmed the validity
of my method, I believe, first by showing some quite
substantial divergences in accentual structure between the
different Renaissance texts, and between these and Dante,
thereby answering one major question with which I began:
were the structures I had found in Dante peculiar to him, or
simply general features of the poetic language? I now have
strong grounds for maintaining that accentual structures are
to a significant extent author-specific. By showing
differences between the Renaissance texts and Dante, the
output of the project also underlined how close my results
were to those of an earlier, pioneering and much more
selective computer analysis of Dante's rhythm, by P.M.
Bertinetto, and thereby also helped to confirm the validity
of my method. The results differ, however, because the
method was different, from the other pioneering work in the
field, that of Praloran published in 1988.

The marked-up texts that have now produced offer all sorts
of opportunities for further analysis. In particular I shall
consider how consistently the rhythmical characteristics
that distinguish the different texts are maintained
throughout their length:  if we take random samples from
each author, will the distribution of features generally
correspond to that for the text as a whole, and will the
differences between a sample from one author and a sample
from another match those between their entire works?
Conversely, is there any correspondence between internal
rhythmical variations in the text and other features of
style or content? Do particular kinds of passage have a
particular kind of rhythm? What does a systematic review of
particular kinds of rhythmical structure--especially rare
structures involving, for instance, a very high number of
odd syllables per line--tell us about the way such
structures work in poetry? Knowing where all the accents in
the line fall in each text also enables us to perform more
sophisticated kinds of analysis concerning the distinctive
use of the verse form that each writer makes.  Do words with
a particular rhythmical structure, for instance
proparoxytones, tend to fall in a particular position in the
line in a given author? The answers to these questions may
not always be easily relatable to conventional issues of
interpretation, but they will help us to define in precise
quantitative terms the characteristic feel of an author's
style.  All these topics will be considered, in summary
form, in my paper.

The paper will also describe the other output of the
project: a searchable database of TEI-conformant texts of
all the poems referred to above, each line being tagged with
information about accentual structure and syllable divisions
as well as alliteration, assonance and rhyme.

REFERENCES

David Robey, 'Rhythm and Metre in the Divine Comedy', in
Z.G. Baranski and Lino Pertile (eds.), In amicizia. Essays
in Honour of Giulio Lepschy. Special Supplement of The
Italianist XVII, 1997, pp. 100-16.

David Robey, 'Counting Syllables in the Divine Comedy: A
Computer Analysis', Modern Language Review, 94, 1 (1999),
61-86

David Robey, Sound and Structure in the 'Divine Comedy'
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 130-65.

M. Praloran and M. Tizi, Narrare in ottave. Metrica e stile
dell''Innamorato' (Pisa: Nistri-Lischi, 1988).

P. M. Bertinetto, Ritmo e modelli ritmici (Turin, Rosenberg
& Sellier, 1973).","txt","2","",""
"191","2","Time series modelling in the analysis of Greek metrics","1","Quantitative character of Greek metrics is uncontested at the present state of research. Controversy concerns the rhythmical organisation of linguistic material. Many linguists claim that the sequence of short and long syllables is sufficient to generate the rhythm of text. For others, however, this condition seems insufficient. They argue that a special metrical stress, called ictus, was responsible for rhythmical organisation. Followers of this theory believe that in many cases ictus could coincide with the word stress. Followers and opponents of both theories do not restrain their argumentation to the linguistic material of Greek but often quote examples from Latin versification, based upon the Greek one. The discussion was summarised by A.J. Zajcev (ZAJCEV 1994:22–25). The texts of ancient theorists of grammar, versification and music are not of much help because of their terminological opacity (ALLEN 1973:275–276, ZAJCEV 1994:26–27). The significant fact is, however, that there are no explicit remarks on this issue in classical literature. (SICKING 1993:11).
Nowadays, the self-confidence of the opponents of ictus (KORZENIOWSKI 1998:34–39, LEONHARDT 1989:14, note 12) sharply contrasts with the timidity of attempts to reintroduce the notion of metrical stress into the theory of Greek versification, especially in the context of its oral performance (por. GLAU 1998:33: “Anders als in der Metrik spielt also in der Rhytmik die Akzentuierung bestimmter Töne eine wichtige Rolle”; declamations recorded on a CD supplementing this study leave no doubt that what the author means by “Akzentuierung”is precisely the dynamic metrical stress (ictus). 
The first detailed question which arises is whether the rhythm can be generated solely by the sequence of short and long syllables, or whether it should be supported by the dynamic word stress. As has already been said, general research of rhythm confirms the presence of quantitative rhythm in classical Greek (ZAJCEV 1994:13). Sometimes this quantitative rhythm is reinforced by word stress e.g. in Delphic hymns from the 2nd c. B.C. (DEVINE &  STEPHENS 1994:168–169). Some theorists consider this phenomenon an intentional figure of speech (SNELL 1982:6, note 11, ZAJCEV 1994:21), while others treat it as purely an accidental coincidence (SICKING 1993:64).
Cautious attempts to recognise the role of word stress in Greek versification are the only concession of the opponents of the ictus theory. There are, however, some general arguments speaking in its favour. Although Russian verse, for instance, can be represented as a sequence of short and long syllables (ZAJCEV 1994:6), its prosody is not based on quantity but on other suprasegmental features (ibid. 1994:15). More arguments in favour of the theory of ictus, using the notion of metrical sandhi, are presented by Kuryłowicz (KURYłOWICZ 1975). The existence of ictus can be also supported by the evidence coming from the relationships of metrics and colloquial speech (KURYłOWICZ 1987:219–234, DEVINE & STEPHENS 1994:102–120). From the theoretical point of view, ictus would be a transposition of word stress (KURYłOWICZ 1987:160, 1972:3–4).
Many other, detailed arguments are used in the discussion of dynamic stress in classical Greek poetry. But contrary to the opinions held by numerous contemporary linguists and philologists, both general and detailed claims have not provided us with a convincing solution of this problem. We argue that the application of statistical tools seems to give some new insights into the issue.

Statistical methods of sequential data analysis have been so far underestimated and rarely applied in the research of metrics. With regard to the specificity of linguistic material, they can be divided into two groups:

—probabilistic, i.e. based on qualitative (symbolic) sequences (e.g. metrical feet) (Xantos 2000); 
—numerical, i.e. based upon discrete time series;

In the probabilistic approach, the most frequently used methods are Shannons's theory of information and the theory of Markov chains (tested by Markov himself on linguistic material). Naturally symbolic character of text makes this approach very effective in the analysis of linguistic data. Its disadvantage is a relatively limited number of states of a treated series: very practical in the analysis of phonemes or distinctive features (limited number of states), it becomes inoperative in the analysis of lexical units (theoretically unlimited in number).
As far as the numerical approach is concerned, spectral analysis (e.g. Azar &  Kedem 1979) and time series analysis (in the time domain) are applied (e.g. Pawłowski 1998). In both cases, the real time is represented by the sequences of units of the series. In some sense, both approaches are synthesised in the ARIMA method of Box and Jenkins (Box &  Jenkins 1976). The advantage of the numerical approach is the possibility of processing the series composed of a very great number of different units (e.g. lexical items), provided they are reduced to a relevant and measurable feature (e.g. the length of an item). The other advantage is the transparency of a model, due to the stationarity of time series generated from texts (in this case conditions of stationarity can be admitted a priori, even without preliminary empirical tests). Also so called seasonal models, described by Box and Jenkins, are very useful in the description of versification in the text.
In the present study, Greek metrics is analysed by means of the ARIMA method. The corpus composed of ca hundred ten-syllable samples of Homer's Iliad was coded as binary sequences, representing either short (0) and long (1) syllables or stressed (1) and unstressed (0) ones. In this way, we obtained parallel, numerical representations of all the samples and modelled them in the time domain. Then we compared the results obtained for quantitative and stress-based coding. The analysis of the autocorrelation (ACF) and partial autocorrelation (PACF) functions suggests that in the case of quantitative series (short vs long syllables) the underlying stochastic process is modelled by the moving-average model MA(4). In the case of accentual sequences, the best fit was obtained with the autoregressive AR(2) model. The goodness of fit was measured by means of the method of residuals —for each sample, we compared the percentage of the original variance explained by the model. The latter parameter is very important in the sequential analysis of text, because it can be considered a statistical, synthetic measure of orderedness in text. 
The comparison of both types of series proves that:

both quantitative and stress-based sequences realise some underlying stochastic processes;
the depth of contextual relations equals ca 4 syllables in the case of quantitative series and exactly 2 syllables in the case of accentual series;
the average percentage of the original variance explained by the model is 47% in the case of quantitative series and it amounts to 60% for stress-based series;
This proves that the rhythm generated by Greek hexameter coded as a sequence of short and long syllables is weaker then the rhythm generated by the same samples, coded as sequences of stressed and unstressed syllables. If we admit that the rhythm is an inherent and universal feature of language prosody, affecting its aesthetic function but also facilitating the process of memorisation, (and this feature seems very important in Greek oral literature —cases of persons knowing the whole Iliad by heart are reported in the literature), the result obtained would prove that ictus is not an artefact (ictus fictus) invented by old-fashioned nineteenth century German philologists, but a real component underlying Greek prosody and metrics.
References

Allen W.S. (1973), Accent and Rhythm. Prosodic Features of Latin and Greek. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Azar M., Kedem B. (1979), Some Time Series in the Phonetics of Biblical Hebrew. In: Bulletin of the Association of the Literary and Linguistic Computing (ALLC) 7/2, 111–129. 
Box George, Jenkins Gwilym (1976), Time series analysis: forecasting and control. San Francisco (etc.): Holden-Day. 
Devine A. M., Stephens L. D. (1994), The Prosody of Greek Speech. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Chrisholm D. (1981), Prosodic approaches to twentieth-century verse. In: The ALLC Journal 1981/2, 34–39. 
Glau K. (1998), Rezitation griechischer Chorlyrik. Die Parodoi aus Aischylos' Agamemnon und Euripides' Bakchen als Tonbeispiel auf CD mit Text- und Begleiheft. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag C. Winter. 
Korzeniowski G. S.(1998), Verskolometrie und hexametrische Verskunst römischer Bukoliker. Göttingen: Vandenhoek&Ruprecht. 
Kuryłowicz J. (1972), Podstawy jezykowe metryki starogerma (IQ (Bskiej [The Phonemic Fundamentals of the Old Germanic Metrics]. In: Biuletyn Polskiego Towarzystwa Jezykoznawczego 30, 3–15. 
—(1975), Metrik und Sprachgeschichte. Wrocław etc.: Ossolineum. 
—(1987), Studia jezykoznawcze. Wyb'r prac opublikowanych w jezyku polskim [Linguistic studies. Selected papers published in Polish]. Warszawa: PWN. 
Leonhardt J. (1989), Dimensio syllabarum. Studien zur lateinischen Prosodie- und Verslehre von der Späntike bis zur frühen Renaissance. Mit einem ausführlichen Quellenverzeichnis bis zum Jahr 1600. Göttingen: Vandenhoek&Ruprecht. 
Pawłowski Adam (1998), Séries temporelles en linguistique. Avec application à l'attribution de textes: Romain Gary et Émile Ajar. Paris, Genève: Champion-Slatkine. 
Sicking C.M.J. (1993), Griechische Verslehre. München: C.H. Beck'sche Buchhandlung. 
Snell B. (1982), Griechische Metrik, 4. erw. Aufl. Göttingen: Vandenhoek&Ruprecht. 
West M. L. (1987), Introduction to Greek Metre. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Xantos A. (2000), Entropizer 1.1: un outil informatique pour analyse séquentielle. In: M. Rajman, J.C. Chappelier (2000) (eds.), JADT 2000, Actes des 5es journées internationales d'analyse statistique des données textuelles. Lausanne: EPFL, 357–364.
Zajcev A. I. (1994), Formirovanie drevnegre��eskogo geksametra [Formation of the old-Greek hexameter]. Sankt-Peterburg: Izdatelstvo Sankt-Peterburgskogo Universiteta","txt","2","",""
"192","2","The Adaption and Breakthrough of Chinese Documents Encoding  A Case Study of CBETA Digital Tripitaka and TEI","1","Abstract
 
Introduction

　  This presentation attempts to report the creating of Chinese Database in using TEI/XML Markup Language and the working procedures of Encoding applied by the Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA).
 
CBETA has been formally established on Feb. 15, 1998 with support from the Yinshun Foundation of North-America , and Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies to create, maintain and distribute free of charge an electronic version of the Chinese Buddhist Triptitaka. The CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka is based on the Taisho Tripitaka 「大正新脩大藏經」(© Daizo Shuppansha, Inc. The right to input and distribute this database has been officially granted by the copyright holder Daizo Shuppansha.) Vols 1-55 and 85. Each volume contains around 1000 pages of the Buddhist Text (fig. 1), about one hundred millions Chinese characters in total.
 
(fig. 1)
 
The Electronic text files of the Taisho Tripitaka are created from one set of TEI/XML source files. In this distribution, the following formats are included:
Normalized version

(In this version, no footnotes are included, The text follows the Taisho format, each line has information about volume, text number, page, section and line (eg. T08n0221_p0001a09) at the beginning.
'App' version for online search

This version has the same basic features as the normalized version, but characters have been moved from the end of line to the beginning of the following line(s) where the line did not end with a fullstop. The number of characters moved is added to the string at the beginning fo the line (eg. T08n0221_p0001a09(02)). This method has not been employed for verse lines.
HTMLHelp version

This version has been created for the Microsoft HTMLHelp browser, which is included with Windows 98 (and available as update for Windows 95). The text has been normalized in the same way as the above versions, but the corrections to the Taisho text are now displayed in red. Every section of the Taisho page (eg. p0001, section a) displays on a HTML page by itself. 
WORD version

This is an experimental dump of the XML source files into MS-WORD format. Since characters are converted to Unicode where possible, it requires Word versions greater than Word97 (although Word 98 for the Macintosh has not been tested). Characters not displayable in Unicode are replaced by variant system characters where possible, otherwise the fonts and numbers of the Mojikyo Font Institute are used. There is a function to recover the original XML format.
 
All publication forms produced by CBETA, i.e. standard normalized versions, ‘APP’ versions for online search, HTML , HTMLHelp and Word versions have been derived from one single set of master files.
 
CBETA Tripitaka TEI/XML Source Files
 
Before introducing the CBETA Tripitaka TEI/XML source files, the adaption of TEI (The Text Encoding Initiative is an international project to develop guidelines for the encoding of textual material in electronic form for research purposes) processing in the ongoing creation of the Electronic Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka by CBETA will be introduced during the presentation.
 
The CBETA TEI working procedures are processed in 4 different steps: 
1.) Basic Markup
 
2.) Structure Markup
3.) Content Markup
4.) Rare Characters Markup
 
 
The problems encountered and encoding applied in the Electronic CBETA Taisho Tripitaka:

Structural Markup:
<DIV1>, <P>, <LG>…
 
Markup of textual variants:
<APP>, <LEM>, <RDG>
 
Some elements added for CBETA:
A specialized milestone element <JUAN><PIN>
A group of elements for sound glosses <FAN><ZI><YIN>
Other Markup <SKGLOSS>
 
 
[Example 1]

<div1>…
<juan fun=""open"" n=""02"">
<jhead>漸備一切智德經卷第二</jhead>
<byline>西晉月支三藏竺法護譯</byline>
<head>興光住品第三</head>
</juan>
 
*<div2 type=""pin""><head>興光住品第三</head>
 
[Example 2]
 
 
<juan fun=""close""></juan>
 
 
[Example 3]
 

<SKGLOSS n=""066204"">
<GLOSS>Sanskrit</GLOSS>
<TERM>Chinese</TERM>
</SKGLOSS>
 
Conclusions

In the presentation the author will not only introduce the working flow of Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA) and the tag sets applied or created when the TEI Guideline is not sufficient. At the same time, will also shared the results developed form it, such as a 'scholarly' retrieval that utilizes the text critical notes of the Taisho edition to create a view of different historical editions of the Chinese Tripitaka and the comparing reading of different translated versions etc..
 
 
Reference:

TEI: http://www.tei-c.org / http://www.hcu.ox.ac.uk/TEI/
 
CBETA: http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/cbeta/
 
Dr. Christian Wittern: http://www.chibs.edu.tw/faculty/chris
 
 
 
Appendix:

An example of Heartsutra

<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""big5"" ?>
<!DOCTYPE tei.2 SYSTEM ""../dtd/cbetaxml.dtd""
[<!ENTITY % ENTY  SYSTEM ""T08n0251.ent"" >
%ENTY;
<!ENTITY % CBENT  SYSTEM ""../dtd/CBETA.ENT"" >
%CBENT;
]>
<tei.2>
<teiheader>
<filedesc>
<titlestmt>
<title>
Taisho Tripitaka, Electronic version, No. 251 般若波羅蜜多心經
</title>
<respstmt>
<resp>Electronic Version by</resp>
<name>CBETA</name>
</respstmt>
</titlestmt>
<editionstmt>
<edition>Version 1.0 (Big5)</edition>
</editionstmt>
<publicationstmt>
<distributor>
<name>中華電子佛典協會 (CBETA)</name>
<address>
<addrline>cbeta@ccbs.ntu.edu.tw</addrline>
</address>
</distributor>
<availability>
<p>
Available for non-commercial use when distributed with this header intact.
</p>
</availability>
<date>Dec 1998</date>
</publicationstmt>
<sourcedesc>
<bibl>
Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 08, Nr. 251
</bibl>
</sourcedesc>
</filedesc>
<encodingdesc>
<projectdesc>
<p lang=""zh"" type=""ly"">
This is a very preliminary format-conversion.
</p>
</projectdesc>
</encodingdesc>
<revisiondesc>
<change>
<date>19990721/18:35:54</date>
<respstmt><name>CW</name><resp>ed.</resp></respstmt>
<item>converted to XML with CBXML.BAT (99/6/30)</item>
</change>
</revisiondesc>
</teiheader>
<text>
<body>
……
<div1>
……
<pb ed=""T"" id=""T08.0251.0848c"" n=""0848c""/>
<lb n=""0848c01""/>
<lb n=""0848a05""/>
<lb n=""0848c03""/>
<lb n=""0848c04""/>
</div1>
<div1 type=""jing"">
<head>
<skgloss n=""084801"">
<gloss>
Praj&ntilde;&amacron;p&amacron;ramit&amacron; h&rdotblw;daya（A.小）.
</gloss>
<term><title>般若波羅蜜多心經</title></term>
</skgloss>
</head>
<lb n=""0848c05""/>
<lb n=""0848c06""/>
< byline type=""Translator"">
<app n=""084802"">
<lem>唐</lem>
<rdg wit=""【宋】"">&lac;</rdg>
</app>
三藏法師玄奘
<app n=""084803"">
<lem>&lac;</lem>
<rdg wit=""【三】"">奉詔</rdg>
</app>
譯
</byline>
<p><lb n=""0848c07""/>觀自在菩薩。行深般若波羅蜜多時。照見五
<lb n=""0848c08""/>蘊皆空。度一切苦厄。舍利子。色不異空。空不
<lb n=""0848c09""/>異色。色即是空。空即是色。受想行識亦復如
<lb n=""0848c10""/>是。舍利子。是諸法空相。不生不滅。不垢不淨
<lb n=""0848c11""/>不增不減。是故空中。無色。無受想行識。無眼
<lb n=""0848c12""/>耳鼻舌身意。無色聲香味觸法。無眼界。乃至
<lb n=""0848c13""/>無意識界。無無明。亦無無明盡。乃至無老死。
<lb n=""0848c14""/>亦無老死盡。無苦集滅道。無智亦無得。以無
<lb n=""0848c15""/>所得故。菩提薩埵。依般若波羅蜜多故。心無
<lb n=""0848c16""/>罣礙。無罣礙故。無有恐怖。遠離顛倒夢想。究
<lb n=""0848c17""/>竟涅槃。三世諸佛。依般若波羅蜜多故。得阿
<lb n=""0848c18""/>耨多羅三藐三菩提。故知般若波羅蜜多。是
<lb n=""0848c19""/>大神咒。是大明咒是無上咒。是無等等咒。能
<lb n=""0848c20""/>除一切苦。真實不虛故。說般若波羅蜜多咒
<lb n=""0848c21""/>即說咒曰</p>
<lb n=""0848c22""/><p type=""dharani"">
<skgloss n=""084804a"">
     <gloss>Gate gate</gloss>
     <term>揭帝揭<app n=""084805"">
            <lem>帝</lem>
            <rdg wit=""【三】＊"">諦</rdg>
        </app></term>
   </skgloss>
  
   <skgloss n=""084804b"">
     <gloss>p&amacron;ragate</gloss>
     <term><app n=""084806"">
            <lem>般</lem>
            <rdg wit=""【三】＊"">波</rdg>
        </app>羅揭<app n=""a334801"">
                <lem>帝</lem>
                <rdg wit=""【三】"">諦</rdg>
            </app></term>
   </skgloss>
    <skgloss>
      <gloss>p&amacron;rasa&mdotblw;gate</gloss>    
        <term><app n=""a334802"">
                <lem>般</lem>
                <rdg wit=""【三】"">波</rdg>
            </app>羅僧揭<app n=""a334803"">
                    <lem>帝</lem>
                    <rdg wit=""【三】"">諦</rdg>
                </app>
     </term>
   </skgloss>
<lb n=""0848c23""/><skgloss n=""084804c"">
             <gloss>bodhi Sv&amacron;h&amacron;</gloss>
             <term>菩提<app n=""084807"">
                    <lem>僧莎</lem>
                    <rdg wit=""【三】"">薩婆</rdg>
                    </app>訶</term>
         </skgloss></p>
<lb n=""0848c24""/>
<trailer>
<title>般若波羅蜜多心經</title>
</trailer>
</div1>
</body>
</text>
</tei.2>
 
","txt","2","",""
"193","2","Automatic XML Mark-Up","1","Abstract

In this paper we present a novel two-stage automatic XML markup system. The system uses Kohonen's self-organizing map (SOM) learning algorithm to arrange marked-up documents on a two-dimensional map such that nearby locations contain similar documents. It then employs an inductive learning algorithm (C5) to automatically extract and apply mark-up rules from the nearest SOM neighbours of an unmarked document. The system is designed to be adaptive, so that once the document is marked-up, it learns from its errors in order to improve accuracy. The resulting documents can be categorized on the self-organizing map, further improving the map's resolution.

1  INTRODUCTION

With the increased role of computers and computer technology in the humanities, the area of textual mark-up has become of central importance.  SGML has been the electronic text mark-up standard for some years, though XML is now a significant competitor for this role. XML provides many of the benefits of SGML but  is simpler in structure and easier to implement.  Before standards were developed and adopted, electronic text was encoded using idiosyncratic systems, which impeded the free exchange of texts among scholars. The Text Encoding Initiative (TEI; Plotkin & Sperberg-McQueen, 1999) addressed the problem of the proliferation of different text encoding schemes.  TEI provided guidelines for the preparation and interchange of machine-readable text. TEI lite, a subset of TEI, was designed for educational purposes. It is comparatively simple and is able to handle reasonably a wide variety of texts. With the rise to prominence of XML, teixlite emerged as the corresponding standard for XML.  Some text handling software (e.g., Panorama,  XMetal) is  available that provides support for marking up the documents in SGML and XML. But these require a considerable amount of manual intervention.  There is, as yet, no tool available that can automatically mark-up the documents in XML.

As a first step in addressing this need, we present a novel system that automatically marks-up the documents in XML by using a combination of self-organizing map (SOM; Kohonen 1997a, 1997b) and inductive learning (C5; Quinlan, 1993, 1979). This system was developed as part of the INTENTS (Intelligent Navigation Tools for Hypertext documents) project at the Department of Computer Science, University College Dublin (UCD).  The goal of INTENTS is the design of a suite of intelligent navigational tools that can be used in the construction, management, and navigation of large-scale hypertext documents. INTENTS is a project in CoSEI (Computer Science and English Initiative), a humanities computing programme in UCD. Another project in this programme involves constructing an computer-based chronology of the Irish Modernist poet, critic and art historian Thomas McGreevy, and we are using material from the McGreevy project as an initial testbed for our experiments.

 2  SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE  

Our system combines the techniques of the self-organizing map algorithm and adaptive automatic mark-up in XML. SOM is a neural network based unsupervised learning algorithm, which maps higher dimensional statistical data on to a lower dimensional grid or map such that similar documents appear close to each other on the map. The first phase in the process is the formation of the document map using the SOM algorithm and the second phase deals with the automatic mark-up.



Figure 1: Hybrid architecture

In the first phase, by applying the WEBSOM algorithm (Honkela 1996) on a collection of marked documents, a document map is formed. WEBSOM is a two-level architecture and an application of SOM to document classification and retrieval.



Figure 2: Constructing a self-organising map

Once a map is formed, an  incoming document will automatically be mapped into the cluster of documents most similar to it. The proposed system then captures the mark-up information from the neighbouring documents using C5/See5 learning rules. The incoming document will then be automatically marked-up according to the rule set extracted by C5/See5 learning rules. If the document is not related at all to the existing documents on the map it will be discarded. The system has a learning behaviour in that, it learns adaptively from feedback and makes change to the mark-up of documents to make it more sensible and useful. The detailed architecture of the system can be seen in the Figure 3:



Figure 3: A detailed architecture of the system

The second phase of the system is implemented as an independent automatic mark-up system. Eventually this system will be combined with the self-organizing map. The automatic mark-up system is described below in detail.

2.1 MARK-UP RULE EXTRACTION AND APPLICATION

The rule-based system comprises two main modules. The first module is an offline phase of the system, which deals with the extraction of rules from a database of letters marked-up in XML using an inductive learning approach. The second module is an online process and deals with the application of rules to any unmarked letters of a specific format to get the desired XML mark-up. We have initially considered only letters to demonstrate our ideas, as letters are one of the simpler forms of text in the corpus.



Figure 4: Automatic markup system

The system classifies elements of marked letters by the rules that are automatically generated by the inductive learning algorithm (each piece of text enclosed between a pair of start and end tags is called an element of a document marked-up in XML). All occurrences of each element are encoded using a fixed-width feature vector. The inductive learning algorithm processes these encoded vectors to develop classifiers for the elements of the XML documents.   For this purpose we have selected the C5/See5 (C5/See5; Quinlan, 2000) rules learning algorithm.  The advantages of this learning algorithm are that it is very fast, is not sensitive to missing features, can deal with large number of features and is incremental. For our application See5.0 has generated a set of seven rules. These rules deal with different elements of XML marked-up letters.

The second phase of the system, which is an online process, involves the application of extracted rules to unmarked letters to produce XML documents. Documents can either be well-formed or valid, according to the user's preference. Valid XML documents follow the rules of the teixlite DTD. Once a letter selected by the user is marked up, it can be parsed to check the accuracy of the mark-up is. If the text is not supported by the system then an error message is displayed.



Figure 5: Unmarked letter and well-formed XML markup of the same letter (produced by the system) 




Figure 6: Valid XML markup

 

3 PERFORMANCE AND ANALYSIS

We applied the C5/See5 algorithm on 200 training and 50 test cases and achieved 98% accuracy (each case in our system represents one element from the collection of marked letters). We have also tested it on the elements of about 20 letters and achieved an accuracy rate of 94%. Accuracy rate is calculated by considering the correctly marked-up elements from total number of elements of the tested letters. Good results from our experiments demonstrate that our approach is practical and our system is a first step toward the novel technology of automatically marking-up text documents in XML.

4 CONCLUSION

We have described a system that uses the novel technologies of self-organization and adaptive automatic mark-up. Our proposed system uses XML for the management and retrieval of hypertext documents according to the structural information preserved in them. The system marks up the documents automatically by capturing the information in neighbouring documents on the self-organizing map. The information is extracted in the form of rules by using the C5/See5 learning rules. The system also learns from feedback and makes changes in the mark-up to improve results. The functionality of our system makes it novel and a useful tool for electronic information exchange.

5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project is funded by the Advanced Software Technologies Initiative (ASTI), which is funded by Enterprise Ireland’s Software Program in Advanced Technology (PAT) and the National Software Directorate. 

REFERENCES

Honkela, T., Kaski, S., Lagus, K. & Kohonen, T. (1996). Newsgroup Exploration with WEBSOM method and browsing. Technical Report A32, Helsinki University of Technology, Laboratory of Computer and Information Science, Espoo: Finland.
Kohonen, T. (1997a). Exploration of very large databases by self-organizing maps. In Proceedings of ICNN'97, International Conference on Neural Networks. PL1-PL6. IEEE Service Center: Piscataway, NJ.
Kohonen, T. (1997b). Self-Organizing Maps. Springer Series in Information Science.
Plotkin, Wendy & Sperberg-McQueen, C.M. (1999).Text Encoding Initiative. http://www.uic.edu/orgs/tei/
Quinlan, J. R. (2000). Data Mining Tools See5 and C5.0. http://www.rulequest.com/see5-info.html
Quinlan, J. R. (1993). C4.5: Programs For Machine Learning. Morgan Kauffman.
Quinlan, J. R. (1979). Discovering rules by induction from large collection of examples. In D. Michie (ed.), Expert Systems in the Micro Electronic Age. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.","txt","2","",""
"194","2","Linking and Gathering: Automatic Hypertext in the Perseus Digital Library","1","The Web of Text and Hypertext

Our research aims to augment electronic documents by automatically generating hypertexts from the contents of a digital library. Although hypertext developed from paper practices of citation and annotation, technical considerations have until recently made linking to other documents, rather than gathering information into an enriched reading space, the primary hypertextual gesture, but an integrated digital library can facilitate automatic, bi-directional links and also the creation of composite documents for richer contextualization. Our testbed is the Perseus digital library, which focuses on digitizing and delivering the primary materials for scholarship on classical antiquity and beyond. In particular, much of our recent work has concentrated on the Bolles collection of books, maps, and prints related to early modern London.

The Perseus Project has not confined itself to making information accessible; most of our research has worked on connecting information to enhance scholarship. Reliable links were one of the preconditions of modern scholarship: once page numbers and other citation schemes became widely used with the printing revolution of the fifteenth century, scholars could base their arguments on the corpus of all previously published materials and assume that a sufficiently energetic reader, with access to a library, could check the sources (Eisenstein, 1983). This system presumed that stability of links would be preserved by multiplication of copies with the same structure rather than by preservation of authoritative artifacts.1

Creators of electronic texts can draw not only on the practice of bibliographic citations but also on the even older tradition of annotation practiced since the invention of writing. In addition to the private marginalia that persist to this day, the scarcity of books in a scribal culture meant that annotations would be more public. Others' annotations, rather than being as now mostly of fetishizing or specialist interest, were highly prized by later readers and transferred when new copies of manuscripts were made. More public annotations persisted into print with the publication of manuscript scholia and commonplace books, as well as certain augmentations to printed works. Besides commenting in the margins, bibliophiles could have extra sheets for notes or illustrations bound into existing books, a process was known as ""extra-illustration"" or ""grangerizing"". James Granger (1723-1776) had published his Biographical History of England, from Egbert the Great to the Revolution ... adapted to a Methodical Catalogue of Engraved British Heads in 1769 with blank pages for readers to fill with engravings of their own, a practice which the publishers of later editions admit had substantially reduced the affordability and condition of old books of prints.

Grangerization had physical limits for some enthusiasts, however. Around the turn of the twentieth century, former Tufts professor and chaplain Edwin C. Bolles assembled a collection on the history and topography of London, including hundreds of books, prints, and maps. Bolles, who owned a copy of Granger's history, started binding engravings of buildings and historical personages into his growing collection of books. By the time he started to augment Thornbury's Old and New London, however, Bolles had to resort to underlining passages in the text or to writing anchor points in the margin with numerical pointers to clippings and illustrations kept in separate boxes. When Thornbury introduces a section on ""Temple Bar"", for example, Bolles underlined the phrase and linked to twenty prints, mounted on cards, depicting that structure. Titus Oates, Jack Cade, and the Duchess of Marlborough get similar treatment, as do dividend day at the Bank of England and the coronation of Charles II. Such grangerized texts, perhaps, could be added to canonical hypertext harbingers like Agostino Ramelli's sixteenth-century book wheel and Vannevar Bush's Memex.

Much electronic hypertext, from the 1970s on, developed within the annotation paradigm (Catano, 1979). The reader could write marginalia to be laid over the base text or map trails through the information landscape. The expense of early computers reinforced the trend towards centralized storage and editing even for users' annotations, and there has always also been an ""encyclopedic"" urge to organize information in some central repository (Bolter, 1991, p. 99f.). The advent of the World Wide Web reversed some of these trends: linking and copying replaced direct annotation although the separation of text and images allowed for some primitive distributed documents.

Automatic Linking and Gathering

Part of the initial impetus for building Perseus was a desire to enable, in an electronic environment, the kinds of links that developed for commentaries on canonical texts like the Iliad and the Torah. A basic function of our digital library, therefore, has been to reify the links implicit in paper citations (Smith et al., 2000); the reader of a text in Perseus can see immediately which passages are cited by other texts. In Perseus' Greco-Roman collection -- the deepest and most mature in the digital library -- there are over 600,000 links from commentaries, grammars, and dictionaries to 133 megabytes of primary data, for an average of about nine links per page displayed, and over 100 links per page of highly canonical texts like the Iliad.

In addition to leveraging explicitly intertextual print resources, we have worked on information extraction techniques to make new connections and visualizations through document features such as personal and place names, dates, and technical terms.2 Space and time are particularly interesting to exploit, since they admit generalized visualization interfaces with maps and timelines. Dates, furthermore, are generally quite easy to recognize in the texts that we deal with. Place names, on the other hand, have some difficulties: particularly in North America, common words and personal names can be used for places, for example ""Christmas, Florida"" and ""John, Louisiana"". Once recognized as a place, about 90% of the toponyms in our texts may refer to more than one place, as with Athens (Greece or Georgia) or Springfield (Massachusetts, Illinois, or Missouri, to name a few of the thirty-eight). Using local and global context markers, we are able to disambiguate most place names and get over 90% recall and over 85% precision for toponyms in our corpus of texts, from ancient Greece to nineteenth-century North America. Readers can plot all of the sites mentioned in the current page or chapter, or in the entire document, or call up a timeline of all the mentioned dates.

Pointing out connections and visualizing patterns, however, are not enough for a truly augmented scholarly environment. Much has been made of the low information available to users wishing to follow links on the web, and some link annotation schemes have been proposed (Weinreich and Lamersdorf, 1999). The practice of paper annotation and extra-illustration also suggests that readers can benefit from importing outside information into the reading space. Perseus already automatically generates maps of all places mentioned in texts, and we are experimenting with embedding small, intelligible maps directly in the text.3 For works such as encyclopedias and archaeological catalogues, where each article is generally about a single topic, we illustrate the entries with images to which the author did not explicitly link. In the less restricted texts in the London collection, we are exploiting Bolles' maps and prints, as well as the illustrations in books, to enrich Bolles' hypertext and to extend his grangerization to books that he did not touch. In particular, the reference works we have digitized, such as the Dictionary of National Biography and Crutchley's London street guide, have provided useful authority lists for tying together personal and place names. Finally, we have produced several virtual-reality walkthroughs of nineteenth-century London based on storefront elevations that Bolles collected. In addition to an immersive environment, we are investigating using these walkthroughs as peripheral cues, along with maps, for improving spatial comprehension, although some previous work suggests that this would be better accomplished with discrete steps rather than continuous motion (Maglio and Campbell, 2000).

Drawing on traditions of practice for connecting information on paper, we have worked to augment access to documents through automatically linking to and gathering in information relevant to what the reader is reading. As the architectural deficiencies of the web are redressed by XML and by various citation services (Hitchcock et al., 2000) and linkbases (DeRose, 1999), digital libraries can help authors on the web create not just bi-directional links but composite, augmented, distributed documents.

Notes

1 See Lesk (1997) for a chart of the declining longevity and growing availability of information media.

2 For an overview of information extraction techniques, see Wilks and Catizone (1999).

3 For a hand-crafted realization of embedded maps, see Strassler (1996).

References

Jay David Bolter. Writing Space: The Computer, Hypertext, and the History of Writing. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, New Jersey, 1991.
James V. Catano. Poetry and computers: Experimenting with the communal text. Computers and the Humanities, 13(9):269-275, 1979.
Steven J. DeRose. XML linking. ACM Computing Surveys. 31(4), 1999. Available at http://www.cs.brown.edu/memex/ACM_HypertextTestbed/papers/47.html.
Elizabeth L. Eisenstein. The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983.
Steve Hitchcock, Les Carr, Zhuoan Jiao, Donna Bergmark, Wendy Hall, Carl Lagoze, and Stevan Harnad. Developing services for open eprint archives: Globalisation, integration and the impact of links. In Proceedings of the Fifth ACM Conference on Digital Libraries, pages 143-151, ACM Press, New York, 2000.
Michael Lesk. Practical Digital Libraries: Books, Bytes, and Bucks. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, San Francisco, 1997.
Paul P. Maglio and Christopher S. Campbell. Tradeoffs in displaying peripheral information. In Proceedings of CHI 2000, pages 241-248, ACM Press, New York, 2000.
David A. Smith, Jeffrey A. Rydberg-Cox, and Gregory R. Crane. The Perseus Project: A digital library for the humanities. Literary and Linguistics Computing, 15(1):15-25, 2000.
Robert B. Strassler, ed. The Landmark Thucydides: A Comprehensive Guide to the Peloponnesian War. Free Press, New York, 1996.
Harald Weinreich and Winfried Lamersdorf . Concepts for improved visualization of Web link attributes. In Proceedings of the Ninth International World Wide Web Conference. Available at http://www.www9.org/w9cdrom/index.html
Yorick Wilks and Roberta Catizone. Can we make information extraction more adaptive? In Maria Theresa Pazienza (ed.), Information Extraction: Towards Scaleable, Adaptable Systems, pages 1-16, Springer, New York, 1999.","txt","2","",""
"195","2","The Tribe of Cool: Information Culture and History","8","Alan Liu will be reading from the conclusion to his book-in-progress on ""The Laws of Cool."" The book is about the way information culture both serves and—not quite the same—expresses the dominant forms of postindustrial ""knowledge work."" Where once workers wanted a ""decent wage for a decent day's work,"" now decency is not the ethos under which knowledge workers make an equivalent demand for dignity. Instead, as expressed in the way they use and view information technology, knowledge workers want to be ""cool."" What is postindustrial ""information cool""? How does it focus or transform the industrial-age ethos of social cool that originally emerged in the 20th century? Why is ""cool"" so often expressed as a fundamental misalignment between cutting-edge technologies and socially ""residual"" techniques? And in the age of perpetual speed-up and ""innovation,"" is such creative misalignment in the techniques that allow people to enjoy working with technologies all that remains of the sense of history (i.e., the sense of a living past)? The talk finishes with speculations about the primary mission of humanities education in the age of information technology.","txt","2","",""
"196","3","Systemic Functional Hypertexts","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <p>Although texts exist in social contexts, models of hypertext authoring
                        generally exclude this aspect of the structure and function of texts.
                        Readers and writers require situational and cultural contexts in order to
                        understand the meanings negotiated in texts. These contexts are generally
                        ignored because of the lack of any language model underlying hypertext
                        authoring or the models used do not reflect relationships between text and
                        context. In this paper we describe how Systemic Functional Linguistics can
                        be used to create <emph rend=""italics"">Systemic Functional Hypertexts</emph>
                        (SFHT), which includes many aspects omitted from conventional models: (i)
                        text forming resources, (ii) intra- and intertextual relations occurring
                        within their (iii) situational and cultural contexts. SFHTs are described
                        with the help of the unified modeling language.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>1 Introduction</head>
                    <p>According to Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL; Halliday 1978; Martin
                        1992) texts are produced/received as functional units in patterns of
                        wordings and grammar dependent on social context. Within SFL, 'context' is
                        theorized using a bistratal organization of genre and register: whereas
                        registers manifest variety according to situational use, genres correspond
                        to the staging of social processes as part of the context of culture. It is
                        a fundamental insight of SFL that the constitutive dependence of text on
                        context is bilateral. That is registers (genres) are not only instantiated,
                        but also constituted by means of texts. This relation of mutual dependence
                        can be observed on the basis of <emph rend=""italics"">covariation</emph> of
                        textual and contextual features (Lemke 1995). According to this view,
                        changes in context are correlated with changes in texture (i.e.
                        lexico-grammatical choices). Thus, covariation can be used as a source for
                        predicting intertextual relations: the more similar two registers (genres),
                        the stronger their dependence, the higher the probability that their textual
                        realizations are intertextually related.</p>
                    <p>From this perspective, hypertext authoring becomes crucial in the sense that
                        it has to reflect the contextsensitivity of intertextual relations in order
                        to offer their readers value-added information. The perspective of
                        traditional two-level-hypertext systems (Mayfield 1997) does not suffice,
                        since it only formally distinguishes representational formats for the
                        derivation of links and their presentation without taking context layers
                        into account. What is needed is a system which does not only allow to model
                            <emph rend=""italics"">thematic progression</emph> (Kuhlen 1991), and <emph
                            rend=""italics"">adaptivity</emph> to varying situational, user centered
                        views (Kuhlen 1994), but also <emph rend=""italics"">genres and registers and
                            their covariation with texture</emph>. In the following, the integration
                        of these perspectives (i.e. hypertextual superstructures and
                        contextsensitivity) on the basis of SFL is described using the concept of
                        systemic functional hypertext.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>2 Systemic Functional Hypertexts</head>
                    <p>Applying SFL to hypertext relates to the question of <emph rend=""italics"">how
                            to specify which links of which textual units on the background of which
                            linguistic and social semiotic entities</emph>. In order to approximate
                        an answer, the concept of <emph rend=""italics"">Systemic Functional
                            Hypertext</emph> (SFHT) is introduced as an n-level hypertext system
                        which includes at least a <emph rend=""italics"">genre layer</emph> (for
                        modeling genres, their constituents and staging), a <emph rend=""italics""
                            >register layer</emph> (for modeling registers, their constituents and
                        accessibility constraints), a <emph rend=""italics"">texture layer</emph> (for
                        modeling types of texture forming resources, their syntagmatic and
                        paradigmatic dependencies and linguistic realizations patterns), and a <emph
                            rend=""italics"">text layer</emph> (for modeling intertextual relations of
                        texts as links in hypertext). Whereas the first three layers describe
                        different resources for text linkage, the last layer deals with the
                        organization of concrete links.</p>
                    <div>
                        <head>2.1 Systemic Functional Links</head>
                        <p>In SFHT the concept of a link is concretized in two respects: (i) links
                            are introduced as a kind of <emph rend=""italics"">sign</emph>. (ii) This
                            allows to ask for the role of links in the <emph rend=""italics""
                                >superisation</emph> (i.e. constitution) of higher level signs and
                            their communicative <emph rend=""italics"">function</emph>. To be more
                            concrete: whereas the <emph rend=""italics"">expression plane</emph> of a
                                <emph rend=""italics"">systemic functional link</emph> (SFLink) is
                            given by its surface structural manifestation by means of anchor,
                            reference, and referent, its <emph rend=""italics"">content plane</emph>
                            is determined by the intertextual relations it expresses. Since these
                            relations are seen to co-vary with relations of genres and registers
                            contextualizing social (communicative) processes, the view of SFLinks as
                            being signs allows to introduce the concept of <emph rend=""italics""
                                >function</emph> in hypertext. To take a step forward in specifying
                            SFLinks, two dimensions are distinguished:<list>
                                <item>1. <emph rend=""italics"">Foundation</emph>: does a link
                                    manifest <emph rend=""italics"">linguistic cohesion</emph> or
                                        <emph rend=""italics"">situational and generic
                                        coherence</emph> of textual reference and referent?</item>
                                <item>2. <emph rend=""italics"">Structure formation</emph>: does a
                                    link associate <emph rend=""italics"">pairs</emph> of texts or
                                    does it participate in <emph rend=""italics"">chains</emph> of
                                    interlinked texts as manifestations of systemic functional
                                    progressions?</item>
                            </list></p>
                        <p>Based on these criteria, several types of links can be distinguished: At
                            the lower end purely associative, context-insensitive links are
                            distinguished-the typical case of links produced in the area of
                            automatic hypertext authoring (Salton et al. 1993). The construction of
                            lexically cohesive as well as path sensitive links has an intermediary
                            status. More coherent links are produced if context layers are taken
                            into account. Thus, on the upper end of the matrix situational as well
                            as generic coherent, contextsensitive paths of interlinked texts which
                            serve to manifest systemic functional progressions are
                            distinguished.</p>
                        <p>The systemic functional perspective chosen to reconstruct the concept of
                            hypertext allows to reflect the specific complexity of signs. Instead of
                            describing SFHT by means of contextfree rule systems, contextsensitivity
                            is taken as the starting point. Following this premise, several moments
                            of informational uncertainty can be distinguished as necessary
                            conditions for the functional impact of SFHT: (i) <emph rend=""italics""
                                >Contextsensitivity</emph>: the same link may have multiple
                            linguistic, situational and generic sources (polymorphism). (ii) <emph
                                rend=""italics"">Polyfunctionality</emph>: the same link may be used
                            to link different contextual units. (iii) <emph rend=""italics""
                                >Vagueness</emph>: the source of a link may be vague, dissonant,
                            fuzzy, etc. (iv) <emph rend=""italics"">Ambiguity</emph>: the same
                            reference can be linked with different referents. (v) <emph
                                rend=""italics"">Dynamics</emph>: links may disappear, emerge or
                            modify as the text base grows. These moments of complexity correlate
                            with the constitution of social semiotic entities on the background of
                            emerging/disappearing usage regularities of signs. SFHTs serve to make
                            explicit this <emph rend=""italics"">co-variation</emph> of linguistic and
                            social semiotic system.</p>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>3 Conceptual Modeling</head>
                    <p>In order to make hypertext more sensitive to the situational and cultural
                        context the operationalization of the concept of SFHT is needed. Beyond
                        formalization it is <emph rend=""italics"">conceptual modeling</emph> which
                        precedes their algorithmization and implementation. This paper presents a
                        conceptual model of SFHT using the unified modeling language (UML). Besides
                        structural aspects including the enumeration and specification of
                        constituents of the linguistic and social system, dynamic aspects of SFHT
                        are modeled, too. Structural building blocks of SFHTs including genres,
                        registers, texture forming resources, intratextual/intertextual relations,
                        systemic functional progressions, links and paths are interrelated.
                        Furthermore, co-variation and co-evolvement of text and context are
                        described as procedural building blocks. The conceptual model is used as a
                        starting point for the specification of data structures and algorithms for
                        the computer-based implementation of SFHT systems.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>4 Conclusion</head>
                    <p>This paper applies SFL to the area of hypertext authoring based on the
                        manifold covariation of social and linguistic system, which allows the same
                        text to be embedded into different contexts and thus to have different
                        functions. In order to reflect this moment of polymorphism and
                        polyfunctionality, the concept of SFHT and their main building blocks are
                        described. On this background, three principal conclusions can be drawn:<list>
                            <item>1. Because of the dependence of human information processing on
                                varying cognitive, situational, and social contexts, a given text
                                corpus does not have a static, predefined hypertext structure. Thus,
                                text conversion demands a fundamental reconstruction of the concept
                                of hypertext from the perspective of a sociosemiotic theory of
                                discourse which views this dynamics as a precondition for
                                (hyper-)texts to be functional.</item>
                            <item>2. This reconstruction is necessarily interdisciplinary in the
                                sense that it includes insights from semiotics, linguistics and
                                social as well as computer science.</item>
                            <item>3. The concept of SFHT, used to formally manifest this
                                reconstruction, demands a stepwise operationalizing in order to
                                prepare its implementation. For this sake, UML is used, since it
                                allows to model structural <emph rend=""italics"">and</emph> procedural aspects of SFHTs.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p> Thus, this paper contributes to the reconstruction of hypertext from a
                        semiotic point of view, or more concretely: from the perspective of
                        <emph rend=""italics"">computational semiotics</emph>.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
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                        <surname>Salton</surname></name></author>
                    <author><name><forename type=""first"">J.</forename>
                        <surname>Allan</surname></name></author>
                    <author><name><forename type=""first"">C.</forename>
                        <surname>Buckley</surname></name></author>
                    <title level=""a"">Approaches to Passage Retrieval in Full Text Information Systems</title>
                </analytic>
                <monogr>
                    <title level=""m"">ACM-SIGIR '93</title>
                    <imprint>
                        <pubPlace></pubPlace>
                        <publisher></publisher>
                        <date when=""1993"">1993</date>
                        <biblScope type=""pp"">49-58</biblScope>
                    </imprint>
                </monogr></biblStruct>
        </listBibl></div></back>
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"197","3","The Myth of Roland and Its Function as Cultural Hypertext as Expressed in 'RolandHT'","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">The Myth of Roland and Its Function as Cultural
                    Hypertext as Expressed in 'RolandHT'</title>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Vika</forename>
                        <surname>Zafrin</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Brown University</name>
                            <email>vika@wordsend.org</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ALLC/ACH 2002</title>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>editor</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Harald</forename>
                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
                    </name>
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                        <forename type=""middle""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
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                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                    <head>Overview</head>
                    <p>This paper will present an innovative treatment of the literary phenomenon of
                        Roland, alleged historical personnage and an epic hero almost unique in his
                        breadth of influence from the eighth century to today. The treatment, which
                        attempts more successfully than a printed book to present all the
                        contributor works as equal, is made possible for the first time by the
                        electronic medium. The combining of works with such different cultural
                        contexts is reconciled by highlighting similarities and explicitly
                        juxtaposing the differences between them, and by thematically connecting the
                        works using both hyperlinks and critical discussion. At the same time, the
                        reader is given a chance to create his own mental picture of the composite
                        Roland character by following carefully explicated links. I will argue that
                        the hypertextual experience of Roland is closer to the way in which the
                        character was experienced originally--both by storytellers and by
                        audiences--an experience that reading a paperbound book cannot replicate.
                        Among the issues discussed will be the relationship between oral tradition
                        and hypertext, the issue of character identity across cultural boundaries,
                        and the role of the reader/audience in the epic experience.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Abstract</head>
                    <p>Vanhoutte 2000 speaks of ""the advent of the electronic paradigm to the field
                        of scholarly editing and textual criticism,"" which facilitates the creation
                        of ""new kinds of editions in which the record of textual variation becomes a
                        central point of attention, both on the markup- and on the delivery- side.""
                            <title level=""m"">RolandHT</title> is a work which, while it is not a
                        critical edition of any one text, certainly speaks to text variation as its
                        main focus.</p>
                    <p><title level=""m"">RolandHT</title> began as a critical exposition and literary
                        experiment. At its center is the protagonist of the 11th-century <title
                            level=""m"">Song of Roland</title> and of many other works in Europe's
                        literary canons. Currently in its second year of development at Brown
                        University, <title level=""m"">RolandHT</title> uses hypertext theory and Jean
                        Baudrillard's idea of fragmentary writing to weave Roland storylines from
                        different literary traditions into a single multi-pathed narrative. A new,
                        composite, often self-contradictory virtual character is thus created,
                        drawing upon such contributor works as the French <title level=""m"">Song of
                            Roland</title>, the Italian <title level=""m"">Orlando Furioso</title>,
                        the Welsh <title level=""m"">Can Rolant</title> and many others.</p>
                    <p>In <title level=""m"">RolandHT</title>, passages from a set of primary sources
                        are combined into a heavily interlinked web. The hyperlinks, which lead
                        directly from one quoted passage to another in the same work or in a
                        different one, highlight both similarities and differences among the themes
                        and imagery in the storylines. This is true both for works whose plots
                        parallel (for example, in the German, Welsh and Norse retellings of the
                        French <title level=""m"">Song of Roland</title>) and for writings with
                        differing plots (such as a rendition of the <title level=""m"">Song of
                            Roland</title> on one hand and the Italian Renaissance epic <title
                            level=""m"">Roland in Love</title> on the other). Some of these hyperlinks
                        point to the next passage in the work through an intermediary paragraph
                        which explicates the connection between the two passages.</p>
                    <p>The project's aim is not a coherent linear narrative. It is, rather, an
                        exploration of this character, so pervasive in Europe's writing between the
                        Middle Ages and the present day, that reaches beyond the confines of any one
                        work written about him. Roland evolved as an oral epic hero for three
                        hundred years before the first extant written work about him was created.
                        The electronic environment is an invaluable and unique tool for exploring
                        the relationship between orality and literacy in the context of the
                        evolution of this character. Before we had the technology we have now, this
                        sort of study was performed in a one-sided fashion, by studying and trying
                        to understand orality in its own context, as Walter Ong has done, and
                        viewing literacy separately. Now an attempt can be made to <emph
                            rend=""italics"">reproduce</emph> the fragmentary nature of oral
                        storytelling in a written context, and let the readers experience it in a
                        fashion which will enable them to better understand how people learned about
                        Roland in the first place, during his proliferation in the age of primarily
                        oral storytelling.</p>
                    <p>The project cannot possibly reproduce fully the literary aspects of Ong's
                        primary oral culture. The Carolingians (inhabitants of France and Germany in
                        the eighth and ninth centuries, when the Roland legend was conceived) were
                        not a primary oral culture (McKitterick). Their storytelling tradition,
                        however, was oral, as was the Roland legend, which first appears in writing
                        only in the eleventh century. Instead, the new approach to reading epic
                        poetry that <title level=""m"">RolandHT</title> presents is arguably closer to
                        the way in which epic poetry was <emph rend=""italics"">perceived</emph> by
                        its audience when it was presented orally--no story was seen as an isolated
                        phenomenon, but rather as part of a cultural network. In the process of
                        reading a work of print literature, even a well-annotated one, it is easy to
                        forget the impossibility of its existence outside of its cultural context.
                        This fact, while certainly true when cultural boundaries are being crossed,
                        becomes even more relevant when there is a large difference between the
                        reader's temporal context and the time period in which the work was written.
                        In this case, especially if the work's original language is the same as that
                        of the reader, one can be mislead into a false sense of understanding of the
                        work, and fail to delve into it more deeply. This new electronic version of
                        the Roland texts simply does not allow one to think of a work of literature
                        as an isolated event. In the traditional study of literature one is
                        compelled to study one text at a time in depth, subsequently branching out.
                        Here we have the opportunity instead to piece knowledge together from many
                        starting points and eventually to converge toward an understanding, instead
                        of branching away from generalized, theoretical knowledge to specific
                        points.</p>
                    <p>The knowledge to be gained from this ongoing investigation will fill a void
                        in Roland scholarship. This work provides its readers with a tool to help
                        them visualize the complexity of the Roland canon by presenting it as a
                        whole. At the same time, it makes it possible to trace themes and imagery
                        common to some or all of the works, presenting them together, interwoven as
                        they are in the source materials but clarified by critical commentary
                        interspersed with fragments of primary texts illustrating the points. These
                        analyses could be presented on paper, each of them separately; however, this
                        would make visualizing the whole much more difficult, and be discordant with
                        Roland's multi-faceted nature.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>Bibliography</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Rosamond</forename>
                                    <surname>McKitterick</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">The Carolingians and the Written Word</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Cambridge</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Cambridge University Press</publisher>
                                <date when=""1989"">1989</date>
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                                    <surname>Ong</surname>
                                </name>
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                                    <surname>Vanhoutte</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
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                                Hypertext</title>
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                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"198","3","Query Visualization, Markup, and a Region-based Document Model","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Query Visualization, Markup, and a Region-based
                    Document Model</title>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Thomas</forename>
                        <surname>Horton</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Virginia</name>
                            <email>horton@virginia.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sunish</forename>
                        <surname>Parikh</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Florida Atlantic University</name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Robert</forename>
                        <surname>Nash</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Florida Atlantic University</name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Abhijit</forename>
                        <surname>Pandya</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Florida Atlantic University</name>
                            <email>abhi@cse.fau.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ALLC/ACH 2002</title>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>editor</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Harald</forename>
                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <forename type=""middle""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
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                <p>This paper will address our work in the area of software models and architectures
                    for supporting the development of software tools for text corpora and digital
                    libraries. Previously we have presented a region-based approach for defining and
                    manipulating things found inside text documents [6]. We believe that combining a
                    region-based approach with a markup-centered approach that supports XML and SGML
                    has many benefits. For example, our approach allows software tools to manipulate
                    text features that are not marked-up and features that are non-hierarchical in
                    nature (including arbitrary user selections of parts of a document). Both
                    approaches can be integrated into one tool; for example, a prototype in Java has
                    been developed in earlier work [4] that can manipulate an XML document using a
                    DOM (Document Object Model) implementation while also supporting the
                    region-based operations that we propose.</p>
                <p>In our paper we will specifically address one benefit of our approach: a general
                    method for the visualization of query results. Before presenting this method, we
                    must first provide the terminology used to define it.</p>
                <p>Our region-based approach is largely inspired by sgrep, a free utility for
                    searching structured text documents. It takes a query from a user and returns
                    sections of a text file that match the query. Both its query language and the
                    results it finds are based on an algebra of *regions* and *region sets*:<list>
                        <item>A *region* is a chunk of text, determined by a starting and ending
                            byte position in the text file.</item>
                        <item>A *region set* is collection of regions that can be manipulated in
                            powerful and well-defined ways. For example, two sets can be
                            concatenated, or merged to produce all regions in the first set that are
                            contained with some region in the second region set.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>A simple query in sgrep might be to find a single string in a file; this returns
                    a set of regions, each of which is the pair of starting and ending byte offsets
                    in the file where that string occurred.</p>
                <p>Using regions in text processing is not a new concept. sgrep's notion of regions
                    is identical to the concept of a *span* defined in the TIPSTER architecture [3]
                    for information retrieval software and implemented by systems such as GATE [1].
                    The use of byte-offsets in some way to identify index terms has also been used
                    in earlier systems. For example, in a PAT tree [2] tokens to be indexed are
                    defined using semi-infinite strings (sistrings) that begin at one byte position.
                    This data model supports efficient retrieval in this manner. But our approach
                    differs from this because our reason for using regions is not to achieve
                    efficient retrieval but to support the notion of ""nesting"" of text features.
                    This supports interesting manipulating of these features to achieve end-user
                    goals beyond efficient retrieval. We have also developed an important
                    enhancement to this approach for XML documents by which regions and nesting are
                    defined based on the markup hierarchy without relying on byte positions.</p>
                <p>A region set is general enough that it can be used to represent many different
                    things in a text:<list>
                        <item>all words in the document;</item>
                        <item>all occurrences of a given token;</item>
                        <item>all DIV1 elements in an XML document;</item>
                        <item>all XML elements that have an attribute with a given value.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>Region sets can also represent a subtext or ""selection"" made from a document. A
                    region set could represent some selection of XML elements or arbitrary byte
                    positions that that overlap the markup hierarchy.</p>
                <p>We will use the term *text object* (TO) to mean any ""thing"" that a user wants to
                    define and manipulate in a text document. A *text object occurrence* (TOO) is
                    one occurrence of one of these. A TOO is simply represented by a region (If a
                    TOO is non-contiguous, then it would be represented by a region set. Also, if a
                    document is composed of more than one file, our definition of a region must be
                    adapted. Both of these issues add a level of complexity that we will ignore for
                    the sake of this abstract.) Thus ""words"" and markup-elements are both text
                    objects in our model, with occurrences of each one represented by a region set.</p>
                <p>As users of sgrep understand well, many useful queries can be defined in terms of
                    the nesting or inclusion of two region sets. It becomes simple enough to find or
                    count occurrences of a particular word (or set of words) in a ""context"" such as
                    any markup-element unit (e.g. words, lines, paragraphs) if both word-tokens and
                    markup are stored as region sets. And since we have a common model where all of
                    there are represented as text objects, it is just as simple to find or count
                    occurrences of one markup-element inside another, or inside a user-defined
                    selection. This is why we argue that a region-based approach as described here
                    enhances a markup-centered view of documents in software that processes text.</p>
                <p>Our paper will demonstrate this by focusing on how queries to find occurrences of
                    text objects (e.g. words, markup elements) can be visualized. Our approach is a
                    modified version of the TileBars technique [5]. In our approach, a user would
                    define one or more query terms; each might be one or more text objects. In
                    addition, the user would choose a search context to indicate the segments or
                    units in which the software should find occurrences of each of the query terms.
                    Results of such a query can be shown graphically; for example, this URL shows
                    TileBars resulting from a query on a small set of documents (from the original
                    paper on this technique):<lb/>
                    <ptr
                        target=""http://www.acm.org/sigchi/chi95/Electronic/documnts/papers/mah fg3.gif""
                    /></p>
                <p>In this output, a document is represented by a rectangle. Each of these has a
                    ""row"" for each query term, and the ""columns"" represent the segments that the
                    document is divided into. A shading of grey in each row-column intersection
                    indicates how often each query term occurs in that segement.</p>
                <p>This visualization technique displays the results of queries in terms of several
                    dimensions: documents, terms, and segments. Various attributes of the query
                    results can easily be seen. First, the size of each document (in terms of
                    segments) is shown by the size of the tile. Second, occurrence of terms by
                    segment is indicated when a cell is grey, revealing the relative location within
                    a document where the terms occur. Third, strength of occurrence of each term is
                    indicated by the shade of grey. Finally, cooccurrence of multiple terms is
                    indicated by looking for columns where both rows are shaded.</p>
                <p>Our modifications to the original TileBar method are as follows. First, our query
                    terms are not limited to simply word types. Any text object or combination of
                    text objects can be used. These could include of course markup-elements. Second,
                    the context that defines the segments in each document can be completely
                    controlled by the user, as long as a region-set is selected. The context could
                    be quickly and easily changed to allow a user to see results by, say, act, scene
                    or line in a play. Each of these improvements is directly supported by our
                    region-based model for documents and their contents.</p>
                <p>In conclusion, we believe region-based approach can be combined with a
                    markup-based view of documents to produce software architectures that can meet a
                    variety of user needs. For example, our approach provides a common model for
                    representing words and markup that can more flexibly support the needs of users
                    of digital text resources. This common model shows its advantages in developing
                    a useful and generalized visualization scheme based on the TileBars
                approach.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div>
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                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""1995"">1995</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>Available at:<ptr
                                target=""http://www.acm.org/sigchi/chi95/Electronic/documnts/papers/mah_bdy.htm""
                            /></note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct n=""[6]"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Thomas</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">B.</forename>
                                    <surname>Horton</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">A Region-based Approach for Processing Digital Text
                                Resources</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">Conference Abstracts of the Digital Resources for the
                                Humanities, September 12-15, 1999, King's College, London</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">47-49</biblScope>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>Presentation slides available at:<ptr
                                target=""http://www.cse.fau.edu/~tom/elta/drh99-horton.pdf""/></note>
                    </biblStruct>
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                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Jani</forename>
                                    <surname>Jaakkola</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Pekka</forename>
                                    <surname>Kilpeläinen</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""u"">SGREP (structured grep)</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher>University of Helsinki, Finland</publisher>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>
                            <ptr target=""http://www.cs.helsinki.fi/~jjaakkol/sgrep.html""/>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Mark</forename>
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                <p>Tradition is a vital element of all cultures. It serves as central means for the
                    maintenance and propagation of collective or social memory, binding the present
                    to the past in almost innumerable ways. While there is no shortage of studies of
                    particular traditions, it is surprising find that ""scholarly analyses of the
                    history and present meaning of the concept of tradition remain remarkably
                        few.""<note n=""1"">Mark Phillips, ""What is tradition when it is not
                        'invented'?; an historiographical introduction"", in M. Phillips and G.
                        Schochet, eds. <title level=""m"">Questions of Tradition</title> (University
                        of Toronto Press, forthcoming). Edward Shils made the same claim, 20 years
                        ago, in his ground breaking Tradition (Chicago, 1981).</note> Derived from
                    the Latin <emph rend=""italics"">traditio</emph>, a form of handing property down
                    from one generation to another, the meanings and associations of this term have
                    developed differently in English and French from the early modern period.</p>
                <p>The last decade has been marked by the appearance of an impressive array of very
                    large textual databases containing significant samples of several national
                    literatures. These collections cover many genres and document types, including
                    different kinds of reference works as well as canonical and noncanonical
                    literary holdings, spanning many centuries. The chronological scope and wide
                    coverage of these databases open the possibility of performing systematic
                    analysis of the history of the idea of ""tradition"" in individual languages and
                    comparisons of the history of this notion between languages.</p>
                <p>The appearance of so many large textual databases has created a new set of
                    problems, which might be thought of as an embarrassment of riches. The number of
                    occurrences of even relatively rare terms can exceed even the most dedicated
                    scholar's ability to review all of the results. As part of the initial work on
                    this project, I implemented two interactive (or real-time) extensions to
                    PhiloLogic that I found useful in grasping ""the big picture"". The first, based
                    on earlier implementations, allows the user to generate word frequencies and
                    corrected frequencies broken down by time periods. The second is a simple
                    collocation generator which calculates frequencies of all words within a user
                    selected span to the left and right of a keyword with an optional filtering
                    mechanism to eliminate high frequency function words from the report.<note n=""2""
                        >Susan Hockey provides a useful overview of ""collocation"" in <title
                            level=""m"">Electronic Texts in the Humanities</title>, (Oxford, 2000), pp
                        90-91. See also Mark Olsen, ""Gender representation and histoire des
                        mentalités: Language and Power in the Trésor de la langue française"", in
                            <title level=""j"">Histoire et measure</title> VI (1991):
                    349-73.</note></p>
                <p>The broad outlines of the senses of the word tradition provided by the <title
                        level=""m"">Dictionnaire de l'Academie française</title> (DAF) from the first
                    edition (1694) to the eighth (1932-5) are consistent. The first edition provides
                    3 senses of <emph rend=""italics"">tradition</emph>; a legal term for the delivery
                    of property; a means (<emph rend=""italics"">voye</emph>) of transmission of
                    unwritten knowledge from the past, primarily in a religious context; and the
                    contents of knowledge coming to us by <emph rend=""italics"">la voye de la
                        Tradition</emph>. Two and a half centuries later, the Academy still
                    classified <emph rend=""italics"">traditionas</emph> a term <emph rend=""italics""
                        >de Jurisprudence et de Liturgie</emph> leading the definition with senses
                    drawn from legal and Catholic citations.</p>
                <p>The primacy of the religious cast of <emph rend=""italics"">tradition</emph> in
                    17th century French is confirmed by an examination of the most frequent
                    collocates of <emph rend=""italics"">tradition</emph>, which include <emph
                        rend=""italics"">e[s]criture</emph>, <emph rend=""italics"">eglise</emph>, <emph
                        rend=""italics"">sainte</emph>, and <emph rend=""italics"">constante</emph>.
                    There were, however, non-Catholic traditions could not be accorded the same
                    authority, for which a different, secularized word was used: ""<emph
                        rend=""italics""> Traditive s.f. Il a les mesmes sens que Tradition, mais il
                        ne se dit point dans les matieres de Religion</emph>.""<note n=""3""><title
                            level=""m"">DAF</title>, 1st edition (1694) vol. 2, p. 583.</note> This
                    non-Catholic ""tradition"" disappears in later editions of the DAF and appears to
                    loose currency in the language. A search of the ARTFL database reveals 9
                    occurrences dated between 1620-1660 while a search of the Corpus of Philosophy
                    finds 13 citations from the end of the 16th century, and it is found in earlier
                    dictionaries, such as Jean Nicot's <title level=""m"">Thesor</title> (1606).</p>
                <p>The disappearance of the <emph rend=""italics"">traditive</emph> in the early 18th
                    century is marked by recasting of tradition as a form of knowledge which can be
                    verified, most remarkably by the <emph rend=""italics"">philosophes</emph>, and by
                    the appearance of adjective (traditionel, elle) and adverbial
                    (traditionnellement) forms, suggesting that tradition moves from an identifiable
                    thing to a characteristic. The entries for tradition in the <title level=""m""
                        >Encyclopédie</title> are classified as being part of ""sacred criticism,
                    religion, or law"", the article in which the word tradition is most frequently
                    used is <emph rend=""italics"">Certitude</emph>. This article is an examination of
                    the means by which one may achieve <emph rend=""italics"">certitude morale</emph>
                    when assessing knowledge based on reports of witness through three channels
                        <emph rend=""italics"">canals</emph>) or <emph rend=""italics"">lignes
                        traditionelles</emph>, oral, written and monumental.</p>
                <cit rend=""block"">
                    <quote>Il paroît par ce que j'ai dit jusqu'ici, qu'on doit raisonner sur la
                        tradition comme sur les témoins oculaires. Un fait transmis par une seule
                        ligne traditionelle, ne mérite pas plus notre foi, que la déposition d'un
                        seul témoin oculaire; car une ligne traditionelle ne représente qu'un témoin
                        oculaire; elle ne peut donc équivaloir qu'à un seul témoin.</quote>
                    <note n=""4""><title level=""m"">Encyclopédie</title>, vol. 2, p. 854.</note>
                </cit>
                <p>Tradition retains the possibility of being authoritative, even for the <emph
                        rend=""italics"">philosophes</emph>, because it may be critically evaluated. </p>
                <p>The authority of tradition in English in the early modern period is far more
                    questionable because of the influence of the Protestant attack on Catholic
                    tradition. The most frequent collocates of tradition in the English Poetry
                    database between 1550 and 1699 include vain(e), man's, men's, superstition and
                    false. Many citations equate tradition with papism, falsehood, and superstition.
                    In his <title level=""m"">Voyage Around the World...</title>, Dunton points out
                    that travel is an important corrective given ""how fatal into Truth the
                    dependence upon the Tradition and Authority of Men"".<note n=""5"">EEPF: p.
                        290.</note>By contrast to the extensive treatment in the <title level=""m""
                        >Encyclopédie</title>, the Encyclopedia Britannica, half a century later,
                    fully defines tradition as<cit rend=""block"">
                        <quote>something handed down from one generation to another without being
                            written. Thus the Jews pretend, that besides their written law contained
                            in the Old Testament, Moses had delivered an oral law which had conveyed
                            down from father to son; and thus the Roman Catholics are said to value
                            particular doctrines supposed to have descended from the apostolic times
                            by tradition.</quote>
                        <note n=""6"">5th edition (1817), vol. 20, pp. 458-9.</note>
                    </cit>
                </p>
                <p>Similarly, both Locke and Hume suggest that tradition is an almost completely
                    unreliable form of knowledge. In contrast to the examination in the <title
                        level=""m"">Encyclopédie</title>, Hume writes<cit rend=""block"">
                        <quote>An historical fact, while it passes by oral tradition from
                            eyewitnesses and contemporaries, is disguised in every successive
                            narration, and may at last retain but very small, if any, resemblance of
                            the original truth, on which it was founded.</quote>
                        <note n=""7"">BritPhil: David Hume, <title level=""m"">Natural History</title>,
                            p. 312.</note>
                    </cit></p>
                <p>The English representation of tradition, into the 19th century and even among
                    prominent intellectuals, is shaped by anti-Catholic positions from a much
                    earlier period.</p>
                <p>The French representation of tradition in the 19th century sees the development
                    of social and cultural usages, which also appears to be typical of English
                    usage, an issue to be examined in the full paper. This is suggested both by the
                    frequencies of the use of tradition in particular works and terms most commonly
                    associated with tradition. For example, 127 of 481 occurrences of tradition in
                    the 19th century (CPhil) are found in one work: Ballanche, Pierre-Simon [1818],
                        <title level=""m"">Essai sur les institutions sociales</title>, with 70
                    occurrences in Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph [1860], <title level=""m"">De la justice
                        dans la révolution et dans l'église</title>. Examination of collocation
                    tables for French databases, such as ARTFL, suggest that in the 19th century,
                    traditions are localized by geographic region, family, and class, associated
                    with customs, while retaining clear religious connotations. The twentieth
                    century introduces a new strong pattern of associations, featuring national,
                    French, political and revolutionary traditions as the most frequent collocates,
                    which take some precedence over the personal, local and familial patterns of
                    19th century tradition.</p>
                <p>There are also important shifts in the ""ownership"" of tradition in French. The
                    construct ""our tradition[s]"" rarely appears in the 17th or 18th centuries, but
                    becomes fairly common in the 19th and 20th centuries. By contrast, the 3rd
                    person possessives (his/her, their) also increase during the period, but not
                    nearly as quickly.<note n=""8"">The first person plural possessive and all forms
                        of tradition: 1 occurrence in the 17th century, 44 in the 20th. Third person
                        plural possessive and all forms of tradition: 17 occurrences in the 17th
                        century, 84 in the 20th.</note> In the 17th and 18th centuries, other people
                    (Jews for example) had their traditions, but by the 19th and 20th centuries
                    tradition becomes associated with local, national, or cultural
                    identification.</p>
                <p>The use of relatively simple methodologies applied to large textual databases may
                    result in useful contributions to the history of concepts and <emph
                        rend=""italics"">histoire des mentalités</emph>, by facilitating examinations
                    of contrasts between long term developments across languages and the isolation
                    of individual texts or authors that may introduce significant changes in these
                    trends. The examination of tradition, in French and English, reveals evolving
                    patterns in relationship of contemporaries to their past, authority of the past,
                    and the importance of the past in self-definition.</p>
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        <back>
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                <head>Databases</head>
                <p>The following databases, from various sources, all implemented under PhiloLogic,
                    have been used so far in this study.</p>
                <p n=""1""><title level=""m"">Les dictionnaires d'autrefois</title> and the pre-release
                    implementation of the 4th edition of the <title level=""m"">DAF</title>.</p>
                <p n=""2"">Diderot, <title level=""m"">Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire
                    raisonné....</title></p>
                <p n=""3"">Main ARTFL Database [TLF].</p>
                <p n=""4"">Corpus des oeuvres de philosophie en langue française (Bibliopolis).</p>
                <p n=""5"">Early English Prose Fiction [EEPF], (Chadwyck-Healey).</p>
                <p n=""6"">English Poetry [EngPo], (Chadwyck-Healey).</p>
                <p n=""7"">British Philosophy, 1600-1900 [BritPhil], (Intelex).</p>
                <p n=""8""> Corpus de la littérature narrative [BASILE], (Champion).</p>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Larry</forename>
                        <surname>Stewart</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">The College of Wooster</name>
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                <p>In ""Stephen Crane and the 'New York Tribune': a Case Study in Traditional and
                    Non-Traditional Authorship Attribution,"" a paper delivered at ALLC/ACH 2000,
                    David Holmes and Michael Robertson argue for the use of ""objective, stylometric
                    evidence"" to support ""the 'traditional' scholarship on the problem of
                    authorship"" and suggest that ""this joint interdisciplinary approach should be
                    the way in which attributional research is conducted"" (175) This paper presents
                    a case study to support the argument that such an interdisciplinary approach may
                    prove as important in literary analysis as in attribution studies.</p>
                <p>Of course, in one sense, this recognition of the symbiotic relationship between
                    traditional and quantitative analysis is not new. J. F. Burrows' groundbreaking
                    Computation into Criticism brilliantly and seamlessly moves between statistical
                    and traditional literary analysis and clearly recognizes the dialogue between
                    the two. As well, any number of papers coming out of this conference use
                    quantitative analysis to test or illustrate insights from literary criticism.
                    (See, for example, Opas and Tweedie, ""The Magic Carpet Ride"" and their ""Come
                    into my World: Styles of Stance in Detective and Romantic Fiction"" or McKenna's
                    ""The Statistical Analysis of Style: How Language Means in Beckett."") However,
                    the value of using statistical analysis to augment traditional criticism appears
                    not to have been widely recognized and it seems important to continue to insist
                    on the insights that each approach may bring to the other.</p>
                <p>This case study concerns texts of Charles Brockden Brown, usually recognized as
                    the first professional novelist in the United States. For many years, Brown was
                    considered a relatively imprecise and careless stylist, who gave little
                    attention to character creation and particularly to narrative voice. However, a
                    revival of interest in Brown during the last fifteen to twenty years has brought
                    with it increased admiration for Brown as a stylist but with little close
                    examination of that style. The purpose of this study was to look more closely at
                    that style, particularly by examining the narrative voice in two texts: Wieland
                    or The Transformation (1798) and Carwin, The Biloquist (1803-1805). Wieland is a
                    novel of twenty-seven chapters, most of which are narrated by Clara Wieland, the
                    novel's Gothic heroine, but with three chapters narrated by each of three other
                    characters. Carwin is an unfinished novel, the first ten chapters of which were
                    published serially. Carwin, the Gothic villain of Wieland, narrates one chapter
                    of that novel and the whole of Carwin. The question with which this study began
                    was whether Brown had created in Carwin a character and narrator with a
                    distinctive voice, whether what we call the character Carwin is a distinct
                    literary or linguistic entity. If so, the evidence would seem to suggest greater
                    precision in the creation of narrative voice than has been traditionally
                    recognized.</p>
                <p>To determine differences or similarities in narrative voice, the study utilized a
                    variation on what is sometimes called the Burrow's technique, using multivariate
                    analysis to discover patterns in the occurrence rate of the text's most common
                    function words. However, along with the use of the fifty most common words, this
                    analysis included as variables the occurrence rate of punctuation marks
                    (periods, commas, question marks, exclamation points, semicolons, colons, and
                    ellipses) and of other stylistic markers such as sentence and paragraph length.
                    These variables included the rate of short and long sentences (defined as five
                    or fewer words and twenty-five or more words), short and long paragraphs
                    (defined as fifty or fewer words and one hundred and twenty-five or more words),
                    average words per sentence, average sentences per paragraph, and percentage of
                    unique words. The latter variables were added because in the analysis of a
                    sample of fifteen late-eighteenth- and early-nineteenth-century novels, the
                    addition of these variables appeared substantially to increase the sensitivity
                    of the analysis. The presentation will discuss the variables which were most
                    effective in making discriminations. With the addition of these variables, a
                    principle components analysis was made for each chapter in Wieland and Carwin,
                    and the results of the two most significant factors were displayed on a scatter
                    graph. These results show a clear distinction between most of the chapters in
                    Wieland and those in Carwin. (See Figure 1.)</p>
                <figure/>
                <p>With the addition of these variables, a principle components analysis was made
                    for each chapter in Wieland and Carwin, and the results of the two most
                    significant factors were displayed on a scatter graph. These results show a
                    clear distinction between most of the chapters in Wieland and those in Carwin.
                    (See Figure 1.) However, chapter twenty-three of Wieland, the chapter narrated
                    by the character Carwin, is clearly situated among the chapters from Carwin.
                    Thus, it would seem that the narrative voice of Carwin is distinctive, that
                    Brown has created a character whose voice in one novel is recognizable as his
                    voice in the other.</p>
                <p>Those results might have concluded the study were it not for the fact that two
                    other chapters from Wieland are situated in the constellation of Carwin
                    chapters, chapter twenty-seven, the final chapter of the novel, and chapter
                    thirteen, a chapter narrated by another character, Pleyel, a romantic interest
                    of the protagonist, Clara Wieland. It is when considering and attempting to
                    explain the location of these two chapters among those from Carwin that the
                    strongest case can be made for the joint use of quantitative and traditional
                    literary analysis. It is not just that quantitative analysis may support and
                    supply evidence for traditional approaches but that traditional analysis may
                    help us understand what we are seeing in the results of quantitative analysis.</p>
                <p>Upon reflection, the analyst should probably not be surprised to find the
                    narration of Clara in the final chapter to have much in common with the
                    narrative voice of Carwin. Critics have long noted that Clara's voice in the
                    final chapter undergoes a transformation, and some have even suggested that
                    Clara has come ultimately under the influence of Carwin, whose villainy
                    throughout has been associated with his powers of ventriloquism. That he has
                    thrown his voice a final time and taken over the voice of the dominant narrator
                    has been at least hinted by critics. Quantitative analysis supports such an
                    interpretation, and the interpretation helps the quantitative analyst to
                    understand his or her results.</p>
                <p>The initially more problematic finding is the location of chapter thirteen of
                    Wieland among the chapters from Carwin. Since it is a chapter narrated by
                    Pleyel, one might speculate that the narrator Clara has one voice and all other
                    narrators have another. However, such an explanation does not account for
                    chapter nineteen, narrated by Theodore Wieland, which differs both from the
                    chapters narrated by Carwin and from those narrated by Clara. The more likely
                    explanation comes from Steven Watts, who, in his book The Romance of Real Life:
                    Charles Brockden Brown and the Origins of American Culture, comments on the
                    usually unrecognized similarities of Pleyel and Carwin and, in fact, finds
                    Carwin to be the alter ego of Pleyel. Although this interpretation has not
                    gained wide currency, the similarities in voice indicated by the statistical
                    analysis suggest that it might be reconsidered.</p>
                <p>These findings seem to support what J. F. Burrows points out: ""that exact
                    evidence, often couched in the unfamiliar language of statistics, does have a
                    distinct bearing on questions of importance in the territory of literary
                    interpretation and judgement"" (2). However, the findings also suggest that
                    traditional critical interpretation has a real bearing on how we understand the
                    meaning of those statistics.</p>
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                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">J.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">F.</forename>
                                    <surname>Burrows</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Computation into Criticism: A Study of Jane Austen and
                                an Experiment in Method</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Oxford</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Clarendon Press</publisher>
                                <date when=""1987"">1987</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Bill</forename>
                                    <surname>Christophersen</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">The Apparition in the Glass: Charles Brockden Brown's
                                American Gothic</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Athens and London</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>U of Georgia Press</publisher>
                                <date when=""1993"">1993</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">David</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">I.</forename>
                                    <surname>Holmes</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Michael</forename>
                                    <surname>Robertson</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Stephen Crane and the 'New-York Tribune': a Case Study
                                in Traditional and Non-traditional Authorship Attribution</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""u"">Paper delivered at ALLC/ACH 2000</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">C.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">W.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">F.</forename>
                                    <surname>McKenna</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">The Statistical Analysis of Style: How Language Means
                                in Beckett</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">Abstracts of the ALLC/ACH Conference 2000, Glasgow</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">L.</forename>
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                                    <surname>Opas</surname>
                                </name>
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                                    <forename type=""first"">F.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">J.</forename>
                                    <surname>Tweedie</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">The Magic Carpet Ride: Reader Involvement n Romantic
                                Fiction</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">Literary &amp; Linguistic Computing</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol"">14</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""issue"">1</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">89-101</biblScope>
                                <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">L.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">L.</forename>
                                    <surname>Opas</surname>
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                                    <forename type=""middle"">J.</forename>
                                    <surname>Tweedie</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Come into my World: Styles of Stance in Detective and
                                Romantic Fiction</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">Abstracts of the ALLC/ACH Conference 1999, Virginia</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">247</biblScope>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Donald</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                                    <surname>Ringe</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Charles Brockden Brown</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>New York</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Twayne</publisher>
                                <date when=""1966"">1966</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Steven</forename>
                                    <surname>Watts</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">The Romance of Real Life: Charles Brockden Brown and
                                the Origins of American Culture</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Baltimore and London</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Johns Hopkins</publisher>
                                <date when=""1994"">1994</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
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"201","3","There is Virtue in Virtuality. Future potentials of electronic humanities scholarship","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">There is Virtue in Virtuality. Future potentials of
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                        <forename type=""first"">Hans</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">Walter</forename>
                       <surname>Gabler</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Ludwig-Maximilans-Universität München</name>
                            <email>hans-walter.gabler@anglistik.uni.muenchen.de</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
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            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
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            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ALLC/ACH 2002</title>
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                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
                    </name>
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                    </name>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                <p>The established present use of the computer in the humanities is to enhance the
                    properties and quality of the book. With the book electronically stored, book
                    contents and book knowledge can be accessed fast and very flexibly; while the
                    physical book, widely still the end product of computer deployment, can be
                    manufactured more accurately, perhaps even more economically, than under the
                    conventional conditions of the composition room and press. Beyond the token book
                    in electronic storage, and the real book generated by electronic means to
                    habitually palpable materiality, paperwork and the book provide significant
                    metaphors for computer-related discourse, with the file or the home page heading
                    the terminology. This is a specific indication of a patterning of thought
                    according to inherited figurations that is as tenacious as it is universal.</p>
                <p>In the face of the forces of habit, the question arises how clearly the
                    book-conditioned and book-trained humanities scholar and researcher is capable
                    of discerning the unique otherness of the electronic medium and both explore and
                    exploit its potential. I suggest that the grasp hitherto, in humanities
                    scholarship at least, of the essential virtuality of the electronic medium does
                    not securely reach further than to a simulation of the materialities of paper
                    and print. Hence an orientation towards the future requires reflecting on how
                    the virtuality of the electronic medium uniquely might put us in a position to
                    deconventionalize our scholarly pursuits and innovate them.</p>
                <p>Such reflections should not remain abstract and arcane. Examples will help to
                    flesh them out. A main area for applying the computer is that of the
                    organisation of knowledge. Handbooks, dictionaries and the like are already
                    preferred objects of conversion into electronic multi-mediality. A distinct
                    qualitative step might however be taken if, from its very conception, the
                    organisation of knowledge is not projected as going linearly (with
                    cross-reference props) into book form and bookish formats, but relationally into
                    the virtuality of the computer. The example of an incipient project on such
                    terms will be cited. A specific sub-area, furthermore, of the organisation of
                    knowledge is the commentary on a given text, or body of texts. The thrust of the
                    arrangement of commentary in book-printing practice is currently linear - it
                    having been largely forgotten how early book typography was already capable of
                    suggesting relationalities (and so was properly 'hypertextual' <emph
                        rend=""italics"">avant la lettre</emph>). But the relationality of the
                    electronic medium will encourage a re-transforming of commentary into something
                    akin to that early understanding of the essential relationality of the
                    represented matter itself. Again, an example will illustrate the issues as
                    indicating some first principles in need of developing towards the
                    systematisation and organising of the computer commentary.</p>
                <p>This should lead to a brief glance at a project under way exemplifying an
                    ambition to set up the scholar's and critic's working desk virtually by
                    assembling all requisite primary and secondary materials relative to a
                    pre-defined research interest on one internet website globally accessible. The
                    Italo-Franco-German project HyperNietzsche currently under development from its
                    German base in Munich is making the bid for such comprehensiveness. Against its
                    heterogeneity, one may hold that it is textual editing that remains a pivotal -
                    and perhaps the central - area of humanities scholarship. It has the longest,
                    and intrinsically most bookish, tradition. It would seem particularly necessary,
                    therefore, that the tradition's centeredness on the book not remain
                    unreflected.</p>
                <p>Textual scholarship's critical self-distancing is aided by literary and textual
                    theory that focuses the process nature of texts in reading as in composition. To
                    such general theory, the counterpart, in theorizings of the electronic medium,
                    are current notions of hypertext. The concept of hypertext, however, does not by
                    itself guarantee an electronic text edition properly so called, exploiting, if
                    worthy the definition, the medium's virtuality on its own terms. Considerable
                    rethinking of procedures and presentational modes is required to develop,
                    organise and realise electronic editions as medium-specific alternatives to
                    scholarly editions in book form. An example, again, will serve to indicate
                    directions for development. Finally, in this paper, I wish to introduce (and
                    demonstrate) a distinction between electronic text editions and the electronic
                    editing of processes of manuscript writing. With the critically editorial
                    exploration of manuscripts as sites of writing and of writing processes as the
                    successive, yet random, filling of writing space, the editorial branch of
                    humanities scholarship cuts the moorings to the book. Such exploration is
                    possible only in the virtuality of the electronic medium and its evanescent
                    screen images.</p>
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"202","3","Multiple Architectures and Multiple Media: The Salem Witch Trials and Boston's Back Bay Fens Projects","3","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Multiple Architectures and Multiple Media: The Salem
                    Witch Trials and Boston's Back Bay Fens Projects</title>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Daniel</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">V.</forename>
                        <surname>Pitti</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Institute for Advanced Technology in the
                            Humanities</name>, <name type=""org"">University of Virginia</name>
                            <email>dpitti@virginia.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Chris</forename>
                        <surname>Jessee</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Institute for Advanced Technology in the
                            Humanities</name>, <name type=""org"">University of Virginia</name>
                            <email>cj8n@virginia.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Stephen</forename>
                        <surname>Ramsay</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Institute for Advanced Technology in the
                            Humanities</name>, <name type=""org"">University of Virginia</name>
                            <email>sjra@virginia.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
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                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
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                <title level=""m"">ALLC/ACH 2002</title>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Harald</forename>
                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                    <p>The Salem Witch Trials and Boston's Back Bay Fens Projects have been under
                        development at the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities
                        (IATH) since July 1999. Professor Ben Ray of the Religious Studies
                        Department leads The Salem Witch Trials project. Kathy Poole, a professor in
                        the School of Architecture at the time of the award, leads Boston's Back Bay
                        Fens project.</p>
                    <p>While the two projects have distinctly different subject matter and
                        objectives, they have in common an historical perspective and analysis, and
                        the use of interrelated geographic, social, documentary, and interpretive
                        data and information. Specific challenges involved identifying the key
                        ""objects of interest;"" analysis of their nature and characteristics;
                        identification of appropriate representation architectures and development
                        of appropriate models and implementations; and finally, interrelating the
                        diverse architectures to fulfill the pedagogical and research objectives of
                        each project. Three papers will be presented describing both the
                        intellectual and technological methods employed in the design and
                        implementation of these two projects.</p>
                    <p>""Data Diversity and Integration in Two Socio-Cultural Historical Research
                        Projects"" will provide an overview of each project. In particular, it will
                        describe the people (faculty, student, and staff) involved and the essential
                        research and pedagogical objectives of each project, the analytic methods
                        employed to identify the essential intellectual components and appropriate
                        representational architectures for each, the data and textual schemas
                        developed, and the overarching relational architecture that integrates the
                        diverse, data specific architectures. Each project comprises relational
                        database, XML textual documents (both documentary and interpretative),
                        pictorial material, geographic information, and real-time dynamically
                        created XML data instances used to integrate the various architectures, and
                        data structures and content.</p>
                    <p>""Flash GIS: Delivering Geographic Information on the Internet,"" using
                        examples from the Salem Witch Trials and Boston's Back Bay Fens, will
                        discuss the challenge of delivering geographic information on the Internet
                        for the humanities researcher. Current GIS-to-web solutions have the benefit
                        of being easy to use and fast to deploy if their features and functionality
                        meet project requirements. However, if the research requires high quality
                        display, animation, a custom interface, or advanced interactivity, these
                        systems will be inadequate. Combining the high quality vector display of
                        Flash with an SQL database, the Institute has developed a system which it
                        has named ""Flash GIS."" This system offers the extensibility and
                        functionality needed to handle complex geographic relationships. The Flash
                        plug-in was designed to display animated advertising in a web browser, but
                        it is broad and general in function, and thus can be applied to a range of
                        humanities data visualization problems.</p>
                    <p>""Relational Ontologies and the New Historicism,"" will discuss the opportunity
                        offered by these two projects to think about the ways in which computer
                        technology can assist historians in effecting the union of macro- and micro-
                        historiographic methods. Both projects employ schema with conventional
                        records, but enrich that record set with an extremely rich relational
                        ontology that can capture the complex relationships between divergent record
                        types. This paper discusses the ways in which the system uses those
                        relational junctions to bring forth the micro-narratives implicit in the
                        data--narratives that were perhaps beyond the view of any individual
                        researcher entering data into the database. This paper also presents the
                        Sibelius libraries (a set of generic Java classes for rendering database
                        relationships), and goes on to propose several possibilities for more
                        elaborate data visualizations.</p>
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                        <head>Data Diversity and Integration in Two Socio-Cultural Historical
                            Research Projects</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Daniel V. Pitti</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>Each year the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities
                                awards a two- year fellowships for computer-assisted research in the
                                humanities to a member of the humanities faculty at the University
                                of Virginia. The selection committee evaluates proposals based on
                                the merit of content and on innovative use of computer technology in
                                humanities research. The Salem Witch Trials and Boston's Back Bay
                                Fens projects were awarded fellowships in 1999, under the
                                Institute's early policy of offering two one-year fellowships each
                                year.</p>
                            <p>The Salem Witch Trial project is using computer technology to
                                document, research, and interpret the witch trials that took place
                                between 1692 and 1693 in Salem, Massachusetts. The Boston's Back Bay
                                Fens project is using computer technology to document, research, and
                                interpret the history of the infrastructure of Boston's Back Bay
                                Fens park and surrounding area from 1878 until the present.</p>
                            <p>While the two projects differ significantly in the subjects being
                                investigated, we can characterize each as an historical, social, and
                                cultural study. The similarities in methodology and the related
                                focus on social and cultural phenomena in a bounded space and time
                                lead to similar computer data representations and architectures.</p>
                            <p>At the outset of each project, the faculty researchers leading each
                                project began a series of meetings with Institute faculty and staff,
                                and graduate students assisting the projects. The goals of these
                                meetings are to analyze the objectives of each project, to identify
                                the resources and relations among them required to meet the
                                objectives, to identify the appropriate computer architectures for
                                representing the resources and meeting the research objectives, and,
                                finally, to develop appropriate, detailed representational schemas.
                                Both projects utilize a wide variety of both primary and secondary
                                resources. While many of these resources are textual in nature, many
                                represent a variety of other forms: geographic information,
                                pictorial and other graphic materials, as well as social and
                                cultural data extracted from primary resources and represented.</p>
                            <p>A central challenge in all projects at the Institute is identifying
                                the central ""objects of interests."" Objects of interest comprise
                                both the key artifacts and resources that constitute the core
                                evidence under study, as well as the people, places, things, and
                                events documented in these resources. While the resources and the
                                various social, cultural, and political entities they document are
                                of primary importance, the relations among them are equally
                                important.</p>
                            <p>Both projects employ relational databases at the center of their
                                architectures. The Salem Witch Trials database has primary tables
                                representing people (accusers, accused, witnesses, and the like),
                                organizations or corporate bodies (including courts, juries,
                                households, and town, church, and legal officials), legal and
                                judicial events (accusations, arrests, trials, convictions,
                                executions, and the like), public and private buildings and
                                structures (court houses, homes, and so on), and bibliographic
                                resources (court records and other documentary evidence, critical
                                early and modern secondary resources, pictorial materials, maps,
                                derived and original digital materials, and so on). Many of the
                                materials described in bibliographic records in the database are the
                                sources for describing the individuals, organizations, events, and
                                structures represented in the databases.</p>
                            <p>Each primary table defines a set of descriptive attributes for each
                                object. In turn, each object represented in a primary table is
                                related to each of the others in a variety of ways through secondary
                                tables. People, for example, are related through secondary tables
                                from which family structures can be dynamically derived. Families,
                                in turn, are related to households, which encompass broader
                                relations than families. Families, further, are related to houses,
                                which are also related to specific geographic information locating
                                them in space, as well as in time. In this manner, people,
                                organizations, structures, events, and resources function as
                                primitives that, when interrelated, comprise more complex structures
                                serving particular research and analytic objectives.</p>
                            <p>Boston's Back Bay Fens has five primary tables: people, organizations
                                or corporate bodies, events, objects or structures, and
                                bibliographic resources. While the primary tables are remarkably
                                similar to the tables in Salem Witch Trials tables, there is only
                                some overlap in the attributes associated with each object. The
                                differences in attributes primarily reflect differences in the
                                nature of the disciplines (religious studies and history of
                                architecture) and the nature of the objects and relations being
                                investigated. The primary objects identified and the attributes
                                identified and associated with them reflect the disciplinary
                                methodology employed, and assumptions about which phenomenon will
                                lead to furthering our understanding. In essence, the entities
                                represented in each primary table and the relations between them in
                                secondary tables reflect the hypothetical assumptions of each
                                researcher.</p>
                            <p>The information represented in the databases is extracted from a
                                variety of primary and secondary resources. The latter category
                                includes both second and first generation digital materials.
                                Decisions concerning the appropriate architectures and
                                representations of the primary and secondary resources required
                                additional analysis, though not independent of the analysis and
                                design of the databases. The entities represented in the database
                                are necessarily related to the documentary and secondary sources,
                                and these relations must necessarily be maintained. Maintaining
                                these relations requires identifying and representing in both the
                                database representations and the representations of the resources
                                machine-readable data facilitating correlations.</p>
                            <p>Given the historical nature of each project, spatial and temporal
                                orientation of the people and organizations that play significant
                                roles, the natural and cultural objects that coexist with them, and
                                the events that reveal significant relations among them, become of
                                critical importance. Geographic and temporal information thus plays
                                a critical role in each of these projects. We can characterize
                                existing Geographic Information Systems (GIS) as generally dealing
                                with change over time through a series of static maps linked to
                                relatively flat structures representing the data being plotted
                                through time and space. Both of these projects, however, wanted to
                                be able to display (visualize?) people, objects, and events in
                                geographic space and through time dynamically. This presented the
                                challenge of not merely re-presenting maps as images or even GIS,
                                but representing geographic information in relation to entities
                                represented in the respective databases. The data in the databases
                                is used ""to drive"" dynamic temporal-geographic displays.</p>
                            <p>Each project also had to consider the representation of texts,
                                pictorial and other graphic material. Given past and extensive
                                experience with markup and imaging technologies, texts were not a
                                difficult challenge. Neither project had significant interest in
                                text bearing artifacts as such, or in exploring text or editing
                                theory. Both projects were primarily interested in the information
                                content of texts: reading, searching. In addition to reading and
                                searching, individual texts and people, objects, and events
                                documented in them also had to be represented in a machine-readable
                                manner that would facilitate correlations with entities in the
                                relational databases, and, through them, maps. TEI Lite was chosen
                                as the method for representing texts. Some texts from primary
                                resources are also represented as images, and some texts, where
                                creating machine-readable texts was not deemed necessary or
                                currently economically feasible, are only represented as images.</p>
                            <p>The Salem Witch Trials and the Boston's Back Bay Fens projects are
                                socio- cultural historical studies. While the subject matter in each
                                differs, the similarities in methodology lead to similarities in the
                                phenomenon represented and the methods for representing them. Both
                                projects employ relational databases as axis around which are
                                correlated sophisticated dynamic GIS systems, and resources
                                represented using XML and XML systems, as well other technologies
                                appropriate to the nature of the data and research objectives. While
                                the databases play a central role in the analysis and navigation of
                                the data and resources, XML plays the role of representing texts, as
                                well as integration of the various resources and resource systems
                                employed in the two projects.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
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                        <head>Flash GIS: Delivering Geographic Information on the Internet</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Chris Jessee</p>
                        <div>
                            <div>
                                <head>Overview</head>
                                <p>Delivering geographic information on the Internet is a great
                                    challenge for the humanities researcher. Current GIS-to-web
                                    solutions have the benefit of being easy to use and fast to
                                    deploy if their features and functionality meet your project
                                    requirements. However, if you need high quality display,
                                    animation, a custom interface or advanced interactivity these
                                    systems will be inadequate. Combining the high quality vector
                                    display of Flash with an SQL database, we have developed a
                                    system we call Flash GIS. This system can offer the
                                    extensibility and functionality needed to handle complex
                                    geographic relationships. The Flash plug-in was designed to
                                    display animated advertising in a web browser, but it is broad
                                    and general in function and thus can be applied to a range of
                                    humanities data visualization problems.</p>
                                <p>In order for Flash GIS to move beyond its current
                                    proof-of-concept state and become production ready, automated
                                    conversion of standard GIS file formats to Flash's .swf format
                                    will be needed. If we can overcome this hurdle, Flash's
                                    flexibility and ease of integration with immerging technologies
                                    gives it the potential to be a robust GIS-to-web solution for
                                    humanities research.</p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>GIS-to-Web Solutions</head>
                                <p>Slow download, lack of customization and limited animation are
                                    the major problems with current GIS-to-web solutions. Commercial
                                    solutions like ESRI ArcIMS or AutoDesk MapGuide share the same
                                    organizational model: 1) a database, 2) an application server on
                                    a web server and 3) a display engine in the web browser. The
                                    application server functions to negotiate the communication
                                    between the database and the display engine. The display engine
                                    may be as simple as the web browser or as sophisticated as a
                                    Java applet. The display engines vary but provide these common
                                        functions:<list type=""bulleted"">
                                        <item>Pan and zoom</item>
                                        <item>Show and hide layer or coverage</item>
                                        <item>Cursor location readout of latitude and longitude</item>
                                        <item>Hot linked objects and areas to web resources</item>
                                        <item>Object information rollovers</item>
                                        <item>Printing</item>
                                    </list></p>
                                <p>If the browser is used as the display engine, all user
                                    interaction requires message passing to the application server,
                                    thus making response times slow. Java applets are large and slow
                                    to download and inherit the poor quality of the Java display
                                    technology. Java applets may not function properly across
                                    multiple platforms and browsers and may not be supported in
                                    future versions of web browsers. Current GIS-to web solutions
                                    use native GIS file formats for storage. Native file formats are
                                    convenient as preprocessing is reduced or eliminated, but their
                                    inefficient structure results in large files sizes. Only limited
                                    tools and functionality for showing change over time or
                                    animation are available in these off-the-shelf systems.
                                    Customization of interactive functions and user interface are
                                    also very limited without extensive programming.</p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>Flash GIS</head>
                                <p>With installation on 96 percent of all web browsers, the Flash
                                    player plug-in is a more stable delivery target than the web
                                    browsers themselves. There are hundreds of thousands of Flash
                                    users - far more than all GIS users combined. Although Flash was
                                    designed to deliver animation and advertising, not GIS data, the
                                    ease with which we have re-purposed Flash demonstrates its
                                    flexibility and adaptability to a broad range of display and
                                    data visualization tasks. Flash GIS follows the same
                                    organizational model as commercial GIS-to-web solutions with the
                                    Flash Player plug-in serves as the display engine on the web
                                    browser. We store data in a temporary XML file to reduce server
                                    hits, speed delivery and allow the display to run independent of
                                    the server. When the database contents change, the temporary XML
                                    file is updated to reflect the changes. If the data changes
                                    frequently a direct XML socket connection to the database would
                                    replace the XML temp file. Our configuration is as follows:<lb/>
                                    <eg>PostgreSQL Database > Java Servlet > XML > Flash Player
                                        Plug-in</eg></p>
                                <p>Flash is composed of an authoring environment and a browser
                                    plug-in. Using the plug-in as the GIS display engine and the
                                    authoring environment for tool and interface development
                                    provides significant advantages over commercial GIS-to-web
                                    solutions. Flash offers the following features:<list
                                        type=""bulleted"">
                                        <item>Fast downloads via open, compact, streaming media file
                                            format. (SWF).</item>
                                        <item>High quality vector and raster display.</item>
                                        <item>High-level customizable interactivity.</item>
                                        <item>Automatic viewer scaling in the web browser.</item>
                                        <item>Complete control over interface customization.</item>
                                        <item>Animation - positional, shape and display property
                                            transformations.</item>
                                        <item>Tight integration with off-the-shelf web development
                                            tools.</item>
                                        <item>Retrieval and display of HTML, XML, images, movies and
                                            other map files.</item>
                                        <item>Standards based scripting language. (ECMA-Script,
                                            JavaScript)</item>
                                        <item>Encapsulation - separation of data from display.</item>
                                        <item>Data driven from local or remote files or any ODBC
                                            database.</item>
                                        <item>Deliverable to a broad range of devices and media,
                                            including removable media, web browsers and wireless
                                            devices.</item>
                                    </list></p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>Examples</head>
                                <p>The Valley of the Shadow Project:<ptr
                                        target=""http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/vshadow2/MAPDEMO/Theater/TheTheater.html""
                                    /> This initial effort shows the theater-level movements of
                                    American Civil War units from Augusta County, Virginia, and
                                    Franklin County, Pennsylvania. Each major battle they fought in
                                    is linked to a database fact sheet, which provides detailed
                                    information on that unit's experience. All urls are hand coded
                                    and all animation hand tweened.</p>
                                <p>Production details available here:<ptr
                                        target=""http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/~cj8n/doc/mapit/index.html""
                                    /> This link includes information on projection correction of
                                    historic maps as well as detailed information about conversion
                                    from the Shape to .swf file format.</p>
                                <p>The Salem Witch Trials Project:<ptr
                                        target=""http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/salem/maps/index.html""
                                    /> This map shows the occurrence of witchcraft accusations in
                                    the Massachusetts Bay Province during 1692. Animation and object
                                    properties are driven by externally loaded XML data. This
                                    regional map also demonstrates pan and zoom, lat long tracking,
                                    external file loading, an advanced menu system and dynamically
                                    calculated date values.</p>
                                <p>The Salem Township Map is in early development, serving as a
                                    test-bed for arbitrary coordinate system re-mapping and point
                                    plotting accuracy.</p>
                                <p>The Boston Back Bay Fens Project:<ptr
                                        target=""http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/backbay/fens.site/html/maps/contextmap/greatbay/greatbay.html""
                                    /> This case study of Boston's Back Bay Fens and its surrounding
                                    urban landscape demonstrates the extreme data density that Flash
                                    can manage, while maintaining small file sizes and a high level
                                    of interactivity. This map is also in a state of early
                                    development.</p>
                                <p>Page Viewer Project:<ptr
                                        target=""http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/~cj8n/drrh/image.html""
                                    /> This simple page viewer demonstrates the ease with which
                                    Flash tools can be generalized and reused. The pan and zoom
                                    navigation tool shown in the page viewer originated in the Salem
                                    Regional map. It was re-purposed into a page viewing utility in
                                    a matter of minutes.</p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>Remaining Challenges</head>
                                <p>Flash's .swf file format is an open standard and available for
                                    developers to integrate into their products. Our technique for
                                    migrating Shape files into .swf format optimizes the data by
                                    converting simple segmented lines into bezier spline curves
                                    using the MaPublisher Plug-in running in Adobe Illustrator.
                                    However, This conversion and optimization process is labor
                                    intensive. An automated conversion from standard GIS file
                                    formats into .swf format is needed for Flash to work well in a
                                    larger production pipeline. Ideally, ESRI would adopt the Flash
                                    format as a direct output option.</p>
                                <p>Software vendors and users have a great opportunity to deliver
                                    better products and projects based on Flash's strengths. For
                                    example, Flash uses a technology termed SmartClips, which allows
                                    a user to create a Flash interface that assists users in
                                    repetitive authoring tasks. A single high-level user can empower
                                    any number of lesser skilled users with advanced functionality
                                    using SmartClips. Another Macromedia product, Director, has
                                    recently added 3d capabilities with Shockwave 3-d. This promises
                                    rich and highly customizable 3d elements and environments that
                                    integrate cleanly with Flash.</p>
                                <p>Despite Flash's roots as an advertising and animation tool, the
                                    humanities GIS community should consider it as a display engine.
                                    Flash, more than other available technologies, can offer the
                                    extensibility and functionality required to display these
                                    complex geographic relationships.</p>
                            </div>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>Relational Ontologies and the New Historicism</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Stephen Ramsay</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>Modern historiography, in whatever discipline it might occur, is
                                primarily an attempt at multi-leveled contextualization--a weaving
                                together of anecdotal evidence and ""micro-narrative"" with broader,
                                and perhaps more data-centric quantitative evidence. The modern
                                historian, in other words, cares as much about letters, photographs,
                                and snippets of conversation as about census data, geographical
                                information, and tax records. The former has traditionally resided
                                in digital archives; the latter, in relational databases and GIS
                                systems. Effecting the union of the various technical approaches is
                                not by itself a difficult matter. RDBMS, GIS, and digital
                                collections all participate in a similar quest for order and
                                organization. But with the rise of humanities computing has come
                                opportunities for thinking about how technology can be brought to
                                bear on the two-pronged historicism now current. How can the
                                traditional forms of computer-assisted data representation be used
                                to draw forth unforeseen connections, micro-narratives, and
                                anecdotal anomalies in the large and diverse datasets available to
                                the modern historian?</p>
                            <p>The Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities confronted
                                this problem recently with two historiographic projects: ""The Salem
                                Witchcraft Papers"" and ""Evolutionary Infrastructures: Boston's Back
                                Bay Fens."" Both of the scholars initiating the projects wanted to
                                capture large datasets concerning events in a sizeable geographic
                                area over a long period of time. They both envisioned databases that
                                would contain the usual large-dataset materials, like GIS data,
                                building records, and population census materials. In both cases,
                                however, the usefulness of the historical record was thought to
                                depend equally upon individual images, biographical information, and
                                individual documents.</p>
                            <p>The database schema we designed (discussed in a previous paper by D.
                                Pitti) organizes the data into a deliberately heterogeneous
                                ontology: people, places, significant events, objects, corporate
                                bodies, and bibliographical records. The data in each of these major
                                tables is organized according to its own internal logic, but these
                                five tables are related in an overall schema that in both systems
                                reaches to almost a hundred separate relational junctions and
                                subtables. The schema, therefore, consists mainly of many-to-many
                                relationships of the form ""person/corporate_body.owner(),""
                                ""object/event.role(),"" ""bibliographical_record/person.about(),"" and
                                so forth. The data entry mechanisms for the projects involve a
                                combination of both large-scale import, as well as more finely
                                grained data entry. The former method is employed for entering the
                                main records themselves, but the relationships are hand-drawn and
                                classified by members of each respective team.</p>
                            <p>The knowledge possessed by any particular team member is necessarily
                                partial and imperfect. A scholar might have evidence of a connection
                                between the builder of the Boston Conservatory and the building
                                itself, but not about the relationship between that builder and
                                other buildings, or about the relationship between that building and
                                what stood before it. However, the database is all the time watching
                                and recording these connections. We developed a generic Java class
                                library (called the Sibelius libraries) that can search through the
                                junction tables for any particular record looking for these
                                relationships. Whenever the user arrives at a particular record, all
                                of the relationships with other tables are then aggregated and
                                presented to the user.</p>
                            <p>We believe this function is significant for two reasons. On the one
                                hand, it creates synergies out of the partial ontologies possessed
                                by the individual team members; what was partial before may now
                                reveal itself in full. More significant, however, is the fact that
                                these ""unwound"" connections often have the character of
                                micro-narratives. A typical search result for buildings in the Muddy
                                River Watershed in Boston, for example, might yield information
                                about the New England Conservatory. The linking mechanism will in
                                turn yield further connections to various architects, places,
                                buildings, and events, each of which will yield further connections.
                                One is therefore able to create statements like, ""The New England
                                Conservatory, which was once the Harvard Medical Library, was built
                                by Henry Hunnewell, who also built the student house at 96 Fenway,
                                which was once owned by T. Frothingham . . ."" At no point was this
                                narrative explicitly entered into the database in this form, and yet
                                the system can use the local connections to build the larger
                                narrative.</p>
                            <p>This paper will discuss our method from both a philosophical and
                                technical standpoint, and will go on to suggest some directions for
                                how research might proceed on the visualization of these ""unwound""
                                narratives. We have been experimenting, in particular, with graph
                                visualization software, which we hope eventually to apply to the
                                ontological submaps created by the Sibelius engine.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Magdolna</forename>
                        <surname>Kovács</surname>
                        <affiliation>Department of General and Applied Liniguistics, <name
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                            <email>mkovacs@fox.klte.hu</email>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Péter</forename>
                        <surname>Nikléczy</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">Kempelen Farkas Speech Research Laboratory</name>
                            <email>nikleczy@nytud.hu</email>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Gábor</forename>
                        <surname>Olaszy</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">Kempelen Farkas Speech Research Laboratory</name>
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                    <head>1. Introduction</head>
                    <p>Human-machine communication by voice is one of the most dynamically
                        developing fields in information technology. Since human speech in its oral
                        form is the most natural and compact means for communication, it should be
                        used for information exchange in any technical innovation, new technology,
                        as widely as possible. Speech technology is inevitably gaining greater and
                        greater importance in computing.</p>
                    <p>Speech technology is a relatively new field in applied science, and it is
                        strongly interdisciplinary. It integrates both human and engineering
                        sciences such as theoretical and applied linguistics, acoustic phonetics,
                        physiology, mathematics, software engineering, database handling. Although
                        for several years it has been widely recognized, that for success, it is
                        essential to combine these disciplines in education, it is still hardly
                        reflected in higher education curricula [1]. The reason is obvious: it is an
                        essential but a painfully hard task to build the bridges between the various
                        disciplines involved in speech technology, to show its basis in its all
                        complexity.</p>
                    <p>In support of, or, instead of interdisciplinary curricula, special subject
                        oriented courseware should be offered to the students. Multimedia tutorials
                        are, undoubtedly, the most suitable teaching aids in speech communication
                        sciences and for several reasons. Multimedia in this case does not simple
                        offer novel ways of presenting unfamiliar material but it suits best both
                        the nature of human speech itself and the technical requirements of the
                        subject; it provides tools for experiments, creative, problem-solving
                        learning; for the development of necessary skills in e.g. labeling speech,
                        reading spectrograms and it offers extensive resources for ear- training.
                        For the past few years a number of computer assisted learning systems have
                        been developed in the field, the variety of which demonstrates the range of
                        the topics covered, the anticipated knowledge and utilization of interactive
                        elements [1, 2].</p>
                    <p>In this paper we will introduce a new multimedia tutorial ""Speech technology
                        for Hungarian"" and highlight some of the methodological and technical
                        problems associated with the development of multimedia applications in
                        speech communication sciences.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>2. Outlines of the content</head>
                    <p>The multimedia tutorial introduces main features of speech technology.
                        ""Speech technology for Hungarian"" summaries a kind of knowledge that is not
                        taught as a complex course in Hungarian higher education institutions and
                        presents it in a form suited for independent self- instruction by students.
                        The objective of the tutorial is to provide a starting point for improving
                        the training of future Hungarian linguists and speech technologists. For
                        linguistics students it can help to turn from traditional articulatory
                        phonetics towards state-of-the-art speech science and prepare them to solve
                        important issues in the practical application of speech. For engineers it
                        provides the linguistic basis for speech science, the lack of which explains
                        the low quality of some existing applications.</p>
                    <p>The tutorial consists of seven units: 1. Anatomy and physiology of speech
                        production and hearing; 2. Physics of sound; 3. Speech acoustics; 4. The
                        Hungarian speech; 5. Speech synthesis; 6. Speech recognition by machine; 7.
                        Digital speech processing, and provides a glossary of terms and an annotated
                        reference list of relevant literature for the past five years. To tailor the
                        content material to the target users we decided not to deal in detail with
                        the underlying mathematics of signal processing, Unit 7 outlines only the
                        main and most widely used digital speech processing techniques such as FFT,
                        LPC, PSOLA, HMM. At the same time, the tutorial pays special attention to
                        language specific issues. So, for example, Unit 4 offers a collection of
                        extensive articulatory and acoustic data on the segmental and suprasegmental
                        building elements as well as thorough description of rules for the Hungarian
                        language; in Unit 6 separate parts deal with the definition of language
                        dependent rule sets for duration modelling, for the adjustment of correct
                        intensity values in the case of each soun and for the modelling of the
                        structure of the fundamental frequency changes in time (sound, syllable,
                        word, phrase, sentence and text level). Each unit ends with exercises for
                        self-assessment.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head> 3. Technical Issues</head>
                    <p>One of the first main questions that arises is the selection of the
                        developing tool. In spite of the fact that the audio capabilities of early
                        versions Java were quite restricted, Web-browser executable Java softwares
                        have rapidly gain ground in speech science CAL-systems for their platform
                        independence and computational capabilities. Before Java 1.3 one did not
                        have speech input capability; audio playback was restricted to a-low or
                        mu-low coded 8 bit quality, what is certainly unsuitable for a course about
                        the understanding of the real nature of the sound. With sound handling
                        becoming much more versatile in Java 1.3, we decided to implement the
                        tutorial using relatively cost-saving and platform-independent tools:
                        standard HTML including Java 1.3 and other plug-ins - Flash 5.0 and
                        QuickTime 5.0 for animations and video elements.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>4. An Example</head>
                    <p>For demonstration, let us quote the tutorial material on speeding up and
                        slowing down the tempo of speech signal. To fit into the time-limits of a TV
                        or radio commercial or for psychological experiments the artificial
                        manipulation of speech tempo has to be implemented without changing pitch
                        and distorting the quality of the sound. The basic technical issues in
                        speech processing are the determination of cutting or pasting periods, short
                        segments of sounds. The question is what stretches of the signal to choose
                        to minimize the distortion. There are different solutions to this problem,
                        most of them based on mathematical methods applied uniformly to the speech
                        signal. The tutorial material leads the student through the steps of working
                        out an algorithm that accounts for the acoustic structure of different sets
                        of sounds and the contextual changes in the formant frequencies [3]. This
                        algorithm fits the best the main aim of the courseware: to show how the
                        understanding of the nature of the sounds can be utilized in practical
                        applications. The section is based upon with interactive elements by the
                        help of which students themselves can manipulate the tempo of the speech
                        examples.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>References</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"" n=""1"">
                        <monogr>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">G.</forename>
                                    <surname>Bloothoft</surname>
                                </name> et al </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">The Landscape of Future Education in Speech
                                Communication Sciences: 1 Analysis, SOCRATES/ERASMUS Programme</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Utrecht</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>OTS Publications</publisher>
                                <date when=""1997"">1997</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"" n=""2"">
                        <monogr>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">V.</forename>
                                    <surname>Hazan</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">M.</forename>
                                    <surname>Holland</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">Proceedings of the ESCA/SOCRATES Tutorial and Research
                                Workshop on Method and Tool Innovations for Speech Science Education
                                (MATISSE), University College London, 16-17 April 1999.</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct n=""3"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">G.</forename>
                                    <surname>Olaszy</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">P.</forename>
                                    <surname>Olaszi</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Hangidotartamok mesterséges változtatása periódusok
                                kivágásával, megismétlésével</title>
                            <title level=""u"">[Manipulation of sound duration by cutting and
                                repetition of periods]</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">M.</forename>
                                    <surname>Gósy</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">Beszédkutatás'98</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Budapest</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>MTA Nyelvtudományi Intézet</publisher>
                                <date when=""1998"">1998</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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                        <surname>Wegstein</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">Universität Würzburg</name>
                            <email>wegstein@mail.uni-wuerzburg.de</email>
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                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Derek</forename>
                        <surname>Lewis</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Exeter</name>
                            <email>D.R.Lewis@exeter.ac.uk</email>
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                <div>
                    <head>Institutional environment</head>
                    <p>In the mid-1980s the University of Exeter (Project Pallas) and the University
                        of Würzburg ('Linguistic Information and Text Processing') initiated courses
                        in Humanities Computing for undergraduate and postgraduate students. Student
                        and staff exchange programmes within the Erasmus/Socrates framework of the
                        European Union followed soon afterwards. By 1995 Exeter had launched its
                        ReLaTe project, to investigate the use of multimedia internet conferencing
                        for 'Remote Language Teaching (Buckett and Stringer 1997) together with
                        University College, London. Following on from this co-operation, trials with
                        the new medium were extended to investigate the feasibility of delivering
                        inter-university academic courses across national borders. A report on this
                        was published by the Würzburg Computing Centre in 1999 (Fahrner and Plehn
                        1999) and the results demonstrated at the <emph rend=""italics"">CALL -
                            Challenge of Change</emph> conference at Exeter (2001). Here the authors
                        presented a scenario for providing and managing conversation classes
                        designed to allow students to practise foreign language skills with native
                        speakers across Europe using freely available videoconferencing tools
                        (Buckett et al. 2001). The study was based on work with first year students
                        of German at Exeter and postgraduate students of Humanities computing at
                        Würzburg learning English for special purposes. Building on this experience
                        we now outline the next stage in creating virtual classrooms based on
                        videoconferencing software: There are two aims. One is to extend the
                        conversation class setting to one in which students of English/German are
                        studying the language of IT and technical communication; this will enable an
                        investigation of the problems associated with the restrictions imposed by
                        the subject area in the context of 'live' videoconferencing. The second aim
                        is to record authentic class communication in order to build up an archive
                        illustrating the variety of interactions that may be exploited to teach
                        English/German for special purposes in the field of IT.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Impact of the new media: hardware, netware and software</head>
                    <p>Using a PC to see and talk to someone else working at a remote location
                        requires specific hardware (camera, graphics and audio cards, microphone and
                        headset) as well as software and netware tools to create and manage the
                        connection. Linking more than one PC at each location normally generates a
                        considerable load on the network. Using software for the Mbone configured to
                        handle multicast traffic, however, all participants can communicate with
                        each other efficiently and on equal terms (for details see Kumar 1996).</p>
                    <p>Online conversation with native language speakers creates a completely
                        different environment for language learning, compared with the standard
                        'schoolroom' setting of conversation classes. Normally foreign language
                        students, who outside class would communicate in their native language,
                        switch to a foreign language in order to discuss problems with their
                        teachers, language assistant or tutor. Using internet mediated communication
                        these students are able to practise naturally with native speakers, with all
                        the advantages which that entails: they learn to cope with regional
                        differences in speech, develop authentic communication strategies in the
                        foreign language, and become sensitive to the effect of subtle changes in
                        voice pitch, the function of pauses and to the vital area of non-verbal
                        communication. The very act of talking to native speakers (instead of each
                        other) is likely to stimulate the use of a quite different set of words and
                        syntactic structures.</p>
                    <p>In a normal face-to-face conversation class all the participants are in one
                        room, know each other and can draw on the physical/spatial dimensions of
                        speech events: sensing the direction of the sound, they can detect who is
                        speaking, can face him/her and use cues (such as the length of a pause) to
                        judge when he/she has finished in order to take a turn. Communicating via
                        the virtual internet, however, alters the spatial and perceptual context
                        appreciably: the participants are not in the same room; they do not know all
                        the other participants; they can hear in their headphone that some one is
                        speaking, although there is no direction of sound that could help them to
                        identify the speaker; and the audio signal in their headphones lags
                        perceptibly behind the video signal on screen, so that they may
                        misunderstand a slight pause as a signal to take over, prompting them to
                        interrupt the speaker. This lack of conversational coordination leads to a
                        kind of stop-and-go interaction in which more than one speaker starts to
                        take a turn, realizes that others have done the same, stops, and pauses for
                        quite a long time to establish who will finally dare to continue.</p>
                    <p>There is also a direct spatial relationship between the physical speech and
                        the visual information displayed on the computer screen. The size of the
                        person taking part in a face-to-face conversation class is greatly reduced
                        in the virtual, on-screen internet environment: here the size varies from
                        thumbnail (in the list of displayed participants) up to a maximum of a CIF
                        image. For the internet participants, who are not in the same room and do
                        not necessarily know each other, it is therefore indispensable to customize
                        the screen layout by captioning each window with the name of the speaker, so
                        that all the members of the conference know who he/she is.</p>
                    <p>The above factors have implications for positioning the video camera: this
                        should be as close to the screen the student is looking at as possible, so
                        that the listeners feel addressed by what the speaker is saying and the
                        speaker gets the impression that the others are attending to what he is
                        explaining (the so-called Casablanca Effect or
                        'Here's-looking-at-you'-principle). Ideally the camera image needs to be
                        large enough for the viewers to be able to see the speakers' facial
                        expressions (and possibly even to watch lip movements), whilst at the same
                        time having a sufficiently large field of vision that they can also see
                        gestures and general body language. The size of the conversation windows and
                        the screen hardware used (17 inches minimum) define the maximum number of
                        participants that can be handled effectively. We tested settings between
                        three and eight participants: with eight participants the conversation was
                        most lively, but not all participants took an active part in it; with three
                        or four participants all were really active. We measured the degree of
                        activity by comparing the number of sound packages sent by each participant.</p>
                    <p>We illustrate these problems and related questions by video clips from our
                        initial corpus, which are discussed below.</p>
                    <list>
                        <item>(1) An impact factor in the new medium is the relationship between the
                            audio and the visual dimension for the participants. Issues here
                            include: the size of the visual image of a speaker on the screen; the
                            role of direct eye contact; the ability to see more than the face (or
                            mouth) and the question how far the medium does intrude into the
                            interaction or otherwise inhibit it. Is there a relationship between the
                            language level (or even the language itself) and the influence of the
                            medium?</item>
                        <item>(2) Our experience so far suggests that the management of 'turns' or
                            hand-overs in the discourse is of particular interest. For instance, how
                            does a participant gain the attention of the group? How does one
                            interject? How is the participation of listeners registered if their
                            visual presence is reduced? Does a group need a designated manager of
                            the discourse or is interaction completely open? Should the group be
                            aware of 'rules' or procedures for managing interaction? What form
                            should these take?</item>
                        <item>(3) We show representative scenes that we intend to include in our
                            database of videoclips illustrating typical communicative interactions.
                            These clips will be transcribed using standard transcription systems for
                            discourse analysis (Edwards and Lampert 1993, Selting et al. 1998). The
                            materials will be used to introduce and prepare future students for
                            technical communication in a foreign language. In addition we plan to
                            use them for further research on how to enhance learning opportunities
                            and develop the communicative skills of students (studying, for
                            instance, technical translation) in an environment which offers
                            multimedia support.</item>
                    </list>
                    <p>We are aware that much research and activity are being undertaken in this
                        field and we will compare our experiences with the results of broader and
                        more general approaches to using the internet for teaching. Such approaches
                        may not necessarily include the use of live videocommunication in class (cf.
                        Warschauer 1999 and Warschauer, Shetzer and Meloni 2000).</p>
                    <p>In conclusion, our experience suggests that it is possible to enhance
                        interactive communication skills in the virtual internet medium but that
                        more research is needed to identify the optimum parameters for co-ordinating
                        the needs of learners in groups with the medium itself. In this paper we
                        focus on German-English interactions for the purposes of general
                        communication, with emphasis on initiating conversation, greetings,
                        turn-taking, eliciting information, and overcoming communication obstacles.
                        The corpus material will provide a searchable textbase that can be compared
                        with instances of classroom interaction and exploited for pedagogical
                        purposes.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Mark</forename>
                        <surname>Wolff</surname>
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                <p>The advent of the Internet has introduced a number of communication technologies
                    to higher education that have had a significant impact on the ways students and
                    teachers interact. By now most students use email to communicate with their
                    professors on a regular basis, and it is common for professors to use online
                    discussion boards and chat software to reach out to their students beyond the
                    classroom. Even though these technologies create more opportunities for contact
                    between students and instructors, they tend to promote uneven interaction
                    outside the classroom: some students will take advantage of the media, often
                    dominating the discussion, while other students will feel reluctant to
                    participate or will allow other students to carry the discussion. Many
                    educational software companies such as Blackboard offer integrated packages with
                    assessment tools for class surveys and online tests. As someone who has
                    experimented with these tools in my courses in language, literature, and
                    culture, I have searched for a way to interact individually with each student,
                    addressing his or her particular strengths and weaknesses with content while at
                    the same time assessing the entire class to identify those areas where they
                    understand the material and where more guidance on my part is required. The
                    dissatisfaction with existing courseware prompted me to write my own web-based
                    program, the Web Cahier. In this paper I will explain the pedagogical philosophy
                    of the Web Cahier and report on student feedback during the first year of its
                    implementation at Hartwick College. (I will explain the design of the Web Cahier
                    and make it available to other scholars as open source software in a separate
                    poster session.)</p>
                <p>The pedagogy which informs the design of the Web Cahier is inspired by
                    Just-in-Time-Teaching, or JiTT, a teaching strategy developed by Gregor M. Novak
                    at Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis and Evelyn T. Patterson at
                    the United States Air Force Academy for introductory physics classes. JiTT makes
                    use of web technologies to present warm-up activities that students complete
                    online shortly before coming to class. Once the deadline for completing the
                    warm-up has passed, the instructor reviews student answers to focus on the areas
                    where they need help. Novak and Patterson explain that<cit rend=""block"">
                        <quote>""[t]hese answers are used as talking points for the instructor later
                            that morning, while the issue is still fresh in the students' minds. By
                            doing this, the instructor ""individualizes"" the lecture. Students in the
                            classroom recognize their own wording, both correct and incorrect, and
                            thus become engaged as part of the feedback loop. It is quite common for
                            the classroom discussion to continue via email between the instructor
                            and particular students. Paradoxically, technology used this way
                            encourages a more personal and intimate bond between instructors and
                            students. It is clear from course evaluations that students feel part of
                            a team working on a common project.""</quote>
                    </cit></p>
                <p>By surveying student performance before meeting them in the classroom, the
                    instructor has an idea of how well each student is learning and can prepare a
                    targeted lesson plan for the entire class. It is the balance between individual
                    attention and group dynamics that makes JiTT a promising component to electronic
                    pedagogy, particularly in the Humanities where students must learn how to engage
                    texts and ask their own questions.</p>
                <p>Through my use of the Web Cahier I have adapted JiTT to courses I teach in French
                    language, literature, and culture at Hartwick College. The Web Cahier leverages
                    the ease of accessibility offered by computer networks and holds each student
                    accountable for completing assignments. In my language courses, students watch
                    digitized audio and video clips on their laptops as they complete their homework
                    online. In my literature and culture courses, I give students warm-up questions
                    to guide their thinking as they make their way through assigned readings. In all
                    the courses where I use the Web Cahier, every student must complete an
                    assignment one or two hours before class. He or she can work incrementally on
                    the assignment, entering text into a web form, saving it, and returning to edit
                    what they have typed as often as they wish before the assignment deadline. After
                    a deadline has passed, students are unable to modify what they have done but
                    they can review their work and read instructor comments. When I evaluate a
                    student's work in the Web Cahier, I can give specific feedback for each
                    question. As a result, I come to class with a lesson plan adapted to the
                    specific needs of the students who I know have already engaged the material.</p>
                <p>Preliminary evaluations from students indicate that the Web Cahier has helped
                    improve their learning by encouraging timely completion of assignments which are
                    assessed before they meet with their instructor. Students feel they have a
                    greater stake in what goes on in the classroom because they know that the
                    instructor will use their work on the Web cahier to address their interests and
                    difficulties. Students, however, feel isolated when working with the Web Cahier:
                    they prefer the interaction that email, discussion boards, and chat rooms
                    afford. Some complain they are overworked in completing assignments, and they
                    resent the automatically enforced deadline which often causes them to feel
                    anxious about their work. As for the instructor, the amount of labor required to
                    prepare a lesson increases geometrically with every question posed to students.
                    The instructor may also feel overwhelmed in reviewing student work within a
                    narrow timeframe before class. The precision the Web Cahier offers in assessing
                    individual performance comes at the cost of a more directive and labor-intensive
                    pedagogy. In the paper I will present more definitive results from surveys of
                    students and other faculty who have used the Web Cahier. At this time it seems
                    evident that the Web Cahier can only provide one way to interact with students
                    outside the classroom. While it is important to guide and assess how students
                    are learning in a humanities course, there must be opportunities for discovery
                    and free play beyond the control of the instructor.</p>

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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">New Directions in Statistical Stylistics and Authorship
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                        <forename type=""first"">David</forename>
                        <surname>Hoover</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">New York University</name>
                            <email>david.hoover@nyu.edu</email>
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                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
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                <p>This presentation will describe an investigation that compares the relative
                    effectiveness and accuracy of multivariate analysis (cluster analysis) of the
                    frequencies of very frequent words and the frequencies of very frequent word
                    sequences in correctly attributing texts to authors. Cluster analyses based on
                    the most frequent words are fairly accurate for corpora of texts by known
                    authors, whether the texts are 30,000- or 10,000-word sections of modern British
                    and American novels, or 4,000-word sections of contemporary literary critical
                    texts. They are, however, only rarely completely accurate; furthermore, when
                    small groups of problematic texts taken from the corpora are used in simulated
                    authorship studies, analyses based on frequent words rather consistently fail to
                    cluster them correctly. But when frequent word sequences are used rather than
                    frequent words or in addition to them, the analyses often improve in accuracy,
                    sometimes quite significantly, suggesting that analyses based on frequent word
                    sequences constitute improved tools for authorship attribution and statistical
                    stylistic studies.</p>
                <p>One of the most popular places to search for a ""wordprint"" that can characterize
                    the style of an author has been among the frequencies of the most frequent words
                    of the language. In his seminal work on Jane Austen (1987), John F. Burrows
                    demonstrated fairly convincingly that the frequencies of extremely frequent
                    words like the, and, of, a, and to, can often be used to distinguish different
                    authors, novels, and even different characters within a single novel. In spite
                    of their intuitively insignificant nature, such words can even have interesting
                    and potentially significant stylistic effects. This seems surprising when we
                    remember that the five words above normally constitute roughly 20% of the word
                    tokens in a novel. Yet their high frequency and the extreme unlikelihood that
                    authors can or even wish to consciously control them suggests habitual or
                    routinized use that may reflect an author's style across all his or her texts,
                    in spite of differing subjects, themes, and points of view. Because of this, and
                    because their frequencies often vary significantly among different authors,
                    texts, and characters, in spite of their uniformly high frequencies (see
                    Burrows, 1987: 3-4), frequent words have been popular targets for various kinds
                    of multivariate analysis (see also, Burrows and Hassall, 1988, and Burrows,
                    1992).</p>
                <p>Much recent work with multivariate analysis of the frequencies of frequent words
                    has produced interesting and significant results, especially in the field of
                    authorship attribution (see Holmes, 1992, Holmes and Forsyth, 1995; Tweedie,
                    Holmes, and Corns, 1998). As I have shown in a recent study (Hoover, 2001),
                    however, cluster analysis of the frequencies of the most frequent words is very
                    often not completely accurate in attributing texts to their authors when
                    performed on a corpus of texts by known authors.</p>
                <p>As interesting as authorship attribution is, multivariate analysis is, I would
                    argue, of potentially more interest in statistical stylistics and corpus
                    stylistics. If techniques can be found that can accurately distinguish authors
                    from each other, those techniques should be able to tell us something
                    significant about the styles of those authors. To further the search for more
                    accurate analytic methods, I have been evaluating cluster analyses based on
                    frequent word sequences (defined simply as groups of contiguous words) rather
                    than or combined with frequent words. (The idea for this project came out of a
                    discussion with Gary Shawver of the Humanities Computing group at New York
                    University about the possibility of looking at frequent collocations.) One
                    reason that sequences are attractive is that the order of words within them
                    provides information that cannot be retrieved from the frequencies of the
                    constitutive elements alone.</p>
                <p>My investigation has shown that analyses involving frequent word sequences are
                    often superior to analyses of the frequencies of frequent words in attributing
                    known texts to known author. Some analyses using frequent sequences produce
                    results that are completely accurate where frequent words alone fail, and some
                    analyses using combinations of frequent sequences and frequent words are more
                    effective than either by themselves, again sometimes producing completely
                    accurate attributions in relatively intractable cases.</p>
                <p>I begin with an initial corpus of twenty-nine 30,000-word sections of Modern
                    British and American novels by fourteen authors. I go on to analyze a subset of
                    this corpus, consisting of twenty of novels by eight authors, limit the analysis
                    still further to a corpus consisting of the sixteen third-person novels
                    extracted from among the twenty novels, and then to the pure narrative of the
                    same sixteen novels. I turn next to a very different kind of corpus, analyzing
                    twenty-five contemporary articles of literary criticism, to test whether
                    frequent collocations produce improved results for other genres. Finally,
                    extracting the texts of two problematic authors from the sixteen pure narratives
                    and two more from among the literary criticism analysis, I test the
                    effectiveness of the analysis of frequent sequences under circumstances that
                    more closely resemble traditional authorship problems.</p>
                <p>Although analyses based on frequent sequences or combinations of frequent
                    sequences and frequent words are not universally more effective than those based
                    on frequent words alone, and still fail to achieve completely correct results in
                    some cases, they do seem promising as an additional tool in authorship
                    attribution, and, potentially, in stylistic studies as well. Figures 1 and 2
                    show the improvement in two analyses when frequent sequences are used instead
                    of, or in combination with, frequent words. Figure 3 shows that, in some cases,
                    frequent sequences give correct results, even when frequent words uniformly
                    fail.</p>
                <figure/>
                <figure/>
                <figure/>
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            <div type=""bibliography"">
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                            <title level=""m"">Language and Style in The Inheritors</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Lanham, MD</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>University Press of America</publisher>
                                <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
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                        <analytic>
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                            <title level=""a"">Statistical Stylistics and Authorship Attribution: an
                                Empirical Investigation</title>
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                                John Milton: A Statistical Investigation</title>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">'DNA' and Non-traditional Authorship Attribution: An
                    Inclusive Model</title>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Joseph</forename>
                        <surname>Rudman</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Carnegie Mellon University</name>
                            <email>jr20@andrew.cmu.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
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                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
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                        <surname/>
                    </name>
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                    <resp>encoder</resp>
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                    <epigraph>
                        <cit rend=""block"">
                            <quote> Anything a person writes contains the code of his intellectual
                                DNA, or whatever you want to call it.</quote>
                            <bibl>Webb 1994</bibl>
                        </cit>
                    </epigraph>
                    <epigraph>
                        <cit rend=""block"">
                            <quote>The greater the number of features and the more the features
                                belong to different categories (e.g., syntactic structures, type of
                                grammatical subject, inflexions, vocabulary, spelling, and so on)
                                the stronger the case for shared authorship. </quote>
                            <bibl>Eagleson 1989</bibl>
                        </cit>
                    </epigraph>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>INTRODUCTION:</head>
                    <p>For many years it has been obvious from the literature that most
                        non-traditional authorship attribution studies using one or some other small
                        number of style markers do not carry the weight of scientific validity with
                        either the majority of other authorship attribution practitioners, the
                        specialists in the field of the study, or the general public. (In addition
                        to Eagleson, see Banks and Rudman -- also, Rudman 1998)</p>
                    <p>During a talk on the ""Style-Marker Mapping Project"" at the ALLC-ACH 2000
                        conference in Glasgow, I mentioned, in passing, an attribution model based
                        on a ""DNA"" concept. (Rudman 2000) It was illustrative and not ""on topic.""
                        However, the audience picked up on this and some of the ensuing questioning
                        and discussion kept trying to move away from the Style-marker Mapping
                        Project.</p>
                    <p>This paper presents a non-traditional authorship attribution model based on a
                        ""DNA"" analogy. This paper emphasizes that it is only an analogy -- a
                        framework to explain the techniques of the ""Inclusive Model"" -- there are
                        obvious fundamental differences between DNA and style.</p>
                    <p>Because some of the terms in this paper could be unfamiliar to the expected
                        audience, a clear and concise definition is given the first time each such
                        term is used.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>I. BACKGROUND AND DEFINITIONS</head>
                    <p>If we look at style as a living organism, style-markers are its genetic
                        material -- making the Style-Marker Mapping Project (Rudman, 2000) analogous
                        to the human genome project. I would like to extend this biology analogy:
                        The Inclusive Authorship Attribution Model being analogous to the DNA
                        analysis.</p>
                    <p>The earliest reference to DNA and style that I have seen is Bailey's
                        comparison of the tools used to decode the underlying makeup of the two --
                        X-ray diffraction for DNA, the computer for style. Bailey does not move
                        towards a DNA model for stylistics. (Bailey)</p>
                    <p>The lead quote by Webb also is quoted in Forsyth's dissertation. Yet Forsyth
                        does not use the intent of the quote to move into a DNA model. (Forsyth)</p>
                    <p>I have been leaning towards a more inclusive attribution model that would
                        utilize a large number of style-markers since the mid 1980's. Other
                        researchers also have recognized the need to expand the number of style
                        markers in attribution studies. As the DNA structure became decoded and the
                        comparison methods refined, it became the analogous model of choice. I first
                        mentioned the model at the ALLC-ACH Oxford conference in 1992. (Banks and
                        Rudman) The thrust of that presentation was towards a statistical method of
                        combining the results of different statistical results on various
                        style-markers. This section briefly traces the evolution of the DNA model
                        through various publications and presentations.</p>
                    <p>Clear and concise definitions of the DNA autoradiogram are given. (Kirby) A
                        brief explanation of why this model is necessary closes this section.
                        (Willing)</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>II. THE MODEL</head>
                    <cit rend=""block"">
                        <quote>Outline a method of analysis which will allow organization of these
                            features [the entire range of linguistic features] so as to facilitate
                            comparison of any one use of language with any other</quote>
                        <bibl>(Carter, Crystal and Davy, and Darbyshire). McMenamin 1993</bibl>
                    </cit>
                    <list>
                        <item>A) How the Inclusive Model differs from other models (e.g.
                            multivariate models and Burrows' Delta Project). (Holmes, Burrows) </item>
                        <item> B) The DNA Analogy is Explicated.<lb/>It is shown how each locus of
                            the autoradiogram is equivalent to a different style-marker. The
                            determination of each style-marker locus is discussed.<lb/>Forsyth's
                            suggestion at the Glasgow conference that a list of ""proven""
                            style-markers should be provided and used is discussed.</item>
                        <item>C) Visual Representation<lb/>A Method of visual representation of the
                            results of the model is shown.</item>
                        <item>D) The following two statistical methods of combining each
                            style-marker locus into a final answer are presented and discussed:<list>
                                <item>(1) If the style-markers that are used can be shown to be
                                    independent of one another (e.g. word length distribution,
                                    percentage of nouns starting sentences, type/token ratio) a
                                    procedure based on Fisher's method for combining significance
                                    probabilities from independent statistical tests can be used.
                                    (Fisher)</item>
                                <item>(2) If the style-markers that are used are not independent of
                                    each other (e.g. word length distribution, word length
                                    correlation, percentage of latinate words) the statistical
                                    method employed by DNA researchers can be used.</item>
                            </list>
                        </item>
                    </list>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>CONCLUSION</head>
                    <p>The method of determining the DNA loci and style-marker loci are different. A
                        single technique is employed to determine all of the DNI loci. Each
                        style-marker locus is determined, for the most part, by different
                        experimental techniques. And some of the style-marker loci are actually the
                        result of multivariate statistical analysis.</p>
                    <p>The Inclusive Authorship Attribution Model promises a degree of acceptability
                        not seen in most non-traditional attribution studies -- especially in types
                        of studies such as McMenamin's, ""`Population Model' where there are no
                        obvious authorship candidates, and texts from an entire population of
                        possible authors are considered against texts by one suspected author.""
                        (McMenamin)</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>Preliminary Bibliography</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Richard</forename>
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                                    <surname>Bailey</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">The Future of Computational Stylistics</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">ALLC Bulletin</title>
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                                <date when=""1979"">1979</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>[First presented at the Association for Literary and Linguistic
                            Computing Fifth International Meeting, Friday, December 15, 1978, King's
                            College, University of London. Also in <title level=""m"">LITERARY
                                COMPUTING AND LITERARY CRITICISM</title>. Ed. Rosanne G. Potter.
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                        <analytic>
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                                    <forename type=""first"">David</forename>
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                                </name>
                            </author>
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                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Peter</forename>
                                    <surname>Donnelly</surname>
                                </name>
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                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Stylometric Analysis Using Discriminant Analysis: A
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                    <head>Introduction</head>
                    <p>Stylometric analysis may be defined as the quantitative analysis of the
                        recurrence of particular features of style for the purpose of deducing
                        authorship and/or chronology of texts. Methods of sylometric analysis may be
                        broadly subdivided up into lexical and non-lexical approaches (Binongo
                        2000). The approach to be taken in this study is to use function words using
                        discriminant analysis as a method of analysis. The use of function words has
                        often been criticised by stylistic experts as lacking in scientific
                        validity, for example, see (Waith 1984). An ultimate aim of this work is to
                        establish scientific foundations for the use of function words in
                        stylometric analysis. One promising line of enquiry is in the study of
                        aphasic patients where it has been suggested that function words may be
                        processed by the brain separately to lexical words (Garrett 1982), perhaps
                        we may have less conscious control over our use of them.</p>
                    <p>Three plausible variables for stylometric analysis to consider are:
                        chronology, genre and author. A writer's stylistic tendencies cannot be
                        assumed to span an entire writing career, hence when the work was written is
                        just as important as who wrote it. Similarly, it is unreasonable to assume
                        that style will be fixed in different genres. One aim of this study is to
                        fix two of the three variables as closely as possible while studying the
                        effect of the other variable.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>The Basis for this Study</head>
                    <p>The primary basis for this study is to examine the effectiveness of
                        discriminant analysis using function words as a means of distinguishing
                        author while examining the effect of genre and time. The Sherlock Holmes
                        stories of Arthur Conan-Doyle were chosen as subjects for study because they
                        were freely available in machine-readable form and there were several
                        comparable texts written at the same time in the same basic genre. Arthur
                        Conan Doyle was also a prolific writer who has written different types of
                        fiction very closely in time.</p>
                    <p>The Sherlock Holmes stories were originally serialised in <title level=""j""
                            >The Strand Magazine</title>. However, when ""The Hound of the
                        Baskervilles"" appeared it was plagued with controversy. Arthur Conan Doyle
                        had insisted that his name appear jointly with a Mr. Fletcher Robinson. It
                        has been suggested that Fletcher Robinson had written part of the story, in
                        which case stylometric analysis might be able to throw light on this
                        mystery. However, if Conan-Doyle was just given an idea for a story then
                        there is not much that can be discovered by this technique.</p>
                    <p>Nine texts were chosen for analysis, which can be divided into three equal
                        groups: <list>
                            <item>Sherlock Holmes stories, including <title level=""a"">The Hound of
                                    the Baskervilles</title>, as close in time as possible to it.</item>
                            <item>Other works written by Conan Doyle at the same time as the three
                                Sherlock Holmes stories.</item>
                            <item>Other works by different writers in the same or similar genre
                                (including some published in <title level=""j"">The Strand
                                Magazine</title>).</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>The sets of Sherlock Holmes stories that were written closest in time were
                        chosen as comparand texts (note that all stories were serialised and
                        published monthly). Thus the three Sherlock Holmes stories were: <title
                            level=""m"">The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes</title> (1892/3), <title
                            level=""m"">The Hound of the Baskervilles</title> (1902) and <title
                            level=""m"">The Return of Sherlock Holmes</title> (1904) (Conan-Doyle
                        1986). The three comparand texts written by Conan-Doyle around the same time
                        were: <title level=""a"">The Parasite</title>. (1894) <title level=""m"">The
                            Adventures of Gerard</title> (1903) and <title level=""m"">Sir
                        Nigel</title> (1906).The three texts written in a similar genre around the
                        same time but by different authors were: <title level=""a"">The Ponsonby
                            Diamonds</title> (Meale and Halifax 1894 - published in <title level=""j""
                            >The Strand Magazine</title>). <title level=""m"">The Old Man in the
                            Corner</title> (Baroness Orczy 1901)and <title level=""m"">The Scarlet
                            Pimpernel</title> (Baroness Orczy 1905).</p>
                    <p>The texts were prepared in a manner that follow the technique employed by
                        (Smith 1993) very closely. The top 20 most commonly occurring function words
                        from ""The Hound of the Baskervilles"" were chosen. A discriminant analysis
                        was then run using SPSS 10.00 with the three texts forming three groups.
                        This produced a ""nearness"" metric for the texts. A series of tests will be
                        presented that provide a strong basis for the use of discriminant analysis.
                        The tests demonstrate the ability of this technique to separate texts by
                        author, by genre (when author is fixed), or even by time. Tests were also
                        carried out to ensure that the tests were not just arbitrary, but showed a
                        real variation in texts.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Discussion and Further Work</head>
                    <p>The starting point for this research was to investigate whether there is any
                        evidence to support the thesis that Conan-Doyle may not have written all of
                        ""The Hound of the Baskervilles"". There is absolutely no support for this in
                        the results. The technique attempted to test for authorship by attempting to
                        control two other major variables: time and genre. It was capable of
                        distinguishing texts by author consistently. It also appeared to have the
                        capability for separation of texts by genre and separated Conan-Doyle's
                        works by time as well (<title level=""m"">The Hound of the
                        Baskervilles</title> was closer to <title level=""m"">The Return of Sherlock
                            Holmes</title>, written only two years later, than it was to <title
                            level=""m"">The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes</title>, written some 9 years
                        earlier.)</p>
                    <p>One possible reason why the Sherlock Holmes stories differ from, the story
                        used as a comparand text in a different genre might be because they employ a
                        considerable amount of spoken dialogue, whereas the other story chosen
                        contains far more narrative text. This has yet to be investigated.</p>
                    <p>Principal Components Analysis (PCA) has been successfully used in stylometric
                        analysis, (Burrows 1987, Binongo 2000, Binongo and Smith 1999). (Binongo
                        2000) seems overly pessimistic in his dismissal of discriminatory analysis,
                        arguing against its use because of the assumption of multivariate normality.
                        However his work reveals several worrying aspects of the use of principal
                        components analysis. Firstly: the most frequent words tend to have the least
                        discriminatory power and the first principal component may not be able to
                        reveal authorship accurately. If the frequencies of function words are
                        standardised, this in turn may lead more frequent words to be swamped by
                        less frequent words. (Binongo and Smith 1999) demonstrated that PCA was
                        capable of distinguishing difference in genres in a comparison between the
                        essays and plays of Oscar Wilde. In a later study (Binongo and Smith 1999)
                        they also demonstrated the success of this technique on a comparison of the
                        works of two contemporaneous American authors Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman
                        Melville using 25 function words.</p>
                    <p>Principal Components Analysis was also employed on the texts used in this
                        study and although it appeared to reliably differentiate between three
                        different authors, the principal components appeared to be less reliable in
                        different genre tests and especially where two groups were from the same
                        text. In this case the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin statistic, measuring sampling
                        adequacy (Kaiser 1970) indicated that the extracted components might be
                        unreliable. Kaiser (1974) recommends accepting values greater than 0.5 and
                        even values between 0.5 and 0.7 are considered mediocre (see also Field
                        2000). When PCA was applied to the same text split into two groups, KMO
                        scores of between 0.4 and 0.55 were observed.</p>
                    <p>Experiments with the numbers of function words were also tried. It was found
                        that increasing the set of function words from 20 to 25 or 30 made only a
                        marginal difference. Running a MANOVA test on the function word data allowed
                        us to identify function words that were unreliable and re-running a
                        discriminant analysis with these words removed produced a slight
                        improvement. As the number of function words was decreased progressively the
                        sensitivity of the test was diminished. The drawback with this approach is
                        that it requires large amounts of text to produce reliable results
                        (something approaching the size of a novella or short novel as minimum). The
                        test will not be so sensitive to the insertion or interleaving of texts by
                        different authors. If a form of dimension reduction can be established, then
                        it might be possible to treat a text as a time series and use a window to
                        drag over the text to look for anomalous sections that might indicate a
                        change of author. A further way in which this work can be developed is to
                        examine the function words themselves and examine why each author varies
                        their usage. Some function words are used as what Schiffrin (1987) calls
                        discourse markers and as higher-level indicators of structure, their use may
                        well vary from one writer to the next. A linguistic basis for the variation
                        in function words needs to be established if only to demonstrate the
                        scientific credentials for stylometric analysis.</p>
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                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">H.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">F.</forename>
                                    <surname>Kaiser</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">An Index of factorial simplicity</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">Psychometrika</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol"">39</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""issue""/>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">31-36</biblScope>
                                <date when=""1974"">1974</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">D.</forename>
                                    <surname>Schriffrin</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Discourse Markers</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Cambridge</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Cambridge University Press</publisher>
                                <date when=""1987"">1987</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">W.</forename>
                                    <surname>Smith</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Edmund Ironside</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">Notes and Queries</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol"">238</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""issue""/>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">202-5</biblScope>
                                <date when=""1993"">1993</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">E.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">M.</forename>
                                    <surname>Waith</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">Titus Andronicus: The Oxford Shakespeare</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher>Oxford University Press</publisher>
                                <date when=""1984"">1984</date>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Martha</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">Nell</forename>
                        <surname>Smith</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities
                                (MITH)</name>
                            <email>Martha.Nell.Smith@umail.umd.edu</email>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Susan</forename>
                        <surname>Schreibman</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities
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                            <email>Susan.Schreibman@umail.umd.edu</email>
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                        <surname>Kumar</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities
                                (MITH)</name>
                            <email>amit@ccs.uky.edu</email>
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                <author>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Lara</forename>
                        <surname>Vetter</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities
                                (MITH)</name>
                            <email>lv26@umail.umd.edu</email>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Jarom</forename>
                        <surname>McDonald</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities
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                            <email>jmcdon@glue.umd.edu</email>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Edward</forename>
                        <surname>Vanhoutte</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Centrum voor Teksteditie en Bronnenstudie</name>,
                            Belgium <email>evanhoutte@kantl.be</email>
                        </affiliation>
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                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                    <p>The presentation of multiple witnesses continues to be a formidable challenge
                        to both editing and publishing electronic texts. At the core of the theories
                        of such computer editions and computer assisted editions is the requirement
                        for a platform independent and non-proprietary markup language which can
                        deal with the linguistic and the bibliographic text of a work and which can
                        guarantee maximal accessibility, longevity and intellectual integrity in the
                        encoding of texts and textual variation. The encoding schemes proposed by
                        the TEI Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange have
                        generally been accepted as the most promising solution to this. The
                        transcription of primary source material enables automatic collation, stemma
                        (re)construction, the creation of (cumulative) indexes and concordances etc.
                        by the computer. With all of these advances, however, scholars have been
                        required either to rely on expensive commercial software such as DynaWeb or
                        to develop their own solutions (via major grant and institutional support)
                        to deliver and successfully display multiple witnesses. Thus scholars who
                        work in institutions that cannot afford to purchase or develop such tools
                        have no way to deliver richly encoded multiple versions of texts and have
                        therefore had their work impeded.</p>
                    <p>The Versioning Machine being developed at MITH is an open-source software
                        tool that will be freely distributed to individuals and not-for-profit
                        organizations under general public license to display deeply-encoded,
                        multiple versions of texts. To use this tool, scholars and students will
                        encode texts in XML (which must be well-formed, but will not necessarily
                        require a DTD), which will then be displayed through a browser plug in. The
                        tool will not only display multiple versions of text, but scholarly
                        apparatus appropriate to the version of the text being displayed. In
                        addition, the system would keep track of apparatus already read by users
                        (for example, a JavaScript routine would mark unread and read comments in
                        different colors) so that users would not waste time reading previously read
                        annotation. The papers featured in this session will, therefore, first
                        describe the versioning machine’s development, and then will show, via
                        specific projects, its value through diverse usages.</p>
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                    <div>
                        <head>MITH’s Lean, Mean Versioning Machine</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Susan Schreibman</p>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Amit Kumar</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>Peter Robinson’s 1996 article, “Is There a Text in These Variants”
                                lucidly sets out the challenge of editing texts with multiple
                                witnesses in an electronic environment. The article raises questions
                                about texts and textuality exploring where “The Text” resides: is it
                                to be found “in all the editions and printings: in all the various
                                forms the text, any text, may take” (99), or is it in the imperfect
                                transmission of the text over time. His thesis, “to consider how the
                                new possibilities opened up by computer representation offer new
                                ways of seeing all the various forms of any text - and, with these,
                                the text beneath, within, or above all these various forms” (99) is
                                a challenge that the current generation of electronic editions has
                                not fully realized.</p>
                            <p>Projects like Robinson’s own <emph rend=""italics"">Hengwrt Chaucer
                                    Digital Facsimile</emph> and <emph rend=""italics"">The Blake
                                    Archive</emph>, are two electronic scholarly editions which are
                                excellent examples of projects that do not edit “from one distance
                                and from one distance alone” (Robinson 107), but explore the text
                                that emerges both in and between the variants, both in the text’s
                                linguistic and bibliographic codes.</p>
                            <p>Both these projects, however, utilize expensive software systems to
                                publish their editions. In the case of The Hengwrt Chaucer Digital
                                Facsimile, Robinson’s own publishing system, <emph rend=""italics""
                                    >Anastasia: Analytical System Tools and SGML/XML Integration
                                    Applications</emph>(&lt;<ptr
                                    target=""http://www.sd-editions.com/anastasia/index.html""
                                />&gt;), is utilized. In the case of The Blake Archive, <emph
                                    rend=""italics"">Dynaweb</emph>(<ptr target=""http://www.inso.com/""
                                />) is used. Both these publication tools, in addition to being
                                expensive, require, in the case of <emph rend=""italics""
                                >Anastasia</emph>, some knowledge of programming to, in the case of
                                    <emph rend=""italics"">Dynaweb</emph>, a full-time programmer to
                                support the product.</p>
                            <p>The Versioning Machine that Amit Kumar and Susan Schreibman are
                                developing is an open-source tool that will be freely distributed to
                                individuals and not-for-profit organizations under general public
                                license to display XML encoded text which is both deeply-encoded and
                                which exists in multiple witnesses. A prototype of this tool,
                                developed by Jose Chua and Susan Schreibman, was presented as a
                                poster session at last year’s ACH/ALLC in New York . The present
                                project will build upon Chua and Schreibman’s work to create a more
                                robust tool which more fully addresses the various problems, both of
                                encoding multiple witnesses and displaying them.</p>
                            <p>The tool will also display scholarly apparatus appropriate to the
                                version of the text being displayed. Since the same comment may be
                                displayed across several versions, readers will need visual clues to
                                know if a particular comment was previously read. However,
                                persistence is not a goal of XML or XSL. The solution might lay in a
                                server-side application with the aid of client-side application
                                logic.</p>
                            <p>The first time user of the facility will be asked to register under a
                                name and password, so that the presentation layer is able to
                                customize view as per users interest. Session Tracking provided by
                                Java Servlets API will be used to track the users, and the different
                                witnesses along with their annotation will be stored in the server
                                side database. The server side database will be either an
                                Object-Oriented database or better still a XML Database. The
                                deletion, addition and transposition of the variation (which could
                                be word or punctuation), will be cued in the presentation, which
                                will create the impression of cohesion in the different versions.</p>
                            <p>The simplest solution would be to give each comment an identification
                                number. The Session tracker and the persistence database on the
                                server would keep track of which comments were already read and the
                                application logic could then take appropriate action. To give a more
                                concrete example, if an XSLT document transformed an XML document
                                into HTML, a JavaScript routine could mark unread and read comments
                                in different colors.</p>
                            <p>Another particularly challenging editorial issue has been the
                                representation of the intra-textual writing process. When working
                                with a particular manuscript draft, an editor may make an educated
                                guess as to when additions, deletions and emendations were made on a
                                particular manuscript draft (based on handwriting, ink colour, the
                                logic of the sentences, etc). Indeed, one of the beauties of
                                publishing facsimile editions of manuscripts is that no editorial
                                statement need be made in this regard - it is left up the reader to
                                decide on the writing process based on an examination of the
                                evidence. Of course, this textual ambiguity can be replicated in the
                                digital environment by publishing scanned versions of text.
                                Unfortunately, however, encoded texts allow no such ambiguity.
                                Representing the intra-textual revision process in an encoded
                                edition is a particularly interesting and challenging problem. In
                                these cases, relative ordering may alleviate the encoding process.
                                We are experimenting with assigning ordering comparative
                                identifications in XML, regardless of the exact revision time
                                relative to other emendations. In the case where two or more
                                revisions cannot be ordered, they are assigned the same ordering
                                identification. It is then up to the presentation logic to determine
                                how to display it.</p>
                            <p>Syd Bauman of <emph rend=""italics"">The Scholarly Technology
                                Group</emph> at Brown University will be collaborating with Kumar
                                and Schreibman in developing a free tool to assist authors in
                                creating and editing multiple witnesses of texts. Most people used
                                to TEI encoding can follow the following marked up text without
                                difficulty:<lb/>
                                <eg>&lt;p&gt;Space, the final frontier. These are the voyages
                                    of the  starship Enterprise. Its
                                    &lt;app&gt;
                                    &lt;rdg wit=""tos""&gt;five-year&lt;/rdg&gt;
                                    &lt;rdg wit=""tng""&gt;ongoing&lt;/rdg&gt;
                                    &lt;/app&gt;
                                    mission: to explore strange new worlds; to seek 
                                    out new life and  new civilizations; to boldly go 
                                    where no
                                    &lt;app&gt;
                                    &lt;rdg wit=""tos""&gt;man&lt;/rdg&gt;
                                    &lt;rdg wit=""tng""&gt;one&lt;/rdg&gt;   
                                    &lt;/app&gt;
                                    has gone before.&lt;/p&gt; 
                            </eg></p>
                            <p>Although even this simple example is a bit difficult to follow
                                without the helpful whitespace. But even using only a relatively
                                simple subset of TEI markup (not using, for example,
                                &lt;lem&gt;, type=,cause=, hand=, or resp=, nor any markup
                                to indicate certainty; and using &lt;witDetail&gt; merely
                                for citation of the source), it is much harder to read a document
                                with 12 witnesses. Even the following example, only a few short
                                lines of a four witness set is challenging to follow:<lb/>
                                <eg>&lt;TEI.2&gt;
                                    &lt;teiHeader&gt;
                                    &lt;!-- &lt;fileDesc&gt; removed --&gt;
                                    &lt;encodingDesc&gt;
                                    &lt;!-- &lt;samplingDecl&gt; removed --&gt;
                                    &lt;variantEncoding
                                    method=""parallel-segmentation"" location=""internal""/&gt;
                                    &lt;p&gt;In each encoded APP all witnesses are explicitly mentioned in
                                    the wit= attribute of one of the RDG elements.&lt;/p&gt;
                                    &lt;/encodingDesc&gt;
                                    &lt;/teiHeader&gt;
                                    &lt;text&gt;
                                    &lt;body&gt;
                                    &lt;p&gt;Space&lt;app&gt;
                                    &lt;rdg wit=""STtos2 STtos4 STtos ST2twok2 ST2twok3 STtng1
                                    STtng2 STtng3 STtng4""&gt;, &lt;/rdg&gt;
                                    &lt;rdg wit=""STtos1""&gt;: &lt;/rdg&gt;
                                    &lt;rdg wit=""STtos3 ST2twok1""&gt;&amp;hellip;&lt;/rdg&gt;
                                    &lt;/app&gt;&lt;app&gt;
                                    &lt;rdg wit=""STtos1 STtos2 STtos3 STtos4 STtos5 ST2twok1 ST2twok2
                                    ST2twok3 STtng2 STtng3 STtng4""&gt;t&lt;/rdg&gt;
                                    &lt;rdg wit=""STtng1""&gt;T&lt;/rdg&gt;
                                    &lt;/app&gt;he
                                    &lt;app&gt;
                                    &lt;rdg wit=""STtos1 STtos2 STtos3 STtos4 STtos5 ST2twok1 ST2twok2
                                    ST2twok3 STtng1 STtng3 STtng4""&gt;final&lt;/rdg&gt;
                                    &lt;rdg wit=""STtng2""&gt;&lt;emph rend=""slant(italic)""&gt;final&lt;/emph&gt;&lt;/rdg&gt;
                                    &lt;/app&gt;
                                    frontier&lt;app&gt;
                                    &lt;rdg wit=""STtos1 STtos2 STtos3 STtos4 STtos5 ST2twok1 ST2twok2
                                    STtng1 STtng2 STtng3 STtng4""&gt;.&lt;/rdg&gt;
                                    &lt;rdg wit=""ST2twok3""&gt;&amp;hellip;&lt;/rdg&gt;
                                    &lt;/app&gt; . . .
                                    &lt;/witList&gt;
                                    &lt;/body&gt;
                                    &lt;/text&gt;
                                    &lt;/TEI.2&gt; </eg></p>
                            <p>If reading such instances is extremely difficult, editing them is
                                even more challenging (but could certainly be done almost completely
                                automatically, if the individual witnesses have already been
                                separately captured). Just keeping track of a single phrase across
                                multiple witnesses is demanding for the textual scholar. The tool
                                that Syd Bauman is proposing is one which would selectively hide the
                                markup pertaining directly to all but the witnesses currently being
                                studied, but left the rest of the markup and all the content visible
                                for editing.</p>
                            <p>Bauman believes that it should not be impossible for a developer of
                                an XML editor to implement these features -- any such editor already
                                selectively hides markup from other than the selected namespaces.
                                The only part that need be changed is the code for deciding which
                                markup is to be hidden and which is to be displayed.</p>
                            <p>This, however, raises the obvious problem of how to handle a request
                                by the user for additional markup which would overlap hidden markup
                                in a non-well-formed manner. Ideally TEI-aware software would, at
                                user option, automatically use one of the TEI mechanisms (e.g.,
                                part= if available on particular element in question, next= and
                                prev=, or &lt;join&gt;). Far easier to implement, of course,
                                would be to issue an error message. But again, the same basic
                                problem exists for selective display of markup based on namespaces
                                instead of witnesses.</p>
                            <p>The <emph rend=""italics"">Versioning Machine</emph>, therefore, will
                                be both an editing and display tool to help textual scholars edit
                                and display multiple witnesses of deeply encoded text.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>References</head>
                        <listBibl>
                            <biblStruct type=""bookChapter"">
                                <analytic>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Peter</forename>
                                            <surname>Robinson</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </author>
                                    <title level=""a"">Is There a Text in These Variants</title>
                                </analytic>
                                <monogr>
                                    <editor>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Richard</forename>
                                            <forename type=""middle"">J.</forename>
                                            <surname>Finneran</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </editor>
                                    <title level=""m"">The Literary Text in the Digital Age.</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace>Ann Arbor</pubPlace>
                                        <publisher>University of Michigan Press</publisher>
                                        <date when=""1996"">1996. rpt. 1999</date>
                                        <biblScope type=""pp"">99-116</biblScope>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                            </biblStruct>
                        </listBibl>
                    </div>
                </div>
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                    <div>
                        <head>Witnessing Dickinson’s Witnesses</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Lara Vetter</p>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Jarom McDonald</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>Emily Dickinson’s writings resist the technology of print. In fact,
                                all of her writings need to be reimagined outside the print
                                translations that have seen the literary forms of her writerly work
                                as entities that fit comfortably into the genres designated by
                                previous editors and that conform to nineteenth-century notions of
                                what constitutes the poetic and epistolary text. Not only do
                                Dickinson’s verse productions defy conventions of lineation and text
                                division, punctuation and capitalization, but they perform
                                graphically and visually as she playfully reinvents the poem as a
                                living, generative textual body, infused with movement. It is this
                                feature of her writing that evokes Marta Werner’s call for
                                “unediting” Dickinson’s writings, for “constellating these works not
                                as still points of meaning or as incorruptible texts but, rather, as
                                events and phenomena of freedom.” To do so, or to “undo” so,
                                requires that readers unedit a century’s critical receptions to
                                recuperate a sense of the material documents as Emily Dickinson
                                herself left them. By offering full-color digital reproductions of
                                Dickinson’s holographs, the editors of the Dickinson Electronic
                                Archives have been working toward this goal of unediting; textual
                                transcription and encoding, however, is another matter. Representing
                                Dickinson’s compositions, astonishingly energetic and ambitious
                                creative endeavors not bound to and by the book and print
                                technology’s presentation of literature, presents unique challenges
                                to the textual editor struggling to remain within the bounds of the
                                TEI.</p>
                            <p>One of the major obstacles in encoding Dickinson’s literary creations
                                is the vast number of textual variants and versions that are found
                                amidst the thousands of extant manuscripts. Much of what people
                                recognize as the corpora of Dickinson’s “poetry” exists in
                                collections of manuscripts, or “fascicles,” bound by Dickinson
                                herself, which served as both a form of publication and preservation
                                as well as a repository for copy texts used when disseminating her
                                verse to her almost 100 correspondents. Working alone, and in
                                collaboration with correspondents, Dickinson began to conceive of a
                                model of the poem as fundamentally open and unstable, scripting
                                compositions that evoke a multiplicity of readings through alternate
                                versions and intratextual and subtextual variants.</p>
                            <p>Editorially, then, the project of encoding Emily Dickinson’s
                                manuscripts presents us with three types of variant or versioning
                                issues, each with its own unique challenges in markup and display:</p>
                            <p>Intratextual and subtextual variant words, phrases, and lines. In
                                both draft and “finished” compositions, Dickinson frequently
                                supplies multiple alternate words, phrases, and lines. Dickinson
                                does not appear to privilege one reading over another; additionally,
                                she does not always make clear how and where subtextual variants
                                might operate in the text. Our encoding practice must mimic these
                                facets of her writing by maintaining the integrity of the visual
                                layout of the manuscript while still linking variants to possible,
                                sometimes multiple, locations of substitution through the precision
                                of the double-end-point methodology.</p>
                            <p>Intratextual and extratextual variant line groups. Within letters or
                                a series of letters, Dickinson may offer different final stanzas for
                                an existing initial stanza, often in response to a collaborative
                                compositional process with her correspondent. Our practice must
                                recognize both the multiple suggested incarnations of the poem as
                                well as the chronological progression by which the iterations
                                evolved.</p>
                            <p>Multiple versions. Dickinson often sends the same poem, in identical
                                or variant form, to multiple correspondents. By encoding each
                                manuscript separately and constructing constellations of linking
                                between them, we acknowledge that each version possesses its own
                                context and genealogy while bearing some significant relationship to
                                its textual cousins; this practice also resists the notion that any
                                one version is privileged over another.</p>
                            <p>Faced with the instability of the Dickinson text, historical editors
                                have made difficult, individual choices in printing her poems as
                                singular entities, by choosing definitively a given word or phrase
                                among the many that she offers and ignoring the rest, or by
                                producing a “final” poem with a collection of “subset” readings
                                beneath it; invariably, intratextual variants, if represented at
                                all, are printed beneath the poem transcription. Hence, we must not
                                only reflect Dickinson’s multiplicity in textual markup, but in
                                final display. For example, one Dickinson manuscript offers 12
                                different word and phrasal intralinear and subtextual variants.
                                Rather than offering a hierarchical, top-down display of the text in
                                which the variants are viewed by a user as footnotes or
                                afterthoughts, we must utilize an environment that recognizes the
                                expansive nature of this strategy for poetic creation; this is not
                                one poem with 12 different variants, but, potentially, 144 different
                                poems. While there is only one encoded file for a given manuscript,
                                the technology allows us to write scripts that would recognize the
                                internal variants and allow the user to manipulate the result -- it
                                could be as rudimentary as multiple, client-moveable layers or as
                                complex as creating a dynamic relational database from the initial
                                document which plays out all 144 possibilities. With this approach,
                                we can de-hierarchize the various instantiations in all of their
                                visual and theoretical complexities, allowing the reader to
                                experience the textual creation in a spirit of “unediting” rather
                                than in a spirit of traditional print translation.</p>
                        </div>
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                    <div>
                        <head>Putting Time back in Manuscripts: Textual Study and Text Encoding,
                            with Examples from Modern Manuscripts</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Edward Vanhoutte</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>It’s interesting to observe how many theorists of electronic
                                scholarly editing have advocated the transition from universional
                                editions in print to universal electronic editions which can in
                                theory hold all versions of a work (Dahlström 2000), but have
                                passed over the practicalities underlying the production of such an
                                edition. The envisioned model of the versioning edition,
                                representing multiple texts (Reiman 1987) in facsimile as well as in
                                machine-readable form, in concordances, stemmata, lists of variants,
                                etc. has already been applied to editions of older literature and
                                medieval texts (e.g. Robinson 1996, Solopova 2000), and more
                                interesting work in several fields is currently under way (e.g.
                                Parker 2000). At the core of the theories of such computer editions
                                and computer assisted editions (e.g. Gants 1994, McGann 1996, and
                                Shillingsburg 1996) is the requirement for a platform independent
                                and non-proprietary markup language which can deal with the
                                linguistic and the bibliographic text of a work and which can
                                guarantee maximal accessibility, longevity and intellectual
                                integrity (Sperberg-McQueen, 1994 &amp; 1996: 41) in the
                                encoding of texts and textual variation. The encoding schemes
                                proposed by the TEI Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and
                                Interchange (Sperberg-McQueen &amp; Burnard 1994) have generally
                                been accepted as the most promising solution to this. The
                                transcription of primary source material enables automatic
                                collation, stemma (re)construction, the creation of (cumulative)
                                indexes and concordances etc. by the computer.</p>
                            <p>Although the TEI subsets for the transcription of primary source
                                material ""have not proved entirely satisfactorily"" for a number of
                                problems (Driscoll 2000), they do provide an extremely rich set of
                                mechanisms for the encoding of medieval manuscripts and documents
                                with a fairly ""neat"", static, and stable appearance such as print
                                editions. The real problems arise when dealing with modern
                                manuscript material.Whereas medieval manuscripts form part of the
                                transmission history of a text, evidence of which is given by
                                several successive witnesses, and which show the working (copying)
                                process of a scribe and the transmission/distribution of a
                                work/text, modern manuscripts are manuscripts ""qui font partie d'une
                                genèse textuelle attestée par plusieurs témoins successifs et qui
                                manifestent le travail d'écriture d'un auteur"" (Grésillon 1994:
                                manuscripts which form part of the genesis of a text, evidence of
                                which is given by several successive witnesses, and which show the
                                writing process of an author). The french school of Critique
                                Génétique primarily deals with modern manuscripts and their
                                primary aim is to study the avant-texte, not so much as the basis to
                                set out editorial principles for textual representation, but as a
                                means to understand the genesis of the literary work or as Daniel
                                Ferrer puts it: ""it does not aim to reconstitute the optimal text of
                                a work; rather, it aims to reconstitute the writing process which
                                resulted in the work, based on surviving traces, which are primarily
                                author's draft manuscripts"" (Ferrer 1995, 143).</p>
                            <p>The application of hypertext technology and the possibility to
                                display digital facsimiles in establishing electronic dossiers
                                génétiques, let the editor regroup a series of documents which are
                                akin to each other on the basis of resemblance or difference in
                                multiple ways, but the experiments with proprietary software systems
                                (Hypercard, Toolbook, Macromedia, PDF, etc.) are too much oriented
                                towards display, and often don't comply with the rule of ""no
                                digitization without transcription"" (Robinson 1997).Further, the TEI
                                solutions for the transcription of primary source material do not
                                cater for modern manuscripts because the current (P4) and previous
                                versions of the TEI have never addressed the encoding of the time
                                factor in text. Since a writing process by definition takes place in
                                time, four central complications may arise in connection with modern
                                manuscripts and should thus be catered for in en encoding scheme for
                                the transcription of modern primary source material. The
                                complications are the following:<list type=""bulleted"">
                                    <item>Its beginning and end may be hard to determine and its
                                        internal composition difficult to define (document structure
                                        vs. unit of writing): authors frequently interrupt writing,
                                        leave sentences unfinished and so on.</item>
                                    <item>Manuscripts frequently contain items such as scriptorial
                                        pauzes which have immense importance in the analysis of the
                                        genesis of a text.</item>
                                    <item>Even non-verbal elements such as sketches, drawings, or
                                        doodles may be regarded as forming a component of the
                                        writing process for some analytical purposes.</item>
                                    <item>Below the level of the chronological act of writing,
                                        manuscripts may be segmented into units defined by thematic,
                                        syntactic, stylistic, etc. phenomena; no clear agreement
                                        exists, however, even as to the appropriate names for such
                                        segments.</item>
                                </list></p>
                            <p>These four complications are exactly the ones the TEI Guidelines cite
                                when trying to define the complexity of speech, emphasizing that
                                ""Unlike a written text, a speech event takes place in time.""
                                (Sperberg-McQueen and Burnard 2001, 254). This may suggest that the
                                markup solutions employed in the transcription of speech could prove
                                useful for the transcription of modern manuscripts, in particular
                                the chapter in the TEI Guidelines on Linking, Segmentation, and
                                Alignment (esp. 14.5. Synchronization).Building on this assumption,
                                this paper will address the relationship between theory of texts and
                                the design of electronic markup, and will be illustrated with
                                examples from four projects I am currently involved in at the
                                Centrum voor Teksteditie en Bronnenstudie&lt;<ptr
                                    target=""http://www.kantl.be/ctb/""/>&gt; (Centre for
                                Scholarly Editing and Document Studies): The transcription of the
                                Finnegan's Wake notebooks by James Joyce, the electronic edition of
                                the diaries of Daniel Robberechts, a genetic edition of a manuscript
                                by Willem Elsschot, and the transcription of all of the extant
                                witnesses of a novel by Stijn Streuvels. This paper will revisit
                                Michael Sperberg-McQueen's ""Text in the Electronic Age: Textual
                                Study and Text Encoding, with Examples from Medieval Texts.""
                                (Sperberg-McQueen, 1991) and will define a research agenda for the
                                new TEI Working group on the transcription of modern
                            manuscripts.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <div>
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                <p>In hypertext poetics, great importance is assigned to the notion of a
                    decentralization of the authorial voice [7]: the author is said to gradually
                    loose her power and authority within the hypertextual work, whereas the reader
                    gains more centrality and control over the text and over the ways to navigate it
                    and ultimately to construct the narrative.</p>
                <p>By introducing a distinction between <emph rend=""italics"">shallow text</emph>
                    (i.e., what appears on the screen, and therefore what the reader actually reads)
                    and <emph rend=""italics"">deep text</emph> (the encoded text that generates what
                    will appear on the screen), Lughi [8] ultimately reduces the space of
                    applicability of the above-mentioned construct: the reader's freedom is heavily
                    conditioned and determined by the author, whose space of activity lies at the
                    level of the deep text. So the author, by acting on and controlling the deep
                    text, eventually limits the reading possibilities offered to the reader. This is
                    possible because (and I may add, if) the author directly acts on the code behind
                    the shallow text. This intervention may take different forms and open up a wide
                    space for the author's experimental efforts and creativity.</p>
                <p>In this open space, adaptive hypermedia (AH) may play a significant role.</p>
                <p>So far, adaptive hypermedia have mainly been used as a didactic tool, i.e., as a
                    tool to develop on-line educational systems, despite the potentially wider
                    spectrum of systems they could be applied to (see in [1]). A restriction that
                    adaptive educational systems soon showed was their application domain: most
                    systems were used to teach computer science related or anyway scientific
                    disciplines. Attempts at extending this limitation have been made, for instance
                    by using adaptive hypermedia to teach foreign languages [2]. But the results
                    obtained were not always so promising for the intrinsic difficulty at modeling
                    such a domain: at a linguistic level (syntax and semantics), at a domain-related
                    level (in the perspective of a situated learning approach to language learning),
                    and at a level that was focusing on the intersection between the previous
                    two.</p>
                <p>What has been neglected so far is however the possibility of using AH for the
                    humanities, again not just as a didactic device, rather as a medium to promote
                    advances in or to be applied to humanities disciplines. Although, recently, a
                    research trend has emerged which has pointed out the potential advantages of
                    exploiting adaptive methodologies to the delivery of cultural information, which
                    have a direct influence on the way in which cultural heritage information is
                    approached, accessed and fruited, not as much has been devoted to promote the
                    production of artistic artifacts by means of AH. At a closer look, the
                    contamination of art and technology is historically older than what the last
                    years of Web explosion may seem to suggest: at the end of the nineteenth
                    century, for instance, Rimbaud's fascination for photography was influencing his
                    poetical style in determining which words to select, how to construct sentences,
                    and how to juxtapose them in a visually effective way (see, for instance, in
                    [3]). In this sense, AH should be considered as the canvas whose characteristics
                    can influence the final artistic result in a peculiar way. A first step in this
                    direction has however already been made: it is the system developed by Kendall
                    and Réty [6], the Connection System. This system allows to write literature,
                    both poetry and fiction, adaptively.</p>
                <p>On the basis of the previous discussion, this paper intends to pursue a dual
                    goal: on the one hand, it intends to analyze a number of existing digital
                    hyperfictions to extrapolate their characteristics, to investigate the amount of
                    experimental composition and the kind of creativity that they allow to authors,
                    to stretch and explore the limits both in the language and in the tool (the
                    hypertext), in order to elaborate ultimately a rhetoric of hypertext. On the
                    other hand, on the basis of the results obtained by this analysis, the paper
                    will present an extension of the AHA! system [5], as augmented to include these
                    derived elements. AHA! is an application developed at the Eindhoven University
                    of Technology to deliver adaptive Web-based courses. Up to now, it has been used
                    to design and develop educational courses (mainly in the field of Computer
                    Science, but also in the Humanities [3] and an experimental course in CALL) and
                    only recently for e-commerce applications.</p>
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            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>References</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"" n=""1"">
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                            <author>
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                                    <forename type=""first"">P.</forename>
                                    <surname> Brusilovsky</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Methods and Techniques of Adaptive Hypermedia</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction</title>
                            <imprint>
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                                    <surname>Calvi</surname>
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                            <title level=""a"">On the Formative Evaluation of CALLware</title>
                        </analytic>
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                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">P.</forename>
                                    <surname>Brusilovsky</surname>
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                                    <forename type=""first"">O.</forename>
                                    <surname>Stock</surname>
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                                    <surname>Strapparava</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">Adaptive Hypermedia and Adaptive Web-Based Systems,
                                Proceedings of the AH’00 Conference</title>
                            <title level=""s"">Lecture Notes in Computer Science</title>
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                                <publisher>Springer-Verlag</publisher>
                                <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">276—279</biblScope>
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                                    <surname>Goedemé</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">‘Hyperlectures’: Teaching Postmodern Culture on the
                                Web</title>
                        </analytic>
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                            <title level=""u"">poster presented at the Joint International Conference
                                of the Association For Literary and of the Linguistic Computing and
                                Association For Computers and The Humanities, Glasgow, 22-25 July
                                2000</title>
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                    <biblStruct type=""book"" n=""4""><monogr>
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                            <name>
                                <forename type=""first"">M.</forename>
                                <surname>Costa</surname>
                            </name>
                        </author>
                        <title level=""m"">L’estetica dei media. Avanguardie e tecnologia</title>
                        <imprint>
                            <pubPlace></pubPlace>
                            <publisher>Castelvecchi</publisher>
                            <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
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                                <surname>De Bra</surname></name></author>
                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">L.</forename><surname>Calvi</surname></name></author>
                            <title level=""a"">AHA! An open Adaptive Hypermedia Architecture</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">The New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol"">4</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""issue""></biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">115-139</biblScope>
                                <date when=""1998"">1998</date>
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                        </monogr>
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                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">R.</forename>
                               <surname>Kendall</surname></name></author>
                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">J.</forename><forename type=""middle"">H.</forename><surname>Réty</surname></name></author>
                            <title level=""a"">Toward an Organic Hypertext</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">Proceedings of Hypertext ’00</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace></pubPlace>
                                <publisher></publisher>
                                <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">161—170</biblScope>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr></biblStruct>
                        <biblStruct type=""book"" n=""7""><monogr>
                        <author>
                            <name>
                                <forename type=""first"">G.</forename>
                                <surname>Lughi</surname>
                            </name>
                        </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Parole on line. Dall’ipertesto all’editoria multimediale</title>
                        <imprint>
                            <pubPlace></pubPlace>
                            <publisher>Guerini e Associati</publisher>
                            <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                        </imprint>
                    </monogr></biblStruct>    
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Thomas</forename>
                        <surname>Corns</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Wales</name>, Bangor
                                <email>els009@bangor.ac.uk</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Gordon</forename>
                        <surname>Campbell</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Leicester University</name>
                            <email>leb@le.ac.uk</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">John</forename>
                        <surname>Hale</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Otago</name>
                            <email>patch@earthlight.co.nz</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Fiona</forename>
                        <surname>Tweedie</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Edinburgh</name>
                            <email>fiona@maths.ed.ac.uk</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
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                    <head>The Research Context of the Problems</head>
                    <p>In 1823, in the Public Record Office in London, a Latin document was
                        discovered and catalogued as SP 9/61. It was identified as <title level=""m""
                            >De Doctrina Christiana</title>, Milton’s lost theological treatise
                        mentioned by some of his early biographers. The evident heterodoxy of its
                        arguments challenged Milton’s current status as the iconic poet of English
                        Protestantism, and ever since the document has posed interpretative
                        possibilities and problems for critics of Milton’s poetry, and especially of
                            <title level=""m"">Paradise Lost</title>. While some critics have treated
                        the manuscript as a gloss on his other works, others have been perplexed by
                        the apparent discrepancies between the treatise and his undisputed canonical
                        works. Those discrepancies have usually been accounted for in terms of genre
                        differences, but since 1991 a body of opinion within the Miltonist scholarly
                        community has argued instead that SP 9/61 is not of a Miltonic provenance.
                        In the mid-1990s an interdisciplinary group (all the current group plus
                        David Holmes, who was then supervising Fiona Tweedie’s doctoral work)
                        attempted to extract the key questions to resolve the problem. After several
                        interim reports at conferences, the group issued its final report as a paper
                        to the British Milton Seminar, as a web-document (still available as <ptr
                            target=""http://www.bangor.ac.uk/english/publicat/ddc/ddc.htm""/>), and as
                        a major article (<title level=""a"">The Provenance of <title level=""m"">De
                                Doctrina Christiana</title></title>, <title level=""j"">Milton
                            Quarterly</title> 31.3 (1997): 67-117).</p>
                    <p>The report unequivocally tied the document to a Miltonic provenance, while
                        indicating its unfinished status and its stylometric inconsistency. It
                        argued that the work was primarily produced in the 1650s; that Milton in
                        part was incorporating and revising material from other Protestant exegetes;
                        and that the manuscript has two principal strata, an ur-text and a
                        transformation of that text effected by a process of revision which
                        primarily consisted of the accretion of material by Milton.</p>
                    <p>As a quick resolution of the status and pertinence of the manuscript in the
                        interpretation of Milton’s later poems, the group had found some answers:
                        indeed, the manuscript has been worked on by Milton, but that work was
                        suspended and incomplete and probably belonged to a period significantly
                        earlier than the publication of <title level=""m"">Paradise Lost</title>.
                        However, we did not contextualise it closely in the Protestant exegetical
                        tradition; we did not disclose the lower layers of the postulated
                        palimpsest; we did not systematically engage with its Latinity, and -- most
                        significantly for this paper -- we did not address the important issue of
                        its multiple scribal hands.</p>
                    <p>The group has been awarded a major grant (£74k) by the Arts and Humanities
                        Research Board to return to these concerns and to widen the investigation to
                        a larger consideration of the place of the document in radical theology of
                        the early-modern period (MRG-AN1763/APN11001). The debate about SP 9/61 is
                        probably the hottest current controversy in Milton studies, and on its
                        outcome depend not only the determination of the Milton canon but also the
                        validity of interpretative strategies that have been and continue to be used
                        in approaches to his major poetry.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Computer-Assisted Research from Multiple Perspectives</head>
                    <p>Much of the award has been committed to the preparation of electronic texts.
                        We had already an electronic version of the current transcription of the
                        manuscript. To this we are adding electronic versions of the major
                        early-modern Protestant exegetical tracts. (All are in Latin.) These will
                        allow a much more fine-grained reexamination of the stylometry, using much
                        larger samples of situationally analogous controls; they will allow a
                        careful searching for borrowing and analogues in Milton’s text; and they
                        will support the ready comparison of Milton’s use of biblical citations with
                        the practice of significant precursors.</p>
                    <p>The complex relationship between the many variables relating to the diverse
                        physical appearance of the individual pages of the manuscript -- line
                        density, scribes, corrections, page size, watermarks, etc. -- is being
                        investigated using SPSS Data analysis software.</p>
                    <p>Very helpfully, the Public Record Office reprographic department prepared for
                        us a high-resolution imaged version of the document. Most straightforwardly,
                        it allows a research group spread from Edinburgh and Bangor to Dunedin to
                        work on a document lodged in a remote suburb of west London, with for most
                        purposes as much facility as if the document were immediately present. But
                        it also allows the highly vexed question of Milton’s use of amanuenses to be
                        engaged with a new and innovative precision.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Blind Milton and his Scribes</head>
                    <p>Milton was totally blind by about 1651, and for subsequent work he relied
                        wholly on the assistance of amanuenses. SP 9/61, the most considerable
                        extant manuscript of Miltonic provenance, consists primarily of a
                        transcription by the scribe Jeremy Picard of an early draft that is no
                        longer extant. The opening section of that document was copied again by
                        Daniel Skinner, who prepared the manuscript for the press after Milton’s
                        death. The Picard section is evidently a working manuscript, in that
                        sections have been recopied and substituted by Picard, and there are
                        numerous marginal and interlinear additions. These for the most part are in
                        Picard’s hand, though the most thorough account to date has identified
                        another seven amanuenses responsible for multiple changes, and several other
                        hands -- perhaps as many as eleven further scribes.</p>
                    <p>Here our project has several aspects. First, we want to identify how many
                        scribes were actually involved. Second, we want to determine the order of
                        their contribution to the developing document. Finally, we want to associate
                        the hands we have distinguished with hands found in other Miltonic documents
                        and elsewhere, and we should like to identify the scribes wherever possible.</p>
                    <p>The imaged version of the text is immensely useful. Earlier researchers have
                        worked -- necessarily in a somewhat inhibited manner, given its uniqueness
                        and its fragility -- on the document itself or on photographic reproductions
                        of the document. Using advanced image-editing software (Adobe Photoshop) we
                        can freely cut and paste letter forms and word forms closely to compare
                        diverse examples and to form a composite repertoire of each hand. We can
                        with facility juxtapose examples from SP 9/61 with imaged versions of other
                        pertinent manuscripts. Using the electronic transcription of the document,
                        we can identify throughout the manuscript other occurrences of the word and
                        letter forms found in the scribal additions and form judgments about their
                        similarities and differences.</p>
                    <p>This paper will present a number of investigations that are components in
                        this whole process, from a comparison of a single marginal addition with
                        another late manuscript of Miltonic provenance to more complex accounts of
                        the variety of forms to be found within the practice of Picard and the
                        implications of that for understanding the development of the manuscript
                        into its present form.</p>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">The Scottish Corpus of Texts and Speech: problems of
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Fiona</forename>
                        <surname>Douglas</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Glasgow</name>
                            <email>F.Douglas@englang.arts.gla.ac.uk</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
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                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
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                <p>In recent years the use of large corpora has revolutionised the way we study
                    language. There are now numerous well established corpus projects which have set
                    the standard for future corpus based research. As more and more corpora are
                    developed and technology continues to offer greater and greater scope, the
                    emphasis has shifted from corpus size to establishing norms of good practice.
                    There is also an increasingly critical appreciation of the crucial role played
                    by corpus design. Corpus design can, however, present peculiar problems for
                    particular types of source material, and the development of the Scottish Corpus
                    of Texts and Speech illustrates the problems which may be encountered when
                    dealing with a complicated linguistic situation such as exists in Scotland.</p>
                <p>The Scottish Corpus of Texts and Speech is the first large-scale corpus project
                    specifically dedicated to the languages of Scotland, and therefore it faces many
                    unanswered questions, such as those outlined below, which will have a direct
                    impact on the corpus design. The project is a joint venture by the Department of
                    English Language and STELLA project at the University of Glasgow, and the
                    Language Technology Group at the University of Edinburgh, and is funded by the
                    Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council. The project seeks to address
                    the current gap in knowledge about the languages of Scotland by building a
                    publicly available electronic corpus of written and spoken texts mounted on the
                    Internet. The linguistic situation in Scotland is complex, with Scottish
                    English, Scots, Gaelic and numerous non-indigenous community languages all
                    playing a role. However, surprisingly little reliable information is available
                    on a variety of issues such as the survival of Scots, the distinguishing
                    characteristics of Scottish English, the use of non-indigenous languages, or the
                    way they have developed in Scotland.</p>
                <p>The first phase of the corpus is focusing on the collection of Scots and Scottish
                    English texts. However, the language varieties Scots and Scottish English are
                    themselves difficult to describe, and between these two extremes lie
                    multifarious other language varieties which defy rigid categorisation.
                    Established practice norms to ensure corpus representativeness cannot be easily
                    applied, as these Scottish language varieties have disparate and shifting
                    functional roles. Scottish English is generally accepted in a wider variety of
                    formal contexts than Scots, but Scots has stronger local and community ties
                    which may also exert a pressure. Social class and education also influence when
                    and where each language variety may be used. Indeed the labels 'Scots' and
                    'Scottish English' are themselves problematic, as written and spoken varieties
                    of Scots and Scottish English are not as closely linked as might be assumed.
                    There are numerous different local varieties, and so there is a strong regional
                    dimension to be considered. Native Scots themselves often disagree about what is
                    and is not 'Scots', before they even reach considerations of where its use is
                    and is not considered to be appropriate. The perceived status of Scots thus has
                    important implications for the text types and modes in which it is used. To date
                    there has been no large scale study to identify where each of these language
                    varieties is deemed acceptable usage by native Scots. Indeed, the native Scots
                    themselves have ambivalent and wide-ranging opinions on these language
                    varieties, and there are unspoken but nevertheless tangible rules which impact
                    on where and how and when they are used. Present-day Scots also has no agreed
                    standard spelling system, which presents problems when developing search tools
                    for the corpus.</p>
                <p>A balanced corpus which seeks to reflect the true linguistic situation in
                    Scotland must be sensitive to these problems and anomalies. It must reflect the
                    variety and breadth of possible linguistic options without skewing the data
                    along preconceived notions of what is and is not Scots or Scottish English. It
                    must also gather its texts from a discourse community which has very ambivalent
                    views about the range of language varieties it encompasses.</p>
                <p>This paper considers the problems presented for corpus design in view of the
                    complex linguistic situation that exists in Scotland. It considers questions
                    such as how to decide what should be included, how to choose, and in what
                    proportions relative to the corpus as a whole and to the range of possible
                    language varieties. It examines the problematic issue of how to construct a well
                    balanced and representative corpus in what is largely uncharted linguistic
                    territory. The paper will also consider points of comparison with other
                corpora.</p>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Christian-Emil</forename>
                        <surname>Ore</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Oslo</name>
                            <email>c.e.s.ore@muspro.uio.no</email>
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                    <p>In this paper we will present a lexicographic database tool called <title
                            level=""m"">The Meta Dictionary</title>. It is designed for systematising
                        word and phrase information from field datasets for weakly normalised
                        languages and dialects. <title level=""m"">The Meta Dictionary</title> has
                        been developed to function as a pivot in the revitalisation of a large
                        traditional national dictionary project in Norway. In addition to completing
                        the traditional dictionary manuscript, this revitalisation project has the
                        objective of creating a modern lexical database in a way similar to what is
                        now being done for <title level=""m"">The Oxford English Dictionary</title>
                        [10] or the <title level=""m"">The Cobuild Word Bank</title> [4]. The
                        Norwegian dictionary project was started in 1930, and the editors are now at
                        the end of the letter H. According to the new plan this will be finished in
                        2014. <title level=""m"">The Meta Dictionary</title> system is meant to be a
                        general tool for working with lexicographic raw material and is not limited
                        to the Norwegian dictionary project. The plan is to use it in a project on
                        the minority languages in Zimbabwe in (2002-2205). However, it can also be
                        adapted to implement semantical database based on different ontologies
                        (semantic models) like the one used in <title level=""m"">WordNet</title> [12]
                        or in <title level=""m"">The Simple Project</title> [11 ]. <title level=""m"">he
                            Meta Dictionary</title> and the other lexicographical tools described in
                        this paper are developed by <emph rend=""italics"">The Museum Project</emph>
                        (MusPro). The MusPro was established in the spring of 1998 as a national
                        collaborative project involving all four Norwegian universities. The
                        objective is to develop common database systems for the meta data and the
                        management of collections, accessible for all Norwegian University museums.
                        The project organisation has taken over the responsibility for maintaining
                        and developing the database systems for the department of lexicography (old
                        Norse and modern Norwegian) and place name studies, and is a direct
                        continuation of the systems development group in The Documentation Project a
                        major digitalisation project in the 1990-ies.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Lexicographical background - the hetrogenousity of a language</head>
                    <p>In Norway several linguistically oriented research groups participated in the
                        development of electronic corpora from the beginning of the 1970's, (LOB,
                        ICAME corpus projects, see [6]), but for unknown reasons the development of
                        corpora consisting of Norwegian texts did not start before the end of the
                        1990's. As a parallel - there is still no complete and comprehensive
                        national dictionary for Norwegian. Both cases have connections to the
                        fluctuating language situation in Norway and the two closely related written
                        Norweigan languages. On a world basis two written languages in a country is
                        neither unusual nor impressive. What makes the Norwegian case unusual is the
                        fact that two languages are completely comprehensible for all Norwegian
                        speaking persons, that there are no clear- cut boundaries between the two, a
                        rich flora of accepted alternative spellings and inflection schemas and
                        finally frequent spelling reforms (although the period between these is
                        increased to 4 years). The two written standards derived from written Danish
                        (the only official written language in Norway from the sixteenth century
                        until 1870) and on a synthesis of the dialects in the western parts of
                        Norway. The latter was created by the linguist Ivar Aasen (see Norwegian
                        Dictionary, 1872 [7]). During the last 130 years the standards have
                        gradually become much closer. However, in non-official written communication
                        many archaic forms are still in use. In private written communication people
                        often mix the two standards. The language situation introduces many problems
                        for the language technology industry and makes good solutions complex and
                        expensive to develop. However, the relatively weak normalisation and the
                        focus on dialects have a democratic effect, e.g. it is possible to use a
                        written language pretty close to one's own spoken language. In most European
                        countries normally thought of as a homogeneous language areas with a single
                        official written language, there are in fact many distinct dialects or even
                        related languages. The German language area (Germany, Austria and parts of
                        Switzerland) is one example. Thus it can be argued that the language
                        situation we find in Norway is the norm. However, the Norwegian language
                        policy is more complex than may be expected. In recent years initiatives
                        have been taken to at least complete the national dictionaries in Norway. It
                        now looks as if there will be two printed dictionaries in respectively 7 and
                        12 volumes. The former will concentrate on the originally Danish based
                        written language (used by most of the population) and will be based on an
                        already existing dictionary in six volumes. The latter will describe the
                        second written language and the Norwegian dialects although this is not
                        planned as a dialect dictionary in the purest sense of the term. The work on
                        this dictionary has already been running for 60 years. The editors are now
                        working at the end of the letter H and at the current pace the dictionary
                        will be finished in 2040. The Ministry of Culture has, pending the
                        reorganisation of the team, and its completion by the year 2014, rather
                        generously refunded the work. The new project is called <title level=""m""
                            >Norwegian Dictionary</title> 2014 (ND2014). From 2002 the editorial
                        team will be increased from 6 to 28 full time editors. The main focus is on
                        a method and tool for systematising source material and preparing the
                        semantic skeletons of the entries. To explain the idea and the specific use
                        of <title level=""m"">The Meta Dictionary</title> we will briefly discuss our
                        interdisciplinary database framework and the heterogeneous lexicographical
                        source material.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Creating a multidisciplinary object oriented, database framework</head>
                    <p>To make database systems for the large number of disciplines is a challenge
                        for a small group. An additional challenge is the requirement of providing
                        for interdisciplinary searches. The number of databases and the aspect of
                        inter-disciplinarity has forced us to try to make as generic database
                        solutions as possible. The design and implementation of the common systems
                        and interfaces are now completed in the first version. The new information
                        system replaces older, mostly independent database applications. This is
                        fortunate since it is easier to create new interconnecting systems instead
                        of connecting old ones, although technologies like the Z39.50 standard have
                        opened for the relatively easy interconnection of databases. The system
                        group attempts to think generically along two axes: <list>
                            <item>Common interface tools and database functionality</item>
                            <item>Common database solutions for common object types like
                                geographical data, bibliographical data, data concerning individuals
                                and legal bodies, classification systems in cultural and natural
                                history, dictionary entries and so on.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>The databases are event oriented. The information is considered to be the
                        result of observations and all major changes result from a well-defined
                        event. The event -based object oriented model is also used in the tools now
                        designed for the dictionary project ND2014. The system consists of three
                        parts: 1) The databases containing the background material, that is,
                        databases containing the old slip collections, dictionary manuscripts,
                        bibliography etc., editors notes and the corpora of older literary text and
                        modern Norwegian. 2) The dictionary editing system 3) the backbone of the
                        system, <title level=""m"">The Meta Dictionary</title> itself.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>The Lexicographic source material</head>
                    <p>In the late eighteenth century, paper slip collections were introduced in
                        dictionary making. A single word form with an example of actual usage was
                        written on each paper slip. The slip collections were stored in alphabetic
                        order in large filing cabinets. This was a major achievement and introduced
                        scientific methods into lexicography. From the end of the 18th century most
                        large-scale dictionary projects, e.g. The <title level=""m"">Oxford English
                            Dictionary</title> (<title level=""m"">OED</title>, first edition
                        completed in 1930), have been based on slip collections such as this one. At
                        the outset of 1960 one started to use computers to create concordances from
                        electronically stored texts and the use of slip collections was regarded
                        increasingly as being old fashioned. Over the last 10 years the number of
                        corpora has exploded: there are now text corpora for large number of
                        languages and social groups. It is almost impossible to imagine that someone
                        should start building a paper slip collection today. However, many of the
                        large dictionary projects initiated in the first half of the 20th century
                        and even earlier are not completed and still rely on their slip collections
                        (The Afrikaans Dictionary, WAT, The Dictionary of the Swedish Academy, Dutch
                        national dictionary, to mention a few). The two major Norwegian dictionaries
                        were planned in the tradition of the large historically oriented, national
                        dictionaries like OED and during the years slips were collected (numbering
                        more than 6 millions today). In the 1990 most of the old collections were
                        made electronically available either as indexed electronic facsimiles (3.2
                        millions) or replaced by collections of SGML tagged electronic texts. A
                        series of older dictionaries and historical word lists from the end of the
                        seventeenth century and onwards was also made electronically. This was done
                        by the forerunner of <emph rend=""italics"">The Museum Project</emph>, <emph
                            rend=""italics"">The Documentation Project</emph>, and has been described
                        at ALLC/ACH 1995 and 1996 ([5][9]).</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>The editing system</head>
                    <p>A standard electronic editing system for a dictionary manuscript is based on
                        a database in which the entries and parts of the entries are stored. Each
                        entry can be stored in one or many tables, e.g. separate tables for the
                        headword parts, the definitions and the citations, or the entire manuscript
                        can be stored in a XML based free text system. A typical editing system
                        usually supports cross-referencing, searching and the production of
                        camera-ready page lay out. MusPro has made several such freestanding tools
                        for a national language project in Zimbabwe (Shona and Ndbele)[2] and for
                        one volumes dictionary in Norwegian. The latter are both free standing and
                        connected to the common framework and the Meta Dictionary.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>The Meta Dictionary</head>
                    <p>The source databases/datasets (described above) contains samples from
                        different dialects and times. The most important lexicographical task is to
                        systematise the material into groups, each describing a descriptive word.
                        This process is called the lemma/headword selection. For strongly normalised
                        written languages like Standard English this is normally not considered a
                        difficult task. For field lexicographers working on not so normalised
                        languages, this is well known as difficult task. The question ""what is a
                        word ""and how to select the right candidate among a set of variants is not a
                        trivial task. For most existing languages the standardisation has been
                        mostly based on socio-political circumstances. <title level=""m"">The Meta
                            Dictionary</title> system has no features for (semi)automatic lema
                        selection but is designed to assist the lexicographers in the process, to
                        make it easier for others to check the lexicographers' decisions and open
                        for more than one normalisation based on the same material.</p>
                    <p>In this process we have tried to exploit the interdisciplinary nature of our
                        organisation to make a tool for preparing the entries in the Norwegian
                        Dictionary to create a general tool for systematising information from
                        weakly normalised languages and /or dialect material into a lexical
                        database.</p>
                    <p>
                        <title level=""m"">The Meta Dictionary</title> is based on the general system
                        for the users' electronic notebooks or folders used in all our
                        database-applications. In general all our users can store parts of the
                        result from a query for later use in their private notebooks in the system.
                        The notebooks are multi-typed and can store information of all the object
                        types in the databases. Traditionally, a working lexicographer usually sorts
                        the available material first under each headword and then according to the
                        meanings and use before formulating the definitions. In <title level=""m"">The
                            Meta Dictionary</title> an entry is a folder containing samples use
                        taken from the source databases and corpus system connected to it. The user
                        uses the drag and drop mechanism to move pieces of source information into
                        the folder. Each entry/folder is labelled by the normalised word(s) and word
                        class information and information about the actual orthographically standard
                        used. The database used by the editorial team of the <title level=""m""
                            >Collins Cobuild dictionary</title> in the lemma selection of from the
                        corpus is an early example of such a database. Several standards can be used
                        simultaneously in <title level=""m"">The Meta Dictionary</title>. This is
                        useful in the Norwegian context. One possible application could for example
                        be a Meta Dictionary for German dialects having a Low German and a High
                        German normalisation. A more realistic application of <title level=""m"">The
                            Meta Dictionary</title> system is to use it as a descriptive tool for
                        old written languages like Old Norse. It is planned to be used in
                        systematising the data from the fieldwork on minority languages in Zimbabwe
                        in the phase 3 of the <emph rend=""italics"">The ALLEX Project</emph>
                        (2002-2005) [2]. In the Norwegian dictionary (ND2014) project <title
                            level=""m"">The Meta Dictionary</title> system has been used during the
                        last 2 years and more than 150 000 entries out of a total estimated to 450
                        000 have been created. <title level=""m"">The Meta Dictionary</title> can be
                        seen as an amalgamation of a lexical database, an electronic slip
                        collection, a set of older dictionaries and a editing tool or database with
                        a growing manuscript for ND2014. The backbone of <title level=""m"">The Meta
                            Dictionary</title> is the list of all the headwords from A to Å (the
                        last letter in the Norwegian alphabet). The other information is linked to
                        this list. The source materials in the entries/folders can be view in their
                        original layout. That is, all the samples can be displayed ""inline"" as they
                        are in their separate databases.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Connecting the editing of the dictionary and <title level=""m"">The Meta
                            Dictionary</title></head>
                    <p>The basic Meta Dictionary is a tool for group the background information
                        (samples) to (head)words. In a (monolingual) dictionary the defining parts
                        of the entries usually are divided in a tree like structure reflecting the
                        semantics of the words. Thus <title level=""m"">The Meta Dictionary</title>
                        used in the NO2014-project is linked to the editing system by a drag and
                        drop based interface for sorting the information in <title level=""m"">The
                            Meta Dictionary</title> entry/folder into a tree-like hierarchy which in
                        turn can be view by the editor in the editing system as the skeleton of an
                        ordinary entry in ND2014. By these means it is possible to survey back and
                        forth between the collected source material and the dictionary manuscript.
                        These links will be kept after the editing of an entry is finished.
                        Furthermore, the entry for a given word will automatically be placed in
                            <title level=""m"">The Meta Dictionary</title> entry/folder. The
                        NO2014-entry will ""live"" together with its sources and in fact be just
                        another information piece describing that word. In a corresponding way it is
                        relatively easy to connect/extend <title level=""m"">The Meta
                        Dictionary</title> to WORDNET-like descriptions or any other ontology-based
                        semantic structures.</p>
                    <p>The users of <title level=""m"">The Meta Dictionary</title> connected to ND2014
                        do not need to have a ND2014 perspective on the word information, but may
                        freely chose their focus. The information given in ND2014 is simply one out
                        of many seen in a time perspective. We believe that the <title level=""m"">The
                            Meta Dictionary</title> also is well suited to create a general tool for
                        systematising information from weakly normalised languages and /or dialect
                        material into a lexical database.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
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                            <title level=""a"">New life for old reports - The Archaeological Part of
                                the National Documentation Project of Norway</title>
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                            <title level=""u"">ALLC/ACH 1996, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway</title>
                            <imprint>
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                                <date when=""1996"">1996</date>
                            </imprint>
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                            <title level=""m"">HIT (Programme for Information Technology in the
                                Humanities)</title>
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                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">I.</forename>
                                    <surname>Aasen</surname>
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                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Norsk Ordbok [Norwegian Dictionary]</title>
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                                <pubPlace>Norway</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Christiania</publisher>
                                <date when=""1872"">1872</date>
                            </imprint>
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                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">Norsk Ordbok [Norwegian Dictionary]</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol"">Volumes I-IV</biblScope>
                                <pubPlace/>
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                                <date when=""1950"">1950-2001</date>
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                                    <forename type=""first"">Christian-Emil</forename>
                                    <surname>Ore</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">The Corpus and the Citation Archive - Peaceful
                                Coexistence Between the Best and the Good?</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""u"">ALLC/ACH 1995, University of Santa Barbara, Santa
                                Barbara USA</title>
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                                <date when=""1995"">1995</date>
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                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"" n=""10"">
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">Oxford English Dictionary</title>
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                                <pubPlace>Oxford</pubPlace>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""1928"">1928</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>and <ptr target=""http://www.oed.com/""/></note>
                    </biblStruct>
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                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">The SIMPLE project</title>
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                        </note>
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                            <title level=""m"">WORDNET</title>
                            <imprint>
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                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>
                            <ptr target=""http://www.cogsci.princeton.edu/~wn/""/>
                        </note>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                <div>
                    <head>1. Introduction</head>
                    <p>A current trend in humanities computing is the explosion of digital resources
                        and tools. It is clear that the new electronic media in conjunction with
                        distribution via the World-Wide Web offer a degree of access to resources
                        that is unparalleled in history. But there is a gap between what users want
                        and what they can achieve today. For instance, potential users cannot
                        necessarily find the material they are interested in, different data
                        providers use different formats and conventions, the average researcher has
                        no idea how to prepare materials for publication via this medium, to name
                        just a few of the problems.</p>
                    <p>A new direction for humanities computing would be for the community to
                        organize its efforts so as to bridge this gap. This paper describes what one
                        subcommunity, namely, those working with language-related resources, is
                        doing in pursuit of this goal. The Open Language Archives Community was
                        founded in December of 2000 with the following purpose statement:<cit
                            rend=""block"">
                            <quote>OLAC, the Open Language Archives Community, is an international
                                partnership of institutions and individuals who are creating a
                                worldwide virtual library of language resources by: (1) developing
                                consensus on best current practice for the digital archiving of
                                language resources, and (2) developing a network of interoperating
                                repositories and services for housing and accessing such
                                resources.</quote>
                        </cit></p>
                    <p>This community involves both people and machines in cooperation. This paper
                        describes the infrastructure that has been developed in order to support
                        this cooperation. There are three aspects of infrastructure which are
                        explained in the remaining sections:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>a technical infrastructure that defines how participating machines
                                interact with other participating machines,</item>
                            <item>a governance infrastructure that defines how participating people
                                interact with other participating people, and</item>
                            <item>a usage infrastructure that defines how participating people
                                interact with participating machines.</item>
                        </list></p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>2. Technical infrastructure</head>
                    <p>The technical infrastructure for OLAC is built on an infrastructure developed
                        within the digital libraries community by the Open Archives Initiative
                        [OAI][2]. This infrastructure has two components: a metadata standard
                        [OAI-DC] [3]and a metadata harvesting protocol [OAI-MHP] [4]. The OLAC
                        versions of these are specializations that address the particular needs of
                        language archiving. The two components of technical infrastructure are:<list
                            type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>The OLAC Metadata Set [ OLAC-MS] [6] defines the elements to be
                                used in metadata descriptions of archive holdings and how such
                                descriptions are to be represented in XML for publication to the
                                community. The OLAC metadata set contains the 15 elements of the
                                Dublin Core metadata set [DC-MS] [1], plus 8 refined elements that
                                capture information of special interest to the language resources
                                community. In order to improve recall and precision when searching
                                for resources, the standard also defines a number of controlled
                                vocabularies for descriptor terms. The most important of these is a
                                standard for identifying languages [ Simons, 2000] [8].</item>
                            <item>The OLAC Metadata Harvesting Protocol [ OLAC-MHP] [5] defines the
                                protocol by which machines that are ""service providers"" query the
                                machines that are ""data providers"" in order to harvest the metadata
                                records they publish. In this model, every participating archive is
                                a data provider. Any other site may use the protocol to collect
                                metadata records in order to provide a service, such as offering a
                                union catalog of all archives or a specialized search service
                                pertaining to a particular topic. The protocol is based on HTTP.
                                Requests to data providers are issued via URLs with parameters;
                                responses are returned as XML documents.</item>
                        </list>
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>3. Governance infrastructure</head>
                    <p>The infrastructure that supports the interaction among the human participants
                        of the Open Language Archives Community is defined in the OLAC process
                        document [ OLAC-Process] [7]. It defines three things:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>The governing ideas of OLAC. These are defined through a summary
                                statement of its purpose, vision, and core values.</item>
                            <item>The organization of OLAC. This is defined in terms of the groups
                                of participants that play key roles: advisory board, participating
                                archives and services, prospective participants, working groups,
                                participating individuals, and coordinators.</item>
                            <item>The operation of OLAC. It is through documents (such as standards
                                and best practice recommendations) that OLAC defines itself and the
                                practices that it promotes. The document process defines how
                                documents are generated and how they progress from one status to the
                                next along the five-phase life cycle of development, proposal,
                                testing, adoption, and retirement.</item>
                        </list></p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>4. Usage infrastructure</head>
                    <p>The infrastructure that has been built to allow the community of users
                        interested in language resources to interact with the machines that provide
                        services for this community has four major components:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>A community gateway (hosted by the Linguistic Data Consortium at
                                    <ptr target=""http://www.language-archives.org""/>) provides
                                access to all aspects of the community: news, documents, a directory
                                of participants, links to service providers, resources for
                                implementing data providers, and so on.</item>
                            <item>A union catalog (to be hosted by Linguist List at <ptr
                                    target=""http://www.linguistlist.org""/>) of all records harvested
                                from all OLAC data providers along with a full search engine.</item>
                            <item>A language identification server ( hosted by SIL International at
                                    <ptr target=""http://www.ethnologue.com""/>) that documents the
                                standard OLAC follows in identifying the 6,800+ living languages of
                                the world.</item>
                            <item>A proxied data provider (also hosted by the Linguistic Data
                                Consortium) that gives individual researchers and small institutions
                                that do not have the capacity to implement their own data provider
                                an alternative way to publish their data and metadata as an OLAC
                                archive.</item>
                        </list></p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>5. Conclusion</head>
                    <p>During its first year of operation, 2001, the basic infrastructure for OLAC
                        has been developed. By the end of that year, twelve institutions have become
                        full participants and implemented data providers that publish a total of
                        18,000 metadata records. During the second year, 2002, the focus will be on
                        enlarging the community of participating archives. The technical standards
                        will be frozen in candidate status during that year so that archives need
                        not worry about a moving target as they implement an OLAC data provider.
                        Based on the experiences of the archives that participate in the first two
                        years, the standards will be refined and formally adopted by the community
                        during the third year, 2003. All individuals and institutions who have
                        language-related resources to share are enthusiastically invited to take
                        part in this new direction for humanities computing to build a distributed
                        virtual library of digital resources for the documentation and study of
                        human languages.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct n=""1 [DC-MS]"">
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">Dublin Core Metadata Element Set</title>
                            <edition>Version 1.1: Reference Description</edition>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
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                                <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>
                            <ptr target=""http://dublincore.org/documents/1999/07/02/dces/""/>
                        </note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct n=""2 [OAI]"">
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""u"">Open Archives Initiative</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>
                            <ptr target=""http://www.openarchives.org/""/>
                        </note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct n=""3 [OAI-DC]"">
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">Schema for OAI implementation of Dublin Core
                                metadata</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>
                            <ptr target=""http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd""/>
                        </note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct n=""4 [OAI-MHP]"">
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">The Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata
                                Harvesting</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>
                            <ptr target=""http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/openarchivesprotocol.html""
                            />
                        </note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct n=""5 [OLAC-MHP]"">
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">OLAC Metadata Harvesting Protocol</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>To appear at <ptr
                                target=""http://www.language-archives.org/OLAC/protocol.html""
                            /></note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct n=""6 [OLAC-MS]"">
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">OLAC Metadata Set</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note><ptr target=""http://www.language-archives.org/OLAC/olacms.html""/> See
                            also ""The OLAC Metadata Set and Controlled Vocabularies,"" by Steven Bird
                            and Gary Simons. <title level=""m"">Proceedings of the ACL/EACL Workshop
                                on Sharing Tools and Resources for Research and Education, Toulouse,
                                July 2001</title>, Association for Computational Linguistics. <ptr
                                target=""http://arxiv.org/abs/cs/0105030""/></note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct n=""7 [OLAC-Process]"">
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">OLAC Process</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>
                            <ptr target=""http://www.language-archives.org/OLAC/process.html""/>
                        </note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct n=""8 [Simons, 2000]"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Gary</forename>
                                    <surname>Simons</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Language identification in metadata descriptions of
                                language archive holdings</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">Proceedings of the Workshop on Web-Based Language
                                Documentation and Description 12-15 December 2000, Philadelphia,
                                USA</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>
                            <ptr
                                target=""http://www.ldc.upenn.edu/exploration/expl2000/papers/simons/simons.htm""
                            />
                        </note>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
</TEI>","xml","2","",""
"215","3","Forensic linguistics: the contribution of humanities computing","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Forensic linguistics: the contribution of humanities
                    computing</title>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">László</forename>
                        <surname>Hunyadi</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Debrecen</name>
                            <email>hunyadi@llab2.arts.klte.hu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Enikő</forename>
                        <surname>Tóth</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Debrecen</name>
                            <email>teniko@pmail.arts.klte.hu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Kálmán</forename>
                        <surname>Abari</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Debrecen</name>
                            <email>abarik@pmail.arts.klte.hu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ALLC/ACH 2002</title>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>editor</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Harald</forename>
                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <forename type=""middle""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                    </name>
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                <div>
                    <head>Abstract:</head>
                    <p>The aim of the talk is to demonstrate how useful humanities computing can
                        prove to be in solving issues of a seemingly as distant field as forensic
                        science. We will present a case study of an actual forensic linguistic
                        assignment whose aim it was to determine if a digitalized recording of a
                        conversation had been tempered. The task, highly challenging due to its
                        novelty both in applied linguistics and forensic practice, was carried out
                        by investigating three independent aspects of the issue: those of
                        experimental phonetics, situational semantics and computation. The results
                        of the three approaches were synthesized to give a comprehensive basis for
                        an answer to the initial question.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Introduction:</head>
                    <p>To find a proof for or against the assumption that a given document has been
                        tempered with is one of the important tasks of forensic science. With the
                        introduction of various voice-recording techniques it became especially
                        important to decide whether or not such a recording can authentically
                        represent a certain event of reference. The case of magnetic tape recordings
                        is relatively simple, since any (either electronic or mechanical)
                        modification of the tape leaves a trace behind, characteristic even of the
                        kind of manipulation (cf. Gruber et al. 1995, Gruber et al. 1993, Poza
                        1979). However, with digital recordings gaining more and more popularity in
                        our days, on the one hand, and digital manipulation becoming technically
                        possible and easy, on the other, one might believe that the discovery of
                        such a manipulation is highly unlikely. The novelty of the issue in
                        scientific literature just adds to this challenge. In order to carry out the
                        task, we had two assumptions: a. due to human voice having a highly complex
                        structure, even digital tempering by a person might leave a significant
                        trace, and b. due to conversations also having their strict internal
                        structure, the removal of a segment of the given conversation might also be
                        noticeable.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Discussion:</head>
                    <p>The findings of the three approaches were as follows:</p>
                    <list>
                        <item>1. A detailed spectrographic analysis of digitalized voice recordings
                            found a characteristic pattern with a duration of 8-10 milliseconds at
                            the place where a segment had been digitally removed. Although this
                            pattern varied according to the actual immediate environment, its
                            characteristic features could be established (a symmetrical increase of
                            intensity as well as a 500 Hz increase of frequency). This
                            spectrographic pattern was only manifested in the exact location of
                            recordings with a digital cut. Applying the methodology to the given
                            task, we found that no spectrographic trace of this kind of manipulation
                            could be identified.</item>
                        <item>2. The aim of the situational-semantic study was to find out if an
                            eventual cutting of a portion of the text could have possibly left a
                            trace that can be identified as semantically significant. Our attention
                            was directed to the analysis of the appropriateness of pieces of
                            linguistic material with a referential function, including pronouns,
                            determiners and names (cf. Brown et al. 1983, Kamp 1981). The analysis
                            pointed at some places where the reference was not unambiguously
                            computable from the immediate linguistic environment, but since in
                            running conversation such immediate turns often happen, they could not
                            be decided on the basis of linguistic content alone. These locations
                            became thus subject to spectrographic analysis, and the latter concluded
                            that no tempering could be identified there.</item>
                        <item>3. In our work we included a separate computational task to find out
                            if segments of an eventual cut in the voice recording were still
                            recoverable from the hard disk originally used for digitizing. Since it
                            turned out that the hard disk had been completely reformatted, we could
                            not complete this task. However, we elaborated a methodology for similar
                            tasks and applied it in model situations. The applied statistical method
                            of zero crossing proved to yield significant interpretable results in
                            the differentiation of headerless segments of certain types of files.
                            This method showed a significant difference between .bmp and .txt files,
                            and .wav files also had a characteristic value for zero-crossing. Thus,
                            we suggest that this methodology may be useful for the possible
                            differentiation of at least a few types of files in future work.</item>
                    </list>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Summary:</head>
                    <p>This case study showed us that humanities computing can have a significant
                        contribution to forensic science, especially in the form of a combination of
                        theoretical and applied linguistics as well as statistics and computing.
                        This assignment was a real challenge for us, and it resulted in the
                        elaboration of a new methodology both in experimental phonetics and
                        computation. Thus proving the inspiring force of humanities computing across
                        various fields of science.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>References:</head>
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    </text>
</TEI>","xml","2","",""
"216","3","Structure of the Frequency of Occurrence of Consonants in the Speech Sound Chain as an Indicator of the Phono-Typological Closeness of Languages","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Structure of the Frequency of Occurrence of Consonants
                    in the Speech Sound Chain as an Indicator of the Phono-Typological Closeness of
                    Languages</title>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Yuri</forename>
                        <surname>Tambovtsev</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Novosibirsk University</name>
                            <email>YUTAMB@HOTMAIL.COM</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ALLC/ACH 2002</title>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>editor</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Harald</forename>
                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <forename type=""middle""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                    </name>
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        <body>
            <div>
                <p> The structure of the frequency of occurrence of consonants in the speech sound
                    chain can be a good indicator of the typological closeness of languages from the
                    phonetic point of view.</p>
                <p>A human being can realise that this or that language sounds closer to his own
                    native language without understanding the meaning. At the stage when it is hard
                    to teach computer to understand a human language, it is quite possible to make
                    it recognise the sound closeness of a language to this or that language on the
                    basis of the analysis of its sound speech chain. We have computed the frequency
                    of phonemic occurrence of 112 world languages as a teaching sample for the
                    computer. Then we took Japanese as a token language. The computer had to analyse
                    the sound chain of a language and then to put it closer to some languages and
                    far away from the others, basing on the frequency of occurrence of certain
                    consonantal groups. We have chosen Japanese because it is not categorically
                    assigned to any language family. It is still considered a genetically isolated
                    language. Therefore, it is useful to have some additional information about it
                    in any aspect. In this project we have used the procedures which are usually
                    used in pattern recognition.</p>
                <p>Japanese, as any other human language, has a specific structure of the speech
                    sound chain. It can be distinguished by its structure from any other language.
                    Every language has a unique structure of distributions of speech sounds in its
                    phonemic chain. The distribution of Japanese vowels will not be considered till
                    the second stage of the investigation. Let's point out that consonants bear the
                    semantic load in the word, not vowels. Therefore, it is more possible to
                    understand the meaning of the message by consonants, rather by vowels. However,
                    if we fail to recognise and distinguish two languages, then we resort to the
                    structure of occurrence of vowels in the speech sound chain. While comparing
                    languages, it is necessary to keep to the principle of commensurability. Having
                    it in mind, it is not possible to compare languages on the basis of the
                    frequency of occurrence of separate phonemes, because the sets of phonemes in
                    languages are usually different. The articulartory features may serve as the
                    basic features in phono-typological reasoning. First of all, it is the
                    classification of consonants according to the work of the active organ of speech
                    or place of articulation (4 features). Secondly, it is the classification from
                    the point of view of the manner of articulation or the type of the obstruction
                    (3 features). Thirdly, it is the classification according to the work of the
                    vocal cords (1 feature). In this way, 8 basic features are obtained: 1) labial;
                    2) front; 3) mediolingual or palatal; 4) back or velar; 5) sonorant; 6)
                    occlusive; 7) fricative; and 8) voiced consonants. One should take the values of
                    the frequency of occurrence of these 8 features in the speech chain of Japanese
                    and compare them to those of the other languages. On the basis of the
                    ""chi-square"" test and Euclidean distance, we have developed our own method of
                    measuring the phono-typological distances between languages (Tambovtsev, 1994-a;
                    1994-b; 2001-a; 2001-b). It takes into account the frequency of occurrence of
                    the 8 consonantal groups mentioned above and builds up the overwhelming mosaic
                    of the language sound picture. Having compared Japanese to some languages, we
                    received the following phono-typological distances: Japanese - Ujgur (6.77);
                    Japanese - Nanaj (8.12); Japanese - Jakut (8.26); Japanese - See Dajak (8.86);
                    Japanese - Kazah (9.02); Japanese - Turkish (9.05); Japanese - Ket (9.52);
                    Japanese - Baraba Tatar (9.76); Japanese - Uzbek (10.63); Japanese - Hausa
                    (10.98); Japanese - Georgean (11.05); Japanese - Kazan Tatar (11.07) and so on.
                    One can see, that Ujgur, Jakut, Kazah, Turkish, Baraba Tatar, Uzbek and Kazan
                    Tatar are Turkic languages. Nanaj is a Tungus-Manchurian language. Therefore,
                    one can notice that Japanese is closer to the so-called Altaic languages which
                    include Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchurian languages. All in all 112
                    languages were compared to Japanese. We can't show all the distances measured
                    here for the lack of space. However, the maximum distances were found for
                    Japanese - German (22,24); Japanese - English (19.83); Japanese - Rumanian
                    (15,08) and Japanese - Swedish (17.03). Thus, one can see that the consonantal
                    distribution pattern in Japanese and Germanic languages is rather different. As
                    a conclusion, we can state that speech sound picture of Japanese is also far
                    away from the languages which are geographically close: Chinese, Nivh, Itelmen
                    or Indonesian. It was a surprise to us. Our data state that the speech sound
                    pattern of Japanese resembles that of Ujgur - one of the Turkic languages spoken
                    in the Middle Asia. The Ujgur people are often linked to the Old Turkic tribes,
                    who used to live in the stepps of Southern Russia before the Tatar-Mongols
                    captured them in the IXth century A.D. We must point out that it is not a
                    coincidence since the other native Altaic people have a very similar data of
                    closeness to Japanese. Turkic and Tungus-Manchurian tribes may have had a sort
                    of common origin with Japanese. It may verify the Altaic hypothesis of Japanese
                    origin. It is especially vivid, when the Austro-Oceanic and other languages do
                    not show such a closeness.</p>

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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>References</head>
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                                    <surname>Tambovtsev</surname>
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                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Dinamika funktsionorovanija fonem v zvukovyh tsepochkah
                                jazykov razlichnogo stroja</title>
                            <imprint>
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                                <publisher>Novosibirskij GosUniversitet</publisher>
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                            <title level=""m"">Tipologija uporjadochennosti zvukovyh tsepej v jazyke</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Novosibirsk</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Novosibirskij GosUniversitet</publisher>
                                <date when=""1994"">1994-b</date>
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                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Kompendium osnovnyh statisticheskih harakteristik
                                funktsionirovanija soglasnyh fonem v zvukovoj tsepochke anglijskogo,
                                nemetskogo, frentsuzskogo i drugih indoevropejskih jazykov</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Novosibirsk</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Novosibirskij klassicheskij institut</publisher>
                                <date when=""2001"">2001-a</date>
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                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Yuri</forename>
                                    <surname>Tambovtsev</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Funktsionirovanie soglasnyh fonem v zvukovoj tsepochke
                                uralo-altajskih jazykov</title>
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                                <publisher>Novosibirskij klassicheskij institut</publisher>
                                <date when=""2001"">2001-b</date>
                            </imprint>
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                                    <surname>Tambovtsev</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Nekotorye teoreticheskie polozhenija tipologii
                                upor'adochennosti fonem v zvukovoj tsepochke jazyka i kompendium
                                statisticheskih harakteristik osnovnyh grupp soglasnyh fonem</title>
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                                <pubPlace>Novosibirsk</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Novosibirsk klassicheskij institut</publisher>
                                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Gerd</forename>
                        <surname>Willée</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">IKP - University of Bonn</name>
                            <email>willee@uni-bonn.de</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Karlheinz</forename>
                        <surname>Stöber</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">IKP - University of Bonn</name>
                            <email>kst@ikp.uni-bonn.de</email>
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                    <head>Introduction</head>
                    <p>The problem of wordclass tagging nowdays gains more and more importance<note
                            n=""1"">cf. Hans van Halteren, <title level=""m"">Syntactic Wordclass
                                Tagging</title>, Dordecht / Boston / London 1999</note>. It is
                        required for syntactic analyses in dialog systems, for prosody prediction in
                        speech synthesis and for syntactic annotations of large text corpora. There
                        seems to be a need for systems which can be implemented as modules in other
                        NLP-systems.</p>
                    <p>The system presented here is based on the system LEMMA2<note n=""2"">e.g. Gerd
                            Willée (1982): Das Programmsystem LEMMA2 - eine Weiterentwicklung von
                            LEMMA. IKP-Arbeitsbericht (Abt. LDV) Nr. 2, Bonn 1982 (als Manuskript
                            veröffentlicht and Gerd Willée (1987): <title level=""m""
                                >Lemmatisierungsprobleme am Beispiel des Deutschen</title>. Vortrag,
                            gehalten auf dem 35. Kolloquium über die Anwendung der EDV in den
                            Geisteswissenschaften in Tübingen</note> written in PL/1 for the use on
                        main frames. Even if the results and the speed of LEMMA2 were fairly good in
                        those times, because of the meanwhile mostly outdated programming language
                        PL/I we decided to rebuild the system and to redesign it at a large scale.</p>
                    <p>This redesign of the LEMMA2 algorithm resulted in a much faster system, which
                        can be used in speech synthesis systems at nearly real time, with a very
                        efficient deflection-modul using an extendable deflection list, a
                        disambiguation facility for homographs within the closed word classes, and a
                        mostly stringent separation of the data and the algorithms.</p>
                    <p>C++ was chosen as programming language because of its easy portability to
                        many other platforms.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Functionality</head>
                    <p>LEMMA3 is a word class tagger and lemmatizer of unrestricted German text,
                        i.e., to each text word form the (or one possible) word class indication,
                        the base form, and - for the simple tenses of the verbs - the indication of
                        the inflection is added.</p>
                    <p>he program processes text in three steps:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>Dictionary Lookup: Every text word form is compared with a
                                dictionary containing the -- at this stage still partly homographic
                                - members of the closed word classes</item>
                            <item>Deflection: Word forms belonging to the open, inflected word
                                classes are processed by the modul MORPH</item>
                            <item>Disambiguation: The homographs -- the ones from the closed word
                                classes and the not yet completely resolved inflection indications
                                of verb forms -- are disambiguated by the modul UMGEBUNG</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>LEMMA3 detects the following word classes<note n=""3"">The system of word
                            classes used in LEMMA3 corresponds to the classic system, completed by
                            the (quasi-)word class 'Verbzusatz' (under special conditions separable
                            prefixes of German verbs, e.g. 'um-', 'ab-', 'wieder-', cf. 'er kommt
                            wieder' vs. 'wiederkommend').</note><list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>verb</item>
                            <item>verbzusatz<note n=""4"">see the endnote above</note></item>
                            <item>noun</item>
                            <item>adjective</item>
                            <item>adverb</item>
                            <item>pronoun (incl. article)</item>
                            <item>conjunction</item>
                            <item>preposition</item>
                            <item>postposition</item>
                            <item>numeral</item>
                            <item>interjection</item>
                        </list>
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Structure</head>
                    <p>The algorithm is mainly word form based, execpt for the module UMGEBUNG,
                        which uses parts of the sentence context in order to disambiguate
                        homographs.</p>
                    <p>The first step after the tokenization is the dictionary look-up.</p>
                    <p>The dictionary used is a full form dictionary containing the elements of the
                        closed word classes. The information assigned to a match consists of the
                        appropriate base form and word class indication, the latter possibly if
                        necessary a homograph class, which will be disambiguated later on.</p>
                    <p>Each dictionary entry has the following structure:<lb/><eg>keyword -- base
                            form - &lt;word class&gt;</eg></p>
                    <p>Some sample entries from the dictionary:<lb/>
                        <eg>denn denn &lt;aK&gt;</eg><lb/>
                        <eg> in in &lt;PP&gt;</eg><lb/>
                        <eg>seitlich seitlich &lt;p9&gt;</eg><lb/>
                        <eg>zu zu &lt;PX&gt;</eg><lb/>
                        <eg>zugute zugute &lt;VZ&gt;</eg>
                    </p>
                    <p>The homograph class 'aK' (homograph between a conjunction and an adverb) is
                        assigned to 'denn' and is to be disambiguated in UMGEBUNG.</p>
                    <p>The wordclass 'PP' (preposition) is assigned to 'in'.</p>
                    <p>The homograph class 'p8' (homograph between an adverb and a preposition) is
                        assigned to 'seitlich' and is to be disambiguated in UMGEBUNG.</p>
                    <p>The homograph class 'PX' (homograph between a verbzusatz and a preposition)
                        is assigned to 'zu' and is to be disambiguated in UMGEBUNG.</p>
                    <p>The wordclass 'VZ' (verbzusatz) is assigned to 'zugute'.</p>
                    <p>The deflection for verbs, adjectives, and nouns is made by the modul MORPH,
                        i.e. it determines the word class and generates the proper base form to a
                        given word form. This is done by the aid of the deflection list, which
                        contains word stems or parts of them together with the allowed endings for a
                        given base form and its word class. The latter information can be taken
                        only, if the tested word form ends in a valid combination of stem and
                        ending. For verb forms the (at this point often still provisional)
                        inflection codes are supplied as well.</p>
                    <p>The entries for nouns can be searched only, if a word form has an initial
                        capital. The distinction between adjectives and verbs (e.g. 'lieb' vs.
                        'lieben') can only be done, if the endings are different; otherwose this
                        distinction has to be done by the modul UMGEBUNG.</p>
                    <p>The structure of the deflection list is as follows:<lb/>
                        <eg>keystring (stem)</eg><lb/>
                        <eg>-- word class -- base form -- list of endings ('$' means 'no
                        ending'),</eg><lb/> the endings for verb forms include numeric codes for the
                        inflection charcteristics.</p>
                    <p>Some sample entries from the morphlis-dataset:<lb/>
                        <eg>em su em en, e, s, $,</eg><lb/>
                        <eg>einzig ad einzig e, em, en, es, er, $,</eg><lb/>
                        <eg>geh v gehen e,1 $,11 st,3 est,12 (...)</eg><lb/>
                        <eg>lieb ad lieb (...) es, er, em, $,</eg><lb/>
                        <eg>lieb v lieben (...) tet,20 st,3 t,5 (...)</eg><lb/>
                        <eg>liebe su liebe $,</eg>
                    </p>
                    <p>If the final string of the courrent word form matches a list entry
                        concatenated with one of the allowed endings given, then the word class is
                        taken from the entry (in case of nouns after a successful check of an
                        initial capital of the word form), the base form of the current word is
                        formed by subsituting the matching string by the given base form, in case of
                        verbs the appropriate inflection codes are evaluated.</p>
                    <p>
                        <eg>word form in question: 'Systems'</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>word class added: 'su' (noun)</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>generated base form: 'System'</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>word form in question: 'einziger'</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>word class added: 'ad' (adjective)</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>generated base form: 'einzig'</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>word form in question: 'vergehst'</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>word class added: 'v' (verb)</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>generated base form: 'vergehen'</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>indication of inflection: 'G2' (see list below)</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>word form in question: 'liebem'</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>word class added: 'ad'</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>generated base form: 'lieb'</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>word form in question: 'verliebtet'</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg> word class added: 'v'</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>generated base form: 'verlieben'</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>indication of inflection: 'V5' (see list below)</eg>
                        <lb/>
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <eg>word form in question: 'Liebe'</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>word class added: 'su'</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>generated base form: 'Liebe'</eg>
                    </p>
                    <p>Explanation of some inflection codes for verbs:<lb/>
                        <eg>1 G0#: provisinal, homograph between 1.sg.pres.ind.act.
                            and 3.sg.pres.conj.act.</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>3 G2: 2.sg.pres.ind.act.</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>11 IS: imp.sg.</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>12 K2: 2.sg.conj.[I+II]act.</eg>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>20 V5: 2.pl.pret.ind.act.</eg>
                    </p>
                    <p>The modul UMGEBUNG is the final component of LEMMA3 operating on whole
                        sentences.</p>
                    <p>In a first step all word class assignements not yet done by the modul MORPH
                        are added by rules, according to the word classes already determined for the
                        surrounding word forms. E.g., if an undetermined word form ending in '-e'
                        has a pronoun as predecessor and is followed by a noun, then the word class
                        is 'adjective', the base form is generated by reducing the final '-e' from
                        the word form. if the predecessor is the word 'ich', then the word class is
                        verb, the base form is generated by adding a final '-n' and the inflection
                        is determined as 1.sg.pres.ind.act.</p>
                    <p>As example for the disambiguation of the homographs found in the dictionary
                        follows the rule for the homograph class 'p9'(cf. the example form the
                            dictionary):<cit rend=""block"">
                            <quote>'If the word following the word form in question is a pronoun, an
                                article or a preposition, then it is a preposition; else it is an
                                adverb.'</quote>
                        </cit></p>
                    <p>The not yet completely resolved indications of the verbal inflection forms
                        are disambiguated by context rules, which use the fact, that the 1. and 2.
                        person of verbforms always must be accompanied by the corresponding personal
                        pronoun. e.g.:<lb/>
                            <eg>The provisional indicator 'G0^#' stands for present stems ending
                                in '-e'. If an 'ich' is found in a defined tontext of the verb,
                                1.sg.pres.ind.act. is assumed, otherwise 3.sg.pres.conj.act.</eg>
                        </p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Limitations</head>
                    <p>The focus for the new conception of LEMMA3 had been laid on a clear
                        manageable algorithm, the analysis data of which easily can be extended,
                        more than on a system as linguistically sophisticated as possible. This is
                        reflected in the choice of the word classes and in the algorithm in general.</p>
                    <p>Some incorrect word class tages are produced systematically:</p>
                    <p>Word forms with an initial capital, which are not nouns, (at the beginning of
                        a sentence), but which resemble nouns, are treated as nouns.</p>
                    <p>Without further semantic and contextual information it is not possible to
                        distinguish between word forms like 'tränke' (conjunctive II form from the
                        verb 'trinken') and 'tränke' (present tense form from the verb 'tränken') on
                        the base of the pure word form given. In these cases one definite choice had
                        to be made in favour of the (probabely) more frequent occurrence.</p>
                    <p>Word sequences like 'hin- und hergehen' cannot be processed correctly by
                        LEMMA3.</p>
                    <p>Forms of the compound tenses (like 'ich werde gehen') can be analysed only as
                        seperated parts ('werde' and 'gehen').</p>
                    <p>The default rule for word forms with no other classification normally
                        determines the word class 'noun', which sometimes may be wrong, especially
                        if the word form has no initial capital.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Evaluation</head>
                    <p>The evaluation still is in progress. First estimates on a medium sized test
                        set show that - as for the word classes - LEMMA3 tags more than 95%
                        correctly.</p>
                    <p>A more detailed evaluation will be presented at the conference.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Intended Use of LEMMA3</head>
                    <p>There has been a need for a fast word class tagger for speech synthesis
                        purposes as well as for corpus linguistics. The first implementation of
                        LEMMA3 as a modul will be in the BOSS-System<note n=""5"">see among others:
                            Stöber, K., (2001), ""Bestimmung und Auswahl von Zeitbereichseinheiten
                            für die konkatenative Sprachsynthese"", Doctoral Thesis, University of
                            Bonn, Germany</note> (Bonn Open Synthesis System)<note n=""6"">Klabbers
                            E.A.M., Stöber K., Veldhuis R., Wagner P., Breuer S., (2001), ""Speech
                            synthesis development made easy: The Bonn Open Synthesis System"", In:
                                <title level=""m"">Proc. Eurospeech'2001</title>, Aalborg, Denmark,
                            Vol. 1, pp. 521-524 </note>, for which purpose real time processing is
                        needed, and in RETIVOX<note n=""7"">RETIVOX is being developed by Dr. B.
                            Schröder and Dr. Th. Portele, IKP, University of Bonn (e-mail:
                            B.Schroeder@uni-bonn.de).</note>, a text-to-speech application, which
                        provides an interface between telephone and e-mail or www; moreover it will
                        be used stand-alone in corpuslinguistical research and teaching at the IKP.</p>
                    <p>It will be freely available for scientific purposes.</p>
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"218","3","Ordering Chaos: A Virtual Archive of Whitman Poetry Manuscripts","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Mary</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">Ellen</forename>
                        <surname>Ducey</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Nebraska-Lincoln</name>
                            <email>mducey2@unl.edu</email>
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                    </name>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Andrew</forename>
                        <surname>Jewell</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Nebraska-Lincoln</name>
                            <email>ajewell2@bigred.unl.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Kenneth</forename>
                        <surname>Price</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Nebraska-Lincoln</name>
                            <email>kprice@unlnotes.unl.edu</email>
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                <p>Walt Whitman's manuscripts as a whole are poorly understood and, curiously, the
                    most important group of them, the poetry manuscripts, have never been collected
                    and edited, despite his foundational role in American culture. Whitman's poetry
                    manuscripts are found in approximately thirty different repositories, and the
                    quality and depth of description varies across these repositories. Because the
                    materials are dispersed and irregularly documented, scholars interested in the
                    development of Whitman's poetry-through multiple drafts to finished work-cannot
                    locate and examine the relevant documents without great expense of time and
                    money.</p>
                <p>Our paper reports on our early successes and ongoing efforts to create a unified,
                    item-level guide to all of Whitman's poetry manuscripts held in the US and the
                    UK. Our work is an unprecedented use of Encoded Archival Description (EAD), a
                    standard supported by the Society of American Archivists and the Library of
                    Congress. The depth of our item-level description and our ability to pull
                    together disparate collections to create a single virtual finding aid make this
                    project distinctive. This guide, or Virtual Archive, will soon be incorporated
                    into, and will be maintained by, the Walt Whitman Archive (<ptr
                        target=""http://www.whitmanarchive.org""/>), an NEH-supported project
                    organized and affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Technology at the
                    University of Virginia (IATH).</p>
                <p>Thanks to a grant of $10,000 given to the Whitman project from the Gladys
                    Krieble Delmas Foundation, we have established the framework for this project at
                    the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. The Delmas Foundation funding has supported
                    the development of an encoded finding aid to poetry manuscripts in the Charles
                    Feinberg Collection of Walt Whitman at the Library of Congress. The next steps
                    for our project will be, first, to link and coordinate our EAD finding aid to
                    ones developed by the New York Public Library and Duke University, and, second,
                    to collect, organize, and present records from various smaller institutions that
                    currently have only paper-based or HTML records of their Whitman holdings. The
                    Whitman Virtual Archive is conceived as an attempt to provide universal access
                    from the collection to the item level for all Whitman manuscript resources
                    distributed in over sixty repositories. It will provide a centralized online
                    finding aid that will pull together and regularize information that now exists
                    in these different institutions in partial and inconsistent forms, and it will
                    provide a search interface adapted to the particular nature of the Whitman
                    manuscripts and the special needs of their users.</p>
                <p>This work is crucial because Whitman frequently left his manuscripts untitled,
                    and when he did title them, he often used a title different from that employed
                    in any of the six distinct editions of <title level=""m"">Leaves of Grass</title>.
                    It is thus difficult for anyone but a specialist to correctly identify and
                    categorize Whitman's manuscripts, a difficulty compounded by the fact that
                    Whitman's poems sometimes began as prose jottings and only gradually evolved
                    into verse. In such cases, specialists can help identify manuscripts that are in
                    fact the working papers contributing to poems. That identification can, in turn,
                    be encoded into the EAD finding aid, enriching access and understanding for a
                    wide network of archivists, scholars, and students.</p>
                <p>Our project builds upon work done by the American Heritage Virtual Archive and
                    the Research Libraries Group. One of the goals of the American Heritage Virtual
                    Archive (funded by NEH) was to integrate ""collections that have been dispersed
                    among two or more institutions (such as the Mark Twain collections at Virginia
                    and Berkeley)"" and to experiment ""with cooperatively creating a single finding
                    aid, in which separate components are used to describe each of the separate
                    collections held at separate repositories"" (<ptr
                        target=""http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/amher/proj.html""/>). However, because of
                    its broad scope-American heritage materials of all sorts-the goal of creating a
                    single, integrated finding aid was not reached. This remains an important
                    research objective, and we believe that a project involving scholars with a
                    focused interest in a more limited subject area (Whitman, rather than all of
                    American Heritage) can attain it.</p>
                <p>For Whitman studies, what is needed is a single index in which one can find all
                    the various manuscript drafts and notebook versions of any single poem. Our
                    paper will detail the processes and struggles of creating such an index. From
                    collecting finding aids and creating partnerships with other institutions, to
                    developing a proper encoding standard and establishing good cross-department
                    working relations, our project has embodied many of the benefits and challenges
                    of integrating computing into the humanities. By identifying our procedures, and
                    by laying out our future hurdles, we will contribute to a broader discussion of
                    how scholars and archivists can collaborate effectively and of how the potential
                    of EAD can be realized.</p>

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                        <forename type=""first"">Michael</forename>
                        <surname>Levison</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Queen's University</name>, Ontario
                                <email>levison@cs.queensu.ca</email>
                        </affiliation>
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                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Craig</forename>
                        <surname>Thomas</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Queen's University</name>, Ontario
                                <email>thomas@cs.queensu.ca</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
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                    <p>A jigsaw puzzle problem arises whenever an archaeologist finds an old
                        manuscript broken into fragments and wishes to reconstruct it. The best
                        known examples are the Dead Sea Scrolls, reconstructed by hand during the
                        middle of the 20th century.</p>
                    <p>In fact, there are two different types of problem, each requiring a different
                        strategy. If the fragments come from a familiar text, the manuscript can be
                        reconstructed by locating each fragment in an existing copy without
                        reference to other pieces of the puzzle. If the text is unfamiliar, we must
                        compare the shapes of fragments to one another to discover good matches with
                        reasonable letter sequences formed across the boundaries. We haved called
                        the former Jigsaw Problem A, the latter Problem B.</p>
                    <p>The purpose is to find computer techniques which substantially reduce the
                        human work involved in reconstruction.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Previous Work</head>
                    <p>Very little has been published on this topic since it was brought to the
                        first author's attention 35 years ago. A previous paper ( Levison and Wu,
                        1999) reported on some experiments involving artificial fragments derived
                        from a paragraph of <title level=""m"">Alice in Wonderland</title>. This work
                        essentially provided a computer solution for Problem A, predicting whether a
                        single site is likely for a given fragment based on letter-sequence
                        frequencies and, for our fragments, finding such a unique location in Alice
                        whenever it was predicted.</p>
                    <p>Experiments on problem B proved less successful. A program matched each of
                        the 53 fragments to each of the others with all possible vertical shifts,
                        computing a score for each juxtaposition. The ""best"" matches were listed for
                        each fragment, different scoring formulae being tried without materially
                        affecting the outcome. The correct match often occurred among the best five,
                        but only a few times in top or second place. In effect, two or three of 52
                        competitors often scored better than the correct one by chance alone.
                        Extrapolation suggests that, given a set of a few thousand fragments, a
                        human might have to examine a few hundred matches per fragment to determine
                        the correct one -- a ten-fold improvement over a human-only approach, but
                        still very time-consuming. For a satisfactory outcome, we want to narrow the
                        field, allowing a human researcher to inspect only a few matches per
                        fragment.</p>
                    <p>Incidentally, these experiments did suggest that letter-sequences play only a
                        secondary role in the scoring, shape being the most important feature. This
                        is perhaps not surprising since letter-sequences can be assessed only on
                        lines which fit together.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Refinement</head>
                    <p>In Levison and Wu (1999), the left- and right-profiles of each fragment are
                        represented by a sequence of measurements from an arbitrary vertical datum
                        line. At first sight, it is the step-like nature of the edges which causes
                        the problem, allowing too many good fits between unrelated fragments. In
                        fact, however, any shape represented by a finite sequence of measurements
                        can be viewed as step-like. The true problem is the granularity of the
                        measurements: a single measure per line of text, with a (fixed) character
                        width, about 2.5 mm, as the horizontal unit.</p>
                    <p>In new experiments, a further paragraph of <title level=""m"">Alice</title> was
                        fragmented and three measurements were made for each line of text to the
                        nearest 0.5 mm. Once again each fragment was compared with every other in
                        all different vertical positions. The scoring algorithm measured the total
                        gap between lines when two fragments were ""just touching"". This initial
                        measure was adjusted according to the number of lines which contributed to
                        it, and the final score biased to reward juxtapositions where several lines
                        fitted closely but not exactly. In the set of 61 new fragments from the
                        paragraph, 41 correct matches occurred in first place, with five each in
                        second and third, a major improvement on the earlier results.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Tear and Wear</head>
                    <p>Do these improvements persist if the number of fragments is much higher? With
                        many correct fits now occurring in first place, the rough extrapolation used
                        earlier no longer applies. Although few good shape matches may appear by
                        chance among 61 fragments, they may well arise among thousands. To answer
                        the question we need to experiment with much larger sets. Unfortunately no
                        such sets are available, while tearing and measuring thousands of artificial
                        fragments is not an enticing prospect. We have therefore created sets of
                        ""virtual fragments"".</p>
                    <p>The comparison process uses only the left- and right-profiles of each
                        fragment. We therefore generate vertical ""tears"" which form the right-
                        profiles of one group of fragments and the left-profiles of an adjacent one.
                        A tear is simply a sequence of measurements, each randomly displaced from
                        the one above. The displacements are chosen from a non- uniform
                        distribution, small changes being common, larger ones less frequent. In
                        fact, the actual distribution determines how rough or smooth the edges of
                        the virtual fragments are.</p>
                    <p>In practice, the shapes of these virtual fragments may be too perfect. Since
                        the right-profile of a fragment and the left-profile of its neighbour come
                        from the same tear, the correct match will involve no gap at all, helping to
                        ensure that it is always the best. We therefore submit the virtual fragments
                        to a process of ""wear"". Each profile measurement is altered by a random
                        amount to reduce the quality of the fit between correctly matching
                    profiles.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Results</head>
                    <p>Many sets of fragments ranging from about 60 to 5400 in number were simulated
                        and compared using the matching process. Typical results are shown in Table
                        1. For sets of around 60 fragments, the average number of correct matches
                        occurring in the first three places is around 88%, very close to the results
                        obtained for the paragraph from Alice. As expected, this percentage
                        diminishes as the size of the set increases. For 3600 fragments, it is still
                        about 66%. In other words, if we have a set of 3600 fragments whose profiles
                        do not deviate substantially from our virtual sets, we expect to find the
                        correct match among our three top choices about two-thirds of the time. This
                        meets the objective set earlier.</p>
                    <p>In fact, we can expect even better results if we apply the process in both
                        directions, and use it interactively, so that the human scholar confirms
                        some matches and thereby eliminates some profiles from later comparisons.</p>
                    <p>The comparison program is written in C, and was run on a 500Mhz PC. Table 2
                        shows the time taken to carry out the comparisons for sets of different
                        sizes. In principle, the time should be proportional to the square of the
                        number of fragments, and this is closely borne out by the last three
                        observations. (The processing portion of the two smaller cases is swamped by
                        the initialization and output portions of the program.) Even for very large
                        sets the process is feasible on current computers.</p>
                    <table rows=""17"" cols=""4"">
                        <head>Table 1. Typical results of the comparison process.</head>
                        <row>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell role=""label"">number of<lb/>fragments</cell>
                            <cell role=""label"">number of<lb/>correct matches<lb/>among top three</cell>
                            <cell role=""label"">percentage</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>62</cell>
                            <cell>50</cell>
                            <cell>80.7%</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>62</cell>
                            <cell>56</cell>
                            <cell>90.3%</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>58</cell>
                            <cell>54</cell>
                            <cell>93.1%</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell role=""label"">average</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>87.9%</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>199</cell>
                            <cell>152</cell>
                            <cell>76.4%</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>181</cell>
                            <cell>157</cell>
                            <cell>86.7%</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>193</cell>
                            <cell>146</cell>
                            <cell>75.6%</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell role=""label"">average</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>79.4%</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>406</cell>
                            <cell>303</cell>
                            <cell>74.6%</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>407</cell>
                            <cell>284</cell>
                            <cell>69.8%</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>383</cell>
                            <cell>297</cell>
                            <cell>77.5%</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell role=""label"">average</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>73.9%</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>3636</cell>
                            <cell>2443</cell>
                            <cell>67.2%</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>3667</cell>
                            <cell>2448</cell>
                            <cell>66.8%</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>3627</cell>
                            <cell>2412</cell>
                            <cell>66.5%</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell role=""label"">average</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>66.8%</cell>
                        </row>
                    </table>
                    <table rows=""6"" cols=""2"">
                        <head> Table 2. Timings for sets of different sizes</head>
                        <row>
                            <cell role=""label"">fragments</cell>
                            <cell role=""label"">time (seconds)</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>60</cell>
                            <cell>1</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>111</cell>
                            <cell>1.5</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>272</cell>
                            <cell>4</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>1084</cell>
                            <cell>48</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>5381</cell>
                            <cell>1100 (= 18 minutes 20 seconds)</cell>
                        </row>
                    </table>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Further Stages</head>
                    <p>The comparison process is the central component of the reconstruction task.
                        It permits many of the fragments to be combined into pairs and, by
                        extension, into horizontal bands, from which scholars can easily complete
                        the reconstruction. A complete program suite might go further, making use of
                        digital photographs to display best fits for human judgement, applying the
                        comparison process in the vertical direction to the horizontal bands, and so
                        on. One time-consuming activity remains -- that of accurately measuring
                        fragments to obtain their profiles. We have therefore investigated the
                        possibility of deriving measurements directly from digital photographs.</p>
                    <p>Some of our artificial fragments were photographed horizontally against a
                        bright red ground using a digital camera. For this discussion we assume that
                        the text is black on white. Our purpose is simply to distinguish three kinds
                        of pixel: text, ""paper"" and background. If the text is faded or the material
                        dirty, there are well-known digital processes for ""cleaning"" the image.</p>
                    <p>The horizontal rows of pixels are scanned, and the numbers of black pixels in
                        each row are counted. In principle, the numbers will be near zero for the
                        inter-line gaps, higher for the bodies of text lines, and intermediate for
                        rows corresponding to risers and descenders if any. This lets us locate the
                        pixel rows which delimit the body of each text line; after which, scanning
                        the top, middle and bottom rows of each line to find where red pixels stop
                        and start again allows us to compute the desired measurements. Experiments
                        confirm that this holds true in practice.</p>
                    <p>In essence, then, the processes described here provide a computer solution to
                        Problem B.</p>
                </div>
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            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>References</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">M.</forename>
                                    <surname>Levison</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">The Siting of Fragments</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">Computer Journal</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol"">7</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""issue""/>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">275-277</biblScope>
                                <date when=""1965"">1965</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""bookChapter"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">M.</forename>
                                    <surname>Levison</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">The Computer in Literary Studies</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">A.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">D.</forename>
                                    <surname>Booth</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">Machine Translation</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Amsterdam</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>North-Holland Publishing Company</publisher>
                                <date when=""1967"">1967</date>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">173-194</biblScope>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">M.</forename>
                                    <surname>Levison</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">J.</forename>
                                    <surname>Wu</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">The Jigsaw Puzzle Problem Revisited</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">ACH-ALLC 1999, Charlottesville</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>(Conference abstracts, pp 106-111.)</note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">J.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                                    <surname>Ogden</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">The siting of papyrus fragments: an experimental
                                application of digital computers</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <edition>PhD Thesis 2195</edition>
                            <imprint>
                                <publisher>University of Glasgow</publisher>
                                <date when=""1969"">1969</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"220","3","Encoding of glyph variants - some preliminary experiments","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main""> Encoding of glyph variants -- some preliminary
                    experiments</title>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Christian</forename>
                        <surname>Wittern</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Kyoto University</name>, Institute for Research in
                            Humanities <email>wittern@kanji.zinbun.kyoto-u.ac.jp</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
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                    <head>1. Introduction</head>
                    <p>The character-glyph model, which essentially describes a class-instance
                        relationship between a character and the class of glyphs that can be used to
                        render it, has been the underlying model that made modern character encoding
                        standards possible.</p>
                    <p>While this model has been successfully applied to many scripts, its
                        application to East Asian logographic writing systems has not been
                        satisfying. One of the reasons for this fact is that the model implicitly
                        neglects the importance of differences on the glyph level and does not allow
                        for the encoding of such differences. In East Asia, however, there are a
                        variety of orthographic conventions in place, that do require that specific
                        glyphs can be selected. Since the model did not allow for this, in many
                        cases such glyphs have been encoded as separate characters that would have
                        to be considered merely glyph variants according to the character-glyph
                        model. This fact has largely contributed to the bloat of East Asian
                        character encodings and has severely hampered information processing in this
                        cultural sphere.</p>
                    <p>In this paper, I am presenting research that is designed to solve this
                        problem. It does this by storing information about the relationship of glyph
                        variants, characters and a considerable number of other attributes in a
                        separate database in form of a topic map. Encoded documents are normalized
                        to use only codepoint to represent one character. Information about the
                        intended glyph is separated out and represented with markup constructs. Upon
                        rendering of the document, this can be used to draw the glyphs that where
                        present in the original document. Additionally, this approach allows also
                        alternative renderings according to various requirements. Since information
                        about the usage of these glyphs is stored in the topic map, it can be used
                        to render with the respective glyphs expected by audiences in modern Japan,
                        Taiwan or mainland China, where the typographic and orthographic conventions
                        have widely diverged in the last decades.</p>
                    <p>As a proof of concept, a fragment of a topic map for East Asian logographs
                        has been implemented and used with a small sample of texts to produce output
                        in the described manner. Some details of this process are given below.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>2. Some considerations</head>
                    <p>In a series of experiments, some different rendering processes have been
                        tried. They vary in how the information needed for rendering is deduced and
                        how explicit the markup for this has to be. The two most extreme cases
                            are:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>No explicit information about glyphs that may have variant
                                rendering forms is stored in the texts. All information has to be
                                deduced from contextual information (e.g. the date and place of the
                                origin of a text and the information associated with this in the
                                database) or explicit information about these occurrences in the
                                database.</item>
                            <item>All information for rendering the glyphs is stored in the texts.
                                In this case, no external database is needed.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>The main purpose of the experiments has been to determine a good compromise
                        between these two extremes. What can be considered a good compromise itself,
                        however depends on a range of different factors and will only be possibly
                        established independently for every project, no global recommendations are
                        possible. Any encoding scheme, that attempts to deal with these
                        complexities, will have to take this into account and be better adaptable to
                        the needs of its intended users.</p>
                    <p>In this experiment, the texts are encoded according to the TEI Guidelines
                        (P3/P4) and the database of characters and glyphs is encoded in the topic
                        map XML format, a XML implementation of the ISO 13250 Topic Maps. Both of
                        these are widely used standards in their respective areas and provide the
                        flexibility and expressive power that was needed here.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>3. A topic map of East Asian logographs</head>
                    <p>The topic map of East Asian logographs contains information in the following
                            dimensions:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>abstract character</item>
                            <item>character instances</item>
                            <item>mappings to coded character sets</item>
                            <item>structure of glyph</item>
                            <item>glyph variants</item>
                            <item>time scope</item>
                            <item>location scope</item>
                            <item>meanings</item>
                            <item>equivalent characters</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>This list is not exhaustive, since one of the characteristics of the topic
                        map paradigm is that it is always possible to add basic data types, but
                        reflects which particular character properties proved necessary for the
                        problem at hand. This list will have to be modified as other application
                        domains and areas are explored.</p>
                    <p>It should also be noted, that this list is not flat, but the data are
                        organized in super-class/sub-class and class/instance hierarchies. This will
                        be made more explicit in the presentation.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>4. The rendering process</head>
                    <p>The rendering process requires a two pass processing.</p>
                    <p>In a first pass, the rendering process will read the text and determine which
                        characters require special treatment. These might be marked as such in the
                        text, or this information might depend on parameters passed to the rendering
                        process.</p>
                    <p>After information about which characters occur in the text is available In a
                        first step, the rendering process has to read the topic map and store the
                        information contained in there in tables that will be accessed in the later
                        stages of the rendering process. What information is extracted from the
                        topic map depends on the desired form of rendering.</p>

                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>5. Conclusions </head>
                    <p>Since the character encoding lacked the necessary differentiation of
                        characters and glyphs and appropriate mechanisms to access them, an
                        additional layer of information has been created in form of a topic map that
                        mediates between the characters that are encoded in the document and the
                        rendering of these characters with instances of glyphs. This allows for the
                        additional feature of rendering according to various user requirements, that
                        otherwise would involve costly and error prone conversions on the character
                        encoding level. It thus opens a new prospect for the information processing
                        of East Asian texts. It should be noted however, that this process
                        introduces the abstraction from the concrete glyph instance to the
                        underlying character, which is an act of interpretation that might introduce
                        errors.</p>
                    <p>The experiments reported here might also provide valuable input for a
                        revision of the Writing System Declaration (WSD) in TEI, which currently
                        does not support such fine-grained and flexible encoding of glyph
                        differences.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>Bibliography</head>
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                    </biblStruct>
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                            <title level=""u"">Presentation at the Electronic Buddhist Text Initiatvie
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                                held at the Academia Sinica June 29 to July 1, 2000 in Taipei</title>
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                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                        <surname>Proffitt</surname>
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                            <email>mgp@notes.rlg.org</email>
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                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Birgit</forename>
                        <surname>Stehno</surname>
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                            <email/>
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                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Alexander</forename>
                        <surname>Egger</surname>
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                            <email>alex@sbox.tu-graz.ac.at</email>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Thornton</forename>
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                    <p>METS is a generalized metadata framework, developed to encode the structural
                        metadata for objects within a digital library and related descriptive and
                        administrative metadata. Those currently involved with or planning
                        digitization will want to hear about METS, which can help to structure data
                        for presentation and/or archiving.</p>
                    <p>Expressed using the XML schema language of the World Wide Web Consortium,
                        METS provides for the responsible management and transfer of digital library
                        objects by bundling and storing appropriate metadata along with the digital
                        objects. The use of a single, flexible means of encoding can simplify both
                        the exchange of objects between repositories and the development of software
                        tools for search and display of those objects. Additionally, METS encoding
                        will provide a coherent means for archiving digital objects and their
                        metadata. The METS initiative has two major components. On the technical
                        side, the initiative seeks to provide a single, standard mechanism for
                        encoding all forms of metadata for digital library objects. On the
                        organizational side, the group looks towards developing mechanisms for
                        maintenance and further development of the format, including establishing a
                        METS testbed and METS tools.</p>
                    <p>The first paper will provide a basic introduction to METS and will outline
                        the objectives and progress and of the METS initiative to date. The second
                        two papers will be reports from the field. Each project will give
                        organizational background and context to their work, and will explain how
                        METS may help the projects meet their objectives.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>Introduction to METS</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Merrilee Proffitt</p>
                        <div>
                            <div>
                                <p>METS is a generalized metadata framework, developed to encode the
                                    structural metadata for objects within a digital library and
                                    related descriptive and administrative metadata. METS provides
                                    for the responsible management and transfer of digital library
                                    objects by bundling and storing appropriate metadata along with
                                    the digital objects.</p>
                                <p>METS is expressed using XML, which means that METS data is stored
                                    according to platform and software independent encoding
                                    standards, such as UTF-8 (Unicode), ISO-8859-1, etc. One
                                    important application of METS may be as an implementation of the
                                    Open Archival Information System (OAIS) reference model and as
                                    such can function as a Submission Information Package (SIP) for
                                    use as a transfer syntax; a Dissemination Information Package
                                    (DIP) for display or other applications; and an Archival
                                    Information Package (AIP) for storing and managing information
                                    internally.</p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>Background</head>
                                <p>METS had its beginnings as a project that identified metadata and
                                    architecture problems as an area of critical need for digital
                                    libraries. As more and more institutions created digital images
                                    and other files, there was growing concern about sensible
                                    storage for the digital objects (defined as digital files plus
                                    associated metadata). It was the beginning of a serious
                                    discussion, tying together many important aspects of digital
                                    library research. The Making of America 2 (MOA2) project
                                    sponsored by the Digital Library Federation (DLF) in the early
                                    stages and funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities
                                    was the project that resulted from these discussions. New York
                                    Public Library and the libraries of Cornell, Penn State, and
                                    Stanford collaborated under the leadership of the University of
                                    California, Berkeley Library, contributing images and data
                                    towards an investigation of structural and administrative
                                    metadata for digital objects. The MOA2 Document Type Definition
                                    (DTD), which was the direct predecessor of METS, was developed
                                    for the MOA2 project to encapsulate what were then seen as the
                                    required metadata elements.</p>
                                <p>The MOA2 project was completed in early 2000, the Council on
                                    Library and Information Resources (CLIR) published the group's
                                    findings, and the MOA2 DTD was circulated for assessment and
                                    discussion. While MOA2 aroused considerable interest within the
                                    library community, the MOA2 DTD was too restrictive in some
                                    respects and lacked some basic functionality, especially for
                                    time-based media such as audio and video. A meeting was held in
                                    February 2001 for the various parties interested in advancing
                                    the MOA2 DTD to the next stage. Following this meeting, METS was
                                    born.</p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>The METS Initiative: Technical Underpinnings</head>
                                <p>The technical component of the METS initiative has completed a
                                    draft schema for the encoding format and made it publicly
                                    available for review. The METS schema tries to support the dual
                                    and sometimes competing requirements of ensuring
                                    interoperability and exchange of documents between different
                                    institutions while also allowing for significant flexibility in
                                    local practice with regards to descriptive and administrative
                                    metadata standards.</p>
                                <p>METS has a very simple structure with just four major components:
                                    descriptive metadata, administrative metadata, file inventory,
                                    and structural map. Only the file inventory and structural map
                                    are required.<list type=""bulleted"">
                                        <item>The descriptive metadata is optional. A METS object
                                            can contain a Metadata Reference or a Metadata Wrapper.
                                            A Metadata Reference is a link to external descriptive
                                            metadata. A Metadata Wrapper is for descriptive metadata
                                            that is internal to the METS object, as either Base64
                                            encoded binary data or XML. METS does not require a
                                            particular scheme for description, so the implementer
                                            can choose the most appropriate descriptive scheme.</item>
                                        <item>The administrative metadata, also optional, has four
                                            optional subcomponents for technical metadata, rights
                                            metadata, source metadata, and preservation metadata.
                                            Each of these subsections act like the descriptive
                                            section in that the metadata can be encoded (""wrapped"")
                                            within the METS document or pointed to in an external
                                            location (""referenced"").</item>
                                        <item>The file inventory allows for listing all the files
                                            associated with a digital object. Files can be grouped;
                                            some groupings might include master files, thumbnails,
                                            etc. The files may be pointed to or can be contained
                                            internally as Base64 encoded binary data.</item>
                                        <item>The structural map forms a simple or complex tree
                                            structure that describes the digital object. The
                                            structural map permits the definition of a digital
                                            object that has either parallel or sequential modes and
                                            also allows for the coding of particular regions or
                                            zones of a file as part of the document.</item>
                                    </list></p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>The METS Initiative: Organizational</head>
                                <p>The standard is currently maintained in the Network Development
                                    and MARC Standards Office of the Library of Congress. Having
                                    played a key role in moving this initiative forward and serving
                                    as the work coordinator, the DLF has helped to bring the METS
                                    work to the forefront. RLG has recently taken over as the new
                                    coordinator. This is a natural step for a number of reasons. The
                                    METS standard will be applicable to RLG's member community of
                                    libraries, museums, archives, and historical societies. METS
                                    fits in nicely with much of RLG's ongoing work in digital
                                    preservation. Finally, RLG has always advocated community
                                    standards such as EAD and Z39.50, and METS is viewed as such a
                                    standard. For the next six to eight months, in partnership with
                                    the METS editorial board, RLG will continue the process of
                                    education, information dissemination, and gathering of feedback
                                    on METS. The process of review and evaluation based on use will
                                    continue during this time.</p>
                            </div>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>References</head>
                        <listBibl>
                            <biblStruct>
                                <monogr>
                                    <title level=""u"">METS homepage:</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace/>
                                        <publisher/>
                                        <date/>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                                <note>
                                    <ptr target=""http://www.loc.gov/standards/mets""/>
                                </note>
                            </biblStruct>
                            <biblStruct>
                                <monogr>
                                    <title level=""u"">MOA2 homepage:</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace/>
                                        <publisher/>
                                        <date/>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                                <note>
                                    <ptr target=""http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/MOA2""/>
                                </note>
                            </biblStruct>
                            <biblStruct>
                                <monogr>
                                    <title level=""u"">DLF homepage:</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace/>
                                        <publisher/>
                                        <date/>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                                <note>
                                    <ptr target=""http://www.diglib.org/""/>
                                </note>
                            </biblStruct>
                            <biblStruct>
                                <monogr>
                                    <title level=""u"">RLG homepage:</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace/>
                                        <publisher/>
                                        <date/>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                                <note>
                                    <ptr target=""http://www.rlg.org/""/>
                                </note>
                            </biblStruct>
                            <biblStruct>
                                <monogr>
                                    <title level=""u"">OAIS:</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace/>
                                        <publisher/>
                                        <date/>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                                <note>
                                    <ptr
                                        target=""http://ssdoo.gsfc.nasa.gov/nost/isoas/ref_model.html""
                                    />
                                </note>
                            </biblStruct>
                            <biblStruct type=""book"">
                                <monogr>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">B.</forename>
                                            <surname>Hurley</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </author>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">J.</forename>
                                            <surname>Price-Wilkin</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </author>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">M.</forename>
                                            <surname>Proffitt</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </author>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">H.</forename>
                                            <surname>Besser</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </author>
                                    <title level=""m"">The Making of America II Testbed Project: A
                                        Digital Library Service Model</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace/>
                                        <publisher>CLIR</publisher>
                                        <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                                <note>Also availalbe at: <ptr
                                        target=""http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub87/contents.html""
                                    /></note>
                            </biblStruct>
                        </listBibl>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>METAe and AUTOMATED ENCODING of DIGITIZED TEXTS</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Birgit Stehno</p>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Alexander Egger</p>
                        <div>
                            <div>
                                <p>METAe is a research and development project co-funded by the
                                    European commission (5th Framework, IST Programme, area ""Digital
                                    Heritage and Cultural Content"") and aims at the development of
                                    an application software for digital archives and libraries. This
                                    software package, the METAe-engine, will automate the structural
                                    encoding of digitized material by introducing layout and
                                    document analysis as basic features. In analogy to OCR engines,
                                    where pure text is generated from image files, the METAe engine
                                    will extract layout and logical elements such as page numbers,
                                    pictures, captions, titles, subtitles, footnotes and document
                                    structures such as prefaces, chapters, subchapters, issues,
                                    contributions, etc. by analyzing the digitized pages of printed
                                    documents. The output of the METAe engine will be an 'archival
                                    information package' (OAIS) - ready for further processing and
                                    integration into digital library applications.</p>
                                <p>This approach should guarantee that a huge amount of work which
                                    up to now has to be done manually will be done automatically. A
                                    central issue related to automated document understanding is the
                                    choice of the mark-up language. As the METAe project aims to
                                    produce a highly flexible output, existing guidelines and
                                    standards have been analyzed with regard to the needs of
                                    automated metadata capturing and encoding. The team decided to
                                    follow the METS working group.</p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>Structural mark-up with automated layout analysis and document
                                    understanding</head>
                                <p>In contrast to text encoding performed by humans, automated
                                    capturing of structural metadata, i.e. the automated recognition
                                    of the physical and logical structure, requires not only a
                                    representation model (DTD), but also a recognition model which
                                    supports the automated identification of logical elements such
                                    as titles, chapters, footnotes, etc. (Cfr. Brugger, 1998; Dori
                                    et al., 2000, p. 424f.) As up to now artificial intelligence is
                                    not able to identify logical units by understanding their
                                    textual contents, recognition models have to represent rules and
                                    principles which allow the extraction of logical units on the
                                    basis of their component elements, of their physical (layout)
                                    characteristics and their syntactic relations. Having this
                                    information encoded in a model, the physical structure (physical
                                    blocks and sets of blocks) of a scanned image can be mapped onto
                                    the logical one.</p>
                                <p>The model used in the METAe project has been generated by hand on
                                    the basis of a detailed analysis of monographs and journals and
                                    is represented by 'Augmented Transition Networks' (Woods, 1970),
                                    a formal grammar used normally within the field of natural
                                    language parsing. (Stehno/Retti).</p>
                                <p>Since TEI is conceived as a ""common encoding scheme for complex
                                    textual structures"" meeting ""the varied encoding requirements of
                                    any discipline or application"" (Sperberg-McQueen/Burnard, 1999)
                                    our plan was to integrate the TEI encoding scheme in our
                                    recognition model as well as in the presentation model. However,
                                    this approach turned out to be problematic, since TEI - though
                                    it represents an advanced mark-up language - is not designed for
                                    automated document understanding and encoding. TEI offers just a
                                    very inexplicit set of rules for the hierarchical structuring of
                                    the elements.</p>
                                <p>The METAe engine creates an extensive set of descriptive and
                                    administrative metadata on the document and its parts. A lot of
                                    different metadata standards (e.g. MARC, Dublin Core, or DIG35)
                                    will be used depending on the type of metadata and on the kind
                                    of element the metadata is linked to. TEI provides the
                                    possibility of adding metadata, mostly bibliographic metadata,
                                    in the TEI header as well as in the attributes of some of its
                                    elements. For the purpose of METAe the set of elements and
                                    attributes of TEI is not extensive enough. The METAe engine
                                    requires the possibility to add a set of descriptive and
                                    administrative metadata in any metadata format to any of the
                                    elements created by the engine.</p>
                                <p>Moreover TEI never was designed to encode layout characteristics
                                    and physical structure of printed objects in a detailed and
                                    exhaustive way. By the help of the 'rend'-attributes,
                                    typographical information like &lt;head
                                    rend='italics'&gt; can be encoded in some cases, but the
                                    detailed description of pages, page spaces, text blocks and
                                    lines or strings is not possible. Within automated document
                                    analysis and understanding, all this physical information is
                                    available because it is needed for the identification of logical
                                    units. E.g., titles of different levels nearly always are
                                    expressed by different font styles and sizes, margin notes
                                    appear on the outer margin of pages, the font size of epigraphs
                                    is smaller than the default one, etc. Once disposing of this
                                    information, it should be encoded and thus conserved, in order
                                    to allow the recoverability of the original respectively an
                                    electronic representation which presents the source text with
                                    high fidelity.</p>
                                <p>Considering these arguments, we decided to use the METS schema
                                    within the METAe project. The METS schema allows to encode the
                                    bibliographical, administrative and structural metadata
                                    separately providing the possibility to encode the physical as
                                    well as the logical structure within the 'structural maps'. By
                                    this way it is possible to describe the hierarchical layout of
                                    each page, i.e. the decomposition of a page into page spaces
                                    (print space and outer/inner/top/bottom margin), and physical
                                    blocks (text/image/composed blocks). In the METAe project this
                                    information is assembled in an XML file named ""ALTO"" ('Analysed
                                    layout and text object'). The physical and logical structures
                                    are encoded by linking and grouping layout elements out of the
                                    ALO file using 'div' tags of the structural maps. The physical
                                    structure is linked also to the image files of the pages. Each
                                    physical and logical element can be assigned an arbitrary set of
                                    metadata.</p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>METAe: Organizational</head>
                                <p>The METAe project comprises 14 partners from Europe and the US
                                    among them universities, libraries, and software companies. The
                                    METAe engine will be a collaborative product with input from all
                                    partners. The software development is carried out by the German
                                    software company CCS and the University of Florence. The
                                    University of Innsbruck is responsible for the recognition model
                                    and the structural mark-up. A first prototype of the METAe
                                    engine will be available for demonstration purposes in spring
                                    2002.</p>
                            </div>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>References</head>
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                                <monogr>
                                    <author>
                                        <name type=""org"">Library of Congress, Network Development
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                                </monogr>
                                <note><ptr
                                        target=""http://www.loc.gov/marc/bibliographic/ecbdhome.html""
                                    /> (visited 9/11/2001)</note>
                            </biblStruct>
                            <biblStruct>
                                <monogr>
                                    <title level=""u"">METAe Project, University of Innsbruck:</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace/>
                                        <publisher/>
                                        <date/>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                                <note><ptr target=""http://METAe.uibk.ac.at/ ""/> (visited
                                12/11/2001)</note>
                            </biblStruct>
                            <biblStruct>
                                <monogr>
                                    <title level=""u"">METS. Official homepage at the Library of
                                        Congress:</title>
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                                <note><ptr target=""http://www.loc.gov/standards/mets/""/> (visited
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                                <monogr>
                                    <editor>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">C.</forename>
                                            <forename type=""middle"">M.</forename>
                                            <surname>Sperberg-McQueen</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </editor>
                                    <editor>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Lou</forename>
                                            <surname>Burnard</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </editor>
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                                        Computing (ALLC) Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and
                                        Interchange. TEI P3</title>
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                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace>Chicago, Oxford</pubPlace>
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                                        <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                                <note><ptr target=""http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/index.htm""/>
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                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">B.</forename>
                                            <surname>Stehno</surname>
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                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">G.</forename>
                                            <surname>Retti</surname>
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                                    <title level=""a"">Modelling the logical structure of books and
                                        journals using augmented transition network grammars</title>
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                                    <title level=""j""/>
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                                            <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                                            <surname>Woods</surname>
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                                    </author>
                                    <title level=""a"">Transition Network Grammars for Natural
                                        Language Analysis</title>
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                                    <title level=""j"">Communications of the ACM</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <biblScope type=""vol"">13</biblScope>
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                                        <date when=""1970"">1970</date>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                            </biblStruct>
                        </listBibl>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>METS and FEDORA</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Thornton Staples</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>The University of Virginia Library has been building digital
                                collections since 1992. We have amassed a large collection that
                                includes a variety of SGML encoded etexts, digital still images,
                                video and audio files, and social science and geographic data sets
                                that are being served to the public from a collection of independent
                                web sites that have very little cross-integration.</p>
                            <p>We began searching in 1998 for a digital library management system
                                that could effectively meet both our current and future digital
                                content needs. Like many other libraries, we initially sought a
                                vertical vendor solution that provided a complete, self-contained
                                package for delivering and managing all digital content needs.
                                Finding nothing available that would meet our needs, we decided to
                                embark on an in-house development effort. Modularity and use of
                                open-system standards is fundamental to our design strategy. Such
                                modularity is essential for future evolution through component
                                replacement. We are convinced that an object-oriented design is most
                                appropriate, allowing us maximum flexibility, scalability and,
                                eventually, interoperability with other repositories. We are also
                                convinced that the Library should be providing tools to our users to
                                give them sophisticated access to our collections and to help them
                                manage their own collections.</p>
                            <p>In the summer of 1999, early in our design process, we discovered a
                                paper about the Flexible Extensible Digital Object Repository
                                Architecture (FEDORA) written by Carl Lagoze and Sandra Payette at
                                Cornell's Digital Library Research Group, describing the
                                architecture that they had designed. FEDORA is a modular
                                architecture built on the principle that interoperability and
                                extensibility is best achieved by the clean separation of data,
                                interfaces, and mechanisms (i.e., executable programs). A FEDORA
                                Repository provides a general-purpose management layer for digital
                                objects. In their simplest form, digital objects are containers that
                                aggregate mime-typed streams of data (e.g., digital images, XML
                                files, metadata), known as datastreams. It should be noted that
                                datastreams can be references to external data - either
                                disseminations of other FEDORA digital objects, or service requests
                                to remote data sources. This capability allows FEDORA digital
                                objects to serve as aggregators and value-added surrogates for
                                existing on-line digital content.</p>
                            <p>In addition to behaving in a generic manner, digital objects must be
                                able to mirror real-world entities by providing access methods that
                                make an object behave in a content-specific manner. For example, a
                                natural behavior for a book would be ""Get Table of Contents."" FEDORA
                                allows the association of rich and extensible behaviors with digital
                                objects by ""plugging in"" generic components known as disseminators.
                                Each disseminator aggregates references to: (1) a formally defined
                                behavior interface that defines a set of methods for a particular
                                kind of digital library resource (e.g. a Book interface), (2) an
                                executable mechanism that runs these methods, and (3) the
                                datastreams that the execution mechanism should use to fulfill
                                specific method requests. These interfaces and mechanisms can,
                                themselves, be stored as digital objects, laying the foundation for
                                unlimited extensibility of the architecture.</p>
                            <p>The Digital Library Research and Development group implemented the
                                FEDORA architecture, using an SQL database and a single Java
                                servlet. We implemented a variety of different testbeds, ultimately
                                scale-testing a repository with 10,000,000 objects in it, simulating
                                a very heavy user load, with excellent results. In September of 2001
                                we received a grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation that will
                                enable the University of Virginia Library, in collaboration with
                                Cornell University, to build a sophisticated digital object
                                repository system based on FEDORA that can be the basis for a
                                variety of information management schemes.</p>
                            <p>We will form two teams to carry out this project. First, a
                                development team composed of people from Virginia and Cornell that
                                will pursue a three-phase project with the goal of producing an
                                open-source reference implementation, which will be available to
                                other libraries and practitioners as they construct digital library
                                systems. The first phase involves taking a strong proof of concept
                                (already done) and producing a package that can be distributed and
                                used in a variety of settings. The later phases will extend system
                                by adding important functions that a sophisticated digital library
                                system needs.</p>
                            <p>The second team will deploy the software package at each of their own
                                sites, using it to deliver testbeds of their own digital resources.
                                That group includes: the Digital Library group at Indiana
                                University; the Humanities Computing group at New York University;
                                the Digital Collections and Archives Department at Tufts University;
                                the Humanities Computing group at Kings College, London; the Refugee
                                Studies Center at Oxford University; and the Motion Picture
                                Broadcasting and Recorded Sound Division at the Library of Congress;
                                and a library/academic computing team from Northwestern University.</p>
                            <p>As the development team started to review the Virginia
                                implementation, we discussed the possibility of building the objects
                                as XML files, then using these files to build the necessary indexes
                                in SQL databases. By doing this we are able to build the management
                                interface against the XML, simplifying that effort, while separating
                                the backend of the repository to make it easy to experiment with
                                other indexing schemes. Ultimately, that should make it easy for us
                                to experiment with a full-XML based repository, which we suspect
                                will allow us to scale up to required levels.</p>
                            <p>As we started to redesign the implementation, we looked at the
                                Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard (METS) schema to see if
                                it would work for describing the objects. It turned out that most of
                                what we needed to describe a FEDORA object was readily available in
                                METS. The only thing really missing was a way to handle the
                                disseminators that FEDORA uses to give the object behaviors. We made
                                a proposal to the METS working group that resulted in a new
                                top-level section being added for behavioral metadata that will be
                                optional. That section can be used to associate an object with a
                                behavior definition object and a corresponding behavior mechanism
                                object. This presentation will discuss the use of METS to build a
                                variety of different types of FEDORA objects, including the two
                                types of behavior objects.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                </div>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Barbara</forename>
                        <surname>Arnold</surname>
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                <div>
                    <p>Analysing the language of a literary text is a complex undertaking. In order
                        to obtain a complete survey of the literary idiolect of a particular writer,
                        as defined by his use of individual word and syntactic style, author
                        dictionaries have proved to be a reliable and informative source of data.
                        Such data, in the form of a corpus, lends itself to analytical
                        interpretation by providing a basis for literary and linguistic exegesis.
                        This presentation will introduce a project, namely the construction of a
                        dictionary based on a German novel of the early 19th century, '<title
                            level=""m"">Nachtwachen von Bonaventura</title>' (<title level=""m"">Night
                            Watches of Bonaventura</title>'). Various aspects of computer-based
                        research in author lexicography will be discussed, focussing on statistical
                        methods that can be used as a basis for extracting characteristic features
                        of style and lexis.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>1. Preliminary notes</head>
                    <p>The creation of a dictionary based on the '<title level=""m"">Night Watches of
                            Bonaventura</title>' presented itself as a rewarding and challenging
                        task for a number of reasons. Firstly, it would make a contribution to the
                        rather neglected area of author lexicography in general (Mattausch 1990,
                        1558). Secondly, because a dictionary of this particular text has not
                        previously been compiled, although the novel is widely considered to be a
                        valuable source for literary, linguistic and computational research. A
                        dictionary of the '<title level=""m"">Night Watches</title>' appeared able to
                        serve all of these purposes simultaneously. Being a systematically ordered
                        collection of language material and with its XML-encoded structure, the
                        lexicon is intended to be a prototype example of the capabilities of
                        text-based computing in the humanities, offering easy access to semantic
                        definitions as well as to a set of sense relations.</p>
                    <p>Following decades of speculation concerning authorship of the novel, which
                        was published under the pseudonym 'Bonaventura' in 1804, it can now be taken
                        as certain that August Klingemann, who had formerly been regarded as a
                        rather marginal figure in German Romanticism, indeed wrote the '<title
                            level=""m"">Night Watches</title>'. The techniques employed to unlock the
                        puzzle of who wrote as 'Bonaventura' ranged from frequency counts (Fleig
                        1985) to sophisticated computer-aided approaches (Wickmann 1974).
                        Irrefutable evidence of Klingemann's authorship emerged when an autograph
                        originating from him was found in 1987, citing the '<title level=""m"">Night
                            Watches</title>' among his other works (Haag 1987). Knowing who
                        'Bonaventura' really was marked the beginning of a new epoch in research on
                        the novel. Now it is the text itself that attracts scholars, as one of the
                        most recent publications indicates (Kaminski 2001).</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>2. Crunching numbers in the ‘<title level=""m"">Night Watches of
                            Bonaventura</title>’</head>
                    <p>Compiling a dictionary and processing items of vocabulary lexicographically
                        both require one simple question to be resolved at the very outset: ""What is
                        a word?"" Defining the term 'word' as a primitive carrier of meaning that
                        exists independently of the syntactical structure (Duden-Grammatik 1998,
                        870), is certainly an attractive assumption, but it provides no help in
                        carried out computer-aided text analysis for a language like German, which
                        is extraordinarily rich in displaying phenomena such as separable prefixes
                        that appear as ""words"" in the data file but are not independent of other
                        elements of the sentence.</p>
                    <p>Neither is it clear whether abbreviations, numbers or symbols such as Greek
                        letters, which are employed quite frequently throughout the novel, ought to
                        be treated as other lemmata or extracted from the word list and presented in
                        an appendix. Equally troublesome is the problem of proper names. One wonders
                        whether proper names are proper words at all or whether their status within
                        the system of language is somewhat different as they refer to individuals
                        rather than general ideas (Lerner/Zimmermann 1991, 349).</p>
                    <p>Reviewing the statistical aspects of the corpus material leads to some
                        fascinating conclusions about the essential ingredients of a literary text.
                        ""Crunching numbers"" in Bonaventura's 16 '<title level=""m"">Night
                            Watches</title>', the 16 chapters in which the novel is organized, works
                        on several levels. Counting all the separate ""word"" units within each
                        sentence produces a total of 38,785 tokens to be identified by a
                        word-processing programme. Using Tustep to generate a Kwic-Index of these
                        parts of speech produces a list of 8,522 types. This number shrinks again
                        after having reduced the inflected word forms to their canonical form. This
                        means that we can reduce the '<title level=""m"">Night Watches</title>' to a
                        list of 5739 lemmata in terms of our dictionary.</p>
                    <p>Not all words appear with equal frequency in the novel. Not surprisingly are
                        there more contextual occurrences of articles, conjunctions and auxiliary
                        verbs than of nouns and other mere grammatical words. With a total number of
                        6,692 occurrences for all the nouns they only form 17.25% of the whole
                        novel, while this number is easily topped just by counting all the
                        occurrences for the definite articles <emph rend=""italics"">der, die,
                            das</emph> (3,576 occurrences), the conjunction <emph rend=""italics""
                            >und</emph> (1,689 occurrences) and the pronouns <emph rend=""italics""
                            >er, sie, es</emph>(1,575 occurrences).</p>
                    <p>Although these functional words clearly dominate the text, their semantic
                        meaning remains mainly on the surface. Focussing on the most frequent nouns
                        on the other hand is much more rewarding in terms of meaning and
                        interpretational value. A survey such as that given in figure 1 produces a
                        puzzling effect: <emph rend=""italics"">Mensch</emph> ('human being'; 83
                        occurrences), <emph rend=""italics"">Teufel</emph> ('devil'; 56 occurrences), <emph rend=""italics""
                            >Nacht</emph> ('night'; 53 occurrences), <emph rend=""italics""
                            >Kopf</emph> ('head'; 51 occurrences), <emph rend=""italics"">Hand</emph>
                        ('hand'; 50 occurrences), <emph rend=""italics"">Zeit</emph> ('time'; 50
                        occurrences), <emph rend=""italics"">Gott</emph> ('god'; 49 occurrences),
                            <emph rend=""italics"">Himmel</emph> ('heaven/sky'; 49 occurrences), <emph
                            rend=""italics"">Liebe</emph> ('love'; 47 occurrences) and <emph
                            rend=""italics"">Tod</emph> ('death'; 43 occurrences) are only ten
                        different types, but they seem to be enough to express the content of the
                            '<title level=""m"">Night Watches</title>', disregarding the rest of the
                        novel.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <head>Figure 1: frequency count of nouns </head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>Another surprising figure is the percentage of those words that appear only
                        once in the whole of the text: 54.8% of all lemmata are employed only once
                        throughout the novel, leaving 3,146 entries in the dictionary with single
                        occurrences.</p>
                    <p>Some words show a significantly high number of occurrences concentrated in
                        certain '<title level=""m"">Night Watches</title>' only. The verb <emph
                            rend=""italics"">lieben</emph> ('to love') for instance occurs 30 times
                        throughout the whole of the novel, with an average number of zero to four
                        occurrences per chapter. Although the semantics of 'love' are implicitly
                        dealt with in almost each '<title level=""m"">Night Watch</title>', there is
                        only one statistical peak in chapter XIV with 12 references close together.
                        The antonymic <emph rend=""italics"">hassen</emph> ('to hate') on the other
                        hand appears only 12 times showing no significant peak at all (figure
                        2).</p>
                    <p>Retrieving this sort of information might most conveniently be supported by a
                        computational programme, e.g. Tom Horton's <emph rend=""italics""
                            >WordCluster</emph> ( <ptr
                            target=""http://www.cs.virginia.edu/~horton/cs494/examples/wordcluster/wdc/readme.txt""
                        />) as the method applied so far, despite using Tustep, still requires
                        several repetitive procedural actions and quite a considerable amount of
                        tedious manual interferences.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <head>figure 2: distributional relations of 'lieben / Liebe - hassen / Hass
                            '</head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>Expressing lexical material in terms of such precise statistics contributes
                        to a deeper understanding of what poetic texts consist of. For the '<title
                            level=""m"">Night Watches</title>' surveys like these become even more
                        relevant, especially as doubts are still expressed as to the work's
                        authorship. Assuming that Klingemann was involved in authorship, one recent
                        publication nevertheless suggests that some parts might originate from
                        another writer, Clemens Brentano (Braeuer-Ewers 1995, 13).
                        Computer-generated comparative studies of a variety of narrative prose
                        showing distributional relations like the above may certainly help to
                        develop a further insight into the concept of an 'idiolectal fingerprint'
                        (Cluett 1976).</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>3. Outlook</head>
                    <p>Analysing frequency counts and distributional relations are certainly not the
                        only way in which a dictionary of Klingemann's '<title level=""m"">Night
                            Watches of Bonaventura</title>' can be used in a linguistic context. As
                        an illustrative article (figure 3) indicates, the dictionary can be used for
                        different purposes.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <head>figure 3: example of a dictionary article</head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>Besides lemma, word class, frequency, definition and contextual reference
                        there is a sophisticated system of cross-references at the bottom of each
                        entry. Here hints on word-formation are given and sense-related pointers
                        create a network structure of meanings. Each article is generated by
                        consulting a number of lexicographical reference works. Comparing the
                        semantic commentaries of dictionaries published during the 18th and 19th
                        century (Adelung 1793-1801; Campe 1807-11; Grimm 1854-1961) with a reliable
                        reference work of contemporary German (Duden 1999) leads to insights into
                        the history of words, including aspects of lexicalisation and changes in
                        meaning and usage.</p>
                    <p>The dictionary on the ‘<title level=""m"">Night Watches of Bonaventura</title>’
                        is just one part of a larger project dealing with August Klingemann. As
                        mentioned above linguistic research has to a great extent concentrated on
                        isolating typical idiolectal ways of expression within the novel for the
                        purpose of proving authorship. Now that we know its author it makes sense to
                        compare the vocabulary employed in the ‘<title level=""m"">Night
                            Watches</title>’ to that of other items of written work left by
                        Klingemann. The application of IT facilities may provide interesting
                        insights into these, too, pointing the way to further potential of
                        computer-aided research in the field of author lexicography.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
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                <p>By the expansion of Internet, more and more problems are solved by using the
                    computer. During these operations we navigate the Net using qvasi only visual
                    and written informations. This tendency is likely to change nowadays; the
                    occurance of pages including complete multimedial applications are more
                    frequent. So we can say, that the Internet is ready for audio-visual contact.
                    Our application is based on this fact. The main idea is, making an animation
                    from a synthetized voice and from a faceimage. Faceimages are prerecorded
                    images. Every faceimage is typical of a set of voices. For this method we can
                    reduce the number of images by classifiing the voices. A set of voices is
                    associated with a faceimage. So a couple of dozen faceimages are enough for the
                    application. The synthetized voice uses the ""voiceengine"" provided by the actual
                    computer (for example: IBM ViaVoice). To every voice in the voicestream we
                    corresponde a suitable faceimage. The synchronisation of these two
                    precesses(changing images, synthetizing) gives a video-like effect. The amin
                    point of this application is to accentuate special informations by reaching the
                    audiance via two channels, which is more effective than using single one. The
                    system is based completly on Java technology, which makes the application
                    compatible on any plattforms. The application works an all hardware
                    specifications and operating systems where Java Virtual Machine is provided
                    without any change.</p>
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                        <surname>Ben-Porat</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">Tel Aviv University</name>
                            <email>zivabp@post.tau.ac.il</email>
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                    <p>Experts in Arts and Humanities form a community with specialist knowledge,
                        but are at a disadvantage compared with ""hard science"" because the Arts and
                        Humanities community often lacks the technological background as well as the
                        software tools required to reach their potential audiences with today's
                        communication infrastructure. The CULTOS project addresses this need by
                        focusing on the development of multimedia authoring tools for the
                        construction of knowledge enhanced multimedia objects. The project is unique
                        in its balanced collaboration between culture ─ mainly literature and art -
                        researchers and technologies. This collaboration provides ample opportunity
                        to study ─ and hopefully resolve - the problematics of ""translating"" complex
                        content dependent phenomena into the language of computation, as well as the
                        problematics of training humanistic scholars in the use of software tools
                        and of providing them with easy to use tools and attractive interfaces. The
                        need for such authoring tools arose when a group of literary scholars came
                        up with the idea of constructing a digital multimedia intertextual library.
                        The first part of the paper will accordingly deal with the vision underlying
                        the proposed library and the second part will deal with the tools needed to
                        support such kind of library.</p>
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                <div>
                    <head>INTRODUCTION</head>
                    <p>The idea of a digital multimedia intertextual library is situated within the
                        theoretical position that there is a need to reconstruct ─ or, at least, to
                        re-present and make newly accessible - the European literary and artistic
                        canons. The canons are obviously treated not as the obsolete monuments of
                        particular cultural politics, but as one of several tools developed by
                        Western Culture (presumably other cultures as well) in order to
                        counterbalance the inevitability of the constant flattening of the semantic
                        content of semiotic systems. For example, many ""native speakers"" of western
                        culture can use the phrase ""Achilles'heel"" properly without remembering
                        (i.e. cognitively activating) the relevant myth. Culture has kept the myth
                        alive in two major ways: by compressing it into a linguistic unit, and by
                        making it part of its artistic canons, producing a large number of visual
                        representations, teaching it in schools, or, by bestowing prestige on those
                        who know it. Most of these tools no longer exist. But, it will be argued,
                        open hypermedia [6] and Semantic Web technology [2] provides us with new
                        means of keeping semantic depth alive in the present and for the future.</p>
                    <p>More specifically, the library aims at explicating intertextual relationships
                        [1]. Major cultural past artefacts still function in contemporary culture,
                        be it ""high"" or ""low"", popular or mass-media, verbal or non-verbal in the
                        form of inter-textual triggers. Explicitly defined inter-textual relations
                        (such as parody, quotation, amplification, opposition, etc.), traced back
                        from contemporary culture, allow us to go beyond a conventional study of
                        topoi and show the relations obtaining between texts that express different
                        themes in different media of different cultural status at any given
                        time.</p>
                    <p>For the users (both literature experts and everyday users), a navigable
                        thread constructed on the basis of such relations, linking the most
                        memorable ─ hence active - textual segments, presents the complex historical
                        relations in a manner that is easily accessible. It may have the ""text""
                        appeal that long realistic novels, classical tragedies, and long venerated
                        museum pieces have lost. Furthermore, the backward movement from present
                        texts in all media to past canonic milestones and the collaborative dynamic
                        reconstruction of the European canon will embody the complex structure of
                        European cultural identity (common core and independent national features)
                        and will provide an important database for literary and cultural studies.</p>
                    <p>Such an ambitious plan requires careful planning and must begin in small
                        steps. In particular, over the next couple of years we plan to develop and
                        evaluate the tools for literature experts to allow them to
                        (semi-)automatically express interextual relationships. Based on these
                        tools, in a further step a libraries' infrastructure will be built so that
                        finally a digital representation of the canon can be established.</p>
                    <p>The remainder of this paper specifies the requirements for the tools to be
                        developed within its framework. We finish with a description of the current
                        status and ongoing work.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>PREREQUISITES FOR KNOWLEDGE AWARE MULTIMEDIA AUTHORING TOOLS</head>
                    <div>
                        <head>Digital Content</head>
                        <p>For intertextual threads to be created (automatically or manually), we
                            need digital access to those works which will be interlinked. More
                            specifically, we need at least a digital reference (such as a
                            description about an artefact). The library of explicated intertextual
                            threads must either keep these contents in some central repository, or
                            be able to take part in a federation of interconnected repositories that
                            are able to interoperate with each other using standards. Reliability
                            (in terms of accessibility of resources) and therefore naming of
                            artefacts will be of particular importance [9].</p>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>Analysis and Search</head>
                        <p>For the large scale creation of intertextual threads, experts require
                            sophisticated tools that automate ─ at least in part ─ the analysis of
                            texts for intertextual markers. This is comparable to the task that was
                            faced by the Human Genome Project [10]. The deciphering of the genome
                            would have taken hundreds or thousands of years if researchers had
                            carried on using the manual methods of genome analysis. The task was
                            finished within one generation because the methodology became
                            standardised, so that machines were able to do millions of analyses
                            automatically. In order to find intertextual relationships, similar
                            machines (software) will have to be developed in order to augment:<list
                                type=""bulleted"">
                                <item>lexical search ─ it must be possible to find texts through
                                    lexical dependencies, tools must support word-stem analysis,
                                    understanding of composite terms (fish and chips), etc.</item>
                                <item>grammatical search ─ we may wish to find certain grammatical
                                    constructs (nested clauses, conditionals, etc)</item>
                                <item>semantic search ─ we need to be able to analyse various media
                                    with respect to prima facie cognitive patterns or markers</item>
                                <item>pragmatic search ─ we need to be able to interpret cognitive
                                    patterns in their respective contextual settings in order to
                                    infer valid intertextual relationships</item>
                            </list></p>
                        <figure>
                            <head>Figure 1: Research Focus on Authoring</head>
                        </figure>
                        <p>It is obvious that the development of analysis tools for all four levels
                            amounts to the task of natural language understanding and even,
                            understanding of every-day life situations (common-sense reasoning).
                            This is why the research agenda for the project is as exciting as it is
                            open-ended. The focus of the current project is not on ""deep reasoning"",
                            but on developing the initial authoring tools that will enhance
                            productivity of humans undertaking these analysis tasks. We are only
                            including the first level of automatic analysis, that is, lexical
                            search.</p>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>Knowledge Structures, Topologies and Metaphors</head>
                        <p>Experts in Arts and Humanities have accumulated not only vast knowledge
                            about the works of art they study, but have also methods and ""tools""
                            (albeit in their heads) to analyse the works, and to identify a fairly
                            large number of specific relationships that may occur between texts. At
                            the technical level, we are using an object-oriented, graph-based
                            knowledge representation language to specify a ""knowledge model""
                            (ontology) of intertextuality (such as conceptual graphs [7]). Experts
                            use these very detailed knowledge structures in their everyday work, but
                            they also use metaphoric language for organising larger chunks of
                            knowledge.</p>
                        <p>We have, so far, identified four ""topologies"" in which intertextual
                            studies can be organised: Spider (one central text with all its
                            relations), Millipede (one central theme [text, topos, etc.] over time,
                            languages, media, etc.), Associative Map (free navigation from one text
                            to another), Mistletoe (two texts one of which depends on the other for
                            major components)</p>
                        <figure>
                            <head>Figure 2: High-Level Design Topologies for Intertextual
                                Studies</head>
                        </figure>
                        <p>The authoring tools are intended to support such high-level design
                            structures that will assist experts in organising their knowledge
                            appropriately, for today's IT-based audiences.</p>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>Collaborative Authoring</head>
                        <p>It is very likely that experts for different genres and different
                            cultural spheres will have to work together to establish interesting
                            links between works of art. This imposes that threads can be manipulated
                            by multiple participants in parallel as well as sequentially. Hence, the
                            authoring environment needs to be capable of supporting versioning
                            mechanisms and merging mechanisms for handling change clashes during
                            authoring [11].</p>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>Rights Management</head>
                        <p>Changes need to be traceable to a particular knowledge worker to be able
                            to protect the Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) of the worker.
                            Equally, the works that are referred to by an intertextual analysis may
                            also be subject to copyrights etc. As rights management is not the core
                            of our research, we aim at integrating existing solutions in the field
                            of IPR management. However, the threads produced need to carry enough
                            information to be able to track copyright relevant changes on threads or
                            related data, i.e. texts.</p>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>Presentation Component</head>
                        <p>In order to allow for presentation of threads and the different modes of
                            interaction (such as navigation, spatial representation, etc.) we aim at
                            developing specific presentation modules. Adaptation to different user
                            groups (i.e., students, scholars, ""ordinary"" end users) and modes of
                            interaction (i.e., editing, browsing, etc.) are important. For the
                            presentation components, the SMIL Standard (Synchronised Multimedia
                            Integration Language) and extensions to it, will be further explored
                            [12].</p>
                    </div>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>Enhanced Multimedia Meta Objects (EMMOs)</head>
                        <p>In order to address the key requirements as briefly outlined in the
                            previous section we have developed the concept of capturing threads in
                            so-called EMMOs, i.e, autonomous knowledge objects [8][5]. These
                            Enhanced Multimedia Meta Objects aggregate the information needed to
                            represent all aspects of a thread. The following Figure describes the
                            logical views dealt with.</p>
                        <figure>
                            <head>Figure 3: EMMO with its Interfaces.</head>
                        </figure>
                        <p>The interfaces illustrated above are outlined below (for further details
                            see [5]). The interfaces are defined using widely adopted standards
                            wherever possible.<list type=""bulleted"">
                                <item>The Links Repository manages ""standard"", i.e., untyped
                                    associative links.</item>
                                <item>The Contents Repository interface defines the information
                                    necessary to store and retrieve contents and related meta-data.
                                    The actual implementation will rely on existing meta-data
                                    standards such as MPEG-7.</item>
                                <item>The Transformation Interface allows to import / export
                                    information stored in the EMMO. In a first step this will
                                    primarily be used for providing data for publishing (see
                                    presentation component above).</item>
                                <item>The Knowledge Interface refers to the knowledge model an EMMO
                                    is built upon. It is via this interface that an EMMO can
                                    exchange knowledge structures.</item>
                                <item>The Trading Interface holds the IPR information necessary to
                                    market the knowledge within an EMMO. This is of particular
                                    importance for trading the intertextual relationships, just like
                                    multimedia artefacts in general.</item>
                                <item>The Trails Repository: trails allow users to navigate based
                                    on other people's paths [3] thereby mainly assisting navigation
                                    in vast hypermedia networks.</item>
                            </list></p> 
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Summary And Ongoing Work</head>
                    <p>n this paper we have outlined the idea of an intertextual library. We have
                        argued that tools for (semi-)automatically creating these relationships
                        amongst multimedia artefacts is key to building the library and that we are
                        therefore developing the authoring tools in a first step.</p>
                    <p>The development of these tools is organised within a European project funded
                        by the IST-Programme (CULTOS, IST-2000-28134) which has started in September
                        2001. In a first requirements capture phase the literature experts have
                        demonstrated the methodologies used in their work and expressed their needs.
                        This has led to the specification of an EMMO as outlined above. In a next
                        step we will now define standard types of intertextual relationships (such
                        as parody, etc.) and adopt existing tools in order to allow the literature
                        experts to define intertextual cultural threads.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Acknowledgements</head>
                    <p>We would like to acknowledge the support by the European Union
                        (IST-2000-28134). Also, we would like to thank our colleagues in the
                        consortium.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
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                    <head>Introduction</head>
                    <p>The estimate of costs of a digitization project is a very difficult task, to
                        say the least. It is difficult to make exact estimates beforehand due to the
                        great quantity of unknown factors. However, the common practice when signing
                        digitization agreements is to set a firm commitment before beginning the
                        works so much concerning economic costs as in terms of time lapses and
                        deadlines. In the same way as for software development projects an incorrect
                        estimate of times and costs produce delays.</p>
                    <p>Based on methods used for cost prediction in Software Engineering like CoCoMo
                        (Constructive Cost Model; Boehm, 1981) and Function Points (Albrecht, 1981),
                        and using historical data gathered in almost three years of existence of our
                        digital library, we have developed a model for digitization cost estimates
                        (DiCoMo, Digitization Cost Model) for text digitization projects in general.</p>
                    <p>This method can be adapted to different production processes, like the
                        production of digital texts using scanning plus OCR and human proofreading,
                        or the production of digital facsimiles (scanning without OCR). The estimate
                        done a priori is improved as the project evolves by adjustments done with
                        real data obtained from previous stages. Each estimate is a refinement
                        obtained as a result of the work developed so far.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Factors that affect digitization costs</head>
                    <p>There are many factors that affect the cost of production of a digital
                        object. Both these factors and their effect on costs are difficult to be
                        determined and have to be carefully studied. Among them, we can highlight
                        the individual capacities of the persons assigned to the project and their
                        familiarity with the specific characteristics of the work to be digitally
                        published, its complexity, size, demanded level of quality, the technology
                        used and the familiarity with the computer tools to be used.</p>
                    <p>Main Factors that influence digitization costs: <list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>Size of the material to publish</item>
                            <item>Complexity of the task</item>
                            <item>Individual capacity of editors, correctors and scanner-operators</item>
                            <item>Special quality requests</item>
                            <item>Technological level of the environment</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>The assigned time impacts mainly in the quality of the product obtained which
                        is notably lowered when the times assigned are unreally short and they force
                        the technicians to work under excessive pressure. This is particularly true
                        for the correction and editing process, where text output from OCR has to be
                        carefully proofread and corrected. This is a delicate craft that takes time
                        and cannot be done under excessive pressure since when it is not properly
                        done obliges to further revision and corrections that have a very negative
                        impact on costs with a final result that turns out to be worse than the time
                        initially saved. Next each one of these factors is described.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Size of the material to publish</head>
                    <p>Digitization projects, compared to software design projects, have the
                        advantage that we know beforehand the size of the work to be done (namely
                        the number of pages or words to digitize).</p>
                    <p>The first and easiest way to determine the raw size of a text to be digitized
                        is to count the pages. But pages are not equally dense for all books. We can
                        have an approach to the density by counting the words that fit in a standard
                        page, or the words that fit in a fixed size window, and then assuming that
                        the rest of the pages are similar in this respect.</p>
                    <p>To count individual words would be more accurate, but not a practical
                        approach at all. Anyway, after the OCR process takes place we will obtain a
                        text file, with errors of course, but nevertheless a text file where we can
                        automatically count the number of words or the size in bytes to have a
                        better measure of the amount of proofread and correction work that comes
                        ahead. So this second measure of the size serves to adjust the initial
                        estimates for higher accuracy.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Complexity of the task</head>
                    <p>This is by far the most significant modifier concerning cost estimates. In
                        fact, there are many complexity factors that affect each stage of the
                        development process. In the case of the correction stage, which we consider
                        the most critical one, there are various factor to take into
                            consideration:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>the type of text (prose, verse, drama written in prose, drama
                                written in verse, dictionary)</item>
                            <item>footnotes if the number is too high</item>
                            <item>quotations in foreign or classical languages (if too many)</item>
                            <item>the complexity of the author style and vocabulary</item>
                            <item>the quality of the OCR output (few or lots of errors) </item>
                            <item>the legibility of the paper copy used as original</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>Concerning markup, complexity varies according to the number and difficulty
                        of the tags to added. Drama, for instance, with the need of a <emph
                            rend=""italics"">castlist</emph>, <emph rend=""italics""> speaker</emph> and
                            <emph rend=""italics"">speeches</emph>, requires an additional tagging
                        effort. Verse with split lines is another case of added complexity since
                        special care needs to be taken to assign attribute values to declare which
                        part (initial, middle, or final) of the split line of verse is which.</p>
                    <p>In the case of the production of digital facsimiles from manuscripts, a case
                        of extra complexity is when we have to work on rare and valuable originals
                        that have to be handled with special care (wearing rubber gloves for
                        instance) and using a digital photographic camera instead of a flat bed
                        scanner. On the contrary, digitizing unbounded pages using a flat bed
                        scanner with automatic page feeder would be the easiest case.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Individual capacity of the technicians</head>
                    <p>In the computer programmers world, individual productivity has been measured
                        extensively. Harold Sackman and collaborators, carried out an experiment in
                        1968 where they made evident that performance differences registered in
                        individual programmers were much bigger that those attributed to the effect
                        of the working environment. The difference between the best and the worst
                        performance was very high, being the experience a decisive factor. In a
                        later experiment, Sackman observed a variation in the productivity of as
                        much as 16 to 1 (Sackman, 1968). DeMarco and Lister also discuss the effects
                        of a well integrated group to enhance productivity in their book Peopleware
                        (Demarco+Lister, 1987).</p>
                    <p>Now back in the field of electronic editing, the results that we have
                        measured comparing correctors performance in tasks of correction of texts
                        output from OCR show us differences in productivity of as much as three to
                        one, depending on the individual ability and speed of correctors. Variations
                        in productivity of this magnitude are significant for cost estimates, so
                        including a parameter to adjust the estimates according to individual skills
                        seemed to be necessary.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Special quality requests</head>
                    <p>Producing a modernized digital edition from an ancient text takes additional
                        time and effort compared to processing a modern text, since modernization is
                        a complex task that involves difficult decisions. Using Madison markup for
                        the transcription of a manuscript is another example of additional requested
                        complexity. So is the case of making high legible digital facsimiles of
                        ancient manuscripts, where special care and fine-tuning of the scanning
                        properties may be needed.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Technological level of the environment</head>
                    <p>This is a relevant issue when using different technologies or migrating from
                        old to new production tools. When the environment is stable and well known,
                        and the estimate equations are well adjusted for it, there is no need to
                        care of this issue. Changes in technology, however, will surely requiere
                        modifications to the equations.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Cost estimation models</head>
                    <p>According to R. Fairley (Fairley, 1985), inside most organizations, the
                        estimation of production costs is usually based on past experiences.
                        Historical data are used to identify the cost factors and to determine their
                        relative importance within the organization. The above-mentioned, is the
                        reason for current project's production costs data to be stored for later
                        use.</p>
                    <p>We can classify cost estimation methods in two broad categories depending on
                        whether the approach goes from the general to the specific (top-down) or the
                        other way around (bottom-up). Top-down models first consider the costs at
                        the most general level, being usually based on the exam of the costs of
                        previous similar projects. Bottom-up models first consider the development
                        cost of each module which are then added to obtain the total cost. This
                        technique concentrates on the costs associated with the independent
                        development of each module or individual component of the project and we
                        believe that it is the most appropriate for digitization projects of
                        literary works. It can lead to errors if the time spent in some parallel
                        tasks like version control, backup copies, digital preservation and quality
                        control is not taken into account. The bigger the project, the more
                        important these factors become.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Expert judgement</head>
                    <p>A top down technique frequently used to estimate costs is based on expert
                        judgement. Expert judgement is based on experience, on previous knowledge
                        and on the commercial sense of one or more individuals inside the
                        organization (Fairley, 1985). According to Fairley, the biggest advantage of
                        expert judgement which is experience, can end up being its weakness. The
                        expert can trust that a project is similar to a previous one, but it can
                        happen that he/she has forgotten some factors that make the new task
                        significantly different. To compensate for this, and for a possible lack of
                        experience in a particular project type, a group instead of individual
                        experts are used to try to arrive to a consent. The purpose is to minimize
                        individual flaws and the lack of familiarity with some kind of projects,
                        neutralizing personal tendencies.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>The DELFI method</head>
                    <p>The DELFI method is a group expert judgement method that tries to minimize
                        the interpersonal influences in a groups that may spoil the final
                        estimation. The DELFI technique was developed at the Rand corporation in
                        1948, with the purpose of obtaining the consent of a group of experts
                        without having the negative effects of group meetings (Helmer, 1966). This
                        technique has been adapted to estimate costs in the following way (see
                        Fairley, 1985):<list>
                            <item>1. A coordinator gives the documentation with the description of
                                the project to each expert and a form to write his/her estimate.</item>
                            <item>2. Each expert studies the definition and anonymously determines
                                his/her estimation. The experts can consult the coordinator, but not
                                another expert.</item>
                            <item>3. The coordinator prepares and distributes a summary of the
                                estimates done so far.</item>
                            <item>4. The experts carry out a second round of anonymous estimates,
                                using the results of the previous one. In the case that an estimate
                                differs much from the others, an anonymous justification by the
                                expert that made it may be requested.</item>
                            <item>5. The process is repeated as many times as it is considered
                                necessary, avoiding group discussions.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>It is possible that after several rounds of estimates there is no consent. In
                        this case, the coordinator will study the causes of such disagreements and
                        try to solve the differences, sometimes by adding new information.</p>
                    <p>In our case we have preferred not to use this type of expertise based
                        estimation methods, but to take advantage of the expert knowledge to
                        determine the factors that have a significant influence on production times.
                        For digitization costs estimation we preferred to use bottom-up methods,
                        preferably algorithm-based ones, as we explain below.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Work break-down structures</head>
                    <p>Work breakdown structure or WBS, is a top-down method that helps to plan a
                        project. A work breakdown structure is a hierarchical flowchart where the
                        different parts of a project are established reflecting a hierarchy of
                        products and processes. A WBS flowchart of processes identifies the work
                        activities and their interrelations. Using the WBS technique, the total cost
                        of the project is calculated by adding the costs of the individual
                        components in the flowchart.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Algorithm based cost models</head>
                    <p>With algorithm-based cost models the costs are calculated by adding the costs
                        of each of the modules or subparts of the project in a bottom-up fashion.
                        The constructive cost model or COCOMO is a cost model based on algorithms
                        described by B. Boehm (Boehm, 1981).</p>
                    <p>According to Pressman (Pressman, 1988), the equations for Basic-COCOMO are
                        the following:<lb/><emph rend=""bold"">
                            <formula>E = a KLOC^^b</formula>
                        </emph><lb/><emph rend=""bold"">
                            <formula>M = c E^^d</formula>
                        </emph><lb/>where <emph rend=""bold"">E</emph> is the effort applied in
                        persons-month, <emph rend=""bold"">M</emph> is the development time in
                        chronological months, and <emph rend=""bold"">KLOC</emph> are the estimated
                        number of lines of code (in thousands). The factors <emph rend=""bold""
                        >a</emph>, <emph rend=""bold"">b</emph>, <emph rend=""bold"">c</emph> and <emph
                            rend=""bold"">d</emph> are from a table given by B. Boehm. This values are
                        for estimating software production costs, and are irrelevant for our
                        purpose. We will only take the spirit of COCOMO and adapt it to estimate
                        digitization costs.</p>
                    <p>Intermediate-COCOMO takes the following form:<lb/><emph rend=""bold"">
                            <formula>E = a KLOC^^b EAF</formula>
                        </emph><lb/>where a new <emph rend=""italics"">effort adjusting factor</emph>
                        is added. This factor is obtained by first evaluating a set of complexity
                        factors and then extracting the value EAF from a table. Basically, EAF is a
                        value close to 1 that adjust the resulting effort calculation according to
                        the overall complexity determined by various features of the project. Is
                        usually a value between 0.70 and 1.65.</p>
                    <p>In our digitization cost model (DiCoMo), we use a basic equation similar to
                        Basic-COCOMO, but with an added fixed value <emph rend=""bold"">f</emph>:<lb/>
                        <emph rend=""bold"">
                            <formula>H = a P^^b + f</formula>
                        </emph></p>
                    <p>We do not have to estimate the size (in pages) <emph rend=""bold"">P</emph>
                        which is known beforehand. We directly calculate the number of hours <emph
                            rend=""bold"">H</emph>. We add a fixed value <emph rend=""bold"">f</emph>
                        which stands for the fixed time necessary for the type of task considered,
                        independent of the size of the task. An example of this is the time needed
                        to adjust the scanning software parameters, which is a fixed time which does
                        not depend on the number of pages to be scanned later.</p>
                    <p>For an example of this Basic-DiCoMo approach, see figure 1, where an
                        estimation curve (thick line) approaches real data spots (black squares)
                        that represent real measures from the correction stage. The thin straight
                        line represent a linear approach to the spots, while the curve represents
                        the following estimation equation which gives us the estimated number of
                        hours to correct a text given the number of pages:<lb/><emph rend=""bold"">
                            <formula>H = 0.0653 P^^2,091 + 8</formula>
                        </emph></p>
                    <figure>
                        <head>
                            <emph rend=""bold"">Figure 1: Correction-process data for July 2001 (Hours
                                vs. Pages).</emph>
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>For instance, a standard-complexity book of 100 pages will take about 59
                        hours of correction and markup according to this estimation.</p>
                    <p>This simplistic approach doesn't take into account the fact that different
                        literary works have different degrees of difficulty at the time of
                        proofreading. This differences in complexity is due to several facts. We
                        have detected the most important ones and added a complexity adjustment
                        factor c which leads to our Intermediate-DiCoMo equation:<lb/><emph
                            rend=""bold"">
                            <formula>H = a c P^^b + f</formula>
                        </emph></p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Procedure for the estimate of costs using DiCoMo</head>
                    <list>
                        <item>1. identify all the subprocesses and all the units (books or other
                            literary works) to be processed.</item>
                        <item>2. measure the size of each unit and establish the production steps it
                            will undergo from the corresponding processing workflow.</item>
                        <item>3. specify the complexity factors for each unit..</item>
                        <item>4. calculate the time each unit will take, as the sum of the estimated
                            times for each production step it will undergo (use the adequate
                            equation for each step together with the corresponding complexity
                            factors).</item>
                        <item>5. calculate the total time of development for the project.</item>
                        <item>6. compare the estimate with another, perhaps a top-down one like the
                                <emph rend=""italics"">DELFI</emph> technique or <emph rend=""italics""
                                >expert-judgement</emph>, identifying and correcting the differences
                            in the estimate.</item>
                    </list>
                    <p>This version of DiCoMo is a simplified equivalent of the intermediate COCOMO
                        model (Boehm, 1981) used for software development estimates adapted in this
                        case for digitization project estimates.</p>
                    <p>Many studies have attempted to relate size oriented methods like COCOMO and
                        function oriented methods like <emph rend=""italics"">function-points</emph>
                        (Albrecht+Gaffney, 1983). We take from the function points model of Albrecht
                        (Albrecht, 1981), the idea of modularization according to functions. In our
                        case we consider each production step a functional unit, for which the
                        estimation equation is applied.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Conclusions</head>
                    <p>We have designed a cost estimation model for digitization projects based on
                        known software engineering cost models. These methods allowed us to predict
                        the overall time a digitization project would take within a 20% error range.</p>
                    <p>Digitization projects, compared to software design projects, have the
                        advantage that we know beforehand the size of the work to be done (namely
                        the number of pages or words to digitize). In software engineering we can
                        only guess the total number of lines of code or function points a project
                        will take, and the certainty of the cost estimates will depend largely on
                        this preliminary size estimate.</p>
                    <p>We verified that the model we propose works well in practice, and can be
                        easily applied to different digital production processes, but the cost
                        equation needs to be fine-tuned in advance for the model to be applied. This
                        requires two things to be done first: on one hand the main objective factors
                        that affect the time required to do the work must be determined and weighed,
                        and on the other hand sufficient historical data must be gathered to
                        fine-tune the parameters of the cost equation. Having this information a
                        cost-equation for the specific production process is easily obtained.</p>
                    <p>Good expert knowledge of the process facilitates the fine-tuning task and
                        allows for better estimation equations. Nevertheless, the cost-equations can
                        be dynamically improved by re-adjusting the parameters with the new data
                        fed-back from new projects. In this way the estimation model can be
                        incrementally improved.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <head>
                            <emph rend=""bold"">The production process of digital text books.</emph>
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                    <figure>
                        <head>
                            <emph rend=""bold"">The production process of digital facsimile
                            books.</emph>
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                    <figure>
                        <head>
                            <emph rend=""bold"">Automatic transformation: the one-source many-uses
                                principle.</emph>
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </div>
            </div>
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                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Hilde</forename>
                        <surname>Bøe</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Henrik Ibsen's Writings</name>
                            <email>hilde.boe@ibsen.uio.no</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Ingvald</forename>
                        <surname>Aarstein</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Henrik Ibsen's Writings</name>
                            <email>ingvald.aarstein@ibsen.uio.no</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
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                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
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                <title level=""m"">ALLC/ACH 2002</title>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Harald</forename>
                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
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                        <forename type=""middle""/>
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                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                <div>
                    <head>Introduction</head>
                    <p>Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906) left a manuscript material that covers approximately
                        20.000 pages. All of these manuscripts are now being prepared for
                        publishing. For the drama texts there are prompt copies; parts; printer's
                        copies; final fair copies; copies of printed editions revised by hand and
                        used as printer's copy for the next edition; drafts that range from ideas
                        for the whole play on a piece of paper to complete fair copies that have
                        been revised so thoroughly that they can no longer be considered to be fair
                        copies. Then there are drafts and fair copies of the poems, and finally
                        Ibsen's letters.</p>
                    <p>Our situation is surely not unique. Projects that are publishing the complete
                        writings of a modern writer are sure to encounter the same range of
                        manuscripts, and will also, when using the <title level=""m"">TEI
                            Guidelines</title>, encounter phenomena in the manuscripts that are not
                        covered by chapter 18 ""Transcription of Primary Sources"". The <title
                            level=""m"">Guidelines</title> state that their ""recommendations are not
                        intended to meet every transcriptional circumstance likely to be faced by
                        any scholar"" (quoted from the introduction to chapter 18). Still we would
                        find it useful if the <title level=""m"">Guidelines</title> did include
                        recommendations for some of these transcriptional circumstances, or if a
                        documentation of best practise was included. For this reason we would like
                        to present the problems we have encountered and the solutions we have chosen
                        in the encoding of Ibsen's manuscripts for <title level=""m"">Emperor and
                            Galilean</title> (1873). We feel that it is appropriate and useful to
                        present the whole process of encoding a complex manuscript, and the
                        questions this process has raised. </p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>The manuscripts for «Emperor and Galilean»</head>
                    <p>The planning and writing of <title level=""m"">Emperor and Galilean</title>
                        took almost ten years. The play was published in 1873, and consists of two
                        dramas, both with five acts; the first edition covers 512 pages. The content
                        of the drama is the life of the Roman emperor Julian the Apostate. Though
                        later not thought to be one of Ibsen's best plays, Ibsen himself considered
                            <title level=""m"">Emperor and Galilean</title> to be his most important
                        work.</p>
                    <p>There are six manuscripts for <title level=""m"">Emperor and Galilean</title>.
                        Four of these (NBO Ms. 8to 1937a, NBO Ms. 8to 1937b, NBO Ms. 8to 1937c, NBO
                        Ms. 8to 2821:14) are small fragments containing drafts and notes. These are
                        all at the National Library in Oslo. Then there is the printer's copy (Kgl.
                        Bibl. Kbh. Collin 262, 4to, II, 3), which is at the Royal Library in
                        Copenhagen. The last one, also at the National Library in Oslo, and the one
                        we would like to present here, is NBO Ms. 4to 1111.</p>
                    <p>NBO Ms. 4to 1111 consists of notes, drafts and unfinished fair copies, bound
                        by the library in one large volume of about 700 pages. Smaller notes and
                        fragments have been placed first in the volume, larger drafts and temporary
                        fair copies have been placed at the end. This organization is new, and has
                        probably been done during the binding. Earlier it has been ordered
                        differently; a red pagination (supposedly done by a librarian) is sign of
                        this earlier order. In the volume the red pagination is no longer in its
                        original order. Ibsen himself has left us few clues as to how the material
                        should be organized; there are few dates and only some parts are paginated.
                        We do not consider the current organization of the manuscript as final,
                        since the volume has been made after Ibsen's own time. Our first task is
                        thus to organize the manuscript according to our project's principles. We
                        have decided on chronology/genesis, where this is possible to decide. When
                        we have no direct clues in the material as to what belongs where we will
                        have to make qualified guesses based on content analysis.</p>
                    <p>The next question is the question of typology. This is important for
                        searchability and for the possibilities of organizing the electronic
                        edition. As said, NBO Ms. 4to 1111 consists of a number of different types
                        of manuscripts. There are two sides to this. First we have to decide how
                        detailed the typology should be. Secondly we have to find appropriate terms
                        for the types of material in the manuscript (cfr. facsimile below). There is
                        not yet a fixed typology in this area. Scholars are not always using terms
                        like notes, drafts, fair copies etc. in the same manner. This we think holds
                        for both Norwegian and international scholars. The <title level=""m"">TEI
                            Guidelines</title> keep themselves out of this discussion (for obvious
                        reasons) and leave the question of typology to their users. Our project has
                        developed a typology that fits the Ibsen material. This typology might be of
                        interest to others as well. (The facsimile below contains a working
                        manuscript with drafts of speeches, and notes in prose.)</p>
                    <figure/>
                    <eg>&lt;group&gt;
                        
                        &lt;text&gt;...&lt;/text&gt;
                        
                        &lt;text&gt;
                        
                        &lt;body&gt;
                        
                        lt;div type=""workingManuscript""&gt;
                        
                        &lt;div type=""act"" n=""1-3""&gt;
                        
                        &lt;sp who=""JULIAN""&gt;
                        
                        &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/sp&gt;
                        
                        &lt;sp who=""GALLUS""&gt;
                        
                        &lt;spOpener&gt;&lt;speaker&gt;Pr. G.&lt;/speaker&gt;&lt;/spOpener&gt;
                        
                        &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/sp&gt;
                        
                        &lt;sp who=""JULIAN""&gt;
                        
                        &lt;spOpener&gt;&lt;speaker&gt;Pr. J.&lt;/speaker&gt;&lt;/spOpener&gt;
                        
                        &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/sp&gt;
                        
                        ...
                        
                        &lt;/div&gt;
                        
                        &lt;/div&gt;
                        
                        &lt;lb/&gt;&lt;figure type=""bar""&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;
                        
                        &lt;div type=""notes""&gt;
                        
                        &lt;div type=""act"" n=""1-4""&gt;
                        
                        &lt;p&gt;...&lt;/p&gt;
                        
                        &lt;/div&gt;
                        
                        &lt;/div&gt;
                        
                        &lt;/body&gt;
                        
                        &lt;/text&gt;
                        
                        &lt;text&gt;...&lt;/text&gt;
                        
                        &lt;/group&gt;</eg>
                    <p>Then there is the question of the basic encoding of this material. We have
                        decided on a structure of groups of texts (cfr. the <title level=""m"">TEI
                            Guidelines</title> 7.3). We also use unnumbered &lt;div&gt;
                        elements rather than numbered ones since we have found the same types of
                        texts on different levels (cfr. the <title level=""m"">TEI Guidelines</title>
                        7.1.3). At the more detailed level of the encoding, we will have to consider
                        for instance what encoding is appropriate for text fragments that later turn
                        up as parts of speeches. How should these be encoded, as speeches or prose?
                        They usually lack speakers and stage directions. To what extent should we
                        link these fragments to their later use in speeches?</p>
                    <p>It will be possible to link the manuscript material both internally and
                        externally (to the rest of the text witnesses to <title level=""m"">Emperor
                            and Galilean</title>), and it will also be possible to organize the
                        material according to other principles than ours. As shown in the encoded
                        example above we supply the outer &lt;div&gt; level
                        (type=""workingManuscript/notes"") with a type attribute holding the
                        appropriate value for the text type. The inner &lt;div&gt; level
                        (type=""act"") contains type and n attributes. The value in the n attribute
                        records which part of the drama and which act (within this part) the text
                        belongs to. The type attribute records which textual level (e.g. ""act"") this
                        piece of text belongs to. With this information we can for example
                        reorganize the material according to text type or according to the
                        chronology of the first print. We can also present comparisons of manuscript
                        and e.g. the first print through linking.</p>
                    <p>In addition to the questions mentioned above, there are a few minor problems
                        to solve. First, some of the bits and pieces of the manuscript are
                        unfinished; the text ends in the middle of a sentence. We will of course
                        check that the missing parts really are missing, and put them in the correct
                        place if they are located somewhere else in the manuscript. Secondly, we
                        have encountered what is for us a new phenomenon. There are a few lists
                        (cfr. facsimile below) in this manuscript, listing either sources (with page
                        numbers) that Ibsen has read and then used in his writing, or listing
                        themes/scenes (also with page numbers) that he wants to include. As he has
                        checked his list he has crossed out (some, but not all of) the items. How
                        should we record this? These deletions seem not to be standard manuscript
                        deletions, yet we consider using the &lt;del&gt; element with the
                        rend and type attributes to record the rendition and the unusual purpose of
                        the overstrike.</p>
                    <figure/>
                    <eg>&lt;del type=""checkList"" rend=""overstrike""&gt;...&lt;/del&gt;</eg>
                    <p>The manuscript also includes graphics, illustrations (cfr. facsimile below)
                        and calculations (this manuscript reveals that Ibsen among other things
                        invested some of his money in train stocks, cfr. facsimile below). There is
                        also writing upside down on some pages (cfr. facsimile below). So far we
                        have decided that upside-down writing and calculations should be recorded in
                        the appropriate part of the &lt;teiHeader&gt;. Graphics and
                        illustrations are encoded as usual as &lt;figure&gt;.</p>
                    <p>This is work-in-progress which hopefully by summer 2002 will be well on the
                        way. We are very interested in hearing what experience others have with
                        similar questions, and we hope that our work may be of interest to others
                        working in this field.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Facsimiles</head>
                    <p>Ibsen, Henrik: <title level=""m"">Emperor and Galilean</title>. The National Library of Norway Ms. 4to
                        1111. Reproduced from the database at Centre for Ibsen Studies
                        (<ptr target=""http://www.hf.uio.no/ibsensenteret/"" />), University of Oslo.</p>
                </div>
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            <editor>
                <name>
                    <forename type=""first"">C.</forename>
                    <forename type=""middle"">M.</forename>
                    <surname>Sperberg-McQueen</surname>
                </name>
            </editor>
            <editor><name><forename type=""first"">Lou</forename><surname>Burnard</surname></name></editor>
            <title level=""m"">Guidelines for Text Encoding and Interchange</title>
            <imprint>
                <pubPlace>Chicago and Oxford</pubPlace>
                <publisher>Text Encoding Initiative</publisher>
                <date when=""1994"">1994</date>
            </imprint>
        </monogr></biblStruct>
        </listBibl></div></back>
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                        <surname>Bruya</surname>
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                <p>There are four major digital library projects in East Asia that publish digital
                    versions of parts of the vast pre-modern Chinese corpus on the World Wide Web.
                    All of these are targeted at professional sinologists, with no accommodation for
                    the user who is not expertly proficient in Chinese. As a result, anyone
                    interested in seriously engaging Chinese thought online must either set aside a
                    few years to learn Classical Chinese or remain beholden to the sinologist for
                    both information and interpretation. At Shuhai Wenyuan, a project funded by the
                    National Science Foundation's Digital Libraries Initiative (Phase II), we strive
                    to capitalize on the advantages of digitization to allow the non-sinologist
                    entry into the conceptual world of ancient Chinese thought.</p>
                <p>Begun in October of 2000, Shuhai Wenyuan will offer a set of Chinese classics,
                    English translations of these classics, a hyperlinked lexicon, a grammar, a
                    philosophical resource, and a search engine for rapidly viewing the full
                    contexts of important terms in a variety a texts. The aim is access--most
                    immediately for scholars and students to be able to read Classical Chinese texts
                    with enough resources that they will be able to reach their own conclusions
                    about interpretation and then employ the texts in original scholarly pursuits;
                    and in the longer term for teachers to be able to provide courses in Chinese
                    Philosophy, either online or in the classroom, without having to be concerned
                    about the scarcity of appropriate resources.</p>
                <p>There are four salient features of Shuhai Wenyuan that we will present in our poster:<list>
                        <item>1. <emph rend=""bold"">Software:</emph> As a project developed by
                            humanists rather than computer scientists, and as a project intended to
                            be replicated by other humanists, Shuhai Wenyuan employs powerful
                            off-the-shelf database software called 4D. We will demonstrate how this
                            results in streamlined and cost-effective administration and modular
                            replicability without compromising design flexibility, expandability, or
                            data integrity.</item>
                        <item>2. <emph rend=""bold"">Worktable:</emph> Our user interface employs
                            frames to replicate the scholar's worktable on which one may have open
                            several books at once for simultaneous perusal. We will demonstrate how
                            side-by-side textual viewing enhances the research usability and how the
                            Worktable can be customized by individual users in a variety of
                            ways.</item>
                        <item>3. <emph rend=""bold"">Tools:</emph> A portion of the Worktable is
                            devoted to textual viewing and another to viewing research tools,
                            specifically, a grammar, an encyclopedic lexicon, and a search engine.
                            We will demonstrate how each of these tools is easily put to work using
                            hyperlinks between the texts and tools and among tools.</item>
                        <item>4. <emph rend=""bold"">Philosophy:</emph> One of the most difficult
                            parts of working with foreign language texts is that
                            philosophically-laden terms lose their conceptual contexts in
                            translation and acquire misleading conceptual contexts in the target
                            language, so that a term such as <emph rend=""italics"">tian</emph> in
                            Chinese inevitably becomes Heaven in English, capitalized and with
                            built-in Judeo-Christian connotations of an omnipotent, anthropomorphic
                            deity and the promise of salvation. One of the most significant features
                            of Shuhai Wenyuan is our work organizing and presenting secondary
                            literature on key philosophical terms. If one were to research the term
                                <emph rend=""italics"">tian</emph> in an analog library, it would take
                            days of paging through book and periodical indexes to find significant
                            treatments of it in the secondary literature. We are bringing these
                            resources into our own library, digitizing them, and culling the
                            relevant passages for inclusion under individual entries in the lexicon.
                            The textual tools and texts themselves, when combined with our
                            philosophical resource, allow the novice reader of Chinese thought
                            unprecedented access to this important body of texts. Instead of
                            providing the reader with a single limited interpretation of a text, we
                            offer users the entire conceptual universe of Chinese thought at their
                            fingertips, allowing them to work creatively from it. </item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>Shuhai Wenyuan is a three-year DLI-2 project with one year remaining as of
                    7/2002. We project to have all of the Chinese texts and English translations up
                    by then, a portion of the philosophy resource, the entire grammar, the search
                    engine, and a portion of the lexicon.</p>
                <p>We invite the reader to visit our site at <ptr
                        target=""http://www.shuhai.hawaii.edu""/>.</p>
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"228","3","Classrooms, computer labs, and remote locations: Integrating the three spaces of computer aided interactive writing courses","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Charles</forename>
                        <surname>Donelan</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of California, Santa Barbara</name>
                            <email>cdonelan@writing.ucsb.edu</email>
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                <p>Students in computer aided interactive writing courses can benefit from a
                    teaching approach that integrates the three spaces in which they encounter
                    materials and assignments. Where the paper and chalk classroom separates
                    in-class writing from homework, the networked course blurs the distinction
                    between in-class, in-lab and remote writing.</p>
                <p>Responding to the changes brought about by CAIW will require the redefinition of
                    the spaces in which writing takes place. The networked computer lab is a
                    synchronous space in which students may give and receive feedback in real time,
                    but web-based interactive writing programs make remote participation in online
                    discussions and feedback cycles possible. The remote location is ordinarily the
                    site of asynchronous learning. How does bringing remote students into
                    synchronous activities change what can be done in the CAIW course? What can
                    happen in the synchronous space of the lab when it is opened to access from
                    remote locations?</p>
                <p>CAIW also affects the traditional classroom. For courses that meet in both
                    traditional classrooms and computer labs, the new CAIW activities, which raise
                    levels of synchronous peer-to-peer and asynchronous remote learning so sharply,
                    are bound to affect the way students learn in the classroom. I will examine some
                    classroom effects of CAIW activities, and then present strategies for using the
                    traditional classroom to frame and reinforce the learning going on in the
                    computer lab and from remote locations.</p>
                <p>Computer assisted interactive writing requires course designs that take full
                    advantage of its capabilities. Recent work at UC Santa Barbara has explored the
                    use of synchronous feedback exchange, web research, remote messaging, and
                    electronic group work in CAIW classes with positive results. Generally,
                    successful CAIW courses employ three strategies:<list type=""bulleted"">
                        <item>sequential, process-oriented assignments,</item>
                        <item>integration of synchronous and asynchronous communication, and </item>
                        <item>carefully directed group interaction.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>Sequential assignments, used in many traditional classes, become even more
                    important in CAIW settings due to the temporality of on-line writing. The
                    ability to change on-line writing allows students more opportunities for
                    feedback, as well as for revisions of preliminary materials, but can also
                    undermine the decision-making process essential to developing a finished work.
                    However, a dynamic exchange of peer- and teacher review in a CAIW class can
                    allow students to improve their understanding of process considerably. When a
                    sequence of electronic pre-writing assignments replaces the traditional
                    deadline-and-return schedule, students recognize the essential elements of
                    process rather than the external necessities of a course syllabus.</p>
                <p>Likewise, the full integration of synchronous and asynchronous exchange affords
                    greater flexibility for in-class assignments. Synchronous exchange enables a
                    more efficient distribution of student writing in peer groups and faster
                    communication than most traditional methods. Complementary synchronous
                    assignments allow individual students time to create thoughtful work and
                    assimilate feedback into revisions. Successful assignments in a CAIW environment
                    therefore generally follow an alternating pattern of synchronous and
                    asynchronous responses to develop an effective discourse community.</p>
                <p>Similarly, assignment sequences require a controlled pattern of individual,
                    partner, and group work, with specific schedules and goals. In particular,
                    collaborative work enhances students understanding of realistic writing
                    situations, when instructors monitor, direct, and critique individual
                    contributions to the tasks of management and production. Employing all three
                    course design strategies successfully has created dynamic, interesting
                    communities of writers.</p>
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"229","3","Music Information Retrieval: Examining what we mean by success.","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename type=""middle"">Stephen</forename>
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                <p>Music information retrieval (MIR) research has been a part of humanities
                    computing for many years. Kassler (1966) and Lincoln (1967) are both examples of
                    early work in this area. Over the last several years, there has been a resurgent
                    interest in MIR research and development (see ISMIR 2000; ISMIR 2001). Inspired,
                    in part, by the success of the text retrieval research community (e.g.,
                    Yahoo.com, Google.com, Altavista.com, etc.), present-day MIR researchers strive
                    to afford the same kind of content-based access to music. Within the context of
                    music, content-based retrieval implies the use of musical elements to retrieve
                    music objects or specific parts of music objects: Music-based search inputs
                    (e.g., humming, singing, notation excerpts, MIDI keyboard, etc.) to search, and
                    then retrieve, musical works (e.g., recordings, scores, etc.) or to locate
                    sub-components of musical works (e.g., repeating themes and motifs, harmonic
                    progressions, etc.).</p>
                <p>Notwithstanding the promising developments enumerated in the recent MIR
                    literature, MIR systems are still far from being as useful, comprehensive, or
                    robust as their text information retrieval (IR) analogues. There are three
                    principal reasons for this state of affairs.</p>
                <p>First, prompted by educational, governmental, scientific, economic, and military
                    imperatives, the text IR community has for many years garnered substantial
                    financial support which as allowed countless person-hours of effort to be spent
                    on research, development, and evaluation. Until very recently, most MIR research
                    projects have been undertaken primarily as labours of love by devoted scholars.
                    A half-hour's perusal of the back issues of <title level=""m"">Computing in
                        Musicology</title> (Hewlett and Selfridge-Field, eds.) will bring this fact
                    to the fore.</p>
                <p>Second, music information is inherently more complex than text information. Music
                    information is a multi-faceted amalgam of pitch, tempo, rhythmic, harmonic,
                    timbral, textual (i.e., lyrics and librettti), editorial, praxis, and
                    bibliographic elements. Music can be represented as scores, MIDI files and other
                    discrete encodings, and in any number of analogue and digital audio formats
                    (e.g., LPs, tapes, MP3s, CDs, etc.). Unlike most text, music is extremely
                    plastic; that is, a given piece of music can be transposed, have its rhythms
                    altered, its harmonies reset, its orchestration recast, its lyrics changed, and
                    so on, yet somehow it is still perceived to be the same piece of music. This
                    interaction of music's complexity and plasticity make the selection of possible
                    retrieval elements extraordinarily difficult.</p>
                <p>Third, the text IR community has had a set of standardized performance evaluation
                    metrics for last four decades. Taking the Cranfield evaluations of the early
                    1960's (Cleverdon et al., 1966) as the starting point of modern text IR
                    research, two metrics have to this day continually proved themselves to be
                    particularly important: precision (i.e., the ratio of relevant documents
                    retrieved to the number of documents retrieved) and recall (i.e, the ratio of
                    relevant documents retrieved to the number of relevant documents present in the
                    system). The key determinant in the use of precision and recall as a performance
                    metric is the apprehension of those documents deemed ""relevant"" to a particular
                    query. While there have been ongoing debates about the nature of ""relevance""
                    (see Schamber, 1994), relevance has had relatively stable meaning across the
                    text-IR literature. Simply put, a ""document"" is deemed to be ""relevant"" to a
                    given query if the document is ""about"" the same subject matter as the query.
                    With these metrics, text IR researchers have been able compare and contrast the
                    results of many different retrieval approaches. Thus, promising approaches have
                    been explored more thoroughly, and weaker approaches abandoned. At present,
                    there are no standardized evaluation metrics for MIR. Because of this lack of
                    metrics, MIR researchers have had no means of effectively comparing and
                    contrasting MIR methods. MIR research has not been able to move forward as
                    quickly as it should because it has had no demonstrable basis for concentrating
                    its efforts on better techniques nor for abandoning weaker approaches.</p>
                <p>My poster examines the reasons behind the lack of standardized performance
                    metrics for MIR research and development. Its primary focus is on the
                    suitability of the precision and recall as candidate MIR metrics. Seeing that
                    precision and recall have been instrumental in the success of text IR research,
                    this limited focus is justified. The crux of this explication is the exploration
                    of the nature of ""relevance"" as it pertains to MIR tasks. The notion of
                    relevance in the MIR context must undergo considerable scrutiny. Without a
                    proper understanding of the applicability, limitations, and implications of
                    relevance, the use of precision and recall as MIR evaluation metrics will not
                    have the theoretical grounding necessary to justify their use by MIR
                    researchers.</p>
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            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>Bibliography</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
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                                </name>
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                                    <surname>Mills</surname>
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                                    <surname>Keen</surname>
                                </name>
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                            <title level=""m"">Factors determining the performance of indexing
                                systems</title>
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                                <pubPlace>Cranfield, UK</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>ASLIB Cranfield Research Project, College of
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                                    <surname>Hewellet</surname>
                                </name>
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                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">E.</forename>
                                    <surname>Selfridge-Field</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">Computing in musicology: A directory of
                                research</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Menlo Park, CA</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Center for Computing Assisted Research in the
                                    Humanities</publisher>
                                <date>(various years)</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name type=""org"">ISMIR 2000</name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""u"">The International Symposium on Music Information
                                Retrieval, 23-25 October, 2000, Plymouth, MA</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>Available at: <ptr target=""http://ciir.cs.umass.edu/music2000""
                            /></note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name type=""org"">ISMIR 2001</name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""u"">The Second International Symposium on Music Information
                                Retrieval, 15-17 October, 2001, Bloomington, IN</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>Available at: <ptr target=""http://ismir2001.indiana.edu""/></note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">M.</forename>
                                    <surname>Kassler</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Toward music information retrieval</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">Perspectives of New Music </title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol"">4</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""issue"">(Spring-Summer)</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">59-67</biblScope>
                                <date when=""1966"">1966</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
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                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">H.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">B.</forename>
                                    <surname>Lincoln</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Some criteria and techniques for developing
                                computerized thematic indices</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">H.</forename>
                                    <surname>Heckman</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">Electronishe datenverarbeitung in der
                                Musikwissenschaft</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Regensburg</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Gustave Bosse Verlag.</publisher>
                                <date when=""1967"">1967</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">L.</forename>
                                    <surname>Schamber</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Relevance and information behavior</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">M.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">E.</forename>
                                    <surname>Williams</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""j"">Annual review of information science and
                                technology</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Medford, NJ</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Learned Information</publisher>
                                <biblScope type=""vol"">29</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""issue""/>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">3-48</biblScope>
                                <date when=""1994"">1994</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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                        <surname>Glushko</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">Voronezh State University</name>, Russia 
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                <div>
                    <epigraph>
                        <cit rend=""block"">
                            <quote>
                                <emph rend=""distinct"">Strong verbs are disappearing from English,
                                    extrapolation points to c.3000 AD as the likely date of almost
                                    complete disappearance.</emph>
                            </quote>
                            <bibl>
                                <emph rend=""italis"">Whatmough (1956)</emph>
                            </bibl>
                        </cit>
                    </epigraph>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>1. Introduction.</head>
                    <p>There exists in linguistics a traditionally sceptic view on the possibility
                        of forecasting the further development of the language. Few isolated
                        attempts were made in this respect, primarily in phonetics and morphology by
                        Polivanov (1957, 1991), Shevoroshkin (1973), Whatmough (1956). The main
                        objectives and methodology of linguistic prognostics were formulated by
                        Kretov (1992,1993).</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>2. A brief overview of linguistic prognostics at its present stage of
                        development.</head>
                    <p>Linguistic prognostics employs approaches traditionally used in lexicology,
                        lexicostatistics, mathematic linguistics, linguistic synergetics and corpus
                        linguistics.</p>
                    <p>Kretov (1993) divides linguistic prognostics into three major subfields:<list
                            type=""bulleted"">
                            <item><emph rend=""italics"">ontognostics</emph>, i.e. explication of the
                                unobserved fragments of the language system at its present
                                stage;</item>
                            <item><emph rend=""italics"">futurognostics</emph>, i.e. extrapolation of
                                the revealed tendencies of the development of the system into
                                future;</item>
                            <item><emph rend=""italics"">retrognostics</emph>, i.e. reconstruction of
                                the past stages of the system.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>Both semiotic and functional approaches are employed by linguistic
                        prognostics. Semiotic approach allows to reveal theoretically semantic and
                        grammatical peculiarities of linguistic units. Here I can mention works by
                        Karpilovska (1990), Otsaluk (1993), Palmaitis and Toporov (1984). This
                        approach has been the most productive so far.</p>
                    <p>Less widespread is the functional approach to the language, which allows to
                        trace the dynamics of the functioning of linguistic units and then making
                        conclusions about the future development of the language system. I employed
                        functional approach in my work.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>3. A hypothesis.</head>
                    <p>The general hypothesis for the research is based on the language law
                        discovered and described by G.K. Zipf (1935). It states that among the most
                        frequent words the percentage of old ones is far higher then that of rare or
                        infrequently used words. Yet, the inverse relationship is also true: the
                        more frequently used the word is, the better are its chances to remain
                        unchanged in the language vocabulary, the more stable it is.
                        Correspondingly, the less frequent word is, the fewer chances it has to
                        remain unchanged in the vocabulary.</p>
                    <p>Applying this law to irregular verbs, it has been proposed that irregularity
                        of past simple and past participle verb forms is caused with the high
                        frequency of the verb occurrence. It has also been assumed that the
                        reduction of functional load on the verb leads to its transferring from the
                        category of irregular to the category of regular verbs.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>4. Corpus.</head>
                    <p>Chronological limits of the period considered are from 1500 until 1998. The
                        corpora of research is comprised with 140 books, i.e. appr. 8 mnl words. A
                        choice of texts and constraints imposed will be explained.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>5. Sample group.</head>
                    <p>I studied the dynamics of the functional load on 90 verbs including all their
                        forms. These were:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>30 regular verbs;</item>
                            <item>30 irregular verbs;</item>
                            <item>30 verbs possessing both regular and irregular conjurgation
                                forms.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>The choice of verbs picked for the sample group will be grounded with graphs
                        and tables.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>6. Labour saving measures and methodologies.</head>
                    <p>I made use of the text analyzing program created in Delphi, which provided me
                        with relative frequencies of the units (i.e. the number of occurrences in
                        the text divided by the number of words in the text), as well as Mathematica
                        4.1 application for graphic representations and processing of the
                        results.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>7. Tracing the dynamics.</head>
                    <p>The dynamics of relative frequency evolution has been studied for each of 90
                        verbs from the sample group. Afterwards, I divided all frequency of
                        occurrence data into three classes and summed figures, that referred to each
                        year. On receiving graphic representation of dynamics, three linear trends
                        were built, that represent maximally generalized tendencies of evolution of
                        verb classes we are interested in.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>8. Conclusion or VS Whatmough.</head>
                    <p>Unfortunately neither linguistic prognostics has an apparatus in its disposal
                        that would allow extrapolating to c.3000 AD, nor Whatmough provides any
                        grounds for the statement mentioned above. I will show how English verb
                        paradigm will look in a century and prove that not only irregular verb class
                        doesn't disappear, but also the functional load on it increases.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
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        </back>
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                        <surname>Lenz</surname>
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                    <head>Introduction</head>
                    <p>The topic map standard ISO 13250 (Pepper 1999) provides an innovative and
                        standardized way to express information about documents.. Although the
                        relevance of topic maps for the humanities has been recognized, only few
                        applications in this area have been developed up to now.</p>
                    <p>In the following we will explain an approach for transforming document
                        collections which uses a topic map to express meta information. We believe
                        that this approach can be applied to various areas in the humanities where
                        information about documents is important, and will present two research
                        areas where our model can be employed: <emph rend=""italics"">adaptive
                            hypertext</emph> and <emph rend=""italics"">relationships between document
                            grammars</emph>.</p>
                    <p>Brusilovsky (2001) reviews the field of adaptive hypermedia. Adaptive
                        hypermedia systems build a model of the goals, preferences and knowledge of
                        the individual user and use this model during user interaction in order to
                        adapt the hypertext to the user's needs. Important application areas are
                        adaptive educational hypermedia and systems for managing personalized views
                        in information spaces. In this paper, we outline how topic maps can be used
                        to support the development process and maintenance of adaptive
                        hypertexts.</p>
                    <p>Document grammars define the structure of XML or SGML annotations using a
                        schema language. They can be used to check the validity of a document. The
                        oldest schema language is used for expressing document type definitions
                        (DTDs). Recently, a number of new schema languages have evolved in this
                        field, most of which use an XML syntax (Cagle et al. 2001). It can be
                        beneficial to formally express the relationships between two or more
                        document grammars. In the case of DTDs, these relationships can be described
                        using XML or SGML architectures as defined in an annex of ISO 10744
                        (HyTime). We will show how topic maps can be used to model relationships
                        between different document grammars, abstracting from the schema language in
                        which they are expressed.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Description of the model</head>
                    <figure/>
                    <p>Our model can be employed to describe and perform a transformation of a
                        collection of documents into a new one, taking into account a specific
                        context. In the following we speak of the <emph rend=""italics"">initial
                            document collection</emph> (or the <emph rend=""italics"">corpus</emph>)
                        and the <emph rend=""italics"">generated document collection</emph>. The model
                        is based on a three-level information architecture (see figure), consisting
                        of <list>
                            <item>1. the <emph rend=""italics"">document level</emph>: a corpus of
                                annotated documents,</item>
                            <item>2. the <emph rend=""italics"">conceptual level</emph>: a knowledge
                                net, modelling relationships between the documents (or parts of
                                annoted documents) in the form of a topic map, and</item>
                            <item>3. the <emph rend=""italics"">application context level</emph>:
                                information about the context in which the transformation is to take
                                place. For example, in the case of adaptive hypertext, this level
                                contains the user model.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>A set of rules describes how the new document collection is to be generated
                        from the corpus, taking into account the state of the knowledge net and the
                        application context.</p>
                    <p>We use XML and related technologies for the implementation of this model.
                        This allows us to use and produce documents in the web context, and to apply
                        available tools (parsers, browsers, generators, validators). We assume that
                        all model components be expressed declaratively in an XML syntax: the
                        initial document collection, the topic map (Pepper &amp; Moore 2001),
                        the information about the application context, and the rule language.</p>
                    <p>By expressing the rules in a declarative language instead of hard-coding them
                        into a programming language a level of abstraction is introduced. Each rule
                        can be regarded as a mapping which takes a condition (on XML documents) as
                        its input and produces an action (XML fragment) as its output. The
                        expressions allowed in the rules, and thus the type of transformation the
                        system is able to perform, are clearly defined by a document grammar.</p>
                    <p>The generation of documents is realized in two steps, comparable to the
                        implementation of the Schematron schema language (cf. Cagle et al. 2001, cp.
                        14). Each step is performed by an XSLT stylesheet. XSLT is a functional
                        programming language optimized for parsing and generating XML documents. The
                        first stylesheet takes the rules as its input and translates them into a
                        second XSLT stylesheet, i.e. it translates the abstract descriptions of
                        conditions and actions into an executable form. This second stylesheet takes
                        the initial document collection, the topic map, and the application context
                        information and generates the new document collection. This approach makes
                        the rules more compact, easier to understand, and easier to maintain than
                        program code.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Application A: Adaptive hypertexts</head>
                    <p>In the case of adaptive hypertexts, a collection of documents is tailored to
                        suit the user by adapting the content and the linking structure. Brusilovsky
                        (2001) describes a detailed taxonomy of the possible forms of adaptation,
                        which he calls adaptation techniques. Typically, the collection is filtered
                        (e.g., an expert of the domain sees other hypertext nodes and links as a
                        novice). Other adaptation techniques comprise sorting, visual annotation, or
                        ""dimming"" of links, as well as ""stretchtext"".</p>
                    <p>When we apply our model to the field of adaptive hypertext, the initial
                        document collection (on the document level) comprises all documents for
                        every type of user, whereas the generated document collection is a hypertext
                        adapted to one user. The relevant characteristics of that user are described
                        in the user model (application content level). For example, we could model
                        that users from a neighboring discipline ""know"" only certain concepts and
                        technical terms of the domain in question.</p>
                    <p>In the context of a project called HyTex (hypertext conversion based on
                        textgrammatical annotation, cf. Lenz &amp; Storrer 2002) which is part
                        of a joint research group ""Text-Technological Modelling of Information"", we
                        model technical terms of a subject domain together with their relationships
                        in the form of a topic map (conceptual level). Different views on the
                        subject domain (on its concepts, technical terms, on their relations to
                        other terms and to documents) can be modelled using various topic map
                        constructions. These views correspond to characteristics of the user
                        model.</p>
                    <p>The rules describe how an adapted hypertext is to be created from the initial
                        document collection taking into account the user model and the topic map.
                        The code that has to be generated will always be very similar for the same
                        adaptation technique, e.g. for dimmed links. In this case, we would allow
                        ""dimmed text"" as a possible action in the rule language, and implement the
                        code once in the XSLT stylesheet.</p>
                    <p>We benefit from this approach in the HyTex project, as it allows us to test
                        different strategies for text-to-hypertext conversion, which can readily be
                        expressed in the form of declarative rules. The model can thus serve as a
                        tool in the area of hypertext research.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Application B: Expressing and processing relations between document
                        grammars</head>
                    <p>XML and SGML architectures (architectural forms definition requirements,
                        AFDR) allow one to express relations between two DTDs, a meta DTD and a
                        client DTD. They have been used in areas relevant to the humanities (Simons
                        1999). Software that can process architectures can automatically transform a
                        document annotated according to the client DTD into a document instance of
                        the meta DTD. This process is called derivation. Examples of use
                            include:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>filtering document content,</item>
                            <item>filtering markup (e.g., transforming a richly annotated corpus
                                into a corpus with annotations specialized for a certain
                                purpose),</item>
                            <item>modifying markup (e.g., translating tag names from german to
                                english), and</item>
                            <item>changing attributes into elements and vice versa.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>On the poster, we will show how document grammars - not only DTDs - and their
                        relationships can be expressed using a topic map, and how to apply our model
                        to generate derivations.</p>
                    <p>In this application scenario for our model, the initial document collection
                        contains documents annotated according to the ""client"" document grammar. The
                        generated (""derived"") document collection will be annotated according to the
                        ""meta"" document grammar. The following steps have to be performed:<list
                            type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>Translating the document grammars into a topic map (conceptual
                                level). This can be done automatically, e.g. using XSLT, when the
                                document grammar has an XML syntax.</item>
                            <item>Modeling the relations between the document grammars in the topic
                                map (conceptual level).</item>
                            <item>Specifying which documents are to be derived according to which
                                document grammar (application context level).</item>
                            <item>Describing the translation process by means of the rule
                                language.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>Application B models the set of relations between document grammars as
                        defined in the AFDR, but our model allows for the extension of this limited
                        set.</p>
                    <p>This application of our model is used in the context of the project
                        ""Secondary information structuring and comparative discourse analysis"" (cf.
                        Sasaki et al. 2002). This project is also part of the joint research group
                        already mentioned.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Conclusion</head>
                    <p>We have described a model based on topic maps designed for a declarative
                        description of a document collection and transformations on that collection
                        in an application context. We have presented two important fields of
                        application for this model, but we assume that its application can be
                        extended to other areas relevant to the humanities.</p>
                </div>
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        </body>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Paul</forename>
                        <surname>Meurer</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">University of Bergen</name>
                            <email>paul.meurer@hit.uib.no</email>
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                        <forename type=""middle"">Michael</forename>
                        <surname>Sperberg-McQueen</surname>
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                    <p>Mots 15 is an interactive Web-based concordance or full-text retrieval system
                        built mostly out of off-the-shelf software.</p>
                    <p>The goals of the Mots-15 project are:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>to build a reasonably capable full-text retrieval system, with
                                functionality generally similar to Tact, ARRAS, and the like, but
                                with better markup awareness</item>
                            <item>to keep minimum investment low for both implementors and users</item>
                            <item>to allow experimentation with interesting parts of the query
                                system</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>From these design goals follow several design principles:<list
                            type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>simplicity of implementation</item>
                            <item>use of off-the-shelf components wherever possible</item>
                            <item>modularity, loose coupling among modules using predefined
                                interfaces wherever possible</item>
                        </list></p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>1. Basic interfaces in a query system</head>
                    <div>
                        <head>1.1. Monoliths</head>
                        <p>At a very simple level, an interactive query system simply accepts
                            queries from a user, which return responses from the data. In systems
                            like Arras and Tact, the single monolithic software package controls
                            everything in the diagram.</p>
                        <figure>
                            <head>Image 1: A monolithic query system </head>
                        </figure>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>1.2. Web interface</head>
                        <p>With the advent of graphical browsers for the World Wide Web, however, it
                            is possible to provide a fairly attractive interface at a much lower
                            cost than would otherwise be possible. It may still make sense to devise
                            special-purpose user interface software for specific purposes, but we
                            can go a long way without it, just relying on the users to have chosen a
                            Web browser they like reasonably well. The Web, that is, exposes an
                            interface between the user interface and the data in the back end.</p>
                        <figure>
                            <head>Image 2: A Web-based query system</head>
                        </figure>
                        <p>This interface sets certain limits to our freedom  we must now use HTML
                            to describe what the user sees (we can use arbitrary XML if we are
                            willing to require that the user have an XML-capable browser) and the
                            user's interactions with the server are limited to what can be done
                            using HTML forms (and possibly a browser scripting language like
                            Javascript)  but within those limits we can develop better user
                            interfaces at a lower cost than if we were building from scratch.</p>
                        <p>Even more important, we can now swap front- and back-ends in and out. We
                            can experiment with different user interfaces by writing different
                            front-end forms and HTML style sheets. In theory, we can also experiment
                            with different back ends by substituting one for the other and using the
                            same front end; in practice, the existing systems built on this model
                            don't easily allow for swapping different back ends in and out, because
                            the interface between the front end and the back end varies with the
                            specific product used as the back end. Because different commercial
                            products rarely support identical interfaces, this means it's rarely
                            possible to swap a new back end in with minimal effort.</p>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>1.3. Mots 15</head>
                        <p>The Mots 15 system differs from the generic Web-based system primarily by
                            exposing a generic query interface in front of the back-end-specific
                            query interface, in order to buffer the front end and back end from each
                            other.</p>
                        <figure>
                            <head>Image 3: Basic plan of MOTS query system </head>
                        </figure>
                        <p>Ideally, this generic query interface should follow some open
                            specification; ideally, it should provide all the functionality we want
                            (to keep life simple), and no more (so that it is easy to build back
                            ends if we want to do it ourselves); the exact choice depends on the
                            tradeoff between these incompatible goals.</p>
                        <p>Assuming that we have some suitable query language, and a way to
                            translate from it into the query language of the back end, then any XML
                            query engine may be used as back end.</p>
                        <p>A SQL dbms may be the most flexible back end. The design made by MSM for
                            this would involve a few light-weight scripts which run on top of the
                            SQL database system. The SQL system itself would in this design produce
                            not elements but element pointers, which would be used to extract the
                            elements from a saved copy of the XML file.</p>
                        <p>The task of translating from the open query language to the proprietary
                            back end query language is, of course, simplified if the back end
                            accepts the open query language itself.</p>
                        <p>Another alternative would be using the corpus management system Corpus
                            WorkBench (IMS, Stuttgart) as the MOTS back end, possibly combined with
                            an XML query facility. This would allow for more advanced linguistic
                            queries.</p>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>2. Pieces of Mots 15</head>
                    <p>Mots 15 is designed to make it relatively simple to specify and implement
                        each piece of the system. The better we succeed in this goal, the easier it
                        will be for us to experiment with different parts of the system, and the
                        easier it will be for eventual users to customize it for their own purposes.
                        Eventually, the designers hope that Mots 15 will grow into a library of
                        reusable and customizable pieces, which individuals and small projects can
                        modify to make useful special-purpose systems.</p>
                    <p>The Mots 15 design requires the following pieces of software:<list
                            type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>browser: an off-the-shelf Web browser; this handles the actual
                                display of results on the user's screen and interaction with the
                                user</item>
                            <item>forms: one or more HTML forms which allow the user to specify
                                searches; these produce an HTML-forms data stream which the parser
                                hands to an appropriate CGI script</item>
                            <item>form-to-query translator: a program to translate the forms data
                                into a query, expressed in the open query language</item>
                            <item>query-to-query translator: a program to translate the query from
                                the open query language into the query language supported by the
                                back end</item>
                            <item>back end: a program, which accepts queries in some (possibly
                                proprietary) query language and returns as results e.g. some set of
                                XML elements</item>
                            <item>wrapper: a program which takes the results and places them in
                                two-level wrapper: (a) an outermost mots:result XML element and (b)
                                an element depending on the hit type wrapped around each hit, each
                                with attributes providing useful information about the query and its
                                results</item>
                            <item>XML-to-HTML translator: a program which takes the wrapped results
                                and translates them into HTML suitable for display in the user's
                                off-the-shelf browser</item>
                            <item>transaction manager: a CGI script to manage the query/response
                                transaction, by calling (or incorporating) the various other
                                programs in this list; it may also be responsible for session
                                management</item>
                        </list>
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>3. Open problems and opportunities</head>
                    <p>The existing implementation of Mots15 (as of November 2001) is a minimal
                        system with<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>a choice of several simple Web interfaces</item>
                            <item>support for straightforward XML documents only</item>
                            <item>XSLT stylesheets for XML-HTML translation</item>
                            <item>a limited (XPath based) query language, extended with word
                                frequency queries</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>There are several obvious challenges for the future development of Mots
                            15:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>serious Web interface (room for experiment)</item>
                            <item>XML++ support </item>
                            <item>display of parallel versions, textual variation </item>
                            <item>external and user supplied annotation </item>
                            <item>proximity searching</item>
                            <item>exploiting grammatical annotation of text</item>
                            <item>supporting documents with overlap (i.e. TexMECS)</item>
                            <item>allowing users to search as if the text were marked up more simply
                                than it is (e.g. with a uniform chapter/section/paragraph/sentence
                                hierarchy)</item>
                            <item>supporting more powerful back ends (either by means of wormholes
                                in the open query language, or by means of a second interface)</item>
                            <item>managing selection of texts from a corpus or collection; federated
                                searches</item>
                        </list></p>
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            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>References</head>
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                            <title level=""a"">Using the World-Wide Web to Deliver Complex Electronic Documents: Implications for Libraries</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">Public-Access Computer Systems Review</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol"">5</biblScope>
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                                <biblScope type=""pp"">5-21</biblScope>
                                <date when=""1994"">1994</date>
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                        </monogr><note><ptr target=""http://jpw.umdl.umich.edu/pubs/yale.html"" />.</note>
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                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">John</forename>
                               <surname>Price-Wilkin</surname></name></author>
                            <title level=""a"">A Gateway between the World Wide Web and PAT: Exploring SGML Through the Web</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
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                            <title level=""a"">The Feasibility of Wide-area Textual Analysis Systems in Libraries: A Practical Analysis</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""u"">Presented at Literary Texts in an Electronic Age: Scholarly Implications and Library Services, the 31st Annual Clinic on Library Applications of Data Processing (University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign). April 10-12, 1994</title>
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                        </monogr><note><ptr target=""http://jpw.umdl.umich.edu/pubs/dpc.html"" />. Published in the Proceedings of the Clinic. <title level=""m"">Gateway between the World Wide Web and PAT: Exploring SGML Through the Web</title>.</note></biblStruct>
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                            <author><name><forename type=""first"">John</forename>
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                            <title level=""a"">Just-in-time Conversion, Just-in-case Collections: Effectively leveraging rich document formats for the WWW</title>
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                            <title level=""j"">D-Lib Magazine</title>
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                                <date when=""1997"">May 1997</date>
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                    </biblStruct>
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"233","3","Document management system for supporting historians","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Document management system for supporting historians</title>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Hiromasa</forename>
                        <surname>Nakatani</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Shizuoka University</name>
                            <email>nakatani@cs.inf.shizuoka.ac.jp</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Yukihiro</forename>
                        <surname>Itoh</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Shizuoka University</name>
                            <email>itoh@cs.inf.shizuoka.ac.jp</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
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                        <forename type=""first""/>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                    <p>Computer assistance in historical documents in the format of official
                        documents, memorandums, or personal diaries still has problems to be solved.
                        In this paper, we discuss the point of managing text documents in history,
                        and construct a system that suffices the research style of historians. We
                        investigate research styles of historians in view of their computer use, and
                        present a system for supporting researchers in history. Our system stores
                        historical stories and materials concerning an event called ""Eejanaika""
                        (Fig. 1) [1-3]. The eccentric event happened from place to place in central
                        Japan in 1867, triggered by a scattering of protecting charms of shrines.
                        Clouds danced around with the refrain ""Eejanaika,"" that means ""who cares?""
                        in Japanese, and some of them escalated into a state of chaos [4].</p>
                    <figure>
                        <head>Eejanaika database</head>
                    </figure>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Subjects and key points for computer assistance for history</head>
                    <p>By interviewing historians, we investigate the procedure that historians
                        follow for their research, and summarize key subjects in introducing
                        computers to historical research.</p>
                    <p>First key subject is in difficulty in extracting necessary information from
                        historical documents. Even if a historian gathered all the necessary
                        documents, it is difficult to find out necessary parts for his/her
                        particular topic. To solve this problem, we have to tackle the following subjects:<list>
                            <item>1-1 How to organize such information that can distinguish
                                necessary documents from unnecessary ones.</item>
                            <item>1-2 How to make a system function that can retrieve necessary
                                information from large volumes of those documents.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>Note that historians retrieve the data based on their experiences and their
                        subjective judgments. Here we have two problems:<list>
                            <item>2-1 How to classify the documents based on their subjective
                                judgments.</item>
                            <item>2-2 How to organize the classification function in the
                            system.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>Second problem is in difficulty in surveying the retrieved data and
                        extracting useful information. When we use conventional media like notebooks
                        or cards to manage collected information, the type of information we can
                        deal with is restricted, and as the volumes become larger it becomes more
                        time-consuming and physically difficult to grasp the whole image. Here are
                        three problems:<list>
                            <item>3-1 What sort of space we should use for arranging all documents.</item>
                            <item>3-2 How to locate each document in the above space.</item>
                            <item>3-3 How to organize the display function to facilitate the
                                observer.</item>
                        </list></p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Implementation and data structure</head>
                    <p>We consider those subjects and apply our system to a historical event of
                        Eejanaika to evaluate the effectiveness of our system by verifying the
                        hypothesis given by a historian. Suppose that a historian gets an idea that
                        ""Eejanaika is such an extraordinary festival that was triggered by a
                        scattering of protecting charms of shrines and it came to chaos that was
                        inadmissible by the Establishment. At some places, on the other hand, those
                        phenomena were terminated in the acceptable state. Then, it is important to
                        classify those festivals into three types: (A) Festivals that reached chaos,
                        (B) Eccentric but terminated in the acceptable state, and (C) Only extension
                        or extra of regular festivals. It is also necessary to see the distribution
                        of those festivals on the map. I have an intuition that post-towns on main
                        roads fell into a state of chaos, but rural districts held just regular
                        festivals. Maybe that relates to the regional difference as regards degree
                        of distress, power of the Establishment, and strength of people's ego"". To
                        verify this hypothesis, the historian has to classify the festivals judging
                        by corresponding documents, make a map of the distribution of the festivals,
                        and grasp the whole image.</p>
                    <p>We investigate the above problems 1-1 through 3-3 in the case of Eejanaika
                        study.</p>
                    <p>1-1 Representation of key terms for retrieving necessary documents: When a
                        historian hits on the above hypothesis, the concept of three types of
                        Eejanaika is formed in their mind. Then related documents are collected for
                        finding out whether there really happened Eejanaika or not. However there
                        are few expressions in the documents that explicitly say, ""Eejanaika has
                        occurred."" Thus we should make a criterion that can judge whether the
                        document is relating to Eejanaika or not. For example, if Eejanaika occurred
                        in an area, such expressions appear in the official documents as ""protecting
                        charms scattered and people held a festival,"" ""Men were disguised in woman's
                        clothes and women in men's,"" ""dancing with nothing on,"" ""rice cakes and
                        moneys were scattered."" Thus we make a table of expressions with which the
                        system can determine whether or not the document is relating to the concept
                        that the historian has interest in.</p>
                    <table cols=""2"" rows=""8"">
                        <head>Table of expressions</head>
                        <row>
                            <cell role=""label"">Category</cell>
                            <cell role=""label"">expressions in documents</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Scattering</cell>
                            <cell>scattering, protecting charms</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Duration</cell>
                            <cell># days</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Yell</cell>
                            <cell>Eejanaika, Iijanaika</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Mood</cell>
                            <cell>excited, high, crazy, mad</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Degree</cell>
                            <cell>unheard-of, strange, amazing</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Clothes</cell>
                            <cell>disguise, naked, loincloth</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Things scattered</cell>
                            <cell>rice, rice cake</cell>
                        </row>
                    </table>
                    <p>1-2 Retrieving contents of document: The system retrieves the document by key
                        terms and makes document-characteristic tables that are assigned to a
                        pattern that expresses one of the above categories. An example of a
                        document-characteristic table that the system retrieved from an official
                        document of Arai-Town, vol.8, pp. 884 - 445, is shown in Table 2:</p>
                    <table cols=""2"" rows=""6"">
                        <head>Document-characteristic table</head>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Theme</cell>
                            <cell>Eejanaika</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Category</cell>
                            <cell>pattern of expression</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Duration</cell>
                            <cell>7 days</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Mood</cell>
                            <cell>crazy</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Degree</cell>
                            <cell>unheard-of</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Clothes</cell>
                            <cell>dressed as a man, loincloth</cell>
                        </row>
                    </table>
                    <p>2-1 Criterion for classifying the retrieved document: The system classifies
                        and organizes the document of interest. Here the system classifies
                        extraordinary festivals into three types using a tree structure for
                        classification.</p>
                    <p>2-2 Classification method: The system traverses the tree from its root to the
                        leaves and tries matching between each document-characteristic table and a
                        priori given model tables (Fig. 2).</p>
                    <figure>
                        <head>Classification tree</head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>3-1 Space for surveying the documents: We adopt three-dimensional space with
                        axes of time and location (latitude, longitude) for surveying the historical
                        documents.</p>
                    <p>3-2 Assign the time and location of the document: The system assigns the time
                        and location of the document by finding those expressions that relate to
                        time and location.</p>
                    <p>3-3 Function for displaying the space: The system has a function for showing
                        the distribution of documents in three-dimensional space.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Experiments</head>
                    <p>We show the effectiveness of our system by verifying the hypothesis. We built
                        a document database by extracting articles that describe events in 1867 from
                        official documents of cities and towns in Shizuoka and Aichi prefectures,
                        and the database consists of 50 articles relating to Eejanaika. First, to
                        verify the above hypothesis, Eejanaika documents classified into three types
                        are plotted on the then road maps (Fig. 3). That verifies most escalated
                        festivals range along the route of Tokaido and its connecting routes.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <head>Distribution of Eejanaika</head>
                    </figure>
                    <figure>
                        <head>Distribution of Eejanaika and Sukegou-Soudou riot</head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>Next hypothesis given by a historian is that ""Eejanaika might be caused by
                        public discontent that had been accumulated among people groaning under
                        tyranny and suffering crop failures. In that sense, Eejanaika was similar
                        phenomenon with 'Sukegou-Soudou' riot that happened almost at the same time
                        in the east of Aichi prefecture. A form of the event in the case of
                        Sukegou-Soudou riot is protest or subversion, while in the case of Eejanaika
                        it is festival.""</p>
                    <p>Using our system, we plot the records of Eejanaika with Sukegou-Soudou riot
                        (Fig. 4). In the map, x-marks stand for Sukegou-Soudou riot, and black dots
                        stand for violent ones. This map can extend following knowledge:<list>
                            <item>1. Toyohashi and Kariya districts had most violent riots, and
                                Eejanaika in both districts escalated into a state of chaos. The
                                first Eejanaika happened in Toyohashi.</item>
                            <item>2. Many violent Sukegou-Soudou riots happened in the districts
                                west of Toyokawa river, while that kind of riots scarcely happened
                                in the east. The situations of the oppression and the crop failures
                                were almost the same in both ereas. In the east, Eejanaika, instead
                                of Sukegou-Soudou riots, was triggered by scatterings of protecting
                                charms in the course of extraordinary festivals.</item>
                            <item>3. Eejanaika first happened in rural districts, where
                                Sukegou-Soudou riots happened, then spread over the neighboring
                                towns and all over the nearby districts.</item>
                            <item>4. Though both events were caused by the same mental state of the
                                public, Sukegou-Soudou riots mainly happened in rural districts
                                while Eejanaika in urban districts.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>Although historians have already pointed out the knowledge 1 to 4 without
                        using our system, they appreciate the functions of the system that make
                        their verifications clear and objective. Future work will be applications of
                        the system to other fields of history or the humanities.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
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            <div type=""bibiliography"">
                <head>Bibliography</head>
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            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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                <p>Textual metadata is widely and extensively supported in various encoding schemes,
                    from the most basic representations such as Simplified Dublin Core to the almost
                    limitless extensions supported by the Text Encoding Initiative. Defined as
                    ""structured data about data"" metadata functions, in both computerized and
                    non-computerized (such as printed library card catalogues) primarily as means to
                    manage and find information resources. The limits of what might be considered
                    metadata, or more specifically textual metadata, are hazy. Many scholars in the
                    human sciences have used data about text, which might not typically be
                    considered to be metadata, to further analytical objectives. In my own work for
                    example, I have used data about the production and distribution of printed books
                    and the performance of plays to examine ""reader response"" to texts and to track
                    the ""consumption"" of text in social, cultural and political contexts.<note n=""1""
                        >[1] For example, Mark Olsen and Louis-Georges Harvey, ""Reading in
                        Revolutionary Times: Book Borrowing from the Harvard College Library,
                        1773-1782,"" in <title level=""j"">Harvard Library Bulletin</title> (1993):
                        57-72 and Emmet Kennedy, et. al. <title level=""m"">Theatre, Opera, and
                            Audiences in Revolutionary Paris: Analysis and Repertory</title>
                        (Greenwood Press, 1996).</note> Rich textual metadata may serve as more than
                    a vital means to manage and find information, but act as a basis for a variety
                    of analytical functions and focus attention back to questions regarding the
                    nature of textuality.</p>
                <p>This paper will first address extensions to the textual object model under
                    PhiloLogic, the ""chunky soup model""<note n=""2"">[2] Leonid Andreev et al,
                        ""Re-engineering a War Machine: ARTFL's <title level=""m""
                        >Encyclopédie</title>"" in <title level=""j"">Literary and Linguistic
                        Computing</title> Vol 14, No. 1 1999, pp. 11-28.</note>, in which all
                    elements of textual databases from words to documents may be considered to be
                    objects with attributes. The utility of this model will be demonstrated by
                    reference to databases produced by Alexander Street Press in conjunction with
                    the University of Chicago, which combine a wide array of metadata, full text
                    tools, and hypermedia integration. Finally, the ability to manage an almost
                    unlimited array of textual metadata poses a set of questions about the nature
                    and organization of text and metadata.</p>
                <p>PhiloLogic is a modular system, in which a textbase is really a set of
                    coordinated or related databases, typically including an object database, a word
                    forms database, a word concordance index mapped to textual objects, and an
                    object manager mapping text objects to byte offsets in data files. Each of these
                    databases is stored and managed using its own subsystem. To support a rich
                    textual metadata, I implemented a perl/SQL object manager containing one or more
                    SQL tables with full relational capabilities between them, linked by unique
                    object identifiers to the text data. This unique key is, in most
                    implementations, a logical address of the object. Typically, these are defined
                    in a hierarchy descending from a document down to a word, without reference in
                    the object mapper, to the type of object -- book, chapter, article, dictionary
                    entry, poem, verse, sentence, etc. -- allowing for searching of words in
                    selected objects and navigation up and down the hierarchy. The independence of
                    the object hierarchy from the data associated with it allows for query driven
                    access to any object at any level. Equally, this model supports creation of
                    multiple metadata representations to support different query capabilities into
                    the same textual database.</p>
                <p>The paragraph in Diderot's <title level=""m"">Encyclopédie</title>, for example,
                    containing the phrase <emph rend=""italics"">étincelles lumineuses</emph> has the
                    logical address: 35:78:0:51, being the 51st child object of the 78th top level
                    object, of the 35th file (or document). The metadata associated with this object
                    is stored in an SQL table points to 35:78 indicating that it is the main article
                        <emph rend=""italics"">Electricité</emph>, by d'Aumont, in the class of
                    knowledge <emph rend=""italics"">Physique</emph>, and is associated with the page
                    object 35:43, the 43rd page object (not the page number which is stored in a
                    related table) of the 35th file. In some databases, an individual file would
                    correspond to a text or document, but this is not required since document
                    definition is built dynamically from the metadata. This model may be extended to
                    any depth of object and associate an arbitrary amount of metadata to any
                    particular object. One may also create of multiple, related, metadata tables to
                    permit handling objects of different granularity and definition.
                    Chadwick-Healy's English Poetry database, for example, may be defined as a
                    collection of volumes of poetry, with the typical metadata, such as author,
                    title of the volume, date of publication. A second ""look"" into the same database
                    may associate a different SQL table to individual poems, including year of
                    composition, title, and type of poem. The poem ""Vpon a Diamond cutt in forme...""
                    in <title level=""m"">The English and Latin Poems of Sir Robert Ayton...</title>
                    is identified as object 1143:1:44 in the database. Two automatically generated
                    SQL tables support different ""looks"" into the database, one as ""books of poetry""
                    and one as individual ""poems"", with data corresponding to the level of
                    representation related by unique object identifier.</p>
                <p>The collaboration between the University of Chicago and Alexander Street Press
                    (ASP) to develop large and important textual databases with unprecedented levels
                    of metadata allowed me to implement, test and refine many of PhiloLogic's object
                    and metadata handling capabilities. The currently released databases, <emph
                        rend=""italics"">North American Women's Letters and Diaries</emph> (currently
                    14,700 documents, with a final projected size of over 40,000) and <emph
                        rend=""italics"">Civil War Letters and Diaries</emph> --and those under
                    development including <emph rend=""italics"">Early Encounters in North
                    America</emph>, <emph rend=""italics"">Black Drama</emph>, and <emph
                        rend=""italics"">American Film Scripts Online</emph> -- are each composed of
                    many SQL metadata tables containing of anywhere from 30 to well over 100 fields,
                    associated with textual materials in various ways.</p>
                <p>Complementing normal kinds of metadata one would expect, such as author, date,
                    genre, the editors of each database select different kinds of metadata to be
                    included in the database. Some of these extend direct descriptions of the text,
                    such as the social context of composition, occupation or social status of the
                    author, names of battles or tribes, flora and fauna described, and so on. The
                    databases also make use of extensive document indexing, such as subject,
                    geographic, historical, personal events, and other controlled terminology
                    descriptions of the contents of each document or object. Thus, for example, one
                    can find or search documents referring to Lincoln's assassination where neither
                    the word ""Lincoln"" nor ""assassination"" appear. The full paper will present
                    examples of the interaction of rich metadata and full text searching to
                    illustrate the utility of the object model in PhiloLogic and specific
                    theoretical issues.</p>
                <p>The textual object model allows creation of multiple tables to support different
                    looks into a textual database. Tables of chronological events may have data or
                    descriptions regarding battles or encounters with native tribes. Tables of
                    authors, might include number of children or number of marriages, military rank
                    or age at death. These tables may include heterogeneous data types that might
                    not be typically considered to be textual metadata, such as winners and losers
                    of Civil War battles, commanding generals, and even the number of combatants and
                    losses.</p>
                <p>Rich metadata also allows for greater flexibility definition of documents and how
                    texts may be dynamically constructed. To date, ASP implementations are based on
                    relatively small document segments as a basic unit of analysis. Rich metadata
                    allows these small segments to be multi-threaded, providing an arbitrary number
                    of lines of document definition and sequence, including the order in which
                    documents are published in source volumes, letters to and from particular
                    authors across published accounts, or sequence descriptions of particular events
                    such as battles or encounters. Such threading may also serve as a means for
                    handling hypertext/media relations, from one object to another.</p>
                <p>The textual object model outlined here blurs the distinctions between text and
                    context, data and metadata. Metadata may well be found in places least expected,
                    not limited to headers. Consider the type attribute of a line group
                        tag<lb/><eg>&lt;lg type=""Epithalamion""&gt;</eg></p>
                <p>It appears outside of a header but might be considered to be metadata because it
                    is structured data, subsequently added, about the nature of the data contained
                    in the line group. In the textual object model this would be accessed in the
                    same way as any other metadata object, as an element in an SQL table. A rich
                    textual metadata environment opens significant editorial and analytical freedom
                    regarding the appropriate contexts for particular views of textual material and
                    how these might be associated as metadata.</p>
                <p>The ability to manage practically unlimited amounts of multi-tiered metadata in
                    an object oriented model might serve as an example of the intersection of
                    humanities computing and digital librarianship. By adopting and extending
                    indexing practiced by librarians, to include information not typically
                    considered textual metadata, with fulltext analysis from humanities computing,
                    we can further the goals of improving access to materials and introduce new
                    analytical capabilities to large textbases.</p>
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                <p>This project was developed for a very practical reason. I was sitting down to
                    read a text in German, a language in which I have some facility but no great
                    fluency. When studying classical languages, I was schooled in a straightforward
                    technique that can apply to any foreign literary text: it entails looking up
                    unknown words in a dictionary or lexicon as I go, and writing an apparatus (in
                    pencil on note paper) to help me put it all together in rereadings. After some
                    years of (fairly feeble) practice, I have even refined this process somewhat:
                    the apparatus takes the form of two separate texts, a running vocabulary and a
                    translation. A running vocabulary, of course, takes the simple form of a
                    glossary, listed in order of the appearance of glossed words or phrases in the
                    original (thus facilitating reference to them when rereading). The translation
                    provides a record of the larger sense of sentences and passages.</p>
                <p>Of course, sitting down to do this recently I found the work both as laborious
                    and as inefficient as I had when trying to learn languages as an undergraduate.
                    Reflecting on the shortcomings of my process -- and comparing these methods to
                    the methods of others who, I imagined, were better language students -- I came
                    up with a design for a set of XML-based tools that I thought would help lighten
                    the sheer ""toil factor"" of the exercise, letting me concentrate on the reading.
                    My objective was twofold:<list>
                        <item>1. Make it easy to transcribe my apparatus in a standards-based,
                            non-proprietary electronic form tractable for automated processing;</item>
                        <item>2. Provide this format with a reading interface that would make
                            consulting the text and apparatus easier than the old paper-based,
                            back-and-forth, page-to-notes process I was used to. It should be
                            lightweight and easy to use.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>The results of this effort may be seen on my web site at <ptr
                        target=""http://www.piez.org/wendell/Amsel/Amsel.html""/>. It works like
                        this:<list type=""bulleted"">
                        <item>A native-language version of the text under study (in the prototype,
                            Robert Musil's German-language short story ""Die Amsel"") appears in a
                            panel to the left of the screen. Certain terms in the text are
                            highlighted by appearing in a different color.</item>
                        <item>Roving a mouse over a highlighted (""flagged"") text and letting it sit
                            for a second pops up a small ""tool tip"" for a moment. An
                            English-language translation or short gloss of the word or phrase is
                            provided.</item>
                        <item>Also, if you click on the text, a running translation (in English) of
                            the sentence or clause you have clicked on appears in the right-hand
                            panel of the screen.</item>
                        <item>The entire running translation (right-hand panel) may be ""toggled"" on
                            and off by clicking on it. Roving your mouse over it also provides
                            visual cues lining up the sentences or clauses in the original with the
                            translation.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>The idea is that the English apparatus (the scholia or ""trot"") is unobtrusive and
                    easy to make disappear; but is readily accessible using just a mouse roll-over
                    or click whenever the reader wants it.</p>
                <p>Because the interface relies on scripting that employs both CSS2 and the W3C DOM
                    API (Level 2), only a new DOM-compliant web browser will render the page
                    properly. Internet Explorer 5+ is sufficient, albeit with a couple of small
                    features not supported. Netscape 6.2 works the best among browsers I have tested
                    (available versions of IE or NN; I have not tested Opera at the time of
                    writing). Unfortunately, Netscape version 4.x does not support the W3C DOM and
                    can't provide the reading functionalities that are the point of this project.
                    Upgrade your browser to one that supports a standard document object model!</p>
                <p>In addition to this HTML reader's interface, I have an authoring environment
                    configured for SoftQuad XMetaL, a commercially-available XML structured editing
                    tool. With its strong customization and macro features, XMetaL facilitates
                    composing these texts with a minimum of fuss. (Notwithstanding this, the project
                    is not at all dependent on XMetaL, as the source tag set is designed to be
                    simple enough to create even in a text editor with minimal support for XML.)</p>
                <p>Of course, after inital prototyping had satisfied me that these basic goals were
                    achievable, I added several subordinate goals, including (but not limited
                        to):<list type=""bulleted"">
                        <item>Base the encoding on a TEI-compatible format. Starting with TEI I am
                            able to get a head start with stylesheets and tool configuration, while
                            potentially easing interchange (and helping other users who may also
                            know TEI).</item>
                        <item>Demonstrate the utility of W3C DOM interface scripting on the client
                            beyond simply adding gloss, jazz or ""dancing bologna"" to a web page:
                            here it provides an application with an actual real-world use (the study
                            of literature in a foreign language) at least for one user (me), and
                            hints at others (since the process model and even tagging could be
                            fairly readily adapted to other uses).</item>
                        <item>Demonstrate some practical advantages of a two-tier publishing model.
                            The complex and cumbersome HTML presentation code does not have to be
                            written by hand, but instead is generated out of an XML source whose
                            design is optimized for authoring. Novice learners of XML markup should
                            be able to create the texts. Teams of students and scholars can break up
                            the work of creating the texts, and yet share access to them.</item>
                        <item>Demonstrate how XML-based transformation technologies enable all these
                            benefits while providing for a measure of interoperability with other
                            uses and forms of electronic text (especially, in this case, TEI texts);
                            and yet illuminate the tradeoffs and design challenges that this
                            objective poses.</item>
                    </list>
                </p>
                <p>I named this project ""Scholia"", which applies to the architecture as a whole and
                    to its component parts (as described below). But any of these components could
                    be switched out for an improved or adapted equivalent without changing the basic
                    design, thus making the Scholia application somewhat like my grandfather's axe.
                    (Even though my father changed the shaft and I changed the head, it's my
                    grandfather's axe.)</p>
                <p>In detail, the architecture is as follows:<list>
                        <item>A formal document model (TEI-derived) taking the form of a custom XML
                            DTD along with a related SGML DTD written in TEI P3-compatible form.
                            (The SGML DTD is a close superset of the XML DTD, which is considered to
                            be normative.) Either DTD can be used for structural validation, which
                            in itself is enough to assure referential integrity of cross-references
                            in the output (thus cross-references do not need to be encoded
                            explicitly).</item>
                        <item>A small set of extra-DTD parameters for ""driving"" and/or configuring
                            the function of the (DOM/DHTML) output, described in related
                            documentation, and capable of being validated with an XSLT stylesheet.</item>
                        <item>One or more XML documents, such as my prototype ""Amsel"", conforming to
                            the models and extra-DTD constraints.</item>
                        <item>An XSLT stylesheet that can be used to transform an XML Scholia
                            document into HTML, for viewing in a DOM-compliant web browser. (The
                            conversion can be run either in batch mode, allowing a server to deliver
                            HTML, or dynamically on a client machine.)</item>
                        <item>An HTML page, whose design is determined by the stylesheet, proving
                            source text with the reading interface. This is what readers (students
                            of the text) will work with.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>Optional components of the architecture include:<list type=""bulleted"">
                        <item>Stylesheets to create other reading versions, for example annotated or
                            parallel texts in print;</item>
                        <item>A transformation that would enable Scholia-compliant texts to be
                            written out in strict TEI interchange format;</item>
                        <item>A transformation that would ""scrub"" any arbitrary TEI text into a form
                            suitable for marking up with new scholia;</item>
                        <item>A supplementary transformation that would enable the conversion of
                            ""repository"" or ""interchange"" versions into the scripted HTML reading
                            version (or other reading/browsing versions);</item>
                        <item>Transformations that would filter Scholia-compliant texts into other
                            forms, for example to facilitate web- or email-based collaboration in
                            writing them;</item>
                        <item>A ""unified"" interface for composition and reading, potentially
                            web-based, for example using forms or editing capabilities of modern
                            browsers and the latest DOM standards.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>But with the exception of a few ""quality control"" transformations, none of these
                    exist at the time of writing; nor may any of them be strictly necessary to the
                    success of the project (and so I propose to implement them only if and as there
                    is a practical demand of some kind).</p>
                <p>At ACH/ALLC 2002, my paper, poster or demonstration will include:<list
                        type=""bulleted"">
                        <item>A concise review of project goals, non-goals and requirements;</item>
                        <item>A demonstration of the Scholia reading interface (in the Netscape 6.2
                            and IE5.5 web browsers),</item>
                        <item>A demonstration of an authoring interface (using SoftQuad's XMetaL)
                            along with (if time permits), an alternative ""low end"" authoring
                            interface (using a plain text editor),</item>
                        <item>A presentation of the enhancements or ""layer"" on top of TEI that
                            provides the authoring document model, with discussion of the design
                            principles applied and decisions made, along with the rationales for
                            those decisions in the light of requirements.</item>
                        <item>Any attention to the ""guts"" of the DOM scripting and XSLT
                            transformations that time may allow.</item>
                    </list></p>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Element classes in contextually specified document
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                        <forename type=""first"">Felix</forename>
                        <surname>Sasaki</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Bielefeld</name>
                            <email>felix.sasaki@uni-bielefeld.de</email>
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                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
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                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
                    </name>
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                    </name>
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                    <head>Introduction</head>
                    <p>A common problem in the design of document grammars is to define a content
                        model which is not too specific, but also not too general. Within the
                        framework of DTDs, the user is able to specify the content model of an
                        element like this:<lb/>
                        <eg>&lt;!ELEMENT word (prefix*, stem+, suffix*)&gt;</eg></p>
                    <p>This declaration is general enough to annotate word structure in languages
                        with a agglutination system. But it is not possible to divide words in
                        several classes, for example a class with words owning one obligatory prefix
                        or a class with words for which the prefix is optional. If one is able to
                        define the classes before the process of document creation starts, the
                        problem might be solved with declarations like the following:<lb/>
                        <eg>&lt;!ELEMENT word1 (prefix, stem+,suffix*)&gt; 
                            &lt;!ELEMENT word2 (prefix?, stem+,suffix*)&gt;</eg></p>
                    <p>Three problems remain. First, the user might want to use just one element for
                        words, not a single declaration for each class of word structures. Second,
                        the classes might be not defined by the content model, but by the context in
                        which they appear. An example would be an adjective as an predicate ('Das
                        Bier ist kalt') vs. adjectives as noun modifiers ('das kalte Bier'), which
                        show different inflectional patterns. Third, the classification of elements
                        might emerge during the annotation process or while analyzing the document.
                        For software or the user, this is too late to change the document
                    grammar.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Approach of this paper</head>
                    <p>To solve these problems, a conceptual and physical separation has to be made.
                        The document grammar, written within the DTD format or using other schema
                        languages, contains the most general declaration of a content model like the
                        one above. Another document contains the declaration of element classes,
                        defining alternative structural restrictions for the same elements, i.e.
                        putting restrictions on their context in the document structure. The
                        structure of such a document can be as follows:
                        <lb/><eg>&lt;classlist mode=""default""&gt;
                            
                            &lt;class scopus=""word""&gt;
                            
                            &lt;caterpillar&gt;
                            
                            &lt;moveTest direction=""First""&gt;prefix&lt;/moveTest&gt;
                            
                            &lt;/caterpillar&gt;
                            
                            &lt;/class&gt;
                            
                            &lt;class scopus=""word""&gt;
                            
                            &lt;caterpillar&gt;
                            
                            &lt;moveTest direction=""First""&gt;&lt;/moveTest&gt;
                            
                            &lt;/caterpillar&gt;
                            
                            &lt;caterpillar&gt;
                            
                            &lt;moveTest direction=""first""&gt;prefix&lt;/moveTest&gt;
                            
                            &lt;/caterpillar&gt;
                            
                            &lt;/class&gt;
                            
                            &lt;/classlist&gt;
                            </eg></p>
                    <p>This document we may call 'class specification document' (CSD). It is
                        declaring caterpillar expressions, a context specification technique (cf.
                        Brüggemann-Klein et al. 2000) which is working with basic moves
                        (up,left,right,first) and basic tests (isFirst, isLast, isLeaf, isRoot). The
                        caterpillars are organized in classes. Two classes are necessary to divide
                        the content models above: the first class holds for the word1-content model,
                        the second class for the word2-content model. The ""scopus"" element defines
                        to which element the classes are applied. The meaning of the ""mode""
                        attribute will be explained below.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Areas of usage: Validation, generation and exploration of classes</head>
                    <p>A CSD might be used in two ways. First, as a supplement to a valid document -
                        in the sense that the document follows the requirements made by a document
                        grammar -, the CSD can be used to test if the document is valid to some
                        element classes, too. Different to document grammars written in schema
                        languages like DTD or XML Schema (cf. Thompson et al. 01), this validation
                        process is working upon partial document structures, validating only element
                        classes declared in the CSD. Also, the classes contain several declarations
                        for the same element, so that a general type of the element can be defined
                        and several subtypes, which inherit the characteristics of the super-type.
                        For example, it is possible to define a general pattern for words, e.g. a
                        stem followed by an optional suffix, and several subtypes, e.g. a stem
                        followed by certain suffixes in certain orders.</p>
                    <p>Second, a CSD can also be used to generate classes. This process will be as
                        follows: The user defines some classes in a CSD and sets the attribute
                        ""mode"" to the value ""class generation"". The result will be a subset of
                        classes that is in accordance to the classes defined. This generation of
                        classes can be regarded as the exploration of an unknown domain. As in the
                        examples above, the morphological structure of unknown languages is often
                        explored using hypothesis about patterns common to many languages. A very
                        general document grammar representing such patterns could be the starting
                        point of research. With annotated corpora of the language, various
                        hypothesis about the structure might be formulated as a CSD and tested.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Related work</head>
                    <p>The approach of this paper is related to two fields of research, certain
                        annotation schemes and schema languages. In the first field, as a part of
                        the Text Encoding Initiative (Sperberg-McQueen et al. 1994), the proposal
                        for the declaration of feature structures is a useful approach for the
                        declaration of general data structures. The constructions allowed by a CSD
                        are - in one way - a subset of a feature structure. As a difference to
                        feature structures, a CSD allows for moves. Another set of annotation
                        schemes, specialized for dialogue annotation, was developed during the MATE
                        project. A special focus was put upon the annotation of relations between
                        certain levels of annotation, for example morphological units and dialogue
                        acts. The same is true for a CSD. The difference between these two
                        approaches is that in the MATE project, a single document contains only one
                        level of annotation, connected to other layers with pointing mechanisms like
                        XLink (DeRose et al. 2000).</p>
                    <p>In the second field, schema languages like Schematron seem to be very similar
                        to CSD. Schematron can be used in the same way, as an supplement for
                        validating documents with a method going beyond common schema languages. The
                        difference is that Schematron is making use of XPATH-expressions to validate
                        document structures. The advantage of XPATH (Clark et al. 1999) is the
                        ability to navigate to any place in the document structure. This seems to be
                        a disadvantage as well: with Schematron, it is not possible to write
                        grammars about documents in a formal sense, because the XPATH Syntax is too
                        unrestrictive. The CSD is restricted to the caterpillars as the only set of
                        expressions. This makes it possible to describe the execution of most of the
                        caterpillar expressions as deterministic, finite-state automata.</p>
                </div>
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            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>References</head>
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                        <note>See <ptr target=""http://www.ascc.net/xml/schematron/""/>.</note>
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                                (TEIP3)</title>
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                                    <forename type=""middle"">S.</forename>
                                    <surname>Thompson</surname>
                                </name>
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                                    <forename type=""first"">D.</forename>
                                    <surname>Beech</surname>
                                </name>
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                                    <surname>Mahoney</surname>
                                </name>
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                                    <forename type=""first"">N.</forename>
                                    <surname>Mendelsohn</surname>
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                            <edition>W3C Recommendation 2 May 2001</edition>
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                                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Grigori</forename>
                        <surname>Sidorov</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Center for Computing Research</name>, <name type=""org""
                                >National Polytechnic Institute</name>, Mexico
                                <email>sidorov@cic.ipn.mx</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Alexander</forename>
                        <surname>Gelbukh</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Center for Computing Research</name>, <name type=""org""
                                >National Polytechnic Institute</name>, Mexico
                                <email>elbukh@cic.ipn.mx</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Liliana</forename>
                        <surname>Chanona-Hernandez</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Center for Computing Research</name>, <name type=""org""
                                >National Polytechnic Institute</name>, Mexico
                                <email>lchanona@mail.com</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
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                        <surname/>
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                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
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                <div>
                    <head>Introduction</head>
                    <p>The problem of using Internet as a linguistic resource is very practical.
                        Internet has a vast number of documents, so there is a possibility to
                        extract many useful linguistic facts without much additional effort and
                        cost.</p>
                    <p>Usually, the Internet resources are viewed as something that should be
                        searched every time the data is needed, see, for example, the concept of
                        virtual corpus (Kilgariff, 2001). We suggest using Internet as a source of
                        linguistic data that is searched only once and the results of searches are
                        saved in a local computer without the necessity to repeat the whole process.
                        Still, the resulting texts neither can be a collection of all available
                        texts because of its size, nor the texts can be randomly chosen from
                        Internet because this does not guarantee the correct representation of
                        different text types, or words, or morphemes, etc.</p>
                    <p>Thus, it is necessary to develop criteria of a representative corpus, at
                        least, in some sense, i.e., to represent certain language features. In our
                        opinion, one of the possible criteria of a representative corpus is the
                        proportional representation of all wordforms that exist in the language.
                        Such a corpus is representative from the morphological or lexical points of
                        view, though it represents neither all varieties of syntactic structures,
                        nor, for example, different types of texts (like texts of different styles
                        or genres).</p>
                    <p>It is obvious that this criterion is good for typical Indo-European languages
                        though it may be not appropriate for languages of different types. For
                        example, in the agglutinative languages, where the words are composed of a
                        great number of morphemes, it is necessary to represent morphemes rather
                        than wordforms. The same happens with the polysynthetic languages. So, the
                        application of this criterion is limited to the languages with certain
                        morphological structure.</p>
                    <p>Further in the paper we first describe the basic steps of the system that is
                        used for compilation of the corpus and then describe its application to the
                        Spanish language.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>System's functioning</head>
                    <p>We adopted the point of view that the corpus is considered representative (in
                        our case, in morphological or lexical sense) if it has contexts for all
                        wordforms that exist in the language in some proportion (we are speaking
                        about wordforms derived from the words that are contained in usual
                        dictionaries). There are several possible ways to calculate the proportions,
                        thus, there are different strategies of context searches during corpus
                            compilation:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>To search equal number of contexts for each wordform.</item>
                            <item>To search equal number of contexts for each lemma. This means that
                                if lemmas that belong to different parts of speech have different
                                number of wordforms, then some wordforms will have much less
                                contexts than the others. It is possible to equalize the number of
                                contexts for wordforms taking into account parts of speech, but then
                                this strategy will be the same as the previous one.</item>
                            <item>To search wordforms in the proportion that corresponds to their
                                frequencies in texts. Maybe, it is necessary to take into account
                                parts of speech because words of different parts of speech have
                                different number of wordforms.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>We have chosen the last approach, for the time being ignoring parts of
                        speech. For Internet searches we used AltaVista search engine.</p>
                    <p>The system makes the following basic steps.<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>To obtain the initial list of words from an existing dictionary
                                (the head words are taken) or from a corpus. If it is necessary, the
                                words are normalized.</item>
                            <item>To generate all wordforms for each lemma.</item>
                            <item>To get from Internet the number of documents, containing each
                                wordform (AltaVista search).</item>
                            <item>To calculate the number of contexts for each wordform given a
                                fixed number of contexts for lemmas.</item>
                            <item>To get from Internet the URLs of the documents containing each
                                wordform (using AltaVista).</item>
                            <item>To load the documents using the found URLs.</item>
                            <item>To get the context for wordforms applying the criterion of the
                                ""acceptable"" contexts (the context has enough words, the words in
                                the different contexts are not repeated). The context size and the
                                criterion of the context acceptability are parameters of the
                            system.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>This system permits to calculate the number of contexts for each wordform
                        according to their frequencies in Internet and to obtain the real-world
                        contexts.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Application to Spanish</head>
                    <p>We developed software that implements the system described above. This
                        software was applied to the Spanish language.</p>
                    <p>First, we obtained a wordlist from the Spanish explanatory dictionary by
                        Anaya group. The dictionary has about 30,000 headwords. Since the words are
                        in their dictionary forms, no normalization was necessary. For each lemma,
                        the list of its grammatical forms was generated. We used the system of
                        morphological generation/analysis developed in our laboratory.</p>
                    <p>At the next step, for each wordform the program made query to AltaVista and
                        analyzed the results. First, it got a number of documents and calculated the
                        number of contexts that should be obtained. We used the value of 50 contexts
                        per lemma. Note that it was considered impossible for a wordform to have a
                        frequency ""0"", if this value was obtained then the frequency ""1"" was
                        assigned by force. For example, this situation happened for verbs that have
                        a lot of grammatical forms in Spanish.</p>
                    <p>After this, the program obtained the URLs of the documents that contain the
                        wordform.</p>
                    <p>Then the system loaded the documents using their URLs and analyzed them in
                        order to detect contexts. We used the following criteria for a context to be
                        included in our corpus:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>It contains more than 7 words, and</item>
                            <item>The contexts do not repeat. We check the repetition by comparing
                                the first significant wordform to the left and to the right of the
                                given wordform (significant wordform here means that we do not take
                                into account auxiliary words like articles, prepositions,
                            etc.)</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>The contexts that have not met these criteria were not included in the
                        corpus.</p>
                    <p>After execution of the program we had the corpus which has contexts for each
                        wordform of Spanish. To store it we used the data base format, though it can
                        be easily exported in a pure text format.</p>
                    <p>Let us have a look at the example of the obtained contexts. Say, for the
                        wordform abades (abbots) it was necessary to obtain just 2 context (all the
                        rest contexts were for the wordform abad (abbot) in singular):<lb/>
                        <eg>San Benito en los monasterios de todo el Imperio carolingio . En el año
                            910 se funda en Galia la famosa abadí­a de Cluny, cuyos primeros abases,
                            los santos Odón, Odilón, Mayolo, Hugo y Pedro el Venerable, buscaron
                            manifestar por medio de la liturgia, el...</eg><lb/>
                        <lb/>
                        <eg>su contenido doctrinal y su definitiva cohesión como Orden, extendida
                            muy rápidamente por toda Europa. En 1215 el IV Concilio Lateranense
                            prescribe reuniones trienales de los abades de monasterios de una misma
                            región, y visitas periódicas para velar por la observancia. El papa
                            Benedicto XII reagrupa a los monasterios en provincias...</eg></p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Conclusions and future work</head>
                    <p>We presented the system that permits to build the local representative corpus
                        of words using Internet as a source. We chose the following criterion of a
                        representative corpus: the presence of all wordforms in the proportion that
                        they have in the Internet documents.</p>
                    <p>The method was applied to 30,000 lemmas of the Spanish language. The obtained
                        corpus is representative from morphological and lexical points of view.</p>
                    <p>There are several directions of further investigations:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>To evaluate to what degree the obtained corpus is representative,
                                maybe, comparing with some other corpora.</item>
                            <item>To verify if the criterion of the ""acceptable"" contexts should be
                                modified.</item>
                            <item>To verify it the chosen value of the context length is
                                appropriate.</item>
                            <item>To develop more exact criteria of the representative corpus in
                                different senses (morphological, lexical, syntactic,
                            semantic).</item>
                        </list></p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Acknowledgements</head>
                    <p>The work was done under partial support of CONACyT, CGEPI/COFAA-IPN, and SNI,
                        Mexico.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
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            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>References</head>
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                                    <surname>Conrad</surname>
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                                    <forename type=""first"">D.</forename>
                                    <surname>Reppen</surname>
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                            <title level=""m"">Corpus linguistics. Investigating language structure
                                and use</title>
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                                <pubPlace>Cambridge</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Cambridge University Press</publisher>
                                <date when=""1998"">1998</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
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                                    <surname>Jones</surname>
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                                    <forename type=""first"">R.</forename>
                                    <surname>Ghani</surname>
                                </name>
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                            <title level=""a"">Automatically building a corpus for a minority language
                                from the web</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">38th Meeting of the ACL, Proceedings of the Student
                                Research Workshop. Hong Kong. October 2000</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">29-36</biblScope>
                            </imprint>
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                    </biblStruct>
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                        <analytic>
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                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">A.</forename>
                                    <surname>Kilgariff</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Web as Corpus</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">Proc. of Corpus Linguistics 2001 conference</title>
                            <title level=""s"">University center for computer corpus research on
                                language, technical papers vol. 13, Lancaster University</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">342-344</biblScope>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
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                        <surname>Siemens</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Malaspina University-College</name>
                            <email>siemensr@mala.bc.ca</email>
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                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">John</forename>
                        <surname>Unsworth</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">IATH</name>, <name type=""org"">University of Virginia</name>
                            <email>jmu2m@virginia.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Susan</forename>
                        <surname>Schreibman</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">MITH</name>, <name type=""org"">University of Maryland</name>
                            <email>susan_schreibman@umail.umd.edu</email>
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                <p>What lies at the intersection of computational methods and humanities scholarship
                    -- humanities computing -- is of growing importance, an importance that is seen
                    both in the rise of contributions made by such approaches to field specific
                    research and research dissemination, and in its representation in the
                    undergraduate and graduate curriculum of a growing number of institutions. Even
                    so, there is no single resource available to introduce this field's concerns and
                    to serve its curricular needs. Our <emph rend=""italics"">Companion to Humanities
                        Computing</emph> is, thus, proposed as much out of pragmatic necessity, to
                    address the unmet needs of a growing area of inquiry, as it is out of curricular
                    service, to serve those needs by offering a selection of specially commissioned
                    articles representative of the central concerns shared by all those interested
                    in humanities computing.</p>
                <p>Aimed specifically at serving students and instructors in upper level
                    undergraduate courses, those at the graduate level, and interested leaders both
                    within and outside academe, the Companion will provide a representation of the
                    field and its curricular concerns that documents the field's evolution, its
                    current state, and its potential future.</p>
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                        <surname>Stahl</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Universität Würzburg</name>
                            <email>stahl@germanistik.uni-wuerzburg.de</email>
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                        <forename type=""middle""/>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
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                <div>
                    <head>Preparation</head>
                    <p>The need for parallel texts has been discussed in numerous articles in recent
                        years. This paper focuses on how to set up a corpus of parallel texts, how
                        to do research on such texts and how to export parallel texts to different
                        file types.</p>
                    <p>Parallel texts should be tagged in order to mark structural characteristics
                        and other additional information. </p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Setting up parallel texts</head>
                    <p>The example below is taken from a joint research project between the German
                        departments of the Universities of Würzburg (Germany) and Jyväskylä
                        (Finland). The aim of the project was to describe and analyse problems of
                        contrastive word formation and to explore possibilities of text analysis.
                        For that purpose a corpus was set up consisting of complete and contemporary
                        Finnish and German literary and documentary texts and their translations
                        into the other language. The sheer number of 800,000 word forms makes it
                        obvious that commercial word processing programs cannot handle such a large
                        amount of text data. Therefore, we chose as a software tool the 'Tuebingen
                        System of Text Processing Programs' (Tustep).</p>
                    <p>One decisive factor in building a parallel corpus of two or more texts is -
                        if you do not work with semantic features - that there must be the same
                        number of structural tags in all basic files that relate to each other. For
                        our purposes it was sufficient to restrict the alignment to paragraphs only.
                        The following example demonstrates how a German text and its Finnish
                        translation are aligned so that both can either be read on the PC-screen.
                        The extract consists of three short paragraphs which are taken from the
                        novel <title level=""m"">Der Tangospieler</title> by Christoph Hein (1989):<lb/>
                        <quote>
                            <lg>
                                <l>5.7  |&lt;p&gt;""Was ist mit Ihrer Hand?"" fragte der Beamte, der vor</l>
                                <l>5.8  |ihm saß und ihm zusah.</l>
                                <l>5.23 |&lt;p rend=missing&gt;Dann betrachtete er sein Werk, es</l>
                                <l>6.1  |sah aus wie die Unterschrift eines Achtjährigen. Er</l>
                                <l>6.2  |nickte zufrieden.</l>
                                <l>6.29 |&lt;p&gt;Am Bahnhof ging er zum Schalter und verlangte eine</l>
                                <l>6.30 |Fahrkarte nach Leipzig.</l>
                            </lg>
                        </quote></p>
                    <p>The Finnish version (<title level=""m"">Sästäjä</title>) reads:<lb/><quote>
                            <lg>
                                <l>5.7  |&lt;p&gt;""Mikä kättä vaivaa?"" kysyi virkailija, joka istui</l>
                                <l>     |vastapäätä</l>
                                <l>5.8  |häntä katsellen.</l>
                                <l>5.25 |&lt;p&gt;Sitten hän tiiraili aikaansaannostaan. Se näytti</l>
                                <l>5.26 |kahdeksanvuotiaan nimikirjoitukselta. Hän nyökkäsi</l>
                                <l>     |tyytyväisenä.</l>
                                <l>6.24 |&lt;p&gt;Asemalla hän meni luukulle ja pyysi lipun Leipzigiin.</l>
                            </lg>
                        </quote></p>
                    <p>Both texts show their original structure as they were published. In order to
                        do research easily on both texts at the same time it is necessary to combine
                        them into one single file and to align all related units. The files are
                        reformatted; the marked units are given a running number and merged into
                        one. The newly created file can be edited by using the Tustep text
                        editor:<figure/></p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Searching in parallel texts</head>
                    <p>The Tustep text editor provides all basic functions common to other word
                        processing programs. In addition to that it can handle complex instructions
                        for pattern matching. You can search for<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>several specific strings such as character strings or words or
                                parts of words, at the same time excluding other character strings
                                which you do not want to see (an instruction such as
                                so,,,-pf-kl-st-fr--ist- shows only ( so) the clusters 'pf', 'kl',
                                'st', 'fr' with the exception of 'ist');</item>
                            <item>abstract strings such as capital or small letters, any standard or
                                extended ASCII character, digits, identical characters, elements
                                which depend upon characters on their left or right border;
                                exclusions can also be made (the instruction
                                so,,,/&gt;*&gt;*&gt;=02&gt;=01/ shows any
                                combinations of two small letters (&gt;*), followed by the
                                second one (&gt;=02) and then the first one again. Thus,
                                patterns like 'assa', 'elle', and 'niin' are displayed);</item>
                            <item>any character in combination with a frequency declaration
                                (&gt;&lt;3 meaning 'minimum of 3', &gt;&lt;0 'may be
                                missing', &lt;&gt;9 'maximum of 9', &lt;&gt;0 'any
                                number of');</item>
                            <item>any combination of the three above. And there are many other
                                possibilities.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>If you want to find all German nouns in our text above, for example, which
                        are movated by using the suffix '-in', you could use an instruction like
                        so,,1-45,-&lt;*&lt;&gt;0&gt;*&gt;1&gt;2&gt;|&gt;&lt;0&gt;3-
                        which searches all lines of the current file from the first to the
                        forty-fifth position, i.e. only in the German column, to determine whether
                        there is a capital letter (&lt;*), followed by any number of
                        (&lt;&gt;0) small letters (&gt;*), a member of character group
                        &gt;1, of string group &gt;2, which has on its right side
                        (&gt;|) an optional (&gt;&lt;0) member of character group
                        &gt;3. Before entering this search instruction the three groups just
                        mentioned have to be defined. The group &gt;1 contains all small letters
                        with the exception of the vowels, which cannot occur before the suffix
                        '-in', &gt;2 holds the strings in and innen, and &gt;3 contains all
                        characters that could possibly follow the noun such as a blank or a
                        punctuation mark (.,;:!?""). Detailed information on the syntax of
                        instructions and other topics is given by Stahl (1996).</p>
                    <figure/>
                    <p>As a result, this so-instruction displays the first set of occurrences that
                        fulfil the pattern matching requirements in Christoph Hein's novel. By
                        changing <emph rend=""distinct"">so</emph> in the instruction above to <emph
                            rend=""distinct"">sa</emph> (show around) the context of each pattern is
                        displayed.</p>
                    <p>The user is able to find these forms only by means of pattern matching and
                        not with the help of semantic tags. He or she is completely independent and
                        not restricted to any predefined information.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Exporting parallel texts</head>
                    <p>The next example is taken from the material of an international intensive
                        course on ""Multilingual text processing"" which was given in Galway in 1997
                        with support from the EC Erasmus program. It is based upon <title level=""m""
                            >Die Nachtwachen von Bonaventura</title> by August Klingemann together
                        with its translations into English by Gillespie (1972), into Italian by
                        Collini (1990), and into Finnish by Kolehmainen, Oikarinen and Rahikainen
                        (1997). Among other tasks, one aim of the course was to align the four texts
                        horizontally sentence by sentence, and to export them to a PostScript file
                        for printing and to a HTML file for web publishing. For economic and safety
                        reasons the four text files are kept separate from each other. The beginning
                        of the German original text file reads:<lb/>
                        <quote>[1-9] <emph rend=""bold"">Erste Nachtwache</emph><lb/>
                            [2-9] Die Nachtstunde schlug; ich hüllte mich in 
                            meine abenteuerliche Vermummung, nahm die Pike und 
                            das Horn zur Hand, ging in die Finsterniß hinaus und
                            rief die Stunde ab, nachdem ich mich durch ein Kreuz
                            gegen die bösen Geister geschützt hatte.
                        </quote></p>
                    <p>The three translations contain the same structure. The original and the
                        translations are exported to PostScript by typesetting them with the
                        Tustep-typesetting program (#Satz). Only a few of all typesetting
                        possibilities are made use of when the four texts are processed to produce
                        an output of aligned sentences. First, they are typeset in narrow columns
                        one after the other to determine the linebreaks. Four new destination files
                        are generated which show the final layout of all lines. The text blocks
                        holding the grammatical sentences, however, are still of different length.
                        These units of all text files are compared with each other to find out which
                        is the longest among the four languages; if necessary empty space is
                        inserted into the shorter ones. When the text is now typeset again with the
                        inserted empty lines, all units are of equal length:<figure/></p>
                    <p>D. Lewis and P. Stahl describe the source code, which you can download from
                            <ptr target=""http://www.itug.de""/> (&gt; Programme &gt;
                        Nützliches), as well as possibilities of evaluating a literary
                    translation.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Output to other formats</head>
                    <p>The same four basic text files that were used above can also be combined into
                        one single HTML-file. To do this task you need about 40 lines of Tustep
                            code:<lb/>
                        <code>1 |#CREATE,BV,CONFIRM=- 
                              2 |#OPEN,READ=+,POSITIVE=|BV&lt;/.S0| 
                              3 | 
                              4 |#EXECUTE,*,PARAMETER=D;E;I;F,MARKER=! 
                              5 |#COPY,SOURCE=BV!1.S0,DESTINATION=BV,MODE=-,ERASE=-,PARAMETER=* 
                              6 |XX        .[&gt;/-.[0&gt;=02!1-.[&gt;/&gt;/-.[&gt;=02&gt;=03!1-.
                              7 |*EOF* 
                              8 |*EOF 
                              9 | 
                             10 |#PRESORT,BV,-STD-,MODE=-,ERASE=+,PARAMETER=* 
                             11 |AA        .[. 
                             12 |AS1       .[. 
                             13 |ES1       .-. 
                             14 |AES       11 
                             15 |A1        DEIF 
                             16 |SSL       3 
                             17 |*EOF 
                             18 | 
                             19 |#SORT,-STD-,-STD-,SORTFIELD=1+3,DELETE=1+3,ERASE=+ 
                             20 |
                             21 |#CONVERT,SOURCE=*,DESTINATION=BV,MODE=0,ERASE=+ 
                             22 |&lt;HTML&gt; 
                             23 |&lt;HEAD&gt;&lt;TITLE&gt;Bonaventura&lt;/TITLE&gt;&lt;/HEAD&gt;
                             24 |&lt;BODY&gt;&lt;TABLE WIDTH=""100%""&gt; 
                             25 |*EOF 
                             26 |
                             27 |#COPY,-STD-,BV,+,-,* 
                             28 |X         .[&lt;&gt;0&gt;/D.&lt;&lt;TR&gt;&gt;[&gt;=02D.
                             29 |XX        .[&lt;&gt;0&gt;/&lt;/-&lt;&gt;0&gt;/]. 
                             30 |XX        &lt;&lt;TD WIDTH=""25%""      VALIGN=""TOP""&gt;&gt;[&gt;=02-&lt;=02]. 
                             31 |XX        .#F+.&lt;&lt;B&gt;&gt;.#F-.&lt;&lt;/B&gt;&gt;.#/+.&lt;&lt;I&gt;&gt;.#/-.&lt;&lt;/I&gt;&gt;.
                             32 |XX        .&lt;Ä.&amp;Auml;.&lt;Ö.&amp;Ouml;.&lt;Ü.&amp;Uuml;.\..
                             33 |XX        .&gt;ä.&amp;auml;.&gt;ö.&amp;ouml;.&gt;ü.&amp;uuml;.ß.&amp;szlig;.
                             34 |XX        .&amp;`/.&amp;&lt;=01grave;.&amp;´/.&amp;&lt;=01acute;...`
                             35 |XXX       -#.&lt;&lt;-""-#.&gt;&gt;-""-·-.-___-&amp;nbsp;-[0-[- 
                            36 |*EOF 
                            37 | 
                            38 |#CONVERT,*,BV,0,- 
                            39 |&lt;/TABLE&gt;&lt;/BODY&gt; 
                            40 |&lt;/HTML&gt;
                            41 |*EOF 
                            42 | 
                            43 |#CREATE,BV.HTM,SDF-AP
                            44 |#CONVERT,BV,BV.HTM,,+,CODE=ASCII</code></p>
                    <p>This program file contains all necessary commands to achieve our goal. In the
                        first line a temporary file is created and given the file name 'BV'. The
                        four basic text files are opened for reading (l. 2) and copied to the new
                        destination file 'BV' (l. 5-8), which is then sorted (l. 10-19). A HTML
                        header is written to the file 'BV' (l. 21-25); the standard file containing
                        the sorted units is added to the same destination file, and while the
                        copying takes place, several source strings are exchanged for new
                        destination strings to produce HTML tags and entities (l. 27-36). Finally,
                        three closing tags are added (l. 38-41). A permanent non-Tustep file is
                        created ('BV.HTM') which 'BV' is exported to (l. 43-44). A web browser
                        displays the result: <figure/></p>
                    <p>All examples show that text files provide the basis for all other tasks. They
                        can be aligned in such a way that a user is able to search the text for
                        words and patterns he or she is interested in, or they can be exported to
                        other coding schemes.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>References</head>
                <listBibl>
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                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">P.</forename>
                                    <surname>Collini</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">Veglie</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Venezia</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Marsilio</publisher>
                                <date when=""1990"">1990</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">G.</forename>
                                    <surname>Gillespie</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">The night watches of Bonaventura</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Edinburgh</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>University of Edinburgh Press</publisher>
                                <date when=""1972"">1972</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">A.</forename>
                                    <surname>Klingemann</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Nachtwachen von Bonaventura</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Leipzig</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Reclam Verlag</publisher>
                                <date when=""1991"">1991</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">L.</forename>
                                    <surname>Kolehmainen</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">L.</forename>
                                    <surname>Oikarinen</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">M.</forename>
                                    <surname>Rahikainen</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Ensimmäinen Yövartio</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""1997"">1997</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>Available at: <ptr target=""http://www.itug.de""/> &gt; Programme
                            &gt; Nützliches.</note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">D.</forename>
                                    <surname>Lewis</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">P.</forename>
                                    <surname>Stahl</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Zugriff auf multilinguale Texte: Das Evaluieren einer
                                literarischen Übersetzung unter Anwendung von Tustep</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">S.</forename>
                                    <surname>Moser</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">P.</forename>
                                    <surname>Stahl</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">W.</forename>
                                    <surname>Wegstein</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">N.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">R.</forename>
                                    <surname>Wolf</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">Maschinelle Verarbeitung altdeutscher Texte V. Beiträge
                                zum Fünften Internationalen Symposion Würzburg 4. bis 6. März 1997</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Max Niemeyer Verlag</publisher>
                                <date when=""1997"">1997</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">P.</forename>
                                    <surname>Stahl</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Tustep für Einsteiger. Eine Einführung in das ""Tübinger
                                System von Textverarbeitungs-Programmen""</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Würzburg</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Verlag Königshausen &amp; Neumann</publisher>
                                <date when=""1996"">1996</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
</TEI>","xml","2","",""
"240","3","The Web Cahier: A Tool For Implementing Just-in-Time-Teaching In the Humanities","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Mark</forename>
                        <surname>Wolff</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Hartwick College</name>
                            <email>wolffmanO@hartwick.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
                    </name>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                <p>The Web Cahier is a web-based server application that allows instructors to
                    assess individual student performance and to prepare targeted lectures and
                    discussions according to the needs and interests of students. The pedagogy which
                    informs the design of the Web Cahier is Just-in-Time-Teaching, or JiTT, a
                    teaching strategy developed by Gregor M. Novak at Indiana University-Purdue
                    University Indianapolis and Evelyn T. Patterson at the United States Air Force
                    Academy for introductory physics classes (I will discuss the effectiveness of
                    this pedagogy in a separate paper). During this poster session I will explain
                    the design of the Web Cahier, sollicit comments and suggestions on ways to
                    improve it, and make the application available to other scholars as open source
                    software.</p>
                <p>The Web Cahier uses MySQL as its back-end database and PHP as its dynamic HTML
                    interface. I will demonstate the program on a computer running the Linux
                    operating system, but the Web Cahier can be implemented on multiple platforms.</p>
                <p>The Web Cahier has an instructor interface and a student interface. For a given
                    course the instructor creates cahiers, or sets of questions for assignments to
                    be completed before students come to class. A cahier consists of web objects,
                    such as text, images, short answer text fields, essay question text areas, and
                    multiple choice questions using radio buttons. The instructor can build cahiers
                    by creating and arranging web objects. No experience with HTML is required,
                    although the appearance of a cahier is improved with basic HTML for which brief
                    documentation is provided online. The instructor can determine how she wants to
                    respond to each answer a student gives in a cahier: a pulldown list of
                    predetermined values (excellent, good, adequate, poor, unacceptable, etc.),
                    short answer, or detailed comments. The instructor can set a deadline for when
                    students must complete a cahier. Once a deadline has passed, students will not
                    be able to modify their answers for the cahier. The instructor can evaluate
                    student work easily and assign grades that students can see when they return to
                    a cahier. The instructor can also manage course enrollment and easily add and
                    drop students.</p>
                <p>Students can access cahiers from any networked computer. They can work on an
                    assignment intermittently, saving their work and returning to it as often as
                    they like before the deadline. Once a deadline has passed they can return to a
                    cahier to review their work and to receive instructor comments, but they cannot
                    make any changes.</p>
                <p>The Web Cahier is available for peer evaluation at <ptr
                        target=""http://bumppo.hartwick.edu/web_cahier""/>. The instructor user id is
                    ""ALLC"" and the password is ""ACH"". The student user id is ""student"" and the
                    password is ""student"". This demonstration is based on the Online History Lab
                    which was designed by the staff at Hartwick College's Stevens-German Library to
                    teach students basic skills in working with historical documents. Evaluators
                    should feel free to create their own courses and enroll the student ""ALLC_ACH,
                    student"" to test the software.</p>
                <p>I hope others will find the Web Cahier interesting and useful for their own
                    teaching, and I welcome requests to test the software at other institutions. I
                    would also welcome offers to help develop the Web Cahier which I make available
                    according to the GNU Public Licence.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>References</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Gregor</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">M.</forename>
                                    <surname>Novak</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Evelyn</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">T.</forename>
                                    <surname>Patterson</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Just-in-Time-Teaching: Active Learner Pedagogy with
                            WWW</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""u"">Paper presented at IASTED International Conference on
                                Computers and Advanced Technology in Education, May 27-30, 1998 in
                                Cancun, Mexico</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""1998"">1998</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>Available online at <ptr
                                target=""http://webphysics.iupui.edu/jitt/ccjitt.html""/>.</note>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Facet analytical theory as a basis for a subject
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                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Vanda</forename>
                        <surname>Broughton</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University College London</name>
                            <email>v.broughton@ucl.ac.uk</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Michael</forename>
                        <surname>Fraser</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Humbul Humanities Hub</name>
                            <email>mike.fraser@computing-services.oxford.ac.uk</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sheila</forename>
                        <surname>Anderson</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Arts and Humanities Data Service</name>
                            <email>sheila.anderson@ahds.ac.uk</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
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                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
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                        <surname/>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                <p>The paper describes a collaborative project, funded by the UK Arts and Humanities
                    Research Board, between the School of Library, Archive &amp; Information
                    Studies, University College London and two major digital resource gateways, Arts
                    &amp; Humanities Data Service, and the Humbul Humanities Hub.</p>
                <p>AHDS (<ptr target=""http://www.ahds.ac.uk""/>) and Humbul (<ptr
                        target=""http://www.humbul.ac.uk""/>) are on-going government funded projects
                    for the identification, evaluation and organization of quality digital resources
                    in the humanities, primarily for the use of the higher education community.
                    AHDS' remit includes visual and performing arts and archaeology in addition to
                    traditional humanities disciplines; Humbul covers a slightly narrower humanities
                    field including history, archaeology, literature, theology and philosophy.</p>
                <p>The two are developing a single humanities portal (<ptr
                        target=""http://www.portal.ac.uk""/>) which will become operational in 2002.
                    The new portal will draw in resources from the wider Web in addition to the
                    managed material already available.</p>
                <p>An important consideration is the choice of a tool to manage the subject content
                    of the new site. A digital library on the AHDS model has much in common with the
                    conventional library in terms of structuring the semantic content of the
                    resource; it may benefit from the knowledge organization theory that has been
                    developed over the last fifty years within the library sector for the creation
                    of tools for vocabulary management and semantic organization of document
                    content. Systems such as faceted classifications, structured subject headings,
                    thesauri, and other controlled vocabularies provide a scientifically based
                    approach to the analysis of 'document' content, and to the creation of indexes,
                    descriptors, visible taxonomies and hierarchies, as well as linear ordering
                    schemes (i.e. rules for filing order and sequencing) for the physical management
                    of materials with respect to intellectual content. These have been tested over
                    managed bibliographic databases as well as print-based materials, and the theory
                    is at a high level of sophistication.</p>
                <p>Existing means of subject organization at AHDS and Humbul are the Library of
                    Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) and the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC),
                    both designed for organization of print-based material in a traditional library.
                    While these offer management advantages (e.g. an established system with
                    institutional support, regular maintenance and revision, and centralised
                    bibliographic services) they are not particularly useful within a digital
                    environment. They display little sophistication in the structure, cannot handle
                    complex objects well, and can do little to expose the complex interrelationships
                    and multidimensional links within the structure of the digital collection.</p>
                <p>The new humanities portal requires a system that performs several functions;<list
                        type=""bulleted"">
                        <item>accurate description, for retrieval purposes, of complex digital
                            documents/objects with a range of attributes, both of intellectual
                            content and format</item>
                        <item>provision of a systematic structure for the organization of the
                            front-end in a directory format, using hypertext techniques to expose
                            deeper layers of the network</item>
                        <item>generation of structured subject headings for specific objects</item>
                        <item>manipulation of these to create browsable alphabetical subject indexes</item>
                        <item>capability of conversion to a thesaural structure to provide a
                            controlled vocabulary of keywords and concepts.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>Ideally, the system should also display;<list type=""bulleted"">
                        <item>potential for multiple access points to the structure to enable
                            resource discovery by various routes or search strategies;</item>
                        <item>potential for incorporation into search software as a device in
                            negotiating the wider Web.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>The School of Library, Archive &amp; Information Studies (SLAIS) at
                    University College London has a particularly strong history in education and
                    research in classification and indexing. It is one of only a few British schools
                    offering teaching in this area, and its staff are actively involved in the
                    management of several systems of bibliographic classification, and research into
                    the development and use of faceted schemes. We are investigating a structure of
                    this kind for the organization of the new humanities portal.</p>
                <p>Classifications built on the facet analytical model provide effective tools for
                    analysing and organizing documents on the basis of their subject content, and
                    consequently for retrieving those documents from a managed store. They work on
                    different principles from older enumerative schemes such as Dewey and the
                    Library of Congress classifications which simply provide long lists, or
                    enumerations, of classes for the accommodation of documents.</p>
                <p>Facet analysis was conceived by S. R. Ranganathan, a mathematician by training,
                    and a student at SLAIS in the 1920s. He proposed a system for the description
                    and organization of documents with complex subject content, based on
                    identification and analysis of constituent parts of the subject, rather than by
                    creation of lists or enumerations of compound classes into which specific
                    documents must be fitted. Documents were analysed, the content encoded, and the
                    codes synthesised into an appropriate classmark which was used for filing and
                    which was expressive of the subject content.</p>
                <p>Ranganathan's system was ground-breaking, but relatively unsophisticated. It
                    continues to be developed in India, but is virtually unused outside that
                    country. In the UK the Classification Research Group, formed in the 1950s,
                    further developed facet analytical theory.</p>
                <p>The internal logic of a faceted system of the CRG type is based on rigorous
                    analysis of the terminology of a subject, whereby terms are sorted into standard
                    sets of functional categories. Within these categories a range of semantic
                    relations are acknowledged, and problems of vocabulary control (such as
                    synonymy, partial synonymy and variations in word forms) are addressed. A
                    sophisticated system syntax provides for arrangement and combination of terms
                    both intra- and inter-category, and for the management of syntactic relations.
                    This improves performance in the accommodation of complex subjects, the
                    predictability of location, and in the effectiveness of retrieval.</p>
                <p>A faceted classification is, in its simplest form, a structured set of simple
                    terms or concepts with rules for the combination of these into compound concepts
                    such as occur in the content of documents. These compounds are placed precisely
                    in the base structure by the application of the system syntax. When these
                    classes are populated by the 'real' subjects of documents (or other objects with
                    semantic content) a more complex structure grows in accordance with the internal
                    logic of the system.</p>
                <p>A faceted classification, when applied to a large collection of documents, can
                    generate a very complex knowledge structure of n-dimensionality and great
                    logical regularity, with deep levels of hierarchy. The resultant structure can
                    be utilised in a number of ways; as an ordering device, as a source of index
                    terms and subject headings, and can also be converted to a thesaurus. Hypertext
                    can be utilised to expand the levels of hierarchy, or to make links between
                    distributed elements.</p>
                <p>An example of a small classification for religion demonstrates how the structure
                    can be applied:<lb/>
                    <eg>Judaism
                        (Form subdivisions)
                        Bibliography of Judaism
                        Encyclopaedia of Judaism
                        (Place subdivisions)
                        Judaism in Europe
                        (Period subdivisions)
                        Judaism in the Middle Ages
                        Judaism in the Nineteenth Century
                        Judaism in Nineteenth century Europe
                        (Philosophy and theory of religion)
                        Religious philosophy of Judaism
                        (Sacred texts)
                        Hebrew Bible
                        Mediaeval Hebrew Bible
                        (Worship)
                        Jewish festivals
                        (Organization of the religion)
                        Jewish religious law
                        (Sacred texts)
                        The Hebrew Bible in Jewish religious law</eg>
                </p>
                <p>This can be represented in the form of subject headings as:<lb/>
                    <eg>Judaism
                        Judaism - Bibliography
                        Judaism - Encyclopaedias
                        Judaism - Europe
                        Judaism - Middle ages
                        Judaism - Nineteenth century
                        Judaism - Nineteenth century - Europe
                        Judaism - Religious philosophy
                        Judaism - Bible
                        Judaism - Bible - Middle Ages
                        Judaism - Festivals
                        Judaism - Religious law
                        Judaism - Religious law - Bible</eg>
                </p>
                <p>These can be left in this order, to represent the systematic structure, or they
                    can be alphabetized:<lb/>
                    <eg>Judaism
                        Judaism - Bible
                        Judaism - Bible - Middle Ages
                        Judaism - Bibliography
                        Judaism - Encyclopaedias
                        Judaism - Europe
                        Judaism - Festivals
                        Judaism - Middle ages
                        Judaism - Nineteenth century
                        Judaism - Nineteenth century - Europe
                        Judaism - Religious law
                        Judaism - Religious law - Bible
                        Judaism - Religious philosophy</eg>
                </p>
                <p>From a small base vocabulary of 30-40 terms like this one, hundreds of multi-term
                    subject headings can be generated.</p>
                <p>The subject headings can be inverted to form a browsable index in which
                    distributed relatives are collocated.</p>
                <p>
                    <eg>Bible - Judaism
                        Bible - Religious law - Judaism
                        Bibliographies - Judaism
                        Encyclopaedias - Judaism
                        Europe - Judaism
                        Europe - Nineteenth century - Judaism
                        Festivals - Judaism
                        Judaism
                        Middle Ages - Bible - Judaism
                        Middle Ages - Judaism
                        Nineteenth century - Judaism
                        Religious law - Judaism
                        Religious philosophy - Judaism</eg>
                </p>
                <p>The regularity of the system and its rules of syntax suggests that much of the
                    routine work of managing documents could be carried out automatically, once the
                    initial intellectual analysis has been made.</p>
                <p>In a testbed implementation for the research, AHDS and Humbul are applying the
                    knowledge structure to the Portal's planned metadata repository for all the
                    digital objects in their collection; it is likely that XML will prove to be the
                    best tool for the implementation of the structure. They will also experiment
                    with its use in cross-disciplinary browsing and retrieval of digital resources
                    which are held elsewhere.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>References</head>
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                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
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                                    <forename type=""first"">V.</forename>
                                    <surname>Broughton</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Faceted classification as a basis for knowledge
                                organization in a digital environment</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol""/>
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                                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
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                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">V.</forename>
                                    <surname>Broughton</surname>
                                </name>
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                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Heather</forename>
                                    <surname>Lane</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Classification schemes revisited; applications to web
                                indexing and searching</title>
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                                    <forename type=""first"">Alan</forename>
                                    <surname>Thomas</surname>
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                                    <forename type=""first"">Jame</forename>
                                    <surname>Shearer</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">Internet searching and indexing; the subject approach</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>New York</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Howarth</publisher>
                                <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
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                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">S.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">R.</forename>
                                    <surname>Ranganathan</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Prolegomena to library classification</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher>Madras Library Association</publisher>
                                <date when=""1937"">1937</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
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                        <monogr>
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                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">J.</forename>
                                    <surname>Mills</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
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                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Vanda</forename>
                                    <surname>Broughton</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Bliss Bibliographic Classfication</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>London</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Butterworth, Bowker-Saur</publisher>
                                <date when=""1977"">1977</date>
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                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">The name of the place : towards a model for
                    interconnection of geographical entities</title>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Øyvind</forename>
                        <surname>Eide</surname>
                        <affiliation>The Museum Project, 
                            <name type=""org"">University of Oslo</name>
                            <email>oyvind.eide@muspro.uio.no</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Lars-Jørgen</forename>
                        <surname>Tvedt</surname>
                        <affiliation>The Documentation Project, 
                            <name type=""org"">University of Oslo</name>
                            <email>l.j.tvedt@muspro.uio.no</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Jon</forename>
                        <surname>Holmen</surname>
                        <affiliation>The Museum Project, 
                            <name type=""org"">University of Oslo</name>
                            <email>jon.holmen@muspro.uio.no</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                    </name>
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                    <head>Introduction</head>
                    <p>The Documentation Project and the Museum Project are cooperative projects
                        between the four universities in Norway. Since 1991, these projects have
                        performed retro-conversion and digitization of analogue archives, books,
                        images and other media types. During the building up of our diverse
                        collections, the need for a model expressing relationships between place
                        names has been strongly felt, both in the modelling and the presentation of
                        each collection and in the present work towards deeper integration between
                        the various collections.</p>
                    <p>In our paper, we will present an object-oriented model for expressing
                        relations between geographical objects applied on Norwegian geographical
                        information taken from our digital collections, followed by a discussion
                        about further development and implementation of the model.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Previous efforts</head>
                    <p>In connection with geographical reference systems for digital libraries we
                        commonly find the use of UTM coordinates in the specification of
                        geographical entities, as seen e.g. in the Alexandria project (Beard 1997).
                        Whereas this method gives many possibilities both for use in single
                        collections and in the interconnection of heterogeneous collections of
                        information object, this method is not suitable for collections that
                        contains a large number of references to geographical entities for which it
                        is impossible or unfeasible to enter this type of coordinates.</p>
                    <p>Whereas the use of UTM coordinates will be an important part of our system,
                        we have to design a system which does not depend on this type of
                        information. As the basic structure in the organization of the geographical
                        information objects, we use the political geography of Norway. At any single
                        point in history, this structure takes the form of a tree, as seen in fig.
                        1. However, this tree structured model is too restricted to cover
                        collections spanning a time period. It have to be expanded, as we will see
                        below.</p>
                    <figure/>
                    <p>Vegard Elvestrand has published a standard for geographical classification
                        (Elvestrand 1977) with municipalities as the smallest unit. The number of
                        municipalities in Norway has changed a great deal through splits and
                        unifications. His model is effective for the classification of literature;
                        one of our collections is classified according to his standard (Eide, 1998
                        p. 287-288), but the underlying model is also too restricted for our use.
                        His model contains classification symbols for every municipality that has
                        existed, but it has no linking showing the actual changes.</p>
                    <p><emph rend=""italics"">Norsk samfunnsvitenskapelig datatjeneste</emph>
                        (Norwegian Social Science Data Services, NSD) has designed various databases
                        based on the administrative structure of Norway, directed towards the needs
                        of the social sciences to present data on present and historical statistics
                        (NSD 1997, chapter 3). Their model is effective for historical models of
                        municipalities, but it does not allow us to include the multiple systems of
                        geographical information needed for cultural and natural historical
                        information systems, as we will see below.</p>
                    <p>The model described here is conform with the CIDOC object-oriented Conceptual
                        Reference Model (CIDOC 1999), and we will follow the further development of
                        the CIDOC model closely as we develop and implement our model of
                        geographical information.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Places vs. place names</head>
                    <p>There are several other structures interconnected with the simple structure
                        of <emph rend=""italics"">fig. 1</emph>, e.g.:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>Other administrative regions, e.g. police districts, clerical
                                districts</item>
                            <item>Named geographical formations, e.g. lakes, mountains,
                                rivers</item>
                            <item>Property structures, e.g. farms, common land</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>In the geographical model in fig. 1, there is no distinction between a place
                        and a place name. The difference between a geographical unity in the real
                        world and the name we use to refer to this unity must be expressed in any
                        geographical model. There are two main reasons for this:<list
                            type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>The same word often refer to several distinct places. One example
                                of this is a municipality called Våler, which is found in the county
                                of Hedmark as well as in the county of Østfold.</item>
                            <item>Political structures may change. The area of the town of Hamar is
                                larger today than it was ten years ago, whereas the municipality of
                                Vang no longer exists (in a bureaucratic sense of the word exist),
                                as it is included in the expanded town of Hamar.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>In <emph rend=""italics"">fig. 2</emph>, our basic geographic model is
                        sketched, populated with several geographical objects. The idea behind the
                        model is not to represent all potential information about geographical
                        entities and their relations, but to include enough information to perform
                        computer search, browse and interconnection between objects in an effective
                        way.</p>
                    <figure/>
                    <p>Each object in our model may have an attribute showing the time span that the
                        geographical entity was known in that form. This does not mean that the
                        object is placed in a time continuum, as it has a distinct, everlasting
                        geographical location, which may be expressed in geographical coordinates.
                        The time span is just an attribute showing which time period this specific
                        geographical object was referred to. This is especially important for legal
                        entities such as municipalities. Municipalities described as <emph
                            rend=""italics"">old</emph> or <emph rend=""italics"">new</emph> in the
                        figure have been split up or united.</p>
                    <p>The direction of the graph is always from the bigger unit to the smaller
                        unit: a unit pointed to is a part of the unit pointing from. To make this
                        possible, we have split geographical entities covering parts of several
                        other entities into parts shown on the figure as <emph rend=""italics""
                            >hp</emph> for hill parts and <emph rend=""italics"">sp</emph> for sea
                        parts. Each such part is part of both the sea as a whole and the
                        municipality that this part is located in.</p>
                    <p>The known place object contains a name, an optional time span, and references
                        to other objects forming the graph. As some of our collections contain UTM
                        data, and as we will be able to import such data for all our municipalities
                        from e.g. NSD, the object also contains an optional UTM attribute.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Expansion into the unknown</head>
                    <p>We define each actual mentioning of names in texts and other media as an
                        observation. In this context, observations are all references to
                        geographical entities in information objects. Their relation to the model is
                        seen in <emph rend=""italics"">fig. 3</emph>. These observations are external
                        to the model; whereas the model shows the objective reality (in the meaning
                        agreed upon, checked), observations are subjective references made by a
                        human being at a specific time, although this time may be uncertain or
                        unknown.</p>
                    <figure/>
                    <p>An observation will never refer to more than one place-name by definition. If
                        there is more than one link from an observation to known facts, such a split
                        expresses an insecure fact, in which case an observation may relate to one
                        out of several possible known places, but we do not know which one.</p>
                    <p>There is no limitations as to what kind of entities may be included in an
                        implementation of this model, but we will have to decide on standards when
                        we use the model in actual work. The development of such standards will be
                        be discussed in our paper, together with search facilities and matters of
                        implementation.</p>
                    <figure></figure>
                </div>
            </div>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>Bibliography</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
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                                </name>
                            </author>
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                                library collections</title>
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                                Reference Model</title>
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                                <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
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                                    <forename type=""first"">Vegard</forename>
                                    <surname>Elvestrand</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Klassifikasjonsnøkkel til norsk topografi
                                [Classification key to Norwegian topography]</title>
                            <imprint>
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                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">The Quest for Re-Intergration : Creating New Documents
                                across Traditional Borders</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">Proceeding of 6th International BOBCATSSS Symposium,
                                January 1998</title>
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                                <biblScope type=""pp"">280-291</biblScope>
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                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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"243","3","Facilitating Text Analysis in Russian Culture: TEI or Topic Maps?","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Miranda</forename>
                        <surname>Remnek</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Minnesota</name>
                            <email>m-remn@tc.umn.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
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                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
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                    </name>
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                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
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                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                <p>Still under development, the University of Minnesota's Early 19th Century Russian
                    Readership &amp; Culture Project (<ptr
                        target=""http://etrc.lib.umn.edu/rusread.htm""/>) is one of relatively few
                    comprehensive digital archives for the study of Imperial Russian history. Based
                    on materials gathered over two decades of research that culminated in a
                    dissertation on <title level=""m"">The Expansion of Russian Reading Audiences,
                        1828-1848</title>, the project is distinctive in a number of ways. First, it
                    pulls together a variety of primary research materials into a single archive.
                    (To some extent this is not uncommon, but the ENCRRC archive includes not only
                    texts, images, and scholarly reference materials, but also a large statistical
                    database of 12,000 subscription records which provide much additional research
                    data). Second, the search mechanism has been customized to provide simultaneous
                    access to both English and Cyrillic TEI-encoded texts without the need for a
                    Cyrillic keyboard--and this in itself is a technical feat.</p>
                <p>But the project's most distinctive feature is its use of SGML
                    &lt;interp&gt; tags to enrich the texts by encapsulating a number of
                    pre-selected analytical categories. This means that users of the archive are
                    given not one but two modes of access to the content of the four main text
                    groups (fiction, journals, memoirs and travel accounts). How is this achieved?
                    First, researchers are presented with a comprehensive full-text search option,
                    since the project uses Enigma Corporation's powerful SGML-based DynaWeb software
                    to deliver the texts to the web (<ptr
                        target=""http://erc.lib.umn.edu/dynaweb/
                    readers/^@Generic Collection View""
                    />). Second, the project's adoption of SGML-based analytical tagging means that
                    users have an additional avenue of access to thematic categories. To enable this
                    approach the interface presents a roster of 10 main categories of analysis, each
                    divided into small groups of differing sizes for a total of 60 subcategories.
                    Entries are scripted so that the software can retrieve and display passages that
                    contain superimposed SGML ID references even though the texts are converted to
                    HTML for delivery over the web. Space limitations prevent enumeration of all the
                    subcategories, but a listing of the main themes will give some idea of the
                    research potential involved: Publishing, Print Categories, Novels, Journals,
                    Newspapers, Booktrade, Text Access (Bookstores, Coffeehouses, etc), Reading
                    Publics, Social Groups, and Job Titles.</p>
                <p>The provision of these categories works well for researchers in differing fields
                    of Russian culture. A literary scholar may use the archive to trace references
                    in the various groups of texts to the distribution of original Russian novels
                    versus translations of foreign compositions; he or she may then enhance these
                    findings by searching the database of subscription records from the period
                    1825-1846, and reviewing biographic and geographic data about the subscribers
                    connected with both native and translated novels. A history scholar, on the
                    other hand, may use the materials to trace levels of access to print materials
                    among less privileged groups (such as lower-level bueaucrats and merchants) not
                    normally considered part of the contemporary cultural milieu. A women's studies
                    scholar may use the archive to piece together hard-to-find references to women's
                    reading, and the mechanisms women used to gain access to texts in a clearly
                    defined patriarchal society. It should therefore be clear that employment of a
                    relatively simple SGML-based analysis option has enabled substantial enrichment
                    of a carefully-selected core of texts such that they are immediately serviceable
                    for multiple purposes.</p>
                <p>In addition to the project's value for different fields of study, another
                    important benefit resides, as noted, in its presentation of a rich variety of
                    sources that include encoded images and historical records as well as primary
                    texts. All these resources are related, moreover, by topic. But the linkage
                    between them is not always straightforward, and so it has seemed important to
                    take note of new concepts like SGML Topic Maps (ISO standard 13250, Geneva,
                    December 2000)--which promises to facilitate the linkage of similar elements in
                    different types of research data. As Christian Wittern has suggested (""TEI and
                    Topic Maps,"" <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2001</title>), topic maps provide an
                    ""architecture for the semantic structuring of information networks…[that] has
                    the potential to provide a bridge between… texts encoded with schemes like the
                    TEI [and] other information resources."" More explicitly, Bill Trippe noted
                    recently in an article published in <title level=""j"">EContent</title> (August
                    2001, v. 24, issue 6, p. 45ff), ""For proponents, topic maps are the ideal
                    solution for helping users find information about a topic across a variety of
                    documents.""</p>
                <p>Wittern also suggests that topic maps enable an archive to present abstract as
                    well as concrete representations of knowledge. Until recently the categories
                    used in the ENCRRC archive were more exclusively objective than the mix of
                    categories used in our better-known sister project, <title level=""m"">Women's
                        Travel Writing, 1830-1930</title> (<ptr
                        target=""http://etrc.lib.umn.edu/ womtrav.htm""/>), and as such, have been
                    easier to apply. But WTW's two subjective categories--gender and ethnicity--are
                    strongly championed by faculty advisers to the project as essential material for
                    the pursuit of current scholarly trends in women's studies (though certainly
                    more challenging to the encoder). It thus seemed advisable to problematize more
                    fully the analytical tools supplied for the ENCRRC archive.</p>
                <p>With this in mind, we are redesigning and testing out certain revamped portions
                    of the ENCRRC archive. Drawing on the work of Hans Holger Rath and Steve Pepper
                    (including their ""Navigating Haystacks, Discovering Needles,"" <title level=""m"">Markup Languages</title>,
                    1999), we hope to achieve a partial implementation of the topic map standard. We
                    are partially motivated by the hope that this will facilitate an overlay of more
                    provocative, abstract linkages superimposed on our current, largely objective
                    interpretive network. A second goal is to determine whether the presentation of
                    disparate early 19th century Russian history materials in the form of topic maps
                    will make their analysis more convenient and productive for the researcher than
                    their current presentation in separate, though proximate, data groups. But as
                    noted by Trippe, ""the proposed standard itself is relatively new… and the
                    commercial technology supporting the standard is still in its early stages."" Our
                    second goal is therefore our major concern: to explore how well this concept
                    works in a multi-type archive.</p>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Hanno</forename>
                        <surname>Biber</surname>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Karlheinz</forename>
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                <p>In this paper we will describe the aims, the main research objectives and the
                    crucial computational aspects in establishing a large electronic text corpus. In
                    the first part the concept of our corpus approach will be given and its
                    backgroud as well as its consequences discussed. In the second part of the paper
                    noteable features of the digitization processes based upon the application of
                    XML-Schemas will be discussed.</p>
                <p>The Austrian Academy Corpus (AAC) is a newly founded institution based within the
                    Austrian Academy of Sciences in Vienna. Its aim is to set up a text corpus and
                    also to conduct research in the field of electronic text corpora. Electronic
                    text collections to date have been generally focused on linguistic studies and
                    lexicography,and designed and set up for language-orientated research. Recently,
                    the perspective has changed towards providing resources for scholars from
                    various fields within the humanities. The AAC is attempting to establish a
                    corpus that meets the needs of textual studies and conveys essential information
                    about language and history. The AAC functions as an example of an experimental
                    corpus that is predominantly designed for textual studies. It will be a
                    complexly structured text collection in which sources from a variety of fields
                    will be included. The AAC also aims to include a wide range of significant texts
                    from various cultural domains, which will be carefully selected as being of key
                    historical and cultural significance and relevance. The AAC will create,
                    structure, provide and analyse selected text sources from the past two
                    centuries, taking advantage of the latest standards and techniques in electronic
                    text processing. The AAC intends to digitally store a wide selection of
                    different sources of scholarly, journalistic and political texts which were of
                    considerable influence in the period between 1848 and 1989. It has started the
                    digitisation and structured integration of texts, amongst which are for example
                    several influential and notable literary and political journals, such as “Die
                    Weltbühne” or “Die Aktion”, published in Berlin in the first decades of the last
                    century, and the Austrian journal “Der Brenner”, published in Innsbruck, as well
                    as many other sources. The famous satirical magazine “Die Fackel”, published by
                    Karl Kraus in Vienna, will constitute the core of the AAC and will be a starting
                    point for future selections of texts. Images and manuscripts will be included in
                    the corpus, where necessary, because the original graphical and typographical
                    information is important for the meaning and interpretation of digitised texts.
                    This is particularly the case with complex text structures such as newspapers or
                    literary journals which comprise a whole variety of functionally different text
                    types within their structure.</p>
                <p>Digital resources in the form of electronic text corpora should be regarded as
                    structures for representing complex information. The electronic text collections
                    established at the AAC so far and its future projects will focus on electronic
                    representations not only of literary texts, literary magazines, journals and
                    newspapers but also on a carefully considered selection of texts from several
                    other cultural and social domains. Special emphasis will be placed on areas that
                    have been rather neglected in humanities computing to date. Journals and
                    newspapers pose an especially difficult task when it comes to their
                    representation in digital form. An equally difficult task is the analysis and
                    description of the media’s decisive historical influences and contexts. The
                    study and detailed investigation of texts has always been crucial for our
                    understanding of historical processes. The knowledge of texts and the
                    accessibility of textual knowledge can be furthered by means of large text
                    corpora like the AAC.</p>
                <p>The text selection for the AAC, which will take place at the same time as the
                    corpus work, will be guided by thematic and empirical criteria, as well as
                    factors specifically related to the type of text. The specificity of text type
                    is therefore, amongst others, a decisive factor not only for the selection of
                    texts but also for their categorisation in a corpus: letters by Oskar Kokoschka,
                    anecdotes by Max Liebermann, writings of Adolf Loos, narrations by Adalbert
                    Stifter, feature articles by Daniel Spitzer, funeral sermons, electoral
                    speeches, propaganda and advertising slogans, pop song lyrics, political
                    speeches, comic books, instructions, travel guides, TV programmes, mailing
                    catalogues, and so on.. In recent years, the establishment of large German
                    language corpora has been restricted to the field of linguistic and
                    lexicographic studies. So far, there have not been any large-scale initiatives
                    in the area of text-centred studies. Although more and more literary texts are
                    becoming available, many of these came into existence as by-products of efforts
                    to amass data for lexicographic research. Generally speaking, the historical
                    period on which the Austrian Academy Corpus is working is poorly documented in
                    terms of digital literary texts. This applies even more when it comes to
                    collective text ‘carriers’ such as magazines, papers, yearbooks, commemorative
                    volumes and similar materials.</p>
                <p>Among the sources being digitised for the AAC are a considerable number of
                    historical literary magazines of major importance. One example is the journal
                    “Der Brenner”, which was published by Ludwig Ficker in Innsbruck from 1910 until
                    1954. Among its contributors are figures as renowned as Carl Dallago, Theodor
                    Haecker, Else Lasker-Schüler, Adolf Loos, and Georg Trakl. Other sources on
                    which the AAC is working were published in Berlin, for instance, the journal
                    “Die Aktion” edited by Franz Pfemfert between 1911 and 1932. Among its
                    contributors were Peter Altenberg, Hermann Bahr, Walter Benjamin, Max Brod,
                    Richard Dehmel, Salomo Friedlaender, Georg Heym, Kurt Hiller, Max Oppenheimer,
                    Egon Schiele and August Strindberg. Another journal to be mentioned here and
                    perhaps the most important one in the pipeline is the weekly Berlin journal “Die
                    Schaubühne” (1905 - 18), later renamed “Die Weltbühne” (1918 - 33,) which was
                    edited by Siegfried Jacobsohn, Kurt Tucholsky and Carl von Ossietzky. Among the
                    writers who contributed to “Die Weltbühne” were Henry Barbusse, Bertolt Brecht,
                    Alfred Döblin, Lion Feuchtwanger, Arthur Koestler, Heinrich Mann, Alfred Polgar,
                    Romain Rolland, and Leon Trotsky.</p>
                <p>To produce a digital version of, for example, the literary journals “Der Brenner”
                    or “Die Weltbühne”, the original text has to undergo the usual stages of
                    electronic processing. After being scanned, the text is made readable by means
                    of OCR. The structure of the text (pages, paragraphs and lines) is identified by
                    automatic routines. Application of markup is the last step in this process. Tags
                    encoding content are carefully inserted by literary scholars especially trained
                    for this task. This process, which takes several runs, is accompanied by
                    proofreading against the original and constant checking and validating of the
                    achieved results. Literary encoding projects in the past have employed SGML,
                    very often following the TEI Guidelines (P3). The AAC makes extensive use of
                    XML’s modular system of specifications. Aside from the basic XML specification,
                    several other specifications exist, all of them having more or less defined
                    place within the overall framework provided by XML. The exact nature of some of
                    these specifications is not yet clear (XLink, XML Query), as development work
                    still continues apace. Those that are classified as recommendations are XSLT
                    (Extensible Stylesheet Transformations) and XPath (a language for addressing
                    parts of an XML document). The implications of others such as XLink (Extensible
                    Linking Language), XPointer (an abstract language that specifies locations), and
                    XQL (Extensible Query Language) for literary computing will have to be
                    considered in due course. As XML comes of age, the issue of a standard way of
                    defining the structure of documents becomes more and more important. Both
                    traditional DTDs (document type definitions) and XML Schemas are formats which
                    model document structures. Whereas DTDs in the traditional sense have been
                    around for some time and are widely accepted in the field of SGML-based
                    text-encoding, XML Schemas must be regarded as a fledgling technology that still
                    has to win its spurs.</p>
                <p>XML Schemas are commonly regarded as an attempt at an XML answer to the problem
                    of defining the structure, content and semantics of documents. There are several
                    arguments in favour of XML Schemas, among which are XML syntax, object
                    orientation, inheritance, polymorphism and datatyping. Firstly, XML Schemas
                    follow XML syntax rules, which makes it possible to parse them with XML tools.
                    Nowadays, authors of XML documents often regard traditional DTDs as unwieldy and
                    inconsistent with the structure of XML. With XML Schemas, validating parsers can
                    be built on the basis of XML syntax. Secondly, XML Schemas may include explicit
                    restrictions on the data types an element may hold. They allow the text
                    programmer to attribute data types such as strings, numbers (integer, floating
                    point), date and time formats, boolean and others to elements constituting an
                    XML document. In addition, XML Schemas are also intended to allow the definition
                    of new data types to future refine the markup scheme being used. For the corpus
                    holdings of the AAC such applications are investigated and implemented for the
                    benefit of various corpus-based linguistic and textual studies.</p>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Christiane</forename>
                        <surname>Meckseper</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">Humanities Research Institute</name>,
                            <name type=""org"">University of Sheffield</name>
                            <email>ch.meckseper@sheffield.ac.uk</email>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Claire</forename>
                        <surname>Warwick</surname>
                        <affiliation>Department of Information Studies
                            <name type=""org"">University of Sheffield</name>
                            <email>c.warwick@sheffield.ac.uk</email>
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                    <head>Overview:</head>
                    <p>This paper will look at the use and potential of electronic publication and
                        the usability of the markup language XML for the publication of field
                        reports by commercial archaeological units. The field reports fall into the
                        field of grey literature as they are produced as client reports by
                        archaeological units as part of the planning process and do not receive
                        official publication or widespread dissemination. It has been recognised,
                        however, that the reports contain valuable information that would be useful
                        for research purposes as well as for other commercial units and the public
                        and that suitable means should be found in order to disseminate that
                        information.</p>
                    <p>The basis for the project is a case study undertaken by the author, who was
                        part of the Department of Information Studies at the University of
                        Sheffield, in conjunction with a small commercial unit, Archaeological
                        Research and Consultancy at the University of Sheffield (ARCUS). Current
                        publication practices within academic and commercial archaeology were
                        reviewed and the ARCUS field reports were used in order to test the
                        usability of XML for the markup and electronic publication of those
                        reports.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Background:</head>
                    <p>The dissemination of archaeological information and data is still mainly
                        undertaken in the format of the traditional paper-based excavation report.
                        However, archaeological data is now increasingly being collected and stored
                        in a digital format and the advent of the Internet has also raised the
                        issues of electronic publication and dissemination of data and site reports
                        via this medium. Electronic publication is taking place, but it is still few
                        and far between and mainly restricted to academic research projects.</p>
                    <p>In Britain, archaeological practice outside the university research
                        environment is restricted to interventions undertaken as part of the
                        planning process and is funded entirely by the “polluter pays” principle.
                        This has emphasised a dilemma archaeological practice was increasingly faced
                        with. On the one hand, it has become just a small part of the planning
                        process and is governed by the same commercial principles as any other
                        development contractor. On the other, the results it produces are still seen
                        as “academic” and a basis for research. There is an innate duty or ethic
                        within archaeology to disseminate results and to produce syntheses of
                        material. However, the funds provided usually do not allow more than the
                        implementation of an immediate mitigation strategy for development and the
                        production of a minimal “developer’s report”.</p>
                    <p>A recent survey of user needs concerning publication and dissemination of
                        data within archaeology (“PUNS survey”, Jones et al 2001) undertaken by the
                        Council of British Archaeology (CBA) identified that even though fieldwork
                        reports are one of the most frequently consulted types of archaeological
                        literature, grey reports have a limited audience beyond the commercial
                        domain due to the difficulty in access and lack of awareness of that
                        literature. It also stressed that many archaeologists are dissatisfied with
                        this situation as they feel that information of relevance to their work is
                        being produced of which they are unaware.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Proposed paper:</head>
                    <p>This paper addresses some of the problems of dissemination raised by the PUNS
                        survey and also other issues inherent in the publication an dissemination of
                        archaeological data like the provision of adequate metadata and the
                        searchability of archaeological information on-line. It describes the use of
                        XML and a modified version of the TEI lite DTD of the Oxford Text Encoding
                        Initiative for the mark up of a sample of ARCUS excavation reports. It also
                        looks at the possibility of incorporating controlled archaeological
                        vocabulary into the DTD. It raises questions about current practices of
                        electronic publication within archaeology and the availability and
                        searchability of data provided by the discipline for research purposes.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Results:</head>
                    <p>It was found that the electronic publication of grey reports would be very
                        useful for as it would allow a quicker response time and a rapid
                        dissemination of information within the fast moving and changing environment
                        of commercial archaeology. XML would be a useful and economic tool for the
                        publication of field reports as it would allow users to selectively download
                        separate sections of field reports which are of particular importance to
                        them. Archaeology-specific elements would also allow a better context
                        specific searchability of reports on the web. However, it is acknowledged
                        that XML is still a technology in its infancy and also that it is beyond the
                        financial capabilities of many small commercial units to implement a system
                        of electronic publication. An important point that needs to be raised is
                        that national archaeological institutions will have to accept electronic
                        versions of field reports in order for them to be formally recognised and be
                        able to be built into the financial framework of a commercial project
                        design.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Relevance to ALLC-ACH themes:</head>
                    <p>The paper is of particular relevance to the themes of the ALLC-ACH conference
                        as it addresses the issues of the development of new methodologies in one
                        discipline that will have a considerable impact on others. The electronic
                        publication of commercial field reports will provide indispensable
                        information not only for other commercial units but also for academic
                        research, thus helping to bring together two increasingly diverging fields.
                        Archaeological data is also used by other disciplines within the Humanities
                        and Sciences, like anthropology, sociology, earth sciences and others.
                        Archaeological site reports also consist not only of text but of a wide
                        variety of images and the electronic medium could provide increasing
                        resources such as 3D reconstruction or even audio and video data. The
                        quicker response time of the electronic medium and the increasing
                        availability of primary archaeological data should also allow users to
                        examine the assumptions upon which previous interpretations are presented
                        and to facilitate the development of their own models, thus fundamentally
                        changing the nature of discourse within archaeology and the humanities in
                        general.</p>
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                <head>Reference</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">S.</forename>
                                    <surname>Jones</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">A.</forename>
                                    <surname>MacSween</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">S.</forename>
                                    <surname>Jeffrey</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">R.</forename>
                                    <surname>Morris</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">M.</forename>
                                    <surname>Heyworth</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">From the Ground Up. The Publication of Archaeological
                                Projects: a user needs survey</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>[Online]. Available at: <ptr
                                target=""http://www.britarch.ac.uk/pubs/puns/index.HTML""/> [Accessed:
                            31.8.2001].</note>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Susy</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">C.</forename>
                        <surname>Santos</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Manitoba</name>
                            <email>umsant06@UManitoba.CA</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Paul</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Fortier</surname>
                        <affiliation>Centre on Aging, <name type=""org"">University of Manitoba</name>
                            <email>Fortier@cc.umanitoba.ca</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
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                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
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                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
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                <title level=""m"">ALLC/ACH 2002</title>
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                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
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                <div>
                    <p>The Trésor de la Langue Française (TLF) corpus (<ptr
                            target=""http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ARTFL/databases/TLF/index.html""
                        />) was set up almost half a century ago. When one reads the description of
                        how this was done, the distance becomes evident. Professor Imbs quite openly
                        admits that the goal is to reflect ""elite"" usage of the French language;
                        texts were chosen after consultation of histories of literature, some of
                        which were quite dated even then (Imbs 1971, I, xv-xl). Considerations of
                        inclusiveness, of representativity, as discussed in Scholes (1992) or von
                        Hallberg (1984), do not seem to have concerned the committee which finalized
                        the corpus. One is entitled to wonder to what extent this corpus represents
                        the interests of scholars of French literature a half century later.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Purpose</head>
                    <p>It is legitimate to evaluate the extent to which the texts included in the
                        TLF database do represent important trends in French literature, as judged
                        by what interested scholars at the time it was constituted, and as reflected
                        by what has interested scholars of the present.</p>
                    <p>More specifically, it is possible to see whether the choices embodied in the
                        TLF reflect what scholars of the time judged important by comparing the
                        choices of texts in a given genre - the novel - to the number of lines
                        dedicated to the authors chosen for the TLF found in the <title level=""m""
                            >Oxford Companion to French Literature</title> (Harvey &amp;
                        Heseltine 1959).</p>
                    <p>Similarly, the <title level=""m"">MLA Bibliography</title> (<ptr
                            target=""http://www.mla.org/publications/bibliography""/>) provides online
                        data showing the number of publications in the modern languages and
                        literatures for the periods 1963-90 and 1991 to the present. A comparison
                        between the number of publications mentioning a novelist found in this
                        bibliography and the number of texts by the same novelist in the TLF will
                        show the extent to which choices made by the TLF group have been confirmed
                        by the interest of later scholars. Given the volume of data involved these
                        questions must be dealt with using statistics.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Data</head>
                    <p>A subset of the TLF database was chosen for analysis: novels published
                        between 1789 and 1954 (See Table 1). The name of the novelist (Author) and
                        the number of novel texts included in the database for each writer (Texts)
                        was recorded, along with the publication date of the text included in the
                        database (Pub Date). When more than one novel by a given author is in the
                        TLF Pub Date records the date of the earliest one published. In cases where
                        authors were better known for other genres rather than prose fiction, they
                        were removed from the test data, because they would be a source of
                        ambiguity.</p>
                    <p>These numbers were compared to three series of test data. The column OxC in
                        Table 1 records the number of lines devoted to the novelist and to the
                        included novels by that author which are found in the <title level=""m""
                            >Oxford Companion to French Literature</title> (Harvey &amp;
                        Heseltine 1959), a volume contemporary with the formation of the TLF
                        database. Columns MLA 1 and MLA 2 record the number of articles mentioning
                        the novelist or work(s) found in the MLA online bibliography of learned
                        articles dealing with language and literature. MLA 1 covers the period
                        1963-1990 and MLA 2, 1991-2000.</p>
                    <p>For analysis the entire set of 128 frequencies concerning novels was used.
                        Subsequently subsets of roughly equal numbers of authors were generated,
                        covering the periods 1789-1859 (33), 1860-1907 (35), 1908-23 (25), and
                        1925-54 (35).</p>
                    <table rows=""13"" cols=""6"">
                        <row>
                            <cell role=""label"">Author</cell>
                            <cell role=""label"">Pub Date</cell>
                            <cell role=""label"">Texts</cell>
                            <cell role=""label"">OxC</cell>
                            <cell role=""label"">MLA 1</cell>
                            <cell role=""label"">MLA 2</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Abellio</cell>
                            <cell>1946</cell>
                            <cell>1</cell>
                            <cell>0</cell>
                            <cell>9</cell>
                            <cell>0</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>About</cell>
                            <cell>1857</cell>
                            <cell>2</cell>
                            <cell>14</cell>
                            <cell>1</cell>
                            <cell>0</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Adam</cell>
                            <cell>1902</cell>
                            <cell>1</cell>
                            <cell>25</cell>
                            <cell>1</cell>
                            <cell>4</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Alain-Fournier</cell>
                            <cell>1913</cell>
                            <cell>1</cell>
                            <cell>93</cell>
                            <cell>29</cell>
                            <cell>4</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Ambriere</cell>
                            <cell>1946</cell>
                            <cell>1</cell>
                            <cell>0</cell>
                            <cell>1</cell>
                            <cell>0</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Aragon</cell>
                            <cell>1936</cell>
                            <cell>1</cell>
                            <cell>25</cell>
                            <cell>445</cell>
                            <cell>305</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Arland</cell>
                            <cell>1929</cell>
                            <cell>1</cell>
                            <cell>0</cell>
                            <cell>37</cell>
                            <cell>4</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Ayme</cell>
                            <cell>1933</cell>
                            <cell>1</cell>
                            <cell>7</cell>
                            <cell>38</cell>
                            <cell>9</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Baillon</cell>
                            <cell>1927</cell>
                            <cell>1</cell>
                            <cell>0</cell>
                            <cell>3</cell>
                            <cell>6</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Balzac</cell>
                            <cell>1824</cell>
                            <cell>16</cell>
                            <cell>577</cell>
                            <cell>1986</cell>
                            <cell>781</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Barbusse</cell>
                            <cell>1916</cell>
                            <cell>1</cell>
                            <cell>16</cell>
                            <cell>52</cell>
                            <cell>13</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Barres</cell>
                            <cell>1888</cell>
                            <cell>5</cell>
                            <cell>87</cell>
                            <cell>93</cell>
                            <cell>72</cell>
                        </row>
                    </table>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Method</head>
                    <p>A glance at the frequencies of the texts recorded for individual authors
                        shows a large number of authors with one text, and a very small number of
                        authors with ten or more, a distribution pattern quite familiar to people
                        who work with word frequencies in natural languages. These data do not form
                        the familiar bell-shaped curve typical of the Gaussian or normal
                        distribution.</p>
                    <p>Since the data are not normally distributed, Pearson's product-moment
                        correlation analysis cannot legitimately be used on them. Similarly these
                        data would produce a very high proportion of predicted values smaller than 5
                        in a contingency table for a chi-squared analysis, so this method cannot be
                        employed. The usual way of handling such a problem (grouping the data) is
                        not appropriate, since it is the treatment of individual authors which is of
                        interest.</p>
                    <p>Spearman's rank correlation analysis does not require normally distributed
                        data nor predicted frequencies greater than five; it has been chosen as the
                        primary analytic technique and applied in pairwise fashion to the data, and
                        to the four subsets of the data. At the same time, jackknifed outlier
                        analysis provided by JMP-IN (Sall &amp; Lehman 1996) has been used to
                        identify authors whose distribution varies the most from the trends in the
                        data.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Results</head>
                    <p>Taken as a whole, the data show a high degree of correlation among the number
                        of texts in the TLF database, the number of lines in the <title level=""m""
                            >Oxford Companion</title>, and the two sets of MLA Bibliographic data
                        (See Table 2). There is no measurable probability that these correlations be
                        the result of chance alone.</p>
                    <table cols=""4"" rows=""7"">
                        <head>Table 2: Nonparametric Measure of Association</head>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Variable by</cell>
                            <cell>Variable</cell>
                            <cell>Spearman Rho</cell>
                            <cell>Prob&gt;|Rho|</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>OxC</cell>
                            <cell>Texts</cell>
                            <cell>0.5528</cell>
                            <cell>&lt;.0001 </cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>MLA_1</cell>
                            <cell>Texts</cell>
                            <cell>0.4475</cell>
                            <cell>&lt;.0001 </cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>MLA_1</cell>
                            <cell>OxC</cell>
                            <cell>0.6101 </cell>
                            <cell>&lt;.0001 </cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>MLA_2</cell>
                            <cell>Texts</cell>
                            <cell>0.4047</cell>
                            <cell>&lt;.0001 </cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>MLA_2</cell>
                            <cell>OxC</cell>
                            <cell>0.5918</cell>
                            <cell>&lt;.0001</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>MLA_2</cell>
                            <cell>MLA_1</cell>
                            <cell>0.9084 </cell>
                            <cell>&lt;.0001</cell>
                        </row>
                    </table>
                    <p>The data divided into four sections show a higher correlation in the earlier
                        period than in the later, and outliers in the earlier two periods tend to be
                        the greats of French literature, like Balzac, Stendhal and Zola, whereas in
                        the later periods they tend frequently to be novelists whose literary
                        fortunes are less obvious, like Simenon or Giono.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Conclusion</head>
                    <p>The analysis carried out on the number of novel texts included in the TLF
                        database shows that the texts included tend to be about the same as what
                        might have been included if a different team of scholars had drawn it up in
                        the late 1950s. Similarly the works included do correspond - particularly
                        for the period up to 1908 - to what scholars of our day find sufficiently
                        interesting to be included in their published studies.</p>
                    <p>It is thus reasonable to conclude that the TLF database is a valid
                        representation of important French literary texts for the period from 1789
                        to 1954. As more and more databases become commercially available, the
                        method presented here for validating the representativity of a database
                        using readily-available online bibliographical information would seem to
                        have a significance which goes beyond modern French literature.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Acknowledgements</head>
                    <p>The research reported here has been supported by the Social Sciences and
                        Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRCC) under grant number
                        410-98-1348.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>Bibliography</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Paul</forename>
                                    <surname>Harvey</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <forename type=""first"">J.</forename>
                                <forename type=""middle"">E.</forename>
                                <surname>Heseltine</surname>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">The Oxford Companion to French Literature</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Oxford</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Oxford UP</publisher>
                                <date when=""1959"">1959</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Paul</forename>
                                    <surname>Imbs</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Le Trésor de la Langue Française: Dictionnaire de la
                                langue du XIXe et du XXe siècle</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol"">16 vols.</biblScope>
                                <pubPlace>Paris</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>CNRS</publisher>
                                <date when=""1971"">1971</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">John</forename>
                                    <surname>Sall</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Ann</forename>
                                    <surname>Lehman</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">JMP Start Statistics</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Belmont, Ca.</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>SAS Institute</publisher>
                                <date when=""1996"">1996</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""bookChapter"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Robert</forename>
                                    <surname>Scholes</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Canonicity and Textuality</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Joseph</forename>
                                    <surname>Gibaldi</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">Introduction to Scholarship in Modern Languages and
                                Literatures</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>New York</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>MLA</publisher>
                                <date when=""1992"">1992</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Robert</forename>
                                    <surname>von Hallberg</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Canons</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Chicago</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>U of Chicago P.</publisher>
                                <date when=""1984"">1984</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                        <surname>Bordalejo</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">De Montfort University</name>
                            <email>bbordalejo@dmu.ac.uk</email>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Peter</forename>
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                    <p>This panel will present some of the work being done at the Centre for
                        Technology and the Arts, De Montfort University, (CTA) and by Scholarly
                        Digital Editions (SDE), Leicester. The CTA specializes in the application of
                        advanced computing methods to the making of scholarly editions, and is best
                        known for the Canterbury Tales Project, often cited as the most advanced
                        instance in the world of the use of computing in exploration and publication
                        of large textual traditions. SDE has developed from the need to find an
                        appropriate vehicle for publishing the work of the Canterbury Tales Project
                        and similar ventures. SDE now maintains and develops two key pieces of
                        software used in this work: the Collate software, used in the transcription
                        and collation of many witnesses, and the Anastasia electronic publishing
                        software, developed specifically for publication of complex scholarly
                        materials in electronic form.</p>
                    <p>This panel will offer three papers covering different aspects of the work of
                        the CTA and of SDE. It will introduce the tools, methods, and principles
                        underlying some of the editorial projects in which the CTA and SDE are
                        currently involved. It will focus on two of these projects: the Canterbury
                        Tales Project, led by the CTA, and the electronic edition of the Greek New
                        Testament in the Nestle-Aland 28th edition now being prepared by the
                        Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, Stuttgart and the Institut fÃ¼r
                        Neutestamentliche Textforschung, MÃ¼nster, and for which SDE is providing
                        software and consultancy services. Reference will be made to other work on
                        which the CTA and SDE is collaborating, notably the electronic edition of
                        Dante's Commedia to be published by the Italian publisher SISMEL. The papers
                        will cover both the practical and theoretical aspects of this work, with
                        liberal examples drawn from actual and prospective publications. In the
                        first paper, Barbara Bordalejo will review the processes of preparation
                        undergone by the Canterbury Tales Project team in making a single
                        publication. In the second, Peter Robinson will give the background to the
                        electronic Nestle-Aland 28, outline the aims of this publication as they are
                        emerging, and show the first prototypes of this. In the third paper, Andrew
                        West, the Technical Officer for the CTA and a key member of the Anastasia
                        development team, will discuss the transformation of complex encodings into
                        richly featured actual and usable publications.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>Everything You Wanted to Know About the Canterbury Tales Project's
                            Editions and Never Dared to Ask: The Making of The Miller's Tale on
                            CD-ROM</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Barbara Bordalejo</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>When one sees an electronic edition one wonders how much work and
                                effort has gone into it and the first question that springs to mind
                                is could I do something like that? The short answer is: No, you
                                can't. There are other kinds of electronic editions that a scholar
                                could produce on his own, but the multi- witness editions of the
                                Canterbury Tales Project are just out of the range for individual
                                production. The proof of this is that the Project has developed,
                                since its beginning, partnerships and collaborations at different
                                levels with many scholars. Since its last expansion - with two new
                                members - the Canterbury Tales Project is now producing our CD-ROMs
                                more speedily. Of course, another important factor that has enormous
                                weight on the Canterbury Tales Project's production improvement, is
                                the fact that most conventions used for the conversion into computer
                                formats have long been established and tested, and are now more
                                reliable that ever before. An idea of how many scholars have
                                participated in a particular edition can be drawn by looking at the
                                opening pages of one of CDs.</p>
                            <p>I first approached The Wife of Bath's Prologue on CD-ROM in December
                                1999. I was then fascinated by the idea of all the manuscripts of
                                the Canterbury Tales being transcribed and published. I also held a
                                very strict textual-critical position that made me into a severe
                                documentary editor. This CD-ROM pleased me greatly - although not
                                completely - and I was particularly impressed by some of the
                                transcription policies of the Project. But what really engaged me
                                was the idea that Collate 'the main program used in our collations'
                                was such a wonderful tool that could help creating this kind of
                                materials. I was quite ignorant then and, even if I understood what
                                coding was and had tried to teach myself SGML, I was far from being
                                able to truly understand the nature and complexity of the production
                                of one of these CDs. What I did then is what most of my colleagues
                                would have done: I read everything I could get a hold of in which
                                members of the CANTERBURY TALES PROJECT had participated.</p>
                            <p>Eventually, I came across a statement similar to the one found in The
                                General Prologue CD-ROM:<cit rend=""block"">
                                    <quote>""The computer collation program we are using (Collate)
                                        permits regularization as part of the collation process.
                                        This has the great advantage of allowing deferral of
                                        regularization until all the evidence of all the spellings
                                        in all the manuscripts at any one point is available. It
                                        also permits a complete record to be made of all
                                        regularization done during the collation. Collate can also
                                        generate regularized-spelling version of each file from the
                                        regularization process.""</quote>
                                </cit></p>
                            <p>My interpretation was that Collate could automatically generate
                                regularized texts from the unregularized ones. This is just shows
                                how naÃ¯ve and ignorant I was. Collate is a wonderful tool and helps
                                our work in unimaginable ways, but it can not take the various
                                spellings of Middle English and regularize them to a particular
                                form. In fact, because of the nature of the language at that time, I
                                am doubtful that any automated tool could do this. So how do the
                                complex spellings of the manuscripts get transformed into a
                                regularized collation? This is just done by hand. Word by word, line
                                by line, 20.000 lines of verse in 88 fifteenth-century witness are
                                lemmatized and regularized by the Canterbury Tales Project team. The
                                process is intricate, requires a great deal of attention and
                                grammatical skills that few people arrive with, and when it is over,
                                every single one of the regularizations must be checked to make sure
                                that most mistakes are eliminated. Both the lemmatization and
                                regularization are building blocks of our spelling databases.</p>
                            <p>An important question that one might want to ask to the members of
                                the Canterbury Tales Project is why should anyone go through the
                                process of creating very detailed transcriptions of the manuscripts,
                                making sure that tails and flourishes are accurately represented in
                                the key manuscripts, if later one has to spend money and time in
                                taking all those differences out to produce the regularized
                                collation? The answer is quite simple, the regularized and
                                unregularized collations have very different function in the
                                CD-ROMs. Probably, the main reason to have chosen to produce a
                                regularized collation is the fact that only using this one can
                                proceed to make an adequate stemmatic analysis. Since one of the
                                main aims of the Canterbury Tales Project is to achieve a better
                                understanding of the textual tradition of the Tales and the ways in
                                which the manuscripts relate to one another, it seems clear why the
                                role of the stemmatic analysis should be a priority. One of the most
                                evident discoveries of the Project is the fact that spelling
                                variants are uninformative while using phylogenetic programs - which
                                are used as an important part of our stemmatic analysis - and that,
                                in fact, these create 'white noise' and impair the results yielded
                                by evolutionary software.</p>
                            <p>Using examples drawn from my work on The Miller's Tale on CD-ROM I
                                would like to demonstrate some of the problems that we face in our
                                everyday work. Moreover, I will discuss other issues generated by
                                editions of the kind produced by the Project, such as working with
                                other people - nearby and far away, consistency, revision and
                                responsibility. In cases like this, it becomes clear that the more
                                people work in a particular edition, the bigger the need for strict
                                rules to be applied in each particular case.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                </div>
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                    <div>
                        <head>Making an electronic edition of the Greek New Testament</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Peter Robinson</p>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Klaus Wachtel</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>The Greek New Testament represents, by every measure, the Everest of
                                textual scholarship. Firstly, it is simply the biggest: with over
                                five thousand surviving manuscripts and other witnesses, from over
                                two thousand years, it dwarfs every other textual tradition of a
                                major western text (some Indian textual traditions, where copying
                                onto palm leaf manuscripts persists to this day, are larger in terms
                                of sheer numbers of manuscripts). Secondly, it is the most complex:
                                beside straight-forward copies one has to deal with a vast spectrum
                                of versions, in many languages and from many cultures, some of them
                                now deeply obscure. There is also considerable citational evidence,
                                where scraps of text are referred to in early Christian and other
                                writers, some of which bears crucial witness to textual readings,
                                even whole texts (the elusive 'Gospel of the Hebrews', for example),
                                otherwise unknown. Thirdly, it is the most intractable. Many textual
                                scholars have lived by a comfortable presumption that as one tunnels
                                upwards in a textual tradition towards the origins variation will
                                diminish, to the point where it may be eliminated altogether and a
                                single perfect and original text (in this case, indeed, the Word of
                                God) will stand forth. But the situation with the Greek New
                                Testament appears to show the precise opposite: variation becomes
                                greater, not less, as we move back in time, and the earliest
                                substantial evidence we have from the second century shows witnesses
                                which differ more from each other and from the late text than do
                                later writers.</p>
                            <p>Add to this that the Greek New Testament is, by some considerable
                                margin, the most important single text of western civilization, and
                                indeed the foundation of nearly two millennia of our culture, and we
                                have a formidable task. Six centuries of textual scholarship has
                                defined itself against this task, and the names of the editors who
                                have struggled with this text and its problems is an impressive
                                rollcall: Erasmus, Griesbach, Bentley, Lachmann, Tischendorf,
                                Westcott, Hort, von Soden, Nestle, Aland. Sooner or later, every
                                theory of textual scholarship, and every technological development,
                                must test itself against the Greek New Testament. The early
                                development of printing in the west (and perhaps even its invention)
                                was driven by the church's need for uniform texts; one could argue
                                that printing reached its first technical peak in the polyglot Bible
                                of 1515. Now, it is the turn of computing technology and electronic
                                publishing to confront this challenge. Over the last five years, the
                                Institut fÃ¼r Neutestamentliche Textforschung, MÃ¼nster, (INTF) has
                                been progressively incorporating computer-assisted techniques in the
                                preparation of the new Editio Critica Maior series of the Greek New
                                Testament (ECM). The most recent volumes of this have used computer
                                methods not only in preparation of the printed text, but at every
                                stage in gathering the data on which the printed text is built. The
                                manuscripts chosen for inclusion in the ECM apparatus are now
                                transcribed in full, collated using Robinson’s Collate software
                                (originally developed for medieval vernacular texts), and the
                                collation output to a database where it is integrated with other
                                evidence and the apparatus for the ECM print editions created.</p>
                            <p>This work involved testing and development of computer techniques
                                capable of coping with the special demands of the Greek New
                                Testament. For example: Robinson has had to add many new facilities
                                to Collate, and enable it to cope with collation of up to 500 texts
                                at once. At the same time, the INTF has had to redesign how it
                                carries out the work, rebuilding it around full transcription and
                                collation of the manuscripts rather than manual excerpting of
                                variants. So far, this work has been limited to the making of
                                printed texts. Recently, and encouraged by the success of this
                                process, the INTF and their publisher, the Deutsche
                                Bibelgesellschaft (DBG) have determined on a more ambitious program:
                                the making of an electronic edition of the 28th edition of the
                                Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament. The Nestle-Aland text is far the
                                most widely used text of the Greek New Testament: it is the text
                                published in the United Bible Society publications, it is studied in
                                seminaries and used in translations worldwide. Just to make an
                                electronic version of this printed text and apparatus alone would be
                                a signal advance, and in itself a considerable challenge. However,
                                the INTF and DBG propose far more: the electronic version of the
                                existing text should be interwoven with full transcripts of the key
                                manuscripts (and, as time passes, more and more manuscripts),
                                collations of these, and analytic tools including the facility to
                                carry out dynamic comparisions of manuscripts, build stemmatic
                                analyses from the comparisons, and much more. Beyond this, the
                                possibilities of linking to on-line manuscript images and
                                lexicographic resources open yet further perspectives.</p>
                            <p>Much of this will be built on the existing Collate software, and over
                                the next years Robinson and other Leicester staff (both from the
                                Centre and from Scholarly Digital Editions [SDE]) will be working
                                with Wachtel and other staff at the INTF and DBG to set up the work
                                practices necessary to support this, and developing a series of
                                prototype publications. With funding from the Deutsche
                                Forschungsgemeineschaft and the DBG, the first of these prototypes
                                will be publically available on the web in February 2003. We will
                                present a version of this first prototype at the conference. All
                                text will be encoded in XML, following the TEI guidelines. The first
                                prototypes, at least, will use Anastasia, the electronic publication
                                system developed by SDE.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>Turning Complicated Texts into Real Publications</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Andrew West</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>Turning basic text into a simple publication can be a relatively easy
                                matter. It could be as easy as using a word processor or typewriter,
                                but what if the text is more complicated? For example, what if the
                                text was written in a different language, or you needed to include
                                information pertaining to the original physical document? These can
                                be some of the obstacles in creating a digital publication.</p>
                            <p>The first step in this process is to find a means of encoding not
                                only the raw text but also the information relating to the document
                                or parts of the document. If it was a simple document produced in
                                Microsoft Word we could mark parts of the text as bold, italic etc.,
                                but this method provides nowhere near the flexibility or power which
                                is required by most. HTML, HyperText Mark-up Language, is a step
                                closer as parts of the document can be marked or tagged to describe
                                the structure, such as the title or the document body. Still this
                                method is inflexible and very restrictive in the information it
                                allows you to show. What we need is a way similar to this but also
                                allows us to define how and what information we need to keep.</p>
                            <p>For their transcription work the Canterbury Tales Project chose XML
                                (eXtended Mark-up Language), and before this its predecessor SGML
                                (Standard Mark-up Language) as their format for transcribing the
                                Canterbury Tales. This allows them to transcribe the manuscripts in
                                almost infinite detail, from something as simple as marking a
                                character as being a particular medieval style of letter to showing
                                that a sentence was added at a later date. For them to create a way
                                of encoding this selected information all they need do is use a tag,
                                such as &lt;added&gt;, which itself could hold extra
                                information about this occurrence of added text. So wherever there
                                is a need to include information in a portion of text either an
                                existing tag can be used or a new one created to suit their needs.</p>
                            <p>This style of encoding can have potential dangers. When several
                                people are working on a transcription, they need to make sure that
                                they agree on which tags they are going to be using and in which
                                circumstances they should use them, otherwise the resulting
                                transcriptions would be inconsistent and impossible to use in a real
                                publication. In an effort to solve this problem Peter Robinson,
                                director of the Canterbury Tales Project, helped produce the T.E.I.
                                documentation. This set of documents created the standard which the
                                C.T.P. uses to encode the manuscripts they are working on, and by
                                which all their transcribers work by in order to create a
                                consistence format for their publications.</p>
                            <p>So now we have a set of files with all the text and its relevant
                                information encoded within, but this format is not going to be
                                presentable to the public. What we need is to create a system that
                                can turn this information into format that can be read and navigated
                                with ease. To this end Scholarly Digital Editions created Anastasia,
                                an application that takes the transcribers' XML files and produces
                                intermediate files which enable it to search these XML files and can
                                tailor its output to suit the needs of the publication. Anastasia
                                acts like a web server so it can be used in conjunction with a web
                                browsers such as Internet Explorer or Netscape. The benefits of a
                                system such as this is that most users will have some knowledge of
                                these applications so they will not need to learn a new system in
                                order to be able to use the publication. Other digital publication
                                applications have chosen to create their own interface for the
                                users, and this may allow them to refine the way they present the
                                information to produce a view of the information that is exactly
                                what they need. But this may have the drawback of having a steeper
                                learning curve when people start using these applications. An
                                advantage of the Anastasia system is that it gives extraordinary
                                control over the interface we present to users. This makes it
                                possible to tune interfaces precisely as we want. We are currently
                                working on integration of mySQL into Anastasia. The reason for this
                                is that there are certain operations which are very well handled by
                                databases (notably, sorting of results of searches on particular
                                fields). We also intend to integrate certain of the Collate
                                functions into the software.</p>
                            <p>Producing electronic publications is a long and laborious process,
                                not only in transcribing the manuscripts but also in deciding how to
                                encoding the information and then how best to let people view the
                                resulting publication. At least this part of the process can be
                                simplified by collaborating with publishers and choosing ""off the
                                shelf"" applications.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                </div>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Some considerations on a framework for electronic
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                        <forename type=""first"">Fotis</forename>
                        <surname>Jannidis</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Institut fuer Deutsche Philologie</name>
                            <name type=""org"">LMU Muenchen</name>
                            <email>fotis.jannidis@lrz.uni-muenchen.de</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
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                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
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                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
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                <head>*Considerations on a framework for electronic editions*</head>
                <div>
                    <head>Overview</head>
                    <p>A replacement for tools like Tact and WordCruncher is very much needed,
                        because the existence of reliable and accepted standards for text encoding
                        like TEI stimulate the creation of electronic editions, but there is no free
                        tool available to publish them. The design of such a reading program has to
                        be abstract enough to make implementations in different programming
                        languages possible, therefore it would be advisable not to write a new
                        program but creating a framework for philological components. The proposed
                        framework should help small to medium sized projects planning electronic
                        editions to get started with as little additional time and money investment
                        as possible. At the same time the framework should scale so well, that it
                        allows its use in very large projects or in projects with a lot of
                        additional features. As has been pointed out before no philological program
                        is able to fulfil all user wishes, so extensibility is an important design
                        factor for the proposed framework. In this paper I will discuss some typical
                        needs of such a framework from three different perspectives:<list>
                            <item>1. The end user reading an edition or searching it</item>
                            <item>2. The editor building an edition</item>
                            <item>3. The programmer customizing and extending the framework</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>In the fourth section I point out some design options and problems for the
                        architecture of such a framework.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>end user</head>
                    <p>The end user should be able to use the edition in two modes: first without
                        any learning curve; at least basic feature like reading and simple searches
                        should be accessible in this mode. Therefore the end user interface should
                        be imitating established practices like browsing the net and using an
                        Internet search engine. The second mode for more advanced users has a
                        command line interface, which allows the formulation (storing, commenting
                        etc.) of more complex retrieval requests.</p>
                    <p>Three typical uses of an electronic edition should be possible:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>Reading / browsing. Next to the usual navigating along the
                                structural information of the text, the reader should be able to
                                choose between different views on the text. Three views are probably
                                enough for a start: a) simple reading version, where all additional
                                information is hidden; b) scholarly reading text with all additional
                                information presented in a typographical form; c) the raw xml text.
                                In the case of critical editions it should be possible to choose
                                between different base texts.</item>
                            <item>Text retrieval. The user can choose to have all 'hits' either
                                in the sequence they are in the repository or ranked according to
                                the quality of the 'hit' as is the practice in Internet search
                                engines. - The scope of the search can be limited to certain parts
                                of the corpus or extended to include other corpora maybe living on
                                other servers.</item>
                            <item>Retrieval of simple statistical information like type/token
                                ratio, collocation etc. (as in WordCruncher or Tact).</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>To have some solid ground for any assumptions on the user needs, this section
                        will be based on the analysis of some electronic editions and a survey
                        distributed to editors on the next meeting of German editors.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>editor</head>
                    <p>The editor wants to make the material she or he edited accessible to the end
                        user without much additional work and without loosing to much information.
                        These are contradictory aims, because necessarily it needs some
                        configuration to make all specific features of an edition accessible and a
                        standard interface can only make those features accessible, which most
                        editions probably share. But the configuration should be made as easy as
                        possible and in the normal case should not need any programming knowledge.
                        Especially for small to medium sized projects there is a need to have some
                        publishing environment to test the markup during production and to publish
                        the text because they cannot afford expensive publishing software. Existence
                        and easy use of such a framework could also stimulate the creation of small
                        editions because editors would find help with all basic steps.</p>
                    <p>To get a clearer picture of the needs of editors the survey which has already
                        been mentioned above will also include questions on what editors expect from
                        their electronic tools.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>programmer</head>
                    <p>The programmer wants to be able to extend the framework to fulfil the needs
                        of a special edition. Doing this should be possible by using standards like
                        XML, TEI, SOAP etc., which he or she probably would know about anyway, and
                        by working with a well-defined and well-documented API. Having working
                        examples to build on should further the process of creating new components.
                        It should be possible to build new components, which enable new ways of
                        visualization, searching or using (e.g. statistics) the edition. Ideally
                        these components can be added to the basic software without recompilation of
                        the other software or reindexing the text, just by registering them with the
                        framework. The framework shouldn't be tied to a special platform.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>The framework</head>
                    <p>The many different needs, which define the framework, shouldn't lead to a
                        monolithic program doing it all. They can better be solved with an ensemble
                        of small components each of them solving only one task. Unix tools are good
                        model for this, but in contrast to these tools the input and output needs to
                        be more strictly defined and a graphical user interface, at least for the
                        group ""end user"" and the group ""editor"", should make the tool collection
                        more accessible. The main task of designing the framework is the definition
                        of a basic set of such components and the communication between them. The
                        basic framework doesn't need to have already all requested features users
                        wish, but should exclude their integration at a later moment.</p>
                    <p>The following components would be part of such a basic structure:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>A web browser based interface to the end user</item>
                            <item>A component, which receives the cgi requests from the web
                                browser. It wraps the request information into an xml based
                                communication format.</item>
                            <item>A component, which has a table matching, requests to some
                                request handler. It receives the request, looks up the appropriate
                                handler and calls it.</item>
                            <item>A handler, which uses the next two components to send the user
                                query to the backend. It manages state information etc.</item>
                            <item>A component, which converts the information from the user form
                                to some query format using XPath, XML Query etc. See below for a
                                more detailed discussion of this aspect. This is used by all
                                components.</item>
                            <item>A component, which converts the query format to some format the
                                backend supports (if the query format is supported by the backend,
                                it is even better).</item>
                            <item>A backend consisting of some storage for the edited material,
                                e.g. a relational database or an xml database.</item>
                            <item>A component, which wraps the results - usually a node set -
                                return by the backend into some standardized wrapper
                                format.[1]</item>
                            <item>A component, which allows the application of xsl:t stylesheets
                                to the query result to convert it into html, which is sent back to
                                the web browser.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>It should be possible for a programmer to insert pre- or postprocessor
                        components into this basic structure, so the components shouldn't be
                        integrated too tightly. The paper will discuss possibilities to achieve this
                        by using newer web service protocols like XML-RPC or SOAP.</p>
                    <p>The framework has to define standards for at least to interfaces in this data
                        flow: 1) A wrapper format into which the cgi request is stored; 2) a
                        standardized way to match user requests and handlers; 3) the query language,
                        4) the wrapper.</p>
                    <p>The paper will discuss possible solutions, especially contentrating on the
                        problem of a suitable query language.</p>
                    <p>The reason for the paper is not so much the proposal of adefined framework
                        but the hope to start a new discussion in a time where the means for
                        collaborative work are easily accessible. Not the least aspect of it is its
                        aim to offer a sound basis for such project by defining the user needs.</p>
                </div>
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                <head>Literature</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct n=""1"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">Michael</forename>
                                    <surname>Sperberg-McQueen</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">MOTS 15 - An interactive concordance system built from
                                mostly off the shelf parts</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct n=""2"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">John</forename>
                                    <surname>Bradley</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Geoffrey</forename>
                                    <surname>Rockwell</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Towards new Research Tools in Computer-Assisted Text
                                Analysis</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""1992"">1992</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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"249","3","A rediscovered Llull tract and the Augsburg Web edition of Llull's electoral writings","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">A rediscovered Llull tract and the Augsburg Web edition
                    of Llull's electoral writings</title>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Friedrich</forename>
                        <surname>Pukelsheim</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Augsburg</name>
                            <email>Pukelsheim@Math.Uni-Augsburg.De</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ALLC/ACH 2002</title>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>editor</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Harald</forename>
                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <forename type=""middle""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                    </name>
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            <div>
                <div>
                    <head>Summary</head>
                    <p>We present a Web edition of the three writings on electoral systems by Ramon
                        Llull (1232-1316). The first of these, <title level=""m"">Artifitium
                            electionis personarum</title>, which has come down to us only as a
                        fifteenth century manuscript, is exhibited here for the first time. We
                        discuss the goals of providing our Web edition, and outline the
                        implementation we have chosen.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Zusammenfassung</head>
                    <p>Wir präsentieren eine Web-Edition der drei Wahlsystemschriften des Raimund
                        Lull (1232-1316). Deren erste, <title level=""m"">Artifitium electionis
                            personarum</title>, ist einzig in einer Handschrift des fünfzehnten
                        Jahrhunderts überliefert und wird hier erstmals vorgestellt. Wir diskutieren
                        die Ziele unserer Web-Edition und skizzieren die softwaretechnische
                        Umsetzung, für die wir uns entschieden haben.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Contents</head>
                    <p>
                        <list>
                            <item>1. Introduction</item>
                            <item>2. Llull's electoral writings</item>
                            <item>3. Goals for the Web edition<list>
                                    <item>1. Global instant access</item>
                                    <item>2. Expert discussion forum</item>
                                    <item>3. Computer supported editing</item>
                                </list></item>
                            <item>4. Software implementation<list>
                                    <item>1. Document object model and browser orientation</item>
                                    <item>2. JavaScript-based dynamic HTML</item>
                                    <item>3. Text fragmentation and linked highlighting</item>
                                    <item>4. Future work</item>
                                </list></item>
                            <item>5. References<list>
                                    <item><ptr
                                            target=""http://www.math.uni-augsburg.de/stochastik/reports/439.html""
                                        /><lb/>Univ.Augsburg, <title level=""m"">Inst.f.Mathematik,
                                            Report 439</title> (10pp., 8 May 2001)</item>
                                </list></item>
                        </list>
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
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"250","3","New Philology and New Phylogeny. Aspects of a critical electronic edition of Wolfram's 'Parzival'","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Michael</forename>
                        <surname>Stolz</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Basle</name>
                            <email>M.Stolz-Hladky@unibas.ch</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
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            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ALLC/ACH 2002</title>
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                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
                    </name>
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                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <forename type=""middle""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                    </name>
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                <p>Wolfram von Eschenbach's <title level=""m"">Parzival</title> ranks as one of the
                    most significant narrative works to emerge from medieval Europe. Composed
                    between 1200 and 1210, it combines the Arthurian material of Celtic origin with
                    the religious subject- matter of the Holy Grail. The central question that
                    hereby emerges is how a world torn apart by contradictions and conflicts can
                    again be rendered whole. Within the fictitious garb of the Parzival-romance
                    Wolfram confers upon this question a shape that transcends time, which gave rise
                    to intense interest on the part of listeners and readers. The sheer number of
                    medieval manuscripts preserving <title level=""m"">Parzival</title> today speaks
                    for itself (16 manuscripts that have preserved the entire text, 70 fragments,
                    and a print dating from 1477).</p>
                <p>Ever since the late eighteenth-century revival of interest in the vernacular
                    poetry of the Middle Ages, modern literary scholarship has concerned itself with
                    Wolfram's Grail romance. The interpretations that have been arrived at are as
                    varied as they are controversial. Exegesis has, however, been based upon an
                    edition which, although a masterpiece of its time, can no longer meet today's
                    expectations. Karl Lachmann's <title level=""m"">Parzival</title> edition of 1833
                    formed the standard basis for interpretation for generations of Germanists, but
                    recent scholarship is agreed upon the necessity for a new edition, and has
                    become increasingly discontented with working with a text that is generally
                    acknowledged to be in need of revision.</p>
                <p>The challenge presented to the editor of <title level=""m"">Parzival</title> also
                    affects central problems in the theory of medieval philology today. Worthy of
                    note in this context are phenomena such as the relationship between oral
                    performance and its literary codification, the ensuing variability of medieval
                    texts, as well as concepts of authorship and transmission, and their effects
                    upon the way in which a text is presented. To put it in its simplest terms,
                    scholarly debate hinges upon two pivotal positions, which may be denoted by the
                    keywords New Philology and New Phylogeny: New Philology emphasises the variety
                    in transmission and the ensuing instability of medieval texts. Its tendency is
                    to undermine the hierarchy of individual manuscript sources in the interest of
                    the fundamentally variable, unstable status of medieval manuscript culture. New
                    phylogeny, by contrast, clings to manuscript interrelations and groupings as the
                    basis for the critical determination of the text. The concept of ""phylogeny"",
                    which derives from evolutionary biology, denotes the race-history of breeds.
                    Recently it has been applied to questions of manuscript interrelations. Research
                    on Chaucer, for example, has attempted, in an article published in the magazine
                    'Nature' which attracted great attention, to establish the 'Phylogeny of the
                    CanterburyTales'.</p>
                <p>A new critical edition of <title level=""m"">Parzival</title> will have to come to
                    terms with the abundance of variant readings and the not inconsiderable problems
                    of establishing a text against the methodological background of the polarity of
                    New Philology and New Phylogeny. A challenge voiced in the <title level=""m""
                        >Parzival</title> scholarship of the 1960s now seems more relevant than ever
                    before. It was then argued that it was necessary ""to publish all the material
                    that was collected for critical assessment before the question of manuscript
                    interrelation could be clarified"" (E. Nellmann). Perhaps the idea, when it was
                    voiced in 1968, had a Utopian ring. Today, however, it can be put into practice,
                    step by step, with the aid of computer technology, and at reasonable expense. A
                    critical electronic edition of the manuscript sources would constitute a
                    work-base that would be an indispensable prerequisite for any new edition of
                        <title level=""m"">Parzival</title>.</p>
                <p>The possibilities offered by the synoptic representation of the manuscript
                    sources on screen can be illustrated by reference to a short extract from the
                        <title level=""m"">Parzival</title> prologue (see illustration below). The
                    screen presentation created by an internet browser shows above, in the left
                    window, a normalised text, based on the main manuscript D. In the window on the
                    left below is the apparatus of variants relating to this text. The windows on
                    the right contain the transcriptions and facsimiles of the various manuscript
                    sources. All the windows are internetted by hypertext-links and permit users an
                    interactive interchange between base-text, apparatus of variants, transcriptions
                    and facsimiles.</p>
                <figure/>
                <p>There is no doubt that, on the screen, the variability postulated by New
                    Philology can be presented in much more lucid, visual terms than in conventional
                    editions of texts. The critical apparata of the traditional kind generally only
                    present readings in punctual fashion, reproducing word-for-word variants. On the
                    screen, however, the variety of readings in the manuscripts, in context, can be
                    encompassed. The second important advantage of electronic display lies, however,
                    in the presentation of manuscript groupings advocated by New Phylogeny. In this
                    context, computer programmes open new fields of experiment and accelerate
                    analytical processes. They facilitate the flexible disposition of manuscript
                    groupings and enable the rapid revision of philological judgements concerning
                    base manuscripts and stemmatological interrelations.</p>
            <p>Thus electronic display enables a synthesis of philological positions, which at first
                sight appear contradictory. Such a synthesis offers a work-tool, and an
                indispensable prerequisite for any future critical edition of <title level=""m"">Parzival</title>. At the same
                time, the electronic display amounts to a form of edition which has its own peculiar
                nature and justification. Its concept results from the discussion concerning New
                Philology in the last decade, and leads this discussion towards a pragmatic
                editorial solution. From this a new <title level=""m"">Parzival</title> edition can emerge, which, up to a
                point, enables its users to participate in the editorial process, and leaves them
                the freedom to decide between different textual variants and the form in which they
                are transmitted in the manuscripts. The manuscript data produced by this process
                would be of interest to both literary and linguistic historians.</p>
            <p>In employing this electronic medium, users are embedded in a century-old process of
                transmission - from the post-Gutenberg era they go back to the age before Gutenberg.
                Here the cultural and scholarly relevance of electronic editions of medieval texts
                becomes evident: they merge with a development in historical scholarship which is
                increasingly concerned with the mediality of manuscript transmission, as well as
                with questions of discourse analysis and anthropology. Political historiography,
                concerned with the great events of history, and social history, defined in relation
                to human labour, has yielded place to aspects of mediation, transmission and the
                preservation of historical data. The 'homo laborans' thus yields his place to the
                'homo tradens' of historical anthropology. This new trend may in turn favour a
                culturally based 'rephilologisation' of linguistic and literary scholarship.</p>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Stephen</forename>
                        <surname>Ramsay</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">IATH</name>, <name type=""org"">University of Virginia</name>
                            <email>sjr3@virginia.edu</email>
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                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">John</forename>
                        <surname>Bradley</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">King's College London</name>
                            <email>john.bradley@kcl.ac.uk</email>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Geoffrey</forename>
                        <surname>Rockwell</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">McMaster University</name>
                            <email>grockwel@mcmaster.ca</email>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Stéfan</forename>
                        <surname>Sinclair</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">University of Alberta</name>
                            <email>Stefan.Sinclair@ualberta.ca</email>
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                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
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                    <p>How can we use computers to assist us in the interpretation of literary
                        texts?</p>
                    <p>On the one hand, this has the ring of a settled question. Half of the
                        humanities computing community works to make texts available to researchers
                        and provides facilities whereby those texts may be searched, annotated, and
                        linked. The other half produces tools for textual analysis that allow us to
                        undertake complex statistical and procedural analyses. Yet most humanists
                        outside of our discipline conceive of these activities as either
                        pre-interpretive, or else outside of the normative realm of critical
                        exegesis found in literary criticism, philosophy, history, and the various
                        other disciplines which take the text as central to the endeavor.</p>
                    <p>This panel brings together four creators of text analysis software interested
                        in reconceiving the activity from a theoretical standpoint. Panelists will
                        address a range of questions about text analysis: Can text analysis be
                        reconceived as fundamentally an act of text enrichment--not a taking from,
                        but an adding to the text being analyzed? What happens when text analysis is
                        thought of not as the quest for empirical data about texts, but as a
                        technology more in line with the readerly quest for novel patterns? How
                        might we re-theorize the classical modes of text analysis (searching, word
                        frequency analysis, stylometrics) as participating in the hermeneutics of
                        play?</p>
                    <p>We conceive of this session neither as a critique of existing systems nor as
                        as a commentary on text analysis as it is brought to bear on problems in
                        computational linguistics. Rather, we conceive of this session as theorizing
                        text analysis in literary studies and other fields with similar
                        hermeneutical practices with an eye toward the future of text analysis
                        tools. We realize that proposing such a session in Tübingen, the home of
                        TUSTEP, is like bringing coals to Newcastle, but we offer this panel as a
                        perspective from across the waters -- a different tradition of text analysis
                        and computing.</p>
                    <p>[Note: We have requested that this proposal be considered as a session,
                        despite the fact that we are proposing the delivery of four formal papers.
                        However, we are prepared to adjust ourselves to the time constraints as
                        necessary.]</p>
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                        <head>Finding the Middle Ground Between ""Determinism"" and ""Aesthetic
                            Indeterminacy"": A Model for Text Analysis Tools</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">John Bradley</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>In Danielle Miller's review of the book <title level=""m"">The Legacy
                                    of Northrop Frye</title>, she notes Imre Salusinsky's
                                observation that the textual theorist is the ""true liberal who
                                positions himself in the middle ground between 'determinism' and
                                'aesthetic indeterminacy'"". Over the past several years I have
                                proposed a model for text analysis tools that balances the ability
                                of the computer to carry out a set of formal tasks on a text against
                                the need of the human user to introduce rather more
                                non-deterministic material into an analysis. Although it is meant to
                                reflect a view on some aspects of how a text is analyzed that is not
                                specifically ""computer based"", it is also based on certain
                                developments in the computing world over the past several years, and
                                on developments in software in a sister field to the humanities: the
                                social sciences. The model is based on XML, and more specifically
                                TEI -- surely a solid foundation upon which text analysis tools
                                should be built. It, however, goes against several of the current
                                developments in XML -- turning, instead, to a view of XML that is, I
                                think, truer to the thinking behind TEI than these current
                                developments.</p>
                            <p>The World Wide Web, with its model of servers and clients, often
                                dominates thinking about the role of computers in certain groups
                                within the computing humanities community. In the web, the server
                                has a resource that can be made available to a community of users --
                                the clients. The nature of browser-based interaction means that the
                                user can use the web to select displays of results, and can also
                                take advantage of <emph rend=""italics"">search engines</emph> that a
                                server might make available -- posing a query through a form which
                                allows the server machine to select material from the resource to be
                                presented. In the Humanities, then, the WWW encourages the view of
                                scholarly materials as a <emph rend=""italics"">resource</emph> that
                                the WWW makes available to a collection of scholars -- no wonder,
                                perhaps, that conferences like the UK's <emph rend=""italics"">Digital
                                    Resources in the Humanities</emph> have begun to appear.</p>
                            <p>The nature of the server/client interaction in the WWW is
                                transactional. A user sends a request (either in the form of a
                                request for a page of material, or in the form of a query), and the
                                server sends back a response. Not surprisingly, given that XML came
                                from the W3C -- setters of standards for the WWW -- there have been
                                a flurry of activities that are based on XML that support this
                                transactional model of interaction. Standards like W3C's SOAP (which
                                is XML based) work best in a what in computing is called a
                                ""peer-to-peer"" context: where a computer system belonging to one
                                organisation (say a purchasing system) needs to send an order to a
                                peer machine in another (say, supplier) organisation.</p>
                            <p>The transactional model is of course appropriate for certain kinds of
                                humanities resources. In many kinds of linguistics-based work, for
                                example, it is often sensible to view a corpus as a resource to be
                                queried. However, this model does not suit other aspects of the
                                traditional model of humanities scholarship nearly so well. Indeed,
                                the TEI, originally developed before the WWW was available, takes
                                quite a different, and much more intimate, view of the relationship
                                between the user and his/her text. In the TEI's ""analytic mechanism""
                                and related schemes such as ""feature structures"" one sees an attempt
                                to express in SGML (and nowadays XML) connections between text and
                                analysis that are tightly connected to the text itself in that they
                                rely on the insertion of markup by the scholar directly onto the
                                text base. This kind of activity is not so much like the
                                transactional model, which would have the scholar interacting with a
                                text as a remote resource, but instead should be thought of as being
                                closer to a form of ownership -- the scholar gradually makes some
                                aspect of the text his/her own by attaching material (""annotations"")
                                that represent her/his personal interests onto a text.</p>
                            <p>I believe there is some evidence to suggest that this ""enrichment
                                model"" is closer to the interaction between a scholar and his/her
                                text and provides a better model for computer support of humanities
                                scholarship than the transactional one does. During the presentation
                                of this paper we will examine Willard McCarty's ""Analytical
                                Onomasticon to the Metamorphoses of Ovid"" as an example of textual
                                enrichment. The Onomasticon represents a blending of traditional
                                annotation with computer processing which helps to reveal and assist
                                in the imposition of a unified, yet rich, vision of personification
                                on the text. McCarty's recent analysis of the commentary also
                                proposes a model for the digital commentary in which an enrichment
                                approach is implicit. Furthermore, there are useful models to
                                examine in the social sciences, where there has been the blossoming
                                of tools to provide computer assistance to the kind of textual
                                analysis that is often needed for their texts (e.g. interviews).</p>
                            <p>Particularly interesting in this regard are the packages <emph
                                    rend=""italics"">Nud*ist</emph>, <emph rend=""italics"">NVivo</emph>
                                and <emph rend=""italics"">Atlas.ti</emph>, all tools that suggest
                                some characteristics of enrichment that would suit humanities
                                scholarship as well.</p>
                            <p>Tools to support textual enrichment have been available for some
                                time, and some of them are remarkably powerful. TuStep, for example,
                                has its origins in the 1970s -- predating even SGML -- and provides
                                an integrated set of tools to support a broad range of scholarly
                                activities. Much more recently, the ""EyeContact"" model, proposed by
                                Geoffrey Rockwell and me, operates in a broadly similar fashion --
                                emphasising a set of tools that can process text and text-related
                                materials, and that can be combined in many ways. I have come to
                                believe, however, that the enrichment model is better served when
                                the emphasis provided by the environment to the user is on viewing
                                of the text and scholarly annotations rather than on the task of
                                assembling of the tools to do work. Thus, it seems to me that
                                ""XML/SGML editors"" such as XMetal or emacs/psgml provide a good
                                starting point for envisaging a model of what is needed. They are at
                                least aware of XML/SGML constructs and can assist with ensuring
                                XML/SGML conformity. However, on their own they cannot help the user
                                much if s/he tries to introduce one of TEI's more sophisticated
                                analytic mechanism models onto a text -- the TEI guidelines
                                themselves suggest that there is a need for software beyond an
                                XML-aware text editor to facilitate the introduction of the
                                analytical models that they propose. It is in the combining of XML
                                structures (already understood by XML editors) with software objects
                                more closely related to the scholarly tools being modeled that
                                development work would need to be done.</p>
                            <p>The development of software that supports an enrichment model of text
                                is supported by some developments that are XML based. Many of these
                                standards are still in their early days and are as of yet, from an
                                enrichment perspective, hobbled by the transactional focus of the
                                members of the committees that develop them, since they are tailored
                                first to meet the needs of those who process relatively short,
                                relatively simple XML documents that characterise transactional
                                processing. Standards such as XLink -- arising as it does out of
                                HyTime, provides one starting point, and perhaps because of its
                                origin, is less specific to transactional-based work. XSLT and XSL's
                                formatting objects provide another starting point, and the DOM
                                provides a third. A serious development effort, based on these
                                standards, could be undertaken, but I believe one would find that in
                                the end further enhancement of them to more closely match the
                                complex needs of modeling within the humanities would be needed.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>References</head>
                        <listBibl>
                            <biblStruct type=""book"">
                                <monogr>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Melina</forename>
                                            <surname>Alexa</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </author>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Cornelia</forename>
                                            <surname>Zuell</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </author>
                                    <title level=""m"">A Review of Software for Text Analysis</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace>Manneheim</pubPlace>
                                        <publisher>ZUMA</publisher>
                                        <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                                <note>ISBN 3-924220-16-6</note>
                            </biblStruct>
                            <biblStruct type=""bookChapter"">
                                <analytic>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">John</forename>
                                            <surname>Bradley</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </author>
                                    <title level=""a"">Tools to augment scholarly activity: an
                                        architecture to support text analysis</title>
                                </analytic>
                                <monogr>
                                    <editor>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Dino</forename>
                                            <surname>Buzzetti</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </editor>
                                    <editor>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Giuliano</forename>
                                            <surname>Pancaldi</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </editor>
                                    <editor>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Harold</forename>
                                            <surname>Short</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </editor>
                                    <title level=""m"">Augmenting Comprehension: Digital Tools (and
                                        Resources) for the History of Science and Philosophy; Papers
                                        from the conference ""Informatica umanistica: filosofia e
                                        risorse digitali"" (Bologna, September 2000)</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace/>
                                        <publisher>OHC: Oxford and King's College London</publisher>
                                        <date when=""2002"">forthcoming, expected 2002</date>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                            </biblStruct>
                            <biblStruct>
                                <monogr>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Willard</forename>
                                            <surname>McCarty</surname>
                                        </name> et al </author>
                                    <title level=""m"">An Analytical Onomasticon to the Metamorphoses
                                        of Ovid</title>
                                    <edition>(Online Sampler 29/8/99)</edition>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace/>
                                        <publisher/>
                                        <date/>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                                <note>
                                    <ptr target=""http://ilex.cc.kcl.ac.uk/wlm/onomasticon-sampler/""
                                    />
                                </note>
                            </biblStruct>
                            <biblStruct>
                                <analytic>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Willard</forename>
                                            <surname>McCarty</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </author>
                                    <title level=""a"">The DIY commentary; or, what the reference and
                                        the link told each other</title>
                                </analytic>
                                <monogr>
                                    <title level=""u"">from Paper for ACH/ALLC 2001 New York
                                        University 14 June 2001</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace/>
                                        <publisher/>
                                        <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                                <note>
                                    <ptr target=""http://ilex.cc.kcl.ac.uk/wlm/essays/diy/index.html""
                                    />
                                </note>
                            </biblStruct>
                            <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                                <analytic>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Geoffrey</forename>
                                            <surname>Rockwell</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </author>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">John</forename>
                                            <surname>Bradley</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </author>
                                    <title level=""a"">Eye-ConTact: Towards a New Design for Research
                                        Text Tools</title>
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                                <monogr>
                                    <title level=""j"">Computing in the Humanities Working Papers</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <biblScope type=""vol"">A</biblScope>
                                        <biblScope type=""issue"">4</biblScope>
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                                        <date when=""1998"">February 1998</date>
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                                <note>This online refereed journal is located at: URL:<ptr
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                                </note>
                            </biblStruct>
                        </listBibl>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>Toward an Algorithmic Criticism</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Stephen Ramsay</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>There is a left-hand tradition in literary analysis which most
                                literary critics think of as incompatible with mainstream scholarly
                                activity. That tradition manifests itself in Hebrew gematria and in
                                the bibliomancy of the ancient Chinese; in the anti-art poetics of
                                the Dadaists and the algorithmic writing of the Oulipo; in Ferdinand
                                de Saussure's secret quest for anagrams in Saturnian poetry and in
                                Emily Dickinson's injunction to read her poems backwards, so that ""a
                                certain Something overtakes the mind."" These traditions are often
                                deliberately anarchic, mystical, and even irrational in their
                                approach to the text. Instead of the hermeneutics of illumination,
                                in which the goal is some clear statement of meaning or an unfolding
                                of the truth, this tradition asserts the hermeneutics of play.</p>
                            <p>That this tradition should seem so far afield from the normative
                                practices of literary exegesis is itself revelatory of certain
                                distinctive features of the illuminative mode. Literary criticism
                                asserts a rhetoric of explanation intended to reveal both the
                                internal and extrinsic logic--the meaning--of a textual artifact;
                                the more ancient ludic traditions deemphasize this aspect of
                                hermeneutics, often relinquishing this rhetoric entirely, content
                                simply to let alternative formations exist without the scaffolding
                                of explicit interpretation.</p>
                            <p>But these types of interpretive activities, in which one proceeds
                                from text to playful reordering and ""refactoring"" (to borrow a term
                                from software engineering) to interpretation, only serve to make
                                manifest a progression that is always at work in literary critical
                                method, even when the dominant rhetorics of interpretation attempt
                                to conceal the playfulness beneath. In order to create and
                                communicate meaning, the critic must remap, reenvision, and re-form
                                (even ""deform"" it, as Jerome McGann and Lisa Samuels have suggested)
                                into some alternate arrangement. In essence, one must create the
                                text anew in order to illuminate the original.</p>
                            <p>There is also a right-hand tradition in literary analysis which most
                                literary critics think of as preinterpretive or else unallied with
                                the real work of generating critical interpretation. That tradition
                                manifests itself in programs which display search results; in Busa's
                                Index Thomisticus and in concordancing software; in statistical
                                analysis of word frequency distributions and in the algorithms of
                                authorship attribution. Instead of the hermeneutics of play, in
                                which the goal is simply to facilitate engagement and enable
                                insight, these traditions assert the hermeneutics of the algorithm.</p>
                            <p>These types of interpretive activities have always possessed the
                                sheen of scientism--a feature which practitioners of text analysis
                                have sometimes emphasized and sometimes deemphasized as the tools
                                have moved across the disciplines and in and out of academic
                                fashions. Yet it may be argued that its closest family resemblance
                                lies not with conventional literary criticism, but with its ludic
                                cousin. The algorithmic analysis of text may be thought of as
                                lending a positivistic slant to critical activity, but it may just
                                as easily be thought of as yet another critical practice at the
                                interstices of work and interpretation--a critical act of
                                deformation, neither mystical nor anarchic, and yet invested with
                                the same power to facilitate engagement and enable insight.</p>
                            <p>Both the ludic and scientistic traditions of interpretive activity
                                exist on the margins of literary critical practice. Mainstream
                                literary critical culture tends to consign the former to the realm
                                of literary artifact while viewing algorithmic criticism as merely
                                part of the pre-interpretive organizations deemed necessary for
                                certain limited types of analysis. In this way, the Muse and the
                                mathematician each abut the boundaries of a central position
                                (mainstream literary critical practice) which is too rational for
                                the former and too mysterious for the latter. As long as the work
                                generated by these tools is perceived as pre-interpretive--or worse,
                                positivistic--humanities computing in literary studies will continue
                                to operate outside of mainstream discussions in the discipline.</p>
                            <p>I would like to suggest that we reenvision text analysis from the
                                theoretical standpoint of the ludic tradition--envisioning
                                computer-assisted text analysis in literary studies as
                                preinterpretive in the strong sense of exploration and play.
                                Reforming and refactoring to enable insight, notice aspects, and
                                reveal codes.</p>
                            <p>I have developed a set of software components intended to demonstrate
                                these principles called the D-Machines. The D-Machines consist of a
                                set of program modules that allow one to perform discrete
                                deformations of text: e.g. print backwards and forwards, switch
                                gender terms, colorize word frequencies, show only nouns or only
                                verbs, and so on. I will demonstrate this system and show how it may
                                be used to enact the principles I have set forth concerning the
                                reconception of text analysis as an activity which participates in
                                the creation of those alternative textualities which undergird all
                                literary critical acts.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <div>
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                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>What is text analysis, really?</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Geoffrey Rockwell</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>In a mock confrontation between Allen Renear and Jerome McGann at the
                                ACH/ALLC in 1999 at the University of Virginia, two views as to what
                                a text really is were put forward. Renear put forward, for the sake
                                of the confrontation, the OHCO (ordered hierarchy of content
                                objects) perspective while McGann practiced a view of text as
                                    performance.<note n=""1"">[1] Susan Hockey, Chair, with Allen
                                    Renear and Jerome J. McGann, Panel: ""What is text? A debate on
                                    the philosophical and epistemological nature of text in the
                                    light of humanities computing research"", ACH-ALLC, June 9-13
                                    1999, at the University of Virginia.</note> In the context of a
                                humanities computing conference this confrontation was designed to
                                highlight the relationship between theories of text and ways of
                                representing texts digitally. Renear's Platonic view of the text as
                                a real abstract OHCO fits nicely with the dominant practice for the
                                digital representation of texts, namely the guidelines of the TEI.
                                McGann instead gave us an example of a reading that was both a
                                performance itself and pointed to the (hypertextual) links within
                                and around the text. McGann's challenge to Renear was to show how a
                                reading of a text both was the text and could not be captured by an
                                OCHO. The confrontation succinctly opened again the question of the
                                relationship between how we represent texts, how we use them, and
                                our theories of textuality.</p>
                            <p>What does this have to do with literary text analysis and computing?
                                What was not made clear in the confrontation was the role of the
                                tools we use for accessing and manipulating digital texts; tools
                                which I will call text analysis tools. If we are to take McGann's
                                public performance of a reading as an analogue for what we wish to
                                achieve digitally, we have to think not just about how we represent
                                the text but also about analysis and the tools that are used to
                                perform the analysis on a computer. The logic of the tools, despite
                                (or because of) their tendency to become transparent in use, can
                                enhance or constrain different types of reading which in turn makes
                                them a better or worse fit for practices of literary criticism.</p>
                            <p>Another way of saying this is that we have a model of
                                computer-assisted literary text analysis that is guided by a view of
                                what a text is and how we should use it that does not match the
                                practice of many contemporary literary critics. (It should be noted
                                that this is not true in the field of computational linguistics and
                                may not be true in literary criticism in the future). Consequently,
                                as others have pointed out, text analysis tools and the practices of
                                literary computer analysis have not had the anticipated impact on
                                the research community. This is often blamed on the absence of
                                easy-to-use tools, especially tools that take advantage of OCHO, but
                                I will argue in this paper that there are two other issues that have
                                to be taken into account. First, the tools we have (and even those
                                we anticipate) have emerged out of a particular critical tradition
                                that I will call an ""editorial"" tradition going back to tools for
                                editors of concordances. To understand the current state of text
                                analysis tools we need to review their history in terms of the
                                practices they complement and the theories of textual practice they
                                augment. Second, I will argue that the moment when humanities
                                computing could have an impact on literary criticism through the
                                provision of critical tools (and relevant theories of what computer
                                based text analysis) is passing as server-based text access tools
                                that provide access to licensed digital archives seem to satisfy
                                most of our colleagues while we keep on imagining personal tools. In
                                other words, we will soon be Googled out of theoretical relevance -
                                the text tools developed outside the scholarly community (for
                                digital library access) may prove a closer fit to the practices of
                                our colleagues than our elaborate analytical tools.</p>
                            <p>While I doubt we can resist the commercial forces that lead to the
                                bundling of limited tools and texts, we can understand this process
                                in terms of its relevance to the practices of our colleagues and
                                imagine an alternative that is relevant to contemporary literary
                                criticism. This paper will therefore conclude with (yet another)
                                proposal for a model for text analysis tools, a portal model. The
                                portal model provides us a way of taking advantage of the trend away
                                from personal tools towards community tools while also engaging a
                                different critical practice of playful criticism. The theory of
                                analysis illustrated is in a hermeneutical tradition which
                                incorporates play in method and which is best expressed in the work
                                of Gadamer. A portal for text analysis can finesse the problems of
                                ease-of-use while also providing a virtual play-pen for contemporary
                                critics to try computer-assisted techniques beyond those provided by
                                the commercial publishers of e-texts. The portal ironically could be
                                the backdoor through which our colleagues could be introduced to the
                                playful work of humanities computing.</p>
                            <p>That said, we should be honest and admit that much of our discourse
                                around tools is for our own sake. It is our humanities computing
                                play with tools and texts. Does it matter if anyone else ever uses
                                these tools as long as they help us understand the practice of
                                reading digital representations? The portal prototype to be
                                demonstrated, while it may have practical applications, is for
                                humanities computing an attempt to illustrate a particular
                                relationship between a theory of texts and analysis on the one hand
                                and an interface for text analysis that implements that theory on
                                the other hand.</p>
                            <p>In conclusion, this paper will do the following:<list>
                                    <item>1. Present a short history of text analysis tools as they
                                        evolved from batch concording tools to server-based digital
                                        library access tools. This history will focus on the
                                        relationship between the form of the tools with the
                                        practices they enabled.</item>
                                    <item>2. Present an alternative definition of analysis building
                                        on Gadamer's hermeneutics of play.</item>
                                    <item>3. Demonstrate a text-analysis portal prototype that is
                                        designed to enable playful practice.</item>
                                </list></p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
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                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>Computer-Assisted Text Exploration</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Stéfan Sinclair</p>
                        <div>
                            <epigraph>
                                <cit rend=""block"">
                                    <quote>Mon plaisir peut très bien prendre la forme d'une dérive.
                                        La dérive advient chaque fois que je ne respecte pas le
                                        tout, et qu'à force de paraître emporté ici et là au gré des
                                        illusions, séductions et intimidations de langage, tel un
                                        bouchon sur la vague, je reste immobile, pivotant sur la
                                        jouissance intraitable qui me lie au texte.</quote>
                                    <bibl>-- Roland Barthes, <title level=""m"">Le Plaisir du
                                        texte</title></bibl>
                                </cit>
                            </epigraph>
                            <p>Existing text-analysis tools can be very useful if one knows what
                                questions to ask (and how to ask them). In general, they presuppose
                                a researcher who has read a text, who has formulated some questions
                                about it, who then sets the text aside while using analysis tools to
                                attempt to answer the questions (with a text in electronic form that
                                is rarely viewable in its entirety). Thus, data completely displaces
                                the text, at least temporarily, as the object/objective of study in
                                text-analysis.</p>
                            <p>Etymologically, analysis denotes breaking something up or loosening
                                it. Computer-assisted text-analysis tools have fully exploited the
                                flexible, digital nature of the electronic medium to allow texts to
                                be segmented in innumerable ways. It has proven far trickier to
                                reconstitute the divided parts into meaningful units, in large part
                                because this step depends on an interpretive intention that is
                                beyond the capabilities of current tools. Connotatively, analysis
                                includes this interpretive or synthetic phase that completes the
                                circle of segmentation and unification, but text-analysis tools have
                                historically stranded the literary critic at the half-way, base arc,
                                part of the process (though many imaginative and resourceful
                                colleagues have made their own way back up).</p>
                            <p>The computer need not manifest signs of intelligence to play a role
                                in completing the analytic process, it need only help the critic do
                                so. One fairly simple strategy for this is to create paths from the
                                data (segmented text) back to the integral text. That functionality
                                was precisely the motivation behind the creation of the first
                                version of HyperPo, an online text-analysis and exploration tool
                                (see &lt;<ptr target=""http://huco.ualberta.ca/HyperPo/""
                                />&gt;). HyperPo can generate many of the usual types of data in
                                text-analysis, such as frequency, collocation and distribution
                                lists, but it can also create links from those data back to the
                                text, displaying both simultaneously (see Sinclair 1997 and 1998 for
                                more details on these functions). As such, HyperPo can break down a
                                text into constitutive parts and do comparative analyses, but it can
                                also reconstitute a text from any of those parts.</p>
                            <p>Because there is a high degree of speculation and experimentation
                                involved, I have found it more useful to view such decomposing and
                                recomposing methods less as analysis and more as exploration. I
                                navigate through the text and data the way one might explore the
                                streets of an unknown city or the trails in an expansive parkland;
                                various things along the way may prompt me to change directions, and
                                though I often don't know where I am going, I know that I am somehow
                                accumulating a broader representation of the terrain.</p>
                            <p>The notion of text-analysis as exploration has recently led me to
                                develop some more adventurous functions for HyperPo (functions that
                                may not be available at the above web address until August 2002).
                                These new functions are less concerned with the immediate analysis
                                of a text and more concerned with multiplying the means for its
                                traversal, its discovery, and enjoyment (perhaps even Roland
                                Barthes' jouissance). Playing with a text may not contribute
                                directly to its analysis, but I believe it can contribute to its
                                appreciation and perhaps its understanding (in ways that might be
                                next to impossible to measure). As Malcolm McCullough states in a
                                manner that is fully compatible to the development of a literary
                                interpretation: ""play often lacks any immediately obvious aim, other
                                than the pursuit of stimulation, but functions almost instinctively
                                to serve the process of development"" (223).</p>
                            <p>Like HyperPo itself (HYPERtexte POtentiel), the new functions are
                                inspired by the work of the Oulipo (OUvroir de LIttérature
                                POtentielle; see &lt;<ptr
                                    target=""http://www.ualberta.ca/~stefan/Oulipo/en.html""/>&gt;
                                for more information on this group). Interestingly, the Oulipo
                                divides its activities (in characteristically ironic terms) between
                                ""l'analoupisme"" (the analytic) and ""le synthoulipisme"" (the
                                synthetic) and states that ""the synthetic branch is more ambitious;
                                it is the primary vocation of the Oulipo. It is a matter of opening
                                to our predecessors new and unexplored ways"" (17, my translation).
                                Such are my ambitions too.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
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                            <biblStruct type=""book"">
                                <monogr>
                                    <author>
                                        <name type=""org"">Oulipo</name>
                                    </author>
                                    <title level=""m"">La Littérature potentielle</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace>Paris</pubPlace>
                                        <publisher>Gallimard</publisher>
                                        <date when=""1973"">1973</date>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                            </biblStruct>
                            <biblStruct>
                                <analytic>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Stéfan</forename>
                                            <surname>Sinclair</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </author>
                                    <title level=""a"">HyperPo: The Next Generation</title>
                                </analytic>
                                <monogr>
                                    <title level=""m"">ACH-ALLC '99 Conference Proceedings</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace>Virginia</pubPlace>
                                        <publisher>University of Virginia</publisher>
                                        <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                            </biblStruct>
                            <biblStruct>
                                <analytic>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Stéfan</forename>
                                            <surname>Sinclair</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </author>
                                    <title level=""a"">L'HyperPo: Exploration des structures lexicales
                                        à l'aide des formes hypertextuelles</title>
                                </analytic>
                                <monogr>
                                    <editor>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Greg</forename>
                                            <surname>Lessard</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </editor>
                                    <editor>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Michael</forename>
                                            <surname>Levison</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </editor>
                                    <title level=""m"">ACH-ALLC '97 Conference Abstracts</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace>Kingston, ON</pubPlace>
                                        <publisher>Queen's University Press</publisher>
                                        <date when=""1997"">1997</date>
                                    </imprint>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Bruce</forename>
                        <surname>Robertson</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Mount Allison University</name>, Canada
                                <email>brobertson@mta.ca</email>
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                    <head>Introduction</head>
                    <p>This paper illustrates how humanists' XML documents from around the web can
                        be shared and integrated using careful schema design and simple XSLT
                        programs.</p>
                    <p>In the web publishing world, resource sharing and syndication are all the
                        rage. <note n=""[1]"">[1] The latest RSS specification, composed in RDF, is
                            documented at <ptr target=""http://www.purl.org/rss/1.0/""/>, and a <ref
                                target=""http://www.oreillynet.com/rss/"">portion</ref> of the
                            O'Reilly network is devoted to the topic.</note> Using XML-based methods
                        like the RDF Site Summary (RSS) or Channel Definition Format (CDF), sites
                        can reuse and share their headlines and stories across the web.
                        oreillynet.com's <ref target=""http://www.oreillynet.com/meerkat/""
                        >Meerkat</ref> is an impressive example of the power of this technology.</p>
                    <p>Computerists in the humanities have applied less effort to syndication and
                        document sharing, but as scholarly markup begins to describe realms of
                        knowledge such as archaeology <note n=""[Schloen, 2001]"">[Schloen] Schloen,
                            J. David. ""Archaeological Data Models and Web Publication Using XML"".
                                <title level=""j"">Computers and the Humanities</title> 35.
                        2001.</note>, <ref
                            target=""http://lists.nonprofit.net/listproc/archives/acra-l/0104/0242.html""
                            >anthropology</ref> , <ref
                            target=""http://www.cnr.berkeley.edu/~lwang/temp/conference/chen%C2%A0aijun.pdf""
                            >geography</ref> or history, whose content is impossible to confine, and
                        as <ref target=""http://www.w3.org/XML/%5E#9901names"">XML namspaces</ref>
                        make it possible to blend and reuse documents one within another <note
                            n=""[Bosak,
                            1999]"">[Bosak] Bosak, John. ""XML
                            Ubiquity and the Scholarly Community"". <title level=""j"">Computers and
                                the Humanities</title> 33. 1999.</note>, it is clear that we need to
                        build into our markup endeavours the means of integrating resources from
                        around the web.</p>
                    <p>As briefly illustrated in a <ref
                            target=""http://www.nyu.edu/its/humanities/ach%C2%A0allc2001/papers/robertson-bruce/""
                            >paper</ref> at ACH/ALLC 2001, this has been a facet of the research of
                        the Historical Event Markup and Linking Project (<ref
                            target=""http://www.heml.org/"">Heml</ref>) from its inception two years
                        ago. Heml aims to provide the means to coordinate historical information on
                        the web though a markup language that describes historical events and
                        through transformations of conforming documents into historical maps,
                        timelines and tables. After defining its markup language in XML schemas
                        (version <ref
                            target=""http://heml.mta.ca/heml-cocoon/schemadoc/2001-07-02/heml"">2001
                            07 02</ref>) and producing conforming documents outlining Roman
                        Republican history, Heml has turns its attention to exploring the problems
                        and opportunities offered by a semantic web of disparate documents across
                        the web <note n=""[Berners-Lee 2000]"">[Berners-Lee] Berners-Lee, Tim. ""The
                            Semantic Web"". <title level=""j"">Scientific American</title>. May,
                        2000.</note>. Two conclusions have been drawn from this work: first, rich
                        scholarly markup like Heml has requirements in content integration that are
                        more complex than the problems which the current syndication techniques aim
                        to solve; and that, secondly, these requirements can be met using simple and
                        ubiquitous computational tools.</p>
                    <p/>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>The Difficulties of Content Integration</head>
                    <p>The more complex content integration requirements of Heml and similar schemes
                        can be illustrated with the example of collecting recipes. Syndication
                        schemes in common use today gather XML content like recipes in a file-box:
                        documents or links are placed alongside each other creating a larger
                        document <emph rend=""italics"">seriatim</emph>. However, as illustrated in
                        Figure 1, this process fails to recognize the overlapping identities between
                        documents of richly marked-up content: the <emph rend=""distinct"">id</emph>
                        attributes <emph rend=""distinct"">flour</emph> and <emph rend=""distinct""
                            >apples</emph> appear twice, confusing matters and possibly causing the
                        document to no longer be valid. </p>
                    <figure>
                        <head>Figure 1. Gathering Documents <emph rend=""italics""
                        >Seriatim</emph></head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>Figure 2 illustrates the preferred outcome. This process gathers the recipes
                        as they are in a cookbook, where ingredients are identified properly with
                        each other and so would, for instance, appear only once in an index.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <head>Figure 2. Integrating Content</head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>Content integration of Heml documents has to be of the second, more complex
                        sort because its schema is built largely upon the identification of entities
                        through <emph rend=""distinct"">id</emph> and <emph rend=""distinct""
                        >idref</emph> attributes. In brief, Heml markup comprises a series of event
                        elements; each of these includes information about participants, chronology,
                        locations, keywords and supporting documents. Example 1 is a Heml fragment
                        that identifies the location `Rome.' Once defined in this way, subsequent
                        references to this same location within the document use an XML reference
                        element , thus: <eg>&lt;LocationRef idref=""Rome""&gt;</eg>.</p>
                    <p>These corresponding <emph rend=""italics"">
                            <emph rend=""distinct"">Concept</emph>
                        </emph> and <emph rend=""bold"">
                            <emph rend=""distinct"">ConceptRef</emph>
                        </emph> elements are a design feature of Heml markup: no elements are
                        defined with names ending in the string <emph rend=""distinct"">Ref</emph>,
                        except those that have <emph rend=""distinct"">idrefs</emph> which are meant
                        to refer to elements with the corresponding name.</p>
                    <p>
                        <emph rend=""bold"">Example 1. heml:Location element</emph>
                        <eg> &lt;Location id=""Rome""&gt; 
                            &lt;LocationLabelSet&gt;
                            &lt;Label xml:lang=""en""&gt;Rome&lt;/Label&gt;
                            &lt;Label xml:lang=""la""&gt;Roma&lt;/Label&gt;
                            &lt;Label xml:lang=""el""&gt;&#8172;&#8061;&#956;&#951;&lt;/Label&gt;
                            &lt;/LocationLabelSet&gt; 
                            &lt;Latitude&gt;
                            &lt;GeographicalHourLatitude&gt;41&lt;/GeographicalHourLatitude&gt;
                            &lt;GeographicalMinute&gt;49&lt;/GeographicalMinute&gt;
                            &lt;GeographicalSecond&gt;2&lt;/GeographicalSecond&gt;
                            &lt;/Latitude&gt; 
                            &lt;Longitude&gt;
                            &lt;GeographicalHourLongitude&gt;12&lt;/GeographicalHourLongitude&gt;
                            &lt;GeographicalMinute&gt;19&lt;/GeographicalMinute&gt;
                            &lt;GeographicalSecond&gt;8&lt;/GeographicalSecond&gt;
                            &lt;/Longitude&gt; &lt;/Location&gt;</eg>
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Design Goals</head>
                    <p>There are many ways to approach the problem of integrating such materials;
                        some approaches have the virtue of not requiring metadata at all. The
                        following design goals dictated the Heml project's solution:<list>
                            <item>1. Each constituent document and the resulting integrated document
                                should be intelligible and valid.</item>
                            <item>2. It should be possible to refer to constituent documents through
                                URLs.</item>
                            <item>3. A third party (that is, someone who is not the creator of any
                                of the documents and has no influence in their design) should be
                                able to integrate documents as satisfactorily as their authors.</item>
                            <item>4. The integrating code should be as portable as possible, ideally
                                running on clients or servers.</item>
                            <item>5. The integration process should be recursive so that its results
                                can be the input of a further integration process.</item>
                        </list></p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Solution</head>
                    <p>The Heml projects has fulfilled these goals through a metadata file and an
                        algorithm implemented in the <ref target=""http://www.w3.org/Style/XSL/""
                        >XSLT</ref> XML document transformation language. The meta-documents that
                        control this process have been named 'Jackdaw' documents, since like their
                        namesakes they gather and put to use disparate materials. <note n=""[2]"">[2]
                            A schema has not been prepared for the Jackdaw documents because they
                            are still experimental. I imagine eventually generalizing the concept
                            and expressing it in <ref target=""http://www.w3.org/RDF""
                        >RDF</ref></note> Example 2 is a jackdaw file that controls the integration
                        of documents relating to the history of Rome down to 201 BCE. Reading from
                        the bottom of the document up, the <emph rend=""distinct""
                            >&lt;filelist&gt;</emph> element collects URLs that refer to
                        documents whose content this Jackdaw integrates. Further up, <emph
                            rend=""distinct"">&lt;IdEquivalence&gt;</emph> elements identify a
                            <emph rend=""distinct"">&lt;Master&gt;</emph> element document
                        with one or more <emph rend=""distinct"">&lt;Duplicate&gt;</emph>
                        document elements. In our example the element identified as 'Rome' in the
                            <emph rend=""italics"">second punic war.xml</emph> document is listed as
                        the master of similarly named elements in the other two.</p>
                    <p>The XSLT code that operates on the Jackdaws can be <ref
                            target=""http://heml.mta.ca/cgi-bin/viewcvs.cgi/heml/web/xslt/external/getDocument.xsl""
                            >obtained</ref><note n=""[3]"">[3] This URL corresponds to the directory
                            path of the file; if the XSLT code is reorganized, the URL will fail. In
                            that case, follow links from the Heml <ref target=""http://www.heml.org/""
                                >homepage</ref> to the CVS viewer and the <emph rend=""distinct""
                                >getDocument</emph> XSLT file.</note> on the Heml CVS server. Though
                        the Heml project presently organizes its XSLT transformations using the
                        server-side <ref target=""http://xml.apache.org/cocoon2"">Cocoon2</ref> engine
                        from the Apache group, advanced web browsers -- Microsoft Explorer 5.5 and
                        greater and most builds of Mozilla 0.9.5 and greater -- perform XSLT
                        transformations on documents that include the proper XML processing
                        instruction tags.</p>
                    <p>The integrating algorithm is simple and based on the assumption that document
                        URLs are unique and that ids are always unique within their document. A
                        function that concatenates an input <emph rend=""distinct"">id</emph> with its
                        document's URL is therefore also assumed to be unique in the integrated
                        output document.</p>
                    <p> The integrating algorithm blindly copies all <emph rend=""distinct""
                            >&lt;Event&gt;</emph> elements and their children from every
                        document addressed in the <emph rend=""distinct"">&lt;file&gt;</emph>
                        elements, except that it generates new id or idref attributes based on the
                        URL and id of the old ones. Furthermore, if an idref points to an element
                        whose id is among those listed in as an <emph rend=""distinct""
                            >&lt;IdEquivalence&gt;</emph><emph rend=""distinct""
                            >&lt;Duplicate&gt;</emph>, the new id of the corresponding <emph
                            rend=""distinct"">&lt;IdEquivalence&gt;</emph><emph
                            rend=""distinct"">&lt;Master&gt;</emph> is output instead. If an
                        id is among those listed as an <emph rend=""distinct""
                            >&lt;IdEquivalence&gt;</emph><emph rend=""distinct""
                            >&lt;Duplicate&gt;</emph>, the XSLT generates the appropriate
                            <emph rend=""italics"">
                            <emph rend=""distinct"">ConceptRef</emph>
                        </emph> element and gives it the idref attribute generated from the
                            corresponding<emph rend=""distinct""
                            >&lt;IdEquivalence&gt;</emph><emph rend=""distinct""
                            >&lt;Master&gt;</emph>.</p>
                    <p>
                        <emph rend=""bold"">Example 2. `Jackdaw' Metadata file</emph>
                        <eg> &lt;Jackdaw&gt; 
                            &lt;IdEquivalences&gt;
                            &lt;IdEquivalence&gt; 
                            &lt;Master
                            id=""http://localhost:8080/heml-cocoon/source/second_punic_war.xml#Rome""/&gt; 
                            &lt;Duplicate
                            id=""http://www.java.utoronto.ca/~brucerob/early_history.xml#Rome""/&gt; 
                            &lt;Duplicate
                            id=""http://heml.mta.ca/~brucerob/first_punic_war.xml#Rome""/&gt;
                            &lt;/IdEquivalence&gt;
                            &lt;IdEquivalence&gt;
                            &lt;Master 
                            id=""http://localhost:8080/heml-cocoon/source/second_punic_war.xml#Carthage""/&gt; 
                            &lt;Duplicate
                            id=""http://heml.mta.ca/~brucerob/first_punic_war.xml#Carthage""/&gt;
                            &lt;/IdEquivalence&gt; 
                            &lt;/IdEquivalences&gt;
                            &lt;filelist&gt;
                            &lt;file&gt;http://localhost:8080/heml-cocoon/source/second_punic_war.xml&lt;/file&gt;
                            &lt;file&gt;http://heml.mta.ca/~brucerob/first_punic_war.xml&lt;/file&gt;
                            &lt;file&gt;http://www.java.utoronto.ca/~brucerob/early_history.xml&lt;/file&gt; 
                            &lt;/filelist&gt;
                            &lt;/Jackdaw&gt; </eg>
                    </p>
                    <p>This process is reasonably speedy. As a functioning example for this paper I
                        ran the jackdaw file in Example 2 using Apache's <ref
                            target=""http://xml.apache.org/xalan-j"">Xalan 2.0</ref> XSLT engine on a
                        Celeron 400-class machine running RedHat Linux 7.2 and the <ref
                            target=""http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/java/jdk/linux130/?dwzone=java""
                            >IBM 1.3-8.0</ref> Java2 SDK. With all caching switched off, it took
                        under ten seconds to gather the resulting 35k document; and three of these
                        seconds appear to be overhead required just to start the java processes. (
                            <emph rend=""distinct"">xsltproc</emph>, an XSLT engine written in C,
                        completes the same task in 1.7 seconds!) Network access seems to be the
                        limiting factor for these reasonably small files.</p>
                    <p>Of course, the resulting integrated XML document is usually invisible to the
                        user, who navigates one or more further transformations of that document
                        into HTML or images. Among the transformations available for Heml documents
                        is a dynamic SVG map. (A browser plugin, <ref
                            target=""http://www.adobe.com/svg"">available</ref> from Adobe for Windows
                        and Macintosh, is required to view this image.) Passing the cursor over a
                        dot on the map will bring up the name of the location and a list of events
                        that took place at that location. It can be seen that the lists for Rome and
                        Carthage include events from all periods, as instructed in the Jackdaw file
                        in Example 2.</p>
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                        <forename type=""middle"">Michael</forename>
                        <surname>Sperberg-McQueen</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">World Wide Web Consortium</name>
                            <email>cmsmcq@acm.org</email>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Allen</forename>
                        <surname>Renear</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana</name>
                            <email>renear@alexia.lis.uiuc.edu</email>
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                        <surname>Huitfeldt</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Bergen</name>
                            <email>Claus.Huitfeldt@hit.uib.no</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
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                        <forename type=""first"">David</forename>
                        <surname>Dubin</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana</name>
                            <email/>
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                <p>Our immediate area of concern is the problem of providing a clear, explicit
                    account of the meaning and interpretation of markup.</p>
                <p>Scores of projects in humanities computing and elsewhere assume implicitly that
                    markup is meaningful, and use its meaning to govern the processing of the data.
                    A number of authors have described systems for exploiting information about the
                    meaning or interpretation of markup; among those most relevant to the work
                    described here are Simons (1997 and 1999), Welty and Ide (1999), Ramalho et al.
                    (1999), and Sperberg-McQueen et al. (2000 and 2001).</p>
                <p>While a complete account of the ""meaning of markup"" may seem daunting, at least
                    part of this project appears manageable: explaining how to determine the set of
                    inferences about a document which are ""licensed"", implicitly or explicitly, by
                    its markup. This may or may not be all there is to an account of the meaning of
                    markup, but it is certainly a significant part of any account -- and doesn't
                    seem, on its face at least, to be particularly difficult to provide.</p>
                <p>However, it proves remarkably difficult to find, in the literature, any
                    straightforward account of how one can go about interpreting markup in such a
                    way as to draw all and only the correct inferences from it. For the most part,
                    the papers cited have limited themselves to describing how such a system would
                    work in theory, rather than describing a practical instantiation of the idea.
                    Designers and users of markup systems, meanwhile, have relied on human
                    understanding rather than on automated systems to interpret the markup in
                    documents.</p>
                <p>Sperberg-McQueen et al. (2000) describe at some length a 'straw man' proposal for
                    defining the proper interpretation of markup in a given markup language. In
                    particular, they identify the meaning of markup in a document as the set of
                    inferences authorized by it, and propose that it ought to be possible to
                    generate those inferences from the document mechanically, following certain
                    simple rules. Having set the strawman up, they then proceed to dismantle it,
                    noting a number of problems in the rules they have proposed for generating the
                    inferences. They sketch in general terms how a better account of meaning and
                    interpretation in markup could be constructed, but leave the actual construction
                    as an exercise for the reader.</p>
                <p>This paper describes a concrete realization of one part of the 'framework' model
                    proposed in Sperberg-McQueen et al. (2000), and outlines some of the problems
                    encountered in specifying the inferences licensed by commonly used DTDs. (Other
                    parts of the framework model are also being worked on, but the description of
                    that work is out of scope for this paper.)</p>
                <p>We focus here on the development of a notation (specifically, an SGML/XML DTD)
                    for expressing what Sperberg-McQueen et al. (2000 and 2001) call ""sentence
                    skeletons"", or ""skeleton sentences"". These are sentences, either in English or
                    some other natural language or in some formal notation, for expressing the
                    meaning of constructs in a markup language. They are called sentence skeletons,
                    rather than full sentences, because they have blanks at various key locations; a
                    system for automatic interpretation of marked up documents will generate actual
                    sentences by filling in the blanks in the sentence skeletons with appropriate
                    values from the documents themselves.</p>
                <p>In existing markup systems, the appropriate values are often to be taken from
                    whatever occurs in the document at a specific location. In the TEI DTD, for
                    example, the current page number for the default pagination is given by the
                    value of the 'n' attribute on the most recent 'pb' element, while the identifier
                    for the language of the text is given by the value of the 'lang' attribute on
                    the smallest enclosing element which actually has a value for the 'lang'
                    attribute; the language itself is described by whatever 'language' element in
                    the TEI header has that identifier as the value of its 'id' attribute.</p>
                <p>In the sentence skeleton, therefore, we need to label each blank with some
                    expression which describes how to derive the appropriate value to be used in the
                    sentences constructed from this skeleton. Since these expressions typically
                    ""point"" to other nearby markup structures, Sperberg-McQueen et al. refer to them
                    as ""deictic expressions""; they express notions like ""the contents of this
                    element"" or ""the value of the 'lang' attribute on the nearest ancestor which has
                    such a value"" or ""the value of the 'type' attribute on the nearest ancestor of
                    type 'div'"".</p>
                <p>We will describe theoretical and practical problems arising in using sentence
                    skeletons to say what the markup in some commonly used DTDs actually means, in a
                    way that allows software to generate the correct inferences from the markup and
                    to exploit the information. These include the following questions among
                    others.</p>
                <p>What formalism should be used to write the sentence skeletons? We can easily
                    adopt some existing formalism, e.g. that of Prolog or whatever inference engine
                    we choose to use; can we devise a formalism that will not commit us to a
                    particular inference engine?</p>
                <p>There appears to be a significant difference among (a) sentence skeletons which
                    serve to formulate in some formal notation the specific facts expressed by the
                    markup in the document, (b) sentences or sentence skeletons which express
                    invariant rules about specific properties captured by the markup (e.g. ""The
                    value of the 'lang' attribute is inherited; the value of the 'n' attribute is
                    not inherited"") and (c) sentences or sentence skeletons which express invariant
                    rules about textual and other constructs (e.g. ""The author of a letter is
                    physically located at the place given in the place-date line, on the date given
                    in the place-date line, unless the letter is falsified or forged in some way"").
                    Sentences in group (b) serve to capture useful generalizations about the way
                    markup constructs in a given DTD behave; sentences in group (c) are important
                    for certain kinds of inferences, but appear to have relatively little to do with
                    the markup itself. What is the best way to reflect these differences in function
                    among the sentences and sentence skeletons of a markup system?</p>
                <p>What is the most convenient way to generate the inferencs licensed by markup?
                    Possibilities include ad hoc software, XSLT transformation sheets, and Prolog or
                    other inference tools. Our experience suggests that it may be worthwhile to
                    distinguish different classes of inferences, and to use different software to
                    derive the different classes.</p>
                <p>In sentence skeletons like ""[this element] is in English"", what do the deictic
                    expressions like ""this element"" actually refer to? In some cases the inferences
                    appear to relate to the linguistic components of the text itself (""This document
                    is written in English""), and in some cases to the text's formal properties
                    (""Augustine's Confessions is divided into 13 books""). In some cases, the markup
                    appears to license inferences about some object or entity in the real world
                    (""Henry Laurens was in Charleston on 18 August 1775""), but sometimes the
                    entities referred to are not at all in the real world (""Harry Potter missed the
                    Hogwarts Express on 1 September""). In still other cases, the inferences appear
                    to apply to the electronic encoding of the text itself (""This metadata was last
                    revised on 20 July 1998"") or to some other witness to the same text (""The
                    recipient's copy of this letter is preserved in [some particular archival
                    collection, with some particular call number]""). Attempting to disentangle these
                    lands the would-be formulator of sentence skeletons promptly in a thicket of
                    ontological questions which have not yet received adequate attention.</p>
                <p>The ontological questions become even more thorny in connection with markup
                    systems like that of the Text Encoding Initiative, which are intended for use by
                    a wide variety of projects which are expected to have widely different views
                    about the ontological commitments to be associated with the TEI markup. Do
                    statements about Augustine's Confessions, for example, relate to some abstract
                    text distinct from each physical copy of the text, or is the phrase ""Augustine's
                    Confessions"" merely a convenient shorthand for ""all the physical documents which
                    witness Augustine's Confessions""? It would appear essential to decide this
                    question in order to formulate sentence skeletons for markup languages like the
                    TEI, but the TEI itself is intentionally coy about the issue, in order to ensure
                    that textual Platonists and textual constructivists can both use TEI markup. It
                    is a challenge to build a similar ambiguity or vagueness into the set of
                    sentence skeletons which document the prescribed interpretation of TEI
                    markup.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
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            </div>
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                        <surname>Witt</surname>
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                <div>
                    <head>Introduction</head>
                    <p>The difficulty of annotating not hierarchically structured text with
                        SGML-based mark-up languages is a problem that has often been addressed.
                        Renear et al. (1996) discuss one of the basic assumptions about the
                        structure of text data: the ""OHCO-thesis"", which states that text consists
                        of an ordered hierarchy of content objects, and show that this assumption
                        cannot be upheld consistently: A number of texts contradict this
                        OHCO-thesis.</p>
                    <p>The options to represent data which correspond to different structural
                        hierarchies are discussed in detail by the TEI (see Barnard et al. 1995).
                        One type of annotation mentioned by the TEI-guidelines consists of
                        separately annotating the original data according to different document
                        grammars. ""The advantages of this method of markup are that each way of
                        looking at the information is explicitly represented in the data, and may be
                        processed in straightforward ways, without requiring complex methods of
                        disentangling information relevant to one view from information relevant
                        only to other views."" (Sperberg-McQueen &amp; Burnard 1994, p.775f.) The
                        problem, however, is that separate annotations do not allow for establishing
                        relations between the annotation tiers. It will be shown that a model for
                        the meaning and interpretation of documents, marked-up once, can be extended
                        to documents concurrently marked-up with several annotations.<note n=""1"">The
                            work presented here is described in more detail in Witt
                        (2002).</note></p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Model of representation</head>
                    <p>The model of representing complex structured text is itself based on the data
                        to be structured. This data can be annotated according to specific document
                        grammars. For a simple case there is one document grammar and one
                        annotation. This means all SGML documents and all valid XML documents are
                        represented by this model. In addition to this standard representation every
                        document can be structured according to further document grammars. The
                        maximal number of annotations is not restricted, so that the model permits a
                        steady expansion of the annotations which are used. Therefore, the model can
                        be viewed as an open model. As a result the annotated text data fuses
                        different levels of annotation together.</p>
                    <p>As a prerequisite the preparation of the data must be done in a way that a
                        separate annotation of relevant phenomena is possible. The data which will
                        be annotated is categorized as having a status of primary data. The primary
                        data consists of the yet to be annotated text. Accordingly, the mark-up will
                        be categorized as secondary data or meta-data.<note n=""2"">The terminus
                            ""meta-data"" is preferred by the author, because ""secondary data""
                            presupposes a characterization as less important data. However,
                            ""meta-data"" is far from being the ideal term: it causes an ambiguity,
                            since it is also used for the information typically contained in the
                            headers of annotated documents.</note> The primary data is used in two
                        ways: On the one hand, the primary data is the subject of several (possible)
                        annotations, on the other hand it forms a link between the levels of
                        annotation. It is important to note that the second way of using the primary
                        data allows for linking the independent annotations without introducing
                        explicit links.</p>
                    <p>After the stipulation of the primary data individual document grammars can be
                        developed and applied which each pertain to a single level of annotation.
                        For the annotation of linguistic data this could be e.g. the level of
                        morphology, the level of syllable structures, a level of syntactic
                        categories (e.g. noun, verb), a level of syntactic functions (e.g. subject,
                        object), or a level of semantic roles (e.g. agent, instrument).</p>
                    <p>As already mentioned this annotation technique data allows for the
                        introduction of an unlimited number of concurrent annotations, but there
                        exists a constraint: when designing the document grammar it is necessary to
                        consider that the primary data is the link between all layers of annotation.
                        This has a direct consequence for the modelling process: Even if parts of
                        the primary data are irrelevant for one of the tiers of description, the
                        data must exist as primary data in the annotation. This contradiction can be
                        solved by introducing a special mark for this irrelevant primary data in the
                        document grammar according to the phenomena. This mark allows one to
                        represent the corresponding passages as primary data in a technical way.
                        Such a mark can be done for example by using the element <emph
                            rend=""distinct"">&lt;ignore&gt;</emph>. While interpreting the
                        distinguished data these marked sections will be filtered out. Durand et al.
                        (1996) already discussed a similar solution where a classification on a more
                        abstract level of representation should happen.</p>
                    <p>The compilation of document grammars which are used for different
                        annotations, can be seen as a pool of individual units or as a collectively
                        structured source of knowledge. Not only the structure of document grammars,
                        but also the schema language used (e.g. DTD, XSchema) are irrelevant to the
                        process of annotations.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Knowledge representation of annotated text</head>
                    <p>In general, annotated text consists of content and annotations. Annotations
                        are used on a syntactical level. Therefore they are used for assigning a
                        meaning to (parts of) a document. While developing a document grammar the
                        focus should be centred on the content. This point of view is expressed by
                        Sperberg-McQueen, Huitfeldt and Renear (2000). They show how knowledge which
                        is syntactically coded into text by annotations can be extracted by
                        knowledge inference. After summarizing this approach, it will be shown, how
                        this technique can be expanded so that it can be used for inferences of
                        separately annotated and implicitly linked documents - documents marked-up
                        according to different document grammars.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Documents</head>
                    <p>Sperberg-McQueen et al. (2000) regard annotated documents as a compilation of
                        knowledge which can be represented and can be used for inference.
                        Illustrating their approach they use the programming language ""Prolog"" to
                        represent this knowledge. A XML-Document without cross relations can be
                        represented as a tree. A representation of annotated text in Prolog looks
                        like the following:<lb/>
                        <code>node([x, y, z], element(gi)).</code>
                        <lb/>
                        <code>attr([x, y, z],attr-name, 'att-value').</code></p>
                    <p>A predicate with two arguments, called <emph rend=""distinct"">node</emph> (or
                        short notation in Prolog <emph rend=""distinct"">node/2</emph>), is used. The
                        first argument is a list of digits to identify each node of the tree
                        representation of documents. The second argument is more complex. It
                        consists of the functor <emph rend=""distinct"">element</emph> or <emph
                            rend=""distinct"">pcdata</emph> and an argument for the name of the
                        element or the textual content. Furthermore, a predicate of three arguments
                        called <emph rend=""distinct"">attr/3</emph> is used for representing
                        attributes. Attributes are also related to nodes (argument 1). They have a
                        name (argument 2) and a value (argument 3). Such a representation of a
                        document is a very good basis for automatic inference of relations which
                        exist between the nodes. If e.g. <emph rend=""distinct"">infer/2</emph> is
                        called with an address, all active features can be printed out:<lb/>
                        <code>infer(Property,[x, y, z]).</code>
                        <lb/>
                        <code>Property = a;</code></p>
                    <p> If <emph rend=""distinct"">infer/2</emph> is called with a concrete feature
                        and a variable at the place of the address, all locations are printed out
                        which apply to these features.</p>
                    <p>Other frameworks for knowledge representation of annotated documents also
                        exist. Welty and Ide (1999) introduced an approach, where the knowledge of
                        documents is pasted into a knowledge representation system. However, so far
                        it has not been shown how to use differently annotated documents as a base
                        for inferences.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Relations between separate annotations</head>
                    <p>The described model of knowledge representation can only be used for single
                        documents. However, it will be shown, that this model can easily be
                        expanded, so that it is applicable for the inference of relations between
                        several separately annotated XML-documents with the same primary data.</p>
                    <p>In order to use the model for several different annotations the
                        representation of an absolute system of references must be introduced. This
                        absolute reference system is already given in the data: the parts of text
                        which are saved as ""PCDATA"", i.e. the primary data as defined above, is
                        ideally suited for this task. This means that the string which is identical
                        in all documents serves as the absolute system of references.</p>
                    <p>The primary data forms a string of a fixed length. The representation of the
                        annotation tiers is an absolute basis of relations. This basis must renounce
                        the predicates <emph rend=""distinct"">node/2</emph> and <emph rend=""distinct""
                            >attr/3</emph> in favour of the predicates <emph rend=""distinct""
                            >node/5</emph> and <emph rend=""distinct"">attr/6</emph>. The three
                        additional arguments are used for the reference on the level of annotation
                        (comparable to the concept of namespaces in XML), for marking the start and
                        the end of the annotated textual content.</p>
                    <p>The extension of the original model in this way allows for inferences of
                        relations between different concurrent annotations, e.g. regarding the
                        separate annotation of morphemes and syllables might show that these units
                        are not compatible.<note n=""3"">Other relations of concurrent markup can be,
                            for example, compatibility, identity, and inclusion.</note> Since the
                        arguments originally introduced are reused, all the inferences of the
                        original model are still possible.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Advantages and Perspectives</head>
                    <p>The outlined architecture has many advantages. The model allows for
                        structuring text according to multiple concurrent document grammars without
                        workarounds. Furthermore additional annotations can be subsequently
                        included, without changing already established annotations. The annotations
                        are on the one hand independent of each other, on the other hand they are
                        interrelated via the text, allowing for the inference of relations between
                        different levels of annotation. The final advantage to be mentioned is that
                        the compatibility of several or all annotations used can be proven
                        automatically. This can be done using a technique originally developed
                        within linguistics, namely unification.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Ivanhoe: A Game of Interpretation</title>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Geoffrey</forename>
                        <surname>Rockwell</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">McMaster University</name> and <name type=""org""
                                >University of Virginia</name>
                            <email>grockwel@mcmaster.edu</email>
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                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Johanna</forename>
                        <surname>Drucker</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Virginia</name>, Media Studies
                                <email>jrd8e@virginia.edu</email>
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                <author>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Bethany</forename>
                        <surname>Nowviskie</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">University of Virginia</name>, SpecLab
                                <email>bethany@virginia.edu</email>
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                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Andrea</forename>
                        <surname>Laue</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Virginia</name>, SpecLab
                                <email>akl3s@virginia.edu</email>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Jerome</forename>
                        <surname>McGann</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">University of Virginia</name>, English
                                <email>jjm2f@virginia.edu</email>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Chandler</forename>
                        <surname>Sansing</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">Henley Middle School</name>, Virginia
                                <email>csansing@albemarle.org</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Nathan</forename>
                        <surname>Piazza</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Virginia</name>, ITC Group
                                <email>piazza@virginia.edu</email>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
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                        <head>Ivanhoe: A Game of Interpretation</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Jerome McGann</p>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Johanna Drucker</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>To date, the digital technology used by humanities scholars has
                                focused almost exclusively on methods of sorting, accessing, and
                                disseminating large bodies of materials. In this respect the work
                                has not engaged the central questions and concerns of the
                                disciplines. It is largely seen as technical and pre-critical, the
                                occupation of librarians, and archivists, and editors. The general
                                field of humanities education and scholarship will not take up the
                                use of digital technology in any significant way until one can
                                clearly demonstrate that these tools have important contributions to
                                make to the exploration and explanation of aesthetic works.</p>
                            <p>The Ivanhoe Game has been developed to begin such a demonstration.
                                Its purpose is to use digital tools and space to reflect critically
                                on received aesthetic works (like novels) and on the processes of
                                critical reflection that one brings to such works. Digital tools
                                bring great advantages to these kinds of reflective goals. First of
                                all, because digital environments increase one’s resources for
                                morphing and transforming aesthetic works, they are apt for
                                exploiting the inherently transformational character of such works.
                                Second, the tools also foster acts of reflection by diversified
                                persons and groups, and their storage mechanisms greatly augment the
                                scale and number of interactive dynamic relations. Third, the
                                environment encourages a (so to speak) theatrical deployment of
                                these operations. Ivanhoe Game players will intervene and engage
                                with aesthetic works in performative ways, and -- equally important
                                -- they will act in spaces that put their critical and reflective
                                operations on clear display. If the game is thus, most immediately,
                                a game of critical reflection/aesthetic interpretation, it is
                                ultimately a game for studying and reflecting on those acts of
                                critical reflection themselves. Finally, that its critical
                                reflection is executed in game form is crucial. Humanities
                                scholarship without gameplay, even when the scholarship explicitly
                                devotes itself to self-reflection, inevitably fails to engage with
                                essential features of the works it means to study, including the
                                workings of the mind engaged with such works.</p>
                            <p>The co-creators of the Ivanhoe Game, Jerome McGann and Johanna
                                Drucker, will make an introductory essay on the project available to
                                the audience before the conference.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>Is Gaming Serious Research in the Humanities?</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Geoffrey Rockwell</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>Games are used to teach the humanities not for research. We are not
                                even comfortable studying games seriously, let alone proposing that
                                games could be a form of research. It is only recently that computer
                                games have become the subject of serious humanities inquiry. <note
                                    n=""[1]"">[1] Espen Aarseth in his editorial ""Computer Game
                                    Studies, Year 1"", which introduces the newly launched journal
                                        <title level=""j"">Game Studies</title>, writes that ""2001 can
                                    be seen as the Year One of Computer Game Studies as an emerging,
                                    viable, international, academic field."" &lt;<ptr
                                        target=""http://www.gamestudies.org/0101/editorial.html""
                                    />&gt;</note> At the same time there is a tradition that
                                proposes that what we do in the humanities is a form of play, even
                                if it is serious play. In theorists like Huizinga, Bakhtin, and
                                Gadamer play is presented as a component of humanities
                                    practice.<note n=""[2]"">[2] See the section ""Play as the clue to
                                    ontological explanation"" in <title level=""m"">Truth and
                                    Method</title>, page 101 and following.</note> The playful
                                dimension of the dialogue of the humanities is that which
                                distinguishes our (hermeneutical) methods from those in the social
                                and natural sciences. If we want to resist becoming a (human)
                                science we need to reassert the playfulness of representation and
                                interpretation. That means acknowledging the place of games and game
                                theory in our practice.</p>
                            <p>In this component of the panel Geoffrey Rockwell will make the case
                                for building games and playing them as a way of modeling and then
                                reflecting on our activities that is in the spirit of the
                                humanities. Geoffrey Rockwell was invited to sit in on the design of
                                the Game and will provide a concluding presentation that reflects on
                                the witnessed process of developing Ivanhoe as itself a recognizable
                                form of research that combines the play of the symposium with the
                                implementation demands of digital practice.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>References</head>
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                                    <title level=""m"">The Dialogic Imagination; Four Essays by M. M.
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                                    <title level=""s"">University of Texas Press Slavic Series</title>
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                                    <imprint>
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                                    <title level=""s"">University of Texas Slavic Series</title>
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                                    <edition>2nd Edition</edition>
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                                            <surname>Weinsheimer</surname>
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                                    <title level=""m"">Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play-Element in
                                        Culture</title>
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                </div>
                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>A Wrinkle in Play: Building the Ivanhoe Game for Classroom Flexibility</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Chandler Sansing</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>Secondary school teacher Chandler Sansing will discuss tests of the
                                Ivanhoe Game in several classroom contexts and will show
                                student-generated game material. Five major classroom case studies
                                and several in-house beta tests have been undertaken, using (among
                                others) the texts of Scott's <title level=""m"">Ivanhoe</title>,
                                Bronte's <title level=""m"">Wuthering Heights</title>, Shelley's
                                    <title level=""m"">Frankenstein</title>, L'Engle's <title
                                    level=""m"">A Wrinkle in Time</title>, CS Lewis's Narnia books and
                                Henry James's <title level=""m"">The Turn of the Screw</title> as
                                discourse fields. These practical exercises, conducted without the
                                use of a highly-articulated software framework for organizing player
                                moves and enforcing rule systems, are helping to reveal latent
                                assumptions in the game model and shape its implementation. Sansing
                                will argue that the strengths of successful instructional
                                technologies lie in their flexibility -- that teachers need
                                open-ended software they can adapt to their evolving content areas
                                and specialized methodologies. Proposals for a user-configurable
                                Ivanhoe Game rule and scoring system which builds this flexibility
                                into the software model are presently under consideration.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>The Ivanhoe Development Process: Managing Complexity and Communication</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Nathan Piazza</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>The developers of the Ivanhoe Game are, most of us, veterans of other
                                development projects affiliated with the University of Virginia's
                                Media Studies Program or Institute for Advanced Technologies in the
                                Humanities. By now we are well-versed in the difficulties of
                                navigating the waters of digital humanities development efforts.
                                However, Ivanhoe presents a unique challenge in the sense that it is
                                not chiefly a collections initiative, nor is it a straightforward
                                software development project. Instead, it will be a medium for doing
                                pedagogical and critical work in ways that, frankly, have rarely
                                been done before. As a result, it has been crucial for the
                                participants in the Ivanhoe group to develop satisfying methods of
                                working together, methods that insure that every voice is heard
                                while still sustaining the momentum of the project. Successful
                                communication of complex ideas between humanists and technicians has
                                been, and will continue to be, essential to the project's success,
                                because the form and structure of the application itself <emph
                                    rend=""bold"">is</emph> the project. As a result, we have
                                down-streamed the issue of user experience, answering questions of
                                interface and interactivity even before the development of the data
                                models. This has allowed us to identify issues that might make our
                                technical infrastructure too inflexible to meet the rigorous goals
                                we have set for game play quality. We have used a process that is
                                informal, and iterative, taking inspiration from the idea that
                                software is built more after the fashion of a novel than a
                                skyscraper. It evolves over time through a process of constant
                                revision, and no set of blueprints will survive the construction
                                phase without alteration. Nathan Piazza will discuss the way of
                                working that has allowed us to continue to sustain ourselves with
                                the creative verve and critical insights from which the project
                                vision first evolved, even as we fit that vision into an
                                appropriately constraining technical framework.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>Implementing Ivanhoe: Modelling a Discourse Field </head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Andrea Laue</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>I will review past, present and proposed implementations of the
                                Ivanhoe Game, focusing on the construction and representation of the
                                discourse field <note n=""[1]"">[1] Our working definition of
                                    discourse field is: ""the historical set of artifacts that
                                    includes and describes a text; the expanded bibliographic
                                    universe that invests a cultural artifact.""</note>. Particular
                                issues discussed include the modeling and visualization of the game
                                text, the association of roles and players, and the display and
                                typing of links <note n=""[2]"">[2] Our working definition of game
                                    text is: ""the (virtual) artifact that is generated by a
                                    particular instance of the game.""</note>.</p>
                            <p>Played using email, Blogger or pen and ink, early instances of the
                                Ivanhoe Game couldn't produce an adequate game text. In addition,
                                these implementations didn't offer the option of anonymous roles. In
                                the prototype, we used XML, XSLT and JSP's to build a game text with
                                a corresponding visualization. The prototype also made possible the
                                separation of players and roles, prompting a debate about the
                                relationship between the two and the related game text. In our
                                forthcoming beta, we will build a more robust game text and
                                correspondingly more sophisticated visualizations. I will discuss
                                topic maps and their potential for modeling discourse fields and
                                generating game texts in the beta <note n=""[3]"">[3] For an
                                    introduction to topic maps, see Steve Pepper, ""The TAO of Topic
                                    Maps,"" XML Europe 2000.</note>. Although most often used to
                                structure metadata that describes existing corpora, topic maps also
                                present tremendous potential for generating dynamic documents and
                                visualizations, separating roles and players, and typing links and
                                moves in a manner that might someday be useful for rules and points
                                engines <note n=""[4]"">[4] For other interesting applications of
                                    topic maps, see James David Mason, ""Ferrets and Topic Maps:
                                    Knowledge Engineering for an Analytical Engine,"" XML Europe
                                    2001, and Jack Park, ""Bringing Knowledge Technologies to the
                                    Classroom"", Knowledge Technologies 2001.</note>.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>Patterns and Models: Some Applications of Game Theory to Digital Game
                            Design</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Bethany Nowviskie</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>Until recently, game and educational software makers have worked
                                intuitively, virtually ignoring established ontologies and fields of
                                enquiry in engineering, design, and the humanities. However,
                                pressures in the industry are creating a new impetus toward
                                establishing a common vocabulary which critics, theorists, and
                                developers can employ to analyze games. As an introduction to the
                                use of models and pattern languages in digital game development,
                                Bethany Nowviskie will describe a branch of game theory called
                                mechanism design, with particular attention to models employing
                                Denettian or irrational agents as players in non-zero sum games and
                                games of incomplete information. Economic game theory, as an
                                interdisciplinary approach to analyzing human behavior and the
                                interaction of agents in closed systems, offers digital game
                                designers a rich vocabulary with which to express and interrogate
                                game models. Mechanism design employs the same vocabulary in
                                developing algorithms for games -- like Ivanhoe -- involving
                                multiple self-interested agents, each with private objectives and
                                preferred outcomes. Nowviskie will discuss the evolution and testing
                                of game models in Ivanhoe and suggest that, by taking an intentional
                                stance toward the computer as player, designers could appropriate
                                and adapt formal, game-theoretic patterns to aid in digital game
                                creation and analysis.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <div>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">A logic programming environment for document semantics
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                        <forename type=""first"">David</forename>
                        <surname>Dubin</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana</name>
                            <email>ddubin@uiuc.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""middle"">Michael</forename>
                        <surname>Sperberg-McQueen</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">World Wide Web Consortium</name>, USA
                            <email>cmsmcq@acm.org</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Allen</forename>
                        <surname>Renear</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana</name>
                            <email>renear@alexia.lis.uiuc.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Claus</forename>
                        <surname>Huitfeldt</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Bergen</name>, Norway
                            <email>Claus.Huitfeldt@hit.uib.no</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
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                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
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            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ALLC/ACH 2002</title>
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                    <name>
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                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
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                        <forename type=""middle""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
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                        <forename type=""first""/>
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                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                <p>Recently Sperberg-McQueen and others have argued that markup functions by
                    licensing inferences about a text. They remark, however, that the information
                    warranting such inferences may not be entirely explicit in the syntax of the
                    markup language used to encode the text. (Sperberg-McQueen et al., 2001)</p>
                <p>For example, a language defined in SGML or XML may include an attribute (such as
                    'lang') that an encoder may apply to an element with the generic identifier
                    'QUOT.' One might then infer that the QUOT element marks an identifiable
                    component of the document (called a quotation) and that the quotation has the
                    property of being in a particular language (as indicated by the 'lang'
                    attribute). It may also be valid to infer that children of the 'QUOT' element
                    share the property of being in that language, unless overridden with a language
                    attribute of their own. On the other hand, there may not be such a simple
                    one-to-one mapping between components and elements: for example, a single
                    quotation may be broken across two or more 'QUOT' elements.</p>
                <p>There are a number of other inferences that are typically assumed by tag set
                    designers and application designers alike, but which cannot be formally
                    expressed in the DTD, and may or may not be informally expressed in the tag set
                    documentation.</p>
                <p>In order to adequately represent such inferences (the ""meaning of markup"") the
                    Sperberg-McQueen group developed techniques for expressing in predicate logic,
                    (i) the facts signalled by the encoding of a particular document instance and
                    (ii) the logical relationships commonly understood to exist and license further
                    inferences. A Prolog database was used to demonstrate the effectiveness of this
                    approach.</p>
                <p>The present paper builds directly on this previous work, and reflects new results
                    which provide more rigorous and explanatory layers of abstraction and progress
                    in understanding problems with ""deictic"" expressions and domains of variables,
                    etc. But the fundmental new result presented is the completion of a complete
                    integrated working system with an entirely new and substantially redesigned
                    Prolog database at its core. This Prolog database has been redesigned to improve
                    functionally, better reflect the theoretical results, and increase
                    functionality, flexibility, and performance.</p>
                <p>The system permits an analyst to specify facts about the markup syntax (e.g.,
                    generic identifiers and attribute values) separately from facts and rules of
                    inference about semantic entities and properties. The system provides a level of
                    abstraction at which the performative or interpretive meaning of the markup can
                    be explicitly represented in machine-readable and executable form. Inferences
                    can then be drawn regarding document components, including problematic
                    structures, such as those participating in overlapping hierarchies.</p>
                <p>The new Prolog database is integrated with an SGML/XML parser so that SGML and
                    XML instances can be input and output. Facts and rules of inference concerning
                    the document are expressed in Prolog's standard declarative syntax. We have
                    developed a collection of predicates that emulate a subset of the W3C's Document
                    Object Model methods for navigating the hierarchical structure of nodes, and
                    retrieving attribute values and information from the document type definition.
                    These predicates afford a clear separation of the syntactic information captured
                    by the parser and the document semantics expressed by the analyst.</p>
                <p>Another collection of predicates support deictic expression resolution. These
                    allow rules of inference to include location-relative pointing from one part of
                    the document to another. For example, we have predicates for resolving an
                    element's closest ancestor having a particular generic identifier, attribute, or
                    attribute value pair. Another set of predicates resolves the identity of an
                    element of a particular type occurring most closely in terms of the linear
                    structure of the document (rather than the closest in the hierarchy). A third
                    set of predicates supports the tracing of connections across elements, such as
                    those linked by ID and IDREF attribute pairs.</p>
                <p>Rules (axioms) represent the further logical relationships mentioned above, such
                    as for defeasible inheritance, distribution of distributive properties, etc.</p>
                <p>In developing the architecture of this system, we have adopted an object-oriented
                    strategy: each node identified by the parser and semantic entity instantiated
                    via a rule of inference has a unique identifier assigned by the system.
                    Predicates for retrieving or manipulating that information are written with the
                    aim of hiding the underlying data structure. The system architecture can
                    therefore be understood to have several distinct layers of representation:<list>
                        <item>1. A parser that handles the serialized document instance.</item>
                        <item>2. Predicates for processing the output of the parser.</item>
                        <item>3. Predicates for storing a representation of the parse tree in the
                            Prolog database.</item>
                        <item>4. Predicates for emulating DOM methods, deictic expression
                            resolution, object instantiation, and general characteristics of
                            properties (such as their inheritance and distribution).</item>
                        <item>5. Facts and rules of inference expressing the document
                            semantics.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>The first two layers are implementation-dependent, and are designed to be
                    modular, allowing experimentation to improve robustness and scalability. We
                    intend the upper layers to be consistent across different implementations of the
                    system. Currently the interface between the lower and upper layers in written
                    entirely in Prolog, but we may employ other technologies (such as XSLT) in the
                    future.</p>
                <p>This system is being developed with the aim of advancing several interrelated
                    research goals. We will develop applications that provide a complete formal
                    account of the semantics of particular document classes. The system will also
                    provide an environment for experimenting with proposed or conjectured semantics
                    with the goal of improving document retrieval and conversion applications. We
                    also propose to build applications that draw inferences based on both document
                    semantics and domain or world knowledge.</p>
                <p>At this time the new Prolog database has been completed and tested and the entire
                    working system can be demonstrated on small fragments of TEI. By the conference
                    we hope to have completed the representation of the markup semantics of two XML
                    systems (XHTML and TEI-lite), which will allow us to be able to present a
                    substantial demonstration of the practical advantages of representing markup
                    semantics, as well as the theoretical soundness of this approach to the meaning
                    of markup.</p>
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        <back>
            <div rend=""bibliography"">
                <head>Bibliography</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">C.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">M.</forename>
                                    <surname>Sperberg-McQueen</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Text in the Electronic Age: Textual Study and Text
                                Encoding, with Examples from Medieval Texts</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">Literary &amp; Linguistic Computing</title>
                            <imprint>
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                                <date when=""1991"">1991</date>
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                            <author>
                                <name>
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                                    <forename type=""middle"">M.</forename>
                                    <surname>Sperberg-McQueen</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Allen</forename>
                                    <surname>Renear</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Claus</forename>
                                    <surname>Huitfeldt</surname>
                                </name>
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                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">Markup Languages: Theory and Practice</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol"">2</biblScope>
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                                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>Originally delivered at ALLC/ACH 2000 in Glasgow.</note>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"257","3","Visualizing Overlapping Hierarchies in Textual Markup","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Visualizing Overlapping Hierarchies in Textual Markup</title>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Patrick</forename>
                        <surname>Durusau</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Society of Biblical Literature</name>
                            <email>pdurusau@emory.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Matthew</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">Brook</forename>
                        <surname>O'Donnell</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">OpenText.org</name>
                            <email>mtrout@nycap.rr.com</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ALLC/ACH 2002</title>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>editor</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Harald</forename>
                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <forename type=""middle""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                    </name>
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                <p>The impact of SGML and XML on computing in the humanities is wellknown. Markup
                    languages have been used on such diverse texts as Nordic runes (Driscoll <note
                        n=""1"">Driscoll, M. J., <title level=""m"">Encoding Old Norse-Icelandic primary
                            sources using TEI-conformant SGML/XML: A handbook</title> (<ptr
                            target=""http://www.hum.ku.dk/ami/handbook/""/>)</note>), to the <title
                        level=""m"">Oxford English Dictionary</title>(New OED and Text Research<note
                        n=""2""> UW Centre for the New OED and Text Research (ptr
                        target=""http://db.uwaterloo.ca/OED/"" />)</note>. Substantial experience has
                    been gained in the application of markup languages to diverse texts with
                    corresponding gains in the usefulness of such texts for computing humanists.</p>
                <p>The default use of SGML for the representation of only one hierarchy, and the
                    explicit prohibition of overlapping elements in XML, has posed considerable
                    limitations to humanists attempting to record their observations of multiple
                    overlapping hierarchies in textual materials. Several approaches have addressed
                    these limitations, ranging from milestone elements(TEI), stand-off markup to
                    record hierarchies (Thomspon 1997<note n=""3"">Thompson, H.S., and McKelvie, D,
                            <title level=""a"">Hyperlink semantics for standoff markup of read-only
                            documents</title>, Language Technology Group, HCRC, University of
                            Edinburgh(<ptr target=""http://www.ltg.ed.ac.uk/~ht/sgmleu97.html""
                        />)</note>), fragmentation of a base text (TEI), to the development of
                    non-SGML/XML markup languages which will require special processing software
                    TexMECS: New meta-language for recording multiple hierarchies (Sperberg-McQueen
                    and Huitfeldt 2001<note n=""4"">Huitfeldt, C., and Sperberg-McQueen, C.M., <title
                            level=""a"">TexMECS: An experimental markup meta-language for complex
                            documents</title> (<ptr
                            target=""http://www.hit.uib.no/claus/mlcd/papers/texmecs.html""
                    />)</note>).All of these approaches suffer from a variety of limitations and
                    problems. The most notable problem is a lack of commonly available software to
                    create and make the overlapping hierarchies available to scholarly
                    investigation.</p>
                <p>Durusau and O'Donnell (2001<note n=""5"">Durusau, P., and O'Donnell, M.B., <title
                            level=""a"">Implementing Concurrent Markup in XML</title>, Extreme Markup
                        2001. Paper submitted to <title level=""j"">Markup Languages: Theory and
                            Practice</title>. Presentation materials andworking examples available
                        at <ptr target=""http://www.sbl-site2.org/Extreme2001/""/>.</note>) present a
                    method for recording overlapping hierarchies using XML standards, particularly
                    XPath and XSLT. The essential insight is that the key piece of information in
                    encoding a complex text is membership of a particular piece of text (PCDATA in
                    SGML/XML terminology) in a given hierarchy, and not its surface representation
                    through markup. Whether this membership information is represented in a
                    conventional SGML/XML ""tree"" or by some other means, it is the information that
                    is of interest to the computing humanist. This technique relies upon the use of
                    XPath syntax to record the hierarchy information for atoms of text in a larger
                    work. For example:<lb/>
                    <code>&lt;w id=""w1"" sn:clauses=""/clauses/clause[1][@id='c1']/s[1]/w[1]""
                        tx:text=""/text/para[1][@id='p1']/w[1]""
                        pg:pages=""/pages/page[1][@id='p1']/line[1][@id='l1']/w[1]""
                        &gt;This&lt;/w&gt;</code></p>
                <p>Durusau and O'Donnell demonstrated the use XSLT to construct and then query
                    overlapping hierarchies of XML markup on a base text.The theory and practice of
                    querying of XML documents has been under rapid development at the World Wide Web
                    Consortium (XQuery<note n=""6"">See <ptr target=""http://www.w3.org/XML/Query""
                        /></note>). Despite that pace of development, there has been no systematic
                    investigation of querying texts across multiple hierarchies. However, most of
                    the techniques currently under development recognize the importance of XPath
                    syntax on the effective formulation of an XML query language.</p>
                <p>To develop effective querying of XML documents across multiple hierarchies,
                    Durusau and O'Donnell are developing techniques to visually present overlapping
                    hierarchies to allow ""discovery"" of fruitful lines of investigation for
                    particular texts. XSLT andSVG are used for this purpose. Overlapping hierarchies
                    may well exist for a text that are of no interest to one researcher that are the
                    focus of research for another. The ability to effectively choose which
                    hierarchies are of interest will be crucial to effective use of overlapping
                    hierarchies recorded for a particular text.</p>
                <p>In addition to allowing a separation of hierarchies of interest from those that
                    are not, the visual presentation of overlapping hierarchies is also the first
                    step towards addressing the need for intimate knowledge of the underlying markup
                    to formulate a query for the multiple hierarchies recorded using this technique.
                    Effective queries now require mastery of the various hierarchies and a working
                    knowledge of their relationships, one to the other, in order to obtain any
                    predictable results. With an entirely visual presentation of the overlapping
                    hierarchies, scholars will be able to choose the hierarchies by display and not
                    markup syntax, as being the subject(s) of further analysis. This paper
                    demonstrates the use of XSLT and SVG to produce visual representations of
                    documents with overlapping hierarchies and the linking of these visualizations
                    to XPath and XQuery statements. Multiple editions, annotations and analyses of
                    Book 1 of Milton's <title level=""m"">Paradise Lost</title> form the test case for
                    these techniques. The more detailed the analysis the greater the need for
                    detailed knowledge of the syntax but that will be only after the scholar has
                    found information of interest and not a general exercise in mastering several
                    divergent markup regimes. This will be of particular importance with many texts
                    such as biblical texts that have complex syntax, grammatical, literary and
                    transmission hierarchies that overlap and combine in complex ways.</p>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">A computational model for MLCD</title>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Paul</forename>
                        <surname>Meurer</surname>
                        <affiliation>HIT-senteret, 
                            <name type=""org"">University of Bergen</name>
                            <email>paul.meurer@hit.uib.no</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Kjersti</forename>
                        <surname>Bjørnestad Berg</surname>
                        <affiliation>Department of Information Science, 
                            <name type=""org"">University of Bergen</name>
                            <email>Kjersti.Berg@ifi.uib.no</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
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            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ALLC/ACH 2002</title>
                <respStmt>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Harald</forename>
                        <surname>Fuchs</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <forename type=""middle""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
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                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                    <head>1 Introduction </head>
                    <p>SGML, and increasingly XML are the prevailing standards for text encoding
                        today. XML, a simplified subset of SGML, is commonly believed to become the
                        new standard for web publishing. One of the strengths of SGML/XML is that it
                        combines a labelled bracketed notation with an intuitive document structure
                        and a powerful formalism for constraining that structure. All SGML/XML like
                        systems, however, have problems representing non-hierarchical textual
                        features, because they require elements to nest. In practice, various
                        techniques for encoding non- hierarchical features have been developed,
                        including the use of milestone elements, fragmentation of elements, the SGML
                        feature CONCUR, and various other techniques for recreating 'virtual
                        elements' from fragments of the text. The problem with all of these
                        approaches however, is that they require application- specific logic to
                        retrieve the intended structure. SGML/XML processors are not sufficient.</p>
                    <p>MECS is a text encoding system designed by Claus Huitfeldt at the
                        Wittgenstein Archive in Bergen that was specifically designed to enable
                        elements to overlap. [3] MECS, on the other hand, has no defined data
                        structure. The MLCD (Markup Language for Complex Documents) project was
                        started in February 2001, and is hosted by the Center for Humanities
                        Information Technology at the University of Bergen. It aims at developing a
                        text encoding system combining the best of SGML/XML and MECS. This work has
                        resulted in a notation for a markup meta-language for complex documents,
                        TexMECS [2], and a data structure for complex documents, GODDAG. This paper
                        will present the data structure and its implementation.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>2 A computational model for MLCD</head>
                    <p>In [1], Huitfeldt and Sperberg-McQueen describe a data structure for
                        overlapping hierarchies. The GODDAG, or Generalised Ordered-Descendant
                        Directed Acyclic Graph, is defined as a labelled directed acyclic graph. As
                        for the tree structures of SGML/XML documents, leaf nodes represent the
                        character data content of the document, non-terminal nodes represent
                        elements and are labelled with the generic identifier. The set of leaf nodes
                        is referred to as the graph's frontier. An arc indicates a parent-child
                        relationship, modelling containment. A node is said to dominate all nodes
                        reachable from it. There is no requirement that the graph be rooted.</p>
                    <p>MECS, and TexMECS allow elements to overlap arbitrarily. Overlapping elements
                        are represented in the GODDAG as nodes with shared children. All elments
                        will dominate unique and contiguous sequences of leaf nodes. TexMECS has a
                        specific syntax for encoding elements that are interrupted by other
                        material. In the TEI a part attribute is sometimes used to indicate that the
                        linear form is in some way incomplete, and that more than one element
                        constitutes the entire element. It would be useful if these elements could
                        be treated as one element on the GODDAG level, for instance to facilitate
                        proximity search. In the GODDAG the whole element is represented by one
                        node, which is the parent of the fragment elements.<lb/>
                        <eg>&lt;sp who=""AASE""&gt;&lt;l part=""i""&gt;Peer, you're
                            lying! &lt;l&gt;&lt;sp&gt; &lt;sp who=""PEER
                            GYNT""&gt; &lt;stage&gt;without stopping&lt;stage&gt;
                            &lt;l part=""f""&gt;No, I'm
                            not!&lt;l&gt;&lt;sp&gt; </eg></p>
                    <p>See Figure 1 for the GODDAG structure.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <head>Figure 1</head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>In the TEI there are several examples of elements used to recreate 'virtual
                        elements' from fragments of the text. (C.f.<emph rend=""distinct""
                            >&lt;join&gt;</emph>, <emph rend=""distinct""
                            >&lt;span&gt;</emph>,<emph rend=""distinct""
                            >&lt;fs&gt;</emph>.) TexMECS also includes a specific syntax for
                        so-called virtual elements, elements that are created by fragments of the
                        text that may be discontiguous or out of order. A virtual element in TexMECS
                        has an element identifier and an id reference. In the GODDAG, the virtual
                        element is labelled with its generic identifier, and is the parent of all
                        children of the referenced element. This means that applications can access
                        and process virtual elements like any other elements.</p>
                    <p>Below is an example, in TexMECS syntax, that shows a simple reordering of
                        lines, in one view representing a dialogue between Hughie, Luis and Dewey,
                        in another representing the haiku they are trying to remember.<lb/>
                        <eg>{sp who=""HUGHIE""{{p{How did that translation go?}p} {lg
                            type=""haiku""{{l{da de dum de dum,}l} {l=frog{gets a new frog,}l}
                            {l{...}l}}lg} }sp} {sp who=""LOUIS""{{p{Er ...}p} {lg{{l=new{it's a new
                            pond.}l}}lg} }sp} {sp who=""DEWEY""{{p{Ah ...}p} {lg{{l=pond{When the old
                            pond}l}}lg} {p{Right. That's it.}p}}sp}
                            {lg{{^l^pond}{^l^frog}{^l^new}}lg} </eg></p>
                    <p>In the GODDAG generated from this example (Figure 2), both the dialogue and
                        the haiku are structured as part of the document, and none of the views is
                        dominant.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <head>Figure 2</head>
                    </figure>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>3 Implementation</head>
                    <p>A computational model of the above structure has been implemented in Java and
                        CommonLisp, along with loaders and linearisers for TexMECS, MECS and XML.
                        Using these, the GODDAG can function as a simple means of translating
                        between the various encoding schemes.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>4 Serialization: some issues and problems</head>
                    <p>There is an obvious 1-1 relationship between the set of valid XML documents
                        and their tree representations. In the case of TexMECS, things are more
                        complicated. A given GODDAG structure can be serialized in different ways,
                        depending on whether nodes with multiple parents are serialized as virtual
                        elements or as overlap. On the other hand, there is a small class of TexMECS
                        documents with discontinuous elements which do not seem to correspond to any
                        GODDAG structure, if one tries to map discontinuous elements to a single
                        node. We try to formalize the relationship between GODDAG structures and
                        serializations and propose a solution for the aforementioned problem.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>5 Conclusion</head>
                    <p>The work presented in this paper shows how to implement the data structures
                        and formalize some of the ideas presented in [1].</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back><div type=""bibliography""><head>Bibliography</head><listBibl>
            <biblStruct n=""1"">
                <analytic>
                    <author><name><forename type=""first"">C.</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">M.</forename><surname>Sperberg-McQueen</surname></name></author>
                   <author><name><forename type=""first"">Claus</forename><surname>Huitfeldt</surname></name></author>
                    <title level=""a"">GODDAG: a data structure for overlapping hierarchies</title>
                </analytic>
                <monogr>
                    <title level=""m"">Principles of Digital Document Processing, Munich, September 2000</title>
                    <imprint>
                        <pubPlace>Berlin</pubPlace>
                        <publisher>Springer</publisher>
                        <date>(Proceedings in press)</date>
                    </imprint>
                </monogr></biblStruct>
            <biblStruct n=""2""><monogr>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Claus</forename>
                        <surname>Huitfeldt</surname>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author><name><forename type=""first"">C.</forename><forename type=""middle"">M.</forename><surname>Sperberg-McQueen</surname></name></author>
                <title level=""a"">TexMECS: an experimental markup meta-language for complex documents</title>
                <imprint>
                    <pubPlace></pubPlace>
                    <publisher></publisher>
                    <date when=""2001"">(January - February 2001, not complete)</date>
                </imprint>
            </monogr><note>(<ptr target=""http://www.hit.uib.no/claus/mlcd/papers/texmecs.html"" />)</note></biblStruct>
            <biblStruct n=""3"">
                <analytic>
                    <author><name><forename type=""first"">Claus</forename>
                        <surname>Huitfeldt</surname></name></author>
                    <title level=""a"">A Multi-Element Code System</title>
                </analytic>
                <monogr>
                    <title level=""s"">Working Papers of the Wittgenstein Archives at the University of Bergen </title>
                    <imprint>
                        <pubPlace></pubPlace>
                        <publisher></publisher>
                        <date></date>
                    </imprint>
                </monogr></biblStruct>
            
        </listBibl></div></back>
    </text>
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                        <forename type=""first"">J.</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">Stephen</forename>
                        <surname>Downie</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Graduate School of Library and Information Science</name>,
                            <name type=""org"">University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</name>
                            <email>jdownie@uiuc.edu</email>
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                    <head>Background</head>
                    <p>Music information retrieval (MIR) research and development strives to afford
                        the same level of access to the world's corpus of music as is afforded to
                        text. Recently concluded international symposia devoted to MIR research and
                        development bear witness to the promise of powerful, robust, large-scale,
                        and flexible search and retrieval tools designed to be used by scholars and
                        novices alike (ISMIR 2000; ISMIR 2001). Like many other humanities computing
                        endeavours, it has attracted a multi-disciplinary group of researchers who
                        are applying their domain-specific expertise to the wide range of challenges
                        inherent in MIR development. MIR researchers come from library science,
                        musicology, music theory, music psychology, computer science, digital and
                        traditional librarianship, audio engineering, information science,
                        information retrieval, publishing, media studies, broadcasting, law, and
                        business, to name only a small handful of the disciplines represented. MIR
                        research is all the stronger for the cross-pollination of disciplinary
                        paradigms, research methods, and technological approaches. Effective
                        communications across disciplinary boundaries, however, are impeding the
                        coalescence of MIR research into a coherent discipline in its own right. The
                        nascent MIR community is plagued with two forms of communications breakdown:<list>
                            <item>1. The scattering of the MIR literature caused by a lack of
                                bibliographic control; and,</item>
                            <item>2. The confusion brought about by the use of discipline-specific
                                assumptions, techniques, and language throughout its
                                literature.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>My paper reports upon the background, framework, goals and ongoing
                        development of the Music Information Retrieval Annotated Bibliography
                        Project (<ptr target=""http://music-ir.org""/>). It extends and augments the
                        preliminary explication presented in Downie (2001). This project is being
                        undertaken to specifically address and overcome the bibliographic control
                        and communications issues plaguing the MIR research community. However,
                        since most humanities computing projects also draw upon multi-disciplinary
                        groups of researchers, I to hope provide and delineate a model that should
                        assist others in facilitating efficient and effective communications among
                        their particular research communities.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Problem Overview</head>
                    <p>MIR research has no disciplinary home. Because of this, researchers have been
                        publishing their findings within the contexts of their own disciplines.
                        Important MIR papers are thus scattered, for example, across the computer
                        science, library science, musicology, humanities, and audio engineering
                        literatures. There is no comprehensive indexing tool that successfully
                        gathers up these papers. For example, significant musicology-based advances
                        can be located through various music, arts and humanities indexes but not
                        through the engineering and computer science indexes. Advances in audio
                        engineering techniques are similarly absent from the music, arts and
                        humanities indexes. Since researchers are generally unaware of the
                        differences in scope of the various discipline-based indexes, they tend to
                        focus upon those with which they are most familiar and thus overlook the
                        contributions of those based in other disciplines. Unfamiliarity with the
                        wide range of vocabularies used by the various disciplines further compounds
                        the communication difficulties by making it problematic for MIR
                        investigators to conduct thorough and comprehensive searches for MIR
                        materials. Until these issues are addressed, MIR will never be in a position
                        to fully realize the benefits that a multi-disciplinary research and
                        development community offers, nor will it be able to develop into a
                        discipline in its own right.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Solution</head>
                    <figure/>
                    <p>Our solution to the issues outlined above centers about the creation of a
                        Web-based, two-level, collection of annotated bibliographies (Fig. 1). The
                        first level, or core bibliography, will bring together those items
                        identified as being germane to MIR as a nascent discipline. Thus, the core
                        bibliography comprises only those papers dealing specifically with some
                        aspect of the MIR problem, such as MIR system development, experimentation,
                        and evaluation, etc. The second level, or periphery bibliographies, comprise
                        a set of discipline-specific bibliographies. Each discipline-specific
                        bibliography in the set will provide access to the discipline-specific
                        background materials necessary for non-expert members of the other
                        disciplines to comprehend and evaluate the papers from each participating
                        discipline. For example, an audio engineering bibliography could be used by
                        music librarians and others to understand the basics of signal processing
                        (e.g., Fast Fourier Transforms, etc.). Another example would be a musicology
                        bibliography that computer scientists could draw upon in an effort to
                        understand the strengths and weaknesses of the various music encoding
                        schemes, and so on. Thus, taken together, the two-levels of the MIR
                        bibliography will provide:<list>
                            <item>1. The much needed bibliographic control to the MIR literature;
                                and,</item>
                            <item>2. An important a mechanism for members of each discipline to
                                comprehend the contributions of the other disciplines. </item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>An important operating principle of the project is the use of non-proprietary
                        formats and software. We are committed to the ideals of the Open Source
                        Initiative (OSI, 2001) and the GNU General Public License (GNU Project,
                        2001) and thus intend to make our innovations freely available to others. In
                        keeping with this commitment, we have chosen the Greenstone Digital Library
                        Software (GSDL) package (New Zealand Digital Library Project, 2001), the
                        Apache HTTP server (Apache Software Foundation, 2001), the PERL scripting
                        language (PERL Mongers, 2001) and the Linux operating system (Linux Online,
                        2001) to create the basic technological foundation of the project. We have
                        purchased copies of the commercial bibliographic software package, ProCite
                        (ISI ResearchSoft, 2001) for initial, in-house, data-entry. ProCite also
                        provides us with a representative instance of commercially available
                        software that many end-users might utilize in manipulating the records they
                        retrieve from our bibliography.</p>
                    <p>At present, there are two central components of project undergoing
                        development and alpha testing:<list>
                            <item>1. The bibliographic search and retrieval interface using the GSDL
                                package; and,</item>
                            <item>2. The Web-based end-user data entry system.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>For both of these, the goal is to create a system that will permit ongoing
                        viability of the bibliography by minimizing-but not necessarily
                        eliminating-the amount of human editorial intervention required. Item ^#1
                        issues being addressed include modifications to the basic GSDL system to
                        permit the importation of specially structured bibliographic records and
                        their subsequent access through a variety of field selection options. Item
                        ^#2 is a CGI-based input system that guides end-users through the process of
                        constructing well-structured bibliographic records through a series of
                        step-by-step interactions and the on-the-fly generation of input forms
                        specifically designed to provide the appropriate fields for the various
                        types of bibliographic source materials (i.e., journal articles, conference
                        papers, theses, etc.).</p>
                    <p>Now that the general framework for the core bibliography has been laid, we
                        are moving forward on the acquisition of the supplementary and explanatory
                        materials. For these we are drawing upon the expert advice of those that
                        have graciously signed on as advisors to the project. These advisors are not
                        only lending their disciplinary expertise but are also affording us a very
                        important multinational perspective on the potential uses and growth of the
                        bibliography.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Acknowledgements</head>
                    <p>I would like to thank Dr. Suzanne Lodato for helping the project obtain its
                        principal financial support from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. I would
                        also like to thank Dr. Radha Nandkumar and the National Center for
                        Supercomputing Applications Faculty Fellows Programme for their support. The
                        hard work and insightful advice of Karen Medina, Joe Futrelle, Dr. David
                        Dubin, and the other members of the Information Science Research Laboratory
                        at the Graduate School of Library and Information Science, UIUC, is
                        gratefully appreciated. Those members of the MIR research community who have
                        volunteered to act as project advisors are also thanked.</p>
                </div>
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            <div type=""bibliography"">
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                        </author>
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                        </imprint>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Christine</forename>
                        <surname>Ruotolo</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">University of Virginia Library</name>
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                <p>Over the past year, the University of Virginia Library's Japanese Text Initiative
                    (JTI), in partnership with the Electronic Text Center (Etext), has been
                    developing an online multimedia dictionary of haiku. In this paper, I will
                    describe the scope and content of the project, and how it combines text and
                    multimedia materials in unique ways. I will also discuss the project from a
                    technical perspective, describing its encoding, interface, and search and
                    delivery mechanisms, with an emphasis on new problems encountered in the course
                    of development.</p>
                <p>Haiku is a well-known and increasingly ubiquitous poetic form in the West and
                    around the world. But while many non-Japanese are familiar with the metrical
                    structure of haiku poetry, few have a sophisticated knowledge of its traditional
                    themes, which are based upon deeply nuanced kidai and kigo (season-words). At
                    the heart of the JTI project is an English translation of portions of the Nyumon
                    Saijiki, a standard reference of kidai and kigo produced by the Museum of Haiku
                    Literature in Tokyo. The Nyumon Saijiki contains entries for the people, places,
                    and things found in haiku, with examples of modern and classical haiku under
                    each entry. Our translation of this work, completed by world-renowned haiku
                    expert William Higginson, consists of kanji, hiragana, romaji, and English
                    renderings for each of the 3,000 kidai and kigo, along with a definition and
                    brief explication. For the 100 most important terms, Mr. Higginson has
                    translated the full entry, which includes a discussion of proper usage and
                    several example poems. In addition, we have supplemented these full entries with
                    image and sound files harvested from online archives. Audio and visual
                    illustrations of these recurrent themes (the cries of autumnal insects, the hazy
                    moon of a spring night, and so forth) will greatly enhance the user's
                    understanding of poetry that is so deeply rooted in sensory perceptions of
                    nature; this is doubly true for Western audiences who live half a world away
                    from the particular plants, animals, rituals, and seasonal phenomena discussed
                    in the poems.</p>
                <p>Although Etext has produced and maintained full-text SGML/XML collections for
                    over a decade, and the JTI's work with Japanese language materials dates back to
                    1997, the current project has presented us with many new challenges. In the
                    past, the use of images in our collections was limited primarily to page images
                    and book illustrations; sound files were all but non-existent. The project's web
                    designer has strived to integrate the multimedia components into the project in
                    a way that supplements but does not overwhelm the textual content. The potential
                    audience for this project is incredibly broad; we anticipate that it will be
                    used around the world by everyone from grade-school students to professional
                    scholars of Japanese literature. Different users will require different views of
                    the data and different tools for manipulating it. A K-12 audience might want to
                    see just the English translations of the poems, accompanied by the relevant
                    images, while someone learning the Japanese language would be better served by a
                    poem in its kanji and romanized versions, along with an audio recitation and
                    highlighted links from the keywords in the poem to their full dictionary
                    entries. More expert users might want to run sophisticated search queries on the
                    dictionary, and a student of comparative literature might want to cross-query
                    the dictionary against the English Poetry Database or a similar collection.</p>
                <p>In order to present these multiple views of the project, we have encoded the data
                    in XML-compliant TEI and have generated much of the output with XSL stylesheets.
                    This represents a major transition for the Etext Center, which since 1992 has
                    stored data in SGML and converted it ""on the fly"" to HTML with CGI scripts. The
                    nature of the saijiki data, with its deeply nested hierarchies and the
                    database-like entry structure, combined with our need to sort, recombine and
                    re-present this data very nimbly, led us to an XML/XSL workflow. However, we
                    made some sacrifices with this approach. Our on-the-fly delivery of the data
                    through XSL stylesheets has been considerably slower than a comparable CGI
                    transformation. For this reason, we currently deliver large chunks of data
                    through CGI or as XSL-generated static HTML pages while we work to reduce the
                    delivery time.</p>
                <p>A further complication has arisen from our need to use UTF-8 encoding for this
                    project, instead of the EUC encoding we have used in the rest of the JTI
                    collection. Unicode allows us to easily represent kana and hiragana alongside
                    Western characters, including macron vowels that aren't part of the EUC
                    character set. However, our OpenText search tool does not support Unicode; until
                    current work on Unicode compatibility for OpenText is completed, we need to
                    convert the Unicode to EUC prior to indexing and essentially maintain two
                    parallel versions of the same data.</p>
                <p>In the coming year, we look forward to translating the remaining portions of the
                    Nyumon Saijiki, adding to the supplementary multimedia materials, and
                    integrating this haiku collection both ""vertically"" (with our other
                    Japanese-language materials) and ""horizontally"" (with other poetry collections
                    and dictionary projects across our holdings).</p>
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                <p>From the notorious HTML &lt;blink&gt; tag and simple animated GIFs to
                    elaborate cinematic presentations produced with Java, DHTML, or authoring
                    systems such as Macromedia Flash, Macromedia Shockwave, and Adobe LiveObject,
                    moving images and texts have become a ubiquitous feature of the World Wide Web.
                    As computer animation technologies have become more robust and accessible,
                    animations of all kinds have become more prevalent in electronic art and
                    literature, displays of information, and pedagogical materials. For scholars
                    working to develop critical methodologies for the analysis of electronic media,
                    computer animations--whether they take the form of word-and-image poetry,
                    film-like narratives, or diagrammatic representations of philosophical
                    concepts--offer challenging moving targets. Animation requires an interpretive
                    approach that can account not only for the role of spatial and temporal
                    dimensions in the production of the work's meaning, but also for the technical,
                    code-based operations that create the specific animated elements in the work. As
                    this presentation will argue, engaging the complex issues involved in a
                    hermeneutics of animation propels us toward a recognition of the potential of
                    animation as a medium of hermeneutic reflection in its own right. Extending to
                    computer animation the same consideration that has recently been given to
                    scholarly hypertext [2, 5] leads us to a view of animation not simply as the
                    object of hermeneutic inquiry, but as a way of ""doing hermeneutics"" in the
                    strong sense of philosophizing about meaning and interpretation.</p>
                <p>Focusing on a small set of concrete examples, this presentation briefly outlines
                    a set of questions confronting the interpretation of computer animation:<list>
                        <item>1. What is the semiotic function of the movement of elements in an
                            animation? This question elicits more or less straightforward answers
                            only when we are discussing ""representational"" animations that strive
                            for versimilitude of movement in animated figures (realistic gaits in
                            humans and other creatures, for example--the sum of the animated
                            movements means ""walking""). When the movement is essentially
                            ""non-mimetic"" (the appearance and disappearance of text, for example),
                            how do we understand the contribution of the motion to the ""whole""
                            meaning of the work?</item>
                        <item>2. What is the relationship of the precise chronometic time and
                            geometric space assigned to elements in the code of the animation (the
                            values of a setTimeout method in JavaScript, for example) to the
                            phenomenological experience of time and space produced in the work for a
                            reader [10] (such as the perception of an object crossing the screen
                            ""slowly"")? As much as the programming that underlies traditional
                            hypertext systems, the technical substrata of computer animation
                            suggests a need for a comparative method that reads the text of the code
                            alongside the manifest text of the work on the screen, viewing the
                            finished animation as a dialogic hybrid of (at least) two distinct
                            languages.</item>
                        <item>3. Is it possible (or useful) to distinguish broad genres of animation
                            that correspond to narrative, lyric, and drama? How does the sequencing
                            of elements in an animation intersect with the rhetorical conventions of
                            these traditional genres, and in what ways can the movement of animation
                            disrupt and complicate these forms? Can we imagine, following Kolb's
                            work on hypertext writing in philosophy [6], a dialectical,
                            argumentative mode of animation?</item>
                        <item>4. How do animated elements contribute to whatever forms of
                            interactivity a specific electronic work invites?</item>
                        <item>5. How do animations intersect with other communication technologies,
                            especially the hypertext systems in which they are often embedded?
                        </item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>Each of the examples I discuss illustrate these challenges. in addition, each
                    indicates the potential of animation as a means of visualizing theoretical
                    concepts and hermeneutic procedures. Josh Santangelo's DHTML poem ""Iris"" cites
                    and interprets lines of D. H. Lawrence [9]; the collaborative Flash project ""Im
                    Zeitalter der Konversationseuphorie"" by Merkel, R. et al. presents an elaborate
                    meditation on the possibilities and impossibilities of human communication [11];
                    and Charles Heinemann's ""Jacques Lacan's Imaginary Prisoner Game"" offers a
                    Java-driven dramatization of one of Lacan's models of temporality in the psyche
                    [4].</p>
                <p>To reinforce my claim that animation provides a powerful medium for critical and
                    metacritical discourse in the fields of philosophy and literary criticism, I
                    will conclude my presentation with a few examples of work from a graduate
                    seminar in aesthetics in which students produced web-based diagrams of concepts
                    as a way of investigating their developing theoretical frameworks. Students drew
                    on the approach to modeling concepts introduced by Gilles Deleuze and Felix
                    Guattari [3] and W.J.T. Mitchell's critical iconology, especially the
                    formulation of ""ut pictora theoria"" [8]. Their diagrams presented both single
                    concepts such as ""intertextuality"" and ""power"" as well as relationships among
                    concepts, such as the intersection of ""authenticity,"" ""justice,""
                    ""representation,"" and ""community."" Working together to produce protocols for
                    animating these diagrams in Macromedia Flash led the seminar participants into
                    dynamic discussions of the processes, relations, hierarchies, and even the
                    contradictions that structure--and animate--our thinking about literature and
                    culture.</p>
                <p>Computer animation not only invites us to shuttle among different fields,
                    shifting, for example, from theories of editing effects in the cinema to
                    narratological accounts of sequence and perspective to phenomenological
                    reflections on the cognition of movement; it also expands the range of
                    disciplines that can help us understand how movement can produce, problematize,
                    and impede meaning. My paper suggests that in order for critics of electronic
                    media to account more fully for the phenomenon of online animation, we will at
                    the same time have to take fuller advantage of the medium for the expression of
                    our own critical ideas. The natural sciences frequently employ digital animation
                    techniques for the purpose of visualizing structures, processes, and
                    relationships within a wide range of data [1]. Envisioning a philosophical
                    writing practice in the humanities (including, of course, intellectual work such
                    as literary and cultural criticism) in which animation serves more than an
                    ancillary, illustrative role in an occasional diagram is one way to meet the
                    challenge of what Adrian Miles has called the ""riskful writing"" that
                    acknowledges hypertext's debt to cinematic forms. As I hope to demonstrate,
                    however, even these simple diagrams and modest literary productions are in a
                    sense rehearsals for a lively future discourse in--and not merely
                    about--electronic media.</p>
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                        <surname>Gärtner</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">University of Trier</name>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Gisela</forename>
                        <surname>Minn</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">University of Trier</name>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Andrea</forename>
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                            <name type=""org"">University of Trier</name>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Martin</forename>
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                            <name type=""org"">University of Trier</name>
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            <div>
                <div>
                    <p>In April 1998, the <emph rend=""italics"">Competence Centre for Electronic
                            Retrieval and Publishing Techniques in the Humanities</emph> was founded
                        at the University of Trier. The use of international hard- and software
                        independent standards as SGML/XML is one of the main targets of the
                        Competence Centre in dealing with full-text digitization especially of
                        critical editions, dictionaries, and important reference works. Information
                        scientists and humanists from various disciplines are working closely
                        together in order to guarantee that the electronic resources developed at
                        the Centre meet with scientific requirements. Furthermore, the team aims at
                        complex and powerful retrieval mechanisms that can be handled easily by a
                        consistently user-oriented design of Graphical User Interfaces. An important
                        overall feature that has often been ignored by people working in the field
                        of digitization but is characteristic for the research done at the
                        Competence Centre is the close linking of software development to the
                        scholarly background of the material.</p>
                    <p>Examples for the development of user-oriented software in different projects
                        as well as for the embedding of the activities of the Competence Centre into
                        research done by universities and the German academies of sciences shall be
                        given in the following three papers on (A) the Rhine-Meuse Net, (B) the WIRE
                        project, and (C) the digitization of the <title level=""m"">Deutsche
                            Wörterbuch</title> - a history, an art history, and a German language
                        and literature project.</p>
                    <p>(A) The conception of the so-called Rhine-Meuse Net originated from the
                        activities of a Collaborative Research Centre (= SFB 235) having examined
                        the history of a European core area from the Ancient World to the 19th
                        century. For more than 12 years, a large amount of valuable data has been
                        accumulated in multiple document types and formats. However, not all the
                        material was published, although, in many cases, even the unpublished
                        material is of high interest to researchers in and outside the context of
                        the SFB. Therefore, the existing data will now be encoded in order to ensure
                        its longevity and at the same time be entered into a database. Thus it will
                        be possible to use these data even though the funding of the SFB by the
                        Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (= DFG) is due to cease in 2002.</p>
                    <p>(B) In contrast to the Rhine-Meuse Net dealing with material already
                        existing, WIRE, the <emph rend=""italics"">W</emph>ord and <emph
                            rend=""italics"">I</emph>mage <emph rend=""italics"">R</emph>etrieval <emph
                            rend=""italics"">E</emph>nvironment, is primarily intended as a tool for
                        scholars that need some support in building new (digital) collections of
                        scientifically relevant texts and images. The internet-based system allows
                        for an integration of texts, structured data, images, and bibliographies
                        into a relational database. As WIRE can be configured according to specific
                        needs, it does not only support the use by individual scholars but is also
                        well apt at being used by teams of scholars working together on a particular
                        object of research. Since various retrieval functions are implemented, WIRE
                        is not only useful for scholars who build new collections but also for those
                        who only want to browse through collections built by their colleagues.</p>
                    <p>(C) The retrodigitization of the <title level=""m"">Deutsche Wörterbuch</title>
                        by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm has to be seen in the broader context of
                        dictionary making at the University of Trier. When work on a new Middle High
                        German dictionary was started in 1994, lexicographers wished to have access
                        to as many electronic texts and dictionaries as possible. However, to fully
                        exploit the advantages of an electronic dictionary, one does not only need a
                        fairly thorough markup of the entries but also a highly comfortable way to
                        present the dictionary on screen and thus make it readable - just imagine
                        that several entries of the <title level=""m"">Deutsche Wörterbuch</title>
                        cover more than 300 columns in print! The demonstration of the CD-ROM
                        prototype of the <title level=""m"">Deutsche Wörterbuch</title> might serve as
                        a good example for how in-depth retrieval carried out thoroughly contributes
                        to the development of software that allows accessing the dictionary data in
                        new ways.</p>
                    <p>It will be very interesting to see how new possibilities to access data of
                        various provenance and of multiple kinds will lead to new questions, new
                        methods, and new insights into the digitally edited source material.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>Title A: The Information and Reference Network for the History of the
                            Rhine-Meuse Area. An Area-Oriented Subject Information System for the
                            Humanities</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Dr. Gisela Minn</p>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Dr. Andrea Rapp </p>
                        <div>
                            <div>
                                <head>1. General and Institutional Preconditions</head>
                                <p>Apart from the parameter ""time"", the parameter ""area"" has in the
                                    past few years received increased attention as a fundamental
                                    category of human existence. Particularly regions as
                                    middle-sized units of area have established themselves in a
                                    multitude of disciplines as ideal units for investigation. In
                                    the Rhine-Meuse Net, the regional area is made use of as a
                                    central access and ordering category for the integration of
                                    research results that are far apart with regard to time and
                                    differ in document type, methods, and topic. The international
                                    research compound of the Collaborative Research Centre ""Between
                                    the Meuse and the Rhine. Connections, Encounters, and Conflicts
                                    in a European Core Area from the Ancient World to the 19th
                                    Century"" (SFB 235) has acquired a large amount of valuable and,
                                    with regard to document types, very heterogeneous data, that are
                                    not only concerned with a common area of investigation but are
                                    also closely connected with regard to content.</p>
                                <p>This complex amount of data forms the nucleus of a projected
                                    database serving as a reference system for European regional
                                    history. The project is being funded by the Deutsche
                                    Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) since 1st November 2001. Apart from
                                    the historical field with all its specialist research interests,
                                    there are involved related disciplines such as art history,
                                    archaeology, history of law, and history of German and Roman
                                    languages; they all partake in the research compound, as well as
                                    various national and international, university and
                                    non-university cooperation partners.</p>
                                <p>Therefore the project aims firstly to take into account the
                                    changed needs for information of a growing international
                                    research community and secondly to lay the grounds for European
                                    research in history beyond the borders of nation-states. For
                                    this the network is particularly apt, as it opens up a European
                                    core area at the intersection between Western and Middle Europe
                                    from ancient times up to the present, and it will present the
                                    results of international researchcollaboration. The long-term
                                    data-conservation and its platform-independent use is ensured by
                                    a consistent application of international standards on the basis
                                    of SGML/XML.</p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>2. Content-Related Principles of the Network</head>
                                <p>The realization of the network starts at two core units: Firstly,
                                    the annotated bibliography of the whole publication output of
                                    the SFB (about 900 nos.) will be edited, including all the
                                    unpublished dissertations and theses which document the whole
                                    scope of research. Due to the area-oriented interest of the SFB,
                                    cartographical methods and techniques of representation belong
                                    to the most important research procedures. Thus secondly, an
                                    electronic archive of maps was built (of about 500 items) that
                                    will be linked to the bibliography.</p>
                                <p>By these two core units that are representative for the whole
                                    scope of the network, thesauri of places, persons, and subjects
                                    will be accumulated and structured hierarchically for an
                                    in-depth disclosure of the data. They form the basic framework
                                    for a further indexing of the data and will be extended to a
                                    dynamic research tool that will become more extensive and
                                    complex with the integration of each new reference unit. A
                                    sophisticated system of indexes and metadata will guarantee the
                                    linking of these units.</p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>3. Variety of Document Types</head>
                                <p>The document types representing the cultural heritage as well as
                                    the results of scientific research in digital form are very
                                    heterogeneous: texts, maps, pictures, plans, images, tables,
                                    archival finding-aids and repository guides, indices,
                                    bibliographies etc. At the same time, these document types are
                                    very closely related as regards content in a very complex and
                                    multidirectional manner. In the Humanities especially,
                                    far-reaching methodical and content-related impulses are to be
                                    expected by an explicit representation of these relations.</p>
                                <p>Moreover, the general approach requires interdisciplinary and
                                    comparative studies, new access to digital resources, and the
                                    development of cartographic methods for analyzation and
                                    documentation. Therefore, we aim at a concatenation, retrieval
                                    and integration of these digital reference-units of different
                                    document types in a reference compound. The following document
                                    types form the database of the network and have to be opened up
                                    and interlinked:<list type=""bulleted"">
                                        <item>Units of information referring to area and region such
                                            as local registers and catalogues, complex place lexica,
                                            single maps and series of maps, annotated atlasses that
                                            combine maps, place catalogues, and commentaries.</item>
                                        <item>Units of information referring to persons and
                                            institutions such as registers and catalogues of
                                            persons, prosopographies and biograms of persons,
                                            catalogues, lexica, tables, and lists of institutions.</item>
                                        <item>Units of information that combine information on texts
                                            and pictures such as text or picture catalogues,
                                            visualizations, and reconstructions.</item>
                                        <item>Units of information that represent sources, archival
                                            finding-aids, and instruments for the documentation of
                                            research such as special bibliographies, region-related
                                            source editions of different genres, and repository
                                            guides, literature and review service, documentations of
                                            research.</item>
                                    </list></p>
                                <p>Therefore we provided for the following ways of access by
                                    thesauri: access by place (in addition by visual representations
                                    such as two- or three-dimensional maps), access by time, access
                                    by person, access by topic, access by object via document types
                                    (e.g. only maps, only sources, etc.), access by funding
                                    organizations (respective research institution).</p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>4. Methods, Technical Bases</head>
                                <p>Due to the complexity of the structures and the implicit
                                    relations characteristic for the Humanities, the construction of
                                    such networks cannot be carried out by automatic means only but
                                    has to be completed and supervised by human researchers.
                                    Therefore it is all the more important to develop mechanisms
                                    with the help of standards that support the construction of a
                                    complex structure and corresponding retrieval mechanisms
                                    effectively. Moreover, these mechanisms have to be well
                                    documented and safely stored for further research in times of
                                    rapid technical change. Variable, differentiated, and efficient
                                    strategies for searches and visualizations have to be created
                                    for convenient use.</p>
                                <p>Due to different structures of document types brought together in
                                    the network, existing DTD schemes have to be checked as to their
                                    usability, varied and expanded, and new DTD schemes have to be
                                    developed for document types not already on hand in an
                                    SGML-compliant format. These schemes have to be applicable to
                                    different research projects as well. The open conception of the
                                    network resulting from this is the precondition for a transfer
                                    of these structures and methods to other information and
                                    reference networks.</p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>5. Comparisons and Prospects</head>
                                <p>The information and reference network is open to cooperation
                                    projects with university and non-university institutions
                                    offering further information that goes beyond the scope of
                                    research of the SFB. Special emphasis is laid on the integration
                                    of libraries and archives. For example, the SFB bibliography as
                                    core unit is linked to the OPAC of Trier University Library. The
                                    integration of archival finding-aids beginning with the
                                    finding-aids of the municipal archive Worms may serve as an
                                    example for cooperation with other archives. Furthermore,
                                    cooperations with scholars from neighbouring countries have been
                                    established which focus on common region-related aspects and
                                    methods respectively and, by common use of the information and
                                    reference network, should be long-lasting.</p>
                                <p>In some regards, the Rhine-Meuse Net was inspired by the project
                                    ""The Valley of the Shadow. Two Communities in the American Civil
                                    War"", that was carried out at the University of
                                    Virginia/Charlottesville (<ptr
                                        target=""http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/vshadow2/""/>).
                                    Especially the regional aspect as well as the variety of
                                    document types offered are comparable to the content and
                                    structure of the Rhine-Meuse Net. However, a significant
                                    difference can be seen in the variety of topics of the documents
                                    worked on in the Rhine-Meuse Net and in the in-depth retrieval
                                    and thorough interlinking of these materials.</p>
                            </div>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>6. Literature</head>
                        <listBibl>
                            <biblStruct type=""bookChapter"">
                                <analytic>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Franz</forename>
                                            <surname>Irsigler</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </author>
                                    <title level=""a"">Raumkonzepte in der historischen
                                    Forschung</title>
                                </analytic>
                                <monogr>
                                    <title level=""m"">Zwischen Gallia und Germania, Frankreich und
                                        Deutschland. Konstanz und Wandel raumbestimmender Kräfte </title>
                                    <title level=""s"">Trierer Historische Forschungen </title>
                                    <respStmt>
                                        <resp>Hrsg. von</resp>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Alfred</forename>
                                            <surname>Heit</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </respStmt>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <biblScope type=""vol"">12</biblScope>
                                        <pubPlace/>
                                        <publisher/>
                                        <date when=""1987"">1987</date>
                                        <biblScope type=""pp"">11-27</biblScope>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                            </biblStruct>
                            <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                                <analytic>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Andrea</forename>
                                            <surname>Rapp</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </author>
                                    <title level=""a"">Die elektronische Publikation, Erschließung und
                                        Vernetzung des Trierer Korpus mittelfränkischer Urkunden des
                                        14. Jahrhunderts</title>
                                </analytic>
                                <monogr>
                                    <title level=""j"">Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie</title>
                                    <respStmt>
                                        <resp>Hrsg. von</resp>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Georg</forename>
                                            <surname>Braungart</surname>
                                        </name>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Karl</forename>
                                            <surname>Eibl</surname>
                                        </name>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Fotis</forename>
                                            <surname>Jannidis</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </respStmt>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace>Paderborn</pubPlace>
                                        <biblScope type=""vol""/>
                                        <biblScope type=""issue""/>
                                        <biblScope type=""pp""/>
                                        <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
                                        <biblScope type=""pp"">147-161</biblScope>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                                <note>online in: <title level=""j"">Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie</title>
                                    <ptr
                                        target=""http://www.computerphilologie.uni-muenchen.de/jg00/rapp/rapp.html""
                                    /></note>
                            </biblStruct>
                            <biblStruct>
                                <monogr>
                                    <title level=""u"">RMnet</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace/>
                                        <publisher/>
                                        <date/>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                                <note>
                                    <ptr target=""http://www.RMnet.uni-trier.de""/>
                                </note>
                            </biblStruct>
                        </listBibl>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>Title B: WIRE -- An Instrument for Collecting Visual and Textual Data</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Martin Raspe</p>
                        <div>
                            <div>
                                <p>WIRE (“<emph rend=""italics"">Word &amp; Image Retrieval
                                        Environment</emph>”) is an integrated environment for
                                    collecting scientific resources, particularly in the field of
                                    art history. It is being developed at Trier University and is
                                    specifically taylored to meet the methodologic needs of the
                                    discipline. Image data, bibliographic entries, source texts (and
                                    optionally other structured data) are stored in a single
                                    relational database, along with an unrestricted number of
                                    descriptive texts which may contain individual formatting. The
                                    whole material can be searched conventionally; in addition, the
                                    content is accessible through a flexible, hierarchically
                                    organized, multi-lingual keyword system. Data can be entered as
                                    well as queried via Internet from different places at a time.
                                    The program is based on widely-spread software components
                                    (Microsoft Word plus a web browser) and is easy to learn.</p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>1. The Problem</head>
                                <p>Not many art historians use database systems in their research
                                    projects. This fact is partly explained by the general
                                    reluctance of traditional scholars towards new technologies; on
                                    the other hand, available database software doesn't lend itself
                                    easily to the specific tasks of this discipline. The sources
                                    consist of images and various types of historic texts which do
                                    not fit easily into predefined categories or structures;
                                    accordingly, the methodology of art history is mainly based on
                                    associative rather than standardized procedures.</p>
                                <p>Consequently, the incoming data either has to be trimmed down to
                                    fit in schematic entry forms, or the resulting overhead will
                                    grow so complex that the efforts to manage the database soon
                                    overshadow its practical use. Moreover, in the course of every
                                    research project questions tend to come up that have not been
                                    thought of when the database structure was first conceived.</p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>2. The Idea</head>
                                <p>Thus the staff of the History of Art department at Trier
                                    University asked for a program that manages text along with
                                    images, is equally suited for the needs of teaching and
                                    research, supports team cooperation at different places and can
                                    be understood by scholars who have hardly any computing
                                    experience beyond word processing. Departing from this
                                    specification I started to look around for software, but it soon
                                    turned out that existing programs - most of them authoring
                                    systems - are much too complex and would strain the finances of
                                    a small department. This situation led to the idea of creating
                                    such a program myself. Since I am an art historian and have some
                                    experience in computer programming, the task seemed feasible; as
                                    an associated member of the ""Competence Centre"", I get all the
                                    practical support I need.</p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>3. The Concept</head>
                                <p>My intention was to create a kind of working tool for art
                                    historians that supports the collecting of visual and textual
                                    data. It soon became clear that the program had to focus on
                                    three major types of material, i.e. <emph rend=""italics"">images
                                        of works of art</emph>, <emph rend=""italics"">original source
                                        texts</emph> and <emph rend=""italics"">bibliographic
                                        references</emph>, all three of which should be accessed
                                    through textual descriptions. In addition it should be possible
                                    not only to <emph rend=""italics"">collect</emph> the material,
                                    but also to arrange it, to comment on it and to add independent
                                    scientific texts without restrictions. On top of that, people at
                                    different places should be able to work simultaneously with the
                                    same database.</p>
                                <p>WIRE tries to meet these requirements in a simple and robust, but
                                    flexible way. It tries to combine two different types of data, a
                                        <emph rend=""italics"">collection of unstructured scientific
                                        texts</emph> and a <emph rend=""italics"">structured database
                                        system</emph> that can be queried with exact criteria. The
                                    texts that describe, summarize or comment the source material
                                    form the scientific backbone of the database. Links can be
                                    created from these texts to any of the source documents and
                                    between them, so that the user is guided from one document to
                                    other pertinent subjects. All texts can be searched fully, but
                                    to retrieve the content intelligently a flexible keyword system
                                    based on thesaurus lists is used. Each text may be associated
                                    with any number of keywords; single keywords as well as entire
                                    thesauri can be modified and added at any time without touching
                                    the main data tables. The keywords can be structured
                                    hierarchically, so that a search for ""Tuscany"" will also return
                                    those entries which were only associated with the keywords
                                    ""Florence"" or ""Pisa.""</p>
                                <p>A main goal is ease of use: All entry, modification and data
                                    maintenance is done from <emph rend=""italics"">Microsoft
                                    Word</emph>, while the material may be searched and viewed
                                    through a web browser. Data collections can be accessed locally,
                                    but also via Internet from all over the world. Accordingly, WIRE
                                    has a multilingual user interface (currently you can switch
                                    between German and English; French, Italian and Latin are
                                    planned). WIRE is not suited for highly specific databases with
                                    many fields which require complex query strategies; in order to
                                    achieve simplicity and flexibility some compromises are made.
                                    Anyway, the collected material can be exported to other
                                    databases using standard SQL commands; exporting into
                                    standardized XML format is planned, thereby ensuring the future
                                    value of the collected data.</p>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>4. The Realization</head>
                                <div>
                                    <head>Database design</head>
                                    <p>Every project that is realized in WIRE is an independent,
                                        internet-accessible database that contains the complete data
                                        (except for the image files which are stored in separate
                                        directories). The three categories of source material and
                                        the accompanying texts are stored in predefined tables
                                        (which can be customized later). The bibliographic table has
                                        the characteristic fields, while the image table contains
                                        filenames and short identification tags. Each keyword list
                                        is stored in a separate table; one of its fields denotes the
                                        position of the entry in the hierarchy. To guarantee speed
                                        and consistency, all links between documents and keywords
                                        are stored in one heavily indexed table. Table definitions
                                        and individual customizations are kept in a configuration
                                        script and can be easily modified.</p>
                                </div>
                                <div>
                                    <head>Software</head>
                                    <p>WIRE is realized with robust, ubiquitous and inexpensive
                                        software. The Swedish open-source product <emph
                                            rend=""italics"">MySQL</emph> serves as its database
                                        engine, whereas for internet querying the free web server
                                            <emph rend=""italics"">Xitami</emph> is used. The script
                                        modules that combine both are written in <emph
                                            rend=""italics"">Perl</emph>, a widely-used free
                                        programming language. In the future it will be possible to
                                        install the system and to create individual databases
                                        through user-friendly routines. A special document template
                                        for <emph rend=""italics"">Microsoft Word</emph> helps to
                                        input the data and to manage the database, so that
                                        researchers won't have to leave their familiar working
                                        environment. The formatting is converted into HTML code and
                                        inserted into the database along with the unencoded text
                                        which is used for searching. Except for the <emph
                                            rend=""italics"">Word</emph> interface WIRE runs on other
                                        operating systems, too.</p>
                                </div>
                            </div>
                            <div>
                                <head>5. The Users</head>
                                <p>WIRE is being designed for art historians, but it may be useful
                                    in other disciplines of the humanities, too. It could serve
                                    students and teachers alike, whether they work together in
                                    research projects or on their own in seminars. Students could
                                    present their papers using WIRE and at the same time preserve
                                    and maintain the material for future use. Currently it is
                                    already in use at Trier University as a platform for half a
                                    dozen projects, some of which are dependent on international
                                    collaboration.</p>
                            </div>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>Publications</head>
                        <listBibl>
                            <biblStruct>
                                <analytic>
                                    <author>
                                        <name>
                                            <forename type=""first"">Martin</forename>
                                            <surname>Raspe</surname>
                                        </name>
                                    </author>
                                    <title level=""a"">WIRE - ein Instrument zur Materialsammlung in
                                        den Bildwissenschaften</title>
                                </analytic>
                                <monogr>
                                    <title level=""m"">EVA 2001 Berlin (Electronic Imaging &amp;
                                        the Visual Arts), Konferenzband</title>
                                    <imprint>
                                        <pubPlace/>
                                        <publisher/>
                                        <date>[forthcoming]</date>
                                    </imprint>
                                </monogr>
                            </biblStruct>
                        </listBibl>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div type=""EmbeddedDoc"">
                    <div>
                        <head>Title C: Towards the User: The Digital Edition of the <title level=""m""
                                >Deutsche Wörterbuch</title> by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Ruth Christmann, M.A.</p>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Thomas Schares, M.A. </p>
                        <div>
                            <div>
                                <div>
                                    <head>1. Starting position, targets:</head>
                                    <p>The <title level=""m"">Deutsche Wörterbuch</title> (DWB) by
                                        Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm is the most important dictionary to
                                        the German language. Begun in 1838 and completed in 1971
                                        with the publication of an index volume to the numerous
                                        sources quoted within the DWB, it is a chief stock for
                                        scholarly study of the German language and comparable to the
                                        importance of the OED for the English-speaking world.</p>
                                    <p>In November 1998, a team of lexicographers and computer
                                        scientists started to develop a digitized version of the
                                        DWB, taking into account the needs of academic researchers
                                        wanting to cope with the huge amount of data. This is, and
                                        always has been, a task not too easily performed, as the DWB
                                        is used by students of German, historians, lexicographers,
                                        and philologists of all disciplines.</p>
                                    <p>The DWB consists of 32 volumes and one index volume. It fills
                                        altogether 33,872 pages in folio-format, contains ca.
                                        250.000 main entries, the number of printed characters
                                        amounts to 300 million. (Compare the 2nd Edition of the OED:
                                        21,730 pages, 231,000 main entries, 350 million printed
                                        characters). The printed dictionary has been made
                                        machine-readable by a Chinese company and has been completed
                                        in October 2000. After having received the first files from
                                        China we started to insert SGML-markup compliant to the TEI
                                        guidelines into the dictionary. First we decided on marking
                                        up two volumes that were published in the 1950s, as the last
                                        volumes published have a fairly uniform structure.
                                        Afterwards the procedures developed for these volumes were
                                        applied to the other volumes successively, starting from the
                                        first volume which had been published in 1854.</p>
                                    <p>As a dictionary retrodigitization project, we do not have to
                                        cope with different classes of information or media. What we
                                        need to do is digitize dictionary entries, which exist
                                        already in a final state and - what is by no means trivial
                                        -, give users a firm grip on what they are looking for
                                        within the dictionary without restraining them by supplying
                                        unsuitable means for information retrieval.</p>
                                </div>
                                <div>
                                    <head>2. Necessity for retrodigitization: Beyond the scope of
                                        the printed dictionary</head>
                                    <p>From the very beginning of the project, it was our aim to
                                        anticipate the needs of the average user of the DWB. As the
                                        DWB has complicated and heterogeneous structures as a result
                                        of nearly one and a half centuries of philological research
                                        and lexicography which determine the dictionary's contents
                                        and structure, the access to the printed version of the DWB
                                        is quite complicated: Not only does the user have to consult
                                        more than one volume in most cases, as the DWB is full of
                                        cross-references to other parts of the dictionary or to
                                        certain columns within the same entry which may be found
                                        dozens of pages apart from each other. The reader is also
                                        confronted with the difficulty to find exactly those
                                        paragraphs within an entry he is interested in, e.g. the
                                        exact meaning he is looking for: Due to the long time it
                                        took to complete the DWB, the entries are very
                                        heterogeneously structured, and hierarchical elements vary
                                        according to different underlying entry structures and often
                                        serve different purposes.</p>
                                    <p>Therefore, a digitized version of the DWB has to take into
                                        account these problems and in the first place has to
                                        facilitate a convenient access to the dictionary entries.
                                        Second, the graphical user interface (GUI) has to support an
                                        effective orientation within and a sophisticated navigation
                                        through the dictionary, it should make it easy to follow up
                                        cross-references within entries as well as within the
                                        dictionary as a whole.</p>
                                </div>
                                <div>
                                    <head>3. User-oriented approach to data via the DWB GUI</head>
                                    <p>The DWB GUI is designed to make use of the special riches of
                                        the dictionary and to provide a comfortable access to its
                                        contents. It offers various possibilities for simple
                                        headword search and provides a wide range of information to
                                        chosen entries. It gives for example the exact reference
                                        where in the printed dictionary is the entry located,
                                        furthermore who is the author of the entry (more than 150
                                        lexicographers participated in the making of the DWB) and
                                        when did it appear in print (an important information for
                                        evaluating the entry's contents with regard to historical
                                        circumstances) etc. The - often cryptic - bibliographical
                                        information within the dictionary referring to the sources
                                        of the quotations is being made comprehensible by
                                        interlinking it with the dictionary's index volume that
                                        shows the sigla with their full bibliographical information.</p>
                                    <p>A special feature of the DWB is the great number of very long
                                        entries: the DWB has more than 50 entries consisting of more
                                        than 50 columns and more than 200 entries consisting of 5 or
                                        more columns, about 40 percent of the dictionary contents
                                        consist of entries of five or more columns length. For ease
                                        of reference, the GUI is provided with a window section
                                        which visualizes the hierarchical structure of long entries,
                                        especially in the sense section. For this purpose, the
                                        various numbers and characters indicating sections and
                                        sub-sections - there are up to nine sub-sections - are
                                        ordered according to a structure resembling a family tree.
                                        This overview is based on the far-reaching markup that takes
                                        into account and describes the various functions of numbers
                                        and characters representing the structural elements of an
                                        entry.</p>
                                    <p>This special feature enables users to enhance his search
                                        strategies considerably by offering them this window with an
                                        overview of the contents of an entry. From this table of
                                        contents, users may look up the various 'chapters' of an
                                        entry. A more detailed description of this special feature
                                        shows the goal of the design of the DWB GUI: It will offer
                                        an easy access to the dictionary contents by taking into
                                        account and encoding all the essential features of the
                                        dictionary.</p>
                                </div>
                                <div>
                                    <head>4. The DWB retrieval mask</head>
                                    <p>The electronic DWB will also be provided with a powerful
                                        search retrieval tool. In addition to the basic features of
                                        fulltext search and Boolean search, there is the possibility
                                        of complex queries. These are carried out by making use of
                                        the structural encoding of the dictionary's data. All key
                                        elements and sections of an entry have been encoded
                                        according to their structural positions in order to retrieve
                                        as much information as possible.</p>
                                    <p>At present, searches in the electronic DWB are still limited
                                        to headwords, word class (part of speech), languages
                                        especially in the etymology section, quotations from poetic
                                        sources and bibliographical information on these.
                                        Nevertheless, even now a user interested in word formation
                                        and the author <emph rend=""italics"">Goethe</emph> may start
                                        a complex query to find all entries to adverbial derivations
                                        with the suffix -<emph rend=""italics"">lich</emph> which
                                        contain at least one quotation by Goethe. The user will
                                        combine the search for ""G*the"" (according to the variant
                                        spellings ""oe"" or ""ö"") entered in the field for author/work
                                        which is linked to the index volume, ""*lich"" in the field
                                        for the headword, and ""adv"" in the field for word class. The
                                        result will list all the relevant entries within the
                                        dictionary. This may serve as an example for complex search
                                        strategies which will be made possible in the electronic
                                        version of the DWB.</p>
                                </div>
                                <div>
                                    <head>5. The future of digitization and research</head>
                                    <p>By now, volumes 1 to 9 and volumes 27 to 32 have been encoded
                                        according to SGML/TEI and since Jan. 2002 been made
                                        available on the Internet.</p>
                                    <p>At the time of the conference, the complete DWB will be fully
                                        encoded and accessible for searches described above.
                                        Furthermore, PDF files have been designed to represent the
                                        printed dictionary, these will also be accessible. We will
                                        give some details as to the problems that had to be solved
                                        when aiming at an exact representation of the character-sets
                                        (Greek, Hebrew and others) on different platforms.</p>
                                    <p>Questions to be discussed when presenting the DWB may focus
                                        on future necessities of encoding the DWB and of data
                                        encoding in general, especially in connection with the
                                        question of user needs. This may also include a comparison
                                        of the DWB to at least one major digitized dictionary on
                                        historical principles, the Oxford English Dictionary (OED)
                                        which is comparable in size and structure.</p>
                                </div>
                            </div>
                        </div>
                        <div>
                            <head>Literature</head>
                            <listBibl>
                                <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                                    <analytic>
                                        <author>
                                            <name>
                                                <forename type=""first"">Thomas</forename>
                                                <surname>Burch</surname>
                                            </name>
                                        </author>
                                        <author>
                                            <name>
                                                <forename type=""first"">Ruth</forename>
                                                <surname>Christmann</surname>
                                            </name>
                                        </author>
                                        <author>
                                            <name>
                                                <forename type=""first"">Vera</forename>
                                                <surname>Hildenbrandt</surname>
                                            </name>
                                        </author>
                                        <author>
                                            <name>
                                                <forename type=""first"">Thomas</forename>
                                                <surname>Schares</surname>
                                            </name>
                                        </author>
                                        <title level=""a"">Ein “Hausbuch” für alle? Das <title
                                                level=""m"">Deutsche Wörterbuch</title> der Brüder
                                            Grimm auf CD-ROM und im Internet</title>
                                    </analytic>
                                    <monogr>
                                        <title level=""j"">Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie</title>
                                        <imprint>
                                            <biblScope type=""vol"">2</biblScope>
                                            <biblScope type=""issue""/>
                                            <biblScope type=""pp"">11-34</biblScope>
                                            <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
                                        </imprint>
                                    </monogr>
                                </biblStruct>
                                <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                                    <analytic>
                                        <author>
                                            <name>
                                                <forename type=""first"">Thomas</forename>
                                                <surname>Burch</surname>
                                            </name>
                                        </author>
                                        <author>
                                            <name>
                                                <forename type=""first"">Kurt</forename>
                                                <surname>Gärtner</surname>
                                            </name>
                                        </author>
                                        <author>
                                            <name>
                                                <forename type=""first"">Thomas</forename>
                                                <surname>Schares</surname>
                                            </name>
                                        </author>
                                        <title level=""a"">Das digitale <title level=""m"">Deutsche
                                                Wörterbuch</title> der Brüder Grimm</title>
                                    </analytic>
                                    <monogr>
                                        <title level=""j""> Mitteilungen des Deutschen
                                            Germanistenverbandes</title>
                                        <imprint>
                                            <biblScope type=""vol""/>
                                            <biblScope type=""issue""/>
                                            <biblScope type=""pp""/>
                                            <date when=""2002"">Forthcoming in 2002</date>
                                        </imprint>
                                    </monogr>
                                </biblStruct>
                                <biblStruct type=""bookChapter"">
                                    <analytic>
                                        <author>
                                            <name>
                                                <forename type=""first"">Ruth</forename>
                                                <surname>Christmann</surname>
                                            </name>
                                        </author>
                                        <author>
                                            <name>
                                                <forename type=""first"">Vera</forename>
                                                <surname>Hildenbrant</surname>
                                            </name>
                                        </author>
                                        <author>
                                            <name>
                                                <forename type=""first"">Thomas</forename>
                                                <surname>Schares</surname>
                                            </name>
                                        </author>
                                        <title level=""a"">Ein “heiligthum der sprache” digitalisiert:
                                            Das <title level=""m"">Deutsche Wörterbuch</title> von
                                            Jacob und Wilhelm Grimm auf CD-ROM und im
                                        Internet</title>
                                    </analytic>
                                    <monogr>
                                        <editor>
                                            <name>
                                                <forename type=""first"">Nicolás</forename>
                                                <surname>Castrillo Benito</surname>
                                            </name> et al </editor>
                                        <title level=""m"">Tagungsband der ITUG-Jahrestagung 1999 in
                                            Burgos: TUSTEP educa</title>
                                        <imprint>
                                            <pubPlace>Burgos</pubPlace>
                                            <publisher/>
                                            <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                                        </imprint>
                                    </monogr>
                                </biblStruct>
                                <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                                    <analytic>
                                        <author>
                                            <name>
                                                <forename type=""first"">Ruth</forename>
                                                <surname>Christmann</surname>
                                            </name>
                                        </author>
                                        <title level=""a"">Books into Bytes: Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm's
                                                <title level=""m"">Deutsches Wörterbuch</title> on
                                            CD-ROM and on the Internet</title>
                                    </analytic>
                                    <monogr>
                                        <title level=""j"">Literary &amp; Linguistic Computing</title>
                                        <imprint>
                                            <biblScope type=""vol"">16</biblScope>
                                            <biblScope type=""issue"">2</biblScope>
                                            <biblScope type=""pp"">121-133</biblScope>
                                            <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                                        </imprint>
                                    </monogr>
                                </biblStruct>
                                <biblStruct>
                                    <monogr>
                                        <author>
                                            <name>
                                                <forename type=""first"">Vera</forename>
                                                <surname>Hildenbrandt</surname>
                                            </name>
                                        </author>
                                        <author>
                                            <name>
                                                <forename type=""first"">Thomas</forename>
                                                <surname>Schares</surname>
                                            </name>
                                        </author>
                                        <title level=""u"">Das Grimmsche Wörterbuch geht ins 21.
                                            Jahrhundert: Präsentation eines Prototyps des digitalen
                                                <title level=""m"">Deutschen Wörterbuchs</title> von
                                            Jacob und Wilhelm Grimm</title>
                                        <imprint>
                                            <pubPlace/>
                                            <publisher/>
                                            <date>(<ptr
                                                  target=""http://www.bsb-muenchen.de/mdz/forum/hildenbrandt/index.htm""
                                                />).</date>
                                        </imprint>
                                    </monogr>
                                </biblStruct>
                                <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                                    <analytic>
                                        <author>
                                            <name>
                                                <forename type=""first"">Ruth</forename>
                                                <surname>Kersting</surname>
                                            </name>
                                        </author>
                                        <author>
                                            <name>
                                                <forename type=""first"">Andrea</forename>
                                                <surname>Rapp</surname>
                                            </name>
                                        </author>
                                        <title level=""a"">Mein schönes Fräulein ... Bedeutungs- und
                                            Bezeichnungswandel in Wortfeldern anhand des Grimmschen
                                            Wörterbuchs</title>
                                    </analytic>
                                    <monogr>
                                        <title level=""j"">Praxis Deutsch</title>
                                        <imprint>
                                            <biblScope type=""vol"">165</biblScope>
                                            <biblScope type=""issue""/>
                                            <biblScope type=""pp"">54-59</biblScope>
                                            <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                                        </imprint>
                                    </monogr>
                                </biblStruct>
                                <biblStruct>
                                    <monogr>
                                        <title level=""u"">Homepage:</title>
                                        <imprint>
                                            <pubPlace/>
                                            <publisher/>
                                            <date/>
                                        </imprint>
                                    </monogr>
                                    <note>
                                        <ptr target=""http://germa83.uni-trier.de/DWB-online""/>
                                    </note>
                                </biblStruct>
                            </listBibl>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                </div>
            </div>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Lissa</forename>
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                    <p>Many computer-mediated communication theorists, particularly those engaged in
                        studies of writing-intensive humanities curricula, affirm the revisionary
                        possibilities for teaching and learning that emerge in the electronic
                        classroom. Recognizing that the introduction of educational technologies
                        into conventional humanist practice radically alters the sites and modes
                        through which meaning and identity unfold, they often celebrate the
                        revolutionary and utopian environments they find developing at the
                        human/computer intersection. In the most optimistic theoretical reflections,
                        computer-technologies and the e-texts they generate de- naturalize
                        communication and foreground the diverse functions, means, and processes of
                        writing, while providing faculty and students alike with opportunities to
                        consciously reflect on issues of discourse and literacy in both digital and
                        conventional contexts. As tools and texts merge, restrictive notions of
                        unitary identity and isolated authority and authorship are revised and re-
                        evaluated, as student-centered and -initiated collaborative learning
                        communities are constructed ""on-the-fly."" The computers' networking
                        functions extend beyond technical applications into social, political, and
                        rhetorical contexts, and the classroom reconstructs itself as a dynamic,
                        egalitarian site of exchange and reflection. However, for those engaged in
                        the actual realization of these theoretical pursuits, such optimism is often
                        difficult to sustain in the complex virtualities of a technology-infused
                        humanities classroom. In fact, a robust pedagogical support system is
                        necessary to negotiate the specific reconstructions (of identity, learning,
                        and practice) one confronts on the front-lines of the humanities computing
                        revolution.</p>
                    <p>The School of Literature, Communication, and Culture (LCC) at the Georgia
                        Institute of Technology offers a rich context in which to explore the
                        practical realities of electronic pedagogy, technical innovation, and
                        curricula development and delivery in humanities classes. LCC faculty share
                        a commitment to interdisciplinary work at the theoretical and applied levels
                        and integrate their interests in educational technologies and new media
                        research and development with conventional humanities studies. In
                        particular, the freshmen undergraduate writing program offers students a
                        dynamic technology-driven educational environment to explore computer
                        mediated communication and composition fundamentals through an
                        interdisciplinary cultural studies approach. While deploying custom-designed
                        synchronous, asynchronous, and hypertext applications within the curricula,
                        the program also offers an innovative and intensive electronic-pedagogy
                        support system for freshmen writing instructors to examine critically the
                        revolutionary practices in which they are engaged.</p>
                    <p>The individual panel discussions that follow explore the strategic objectives
                        necessary to sustain a critical perspective on humanities computing
                        initiatives, as well as provide specific examples that foreground
                        alternatively models of the practice, process, and products of
                        interdisciplinary electronic pedagogy. Collectively, they discuss positive
                        forms of resistance in pedagogical practice to counter utopian idealism,
                        while providing practical guidelines to navigate the inevitable dissensus
                        and chaos that results when humanities studies and technology intersect.
                        Each panel participant will prepare a 10-15 minute presentation leaving
                        considerable room for audience discussion of the key issues foregrounded in
                        the panel as a whole.</p>
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                        <head>Re(media)l Training: Developing an Integrated Pedagogical Support
                            System for Human|Computing Initiatives</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Lissa Holloway-Attaway</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>The integration of computers into humanities-studies requires the
                                development of attendant pedagogical methodologies to support the
                                new discourses and media that result, and LCC's interdisciplinary
                                writing program provides a critical and instructional framework to
                                support the rich educational opportunities it creates. In her
                                presentation, Lissa Holloway-Attaway will provide an overview of
                                LCC's Brittain Teaching Fellows and Electronic Pedagogy Certificate
                                programs to demonstrate the ways in which pedagogical and curricular
                                development can combine with technological initiatives to provide a
                                strong foundation for humanities computing research. The Brittain
                                Teaching Fellows, who comprise the majority of freshman writing
                                instructors, are recruited in a national search from a variety of
                                disciplines and bring a range of critical approaches to explore
                                technology- infused communications within a cultural studies
                                context. Additionally, their participation in a two-year Electronic
                                Pedagogy Certificate program creates a sustained and
                                critically-informed approach to the use of electronic technologies
                                and media within humanities programs. The self-reflective and
                                recursive practices in which they are engaged establish a core
                                community of researchers who participate in the strategic
                                development of tools, media, and resources within the established
                                interdisciplinary curricula. By examining the institutional
                                motivations and pedagogical objectives informing the development of
                                LCC's interdisciplinary structure and reviewing the tools deployed
                                within the curricula, Holloway-Attaway will reveal both the benefits
                                and challenges of resisting discipline-specific education.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                </div>
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                        <head>2) TITLE: ""Practicing Ethnography in and out of the Electronic
                            Pedagogy Classroom""</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Lisa McNair</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>Ethnography is semi-scientific inquiry into human cultures. It is
                                scientific because it is a process of gathering, organizing and
                                presenting empirical data. It is semi-scientific because ethnography
                                employs an interpretive, humanistic methodology that must account
                                for not only its subject of study but also the nature of the
                                investigation itself. Thus, ethnographic studies are necessarily
                                self-reflexive projects. Electronic pedagogy enables students to
                                observe, analyze and engage in practices of ethnography using
                                multimedia tools that expand the notion of ""text.""</p>
                            <p>In her presentation, Lisa McNair will examine the ways in which
                                ethnographic studies in technology-infused curricula offer
                                innovative and highly complex opportunities for students to engage
                                in an interpretive analysis of the role and function of the
                                authorial subject. In her course focusing on the culture of the
                                American South, students develop methods of seeing the world around
                                them as a collection of interpretations, including their own
                                individualized viewpoints. Research on the world-wide-web produces a
                                plethora of interdisciplinary ethnography projects already completed
                                and presented. Along with these original offerings, there are many
                                re-presentations of earlier ethnographies, some evocative of the
                                original work, some extremely skewed. Too often the web presents
                                only that which glitters, satisfying ephemeral curiosity instead of
                                delving into ""thick description."" In these radically condensed and
                                sometimes exploitative presentations lies the opportunity to analyze
                                the primary and secondary practices of gathering material,
                                interpreting, and then presenting it to an audience. Indeed, this is
                                the descriptive task that students complete by using several
                                collaborative and individual methods implemented through technology
                                programs provided by the department. Individually, students compare
                                various texts — written material, photo-documentaries, spoken
                                interviews, and film projects — using reproductions enhanced by
                                image, audio and video files. In groups, students meet in electronic
                                spaces to compile findings, discuss their interpretations and build
                                structured presentations. Both collaborative and individual
                                presentations mirror the multi-faceted reality of perspective: by
                                re-presenting the re-presented and moving through different media,
                                students practice methods of interpretation and examine voluble
                                concepts of fact vs. fiction. Finally, students conduct their own
                                fieldwork, armed with humanistic ways of seeing and electronic
                                methods for illustrating their perspectives.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                </div>
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                        <head>3) TITLE: ""The Writing Process: Teaching Discursive Practices in an
                            Electronic Environment""</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Mary Carney</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>The theoretical approach to writing as a complex amalgam of both
                                discrete and intertwining activities can be productively realized by
                                using the medium of computers to foreground the process. Electronic
                                environments are not only conducive to teaching writing as a process
                                but to exposing idealistic notions of writing as an intuitive and
                                natural exercise. In addition, electronic pedagogy helps to make the
                                discursive practices of a writing intensive course more concrete.</p>
                            <p>In her presentation, Mary Carney analyzes humanities computing as a
                                methodology to foreground the writing process and simultaneously
                                provide a concrete engagement with the theoretical and critical
                                practices of cultural studies. For the final project in her course
                                that examines representations of warfare, students engage in
                                interdisciplinary analysis of a war artifact by integrating a
                                description of one war technology, a brief history of its inception,
                                and an analysis of one of its cultural implications. The writing
                                process throughout this project is made visible through a number of
                                assignments using custom- designed electronic tools. Through
                                synchronous and asynchronous modes of communication, in both
                                conventional and electronic discussion, students highlight and
                                practice the ""process"" of writing with clearly defined assignments
                                designed to foster an awareness of not only their own discursive
                                practices but of their fellow students and of a broader research
                                community. The writing intensive assignments developed through a
                                variety of electronic conferencing applications encourage early
                                ""play"" with relevant discourses and contribute to the ultimate
                                acquisition of complex critical vocabularies and approaches. For
                                undergraduates, online and conventional resource materials can
                                easily overwhelm students and restrict them to an unfocussed cycle
                                of research and revision, impeding their ability to find appropriate
                                critical approaches to their subject. Collaborative electronic
                                spaces provide opportunities to practice revision skills and to
                                comprehend research as a form of critical practice where authorial
                                identity must be challenged. While mediating the complex discourse
                                communities they create and critique, students must confront the
                                chaos of multiple authorship and uncertain authority in the
                                electronic environments that both uphold and disrupt their
                                rhetorical practices.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
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                        <head>4) TITLE: “A Century of Collaboration: The Products of Electronic
                            Research”</head>
                        <p rend=""presenter"">Brandy Brown Walker</p>
                        <div>
                            <p>Humanities computing enterprises offer new ways to conceptualize
                                learning as a collaborative process. Collaborative efforts in turn
                                provide more holistic understandings of discipline specific and
                                interdisciplinary topics. Electronic pedagogy provides students with
                                the tools and strategies to approach their topic from a variety of
                                disciplinary perspectives in order to maximize the potential for
                                learning. Such potentials allow educators to help students move from
                                traditional assignments isolated from other students’ products, to
                                assignments that both supplement and engage in conversation with
                                other students’ work. Courses that focus on interdisciplinary
                                collaboration can then potentially develop resources that have both
                                more breadth and depth than students working in more traditional and
                                discrete modes could produce.</p>
                            <p>In her presentation, Brandy Walker will explore the benefits and
                                challenges that collaboration brings to interdisciplinary pursuits.
                                Students in her course on science, technology and culture ultimately
                                build a database of information and research that reflects both
                                individual scholarship and collaborative production of materials.
                                Moving through a series of assignments that provide breadth to a
                                historical investigation of advancements in science and technology
                                and their impacts on culture, to assignments that explore in depth
                                specific circumstances surrounding particular inventions and
                                discoveries, Walker’s class collaboratively builds a web of timeline
                                and research resources. The final product of this course is a
                                collaborative resource of student work informed by interdisciplinary
                                goals achieved through committed application of electronic pedagogy.
                                When the learning process reflects a multiplicity of research
                                efforts, students gain a more comprehensive view of their subject.
                                In this course, a century of science, technology and culture would
                                be inconceivable without the collaboration that new directions in
                                interdisciplinary electronic pedagogy provide. However, such rewards
                                are not without consequences; both students and instructors face
                                challenges in negotiating and strategically managing the process
                                through with these collaborative efforts are realized.</p>
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                    <head>Introduction</head>
                    <p>The growing availability on the Web of literary heritage is going to make
                        easier humanistic researches, on the one hand facilitating access to
                        information sources and documents and on the other hand providing a
                        knowledge representation of texts, enabling its sharing and reuse. One of
                        the major problems to face in knowledge representation is the formalization
                        of literary data. The main difficulty is to capture the richness of word
                        meanings into an established form, which allows automatic data treatment,
                        preserving the essence of a thing anyway.</p>
                    <p>This challenge is related to the different nature of Computer Science and of
                        the Humanities. The former has its foundation in establishing a formal
                        representation of what exists (formal languages and modeling of reality);
                        the latter is based on interpretation, whose subjectivity escapes from
                        classification or rules. It is recognized that accuracy in literary analysis
                        is related to cultural background and literary sensibility, but the
                        underlying ambiguity of natural languages poses to researchers further
                        difficulties: a specific term may have different or contradictory meanings
                        and intepretations; authors frequently use different words or expressions to
                        refer to the same meaning</p>
                    <p>By developing common formalisms, Computer Science tools aim at reaching a
                        sharable agreement on world representation. Similarly, in order to give an
                        objective basis to concepts (starting point of the analysis), an application
                        of this formal approach in the literary domain may allow experts to define
                        and share a common vocabulary, to reach an agreement on word senses, thus
                        reducing ambiguity.</p>
                    <p>In the hypothesis proposed in this paper, the use of a reference tool (such
                        as an ontology<note n=""1"">»An ontology is a specification of a
                            conceptualization (…)That is, an ontology is a description (like a
                            formal specification of a program) of the concepts and relationships
                            that can exist for an agent or a community of agents« in T. Gruber.
                            »What is an ontology?« URL <ptr
                                target=""http://ksl-web.stanford.edu/kst/what-is-an-ontology.html""/>
                            (T. R. Gruber. <title level=""a"">A translation approach to portable
                                ontologies</title>. <title level=""j"">Knowledge Acquisition</title>,
                            5(2):199-220, 1993)</note>) seems to offer a means to face this
                        challenging task with success: by keeping from misunderstanding in reading
                        texts and by limiting subjectivity in their analysis, the first expected
                        result is a better comprehension of literary phenomena; by improving
                        knowledge representation of a literary text, the second effect of
                        formalization is the retrieval of more relevant texts for research
                        purposes.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Application and Results</head>
                    <p>In the analysis of a literary phenomenon, some of the aspects to be
                        considered are:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>the ambiguity of natural languages, that poses to experts problems
                                in order to limit subjectivity in interpreting texts;</item>
                            <item>and the heterogeneity of information sources to select
                                (historical, cultural, geo-political), that determines the need of
                                retrieving relevant documents for the analysis.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>Identifying criteria able to deepen the study of a literary phenomenon and to
                        extract interesting documents on that subject, would be of great utility.
                        The adoption of a linguistic resources (namely the ontology of WordNet [11])
                        as reference tool, seems to be a viable idea in order to reach both
                        goals.</p>
                    <p>In order to test this approach in humanistic research, the ""Dualism Truth vs.
                        Propaganda"" [2] in Karl Kraus has been investigated, using WordNet, the
                        on-line reference system designed at the Cognitive Science Laboratory of the
                        University of Princeton, to model lexical memory. Kraus was an Austrian
                        intellectual and one of the bitterest satirists of fin-de-siècle Vienna, to
                        be compared with Jonathan Swift for his satiric vision and command of
                        language. He was a critic, a playwright, a poet, a journalist and the editor
                        of the magazine ""The Torch"" - Die Fackel [8]) - for about 36 years. Strongly
                        believing in a language as a medium to express the truth, one of his major
                        concerns was the German language and its misuse by the press. As a
                        journalist he believed in informing the public rather than overwhelming it
                        with propaganda: his main goal was to report facts, instead of interpreting
                        them. Referring to this informative function of journalism, he wrote: <emph rend=""italics"">""My
                        duty is to say the Truth to Mankind""</emph> <note n=""2"">"" Mein Pflicht ist es, den
                            Menschen die Wahrheit zu sagen"", Kraus K.: Die Fackel, Band 11, no.
                            852-856 (May 1931), p. 95</note></p>
                    <p>Basing on Kraus' writings, the literary phenomenon under analysis has been
                        synthesized into four keywords: <emph rend=""italics"">""Language""</emph>, <emph rend=""italics"">""Truth""</emph>, <emph rend=""italics"">""Journalism""</emph>,
                        ""Propaganda"". The meanings of these selected terms have been defined using
                        WordNet concept disambiguation. Because in this lexical database English
                        nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are organized into synonym sets called
                        synsets (each representing one underlying lexical concept), disambiguation
                        is based on lexical and semantic relations<note n=""3"">Lexical relationships:
                            synonimy, antonimy, polisemy. Semantic relationship: hyponymy,
                            hyperonimy.</note> with other concepts.</p>
                    <p>Examination of WordNet definitions has led to: the exploration of keywords
                        meanings; the delimitation of their semantic fields; and the finding of
                        other related couples of opposing concepts such as: Truth vs.
                        Verisimilitude, Language vs. Paralanguage, Journalism vs. Propaganda. The
                        application of this ontology-based approach has been able to improve the
                        comprehension of the ""Dualism Truth vs. Propaganda"" in Karl Kraus
                        (1874-1936). As main consequence, by using WordNet it has been possible to
                        study the literary phenomenon under analysis, confirming the validity of
                        Kraus' position towards information problems and finding the core of the
                        antagonism between ""Propaganda and Truth"".</p>
                    <p>As far as the second goal of this research is concerned (that is to find more
                        relevant text for analysis), in order to apply the proposed approach, two
                        sets of Kraus’ aphorisms (Kraus, 1955) - »Writing and Reading« and »By
                        Night«[4] <note n=""4"">""<emph rend=""italics"">Writing and Reading</emph>"" and
                                ""<emph rend=""italics"">By Night</emph>"" have been extracted from
                            ""Dicta and Contradicta"" (Sprueche und Widersprueche), a selection of
                            aphorisms appeared in ""The Torch"" and published in 1909.</note> - have
                        been digitized. Then, by a human indexing operation performed using the
                        ontology contained in WordNet, it has been assigned to each aphorism a
                        category, based on semantic fields. The above selected keywords (»Language«,
                        »Truth«, »Journalism«) have been adopted as indicator of semantic fields.
                        Each aphorism has been labelled by the presence/absence of these fields.
                        Despite the fact that »By Night« has no occurrences of the keyword
                        »Journalism«, human analysis shows that it contains two relevant
                            aphorisms<note n=""5"">""<emph rend=""italics"">Wort und Wesen: das ist die
                                einzige Verbindung, die ich je im Leben angestrebt habe</emph>""
                            Kraus K. Beim Wort genommen, p. 431; Detti e Contraddetti, p. 352;
                                ""<emph rend=""italics"">Zensur und Zeitung - wie sollte ich nicht
                                zugunsten jener entscheiden? Die Zensur kann die Wahrheit auf eine
                                Zeit unterdruecken, indem sie ihr das Wort nimmt. Die Zeitung
                                unterdrueckt die Wahrheit auf die Dauer, indem sie ihr Worte gibt.
                                Die Zensur schadet weder der Wahrheit noch dem Wort; die Zeitung
                                beiden</emph>"", Kraus K. Beim Wort genommen, p. 443; Detti e
                            Contraddetti, p. 358</note> for the comprehension of the »Dualism Truth
                        vs. Propaganda« in Karl Kraus. In »By Night« the keyword »Journalism« is
                        absent, but it is present the word »Zeitung« = newspaper, an implicit form,
                        but semantically related to the keyword »Journalism«. If the goal of the
                        search were to find all sets of aphorisms where <emph rend=""italics""
                            >Language</emph> and <emph rend=""italics"">Truth</emph> and <emph
                            rend=""italics"">Journalism</emph> occur, probably this set of aphorisms
                        would have been ignored, because not pertinent with the query. By defining
                        semantic fields and categorizing aphorisms using them, the proposed approach
                        has made possible to select »By Night« as a relevant document.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Conclusions</head>
                    <p>The achieved results show that literary data formalization based on
                        ontologies is able to improve the accuracy of literary research. By
                        including definitions of basic concepts in the domain (also in a
                        machine-interpretable form), by identifying relations among them and by
                        defining semantic fields, WordNet allows experts to share information in a
                        domain, to provide critical notes and comments on texts, and to interpret
                        them.</p>
                    <p>Furthermore, from this study emerges that defining the semantic field of
                        words (by applying definitions provided by an ontology) and indexing
                        documents by adopting a semantic categorization is an effective way of
                        representing the content of a text: the faculty to bring to light word
                        meanings, hidden in texts in an implicit form, improves the retrieval of
                        more relevant documents, matching humanistic research needs.</p>
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                <p>A series of studies has built up a set of 178 samples of Greek texts in a format
                    which now provides a dataset comprising 178 rows and 35 columns. The previous
                    studies by this author and relevant works by others are listed in Mealand
                    (1999). There are 30 effective linguistic features being tested for each sample,
                    and to these we need to add classification categories such as author, genre,
                    subgroup, text and sample. The 178 samples and 30 linguistic variables alone
                    provide 5340 observations. We are now in a position to make report on detailed
                    stylistic comparisons of a wide range of texts from 300 BCE to 200 CE but
                    focused on texts from 100 BCE to 100 CE. Some manual intervention and a set of
                    programmes eventually turns complexities of the Greek texts from the TLG into
                    thousand row columns of single words, and simpler routines then allow a pentium
                    to make much shorter work of the word counts.</p>
                <p>The texts include a range of Greek historical writers: Polybius, Dionysius of
                    Halicarnassus, Plutarch; also a set of Greek technical writers, some samples of
                    letters and other documents preserved on papyri, and a range of biblical and
                    other Jewish and Christian writings of the period. The latter include samples
                    from the Septuagint (4 Kingdoms, Deuteronomy, Isaiah, 2 &amp; 4 Maccabees
                    and the like), most of the New Testament books, Philo, Josephus, Clement of
                    Rome, Ignatius of Antioch and Polycarp.</p>
                <p>The variables include a set of stylistic features which are mostly function
                    words: a set of sentence connectives equivalent to but, for, and, therefore, on
                    the one hand; a set of conjunctions which introduce clauses such as if, while,
                    in order that, where, whenever, and the like; a large set of prepositions such
                    as away from, into, out of, in, on account of, according to, after, with, about,
                    on, towards; and a set of (genitive) participle endings. These variables were
                    chosen as a set of function words suitable for inspecting the style of samples
                    of 1000 words. (It would be possible to extend the range of the linguistic
                    features by choosing much larger samples of those texts which have the necessary
                    bulk. Some, but not all, of the works are extensive.) Variables were selected in
                    the light of recent studies showing the effectiveness of high frequency words
                    and or features linked to syntax.</p>
                <p>The statistical method used was Correspondence Analysis as this plots both
                    samples and variables and allows one to see not only relations between texts,
                    but also those linguistic features which associate or separate the texts. CA was
                    run on a Sun machine shared by scores of other users. Correspondence Analysis
                    also differs from some other multivariate analysis in not requiring the data to
                    be normally distributed. This issue is a problem when samples from large numbers
                    of different authors are involved. Many stylometric studies limit themselves to
                    a handful of authors or even just two or three. This study is attempting to make
                    comparisons across a wide range of ancient literature.</p>
                <p>Using all the data we obtain a complete plot (OHP Cell 1) showing the location of
                    178 samples and 30 variables. This was the plot to which much careful attention
                    was given. But it is not an easy plot to interpret and for display purposes a
                    supplementary strategy provided an overview plot of cumulated samples - mostly
                    of 5000 words from 5 samples from each author combined together. This preserves
                    the broad shape and outline of the more complex plot. Each author still appears
                    in the same general segment of the plot as in the original. We can, however,
                    more easily see how the authors relate to each other and to the linguistic
                    variables. We can also interestingly see how the original plot reveals the wider
                    spread of 1000 word samples compared with the cumulated 5000 word samples. This
                    gives added insight into variation within the work or works of each author</p>
                <p>The main interpretation of the plots is that the more fluent Greek writers (i.e.
                    Polybius, Dionysius, Plutarch and their associates) lie to one side (right) of
                    the plot while the Septuagint translations of biblical texts lie to the other
                    side. (<emph rend=""italics"">I use the term fluent to capture the more complex
                        observation that the writers who appear on the right of the plot are those
                        whose work would be regarded as more acceptable in style by an educated
                        Graeco-Roman public. Jerome is on record as being embarrassed by some
                        features of biblical Greek.</emph>) As the horizontal axis represents
                    Dimension 1 this captures the largest single component of the inertia. The
                    vertical axis seems to separate narrative texts lower down the plot from speech,
                    reported speech, treatises, and ordinary letters in the centre of the plot.
                    Paul's letters are even higher up the plot though neither to the extreme left
                    nor right. Paul's style is therefore between that of the Septuagint and that of
                    Dionysius on the one dimension, and much higher than the others on the vertical
                    dimension. This may reflect the very argumentative style of Paul's dictation in
                    his letters.</p>
                <p>The plots from Correspondence Analysis show the location of the variables in
                    relation to the location of the samples and from this we can draw inferences
                    which we can confirm by inspecting boxplots of means and other statistics. This
                    reveals the relative weight of usage of our main criteria in the different
                    writers. So for example we can see that Paul makes heavier use of alla, gar, ei,
                    ou, mh, hina (but, for, if, not, not, in order that) and to some extent dia and
                    eis (into), while making moderate use of de, oun, and men (but, therefore, on
                    the one hand). He has low usage of kai, meta and peri (and, after/with, about).
                    Much work on Paul has focused on internal differences of style. <emph
                        rend=""italics"">This study shows more clearly than before just how Paul
                        differs widely from most, but not all, of the other authors selected.</emph>
                    The Septuagint passages from Biblical texts have higher use of kai, apo and epi
                    (and, from, on)and to some extent hews (while/until), moderate use of ou (not),
                    and low usage of alla, gar, de, men, oun, ei, mh, kata and peri (but, for, but,
                    on the one hand, therefore, if, not, according to/against, about). <emph
                        rend=""italics"">But the Septuagint texts themselves differ and I conclude
                        that the differences are not just due to the style of samples from 4
                        Kingdoms, nor just to differences between translated texts and those
                        composed in Greek. The samples from Genesis and Proverbs lie between these
                        other Septuagintal groups.</emph> The more fluent Greek writers have higher
                    use of de, men, kata, peri (but, on the one hand, according to/against, about)
                    and the genitive participle endings, moderate use of alla, gar, ou, kai, and oun
                    (but, for, not, and, therefore), and low usage of hina and mh (in order that,
                    not). <emph rend=""italics"">Here it is worth noting that despite his diffidence
                        Josephus is close on stylometric grounds to Dionysius and Plutarch. It is
                        also worth noting that the few selected samples from non-literary papyri are
                        not as far distant from Dionysius as some might expect. Finally we should
                        note that the Greek technical writers do not form a coherent group, as
                        Alexander and others tend to assume, but lie in several different directions
                        around the group including Dionysius and Plutarch. All these provisional
                        conclusions suggest lines for further investigation.</emph></p>
                <p>Therefore (oun) is more heavily used in some NT texts esp. some Johannine texts.
                    The conjunction hopws (in order that) is mainly used by the more fluent Greeks.
                    The preposition ek (out of) is more heavily used in Revelation, moderately in
                    the Septuagint. The word en (in/by) is used more heavily in Colossians and
                    Ephesians and in some of the Johannine texts, and moderately high usage is also
                    found in the Septuagint and Paul. Philo and Josephus often side with the more
                    fluent Greeks on most criteria, but do have a raised usage of pros (towards).</p>
                <p>The results reported here make use of a larger selection of samples than any of
                    the previous work I have published on the stylometry of 1st Century Greek texts.
                    We can see not only that the writers fall into different groupings, but also
                    which literary criteria tend to distinguish their styles one from another.</p>
                <p>Some of the authors used could not provide further samples as their works are
                    relatively short. Others could provide massive amounts of further text for
                    analysis. That leaves plenty of scope for further researchers to explore the
                    more voluminous authors further, and perhaps, by taking much larger samples from
                    them, to scrutinize stylistic features of their work which appear slightly less
                    frequently than the highest frequency words and features which are the main
                    criteria used here.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>Bibliography:</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">David</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">L.</forename>
                                    <surname>Mealand</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Style, Genre and Authorship in Acts, the Septuagint,
                                and Hellenistic Historians</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">Literary &amp; Linguistic Computing</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol"">14</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""issue"">4</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">479-505 esp. 501-502</biblScope>
                                <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>a list of 29 relevant works will be found in</note>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
            <div>
                <head>Plots:</head>
                <figure><head>Plot of large text samples</head></figure>
                <p>This plot shows the relative location of the different large cumulated samples of
                    text from the main authors. The samples from Genesis and Proverbs appear near
                    Acts on the more detailed plots: 2 and 4 Maccabees nearer Dionysius. Samples
                    from the papyri appear near Hebrews. Various Greek technical writers appear on
                    the more detailed plots above and below Polybius, well above Philo, to the right
                    of Acts and below Acts.</p>
                <figure><head>Plot of literary variables</head></figure>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Jan</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">Christoph</forename>
                        <surname>Meister</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Hamburg</name>
                            <email>jan-c-meister@uni-hamburg.de</email>
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                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
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                    <name>University of Tübingen</name>
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                <p>This paper discusses the problem of the theoretical-methodological status of
                    Humanities Computing (HC). More particularly it focuses on Computer Philology
                    (CP), i.e. the computational concepts and techniques dedicated to aspects of a
                    philological analysis of literary texts. The question guiding my deliberations
                    is whether CP is a proper ‘Wissenschaft’ in the sense of an emerging
                    fully-fledged discipline, or rather an ancillary discipline, a
                    ‘Hilfswissenschaft’ similar to Statistics or Library Science?</p>
                <p>One can safely say that the practice of HC has begun to establish itself as an
                    integral part of research and teaching in various disciplines in the Arts and
                    Humanities. But one must also concede that a consensus regarding the
                    methodological-theoretical calibre of our undertakings seems to have evaded us
                    thus far. As a result our own debate seems to retreat more and more onto the
                    safe ground of pragmatism and technology, or in other words: who cares about the
                    methodological and philosophical appraisal of HC - as long as it works?</p>
                <p>I believe that this is a dangerousely narrow focus - if nothing else, it is at
                    least strategically detrimental to the aim of furthering the
                    institutionalization of Humanities Computing (HC) at universities. The fact that
                    Computer Philology (CP) concerns a more narrowly defined and homogenous array of
                    disciplines than HC makes matters even worse. Any attempt to introduce CP vis à
                    vis the well defined philological disciplines only accentuates the problem of
                    the as yet vague methodological status of this ‘newcomer’.</p>
                <p>For example, at Hamburg University we recently (October 2001) managed to formally
                    institute a joint ‘Arbeitsgruppe Computerphilologie’ in the Faculties of
                    Computer Science and the Faculty of Languages. We are clear as to our brief:
                    introduce modularized course components in CP into the language and literature
                    curricula. Pragmatic considerations, such as, the aim to equip students with new
                    skills, as well as the current ‘sexyness’ of computer technology work in our
                    favor. But we are nevertheless divided as to the more profound philosophical and
                    methodological arguments on which to ‘sell’ this initiative to colleagues and
                    students. And or differences do indeed boil down to the very question: Is CP a
                    proper ‘Wissenschaft’ - or is it rather a ‘Hilfswissenschaft’?</p>
                <p>Proponents of the latter position hold that CP cannot be a true discipline as it
                    is neither defined by an exclusive subject matter, or a particular perspective
                    onto such matter, nor ─ and this would seem the more difficult verdict to
                    counter - has it as yet produced a new theory of literature, not to mention a
                    meta-theory reflecting its own axioms and practices. This, for example, is the
                    opinion of my colleagueWalther von Hahn who approaches the question from the
                    perspective of the Linguist and Computer Scientist. Von Hahn illustrates his
                    argument with the following process model:<lb/><figure>
                        <head>Figure 1:</head>
                    </figure></p>
                <p>The positioning of the CP-block in the bottom left rectangle, and in particular
                    the orientation of the unilinear arrows in this diagramm clearly demonstrate an
                    hierarchical organisation: CP is primarily conceived of by von Hahn as a
                    research practice that is governed by the preceeding formulation of philological
                    desiderata. These desiderata are identified in the course of the inspection of
                    textual data (1) which leads to a formulation of specific research questions and
                    interests (2). Only then can the selection of particular CP-tools (= practices)
                    take place (3). These are now applied to the data (4) and generate a new
                    representation of the textual data which in turn are passed back to the
                    philologist (5) for their eventual interpretation. This interpretation then
                    feeds back into philological theory and methodology.</p>
                <p>I would now like to juxtapose the underlying hypothesis - e.g., CP as a
                    ‘Hilfswissenschaft’ - with conclusions drawn from my own research into computer
                    based analysis of narrated action, a 7-year project concluded in early 2001
                    (components of this project were presented at the ALLC conferences Paris 1994 /
                    Virginia 1999.)</p>
                <p>I initially set out to analyse the structural features of narrated action, with a
                    view to formulating a model of ‘minimal action structures’, that is, the least
                    complex yet logically coherent and context-idenpendent sequence of narrated
                    events. I had found that there was no hard and fast theory on what actually
                    constitutes a coherent piece of narrated action ─ the problem was either being
                    discussed in terms of the conditions for achieving narrative ‘closure’, or in an
                    altogether impressionistic and intuitive way. The only models and partial
                    definitions useful to me were those developed in Formalism and Structuralism,
                    schools of thought to whom the graphic respresentation of narrated action in the
                    form of tree-and-nodes diagrams is fairly common (and owed to generative models
                    imported from structural linguistics). Then I happened to stumble upon an
                    article by Alain Colmerauer which gave a brief description of the AI-language
                    PROLOG and illustrated it by way of a tree diagram. The visual analogy between
                    an action- and a PROLOG-tree pointed me to the conceptual analogy, and the
                    possibility to use a computer to model a minimal coherent action in a narrative,
                    i.e., an EPISODE in the logical sense.</p>
                <p>Up to this point my project had thus proceeded more or less along steps 1 to 3 of
                    van Hahn’s process model. The real problem ─ and challenge! ─ however was that
                    the two blocks in the bottom left box turned out to be - empty containers: there
                    was no developed theory or model dealing with my particular research problem
                    available in HC/CP; there were also no established practices to apply. The
                    bottom line was that I had to design and program a mark-up tool before I could
                    even begin to model action structures by running a combinatory PROLOG-algorithm
                    on the meta-data.</p>
                <p>In more abstract terms, I had found myself confronted with what I now regard as
                    the most important methodological principle to be elaborated upon in the
                    methodological-theoretical appraisal of CP. The type of questions considered
                    relevant in the philologies normally require a semantic mark-up of the ‘raw’
                    textual data; the mere digital representation of non-numeric data (unless it is
                    confined to a purely statistical distribution analysis) does not provide access
                    to semantic phenomena. However, the process of data mark-up, subsequent analysis
                    and modeling of meta-data, and eventual evaluation of the model in itself also
                    presupposes that the philologist has identified not just a philological, but
                    also a ‘computational’ frame of reference - in other words, the computer
                    philologist is not just picking tools from a box and applying these to old
                    questions. He or she must rather reconceptualize the research problem in a new
                    light before the tool’s aspect even comes into play.</p>
                <p>As for my own project, this is how I would therefore schematize its
                    methodological architecture:<lb/><figure>
                        <head>Figure 2:</head>
                    </figure></p>
                <p>In comparing von Hahn’s to my own diagram I come to the following
                        conclusions:<list type=""bulleted"">
                        <item>The interdependency between the tools and practices of CP on the one
                            hand, and the textual data on the other involves a hidden ‘third party’
                            - a conceptual frame of reference novel to the philologies.</item>
                        <item>The two-step representational transformation from textual data to
                            meta-data, and then from meta-data to philological interpretation,
                            therefore cannot be thought of as governed exclusively by conceptual
                            models drawn from philological theory and methodology. The import of the
                            ‘foreign’ conceptual model informs the entire research architecture
                            throughout; it is as essential to the design of the transformational
                            processes as it is to the eventual interpretation of the transforms
                            generated.</item>
                        <item>The key intellectual prospect of the development and integration of CP
                            into the methodological ambit of the philologies proper is not the fact
                            that, because of deploying computer technology, one can in certain cases
                            analyze and model textual data faster, more coherently, or on the basis
                            of more explicit (and thus transparent) interpretive and/or cognitive
                            algorithms. What seems far more important is that we are offered new
                            frames of reference as to how to conceptualize and model text-based
                            phenomena.</item>
                        <item>Computer Philology undisputedly ‘has’ tools and practices - but it
                            ‘is’ more than these: neither a proper ‘Wissenschaft’, nor an
                            a-theroretical ‘Hilfswissenschaft’, its methodological status is that of
                            a new philological heuristics.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>Part of the problem of how to adequately define the methodological status of HC
                    and CP might, in fact, stem from the tendency to confound two meanings of the
                    term ‘computer’. When we focus on tools and practices in CP we refer to the
                    machine ‘computer’ in a very literal sense - hence the pragmatists’ attempt to
                    define CP per se in this vein. But ‘computer’ is also a metaphor, like ‘book’ or
                    ‘image’, that stands for a particular mode and method of symbolic
                    representation. In the philologist’s case it is a metaphor for a very specific
                    reconceptualization of the phenomenon of ‘text based meaning’: one that aims at
                    bridging the gap between the qualifiable, and the quantifiable. Whether that
                    ‘metaphor’ is run on a Cray or on paper and pencil is not really the key
                    question.</p>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">On Determining a Valid Text for Non-Traditional
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Joseph</forename>
                        <surname>Rudman</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Carnegie Mellon</name>
                            <email>jr20@andrew.cmu.edu</email>
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                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
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                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
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                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
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                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                <div>
                    <head>INTRODUCTION:</head>
                    <epigraph>
                        <cit>
                            <quote>
                                <emph rend=""italics"">The work’s material history since its
                                    inception, the vast and largely uncharted alterations imposed by
                                    the history and by the mediation of generation upon generation
                                    of printers, editors, publishers—this is a relativism we are
                                    prone to ignore, but ignore at our peril.</emph>
                            </quote>
                            <bibl>(Marcus 1996)</bibl>
                        </cit>
                    </epigraph>
                    <epigraph>
                        <cit>
                            <quote>
                                <emph rend=""italics"">The literary texts often are not homogenous
                                    since they may comprise dialogues, narrative parts, etc. An
                                    integrated approach, therefore, would require the development of
                                    text sampling tools for selecting the parts of the text that
                                    best illustrate an author’s style.</emph>
                            </quote>
                            <bibl>(Stamatatos et al. 2001)</bibl>
                        </cit>
                    </epigraph>
                    <p>Most non-traditional authorship attribution studies place too much emphasis
                        on statistics, stylistics, and the computer and not enough focus is given to
                        the integrity and validity of the primary data— the text itself.</p>
                    <p>It is intuitively obvious and easily shown empirically that if you are
                        conducting a study of the patterns of an author’s stylistic usage (e.g.
                        Daniel Defoe), the study will be systematically denigrated by each
                        interpolation of non-Defoe text and even by each interpolation of Defoe text
                        of a different genre or significantly different time period.</p>
                    <p>The crux of this paper is about one important element in the empirical
                        methodology of a valid non-traditional authorship attribution study—the
                        preparation of the text for stylistic and statistical analysis: unediting,
                        de-editing, and editing.</p>
                    <p>The general emphasis of this presentation is on prose analysis with some
                        peripheral treatment of drama and poetry.</p>
                    <list>
                        <item>I. BACKGROUND AND DEFINITIONS<list>
                                <item>A. Why a valid text is necessary should not even be asked. No
                                    valid experiment can be done if the input data is flawed—garbage
                                    in, garbage out!<lb/>Too many practitioners simply grab a text
                                    from any available source—without any thought to its pedigree.
                                    (e.g. Khmelev and Tweedie’s “Using Markov Chains for the
                                    Identification of Writers.”)<lb/>Are undertakings such as
                                    Project Gutenberg or the Oxford Text Archive with their easily
                                    available machine readable texts a boon or a bane to
                                    non-traditional authorship atudies? This question is explored in
                                    some detail.</item>
                                <item>B. Selecting a starting text<lb/>The validity of using texts
                                    from the oral tradition and the scribal tradition is
                                    discussed.<lb/>Before any manipulation and analysis of a text is
                                    carried out, a valid starting text must be acquired that
                                    fulfills many necessary requirements. This selection is
                                    primarily bibliographically driven. If a practitioner is not
                                    savvy in the bibliographical arts, a collaborator who is should
                                    be recruited.<lb/>Examples of bad starting texts causing
                                    problems are given (e.g. Peng and Hengartner’s “Quantitative
                                    Analysis of Literary Styles.”)<lb/>If you cannot obtain a valid
                                    text, do not do the study.</item>
                                <item>C. <emph rend=""bold"">Unediting</emph>—getting back to the
                                    state of “not yet edited”<lb/><emph rend=""bold""
                                        >De-editing</emph>—removing selected text<lb/>
                                    <emph rend=""bold"">Editing</emph>—changing (preparing) a text for
                                    statistical analysis<lb/>
                                </item>
                            </list></item>
                        <item>II. EXPLICATION<lb/>The statement, “each age, each author, each study
                            demands a different mixture of the following particulars,” is discussed.<list>
                                <item>A. Unediting<lb/>As a rule, the closest text to the holograph
                                    should be found and used.<list>
                                        <item>1. Editorial interpolation<list>
                                                <item>a. Filled in lacunae</item>
                                                <item>b. Marginal notation</item>
                                                <item>c. ‘Changes’ in the text</item>
                                                <item>d. Critical editions</item>
                                            </list></item>
                                        <item>2. Printer interpolation<lb/><quote>
                                                <emph rend=""italics"">For the Printer is a beast, and
                                                  understands nothing I can say to him of correcting
                                                  the press.</emph>
                                            </quote><bibl>Dryden (Ward p. 97)</bibl><list>
                                                <item>a. Catchwords (the first word of the next leaf
                                                  or gathering)</item>
                                                <item>b. Signatures (combinations of letters and
                                                  numerals used something like catchwords)</item>
                                                <item>c. Removing obvious typesetting mistakes (a
                                                  slippery slope)<list>
                                                  <item>i. ‘f’ for the long ‘s’</item>
                                                  <item>ii. Double words (e.g. ‘the the’ ‘was
                                                  was’</item>
                                                  </list></item>
                                            </list></item>
                                    </list></item>
                                <item>B. De-editing<list>
                                        <item>1. Quotes<list>
                                                <item>a. Factual, unattributed</item>
                                                <item>b. Factual, attributed</item>
                                                <item>c. Self quotes from earlier writings</item>
                                            </list></item>
                                        <item>2. Plagiarism<list>
                                                <item>a. Direct copy</item>
                                                <item>b. Paraphrasing</item>
                                                <item>c. Imitation</item>
                                            </list></item>
                                        <item>3. Collaboration<list>
                                                <item>a. Sectional</item>
                                                <item>b. Phrasal</item>
                                                <item>c. Word level</item>
                                                <item>d. Ghostwriting</item>
                                            </list></item>
                                        <item>4. Genre<list>
                                                <item>a. Poetry, prose, drama, letters, etc.</item>
                                                <item>b. Mixture (e.g. verse drama)</item>
                                            </list></item>
                                        <item>5. Graphs and Numbers<list>
                                                <item>a. Tables</item>
                                                <item>b. Lists</item>
                                                <item>c. Arabic and Roman numerals</item>
                                            </list></item>
                                        <item>6. Guide words<list>
                                                <item>a. Titles—chapter headings—the end word
                                                  ‘Finis’</item>
                                                <item>b. Marginal annotation</item>
                                            </list></item>
                                        <item>7. Foreign Languages<list>
                                                <item>a. Sentence level and greater</item>
                                                <item>b. Phrase or word level</item>
                                            </list></item>
                                        <item>8. Translations<list>
                                                <item>a. Verbatim</item>
                                                <item>b. Concepts</item>
                                            </list></item>
                                        <item>9. Examples of items de-edited (or not de-edited)
                                            incorrectly by practitioners<list>
                                                <item>a. Biblical quotes</item>
                                                <item>b. Titles in direct apposition</item>
                                                <item>c. Numbers that are spelled out</item>
                                                <item>d. Words with an initial capital</item>
                                            </list></item>
                                    </list></item>
                                <item>C. Editing<list>
                                        <item>1. Encoding the text<list>
                                                <item>a. Why (e.g. homographic forms)</item>
                                                <item>b. TEI</item>
                                            </list></item>
                                        <item>2. Regularizing<list>
                                                <item>a. Spelling</item>
                                                <item>b. Contracted forms (simple, compound)</item>
                                                <item>c. Hyphenation</item>
                                                <item>d. Masked words (e.g. ‘D_ _ _ e’ for ‘Defoe’)
                                                </item>
                                            </list></item>
                                        <item>3. Lemmatizing<list>
                                                <item>a. Pro</item>
                                                <item>b. Con</item>
                                            </list></item>
                                    </list></item>
                                <item>D. Special Problems in Drama and Poetry<list>
                                        <item>1. Stage directions</item>
                                        <item>2. The ‘age’ dependency of transmission and technique.
                                        </item>
                                    </list></item>
                            </list></item>
                        <item>III. SOME EXAMPLES<lb/>Studies that are compromised by mistakes of
                            commission and/or omission in editing, unediting, or de-editing.<list>
                                <item>A. Historia Augusta<list>
                                        <item>1. Twelve individual studies</item>
                                    </list></item>
                                <item>B. Shakespeare<list>
                                        <item>1. Eliott and Valenza</item>
                                        <item>2. Foster</item>
                                        <item>3. Horton</item>
                                    </list></item>
                                <item>C. Defoe<list>
                                        <item>1. Hargevik</item>
                                        <item>2. Rothman</item>
                                    </list></item>
                            </list></item>
                        <item>IV. CONCLUSION<list>
                                <item>1. Some items that are de-edited are valid style markers in
                                    their own right (e.g. latin phrases, different genre) and should
                                    be treated as such in a parallel study.</item>
                                <item>2. No matter which text is selected, the practitioner must
                                    disclose which text was used and everything that was done to
                                    it.</item>
                                <item>3. The same care must be taken with every text in the
                                    study—the anonymous text, the suspected author’s text, and all
                                    of the control texts.</item>
                                <item>4. If valid texts cannot be located and correctly edited,
                                    unedited, and de-edited, do not do the study</item>
                                <item>5. A valid text does not guarantee a valid study. However, a
                                    non-valid text guarantees a non-valid study.</item>
                            </list></item>
                    </list>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
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                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Charles</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">E.</forename>
                                    <surname>Ward</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">The Letters of John Dryden: With Letters Addressed to
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                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Durham, NC</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Duke University Press</publisher>
                                <date when=""1942"">1942</date>
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                            <title level=""m"">Stylometric Authorship Studies in Flavius Josephus and
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                        <surname>Drucker</surname>
                        <affiliation>Media Studies, <name type=""org"">University of Virginia</name>
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                <p>Temporal Modelling is an interface designed specifically to meet the needs of
                    humanities scholars wanting to interpret or analyse the subjective experience of
                    temporality in historical documents or imaginative artifacts. Since its
                    inception, Temporal Modelling has had two goals: 1) to provide a responsive
                    interface for visualizing complex temporal relations in humanities data and 2)
                    to experiment with an alternative approach to content modelling in humanities
                    computing. Two years into the project, we think we can demonstrate progress on
                    both fronts. We’ve designed a working prototype suited to humanities scholars
                    that generates XML output concurrent with a user's graphical modelling. Our
                    session describes the interwoven conceptual and technical development of this
                    project (research, visual design development, conceptualization process, and
                    prototype production), and also aims to make it known to a community who we hope
                    will be among its primary users and first adopters.</p>
                <p>Temporal Modelling demonstrates an alternative approach to content modelling for
                    humanities computing. In the usual sequence of humanities computing events, a
                    content model is developed and then used to create a richly marked data set.
                    Visualizations or graphical displays follow as a result, not as a point of
                    input. By contrast, we’ve created a tool that allows visualization to act as a
                    procedure, not an outcome, of interpretation. Graphical sketching integrates
                    interpretation into digitization concretely, creating a content model.</p>
                <p>Temporal Modelling consists of two parts. The first we call a composition space
                    or PlaySpace: an interface with a set of visual, graphical elements for making
                    models of temporal relations. The mechanisms and processes of the composition
                    space focus on: the positioning of temporal objects (such as events, intervals,
                    and points in time) on the axis of a timeline; the labelling of those objects
                    using text, color, size, and quality; the relation of objects to specific
                    temporal granularities (the standards by which we mark hours, seasons, aeons);
                    and, in complex interaction, the relation of objects to each other. These can be
                    further modified by a process we call “inflection”—the assignment of attributes
                    with either semantic or syntactic values. For example, a humanities scholar
                    attempting to chart a sequence of events traced in family letters, in which many
                    temporal events are referenced relationally, rather than by date, could use such
                    a system in a preliminary stage of analysis, creating a visual scheme to
                    represent events or references. In addition, however, Temporal Modelling
                    contains tools of interpretation and analysis to characterize events through
                    such inflections as anticipation, regret, foreshadowing or causality.</p>
                <p>A user’s interpretation is captured and formalized into a structured data scheme
                    that develops concurrently, as the visualization proceeds. User gestures and
                    image renderings are translated into an XML schema which can be exported, used
                    to design a DTD, or transformed through use of XSLT or other manipulations. In
                    the second part of our project, a complementary DisplaySpace will use the same
                    graphical elements to display “published” models from the PlaySpace, as well as
                    supporting display from imported structured data. DisplaySpace models can be
                    manipulated for contrast and comparison in their “published” form or reloaded
                    into the PlaySpace for further refinement. The composition space enables
                    understanding through iterative visual construction in an editing environment
                    that implies infinite visual breadth and depth. In contrast, the display space
                    channels energy into iterative visual reflection by providing a responsive,
                    richly-layered surface in which subjectivity and inflection in temporal
                    relations are not fashioned but may be reconfigured.</p>
                <p>The objects, actions, and relations defined by our schemata and programming are
                    not married inextricably with specific graphics and on-screen animations or
                    display modes. Just as we have provided tools for captioning and coloring (and
                    the ability to regularize custom-made systems with legends and labels), we have
                    also made possible the upload and substitution of user-made standard vector
                    (SVG) graphics for the generic notation systems we've devised. This is more than
                    mere window-dressing. Our intense methodological emphasis on the importance of
                    visual understanding allows the substitution of a single set of graphics
                    (representing inflections for, say, mood or foreshadowing) to alter radically
                    the statements made possible by Temporal Modelling’s loose grammar. Users are
                    invited to intervene in the interpretive processes enabled by our tool almost at
                    its root level.</p>
                <p>Temporal Modelling can be used to model date-stamped, or empirical data, but its
                    strength is in its ability to structure the representation of subjective
                    experience. Several of the design features of our project embody this
                    conviction, most notably the “now slider”. This element embeds an individual
                    point of view (or several, depending on the project) into the graphical model
                    and allows the interpretation to be played forward or backward (“progressed” or
                    “regressed”). The model of events changes depending on the position of these
                    individual now-sliders. An event once anticipated may give rise to an unforeseen
                    set of outcomes and be transformed into an interval charged with regret or
                    melancholy. Temporal Modelling attempts to embody the subjectivity of an
                    interpretation, not merely depict a subjective approach.</p>
                <p>Our initial conceptualization was informed by reading across a range of
                    disciplines and fields. We were interested in a historical, trans-cultural
                    inventory of ways time and temporality have been conceptualized. We grounded our
                    fundamental distinction between time as an a priori category and temporality as
                    a relational conception. Our readings were drawn from logic, religion,
                    anthropology, and philosophy, as well other humanities and social sciences (see
                    References). In addition, we made an inventory of visualizations for showing and
                    analyzing data that have a temporal dimension (<ptr
                        target=""http://www.iath.virginia.edu/time""/>). Because we are intent on
                    creating both a composition space and a display space that can utilize the same
                    set of visual elements, we wanted to consider conventions for presenting
                    date-stamped information while concentrating our design on a system suited to
                    humanities documents whose temporal references and/or relations do not conform
                    to empirical models.</p>
                <p>After this research survey, we created a basic conceptual schema for designing
                    the Temporal Modelling project. This involved several steps 1) defining temporal
                    primitives (entities, actions, and relations); 2) developing a graphical
                    vocabulary for their presentation; 3) developing a labelling and annotation
                    system that allows for customization by individual users. Our assertion is that
                    representations based on empirical approaches assume an objective, homogeneous,
                    continuous, and uni-directional notion of time. We wanted to design a system
                    grounded in subjective, heterogeneous, dis-continuous, and multi-directional
                    temporalities. To accomplish this, we conceived of a number of unique design
                    features in addition to the now slider. These include “stretchy” timelines with
                    variable scales and granularities, branching and alternative narratives of
                    temporal events according to catastrophic (event-driven) and continuous
                    (unfolding) models. Designs for ruptured and discontinuous time are also in the
                    plans. The technical implementation of this design involved creating a tightly
                    integrated relation between visualization and digitization of information. In
                    addition, at each instance, the design of specific elements raises interesting
                    intellectual problems at the intersection of philosophical and computational
                    concerns—for instance, is “regret” a semantic attribute of an event, or a
                    syntactic one, engaged in relational effects? Such issues are central to the
                    intellectual and programming structure of this project.</p>
                <p>Temporal Modelling is an experiment in using speculative methods— approaches to
                    conceptualization and design of computational tools or projects with uncertain
                    outcomes. The Speculative Computing Lab at the University of Virginia defines
                    its mission as undertaking projects that have a risk of failure. These projects
                    are not necessarily grounded in discipline-specific research and have a
                    tool-based and interpretive aim rather than a collections or archive development
                    goal. Speculative projects are motivated by the desire to foreground these
                    interpretive practices, particularly the subjective practices that are central
                    to traditional humanities. Temporal Modelling is an Intel-sponsored project of
                    the Speculative Computing Lab in the Media Studies Program at the University of
                    Virginia.</p>
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                        <surname>Saltz</surname>
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                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
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                    <head>THE PROBLEM: REPRESENTING AND ARCHIVING LIVE PERFORMACE</head>
                    <p>Manuscripts, paintings, sculptures, films, and recordings are artifacts that
                        can be preserved and archived for subsequent generations to appreciate and
                        analyze. Live theatre, however, is ephemeral. Is it possible to archive a
                        live performance? One can use film or videotape to document a present-day
                        performance, and, with some creative interpretation and speculation, to
                        recreate a performance from the past. But films and videotapes are incapable
                        of conveying the experience of attending a live performance. A filmed
                        performance offers only a single perspective on the action: the camera
                        decides exactly where to look at each moment. Spectators at a live event, by
                        contrast, act as their own camera operators, selecting their own point of
                        focus—which may not even be on stage. Films omits a vital dimension of live
                        performance: the viewer’s immersion in the world of the theater, and the
                        crucial role that the community of spectators plays in constituting a
                        performance event.</p>
                    <p>The underlying problem here extends beyond the theatrical performance.
                        Precisely the same challenges arise with any kind of performative event,
                        such as dance performances, rituals, political congresses, coronations,
                        parades, festivals, battles, riots, etc.</p>
                    <p>One strategy to address this problem has been to build a physical
                        reconstruction of an historic structure and to stage performances in it, as
                        has been done, for example, with the Globe Theatre in London and with
                        numerous structures in Colonial Williamsburg in Virginia. This solution
                        requires an extraordinary, continuing investment of money and land, and so
                        is feasible only in a very limited number of cases. Moreover, such physical
                        reconstructions are available only to people at one geographic location and
                        implement only one interpretation, and so they cannot be used to evaluate
                        conflicting scholarly interpretations of the historical evidence. Perhaps
                        the deepest problem with such historical constructions is that, while
                        painstaking efforts may be undertaken to achieve historical accuracy in the
                        physical environment, performers and perhaps even the support personnel, the
                        audience itself—and so, ultimately, the context of reception—remains
                        resolutely contemporary.</p>
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                    <head>OUR SOLUTION: THE LIVE PERFORMACE SIMULATION SYSTEM</head>
                    <p>In January of 2002, I began work as Principle Investigator on a project
                        designed to address this problem: “A Live Performance Simulation System:
                        Virtual Vaudeville.” Our strategy is to recreate historical performances in
                        a virtual reality environment. Virtual Vaudeville is, in effect, a
                        single-user 3D computer game that allows users to enter a virtual theatre to
                        watch a simulated performance. The objective is to reproduce a feeling of
                        “liveness” in this environment: the sensation of being surrounded by human
                        activity onstage, in the audience and backstage, and the ability to choose
                        where to look at any given time (onstage or off) and to move within the
                        environment. A vital concern is to find a way to bring the nuances of great
                        stage performances into this virtual environment. To this end, we are using
                        optical motion and facial capture technology to capture real-world
                        performances by professional, highly skilled actors, singers, dancers,
                        acrobats and musicians.</p>
                    <p>This three-year project is supported by a $900,000 grant from the National
                        Science Foundation, supplemented by an additional $110,000 from the State of
                        Georgia. I am leading a team of researchers from seven universities,
                        including the University of Georgia, the University of Pittsburgh, Georgia
                        Tech and the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, that includes historians
                        specializing in nineteenth century American theatre, music and culture,
                        computer scientists specializing in high-performance 3D game design, and
                        theatre practitioners.</p>
                    <p>Our long-term goal to develop a flexible set of techniques and technologies
                        that scholars and theatre practitioners can use to simulate a wide range of
                        performance traditions, from Classical Greece to Japanese Noh. Our
                        short-term objective is to complete a fully-functional simulation of
                        nineteenth century American vaudeville theatre.</p>
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                    <head>VAUDEVILLE</head>
                    <p>American vaudeville an especially apt test case for Live Performance
                        Simulation. Vaudeville was the most popular form of entertainment in the
                        United States from the 1880s through the 1920s, functioning in its day much
                        as television does today. Many vaudeville acts both reflected and helped to
                        constitute the enthusiasms and anxieties of their time, especially those
                        concerning the integration of new immigrant groups into mainstream American
                        culture. Consequently a rich simulation of a vaudeville performance will be
                        a useful resource, not just for those interested in theatre history, but for
                        scholars and students of American history generally.</p>
                    <p>A vaudeville performance was divided into many short, self-contained
                        segments. A typical vaudeville bill encompassed a wide variety of acts—
                        contortionist performances, dance numbers, juggling acts, singing groups,
                        comic monologues, blackface comedy, condenses versions of full-length
                        plays—with particular acts in the lineup appealing differently to different
                        groups in the audience. Consequently, simulating different acts of a
                        vaudeville show and exploring the likely responses of different groups of
                        spectators opens up for historical investigation a wide range of ethnic,
                        gender, class, and racialized interactions during America's industrial
                        age.</p>
                    <p>Our simulated performance takes place in B.F. Keith’s Union Square Theatre, a
                        typical Vaudeville house seating approximately 2000 spectators, in the year
                        1895, fifteen years after the first Vaudeville theatre opened in New York.
                        We are recreating four of the most popular and representative acts on the
                        vaudeville circuit during that time: (1) the strongman Sandow the
                        Magnificant; (2) the Irish singer Maggie Cline; (3) the comic “stage Jew”
                        Frank Bush; and (4) the sketch comedy of the four Cohans, whose youngest
                        member, George M. Cohan, went on to become one of the great stars of early
                        twentieth century Broadway. As we approach the end of our first year of work
                        on the project, have completed archival research into all of these acts and
                        are creating the models and motion-capturing the performances. Our
                        presentation will feature a demonstration of significant portions of the
                        Sandow act that as of this writing are complete and fully-functional.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>DESIGN</head>
                    <p>Virtual Vaudeville allows the user to switch between two very different ways
                        of experiencing the simulated performances. In what we call “invisible
                        camera” mode, viewers fly through the 3D space to observe the performance
                        from any position in the theatre and zoom in as close to the performers as
                        they please.</p>
                    <p>Alternatively, the viewer can adopt an embodied perspective, watching the
                        performance through the eyes of a particular member of the audience. Virtual
                        Vaudeville allows the viewer to select one of four spectators, each
                        representing a different socio-economic group in 19th century America: (1)
                        Mrs. Dorothy Shopper, a wealthy socialite attending the performance with her
                        young daughter; (2) Mr. Luigi Calzilaio, an Italian immigrant fresh off the
                        boat, attending the performance with his more Americanized brother; (3) Mr.
                        Jake Spender, a young “sport” sitting next to a Chorus Girl (with him he may
                        or may not strike up a relationship, depending on the viewer’s choices); and
                        (4) Miss Lucy Teacher, an African American schoolteacher watching the
                        performance with her boyfriend from the second balcony, where she is
                        confined by the theatre’s segregation policy.</p>
                    <p>Viewers can switch between any of the avatars at any time, and can move the
                        avatar’s head to focus on different areas of the stage or auditorium, and
                        can trigger a limited set of avatar responses, for example applauding or
                        laughing. Some of these responses are verbal, such as cracking a joke or
                        heckling the performance. In these cases, the viewer selects only the
                        generic response type, and the system produces a specific response
                        appropriate what is happening onstage and off, taking into account the
                        viewer’s previous interactions with other members of the virtual audience.
                        Because the surrounding spectators respond interactively to the viewer's
                        avatar, each viewer has a different experience of the performance event.
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>SIGNIFICANCE</head>
                    <p>Virtual Vaudeville offers scholars in all disciplines in the humanities a
                        model for a new kind of “critical edition.” A conventional published
                        monograph can pick and choose details to examine, and so lacuna and even
                        contradictions in the historical analysis are easy to overlook. The
                        imperative of precisely recreating both on-stage and off-stage events will
                        demand an unprecedented degree of scholarly thoroughness and rigor.</p>
                    <figure/>
                    <p>Key to our project is the depth of the collaboration between technology,
                        scholarship, pedagogy and art. This project is conceived to make a
                        significant contribution to all four domains simultaneously, rather than
                        merely using any one in the service of the others. The end result, we, hope,
                        will represent an important advance in the design and implementation of
                        virtual environments, building on recent successes in creating
                        photo-realistic simulations of real 3D environments by introducing a large
                        quantity of complex human performance data. It will constitute an invaluable
                        work of applied scholarship, an unprecedented resource for visualizing past
                        performances and testing hypotheses about historical performance practices.
                        It will provide an unprecedented resource for students to engage with
                        historical performance traditions as performance (and not as literature or
                        film). Finally, from an artistic perspective, the Virtual Vaudeville project
                        will test the potential of virtual reality technology to provide truly
                        nuanced and engaging theater experiences.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
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"272","4","Tagging Time in PROLOG: from quick and dirty to TEI","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Tagging Time in PROLOG: from quick and dirty to TEI </title>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Jan</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">Christoph</forename>
                        <surname>Meister</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Hamburg </name>
                            <email>jan-c-meister@uni-hamburg.de</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
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            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
                <respStmt>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                    </name>
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                <p>This paper presents work in progress from a current research project at Hamburg
                    University that employs Humanities Computing methodology for developing and
                    testing a new theory and model of “narrative time”. Our premise is that
                    narrative time should be defined in functional and not in essential or
                    categorical terms: time is not an objective phenomenon, but a cognitive
                    construct and can thus best be modeled in terms of a 'temporality effect'. This
                    effect -- that is, the impression of temporal order in narrative, both on the
                    level of fictional reality and narrative discourse – is to be explained and
                    analyzed in terms of the distribution of empirical 'notions' (representations of
                    objects) and 'temporal operators' throughout a representational medium, in our
                    case: a narrative text.</p>
                <p>Humanities Computing methodology plays a central role with regard to both the
                    description (markup) and the subsequent combinatory analysis of relevant textual
                    elements. However, adhering to a TEI compliant tagging approach proves
                    unacceptably complicated. The paper therefore argues for a <emph rend=""italics""
                        >quick and dirty</emph> approach to time tagging based on feature structure
                    tags that are defined in the form of PROLOG clauses.</p>
            </div>
            <div>
                <head>THEORY</head>
                <p>To date most theories of narrative—in particular those focusing on the domain of
                    literary narratives—conceptualize of ‘time’ in terms of a dichotomy of <emph
                        rend=""italics"">narrated time</emph> vs. <emph rend=""italics"">time of
                        narration</emph> or, as Günter Müller’s classic formulation goes, of<emph
                        rend=""italics""> Erzählzeit</emph> vs.<emph rend=""italics""> erzählte
                        Zeit</emph>. This is essentially an ontological distinction that attempts to
                    set apart two ‘worlds’, each of with is seen to have its ‘own time’. However,
                    this distinction immediately becomes problematic when dealing with non-fictional
                    representations of events which, irrespective of chronological proximity, are by
                    definition situated on a singular objective time line. Our approach is therefore
                    based not on the traditional narratological concept, but rather on the unitary
                    model of time originally proposed by McTavern who distinguished between two
                        <emph rend=""italics"">perspectives</emph> onto time: namely, that of events
                    in an objective <emph rend=""italics"">before-after</emph> relationship (the
                    so-called <emph rend=""italics"">B-series of time</emph>), and that of events as
                    occurring in the subjective cognitive order of <emph rend=""italics""
                        >future-present-past</emph> (<emph rend=""italics"">A-series</emph>). </p>
            </div>
            <div>
                <head>COMPUTER-BASED IMPLEMENTATION</head>
                <p>As far as tools are concerned, the implementation of this theoretical model in a
                    Humanities Computing orientated project has necessitated the development of two
                        programs:<list type=""bulleted"">
                        <item>TempusMarker -- a software tool providing automatic and semi-automatic
                            markup routines for the tagging of temporal expressions in natural
                            language texts. A prototype of TempusMarker has already been
                                programmed.<note n=""1"">Available for download at <ptr
                                    target=""http://www.narratology.net/html/de005g3.html""/>. A
                                detailed description of the tool (in German) is
                            included.</note></item>
                        <item>TempusParser -- an analytical tool that generates a version (or
                            versions, as the case may be) of the base text in which all the
                            sequences that form a complex narrative discourse are organized in
                            strict chronological order. This (re)construction is the result of an
                            algorithm driven process of analysis and recombination of textual
                            segments during which the ‘time stamp’ of each segment as indicated by
                            the temporal tags is interpreted.<note n=""2"">A schematic representation
                                of the TempusParser architecture and workflow is available at <ptr
                                    target=""http://www.narratology.net/html/de005graph.html""
                                /></note></item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>The computational implementation of McTavern’s model for the purpose of concrete
                    analyses of A-series governed textual discourse and its eventual reconstruction
                    in terms of B-series ordered event sequences offers an interesting example for
                    the difficulties faced by the computing Humanist who tries to tackle even
                    modestly ‘intelligent’ hermeneutic problems. In the project to be presented here
                    an added problem stems from its empirical orientation: rather than having
                    experts (Literary Scholars) tag the texts we are using student groups in order
                    to simulate as closely as possible the ‘naïve’ reader’s processing habits. A
                    demonstration of the actual tagging process, including the use of the
                    TempusMarker prototype, will form part of the presentation.</p>
                <p>The computational implementation of McTavern’s model for the purpose of concrete
                    analyses of <emph rend=""italics"">A-series</emph> governed textual discourse and
                    its eventual reconstruction in terms of <emph rend=""italics"">B-series</emph>
                    ordered event sequences offers an interesting example for the difficulties faced
                    by the computing Humanist who tries to tackle even modestly ‘intelligent’
                    hermeneutic problems. In the project to be presented here an added problem stems
                    from its empirical orientation: rather than having experts (Literary Scholars)
                    tag the texts we are using student groups in order to simulate as closely as
                    possible the ‘naïve’ reader’s processing habits. A demonstration of the actual
                    tagging process, including the use of the TempusMarker prototype, will form part
                    of the presentation.</p>
                <p>Whereas the temporal value of the respective natural language expressions -- be
                    they denotative or deictic -- is comparatively easy to establish either
                    contextually, or from a dictionary, their explication in the form of
                    standardized TEI markup (core tag set + additional tag sets for dates and time,
                    ref. chapter 20.4. of TEI guidelines) has proven rather unwieldy and often
                    contra-intuitive to our readers. Defining more readily comprehensible <emph
                        rend=""italics"">feature structure tags</emph> would seem to be the
                    alternative of choice; however, this raises the methodological question of how
                    to design a sufficiently fine-grained feature structure that does not
                    automatically become completely idiosyncratic to the particular research problem
                    at hand, thus inadvertently restricting the uses of the tagged corpus at a later
                    stage.</p>
                <p>Against this background the paper advocates and will demonstrate a calculated
                        <emph rend=""italics"">quick and dirty</emph> approach to designing temporal
                    feature structure tags. In particular, it will be shown how the PROLOG predicate
                    structure can facilitate rapid prototyping of feature structure tags.</p>
            </div>
            <div>
                <head>CONCLUSION</head>
                <p>Expressing relatively complex hermeneutical problems and models in terms of
                    Humanities Computing methodology and standards should be conceived of as a
                    process of translation, rather than one of mere re-presentation. From a
                    hermeneutical point of view semantic <emph rend=""italics"">tags</emph> are not
                    just descriptors, but rather predicates of a prepositional clause in which the
                    tagged string itself is one argument, and its feature values the subsequent
                    arguments. Capturing experimental temporal feature structure tags in the form of
                    PROLOG predicates therefore holds two advantages: first, it offers a more
                    intuitive approach to semantic tagging. Second, it facilitates automatic
                    conversion of feature structures into composite TEI tags at a later stage, thus
                    turning the <emph rend=""italics"">quick and dirty</emph> into the beautifully
                    intricate -- and fast at that.</p>
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            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>REFERENCES</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Christopher</forename>
                                    <surname>Habel</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Frank</forename>
                                    <surname>Schilder</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">From Temporal Expressions to Temporal Information:
                                Semantic Tagging of News Messages</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title/>
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                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note><ptr
                                target=""http://www.cs.brandeis.edu/~jamesp/arda/time/readings/schilder_habel.pdf""
                            />- 27.11.2002</note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Günter</forename>
                                    <surname>Dammann</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Jan</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">Christoph</forename>
                                    <surname>Meister</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">The temporality effect: Design and computer-based
                                application of a constituent model of narrative temporal
                                order</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title/>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note><ptr target=""http://www.narratology.net/html/de005.html""/>- 27.11.2002
                            (contains hyperlinks to the prototype of the TempusMarker tagging
                            tool.)</note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">John</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">Ellis</forename>
                                    <surname>McTaggart</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">The Unreality of Time</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">Mind</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol"">17</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""issue""/>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">457-474</biblScope>
                                <date when=""1908"">1908</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""bookChapter"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Günther</forename>
                                    <surname>Müller</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Erzählzeit und erzählte Zeit</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">Festschrift für Paul Kluckhohn und Hermann
                                Schneider</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Tübingen</pubPlace>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""1948"">1948</date>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">195-212</biblScope>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name type=""org"">TEI Consortium</name>
                            </author>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">C.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">M.</forename>
                                    <surname>Sperberg-McQueen</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Lou</forename>
                                    <surname>Burnard</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">TEI P4 - Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and
                                Interchange</title>
                            <edition>XML-compatible edition</edition>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>(Chapter 6.4: Names and Dates, and Chapter 20.4: Names, Numbers,
                            Dates, Abbreviations, and Addresses.) <ptr
                                target=""http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/index.html""/></note>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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"273","4","Creating a Virtual Center as an International Web-Based Interactive Infrastructure for Research and Teaching in the Language Sciences: A new Research and Library collaboration","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Creating a Virtual Center as an International Web-Based
                    Interactive Infrastructure for Research and Teaching in the Language Sciences: A
                    new Research and Library collaboration.</title>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">María</forename>
                        <surname>Blume</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Cornell University</name>
                            <email>mb48@cornell.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Elaine</forename>
                        <surname>Westbrooks</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Cornell University</name>
                            <email>elw25@cornell.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Cliff</forename>
                        <surname>Crawford</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Cornell University</name>
                            <email>cjc26@cornell.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">James</forename>
                        <surname>Gair</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Cornell University</name>
                            <email>jwg2@cornell.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Tina</forename>
                        <surname>Ogden</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">The Ogden Consulting Group</name>
                            <email>tina@tinaogdtina@tinaogden.com</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Barbara</forename>
                        <surname>Lust</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Cornell University</name>
                            <email>bcl4@cornell.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>editor</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
            </seriesStmt>
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                <p>We describe here the web-based Virtual Center for the Study of Language
                    Acquisition (VCSLA) now under development at Cornell University as a close
                    collaboration between the Cornell Language Acquisition Laboratory (CLAL),
                    Cornell's Albert Mann Library and a set of national and international
                    partners.</p>
                <p>The purpose of this center is to foster and facilitate active and continuing
                    interactive research on shared data involving many different languages. Taking
                    advantage of the potentialities of the web, we bring together in a truly
                    interactive way the expertise of researchers at CLAL and that of others at a
                    number of scattered institutions, with the experience and capabilities of the
                    library in information technology applied to storage of and access to shared
                    data</p>
                <p>This first stage of development, financed by an NSF Planning Grant, has a number
                    of crucial features, described here, that in assembly make it an innovative
                    creation that may also serve, as both an ongoing enterprise in language
                    acquisition research and a model for other fields as well.</p>
                <list>
                    <item>1. While centered in CLAL, the VCSLA involves the active participation of
                        national and international researchers at other institutions, incorporating
                        a multi-directional flow of information and a perpetual linkage to the
                        library.</item>
                    <item>2. It incorporates the Virtual Linguistic Lab (VLL), a new web-based
                        interface for data transcription, analysis and access. This interface serves
                        as a common but flexible framework for data entry and access in an
                        interactive manner. This is well under development, and designed to be
                        applicable to both research and teaching.</item>
                    <item>3. The enterprise embodied is cross-linguistic, including data and
                        research on a widely spread set of languages that will be constantly
                        augmented. VLL furnishes a detailed framework, assuring cross-language
                        comparability, and facilitating both entry and access. It will include the
                        considerable resources amassed in CLAL, and that provided by the
                        participants physically located elsewhere. Thus it will necessarily be under
                        constant revision as information flows in both directions.</item>
                    <item>4. The presence of the Mann Library in VCSLA is a special and unique
                        element of its design. Mann Library brings its considerable expertise in the
                        areas of data preservation, data archiving, and metadata management into
                        force on the goals of the enterprise. This effort is consistent with the
                        Cornell Library’s long standing active commitment to outreach activities
                        that more firmly engage the library into faculty research and instruction in
                        non-traditional ways, including several of its current digital and Virtual
                        Library initiatives (See for example, “Reinventing the Humanities: Cornell
                        Librarians and Faculty Members Create Electronic Collaborations”, <title
                            level=""j"">Cornell Library READ!</title>, Winter 2002).</item>
                    <item>5. The cooperative effort with the library is crucial to the functioning
                        of VCSLA. Among other things, it links the VCSLA to the Open Language
                        Archives Community (OLAC), an international partnership of institutions and
                        individuals who are creating a worldwide virtual library of language
                        resources, by agreeing to use The OLAC Metadata Set (OLACMS), a set of
                        metadata elements for describing language resources. This component thus
                        extends the informational and accessibility resources of the VCSLA.The
                        OLACMS Standard uses XML to represent metadata descriptions, and metadata
                        librarians at Mann are engaged in making the Cornell Language Acquisition
                        Lab and associated VCSLA a metadata provider as well as a service provider
                        within OLAC. That is, the library has built the infrastructure that allows
                        the CLAL to share its metadata with other OLAC participants and it also has
                        provided the interface that allows CLAL to harvest the metadata from other
                        OLAC participants.</item>
                    <item>6. There are in existence other forms of electronic data sharing for child
                        language research, notably CHILDES (Carnegie Mellon). VCSLA differs from and
                        is complementary to these in both scope and design, most notably in the
                        incorporation of the VLL format for comparability of data entry and access,
                        and in its essential interactive component. That is, it does not represent
                        simply a databank that allows researchers to access and enter data, but a
                        facility that allows interactive and cooperative communication and research
                        by active scholars who are physically separated by location. It is also
                        designed to be a useful element in the training of students, especially
                        potential researchers in language acquisition Also, as an International
                        Web-Based Interactive Infrastructure, it is designed to incorporate new
                        participants and laboratories worldwide, including areas and countries where
                        resources for training and research in the field are limited or nonexistent.
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>In our presentation we will sketch each of the above components of the VCSLA and
                    its progress to date. We present concrete examples of its applications to both
                    research and teaching in the language sciences.</p>
            </div>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Chinese Collections in Museums on the Web: Current
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                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Hsin-Liang</forename>
                        <surname>Chen</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Graduate School of Library and Information
                                Science</name>, <name type=""org"">UT-Austin</name>
                            <email>chen@gslis.uexas.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>editor</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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            <div>
                <div>
                    <head>INTRODUCTION</head>
                    <p>With the development of computing technology, many Chinese museums and
                        museums with significant Chinese collections have digitized and provided
                        images of their collections on Web sites. These online resources offer users
                        around the world access to valuable treasures to learn about Chinese
                        culture. However, there are obstacles that must be overcome to achieve the
                        goals of promoting the Chinese heritage and educating new generations.</p>
                    <p>The purpose of this project is to study how museum practitioners use current
                        image indexing practices and services to retrieve the images of the Chinese
                        collections. Several issues, including image needs, information-seeking
                        strategies, information queries, search functions, display formats and
                        human-computer interaction are examined in this study.</p>
                    <p>This paper focuses specifically on the current practices of image management.
                        The following questions are addressed:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>What kind of images do the museums index?</item>
                            <item>How do the museums index their image collections?</item>
                            <item>What kind of indexing tools do the museums use?</item>
                        </list></p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM</head>
                    <div>
                        <head>CURRENT IMAGE MANAGEMENT AT MUSEUMS AND ART LIBRARIES</head>
                        <p>Graham (1999) surveyed 60 art libraries in the U.K. The survey included
                            the important issues of image collections, cataloging and indexing
                            practices, content-based image retrieval (CBIR) systems, and the use of
                            images. Graham’s study reports on the current management of image
                            collections and techniques for image and video retrieval in the U.K.
                            Eakins and Graham (1999) study the current state of the art in CBIR
                            systems within the U.K. and submit several suggestions to U.K.
                            governmental agencies, users and managers of image collections, and CBIR
                            software developers. The Visual Image User Study (VIUS) project at Penn
                            State University is conducting an extensive and systematic assessment of
                            its needs for digital image delivery (Pisciotta, et al, 2001). The VIUS
                            project is working to develop digital picture libraries to serve new
                            uses of digital images for teaching and research.</p>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>IMPORTANCE OF INFORMATION NEEDS AND INFORMATION-SEEKING BEHAVIOR TO
                            SYSTEM DESIGN</head>
                        <p>Stephenson (1999) examined several cultural heritage image databases and
                            identified key issues for future improvements. She pointed out that, in
                            addition to technological challenges, the areas of audience, user
                            behavior, and use should be addressed as well. According to Stephenson,
                            museums should examine:<list type=""bulleted"">
                                <item>For whom are museums building an image database?</item>
                                <item>What image databases are museums building?</item>
                                <item>What are those users’ purposes in using the image
                                    database?</item>
                                <item>What functionality do the users need to use the
                                    database?</item>
                            </list></p>
                        <p>These questions reflect a user-centered design philosophy which assists
                            database designers understand their users thoroughly.</p>
                        <div>
                            <head>
                                <emph rend=""italics"">Defining the primary user group</emph>
                            </head>
                            <p>One of the major goals of an online image database is to break the
                                barriers of time differences, geographical locations, and limited
                                physical access to materials. This brings up a critical question:
                                who is the user? The online database is likely to serve a diverse
                                group of users: local and remote users, experienced and naïve
                                users, and existing and new users. Different user services are
                                required for this diverse group of users. Museums should examine the
                                institutional goals and purposes of their online image databases to
                                determine the priority of their missions.</p>
                        </div>
                        <div>
                            <head>
                                <emph rend=""italics"">Understanding anticipated users</emph>
                            </head>
                            <p>After determining their primary user group, the museums should study
                                their users. The following questions should be considered:<list
                                    type=""bulleted"">
                                    <item>Goals of designing an online image database</item>
                                    <item>Differences between existing access to the image
                                        collection and the use of the new online image
                                        database</item>
                                    <item>Anticipated users’ behavior in different locations</item>
                                    <item>Selection of surrogates for image indexing and
                                        retrieval</item>
                                    <item>Information architecture of the online image
                                        database</item>
                                </list></p>
                        </div>
                        <div>
                            <head>
                                <emph rend=""italics"">Supporting discovery and retrieval</emph>
                            </head>
                            <p>To use the online image database successfully, the users should have
                                knowledge of information retrieval in general, subject areas, and
                                search systems. On the other hand, the museums should investigate
                                the following factors:<list type=""bulleted"">
                                    <item>Indexing standards such as metadata</item>
                                    <item>Query analysis</item>
                                    <item>Effectiveness and efficiency of indexing tools and
                                        methods</item>
                                    <item>Multi-dimensional indexing and retrieval methods</item>
                                    <item>Users’ capabilities</item>
                                    <item>User support and training</item>
                                </list></p>
                        </div>
                        <div>
                            <head>
                                <emph rend=""italics"">Supporting functionality</emph>
                            </head>
                            <p>New functions may be created to facilitate users’ search strategies.
                                To achieve such goals, studies on interface design, human-computer
                                interaction, and users’ information-seeking behavior should be
                                conducted. Different tools may be required by special users and
                                environments.</p>
                        </div>
                        <div>
                            <head>
                                <emph rend=""italics"">Other challenges</emph>
                            </head>
                            <p>In addition to the above key issues, the museums also face several
                                    challenges:<list type=""bulleted"">
                                    <item>lack of communication among museums;</item>
                                    <item>lack of indexing standards and tools; and</item>
                                    <item>lack of translation standards of Chinese into western
                                        languages.</item>
                                </list></p>
                            <p>Chinese museums and museums with significant Chinese collections
                                should form a consortium to establish communication and to develop
                                collaboration. Many western museums have begun those efforts. The
                                Art Museum Image Consortium (AMICO) is one of those consortiums, but
                                its image collections only have about 6,000 works from Asian
                                cultures (AMICO, 2001). The lack of indexing standards and tools is
                                the same challenge for all museums. Most museums either develop
                                their own indexing standards and tools or do not have adequate
                                professional personnel to manage their image collections (CLIR,
                                1999; Graham, 1999). Regarding translation standards, although
                                American libraries started using Pinyin as the standard romanization
                                scheme for Chinese characters on October 1, 2000 (RLG, 2000), many
                                museums may not be aware of this change and may still use the
                                Wade-Giles system. These challenges are important to the development
                                of image collections.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>METHODOLOGY</head>
                    <div>
                        <head>PARTICIPANTS</head>
                        <p>Six museums were selected for this study based on the size and diversity
                            of their Chinese collections or their image management. The six
                            participating museums were in the states of California, Illinois,
                            Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, and Washington, D.C.</p>
                    </div>
                    <div>
                        <head>PROCEDURE</head>
                        <div>
                            <head>
                                <emph rend=""italics"">Pre-visit questionnaire</emph>
                            </head>
                            <p>A set of self-administered questionnaires was used to collect
                                librarians’ views on cataloging/indexing practices, the functions of
                                new image management systems, and the use of images. The
                                questionnaires were distributed to librarians before an on-site
                                visit and were collected between January and April 2002.</p>
                        </div>
                        <div>
                            <head>
                                <emph rend=""italics"">Follow-up phone interview</emph>
                            </head>
                            <p>After all respondents answered the questionnaires, the investigator
                                examined the questionnaires and conducted phone interviews with the
                                respondents for unclear answers and in-depth information. The
                                investigator identified several key people for observations and
                                interviews when visiting museums.</p>
                        </div>
                        <div>
                            <head>
                                <emph rend=""italics"">On-site visit</emph>
                            </head>
                            <p>Based on the knowledge gained from the questionnaires and phone
                                interviews, on-site visits were conducted between June and August
                                2002. The investigator observed librarians and museum practitioners’
                                image seeking behavior and also interviewed those people for further
                                understanding of their search behavior. The investigator interviewed
                                museum administrators to obtain their expectations for digital image
                                management in the mission of the museum.</p>
                        </div>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>RESULTS AND DISCUSSION</head>
                    <p>According to the questionnaires, observations, and interviews, the
                        investigator reports on the current status, problems, and future of image management:<list>
                            <item><emph rend=""italics"">Current Status</emph>: all six museums have
                                been digitizing the Chinese collections. Photographic prints,
                                photographic negatives, and transparencies/slides (35 mm) are the
                                most popular formats. All the museums have used or purchased a
                                computer-based image management system to organize the digital
                                images and related information.</item>
                            <item><emph rend=""italics"">Problems</emph>: most museums did not have
                                comprehensive records in the past, so they have spent substantial
                                amounts of their budgets and people-power to establish basic records
                                or re-enter data for the digital images. Their conventional
                                cataloging and indexing practices are not suitable or transferable
                                for the new image management system. Image management systems used
                                by the six museums are not able to accommodate the features of the
                                Chinese collections and their records. Most image management systems
                                are not metadata/XML ready, which means that the expansion of the
                                systems onto the Web may be limited. Each museum has its unique
                                institutional structure, which hinders the workflow of image
                                management and a lack of communication and collaboration exists
                                among museums departments. </item>
                            <item><emph rend=""italics"">Future</emph>: the development of the
                                indexing schema is critical to the management of digital images and
                                to the museum practitioners and on-line users. Image management
                                systems should be enhanced with the standards of metadata/XML, etc.
                                for the Web-based environment. </item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>Regarding the image-seeking behavior of museum practitioners, and the
                        administration's expectations of digital images, the investigator will
                        report the findings of these issues in the future.</p>
                </div>
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                            <title level=""m"">The description and indexing of images: Report of a
                                survey of ARLIS members, 1998/99</title>
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                                    <surname>Pisciotta</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
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                                    <forename type=""first"">R.</forename>
                                    <surname>Brisson</surname>
                                </name>
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                                    <surname>Ferrin</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
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                                    <surname>Dooris</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
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                                    <forename type=""first"">A.</forename>
                                    <surname>Spink</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Penn State Visual Image User Study</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">D-Lib Magazine</title>
                            <imprint>
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                                <biblScope type=""pp""/>
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                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>URL: <ptr
                                target=""http://www.dlib.org/dlib/july01/pisciotta/07pisciotta.html""
                            />(access September 2001).</note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name type=""org"">Research Libraries Group (RLG)</name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""u"">Library of Congress, other US libraries join
                                international community on use of Pinyin</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>URL: <ptr target=""http://www.rlg.org/pr/pr20000-pinyin.html""/>(access
                            September, 2001)..</note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">C.</forename>
                                    <surname>Stephenson</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">“Recent developments in cultural heritage image
                                databases: directions for user-centered design</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">Library-Trends</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol"">48</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""issue"">2</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">410-437</biblScope>
                                <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
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                    <p>The first ten years of the web have largely represented a triumph of
                        interconnectedness over functionality: in the late nineteen eighties and
                        early nineteen nineties information resources and teaching tools were being
                        developed that were highly sophisticated and interactive. The web, for all
                        its benefits of connectivity, actually resulted in a massive downturn in
                        functionality, and we are only now able to recover some of those functions
                        with newer developments. A paradigm example of this loss of functionality is
                        in the <title level=""m"">Oxford English Dictionary</title>: the first version
                        of this, released in the late 1980s, with a DOS interface, represented a
                        revolution in data access. Version 2, released in 1992 with a Windows
                        interface added little in terms of functionality, but a great deal in terms
                        of access. However, OED Online, released in 1999, gave connectivity and
                        wider access at the cost of a huge loss of the functions that many users had
                        come to rely upon—so much so that many users have never made the transition
                        from CD. This is by no means the fault of the developers, but is a
                        consequence of the platform that we are all now using.</p>
                    <p>New resources are now being developed for data access and retrieval that take
                        full advantage of the benefits of interconnectedness, while giving us
                        enhanced functionality and also allowing us to integrate complex
                        technologies into an apparently seamless whole. This paper will discuss the
                        development of an advanced Internet resource, Forced Migration Online (<ptr
                            target=""http://www.forcedmigration.org""/>) that was launched in November
                        2002.</p>
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                    <head>THE STUDY OF FORCED MIGRATION</head>
                    <p>Forced migration is defined by the International Association for the Study of
                        Forced Migration as ‘a general term that refers to the movements of refugees
                        and internally displaced people (those displaced by conflicts) as well as
                        people displaced by natural or environmental disasters, chemical or nuclear
                        disasters, famine, or development projects’. Forced migration studies are
                        essentially interdisciplinary, drawing from anthropology, history, politics,
                        international law, sociology, psychology, and many other disciplines in the
                        humanities and social sciences. The documentary base of the subject has
                        grown rapidly over the last twenty years, and scholars and practitioners in
                        the field rely for their information and studies upon a diverse body of
                        work: conventional books and journals, but also largely ‘grey’ (unpublished
                        or semi-published) literature. This grey literature can be difficult to get
                        hold of, as it derives from so many different sources: government agencies,
                        non-governmental organizations, academic sources, etc.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>THE DEVELOPMENT OF FORCED MIGRATION ONLINE</head>
                    <p>The development of Forced Migration Online (FMO) began in 1997 at the Refugee
                        Studies Centre (RSC) at the University of Oxford. The RSC has the world’s
                        largest collection of grey literature on forced migration (some 15,000
                        items) and the Andrew W Mellon Foundation granted funding for a portion of
                        this to be digitized. In 2000, the Mellon Foundation and the European Union
                        gave further funding for the development of an integrated portal to be
                        developed on forced migration. The project to develop this portal has been
                        led by the RSC, but with technical and content partners from around the
                        world: the FMO team coordinates participants in some 10 institutions and is
                        working with many more than this to develop content further. FMO now
                        contains 100,000 pages of fully searchable grey literature, 30,000 pages of
                        full-text journal materials, a number of specially-commissioned research
                        guides, a web catalogue with c. 700 entries, an organizations database with
                        c. 800 records, and a prototype image database.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>CREATING INFORMATION ARCHITECTURES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF FMO</head>
                    <p>As anyone engaged in the development of digital libraries and portals knows
                        only too well, there is no one obvious tool or technology to implement such
                        complex information resources, though many are currently in development. In
                        FMO, there are a number of different technologies underlying the resource: a
                        complexity which is well hidden from the user, for whom access is relatively
                        simple. The full-text documents are presented using Olive Software’s Active
                        Paper Archive, which was originally developed for presentation of historic
                        newspaper content on the web, and which has proved an excellent choice for
                        the grey literature and journals. FMO is the first project that has used
                        this product in this way, and the development was a joint research project
                        between the FMO technical teams at the RSC and at the Centre for Computing
                        in the Humanities at King’s College London (CCH), and Olive Software. The
                        structured information resources and catalogues are delivered using Esprit
                        Soutron’s xdirectory content management system, and various research guides
                        and other documents are created and presented by means of XML/XSLT.</p>
                    <p>The core challenge is one of integration: integration of a wide variety of
                        information types, drawn from geographically separated repositories capable
                        of providing widely disparate levels of metadata; integration of materials
                        in numerous languages in a variety of scripts; integration of the multiple
                        technologies required to meet the differing information processing and
                        delivery functions; integration of academic analysis and advice for
                        practitioners, and of information and knowledge, to meet widely varying user
                        requirements.</p>
                    <p>Delivering a coherent and integrated resource in a seamless way is a
                        non-trivial technical challenge. It involves visual design, architectural
                        design, development of DTDs and style sheets, and the implementation of
                        leading edge (and therefore constantly evolving) products. Managing the
                        input from so many people and places around the world represents another
                        layer of challenge.</p>
                    <p>This paper assesses the problems of developing and integrating these complex
                        technologies into a hybrid information environment, in particular looking a
                        metadata, cataloguing, preservation, delivery and accessibility issues. It
                        reports on the solutions and partial solutions developed so far, and
                        assesses the extent to which the solutions fall short of the ideal. It also
                        discusses a range of further challenges that the FMO team is now tackling:
                        automatic metadata extraction from journal cross-searching tools for
                        different products using advanced APIs; using focused crawlers as aids to
                        cataloguing; automatic categorization of documents for the creation of
                        regional and topical browse sets. The progress in meeting these challenges
                        will be discussed in the context of the more established work in the
                        project.</p>
                    <p>The paper also places the project in a wider context: of past and current
                        work in the development and delivery of scholarly resources, including a
                        number of projects at IATH in Virginia, in CCH at King's College London, and
                        elsewhere; and of digital library research and development, including
                        projects such as the ‘hybrid library’ projects funded by the UK government
                        (including the Malibu project), the DSpace initiative of MIT and others, and
                        the Mellon-funded FEDORA project based at Virginia and Cornell.</p>
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                    Medieval and Renaissance Manuscripts Between Data-Centric and Document-Centric
                    Models: A Case Study</title>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Elizabeth</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">J.</forename>
                        <surname>Shaw</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Aziza Technology Associates</name>
                            <email>ejshaw@azizatech.com</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>editor</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                    </name>
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                <div>
                    <p>This paper will discuss a case study of the dual direction migration of
                        metadata describing medieval and renaissance manuscript collections between
                        the Digital Scriptorium database schema and an XML DTD developed to encode
                        extant manuscript descriptions. This discussion highlights the challenges
                        and tensions that exist in trying to merge data that is captured in
                        different data models, roughly categorized as data-centric and
                        document-centric. The observations garnered from this study may have broader
                        implications for other efforts to meld distinct descriptive models for
                        unitary searching and resource discovery.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>CONTEXT</head>
                    <p>The author was hired by Digital Scriptorium to:<list>
                            <item>1)provide XML —> HTML XSLT transformations of an electronic
                                version of the Huntington Library “Guide to Medieval and Renaissance
                                Manuscripts” which has been encoded in the TEI Medieval Manuscripts
                                Description Work Group (TEI MMSS) draft DTD ,</item>
                            <item>2) migrate data from the existing Digital Scriptorium database to
                                the the draft DTD and</item>
                            <item>3) migrate the TEI-MMSS encoded “Guide” to the Digital
                                Scriptorium’s existing database schema.</item>
                        </list>lIn the context of this work, many interesting challenges have come
                        to light.</p>
                    <p>The Digital Scriptorium database schema and the TEI MMSS draft DTD are
                        closely allied since some of the same people worked on both data models.
                        However, significant differences exist in nomenclature and structuring of
                        the data, both because the TEI MMSS DTD is an extension of TEI and because
                        the purpose of the TEI MMSS DTD is to allow for the capture of extant
                        descriptive information. The database schema, created prior to the DTD is a
                        more constrained data model and uses slightly different elements and
                        nomenclature for its basis.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>DESCRIPTIVE TRADITIONS</head>
                    <p>Although the library community has largely settled on a particular
                        record-based model for descriptive information (the MARC record and AACR2)
                        about printed works, serials and selected media, many communities of
                        practice that have need of description to facilitate resource discovery and
                        scholarship have no such common standard. In many cases, a narrative form of
                        description has evolved in an attempt to capture the particular descriptive
                        needs of the curators and users of the materials. Descriptive practice in
                        disciplines such as manuscript collection or archives has varied greatly
                        across nations, institutions and within individual institutions over time.
                        This evolution has largely been dependent on the interests, energies and
                        capabilities of individual curators.</p>
                    <p>Furthermore, descriptive practice varies greatly between communities of
                        practice because of the particular characteristics of the disciplines that
                        they support. Both the elements of description fundamental to supporting
                        work and the nature of their expression may be unique. That these
                        descriptive needs vary greatly has become more obvious as efforts to develop
                        single metadata standards or standards that easily map across disciplines
                        have had limited success.</p>
                    <p>Nonetheless, these communities often face similar problems as they attempt to
                        migrate their formerly print based description to an electronic form that
                        can be shared across institutions. Each community must revalidate what
                        aspect of description is important to the work of the community, 2) define a
                        common way of expressing information about those important things and 3)
                        develop a model that accurately captures that information. The work must be
                        done in an environment with no uniform extant practice and differing
                        philosophies about the nature, scope and role of description in the
                        discipline. This paper will focus on two approaches to capturing significant
                        descriptive data within the same discipline and examine the challenges in
                        merging the two.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>DATA-CENTRIC VS. DOCUMENT CENTRIC DATA MODELS</head>
                    <p>The numerous schemes for descriptive metadata that have emerged since the
                        advent of the web vary greatly in their scope, complexity and underlying
                        assumptions about the nature of descriptive practice. Ronald Bourret’s
                        article XML and Databases and his associated materials provide an
                        interesting framework from which to view these different approaches to
                        capturing descriptive metadata. The emerging practices might be categorized
                        into two distinct models:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item><emph rend=""bold"">Data-Centric models:</emph> These record-like
                                models capture discrete data elements in a structure that is well
                                represented in a flat or relational model (ie. Dublin Core, MARC).
                                Often these flat or relational representations atomize data at the
                                most discrete levels at which one might manipulate it. Some require
                                or enforce the normalization of the data, institute data typing and
                                constrain the syntactical expression in which it is represented. The
                                Digital Scriptorium database schema follows this record-like model,
                                though without some of the rigor of syntax that is required in a
                                MARC record.</item>
                            <item><emph rend=""bold"">Document-Centric models:</emph> These models
                                capture more narrative or discursive, often complex, hierarchical
                                descriptions. Often, they allow considerable flexibility in what
                                data elements are required, the form in which data is expressed, and
                                rarely (especially prior to the advent of XML Schema) utilize data
                                typing to constrain the expression of information.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>These document-centric models may further be categorized as those that
                        provide a representation of an idealized model of descriptive practice and
                        those that represent extant descriptive practice. Those that attempt to
                        capture an electronic edition of an extant description are often the least
                        rigorous in their requirements for data elements and normalization because
                        of the need to accommodate heterogenous practice. The tension between
                        representing an idealized model of a particular document structure—either to
                        facilitate machine processing of the data or to enforce practice in a
                        community—and providing a model that captures existing representations has
                        been discussed extensively by authors such as Piez and in efforts to develop
                        data models such as the TEI dictionaries DTD</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>CAPTURING EXTANT DESCRIPTION</head>
                    <p>Although document-like descriptions from various institutions and time frames
                        seem similar in format they often contain distinctly different elements of
                        description in distinct orders and with variant nomenclature. This has
                        presented challenges to the developers of DTDs and schemas that attempt to
                        capture descriptive metadata in these communities of practice. DTDs such as
                            <emph rend=""italics"">Encoded Archival Description</emph> (EAD) and the
                        TEI MMSS draft DTD are explicitly designed to accommodate a variety of
                        extant descriptive practice rather than constrain practice to the schema
                        developers’ prescribed notions of practice.</p>
                    <p>The extant documents that are encoded using these models often differ greatly
                        from their record-like cousins. Narrative and complex, they utilize indirect
                        reference, inference from context (the description of a manuscript written
                        in French may never explicitly state the language in which it is written,
                        assuming that the reader can discern from the quoted text imbedded in the
                        description), inference from relationships to siblings or parent elements,
                        and assumptions about relationships of the parts of the description that are
                        not explicit. Although a human reader can infer these relationships, the
                        lack of explicitness makes it more difficult to capture characteristics of
                        the described object in machine processable ways. To capture this
                        information explicitly requires modifying the extant description.
                        Data-centric models tend to capture this information in explicit ways from
                        the start.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>MIGRATING DATA</head>
                    <p>Many practitioners and users of existing descriptive material find that even
                        when description is reworked by knowledgeable humans in order to import it
                        to a data-centric metadata representation, the records fail to capture
                        significant information that is embedded in the narrative of these extant
                        descriptions. In many cases, the original cataloger has specialized
                        knowledge of either the collection being described or of the field of study.
                        References to other significant or related work, connections between objects
                        in the collections are often lost in their transformation to data-centric
                        descriptions</p>
                    <p>Tensions between models for capturing descriptive metadata are often
                        amplified at the point at which migration occurs. Automated efforts to
                        migrate encoded extant description have met with mixed success. Chris Prom’s
                        migration of EAD encoded descriptions to Dublin Core RDF records for
                        importation into a cultural heritage OAI database points to some of the
                        problems inherent in automated migration of extant data. Lundberg discusses
                        the implications for information retrieval of data encoded in XML.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>THE DIGITAL SCRIPTORIUM: CASE STUDY</head>
                    <p>This paper reports on the outcomes of the effort to automate the migration of
                        data captured in two distinct models and the resulting implications for
                        resource discovery. The paper describes:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>the differing data models,</item>
                            <item>the process by which the migration occurred,</item>
                            <item>the challenges faced both in migration from relational database to
                                XML and in migration from XML to a relational database model,</item>
                            <item>the development of a relational database model that attempts to
                                capture both the XML encoded manuscript descriptions as well as the
                                data in the existing database</item>
                            <item>the trade-offs in these various representations and</item>
                            <item>the implications for information display and resource
                                discovery.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>By highlighting points of ambiguity, strengths and weaknesses of the
                        different approaches to metadata capture and challenges in merging the data
                        into the same repository, it is hoped that this study will inform the work
                        of others who face similar challenges in their efforts to provide
                        descriptive metadata to their user communities.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>REFERENCES</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Ronald</forename>
                                    <surname>Bourret</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""u"">XML and Databases</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>
                            <ptr target=""http://www.rpbourret.com/xml/XMLAndDatabases.htm""/>
                        </note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first""/>
                                    <surname/>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""u"">Digital Scriptorum</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>
                            <ptr target=""http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Scriptorium/""/>
                        </note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first""/>
                                    <surname/>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""u"">Digital Scriptorium Database Schema</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>
                            <ptr target=""http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Scriptorium/datadic5.html""/>
                        </note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first""/>
                                    <surname/>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""u"">Encoded Archival Description</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>
                            <ptr target=""http://www.loc.gov/ead/""/>
                        </note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Sigfrid</forename>
                                    <surname>Lundberg</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Excursions along the border between metadata for
                                resource discovery and for resource description</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j""/>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol""/>
                                <biblScope type=""issue""/>
                                <biblScope type=""pp""/>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>
                            <ptr
                                target=""http://laurentius.lub.lu.se/search/presentation/laurentius.pdf""
                            />
                        </note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Wendell</forename>
                                    <surname>Piez</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Beyond the ‘descriptive vs. procedural’
                                distinction</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m"">Extreme Markup Languages</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Montreal, Canada</pubPlace>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">197-214</biblScope>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Christopher</forename>
                                    <surname>Prom</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Does EAD play Well with Other Metadata Standards?:
                                Searching and Retrieving EAD using the OAI Protocols</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">Journal of Archival Organization</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <biblScope type=""vol"">1</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""issue"">3</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""pp""/>
                                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>(Forthcoming).</note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first""/>
                                    <surname/>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""u"">TEI dictionaries DTD</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>
                            <ptr target=""http://www.tei-c.org/P4X/DI.htm""/>
                        </note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first""/>
                                    <surname/>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""u"">TEI Medieval Manuscripts Description Work Group (TEI
                                MMSS) draft DTD</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date/>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>
                            <ptr target=""http://www.stg.brown.edu/~tei-mmss/""/>
                        </note>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">The Charles W. Cushman Collection: Enhancing Visual
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Linda</forename>
                        <surname>Cantara</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Indiana University Libraries</name>
                            <email>lcantara@indiana.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
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                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
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                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
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                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
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                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
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                <p>The Charles W. Cushman Collection<note n=""1"">This project is funded by an IMLS
                        National Leadership Grant.</note> comprises nearly 18,000 Kodachrome slides,
                    captured from 1938 to 1969 by Charles Weever Cushman, an accomplished amateur
                    photographer, world traveler, and pioneer in the use of color photography.
                    Cushman bequeathed the collection to his alma mater, Indiana University, on his
                    death in 1972, yet its existence was virtually unknown until late 1999 when a
                    university archivist rediscovered the suitcases in which the slides were stored,
                    along with Cushman’s notebooks containing identifying information and dates for
                    each slide. The images visually document in color the vernacular history of
                    people, places, and events that have previously been seen only or primarily in
                    black and white. To provide online access to the collection, a project team at
                    Indiana—including staff of the Digital Library Program, the University Archives,
                    and the University Libraries— has digitized the slides and has designed a
                    relational database to document administrative, technical, and descriptive
                    metadata about the images. Transcriptions of Cushman’s notebook annotations and
                    corresponding documentation on slide mounts will be keyword searchable. In
                    addition, we are creating descriptive metadata for each image by assigning terms
                    for subject content, genre, physical characteristics, and geographic location.
                    The terms are selected from standard controlled vocabularies, primarily the
                    Library of Congress Thesauri for Graphic Materials (TGM I and TGM II), but also
                    Library of Congress Authorities Files (LCAF) and the Getty Thesaurus of
                    Geographic Names (TGN). When all the slides have been cataloged, the database
                    will be mapped to an XML format—most likely Encoded Archival Description (EAD)
                    but possibly Metadata Object Description Schema (MODS)—and will be searchable
                    over the Web.</p>
                <p>The use of controlled vocabularies in the descriptive metadata of a large image
                    collection has the potential to optimize visual resource discovery, but many
                    issues must be addressed and resolved to ensure the expense of assigning the
                    terms truly results in improved image retrieval:<list type=""bulleted"">
                        <item>The Library of Congress Thesaurus for Graphic Materials I: Subject
                            Terms (TGM I) and Thesaurus for Graphic Materials II: Genre and Physical
                            Characteristic Terms (TGM II) include topic headings developed by the
                            Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division over the past fifty
                            years to catalog graphic materials. In adherence with ANSI/NISO
                                Z39.19-1994,<note n=""2"">ANSI/NISO Z39.19-1984 is the American
                                National Standards Institute/National Information Standards
                                Organization Guidelines for the Construction, Format and Management
                                of Monolingual Thesauri. NISO recently announced plans to revise
                                these guidelines: see <ptr
                                    target=""http://www.niso.org/committees/MT-info.html""/>.</note>
                            terms are expressed in natural language word order following American
                            English spelling conventions. Although new terms are added regularly
                            based on proposals submitted by catalogers (Alexander), these thesauri
                            frequently lack the specificity desirable for describing individual
                            images. In addition, regardless of the domain knowledge and cataloging
                            expertise of personnel performing image analysis to assign subject
                            headings, inconsistencies are inevitable. Professional catalogers of
                            traditional media readily acknowledge that subject analysis of printed
                            materials may vary from cataloger to cataloger as well as from day to
                            day. In this paper, I will discuss how we have attempted to approximate
                            consistency of image analysis by multiple catalogers, the quality
                            control procedures we have implemented to further ensure uniformity of
                            subject term assignment, and the “work- arounds” we have devised to deal
                            with encountered inadequacies in the selected controlled
                            vocabularies.</item>
                        <item>The Digital Library Federation, the Getty Grant Program, and the
                            Andrew W. Mellon Foundation in cooperation with Rice University are
                            currently sponsoring a Visual Resources Association (VRA) review and
                            evaluation of existing data content standards and current practice in
                            order to compile a guide to good practice for describing cultural
                            objects and images. The forthcoming Cataloguing Cultural Objects: A
                            Guide to Describing Cultural Objects and their Images—the CCO Guide—will
                            provide recommendations and examples for using data value standards
                            tools and building authority records.<note n=""3"">See <ptr
                                    target=""http://www.vraweb.org/projects.html""/> and “Project
                                Proposal for Guide to Good Practice: Cataloging Standards for
                                Describing Cultural Objects and Images,” Digital Library Federation,
                                January 12, 2001, at <ptr
                                    target=""http://www.diglib.org/standards/vrawork.htm""/>.</note>
                            Used in concert with XML data structure and communication standards, the
                            CCO Guide will facilitate consistent creation of descriptive metadata
                            for visual resources, enabling interactive and complex search options.
                            Paradoxically, Open Archive Initiative Metadata Harvester (OAI-PMH)
                            service providers require data providers map rich metadata to
                            unqualified Dublin Core, while content aggregators like the Research
                            Libraries Group (RLG) Cultural Materials service must currently treat
                            all controlled vocabulary terms as keywords.<note n=""4"">See the Research
                                Libraries Group (RLG) Cultural Materials site at <ptr
                                    target=""http://culturalmaterials.rlg.org/cmiprod/workspace.jsp""
                                />. In this regard, the RLG states, “Ultimately, we hope to add
                                powerful ‘assisted searching’ tools, to help users navigate across
                                different vocabularies and subject schemes, but in the meantime we
                                are simply using whatever subject terms are provided in the source
                                data.” (See <ptr
                                    target=""http://www.rlg.org/culturalres/descguide.html#content""
                                />).</note> Although neither OAI service providers nor RLG preclude
                            the use of multiple or complex metadata formats, content creators
                            nevertheless face a quandary: why commit extensive and expensive
                            personnel hours to create increasingly rich metadata when interoperable
                            and federated access is possible when implementing simpler, less costly,
                            metadata standards?<note n=""5"">I am, of course, playing the devil’s
                                advocate here.</note></item>
                        <item>The foremost concern when designing and implementing an image
                            retrieval system should be the searching needs of the user community
                            (Sundt). Art historians, for example, may be trained in the use of one
                            or more controlled vocabularies specific to art images,<note n=""6"">For
                                example, Getty Art &amp; Architecture Thesaurus (AAT) at <ptr
                                    target=""http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabulary/aat/""/>,
                                ICONCLASS at http://www.iconclass.nl/, and Categories for the
                                Description of Works of Art at <ptr
                                    target=""http://www.getty.edu/research/institute/standards/cdwa/index.html""
                                />.</note> but users of vernacular photography collections may have
                            limited experience with any controlled vocabulary. Since lack of
                            familiarity with the underlying vocabulary tools may actually diminish
                            rather than enhance user interaction, the search interface should
                            ideally facilitate direct mining of the encoded metadata, directing the
                            user to broader, narrower, related and cross-referenced subject terms.
                            This paper will conclude with a review of our usability test findings in
                            respect to a prototype interface that integrates TGM I and II terms into
                            the search facilities for the Cushman Collection.</item>
                    </list></p>
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            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>REFERENCES</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct type=""journalArticle"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Arden</forename>
                                    <surname>Alexander</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Tracy</forename>
                                    <surname>Meehleib</surname>
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                            <title level=""u"">Library of Congress Thesauri of Graphic Materials: TGM
                                I (Subjects) and TGM II (Genre and Physical Characteristics
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                        </monogr>
                        <note>&lt;<ptr target=""http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/tgm1/""/>&gt;
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                                    <surname>Sundt</surname>
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"278","4","Preservation of the New Media Arts","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Megan</forename>
                        <surname>Winget</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">UNC - Chapel Hill</name>
                            <email>winget@email.unc.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>editor</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                <p>It has become a commonplace to declare that we are living through one of the
                    great epochs of human discovery. “The digital revolution.” The Internet as a
                    “fundamental and extensive force of change.” With the advent of the Internet as
                    a mode of communication and information discovery, we are leading lives, and
                    facing challenges undreamed of in previous generations except as the stuff of
                    science fiction. But what if it’s actually true? What if we are living through a
                    period as significant as the Renaissance or the Enlightenment? What if our
                    current circumstances are comparable to the Depression? Or the Post–war era? How
                    about the counter–culture revolution of the 60s? Each of these eras, great and
                    small, are marked, not only by their social upheavals, but also by their great
                    strides in artistic representation. The Renaissance had Michelangelo and
                    Leonardo; the Enlightenment had David and Ingres. In the modern era, we have
                    Frank Lloyd Wright, Piet Mondrian, Mark Rothko, Andy Warhol, Georgia O’Keeffe,
                    le Corbusier, Picasso, Matisse, and the list goes on and on. Great artists,
                    whose work helps us make sense of the past. Of course, we also have meaningful
                    contemporary art—but there’s a problem. Whereas we can still look at
                    Michelangelo’s paintings and sculptures, and in many cases, can look at
                    preliminary studies and drawings—we’re running the risk of loosing contemporary
                    art as soon as ten years after its creation</p>
                <p>The new media art community has recently come to the realization that the objects
                    and ideas of their most compelling thinkers and artists run the risk of
                    disappearing forever, because these objects are often in digital or other
                    variable formats, which tend to rapidly become, at best, inaccessible; and at
                    worst, irretrievably lost. Unless there is a systematic and persistent
                    exploration of preservation and archival procedures for these significant
                    cultural objects, they will, in all likelihood, not be accessible for future
                    generations of artists, scholars, or the general public. One of the new media
                    community’s most important advances towards this goal of systematic
                    investigation is the development of the “Archiving the Avant-Garde” project,
                    which brings together new media venues, curators, and artists to devise possible
                    solutions to this very difficult problem of the disappearing objects of the
                    avant-garde.</p>
                <p>There are three distinct challenges that the new media art community has to
                    confront. They must first assess the nature and goals of new media art in
                    general. It’s very difficult to preserve a nebulous “something,” especially if
                    that “something” is a complex series of digital objects with variable and
                    intricate relationships between parts and the whole, which also happens to
                    comment and feed off of a culture in which the conservator is currently living.
                    Unless the preserving agency has a convincing vision of what is intrinsically
                    important to maintain, the resulting objects run the risk of being inauthentic
                    and/or presenting an inaccurate indication of the artist’s intentions.</p>
                <p>It would also be prudent for this community to consider the current state of art
                    conservation and preservation in related fields. It’s important to recognize the
                    challenges and philosophical conflicts that art conservators of the last half
                    century have faced. No matter how cutting edge and exciting these new media
                    artifacts are, they are not being created in a vacuum, and conservators have
                    faced similar (although not digital) problems for hundreds of years. I will
                    specifically review methods of traditional art conservation, and how those
                    professionals are dealing with less stable forms like conceptual and performance
                    art.</p>
                <p>Finally, the community should recognize and reflect on the history of access and
                    preservation from an archival point of view. The project is, after all, called
                    “Archiving the Avant-Garde,” and there are some common tropes and methods within
                    the archival community, particularly the ideas of diplomatics and intrinsic
                    value, for example, that the new media art community might find helpful.</p>
                <p>Information technology professionals and humanist scholars have a responsibility
                    to keep the past alive. The information scientists provide the infrastructure
                    and methodologies, and the humanists provide the interpretive structure and deep
                    understanding from which future generations will gain insight into our
                    collective consciousness. Unless we begin working together, building systems
                    that grow naturally out of the scholarly tradition, rather than expecting the
                    scholarly tradition to twist itself into knots trying to fit within the current
                    Information Infrastructure, we will never be able to transcend the prosaic world
                    of subject headings and metadata elements. Information artists and the new media
                    art organizations are accomplishing, in the work itself, this very feat of
                    bringing together traditional forms of expression with new technologies. We
                    should take a lesson from them. We need to find a way to save and preserve the
                    richness of this experience for future generations.</p>
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"279","4","The Screen or the Window: A Critical Proposal for Reading Computer Representations","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">The Screen or the Window: A Critical Proposal for
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                        <forename type=""first"">Michele</forename>
                        <surname>White</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Wellesley College</name>
                            <email>mwhite@wellesley.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>editor</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
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                <p>The structuring qualities of the computer screen play an important part in how we
                    understand the Internet and other computer-facilitated representations but they
                    are rarely addressed in the critical literature. In this presentation, I
                    consider how the screen and mediation remain largely invisible because the
                    Internet is described as a material setting that users inhabit. I provide a
                    brief study of popular and academic narratives and focus on renderings of the
                    computer and Internet as a window or entrance that appear in telepresence art
                    works, webcams, and advertisements for computer screens. Close visual and
                    textual analysis and critical considerations of photography’s referential
                    aspects are employed. These methodologies provide a way to highlight the
                    computer screen and encourage an alternative understanding of the computer and
                    Internet.</p>
                <p>The tendency to engage with the computer and Internet as physical and animate has
                    significant ramifications. Our conceptualization of the medium determines the
                    questions that we can ask and whether the representational aspects of
                    stereotypes can be perceived and critiqued. Judith Mayne has argued that
                    feminist film theorists such as Laura Mulvey have attributed “the polarity of
                    gender, of masculinity versus femininity, to the very structures of pleasure and
                    identification in the classical cinema” (48). Computers and Internet settings
                    employ similar devices. However, the forms of identification produced by
                    computers and Internet settings have an even more consequential effect because
                    users spend significant amounts of time engaging with computers; computers and
                    networks also appear in film, television, and print advertising; dream or
                    trance-like experiences are often part of the engagement; the user’s
                    identification with characters and other representations can be intense; and
                    there is an idea that people are alive and their bodies are accessible through
                    the Internet.</p>
                <p>Considering the screen rather than the delivered representations is difficult
                    because of the rhetoric about physical and populated Internet settings. For
                    instance, Esther Dyson makes it appear like people live on the Internet rather
                    than use it when she states that “the Net includes all the people, cultures, and
                    communities that live in it” (2). Eduardo Kac uses his telepresence artwork,
                        <title level=""m"">Teleporting an Unknown State</title> (1994/96, 1998, and
                    2001), to render the “Internet as a life-supporting system” (Kac) and suggests
                    that there is “Birth, growth, and death on the Internet” (Kac a). Such
                    narratives about people inhabiting the setting and live interfaces are connected
                    to early descriptions of the computer and Internet. William Gibson suggests that
                    physical settings and screens will combine in the first sentence to <title
                        level=""m"">Neuromancer</title> when he states that “the sky above the port
                    was the color of television, tuned to a dead channel” (3). Gibson starts <title
                        level=""m"">Neuromancer</title>, which had a significant effect on computer
                    culture, with the screen but he displaces its constructed aspects with live
                    programs, cyber “space,” and populated interfaces.</p>
                <p>Internet sites continue to provide “welcome” messages, invitations to enter, and
                    depictions of spatial progressions. For instance, the webcam operator Gwen
                    encourages the spectator to “enter the life of a college student” and Cindy
                    coaxes the spectator to “ENTER ... with an open mind.” A variety or
                    multi-purpose sites are referred to as “portals” and Gretchen Barbatsis, Michael
                    Fegan, and Kenneth Hansen indicate that spectators “engage the computer screen
                    as a gateway to another place.” Window-like effects are employed because they
                    seem to provide views “onto” other terrain, articulate an inside and outside,
                    and suggest that computers and the Internet deliver a continuous spatial
                    landscape. Thomas J. Campanella suggests that “Webcams, the Web’s windows on the
                    world, knit the Net to the physical spaces we inhabit. The accompanying
                    illustration by Jack Desrocher supports this conception by depicting the
                    computer monitor as a curtained window that is incorporated into the home
                    setting. Such renderings make representations seem to be part of the lived space
                    of the spectator.</p>
                <p>The conception that the computer and Internet are a window or portal, which
                    provides an entrance into other places, is related to societal conceptions of
                    photography. Photographic images are often talked about as if they provided
                    direct access to the thing depicted—the referent—rather than being
                    representations. This cultural conception is conveyed by Susan Sontag when she
                    states that photography is “not only an image (as a painting is an image) an
                    interpretation of the real; it is also a trace, something directly stenciled off
                    the real” (154). Internet sites often use data, texts, and graphics instead of
                    digitized photos and digital imaging technologies to make representations seem
                    real. However, society’s usual conception of photography can still provide
                    another example of a technology and cultural form in which the framed aspects of
                    images are often ignored. Histories of photography and other referential
                    media-like film and television-indicate that the physical and animate aspects
                    attributed to the computer and Internet are not unique and that these renderings
                    should be associated with other produced forms. Such photography theorists as
                    Rosalind Krauss, Martha Rosler and John Tagg, also offer some significant
                    literature to employ in engaging with the produced and framed aspects of
                    computer and Internet renderings.</p>
                <p>A re-employment of the photographic vocabulary of cropping and rectangular
                    formats can highlight the relationship between individual screen elements,
                    software windows, and monitors. Noting and articulating the repetitive aspects
                    of computer and Internet representations can also indicate that it is cultural
                    conventions rather than people that are conveyed. For instance, Tagg argues that
                    realism “works by the controlled and limited recall of a reservoir of similar
                    ‘texts,’ by a constant repetition, a constant cross-echoing” (99). Such critical
                    considerations of photography may be more productive in highlighting the
                    produced aspects of computer and Internet settings than in helping society to
                    engage with photography differently. Computers and Internet settings rarely
                    employ traces of material objects in the ways this concept operates in
                    photography. The redeployment of photography theory can also begin to render a
                    new vocabulary for describing and conceptualizing these settings. We should
                    continue to consider other possibilities for speaking, writing, designing, and
                    visually rendering the Internet since these acts produce the setting.</p>
            </div>
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                            </author>
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                            <title level=""a"">The Image World</title>
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"280","4","Visual or Verbal: Two Approaches to Creating an Immersive Virtual Environment","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Visual or Verbal: Two Approaches to Creating an
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                        <forename type=""first"">Eunice</forename>
                        <surname>Johnston</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">North Dakota State University</name>
                            <email>eunice.johnston@ndsu.nodak.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Jeffrey</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">T.</forename>
                        <surname>Clark</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org""> </name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Brian</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">M.</forename>
                        <surname>Slator</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org""> </name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Gary</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">K.</forename>
                        <surname>Clambey</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org""> </name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Aaron</forename>
                        <surname>Bergstrom</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org""> </name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Shawn</forename>
                        <surname>Fisher</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org""> </name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Justin</forename>
                        <surname>Hawley</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org""> </name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">James</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">E.</forename>
                        <surname>Landrum</surname>III<affiliation>
                            <name type=""org""> </name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">David</forename>
                        <surname>Martinson</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org""> </name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">J.</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">Liessman</forename>
                        <surname>Vantine</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org""> </name>
                            <email/>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
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                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
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                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
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                    <resp>editor</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                <p>One benefit of the development of Immersive Virtual Environments (IVEs) for
                    education is that students in the humanities may now encounter and learn about
                    places and cultures that which are difficult to visit or may no longer exist. As
                    increasingly sophisticated graphical interfaces have become possible, many IVEs
                    have decided to use this technology. Yet some might question whether the highest
                    fidelity interface is always necessary or even desirable for the study of the
                    humanities. This project seeks to answer that question by developing two
                    parallel versions of an IVE that represents the Like-a-Fishhook Village and Fort
                    Berthold area in western North Dakota as they existed in 1858, when people lived
                    there, and in 1954, when it was being excavated. Both versions will permit users
                    to explore the environment freely, but one version creates a complete,
                    three-dimensional visual representation while the other is constructed mostly of
                    text with a few carefully chosen images and sounds.</p>
                <p>To understand the story Like-a-Fishhook Village, the last great earth-lodge
                    village in the Great Plains, and Fort Berthold, the nearby fur trading post, is
                    to understand the history of west. The Mandans, who had befriended Lewis and
                    Clark and the Corps of Discovery in 1804–04, and their close neighbors, the
                    Hidatsas and Arikaras, had lived in sedentary earth-lodge communities along the
                    Missouri River for centuries, hunting, raising corn and other crops, and trading
                    extensively with neighboring tribes. Despite a basic similarity of economic and
                    social life, these peoples differed remarkably in language and customs. The
                    unification of these three tribes at Like-a-Fishhook village tells of the
                    significant impact that the coming of European American people had upon Native
                    American cultures. Although they had suffered several epidemics previously, a
                    smallpox epidemic in 1837 reduced the Mandan population to fewer than 200
                    individuals. The Hidatsa and Arikara populations, although not as severely
                    struck, shrank as well. Ethnohistorical evidence suggests that the first
                    permanent residents of Like-a-Fishhook Village were Hidatsa who arrived in 1845,
                    and that they were joined shortly thereafter by a smaller group of Mandans; the
                    two tribes felt it was beneficial to combine their numbers in order to resist
                    the attacks by Sioux tribes in the area. Although living together, each tribe
                    maintained its own language and culture. P. Chouteau, Jr. and Company, an
                    offshoot of the American Fur Company, quickly established a trading post north
                    of the village, and European Americans were part of the community from then on.
                    Many changes occurred in the next forty years. The fur traders were followed by
                    missionaries, United States government representatives, and soldiers, all people
                    who wanted the natives to change their ways. Fur trading resulted in increased
                    competition for natural resources, which caused more friction than usual among
                    the tribes, and the Arikara, hoping for support in the battles against the
                    Sioux, joined the other two tribes at the village in early 1860s. In the mid
                    1880s, the United States government forced the residents to abandon their
                    village life and to take up individual allotments scattered throughout the
                    reservation.</p>
                <p>Archeological salvage excavations were carried out at the site in 1950–52 and in
                    1954 by the State Historical Society of North Dakota, under contracts with the
                    National Park Service and by the River Basin Surveys of the Smithsonian.
                    However, the rising waters from the Garrison Dam and Reservoir project
                    ultimately inundated the site, which now rests about a mile offshore under the
                    waters of Lake Sakakawea (Garrison Reservoir). Although many individuals were
                    involved in that work, the final report was written by G. Hubert Smith and
                    published by the U.S. Department of the Interior (Smith, 1972).</p>
                <p>A multidisciplinary team is creating two parallel IVEs based on the same content:
                    both recreate the village site as it appeared in 1954, when it was being
                    excavated, and also in 1858, when it was occupied, and visitors will be able to
                    “time travel” from one period to the other. The 3-D, graphically rich version is
                    modeled on other IVEs that have been created at NDSU for students to learn to do
                    science by conducting simulated experiments and solving authentic (albeit
                    virtual) problems. Science-based systems of this sort have demonstrated
                    statistically significant impact on student learning in controlled studies
                    (McClean et al., 2001). The great strength of this version is the visual stimuli
                    including an environment that visually depicts all space and creates the sense
                    of moving through that space. In addition, novice users will probably find it
                    easier to learn how to interact with this IVE. The largely text-based version
                    uses the enCore Xpress MOO interface, and while it does allow the inclusion of
                    some visual and audio components, it requires students to use written language
                    to interact with the virtual environment. The MOO be better able to create
                    multiple perspectives of the multiple cultures represented in the site. In
                    addition, students will, after a process that involves review by scholars and
                    others, be able to enrich the MOO with their own writing, to become producers as
                    well as consumers of content. The MOO version is platform independent and
                    requires less bandwidth than the 3-D graphically rich version. Both types of
                    interfaces have the ability to engage users in the environment, but the question
                    is whether one or the other is more effective for certain types of learning.</p>
                <p>The 3-D graphically rich version of the Like-a-Fishhook IVE will be used by
                    archeology students to learn to think like archeologists. However, both versions
                    will be used by a multidisciplinary, writing-intensive humanities class, which
                    will include students from Fort Berthold Community College, descendents of the
                    village inhabitants. Students will experience the site via the IVEs: they will
                    observe, analyze, reflect-and write-about the area, the cultural changes, the
                    history, and the virtual environments themselves. Students from all disciplines
                    will meet together (at least in virtual space) and discuss the conventions of
                    their disciplines. Then they will explore the IVEs together with a set of
                    questions that require exploration and investigation in order to find the
                    answers. They will also write parallel assignments that are appropriate for
                    their disciplines. For example, all students will keep journals to record their
                    visits to the IVEs, journals that stress purposeful observation and inquiry, but
                    each will concentrate on recording the type of information suitable for his or
                    her discipline as they travel through the IVEs. The journals will be used as the
                    basis for other writing assignments. For example, all students might write about
                    an artifact found during the excavation, but the anthropology student might
                    write an analysis of its cultural significance, the creative writing student a
                    poem or a piece of creative non-fiction about it, and the public history student
                    a museum script for it. Longer papers will require additional research using
                    conventional sources as well as more innovative ones like the Digital Archive
                    Network for Anthropology (DANA) being developed at NDSU and which includes 3-D
                    scans of actual objects found at the Like-a-Fishhook site. The creative writer
                    might write a piece of historical fiction, the anthropology student a scholarly
                    article on some aspect of the cultures depicted in the IVEs, and the public
                    history student a brochure for the site such as the ones that are produced for
                    visitors to actual historic sites. Students from all disciplines might
                    collaborate on the making of a short documentary on some aspect of the area or a
                    multi-vocal web essay that combines the expertise and perspective of several
                    disciplines. After a process of review, student writing can be incorporated into
                    the MOO version to enrich it for future visitors.</p>
                <p>The value of each IVE as it relates to the learning in the humanities will be
                    assessed in several ways. The journals kept by the students during their visits
                    to the IVEs will be assessed to determine (1) the level of engagement in each
                    version of the IVE, (2) any differences they note about the different
                    experiences in the IVEs, (3) the type of information they notice in each IVE,
                    and (4) how well they understand the time periods, the cultures, and the places
                    they are observing. In addition, students will complete surveys that ask them to
                    respond to questions that solicit similar information. These results will
                    provide useful information about the strengths and weaknesses of both types of
                    interfaces.</p>
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            <div type=""bibliography"">
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"281","4","Identifying Multiword Tokens Using POS Tagging and Bigram Statistics","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Mark</forename>
                        <surname>Arehart</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Michigan</name>
                            <email>marehart@umich.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>editor</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
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                <p>I describe and evaluate three methods for automatically identifying in English
                    text a frequently occurring type of multiword token, the lexicalized noun
                    compound. The methods combine symbolic part-of-speech information with different
                    measures of collocational strength, namely minimal frequencies of occurrence in
                    a corpus, log likelihood of association, and a combination of these two. The
                    results of testing the methods on two software manuals of approximately 170,000
                    and 210,000 words suggest that although raw frequency is the best single measure
                    overall, the combined strategy is useful to the extent that one favors precision
                    over recall. I also discuss the limitations of the corpora and the test and
                    suggest additional applications of the methods.</p>
                <p>A noun compound, like stone wall or stock market, is a series of nouns that
                    function syntactically as a single noun, inheriting the features of the head
                    (final) noun. In some languages, noun compounds are not separated by whitespace
                    and are thus trivially identifiable as words. For instance, the English compound
                    departure time is Abfahrtzeit in German (Abfahrt ‘departure’ + Zeit ‘time’) and
                    lähtöaika in Finnish (lähtö + aika). A lexicalized compound is one that has
                    acquired a conventional or specialized meaning. The compound garbage man, for
                    instance, could refer to a man made of garbage (cf. snow man) or a man who
                    delivers garbage (cf. milk man), but has a more salient lexicalized meaning. In
                    some cases, lexicalization is reflected in orthography, as in the single words
                    fireman and policeman, and occasionally one finds both multiword and single-word
                    versions, such as air mail and airmail (both attested in the Brown corpus). It
                    would be useful to be able to treat compounds like garbage man as single terms
                    on par with their orthographically unitary counterparts for purposes such as
                    document indexing and classification.</p>
                <p>I approach the task of identifying such compounds as a secondary tokenization
                    step. Tokenization, often unfairly regarded as an uninteresting bit of text
                    preprocessing, requires one to make nontrivial decisions about what constitute
                    minimal “word-like units” for further analysis (Grefenstette &amp;
                    Tapanainen 1994). In addition to garden-variety words, tokens include
                    punctuation, which is important for identifying clause and sentence boundaries,
                    and multiword units. Karttunen et al. (1996) divide these multiword units into
                    several categories: adverbial expressions like “all of a sudden,” prepositions
                    such as “in spite of,” date and time expressions, proper names, “and other
                    units.” Typically, a basic tokenizer first segments the text into simple units,
                    then one or more “multiword staplers” group tokens together again (Karttunen et
                    al. 1996). What is unique about the approach presented here is the combination
                    of part-of-speech information, used to identify noun compounds, and
                    collocational measures. Although “highly collocated” and “lexicalized” are not
                    the same thing, I suggest that the former can serve as one useful indicator of
                    the latter.</p>
                <p>The procedure works as follows. The text is processed by a basic tokenizer,
                    tagged for part-of-speech, and then the noun sequences are extracted. The goal
                    is then to identify the subset of these compounds that might qualify as
                    lexicalized terms by measuring the collocational strength of the component
                    nouns. The simplest way to identify possible collocations is to extract all
                    those that occur at or above a certain frequency cutoff. One might hypothesize,
                    for example, that if a certain noun compound occurs five times in a text, then
                    it has a lexicalized meaning. Collocational strength can also be measured by
                    compiling all of the bigrams found in the text and comparing the rate of
                    co-occurrence of the elements with that expected by chance. Although there are
                    several possible measures, I use the log likelihood statistic, which has been
                    shown to be preferable to alternatives such as chi-square and mutual information
                    (Dunning 1993). To generate collocations of more than two words, a separate
                    bigram merging process is performed on the corpus. If, for example “NASDAQ
                    composite” and “composite index” are both significant collocations, then the
                    trigram “NASDAQ composite index” will be extracted as well if it occurs in the
                    corpus. In practice, this method can generate terms that are quite long, such as
                    “American Stock Exchange Market Value Index,” an example extracted from a
                    portion of the Wall Street Journal corpus. It is also possible to combine these
                    methods, by extracting compounds that are above certain frequency and likelihood
                    threshholds. Although the two measures generally correlate (that is, frequently
                    occurring compounds tend to have larger likelihood scores), they are sensitive
                    in different ways to corpus size.</p>
                <p>To evaluate the procedure, I extracted noun compounds from two software manuals
                    and compared each list to the compounds found in each manual’s index, which
                    would be expected to contain the significant terms. A baseline procedure using
                    all the noun compounds averaged 0.26 precision and 0.77 recall on the texts. In
                    other words, about a quarter of the compounds occurring in the texts were found
                    in the indexes. Recall is less than 1.0 because some ideas or topics that do not
                    occur in the text as compounds are reformulated as such for the index. The 0.77
                    score thus serves as an upper bound on recall. Assigning equal weight to
                    precision and recall, the best performing strategy was to use a minimum
                    frequency of 4 for the first text and 3 for the second, with an average of 0.474
                    precision (82.3% higher than the baseline) and 0.527 recall (31.6% lower than
                    the upper bound). Adding a conservative log likelihood score threshold increased
                    precision by an average of 13.6% but lowered recall by an average of 24.1%.
                    Unless one substantially discounts recall, the likelihood score was not as
                    useful as anticipated.</p>
                <p>The results indicate that measures of collocational strength are useful in
                    separating lexicalized noun compounds, which are profitably viewed as multiword
                    tokens, from nonlexicalized ones that are best analyzed as token sequences. Such
                    methods can facilitate the automatic indexing and classification of documents
                    for textual analysis and search and retrieval applications. Two important
                    limitations on these results are the restriction to a particular kind of
                    technical text and the nature of the test itself. It is by no means self-evident
                    that an index should contain all and only the lexicalized noun compounds of a
                    text. Such a test is at best indirect, and the project should thus be viewed as
                    preliminary work indicating the feasibility of the approach. Future work will
                    test the generalizability and robustness of the methods by identifying other
                    tests, such as using a glossary rather than an index, and applying the methods
                    to corpora of different sizes and genres.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Cluster Analysis of the Newcastle Electronic Corpus of
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                        <forename type=""first"">Herbert</forename>
                        <surname>Moisl</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Newcastle</name>
                            <email>hermann.moisl@ncl.ac.uk</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Val</forename>
                        <surname>Jones</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Twente</name>
                            <email>jones@cs.utwente.nl</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
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                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
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                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
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                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                    <p>The Newcastle Electronic Corpus of Tyneside English (NECTE) project is based
                        on two separate corpora of recorded speech, one of them collected in the
                        late 1960s as part of the Tyneside Linguistic Survey (TLS), and the other in
                        1994 by the Phonological Variation and Change in Contemporary Spoken English
                        (PVC) project. Its aim is to combine the TLS and the PVC collections into a
                        single corpus and to make it available to the research community in a
                        variety of formats: digitized sound, phonetic transcription, and standard
                        orthographic transcription, all aligned and available on the Web.</p>
                    <p>We are currently developing a methodology to study NECTE from a
                        sociolinguistic point of view, and have begun by looking at the one
                        formulated by the TLS, which was radical at the time and remains so today:
                        in contrast to the then-universal and even now dominant theory-driven
                        approach, where social and linguistic factors are selected by the analyst on
                        the basis of a predefined model, the TLS proposed a fundamentally empirical
                        approach in which salient factors are extracted from the data itself and
                        then serve as the basis for model construction. To this end, an electronic
                        corpus was created from a subset of the data, and various cluster analysis
                        algorithms were applied to it in order to derive social and linguistic
                        classifications of the sample. Stability of classifications across different
                        clustering methods was already a known theoretical problem. The clustering
                        techniques available at the time, and still widely used today, are sensitive
                        to factors such as vector distance measure, clustering algorithm, and the
                        order in which data items are presented —different combinations of these
                        factors typically yield different analyses of the same dataset. These
                        effects were observed in the TLS classifications. In an experiment on
                        artificial data sets Jones (1979) demonstrated that certain combinations of
                        clustering algorithms are capable of imposing erroneous structure on data
                        which was inherently unclassifiable (by design). The types of structurings
                        derived were consistent with theory and observation; for example Ward’s
                        method tended to ‘discover’ spherical clusters irrespective of the natural
                        structure of the data and classifications were shown to be sensitive to
                        input order of datapoints. These properties of clustering techniques raise
                        at least two issues relating to validation of classifications:<list
                            type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>objectivity—to what extent does a given analysis represent the
                                actual structure of the data, and to what extent is it an artefact
                                of the clustering method?</item>
                            <item>selection—upon what criteria does one choose among alternative
                                analyses?</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>We seek an approach to classification which improves on the methods available
                        at the time when the first analyses of the TLS data were conducted, that is,
                        techniques as insensitive as possible to variation in the sort of parameters
                        identified above. In this paper we consider as a candidate a method that had
                        not been invented when the TLS was active —the self-organizing map (SOM).
                        The discussion is in three main parts. The first part outlines the TLS
                        methodology, the second describes self-organizing maps, and the third
                        compares the consistency of the analytical methods used by the TLS with that
                        of the SOM relative to the TLS phonetic data.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>TLS METHODOLOGY</head>
                    <p>The TLS aimed to model the overall linguistic variability of an urban
                        community, that of Tyneside in north-east England, and more
                            specifically<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>to identify and exhaustively characterise the varieties of speech
                                which co-occur in that area, and</item>
                            <item>to determine the distribution of both the speech varieties and
                                their constituent elements across the relevant social
                                subgroups</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>To achieve this aim, a methodology was proposed which differed fundamentally
                        from the one standard at the time, and which was taken to have important
                        theoretical and practical consequences for the discipline of
                        sociolinguistics. In place of the theory-driven approach which characterized
                        the work of Labov and Trudgill, among others, in which a sociolinguistic
                        model was defined and then used to select a relatively small number of
                        social and linguistic variables for analysis, the TLS was conceived as a set
                        of methods whereby the salient features of linguistic and social diversity
                        were to be empirically determined by, rather than presupposed in, the model.
                        This methodology was designed to generate multiple candidate hypotheses
                        about the data by applying high-dimensional multivariate analysis methods to
                        it in different ways, from which those most useful to the aims of the TLS
                        could be selected.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>SELF-ORGANIZING MAPS</head>
                    <p>The self-organizing map, also known as the Kohonen net after its inventor, is
                        a k-dimensional surface of processing units, where k is usually 2, together
                        with a buffer into which input vectors are loaded. Associated with each unit
                        is a set of connections from the input buffer such that, for a buffer of
                        length n, there are n connections per unit, and each connection can take on
                        a real-number value or ‘strength’ in some range, typically -1..1 or 0..1
                        (for clarity, only sample connections are shown in Figure 1):<figure>
                            <head>Figure 1</head>
                        </figure></p>
                    <p>Because it is an artificial neural network, the SOM is not explicitly
                        configured or ‘programmed’ to behave in some desired way like a conventional
                        computer, but rather learns its behaviour by exposure to input data using a
                        learning algorithm. A full explanation of SOM learning would take us too far
                        afield; details can be found in most textbooks on artificial neural
                        networks. In outline, though, learning takes place by repeated presentation
                        of vectors drawn randomly from a set V, and adjustment of the connections at
                        each presentation. The SOM is initialized by assigning random values in some
                        range (ie, 0..1) to the connections. When the first vector vi is presented,
                        it activates the processing units to varying degrees, depending on the
                        differences in connection strengths between the input buffer and each unit;
                        the most highly activated unit uj is selected, and the connections are
                        adjusted so that, next time vi is presented, uj will be even more highly
                        activated than before, thus associating vi ever more strongly with a
                        specific location on the map. As learning proceeds over—usually—many
                        thousands of presentations, each of the vectors in V is associated with a
                        specific unit in the map. After learning is complete, the entire set V is
                        presented once again. Each vector activates the unit with which it has
                        learned to become associated, and the result is a pattern of activations on
                        the map surface. That pattern is significant: the distances among activated
                        units represent the similarity relations in the input vector space.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>COMPARATIVE STUDY</head>
                    <p>This comparative study confines itself to the phonetic-level representation
                        of the TLS corpus. In order to apply cluster analysis to this data, the TLS
                        had to represent it numerically. The method was as follows. For each of the
                        52 informants whose phonetic-level transcriptions had been digitized, the
                        number of token occurrences of each of the 542 state types S defined in the
                        transcription protocol was counted, where a ‘state’ is a discrete phonetic
                        segment type. Each informant’s phonetic profile was thus represented as a
                        542-element integer-valued vector V, in which any element Vi contained the
                        number of token occurrences of state Si. The set of informant vectors was
                        stored in a 52 x 542 matrix which, after normalization, served as input to
                        the various clustering algorithms used in the analysis. The present study
                        replicates the TLS data representation and cluster analyses, and then
                        compares the performance of a SOM on the same data, using a variety of
                        settings for initialization of connections, sequence of input vector
                        presentations, and map dimension.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>CONCLUSIONS</head>
                    <p>Preliminary results from a relatively small subset of the 52 TLS informants
                        indicate that the SOM performs as well as the other clustering algorithms in
                        terms of its ability to identify and represent clusters, but that it is far
                        less affected by variation in processing parameters. Results for the full
                        TLS dataset will be available if and when this paper is presented.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
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                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
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                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
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                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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        <body>
            <div>
                <div>
                    <head>FOREWORD</head>
                    <lg>
                        <l>A program called VINCI from Queen's</l>
                        <l> Employs computational means</l>
                        <l>To make metre and rhyme</l>
                        <l>In right to left time</l>
                        <l>So limericks appear on your screens.</l>
                    </lg>
                    <lg>
                        <l>The people attending this session</l>
                        <l>We hope will have gained the impression</l>
                        <l> That these powerful tools,</l>
                        <l>With appropriate rules,</l>
                        <l>Can give rise to poetic expression!</l>
                    </lg>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>BACKGROUND</head>
                    <p>There is evidence that the generation of at least some classes of humour is a
                        rule-governed activity, formalisable in terms of algorithms, and
                        implementable computationally in order to generate actual humorous
                        utterances. In earlier work, using the VINCI natural language generation
                        environment, we have shown this to be the case for several subclasses of
                        verbal humour, including Tom Swifties and several classes of riddles. (See
                        Lessard &amp; Levison, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1997). Others have done similar
                        work (see for example Binsted &amp; Ritchie, 1997). This does not mean
                        that we suppose the specific algorithms used in generation to exist as
                        internal mental representations in speakers, but only that the productions
                        observed in humans admit of formalisation.</p>
                    <p>It must be admitted, however, that puns and riddles form instances of what is
                        often called verbal humour. This is typically non-narrative, based on
                        relatively simple paradigmatic lexical relations, and usually evaluated in
                        terms of cleverness rather than funniness. (See Lessard, Levison &amp;
                        Venour, 2002, for a discussion of the distinction.) Instances of verbal
                        humour are in many respects inherently simpler than more narrative
                        structures like jokes. Limericks, on the other hand, presuppose at least a
                        primitive narrative structure. As such, they provide a useful proving ground
                        for more advanced work on both language generation (since it is necessary to
                        take account of textual coherence) and humour generation (since narrative
                        structure is involved).</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>LIMERICKS</head>
                    <p>Limericks may be characterised generally as five-line verses with the aabba
                        rhyme scheme, one of a range of metrical foot structures, and some attempt
                        at humour or at least cleverness. (For discussion, see Bibby, 1978). A
                        typical example will illustrate the model:</p>
                    <lg>
                        <l>There was an old man from Peru</l>
                        <l>Who dreamt he was eating his shoe</l>
                        <l>He awoke with a fright</l>
                        <l>In the midst of the night</l>
                        <l>And found it was perfectly true.</l>
                    </lg>
                    <p>Taken as a subset of more general poetic language, limericks confront us with
                        a number of practical problems, but also with a number of theoretical
                        challenges when they are compared with prose-based natural language
                        generation. For example, traditional approaches to text planning and
                        generation tend to be driven by conceptual and syntactic rather than
                        metrical structure. This is unsurprising when one considers that the object
                        of most systems of the sort is to represent some encyclopedic or
                        data-base-like description of some state of affairs in a discursive format.
                        In such a context, the primary factors to be considered include the model of
                        the user (see for example Paris, 1993), the overall structure of the text
                        plan (see for example McKeown, 1985), paragraph-level phenomena (see for
                        example Mann, 2002), and problems of reference (see for example Dale,
                        1992).</p>
                    <p>As a consequence, planning tends to be top-down (from universe of discourse,
                        to dialogue model, to context, to overall text, to paragraph, to sentence)
                        and many of the phenomena to be dealt with (anaphora, for example) can be
                        examined in a left-to-right sequence. This has meant that conceptual tools
                        such as phrase structure grammars or their variants have provided sufficient
                        power to deal with the problems raised. Even phenomena such as freer word
                        order may be captured in such systems by means such as the splitting apart
                        of linear precedence and immediate dominance as in formalisms like
                        Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar (Gazdar et alii, 1985).</p>
                    <p>The production of poetic text, on the other hand, requires that content be
                        filtered by metrical and phonological factors such as the number of
                        syllables, stress, and rhyme. A particularly interesting consequence of this
                        fact is that generation must take account of the ends of lines in the
                        production of the beginning and middle. For example, in the case of the
                        limerick quoted above, we may represent the syllable structure as follows,
                        where s represents an unstressed and S a stressed syllable:<figure/></p>
                    <p>It can be seen that the first, second and fifth line contain an iamb followed
                        by two anapests, while the third and fourth lines contain two anapests. In
                        addition, rhyming lines (Peru-shoe-true) must end on the same stressed
                        syllable nucleus and coda (to use the terminology of metrical phonology (see
                        for example Hogg, 1987). Note that these are not necessarily lexical items:
                        in the first, second and fifth lines, the sequences “his shoe” and “-ly
                        true” rhyme with “Peru”.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>GENERATION</head>
                    <p>A full analysis of the semantic, syntactic, lexical and phonological
                        relations found in the limerick would take more space than is available
                        here. However, from the generative perspective, it is possible to imagine
                        three mechanisms to satisfy this constellation of constraints:<list>
                            <item>1. exhaustive generation: in essence, if we define a set of
                                templates, we can generate large numbers of instances of potential
                                limericks and ask a human to select those few judged to be of good
                                quality. (This is the monkeys typing Shakespeare model, or Borges’
                                library.)</item>
                            <item>2. initial generation followed by tweaking: we may also begin by
                                producing a sequence of lines and then selectively edit these to
                                approach the target of an acceptable limerick, by means of the
                                addition, removal or shifting of items. This may be how human poets
                                work: it is how we produced the limericks at the head of this
                                abstract. (Valéry is said to have claimed that the first line of a
                                poem was a gift of the gods and that the remainder was the product
                                of the poet's craft and efforts.) Since the edit operations
                                described above are well-known in the computational context, it is
                                not impossible to imagine their implementation.</item>
                            <item>3. right-to-left generation: given the direction of the
                                constraints in limericks, a possible computational model involves
                                the selection of the right-most elements of a sequence of lines as a
                                starting point and then within each line, the
                                constraint-satisfaction generation of the intervening elements
                                required to flesh out the entire limerick.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>In fact, these right-to-left formal constraints must interact with top-down
                        constraints which govern the semantic coherence of the text. In other words,
                        in order for the limerick to be coherent, the narrative events which it
                        includes must be consistent with the subject. These thematic constraints may
                        be fairly loose, as in the Old Man from Peru poem, where there is no
                        particular logic which attaches old men from that part of South America and
                        the ingestion of footwear (although more generally, the poem respects the
                        constraint that old men are humans and that humans eat food which is a
                        subset of tangible objects, and that footwear is also a subset of tangible
                        objects). On the other hand, they may be quite tight, as in the VINCI
                        limericks, which capture a set of characteristics of the software (its
                        origin, the architecture of the program). Compare as well Bibby’s attempts
                        to produce limericks appropriate to each of the Cambridge colleges.</p>
                    <p>The limerick thus represents the semantic expansion from one or more initial
                        lexical choices, by means of the selection of traits or actions which are at
                        least consistent with these. This presupposes a rich representation of the
                        characteristics of each lexical item, including both high-level semantic
                        traits such as that between humans, eating and objects, but also more
                        encyclopedic ’information, such as the fact that VINCI is a program produced
                        at Queen's. (See Peeters, 2000 for a discussion of some of the problems
                        found at this ‘lexicon-encyclopedia interface’). Note also that a
                        sufficiently rich set of traits will provide the seed for variant limericks
                        based on the same starting point. Consider for example the following example
                        by Edward Lear:</p>
                    <lg>
                        <l>There was an Old Man of Peru,</l>
                        <l>Who watched his wife making a stew;</l>
                        <l>But once by mistake,</l>
                        <l>In a stove she did bake,</l>
                        <l>That unfortunate Man of Peru.</l>
                    </lg>
                    <p>At the formal level, problems arise both between lines (rhyme) and within
                        lines (metrical structure). Consider the latter in the context of the
                        initial old man from Peru poem. Let us assume that we have determined to use
                        a metrical structure based on an iamb and two anapests and that we have
                        selected the the place-name Peru. At this point, we have used up two of the
                        eight available syllables. We also know that the next earliest syllable must
                        be unaccented. The solution found here is “from”. At this point, we know
                        that we have a prepositional phrase “from Peru” which requires (among other
                        choices) a noun phrase with the appropriate accent structure. This
                        constraint is satisfied here by “an old man”). However, in order to verify
                        that this noun phrase is appropriate, we must have knowledge of its metrical
                        structure. For example, if the target were an iamb, we would need to seek,
                        among other possibilities, a DET N structure. This application of
                        constraints cascades right to left until the overall metrical target is met,
                        within the semantic constraints already specified</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>IMPLEMENTATION</head>
                    <p>In the conference presentation, we will illustrate the implementation of the
                        approach described above using the VINCI natural language generation
                        environment (see <ptr target=""http://www.cs.queensu.ca/CompLing""/> for
                        details). Briefly, VINCI allows for the initial specification (PRESELECTION)
                        of a constellation of lexical items which may be constrained by semantics,
                        morphological and syntactic characteristics, and phonology. Preselected
                        items, as well as all their characteristics, are available to subsequent
                        steps of the generation process. Among other things, this allows for
                        multiple layers of preselection, in which a first item determines a set of
                        rhyme constraints, as well as a set of semantically appropriate
                        elements.</p>
                    <p>Within each line of the limerick, and between lines, the VINCI mechanism of
                        GUARDED SYNTAX allows the control of subsequent steps of the overall
                        generation to be conditioned by the framework existing at that point. (A
                        simple example of guarded syntax: if a noun phrase node carries the
                        attributes ‘first person’ or ‘second person’, then its children may only be
                        instantiated by a pronoun, whereas if the parent node carries the attribute
                        ‘third person’, then the children may be pronouns, full noun phrases, or
                        proper names.) Applied to the production of a limerick, and assuming
                        right-to-left generation, if the parent node of a tree contains a
                        prepositional phrase which sums to an anapest, then the next left-most chunk
                        of syntax must inherit this information and construct an appropriate item
                        from a library of possible patterns.</p>
                    <p>One consequence of this model is that syntax is reduced from a single
                        overarching tree to the sum of a number of possible micro-trees. Such an
                        approach is comparable to the model of Tree Adjoining Grammars, in which
                        insertion and development occurs at the level of lexical-based subtrees (see
                        Joshi &amp; Schabes, 1997). It is also somewhat similar to the Labelled
                        Deductive System approach used in parsing by Kempson et alii, 2001. Another
                        consequence is that by precluding tweaking and editing, the system itself is
                        forced to deal with the interplay of linguistic levels and constraints,
                        without human assistance, thus providing an acid test for both the model and
                        the implementation. Of course, this leaves aside the question of evaluation,
                        itself a thorny issue, since the criteria used are many, varied and probably
                        fuzzy as well. In related work, we are examining the ability of humans to
                        learn how to produce limericks, as well as their ability to evaluate
                        them.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
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                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Barbara</forename>
                        <surname>Bordalejo</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">De Montfort University</name>
                            <email>bbordalejo@dmu.ac.uk</email>
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                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
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                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
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                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                <p>At the beginning of 2001 work started on the Commedia Project, a research effort
                    which will transcribe in full seven manuscripts of Dante’s <title level=""m""
                        >Divine Comedy</title> in order to collate them and present them in an
                    electronic format. As part of the prolegomena for the Project, we had to write
                    its transcription guidelines, a task that appeared straight forward. However, as
                    often happens, drafting the new guidelines developed into a task with
                    implications beyond its immediate intended use.</p>
                <p>Initially, it was agreed that the Commedia Project transcription guidelines
                    should be based on those of the <emph rend=""italics"">Società Dantesca</emph> for
                    their Dante Online website (<ptr
                        target=""http://www.danteonline.it/english/risorse.htm""/>). It soon became
                    evident that although the <emph rend=""italics"">Società Dantesca</emph>'s
                    guidelines offered the advantage of having taken into consideration practical
                    matters concerning spellings, punctuation, word division and the expansion of
                    abbreviations, they did not deal with many other matters which were required for
                    the Commedia Project. The Società Dantesca uses a form of symbolic
                    representation—based on conventions—to convey the transcribers interpretation of
                    what they believe to be in the manuscripts. For example, the <emph
                        rend=""italics"">Società Dantesca</emph> transcribes (Riccardiana 1005, <title
                        level=""m"">Inferno</title>, Canto I, 17):<lb/>
                    <eg>&lt;di +i0 del&gt;</eg></p>
                <p>These symbols are used to represent a deletion. In this case, the deletion was
                    carried out by the main scribe of the text—or by an indistinguishable
                    hand—indicated by 0. The complete set of symbols is enclosed in angle brackets.
                    The first word, in this case ‘di’ is the one which was originally in the
                    manuscript, and the last word—‘del’—is the one which replaced it. Next to the
                    0—representing the main hand or one which cannot be distinguished from it—the
                    plus symbol is used—addition—and the letter ‘i’ which indicates that the
                    correction has been introduced between the lines, i.e. it is interlinear. The
                        <emph rend=""italics"">Società Dantesca</emph> guidelines allow the
                    possibility of marginal additions—‘m’—or additions within the line—for which
                    they do not use any symbol. In this specific case, according to the
                    transcription produced by the <emph rend=""italics"">Società Dantesca</emph>, the
                    manuscript has the word ‘di’ which has been substituted by the word ‘del,’
                    creating the phrase ‘del pianeta’ instead of the original reading ‘di
                    pianeta.’</p>
                <p>A second example can be found in Riccardiana 1005, <title level=""m""
                        >Inferno</title>, Canto I, 94:<lb/><eg>&lt;crede +i0
                    cride&gt;</eg></p>
                <p>Here, the original reading “crede” is followed by the identifiers for the
                    position and the scribe, and at the end, the modified reading “cride,” again,
                    all enclosed in angle brackets.</p>
                <p>The <emph rend=""italics"">Società Dantesca</emph> system also permits a symbolic
                    representation of marginal additions—[... +m1 o], an addition of the letter ‘o’
                    in the margin, which has been added by a second scribe (here represented by the
                    number 1) to cover a lacuna—, interpolations or cancellations.</p>
                <p>Although these guidelines were useful as a base for the Commedia Project’s
                    transcription system, a new encoding system was required for the encoding of the
                    manuscripts. Other projects in which we are involved used very simple encoding
                    systems. For example, the encoding for the Canterbury Tales Project’s
                    publications uses [add][/add] for additions and [del][/del] for deletions. Thus,
                    an interlinear addition in the Merchant's Tale, line 219 (CTP lineation system)
                    was tagged:<lb/><eg>tree [add]is[/add] neydir</eg></p>
                <p>However, the verb is not in the same line as the other words, in fact, there is a
                    caret indicating that the word ‘is’ is an addition to the line. Although the
                    Canterbury Tales Project tags were useful when it started, they now seem to lack
                    the flexibility which is required to present certain aspects of a scholarly
                    edition. Given the nature of the corrections in the Commedia manuscripts, the
                    Project required tags that were able to handle situations more complex than
                    those of additions and deletions. One of the main aims of this project is to
                    produce a CD-ROM with seven witnesses of the <title level=""m"">Commedia</title>
                    which Federico Sanguineti has identified as textually the most important.
                    Sanguineti has already produced a critical edition of Dante’s <title level=""m""
                        >Commedia</title>, and the research he has already done is still being
                    carried out at the Canterbury Tales Project. For this reason, the Commedia
                    Project has a clearer conviction of which things are important and should be
                    displayed in the CD-ROMs, and what the purposes of its transcriptions are, than
                    the Canterbury Tales Project had when it was officially started in 1993. Because
                    of this, it was possible to develop a encoding system which allows the
                    distinction of different scribal hands or corrections made by the same scribe at
                    different stages.</p>
                <p>Hitherto, the encoding of projects similar to the Commedia Project, such as the
                    Canterbury Tales Project, attempted to present simultaneously both ‘what is in
                    the manuscript’ as a series of additions or deletion, and ‘what is in the text’,
                    as a series of distinct readings. However, after months of discussion with Klaus
                    Wachtel (Institute for New Testament Research, Munster) about the transcription
                    of corrections of the manuscripts of the Greek New Testament, new ideas about
                    how to encode different textual stages started to emerge. These discussions were
                    the base of the encoding system developed for the Commedia Project. The main
                    goal of this new transcription system is to present a clear distinction between
                    what is in the manuscript and how the transcriber interprets the different
                    stages of development of the text.</p>
                <p>The Commedia Project encoding system aims to represent the different stages of
                    variation in the text. When a transcriber finds a ‘place of variation’ in the
                    manuscript, he or she can use the apparatus tag—[app][/app]. (We are using
                    Collate-style encoding in the transcriptions: before publication, these will be
                    translated into XML encoding). The apparatus tag contains three main components:
                    the original reading (contained in the [orig][/orig] tag), the final reading
                    (contained in a tag which specifies which copyist produced this [c1][/c1],
                    [c2][/c2], [c3][/c3]), and what literally is in the manuscript (contained in the
                    [lit][/lit] tag). If there are more than two stages in a correction, for
                    example, in the case of having more than one corrector), these stages are
                    presented in what is likely to be their successive order.</p>
                <p>The following example is taken from Riccardiana 1005, <title level=""m""
                        >Inferno</title>, Canto III, 9:</p>
                <p>The Commedia Project transcription guidelines indicate that we should transcribe
                    as follows :<lb/>
                    <eg>[app] [orig]dura[/orig] [c1]duro[/c1] [lit]dur[ud]a[/ud]o[/lit]
                    [/app]</eg></p>
                <p>Since the dot below the letter ‘a’ indicates deletion, the transcriber is faced
                    with a place of variation—indicated in the transcription by the apparatus
                    tag—[app][/app]. The first component inside the apparatus tag is the original
                    reading—[orig]dura[/orig]. The second component is the final reading by the main
                    hand, the reading [c1]duro[/c1]. These two components express different states
                    of the text, but do not explain by which process the text change from one to the
                    other. For this purpose we use the literal tag—[lit][/lit]—which indicates what
                    literally is happening in the manuscript, in this case
                    [lit]dur[ud]a[/ud]o[/lit], that is, literally the letters ‘d’ ‘u’ ‘r’ are
                    present, followed by an ‘a’ which has been underdotted and an ‘o.’ In the
                    literal tag, there is less space for interpretation and the transcriber is
                    required to postpone judgment (for example, whether the underdotting of the ‘a’
                    indicates cancellation or not).</p>
                <p>In comparison with the lack of flexibility of the old encoding system of the
                    Canterbury Tales Project, the Commedia Project's guidelines present several
                    advantages. Firstly, the transcribers can defer interpretation of the stages of
                    meaning, since the literal tag can be transcribed independently of the other
                    components of the apparatus tag (this also gives the advantage of allowing the
                    editor of a publication to make a final decision as to what happened at each
                    individual place of variation). Secondly, the contents of the literal tag allows
                    us to reconstruct what actually appears in a manuscript on the computer screen.
                    Thirdly, the other components of the apparatus tag, such as original reading,
                    final reading, and intermediate readings, can be collated separately from the
                    rest of the text. The separate collation of multiple readings in a manuscript
                    will be most useful when a scribe used a manuscript of different affiliation to
                    correct his copy. In such cases, separate collation will allow the isolation of
                    readings which originated in different manuscripts and which could hint at
                    distinct affiliations in a single text. Separate collation might also be of help
                    in cases in which conflation has occurred because a manuscript is corrected with
                    another one from a different branch of a textual tradition.</p>
                <p>The encoding system of the Commedia Project has also been implemented by the
                    Canterbury Tales Project (for publications to appear after the Miller’s Tale on
                    CD-ROM, edited by Peter Robinson and the Nun’s Priest’s Tale on CD-ROM, edited
                    by Paul Thomas) and, in the future, might be also adopted by other projects
                    (notably, transcription of Greek New Testament manuscripts) for their
                    transcriptions. This new encoding system also offers advantages when applied to
                    authorial manuscripts, and although it was originally designed to deal with
                    problems of corrections presented by medieval manuscripts, it should work as
                    efficiently to distinguish different authorial versions of a particular text.
                    This should translate into an easier reconstruction of these authorial versions
                    and allow the distinction and separate reconstruction of different authorial
                    versions.</p>
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                        <surname>Tiffin</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Univ of Queensland</name>
                            <email>c.tiffin@uq.edu.au</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Graham</forename>
                        <surname>Barwell</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Univ of Wollongong</name>
                            <email>g.barwell@uow.edu.au</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Phill</forename>
                        <surname>Berrie</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Australian Defence Force Academy</name>
                            <email>p.berrie@adfa.edu.au</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Paul</forename>
                        <surname>Eggert</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Australian Defence Force Academy</name>
                            <email>p.eggert@adfa.edu.au</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
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            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
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                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
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                    <resp>encoder</resp>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
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                <p>This paper considers the purpose of annotation in scholarly editions and the
                    methods by which annotation should be provided in the electronic
                    environment.</p>
                <p>There is a consensus that the most important task in scholarly editing is to
                    prepare an accurate and reliable text, according to transparent criteria. The
                    second task is to supplement that text with apparatus to enable the modern
                    reader to read it more adequately. While some of the more influential guides to
                    editing procedure (Center for Editions on American Authors, Committee for
                    Scholarly Editions) suggest that annotation will not in all cases be required,
                    the annotative process can be high on the list of editor’s satisfactions and may
                    therefore be accorded disproportionate effort. As Mary-Jo Kline reports, some of
                    the volumes in such magisterial series as the Jefferson Davis Papers and the
                    Madison Papers were criticised for the “plague” of overannotation. Any General
                    Editor must quickly learn stealthy strategies for restraining the annotative
                    enthusiasms of contributors.</p>
                <p>The process of footnoting or annotating in the presentation of an edited text has
                    a different role from the one it does in works of literary critical commentary.
                    On a critic’s page the primary end of the annotation is to provide the
                    evidentiary basis for the commentator’s assertions and argument, or, in one
                    lurid account, to fight turf wars about academic status with other scholars
                    (McFarland 1991). We concentrate here, however, on the principles and practice
                    of annotating the primary text in a scholarly edition.</p>
                <p>The purpose of annotation is usually framed with the reader in mind. It may be
                    based idealistically on “render[ing] the author’s meaning wholly intelligible”
                    (Battestin 1981), or it may be based on the attempt to provide the modern reader
                    with the information that would have been possessed by a reader on first
                    publication. In the case of unpublished works, it may translate a general reader
                    into an essentially private world. There is often a strong injunction that
                    annotation should not be subjective or judgmental (CEAA, Hewett 1996). In
                    practice, a further aim may be to present the accretion of scholarly knowledge
                    and interpretation of the text up to the present (Ricks 1989)</p>
                <p>Annotation in the print mode is arranged in a number of different ways: textual
                    or explanatory notes at the foot of the page, notes at the end of the chapter or
                    book, collations, glossaries, appendices, and “excursus notes” (McFarland
                    1991).</p>
                <p>For reasons of cost, electronic editions can offer much richer annotation than
                    print editions, and targeted parts of this extra material can be made accessible
                    from precise points in the text. Two important questions arise, though: how
                    should this ancillary material be arranged, and how should it be linked, or
                    rather, how should its availability be signaled from within the text?</p>
                <p>One system, used especially by publications like journals that have both a print
                    and a web publication, is to follow closely the endnotes practice used in print
                    publications by offering the notes in a single file and signaling them by a
                    numerical footnote indice. Other editions indicate the presence of the
                    annotative note by a marginal indice (e.g. Thomas Gray Archive), by highlighting
                    the span of text to which the note refers, or by enabling the highlighting of
                    the text span through a mouseover to reveal the presence of the link.</p>
                <p>Some of the most spectacular scholarly editing projects of the last decade such
                    as the Rossetti Archive and the Blake Archive situate their texts in such a
                    complex environment that the annotative strategy of immediate explication of
                    individual terms in texts is abandoned in favor of more serious immersion in the
                    contexts of the poems. Paradoxically, though, under this system precise
                    assistance is not always available to the reader.</p>
                <p>In the electronic edition of His Natural Life developed by the Authenticated
                    Editions Project at its JITM website, we commenced with the list of annotations
                    in a flat file transferred as legacy data from the printed Academy Edition of
                    this text, and highlighted the text spans which were indicated in the lead-ins
                    to the print edition’s endnotes. But this seemed to make poor use of the
                    amplitude and precision offered by the markup scheme of the electronic edition.
                    Accordingly, we have analysed the content of the notes and reformatted them
                    according to type into sub-glossaries. The result constitutes in itself a
                    critical approach to the text.</p>
                <p>Signaling the presence of annotations has been rethought in the light of the
                    expected readership of the electronic version, and this has led to the provision
                    of greater density of annotation links. However, providing for multitudinous
                    non-sequential reading patterns can easily produce an absurdly over-linked text
                    when the names of recurrent characters, places or motifs are annotated. This
                    latter problem can be alleviated if users have a mechanism for enabling or
                    suppressing the link indicators themselves.</p>
                <p>We conclude that different strategies are required for the arrangement and
                    announcement of annotative material in the electronic environment from the print
                    one, but the major determinant of how annotations are to be arranged and offered
                    (and perhaps still the most difficult thing to judge) is how readers will
                    approach the edition.</p>
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                        <analytic>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Paul</forename>
                        <surname>Caton</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Scholarly Technology Group</name>, <name type=""org""
                                >Brown University</name>
                            <email>Paul_Caton@brown.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
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                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
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                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                <p>The existing body of theoretical work in text encoding suffers from two
                    interrelated problems: firstly, confusion over the specific nature of the work;
                    and secondly, the absence of any truly critical theory.</p>
                <p>Theory’s purest signified and a fundamental predicate of progress in the natural
                    sciences involves a representation that meets discursively bounded criteria of
                    “truth.” According to Renear (1997) the electronic document encoding and
                    processing community “has evolved a rich body of illuminating theory about the
                    nature of text” (107), a claim that expands that of Renear, Durand, and Mylonas
                    (1996) and anticipates Mylonas and Renear (1999) who assert the principal goal
                    of the research community that develops and applies the TEI Guidelines and other
                    text markup schemes is a greater “<emph rend=""italics"">theoretical</emph>
                    understanding of textual representation” (my emphasis). In making their case the
                    authors invoke Lakatosian criteria which they confidently pronounce (some
                    disclaimers notwithstanding) this research community’s work meets. Yet the
                    development of OHCOs 1-through-3, for example—surely one of text encoding’s
                    founding “theoretical” moments— demonstrably fails to qualify as a progressive
                    problemshift in Lakatosian terms.<note n=""1"">I omit the argument of proof here
                        for brevity.</note></p>
                <p>Text encoding has not generated a rich body of illuminating theory because it
                    cannot. Asking, for example, “what is text, really?” already poses the wrong
                    question because it assumes an undiscovered essence the encoding community can
                    find with a progressive research program. This will not happen because no
                    mysterious core exists whose explanation falls to home-grown text encoding
                    theory. Renear argues that despite falsification of all OHCO variants there is
                    nevertheless “no reason to give up the common-sense view that texts do have an
                    objective structure independent of our methods and theories about them” (1997,
                    122). Structure there may be, but discovering it is not like positing the
                    double-helix of DNA; we need not strive to understand-by-modelling because of
                    inadequate observational technology or limited knowledge. Praxis prompts
                    reflection which generates principle to guide subsequent praxis. Poetry, for
                    example, shows a self-conscious praxis continually reviewing, refining, and
                    codifying (prescriptively) its methodology,<note n=""2"">In the
                        hyper-self-consciousness of artistic praxis prescription inevitably invites
                        its own negation—though anti-prescription is arguably still a
                        principle.</note> and this is as true of its encoding as its writing. Out of
                    “successful” text encoding praxis comes not theory but principle.<note n=""3""
                        >See, for example, the Women Writers Project’s online guide for marking up
                        line groups. (<ptr
                            target=""http://www.wwp.brown.edu/encoding/training/lg/page1.html""
                        />)</note></p>
                <p>This is to say not that text encoding has no theoretical component but that
                    pursuing the theory behind a principle takes us to another place: to linguistics
                    or rhetoric or semiotics or the cognitive psychology of visual perception, and
                    so on. Such pursuits can produce sophisticated and thought-provoking borrowings
                    that unquestionably enrich the literature, but these are the exception, not the
                        rule.<note n=""4"">Recent productive borrowings include Buzzetti’s from <title
                            level=""m"">Hjelmslevian Semiotics</title> (1999); Renear’s from Austin’s
                            <title level=""m"">Speech Act Theory</title> (2000); and Piez’s from
                            <title level=""m"">Traditional Rhetoric</title> (2001).</note> In
                    particular, scholarly work in text encoding rarely positions itself with respect
                    to work in modern literary/cultural theory, and even more rarely does it use
                    text encoding as a springboard for a sustained engagement with such theory. This
                    seems to me a significant and unfortunate absence, a product both of text
                    encoding’s desire to differentiate itself as a specific field of intellectual
                    inquiry and of a positivist, utilitarian bias against the perceived negativity
                    and self-imprisoning reflexivity of contemporary theory. Renear’s narrative of
                    the development of text encoding theory exemplifies the latter stance with its
                    Realist/Anti-realist distinction, associating the former with common-sense and
                    characterizing the latter as “consistent with post-structuralist epistemologies”
                    (122). This imitates an exclusionary move Zavarzadeh and Morton (1991) identify
                    in literary studies: positing deconstruction as the boundary of theory beyond
                    which it is unthinkable to go because (supposedly) deconstruction represents the
                    limits of the thinkable, the point where theory swallows itself in absolute
                    relativism. Ironically, Renear’s account positions itself precisely as
                    theoretically reflexive while exposing its own refusal of genuine
                    reflexivity.</p>
                <p>Text encoding—indeed humanities computing as a whole—can too easily think of
                    itself as related to every humanities discipline but also marginal or even
                    external to all of them. This licenses attitudes such as Renear’s contention
                    that what he calls text encoding theory brings “a much needed fresh perspective
                    on textuality” (107), as if text encoding occupied a different space from
                    traditional disciplines. Contrarily I would argue that whatever its origins in
                    non-academic praxes, text encoding forms itself <emph rend=""italics"">in</emph>
                    and <emph rend=""italics"">of</emph> humanities disciplines. I should stress that
                    I do not consider these disciplines stable sites: they can and should be
                    challenged. Text encoding therefore offers a locus for work that tries to think
                    through the tensions, contradictions, and faultlines that constitute those
                    disciplines <emph rend=""italics"">qua</emph> humanities disciplines. However,
                    unless it can stand on sufficiently equal terms to enter a critical dialogue
                    with theory of exemplary reflexivity and philosophical rigor, the text encoding
                    community’s theoretical work will have limited significance and appeal—a fate
                    already shared by much of the humanities computing literature (Corns 1991;
                    Warwick 1999). My own position is that the historical materialism that comes
                    down to us from Marx, enriched and updated by thinkers such as Lenin, Adorno,
                    Althusser, and many others, offers us the best critical tools for a dialectical
                    engagement with what it means to encode texts in the humanities. Althusser
                    (1982) memorably describes the problem:<cit rend=""block"">
                        <quote>Left to itself, a spontaneous (technical) practice produces only the
                            “theory” it needs as a means to produce the ends assigned to it: this
                            “theory” is never more than the reflection of this end, uncriticized,
                            unknown, in its means of realization, that is, it is a <emph
                                rend=""italics"">by-product</emph> of the reflection of the technical
                            practice’s end on its means. A “theory” which does not question the end
                            whose <emph rend=""italics"">by-product</emph> it is remains a prisoner of
                            this end and of the “realities” which have imposed it as an end.</quote>
                        <bibl>(171, emphasis in original)</bibl>
                    </cit></p>
                <p>Currently a prisoner of its pragmatic roots, theoretical work on text encoding
                    has only its chains to lose.</p>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Jan</forename>
                        <surname>Rybicki</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Pedagogical University</name>, Krakow, Poland
                                <email>strybick@cyf-kr.edu.pl</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
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            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
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                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
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            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
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                    </name>
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                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
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                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
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                <p>While computational stylistics and text analysis seems to be in constant quest
                    for the just right set of criteria (see e.g. David Hoover’s presentation at the
                    2002 ALLC/ACH Conference in Tübingen), this presentation will try to apply what
                    has already become a standard in statistical stylistic analysis to a
                    (relatively) novel material. Taking for granted—very unoriginally—the usefulness
                    of John Burrows’s method that has been around since his 1987 <title level=""m""
                        >Computation into Criticism</title>, in discerning stylistic differences
                    between individual characters in works by the same author, I will try to see if
                    the same or similar patterns of similarity and difference travel across
                    linguistic boundaries; if differences between characters’ “idiolects” are
                    preserved in translation.</p>
                <p>In a typically Polish approach to the matter, I have chosen as my material the
                    trilogy of historical romances by Poland’s first literary Nobel Prize winner,
                    Henryk Sienkiewicz, written between 1882 and 1888, and its two English (or, more
                    precisely, American) translations by Jeremiah Curtin (completed between 1890 and
                    1893) and W.S. Kuniczak (1991). The reasons for this choice have been manifold.
                    First, Sienkiewicz’s three novels, <title level=""m"">With Fire and Sword</title>,
                        <title level=""m"">The Deluge</title>, and <title level=""m"">Pan
                        Michael</title>, although set in the turmoil of 17th-century Poland, remain
                    to this day a major classic of Polish literature and the country’s most popular
                    reading. Second, a trilogy, the subsequent parts of which share some of their
                    characters, seems ideal for Burrowsian analysis (a fact confirmed by the
                    interesting coincidence of John Burrows’s undertaking of a study of Beckett’s
                    bilingual trilogy in a much later paper). The final reason was the difference
                    between the two translations, evident both in their being separated by an entire
                    century and, what follows, in the entirely different approaches and results
                    obtained by the two translators: the largely word-by-word transcoding by
                    Sienkiewicz’s contemporary and the highly adaptative and “free” method of the
                    modern Polish-American writer.</p>
                <p>Faithfully maintaining the original Burrows model, the study of distances between
                    the “idiolects” of the major characters has been based on relative frequencies
                    of the 30 most frequent words in the dialogue of each version of the trilogy.
                    The resulting correlation matrices were then used to produce two-dimensional
                    multidimensional scaling charts of distances between such “idiolects.”</p>
                <p>This procedure has yielded, in Sienkiewicz’s original, a very consistent
                    influence of the personae’s social status and ethnic background, especially in
                    the first part of the series. It is particularly visible in idiolects of ‘enemy’
                    (non-Polish) collective characters, usually plotted at some distance one from
                    the other. Curtin’s translation is notable for ‘de-clustering’ idiolects of
                    various Polish gentry characters, making their idiolects much less alike. There
                    is also a visible tendency in Curtin to limit the distances between rival
                    collective characters and making them markedly similar rather than divergent as
                    in the original. Idiolects in Kuniczak are even more evenly distributed, with a
                    general trend towards greater distances and less clustering observable in the
                    graphs. The very high resemblance between the idiolects of two major characters,
                    Zagloba and Wolodyjowski, in all three versions of <title level=""m"">The
                        Deluge</title> (almost identical in Sienkiewicz) is one of the most
                    consistent traits of this portion of the analysis—an interesting illustration of
                    the fact that the two personae’s function of keeping the three volumes together
                    becomes evident in the second part of the series. Sienkiewicz's social/ethnic
                    idiosyncrasy has been confirmed in a plot for idiolects of characters involved
                    in the Polish-Ukrainian conflict in <title level=""m"">With Fire and
                    Sword</title>, a feature slightly visible in Kuniczak and almost not at all in
                    Curtin.</p>
                <p>As perhaps the most consistent effect of all, the peripheral situation of female
                    idiolects is a constant element in almost any configuration. The study of more
                    detailed and thematic configurations of characters is also the source of
                    interesting insight. Plots for female characters exhibit a tendency to group
                    together young (and marriageable) Polish women; Helena's Ukrainian provenience
                    is highly visible in Sienkiewicz, while the ethnic element is indiscernible in
                    both translations. Among characters involved in each novel’s eternal triangles,
                    both of the above aspects are clearly visible in all three versions; differences
                    between characters in the same triangle are quite considerable.</p>
                <p>In an examination of characters that recur throughout the series, a good
                    consistence has been observed between the three idiolects of the Polish
                    Falstaff, Zagloba, the most inveterate talker of the series, in each version
                    separately: best in Sienkiewicz, worst in Curtin. Another character,
                    Wolodyjowski, is much more of a developing character, which agrees well with the
                    evolution of the persona in the course of the series, from a humble officer to
                    the hero and spearhead of Sienkiewicz’s ideology. This has been confirmed in a
                    separate plotting of idiolects of those two characters.</p>
                <p>A number of joint plots for Curtin’s and Kuniczak’s translations (based on
                    frequent words common in both versions) has been made to investigate if there is
                    a constant pattern in their respective differences. In agreement with some
                    “intuitive” assessments as to the decreasing differences between Curtin’s and
                    Kuniczak’s versions (mainly due to Kuniczak’s gradual abandonment of adaptative
                    procedures, especially on the microstructural level), the patterns become more
                    consistent with time: fairly chaotic movement for the first part of the trilogy
                    has become more ordered in the second and almost uniform in the third. The
                    “stylistic drift” observed between idiolects in Curtin and in Kuniczak— divided,
                    apart from their contrasting approaches to translation, by an even more
                    significant difference of a whole century—is a vindication of Burrows’s
                    ‘tiptoeing towards the infinite:’ that visible and uniform shift in the
                    configuration of the most frequent words in English texts with time.</p>
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            <div type=""bibliography"">
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                                Attribution</title>
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                            <title level=""m"">Computation into Criticism: A Study of Jane Austen’s
                                Novels and an Experiment in Method</title>
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                                <pubPlace>Oxford</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Clarendon Press</publisher>
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                                    <surname>Burrows</surname>
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                            <title level=""a"">Tiptoeing into the Infinite: Testing for Evidence of
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                                    <forename type=""first"">W.</forename>
                                    <surname>McKenna</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">J.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">F.</forename>
                                    <surname>Burrows</surname>
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                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">A.</forename>
                                    <surname>Antonia</surname>
                                </name>
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                            <title level=""a"">Beckett’s Trilogy: Computational Stylistics and the
                                Nature of Translation</title>
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                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""j"">Revue informatique et statistique dans les sciences
                                humaines</title>
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                                <biblScope type=""vol"">35</biblScope>
                                <biblScope type=""issue""/>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">151-71</biblScope>
                                <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
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                        </monogr>
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                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
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                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Jan</forename>
                                    <surname>Rybicki</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">A Computer Assisted Comparative Analysis of Two English
                                Translations of Henryk Sienkiewicz’s Trilogy</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Kraków</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>WAP</publisher>
                                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
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                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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                        <surname>Memmott</surname>
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                            <email>talan@memmott.org</email>
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                    <p>
                        <emph rend=""italics"">(Talan Memmott is a hypermedia artist/writer/editor
                            from San Francisco, California. He is the Creative Director and Editor
                            of the online hypermedia literary journal BeeHive (<ptr
                                target=""http://beehive.temporalimage.com""/>). His hypermedia work
                            appears widely on the Internet. In 2001 he was awarded the trAce/Alt-X
                            New Media Writing Award for his work <title level=""m"">Lexia to
                                Perplexia</title>, which also received honorable mention for the
                            Electronic Literature Organization’s award in fiction. He is a tutor for
                            the trAce Online Writing School, and has been a speaker, panelist,
                            reader and performer at various Conferences and Universities. He is
                            currently at Brown University as their first electronic writing graduate
                            fellow.)</emph>
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                    <p>What is digital poetry? The definitions are decidedly nebulous.</p>
                    <p>The term digital poetry has been applied to a variety of creative literary
                        applications, from work developed in Flash and DHTML to MOO spaces and works
                        that utilize Perl. From cybertext to web art, digital poetry is somewhat
                        interchangeable with other terms used to describe what could be called
                        creative cultural practice through applied technology. We can agree that
                        digital poetry as hypermedia presents an expanded field of textuality that
                        moves writing beyond the word, toward a relationship between signs and sign
                        regimes, their integration, disintegration, and interaction one to another.
                        But, how these relationships are established in digital poetry is as diverse
                        and various as the practice itself.</p>
                    <p>The problems of developing any general typology, let alone taxonomy, are
                        hinted at in Espen Aarseth’s <title level=""m"">Cybertext: Perspectives on
                            Ergodic Literature</title>. Aarseth puts forward a number of models for
                        the definition of various types of objects (buttons, actors, interactive,
                        controller, layout) within creative applications—including games,
                        interactive fiction, and hypertext. As the analysis expands, it is
                        discovered that these typologies breakdown when any given piece is viewed as
                        a whole. One moment a button may be a button, the next moment it may be an
                        actor; or, any given element may carry the attributes of any number of types
                        simultaneously.</p>
                    <p>Digital poetry does not properly define any specific type of expressive
                        object. Because of this there are many problems that emerge for the
                        reader/users of digital poetry and for those that deal critically with such
                        work. Lacking a definite object of study, we must begin to move away from
                        the idea of digital poetry as a genre toward an observation of applied
                        poetics within the digital environment—a poetics that is based in an
                        individual author’s engagement with media technologies, as scripted,
                        programmed and applied within a particular work.</p>
                    <p>Using Artaud’s <title level=""m"">The Theater and its Double</title> as a
                        guide, this paper explores the mise en scène (or mise en screen) as a
                        potential model for the close reading of digital poetry. The paper looks at
                        a number of web-based digital poetry works that utilize a variety of
                        technologies to demonstrate how the network and its technologies play into
                        artist/writer intent to develop an applied poetics rather than poetry
                        proper.</p>
                    <p>Katherine Parrish’s <title level=""m"">Oulipo</title> inspire web project
                            <title level=""m"">MOOlipo</title> is examined for its creative use of MOO
                        technology to create a particpatory poetical space. In this work the user
                        particpates by inputting text, which is parsed and filtered under certain
                        rules to affect the output. The various rooms of the MOO have different
                        produce different effects. In one room a mesotic is created from user input,
                        in another room the word order of the input text is reversed.</p>
                    <p>Two other works that require user participation for the construction of
                        content will be examined. Lisa Jevbratt’s <title level=""m"">Syncro
                            Mail</title>, a web-based mail service, requires that a user input the
                        email address of a second (perhaps unknowing) ‘user’. Through this process,
                        the second ‘user’ receives a random image and a random word in their email.
                        This piece uses perl scripting for its functionality and presents a unique,
                        if not mysterious method of poetic emergence. In the delivered email there
                        is no explanation as to the relevance or connection of image to word, nor
                        any indication of how, or where the mail originated. The connections, the
                        poetry must be made by this second ‘user’, independent of any knowledge of
                        the process. Another project with much more immediate participatory poetic
                        results is <title level=""m"">You and We</title>, a collaboration of Seb
                        Chevrel and Gabe Kean. <title level=""m"">You and We</title> allows users to
                        upload images and short texts. Using a combination of Flash and Macromedia
                        Generator, the images and texts are randomly compiled in a somewhat
                        cinematic, MTV-like display complete with music. Within seconds of uploading
                        an image or text, it is incorporated into the collection. As of November
                        10th, 2002 there had been over 1,500 images uploaded and nearly 5,000
                        texts.</p>
                    <p>Additional works to be examined include; Brian Kim Stefans’ <title level=""m""
                            >The Dreamlife of Letters</title> for its use of letterist animation,
                        and a couple of “codeworks” by Ted Warnell—<title level=""m"">VIRU2</title>
                        and <title level=""m"">BERLIOZ</title>—for their elegance and simplicity of
                        interface as well as their transparency. Warnell’s work allows the functions
                        of code to play into the applied poetics of his work, at the surface. In
                            <title level=""m"">VIRU2</title> the actual code that drives the piece is
                        made viewable as screenal text. The exposure of code at the surface and the
                        integration of functionality, aesthetics and poetics in Warnell’s work
                        emphasizes the role of technology and an individuated ecounter with media in
                        establishing what is inferred by the term digital poetry as well as applied
                        poetics.</p>
                    <p>Rather than work from a model that hopes for a close reading through the
                        abstraction of words from their media-rich environment, this paper proposes
                        that critics and readers take a more choragraphic (to borrow a term from
                        Gregory Ulmer) approach to reading that observes the entirety of a work—from
                        interface design to interactivity, the written word and code—as something of
                        a micro-cultural statement. By examining digital poetry objects as a whole
                        we may begin to recognize how each work presents an individuated applied
                        poetics and move away from overreaching taxonomic designations.</p>
                    <p>This paper also proposes that more critical work be developed in hypermedia
                        environments as a way of diminishing critical/theoretical detachment from
                        the realities of creative digital practice.</p>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Allen</forename>
                        <surname>Renear</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">GSLIS</name>/<name type=""org"">University of
                                Illinois</name>
                            <email>renear@uiuc.edu</email>
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                    <head>SUMMARY</head>
                    <p>For over ten years there have been several carefully argued critiques of the
                        descriptive markup approach to text representation that have for the most
                        part not been adequately answered. Recently an integrated development of
                        some of these criticisms has been presented at length, and with considerable
                        ingenuity and extension, in a widely read article by Dino Buzzetti,
                        published in <title level=""j"">New Literary History</title> (2002, 33:
                        61–88). In our paper we analyze some of Buzzetti’s criticisms, accepting
                        some but resisting others.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>BACKGROUND</head>
                    <p>When the SGML or “descriptive markup” approach to text began to be actively
                        promoted in the mid-1980s, quite a number of criticisms were developed in
                        response to this approach, or, more exactly, to the accompanying theoretical
                        claims, express or implied. In retrospect, it appears today that some of
                        these criticisms have been answered by the proponents of SGML descriptive
                        markup, others have simply faded in apparent significance, and still others,
                        while live issues to some scholars, seem neverless to generate only
                        unproductive repetitive discussions.</p>
                    <p>However there is a particular family of related criticisms that upon careful
                        re-consideration still seem fresh, deep, and, at least given their positive
                        reception, plausible—and yet these criticisms have also been, strangely,
                        largely ignored by the markup community. Some of these arguments were first
                        presented in the late 1980s in a paper titled “Markup Considered Harmful”
                        privately circulated by Darryll Raymond in response to Coombs et al 1987.
                        They were later presented again, in more detail in 1992 in “Markup
                        Reconsidered” (Raymond, Tompa, and Wood 1995); and then were further refined
                        in “From Data Representation to Data Model: Meta-Semantic Issues in the
                        Evolution of SGML” (Raymond, Tompa, Wood 1996).</p>
                    <p>In brief these papers argue that “Markup is not a data model” but rather a
                        “data representation” (Raymond et al 1992), and that while “SGML provides
                        standard representations for documents” a “standard semantics” is required
                        as well (Raymond et al 1996). And then, generalizing from this conclusion,
                        the authors go on to suggest that many of the expectations for SGML-based
                        markup systems, such as TEI, are misplaced.</p>
                    <p>Despite the fact that these were pointed and clearly argued positions, the
                        response from the TEI community, and perhaps more importantly from the
                        theorizing researchers whose ambitious claims were particularly targeted
                        (Coombs et al 1987, DeRose et al 1990, Sperberg-McQueen 1990), appears to
                        have been largely to simply ignore these criticisms.</p>
                    <p>Recently Dino Buzzetti has been re-presenting these arguments, supplementing
                        them with further theoretical extensions, and integrating them with other
                        criticisms of descriptive markup approach, in particular those of Jerome
                        McGann, most recently presented and extended in a new book <title level=""m""
                            >Radiant Textuality: Literature Since the World Wide Web</title> (New
                        York 2001)—which Buzzetti takes as supporting Raymond’s and his own
                        criticisms. Buzzetti has in fact presented his concerns in several venues
                        over the last 5 years (e.g. Buzzetti 1999a, Buzzetti 1999b), but it is in
                        “Digital Representation and the Text Model” (<title level=""j"">New Literary
                            History</title>, 2002 33) that he presents these criticisms in a form,
                        and a forum, and a language, in which they can no longer be ignored.</p>
                    <p>Interestingly, this article comes precisely at a moment when some of the
                        theorizing descriptive markup proponents are themselves very actively
                        working in a similar vein. Sperberg-McQueen, who has called for the
                        development of a SGML/XML semantics since at least 1992 (Sperberg-McQueen
                        1992), is leading a project to develop such a semantics now, and Renear, who
                        is member of this project, has also recently claimed, in language similar to
                        that of Buzzetti and Raymond et al, that an SGML document instance per se
                        provides “only a data structure, not a theory” (Renear 2001).</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>THE CRITICISM</head>
                    <p>Raymond et al argue, as described above, that markup is not a “data model”,
                        but only a data representation that is “fully dependent on external
                        information for meaning”. They note several characteristics that they say
                        confirm that markup is not a data model in the sense that that expression is
                        used in database theory. These include inadequate notions of equivalence,
                        lack of redundancy control, and lack of defined algebraic operators. This
                        claim should not of course be taken simply as a narrow assertion that SGML
                        markup does not meet criteria for being a certain sort of thing as defined
                        in some field or other—the larger point, and in the context of the
                        discussion a plausible one, is that SGML markup will be inadequate for the
                        kinds of theoretical tasks it is being assigned in virtue of failing to have
                        these characteristics. Raymond et al (1995) state that this failure can be
                        remedied either by adding a “formal structure on top of markup systems” or
                        by defining a new abstraction from scratch. Raymond et al prefer the latter
                        because they believe that markup systems are not only a representation
                        rather than a data model, but they are in fact a relatively poor technique
                        for representation. Raymond et al 1996 characterizes this addition of a
                        formal structure as adding “semantics” to SGML.</p>
                    <p>Buzzetti accepts Raymond et al’s criticism of SGML markup. But he goes much
                        further, both in the extent of his theorizing and in the specific nature of
                        his criticisms. With respect to the latter Buzzetti argues that descriptive
                        markup theorists are actually confused, and profoundly so: they conflate the
                        “structure of the representation” with the “structure of the object
                        represented”, or, alternatively, they confuse the “expression” with the
                        “content” of that expression. Supplementing Raymond’s criticism from the
                        perspective of database theory with an opposition from Saussure Buzzetti
                        argues that descriptive markup is an expression whose form is a data
                        structure. But the form of the content of that expression is a “data model”.
                        Neither the expression itself nor its form however, is a data model—as
                        mistakenly believed by the promoters of SGML descriptive markup and the
                        defenders of the OHCO model of text. (Buzzetti goes on to make this point
                        with juxtapositions of other theoretical terms: “format” vs. “formalism”,
                        “syntax” vs. “interpretation”). As examples of this confusion Buzzetti
                        singles out in particular the TEI Guidelines, Coombs et al 1987, and DeRose
                        et al 1990, and Renear et al 1996.</p>
                    <p>“In summary,” Buzzetti says, “we may assert that strongly embedded markup
                        systems [are] inadequate in reference to both the exhaustivity and the
                        functionality of the text representation and model.”</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>OUR RESPONSE</head>
                    <p>We believe that that there is some truth to both Raymond, Tompa, and Wood’s
                        criticisms, and to Buzzetti’s application of the criticisms. However we
                        believe that both Raymond et al and Buzzetti substantially overstate the
                        case, Raymond somewhat and Buzzetti much more. Such a response may seem too
                        mild to deserve public airing, but it is for two reasons much more important
                        than it sounds: first because of the radical form the criticism takes in
                        Buzzetti, and second because our response might clarify some long confused
                        issues in text encoding.</p>
                    <p>There can be little doubt that many SGML markup enthusiasts have been now and
                        then confused, and, even more frequently, confusing, about the
                        representational nature of SGML document instances. This is mostly because
                        representation itself is conceptually difficult, and subject to a kind of
                        semiotic oscillation between expressing, referring, and exhibiting. And it
                        may also be partly because of carelessness and genuine lapses of clarity and
                        understanding.</p>
                    <p>But Buzzetti makes too much of the fact that we are sometimes awkward about
                        what document instances are, representationally, and exactly how markup does
                        what it does. Notice that for the most part everyone manages the ambiguities
                        quite well, and gets on, successfully more often than not, with various
                        tasks and projects. How could this be the case if there were such a
                        consistent systematic widespread conflation of expression and content? And,
                        in fact, a close examination shows that Buzzetti does not produce evidence
                        for such a systematic conflation, other than the various awkward or
                        unfortunate characterizations mentioned above—and those, while admittedly
                        signs of some failure to fully conceptualize key notions, are far from
                        convincing evidence for systematic conflation.</p>
                    <p>Moreover, there is no evidence that this confusion, such as it is, is
                        connected, as either cause or effect, with a radical unsuitability of SGML
                        markup to express theories about text. (According to Buzzetti “SGML is a
                        data structure representation language” and does not provide a data model;
                        and he echoes the views of Raymond et al that it is, moreover, a bad data
                        structure representation language.) Part of the problem is that Raymond and
                        Buzzetti rely too much in their argument on the specific notion of a “data
                        model” from database theory, and therefore over-react to the failure of SGML
                        to have precisely that sort of data model, or to have a good (i.e.
                        completely or exactly defined) one. Part of the problem is that they demand
                        formalization before admitting that there has been sucessful representation.
                        It cannot be denied that we use SGML document instances to express express
                        facts and theories about texts rather effectively: that is simply an
                        empirical fact. Part of the problem is that in claiming that SGML and XML
                        lack semantics and a defined set of operators, Raymond et al and Buzzetti
                        ignore the fact that both SGML and XML define the semantics of the markup
                        vocabulary in use as an intrinsic part of the application's document type
                        definition. Unlike Raymond et al and Buzzetti, the SGML standard does not
                        assume that the full semantics of an SGML application are captured in full
                        by the SGML formalisms used to declare elements and attributes. Nor does a
                        demand for an exhaustive set of algebraic or other operations seem a
                        promising start for a critique of a markup discipline intended to encourage
                        the reuse of data and the separation of data representation from processing
                        concerns.</p>
                    <p>In this connection Buzzetti’s criticism of the ordered-hierarchy of content
                        objects (OHCO) hypothesis is particularly illuminating, because strikingly
                        unconvincing. Unlike SGML markup, OHCO is obviously not intended as a
                        representation syntax, but rather an abstraction claimed to be,
                        structurally, the general form taken by all texts. As such it actually
                        appears to be roughly the kind of thing that Buzzetti wants for a data
                        model, though without the specific features characteristic of data models in
                        database theory. Buzzetti’s interpretation of OHCO however has it as “not a
                        model of the text, but a possible model of its expression”, just as SGML on
                        Buzzetti’s account, describes not the text, but “the structure of the text’s
                        expression”, consistent with its distinctive role as “a data structure
                        representation language”. But whatever the failures of OCHO as a data model,
                        this is no more than a tortured effort to make things seem worse then they
                        are. The data structures in question have untyped purely logical
                        parent/child relationships, whereas “hierarchy” in OHCO clearly refers to
                            <emph rend=""italics"">containment</emph>—and that is not a purely data
                        structural relationship, despite the obvious formal similarities (asymmetry,
                        transitivity, etc.) that makes tree data structures convenient for
                        representing hierachical containment.</p>
                    <p>It is true that additional formalization of the semantics of SGML markup is a
                        good thing. Formalization will assist in precision, clarity, and
                        computation. It is for that reason that Sperberg-McQueen and others are
                        working to explicate the semantics of XML markup. But while we may regret
                        that such work has not made more progress, or that not everyone understands
                        the need for improved formalization of semantics and “data models”, or that
                        some of our colleagues are sometimes confused about subtle matters of
                        representation, or that we ourselves are now and then confused, or even
                        often confused, we should not conclude that things are worse than they are.
                        Scholars working in SGML descriptive markup are working with languages that
                        do have semantics, and do have “data models”, even if inadequately
                        formalized, or not quite the sort of thing database researchers prefer. And
                        these scholars are at least as often as not quite clear on the difference
                        between expression and content.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>CONCLUSION</head>
                    <p>The criticisms of inadequate formalization that began with Raymond et al and
                        that have recently been so intriguingly developed and extended by Buzzetti
                        are important ones that have been mysteriously neglected by the markup
                        community. And the more ambitious criticisms made by Buzzetti of our failure
                        to fully theorize, or at least attempt to clarify, the complexities of
                        representation are perhaps even deeper and more important, and also
                        unfortunately neglected. But the claim that in these failures we see the
                        signs of either a systematic category mistake endemic in the text encoding
                        community, or evidence of a disastrous inadequacy in current techniques,
                        simply has not yet been proven. On the contrary, as we have suggested here,
                        that claim itself seems to be based upon the mistaken notion, ironically
                        reminiscent of the third man argument, that one more formal system will
                        finally bridge the gap between thought and object. There may or may not be a
                        gap, but if there is it will not be closed simply by another formal system,
                        however useful that system may be.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
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                <p>Over the last decade, many humanities scholars have been persuaded by the promise
                    and the power of encoding schemes for electronic texts to create texts,
                    sometimes very large and complex, encoded using these schemes. This is specially
                    true of SGML/XML based encodings, with the implementation of the Text Encoding
                    Initiative being particularly influential in the community. However, scholars
                    who have made such texts have typically discovered that software to publish them
                    is too expensive for their limited budgets, or too difficult to use, or lacking
                    essential facilities, or all three of these.</p>
                <p>The <emph rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph> electronic publishing system, developed
                    in the last five years in a partnership between the Centre for Technology and
                    the Arts, De Montfort University, and a new electronic publishing company,
                    Scholarly Digital Editions (SDE), attempts to supply this deficiency. <emph
                        rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph> stands for ‘Analytic system tools and SGML
                    integration application’. As this implies, it is able to handle all valid SGML
                    and XML documents, with no limits on their complexity.</p>
                <p>Particularly, <emph rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph> has been designed to meet the
                    needs of humanists, and especially textual scholars. It is a common complaint of
                    humanists that SGML/XML systems constrain a single hierarchical view of a
                    document, while humanities texts can be seen as containing many overlapping and
                    competing hierarchies. SGML/XML publishing systems usually cannot support
                    facilities which cut across the primary document hierarchy, and so cannot
                    satisify even such simple needs as display of a single page of transcription, or
                    display of a tabular list of key word in context search results with formatting
                    of all returned search strings according to the embedded encoding. <emph
                        rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph> seeks to escape these limitations by
                    adopting a document processing model that sees the document as made up of a
                    series of events which are defined not only by their hierarchical relation, but
                    also by their left to right relation in the document stream. As a result, <emph
                        rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph> provides tools which allow the document to
                    be manipulated according to alternative hierarchies implicit in the element
                    relations. Thus, one can very easily extract views of the text by column or
                    page, or indeed start a display at any point in any element and continue to any
                    point in any other element. A KWIC display, for example, requires that we
                    display an arbitrary number of characters before a hit, then display the
                    characters in the hit themselves, and then display an arbitrary number of
                    characters after the hit, all with complete awareness of the document encoding
                    within those spans of characters: <emph rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph> can do
                    this. Then, one should be able to click on a link from the KWIC display to the
                    document itself, and see the hits highlight in the full-text context: once more,
                        <emph rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph> has been designed to make this easy.
                    One can also manufacture virtual texts by extracting and combining multiple and
                    even overlapping segments.</p>
                <p><emph rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph> is also designed to fill another need: for
                    a mode of publication which is identical on both CD-ROM and the internet, on the
                    major Windows and Macintosh systems. Typically, the scholar will prepare a body
                    of SGML/XML documents for publication using the <emph rend=""italics""
                        >Anastasia</emph> GroveMaker application, which compiles the documents into
                    a binary database. The <emph rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph> Reader then serves
                    the documents to an internet browser, either over a network or from a CD-ROM.
                    Control of all aspects of the publication's display and behaviour (including
                    fully SGML/XML aware searching) is achieved through a series of Tcl script
                    files.</p>
                <p>A key factor in the development of <emph rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph> has been
                    the desire to achieve publication without compromise. That is: if it is possible
                    to achieve a certain kind of computer display effect, then <emph rend=""italics""
                        >Anastasia</emph> will allow this. For example, we might want to use some of
                    the advanced dynamic HTML features permitted by <emph rend=""italics""
                        >Javascript</emph>: pop-up menus, text which changes colour as the mouse
                    passes over some other part of the document (for instance, to show that a word
                    or phrase in one window is a translation of, or is otherwise related to, a word
                    or phrase another window), synchronous scrolling or separate windows, and more.
                    Practically, this means that we should be able to generate streams for display
                    in any format whatever, directly from the XML: in pdf, SVG, rtf, any variant of
                    HTML and XML, and send it directly to the display engine. We have concentrated
                    on using <emph rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph> to generate HTML with Javascript:
                    an example of the effects possible through this can be seen in the work on the
                    digital 28th edition of the Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament, accessible through
                    nestlealand.uni-muester.de. Other instances can be seen from the SDE website,
                        <ptr target=""http://www.sd-editions.com/anastasia""/>.</p>
                <p><emph rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph> is designed to work as a Apache webserver
                    module. It also requires C-language support, and the Tcl (Tool Control Language)
                    libraries. In theory at least, this means <emph rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph>
                    can operate whereever Apache operates: our main development is on Macintosh OS X
                    and Windows machines; there is also a Linux port. The search systems in <emph
                        rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph> are based on SGREP, written by Jani Jaakkola
                    and Pekka Kilpelainen of the University of Helsinki: we have heavily customized
                    the SGREP code to improve its performance with large texts. Perhaps one of the
                    most distinctive (if not controversial) features of <emph rend=""italics""
                        >Anastasia</emph> is that the style sheets we use to control exactly how the
                    source XML is sent to the browser are written in Tcl, and not in any of the
                    various XML-based systems which have appeared in the last years (such as XSLT,
                    XPATH, and others). In part this is historical: the roots of <emph
                        rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph> lie some distance back, as far as the first
                    work done by myself on the <emph rend=""italics"">Canterbury Tales Project</emph>
                    with Elizabeth Solopova and Norman Blake) in 1993, long before even XML made an
                    appearance. In part, it is because those systems themselves remain in a start of
                    flux. But it is also because there is room for argument about the efficiency of
                    such schemes. There is no doubt that XML is superb at representing textual
                    structure. But this does not mean it is suitable for use as a programming
                    language, requiring ease of use, rapid development, efficient maintenance, and
                    widespread support across many different computer systems. Tcl does offer all
                    these.</p>
                <p><emph rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph> is not intended to be the tool of choice
                    for everyone who works with XML. It is designed for situations where the very
                    best possible presentation is required of highly complex XML. A single screen of
                    the digital Nestle-Aland, for example, may draw XML from hundreds of different
                    places within the source, reformat into HTML interwoven with Javascript
                    commands, and spread this across a series of frames nested within the browser
                    display Ð all in a fraction of a second, in response to a request from the
                    reader. It is also designed to run identically on CD-ROM and over the internet.
                    Reports of the death of CD-ROM appear rather exaggerated: indeed, the
                    availability of cheaply priced publication tools such as <emph rend=""italics""
                        >Anastasia</emph> may make it possible for high-quality CD-ROMs to be made
                    available at much lower prices than hitherto, and so create a market which has
                    been previously elusive. Finally, my hope when designing <emph rend=""italics""
                        >Anastasia</emph> was that a single scholar, with reasonable dedication,
                    good knowledge of XML and with no more computer resources and support than are
                    commonly available within university departments, would be able to use it to
                    make high-quality XML based publications. There have been some encouraging signs
                    that <emph rend=""italics"">Anastasia</emph> can indeed be used in this manner. In
                    the same context, it should also be appropriate for use by smaller academic
                    publishers.</p>
                <p>This is the first conference presentation of <emph rend=""italics""
                        >Anastasia</emph> as a mature publication system. There has been one
                    previous conference presentation of the system, at the DRRH conference in Sydney
                    in September 2001, when only a preliminary version of the software was
                    available.</p>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Texts into Databases: The Evolving Field of New-Style
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                        <forename type=""first"">John</forename>
                        <surname>Bradley</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">King's College London</name>
                            <email>john.bradley@kcl.ac.uk</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Harold</forename>
                        <surname>Short</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">King's College London</name>
                            <email>harold.short@kcl.ac.uk</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
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                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
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                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
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                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
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                <p>The Centre for Computing in the Humanities at King’s College London is involved
                    in three broadly Prosopographical projects: the <title level=""m"">Prosopography
                        of the Byzantine Empire</title> (PBE) (recently renamed <title level=""m""
                        >Prosopography of the Byzantine World</title>—PBW), the <title level=""m""
                        >Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England</title> (PASE), and the <title
                        level=""m"">Clergy of the Church of England Database</title> (CCE). (All are
                    funded by the UK’s Arts and Humanities Research Board.)</p>
                <p>The goals of these three projects at King’s are ambitious. PBE’s goal is “to
                    record in a computerised relational database all surviving information about
                    every individual mentioned in Byzantine sources during the period from 641 to
                    1261, and every individual mentioned in non-Byzantine sources during the same
                    period who is ‘relevant’ (on a generous interpretation) to Byzantine affairs.”
                    (from website, see references). PASE’s aim is “to provide a comprehensive
                    biographical register of recorded inhabitants of Anglo-Saxon England (c.
                    450-1066).” (from website). CCE intends to create a “database of clergymen of
                    the Church of England between 1540 and 1835.” (from website).</p>
                <p>The sources of information for all three projects are surviving manuscript
                    records of many kinds. The central computing tool that all three projects employ
                    is the relational database. Obviously, there is a significant issue involved in
                    taking the textual source material, often presented discursively, and presenting
                    it in the structured form that a database requires. Central, then, to the design
                    of the database, and to the continuing process of putting data into it, is
                    ensuring that the scholarly interpretation essential to this transformation is
                    properly accommodated.</p>
                <p>In traditional Prosopography (see, for example, the well-known <title level=""m""
                        >Prosopography of the Late Roman Empire</title>, or the more recent <title
                        level=""m"">Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit</title>—PmbZ(Lille et
                    al 1998-2002)), the central organising principle is the person. The information
                    about the person is formed into an article by the scholar, and the articles
                    themselves are organised by the person’s name. There is often some degree of
                    more structured information attached (in PmbZ, for example, there is, among
                    other lists, a formal list of sources in which information about the person
                    could be gleaned). However, the primary source of information for the user is
                    the article. The article is presented as a narrative in which we find a complex
                    blending of quotation from sources and scholarly interpretation. Some of the
                    assertions are made without further justification, in some cases an argument is
                    provided to support why an assertion has been made, in some cases an issue is
                    left unresolved and only alternatives are outlined. The scholar's task is to
                    take the evidence provided by the sources s/he has read and to represent in the
                    article the shades of certainty about any of them.</p>
                <p>All three of our Prosopographical projects take a radically different
                        approach.<note n=""1"">Those familiar with the CD publication of PBE I may
                        have observed that the approach taken there was actually a transitional
                        one—somewhere between the article-oriented and factoid-oriented approach
                        described here. The current phase of PBE work has fully taken on the
                        approach described below</note> The final publication will not be a set of
                    volumes containing articles, but an online database. Furthermore, all three
                    projects agree that there will be none or very few articles about persons in
                    their database, and they will be written <emph rend=""italics"">after</emph> the
                    data collection process is complete, rather than being central to it. Instead,
                    the evidence data will be recorded as a series of <emph rend=""italics""
                        >factoids</emph>—assertions made by the project team that a source “S” at
                    location “L” states something (”F”) about person “P”. <emph rend=""italics""
                        >Factoid</emph> was first applied to this kind of information by Dion Smythe
                    and Gorden Gallacher, and is not a statement of fact about a person; it is an
                    assertion that a source says something about him/her. In Figure 1 you can see
                    some sample output from the PBE database, showing factoids derived from the
                    source <title level=""m"">Skylitzes Continuatus</title>; for Emperor Alexios I
                    Komnenos (identified in the DB as Alexios 001) in 1078. As the illustration
                    suggests, there are several different kinds of factoids provided. In PBE,
                    factoid data is collected for things such as activities or events in which the
                    person took part; physical, spiritual or physiological descriptions applied to
                    them; dignities or offices they held; ethnic group to which they belonged;
                    kinship relationships with other people; locations with which they were
                    associated; occupations they took up; possessions they owned; and religion they
                    professed.</p>
                <figure>
                    <head>Figure 1: A Factoid List for Alexios I Komnenos (PBE)</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Factoids are modeled as entities in the prosopographical database, and each
                    factoid type contains both an explicit and implicit structure. The explicit
                    structure can be relatively complex. Figure 2 shows the data capture screen
                    displaying one of PASE's event factoids—the event being the tonsoring of Guthlac
                    by Aelfthryth (as recorded in the <title level=""m"">Vita Sancti
                    Guthlaci</title>). Not only is there a description field that contains
                    information about the act itself (here only the beginning of the full text
                    recorded in the field is visible), but the event is:<list type=""bulleted"">
                        <item>categorized in the Term field,</item>
                        <item>attached to a place (the place described using the word found in the
                            original text, the type of place it is and its modern day location),
                            and</item>
                        <item>linked to the two people involved, one identified as the recipient and
                            the other as the agent.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>Furthermore,<list type=""bulleted"">
                        <item>the textual source for the event, and location in the text where the
                            act is recorded is entered in the database, and</item>
                        <item>there is space for recording a scholarly date recording when the event
                            is thought to have occurred, and space to record whatever dating
                            information is given in the source (only partially visible in this
                            figure).</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>Finally, there is a place in the “Notes” and “Problems” field where the
                    researcher can record in free text some commentary on the factoid that s/he
                    considers important but does not fit the structured fields associated with the
                    factoid itself.</p>
                <figure>
                    <head>Figure 2: An Event Factoid in PASE</head>
                </figure>
                <p>There are, in addition, elements of implicit structure that must be recorded in
                    the textual elements—a reference to another person in the database in the
                    description of an event would be an example of this. Textual fields in our
                    projects are, therefore, often structured as mini-XML documents, with XML being
                    used to handle the structure that they contain and making it available for
                    further machine handling.</p>
                <p>A relational database is most useful when the data it contains is highly
                    structured. The capability of the relational model is often underestimated in
                    scholarly circles, and both Greenstein (Greenstein 1994), and Townsend et al (in
                    the <title level=""m"">AHDS Guides to Good Practice: Digitising History</title>)
                    begin their discussion of databases by acknowledging that a single table in the
                    relational database as often too limited for large scale historical use (it is
                    described as the “matrix straitjacket” in Townsend). Greenstein, however,
                    recognises that the <emph rend=""italics"">relational</emph> aspect of the
                    relational model—which allows material from more than one table to be linked
                    into a single logical entity —allows for richer collections of information to be
                    formed. Once an entry (say, for the Person) in a table is changed from being a
                    text string containing the person’s name to a link to a row in another “person
                    information” table it is possible to record a great deal of richer information
                    about that person. Thus, PBE, PASE and CCE databases contain not only structured
                    data in the form of factoids, but they also contain complex structures spread
                    over more than one table each that represent other important “objects” in the
                    database related to the factoids such as persons, geographic locations and
                    possessions.</p>
                <p>The challenges associated with our Prosopographical databases are many. First,
                    there is a constant struggle to be sure that, for each field one enters, one is
                    clear about to what extent the field represents simply what is in the source,
                    and to what extent it is actually represents a scholarly interpretation of that
                    source. Even the “original source” fields holds text out of context, making it a
                    matter of scholarly decision about exactly what fragment should be
                        included.<note n=""2"">Linking of our databases to full-text representations
                        of the source texts have been considered by all projects. In all three
                        projects, however, this has been rejected for various reasons. There was no
                        funding to take on the preparation of a fresh electronic edition, and, in
                        general, no scholarly reputable electronic editions of the texts were
                        available elsewhere. PASE might yet explore some options in this area,
                        however, for recording data from charters.</note></p>
                <p>Furthermore, for all three projects data is collected on a source-by-source basis
                    by more than one researcher. The issue of consistency between researchers is
                    constantly on our minds. Consistency issues are dealt with during the editorial
                    phase of the project, where editors will use tools to assert, for example, that
                    a person A in one source is the same person as person B in another. We expect to
                    have more to say about these issues during our presentation at the
                    conference.</p>
                <p>An article in a traditional prosopography provides a well organised bundle of
                    information to its user in the form of a narrative. What happens when the
                    prosopography contains large collections of factoids instead? As figure I
                    suggests, the factoid model used in these projects provides a way that the
                    machine can generate “micro-narratives”—to use the term presented in (Ramsay
                    2002). These narratives will be richly linked to other data in the system, and
                    different micro-narratives will be generated when one enters from different
                    starting points (say, from a location, rather than from a person), or by
                    traversing links that connect materials in each factoid to the broader database
                    contents. Clearly, a web access mechanism for these databases will need to be
                    significantly more complex than a simple search form which results in a list of
                    selected items. We believe that the best interface to this will provide the
                    blending of a searching and browsing paradigm that is now characteristic of
                    large websites on the WWW. All three projects are now reaching the stages where
                    some detailed exploration of these presentation and selection issues can begin.
                    We will describe some of these issues in more detail during the conference
                    presentation.</p>
                <p>In moving from article-based to factoid-based prosopography, all three of our
                    projects are participating in the development of a radically new approach to the
                    field. The role of the scholar has clearly altered in our projects. In addition
                    to being ultimately responsible for the projects’ “content”, all project members
                    must work together to ensure that new methodologies are developed which ensure
                    both quality and consistency of information across the large number of
                    individual factoids. The role of the scholarly end-user may also have to change,
                    and here too the project has to work to ensure that the experience of the
                    end-user searching through these factoids is positive and useful. In the end, we
                    are finding new ways that technology can serve these essential scholarly
                    goals.</p>
            </div>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
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                        <note>at <ptr target=""http://www.kcl.ac.uk/humanities/cch/pase""/></note>
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            </div>
        </back>
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                        <surname>Scaife</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">U of Kentucky</name>
                            <email>scaife@uky.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Raphael</forename>
                        <surname>Finkel</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">U of Kentucky</name>
                            <email>raphael@cs.uky.edu</email>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
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                <p>Using highly interdisciplinary methods we have built a collaborative
                    infrastructure for translation and annotation of ancient texts. This
                    generalizable infrastructure is now fully deployed in the Suda On Line <ptr
                        target=""http://www.stoa.org/sol/""/>). The Suda is a 10th century Byzantine
                    Greek lexicon of some 30,000 lemmata. After four years of continuous development
                    we have implemented a complex yet effective and practical system. Our goal is
                    not only to provide the SOL as a useful tool for researchers, but also to
                    explore and facilitate the modes of scholarship now made possible by open source
                    technology and the internet: this effort is cooperative rather than solitary,
                    communal rather than proprietary, worldwide rather than localized, evolving
                    rather than static. Our international team of managing editors, editors, and
                    translators has now worked up approximately one third of the material in the
                    Suda, quite a satisfactory rate of progress. ACH/ALLC in Glasgow had an initial
                    presentation concerning this project; we feel that substantial further
                    development and our positive results warrant an update at this time.</p>
                <p>In order to encourage the participation of translators and editors, and in order
                    to make the SOL database a useful scholarly resource as quickly as possible, we
                    make our materials available to users as soon as it is submitted. We acknowledge
                    that this philosophy raises concerns. One of the major issues with electronic
                    publication of scholarship is the potential it has for circumventing time-tested
                    procedures for quality control. While we do not want simply to add to the sea of
                    uncontrolled material on the Web, at the same time we insist on our right to
                    experiment, and we have no desire to replicate the print-publication paradigm in
                    electronic format. Many of the advantages that electronic publication offers,
                    including immediacy, accessibility and adaptability, are seriously handicapped
                    by traditional editorial processes, where chronic bottlenecks frequently develop
                    in the effort to keep the publishing house’s imprimatur off of anything with any
                    detectable shortcomings. In order to exploit these advantages of the web while
                    at the same time maintaining a reasonable level of quality control, submissions
                    to the SOL database undergo the following process of editorial evaluation and monitoring:<list>
                        <item>1. Initial submissions immediately become accessible to users
                            searching or browsing at the SOL site, but their “draft” status is
                            clearly marked.</item>
                        <item>2. Once a submission has been carefully vetted by one of the SOL
                            editors for errors and significant omissions, its status as part of the
                            SOL database may rise from draft into one of two categories: low or
                            high. At every stage of this process, the editors who participate in
                            vetting and improving the entry will be prominently identified to the
                            user, along with any descriptive comments they may provide concerning
                            their editorial work.</item>
                        <item>3. Most importantly, even an entry that has achieved high status will
                            not be considered perfect and immutable. At the discretion of the
                            editors, improvements, changes and additions of links and bibliography
                            can continue indefinitely.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>While this way of doing things puts more of the burden of quality control on the
                    end user, our system of marking editorial status gives researchers significant
                    assistance in coming to an informed decision about the reliability of the
                    material in SOL. In fact, our system offers definite advantages over the
                    canonical paradigm of peer review from the consumer’s point of view. In print
                    scholarship (and electronic scholarship that merely follows the traditional
                    model) the number, identity, and qualifications of reviewers remain hidden, and
                    one must usually base one’s estimate of the reliability of the scholarship
                    solely on the identity of the author and the general reputation of the venue. In
                    the standard paradigm, moreover, the end product is more or less fixed, whereas
                    our database is being improved continuously.</p>
                <p>This presentation will describe our project from various perspectives, including
                    the following principal points of discussion. (1) An overview of the Suda
                    itself, including a few examples that illustrate its diverse composition and
                    unique value for several fields of humanistic scholarship, despite its flaws and
                    peculiarities. (2) The multiyear interdisciplinary collaboration among computer
                    scientists, historians, and philologists that has produced our results so far.
                    (3) The academic ideology that guides our production of a freely-available and
                    open-ended e-text, including significant ways in which our editorial practices
                    diverge from more traditional ones. (4) The most important features of the
                    online site available on a hierarchical basis to the participants and the
                    general public. (5) The specific applications and programming technologies that
                    enable those features. (6) Our most recent effort: generation of a unified,
                    complete, and self-documenting XML snapshot of our data. This latest ability
                    addresses our responsibility to ensure the long-term archival security and
                    viability of our results, and it also allows us to experiment with powerful new
                    technologies centered around XSLT programming and the Cocoon environment for the
                    transformation and publication of electronic documents. The presentation will
                    include a demonstration of these experiments and conclude with the prospects for
                    future developments.</p>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main""><emph rend=""italics"">Écriture féminine</emph>:
                    Searching for an Indefinable Practice?</title>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Mark</forename>
                        <surname>Olsen</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Chicago</name>
                            <email>mark@barkov.uchicago.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
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                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
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                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
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                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                <p>Some 25 years ago, Hélène Cixous provocatively anticipated a distinctly female
                    practice of writing. She declared that <emph rend=""italics"">écriture
                        féminine</emph> would be marked by characteristics which challenge the logic
                    of writing within the “phallocentric” tradition, by its focus on the female
                    body, glorying in a femininity too long repressed, and breaking up received
                    truth through laughter. Her argument, based on her view of the poetic, implies a
                    form of “false consciousness” in that not all women would, or even could,
                    produce texts from this alternative practice. Further, she declared that <emph
                        rend=""italics"">écriture féminine</emph> cannot be defined or identified
                    outside of itself: <cit rend=""block"">
                        <quote>It is impossible to <emph rend=""italics"">define</emph> a feminine
                            practice of writing, and this is an impossibility that will remain, for
                            this practice can never be theorized, enclosed, encoded, coded —which
                            doesn’t mean that it doesn’t exist. But it will always surpass the
                            discourse that regulates the phallocentric system: it does and will take
                            place in areas other than those subordinated to
                            philosophical-theoretical domination. It will be conceived of only by
                            subjects who are breakers of automatisms, by peripheral figures that no
                            authority can ever subjugate.</quote>
                        <bibl>
                            <note n=""1"">Hélène Cixous, ""The Laugh of the Medusa"" in <title level=""j""
                                    >Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society</title> 1:4
                                (1976) 883.</note>
                        </bibl>
                    </cit></p>
                <p>A generation of French and America feminist critics have addressed Cixous’
                    declaration, pro and con, which is based on two questionable propositions: that
                        <emph rend=""italics"">écriture féminine</emph> cannot be defined outside of
                    its own terms and that not all women writing may be said to participate in this
                    unique practice.</p>
                <p>It is unfortunate that so important a declaration would be auto-marginalized by
                    positing its own epistemological and social indefinability. While Cixous may be
                    right, that a practice of women’s writing would be hard to identify, she carries
                    her attack of “phallocentric systems” of knowledge—rationality and logic—to such
                    an extreme that any attempt to demonstrate the possibility of the existence of,
                    or isolate some of the characteristics of, an <emph rend=""italics"">écriture
                        féminine</emph> is invalidated. I would argue, however, that any putative
                    feminine practice of writing should be identifiable as recessive traits in the
                    literary production of women who predate Cixous’s declaration and that these
                    traits may be detected using systematic methodologies.</p>
                <p>A considerable body of recent work on gender marking in language use shows
                    important, even critical, differences in male and female use of language.<note
                        n=""2"">See for example, Deborah Tannen, <title level=""m"">You just don't
                            understand: Women and men in conversation</title> (Ballantine, 1990) and
                            <title level=""m"">Gender and discourse</title> (Oxford, 1994).</note>
                    While much of this work has been restricted to less formal forms of
                    communication—speech, e-mail, and student essays—there is some evidence that
                    gender is an important discriminant in more formal literary texts. For example,
                    Minna Palander-Collin finds in her study of 17th century private letters that
                    there are marked differences between female and male writing, suggesting that
                    the women's letters are more interactional, personal and “involved” than letters
                    by men, which are common features of women’s communication in Present-Day
                        English.<note n=""3"">Minna Palander-Collin, ""Male and female styles in 17th
                        century correspondence: I THINK"", in <title level=""j"">Language Variation and
                            Change</title>, 11 (1999), 123-141.</note> More generally, recent
                    studies by Moshe Koppel, Shlomo Argamon and Anat Shimoni have detected a wide
                    variety of simple lexical and syntactic feature differences in literary texts by
                    men and women in the British National Corpus (BNC). Using machine learning
                    techniques, they are able to infer the gender of an author of an unseen document
                    with approximately 80% accuracy, with moderately better performance for works of
                    fiction than nonfiction.<note n=""4"">Moshe Koppel, Shlomo Argamon, Jonathan Fine
                        and Amat Shimoni, ""Automatically Categorizing Written Texts by Author
                        Gender"", forthcoming in <title level=""j"">Literary and Linguistic
                            Computing</title> (2003) and Moshe Koppel, Shlomo Argamon, Jonathan Fine
                        and Amat Shimoni, ""Differences in Writing Style Between Male and Female
                        Authors"" (paper submitted for publication).</note> The success of text
                    categorization techniques to identify modern literary texts by gender of author
                    suggests that there are gendered practices of writing and that these gendered
                    traditions are grounded in the history of literary culture and would be an
                    important component of Cixous’ prospective <emph rend=""italics"">écriture
                        féminine</emph>.</p>
                <p>In the early 1990s, I attempted to examine the question of <emph rend=""italics""
                        >écriture féminine</emph> using the ARTFL database, only to be confronted by
                    the very significant gender bias of the TLF database as it was then constituted,
                    concluding that the sample of texts by women (3.8% of the titles) was too
                    limited to allow for useful comparisons. This limitation led directly to our
                    ongoing effort to digitize a large collection of French literary texts by women,
                    ARTFL’s French Women Writers Project<note n=""5"">ARTFL's French Women Writers
                        Project is one of many projects to digitize neglected literary and
                        non-literary texts by women, most inspired by the Brown Women Writers
                        Project, including the University of Chicago Library's Italian Women Writers
                        and commercial products such as Alexander Street Press' <title level=""m""
                            >North American Women's Letters and Diaries</title>. See <ptr
                            target=""http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/ets/efts/Women.html""/> for a
                        partial list of current projects and products.</note> to redress the gender
                    bias of the corpus which was used to compile the TLF dictionary. The gender bias
                    in the data used to compile a massive and “definitive” dictionary is itself an
                    important example of one mechanism of how patriarchal language is propagated and
                        authorized.<note n=""6"">""Gender representation and <emph rend=""italics""
                            >histoire des mentalités</emph>: Language and Power in the <title
                            level=""m"">Trésor de la langue française</title>,"" in <title level=""j""
                            >Histoire et measure</title> VI (1991): 349-73.</note> My initial
                    studies of gender representation in early modern and modern French—based
                    exclusively on male writers describing the feminine —produced some striking
                    examples of long-term shifts in the use and meaning of common gender terms, such
                    as <emph rend=""italics"">femme</emph>.<note n=""7"">""Quantitative Linguistics and
                            <emph rend=""italics"">Histoire des mentalités</emph>: Gender
                        Representation in the <title level=""m"">Trésor de la langue
                        française</title>, in R. Köhler and B. B. Rieger (eds.), <title level=""m""
                            >Contributions to Quantitative Linguistics</title> (Kluwer, 1993), pp.
                        361-381.</note> Age categorization of women— young/old—becomes one of the
                    most notable patterns only towards the end of the 18th century, reflecting both
                    the rise of the romantic novel and a new politics of desire. Equally important
                    are long-term continuities, such as the collocation of <emph rend=""italics""
                        >femme</emph> with possessives, suggesting that the semantic field of the
                    feminine begins with putting her “in her place,” being possessed by a male.<note
                        n=""8"">See also Tuija Pulkkinen, ""The History of Gender Concepts: The Concept
                        of Woman"", in <title level=""j"">History of Concepts Newsletter</title>, 5
                        (2002), 2-5.</note> Cixous’ complaint that “woman has always functioned
                    ‘within’ the discourse of man” simply because women must express themselves in
                    “the language of men and their grammar”<note n=""9"">Cixous, p. 887.</note> is a
                    position that is certainly implied by my initial studies and needs to be taken
                    into account when characterizing earlier examples of feminine writing.</p>
                <p>In order to examine possible earlier practices of <emph rend=""italics"">écriture
                        féminine</emph>, I am assembling two corpora of about 350 literary texts
                    each by male and female authors from the 17th to the early 20th century,
                    balanced by time period, genre, and subject matter (or collection). The women’s
                    texts are drawn from a variety of current holdings at ARTFL, including 110 texts
                    in French Women Writers, 70 from the ARTFL database, 40 from BASILE (Editions
                    Champion), and 130 from various collections produced by Editions
                        Bibliopolis.<note n=""10"">Links to the ARTFL/PhiloLogic implementations of
                        these collections may be found at <ptr
                            target=""http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ARTFL/newhome/texts/""/>.</note>
                    The comparative male corpus will be selected from the same sources. Comparisons
                    of the two corpora will be based on several distinct types of analysis.<list
                        type=""bulleted"">
                        <item>A comparative overview of the two corpora using the combination of
                            some of the relatively simple lexical and syntactic features used by
                            Koppel and his team, broken down by time period;</item>
                        <item>A comparison of collocations of gender terms (<emph rend=""italics""
                                >femme</emph>, <emph rend=""italics"">homme</emph>, <emph
                                rend=""italics"">mari</emph>, <emph rend=""italics"">mère</emph>, etc.),
                            loosely based on results from my earlier studies, effectively looking at
                            how men and women represent themselves and the other gender, again
                            broken down by period and genre.</item>
                        <item>Examination of the “agency” of male and female actors as represented
                            by the tense and the functional status of selected verbs associated with
                            gender denoting terms.</item>
                        <item>And a general assessment of the pragmatics associated with literary
                            writing by males and females, by looking at use of hedges as well as the
                            density of pronouns and adjectives.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>Finally, following Pulkkinen’s call to consider the history of the concept of
                    “woman” as a political construct, I would like to look at contrasting
                    representations of social groups—inclusive and exclusive use of <emph
                        rend=""italics"">nous</emph> and other terms denoting belonging—a technique
                    well known in <emph rend=""italics"">lexicologie politique</emph>.<note n=""11""
                        >""Enlightened Nationalism in the Early Revolution"" The <emph rend=""italics""
                            >nation</emph> in the Language of the <emph rend=""italics"">Société de
                            1789</emph> in <title level=""j"">Canadian Journal of History</title>
                        (24), 1994, p. 28ff</note> Using a combination of quantitative and
                    systematic qualitative approaches to the two corpora, I hope to show changing
                    patterns of gendered writing in French literature over a several century
                    span.</p>
                <p>The continued expansion and improvement of electronic text holdings, in terms of
                    the quality of the data as well as coverage of wider ranges of literatures well
                    outside of established national canons, allows us to revisit theoretical and
                    substantive problematics that we could not address previously. Women's writing
                    is surely a case-in-point of this laudable development, facilitating systematic
                    examinations of propositions made by critics and theorists like Hélène Cixous.
                    Identification of the practices and distinguishable characteristics of <emph
                        rend=""italics"">écriture féminine</emph> in the centuries predating her “call
                    to the pen” may help situate the traditions of gendered discourse the past as
                    well as their relationship to current feminine writing.</p>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">The Tobacco Documents Corpus: Archiving the
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                        <forename type=""first"">Clayton</forename>
                        <surname>Darwin</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Georgia</name>
                            <email>cdarwin@uga.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <surname>Kretaschmar</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Georgia</name>
                            <email>kretzsch@uga.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Donald</forename>
                        <surname>Rubin</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Georgia</name>
                            <email>drubin@uga.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                        <surname/>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                <p>Our research group has been awarded funding by the National Cancer Institute for
                    a rhetorical analysis of “deception” in the Tobacco Documents (TDs). These
                    documents, which were released by tobacco industry defendants as a result of
                    state and federal litigation and legislative hearings, cover the complete range
                    of corporate operations in the tobacco companies, from memos to research papers
                    to procurement invoices. The documents are stored physically in depositories in
                    Minneapolis (the site of the original trial) and Guildford, England, and large
                    collections of them (more than five million documents) are now available in
                    electronic form on the Web as well. The documents represent a rich source of
                    corporate and technical discourse which had never been subjected to systematic
                    linguistic analysis; indeed, we are not aware that any similar corporate body of
                    documents has ever been available for analysis.</p>
                <p>Rather than choosing specific documents for analysis, a method which would leave
                    itself open to attack on grounds of highly selective use of data, the premise of
                    our work is to treat the TDs as a corpus, and to apply accepted methods of
                    corpus and forensic linguistics and rhetorical analysis. Of course, this
                    required that we create sub-corpora for study, since we do not have the
                    resources to include the entire set. Here we will present our experience with
                    the planning and creation of our TD corpora: the sampling strategy, archiving,
                    retrieval, and ultimately, making the corpora available via the Internet for
                    further research.</p>
                <p>Our initial goal was to create a series of corpora from the TDs in order to 1)
                    Identify TDs in which rhetorical manipulation (“deception”) may have occurred,
                    and to estimate the extent and prevalence of manipulation; and 2) Analyze
                    manipulation we find in order to classify it and develop means to identify
                    similar manipulation in other industrial situations. To do so we have followed a
                    three-part strategy for corpus creation which emphasizes rigorous sampling
                    methods. We first drew a limited sample from the entire body of TDs so that we
                    could determine the best classification of text types and estimate their
                    proportions within the overall body of texts. From those text types which we
                    considered relevant to (i.e. subject to) rhetorical manipulation, we devised
                    quotas for creating a reference corpus of approximately 500,000 words, which we
                    estimated to consist of 808 documents. For this reference corpus, all relevant
                    TDs were sampled whether or not they were thought to contain any manipulation.
                    Finally, we are presently compiling a corpus which includes all texts which we
                    determine to contain any rhetorical manipulation, along with parallel corpora of
                    earlier drafts of the same texts or versions of the same texts prepared for
                    other audiences, so that detailed analysis of rhetorical manipulation can be
                    carried out for itself and by comparison with cross-draft and cross-audience
                    TDs. As it has turned out, the plan has been effective in the first two parts
                    which we have now completed, but we have had to make adjustments at several
                    points in order to take account of our preliminary findings.</p>
                <p>Once we began the process of collecting documents we immediately encountered two
                    problems related to archiving and processing the data. The first is that there
                    was no text available. Rather than being stored digitally as the plain ASCII
                    text which we needed for computer-assisted corpus analysis, the tobacco
                    documents are stored as image files, usually as TIF type. This problem was
                    compounded by the fact that the images, although stored as large high-resolution
                    files, are generally too poor in quality for automated text processing such as
                    scanning and OCR. They often have pages that are tipped to one side or, in the
                    case of dot-matrix or fax printing and handwriting, they can be practically
                    illegible. The second problem we encountered was the structural complexity of
                    the documents themselves. For example, just over 50 percent of the documents
                    contained marginalia of some type, such as filing data, distribution lists,
                    stamps of various types, editing, and handwritten comments. Most documents
                    contained large amounts of peripheral data like names, dates, addresses, and
                    distribution lists. Although these features are significant for archiving, they
                    have little or no rhetorical value for our intended research. Other documents
                    often contain or consist of forms, tables, and images that also offered little
                    value for our analysis. To account for these problems we decided to keyboard the
                    documents by hand as plain ASCII text and to code them with XML tags.</p>
                <p>When we investigated the existing XML tag sets, TEI in particular, we found that
                    they are particularly well suited for archiving standard texts in standard
                    hierarchies and for naming typesetting conventions. However, we chose to devise
                    a set of tags specific to our project for primarily two reasons. First, we found
                    that many of the documents collected for the corpus had a very non-standard
                    format. In fact, we found no fixed definition for what constitutes a document in
                    the tobacco archives. For example, a document recently coded began in the middle
                    of a paragraph and sentence, proceeded for half of a page, changed to a summary
                    of a court ruling, then to a policy letter, then to a table of denicotinization,
                    and ended with a diagram of a processing facility. The second reason for
                    devising our own tag set is that our primary interest is in archiving
                    rhetorically significant text and events rather than the typesetting conventions
                    used to represent them. Thus although TEI includes a full set of tags to
                    indicate divisions and typographical conventions, use of these tags for our
                    purposes might lead to ambiguities. For example, italics, boldface, and
                    underlining have all been found to denote emphasis in the document set, which is
                    rhetorically significant; however, they have also been found to denote titles,
                    headings, names, quotations, formulas, and standard text, which may be of little
                    value for our analysis. Thus, tagging a word in a document with a tag designed
                    to denote typesetting, such as italics, may not be so useful when the corpus is
                    analyzed linguistically or rhetorically simply because there is no way to know
                    the significance of that particular event. To counter this, we have devised a
                    set of XML tags which accommodates the structural complexity of the original
                    documents and which reflects the purpose of our study.</p>
                <p>Data is retrieved from the XML files in a straightforward manner. We have
                    embedded the expat XSLT engine into several Python scripts. This allows us to
                    assemble a text corpus for study from the reference and manipulated-cases
                    corpora according to the needs of the research. That is, with our scripts the
                    XML files are parsed, desired tag content is selected, and the selected content
                    is assembled and written to an ASCII text file. There are, however, two notable
                    differences between the standard Web use of XSLT and that of our project. The
                    first is data permanence. The output of our XSLT processing is ASCII/ANSI text
                    which is written to file for later analysis rather than HTML sent onto the
                    Internet. The other difference is that the XSLT output is not solely determined
                    by the XSL stylesheet. For ease and speed in processing, some general document
                    and tag selection is done by regular expressions in the Python script prior to
                    calling the expat program.</p>
                <p>The end result of this initial phase of our project will be a larger general
                    corpus of TDs for use as a reference, and a smaller corpus of “manipulated” TDs
                    for focused analysis. Both will be archived as ASCII text with XML tags, which
                    will allow us to generate tailored sub-corpora for specific studies using XSLT.
                    Although these corpora are being created for our own purposes, our intent is to
                    make them freely available to other researchers over the Internet. What we
                    envision is an integrated Web site that provides access to the corpora in
                    several formats: the TIF and/or PDF images of the original documents, the XML
                    files coded with TEI compliant tags, the XML files coded with our tag set, ASCII
                    text versions of the files, and access to a CGI version of our XSLT scripts for
                    generating task-specific sub-corpora.</p>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Laura</forename>
                        <surname>Borràs</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Universitat Oberta de Catalunya</name>
                            <email>lborras@uoc.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Joan-Elies</forename>
                        <surname>Adell</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Universitat Oberta de Catalunya</name>
                            <email>jadellp@uoc.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Isabel</forename>
                        <surname>Moll</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Universitat Oberta de Catalunya</name>
                            <email>imoll@uoc.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
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                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
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                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
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                    <head>INTRODUCTION. UNIVERSITAT OBERTA DE CATALUNYA: THE FIRST VIRTUAL
                        UNIVERSITY IN THE WORLD</head>
                    <p>In 1995, the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (UOC) was conceived as the first
                        e-learning university in the world. This new concept of university redefined
                        the idea of teaching, studying and doing research. There has been an
                        evolution within the UOC since new technologies have developed and have
                        become so usual for our everyday life. There has been as well an important
                        feedback between students and lecturers and this has obviously contributed
                        to find our best way to teach Humanities and Philology in this environment,
                        which has been so often considered hostile for these areas of knowledge. In
                        this paper, we would like to focus on the challenging experience of teaching
                        literature through the net and we will present all the questions we (the
                        lecturers) have had to rise in order to present an effective method of
                        teaching literature in the broad sense of both words: teaching and
                        literature.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>FROM THE AESTHETICS OF RECEPTION TO THE AESTHETICS OF INTERACTIVITY</head>
                    <p>The incorporation of new technologies to literature and to the study of
                        literature has allowed to reread the past from a platform in which the
                        literary work is more than ever an open device, with no hierarchical
                        structures, and belonging to an infinite net of hypertexts. We can rethink
                        the literary phenomenon from other textual, critical and hermeneutical
                        perspective. Digital environement clearly shows the inscription of a
                        literary work in an intertextual framework and allows physical connection of
                        texts. Moreover, digital context reformulates higher education, following a
                        process which begins with the invention of writing, and continues wiht the
                        press, and that frees the student from physically attending to the lectures
                        (Landow, 1997: 29-30). In the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (<ptr
                            target=""http://www.uoc.edu""/>), since 1995, this process is taking place
                        in a concrete place in the net: the virtual campus, that works
                        asincronically, serving to the students and professors comunity. And even in
                        this heterogeneous and disturbing medium, the final purpose is still
                        ""teaching"". However, when the environment is not the ""clasroom"" anymore, but
                        the virtuality of a computer screen, the methodological approach is crucial
                        and demands a previous reflection: at the begining of the 21st century,
                        should we continue to offer the same teaching patterns as we have been doing
                        for many decades? In our opinion, this question applies not only to a
                        pioneer university such as the UOC, but also to more traditional
                        universities. Cultural and social changes that Internet has provoked and the
                        information society in which we are living now compels us to reflect on some
                        premises and to consider new ways and different possibilities in tune with
                        the new era. In the context of overinformation surrounding us, professors""
                        duty can not be anymore the transmission of knowledge, but the contribution
                        to the generation of this knowlegde, that is to say, s/he has to assume a
                        role of ""guide"" and should provide the necessary intellectual tools that
                        will allow students to be able to think critically.</p>
                    <p>Focusing on literary studies, our mission is basically teaching to read, but
                        giving to this formula all the depth we are able to. In the Humanities and
                        Philology Studies in the UOC, we have chosen an hermeneutical approach,
                        following Gadamer, whose idea of Hermeneutics is the art of understanding
                        the other""s opinion. For us, this constitutes a redoubtable reflection on
                        the activity of reading, which aspires to participate in the ""shared sense"".
                        Nevertheless, reading and teaching to read in a medium like Internet and
                        with its natural tool, this is hypertext, means to confront a technological
                        device serving education. Taking as an example the subject ""Temes de
                        literatura universal"" (""Universal literary topics""), we will try to outline
                        which are the changes that affect literature teaching. We consider that this
                        constitutes an initial step in order to establish which are the real
                        possibilities that allow us to progress, from a theoretical point of view,
                        from the aesthetics of reception to the aesthetics of interactivity. This
                        will provoke a voice game in the virtual classroom not only between
                        professor and students, but also between students themselves, and therefore
                        there will be a collective and dialogical creation of knowledge.</p>
                    <p>We have organized this subject taking as a starting point a series of texts
                        connected by the fact that they deal with some of the basic topics of
                        universal literature. In the hipertextual material, which combines linear
                        reading with sequential or fragmentary reading inherent to hypertext, as
                        well as video or audio resources, what we offer are interpretations and
                        readings of key literary works through a double intertextual route. That is
                        to say in a genetical and analogical way, and that relates different
                        literary, pictorial or cinematographic texts. During all this process, we
                        have had the intention of analyse the text from a double perspective, both
                        towards the present and the future but, at the same time, it appears within
                        a pardigm formed by other texts, that precede and influence it. Therefore,
                        the texts assums in a explicit or implicit way the cultural past which comes
                        before, even when it has been conceived against this past. The course
                        intends to contribute to a tranversal reading of universal literature in a
                        virtual environment of learning, and at the same time it provides guide
                        lines to students for a practical exercise of compartive literature. It
                        suggests as well reading itineraries crossing periods and literary
                        traditions which are far from each other in time and space. Following
                        intertextual connections (in an analogical and genetical way), that are
                        guiding us inside the hyprtextual corpus, some reading routes are described
                        as random and subjective and they show the broadcast and the arituclation of
                        such a topic in the literary tradition. Students, after familiarizing with
                        the texts presented in the materials and wiht the navigating tools offered
                        by the materials, have to select the topics that are subjectively more
                        relevant, and to build up their own (hyper)textual corpus. Professor R.
                        Pinto, who is one of the lecturers of the subject, asserts that both during
                        the first part of the course, more receptive, and during the second one,
                        more active, there is always a dialogue between the professor and the
                        students.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>TEACHING LITERATURE THROUGH THE NET: TO READ AND TO REREAD</head>
                    <p>""A good reader is a rereader"", says categorically Nabokov. The power of this
                        assertion proves that the hypertextual space, in which the reading is
                        fragmentary and non-sequential, the act of rereading is the best
                        methodological strategy for building up a sense. Hypertext allows an
                        exponential rereading of the contents we have designed. Moreover, hypertext
                        is, without any doubts, an essential tool for on-line literary theory and
                        comparative literature teaching. Therefore, it is necessary to seriously
                        consider the fact of teaching in a virtual context, with these digital
                        materials, in a multiple textual environment, without boundaries, or with
                        the sole boundaries of curiosity and desire. And the use of the World Wide
                        Web, that implies getting rid of the acquired habits and changing the
                        comunication techniques of knwoledge discourse. The ways of proving the
                        ""validity"" of a literary analysis are being modified since we can deveolp
                        discourse following a logic that is not necessarily linear and deductive,
                        but open and relational. In this sense, after the accumulated experience and
                        taking into account the results obtained from our own strategical and
                        creative versions, the conclusion is that the revolution of production
                        patterns, tranmission and inquiry of the texts can be included in
                        hypertextuality as an epistemological mutation.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>UNESTABLENESS? CAOS? TOWARDS THE COLLECTIVE CONSTRUCTION OF
                        KNOWLEDGE</head>
                    <p>We have to add that the extreme fluidity of hypertext oblige us to rethink
                        one of the main preoccupations of who is writing: the possibility of
                        exerting a control over the way of the reader""s reading. Indeed the
                        author-professor creative act requires an interpretative act of the
                        user-student and requires as well a wander around the text. Hypertext shows
                        a new form of ""textuality"" based on the capacity of ""penetration"" of a text
                        marked with all the links that open doors to new sense horizons. In
                        hypertexts, any illusion of control vanishes: seduction is the only
                        motivation towards an hypertextual wander. We lose the notion of control
                        because hypertext itself undervalues it. If knowledge spreads itself
                        provoking an infinite virtuality of intertextual connections, that represent
                        the inifite ways of the discoursive configuration of the self (Pinto, 2002:
                        175), everything is relevant, everything could be interconnected. Our own
                        proposal for this subject, was, therefore, to promote a digital working
                        environment that made evident the literary work in a more physical way,
                        completely textual, and that allowed interaction, interrelation and link.
                        This personal use of phylology, defined by Pinto as more attentive to the
                        subject who interprets and to the questions that constitute him/herself than
                        to the interpreted text and to its objective historical reality, can be
                        considered as a copernican revolution of literary criticism, promoted by new
                        technologies.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>REFERENCES</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">George</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">P.</forename>
                                    <surname>Landow</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">Teoría del hipertexto</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Barcelona</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Paidós</publisher>
                                <date when=""1994"">1994</date>
                                <date when=""1997"">1997</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""bookChapter"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Raffaele</forename>
                                    <surname>Pinto</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Crítica literaria y construcción del sujeto. Dos
                                modelos de autoanálisis: Sigmund Freud (psicopatología de la vida
                                cotidiana) e Italo Calvino (seis propuestas para el próximo
                                milenio)</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Laura</forename>
                                    <surname>Borràs</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">Deseo, construcción y personaje</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Madrid,</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Fundación Autor</publisher>
                                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                                <biblScope type=""pp"">173-193</biblScope>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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"299","4","Developing a Toolkit for Digital Epigraphy","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Developing a Toolkit for Digital Epigraphy</title>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Hugh</forename>
                        <surname>Cayless</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">UNC Chapel Hill</name>
                            <email>hcayless@email.unc.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
                <respStmt>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                    </name>
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                <p>This paper will present the results of work being done at UNC Chapel Hill to
                    support the emerging EpiDoc standard for encoding epigraphic texts. The EpiDoc
                    standard is based on the Text Encoding Initiative guidelines (<ptr
                        target=""http://www.tei-c.org""/>). Information on this collaborative effort,
                    which includes scholars and humanities computing experts from North America and
                    Europe, is available at <ptr target=""http://www.unc.edu/awmc/epidoc""/>. The
                    mission of the project is to develop ""a software and hardware-independent
                    interchange specification for scholarly and educational editions of inscribed
                    and incised texts in Greek, Latin and other languages emanating from the ancient
                    Greek, Roman and nearby civilizations."" The Chapel Hill team has focused on
                    building tools to facilitate epigraphers' work on creating EpiDoc texts and
                    managing the storage and presentation of those texts. The paper will begin with
                    a brief outline of the EpiDoc guidelines with examples of their implementation
                    and a discussion of some of the problems inherent in digital epigraphy. Then the
                    various tools developed by the Chapel Hill team will be demonstrated.</p>
                <p>The editing and publication of inscribed documents has a rich history, which
                    includes the adoption of widely accepted standards for ""marking up"" texts.
                    Published Greek and Latin epigraphic texts are almost universally presented
                    according to the ""Leiden convention,""developed in 1931 at the 18th International
                    Congress of Orientalists by papyrologists. The Leiden convention employs various
                    symbols to present information about the condition of the inscribed text and
                    editorial supplements and comments. For example, parentheses surround editorial
                    expansions of abbreviated words, so ""AVG"" on the support would be expanded as
                    ""Aug(ustus)"" by the editor. In EpiDoc, the same text would be written
                    ""Aug&lt;expan&gt;ustus&lt;/expan&gt;."" Because of the widespread
                    adoption of the Leiden convention, the form of published texts (allowing for
                    some local variations) is remarkably consistent. Because of this consistency, it
                    is possible to write a parser that can translate a digitized inscription into a
                    data structure (such as XML). The Chapel Hill team has developed such a parser,
                    named the Chapel Hill Epigraphic Text Converter (CHET-C). This tool parses texts
                    marked up according to the Leiden convention and outputs EpiDoc XML. Both MS
                    Access and Java versions are being developed.</p>
                <p>Digital texts in polytonic Greek pose problems of their own because of the
                    various methods which evolved to encode them prior to the advent of Unicode. One
                    of the earliest of these was Beta Code, which utilizes 7-bit ASCII to represent
                    Greek, Latin, and Aramaic texts, as well as various epigraphical and
                    papyrological sigla. In addition, a number of Greek fonts, each employing its
                    own specialized encoding, were developed over the years to handle the problem of
                    typing and viewing Greek with computers. There exist already various programs
                    and filters which can handle shifting the encoding of texts from one form to
                    another (the Greek texts on <ptr target=""http://www.perseus.tufts.edu""/> employ
                    such filters, for example). There was still a need for a more flexible system to
                    handle encoding shifts, however, and so the Chapel Hill team (in collaboration
                    with the Stoa Consortium, <ptr target=""http://www.stoa.org""/>) has developed
                    Java-based software that performs this function and which can easily be plugged
                    into the larger toolkit framework. The transcoder classes can perform encoding
                    shifts on text within specific elements of an XML file, and are also designed to
                    be modular and easily extensible to handle languages other than Ancient
                    Greek.</p>
                <p>The team has also developed a web-based framework for the presentation of EpiDoc
                    texts. The framework has been built with Apache Cocoon (<ptr
                        target=""http://xml.apache.org/cocoon""/>) and is hosted by the Stoa. The
                    ""Epidocinator"" as it is called, can dynamically transform EpiDoc documents
                    against a variety of XSL stylesheets. Both documents and stylesheets may be
                    either on site or remote. The framework will also perform validation and error
                    reporting on EpiDoc texts. The transcoder classes will be accessible via a
                    Cocoon Transformer, so that Greek text can automatically be shifted from any
                    supported source format to any supported result format. It will employ the Java
                    version of CHET-C in a custom Cocoon Generator or Transformer to allow users to
                    generate EpiDocs from already-digitized inscriptions. The framework will be
                    packaged as a Web Archive (WAR), so that interested developers can easily deploy
                    their own digital epigraphy frameworks.</p>
                <p>Finally, the team is also working to integrate the Java tools with jEdit, a
                    Java-based text editor with a very robust plugin architecture (<ptr
                        target=""http://www.jedit.org""/>). The goal is essentially to create an
                    Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for epigraphers which editors will be
                    able to use in the electronic publication of EpiDoc texts. All of the tools and
                    stylesheets developed for use with EpiDoc will be available as jEdit plugins and
                    editors will also have available jEdit's XML and XSLT plugins, which provide
                    useful functions like code-completion, tag creation help (based on a DTD),
                    validation, error reporting, and transformation. The combination of the web
                    framework and the text editor will provide epigraphers with a cross-platform,
                    Open Source solution for creating and publishing inscriptions.</p>
                <p>This paper will present the results of work being done at UNC Chapel Hill to
                    support the emerging EpiDoc standard for encoding epigraphic texts. The EpiDoc
                    standard is based on the Text Encoding Initiative guidelines (<ptr
                        target=""http://www.tei-c.org""/>). Information on this collaborative effort,
                    which includes scholars and humanities computing experts from North America and
                    Europe, is available at <ptr target=""http://www.unc.edu/awmc/epidoc""/>. The
                    mission of the project is to develop ""a software and hardware-independent
                    interchange specification for scholarly and educational editions of inscribed
                    and incised texts in Greek, Latin and other languages emanating from the ancient
                    Greek, Roman and nearby civilizations."" The Chapel Hill team has focused on
                    building tools to facilitate epigraphers' work on creating EpiDoc texts and
                    managing the storage and presentation of those texts. The paper will begin with
                    a brief outline of the EpiDoc guidelines with examples of their implementation
                    and a discussion of some of the problems inherent in digital epigraphy. Then the
                    various tools developed by the Chapel Hill team will be demonstrated</p>
                <p>The editing and publication of inscribed documents has a rich history, which
                    includes the adoption of widely accepted standards for ""marking up"" texts.
                    Published Greek and Latin epigraphic texts are almost universally presented
                    according to the ""Leiden convention,""developed in 1931 at the 18th International
                    Congress of Orientalists by papyrologists. The Leiden convention employs various
                    symbols to present information about the condition of the inscribed text and
                    editorial supplements and comments. For example, parentheses surround editorial
                    expansions of abbreviated words, so ""AVG"" on the support would be expanded as
                    ""Aug(ustus)"" by the editor. In EpiDoc, the same text would be written
                    ""Aug&lt;expan&gt;ustus&lt;/expan&gt;."" Because of the widespread
                    adoption of the Leiden convention, the form of published texts (allowing for
                    some local variations) is remarkably consistent. Because of this consistency, it
                    is possible to write a parser that can translate a digitized inscription into a
                    data structure (such as XML). The Chapel Hill team has developed such a parser,
                    named the Chapel Hill Epigraphic Text Converter (CHET-C). This tool parses texts
                    marked up according to the Leiden convention and outputs EpiDoc XML. Both MS
                    Access and Java versions are being developed.</p>
                <p>Digital texts in polytonic Greek pose problems of their own because of the
                    various methods which evolved to encode them prior to the advent of Unicode. One
                    of the earliest of these was Beta Code, which utilizes 7-bit ASCII to represent
                    Greek, Latin, and Aramaic texts, as well as various epigraphical and
                    papyrological sigla. In addition, a number of Greek fonts, each employing its
                    own specialized encoding, were developed over the years to handle the problem of
                    typing and viewing Greek with computers. There exist already various programs
                    and filters which can handle shifting the encoding of texts from one form to
                    another (the Greek texts on <ptr target=""http://www.perseus.tufts.edu""/> employ
                    such filters, for example). There was still a need for a more flexible system to
                    handle encoding shifts, however, and so the Chapel Hill team (in collaboration
                    with the Stoa Consortium, <ptr target=""http://www.stoa.org""/>) has developed
                    Java-based software that performs this function and which can easily be plugged
                    into the larger toolkit framework. The transcoder classes can perform encoding
                    shifts on text within specific elements of an XML file, and are also designed to
                    be modular and easily extensible to handle languages other than Ancient
                    Greek.</p>
                <p>The team has also developed a web-based framework for the presentation of EpiDoc
                    texts. The framework has been built with Apache Cocoon (<ptr
                        target=""http://xml.apache.org/cocoon""/>) and is hosted by the Stoa. The
                    ""Epidocinator"" as it is called, can dynamically transform EpiDoc documents
                    against a variety of XSL stylesheets. Both documents and stylesheets may be
                    either on site or remote. The framework will also perform validation and error
                    reporting on EpiDoc texts. The transcoder classes will be accessible via a
                    Cocoon Transformer, so that Greek text can automatically be shifted from any
                    supported source format to any supported result format. It will employ the Java
                    version of CHET-C in a custom Cocoon Generator or Transformer to allow users to
                    generate EpiDocs from already-digitized inscriptions. The framework will be
                    packaged as a Web Archive (WAR), so that interested developers can easily deploy
                    their own digital epigraphy frameworks.</p>
                <p>Finally, the team is also working to integrate the Java tools with jEdit, a
                    Java-based text editor with a very robust plugin architecture (<ptr
                        target=""http://www.jedit.org""/>). The goal is essentially to create an
                    Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for epigraphers which editors will be
                    able to use in the electronic publication of EpiDoc texts. All of the tools and
                    stylesheets developed for use with EpiDoc will be available as jEdit plugins and
                    editors will also have available jEdit's XML and XSLT plugins, which provide
                    useful functions like code-completion, tag creation help (based on a DTD),
                    validation, error reporting, and transformation. The combination of the web
                    framework and the text editor will provide epigraphers with a cross-platform,
                    Open Source solution for creating and publishing inscriptions.</p>
                <p>All of the tools described above will be demonstrated briefly, using texts marked
                    up by various projects that have adopted the new standard. Then I will conclude
                    by discussing how the EpiDoc Collaborative plans to proceed in developing the
                    standard and the supporting tools. The project's use of open standards and Open
                    Source development tools provides a useful model for similar types of scholarly
                    publication, one which could be picked up and extended for other purposes
                    without a great deal of effort.</p>
                <p>Digital texts in Greek pose problems of their own because of the various methods
                    which evolved to encode them prior to the advent of Unicode. One of the earliest
                    of these was Beta Code, which utilizes 7-bit ASCII to represent Greek, Latin,
                    and Aramaic texts, as well as various epigraphical and papyrological sigla. In
                    addition, a number of Greek fonts, each employing its own specialized encoding,
                    were developed over the years to handle the problem of typing and viewing Greek
                    with computers. There exist already various programs and filters which can
                    handle shifting the encoding of texts from one form to another (the Greek texts
                    on <ptr target=""http://www.perseus.tufts.edu""/> employ such filters, for
                    example). There was still a need for a more flexible system to handle encoding
                    shifts, however, and so the Chapel Hill team (in collaboration with the Stoa
                    Consortium, <ptr target=""http://www.stoa.org""/>) has developed software in Java
                    that performs this function and which can easily be plugged into the larger
                    toolkit framework. The transcoder classes can perform encoding shifts on text
                    within specific elements of an XML file, and are also designed to be modular and
                    easily extensible to handle languages other than Ancient Greek.</p>
                <p>The team has also developed a web-based framework for the presentation of EpiDoc
                    texts. The framework has been built with Apache Cocoon (<ptr
                        target=""http://xml.apache.org/cocoon""/>) and is hosted by the Stoa. The
                    ""Epidocinator"" as it is called, can dynamically transform EpiDoc documents
                    against a variety of XSL stylesheets. Both documents and stylesheets may be
                    either on site or remote. The framework will also perform validation and error
                    reporting on EpiDoc texts. The transcoder classes will be accessible via a
                    Cocoon Transformer, so that Greek text can automatically be shifted from any
                    supported source format to any supported result format. It will employ the Java
                    version of CHET-C in a custom Cocoon Generator or Transformer to allow users to
                    generate EpiDocs from already-digitized inscriptions. The framework will be
                    packaged as a Web Archive (WAR), so that interested developers can easily deploy
                    their own digital epigraphy frameworks.</p>
                <p>Finally, the team is also working to integrate the Java tools with jEdit, a
                    Java-based text editor with a very robust plugin architecture (<ptr
                        target=""http://www.jedit.org""/>). The goal is essentially to create an
                    Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for epigraphers which editors will be
                    able to use in the electronic publication of EpiDoc texts. All of the tools and
                    stylesheets developed for use with EpiDoc will be available as jEdit plugins and
                    editors will also have available jEdit's XML and XSLT plugins, which provide
                    useful functions like code-completion, tag creation help (based on a DTD),
                    validation, error reporting, and transformation. The combination of the web
                    framework and the text editor will provide epigraphers with a cross-platform,
                    Open Source solution for creating and publishing inscriptions.</p>
                <p>All of the tools described above will be demonstrated briefly, using texts marked
                    up by various projects that have adopted the new standard. Then I will conclude
                    by discussing how the EpiDoc Collaborative plans to proceed in developing the
                    standard and the supporting tools. The project's use of open standards and Open
                    Source development tools provides a useful model for similar types of scholarly
                    publication, one which could be picked up and extended for other purposes
                    without a great deal of effort.</p>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Patricia</forename>
                        <surname>Clements</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Alberta</name>
                            <email>Patricia.Clements@ualberta.ca</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Renée</forename>
                        <surname>Elio</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Alberta</name>
                            <email>ree@cs.ualberta.ca</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sharon</forename>
                        <surname>Balazs</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Alberta</name>
                            <email>sbalazs@ualberta.ca</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Susan</forename>
                        <surname>Brown</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Guelph</name>
                            <email>sbrown@uoguelph.ca</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Isobel</forename>
                        <surname>Grundy</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Alberta, with members of the Orlando
                                Project</name>
                            <email>Isobel.Grundy@ualberta.ca</email>
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                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                    <name>
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                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
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                    <head>INTRODUCTION</head>
                    <p>The Orlando Project at the Universities of Alberta and Guelph aims to produce
                        the first full scholarly account of women’s writing in the British Isles in
                        a mode of literary history designed to take advantage of new technological
                        capabilities. To enable researchers to discover the sophisticated and
                        nuanced interconnections among this complex mass of material, Orlando has
                        produced a custom-designed SGML text encoding system capable of reflecting
                        literary and historical interpretation.</p>
                    <p>Aspects of this encoding scheme have been discussed in other forums<note
                            n=""1"">Brown, S., Fisher, S., Clements, P., Binhammer, K., Butler, T.,
                            Carter, K., Grundy, I., &amp; Hockey, S. (1998). “SGML and the
                            Orlando Project: Descriptive Markup for an Electronic History of Women’s
                            Writing”. <title level=""j"">Computers and the Humanities</title>. 31,
                            271–85.</note>,<note n=""2"">Butler, T., Fisher, S., Hockey, S., Coulombe,
                            G., Clements, P., Brown, S., Grundy, I., Carter, K., Harvey, K., Wood,
                            J. (2000). “Can a Team Tag Consistently? Experiences on the Orlando
                            Project”. <title level=""j"">Markup Languages Theory and Practice</title>,
                            2, 111–125.</note> and the ways in which the encoding scheme has, as
                        planned, turned out to be effective in supporting the identification of
                        novel and significant interrelationships in literary history has been
                            presented<note n=""3"">Grundy, I., Clements, P., Brown, S., Butler, T.,
                            Cameron, R., Coulombe, G., Fisher, S., &amp; Wood, J. (2000). “Dates
                            and ChronStructs: Dynamic Chronology in the Orlando Project”. <title
                                level=""j"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</title>, 15,
                            265–289.</note>,<note n=""4"">Brown, S., Grundy, I., et al. (2001). “Text
                            and Intertext in Electronic Documents.” <title level=""u"">Annual ALLC/ACH
                                Conference, New York, June 2001</title></note>,<note n=""5"">Brown,
                            S., Grundy, I., et al. (2001). Session of three Orlando Project papers:
                            “The Hard and the Soft: Encoding Literary History,” “Risking
                            E-Race-Sure/Erasure: Encoding Cultural Formations,” and “The Anxiety of
                            Encoding: Intertextuality and Feminist Literary History.” <title
                                level=""u"">Annual Digital Research in the Humanities Conference,
                                School of African and Oriental Studies, London University, UK, 9
                                July 2001</title></note>. During its development, the use of the
                        Orlando textbase and its encoding scheme to explore such relationships has
                        been limited to the immediate research team, using the in-house Orlando
                        development tools. But the vision of the Orlando project is, of course, to
                        present its encoded textbase to the larger research community; i.e. to
                        create a web-based delivery system that researchers world-wide can use to
                        explore Orlando content. This presentation will take a systems view of the
                        Orlando Project, focusing on issues and methods that have arisen in
                        producing the first version of this delivery system</p>
                    <p>The three key aspects of this systems view, which will be outlined here, are:
                        (a) the in-house Orlando development environment, its tools, and the
                        decisions made in crafting this environment for the construction of the
                        textbase; (b) the definition and design of a prototype system to achieve
                        certain core, albeit limited, functionalities without precluding the later
                        design and implementation of a more powerful system; (c) general issues in
                        designing an interface that will lead novice users step by step to
                        exploiting at first a manageable selection from an integrated set of
                        literary historical materials and complex underlying encoding scheme, and so
                        by stages to fuller use of the potentialities of such a scheme. A
                        demonstration of the first version delivery system will both clarify and
                        concretise the issues discussed in the presentation.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>IN-HOUSE SGML DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT</head>
                    <p>In brief, the development environment supports the creation and ongoing
                        revision of the three components to the Orlando system. The first of these
                        is a textbase containing SGML documents for the biography and writing career
                        of each individual writer, and for historical topics and issues. The
                        biographical documents contain newly researched material on the lives,
                        backgrounds, and activities of women writers. The writing documents contain
                        newly researched material on literary careers, and the production, textual
                        features, and reception of texts. The topic documents contain newly
                        researched material under a range of headings deemed crucial for coverage.
                        The second component to the Orlando system is an Oracle database which holds
                        information on historical context: brief accounts of historical events and
                        processes chosen to reflect each period’s literary, cultural, and social
                        concerns, anchored to a date or date-range. The goal of this material is to
                        enable a user to produce a chronology—an ordered set of events—relating to
                        any particular time period, writer, word or concept. Sorting by event-type
                        or level of priority is an obvious use of this database. The third component
                        of the Orlando system is another Oracle database, which holds full
                        bibliographic details of all primary texts and secondary sources referred to
                        in the electronic text.</p>
                    <p>The investment in SGML necessitated using SGML-compatible software such as
                        Oracle in the development environment. The way in which this development
                        environment has in turn affected the development of the delivery system will
                        be outlined in a detailed chart.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>DEFINING AND IMPLEMENTING A PROTOTYPE DELIVERY SYSTEM</head>
                    <p>The first Orlando delivery system had several goals. The primary goal was to
                        provide web-based access to most of the core Orlando materials (writing
                        documents, biographical documents, and events) to create chronologies and to
                        provide the first automated hyperlinks.</p>
                    <p>The SGML encoding scheme includes a number of tags by which materials in each
                        of these separate databases are related. For example, a
                        &lt;BIBCIT&gt; (bibliographic citation) tag that appears in a
                        writing, biography, topic or event prose refers, by means of unique
                        identifiers of records in the Oracle database, to complete bibliographic
                        material. Also in development is an SGML-tagged name authority list, which
                        not only ensures accurate hyperlinking (via the &lt;NAME&gt; tag)
                        across the various databases, but which also aids in search and
                        retrieval.</p>
                    <p>The prototype delivery system allows a user to access the Orlando material in
                        three primary ways: through a writer’s name, through event chronologies, and
                        through several thematic entry points. Given a writer’s name, the writer’s
                        biographical and writing documents are retrieved, and a chronology of events
                        mentioning that writer’s name is computed and displayed. Certain “core tags”
                        (name, place, date, title, organization name) act as hyperlinks to other
                        areas of the textbase. Users can also access Orlando material through event
                        chronologies generated by means of a freetext search on a given word/phrase,
                        or a search by tagged name, genre, title, place, or organization name. (For
                        these categories users are free to type in a search term or select from a
                        list of possibilities). Users can also specify a given time range, and/or
                        specify particular event types and/or priority levels. Thematic entry points
                        are a means of entering into Orlando by way of material that cuts across the
                        textbase in ways that highlight certain themes. “People” allows users to
                        find people by name, historical period, occupation, or what they wrote”;
                        “Texts” allows users to discover texts by title, subjects, or types of
                        writing”; “Contexts” allows users to search on various topics,
                        organizations, and places in women’s literary history; “Networks” allows
                        users to investigate literary, social or family connections, organizational
                        links or intertextual relations; and “Identities and Politics” allows users
                        to investigate cultural and political issues.</p>
                    <p>The full power of the Orlando system, of course, comes with sophisticated use
                        of its interpretative tags for information exploration, i.e., those tags
                        such as &lt;INTERTEXTUALITY&gt;, &lt;CULTURAL FORMATION&gt;,
                        &lt;RELATIONS WITH PUBLISHER&gt;, and &lt;POLITICS&gt;,
                        which the authors of documents have used to mark up text for literary
                        historical interpretation. However, for the first delivery system, issues
                        taking precedence were those related to working with extant web browsers and
                        XML software, those related to automating the transformation of SGML into
                        XML for web delivery as materials are moved from the development to the
                        delivery environment, and those concerning a first pass at a user interface
                        to what will ultimately be a powerful information exploration system (but
                        that will always need simpler ways in to be available). Orlando has taken a
                        modular approach to the definition, design, and implementation of its
                        delivery system and hence this first version did not fully exploit these
                        interpretative tags.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>ON USER INTERFACE ISSUES FOR INFORMATION EXPLORATION</head>
                    <p>In the first version of a web-based delivery system, we aimed to follow good
                        user interface design principles. This involved, firstly, developing a
                        powerful yet usable interface that would allow both novice and expert users
                        to access Orlando materials. (For example, a novice user may choose to enter
                        directly through a writer’s name, whereas an expert user may choose to enter
                        through a more complex chronological search.) Secondly, this involved
                        revealing to the user a portion of the underlying interpretive scheme to
                        allow some exploitation of it. (For example, thematic entry points reveal to
                        the user some of the complexity of the Orlando interpretive scheme.)
                        Thirdly, this involved arriving at design principles and choices to create a
                        coherent display of the material. The paper will outline the ways in which
                        this process served as a foundation for the next stage of delivery work,
                        currently underway, which is focused on representing the interpretative
                        markup, and ensuring that the interface allows for maximum exploitation of
                        it. By conference time this next phase of delivery work will be completed in
                        its first instantiation and ready for demonstration.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>CONCLUSION</head>
                    <p>This poster presentation will introduce the first version of the Orlando
                        delivery system, discuss in detail the progress that was made in the
                        creation of this system, and outline the ways in which it provided a basis
                        for subsequent delivery development.</p>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Cristiana</forename>
                        <surname>Fordyce</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Brown University</name>
                            <email>cristiana_fordyce@brown.edu</email>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Vika</forename>
                        <surname>Zafrin</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Brown University</name>
                            <email>zafrin@brown.edu</email>
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                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
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                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                <p>In 1374, the city of Florence awarded Giovanni Boccaccio the honor and
                    responsibility of presenting to a civic audience Dante's <title level=""m"">Divine
                        Comedy</title>, and of commenting on it. The author of the <title level=""m""
                        >Decameron</title> held a series of lectures on the <title level=""m""
                        >Comedy</title> at the Church of Santo Stefano. He doubled as commentator
                    and preacher: the lectures were intended as both literary and moral education.
                    Boccaccio was engaged to elucidate all one hundred cantos of the <title
                        level=""m"">Divine Comedy</title>; unfortunately, he died long before he could
                    complete this task, and the readings are abandoned at Canto 17 of the <title
                        level=""m"">Inferno</title>.</p>
                <p>The text of Boccaccio's lectures has survived to our days as the <title level=""m""
                        >Esposizioni sopra la Comedia</title>. Despite only covering the first
                    seventeen cantos, in print, it is over 700 pages long.<note n=""1"">In our
                        project, we follow the text as established in the most recent critical
                        edition, edited by Giorgio Padoan, <title level=""m"">Esposizioni sopra la
                            Comedia</title> (Milan: Mondadori, 1965).</note> The text is comprised
                    of an Accessus (introduction) followed by literal and allegorical exposition on
                    each of the first cantos of the <title level=""m"">Inferno</title>. (The tenth
                    canto contains no allegorical exposition, as Boccaccio claims that it contains
                    no allegorical import.) The <title level=""m"">Esposizioni</title> therefore
                    functions both as lecture series and as encyclopedia. From the beginning,
                    Boccaccio keeps a prudent distance from theological and intellectual
                    exposition.</p>
                <p>Most interested in revealing the effectiveness and clarity of the Dantean text,
                    Boccaccio strives to cater to the needs of his listeners. He accomplishes this
                    through maintaining the traditional rhetorical form of the expositio, while
                    focusing on the utility of the <title level=""m"">Comedy</title> for the audience
                    he is to instruct. Boccaccio employs simple and effective means of delivery, in
                    an attempt to evoke in his audience images and exempla from collective memory
                    and individual experience. Despite his awareness of the great responsibility
                    with which he was charged, Boccaccio seems to have felt indebted neither to the
                    rhetorical tradition nor to moral instruction in his effort to produce the
                    utilitas of comprehension of the magnitude of Dante's work.</p>
                <p>Today, we have chosen to offer Dante's text online as commented and presented by
                    one of the most prominent medieval literary critics. We aim at employing the
                    spirit that inspired Boccaccio in his lectures. To this end, we wish to recreate
                    for the modern reader the same utility and efficiency for which Boccaccio's
                    lessons strove with regard to his own audience. The exigencies of our
                    contemporaries when reading a medieval text are not the same as those of the
                    people who gathered in Santo Stefano more than six hundred years ago. The
                    present audience needs to be introduced not only to Dante but to the language
                    and rhetorical structures that Boccaccio employed to benefit the public of his
                    time. To understand the <title level=""m"">Esposizioni</title>, it is first
                    necessary to understand the audience to whom the lectures were addressed in the
                    first place.</p>
                <p>This project is in the beginning stages of development. Our ultimate aim is to
                    map the relationships between our various primary and secondary source texts –
                    the text of the <title level=""m"">Esposizioni</title> itself, that of the <title
                        level=""m"">Divine Comedy</title>, and the writing of the many other authors
                    whom Boccaccio quotes. We will be using XML to encode essential information
                    about the people and places mentioned in the <title level=""m""
                        >Esposizioni</title>, paying particular attention to information that the
                    medieval lecture attendee would have taken for granted, which may not be quite
                    as obvious to the modern reader. In the course of his exposition, Boccaccio
                    frequently alludes to texts by classical and medieval authors (such as Virgil
                    and Livy); we plan to make available the relevant passages from those texts
                    alongside the principal text. For example, it will be useful to provide context
                    and detail about the external texts Boccaccio quotes, as well as historical and
                    biographical information regarding the authors upon whose work he bases his
                    arguments. Where other types of annotation are necessary which will bring our
                    audience closer to Boccaccio's writing, thereby making it more useful in
                    understanding the Comedy, they will also be inserted.</p>
                <p>In this paper, we would like to address some issues which have arisen in the
                    process of our thinking about how to approach such a project electronically. The
                        <title level=""m"">Esposizioni</title> is a fascinating, multilayered medieval
                    text. We treat it as both a commentary and expositio on Dante, and as a
                    stand-alone, authoritative text. We view our electronic publication in the same
                    dichotomous fashion; in addition to presenting the text of the commentary, we
                    provide our own commentary in the form of the code itself. It is essentially a
                    divulgative commentary: our purpose is to bring to our readers enough
                    supplementary information to Boccaccio's text for it to be as useful to them as
                    it was to his medieval audience. Of course, we cannot hope to replicate the
                    experience of the original audience of this text, but with an awareness of the
                    inter-relations between author, speaker, audience, and reader, we hope to create
                    a multivalent resource which will challenge and inform in a similar way to that
                    envisaged by Boccaccio in his lectures.</p>
                <p>As our starting point, we embrace Michel Meyer's view of rhetoric as a method of
                    negotiation between two poles – the listener (reader) on one hand, and the
                    writer on the other. We follow Meyer's lead to consider our role in encoding and
                    presenting the <title level=""m"">Esposizioni</title> as a formal negotiation
                    between intended audiences. The markup of the text, as Lou Burnard has pointed
                    out, rests on the importance of ""a single encoding scheme, a unified semiotic
                    system... a single formalism [by using which] we reduce the complexity inherent
                    in representing the interconnectedness of all aspects of our hermeneutic
                    analysis, and thus facilitate a polyvalent analysis"" (Burnard 1998). Although
                    Burnard was speaking about mark-up in general, his point is especially valid for
                    a complex electronic medieval text such as the <title level=""m""
                        >Esposizioni</title>.</p>
                <p>What we do by commenting through markup is not new, so why do all this with the
                    aid of a computer? The answer to this is inextricably tied to the principal
                    difference between the potential audience for our project, and Boccaccio's.
                    There are no specific records for those who attended Boccaccio’s expository
                    lectures, but we can assume that a large part of the audience was literate at
                    least in the Florentine vernacular, and possibly in Latin as well. The
                    prestigious lectures would have attracted academic and clerical professionals,
                    scholars and students, as well as interested members of the lay community. There
                    are many differences between Boccaccio’s audience and the modern-day reader of
                    the <title level=""m"">Esposizioni</title>. First and foremost, we are no longer a
                    memory-based culture, and the modern reader tends not to possess the mnemonic
                    resources which would have enabled Boccaccio’s original audience to recognize
                    his explicit and implied intertextual allusions. The amount of information
                    available to us nowadays is so vast that we are a research-based learning
                    culture, much more heavily dependent on libraries and other information
                    depositories. In addition, the modern reader may have had relatively little
                    exposure to the key texts for the medieval scholar, such as the major classical
                    and medieval authors, and even the Bible. Finally, even if the modern reader has
                    the linguistic ability to engage with an Italian-language text, they may not
                    have the facility to read and understand the many Latin citations in this
                    work.</p>
                <p>All of the above problems can be resolved through a sympathetic and accurate
                    annotation of the electronic text. Electronic data storage space is our only
                    choice for the easiest and most coherent presentation of the amount of
                    information we must convey in order to bring our audience closer to Boccaccio's.
                    Furthermore, by putting the <title level=""m"">Esposizioni</title> online, we
                    offer the option of simplifying the commentary for the electronic user, by
                    offering various different ways into the text. Boccaccio's text often seems
                    chaotic in nature to the modern reader: it is endlessly self-referential,
                    sometimes self-contradictory, and at other times simply incorrect. (We should
                    not of course forget that the text we have is a series of notes intended for
                    oral delivery and possible further explication.) By a semantic encoding of each
                    of the themes and subjects treated within this dauntingly linear exposition, the
                    user is no longer constrained to follow Boccaccio’s digressive reasoning. This
                    opportunity to encode a series of short comments on varied subjects and make
                    them semantically searchable is a great advantage of the medium and will be of
                    great value to future users..</p>
                <p>Electronic publication and dissemination of this medieval text does not restore
                    it to its original meaning, but it does restore it to its original purpose: to
                    take a text out of the hands of the elite and bring it closer to all members of
                    the interested public. The electronic medium is thus, paradoxically, a simpler,
                    more straightforward one than print, for our purposes. Paper-based publication
                    of such a tightly interwoven, heavily annotated text could in theory convey all
                    this information, but would do so in a much more awkward fashion. Instead, we
                    will publish it electronically, making it easier both for us to comment, and for
                    our readers to apprehend. The computer is our ""wooden key,""; we ""wish nothing
                    but to open what is closed,"" and will use the simplest tool for the task.<note
                        n=""2"">""It is a noteworthy quality to love the truth in the words, not the
                        words themselves. For what use is a golden key if it cannot unlock what we
                        desire? And what is wrong with a wooden key, if it can unlock what we
                        desire, when we wish nothing but to open what is closed?"". Peter Abelard,
                        Prologue to Sic et non, in the online Medieval Sourcebook: <ptr
                            target=""http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/Abelard-SicetNon-Prologue.html""
                        /></note>We will thus de-mystify the <title level=""m"">Esposizioni</title>
                    for our contemporaries, as Boccaccio in his time de-mystified the <title
                        level=""m"">Divine Comedy</title>.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>REFERENCES</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Peter</forename>
                                    <surname>Abelard</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Prologue to Sic et non</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Blanche</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">B.</forename>
                                    <surname>Boyer</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Richard</forename>
                                    <surname>McKeon</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">Sic et Non: a critical edition</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Chicago</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>University of Chicago Press</publisher>
                                <date when=""1976"">1976-1977</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Lou</forename>
                                    <surname>Burnard</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">On the hermeneutic implications of text
                                encoding</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Domenico</forename>
                                    <surname>Fiormonte</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <editor>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Jonathan</forename>
                                    <surname>Usher</surname>
                                </name>
                            </editor>
                            <title level=""m"">New Media and the Humanities: Research and
                                Applications. Proceedings of the first seminar “Computers,
                                literature and philology.” Edinburgh, 7-9 September 1998</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Oxford</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Humanities Computing Unit, University of
                                    Oxford</publisher>
                                <date when=""2001"">2001</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Mary</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">J.</forename>
                                    <surname>Carruthers</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">The book of memory: a study of memory in medieval
                                culture</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Cambridge</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Cambridge University Press</publisher>
                                <date when=""1990"">1990</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Michael</forename>
                                    <surname>Meyer</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Rhetoric, language, and reason</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>University Park</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Pennsylvania State University Press</publisher>
                                <date when=""1994"">1994</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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"302","4","The Development of the Poetry Portal at the Beck Center, Woodruff Library, Emory University","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">The Development of the Poetry Portal at the Beck
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                        <forename type=""first"">Alice</forename>
                        <surname>Hickcox</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Emory University</name>
                            <email>ahickco@emory.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Julia</forename>
                        <surname>Leon</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Emory University</name>
                            <email>jleon@emory.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
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                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>editor</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                <p>Emory University Library's electronic text center, known as the Beck Center for
                    Electronic Collections and Services, holds a number of poetry collections that
                    are served out on the web as separate databases. In order to span these
                    collections of more than 200,000 poems we set out to develop a portal that would
                    allow searching across several different databases. The portal provides students
                    and faculty a tool for retrieving and reading individual poems for personal and
                    classroom teaching and research. The portal was implemented using XML
                    technology.</p>
                <p>This is a story of the development of the site, explaining why the project was
                    conceived, and how the library, Information Technology Division and faculty
                    collaborated to design and implement the portal. The web-interface design and
                    technical architecture will also be described.</p>
                <p>Since 1995 the Beck Center has built a collection of texts that are tagged in
                    SGML; many of these texts are poetry databases. Both commercially and locally
                    produced texts comprise the electronic poetry holdings of the Beck Center. The
                    texts were served separately out in a number of discrete poetry databases, each
                    with its own search interface.</p>
                <p>Emory's Irish Poets collection is one example of a locally produced digital
                    collection. A portion of Emory's literary archives of Ireland's leading poets
                    was digitized. The archives were developed over the course of the last twenty
                    years, and includes worksheets of the poets affiliated with the Belfast
                    Group-including Seamus Heaney, Michael Longley, and Paul Muldoon.</p>
                <p>In addition to the substantial body of electronic texts that existed, campus-wide
                    interest in poetry was building, demonstrated by the establishment of a Poetry
                    Council which sponsors periodic poetry readings.</p>
                <p>These forces converged to raise questions about how to make the use of on-line
                    poetry resources easier to access and more logical in organization and use. A
                    group of people from the library and the Information Technology support group
                    for faculty came together to plan for a poetry portal. The Beck Center provided
                    data management. ITD provided analysis and programming support. An informal
                    focus group of Emory faculty who teach poetry provided subject matter
                    expertise.</p>
                <p>The Beck Center put forth the original vision of the project: to present poetry
                    across multiple collections through a common web portal. A prototype of the
                    portal was built as a proof of concept of the use of metadata and XML
                    technology. It also served as the launching point for further design.</p>
                <p>The unifying element of the disparate collections is the metadata, which contains
                    information that was deemed useful for cataloging, indexing, and referencing
                    items.</p>
                <p>The portal was built entirely with open-source software, with the one exception
                    of the search engine. The process of building the portal may be divided in to
                    two sub-applications: data preparation and the web interface.</p>
                <p>Data preparation involved converting the source collections from SGML to XML.
                    From the XML metadata was created using XSLT and SAX software. The metadata was
                    stored in the Dublin Core format.</p>
                <p>The web interface for the poetry portal employs a suite of XML technologies.
                    Specifically, Tomcat and Cocoon, from the Apache Software Foundation, serve up
                    XML source files on the web. XSLT (XML Style Sheet Language Transformation) is
                    used to transform XML to HTML.</p>
                <p>The prototype application was demonstrated to English faculty involved in
                    teaching poetry. A blue-sky discussion of how a portal could be useful and
                    interesting in teaching and research formed the basis of the application
                    requirements.</p>
                <p>The interface provides browse and search capabilities. The collection may be
                    browsed by author, title, first line, collection, or date. The user may search
                    for poems, either by word used anywhere in the poem, by author, date or title.
                    Either browsing or searching will take the user to a poem window or a series of
                    poem windows.</p>
                <p>From a poem window the user may also search for other poems by the same author,
                    other poems of the same date, other poems with the same title or other poems in
                    the same volume or collection. The user may also execute a simple search in the
                        <title level=""m"">Oxford English Dictionary</title> from the poem window, and
                    bring up results in another window.</p>
                <p>Additional features that we hope to implement include user-defined ""poetry
                    notebooks,"" which allow users to save links to particular poems or searches, a
                    search history for registered users, and the ability to save searches.</p>
                <p>Some associated features that were not part of the XML search-retrieval
                    programming also emerged as special projects. One such project would be to
                    collect manuscript and published versions of certain poems of poets that were in
                    their collections in various forms, and to present them for study. Another
                    specialized application is to have poems accompanied by audio files so that
                    students can hear the poems read aloud. For some of the poems in their Special
                    Collections, tapes were available of poets reading their own work. Other
                    possibilities exist for audio performance as well.</p>
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"303","4","Solving the Legacy-Encoding Debacle with On-line Transliteration","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename type=""first"">John</forename>
                        <surname>Paolillo</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Indiana University</name>
                            <email>paolillo@indiana.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
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                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                <p>Non-roman scripts have always faced severe challenges in computer applications.
                    Early challenges concerned the lack of non-roman support in ASCII. Today,
                    Unicode provides or promises to provide support for almost all non-roman
                    scripts. But Unicode support is not widespread in many languages, for example in
                    the languages of South and Southeast Asia. In the last decade, the international
                    expansion of the World-Wide Web caused demand for non-roman text encodings to
                    rise faster than Unicode development could proceed. The consequent void was
                    filled in many cases by ad-hoc 8-bit font encodings. While these encodings lack
                    many of Unicode’s advantages, they allowed many South Asian websites, especially
                    newspaper companies, to establish a native-language web presence. Now they are
                    firmly established in use: hundreds of web sites use special 8-bit encodings,
                    with new material being added every day. These encodings are thus likely to be
                    widely used for some time, even if Unicode support grows. In addition, many
                    materials encoded in these forms are now legacy materials, and continued access
                    to them is required for historical and other studies [Baker, et al., 2000].</p>
                <p>These 8-bit encodings have many well-known problems, the most salient of which is
                    the large number of alternative encoding schemes. Languages such as Sinhala or
                    Tamil have three or four widely-used encodings, and Hindi has six or more. Few
                    of these encodings reflect local, regional or international standardization
                    efforts. Numerous fonts are required for display, and words are not likely to
                    match across any two texts, seriously hampering efforts to search or index the
                    documents. For example, when different newspapers use different font-based
                    encodings to post stories on the same current events, the keywords for those
                    stories will not match. Users searching for those stories must search separately
                    for pages in each of the relevant encodings, or else fail to find them entirely.
                    Many opportunities for humanistic, literary and linguistic research are
                    encumbered by this situation. Unicode alone cannot solve these problems:
                    conversion methods are needed to reconcile the variant text encodings.</p>
                <p>This poster presents a general solution for these problems in the from of a
                    protocol for transliterating variant text encodings of a language. The design of
                    the protocol employs conversion tables for each supported encoding written in
                    XML. Websites presenting materials in 8-bit encodings would publish such a
                    conversion table where it can be readily retrieved by browsers and search
                    engines. On the application side, the conversion tables are compiled by a
                    general transliteration program into finite state transducers. When the encoded
                    text is encountered, the transliterator is invoked to convert the encoding into
                    one that can be used for indexing or display. Font detection is supported so
                    that multilingual pages are handled appropriately, converting only that portion
                    of the text in a document whose encoding requires it.</p>
                <p>The transliterator may be used in any context where it is required. Search
                    engines can select a conversion target for all web pages in a given language,
                    e.g. Unicode, which would then be correctly indexed alongside other languages.
                    Similarly, browsers could convert the encoding of a web page into one for which
                    there is an available font, or convert a romanized query input into a suitable
                    representation to be matched by a search engine, etc. Application software
                    equipped to handle this protocol, whether web browsers, search engines, text
                    editors or anything else, need only know the location of the conversion table
                    for each encoding.</p>
                <p>The transliteration program is based on the notion of a graphic template, which
                    permits even highly complex alpha-syllabic Brahmi-based South Asian scripts to
                    be efficiently transliterated. A graphic template is used instead of, e.g.
                    phonetic representations, because it simplifies the many-to-many relations among
                    script elements and their phonetic representation. Additionally, non-programmers
                    and non-specialists can modify a conversion table more readily if its elements
                    refer to graphic elements, rather than to phones or phonemes, which require
                    specialized linguistic knowledge to appreciate. Graphic templates are finitely
                    bounded, and hence can be parsed efficiently using finite state transducers,
                    which are readily written in rule form [Antworth, 1990], hence, the conversion
                    table is a list of finite state rules. The graphic template functions as an
                    interlingual representation for the transliterator, meaning that bi-directional
                    conversions between any two variant encodings can be realized by providing a
                    suitable conversion table for each encoding. Roman transliterations are easily
                    incorporated into the same framework, meaning that the protocol can used in
                    additional ways for research purposes.</p>
                <p>A working prototype transliterator written in SWI-Prolog will be demonstrated in
                    several deployment scenarios: as a reading interface for several South Asian
                    Language websites, in an interactive editor for text, and in an index and a
                    query interface for a search engine. These scenarios illustrate the diversity of
                    applications of the transliterator, as well as its ease-of-use and efficiency.
                    It is hoped that widespread adoption of this system will facilitate the use of
                    non-roman text for scholars and non-scholars alike.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
                <head>REFERENCES</head>
                <listBibl>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Evan</forename>
                                    <surname>Antworth</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">PC-KIMMO: A Two-Level Processor for Morphological
                                Analysis</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Dallas, Texas</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Summer Institute of Linguistics</publisher>
                                <date when=""1990"">1990</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Paul</forename>
                                    <surname>Baker</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Tony</forename>
                                    <surname>McEnery</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Mark</forename>
                                    <surname>Leisher</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Hamish</forename>
                                    <surname>Cunningham</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">Robert</forename>
                                    <surname>Gaizauskas</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Mapping multiple South Asian 8-bit character sets to
                                the Unicode standard</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""u"">Linguistic Exploration: Workshop on Web-Based Language
                                Documentation and Description</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>Philadelphia, Pennsylvania</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Institute for Research on Cognitive Science, University
                                    of Pennsylvania</publisher>
                                <date when=""2000"">2000</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name type=""org"">Unicode Consortium</name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">The Unicode Standard</title>
                            <edition>Version 3.0</edition>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace>New York, New York</pubPlace>
                                <publisher>Addison-Wesley Longman</publisher>
                                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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"304","4","TAPoR Tools: Portal text analysis tools and other primitives","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Geoffrey</forename>
                        <surname>Rockwell</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">McMaster University</name>
                            <email>grockwel@mcmaster.ca</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Lian</forename>
                        <surname>Yan</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">McMaster University</name>
                            <email>lyan@mcmaster.ca</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Stéfan</forename>
                        <surname>Sinclair</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">University of Alberta</name>
                            <email>Stefan.Sinclair@ualberta.ca</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>editor</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                    </name>
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                <div>
                    <p>This poster will demonstrate a collection of text processing tools designed
                        to work through a portal over the Web. The tools are designed to work on
                        plain text, html or xml encoded e-texts. They are easily used to search
                        electronic texts without the need to install software, preprocess the texts,
                        or master complex tools.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>HOW DO TAPOR.TOOLS (T.TOOLS) WORK?</head>
                    <p>T.tools are written in Ruby, an object-oriented scripting language like Perl
                        and Python.<note n=""1"">Ruby is available for Macintosh, Unix and Windows at
                            the “Ruby Home Page”, URL: <ptr target=""http://www.ruby-lang.org/en/""/>,
                            Accessed Nov. 20, 2002.</note> The T.tools are written so that they can
                        be run on the command line or as CGI programs off our portal. This means
                        that users of the tools need not install or maintain them, but if they wish,
                        advanced users can download and adapt them.</p>
                    <p>Using Web forms as an interface to the tools gives T.tools the capacity to be
                        easily adapted to hide complexity or to provide local adaptations. Simple
                        search and concordance forms can be created that can utilize xml markup
                        without having to change the tools. Small scale publishers of electronic
                        texts can provide T.tool Web forms that process their Web accessible e-texts
                        without installing the software. The forms simply pass the URL for the text
                        in a hidden field to the appropriate tool residing on our portal for
                        processing. (We will demonstrate the adaptation of these tools to support
                        the Hyperliste project, a collection of French medieval poetry online.)</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>WHAT ARE PORTAL TOOLS?</head>
                    <p>A portal is an entry point into a field.<note n=""2"">Katz, Richard N. and
                            Associates. <title level=""m"">Web Portals and Higher Education;
                                Technologies to Make IT Personal</title>. San Francisco:
                            Jossey-Bass, 2002.</note> In this case the T.tools are written to
                        provide simple text processing tools for TAPoR (Text Analysis Portal for
                        Research), a multi-institutional project which has Canada Foundation for
                        Innovation funding to create a portal for text analysis.<note n=""3"">Text
                            Analysis Portal for Research, URL: <ptr target=""http://www.tapor.ca""/>,
                            Accessed Nov. 21, 2002. It should be noted that in this poster
                            presentation we will not be presenting on the portal as a whole, just a
                            specific set of tools designed to work through (or not) the portal that
                            is being implemented.</note>They are designed to provide a suite of
                        simple text transformations that will eventually be managed by a portal
                        environment that additionally provides user and interface customization
                        tools. At present they can do the following:<list type=""bulleted"">
                            <item>List and count words in a text.</item>
                            <item>List and count elements in an xml text.</item>
                            <item>List attributes and values in an xml text.</item>
                            <item>Extract elements from an xml text.</item>
                            <item>Find patterns (words or phrases) in a text.</item>
                            <item>Find patterns in specific elements in a text.</item>
                            <item>Create a concordance of found patterns or elements.</item>
                            <item>Output results in either html for reading or xml for further
                                processing.</item>
                        </list></p>
                    <p>This combination of functions allows the user to query an xml text to find
                        words in specific parts of text or to extract selected parts by element name
                        and attribute value. Users can also, should they not know the structure of
                        the text, get a list of the elements or a list of words to search for. Users
                        have a choice of output from simple output in html to output in xml that
                        could be saved and processed locally.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>WHAT TYPES OF USERS ARE ENVISAGED?</head>
                    <p>T.tools are designed to be used in three ways by users of differing levels of
                        expertise.</p>
                    <p><emph rend=""bold"">Introductory Users</emph>. A portal should be place one can
                        learn through playful discovery about a field like computer assisted text
                        analysis. T.tools are designed so that new users can try basic operations on
                        electronic texts without having to install software or texts. As the T.tools
                        do not preprocess texts they can be run on any text a new user can find on
                        the Web. This allows a new user to experiment with text analysis on texts
                        they know without much training. The tools are also designed so that they
                        can be explained and documented in different ways to make them accessible to
                        different communities.</p>
                    <p><emph rend=""bold"">Small E-text Publishers</emph>. While large e-text projects
                        have access to programmers and systems that allow them to adapt text
                        processing tools to their texts, many small projects cannot afford to do
                        more than make available their scholarly texts on the Web in html or xml/css
                        form. T.tools provides tools run on our server which can be passed a text
                        (actually a URL) for processing from a Web form set up by the publisher.
                        Thus small projects can adapt our forms to their needs and integrate them
                        into their sites.</p>
                    <p><emph rend=""bold"">Advanced Users</emph>. As the code is made available as
                        “open source” according to the definition at the Open Source Initiative,
                        advanced users can download it and adapt it to their research needs.<note
                            n=""4"">”The Open Source Definition”, URL: <ptr
                                target=""http://www.opensource.org/docs/definition_plain.php""/>,
                            Accessed Nov. 20, 2002.</note> T.tools have been built around a library
                        of object classes commonly used in text processing whose methods can be
                        called in new Ruby scripts, from the command line, or through IRB
                        (Interactive Ruby). Thus the advanced user can use T.tools as a text
                        processing language and then build new scripts to do things unanticipated by
                        the developers.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>WHAT ARE THE PROBLEMS WITH THIS MODEL?</head>
                    <p>The major drawback to this model is that T.tools are slow by comparison to
                        other Web text tools like TACTWeb because they do not work with preprocessed
                            indexes.<note n=""5"">For more on TACTWeb see URL: <ptr
                                target=""http://tactweb.humanities.mcmaster.ca/""/>, Accessed Nov. 20,
                            2002. TACTWeb is built on TACT which has a preindexing program MAKEBASE
                            which prepares the Text DataBase file (TDB) which is then used by TACT
                            and TACTWeb to quickly process queries.</note> T.tools work best on
                        chapter to book length texts not on larger corpora. The processing
                        capabilities of the server used for the portal is also important. TAPoR has
                        been funded to install high-end servers for the portal that will partially
                        compensate for the cost of processing, but there is no substitution for more
                        efficient tools when dealing with large texts. This is an issue which
                        deserves further study. Further, T.tools is based on a “pipe-and-flow” model
                        common in the Unix world which may not scale to certain types of interactive
                        processing needed in the humanities, for example, situations where texts are
                        being enriched and studied simultaneously.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>WHY A POSTER?</head>
                    <p>This project is presented as a poster as that will provide the most
                        convenient way to demonstrate the tools to potential users and redevelopers.
                        Through the venue of a poster session we can demonstrate how T.tools work on
                        the texts of the poster visitors. It will also allow us to engage humanists
                        with small text projects that might benefit from such tools. With individual
                        visitors we can adapt Web forms to show the usefulness of T.tools to their
                        projects. CD-ROMs of the code and documentation will be distributed to
                        advanced users.</p>
                </div>
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"305","4","Web Prompts the Increase of Chinese Non-English Majors' Speaking, Writing and Translating Abilities","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Yan</forename>
                        <surname>Tian</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">School of Foreign Languages</name>, <name type=""org""
                                >Shanghai Jiao Tong University</name>
                            <email>maryyantian@yahoo.com</email>
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                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                <p>English is taught as a foreign language in China, which means there is no English
                    environment for students to get immersed in after class. However, English is a
                    compulsory course for Chinese college students. According to “The English
                    Syllabus for Non-English Majors”, students should be quite skilled at speaking,
                    writing and translating abilities. Yet non-English majors only have four periods
                    (180 minutes) of English classes every week from freshman year to sophomore
                    year. Teachers of English are supposed to be responsible for increasing
                    students’ productive skills (speaking, writing, and translating) as well as
                    their receptive skills (listening and reading). However, compared with their
                    receptive skills, their productive skills are rather poor despite the fact that
                    they can get high scores in various English tests. Therefore, teachers are
                    always at a loss as to how to increase students’ productive skills in and out of
                    class. Furthermore, there are usually 30~40 students in an English class, which
                    makes it almost impossible to carry on in-class activities. In view of the above
                    mentioned, the researcher turns to the Web for help.</p>
                <p>Based on a research project, this paper explores a new possibility of increasing
                    students’ productive skills. In previous teaching practices, students were only
                    interested in the designed activities aimed at increasing their productive
                    skills at the beginning of the semester. Then no matter how hard the teacher had
                    tried, they would have lost interest gradually as time went on. This is partly
                    due to their limited language proficiency and partly due to the low efficiency
                    of in-class activities. As a result, the students’ receptive skills are always
                    far better than their productive ones. In this project, the researcher takes the
                    advantage of the Web to arouse students’ interest in increasing their productive
                    skills.</p>
                <p>Web has a charm that almost no one can resist. Many students spend hours surfing
                    on the Web searching for information, sending emails, chatting with friends or
                    playing online games. Some even have Web sites of their own before they entered
                    the university. What’s more, a few have had the experience of establishing Web
                    sites for business companies.</p>
                <p>At Shanghai Jiao Tong University, all students live on campus and the computers
                    in their dormitories are all connected to the World Wide Web. Under this
                    circumstance, the researcher encouraged the students to establish their own
                    English learning Web site to demonstrate their progresses in their productive
                    skills.</p>
                <p>The subjects are 165 freshmen from Shanghai Jiao Tong University who enrolled in
                    the fall semester of 2002. They were assigned to four English classes before the
                    semester begun. In this project, students in each class were required to sign up
                    for at least one productive skill group, e.g. speaking group, writing group or
                    translating group, according to their own interest. Then each group was asked to
                    select one director taking charge of the group activities and one
                    assistant-director responsible for coordinating the group activities. They were
                    also asked to select five “computer engineers”. Those engineers were responsible
                    for the designing and maintaining of the Web site. Three of them were also
                    coordinators, contacting the speaking groups, the writing groups and the
                    translating groups of the four classes respectively. In order to guarantee
                    enough materials for the Web, each productive group was required to meet and
                    practice at least once a week and to report in class once a week about their
                    group activities.</p>
                <p>The students are very skilled at establishing World Wide Web. The main tools used
                    are Dreamweaver and Frontpage. The School of Foreign Languages at Shanghai Jiao
                    Tong University offered a server for this project. In one month, they
                    established their English learning Web, called “Cool English”. Since all the
                    dormitories are connected to the World Wide Web, students can easily visit their
                    Web site as well as the World Wide Web. At the beginning, there were only three
                    columns, namely Speaking, Writing and Translating on it. Each week, directors of
                    each group send, by emails, the “achievements” of their groups to the computer
                    engineers. After proof reading and checking technically, the computer engineers
                    uploaded those materials to their Web site#“Cool English”. They were very
                    excited at the beginning, but after a couple of weeks, the students were not
                    satisfied with the three columns at all. So they searched on the World Wide Web
                    for interesting materials and expanded the contents to include such columns as
                    “English News”, “English Idioms”, “English Jokes”, “Top Students’ Speeches on
                    English Study”, to name only a few. Besides, they also offered on their Web site
                    some other English learning Web sites for the students’ convenience.</p>
                <p>Although the Web site “Cool English” is still at its infancy, yet it has
                    attracted the attention of many students, including those from other classes.
                    Virtually in order to feed their Web site, the students have to surf on the
                    Internet, searching for useful and interesting information to enrich their Web
                    site constantly. In this process, their receptive skills, reading skill in
                    particular, have also been increased dramatically.</p>
                <p>From this project, the researcher comes to the conclusion that the Web has served
                    as a bridge between in-class activities and out-of-class activities and has
                    connected the receptive skills with the productive ones. Furthermore, it is a
                    faster, cheaper and fascinating “publishing house” for students. Their sense of
                    achievement has been greatly increased by working on the Internet.</p>
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"306","4","Primarily History: Historians' Search for Primary Resource Materials","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Helen</forename>
                        <surname>Tibbo</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">UNC-CH</name>
                            <email>tibbo@ils.unc.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
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                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
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                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
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                    <head>OVERVIEW.</head>
                    <p>This paper will present findings from the Primarily History project,
                        concerning how historians are locating primary sources in the early years of
                        the digital age. Primarily History, an international study housed at the
                        University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the University of Glasgow,
                        also explores how historians teach their students to find such research
                        materials and how archivists and librarians can facilitate this education
                        and resource discovery and use. Data provided here reflect
                        information-seeking behaviors of historians working in the United
                        States.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>NEW PATHWAYS TO PRIMARY RESOURCES.</head>
                    <p>Historical research has long been a detective game. While ascertaining the
                        veracity and authenticity of primary resources and the critical
                        interpretation of documents within the context of historical and cultural
                        understanding lie at the heart of historical scholarship, the not so trivial
                        task of locating these materials that serve as the grist of history, must
                        precede any high level analysis. Throughout the 20th century, historians
                        sought the materials they needed to shed light on the past in a number of
                        time-tested ways. Studies conducted in the 1970s and 1980s found that
                        historians most often located relevant primary source materials by following
                        references in published histories, talking with colleagues, and searching
                        likely repositories. In a print paradigm these were all appropriate and
                        efficient methodologies. Recent technologies, however, present the historian
                        with many new possibilities for locating research materials that may prove
                        more efficient and even more effective</p>
                    <p>The road to online finding aids and other digitized resources was not an easy
                        one for archival repositories. For the past twenty years archivists have
                        expended a good deal of time, money, intellectual effort, and angst to
                        produce electronic access tools for the collections in their repositories.
                        The first efforts focused on creating MARC/AMC (Machine Readable
                        Cataloging/Archives and Manuscripts Collections) records for online catalogs
                        and bibliographic utilities such as OCLC and RLIN. Many archivists doubted
                        the efficacy of MARC, a library-based standard, for archival description. In
                        the early 1990’s, some pioneering archivists mounted machine-readable text
                        finding aids on gopher sites on the Internet. By the mid-1990s, a small
                        group of archivists were developing the Encoded Archival Description SGML
                        DTD. By the turn of the millennium, most special collection repositories, at
                        least those in larger units such as academic libraries, had some sort of
                        website, many of which contained HTML encoded finding aids. Today, a small
                        but steadily growing number of repositories have EAD finding aids at their
                        websites. These networked tools not only facilitate information discovery,
                        they can also prepare a scholar for a very productive in-person visit to a
                        repository.</p>
                    <p>Today’s historians can study digitized collections of materials online as
                        well as search bibliographic databases with descriptions of both secondary
                        and primary materials. Perhaps most significantly, historians can read,
                        download, or print entire finding aids for collections in a large number of
                        archival and manuscript repositories world wide. Now that there is a
                        significant corpus of finding aids online it is time to explore how
                        researchers such as historians use them and how archivists might make them
                        more useful. While spending a good deal to create electronic access, to
                        date, archivists have conducted few user studies to judge its effectiveness
                        or ascertain the need for enhanced user education.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>PRIMARILY HISTORY PROJECT.</head>
                    <p>Funded by the Gladys Kriebel Delmas Foundation, The Primarily History
                        project, a collaboration of the School of Information and Library Science at
                        the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH) and the Humanities
                        Advanced Technology and Information Institute (HATII) at the University of
                        Glasgow, Scotland, is the first international, comparative project to
                        explore historians’ information-seeking behaviors in today’s web-based,
                        networked environments. Perhaps most importantly, we are examining how
                        historians are preparing the next generation of scholars, specifically, what
                        they are teaching their graduate students about information seeking in the
                        digital library environment and how the students are learning to use
                        retrieval tools. This project is also surveying how special collections
                        libraries and archives provide access to these materials and is seeking
                        enhanced models for outreach and user education that will facilitate
                        historians and their students in locating and using primary resources.</p>
                    <p>Through surveys and interviews we are exploring how historians are employing
                        these new tools and techniques. Dr. Tibbo from UNC-CH has surveyed 700
                        historians located at leading U.S. history programs; Dr. Ian Anderson from
                        Glasgow surveyed close to 800 historians working at universities in the
                        United Kingdom. Both investigators followed the surveys with in-depth
                        interviews with a subset of these populations.</p>
                    <p>Questions in the initial stage of this research focused on scholarly
                        information-seeking in archives, manuscript repositories, and special
                        collections libraries. We asked historians how they found the materials upon
                        which they based their research. Questions included: Do they use library
                        catalogs or the OCLC or RLIN databases that contain MARC records of finding
                        aids? Do they use electronic indexes such as Archives USA? Do they search
                        the Web for finding aids using keywords? Do they go directly to the websites
                        of likely repositories and search for materials? The interviews asked
                        historians to describe how they had located primary resource materials for a
                        recent project and what they taught their graduate students regarding
                        information seeking methodologies.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>A SAMPLING OF FINDINGS.</head>
                    <p>For many historians working in the United States, the traditional
                        methodologies for locating primary materials remain the most utilized.
                        Ninety-eight percent indicated that they found materials by following leads
                        and citations in printed sources; 77% searched printed bibliographies; 57%
                        consulted printed documentary editions; 73% searched printed finding aids;
                        73% searched printed repository guides; 51% used newspaper files to find
                        other materials; 50% used government documents in this way; and 38% used the
                        now out-of-date printed NUCMC volumes. The most noticeable difference in
                        behaviors across ranks is that only 24% of assistant professors used the
                        printed NUCMC volumes with 40% of all full professors, including
                        distinguished faculty and deans, using this now out-of-date tool.
                        Interestingly, however, only 18% of those individuals who had taught history
                        for 40 years or more searched the printed NUCMC.</p>
                    <p>Use of traditional resources, however, does not preclude the use of digital
                        technologies developed within the last decade and populated with research
                        materials (e.g., a critical mass of electronic finding aids and some
                        digitized documents) only within the last three to four years. Sixty-nine
                        percent of the history scholars used their own institution’s online
                        (library) public access catalog (OPAC) [while digital, and now probably a
                        web-based technology, not really a new approach]; 64% searched other
                        institutions’ OPACs via the Internet; 59% used bibliographic utilities such
                        as RLIN and OCLC; 58% said they looked for information directly on
                        repository websites; 40% indicated that they searched the Web for primary
                        materials using a search engine such as Alta Vista or Google. Twelve percent
                        of respondents indicated they used the Archives USA database, while 14%
                        searched NUCMC online from the Library of Congress website with only 8
                        individuals (3% of respondents) exhibiting both behaviors.</p>
                    <p>At the most superficial level, we can see that historians are using
                        traditional finding tools more heavily than newer approaches but we need
                        qualitative interview data to understand why. It may well be that many
                        individuals are most comfortable employing methodologies they have found
                        useful throughout their careers and that these tools remain sufficient. It
                        may also be that they have not found searching the web or bibliographic
                        utilities very useful. After all, most archival websites have mounted
                        electronic finding aids only since 1996 with many institutions still working
                        on making a significant portion of their inventories web accessible. When we
                        look at the 220 projects with end dates of 1998 or later, 135 or 61% of
                        these researchers visited repository websites within the course of their
                        work and 98 (45%) used web search engines to find relevant collections.</p>
                    <p>Significantly, the historians in this study averaged over twenty years of
                        teaching experience each. This is significant because the initial round of
                        interviews indicated that many of the veteran historians had completed the
                        largest part of their information seeking years ago, having located large
                        stores of records and papers to analyze for many years. These individuals
                        appear to invest little time in learning new information-seeking behaviors.
                        Other individuals who more dramatically shifted topics across projects,
                        might well seek out primary resources during their entire careers.</p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS.</head>
                    <p>While much work remains in this study, it is clear that archivists and
                        special collection curators must both maintain traditional print descriptive
                        tools and create an increasing number of electronic finding aids and
                        digitized documents as historians are employing a wide range of information
                        seeking behaviors. Evidence to date indicates that younger scholars are
                        turning to digital resources more often than their older counterparts but
                        such behaviors may also linked be linked to research topic. Additional
                        interviews, especially with current Ph.D. students will clarify emerging
                        historical research trends in the early years of the Digital Age. Increasing
                        use of the Web for information seeking and virtual trips to repositories
                        demands that archivists create highly accessible websites, study user
                        behavior so as to improve discovery tools, and provide increased user
                        instruction for those who will only visit the collection from afar.</p>
                </div>
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"307","4","Imagining an English Markup and Management Application","1","This paper discusses the inception of the “EngComp Markup” project and the place of EMMA (English
Markup and Management Application) generally within English Studies, the English Department as an
institution at the University of Georgia, and the English curriculum. College students and teachers recognize
already that writing today differs far from the undertaking it was prior to the information technology
revolution; they enter the University assuming that research is done on the Internet and that text is processed
on a computer. Documents are “engineered” as much as “Englished,” and, increasingly, composed of bits of
multi-media content. Grammar—the organizing of grammata, or “letters”—demands a new kind of
programmer. But while word processing is now the norm, English Departments and Writing Programs have
thus far lacked tools to deal with digital documents across their life-cycle. For the most part, it is still “papers”
that are due. Emerging technologies that utilize markup languages, however, will enable a fundamental shift
in the very nature of the production, examination, and distribution of text. Moreover, markup serves to relate
the heretofore incommensurate structures of narrative argument and database, with profound implications for
our conceptions of the organization and articulation of knowledge. Thus, markup has the potential to
rehabilitate university writing as a “product” by thoroughly transforming documents into text-in-process and
by integrating writing production, review, and evaluation into a single structure.","txt","2","",""
"308","4","EMMA's Genesis: Building the Client","1","This presentation examines the development and implementation of EMMA over the past two years. EMMA
employs a variety of technologies, but “her” core is the XML markup language. The editor used for the
project is an open-source java editor called jEdit that we have modified for our purpose. The project then uses
Cocoon (part of the Apache XML open-source development project), an XML publishing framework running
on the Jakarta-Tomcat servlet engine. Cocoon is used to produce server-side XSL transformations of the
XML documents. In the initial phase of the project, Cocoon produces a variety of HTML displays, but we
continue to work toward using Cocoon as a complete document production and management environment that
will include PDF production, a rich search capability, and multiple document concatenation. Currently we are
using Filemaker Pro as the database for authentication and document tracking.","txt","2","",""
"309","4","EMMA's Development: From Software to Students","1","Although the scope of the EngComp Markup project ranges beyond the First-year Writing Program and even
beyond the English Department’s teaching mission, one central feature of that project is the development of
EMMA for writing classes at all levels, but especially at the first-year level. EMMA proposes to revise the
way in which students write, edit, and submit compositions for review, as well as the way in which instructors
and peers can respond by using markup technology to enable web-based collection, modification, distribution,
and archiving of student work. EMMA’s customized editing-software provides for instructor-specified DTDs
to be used for particular assignments. It also provides a means of ensuring the correct identification and
up-load of marked-up compositions back into the system archive, which manages peer review, instructor
comments, portfolio creation, assessment, and access permissions. XML markup has particular utility for the teaching of writing because it allows text to be identified
and “carved up” in ways that are customized for content, structure, audience, and rhetorical purpose. More
specifically, as a meta-markup language, XML allows document authors to encode data in discipline-specific
terminology; to describe specific types of document (e.g., an academic essay); and to tailor a document type
to a specific audience (e.g., English scholars or biologists). Furthermore, XML provides descriptively rich
information content, stresses the separation of data content from data presentation, describes document
content structure and semantic relationships rather than format, and makes information accessible and
reusable.
This paper chronicles the intellectual development of EMMA as an idea, and particularly the
evolution of the concept of a composition DTD and then multiple DTDs. In Spring semester of 2002, a group
of faculty and instructors met to construct what we thought would be an inclusive DTD for First-year writing
texts. This “mega-DTD” contained nineteen elements, which in the end proved unwieldy and produced a
cluttered display. At the end of this phase of the project, the group came to three conclusions: first, from a
design perspective, by necessity the project would follow a “spiral development model,” in which
development is incremental and cycled through stages of analysis, design, development, and testing; second,
the writing program would benefit most from multiple DTDs, customized to fit individual instructors’
assignments and pedagogy and, in time, organized into a staged and sequenced writing curriculum; and third,
that the goals of a writing program demanded “loose” or California DTD construction. In the first
demonstration of EMMA with a group of volunteer English majors, we began to troubleshoot technical
problems and refined our sense of timing and focus. In this phase of EMMA's development, students could
work with about five tags and two paragraphs per hour to hour-and-a-half session.","txt","2","",""
"310","4","EMMA at Work in the Writing Classroom","1","During Fall semester of 2002, EMMA was implemented in ten writing classrooms, eight of them at the
First-year level. Teachers with more or less involvement in the development of the client and more or less
expertise with technology both incorporated EMMA into their pedagogy during two one-week stints in the
First-year Composition Computer Labs. This paper discusses specific pedagogical uses of EMMA at both the
macro- and microscopic level. Among the assignments, DTDs, and displays that will be demonstrated are:
following argumentative threads through the drafting process; establishing and evaluating ethos; analyzing
essay structure; and cultivating style with the “paramedic method.”
From the first semester’s pilot classes, we learned that EMMA and markup generally can be used to
identify structures and information at a variety of levels. Some exercises, such as the “paramedic method,”
may be especially congenial to EMMA’s capabilities because they build in the importance of visual
knowledge to writing and revision. EMMA may also function to some extent as an artificial memory system
for writers and readers of academic prose. Finally, we discovered that EMMA involves more, rather than less,
interaction between teachers and students, and among students and peers; not only does the visual separation
of writer from product in display provide the intellectual distance necessary for evaluating prose, but some
basic pedagogical problems (e.g., inability to identify basic parts of speech) also make themselves manifest.
In Spring 2002, the experiment will be repeated and, for selected classes, EMMA will be incorporated into the
entire semester’s curriculum instead of only two units","txt","2","",""
"311","4","Observing EMMA: The First Year","1","During Fall 2002, the Director of First-year Composition at the University of Georgia and a graduate student
using EMMA for her dissertation research conducted an ethnographic study of seven teachers and ten classes
using EMMA. The study, which is being continued and refined in Spring 2003, involves observation of
classes using EMMA and analysis of student products. The study focuses on usability, student attitudes, and
the effectiveness of markup pedagogy on final products. Preliminary conclusions fall into the following
categories:
• Cognition and Revision: EMMA allows students to see their essays in a “new light”;
• Techne and Revelation: EMMA reveals the need for basic instruction, i.e., Parts of Speech;
• Technology and Community: EMMA encourages student-centered classroom pedagogies;
• Administration and Application: and in the future, EMMA may foster more consistent
departmental teaching practices.
25
Initial student response is by nature mixed, but generally positive. In the pilot program, students
focused on EMMA’s utility for editing and revision, which may depend in part on the kinds of initial
assignments developed. Students also used metaphors of vision to a large extent in describing the kinds of
“insight” that they derived from using EMMA. The study will be repeated in Spring 2003 and a comparative
study of essays from “EMMA” and “regular” composition classrooms will begin.
REFERENCES
Cocoon: http://xml.apache.org/cocoon/
jEdit: http://www.jedit.org/","txt","2","",""
"312","4","Delivering the Depths: Representing the Orlando Project's Interpretive Markup","1","We begin with a brief review of the Orlando Project, a highly experimental effort to devise new ways of
writing literary history by use of encoding (Brown 1998). We argue that this encoding is “deep” in the sense
that we use SGML to tag not only structural but also intellectual properties of the text. In this paper we draw
out the implications of deep encoding so defined for the scholarly writer.
The Orlando team devised four DTDs to reflect the complexity of the material to be written. These
are used to compose “originally digital” text (Unsworth 2001) in the following forms: 1) discrete
chronological items; 2) longer topic items; 3) biographical documents; 4) documents about the writing careers
and publications of authors. The fourth and most complex of these, the “writing” DTD, is the focus of this
paper.
The writing DTD has 144 tags, which, in our more than 1200 documents of this type, are used with
33
frequencies ranging from 30,567 times (the <BIBCIT> or bibliographic citation tag) and only once (the
<DAY> tag). As these examples suggest, some tags resemble those of conventional markup, since we
conform to the TEI where possible. However, the desire of the team to encode the intellectual priorities of the
project and permit new ways of ordering and accessing literary historical documents resulted in numerous
unique tags, including the following, listed here with their frequency of use to date:
PLASTLITERARYACTIVITY 141
PLITERARYSCHOOLS 121
PMANUSCRIPTHISTORY 363
PMATERIALCONDITIONS 654
PMODEOFPUBLICATION 877
PMOTIVES 594
These tag names, and the various attribute names and values associated with some of them, are far
from transparent to the average person or even to someone schooled in the TEI. Nor are they transparent to
the average literary historian or critic. “Mode of publication”, for instance, might be understood by some
scholars to refer to aspects of the publication format (like folio or octavo) rather than or in addition to the
aspects of publication (like private printing or subscription) that the Orlando Project has singled out for
demarcation with this tag. This is a single example of how English studies has resisted attempts to standardize
vocabulary and method; identical terms operate differently in different contexts. Indeed, precisely because the
priorities and organizing principles of literary historical studies have often been left implicit, the Orlando
team believes that markup offers an innovative method of making crucial aspects of a study evident for debate
(Brown 2001b).
Each of the 65 unique writing DTD tags has thus been designated by project members as of crucial
importance in the production of our particular view of women's literary history. The Orlando Project tagset
thus interleaves familiar structural tags, such as <P>s with others, which we will call here “content tags”. The
project's markup is thus deep in the sense that it is designed to structure the history intellectually, to be a
“diagnostic and investigatory instrument” (Piez 2001, 197).
This tagging enterprise is experimental in a range of ways. The DTDs were designed to try to reflect
the conceptions—quite abstract, although derived from specific examples and much familiarity with women's
literary history—of scholars experienced in literary history but new to text markup. The DTDs were designed
not only without the traditional process of document analysis—since there were no pre-existing texts, nor did
the team wish to model the DTDs on print textuality—but largely without specific notions of how the content
markup would translate for delivery. In other words, the DTDs embody the abstract principles informing the
project as a whole, and the documents flowed from that. The DTDs were designed to permit complex
scholarly prose, which meant not only devising specific content tags, but allowing for flexibility within the
DTD, both in placement of tags and in their combination with each other. As a result, the writing DTD is
significantly flatter than most other DTDs, even including our own biography DTD, when one compares their
content tag hierarchies. This allows for considerably greater freedom in the structuring of documents, since
exclusive content hierarchies are only minimally enforced. Authors of texts must situate their writing within
one of four basic content tags:
1. <SUMMARY>;
2. <PRODUCTION>;
3. <TEXTUALFEATURES>;
4. <RECEPTION>.
Most of the other content tags are grouped according to one of the latter three categories. Thus, all the
tags with the “p” prefix discussed above, belong conceptually to the “production” group. However, the DTD
does not make use of those tags exclusive: each set of subtags is an inclusion of the <RECEPTION> and
<TEXTUALFEATURES> tags the as the <PRODUCTION> one, so that, for instance, the <PMOTIVES> tag
(with its attribute for MOTIVETYPE with attribute values of “Attributed” or “Self-identified”) is valid in the
midst of a discussion of a particular text's <RECEPTION>. This addresses the problem of the messiness of
actual critical prose, wherein one might be discussing the negative response of a critic who attributed certain
motivation to the author, or where her own statement of motive might be embedded in an assessment of her
own work. In effect, we incorporated overlapping hierarchies, because “the disorderly world of real data” is
not well represented by exclusive hierarchies, and making data fit a conventional model can lead to “an
impoverished view of the data.” (Durusau and O'Donnell).
The tagset is implemented in documents shaped as much by the markup language with which they are
written as by the literary historical research that informs them. This has resulted in a rich representation of our
data, notwithstanding differences in the application of some tags that result from the fact that they are, in fact,
34
“interpretive” (Butler 2000; Brown 2001a). In fact, the line between data and markup dissolves in the case of
Orlando texts, since the argument of the text can be as much in the markup as in the critical prose—hence,
again, it is deep. However, given the lack of consensus on method and vocabulary mentioned above, the
delivery of this material poses considerable challenges if the markup is to allow users to 1) exploit it for their
own purposes; and 2) examine the project's principles and priorities.
The danger of producing a massive alienation effect in a group of users often wary of new
technologies cannot be overemphasized. Even with our extensive in-house training and documentation, it
takes new student assistants at least a semester of part-time work (about 120 hours) to develop minimal
proficiency with the tagset, and often twice that time to develop the confidence to write and tag original
contributions. We cannot expect a similar time investment from our users.
The paper will demonstrate aspects of the Orlando Project delivery system that represent and educate
users in its deep markup. These include:
• Chronology searches that make the presence of a limited number of central content tags
known
• Organization of hyperlinking using content tags, to familiarize users with the structure and
conceptual organization of the DTDs
• “Thematic” pages introducing the power and specificity of searches on the tagset
• A full text search engine that offers a panorama of the tags and their relationships, and allows
searches to be constructed without knowledge of search syntax
• A full text search results screen that offers a user-friendly view of the content markup
users in its deep markup. These include:
REFERENCES
Brown, Susan, Sue Fisher, Patricia Clements, Katherine Binhammer, Terry Butler, Kathryn Carter, Isobel
Grundy, and Susan Hockey. 1998. “SGML and the Orlando Project: Descriptive Markup for an
Electronic History of Women's Writing.” Computers and the Humanities 31: 271–85.
Brown, Susan, and Isobel Grundy; with Renee Elio, Patricia Clements, Sharon Balazs, Rebecca Cameron,
Dave Gomboc, Allen Renear, Jeanne Wood. 2001a. “Intertextual Encoding in the Writing of
Women's Literary History.” ALLC/ACH 2001.
Brown, Susan, Isobel Grundy, et al. (2001b). Session of three Orlando Project papers: “The Hard and the
Soft: Encoding Literary History,” and “Risking E-Race-Sure/Erasure: Encoding Cultural
Formations.” Annual Digital Research in the Humanities Conference, School of African and Oriental
Studies, London University, UK, 9 July 2001.
Butler, Terry, Sue Fisher, Susan Hockey, Greg Coulombe, Patricia Clements, Susan Brown, S, Isobel Grundy,
Kate Carter, Kathryn Harvey, Jeanne Wood (2000). “Can a Team Tag Consistently? Experiences on
the Orlando Project.” Markup Languages Theory and Practice 2: 111–125.
Durusau, Patrick and Matthew Brook O'Donnell, “Overlapping Hierarchies/Concurrent Markup”
http://www.sbl-site2.org/Overlap/).
Piez, Wendell. “Beyond the 'descriptive vs. procedural' distinction.” Extreme Markup Languages 2001.
Online at: http://www.piez.org/wendell/papers/beyonddistinction.pdf.
Unsworth, John. “Publishing Originally Digital Scholarship at the University of Virginia” ACH/ALLC 2001.","txt","2","",""
"313","4","Modelling the Depths of a Literary Encoding, with an Example from Ovid","1","This paper explores some consequences of encoding a complex, intricate and lengthy poem for a densely
occurring set of literary phenomena. In it I dwell on one of these phenomena, personification, in order to
define and illustrate the idea of deep encoding and to reflect on its implications. I am not concerned with
details of the metalanguage as such, except in one particular point. Nor am I much concerned with the tagged
text or the scholarly product generated from it. Rather I focus on the epistemology of marking up a text: I ask,
how do we make new knowledge rather than simply record what we already, somehow know, or think we
know? In Wendell Piez's terms, in what sense may the markup of an ancient text be proleptic (Piez 2001)?
To establish the background of my research to date I briefly review material presented in prior
ACH/ALLC conferences (Paris 1994; Kingston 1997; Virginia 1999).
The poem in question is the Metamorphoses, written in classical Latin hexameter by the Roman poet
Publius Ovidius Naso at approximately the beginning of the Christian era. The Met is a problematically
organized collection of mythological stories that became the primary means by which much of the
Greco-Roman heritage was handed down through the Middle Ages to the present day. The literary
cohesiveness of the Met—how it works as a poem—is therefore an important problem, but it has proven a
considerable challenge to critics. My approach to this problem, in the Analytical Onomasticon project
(McCarty 2002), is to encode all devices of language that refer to persons (hence the Onomasticon, or “book
of names”), and from the resulting tags to generate a set of indexes for constructing interrelations among
stories. The Onomasticon is thus intended to aid further literary-critical study, especially along the lines of
Wheeler 2000 and to a somewhat lesser extent Schmidt 1991.
In McCarty 1998 and 1999 I made first attempts to consider the epistemological consequences of
markup by isolating treatment of personification (i.e. the creation of persons by rhetorical means, Paxson
1994). In this paper I take issue with these attempts, in which I applied the term “grammar” loosely to a set of
criteria for encoding without giving any regard to implementation. I argue here, rather, that these criteria
comprise only a first step. I adapt the Chomskian sense of a grammar as a computable set of rules by which
the linguistic phenomena in question may be generated (Thorne 1972: 184–6). Hence, in these terms, for there
to be a grammar of personification, individual instances must be computable from the primitive elements
which can be said to be responsible for them. These primitive elements are described in some detail in
McCarty 1998—for example, apostrophe, familial relationship and mental activity. How, then, might they be
implemented such that instances of personification could be generated from a true grammar?
In the paper I give a few examples from the Metamorphoses to indicate the complexity that a
grammatical perspective on Ovidian personification involves. When viewed in such a way, personification
comprises not only the linguistic and rhetorical factors local to a candidate, but also five larger contexts that,
according to my proto-grammar, affect the success of these factors: onomastic, narrative, poetic-mythological,
ontological, personal. Furthermore, moving from a declarative phenomenology of personification to an actual
grammar means that the rules by which success is computed themselves become part of the problem.
In the first instance the subject of this paper is not how to write these rules. Rather it is how best to
conceptualize the kind of problem for encoding that personification exemplifies. How we compute a complex
textual phenomenon, whether from the metadata or directly from the data, is an important aspect of this
question, but I approach it indirectly with the help of two ideas: depth and modelling.
At some level markup must be simply declarative: thus, “X exists here”. Let us define a shallow
encoding as one in which only such declarative statements are possible or are admitted. One might say in such
a case that the phenomena of interest are the primitives of the system— in a builder's terms, for example, the
bricks, mortar, timbers, tiles, plaster and paint. Contrast the encoding of personification as described. It is an
example of a deep (or at least deeper) kind because the object of study is not simply declared as a primitive
but may be computed from declarable elements. Thus, if our builder were to take a particular interest in paint,
it would cease to be a primitive in his system, rather would be something to be mixed from primary pigments
and a carrier base.
Note that an encoded work may not be uniformly deep: for example, some objects of study in the
Onomasticon, such as proper names, are simply declared as such, and within the work as conceived, it makes
no sense whatever to compute them from more primitive elements. Hence an encoding may have depths but
not be simply deep. Note also that a deep encoding is not necessarily a thick one, to borrow Wendell's term:
the density of tagging is a separate matter.
Depth, then, is not a given but is created by the encoding scholar's focus in combination with
available theory, the analytical tools at hand and the nature of the phenomena. It is expressed grammatically
by a synthesis involving primitive elements and rules for their combination. It is a relative, not an absolute
term. It implies no value-judgment, although a completely shallow encoding, however useful to scholarship,
is hardly itself a scholarly work. And a thin encoding, however deep, would not give scholarship much scope.
The idea of depth has value in that it expresses a qualified imperative to extend what can be seen to a
finer level of detail. The idea of a grammar has value because a grammar is independent of the text to which it
is applied; it is exportable, with the result that either it is universalized or the phenomenon in question is
resolved into two or more related kinds. Thus, for example, if depth is created in encoding personification
within the Metamorphoses, the resulting grammar can be applied to other Ovidian works, others in classical
Latin and in various languages across different historical periods. What is personification, exactly? Perhaps
plumbing its depths through encoding will yield us much more revealing questions than that one.
Depth, I suggested, has a temporal dimension contingent upon developing ideas and interests in
literary texts. Its method of expression, however, can aid that development directly by the way in which
computational grammars are designed and published. If, that is, we conceive our grammars as devices for
modelling phenomena of interest—i.e., manipulating representations of these phenomena—and if we publish
these modelling tools, then our colleagues will be able to continue the work we begin, not simply agree or
disagree with it. Such a modelling tool, e.g. for personification, would not simply allow for differing views of
the trope to be expressed, rather more for them to be explored, particularly fruitful ones identified and so the
phenomenon itself better to be understood.
36
In conclusion I return to the epistemological question with which I began: how may markup be used
to get beyond the recording of old knowledge, with consequent reliance on sorting and formatting what we
already know? How is new knowledge made through markup? Deep encoding, I argue, provides a powerful
answer so long as we understand that depths are to be modeled and that successful modelling turns them into
shallows while revealing further depths beneath.
This paper, then, constitutes a criticism of previous work and a proposal for a deepening of it. The
existing proto-grammar is, as far as I can determine, the first of its kind for personification but is not in a form
that can be tested. In the paper I sketch a plan for this work and show an example of how the markup might be
done.
REFERENCES
Craik, F. and R. Lockhart. 1972. “Levels of processing: A framework for memory research“. Journal of
Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior 11: 671–684.
McCarty, Willard. 1998. “A provisional grammar of personification for the Met”. In “What is humanities
computing? Toward a definition of the field”.
http://www.kcl.ac.uk/humanities/cch/wlm/essays/what/grammar.html (23/11/02).
---. 1999. “Thinking with markup: the case of personification”. ACH/ALLC annual conference, University of
Virginia, 9–13 June 1999.
--- (with John Bradley, Monica Matthews, Aara Suksi, Burton Wright). 2002. An Analytical Onomasticon to
the Metamorphoses of Ovid. http://www.kcl.ac.uk/humanities/cch/wlm/analyticalonomasticon/
(24/11/02).
Paxson, James J. 1994. The Poetics of Personification. Literature, Culture, Theory 6. Cambridge.
Piez, Wendell. 2001. “Beyond the ‘descriptive vs. procedural’ distinction”. Extreme Markup Languages
2001: 210ff. http://www.piez.org/wendell/papers/beyonddistinction.pdf (24/11/02).
Schmidt, Ernst. 1991. Ovid's Poetische Menschenwelt: Die Metamorphosen als Metapher und Symphonie.
Heidelberg.
“Semantic encoding.” Glossary. Non-Roman Script Initiative, SIL International.
http://www.sil.org/nrsi/glossary.htm#semenc (23/11/02).
Thorne, James Peter. 1972. “Models for Grammars”. In Teodor Shanin, ed., The Rules of the Game:
Cross-Disciplinary Essays on Models in Scholarly Thought. London: Tavistock: 179-205.
Wheeler, Stephen M. 2000. Narrative Dynamics in Ovid's Metamorphoses. Classica Monacensia, Bd. 20.
Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. (See the helpful review by Alden Smith, Bryn Mawr Classical
Reviews 2001.11.23 (http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2001/2001-11-23.html), and Wheeler's
response in BMCR 2001.12.18 (http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2001/2001-12-18.html).","txt","2","",""
"314","4","Whither Deep Markup?","1","The Analytical Onomasticon and Orlando projects are examples of electronic text research growing in interest
as they tackle successive challenges—and for completely different reasons. In the two other papers offered in
this session, the presenters have detailed why each of them can fairly lay claim to the rubric of “deep
markup”, along with some explanation of what that may mean. In both cases, the claim is justified, because
both of them—and again, in very different ways—go considerably beyond not only applications of markup
that are merely presentational or utilitarian, hence “shallow” or “light”, but even beyond markup that is
merely “thick”. They are coming not only to provide new kinds of access to information, but actually to
suggest new arguments respecting new kinds of knowledge about their subjects. In other words, they are
defining what in a markup system is their content.
Yet there is a distinct difference, as is evident in these two presentations, separating the subjects,
designs and goals of the projects.
It is useful here to distinguish between a markup design that is prospective and one that is
retrospective. Here the difference may be obscured by an important similarity: both markup schemes, as
markup, are descriptive and declarative; that is, they are given not to direct processing specifically but to
some kind of declarations of abstract type. Based in part on whether they look forward or back, and granting
there to be an intriguing overlap between them and many mixed examples, I have elsewhere distinguished
these two different forms of descriptive markup as “proleptic” and “metaleptic” (Piez 2001). Proleptic
markup is descriptive markup that looks forward to future processing, indeed to future signification, as it
proposes some kind of framework or ontology within which future ideas may be expressed (as rendered by
certain automated processes). Metaleptic markup, while also declarative, is devoted ostensibly to recording, recapturing or representing some work of signification—perhaps actually some extant artifact, textual or
otherwise—that predates it or otherwise precedes it in authority.
The two very different sets of goals and requirements defined by proleptic and metaleptic encodings
can easily conflict or become confused. Indeed, the kind a project adopts makes a difference in its ability to
meet its goals. (For example, this distinction is a big reason why a tag set designed to support new writing
will tend to be unsuitable for textual scholarship, though again, both may be descriptive.) And interestingly,
though both Orlando and the Onomasticon are proposed to us as examples of deep markup, each serves as a
fine example of an opposite extreme.
Orlando is proleptic, by design, in just about every respect. It may have a metaleptic aspect to the
extent that its design tries to capture or formalize a pre-existing theory of criticism, but even in this aspect it is
confessedly experimental. Likewise, it is based on TEI, which is largely metaleptic, but it tends to evade the
more particularly descriptive elements in TEI for the more generic ones. (An example of Orlando markup
will be examined to establish this.) In contrast the overt or ostensible markup of the Onomasticon is all
metaleptic, for the sole purpose of describing something that has existed long before it: Ovid's poem. (An
example of the Onomasticon will also be considered.)
How does depth figure into these considerations? The two projects look in opposite directions,
forward and back. Hence it may seem puzzling how either or both proleptic and metaleptic strategies can, in
practice, achieve some kind of critical mass from which “new kinds of knowledge about their subjects” (as I
put it above) may be possible.
Willard provides a hint by suggesting that depth has something to do with the readiness of markup
structures not merely to support ordinary operations of formatting or retrieval, but also to support some kind
of higher-order operations or functions, which take the markup structures as “primitives” and which, at that
higher level, can be used to discern abstract categories not directly expressed in the markup at all. The
example he proposes is personification, which, he says, “is an example of a deep (or at least deeper) kind
because the object of study is not simply declared as a primitive but may be computed from declarable
elements.” Like shallow markup, deep markup consists of declarative statements. But the significance of
these declarations is not merely in the simple predications they support, but rather in phenomena or assertions
that can be discerned only from the appearance of these statements in combination. The Onomasticon
example will be examined to see how this would work. The failure of its current syntax to support the kind of
attribution proposed will be discussed, along with possible alternate syntaxes. The feasibility of what Willard
plans will be argued.
In doing this, of course Willard is going far beyond merely a description of Ovid. It may be
wondered, accordingly, if the markup scheme goes beyond its originally metaleptic project. I would suggest
not: that although the markup is there to support processing (and indeed, very novel forms of processing), and
so is forward-looking, nonetheless the processing envisioned is given, once again, for purposes of reflecting
back on the text under study—or failing that, back on the markup protocol itself as a scholarly instrument. A
truly proleptic markup application would turn these methods not to illuminating Ovid but to creating new
meanings altogether. The rationale of the scheme, however, seems to be to reflect a theory of a text that can
be tested against actual texts.
In this respect, the markup of the Metamorphoses (or potentially of any text that proves receptive to
the proposed “grammar of personification”) will certainly “create new knowledge”, even verge, it seems, on
prolepsis in providing a framework or grammar for an expression of some kind. Yet it shouldn't be supposed
that metalepsis is just the saying over again of old things: quite the contrary; no less than prolepsis, metalepsis
is an occasion of new signification, the creation of new knowledge. Indeed, while metalepsis looks back
gesturally—predicating something about the world or of something in it—nonetheless it works to change the
meaning of the thing it looks back at, by refiguring it and recontextualizing it. (This is characteristic of
metalepsis in general as a trope, even irrespective of the way in which, in these cases, these new significations
will be mediated or midwived by the operations of the machine.)
And here we return to Orlando. “Depth”, it seems, is something we can have in either metaleptic or
proleptic modes, for it appears that in their own way, Orlando's rich structures may make (quite beyond their
simple applications for organization, search and retrieval) an analogous kind of depth to that of the
Onomasticon. In other words, what if we accept Willard's definition, and wonder whether a proleptic effort
like Orlando can be similarly deep? What kinds of primitives, in what kinds of combinations, can be
discerned in Orlando's markup? To what extent are these combinations reflective of various authors’ differing
perspectives and interests? To whatever extent Orlando's markup realizes its promise of access broken down
into meaningful and useful categories of argument and commentary, how will these combinations and
cross-sections be suggestive of new insights and perspectives?
It may take time to answer these questions, but the conditions are certainly right: the tag set is rich
(TEI-based) and its extensions (particular kinds of classification of content) suggest several applications.
Orlando plans next to deploy a pilot delivery system, which is due to exploit its markup structures in novel
ways, in user interfaces, navigation, and access: how will the project take advantage of the positive feedback
loops thus created, as not only readers and users, but authors, get to see more readily the shape of larger
designs, and hence the expressions, consequences, and uses of their tagging? It may be that a common
practice in Orlando tagging emerges that characterizes and reflects a whole approach to literary history. These
are very intriguing prospects.
REFERENCES
Bloom, Harold. 1982. The Breaking of the Vessels. The Wellek Library lectures at the University of
California, Davis. Frank Lentricchia, Series Ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Caton, Paul. 2001. Markup's Current Imbalance. Markup Languages: theory and practice 3.1: 1–13. See the
abstract and excerpt in Cover Pages http://xml.coverpages.org/mltpTOC31.html#MLTP-31caton.
Cournane, Mavis. 1997. The Application of SGML/TEI to the Processing of Complex Multilingual Historical
Texts. Doctoral Dissertation, University College, Cork. Cork, Ireland.
Cover, Robin. “Conceptual Modelling and Markup Languages”. Cover Pages
http://xml.coverpages.org/conceptualModelling.html.
Sperberg-McQueen, C.M., and Lou Burnard, eds. 1997. “A Gentle Introduction to SGML”. In Guidelines for
Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. 1994, repr. 1997. Chicago, Oxford: Text Encoding
Initiative. pp. 13-36. Available online at http://www.tei-c.org/Vault/GL/P3/SG.htm
Hollander, John. 1981. The Figure of Echo. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Quin, Liam. November 1996. “Suggestive Markup: Explicit Relationships in Descriptive and Prescriptive
DTDs”. SGML’96 Conference Proceedings. Graphic Communications Association.
Renear, Allen. 2000. “The Descriptive/Procedural Distinction is Flawed”. Markup Languages: Theory and
Practice 2.4: 411–20.
Goldfarb, Charles F. 1990. The SGML Handbook. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Annex A. Adapted from Charles
F. Goldfarb, A Generalized Approach to Document Markup, in SIGPLAN Notices, June 1981.
Sperberg-McQueen, C.M., Claus Huitfeldt, and Allen Renear. 2000. “Meaning and Interpretation of Markup”.
Markup Languages: Theory & Practice 2.3: 215–234. See
http://www.w3.org/People/cmsmcq/2000/mim.html
","txt","2","",""
"315","4","Linguistic Issues in the Entry, Character-Encoding, Processing, and Rendering of Sanskrit","3","This panel will study the principles upon which text-encoding schemes for Sanskrit are based and the uses to
which they are suited. The issues under investigation range from character encoding to more complex markup
such as the indication of word boundaries. The choices made in the design of a text-encoding scheme have
important ramifications for text-processing functions such as data entry, efficiency of encoding, linguistic
processing (e.g., morphological and phonological analysis), and rendering. Speakers will present solutions
that utilize new technologies such as XML and OpenType. Although the discussion in this panel will focus on
Sanskrit, many issues are relevant also to other languages and writing systems.
Character-encoding schemes may range from the purely sound-based to the purely graphic. In a
sound-based scheme, the basic unit of analysis is the phone (speech sound). A sound-based scheme may
either take the phone as an atomic unit or decompose the phone into a bundle of phonetic features. Taking the
phone as the atomic unit, a purely phonemic system includes only the distinctive sounds (phonemes) of the
language in its inventory. Most systems which take the phone as the atomic unit, however, extend their
inventory to include at least some contextually conditioned sounds, and most sound-based systems mix
phonemic and phonetic principles. In graphic schemes, the basic unit is the graph (written shape). Graphic
schemes may involve three principles. They may take the character as an atomic unit and encode only graphemes; they may decompose the character into a set of strokes and encode partial glyphs; or they may
encode complex glyphs (ligatures).
Sanskrit, the primary culture-bearing language of India, is written in the Devanagari script. This script
includes both syllabic and alphabetic features. Consonant graphs imply an inherent short /a/ vowel, unless
another vowel is explicitly indicated or the absence of a vowel is indicated by the virama sign. Consonant
sequences are written as ligatures; traditional Sanskrit orthography requires glyphs for more than a thousand
such sequences. We will survey and categorize current encodings for Sanskrit, including general
standards-based schemes for Indic languages, and specialized schemes used by Indologists for Sanskrit both
in Devanagari and in Roman transliteration. Moreover, we will examine the principles upon which the various
schemes are based, the applications to which they are best suited, and their potentials and shortcomings.
After clarifying the general issues, Hyman and Scharf will discuss their sound-based encoding
scheme. This scheme has been used for representation of a digital library of Sanskrit texts and as the internal
encoding for an automatic Sanskrit morphological analyzer. Tools are available that facilitate transliteration
and re-encoding into a number of standard formats, including Unicode.
The word-boundary problem has limited the utility of Sanskrit digitized text. Word boundaries are
often obscured phonologically in Sanskrit by the replacement of consecutive vowels with a single sound or
graphically by the rendering of consecutive consonants with a single ligature. Word indices, concordances,
grammatical and lexical analysis, however, require access to word-boundary information. Earlier work in text
encoding has addressed this problem in ad hoc ways, typically by using Roman transcription and by undoing
sandhi. The former sacrifices flexibility in rendering and the latter destroys prosodic information. An ideal
system would provide all the information necessary for both flexible rendering and linguistic analysis. Work
currently under way at Brown to create a computational implementation of a lexically based production
grammar and parser promises to allow automated processing that can correctly divide digitized Sanskrit text
into its component words.
Govindaraju is compiling Devanagari character databases and digitized Hindi lexica and tagged text
corpora to serve as an accurate and comprehensive benchmark to test algorithms used in the field of
Devanagari OCR research. He is also developing tools for truthing scanned documents. He will discuss
techniques for word and line separation, character segmentation, lexically driven and lexicon-free techniques
for word recognition, and linguistic tools for post processing.
Bunker surveys the support that OpenType fonts provide for ligatures. Because Unicode separates
rendering issues from character-encoding, ligature selection need not be encoded in the text but can be left to
the font. Bunker’s research aims at developing a database of all ligatures found in printed Devanagari texts
and software that allows a user to build a customized OpenType font automatically. Any application that
supports OpenType fonts will then be able to render Sanskrit text with the user’s choice of ligatures. This
solution leverages the emerging OpenType standard to allow high-quality Devanagari typography without
cumbersome data-entry conventions or specialized software.
After the four fifteen-minute presentations, the panel will openly discuss cross-linguistic issues, the
potential for mutual application of techniques developed for various scripts and languages, and the
development of intelligent techniques to advance Sanskrit text-processing.","txt","2","",""
"316","4","PAD: Preservation, Archiving, and Dissemination of Electronic Literature","3","The Electronic Literature Organization is a non-profit organization with the mission of promoting and
facilitating the reading, publishing, and writing of electronic literature. ELO is the only group of its kind,
providing the infrastructure and information for the dispersed community of writers and readers working in
electronic media. In its three years of existence, ELO has presented numerous readings, produced the first
major hypermedia awards (2001), held the first international symposium on the topic of electronic literature
(2002), and created a free online database for housing and exploring electronic literary works (The Directory).
The State of the Arts Symposium, held at UCLA in April of 2002, gathered people interested in
electronic literature from diverse areas of interest and expertise into discussion of the primary issues and
concerns facing this cultural form. The overwhelming area of concern proved to be the threat of obsolescence
due to rapidly “advancing” technical platforms. Out of this event grew the impetus and initiative for ELO’s
PAD (Preservation, Archiving, and Dissemination) Project.
ELO’s drive to fulfill our mission statement has prompted us to initiate a preemptive strike on the
impending obsolescence of electronic literature by the inevitably short life span of its programmable media.
PAD is a multi-leveled and multi-leveled initiative aimed at approaching this problem from technical,
academic, legal, and communal perspectives. PAD is currently in its planning phase, operating through five
committees: Operations, Archiving and Display, Academic Dissemination, Technological and Software
Development, and Copyright and Open Source. PAD is voluntarily managed by scholars and experts from
such ranging fields positions as experts in literature, computer science, and digital archiving to creative
writers, businessmen, and a foundation representative. It is obvious from our committee members that the
issue of preserving, archiving, and disseminating digital art and information is an urgent topic in all fields,
one that unites disciplines and departments. Digital archiving is a subject under exploration and
experimentation by numerous groups from various disciplines, many of which will be represented at the ACH
conference. ELO’s panel will include five PAD committee members, each of whom represent different PAD
committees and will therein present various aspects of the problem of digital obsolescence, the ramifications
and potential solutions as discerned and understood by PAD.
This academic panel will address the need for pre-emptive measures that preserve and archive
endangered works of electronic literature as well as inform about PAD’s current operations and future plans.
The fact that electronic literary works are constantly at risk of fading into technological obsolescence will
inevitably obstruct the ability to teach and study works already in existence as well as impede upon future
artistic creation. As all conference attendants know, the ability to do scholarly or pedagogical work in the humanities is entirely dependent upon the archiving capabilities and technological support available. The fact
that important works of contemporary literature will soon be inaccessible to scholars, editors, librarians, or
students is a major impediment to our cultural and technological future. This panel is therefore a vitally
important one to present at ACH.
Due to the diverse reaches of this project, ELO is submitting proposals for two related sessions to this
year’s ACH conference. The first is the session above, a traditional academic discussion of ELO’s PAD
project, its objectives and implications. The second, presented in a separate proposal, is a creative session of
short readings of electronic literature. This combination of academic and creative panels aims to present
electronic literature to an audience with diverse and divergent exposure to this literary and technological art
form. In so doing, these sessions will jointly present the logical, intellectual, and aesthetic reasons, for
supporting and encouraging the preservation of electronic literature. PAD’s work depends upon and
inevitably affects all people working, either centrally or tangentially, in computing, the humanities, and
moreover, humanities computing. We look forward to the opportunity to share our work, brainstorm for
further ideas, and generate interest and support for this project. We hope that ACH will invite us to participate
in this year’s conference.
PANELISTS AND A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THEIR
PRESENTATION
David Durand will discuss technical aspects preserving e-texts by means of format conversion, to marked-up
format, and the concomitant need for the development of appropriate re-presentation software. This strategy
contrasts in several distinct ways with a system emulation strategy (as discussed) by Nick Montfort. As a
running example, he will discuss his experience with both conversion and emulation in rescuing data from
Brown University’s FRESS hypertext system from the early 70s.
Marjorie Coverley Luesebrink will examine a selection of endangered and threatened works of
electronic literature. Many of the early examples of hypertext literature exist only on platforms that cannot be
executed by contemporary computers. As part of the Preservation, Archiving, and Dissemination activities,
the committee is compiling a comprehensive list of e-literature works that can no longer be accessed in their
original form. The near-obsolescent works often represent key eras in the development of e-literature and its
supporting technologies. “The ‘O’ Word” will look at the coding practices, literary strategies, and placement
in the evolving history of the field that might argue for preservation of these and other pieces.
Nick Montfort will discuss how the experience of electronic literature works as functioning,
interactive computer programs is often essential to their appreciation. He will describe how
re-implementation, the development of new interpreters, and emulation has been used to keep works such as
Weizenbaum's 1965–66 Eliza/Doctor and several decades of interactive fiction accessible and fully
functional. He will also consider how this approach can be used today as part of a strategy for preserving e-lit
works of many different sorts, works which will be read and studied for many different reasons.
Jessica Pressman will provide an explanation of the position of ELO within the academic and cultural
community of electronic literature, ELO’s resources and its reasons for accepting the responsibility of the
PAD project.
Scott Rettberg will outline some of the challenges particular to the preservation of electronic
literature, identify some of the archiving methodologies that the ELO and other institutions and organizations
are currently applying, and introduce the ELO’s Preservation, Archiving and Dissemination initiative.
Rettberg will summarize the initial findings of PAD’s working group, and its general approach to the
challenge of lessening the impact technological obsolescence on the distribution and study of electronic
literature.","txt","2","",""
"317","4","An Architecture Promoting Collaborative Research, Teaching, and Learning","1","The organization of a complex system like the Edition Production Technology (EPT) presents a set of serious
design problems. Its workbench must offer comprehensive services, which the editor and co-researchers need
to prepare and maintain DTDs or X-Schemas, encode texts with searchable descriptive and editorial markup
in XML, integrate images, and design interfaces. It must also prepare powerful interactive displays for people
to make full use of the completed image-based edition. Unlike most software projects, moreover, whose
primary objective is to produce a functional and robust application, ARCHway’s goals are more complicated,
requiring an infrastructure that integrates Research, Teaching and Learning between the very different
disciplines of computer science and the humanities. To meet this principal purpose, we must carefully plan
the underlying architecture of EPT, which will guide the development process and map the functionality into
the overall system. Our architectural model promotes the development of modular, extensible, interoperable
components in a collaborative research and teaching environment that actively involves researchers and
students in both disciplines.
RESEARCH
EPT is an innovative system whose strengths hinge on a number of ideas that require novel solutions and
utilization of emerging technologies. Among them are questions of effective, convenient, and complete
mapping of the phenomena of the editorial domain into a software system. They lead to research problems of
image archiving, image access and manipulation, methods for automated linking of images with the text,
storage, access, secure transactions, data persistence and consistency (algorithms), and virtual remorphing.
The intellectual integrity of the project will be achieved by continuous exchange of “what” and “how”
knowledge and domain specific-phenomena between humanities scholars and computer and technology
specialists. The workbench that we create will mirror and augment the processes, methodologies, and
software tools the editor uses to develop electronic editions from original manuscripts.
Reminiscent of the currently prevailing Windows manager interface introduced by Doug Englebart
and his Stanford team in the late sixties, the workbench will attempt to recreate a virtual environment for
studying codicology. As Frederick Brooks, an authority in software engineering puts it, “The Windows,
Icons, Menus and Pointing interface is a superb example of a user interface that has conceptual integrity,
achieved by the adoption of a familiar mental model, the desktop metaphor, and its careful consistent
extension to exploit a computer graphics implementation.” However, the editors’ workbench will become
more than a metaphor as we aim to build a system that on the functional, hardware, and almost haptic (i.e.
hands-on, touchable) levels reproduces, augments, and organizes work with manuscript images into
image-based editions.
TEACHING AND LEARNING
As in any endeavor of developing a complex system the knowledge, creativity, and skills of the people involved are critical to its ultimate success. Students at various levels of their studies will be participating in
the project, and thus will bring with them different levels of skill. To accommodate and integrate students and
researchers from interdisciplinary environments, and to ensure that the architecture is flexible and open for
creative solutions and responds well to potential errors, unavoidable in any learning process, EPT will use the
end-to-end skeleton system advocated by Harlan Mills. In this approach the system grows from a basic loop
with stubs (subroutine calls) by adding functionality to gradually increasing components. The original
skeleton is developed by the most advanced researchers. This approach will help maintain the correctness of
the system throughout the entire process and at the same time will separate and divide design and
implementation tasks among different groups of students. The encapsulation and implementation of Object
Oriented Programming allows developers to define self-contained modules such as parsers, search facilities,
and image manipulation tools, while limiting interaction between separate components to interfaces, thus
reducing the probability of errors. Ultimately all these modules are plugged into the skeletal system and
become available through a portal to serve the user.
We will illustrate this approach with an implementation of the customizable graphical search tool
(CGST-XML) for XML documents that is a part of the development for ARCHway. CGST-XML is an
application built around the Model-View-Controller design pattern, wherein a user is provided with a number
of options (buttons) to control the operations of the system. Specific to CGST-XML is that the operation of
the system is organized into three steps: preprocessing, action, and post processing. Each step can be executed
by a number of modularized components that are available to the user. Through dynamically loaded
configuration files, the user not only can decide what particular programs, tools, and implementations are
used, but also can change the Graphical User Interface to one that best suits the current stage of the editorial
process. Additional implementations of separately developed modules can be added to expand the system,
multiplying the functionality of the system. The system is reminiscent of a plug-in oriented Web browser, but
instead of selecting specific applications based on a suffix, users have the ability to create their own suites of
operations. As a specific example, we will show CGST-XML in action with several possible configurations to
demonstrate the extensibility of the project.
REFERENCES
F. P. Brooks. The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software Engineering, 1995.
M. S. Brown, W. B. Seales, K. Kiernan, and J. Griffioen. “3D Acquisition and Restoration of Medieval
Manuscripts.” Communications of the ACM: Special Issue on Digital Libraries, May 2001.
E. Gamma, R. Helm, Ralph Johnson and John Vlissides, Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable
Object-Oriented Software, Addison-Wesley, 1996.
Handbook of Discrete and Computational Geometry, edited by J. E. Goodman and J. O’Rourke, CRC Press,
1997.
A. Hunt and D. Thomas, The Pragmatic Programmer, Addison-Wesley, 1999.","txt","2","",""
"318","4","Management of Data for Building Electronic Editions of Historic Manuscripts","1","The process of preparing electronic editions [SGK00] is long, time-consuming, and arduous for an editor or
editors. Some of the work cannot be automated—editors, for example, must scrutinize every single letter of a
document numerous times to come to fully informed decisions concerning script, meaning, and spelling
[Hay01]. The success of the ARCHway project, designed to alleviate unnecessary tedium of the editorial
process lies, in major part, in correct manipulation of the data that forms the electronic edition.
At the outset of the process of preparing an electronic edition, an editor takes raw data in the form of
digital images of the manuscript folios and precise transcriptions of them and proceeds to encode the
transcriptions with descriptive markup by:
• identifying the folios and folio lines, and the prose and/or verse lines;
• associating folio images with the text that they contain;
• creating a full glossary entry for every word in the text;
• recording a wide range of features of the manuscript, such as (among many other things) its
script, its legibility, any damage to the manuscript, any technological means used to restore
damaged readings, as well as editorial emendations and conjectural restorations.
This encoding must be stored in a way that
1. allows efficient retrieval of information (e.g., “Display all characters written by the second
scribe that are visible only under ultra-violet light”); 2. ensures efficient and convenient manipulation of the data;
3. provides support for editorial work by more than one person at the same time.
The challenges the editorial process presents can be broken into three broad categories:
• management of XML markup produced during the editorial process [BSK01],
• maintenance of associations between XML markup and manuscript images [YS01]
• support for a multi-user environment
MANAGEMENT OF XML MARKUP FOR ELECTRONIC
EDITIONS
Because the editor and research team will record a highly diverse and extensive set of manuscript features, the
markup of the edition text is bound to be complex. Different features subject to description may not
conveniently follow valid or well-formed XML nesting patterns in the actual manuscript, making the XML
document of the edition quite eccentric with potentially clashing hierarchies. There are two approaches to
overcoming this problem. One is to maintain an extremely complicated DTD (or XML Schema) [BPS00,
BM01] for all markup and use specific, at times cumbersome, markup conventions to overcome clashing
hierarchies in the tagging. While this approach has the benefit of storing all annotation in the same XML
document, the ad hoc solutions adopted to keep the markup well-formed reflect negatively on the clarity of
the XML and may adversely affect subsequent searches and retrieval of information. The tagging software for
the editor may also become too tied to a particular XML Schema to be of generic use.
Another approach is to separate markup for different features into different DTDs (or XML Schemas)
and maintain parallel markup of the edition text automatically. This approach results in clear, concise, easily
maintained DTDs or X-Schemas. It also is an excellent stepping stone for supporting simultaneous work of
many editors on one edition: for example, paleography markup created by one editor and damage markup
created by another at the same time can be stored separately and thus will create no conflicts in data. This
approach shifts most of the data maintenance burden from the shoulders of the editorial team to the software
that supports the process. It is currently being implemented in ARCHway.
BUILDING ELECTRONIC EDITIONS AROUND IMAGES
The images of manuscript folios [Bse01] are, by far, the most important component of the Electronic Editions
as they provide the opportunity for researchers to see and study the actual manuscript. The lion’s share of the
editor’s time in preparation of the edition is spent studying the images and creating annotations in the form of
searchable descriptive markup based on close scrutiny of the manuscript images. We must therefore ensure
that the XML markup in our electronic editions is pervasively associated with the images or parts of images
on which the markup is based. To support this association, we introduce some supplemental data into the
edition dataset.
First come folio layouts, which store spatial associations between different images available for the
same folio. These images include full folio images under different lighting conditions as well as
higher-resolution images of certain important folio fragments. An individual layout is created for every
manuscript folio. Next, we establish a more detailed association between the manuscript text and its recorded
features and the folio layouts. This association is achieved by introducing indexing conventions that tie parts
of XML documents and the folio layouts. These conventions can be implemented either by creating and
maintaining special “linking” XML markup or by storing linking information in index structures (such as
quad-trees and inverted indices). The final solution adopted for the project will be the combination of the two
approaches shown in tests to provide the right balance between convenience of use and efficiency of retrieval
of information.
HELPING RESEARCH TEAMS WORK TOGETHER
Creation of an electronic edition of a manuscript can be significantly sped up if all members of a research
team, rather than a single editor, can work on parts of it simultaneously. As a collaborative process leads to
situations where different researchers contribute to the editing process at the same time, edition production
software must support concurrent work and be capable of helping the editor resolve data conflicts and prevent
resulting loss of data. Otherwise known in database research as concurrency control [EGLT76], this problem
presents a number of interesting challenges for our framework, stemming from the complexity of the edition
data set and the need to provide as much flexibility as possible to the editor and the research team.
While leaving concurrency control to the editor and the research team may well be the easiest
solution to this problem, it is excessively prone to human error and puts an unacceptable burden on the editor.
It is instead the task of the back-end of the EPT workbench to automatically assure data integrity at every step
of the editorial process and provide adequate means for concurrency control. This support is facilitated, in
part, by having multiple DTDs or XML Schemas for editorial markup of the manuscript. Beyond that, we
must design and implement specific concurrency control protocols to work with the electronic edition dataset. These protocols must assure consistency of all changes made to the XML documents and provide significant
flexibility for the editor and research team to work simultaneously.
REFERENCES
[BM01] P. V. Biron and A. Malhotra, eds. “XML Schema Part 2: Datatypes. W3C Recommendation.” 2 May
2001. <http://www.w3.org/tr/xmlschema-2/>.
[BPS00] T. Bray, J. Paoli, C. M. Sperberg-McQueen, and E. Maler, eds. “Extensible Markup Language
(XML) 1.0 (Second Edition). W3C Recommendation.” 6 October 2000.
<http://www.w3.org/tr/rec-xml>.
[BSe01] M. S. Brown and W. S. Seales. “The Digital Atheneum: New Approaches for Preserving, Restoring,
and Analyzing Damaged Manuscripts.” Proceedings of the First ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on
Digital Libraries. New York: ACM Press, 2001. 437–443.
[BSK01] M. S. Brown, W. B. Seales, K. Kiernan, and J. Griffioen. “3D Acquisition and Restoration of
Medieval Manuscripts.” Communications of the ACM: Special Issue on Digital Libraries. May 2001.
[EGLT76] K.P. Eswaan, J.N. Gray, R.A. Lorie, I.L. Traiger. “The Notions of Consistency and Predicate
Locks in a Database System,” Communications of the ACM, vol 19, No. 11, Nov. 1976.
[Hay01] D. Hayes. “Glossing Damaged Manuscripts: an Example from AElfric's Lives of Saints.” Digital
Resources for the Humanities (DRH01). University of London, London, UK. 10 July 2001.
[SGK00] W. B. Seales, J. Griffioen, K. Kiernan, C. J. Yuan, and L. Cantara. “The Digital Atheneum: New
Technologies for Restoring and Preserving Old Documents.” Computers in Libraries 20:2 (February
2000), 26-30. <http://www.infotoday.com/cilmag/feb00/seales.htm>.
[YS01] C. J. Yuan and W. B. Seales. “Guided Linking: Efficiently Making Image-to-Transcript
Correspondence.” Proceedings of the First ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries.
New York: ACM Press, 2001. 471.","txt","2","",""
"319","4","In image-Based Electronic Edition of Alfred the Great's Old English Version of Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy","1","Alfred the Great’s Old English translation of Boethius’s Consolation of Philosophy survives in two
manuscripts, one from the tenth and one from the twelfth century, and in an indispensable
seventeenth-century transcript and collation of the earliest manuscript, which was badly damaged by fire in
the eighteenth century. The confusing manuscript tradition, the catastrophic damage to the principal
manuscript, and the easy recourse to the late transcript, have conspired to lead modern editors into producing
two major editions, one in prose and one in verse, neither one remotely approximating the manuscript
testimony. An image-based electronic edition makes it possible to restore much of the damaged tenth-century
manuscript and produce the first prose-and-verse edition of it.
British Library Cotton Otho A. vi, the earliest manuscript of Alfred’s Boethius, is also one of the
three manuscript testbeds for the ARCHway Project. The collaboration of computer scientists and specialists
in Old English will produce not only practical, modular, extensible tools for non-technical humanities editors
to construct complex electronic editions, but also complementary interfaces for scholars, students, and other
interested people to make full use of them. Using digital images as the foundation for the Electronic Boethius,
we will use these tools to encode searchable glossaries, transcripts, and edition, all linked to the images. Users
at all levels will thus have unprecedented access to high-resolution representations of the damaged and
fragmentary folios that survive.
The Glossary Tool allows the editor and research assistants to create from a preliminary XML source
encoded only for folio lines and edition lines (prose or verse), an exhaustive sorted wordlist with line
locations. We then compile the glossary from this wordlist using custom-made templates for each part of
speech. These templates permit us to perform complex, comprehensive, XML tagging without even seeing
any tags. The resulting XML-encoded glossary is thus fully searchable, and may be reformatted for HTML or
any other kind of useful display through XSL transformations.
A complementary Tagger software now under production similarly allows the editor and research
assistants to provide pervasive, extremely complex, XML encoding for the transcript and edition, again
without the necessity to consult the encoded XML file. The custom-made software, specifically designed to
relieve scholars from having to learn markup or face a forest of angle brackets, correctly nests all tags behind
the scenes, silently avoiding on behalf of the humanities editors the creation of invalid or non-well-formed XML encoding. The editor views in one window the more ultimate source of all the markup in the manuscript
folio, and tags a transcript of it in another window using clickable element buttons. The tagging
comprehensively covers everything from paleographical features to minute physical description of the fire
damage to editorial conjectural restorations and emendations. The resulting tagged file is, like the glossary,
fully searchable and open to any number of displays. By including coordinates for all tagged parts of an
image, searching the xml and the image proceed simultaneously.
Other custom-made tools will provide methodical tagging for other specialized purposes. For
example, the editor can easily prepare paleographical descriptions of the scribal letterforms by using
templates for specific letters. These individually tagged letterforms can provide students with easy access to
paleographical illustrations, which are usually omitted in scholarly editions and sparsely included even in
paleographical treatises. Another facility, an image “overlay” device, allows the editor to superimpose any
combination of images digitized, for instance, by daylight, fiber-optic, and ultraviolet, to disclose readings
rendered obscure or illegible by fire-damage. Users of the completed edition will have access to this device to
conduct their own research of these collected images. These specialized tools are all intended to function
together, and ultimately to transform the editor's EPT workbench into a virtual reading room for the intended
users of the electronic edition.
We will illustrate the process of assembling a scholarly edition with the workbench, tools, and
materials we are designing and developing, and discuss how we intend to make it available for widespread
use for other humanities projects. The image-based scholarly edition of Alfred’s Boethius will comprise a
complete collection of all manuscript images intricately linked to edition, transcript, glossary, and apparatus
files to allow users to view, read, compare, study, and search in an electronic environment that maintains and
encourages connections between text and image. Editorial glosses, emendations, restorations, punctuation
marks, paleographical notes, codicological analyses, and bibliographical materials should all be linked to
relevant portions of the manuscript from which the scholarship emerges, taking advantage of the strengths of
the electronic medium rather than remaining bound by the typical structure and organization of traditional
scholarly editions in printed books. The apparatus, for example, should be pervasively available “Help”
whenever and wherever pertinent information relating to the edition, transcript, and glossary files, and their
associated images, is required. In this way editorial interventions become completely transparent by the
availability of high-resolution images alongside corresponding textual notes, explanatory notes, and
bibliographical materials.
While it should provide a variety of views and configurations of the edition, transcript, and image
files, the user interface for the scholarly edition should also allow users to search exhaustively the collection
for words, substrings, grammatical properties, poetic features, and in fact anything that may be of interest.
The search facilities for the Electronic Boethius and all the other texts under the aegis of the ARCHway
Project will be as functional as the ones developed for the Electronic Beowulf, but will not be bound to a
closed system. Like all the other tools in the EPT workbench, these facilities too will be modular,
interoperable, and extensible.
The Electronic Boethius Project is funded by a Collaborative Research Award from the National
Endowment for the Humanities and the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, and is sponsored by The British
Library and the Bodleian Library, Oxford, who are providing digital images of the relevant documents.
REFERENCES:
Primary Sources
• British Library MS Cotton Otho A. vi.
• Oxford Bodleian Library MS Bodley 180.
• Oxford Bodleian Library MS Junius 12.
Editions
• Krapp, George Philip, ed. The Paris Psalter and the Meters of Boethius. The Anglo-Saxon
Poetic Records 5. NY: Columbia University Press, 1932.
• Robinson, Fred C. and E. G. Stanley, eds. Old English Verse Texts from Many Sources: A
Comprehensive Collection. Early English Manuscripts in Facsimile 23. Copenhagen,
Denmark: Rosenkilde and Bagger, 1991.
• Sedgefield, Walter J., ed. King Alfred’s Anglo-Saxon Version of Boethius, de Consolatione
Philosophiae. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899.
Secondary Sources
• Beagrie, Neil and Daniel Greenstein. “A Strategic Policy Framework for Creating and
Preserving Digital Collections.” Arts and Humanities Data Service (AHDS). Version 5.0,
July 1998. Online. <http://ahds.ac.uk/strategic.pdf>. Updated July 2001, Christopher
Pressler.
• CEDARS Project. “Metadata for Digital Preservation: The CEDARS Project Outline Specification.” March 2000. Online. <http://www.leeds.ac.uk/cedars/MD-STR~5.pdf>.
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">A Controlled-Corpus Experiment in Authorship
                    Identification by Cross-Entropy</title>
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                        <forename type=""first"">Patrick</forename>
                        <surname>Juola</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Duquesne University</name>
                            <email>juola@mathcs.duq.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""middle"">Harald</forename>
                        <surname>Baayen</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics</name>
                            <email>baayen@mpi.nl</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
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                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
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                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
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                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
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                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                <p>This paper describes an authorship, and more generally document classification,
                    experiment on a difficult Dutch corpus of university writings. By measuring
                    linguistic distances using a cross-entropy technique, a technique sensitive not
                    only to the distributions of language features, but also to their relative
                    intersequencing, classification judgments can be made with great sensitivity,
                    significance, confidence, and accuracy. In particular, despite the designed
                    difficulty of the Dutch corpus used, the technique was still able to reliably
                    detect not only authorship, but also subtle features of register, topic, and
                    even the educational attainments of the author.</p>
                <p>Authorship attribution has received significant attention in recent years as a
                    testbed and touchstone for new theories of authorial markers and linguistic
                    statistics; (Holmes, 1998) presents a brief historical outline of some major
                    theories. One of the current front-runners, proposed in (Burrows, 1989),
                    suggests that a strong cue to authorship can be gleaned from a principle
                    components’ analysis (PCA) of the most common function words in a document. Like
                    most statistical techniques, a scholar’s ability to apply this technique is
                    limited by the usual features of sample size, sample representativeness, and
                    test power. Another popular technique, linear discriminant analysis (LDA), may
                    be able to distinguish among previously chosen classes, but as a supervised
                    algorithm, it has so many degrees of freedom that the discriminants it infers
                    may not be “clinically” significant. An alternative technique using measurements
                    of cross-entropy (Wyner, 1996; Juola, 1997, 2003) might be a better tool under
                    difficult circumstances because it is capable of extracting more information
                    (and thus distinguish more readily) along perceptually salient lines from a
                    given data set.</p>
                <p>The corpus studied by Baayen, Van Halteren, Neijt, and Tweedie (Baayen, et al.
                    2002) has been specifically developed to be a difficult problem in authorship
                    attribution. This corpus consists of small writing samples taken from
                    undergraduate students at the University of Nijmegen on carefully and closely
                    controlled topics. Eight students, four first-year and four fourth-year, were
                    asked to write nine essays (for a total of 72) on the same set of
                    closely-specified topics. These topics included three samples of fiction (for
                    example, a retelling of the fairy tale of “Roodkapje,” the Dutch equivalent of
                    “Little Red Riding Hood”), three of argumentative writing, and three of
                    descriptive writing. Document sizes varied from approximately 3600 to 7600
                    words. These documents were analyzed using cross-entropy and the results
                    compared to analysis via PCA and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) (Baayen et
                    al., 2001) to see both what the appropriate dimensions of variation were, and
                    whether or not authorship attribution was practical in this tightly controlled a
                    setting.</p>
                <p>Analysis using function word PCA showed a marked lack of significant and useful
                    results. Baayen et all found “no authorial structure,” although education level
                    and to a lesser extent genre were separated. LDA also could not reliably
                    identify author, and in most experiments performed at chance level. First, as
                    expected, the overall cross-entropy distances showed an extremely strong ability
                    to sort documents by topic (grouping all “Roodkapje” stories together, for
                    instance). Statistical analysis, however, shows a strong (and significant)
                    tendency to within-group homogeneity across all dimensions of interest : topic,
                    genre, author, and even year in school. In particular, the average within-group
                    distance, excluding identity measurements, is significantly less than the
                    average without-group measurement. This holds true, irrespective of whether
                    groups are defined by authorship (p &lt; 0.000001), register (p &lt;
                    10-15), or even education level (p &lt; 0.0084). This suggests that
                    cross-entropy can be usefully deployed to author identification in this corpus. </p>
                <p>A further test revealed that, for every document in the corpus and for every pair
                    of authors, a potential authorship dispute can be resolved approximately 73% of
                    the time using cross-entropy. Furthermore, applying a fractionation technique to
                    restrict attention to only the function words (Juola, 1998; Juola and Baayen, in
                    preparation) could improve these results to 86% correct identification. This can
                    be compared to a best published result of 82% obtained by Baayen et al. using an
                    enhanced LDA model.</p>
                <p>Although the enhanced version of LDA performed substantially better, it should be
                    noted, however, that LDA is a supervised technique, and itself makes strong
                    assumptions about the nature of the authorial problem that make it unsuitable to
                    exploratory, unsupervised study.</p>
                <p>Even when one restricts the samples to a mere 500 words each, analysis still
                    yields 63% of the pairwise comparisons correctly made, better than any result
                    using PCA or standard (unenhanced) LDA. These results improve upon principle
                    components analysis and standard linear discriminant analysis, with remarkable
                    economy of calculation.</p>
                <p>The improved performance can be attributed to information used by cross-entropy
                    but not by word-frequency histograms, specifically in ordering and sequencing of
                    (function) words. Function word PCA performs well by using the relative presence
                    or absence of function words as a cue and/or proxy for idiosyncratic syntactic
                    patterns. Cross-entropy can distinguish not only a difference in
                    presence/absence, but also a difference in relative sequencing. This additional
                    source of information can allow more reliable inferences to be drawn from
                    corpora and more subtle distinctions to be made. In theory, the idea that
                    sequencing is more distinguishing than “mere” presence or absence could be
                    applied to almost any form of linguistic data and any task. Irrespective of what
                    feature sets are eventually found to be informative for authorship attribution,
                    it is to be expected that sequences of features will probably outperform
                    unordered bags of features in making fine distinctions.</p>
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                        <forename type=""first"">David</forename>
                        <surname>Hoover</surname>
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                            <name type=""org"">New York University</name>
                            <email>david.hoover@nyu.edu</email>
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                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
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                <p>Authorship attribution typically seeks a small number of textual characteristics
                    that distinguish the texts of authors effectively from each other (see Morton,
                    1978 for a classic discussion). With small groups of texts, these features can
                    be found by examining frequency lists manually, but statistical tests such as
                    the t-test can also be used (see Binongo and Smith, 1999). For the purposes of
                    authorship attribution, a few items occurring at consistent and consistently
                    different frequencies in all of the known texts by all of the claimants may be
                    sufficient for confident attribution.</p>
                <p>Most multivariate authorship work focuses on frequent words, following the lead
                    of Burrows (1987, 1988, 1989, 1992a, 1992b, 1994). Much persuasive recent work
                    continues this tradition (Craig, 1999a, 1999b, 1999c, 1999d; Forsyth et al.,
                    1999; Holmes et al., 2001a, 2001b; McKenna and Antonia, 2001; Tweedie et al.,
                    1998). In two recent studies, however, I have shown that cluster analyses based
                    on frequent words often fail to attribute known texts to their authors, and that
                    analyses based on word sequences are sometimes more effective (Hoover, 2001,
                    2002). Continuing along these lines, I will test the accuracy of analyses based
                    on collocations, while simultaneously examining the effects of using much larger
                    numbers of items than are typically used. Large numbers of words, sequences, and
                    collocations provide more information for potential stylistic analyses, assure
                    that the results take into account a large proportion of the texts under
                    consideration, and, as we will see, usually produce more accurate results. The
                    results of my investigation also show that analyses based on collocations are
                    often more accurate than those based on frequent words or sequences.</p>
                <p>For this investigation I will define collocations simply as any two words that
                    appear repeatedly within a certain span of words. Preliminary tests show that,
                    perhaps contrary to intuition, meaningful collocations like house...yard, or
                    car...highway, are not very effective for authorship attribution. They do not
                    occur very frequently, and their occurrence depends too much on the content of
                    the text. Many multivariate analyses have been based on function words alone, in
                    the belief that such frequent and relatively insignificant words are most likely
                    to reflect unconscious and regular authorial habits. This suggests the use of
                    collocations of function words, but preliminary tests show that these are also
                    not very effective. The most effective collocations are simply those that occur
                    at the highest frequencies, with the exception of collocations of personal
                    pronouns, which, like collocations of meaningful words, seem too much
                    conditioned by content (especially the characters) of the texts. I omit personal
                    pronouns and any items for which a single text provides more than 80% of the
                    occurrences (typically proper names).</p>
                <p>To test the effectiveness of collocations in authorship, it seems best to begin
                    with a corpus of texts by known authors, so that various spans, numbers of
                    collocations, and statistical methods can be tested for effectiveness before
                    trying the method on real authorship questions. I begin with a corpus of 10,000
                    words of pure narrative from fourteen third-person novels by six authors from
                    about 1900, and, as a baseline, test the effectiveness of frequent words and
                    sequences. For the restriction to narrative and to third- person, see Burrows
                    (1987, 1992) and Hoover, (2001). The best results cluster the texts of five of
                    the six authors. Although analysts usually select a small number of items (e.g.,
                    the 50 most frequent function words), much larger numbers of frequent words are
                    often more effective. I test the 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, and 800
                    most frequent items except where fewer items than 800 occur frequently enough to
                    be included. (For this corpus, the best results for frequent words are based on
                    the 300-800 most frequent.) When collocations are tested, various spans and
                    linkages give various results, but several analyses correctly cluster the texts
                    of all six authors, as Fig. 1 shows. A representative completely correct cluster
                    analysis is shown in Fig. 2.</p>
                <figure>
                    <head>Fig. 1</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <head>Fig. 2</head>
                </figure>
                <p>It seems useful to test the methods on another genre, as I did in previous work
                    (Hoover, 2001), so my next corpus consists of the first 4,000 words of
                    twenty-one contemporary literary critical articles by ten authors. Here,
                    analyses based on frequent words and sequences each correctly cluster all of the
                    texts once. Analyses based on collocations with spans of two, five, and ten
                    words also succeed.</p>
                <p>Analyses based on collocations seem to be quite effective in attributing texts to
                    their authors in cases of known authorship, and can now be tested in an
                    authorship simulation to see how well they work under conditions that more
                    closely resemble true attribution problems. The simulation includes the fourteen
                    narratives by six authors discussed above, adds four novels by two new authors,
                    and then two “anonymous” novels, each known to be by one of the eight authors.
                    Frequent sequences succeed for only six of the authors. Frequent words still
                    fail to cluster Kipling’s texts correctly, but they do successfully cluster the
                    four texts of the two new authors. They also consistently cluster one of the
                    anonymous texts with Cather’s texts and the other with London’s. Analyses based
                    on collocations with a span of four words are extremely effective and
                    consistent: the 400, 500, 600, 700, and 800 most frequent correctly cluster all
                    of the known texts, even when the graphs are strictly interpreted, as Fig. 3
                    shows. Like analyses based on frequent words, these also consistently cluster
                    the anonymous texts with those of Cather and London. These identifications are
                    correct. What makes these results even more impressive is the fact that four of
                    the six added texts, including the two anonymous ones, are first-person rather
                    than third-person narratives.</p>
                <figure>
                    <head>Fig. 3</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The results of my study confirm what many researchers have found: analyses based
                    on the frequencies of frequent words are quite effective in attributing texts to
                    their authors. Analyses based on frequent sequences of words are also often
                    effective, and are more effective under certain conditions, as I have showed
                    elsewhere (Hoover, 2002). Frequent collocations, however, are often more
                    effective than either words or sequences, producing the only completely correct
                    attributions in some cases and producing more consistently correct attributions
                    in others. The frequencies of frequent collocations clearly reflect important
                    aspects of authorial style. Analyses based on them constitute a promising method
                    of authorship attribution and may also prove useful in stylistic studies.</p>
            </div>
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"323","4","Vocabulary and Pronunciation in Lingusitic Variation","1","Linguistics, archaeology and cultural history share a fascination for the means with which people express
identity, in particular, the associations with the area in which they live, with their social class and gender,
perhaps with their ethnicity and profession. Computational studies of linguistic variation enable us to see the
degree to which various linguistic devices contribute to this expression of identity. The first task of these
computational studies is inevitably to bring some order to the plethora of data relevant to the study of cultural
expression. In the case of linguistics, this is speech and writing, and the relevant data is available in the form
of dialect atlases, compendia of varying linguistic forms collected in comparable ways from speakers of
varying geographic and social origins.
Given a large amount of dialect data, there is a good chance that one will encounter “noise”, i.e.,
inaccuracy, nongeographic variability, and incompatibility both in the choice of information recorded and in
the level of detail at which it is recorded. In addition, dialectologists have been aware since Kloeke and
Bloomfield that, even abstracting away from the noise, dialect varieties inevitably contain genuine linguistic
features with counterindications, exceptions, and gaps. There are furthermore many linguistic features to
explore, and many ways of combining them. Finally, it may be the case that it is difficult or even impossible
to validate results—there may be no consensus among dialectologists about which aspects of the geographic
distribution of linguistic variation are most significant. The LAMSAS data set, available at
http://us.english.uga.edu/lamsas/, is one such large, “noisy” and rebarbative set. The challenge is to identify
how linguistic similarity is expressed in such data.
We treat both lexical and phonetic differences in this talk, and we also examine the relative
contributions of pronunciation and lexis to dialect differentiation. In order to rise above the atomistic level of
the individual sounds or lexical items, we employ aggregate measures of distance, the (non-)identity of lexical
items on the one hand (essentially the same measure proposed by Seguy, 1971, and elaborated on by Goebl,
1984); and a string similarity measure which we apply to phonetic transcriptions on the other. Because the
measures yield numeric characterizations of lexical/phonetic distance, it may be aggregated over many pairs
of similar concepts. In order to overcome the problem that there is little expert consensus, we propose a
numerical characterization of the fundamental dialectological postulate, namely that of “local coherence”:
nearby language variants tend to be similar to one another. Such a principle requires clarification as to which
language variants are to be included, and it is admitted not generally true (e.g., town Frisian is geographically
not coherent). But we show nonetheless that the principle can be put to beneficial use in exploring dialect data
in an investigative phase of research. We illustrate the results when applied to the entire LAMSAS data set,
and use it to help choose which infrequent data to omit from analysis and also to evaluate the two modest
modifications we propose to Seguy and Goebl’s work.
The results of the lexical analysis confirm neither of the best known dialect divisions for the
LAMSAS area, i.e., neither Kurath’s nor Carver’s. Both Kurath and Carver relied on lexical analysis, where
Carver’s (1987) analysis sees the North-South division as dominating dialect differences on the Atlantic
coast, while Kurath’s saw a significant “Midlands” area corresponding to southern Pennsylvania and
extending into West Virginia and the inland South. In our analyses, Kurath's “Midlands Area” is split into
North and South, and the penultimate aggregation is unstable, confirming sometimes Kurath and sometimes
Carver. Further details confirm Kurath rather more than Carver, e.g., in recognizing a coastal South region.
Phonetic analysis confirms the primary significance of the North-South split.
Finally, we are in a position for the first time to evaluate the usual assumption of variationists that
57
lexical and phonetic variation usually “coincide fairly well” (Kurath and McDavid, 1961) in their association
with extralinguistic variables such as geography (where modern variationists would tend to add social class,
gender and age). In fact the two levels of linguistic structure do tend to correlate to a highly significant degree
(r = 0.65) in the LAMSAS data, and likewise therefore associate with the same geographical areas, but the
lexical data is much less consistent. To achieve the same consistency of measurement, we need to examine
ten pairs of lexicalizations for every single pair of pronunciations. We express our associations, and
ultimately, our personal identify whenever we use language, but the expression is ten times as recognizable in
speech as it is in writing.
REFERENCES
John Nerbonne with Wilbert Heeringa and Peter Kleiweg “Edit Distance and Dialect Proximity” In: David
Sankoff and Joseph Kruskal (eds.) Time Warps, String Edits and Macromolecules: The Theory and
Practice of Sequence Comparison 1999, pp.v–xv.
John Nerbonne and Peter Kleiweg “Lexical Distance in LAMSAS.” Submitted to: John Nerbonne and
William Kretzschmar (eds.) Computational Methods in Dialectometry: Special issue of Computers
and the Humanities, scheduled to appear in 2003.","txt","2","",""
"324","4","Zooming in on Longitudinal Variation","1","Studies of language change traditionally rely on two kinds of methods. The first and oldest involves
systematic comparison of evidence from different historical periods of a language. Typically, the evidence is
drawn from written texts, which are usually written by different authors at widely separated periods. Such
studies face the challenge of arguing that the texts used are comparable enough to justify their comparison,
and to license the inference from observed variation to change. But numerous contextual factors, such as text
genres, author identities, regional dialect differences, etc. confound such comparisons (Herring, et al. 2001).
The second type of study looks at synchronic variation in a speech community and compares the age
distribution of linguistic features among members of the community to draw inferences about earlier and later
historical periods. Such studies must assume that language variation is relatively stable within any given
individual, or there would be no reason to believe that an individual’s current linguistic behavior accurately
reflects an earlier time period.
Consequently there are large gaps in our understanding of language change. To what extent is
intra-individual variation implicated in language change? And to what extent does intra-individual change
accompany historical change? Some recent studies of language variation and change partially address these
issues by combining community studies with longitudinal data collection (e.g., Yoneda 1993), others develop
large-scale statistical models of multiple authors over time (e.g., Burrows 1992, Finegan and Biber 1989), and
even others employ corpora of spoken data from radio (Van de Velde et al. 1998) and cinema (Elliott 2000)
controlling for effects of medium and genre. Yet, the field still lacks studies comparing continuous
longitudinal variation to individual variation.
Two recent developments, both linked to changes in computer technology, facilitate a new kind of
study that can begin to answer these questions. The first is the ability of modern computers to store and
analyze large amounts of language data. Corpus linguistics is emerging as the preferred paradigm for studying
language variation and change: not only can the computer assist in locating data items of interest in large
compendia of computerized data, but the ability to handle large amounts of data helps us control for more
contextual factors and arrive at more reliable statistical analyses. The second development is the widespread
adoption of the Internet as a communications medium. People with a broad range of personal and professional
backgrounds use the Internet for primary communication in a wide range of purposes. Much of the material is
archived so that continuous records lasting more than ten years are now becoming available. Through careful
selection of archived materials, it is possible to construct corpora of continuous Internet communications that
control for contextual factors such as genre as well as individual usage. Furthermore, the Internet is believed
by some to be an active force for language change within English, by promoting certain forms of abbreviation
and ellipsis, increased informality, decreased politeness, and the like (Baron 1984, 2000; Crystal 2001).
Currently available archives of Internet communication hold the key to understanding whether these things
are in fact true. In addition, the ability to view continuous records of language use offers an unprecedented
opportunity to observe the relation between individual variation and language change.
In this paper, I examine variation among 21 different linguistic variables over the complete 11-year
history of MsgGroup, and early ARPANET/Internet email discussion group established in 1975 to discuss the
protocols of electronic mail. The linguistic variables were selected from the 67 features in Biber (1988), so
58
that candidate data items could be readily identified automatically, and so that the variation in the electronic
mail corpus could be readily compared with a comprehensive study of English variation. The variables were
studied both in aggregate, using factor analysis, and individually, using variationist models. Messages from
each of the 329 participants in MsgGroup were tracked over the entire 11-year span, so that individual
longitudinal trends could be observed and compared to the overall trends.
What emerges from this study is a very complex picture of language variation which points not to
language change, but rather individual adaptations based on immediate and local communicative
circumstances. In the factor analysis, three fairly robust factors emerge: a factor of general elaboration, one of
lexical and syntactic complexity, and one of person reference and epistemic certainty. None of these factors
correlates strongly with historical time, and the variance on all factors remains high throughout the 11-year
observed span. In other words, the main shared patterns of variation in the corpus do not turn out to be
patterns of change over time. Individually, however, some of the linguistic variables, such as first and second
person pronouns, are significantly correlated with historical time, and when patterns of individual participants
are analyzed, yet other significant trends are observed. In many cases, such as the sharply decreased use of
contractions over time by one senior female system administrator, these trends run counter to the trends of
most other group members. Sometimes these trends are traceable to specific events, such as a particularly
active and divisive debate that occurred in on MsgGroup in 1979 concerning the finger protocol. Individuals
appear to adapt their use of linguistic variables in response to changes in status and social affinity that arise
from these events.
Zooming in on longitudinal language variation thus reveals a complex situation in which individual
variation and historical change do not necessarily recapitulate one another, as suggested by prior models.
Instead, individual patterns of variation appear to respond to complex local and political concerns resulting in
broad intra-group variance when viewed continuously over time. These findings thus challenge us to propose
theories of language change that successfully relate such complex continuous variation to long-term historical
trends.
REFERENCES
Baron, Naomi. 1984. “Computer-mediated communication as a force in language change”. Visible Language
18: 118–141.
Baron, Naomi. 2000. Alphabet to email: How Written English Evolved and Where it’s Heading. London:
Routledge.
Biber, Douglas. 1988. Variation Across Speech and Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Biber, Douglas and Edward Finegan. 1989. “Drift and the evolution of English style: a history of three
genres”. Language 65: 487–517.
Burrows, J. F. 1992. “Computers and the study of literature”. In C. S. Butler, ed., Computers and Written
Texts, 167–204. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Crystal, David. 2001. Language and the Internet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Elliott, Nancy. 2000. A Sociolinguistic Study of Rhoticity in American Film Speech from the 1930s to the
1970s. Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University.
Herring, Susan, Lene Schosler, and Pieter von Rainen. 2000. Textual Parameters in Older Languages.
Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Van de Velde, Hans, M. Gerritsen & Roeland van Hout. 1996. “The Devoicing of Fricatives in Standard
Dutch. A real-time study based on radio recordings”. Language Variation and Change 8: 149–175
Yoneda, Masato. 1993. “Survey of standardization in Tsuruoka City, Japan: Comparison of results from three
surveys at twenty-year intervals”. Paper presented at Methods VIII: International Conference on
Dialectology. University of Victoria, British Columbia.","txt","2","",""
"325","4","Self-Organizing Maps as an Approach to GIS Analysis of Linguistic Data","1","The nearest-neighbors method of Density Estimation and Complete Spatial Randomness methods in general
will be best applied in models that consider the status of individual linguistic features (e.g. Kretzschmar 1996,
Kretzschmar and Lee 1993). Self Organizing Maps (SOM) uses grouping algorithms in order to model
dialects, not just features. The notion of “dialect” for each method, however, is not equivalent to the
traditional NeoGrammarian or Bloomfieldian sense of the term, but instead derives from the mathematical
procedures used to build groups. In this paper we discuss the application of the technique to data from the
Linguistic Atlas of the Middle and South Atlantic States (LAMSAS. The programming that supports the SOM
59
project has been carried out with MapObjects for the layered displays, and C++ for statistics, and Visual
Basic for integration of displays and functions; the procedure is fully automated, subject to user-selected
parameters. Besides the implementation of the SOM algorithm, the program is useful as a general-purpose
tool to recover information about speakers and to measure groups of speakers against the overall set of
speakers with univariate statistics.
The model for SOM is the neural network of the human brain. This is perhaps an overly romantic
characterization, which comes down to reduction in the complexity of input data through reduction of the
number of dimensions in which it occurs, until we have a two- dimensional lattice, or feature map. The basic
idea as applied to LAMSAS is that a set of input nodes corresponding to each of the 1162 LAMSAS speakers,
for a set of N linguistic targets, will be processed statistically to form output nodes which may then be
compared for their relative similarity (our procedure follows the SOM algorithm as elaborated in Roussinov
and Chen 1998). This “similarity” is computed as the distance between nodes in N dimensions, corresponding
to the N linguistic targets. Processing takes place in N iterations, one for each of the N targets. The user must
specify how large a matrix of groups of speakers the statistic is to create (say, a 5 x 5 matrix of 25 groups),
and how many groups of groups will be established within the matrix (say, three relatively similar groupings
out of the 25 groups in the matrix.
For example, in a typical SOM run (say, on 19 different linguistic features, consisting of the three
common variants of the gully item, the nine common variants of the heavy rain item, and the seven common
variants of the thunderstorm item), the algorithm selected and displayed, as instructed with a parameter
setting, three groupings of speakers identified by color within a matrix of 25 smaller groups of speakers.
Within this matrix, the positions of the groups are not in abstract geographical space; the speakers within each
of the 25 groups need not be located anywhere near each other. The SOM program also produces a graphical
representation of the “distance” between each of the 25 nodes (a “Umatrix” display), in which the darkness of
the colored diamond between each node (the dots) indicates the degree of relation between adjoining nodes.
Each node of the matrix is convertible to a layered GIS display which shows which individual LAMSAS
respondents belong to the node. Some of the nodes contain large numbers of speakers, some few speakers. A
display from one of the nodes just a single speaker, (a frequent occurrence in this rain/storm/gully matrix), or
may reveal a geographical cluster of speakers. By observing the groupings that the SOM algorithm creates,
and by inspecting the statistical outputs which underlie the groupings, we hope to learn more about the
general behavior of groups within the region.
Our research is now complete enough to suggest how useful this approach will be for the linguistic
goals of LAMSAS. We will compare results from many SOM runs on different combinations of features, and
then discuss the nature of the estimates produced by the SOM algorithm. We can then compare SOM results
to those derived from another method for creation of diealect models, the Levenstein Distance algorithm as
now being executed by Nerbonne, Heeringa, and Kleiweg.
REFERENCES
Kretzschmar, William A., Jr. 1996. “Quantitative Areal Analysis of Dialect Features”. Language Variation
and Change 8.13–39.
---, and Jay Lee. 1993. “Spatial Analysis of Linguistic Data with GIS Functions”. International Journal of
Geographical Information Systems 7: 541–60.
Roussinov, Dmitri, and Hsinchun Chen. 1998. “A Scaling Self-Organizing Map Algorithm for Textual
Classification”. Artificial Intelligence 15:81–112.","txt","2","",""
"326","4","Iter: Building an Effective Knowledge Base","1","The relationship of a card catalogue to a collection of print media is insufficient as a model for Iter, a not for
profit partnership devoted to enhancing the teaching and study of the European Middle Ages and Renaissance
through the development of online resources. Indeed, as it becomes increasingly common to distribute digital
collections over the web, it is becoming very clear that Iter can provide more than a sophisticated body of
inter-related databases which include pointers to digital collections by enabling researchers to interact with
the digital documents themselves. This will, of course, raise new challenges of collaboration, access,
knowledge management, standards, and delivery, all of which require answers reflecting the needs of Iter’s
community of scholars.
This paper will focus on the strategies currently being entertained by Iter in building an effective
knowledge base for study of European culture form 400 to 1700. It will begin by briefly outlining the current
status of its databases which seek to describe the gamut of print and digital media used for formal scholarly
communication (e.g. articles, essays, books, and reviews), the more ephemeral scholarly communications
(e.g. calls for papers, awards, grants, research opportunities), the relevant academic societies and research
institutions, and, finally, the scholars themselves. Some attention will be given to the inter-relationships
between these databases and the ways in which Iter will provide powerful searching tools and alerting
services.
The presentation will continue with the more challenging issue of the connection between the
databases and the objects being described. From the perspective of the user of Iter’s resources, this part of the
paper will look both at current models of commercial and non-commercial knowledge bases, and selected
literature (e.g. on the W3C Semantic Web), in order to elucidate current expectations and how they might be
met effectively. In this way, the paper has a natural connection to other presentations in this session which
focus on the online presentation of documents.","txt","2","",""
"327","4","Algorithmic Approaches to an Electronic Scholarly Edition of Early Modern Materials","1","For more than a decade, two dominant perspectives on the electronic scholarly edition have prevailed. One,
the “dynamic text,” consists of an electronic text and advanced textual analysis software; it presents, in
essence, a text that indexes and concords itself, allowing the reader to interact with it in a dynamic fashion
(see Lancashire, 1989). The other, often referred to as the “hypertextual edition,” exploits the ability of
encoded hypertextual organisation to facilitate a reader’s interaction with the apparatus (textual, critical, and
otherwise) that traditionally accompanies scholarly editions, and with relevant external textual and graphical
resources, critical materials, and so forth (Faulhaber, 1991, 134 ff.). Advances in computing, and computing’s
further advance into disciplines that include textual editing, over the past decade have made it clear that
electronic scholarly editions can incorporate dynamic interaction with the text and its related materials and, at
the same time, also reap the benefits of the fixed hypertextual links that typify the standard relation of
materials we find in most editions of this sort.
Indeed, contemporary scholarly consensus is that the level of dynamic interaction in an electronic
edition itself—if facilitated via text analysis in the style of the dynamic text—can replace much of the
interaction that one typically has with a text and its accompanying materials via explicit hypertextual links in
a hypertextual edition (surveyed in Siemens, 2001, 2002). That said, at the moment, there is no extant
exemplary implementation of this new “dynamic edition,” an edition that transfers the principles of
interaction allowed by a dynamic text to the realm of the full edition, comprising that text and all its
extra-textual materials (textual apparatus and commentary, and beyond).
Toward documenting the elements of a dynamic edition, and toward the ultimate goal of creating an
exemplary instance of such an edition, my paper will provide a typological survey of a number of
contemporary electronic scholarly editions; in doing so, it will explicitly raise and address the several key
concerns associated with applying algorithmic approaches associated with text analysis to such an edition.
Discussion will include issues relating to the creation and use of digital resources in the humanities,
specifically digitization and representation of text, encoding techniques, interface, and metadata. Discussion
will centre on, and examples will be drawn from, among others, an electronic edition of the Devonshire MS
(British Library Additional MS 17, 492) that is currently in progress.
REFERENCES
Faulhaber, Charles B. “Textual Criticism in the 21st Century.” Romance Philology 45 (1991): 123–148.
Lancashire, D. Ian. “Working with Texts.” Paper delivered at the IBM Academic Computing Conference,
Anaheim, 23 June 1989. Noted in Faulhaber (128, 135).
Siemens, R.G. “Unediting and Non-Editions.” In The Theory (and Politics) of Editing. Anglia 119.3 (2001):
423–455. Reprint, with new introduction, of “Shakespearean Apparatus? Explicit Textual Structures
and the Implicit Navigation of Accumulated Knowledge.” Text: An Interdisciplinary Annual of
Textual Studies 14. Ann Arbor: U Michigan P, 2002. 209–240.","txt","2","",""
"328","4","The Exploration and Development of Tools for Active Reading and Electronic Texts","1","The Active Reading project, based at Sheffield Hallam University, is concerned primarily with creating an
electronic scholarly edition of a Renaissance work—namely Shakespeare’s King Lear, which makes available
the textual variants of published editions of that work. This serves to enhance scholarly activity by enabling
insight into the variety of editorial practices that have contributed to understanding of the work. It is important
that, within the study of literature and critical analysis, reading should not be viewed as a passive activity but
one in which a reader’s active interpretation is central and can be supported by access to textual variants.
64
To examine several paper-based editions of a work for textual variants, is to undertake a
time-consuming and somewhat confusing task—faced with reams of paper, and having to “keep place” within
that material in order to make comparisons. A modern solution to this task would naturally be to gather the
various editions together and produce one electronic edition, where points of variation amalgamate the
individual paper editions and make them interactively and visually available to the reader. We refer to this as
a definitive edition; limiting the loss of structure (both textually and physically) that a conflated text/ edition
might produce.
A prototype system to support active reading has been developed, which consists of an edition of the
various available texts of a poem by Sir Thomas Wyatt1. The combined edition is encoded in XML and
various methods for displaying the texts and their variants are implemented using a combination of XSL and
JavaScript. The prototype has served to illustrate the mechanisms by which the definitive edition could
function, and has demonstrated the feasibility of this approach.
The project focuses upon the reasoning for choices and selection in the encoding of the text—why
one method is chosen over another, how this affects the appearance of the edition, and the decisions open to
the end user. Hence a definitive edition determines the choices the user/ reader can make in the exploration of
what is in effect the readers own edition of the text. The overall objective is to enhance how users engage
with the text(s) through interactivity, in a manner that does not hamper their creativity and thus enables
scholarly development and understanding. Evaluation of the current prototype edition has been undertaken
and is ongoing amongst the target user group—undergraduate students of English Studies. Preliminary results
are providing valuable insights into understanding of the needs of the user/reader, and criteria by which
effective active reading can be judged.
This paper aims to illustrate the advantage of enabling understanding of the editing process, through
the use of interactive technologies and text encoding tools. The resulting edition and the research generated
will offer new ways of comparing textual variants, and of reading and understanding these texts —for use in
research, in teaching, as a learning tool, and as a template for the creation of future electronic editions. The
interdisciplinary nature of the project itself offers a challenge, attempting to merge the worlds of Renaissance
Literature, Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), and Computing. Employing HCI methods in designing and
developing a new edition is a vital tool for understanding the active reading requirements, and for generating
an edition that is both simple and effective to use.
NOTES
1. http://homepages.shu.ac.uk/~sfthomas/activeR/theyflee.html [NB: can be viewed with Internet
Explorer only, page also uses frames.]","txt","2","",""
"329","4","Llullian Method and Interpretation in Humanities Computing","1","When, according to one legend, the leaves of the lentiscus plants on the highest mountain of Majorca became marked with strange alphabets, Raimundus Lullus understood his divine charge: the creation of a Great—and symbolic—Art. Llull’s Ars Magna, developed in the latter decades of the thirteenth century, has been recognized as a precursor both to computer science (in its emphasis on a mechanical calculus) and the philosophy of language (in its use of symbols and semantic fields). Ramon Llull’s colorful and quixotic life (from the episode in which he rode a horse into a cathedral to his near-suicidal martyrdom in North Africa) has served to detract attention from the seriousness of his project. The associations of his Great Art with alchemy, Kabbalism, and clashes between Muslims and Christians (in fact, the Ars Magna was designed to convert the infidel not through faith or grace but by means of irrefutable logic) sometimes make it difficult for us to extract Llull’s methodology and the machines he designed to support it from an entangling network of rhetoric and myth. Who was Llull, and what was his Great Art? More importantly, how should we understand the Llullian method in the context of our own work in humanities computing? This overview of Llull’s generative and logical systems emphasizes their relevance to questions of interpretative practice, visual thinking, and algorithmic or constraints-based methodology in humanities computing today. Llullian procedure was played out within a body of rules, designed to be as universal and eternal as possible and meant to be followed strictly, as they encoded a logic of interpretation. But the Ars Magna was not merely an abstract methodology; instead, Llull designed a logic of questioning and answering supported by mechanical systems—the first on record. Llull’s Art constituted a text-based mechanism and a procedure for using and interpreting the results of textual manipulations. Llull’s primary device was system of interlocking, independently-mobile wheels, on which, in compartments or camerae, were inscribed letters symbolic of theological concepts. These represented the smallest principles of faith. For example, a small wheel might contain the scholastic transcendentals of unum (the one), verum (the truth), and bonum (the good)—an embodiment of the idea that nothing can exist without exhibiting unity, truth, and goodness. A more complex wheel might contain letters symbolizing the sixteen divine attributes: goodness (B), greatness (C), eternity (D), and so forth. Connecting lines drawn in specified patterns among the letters of such a wheel yield dozens of simple combinations, which Llull interpreted as revelatory (and yet logical) truths about the Divinity. We therefore see that the goodness of God is great (BC) and eternal (BD), or that the greatness of God is good (CB). The permutations, especially in more articulated wheels, some of which encode the objects of knowledge (angels, man, heaven, the imagination, stones, flames, plants) and rhetoric (what, whence, why, when, whether, where, how?), become exceedingly complex and allow for scientific as well as theological questioning: Where does the flame go when a candle is extinguished? Why does rue strengthen the eyes while onion weakens them? Llull demonstrated the use of his Art for posing and examining difficult philosophical problems that had been taken up in other medieval contexts, such as: Can a fallen angel repent? Could God damn Peter and save Judas? Will the unborn child of a martyr be saved through a baptism of blood? In the books accompanying his charts and diagrams, Llull sometimes offered full arguments and commentaries on such questions, sometimes outlined the combinatorial process by which the questions could be answered using his wheels, and sometimes simply showed that such sophisticated questioning could be generated by means of the Ars Magna. In each of these cases, Llull’s emphasis is as much on the interpretive interface between the machine and its user as on the embedded and generative logic of the wheels. The ostensible purpose of the Great Art was to justify the Christian faith through mechanical, logical, and algorithmic analysis. This work, like the machines that supported it, was self-testing in the sense that the execution of iterative combinatorial motions was only carried out until contradictions emerged. At that point, the wheels themselves could be examined and reconfigured. In this way, Llull’s Art was both a generative and autopoietic mechanism. Llull was interested not only in proving, through his logical visual grammar, the validity of old beliefs, but also in watching new truths and refined systems emerge. Few among us would be comfortable suggesting that there are eternal truths in humanities computing or the disciplines to which it is applied, but a workable method for placing and analyzing old ideas in new combinations is always welcome. To this degree—and most especially because Llull’s algorithms and machines all bend toward hermeneutic ends—it is interesting to consider their possible connection to problems of interpretation in humanities computing. Are there currently established rules for producing and interpreting the results of humanities
74
computing practice? Is it desirable to formalize the unwritten rules and obscured components and principles of our hermeneutic work? How might thinking formally (and perhaps visually) about our methodology help to clarify what we do to our students, our colleagues, and ourselves? The example of Llull could prompt us to go a step further: can we imagine combinatorial, generative, algorithmic, and autopoietic systems that could enliven our thinking about the objects, methods, and aims of humanities computing? A method which once felt charged with the grandeur of God might now—in the aftermath of generative aesthetics, OuLiPian composition, ars combinatoria, deformance, and ’pataphysical speculations—seem to be infused with an attractive and experimental ludic spirit. Are there new uses for Llull’s old machines?
REFERENCES Bexte, Peter. “Ars Combinatoria: Zum Ursprung der Denkmaschine.” in Klaus Peter Denker (ed). Weltbilder / Bildwelten: Computergestütze Visionen. Hamburg, 1995. Chalmers, Matthew. “Hermeneutics and Information Representation.” Draft. 2001. PDF. Available: http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/~matthew/papers/hermeneutics.pdf. Eco, Umberto. The Search for the Perfect Language. Cambridge: Blackwell, 1995. Gardiner, Martin. Logic Machines and Diagrams. Chicago: Chicago UP, 1982. Künzel, Werner. Die Ars Generalis Ultima des Raymundus Lullus: Studien zu einem geheimen Ursprung der Computertheorie. Berlin, 1991. Sales, Ton. “Llull as Computer Scientist; or, Why Llull Was One of Us.” Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Barcelona. Available: http://www.geocities.com/llull_brazil/compsale.html. Snodgrass, Adrian, and Richard Coyne. “Is Designing Hermeneutical?” Architectural Theory Review 1.1 (1997): 65–97. Yates, Frances Amelia. Lull & Bruno: Collected Essays. London: Routledge, 1982. Zweig, Janet. “Ars Combinatoria: Mystical Systems, Procedural Art, and the Computer.” Art Journal 56.3 (1997): 20–29.
","txt","2","",""
"330","4","Rules for Reading","1","In a century marked by literary narratives declaring and sometimes celebrating multiplicity and indeterminacy, several critical traditions have sought a single, stable structure to define narrative form. Structuralist narratologists developed systematic descriptions of narrative form, and computer-aided research in the humanities, with its empirically-based studies of the linguistic skeleton of narratives, extended this tradition. Researchers in both fields hypothesize that there exists a formal, rule-based structure that constitutes the minimum condition of narrative, a schema that can be extracted, studied and replicated. Although most narratologists no longer subscribe to this theory, much computer-aided research continues the search for a Platonic ideal. The purpose of this paper is twofold: to suggest new methods and goals for computer-aided studies of narrative and to demonstrate that visualizations of the process of interpretation might help us better understand narrative. Contemporary narratologists propose a division between classical and postclassical narratology1. Current computer-aided study of narrative is grounded in classical narratology, a tradition informed by structuralism and interested in the elaboration of a universal structure of narrative. In building a description of the archetypal narrative, classical narratologists ask two basic questions: 1) what is the most basic unit of narrative; 2) what set of rules constructs a unified structure from those units? In an answer to this question classical narratologists think they will uncover the skeleton that characterizes all instances of what readers identify as narrative. These structuralist notions still obtain in most applications of computing technologies to the study of narrative. Such research often separates form and meaning; much research proposes narrative units that can be identified and quantified, rendering a static—even statistical—accounting of narrative form2,3. Classical narratological models of narrative are attractive—discrete units and formal rules are easily computable—but perhaps dangerous for our discipline. Narratologists suspicious of structuralist notions of narrative form have proposed various new paradigms for the investigation of narrative1,4. Represented by a wide variety of approaches—feminist poetics to artificial intelligence—postclassical narratology in its most general sense involves an investigation of the methods by which readers invest strings of events with narrative structure. Drawing on cognitive models of reading, postclassical narratology posits narrative as a sequence of cues that promotes some structuring activity. The structuring activity may be rule-based, but the rules reflect preferences rather than unambiguous and universal forms5,6. In its shift from form to process, postclassical narratology questions common distinctions between reading and interpretation, arguing that the former is not prior to and free of the latter.
75
This questioning of the boundaries between reading and interpretation is crucial to postclassical narratology and to textual studies. Postclassical narratologists criticize structuralist models because the end is always already known—intermediate events are only interpreted in light of a known ending. The “retrospective” form that results ignores a crucial dynamic of reading—the projection an ending that makes sense of intermediate events, an ending that is constantly re-imagined as the intermediate events resist previous interpretations7. Thus reading might be understood as a time-based process of constant re-interpretation in light of an anticipated ending, and literary narrative as a textual collection of cues that trigger this process. Two decades ago Stanley Fish argued that we misuse the word “read,” that we pretend that there exists a text that can be perceived prior to interpretation and that reading involves some unstructured experience of that text8. In this sense a text is only what we, as readers, make of it. Jerome McGann extends this argument in his theories of reading as deformance9. In both cases, the text is as much in the reader as it is in the artifact, and what we think of as structure emerges from the interaction of the two. This interaction is evidenced by the emergent text. I begin my investigations of reading as interpretation with a study of clues in Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes stories. Although ostensibly about something—a crime—Doyle’s fiction is literally about the (re)construction of something—the acts preceeding and constituting the crime. In its temporal inversion between the fabula and the sjuzhet, its incorporation of character-bound narrators and narratees, and its literalization of causal logic through the use of clues, Doyle’s stories seem to perform narrative. Detective fiction has been central to structuralist studies of narrative, and many theorists of detective fiction argue that clues are the critical component of the genre both on a formal and on a socio-historical level10,11. I begin my study of the emergent text by looking at how interpreters structure a narrative around clues. I give readers a copy of Doyle’s “The Red-Headed League” and ask them to mark points in the text at which they identify something as a clue. They use two colors to mark the text, one to indicate something that seems to be a clue when first encountered and another to indicate something that seems to be a clue only after reading further in the text. So readers mark the text the instant they identify some bit of information as a clue to the mystery, and they also have the option of flipping back and finding a detail that seems significant only after reaching some later point in the story. This layering asks crucial questions about the dynamics of reading detective fiction: How does anticipation of a particular type of ending contribute to the identification of textual cues and to the activation of preference rules that govern constructions of narrative? Schematic visual representations of narrative structures are common in articles and books on narratological theory, whether classical or postclassical, and these graphs are most often intended as a visible skeleton of the story itself. Although several postclassical narratologists construct and utilize visualizations of narrative, none attempts to graph narrative as a process, to capture the discovery of textual cues and the enactment of preference rules. In my attempts to do just that, I graph all markings made by readers, not privileging the most recent—most “correct”—structuring. Following this method, I hope that I better capture the dynamic of reading, the constant processing and reprocessing that results from an anticipation of closure, the emergent text.
REFERENCES Herman, David. 1999. “Introduction.” Pp. 1–30 in Narratologies: New Perspectives on Narrative Analysis, edited by David Herman. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. Meister, Jan Christoph. 1995. “Consensus ex machina? consensus qua machina!” Literary and Linguistic Computing 10(4):263–70. Snelgrove, Teresa. 1990. “A Method for the analysis of the structure of narrative texts.” Literary and Linguistic Computing 5(3):221–5. Ronen, Ruth. 1990. “Paradigm Shift in Plot Models: An Outline of the History of Narratology.” Poetics Today 11(4):817–42. Herman, David. 2002. Story Logic: Problems and Possibilities of Narrative. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Jahn, Manfred. 1999. “‘Speak, friend, and enter’: Garden Paths, Artificial Intelligence, and Cognitive Narratology.” Pp. 167–94 in Narratologies: New Perspectives on Narrative Analysis, edited by David Herman. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. Brooks, Peter. 1984. Reading for the Plot. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Fish, Stanley. 1980. Is There a Text in this Class? Cambridge: Harvard University Press. McGann, Jerome. 2001. Radiant Textuality. New York: Palgrave. Moretti, Franco. 2000. “The Slaughterhouse of Literature.” Modern Language Quarterly 61(1):207–27. Ginzburg, Carlo. 1984. “Clues: Morelli, Freud, and Sherlock Holmes.” The Sign of Three. Edited by Umberto Eco and Thomas Sebeok. Bloomington: University of Indiana Press.
","txt","2","",""
"331","4","Programming as Writing as Programming","1","Discussions of programming in the context of the arts and humanities are almost always constrained to practical matters—the technical dilation of the development of coded instructions for processing by a computer. As such, programming would seem to fall into that category of pre-critical skills necessary for the pursuit of some higher, more avowedly humanistic endeavor. What hasn't been addressed, are the ways in which programming itself might be conceived as not merely an interpretive, but a “literary” practice. Nor has much attention been paid to a suggestive, if radical converse: that writing might be viewed as a programming practice. In this paper, therefore, we take an extreme view and think of programming as writing and writing as programming. We believe the distinction between human-readable and machine-readable discourses—the usual axis upon which the difference between programming and writing is said to rest—obscures the crucial human-readable aspects of code. Code is written to be read and reread by the humans who create and maintain it. Programmers speak of “elegance” in programming style, and deride the unreadable “kludge.” Programming is sometimes intended to amuse and is often resplendent with jokes buried in comments, variable names, and control structures. Moreover, code is nearly always accompanied by some larger exegetical framework (the documentation) intended to illuminate its ways and means. For all these reasons, it is difficult to say how programming differs from the process of writing under the constraints of form, genre, and audience expectation. Writing, by a process of ludic inversion, may likewise be viewed as a form of programming. Creators of written artifacts seek to encourage the emergence of certain readerly patterns while discouraging the emergence of others. The rhetorician's art, therefore, consists in elaborating the manner in which texts may be manipulated for the purposes of constraining the range of alternative textualities available to the reader or hearer. This implies that texts are forever threatened with the exigencies of unintended effects—alternative formations that are the result of the text's position within a universe of discourse that is by nature beyond the control of any authorial agent. The traditional terms of writerly engagement—genre, association, metaphor, theme—are also, and perhaps even originally, the tools of the rhetorician seeking to gain some programmatic control over the complex valences of language and meaning. The author, to put it forcefully (if at the same time metaphorically), tries to program the reader. In this paper we provide a number of illustrations of the ways in which programming is a literate practice and writing a programming practice. This illustration leads up to Knuth's call for “literate programming,” which we will recast as a project particularly suited to humanities computing. Our argument takes the following general form: 1. In computing, programming is taught in text. This manifests itself in traditional practices from the “Hello, World!” trope to Perl Poems. We will survey a number of textual practices in programming and argue that these are not just playful oddments, but reflections of the centrality of reading to the practice of programming. 2. As important as the execution of code is to computing, it is the documentation of code that allows it to be maintained and used. Coding also happens in conjunction with other forms of writing from flow charts, specifications, to comments. Programming, like text, is not an isolated practice; it is an act that happens in a community and which must be maintained to have the desired effect. Therefore, programming is a form of dialogue with the machine, users, and other programmers. The textual practices that at first seem peripheral to programming are actually central to its professional practice. 3. Reading is the human parallel to machinic execution. When we read, we play with the text—performing an operation that uses the text as a script. When we write, we imagine and try to control the reception of a text. As an example one can look at the role of rhetorical punctuation and technique in scripting oral performances of written works. 4. The history of programming is connected to the history of formal languages and an attempt to write things that can be reliably interpreted. This goes back to Plato’s Phaedrus and concerns about the interpretation of texts that are detached from the oral dialogical support of an academy. In the philosophical search for a universal language that cannot be misinterpreted, philosophers and mathematicians developed the logic from which programming evolved. Likewise, one of the most fascinating debates today about code revolves around its ontological status as both text and machine. This is not just a theoretical debate. When people began to publish books that contained encryption algorithms, one side claimed that that portion of the book qualified as a machine (and was therefore subject to patent and export
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restrictions). The more libertarian side wanted to claim that it was merely text (and therefore subject to laws allowing freedom of speech). Literary programming (or writing code) is a practice with a unique place in humanities computing. It is the purest form of the hybrid work (in a tradition from encoded texts to multimedia works) that is characteristic of our hybrid discipline.
REFERENCES Topics on Computer Programming. Cat's Eye Technologies. <http://www.catseye.mb.ca/esoteric/> Estelle. “Tampering with the Text to Increase Awareness of Poetry’s Art. (Theory and Practice with a Hispanic Perspective) LLC 11 (1996): 155–62. Donald Ervin. Literate Programming. Stanford: Center for the Study of Language and Information, 1992. Wall, Tom Christiansen, and Randal Schwartz. Programming Perl 3rd. ed. Sebastopol: O’Reilly, 2000. Jerome J. Radiant Textuality: Literature after the World Wide Web. New York: Palgrave, 2001.
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"332","4","Applications of the Open Archives Initiative","1","The application of computing solutions is regularly applied to the matter of assisting scholars with their research and analysis of findings. Computing technologies have become increasingly important in libraries and archives as these institutions strive to make the many unique resources they hold more easily accessible to their users. As information institutions begin to exploit digital technologies an often under appreciated distinction is the one between digital content creation and digital library services. Aggressive programs and initiatives to digitize primary source content and archival finding aids have resulted in immeasurable piles of sometimes interesting, sometimes trivial, heterogeneous, unorganized data, leaving the user in a state of “information overload”. Digitization efforts are typically organized at a local level and scholars elsewhere are often unaware that information resources of possible interest have been digitized. What’s been lacking are the infrastructure technologies and protocols that support the implementation and development of digital library services which organize and make more useful the array of diverse and widely distributed collections of digital content and descriptive metadata that have been and are continuing to be created at a rapid pace. This panel session will discuss experiences so far with the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH), an emerging digital library protocol designed to enable the implementation of new and innovative online services and to enhance and facilitate interoperability and the ways in which scholars can discover and access unique information resources wherever they reside. Each participant will provide a brief overview of their involvement with OAI followed with a discussion of the infrastructures and techniques used by various projects to explore the scalability and extensibility of the protocol. OAI-PMH BRIEF BACKGROUND The Open Archives Initiative (OAI) http://www.openarchives.org was launched with a meeting of digital librarians and computer scientists specializing in archiving, metadata, and interoperability in October 1999. The shared objective of this group was to pave the way for universal public archiving of the scientific and
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scholarly research literature on the Web. What was needed were conventions that would allow any paper deposited in any public archive to be found from anyone’s desktop, worldwide. This was essentially a model for a virtual public library. The group recognized there may be many different archive initiatives likely to emerge from this vision, each presenting the possibility of different conceptual, organizational and technical foundations. The issue of maintaining the archives as “open” would be crucial for these initiatives to successfully become part of the scholarly communication system and as such, technical issues concerning interoperability would be crucial. From these original discussions it was determined that using a harvesting approach to aggregating metadata describing the resources held by archives would be simplest to implement and more scalable as more archives become available. From this emerged the OAI Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH), http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/openarchivesprotocol.html, first released in January 2001. Since then it has emerged as a practical foundation for interoperability among digital library efforts. OAI-PMH includes two distinct yet simple components. At one end, data providers use the OAI-PMH to expose metadata in a variety of forms. At the other end, service providers use it to harvest the metadata from the data providers and subsequently process it, adding value in the form of services like domain specific portals to specific user communities. With an interest in exploring the sustainability and extensibility of the protocol, the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation announced the funding of seven service provider (harvesting) projects in July 2001. The Digital Library Federation has generously provided organizational support for these OAI activities. Several of the projects focus on aggregating materials of possible interest to scholars seeking cultural materials. One of these projects is the Cultural Heritage Repository at the University of Illinois, http://www.oai.grainger.uiuc.edu. Emory University, home to two of the seven original Mellon-funded projects, also focuses on cultural materials, http://MetaScholar.org. The UCLA Digital Library Program is host for the Sheet Music Consortium project, http://digidev.library.ucla.edu/oaisheetmusic/. These projects provide the OAI-PMH backdrop for this panel session, outlining details of the technology from the service provider perspective and ultimately end-user utility of their portals. DIGITAL LIBRARY FEDERATION The Digital Library Federation (DLF) is a consortium of libraries and related agencies that are pioneering in the use of electronic-information technologies to extend their collections and services. Through its members, the DLF provides leadership for libraries broadly by identifying standards and “best practices” for digital collections and network access, coordinating leading-edge research-and-development in libraries’ use of electronic-information technology, and helping start projects and services that libraries need but cannot develop individually. One such supported project is the Open Archives Initiative. The DLF support takes two forms. Financially the DLF provides some organizational support for OAI. The DLF is also responsible for organizing the Mellon-funded OAI projects that are evaluating the OAI technical framework. EMORY UNIVERSITY Emory University Library, in collaboration with SOLINET/ASERL, has developed two scholarly portal services based on metadata harvested from a variety of archives and digital library projects. The MetaArchive.Org and AmericanSouth.Org portals represent the first national projects to deploy the ARC software developed at Old Dominion University and the Open Digital Library (ODL) software developed at the Virginia Tech Digital Library Research Laboratory. These two portals, operating under the umbrella name of the MetaScholar Initiative http://MetaScholar.Org, are designed to engage scholars, librarians, and archivists in the process of making a large body of metadata useful in scholarly research. Twenty institutions (primarily located in the geographic South) have initially contributed metadata to the central union database underlying both systems. ASERL participants established OAI-PMH data provider systems to dynamically serve out updated metadata from their local digital archives. Many libraries in the MetaArchive project are smaller four-year institutions which will make use of metadata conversion services provided by Emory in order to make their local finding aids and archival databases available for harvesting. Initially, metadata was collected representing primary research materials from a set of subject domains including the culture and history of the American South, papers of major political figures, and religious institutional records. An interdisciplinary team including faculty from many research institutions around the country was tasked with evaluating the American South portal. This Scholarly Design Team was chaired by Dr. Charles Reagan Wilson of the University of Mississippi, editor of the Encyclopedia of Southern Culture. The team was also charged with exploring several new approaches to scholarly communication. SHEET MUSIC CONSORTIUM Johns Hopkins University, Indiana University and the UCLA Digital Library Program have joined forces to create a virtual catalog of sheet music in the United States called the Sheet Music Consortium. This project is using the OAI-PMH to harvest descriptive metadata from local databases and make it accessible through an
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OAI searchable repository hosted by the UCLA Digital Library Program. Consortium member institutions have chosen to catalog their sheet music in different ways, but a very large proportion of the original sheets in participating collections have been digitized, allowing users direct access to the music and—in many cases—covers and advertisements that offer evidence of the cultural context in which the songs were published. The first phase of the project aims to establish the service as a gateway to these US collections, and contains over 60,000 records from Indiana University, Johns Hopkins University, UCLA Music Library’s Archive of Popular American Music, and records from the Library of Congress. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS The University of Illinois has developed a vertical, domain-specific digital library portal designed to search metadata describing manuscript archives and digital cultural heritage information resources. Metadata describing non-digital resources and resources of restricted availability is included along with metadata describing publicly available digital objects. The Illinois team has explored “best practices” for using the OAI-PMH to reveal resources contained in hierarchical metadata structures such as those expressed in archival finding aids displayed with Encoded Archival Description (EAD) metadata. Materials in the Illinois’ Cultural Heritage Repository include harvested metadata from the Library of Congress American Memory Heritage Collections and from the Online Archive of California. The American Memory and Online Archive of California resources are made searchable via their metadata alongside other materials gathered from over 39 institutions. Total number of discrete items searchable is over 2 million and represents public and research libraries, museums, archives, historical societies, and digitization projects focusing on cultural heritage materials.
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"333","4","Integrating TEI and EAD to Create Usable and Re-usable Archival Resources","1","The LEADERS (Linking EAD to Electronically Retrievable Sources) Project follows the terminology of the archives and records community in using the term ‘archives’ to indicate a sub-set of records which are preserved because they have long-term value. Records are created by organisations or individuals in the course of professional or personal activities and they form evidence of the activities which gave rise to them. Archival records provide a means of understanding human history, they are a basis for corporate memory and a source of community and personal identity and offer pathways to learning for people of all ages and backgrounds. (National Council on Archives, 2002) The work of the archivist is concerned with providing the means through which individuals can access archives. Users of archives need to be provided with access tools that will describe the contents of archive collections. Such access tools are often called ‘finding aids’ and they are produced through a process of ‘capturing, collating, analysing, and organising any information that serves to identify, locate and interpret the holdings of an archival institution and explain the contexts and record systems from which the holdings were selected’ (Definition from the Society of American Archivists). Encoded Archival Description (EAD) has brought many benefits to custodians and users of archives. It has provided a means for archivists to structure finding aids using technology that is independent of proprietary hardware and software platforms and it has enabled Internet delivery of those structured finding aids. However, as a stand-alone tool, it cannot give users access to the actual content of archival material. Therefore, there is real potential for the development of a resource that enables the integration of EAD with other tools that do allow for remote use of the contents of archival collections. The Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) enables electronic texts of all kinds to be searched and presented to users in a variety of different ways. When EAD and TEI are brought together alongside digitised images of archival material the potential benefits for users are vast. Within a single environment the user can find items in archival collections; learn about their contexts; view representations of the items themselves; and read, study, analyze and manipulate their content. At present the two encoding systems, EAD and TEI, are often used independently of each other and no generalised environment exists for linking them. Where links do occur in online archival finding aids, they normally point to digitised images of transcriptions without provision for any analysis or manipulation of the source. The LEADERS Project is developing a generic computer-based toolset that can integrate EAD encoded finding aids with TEI encoded transcripts and digitised images of archival material. This toolset will enable users to link directly from finding aids to digital documents and to manipulate those documents in various ways. This session will concentrate on three aspects of the LEADERS Project’s research. The first paper will discuss how the needs of the user community have been taken into account by LEADERS. This discussion will be set in the context of user needs evaluations conducted at the Public Record Office (United Kingdom) with a focus on how the LEADERS work on users is relevant to the PRO and to the archival profession as a whole. The second paper will highlight the presence of overlaps between EAD and TEI. It will define the problems that these overlaps can cause in a system that seeks to bring the two frameworks together, and will explore the solutions that are being employed by the LEADERS team. The final paper will explore the technical choices that have been made in building a demonstrator application from the LEADERS toolkit, in particular it will focus on how the TVS (Transport Validation and Services) Model has been used as the basis for the system’s architecture. FOCUSING ON THE NEEDS OF THE END USER COMMUNITY This paper shows how the theoretical and practical work of the LEADERS project is supporting service developments at the Public Record Office (PRO), the National Archives of England, Wales and the United Kingdom, and, with an annual 300,000 on-site visits and 80 million page downloads from its website (http://www.pro.gov.uk) the most heavily used archival resource in the world. Since 1994 the Public Record Office has re-invented itself as a customer focused organization, and since 1998 has held the prestigious Chartermark (recognition from the UK Government indicative of high quality services). Service enhancements introduced in response to the stated wishes of customers include extended opening hours, the provision of more expert services, faster retrieval times for documents, opening the research library to readers, self service scanning, reader orientation tours and a cybercafe. New online services which have evolved since 1995 include the flagship PROCat, a sophisticated EAD-based archive catalogue containing 9.3 million items; PRO Online which delivers images of popular records; the 1901 Census Online website; searchable research guides; and online educational resources for adults and school students. PRO users are consulted regularly through on-site and on-line surveys and through a number of focus groups and panels, and feedback from comments forms, complaints and new user surveys is regularly tracked and fed back into any immediate remedial action and programmes of service development. The system is well-established and effective for onsite surveys; because they were in the main cutting edge and designed to grow and cater for new markets, the PRO’s e-services were to a degree speculative in their design (although the award-winning Learning Curve for schools relied on feedback from teachers and school pupils from its inception). The PRO is now beginning the process of further consultation and will re-design many parts of its site to meet the information-seeking needs of its online users more closely. Here the findings of the LEADERS user survey, which it is currently running, will be invaluable. Major consultations on what users regard as priorities for service developments for the future have since 1998 produced consistent results: topping the wish list is access via high quality catalogues to the images of the documents and with them, searchable transcripts. UK government guidelines and the rules of funding bodies such as the New Opportunities Fund have in addition since 2001 mandated full transcriptions (and where appropriate translations) of documents to appear alongside the images in online learning resources. In large-scale imaging projects this approach would however add exponentially to the costs of creating the resource. Hence the PRO is not at present providing full transcripts in its PRO Online website,  and nor is this currently linked directly to PROCat. The LEADERS work linking EAD and TEI will consequently be very valuable, since it offers a toolkit to link directly and enhance the functionality of these two online resources in line with stated customer priorities. The PRO has generally in the past followed a simple segmentation model categorizing users as personal interest and family history researchers; professional researchers; the educational sector; and others. Since 1999 it has worked with the Public Services Quality Group for archives and local studies in carrying out an annual survey of archive users across the UK. Here are the results for 1999 in terms of research segments; these results are typical. Table 1: Research Interests of UK Archive Users in 1999 Since 2001 the PRO has evolved this segmentation model as the basis for tailored service development, the user segments being academics, family historians and personal interest researchers, people in formal education and leisure historians, many of this last category are non-users (PRO Keeper’s Report, 2002). The LEADERS work on the segmentation of the user market and evaluation of user needs will however add a new layer of sophistication which will help the PRO to fine tune its service developments more closely. The current LEADERS questionnaire segments researchers under education/training, personal leisure, professional/occupational, personal obligation and others—the professional and personal obligation data correlated with research topics will enable the PRO and other archives to tailor research leaflets specifically to the very precise needs of people in some microsegments, where appropriate. In addition LEADERS examines research interests under names, places and topics, and looks also at levels of familiarity with research interest—even the initial findings supporting the relative popularity of topic-based research suggest that the archival community may need to rethink its approach to the front ends of knowledge management systems and resources. How does the LEADERS research fit within the broader framework of academic work on information-seeking behaviour? A number of academic studies on how users of information access resources online have been undertaken on both sides of the Atlantic. A key issue in this debate is the changing expectations of archive and information users in a digital and web-enabled age (Cox, 1998). Here there is much work available on information seeking behaviour by users largely of digital libraries, but encompassing obstacles to access to both library and archive collections (Seaman, 1997; Peterson Bishop, 1998; Mates, 2000). But although Margaret Hedstrom has published an important clarion call to make archival resources on-line more accessible to users (Hedstrom, 1998), this is unusual: most such work in the archive-specific domain is detached from the real world of the coal face and focuses on narrow issues. While some useful findings emerge from it, it must be said that at times these are obvious from the point of view of the practitioner. For example, one recent study expresses disappointment that many online users display a ‘disappointing reluctance’ to use sophisticated search mechanisms (Large et al, 1999); a second that many archive users are searching for a specific item (Bearman, 1989/1990); a third establishes that the vast majority of users of photographic collections want to be able to search and retrieve images by subject (Collins, 1998); and a fourth, that searchers in online catalogue want indexes, glossaries and help functions to help them navigate through hierarchically structured material (Dugg & Stoyanova, 1998). Others establish that using search engines to try to locate archival finding aids usually produces unmanageably large sets of results (Feeny, 1999; Tibbo & Meho, 2001). All this supports the conclusion that many on-line archival finding aids do not take their users’ needs sufficiently into account (Rosenbusch, 2000). This is where the LEADERS work in extrapolating from the results of research on user needs to the building of a practical application is of such significance, since it feeds back the fruits of academically rigorous methodology into the development of a demonstrator system and toolkit which will have a practical use and value to the archival community in the UK. Once this demonstrator is built it will be further trialled in a real environment and modifications made to take account of changes both in technology and the ever-expanding expectations of users. The archive profession in the UK will also be able to use the results of research based on the customer segmentation model to help it tailor services more precisely to the needs and requirements of each subset. For Access to Archives (A2A), for example, an EAD-based catalogue of archival series drawn from numerous repositories across England and currently containing 4 million records from 199 record repositories, the findings will enable existing work with the user panel to enhance searchability focused on the needs of each user segment to be further developed and refined (http://www.A2A.pro.gov.uk). And the toolkit integrating TEI and EAD will support the enhancement of A2A by adding digitized searchable texts and images to some of the series. Similarly work to integrate and enhance the website of the new National Archives of the UK, bringing together the Public Record Office and Historical Manuscripts Commission from April 2003, will focus on user needs and search patterns and will be able to use the results of the LEADERS research alongside the views of user panels and online surveys. INTEGRATING EAD AND TEI: THE RESOLUTION OF METADATA OVERLAPS The two encoding systems, EAD and TEI, were designed to serve different purposes, yet there is a degree of overlap between them. In the context of archival material we can begin to explore the overlap by considering the TEI and EAD in relation to the original archival document, as both encoding systems seek to represent the original in different but convergent ways. The archive profession in the UK will also be able to use the results of research based on the customer segmentation model to help it tailor services more precisely to the needs and requirements of each subset. For Access to Archives (A2A), for example, an EAD-based catalogue of archival series drawn from numerous repositories across England and currently containing 4 million records from 199 record repositories, the findings will enable existing work with the user panel to enhance searchability focused on the needs of each user segment to be further developed and refined (http://www.A2A.pro.gov.uk). And the toolkit integrating TEI and EAD will support the enhancement of A2A by adding digitized searchable texts and images to some of the series. Similarly work to integrate and enhance the website of the new National Archives of the UK, bringing together the Public Record Office and Historical Manuscripts Commission from April 2003, will focus on user needs and search patterns and will be able to use the results of the LEADERS research alongside the views of user panels and online surveys. Original archive records can be described as ‘objects of study’. They provide evidence of and information about the functions and activities that gave rise to them and are therefore used by individuals to aid learning and research of varying kinds. When archival material is classified in this way, then the purpose of EAD is to describe those objects of study. It is a metadata standard designed to provide a structure for holding data about the original material. The archive profession in the UK will also be able to use the results of research based on the customer segmentation model to help it tailor services more precisely to the needs and requirements of each subset. For Access to Archives (A2A), for example, an EAD-based catalogue of archival series drawn from numerous repositories across England and currently containing 4 million records from 199 record repositories, the findings will enable existing work with the user panel to enhance searchability focused on the needs of each user segment to be further developed and refined (http://www.A2A.pro.gov.uk). And the toolkit integrating TEI and EAD will support the enhancement of A2A by adding digitized searchable texts and images to some of the series. Similarly work to integrate and enhance the website of the new National Archives of the UK, bringing together the Public Record Office and Historical Manuscripts Commission from April 2003, will focus on user needs and search patterns and will be able to use the results of the LEADERS research alongside the views of user panels and online surveys. TEI on the other hand is primarily a content encoding framework for the creation of new ‘objects of study’. The objects of study created by TEI are usually derived from one or more other (original) objects of study. When TEI is used to encode archival material, the archive document is the original object from which the new object is derived. This means that in order for the TEI object to be understood the encoder must not only transcribe and encode the contents of the original, but must also provide metadata that can put the text in context. This metadata, provided in the <teiHeader>, must describe the newly created object of study (e.g. provide a description of the electronic file and the encoding process) but must also describe the original object. Furthermore, the actual encoding that surrounds the data within the TEI object can also be viewed as a kind of metadata because the aim of the encoding is to delimit parts of the text and describe what those delimited parts represent. Therefore, although the TEI is primarily concerned with content encoding, it also must include metadata to put the object into the context of why and how it has been created, what it has been derived from, and what the data within the objects represents. Therefore, the overlap between the two frameworks occurs in relation to metadata that: • Identifies, locates and gives details about the creation of the original object • Describes the physical characteristics of the original object • Provides contextual information about the creator and the participants within the original object • Interprets/describes the data in the object
The general solution to areas of overlap employed by LEADERS is the development of a Schema which contains namespaces to reference the relevant parts of the respective EAD and TEI DTD. It makes sense for us to work on the general principle that metadata about the creation of the electronic transcript is best described using <teiheader> elements, whereas information relating to the original object (which is the source of the TEI transcript) is best described using EAD elements. However, one particularly contentious area for consideration in the integration process is where metadata for interpreting and categorising the data within the object is held. When the basis for a TEI encoded document is a ‘literal’ transcription of an original source then metadata that seeks to categorise and interpret the data within the text is equally applicable to the original document and the new electronic transcript. There is no clear dividing line between the two, and so the general principle being advocated by LEADERS becomes difficult to apply. Furthermore, both TEI and EAD offer the encoder a range of options over where and how such categorisations and interpretations are made. This flexibility means that as well as comparing EAD and TEI against each other, they must also be examined individually to assess the variety of encoding options contained within them. Conducting this assessment is vital because the decision over where to place this metadata will ultimately have an impact on search and retrieval possibilities across the EAD finding aid and the TEI transcript. Within a TEI encoded transcript it is possible to mark up the content of a text within a range of different elements. The degree of content encoding and the range of elements used to do so varies according to the purpose behind the encoding process. In the development of our demonstrator application we have taken a preliminary decision to explicitly encode all instances of names, dates, places, and publications as they appear in the documents we are using as test bed material. This explicit markup allows the content within the elements to be used as index terms for the transcribed documents, and it opens up possibilities for various types of user analysis to be conducted across the content marked up within the elements. As well as being able to categorise and interpret data by enclosing it in specific elements within the flow of the text, TEI also allows the encoder to categorise and classify the content using elements provided by the <teiheader>. Index terms can be created (preferably using a recognised classification scheme/taxonomy) and placed in the <keywords>, <classcode> or <catref> elements (within <textclass> in <profileDesc>). Furthermore, if the encoder has included the additional tagset for language corpora in the DTD then other classification elements such as <channel> and <domain> also become available. There is a degree of overlap between content encoding that can occur within the text and categorisations that can be placed within the <teiheader>. This overlap leads to a consideration of whether it is acceptable or useful for the same information to be tagged up both in the header and the flow of the text. One argument may follow that the dual functionality offered by content encoding within the text makes it a more obvious choice for containing categorisations and interpretations on the data. If for example, every instance of a name is marked up within the TEI <name> element, then the name element can act as an index term and can also be used in user analysis. If names are tagged up in this way what advantage is there in having the name repeated again as an index term within the header? This point is particularly relevant to documents like a parish register where there are so many names occurring within the flow of the text, that transferring such information into the header would be an arduous task. However using the content encoding for indexing is not altogether straightforward. Encoding index terms within the flow of the text becomes more complicated when you want to assign a term to a wide span of data that overlaps with other hierarchical divisions. For example, a particular subject classification may span over several paragraphs. Although various encoding techniques can be used to overcome the problems of overlapping hierarchies it may be easier simply to put the classification term in the <header> rather than trying to apply it to a particular chunk of data. Furthermore, the dual functionality of content markup demands that every single instance of the data types that have been selected for special encoding will be marked up. For example, if the encoder has decided to mark up names within the text, every single instance of a name will be tagged. If a particular person has been referred to several times in a single document then each instance will be enclosed in a name element. If the content encoding on names is acting as the document’s index terms then the implementer must consider how a search engine should deal with documents with multiple instances of the same name within them. Care must be taken to avoid the situation where the same document appears on the user’s hit list because it contains multiple instances of the search term used. EAD has a similar dual approach to metadata that interprets and categorises data within the original documents. Within EAD, index terms into the finding aid can be provided through a <controlaccess> element. However, index terms such as names, dates, and geographical locations can also be marked up within the narrative of the finding aid descriptions when they occur in descriptive content holding elements such as <scopecontent> and <bioghist>. However, the argument for encoding index terms within the flow of an EAD finding aid is unconvincing. This is because such content encoding in EAD does not have the dual function of also opening up possibilities for user analysis and manipulation of the data within the markup, as is the case with TEI. The reason for this goes back to the fact that an EAD finding aid describes objects of study and is
not an object of study in itself, and therefore there is no demand for close analysis of the finding aid as a ‘text’. When the argument of dual functionality is non-existent then enclosing index terms within a specific element like <controlaccess> seems preferable. However, this issue is complicated by the hierarchical nature of the EAD framework. An EAD encoded finding aid is organised into multiple levels of description where the collection is first described as a whole, and then in component parts which get more specific at each level of description. At the lowest level (item), it is the archive record that is being described. The levels of description within EAD follow the rule of inheritance where the lower levels can ‘inherit’ descriptive data placed above them in the finding aid tree. If ‘inheritance’ is applied to index terms within the <controlaccess> element then it follows that terms should be placed at the highest level of description where they can be said to apply to that level and all levels below them. The rule of inheritance then dictates that all lower levels of description have their own <controlaccess> terms plus all the terms placed above them in the descriptive hierarchy. In practice this means that a sophisticated search engine needs to be employed to traverse the hierarchy and map the relationships between index terms and levels of description. No real research has been conducted into the effect or usefulness of levels of description within EAD on index terms and their searchability and so it is an area that LEADERS needs to explore further. Our research is complicated further by adding another layer to the problem which is the effective searchability across both EAD and TEI as an integrated unit. Solutions to overlaps between EAD and TEI and our final integration method must avoid repetition of information. Archivists and other related professionals will not appreciate repeating information that has been recorded in one place a second time. Furthermore, the potential for confusion in a system that is trying to integrate the two encoding frameworks is increased when the same data is held in different places according to different principles. It is also important that both the EAD finding aids and the TEI transcripts are not integrated to the extent that one cannot be re-used independently of the other. Each should be able to be recovered and used in other systems/applications for other purposes as stand-alone digital objects, otherwise the potential for the re-use of data that comes when working with non-proprietary tools will not be fully exploitable. Finally, as a primary use of metadata is to facilitate ‘resource discovery’, our integration solution must support meaningful search and retrieval and presentation of results. DEVELOPING A GENERIC TOOLKIT: ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY ISSUES The LEADERS project is charged with developing a generic XML-based toolkit for use on multiple projects and with a wide variety of archival source materials encoded using EAD and TEI. This paper discusses the issues involved in designing and implementing such a generic toolkit. The generic goal has been a key influence on the criteria applied to the technical choices made on the project. When considering a generic development as opposed to a one-off project, criteria such as availability, support, sustainability and issues of flexibility versus standardisation become relevant. The relative immaturity and the openness of the XML environment, has lead to a proliferation of tools and utilities developed and supported by individuals or ad hoc groupings. Whilst these may be both innovative and acceptable for use on a one-off project, the requirements for a generic toolset mean that we need to focus on products which are within the technical mainstream and have the backing of a stable organisation. With regard to standardisation, both EAD, and more fundamentally the TEI have been designed for maximum flexibility. The assumption behind the design of TEI and supporting technologies, and to some extent behind EAD as well, has been that these tools would be used on single projects with a particular aim or objective and a homogenous set of source materials. This flexibility is desirable when viewed from the perspective of supporting the widest possible use on the widest range of individual projects. However the consequence is that each project using the TEI needs to define its own DTD and make its own rules for interpreting the TEI when encoding. For a generic toolkit, the rules need to be tightened up so that the tools for transforming and exploiting the resulting encoded material can be standardised. The project has also had to choose between the use of Schemas and DTDs, in particular in view of the need to combine TEI, EAD and the NISO MIX Schema for the visual images associated with the encoded materials. Unlike DTDs, Schemas offer the use of namespaces, central to the combination of schemes required by LEADERS. Also Schemas support data type validation, a central requirement to support re-usability of the encoded materials and associated stylesheets and applications. Having chosen to develop a schema, different Schema languages such as RELAX-NG, Schematron and W3C were assessed and with reference to previously published evaluations and applications of the tools in question. A basic feature comparison was undertaken, and previous experiences evaluated within their contexts. Most experiences relate to the use of tools on a specific project or series of projects. For LEADERS the generic aspect takes on a major importance. We have to be conscious of the fact that our toolkit is designed for others to use in a range of differing circumstances. Therefore criteria such as sustainability, support tools available and compatibility with other areas of the XML family of standards play a more important role in selection than Mates, B.T., Adaptive Technology for the Internet: Making Electronic Resources Available to All, American Library Association, Chicago and London, 1998 National Council on Archives, Changing the Future of Our Past, NCA, London, 2002 Peterson Bishop, Ann, ‘Measuring Access, Use and Success in Digital Libraries’, The Journal of Electronic Publishing, vol.4, 1998, at <http://www.press.umich.edu/jep/04-2/bishop.html> Public Record Office, Keeper’s Report 2001/02, PRO, London, 2002 Rosenbusch, A., ‘Are Our Users Being Served? A Report on Online Archival Databases’, Archives and Manuscripts, vol. 29, 2000 Seaman, D., ‘The User Community as Responsibility and Resource: Building a Sustainable Digital Library’, D-Lib Magazine, July/August 1997, at <http://www.dlib.org/dlib/july97/07seaman.html> Shaw, Elizabeth J. ‘Rethinking EAD: balancing flexibility and interoperability’, New Review of Information Networking, vol. 7, 2001 Tibbo H. R. and Meho L.I., ‘Finding Finding Aids on the World Wide Web’, The American Archivist, vol. 64, 2001
","txt","2","",""
"334","4","A Computer-Based Questionnaire for Hearing Impaired People","1","In this paper we present a self administered computer based method of survey research for hearing impaired people originally designed for the measurement of “quality of life” indicators.a The application of standardized paper & pencil questionnaires as a method of measurement and data collection is a wide-spread and commonly used technique in empirical social research. Compared to other methods, considerable advantages are higher comparability of the single measurements, simple performance and speedy data administration. A self administered questionnaire needs only small resources and—due to the absence of involved interviewers— interviewer effects as a source of measurement-bias are reduced. Further on, it exits a large pool of established questionnaires in various fields of research and diagnosis. Therefore the implementation of the questionnaires is possible without further large-scale developments and test examinations. In addition, we have the opportunity to compare already collected data of earlier surveys with our results. In our project, we examined indicators of quality of life for a representative sample of hearing-loss and hearing impaired persons in an Austrian region. The goals were to attain descriptive information about the specific aspects of the quality of life of this population and to gain knowledge of possible improvements. In detail, the questionnaire has to be designed as a long-term monitoring instrument of different strategies for therapies and medical or psychological attentions in the ambulance for hearing impaired persons of a local hospital. Furthermore, comparisons between a variety of dimensions of quality of life with regard to different subpopulations and to a diversity of nationalities have to be enabled. On the basis of these and some other requirements—which are not mentioned here—the project group decision was to use three instruments for the
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administration of quality of life. These instruments are the WHOQOL-Bref (WHO-quality of life questionnaire7, 1), the BSI (Brief Symptom Inventory3) and the GHQ Questionnaire (Goldberg Health Questionnaire5). All three questionnaires are originally constructed as self administered standardized paper & pencil instruments. One main criterion for applying standardized Questionnaires is that the respondents have hardly problems with the media of the literary question-answer type. As a result, it is not appropriate for persons with reduced reading abilities (e.g. 2 164). Taking into account the group of hearing impaired persons this recommendation is not fulfilled by each interviewee but not due to illiteracy. The vast majority of the deaf community cannot be labelled as “illiterate”, however the primary communication channel is not written or (the phonetic equivalence) of spoken language but mainly the sign language as a visual channel6, 8. So we have to consider that wide parts of this specific population have not got a comparable literary ability to persons with the ability to hear: “we have to deal with the phenomenon that many members of the deaf group are unable to understand written texts of normal complexity“4 (208). Therefore, the principle task for the implementation of the questionnaires for the specific needs of hearing impaired persons is the creation of an instrument including the favoured form of communication namely ASL (Austrian Sign Language). One possible adaptation is the face-to-face interview. In practice, the interviewers capable of sign language have to translate the questions and answers during “real time” of the interviews. This way of problem solving raises a lot of problems. Firstly, by changing the design of the instruments from the original paper&pencil to face-to-face mode, the results of the administration are not fully comparable any more. Some sensitive questions (e.g. about the sexuality and the satisfaction with the own personal outfit) included in those questionnaires causes a higher rate of biased answers due to effects like self disclosure and social desirability in face-to-face situations. Secondly, the typical situation in standardized face-to-face interviews is that the interviewer reads out the questions to ensure the similarity of the interview situations. Sign language cannot be read to someone. The only way is to translate it from text to sign language during each interview session, resulting in a variety of translations in different interview situations because of the use of different mimics and hence reducing the reliability of the data administration. Thirdly, the recruiting of interviewers with appropriate knowledge of sign language causes additional administrative efforts. Furthermore, the high degree of institutionalisation of deaf people increases significantly the probability that respondent and interviewer know each other. In other words it implies again a higher probability of biased answers. Recruiting interviewers from different regions is constrained by the considerable variations of local dialects of ASL. Finally, the situation of face-to-face interviews restricts the way of communication to a visual one. As a matter of fact, hearing impaired persons should have the opportunity to decide by their own the preferred way of communication. Due to all this considerations, we had to find a way in which sign and literary language are simultaneous presented and freely elective. To put it more precisely, we had to find a form of data administration allowing the self administration of the questions, differing as few as possible from the original form of paper&pencil presentation, giving the free and simultaneous choice between text and sign language and retaining the advantages of paper & pencil method such as simple administration and cost effectiveness. Those recommendations can be fulfilled to a great extent through the implementation of the questionnaires as multimedia CASI (Computer Assisted Self Interview). Consequently, we developed the computer program Animaqu (Animated Questionnaire) as a result of interdisciplinary work of deaf people, sociologists, neurologists, linguists and psychologists. Animaqu contains a window for video as well as text and features for the answering and navigation through the questionnaire. Question and answer categories are presented as video sequences in sign language and as written text. The specific pros and cons of this kind of multimedia CASI, the comparability with traditional methods for data administration and some first results of the data administration will be discussed.
NOTES 1. This research project is a cooperation between the department of sociology and the outpatient clinic for the Deaf and hard-of-hearing at the general hospital of St. John of God in Linz, Austria.
REFERENCES Angermeyer, Matthias C. / Kilian, Reinhold, Matschinger, Herbert (2000): WHOQOL— 100 und WHOQOL—BREF. Handbuch für die deutschsprachige Version der WHO Instrumente zur Erfassung der Lebensqualität. Göttingen. Atteslander, Peter (1993): Methoden der empirischen Sozialforschung. 7. Auflage, Berlin u.a. Derogatis, L.R. & Spencer, P.M. (1982): Brief Symptom Inventory: Administration, scoring and procederes manual I. Baltimore Dotter, Franz (1996): Computer for the deaf (and hearing impaired): Towards an integrated solution from a linguistic standpoint. In: Klaus, J. et al. (Eds.): Interdisciplinary aspects on computers helping people
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with special needs. Linz, pp. 205-210. Goldberg, David .P. (1978): Manual of the General Health Questionnaire. Windsor Lucas, Ceil (Ed.), 1996: Multicultural Aspects of Sociolinguistics in Deaf Communities. Washington D.C. The WHOQOL Group, (1998): Development of the World Health Organization WHOQOL-BREF quality of life assessment. Psychological Medicine, 28, 551-558. Wilcox, Sherman (Ed.), 1989: American Deaf Community. Burtonsville.
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"335","4","Beyond the Archive: Immersive Textuality for William Blakes Poetry","1","In the past decade the Blake Archive transformed scholarship on William Blake by making his illuminated texts widely available online. The Archive delivers some of the best features of web edited editions, including the ability for the viewer to modulate the size and color of plates, to compare similar images, and to search for thematicly similar images. Nonetheless, there are many applications of new media that the Archive does not employ. The performativity of new media matches complex performative elements in Blake’s work that are not accounted for in an archive. As poet, artist, and publisher, Blake is keenly aware of the horizons and limits of his media. As poet he creates narratives in which characters and spaces morph. Such transformation of people and places in turn structurally change the narrative. As artist, his visual puns and transformed characters take on Ovid-like metamorphosis, such as his tree/women that liberate and bind their children with their “limbs.” As publisher, his very processes of etching, painting, and publishing become characters in the narrative and morph the story world at the same time that they call attention to themselves as media in our world. This conference panel is designed to look at the “other” Blake, one not available in the Archive but necessary in the immersive experience of reading Blake’s work. As the visionary poet sets out to “open the 97
doors of perception,” this panel presents applications for modelling and simulating the phenomenology of reading. While the archive presents a “transparent” text and a reader at a non-point outside the poem and distanced from the computer screen, immersive textuality attempts to place the reader inside the space of reading while both inside and outside the computer screen. The complex image-text, multivalent narratives of William Blake’s poetry serve as an ideal model for thinking digital representation other than an archive. Blake’s work becomes a means for formulating responsive new media spaces both for scholarship and for pedagogy. Immersive texts present elements of gaming to literary criticism. The panel will consider how such environments bring gaming to scholarship. While Jerome McGann has begun to address these issues in his Ivanhoe game, recently published in Radient Textuality, the panel’s participants have been engaged in similar efforts over the last decade. Play, embodiment, narrativity, and design—key elements of gaming—help Blake scholars to rethink the look, feel, and purpose of Blake’s cosmologies. Unlike McGann’s work, the present panel uses a variety of new media technologies and designs to think through the reader's position within the text rather than rendering an interpretation of the text from an “outside.” The reader/user is asked to stand within the text rather than using various applications and discourses to post or discuss texts. The panel will provide brief demonstrations of immersive digital texts accompanied by short papers and then roundtable discussion finally opening into a question and answer period. Panelists are from a variety of disciplines. Steve Guynup, a seven year veteran in web3D and internationally recognized digital artist, will present a web3D immersive illustration of Blake’s “Crystal Cabinet” as a model that allows readers to understand Blake’s sense of folds between worlds and Blakean embodiment. Marcel O’Gorman, head of Detroit Mercy University’s Electronic Criticism program, will present “The Fourfolds of William Blake and Martin Heidegger: Minds, Bodies, Technologies.” For O’Gorman the intersections between the four folds of both Blake and Heidegger serve as a path toward understanding how design and critique might intervene in the separation of body and mind wrought by technology. Nelson Hilton, a leading scholar in Blake criticism, head of the online text of Blake, and chair at University of Georgia, will present “Golgonooza Songs, or, Blake in a Flash.” Hilton will show and discuss how Flash can be used to visualize multiple versions of Blake’s poems, calling into question textual stability and unseating transparency of the text. Finally, Ron Broglio, associate editor of Romantic Circles online journal and noted for his experimentation in digitizing Romantic scholarship, will demonstrate and discuss the use of MOOs as graphically-oriented multi-user virtual environment that can incorporate Flash and Java applets to create experiential texts. Broglio has led a team of Georgia Tech design students in consultation with Blake scholars at other universities to create scenes of reading key moments of Blake’s illuminated texts. The mix of demonstration with discussion and the variety of new media applications employed to represent the text provide a disjunctive synthesis of archival procedures and gaming environments. While much of humanities scholarship has employed computing toward editorial and archival ends, it is the hope of this panel to open traditional humanities texts to other applications, discourses, and play available in new media.","txt","2","",""
"336","4","MUSEUMS IN THE MIX-COLLECTIONS ACCESS ACROSS COMMUNITIES","1","Museums, Libraries and Archives increasingly collaborate to bring their collections online within one integrated system. The integration of access is fueled by the realization within the different communities that all cultural heritage institutions hold similar objects, as well as by end-user demands for searches across institutional boundaries. The statewide project Museums and the Online Archive of California (MOAC) adapts archival and library standards to integrate museum collections into the greater space of cultural heritage. Long before the Internet, each individual cultural heritage community developed its own unique access model suited to its’ particular collection and mission. Libraries have developed the Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC) to facilitate searching of their book holdings. Archives have used the finding aid as an access tool for researchers even long before finding aids became synonymous with their electronic incarnation as Encoded Archival Description (EAD). Access to collections in museums revolves around thematic exhibitions, which bring together objects from within the institution’s collection as well as borrowed objects from the outside to form a coherent experience for the visitor. In this way, museums provide value-added access through grouping the objects into meaningful exhibitions, plus they enrich the offering through educational materials and programming. However, this form of access remains incomplete: over 95% of a museum collections will be in storage rather than in the galleries at any given time. Historically, museums have not developed a model for providing access to materials not on display in their galleries. With the advent of networked access, museums started to image their collections and put versions of their in-house collections management systems online. While these online databases provide a more exhaustive view of an institutional collection, they usually restrict interoperability by locking the data into a proprietary system. Ultimately, access systems of individual institutions need to be integrated to provide maximum service to researchers and cultural tourists alike. A project led by the UC Berkeley Art Museum 99
called Museums and the Online Archive of California (MOAC) addresses this issue by encoding museum materials using archival and library standards, which allows the integration of data into a larger cultural space opened up by the Online Archive of California (OAC), hosted by the California Digital Library (CDL). The project adapts the standards developed by other communities because the OAC union database had already been established around those specific submission information packages. Furthermore, the museum community had not yet (and still has not) established a file exchange format for collections information. Standards used in MOAC are Encoded Archival Description (EAD) xml, Metadata Encoding and Transcription Standard (METS) xml and Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) Lite xml. The archival standard EAD describes collections hierarchically down to the item level. The xml mark-up allows them to successfully integrate their collections with library and archival materials. Since the EAD has no other uses for museums than to integrate data, archival principles pertaining to other internal functions the EAD fulfills in archives, such as authentication, documentation and collection management, lose their relevance in a museum setting. A typical museum EAD collection guide provides item-level access to a thematically structured collection enriched with educational materials. Since EAD makes few provisions for encoding rich multimedia content at the item-level, the collection mark-up is extended by the digital object mark-up Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard (METS). METS allows the encoding, transfer and display of hierarchically structured digital objects which mimic the behaviors of their analog counterparts. An artist’s book, for example, may be presented to an end-user as a navigable set of digital images. METS has been developed by the library community, but its extensive use of extension schemas makes the mark-up flexible enough for easy implementation in other communities. A good example for METS adaptability through extension schemas is its approach to descriptive metadata. Each implementer may choose the descriptive metadata schema they feel most comfortable with to describe the information content of their METS object. The METS object also becomes a coordinating hub for other services provided alongside digital media surrogates, such as TEI Lite transcriptions. From a museum perspective, this development may lead to an interesting shift in the role of collections for online access. Rather than providing an absolute home for items / digital objects, collections may now be viewed as services built on the digital object repository. Any single digital object may be part of multiple collections, which contextualize the digital object in a unique way. For example, a painting by abstract painter Hans Hoffman may be part of a provenance-based finding aid; a collection guide pulling together highlights from the UC Berkeley Art Museum’s holdings; a collection guide thematically arranged around works from the particular school of abstract painting Hans Hoffman belongs to; etc. Each of these collections provides a different access path to the individual work. Viewed from this perspective, collections may move closer to the exhibition paradigm favored by museums—objects appear in ever-changing constellations of other objects in order to tease out particular facets of meaning.","txt","2","",""
"337","4","DESCRIBING COLLECTIONS DIGITALLY: METADATA FRAMEWORKS FOR RESEARCH LIBRARY COLLECTIONS","1","Researchers and students have come to expect an increasing number of services via the World Wide Web from libraries and archives. Over the last two decades libraries have vast staff and financial resources to developing online catalogs and digitizing materials for remote use. The result has been the development of increasingly more powerful research tools for students and scholars that can be accessed from a simple networked computer twenty-four hours a day and from any geographic location. In addition to this, researchers are also expecting greater unmediated access to these collections. Despite this improved access, librarians and archivists continue to be faced with the challenge of how they help potential users find these collections and how they can describe them in a way that integrates access to digital and traditional physical collections. This paper surveys current work being done in collection level descriptions for traditional and digital information resources. Focusing on the library and archival communities, we will look at several descriptive schemas that have been developed to provide access to collections of online resources, including the MARC bibliographic record format, the RSLP Collection Description Schema, the OAIS Harvesting protocol, and Encoded Archival Description (EAD). Focusing on resource discovery and analytic content description, the paper will compare the types of access each of these schema allows in terms of the detail of description, how easily data can be mapped or compared to other record schemas, and the ability for each to be integrated with one another. The metadata formats examined are those concerned primarily with resource discovery: records that provide a summary or detailed description of the collection and its contents. The oldest and most widely used
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of these is the Machine-Readable Cataloging (MARC) record. Created as a means of storing and transferring bibliographic data, it has been the standard data file format for library and many archival online catalogues. MARC, along with its content standard the Anglo-American Cataloging Rules 2nd ed. (AACR2), has been used to describe everything from books to multimedia web pages. The combination of MARC and AACR2 is useful because of their emphases on strong content and formatting standards. For instance, in a MARC record, the main title of a work will always be transcribed in a 245 field using AACR2 to formulate the entry. Though a patron may never see a record in its raw MARC form, they will recognize just about any web output that is the product of that record. Additionally, MARC and AACR2 place a strong emphasis on the need for name and subject control. Name headings and subject terms must come from an established thesaurus (such as the Library of Congress Headings, Library of Congress Name Authority File, or the Arts and Architecture Thesaurus) that has been identified in the record. Though useful from an end user perspective, this rigidity causes problems when describing library collections rather then individual bibliographic works. This problem of scalability stems from the fact that MARC and AACR2 were developed to handle description of individual items. The collection level MARC record tends to consist of large unstructured textual note fields that make it difficult to systematically compare it to other collection level records beyond controlled subject vocabularies and names. To remedy these problems, the archival community developed the Encoded Archival Description (EAD) as a means providing more detailed access to archives and manuscript collections. EAD is a SGML/XML DTD designed to capture both content and structure of archival finding aids. The use of SGML/XML allows archivists to encode the hierarchical document structure at a very granular level, facilitating cross collection searching. Another strength of the EAD is the ease with which it can be converted into a web friendly html document. The development of Extensible Style Language (XSL) allows institutions and individuals to present their collection data on the web in a variety of different ways. The major problem in implementing EAD is in the time and resources required to encode finding aids. Integrating EAD into an archives’ or special collection department’s descriptive program requires a tremendous amount of training and planning to fully utilize the DTD’s potential. Moreover, the EAD DTD was designed specifically to be used with archival and manuscript collections. As a result, the structure and semantics used in these records come from that tradition and are not all that easy to adapt for other types of collections. Another current means of gathering and disseminating collection level descriptions has been through the Open Archives Initiative (OAI) Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (PMH). This protocol is designed to automate the process of searching out scholarly information that may be hidden from traditional web browsers (Yahoo, Google, etc.). Common targets for the metadata harvesting include structured XML documents, finding aids, and resources that may be living inside of a database (photo images). Once harvested, records are then created and maintained in a central database. Depending on the metadata that is being harvested the OAI-PMH can create both collection level records and analytic records for the individual items within the collection. A main goal for OAI-PMH projects (University of Illinois, University of Michigan, and Virginia Tech) is to provide a central repository of structured data that allows for item level searching across institutional collections. Theoretically, a user could find records for two different transcriptions of the same text that may have been digitized and stored in two separate project text-bases. The United Kingdom’s Research Support Library Programme (RSLP) has produced a more recent development in collection level description. In an attempt to provide a more standardized cross-institutional collection level description, RSLP developed the RSLP Collection Description Schema. Developed as both a collections management tool and a resource discovery mechanism for scholars and students, the schema provides much more detailed description of collections then currently available in MARC. The result is a schema that brings together, in a single record, descriptive attributes about the collection itself, the location or locations of the resource, resource creators, agents (i.e. collector, owner, and administrator), and external relationships with other collections. Unlike MARC the RSLP schema is scalable in that it can be used to describe anything from a small collection of digital images to an entire library collection. Based on these comparisons, the paper concludes with a discussion of the importance of early and continued planning of descriptive practices as the most important means of building and implementing flexible and robust collection level metadata. The paper suggests that as early as possible in this planning phase, project planners consider their text or image-base’s primary and secondary audiences, the level of detail required to make sense of the collection, the scope of the materials. Creators of scholarly projects and collections should consult early with library metadata specialists early in the project planning process to discuss issues relating to how the existence of collection is made known, how collections can be linked (thematically, geographically, etc.) with others, and how potential researchers will be able to successfully navigate through various query interfaces. Finally, potential collection users need to be included during the planning stages to take a more active roll in the development of useful metadata. This is especially true of descriptions of digital collections in which the goal is to provide unmediated access.
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In providing an overview of current thinking about collection description in the library and archival world, this paper aims to provide a context for students, researchers, and other users of library and archival materials think think about their information needs as they undertake humanities research. These needs should determine the extent to which current and new schemas are appropriate for their own research projects or whether new frameworks need to be created.","txt","2","",""
"338","4","DESCRIBING WHAT'S THERE: TOWARD A DESCRIPTIVE FRAMEWORK FOR LEGACY LIBRARY COLLECTION DESCRIPTIONS","1","In the days when library catalogs consisted of card files, most research libraries housing “special” collections of material found ways to describe those collections in more detail than a MARC record could provide. “Collections,” broadly defined as groupings of discrete library items, originate for a variety of reasons: a scholar takes an interest in a topic and buys every relevant book; a bookseller decides that a genre or author text is more interesting in large quantities than in scattered instances, so he collects, for example 14,000 volumes of British poetry and sells them as a group to a research library; a small special library goes “out of business” and gives its’ collection of radical pamphlets larger library. In all these cases, groupings of books or pamphlets or photographs are often described in collection descriptions. The originating principle of the collection is known as its’ “provenance.” Collection descriptions are created by many different kinds of writer: booksellers, collectors, documentary editors, bibliographic scholars, librarians, archivists, and others. They serve as an aid to researchers in approaching and understanding a particular group of material. In library departments of special collections, they often replace the library catalog, as the main printed source of information about to the contents of a particular collection. Traditional printed collection descriptions vary widely. Sometimes, copies of card catalogs are produced together in book format and supplemented with commentary or introductory material. Sometimes, glossy collection descriptions are created for prospective donors. Sometimes, these descriptions consist of descriptive bibliography. Sometimes, as in exhibit catalogs, they are meant to serve as a surrogate, as a way of preserving an “artificial collection” brought together from many different libraries. Printed collection descriptions exist in great number, and form a significant percentage of the collection of every research library. While traditional printed collection descriptions do not describe each item in a collection exhaustively, they do provide a rich source of descriptive and bibliographic “finding” information to a researcher who may be considering whether or not to visit a particular library or archive. Increasingly, however, these storehouses of information gather dust, as students and scholars turn to online sources of information, often proceeding no further in their research efforts. Thus, there is a need to preserve and make accessible online these many historical or “legacy” printed collection descriptions. Clearly, such a text-base, were it encoded in such a way that it could be searched across repositories, would provide a rich and valuable resource for students and scholars seeking access to rare or primary materials. Current metadata collection descriptive frameworks such as METS, OAI, and RSLP do not provide descriptive elements adequate to capture the variety and complexity of these “legacy” printed collection descriptions. Based on the observation that the Encoded Archival Description, narrowly designed for a particular type of collection description, is now widely adapted for non-archival collections, the paper argues that there is need of a broader, more flexible, descriptive framework that could be used to encode both new and legacy collection descriptions that vary widely in their content and structure. EAD, while suited well for the encoding of a particular type of description, the archival finding aid, lacks basic bibliographic and structural elements necessary to encode complex texts. Because of its scope and descriptive granularity, the Text Encoding Initiative seems a promising candidate for such a descriptive scheme. But in order to ensure interoperability, the TEI encoding of legacy collection descriptions needs to be regularized. Indeed, we seek a solution that transcends the limits of the EAD, but constrains the possibilities of TEI. To begin to develop such a best practices framework, the author of the paper analyzed 50 legacy collection descriptions found on the shelves of the University of California, Davis Shields Library, chosen to represent the widest possible range of formats and types of collection. The paper presents a basic taxonomy of functional types of information in these legacy printed collection descriptions and proposes that the library community work to develop a “TEI-Like” dtd, best practices standards, and implementation guidelines to allow these and other descriptions to be encoded and made accessible. Finally, the paper argues that such a descriptive framework could be used as a guide for the creation of new online collection descriptions, and that the existence of such a framework would allow special
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collections libraries and curators to create standard, familiar, and extensible user “web page” descriptions of their major collections. Such online descriptions could form part of a large, inter-operable text-base that included legacy collection descriptions, and could thus form the basis for a seamless bridge between our intellectual inheritance and future collections.","txt","2","",""
"339","4","XML Schema 1.0: A Language for Document Grammars","1","The Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) and its offspring the Extensible Markup Language (XML) appear to be fairly well established as methods of representing texts in electronic form.1 One of the characteristic features of SGML and XML which marks them as an advance over earlier systems of textual representation is their notion of document grammars: formal specifications of rules for distinguishing valid documents from other data streams. Document grammars prove useful in routine quality assurance (finding and cleaning up dirty data), in documentation of agreements between data providers and data consumers or of the contents of data flows, and as a means of specifying the contents of messages in client/server protocols.2 In some respects, however, the notation defined by SGML and XML for document type definitions (DTDs) has proven to have some shortcomings. • The use of a specialized notation rather than SGML or XML itself means that standard tools like XSLT and XPath processors cannot be used straightforwardly to work with DTD files. • The availability of data typing for attributes, but not for#PCDATA content of elements, introduces an unnecessary complication and lack of parallelism into the comparison of elements and attributes. • From a programming-language or database point of view, the selection of data types available for attributes may charitably be described as eccentric: it has strings (more or less) and various abstrusely specialized forms of tokens, but lacks integers, floating-point numbers, dates, and other standard types. • Although a number of published DTDs (e.g. that of the TEI) rely explicitly on notions of class and inheritance similar to those used in object-oriented systems, DTD notation lacks explicit support for inheritance. • Even if DTD notation did support inheritance, there is no standard way for applications to ask SGML/XML systems for information about the DTD used to validate a document. • DTD notation does not do at all a good job of supporting XML namespaces, which are increasingly important as a means of supporting compound documents and the mixture of different XML vocabularies in the same document. For these and other reasons, there has in recent years been a good deal of interest in new languages for specifying document grammars [Bourret et al. 1999, Bray et al. 1998, Frankston/Thompson 1998, Layman et al. 1998, OASIS 2001]. XML Schema 1.0 is a non-proprietary schema language developed by the World Wide Web Consortium; work began in 1998, the specification became a W3C Recommendation in May 2001 [W3C 2001], and further development continues today. This paper will offer a brief introduction to XML Schema 1.0 and describe its salient features. Unlike DTDs but like most recent schema languages, XML Schema 1.0 uses an XML vocabulary, rather than an ad hoc specialized non-XML notation to represent document grammars. This makes XML Schema documents more verbose than equivalent schemas in DTD notation but also makes them much more easily processable. XML Schema provides explicit support for XML namespaces and for combining XML vocabularies from different namespaces into a single composite schema. Given the increasing use of namespaces to minimize name conflicts between vocabularies, the inability of DTDs to handle this task adequately has become a more and more distressing deficit. DTDs intermingle several functions: in addition to defining constraints on the logical structure of marked up documents, they also include entity declarations, which affect the initial scanning of the XML data stream. XML Schema, by contrast, assumes that a standard XML processor has already processed the XML document before schema-validation is started: the input to an XML Schema validator is not an XML 103
document in the strict sense, but an XML information set, which may be produced by parsing an XML document or by other means, such as the construction of a data structure in memory through function calls to an API. The output of an XML Schema validator is the same information set, augmented with information about the validity of each element and attribute in the document and about the validation episode itself. Defining schema validation as a mapping from an input information set to an output information set has advantages for the conceptual clarity of the specification, but it has also proven unpopular with some users, because it means that DTD notation must still be used to declare human-readable names for special characters, and there is no prescribed XML form for the additional information about validity and datatyping produced by the XML Schema validator. XML Schema provides a basic set of predefined “simple” datatypes, which can be associated with attribute values or with elements whose content is a simple character string without sub-elements. In addition to the legacy types inherited from XML, XML Schema provides types which correspond to those most commonly found in programming languages and database management systems: exact decimal numbers and integers, floating-point and double-precision numbers, dates and times (in the standard notation defined by ISO 8601), and some other more specialized datatypes. Schema authors can define new simple types by restricting existing ones in certain well defined ways. They cannot, however, create new primitive types; this has advantages for interoperability and disadvantages for the expressive power of the language: the TEI date element, for example, can use the XML Schema date type to describe the value of its value attribute, which is required to use the ISO standard date format, but not to describe its content, which also denotes a date but which does not use the standardized notation. In addition to simple types, schemas can also definecomplex types, for elements which can contain sub-elements; complex types correspond to the content models and attribute declarations of DTDs. From object-oriented systems, however, XML Schema has adopted the concept of class inheritance: it is possible to derive new complex types from existing complex types, just as it is possible to derive new object classes from existing classes in an object-oriented programming language. Experience with DTDs shows that two quite separate kinds of inheritance may be needed for document grammars: one in which the derived type inherits some properties of its content model and attributes from the ancestor types, and another in which what is inherited is the ability of an element to occur in particular locations. (The TEI models these two different kinds of inheritance by distinguishing attribute-classes and model-classes.) Perhaps the most important innovation in XML Schema 1.0 is that schema-based validation provides much more information than the simple yes/no is-this-valid? information provided by DTD-based validation. Information about the simple or complex type assigned to an attribute or element is provided by an XML Schema processor as part of the standard post-schema-validation information set (PSVI). The validity of each element and attribute is checked and recorded separately; this entails a distinction between the concept of full validity, which is recursive and requires that all descendants also be fully valid, and of local validity, which is not recursive. Since schema validation need not start at the root element of the document, and since a schema can direct that the contents of particular elements are not to be validated, or that the elements encountered in particular contexts need not be declared, XML Schema 1.0 can be said to have introduced a coherent concept of partial validation; whether it can be exploited to handle problems of structural variation in historical documents [Birnbaum 1997, Birnbaum/Mundie 1999] remains to be explored. The paper will conclude with a brief account of current work on XML Schema within the World Wide Web Consortium.
NOTES 1. This is not to ignore the recent work done by Patrick Durusau and Matthew Brooke O’Donnell on Just-In-Time Trees [Durusau/O’Donnell 2002a, 2002b], by Wendell Piez and Jeni Tennison on LMNL (Layered Markup and Annotation Language) [Piez/Tennison 2002], by Andreas Witt on the representation of concurrent markup structures in logical form [Witt 2002], or by Claus Huitfeldt and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen on TexMecs (Trivially Extended MECS (Multi-Element Code System)) [Sperberg-McQueen/Huitfeldt 2001]. All of these projects retain their interest, but at the moment most appear to be experimental systems rather than fully developed alternatives to SGML and XML. 2. This last usage is now prominent in work on the Simple Object Access Protocol and other Web-services work, but the ideas predate the current interest in Web services [Catteau 1999].
REFERENCES Birnbaum, David J. In defense of invalid SGML. Paper given at ACH/ALLC 1997. http://clover.slavic.pitt.edu/~djb/achallc97.html Birnbaum, David J., and David A. Mundie. “The problem of anomalous data: A transformational approach”. in Markup Languages: Theory & Practice 1.4 (1999): 1–19.
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Bourret, Ronald, et al., ed., “Document Definition Markup Language (DDML) Specification”, Version 1.0, Submission to the World Wide Web Consortium, 19-Jan-1999. http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-ddml Bray, Tim, Charles Frankston, and Ashok Malhotra, ed., Document Content Description for XML, Submission to the World Wide Web Consortium 31-July-1998. http://www.w3.org/TR/1998/NOTE-dcd-19980731. Catteau, Tom. “An SGML system for the budget of the European Union”. in Markup Languages: Theory & Practice 1.3 (1999): 41–59. Cowan, John, and Richard Tobin, ed. 2001. “XML Information Set”. W3C Recommendation 24 October 2001. [Cambridge, Sophia-Antipolis, Tokyo]: World Wide Web Consortium. http://www.w3.org/TR/xml-infoset/ Durusau, Patrick, and Matthew Brooke O’Donnell. “Visualizing overlapping hierarchies in textual markup”. Paper given at ALLC/ACH 2002, Tübingen, July 2002. http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/cgi-bin/abs/abs?propid=100 Durusau, Patrick, and Matthew Brooke O’Donnell. “Coming down from the trees: Next step in the evolution of markup?” Paper given at Extreme Markup Languages 2002, Montréal, August 2002. http://www.idealliance.org/papers/extreme02/author-pkg/2002/Durusau01/EML2002Durusau01.zip Davidson, Andrew, et al., “Schema for Object-oriented XML 2.0”, W3C Note, 30 July 1999. http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-SOX/ Frankston, Charles, and Henry S. Thompson, ed., “XML-Data reduced”, Draft Version 0.21, 3 July 1998. http://www.ltg.ed.ac.uk/~ht/XMLData-Reduced.htm Huitfeldt, Claus, and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen. “TexMECS: An experimental markup meta-language for complex documents”. [Working paper of the MLCD project at the University of Bergen]. Bergen: [n.p.], 2001. http://www.hit.uib.no/claus/mlcd/papers/texmecs.html ISO (International Organization for Standardization). ISO 8601. Representations of dates and times. 1988–06–15. Available at: http://www.iso.ch/markete/8601.pdf Layman, Andrew, et al., “XML-Data”, W3C Note [Acknowledged submission], 05 Jan 1998. http://www.w3.org/TR/1998/NOTE-XML-data-0105. OASIS (Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards). “RELAX NG Specification”. Committee Specification 3 December 2001. http://www.oasis-open.org/committees/relax-ng/spec-20011203.html Piez, Wendell, and Jeni Tennison. “The Layered Markup and Annotation Language (LMNL)”. Paper given at Extreme Markup Languages 2002, Montréal, August 2002. Project home page at http://www.lmnl.org/ Text Encoding Initiative. Guidelines for electronic text encoding and interchange (TEI P4), ed. C. M. Sperberg-McQueen and Lou Burnard. XML-compatible edition prepared by Syd Bauman, Lou Burnard, Steven DeRose, and Sebastian Rahtz. Oxford, Providence, Charlottesville, Bergen: TEI Consortium, 2002. Witt, Andreas, “Meaning and interpretation of concurrent markup”. Paper given at ALLC/ACH 2002, Tübingen, July 2002. http://coli.lili.uni-bielefeld.de/Texttechnologie/Forschergruppe/prolog/allc2002-witt.html W3C (World Wide Web Consortium). “XML Schema Part 0: Primer”, ed. David Fallside. “XML Schema Part 1: Structures”, ed. Henry S. Thompson, David Beech, Murray Maloney, and Noah Mendelsohn. XML Schema Part 2: Datatypes, ed. Biron, Paul V. and Ashok Malhotra. W3C Recommendation, 2 May 2001. [Cambridge, Sophia-Antipolis, Tokyo: W3C] http://www.w3.org/TR/xmlschema-0/, http://www.w3.org/TR/xmlschema-1/, http://www.w3.org/TR/xmlschema-2/
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"340","4","MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN INTERLINKED: A COMPREHENSIVE DIGITAL TEXT ARCHIVE","1","Electronic texts of all kinds can be found on the World Wide Web today, even texts in medieval German. However, the quality and reliability of these texts vary. Some websites offer texts with typographical markup (e.g. Gutenberg.de or Bibliotheca Augustana) and some provide texts with elaborate retrieval techniques where the results of searches are electronically linked to more robustly encoded full texts (e.g. the Mittelhochdeutsche Begriffsdatenbank). But regardless of the level of encoding, most electronic text archives concentrate only on primary texts; editorial additions (such as paratextual material such as introductions, critical apparatuses) are omitted as well as the lexicographical aids in glossaries and commentaries to the edited texts. In the case of medieval texts, such editorial components are essential for the academic to gain the most valuable reading and understanding of medieval vernaculars. The central goal of the project, Middle High German Interlinked/ Digitales Mittelhochdeutsches Textarchiv, is to provide comprehensive textual editions (including introductions to each text, the primary texts themselves, word glossaries, and other editorial additions) and to link these electronic editions to external lexicographical resources. In the end, the project will house an XML-encoded electronic text archive of about 100 Middle High German texts and their glossaries. The texts will be interlinked with their glossary entries and those glossary entries will interlink with the existing Middle High German dictionaries. This interlinking system will provide numerous discovery and retrieval strategies to maximize the reading and etymological contexts of each work. This project, a collaboration between XML specialists at the Electronic Text Center of the University of Virginia and linguistic experts in the German Department at the University of Trier, is funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). The starting point of this collaboration is the compound of Middle High German dictionaries consisting of the following components: • G.F. Benecke/ W. Müller/ F. Zarncke, Mittelhochdeutsches Wörterbuch (1854-1861) • M. Lexer, Mittelhochdeutsches Handwörterbuch (1872-1878); and its Nachträge (= supplements) (1878) • K. Gärtner/ Ch. Gerhardt/ J. Jaehrling/ R. Plate/ W. Röll/ E.Timm, Findebuch zum mittelhochdeutschen Wortschatz (1992) All three dictionaries are closely related to one another: Lexer’s dictionary is an alphabetical index and supplement to the older dictionary by Benecke, Müller and Zarncke and refers to it by explicit references. The Findebuch represents a compilation of glossary references to texts that have appeared since 1878 when 111
Lexer’s Handwörterbuch had been completed. The Findebuch contains headwords and siglas that point to full glossary entries. These three dictionaries have been freely available on the Web since 1999 as an interlinked dictionary compound (http://www.mwv.uni-trier.de) and is also available from S. Hirzel (Stuttgart) on a CD-ROM which features more sophisticated retrieval facilities than the internet version. For Middle High German Interlinked all editions upon which the Findebuch is based have been digitised and will form one of the largest text archives in and on Middle High German on the Web. While the texts of the archive can be read and studied as individual objects, the multidirectional interlinking to glossaries and dictionaries enriches the lexicographical contexts of these works and augments the researcher’s own work in linguistic history and analysis of the Middle High German period. The project provides a model realization of the multiple opportunities of linking and electronically merging information gathered from large text corpora and dictionaries. In this presentation at the 2003 ACH/ALLC, the authors will present problems that such a large undertaking has posed, discuss the solutions to these problems, and finally demonstrate a version of the system on the Web to enhance future work in this field.","txt","2","",""
"341","4","TOOLS FOR LEXICOGRAPHY, RETRIEVAL, MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN","1","STARTING POSITION A new Middle High German Dictionary is being worked on by two teams of lexicographers: one team in Göttingen (funded by the Academy of Science in Göttingen) and a second team Trier (funded by the Academy of Science and Literature in Mainz). The aim of the project is to develop a new historical citational dictionary of the German language for the period from 1050 to 1350, consisting primarily of a printed version of four volumes, approximately 1000 pages each. Moreover, an electronic version is planned including comprehensive tools for accessing and searching the dictionary and its sources. The new dictionary is based on a ‘core corpus’ of 150 source texts, an open ‘extended corpus’ of about 500 sources (so that the composition of the corpus is well-balanced with regard to text type, date and location) and a so-called dictionary corpus which contains a set of dictionaries offering citations that are not covered by the core or extended corpus. The texts belonging to the core corpus have been digitized and lemmatized, and an electronic archive of 1,2 Mio. citations that are electronically linked to their full texts of the sources was built. The extended corpus exists either as non-lemmatized electronic full texts or as printed texts. The Digital Middle High German Text Archive, the subject of the preceding paper, is an essential part of the extended corpus. Being one of the most recent projects in the field of historical citation lexicography in Germany, it was possible from the very beginning to base all work for the new Middle High German Dictionary on electronic data processing. Needless to say, this is of great advantage for the making of a dictionary. But what kind of working environment is in fact needed at a lexicographer’s desk? Which tools meet the requirements of the two teams working together on the same material in places that are far apart? Which essential features serve a print edition as well as an electronic edition without taking the lexicographer’s attention off his proper work by the necessity of technical encoding? How to ensure the longevity of data and data structures in view of long-term dictionary projects? To answer these questions, the Trier team of the new Middle High German Dictionary, in connection with the Competence Center for Electronic Retrieval and Publishing Techniques in the Humanities, applied for a research grant from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). The project Internet-based Working Environment for the Production and Publication of Dictionaries at Distributed Places was granted, and work started in March 2002. The first goal of the project is to set up a working environment for the two teams, working in different places. The second goal of the project is to adapt the system to the reqirements of other dictionary projects. In this paper the authors present the technical concept and the realization of the system in its present state, and give a brief perspective for the future work. TECHNICAL CONCEPT The concept intends to set up a client-server architecture: In its center is an Internet compatible relational database system where all dictionary data is stored (register of headwords, source texts, bibliography to the source texts, dictionary entries etc.). The working environment itself is installed on the lexicographer’s computer as client software which contains all the needed tools and features and also manages the data exchange with the database via the Internet. By use of this central database, all the dictionary data is available at the places where the two teams of lexicographers work simultaneously. An XML export device forms the interface to different output devices as typesetting and electronic publication on the WWW. In addition, the XML capability ensures the longevity of the data processed in the project. REALIZATION The lexicographical desktop environment consists essentially of four components: the citation corpus, the bibliography to the source texts, the storage and management of entries, and the entry editor. The citation
112
corpus offers the opportunity to search the database for quotations to illustrate the meaning fo a certain lemma. Of course, truncated lemma input is allowed as well as search restriction on a user-defined source text selection. The result is given as KWIC concordance that can be arranged by various criteria such as source text, word form or date of source text. In the concordance the length of the quotation is freely selectable by the lexicographer, and it is also possible to go to a full-text readout of the source from the concordance directly. This feature is useful to review a quotation in its original full context. Furthermore, quotations can be copied from the citation corpus into the core component of the environment, the entry editor.
Figure 1: Citation Corpus The bibliography to the source texts is an informational tool for the lexicographer, which helps to maintain and retrieve master data about the quoted edition, text type, date and localization of the source texts, and information about transmission and earlier editions. Furthermore the whole management of siglas is done in this component of the system. The third component is used for managing and storing the entries. It consists of an alphabetical list of lemmata/headwords and the corresponding entries. The lexicographer can check the status of an entry: whether an entry to a headword exists already, whether it is ready for publication or not, or whether a headword serves only as a link to another entry. As soon as a certain sequel of entries is ready for publication in an instalment, it is possible to typeset the whole instalment or a number of selected entries by a TUSTEP typesetting routine. The result of this is a postscript-file which represents the printed page of the dictionary in two columns. Since the lexicographers work on XML-tagged data, it is important for them to have a typesetting routine at hand to ensure that an entry meets the measures of entry length required by the space available in a printed dictionary.
113
Figure 2: Entry Editor The main component of the lexicographical environment is the entry editor. This tool allows the manipulation and the commenting of quotations, their grouping according to definitions, and their chronological ordering etc. The wording of a quotation is always protected against irregular handling; therefore it is not necessary to re-check the quotations before an installment is published. However, it is possible to resize the context of a quotation or go back again to a full-text readout of the source text. The entry editor is tag-based which means that all required information is marked up using XML-elements. The entry editor inserts most of these tags automatically, and they are invisible to the lexicographer thus helping him to maintain a clear overview of the structure of an entry. Certain elements can be inserted manually by the lexicographer either via keyboard or via macros. The XML-tagged entries are the basis for different output formats, for the printed and the electronic publication. PERSPECTIVES During the last months, the work of the project has concentrated more on the refinement of the entry editor than on the routines of publication. The teams of the new Middle High German dictionary are working with the system in their different places. It has been tested and improved continually, but it is still under construction. Experience shows that more functions are needed, for example a function that ensures a consistent cross-reference system and handling of links, or a workflow component that keeps track of an entry from its first draft to its final publication. The typesetting routines work sufficiently effective and will certainly convince the committees of the Academies who expect convincing results on the printed page. However, future work will also focus on electronic publishing on the Internet and, of course, adapt the system for the requirements of other dictionary projects.
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"342","4","ELECTRONIC DICTIONARIES AND METALEXICOGRAPHY: THE DIGITAL VERSION OF THE DEUTSCHE WÖRTERBUCH BY JACOB AND WILHELM GRIMM AS A BASIS FOR METALEXICOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH.","1","The electronic version of the Deutsche Wörterbuch (=DWB) by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm (33 vols., 1854-1971), the largest dictionary of the German language, has been on the Internet for over a year; an offline version will also be available soon. In recent years, electronic dictionaries have become a familiar tool for scholarly work. Access to dictionaries is much easier and very comfortable once the huge quantities of lexical information which was hitherto stored in weighty multi-volume works has been transformed into immaterial data streams within a computer. So far, the electronic version has proved to be ideal for users of such reference works. But the electronic form can do much more: it allows us to pursue forms of metalexicographical research into the structure and the history of the DWB which has not been possible before. The DWB, like the OED, is based on scholarly principles and reflects the history of philology and linguistics over a long period. Thus it forms an ideal object for the study of the changing methods and predilections in the field of lexicography and lexicographical research. Not very long ago, the scholar often had to apply dubious methods when studying the way a dictionary is compiled. For example, to inquire into the frequency of quotations of a given author, only small “representative” portions of the dictionary were usually searched. The results were then used to calculate the total of occurrences (e. g. SCHLAEFER 1999 and SCHULZ 1999 use both one entry as a starting point). Factors like the inconsistency or the historicity of the dictionary were often left aside. Similarly, before the electronic version of the DWB was available, the exact number of entries was unknown. In a book published in 2001 the author estimates the number at about 400,000 to 500,000 entries (HAß-ZUMKEHR 2001). Now that we have this dictionary in electronic form, we know that it comprises exactly 249.545 main entries, adding the subentries we have a total of 320.505, this number showing how far previous estimations have been off the mark. In this paper, I would like to show how we can explore more reliable ways of metalexicographical research on the basis of the electronic DWB and its TEI compliant structural markup. It is already a commonplace that it takes no more than a few seconds to find out how often Shakespeare is quoted in the OED, or how often Goethe appears in the DWB. But electronic dictionaries do not only lend themselves to such comparably simple full-text searches. The underlying text-databases contain the dictionary's content enriched with markup that represents the structure of the dictionary. The SGML/XML-encoded structure permits complex and sophisticated searches as are necessary for studies in metalexicography. The structural base unit of a dictionary is the entry: one could call a dictionary a (usually) alphabetical collection of entries or articles. All information to a certain headword is collected in the related entry, and organized and presented in a certain way. Metalexicography is interested in finding out how this information is organized and presented, that is how it is structured. In order to gather information about the macro- and micro-structure of the DWB, I chose a new approach, sorting all entries according to their length. Each entry was given a fixed value consisting of its number of lines. These values were retrieved automatically from the SGML-tagged data of the DWB by using TUSTEP scripts. Table
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The table gives an exact account on entry length. One can see that an average of 63,4 per cent of the entries of the dictionary are shorter than six lines. One can also perceive that the percentages for some letters deviate considerably from this average. Older parts of the dictionary have higher percentages than younger parts. This suggests that the average entry is longer in younger parts of the DWB, which supports the assumption that the reinforced collection of slips after the turn of the century affected the structure of entries: more slips led to longer entries. Entry length can also form the basis for a structural analysis of dictionary entries. Dictionaries like the DWB are famous for their very large entries like GEIST, GEWALT etc., and entry analysis in metalexicography usually focuses on larger entries with complex structures and rich semantics (e. g. SCHMIDT 1986). However, given the fact that almost two thirds of the entries of the DWB are shorter than six lines, I consider it essential to take a closer look at these small entries. By doing this, general statements about entry structures can be made, but at the same time peculiarities in the work of individual lexicographers become evident. In the parts prepared by Jacob Grimm, for instance, one specific type of entry appears which consists of a lemma, a grammatical designation, a definition and a Dutch equivalent:
BLONDHEIT, f. color flavus, nnl. blondheit. (DWB 2, 143)
In Jacob Grimm's parts of the DWB (letters A-C and E-FRUCHT), this type of one line entry occurs 137 times, in all the other parts only five times. Another look at the electronic DWB shows that a total of 4300 Dutch equivalents and examples are given. 3400 of these can be found—again—in the parts written by Jacob Grimm. In contrast, in the D-section, which was prepared by Jacob's brother Wilhelm, we find less than ten Dutch examples. Jacob Grimm is the only lexicographer of the DWB who has given such a large amount of Dutch equivalents. Peculiarities of lexicographers can be traced down with great exactitude; thus some lexicographers extensively quote material from German dialects, others are are not interested in dialects at all. These features of the DWB reflect the heterogeneous methods and attitudes of lexicographers in their time. They can only be revealed by using dictionary data with structural markup that proves to be a reliable basis for metalexicographical research.
REFERENCES Haß-Zumkehr, Ulrike: Deutsche Wörterbücher im Brennpunkt von Sprach- und Kulturgeschichte. Berlin/New York 2001. Schlaefer, Michael: Zur Darstellung wortgeschichtlicher Zusammenhänge des 17.–20. Jahrhunderts in historischen Wörterbüchern. In: Sprachwissenschaft 24.2 (1999), 195–220. Schmidt, Hartmut: Wörterbuchprobleme. Untersuchungen zu konzeptionellen Fragen der historischen Lexikographie, Tübingen 1986. Schulz, Matthias: Der lexikographische Informationsgehalt in älteren Bedeutungswörterbüchern: Zugleich Überlegungen zum Nutzen einer Retrodigitalisierung älterer Wörterbücher. In: Sprachwissenschaft 24.1 (1999), 47–73.
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"343","4","Confronting the Challenges in Collaborative Editing Projects: The Dickinson Electronic Archives File Management System","1","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <p>This year, the Dickinson Electronic Archives (DEA) began work on an edition of
                    Emily Dickinson’s Correspondences (EDC), a multi-volume TEI-conformant XML
                    scholarly edition of individual collections of letters and poems sent to and
                    from Dickinson to her various correspondents that will include manuscript
                    images, transcriptions, and critical annotation. Overseen by general editors
                    Martha Nell Smith, Ellen Louise Hart, Lara Vetter, and Marta Werner, and
                    coordinated by Vetter, EDC volumes are guest-edited
                    correspondence-by-correspondence by Dickinson scholars across the country. The
                    project is ambitious in scope; Dickinson sent over 1800 letters and poems to
                    about 100 friends, family, and acquaintances, and conceivably many individual
                    guest editors could be working simultaneously on various sets of documents.</p>
                <p>The DEA faces several challenges in managing the concurrent editing of the
                    voluminous correspondence, not the least of which is geographical. All four
                    general editors are dispersed geographically: Smith in Maryland, Hart in
                    California, Vetter in Missouri, and Werner in New York. The DEA project manager,
                    Jarom McDonald, and encoding staff are located in Maryland at the Maryland
                    Institute for Technology in the Humanities, while guest editors live and work
                    all over the country. The documents are located primarily in two different
                    libraries in Massachusetts with scattered manuscripts elsewhere, and the encoded
                    data resides on a server at Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities
                    in Virginia. Clearly, we need a system by which the geographically remote
                    project coordinator can track the status of multiple documents in multiple
                    correspondences at various stages of editing and encoding, and work with a staff
                    and editors at a distance. We also face the utter impracticality of training
                    innumerable guest editors in advanced TEI and XML, particularly given the
                    encoding difficulties posed by the experimental nature of Dickinson’s page, yet
                    we need to maintain consistency in encoding and editing across sets of
                    correspondence, all the while preserving the integrity of the individual
                    editor’s work.</p>
                <p>Originally conceived by Lara Vetter and implemented by Jarom McDonald, the
                    Dickinson Electronic Archives Manuscript Project File Management System is
                    designed to allow editors and staff working from different locations across the
                    country to collaborate on the production of XML files for web delivery. The
                    system will accommodate multiple editors and staff working on different subsets
                    of documents.</p>
                <p>The DEA Manuscript Project File Management System facilitates the following processes:<list>
                        <item>1. For each manuscript, the editor completes a php-driven submission
                            form collecting relevant information about that manuscript. When the
                            form is submitted, it writes an XML file that parses against the DEA
                            DTD, pulling additional data from SQL regularization databases, and
                            deposits the file into the directory for newly submitted documents;
                            whatever data cannot be automatically tagged is placed in a comment tag
                            to provide instruction to the encoder. When the form is deposited into
                            the directory, the editor receives a copy via email, and the project
                            coordinator is notified via email that new manuscript data has been
                            submitted. Additionally, an entry in the SQL-driven management
                            submission database is generated that contains the filename, the
                            editor’s name, and the date the file was submitted. Finally, a
                            &lt;revisionDesc&gt; statement is generated and placed
                            automatically into the XML file, containing information about the nature
                            of the action, the person who performed it, and the date.</item>
                        <item>2. The project coordinator logs into the administrative section of the
                            system and is presented with a complete list of all submitted documents
                            pending assignment to encoders. The coordinator can assign each document
                            individually to any of the current DEA encoders via a drop-down menu;
                            doing so will automatically generate and send an email to that encoder,
                            notifying him/her of the new assignment. The corresponding entry in the
                            submission log will be updated to reflect the encoder assigned to the
                            project.</item>
                        <item>3. The encoder logs into the “Document Check-in/Check-out” section of
                            the system and is presented with a complete list of all documents
                            pending to be downloaded and those which have previously been
                            checked-out for encoding but not yet uploaded. The encoder clicks on the
                            file to be downloaded and is taken to the download page, where he/she
                            can save the file locally for encoding. This step updates the submission
                            log entry, noting the date that the file was downloaded for encoding,
                            and moves the particular file from the “pending check-out” section to
                            the “pending check-in” section for the given encoder. This step also
                            automatically updates the &lt;resp&gt; attribute in the header
                            that signifies the encoder. The encoder’s job is to perform
                            post-processing on the XML file by utilizing the editor’s notes,
                            comparing the XML file to an electronic image of the manuscript, and
                            tagging everything that cannot be automatically generated by the
                            form.</item>
                        <item>4. When the encoder has finished with the file locally, he/she can log
                            back into the system and click on the entry to “check-in.” The encoder
                            is then taken to the upload page and deposits the newly encoded file in
                            a directory separate from that which the editor-submitted file is
                            located. Checking a file in through the system will update the
                            submission log to reflect the date of encoder uploading, as well as
                            generating another &lt;revisionDesc&gt; entry into the document
                            itself. The project coordinator/proofreader is also notified via
                            automatic email that the encoded file has been uploaded.</item>
                        <item>5. Upon logging back into the system, the project coordinator is
                            presented with a list of files that need to be proofread, in addition to
                            seeing which files need assignment to encoders (see item 2 above). These
                            files can be checked-out and checked-in for proofreading in the same
                            manner as described above for encoders; each action generates the
                            relevant entry in the submission log. Downloading modifies the
                            &lt;resp&gt; element that signifies the proofreader’s name, and
                            when the final proofed file has been uploaded, it is deposited in a
                            third directory; hence, all archival copies of the document are
                            preserved. Once the proofreader has uploaded the file, a third
                            &lt;revisionDesc&gt; entry is generated and written into the
                            file and the coordinator is notified via e-mail.</item>
                        <item>6. Finally, when the proofreader is done, an automatically generated
                            e-mail is sent to the editor(s) with a URL for a transformed version of
                            the file. The editor then visits the URL indicated to perform a final
                            proofing of the document; the HTML page gives the editor the option to
                            accept or modify the file, and the coordinator is notified of the status
                            of the document. If the file is accepted, it is copied to the public
                            directory and becomes available online; if it is modified, the editor’s
                            modifications (again, submitted via a php-form) are routed back to the
                            proofreader who can make the final emendations and subsequently upload
                            the document into the public directory.</item>
                    </list></p>
                <p>Additionally, the project coordinator has access to a report feature, which
                    returns the entire SQL database of the submission log. This allows her to
                    monitor the status of all ongoing projects and documents and to track what
                    documents individual editors, encoders, and proofreaders are currently working
                    on.</p>
                <p>Though there will, undoubtedly, be issues with certain edited documents that
                    cannot be addressed through the type of automation described above, the document
                    management system will do much to streamline the editing and encoding process
                    and increase the quantity and quality of work done by the dispersed staff.
                    Decisions about what to tag and how to tag complex features of Dickinson’s
                    manuscripts are made by the general editors and enforced by the editorial
                    submission form, so documents are encoded consistently across the various sets
                    of correspondence. Editors can focus on editing, without having to learn
                    advanced XML and TEI (although the system, as designed, will accept XML tags as
                    part of submitted editorial data for those editors who are familiar with the TEI
                    and the Dickinson project DTD). Encoders can focus on encoding, without being
                    called upon to make difficult editorial choices. Ultimately, the entire process
                    will facilitate integrity in editing, quality control, and institutional
                    memory.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
    </text>
</TEI>","xml","2","",""
"344","4","EXTENDING THE COLLABORATION","1","In the last decade or so, humanities computing has introduced a new model of research in the humanities.
More than that, it has undergone so rapid a development that it has brought us to the brink of major changes
in our institutional practices both in research and in teaching. In this panel about expectations, or what the
future may hold for humanities computing, this paper will address both research and institutional issues. This
interdisciplinary practice has created new challenges in collaboration in both spheres.
From the outset, humanities computing has been an experiment in collaboration. Its introduction of
genuinely interdisciplinary conversation into the core of the humanities has had a transforming impact on the
ways in which we approach much of our work. Of course, some kinds of collaboration have already been a
key methodology in the humanities and social sciences, and the work of the twentieth century was in
significant part shaped by great collaborations—resulting in great editions, histories, and historical
dictionaries by many hands. By and large these collaborations brought together like-minded scholars working
in more or less uniform methodologies, and by and large they functioned as a perceived exception to the
preferred norm of the single scholar producing the monograph.
The nature of the collaboration generated by humanities computing is quite different from that. At the
core where the new scholarly resources originate lies a conversation between distinct disciplines and very
different research methodologies. There can be no Orlando literary history, for instance, without the specific
disciplinary expertise of the research collaborator who is a Professor of Computing Science or without the
MSc in Computing Science who works at the side of the literary historians to build the deeply encoded
Orlando Project, prepare its delivery system, and develop its interface for academics and other users. In this
project, the interdisciplinary collaboration reshapes not only the notion of history, and of the reader of history,
but also of the ways in which history is made. The Orlando collaboration has involved a training and research
124
partnership with graduate students which has become a new model for graduate education in the departments
in which it is housed.
At this stage in the development of humanities computing, which is its move from the margins of our
humanities disciplines to somewhere much closer to the centre, we are faced with the need for new kinds of
collaboration. One of these must happen within our research mandate of humanities computing; the other in
the practices of the institutions in which we are housed.
As the work of humanities computing is progressively mainstreamed and the need expands for
electronic resources whose scholarly quality and authority is undeniable, it will be important for scholarly
projects to reinforce one another’s effectiveness by developing tools and tactics for convergence. As projects
of scholarly quality and reliability emerge, they can expand their utility and resonance in new partnerships.
For instance, conversations have been initiated on the convergence of the several literary projects dealing with
women’s writing in English. Together with the Brown Women Writers Project, the Victorian Women Writers
Project, British Women Romantic Poets, the Dickinson Archives, and the Perdita Project, the Orlando Project
has discussed the possibility of networking our various but related resources. Great synergy and enhanced
utility would result, we believe, from bringing together a collection of independent text collections united by a
central architecture that translates among their different knowledge representations. To allow for a single
point of access to these established electronic text projects, however, will require a metadata standard that will
allow the information they contain to be searched, retrieved, and shared effectively. Only then will a unified
means of interrogating them be possible.
Provision of tools for this kind of integrated access to existing projects of reliable scholarly quality
will be a major challenge to institutional and international collaboration in the next stage of our development.
Now that humanities computing infrastructure is being strengthened and solidified, in Canada particularly
with the national and multi-institutional support for TAPoR (the Text Analysis Portal for Research), we need
to work towards tools that permit increased convergence and interlinking of currently discrete materials.
Numerous fields in addition to women’s writing or literature generally—history and law, for instance, in
which the separation between source and secondary materials remains strong—stand to benefit from the
investigation of possibilities for relating primary and secondary material which are involved in the kind of
collaboration I have just sketched. We need to find ways of fostering such collaboration that overcome the
various institutional and economic constraints, as well as the varied trajectories, of related projects.
But challenges in collaboration will not be restricted to research nor to the development of new tools
to enable effective research and new knowledge production in the humanities. They are also being posed – in
spades— in the area of our institutional presence and practices. So successful has the humanities computing
project been in the decade of the Web that it is becoming mainstreamed into the teaching agenda of graduate
and undergraduate programs. While only a few years ago this experiment in the bringing together of texts and
technologies was a small specialization within the broad range of humanities research and a very marginal
operation in relation to the teaching mandate of departments, it is now poised to become a curriculum
requirement at both the graduate and undergraduate levels. The need for highly qualified personnel in
humanities computing will increase enormously in the next decade, and our free-wheeling interdisciplinarity
will need to move into the phase of building new institutional structures for its work and of finding funding
for the training of a professional cadre to support teaching at both levels of curriculum. As reliable scholarly
on-line resources multiply and links between them make them increasingly useful instruments of mainstream
teaching and research, the humanities computing experiment will be mainstreamed as an important element in
cultural literacy.","txt","2","",""
"345","4","Tapor","1","Rockwell will speak on the multi-institutional Canadian TAPoR project, the Text Analysis PoRtal, and its
first-phase development, part of which has included an extensive survey of what those in the international
humanities computing community expect of their textual analysis resources. (A more detailed precis is
forthcoming.)","txt","2","",""
"346","4","DIGITAL GAMES RESEARCH, ELECTRONIC RESOURCES, AND THE CRIMINAL SCHOLAR","1","The digital games research community in the humanities and social sciences has been enjoying impressive
activity in recent years. Conferences and special sessions on digital gaming have become common across a
range of disciplines; publication on digital games is taking off with the launch of the peer-reviewed journal
Game Studies in 2001 and with several essay collections and books recently or soon to be published; the
Digital Games Research Association (DiGRA) was established in 2002 to provide researchers with a formal
network for knowledge exchange; and new courses and academic programmes covering digital games are
125
running and being developed. As the evidence suggests, academe is recognizing digital games as important
works of culture.
While these advances in digital games studies help to legitimize a field of research potentially tainted
within the serious halls of academe by the unseriousness of play, digital games researchers face an even more
challenging set of problems around access to primary texts. It sometimes seems like a dozen new video games
hit the market every week, but the truth is that quantity of titles does not necessarily make for ease of access.
Digital games, especially commercially marketed games, are expensive to purchase, sometimes impossible to
rent, and seldom available in public or university libraries or archives. The situation is even worse for legacy
and abandonware games that are no longer available for purchase on the new or used markets. This problem
shows few signs of going away.
All digital games, and many other forms of digital-born artifacts, become legacy texts as new
computing technologies supplant older ones. Support for today’s games will inevitably be dropped as new
platforms, operating systems, form factors, storage media, and physical interfaces are adopted. Obsolescence
helps drive the computing industry. But in a quarter century from now, when scholars are conducting
historical research on “classic” games from the turn of the millennium, they will want to view works like
Grand Theft Auto: Vice City. How will they do this if they cannot find operational consoles and original
copies of the game? In 50 years, when there are no working PlayStation 2 consoles and no copies of the
original disks, will they have a legal means for viewing the texts?
The humanities computing community, among others, has been working hard for decades on a similar
set of problems around preservation of print texts. Its strategy has been to promote standardized mark-up
languages to preserve texts in digital form for as long as text is supported by computers. Similar efforts
against the tyranny of technological obsolescence are necessary if we hope to archive digital-born works that
do not easily fit within the relatively narrow scope of text markup languages like XML.
One of the most promising means for preserving digital games comes from the development of game
system emulators. The gaming community has been building, updating, and using emulators for years. One of
the best known and most ambitious is MAME (Multiple Arcade Machine Emulator), which was first released
in 1997. Like other game system emulators, MAME reads and plays game ROMs originally stored on the
component boards and cartridges for arcade and console systems. Thousands of these ROMs are available on
the Internet for download.
Building emulators, ripping game ROMs for Internet distribution, and using ROMs to view games are
activities that raise several difficult legal issues around copyright. Playing copyrighted game ROMs for which
one does not own a license or have permission seems clearly to contravene copyright law. But what is an
academic to do if there are no means to acquire legal permission to play game ROMs? Given recent reforms
to copyright law in the US and soon in Canada, some digital games research activities straddle the gray line
between legal and illegal. Are digital game researchers who use emulators without licenses performing
criminal activities in the name of knowledge building?
In an effort to decriminalize digital games research, scholars of digital games and of culture in general
need to be developing and promoting strategies for archiving digital game materials to support current and
future research in the area. In addition to presenting the problem of digital game archives, this paper will
propose the following solutions:
1. Libraries and Archives: If academe is going to include digital games within the purview of its
goal to preserve cultural artifacts, then it needs to build collections, provide viewing facilities,
and maintain legacy platforms. This section of the paper will also give a quick summary of
current archives.
2. Emulation: New forms of emulation need to be developed to support legacy systems and
copyright legislation needs to be developed covering use of emulators for games unavailable
on the market for academic research. These strategies raise their own set of questions around
whether academics have inherent rights to view cultural works if copyright owners have
chosen to make the works unavailable.
3. Negotiation with Game Publishers: Academics and university libraries need to negotiate
licensing agreements with game developers to legally store emulators and legacy ROMs for
digital games research.
These proposed solutions provide only partial answers to the larger problems surrounding
preservation of digital works that do not fit well into the model supported by current markup languages. But if
the fields of humanities computing and digital media hope to build and support research on multimedia texts,
then we need to broaden our strategies or, at the very least, distribute “get-out-of-jail-free” cards to scholars
forced to live the research life of a criminal.","txt","2","",""
"347","4","A MOST RARE VISION: THE INTERNET SHAKESPEARE EDITIONS","1","The Internet Shakespeare Editions (ISE) were created in 1996, with the simple, but ambitious, aim of making
scholarly, fully annotated texts of Shakespeare’s plays available in a form native to the medium of the
Internet. The first tasks were to establish both an academic infrastructure and a design for the site as a whole.
The complexity of the process of integrating an advanced academic structure with the new medium was such
that I chose to designate myself the “Coordinating” Editor: one whose job was to provide connections
between the academic and the technical.
To ensure high quality academic input into the Editions, I created an Advisory Board, with
representation from various flavours of Shakespearean editorial traditions, as well as some members whose
expertise was in the area of electronic texts. As with any major editorial project, each major work will be
edited by individual scholars, or teams of scholars in collaboration. On the technical side, there were two
initial considerations: the nature of the tagging of the electronic texts, and the design of the site. I took the risk
of creating a special, simplified tagset for the editions, designed to make the process of tagging sufficiently
uncomplicated that it could be used by a scholar more versed in the intricacies of Shakespeare’s texts than in
the then-standard TEI-SGML. At the same time, the site adhered to the general principles concerning
electronic texts as established by early work in the field by Faulhaber and Schillingsberg. Thus the tagset was
designed in such a way that it could at a later stage be automatically converted to a more standard format, and
indeed ISE-tagged texts can now be converted to well-formed XML by a Perl script. The design of the site
itself was structured to make the most of the expectations of the Internet, while at the same time sending a
clear signal concerning the academic credibility of the refereed materials published. Using the metaphor of a
library, the site was divided into a Foyer for introductory and explanatory materials, the Library itself, where
only fully peer-reviewed materials would be published, and an Annex, where draft texts and other less formal
materials could be published.
The basic academic and design elements are unchanged after seven years, and have stood the test of
experience. There have been, however, some significant developments. The ISE now has a General Textual
Editor, a distinguished young editor, Eric Rasmussen, who is also involved in the highly demanding, part
electronic New Variorum edition of Hamlet. All Shakespeare’s plays are now transcribed as initially printed;
several plays are represented by more than one text, since they were initially published in one or more
Quartos before the appearance of the First Folio (1623). The range of texts has also been expanded to include
six plays first published in the Third Folio of 1663, wrongly attributed to Shakespeare. It has also become
clear that an important service that can be supplied by a site like the ISE is the publication of reference works
that are no longer in print. John Velz’s important Shakespeare and the Classical Tradition (originally
published in 1968) is now published on the site in a graphic facsimile, thanks to his generosity in making it
available. A further significant addition is the major reference work on Shakespeare and film by Kenneth
Rothwell. Again, the author has made his work available; in this instance, the text has been rescued from
ancient 5 1/4 inch floppy disks, and is in the process of being transformed into database format to permit rapid
searches and regular updates.
It is clear that the future direction of the ISE will involve a more general movement towards the use
of relational database structures in other areas. The site has recently acquired permission to link images of the
complete Folios 1–4 to the transcribed texts; to do this we are developing a database structure based on the
transcribed XML texts.
The most important further development of the site will be in the area of performance. One of the
much-vaunted capacities of the electronic text is its capacity to link to “texts” of a different kind: graphics,
sound, and video. Shakespeare is a perfect vehicle for experimentation in this area, since his plays are filmed
and performed with such frequency that a whole discipline of criticism depends on discussing his plays in
performance. One of the great challenges in developing a performance database of this kind is copyright. For
copyright reasons, it is unlikely that much material from popular films will be accessible; the “workaround” is
to turn to the remarkably rich source of staging documents of various kinds created by the inventive and
creative work of the many professional companies that perform Shakespeare around North America,
especially in open-air forums. A parallel challenge is to create a data model that will reveal patterns within the
materials as they are added, and allow for both simple and advanced searches by students, scholars, and
actors. This section of the ISE has the potential to become a major research tool in its own right, and will in
due course require that a further specialist editor be appointed to oversee the process of ensuring quality in the
kinds of materials stored in the database. A dedicated section of the site, the Theater, will lodge the
performance database.
The ISE is pleased to be contributing both its texts and images to the developing Text Analysis Portal
for Research, at present under development by a consortium of six universities in Canada. Together with our
127
sister institutions, we look forward to enhancing the kinds of readings we can offer visitors to the site. As we
work towards integrating multimedia texts with encoded transcriptions and modern, annotated editions, the
design of sensitive and inclusive metadata, of the kind under development in TAPoR by the team at the
University of New Brunswick will be central, as will the expertise of Ian Lancashire’s group at the University
of Toronto, as further tools for the online analysis of texts, along the lines of TACT and PatterWeb, are
developed.","txt","2","",""
"348","4","Ambiguity, Technology, and Scholarly Communication","1","PART I
Jerome McGann very subtly puts his finger on a point of stress between humanities computing (especially as
pursued through text encoding) and traditional literary studies:
[Computer-facilitated] methods, however, cannot concern themselves with aesthetic issues because they
forego any engagement with the 'minute particulars' of specific works. More crucially, while these approaches
view their materials of study as indeterminate and non-transparent, the critical instruments they deploy are
not. Computers and computer programs may be (and often are) extremely ‘complex’; nonetheless, their
functionality depends upon their determinate and self-transparent structures. [from “Radiant Textuality”,
http://www.iath.virginia.edu/public/jjm2f/radiant.html]
The apparent incongruity between computational approaches and encoded data, on the one hand, and
literary meaning on the other, becomes more poignant and more interesting as our digital tools become
steadily more powerful and nuanced, and as the community of scholars with access to such tools broadens to
include those with traditional “aesthetic” or critical, rather than linguistic, interest in the text. For this
community, the problem of ambiguity and its related terms—indeterminacy, multivalence, uncertainty,
disagreement—is central not only to their own work, but also to their perception of the new digital tools,
which will seem alien and beside the point unless they can accommodate themselves to these qualities. Partly
in recognition of this, at ALLC2002 in Tuebingen, Stephen Ramsay suggested a “ludic” approach (building
on McGann’s “deformative” criticism), in which the computer is not so much turned to the purposes of a
literary “panopticon” (if this may serve as a figure for the text encoder’s ideal of transparent access to a text,
indexed, concordanced, and marked up for any kind of processing or analysis), but is more like an instrument
of play, gambling or divination.
Yet the larger question remains. This assumption of incongruity bears reexamination, and not only
from the standpoint of digital tools and literary method but within the entire economy of scholarly research
and communication. When we ask precisely why—or whether—digital methods cannot accommodate the
detailed textual insight on which literary criticism is built, we also raise several larger issues which this
session will seek to articulate and address.
First, as Wendell Piez will argue, a careful inspection of the problem of “ambiguity” (and digital
technology’s presumed incapacity with it) reveals this is a problem that subsists not at a single level, but at
every level of the system. Just as we feel there to be a difference or stress between an “ambiguous” literary
text and a “disambiguated”, cleanly marked up representation thereof, so also we insist there is a difference
between how an electronic interface presents traditional textual scholarship from how a critical edition in
print does it—and so also we find our work is difficult to evaluate and credit by traditional norms. A close
consideration shows these ambiguities and destabilizations not to be a characteristic of electronic work per se,
128
but rather of poles within scholarly work in general, which is always dedicated both to ambiguities and their
resolution—poles whose magnetic tension is being energized by the solvent effect of the new technologies on
traditionally stable institutional roles.
Next, Julia Flanders will explore the assumption that text encoding cannot accommodate the kinds of
ambiguity that are essential to scholarly textual representation and study. For reasons stemming from the
history of scholarly textual study, text encoding is greeted with ambivalence as a tool for representing the
subtler aspects of textual meaning. But not only can markup technologies, in principle, describe a much wider
and less determinate range of textual phenomena than is presently acknowledged, but in addition they will
need to do so in order to respond to and represent the real thinking and work scholars do with texts. This
paper will consider how such a model of text encoding might fit within the larger environment of scholarly
communication.
Finally, John Lavagnino reflects on the “scholarly economy” and the always-ambiguous efforts, and
occasional successes, of scholars in reaching audiences outside their own narrow circles. It turns out that just
as we wonder whether there is any audience left at all, it turns out new forms of distribution and access create
new kinds of connections across boundaries. This, in turn, prompts one to consider the question of
“ambiguity” rather in light of how we make our own language(s) and concerns of interest to readers who do
not bring our own presuppositions to the work. Broader audiences have problems with ambiguous language or
oblique references, but to counteract leveling tendencies of the electronic medium we can expect scholarly
publications to feel impelled towards greater explicitness in some respects anyway.
REFERENCES
William Empson. “Preface to the second edition”. Seven Types of Ambiguity. London: Hogarth, 1984.
Rob Kling, Lisa Spector, and Geoff McKim. “The Guild Model”. Journal of Electronic Publishing 8:1,
August 2002.
Jerome McGann. “Radiant Textuality”. http://www.iath.virginia.edu/public/jjm2f/radiant.html
PART II
SCHOLARLY TRANSGRESSIONS
Wendell Piez
One might imagine a number of questions we could pose at the intersection of electronic text, and specifically
electronic text that makes sophisticated use of markup technologies, and traditional problems or areas of
interest of literary criticism. For this session we have agreed to consider the concept of “ambiguity” in the
light of e-text technologies and humanities computing projects (or the humanities computing project in
general), and/or vice versa: e-text in the light of approaches to “ambiguity”.
Examining a particular text (my paper selects a randomly-found snippet from a pulp horror short
story [example 1]) to see how ambiguity might manifest itself in literary language (that is to say, where even
the most traditional critic might turn for such an example), it is apparent that ambiguity comes with the
territory (as it were) of reading: indeed, reading itself (particularly the reading of narrative) is an engagement
with a continuous chain of ambiguities, ambiguities suggested, modulated, and ultimately resolved (or not).
This movement, in fact, can be observed at several levels at once in the course of reading, from the lexical
level of the senses of words on up through various figurative structures into the narrative itself (and
sometimes into wider contexts than that). It is intriguing to note that already, examining a text in this way, we
can discern a dimension of textual experience which is the very stuff of literary criticism, but which hitherto,
markup systems have not tried to describe. (To my knowledge. In part, this may be due to the predisposition
of markup to model a text as a synchronous artifact, whereas the shifts and eddies of senses in a sentence or
paragraph occur diachronously, i.e. through time, and subjectively and variably so.) And already we have
noticed something we can call “ambiguity”: ambiguity is when two or more possibilities are in play, and
which of them will hold true depends on factors unresolved, unknown or unknowable. More often than not,
these factors are part of the context within which the ambiguity occurs.
This is why when we look at something on the opposite extreme—an example of a markup language
identifying ambiguities or uncertainties in or regarding its content (and as an example here I have a fragment
of a DTD for a biographical encyclopedia in which several forms of dates are given, including various kinds
of ""unknown"" dates [example 2]), we may laugh to suppose that this should be taken to be an example of
“ambiguity in markup”. It is the opposite: a systematic (and hence, unambiguous, at least if well-designed for
its purpose) representation of ambiguity. TEI certainty attributes fall into this same category.
Yet when we look at electronic technologies (such as the encyclopedia that provides the context for
the “naturalized” or “domesticated” ambiguity just cited, a work accessible in all kinds of ways besides print)
nonetheless we see something deeply “ambiguous” about them. Considering a series of scans of print and
129
electronic scholarly productions (I’ll show scans of a literary anthology, a critical edition with commentary of
an Ancient Greek text, and of two or three not untypical electronic interfaces [examples 3-7]), they apparently
share some striking qualities: all of them have their particular ways of represented and “resolving”
ambiguities by drawing attention to them and finding some actual or supposed resolution. (This generally
involves some simple protocol to be followed by the reader, such as consulting footnotes or marginalia, or
selecting with a pointer). In fact, this seems of the essence of scholarly work (perhaps in contrast to the
publishing of theoretical tracts). So why are electronic media so “hot”, so scary, so cool or so retrograde?
Why is it even an issue whether and how they represent the world (or scholarly research) differently from
more established media such as journal articles and bound monographs? What accounts for the “culture gap”
between traditional literary studies and “humanities computing”?
E-text technologies, it is apparent, both create new contexts for the reception, examination and study
of literary or historic artifacts, and represent missing contexts in new ways (for as it turns out, the
representation of missing contexts is much of what scholarship has always had to be concerned about). Yet I
don’t think this is the real reason why they raise questions with such apparent urgency, since more traditional
forms of scholarly work do much the same; at least it does not account for the urgency fully. Rather, if one
broadens one’s view again to yet a greater context, a deeper reason for both excitement and anxiety appears.
Scholars, publishers, marketers, audiences, and librarians have all played quite distinct roles in a
highly-developed, elaborate information economy [see attached diagram]. In reality, of course, this economy
is incredibly complex and layered—the diagram is only the most schematic representation of it and much
could be said to extend and qualify what it can only hint at—but even in this simple view, it is apparent how
both stresses and opportunities could arise with the introduction of technologies (such as the web) that both
accelerate the movement of information (“stuff”) through the system as a whole, and circumvent established
channels and relationships within it. A world in which librarians or scholars or writers can become,
effectively, publishers—using electronic media to go directly to an audience—and this is just the beginning of
the disruptions caused by e-text—is a very different world from the old one. No more is the scholarly
economy one in which value and status are directly based on the scarcity of a narrow set of resources: the
available inches of pages in the name journals, or the attentions of the marketing department in a university
press, who will assure that the product becomes “visible” to a readership or acquisitions department. Rather,
where everyone can be a publisher it will not be the fact that someone selects you that connects you with an
audience, but something else: quality, topicality, timeliness, record of success.
That is, in order to ask whether e-media can address or represent “ambiguity”, we might need to move
beyond a merely pedagogical, phenomenological, or aesthetic critique of an electronic resource or tool in
itself, to anchor our question within the larger context of the ambiguities that the very existence of such a tool
introduces into the dusty realm of scholarly practices and folkways: ambiguities that are heightened, not
reduced, to whatever extent the new electronic resource manages to stimulate and support something
recognizable as serious scholarly work. E-media as such may be no better, nor worse, at representing
ambiguity in general than any other media or format: yet they are problematic—we raise questions about
them—because they introduce ambiguities where before there were none (“Is this guy qualified for the job?”).
Rather, now we come to a point when the explosion of available information is finally balanced by the
explosion of available ways of participating and contributing, a kind of gift economy. It could be we are
coming to a moment when the long-cultivated specialization of the literary scholar actually plays against
itself: what was once an advantage (as institutions of academic departments and publishers grew better
defined and rigid in their roles and categories), comes to be a liability in an age when the premium is on
(superficially) some facility with machines and (more deeply) the particular intellectual capacities that are
required to work with emerging media. As we know, these are capacities such as versatility, adaptability,
imagination, a bent for cooperation and teamwork, and the broad view towards new possibilities (even while
e-text also continues to support established media formats)—without ever requiring that a serious scholar
change what she or he fundamentally does, the questioning, searching and synthesizing.
REFERENCES
Epstein, Jason. Book Business. New York: W.W. Norton, 2002. [See also an excerpt, “Reading: The Digital
Future”, at http://www.nybooks.com/articles/14318]
PART III
AMBIGUITY AND TEXT ENCODING
Julia Flanders
Text encoding and technology enter as interlopers into the complex and tense arena of scholarly publication,
in which scholars are in fact conflicted about whether they want their technologies of representation to be
130
transparent or not. Within this arena, text encoding is either too factual, too empirical, to be useful to the
humanistic enterprise—or else, in trying to be otherwise, it trespasses on a domain in which it is seen as an
alien force. On the one hand, if markup is merely a means of representing true or at least widely accepted
facts about a text, then does it not also have the effect of stiffening the text, making it less supple, reducing its
fruitful human indeterminacy, limiting the reader's interaction with the text?
And on the other hand, if markup is more than this—if it is a means of intervening in the text,
mapping or mimicking scholarly subjectivity and experimentation—then does it not usurp or destabilize the
role of the scholar? If it mimics our own interventions, it does so with a difference: that is, the ambiguities
scholars want are the ones that emerge from our own human sensibilities, not the ones that come from some
other, non-human domain.
This conflicted relationship with digital tools for textual representation stems from the historical roots
of modern literary publication and textual editing. In this model of textual production, the text has
immanence: its meaning is the quintessence of human insight and wisdom, the distillation of what makes
humanity rich and deep and complex and morally sound. This is most obvious in the case of the poet, but
inasmuch as the scholarly editor is editing cultural texts which carry this weight, the editor is the modern
surrogate of the poet, bringing the poet’s wisdom back to vibrancy by restoring and representing his or her
text. The scholarly editor must have a wisdom and sensibility which matches that of the poet in order to be
able to fulfill this role—must have insight into the poet’s likely meaning, habitual language use, taste, and so
forth. The reconstruction of the original text (regardless of one’s preferences as to copy text, treatment of
variants, and so forth) depends on the deployment of expert judgment to both express and control the presence
of ambiguity in the text: to make that ambiguity the field of the editor’s expertise, rather than a challenge
thereto.
While text markup has been widely accepted as an editorial tool for the preparation of scholarly
editions of many sorts (as evidenced by the existence of efforts such as the Model Editions Partnership, the
Walt Whitman Archives, the Canterbury Tales Project, the Piers Plowman Archive, and many others), its
domain is assumed to be limited to expressing the text's determinacies, not its indeterminacies. Indeed, this
suitability for expressing textual structure and behavior in a consistent, rigorous way is taken as text
encoding’s chief virtue, and the development of high-quality encoding schemes focuses on establishing
methods that will minimize ambiguity and indeterminacy. This approach has brought text encoding
methodology to a high degree of effectiveness in representing the kinds and aspects of texts that lend
themselves to this treatment.
But what of the aspects of textual communication which on the contrary require an attentiveness to
ambiguity itself? And what if instead of simply representing the text we aim to provide a scaffolding or
additional musculature that can support our readerly and critical activities—a text encoding which more
actively intervenes in the textual economy being established? Consider the following brief list of concepts and
domains in which ambiguity or multiplicity of meaning could play a central role in our textual work:
• the representation of scholarly disagreement within a given edition (whether at the level of
the interpretation of a particular mark on the page, or the ordering of sections, or the
interpretation of the meaning of a given passage)
• the representation of aspects of the text for which a controlled (i.e. disambiguated)
vocabulary cannot provide sufficient nuance: aspects which, in effect, cannot be “digitized”,
which have infinitely fine granularity
• the representation of textual variation in a way which does not merely capture the existing
readings, but also the suspension of their resolution, the ways in which they do not simply
displace one another but coexist
If text markup seems to operate at a different level of abstraction from these domains, it is because of
what we assume about its empirical commitments, its alliances with determinacy and fixity, with ascertaining
and clarifying meaning rather than allowing it to hover before the reader. Our current understanding of text
encoding is as a powerful tool for presenting alternatives, for allowing us to choose, rather than for helping us
to probe a more complex domain in a more hesitant or searching manner.
Can text markup (and its companion tools for digital representation of text) be used to redirect our
attention and ambition towards a subtler textual economy? And would such a tool find acceptance within the
scholarly community? This paper will consider the possibilities within the current environment of humanistic
scholarly communication.
131
PART IV
AMBIGUITY, LANGUAGE, AND THE SCHOLARLY
ECONOMY
John Lavagnino
We hear a great deal about the difficulty of getting certain kinds of scholarship published, notably printed
monographs. Yet in other respects academic work is becoming more readily available to a large public,
reversing the trend of the period from the 1970s through the 1990s when there was a contraction of
availability. It’s not just that scholars, like many other people, can now publish on the web; it's that web
publications of current and back issues of journals can have the side effect of exposing scholarship to people
in other fields who wouldn't have thought of consulting them, and it happens whether the authors of the
scholarship thought they were doing Web publishing or not.
JSTOR is one example of this, as it seeks to cover a broad range of fields and makes it a simple
matter to decide that you’ll look for your topic in political-science journals as well as the literary-studies
journals you really expect to have what you want. But many online journal organizations are similar: in this
field you usually see an organization doing either one journal or dozens. Economically, the logic pushes such
an organization to do as many as possible once they’ve done a few; for the reader, it’s another instance of the
Web effect—if it’s quick and simple to take a look at something you may well do so.
These are journal systems that cater to academic audiences; but there is already some overlap with
wider audiences, who sometimes have access to such systems and who constitute another market for the
future. And from the point of view of any individual field most of the academic world is a popular audience,
of people who do not know a particular field's history and practices.
One of the many effects of the rise of the Web, then, is that our academic writing is likely to be
encountered by people in distant fields, or perhaps not even in academic life. They may take an interest in our
subjects matter without knowing the history or conventions of our fields; they may find the presentation
offputting or puzzling.
One response to this situation is to change nothing. This is the arXiv.org approach: this very large
online collection of preprints of scientific papers adapts an existing practice in scientific communication to
the new medium, and does it well; but without changing the nature of scientific writing and without changing
the audience for it. (See Kling et al for some astute discussion of this system and some other models for
academic publishing that aren’t journal-oriented.) The papers on a topic such as astrophysics are no more
comprehensible by those outside the field than the usual run of published papers, and indeed these are mostly
papers that will shortly be published in the usual journals. And it works: many people use it and it serves its
purpose within the field, though it doesn't make any effort to help other audiences understand the work.
We could adopt such an approach, but scholars in the humanities will find it harder to do, because
outsiders to most humanities fields still assume that the literature is (or ought to be) comprehensible to them:
that academic writing about astrophysics needn’t make any sense to outsiders but academic writing about
history or literature should. Where arXiv.org doesn’t need to make much of an effort to scare away outsiders,
the equivalent in the humanities would have to take positive steps in that direction.
We should also think about whether it’s in our interest to repel people interested in our work. There
is an ethical argument against such a practice: in the end our work is financed by the general public and it
ought to be available to them. And there is a strategic argument: we might see more funding for our work if it
was more visible; if our work is likely to be more visible anyway, then seeking to make effective
presentations of our work for this larger audience would be wise, as a way of inviting interest and sympathy
rather than hostility.
Discussions of problems that outsiders have in reading academic writing tend to focus on jargon, but
such discussions tend to be superficial; as in learning entirely foreign languages, acquisition of a particular
critical language involves gaining an understanding of suggestions and implications in words that are not
easily encapsulated in definitions. We can compare a comment that William Empson made: when teaching in
Japan and China he warned his students away from his famous book “Seven Types of Ambiguity”, because
without a native understanding of the language it was misleading: his approach was not based on tracking
down every possible ambiguity, but only those that had some relevance in context (xii). It’s characteristic of
language use within a subculture that a lot is going on that the outsider just can’t see.
It is easy but ineffective to suggest that scholars should simply write with an eye to a larger audience;
it can diminish the effectiveness of a contribution for its scholarly audience (by diluting its originality through
the need to take up space explaining familiar things) and it is a difficult task to state the general principles
underlying one’s practice. We may see some movement in this direction, but it will be the aspect of scholarly
writing that will be the slowest to change.
132
But change in other aspects of the publication of scholarly work are more open to change, in part
because they’re changing already in the electronic world. We know that some conventional framing devices
that are part of the meaning of print publications are not readily interpreted by outsiders: such as the authority
of particular journals. But that kind of framing device is already attenuated by electronic publication in many
cases: the visual effect of a particular journal’s typography is lost in many journals that are published online
in HTML conversions, for example, and there is much more of an impetus to focus on individual articles
rather than on whole numbers of a journal. Many influential journals in the humanities have had quite
specific agendas, but it is comparatively rare for such agendas to be spelled out with any frequency; there is a
strong incentive for electronic journals to move in that direction, though, to counteract the leveling tendency
of the medium, and greater explicitness about aims helps neophytes.
When the electronic journal is encountered as part of a huge collection of journals, rather than as
something with a slant and subject matter that matter for a particular subfield, there is a strong impetus to be
explicit not just about overall aims but about individual offerings. Humanities journals have mostly not
included abstracts of articles or systematic cross-references to related articles, but we can expect to see more
of these because they are the kind of feature that make it clearer what one journal has to offer that’s different
from what many other equally accessible journals have.
We are starting to see the effects of large-scale electronic publication, and while these may not be as
utopian as commonly predicted a decade ago, we can see ways in which they are making life better: not only
providing richer resources for scholarly work, but also tending to encourage wider access to the fruits of
scholarship and more mixing of the disciplines.","txt","2","",""
"350","4","Chasing DTDs. The Digital Edition of the Repertorium Biblicum Medii Aevi","1","THE REPERTORIUM BIBLICUM MEDII AEVI
The Repertorium Biblicum Medii Aevi, edited between 1950 and 1980 by Friedrich Stegmüller and Klaus
Reinhardt in 11 volumes, is a major reference work for studies in various medieval disciplines such as
theology, history, philology, and philosophy. Within its approximately 12,000 catalogue entries, listing almost
24,000 commentaries, the ‘Repertorium’ includes all commentaries of the Bible that have been written until
1500. The single volumes, published at the ‘Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas’ (Madrid), have
been subdivided into Apocryphes, Commentaries of known and unknown authors, Supplements, and Glossa
ordinaria. Thus, the ‘Repertorium’ contains the largest part of the medieval commentary tradition of the Bible.
In July 2002, a team of philologists and computer scientists started to prepare a digitized version of
the ‘Repertorium Biblicum Medii Aevi’ taking into account scholarly demands in order to open up new
possibilities for tackling this enormous amount of valuable data.
TARGETS, STARTING POSITION
In the printed edition of the ‘Repertorium Biblicum’, the extensive material is structured by the registers of
the incipits (beginnings) of a given commentary. However, apart from these incipits, the ‘Repertorium’ also
contains short biographies of its authors, bibliographies of research literature, dates, commented works, and
the manuscript tradition as well as the tradition of early prints.
The electronic edition of the ‘Repertorium’ will enable all users to search within these and further
categories such as specific manuscripts, libraries and archives, commented Bible-books, various types of
135
commentaries, specific authors, or dates of special importance. Moreover, many supplements and corrections
collected after the publication of the printed ‘Repertorium Biblicum’ will be integrated into the digital
‘Repertorium’; scholars will thus have the possibility to work with the updated material on-line.
Currently the data input is taking place; it will be completed in January 2003. The 2nd volume of the
‘Repertorium Biblicum’ has already been digitized and marked up to a certain degree in order to analyze its
structure and to develop tagging routines which can be easily adapted to the structure of the other volumes
afterwards.
FROM DOCUMENT-ANALYSIS TO ENCODING
The structure of the ‘Repertorium Biblicum’ is very complex. It can be described as an entry catalogue of
authors and/or of titles which are given in alphabetical order. In general, an entry has three different parts: 1.
work, 2. chronological data and short bibliography, and 3. commentaries of that specific work. An entry can
consist of part 1 and part 2 only; if part 3, which can be repeated several times, is given at all, part 2 can be
omitted. For inserting the markup, these three parts, with the logical order of an entry, have to be
distinguished thoroughly.
Part 3 is the most complex one to be encoded. It consists of two subdivisions, namely of quotations
taken from a specific work in the form of incipits or explicits, and of sometimes lengthy lists of manuscripts
and editions of the work quoted. Whereas all entries follow the strict alphabetical order and show dictionary
patterns (macrostructure), the information on manuscripts given in part 3 rather resembles a repository guide
or an archival finding aid (microstructure)—a fact that forces one to combine two different logical structures.
On the basis of a thorough document analysis, we fixed criteria for the markup and encoded the 2nd
volume of the ‘Repertorium’ using an internally defined tag-set. The encoding has been carried out using
TUSTEP programs. Being designed to cope with mass data, TUSTEP disposes of very powerful and highly
specific algorithms which allow to search large amounts of text for recurring patterns. We can than—within
TUSTEP—develop our own procedures to automatically copy, modify and sort these patterns according to
our individual demands. In the future, the internal tag-set could easily be replaced by a standardized DTD
such as TEI or MASTER.
A TESTBED FOR THE SELECTION OF VARIOUS DTDS
Since the development of a new DTD is a very expensive and time-consuming process, we wanted to check
whether DTD schemes already in existence could easily be applied to the ‘Repertorium’, taking into account
its varying structures. In encoding the ‘Repertorium’, the markup of its dictionary structure is as important as
the markup of its archival finding aid patterns. We therefore examined the TEI DTD, which has been
successfully applied in various projects at Trier University (cf. Panel Session “Into the Depths of Data.
Methods of Subject Specific Content Retrieval” at the ALLC/ACH-Conference 2002 in Tübingen), Docbook,
with its rich options for bibliography encoding, and, especially concerning the archival character of the
‘Repertorium’, EAD (Encoded Archival Description) and MASTER.
Having implemented various types of markup, it seems as if Docbook’s possibilities for covering
complex technical writing and simple bibliographies were too restricted for encoding the ‘Repertorium
Biblicum’. With TEI, the ‘Repertorium’ could be fully encoded by using a great quantity of particularly
specified attributes. This could, however, complicate the proper markup and its understanding.
It is not always possible to describe the ‘Repertorium’s structure according to the DTDs especially
created for the markup of archival material or manuscript archives; e.g. the ‘Repertorium’ gives the relevant
bibliographical data after incipits are quoted etc. While EAD partially covers the criteria of alphabetical order
combined with various quotations, its logic does not follow the listing of manuscripts in the third part of a
‘Repertorium’s entry. The definition of MASTER’s <msDescription>-tag, that would fully cover the complex
structure of the repository guide part, does not allow one to list several manuscripts after quotations,
requesting instead a strict sequence of manuscripts.
At the moment, TEI, MASTER, and EAD are being benchmarked against each other by encoding the
2nd volume according to these standards. MASTER seems to be most appropriate for encoding; however,
some questions remain. Our paper will discuss the final decision for MASTER confronting the three DTDs’
advantages.
THE FUTURE OF DIGITIZATION AND RESEARCH
By now, the 2nd volume has been encoded according to an internal markup derived from the document
analysis. As mentioned above, this markup could easily be replaced by tags compliant to one of the possible
DTDs (MASTER, TEI, EAD, Docbook). At the time of the conference, the majority of the ’Repertorium
Biblicum’ will be fully encoded (probably according to MASTER); it will also be partly accessible for varied
on-line research. Questions to be discussed when presenting the ‘Repertorium Biblicum’ may focus on
problems of the applicability of defined frameworks like TEI to complex documents with an inconsistent and
often irregular structure.
136
REFERENCES
The Cambridge History of the Bible vol. 2: The West from the Fathers to the Reformation. Ed. G. W. H.
Lampe (Cambridge 1969).
Klaus Reinhardt - Horacio Santiago Otero, Biblioteca Bíblica Ibérica Medieval (Madrid 1986).
Klaus Reinhardt: La Biblia en la Península Ibérica durante la edad media (siglos XII-XV): el texto y su
interpretación (Coimbra 2001).
Homepage: http://www.uni-trier.de/repbib","txt","2","",""
"351","4","Linguistic Corpus Construction and Analysis Before and After the IT Revolution: The Newcastle Electronic Corpus of Tyneside English in the 1960s and Now","1","URL: http://www.ncl.ac.uk/necte
The theme of this conference is the impact of IT generally, and of the Web in particular, on
humanities research. The Newcastle Electronic Corpus of Tyneside English (NECTE) project is an ideal case
study on this theme. It is, in large part, based on the Tyneside Linguistic Survey (TLS), which, in the decade
1965-1975, attempted to construct an electronic corpus of the distinctive ‘Geordie’ dialect spoken in
north-eastern England, and to analyze it computationally. That attempt failed, but, because of its
importance—both historically and to the cultural identity of the region—we have received research council
funding to salvage the original TLS materials, amalgamate them with a more recent dialect survey, and
produce a state of the art web-based electronic resource of Tyneside English. We are, therefore, in an
excellent position to assess the impact of the IT revolution on corpus construction and analysis.
HISTORY
The NECTE project amalgamates two separate corpora of recorded speech, one of them collected in the late
1960s as part of the TLS project (cf. Strang 1968), and the other in 1994 (cf. Milroy et al. 1997). The TLS
material is the object of interest here. It originally consisted of audiotaped with 100 informants drawn from a
stratified random sample of Gateshead in North-East England. Many, but not all, of the interviews were
orthographically and phonetically transcribed. These transcriptions were then electronically encoded, and in
that form were the basis for subsequent computational analysis. Although several publications emerged from
the corpus in the interim, there was no further work on the corpus until 1995, when it was properly archived.
In 2001 we were awarded a substantial research grant to produce an enhanced electronic corpus resource from
a combination of the TLS and the 1994 collections which will eventually be made available to the research
community in a variety of formats: digitized sound, phonetic transcription, and standard orthographic
transcription, all aligned and available on the Web. This process is now well advanced.
ANALYSIS
In the late 1960s the TLS research team pioneered a methodological approach that is still radical today. In
contrast to the theory-driven methodology, which was universal in sociolinguistic accounts of the
1960’s/1970’s—and which still predominates—the TLS proposed a fundamentally empirical approach in
which salient factors are extracted from the data itself, and then serve as the basis for model construction.
Unlike the Labovian paradigm, therefore, social and linguistic factors were never selected by the analyst on
the basis of a predefined model of either language or society.
To this end, the project created an electronic corpus from a subset of the data and applied cluster
analysis to it. Interesting preliminary results were published, but nothing was done thereafter: the TLS never
completed its research program, and consequently failed to make a significant impact on the research
community. This failure is, we feel, primarily due to implementation issues in general and more specifically
to the inadequate computational / IT resources available at the time. After 30 or so years the issues which
proved so intractable to the TLS research group have been resolved, and it is now possible both to bring the
TLS agenda to completion, and also to augment it in important ways.
In what follows, we first identify the computational / IT factors that confronted the TLS project, then
describe how these have since been resolved, and finally draw some general conclusions as to how the IT
revolution has impacted upon the construction and analysis of linguistic corpora.
PROBLEMS
Hardware
The rudimentary computational hardware of the late 1960s and early 1970s seriously hampered what could be
achieved:
• Data input using punched cards was slow and error-prone, and error correction via the same
139
medium was unreliable. Creation of electronic files from what is, by contemporary standards,
a moderate-sized corpus was a major undertaking, and only slightly over half the material
was ever digitised as a result.
• Limited memory and low processing speed prevented some tasks being done within a
reasonable time, or indeed at all. Cluster analysis of the TLS electronic files had to be done in
several stages because the entire data set could not be held in memory, and this had
significant consequences for the usability of the results.
• Output was entirely text-oriented; there were no graphics facilities. Direct visualization of
analytical results, such as cluster dendograms, was consequently difficult.
Software
• Operating systems of the period handled basic file I/O, but very little application software
was available. The TLS project team had to write most of its own processing software.
• The available character set was restricted to the standard upper and lower case letters,
numerical digits, and punctuation marks. Fonts for IPA symbols and the elaborate system of
diacritics which TLS used for fine phonetic distinctions were unavailable and so these could
not be directly visualized; the project had to work instead with numeric codes for these
symbols.
Publication
The above hardware and software factors were inconveniences that could be, and to some extent were,
overcome by TLS. Publication of the corpus itself and of analytical results was, on the other hand, a genuine
impediment:
• Lack of portability: The absence of any generally accepted standards for electronic corpus
construction and data encoding combined with the fact that programs for processing the data
were project-specific meant that access to the material was not easy for other researchers.
• Lack of a convenient delivery medium: The only way to transfer data from one site to another
was physically to carry digital tape from place to place. There is no indication in the project
papers of any awareness that it might be possible and, indeed, beneficial from a preservation
perspective, for the electronic corpus to be provided to other researchers.
RESOLUTIONS
Thirty or so years on, none of the above constraints apply:
• Hardware: Memory size and processing power have progressed enormously since the TLS
era, and neither is now an issue for corpus linguists. There is no longer a significant limit on
corpus size or on the amount of data that can be simultaneously processed in numerical
analysis. Hardware improvements have also made it possible to develop and implement
computationally more demanding cluster analysis algorithms, such as self-organizing maps,
which could not have run in a reasonable time earlier on. High resolution graphics now make
visual display of phonetic symbols and cluster diagrams straightforward.
• Software: There is now a very wide range of ready-made software for statistical and cluster
analysis as well as for ancillary purposes, so it is rarely necessary to write bespoke software,
and there are specialty fonts for the display of phonetic symbols.
• Publication: There are now standards for character sets (Unicode) and document structuring
(XML) which make corpora that adopt these standards portable and directly usable by other
researchers. The connectivity of the Internet, together with the pervasiveness and accessibility
of the Web, have opened up new possibilities for corpus publication.
CONCLUSIONS
It is clear that, in attempting to implement its radical research agenda, the TLS was well ahead of its time and
bit off more than it could technologically chew. Substantially more powerful hardware and software were a
precondition for success, and this is what the past two decades or so have provided: it is now possible to
construct and analyze electronic corpora in the manner in which the TLS project intended, and to publish it as
a resource for the research community in a way that its members did not, and could not, conceive.
This conclusion does not, however, exhaust the impact of the IT revolution on corpus linguistics, as
we have found in our revision of the TLS. There is a second main factor, and it is sociological rather than
technological. The TLS worked largely in isolation from the rest of its research community, and feedback on
output was determined by publishers’ schedules. By contrast, we are part of a global research community that
is, in principle, in constant and instantaneous communication via email and the Web. In this community,
information can be shared, draft research output informally peer reviewed, and projects monitored as they
proceed, all effectively online. Any research group that participates in this community can bring the current
state of discipline knowledge to bear on its work, with consequent benefits. For us, this is a major advantage
over the originators of the TLS, and one which, we hope, will allow us to do justice to their efforts.
140
REFERENCES
Jones, V. (1985) ‘Tyneside syntax: A presentation of some data from the Tyneside Linguistic Survey’, in
Viereck, W. (ed.) Focus on England and Wales, pp.163–177. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Labov, W. (1972) Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Local, J.K., Kelly, J. and Wells, W.H.G. (1986) ‘Towards a phonology of conversation turn-taking in
Tyneside’, Journal of Linguistics, 22: 411–437.
Milroy, L., Milroy, J. and Docherty, G. (1997) Phonological Variation and Change in Contemporary Spoken
British English, Unpublished Final Report to the UK ESRC, grant no. R00234892.
Pellowe, J. et al. (1972) ‘A dynamic modelling of linguistic variation: the urban (Tyneside) linguistic survey’,
Lingua, 30: 1–30.
Pellowe, J., and Jones, V. (1978) ‘On intonational variety in Tyneside speech’, in Trudgill, P. (ed.)
Sociolinguistic Patterns of British English, pp.101–121. London: Arnold.
Strang, B.M.H. (1968) ‘The Tyneside Linguistic Survey’. Zeitschrift für Mundartforschung, NF 4
(Verhandlungen des Zweiten Internationalen Dialecktologenkongresses), pp.788–794.Wiesbaden:
Franz Steiner Verlag.","txt","2","",""
"352","4","Developing Markup Metaschemas to Support Interoperation among Resources","1","INTRODUCTION
The work presented in this paper grows out of the EMELD project, a project which seeks to develop
“Electronic Metastructures for Endangered Language Data”1. One of the major aims stated in the project
proposal is the ”formulation and promulgation of best practice in linguistic markup of texts and lexicon”2.
The project is attempting to do this by forging a community consensus through a series of workshops3.
The first workshop easily reached consensus that the best format for the interchange and archiving of
endangered language data is XML-based markup. It just as easily reached consensus that no single system of
XML markup could be imposed on all language resources. At the same time, there is consensus that linguists
need to be able to perform queries across data sets, even if they do not use the same markup. This paper
describes the solution that is being developed to support this kind of interoperability across resources that use
different markup systems. Before describing the details of the solution, some definitions and requirements are
elaborated.
DEFINITIONS
A markup language, like a natural language, has a lexicon, syntax, and semantics. The following terms are
used throughout this paper to refer to the descriptive artifacts that document these three aspects of markup:
• markup vocabulary: Enumerates the lexical inventory of markup: i.e., the set of elements
and attributes that are used in marking up a resource. (In practice, the vocabulary is
enumerated within the markup schema rather than in a separate document.)
• markup schema: Specifies the syntax of markup: i.e., a formal grammar defining constraints
on where elements and attributes must or may occur with respect to embedding and relative
order and on what their values may be. (This is typically realized in an XML DTD or an
XML Schema, though other mechanisms are emerging.)
• markup metaschema: Specifies the semantics of markup: i.e., a formal mapping from
elements and attributes to the linguistic concepts they represent. (This area of markup is not
as well developed as the syntactic area, but is beginning to be developed under the impetus of
the so-called Semantic Web4.)
REQUIREMENTS
Given that the markup up of language data will be in XML, what is the nature of the markup vocabulary? The
following is the basic requirement on the markup vocabulary, along with consequent features of the
141
implemented solution:
• Linguists need to be able to do more than just read texts and lexicons in display format; they
also need to be able to manipulate the content by selectively accessing individual items of
information.
1. The archival form of electronically encoded resources should not follow a strategy of
presentational markup; that is, the markup vocabulary should not be one that simply
identifies what the information will look like when displayed.
2. The archival form of electronically encoded language resources should follow a
strategy of descriptive markup; that is, the markup vocabulary should identify what
the individual pieces of information are from a linguistic point of view.
3. The markup vocabulary for a particular text or lexical resource should identify all of
the elements of information (not just some of them) that go into the analysis of the
text or the description of each lexical item.
4. Users still need a presentational display of the resource; this should be accomplished
by applying a stylesheet to the descriptively marked up resource.
HTML markup, when applied to language resources, is an example of presentational markup. It does
not offer linguists the ability to do automated processing of a linguistic nature, for instance, to perform a
query like ”What are the part-of-speech categories used in this lexicon?” For this purpose a descriptive
markup vocabulary that specifically identifies the linguistic significance of each piece of information is
needed. But simply having a markup vocabulary is not enough; for each language resource there is also a
grammar that defines how the individual markup elements combine to form a valid text or lexicon.
• The linguist creating a text or lexicon needs for the markup of the resource to be consistent
with his or her plan for its content and structure.
1. A single markup schema that sanctions all common practices in structuring the
content of language resources will be too permissive to constrain any single resource
to the specific plan of its creator5.
2. There is enough convergence of practice that it will be possible to develop one or
more specific markup schemas that can be recommended for widespread use while
being adequately constraining.
3. There will always be plans for content and structure that are unique enough to require
that a unique markup schema be devised for the resource.
These consequences of requirement 2 mean that there will be multiple markup schemas, even in the
context of best practice. In order to achieve interoperability of resources when there are multiple markup
schemes it is necessary to introduce a meta-level in the approach to markup:
• Linguists need to be able to query and otherwise manipulate multiple texts or lexicons in a
single operation, even though they may individually have different markup vocabularies and
schemas.
1. As a foundation for interoperability, there must be a shared ontology for the kinds of
information that are marked up in language resources.
2. As the bridge to interoperability, each resource must have a metaschema that
formally documents how the elements and attributes of its markup schema map onto
the concepts of the common ontology.
3. The metaschema must be separate from the language resource (rather than being an
integral part of it) so that multiple resources can share the same metaschema.
4. It must be possible for a third party to create a metaschema for a resource that lacks
one without changing the resource itself. (This implies that the linkage from
metaschema to schema to resource is specified in a stand-off manner through
metadata.)
IMPLEMENTING METASCHEMAS
The ontology which serves as the foundation for interoperability (3a above) is under development as one of
the EMELD project deliverables6. The complete paper will present the details of how metaschemas are being
implemented. In brief, a metaschema is an XML document that formally expresses the mapping of the
elements and attributes in a markup schema to the concepts in the linguistic ontology. The exact meaning of a
particular instance of an element or attribute is often dependent on its context in the entire markup structure.
In order to specify relevant contexts, the metaschema uses an XPath expression7.
The metaschema also maps the elements of markup that define structure onto the generic structures of
an abstract data model8. As a result, a metaschema specifies an equivalent abstract document for any
document instance that conforms to its corresponding schema. The elements of the abstract document
correspond to generic structures; the specific concept of the ontology that identifies the linguistic meaning of
142
a particular element is encoded as the value of an attribute of the abstract element.
Interoperability is achieved by means of an XSLT script that compiles the metaschema into an
equivalent XSLT script that implements the translation of any document instance into its equivalent abstract
document. The complete paper will demonstrate how this transformation process yields documents with
comparable markup from documents that originally had different markup schemas.
NOTES
1. The project involves five host institutions and is sponsored by a five-year grant from the National
Science Foundation. See: http://saussure.linguistlist.org/cfdocs/emeld/index.cfm
2. Section 3.1 of http://linguist.emich.edu/%7Eworkshop/E-MELD.html
3. 2001 workshop, “The Need for Standards”:
http://saussure.linguistlist.org/cfdocs/emeld/documents/2001docs2.cfm and 2002 workshop, “Digitizing
Lexical Information”: http://saussure.linguistlist.org/cfdocs/emeld/workshop/2002/papers02.html
4. The Semantic Web is an activity of the W3C: http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/
5. The TEI DTD for dictionaries is an example of a markup schema that is so general as to be too
permissive for any one project. For instance, see “Using architectural processing to derive small,
problem-specific XML applications from large, widely-used SGML applications,” Gary F. Simons, SIL
Electronic Working Papers 1998-006, http://www.sil.org/silewp/1998/006/.
6. Scott Farrar and D. Terence Langendoen, 2002, “GOLD: A General Ontology for Linguistic
Description,” EMELD working paper,
http://saussure.linguistlist.org/cfdocs/emeld/documents/gold_draft4.doc. See related papers at
http://emeld.douglass.arizona.edu:8080/group.html
7. XML Path Language (XPath) Version 1.0, W3C Recommendation, 16 November 1999,
http://www.w3.org/TR/xpath
8. Nancy Ide and Laurent Romary, 2001, “Standards for Language Resources,” Proceedings of the
IRCS Workshop on Linguistic Databases,
http://www.ldc.upenn.edu/annotation/database/papers/Ide_Romary/29.3.pdf.
Peer","txt","2","",""
"353","4","Peer Review of Humanities Computing Software","1","The production of peer reviewed scholarship is the single most important activity for professional
advancement in academe, including tenure, promotion, and salary increases. The development of software for
Humanities Computing has been identified as a crucial need in our field1, and yet, because of a lack of peer
review mechanism for software, computing humanists lack an important incentive to engage fully in
programming activities. Why divert valuable time and effort to software development when the payoffs are
143
generally much greater for the production of articles and books? We believe that this conundrum is a
dominant factor in the current dearth of specialised text analysis tools.
This panel will examine the issues surrounding software development in Humanities Computing, and
explore possible mechanisms for peer review.
In addition to encouraging software development by computing humanists— those best suited to
understand the needs of the community—a peer review process would establish best practices and guidelines
that would likely be useful to most developers. A significant number of developers in the Humanities are
programming autodidactics who have had little or no formal training in software development and who would
especially benefit from guidelines established specifically for the circumstances of Humanities Computing.
Guidelines would also be an extremely valuable resource for instructors who wish to teach programming to
Liberal Arts students (computer science courses tend to focus on business, scientific and engineering
problems using lower-level, strongly-typed languages). Though guidelines for software development could be
formulated independently, a peer review mechanism would provide a strong impetus for doing so.
Peer review would also promote a sustained discussion on the software needs of the Humanities
Computing community, and future directions for development. Assessing the value of a particular piece of
software assumes a reasonable notion of what already exists and what would be most useful to have. A review
process would be an opportunity for both reviewers and developers to examine critically the current state of
affairs and reflect on where efforts would best be concentrated.
The theoretical and practical challenges to formulating a peer review process for software
development are numerous. In order to consider whether or not software should even be considered for peer
review—as Humanities Computing scholarship—we need to recognise that software packages can be
complex objects consisting of multiple dynamic parts, including:
• code (new, modified, or integrated)
• interface (design, frameworks for various platforms or languages)
• documentation (as comments in code, APIs or instructions for developers, and help for
end-users)
• other documents (research statements, technical articles, representative results)
Assessment of each of these components, together or separately, can be further complicated by the
circumstances of the development team: project leaders who may not have done any coding, research
assistants who may not have contributed to more recent versions, components that may have been developed
by external contractors, etc. Software resources tends to be organic entities that resist the fixity to which
review of published materials is accustomed, and perhaps dependent.
Meshed with the challenges of defining the nature of the object(s) to be reviewed is the question of
who would be qualified and appropriate to do the reviewing of which parts, and based on what general
principles and criteria. The relatively small number of developers in Humanities Computing poses a
heightened risk of biased reviews, at least for the code component. However, professional programmers (in
the public or private sectors) may not be an appropriate alternative, since their concerns and priorities would
likely be quite different.
There are useful materials that can provide some guidance as we work through these issues, such as
guidelines produced by the MLA2, and “The Stoa: A Consortium for Electronic Publication in the
Humanities” <http://www.stoa.org/>.
The panel will begin with a summary (by Sinclair) of the more prominant issues surrounding peer
review of software in the humanities. Then each of the participants to the panel will deal individually with
one or more of the following questions:
1. Can software tools be considered original contributions to the field comparable to other
contributions?
2. Practically speaking, can software be reviewed? Can peers be found who can review software
and would they do it? What would they be expected to do when reviewing?
3. What exactly would be reviewed? Functionality, appropriate ease of use for humanists, new
algorithms, multimedia...
4. Peer review is usually part of a larger process of publication. How would peer review
intergrate into a publication cycle? What outcomes would there be for a community that
supported this?
Following each speaker, there will be an opportunity for discussion on specific points raised. After all
of the panelists have contributed, there will be a general discussion. Finally, ten minutes will be reserved at
the end to formulate a plan of action for future progress.
Despite the challenges involved, the Humanities Computing community is in urgent need of software
that is worthy of the sophisticated text encoding schemes that exist for editing and publication. In order to
spark a concerted and sustained effort of development, we need to establish mechanisms to recognise
institutionally the time and effort that are required, and the valuable contribution to Humanities Computing
144
scholarship that well developed software represents.
NOTES
1. For enlightening details on the history and function of peer review, see “Peer Review and Imprint”
in The Credibility of Electronic Publishing: A Report to the Humanities and Social Sciences Federation of
Canada, Ray Siemens (Project Co-ordinator), http://web.mala.bc.ca/hssfc/Final/PeerReview.htm.
2. See especially the 2000 MLA report entitled “Guidelines for Evaluating Work with Digital Media
in the Modern Languages,” http://www.mla.org/reports/ccet/ccet_guidelines.htm.","txt","2","",""
"354","4","Figura: A Tool for the Collaborative Editing of Non-nesting Content","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">Figura: A Tool for the Collaborative Editing of
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Rafael</forename>
                        <surname>Alvarado</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Princeton University</name>
                            <email>alvarado@princeton.edu</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sarah-Jane</forename>
                        <surname>Murray</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Princeton University</name>
                            <email>sjmurray@princeton.edu</email>
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                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
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                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
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                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
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                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
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                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
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                <p>Figura is a web-based database application designed to support the Charrette
                    Project at Princeton University (Uitti 1997). In particular, it supports the
                    work of creating a TEI-compliant critical edition of the Old French manuscript
                    tradition of Chrétien de Troyes’s <title level=""m"">Le Chevalier de la
                        Charrette</title>. The application addresses the shortcomings of a
                    traditional, purely document-centric approach to humanities computing
                    applications (described below) through the use of a database management system
                    that acts as a pre-processor for marked up documents. The motivation behind the
                    use of a database has not been to supplant the primary role of XML and the TEI
                    in the development of digital critical editions, but rather to avoid having to
                    employ an “extreme markup” solution that would further complicate an already
                    difficult set of technologies. Instead, Figura targets the black box of
                    traditional humanities computing applications-the indexing engine-and replaces
                    it with something that is more accommodating to the specific needs of scholars,
                    all the while keeping document encoding standards intact.</p>
                <p>The traditional approach to humanities computing applications is one in which
                    primary source materials are marked up using a textual encoding standard, such
                    as the TEI (Sperberg-McQueen, Burnard et al. 1994), in order to produce “thick
                    documents” that contain both primary and interpretive content in a single
                    document or collection of documents. These documents are then made available for
                    use by the scholarly public by means of a transformation engine that can
                    generate content in a standard, viewable format, such as HTML, and an indexing
                    engine that will allow the document web to be searched, presumably taking
                    advantage of the rich markup found in the source documents.</p>
                <p>A primary task of the Charrette Project has been to encode a set of rhetorical
                    figures—e.g. instances of chiasmus, adnominatio, enjambment, etc.—in the
                    critical edition of the text (Uitti and Foulet 1989). Because of their large
                    number and radically non-nesting character, however, the prospect of directly
                    encoding the figures into the text, using the technique of segmenting and
                    splicing elements, has seemed impractical at best. In addition, the Charrette
                    Project has been collaborative from the outset, involving the work of many
                    editorial assistants, both over time and at any given time. Each editor has been
                    in charge of a figure type, and has been responsible for locating figure
                    instances in the entire document. In the traditional approach, this division of
                    labor would have to be carried out serially, and therefore the length of time
                    required to complete the project would multiply by the number of assistants
                    involved. Each of these problems was solved through the use of a database to
                    store the textual content of the Foulet-Uitti edition.</p>
                <p>The problem of encoding non-hierarchical and multiple hierarchies of content
                    objects using markup technologies such as SGML and XML is well documented
                    (Renear, Mylonas et al. 1996; Alvarado 1999; Sperberg-McQueen and Huitfeldt
                    1999). In areas where this problem cannot be ignored, such as the analysis of
                    qualitative data and discourse, the principle of standoff markup has been
                    developed by several groups (Thompson and McKelvie 1997; Müller and Strube 2001;
                    Glass and Eugenio 2002). Figura employs a methodology similar to that of these
                    examples—which makes sense, given the kinship between discourse analysis and
                    rhetoric—but makes use of a relational database, rather than a collection of
                    documents, to store the links between textual elements and their affiliations in
                    figural elements. The advantage of this approach is that editors are freed from
                    the well-formedness constraint of XML. Once the data is entered, an algorithm
                    may be applied to the join the source document and its non-nesting elements, to
                    produce well-formed XML—or even MECS—using a variety of techniques, such as
                    automated splicing or CSS grouping.</p>
                <p>Standoff markup also allows for rich, secondary content to be stored
                    independently of the source document. This enables parallel, collaborative
                    editing, a problem that has not received a great deal of treatment in the
                    literature, but which posed a threat to the timely completion of the Charrette
                    Project. With Figura, editorial assistants use a web-based markup tool at the
                    same time, without worrying about editing collisions, and with the assurance
                    that their figural data are immediately available to everyone else in the
                    project.</p>
                <p>Beyond the immediate gains of such an approach for the Charrette Project, Figura
                    introduces a novel approach to humanities computing applications that is worth
                    consideration and development by others. One of the greatest shortcomings of the
                    traditional approach to humanities computing applications is that it relegates
                    the decisive task of indexing to proprietary technologies, such as DynaText or
                    Oracle Text, which are not only inaccessible to the designers of humanities
                    applications, but are designed for commerce and not scholarship. Because the
                    indexing engine has the pivotal role of mediating between source archive and
                    end-user web, a consistent result is that marked up documents end up being
                    “smarter” than their published variants, leaving a wide gap between a project’s
                    collection of marked up texts and the documents that most scholars end up
                    seeing. Put in bare economic terms, indexing engines have been grossly
                    inefficient converters of scholarly labor into intellectual product. McGann once
                    described this situation as a “gulf separating a Unix from a Mac world,” and
                    advocated the construction of two separate schemes to support each side of what
                    he characterized as a “double helix” (McGann 1997). Figura seeks to eliminate
                    the gap in the first place by inverting the relationship between index and
                    archive—essentially, by treating the index as the text itself.</p>
                <p>In our poster presentation we will present the Figura application and describe
                    its architecture, its place in the Charrette Project, and the design philosophy
                    behind the application. We will also try to focus as much attention on how the
                    application is designed as on how it is used by scholars in actual situations of
                    interpretation. Figura is above all a practical application, created to meet
                    directly the needs of scholars; it was not conceived as a formal solution to an
                    abstract problem. Finally, we will also present what we consider to be the
                    principle shortcomings of the application, covering cases where it is most and
                    least suitable, and compare it to related initiatives.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliography"">
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                                <date when=""1999"">1999</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""bookChapter"">
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">H.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">S.</forename>
                                    <surname>Thompson</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">D.</forename>
                                    <surname>McKelvie</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">Hyperlink semantics for standoff markup of read-only
                                documents</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""u"">Language Technology Group, HCRC, University of
                                Edinburgh</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""1997"">1997</date>
                                <date when=""2002"">2002</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct>
                        <analytic>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">K.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">D.</forename>
                                    <surname>Uitti</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""a"">A Brief History of the ‘Charrette Project’ and Its
                                Basic Rationale</title>
                        </analytic>
                        <monogr>
                            <title level=""m""/>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher/>
                                <date when=""1997"">1997</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                        <note>[<ptr target=""http://www.princeton.edu/~lancelot""/>]. Last accessed
                            11/25/2002</note>
                    </biblStruct>
                    <biblStruct type=""book"">
                        <monogr>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">K.</forename>
                                    <forename type=""middle"">D.</forename>
                                    <surname>Uitti</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <author>
                                <name>
                                    <forename type=""first"">A.</forename>
                                    <surname>Foulet</surname>
                                </name>
                            </author>
                            <title level=""m"">Le Chevalier de la Charrette</title>
                            <imprint>
                                <pubPlace/>
                                <publisher>Classiques Garnier</publisher>
                                <date when=""1989"">1989</date>
                            </imprint>
                        </monogr>
                    </biblStruct>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
</TEI>","xml","2","",""
"355","4","On the Content Model for <respStmt>: Newer is Not Necessarily Better","2","The TEI P3 declaration for <respStmt> boils down to
<!ELEMENT respStmt - O ( (resp & name), (resp | name)* ) >
Which means that a <respStmt> must contain one <resp> and one <name> in either order,
followed by any number of any combination of either. (Remember that the globally included elements are
allowed via an inclusion exception on <text>, so they do not need to be mentioned explicitly in this content
model.) So the following order of elements would be valid content.
(a) <resp>, <name>, <name>, <name>
(b) <name>, <resp>, <resp>, <resp>, <resp>
These make a lot of sense to me. In (a) the <respStmt> is listing all those individuals who shared
or had a particular responsibility. In (b) it lists an individual and all the hats she wore. The content model also
allows for the following.
(c) <name>, <resp>, <name>, <resp>, <name>, <resp>
This also makes a lot of sense: three people each with his or her responsibility. This would probably
be better encoded as a series of three <respStmt>s, each with one <name> and one <resp>. But the
content model also allows for
(d) <name>, <resp>, <name>, <name>, <resp>, <resp>, <resp>, <resp>,
<resp> <name>, <resp>, <name>
What the heck does that mean, I wonder?
The TEI P4 (XML) declaration for <respStmt> boils down to
<!ELEMENT respStmt (resp | name | %m.Incl;)+ >
This content model allows for each of the above sequences of <resp> and <name> (and any other
imaginable sequence of those two elements that would have been valid against the P3 content model), but also
allows the somewhat bizarre
(e) <resp>, <resp>, <resp>
which I suppose is how you would indicate tasks in your project that never got done, and for which
no one is taking responsibility. Even worse, it allows (f) <name> which I suppose is how you would indicate
a freeloader whom your organization pays, but does not actually do anything. And most puzzling, as long as
you include at least one element from m.Incl (say, <cb> 1), it allows you to get away with neither a <resp>
nor a <name>:
(g)
which I suppose is how you indicate that your organization is looking to hire a freeloader who won’t
do anything, but you haven’t found a qualified candidate yet.
Seriously, to me (e), (f), and (g) are clearly errors, and if possible it would be nice to catch them in the
XML validation stage. Further, I consider (d) an error, although I will not be surprised if there are those who
disagree with me. Lastly, I don’t mind giving up the capability to use (c) in the quest to be able to exclude
(d)–(g).
Thus, in 1998-12, I came up with the following SGML declaration for the WWP; I have included the
comment to explain it a bit:
<!--
*** The following declaration for RESPSTMT is similar to the
*** one found in teicore2.dtd in that NAME and RESP are the
149
*** only children of RESPSTMT, but different in that we only
*** allow either one NAME or one RESP (and multiples of the
*** other), and we insist that NAMEs come before RESPs. A
*** (purposeful) side effect is that, since we don’t use an
*** “&” connector, the content model is valid XML. Note
*** that, in principle, the content model is
*** ( ( name, resp+ ) | ( name+, resp ) )
*** but that is ambiguous (i.e., non-deterministic).
-->
<!ELEMENT %n.respStmt; - - (
%n.name;,
(
(%n.resp;)+
|(
(%n.name;)+, %n.resp; )
)
)
>
With the parameter entity references resolved and without some of the extra whitespace, this boils
down to
<!ELEMENT respStmt - - ( name, ( resp+ | ( name+, resp ) ) ) >
The content model here requires that a <name> be first and that a <resp> be last; it allows any
number (including 0) of <name>s or <resp>s, but not both, in between. Thus it allows
(h) <name>, <resp>
(i) <name>, <name>, <name>, <name>, <resp>
(j) <name>, <resp>, <resp>, <resp>
but excludes (a), and (c)–(g). Thus the only concession I need to make is that (a) must be written as
(j), with the <name> first. Not only does this not bother me, it makes a bit of sense (keeping the encoding of
<respStmt>s a bit more consistent).
So now to make this new content model into a P4 content model all that’s left is to figure out where
and how to insert the globally included elements.2 Luckily the TEI has prepared what could be thought of as a
how-to guide on this very subject3 I will not delve into the logic in that paper here; suffice it to say that I think
the following is the correct result of the application of the logic outlined in the aforementioned guide.
<!ELEMENT respStmt (
( (%m.Incl;)*, (name, (%m.Incl;)*) ),
(
( resp,
(%m.Incl;)*)+
|
(
( name, (%m.Incl;)*)+ ,
( resp, (%m.Incl;)*)
)
)
) >
This will likely be the WWP replacement for the P4 declaration of <respStmt>, and I am seeking
input as to whether or not this should be used in P5.
NOTES
1. “Why is a column break allowed in the <teiHeader>?” you ask. I hear you cry. In P3 elements
like <cb>, <lb>, and <pb> are (quite reasonably) inclusion exceptions on <text>. That means they are
allowed to occur inside <text> or any descendant of <text>. This allows you to record the fact that there
was a page break in the middle of a name in your source text: … And thus
<lb/>it was decreed in the Councell at <name
type=”place”>Nice</name>,
<lb/>that the Byshops should assemble twise
<lb/>every yeare. And in the Councel at <name type=”place”>Car
150
<pb n=”225”/>
<lb/>thage</name> it was decreed, that the Bysshops ...
(modified from WWP TR00439, John Jewel, “An Apology or Answer in Defence of the Church of
England, 1564”, Bacon, Ann (Cooke), trans.)
while still, because <pb> is not in the content model of <name>, disallowing a <pb> inside a
<name> inside a <respStmt> in the <teiHeader>. Because XML does not have inclusion exceptions,
the content models of <name> and many other elements like it which could appear both in the
<teiHeader> and in <text> need to include the globally included elements. (There are a couple of rare
exceptions, like <titleStmt>, which, although it can be a child of <biblFull>, can appear nowhere
else inside <text>, and since a <biblFull> could not have a <pb> anymore than a <fileDesc> could,
<titleStmt> does not need to include such things. At least this is my understanding; please correct me if
I’m wrong.) Thus in P4 a <cb> could indeed occur in the <teiHeader>.
2. You may wonder why bother allowing the globally included elements in <respStmt> at all. In
most cases <respStmt> occurs in the <teiHeader>, where such elements are not needed; but
<respStmt> can be a child of <bibl> inside the text. Note that I’m presuming that such a <respStmt>
is being authored, not transcribed. Since it is allowed as a child of <bibl>, one could easily imagine that this
more restrictive content model is moot because of the need to encode (From “I’d Like to Teach the World to
Tag”, from spoofters Julia Flanders & Syd Bauman) as
<bibl rend=”pre(\() post(\))”>From <title rend=”pre(&ldquo;)
post(&rdquo;)>I’d Like to Teach the World to Tag</title>
Tag”, from spoofters Julia Flanders & Syd Bauman) as
from <respStmt><resp>spoofters</resp> <name>Julia Flanders &amp;</name> <name>Syd
Bauman</name></bibl>
Tag”, from spoofters Julia Flanders & Syd Bauman) as
However, I do not think of this as a good way to encode such a reference, as evidenced by the fact
that there is noplace to put that ampersand (it isn’t really part of Julia’s name, now, is it?).
Tag”, from spoofters Julia Flanders & Syd Bauman) as
3. Thanks to then TEI editor C. Michael Sperberg-McQueen; see
http://www.tei-c.org/Vault/ED/edw69.sgm, or, pre-formatted into HTML at
http://www.tei-c.org/Vault/ED/edw69.htm.","txt","2","",""
"356","4","The Austrian Academy Corpus, an Extensive Corpus of German Literature and Language - The AAC Literary Journals Subcorpora","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
<?oxygen RNGSchema=""file:/remote/homed/saschmid/Desktop/teiConferenceAbstracts.rng"" type=""xml""?>
<TEI xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"" rend=""poster/demo"">
    <teiHeader>
        <fileDesc>
            <titleStmt>
                <title level=""a"" type=""main"">The Austrian Academy Corpus, an Extensive Corpus of
                    German Literature and Language - The AAC Literary Journals Subcorpora</title>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Hanno</forename>
                        <surname>Biber</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Austrian Academy Corpus</name>
                            <email>hanno.biber@oeaw.ac.at</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Evelyn</forename>
                        <surname>Breiteneder</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Austrian Academy Corpus</name>
                            <email>evelyn.breiteneder@oeaw.ac.at</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Karlheinz</forename>
                        <surname>Moerth</surname>
                        <affiliation>
                            <name type=""org"">Austrian Academy Corpus</name>
                            <email>karlheinz.moerth@oeaw.ac.at</email>
                        </affiliation>
                    </name>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <date when=""2003"">2003</date>
                <publisher>
                    <name>University of Georgia</name>
                </publisher>
                <pubPlace>Athens, Georgia</pubPlace>
            </publicationStmt>
            <seriesStmt>
                <title level=""m"">ACH/ALLC 2003</title>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>editor</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Eric</forename>
                        <surname>Rochester</surname>
                    </name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">William</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>, Jr.</name>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first""/>
                        <surname/>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
                <respStmt>
                    <resp>encoder</resp>
                    <name>
                        <forename type=""first"">Sara</forename>
                        <forename type=""middle"">A.</forename>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                    </name>
                </respStmt>
            </seriesStmt>
            <sourceDesc>
                <p/>
            </sourceDesc>
        </fileDesc>
        <profileDesc>
            <textClass>
                <keywords scheme=""http://hcmc.uvic.ca/teiJournal/topicKeywords/"">
                    <list>
                        <item> </item>
                        <item> </item>
                        <item> </item>
                    </list>
                </keywords>
            </textClass>
        </profileDesc>
    </teiHeader>
    <text>
        <body>
            <div>
                <p>In this paper we would like to present one special subsection of the Austrian
                    Academy Corpus. The AAC is a newly founded institution organized and planned at
                    the Austrian Academy of Sciences in Vienna, in which large scholarly digital
                    resources are being established. We will describe the specific selection and
                    processing of historical literary journals that are to be integrated into the
                    AAC. The AAC Literary Journals Subcorpora will include a considerable number of
                    influential journals and magazines which will be made available electronically
                    and will be analyzed and digitally interrelated by means of XML annotation. The
                    general concept and the idea of the AAC, its approach and its potential for the
                    studies of texts of various kinds will also be addressed in this paper.</p>
                <p>The AAC is a multifunctional digital text corpus with new research possibilities
                    in the fields of linguistics as well as for textual research, in the fields of
                    literary studies, for discourse studies and the like. The AAC, comprising an
                    abundance of different sources, focuses predominantly on German language texts
                    from the last 150 years, but also includes translations from other languages and
                    corresponding source texts. This large electronic text collection contains a
                    great variety of significant texts, historical texts, literary texts, and texts
                    stemming from various cultural and social domains. Apart from literary texts and
                    literary journals, there will be a wide collection of various text types and
                    other text type carriers incorporated, such as newspapers and newspaper
                    articles, advertisement, posters, speeches and other examples from the media and
                    the entertainment domain, the arts, but also from jurisprudence, religion,
                    politics, philosophy and other domains. The corpus approach being developed at
                    the AAC is determined by our conviction that for specific language related
                    research interests only consistent corpora that provide sufficient context can
                    be useful, corpora that supply users with complete and thoroughly described
                    texts. This is particularly the case in the field of scholarly research which
                    focuses towards literary text studies and historical discourse analysis, a field
                    where literary texts from certain historical periods and their specific features
                    will be the main objects of investigation. Corpus-based linguistic and literary
                    text research will be made possible by means of a variety of descriptive
                    elements integrated into the text collections of the AAC. Reliable corpus tools
                    and sound methods of corpus description and analysis have become indispensable
                    means of research. At the AAC, all texts are digitized and annotated by means of
                    XML, in order to facilitate thorough investigations and research into the
                    textual qualities of the corpus holdings. How modern technology and standards
                    can be integrated in traditionally oriented fields of research such as literary
                    studies will be exemplified through the AAC's digitization projects.</p>
                <p>At the core of the AAC and as the starting point for the selection of the texts
                    to be integrated there is the satirical magazine “Die Fackel” which was
                    published by Karl Kraus in Vienna from 1899 to 1936. In his abundant satirical
                    and polemical texts published in ”Die Fackel” consisting of 22.586 pages, Karl
                    Kraus developed satirical textual strategies in which the use of quotation,
                    citation, and commentary of others is of major importance. This unique source of
                    German literature offers a starting point not only for the future incorporation
                    of other texts in our corpus but also for further far-reaching and challenging
                    research into a number of linguistic, discursive and intertextual phenomena to
                    be observed. The magazine published by Karl Kraus offers us a unique opportunity
                    to attract the attention of anyone interested in the German language. And the
                    AAC intends to digitally present a wide selection of different sources of
                    scholarly, journalistic and political texts which were of considerable influence
                    between 1848 and 1989.</p>
                <p>In the first phase of the corpus build-up we have started with the digitisation
                    and structured integration of texts, among which are several highly influential
                    and notable literary journals and magazines. Literary journals have been
                    integrated into the AAC for several reasons. One reason is their importance form
                    the point of view of literary history. Literary journals have been neglected in
                    the studies of literary history although they form an integral part of the
                    literary life. Very often they are the place where the first publications of
                    major literary works appear. They are in a mediator position within the literary
                    market and have been so especially in the 19th and 20th centuries not only in
                    the German speaking countries. Secondly, literary journals have been chosen as a
                    considerable subcorpus of the AAC because in most cases literary journals offer
                    a wide variety of interesting text types. Depending on their general and overall
                    political and ideological orientations they offer multiple sources and sources
                    of various kinds which are of particular interest for corpus research both from
                    theoretical and methodological perspectives. The differences and relations
                    between the various literary text types pose challenging questions concerning
                    the description and the development of digital scholarly material.</p>
                <p>Among the source materials for the AAC literary journals subcorpora is the well
                    known literary and political journal “Die Weltbuehne” (The World Stage),
                    previously published under the title “Die Schaubuehne” (The Theatrical Stage)
                    since 1905, and two journals that were of major importance for the expressionist
                    movement, “Die Aktion” and “Der Sturm”, all of them published in Berlin in the
                    first decades of the last century. The journal “Der Brenner” was published in
                    Innsbruck in Austria between 1910 and 1954 and is another example from the AAC
                    literary journal subcorpora and was like the ones mentioned above also
                    influenced by “Die Fackel”. In our paper we will briefly describe the
                    interrelations between these examples from the perspective of literary history,
                    and thereby concentrate on the corpus methodology of applying digital techniques
                    for the description of the processes and qualities observed. We will explain the
                    complex digitization processes and the necessary annotation schemes utilized by
                    the AAC working group in order to access the data contained and to be explored
                    in these valuable resources. In addition to that the new editing strategies
                    being developed by the AAC as well as the scholarly commentaries will be
                    presented. The literary journal subcorpora can be regarded as an experimental
                    and exemplary cohesive subsection of the Austrian Academy Corpus.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
    </text>
</TEI>","xml","2","",""
"360","5","A Linguistic Time-Capsule: The Newcastle Electronic Corpus of Tyneside English","2","The projected Newcastle Electronic Corpus of Tyneside English (NECTE), supported by an AHRB Award (2001-2004) will make two large speech samples, collected in 1969 and 1994, respectively, available for consultation by scholars via the WWW. The resource consists of two discrete sets of recorded speech currently housed in the Catherine Cookson Archive of Tyneside and Northumbrian Dialect, at the University of Newcastle. The earlier sample is that gathered during the Tyneside Linguistic Survey (TLS) (Pellowe et al. (1972)/Strang (1968)) funded by the SSRC and the 1994 recordings were collected for an ESRC-funded project (Phonological Variation and Change (PVC)) in the same region (Milroy et al. (1997)). The TLS sample was originally recorded using reel-to-reel audio equipment and consists of 86 loosely-structured interviews which average 30 minutes in length. The informants are equally divided between various social class groupings of male and female speakers and represent young, middle and old age-cohorts. The speakers were drawn from a stratified random sample of Gateshead (the part of the Tyneside conurbation on the south bank of the Tyne). The more recent PVC corpus was collected using high quality audio tape-recorders/microphones and is currently in the form of 20 DAT tapes, each of which averages 60 minutes in length. The recordings were obtained by permitting dyads of friends or relatives to converse freely with minimal interference from the fieldworker. The informants are also equally divided between various social class groupings of male and female speakers and represent young, middle and old age-cohorts.

These two samples, when combined electronically as we propose, will provide a very significant resource for anyone interested in corpus linguistics, dialect geography, historical (English) linguistics and sociolinguistics. The overarching aim of the project, therefore, is to improve access to and promote the re-use of NECTE by producing an electronic database resource in a variety of formats, which can be accessed according to user need. Our aims, therefore, are:-

To subject the NECTE electronic orthographic transcriptions to two auditory 'correction passes' to ensure authentic replication. A third will be conducted on wordlists to verify that the Orthographic Transcription Protocol (OTP) has been implemented consistently.
To provide a database catalogue for both the TLS and PVC corpora.
To translate the 1969 electronic files of phonetic analyses that were created for subsections of the TLS into IPA. This will preserve the highly accurate analytical work of the TLS project and save substantial manual transcription effort.
To create an electronic, IPA phonetic transcription of samples from the PVC project and and conduct two 'correction passes' of these transcriptions.
To parse and tag NECTE for a range of grammatical and discourse markers to enhance its potential applications.
To create a WWW version of the NECTE data sited at the University of Newcastle and a North American mirror-site.
To permit separate access to the database in the following formats: (i) digitised sound files; (ii) electronic IPA/orthographic transcription files; (iii) electronic tagged orthographic transcription files.
To find or develop software to permit the database formats above to be aligned.
We are in the process of fulfilling the objectives outlined above and would like to use the opportunity of the 2004 ALLC conference to : (i) given an overview of and progress report on the project to date and (ii) seek advice from other corpus-builders and potential end-users of NECTE with particular interests in language and computing.

References:

1. Beal, J.C. and Corrigan, K.P. (2000a) 'Comparing the present with the past to predict the future for Tyneside British English', Newcastle and Durham Working Papers in Linguistics, 6:13-27.
2. Beal, J.C. and Corrigan, K.P. (2000b) 'A time-capsule for future generations: The Newcastle-Poitiers Electronic Corpus of Tyneside English', Poster presented at Sociolinguistics Symposium 2000, University of the West of England, 27-29 April, 2000.
3. Beal, J.C. and Corrigan, K.P. (2000c) 'New Ways of Capturing the 'Kodak moment': Real-time vs. Apparent Time Analyses of Syntactic Variation in Tyneside English, 1969-1994', Paper presented at the 2nd Variation is Everywhere Workshop, University of Essex. September, 2000.
4. Beal, J.C. and Corrigan, K.P. (2002) 'Relativization in Tyneside and Northumbrian English', in Poussa, P. (ed.) Dialect Contact and History on the North Sea Littoral. Lincom Europa.
5. Milroy, J. et al. (1997) Phonological Variation and Change in Contemporary Spoken British English. ESRC, Unpublished Final Report, Dept. of Speech, University of Newcastle-Upon-Tyne.
6. Pellowe, J. et al. (1972) 'A dynamic modelling of linguistic variation: the urban (Tyneside) linguistic survey', Lingua, 30: 1-30.
7. Strang, B.M.H. (1968) 'The Tyneside Linguistic Survey'. Zeitschrift für Mundartforschung, NF 4 (Verhandlungen des Zweiten Internationalen Dialecktologenkongresses), pp.788-794.Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903204504/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop70.html",""
"361","5","The Hyper-Learning Project","2","The Hyper-Learning project is an extension of HyperNietzsche that is online since 2 year and received the Sofia Kovalevskaja Award of the Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung. HyperNietzsche was also financed by:

French Ministry of Research
German Ministry of Education and Research
DFG
The project team is composed by 20 persons (philosophers, philologists, computer scientists, lawyers, for further information see: <http://www.hypernietzsche.org/doc/committee/>).

The overall aim of the Hyper-Learning project is to create the model of an advanced research and learning infrastructure for the humanities. As a research infrastructure Hyper-Learning enables a delocalized community of specialists to work in a cooperative and cumulative manner and to publish the results of their work on the Internet. As an e-learning system unites research and education, and envisages not only knowledge transfer, but also the development and enhancement of critical thinking skills and of autonomous production of scientific contributions among graduate students and young researchers. In order to reach this aim, the Hyper-Learning project pursues the following three objectives:

The final realisation of HyperNietzsche as a model of an IT research infrastructure. The development of the system will be accompanied by work on editions, transcriptions of Nietzsche's manuscripts and correspondence aswell as publication of critical essays and other scholarly contributions. Working simultaneously on these two tasks will produce on the one hand an IT infrastructure which responds effectively to the needs of actual users, and will on the other hand demonstrate to the community of Nietzsche specialists how this new work instrument can be used effectively.
The development and implementation of a critical e-learning system for higher education featuring personalised logins according to level of competence, learning paths, dynamic learning contextualisation, virtual classes, mul-timedia lessons, contextualised forum/chats, etc... This system will be realised in the context of a new pedagogical paradigm based on a dynamic ontology and will set new technological standards.
Preparatory work for the generalisation of the Hyper-Learning model to other authors. This includes the writing of a complete documentation of the procedures followed by the model, the organisation of conferences presenting theproject, brainstorming workshops with interested scientific communities as well as training for researchers beginning to apply the model to other authors. A design of the IT structure of a Hyper-Learning Network, which would enable the interoperability of the various Hyper-Learning Platforms, will complete the project.
Preparatory work for the transfer of the HyperNietzsche model to other authors was carried out inthe course of putting together a proposal submitted for an Integrated Project within the 6th Framework Programme of the European Union in 2003. This project, which was also called Hyper-Learning, examined for the first time the possibility of a twofold extension of the HyperNietzsche model, firstly by applying it to other authors and secondly by developing its poten-tial for distance education (e-learning). In order to reach this twofold objective we formed a prestigious consortium uniting 30 partnersfrom 12 European countries (i.e. universities research centres, a large company (IBM) and six small and medium companies). A detailed proposal of more than 200 pages was the result.12 Inthe 13 Virtual Collaborative Learning Communities which were to be created (and interconnected using specific and innovative technologies), the best specialists and scholars on the following 13 important European authors were represented: Mihai Eminescu, James Joyce, Aleko Konstantinov nov, Friedrich Nietzsche, Marcel Proust, Arthur Schopenhauer, August Strindberg, LudwigWittgenstein, Virginia Woolf, Euripides, Leonardo da Vinci, Giacomo Puccini and Fernand Braudel. Although the project was well received in the course of the scientific evaluation by inde-pendent experts (with 24 points ex-aequo the second ranked project and only half a point behind the best ranked project) it was, regrettably, not financed by the programme committee.

As a concrete starting point, the Hyper-Learning project will adopt the research paradigm, thesoftware infrastructure and the legal framework already initiated by HyperNietzsche. HyperNietzsche is not merely a library of well-indexed and searchable electronic texts and studiesmade available on line, nor an electronic edition made available to the public as a finished product. Rather, it is a kind of electronic research matrix that creates a virtual workspace with publicaccess to original sources for Nietzsche research, including works, manuscripts, letters and biographical documents. Beyond these original sources, HyperNietzsche contains an ever-increasing collection of scholarly essays that have been vetted for publication by an editorial board of leadingNietzsche specialists. From a methodological point of view, this enterprise transposes the concepts of Open Source from computer science to the Humanities. Computer science, for its part, had merely reformulated in its own terms the fundamental characteristics of scientific method and practice which hadbeen in place since the seventeenth century. Science is by definition an open source enterprise to the extent that it is an open, public discussion on accessible objects, carried out according to veri-fiable procedures. Indeed, scientific progress is not possible in conditions of secrecy, exclusivity, or restricted access to information. In the Humanities, working in Open Source means on the onehand being able to access the digital version of objects of study: books, manuscripts, archaeological objects, images, sounds, film sequences, etc., (Public Archives) and on the other hand provid-ing free access to the results of research work (Open Publishing). And the Internet is the medium best able to guarantee public access to cultural heritage and research work.

Hyper-learning also proposes an innovative technological structure based on a P2P network design and the use of functional languages to develop web applications. It also offers a new model to cache complex databases with low volatility using XML.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040812010207/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop158.html",""
"362","5","Supercomputing in the Humanities: A Robust Model for Interacting with Copyright-Sensitive Multimedia Content","2","Introduction
Music Information Retrieval (MIR) and Music Digital Library (MDL) are inter-related multidisciplinary research endeavors that strive to develop innovative content-based searching schemes, novel interfaces, and evolving networked delivery mechanisms in an effort to make the world’s vast store of music accessible to all. Some teams are developing “Query-by-Singing” systems (e.g., [1,2]), some “Query-by-Note” systems (e.g., [3,4]), some “Query-by-Example” systems (e.g., [5,6]), some comprehensive music recommendation and distribution systems (e.g., [7,8]), some musical analysis systems (e.g., [9,10]), and so on. Good overviews of MIR/MDL’s interdisciplinary research areas can be found in [6,11,12].
This poster outlines a tera-scale supercomputing resource model that promises to have significant implications for the future of humanities computing. It specifically details the framework for the ""International Music Information Retrieval System Evaluation Laboratory"" (IMIRSEL) being constructed at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. IMIRSEL is an integral sub-component of the author's ""Music Information Retrieval / Music Digital Library Evaluation Project.""  The ""Evaluation Project"" has an intial four-year time-span (1 October 2003 to 30 September 2007) and is being supported via significant funding from both the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation and the National Science Foundation. The project is a co-operative undertaking involving researchers from the Graduate School of Library and Information Science, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA), the Faculty of Music, the Music Library, Electrical Engineering and the Computer Science department of UIUC. One central goal the of the project is the creation and refinement of secure access mechanisms that will allow the manipulation of a unique, large-scale standard corpus of sensitive (i.e., copyright issues) multimodal (e.g., text, symbolic, audio and metadata) music materials for the research and evaluation use of the international MIR/MDL and humanities computing research communities.
Current Problem
The MIR/MDL communities have long recognized the need for a scientific evaluation paradigm. A formal resolution expressing this need was passed, 16 October 2001 by the attendees of the Second International Symposium on Music Information Retrieval (ISMIR 2001). (See http://music-ir.org/mirbib2/resolution for the list of signatories.) The resolution highlights the fact that MIR/MDL research requires access to music materials consisting of inter-connected collections of symbolic (e.g., scores, MIDI, MusicXML, etc.), textual (e.g., lyrics, libretti, reviews, analyses, etc.), audio (e.g., MP3, WAV, etc.) and metadata (e.g., bibligraphic records, etc.) information. However,  1) music is expensive; 2) music rights-holders are notoriously litigious; and 3) recent changes to copyright law in the United States have put into question the very existence of “public domain” sources of audio recordings (see [6]). These three facts, when taken together, have effectively stopped the development of any large-scale, community-accessible, test collections comprising the necessary audio, symbolic and metadata representations. Notwithstanding that some private research institutions have acquired substantial collections for their in-house use only, such collection holders do not make them accessible to others in the community for fear of becoming the objects of expensive civil and criminal litigation.
Thus, the key to developing a useful and robust evaluation testbed comprising the necessary depth and breadth of content hinges on addressing the sensitive nature of music materials (i.e., the copyright issue). Furthermore, if one can overcome the very real hesitations of rights-holders (i.e., the music companies) by demonstrating to them that their property is secure and being used only for research purposes (which ultimately might also benefit them), it follows that this project and other humanities computing projects like it would be in a better position to extend the depth and breadth our test collections to include other copyright sensitive materials (i.e., videos, films, rare manuscipts, multiple versions of publications, etc.). The implications are profound as we would then be able to fully explore the important interconnections between all forms of cultural expression amenable to computational analyses.
The IMIRSEL Solution
We have begun construction of  the world’s first-and-only, internationally-accessible, large-scale MIR/MDL testing and development database. This multiformat collection is housed at the UIUC's NCSA. Formal transfer and use agreements are being finalized with HNH Hong Kong International, Ltd. (http://www.naxos.com), the owner of the Naxos and Marco Polo recording labels. This will afford the MIR community research access to HNH’s entire catalogue of Classical, Jazz, and Asian digital recordings. This generous gesture on the part of HNH represents approximately 30,000 audio tracks or about three terabytes of digital audio music information. All Media Guide (http://www.allmusic.com) has also agreed to follow HNH’s lead, enabling UIUC/NCSA to incorporate its vast database of music metadata within the same test collection. All Media’s dataset includes descriptive catalogue records, discographies, and recording classifications. We are also exploring a variety of options concerning the acquistion/creation of related symbolic music data but, as of the time of writing, no formal decisions have be reached.
Overiew of the IMIRSEL Frameworl
Figure 1. Overiew of the IMIRSEL system framework.
Given the unique opportunity that these rights-holders have afforded the MIR/MDL communities, it is important that our testing and evaluation database be constructed with three central features in mind:
security for the property of the rights-holders, which is especially important if we are to convince other rights-holders to participate in the future;
accessibility for both internal, domestic, and international researchers; and,
sufficient computing and storage infrastructure to support the computationally- and data-intensive techniques being investigated by the various research teams.
To these ends, we are exploiting the expertise and resources of NCSA and its Automated Learning Group (ALG), headed by Prof. Michael Welge. NCSA's systems have been designed to be secure. Certificate-based authentication for all users as well as means for encrypting data and data transfers are fundamental to NCSA’s security protocols.  The ALG has developed a data-to-knowledge system, D2K, which supports all phases of the data mining process. D2K was originally designed to provide data mining professionals with a flexible “sandbox” for developing and evaluating the performance of a range of supercomputing techniques on a variety of data sets. Using the D2K technology as a starting point, we are creating a secure “Virtual Research Lab” (VRL) for each participating research team. These VRLs will provide secure access to the test collection and the resources necessary to conduct large-scale MIR evaluation experiments. Simply put, we enhance the security of the valuable music data by bringing the research teams to the collection, rather than distributing the collection willy-nilly around the globe. 
To make interaction with the underlying supercomputing resources simpler (i.e., ultimately invisible) for the international, domestic and internal research teams, we are incorporating another ALG application, D2K-SL. D2K-SL builds upon current D2K modules to provide a set of pre-defined applications that guide users through the supercomputing process. These tools will be instrumental in supporting the multidisciplinary nature of MIR/MDL research. In addition, we hope that these D2K-SL applications can be used to address other related research thrusts, such as new MIR/MDL techniques, new interface designs and the development of protocols to make the proposed MIR/MDL GRID a reality [13].
Summary and Future Work
If  humanities computing is going to realize its full potential in the 21st century, it must overcome the copyright issues that are impeding it from expanding it analyses and praxis across and between all forms of cultural expression. MIR/MDL and humanities computing research require largescale respositories of multimodal materials that can be held in common among all interested parties. These materials must be accessible to all legitimate research teams in order to facilitate a scientifically valid basis for comparing and contrasting the efficacy of the myriad techniques and approaches being explored. The IMIRSEL system being developed at UIUC can be seen as a prototype for future humanities test collections. By incorporating a amalgem of state-of-the-art supercomputing computational, storage and security techniques, the IMIRSEL test database is designed to create a flexible and accessible--yet secure--research enivornment that we hope will inspire other researchers and content-holders to participate in robust, multimodal and largescale humanities supercomputing research projects that incorporate both public domain and copyright-sensitive cultural content.
Acknowledgements
Drs. Don Waters and Suzanne Lodato, both of the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, are thanked for their moral and financial support. Karen Medina, Joe Futrelle, William Birmingham and Mike Welge are also thanked for their valuable contributions and suggestions throughout the project. This project is also support by the National Science Foundation (NSF) under Grant Nos. NSF IIS-0340597 and NSF IIS-0327371.
References
[1]     Haus, G. and Pollastri, E., ""An Audio Front End for Query-by-Humming Systems."" Second International Symposium on Music Information Retrieval, Bloomington, IN, USA, pp. 65-72, 2001.
[2]     Birmingham, W., Dannenberg, R. B., Wakefield, G. H., Bartsch, M., Bykowski, D., Mazzoni, D., Meek, C., Mellody, M., and Rand, W., ""MUSART: Music Retrieval Via Aural Queries."" Second International Symposium on Music Information Retrieval, Bloomington, IN, USA, pp. 73-81, 2001.
[3]     Doraisamy, S. and Rüger, S. M., ""A Comparative and Fault-tolerance Study of the Use of N-grams with Polyphonic Music."" Third International Conference on Music Information Retrieval, Paris, France, pp. 101-106, 2002.
[4]     Pickens, J., ""A Comparison of Language Modeling and Probabilistic Text Information Retrieval Approaches to Monophonic Music Retrieval."" International Symposium on Music Information Retrieval, Plymouth, MA, USA, 2000.
[5]     Haitsma, J. and Kalker, T., ""A Highly Robust Audio Fingerprinting System."" Third International Conference on Music Information Retrieval, Paris, France, pp. 107-115, 2002.
[6]     Downie, J. S.,  ""Music Information Retrieval."" Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, vol.  37, pp. 295-340, 2003.
[7]     Pauws, S. and Eggen, B., ""PATS: Realization and User Evaluation of an Automatic Playlist Generator."" Third International Conference on Music Information Retrieval, Paris, France, pp. 222-230, 2002.
[8]     Logan, B., ""Content-Based Playlist Generation: Exploratory Experiments."" Third International Conference on Music Information Retrieval, Paris, France, pp. 295-296, 2002.
[9]     Kornstädt, A., ""The JRing System for Computer-Assisted Musicological Analysis."" Second International Symposium on Music Information Retrieval, Bloomington, IN, USA, pp. 93-98, 2001.
[10]     Barthélemy, J. and Bonardi, A., ""Figured Bass and Tonality Recognition."" Second International Symposium on Music Information Retrieval, Bloomington, IN, USA, pp. 129-136, 2001.
[11]     Byrd, D. and Crawford, T. C.,  ""Problems of Music Information Retrieval in the Real World.""  Information Processing and Management, vol.  38, pp. 249-272, 2002.
[12]     Futrelle, J. and Downie, J. S., ""Interdisciplinary Communities and Research Issues in Music Information Retrieval."" Third International Conference on Music Information Retrieval, Paris, France, pp. 215-221,  2002.
[13]     Dovey, M. J.,  ""Music GRID: A Collaborative Virtual Organization for Music Information Retrieval Collaboration and Evaluation.""  The MIR/MDL Evaluation Project White Paper Collection, Champaign, IL: GSLIS, pp. 50-52, 2002.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903204508/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop127.html",""
"363","5","The Creation of Music Query Documents: Framework and Implications of the HUMIRS Project","2","Music Information Retrieval (MIR) and Music Digital Library (MDL) are inter-related multidisciplinary research endeavors that strive to develop innovative content-based searching schemes, novel interfaces, and evolving networked delivery mechanisms in an effort to make the world’s vast store of music accessible to all. Some teams are developing “Query-by-Singing” systems (e.g., [1,2]), some “Query-by-Note” systems (e.g., [3,4]), some “Query-by-Example” systems (e.g., [5,6]), some comprehensive music recommendation and distribution systems (e.g., [7,8]), some musical analysis systems (e.g., [9,10]), and so on. Good overviews of MIR/MDL’s interdisciplinary research areas can be found in [6,11,12].
This poster outlines an ambitious music query analytic model that promises to have significant implications for the future of humanities computing. It specifically details the framework of the ""Human Use of Music Information Retrieval Systems"" (HUMIRS) project being initiated at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC). HUMIRS is an integral sub-component of the author's Music Information Retrieval / Music Digital Library Evaluation Project.  The ""Evaluation Project"" has an intial four-year time-span (1 October 2003 to 30 September 2007) and is being supported via significant funding from both the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation and the National Science Foundation. The project is a co-operative undertaking involving researchers from the Graduate School of Library and Information Science, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA), the Faculty of Music, the Music Library, Electrical Engineering and the Computer Science department of UIUC. 
Current Problem
The MIR/MDL communities have long recognized the need for a scientific evaluation paradigm. A formal resolution expressing this need was passed, 16 October 2001 by the attendees of the Second International Symposium on Music Information Retrieval (ISMIR 2001). (See http://music-ir.org/mirbib2/resolution for the list of signatories.) The resolution highlights the fact that MIR/MDL research requires access to music materials consisting of inter-connected collections of symbolic (e.g., scores, MIDI, MusicXML, etc.), textual (e.g., lyrics, libretti, reviews, analyses, etc.), audio (e.g., MP3, WAV, etc.) and metadata (e.g., bibligraphic records, etc.) information. In conjunction with the requirements for the material infrastructure, the resolution emphasizes the need for a common set of formal and standardized tasks that each team can use to evaluate its system(s). This notion of standardized collections and tasks is derived from the Text Retrieval Conference (TREC) paradigm. TREC, developed over a decade ago by the National Institute of Standards and Technology  (NIST),  is a testing and evaluation paradigm for the text retrieval community (see http://trec.nist.gov/overview.html). Under this paradigm, each text retrieval team is given access to:
1. a standardized, large-scale test collection of text; 
2. a standardized set of test queries; and, 
3. a standardized evaluation of the results each team generates.
It is  Item #2, the creation of the set of test queries specifically designed to address the needs of the MIR/MDL research communities, that is the HUMIRS project's central concern. We must emphasize here the disctinction between ""queries"" and ""search statements"". ""Queries"" are the verbalized expressions of a user's information need; whereas, ""search statements"" are the expression(s) of the queries in the syntax of particular retrieval engines [13]. This distinction is important for it highlights that music queries, the objects of interest in the HUMIRS project, are: 
semantically-rich;
sytantically-undetermined;
structurally independent of  any  particular search system(s); and,
content variable (i.e., can contain singing, text, recorded examples, notation, etc.) .
Understanding the semantic richness, the possible syntactic options, the structural implications and the kinds of information contained in real-world music queries is the sine qua non of the project. The example provided in Appendix A is a perfect illustration of the semantic and structural complexities to be found in real-world music queries [14]. Note how the example contains information about the structure of the desired song, some lyric fragments presented simultaneously with the harmonic accompaniment, some rather specific tempo information, some suggestions of genre and style information, some suggestions of simularity, some indications of the time frame in which the piece is situated, and so on.
Human Use of Music Information Retrieval Systems (HUMIRS)
As we iteratively create the TREC-like evaluation programme for the MIR/MDL communities, it is very important that our TREC-like evaluation tasks be grounded in real-world requirements. That is, we must ensure that the test tasks developed are realistic proxies for the kinds of uses that MIR/MDL systems might expect to encounter. Synthesizing from the suggestions made by the expert participants of the preceding “MIR/MDL Evaluation Frameworks Project,” (see http://music-ir.org/evaluation) it appears that a minimal TREC-like query record needs to include the following basic elements:
High quality audio representation(s)
Verbose Metadata:
i. About the “user”
ii. About the “need”
iii. About the “use”
Symbolic representation(s) of the music presented
One is struck by how these requirements are less like a traditional TREC query or ""topic statement"" (Fig. 1) and more like the kind of information garnered in a traditional, well-conducted, reference interview [15, 16]. This suggests that the involvement of professional music librarians in the development of the TREC-like music query records is very important — perhaps even critical. Thus, the UIUC Music Library and its staff will be playing a pivotal role in the project, as will other members of the international music library world.
<num> Number: 409
<title> legal, Pan Am, 103
<desc>Description:
What legal actions have resulted from the destruction of Pan Am Flight 102  over Lockerbie, Scotland,
on December 21, 1988?
<narr> Narrative:
Documents describing any charges, claims, or fines presented to or imposed  by any court or tribunal
are relevant, but documents that discuss charges made in diplomatic jousting are not relevant.
Figure 1. A TREC ""topic statement"" as found in [17].
Developing a database of standardized MIR query records
Over the course of the project we will be setting up, and running, the first TREC-like evaluation “contests” whereby each MIR/MDL research team will be given the opportunity to test their system(s) using the set of standardized test queries and results that we will be developing. This will be an iterative process as feedback from the research community and the project’s advisory panel will be solicited to ensure that the test queries and the evaluation measures used are truly reflective of system performance (i.e., the evaluations give us a true picture of the strengths and weaknesses of each participating system). Based upon the data collected, we will develop a database of well-formed, standardized query record prototype(s). These records will be developed to reflect both the complexity of music queries and the principle of retrieval neutrality (i.e., will not favour one retrieval approach over another). They will incorporate, in some form, textual, metadata, audio, and symbolic information. The two central production and research facets of this complex problem are outlined below.

Facet #1: Creation of the formal specifications for the query record content.

This includes the specifications for the type(s) of audio formats to be used (e.g., WAV, MP3, etc.) and the selection of necessary sampling rates, etc. Assessment of transcription protocols (e.g., audio-to-symbolic, symbolic-to-audio, audio-to-text, etc.) will be conducted to establish the mechanisms for completing the query records (e.g., making sure that an aural query also has a symbolic representation, etc.) The requisite types of textual, needs and uses, user and metadata information will also be delineated. This is the aspect of the project that will draw most heavily upon the prior work of the humanities computing community. We will need to develop means of analyzing the semantic categories present in the real-world queries we capture. Once the categories have been uncovered we will then develop the necessary mark up languages to fully delineate the variety of semantic types present. We hope that we be able to integrate many pre-existing categories from other encoding initiatives. We further hope to find formal mechanisms for making whatever new (i.e., music specific) categories hospitable for inclusion in a broader (i.e., generalizable) conceptualization of document mark up schemes. 
 

Facet #2: Creation of the formal specifications for the query record structure.

As we gain experience with the types of information needed to properly represent a query, we will be in a better position to ascertain their structural implications. We are currently experimenting with various metadata standards. One, based upon Indiana University’s Variations2 research (http://www.dml.indiana.edu/metadata/index.html), uses XML as the structural wrapper. Our final specifications will be biased toward extensibility and possible integration into the overall database system and the proposed Music GRID distribution mechanisms [18]. The construction and dissemination of basic tools to build, edit and interact with the query records will be an important outcome of this part of the project. The query record specifications and the tools developed in association with them will outlive the project. This will allow others in the community to contribute to the ongoing success of future MIR/MDL evaluation experiments and the Music GRID network. It will also allow others to investigate the implications of formal, domain-specific and cross-domain, document mark up schemes for queries involving other media of cultural expression including text, speech, video, film, dance, etc.

Acknowledgements

Drs. Don Waters and Suzanne Lodato, both of the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, are thanked for their moral and financial support. Karen Medina, Joe Futrelle and Mike Welge are also thanked for their valuable contributions and suggestions throughout the project. This project is also support by the National Science Foundation (NSF) under Grant Nos. NSF IIS-0340597 and NSF IIS-0327371.

Appendix A. An Exemplar Real-World Music Query (as presented by [14])

From: XXXXXXXXX 



Subject: Early 80's - Please identify this song! (it's *very* difficult, though)



Newsgroups: alt.music.lyrics



Date: 2000-12-14 09:42:24 PST



Hi, thiis is so difficult because I only remember those damn FRAGMENTS of it,



which can (in combination with possible errors) make it VERY difficult to identify this song!



But I'll try my best to make myself clear as possible.



This song MUST be from the period 1979-1984, most likely 1981 or 1982.



Tempo: about 120 bpm



Sounds VERY close to a SAGA or Asia tune (maybe it is SAGA even! ;)



OK here I go...(gonna add the chords for you guitarists out there ;)



[verse 1]



F    C                  Bb            Bb C



Crazy ................ onto the ..... café



     F         C            Bb



I'm drinking coffee, she came away


      F      C              Bb      Bb         C
She ordered .............. precious sum of money ???
F          C        Bb
deedeedeedeedeedeedeedee....
   C
Ohohohoo
[(instrumental) F C Bb Bb C F C Bb]
[verse 2] [...]
[chorus]
  Dm                       Bb
Another da-------y, in the afternoon
Dm    Bb(7)
my delight (?),
  F/C                      C11
another da-------y, in the afternoon
       F
my secret delight (?).
[verse 3] [...]
[BRIDGE] (b b b b)
<MATERIAL DELETED>
???
[repeat bridge]
 Ab     Db Eb (b) F
[2nd time] ???? fantasy, yeah
Hope that's enough to identify this tune ... :)
References
[1]     Haus, G. and Pollastri, E., ""An Audio Front End for Query-by-Humming Systems."" Second International Symposium on Music Information Retrieval, Bloomington, IN, USA, pp. 65-72, 2001.
[2]     Birmingham, W., Dannenberg, R. B., Wakefield, G. H., Bartsch, M., Bykowski, D., Mazzoni, D., Meek, C., Mellody, M., and Rand, W., ""MUSART: Music Retrieval Via Aural Queries."" Second International Symposium on Music Information Retrieval, Bloomington, IN, USA, pp. 73-81, 2001.
[3]     Doraisamy, S. and Rüger, S. M., ""A Comparative and Fault-tolerance Study of the Use of N-grams with Polyphonic Music."" Third International Conference on Music Information Retrieval, Paris, France, pp. 101-106, 2002.
[4]     Pickens, J., ""A Comparison of Language Modeling and Probabilistic Text Information Retrieval Approaches to Monophonic Music Retrieval."" International Symposium on Music Information Retrieval, Plymouth, MA, USA, 2000.
[5]     Haitsma, J. and Kalker, T., ""A Highly Robust Audio Fingerprinting System."" Third International Conference on Music Information Retrieval, Paris, France, pp. 107-115, 2002.
[6]     Downie, J. S.,  ""Music Information Retrieval."" Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, vol.  37, pp. 295-340, 2003.
7]     Pauws, S. and Eggen, B., ""PATS: Realization and User Evaluation of an Automatic Playlist Generator."" Third International Conference on Music Information Retrieval, Paris, France, pp. 222-230, 2002.
[8]     Logan, B., ""Content-Based Playlist Generation: Exploratory Experiments."" Third International Conference on Music Information Retrieval, Paris, France, pp. 295-296, 2002.
[9]     Kornstädt, A., ""The JRing System for Computer-Assisted Musicological Analysis."" Second International Symposium on Music Information Retrieval Bloomington, IN, USA, pp. 93-98, 2001.
[10]     Barthélemy, J. and Bonardi, A., ""Figured Bass and Tonality Recognition."" Second International Symposium on Music Information Retrieval, Bloomington, IN, USA, pp. 129-136, 2001.
[11]     Byrd, D. and Crawford, T. C.,  ""Problems of Music Information Retrieval in the Real World.""  Information Processing and Management, vol.  38, pp. 249-272, 2002.
[12]     Futrelle, J. and Downie, J. S., ""Interdisciplinary Communities and Research Issues in Music Information Retrieval."" Third International Conference on Music Information Retrieval, Paris, France, pp. 215-221,  2002.
[13]       Tague-Sutcliffe, J. ,  ""The Pragmatics of Information Retrieval Experimentation, Revisited."" Information Processing and Management, vol. 28, pp. 467-490, 1992.
[14]     Cunningham, S. J.  ""User Studies: A First Step in Designing an MIR Testbed.""  The MIR/MDL Evaluation Project White Paper Collection, Champaign, IL: GSLIS, pp. 17-19, 2002.
[15]     Dewdney, P. and Michell, G.,  ""Asking 'Why' Questions in the Reference Interview: A Theoretical Justification.""  Library Quarterly, vol.  67, pp. 50-71, 1997.
[16]      Smith, L. C., ""The Reference Interview.""  Reference and Information Services: An Introduction, eds. Bopp, R. E. and Smith, L. C.  Englewood, CO:  Libraries Unlimited, pp. 47-68, 2001.
[17]     Voorhees, E. M.  ""Whither Music IR Evaluation Infrastructure: Lessons to be Learned from TREC.""  The MIR/MDL Evaluation Project White Paper Collection, Champaign, IL: GSLIS, pp. 7-13, 2002.
[18]     Dovey, M. J.  ""Music GRID: A Collaborative Virtual Organization for Music Information Retrieval Collaboration and Evaluation.""  The MIR/MDL Evaluation Project White Paper Collection, Champaign, IL:  GSLIS, pp. 50-52, 2002.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903204819/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop134.html",""
"364","5","Theoretical Issues in Text Encoding: A Critical Review","2","Introduction

Text encoding has long had an important role in the humanities computing community. Initially this importance was simply based on the need to develop systems for representing culturally significant texts in a format that would allow them to be analyzed by computer. However, as these systems for encoding text needed to be as subtle and sophisticated as both the structure of the texts themselves and the hypotheses and theories that were being computationally tested, it is not surprising that decisions about text encoding sometimes seemed to reflect not just incidental variations in technology and logistics but fundamental differences in method and approach to the textual material.
A number of specific issues and topics have arisen in the last twenty years or so and can now be identified as familiar longstanding debates within the humanities computing community. Most of these are fairly robust in that they have no widely accepted resolution and are regularly reiterated and refined. We believe that these are foundational topics that reveal much about both text encoding and humanities computing, not merely distractions from the real work of humanities computing. Discussions range across journals, email lists, conference panels, project documentation, and technical reports, so a systematic survey of these topics will be of value to the humanities computing community.
We have begun a project to survey and critically review the work that has been done on these topics. The project is in its earliest stages and our objective in this poster presentation is to invite participation from the humanities computing community. At this point we are particularly interested in suggestions of new topics that we may have missed, important distinctions within the topics listed, and relevant work we might overlook when writing the full review.

In what follows the reader will notice that we have avoided mentioning even the most obvious researchers, positions, and publications with respect to any particular topic. Balance, fairness, and completeness are essential to a project of this sort, and we are not yet prepared, even if we had the space, to present a balanced selection of researchers and references for any of our topics. We will soon, however, be posting drafts of sections, complete with references and researchers, in an online working version of this survey, at http://eprg.isrl.uiuc.edu/markuptheory/ .

Interpretive nature of markup

Is some markup interpretative? If so, what sort of markup is interpretive, in what sense is it interpretative, and what does that mean for encoding practice? This is perhaps the classic example of a recognized theoretical topic in humanities text encoding. Some encoding theorists claim, for instance, that the markup that predominates in the TEI is inappropriately interpretative, compromising the relevance and value of that encoding system for humanists. Others argue that all markup is interpretative, but this is not a problem: markup allows scholars to express an interpretation of a text, advancing theories, and exposing their interpretations to criticism. Various other positions have also been taken.

Although there are a few journal articles that take up this issue in passing and a panel discussion on the topic was held at ALLC/ACH 1996, many of the influential analyses and exchanges are in the gray literature of humanities computing, including committee reports within the Text Encoding Initiative and several sustained discussions on Humanist.
Hierarchical nature of text

SGML/XML is a grammar that yields a tree without cycles or overlaps. While some writers have explicitly argued that text itself has a hierarchical structure, a number of difficult cases suggest that the content objects of texts do not form a hierarchy. The early influential discussion of this topic was , by David Barnard et al., in , 22 (1988). Since then quite a number of encoding theorists have made important contributions and work continues. Among the questions discussed are: Is text hierarchical or not? Always? Usually? In what sense? If text is not always or typically hierarchical, is this a problem for SGML/XML vocabularies such as the TEI? How should non-hierarchical structures be encoded? Modified versions of the hierarchy thesis have been proposed, empirical surveys of the prevalence of hierarchy conducted, and alternative encoding systems developed.
Kinds of markup

Markup theorists have used a number of terms for kinds of markup, such as explicit, implicit, procedural, presentational, punctuational, descriptive, prescriptive, and authorial. Questions are raised about possible misunderstandings of the fundamental nature of markup, and some writers have argued that we limit the value of text encoding when we neglect to exploit certain sorts of markup.
Non-linguistic features of text

Citing for example Blake's attention to page design and the rat's tail in Alice in Wonderland, some argue that presentational features of texts (what Jerome McGann calls bibliographic codes) are themselves constitutive of text and not just properties of its rendition. McGann's discussion of this issue is considered by some to be a serious challenge to the TEI approach, although others have argued that the challenge is merely apparent. This discussion has recently grown to include the most general problems of understanding the interplay of text and images in the production of meaning.

Correspondence of descriptive markup to concepts guiding authors

Some markup vocabularies are presented as expressing concepts that an author easily perceives. However, it has been argued that often the relevant notions are far from consciousness, compromising the value of descriptive markup, at least for authoring but perhaps also for publishing and analysis. Moreover, some conventions of scribal writing systems, such as capitalization, italicization, underlining, and quotation marks, are routinely used in semantically ambiguous fashion, and authors cannot always explain why they used a certain type of markup. Forcing disambiguation would be not only onerous but perhaps semantically falsifying as well. Although this topic is not encountered so frequently as it once was, we hope to identify the original sources of this discussion and connect them to related work, such as recent discussion in the computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW) community of problems with excessive formality.

Vagueness, ambiguity, underspecification, and uncertainty

How can a markup vocabulary or syntax allow for such phenomena as vagueness, ambiguity, uncertainty? For example, could one create an element without an exact location, thereby avoiding false precision? The point at which a plot turns is a text element of this sort which one might want to encode. What is the right way to write a markup vocabulary or syntax that allows for ambiguity or underspecification? Conventions of scribal markup are semantically ambiguous, and underspecification and ambiguity are common in human language. What is the right way to write a markup vocabulary or syntax that allows for encoder uncertainty?

The relationship between markup and text

Does markup offer a translation of a text, an abstract representation of it, or both? Is markup part of the text or added to it? Do the answers to these questions depend on whether the markup is applied by the author of the text or by another? Or on whether the text is created originally using a computer markup language rather than transcribed from a document?
Data structures and data models

SGML/XML markup serializes a data structure, but some claim that it does not provide a data model, that this is a major flaw in applications such as the TEI.

The general nature of text

What is the general nature of text? Is it an abstract object or a useful fiction for managing material objects? Is it a social construction, an objectively existing entity, or both?
Markup as old wine in a new bottle

Does the use of markup make a genuine contribution to contemporary humanities scholarship? Or is markup in fact tied to an approach to literature that went out of style a century ago? We hope that our discussion of the other topics in this critical review will provide more substance to this metaissue.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040813205920/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop85-2.html",""
"365","5","Ad-hoc Authorship Attribution Competition","2","I would like to propose a session devoted to what I call the Ad-Hoc Authorship Attribution Competition, to be held as part of the 2004 Joint International Conference of the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing and the Association for Computers and the Humanities (ALLC/ACH 2004). My hope is to establish a collection of the best techniques and methods in inferring document authorship from participants around the world.

Recent years have seen a tremendous increase in interest in the problem of determining the author of a disputed or unknown document using computer-aided or even complete computer-driven analysis. This interest takes a variety of forms and comes from a wide range of disciplines. Examples of this include the recent special issue of the journal Chance (a specialist journal in the field of statistics) as well as the recent attention (from ""humanities computing"") at ACH/ALLC 2001.

This interest has not, however, resulted in an accepted standard of practice or an accepted set of techniques usable by interested non-specialists. Various methods have been independently tested and validated, but the (positive) results have not been obtained in a framework that lets researchers compare accuracy and decide which method is suitable for their problem.

To address this, I propose a competitive evaluation framework, entitled an ""Ad-hoc Authorship Attribution Competition,"" in which researchers will jointly and separately analyze a shared, proposed- benchmark corpus using their individually developed techniques. We hope to bring together the users and the developers of this technology to share and to compare their methods and results. This competition will help to create a set of ``best practices'' in authorship attribution that can standardize analyses and spur the development of new and improved methods. Furthermore, the software and methods will be made available to a wider set of researcher who may not have the skill to develop an analysis on their own, but who can use special-purpose software developed to this end.

The competition will be run using a set of specially developed corpora (of various sorts) that will be distributed ``anonymously'' to participating researchers. Some documents will be taken from public sources, while others will be documents specifically collected for this purpose and previously unanalysed. Researchers will be asked to submit their programs (or their analyses of the documents) and determine who wrote each individual document. In cases where the methods that the researchers use don't easily map onto a simple, standalone program, technical support for developing, testing, and standardizing software will be available from the Digital Humanities Developer's Consortium. The DHDC will help in the production of high quality, end-user friendly software to encourage use and reuse of the methods presented.

The results will be tabulated and presented to be presented during the proposed session. In addition to speakers on the contest structure and format (myself) and on the support role of the DHDC (presented by Stephen Ramsay, of the University of Georgia), selected contest entrants will be invited to make brief presentations about their methods and approaches. In addition, it is hoped to publish (independently) an edited volume of papers and software describing the various methods. Participants in the competition will be invited to submit to this volume.

Response to the proposed contest has been substantial; at latest count more than fifteen individual researchers and research groups across the world have indicated interest and intent in participating. The schools and organizations represented by this group include : Trinity College (Dublin), Sheffield University, University of Rome, University of Birmingham, University of Eastern Piedmont, University of Massachusetts (Amherst), the Johns Hopkins University, University of Patras, University of Singapore, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Registration remains open, and letters of interest/intent continue to trickle in.","txt","2","",""
"366","5","Supporting Language Learners by Intelligent and Efficient Use of Technology","2","Introduction
CALL is an interdisciplinary research field, which exploits the use of computer technology for language learning. A survey of CALL systems (Gamper & Knapp, 2002b) revealed the increasing tendency of language learning systems to adopt computational linguistics, artificial intelligence and network technologies in order to improve the learning process. However, many systems are driven more by technological possibilities than by a proper analysis of the problem to be solved. What is needed is a more integrated and comprehensive approach to language learning, which considers didactic requirements and uses different technologies that are tailored for the training of specific skills. Clearly, developing such a system is not an easy task: a lot of expertise out of different disciplines as well as time and money are needed. However, the development process can be facilitated if methods are found to join independently developed mature products to a single learning environment.
In this paper, the results of a collaborative project of the European Academy of Bolzano and the Scuola Universitaria Professionale della Svizzera Italiana (Funded by the European Union, Interreg IIIA, Italia-Svizzera) are presented, which involves combining the systems of Word Manager (WM) and ELDIT. WM is a system for reusable morphological dictionaries. Its lexical resources currently include morphological and orthographic knowledge for three languages, namely English, German and Italian (for German see http://www.canoo.net). ELDIT, the ""Electronic learners' dictionary for German and Italian"" (see http://www.eurac.edu/eldit) is a flexible language learning system easily enlargeable by external products. As it turned out, ELDIT could profit from the WM components in several ways. In this paper we describe one of the new features that resulted from the collaboration, namely how we can provide the entire inflection paradigm for each single word in the ELDIT dictionary. The flexibility of ELDIT, the reusability of the WM modules (WMTrans modules), and the resulting creation of an innovative language learning environment are also described.
Word Manager - A reusable lexical database
Work on the Word Manager project is carried out by an interdisciplinary team consisting of linguists, computational linguists and computer scientists. In Word Manager, lexical resources are developed in two stages. In the first stage, the morphological system of a language is described. This results in a morphological rule database, a description of the inflectional classes and the word formation processes of the language. In the second stage, lexemes are entered, and classified through the morphological rule database. The result is a reusable lexicon database. On the basis of this lexicon database, specialized tools can be developed for any individual task using the knowledge made available in the database. Ten Hacken & Domenig (1996) describe the general architecture and the rule types involved.
ELDIT - a Web-based Learners' Dictionary
At the European Academy Bozen-Bolzano an interdisciplinary research team consisting of linguists, language teachers and computer scientists is developing a Web based language learning system. Its core module is a union of a German and an Italian learners' dictionary (Abel & Weber, 2000). The information is organized in a modular way as far as system development and presentation are concerned. On the left-hand side the lemma together with different word meanings is shown. On the right-hand side a tab metaphor is used to illustrate the use of the word, word relations, etc. The tab ""Verwendung"" enabled in figure 1 shows typical collocations, which are described by a pattern, a translation equivalent, a lexicographic example, and optional explanations or linguistic hints. The basic architecture of the system is a client-server model exploiting the standard Internet and WWW protocols (Gamper & Knapp, 2002a). The server is implemented using Java Servlet technology, a method that allows the dynamic creation of HTML pages. Java APIs can be easily integrated into an existing system. On the client side, the dictionary can be accessed by any Web-Browser.
Figure 1: Screenshot of the Italian dictionary entry ""Haus"" (house) in ELDIT
Providing Inflection in ELDIT by reusing Word Manager
Conventional dictionaries in paper or electronic form usually provide the inflection paradigm for some example words. The learner should then be able to apply the rules to similar cases and notice or learn irregular cases. This may work for someone intentionally studying a language, but often causes problems when a learner just picks up an unknown word in a dictionary. The small hint that the word under consideration is irregular may be overseen, or - if noticed - it may be a lot of work to derive the appropriate form from the list with exceptional rules and forms.
One way ELDIT profits from being joined with WM is that it is now able to provide the entire inflection paradigm for each single dictionary entry. The modular structure of ELDIT and the tab metaphor made it easy to include the new module. In the interface a tab was added where the inflectional information is shown., At the server side, WM dictionaries were integrated in the form of so-called WMTrans Finite State Transducers (WMTrans). A WMTrans is produced by compiling the WM lexicon entries from a WM dictionary database into a finite state transducer (Pedrazzini, 1999; 2000). Currently, a whole range of WMTrans products have been developed (see http://www.canoo.com/wmtrans): WMTrans word recognizers, lemmatizers, analyzers and generators for inflection and word formation. As an example we describe the WMTrans Lemmatizer: a module that returns the citation form of any valid word for a specified language. The result of a query is a list of citation forms followed by the corresponding category:
query -> ging result -> gehen (Cat V)
In order to integrate explicit information on inflection in ELDIT, we needed the WMTrans inflection generator, which is able to generate the whole inflection paradigm starting from a citation form. The information is returned as a list of word forms, followed by a list of morphosyntactic features related to each single word form.
The transducers have been implemented in Java and can hence be easily integrated into our Java-Servlet program through a class API. When a user wants to retrieve the inflection of a particular dictionary entry, he or she activates the tab ""conjugation"" or ""declension"". In this way the client sends a request to the server. The request is processed in several steps. First the requested dictionary entry is identified. Then the inflection paradigm is retrieved from the corresponding Word Manager Transducer. Finally, the HTML answer page containing the inflection data is dynamically compiled. The presentation of the information is realized by CSS. The screenshot in figure 2 shows the inflection paradigm for the German word ""Haus"" (house).
Figure 2: The inflection paradigm of the German word ""Haus"" (house)
Conclusion
A lot of knowledge out of different disciplines is necessary to provide an innovative language learning system. A system can greatly be improved, if methods are found to join independently developed mature products to a single learning environment. We have presented two interdisciplinary research projects out of the domain of lexicography, which are both ready to be integrated within other e-learning resources. Word Manager is a reusable lexical database that provides information about inflection, word formation and orthography. ELDIT is a web-based dictionary for language learners. Both systems can be integrated into other learning environments as well as easily extended by new modules. Joining the two products efficiently supports the creation of innovative features in a language learning environment.
References
1. Abel, A. & Weber, V. (2000): ELDIT - A Prototype of an Innovative Dictionary. In: Heid, U. et al. (Eds.): Proceedings of the Ninth Euralex International Congress, Euralex 2000. Stuttgart. Vol. II, S. 807-818.
2. Gamper, J., & Knapp, J. (2002a). A Data Model and its Implementation for a Web-Based Language Learning System. In Proceedings of the Twelfth International World Wide Web Conference, WWW2003. Budapest, Hungary. S. 217-225.
3. Gamper, J. & Knapp, J. (2002b). A review of intelligent CALL systems. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 15(4):329-342, Oct. 2002.
4. Pedrazzini, S. (1999): The Finite-State Automata's Design Patterns, WIA'98, Third International Workshop on Implementing Automata, Rouen, France, September 1998. Published in J.-M. Champarnaud, D. Maurel, D. Ziadi (Eds.): Automata Implementation, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, p. 213, Springer.
5. Pedrazzini, S. (2000): The Jacaranda Framework, available at http://b.die.supsi.ch/~pedrazz/jacaranda.
6. ten Hacken, P. & Domenig, M. (1996), 'Reusable Dictionaries for NLP: The Word Manager Approach', Lexicology 2:232-255.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903204919/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop25.html",""
"367","5","From the Bookstalls of Onitsha Market to the Internet: Digitizing Popular Nigerian Literature","2","Onitsha Market Literature consists of stories, plays, advice and moral discourses published primarily in the 1960s by local presses in the lively market town of Onitsha, an important commercial site in the Igbo-speaking region of southeastern Nigeria. In the fresh and vigorous genre of Onitsha Market Literature, the commoner wrote pulp fiction and didactic handbooks for those who perused the bookstalls of Onitsha Market, one of Africa's largest trading centers. Twenty-one pamphlets from Onitsha Market appear on the Internet at http://www.ku.edu/~onitsha. The pamphlets are fully digitized and annotated to exemplify styles of expression found in this intriguing form of African popular literature. They are part of a unique collection of 101 pamphlets from Onitsha now held at the Spencer Research Library at the University of Kansas located in Lawrence, Kansas U.S.A.
This poster presentation will highlight our digitization initiative--the first full-text digitization of Onitsha pamphlets that makes them available to a worldwide audience via the Internet. At the ALLC/ACH 2004 conference we will discuss various issues related to our completed project and suggest appropriate uses of the digitized pamphlets for humanities computing.
Onitsha market literature is grounded among the masses, and it is their voices that we hear in this amazing collection. The works were aimed at the new literate class of Nigerians such as taxi drivers, mechanics, white-collar clerks, primary school teachers, small-scale entrepreneurs and traders (1). In simple English basic concerns about sex, money and style enthralled a vibrant cross-section of Nigerians (2). Local publishers supplied creative and enticing reading matter to a public with a literary appetite that in turn gained confidence in the local uses of English. Scholars hail this popular literature, in part ""conditioned and compromised by the marketplace,"" as a major impetus for an eager literate public to experiment with more serious and dynamic works of creative writing (3). A ""multilingual and multicultural heritage"" is present in the Nigerian English of the pamphlets, and our poster presentation will highlight this conference theme.
Although African literary artists such as Chinua Achebe, Mariama Bâ, Wole Soyinka and Ngugi wa Thiong'o hold well-deserved positions of honor as the creators of beautiful and exceptional literature, most of the authors of popular market literature remain unknown and unseen beyond the market. This digitization initiative introduces these 'invisible' authors to the widest audience possible--the Internet, and provides a context to fully understand and appreciate this literature for the masses. The style of the market literature is firmly grounded in African oral traditions with plays, riddles and jokes as common features (4). Thus, the Onitsha pamphlets reflect earlier African oral texts and their rich histories. The digitization of a portion of the university's Onitsha collection permits the cultural heritage embedded in these publications to gain notoriety through contemporary technological channels. Just as eager readers purchased Nigerian market literature 40-50 years ago, this initiative makes Onitsha pamphlets accessible once again to a wide-ranging readership on the Internet.
The project to digitize selected texts from the Onitsha market literature collection at the Spencer Research Library, University of Kansas, became a reality through a grant provided by the university's Digital Library Initiative. This initiative invited faculty to submit proposals for the digitization of research collections that might benefit from this new application for enhanced access via the Internet. Enhancing access to the collection for purposes of classroom instruction and research were a central focus of the project throughout its design and implementation.
The most important issue that had to be carefully researched to make the site possible was that of Nigerian copyright law. The ultimate question to be answered was whether there would be copyright infringement under Nigerian copyright law of works published in Nigeria in the relevant time period if the KU Libraries were to digitalize these works and place them on a website for the purpose of making these materials available to scholars everywhere. As determined by the University of Kansas Office of Legal Counsel, Nigerian copyright law in effect at the time of publication provides an exclusion for use of a copyrighted work that encompasses ""fair dealing"" for research, review or criticism, and that the ""fair dealing"" exception would be applicable in our situation. Therefore, it was possible for the project to proceed as long as reasonable effort was made to locate publishers and authors who may be current holders of copyright. An extensive search for any such copyright holders was not successful in locating any current copyright holders for the 21 works proposed for digitization.
While the original idea for the proposal focused on the possible digitization of the entire collection of over 100 titles, it soon became evident that this expectation would need to be scaled back. Due to the modest resources available from the Digital Library Initiative, the alternative of digitizing only 21 of the titles in the total collection became necessary. Titles were then chosen that were deemed to be thematically and stylistically representative of the total collection.
Another key decision had to do with the creation of a website to contextualize the works to be digitized. This truly became a team project with various aspects of the site developed cooperatively by various members working on the project. The principal investigators for this project will make the poster presentation at the ALLC/ACH 2004 conference. Elizabeth MacGonagle is an Assistant Professor of African History at the University of Kansas and Ken Lohrentz is the African Studies Librarian at the University of Kansas Libraries. Drawing on their complimentary expertise, each will discuss issues related to computing and the humanities that stem from this successful digitization project.
Endnotes:
1. ""Popular Culture: Popular Literature"" in Encyclopedia of Africa South of the Sahara (Scribner's Sons, 1997) v. III, 452.
2. Kurt Thometz, comp. Life Turns Man Up and Down: high life, useful advice, and mad English: African market literature (Pantheon, 2001), xviii.
3. Encyclopedia of Africa, v. III, 444-445, 452, 538.
4. Cavan M. McCarthy, ""Printing in Onitsha: some personal observations on the production of Nigerian Market Literature,"" African Research and Documentation, 35 (August 1984), 22.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903204801/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop125.html",""
"368","5","Free yourself from C.C.M.S. (Commercial Content Management Systems)","2","The purpose of this poster presentation is to illustrate the implementation of the main functions of a digital library using open source tools and avoiding proprietary and commercial tools. The choice of using proprietary software as DynaText/DynaWeb was, until few years ago, almost forced, but it has the risk of bringing to a blind alley for many reasons, not least the economic one. The decision to utilize XML instead of SGML for defining a mark up language for the digital text encoding, as the T.E.I. Consortium did, was the first step which permitted to have more possibilities. The more XML data is being used in the IT world, the more open source software XML-enabled is being developed. With some adaptations to its particular aims, Humanites Computing can use the same tools which are used in hard-core and business IT applications. A lot of free editors for XML and XSLT editing are available, and also there is plenty of choice for the parsers and the processors. But encoding a text, or a collection of texts, in a mark up language and validate it is only the first step in the creation of a digital library and in some way is not the most difficult one. On the internet there is now a lot of documentation and examples about it, thank also to the diffusion of the T.E.I. encoding as the de facto standard in this field, but the situation is not that easy when you have to deliver the text(s) in some electronic format to the readers.
 Even restricting the many functions a digital library should have, the main two are:
a) publishing the collection, possibly in multiple formats, in order to have suitable outputs for the different hardware/software devices ( desktop, laptop, pda, ebook reader)
b) querying the collection for full-text researches.
Then the problem is to find the right open source products and adapt them for implementing the digital library modeldescribed above. Fortunately enough a kind of natural selection is happening in the Humanities Computing world, and the choice is always more and more oriented towards the same tools, so to have many projects facing the same problems, allowing to concentrate the efforts of the many teams, all over the world.
About the publishing issue, the application always more and more adopted is Cocoon, part of the Apache Project. Slightly more than an advanced servlet in version 1.0, Cocoon has quickly evolved to a very good web publishing framework in 2.0, to become a complete XML application server in 2.1, with the possibility of extending its components. At a basic level, Cocoon is able to capture the client web requests, understand which resource is needed, fetching  the corresponding data (which could be contained in an XML file or in a RDBMS), apply a transformation on this data ( using an XSLT stylesheet for example) and deliver the result to the client. Naturally this mechanism is very suitable for the dynamic publishing of an electronic text encoded with the T.E.I. markup, thanks also to the XSLT stylesheets for the HTML output developed by Sebastian Rahtz and made freely available. Aim of this presentation is to illustrate some of possibilities you can obtain using Cocoon to produce multiple versions of a text, content-scalable and device-scalable, starting from an XML/T.E.I. document.
Apart from the publishing issue, the querying one is made possible using a native XML database, a kind of database which stores, queries and retrieves directly the XML documents, not forcing and encapsulating them in the table model of the RDBMS. eXist is probably the more known and efficient open source native XML database and for the queries support the XPath language with some added functions and in the latest version some of the XQuery functions. eXist and Cocoon could be integrated, so to store the XML resource needed by Cocoon into eXist and not in the filesystem, so to have always the same XML documents used both for the publishing and for the query avoiding eventual redundancy problems. Naturally the result of the queries made to eXist is in XML so it could be passed through an XSLT stylesheet to decide in which output format should be delivered to the client.
This presentation consist in a case study of implementing a digital library using only open source software, showing to the audience a real world solution for the main problems.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903205020/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/Federico_Meschini.html",""
"369","5","Electronic Markup and Management Application (EMMA)","2","We would like to propose a poster session intended to provide a progress report on the Electronic Markup and Management Application (EMMA) project at the University of Georgia.
EMMA proposes to revise the way in which students write, edit, and submit compositions for review, as well as the way instructors and peers can respond by using markup technology to enable web-based collection, modification, distribution and archiving of student work. The core of EMMA is a Java-based editor which the student can download to facilitate creation of a marked-up composition. This customized editing software provides for instructor-specified document type definitions (DTDs) to be used for particular assignments. It also provides a means of ensuring the correct identification and upload of marked-up compositions back into the system archive which manages peer-review, instructor comments, portfolio creation, assessment, and access permissions.
The past year has presented a number of development opportunities for the EMMA project, most of which involved exploiting the power of the Cocoon framework upon which much of the server-side infrastructure of EMMA is deployed. We have increased the security and flexibility of the system by expanding the variety of access privileges, incorporating Cocoon's sessioning protocol, and including encryption for sensitive data. We have worked to develop the connection between Cocoon and our database by offering a simple but powerful user interface for exploring our archive of documents.
On the pedagogical front, we are developing new DTDs to expand the possible uses for English departments. Currently in development are DTDs for analyzing poetry and plays, as well as one for exploring lines of argument in primary sources. We are working to create a library of marked primary sources for use in the classroom. Though our editor is much more stable and much easier to use, we are still working to expand its functionality to include multi-file downloads and multi-format uploads and installer routines for multiple platforms. We have begun to develop a document preview in the editor and have an initial deployment of an internal browser for displaying documents, help-files, and tutorials. We continue to expand the browser's capabilities as we move toward a more self-contained, and hopefully simpler, application.
Having made a strong start on portfolio production this year (we passed the 10,000 document upload mark this past fall), we plan to expand EMMA's capabilities in this area, specifically by including a form for resumes. We have improved our stylesheets for the variety of displays already in use (HTML, PDF, and SVG) while at the same time developing new stylesheets for the new DTDs, We have increased the functionality of the document presentation for instructor commenting and grading, adding a richer quantitative analysis of student documents.
We have just begun working on a level of administrative access for a variety of assessment tools. We are conducting a study with the University of Georgia library which we hope to share at 2004 ALLC meeting. The reference staff will be sampling the works cited items in essays posted on EMMA. Since students mark these items, the sample can be quite easily collected. Over time, they see EMMA as a perfect tool for assessing research needs for the University.
The University of Georgia is also looking at deploying EMMA in some sections of Biology for submitting lab reports (particularly for annotating gene strings), as well as in independent study and distance learning contexts, and have begun working with Steve Ramsay on incorporating a variety of distributed computing technologies for text analysis and display.
We were encouraged by the positive feedback we received at last year's session on EMMA at the ACH/ALLC meeting, and we look forward to the possibility of exhanging ideas with our colleagues this summer.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903204223/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop135.html",""
"370","5","Recommendations of the TEI Task Force on SGML to XML Migration","2","The TEI Task Force on SGML to XML Migration was convened in May 2002 and charged with developing recommendations for migrating existing TEI resources from SGML to XML. The Task Force was comprised of representatives from projects with significant TEI SGML, along with selected technical experts and the TEI editors, and has worked for the past 18 months to diagnose and document the problems, methods, and tools necessary to migrate legacy TEI data to XML.

Migrating TEI resources from SGML to XML provides a number of benefits. Many projects have been working with the same SGML DTD for many years and may need to re-examine it. Migration provides an opportunity to revisit DTDs and encoding practices which were developed to facilitate searching or display in a particular SGML-based system but are no longer necessary in an XML-based system. It also creates an opportunity to parse data again and fix errors.

One of the most compelling reasons for a project or individual to consider migrating data is the scarcity of SGML-aware software and tools and the relative abundance of XML-based tools. Indeed, as XML becomes the industry standard there is a real danger that SGML-aware software will no longer be supported. SGML also lacks a suite of related standards that allow full exploitation of the encoded data. XML, on the other hand, is accompanied by a number of related standards and specifications, such as XPath, XSLT, XML Schemas, XPointer, XLink, and XQuery.

However, despite the fact that XML is a subset of SGML, migration is not a trivial process, especially in the cases of large holdings of legacy data. Such a process demands the consideration of many technical and strategic issues. A smooth transition between SGML and XML is especially important for those working with TEI, since future releases of the TEI Guidelines will no longer be SGML-compliant. The first release of the Guidelines, the SGML-based TEI P3 (1994) has been now superseded by the XML-based TEI P4 (2002), which still maintains backward compatibility with P3, and hence SGML. Thus the conversion from P3 to P4 is relatively straightforward, while the ongoing development of P5, the next generation of the Guidelines, will render P3 increasingly obsolete. TEI P5 will be XML-based and will not ensure backward compatibility, so a P3 to P5 migration may be substantially more difficult than P3 to P4. Therefore having TEI P4-conformant XML texts will make life much simpler should a P5 migration become necessary.

The TEI Task Force on SGML to XML Migration has substantially completed its work and plans to finalize its recommendations by the end of 2003. The primary deliverables of the Task Force are two reports: ""Strategic Considerations in Migration of TEI Documents from SGML to XML"" and the ""Practical Guide to Migration of TEI Documents from SGML to XML."" The first report, intended for administrators and project managers, emphasizes the planning and decision-making involved in data migration, while the second report describes the mechanics of conversion in greater detail and is written primarily for the technical staff who will implement the conversion. The specific recommendations in the technical report are augmented by a set of Migration Case Study Reports that discuss sample migration efforts undertaken by members of the Task Force. The samples represent a broad variety of languages and encoding practices and describe solutions to particular migration challenges, like converting SDATA entities and complex DTD extensions. They include the MULTEXT-East Multilingual Corpus, the Corpus of Middle English Prose and Verse, the Japanese Text Initiative, the Women Writers Project, the Thomas MacGreevy Archive, Documenting the American South, the Victorian Women Writers Project, and the Thesaurus Musicarum Italicarum. All documentation relating to the Task Force is available through its Activities page on the TEI website: http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/MI/.

This poster session will summarize the recommendations of the Task Force, discuss how the recommendations have been received by the TEI user community, and describe possibilities for future work on data migration issues.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903204958/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop146.html",""
"371","5","Digital documentation of lesser-known languages in India: Its application in teaching Linguistics","2","The most important relationship between language and culture that gets to the heart of what is lost when you lose a language is that most of the culture is in the language and is expressed in the language. Take it away from the culture, and you take away its greetings, its curses, its praises, its laws, its literature, its songs, its riddles, its proverbs, its cures, its wisdom, its prayers. The culture could not be expressed and handed on in any other way. (Fishman 1996: 81)
The aim of this presentation is to discuss how digital documentation of lesser-known languages in India (where language corpora are part of the documentation) can be an effective tool in language learning/teaching Linguistics. Combining the use of foreign language corpora together with the use of ICT provide effective pedagogical tools in renewing language teaching/learning. These two points will be discussed and illuminated by presenting the foundations and demonstration of a research project (Digital documentation of Indian minority languages) of which Anju Saxena is the Principal Investigator and Udaya Narayana Singh is the Principal Collaborator.
The increasing internationalism in the twentieth century with a small group of nations dominating the scene, has had an adverse effect on the maintenance of social and cultural traditions of many communities. According to Krauss (1996), 3000 of today's 6000 languages will disappear in this century, if no extra measures are taken. Issues relating to language death, endangernment and threat to linguistic diversity have dominated the scene (Krauss 1996) and efforts to revitalize endangered languages and to regress the phenomenon of language death have been the themes of several conferences (including UN conference).
A language is a reflection of the community that speaks it. It embodies the philosophy and the world-view of its people. In communities which lack a writing system, this knowledge is handed down orally from one generation to the next. When a language dies, which happens with increasing frequency in our modern world, we lose not only the linguistic knowledge of that community, but also the knowledge about its culture. One important way of ensuring that the knowledge about indigenous languages and cultures is not totally and irrevocably lost is by documenting these languages and by spreading information about languages and cultures of these communities to a wider audience.
Recent developments in internet technology have the potential to enormously change the way that we collect, store, organize, analyze and disseminate linguistic data. Internet provides opportunities for producing as well as making the material available to a larger audience cost-effectively with the possibility for updating the material. The focus in language technology has, unfortunately, been on major Western languages until recently. There is a growing awareness in the research community that these technical advances can and should also be used in documenting minority languages as this could be an effective tool for spreading awareness about these languages and for maintaining linguistic diversity (Ó Cróinín 2000). It should, at the same time, also be highlighted that it is not only the minority languages which stand to gain from this collaboration, rather also the domain of language technology itself - it gains a testing ground for evaluating its tools and programs on languages which differ significantly (typologically) from literate Western languages.
The Indian subcontinent has a long history of linguistic diversity and multilingualism, spanning more than three millenia. Languages spoken in this region belong to four major language families: Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman and Munda. Societal multilingualism is an established tradition in India. Despite this stable multilingualism, language death is not uncommon in the Indian context. We are, at present, witnessing some positive efforts in documenting lesser-known languages in South Asia, using the internet technology. LACITO (Boyd Michailovsky) in France has initiated an arhive which contains texts of lesser-known languages (including some languages of Nepal) http://ldc.upenn.edu/exploration/expl2000/papers/michailovsky/index.html. The Digital Himalayan Project (http://www.digitalhimalaya.com/) at Cambridge University is an attempt to electronically document anthropological material. The Indian side of the Himalayan region has, unfortunately, been out of sight as far as the application of recent technological advances for linguistic documentation is concerned. The aim of our project is to fill this void. The digital documentation in this project includes not only the linguistic documentation (i.e., texts), but also material which will anchor this linguistic material to social and cultural lifestyles of these communities. Digitalized audio and video recordings are necessary components of the documentation. Documentation of each language will include the following:
A brief desription of its genetic affiliation and major typological characteristics;
An outline of its sociolinguistic situation (e.g., size of the speech community, to what extent is the community monoligual, literacy);
Photographs and video recordings to place the linguistic material in its perspective;
A brief description of previous works on this language and culture;
A description of the grammatical terminology, abbreviations used and what they stand for, and on the transcription convention used;
Direct-elicited data on lexical semantics, kinship terms, numerals, paradigms (inflectional and derivational morphology);
An annotated narrative corpus (together with audio- and visual-recording) with the following information:
a unique reference field
a phonetically transcribed unit, such as a clause;
the morphological representation of the clause;
a morpheme-by-morpheme translation of the clause into English;
a free translation of the clause into English
The results of this project will directly as well as indirectly help towards maintaining linguistic diversity (thus regressing the phenomenon of language death) by documenting these languages and by spreading awareness about these lesser-known languages. Further, it will also contribute to our understanding of typological characteristics of languages of this region and of the interplay of socio-cultural factors and linguistic structure. Furthermore, it will also provide rich material for teaching Linguistics courses.
There has been a growing interest in using natural language corpora in teaching and in research, partly due to the growing availability of computer-readable linguistic corpora, and partly due to an increase in examining language in its natural context as opposed to investigating constructed language examples in isolation. This accompanying physical context makes it possible to investigate the textual, discourse-level, functions of the grammatical phenomena. Researchers, teachers and students now have access to different types of language corpora to discover facts about language; for example, which words are most frequently used in a language or a language-type, in which context they predominantly occur and which grammatical patterns are associated with a particular linguistic item (Ghadessy et al 2000).
Another advantage of using corpora in teaching is that instead of learning about linguistic theories in vacuum, students themselves have a chance to test these theories against these corpora and learn about these theories or concepts for themselves. When corpora are used by students as part of their learning, the distinction between teaching and research is ""blurred"", as students, by discovery proceedure (thus, research), learn things for themselves (thus, learning/teaching) (Knowles 1990).
There are several advantages in using language corpora of lesser-known languages:
It brings research findings in classroom teaching.
It has been our experience that it works better when the morpho-syntax of Swedish (mother tongue of most students in Sweden) is compared with some other language. For this purpose, Kinnauri or any other language of digital documentation project is a good candidate, being different typologically from Swedish considerably. It provides a way for students to appreciate the differences in grammars of the two languages and also something to think about concerning the similarities that exist between/among languages.
Working with a corpus provides an opportunity for students to work in groups.
It helps also spread awareness about lesser-known languages.
ICT (Information and Communication Technology) provides good resources for storing and disseminating the primary material. By having archives of spoken and written material of lesser-known languages we preserve knowledge of and about the language for the next generation, where for many languages there will be no native speakers of that language alive.
References
1. Ó Cróinín, Donncha (ed.) 2000. Workshop Proceedings. Developing Language Resources for Minority Languages: Reusability and Strategic Priorities. LREC 2000. Second International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation. Athens.
2. Fishman, Joshua. 1996. What do you lose when you lose your language? In: Gina Cantoni (ed) Stabilizing indigenous languages. Flagstaff: A Center for excellence in eduaction monograph. North Arizona University, pp.80-91
3. Krauss, Michael. 1996 Status of native American language endangerment. In: Gina Cantoni (ed) Stabilizing indigenous languages. Flagstaff: A Center for excellence in eduaction monograph. North Arizona University, pp. 6-21
4. Ghadessy, Mohsen, Alex Henry and Robert L. Roseberry. Introduction. In: Ghadessy, Mohsen, Alex Henry and Robert L. Roseberry (eds.) Small corpus studies and ELT. Theory and practice. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.pp xvii-xxiii.
5. Knowles, Gerald. 1990. The use of spoken and written corpora in the teaching of language and linguistics. Literary and linguistic computing. Journal of the Association for literary and linguistic computing. 5.1.45-48.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903204343/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop18.html",""
"372","5","Text Analysis Markup Language (TAML)","2","Text analysis tools come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes, from small modules meant to do a specific task quickly and efficiently (like many Unix commands) to larger applications that integrate several functions into an interface (like HyperPo). A further distinction can be made between tools that are designed to be used locally (like TACT) and those that have some network intelligence built-in (like TAPoR Tools). However, a common characteristic of almost all existing tools is an inability to communicate with other tools, beyond the simplest input/output mechanisms. As a new era of fully networked text analysis tools is emerging, we are in urgent need of a standardised syntax for transmitting information about both functionality and data between different tools.
The current situation in tools development can be likened to the disjointed and somewhat cacophonic predicament of text digitisation prior to the advent of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI): many sophisticated and effective means of encoding texts had been devised, but a lack of standardisation made exploiting these texts a challenge. In can be argued that the TEI was a major catalyst in the explosion of text digitisation and encoding projects since the mid 1990s. It is hoped that a standardised syntax for text analysis tools will spark a similar upsurge in tools development, particularly since so many high-quality TEI-conformant texts are now available.
The Text Analysis Markup Language (TAML) project is an initial attempt to specify a standardised syntax for text analysis communication. TAML is actually a concentric two-tier system that contains functionality and content components on the first tier that can be used independently. The second tier is meant as a transcript language to express a complete set of text analysis operations (see figure 1).
The TAML Transcript syntax anticipates three primary types of communication: 1) between an initial user interface and an abstract text analysis tool; 2) between various text analysis tools; and 3) between a text analysis tool and a location to store or view the results (such as a browser). A key component of the TAML Transcript system would be a central broker tool that would be able to dispatch requests to different tools, be they TAML-compliant or not (see figure 2).
Any standardisation is an exercise of compromises and difficult strategic decisions. For instance, what is the optimal level of generality for TAML? Should one build the application-specific intelligence into a schema by using specific tags, like <raw-frequency> or more general tags, like <item>, that rely on external documentation? In this context, TAML should only be seen as an opening gambit in a process of arriving at standardised language for text analysis. What we can learn by trying to standardise the communication is almost as valuable as the standard itself.
This poster will present the current state of the TAML schema and provide examples of transcripts and prototype tool implementations.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903204556/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop123.html",""
"373","5","Möglichkeiten einer digitalen, annotierten und hypertextualisierten Edition von Holocaust-Literatur am Beispiel der Lodzer Getto Chronik","2","""Möglichkeiten einer digitalen, annotierten und hypertextualisierten Edition von Holocaust-Literatur am Beispiel der Lodzer Getto Chronik"" - die im Titel dieser Magisterarbeit angesprochenen Themenfelder machen deutlich, dass es sich um eine interdisziplinär orientierte Arbeit handelt, in der informationstechnologische Verfahren im Rahmen der Edition von Texten der Gattung Holocaust-Literatur eingesetzt wurden.
In dieser Arbeit wurde zunächst die These erörtert, ob das der Gattung Holocaust-Literatur inhärente problematische Verhältnis von Literatur und Geschichte durch eine hypertextuelle Darstellung der Texte zu 'lösen' sein kann und dadurch letztlich ein Gewinn für die Aufbereitung der Vergangenheit erwachsen kann. Der Grund für die Annahme einer Adäquatheit bzw. besonderen Berechtigung einer hypertextuellen Repräsentation von Holocaust-Literatur liegt begründet in den spezifischen Charakteristika der Gattung: Holocaustliteratur, egal ob dokumentarisch oder fiktional, hat eine gemeinsame Intention, nämlich das unbeschreibbare, unfassbare Grauen des Holocaust zu vermitteln. Diesem Anspruch steht die Tatsache entgegen, dass die Autoren sachlichen Irrtümern unterlagen, weil sie von der Außenwelt isoliert waren oder aufgrund der Desinformationspolitik der Nationalsozialisten vieles nicht wussten oder falsch erfuhren und weil sie von Selbst- oder Fremdzensur betroffen waren. Um nun dem Anspruch gerecht zu werden, die schrecklichen Geschehnisse zwischen 1933 und 1945 im Rahmen einer heutigen Edition der Texte wahrheitsgetreu darzustellen, scheint eine Kommentierung der Texte unumgänglich zu sein. Eine explizite Kommentierung von außen und aus heutiger Sicht wurde vom Autorenteam jedoch abgelehnt, da dies nach ihrer Auffassung einen zu starken Eingriff in den Text bedeutet und die Rezeption des Textes zu sehr lenkt. Statt dessen wurde versucht, durch die Kontextualisierung bzw. Vernetzung verschiedener Texte aus dem Lodzer Getto in einem Hypertextsystem eine so genannte 'stille' Kommentierung der Texte zu erzielen. Durch die parallele Darbietung von Texten mit unterschiedlichen Perspektiven auf ein Thema bzw. Ereignis sollte zum einen trotz der faktischen Mängel der einzelnen Texte eine nach Ganzheitlichkeit strebende Darstellung der historischen Fakten und ihrer literarischen Umsetzung erreicht werden, und zum anderen sollte auf diese Weise eine Alternative zu einer Geschichtsschreibung geboten werden, in der die Ereignisse des Holocaust monologisch und universalisierend dargestellt und einige als faktisch richtig bewertete Texte privilegiert werden, andere als faktisch falsch aus der offiziellen Darstellung des Holocaust ausgeklammert bleiben.
Ein aus diesen Überlegungen heraus konzipierter Hypertext zur Lodzer Getto Chronik, einem ca. zweitausend Seiten umfassenden Text, der zwischen 1941 und 1944 im Lodzer Getto entstand und im Auftrag des Ältesten der Juden im Getto die täglichen Ereignisse im Getto widerzuspiegeln versucht, wurde deshalb mit dem Ziel erstellt, die heterogenen, z.T. auch widersprüchlichen Erfahrungen der Opfer in das Zentrum der Darstellung des Holocaust zu stellen und Geschichte auf diese Weise zu individualisieren - auch und gerade vor dem Hintergrund, dass die Nationalsozialisten eine systematische Entindividualisierung der Opfer des Holocaust betrieben.
Zur Kontextualisierung der Lodzer Getto Chronik wurde diese mit Auszügen aus allen bisher herausgegebenen deutschsprachigen Texten aus dem Lodzer Getto, die während der Ereignisse entstanden, ergänzt.
Neben der hypertextuellen Vernetzung der Texte aus dem Lodzer Getto stand als zweiter Aspekt die Annotation der Texte im Zentrum dieser Arbeit. Da es sich bei der Lodzer Getto Chronik um ein sehr umfangreiches und inhaltlich heterogenes Dokument handelt, das für die unterschiedlichsten Disziplinen (Geschichte, Soziologie, Literatur- und Sprachwissenschaft usw.) von Interesse sein kann, ist eine Annotation der Texte mittels Markup-Sprachen mit dem Ziel eines verbesserten Information Retrieval extrem sinnvoll. Da mit den Richtlinien der TEI ein geeignetes und zugleich standardisiertes Instrumentarium zur Annotation von Texten vorliegt, wurden die Texte des Korpus, die entweder als Printtexte vorlagen oder im Microsoft Word Format, mit einer speziell für die Belange der Chronik angepassten TEI-DTD - die Ergebnisse einer Korpusanalyse wurden als Attributwertvorgaben in die DTD eingearbeitet - systematisch und detailliert aufbereitet. Aus den hieraus resultierenden XML-Dokumenten wurden mit Hilfe von XSLT-Stylesheets Datenbankeinträge für eine MySQL-Datenbank erzeugt, die mittels PHP-Skripten aus dem Hypertextsystem zur Lodzer Getto Chronik heraus angesprochen werden kann. Daneben wurden ebenfalls mittels XSLT-Stylesheets für die Tageschroniken der Lodzer Getto Chronik drei unterschiedliche Ansichten generiert: eine Originalansicht (im Prototyp noch nicht realisiert), eine textkritische Ansicht (für die der Text rein textkritisch ediert wurde) und eine Leseansicht (in der interessante oder kommentierungsbedürftige Textstellen hervorgehoben sind, sich über Links kleine Pop-Up-Fenster mit Zusatzinformationen öffnen lassen und Links zu anderen, thematisch ähnlichen Texten enthalten sind).
Neben der Möglichkeit, im Hypertextsystem explizite Suchanfragen zu verschiedenen Aspekten der Texte (Themen, Personen, Organisationen, Orte, Daten) zu stellen, wurden für die Chronik-Texte automatisch Links zu thematisch verwandten Texten generiert, d.h. dass auf Anfrage innerhalb der Leseansicht einer Tageschronik in einem Inline-Frame weitere Textstellen angezeigt werden können: Auf Basis der Annotation der Tageschroniken werden für jedes vorkommende index-Element die Werte der level1- bis level4-Attribute (deren Werte in der DTD vorgegeben sind) Datenbankanfragen abgesetzt, so dass die mit gleichen level-Attributen annotierten Texte erkannt und ausgegeben werden können. Für diese thematische Auswertung der Texte (auf Basis einer Anfrage an die Datenbank) wurden die im ersten Teil der Arbeit diskutierten Thesen aufgegriffen und die theoretisch geforderte 'stille' Kommentierung eines Textes durch andere Texte praktisch umgesetzt: Zu jedem Text können immer andere Texte in einem parallelen Frame angezeigt werden. Die Kontrastierung von mehreren Texten innerhalb eines Browser-Fensters wird auch bei einem dritten Rezeptionszugang zu den Texten verwirklicht, in dem über die Verlinkung eines grafischen Abbildes eines für einen Bereich der Domäne Getto entwickelten semantischen Netzes Texte (die mit dem jeweiligen Knoten des semantischen Netzes assoziiert werden können) in drei parallelen ""Fenstern"" angezeigt werden. Auch hier funktioniert die Zuordnung von Texten zu einem Thema (bzw. Knoten) automatisch über das index-Element.
In der Leseansicht der Tageschroniken werden (ermöglicht durch die detaillierte XML-Annotation) neben den Verlinkungsangeboten auch zusätzliche Informationen zu einer Textpassage angezeigt, wie z.B. Angaben über die Bedeutung eines Wortes, seine Einordnung in einen Sprachraum, einen zeitlichen Kontext etc. oder Angaben über stilistische Eigenschaften eines Textabschnitts. Um diese Metainformationen vom eigentlichen Text zu trennen und so den Textinhalt selbst unberührt zu lassen, wurden Links auf kleine Pop-Up-Fenster generiert, in denen sämtliche Informationen zu einer Textpassage aufgeführt werden.
Die in den XML-Dokumenten kodierten statistischen Angaben (z.B. über Nahrungslieferungen durch die deutsche Gettoverwaltung bzw. Nahrungsausgaben durch die jüdische Verwaltung oder Angaben über Sterbefälle und Geburten, Festnahmen sowie Bevölkerungszahlen) sowie die stilistischen Annotationen werden bislang noch nicht durch Information-Retrieval-Funktionen verfügbar gemacht. Mittelfristig geplant ist jedoch ein Ausbau der Funktionalität des Hypertextsystems, so dass z.B. durch die Auswertung der statistischen Nahrungsangaben möglicherweise der Beweis für eine gezielte Unterernährung des Gettos durch die deutsche Gettoverwaltung erbracht werden kann. Auch die Auswertung der syntaktischen Strukturen der Tageschroniken oder die Verwendung rhetorischer Figuren bietet sich für die Lodzer Getto Chronik an, um so eventuell Aufschlüsse über die Autorschaft bestimmter Tageschroniken gewinnen zu können. Bislang sind nur wenige Texte der Chronik aufgrund von Initialen einem bestimmten Autor explizit zuzuordnen, durch die quantitative und qualitative Auswertung genannter sprachlicher Mittel wäre hier eventuell eine Verbesserung der Forschungslage möglich.
References
Britt, Anne M., Jean-François Rouet u. Charles A. Perfetti: ""Using Hypertext to Study and Reason About Historical Evidence"". In: Hypertext and Cognition. Hg. v. Jean-François Rouet et al. Makwah: Laurence Erlbaum Associates 1996. S. 43-72.
Dresden, Sem: Holocaust und Literatur. Essay. Frankfurt a. M.: Jüdischer Verlag im Suhrkamp Verlag 1997.
Feuchert, Sascha: Oskar Rosenfeld und Oskar Singer - zwei Autoren des Lodzer Gettos. Studien zur Holocaustliteratur. Dissertation. Universität Gießen 2003 [hier: Manuskript].
Getto-Chronik. Typoskript im Staatsarchiv Lodz. Signatur ""AP, PSZ 1071-1075"".
Landow, George P.: Hypertext 2.0. The Convergence of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology. Überarb. und erw. Aufl. Baltimore, London: The Johns Hopkins UP 1997.
Landow, George P.: Hypertext, Scholarly Annotation, and the Electronic Edition. Tagungsbericht der ACCL-ACH 1996. S. 76-80. [http://www.hit.uib.no/allc/finneran.pdf]
Ricoeur, Paul: Imagination, Testimony and Trust. A dialogue with Paul Ricoeur. In: Questioning Ethics. Contemporary debates in philosophy. Hg. v. Richard Kearney und Mark Dooley. London/New York: Routledge 1999. S. 12-17.
Rosenfeld, Alvin H.: Ein Mund voll Schweigen. Literarische Reaktionen auf den Holocaust. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht 2000.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. u. Lou Burnard (Hg.): TEI P4: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Oxford et al.: Text Encoding Initiative Consortium 2002.
Taterka, Thomas: Dante Deutsch. Studien zur Lagerliteratur. Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag 1999 (= Philologische Studien und Quellen; H. 153).
Tergan, Sigmar-Olaf: ""Hypertext und Hypermedia: Konzeption, Lernmöglichkeiten, Lernprobleme"". In: Issing, Ludwig J. und Paul Klimsa (Hg.): Information und Lernen mit Multimedia. 2. überarb. Ausg. Weinheim: Psychologie Verlags Union 1997. S. 122-137.
Young, James E.: Beschreiben des Holocaust. Darstellung und Folgen der Interpretation. Frankfurt a. M.: Jüdischer Verlag 1992.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903204550/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop43.html",""
"374","5","Recent Projects and Products based on Open Source Software from Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities (MITH)","2","Background
This poster session will be devoted to three projects developed at MITH over the past year and a half which use open source software:
·        Early Americas Digital Archive < http://www.mith2.umd.edu/eada/>
·        Steinschneider Bibliographic Database
·        Versioning Machine – Version 2.0 <http://www.mith2.umd.edu/products/ver-mach>
One of the things that binds these three projects together, is that they are built using freely-available open source software. All three projects are XML/TEI-based. Two of the projects (Early Americas Digital Archive (EADA) and The Steinschneider Bibliographic Database) utilize eXist, a native XML database, for document delivery. The third project, the Versioning Machine (VM), is a MITH product developed to display multiple versions of deeply encoded text. The VM debuted at ACH/ALLC 2002.
These projects represent three different approaches to project design. EADA is a text-based archive featuring full text that is lightly encoded, along with a robust metainformation scheme developed to facilitate searching beyond what was present in the text. The architecture of The Steinschneider Bibliographic Database utilizes a hybrid model of both XML and relational databases. These full-text archives are designed in a similar way in that a public web presence is delivered dynamically via the database. We also construct a separate administrative interface in which project PIs can upload data. The Versioning Machine, on the other hand, was developed as a product that provides an environment for encoders to display their TEI-encoded texts through an interface generated by XSLT and JavaScript.
The Projects in Detail
Early Americas Digital Archive is a full-text archive based on a TEI DTD. Its goal is to make available primary materials written in or about the Americas between 1492 and 1820. While the markup within the <body> of each text is lightly encoded (by and large only structural encoding), the <teiHeader> contains a rich controlled vocabulary whose fields can be combined to perform very specific searches. For example, it is possible to search for all prose texts written about the Chesapeake area. The archive uses a servlet container in tandem with the eXist XML database. Both the servlet container and the XML database are open source software. The archive was launched in October 2003, and has received a positive response from the community for which it was designed.
The Steinschneider Bibliographic Database is the most ambitious project we have undertaken to date. It is a three-year project now in its second year. The goal of the project is to translate from the German, and update Moritz Steinschneider’s 1885 definitive history and catalogue of Hebrew translations of philosophy, science, medicine, and bells letters, mostly from Arabic and Latin, Die Hebraeischen Ubersetzungen des Mittelalters und dir Juden als Dolmetscher (The Hebrew Translations of the Middle Ages and the Jews as Interpreters). The translated text is being encoded in TEI. The text is being linked through unique IDs to items in one of two bibliographies the editors are compiling (one for printed texts and the other for manuscript sources). The editors, one in the US, one in Israel, and the other in Germany, all need access to the database (which is housed on the MITH server) for data entry and retrieval Editors enter data into the bibliographies through web forms which generate TEI-conformant xml. The XML data is being delivered through eXist. To do faster searches we are also utilising a relational database to store name and bibliographic keys which are then referenced by the TEI-encoded text.
The goal of the VM was to create an online environment to critically edit texts which exist in multiple versions or witnesses. When the Versioning Machine was first developed, encoders needed to utilise TEI’s parallel segmentation method to encode the separate witnesses. The XSLT then parsed the TEI text giving the illusion of individually encoded texts. In response to feed back from our initial release, the VM project team decided to create an alternative encoding method, which was released in Version 2.0 – that of allowing witnesses to be encoded discreetly. This method of encoding allows projects to use already encoded TEI documents in the VM architecture, and in this case, the XSLT binds the witnesses together. There are also other improvements to the software that we will be discussing, including a more robust image applet which allows users to view all the images associated with a witness set in one window.
Amit Kumar, MITH’s programmer, and Susan Schreibman, Assistant Director, will use the poster session to discuss project architecture and management with ACH/ALLC participants. In the case of the Versioning Machine, we wanted an opportunity to discuss improvements to the software, and get informal feedback from ACH/ALLC participants who have downloaded it.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903204837/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop72.html",""
"375","5","Single Source Processing Of Historic Corpora For Diverse Uses","2","OBJECTIVES
The objective of this paper is the restructuring of an existing corpus
of historical Portuguese for multiple purposes.
INTRODUCTION
The Tycho Brahe Parsed Corpus of Historical Portuguese (*) includes 40
texts (in a total of 1,851,619 words) written by Portuguese authors
born from 1496 to 1845. The initial goal of this corpus was to provide
annotated texts for the research of language change in European
Portuguese.  First, a morphological coding system to facilitate
automatic search of lexical items was developed. This morphological
coding system provided a mapping between linguistic description needs
and computational demands for an automatic morphological tagger
(cf. BRITTO et al., 1999; GALVES & BRITTO 2003; FINGER, 1998). Another
objective of this first system was to provide input for the following
stage, syntactic annotation (BRITTO, 2002).
The texts in the corpus are made available in three formats:
transcript
annotated for parts of speech
annotated for syntactic structures
The transcript texts were prepared according to the requirements of
part of speech tagging and syntactic annotation, that is, they were
made machine processable. The processibility depended on a format
normalization of the original material, which included correction of
typographical errors, character encoding problems and modifying
historic varying orthography into standard (modern) orthography. The
original forms were preserved and marked-up in this process; the
modifications, unfortunately, were included without special
markup. This method was adopted because the purpose of this first
preparation was, crucially, to make the texts adequate for automated
annotation, which would be applicable only to the modified material.
However, as the corpus started to be available for varied researchers,
other uses of the presented data became apparent. Many of the included
texts are only available with restricted access or at a limited number
of libraries (some sources are originals, handwritings or single
preserved copies), which made them highly attractive for the demands
of historians and other researchers in the humanities. For these
purposes, different requirements are necessary, such as readability,
preservation of the original data and text design structures, easy
access; on the other hand, linguistic markup such as POS tags turns
out irrelevant. Another field that opened up was lexicography: the
rich corpus material was used for the creation of a lexicon of
historical Portuguese, mining the information on the modifications for
automatic syntactic tagging.
All this indicated that the ideal structure of the corpus would be one
that integrated different versions of the same original
material. Remodelling the original corpus into such a structure is the
aim of the present work.
MODIFYING THE RESOURCE FOR AUTOMATIC REUSE ATTENDING MULTIPLE PURPOSES
Using the sources for all these different and possibly more purposes
--- typological analysis, philological, philosophical and
philanthropic research, lexicography --- requires the inclusion of all
available information on the source in one single source document. The
single source approach was taken because of easy maintainability of
the resource --- some of the resources being OCRed with all limitation
and possible errors --- and easy distributability in different output
formats. What is more, the problem of property rights and archiving
can be solved once and the original source can be better preserved if
researchers find necessary information already in an electronic
version.
Therefore, all available information needs to be made explicit and
well structured in a machine readable format, enabling automatic
consistency check of the resource to discover annotation errors or
systematic problems, and to enable machine processing for
transformation into the required data formats for the intended
purpose, such as output formating for readability but also output
format for automatic tagging.
All this had to be done with a minimum of information loss --- if any
--- and with the preservation of the original data. Additionally,
inconsistencies needed to be editable in order to correct them for
later purposes.
A simple strategy was taken for this purpose:
1. Linebreaks and pagebreaks were to be marked up, if available
   typographic variations such as italics or bold face characters as
   well.
2. Editions had to be marked up for the altered typography, where the
   original was properly marked up and the editions were identifiable.
3. Metadata for these sources was to be added to the files, including
   the title and location of the original, format information and
   editorial and technical data.
IMPLEMENTATION
The method of choice for single source representation is, of course,
using XML markup (BRAY, 2000), creating a document grammar such as a
DTD or Schema and transforming the document into an XML document which
can be validated against this document grammar. Only the original
spelling variation was marked up in the source documents, but not the
modernized versions. For the preservation of all available information
as well as to mark-up the information on the modernization of
orthography a simple parser was implemented in perl.
Linebreaks and page-breaks were marked up similar to the TEI P4
standard, as well as other typographic variations.
The strategy for marking up editions was adopted from the TEI P4 (see
Section 6.5.2 Regularization and Normalization) with the exception
that the original and regularized version both were put into elements
instead of attributes, grouped in another element for the
variation. The reason for this was to express the comparable status of
the regularized and original versions and for ease of
implementation. Nevertheless with a simple transformation a TEI
conformant mark-up could be produced.
The metadata that was already available in the source documents were
easy to categorize using the DublinCore Metadata set (see DUBLINCORE
2003), therefore this simple structure was used instead of a standard
TEI-Header. In TRIPPEL and BAUMANN, 2003 a mapping between the
TEI-Header and various other metadata standards has been described.
When the data was available in this standard normalized XML format,
XSL-Transformation (CLARK, 1999) into HTML were possible to create:
1.      Historic text presentation (research in the humanities) for web interfaces
2.      A normalized text presentation for further tagging and syntactic parsing
3.      A lexicon of historic orthographic variations
4.      A word frequency lexicon
5.      A catalogue of texts, as a library access function to the corpus.
The re-structured corpus will be available via a web interface soon,as well as a concordance for interactive search within the data.
NOTES:
This work was made possible through funding by:
   FAPESP,
   CNPq,
   PRONEX,
   DAAD within the PROBRAL project,
   German Research Foundation (DFG) in the project ""Texttechnological
   modelling of information: Theory and Design of multimodal lexica""
  The Tycho Brahe Parsed Corpus of Historical Portuguese is available
  to scholars without fee for educational and research purposes at
  <http://www.ime.usp.br/~tycho/corpus>.
  The annotation scheme in the Tycho Brahe Parsed Corpus of Historical
  Portuguese was designed by a team lead by Helena Britto and
  Charlotte Galves, at the University of Campinas (Instituto dos
  Estudos da Linguagem, Universidade de Campinas IEL, UNICAMP); it is
  strongly inspired on the scheme designed by Anthony Kroch and Ann
  Taylor for the Penn-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Middle English
  (<http://www.ling.upenn.edu/mideng/>).
  Philological consulting was provided by Ivo Castro and Ana Maria
  Martins from the Classical University of Lisbon. The institute of
  mathematics and statistics of the university of São Paulo (IME-USP)
  provides support and computational resources; the part-of-speech
  tagger used for the automatic annotation of the corpus was implemented by Marcelo Finger. The construction of the corpus is part of the project Rhythmic patterns, parameter setting and language change, coordinated by Charlotte Galves.
REFERENCES:
BRAY, Tim, PAOLI, Jean, SPERBERG-McQuenn, C. M., MALER, Eve (2000) - Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.0 (Second Edition) W3C Recommendation.
BRITTO, Helena (2002) - ""The Tycho Brahe Corpus and the basis for an
automated parser for Portuguese data"";
<http://www.ime.usp.br/~tycho/corpus/manual/sintax.html>.
BRITTO et al. (1999) - Morphological annotation system for automatic tagging of electronic textual corpora: from English to Romance languages; in: Centro de Lingüística Aplicada (ed) Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium of Social Communication, Santiago de Cuba: Editorial Oriente, 582-589.
CLARK, James (1999) - XSL Transformations (XSLT) Version 1.0 - W3C Recommendation.
DUBLINCORE (2003) Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, Version 1.1: Reference Description; <http://www.dublincore.org/documents/2003/02/04/dces/>.
FINGER, Marcelo (1998) - Tagging a morphologically rich language; in:
P. Sojka, V. Matousek, K. Pala, and I. Kopecek (ed)
Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Text, Speech and Dialogue
TDS 98. Brno: Masaryk University, 39-44.
GALVES, Charlotte & BRITTO, Helena (2003) - A Construção do Corpus Anotado do Português Histórico Tycho Brahe: o sistema de anotação morfológica.
<http://www.ime.usp.br/~tycho/participants/c_galves/galves_e_britto.htm>
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. and Lou Burnard (2001) - Guidelines for
Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange - TEI
P4. <http://www.tei-c.org/P4X/>
TRIPPEL, Thorsten & BAUMANN, Tanja (2003) - Metadaten für
Multimodale Korpora: Verwendung im ModeLex-Projekt- ModeLex Technical
Report No 4. Bielefeld: Bielefeld University.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094414/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop113.html",""
"376","5","Unification of XML Documents with Concurrent Markup","2","Introduction
Annotating multiple hierarchies with SGML-based markup systems is still one of the fundamental problems of text-technological research. Up to now, several solutions have been discussed (e.g. chapter 31 of the TEI-Guidelines (Sperberg-McQueen and Burnard 1994) and Barnard et al. (1995)). Furthermore, some non-SGML based approaches have been proposed. (cf. Huitfeldt and Sperberg-McQueen (2001) ; Tennison and Piez (2002)) The solution suggested here1 is XML-based and best summarised by the following quotation: ""In some cases, the simplest method of disentangling two conflicting hierarchical views of the same information is to encode it twice, each time capturing a single view."" (Sperberg-McQueen & Burnard 1994, p.775). The main drawback of this approach, namely the missing explicit relation between the two annotation layers, is overcome by linking the separate documents by means of their common textual content (cf. Witt 2002). Based upon a common representation of two annotation layers and their textual content, a prototype has been implemented that allows for the unification of separately XML-annotated text documents. The result of the unification is one new well-formed XML document containing the text data and the annotations from multiple layers. The proposed poster will show both the theoretical and practical aspects of this technique.
A Single Representation for Multiple Annotations
The advantage of annotating the same data multiply but separately is thatfile:///C:/home/CONFER~1/allc2004/VERSCH~1/abstract-content.html the modelling of information on one level is not dependent on (the existence of) another modelling level. This results in an information modelling where each layer can be viewed separately and new layers can be added at any time. Moreover, the creation of alternative annotations based upon different theoretical assumptions for an existing information level is possible. (cf. Sasaki et al. 2003).
The XML documents are transformed into a Prolog fact base representing a common view on the textual content and its multiple annotations. The format of this fact base, originally introduced by Sperberg-McQueen at al. (2001) for the interpretation of the semantics of (single) XML-documents, has been extended as described in Witt (2002). In this extended format, each XML-Element is represented as a Prolog predicate called node/5, with five arguments for referring to (1) the annotation layer, (2) the start position and (3) the end position of the annotated text span in terms of byte offsets, (4) the position of the element in the document tree, and (5) the name of the element. The transformation of the XML files to the single file containing the Prolog facts is implemented in the programming language Python. The information concerning the start and end positions is the basis for the interrelation of the documents. Special Prolog inferences have been implemented to query the relations that hold between markup elements belonging to different layers (cf. Bayerl et al. 2003).2
Unification
Outline
The process of unifying the different XML-annotations of a document is visualised in Figure 1. It shows all involved transformations and formats, including the merging component semt which in the unification process takes decisions in case of conflicts, based on automatically inferred relations between the different annotation layers, or on an externally specified rule base.
The actual merging of two document layers has also been implemented in Prolog. The predicate semt (sekimo merging tool) receives four arguments. The first and the second argument name the two layers which are to be unified. The third argument is a list of elements which should be deleted in the process of unification. This list specifies pairs of an element name and its annotation layer. The result of the merging are again Prolog facts, written into a new file which is specified in the fourth argument. This new database contains a copy of all layers in the input database plus the result layer. In case the unification results to a layer where the elements would not be properly nested, a second result layer (a difference list) is created.
The result, the new fact base, is (re-)converted to XML. Again Python is used for the implementation of the transformation. As an additional output of this conversion, mainly for reasons of control, a copy of each input XML-document is generated.
If no difference list exists, the result of the merging of two layers can be linearised as an XML document without special attention. In case the result fact base contains a difference list, two different linearisations can be generated. (cf. again chapter 31 of the TEI-Guidelines). The default processing uses milestone elements to mark the borders of incompatible elements. Alternatively, the technique of fragmentation of elements can be invoked. For both techniques it is possible to declare an annotion layer as 'primary', i.e. the elements in the primary layer should for example not be fragmented.
Relations between annotations
With respect to a unification/merging of layers, the simplest configuration of two element instances on different annotation layers over the same textual data are a relation of a.) proper nesting, and a relation of b.) independence:
L1:   <w>friend   li    ness</w>
L2:      friend<m>li</m>ness
UL:   <w>friend<m>li</m>ness</w>
L1:    to <name>Dr. van Helsing</name> and    ask     him to 
L2:    to       Dr. van Helsing        and <v>ask</v> him to
UL:    to <name>Dr. van Helsing</name> and <v>ask</v> him to
The annotations are unified by simply keeping every element tag in its place (cf. UL, the unification layer).
Cases of c.) non-proper nesting, i.e. where an element on one annotation layer either starts or ends at a position where an element on the other layer also starts or ends are a little more complicated.
L1:    <w>friend   ly</w>
L2:       friend<m>ly</m>
UL:    <w>friend<m>ly</m></w>
In these cases, the desired nesting of elements in the target layer is inferred by comparing the length of the text spans on both layers: The element spanning more characters becomes the outer element, i.e. the parent node in the result tree.
<m>fol       d</m><m>er</m>
<s>fol</s><s>d       er</s
The most complicated case, is the relation of d.) overlap, because the result of a simple merging of an overlap configuration cannot be represented in a tree structure and consequently not be mapped to a single well-formed XML document in a straightforward way. Thus, in case of overlap, one of the two elements is written to the difference-list.
Finally, in case of the e.) identity relation (where two elements from the two layers contain an identical text span, see the example below), a merged tree can be constructed, but the decision which of the two elements is to become the parent node (i.e. the resolution of conflicting hierarchies during the merging process) is non-trivial.3
reference:        <ref type=""anaphoric"">anata</ref>
syntax:                             <np>anata</np>
text:      tada watashi no kao  wo mite anata ha ikutsu  desu ka to itta.
trans1:    just my      -  face -  look you   -  how old -    -  -  said
trans2:    (He) just looked at me and said: `How old are you?'
Resolution of conflicting hierarchies during the merging process
There are three alternative strategies:
A hierarchy is created, e.g. <np><ref type=""anaphoric"">anata</ref></np>
One of the elements is deleted, e.g. <np>anata</np>
One of the elements is deleted, and its attributes are integrated into the other element, e.g. <np type=""anaphoric"">anata</np>
An important source of information for deciding which strategy should be chosen is the relation of the elements, here np and ref, in general. For this task, we have implemented inferences for so-called metarelations. For example, the metarelation 'inclusion' holds if whenever an instance of np shares pcdata with ref, the relation is either a proper nesting, a non-proper nesting or identity. If this metarelation holds, the first resolution strategy must be chosen.
In addition, external rules are defined to describe for which elements a solution strategy should be applied:
A) Rules without restrictions. The rules apply to all instances of the elements, for example to all <np> and <ref> elements.
B) Rules with attribute restrictions. The rules apply only to elements with certain attributes and values, for example all <ref> elements with an attribute type=""anaphoric"".
C) Rules which describe configurations between elements. The rules apply only to elements which are in a specified configuration with other elements, for example all <ref> elements which are inside a <syntacticDescription> element.
D) Rules which combine B) and C), for example # all <ref> elements which are inside a <corpus> element, which has an attribute corpus-type=""syntax has priority"".
The rules are represented in Prolog. During the merging process they are consulted if conflicts between elements occur. Alternatively, a representation as an RDF Schema (RDFS, Brickley and Guha 03) has been developed (Sasaki, to appear). Using RDFS instead of Prolog can contribute to the formal specification of the meaning and interpretation of concurrent markup (Witt 02).
Notes
1. The involved projects are the project A2 ""Sekimo"" and the project C1 ""SemDoc"", both part of the DFG-Forschergruppe 437 ""Texttechnologische Informationsmodellierung""
2. The program is called 'Sekimo-inference tool - seit.pl'
3. The example sentence is taken from the Japanese text initiative (JTI, cf. http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/japanese/), from the Novel `Kokoro' (heart), written by Natsumei Souseki.)","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903204925/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop69.html",""
"377","5","Human Aging in the Trésor de la Langue Française","1","In one of the many satyrical passages of his novel La Nausée, Jean-Paul Sartre has his narrator describe the historianÂ’s craft: Â“Dans notre partie, nous nÂ’avons affaire quÂ’à des sentiments entiers sur lesquels on met des noms génériques comme Ambition, IntérêtÂ” [Â“In our area, we deal only with uncomplicated feelings on which we stick generic names like Ambition, InterestÂ” my translation] (Sartre, 1938, p. 8). This same temptation to over-simplify can be identified in computer-aided studies of literature. We deal in the statistics of spelled forms: after all, grouping words, particularly in a language like French, under their dictionary forms would cause a lot of extra work, and we can always claim that any upgrading introduces human error. This paper describes progress in a large-scale project which accepts the possibility of human coding error to deal with semantically and morphologically complex sets of words designating phenomena of interest, in spite of the added complexity at the computing and data processing level.

Data

A series of projects being carried out at the University of Manitoba is examining how human aging, Alzheimer disease and other forms of senile dementia are portrayed in writings produced in France between 1789 and the 1950s. The choice of France is suggested by the fact that from the 17th century until the present day, France has been the European country with the largest proportion of old people in the population. The period covered begins with the Revolution of 1789 which removed from France the last vestiges of feudal privilege and began the transformation into a modern liberal industrial state, and ends with the 1950s when the introduction of the common use of antibiotics extended life expectancy quite sharply, thus changing the biological reality underlying the concepts of Â“oldÂ” and Â“agingÂ”.

Study of this period is facilitated by the existence of the Trésor de la Langue Française database. This database was set up by a committee of scholars originally to reflect elite usage of the French language to facilitate the preparation of a new dictionary of modern French. A concerted effort was made to include important writings of all types, and to distribute the texts chosen in an homogenous fashion over the period in question. All in all, 1079 texts were included in the database, divided into 388 works of non-fiction prose, 379 novels, 183 plays and 129 collections of poetry. Almost 74 million words of text are contained in the database, making it one of the largest coherent corpora Â– as distinguished from a collection of texts Â– available to researchers to-day (see Imbs, 1971, vol. 1, preface). It can reasonably be taken to be a reflection of thinking by those who had their hands on the levers of power in France between 1789 and the 1950s.

Approximately 110,000 potential allusions to aging are found in the database. After one has removed occurrences of the vocabulary of aging applied to concepts and things, approximately 60,000 allusions to human aging can be found. Preliminary analysis of the data shows that towards the middle of the 19th century the outlook on aging shifted from positive to negative (Fortier et al. 1997). Further analysis is ongoing but faces a paradox: once potential allusions to human aging have been converted by human intervention into authentic allusions to human aging, statistical analysis is precluded by the fact that the data are now no longer comparable from one text to the next.

Method

The approximately 64 words potentially evoking aging can be searched in the ARTFL database using 41 search strings submitted to the philologic software. The software returns each word in approximately 300 characters of context. These results have been downloaded and converted to wordprocessor format for all the texts in the original ARTFL database. These downloaded word-processor versions of the potential vocabulary of aging have now all been disambiguated by research assistants, a very time-consuming but not particularly interesting process.

Figure F1
Figure 1: Potential Allusions to Human Aging, and Authentic Allusions to Human Aging: 1789-1859


Results

Results have now been cross-checked and verified for the first 345 texts, covering all genres in the period 1789-1859. In this period, the texts recorded total 26,600,008 words. Individual texts range from 643,636 words to 1,159 words in size. Within this twenty-six million words, 34,055 are part of the vocabulary of aging, and the number of words concerning aging varies between 1406 and 0 in any given text. The vocabulary of human aging occurs 14,552 times in these texts, varying between 963 and 0 in individual texts.

Since the size of the texts varies so widely, it makes sense to normalize the results in terms of a base of 100,000 words. That is to say the raw frequencies for each text are divided by the number of words in the text, and then multiplied by 100,000 so that the number of words in the text not have an overwhelming influence on the results. When the set of normalized frequencies is sorted into descending order of relative frequency of the potential vocabulary of aging in each text, and the frequencies of the potential vocabulary of aging are plotted along with the number of allusions to human aging in each text, the appropriateness of the approach used becomes evident (see Figure 1). Although the top line (potential human aging) is relatively smooth, the bottom line (authentic allusions to human aging) is quiet jagged, showing that although one frequency is necessarily a subset of the other, there is quite a bit of variation in the proportion of words that evoke human aging from one text to the next.

Further Analysis

Once one has identified all the common words evoking human aging in a given text, the task is not entirely finished. Once a person, whether identified by a proper noun like Â“M. DupontÂ”, or by a common noun like Â“fatherÂ”, has been clearly labelled as old in a text, every time that person is alluded to in the text becomes an allusion to aging. My assistants are currently upgrading texts that have been checked and verified, by adding these allusions to the vocabulary of human aging on a text by text basis. Such modifications will further differentiate texts in terms of number of allusions to human aging, but will facilitate providing a more accurate image of how aging was presented in the period being studied.

The database of extended allusions to human aging will be used as input to a process of identifying allusions to senile dementia in the Trésor de la langue française database, for senile dementia must be found where the vocabulary of human aging and the vocabulary of dementia co-occur.

References

1. Fortier, Paul et al. 1997. Â“Change Points: Aging and content words in a large database.Â” Literary and Linguistic Computing 12, 1:15:22.
2. Imbs, Paul. 1971-94. Le Trésor de la langue française: Dictionnaire de la langue du xixe et du xxe siècle. 16 vols. Paris: C.N.R.S.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094242/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop60.html","7130"
"378","5","Making Space: Women's Writing in France, 1750-1900","1","It is well documented that men and women use informal language, such as conversation and correspondence, in rather different ways, reflecting a wide variety of cultural forces and practices.1 Until recently, however, there have been relatively few attempts to examine gender differences in more formal, published writing.2 Last year I presented to this conference some preliminary results from a computer-assisted analysis of two moderate sized samples of literary works by French male and female authors published primarily between the 18th to 20th centuries.3

Very clear distinctions were found between male and female literary writing, most notably in the selection of words used in the two samples, as reflected in use of marked differences in the rates of us of both pronouns and possessives (function words) and less frequent content words. Women's writing of the period may be generally characterized by a more personal, interactive, and involved style and is considerably more descriptive of internal and emotional states than male writing of the same period and genres. The lexical collocations -- a rough measure of the meanings of words or sets of words -- of a small set of selected words did not vary significantly, suggesting that the meaning of words, were not significantly altered by gender of writer in spite of different rates of use of these words. Finally, comparing the representation of women between male and female authors by looking at the rates of ""possession"" and other frequent adjectives, which may have been expected, did not result in significant differences by gender of author.

By implication, I suggested that the selection of words, reflecting the selection and treatment of topics, is not an unconscious effort. Women's writings of this period established a space in which women could write, in ways identifiably distinct from male authors, but within prevailing linguistic norms or, more specifically, using words with the same senses and associations as male authors. I drew this implication based on a relatively small number of comparisons. The range of function and content words that have a strong gender bias is very significant. It is most neatly summed up by the interesting example of body and soul. The female writers use âme 1.62 times as frequently as men, but use corps -- which signifies the physical body and a ""political body"" -- only half as often as male writers. Global comparisons and comparisons controlled for genre and time period all reveal gender preferences for different vocabularies which is all the more notable due to the observation that the words preferred by male authors are more likely used at high rates by female authors than the reverse.

Using an enhanced sample4 of works by French women, this paper examines in a more systematic nature male and female use of words that strongly correlated with one gender or the other. This is based on the identification of classes of terms with strong gender preference, such as the female preference for terms describing emotive, internal or subjective states which include affection, calme, chagrin, confiance, courage, douceur, douleur, désir, envie, estime, espère, espoir, espérance, joie, imagination, larmes, passion, pense, peur, plaisir, plaire, plaisir, respect, rêve, savoir (and verb forms), sensible, sentiment.*, sentir, solitude, souffrir, souvenir, sérieux, tendresse, trist, tristesse, vain, âme, and émotion.

Comparisons of the collocations of these sets of terms in the samples of male and female will be the first test to see if gender of author modifies the use of gender selected vocabulary. It is not clear, however, that lexical collocation is sufficiently fine grained to detect gender differences since it is designed to isolate more general patterns of meaning.

Indeed, evaluation of individual agency in a text or communicative act may be a necessary corrective to the rather mechanistic model proposed by statistical approaches such as word counts and lexical collocation. The second part of this paper will isolate sentences containing a set of gender biased vocabulary, in works by male and female authors, to examine in more detail the discursive structures in which these are used. While the concordance and textbase are powerful tools to find and extract passages with particular sets of terms, a second order formalism would appear to be required in order to provide a more systematic analytical model. This part of the study will rely on elements of the theory of Functional Grammar proposed by Simon Dik6 to identify a set of relationships between the selected terms and the semantic, syntactic and pragmatic functions within the clause and/or sentence in which they appear. The features to be identified and tagged largely without computer intervention include the position of the term in the clause (first words are more important); the syntactic function of the term; in the case of so-called relational nouns, the identity (gender) of the (implied) referent: author/reader/third party; and if the term appears as the Topic or Focus of the clause, binding it to larger rhetorical structures.

In the following sentence from Sand's Indiana containing the word courage,

Cette lettre, Raymon n'eut pas le courage de la lire jusqu'au bout.

we see the identity of the referent and subject is a male (Raymon), that courage is a direct object; it does not appear in a clause-initial position and it is neither the Topic or Focus of the sentence. Identification of a small set of functional features in a select set gender biased words will shed considerable light on the degree to which male and female authors used these words in similar or different ways.

Use of formalisms such as functional grammars to provide additional interpretive or analytical guidance on results extracted from large datasets by more traditional full text searches may be another way to help ""summarize"" or digest the very large number of ""hits"" that can be generated by the current generation of full text search and analysis engines. Automatic filtering and counting of result sets by even the simpliest of criteria, such as the position of a word in a clause, may be a fruitful way to bridge the gap between computation as quantification and computation as a method to more handling more abstract levels of meaning and linguistic function.

Differing patterns of word use between male and female writers in France in the past several centuries suggests that women writers were consciously making a public space for their voices, by selecting and treating themes in markedly distinct ways. It is less certain whether they modified the meanings of the words they used or simply used the words in the same way as male writers. This is an important distinction as it bears upon the degree to which language is gendered, reflecting prevailing power relations, and mechanisms by which gender marking in language is both preserved and overturned.

1. Notes
2. For a general overview of this wide ranging field see, Penelope Eckert and Sally McConnell-Ginet, Language and Gender (Cambridge, 2003). Earlier works by Deborah Tannen, You just don't understand: Women and men in conversation (Ballantine, 1990) and Gender and discourse (Oxford, 1994) are instructive.
3. Moshe Koppel, Shlomo Argamon, and Amat Rachel Shimoni, ""Automatically Categorizing Written Texts by Author Gender"", Literary and Linguistic Computing 17:4 (2002): 401-12.
4. ""Écriture féminine: Searching for an Indefinable Practice?"", ALLC/ACH 2003 Conference, Athens, Georgia. Talk slides available at http://barkov.uchicago.edu/talks/ACH2003/. The full paper is under consideration for the conference proceedings. Also see my earlier studies, ""Gender representation and histoire des mentalités:Language and Power in the Trésor de la langue française,"" in Histoire et measure VI (1991): 349-73 and ""Quantitative Linguistics and Histoire des mentalités: Gender Representation in the Trésor de la langue française,, in R. Köhler and B. B. Rieger (eds.), Contributions to Quantitative Linguistics (Kluwer, 1993): 361-381.
5. The samples are compiled from various collections. This year we are adding between 50 and 100, new documents, including works by Mme. Roland and Judith Gautier, to ARTFL's French Women Writers Project as well as upgrading some components. (http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ARTFL/projects/FWW/). The additions will help address sampling problems identified in the earlier study, such as the large number of works by George Sand and novels of the 19th century.
6. Simon Dik, The Theory of Functional Grammar: The Structure of the Clause (2nd. ed, Mouton, 1997) and Functional Grammar in Prolog: An Integrated Implementation for English, French and Dutch, (Mouton, 1992). See also http://www.functionalgrammar.com/","txt","2","",""
"379","5","BalzacÂs reinterpretation of the Gothic topos of the debauched convent","1","Studies of BalzacÂ’s La Comédie humaine have benefitted from electronic editions which, without replacing CastexÂ’s (1976-81) Pléiade Edition, change textual analyses of this author. The possibility of using the CD-ROM by Nicole Mozet and Isabelle Tournier Â“Balzac: explorer la Comédie humaineÂ” or the electronic index by Kazou Kiriou Â“Le vocabulaire de BalzacÂ” available at http://www.paris.fr/musees/balzac/ facilitate systematic study of keywords in a way that excludes manual reference to the twelve volumes of La Comédie humaine in the Pléiade Edition. This electronic access to the texts raises methodological questions. The pagination of an electronic edition is problematical if it does not correspond to standard reference texts, but this is a minor problem compared to others which go to the heart of electronic-based studies of Balzac, particularly those that place too much stress on keywords in a brief context. Such an approach deals too much with micro-texts abstracted from the complete context of the text which gives them their full meaning. This problem can be resolved by a consultation of the full texts carried out as an integral part of the analysis process.

A more serious methodological problem, which Balzac studies are beginning to identify (Bordas, 1997; Herschberg-Pierrot, 1998), is that whether it be computer-based or artisanal a study that does not go beyond La Comédie humaine is necessarily cut off from the intertextual dimension of the text. The text is certainly rich enough to give rise to literary studies of a structuralist or even post-structuralist or deconstructionist nature. But any type of study which limits itself to the repetition of keywords in La Comédie humaine risks passing over the essential in Balzac, as with any other author, that is to say the originality of the writing or the style which was defined by Buffon as a reflection of the personality of the writer. The risk is to replace style by less significant aspects like stereotypes, clichés, and topoï, which the authorÂ’s use in his novels of the 1840s of techniques drawn from melodramatic and popular texts (Duchet & Tournier, 1993) makes particularly problematical. From this perspective, the use of databases like those available from the ARTFL Project or Gallica (Bibliothèque Nationale de France), in which La Comédie humaine does not appear in isolation but in company with other texts, goes beyond a tight focus on the individual texts to place the writing in the context of the body of literature which provides the cultural environment in which it can be fully understood.

The comparative method fostered by such resources puts the stress on the general in contradistinction to what is uniquely BalzacÂ’s (Genette, 1982, p. 85). Electronic comparison of La Comédie humaine with other texts shows, in BalzacÂ’s writings, a rich intertextual dimension to the extent that La Comédie humaine consists of implicit repetitions or indirect quotations of other writings with a dialogic (Bordas, 1997), parodic or ironic (Bordas, 2003) effect. Contemporary criticism is moving away from the concept of a unique Balzac whose texts have a single level of meaning: the Â“readableÂ” Balzac of Barthes (1970). It is, therefore, appropriate to analyse electronically identified passages from Balzac not only in relation to other writings by this author but in its full context which includes the writings of other authors.

These methodological principles justify close examination of an example of intertextuality which has given rise to literary influence studies in the literary history tradition, without rigorous stylistic or lexicographical dimensions, that is to say the relation of La Comédie humaine to French translations of British Gothic (18th century) novels. This examination deals not just with the modification undergone by topoï common to La Comédie humaine and to other texts. It also reveals the transformations to which Balzac subjected them, in contrast to their relatively unchanged use in French gothic novels and melodramas of the same period (see Bernard-Griffiths & Sgard, 2000). Until the present, Balzac critics have looked at this topic mainly in the authorÂ’s early novels (1822-25), which are either pastiches of the gothic novel or parodies of its conventions. This question is being examined by means of comparisons of topoï characteristic of the gothic novel found in BalzacÂ’s later novels. The transformations undergone by these topoï, as discussed above, provide the clearest material for understanding the functioning of this aspect of La Comédie humaine.

The availability of existing computer databases facilitates a systematic evaluation of the synchronic relationships between La Comédie humaine and contemporary texts, as well as a diachronic approach to the evolution of these topoi withing La Comédie humaine. This will be illustrated in the communication with particular reference to the topos of the convent as a prison and site of debauchery, which, in spite of being widespread in the gothic novel (cf. La Religieuse, Justine ou les malheurs de la vertu, Le Moine, LÂ’Italien ou le confessional des pénitents noirs) and in the melodrama has not, or not yet, given rise to detailed study in the context of Balzac.

References
1. Barthes, Roland. 1970. S/Z. Paris: Seuil.
2. Bernard-Griffiths, Simone & Jean Sgard. 2000. Mélodrames et romans noirs: 1750-1890. Toulouse: Presses Universitaires du Mirail.
3. Bordas, Éric. 1997. Balzac, discours et détours: Pour une stylistique de lÂ’énonciation balzacienne. Toulouse: Presses Universitaires du Mirail.
4. Bordas, Éric. 2003. Ironies balzaciennes. Saint-Cyr-sur-Loise: Christian Pirot.
5. Duchet, Claude & Isabelle Tournier. 1993. Balzac: Oeuvres complètes: le Â“MomentÂ” de la Comédie Humaine. Saint-Denis: Presses Universitaires de Vincennes.
6. Genette, Gérard. 1982. Palimpsestes: La littérature au second degré. Paris: Seuil.
7. Herschberg-Pierrot, Anne. 1998. Balzac et le style. Paris: SEDES.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094242/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop60.html","7130"
"380","5","No such thing as Humanities Computing? An analytical history of digital resource creation and computing in the humanities.","1","Introduction

This proposal reports on a research project, funded by a British Academy small grant to investigate the history, development and institutional context of a range of digital resources and computing projects in the humanities. This history is very recent, but rich and realtively neglected, except for Hockey, (forthcoming). The most long lived of such projects have existed only since the early 1970s. However, the pace of technological and institutional change has caused rapid, dramatic changes in this period. This research therefore aims to provide an analytical history of the field and its developments, placed within the context of institutional infrastructure and that of government policy and funding structures.

Context

The work began with a pilot project undertaken at the Department of Information Studies, University of Sheffield. (Warwick and Carty, 2001) Research was based on a small sample of projects on the History of Science: the Hartlib project, (University of Sheffield); the Darwin Correspondence Project, (University of Cambridge); the Robert Boyle project (Birkbeck College, London); the Mueller Correspondence Project and the Newton Project (Imperial College, London). Interviews conducted during the pilot project established the need for a of history of such projects which would place them in the context of the broader field as it has developed from the 1970s to the present.

Humanities computing (HC) projects may collaborate with a University Library, Computing Services, or Research Centre. However, in many cases they comprise small teams of academics, working on a limited budget. Although the teams make every effort to document technical decisions that they make, they were concerned about a lack of time to construct a history of the project, whether oral or written.

Researchers feared that they were working in isolation from other teams, since, especially in the early days of development, many scholars working in the area were unaware of each others' existence. As a result valuable knowledge may be not be shared. Similar difficulties might be encountered, and solutions developed without the benefit of others' hard won experience, costing valuable time and resources. (Hunter, 1995, Flanders, 2000) These problems have been ameliorated by advice from bodies such as the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI). Yet, given the diversity of material in the Humanities, many projects worried about whether they had applied the TEI dtd 'correctly' in the mistaken belief that others found this easy.

Research teams also shared a corpus of knowledge and experience about broader factors affecting the academic progress of each project, and how it was related to the broader scholarly, human and institutional context. Such knowledge was being lost, and many thought that it ought to be preserved, not only as a record of early work, but also as a resource that future researchers might draw upon when planning new work.

It became apparent therefore that there was a need for research into this area. This should not only be technical in nature, since what documentation exists tend to be in he area of technical decisions. (For example Leslie, 1990, Lucas and Short, 1999, Pearn, 1999) .The research described in this proposal therefore concentrates on less tangible factors such as the reasons for beginning the project, problems encountered, changes and developments that took place, the response of more traditional researchers in the humanities and how the result of the work were integrated into libraries and scholarship in the humanities.

In the pilot project, those interviewed thought that such research should be done by someone from outside individual projects, libraries or e-text centres, so that a comparative view could be developed. This research therefore aims to analyse trends and problems, and to chart how the history of the sector has developed.

Methods

In order to acquire rich qualitative data which can be examined in depth, (Patton, 1990) representatives from a sample of projects were interviewed. Documentation provided, or articles written about the project have also been consulted.

Sample choice

The sample was chosen to represent the diversity of the field and to provide a comparison between work in the USA and the UK. Because of the small scale of funding it has not been possible to carry out research in continental Europe, but this is anticipated for a future grant application. The small size of the pilot study allowed us to come to very tentative conclusions. A wider range of projects has therefore been consulted. Respondent in the pilot study had stressed the important influence of HC centres and government bodies, so research was carried out not only on individual projects, but also on larger HC centres and with representatives of bodies such as the Arts and Humanities Data Service (AHDS) and the Resource Discovery Network (RDN). These have been chosen to reflect the following criteria.

Size

Interviews undertaken reflected the difference in scale between small individual and digital libraries such as the E-text Centre at the University of Virginia. HC centres tend to provide an overarching structure for a variety of projects. It was therefore important to examine how such centres have developed, and how smaller projects relate to them. Location: Our original research concentrated on projects in the UK. However, some of the most important developments in HC have happened in the USA. It is vital to gain a comparative perspective on this area, and the way that transatlantic collaboration has begun to take place. Research was therefore carried out at Brown University Scholarly Technology Group, the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities (IATH) and the Center for Digital History (CDH) at University of Virginia, the Perseus Project at Tufts University and the Center for Electronic Texts in the Humanities (CETH) at Rutgers University. These have been compared to UK centres such as the Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute (HATII) at the University of Glasgow, Oxford University Learning and Research Technologies Groups (formerly the Humanities Computing Unit), the Centre for Computing in the Humanities at Kings College London, as well as individual projects such as The Perdita Project at Nottingham Trent University.

Age

The projects that began in the 1970s, such as the Oxford Text Archive, often developed on an adhoc basis with little funding. This is different from recent initiatives, funded by research grants and systematically managed, such as the LEADERS project at UCL. Comparison of such projects was therefore made to determine what effect the age of the project has on its procedures, and how the framework under which it operated might affect its research.

Purpose

Digital resource collections have been designed to serve different purposes. Some, like the Oxford Text Archive (OTA), historically had little sense of collection policy, aiming to collect as much heterogeneous material as possible. Others concentrated on one particular writer, or type of resource. Some were created for teaching, or to further a particular kind of research. This research therefore aims to investigate what impact these different purposes had on the development and life of the resource.

Findings

At the time of writing the proposal the interviews are being completed. Should the paper be accepted, findings can be discussed more fully, and will be presented under the headings discussed above. However, prelimary results suggest that the issue of funding and administrative structures has been vital to the development of projects and HC centres. They also indicate a marked difference between UK and USA examples. USA projects are typically more developed before seeking external research grant, due to the availability of funding from their own university. The vision of the university in which HC is undertaken was also vital and when this changed so did that of projects in HC. This is so noticeable that the title of this paper is a direct quotation from an interviewee reflecting on such a change in policy. It is clear that HC centres play an important part in shaping individual projects, and where local support was absent, despite government funding and central advice, problems of the non-use of standards and a lack of awareness of good practice are still noticeable. Unresolved issues included how to communicate with and gain respect for HC research from the more traditional scholarly community, and how researchers and academics should be rewarded for such work within traditional promotion and remuneration structures.

Relevance to conference themes

Although all those interviewed in this study speak English, the paper nevertheless addresses cultural differences between the USA and the UK and the manner in which HC work is carried out, funded and supported by institutions. The research also applies empirical methods from information studies, and social science (ie the analysis of qualitative interview data) and aims to consider the institutional role of HC within the contemporary academy.

References

All URLs last visited 24/10/03.

Bibliography Flanders, J. (2000). 'Writing about it: documentation and humanities computing'. Paper given at ALLC-ACH Conference, Glasgow University, July 21 - 25 2000. http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/allcach2k/Programme/session1.html
2. Hockey, S. (forthcoming) 'A History of Humanites Computing' in Ray Siemens, Susan Schreibman and John Unsworth (eds.) Blackwell Companion to Digital Humanities. Oxford: Blackwell.
3. Hunter, M. (1995). 'How to edit a seventeenth-century manuscript: principles and practice'. Seventeenth Century, 10(2), pp.277-310. Lucas, A.M. & Short, H. (1999). 'Anticipating Technical Advance in Recreating a Scattered Correspondence: the Mueller Correspondence Project'. http://www.kcl.ac.uk/humanities/cch/drhahc/drh/abst152.htm
4. Pearn, A. (1999). 'The Darwin Correspondence Project: evolution of an electronic resource'. Paper given at DRH Conference, September 12-15th 1999, King's College, London. http://www.kcl.ac.uk/humanities/cch/drhahc/drh/abst13.htm
5. Paterson, A. (1991). 'Windowing the past: a seventeenth century technological archive and its electronic exploitation'. In: Lucker, J.K. (ed.), IATUL Proceedings: Proceedings of the 14th Biennial Conference of IATUL, Cambridge, Mass. USA, July 8-12 1991: New Technologies and Information Services - Evolution or Revolution?, pp.164-168.
6. Patton, M.Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. 2nd ed. London: Sage.
7. Warwick C and Carty, C. (2001) Only Connect, a Study of the Problems caused by platform specificity and researcher isolation in humanities computing. In Arved Hubler, Peter Linde and John W.T. Smith, (eds.) Electronic Publishing 01, 2001 in the digital Publishing Odyssey. Proceedings of an ICCC/IFIP Conference at the University of Kent at Canterbury, 5-7 July 2001 pp. 36-47","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094039/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop8.html",""
"381","5","Strategies for Creating Rich Prospect in Interfaces","1","A digital collection has a rich-prospect interface when some meaningful representation of every item in the collection is an intrinsic part of the interface used to access the collection (Ruecker 2003). Rich-prospect interfaces can provide the people using them to access a collection with singular advantages in two areas: an increase in the kinds and amount of information that is visible, and new opportunities for action that derive from tools that are associated with the display. These advantages are not available to people using conventional retrieval interfaces, which focus instead on the precise recall of specified search targets.

For example, a retrieval interface to a collection of Victorian poetry might consist of a set of search boxes where the user can specify items such as the title of the poem, the author, or the date of publication. A rich-prospect interface to the same collection might include a similar set of search boxes, but would also show an organized display of every item in the collection. If the collection were to contain, for example, 10,000 poems, then the interface would list all 10,000 poems, perhaps by title, or by a combination of author and keyword, or by some other choice of descriptor that was meaningful.

In order to make the rich-prospect display as useful as possible, strategies might also be adopted to allow the user to restructure the items according to some other criteria, such as publishing house, anthology titles, or geographic locations of authors at the time of publication. In order to make 10,000 titles manageable, visual communication design principles might be brought into play, whether through the application of microtext and fisheye cursors, scrolling and zoomable panoramas, or design incorporating a virtual third dimension.

The increase in the amount of information immediately present and visible to the user of a rich-prospect interface is through the meaningful representation of every item in the collection. This visible information allows the user to readily perceive what is present and how it has been conceived and identified by the people who created the collection. The increase in the kinds of information stems from the organization of the meaningful representations, whether through sorting, searching, subsetting, or otherwise structuring the material in the display.

The opportunities provided by the interface are related to the capacities of the various tools for organizing the representations. Where an appropriate set of rich-prospect tools have been made available, some of the research activities related to collection browsing can be carried out by researchers at the level of the interface, before any of the documents in the collection are accessed. This is true even in cases where the representation of items is not meaningful (Pirolli et al. 1996).

However, not all information organization strategies are equally productive. For example, many systems will categorize writers alphabetically by last name. Unfortunately, not many projects require academics to write about all the writers whose last names began with the letter ""C."" Alphabetical organization does facilitate the retrieval of documents associated with a known author, but prohibits browsing through authors who are related by genre, period, thematic similarity, intertextuality and so on. A better strategy for identifying authors associated in some meaningful dimension is to provide a method for the user to dynamically reorganize the display according to the metric of interest.

It is also possible, however, to identify structuring techniques that are more sophisticated, in the sense that they combine more than one metric into a display that allows simultaneous insight into multiple aspects of the information. Through an examination of the organizational principles behind a highly successful visual information design employing rich prospect -- Mendeleyev's periodic table of the elements -- this paper provides a set of principles for designers interested in creating tools for use in association with rich-prospect interfaces. These principles emphasize the value of simultaneous structure across distinct aspects of the available information, and include: compression and inclusion, the establishment of a matrix for pattern-finding, and the creation of potentially productive negative spaces. Interface strategies based on Mendeleyevian principles should be particularly useful for accessing large bodies of digital documents such as those often found in the humanities, maximizing the pre-retrieval research potential of the collection.

Keywords

Rich-prospect interfaces, computer-human interaction, interface design, periodic table

References

1. Pirolli, P., Schank, P., Hearst, M., and Diehl, C. (1996). Scatter/ Gather Browsing Communicates the Topic Structure of a Very Large Text Collection. Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems: common ground. pp. 213-220. http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/238386.238489
2. Ruecker, Stan. (2003). Affordances of Prospect for Academic Users of Interpretively-tagged Text Collections. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of Alberta, Edmonton.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094327/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop90.html",""
"382","5","The Humanities Scholar in the Twenty-first Century: How Research is Done and What Support is Needed","1","Libraries have long been perceived as the laboratory the workspace for the humanities scholar (Aboyade), providing access to a wealth of materials that are subsequently analyzed, critiqued and interpreted. Recent advances in technologies from computing to networking are redefining the humanities scholars workspace. Today novel techniques and innovative methodologies are providing new opportunities for cutting-edge humanities scholarship. How has computing changed humanities scholarship? What do humanities scholars need to pursue their research?

Under the aegis of the Text Analysis Portal for Research (TAPoR) project (http://www.tapor.ca/), we are undertaking a Web-based survey to better understand the current needs of humanists. Rather than assume what all the needs of our community might be, we have sought the input of our colleagues (this survey builds on an earlier interview-based one with a small group of participants; see Fisher). In addition to helping us to formulate a vision for the development of the TAPoR portal, we believe that such as study is very likely to provide valuable insights of general interest into the current state of computer-based humanities scholarship, as well as provide crucial justification for pursuing grants to respond to specific issues.

The survey was made available on November 10th and will be accessible until December 15th. It contains three sections: a) profile of the demographic and research profile, b) use of computing in teaching, and c) use of e-text and text analysis tools. While all participants completed the first part, only those who teach a course in the humanities completed part B and only those who use e-text and/or text analysis tools complete part C.

As of November 15th, ninety-six scholars (half male and half female) from more than a dozen countries had responded to the survey. Three quarters were under the age of 45 and most were long term and frequent users of computers and the Web. These respondents came from a range of disciplines working in a range of genre (mostly prose) and primarily using textual material for their research (it should be noted that the survey was especially directed at text-based humanities scholars; this focus is something that subsequent surveys may wish to broaden).

Over 80% use e-text and about half use text analysis tools. In general they believe that e-text are available for their use and expect to find them downloadable off the Web. They prefer to find them in a stable, legal form that is freely available from a reliable institution. In terms of mark-up, respondents appear to be a bipolar group with half expecting to acquire text with no mark-up and half with rich XML.

In general, respondents believe that they need text analysis tools, although not complex tools, and are not happy with the tools that are currently available. Somewhat surprisingly, over 50% did not know about commonly available tools such as TACT, WordCruncher and Concordancer. The one most highly used was TACT but few found it useful. In addition to our list of about ten tools, participants added another two dozen tools that they employ in their work. These included tools such as the Wordsmith Tools as well as common Microsoft Office products such as Word and Access.

We inquired about their collaboration and communication habits. Most use e-mail regularly and subscribe to listservs. But they tend to work as solitary scholars, rarely collaborating with their own graduate students and do not see the need for collaborating with other scholars. That said, they like to communicate with other scholars at various points in the research process. They share some of their materials, but tend not to share notes and tools, although they expect others to share tools.

From our data we are developing a picture of the humanities scholar, how they do their research, including the text, tools and techniques they use; the type of collaboration and communication they practise; and their use secondary and primary resources. Our work will also involve a second phase that involves interviews with a select number of humanities scholars. In the final version of our paper, we will combine survey results with the interviews for a rich picture of the humanities scholar in the twenty-first century.

Acknowledgments: the authors wish to thank University of Toronto Masters students, Natasha Flora and Imran Hasan who created the survey, and the University of Toronto for providing a small internal SSHRC grant to support the work. Many thanks are due as well to our colleagues who were willing to participate in the survey.

References

1. Aboyade, B.O. Access to primary source material in the humanities. International Library Review 8.4 (1976) 309-316.
2. Fisher, Sue. TAPoR Needs Assessment. Electronic Text Centre, University of New Brunswick. October-November, 2002. [Available at http://tapor.ualberta.ca/Pubs/2002/SueFisherNeedsAssessment/report.pdf.]","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094455/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop139.html",""
"383","5","The Data Deluge: Developments and Delights","8","In the humanties data is plentiful, i.e., in fields such as history, linguistics, archaeology, musicology, art and literature.  Large amounts of data require some form of automatic analysis if they are to be exploited systematically.  A barrier to the deployment of computational techniques, and therefore to the blossoming of humanities computing, has been the acquisition of data in digital form.  But more data is becoming available regularly, and there is every indication that this tendency will continue.
 
Processing large amounts of data has its own challenges, essentially sacrificing depth for breadth, and also appreciating what can be seen broadly.  We illustrate this primarily with work in humanties computing in Groningen – on dialectology, economic history, grammar, and architectural history.
 
An advantage of the focus on large data sets is the renewed engagement it enables with traditional humanities questions.  We are even *now* answering older questions with new methods.","txt","2","",""
"384","5","More Light, Less Lite: A Text Encoding Guide for Literary Scholars","1","The Brown University Women Writers Project (WWP) has received two years of funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities to create a detailed Encoding Guide for projects wishing to encode early printed books (roughly 1400-1850) using the Text Encoding Initiative Guidelines. This Guide would generalize from the WWP's experience and provide detailed and explicit guidance on the elements and decisions involved in the encoding of early printed books, while taking into account such variables as project needs, funding, and available time.

The audience for this effort is one that is not currently well served by the TEI's existing documentation. The TEI Guidelines themselves are a compendious resource which famously provide comparatively little specific guidance on applying the Guidelines to specific project needs; mature projects which have trained technical staff are able to grasp the principles of the TEI and develop project-specific methods, but individual humanities scholars who are unfamiliar with text encoding may find this process much more difficult. There does not currently exist comprehensive documentation written for non-technical humanities scholars on how to develop a TEI encoding practice, or even how to decide what kind of encoding would be appropriate for a given set of materials. The Encoding Guide is thus aimed at individual humanities scholars, directors of small projects, or managers who wish to get a more topical overview of this particular area of the TEI Guidelines. The need for such documentation is now becoming much greater, as new XML publication tools come within the reach of individuals and small projects, and as interest in digital research becomes more widespread.

The Encoding Guide has the potential to offer important benefits to text encoding projects of all sizes. It may enable individual scholars and small projects to start work more quickly and with greater confidence, without having to grapple with all of the TEI Guidelines or replicate fundamental encoding wisdom. It may also provide projects of any size with an alternative to TEI Lite. Finally and most importantly, it could help ensure greater consistency between projects working on similar materials, and give them a shared basis for discussion and further refinement of their encoding practice.

A number of important issues and questions have already emerged from this effort, and this paper will discuss these in detail. First of all, given that the Encoding Guide will be published electronically, what is the best form for online documentation to take? Even the TEI Guidelines, which describe digital publication in such detail, do not themselves exemplify effective online documentation: in fact, their digital presence is limited to sectioned HTML/XML and PDF files, with some hyperlinking. The Encoding Guide will need to serve not only as a developmental narrative for use during the learning process, but also as a reference work, and one challenge for its writers will be how to handle this dual rhetorical function effectively, economically, and gracefully.

Second, to what extent can text encoding principles be separated from a discussion of specific tags and DTDs? One important premise of the Guide is that essential concepts of literary text encoding transcend the TEI and its specific methodsÂ—and further, that these concepts can and should be treated as a natural link between the disciplinary methods with which scholars are already familiar and the text encoding issues which they seek to grasp. One underlying problem the Guide will address, then, is the perception that text encoding is about ""technology"", an assumption which often serves to intimidate or misdirect scholars unfamiliar with the field. This problem is especially significant because humanities text encoding projects must involve humanities scholars in their methodological decisions, even if those scholars will not be directly involved in encoding texts. The Guide will therefore attempt to establish a useful high-level grasp of text encoding issues even among scholars who never touch a keyboard.

Finally, how can the expertise of the many existing TEI projects best be brought together in a Guide of this sort? Although the Guide will draw specifically on the work and documentation of the Women Writers Project, it will also need to take account of significant work being done elsewhere: work that both duplicates and extends the area of the WWP's expertise. The Guide's authors have compiled a list of projects on which to draw for examples, documentation, and research to enrich the scope and authority of the Guide.

The proposed paper will explore all of these issues in greater depth, and will report on the progress made and the challenges encountered during the first year of this two-year project.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094506/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop154.html",""
"385","5","TEI: ""xml:lang sucks, let's use it anyway""","1","This paper is based in large part on the thoughts, work, and efforts of the members of the TEI Character Encoding work group who met in Nancy, France in November 2003:

Michael Beddow
David Birnbaum
Patrick Durusau
Christian Wittern (chair)
Members of the work-group who were not present at this meeting have contributed greatly to the group's efforts overall, but less substantially on this particular issue:
Deb Anderson
Lou Burnard
Espen Ore
Introduction

The TEI Character Encoding work-group recently considered the issue of language identification in TEI XML documents. This paper is a presentation of our deliberations and conclusions along with extensions thereto from the authors imagination. Thus the work-group members can only be held responsible for the conclusion described here; the author is responsible for any logical fallacies or other errors presented.

Background

In July of 1990 the Text Encoding Initiative released the first public draft of their proposed Guidelines For the Encoding and Interchange of Machine-Readable Texts, commonly known as TEI P1. These guidelines, and the SGML DTD that accompanied them as an appendix, included a provision for an attribute, lang, which was available for use on every element in the entire TEI scheme.

This attribute has survived, in pretty much the same form, through the first non-draft release of the Guidelines (TEI P3) to the most recently released version (P4:2002-07), although in that version there is an explicit admission that the mechanism employed by the TEI lang attribute is likely to undergo significant revision at the next release.

In November of 1996 the W3C released the first public draft of their proposed Extensible Markup Language, commonly known as XML. This working draft had no provision for language identification. By the time the specification became an official W3C recomendation (February of 1998), however, it included a provision for an attribute, xml:lang, which (if declared appropriately for valid documents) could be used on any element in an XML document.

These two attributes serve the same major purpose: to indicate the (natural) language an element is written in. However, they have different mechanisms for acheiving this purpose, and slightly different semantics. Thus, users of TEI P4 XML have a potentially confusing choice as to which method to use.

It is perfectly acceptable to use both simultaneously, of course. However this has the obvious disadvantages of extra work, verbosity, and redundancy which serves not as a fallback if there is a problem, but rather as a source of trouble if the two are in disagreement.

TEI P4 lang

[1]

XML xml:lang

[2]

Pros and Cons

Advantages of TEI lang
name freedom: Because the value of lang is a reference to an arbitrary identifier, the user is free to choose any token (subject to the limitations of an XML namehttp://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml#NT-Name) she wishes. Note that nothing prevents the user from using the very same names she would have used if she had the same restrictions as those on xml:lang.
descriptiveness: The user can describe the language being discussed as thoroughly as she likes in prose. From within her description she is welcome to refer to ISO 639, IANA, SIL Ethnologue, or any other standardized list of languages.
extensibility: The system permits an easy but formal mapping between languages in the document and any language, even those that do not appear in the standard authority lists. This means that the indicated language can be described very precisely. For instance, one might well have different lang identifiers for each of the various dialects of southern American English in an Mark Twain novel.
well-defined: The semantics of lang are reasonably well defined.
familiarity: TEI users have used lang for years.
brevity: it's short.
This does not mean that there are no disadvantages to the TEI scheme, of course. The most obvious, more because it is an intractable problem than because of any TEI shortsightedness, is the inability to formally describe a language. But there are others. Suggestions have been put forth, e.g., to permit the specification of the correspondence to multiple authority lists; to permit a hierarchical indication of sublanguages; and to permit the value of lang to point to an external langUsage.

However, it is reasonable to assume that if TEI were to continue using lang, at least some of these concerns would be addressed in P5.

Disadvantages of TEI lang
Little software support, and not much prospect for improved software support in the future.
Advantages of XML xml:lang
Somewhat better software support, and very good prospects for improved support in the future.
Disadvantages of XML xml:lang
scope: This is the major complaint against xml:lang: that it applies to attribute values as well as element content. This concern will be discussed in more detail in the full paper, taking each attribute type into consideration.
no pointing: There is no formal semantic for what the value of xml:lang is, except that it is a language identifier. It is not possible to point directly into the authority list being used, or to point at any further classifications or descriptions of the language being identified.
poor extensibility: While it is entirely possible for a user to develop an identifier for a particular sublanguage or dialect for which no ISO or IANA identifier exists, there is no mechanism to associate any information about the language so identified with the identifier.
Results and Reasoning

Despite the obvious disadvantages of xml:lang, the TEI Character Encoding work-group chose to recommend that in P5 the TEI drop the lang attribute and declare xml:lang instead. Why use the inferior approach? First it is important to realize that for TEI P5, the scoping problem (which is the most significant disadvantage of xml:lang is drastically minimized compared to P4, as it is expected that most string type attributes will become elements instead. Thus, said elements can bear an xml:lang attribute of their own, and the scoping problem is avoided. Given that the differences would then be minor, the work-group applied the principle that unless your method is demonstrably significantly better than the standard, you should be using the standard[4], and thus chose the more widely standardized xml:lang. The fact that it is far better to only have one attribute for this purpose, and that the TEI could not likely do much to remove the W3C one also influenced our decision.

However, in order to make up for the lost functionality of a formal association between the identified language and a description thereof, at least for non-standard languages, a mechanism needed to be developed to link the new xml:lang to a description (language in langUsage in the teiHeader). One such mechanism was proposed in Nancy, however I anticipate some active discussion on the issues, and perhaps some changes in the mechanism, over the next two months.

This paper will explore the advantages and disadvantages in more detail, with particular attention to the scoping problem mentioned above. I will argue that in fact the attribution of language to most attributes is not only useless but meaningless, and will present the new mechanism for linking the language identified to its description.

References

1. P1
2. P4
3. XML 1.0 WD
4. XML 1.1
Notes

1. A brief explanation of how lang= works goes here.
2. A brief explanation of how xml:lang= works goes here.
3. http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml#NT-Name
4. Affectionately called Syd's rule.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094458/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop142.html",""
"386","5","Authoring Scholarly Articles: TEI or Not TEI","1","The TEI has grown and matured greatly in recent years, both in the number and breadth of its applications, and in their sophistication. It can be taken as a sign of the success and state of health of TEI to see persistent efforts to push its boundaries.

One area that is repeatedly cited as one where the TEI ""should"" provide a competitive alternative, but apparently does not, is the realm of authoring or original composition by scholars and writers.1 A closely related one is the interchange between authors and editors: the famous ""submission format"" issue. Thankfully, the ACH has already stated its support, in principle, for accepting conference papers in TEI format, and the supporting pieces Â— in the form of initial cuts at stylesheets for given TEI subsets Â— are fast getting put together.

The work of a few pioneers amply demonstrates that in the hands of an expert at XML systems and processing, TEI can indeed be a serviceable authoring format:2 it can clearly be made to fit the chore. Indeed, the widely used (and sometimes controversial) TEI Lite DTD is in many respects a balance of tags apparently chosen for their utility in authoring. The question is whether a set of declarations as provided by any P3- or P4-conformant DTD is a very strong approach to the need, as opposed to other thinkable alternatives. And at this point, there are several thinkable alternatives: there remains HTML or (for those who can assume the discipline) XHTML; there remain proprietary word-processor formats, which for all their shortcomings are still ubiquitous and well-understood; there is PDF, Postscript or TeX (still liked in some communities in the sciences). And now, there are alternative XML-based formats such as DocBook [DocBook 2003], the NCBI journal publishing DTD [NCBI 2003], and other ""standard"" (openly specified) XML technologies, designed either for authoring or for handling some problem close to authoring such as web site design and linking. Any technology, in order to gain acceptance, must be demonstrably better than all these, at least in some critical respects.

The Next Question Down: Are We on the Same Layer?

On the assumption that a solution, given present-day technologies, should be XML (and therefore be able to take full advantage of the wide range of available XML tools), it should be recognized at the outset that it is the element content models and element/attribute semantics in practice (at least insofar as they are captured by their containment or referential relations) that will ultimately make the difference for processing Â— not the particular names themselves (of elements or attributes). What the names are is certainly important, that is, but it is not the most important, insofar as an ""alpha-renaming"" transform is a trivial operation; it is where element-to-element mappings do not work due to incommensurable semantics (whether operational or implicit), that we run into problems.

A simple example is the way div elements work in HTML. Unlike TEI div elements, which enforce a deliberately strict containment hierarchy, div elements in HTML can be used for arbitrary formatting of what TEI would consider either structural divisions (true TEI divs) or block-level elements such as paragraphs, quotes, line groups, epigraphs, closers and what not. As an authoring format, therefore, HTML is both simpler and more flexible, and relatively more impoverished (which is to say, perhaps more difficult for some processing step down the line), than would be the TEI equivalent. The flexibility in this case is a false gift, effectively making HTML (unless some imposes some super-ordinate layer of modeling and validation over the top of it) useless for anything but display (to which these div elements are, after all, addressed).

A strong authoring format, therefore, would make the distinction between structural divisions and ad hoc block elements Â— even if that line is confessedly blurry, as it is at times, for the most part it reflects a distinction of enough practical use and importance, that modeling should be stricter than the bland HTML-style div.

We run into this problem because in TEI, div does not ""mean"" what it does in HTML; and it proves on examination in this case that the tighter TEI meaning may be more useful for an authoring schema.

The fact that these ""div"" elements share a name does not, that is, make these elements alike in any important respect. And even given that when we examine them closely, the question of which div an authoring format should prefer is easy enough to determine, it does not solve the general problem of ""TEI or not TEI"" Â— even given our conclusion in this case that the preference should be for TEI. Yet looked at from another angle (maybe looking at it sideways), in fact our answer is here. In fact, simply by stipulating that our putative tag set would be where possible TEI, but might in some cases need to bend to local exigencies Â— we have in effect already sequestered it, assigned to it a special position in our processing architecture different from TEI proper.

In other words, having recognized that in most practical cases, an authoring markup language will work at another layer from display formats, we should acknowledge that it might stand apart from other instances of TEI, where the tag set is ""tuned"" to an editorial or archival application. That is, we should take authoring in stride as another layer, requiring of us that we support transformations between this format and others that we might want (indeed, having recognized that some formats, such as HTML or a print-oriented format such as RTF or Quark, will inevitably be on separate layers in any case), but rewarding us for that extra investment of concern with a complementary flexibility Â— not only renaming of elements is possible, but the mapping of element relations as well.

Figure F1
[Figure 1: authoringarchitecture.jpg. A depiction of a processing architecture in which an XML document type for authoring is put to work in a system which may also use TEI for more orthodox applications. Not only will TEI have its own editing interfaces and its own range of conversion and display formats; but also, there will be times when converting between an authoring format and straight TEI is desirable, even while we also want to be able to go straight from authoring into output formats as a regular matter of course.]


Designing to the TEI Architecture

In fact the solution of implementing an authoring tag set ""at a remove"" in this way has already been endorsed, both in theory and in practice, by early implementors Â— such as OUCS or anyone who has written a stylesheet for TEI Lite. As early as four years ago (1999), Architectural Forms were already being proposed as a more consistent and more stable form of maintenance of TEI elements and their relations [Simons 1999] than literal declarations; likewise, Lou Burnard's examinations of the authoring question have identified TEI's usefulness not as a solution ""out of the box"", but rather as an architecture [Burnard 2001, slide 4]. By this mechanism, specific allowance can be made for altering tag structures to suit the needs of authors or web-site maintainers (for example), as opposed to editors, while likewise bringing from TEI that which is best about it, its ""bones"", one might say, along with the notion that if we can define, document and implement a consistent set of element structures within this framework, they can be made sufficiently close to TEI in spirit to satisfy our community's wish for a TEI orientation.

One way to approach the design problem is simply to formulate content models including useful element types straightaway, from the TEI architecture. This is the approach being taken by the strictly TEI efforts such as the OUCS web-site authoring format (see [Rahtz 2001]).

On the other hand, it is exactly here that it proves helpful to have a prototype of an authoring format ready to hand that is not TEI. A tag set, in other words, that is designed specifically with scholarly authoring requirements in mind, but which does not in itself draw from the TEI design, can be a very useful foil, helping us to abstract solutions to design problems away even from TEI itself. Fortunately, this approach, while it may at first blush seem radical, is quite in keeping with the application of TEI as an architecture. Moreover, the stresses here can be identified easily enough by assessing the simplicity and accuracy of whatever transformation logic is necessary to get us from one model to the other.

Since I have already developed such an authoring tag set for my own uses, this is the direction I am currently working in towards full TEI authoring. While I have not yet built this particular transformation, my expectation is that it will not be difficult Â— but that the more important findings of this five-year experiment in making a tag set from scratch, to order, may be not where its design can be readily recast as TEI, but rather where it cannot. My findings on this issue will be part of the paper I propose for ALLC/ACH 2004.

NOTES

1. Cf. TEI-L, Martin Mueller October 13, 2003, and thread.
2. See the work of Sperberg-McQueen, Rahtz, and others.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. [Burnard 2001] Burnard, Lou. TEI and XML: a marriage made in heaven? On line at http://www.tei-c.org/Talks/Pizza/marriage-slides0.html
2. [DocBook 2003] Walsh, Norman, ed. DocBook home page. At http://www.docbook.org/.
3. [NCBI 2003] National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Journal Publishing Document Type Definition. Home page at http://dtd.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/
4. [Rahtz 2001] Rahtz, Sebastian. Web Sites from TEI. Address to TEI Members' Meeting, Pisa, 2001. On line at http://www.tei-c.org.uk/Members/2001-Pisa/Talks/rahtz-teiweb.pdf.
5. [Simons 1999] Simons, Gary, C.M. Sperberg-McQueen and David G. Durand. ""Rethinking TEI markup in the light of SGML architectures"". ACH/ALLC 1999 (Charlottesville VA). On line at http://www.iath.virginia.edu/ach-allc.99/proceedings/simons.html.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094056/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop124.html",""
"387","5","TAPoR: Tools, Architectures, and Techniques","23","","","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040813084849/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop136.html",""
"388","5","Text Document Prospect","1","Digital text offers software developers and designers the opportunity to provide readers with a variety of new perceptual experiences and possibilities for action that have simply not been available through printed texts. An obvious example is the widespread adoption of digital texts connected by hyperlinks, identified by many theorists as a significant change in the way people are able to interact with the written word (cf. Bolter 1991, Landow 1994, etc.). However, many other new affordances of digital text remain to be identified, developed, and studied. One of these possible new affordances is the ability to have text or layout features change over time. In kinetic text research, traditionally static design elements such as font, size, leading, colour, and placement can all be used dynamically to achieve layout effects that were previously available only in non-interactive media such as film (Lee et al, 2002).
This project draws on previous research in hypertext and kinetic text theory to provide readers with a text document display that combines simultaneous prospect - an overview of the entire text - and detail views, with related tools. From hypertext theory comes the concept of associated text elements, where interaction with one text creates a reaction in a related text. Kinetic text theory contributes the notion of a system where text characteristics change as a way of responding to reader interests.
These two concepts are combined with the principle that providing readers with a means of seeing an entire text at once (that is, providing text prospect) has perceptual advantages over the situation where the text can only be accessed sequentially. This prospect view indexes a fisheye reading view, where the text of current interest is shown at full size, while other text is displayed as increasingly smaller lines of microtext (Furnas 1986). Prospect on an entire document has not traditionally been part of print design, since the static form of the text could not be the basis for any new opportunities for action derived from tools associated with the prospect view. However, with a digital text, there are several advantages that can be made available.
Firstly, the prospect view can be used as an index to the document, allowing the reader to gauge the total amount of text against the current insertion point. This feature is similar to the ability to gauge location in a printed book by physically judging the total number of pages against the current page. However, since in this case the text is digital, the gauge can also be used as an access method, where the reader can accurately change the current insertion point by choosing a new point on the prospect view.
Secondly, a prospect view can be used to gain insight into the overall structure of the document and some of its characteristics. For example, a prospect view with an associated search function might allow the reader to find a particular word or phrase and see at a glance all the points where it occurs in a particular novel. If the novel has been encoded in SGML or XML, the search might reveal encoded locations rather than only those places that match a given string. By extension of this idea, a prospect view on a play might allow the reader to select two or more characters from the cast list and see all the locations where those characters interact on stage. Since the prospect view and reading views are connected, selecting each of the character interactions in turn provides a quick means of seeing how the interactions progress through the course of the play, without losing the larger context of the scenes in which the characters do not appear.
The text document prospect screen works by showing three simultaneous displays of the same text: one is a microtext version of the entire document; the second is a small version of the current chapter or act; the third is a fisheye version where the centre lines are at a readable font size. The reader can scroll through the document by dragging the mouse in any of the displays, and the current insertion point in the text visibly changes in all three. Associated with the three displays are a number of tools and related features, each of which provides a new affordance. The annotation tool, for example, allows users to create and insert comments at any point in the text, which appear as marks on all three displays. As different readers each access and annotate the text, an interaction history in the form of previous readers' annotations becomes available. For documents that have been encoded with a TEI-style tagset, an additional index appears attached to the prospect view, showing structural elements such as chapter breaks for novels, or divisions into act, scene, and line for plays.
Through the combination of multiple simultaneous document views at different scales and a set of related tools, the text document prospect screen provides a dynamic reading environment that begins to demonstrate some of the promise inherent in digital text.
 
References:
Bolter, Jay David. Writing Space: The Computer, Hypertext, and the History of Writing. Lawrence Erlbaum, 1991.
Furnas, G.W. Generalized fisheye views. ACM SIGCHI Bulletin, Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems. 17:4, 1986. http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/22627.22342
Landow, George P. HYPER/TEXT/THEORY. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994.
Lee, Johnny C., Jodi Forlizzi, and Scott E. Hudson. The kinetic typography engine: an extensible system for animating expressive text. Proceedings of the 15th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology, 2002.  http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/571985.571997","txt","2","",""
"389","5","Testing Burrows's 'Delta'","1","In his Busa Award presentation and two recent articles, John F. Burrows has presented a new measure of stylistic difference that seems quite promising in authorship attribution, and possibly also in stylistic studies (2001, 2002, 2003). This unitary measure, which he calls 'Delta,' like many other techniques, is based on the differences in the frequencies of the most frequent words in a group of texts""in this case, ""verse by twenty-five poets of the English Restoration period"" (2003: 10). Burrows uses the frequencies of the 150 most frequent words of the entire set of texts in his exposition of the method, comparing the mean frequency of each word in the whole set with its frequency in the texts of each of the authors sequentially. His technique uses z-scores, which are calculated by subtracting the mean frequency of each word in the entire set from its frequency in the test text, and dividing this difference by the standard deviation of the word in the entire set. This method allows all of the 150 words in his set to have equal weight, in spite of their very different frequencies. Burrows then eliminates the sign of the difference (which indicates whether the word is less frequent or more frequent than the mean for the whole set), adds the z-scores together, and calculates the mean. This mean is Delta, ""the mean of the absolute differences between the z-scores for a set of word-variables in a given text-group and the z-scores for the same set of word-variables in a target text"" (2002: 271).

Delta proves remarkably effective in identifying authors in a difficult ""open"" test. When texts of sixteen authors who are included in the original set and sixteen authors who are not are tested with Delta to determine likely authorship, ""Of thirty- two long poems, . . . fifteen are correctly identified and another fifteen yield scores that correctly place them outside the main set"" (Burrows, 2003: 15). Although this result is not completely accurate, is very encouraging, and it suggests that delta may be a very useful tool in the early stages of an authorship study in which there are large numbers of possible authors.

Because of its great potential, delta deserves further investigation, and I have begun a series of tests on novels published about 1900, to see if Burrows's success with poetry can be duplicated with prose. The choice of 1900 as a central date ensures a large selection of texts for testing without scanning: many such novels, now out of copyright, are already available as e-texts. After cleaning up the e-texts to correct for problems of hyphenation, apostrophes, and single quotation marks, I have extracted samples of approximately 25,000 words of pure authorial narration from more than 100 novels. Using a combination of text-analysis tools, and custom programming, I have collected the most frequent words from each of the samples for comparison.

Burrows's analysis (2002) shows that the accuracy of Delta decreases as he reduces the frequency list from the 150 to the 40 most frequent words, and Hoover (2002, 2003) has shown that cluster analyses based on as many as the 800 most frequent words are often more accurate than those based on the traditionally-used smaller lists. Therefore, I have collected the 800 most frequent words of each text, and have set up a complex Excel spreadsheet that accepts as input sets of columns of the most frequent words from up to 80 primary and 80 secondary texts for analysis. A macro calculates Delta for each of the primary texts and then for each of the secondary texts in turn, beginning with the 800 most frequent words, and continuing with the 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 150, 100, 70, 50, 30, and 20 most frequent. Another macro then moves through the results, calculating the rank of the actual author for texts by authors in the main set and extracting the information in an format for easy graphing. This automation assures the accuracy of the analysis, saves countless hours of tedious and painstaking drudgery, and allows for the testing of many differently selected sets of frequent words. For example, I have tested the following eight different kinds of sets:

The most frequent words.
Contractions removed.
Personal pronouns removed.
Contractions and personal pronouns removed.
Words for which a single text supplies more than 70% of the occurrences removed.
Contractions and words for which a single text supplies more than 70% of the occurrences removed.
Personal pronouns and words for which a single text supplies more than 70% of the occurrences removed.
Contractions, personal pronouns, and words for which a single text supplies more than 70% of the occurrences removed.
Research is still in progress, but preliminary results are available for a primary set of 22 American authors (represented by one third-person novel each) that have been tested against 20 third-person American novels from authors in the primary set. As Figure 1 shows, Delta is quite effective, in two cases attributing 19 of the 20 novels to the correct author. (The 20th, which surprisingly ranks 5th, is one of two novels by Ellen Glasgow in the secondary set. The other is consistently identified correctly. This case invites further investigation, because the novel that is not correctly identified was written about 10 years later than the other two, and is sometimes considered to be Glasgow's first novel in her mature style. The preliminary research also shows that removing contractions reduces the accuracy of the analyses, but removing personal pronouns improves it (for similar results, see Hoover, 2002). Finally, removing words for which a single text supplies more than 70% of the occurrences improves the accuracy quite dramatically, producing the only results with 19 of the 20 texts correctly attributed.

Although Burrows showed that texts by authors from the main set usually produce Deltas significantly lower than those by authors from outside the main set, as one would expect, my initial tests on prose show somewhat weaker results: the Deltas of texts by authors from the main set are generally lower, but some show Deltas higher than some of the texts by authors from outside the main set. For this set of prose texts, Delta is more effective in suggesting correct authors than in eliminating incorrect potential claimants. More testing is necessary to determine whether the use of a single novel for each author in the main set may result in less accurate results than those Burrows achieved when most of his authors were represented by a group of poems, and whether work on attribution should be limited to texts with the same point of view or nationality. Nevertheless, Burrows Delta seems poised to become a valuable addition to the authorship attribution toolbox.

Bibliography

1. Burrows, J. F. 2001. Questions of Authorship: Attribution and Beyond. Association for Computers and the Humanities and Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing, Joint International Conference, New York, June 14, 2001.
2. Burrows, J. F. 2002. 'Delta': a Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. Literary and Linguistic Computing 17(3), 267- 287.
3. Burrows, J. F. 2003. Questions of Authorship: Attribution and Beyond. Computers and the Humanities 37(1): 5-32.
4. Hoover, D. L. (2002). Frequent Word Sequences and Statistical Stylistics, Literary and Linguistic Computing, 17(2), pp. 157-80.
5. Hoover, D. L. (2003). Frequent Collocations and Authorial Style, forthcoming, Literary and Linguistic Computing, 18(3), pp. 157-80.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094129/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop5.html",""
"390","5","Before Multiculturalism: Stylometric Analysis of a Collaboration by Lockwood and Rudyard Kipling","1","When Rudyard Kipling's Lahore scrapbooks became available to scholars in 1976, the clippings they contained confirmed his authorship of numerous unsigned pieces published in Anglo-Indian newspapers in the 1880s. Less commented upon were the three scrapbooks in the Kipling collection that had been filled by his father, John Lockwood Kipling, with clippings of his own writing for some of the same papers. One of Lockwood's clippings, the 4 June 1887 Civil and Military Gazette (CMG) leader ""A Word on Indian Progress,"" provides important reason to doubt recent arguments about Rudyard Kipling's multiculturalism - partly because significant circumstantial evidence suggests that Rudyard had a hand in its composition. The question of this paper is whether stylometric analysis supports the hypothesis of collaboration.

For many years the standard narrative explained Rudyard Kipling's early success by imagining him peering into Indian and Anglo-Indian by-ways, achieving unmediated contact with British and Indian and Eurasian people in Lahore and Simla.

But there is no evidence of such investigations during Kipling's first year in India. He joined his parents (he lived with them until 1887) in Lahore in October, 1882, and he began work as sub-editor of the CMG in November. While his 1884 letters document early extramural assignments, the 1883 letters suggest a hard routine that kept him at the office ten hours a day and otherwise at home. He was seventeen years old in 1883; it seems unlikely that he would have wandered the old city of Lahore.

Instead, the young Rudyard Kipling discovered British India in the newspapers he read as a major part of his job and from his parents at home. One may find in 1883 issues of his paper many of the ideas that appear in his best known stories, and one may find his politics in the writing of his mother and father, who had lived in India since 1865. This conclusion leads us to question the view of revisionist critics like Sara Suleri, Zorah Sullivan, and Don Randall, who argue that one can see through Kipling's sympathetic understanding of the Indian people a nearly postcolonial ambivalence. But Lockwood's clippings provide a colonialist view that features no ambivalence. Particularly straightforward is ""A Word on Indian Progress,"" which offers a ""scientific"" justification of empire that both is congruent with the Kiplings' other writing on the subject and offers deep sympathy for the Indian people - but on the grounds of their racial inferiority.

Rudyard probably edited his father's essay. He was in Lahore in June, so he would have read it before it was printed. In fact, the habit in the Kipling family was a kind of composition that invited collaboration. Lockwood notes in one scrapbook that Alice wrote one of his columns while he was ill; Rudyard and his sister collaborated on the 1885 Echoes by Two Writers; all four family members produced Quartette, the 1885 Christmas number of the CMG. Rudyard publicly thanks his father repeatedly for a deep knowledge of India.

""A Word"" justifies imperialism as a humane salvation for a people whose sordid lives cry out for the liberation by European civilization. The ultimate scientific causes of their condition are India's climate and the consequent ""limits set by Oriental prescription to the feminine mind."" The heat in India ""enervates the mind and will"" and ""stimulates the passions."" The effects of the climate have been magnified by Indian treatment of women. ""Hindu and Muhammadan women are literally imprisoned all their lives in cells which would be condemned as unfit for human habitation by the most barbarous prison-administration in existence. . . . The very talk of women thus confined is a clipped jargon, apt enough [only] for the expression of affection and the narrow round of housewifely duty . . . ."" Since ""these are the mothers of the people, . . . by the iron law of heredity, the peculiarities of their character and the limitations of their mental powers are faithfully transmitted to their children.""

That Lockwood's son read these ""facts"" in draft is nearly certain. That he shared in their presentation is likely. This likelihood, however, is based on historical evidence; the question is whether stylometrics can be used to support or reject the inference. Certainly, stylometrics has been used to examine collaboration, as in Brian Vickers' Shakespeare, Co-Author. However, previous studies focus on cases in which individual authors may have written discrete parts of a text. Rudyard and Lockwood Kipling are likely to have collaborated in a way more akin to thorough editing, revision, and re-writing.

We begin by asking what stylometric techniques are appropriate in determining whether Rudyard did, indeed, have this kind of role in ""A Word,"" and we take a cue from John Burrows' distinction between ""open"" and ""closed games"" in ""Delta: a Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship."" Open games are those ""where we are faced with an anonymous text but have little or no outside evidence to identify the most likely candidates"" whereas closed games are those in which ""only two or three writers are eligible candidates for the authorship of a particular text"" or the ""question is whether or not a particular writer (and no other) is the author"" (267). At least one element of the question of collaboration is clearly a closed game situation: is Lockwood (and no other) the author of ""A Word""?

About such closed games, Burrows suggests that we are relatively ""well equipped to form strong inferences"" utilizing methods ""currently employed in computational stylistics"" (267). One of those methods is the Burrows technique of using the relative frequencies of the forty most common function words as variables, performing a principal components analysis, and displaying the results on a scatter graph. We have run such an analysis, using six essays known to have been written by Lockwood and six known to have been written by Rudyard, as well as ""A Word."" (The number of texts is limited because of the need to have texts of a sufficient length.) In the analysis, the first two principal components account for 64.57% of the variation in the data. The results are displayed in Figure 1.



The results show discrete clusters that seem to differentiate the style of Rudyard on the one hand and Lockwood on the other, this being the case even when samples of Rudyard's short stories are included. Most important in attempting to determine authorship is that ""A Word"" does not cluster with other Lockwood essays in either this analysis or one that includes only essays by Lockwood. Possibly, ""A Word"" is an outlier, but, from this evidence, it would be difficult to argue that ""A Word"" is by Lockwood ""and no other.""

Given the historical evidence for Lockwood's authorship, it seems that collaboration could be a reasonable explanation for the difference in style between ""A Word"" and Lockwood's other texts. More compelling evidence for this explanation may be found in the results of a hierarchical cluster analysis using average linkage, of the same forty function words. (See Fig. 2)



The dendrogram shows the close relationship among the known texts by Lockwood and also among the known texts by Rudyard. As well, it shows that ""A Word"" is more closely linked to Lockwood's texts than to Rudyard's but that the texts of the two Kiplings are more closely linked to each other than to a sample text from a t hird writer from the Civil and Military Gazette. In a series of analyses (in the full paper) using other sample texts, the results remain consistent. ""A Word"" shows slightly closer links to Lockwood's texts but is relatively closely linked to Rudyard's. The results do not prove collaboration, but they are what we would expect from a text in which Lockwood was the primary author but in which Rudyard had a role.

In the conference, we would discuss the words that account for the variation in the data and attempt to suggest how they may offer evidence for collaboration insofar as the frequency of particular words is more consistent with Rudyard's practice than with Lockwood's. For instance, Lockwood uses the term ""has"" at a frequency about twice that found in any of Rudyard's texts, yet ""A Word"" uses the term at about the same frequency as found in Rudyard's texts and substantially less often than found in any of Lockwood's other texts. Looking at particular sentences allows us to see how revision and editing might account for these differences.

It seems to us that stylometric evidence, when combined with historical circumstantial evidence, does allow for inference of collaboration in this case, an inference that has important consequences for our understanding of Rudyard Kipling's multiculturalism.

References

1. Burrows, John. (2002). ""'Delta': a Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship."" Literary and Linquistic Computing, 17: 267-87.
2. Kipling, John Lockwood. Scrapbook 1. SxMs 38, 28/20. The Kipling Papers. The University of Sussex.
3. _____. Scrapbook 2. SxMs 38, 28/21. The Kipling Papers. The University of Sussex.
4. Kipling, Rudyard. Scrapbook 2. SxMs 38, 28/2. The Kipling Papers. The University of Sussex.
5. _____. Scrapbook 3. SxMs 38. 28/3. The Kipling Papers. The University of Sussex.
6. Pinney, Thomas. (Ed.) (1990). The Letters of Rudyard Kipling, Volume I: 1872-89. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press.
7. Randall, Don. (2000) Kipling's Imperial Boy: Adolescence and Cultural Hybridity. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
8. Suleri, Sara. (1992) The Rhetoric of English India. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
9. Sullivan, Zohreh T. (1993) Narratives of Empire: The Fictions of Rudyard Kipling. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10. Vickers, Brian. Shakespeare, Co-author : A Historical Study of Five Collaborative Plays. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094142/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop55.html",""
"391","5","Penninc versus Vostaert. Contrasting co-authors by means of authorship attribution techniques","1","Only one complete version of the Middle Dutch Arthurian Romance Roman van Walewein is handed down to us, in a manuscript written in 1350. The texts as it is consists of 11.292 lines and about 65.000 words (tokens). As stated by the clerk who copied it, the romance was written by two authors: Penninc started the work and Pieter Vostaert finished it by adding the last 3300 lines - or the last 330, as recently has been argued. It is unknown when the romance was composed; most researchers seem to opt for a tentative date between 1230 and 1260, which leaves about a century between the composition of the original text and the manuscript from 1350. If the two authors have known each other and have both written their parts of the text around the middle of the thirteenth century, this might imply that subsequent copying may have smoothed the text as to possible differences between the two authors. Researchers of the text, however, have pointed to significant differences between Penninc and Vostaert. These were elaborately described by G.A. van Es in the introduction to his edition of the text, published in 1957. He based his characterisation of Penninc and Vostaert on a.o. the analysis of syntactical aspects, the use of past perfect and historical present tense, the use of adverbs, the way the authors handled certain motifs in clearly different ways, and on a selective analysis of their vocabulary. This last aspect, he explained, should be researched more deeply in the future because exhaustive research undoubtedly would reveal more about the character and style of the two authors and even may lead to more clues as to the time in which both were writing.

Modern authorship attribution techniques will be used to follow up on Van EsÂ’s work. I will go into the distribution of parts of speech throughout the text (cf. Holmes 1994: 89-90) and vocabulary analysis of several kinds (type Â– token ratio, vocabulary distribution, comparing the vocabulary of both authors, vocabulary richness; cf. Holmes 1994: 91-98). Furthermore, because the set of authors is Â‘closedÂ’, limited to two, principal component analysis might yield interesting information in the comparison of both authors (Binongo and Smith 1999, Burrows 2003: 8-10, Somers and Tweedie 2003). The most interesting technique, however, is Burrows Â‘DeltaÂ’: analysis of the use of the most frequent words (Burrows 2002; Burrows 2003), a.o. because this kind of analysis was not part of Van EsÂ’s research in 1957. Depending on the results of these tests, other (e.g. multivariate) techniques that might supplement the information will be used as well.

In order to apply these techniques to the Roman van Walewein of Penninc and Vostaert, the text will be iteratively divided by a cursor into two smaller parts, which will both be analysed with the help of the above-mentioned techniques. The cursor will move through the complete text and the assumption is that the different techniques will concur in locating the place where the first and last part of the text are contrasting most, indicating the place where Vostaert took over from Penninc.

Because fourteenth-century Dutch did not have a standard spelling yet, the text is (semi-automatically) tagged on word level, giving each word a modern Dutch headword that will bring all spelling variants and inflectional or conjugational forms of a word under one heading; the text is also tagged for parts of speech. Word counts will be done for both the tagged text and for the Â‘originalÂ’ text, to find out in what way tagging will change the results of the tests (cf. Burrows 2003: 10).

The goals of this research are twofold: firstly, to find out whether it is possible to get answers to the following questions: is it possible to pinpoint the place where Vostaert took over from Penninc? Did he indeed write about 3300 lines at the end, or only a meagre 330, or will the text as it was written down in 1350 give rise to new assumptions as to the (non-existence of a) break? What will this mean for the suggestions earlier researchers have made as to the lines where Vostaert must have taken over? Another interesting question (cf. Forsyth 1999) is whether it will be possible to find out whether Vostaert wrote only a few years after Penninc or maybe after a longer time - e.g. closer to the year 1350 than to 1250? And to go a step further: could Vostaert possibly be the clerk who wrote the manuscript in 1350, building on a (century-)old manuscript that contained Penninc's unfinished text? Or will this new research lead to new insights into the work of copying clerks? Secondly, the goal is to evaluate the usefulness of the chosen combination of authorship attribution techniques for this specific type of textual problem.

References

1. Binongo, J.N. and M.W.A. Smith, Â‘The Application of Principal Component Analysis to StylometryÂ’. In: Literary and Linguistic Computing 14 (1999), 445-465.
2. Burrows, J., Â‘Â“DeltaÂ”: a Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely AuthorshipÂ’. In: Literary and Linguistic Computing 17 (2002), 267-287
3. Burrows, J., Â‘Questions of Authorship: Attribution and BeyondÂ’. In: Computers and the Humanities 37 (2003), 5-32.
4. Es, G.A. van (ed.), De jeeste van Walewein en het schaakbord van Penninc en Pieter Vostaert. 2 Vols. Zwolle, 1957.
5. Forsyth, R.S., Â‘Stylochronometry with Substrings, or: a Poet Young and OldÂ’. In: Literary and Linguistic Computing 14 (1999), 467-477.
6. Holmes, D.I., Â‘Authorship AttributionÂ’. In: Computers and the Humanities 28 (1994), 87-106.
7. Johnson, D.F. and G.H.M. Claassens (Eds. and Transl.), Dutch Romances I: Roman van Walewein. Cambridge, 2000.
8. Somers, H. and F. Tweedie, Â‘Authorship Attribution and PasticheÂ’. In: Computers and the Humanities 37 (2003), 407-429.
9. Tweedie, F.J., S. Singh & D.J. Holmes, Â‘Neural Network Applications in Stylometry: The Federalist PapersÂ’. In: Computers and the Humanities 30 (1996), 1-10.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094235/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop51.html",""
"392","5","Legacy Data Migration: A pilot study on the methodological feasibility of conversion and enhancement of electronic resources.","1","Introduction

In this paper we will describe a pilot study based on two different subsets of electronic resources to be used in the Virtual Corpus system developed at the Oxford Text Archive (OTA). The Virtual Corpus system is designed to make the OTA more useful for researchers by enabling the selection of texts for a corpus on basis of metadata categories in the TEI header resource description. Currently these categories include such fields as language, date, genre, author etc. (Berglund & Wynne, 2003). In order to make the Virtual Corpus system (VC) even more useful the texts would benefit from data enhancement. This pilot study's aim is to evaluate the necessary procedures for enhancing the metadata available in the TEI header with further categories and also to explore the possibilities for migration of legacy data in a wide range of formats into a TEI-conformant XML format.

Background

Founded in 1976 by Lou Burnard, the OTA has over twenty years experience of serving the research and teaching needs of electronic text users within the scholarly community. We have witnessed and encouraged the widespread acceptance of digital resources within academia. Formerly the preserve of small research-oriented groups of specialists, electronic text is now the common currency of academics. More recently the OTA has become the hosting subject centre for the UK Arts and Humanities Data Service: Literature, Languages, Linguistics.

The OTA currently holds several thousand electronic texts and linguistic corpora, in a variety of languages. Its holdings include electronic editions of works by individual authors, standard reference works such as the Bible and mono-/bilingual dictionaries, and a range of language corpora. The OTA does not produce digital resources, and instead relies upon deposits from the wider community as the primary source of high-quality materials.

While the deposited resources of the OTA may be of a very good quality, they were often originally deposited in any number of highly individualistic markup schemes.

In this case study we are evaluating the proposed process for conversion of legacy data and viability of enhancement. There are many issues at hand, for example how do we categorise formats? How much time and effort is involved when evaluating the formats and any markers or markup used in the texts? Two subsets of the OTA's holdings were chosen in order to give a smaller fixed amount of material to evaluate. One subset contains biographies and shorter works while the other has sixteenth century English drama. These subsets were determined by the examination of the Library of Congress subject headings, which the OTA adds to the TEI Headers for each of its resources.

Rationale

When evaluating legacy data one has to consider a number of issues, related to viability and usability of the texts. Besides, in any endeavour of metadata enhancement and format conversion one has to consider a range of issues, such as evaluating the amount of work involved or finding appropriate methods for a conversion from a number of formats and unconventional markup schemes into XML format.

Our aim is to evaluate if individual texts should be considered for ehancement and migration to XML. Part of this decision relies on accurate information concerning their format, the quality of markup if any, the uniqueness or significance of the text, and what features have been encoded.[1] However, before considering any format conversion we also need to check whether the there is a better version of text is freely available elsewhere.[2] Whether a currently available text is able to be considered 'better' than the version originally deposited with the OTA is in itself problematic. The availability of a significantly encoded XML text does not mean that the quality of the textual edition itself is of higher quality. An increase in functionality should not be coupled with a downgrading of textual integrity or academic merit.

The pilot study

On the selected subsets of texts we performed a number of checkpoints in our evaluation and enhancement process: we checked the retrieval restrictions, the text format and for the existence of a text elsewhere that could be considered a better version. If a text not is freely available elsewhere in a better form, the viability enhancing the existing resource will be evaluated. If it is unfeasible to enhance the text, it will be flagged as having limited usability. When the text is in XML/SGML format and evaluated as suitable for enhancement, the new metadata is added, and it will be flagged as ""completed"" in the VC.

However, if the text is in an unknown or un-encoded format, it has to be carefully analysed in terms of the quality of any embedded markers or markup. Thus, the evaluation will also consider workload and time spent on a number of aspects concerning analysing the texts. The document analysis focuses on whether the embedded markup/markers are sufficiently consistent and distinct for conversion into XML format.

One of the tasks in the analysis is to identify a format for the text or to check whether the format is the same as stated in the TEI Header and examine any variance from that format.[3]

Electronic resources in the OTA are prepared for computer analysis and/or retrieval in a number of ways. The level of encoding varies and while some texts are in well-formed XML or SGML formats, many are in plain text/ASCII with little or no markup embedded in the text.

Some plain text resources are not encoded at all and some of the older texts are in upper case and others are sparsely marked up, through either conventional schemes or individual markup schemes. These may use the same markup to denote significantly different aspects of the texts, for example italic words, stage directions or numbered lines.

A significant number of the earlier electronic texts are prepared in COCOA (named after an early general-purpose concordance programs from the 1960's). The Oxford Concordance Program (OCP) used COCOA as the referencing scheme and an expanded version of COCOA was also used by the text retrieval program called TACT (Oxford University Computing Service (1988); Bradley, 1996).

The COCOA method uses angle brackets for enclosing references in texts. In addition, extra characters are sometimes used to mark certain features, such as italic words, proper names, diacritics, editorial marks, grammatical categories or foreign words (Oxford University Computing Service, 1988 pp. 11-21). However, the additional characters used for marking these aspects of the text frequently vary between different resource creators.

Many of these texts are able to be converted through a variety of electronic means, but because of their lack of consistency, they would still need to be individually proofread. In the case of the numerous Shakespeare resources held by the OTA, it is unlikely that the majority of them will be deemed of significant academic merit over the many versions freely available elsewhere. Thus, little effort should be expended in the enhancing such texts, unless the OTA resource is a uniquely interesting version without any distribution restrictions.

While the texts are being examined so closely, the addition of new metadata has been undertaken. The categories of metadata added are those of the gender of the author of the original text, the birth country of this author, and the original publishing/printing date of the text that the electronic edition is based on.

Closing

It is intended that this evaluation will lead to the conversion and enhancement of a significant proportion of the OTA's holdings. The benefits implicit in the conversion to XML include the ability for more sophisticated virtual corpus manipulation as well as more detailed search and retrieval options. The increase in the amount of metadata applied in a consistent and coherent manner within the TEI Header also will enable and increase the functionality for user manipulation with these texts.

The paper will conclude with an examination of the possibilities and pitfalls for the future.

Bibliography

1. Berglund, Y & Wynne, M. (2003). Virtual Corpora from the Oxford Text Archive. Presented at The 24th International ICAME Conference (April 23, 2003 -- April 27, 2003, Guernsey, UK). http://www.rdues.liv.ac.uk/icame2003/
2. Bradley, J. (1996). TACT Design. Computing in the Humanities Working Papers ( May 1996). Found at http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/chwp/bradley/index.html
3. Morrison, A., Popham, M. & Wikander, K. (2000). Guide to Good Practice 1: Creating and Documenting Electronic Texts. Oxford University: Oxford Text Archive,
4. Oxford University Computing Service (1988). Oxford Concordance Program. Users' manual. Version 2. Susan Hockey & Jeremy Martin. Oxford University.
References

1. Cf. The OTA Guide to Good Practice where several different aspects on markup and reusability are elaborated (Morrison, Popham & Wikander, 2000).
2. See the Oxford Text Archives Collections Policy (Version 1.1) on evaluating viability for management, preservation and distribution. Available at: http://ota.ahds.ac.uk/publications/ID_AHDS-Publications-Collections-Policy.html
3. See TEI guidelines at http://www.tei-c.org/P4X/HD.html and the Oxford Text Archive Collections Policy found at: http://ota.ahds.ac.uk.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094158/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop58.html",""
"393","5","The Future of Markup is Multilingual","1","Introduction

Markup is based on mnemonics (i.e. element names, attribute names and attribute values). These mnemonics have meaning, being this one of the most interesting features of markup. Markup allows us to define the structure of a text in a way that can be both processed by computer programs and understood by humans. Human understanding of this meaning is lost when the encoder doesn't have a good command of the language the mnemonics are based on. For example, a Spanish encoder that doesn't know English will find it difficult and error prone to apply or understand TEI markup using the original TEI mnemonics based on the English language.

So, by multilingual markup we mean applying marks using mnemonics in one's own language but still following the rules of the original markup vocabulary. In our own experience, a markup vocabulary exactly equivalent to TEI can be developed based on Spanish, Catalan, French and almost any other language, and the tools for translation back and forth to the original TEI core can be built automatically and can be applied in a transparent and easy way. When we build markup vocabularies equivalent to TEI but in the local language, the structural facilities and constraints of the markup scheme remain the same, only the markup terms used by DTDs, Schemas or documents are different, and the document structure becomes remarkably clearer for the encoder.

In this paper we will show and defend the benefits of using multilingual markup vocabularies for large digitization projects, like reduced learning times, reduction of errors, and incremented production, all due to using markup tags in the local language. We will also describe our implementation of multilingual markup based on the automatic generation of translating scripts using XSLT (Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformation) for both document instances and also DTDs or Schemas. We will also discuss other alternative implementations to the one proposed that look promising. Finally, we will present the conclusions of the implementation and use of this technology within the Miguel de Cervantes Digital Library.

We will also comment on the creation of a TEI Multilingual Markup Special Interest Group (TEI-MM-SIG) and the involvement of the TEI META Workgroup in the development and full implementation of a multilingual term-bank for the TEI.

Markup, meaning and multilinguality.

One of the key aspects of structural markup is the meaning it conveys, which depends on our ability to understand it.

In 1998 Robin Cover wrote: How does XML help with the encoding of information at the semantic level? ... New users sometimes refer to XML as semantic markup, and may be heard to praise XML for its ability to express semantic clarity through markup. ... Someone who uses a text editor to examine an XML document ... will readily judge the XML document more meaningful with respect to the information objects represented by text. The markup itself is a form of 'metadata', explaining to us what the constituent elements are (by name), and how these information objects are structured into larger coherent units.[1]

Sperberg-McQueen et.al. [2] supported the usefulness of markup as a source of meaning: The function of markup is not random. Markup has meaning. ... Why worry about this question?: For better markup language documentation, for better QA (verification), for better automated processes (translation, normalization, query), to provide a way to survey current practice (relevance for software developers) ... and because it's interesting. Because markup means something, ... we know certain things. I.e. because we see certain markup, we are allowed (licensed) to make certain inferences. and concluded that: the meaning of markup is the set of inferences it licenses.

So understanding XML tags is key to correctly delimit complex text structures for further automated processing. This understanding may be compromised when tag names (elements, attributes and attribute values) are in a foreign language.

The largest group of workers in our digital library is by far the proof-reading and markup team, comprised of about 40 persons. They are graduates from different humanities fields, none of them related to the English language. It is in this area where the necessity and importance of translating the original English markup into the local language (Spanish) is made evident.

We learned from practice that using a tagset in a foreign language, compared to using a tagset in our own language, increases the learning time and reduces the quality and amount of digital text production, since tag names are mnemonics that may sound familiar to English speakers but are hard to understand and memorize by users of other languages. Giving our encoders the possibility of applying tags in Spanish has increased the amount and quality of digital text production.

After successfully using XML-TEI for sometime, we embarked in the project of translating TEI element names, attribute names and attribute values to Spanish. Then we developed the translation tools to grant automatic conversion to and from the main TEI English core. These automatic conversion programs translate not only the markup of XML documents but also the corresponding DTDs.

Then we repeated the experience with Catalan and we did some tests with French. Now we are in the process of building other TEI tagsets and translations for several other languages. The purpose is to have many official translations of the TEI tagset, but one core version (the original one). The automation of the language translation of the tags is vital to assure easy interchangeability of documents amongst projects using different languages. In this way, and from the structural and semantic point of view, the tagset is the same, only the names change.

We also believe that having multilingual versions of a given tagset, like TEI, can facilitate its acceptance and use in many parts of the world like Latin America where the use of XML for electronic publishing is still uncommon. This may be of special interest for digital libraries and digital publishers worldwide, but specially within the European Union where multilingual projects can benefit in a remarkable way.

Automatic generation of markup translators

We started by defining the set of possible translations of element names, attribute names, and attribute values to the different target languages. We stored this information in an XML multilingual translation mapping document. An example of this document and its DTD follows:

TRANSLATION MAPPING DOCUMENT FOR ENGLISH, SPANISH AND FRENCH (SAMPLE):

<TAGMAP>
...
  <ELEMENT en=""body"" sp=""cuerpo"" fr=""corps"">
  </ELEMENT>
...
  <ELEMENT en=""div0"" sp=""div0"" fr=""div0"">
     <ATTR en=""lang"" sp=""lengua"" fr=""langue"">
     </ATTR>
     <ATTR en=""type"" sp=""tipo"" fr=""type"">
       <VALUE en=""news"" sp=""noticias"" fr=""nouvelles""/>
       <VALUE en=""suggestions"" sp=""sugerencias"" fr=""sugestions""/>
       <VALUE en=""biblnews"" sp=""novedades"" fr=""publications""/>
     </ATTR>
  </ELEMENT
...
  <ELEMENT en=""p"" sp=""parrafo"" fr=""paragraphe"">
     <ATTR en=""align"" sp=""alinear"" fr=""aligne"">
       <VALUE en=""left"" sp=""izq"" fr=""gauche""/>
       <VALUE en=""right"" sp=""der"" fr=""droite""/>
       <VALUE en=""center"" sp=""centro"" fr=""centre""/>
       <VALUE en=""justify"" sp=""justificar"" fr=""justifie""/>
     </ATTR>
     <ATTR en=""indent"" sp=""sangria"" fr=""retraitpositif"">
       <VALUE en=""left"" sp=""izq"" fr=""gauche""/>
       <VALUE en=""right"" sp=""der"" fr=""droite""/>
       <VALUE en=""both"" sp=""ambas"" fr=""lesDeux""/>
       <VALUE en=""none"" sp=""ninguna"" fr=""aucune""/>
     </ATTR>
     <ATTR en=""specialindent"" sp=""sangriaespecial"" fr=""retraitnegatif"">
       <VALUE en=""none"" sp=""ninguna"" fr=""aucune""/>
       <VALUE en=""firstline"" sp=""primeralinea"" fr=""premiereLigne""/>
       <VALUE en=""french"" sp=""francesa"" fr=""francaise""/>
     </ATTR>
  </ELEMENT>
...
</TAGMAP> 
DTD FOR THE ABOVE FILE:

<!ELEMENT TAGMAP (ELEMENT)+ >

<!ELEMENT ELEMENT (ATTR)* >

<!ATTLIST ELEMENT
     en CDATA #REQUIRED
     sp CDATA #REQUIRED
     fr CDATA #REQUIRED>

<!ELEMENT ATTR (VALUE)* >

<!ATTLIST ATTR
     en CDATA #REQUIRED
     sp CDATA #REQUIRED
     fr CDATA #REQUIRED>

<!ELEMENT VALUE EMPTY >

<!ATTLIST VALUE
     en CDATA #REQUIRED
     sp CDATA #REQUIRED
     fr CDATA #REQUIRED>
This mapping document which contains all the necessary structural information to develop the language converters is read by the transformations generator, which was built as an XSLT script [3]. XSL can be used to process XML documents in order to produce other XML documents or a plain text document. As XSL stylesheets are XML, they can be generated as an XSL output. In this way, and for each of the languages contained in the multilingual translation mapping file, we produced both an English to local language XSL transformation and a local language to English XSL transformation. In this way we assured both ways convertibility for XML documents.

For each target language we also generate a DTD or a Schema translator. In our first attempts, this took the form of a C++ and Lex parser (see figure 1). Then we changed the approach, and now we first convert the DTD to a W3C Schema, then translate the Schema to the local language, and finally we generate an equivalent translated DTD (see figure 2). This approach has the advantage of not using complex parsers (only XSLT) and also solves the translation of Schemas, which is an interesting goal in itself (see figure 3).

We only considered a one way translation from the English DTD/Schema to a local language DTD/Schema, since we assumed that the DTD/Schema would be first built in the original language (English) and then translated to the local language. We saw no need to translate the local language DTD/Schema back to English (dashed line), but this is a transformation that could easily be generated if the need arises, allowing for maintenance and modifications to be done in the local language and then translated to English.

Many other markup translators can be built to other languages in the same way, as shown by our tests with Catalan and French.

Figure F1
Fig. 1: Automatic generation of markup translators: This figure describes the generation of XSL transformations and C++ parsers to convert English markup and DTDs to Spanish.


Figure F2
Fig. 2: DTD translation using XSLT and an intermediate Schema: This figure describes the same process of figure 1 but using only XSLT.


Figure F3
Fig. 3: Schema translation using XSLT: The solution shown in figure 2 for translating DTDs by first converting them to Schemas and then using XSLT, implicitly solves the translation of Schemas.


Usage and implementation alternatives

We think that markup in the local-language should only be used for tasks which require human intervention, like creation and maintenance of documents. For automated processing and document interchange we think it is more convenient to use markup in the language of the original standard. In this way, processing tools like stylesheets need not be translated to the local language, but the document translated to the original tagset instead.

An alternative, and perhaps the most effective implementation of multilingual markup could be a translating interface integrated into an XML editor. In this way, we would have virtual views of the document with markup in different languages that could be toggled at the touch of a button, but without actually having to translate the document file. An implementation like this is possible today, but can only be done by the software companies who build XML editors. This built-in solution would not require the DTD/Schema to be translated. An editor like this would need to load the mapping information (tag-map), as well as the DTD and the document instance (see figure 4).

A compromise solution that can be integrated into some XML editors by expert users is to build macros that automatically apply the translation to local language on opening the document, and the translation back to English on closing. This would not be as handy as a one-key language-toggling solution, but can be implemented by users. Additional macro programming would also be required for translation before validation and before applying further processing like XSLT.

If multilingual markup becomes a common practice, the mapping structure with the name equivalences for markup translation could well be included as part of a new form of Schema. In any case, this use should be specified and formally integrated into the XML family of standards.

Figure F4
Fig. 4: XML Editor for Multilingual Markup: Apart from the document instance and the DTD/Schema for validation, a mapping structure with information for the translation is also required.


Conclusions

Are the advantages of using a general and widespread markup vocabulary like TEI lost?: Not at all. The two main advantages of using a general markup vocabulary like TEI are document interchangeability and community support (which includes training and tool sharing). Since markup terms can be very easily and automatically translated to the original TEI tagset, interchangeability is not lost and tools like XSLT scripts can still be used unchanged after markup translation. Training materials, however, may need to be translated or adapted, but this is not due to the use of multilingual markup but to the need of non-English-speaking encoders to have documentation in their language.
In our experience, learning times were noticeably reduced.
Production times were also reduced, along with an increase in markup quality. Encoders showed themselves satisfied and more confident in their task.
By using markup in one's own language, the meaning of markup is not lost, and the document structure suddenly becomes more clear.
Scholars and students showed approval for being able to handle documents with markup in the same language of the text.
Cooperative multilingual projects may benefit from the possibility of easily translating the markup to each encoder's language.
Sometimes new non-standard vocabularies are developed just because it seams comparatively easier than learning a standard vocabulary in a foreign language. Having the possibility of using a standard vocabulary in one's own language plays against developing a new custom vocabulary to fulfil a local markup requirement. This may help spread the use of XML vocabularies like TEI or DocBook in non-English speaking countries.
Spreading the use of standard markup vocabularies is good for document interchangeability.
Future work

A special interest group on multilingual markup (TEI-MM-SIG) has been created within the TEI Consortium to exploit and expand the benefits of using multilingual markup. During its first meeting at the 2003 TEI annual meting, the idea, tools and possibilities of multilingual markup have been introduced, and the objectives of the group have been established. Some of them are:

Translate all TEI mnemonics into different languages. This should be done by TEI users from different language zones, with interest in using markup in their own language. This is one of the main reasons to become a member of this SIG.
Using the different sets of mnemonics, we should build an official repository of TEI terms, i.e. a multilingual TEI Term-Bank. The TEI META Workgroup will provide technical support for implementing this Term-Bank.
Betatest the new term-sets and tools. This is another reason to join this group: to be the first to use this technology and provide feedback to improve it.
Study the technical possibilities, limitations and challenges of multilingual markup. There are many aspects to be discussed and decisions yet to be made. To give an example, there may be problems to overcome if we want to build mnemonics using accented or oriental characters.
Bibliography

1. Robin Cover, Cover Pages XML and Semantic Transparency. October 23, 1998. Revised November 24, 1998. http://www.oasis-open.org/cover/xmlAndSemantics.html
2. C. M. Sperberg-McQueen, Claus Huitfeldt and Allen Renear, Meaning and Interpretation of Markup not as simple as you think, in Extreme Markup Languages, Montreal, 15 August 2000.
3. Michael Kay, XSLT Programmer's Reference, Wrox Press, 2000, 1102 Warwick Road, Acocks Green, Birmingham, B27 6BH, UK, 1st. ed., ISBN 1-861003-12-9","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094418/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop119.html",""
"394","5","Combining Markup Semantics and Semantic Markup: A secret marriage","1","Introduction

This proposed paper is concerned with approaches to describe the meaning of markup in (textual) documents, i.e. ""markup semantics"", and approaches to describe abstract, conceptual models which are sometimes applied to markup, i.e. ""semantic markup"". A motivation to combine both approaches is discussed, and the respective methodology is explained.

Markup semantics

In the field of humanities computing, textual documents with markup play a crucial role. A sophisticated document grammar like the TEI is a key component for the creation, editing, analysis and interchange of electronic documents. Document grammars describe the syntax of documents. In recent years, a new area of research called ""markup semantics"" has emerged, which is concerned with the (formal) description of the meaning of these constructs. For example, a <para> element can be used to mark-up paragraphs, but its interpretation as a paragraph is not part of the formal declaration of the element in the document grammar.

The BECHAMEL project (Renear et al., 2002) is probably the most prominent approach in this area of research. Other approaches have been developed (e.g. Simons, 1999; Welty and Ide, 1999) and are discussed in detail elsewhere (Sperberg-McQueen et al., 2000). These approaches share the aim to describe the meaning of markup ""bottom-up"": Various mechanisms are developed to enhance given document grammars and marked-up documents with additional, semantic information.

Semantic markup

In contrast to markup semantics, semantic markup(1), developed for example within the ""semantic web"" initiative (Berners-Lee et al., 2001), offers a ""top-down"" approach, from a given semantic, abstract description of ""resources"" (a ""conceptual level""), to concrete resources (for example to markup). The abstract notion of a ""resource"" plays a crucial role: the goal is to allow for a meaningful access to every imaginable kind of ""resources"" on the web. The universality of this approach might become a drawback if it is applied to a specific kind of resource like markup. For example, the ""RDF Vocabulary Description Language RDF Schema"" (Brickley and Guha, 2003), a central specification in the development of the semantic web, allows to assign properties to classes of resources in the form of triples, e.g `paragraph is-part-of section'. But no mechanism is supplied to verify whether instances of classes really exist and whether they have the properties being assigned, e.g. whether a <para> element is nested inside a <sect> element.

Current research tries to fill this gap, again moving ""top-down"". Klein et al. , 2001, describe the transformation of abstract, ""ontological"" descriptions to document grammars. Erdmannn and Studer, 1999, offer a similar approach, focusing on the aspect of querying documents at the conceptual level.

Markup semantics and semantic markup: A unified approach

This proposed paper suggests a combination of the ongoing efforts in the two areas of research described above. Markup is interpreted as a concrete instance of concepts, which are defined at the abstract, conceptual level supplied by the semantic markup approach. A <para> element might be an instance of a concept `paragraph' or of a concept `thematicUnit'. On the other hand, a concept `paragraph' might be instantiated as a <para>, <segment type=""p""> or <absatz> element.

A unified approach to markup semantics and semantic markup offers new prospects for scholars in the humanities: The integration of text encoding and abstract, conceptual resources. Currently, an enormous amount of such resources is being created, for example Metadata relying on the Dublin Core standard, ontological descriptions of linguistic categories (Lewis et al., 2001), or lexical resources like WordNet. These resources can contribute to the solution of some research questions in the field of markup semantics. An example considering multilingual documentation of document grammars and instance documents will be given in the next section.

A ""secret marriage"": Mapping between markup and the conceptual level

The methodology is visualized in fig. 1. The upper part contains three lexical concepts from the WordNet database, `paragraph', `section' and `book'. They have semantic relations like being a meronym (`paragraph is-meronym-of book'), i.e. a part of book, etc. The lower part of fig. 1. contains markup, i.e. document grammar constructs like the element declaration `<xsd:element name=""book""> ...' or instance documents.



The key part of the methodology is the mapping between the conceptual level and the markup, which is visualized in the middle of fig. 1. Currently, this mapping is realized within a format called ""Context Specification Document"" (CSD, Sasaki and Pönninghaus, 2003) (2), which allows for the sub-classification of markup according to its structural properties. The sub-classification is necessary because document grammars do not allow to specify all contextual, structural properties of markup which are necessary for the mapping to the conceptual level. For example in an instance document there might be <para> elements which are nested within a <book> element, or <para> elements which are nested within an <article> element. For the first, a mapping called `part-of-book' is declared. The structural properties of markup are described via path expressions (3) like `up* book', which are matched by the respective <para> elements in instance documents. In addition to this specification of structural properties, a CSD contains pointers to concepts or interconceptual, semantic relations. For example the mapping called `part-of-book' has a pointer to the interconceptual relation `paragraph is-meronym-of book'. That is, the meaning of the path expression `up* book' is specified as `paragraph is-meronym-of book'. Using counterparts of WordNet in other languages, e.g. EuroWordNet, a multilingual documentation of markup can be generated, e.g. for German `Absatz ist-Meronym-von Buch'.

Unlike the approaches described above, this mapping can be created ""bottom-up"" AND ""top-down"" in a declarative manner: From the conceptual level, a description of meaning can be added to the markup, i.e. as a markup semantics. This allows for the semantic validation of documents during the authoring process. In addition, markup in documents can be retrieved as instances of concepts, i.e. as a semantic markup. For the creation of the mapping and the generation of markup semantics or semantic markup, both markup and the conceptual level do not have to be changed, so this approach is called ""a secret marriage"".

A prototype of a processor for CSDs, implemented in the programming language Python, creates information about the structural properties found in documents. In addition, XSLT-Stylesheets are being created, to integrate this information into document grammars, into instance documents or into the conceptual level, represented within an XML-serialization of RDF Schema.

Footnotes

1. The terminology ""markup semantics"" versus ""semantic markup"" is taken from Renear et al., 2002.
2. An alternative representation for the mapping (Sasaki et al., in press) makes use of RDF to describe other, i.e. non-hierarchical structural properties of markup.
3. For a detailed description of the underlying path language, see Brüggemann-Klein and Wood, 2000.
References

1. Berners-Lee, T., J. Hendler and O. Lassila. The Semantic Web. Scientific American 284 (5), pp. 35-43, 2001.
2. Brickley, D. and R. V. Guha. RDF Vocabulary Description Language 1.0: RDF Schema. W3C Working Draft, 2003. http://www.w3.org/TR/rdf-schema/
3. Brüggemann-Klein, A. and D. Wood. Caterpillars: A context specification technique. Markup Languages 1(2), pp. 81-106, 2000.
4. Dublin Core Metadata Initiative. http://dublincore.org/
5. Erdmann, M. and R. Studer. Ontologies as Conceptual Models for XML documents. In: Proceedings of the KAW '99 12th Workshop on Knowledge Acquisition, Modelling and Management. Banff, Canada, 1999.
6. EuroWordNet. http://www.illc.uva.nl/EuroWordNet/
7. Klein, M., D. Fensel, F. van Harmelen and I. Horrocks. The Relation between Ontologies and XML Schemas. In: Electronic Trans. on Artificial Intelligence, Special Issue on the 1st International Workshop ""Semantic Web: Models, Architectures and Management"". 2001.
8. Lewis W., S. Farrar, D. T. Langendoen. Building a Knowledge Base of Morphosyntactic Terminology. In: Proceedings of the IRCS Workshop on Linguistic Databases, Philadelphia, USA, 2001.
9. Renear, A., C. M. Sperberg-McQueen and C. Huitfeldt. Towards a Semantics for XML Markup. In: Proceedings of DocEng' 2002, Virgina, USA, 2002.
10. Sasaki, F. and J. Pönninghaus. Testing Structural Properties in Textual Data: Beyond Document Grammars. Literary and Linguistic Computing 18 (1), pp. 89-100, 2003.
11. Sasaki, F., A. Witt and D. Metzing. Declarations of Relations, Differences and Transformations between Theory-specific Treebanks: A New Methodology. To be published in: Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Treebanks and Linguistic Theories, Växjö University, Schweden, in press.
12. Simons, G. F. Using Architectural Forms to Map TEI Data into an Object-oriented Database. Computers and the Humanities 33, 1(2), pp. 85-101, 1999.
13. Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., A. Renear and C. Huitfeldt. Meaning and Interpretation of Markup. In: Markup Languages: Theory and Practice, 2(3), pp. 215-234, 2000.
14. TEI. Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and L. Burnard (Eds.). Guidelines for Text Encoding and Interchange (TEI P3). Chicago, Oxford: ACH / ALLC / ACL Text Encoding Initiative, 1994.
15. Welty, C. and N. Ide. Using the Right Tools: Enhancing Retrieval from Marked-up Documents. Computers and the Humanities 33, 1(2), pp. 59-84, 1999.
16. WordNet. http://www.cogsci.princeton.edu/~wn/","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094304/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop71.html",""
"395","5","Joined-up thinking: electronic texts relating to medieval Ireland","3","Introduction

Ireland has a 1400-year history of writing in the vernacular and its writers have produced a vast body of native literature in the various languages used in Ireland spanning most of that period. The bulk of the literature was written in Irish, which includes Old Irish (600Â–900), Middle Irish (900Â–1200); Early Modern Irish (1200Â–1650) and Modern Irish (1650Â–present). This session draws together the work of four closely-related projects dealing with the digitisation and hyperlinking of materials relating to medieval Irish literature.

CELT (Corpus of Electronic Texts), which is based in University College Cork, is an ISO standard corpus of multilingual texts of Irish literature and history. CELT's mission is to bring the wealth of Irish literary and historical culture in the relevant languages to the Internet in scholarly editions. Over the last ten years, CELT has published a substantial number of SGML-encoded scholarly editions of Irish texts in Irish, Latin and Norman French. Currently it has over 5.5 million words of text online, many of these with deep-level markup, and it is continuing to make more sources electronically available. The text header details the text history, lists editorial conventions, and usually gives details of manuscript sources and an up-to-date bibliography.

More recently, the Centre for Irish and Celtic Studies at the University of Ulster has begun the task of producing an electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language (eDIL) based mainly on Old and Middle Irish (c.700-c.1200 AD). The Dictionary of the Irish Language is the standard resource for Old, Middle and Early Modern Irish lexicography and the only source that covers the wide-ranging language changes within Irish, but it is notoriously difficult for students and non-specialists to use. eDIL will be published in CD-ROM format and will alleviate many of these problems through powerful search mechanisms. The text is being marked up in XML following TEI guidelines, and is due to be completed in three years.

The potential for collaboration between these two projects was obvious and a third project aimed at fulfilling this potential is beginning in 2003-04. It is entitled Linking Dictionaries and Texts (LDT) and will create remote electronic links between eDIL and CELT's corpus of on-line texts. Finally, Julianne Nyhan, a Ph.D. student in University College, Cork, is preparing a lexicon of early Irish that will be published online on the CELT website. It opens up the possibility of providing a quick reference dictionary for the available electronic texts in Old and Middle Irish, and will also provide a useful intermediate link between CELT's corpus and eDIL.

Topic and Organisation

The main aim of the panel is to examine the benefits, modes and problems of linking electronic dictionaries and corpus texts. The panel will also discuss the approaches taken to digitisation and the solutions adopted to peculiar problems associated with minority, non-standard languages.

Five contributors will present four papers focussing on different aspects of the topic. By drawing together these papers into a single session we hope to present a comprehensive picture of the state of computing in early Irish language and literature, and to explore the technological and organisational hurdles that have to be overcome to seamlessly link originally separate electronic resources to the benefit of both the projects and the users.

All contributors have consented to present a paper and join the panel.

Chair: Gregory Toner (Director of the eDIL Project).

Beatrix Faerber (CELT Project Manager) will provide an introduction to CELT, the nature of the texts being digitised and the methods adopted for encoding. CELT uses SGML/XML markup for structural and analytic features in accordance with the recommendations of the TEI (www.tei-c.org). Some of the markup is customised in line with the specific needs of Irish language sources, which feature especially prominently in the corpus, such as the annals. These have deep-level markup of dates, personal names, organisation names, social roles and termini technici. The online search engine enables enhanced interrogation of texts: names, dates, places and events can be identified on a context-sensitive basis over the full range of the Corpus.

Maxim Fomin (eDIL Assistant Editor) will discuss some of the problems encountered in the digitisation of eDIL and the solutions adopted. He will pay particular attention to the problems of digitising minority, non-standard languages. Issues raised will include quality assurance of highly-inflected, non-standard language; management of deep-level markup and the potential and pitfalls of automatic tagging; and the establishment of a lexical view of the contents of the dictionary while preserving the original format.

Gregory Toner and Beatrix Faerber will outline the nature of the collaboration between eDIL and CELT, with particular focus on the nature of the links required. eDIL is a scholarly dictionary containing thousands of citations from Old and Middle Irish texts, many of which are only available in the best research libraries or in the original manuscripts. A central aim of the Linking Dictionaries and Texts Project (LDT) is to automatically link these citations in eDIL to the appropriate document in the CELT corpus of texts so that users of eDIL can view the citations in their full context. The editors of eDIL are using XML to mark up the text of the dictionary, with the result that robust links can be established between it and documents on the Web. However, although remote queries are already feasible, identifying which file to examine is more difficult to automate. Linking references permanently by HTML/XML is possible if the location of the document sought is known. This requires a referencing mechanism, providing a similar functionality to traditional referential systems. Peter Flynn (Head of the Electronic Publishing Unit of UCC) will outline how we intend to use JavaScript and XSLT to link citations in eDIL to the original texts in the CELT corpus.

Julianne Nyhan (Doctoral researcher, UCC) and Peter Flynn will report on their progress towards using XSLT to generate links between on-line texts and a digital lexicon of variants of early Irish currently being compiled. Old and Middle Irish present peculiar difficulties because the language is heavily inflected and the orthography irregular, so simple generation of links between a text and a dictionary are not possible. Nor is it practical to tag all words with the correct lemma because of the vast extent of the corpus. The solution proposed here is that the lexicon will contain a full range of inflected forms with due account being given to variant forms, and that XSLT will be used to generate links between texts and the lexicon. While linking in HTML is the fundamental principle of the Web, the ability of XSLT to preprocess text on the server means that the technicalities of linking need no longer intrude on the user's interface. Significantly, more work can be done in finding, arranging, and analysing the relevant text without the need for the user to have special knowledge of the technology. In particular, using server-side XSLT makes it possible to find, extract, and present information from multiple XML documents, as well as from multiple locations within the same document, without having to involve restrictive proprietary technologies which might create barriers to the use of the system. The TEI document types, which are used throughout, provide a stable and reliable format for storing this kind of information. It is hoped that this development will enable users of the CELT corpus to follow automatically generated links to the appropriate entry in the on-line lexicon and eventually to the full electronic Dictionary (eDIL) when it becomes available.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040804020359/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop64.html",""
"396","5","The TextServer Standard and Initial Implementations","3","The discipline of Classics needs an open and modular architecture for electronic publications to reflect and serve the substantial community of scholars now capable of contributing discipline-specific technical features and materials to such an infrastructure. Key requirements include scalability, a rigorous and well-documented separation of protocol and implementation, and complete transparency: all components must carry a GPL or CC license and must be available in a public CVS. The new TextServer standard with its system of Registries is intended to meet those criteria, and is the main subject of this panel.

We propose four speakers, ordered as follows:

Neel Smith will introduce the TextServer system, and review some initial implementations.
Hugh Cayless will examine the details of the system of unified Registries that permits an interoperable whole made up of many distributed parts.
Christopher Blackwell will discuss the Registry system as well as his efforts to leverage the availability of TextServer materials for the XML publication Demos: Classical Athenian Democracy.
Ryan Gabbard and Ross Scaife will present their work on a TextServer-aware Computer Assisted Editing application.
1

The TextServer standard (shot.holycross.edu/projects/TextServer/) defines a light-weight DTD for describing an inventory of texts. Texts are notional entities that may additionally be described in terms of specific editions or translations, or specific physical exemplars of editions or translations. When inventoried texts are available on-line in TEI-conformant XML, the standard describes a protocol for: 1) identifying a canonical citation scheme for a given text; 2) retrieving valid values for citations; and 3) retrieving XML fragments by canonical reference. Applications using only these required parts of the standard include: -- a table-of-contents and paged-text browser -- a facing-page reader (allowing, e.g., a ""Loeb library"" format with translation and edition side by side) -- a difference viewer highlighting differences between two versions of a text Additional, optional parts of the standard define a protocol for indexing both simple string values and XML structures to strings within a chunk of text defined by canonical reference. These registry services are discussed by the following speakers.

2

In order for an interoperating system of TextServer implementations to be sustainable and scalable, there must be a mechanism in place for locating and resolving TextServers, their registries, and any new services created in this framework at a later date. To meet these needs and allow new distributed services to be made available to end users without the need for additional effort on their part, Hugh Cayless has defined a protocol stack consisting of a directory layer, a registry layer, and a service layer (please see accompanying diagram). The directory layer is responsible for identifying registries and forwarding requests to the appropriate place. The registry layer consists of RegistryServers which know about services such as TextServers and are able to retrieve the requested information from them. Thus applications following this protocol stack can use a simple identifier for a named entity or chunk of text to retrieve information, or to discover related information, without that identifier having to point at a specific system.

3

As the editor of Demos: Classical Athenian Democracy (www.stoa.org/demos/), Chris Blackwell's interest in Registry Services is two-fold. First, as an editor of TEI-conformant XML texts, he needs to mark selected categories of information with unique identifiers that can be automatically resolved in the unified system of registries described by Hugh Cayless. Second, Demos applications should be able to convert citations of ancient works into TextServer requests when those texts are available from a TextServer. An automated process, driven by a Cocoon pipeline, traverses the Registry of Ancient Works and the Registry of TextServers, collating information from both into a master TextCatalog, which is stored locally. Two other Cocoon-based applications then read the TextCatalog and allow different kinds of interaction with it. One generates a web interface so that users -- probably editors of XML documents -- may search and browse the registry, looking for the unique identifiers for various works. A second Cocoon-based application aims to serve applications rather than human readers. It accepts a single parameter (a citation given in the form of unique identifiers for a TextGroup and Work) and determines if the work is available on line from any known TextServer. If it is available, the application returns a well-formed XML fragment that gives the server-root URI for any TextServers offering an edition or translation of that text online.

4

The TextServer system supports (though it does not require) implicit markup of elements such as personal names, ethnics, and place names in its TEI-XML documents. To accumulate a digital library of any size therefore involves a large job of named entity recognition and classification. The TLG edition of Herodotus alone, for example, includes about 23,300 capitalized words. Ryan Gabbard and Ross Scaife are implementing a Computer Assisted Editing (CAE) system designed to improve the efficiency and accuracy of this task by computational methods. CAE makes extensive use of machine-learning-based techniques from statistical natural language processing (both supervised techniques such as adaptive boosting and unsupervised techniques such as co-training) to reduce the human editor's task to one of verification, dramatically reducing the time needed to label a work without sacrificing scholarly judgement. This server-based system allows an authenticated editor to select an available TEI-XML text, apply a series of pre-processing routines (the aforementioned statistical methods along with comparison of candidates with gazetteers and conformance with unique identifiers discovered in TextServer Registries), disambiguate as needed, and confirm the results. The CAE system also allows the editor to add results for a given text to the appropriate RegistryServers.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094119/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop15.html",""
"397","5","Text and Figure in Theodosius of Bithynia: An XML-Based Approach","1","The multilingual and multicultural transmission of ancient Greek mathematics to modern Europe is well illustrated by the case of Theodosius of Bithynia: in the Byzantine east, his work on Spherics was copied in Greek; in the Islamic world, it was translated into and commented on in Arabic; the first Latin translations in Europe were made from Arabic sources in the twelfth century, and were the basis for the first printed edition of 1529; before the end of the sixteenth century, new Latin translations had been published based directly on Arabic and Greek sources, and the first Greek edition was printed in 1558. In this paper I will present work on a corpus of texts representing key moments in the transmission and interpretation of Theodosius's Spherics (including a new English translation that is the first directly from Greek).

Textual content of manuscripts and printed editions is represented with TEI-conformant XML. The markup uses the canonical reference system familiar from today's printed editions of Theodosius's work, and uniquely identifies named entities across versions, so that versions can be readily aligned and compared. The TEI texts are made accessible to the internet through the TextServer protocol recently developed by a team of classicists for working with corpora of TEI-conformant texts (http://shot.holycross.edu/projects/TextServer). Applications using this protocol allow users to see the automatically generated equivalent of an apparatus criticus showing differences among versions in a single language; they also allow users to compare passages by canonical reference across languages, or search for named entities across versions regardless of language. Other applications depending on a multilingual corpus of aligned texts could easily be developed as well.

The textual content is only one part of a Greek mathematical text, however: our manuscript traditions and printed editions uniformly include figures, too. Traditions of visual presentation may vary, but all our sources agree that figures with labelled elements referred to in the text are an essential part of a formal proof. Modern editors may on occasion make this point explicitly -- in Renaissance Latin translations, the figures can even be called Â“demonstrationes,Â” that is, Â“proofsÂ” -- but in all cases the claim is implicit in the organization and form of the text.

I have therefore developed an XML DTD for describing the semantic content of geometric figures in terms of their logical structure, and the properties of the geometric elements in them. I argue that this is analogous to the principle of semantic markup of texts: the particular visual form of a figure can be considered a presentational variant comparable to the page layout, selection of type face, and other presentational choices made in the copying or editing of a specific version of a text.

The DTD organizes figures in the same scheme used in the text's canonical reference system: Â“proposition 1 of book 1 of the SphericsÂ” represents the same notion in the TEI XML of the text, and in the XML for the figure. In addition, the DTD identifies specific elements with the same identifiers used in the text. Just as these identifiers make unambiguous in the text that, for example, Â“line ABÂ” and Â“line BAÂ” refer to the same element, they also make explicit that those elements correspond to a specific element in the XML description of the figure. Thus, computational manipulation or analysis of the text can be associated with the figure, and vice versa.

Combining a logical representation of the figures with a TEI XML representation of the text can open new questions about Greek mathematical texts to computational analysis, which I will illustrate with several examples, implemented as XSLT transformations within a Cocoon pipeline. One simple transformation of the figure represents it with a series of English statements (rather than graphically). This output can be paralleled with the corresponding text: the logic of textual presentation can be directly confronted with the logic of the figure. Other transformations create graphics from the logical representation of the figure. (At present, I create SVG graphics that mimic the two-dimensional conventions of Greek manuscript figures; I would like to develop other visualizations of the figures' logic, including OpenGL models in three dimensions for Theodosius's spherical elements.) Corresponding elements in the text and diagram can be highlighted similarly (e.g., with the same color) to make clear their relation. This view recalls the famous edition of Euclid by Oliver Byrne (see page images online at http://www.math.ubc.ca/people/faculty/cass/Euclid/euclid.html), but unlike Byrne's printed text, can be walked through one step at a time.

I believe that these transformations will have obvious pedagogical benefits in helping readers understand the relation of text and figure, as Byrne aimed at doing for Euclid.

At the same time, they suggest new approaches to scholarly questions about the transmission of Theodosius's works. Renaissance translations of Theodosius boast about their Â“new and improvedÂ” diagrams, when they introduce new features like three-dimensional perspective views, or multi-step views of a construction: the Latin translators literally see themselves as translators of the figures as well as the text. With a formal representation of the figure's logic, it should be possible to test automatically: 1) whether the editor's figure accurately reflects the semantics of the text 2) whether the semantics of two different versions' figures are equivalent or not, independently of whether their visual appearance is identical

A systematic, computational approach to these issues should further clarify the relation of text and figure in the textual tradition of Theodosius, and illustrate a method that could be applied to ancient mathematical and scientific texts more broadly.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094238/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop59.html",""
"398","5","Creating a Distance Research Environment (DRE) for the Mapas Project","1","We, at the Wired Humanities Project at the University of Oregon, are creating a model Distance Research Environment (DRE) for fostering international collaboration in manuscript studies. We are developing the DRE for initial use on a group of Mesoamerican pictorial manuscripts (or mapas ) and then, later, will test the model's broader applicability on a group of medieval European manuscripts. It is our intention to take online manuscript analysis well beyond what is currently available.

Mesoamerican pictorial manuscripts capture the as yet incomplete story of the ramifications of the Spanish conquest and colonization of the Americas. They also illustrate internal cultural evolution both prior to European contact and after. It is only relatively recently that scholars have directed some of their energy into the study of the native languages that were employed in the original composition of many Mesoamerican manuscripts. The decipherment of their pictorial elements has also made significant gains particularly in the last few decades. Part of what has held up the advancement of this field of scholarship is the fact that it has been costly for scholars to travel to distant archives and spend extended periods consulting them. The distance research environment will provide a net that integrates both dispersed documents and dispersed scholars, facilitating communication and exchange from multiple locations.

Through digitization we will make the initial group of targeted manuscripts more accessible on a ""Mapas Project"" web site. Through the site, we will provide full views and details, enhancing the whole and its parts with ""digital wash,"" magnification, and rotation to provide for the clearest possible online reading, using Flash or Shockwave. We will build ""hot spots"" over all graphic elements, glosses, and text sections, offering windows for the various scholars to submit transcriptions, translations, and commentaries in association with the most minute portions. To facilitate the paleography, we will have the facsimiles of the texts side by side with the transcription windows. To facilitate translation, we will have the transcription windows side by side with the translation windows. To aid with the analysis of images, facsimiles of all pictorial details and groups of related images will be offered next to windows for the submission of comments.

We will archive these submissions in a database that is searchable on line by the other collaborating scholars and that allows for further, asynchronic commentaries. Scholars, for instance, will be able to pull up an image or cluster of images and see all associated analysis and discussion. They will be able to do the same with text, viewing all contributions surrounding, for example, a particularly difficult passage of text and the various transcriptions it has spawned or the potentially conflicting translations. We will also periodically synthesize and publish to the Mapas Project web site the more notable scholarly dialogues that emerge. We believe that the collaboration of multiple scholars around the globe will produce high-quality interpretations, the exchange will benefit the understanding and knowledge of the participating scholars, and the process will inform anyone in the humanities computing community interested in replicating this research environment.

Managing multiple languages is one of the primary challenges of the DRE. The Mesoamerican manuscripts that we have selected contain texts in Spanish, Nahuatl, and Zapotec. The scholars we have chosen to work with these manuscripts are native speakers of English, Dutch, Spanish, and Nahuatl. It is our primary aim to have transcriptions for all the original texts, with translations, where necessary, into both English and Spanish. The database, however, will record comments made in additional languages, and users accessing the database will be able to request all languages or only selected ones. Users will also have the option of having search results displayed in various formats, choosing, for example, to have the original Nahuatl version next to the Spanish translation.

Another one of the challenges we face in the construction of our database will be to clear some of the roadblocks we have encountered when trying to pursue advanced philology. Searching to find the use of specific terms in their original context in Nahuatl and colonial Spanish, for instance, can be complicated by the inconsistent use of diacritics. Sometimes accent marks, glottal stops, and vowel length indicators appear, and sometimes they do not. We will experiment with having multiple versions of such texts, one with all the diacritics as they appear in the original manuscript, and one that has been simplified. We will also develop guidelines for our users, suggesting various approaches they might try when searching. Unstable orthography is another potential pitfall. For example, where one might hope to find the Nahuatl term for woman, ""cihuatl,"" in a text, one might have to try ""cihvatl,"" ""ciuatl,"" ""cihuat,"" and so on. We will experiment with hypothetical searches to try to anticipate these obstacles and help our users avoid them.

Our inclusion of a Nahua scholar on our team is symbolic of our hope to encourage the integration of indigenous people with native-language ability into the regular interpretation of manuscripts that once did -- or still do -- reside in their community archives. The diaspora of indigenous peoples' material culture, whether museum objects or archival manuscripts, is an issue that touches on the United Nations' concern for Indigenous Peoples' Intellectual and Cultural Property Rights, as does the presentation of such materials before a global audience by way of the Internet. We believe that indigenous people should not only participate in the study of the manuscripts in question, but should also enter into decisions about materials that might be deemed too sensitive to make public. We therefore have an advisory board that is both culturally and linguistically diverse.

We are also very concerned to obtain the input of professional librarians with expertise in metadata. We will build into our databases searching vocabularies that are recognized globally and will make retrieval of discrete elements of larger documents feasible. We have recruited several librarians at our home institution to work with us on this development.

The Mapas DRE will create a sustainable online, collaborative venue for scholars, involving a broad spectrum of institutions, individuals, and perspectives, free from geographical or temporal limitations, for the distribution of high-quality digital versions of historical material. Once this has been accomplished (and we anticipate it will take two years to study the six initial manuscripts), we will test the tools and standards of the DRE for its wider usability by applying it to a group of medieval European manuscripts.

For the ACH/ALLC conference, we would like to demonstrate how we envision the Distance Research Environment will function, explore some of the complexities associated with the multi-lingual dimensions of the data, and solicit comments and suggestions from the audience on all of these elements. By June 2004, we anticipate having some of DRE features already functioning. But it will also be early enough in our two-year plan that we would greatly benefit from the input of our ACH/ALLC colleagues.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094100/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop81.html",""
"399","5","Unicode in Multilingual Text Projects: A Status Report from the Script Encoding Initiative, UC Berkeley","1","The latest version of the international character encoding standard Unicode, Unicode 4.0, contains over 96,000 characters. This represents a remarkable achievement, for it expands the number of scripts (and the languages using those scripts) that can be represented more fully on the Web, in email, and generally for the electronic transfer of texts. Fortunately, Unicode is increasingly supported in software and fonts. The result of the widespread adoption of Unicode is that text materials for many modern and historical languages are now more widely accessible and capable of being transmitted, without requiring fonts with proprietary (non-standard) encodings. This talk provides an overview of outstanding issues related to character encoding and Unicode in multilingual text projects as observed by the Script Encoding Initiative project at UC Berkeley. It will conclude with a wish-list of ways in which members of the academy can help more fully.

The Script Encoding Initiative (SEI) was established at UC Berkeley in 2002 in order to relay various unmet needs of academic multilingual electronic text projects to the character encoding standards bodies and to promote and explain Unicode to scholars. SEI has four objectives.

One goal is to give a presence and voice to the academic point of view (as opposed to that of computer companies) within the character encoding standards process, particularly to speak up for the encoding of historic and minority scripts at the Unicode Technical Committee meetings. Currently no university is a full member of the Unicode Consortium; Columbia University and Tamil Virtual University are the only Associate Members, but they don't regularly attend the Unicode Technical Committee meetings.

The second goal of this project is to encourage the participation of scholars and other users so scripts missing from Unicode are proposed. The number of missing scripts is still over 90, with approximately one third being modern minority scripts, and two-thirds being historic scripts. The active participation of scholars is critical: proposals need the specialized input from experts in order to arrive at a proposal that covers their needs and is complete. The outstanding scripts are often less-well known, so the task is to locate scholars, explain the standards process, and make clear the need to encode these scripts in the international standard Unicode is a necessity.

The third goal is to promote Unicode and an understanding of what it covers -- and what it does not -- more generally amongst academic groups. With the increasing adoption of XML for the Web, Unicode is playing a more prominent role in electronic text projects because it is the default character encoding standard for XML. Text projects now have to grapple with specific problems head-on when dealing with Unicode: How can one include a character (/script) that is not yet in Unicode? How should variants of characters be handled? Given a choice of several Unicode characters, which should be used? How does the font or markup come into play vis-à-vis character encoding? Although the revision of the TEI Guidelines (P5) will address some of these issues, it has not yet been published. SEI was established to help provide guidance in these areas, at least from the Unicode perspective.

The fourth objective of the Script Encoding Initiative is to raise funds for the writing of Unicode proposals by veteran Unicode proposal authors, scholars, and graduate students, and for font designers to work on the creation of free Unicode fonts. To date, work on Unicode proposals has been largely a volunteer effort, with little financial backing. In order to assure that scripts are proposed in a timely way, funding is needed, otherwise the process will drag on for years to come. A call for donations for script proposal authoring over a number of email lists (i.e., Ancient Near East list and the Unicode email list) has resulted in a small number of donations being received. An application to NEH has been submitted by this project, and additional grant-writing is expected. More remarkable, however, is that no funding or basic support from any university for this project -- or for Unicode proposal work in general -- has been received. The cause may be -- in part -- due to the economic situation in the U.S., and California in particular. However, there appears to be a fundamental disconnect on why the university should be involved in standards work, the one place where the lesser-known scripts are regularly studied. While funding and interest in online text projects (for pedagogical and historical preservation, as well as general communication capabilities for modern language communities) has drawn attention and received funding, script encoding still takes a back seat, though it provides the standard upon which all multilingual text projects should be based. At a time when multilingual capabilities are being touted, attention to the encoding of the outstanding scripts (and missing characters) is needed.

A number of general recommendations will conclude this talk:

Scholars should work closely with others in their field to arrive at a ""best practices"" set of guidelines on character encoding, realizing that Unicode will not encode variants or precomposed characters, and that Unicode is not intended as a means to capture paleographic details. The guidelines should be posted on a publicly accessible website.
Whatever method to cover missing characters is used in a project, document the use fully. If the PUA is used, plan on how conversion to Unicode will be implemented if/when characters are accepted into Unicode.
Work with the Unicode Technical Committee (through SEI, if desired) on characters or scripts that are needed but missing from Unicode (cf. http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~dwanders/alpha-script-list.html).
Promote the participation of fellow scholars in the Unicode proposal review process. A list of currently proposed scripts that need comments is posted at: http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~dwanders/ScriptsNeedInput.html
Advocate greater participation and funding from universities (and governments) for Unicode script encoding.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094318/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop79.html",""
"400","5","Dealing with difficult characters: XML encoding and the Private Use Area of Unicode","1","This paper will discuss the encoding of Medieval characters in XML documents, based on the recent publication of a character recommendation by the Medieval Unicode Font Initiative (MUFI), http://www.hit.uib.no/mufi. Although an impressive number of characters have been included in the Unicode standard, many characters or variant letter forms are still missing, and it is an open question whether these will be accepted by the standard. Furthermore, precomposed characters -- i.e. characters with various diacritics -- will no longer be accepted by Unicode. These characters can be encoded and displayed with smart font technology, but support for this technology is not wide-spread and there are cross-platform problems.

Unicode has set aside a Private Use Area (PUA) for the encoding of characters by individual projects or user groups. The PUA will not be used for any official characters, but it is as well supported as any other part of the standard. Font applications like FontLab allow users to define fonts with characters in the PUA, and these fonts will by and large be displayed correctly in applications with Unicode support. Documents containing characters in the PUA can be interchanged across applications and platforms, but they will only display the correct PUA characters if the same font is installed or there is a local standard for the PUA in a specific user group. In spite of the obvious compatibility problems, the PUA of Unicode can prove to be a good solution in the short or even medium-term perspective.

There are in fact three separate PUAs in the Unicode standard. The first of these is the one in the Basic Multilingual Plane covering 6,400 code points, ranging from E000 to F8FF. Recently two supplementary planes, nos. 15 and 16, have been set aside, each containing 65,534 code points. The supplementary planes are not well supported yet, so the PUA of the Basic Multilingual Plane has received most attention. Commercial companies have been using some code points in this area, especially towards the end, but otherwise it is being used by various interest groups, many within the academic community. One example is the Titus project, which has allocated several thousand characters for linguistic usage to this area. Other font projects are following, such as the Junicode font for Old and Medieval English, and Alphabetum, a multi-purpose font with many characters for the classical languages.

Version 1.0 of the MUFI recommendation has focused on Medieval Nordic characters, but it is expected that the coming versions will cover additional national or regional characters. It should be noted, though, that many characters and letter forms were used across large areas of Europe, so it is often misleading to locate characters to specific areas. For Medieval Nordic primary sources, the recommendation lists approx. 800 characters, of which only approx. 400 are in the Unicode standard. The remaining characters have been divided into 20-odd subranges in the PUA, in three main categories: base characters, precomposed characters and variant letter forms. At the moment, several fonts are being developed or extended to include the PUA of the MUFI recommendation, and they will in due course be made available on the MUFI site. Fortunately, TrueType fonts are now supported by all major platforms (Linux, Mac, Windows) so the whole set of MUFI characters can be encoded in a single font.

Although a Unicode font can be used as easily as any ordinary 8-bit font in a word processor, many academic projects would like to encode texts in a more interchangeable format than the one offered by word processors. Of the SGML derivatives, Extensible Markup Language (XML) has proven to be a robust and versatile encoding language, in spite of the well-known limitations of this standard, notably the encoding of concurring or discontinuous structures.

Basically, an XML document is divided into a header with general information about the text and the nature of the encoding, and the body, with the text proper. The header refers to a Document Type Definition (DTD) with further specifications of the encoding. An XML document is by default encoded according to the Unicode standard; this is specified in the first line of an XML document, which typically reads <?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>. However, the use of characters from the full Unicode standard may cause problems when files are interchanged or processed by older software without Unicode support. For this reason, it may be advisable to encode all characters outside Basic Latin (a--z / A--Z) with entities.

The DTD will be needed for the definition of the entities, and by linking each entity to a corresponding code point in the Unicode standard -- including the PUA -- this can be done in a simple and efficient manner. With an appropriate font, texts encoded in this manner will be shown correctly.

This paper will discuss how this can be effected for the encoding of Medieval Nordic primary sources, so that the usage of the PUA is sufficiently well documented. Of particular interest here is the question of decomposition. Many Latin characters with diacritics, such as 'á', 'è' and 'ô' have been encoded in precomposed form in Unicode (retaining old ISO standards), but new combinations must be encoded as a sequence of one or more characters; that applies for example to a commonly used character in Old Norse poetry, the 'o' with ogonek and acute accent. A robust solution for the display of decomposed characters is thus strongly needed, and this solution should by analogy also be tried and tested for the already encoded precomposed characters. As a consequence, simplified keyboard layouts can be designed for medium-size character inventories such as the one needed for Medieval Nordic characters.

The PUA is at best a medium-term solution. The long-term solution is obviously to propose characters for the Unicode standard, with the aim of reducing the need for PUA encoding. The paper will conclude by discussing procedures for decommissioning characters in the PUA that have been accepted by the official Unicode standard.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094300/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop68.html",""
"401","5","An on-line Laboratory for Linguistic Research - Complete works of Dante lemmatized","23","The Humanities Computing research group co-ordinated by Professor Mirko Tavoni at Pisa University has decided to post on the web the results and the research tools it used in its research projects.

For that reason, a web site has been created (http://dante.di.unipi.it/ricerca/). The web site collects the results and the research tools of many different research projects. The main project was the production of the lemmatized and grammatically marked up corpus of Dante Alighieri's complete Vernacular and Latin works, which will be further discussed in details. Other important projects are:

Correspondence encoding: starting from the pilot scheme of the Giacomo Puccini's correspondence corpus (realized in co-operation with the Centro Studi Giacomo Puccini), the project has been enlarged in order to include the correspondences of Vittorio Alfieri and Ugo Foscolo.
Digital editions of librettos: at present just the first act of Giacomo Puccini's Tosca is available. This project also has been realized in co-operation with the Centro Studi Giacomo Puccini.
Texts from Pisa and Ferrara-: two distinguished text collections about history, culture, art history and literature of Pisa and Ferrara.
Pinocchio Game: the experience of a group of PhD students of Pisa University that reconsider and fit the principles of James McGann's Ivanhoe Game.
All texts are available both for reading (many as hypertext) and for linguistic querying and are XML-TEI encoded. The user interface for managing and querying the texts is optimized for the same encoding language. The queries are performed by the XCDE Search Engine, a tool developed at Pisa University by Professor Paolo Ferragina.

Most of the texts available on the web site are the results of a semi-automatic transformation from the DBT encoding language. In particular, both the lemmatized Dante's works and the Ferrara and Pisa collections were created as a part of the CiBit project (Centro Interuniversitario Biblioteca Italiana Telematica, Interuniversitary Center for the Italian Telematic Library), and were later fully converted in XML-TEI encoding system. Both the texts and the tools (search engine and interface) that build up the web site are open source and are freely available for scientific and non-commercial purposes.

The site is offered also as a public resource and a laboratory for the linguistic research. Scholars interested on linguistic research can send their XML-TEI encoded texts to be processed by the research group's search engine. Scholars are also free to restrict access to their text to specific groups of users if they so wish.

From the web site it is possible to access a tools collection for the NLP (Natural Language Processing) of the Italian Language. These tools have been developed by ILC-CNR (Istituto di Linguistica Computazionale, Pisa) in collaboration with the Dept. of Linguistics (Computational Linguistics Section) of the Pisa University. The tools allow users to perform various levels of text processing, such as tokenization, lemmatization and morphological analysis, shallow parsing (chunking), dependency parsing, etc.

The session will focus on the lemmatized Dante's works.

The first paper will present the project from a linguistic point of view and will explain the scientific criteria of the linguistic analysis. The second paper will give an overview of the lemmatized texts encoding history; the encoding model will be also illustrated. The third paper will describe the functioning and the usage of the search engine and of the user interface.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094216/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop39.html",""
"402","5","The Determination and Use of Controls","1","""In scientific research, control means several things. For the present, let it mean that the scientist tries to systematically rule out variables that are possible 'causes' of the effects under study other than the variables hypothesized to be the 'causes.'"" Kerlinger and Lee, p. 5
Introduction
Non-traditional authorship attribution studies are those studies that make use of the computer, statistics, and stylistics. The hypothesis behind these studies is that each author has a unique and verifiable style.

However, most non-traditional attribution studies place too much emphasis on the elements of statistics, stylistics, and the computer and not enough focus is given to the overall design of the study as a scientific experiment. One element of this design is the selection and use of controls (aka ""comparison groups"").

Most practitioners do give ""lip service"" to the concept and use of controls -- never explicating their selection, use, or value -- never using all of the necessary controls.

The importance of the correct application of controls in authorship studies was made apparent in the recent Donald Foster recantation of his non-traditional attribution of ""A Funerall Elegie"" to Shakespeare. Foster, after traditional scholarship ""proved"" him wrong, now agrees that his much ballyhood attribution study used an ""inadaquate"" base of control texts. [Niederkorn]

Each type of scientific experiment demands its own set of controls -- this is one aspect of the scientific method. Controls are an integral part of any experimental design that adequately tests a given hypothesis. Controls are used to check the validity of the experimental design and to ensure the validity of the results.

Attribution Types

""Differences in usage of literary elements found in a text are not necessarily an indication of differences in authorship, unless inter-authorship parameters have been compared to intra-authorship parameters to establish critical levels of variation."" Larry La Mar Adams, p. 86.
There are four main types of authorship attribution [Rudman 2000]:

Anonymous work -- no idea of potential author
Anonymous work -- two, three, or some other workable number of potential authors
Anonymous work -- a collaboration
Anonymous work -- did author 'A' write the questioned work
This paper concentrates on type (4). The determination of controls for the other types will be in ""Appendix A"" and will be available at the conference as a handout.
Control Types

""Linguistic Stylistics is the Scientific analysis of individual style-markers as observed and described in the idiolect of a single writer, as well as class style-markers as identified in the language or dialect of groups of writers."" McMenamin, p. 115.
This paper defines the word control as it pertains to authorship studies and discusses four types of controls:

The ""author"" touchstone sample 
If there is any, even the slightest doubt that a work is by the ""author,"" that work must be excluded from this control.
A subset of the ""author"" sample 
This sample is selected and put aside before any analysis begins.
""Non-author"" writings 
This requires the practitioner to identify every author and work that fits the selection criteria. The number of authors and texts is discussed below.
Named ""non-author"" suspects 
This would include every 'good faith' suspect author of the anonymous text.
Control Selection

The paper goes on to discuss how to select each type of control:

Genre 
Somers and Tweedie claim that they can mix genres and overcome the problem ""by a combination of a statistical technique...and choosing measures based on low level linguistic features....""[Somers and Tweedie, p. 412] Other practitioners, such as John Burrows and David Hoover, find it important to separate genres before analysis [Burrows 1992a, p. 175-182] -- even sub-genres (e.g. first person narratives from third person narratives. [Hoover] Burrows also has a telling graph that, ""..shows a complex pattern in which genre transcends authorship."" [Burrows 1992b, p.101, 102]
Gender 
This is a current ""hot topic. [Woods] The recent work by Argamon, Koppel, Fine, and Shimoni (in fact one of their papers is ""in press"" and another is ""to appear"") forces the practitioner to use gender as a criterion in control text selection. [Argamon et al.] [Koppel et al.]
Time period 
This paper will look at some of the chronology and style studies to show the importance of this item to the selection of controls. The (+/-) time factor is discussed -- from Holmes' (+3/-2 years) to the (+/- centuries) of the Historia Augusta. [Holmes] [Rudman 1998]
Randomness 
Block Sampling, Spread Sampling, Stratified Block Sampling, and Haphazard Sampling are discussed. [Neumann] Johnstone's, ""On the Necessity for Random Sampling,"" is explicated. [Johnstone]
Representative 
There are various ways to select a sample of texts. However, a practitioner cannot simply declare a sample to be ""representative"" -- e.g. ""...forty-three plays of known authorship, which form the comparison samples, HELD TO BE REPRESENTATIVE [emphasis mine] of the usages of six early Modern dramatists."" [Hope, p.15]
Size (number of authors in the ""non-author"" writings) 
The ideal would be to include all of the authors and texts that conform to the other selection criteria. And, as Foster found out, at some point the sample is too small to be valid.
Size (number of tokens in each control) 
""...large samples aren't necessarily good samples...the representativeness of a sample is actually more important than sample size."" [Best]
Statistical reasoning 
A short review of the reasoning behind controls is given.
Same native language 
The importance of restricting controls to texts written by members of the same native group is discussed.
Anonymous texts, collaborative texts, pastiche, ghostwriting 
Why none of these are acceptable in a valid control is discussed.
Other criteria such as education, geographical regions within a native language sphere, political convictions, and religious convictions are possible determiners -- but studies to evaluate their importance are yet to be finalized.
Not one of the ten listed items are without controversy. Most of them are in dispute. These disputes are analyzed in this paper and a reasoned determination made.
The availabiliy of electronic texts (on the internet in particular) can be a boon or a bane in the selection and acquisition of controls. However, too many practitioners let what is on the internet and what is easily available from other sources determine the selection and number of authors in their controls. One example of this is Michael Farringdon's work on Henry Fielding. [Farringdon]

Use of Controls
""And although controls are purportedly used, the methods are never tested entirely apart from the problem for which they were designed."" Zimmer, p. 33
This section discusses the way that the various controls should be used and are used and mis-used in a representative sample of experiments.
Examples
Examples of problem studies are explicated;
Historia Augusta 
""...the twelve attribution studies of the Historia Augusta.... All provide classic examples of invalid controls."" Rudman 2003, p. 29.
Shakespeare 
""But it must be viewed as a major setback when one highly visible study can be cited by skeptics as proof that the whole quantitative enterprise is fruitless, or a playground for fringe theories having no historical or computational validity."" Foster 1996, p. 255
Defoe 
""Most investigators of similar stylo-statistical problems do not divulge how their samples were built up, or how sample size was estimated. It is, certainly, very sensible to leave out such compromising matter, for any attempt to lay down principles in these cases is liable to attract criticism."" Hargevik, Part I, p. 28.
Conclusion

""Nothing can do more to lend an air of credibility to a claim than the suggestion that it has been proven in scientific studies or backed by scieintific evidence. Sadly, however, many claims made in the name of science are founded on misapplications of some aspect of scientific method."" Carey, p. 6.
The use of controls cannot be left to whimsy. Controls of convenience must be avoided if the practitioner expects the nihil obstat of the gatekeepers -- if the practitioner expects the results to be accepted by the community of scholars.

Valid controls are not a guarantee of a valid study. However, invalid controls guarantee a suspect study that at best must be taken with a grain of salt.

References
Adams, Larry La Mar. ""Literary Statistics."" (Under 'Correspondence') ALLC BULLETIN, 2.2 (1974): 85-87.
Argamon, Shlomo, et al. ""Gender, Genre, and Writing Style in Formal Written Texts."" TEXT [To appear] Pre-print courtesy of the authors.
Best, Joel. DAMNED LIES AND STATISTICS. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.
Burrows, John F. ""Computers and the Study of Literature."" In Butler, C. S. (Ed.) COMPUTERS AND WRITTEN TEXTS. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992, pp. 107-204.
Burrows, John F. ""Not Unless You Ask Nicely: The Interpretative Nexus Between Analysis and Information."" LITERARY AND LINGUISTIC COMPUTING, 7.2 (1992):91-109.
Carey, Stephen S. A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO SCIENTIFIC METHOD. (2nd Edition) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1998.
Farringdon, Michael G. ""A Stylometric Analysis."" (Appendix C) In NEW ESSAYS BY HENRY FIELDING: HIS CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE CRAFTSMAN (1734-1739) AND OTHER EARLY JOURNALISM WITH A STYLOMETRIC ANALYSIS BY MICHAEL G. FARRINGDON. Martin C. Battestin. Charlottesville: The University Press of Virginia, 1989. 549-591.
Foster, Donald W. ""Response to Elliot [sic] and Valenza,'And Then There Were None.'"" COMPUTERS AND THE HUMANITIES, 30 (1996): 247-255.
Hargevik, Steig. THE DISPUTED ASSIGNMENT OF ""MEMOIRS OF AN ENGLISH OFFICER"" TO DANIEL DEFOE (Part I and Part II) Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1974.
Bibliography Holmes, David. ""Authorship Attribution and the Book of Mormon: A Case Study in Stylometric Techniques."" Ph.D. Dissertation. University of London, 1990.
Bibliography Hoover, David L. ""Statistical Stylistics and Authorship Attribution: An Empirical Investigation."" LITERARY AND LINGUISTIC COMPUTING, 16 (2001): 421-444.
Bibliography Hope, Jonathan. THE AUTHORSHIP OF SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS: A SOCIO-LINGUISTIC STUDY. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Bibliography Johnstone, D. J. ""On the Necessity for Random Sampling."" BRITISH JOURNAL FOR THE PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 40 (1989): 443-457.
Bibliography Kerlinger, Fred N., and Howard B. Lee. FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH. (Fourth Edition) London: Wadsworth, Thomson Learning, 2000.
Bibliography Koppel, Moshe, et al. ""Automatically Categorizing Written Texts by Author Gender."" LITERARY AND LINGUISTIC COMPUTING (17.4) In press.
Bibliography Love, Harold. ATTRIBUTING AUTHORSHIP: AN INTRODUCTION. Cambridge: The Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Bibliography McMenamin, Gerald R. FORENSIC STYLISTICS. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2002.
Bibliography Neumann, Kenneth J. THE AUTHENTICITY OF THE PAULINE EPISTLES IN THE LIGHT OF STYLOSTATISTICAL ANALYSIS. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press, 1990.
Bibliography Niederkorn, William S. THE NEW YORK TIMES, 20 June 2002, B1, B5.
Bibliography Rudman, Joseph. ""Cherry Picking in Nontraditional Authorship Attribution Studies."" CHANCE 16.2 (2003): 26-32.
Bibliography Rudman, Joseph. ""Non-Traditional Authorship Attribution Studies: Ignis Fatuus or Rosetta Stone?"" BSANZ BULLETIN 24.3 (2000): 163-176.
Bibliography Rudman, Joseph. ""Non-Traditional Authorship Attribution Studies in the HISTORIA AUGUSTA: Some Caveats."" LITERARY AND LINGUISTIC COMPUTING 13.3 (1998): 151-157.
Bibliography Somers, Harold, and Fiona Tweedie. ""Authorship Attribution and Pastiche."" COMPUTERS AND THE HUMANITIES 37.4 (2003): 407-429.
Bibliography Woods, Michael. ""Men, Women Not Only Speak But Also Write Uniquely."" PITTSBURGH POST-GAZETTE, Sunday, September 7, 2003.
Bibliography Zimmer, George Willis. ""The Attribution of Authorship: A Computerized Method Evaluated and Compared with Other Methods Past and Future."" Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1969.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094213/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop40.html",""
"403","5","On Composership Attribution","1","Stylometry, the automated examination of texts in search of characteristic patterns that reveal clues to the author (genre, et cetera) of the text, is a well-studied problem with a rich history. In general terms, the standard approaches used involve calculating statistics of linguistically salient events [such as function word distributions (Burrows, 1989), common lexical cooccurences (Hoover, 2002), or character subsequences (Juola, 2002)] in texts of known authorship. These statistics form the basis for similarity-based inferences about texts of unknown authorship; similar methods can be used to ""attribute"" other aspects of text such as genre, time of writing, sex/age/background of author, and so forth.

However, not all human-created ""documents"" are, strictly speaking, texts. There is a wide variety of what can be called ""paralinguistic"" data which shares several properties with standard linguistic/textual data. One example (among many) of this sort of data would be music. Both on the printed page and on the CD, music can be clearly seen to be a sequence of (relatively) independent events with a given probability distribution. Furthermore, these events are not uniformly random, but structured in such a way that certain patterns repeat. Even the terms used by musicians, such as ""phrases,"" can be evocative of linguistic phenomena.

In this paper, it is argued that the statistical variation present in music can be examined with an eye to performing the same sort of stylometric analysis and to determining the ""author"" (= composer and/or performer), ""genre,"" and so forth. As with conventional stylometry, the analytic process involves three basic steps :

canonization of the source ""document"" to insure that similar ""events"" are treated identically
determination of the event set of interest and calculation of the statistical distributions
inferential statistics to determine the composer/performer
Some examples of how each of these steps can be performed in a a computationally tractable fashion will be presented.
The results of preliminary experiments are extremely encouraging. Samples were collected of a number of polyphonic recordings from various records of two musical groups. An extremely naive analysis, using histograms of bytes, was nevertheless capable of distinguishing the groups with high accuracy. Even with this level of naivete, the results are ""statistically significant."" (p < 0.05, using a binomial test) Refinements of various sorts can be deployed to increase the accuracy and reliability of these results.

On a more theoretical level, these results show not only that ""composership"" attribution is a practical and solvable problem for non-linguistic musical data, but also that stylometric analysis is practical for other types of paralinguistic data than pure text. From a practical standpoint, this sort of analysis may eventually make it possible to develop musical analysis, search, and retrieval tools similar to existing search engines and text processing tools. Finally, this research raises the question about what other sorts of properties might be useful and accessible for performing other forms of ""document"" classification.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094313/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop77.html",""
"404","5","Humanities Computing on the Great Plains: Multilingualism, Multiculturalism, and the Politics of Funding","1","This paper describes the work in humanities computing now being undertaken at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, especially as it relates to multilingual, multicultural heritage.  In 1999 the University established an electronic text center in the University Libraries.  This year, the University recognized the importance of the UNL Electronic Text Center’s work by providing priority state funding for digital research in the humanities.  The Center’s digital archives are growing and have attracted a significant amount of federal funding.  Both the funding for the Center and the work of the Center itself can shed light on the political and technical issues involved in representing a multicultural heritage.
 
The work of the Center may appeal to some administrators, citizens, and funding agencies in part because it features foundational figures in American culture (such as Willa Cather, Lewis and Clark, and Walt Whitman).  It would be a mistake, however, to see the work of our Center as presenting only an ethnocentric view of American Culture.  When possible, the Center seeks to convey multicultural perspectives in its projects.  The Lewis and Clark project, for example, has an advisory board that includes an enrolled member of the confederated tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation--Cayuse, Umatilla, and Nez Perce, and an enrolled member of the Salish and Kootenai Tribes.  We plan to report at ACH/ALLC on the social, political, and technical challenges of obtaining native perspectives on the Lewis and Clark expedition.   These perspectives and multimedia are compelling advantages of the digital version of the Lewis and Clark journals. 
 
Similarly, the Omaha Indian Artifacts and Images Project involves creating an online exhibit and database of artifacts and images from around the U.S. and Europe.  Advisors from the Omaha Tribe of Nebraska assist the project in identifying sacred artifacts that can be described but may not be shown.   Around 1,000 artifacts (some owned by the Tribe and never before made available to the public) are being described and a smaller number will be exhibited.  This site serves the needs of anthropologists, the Tribe, and students.  Commentary on the Tribe and the objects is being developed by the University of Nebraska State Museum for use within the classroom.
 
We also plan to begin a new project, in collaboration with faculty members in the History Department, to digitize Native American records.  The initial focus is Plains Indian tribes, beginning with four tribes that have been indigenous to what is now Nebraska since at least the eighteenth century.   The tribes that will be featured in the pilot site are the Omaha, the Oto-Missouria, the Pawnee, and the Ponca.  The project may expand to encompass more tribes, and will seek partnerships with similar projects across the nation that may subsequently arise.   Though initially the emphasis will be on presenting tribal records created by the U.S. government, we recognize the problem of perspective:  these records are likely to depict and distort at once.  As agents ourselves in the reproduction of culture, we need to ask ourselves: how can we strive to compensate for distortions rather than re-inscribing them in a new medium?  Our plan is to involve Native Americans themselves in compiling alternative records that will round out the picture.
 
The UNL Electronic Text Center is also engaged in international, multilingual projects ranging from 19th-century French studies to Yoruba proverbs.  The Yoruba proverbs project uses Unicode and image files to present Yoruba characters in different browsers.  Design and technical issues relating to the project will be discussed.    
 
Finally, we will address the different perspectives of scholars, librarians, archivists, and publishing staff engaged in the projects.  The different cultures among these groups contribute to the strength of the Center’s programs.   While each community brings different skills to the table, roles become more flexible over time.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094436/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop131.html",""
"405","5","Reading the Readers: Modelling Complex Humanities Processes to Build Cognitive Systems","1","The Roman stylus tablets from Vindolanda are an unparalleled resource for scholars of the ancient world, giving the sole immediate account of the Roman occupation of Britain (Bowman and Thomas 2003). Unfortunately, the physical condition of the stylus tablets renders them illegible to the human eye. Novel imaging techniques were developed at the Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, to analyse these texts (Bowman, Brady et al 1997, Brady et al 2003), but whilst a scrutiny of the document surface using image processing techniques provided new information, it was necessary to develop a computer system to aid the historians in the reading and interpretation of these images themselves, to speed up the reading process. This paper describes the steps taken to understand the nature of the processes used by the papyrologists, in order to build such a computer system.

Before designing and building any tools to aid papyrologists in the reading of texts, it is a necessary requirement firstly to ask: just what does a papyrologist do when trying to read and understand an ancient text? Although the readings generated from ancient documents provide one of the major primary information sources for classicists, linguists, archaeologists, historians, palaeographers, and scholars from associated disciplines, surprisingly little research has been carried out regarding how an expert constructs meaning from deteriorated and damaged texts (Terras 2002).

This paper discusses an interdisciplinary approach to modelling a complex humanities process, where techniques from artificial intelligence, cognitive psychology, knowledge elicitiation, computational linguistics, and computational content analysis, are combined to result in a proposed model of how experts read ancient documents. This representation was subsequently used as a basis for the development of a computer system which can aid historians in the reading of the Vindolanda texts.

The problem with trying to discover the process that papyrologists go through whilst reading an ancient text is that experts are notoriously bad at describing what they are expert at (McGraw and Harbison-Briggs 1989). The primary questions to be asked in this study were: is there a general process that experts use when reading ancient texts? Can this procedure be elucidated? Additionally, what are the differences and similarities between individual experts’ approaches to the problem? In trying to answer these questions, computational techniques were employed to interrogate and manipulate any data collected, and assist in developing a model of how experts operate in the given domain.

Figure 1 Stylus tablet 836, one of the most complete stylus tablets unearthed at Vindolanda. This text is a letter from Albanus to Bellus, containing a receipt and further demand for payment of transport costs. The incisions on the surface can be seen to be complex, whilst the woodgrain, surface discoloration, warping, and cracking of the physical object demonstrate the difficulty papyrologists have in reading such texts.



A process of Knowledge Elicitation (a technique borrowed from artificial intelligence, where the behaviour of experts is analysed to understand the knowledge and procedures they use whilst carrying out expert tasks (Diaper, 1989)) was used to gain an understanding of the general techniques the experts utilise when approaching an ancient text, and specifically, the Vindolanda tablets. Knowledge Elicitation consists of very defined stages. Firstly, the domain literature was researched. Secondly, any other associated literature was collated. Although not a direct comment on the act of reading and transcribing, the two published volumes regarding the Vindolanda ink tablets contain detailed apparatus of the individual texts (Bowman and Thomas 1983; Bowman and Thomas 1994), and electronic versions of these were subjected to Content Analysis techniques, and linguistic analysis (using WordSmith and TACT ), to detect any underlying structures and decision matrices. T

Three experts were then identified who were working on the Vindolanda texts, and who were willing to take part in this investigation. Think Aloud Protocols, where each expert is set specific tasks, and asked to describe their thought processes, were carried out, and transcripts from these sessions provided data which enabled an explicit and quantitative representation of the way the papyrologists read damaged and abraded texts to be generated. General procedural information was also collated and analysed, and Automated Knowledge Elicitation techniques were used to help resolve this information into a structure that was used as the basis of a model which would provide the structure of a computer program to aid the historians. Particular issues regarding problems in reading the Vindolanda stylus texts were highlighted, indicating areas in which computational tools may be able to aid the papyrologists in reading such texts.

The model that was generated from this process is hierarchical, and recursive, with separate ""agents"" represented which each carry out specific tasks. It is proposed that an expert reads an ancient document by identifying visual features, and then incrementally building up knowledge about the document’s characters, words, grammar, phrases, and meaning, continually proposing hypotheses, and checking those against other information, until s/he finds that this process is exhausted. At this point a representation of the text is prepared in the standard publication format. At each agent level, external resources may be consulted, or be unconsciously compared to the characteristics of the document. Although a simple representation, the model shows the overall scope of the process of reading an ancient text.

Figure 2: Proposed model of the procedure used to read an ancient text, broken down into individual agents.



The computer version of this model was constructed by identifying, adopting and adapting an existing system for the analysis of satellite images; the GRAVA system, which is implemented in YOLAMBDA, a dialect of LISP (Robertson 1999, 2001). This provided an architecture which could easily represent the hierarchical nature of the papyrologist model, and was a successful basis to construct a working computer system which intakes images of ancient documents and generates plausible interpretations of the text of the documents.

This paper will discuss the knowledge elicitation procedures and techniques adopted in this research, demonstrate results and conclusions of these procedures, and explain how a model can be resolved from this data. Constructing an explicit model of such a process is the first stage in building a computer system which replicates the process, and it will be shown how the resulting computer program depends on the underlying model which was generated through this research. Finally, it will be shown how the analysis of complex humanities procedural tasks in this manner can result in computer systems which aim to aid experts to carry out those tasks more efficiently.

References

1. Bowman, A. K., J. M. Brady, et al. (1997). ""Imaging Incised Documents."" Literary and Linguistic Computing 12(3): 169 - 176.
2. Bowman, A. K., and J. D. Thomas (1983). Vindolanda: The Latin Writing Tablets. London, Society for Promotion of Roman Studies.
3. Bowman, A. K., and J. D. Thomas (1994). The Vindolanda Writing-Tablets (Tabulae Vindolandses II). London, British Museum Press.
4. Bowman, A. K. and J. D. Thomas (2003). The Vindolanda Writing-Tablets (Tabulae Vindolandses III). London, British Museum Press.
5. Brady, M., X. Pan, M. Terras, V. Schenk. (Forthcoming, (2003)). Shadow Stereo, Image Filtering and Constraint Propagation. Images and Artefacts of the Ancient World, London, British Academy.
6. Diaper, D. (1989). Knowledge Elicitation: Principles, Techniques and Applications. Chichester, Ellis Horwood.
7. McGraw, K. L. and K. Harbisson-Briggs (1989). Knowledge Acquisition: Principles and Guidelines. London, Prentice-Hall International Editions.
8. Robertson, P. (1999). A Corpus Based Approach to the Interpretation of Aerial Images. IEE IPA99, Manchester.
9. Robertson, P. (2001). A Self Adaptive Architecture for Image Understanding. D.Phil Thesis, Engineering Science, University of Oxford.
10. Terras, M. (2002). Image to Interpretation: Towards an Intelligent System to Aid Historians in the Reading of the Vindolanda Texts. D.Phil Thesis, Engineering Science, University of Oxford.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094154/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop9.html",""
"406","5","Writing with Media Â Reconfigurable Digital Archives in the Humanities","1","The use of digital archives and material collections promises to significantly enhance the way we teach subjects in the humanities. Especially in culture and literary studies, access to a wide array of original source documents can provide students with an unprecedented source for their studies, allowing them to analyze documents within a larger cultural, historical, social, and political context. Whereas most digital archives in the humanities focus primarily on the access to materials, MetaMedia encourages students to work with these materials creatively. MIT's MetaMedia combines an open standards-based digital repository framework with highly flexible annotation, collaboration, sharing, reconfiguration, and upload features. To date, MetaMedia contains mini-archives ranging from Arab Oral Epic, Modern American Dance, and Early American Comics to cross-cultural foreign language projects and the Declarations of Independence. The presentation will discuss MetaMedia's pedagogical concepts, implementation of open standards, its software architecture, and use in the classroom.

MetaMedia, developed in the School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, provides students and faculty with a flexible online environment to create, annotate and share media-rich documents for the teaching and learning of core humanistic subjects. Through collections of media documents pertinent to a specific topic or field, MetaMedia adds the dimension of active archive use and thus considerably extends the notion of multimedia archives. Based on open standards, the MetaMedia framework ensures interoperability with a wide range of current media resources such as text, image, audio, video documents, as well as future media formats. MetaMedia offers a flexible software framework with which users can annotate, share, reconfigure, and contribute media-rich documents. These documents can be organized in the form of highly flexible collections, providing the basis for new modes of classroom discussion, on-line collaboration, multimedia presentation and essay writing, as well as other educational and scholarly activities appropriate to the humanities. These collections combine photographs, text documents, recorded sounds, and moving images to provide a meaningful repository for teaching topics central to the Humanities curriculum. Materials collected and annotated by scholars retain their own, pristine identity, while teachers are able to draw on these resources in classroom instruction and distance education settings; students are able to draw on the same resources as they research, create, and collaborate on multi-media essays or presentations. The result is improved skill at communicating effectively in today's increasingly global world of education and business. Specific learning outcomes include enhanced ability to:

Think across traditional boundaries between disciplines
See connections across multiple disciplines
Build and share knowledge through collaboration
Look at problems from unfamiliar perspectives
Express their ideas more vividly
Collaborate more effectively
Understand not just what we know, but how we know it
These outcomes, in turn, more generally improve students' abilities to:
Think critically
Communicate effectively
Develop a deeper understanding of complex problems
Build learner and instructor communities
Architecture:

MetaMedia relies on a markup-oriented strategy based on standard formats used throughout the Humanities Computing community. Storing content and associated metadata in Dublin Core, Text Encoding Initiative, SCORM, and MPEG formats presents a number of advantages over older designs based on static web pages or ad-hoc data files.

Storing markup in standard formats will allow MetaMedia to separate media content cleanly and simply from its presentation in a given user interface.
Separating content and presentation extends each project's potential lifetime, as markup can be output in XML and migrated to new platforms as old ones become obsolete.
Supporting open markup standards allows related groups in Humanities Computing to exchange media and annotations, thus fostering collaboration within and across academic institutions.
Storing content in rich markup formats from the start allows projects to grow into more sophisticated functionality without starting from scratch. For these and other reasons, digital archiving projects have adopted SGML- and XML-based markup as the de-facto standard.
However, MetaMedia expands on traditional practice in two regions: collaboration and media annotation. The MetaMedia framework implements a permissions and authentication management system that allows users to add and share content, thus fostering constructivist models of learning and research rather than those based on simple knowledge diffusion. Also, it can make multi-tier annotations to media files using established markup formats and transition to more fine-grained annotations as multimedia markup formats mature.

Tools currently under development include the annotation of parts of large-scale images, multi-level annotation of video and audio files, and a comprehensive multimedia essay tool.

More information can be found at: http://metamedia.mit.edu","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094440/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop132.html",""
"407","5","Critical Gaming in the Arts and Humanities","23","Audiences in London during the summer of 2002 could participate in Chris Hardman's Euphorium, an interactive virtual-reality theatrical production based on Coleridge's visionary poem, ""Kubla Khan."" Constructed as a gamelike maze with ten interlinked ""environmental chambers,"" this installation allowed one person to enter every three minutes, wearing a special helmet that projected images in the space before their eyes, images representing portions of the poetic text. [slide] These images moved, combined, and reshaped themselves, accompanied by sound effects, in a kaleidoscopic multimedia experience meant to embody something of the poem's hallucinatory language in a 3D physical and virtual environment: STC on Ecstasy, as it were.

Michael Heim and others have theorized such immersive spaces, including, for example, the surround-sound projective environment of the CAVE, created at the Electronic Visualization Laboratory of the University of Illinois, Chicago, which was created as a tool for extremely high-end scientific visualizations, but which provided a model that could bring a whole new meaning to the phrase ""getting into the text,"" as the Cave at Brown University has recently demonstrated. Indeed, Robert Coover and a group of creative writers at Brown have already experimenting in this direction. An article in the New York Times for August 19, 2002 describes these experiments as ""another step in electronic writing's evolution from a set of digitally interconnected words and sentences to an enveloping experience that augments the text with sound, video and nearly tangible 3-D imagery."" As the article explains, ""Viewers can watch as words materialize and swirl through the air around them, or they can step into a rotating cube to see an E. E. Cummings quotation that has been digitally inscribed on two of the walls."" In one 3D short story, words on the wall peel away as they are clicked on by a mouse, floating through the air and returning into the text in random places, changing the meaning of a sentence, or making nonsense of it. Such experiments suggest that we may one day see literary VR theaters, for example, in which Shelley or Joyce scholars make and share discoveries about the text while standing inside of Prometheus Unbound or Ulysses.

Such experiments also invoke the kind of cinematic, imaginative immersion produced by the best videogames. The fact is that Virtual Reality chambers, installation art, and immersive games grew up together in the 80s and 90s, and all three have always arguably ""remediated"" and ""intermediated"" one another. That history is complex and has only begun to be explored by critics such as Jay Bolter and Richard Grusin, Espen Aarseth, and Lev Manovich. For the most part, however, humanities scholars remain ignorant of the widely practiced medium of digital gaming. Many of us tend to collapse all of them into a vaguely aggregated genre, the ""video game,"" rather than differentiating them, as we should, by technology platforms and narrative or other formal schemes.

This is not the place for a taxonomy of digital games, but the session I am proposing would take seriously Jerome McGann and Johanna Drucker's recent claim that ""Humanities scholarship without gameplay, even when the scholarship explicitly devotes itself to self-reflection, inevitably fails to engage with essential features of the works it means to study, including the workings of the mind engaged with such works."" The three papers in this session will explore the new possibilities available to humanities scholars for structuring virtual game spaces that engage users and programmers in the kinds of critical self-reflection and performativity called for by McGann and Drucker, ranging from a paper by Geoffrey Rockwell on the Ivanhoe Game (designed by McGann and Drucker) and Rebecca (designed by Rockwell and Steve Ramsey), to papers by Ron Broglio and Steven E. Jones on experimental immersive games situated in the Villa Diodati MOO of Romantics Circle (http://www.rc.umd.edu:7000/>) that focus on the poetry of William Blake and Percy Bysshe Shelley, respectively.

The proposed session is a follow up to a very successful one given by the same presenters at the Conference of the North American Society for the Study of Romanticism last August. It is also intentionally designed to serve as a complement to the one that Geoffrey Rockwell is proposing on ""The Study of Games and their Culture."" We are hoping that the two sessions, if accepted, could be run back to back.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094252/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop66.html",""
"408","5","Hudson Bay and Hollivoot: The influence of English and other foreign languages on Finnish restaurant names","1","Introduction

The main consequence of contacts between languages is borrowing, ie. ""the incorporation of foreign features into a group's native language by speakers of that language"" (Thomason and Kaufman 1988: 37). Borrowing begins, and is at its strongest, in the lexicon; with prolonged intensive contacts, morphosyntactic and phonological features will also begin to be borrowed. Language contacts are typically found in border regions and multilingual, multicultural communities. However, the present dominance of English as a world language, combined with the spreading of Anglo-Saxon popular culture into the daily lives of many peoples across the world, has brought English in particular into contact with most European languages. This paper examines some of the consequences of such contacts. Among the manifestations of the ever-present, powerful influence of English on other languages are the names of businesses, especially, it seems, of those catering for younger generations or dealing in freetime activities. Both of these criteria are met by restaurant businesses. In the study at hand, we investigated the extent and geographical distribution of the influence of English and other foreign languages on restaurant names in Finland.

Material and methods

Our data was collected in a truly Labovian fashion: from the white and yellow pages of all of Finland's 1999 telephone catalogues, we gathered the names of all restaurants (including bars, cafés, grills and pubs), comprising a total of 4041 businesses. A database was created comprising information on source language (English, Finnish, Swedish, Russian, French, Italian, Spanish, or other), type of loan (unadapted loanword, adapted loanword, loan shift, loan translation, or hybrid; the classification is essentially that of Lehiste 1988), type of word (place name, person name, noun [including simple, modified and compound nouns], or phrase), type of establishment (restaurant, bar, pub, café, or grill), region (represented by area codes), name of community, and type of community (ie. whether it was a largish city or part of an outlying area). In the determining of the community there was a slight problem: while the white pages indicated the community of each establishment, the yellow pages typically indicated the region (=area code) only. To assign the latter establishments, too, to a particular community, the following procedure was used: the percentage of each community of all the restaurants in the region was computed from the white page listings, after which the unspecified yellow page listings were allocated to that region's communities in the same proportions (a standard statistical procedure). For example, if a region had 10 English-named restaurants in one community and 5 in another, plus 6 that were not specified for community, we assigned four of the six to the first community and two to the other. While this procedure led to fractional figures for some communities, we preferred that to losing the information provided by the yellow-page listings.

In the processing of our data, we used a variety of methods for dealing with categorical data, such as chi-squared tests for differences in multinomial populations and tests for 3 and 4-dimensional contingency tables. In addition, to look at the data more closely, we digitised a map of Finland marking the boundaries of some 450 cities and municipalities. This map was then used to portray the acquired information in a variety of ways.

Results

The results show that approximately half (52%) of the restaurants in Finland have Finnish names and approximately one quarter (21%) have English names. Names derived from other languages thus make up the last quarter (27%). There is also a significant difference in the distribution of English names across the area codes. If the country is divided into four areas, ie north, south, east and west, using area codes, the proportions of English names are fairly evenly distributed across the country. However, if we look at the data by community, a digitised map produces some very interesting results. There are five main areas where the proportion of restaurants with English names exceeds 30%. Two of these show quite clearly the importance of tourism in the respective area, ie. Lapland and the lake district. In two areas the large porportion of English names might be due to the fact that in a bilingual country these areas are almost monolingual and lie close to areas which are almost monolingual with respect to the other national language (i.e. Finnish or Swedish, as the case may be). Perhaps therefore it is better for your restaurant to have a foreign name than one in the other native language. The last area where English names have a proportion greater than 30% is an area dominated by a religious community that does not approve of alcohol. If you are setting up a restaurant in this area it seems to be better to give it an English name than a Finnish one, which is more likely to mark it as an establishment selling liquor. The map also reveals the interesting fact that there are two main areas that have no restaurants with English names, ir the easternmost communities and central Finland. The reasons for this are not quite so clear. The eastern communities are sparsely populated and have been influenced by Russian culture. Central Finland seems to have a disproportionate amount of restaurants with names derived from other foreign languages than English and may also be an area which has taken in a number of refugees, who speak diverse languages.

The difference in the distribution of loan types is also significant. Most (70%) English restaurant names are unadapted loans, e.g. Buggy Burger. These may or may not have an adapted pronounciation in the speech of the locals, which it is impossible to determine, however. The distribution of word type is also significant and is dependent on the type of restaurant. Establishments with place names are likely to be restaurants, whereas pubs are somewhat more likely to be named after people than other establishments are, e.g. O'Malley's.

It seems then that the influence of English is greater than that of any other single language on Finnish restaurants and is at its greatest in the names of pubs and bars, which tend to be frequented by the younger gerations. The English establishment names are mainly nouns in an unadapted form. If your establishment is called Hudson Bay, Hollivoot or Nelson, you are associating it with the place or the person. If, however, you have called it The Watering Hole or Jet Set Bar, the influence is linguistic rather than cultural. It is another matter whether the restaurants that have foreign names actually are referred to by these names, or whether they have a finnicised name that is used by their patrons, e.g. Restaurant Sea Horse, which is called Sikala (the Pig Sty) by its patrons, and Old Dog Pub, which is called Koira (the Dog) by its patrons. A questionnaire is being developed to help answer this question.

References

1. Lehiste, Ilse. 1988. Lectures on Language Contact. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
2. Thomason, Sarah & Terrence Kaufman. 1988. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094343/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop98.html",""
"409","5","The Nomen Nescio Project - Scandinavian Named Entity Recognition","1","Authors (note more than 6 - max number in the interface): Janne Bondi Johannessen, University of Oslo, jannebj@mail.hf.uio.no Eckhard Bick, University of Southern Denmark, lineb@hum.au.dk Kristin Hagen, University of Oslo, kristin.hagen@ilf.uio.no Dorte Haltrup, Centre for Language Technology, Denmark, dorte@cst.dk Åsne Haaland, University of Oslo, a.t.haaland@ilf.uio.no Andra Björk Jónsdottir, University of Oslo, a.b.jonsdottir@ilf.uio.no Dimitrios Kokkinakis, University of Gothenburg, dimitrios.kokkinakis@svenska.gu.se Paul Meurer, University of Bergen, paul.meurer@hit.uib.no Anders Nøklestad, University of Oslo, anders.noklestad@ilf.uio.no

1. Background

This paper will present results from The Nomen Nescio project (NN) - a joint project for Named Entity Recognition (NER) for three Scandinavian languages: Norwegian, Swedish and Danish. The project includes research groups at The Universities of Oslo and Bergen (Norway), Gothenburg University (Sweden), Centre for Language Technology, and University of Southern Denmark (Denmark). It has been running for three years starting in 2001, and is funded by the Nordic Council of Ministers (The Language Technology Program, administred by NorFA). Before the Nomen Nescio started, only a couple of small NER projects had appeared in Scandinavia, and only for Swedish (Kokkinakis 2001, Dalianis & Åström 2001). The NN initialized joined activities in this important supporting technology field and a variety of people (students, engineers, researchers and professors) have been actively involved from the initial stages of the project.

2. Methods

The aim of the Nomen Nescio project has been to develop NE recognisers for all the three Mainland Scandinavian languages Â– Norwegian, Swedish and Danish. Many methods for NER have been used for various languages over the years, and with the diverse background of the participants at the different NN sites, many of these methods have been used (rule-based methods, shallow parsing, statistical methods). While the variety of methods have some well-known advantages and disadvantages, what has proved to be really challenging has been the lack of resources for the different languages. For example, in order to train statistical taggers, an annotated training corpus has to be available in advance, in addition, it turned out that lexicons containing semantic information would be necessary, and again, these were hard to come by.

However, none of the sites have used one method only. They have all developed hybrid ones, using at gazetteers in addition to the main method, and often also other kinds of pattern matching and various means of pre- and post-processing Â– inspired by work by Mikheev et al (1999). The diverse methods that have been used have made it very difficult to calculate and compare the degree of success for the different methods, languages and sites. However, even in the cases where the same methods have been employed, the results are difficult to compare, given that the basic resources, such as lexicons, differ. Even so, evaluation results will be given at the presentation.

3. Name Categories

The well known Named Entity sets used in the limited target applications in the Â“Message Understanding ConferenceÂ” exercises (MUC) recognized not more than seven types of named entities (Grishman and Sundheim, 1996), while in the Â“Information Retrieval and Extraction ExerciseÂ” project (IREX) (Sekine and Isahara, 2000) and in the Concerto project (Black et al., 2000), another kind of named entity, Â‘artifactÂ’, was added. While in the Â“Automatic Context ExtractionÂ” program (ACE, [EDT, 2000]), two new entities, Â‘geo-political entityÂ’ and Â‘facilityÂ’, were added to pursue the generalization of the technology.

The main idea behind the NN projectÂ’s choice of categories was the assumption that our NER tools could be used for Internet search on the world wide web, and that it would be useful to separate names that are often ambiguous, such as song, book or film titles from actual geographical or person names (Â“Paris, TexasÂ” Â– place or film? Â“AngieÂ” Â– person or song? Â“Harry PotterÂ” Â– person or book?). Moreover, in general language, as found in newspaper texts, many more kinds of Â“namesÂ” or Â“named entitiesÂ” are likely to be encountered, and thus in the NN we have further elaborated on a finer taxonomy for names, with six main (person, organization, location, artifact/object, work/art and event) and a large number of subtypes.

4. Challenges for the Scandinavian languages

Some of the Scandinavian languages have certain spelling conventions and certain linguistic features which present serious challenges to the task of actually recognising something as a name in the first instance, and to that of separating one name from an other. One challenging spelling convention amounts to names of organisations. All public institutions in Norway and Sweden have at most one initial capital letter, no matter how many words the name consists of (Den norske kirke Â‘The Norwegian Church, Svenska kyrkan Â‘The Swedish ChurchÂ’). This causes a problem in recognising such names at the beginning of sentences, but also to find which words belong to a name at all. The methods we have used to solve this problem are gazetteers, regular expressions and the document centred approach (Mikheev 2000). Moreover, the Scandinavian languages are Verb Second languages, which means that if some constituent other than the subject fills the first position in a sentence, then the subject is demoted to the position after the verb, next to the object or indirect object (Idag sendte Anne Larsen et brev Â‘Today Anne sent Larsen a letterÂ’). This leads to ambiguity with respect to finding the border between these two constituents. In order to solve this, the Norwegian NE CG recogniser has relied on syntactically tagged input.

5. Evaluation and Summary

At the moment, we are on the process of evaluating the different systems, see the relevant sections on the NN project in Holmboe (2002, 2003). In the presentation, we plan to give the full results from all the sites and demonstrate the performance of the systems. We will also present some aspects of the work regarding the identification, classification and annotation of named-entities in the three languages and a detailed account for the named entity classification scheme. The project is described at this site: http://g3.spraakdata.gu.se/nn/, at which an online demo for the different languages can also be found.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Nordic Council of Ministers to have funded the project through their Language Technology Program. We also are grateful to Torgny Rasmark for having developed a large part of NN web-pages, and to Botolv Helleland for expert help on philological name research.

References

1. ACE [EDT]. 2000. Entity detection and tracking Â– phase 1. http://www.itl.nist.gov/iaui/894.01/tests/ace/phase1/doc/
2. Black W.J., McNaught J., Zarri G.P., Persidis A., Brasher A., Gilardoni L., Bertino E., Semeraro G. and Leo P. 2000. A Semi-automatic System for Conceptual Annotation, its Application to Resource Construction and Evaluation. In Proceedings of the Second Language Resources and Evaluation Conference (LREC). Athens, Greece.
3. Dalianis, H. and E. Åström. 2001. SweNam-A Swedish Named Entity recognizer. Its construction, training and evaluation, Technical report, TRITA-NA-P0113, IPLab-189, NADA, KTH.
4. Grishman, R. and B. Sundheim. 1996. Message understanding conference 6: A bried history. In Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Computational Linguistics. Copenhagen.
5. Holmboe, H. 2002. Nordisk Sprogteknologi 2001- Nordic Language Technology. Museum Tusculanums Forlag, University of Copenhagen.
6. Holmboe, H. 2003. Nordisk Sprogteknologi 2002- Nordic Language Technology. Museum Tusculanums Forlag, University of Copenhagen.
7. Kokkinakis D. 2001. Design, Implementation and Evaluation of Named-Entity Recognizer for Swedish . Research Report from the Department of Swedish, GU-ISS-01-2, Språkdata, University of Gothenburg.
8. Mikheev, A., M. Moens og C. Grover. 1999. Named Entity Recognition without gazetteers. I Proceedings of EACL 99, Ninth Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, s. 1-8.
9. Mikheev, A 2000. Document Centered Approach to Text Normalization In SIGIR'2000. Athens. pp. 136-143.
10. Sekine, S. and H. Isahara. 2000. IREX: IR and IE evaluation project in Japanese. In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, Athens, p. 1475-1480.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094201/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop53.html",""
"410","5","The Total Of The Phonostatistical Distances As An Indicator Of The Compactness Of The Language Taxons: Subgroup, Group, Family, Unity, Phylum, Union And Community","1","Total of Phonostatistical Distances as Indicator of the Density of Language Taxons: Subgroup, Group, Family, Unity, Phylum, Union and Community.

Language taxons (i.e. subgroups, groups, families, unities, phylum, unions and communities) were investigated from the point of view of their dispersion in the way it was first proposed in 1976 and then developed in the further articles and books of the author (Tambovtsev, 1976, 1986, 2003). We consider how compact this or that language taxon (i.e. subgroup, group, family, unity, etc.) on the basis of distribution of certain consonantal groups in the speech sound chain. Therefore, one can speak about a compact or disperse language family. If language taxon is compact, then its internal connections are shorter than its outer connections. Actually, the same notion of compact object is accepted in pattern recognition. The more compact the family is, the more correctly its languages are chosen. If we put in the family a language, which does not belong to the family, then the dispersion of the family rises, thus it becomes less compact. If the language has a similar sound chain, then the dispersion of the group remains the same or becomes less. It means that the family became more compact. In this case we speak about the typological properties of the families. We measure the dispersion of a family by the sum of dispersions of 8 phonostatistical features: frequency of occurrence of labial, front, palatal, velar, sonorant, occlusive, fricative and voiced consonants. It is important that the features do not intersect.

The values of the coefficient of variance (V) and T coefficient show the degree of dispersion. The principle is the greater the dispersion, the less compact the family.

We have chosen the coefficient of variance and T coefficient since they both keep to the law of commensurability. Comparing different languages of different language families and different morphological structures was possible since all of them have the same 8 phonetic features mentioned above. We have considered the dispersion of the following language taxons: Indo-European (V= 809.13%, T= 9.01; MV= 26.97%, MT= 0.30), Turkic (V= 150.16%, T= 1.66; MV= 18.77%, MT= 0.21), Mongolian (V= 86.24%%, T= 0.66; MV= 10.78%, MT= 0.08), Tungus-Manchurian (V= 148.79%, MT= 1.73; MV= 18.60%, MT= 0.22), Samoyedic (V= 128.04%, T= 1.10; MV= 18.29%; MT= 0.16), Finno-Ugric (V= 193.13%, T= 3.77; MV= 24.14%, MT= 0.47), Paleo-Asiatic (V= 271.14%, MT= 3.71; MV= 33.89%, MT= 0.46), Austronesian (V= 369.65%, T= 7.22; MV= 46.21%, MT= 0.90), Australian (V= 150.59%, MT= 3.83; MV= 21.51%, MT= 0.55), American Indian (V= 346.95%, T= 8.59; MV= 43.37%, MT= 1.07) language families and the Balkan language union (V= 237.89%, T= 2.90; MV= 2974%, MT= 0.36). Analysing the language families, one can come to the conclusion that the most compact is Mongolian (V=86.24%; T=0.66; MV= 10.78%, MT= 0.08), the least compact is Austronesian (V=46.21%; T=0.90). Tungus-Manchurian (V=17.41%; T=0.20) is more compact than Samoyedic (18.29%; T=0.16), Turkic (18.77%; T=0.21), Indo-European (V=28.00%; T=0.61) or Paleo-Asiatic (V=33.89%; T= 0.46). Language groups are more compact in general than language families. Iranian group (MV=13.21%; MT=0.09) of Indo-European language family is the most compact, the least compact is Romanian (MV=27.81%; MT=0.36). Slavonic group (MV=15.21%; MT=0.17) is more compact than Indo-Arien (MV=20.40%; MT=0.23) or Germanic (MV=24.51%; MT= 0.29). Volga group of the Finno-Ugric language family (MV=17.90%; MT=0.13) is more compact than Ugric (MV=27.66%; MT=0.47) or Finnic (MV=29.24%; MT=0.35) group. Altaic super-family is rather compact (MV=25.97%; MT=0.45). However, it is not much more compact than Indo-European (MV=26.97%; T=0.30) or Paleo-Asiatic family (V=33.89%; T=0.46). This fact may support those linguists who consider Altaic as a family, not a super language taxon than a family. Uralic super family taxon is less compact than Altaic (MV=28.31%; MT=0.47), though it is more compact than the Balkan (MV=29.74%; MT=0.36) language union (Sprachbund). Ural-Altaic language taxon (MV=30.98%; MT=0.88) is more (much more) compact than American Indian (MV= 43.37%, MT= 1.07) language taxon. Measuring the typological density of language taxons (subgroups, groups, families, unities, etc.) may help to understand how natural (or correct) these taxons are defined.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094052/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop63.html",""
"411","5","Resource Discovery for Low Density Languages: Internet Search","1","""Low Density"" languages are those for which relatively few computational resources are available. Not being majority languages, they have received less attention in resource collection. But increasingly, substantial resources can be found on the Internet for many intermediate-sized and even small-sized languages.

At the Linguistic Data Consortium (LDC), we are creating basic language 'resource kits' for a number of low density languages. Each such resource kit is to include monolingual texts (in a standard encoding), bilingual texts (in English and the target language), a lexicon (which may be a simple bilingual word list), and where relevant, a morphological parser.

Building a resource kit for a particular language involves locating appropriate resources on the web, downloading them, converting from HTML-tagged text to some other form deemed more useful for the end purpose (which often implies stripping out html tags, and tokenization), converting the text to a standard encoding where necessary, merging multiple resources, and assigning meta-data.

In this paper, I describe the first step in this process. Specifically, I focus on collection techniques which have proven useful--and some which have not worked as well as we had hoped. We are using these techniques on languages ranging from Hindi (360 million+ speakers) to Chechen (one million speakers). I have also experimented with the use of search techniques on much smaller languages (Tzeltal, a Mayan language with 200 thousand speakers; and Shuar, a language of Ecuador with 30 thousand speakers), with surprisingly fruitful results.

For text resources and some kinds of lexicons, one of the most useful search techniques is to enter a few common words in the desired language into a search engine, such as Google. Under good circumstances, this can result in excellent recall and precision. Unfortunately, circumstances are not always good; problems include:

Multiple encodings (Hindi);
Dialectal variation (Quechua);
Non-standard spellings or orthographies (Chechen);
Short words (which tend to result in false hits in other languages);
Web pages which are purely graphical, with no searchable text (some Burmese sites); and
The existence of languages which are closely enough related that they greatly lower the precision of the search, particularly where the related language has a larger web presence than the target language (Bahasa Indonesian hits are returned in much greater numbers than hits for the related language Aceh).
Another circumstance which might be thought to make this kind of search work poorly, strongly inflected languages, turns out not to be as bad as one might think, in part because nearly all such languages have some words which do not inflect. However, if the uninflected words are uniformly short (as often happens with pre-/post-positions), inflection can still be problematical. Alternatively, one can 'or' together a few inflected forms of a single word into a search engine.

There are several ways of obtaining common words for search purposes. The simplest is to bring up an already found web page in the language, copy a few words, and paste them into a search engine. If one does not know the language in question (this is common in our work at the LDC), it may not be obvious which words are the most common, but a crude heuristic is to copy the shortest words.

Another way to find seed terms is to key in a few words from a printed dictionary (assuming that the encoding is simple, or that one has the language-specific keyboard installed on the computer). The best method is to use a simple computer program to tokenize one (or better, several) web pages, and sort them by frequency of appearance.

As mentioned, searching for terms in the target language does not work well if web pages in the language do not use a standard encoding. Roman writing systems are reasonably standardized, although issues still arise when the orthography includes non-ASCII characters--even such trivial things as accented characters. Likewise, although there are several competing encodings for Cyrillic orthographies, they tend to be fairly well documented, so that one can transliterate search terms from one encoding to another.

But very real problems with encodings surface with many languages which have non-Roman (and non-Cyrillic) orthographies, including languages of India, Ethiopia and Eritrea, and southeast Asia. While Unicode is intended to solve the problem, the fact is that there are multiple competing encodings for many of these languages, and they are often completely undocumented. The result is that there is at present no simple solution for searching across multiple web sites in languages with the multiple encoding problem.

For some low density languages, few if any ""ordinary"" web pages exist. This may be because the country where the language is spoken discourages its use (non-official languages of Indonesia), or because there is very little Internet use in the country (many countries of Africa), or because the language lacks a standardized writing system (regional varieties of Arabic). Nevertheless, other sorts of language resources can sometimes be found for such languages; these may include weblogs (Aceh, a language of Indonesia), chat rooms (Arabic 'dialects'), web pages maintained by expatriate speakers (Rwandan), and text collections by other researchers (Mayan languages).

Among the techniques which seem obvious, but which turn out not to work well, is searching for websites according the country suffix (e.g. '.tr' for Turkey). This results in both poor recall (since many of the websites we have found for low density languages are not hosted in the country where that language is primarily spoken) and poor precision (because most countries have websites in multiple languages, usually including English or some other regionally dominant language).

Another technique which we have tried is to search for the name of the language. While this may result in many hits, precision often turns out badly, resulting in an overwhelming task of sifting through the results. Combining the language name with other search terms (e.g. 'dictionary' or 'lexicon') results in fewer hits, but is still likely to return many uninteresting links. Additionally, languages often have multiple names; the Ethnologue (http://www.ethnologue.com) lists seven names for Cebuano (a Philippine language), and our initial search missed an on-line lexicon in this language because the web page title used one of the alternative names for the language.

The Open Languages Archive Community (OLAC, http://www.language-archives.org/) is intended to be a repository of the sort of resources we are looking for. Other language resource aggregators include Seven Tones (http://linguistlist.org/~zheng/7tones/), the Yamada Language Center (http://babel.uoregon.edu), Rosetta (http://www.rosettaproject.org), and the collections at many Internet search engines (such as Google and Yahoo). However, significant resources--particular text resources--are missed by all these sites. We view our search technologies as supplements to these portals, and intend that our results will be made available for inclusion in OLAC's database.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094404/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop112.html",""
"412","5","Iconic and symbolic representation in virtual worlds","1","The development of information technology over the last couple of decades has carried with it a shift from largely textual representation to increasingly detailed graphical and multimodal representations. The narratives of graphics and gaming industries often reflect a wish to recreate reality or realistic alternative realities. This wish is also very obvious in many high-end humanities projects in for instance history and archeology. In this paper a range of virtual environments will be analyzed along a continuum ranging from iconic to symbolic representation. It will be argued that in many cases a lower level of realism is functionally and esthetically advantageous. Evidence will be drawn from visual art research, medical use of information technology, reception studies, cartoons, the simulation industry, and from research on video conferencing. A theoretical discussion of realism, iconicity and symbolism will provide a foundation for analyzing two case studies. The first case study is a contrastive analysis of two computer games; one old-type text adventure game and one modern ""realistic"" game. The second case study is concerned with an educational project where third-term students of English construct a graphical virtual world instead of writing a traditional textual degree paper. Finally, a more general discussion of the role of non-textual representation in the humanities will be undertaken.

The theoretical discussion will draw on research in several relevant fields: a) cognitive science and cognitive linguistics (Deacon 1997 and Lakoff and Johnson 1999), b) reception studies and literacy research (Langer 1995, Kress 2003), c) philosophy and cultural studies (Baudrillard 1994, Eco 1996, Peirce 1958), and d) new media studies (Laurel 1991, McCloud 1994, Montford 2003, Schmitz 2001). From this multidisciplinary platform and from practical experience (e.g. MacEachren et. al 1999) a model for describing virtual environments in terms of iconic-symbolic will be suggested. An important basis is Peirce's discussion of iconic, symbolic and indexical signs. The model will partly be presented in the form of a continuum ranging from iconic to symbolic representation. The continuum will be populated with a number of virtual environments (text adventure games, MUDs, graphical virtual worlds, modern computer games, video conferencing etc.). These will be briefly discussed and related to concepts such as interpretation, presence and level of detail.

The model will be further tested in two case studies. In case study number 1, we will look at two computer games from different eras: Spellbreaker (a text adventure game from 1980s) and The Black Mirror (a graphic adventure game from 2003). These will be analyzed in terms of symbolism-iconicity, interpretative freedom, human-computer interaction and presence. In the second case study, we will consider an educational project where students populate a graphical environment and create their own representations of themes to do with linguistics, literature and cultural studies. Examples of themes used include the city, monstrosity and recreating reality. The environment used (ActiveWorlds) allow for a graphical representation which is not photo-realistic but very useful for creative work where recreating reality is not the ultimate goal. This ties in with Brenda Laurel's idea about the importance of ambiguity. She says that ""ambiguity and sensory incompleteness are key elements in the kind of deep participation we desire with a work of art.""

In conclusion, a recent prototype project on the use of computer-supported visualization in the humanities will be briefly described. Here the literature and some relevant projects have been reviewed. In a study of more than 100 recent humanities Ph.D. theses, the use of visualization has been investigated and classified. It will be argued that it is important that the humanities bring in more non-textual representation into their work and that the symbolic-iconic continuum might be a good starting point for such a development, or at least for an engaging discussion.

Bibliography

1. Baudrillard, Jean. 1994. Simulacra and Simulation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
2. Deacon, Terrence. 1997. The Symbolic Species: The co-evolution of language and the human brain. London : Allen Lane
3. Eco, Umberto. 1986. Travels in Hyperreality : Essays. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
4. Kress, Gunther. 2003. Literacy in the New Media Age. Routledge.
5. Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson. 1999. Philosophy in the Flesh : The embodied mind and its challenge to Western thought. New York: Basic Books.
6. Langer, Judith. 1995. Envisioning literature : Literary understanding and literature instruction. New York : Teachers College Press.
7. Laurel, Brenda. 1991. ""Art and activism in VR"". Verbum Magazine. <http://www.tauzero.com/Brenda_Laurel/Severed_Heads/Art_and_Activism_in_VR.html>
8. McCloud, Scott. 1994. Understanding Comics. Perennial.
9. MacEachren, Alan M., Kraak, Menno-Jan and Edward Verbree. ""Cartographic issues in the design and application of geospatial virtual environments"". http://www.geovista.psu.edu/publications/ica/ica99/.
10. Peirce, Charles Sanders. 1958. The Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce. Vols. VII-VIII. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094502/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop151.html",""
"413","5","Multiculturalità e rete: voci migranti in Italia","1","PREMESSE

Un quadro normativo comunitario sull'editoria elettronica fu la principale richiesta della proposta di risoluzione che il Parlamento Europeo discusse nel febbraio 2001. Il primissimo punto della relazione, firmata dall'eurodeputata britannica Barbara O'Toole, sottolineava «l'importanza di incoraggiare la creazione letteraria e linguistica, di mantenere e migliorare la diversità culturale e linguistica in Europa, di salvaguardare l'accesso universale alla parola scritta e di consolidare la conoscenza e la cittadinanza». Perché in Europa l'editoria elettronica venisse a rappresentare una garanzia nella difesa del multilinguismo e della multiculturalità, il documento esortava la Commissione «a sostenere un gran numero di piccole imprese di pubblicazione elettronica al fine di mantenere la diversità culturale e linguistica in modo da creare un polo alternativo ai grandi gruppi mediatici» (O'Toole 2001: 83).

Il fenomeno dell'immigrazione in Italia è, di fatto, recente ed assume connotazioni di rilievo a partire dai primi anni Novanta del secolo scorso. Al 31 dicembre 1991 gli immigrati regolarmente soggiornanti in Italia erano 648.935 (fonte: Caritas 2003). Dieci anni dopo, alla fine del 2001, la stima era più che duplicata e contava 1.362.630 presenze. Negli ultimi anni l'aumento della popolazione immigrata è legato in gran parte ai ricongiungimenti familiari e all'influenza quantitativa dei minori, fattori che denotano la tendenza ad un insediamento stabile.

Sono 2.395.000 gli immigrati regolari in Italia all'inizio del 2003, con un'incidenza sulla popolazione italiana pari al 4,2%, inferiore solo di un punto alla media europea. Tale incremento avviene in un contesto locale di continuato, grave declino demografico. Previsioni annunciano un calo della popolazione italiana pari al 5,3% nei prossimi vent'anni, con la fetta degli under 20 destinata a ridursi del 32,3%. I ragazzi immigrati al di sotto dei 20 anni d'età verranno allora a costituire il 7,7% circa della popolazione totale, con la conseguenza di una forte presenza interculturale all'interno del sistema educativo italiano (Chaloff 1999: 2).

OBIETTIVO

Lo scopo di questo intervento è stabilire in quale misura e con quali modalità le raccomandazioni della Commissione Europea sono riscontrabili nel panorama mediale italiano contemporaneo e quale ruolo svolge l'editoria digitale in tema di multiculturalità, difesa della diversità e promozione della letteratura della migrazione.

ARGOMENTAZIONI

1. La consapevolezza della portata sempre più strutturale dell'immigrazione all'interno della società italiana deve comportare un maggiore investimento sui servizi tanto sociali quanto culturali. La sfida è principalmente legata all'educazione linguistica ed interculturale, divenute una priorità nella preparazione e nella pratica didattica attuali.

2. Una maturazione dei mezzi di comunicazione di massa e delle politiche editoriali sembra a questo punto dovuta, non solo per la promozione del contenuto creativo multilingue tradizionalmente europeo ma anche in favore di argomentazioni che riconoscano gli immigrati quali nuovi cittadini dell'Unione, li rendano partecipi di una rete informativa plurilingue, ne assecondino il potenziale creativo. Di fatto, l'immigrazione in Italia e la sua rappresentazione mediale sono state oggetto di numerose ricerche negli ultimi anni. Al settembre 2003, Extracommunication http://www.etnequal.it/docs/sintesi_dati_Extracommunication%20ver%205.0.pdf, monitor su informazione e immigrazione, rilevava la generale faziosità dei quotidiani nazionali censiti in relazione a struttura e contenuti delle notizie sull'immigrazione. La forma dominante era quella delle brevi di cronaca, spesso riguardanti episodi di microcriminalità urbana che si qualificano come una costante (56,7% delle notizie per sezione dei quotidiani censiti) nell'immagine mediale della presenza straniera in Italia. Esiguità, scarsezza di approfondimento e monotematicità stereotipata sembrano caratterizzare anche l'attenzione di telegiornali nazionali, rotocalchi, rubriche. Tale pratica è talmente diffusa che più del 50% del pubblico intervistato esprime insoddisfazione rispetto alla propria conoscenza della realtà dei fatti e al comportamento delle testate: un atteggiamento critico da parte del pubblico che segnala dissonanza tra l'offerta erogata dai media e le aspettative dei destinatari.

3. Pur date le su citate raccomandazioni della Commissione Europea sulle nuove frontiere dell'editoria, la ricognizione di Etnequal -- come già quella del Censis-Cospe, 2002 -- manca totalmente nell'esaminare l'offerta dell'ambiente digitale in tema di culture dell'immigrazione. I risultati della mia ricerca in rete, i contatti con responsabili e direttori di riviste culturali del settore, la riflessione critica sulla bibliografia di riferimento mi portano a sostenere che l'offerta digitale italiana in tema di integrazione culturale e multilinguismo colma decisamente le lacune quanti-qualitative di televisione, radio e stampa a riguardo e mantiene un forte potenziale -- confermato ampliamente dai dati statistici relativi alle utenze -- nell'educare all'interculturalità. Evidenzierò il triplice orientamento dell'offerta digitale in Italia:

Servizi informativi (iniziative, normative, statistiche, associazionismo) liberamente accessibili e diretti agli immigrati stessi come agli operatori del settore (Stranieri in Italia, Cestim, Città Multietnica, Congregazione padri scalabriniani) per una corretta, alternativa e multilingue rappresentazione dei fenomeni migratori, indipendente da leggi di palinsesto.
Risorse didattico-pedagogiche: autorevoli percorsi formativi per docenti in tema di educazione interculturale e didattica dell'italiano come L2 (di ricerca e sviluppo si occupano Rai Educational; 'Volontariato Internazionale per lo Sviluppo' (VIS); Fondazione Cariplo per iniziative e studi sulla multietnicità (ISMU)).
Incentivi al potenziale creativo e iniziative legate alla letteratura della migrazione
produzione letteraria di scrittori stranieri che vivono in Italia e che per scelta si esprimono nella lingua del paese ospitante senza rinunciare alle specificità narrative e culturali delle loro terre d'origine. Tre esempi significativi: (a) la banca dati BASILI (1997) sugli autori migranti realizzata da Armando Gnisci, potenziata nell'aprile 2001 BASILI e abbinata alla rivista semestrale Kúmá con la quale costituisce tuttora uno strumento informativo e critico unico nel genere; (b) Sagarana on-line (2000; 850 visite giornaliere, 80.000 visite per numero, +30% di visite ogni numero), diretta da Julio Monteiro Martins, miscela trimestrale di inediti dal Sud del mondo, di scrittori migranti e sulla letteratura della migrazione inediti in Italia; (c) El Ghibli (2003; 4.489 hits) diretta da Pap Khoumi, prima rivista elettronica multilingue la cui redazione è composta unicamente da scrittori migranti.
CONCLUSIONI

1. La rete risponde letteralmente alle raccomandazioni della risoluzione parlamentare europea del 2001, ossia dà campo alla creazione letteraria, mantiene e migliora la diversità culturale e linguistica salvaguardandone l'accesso universale. Soprattutto, riserva un'attenzione e promuove una diffusione delle voci dei non italiani in modo paritario, economico, capillare, ciò che i mezzi tradizionali ancora non sanno fare.

2. La qualità e i dati relativi all'utenza delle riviste telematiche su elencate testimoniano il ruolo decisivo che l'editoria elettronica sta svolgendo per la crescita e la diffusione della letteratura della migrazione -- fino alla metà degli anni Novanta ancora letteratura di testimonianza a interesse sociologico e antropologico ed oggi, al contrario, oggetto d'attenzione di tipo essenzialmente letterario -- e, dunque, per la formazione di coscienze pluriculturali.

3. La letteratura della migrazione rappresenta la sublimazione del processo di integrazione culturale degli immigrati all'interno del paese ospitante: da multimentalità multilingue a monolinguismo letterario. Ciò è in linea con le poetiche di creolizzazione e decolonizzazione di Armando Gnisci (2003), auspicanti ad una introduzione della voce degli scrittori migranti anche entro le classi di letteratura italiana. Il ruolo dell'editoria elettronica a tal fine si sta dimostrando cruciale ed il suo potenziamento deve essere al centro della nostra attenzione.

NOTE BIBLIOGRAFICHE

1. Risoluzione del Parlamento Europeo sulle nuove frontiere nella produzione libraria: editoria elettronica e stampa su richiesta (2000/2037(INI), in GU C267 del 21.9.2001, pp. 83 sgg.
2. Dossier Statistico Immigrazione 2003, a cura di Caritas Italiana, Caritas di Roma, e Fondazione Migrantes su dati del Ministero dell'Interno http://www.caritasroma.it/settori/comunicazione/Comunicati/2003-05-13.pdf (ultima consultazione 3.11.2003).
3. J. Chaloff (1999), 'Current Research into Education for Immigrants in Italy', in collaborazione con CHIP -- Child Immigration Project e Fondazione Censis, Roma, Fourth International Metropolis Conference, Washington, DC, 9.12.1999 http://www.international.metropolis.net/events/ washington/chaloff%20paper.doc (ultima consultazione 3.11.2003).
4. Iniziativa Comunitaria Equal, Progetto Etnequal Social Communication (IT-S-MDL-144) (2003), a cura del Dipartimento di Sociologia e Comunicazione, Università degli Studi 'La Sapienza' (http://www.etnequal.it/docs/sintesi_dati_Extracommunication%20ver%205.0.pdf (ultima consultazione 10.11.2003).
5. Censis-Unione Europea (2002), 'Tuning into Diversity. Immigrati e minoranze etniche nei media', Roma; Fondazione Censis (2002), 'L'immagine degli immigrati e delle minoranze etniche nei media', Rapporto Finale, Roma.
6. A. Gnisci (2003), 'Creolizzare l'Europa. Letteratura e migrazione', Roma, Meltemi.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094323/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop84.html",""
"414","5","Dynamic environments for cross-cultural and cross-disciplinary online collaborations","3","Our panel will present projects used in language and literature classes at MIT, and in three of the cases, at other universities in the United States and Europe, that address several issues central to online student collaboration. We will present the results of our experiences and explorations of various archive-based designs we have used in creating virtual communities. These design features affect the relationship among students, teachers and texts of various natures, including multimedia texts, that are created, collected, reconfigured and interpreted by students themselves, either individually or in collaboration with others. We are seeking to determine and implement optimal features of web-based communities, that within the context of effective classroom practice, enable students (and teachers, who in some cases become learners themselves) to reflect upon, represent and interpret their ideas and their cultures as well as the literary and artistic objects of study produced by those cultures. The individual projects are as follows:

American Authors (and the soon-to-be-established UK Authors) is an electronic archive of images, sound, and video clips that support courses at all levels of undergraduate study in literature. Materials from the archive enrich classroom lectures and make possible the study of visual allusions in literary texts. More than that, though, the archive works as a springboard for student work--oral presentations, classroom discussion, and annotation--by allowing students to collect multimedia on their own, share their collections in reports and discussion, and comment on their own and other students' work. My talk would demonstrate examples of student work to show how an archive can support close reading of texts, provide historical and biographical context, and make visible the often effaced presences of racial and ethnic others in American literature.

The MITUPV Exchange is a bilingual virtual community where, since Fall 2000, students learning Spanish at MIT and their counterparts studying English and other subjects at the Universidad Politécnica de Valencia (UPV) in Spain, communicate asynchronously each semester by means of bulletin boards, photos and online video. The website changes periodically since students themselves provide most of the content as they represent various aspects of their university life and interpret the representations provided in text and multimedia by their overseas counterparts. There has been additional participation by smaller groups of students from Cambridge University (UK), the University of Texas, and other universities in Spain and Latin America. More than 1200 community members have registered, including students from other European countries and Asia. The underlying pedagogy is rooted in a student-generated process of creating content and meaning, and follows the widespread reliance on constructivist learning theory. Patterns of participation and of representation reflect individual, cultural and institutional differences. The centrality of video to the project has implications for various aspects of media literacy in an online environment, including the conceptualization of an intended audience for the uploaded media objects.

Links: http://mitupv.mit.edu, http://www.wired.com/news/school/0,1383,56082,00.html http://www.syllabus.com/article.asp?id=8293

Cultura, a Web-based cross-cultural project, aims at developing students' in-depth understanding of a foreign culture and focuses on making the invisible layer of a culture accessible and interpretable. The present version allows French and American students to gradually construct, through a collaborative process, a deeper understanding of each other's cultural attitudes, values, concepts, representations and frames of references. Using a comparative approach, students analyze a series of textual and visual materials from their respective cultures that are juxtaposed on the Web and then exchange, via on-line discussion forums and each in their own language, their perspectives as well as images about these materials in order to gain an insider's view of each other's culture and in the process, as Marcel Proust wrote, to learn how ""to possess other eyes and look at the universe through the eyes of others."" Cultura provides a clear, constructivist methodology whereby students, with the help of their transatlantic partners and the skilful guidance of their teacher, constantly refine and expand their knowledge and understanding of the other culture as well as their own. The project is used in several universities in the US and in France and versions in Spanish and Russian are currently being developed.

Links: http://web.mit.edu/french/culturaNEH

http://www.rfi.fr/fichiers/langue_francaise/LangageActuel/EntrevueAvec/166.asp

Berliner sehen is a hypermedia documentary for German Studies that relies on an extensive array of shared archives and the Internet to form a collaborative learning environment for beginning to advanced-level students. Focusing on Berlin, this documentary features live-recorded video and authentic historical film and documents that provide students with contextualized personal perspectives to the cultural, social, and political life of the city. The hypermedia format of Berliner sehen encourages students to investigate material in context from interchangeable perspectives, to create their own hypermedia mini-documentaries, and to collaborate with other students on the expansion of the archives. Berliner sehen is based on concepts that are fundamental for the design of the content and the technological design of the entire project. Those concepts are derived from the pedagogy of foreign language and culture, the principles of hypermedia structure and the documentary film process. Pedagogically, the project proceeds from a learning model that integrates culture and language and encourages students to investigate authentic discourse contexts. The conversations among Berlin residents on video provide students with an insider's perspective of lives as they are embedded in the larger social context and cultural history of the city. The insider's perspective is extended by the specific cultural context of contemporary life in Berlin, a city in which two German cultures confront each other. West Berliners and East Berliners provide us with an insider's perspective to their respective German cultures as well as an outsider's perspective to each other's culture. By juxtaposing these perspectives students gain a unique position from which they learn about culture through the language used by the people who are part of that culture.

Link: http://web.mit.edu/fll/www/projects/BerlinerSehen.html","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094427/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop129.html",""
"415","5","A New Cooperative Model: Scholars, Librarians, Publishers, and the Production of Electronic Resources","3","Topic:
 
The Early English Books Online – Text Creation Partnership (EEBO-TCP), a project run by the Universities of Michigan and Oxford with the support of the commercial publisher ProQuest Information and Learning and over 100 libraries worldwide has developed a new and unique way of bridging the gap between the perceived differences of scholars, librarians, and commercial publishers over electronic resources.  This panel will discuss the electronic resource needs of their individual communities, how EEBO-TCP has or could meet these needs, and to place EEBO-TCP in the context of current collaborative projects and discuss how to best meet the needs of future scholars and teachers in an increasingly complex digital world. 
 
In the growing world of electronic resources, researchers in the humanities have many projects available to them from both the academic and commercial world.  Some of them are smaller more focused collections drawn from the interests of individual scholars others from academic libraries still others from commercial publishers.  All of these groups have different needs.  Publishers wish to remain proprietary over their product and prohibit wide distribution; librarians wish to integrate and distribute materials widely; scholars desire enhanced searching access to get more out of these sources.  As a result, publishers have made large databases with great limitations on distribution and access.  Libraries have made smaller standards-based collections that can integrate easily and thus be distributed widely.  Scholars also have made smaller but more useful digital collections for specific areas.  All of these projects are valuable in their own way.  Yet, as an individual is it possible to have a resource useful for all three of these audiences? 
 
In essence, the goal of publishers, scholars, and librarians should be the same, to enhance teaching and learning, but often reach this goal through different methods and with different intentions.  EEBO-TCP has attempted to meet the needs of all of them.  The library community has partnered with a commercial publisher to create a text file that will conform to generalized standards, will integrate into other library resources, and will eventually enter the public domain (allowing for broad distribution).  Additionally, it is facilitating dialog between scholars and the partnership regarding text selection, research, and education.  This way, scholars have the ability to help shape the project and to use the texts for other scholarly initiatives.  Librarians have maintained standards and accessibility.  Publishers have enhanced their product.  Obviously, all sides have had to negotiate and compromise in order to “enhance teaching and learning,” but continue to reconcile the needs of many different stakeholders and accept the possible consequences of these actions.
 
By addressing the needs of scholars, librarians, and publishers in using and producing electronic resources, and by demonstrating how the EEBO-TCP has at least attempted to address these differing needs, it is hoped that there can be a dialog on how these three groups can begin to work together.  No library could possibly have enough money to create as large a database as EEBO.  No publisher could draw on the tremendous experience of scholars.  No individual scholar could balance the competing needs of all three of these groups.  Drawing on the infrastructure of a library with a vast amount of experience both with scholars and publishers, the TCP has put forth a model of possible future cooperation and one that can hopefully serve to promote future collaboration.  
 
Organization:
 
Each speaker will have 10-15 minutes and there will be 15-20 minutes for general discussion
 
Ray Siemens will talk about how scholars in general use electronic resources, what their needs are in using these databases, and discuss general trends and advancements in the field.
 
Michael Popham will discuss the considerations librarians face when purchasing and integrating electronic resources and how trends have developed generally.
 
Dan Burnstone  will discuss the perspective of commercial publishers, what they need to take into consideration when producing resources such as EEBO, and how the commercial market has developed
 
Shawn Martin will talk about the EEBO-TCP project, how it has attempted to address all of these needs, and how it has advanced both scholarly research and the landscape of electronic resources.
 
General Discussion  about how the project can serve as a model for future collaboration and scholarship","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094229/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop50.html",""
"416","5","The study of games and their culture","23","How are the humanities engaging gaming and game culture? How can we study games?

While computer games and interactive spaces have been used in Humanities Computing to teach and conduct research, humanities computing can also draw on disciplinary traditions to study computer games. As computer games become a legitimate field of study we should ask how we can engage games and game culture from the perspective of the traditions of humanities computing.

In this session we will present three trajectories or examples of humanities computing research into games. The first discusses the importance of playing and adapting games as part of research and graduate instruction. The second looks at an important part of game culture, modding or the modification of game systems. The third paper presents a philosophical approach to interactivity in games drawn from both computing literature and theories of dialogue.

The study of computer games has emerged in a number of silos from education research to a popular literature around classic games. The terrain of computer game research is still being negotiated, but the following is a brief review of some of the areas from which research into computer games is emerging.

After the Columbine High School massacre in Littleton and the Tabor, Alberta copy-cat killings there has been a explosion of interest in computer games and violence. The academic literature coming from psychologists and sociologists on the subject of the pejorative effects of computer games predates the horrific events in Littleton (there is almost always someone who warns us about new media) but these events have brought the literature press attention. We can call this a sociological or psychological literature interested in the social and psychological effects of games, not their rhetorical effects. An example would be Dill, Karen and Jody Dill, ""Video Game Violence: A Review of the Empirical Literature."" Aggression and Violent Behavior , Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 407-428, 1998.
There is a literature around educational games coming from educational theorists and the instructional technology community. By contrast, while the first silo is critical of the effects of games, most of the educational literature is aimed at exploiting the motivating character of games for educational ends. Instructional technology research tends to breathlessly report on the possibilities for educational games rather than carefully assess the outcomes of expensive projects. An example of this would be, Rieber, Lloyd, ""Seriously Considering Play"", Educational Technology Research & Development 44.2 (1996): 43-58. A preprint of this is available at http://it.coe.uga.edu/~lrieber/play.html , accessed March, 2002.
There is a popular literature about the history of computer games, personalities in the industry, and companies like Atari. An example of this sort is Zap!: the Rise and Fall of Atari though a recent work, Supercade, wins the prize for the best illustrations. Associated with this literature is the business press about the computer game business. Business sources seem perpetually surprised to report the money being made on games which sell to a comparatively narrow bandwidth of the population. See Cohen, Scott, Zap!: The Rise and Fall of Atari, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984 or V. Burnham, Supercade; A visual history of the videogame age 1971 – 1984, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001.
There are a number of computer game related WWW sites and popular magazines aimed at the consumers of these games.
Perhaps the most interesting source, if you believe we should listen to practitioners, is the literature written by game designers and the computer game press about how to design a computer game. This ranges from the more reflective works like Chris Crawford's The Art of Computer Game Design to ""how-to-in-24-hours"" books of dubious value except to dummies. Because such works are aimed at game developers they almost always have a chapter on game-play or interaction. What is important about this literature is that describes interactivity from the perspective of the game designer and thus provides a window into the discourse of those that create the interactive. See Crawford, Chris, The Art of Computer Game Design . This out of print book is available in PDF form at Crawford's site http://www.erasmatazz.com/. At this site you will also find a Library of other materials by Crawford on game design and interactivity.
There is a philosophical literature around play and sport of which the best known example is perhaps Huizinga's Homo Ludens (Boston: Beacon Press, 1950), though there is also a sub-field of philosophy emerging around the philosophy of sport that deals with play in sport and the nature of the game.
Finally there is, of course, the literature around hypertext, hypermedia, and new media of which Lev Manovich's The Language of New Media is one of the most recent, and best interventions. This literature generally deals with issues of interactivity either in the limited sense of the hypertext link (surely there is more to interactivity than linking), or deals with interactivity as a feature of the interface. Other works of note are Aarseth's, Cybertext; Perspectives on Ergotic Literature, and Janet Murray's, Hamlet on the Holodeck.
The traditions of humanities computing overlap with most of these fields because humanities computing has been interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary. One important component to humanities computing research has been the development and use of technologies as part of research. Thus computing humanists overlap with game designers in their interest in theory that has application and can be applied. Computing humanists also draw heavily on the literature around hypertext which in turn has drawn heavily on media theory and literary theory.

We present these three papers as examples of how computing humanists can engage with games and their culture.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040813205058/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop159.html",""
"417","5","Moll Flanders: Calculating Voice","1","Literary critical discussions of Daniel Defoe's The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders have long focused on the protagonist's, Moll's, narrative voice. Dorothy Van Ghent (1953) notes the ""relatively great frequency"" of Moll's ""use of words naming that kind of object which constitutes material wealth"" (49) and indicates that these words connote ""the counting, measuring, pricing, weighing, and evaluating of...things in terms of the wealth they represent and the social status they imply...' (50). More recent criticism has problematized the identity of Moll's voice or, at least, the voice that purports to be Moll's. These studies frequently call attention to the fictional editor of the novel, an editor who reports on the difficulty of putting Moll's words ""into a Dress fit to be seen"" and attempts to frame Moll's narrative as a story of repentance for a life of sin. For example, Thomas Grant Olsen argues that the editor's claim to have re-written Moll's prose ""obliterates the notion that the narrative is Moll's at all"" (468). Thus, Moll's narrative voice is alternately viewed as one that uses specific kinds of words and has a specific identity or one that cannot be discovered, possibly an absence rather than a presence or, in the view of some, a female voice preempted by that of a male.

The question posed by this paper is whether quantitative analysis can provide a useful way of way of thinking about this problem and supplement more traditional critical approaches. More generally, this is part of an on-going series of explorations and test-cases to determine whether the kind of stylometric techniques used in studies of authorship attribution can distinguish among different narrative voices of an individual writer and, thus, provide useful insights concerning literary-critical issues focused on narrative voice. (See Stewart, 2003.)

The study began by utilizing the Burrows' technique to compare the voice of the fictional editor of Moll Flanders to the voice found in the rest of the novel. The relative frequencies of the forty most common words were used as variables in a principal components analysis of the novel's preface and the rest of the novel divided into seven approximately equal parts. The assumption was that if the voice of the preface is statistically similar to that of the other parts of the novel there is at least some evidence to support recent theories that Moll's voice is not separable from that of the editor. In fact, however, the principal components analysis displayed on a scatter graph shows a wide discrepancy between the editor's voice and the voice in the remainder of the novel. (See Fig. 1)

Figure F1
Figure 1


Of course, this discrepancy does not necessarily show the voices to belong to different characters. Baayen and others have convincingly argued that ""differences in genre override differences in education level and authorship""; one would assume the same to be true in trying to differentiate the voices of different characters by an individual writer. The genre of the preface may simply differ from the genre of narration. Clearly, there needed to be a different method of determining whether Moll's voice is ""her own.""

It seemed worthwhile then to compare the voice in Moll Flanders to the voices of narrators in Defoe's other novels as well as to narrative voices in several other eighteenth-century narratives. (The other novels are Susanna Rowson's Charlotte Temple, Sarah Fielding's The Governess, Clara Reeve's The Old English Baron, Henry Fielding's Jonathan Wild, Samuel Richardson's Pamela, Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels, Charlotte Lennox's The Female Quixote, and Eliza Haywood's Miss Betsy Thoughtless.) Again, the Burrows' technique was used. Several different analyses were made: one with the whole of each of Defoe's novels, one with each of Defoe's novels, several of his essays, and the group of sample novels from the same time period, and one with each of Defoe's novels divided into sections. As well, a cluster analysis was done using each of those sets of texts. In every case, the results are remarkably similar to those shown in Figures 2 and 3.

Figure F2
Figure 2


Figure F3
Figure 3


All the analyses show a clear distinction between Defoe's five novels narrated by male characters (Robinson Crusoe, The Further Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, Captain Singleton, Col. Jacque, and A Journal of the Plague Year) and those narrated by female characters (Roxana and Moll Flanders). As well, the analysis using sections of each novel shows overlapping among the sections of Moll Flanders and Roxana but no overlapping between sections of those novels and sections of Defoe's other novels. At least in quantitative terms, Defoe's two female narrators seem to speak in nearly the same voice.

Obviously, such evidence does not indicate that Moll has a unique voice. However, insofar as her voice is statistically indistinguishable from the voice of Defoe's other female narrator, there seems no reason to believe her voice has been preempted by the voice of the editor. She speaks as Roxana speaks, and no one has suggested Roxana's voice to be other than her own. (At the conference, a much fuller analysis would be given of the differences in voice between Defoe's female and male narrators.)

In attempting to understand Moll's voice, another set of tests was used. Taking a cue from Dorothy VanGhent's comment that Moll's vocabulary is characterized by words of measuring and evaluating and from other critics who remark on the emphasis on morality and religion, I attempted a content analysis by inductively generating two lists. One list is comprised of the language of calculation of which VanGhent speaks and the other of what I call the language of religion and morality. The procedure was to create a single alphabetical list of all the words used in Defoe's novels as well as in the other eighteenth century novels and then, with no knowledge of the specific novels from which they came, produce a list of words that seemed to connote in the one case calculation and evaluation (words indicating measurement, finances, and ranking) and, in the other, religion and morality (words referring specifically to religion such as deity, pastor, lord, etc. and those referring more generally to morality such as chastity, innocence, guilt, repentance, etc.). A list of 200 lemmata resulted and would be shown at the conference. Clearly, such a procedure is open to subjective factors and results need to be used with extreme caution. As Burrows has stated, ""it has become customary, in recent years, to allow variables to 'declare themselves,' thus obviating, as far as possible, the danger of a predetermined outcome"" (268). The words used in these analyses are not self-declared.

However, the results do show that Moll Flanders uses these words of calculation at a rate significantly higher than that of other novels in the study. Among Defoe's narrators, Moll and Roxana have narrative voices in which such words occur most frequently. More importantly, these words occur significantly more frequently than they do in the language of the editor. On the other hand, the language of religion and morality is used much more frequently by the fictional editor than by Moll herself. (See Figure 4) The editor, in fact, uses words connoting religion and morality at a frequency about six times that of Moll.

Figure F4
Figure 4


The results of these analyses seem to have implications that bear on critical discussions of Moll Flanders, implications that would be discussed in detail at the conference. There seems to be no stylometric evidence that Moll's voice has been preempted by the voice of the male editor, particularly given the similarity of Moll's voice to that of Roxana. As well, whereas the editor's voice makes heavy use of the vocabulary of morality and religion and relatively little use of the vocabulary of calculation, Moll uses religious language sparingly but uses the language of calculation with great frequency. If the male editor does indeed attempt to preempt Moll's story and her voice, the irony of the novel may be found in his failure to do so.

References:

1. Baayen, R. H., Tweedie, F., van Halteren, H., and Krebbers, L. (2000). Back to the cave of shadows: stylistic fingerprints in authorship attribution. ALLC/ACH 2000 Conference Abstracts: 156-158.
2. Burrows, J. (2002). 'Delta': a measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 17: 267-287.
3. Olsen, T.G. (2001). Reading and righting Moll Flanders. Studies in English Literature 1500-1900. 41: 467-481.
4. Stewart, L. (2003). Charles Brockden Brown: quantitative analysis and literary interpretation. Literary and Linguistic Computing 18: 129-138.
5. VanGhent, D. (1953) The English Novel: Form and Function. New York: Harper.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094257/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop67.html",""
"418","5","Regression Trees in Stylometry","1","Shakespeare's undated plays and Plato's undated dialogues remain among the problematic cases in the area of Stylometry. Their true chronology is not yet known, and probably will never be, since there is lack of sufficient external evidence to support any assumptions. Nevertheless, researchers have attempted to identify various stylistic markers and to test them using a number of traditional as well as computer-based approaches of considerable success. Several recent examples include the dating of Carlo Sigonio's Consolatio (Forsyth et. al., 1999), of Sophocles' Trachiniae (Craik et al., 1987), the sequence of composition of the plays of Christopher Marlowe (Ule, 1982), the development of Euripides' trimeters (Laan, 1995; Gooijer et al., 2001), and the dating of Ars Poetica by Horace (Frischer, 1991).

Along similar lines, the present experiment aims to assess the discriminatory power of a number of lexical, semantic, syntactic, entropic, and phonetic predictor variables when used to detect the existence of any non-linear patterns for the purposes of dating in a securely dated collection of texts by four authors, namely Edna St Vincent Millay, Edgar Allan Poe, Christina Rossetti, and William Butler Yeats. The main difference with previous approaches is the use of a non-parametric method, namely regression trees as an alternative to linear regression. Regression trees have been used when a need for detecting non-linear patterns in the data is apparent. In addition, regression trees are known to produce accurate results, although they tend to be not so accurate if the data have a good linear structure (Breiman et. al., 1984: 264). It is hoped that modern methods such as regression trees will be more effective in identifying possible accurate predictors.

A regression tree is a treelike structure developed to represent a decision process for regression purposes. Consisting of branches (links) and leaves (nodes), a regression tree aspires to identify the attributes of the objects under examination which function as best discriminators. The aim is to produce a simple yet reliable model of the relationship between one or more categorical/continuous independent variables and a dependent continuous variable. Regression trees are useful when there is need for accurate predictors or understanding of the type of variables and of the interactions among them which underline relevant experiments. The aim is to provide simple descriptions of the conditions under which cases are categorized (Breiman et al., 1984:6). This is achieved by their ability to handle mixed data-types and non-linear relationships since tree-based methods are non-parametric.

Permitting one or more variables at each decision node, a regression tree assigns objects to predetermined ordered response groups. When a regression tree is being developed, data for each case traverse down the tree beginning at the root node, splitting nodes as they progress, until a terminal node is reached. If a case satisfies the condition set at each node, the case follows the left branch towards the left node; otherwise the case follows the right branch. Each terminal node contains a constant which is the average value for the response variable based on all cases that reach the node. To use a tree with new data, observations for each case would be dropped down the tree in a similar fashion to the construction of the predictor tree until the terminal nodes are reached. The predicted value for each terminal node would be the sample average of the dependent variable for that particular group.

To construct a predictor tree, the following criteria need to be established: a set of binary questions of the form ?is variable j of instance i less than or equal to c?? for all reasonable c values; a splitting rule for each intermediate node; a condition that determines when a node becomes terminal; and a rule for assigning the predicted value of the response variable to the terminal nodes (Breiman et al., 1984: 28-29, 229).

GUIDE (Generalized, Unbiased Interaction Detection and Estimation), which was developed by Loh (2002), is a regression tree algorithm based on the previously mentioned criteria. This algorithm can handle categorical predictors and has insignificant selection bias. GUIDE fits the sample mean of the dependent variable at each node, computes the residuals between the observed values at each node and the sample mean, and divides the cases in two groups according to the signs of the residuals. To produce the tree, GUIDE uses the minimal cost-complexity method of CART (Breiman et al., 1984) with V-fold cross validation. GUIDE has been selected as the algorithm for this experiment as the most unbiased, accurate, and readily obtainable.

Subsequently, GUIDE was tested on samples of poetry and personal correspondence by the four authors using stylistic markers showing in previous studies to produce accurate results. The stylistic markers were selected according to three criteria; that they were automatically quantifiable, that they had been used by other researchers for similar projects, and that they were of linguistic validity. No distinction was made in terms of whether the markers had been used for authorship, genre, chronology or stylistic studies in general, since it has already been shown that what markers work in one case do not necessarily work on others (Holmes, 1998: 111; Rudman, 2000).

To examine whether the observed differences in the accuracy of the trees produced by GUIDE are genuine or are attributed to the natural variability among populations and samples, four four-way ANOVA were performed. The objective was to tease out main effects and all two-way interactions for each factor, and assess whether there is a significant difference in the use of the different factors. The dependent variables were Total Number of Variables in the final trees, Mean Square Error (MSE), Median Square Error (MedSE), Scaled Mean Square Error (MSEscaled), ? the last three being variations of the accuracy measure MSE produced by GUIDE for the trees ? and factors such as Genre, Author, Order, and Variable Type.

For the first ANOVA, which used total number of variables as the dependent variable, the result was no significant interaction or significant main effect for any of the factors. It appears that the total number of variables which GUIDE interpreted as important is unpredictable among the different authors. The second ANOVA tested MSE against the four factors. Only one significant interaction was identified, that between author and genre, as well as significant main effects for the same factors. The results produced were almost identical to the ones produced when MedSE is used as the dependent variable. This leads to the conclusion that different authors appear to produce trees of variable predictive accuracy according to the genre they write in, however, it is not possible at this stage to identify which genre is the most difficult to assign. The fourth ANOVA examined the Scaled error against the four factors to assess the size of the improvement for quess work rather than just the raw 'success'. The result was no significant interaction or main effect for the relative error, which implies that no tree consisting of different types of variables for different authors appears to be bigger or more accurate than the other. It would seem that none of these factors produce consistently different results. However, it needs to be mentioned that the interaction effects and main effects detected could be due to the restricted range of Yeats's letters which spread over twenty-eight years and the range of the poems which spread over fifty-four years. This unbalanced productive period ? which is due to the texts availability ? could explain why the significant effects disappear when MSEscaled is used.

To summarize, this study has led to the conclusion that authors and genres differ inconsistently, and no similar results are obtained in any of the analyses so far. This suggests that to use personal correspondence to predict poems is a precarious idea. It also advocates that not all authors can be dated, therefore, the accuracy of dating will depend on individuals, which renders the idea of chronological 'fingerprinting' impossible, since not all authors would have such a 'fingerprint'. However, one possible explanation for such an outcome is the small text size used. Therefore, a study on similar grounds but with aggregated datasets as an attempt to verify the present findings is currently taking place, whose results will be presented at the conference.

References

1. Breiman, L., Friedman, J.H., Olsen, R.A., Stone, C.H. (1984) Classification and Regression Trees Belmont, California: Wadsworth International Group.
2. Craik, E.M. & D.H.A. Kaferly (1987) 'The Computer and Sophocles' Trachiniae' Literary and Linguistic Computing 2(2): 86-97.
3. Forsyth, R. S., Holmes, D. I. & E. K. Tse (1999) 'Cicero, Sigonio and Burrows: Investigating the Authenticity of the Consolatio' Literary and Linguistic Computing 14(3), 375-400
4. Frischer, B. (1991) 'The Date of the Poem' in Shifting Paradigms: New Approaches to Horace's Arts Poetica Atlanta GA Scholars Press.
5. Gooijer, J.G. de & N.M. Laan (2001) 'Change-Point Analysis: Elision in Euripides' Orestes' Computers and the Humanities 35, 167-191.
6. Holmes, D.I. (1998) 'The Evolution of Stylometry in Humanities Scholarship' Literary and Linguistic Computing 13 (3): 111-117.
7. Laan, N.M. (1995) 'Stylometry and Method: the Case of Euripides' Literary and Linguistic Computing 10: 271-278.
8. Loh, W-Y. (2002) 'Regression Trees with Unbiased Variable Selection and Interaction Detection' Statistica Sinica 12: 361-386.
9. Rudman, J. (2000) 'The Style-Marker mapping project: a rational and progress report' ALLC/ACH2000, July 2000.
10. Ule, L. (1982) ""Recent Progress in Computer Methods of Authorship Determination"" ALLC Bulletin 10,3, 73-89.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040901083421/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop45.html",""
"419","5","Another Method to Analyze the Introduction of Word-Types in Literary Works and Textbooks","1","INTRODUCTION

Models based on the frequency of word-types assume that tokens in a text occur randomly. Even with this constraint, many different strategies can be followed in the process of selecting words randomly. The best models proved to be those that assume that word-types are binomially distributed. Based on this binomial distribution a model was created first by Baayen (Baayen, 1996a; Baayen, 1996b; Baayen et al., 1996; Tweedie and Baayen, 1998) than used by Hoover (2003). In these models a constant was calculated for each type which occurred m times in the original text. Summing up these constants for each type a predicted number of word-types can be calculated. The model created this way is static, since it always provides a constant for a selected M (M = N, where N is the number of tokens in the text). In the era of the new generation of personal computers dynamic models can also be built based on the same assumptions.

The ultimate goal of our studies was to build such a dynamic model. The question was if this new model could help us to explain the regularities of the introduction of word-types in a text, to support the hypotheses that by significantly decreasing the size of blocks in a text we can get a more sophisticated insight into its overall structure. Namely, by doing so, we can trace important narrative events (the introduction of a new scene, the embedding in the flow of narration of a scene, setting or event only distantly related to the general flow of the text) and thus pointing to possible individual characteristics of the given narration. This hypothesis is tested by matching statistical data of the actual text against a model which generates the hypothetical distribution of the introduction of new word types in a text. Any differences between real text data and data from the model are expected to show both the potential and the limitations of the approach.

METHODS

To conduct the analysis of a given text a program was developed which provides a model and creates an artificial text based on the frequency of the word-types in the original text. The essence of the model is that the relative frequency of the word-types are counted, and based on these frequencies a distribution function is generated. Then, to a randomly picked number a word is mapped with the distribution function. To provide comparable results to previous models and to analyze Hungarian literary works, the program is designed for English and Hungarian texts, but the users have the opportunity to create their own character sets for further investigations.

Unlike models described in previous reports (Baayen, 1996a; Baayen, 1996b; Hoover, 2003) this program, due to the distribution function-based random selection, provides a dynamic model. The other difference as compared to previous methods is that the program divides the texts into short, constant-length intervals with usually 100 words. This method was found to be more accurate in two aspects. First, the length of the intervals does not depend on the length of the text, and this way, texts of different lengths can be compared on a more reliable way. The other advantage comes from the short intervals, since subtle changes in the course of the story can also be traced back.

MATERIALS

The analyzed texts were chosen by the following strategy: different works of an author, different volumes of a series from the same author, works of the same genre, concatenated short stories from the same, or different authors, both in English and in Hungarian. The main source of the e-texts was the Internet. The works not found on the Internet were manually digitalized.

Due to the many different sources of the texts, first these texts had to be standardized: delete those paragraphs which are added to the e-text, but not part of the original texts; delete footnotes and endnotes; deal with the different typographic rules; concatenate the chapters; correct the mistakes which occurred at the process of digitalization, and finally the different file-formats had to be converted into text files (with .txt extension). To analyze a text first the introduction of the types in the original work, then the model, the artificial text was plotted. To each 100-word long block an integer was mapped, the number of the newly introduced types in the block.

RESULTS

The intervals into which the texts were divided were short enough to show subtle changes in the discourse. Such events occurred when a longish description was inserted into the text, when a new character with a new style (different from the style of the other characters) was introduced, and when foreign expressions, sentences popped up. The results, of course, show not only those changes that were coming from the logical flow of the story but also those, where the text contains parts which are not related to the events. In both cases the monotonic decay of the introduction of types was somewhat reversed. The above listed reasons provided, in most, cases more significant changes than the introduction of a new chapter.

The model was able to follow those changes which were due to the flow of the story by providing small heaps in the otherwise decaying graph. However, the trace of those surprising, unrelated events, understandably, never occurred in the model. Comparing the original text and the related model we can pinpoint parts which are only loosely related to the story.

It was also found that the length of the texts has significant importance, which is in accordance with previously mentioned results (Holmes, 1994). This can explain the fact that concatenated short stories of the same genre did not provide huge jumps at the beginning of a new story. The concatenated short stories behaved like a novel in this sense. The difference between concatenated stories and a novel was that the number of the newly introduced types was higher in the concatenated text. The concatenated short stories also showed that the introduction of types is not a characteristic of an author since concatenating stories from different authors sometimes showed higher repeating rate than stories from one author. Similar results were presented with another method in earlier works (Baayen, 1996b) where it was found that the differences in register [genre] may override differences in authorship.

Not only the analysis of literary works was carried out but also the analysis of textbooks with second language teaching purposes. The recently accepted strategy to choose the vocabulary of a textbook is that to teach at least 1000 new words in each stage of a general course (120-140 hours' work), and over this suggested minimum as many words as possible. (Cunningsworth, 1995), To provide this amount of new words the textbooks should also provide a sufficient amount of text to make the courses effective enough.

The result of the analysis of the selected series shows that these books fail to fulfill this requirement. The introduction of new types and the high number of hapax legomena show that the vocabulary of a textbook in these senses is not different from the vocabulary of concatenated short stories.

SUMMARY

Hungarian and English literary works and English textbooks were analyzed the find regularities in the introduction of word-types in these works. To carry out the study the texts were divided into short, constant-length intervals with a usual length of 100 words. Based on the frequency of the word-types in the original text a model, an artificial text was created. Comparing the original and the artificial text we were able to find intervals in the original text that corresponds to unpredicted, sometimes illogical events in the discourse of the text. Analyzing the textbooks, we learned that the introduction of word-types in these books showed resemblance to randomly chosen and then concatenated short stories. It seemed that the authors of the textbooks ignored that not only the number of word-types should be increased, but the words should be repeated a certain times in these books.

The analysis of the given works showed that the introduction of new types in a text mainly depends on the length and genre of the work, and not a significant characteristic of the author. In further works I would like to analyze series of novels from different authors, also to see how they differ from those whose author is the same. The analysis of other monolingual textbook series is also in progress. The results of this analysis can lead to a change in planning textbooks where the designing of the vocabulary will not only mean the setting of the number of words, but also the effectiveness of vocabulary teaching will be improved.

REFERENCES

1. Baayen R. H. (1993) Statistical Models for Word Frequency Distributions: A Linguistic Evaluation. Computers and the Humanities 26. pp. 347-363.
2. Baayen R. H. (1996a) The Randomness Assumption in Word Frequency Statistics, Research in Humanities Computing 5 Selected Papers from the ACH/ALLC Conference, University of California, Santa Barbara, August 1995 pp.17-31.
3. Baayen R. H. (1996b) The Effect of Lexical Specialization on the Growth Curve of the Vocabulary. Computational Linguistics 22. pp. 455-480.
4. Baayen H., Halteren H, Tweedie F. (1996) Outside the Cave of Shadows: Using Syntactic Annotation to Enhance Authership Attribution pp. 121-131.
5. Cunningsworth A. (1995) Choosing your Coursebook. Heinemann
6. Hoover D. L. (2003) Another Perspective on Vocabulary Richness. Computers and the Humanities 37: pp. 151-178.
7. Holmes D. (1994) Authorship Attribution Computers and the Humanities 28. pp. 87-106.
8. Tweedie F. J. and Baayen R. H. (1998) How Variable May a Constant be? Measures of Lexical Richness in Perspective. Computers and the Humanities 32: pp. 323-352.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094044/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop83.html",""
"420","5","An open source implementation of PhiloLogic for large TEI-Lite document collections","1","The wide array of XML data specifications and the recent deployment of basic XML processing tools provides an important opportunity for the collaborative development of higher-level, interoperable tools for Humanities Computing applications. The sophistication and power of the TEI-XML encoding specification supports the development of extremely rich textual data representations that encourage, if not require, development of sets of tools to exploit features of encoded text to perform particular tasks. It may be the case that one general tool will never fit all possible uses for encoded documents, but that a set of more specialized, interoperable tools for end-user applications will provide mechanism for cost-effective deployment of end-user applications.

As the ARTFL Project's contribution to the collaborative development of these tools, this paper will outline recent work on PhiloLogic2 to support a wide variety of TEI-Lite (XML and SGML) encoded documents optionally using the Unicode character specification. We will present a general design overview, indicating the current features and limitations, of this implementation, which the ARTFL Project is releasing under the GNU General Public License.3 We feel that Humanities Computing applications are particularly well suited to open source development by a community with wide ranging technical abilities that is not well supported by the commercial sector.

PhiloLogic is the primary full-text search, retrieval and analysis tool developed by the ARTFL Project and Digital Library Development Center (DLDC) at the University of Chicago. Originally implemented to support large databases of French literature, PhiloLogic has been extended to support a wide variety of textual and hypermedia databases in collaboration with numerous academic institutions and, more recently, commercial organizations.4 PhiloLogic is a modular system, in which a textbase is treated as a set of coordinated or related databases, typically including an object (units of text such as a letter, scene, document, etc) database, a word forms database, a word concordance index mapped to textual objects, and an object manager mapping text objects to byte offsets in data files. Each of these databases is stored and managed using its own subsystem.

Textual metadata, for example, is extracted from the database and loaded into a subsystem that handles delimited field data using appropriate functionality, including arithmetic, boolean, and regular expression searching and may be implemented using variety of systems including standard open-source packages such as MYSQL or PostgreSQL. This model also supports extensive use of standoff markup5, since objects in the document tree may be linked to extensive records in relational databases describing these objects.

As with most full text search and retrieval systems, the amount of text processing actually involved in a user search is very limited, typically being only that required to extract an element from a document and format it on output. Similarly, building a PhiloLogic database typically requires a data pass to extract, in a consistent way, structured data from the text. The addition of TEI-Lite support for PhiloLogic required creation of new loaders and output formatters. We are using various approaches to both tasks and will discuss the strengths and weaknesses using SGML/XML-aware tools as opposed to more general programming techniques. It appears that certain tasks, particularly those involving data extraction from heavily nested elements, are better implemented using a tree based approach, while others, such as calculating the position of words and byte offsets in an abstract document object hierarchy are better approached as streams. Output formatting of objects also appear to present similar options, depending on the complexity of the encoding and display requirements.

The current development version of PhiloLogic is also able to process Unicode in the form of UTF-8.6 The internal word and object indexing system of PhiloLogic has been UTF-8 capable for some time, since it is independent of language or character specifications. Word searches are performed independently of look-ups in the word occurrence indexes. We are using several different approaches to Unicode support based on a multifield word management subsystem. While index entries are stored in UTF-8, search fields can be configured for various languages and combined with slightly modified regular expression matching which allows for searching on Unicode representations or various simplified representations. Romanizations, for our current experiments, are performed by Perl module (Obliterator) developed by ARTFL and the DLDC for transliterating and transcoding among ISCII, Unicode, and a host of romanizations of Indic scripts.7 This model may be extended to handle many more writing systems.

We are basing this paper on the 2t/2e series of the PhiloLogic engine. While fast, robust, and well proven, it is based on a fixed object depth word indexing architecture. This has two distinct limitations: it flattens object depths and it does not provide for a word ""attribute"" field to indicate that a word belongs to particular types of objects that users may want to include or exclude from searches (such as notes or stage directions). We will describe current work on the 3t generation of engine and hope to be able to include a development version of this variant in 2004. Even then, the possible variations of document encoding possible within the TEI-Lite specification may not be treated in ways that original encoders had in mind.

We are planning for a base release of PhiloLogic with examples of how to implement a wide variety of options required for different document types and collections. Based on the long history of PhiloLogic use and development at ARTFL and among various collaborators, we are planning that the base release will include as many features as possible while not requiring significant administrative or development work to use effectively.

Humanities Computing needs to foster collaborative tool development. It is our belief that these tools will be specialized, focusing on the theoretical orientations and practical experience of various humanities computing organizations. PhiloLogic is a result of ARTFL's need for tools to handle large amounts of relatively lightly encoded text with a significant orientation to the manipulation of large amounts of descriptive and analytical metadata. Encouraging interoperability and collaborative development, particularly the use of standard processing tools and encoding systems, will provide for a way to leverage development work being done at various institutions.

Some sample prototypes of PhiloLogic for TEI (XML/SGML) are available at:

http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ARTFL/philologic/tei-samples/

Notes

1. Contact: Mark Olsen, mark@barkov.uchicago.edu. Affiliations: Andreev, Virtual Data Center, Harvard University; Montoya, Digital Library Development Center, University of Chicago; Olsen and Voyer, ARTFL Project, University of 2. A general description and PhiloLogic manual available at http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ARTFL/philologic/. More recent development descriptions and technical overviews are found in Olsen, ""Words, Objects, and Attributes: Leveraging the Full Power of TEI Encoding in Database Searching"", October 9, 2002, Second Annual TEI Consortium Meeting, Newberry Library, Chicago (http://barkov.uchicago.edu/talks/TEI2002/) and ""Rich Textual Metadata: Implementation and Theory"", Poster Session, ALLC/ACH 2002 Conference, University of Tübingen, July 24-29, 2002 (http://barkov.uchicago.edu/talks/ACH2002/rich-metadata.html ).
2. The GNU General Public License (http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl.html) allows unrestricted use, but requires that distribution of the software be accompanied by the source code (or an offer for it), and does not allow anyone other than the copyright holder to add or remove restrictions on redistribution.
3. Academic collaborations include Opera del Vocabolario Italiano (http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ARTFL/projects/OVI/ ), The Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project (http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/) and the Artemene Project (http://www.artamene.org/). Commercial collaborations include Alexander Street Press (http://www.alexanderst.com/) and Editions Champion (http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ARTFL/databases/champion/b asile/).
4. There are a number of ways to implement standoff markup. See, for example, http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/SO/sow06.html. Our implementation uses a non-standard model of relational links from databases in SQL to objects identified in PhiloLogic object trees.
5. See http://www.unicode.org.
6. Originally evolving from stream-oriented Perl scripts using hashes to transpose source and target characters, it now treats strings as objects, initialized with a source string, with methods that return the various target strings. We are currently replacing the internal hash-table approach with SWIG (http://www.swig.org/) wrappers around IBM's International Components for Unicode (http://oss.software.ibm.com/icu/).","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094353/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop100.html",""
"421","5","A Generic Application for Corpus Management and Administration","1","Our corpus project is building a digital collection of both written and spoken texts. The corpus is a publicly available resource, mounted on and searchable via the Web. This paper will describe the corpus management and workflow administration methods that the project has developed and the technologies used. We believe that the structures we have created to manage the different parts of the administration of the project are the basis for a re-usable, generic package for scholars building an online corpus from new linguistic materials.

While every existing corpus has, of course, developed its own methods of ensuring the correct procedures are followed, this knowledge is usually not available to other projects in their early development or is too specific to a particular area of language research. We have been approached by several projects who have seen or heard of our system and are planning to build multilingual and multi-media corpora. The paper will describe two case studies involving disparate data in various media and our proposed pilot studies on methods of creating an application suitable for their use, and extension to a generic package.

Our corpus is synchronic, a 'snapshot' of the languages used in here in recent years, and a monitor corpus which will be continually updated. It includes written texts, sound recordings, video recordings, and transcriptions of sound from the latter two. It also contains extensive sociolinguistic metadata. We are processing readily available materials (c.1m words) and will identify the gaps and find or commission new materials to fill them. We intend that the corpus will contain upwards of 4,000,000 words, at least 20% spoken. This will form a valuable language research tool in its own right, and will offer a structure flexible enough to expand and accommodate future sub-corpora.

Sociolinguistic metadata are held in the following categories: resource type, text type, setting, medium, audience, text details, author/speaker details and copyright information. For example, the author and speaker categories contain information on gender, age, geographic region, education, occupation, languages spoken etc. The author/speaker's parents' information is also recorded. Standards described by the Text Encoding Initiative Guidelines and Dublin Core have been applied and the metadata categories have been decided upon after extensive research into the requirements both for useful language research and the legal necessities for publication of the data.

In creating the corpus structure we have included database functions to control the workflow. Administrative functions range from contact management through to document entry and associated metadata manipulation. These are functions that any project creating a corpus must perform. Having these functions built into the system means that, for example, copyright law compliance is enforced. The system generates reports to facilitate the administration and management of each key stage. The data storage method is more advanced than simple flat files and multiple concurrent users are fully supported, aiding large-scale data entry. Document contents are accessed via the unified interface, alleviating the requirement for file naming and directory organisation.

The corpus system is divided in two sections: administration and online search. With such valuable data being held in the system it was important for us to choose open, standards-based solutions where possible. Although more advanced and proprietary software is available, we chose to configure a Linux server with MySQL RDBMS, Apache and PHP, as this configurations give the greatest degree of flexibility and portability. To reduce training of our team MS Access was chosen to provide the front-end to the administrative functions. This allows interaction with the whole Office suite to provide mail merge and data interoperability.

The search system uses a subset of the administrative data. Only those documents that are complete and have all their relevant permissions are allowed into the public data set. As an added security measure this consists of a separate database, but this is not a necessity. Access to documents is provided via a two tier search mechanism. Commonly used criteria are the basis for a basic search interface, those users who wish to explore the dataset in more depth can choose an advanced query tool giving access to the whole range of metadata. Word/phrase search can be combined with a metadata search, matching documents provide word highlighting to show context of match.

Following approaches from scholars proposing to start building digital corpora it became apparent that a subset of our corpus management system (concentrating on administration and workflow) would be very useful to others. Two such projects are detailed below.

As our data structure is tailored and grew up with the particular requirements for our corpus, it will be necessary to develop an abstracted model of the corpus management system. This will allow standard data objects and types to be used freely inside the established model. As open source software is used there are many different software and hardware platforms available as host to any system developed.

First steps to integration would involve identifying each document type and their metadata and contents. In addition the interrelationship of different objects (e.g. author to document) must be established before the data can enter our framework. Sample data would be identified to test the maximal set of possibilities available to verify expected operation. Any search front-end will necessitate a higher degree of customisation to match the specific project.

The first corpus in our pilot study is a corpus of transitional dialects. 198 individuals were recorded for approximately 1 hour each (c. 120 gb of data). We know from our discussions with the scholars who have created this data that the abstracted model referred to above would be of use to them in creating an online corpus.

The abstracted model would not deal with all the issues particular to this corpus and we have identified some areas requiring investigation. For example, the dialects concerned contain speech sounds which are not represented by characters in current Unicode sets. Transcription of the data will require the creation of new Unicode code points and glyphs to allow reproduction of the particular dialects in use. Until this is resolved methods for searching this data will have to be investigated. Storage and encoding are easily solved for the researchers local use but these methods may not be available to end users online.

The second corpus in our pilot is based on recent Parliamentary elections. The data collected are a rich mix of media (text, images, sound and video recordings, and mixed media documents such as web pages). An investigation into which metadata are generic for all media types must be conducted as any search must be capable of scanning all media types and present a unified result. Integrating the various media types into the unified front-end will present different challenges for each media type, as would display of these media types. Upon search completion quick access to related documents would be very useful e.g. identify other documents by the same author / same location.

We believe our corpus management software can give new projects an easy to use framework on which to base their system. Collaboration with other projects will enhance the system as we identify new data types and modules to include in the framework. As these issues are solved this will feed back to the abstracted model and provide ready made solutions for future projects. As any collaborative effort would have the same base structure it would make integration of data from many different corpora straightforward, this may be of particular use to researchers.

Most literature on corpus projects concentrates on either the content, the encoding of the content or the research results of the use of the corpus. We have found little on the management and administration of a corpus project. Researchers often do not recognise initially the amount of time needed to develop good management procedures and the complexity required to control the process from contact management through document entry, metadata manipulation to publication. We believe this discussion will be use to us, to the scholars planning the corpora mentioned above and to others in the ALLC/ACH community.

Bibliography

1. Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and Lou Burnard (ed.) (1994), Guidelines for Text Encoding and Interchange, Chicago and Oxford: Text Encoding Initiative
2. Bonhomme, P. and Laurent, R. (1997) XCORPUS - Version 0.2: A Corpus Toolkit Environment: User Manual, http://www.loria.fr/projets/XCorpus/manual/
3. Brew, C. and Moens, M., Data-Intensive Linguistics, HCRC Language Technology Group, The University of Edinburgh, http://www.ltg.ed.ac.uk/
4. Gibbon, D., Ubiquitous multilingual corpus management in computational fieldwork, http://coral.lili.uni-bielefeld.de/LangDoc/EGA/Presentations/ubicorpus_lrec2002.pdf","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094335/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop96.html",""
"422","5","The Application of GIS to the Creation of a Cultural Heritage Digital Resource","1","Introduction

This paper describes a pilot project to evaluate the use of Geographical Information System (GIS) and web-site technology to explore and display information about forced migration in a region of Macedonia (now northern Greece) from 1880 to the present day. The pilot project explored the approaches, techniques and technologies that would be required for a potential large-scale project. It identified challenges that would be encountered and possible novel solutions that could be applied within a limited budget. The products of the pilot project were a web-based digital resource and a desktop Geographical Information System. The project was hosted by Centre for Computing in the Humanities at King’s College London where it is one of a number of projects using such technology for both historical and contemporary data. The partners were The Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford, The Centre for Computing in the Humanities, King’s College London and The Research Centre for Macedonian History and Documentation, Thessaloniki.

The Mapping Migration Pilot Project is one of a new style of digital projects in the humanities that make use of image, spatial database and text-based technologies. It fits the Conference theme “Computing and Multilingual, Multicultural Heritage” in a number of ways. It took a range of unpublished material and produced a digital museum of cultural heritage aimed primarily at the communities of its subject matter thus exhibiting a broader social role of humanities computing and the resources it develops .It also benefits scholars in cultural studies, refugee studies and social science history. It demonstrates the application of information technology, especially Geographical Information Systems, to cultural and historical studies. The presentation of information that has both spatial and temporal elements presents issues concerning information design in the humanities


History

Population migrations were among the decisive factors that contributed to the dynamism of Balkan history. Ancient Greece, the Roman and Byzantine Empires, the settlement of the Slavs, their medieval states as well as centuries of Ottoman rule left a deep impact on the ethnic, political and cultural composition of the peninsula. The Eastern Question and the rivalry of the European powers to participate in the Ottoman heritage introduced the Balkans into modern European history, parallel to the birth of national Balkan states in the nineteenth century. The mobility over the new borders of peoples who lived for centuries in multi-national empires made extremely difficult the establishment of ethnic frontiers based on the principle of national self-determination. The Balkan Wars of 1912-13, and in part World War I, had their origins in nationalist aspirations to complete territorial unification. The peace settlements after 1918 established boundaries very similar to those existing today, but left some populations resentful.

Ethnic mixtures resulting from migrations blurred national affiliations in neighbouring Balkan national confines. After 1941, the Balkans became a battlefield between the Allied and Axis forces and the scene of resistance movements significant for the post war settlement. The states followed divergent paths from 1945 to 1990, as Communist governments took power in several. Events since 1989, as governments and economies moved into a transition period to capitalism and western type liberal democracy, the rise of nationalism and civil conflict, and the breakdown of Yugoslavia are of major significance.

Project Outline

The project focuses on a section of the geographical region of Macedonia, which became the present day Greek district of Kastoria.

The material is organised in layers defined by a timeline showing significant events and migrations in the period 1880 to 2000. The backbone of the presentation is a series of about forty maps that were generated during the analysis of data by an off-line Geographical Information System. The displays of spatial data also act as a hub technology linking and structuring data throughout the project and allowing users to navigate their way through this structure.

The content is drawn from a collection of quantitative and qualitative material consisting of historical documents, photographs (both contemporary and historical), postcards, short explanatory texts, demographic metadata in databases concerning about a hundred communities and multimedia presentations of places, historical events and cultural phenomena. The database material has been extracted from legacy database systems from the Museum of the Macedonian Struggle. This has both preserved the cultural data and opened it up to a much wider audience. An on-line bibliography on the subject is available.

The project presents information that has both geographic and temporal elements, with the time aspect being of particular importance. Organising the qualitative material by both time and geography was an early challenge. The representation of time posed some design questions when considered on its own but when combined with space the challenges and opportunities multiplied considerably. A number of existing projects were studied for possible directions at the outset of the project.

Much of the material recorded is unpublished and its availability online provides an invaluable resource. Its presentation through the web site is a form of digital museum presenting both archive and modern multimedia material. The GIS is a powerful visualisation tool that allows historical data to be explored and analysed through the use of maps and charts. Both the Web and GIS aspects of the project have highlighted issues concerning the design of information analysis tools and presentation media. The web site was used to integrate the quantitative and qualitative data and provide a medium for delivering interactive maps and animations.

Conclusions

Many of the perceived barriers to the more extensive use of spatial data in the humanities are due to the common misconception that if a project uses maps it has to use a GIS. However experience in the project has shown that even simple maps can yield valuable insights. The project also shows how spatial data can provide a ‘hub technology’ linking and structuring data throughout the project and allowing users to navigate their way through this structure.

The unavoidably steep learning curve were minimised by utilising the interoperability of GIS software with existing software that one is familiar with. The costs associated with additional hardware and spatial data acquisition can be minimised by utilising features of GIS software. Features such as ‘heads up’ digitising and ‘mosaicing’ avoid the need to buy expensive large format scanning and digitising hardware.

The project is one of a new style of digital projects in the humanities that make use of image, spatial database and text based technologies. It has explored methods of taking a range of unpublished material, quantitative and qualitative, and producing from it a digital museum of cultural heritage aimed primarily at the communities it describes. In doing so it exhibits the a broader social role of humanities computing and the resources it develops. It also benefits scholars in cultural studies, refugee studies and social science history. It demonstrates the application of information technology, especially Geographical Information Systems, to areas of cultural and historical studies. The presentation of information with both spatial and temporal aspects has presented a number of issues concerning information design in the humanities.

The project demonstrates that a great deal can be achieved in the visualisation of spatial data at a relatively low cost in terms of finance, time and expertise. A number of new technologies were explored and some novel web-based solutions to simple cartographic problems were identified. During the project it also became apparent that sometimes producing maps is not important, what matters is compiling and organising information from diverse sources according to geographical location. The process of visualising the spatial data, with or without a GIS, forces this to be done and provides insights in its own right.

Bibliography

A detailed bibliography will be included in the final paper. A brief list is appended here:
Race and Place:African American Community History. Edward L Ayers and William G Thomas, Virginia Center for Digital History and The Carter G. Woodson Institute of African and Afro-American Studies. http://www.vcdh.virginia.edu/afam/raceandplace/index.html

Gregory, Ian (2002). A place in History: a guide to using GIS in historical research
Healey, R.G. and Stamp, T.R. (2000). Historical GIS as a foundation for the analysis of regional economic growth: theoretical, methodological, and practical issues. Social Science History 24, 575-612.

Knowles, Anne Kelly (editor)(2002). Past Time, Past Place: GIS for History

Lang, L. (1995). GIS supports Holocaust survivors’ video archive. GIS World 8(10), 42-5

Mapping Migration web site http://www.kcl.ac.uk/cch/mmkm/main.htm

Ray, B. (2001) Salem Witchcraft Accusations. [online] http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/%7Ebcr/salem/salem.html

The Valley of Shadow. William G. Thomas, Director Virginia Center for Digital History, University of Virginia http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/vshadow2/

The Salem Witch Trials Documentary Archive and Transcription Project at University of Virginia. http://Etext.Virginia.edu/salem/witchcraft/home.html

The Survivors of the Shoa Visual History Foundation http://www.vhf.org","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094246/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop65.html",""
"423","5","Burrowing into Translation: Character Idiolects in Henryk Sienkiewicz's Trilogy and its Two English Translations","1","While computational stylistics and text analysis seems to be in constant quest for the just right set of criteria (see e.g. David Hoover's presentation at the 2002 ALLC/ACH Conference in Tübingen), this presentation will try to apply what has already become a standard in statistical stylistic analysis to a (relatively) novel material. Taking for granted Â— very unoriginally Â— the usefulness of John Burrows's method that has been around since his 1987 Computation into Criticism, in discerning stylistic differences between individual characters in works by the same author, I will try to see if the same or similar patterns of similarity and difference travel across linguistic boundaries; if differences between characters' ""idiolects"" are preserved in translation.

In a typically Polish approach to the matter, I have chosen as my material the trilogy of historical romances by Poland's first literary Nobel Prize winner, Henryk Sienkiewicz, written between 1882 and 1888, and its two English (or, more precisely, American) translations by Jeremiah Curtin (completed between 1890 and 1893) and W.S. Kuniczak (1991). The reasons for this choice have been manifold. First, Sienkiewicz's three novels, With Fire and Sword, The Deluge, and Pan Michael, although set in the turmoil of 17th-century Poland, remain to this day a major classic of Polish literature and the country's most popular reading. Second, a trilogy, the subsequent parts of which share some of their characters, seems ideal for Burrowsian analysis (a fact confirmed by the interesting coincidence of John Burrows's undertaking of a study of Beckett's bilingual trilogy in a much later paper). The final reason was the difference between the two translations, evident both in their being separated by an entire century and, what follows, in the entirely different approaches and results obtained by the two translators: the largely word-by-word transcoding by Sienkiewicz's contemporary and the highly adaptative and ""free"" method of the modern Polish-American writer.

Faithfully maintaining the original Burrows model, the study of distances between the ""idiolects"" of the major characters has been based on relative frequencies of the 30 most frequent words in the dialogue of each version of the trilogy. The resulting correlation matrices were then used to produce two-dimensional multidimensional scaling charts of distances between such ""idiolects.""

This procedure has yielded, in Sienkiewicz's original, a very consistent influence of the personae's social status and ethnic background, especially in the first part of the series. It is particularly visible in idiolects of 'enemy' (non-Polish) collective characters, usually plotted at some distance one from the other. Curtin's translation is notable for 'de-clustering' idiolects of various Polish gentry characters, making their idiolects much less alike. There is also a visible tendency in Curtin to limit the distances between rival collective characters and making them markedly similar rather than divergent as in the original. Idiolects in Kuniczak are even more evenly distributed, with a general trend towards greater distances and less clustering observable in the graphs. The very high resemblance between the idiolects of two major characters, ZagÅ‚oba and WoÅ‚odyjowski, in all three versions of The Deluge (almost identical in Sienkiewicz) is one of the most consistent traits of this portion of the analysis Â— an interesting illustration of the fact that the two personae's function of keeping the three volumes together becomes evident in the second part of the series. Sienkiewicz's social/ethnic idiosyncrasy has been confirmed in a plot for idiolects of characters involved in the Polish-Ukrainian conflict in With Fire and Sword, a feature slightly visible in Kuniczak and almost not at all in Curtin.

As perhaps the most consistent effect of all, the peripheral situation of female idiolects is a constant element in almost any configuration. The study of more detailed and thematic configurations of characters is also the source of interesting insight. Plots for female characters exhibit a tendency to group together young (and marriageable) Polish women; Helena's Ukrainian provenience is highly visible in Sienkiewicz, while the ethnic element is indiscernible in both translations. Among characters involved in each novel's eternal triangles, both of the above aspects are clearly visible in all three versions; differences between characters in the same triangle are quite considerable.

In an examination of characters that recur throughout the series, a good consistence has been observed between the three idiolects of the Polish Falstaff, ZagÅ‚oba, the most inveterate talker of the series, in each version separately: best in Sienkiewicz, worst in Curtin. Another character, WoÅ‚odyjowski, is much more of a developing character, which agrees well with the evolution of the persona in the course of the series, from a humble officer to the hero and spearhead of Sienkiewicz's ideology. This has been confirmed in a separate plotting of idiolects of those two characters.

A number of joint plots for Curtin's and Kuniczak's translations (based on frequent words common in both versions) have been made to investigate if there is a constant pattern in their respective differences. In agreement with some ""intuitive"" assessments as to the decreasing differences between Curtin's and Kuniczak's versions (mainly due to Kuniczak's gradual abandonment of adaptative procedures, especially on the microstructural level), the patterns become more consistent with time: fairly chaotic movement for the first part of the trilogy has become more ordered in the second and almost uniform in the third. The ""stylistic drift"" observed between idiolects in Curtin and in Kuniczak Â— divided, apart from their contrasting approaches to translation, by an even more significant difference of a whole century Â— is a vindication of Burrows's 'tiptoeing towards the infinite:' that visible and uniform shift in the configuration of the most frequent words in English texts with time.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094447/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop138.html",""
"424","5","Cohesive Explicitation in Translations","1","This paper supplies the results of a study of explicitating cohesive shifts in translations of English fiction texts into Swedish. On the basis of the results, the paper discusses different potential explanations for the phenomenon of translational explicitation. The subject of the paper relates specifically to the theme of “Computing and Multilingual, Multicultural Heritage” in that it focuses on cross-cultural and cross-linguistic mediation as a specific type of text production (cf. Baker 1995). This aspect of text production is particularly relevant to a small language such as Swedish, since a great deal of text published in Swedish is translated text. Moreover, very many translated texts are translations from English (cf. Wollin 1998).

Explicitation is a generic term for the different ways in which implicit source text content is being made explicit in the target language text through translation. Examples of such explicitation are cases in which a surface item is added in the target text, or cases where an item is made more semantically specific or more prominent in the target text (cf. Séguinot 1988). Explicitation is often claimed to be one of the more common typical features of translated texts (e.g. Chesterman 1997:71; Marco 2000:13). Further, explicitation has been listed among other proposed translation universals such as normalization and simplification (Baker 1996). However, although the phenomenon of explicitation is often pointed to, and although a small number of studies of varying scope and size have been carried out for some languages, it has generally not been empirically verified on a large scale in corpus studies. As for English and Swedish, no corpus research has been carried out which is specifically directed towards explicitation in Swedish translations of English texts.

A class of items which has been proposed to be likely to be explicitated is cohesive markers (Blum-Kulka 1986). This hypothesis has been confirmed by studies on explicitation in translation between different language pairs (cf. e.g. Weissbrod 1992; Klaudy 1993; Englund Dimitrova 1993; Øverås 1998). The explicitation of cohesive markers is the specific area of explicitation with which the study accounted for in the paper is concerned. In the investigation, the perspective is limited to grammatical cohesion. (Grammatical cohesion is described in terms of the frameworks in Halliday and Hasan 1976, Halliday 1994 and Nyström 2001.) The investigation focuses on explicitation of cohesive relations on the clause and sentence levels. Further, the area under study is restricted to explicitation through addition and semantic specification, i.e. not explicitation through changes in focus or items being given greater prominence by other means.

The corpus used for the investigation is The English-Swedish Parallel Corpus (ESPC), a combined comparable and parallel aligned corpus of English and Swedish original and translated fiction and non-fiction texts (cf. Altenberg, Aijmer and Svensson 2001). The structure of the corpus allows the comparison of non-translated and translated texts in the target language as well as the comparison of target language translated texts and their source language counterparts. The direction of translation studied is translation from English into Swedish, and the material used for the investigation is the fiction part of the ESPC. The method employed is computer-aided manual coding of corpus material. The further purpose of this type of coding is to establish a basis for formulating adequate search techniques for studying explicitation in corpora through automatic retrieval of surface patterns.

In addition to describing explicitating cohesive shifts of translation, a further aim of the paper is to tentatively discuss the distinction between systemically and pragmatically conditioned explicitation. The purpose of this discussion is to distinguish between such explicitating shifts that result from systemic linguistic contrast between the two languages involved, and shifts that have occurred in the absence of such typological restrictions, and that can thus be supposed to be more related to other factors. Examples of such factors are target community linguistic and translation norms, register differences, properties of specific source texts and the stylistic preferences of individual translators.

The findings of the study are expected to be of some relevance for translation research as well as translation teaching. The relevance for research is first of all the empirical description of explicitating shifts in translation from English into Swedish. Secondly, the findings are expected to contribute to the development of adequate tools and methodologies for retrieving material indicating explicitation from corpora. Thirdly, the findings are expected to contribute to theoretical development in the area of explicitation. Finally, the relevance for teaching is expected to be that a better description of explicitation will supply a better basis for discussions about explicitation and its role in cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication.

Bibliography

1. Altenberg, B, Aijmer, K, and Svensson, M. 2001. The English-Swedish Parallel Corpus (ESPC). Manual of enlarged version. URL: http://www.englund.lu.se/research/corpus/corpus/espc.html
2. Baker, M. 1995. ""Corpora in Translation Studies - An Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Research."" Target 7(2), 223-243.
3. Baker, M. 1996. ""Corpus-based translation studies: The challenges that lie ahead."" Terminology, LSP and Translation. Studies in language engineering in honour of Juan C. Sager. H. Somers. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
4. Blum-Kulka, S. 1986. ""Shifts of Cohesion and Coherence in Translation."" Interlingual and Intercultural Communication. Discourse and cognition in translation and second language aquisition, eds. Juliane House and Shoshana Blum-Kulka. Tübingen: Narr.
5. Chesterman, A. 1997. Memes of Translation. The spread of ideas in translation theory. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins.
6. Englund Dimitrova, B. 1993. ""Semantic Change in Translation - A Cognitive Perspective."" Translation and Knowledge, 285-296. Y. Gambier and J. Tommola. Turku: Centre for Translation and Interpreting at the Univ. of Turku.
7. Halliday, M. A. K. 1994. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Arnold.
8. Halliday, M. A. K. and R. Hasan 1976. Cohesion in English. London: Longman.
9. Klaudy, K. 1993. ""On explicitation hypothesis."" Transferre necesse est... Current Issues of Translation Theory. In honour of György Radó ed. by K. Klaudy, J. Kohn., 69-77. Szombathely: Daniel Berzsenyi College Printing Press.
10. Marco, J. 2000. ""Register Analysis in Literary Translation."" Babel 46(1):1-19.
11. Nyström, C. 2001. Hur hänger det ihop? En bok om textbindning. Uppsala: Hallgren & Fallgren.
12. Séguinot, C. 1988. ""Pragmatics and the Explicitation Hypothesis."" TTR. Traduction, terminologie, rédaction 1(2):106-113.
13. Weissbrod, R. 1992. ""Explicitation in translations of prose-fiction from English to Hebrew as a function of norms."" Multilingua: journal of cross-cultural and interlanguage communication 11(2):153-71.
14. Wollin, L. 1998. ""Den europeiska treklövern. Källspråk och litterär kvalitet i svensk boköversättning."" Översättning och tolkning. Rapport från ASLA:s höstsymposium, Stockholm, 5-6 november 1998, 347-59. Ed. by B. Englund Dimitrova. Uppsala: Association suédoise de linguistique appliqueé (Svenska fören. för tillämpad språkvetenskap) (ASLA).
15. Øverås, Linn. 1998. ""In search of the third code: An investigation of norms in literary translation."" In Meta 43.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094116/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop11.html",""
"425","5","teiPublisher a repository management system for TEI documents","1","Editors of TEI repositories working in SGML were limited to few databases, such as Dynaweb, to deliver their documents over the World Wide Web. With the release of the XML standard in 1998, industry experts predicted that there would be a proliferation of XML-aware software as programmers would find it easier to program applications to deliver XML over the Web. This has indeed come to pass. Over the past few years, a number of open source XML or native XML databases have been developed utilizing the xml:db api <www.xmldb.org>, such as eXist and Xindice, to name but two.

 

Programmers in the humanities computing community have begun using these databases for projects with great success. However, for projects that cannot afford programming support, the bar is still extremely high. Thus a group of programmers and content developers teamed to create an extensible, modular and configurable xml-based repository entitled teiPublisher that can house, search on, and display documents encoded in TEILite. This is an open source initiative which is being made available to the humanities computing community to allow projects with limited programming support to mount their TEILite encoded texts in a web-deliverable database. We will be launching a beta version of teiPublisher  at ACH/ALLC 2004.

 

Functionality

teiPublisher utilizes the native XML database eXist. It generates a public interface for browsing and searching. Equally as important, it provides an administrative interface that allows editors to:

·        upload and delete documents;

·        analyze xml documents to determine elements for searching;

·        refine ontology development;

·        decide on inter and intra document links;

·        partition the repository into collections;

·        create backups of the entire repository;

·        generate search/browse and display pages for users of the site;

·        change the look of the interface;

·        associate xsl stylesheets.

 

Some of the features mentioned above, particularly ontology development, cannot be met by the software alone. Rather, teiPublisher provides a helper application to allow content creators to view the content of elements and attributes used in controlled vocabularies, and highlight semantic inconsistencies. It also assists in selecting elements and attributes which will ultimately be searched on.

 

The rest of this paper will describe various components of teiPublisher in detail.

Analysis of Document Instances
A majority of elements typically searched on via a search page are contained in the teiHeader. The teiHeader provides declarative and descriptive information about the text which is composed of four distinct parts: the fileDesc, encodingDesc, profileDesc, and revisionDesc. These elements, along with their associated child elements, can be selected as areas of interest in an XML document and be checked for uniformity across the entire repository. This check can be as broad as confirming the existence of a particular element or elements, or an element set, or confirming that a predefined set of values developed for an ontology has been adhered to.

 

When an editor first loads documents into the repository, teiPublisher's xml analyser will take her through a series of steps that will highlight information regarding elements in the teiHeader present across the document set. It will then point out elements missing from particular instances, and will act as a visualizer so that the editors can decide if missing elements need to be added before the instance is added to the database.

 

Once the original set of documents has been homogenized, as new instances are added, teiPublisher will process the xml document confirming whether particular elements from the teiHeader are present, and that elements which contain controlled vocabulary information are not only present, but conform to a pre-existing scheme.

 

For the first release of the software, the customization tools are predicated on a project using TEILite. By developing teiPublisher for the TEILite DTD, we can make certain assumptions which can be built into the logic of the application. These rules can be overridden or customized by an editor to match a particular repository's requirements.

 

Repository Management
Another feature of teiPublisher is the ability to allow editors to construct search pages based on TEI elements or attributes. The selection of a node creates an Xpath expression that is used for search purposes. This mechanism also allow scholars with knowledge of Xpath <www.w3.org/TR/xpath> to further refine searches. For example, the application may automatically generate an XPath expression to search for the <author> element, but to search for both <author> and <editor>, an editor will need to modify the XPath. An example of this feature can be seen in the image below:



 

The design of the web pages are customizable via the wiki concept <http://wiki.org/wiki.cgi?WhatIsWiki>, thus an editor is able to control the looks of the web page through a dynamic window which reflects changes immediately.  An example of this feature can be seen in the image below in which the HTML modifications made in the right hand pane are reflected in the generated page to the left:

 


In addition, editors are provided with an interface to customize the first result page so that only the value from selected elements (such as author, date, and title) is displayed, as in the example below:



 

By the same token, the browse page will allow the contents of repositories  categorized by collection, such as primary and secondary texts, or another sorting mechanism, such as alphabetical or date order, to be displayed by category. The repository will also allow editors to control access to the collection by allowing only certain IP addresses or a range of IP addresses to access content.

 

Publishing Documents

teiPublisher will allow a broad range of customizations. Since we will be employing XSLT stylesheets to display documents, these stylesheets can be customized according to project needs. As the application includes an apache tomcat server which will publish the repository on the web, very little technical knowledge is assumed of the editors. The administrative interface will guide editors through a series of steps that will setup and publish the repository.

 

Architecture

Customization data generated by the user, such as XPath expressions, HTML code, CSS stylesheet, search terms, and access control is stored in several xml files. This information is used to generate the public interfaces of the repository.

 

The project is based on eXist <http://exist.sourceforge.net>. Since it utilizes the xml:db api, other xml databases, such as xindice and Tamino, that support the api can be plugged in.

The figure below shows the interaction between the administrative client, which generates the xml configuration files per project repository, and the teiPublisher web application which reads the configuration files to generate the repository portal:

 



 

Newer technologies based on a java platform like JavaServer Faces makes it easier to build user interfaces as reusable components. These user interfaces can be represented as stateful objects on the server, separating rendering and event management. The use of Model View Controller Architecture along with XSLT helps to decouple the binding between data, logic and view. The customization data for logic is largely based upon XPath expressions which are generated by editors' interaction with the xml analyzer. Data customization, such as the development of a controlled vocabulary, is made possible through XPath expressions which, in turn, create  the search and browse facility.

Conclusion
The process of making a customizable repository is much more challenging than developing a repository for specific content. The problems or unsatisfactory results created by a one size fits all solution can be mitigated by the customization modules which provide editors with choices, from how to store the data, to what elements will be searched on, to display modes.

 

References

1.    eXist: an Open Source Native Xml database <http://eXist.sourceforge.net:>

2.    The xml:db: Initiave <http://www.xmldb.org>

3.    The Text Encoding Initiative <www.tei-c.org:>

4.    XML Path Language (XPath) < http://www.w3.org/TR/xpath >

5.    Greenstone Digital Library Software <http://www.greenstone.org>

6.    Magnolia Content Management <http://www.obinary.com/en/magnolia.html>

7.    Witten, Ian. H. and David Bainbridge. How to Build a Digital Library. (New York: Morgan Kaufmann, 2003)","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094415/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop118.html",""
"426","5","Using AMP technology (Apache, MySQL, PHP) for XML publication","1","Since the release of XML 1.0 in 1998, the academic world, along with the business and scientific worlds, was introduced to a new type of data storage that would overcome the problems of database management systems (interoperability), HTML (lack of description) and SGML (complexity). For our community the result was the ability for scholars to encode their documents in a way that was platform and application independent and allowed for very rich, descriptive markup. Following suit, the TEI released P4 of the TEI guidelines which implemented ""proper XML support"".

XML, and TEI P4 have proved remarkably useful in encoding documents and, as was evidenced in the last two TEI meetings (Chicago and Nancy), the interest in XML and the TEI is growing.

The one stumbling block that many users of XML and the TEI face, however, is the lack of tools to query, process, and display their XML-encoded documents on the Web. Quite simply, users wish to query their XML documents with the ease of a DBMS and display them on the Web with the ease of HTML. It is not impossible to do these two things now, but the learning curve to do either is quite steep and the tools are nowhere near as robust as they need to be for large projects.

On the display side, things are getting easier. XSLT has become established as the language to convert XML to HTML for display. XSLT processors are still a bit difficult to use but once mastered the conversion process is quite easy.

Querying is a different story. The W3C is working on the XQuery language and there are a few native XML databases, such as eXist, which are promising, but XQuery is far from becoming a useful language, and eXist, though useful, has proved very slow when querying large number of files.

This climate has resulted in those in the community interested in querying and displaying XML documents cobbling together their own systems. Two such promising ones within the community are Peter Robinson's Anastasia and Mark Olsen's PhiloLogic.

I've put together a very simple publication package, too, that I feel addresses the needs of many in the community: price, performance, and development time. I would not suggest that this package is THE solution for querying and publishing XML on the web, and in the future I hope to use Xquery or a native XML database when the technology is robust, but, for the time being, this is a very affordable, powerful, and easy to learn solution.

The system I have developed uses Apache, PHP, MySQL, and XSLT to query and publish XML documents on the web. It was developed for the web publication of The Public Writings of Margaret Sanger in the department of history at New York University. This online edition is part of a much larger endeavor, The Margaret Sanger Papers Project, which includes an already completed microfilm edition of over 9,000 of Sanger's documents, plus a four-volume book edition of Sanger's papers, the first volume of which has been published with the title The Woman Rebel, 1900-1928. The Sanger documents are TEI encoded and use the Model Editions Partnership DTD.

The backend of this system is a MySQL database. The database fields are populated by running a PHP script that parses XML files using the Expat parser. It captures the data of certain elements and inputs this data into a corresponding field in the database. The script for the Sanger project captures title, publication date, document type, category, and body. The ability to parse XML is built in to standard compilations of PHP.

This MySQL database is queried by the end user to find appropriate documents in the Sanger collection through web front end written in HTML. PHP is used as the middleware to talk to the MySQL database. For the Sanger project, users can search by full text, title, date range, document type, and category.

After performing a search, a user is presented with a list of documents in the web browser that match the criteria of the search. To view a document, he or she clicks on the appropriate link.

The document is presented to the user as HTML that is generated from the XML files (not the database) on-the-fly using PHP, XSLT, and Sablotron, an XSLT processor.

This system meets the three criteria mentioned earlier: price, performance, and development time.

Price: All of the tools used in this system are free and open source (Apache, MySQL, PHP, XSLT, Sablotron). Most are installed with any standard Unix/Linux distribution and all can be installed on Windows.
Performance: This system is very efficient. The PHP script that parses the XML and inputs data into the database runs very quickly. It can be rerun on selected XML files if changes are made and can update the data in the database when needed. This data is immediately available for searching in the MySQL database. The XML files are unchanged when parsed by the PHP script and are the same XML files that processed by Sablotron to output HTML for the end users.
The queries of the MySQL database are extremely fast and the on-the-fly XSLT transformations range from a few seconds to instantaneous.

Development time: This system requires knowledge of XSLT, PHP, and SQL. Of the three, XSLT is the most difficult to learn but must be learned for any system publishing XML files. SQL and PHP are much easier to learn.
Since MySQL, PHP, and Apache are proven technologies that are preinstalled on most Linux and Unix distributions, there is little configuration or installation to be done to make this system work. The Sablotron XSLT processor needs to be installed and PHP needs to be reconfigured with the XSLT processor extension. But when that is finished, the user has all the tools needed to query and publish XML.

This paper is not theoretical, but is intended to be more than just a software demonstration. The issue of how to process and deliver XML-encoded documents over the web is an important issue in our community and one that warrants serious attention. Though there is ample support for encoding issues through the ALLC, ACH and TEI, many in our community are less confident when it comes to processing their encoded documents. Many of the tools available today such as Cocoon and eXist are still out of reach to Humanists because of the instability and complexity of the tools. And many commercial products are out of reach because the their price. I hope this paper will give an overview of the issues involved in querying and displaying XML-encoded documents that we hope to resolve in the next years and I hope this paper would enable those with small budgets and tight schedules to produce a robust XML publishing with standard open source tools available on most Linux/Unix distributions.

References

1. Development version of Margaret Sanger project: http://wilde.acs.its.nyu.edu/sanger/documents/search.php
2. How-to for installing Sablotron and recompiling PHP with XSLT extensions: http://www.nyu.edu/its/humanities/docs/php_xslt.html","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040813193724/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop156.html",""
"427","5","Way Beyond Powerpoint: XML-driven SVG for Presentations","1","What makes the best technology for ""presentations"" is a delicate and politically sensitive question. It even receives occasional attention in the media, as schools adopt presentations technologies and as commentators debate their merits. Recently (May 2003) it has gotten special scrutiny from the guru of visual information design, Edward Tufte1, who has written a diatribe directed specifically at Microsoft PowerPoint but largely applicable to presentations software in general: The Cognitive Style of PowerPoint [Tufte 2003].2 This reaction comes only when entire worlds (and not just in the academy, but in government, business, and primary/secondary education as well) have seemingly come to be dominated by PowerPoint; more even than other computer media, presentations packages seem to promise easy ""dazzle"" Â— a seduction we can all recognize. But as its users know (and as Tufte details), Powerpoint comes with its weaknesses and shortcomings as well as its strengths. These include not only features of its design, but in externals as well, such as its cost and its closed data format.

There exist several options if one wants to forsake Powerpoint or one of its analogues (Corel WordPerfect Presentations, the new Keynote for the Macintosh, etc.) for sequences of HTML pages, which (especially with the help of CSS) can also make perfectly respectable ""slides"" for presentation; this approach works at least as well as the proprietary packages, and sometimes better, especially when such pages are generated from a stronger authoring format, such as TEI or a custom tag set.3 But an extremely tempting Â— ultimately, it would seem, the ideal Â— target format is not HTML (which does bullet points readily enough, but whose visual capabilities are limited) but SVG. Scalable Vector Graphics, a W3C Recommendation4 is a general-purpose declarative tag set specifically designed for describing the rendition of vector graphics, which has already made an impact in both interactive viewers, and print; it is also well-suited for projection and classroom group-interactive work.

Several XML to SVG presentations packages exist, the handiwork of various XML pioneers. A discursive series of lists of bullet points is actually a fairly challenging target for SVG, which is not designed to provide for typographic layout features such as line spacing or word wrapping.5 Nonetheless, by means of various workarounds these problems can be dealt with, and these packages demonstrate how even rudimentary XML can be used effectively to get quite tasteful results [Mulberry 2002].

But if bullet points are what is wanted, HTML is better; SVG's main advantage is that as a native graphics format Â— and, not incidentally, one specifically engineered to scale graphics Â— it also has the potential to take us far, far beyond Powerpoint. Several attached screenshots and SVG files show how SVG can be applied to reinvent the application of ""slideshow"" or projection technologies to the classroom. These images and interfaces (since some of them have dynamic controls to be used in real time, and/or are ""browsable"") are assembled through a combination of routines in the form of an XSLT transformation, operating over source XML files, to create either a standalone SVG image, or a linked sequence of images, calling in libraries of jpegs and SVGs to include as components.6

These are productions of a larger or looser library of XSLT routines (developed by the author) whose function is to automate the creation of SVG output from mixed text and image input. These XSLT templates constitute a set of primitives (think of it as a library of classes or subroutines), performing various functions such as drawing boxes, sequencing, lining up and arranging text, and so forth. These templates can then be called from others, assigned to match element types. An XML source document is provided with markup that is completely prospective, tied (like HTML but not like a ""descriptive"" tag set such as TEI) to a particular output format Â— there is not even a DTD to validate against, only the processing stylesheet itself to run, and output to inspect Â— but declarative, designed to minimize or eliminate manual labor and leave only those adjustments to be made that cannot be made by the machine unaided.

One of these applications is being used in a professional context by Mr. Jim Surkamp, an associate of the author's, whose lectures on the United States Constitutional Convention of 1787 (presented at the US Government's Eastern Management Development Center7) have provided a perfect occasion for the development and application of a truly dynamic classroom use. The aim here was to provide visuals which should be supporting players, not the center or ""star"" of the lecture.8 Any projected visuals could be drawn in to provide context; but they should not have to encapsulate the presentation's content Â— on the contrary, if we assume the lecturer knows his material, to repeat it on screen would be redundant at best, at worst an interference. In Surkamp's case, the hour and a half (or sometimes more, at the participants' demand) is conducted in a role-playing mode, with participants assuming the task of representing the interests of the different States at the Convention. Attention is focused not on Surkamp, nor even on the participants themselves, but on the issues faced by the Delegates of 1787.

In this context, visuals must be supportive but subdued, working fluidly, not imposing a schedule or sequence; and they should degrade gracefully, allowing for tangents and distractions, or even for the presenter to set them aside and do completely without them.

These goals were achieved by a single SVG image.9 (A photograph of Mr Surkamp in front of the display appears below. That there is only a single image here Â— used in a presentation that goes well into a second hour Â— does not mean that it is simple or that little information is conveyed by it.) Scripting was added in order to provide pre-set zoom positions to show, in detail, a set of images that can be traversed as the presenter chooses. A simple ""one-click"" user interface allows the presenter to bring in or hide content, or zoom in and out, at will, using the dynamic capabilities of the digital medium to serve directly the purposes of focusing attention and capturing the viewers' imaginations Â— rather than being merely gratuitous and distracting, like PowerPoint's ""fly-ins"". A great stress is placed on the detail of images that scale on the screen, so inset images may be scrutinized more closely than would be possible using the limited graphics support of typical presentations packages.

Figure F1
[Figure 1: surkmap.jpg: Mr Jim Surkamp demonstrates an application of SVG for classroom use.]


Since authoring does not occur directly in SVG, but rather in a simplified custom XML tag set, which distills to its essence the problem of arranging and laying out the content, even an SVG amateur can create these (as is, in fact, the case here). The presenter then runs the source document (ahead of time, in a batch process) through a stylesheet that combines some of the library primitives described above with specialized code for this application. The SVG thus created is more like what comes out of a ""mill"", than anything hand-crafted. But this milling allows for artistic composition of elements at a higher level.

The XML source thus serves as a metalanguage with respect to the SVG display, while being strictly ""presentational"" (though high-level and declarative) with respect to the content of the presentation. Its presentational aspect is justifiable when we reflect that its dependence on a particular implementation Â— the stylesheet that goes with it Â— is (far from being a limitation and a design flaw) part of the idea: this metalanguage is not a work of theory, but a practical application. Having developed and demonstrated this technology, the author has found it helpful himself for his presentations and lectures.

NOTES

1. Tufte is known as the author of several influential books on graphic design, including Envisioning Information [Tufte 1990] and The Visual Display of Quantitative Information [Tufte 2001].
2. See also [Parker 2001] and various other commentators on line (a growing list readily found with a web search), including an amusing reduction of Tufte's article to a series of bullet points [Swartz 2003].
3. See [Mulberry 2002].
4. See [SVG 2003a], as well as coverage on SVG readily available on line.
5. Some of these features are due to be provided for in subsequent versions of the language: see [SVG 2003b].
6. To view these SVG files, download and install the Adobe SVG Viewer (versions for Windows and Mac OS X are available) from http://www.adobe.com/svg/overview/whatsnew.html. (Any SVG viewer may be used, but the demonstrations make use of scripting available in the Adobe viewer to provide menu options in the ""context menu"" on a right-mouse-button click.)
7. Located in Shepherdstown, West Virginia, this government training facility is on the web at http://www.leadership.opm.gov/emdc.html.
8. This design goal was articulated with an implicit awareness of one of the key points in Tufte's argument about PowerPoint (see [Tufte 2003, p. 12], namely that paradoxically, the layout of bullet points on a projected slide is actually a very narrow channel for communication. In effect, bullet points throttle a complex exposition or argument. It was precisely because the materials in Mr. Surkamp's lecture were so compelling and of such moment (lecturing about the origins of the US Constitution to an audience of aspiring public servants who had sworn to uphold it) that we considered that bullet points weren't up to the job.
9. This and other demonstrations can be provided by the author on request.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. [Mulberry 2002] Mulberry Technologies, Inc. XML-based Presentation Tools. On line at http://mulberrytech.com/walkthewalk.html.
2. [Parker 2001] Ian Parker, ""Absolute Powerpoint: Can a software package edit our thoughts"". The New Yorker, May 28, 2001. On line at http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/group/powerpt.html.
3. [SVG 2003a] Jon Ferraiolo, Jun Fujisawa and Dean Jackson, eds. Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) 1.1 Specification. W3C Recommendation 14 January 2003. On line at http://www.w3.org/TR/SVG11/.
4. [SVG 2003b] Dean Jackson, ed. Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) 1.2. W3C Working Draft 13 November 2003. On line at http://www.w3.org/TR/SVG12/.
5. [Swartz 2003] Aaron Swartz, PowerPoint Remix (May 2003), at http://www.aaronsw.com/weblog/000931.
6. [Tufte 1990] Edward Tufte, Envisioning Information. Graphics Press, 1990.
7. [Tufte 2001] Edward Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. 2nd edition. Graphics Press, 2001.
8. [Tufte 2003] Edward R. Tufte, The Cognitive Style of Powerpoint. Cheshire, Connecticut: Graphics Press LLC, 2003. See http://www.edwardtufte.com.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040813193235/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop114.html",""
"428","5","Italian NLP: Computational Linguistics Meets Literary Text Analysis","1","The paper will describe an experiment to apply a suite of tools for Natural Language Processing (NLP) of Italian to literary texts. The work will show that state-of-the-art computational linguistics technology can be profitably used to support text linguistic analysis and to gain deeper insights into authors' language. The corpus chosen for the reported experiment was formed by some Calvino's works, selected on diachronic line to cover all his production (~ 500.000 words). The corpus was parsed through a ""pipeline"" of NLP tools (Italian NLP, http://foxdrake.ilc.cnr.it/~webtools) performing a ""shallow"" syntactic analysis of input texts. The output analyses have been used to collect data about the distribution of a set of relevant features in Calvino's texts, in order to assess the impact of spoken language upon the narrative, by means of syntactic adjustment as mention of the subject, dislocations, hanging topic, ellipsis and repetition.

Italian NLP is a suite of linguistic processing tools based on the paradigm of ""shallow NLP"". Traditional full-parsing techniques seek to associate to each sentence a fully specified recursive structure, in order to identify the proper syntagmatic composition, as well as the relations of functional dependency among the identified constituents. The drawback of full parsing is that it is an extremely costly task for most of existing systems since it needs huge amounts of linguistic knowledge to work properly. Conversely, the main philosophy of ""shallow processing"" is that NLP systems can resort to a shallower level of syntactic description, which, although underspecified under various respects, still provides enough syntactic information as the basis for higher-level analyses.

After a short outline of shallow parsing, the paper will describe the main features of the processing tools forming the Italian NLP suite. The text processing chain starts out with the morphological analyser (MAGIC), which assigns to each word form in the tokenised input all its possible lemmas, together with the morpho-syntactic features describing them. On the morphologically analysed text a shallow syntactic analysis is then carried out, which includes chunking, a process of non-recursive text segmentation, and dependency analysis, aimed at identifying the full range of functional relations (e.g. subject, object, modifier, complement, etc.) within each sentence.

Text chunking is carried out through a battery of finite state automata (CHUNK-IT, Federici et al., 1998), which takes as input a morphologically analysed and lemmatised text and segments it into an unstructured sequence of syntactically organized text units called chunks. Chunking requires a minimum of linguistic knowledge that is through recourse to an 'empty' syntactic lexicon, which contains no other information than the entry's lemma, part of speech and morpho-syntactic features. The resulting analyses are flat: all chunks are represented at the same structural level, as daughters of the same top node. At this stage, a chunked sentence does not give information about the nature and scope of inter-chunk dependencies. These dependencies are identified during the last phase of dependency analysis, carried out by IDEAL (Italian DEpendency AnaLyzer, Lenci et al. 2001).

IDEAL includes two main components: (i.) a core grammar; (ii.) a syntactic lexicon of ~26,400 subcategorization frames for nouns, verbs and adjectives derived from the Italian LE-PAROLE syntactic lexicon (Ruimy et al. 1998). The IDEAL core grammar is formed by ~100 rules covering the major syntactic phenomena. The grammar rules are regular expressions (implemented as finite state automata) defined over chunk sequences, augmented with tests on chunk and lexical attributes. The rules are organized into two major modules: 1) structurally-based rules and 2) lexically-based rules.

It is worth stressing the fact that the Italian NLP tools have been developed for purposes and domains other than literary text analysis, and mainly concerning human language technology and language engineering applications. A challenging aspect of the experiment we carried out was exactly the customisation of computational linguistics technology at the needs of literary texts investigation. The target linguistic analysis to be performed on the corpus concerned the identification of features of spoken language into the narrative, with special regard to syntactic adjustment and sentences with marked order of elements, in order to evaluate the impact of spoken Italian over the written production. In the spoken language, phenomena of markedness pertain the mise en relief of certain information in the utterance. The same mechanism can be applied in the written language whenever placing emphasis provokes the reiteration of an information already provided (this is the case of the subject, being Italian a pro-drop language) or a repetition (anaphoric or cataphoric use of unnecessary pronouns) along with a shift of the focused element to a marked position in the sentence (hanging topic). The nature of the investigation, i.e. the utilization of a computational tool for the specific domain of the narrative, lead us to plan and develop essential changes within the framework of IDEAL, not just to fulfil the particular objectives on Calvino but to serve the narrative domain as a whole.

In order to gain more precise results, some existing rules were implemented and new ones compiled. Adaptations and new rules moved from the subcategorization of various VPs and endeavour to achieve a better definition of their arguments. The rules were designed and arranged follow the degree of embedment of the clauses, moving from the most embedded one to the main clause. The paper will report the first experiments to assess the contribution of the new rules to derive more accurate syntactic analyses. Preliminary evaluations are encouraging and interesting patterns of evolution in Calvino's language and style are emerging out of the corpus processed with Italian NLP.

REFERENCES: Texts:

1. CALVINO I., Opere, Romanzi e racconti, 3 voll., Milano, Meridiani Mondatori, 1994.
REFERENCES: Studies:

1. ABNEY S. P., Parsing by Chunks, in R. C. BERWICK et al. (eds.), Principled-Based Parsing: Computation and Psycholinguistics, Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1991, 257-278.
2. BAZZANELLA C., Le facce del parlare. Un approccio pragmatico all'italiano parlato, Firenze --Roma, La Nuova Italia, 1994.
3. BERRETTA M., Il parlato italiano contemporaneo. In: L. Serianni-P. Trifone (eds.), Storia della lingua italiana, II, Scritto e parlato, Torino, Einaudi, 1994, 239-270.
4. BERRUTO G., Le dislocazioni a destra in italiano. In: H. Stammerjohann (cur.), Tema-Rema in italiano, Tübingen, 1986, 55-70.
5. BONSAVER G., Il mondo scritto. Forme e ideologia nella narrativa di Italo Calvino, Tirrenia, Torino, 1995.
6. CARROLL J., BRISCOE T., CALZOLARI N., FEDERICI S., MONTEMAGNI S., PIRRELLI V., GREFENSTETTE G., SANFILIPPO A., CARROLL G., ROOTH M., Specification of Phrasal Parsing, SPARKLE Deliverable 1.1, 1996.
7. CARROLL G., LIGHT M., PRESCHER D., ROOTH M., CARROLL J., BRISCOE T., KORHONEN A., MCCARTHY D., CALZOLARI N., FEDERICI S., MONTEMAGNI S., PIRRELLI V., Syntactic and Semantic Type and Selection, Deliverable 5.1, Work Package 5, EC project, 1997.
8. CHOMSKY N., Barriers, Cambridge MA, MIT Press, 1986.
9. DE MAURO T., 1963, Lessico di frequenza dell'italiano parlato, Milano, Etas.
10. FEDERICI S., MONTEMAGNI S., PIRRELLI V, Shallow Parsing and Text Chunking: a View on Underspecification in Syntax, in J. CARROLL (ed.), Proceedings of the Workshop On Robust Parsing, Prague, Czech Republic, 12-16 August 1996.
11. FEDERICI S., MONTEMAGNI S., PIRRELLI V., Chunking Italian: Linguistic and Task-oriented Evaluation, in Proceedings of the First International Conference on Language resources and Evaluation, Granada, Spain, 1998a.
12. FEDERICI S., MONTEMAGNI S., PIRRELLI V., An Analogy-based System for Lexicon Acquisition, SPARKLE Working Paper, 1998b.
13. FEDERICI S., MONTEMAGNI S., PIRRELLI V., CALZOLARI N., Analogy-based Extraction of Lexical Knowledge form Corpora: the SPARKLE Experience, in Proceedings of the First International Conference on Language resources and Evaluation, Granada, Spain, 1998c.
14. FEDERICI S., PIRRELLI V., Analogy, Computation and Linguistic Theory, in H. SOMERS, D. JONES (eds.), New Methods in Language Processing, London, University College London, 1996.
15. LENCI A., MONTEMAGNI S., PIRRELLI V., SORIA C., NETTER K., RAJMAN M., Corpora for Evaluation, ELSE (LE4-8340) Deliverable D5, 1999.
16. LENCI A., MONTEMAGNI S., PIRRELLI V., SORIA C., Where opposites meet. A Syntactic Meta-scheme for Corpus Annotation and Parsing Evaluation, in Proceedings of LREC-2000, Athens, Greece, 31 May - 2 June 2000, 625-632.
17. LENCI A., BARTOLINI R., CALZOLARI N., CARTIER E., Document Analysis, MLIS-5015 MUSI, Deliverable D3.1, 2001.
18. LONGOBARDI G., Reference and Proper Names: A Theory of N-Movement in Syntax and Logical Form, «Linguistic Inquiry», XXV (1994), 609-665.
19. MENGALDO P.V., Aspetti della lingua di Calvino. In: La tradizione del Novecento, Terza serie, Torino, Einaudi, 1991.
20. ROVENTINI A., Palomar: a Computer-aided Analysis of some Lexical and Stylistic Features, PhD thesis, Università di Pisa, 1973.
21. RUIMY N., BATTISTA M., CORAZZARI O., GOLA E., SPANU A., Italian Lexicon Documentation, WP3.11 LE-PAROLE, Pisa, 1998.
22. SORNICOLA R., Sul parlato, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1981.
23. VOGHERA M., Sintassi e intonazione nell'italiano parlato, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1992.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094339/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop97.html",""
"429","5","Hermeneia: un banco de recursos multilingüe para el estudio de la literatura a través de las tecnologías digitales","1","Nadie se atreve ya a negar que Internet está cambiando nuestras vidas, la manera de actuar, de relacionarnos, de consumir, de informarnos, de aprender. Como en el resto de áreas del conocimiento y de la cultura, la literatura también ha encontrado su espacio propio en la red, y las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación han introducido nuevos cambios en la manera como ésta se crea, se estudia, se enseña y se recibe en nuestros días. El proyecto de investigación Hermeneia: Estudios Literarios y Tecnologías Digitales apuesta claramente por una literatura emergente que consideramos, sin duda, un campo muy fértil que es necesario empezar a labrar a través de la reflexión y la valoración de las consecuencias de la aplicación de las TIC en los procesos de composición, recepción, distribución y docencia del producto literario. Para ello, el grupo Hermeneia ha definido como ámbitos temáticos de investigación a) el estudio de las alteraciones en las formas de creación y de difusión de la literatura –y sus efectos- a lo largo de la historia, b) las TIC y la difusión de la literatura, c) las TIC y la docencia de la literatura, d) el hipertexto como convergencia entre la teoría literaria y la tecnología, y e) el estudio de la creación literaria electrónica (e-literatura).



Una de las herramientas básicas que hemos concebido para el proyecto Hermeneia ha sido su página web (www.uoc.edu/in3/hermeneia). [IMAGEN 1: home_hermeneia.gif]. La página pretende ser un espacio en el cual se puedan analizar y discutir los aspectos más controvertidos e interesantes del nuevo panorama literario que empieza a perfilarse. Una de las bases sobre las cuales trabaja Hermeneia –y cualquier grupo de investigación- es el de esbozar el estado de la cuestión. En nuestro caso, a la hora de realizar esta operación, tan significativo será lo que vayamos encontrando por el camino como aquellos vacíos que quedan por llenar, de tal manera que podamos discernir en un futuro qué es lo que nosotros aportamos, cuáles son los silencios que más nos preocupan, pero también cuáles son las carencias más importantes que deben ser subsanadas. Asimismo, la web del grupo de investigación pretende ser un instrumento básico para la comunicación entre los miembros del grupo (que provienen de dieciocho universidades: catalanas, inglesas, francesas, finlandesas, italianas y norteamericanas) y también representa una oportunidad de oro para poner al alcance de la comunidad universitaria, docente e investigadora, una labor que debe sobrepasar necesariamente —y esta es una de las posibilidades más atrayentes que nos ofrece el medio— las fronteras académicas más inmediatas, más cercanas a los investigadores del grupo, para conciliar los intereses y la adhesión de estudiosos que no pertenecían al equipo original y que han reforzado las propuestas de estudio, así como la variedad lingüística en que se generan, con el consiguiente beneficio de las distintas literaturas nacionales. Con ello se ha logrado que investigadores europeos y americanos formen parte del grupo de forma abierta y con distintos grados de vinculación y colaboración. El multilingüismo de la página, que se ofrece en versión catalana, española, francesa e inglesa facilita, bajo nuestro parecer, la consecución de estos objetivos, a la vez que se esfuerza por actuar de “contenedor” o “preservador” de creaciones literarias y de reflexiones teóricas en lenguas como el portugués, el italiano, y el alemán, además del catalán, el español, el inglés o el francés. En este sentido, la web de HERMENEIA actúa también como preservadora del patrimonio literario electrónico en la red. Una especie de “museo” que alberga la creación y la reflexión sobre la literatura en un entorno informático.

Sin embargo, la página está orientada básicamente hacia el análisis teórico de las nuevas formas de creación literaria que se han afianzado con la amplia implantación de las tecnologías digitales en la sociedad contemporánea y por ello nos interesa plantearnos los interrogantes más significativos desde la teoría literaria a propósito del mundo literario digital. En este sentido, se ofrece un banco de recursos que alberga un catálogo de más de dos centenares de enlaces a textos teóricos, que se va actualizando periódicamente (Sala de Lectura - http://www.uoc.edu/in3/hermeneia/sala_de_lectura.htm), en el cual se encuentran los textos más relevantes del panorama internacional y una sección dedicada a la producción generada por el mismo grupo de investigación, así como una agenda de congresos y simposios y un resumen de las actividades investigadoras realizadas por el grupo. Las nuevas formas de creación literaria (e-literatura) han permitido confeccionar una Antología de Literatura Digital (http://www.uoc.edu/in3/hermeneia/antologia.htm) de casi doscientas creaciones que complementa los aspectos teóricos con la posibilidad de consultar ejemplos prácticos de escritura digital en diversas lenguas.

Gracias a la reflexión que nos permite desarrollar todo este material compilado es posible lanzar una mirada crítica sobre el presente de la literatura digital, su teorización, su práctica, sus formas de difusión, etc., para lo cual se ha elaborado un llamado “cibermapa” (http://www.uoc.edu/in3/hermeneia/cibermapa.htm) de más de un centenar de fichas que permita establecer cuál es el estado de la cuestión, aunque admitamos que este estado de la cuestión está sometido a un proceso de cambio continuo. [IMAGEN 2: cibermapa.gif].



Este “cibermapa” nace con la voluntad ingenua de cumplir la función de mediador, entre el público interesado en la literatura y en Internet, mediante la descripción de un panorama descomunalmente vasto. Por ello, cualquier clasificación que haya surgido de esta observación previa de la red siempre será una clasificación inexacta, parcial, porque parte de una realidad que no tiene medidas humanas. O sea, que la motivación inicial que aportó Vannevar Bush a la concepción de un sistema de tratamiento de la información que permitiera poner al alcance de muchos lo que en principio empezaba a parecer inabarcable (Memex), es la misma que nos lleva a nosotros a intentar definir unos itinerarios de navegación que relacionan la literatura y las nuevas tecnologías, y que pretende encontrar puntos destacables y decisivos que sirvan, también, para desarrollar la investigación. [IMAGEN 3: ficha_cibermapa.gif]



Esta primera fase del trabajo del grupo de investigación (2002-2003) ha servido para hacer el mapa digital-literario y ahora llega el momento de hacer análisis críticos más profundos sobre herramientas de enseñanza así como sobre obras digitales concretas. Esto nos permitirá pasar al desarrollo de una metodología propia acerca de la investigación en esta área que, esperamos, pueda exportarse a otros grupos de investigación.

Por otro lado, este joven proyecto, además de poner de manifiesto, analizar y estudiar la confluencia entre la teoría de la literatura y las tecnologías digitales, pretende que estos estudios influyan en el ámbito de la docencia -especialmente la docencia virtual de literatura en la Universitat Oberta de Catalunya- a través de los usos pedagógicos de los medios digitales. Esta influencia se ha concretado en la confección de hipertextos educativos (http://www.uoc.edu/in3/hermeneia/exemples.htm) que forman parte de los materiales didácticos con los que trabajan los estudiantes de nuestra universidad. [IMAGEN 4: ejemplo_didáctico.gif]. De esta manera, se pone de manifiesto que un mayor conocimiento del medio posibilita no sólo la renovación de la tarea docente sino que también redunda en un mayor rendimiento académico, además de promover el cambio en la concepción del estudio de la literatura, tanto por parte de los estudiantes como de los profesores. Algunos de estos Ejemplos Didácticos elaborados por profesores y estudiantes también son accesibles a través de la web de Hermeneia y ponen de manifiesto la unión entre la generación y la transmisión de conocimiento. De este modo también perseguimos una actitud ética fundamentada en el intercambio científico y en las formas de colaboración abierta y constructiva en medios académicos, y tratamos de dar salida a nuestra voluntad de compartir el conocimiento, de integrar la investigación y retroalimentar con ella la docencia.



References

Bibliography Bush, Vannevar (1945): “As we may think”, The Atlantic Monthly, 1, 1001-108.
Bibliography Castells, Manuel (2001): La galaxia internet (reflexiones sobre internet, empresa y sociedad, Barcelona, Plaza & Janés.
Bibliography Clément, Jean (2000): “Hypertexte et complexité”, Études Françaises, 36, 2, 39-57.
Bibliography Landow, George P. (comp.) (1997): Teoría del hipertexto, Barcelona, Paidós.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094138/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop33.html",""
"430","5","Form, Content, and the Philosopher's Stone","1","I.
 
Buzzetti (2002)  believes strongly-embedded SGML/XML markup produces inadequate digital representations of texts. He considers the text model such markup assumes--the  ""OHCO"" model[1]--confused about its object and incapable of appropriately representing textual content. Renear et al ( 2003) respond to one part of Buzzetti's critique by asserting the value of OHCO-type markup as a data model in its own right. This paper, in contrast,  examines the case Buzzetti makes for a ""deep"" data model that reflects the *form of the content*  and from which  must flow any truly adequate digital representations of a text. In his argument I find occlusions, silences, and ambiguities that, I conclude, fatally undermine his project.
 
 
II.
 
Buzzetti specifies two criteria for an adequate digital representation of a text. These are exhaustivity--""[it] should in no way impoverish the informative content of the text"" (61)--and exploitability, that is, its ""liability ... to automatic processing and its functionality with respect to the critical operations of reconstructing or interpreting the text."" (62) He argues that  descriptive markup of the kind exemplified by the Text Encoding Initiative's scheme does not meet the two criteria because despite the foundational claim of OHCO-type markup to be addressing essential content instead of superficial form (DeRose et al 1990), it still confuses the form of the text's expression with the form of the text's content. In mistaking surface for depth and reproducing the form of expression, the  underlying text model cripples itself with respect to exploitability. In effect Buzzetti gives a radical turn of the screw to one of SGML's fundamental justifications: the notion of  creating an Ur-representation of content from which many different forms can be generated. We should see the entire text as a generated expression whose form we must not take to be the form of the thing it was generated from; the model that adequately represents the one cannot adequately represent the other. The originary 'thing' is a structure of informative content: abstract, non-linear, possessing its own properties and behaviours which an adequate data model (and thus an adequate text model) should represent through an appropriate formalism.
 
 
III.
 
In humanities computing at least, OHCO-type markup has come to dominate digital representations of full texts for scholarly use, which means that the majority of the products of more than a decade of encoding effort don't meet Buzzetti's criteria. The easy pragmatic observation would be that the very prevalence of OHCO-type markup suggests many people have found it quite adequate for their purposes to date,[2]  but for a scholarly response this obviously will not do: the case should be properly judged on its own merits. We might assert that Buzzetti's critique is bound to have no lasting impact because a number of the arguments have been made before--albeit not within such a sophisticated theoretical framework--and if OHCO-type markup survived them then it will survive them again. Survival, though, is not the same as triumph. Responding to Buzzetti, Renear et al acknowledge that OHCO proponents have in the past let these issues lie unresolved and that he is right to foreground them again. They also acknowledge some history of terminological/conceptual confusion but argue--I believe correctly--that Buzzetti overstates the case and that his examples ""are far from convincing evidence for systematic conflation [of expression form with content form]."" However, because their main concern is with defending against a particular charge that Buzzetti takes up from Raymond, Tompa, and Wood (1992, 1996) regarding SGML's supposed lack of  a ""standard semantics,"" they do not address the main thrust of Buzzetti's argument.
 
 
IV.
 
The text encoding community has well rehearsed the strengths and  limitations of OHCO-type markup.[3] The real interest of Buzzeti's critique lies in his attempt to conceptualise what *should* underpin digital representations. It is clear that Buzzetti has in mind not a digital representation of ""a text,""[4] but a comprehensive digital edition, an agglomeration of data that is the raw material from which any desired view can be generated and upon which any scholarly analysis can be based. He cites as congenial to his argument ideas on treating textual materials from Theodore Nelson and from Manfred Thaller, and much of what he says implies a classically data-centric approach. The database has always served not just as a store, but also as a base for algorithmically (re)constructing views of the data.
 
Equally clear, though, is that Buzzetti’s notion of generation has been strongly influenced by the two linguistic models he co-opts: Chomsky's Transformational Grammar and Hjelmslev's Glossematics. Codd’s relational data model in itself implies absolutely no stratigraphical or temporal relation between any of its components. Such relations can be modeled within a relational database, but only as a function of the user’s choice of domains and attributes; so such relations are created by the model, and are not inherent to it. Buzzetti’s “adequate digital representation,” however, clearly involves working ‘backwards’ or ‘downwards’ from the manifest data. It looks not to simply collect and label what is, but to treat what is as a result or surface effect and to store instead what ‘what is’ came from. With this comes a notion of reduction, of constraint: the multiplicity of what is comes from different operations on a limited set of  essential data objects.  Hence the appeal for Buzzetti of linguistic models that ‘reverse engineer’ data as it appears to us. Johansen (1993), for example, speaks of Hjelmslev’s desire to arrive at a calculus of language, a set of axioms and functions from which all possible acceptable sentences can be derived; similarly in a Transformational Grammar approach a set of transformation rules and a set of basic sentence structures can generate all the legal syntactic variations. However, because these models are specific to the abstractions of language Buzzetti  cannot bring them in as actual candidates for the data model he thinks is necessary; instead they serve as analogies. The problem is that while each model’s general character conveys nearly enough what Buzzetti wants, its specifics do not.
 
For example, Buzzetti's argument depends heavily upon Hjelmslev's four-layered model of semiosis which ""allows us,"" he says ""to clearly distinguish between the form of the representation and the form of the content represented."" (64) However, to leave it at that (that is, at a distinction between representation and content) is really to say no more than the association between signifier and signified, though binding, is arbitrary, which is to say no more than Saussure's model does. The whole point of what makes Hjelmslev's model different from Saussure's is the further distinction between form and substance, on both content and expression planes, one that involves an extremely subtle interrelationship between the two layers on each plane. Yet this distinction--so visible in the diagrammatic representation of Hjelmslev's model that Buzzetti includes--disappears from the discussion itself along with any complications it introduces to the simple mapping Buzzetti wants to establish between the form of the expression and traditional markup.[5]
 
 
V.
 
Such moments in Buzzetti's text are symptomatic of an illusory quest. His critique assumes an ultimate textual essence that we can capture in a  supermodel that preserves all informative content and serves all scholarly needs.  We just have to push further in from the surface form than OHCO to find it. On close reading of Buzzetti's argument, however,  the  rhetorical paths which promise to lead there instead peter out, or bring us back to the 'surface.' Buzzetti quite legitimately desires to move beyond  the limitations of OHCO to digital texts unconstrained by a single representational form, towards a comprehensive representation. Seduced by two powerful linguistic models that seem to promise a path from effect to cause, surface to depth, incidental to essential, he assumes a comprehensive data model: a grand unified abstraction of a text that accounts for all textual phenomena and enables all textual analysis. The subtlety and scope of the case he puts forward make his, as Renear et al have already acknowledged, a landmark contribution to markup theory, but one which I find, in the end, unconvincing.
 
 
Notes
 
 
[1]  For convenience, and because of the close association between SGML formal grammar and its assumed text model, I will hereafter refer simply to ""OHCO-type"" encoding.
 
[2] Anecdotally, this author has been told by  practitioners of both 'deep' and 'shallow' encoding that advanced features they provide to enable scholarly exploitation of the encoding get little use. This minimal usage can, of course, be interpreted in quite different ways.
 
[3] Representative discussions include Huitfeldt 1994, Renear et al 1996, Renear 1997, and Caton 2001.
 
[4] Here meaning as defined in Caton 2001, ie. ""a piece of text of known extent with formal generic markers at the beginning and end, the whole constituting a single written utterance."" (1)
 
[5] We should note that Hjelmslev's model, though extremely suggestive, is not without problems itself; see the excellent discussion in the first chapter of Johansen 1993 .
 
 
References
 
Buzzetti, Dino. 2002. Digital representation and the text model. New Literary History 33: 61-88.
 
Caton, Paul. 2001. Markup's current imbalance. Markup Languages: theory and practice 3:1 (Winter) 1-13.
 
DeRose, Steven J., David G. Durand, Elli Mylonas, and Allen H. Renear. 1990. What is text, really? Journal of Computing in Higher Education 2:1 (Winter), 3-26.
 
Huitfeldt, Claus.  1994. Multi-dimensional texts in a one-dimensional medium. Computers and the Humanities  28: 235-241.
 
Johansen, Jorgen Dines. 1993. Dialogic semiosis: an essay on signs and meaning. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
 
Raymond, Darrell R., Frank Tompa, and Derick Wood. 1992. Markup reconsidered. First International Workshop on Principles of Document Processing. Washington, D.C., October 1992.
 
Renear, Allen H., David Durand and Elli Mylonas.  1996. Refining our notion of what text really is.  Research in Humanities Computing. Nancy Ide and Susan Hockey, eds. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 263-280.
 
---.  1997. Out of praxis: three (meta) theories of textuality. Electronic Text: Investigations in Method and Theory. Kathryn Sutherland, ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 107-126.
 
---, David Dubin, Michael Sperberg-McQueen, and Claus Huitfeldt. 2003. Text Markup — Data Structure vs. Data Model. Paper presented at Joint International Conference of the Association for Humanities Computing and the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing, July, Athens Georgia 2003.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094514/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop148-2.html",""
"431","5","Theory Restored","1","Summary

Paul Caton has recently presented a sustained critique of the claim that certain activities within the text encoding community constitute the evolution of a body of theory about text. According to Caton reflection on markup practice has not lead to theory at all, let alone a Lakatosian progressive research programme, but only to principled practice. Caton's allows that text encoding should be theorized, but he believes that this has not yet happened and that those who believe otherwise are confused about both what sort of theory is possible and what sort is needed. The proposed paper will respond directly to these important criticisms. Specifically it will argues that Caton assumes a false dichotomy between empirical science on one hand, and so-called ""critical theory"" on the other and therefore fails to see that text encoding theory is not failed empirical science, but rather successful ""formal science.""

The Original Claims to Theory

Caton takes his texts from two articles. One by Allen Renear, ""Out of Praxis: Three (Meta)Theories of Textuality,"" Kathryn Sutherland (Ed.). Electronic Text: Investigations in Method and Theory (pp. 107-126). Oxford 1997, and one by Renear and Elli Mylonas, ""The Text Encoding Initiative at 10: Not Just an Interchange Format Anymore -- But a New Research Community"" the guest editor's introduction to the TEI anniversary issue of Computers and the Humanities (1999).

In ""Out of Praxis"" Renear writes (and Caton quotes):

[the text encoding community] ... has evolved a rich body of illuminating theory about the nature of text -- theory that is useful not only to anyone who would create, manage, or use electronic texts, but also to anyone who would, more generally, understand electronic textuality from a theoretical perspective ... the significance of this body of theory and analysis extends well beyond the specific concerns of text processing and text encoding and contributes directly to our general understanding of the deepest issues of textuality and textual communication in general. (Renear, ""Out of Praxis."")
And Caton notes that in ""The TEI at 10"" Renear and Mylonas, after reiterating similar claims, compare this theoretical activity to a Lakatosian ""research programme"" and intimate that it is a""progressive"" research programme, in Lakatos's sense, exhibiting productive evolution of new theories of increasing explanatory power.

Caton's Criticisms

Caton begins by analyzing Lakatos's concept of a progressive research program in more detail and develops an argument that the notion of a research program is inapplicable to text encoding theorizing and in any case gives a negative verdict on ""progressiveness."" Caton notes Lakatos's claim that new theories evolving within a progressive research programme must predict or explain new facts, as well as retain the core assertions. Renear had suggested that ongoing evolution of the OHCO thesis corresponded to this sort of progressiveness, responding to counterexamples (such as the various kinds of non-hierarchical structures), with a natural satisfying explanatory evolution. But Caton points out that Lakatos claims that a truly progressive research programme must predict or establish ""stunning novel facts,"" such as an unexpected astronomical event. Not only does there not seem to be any such predictions forthcoming from text encoding theory, but Caton sees a contradictory theme in the methodology of much of encoding theorizing, which emphasizes adjusting our theoretical claims to our actual intuitions (""common sense"") about texts -- how could such adjustments ever lead to a ""stunning new fact""?

Caton concludes:

In itself, the fact that text encoding's home-grown theory fails to be strictly scientific according to the very criteria it invokes is not greatly significant. Who would think of markup as a science anyway? ... these are all symptoms of a confusion about theory and practice.

... In Renear's version of text encoding history, cumulative practice in representing text leads to experience and then to reflection upon that experience and ultimately to, if not knowledge, then at least theory. I argue, however, that practice has instead led simply to principle. (Caton ACH 2003)

And he adds to this account a further deflationary argument to the conclusion that what passes as text encoding theory is in fact ""semi-formal description,"" not explanation.

It is arguable that there is anything unexplained about text, but if for a moment we assume complete ignorance and ask of theoreticians ""why are texts the way they are?"" we immediately beg the rejoinder ""you tell us first how they are, then we can hypothesize about why they are that way"". In other words, we need the observation first: we have to define what we wish to explain. Looking at it this way we see that OHCOs 1, 2, and 3, for example, are not hypotheses at all, but attempts at semi-formal description of a phenomenon ... Renear's problems with the word ""theory"" stem from his conflation of multiple signifieds. One signified -- the ""scientific"" one, if you like -- points to theory as speculative propositions, offering answers to questions that arise when we realize what we don't know: why does an apple fall to earth? Why do the planets move in the paths they do? The other points to theory as a set of rules or principles that underpin a particular human practice: a theory of poesie, for example.
Caton sees Renear and others as hankering after an empirical science of text that would satisfy their positivist inclinations and their aversion to theory of the literary or critical variety; which is the theorizing that Caton believes text encoding needs.

Analysis

Caton's critique is brilliant and illuminating, and, ironically, a contribution to text encoding theory. But on almost every important point he is wrong.

In our paper we will argue that the fundamental error in Caton's approach is his failure to recognize that text encoding theory, as presented in Renear's examples, is for the most part a formal science, in the sense elaborated by the linguist Jerrold Katz (1981, 1997). In this respect text encoding theorizing is like theorizing in computer science, some parts of linguistics, philosophy, and mathematics, and unlike theorizing in astronomy, sociology, and chemistry. Although the nature of formal science is different from empirical science, there is no reason at all to deny the word, or the concept, theory, to the theories of the formal sciences.

Consider an example from linguistics, speech act ""theory"". It is a fact that results in speech act theory provide a sense of new understanding and illumination characteristic of science in the most general sense and that contributions to speech act theory often proceed by, at least in some cases, the familiar process of conjecture and refutation that seems constitutive of science. And although some of the content of speech act theory is empirical, and it is certainly intrinsically involved in much actual empirical theorizing in related purely empirical areas of linguistics, at least much of speech act theory is not empirical at all: consider for instance the specific analyses as carried out by Austin, Grice, Searle, or Bach and Harnish -- in every case the method is non-empirical. It is true that we would not normally say the theory ""explains"", e.g. promising, (and it doesn't, because that particular idiom of explanation is empirical) but speech act theory does ""explain how promising works.""

Does the original theory (say Austin's account), or any of its subsequent improvements predict ""stunning new facts""? The problem here is both that the role of ""stunning new facts"" in empirical science is exaggerated by Lakatos, and the prospects of ""stunning new facts"" in formal science minimized by Caton. On the one hand much empirical science is incremental improvement, and on the other formal science can provide a surprise: Russell's set paradox for instance, or Godel's incompleteness results, or Cantor's transfinite cardinals. Caton considers Renear's claim to a ""common sense view"" as a decisive indication that no ""stunning new facts"" will be forthcoming. What is true is that formal science is concerned with systematizing and adjusting our formal understanding of how the world. Stunning new facts will not come in the form of a comet, but in the form of paradox, whether that means an actually antinomy or simply the unexpected formal result. Consider Gettier's famous counterexample to the JTB theory of knowledge. In retrospect we might be tempted to say that this can't possibly be either stunning or new as it is simply an unpacking of concepts every ordinary person has; but yet it was stunning, and it was new.

Other examples from linguistics, philosophy, mathematics, computer science, can be usefully developed and we will do so in the final paper. In every case there are non-empirical theories that illuminate and, in a sense, explain phenomena, and that are also closely, and perhaps confusingly, connected with empirical explanations as well, playing supportive roles.

We note that in the end our result is surprisingly irenic. Caton wants to secure an open field for the application of literary theory and critical theory to text encoding phenomena -- no part of our rejoinder is inconsistent with that agenda. In addition, we believe that this adaption of the notion of a ""formal science"" throws some new light on the old debate over the nature of humanities computing.

Bibliography

1. Paul Caton, ""A Critique of 'Theory' in Text Encoding."" -- ACH/ALLC Athens, Georgia 2003.
2. Jerrold J. Katz, Language and Other Abstract Objects, Rowman and Littlefield, 1981.
3. Jerrold J. Katz, Realistic Rationalism, MIT Press, 1997.
4. Allen Renear, ""Out of Praxis: Three (Meta)Theories of Textuality,"" Kathryn Sutherland (Ed.). Electronic Text: Investigations in Method and Theory (pp. 107-126). Oxford 1997.
5. Allen Renear and Elli Mylonas, ""The Text Encoding Initiative at 10: Not Just an Interchange Format Anymore -- But a New Research Community"" the guest editor's introduction to the TEI anniversary issue of Computers and the Humanities 33:1-3. 1999.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040825012941/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop149.html",""
"432","5","Markup, Idealism, and the Physical Text","1","In a paper presented at Extreme Markup Languages 2003, Allen Renear et al. suggest that XML documents enjoy--or suffer--a notably ambiguous status with respect to the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR). That specification identifies a hierarchy of textual modalities, wherein the term ""work"" designates an authorial creation, ""expression"" designates a particular form of that creation instantiated in a particular language or medium, ""manifestation"" designates a particular physical embodiment of the expression (specifying type face, size, materials, etc.) and ""item"" designates a particular physical object with the properties specified in the expression (e.g. a particular copy of a book).

Renear et al. argue that XML documents possess a ""double aspect"" within the FRBR hierarchy, by which they can be seen either as manifestations or expressions, depending on how their markup is understood. This doubleness or uncertainty might be taken to indicate that the XML document is interestingly at odds with the FRBR universe. This would seem plausible in light of the resolutely documentary nature of that universe; the FRBR specification does not mention electronic documents and seems very much geared towards organizing the world of conventional libraries and their conventional contents.

Renear et al.'s analysis is self-avowedly preliminary, ""intended to convene rather than advance discussion"", and the first goal of the paper now being proposed is to probe that analysis in greater detail. For instance, while Renear et al. locate the XML document's dual aspect between the expression and the manifestation, there are grounds as well for considering XML documents as works. Discussions of FRBR assume that a play and a movie thereof are different works, even though their dialogue, actors, and even their sets may be identical, and in a similar way we can imagine that two XML documents which contain the same text but whose markup models that text in different genres might well be considered different works. And while Renear et al. consider the XML document not to be a FRBR item on the grounds that it is not ""a concrete physical object"", this line of argument seems like an oversimplification, implying that no electronic object can ever be an item, a claim we would like to probe more carefully.

But although it is clearly difficult to assign an XML document unambiguously to a single FRBR category, in a larger sense the XML document is--or can be--very much at home in the FRBR universe, which draws its intellectual inheritance overwhelmingly from the editorial traditions of G. Thomas Tanselle and Anglo-American textual editing. If our understanding of the nature of XML markup derives from the influential OHCO model, which insists on the separability of form from content and identifies the latter as the preservable informational essence of a document, then the encoded XML document represents the textual essence plus the formal structuring needed to reembody the text in what for FRBR would be an infinitude of potential specific ""manifestations"". Its ""double aspect"" thus registers the conundrum of its being both a deliberately disembodied textual mode (its physical configurations having been deliberately discarded or held in abeyance) and a form that is capable of generating contingent embodiments as needed. But this doubleness does not run across the grain of the FRBR scheme--on the contrary, it reaffirms its essential distinctions.

If we look at documentary and editorial modes which resist this kind of idealization, however, we find a different kind of problem. Within the rare book and manuscript communities, critics of FRBR have identified a number of areas of ambiguity affecting the classification of these specialized document types, particularly where the FRBR categories of expression and manifestation are concerned--in other words, where questions of the relationship between physical form and texual meaning are concerned.

These concerns are also reflected in important segments of the digital text community. Researchers such as Johanna Drucker, Morris Eaves, Jerome McGann, and others have been investigating the special status of images and what Drucker calls ""configured information"". From this perspective, the familiar problem of markup is that it too readily discards physical configuration, as being either unnecessary, inapposite, or too difficult to capture. To use the terms of Renear et al.'s analysis, markup that editorially describes textual structure is apt to discard physical configuration once it has served its own purpose as markup (i.e. as the clues through which we intuit the structure of the source document), since it assumes that such configurations are unimportant in themselves. And markup that authorially, performatively ""instantiates"" textual structure is logically anterior to any physical incarnation. Markup that aims to preserve details of a source text (a category Renear et al. do not discuss, but whose existence they would surely acknowledge) takes theoretical responsibility for capturing physical configurations, but faces limitations and challenges which are usually taken to be fundamental and nearly insurmountable: the basic disparity between the formalism and granularity of markup and the unruly realities of the physical world.

This disparity is the chief concern of the remainder of this paper, and will be explored in detail in the finished version. Can we envision a way of representing the physical object in markup that does both analytical and representational justice to the ""configured information"" of texts? And from an analytical standpoint, what are the thresholds at which it is useful to identify these configurations? Can we identify meaningful groupings of phenomena that reflect actual analytical categories, or does the physical realm resist such categorizations? Finally, might such an analysis provide a new viewpoint from which to undertake a reassessment of the OHCO model of markup?

Bibliography

1. Drucker, Johanna. ""Intimations of Immateriality"", in Reimagining Textuality, ed. Elizabeth
2. Bergmann Loizeaux and Neil Fraistat. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2002.
3. Eaves, Morris. ""Graphicality"", in Reimagining Textuality, ed. Elizabeth Bergmann Loizeaux and Neil Fraistat. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2002.
4. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records Final Report, ed. Marie Plassard. Muenchen: UBCIM Publications New Series, Vol. 19, 1998. (http://www.ifla.org/VII/s13/frbr/frbr.htm)
5. McGann, Jerome J. ""The Rationale of Hypertext"", in Electronic text : investigations in method and theory, ed. Kathryn Sutherland. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997. (http://www.iath.virginia.edu/public/jjm2f/rationale.html)
6. Renear, Allen, Christopher Phillipe, Pat Lawton, and David Dubin. ""An XML Document Corresponds to what FRBR Group 1 Entity?"" presented at Extreme Markup Languages (Montreal, 2003) and published in the conference proceedings.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094400/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop111.html",""
"433","5","Exploiting 3D graphics for non-ambiguous anchoring of documentary sources","1","Introduction

Our proposal introduces a methodological approach for an enhanced link between architectural objects at various scales and what documents them: uncertain raw documentary sources. It provides an operational framework for the capitalisation of the interpretation phase during which experts establish meanings and credibility of raw data, and derive from the reading of sources possible scenarios of morphological evolutions.

The issue we address is an interdisciplinary one: it stands where scientific analysis of raw documentary sources meets the needs for representation and visualisation. 2D or 3D representations have historically, since the renaissance, been at the heart of the way edifices or sites are described, visualised, documented and understood, and in close connection with textual documentation analysis efforts. It seems that with the development of computer techniques architectural modelling has mainly focused on issues connected with realism, in the so-called computer graphics discipline. In parallel, scientific analysis of raw documentary sources has benefited from the development of various data management techniques, but often without even a concern for graphical visualisation.

Our field of experimentation is the preservation of the architectural and urban heritage. This includes a concern for the edifice itself when it is still standing, but it also includes a concern for the edificeÂ’s documentation helping to try and state for instance how the edifice evolved through time or how the edifice was when nothing is left of it today. In this research area, the meaning of the word visualisation is often narrowed to this of virtual reconstruction. But an undocumented virtual reconstruction can hardly be considered as something more than as a dead-end realistic 3D representation (see [Kantner 2000]). Communication through realistic renderings is all cases an abusive simplification since the morphology is not the only element that should be visualised, (see for instance [Huber 2000] or [Kodym 1999]). We favour an opposite approach in which what is ""beyond"" the image is more important that the image itself, in line with contribution like [Alkhoven 1993]. What we try to visualise are not the ocular effect of elements in the real world, but a momentary state of knowledge on the edifice and its evolution. In our experiments, we give to the word visualisation another meaning: this of an interpretative graphical interface to the documentation (see [Dudek and Blaise, 2001] and [Dudek and Blaise, 2003]).

In the new experiment we report here, carried out on the remains of the Roman Theatre in Arles (southern France), we addressed the issue of how to better exploit results of a survey (based on image modelling techniques) in terms of readability for architects. Our theoretical knowledge about such edifices is formalised (see its theoretical representation in figure 1) and acts as support for the various stages of investigation on the edifice, from 3D surveying to representation in a real-time 3D model for the web.



The SIA3D Experiment

Architectural surveying has benefited from numerous technological advances in a recent past (see [Marbs 2002] [Dekeyser et al. 2003] [Chen et al. 2001]), both in terms of data acquisition disposals (laser scanning, image-based modelling, etc..) and in terms of performance. But how can one really exploit the results of such surveys remains a key research question, as demonstrated by Ramondino [2001]. Architectural surveying and architectural documentation seem to relate to tally independent research areas whereas they by nature have one thing in common: they circle the set of information and knowledge that can be related to an edifice.

As an answer, and in line with principles established in [Dudek and Blaise 2003], we consider it is necessary to identify and organise non-ambiguous elements of morphology to which we will attach various pieces of information, including raw results of surveying campaigns. Those results can be contextualised, i.e.:

localised in the space of a reconstruction featuring both elements surveyed and theoretical elements,
positioned with regards to the area of knowledge considered (although techniques may be the same, surveying an edifice is not equivalent to surveying a tea pot, it does not correspond to the same area of knowledge)
Let us take an example: the remain of a cornice once surveyed will be displayed in a 3D model of the whole edifice with indications concerning:

Its belonging to a typology of objects (stylistic references, role in the edifice, etc..)
Its hypothetical position (marked as such) in the virtual reconstruction of the edifice, itself marked as hypothetical.
Its links to a variety of documents


Remains that were surveyed are localised in the space of a theoretical Roman Theatre (see figure 2) that we define through an analysis of the relevant architectural vocabulary. This analysis aims at identifying non-ambiguous concepts that on one hand correspond to physical objects present in the edifice (base, capital, etc..) and on the other hand have a significant role in the edificeÂ’s composition.

Each such element of vocabulary can be represented by one or several architectural primitives (see figure 3).



The vocabulary is used to rebuild, level after level, the theoretical model of a Roman Theatre in the Augustinian period. One should here read level after level in the sense of rebuilding starting by individual elements such as a capital to whole groups such as colonnade, i.e an understanding of the word level that matches the idea of architectural scales.

The edifice is described by a hierarchical structure that derives form our analysis of the vocabulary, rooted in [Formigé, 1914] and [Pérouse De Montclos, 1988]. The hierarchical structure formalises part-of relations between elements in a five level hierarchy (example: capital/part-of/column/part-of/colonnade/part-of/ etcÂ…)

Once the elements are classified as shown in figure 4, and once the compositional rules are expressed, the understanding of the edifice is within reach. The hierarchical structure allows us to establish bilateral relations between pieces of information and the 3D model. To each of the five hierarchical levels correspond specific pieces of information . Each element in the hierarchy acts as a filter in the exploitation of the 3D model since it is represented by its own geometry or by sub-elements. Fragments can then be attached to elements of level 5.



The hierarchical structure monitors the switching between levels, either inside the 3D scenes where geometry are grouped depending on the level observed, or inside the information sheets. These information sheets gather pieces of data on theoretical elements, but also descriptions of the remains that were surveyed (actual localisation, state of conservation, materials, etc.. ).

The interface (see figure 5) is accessible on a standard web browser with the Virtools plug-in for reading the 3D scene. Scene/windows interactions are written in JavaScript, enabling easy updating of the various links implemented. Information sheets as we call them range from results of survey for remains to purely bibliographical information.

What this experiment has clearly shown is that even though we have credible pieces of information (results of a survey) we still need, when the time has come to exploit these pieces of information, graphics that interpret them. In other words, this experiment further underlines the necessity in the field of the architectural heritage to deliver graphics that demonstrate doubts.



Bibliography

1. [Alkhoven, 1993] Patricia Alkhoven
2. ""The changing image of the city. A study of the transformation of the townscape using Computer assisted Design and visualisation techniques"" PHD Utrecht University (NL),1993.
3. [Chen et al. 2001] Chen, M. Byong Mok,.; J. Durand F
4. Image-Based Modeling and Photo Editing, SIGGRAPH 2001 Proceedings.
5. [Dekeyser et al. 2003] Dekeyser,f. Gaspard,f. De luca,l. Florenzano,m. Chen,x. Leray,p.
6. Cultural Heritage Recording with Laser Scanning, Computer Vision and Exploitation of Architectural Rules. ISPRS conference: Vision techniques for digital architectural and archaeological archives. Ancona 2003.
7. [Dudek et al, 2001] I.Dudek, J.Y Blaise,
8. Interpretative modelling as a tool in the investigation of the architectural heritage, in Proceedings VIIP 2001, Marbella, SP.
9. [Dudek et al, 2003] I.Dudek, J.Y Blaise,
10. New experimentation of a generic framework for architectural heritage data visualisation, in Proceedings WSCG 2003 Plzen, Czech Republic.
11. [Formigé 1914] Formigé, J
12. Remarques diverses sur les théâtres roamins à propos de ceux dÂ’Arles et dÂ’Orange, Imprimerie Nationale 1914.
13. [Huber, 2000] B.Huber
14. Adding dimensions to GIS with VRML, issues Proceedings of Pennsylvania GIS Conf., Hershey, USA, 2000.
15. [Kantner, 2000] John Kantner
16. Realism vs Reality: creating virtual reconstructions of prehistoric architecture, in J.A Barcelo, M.Forte, D.H Sanders (Ed.) Virtual reality in archaeology, (Oxford: Archeopress 2000).
17. [Kodym, 1999] O.Kodym,
18. Usage of the VRML environment for the presentation of the underground mine, Proceedings ICEE 1999, 10-14 08 1999, Ostrava, Czech Republic.
19. [Marbs 2002] Marbs, A.
20. Experiences with laser scanning at i3mainz - CIPA, Heritage Documentation - International Workshop on Scanning for Cultural Heritage Recording - Corfu,Greece-
21. [Pérouse De Montclos 1988] Pérouse De Montclos JM
22. Architecture vocabulaire - Principe dÂ’analyse scientifique, Imprimerie Nationale 1972-88.
23. [Ramondino, 2001] F.Ramondino
24. From point cloud to surface: the modeling and visualisation problem Â– International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, vol XXXIV- 5/W10-","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040827084030/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop47.html",""
"434","5","Using METS to Document Metadata for Image-Based Electronic Editions","1","The Project: Electronic Boethius

(http://beowulf.engl.uky.edu/~kiernan/eBoethius/inlad.htm)

In October of 1731, a fire swept through the library of the aptly-named Ashburnham house in London, destroying and damaging many of the holdings originally collected by Sir Robert Cotton in the early seventeenth century. Among the artifacts affected by the fire was a tenth-century manuscript, the only known copy of an Old English dual verse and prose translation of the sixth-century Consolation of Philosophy.

The Consolation had a rich history throughout the Middle Ages. It was first translated into English by King Alfred the Great, who ruled Anglo-Saxon England from 871-899 and was responsible for the translation of several important Latin texts during his reign. Chaucer made his own translation of the Consolation, as did Queen Elizabeth I. It was Alfred's translation that was damaged in the Ashburnham House fire.

Although this tenth-century manuscript (now held by the British Library, Cotton Otho A. vi) was damaged to the point where it was nearly illegible, there are several reasons why the destruction was not a total loss for scholarship. There is one other complete manuscript holding Alfred's translation of Consolation, the Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Bodley 180, although it is a later twelfth-century, prose-only version of the text. More remarkable is that in the seventeenth century, Dutch antiquarian and scholar Francis Junius made a copy of Bodley 180 and collated it with the yet undamaged Otho A. vi, preserving the readings that are different between the two manuscripts. Up until now, this transcript and collation (Bodleian Library MS Junius 12) has been the only source for those parts of Otho A. vi that are damaged to the point of illegibility. There are editions of the Old English Consolation that have been published since the fire, but notably of the two standard editions (both based on the tenth-century manuscript), one edition (Sedgefield's 1899 edition of King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon Version of Boethius, de Consolatione Philosophiae) is entirely in prose, while the other (Krapp's 1932 edition of the Meters of Boethius) is entirely in verse.

In recent years, technological advancements have enabled access to Otho A. vi that would have been unimaginable in 1731. Using ultraviolet light and high-resolution digital photography, we are now able to read portions of text that have not been accessible for nearly 270 years. Taking advantage of these effectively new texts, with the support of the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Mellon Foundation we are creating an image-based electronic edition of the Consolation, using Otho A. vi as our base text. Understandably, the final edition will consist of a variety of files including:

Daylight and UV images of Otho A. vi
Daylight images of Bodley 180 and Junius 12
The prose and verse text of Otho A. vi
Supplemental text from Bodley 180, Junius 12, and earlier editions, for those portions of text that are missing or still illegible
Pervasive and complex XML encoding that describes many different aspects of the text and manuscript including:
Basic codicological features (quires, folios, lines)
Basic textual divisions (prose and verse sections, verse and prose lines, half-lines, words)
Editorial emendations
Metrical information
Paleographic descriptions of individual letters
Description of the condition of the damaged manuscript
Search Tool: for searching XML encoding and text
Metadata Requirements for the Edition

Because the final edition will be very complex, we wanted to develop a schema for metadata documentation that would simplify the project and not make it more complicated than it is already. There were three issues in particular that we needed to address before deciding on an approach to metadata documentation.

Granularity: to what level should the edition be described?

In many ways, the question of granularity was the most important, and most difficult, issue to address. On one hand is a MARC record, a relatively simple description of the edition as a whole, including only basic bibliographical information. Though simple, this approach was just not realistic given the complexity and fragility of the edition's contents. On the other hand is a completely pervasive approach, with a TEI header for every text and technical data for every image file. We finally decided to err on the side of caution and provide metadata for every text and image file, but to also provide higher-level description as well.

Intellectual Rights

Because various elements of the Electronic Boethius are controlled by different parties (the manuscript images, for example, belong to their respective libraries), we wanted to be able to describe clearly which portions of the edition belonged to whom.

Organization and Software

Given the complexity of the elements of the edition and their relationships with one another -- multiple versions of folio images; folio images in relation to text and markup -- we wanted to be able to express these relationships somehow in the metadata. When someone views the metadata file, it should be clear what files are in the edition, where they are in relation to the other files, and how they all interact. Since we also have some interactive software included in the edition, we wanted to be able to describe that as well.

Once we made our decisions concerning these issues, we decided to use the Metadata Encoding & Transmission Standard (METS) to incorporate the metadata we need to describe the elements of the edition, and the edition as a whole. Although METS was almost exclusively designed for implementation by libraries, archives, and digital resource repositories, and not by individual scholars, we decided that since it addresses all our documentation concerns, we would use it to document the Electronic Boethius. This presentation will illustrate how we are using METS to document metadata for the image-based electronic edition.

We will visit the various metadata schemas that we are using to describe the elements of the edition: for text, the Schema for Technical Metadata for Text (http://dlib.nyu.edu/METS/textmd.htm); for image technical metadata, NISO Metadata for Images in XML Schema (http://www.loc.gov/standards/mix/); for descriptive metadata, the Metadata Object Description Schema: http://www.loc.gov/standards/mods/; for intellectual rights information, the Schema for Rights Declaration (http://www.loc.gov/standards/rights/METSRights.xsd).
We will give examples of how we are taking advantage of METS' file section and structural map sections to describe how the elements relate to one another
We will give examples of how we are using the behavior section to describe our delivery software and how it relates to the files within the edition.
We hope to use METS to document the Electronic Boethius as completely and thoroughly as possible. If our original files were to suffer a second Ashburnham House, our metadata should be complete enough to rebuild the edition -- as we are re-creating the original manuscript.

Further Reading:

1. Digital Library Federation. Metadata Encoding & Transmission Standard (METS): An Overview & Tutorial, October 2001. <http://www.loc.gov/standards/mets/METSOverview.html>.
2. J. McDonough, L. Myrick and E. Stedfeld. Report on the Making of America II DTD: Digital Library Federation Workshop, February 2001. <http://www.diglib.org/standards/metssum.pdf>.
3. National Information Standards Organization (NISO). Data Dictionary: Technical Metadata for Digital Images, July 2000. <http://www.niso.org/pdfs/DataDict.pdf>.
4. OCLC/RLG Working Group on Preservation Metadata. Preservation Metadata for Digital Objects: A Review of the State of the Art, January 2001. < http://www.oclc.org/research/projects/pmwg/presmeta_wp.pdf >.
5. OCLC/RLG Working Group on Preservation Metadata. Preservation Metadata and the OAIS Information Model. A Metadata Framework to Support the Preservation of Digital Objects. June 2002. < http://www.oclc.org/research/projects/pmwg/pm_framework.pdf >.
6. Commission on Preservation and Access (CPA) and Research Library Group (RLG). Preserving Digital Information: Report of the Task Force on Archiving of Digital Information. May 1996. <ftp://ftp.rlg.org/pub/archtf/final-report.pdf>.
7. A. Morrison, M. Popham, and K. Wikander. Documentation and Metadata. Creating and Documenting Electronic Texts: A Guide to Good Practice. Oxford: Oxford Text Archive, 1999. <http://ota.ahds.ac.uk/documents/creating/chap6.html>.
8. N. Beagrie, and D. Greenstein. A Strategic Policy Framework for Creating and Preserving Digital Collections. Arts and Humanities Data Service (AHDS). Version 5.0, 14/7/98. Updated July 2001, C. Pressler. (available online after November 28; http://ahds.ac.uk/about/publications/)","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094423/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop120.html",""
"435","5","Old, new, borrowed: blue? What can the Humanities contribute to the games field","8","","","2","",""
"436","5","Identifying intertext susceptible episodes in Middle Dutch Arthurian romance","1","Intertextuality in its broader sense considers all culture and cultural rendering as a form of interacting text, where text must be considered as a mental construct or representation rather than a physical appearance, e.g. the characters printed on a certain medium [Graham, 2000]. Although intellectually appealing, such a definition of intertextuality does not have much practical use in the literary study of medieval Dutch romance, one reason being that contemporary cognitive conceptions of intertextuality can of course no longer be 'measured' and are very hard, if at all possible, to infer or assess. But a rather more limited definition of intertextuality as concrete references from one text to another may have practical use as a means to further the examination and understanding of interaction between various forms of literature and literary works in the medieval context. For certain Middle Dutch Arthurian romances (in particular Roman van Walewein, Moriaen and Ridder metter mouwen) such an approach has been used to qualitatively assess aspects of intertextuality [Besamusca, 1993]. It would advance such 'traditional' research considerably if it were possible to identify with computational means text episodes within two or more Middle Dutch texts that show strong semantic or conceptual similarities. Provided that computer assisted methods for pinpointing possible intertextual references would be sufficiently reliable, such technical instrumentation would greatly reduce the resources and time needed to assess large corpora for intertextual references. Moreover such a solution would benefit from explicit inference rules and semantics, enabling philological researchers to approach the assessment of intertextuality in a more quantitative modelled way.

It is the purpose of the proposed paper to describe an as proof of concept implemented solution for the identification of text places in medieval Dutch Arthurian romance that show high likelihood of containing intertextual references to other medieval Dutch texts. Regarding software applications for the computer assisted analysis of intertextual references in Middle Dutch texts, little research and implementation has been done. Furthermore the research conducted up till now is for the most part theoretical in nature. Greco and Shoemaker argue in favour of an a priori rather sophisticated model of intertextuality [Greco, 1993]. In the proposed paper it will be argued that such a model, though theoretically sound, is very hard to implement given the current state of computer assisted text analysis techniques. Consequently, a more elementary model for intertextuality will be applied within the software solution, as to provide a bottom up approach to the problem of modelling intertextuality within the domain of medieval Dutch text. For this purpose, intertextuality will be regarded in its limited form of intertextual reference on a more literal level.

The software solution that will be demonstrated in the paper is based on identifying episodes in different medieval Dutch romances that show considerable semantic similarity, assuming that semantic similarity indicates high probability of referential intertextuality. It will be argued that a vector space modelling approach [Salton, 1975; Manning, 2000] is best suited for this task, because the textual data in question may be considered extremely sparse data from a statistical point of view. Therefore a probabilistic approach would be far less suitable. Before any vector space analysis may be applied though, two other problems arising from the specific nature of the text material will have to be considered and solved. Firstly the orthography of analogous concepts within and among different Middle Dutch texts tends to vary considerably. Because a vector space approach relies on isomorphic input for analogous concepts, this variance has to be adjusted for. Several solutions to this means have been proposed [Braun, 2002]. Both an n-gram and stemming solution and a solution based on the longest common sequence (LCS) will be discussed as an approach to the automated temporarily rewriting of texts in a morphological congruous form suitable for further vector space analysis. Secondly, to enable the comparison of episodes from different texts, all texts to be analysed will have to be broken down into smaller fragments corresponding to these episodes. Such a segmentation must of course be based on well defined structural or narratological heuristics. It will be argued that it's feasible to assume that intertextual references will not expand beyond certain narratological or discourse boundaries. But although such boundaries may be readily identified by a medievalist researcher, the form and structure of medieval Dutch texts hold no or only very few computer interpretable indicators for automated identification of such 'natural' narratological or discourse boundaries. Text structuring initials present in the manuscripts may provide one of the very few computer interpretable indicators of these boundaries. The usefulness of these initials as boundary indicators of narratological episodes will therefore be evaluated as part of the solution proposed.

The latter part of the proposed paper will report on the results from an application of the implemented solution to two medieval Dutch Arthurian romances, the Roman van Walewein and Walewein ende Keye. It's been argued that the latter text holds echoes of the story told in the former. The proposed paper will report on the fragments identified by the application as being possible episodes containing intertextual references. The computer assisted analysis of the two texts will be evaluated by a comparison with a manual assessment of intertextual references in Walewein ende Keye. This evaluation will form the basis of a short discussion that will propose further refinements of the methodology for identifying episodes containing intertextual references in Middle Dutch texts. One of the points that will be argued is the necessity to expand heuristics of the method with a form of conceptual modelling, as intertextual references among two texts will always be only in part similar on a more literal level.

References

1. G. Allen, Intertextuality (The New Critical Idiom). London, 2000.
2. B. Besamusca, Walewein, Moriaen en de Ridder metter mouwen. Intertekstualiteit in drie Middelnederlandse Arturromans. Hilversum, 1993.
3. L. Braun, F. Wiesman, I.G. Sprinkhuizen-Kuyper: ""Information retrieval from historical corpora."" In: R. de Busser, D. Hiemstra, W. Kraaij, M.F. Moens (eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd Dutch-Belgian Information Retrieval Workshop (DIR). Leuven, 2002, pp. 106-112.
4. G.L. Greco, P. Shoemaker: ""Intertextuality and large corpora: a medievalist approach."" In: Computers and the Humanities 27 (1993), pp. 349-355.
5. D.F. Johnson, G.H.M. Claassens (eds., transl.), Dutch Romances I: Roman van Walewein. Cambridge, 2000.
6. C.D. Manning, H. Schütze, Foundations of statistical natural language processing. London (UK), 2000.
7. G. Salton, A. Wong, C. Yang: ""A vector space model for automatic indexing."" In: Communications of the ACM, 18 (1975), pp. 613-620.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094108/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop56.html",""
"437","5","Computer-Assisted Textual Analysis: Interpreting a Medieval Text Across Languages and Time","1","Composed in multilingual twelfth-century England, the influential
_Lais_ of Marie de France have been read by medievalists and translated
into languages around the world (Maréchal 2003). The context in which
Marie's _lais_ were composed and transcribed can be characterized as
follows: Marie is believed to have lived and written in twelfth-century
England, which was characterized by trilingualism or triglossia (i.e.,
English, French, Latin), with a Celtic substratum. She composed in a
dialect of Old French tales that she had heard from the ""ancient Bretons.""
The favored manuscript of Marie's collection (British Library MS Harley
978) exhibits features of Anglo-Norman or Anglo-French.  Interpretation of
such a poetic text depends upon a deep knowledge of semantic and
grammatical information, especially in connection with those key terms that
are ""charged"" with polysemy (Burnshaw 1976). Additionally, like many other
medieval works, this text abounds with homographs, homophones, and
paranomasia, as well as a lack of consistent orthography. Moreover, in the
introduction to her collection of tales or lais, Marie de France emphasizes
that in transmitting older works (""des anciens"") subsequent generations
must ""gloser la letre,"" adding a ""surplus de sens"" (""Prologue,"" _Lais_).
Implicit in this description of reading, interpreting, and translating is
the idea of a secondary creation and a recognition that texts and glosses
are submitted to a continual transformation over time (Dragonetti 1993).
Given this invitation by the author, Marie's text seems well suited to
computer-assisted textual analysis and translation.
         This paper describes a prototype project, currently under
development, consisting of a three-part computer-assisted model for
providing close analysis and translation of an Old French text, composed in
England and transcribed by an Anglo-Norman scribe.
This model utilizes three computer components: digitized parallel texts of
the original Old French and of a translation into modern English;
hypertextual links from the
original text and the translation to an extensive glossary and to a guide
illustrating the grammatical function of the individual term; a relational
database that offers several kinds of lexicographic information (e.g.,
semantic, etymological, and contextual).
These three computational supplements can guide, assist, and enhance
readings and interpretations in the original and in translation:
1. The separately scrolling digitized (and therefore searchable) text in
Old French and the relatively literal translation into modern English can
be read individually or in tandem for comparing parallel passages.
2. Hypertextual links that illustrate the syntactic function of the
original offer a simplified version of the grammatical relationships among
words (for instance, illustrating the effects of the reduced but still
operational declensional system).
3. The relational lexicographic database enables a user to compare
definitions from a wide array of dictionaries and glossaries (see, for
example, Hockey 2000). Queries can show all word instances (some with
variant spellings of the same lemma), homographs, the range of definitions
of the word in English, etymology and word derivation, terms related to
specialized registers, and matrices of linguistic relationships (e.g., Old
French, Modern French, Old English, Middle English, Latin).
This project is inherently collaborative and interdisciplinary, requiring
at least a small team with complementary areas of expertise: specialists in
Old French, Old and Middle English and Modern English; a person with
database skills, and an interface programmer. In this project, the process
entails transcribing the Old French text from its manuscript form; gleaning
definitions and other relevant information from multiple specialized
dictionaries (e.g., Tobler- Lommatzsch's _Altfranzösisches Wörterbuch_,
Godefroy's _Lexique de l'ancien français_, the _D.E.A.F._, the _Old English
Dictionary_, the _Middle English Dictionary_, the _Anglo-Norman
Dictionary_, the Oxford English Dictionary, the _Robert_, dictionaries of
classical and medieval Latin, and glossaries of editions of related works);
inputting lexical forms, definitions and grammatical information; adapting
the database; designing interfaces for ease in entering information and
making queries. Once the necessary information has been digitized and
organized into the various constituent parts, the computer performs the
support tasks that it does best (e.g., filtering, remembering, recognizing
patterns, and providing a specialized knowledge base), thereby enabling
experienced as well as less-skilled readers, critics, or translators to
focus on the complex decisions that undergird interpretation or
translation.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094104/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop141.html",""
"438","5","The linguistic annotation of texts in non-standardized languages: Medieval Romance documents analyzed with Phoenix","1","Phoenix provides a tool for historical and comparative linguistics which allows for lexicological, graphematical and morphological annotations of complex texts written in non-standardized language varieties. This tool manages an interactive relationship between a textual and a lexicographical (as well as onomastic, grammatical or morphological) data basis. It allows the export of such annotated and enriched data, e.g., in forms of a glossary or a dictionary. Special features are provided for identifying linguistic changes and developments in terms of time, space and textual genres.

Phoenix provides features that are partially covered by other tools for simultaneously processing textual and interpretative data bases or performing lemmatization and identifying as well as quantifying graphematical or morphological items. Its strength lays in its managing of complex textual data (i.e. highly segmentated data with critical apparatus and great variety in hierarchical structures) and in the modelling of the consecutive steps required for a philological and linguistic analysis of ancient texts. The emulation of the methodological procedure of traditional modus operandi guarantees the quality of work, regarding diachronical linguistics. A comparison with other tools developed for reference corpora (gatto/OVI-TLIO, stella/TLF-ATILF, IDS/DUDEN, SIL) shall emphasize the distintiveness of Phoenix.

The annotation of untagged textual data without any comparative terms (lexica of forms) follows three steps:

Graphical variances with identic functions in a corpus (e.g. y = i) are automatically merged; this step simultaneously allows for developing and verifying hypotheses about the characteristics of graphematical variance.
The occurrences identified in step one then get tagged by lemmas, word classes or graphematic groups.
The annotated occurrences are transformed into an interpretative file. This lexicological file is structured in accordance with the entries of a single lemma; the occurrences of a lemma are registered according to their morphological and semantic qualities (flectional paradigm, polysemy). These elements can be exported in a glossary, complemented by lexicographical means or interpreted in terms of linguistic change.
The morphological and lexematic annotations can also be based on comparative resources. As soon as a lexicon of the analyzed language variety exists, an identification of word classes and lemmata can be obtained with the help of a complementary tool (TreeTagger, developed by Stein and Schmidt); Phoenix is able to desambiguate ambiguous results.

technics

Phoenix is based on parameterized modules of TUSTEP (TUebinger System von TextverabeitungsProgrammen) and on procedures written in the TUSTEP Scripting Language. Analyzing text data with Phoenix means to carry out the following steps: First a list of wordforms is generated from the text source which has to be available as valid XML i.e. conformant with a ""Phoenix""-DTD viz. -Schema. By means of pointers this list is linked to the source text. During the generation of the ordering keys used for the sorting of the entries user defined equivalents are taken into account: forms differing graphically, in spelling or notation may therefore be treated as initially identical i.e. belonging together. The definition of equivalents is done with respect to diasystematic qualities of the text data (era, region, type of text) and may be targetedly applied on respective parts of a complete corpus.


The probably different occurences collected within one lemma in the next step are reworked interactively: attributes are assigned to one occurence (or concurrently to multiple occurences). They describe the occurence(s) in detail providing for example the lemma, word class, grammatical aspects or grapho-phonetic characteristics. Decisions may be reached with respect to the permanently available context an occurence is derived from.


The enrichment of the source text is done by means of tags connecting every qualified occurence of the source text with an entry in an index file. At any time the index file may be integrated into the source data, if needed, e.g., for export puposes. In the course of work on a corpus the index file serves as reference (cf. 'Attributliste', 'Liste Lexem'). Finally the information collected in the index file is transformed into a lexicological repository.


The internal format based on xml-standards also guarantees the export of data into other applications. TUSTEP - Phoenix' programming language - allows the processing of large corpora. The textual data basis, encoded in an xml-scheme, can be transformed into a digital as well as a printed edition, which corresponds to the high standards of the typographical tradition for scholarly editions.

Combining diasystematic qualities of a text (time, space, social prestige, textual genre) and attributed linguistic data allows cross searches. The identification and quantification of linguistic changes is to be developed, by integrating other existing tools featuring respective functionalities.

Research on non-standardized languages requires the integration of the analysis of a text and its edition; these two steps overlap here - while they are seperated when texts of contemporary language are studied. The ability to integrate these steps (and to change for example qualifications and resulting glossaries in the course of an edition) is reflected in the close relation between source data and lexicographic database. This is one of the characteristcs by which Phoenix differs from other tools providing comparable features.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094310/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop76.html",""
"439","5","Bridging the Gap between Intentional and Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition","1","The Dilemma of Vocabulary Acquisition

A dilemma in vocabulary acquisition is the antagonistic advantages of the commonly distinguished .intentional. and .incidental. vocabulary acquisition. Intentional vocabulary acquisition is memorizing straightforwardly term after term with their respective translations from a list. Intentional learning is quick and therefore usually preferred by learners, but it is also superficial. Learners encounter vocabulary in an isolated, often infinitive form and remain incapable of using it correctly in context. Moreover intentionally learned vocabulary sinks faster into oblivion. Didactically recommendable vocabulary acquisition exposes learners comprehensively to every term, embedding it deeply and solidly in the mental lexicon [1, 10]. Beneficial is also personalized vocabulary acquisition on authentic texts [6, 9, 13, 17].

Incidental vocabulary acquisition, namely through contextual deduction in target language reading, meets these recommendations. Learners encounter terms together with syntactic information, which helps using the accurate words in an idiomatic way. Vocabulary in context often appears repeatedly under different aspects and hence engrains in the learners. minds. Unfortunately it takes long until enough vocabulary for fluent conversations is incidentally gathered [3]. Problematic is, that deduction works best when new terms are mostly surrounded by familiar vocabulary [6]. In fact, with more than 5 to 10 new terms presented simultaneously, our retention capacity declines [12].
Gymn@zilla Combines annotated reading with term lists

Gymn@zilla (http://www.eurac.edu/gymnazilla) addresses this dilemma by dynamically annotating authentic text with definitions, translations, pictures, and other descriptive information. When learners access local and Internet documents through Gymn@zilla, server-side processing of texts dynamically adds links from every term to the corresponding entry in an open learning resource. Gymn@zilla employs stemming tools to match inflected word forms with dictionary entries. Learners receive linguistically enriched documents with their original link structure, so that they need only to move their mouse over a term to check it, or continue browsing.

Annotated reading is considered as a valuable feature in language learning [2, 11, 16] and implemented in several reading systems [4, 14, 15, 17]. However, all these systems have a closed, annotated corpus and a closed set of dictionary entries. None of them combine Internet browsing with annotation links to local and on-line dictionaries.

For intentional vocabulary acquisition, learners can collect terms and their translations from several sites in their personal word list by clicking on term links. In this way vocabulary acquisition occurs both incidentally by reading texts annotated with dictionary information and studying word lists extracted from this text. Depending on the underlying learning resource, Gymn@zilla exposes learners abundantly to new vocabulary in up-to-date, personalized contexts and activates the mental lexicon in several steps and on several levels.

Dynamic Interactivity

Traditional classroom teaching uses gap-filling and multiple choice quizzes for decades. Their usefulness is generally accepted regardless of the applied methodology. Quizzes can combine to an integrated vocabulary acquisition environment [13]. The main advantage of electronic learning material over traditional paper material is interactivity [18]. Authoring tools allow language teachers to manually create electronic true-false, multiple choice, matching, gap-filling, spelling, or sentence generation quizzes [5]. Learning environments exploit multimedia features [6, 9] and gap-filling quizzes for grammar training and even sentence formation [7, 19]. The effectiveness of such quizzes especially for weaker students has been shown in [8]. Figure 1 to 3 shows the transition from annotated reading via the construction of a word list to the interactive quizzes. To our knowledge, no other system offers interactive practice on annotated internet texts in similar ways.

Figure 1: Annotated reading with Gymn@zilla.



Figure 2: Vocabulary List with Gymn@zilla.



Figure 3: Interactive quiz with Gymn@zilla.



The Gymn@zilla project and underlying technology

Gymn@zilla has been developed within the LOGOS-GAIAS project. It supports browsing a local text repository and the Internet by dynamically creating and annotating HTML pages with open dictionaries resources. Gymn@zilla is written in Perl. It is an on-line application running on a Linux web server . not a browser. Both components, Perl and GNU/Linux, guarantee the usage of free and powerful modules. The processing of web pages in real-time and generating exercises from it is a complex task, which involves the following steps: (1) mirroring of web pages, (2) linguistic processing and (3) generation of exercises.

1. Mirroring of web pages is done by using Perl.s LWP modules. All Hyperlinks in a web page pointing to other text documents are rewritten to Gymn@zilla.s URL in order to allow continuous browsing with Gymn@zilla. Links to multimedia documents such as audio, video and graphic files are preserved. In a next step encodings other than utf-8 are converted to utf-8. Documents in formats other than html such as *.doc, *.ps or *.pdf are converted to well formed xhtml by the use of GNU-tools.

2. Once converted, the documents language is guessed before starting natural language processing. In order to annotate the text with linguistic information the text is first segmented into its tokens. Stemming is then done by the use of pattern matching techniques. According to the user.s preferences the text is then annotated with translations and terminological information from on-line dictionaries and terminological databases. The annotation is done by insertion of -tags with advanced link titles containing the linguistic information which will show up as a tooltip when the user moves the mouse over a word. With the help of a Javascript function link titles can be formatted like html-documents so that they may contain images and links to further information sources. Information can thus be structured from general to specific.

3. Each user in Gymn@zilla is associated with a session where history information is stored in order to memorize words seen by the user. This information is then used to make editable word lists and to generate cloze texts or other exercises for training.

Future steps in the development of Gymn@zilla comprise benchmarking, the expansion of linguistic resources integration of automatic document classification and the integration of a morpho-syntactic parser in order to improve linguistic analysis linguistic annotation.

References

[1] Jean Aitchison. Words in the Mind: An Introduction to the Mental Lexicon. Blackwell Publishers Ltd, Oxford, UK, third edition, 2003.
[2] Dorothy M. Chun. L2 reading on the Web: Strategies for Accessing Information in Hypermedia. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 14(5):367.403, 2001.
[3] Tom Cobb. Breath and depth of lexical acquisition with hands-on concordancing. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 12(4):345.360, October 1999.
[4] Luigi Colazzo and Marco Costantino. Multi-user hypertextual didactic glossaries. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 9(1.2), 1998.
[5] Robert Godwin-Jones. Language testing tools and technologies. Language Learning & Technology, 5(2):8.12, 2001.
[6] Peter J.M. Groot. Computer assisted second language vocabulary acquisition. Language Learning & Technology, 4(1):60.81, May 2000. http://llt.msu.edu/vol4num1/groot/default.html.
[7] Trude Heift and Devlan Nicholson. Theoretical and practical considerations forWebbased intelligent language tutoring systems. In Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS.2000), 2000.
[8] Reiko Ito and Charles Hannon. The Effect of Online Quizzes on learning Japanese. CALICO Journal, 19(3):551.561, 2002.
[9] Christopher Jones. Contextualise & personalise: Key strategies for vocabulary acquisition. ReCALL, 11(3):34.40, November 1999.
[10] Bernd Kielhöfer. Psycholinguistische Grundlagen der Wortschatzarbeit. Babylonia, 1996.
[11] Batia Laufer. Electronic dictionaries and incidental vocabulary acquisition: Does technology make a difference? In Ulrich Heid, Stefan Evert, Egbert Lehmann, and Christian Rohrer, editors, Proceedings of the 9th EURALEX International Congress on Lexicography (EURALEX.00), pages 849.854, 2000.
[12] G. A. Miller. Human memory and the storage of information. IRE Transactions of Information Today, 2(3):129.137, 1956.
[13] Martin Müller and LukasWertenschlag. Wortschatz-lernen ganzheitlich: effektiv und effizient. Babylonia, 2:25.31, 1996.
[14] John Nerbonne, Duco Dokter, and Petra Smit. Morphological processing and computer-assisted language learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 11(5), 1998.
[15] Jan L. Plass. Design and evaluation of the user interface of foreign language multimedia software: A cognitive approach. Language Learning & Technology, 2(1):35.45, July 1998. http://www.gss.ucsb.edu/faculty/dmchun/cyberbuch/.
[16] Isabelle De Ridder. Are we conditioned to follow links? Highlights in CALL materials and their impacts on the reading process. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 13(2):183.195, April 2000.
[17] Chi-Chiang Shei. FollowYou! an automatic language lesson generation system. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 14(2), 2001.
[18] Karen Swan. The Effectiveness of Online Learning: A Review of the Literature. In Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia & Telecommunications (ED-MEDIA 2003), pages 2225.2232. Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE), 2003.
[19] Maria Virvou and Victoria Tsiriga. Web passive voice tutor: An intelligent computer assisted language learning system over the WWW. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT 2001). IEEE Computer Society Press, 2001.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094423/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop120.html",""
"440","5","Validating Bulgarian WordNet using grammatical information","1","","","2","",""
"441","5","Word Formation in Pedagogical Lexicography: Linguistic and Technical Aspects","1","Word Formation and Second Language Acquisition

Word formation is one of the most important ways of extending the lexicon. As opposed to borrowing and semantic extension, the other two main sources of extensions, word formation is largely governed by rules. These rules are not only used for producing new forms, but also for structuring the lexicon. Therefore, there are two reasons why second language learners can benefit from knowing the mechanisms of word formation: for understanding new, unknown words and for perceiving the relationship between known words. As shown by ten Hacken (1998), these advantages do not automatically arise by using electronic dictionaries, but require an appropriate structure. In this paper we show how this problem was approached in the context of the ELDIT project.

Word Formation in ELDIT

At the European Academy of Bolzano/Bozen an interdisciplinary team consisting of linguists and computer scientists is developing an electronic learner's dictionary for the Italian and German languages called ELDIT. ELDIT is a basic dictionary which contains about 3.500 lemmas for each language and is freely accessible on the web (http://www.eurac.edu/eldit). It is addressed to a well defined target group, namely Italian-speaking students of German and German-speaking students of Italian from beginner to intermediate level (Abel & Weber 2000, Gamper & Knapp 2002b).

Each entry of the dictionary contains a wide range of information which is important for the learner. The information is stored in different modules: one or more definitions together with examples and translations, free combinations and collocations, idiomatic expressions, proverbs, and fixed phrases, word fields, word families, usage remarks, grammar and pronunciation. ELDIT is currently enlarged to a complete language learning system that should enhance bilingualism in multilingual regions. The system could be enhanced to other languages. We therefore propose it as a model for multilingual language learning environments.

In this paper we report about a very specific aspect of the dictionary, namely word formation: Starting from a single entry-word (lemma) the user can click on the tab ""word family"" and access in this way a list of compounds and derivatives with corresponding explanations.

Word formation is represented in ELDIT in the following way (see figure 1):

Frequently used derivatives and compounds are listed together. In future we will add head word which is a simplex word that cannot be decomposed further (Augst 1998).
The basic part of each element is emphasized. For this basic part we consider the stem of a derivative (e.g. ""Haus"" -> Behausung, Häuschen, häuslich ...) or this part of a compound word that appears as headword of the entry within which it is listed (e.g. ""Haus"" -> ""Bauernhaus, Hausnummer, Haustür ..."").
Hyperlinks lead the user to further information:
derivatives and compound words of the basic vocabulary contained in ELDIT are linked with the relevant word-entry;
prefixes and suffixes of the derivatives are linked with explanations of their meaning, use, particularities and with more examples;
also the so called ""linking elements"" (Fugenelemente) in German compounds are linked with special explanations.
Furthermore, the user can find translation(s) for each element.
If necessary, explanations about the word itself are given (for instance if a word is used only in a colloquial sense, etc.)
By clicking onto the triangle next to each word, lexicographic examples can be obtained out of the large database of examples in ELDIT (This feature is already working, but not yet enabled in the online version).

Figure 1: Derivatives and compound words in ELDIT

In the simplest case the module ""word formation"" is helpful for decoding and encoding purposes. Its main objective, however, is to convey the complex system of word formation in a quite simple and transparent way. The user should learn that also semantic similarities exist between formally related words. As a result the learner should be able to analyze the structure of words, to use the L2 in a more creative and productive way by themself (this is important in particular for extremely productive processes such as German compound words and Italian evaluative suffixation) and to draw conclusions on the meaning of unknown words in receptive linguistic situations.

Implementation

Approaching the previously described ideas in the usual way would require the manual input of a huge amount of data and a very detailed encoding of these data. This extensive and detailed encoding was judged not feasible by the authors of the dictionary.

Hence, we supported the authors in the data encoding process by electronically rewriting a hand made, semi structured version of the data into the final extensive version needed by the system. Moreover computational linguistic resources were exploited and as much linguistic information as possible was added electronically. As a uniform data and knowledge representation formalism we use the XML language (for more details see Gamper & Knapp, 2002). The authoring process can be described as follows:

The first step is to manually elaborate the language learning content and to submit and save it using an editor in a possibly already semistructured way. Figure 2 shows a derivation in ELDIT developed with a very simple XML-editor in this stage.


Figure 2: Semistructured data encoded in XML

Then a transfer tool converts the manually elaborated data into the special format needed by the system. Figure 3 shows the same part of the ELDT data as figure 2, but in the fully encoded stage.


Figure 3: Fully structured data encoded in XML

A lot of information has been added electronically: every XML-element got a unique ID (see for instance id=""de.n.haus.1.deriv2"" in the element <derivation>). The words have been equipped with citation form and part-of-speech (see the attributes base=""Behausung"" and ctag=""N"" in the element <pattern> or the attributes base=""dimora"" and ctag=""N"" in the element <w> within <translation>). Wherever possible a reference to the corresponding dictionary entry is added (see for instance the attribute lexref=""it.n.dimora.1.sense2"" in the element <w> of <translation>). Also references to explaining sections are added (see the attribute explref=""de.prae.h.be"" which points to a section within which word derivation with the prefix ""Be"" are explained).

Thanks to a collaboration between the European Academy of Bolzano and the Scuola Universitaria Professionale della Svizzera Italiana (Funded by the European Union, Interreg IIIA, Italia-Svizzera) involving Word Manager (WM) and ELDIT we can add morphological information to each word. WM is a system for reusable morphological dictionaries. Ten Hacken & Domenig (1996) describe the general architecture and the rule types involved. Lexical tools derived from WM databases are included into ELDIT and allow transforming a word form to its citation form, delivering at the same time its category (Pedrazzini, 1999). Hence, we can equip each word with its citation form (attribute ""base""), its word form (attribute ""ctag"") and a pointer to the full meaning description of the word in the dictionary (attribute ""lexref"").

WM is also able to suggest new derivations, providing information about their segmentation, derivational degree, frequency within ELDIT, category, etc. These possibilities are currently exploited in an authoring tool for efficiently extending the existing families with new elements and more information for the learner, thus providing rapid access to a rich source of high-quality information.

Conclusion

By exploiting the possibilities of an appropriate representation of word formation rules and their products, we managed to create an enhanced language learning environment. The potential of the WM system in this respect was noted by ten Hacken & Tschichold (2001). In the realization of this potential, the way different properties of ELDIT and WM collaborate and reinforce each other demonstrates the flexibility of the former as well as the reusability in practice of the latter.

References

Abel, Andrea & Weber, Vanessa (2000), 'ELDIT - A Prototype of an Innovative Dictionary', in Heid et al. (eds.), Proceedings of the Ninth Euralex International Congress, Euralex 2000, Stuttgart, p. 807-818.
Augst, Gerhard (1998): Wortfamilienwörterbuch der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. Tübingen (Max Niemeyer Verlag)
Gamper, J., & Knapp, J. (2002a). A Data Model and its Implementation for a Web-Based Language Learning System. In Proceedings of the Twelfth International World Wide Web Conference (WWW2003). Budapest, Hungary, p. 217-225.
ten Hacken, Pius & Domenig, Marc (1996), 'Reusable Dictionaries for NLP: The Word Manager Approach', Lexicology 2:232-255.
ten Hacken, Pius (1998), 'Word Formation in Electronic Dictionaries', Dictionaries 19:158-187.
ten Hacken, Pius & Tschichold, Cornelia (2001), 'Word Manager and CALL: Structured access to the lexicon as a tool for enriching learners' vocabulary', ReCALL 13: 121-131.
Pedrazzini, S. (1999): The Finite-State Automata's Design Patterns, WIA'98, Third International Workshop on Implementing Automata, Rouen, France, September 1998. Published in J.-M. Champarnaud, D. Maurel, D. Ziadi (Eds.): Automata Implementation, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, p. 213, Springer.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094125/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop31.html",""
"442","5","Multilingual dialogue systems","1","","","2","",""
"443","5","Pumping up the volume: Creating language technology for low-density languages","1","","","2","",""
"444","5","The Challenge of the Humanities to the World Wide Web: Perspectives from the Archimedes Project","1","The Challenge

It cannot be denied that the development of information technology poses a profound challenge to traditional scholarship in the humanities. The rapid development of computer technology and of the World Wide Web has opened up immense new opportunities for scholars working in historical disciplines. These opportunities also challenge the traditional ways in which scholarship has been practiced. Yet the challenges presented by humanistic scholarship to information technology and to the World Wide Web are perhaps even greater. In Part One of our paper, we briefly describe four fundamental limitations of the World Wide Web in its current form as a medium of scholarship in the humanities:

Language technology. Research in natural language processing has resulted in a proliferation of tools for automatic linguistic analysis of particular languages. There is, however, no way to bring the data produced by these tools into a browsing or editing environment in the absence of standard formats and protocols. What is needed is linguistic middleware that enables user agents to interact with heterogeneous sources of linguistic data.
Semantic linking. Scholarly research requires the creation and utilization of meaningful links between source materials. Ordinary HTML links are unidirectional and cannot differentiate between types of semantic relations. Digital library applications must be developed that achieve the ideal of a ``semantic web''1 by exploiting the potentials of relevant standards such as the XML Linking Language (XLink).2
Content creation. Central to the notion of a digital research library is human analysis and annotation of source materials. No matter how sophisticated the algorithms used to generate them, automatically created links cannot take the place of scholarly analysis. The current paradigm of the Web distinguishes the creation and browsing of content as fundamentally separate activities. In a next-generation framework the browsing and creation of content must be more closely integrated.
Distributed resources. The free exchange of ideas is a crucial feature of research, whether humanistic or scientific. Any scholar anywhere who has access to the Web should be able to contribute materials to a distributed set of resources and to work with resources produced by other scholars worldwide. Yet the current client-server architecture of the Web limits the free flow of information. Digital libraries must move toward a more fluid distributed or peer-to-peer network model.3
Software Platform

We describe a software platform designed as a first step towards meeting these challenges. This software platform has been developed in the context of the Archimedes Project, an international initiative to create a digital research library for the history of mechanics funded by the National Science Foundation in the United States. Although our software has been developed with a view to solving the problems arising in the course of work on this project, it is not tied to the requirements of any particular area of historical scholarship. Our software platform has three principal components, all of which are freely available in the Internet at http://archimedes.fas.harvard.edu:

The Pollux system provides a unified means of access to dictionaries, or any other reference work that is organized by alphabetized headwords, in any natural language. The software is designed to make it possible for users to add new lexica with a minimum of effort.
The Donatus system provides a unified frontend to a variety of morphological analysis software and databases.4 Morphological services are provided both through a Remote Procedure Call (RPC) interface that can be utilized by specialized user applications and through a CGI interface that is accessible in any web browser. Morphological data can be represented in XML, allowing them to be cached on client systems and to be processed by a wide range of software. Backend systems that have already been incorporated include Morpheus, a morphological analyzer for ancient Greek, Latin, and Italian developed by the Perseus Project;5 the CELEX Linguistic Database for Dutch, English, and German developed by the Center for Linguistic Information of the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics in Nijmegen;6 and the Xerox finite-state morphological analyzer for Arabic developed by the Xerox Research Centre Europe (XRCE) in Grenoble.7 Work is currently underway to integrate a morphological analyzer for Sanskrit that is being developed at Brown University and one for Sumerian being developed at the University of Pennsylvania. In addition to providing access to pre-existing linguistic data, Donatus allows for the dynamic extension of morphological datasets by a user.
The Arboreal user agent is a powerful and flexible tool for content-based access to and annotation of XML texts. Arboreal includes special features for working with parallel versions of texts, morphology and terminology, and linked images. Integrated language support is currently provided for Latin, Greek, Arabic, Chinese, languages written in cuneiform, and major western European languages. Arboreal supports many standards and is designed as a cross-platform tool that can be used on many different computing systems. Distributions are currently available for Mac OS X, Windows, and GNU/Linux. We envision Arboreal as a prototype for the next-generation web user agent, which closely integrates content browsing and content creation. Arboreal allows for highly flexible navigation of any XML document, using two document views that are presented side-by-side. One pane displays a tree view of the document; the user can control the level of detail shown in the tree by expanding and collapsing nodes and sets of nodes. The other pane offers a detail view of the portions that are selected in the tree. Both views are customizable through a document description language (DDL), which we aim to extend in the next phase of the project. Powerful search capabilities are available, including regular expression searching, lemmatized searching (which takes advantage of morphological data generated by the Donatus system), XPath queries, and the ability to search in an orthographically normalized representation of the text (e.g. a query for the Latin word `uectis' will also find `vectis'). Arboreal can be customized to work with any natural language, by supplying a description of the language in an XML langspec. This description makes possible language-specific features such as word detection and allows for various language-specific views to be defined (e.g. Romanization of a non-Roman script, or fully-voweled vs. non-voweled Arabic script). Close integration with the linguistic services provided by Donatus and the Pollux reference system is provided, allowing the user to access morphological analyses and dictionary entries for any word in a text.
Application and Evaluation

We present a number of concrete applications of our software platform in the context of the Archimedes Project. First, this platform has proven invaluable in the basic work involved in building up a digital collection that now amounts to some 110 MB of text and 30 GB of associated images. For example, with the aid of the automatic morphological analysis provided by Donatus and the term annotation facilities of Arboreal, a user can easily highlight all words in a document that cannot be analyzed by the Donatus system, allowing for both the speedy correction of typographical errors and the improvement of our morphological datasets. Second, Arboreal's ability to apply arbitrary XSLT transformations allows us to create a range of derived files of immediate scholarly value from a single source text. Third, Arboreal has been extensively used in conjunction with external editing environments to produce scholarly metadata, in particular for the alignment and linking of parallel sections of different XML texts. Fourth, Arboreal's term annotation and editing facilities provide support for scholars attempting to produce consistent translations of source texts. Finally, we have taken preliminary steps towards integrating into our framework sophisticated NLP techniques for the discovery of technical terminology and establishing metrics for assessing the utility of these techniques.

A number of cooperating projects and institutions are also currently using components of our software platform. These include the Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (CDLI),8 the project Gli anni della cupola 1417-1436: Archivio digitale delle fonti dell'Opera di Santa Maria del Fiore (The Administrative Archives of the Cathedral of Florence),9 European Cultural Heritage Online (ECHO),10 and the Digital Sanskrit Library at Brown University.11 Feedback from these projects has demonstrated the broad range of application of our tools and allowed us to create additional enhancements.

Further Perspectives

We describe further extension and generalization of our software platform to realize the goals stated in Part One, focusing on two areas in particular: (1) enhancements in core language technology, and (2) the development of tools for ontology creation and visualization.

References

1. T. Berners-Lee, The semantic web, Scientific American, May 2001.
2. http://www.w3c.org/TR/xlink/.
3. P. Fox, P2P for grown-ups, Computerworld 37(12), March 24, 2003, pp. 22-3.
4. http://archimedes.fas.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/donatus/.
5. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/.
6. http://www.kun.nl/celex/.
7. http://www.xrce.xerox.com/.
8. http://cdli.ucla.edu/.
9. http://duomo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/
10. http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/
11. http://sanskritlibrary.org/.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094150/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop32.html",""
"445","5","A Newsletters Service based on XML-TEI","1","Introduction

In this paper we describe the production model and dissemination models of a newsletters service. We will first describe the context of the problem, one of the biggest Web-based digital libraries of Spanish works, and the spirit and objectives of its interactive and dissemination services. Amongst these, the newsletters service is an information dissemination service that provides useful information to readers. We will talk about the production model of the newsletters based on XML-TEI (2) and XSLT, and about the personalizable dissemination model we are now implementing. The dissemination model combines adaptive with adaptable personalization techniques, being capable of ranking news according to navigation-inferred preferences and then filter them according to a user-given profile.

Communication services of the digital library

One of the goals of the MCDL is to act as a communication channel for the academic community. In this sense we have implemented a number of communication services, and we try to maintain a permanent communication with our readers.

Electronic publishing makes it possible to reach every corner of the world and opens up new research and communication paths. The Miguel de Cervantes Digital LibraryÂ’s Web based news-service comprises five different digital library newsletters, and one monthly journal all managed and produced using XML-TEI and XSLT technology. News and articles may appear in different newsletters and/or the journal, and they also have different periodicity (some are published quarterly and some monthly). The news and articles come from different sources, which generally coincide with departments or units of our digital library. A general editor reviews the articles or news, decides where they must appear, and also manages the distribution lists.

A simple solution for production

Each of the five different newsletters anf the journal are delivered in several optional output formats, and all managed and produced based on XML-TEI and XSLT technology (see figure 1).

First, we considered the possibility of developing a management system based on a database. Then, while reviewing the requirements, we realized that a much simpler solution using an XML editor, XML-TEI encoding and XSLT transformations was possible.

Figure F1
Fig. 1: Newsletter and journal production workflow.


A database based system would be better for editing and maintenance of news, but news have no maintenance. Once the are published, there is no more editing of the news. However, they can be searched, but this service can be provided by an XML searcher without the need of an DBMS (database management system).

With this simple solution, no system programming was needed, only the XSLT transforms needed to be built. In addition, it takes advantage of the same TEI XML markup scheme and the same processing technology we use to produce our digital books. The differences are mainly the overlapping of news and the interrelated times of publication.

We used XSL-TEI to markup each piece of news. In the case of the newsletters and the journal we use a subset of the tagset we currently use for books, so we developed a small DTD for this purpose.

We had to develop several XSL transformation scripts to produce the different output formats required. Newsletters are generated both in plain text (for traditional mail readers) and in HTML for those who prefer a richer format.

How it works

Once the monthly news file is complete and supervised, we enter the automatic phase of generation of different output formats. The final output in HTML format is obtained from a double transformation of the XML-TEI file (see figure 3). First an XSL transformation processes the XML monthly file to generate a single HTML file (with special formatting marks embedded). Then a parsing program of our own design called MakeBook transforms that file into a digital book, generating a file for the table of contents, and a file for each section of the journal. Notes are extracted from the main file and placed in small external files, leaving hyperlinks to these files in their place. MakeBook was also thought to add page headers and footers for each section, that include buttons to implement a navigation pattern called ""indexed guided tour"" [2]. This navigation pattern allows both the presence of a central index or table of contents and also buttons to move back and forth the different sections of the journal (hence the metaphor Â“guided tourÂ”). Buttons to jump up and down article headings with a mouse click are also provided. The result is an electronic journal that is nothing but a set of web pages interconnected with a ring-star topology: a bidirectional ring of connections to navigate the sections, plus a central table-of-contents page with bidirectional connections to each section (see figure 2).

A set of templates is used for formatting and providing navigation functionality to the generated HTML files. The purpose of using templates is to give a uniform appearance to all the monthly journals, as well as to facilitate the maintenance, so that format changes can be applied easily and evenly to the whole set (e.g., section headers and footers, background colors and textures and navigation buttons can be changed through these templates).

Figure F2
Fig. 2: Navigation topology of the journal.


Figure F3
Fig. 3: Generation of the HTML publication format for the journal.


The proposed solution for dissemination

The Web Engineering Group of the department of Computer Languages and Information Systems at the University of Alicante has developed a method, OOH [1], and an accompanying software tool (VisualWADE) to assist the design of language-independent Web Applications. This software, based on standards for information systemÂ’s object-oriented analysis and design like UML, OCL and XML, supplies an environment for modelling personalized and device-independent user interfaces. In this project, VisualWADE was used to model the navigation and personalization aspects of the application.

Personalization: ranking and filtering of news

The user model we have implemented for newsletters automatically and transparently incorporates information gathered from user navigation (adaptive part). In addition, the user can set-up some filtering restrictions and customization preferences when registering for this service (adaptable part). The final model is based both on implicit interests on certain digital library sections (information gathered during navigation) and on explicit preferences compose the user profile.

News are classified by category and subject-matter. Categories are: new publications (new digital resources), future publications, new sections, chat announcements, call for papers, suggestions from our departments, letters from readers, visits of important people, contests, and the remainder are classified as general news. Subjects or matters are derived from the actual thematic structure of the DL. Each theme section or subcollection generates a subject-matter, as for instance: Latin-American literature, humanities research, history, children's literature, theatre, interactive services of the DL, computers and humanities, critical studies, tribute to hispanists, Argentine Academy of Letters, PhD theses, movies, magazines/journals, recently printed books, law, and many more. This allows for a very fine granularity.

An algorithm for ranking news preferences

Every time the user clicks on an entry of the newsletter table of contents (see figure 4), the Web page jumps to a single piece of news, and the server increments in one the corresponding category and subject-matter counters. Only one category but multiple subjects can be assigned to a piece of news. Relative access frequencies can be computed for categories and for subjects. Then news can be given a ranking value for a given user for a given news-reading session, which is calculated as the sum of subject frequencies of the subjects corresponding to a given piece of news, multiplied by the frequency of its category. For instance, if a user has an access frequency of 0.3 for the Â“new-publicationsÂ” category, and, 0.1 for the Â“historyÂ” and 0.2 for the Â“PhD-thesesÂ” subjects, then a piece of news announcing the publication of a PhD thesis on history will weight (0.1 + 0.2) 0.3 = 0.09, and will be ranked accordingly.

A profile for filtering news

On registration, the users can specify Boolean constraints for categories and subjects, saying which ones should to be sorted out and which should be displayed. This profile can be modified by the user.

Personalization at work

Newsletters are accessed through a monthly index, where news are ordered first by category and then by subject, according to the dynamically computed ranking. But not all the ranked news appear, they are filtered according to the user explicit profile. The first N (3) ranked entries that pass the filter are shown openly, and the rest appear as a collapsed ""more news"" button.

Figure F4
Figure 4: Table of contents of a personalized newsletter.


OO-HMethod Overview

Personalization properties are captured at navigation/presentation level and are reflected in their corresponding conceptual models by means of a set of association rules. The design and generation of the navigation logic is specified in two parts: a stable part, independent from the personalization properties, and a variable part, that supports the treatment of these rules. Finally, a rules engine provides the context to interpret the generated rules at execution time. (see figure 5).

Figure F5
Figure 5: Navigation logic of OO-H to support dynamic personalization.


Conclusions

This solution to the production of newsletters and a journal for a digital library saves an important amount of time: now we can produce the newsletters and the journal in less time and with less effort than what was previously required to produce only the newsletters by hand. The output formats are uniform and regular, and less error prone. Previous newsletters showed les uniformity and some rendering errors. Compared to the other production models of our digital library (for digital text books and for digital facsimiles books), this model is different in three ways:

The production does not begin with scanning. This model deals with the production of digitally born material.
This model includes many more different output formats.
This model is tied to a given fixed periodicity proper of this kind of publication.
The general newsletter, which is the most demanded one, currently has 14,000 subscribers worldwide.

Concerning the dissemination model for these newsletters, we have enhanced the granularity by offering more detailed personalization options, which allow us to rank the news based on preferences gathered from user navigation (observation model). The design of this solution was performed according to the OO-H Model and using the VisualWADE tool. This technology can significantly increase the productivity at the time of developing Web applications.

The MCDL, with this effort, struggles to fulfill its objective of spreading research knowledge to the global academic community through the Web. Our aim is to be able to offer a better service by optimizing searches of digital resources, by reducing waiting times for digital publication, by promoting dynamic scientific research communication and by developing efficient preservation strategies. Daily experience results in the continuous integration of new ideas. Our goal is not only the mere publication of research work, but to build a rich and open communication channel for the global scientific community. The newsletter service described here plays a key role in this communication channel.

Appendix: News in XML format

The following is a simplified sample piece of news in XML-TEI format. Attributes indicate in which newsletter/journal the piece of news should be included:

1. 
<div1 general=""yes"" AmLat=""no"" children=""no"" history=""no""> <BR>
<head type=""main"">2.4-Ediciones Multimedia: </head> <BR>
<p>-Hemos publicado la edici&oacute;n multimedia del gui&oacute;n de ""La Corte de
Fara&oacute;n"" (1985), de Rafael Azcona y Jos&eacute; Luis
Garc&iacute;a S&aacute;nchez. Se trata de una pel&iacute;cula clave
para acercarse desde una perspectiva humor&iacute;stica al
fen&oacute;meno de la censura teatral durante el franquismo. Puede
encontrarse, adem&aacute;s, una serie de materiales diversos sobre este
divertido film y la opereta hom&oacute;nima, con los que es posible conocer
algunos de sus detalles m&aacute;s relevantes.</p><BR>
<p> <xref doc=""http://cervantesvirtual.com/086.pdf?incr=1""> </xref></p><BR>
</div1><BR>
References

1. Cristina Cachero. OO-H: Una Extensión a los Métodos OO para el Modelado y Generación Automática de Interfaces Hipermediales . PhD Thesis, Dept. Computer Languages and Information Systems, University of Alicante, 2nd December 2002. Directed by: Dr. Jaime Gómez Ortega y Dr. Oscar Pastor López.
2. A. Ginige and S. Murugesan. Web Engineering: an Introduction. IEEE Multimedia Special Issue on Web Engineering , pages 14-18, 04 2001.
1. This paper has been partially supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology (Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología de España), project TIC2001-3530-C02-02.
2. XML stands for eXtensible Markup Language, and TEI is an XML vocabulary developed by the TEI Consortium. TEI stands for Text Encoding Initiative.
3. N is a user given parameter.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094432/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop130.html",""
"446","5","Free E-books - a real alternative?","1","Increased IT literacy amongst students in combination with cuts in library funding means higher demand for texts in electronic form. Or does it? Is the use of electronic texts really an option to more traditional material? What are the potential benefits and drawbacks? What issues face someone wanting to use electronic texts for teaching or learning? These are all well-known questions that have been discussed before. We suggest that they are questions that merit further discussion in the light of the increased availability of free e-books. We will touch on those in our presentation, but focus on less frequently discussed questions relating to quality and availability of free e-books, attitudes towards free e-books, and issues relating to technical aspects of free e-books: formats, tools, and scope for repurposing.

This paper builds on the results of an investigation into free e-books that the Oxford Text Archive performed in 2003. The study was commissioned by the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC), a body which provides strategic guidance, advice and opportunities to use Information and Communications Technology (ICT) to support teaching, learning, research and administration in higher and further education in the UK. The main aim of the study was to produce a comprehensive report for the JISC E-Book Working Group. A number of related studies were performed simultaneously addressing other aspects of e-books.

The Free E-books study focussed on the following key issues:

Availability: The study concentrated on e-books which are available at no cost with the minimum of intellectual property rights constraints.
User needs: The study investigated the possible users, uses, and usability of free e-books, paying particular attention to customisation.
Repurposing: The study explored the extent to which existing freely available e-books can be repurposed, converted to other delivery formats, and assimilated into other activities or collections.
Within these categories, the following activities were undertaken:

Availability The study first clarified the notion of ""free e-books"" and focussed on those resources which meet this definition and that are available with the minimum of IPR constraints. An initial survey of sources of free e-books was undertaken and provides an indication of subject coverage within the Arts and Humanities, the variety of formats available (e.g. (X)HTML, XML, Microsoft Reader etc.), and any factors which serve as indicators of quality and provenance.
User needs The study concentrated on the needs and concerns of students, teachers, and research staff working in the Arts and Humanities within the UK's HE/post-16 sector. Through a combination of survey instruments, online publications, discussion lists, and workshop events, we identified current and potential users of free e-books, and defined their requirements (for example with regard to possible customisations such as book-marking, marginalia, highlighting, building personal collections, and citation).
Repurposing Throughout the lifetime of the study as well as after the conclusion of it, we have conducted research to establish the issues involved when existing freely available e-books are repurposed, converted to other delivery formats, or assimilated into other activities or collections. We have investigated the actual and potential procedures used to both create and repurpose free e-books, in an attempt to define a set of recommendations for either the creators or users of free e-books (e.g. simple advice to creators which will help ensure that users can make the most of their e-books, and advice to users which may help them decide if a particular type of free e-book is likely to meet their needs).
The following outputs and deliverables have been produced:

A study-specific website containing:
Information about the study and guidance on how to participate.
Regular progress reports on the study, accompanied by the project plan and a clear statement of aims and deliverables.
Publicly available documents and instruments developed and used during the course of the study.
Links to sources, resources, tools, and software identified or discussed as part of the study.
An initial survey of sources of free e-books (to include an indication of subject coverage within the Arts and Humanities, the variety of formats available, and any indicators of quality and provenance) mounted on the website.
An investigation into the actual and potential procedures used to both create and repurpose free e-books, the findings of which will be summarised on the website and form a significant component of the final report.
The production of appropriate questionnaires and survey instruments to gather information about the requirements and expertise of the UK HE/post-16 community with regard to their use of free e-books.
As appropriate, summaries of the findings of such questionnaires and surveys mounted on the website
A one-day workshop to promote the findings of the study and inform the community about the possibilities and limitations of free e-books.
A draft final report on the study for consideration by the Steering Committee (and E-Book Working Group if necessary).
The production and promotion of the final report of the study.
The final study report represents the findings and outputs of a variety of activities. The work is of two distinct but necessarily related types: desk-based research into free e-books themselves, and survey instruments combined with activity-led workshops etc. designed to gather user feedback and establish user requirements. The survey instruments are a questionnaire to key proponents of e-learning in post-16 institutions, a dissemination workshop highlighting available resources, focus groups exploring potential uses and barriers to use of free e-books and case studies of existing good practice.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094356/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop107.html",""
"447","5","The ""Document"" in Document Architecture","1","The concept of document architecture (DA) pops up once and again in computer discourse, often with slightly different meanings. Sometimes it refers to the architecture in document managing software, sometimes it denotes the organisation of document components, with a primary focus on the text. This presentation takes its point of departure in how document architecture is defined in the SGML ISO Standard (8879:1986) and what the term “document” implies there. It then goes on to make an overview of how the document concept has been discussed and employed in various ways within Library and Information Science (LIS) and poses the question of whether this discussion can serve to broaden the document concept in document architecture in a meaningful way.
 
The context in which this question is posed, and for which it is of particular importance, is my Ph.D. thesis, in which I attempt to make use of the metaphor “document architecture” as the basis for a model that can serve to analytically study documents with regard to media-specific characteristics (cf. Dahlström & Gunnarsson 2000). In some ways it bears resemblances to Katherine Hayles’ Media-Specific Analysis, MSA (Hayles 2002), although its focus is not primarily on literary works, and specifically not on the meaning of the text. Rather, the document is seen as a crucial unit in the organisation of knowledge, serving to contextualise and materialise our interaction with that evasive phenomenon we tend to term “information”. However, the DA approach shares MSA’s interest in how the material of the document influences the text, as well as MSA’s applicability in the analysis of different media.
 
Within LIS, the view of what constitutes a document covers a wide span. Smiraglia’s quite concise “document = item” (in Smiraglia 1992, quoted in Smiraglia 2001, p. 149), Ranganatan’s media-restrictive “a record on a more or less flat surface” (Ranganathan 1963, p. 41, quoted in Buckland 1997, p. 807) and Suzanne Briet’s encompassing “all concrete or symbolic indexical signs [indice, transl. comment], preserved or recorded toward the ends of representing, or reconstituting, or of proving a physical or intellectual phenomenon” (Briet 2003) are some examples of how the definitions may differ in explicitness and focus. Implicit in all of these quite diverse definitions is the physical or material aspect of the document. It is often seen as the material item that carries the abstract work; the object of an act of documentation. This is an aspect that is absent in the SGML Standard definition of document, which reads “A collection of information that is processed as a unit.” (ISO 1986, p. 10) Here, the view of the document lies closer to a logically defined concept and relates closely to the SGML document, which is in essence logical and hierarchical, and which brings to the fore the relationship between the notions of document and text.
 
Although obviously different, all of the definitions above, with the exception of Briet’s, fit into the same category in the taxonomy of document research suggested by Roger Pédauque and a number of his colleagues (Pédauque 2003); the category of research that privileges the form and material and structural aspects of the document. The wide span within the category is primarily due to the difference in medium of the documents that make up the conceptual basis in the different cases: the print document is described as “medium + inscription” (p. 5) and the electronic document as “structure + data” (p. 6). The category concerned here, Form, is one of three categories; the other two are Sign and Medium. Each of the categories is related to one aspect of a reading contract between a reader and a producer (p. 4). The document as form is concerned with “an object of communication governed by more or less explicit formatting rules that materialize [the] reading contract” (ibid) which is interpreted in terms of legibility. The other two aspects are intelligibility and sociability, the former having to do with the sign (or inscription) and its meaning, and the latter with the social function that the document as “a tangible element of communication between human beings” (p. 17) plays. Within LIS, document definitions can be found that may fit within one or more of these aspects, and the question is if the notion of a reading contract can be used in a meaningful way in connection to LIS document understandings to inform a model of document architecture, uniting the three aspects of the contract.
 
Another interesting idea when it comes to definitions is the notion of fuzzy sets. Often, definitions constitute an attempt to list the inherent properties that unite that which the concept comprises. Lakoff and Johnson (1981) argue that concepts are defined in social interaction and in language use. Therefore, “definition is not a matter of giving some fixed set of necessary and sufficient conditions for the application of a concept […]; instead, concepts are defined by prototypes and by types of relations to prototypes” (Lakoff and Johnson 1981, p. 125). We may speak of some documents as being close to the centre, and others as being further out towards the limits of the document concept set. Thus, an admittedly quite unscientific, but close at hand, assumption may situate a traditional printed book close to the centre of the set. It has several properties that we intuitively associate with a document – intentionality, materiality, storage potential, a communicative function, and artefactuality. This can also serve to explain why we may have some trouble accepting e.g. Chinese water poetry as a document (it lacks storage potential). It is placed a certain distance from the centre of the set, and shares only some of the prototype’s properties.
 
In the presentation, I will test the appropriateness of discussing the document concept in terms of a combination of Pédauque’s reading contract and the document as a fuzzy set. The context for the discussion will be a model of document architecture intended for the analysis of traditional and new media, which may in turn serve to highlight similarities and differences in how we may approach and work with documents in different media.
 
Different disciplines, and indeed schools within the disciplines, have very different answers to the question of “what is a document.” In conducting a conceptual discussion of the term “document”, especially in relation to electronic media, aspects of both computer science and a number of diverse humanities disciplines may prove highly relevant as sounding boards. This is one of my incentives for wanting to discuss these questions in the multidisciplinary environment at ALLC/ACH.
 
Works Cited
Briet, Suzanne (2003). “What is Documentation?” Transl. Ronald E. Day and Laurent Martinet. [Qu’est-ce que la documentation? Paris: Éditions Documentaires Industrielles et Techniques, 1951.] Detroit: Wayne State University. <http://www.lisp.wayne.edu/~ai2398/briet.htm>
Buckland, Michael K. (1997). “What Is a ‘Document’?” Journal of the American Society for Information Science 48.9, 804-809.
Dahlström, Mats and Mikael Gunnarsson (2000). “Document Architecture Draws a Circle: On Document Architecture and Its Relation to Library and Information Science Education and Research.” Information Research 5.2. <http://InformationR.net/ir/5-2/paper70.html>
Hayles, N. Katherine (2002). Writing Machines. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
ISO - International Organization for Standardization (1986). Information Processing: Text and Office Systems: Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML). 1st ed. International Standard ISO 8879-1986 (E).
Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson (1981). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press.
Ranganathan, S. R. (ed.) (1963). Documentation and Its Facets. London: Asia Publishing House.
Pédauque, Roger T. (2003). “Document: Form, Sign and Medium, as Reformulated for Electronic Documents.” 3rd version, 8 July 2003. CNRS Information and Communication Science and Technology (STIC) Department. <http://archivesic.ccsd.cnrs.fr/documents/archives0/00/00/05/94/index-fr.html>
Smiraglia, Richard P. (1992). Authority Control and the Extent of Derivative Bibliographic Relationships. Ph.D. Diss. University of Chicago.
Smiraglia, Richard P. (2001). The Nature of “A Work”: Implications for the Organization of Knowledge. Lanham, MD & London: Scarecrow Press.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094225/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop46.html",""
"448","5","XML for Overlapping Structures (XfOS) using a non XML Data Model","1","Introduction

Since the beginning of the use of hierarchical Markup Languages, like SGML and XML, for marking up texts, the phenomena of overlapping structures has become a major concern, because the rather constricted tree structure of these languages does not permit the presentation of overlapping structures. Contrary the OHCO-thesis1 it is generally accepted, that texts are no Â„ordered hierarchy of content objects"", but rather can have multiple hierarchies or lack of any transparent hierarchy. So the problem of overlapping structures can be distinguished between either multiple concurrent hierarchies that overlap each other or overlapping structures without any hierarchies.

In addition to the traditional attempts to solve this problem, during the Â„Extreme Markup Languages 2002"" conference2, two more, interesting options were introduced. The first option are the Â„Just In Time Trees"" (JITTs)3 developed by Patrick Durusau and Matthew O'Donnell. The second proposal is a Markup Language explicitly developed for marking up overlapping structures in one document, the Â„Layered Markup and Annotation Language"" (LMNL)4, invented by Jeni Tennison, Wendell Piez and Gavin Thomas Nicol. Especially the second approach is interesting for documents containing overlapping structures without any hierarchies, but it can also be used to markup concurrent hierarchies in one document.

This paper tries to give a short summary and comparison of the known methods of resolution and attempts to outline a solution by combining XML with a non XML data model. In this case it concerns the LMNL data model, which is based on Â„Core Range Algebra"" (CRA)5 and Â„Attributed Range Algebra"" (ARA)6.

At this time the proposals for possible solutions can be divided into three categories:

SGML/XML based solution, i.e. Â„milestones"", fragmentation and references.
Alternative Markup Languages with different data models and different syntax, i.e. MECS7, TexMECS8 or LMNL.
Relocating the assertion of a tree for each hierarchy from the markup to the processing of a document, as the JITTs technology suggests.
Traditional Solutions

Several possible ways to solve this problem by using traditional hierarchical Markup Languages exist. Solutions like CONCUR, a feature of SGML, Â„milestones"" from the TEI-Guidelines, fragmentation, references, like XPointer, or separate annotationsi9 are all useful, but do not provide a definite solution to the problem. The main disadvantage of these solutions is the lack of an appropriate data model for describing text with overlapping structures. For this purpose, special systems, with special data models, like the Â„Multi-Element Code System"" (MECS) or LMNL, are developed. MECS has a very complex and therefore complicated syntax, compared to LMNL, which is much easier to learn. LMNL on the other hand has the disadvantages of missing available software tools for creating, editing, validating or even displaying documents and missing other features, like practical query languages.

Apparently there is a demand for a solution that takes the advantages of both approaches. On the one hand a data model, explicitly developed for overlapping structures, on the other hand the plurality of existing tools for XML, including features like XSLT, XPath etc. For this purpose we need to distinguish between data model and the syntax, what this paper tries to show on the example by using the LMNL data model combined with XML syntax.

Data Model

A suitable data model, especially for overlapping structures without any hierarchies, is the LMNL data model, which is based on the Â„Attributed Range Algebra"" (ARA). In ARA a document is handled as a sequence of characters, over which a number of Ranges spans. Ranges have a name, a start index and a length. They are represented in the document through markup. Ranges can have Annotations, which are not allowed to overlap but can be annotated and structured too. A LMNL document is organized in Layers that overlay each other. Every Layer, except the text layer, which is the lowest Layer of every document, has a base layer and can have other layers as overlay.

Such a model can apparently not be represented as a tree, so at first glance it seems unsuitable to combine with XML. However using the following Syntax, which attempts an implementation of the Â„flat subset""10 of the LMNL data model, might be a practical solution.

Syntax

According to the statement of the LMNL developers, that LMNL is a data model which can be combined with different syntaxes. It therefore seems self-evident, to combine the advantages of LMNL with the mass of existing valuable tools for processing XML.

The intended proximity of LMNL and XML makes a transformation of the data model to XML syntax much easier, than for example a transformation from MECS to XML. However it must be said, that some of the typical features of LMNL cannot be converted to XML.11

Below is a classic example for overlapping structures, which is no well formed XML:

<a>text with <b>overlapping</a> parts</b>

In LMNL syntax the example would look as follows:

[a}text with [b}overlapping{a] parts{b]

The XfOS Syntax would look like in the following way:

<a type=""start""/>text with <b type=""start""/>overlapping<a type=""end""/> parts <b type=""end""/>

This, at first sight, looks like the milestone solution from the TEI-Guidelines. But if the Ranges are annotated, which can in LMNL be done either in the start- or in the end tag, the markup becomes more complex.

LMNL:

[a [c}annotation in start tag{]}text with [b}overlapping{a] parts{b [c}annotation in end tag{]]

XfOS:

<a type=""start""> <c>annotation in start tag</c></a>text with <b type=""start""/>overlapping<a type=""end""/> parts<b type=""end""> <c>annotation in end tag</c></b>

Apparently the resulting marked up document looks like XML, especially since it is well formed, but in fact it is LMNL. The XML for overlapping structures in that case is a mixture of milestones and fragmentation. Every start tag and end tag of a Range is represented by its own XML element, that possesses an attribute ""type"" for indicating whether it is the Ranges start tag or end tag. If the Ranges are not annotated, the XML elements are empty. Annotated Ranges have content, the Annotation, either in the start tag or the end tag. This is possible, because Annotations can be structured but are not allowed to overlap each other.

Perspective

At this point of development the approach outlined above seems to be a makeshift solution as well, but if we accept the distinction between data model and syntax, we are able to use the benefits of both aspects. Especially the possibility of using a popular syntax most people are familiar with, in combination with a big amount of existing tools, is an important advantage. In this scenario, we only have to learn one more data model, but there is no need to deploy editors or parser. The possibility to use an existing XML parser makes it relatively easy to adapt an application to the LMNL data model as well as developing programing APIs that depends on those parsers.

References

1. Renear, Allen / Mylonas, Elli / Durand, David, Refining Our Notion of What Text Really Is: The Problem of Overlapping Hierarchies in: International Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing: Selected papers from ALLC, ACH Conference. Christ Church, oxford, April 1992. Oxford 1996.
2. http://www.extrememarkup.com/extreme/2002/
3. JITTs relocate the assertion of trees from marking up to the processing of a document. This technology seems very suitable for documents containing multiple concurrent hierarchies. For documents with overlapping structures without transparent hierarchies JITTs provide no processing model.
4. www.lmnl.org. Unfortunately the website isn't available anymore for unkown reasons.
5. Nicol, Gavin Thomas, Core Range Algebra. Toward a formal model of markup. 2002. http://www.mind-to-mind.com/library/papers/ara/core-range-algebra-03-2002.html
6. Nicol, Gavin Thomas, Attributed Range Algebra. Extending Core Range Algebra to Arbitrary Structures. 2002. http://www.mind-to-mind.com/library/papers/ara/attributed-range-algebra-07-2002.html
7. Huitfeld, Claus, MECS -- A Multi-Element Code System. In: Working Papers from the Wittgenstein Archives, University of Bergen 1998. http://helmer.aksis.uib.no/claus/mecs/mecs.htm
8. Huitfeld, Claus / Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., TexMECS. An experimental markup meta language for complex documents. 2001. http://helmer.aksis.uib.no/claus/mlcd/papers/texmecs.html
9. This method for marking up texts is mainly recomended by Andreas Witt in: Witt, Andreas, Multiple Informationsstrukturierung mit Auszeichnungssprachen. XML-basierte Methoden und deren Nutzen für die Sprachtechnologie. Dissertation, Universität Bielefeld, 2002.
10. The flat subset only consists of exactly two Layers, the text layer and one Layer as overlay, that contains all Ranges.
11. I.e. the concepts of ""anonymous"" ranges, markup reduction and the declaration of entities everywhere inside a document.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094112/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop104.html",""
"449","5","Documents and data: modelling materials for Humanities research in XML and relational database","1","The Humanities Computing (HC) community has had a long and fruitful association with SGML and XML through the work of TEI. Indeed, the TEI has greatly deepened our understanding of the significance of markup of digital materials. With certain qualifications, the OHCO model that XML and TEI embodies (DeRose et al, 1990, and some useful follow-up discussion in DeRose 1997) has largely been shown to meet the needs document-oriented markup tasks. The HC's relationship with the relational database, on the other hand, does not appear to have been so positive. Part of the reason for this arises from the nature of many HC projects, which are focused on preparation of digital editions of source texts and are much better served by SGML/XML and the TEI. However, the dissatisfaction with the relational technology seems to go beyond this. We find it described as a ""matrix straightjacket"" in (Townsend 1999) -- although more generously described and understood in Greenstein's A Historian’s Guide to Computing (Greenstein 1994). The Orlando project reports that they have deliberately rejected the relational model as a way of structuring their materials, asserting that they do not represent ""a 'database'; [because] the tagged prose must say subtle, complex things"" (Orlando 1998). At almost every ACH/ALLC meeting this writer hears the Relational model disparaged as inappropriate for some material or other.

Our experience at the Centre for Computing in the Humanities at King's has been different from what one might imply from this seemingly widely held negative view of the relational model. It is based on the experience produced from long term (multi-year) and intimate associations with a broad range of humanities oriented projects (more than 30, and growing) in a large number of different disciplines, and dealing with source materials including images as well as text. For a somewhat different perspective on similar issues, see also Alvarado 1999 – framed there in the context of multimedia and metadata and digital libraries rather than the more specifically textual-oriented view we are taking in this paper.

Of course, the relational model is not appropriate for representing the structure of textual materials, and the OHCO model, with the possibility of mixed content within elements, provides a perhaps not perfect but often good-enough model. In a number of our projects, however, project materials that primarily look like documents fit for textual markup often turn out to harbour materials that are not well handled in that way alone. Take, for example, a brief excerpt from the Relics and Selves project, which puts online a number of articles analysing how 19th century museums contributed to the development of national identities in several South American countries. TEI-like markup for a small snippet of this text might look like this (here rather simplified for the purposes of the present argument):

[. . .] <rs type=""scientist"" reg=""Lacerda, João Baptista de"", 
key=""sci023"">Lacerda</rs>´s stroll through the collections is a 
striking example of this inversion of the `museum effect´ so 
masterfully plotted by <rs type=""letrado"" reg=""Borges, Jorge Luis"" 
key=""let001"">Borges</rs> [. . .]
(Andermann 2001)

By tagging references to persons in the text (using the TEI's ""rs"" – ""referencing string"" tag) the access system can locate references to any individual referenced in the collection. The ""key"" attribute (defined in TEI P3 as ""provid[ing] an alternative identifier for the object being named, such as a database record key"") is needed because we are not so much interested in identifying names in the text as names, but as references to persons. If there were two Jorge Luis Borges's referenced across the entire project article collection then the rs elements for one might have the key attributes as shown here (let001), and a different key (say, sci192) for the other. The biographical information about the person (say, the person's birth and death dates, and/or some brief biographical prose sketch) is not appropriate to store here in the reference within the article, but belongs in another separate structure altogether – something structured more like a glossary, encyclopaedia entry, or an index. In fact, a similar argument could be made for the person types recorded in the rs tag. A glossary entry to define for the reader what was meant by a letrado (or scientist, for that matter) would be in a structure separate from the article text itself, and the type code here perhaps should be viewed as a reference to that entry. Furthermore, it could be argued that this classification belongs with the person data, rather than here with the name reference. Graphically, we could see these relationships as:



Note the different character of the information in the ""person"" or ""role"" structure from the narrative-like article. If Relics and Selves was published as a book the Person data would likely appear at the back of the book as an index, and would be separated from the article text. This book index would, in turn, have an actually semantically arbitrary ordering based on the spelling of the person name so that references could be readily looked up. Unlike the article text which is meant to be read in ""document order"", the person index is meant to be consulted, and the order of consultation will almost certainly vary for different readers. The ""document order"" would have to be fixed on paper, but would, in fact, be determined solely to allow the user to jump into the middle it to locate an individual of interest.

Furthermore, the index is, in fact, an editorial object, created by the editors from the original material and more useful when it is, as far as possible, made consistent. While preparing a person index the editor tries to include data for all agreed components entered for persons (even if, perhaps, the data was sometimes provisional). Thus, for each person a standard form for the name is given, even if, perhaps, that exact form does not appear in the body of the text at all. Possibly the person's birth and death dates, etc would be provided as accurately as possibly, as consistently as possible (accuracy and consistency sometimes conflicting, of course, but both essential aims for usability!) and this data would be provided for as many entries as was possible. The virtues of consistency and completeness, and the structured feel of the materials (""there shall be provision for the recording of birth and death dates for all persons in the collection"") is characteristic of a table in a relational database. Figure I is, in fact, the beginnings of an ""entity-relationship"" diagram which is often used to display the structure of a relational database itself. By structuring this data in a database-like fashion one can then ask the computer to make use of it by not only allowing access through an alphabetical list of names, but also perhaps by ordering persons by birth decades, or as person type/role as an alternative way to access the data.

In fact, the significance of the ""relational"" part of the name ""relational database"" is not captured by the ""matrix straightjacket"" description applied by Townsend et al. By ""relational"" we draw attention to the ability of the model to capture and then exploit connections between different objects that it describes. Figure II, for example, shows a small subset of the tables defined for our Prosopography of the Byzantine World project, and shows some of the kinds of data stored there for about persons, ""factoids"", (primary) sources, and (geographic) locations. PBW records statements made by different primary sources as ""factoids"" (see Bradley, Short 2003 for considerably more detail about factoids and the implication of the factoid approach on this and other similar projects), and each factoid is explicitly linked to the spot in the source from which it was derived. The lines drawn between boxes show the connections between the data types that the system knows about. For example (because of the intermediate table between Factoid and Person) it is possible to associate one or more persons with each recorded Factoid. The diagram shows that the database records which primary source contains each factoid, and that it is possible to associate more than one location with each factoid as well. These relationships allows the system to equally readily select or order factoids by the persons they are associated with, by the sources in which they appear, or the locations in which they occurred.



Now, XML based models of representing this data can manage a similar flexibility of expression, but the primary way of representing associations between elements in XML (containment – the nesting of elements within each other) is not sufficient. One might group factoids by Source, for example, and order them in source order as well – having, say, a set of <SOURCE> elements, and inside each source elements the <FACTOID> elements that belong to the containing source. However, having used containment to express the relationship of factoids to source, obviously one cannot simultaneously use containment to express relationships between these same factoids and persons or factoids and location. For material like this, in fact, the tree-model that element containment implies, is, by itself, insufficient to represent this data. There is no ""document node"" in this data and no natural ordering of the material that corresponds to a document order.

SGML and XML allow one to use IDs and IDREFs to assert links between different element instances, and can be pressed into service to represent the associations we show naturally in the relational database model. One could have, for example, a list of XML elements containing Person information, a separate list for factoid information, a Source list, and a Location list. IDs and IDREFs would express the links between the particular persons, factoids, locations and sources. One would uniquely identify each factoid, location, person, source object by assigning each occurrence an ID in the corresponding <FACTOID>, <PERSON>, <LOCATION> element. Then, the link between a person and factoid could be provided by providing a list of IDREFs in each person element that identifies the set of factoids associated with him/her. Similar techniques would be used to link the other data together.

Using ID/IDREF and containment in this way is, indeed, a fully adequate representation of both the basic data and the relationships between them in XML. Similar approaches linking highly structured material with narrative text is indeed demonstrated in one of the Feature Structure examples shown in TEI P3 and P4. The downside to making use of ID/IDREFs to indicate linkage is that, although XML supports the explicit use of linking in this way, the use of ID/IDREFs is definitely a ""second class"" association technique compared to element containment. Furthermore, it is much less central to the design process of an XML DTD than it is in the relational model. This is shown in a number of ways. The DTD language allows IDs and IDREFs to be specified but provides no way to further limit the kind of links they might be asked to represent. XML editing tools, although they may be able to enforce the uniqueness requirement for XML ID attributes are very poor in making use of this linking information in other ways. The XPATH query language does support element selection using ID/IDREF links, but does it in ways that are significantly more awkward than selection based on containment alone. Because element containment is the first-class way to represent relationships between elements there has been recent work to explore of the limits of the tree-oriented structure for non tree-like data (Shanthi and Venkatesan 2003). Others have worked to extend tree-oriented XPATH to handle the more general situation of navigating graph-like data (see Cassidy 2003).

There is evidence in the design of XML Query that the importance of efficiently supporting links between different hierarchies is being recognised -- not surprising since XML Query's design team contained several people with a relational database background. Very recent work in the development of XML-databases – perhaps inspired by XML Query – shows that there too developers are beginning to understand that it is important to ensure that links between different element hierarchies – expressed using IDREFs or in other ways – need to be recognised as ""first-class"" information in the system in the same way that element containment already is. Hopefully, in time XML databases will be designed in such a way that processing involving links between elements will work as efficiently with potentially large amounts of data as that expressed by containment.

The XML development world, then, seems to be on the way to recognising that the modelling of material in XML needs more than the OHCO model and containment. We believe, however, that people working on text-based projects would benefit from designing XML-based projects with more awareness of this issue as well, even if, in the end, a relational database is not needed. We has seen examples of situations where, by the designing data representation by DTD alone, the project principals missed important relationships between materials that would have been revealed if some 'entity-oriented' design of the kind undertaken in the building of databases had also been done. In our presentation we will expand on the issues mentioned above, and discuss some design strategies we have developed to handle the design of mixed document/data projects.

References

1. Alvarado, Rafael C. ""Of Media, Data, Documents: An argument for the importance of Relational Technology to the project of Humanities Computing"" in ACH-ALLC Conference Proceedings 1999: ACH/ALLC 1999.
2. Andermann, Jens. (2001) ""The Museu Nacional at Rio de Janeiro"" in Relics and Selves: Icongraphies of the National in Argentina, Brazil and Chile, 1880-1890. Online at http://www.bbk.ac.uk/ibamuseum.
3. Bradley, John and Short Harold, Texts into databases: The Evolving Field of New-style Prosopography given at ACH/ALLC conference Athens Georgia 2003. Online at http://pigeon.cch.kcl.ac.uk/docs/papers/georgia1/.
4. Cassidy, S. (2003), ""Generalizing XPath for directed graphs."" in Proceedings Extreme Markup Languages 2003. Online at: http://www.idealliance.org/papers/extreme03/html/2003/Cassidy01/EML2003Cassidy01.html.
5. DeRose, Steven J., Durand, David G., Mylonas, Elli, Renear, Allen H, ""What is Text, Really?"" in Journal of Computing in Higher Education, Winter 1990, Vol. 1 (2), 3-26.
6. DeRose, Steven J., ""Further Context for 'What is Text, Really?'"" in ACM SIGDOC Asterisk Journal of Computer Documentation, August 1997, Vol 21:3, pp 40-31.
7. Greenstein, D. I. (1994). A Historian’s Guide to Computing, Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 268.
8. Orlando Project (1998) ""The Orlando Project: The Orlando Project and the Question of Delivery in XML"" at Markup Technologies '98, Chicago. November 1998. Online at: http://www.ualberta.ca/ORLANDO/presentations/ACH_1999/index.htm.
9. Shanthi, K. and Venkatesan S.K. (2003) ""Gliding down from graphs to trees: an attempt to bottle geometry and chemical content"" in Proceedings Extreme Markup Languages 2003. Online at: http://www.idealliance.org/papers/extreme03/html/2003/Venkatesan01/EML2003Venkatesan01.html.
10. Sperberg-McQueen, C.M.and Bernard, L. (1994). Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange (TEI P3), ALLC, ACH, ACL 1994.
11. Townsend, Sean et al. (1999) AHDS Guides to Good Practice: Digitising History. Oxford: Oxbow Books. Online at http://hds.essex.ac.uk/g2gp/digitising_history/.","txt","2","http://web.archive.org/web/20040903094209/http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop36.html",""
"450","6","La Docencia de la Creación Digital Emergente: La Literatura Electrónica","1","En estos últimos años parece que la investigación en
literatura haya empezado a darse cuenta de la necesidad
de estudiar los resultados de la unión entre tecnologías digitales
y la creación literaria. Son muchos los autores que se han
referido con anterioridad a los nuevos escenarios que, con la
llegada de Internet y las tecnologías informáticas, se han abierto
para lo literario, tanto desde el punto de vista de la difusión de
la literatura en soporte tradicional, que tiene como formato
básico de difusión el libro impreso en papel, como para las
nuevas obras creadas exclusivamente desde un medio digital
y que deben ser leídas obligatoriamente desde un soporte
informático.
No obstante, también es bien conocido el rechazo ancestral que
lo nuevo produce a muchos de los estudiosos de la literatura.
Parece como si únicamente el profesor de literatura pudiese
ostentar con orgullo una especie de 'desvalorización del
presente', transformando un síntoma psicológico de miedo a la
contemporaneidad en un aparente valor positivo de autoridad
y saber. No me imagino a los profesores y críticos de otros
ámbitos de la ciencia jactándose de desconocer todo lo que está
ocurriendo a su alrededor.
¿Cómo no podía la literatura participar de la ampliación de
nuestros sentidos para dinamitar sus límites tradicionales? El
impacto de las tecnologías digitales, de la informática, ha
convertido también el campo de la literatura en un espacio de
tanteo constante donde las posibilidades de creación de nuevos
lenguajes y nuevas concepciones de lo poético ofrece un
territorio fértil y expectante, para su estudio. Como es bien
sabido, la tecnología digital ofrece oportunidades insospechadas
para la producción, el almacenaje, la difusión y la docencia de
textos literarios escritos inicialmente para ser difundidos en un
soporte impreso, pero si queremos ser serios y rigurosos con
nuestro presente, también deberemos enfrentarnos a todo el
potencial que estos textos electrónicos nos ofrecen, analizar el
cambio que supone para la literatura la aparición del espacio
electrónico que, gracias a la informática, internet y el
ciberespacio, se ha convertido en un lugar de 'poesis', como lo
llama Loss Pequeño Glazier en su libro Digital Poetics: The
Making of E-Poetries, esto es, un no-lugar con unas condiciones
específicas de textualidad.
Esta nueva condición específica de la textualidad electrónica
hace que nos preguntemos si son necesarias nuevas herramientas
teóricas, otros conceptos que nos sean útiles para leer
críticamente este tipo de literatura, para saberla explorar desde
el punto de vista del análisis, para tratar de averiguar y conocer
en qué medida estas nuevas prácticas literarias nos formulan
preguntas antes impensables sobre nuestra propia tradición y
sobre nuestra conceptualización de lo literario. Si tenemos en
cuenta las propiedades específicas de la escritura electrónica
incluyen el hecho de que el texto es no es únicamente físico,
tocable, sino que es mostrado, expuesto, exhibido, nos daremos
cuenta que introduce elementos de reflexión que hace que la
práctica literaria digital se acerque en algún punto a algunas de
las características propias del discurso cinematográfico: donde
el movimiento, el sonido y el montaje son determinantes. Con
todo, hay quien piensa, por ejemplo Espen Aarseth que no es
nada obvio que conceptos tales como 'literatura informática' o
'textualidad electrónica' merezcan ser defendidos teóricamente,
que haya que concederles un estatuto axiomático, de la misma
manera que piensa que la idea que el ordenador ""sea capaz de
producir un cambio histórico y social por sí mismo es una idea
errónea que resulta extrañamente ahistórica y antropomórfica.""
(Aarseth 135)
Nuestra opinión, como docentes de una universidad virtual, es
del todo diferente. Se nos hace urgente y necesaria la
investigación sobre estas prácticas literarias emergentes, más
allá de su interés por estudiar las posibilidades de la tecnología
como herramienta para la enseñanza de la literatura, ya que nos
sitúan ante un primer reto que es de tener que ofrecer un primer
diagnóstico, necesariamente apresurado y con poca perspectiva
histórica, sobre muchas de las nuevas creaciones que se vienen
produciendo en el entorno electrónico.
Desde la Universidad Oberta de Catalunya, por ello, hemos
asumido el reto no sólo de reflexionar histórica y teóricamente
sobre estas nuevas maneras de ser de la literatura, sino también
plantearnos las dificultades que supone su análisis y su
enseñanza. Con esta comunicación, pues, querría explicar el
proceso y diseño de una asignatura, abierta y dinámica,
'Estudios literarios y tecnologías digitales', pensada para
enriquecer la oferta de literatura más estrictamente
contemporánea, una especie de 'trabajo de campo' sobre el
estado actual de la literatura digital. La dificultad, como hemos
explicado, radica en que el objeto de análisis del curso es tan
cercano y en parte aún in progress, que exige una dinámica de
funcionamiento con los alumnos que debe tener un aire general
de reader, de investigación colectiva en marcha, abierta y
dialógica. Los objetivos de este curso son los siguientes:
1. Vencer la reticencia habitual de los estudios de literatura a
los fenómenos más estrictamente contemporáneos, tratando de que los alumnos se aproximen sin prejuicios al estudio
de la literatura digital.
2. Conseguir que el estudiante sistematice una serie de
conocimientos teóricos y un utillaje crítico suficiente para
poder empezar a hablar significativamente sobre los textos
estudiados, al tiempo que puedan adquirir un conociendo
básico sobre estas nuevas formas de ser de la literatura, y
los cambios epistemológicos que ello comporta.
3. Aprender a aprovechar los recursos de la red para explorar
y adentrarse en el estudio y la lectura de este tipo de obras.
El objetivo final de esta experiencia, pues, podría resumirse en
un intento de creación colectiva de un aparato crítico capaz de
orientarnos en la lectura de las obras literarias digitales
emergentes, de intentar llegar a un consenso a través de la
discusión constante y productiva entre profesores y alumnos,
sobre cuales deben ser los aspectos más remarcables que han
de ser valorados y subrayados en la creación digital. Se trata,
en definitiva, de poder debatir y reflexionar sobre una literatura
que aún no ha sido jerarquizada y que su valoración crítica
todavía no ha cristalizado, que aún se encuentra en un estado
virgen de atribución canónica. Como profesores de teoría de
la literatura hemos intentado asumir, con el diseño y la puesta
en marcha de esta asignatura, el riesgo de reflexionar junto con
nuestros alumnos sobre las 'condiciones de legibilidad' de la
literatura digital, de la literatura del presente.
Bibliography
Aarseth, Espen. Literatura y cibercultura. Madrid: Arco Libros,
2004.
Glazier, Loss Pequeño. Digital Poetics: The Making of
E-Poetries. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2002.","txt","2","",""
"451","6","Measuring the Usefulness of Function Words for Authorship Attribution","1","Introduction
Some forty years ago, Mosteller and Wallace suggested in
their influential work on the Federalist Papers that a small
number of the most frequent words in a language ('function
words') could usefully serve as indicators of authorial style.
The decades since have seen this work taken up in many ways
including both the use of new analysis techniques (discriminant
analysis, PCA, neural networks, and more), as well as the search
for more sophisticated features by which to capture stylistic
properties of texts. Interestingly, while use of more sophisticated
models and algorithms has often led to more reliable and
generally applicable results, it has proven quite difficult to
improve on the general usefulness of function words for stylistic
attribution. Indeed, John F. Burrows, in his seminal work on
Jane Austen, has demonstrated that function words can be quite
effectively used for attributing text passages to different authors,
novels, or individual characters.
The intuition behind the utility of function words for stylistic
attribution is as follows. Due to their high frequency in the
language and highly grammaticalized roles, function words are
very unlikely to be subject to conscious control by the author.
At the same time, the frequencies of different function words
vary greatly across different authors and genres of text - hence
the expectation that modeling the interdependence of different
function word frequencies with style will result in effective
attribution. However, the highly reductionistic nature of such
features seems unsatisfying, as they rarely give good insight
into underlying stylistic issues, hence the various efforts at
developing more complex textual features while respecting
constraints on computational feasibility.
One especially promising line of work in this regard has been
the examination of frequent word sequences and collocations
for stylistic attribution, particularly Hoover's recent (2004)
systematic work on clustering analysis of several text collections using frequent word collocations. A ""word collocation"" is
defined as a certain pair of words occurring within a given
threshold distance of each other (such as ""is"" and ""certain""
appearing within 5 words of each other in this sentence). Given
such a threshold, the most frequent such collocations are
determined over the entire corpus, and their frequencies in each
text constitute its features for analysis. Hoover's analyses show
the superiority, for his data set, of using frequent word
collocations (for certain window sizes) over using frequent
words or pairs of adjacent words.
We contend, however, that by using such a small data set
(twenty samples of 10,000 words each, in one case), the
discriminating power of a model based on function words will
be much reduced, and so the comparison may not be fair. As
has been shown for other computational linguistic tasks (see,
e.g., Banko & Brill), even simple language modeling techniques
can greatly improve in effectiveness when larger quantities of
data are applied. We have therefore explored the relative
effectiveness of frequent words compared to frequent pairs and
collocations, for attribution of both author identity and national
origin, increasing the number of text passages considered over
earlier work.
We performed classification experiments on the twenty novels
considered by Hoover, treating each separate chapter of each
book as a separate text (rather than using just the first 10,000
words of each novel as a single text). Table 1 gives the full list
with numbers of chapters and average number of words per
chapter. We used a standard state-of-the-art machine learning
technique to derive linear discrimination models between pairs
of authors. This procedure gave results that clearly show a
superiority of function words over collocations as stylistic
features. Qualitatively similar results were obtained for the
two-class problem of attributing the national origin (American
or British) of a text's author. We conclude from this that larger
and more detailed studies need to be done to effectively validate
the use of a given feature type for authorship attribution. Methodology
Given each particular feature set (frequent words, pairs,
or collocations), the method was to represent each
document as a numerical vector, each of whose elements is the
frequency of a particular feature of the text. We then applied
the SMO learning algorithm (Platt) with default parameters,
which gives a model linearly weighting the various text features.
SMO is a support vector machine (SVM) algorithm; SVMs
have been applied successfully to a wide variety of text
categorization problems (Joachims).
Generalization accuracy was measured using 20-fold
cross-validation, in which the 633 chapters were divided into
20 subsets of nearly equal size (3 or 4 texts per subset). Training
was performed 20 times, each time leaving out one of the
subsets, and then using the omitted subset for testing. The
overall classification error rate was estimated as the average
error rate over all 20 runs. This method gives a reasonable
estimate of the expected error rate of the learning method for
each given feature set and target task (Goutte).
Results
Results of measuring generalization accuracy for different
feature sets are summarized in Tables 2 and 3, which
clearly show that using the most frequent words in the corpus
as features for stylistic text classification gives the highest
overall discrimination for both author and nationality attribution
tasks. Discussion
Our study here reinforces many others over the years in
showing the surprising resilience of frequently-occurring
words as indicators of the stylistic character of a text. Our
results show frequent words enabling more accurate text
attribution than features such as word pairs or collocations,
surprisingly contradicting recent results as well as the intuition
that pairs or collocations should be more informative. The
success of this study at showing the power of frequent words
we mainly attribute to the use of more data, in the form of entire
novels, broken down by chapters. The more fine-grained
breakdown of text samples for each author enables more
accurate determination of a good decision surface for the
problem, thus better utilizing the power of all features in the
feature set. Furthermore, using more training texts than features
seriously reduces the likelihood of overfitting the model to the
training data, improving the reliability of results.
It is indeed possible that collocations may be better than
function words for different stylistic classification tasks;
however such a claim remains to be proven. A more general
interpretation of our results is that since a set of frequent
collocations of a given size will contain fewer different words
than a set of frequent words of the same size, it may possess
less discriminatory power. At the same time, though, such a
feature set will be less subject to overfitting, and so may appear
better when very small sets of texts are studied (as in previous
studies). Our results thus lead us to believe that most of the
discriminating power of collocations is due to the frequent
words they contain (and not the collocations themselves), thus
frequent words outperformed collocations, given sufficient
data.
Conclusions
Function words still prove surprisingly useful as features
for stylistic text attribution, even after many decades of
research on features and algorithms for stylometric analysis.
We believe that significant progress is likely to come from
fundamental advances in computational linguistics which allow
automated extraction of more linguistically motivated features,
such as recent work on extracting rhetorical relations in a text
(Marcu).
More generally, our results argue for the importance of using
larger data sets for evaluating the relative utility of different
attribution feature sets or techniques. As in our case of
comparing frequent words with frequent collocations, changing
the scale of the data set may affect the relative power of
different techniques, thus leading to different conclusions. We
suggest that the authorship attribution community should now
work towards developing a large suite of corpora and testbed
tasks, to allow more rigorous and standardized comparisons of
alternative approaches.
Bibliography
Baayen, H., H. van Halteren, and F. Tweedie. ""Outside the cave
of shadows: Using syntactic annotation to enhance authorship
attribution."" Literary and Linguistic Computing 11.3 (1996):
121-132.
Banko, M., and E. Brill. ""Scaling to very very large corpora
for natural language disambiguation."" Proceedings of the 39th
Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational
Linguistics. 2001. 26-33.
Biber, D., S. Conrad, and R. Reppen. Corpus Linguistics:
Investigating Language Structure and Use. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Burrows, J. Computation into Criticism: A Study of Jane
Austen's Novels and an Experiment in Method. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1987.
Goutte, C. ""Note on free lunches and cross-validation."" Neural
Computation 9.6 (1997): 1246-9.
Hoover, D.L. ""Frequent collocations and authorial style.""
Literary and Linguistic Computing 18.3 (2004): 261-28.
Joachims, T. ""Text categorization with Support Vector
Machines: Learning with many relevant features."" Machine Learning: ECML-98, Tenth European Conference on Machine
Learning. 1998. 137-142.
Marcu, D. ""The Rhetorical Parsing of Unrestricted Texts: A
Surface-Based Approach."" Comp. Ling. 26.3 (2000): 395-448.
Matthews, R., and T. Merriam. ""Neural computation in
stylometry: An application to the works of Shakespeare and
Fletcher."" Literary and Linguistic Computing 8.4 (1993):
203-209.
Mosteller, F., and D.L. Wallace. Inference and Disputed
Authorship: The Federalist. Reading. Reading, Mass: Addison
Wesley, 1964.
Platt, J. Sequential Minimal Optimization: A Fast Algorithm
for Training Support Vector Machines. Microsoft Research
Technical Report MSR-TR-98-14, 1998. Accessed 2005-03-08.
<ftp://ftp.research.microsoft.com/pub/tr/
tr-98-14.pdf>
Stamatatos, E., N. Fakotakis, and G. Kokkinakis.
""Computer-based authorship attribution without lexical
measures."" Computers and the Humanities 35 (2001): 193-214.","txt","2","",""
"452","6","Designing Culture: A Work of the Technological Imagination","8","To stimulate a discussion about the many ways in which
culture influences the practices of technology design, I
present examples of technologies and digital applications whose
designs were explicitly informed by cultural theory. In 1999,
a research group at Xerox PARC built an interactive museum
exhibit called ""XFR: Experiments in the Future of Reading.""
The resulting exhibit explored different facets of the nature of
reading in a digital culture. In describing those moments when
cultural theory, values, and conventions become an explicit
part of the design process, I reflect on the 'technological
imagination' at work, and how the exercise of this imagination,
in turn, results in the development of new literacies, modes of
expression, as well as devices and digital artifacts.","txt","2","",""
"453","6","HyperJournal","2","During the last decades a market failure known as serial price crisis has led to a market configuration where the major editorial groups retain oligopolistic control over the editorial market. This market situation is reflected in the research community which largely depends on public founding.

The access to research output in form of articles has become difficult because articles are often not easy to find and (even worst) subscription fees are often unaffordable for a large number of libraries.

This situation has potentially devastating consequences over the publicly founded research field and threatens the freedom to share scientific knowledge (Guédon). During the last 5 years the Open Access movement have proposed some solutions to the problem(Suber). Some of the Open Access initiatives gained wide acceptance in natural sciences(Public Library of Science;Los Alamos ArXiv). Unfortunately within the Humanities the situation is worst than in the natural sciencies, as the Open Access movement received only partial attention and little have been done for the cause(Di Donato). A point of peculiar interest is the small number of humanities-related open access journals if compared with its natural science counterpart. The reasons for the little adoption of open access journals could be identified in both the less founding the Humanities receives and the traditional resistance for the use of computers and the Internet as research tools.

HyperJournal (Hyperjournal) is a web application that facilitates the administration of academic journals on the Web. Conceived for researchers in the Humanities and designed according to an easy-to-use and elegant layout, it permits the installation, personalization, and administration of a dedicated Web site at extremely low cost and without the need for special IT-competence. HyperJournal can be used not only to establish an online version of an existing paper periodical, but also to create an entirely new, solely electronic journal. In comparison with existing software applications, HyperJournal introduces four major innovations: 


1. 
      Dynamic contextualization automatically transforms cross-references contained in journal articles into hypertextual, bidirectional links. When the reader views an article published in HyperJournal, a contextualization bar provides immediate access to a) all the articles the author has cited, and b) all the articles that cite the article currently being viewed.

2. 
      The HyperJournal Network. Dynamic contextualization is not limited to one journal only: it connects all the journals that use the HyperJournalsoftware in a distributed, semantically structured and scaleable peer-to-peer network (Hyperjournal). Additionally, Compatibility with the Protocol for Metadata Harvesting of the Open Archives Initiative ensures maximal interoperability between the HyperJournal Network and other electronic publications. The HyperJournal Network thereby creates a space in which knowledge is freely shared and readily accessible. Rather than using mere keyword searching or importing artificial conceptual tables to organize this space, HyperJournal transposes the time-honored system of scholarly citation into an electronic environment.

3. 
      HyperJournals versus core journals. By clicking on an author's name, the HyperJournal system automatically searches the entire HyperJournal network and produces a citation list that includes all the articles written by the author, all the articles the author has cited, and all the articles that cite the author. Comprehensive bibliometric lists can thereby be composed without the need to rely on the manual consultation of a small set of core journals, often exclusively in English. In this system, by contrast, it will be the actual give-and-take of academic discourse, registered automatically on the network through citations, which will signal the prestige of a journal (even of small niche journals written in so-called minor languages) and establish the reputation of scholars. In addition, through the use of (Semantic Web) RDF describers, bibliometric lists can be constructed that distinguish, for example, between positive and negative citations(Barbera and Di Donato).

4. 
      Structured vs. Opaque Formats. Although HyperJournal let the editorial board choose which document formats are acceptable for submission, HyperJournal offers to the authors all the tools they need to use structured formats for writing their articles. The adoption of structured formats such as XML has enormous advantages over unstructured or opaque ones (such as MS Wordor PDF)(Hockey). One of the major advantages is that structured formats are machine understandable thus perfecly suited to be used in conjunction with Semantic Web technologies. The most widely adopted structured format is undoubtely LATEX which is wide spread within the scientific community. Unfortunately its usage within the Humanities is very limited. On one hand this is a disvantage, on the other hand it leaves space for the diffusion of XML (who has even nicer computability properties then LATEX) as the format of choiche. Initiatives such as TEIhas already gained wide acceptance among Humanities Scholars. TEI and other XML dialects such as DOCBOOK have the potential to be used directly to author articles, not only to encode existing texts(Piez). For this reason the HyperJournal developer's community is customizing and adapting some XML editors to facilitate the authors in their work. If the adoption of XML as a format for writing articles will be succesful we can expect searches to be easier and much more powerful than today's heuristic search tecniques and even to greatly reduce the cost of paper publication, as transforming XML to other formats suited for paper printing is a trivial task.




Free access and respect for copyright: legal framework

HyperJournal aims at contributing to academic research on Internet publishing and encourages the birth of scholarly communities on the Internet. In order to achieve this goal, HyperJournalnot only delivers IT solutions, but also tries to offer models for the independent organization and governance of scholarly communities, to develop systems for Internet peer-review, and to establish a legal framework for the free diffusion of knowledge on the Web that respects the principles of copyright. The documentation accompanying the software describes and comments on several models for the statutes of scholarly communities (the presence or absence of an Editorial Board; the constitution of the scholarly community by election or by other means; peer review and anonymity policies; criteria for publication; etc.), the administration of which is supported by the software. In addition to the licences provided by the Creative Commons initiative() HyperJournal contains three models of copyleft legal licenses (FreeKnowledge, OpenKnowledge, LimitedKnowledge) designed to reconcile the goal of open access to scholarly articles with the need to protect against plagiarism and to respect the moral right of the author.



Founding and Distribution

The HyperJournal Software has been initially founded by the Groupement de Recherche Européen (GDREplus)Hyper-Learning. Modèles ouverts de recherche et d'enseignement sur internet which is a multidisciplinary research infrastructure promoted by the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) regrouping 29 partners of 9 countries (universities and research centers, a large corporation (IBM), and three small enterprises). The software is currently being developed by both project members and volounteers and it is supported by Dipartimento di scienze della politica, University of Pisa. HyperJournal is scaleable modular software distributed freely with an Open Source license. For these legal and technical reasons it is free to use and easy to modify and so can be adapted to the exigencies of a large number of scholarly communities. A prototype of HyperJournal has been released in February 2005.



Bibliography


Guédon, J.C.
In Oldenburg's Long Shadow: Librarians, Research Scientists, Publishers, and the Control of Scientific Publishing, Association of Research Libraries
Proceedings of the 138th Annual Meeting
2001

Suber, Peter
Open Access Overview


plos.org


arxiv.org

Di Donato, Francesca
Verso uno ""European Citation Index for the Humanities"" Che cosa possono fare i ricercatori per la comunicazione scientifica
Bollettino Telematico di Filosofia Politica
2004


hjournal.org

Tummarello, Giovanni, et al.
RDFGrowth, a P2P annotation exchange algorithm for scalable Semantic Web applications
Proceedings of P2PKM 2004
Boston
2004

Barbera, Michele
Di Donato, Francesca
Open Access and Semantic Web. Software applications for Open Publishing
Tummarello, Giovanni
Morbidoni, Christian
Proceedings Semantic Web Applications and Perspectives (SWAP). 1st Italian Semantic Web Workshop
Ancona, Italy
2004
126-128

Hockey, Susan
The Robert Busa Award Lecture 2004
Paper delivered at the ALLC/ACH Conference 2004, Göteborg
2004video available at 

Piez, Wendell
Authoring Scholarly Articles: TEI or Not TEI?
Paper delivered at the ALLC/ACH 2004 Conference, Göteborg
2004


creativecommons.org


hypernietzsche.org


Hyper-Learning. Modèles ouverts de recherche et d'enseignement sur internet
Groupement de Recherche Europen(GDREplus)","txt","2","",""
"454","6","Semantic Context Visualization to Promote Vocabulary Learning","2","Traditional access through the alphabetically organized
macrostructure (words defined) of the dictionary was convenient
in a printed form. Online versions of dictionaries lead us to
rethink our access approach and to exploit, as suggested by
Humblé, the increased value of the dictionary in computer
assisted language instruction. In a self-learning environment,
a situation favored by today’s wide-spread access to computers,
an online dictionary is a valuable resource for reading
comprehension. However, learners can quickly become
discouraged if the information about a word searched for is
buried among too much other information, e.g. the many
definitions listed for highly polysemous words. Our current
research suggests a method for providing specific guidance to
a user to ease his access to information and promote vocabulary
learning during his dictionary searches.
We present a tool, REFLEX, built on a mathematical model of
a fuzzy logic search engine. We suggest that the microstructure
(the content of the entries) of a dictionary be considered as a
corpus. From this corpus, using fuzzy operators, we can
calculate a similarity matrix, called a fuzzy pseudo-thesaurus
(Miyamoto), expressing the degree of association between each
pair of lemma (base forms of words) found in the corpus. This
similarity calculation is based on the tendency of two words to
co-occur within sentences. The fuzzy pseudo-thesaurus is
pre-calculated and used at the search (query) time (Klir and
Yuan).
Presently, the tool is for English learners of French and uses a
learner`s dictionary called DAFLES (Dictionnaire de
l’Apprenant du Français Langue Seconde et Étrangère)
(Verlinde et al.) merging all its defining sentences to build a
corpus. Portability to languages other than French would require
work at the pre-processing stage, for example to tokenize the
sentences (split them into word units) and lemmatize the words
(e.g. lemma should be found for diverse forms of nouns and
verbs). Portability to other types of dictionaries would require an understanding of the different types of information
(definitions, examples, notes) contained before merging them
into a corpus. Each type of information might be of different
value to a learner, and then could be given more or less weight
in our model.
REFLEX provides a graphical visualization of a word’s semantic
context. Figure 1 shows the portion of the pseudo-thesaurus
relating to the word “scientifique” (scientific) as automatically
built from DAFLES. The surrounding words (chercheur –
researcher, étudier – study, observation – observation, théorique
– theoretical, rechercher – research, etc.), express words related
to scientifique, their graphical distance being proportional to
their calculated distance.
Figure 1: Semantic context for scientifique
Figure 2: Semantic context for météorologique (meteorological)
Semantic contexts give a graphical representation similar to
semantic maps which are widely used in language teaching to
favor vocabulary acquisition (Brown and Perry; Carrell; Crow
and Quigley). Semantic maps are usually provided in classroom
settings and are manually constructed by instructors
interactively with the students. Here semantic contexts are
produced in real-time, and REFLEX provides navigation
capabilities for the user to easily move to other portions of the
pseudo-thesaurus. For example, a click of a mouse on the word
météorologique within the semantic context of Figure 1 brings
the learner to the semantic context shown in Figure 2.
The implicit relations shown through the arcs linking the
concepts are not limited to paradigmatic relations as found in
WordNet (Fellbaum) or MindNet (Richardson et al.)1 For
example, the association between observation and researcher
in Figure 1 could not be labeled with a paradigmatic relation.
The complex relation, typical activity, is closer to a lexical
function as defined by Mel’cuk.
REFLEX also serves as a guide for dictionary searches by
making use of information found in the context of occurrence
of the unknown word. It leads the learner not necessarily to the
entry corresponding to that unknown word, but to any
information from dictionary entries likely to help the
understanding of the word within that particular context. This
provides a clear filter for polysemous words and helps the
learner identify among all the possible definitions and examples,
the ones most relevant to their current reading situation.
Let us take for example the French polysemous word culture,
which could relate to cultivate (flowers or vegetables) or culture
(social knowledge). The following sentence is taken from a
text ""L’école dans les deux langues"" shown in a reading
comprehension software (DidaLect, Duquette et al.): ""En
étudiant la langue et la culture de l’autre, Anglo-Saxons et
Latinos apprennent en même temps à se connaître et à se
respecter."" .
Assuming the word culture is unknown to a learner, she
launches a search. The context window of occurrence of that
word is analyzed to obtain a query vector made up of the
searched word and its neighbours (culture, étudier, langue,
apprendre, connaître, respecter)2. This query vector is
expanded on via the fuzzy pseudo-thesaurus to include related
words, each with a weight corresponding to their similarity to
the original query vector (culture 1.0, étudier 1.0, langue 1.0,
apprendre 1.0, connaître 1.0, respecter 1.0, didactique 0.1,
pédagogique 0.09, éducatif 0.09, créatif 0.08, race 0.08, impoli
0.06, curiosité 0.06, brassage 0.06, fermier 0.06, formateur
0.06)3. The enlarged vector then represents an extended context
of a word, and is used in an information retrieval task to extract
interesting definitions and examples pertaining to that context
from the corpus of sentences. These sentences are presented to
the user in decreasing order of relevance, as shown in Table 1
(relevance is given in first column), and come from various
polysemous entries. Table 1 – Relevant sentences for the understanding of the word culture in
context
Using the extended context of a word, combined with
knowledge of word association as pre-calculated in the
pseudo-thesaurus, REFLEX gathers the distributed information
from the dictionary to help the understanding of a word (often
polysemous) as expressed in a specific reading context.
Yet, free browsing is not necessarily a bad thing for learners.
In fact, researchers in second language learning (Aston) debate
on the usefulness of corpora in which learners could be left to
wander among sentences by themselves. On one hand, free
browsing mode encourages autonomous discovery of different
or new senses of words, but on the other hand, too much
discovery within a reading comprehension task might take the
learner too far from the original goal. Furthermore, both
activities (free or guided exploration) are more or less
appropriate depending on the learner`s profile (efficient or less
efficient learner).
Although intended to guide, REFLEX is easily adaptable toward
a discovery mode by simply removing the contextual cues from
the query vector. The flexibility of REFLEX can also be seen
in the presentation of the semantic maps. For efficient learners,
larger maps can be shown, such as presented in Figure 1, but
for less efficient learners, maps can be restricted to only contain
the few closest words.
In conclusion, REFLEX shows much potential for online
dictionary exploration. It is constructed on sound mathematical
principles and has potential for adaptability to different learning
purposes and types of learners. As our next step, we will
integrate REFLEX as a module within DidaLect, a reading
comprehension software, with focus on adaptability parameters.
Investigation into automatic labeling of associations is an
ambitious longer term research goal. Finally, we hope for future
explorations with other dictionaries and other languages.
1. Paradigmatic relations, such as hyperonymy, meronymy,
synonymy, are of great value in language learning and do provide
an explicit way for learners to organize the new vocabulary in
their own knowledge stores. The purpose of semantic contexts is
complementary to this organization by providing a semantic field
around a word.
2. Lemmatized forms of content common nouns are taken. We do
not use proper nouns (they are not in the dictionary) or function
words.
3. We only show values larger than 0.06, but this threshold could be
adjusted.
Bibliography
Aston, G. Learning with Corpora. Houston: Athelstan, 2003.
Brown, T.S., and F.L. Perry Jr. ""A comparison of three learning
strategies for ESL vocabulary acquisition."" TESOL Quarterly
25 (1991): 655-670.
Carrell, P.L. ""Content and Formal schemata in ESL reading.""
TESOL Quarterly 21 (1987): 461-481.
Crow, J.T., and J.R Quigley. ""A semantic field approach to
passive vocabulary acquisition for reading comprehension.""
TESOL Quarterly 19 (1985): 497-513.
Duquette, L., A. Desrochers, and S. Szpakowicz. ""Adaptive
Courseware for Reading Comprehension in French as a Second
Language : The Challenges of Multidisciplinarity in CALL.""
Proceedings of the eleventh International CALL conference,
University of Antwerp. Antwerp, 5-7 September 2004. 85-92.
Fellbaum, C. WordNet: An Electronic Lexical Database.
Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1998.
Humblé, P. Dictionaries and Language Learners. Frankfurt
am Main, Germany: Haag + Herchen Verlag GmbH., 2001.
Klir, G.J., and B. Yuan. Fuzzy Sets and Fuzzy Logic. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990.
Mel’cuk, I. ""Semantic description of lexical units in an
explanatory combinatorial dictionary: Basic principles and heuristic criteria."" International Journal of Lexicography 1.3
(1988): 165-188.
Miyamoto, S. Fuzzy Sets in Information Retrieval and Cluster
Analysis. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers,
1990.
Richardson, S.D., W.B. Dolan, and L. Vanderwende. ""MindNet:
Acquiring and Structuring Semantic Information from Text.""
Proceedings of the ACL'98. Montreal, 1998. 1098-1102.
St-Jacques, C., and C. Barrière. ""L’inférence dictionnairique :
de la créativité poétique à celle du raisonnement flou."" Cahiers
de lexicologie 85 (2004): 129-155.
Verlinde, S., , and GRELEP (Groupe de Recherche en
Lexicographie Pédagogique). Dafles (Dictionnaire
d’apprentissage du français langue étrangère ou seconde). .
Accessed 2005-04-11. <http://www.kuleuven.ac.b
e/dafles/acces.php?id=>","txt","2","",""
"455","6","Playing Many Parts: Models of Collaboration in an Electronic Edition","3","Editorial theory has in recent years been much concerned
with re-evaluating the assumptions that lie behind the
practice of editing, in light of the arguments promulgated by
McGann and others that the text we edit is of necessity
constructed through social interaction. A parallel argument
makes the claim that the electronic medium is uniquely situated
to put into practice the claims of the theorists (exemplary
articles are included in the collection edited by Landow). While
creative collaboration is not a norm in the humanities, it is very
much at the centre of disciplines in the performing arts: drama,
in particular, involves the interaction of many kinds of creative
endeavour before a play is staged. The Internet Shakespeare
Editions are uniquely in a position to explore varieties of
collaboration that borrow from other disciplines: the open
source movement in software development, and the
well-developed traditions of collective creativity in the
performance arts, since the concept of 'text' in a play by
Shakespeare can - and arguably should - be extended to include
the history of his plays in performance. This panel will provide
a forum to discuss the electronic edition as an exemplar of the
creation of a social/performance text as the various contributors
to an edition interact and learn from each other.
Many of the collaborative activities in the preparation of an
edition for a print press are so familiar as to be transparent:
peer review, copy editing, data entry, printing, binding, distributing and so on. The print interface is also very stable,
with minimal experimentation with the appearance of the print
on the page (but see Jowett, Grusin and Bolter). Those working
in the electronic medium, however, are still experimenting with
ways of displaying the text and its associated navigational
structures. The result is that the lonely textual scholar will
ideally become involved in the process of creating much more
than simply a word-processor file to send off to the publisher.
The team of technical designers and programmers are unlikely
to understand what the editor sees as important or what a typical
user of the edition will be seeking, and the textual scholar is
unlikely to know what opportunities the full capabilities of the
medium offer: thus the most effective edition will be the result
of a deep and interdisciplinary collaboration between the various
creators.
The Internet Shakespeare Editions is a collaboration in many
ways. An academic Editorial Board oversees general standards;
plays are edited by individual editors, or (in several cases)
further collaboration between scholars; the General Textual
Editor works with the editors to ensure quality and consistency;
and technical experts work on separate but interrelated tasks -
the development of the XML structure that is the basis for
textual materials on the site, the creation of databases to display
images of the texts and of performance materials, the graphic
design of the site, and the stylesheets that determine the overall
look of both static and dynamic pages.
The analogy with the performing arts is persuasive, since they
typically involve a similar interaction between specialists (set
design, costume design, choreography, lighting), creative artists
(actors, the author perhaps) and administrative/creative
personnel (director, producer). Publishers and actors are
similarly concerned to reach and engage their audiences. Where
the analogy fails, however, is in the contrast between the
maturity of the theatre community and the inexperience of those
of us working to create electronic texts. Much in the way that
the print medium has evolved transparent signposts for
navigation within the book, theatre companies have evolved
generally consistent and effective structures to manage the
collaborative endeavour of producing a play. The challenge
that lies ahead for organizations like the Internet Shakespeare
Editions is to develop similarly coherent and effective
management of collaboration. How can we best ensure that
scholars are not intimidated by technical demands, and that the
programmers are aware of the full potential of the materials
they are responsible for displaying?
As well as providing a potential model for collaboration in the
creation of online texts, the analogy with stage performance
also provides a warning. Performance (unless on film) is
evanescent, leaving traces only in reviews and theatre archives.
Methods for preserving print are highly developed, and there
is every reason to expect that a book published today will
survive for several hundred years if it is judged worth the
storage space. But techniques for archiving and for ensuring
the permanence of electronic data are also evolving as file
formats and the medium itself evolve.
In a recent essay, W.B. Worthen asks
If we take the printform of a work to be like a performance,
materializing a historically contingent, socially inscribed instance
of the work . . . we may be able to seize a more dynamic sense of
the changing interplay between these two enduring, and volatile,
modes of production.
This panel will involve a representative group of those working
on different activities within the structure of the Internet
Shakespeare Editions as they explore the interplay between
multiple modes of production.
Panel members will give short presentations (maximum ten
minutes), in order to leave sufficient time for questions both
within the panel and from the floor.
Michael Best, Coordinating Editor of the Internet Shakespeare
Editions, will chair the panel, and begin by providing an
overview of the academic and administrative structure of the
ISE. He will also discuss the audience for which the editions
are designed, and the potential of content management software
and other software packages that facilitate collaboration.
Jessica Slights, one of two editors collaborating on Othello,
will discuss the challenges facing scholars trained in literary
studies as they work with the additional demands made by the
electronic text, both in the sheer quantity of material the
electronic space makes available, and in dealing with the
demands of preparing a text in e-format.
Peter van Hardenberg will discuss the need for the XML
structures chosen for the texts to reflect adequately the needs
of computing humanists.
Wendy Huot is responsible for designing the databases for
images and performance materials that will be integral to the
editions. Her presentation will explore strategies for developing,
in consultation, an overall data model that can organize and
interrelate a wide variety of binary and textual objects.
Alan Galey, an editor with extensive experience in
programming, will discuss current thinking on archiving and
long-term preservation of electronic artifacts.
A Kind of Yeasty Collection: Organizing
Collaboration in the Internet Shakespeare
Editions
Michael Best
In 1996, when I first began work on the Internet Shakespeare
Editions, I chose to describe my role as that of 'Coordinating Editor' rather than the more usual 'General Editor'. Coordination
and collaboration are necessarily at the centre of the
development of a major scholarly site that involves both
academic and technical organization. Academically, there is
an Editorial Board to oversee general standards, a General
Textual Editor to crack the whip, and an extensive team of
editors, since each play is being edited by one or more scholars.
On the technical side the demands are no less complex. Gone
are the days that a scholar can, as a sideline, whip up some
reasonably effective HTML code and publish it; Web users
now expect attractive, professionally designed pages, intuitive
navigation, and full searching capabilities. In addition, sites are
increasingly being generated from centralized relational
databases requiring sophisticated programming skills. All this
costs money, and it is still true, in Canada at any rate, that
granting agencies tend to be frugal in apportioning funds for
what seem more like computer science than Humanities
activities. One solution is to apply for funding for student
assistants — coop positions, MA or PhD fellowships and so
on — since these can be more readily justified as academic
expenses than the fees of professional programmers.
The challenge thus becomes the management of two teams,
largely separate in their activities, but requiring collaboration
before the editors' texts can be effectively displayed by the
structures created by the technical team. In his paper, Peter van
Hardenberg will discuss the problems that he faces in creating
an effective XML schema for the complex documents the
editors produce as they transcribe, modernize, collate, and
annotate texts that often have multiple origins; Wendy Huot
will discuss the process by which she is designing a database
that will respond flexibly to a wide range of textual and
multimedia artifacts created by the performance of Shakespeare.
On the academic side, Jessica Slights will discuss the learning
curve that a textual scholar faces when preparing materials for
electronic publication, and Alan Galey will bring the perspective
of that rare bird, a textual scholar who is also familiar with
programming, to the discussion of the long-term viability of
the texts we are publishing.
The technical team also requires a high level of internal
collaboration. Academic editors are used to working on their
own, but the various activities of the programmers — designing
templates for a consistent look, developing XML, and designing
the database — are deeply interconnected. There are also
important external consultants on graphic and interface design.
To facilitate collaboration, we are using standard processes —
email lists, a Yahoo discussion group, and conference calls —
but we are also looking at possibilities for software solutions:
a content management system that would permit flexible access
to the site, at the same time as making networks of
communication available to those working on parallel projects.
Made Tame and Most Familiar: Adapting to the
Medium of the E-text
Jessica Slights
This paper will address the topic of editorial collaboration from
the perspective of a literary scholar trained in Shakespeare
studies and now facing the multiple challenges of helping to
prepare an electronic edition of Othello for a modern readership.
The paper will argue, following Jeffrey Masten, that
collaboration was a prevalent model of textual production
during Shakespeare's lifetime, and that it is therefore a
particularly appropriate model for us to adopt in the 21st century
as we move to bring his plays to new reading audiences. I will
offer my own experiences in collaborative editing as a test case
for this claim since the Othello edition involves not simply the
traditional challenges of editorial partnership, but also a
commitment to new technologies that require a degree of
teamwork with which most scholars in the humanities are
probably unfamiliar.
Hierarchies and Treespaces: A Proposed
Extension of XML
Peter van Hardenberg
Those in the Humanities Computing community will be very
much aware of the limitations of XML as a markup language
for working with literary texts, especially in its awkwardness
in dealing with documents that require some method of
encoding overlapping hierarchies. As is the case in many other
projects, texts prepared for the Internet Shakespeare Editions
must at the very least record hierarchies that represent the
separate conceptual and physical divisions of the text. A third
independent hierarchy, tentatively labelled 'annotational' would
also simplify much of the difficulty in describing the
complexities of textual variants and other scholarly apparatus.
This paper will propose a solution to this problem through a
simple extension to the standard format of XML documents.
The necessary flexibility is accomplished by relaxing XML's
requirement that all element tags must form a single tree, to
the requirement that nesting must only be preserved within a
given treespace. A document may have multiple treespaces,
each with its own DTD or schema. Immediate advantages
include elegant decomposition of complex DTDs into modular
component DTDs, and the abolishment of stopgap tricks like
span tags. This change has many ramifications and
consequences to explore, including validation techniques,
combining documents, extensions to the DOM (Document
Object Model), and backwards compatibility with vanilla XML
formats. Application domains are not limited to the text
encoding community and could potentially be realised in many
fields including bioinformatics, word processing file formats, and any other field where tagging applies to a stream of
character data.
Communicating with the Ivory Tower: Modeling
Humanities Multimedia Data
Wendy Huot
Creating a data model for Humanities multimedia and data
requires scholarly understanding of the content itself and a
technical understanding of database design. This can lead to
collaboration between humanities scholars and database
technicians; experts that may be largely ignorant of the other's
realm.
The major communication challenge in such a collaboration is
defining the functional requirements of the data model.
Misunderstandings abound due to a lack of shared terminology,
the scholar's unfamiliarity with the needs and capabilities of
the technology, and the technician's ignorance of the significant
characteristics of the data to be modeled. Special cases and
extremes within the data provide for a difficult interdependency:
the technician may need to be warned of problematic special
cases by the scholar, but only the technician may understand
what kinds of special cases are problematic.
The Internet Shakespeare Edition's development of a data model
(and resulting database) for text and multimedia performance
materials inspired some strategies for managing collaboration.
These strategies included describing data content with samples
in hand, early development of speculative designs, and
conducting technical discussion using media — such as instant
messaging — that record a text log of the conversation for later
review.
Collaborating with the Future: Shakespeare and
Preservation
Alan Galey
""Thy easy numbers flow,"" writes John Milton in an early poetic
commentary on the preservation and transmission of
Shakespeare's works: ""each heart / Hath from the leaves of thy
unvalued book, / Those Delphic lines with deep impression
took"" (10-2). Unusual in its praise for print as a preservation
format, Milton's poem prefaces the first reprinting of
Shakespeare's first chief textual archive, the collection of the
plays in folio (1623, rpt. in 1632, 1663-4, and 1685). Since the
advent of electronic Shakespearean editing and text analysis,
Milton's words have acquired unintended resonance. As encoded
alphanumeric data, Shakespeare's works easily flow into new
digital forms and objects of analysis. (Indeed, Shakespearean
compatibility with hypermedia is almost a truism now.) But
Milton's poem also serves to remind projects like the ISE of
two vital points: that a distinctly Shakespearean subculture of
textual archiving predates us by centuries; and that even in 1632
this subculture had articulated the importance of both
collaboration and remediation.
This brief paper will attempt to bridge the distance between
digital preservation and software longevity practices, on the
one hand, and Shakespearean editing and textual studies, on
the other. Both traditions of thought bear upon the ISE's
electronic transcriptions of plays and poems from the 1623
Folio and the early quartos. In developing encoding strategies
for these complex, historically loaded texts, the ISE must weigh
present software needs against future interoperability, and TEI
compliance against editorial responsibility. As Milton
understood, Shakespeare has no perfect archive for
""transcendental data"" (as Alan Liu terms it); his works persist
only through renewal and collaboration with generations - and
encoding formats - yet unknown.
Bibliography
Grusin, Richard, and J. David Bolter. Remediation:
Understanding New Media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999.
Jowett, John. ""Addressing Adaptation: Measure for Measure
and Sir Thomas More."" Textual Performances. Ed. Lucas Erne
and Margaret Jane Kidnie. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2004. 63-76.
Landow, George P., ed. Hyper / Text / Theory. Baltimore, MD:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994.
Liu, Alan. ""Transcendental Data: Toward a Cultural History
and Aesthetics of the New Encoded Discourse."" Critical
Enquiry 31 (2004): 49-81.
McGann, Jerome J. A Critique of Modern Textual Criticism.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983.
McGann, Jerome J. The Textual Condition. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 1991.
McGann, Jerome J. The Rationale of Hypertext. Institute for
Advanced Technology, University of Virginia, 6 May 1995.
Accessed 2005-03-23. <http://www.iath.virginia
.edu/public/jjm2f/rationale.html>
McGann, Jerome J. Textonics: Literary and Cultural Studies
in a Quantum World. National Humanities Center, Revised:
October 1995. Accessed 2005-03-23. <http://www.nhc.
rtp.nc.us:8080/newsrel2002/mcgannwebcast.
htm>
Milton, John. ""On Shakespeare. 1630."" The Complete Poems.
Ed. John Leonard. London: Penguin, 1998. 19. Worthen, W.B. ""The Imprint of Performance."" Theorizing
Practice: Redefining Theatre History. Ed. W.B. Worthen and
Peter Holland. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
2003. 213-234.","txt","2","",""
"456","6","Understanding Poetry Online: an Internet Application for Teaching","2","This poster session offers participants a thorough overview
of the genesis, process, development, and utilization of
Understanding Poetry Online, an application for teaching
formal and analytical approaches to verse. Developed at
Vanderbilt University, this application offers instructors and
students new and different ways of approaching fundamental
issues in college-level instruction in poetry including the ability
to create, share, and deliver, and take lessons online.
Participants will learn how this application originated, how it
has been supported and developed, and how it continues to be
used, assessed, and refined. In this way, the session will offer
both an introduction to a useful new technology, and a
discussion of how such technologies can be developed.
The teaching of poetry to undergraduates has two components:
training students to recognize basic poetic forms, techniques,
meters, and rhymes, and helping students to develop and defend
thematic observations about the poetry. The challenge to
teachers at all levels is to integrate these two aspects of teaching,
so that students can use their acquired knowledge of scansion,
rhyme, imagery, and so forth to deepen and enrich their
understanding of the themes and contexts of the poetry. We
have designed the Understanding Poetry Online application to
help train students in both aspects of poetic analysis and
especially to integrate those aspects.
The Understanding Poetry Online project has elucidated
students' learning processes and progress by providing a rich,
interactive multimedia platform for the acquisition and
application of both the technical and analytical reading of poetry
at the university level. Our Sonnet Scansion and Analysis
program is a web-based interface for designing and
implementing curricula that facilitate assessment of students'
learning of critical poetry reading skills in the following ways:
• providing an online, on-demand environment for reviewing
and acquiring the skills of metrical scansion, rhyme scheme
analysis, and analytical reasoning;
• making the processes of reading and analysis visible with
on-screen, color-coded, computer-assisted poetic scansion
tools; • providing a facility for user-stored and
instructor/user-retrievable in-depth analyses of poetic forms
and content;
• creating links from the online environment to the classroom
and student study groups with printable versions of all
online activities and work;
• encouraging students to integrate their online work with
essays they are writing for classes.
The application continues to evolve, and has grown from a
basic web-page into a fully-automated instructional technology","txt","2","",""
"457","6","La Imaginación al Servicio de la Educación': un Ejemplo de Work in Progress","2","La imaginación al servicio de la
educación
Este conocido lema del Rector de la Universitat Oberta de
Catalunya, que le llevó a impulsar una aventura
universitaria que este año cumple 10 años de existencia, ha sido
una y otra vez codiciado, explotado y reinventado por cuantos
trabajamos en esta universidad. Mediante este artículo nos
gustaría compartir el proceso de elaboración de la asignatura
Estudios Literarios y Tecnologías Digitales que ha de impartirse
por vez primera el próximo curso 2005-2006 y sobre la que
hemos estado trabajando desde el año 2002. Se trata, por tanto,
de mostrar una parte del proceso de creación de una asignatura
optativa que queríamos que permitiera a nuestros estudiantes
—que presuponemos mínimamente alfabetizados digitalmente
teniendo en cuenta que estudian en una universidad enteramente
virtual— ejercer de críticos y poner en práctica las herramientas
teórico-críticas que les han sido transmitidas en otras asignaturas
de sus estudios . Nuestro propósito inicial, pues, consistía en
tratar de forzar al estudiante a ubicarse en la nueva dimensión
creativa que nos ofrecen las tecnologías digitales y penetrar, a
fondo y mediante un completo ejercicio crítico que fuera más
allá de la habitual crítica formalista y descriptiva de estas nuevas
obras, en las dificultades y particularidades de la literatura
electrónica.
Estos objetivos iniciales suponían también una serie de
constreñimientos. Debía ser una asignatura eminentemente
práctica: había que leer literatura digital. Pero en este caso
teníamos otro problema previo considerable en la medida que
las obras de creación auténticamente digital existentes en la red
(la mayoría en inglés o francés) desafían la competencia
lingüística de la mayoría de nuestros estudiantes. Por ello hemos diseñado una obra de literatura digital con distintas posibilidades
de navegación contribuyendo, de este modo, a la salud creativa
de la literatura digital en lengua catalana y española (existen
dos versiones lingüísticas del cibertexto) a la par que
fomentando una consideración temática alrededor de algunos
de los problemas que están concentrado la atención de la crítica
en los últimos tiempos.
El Diario de una ausencia es un proyecto surgido de los
resultados de un congreso internacional organizado por el grupo
de investigación HERMENEIA, que estudia las confluencias
entre los estudios literarios y las tecnologías digitales, celebrado
en Barcelona en abril de 2004 , uno de cuyos resultados es este
producto literario digital concebido para un uso didáctico y en
red (otro de los resultados que ya puede consultarse en red es
la edición digital de un monográfico de la prestigiosa revista
internacional Dichtung Digital: <http://www.brown.e
du/Research/dichtung-digital/english.htm>
).
Nuestro Diario de una ausencia se presenta como un producto
eminentemente textual, ubicado en una dimensión visual y
musical determinante, que el lector puede recorrer como si de
un peregrinaje se tratara. Hemos optado por un uso de la
tecnología con una finalidad estética, narrativa, semiótica y
hermenéutica: no se hallará aquí una eclosión de los medios
más avanzados como escaparate tecnológico sin otra finalidad
que la del mero lucimiento de recursos, sino una convergencia
de medios informáticos al servicio de un artefacto estético
digital. Su naturaleza fundamentalmente hipertextual evoca el
aspecto más secreto e íntimo del hipertexto —un dato que
todavía cobra más relevancia teniendo en cuenta el componente
de confesión, de autoconfesión que lleva implícito un diario
privado. Sin embargo, no cabe llevarse a engaño: el Diario es
algo más que un hipertexto, cuando menos no es un hipertexto
'puro'. Lo cierto es que se combinan las posibilidades creativas
sinérgicas de lenguajes artísticos como la imagen o la música.
Se trata de un producto múltiple y complejo por cuanto el texto
se ve apostillado por los comentarios de un lector 'modelo' —en
este caso otro profesor de la UOC— que lo atraviesan y lo
penetran a la búsqueda de significado. La mirada crítica de un
ojo externo, que se sumerge en esta crónica del dolor y de la
ausencia, se concreta en un primer ejercicio interpretativo que
emplaza a sus lectores a pronunciarse, al tiempo que ofrece
posibles claves de lectura sobre las que discutir.
Un espacio híbrido y fecundo
Ytodo ello sucede en la inasible virtualidad de una pantalla.
En este entorno creativo, culminada ya la fase inicial
-necesaria e inevitable- de descubrimiento de un nuevo medio;
superado pues un tiempo en el que aprender a habitar en una
nueva dimensión textual, poco a poco los creadores han ido
desarrollando las potencialidades que son propias del medio.
Así, la conjunción de códigos informáticos y de lenguaje, la
colaboración entre escritores y programadores ha dado a luz
una retórica, una gramática y una sintaxis específicas del
entorno digital que, de algún modo —como el Diario también
pretende ejemplificar—, ha transformado también lo que
representa el acto de lectura y la consideración de lo literario.
Niveles de navegación: a la conquista
de un territorio íntimo
La disposición espacial de los textos digitales despierta un
conjunto de metáforas que hacen posible la lectura bajo
un nuevo prisma, el de la navegación. En este sentido, el lector
que accede al Diario percibe con nitidez que la casa es un
territorio por explorar donde las palabras actúan como reclamo
a la vez que funcionan como capciosas contraseñas que nos
permiten acceder a un texto que se oculta, que se esconde
porque secreto es su contenido y como un secreto le es confiado
al lector. La idea central de esta propuesta metodológica es la
de concebir la lectura como una queste, como una búsqueda.
Así, del mismo modo que en los romans medievales la búsqueda
es la organizadora del relato y la queste es, por lo tanto, el
esquema narrativo a seguir, podemos llegar a establecer una
identidad absoluta ente búsqueda y organización de los
contenidos en el espacio digital. El Diario de una ausencia
presenta cinco modos de acercamiento posible al texto y, en
consecuencia, cinco posibilidades distintas de lectura.
1. En primer lugar está la inmersión explorativa en la
casa-escenario que nos ofrece, por estancias, palabras que
actúan de contraseña y puerta de acceso a los distintos días
del texto. Es ésta una vía donde la curiosidad y el azar de
las elecciones nos ubican ante palabras que ejercen de
reclamo para permitir que aflore el texto que esconden y al
que se refieren, al que pertenecen, en definitiva, porque de
él han salido.
2. En segundo lugar, está la posibilidad de realizar una lectura
numérica, buscando en el 'mapa del tesoro' los números que
permiten una lectura cronológica de las páginas del diario.
3. Teniendo en cuenta de que cada página del diario se
corresponde con un día del mes, también es posible efectuar
una tercera lectura a partir de los textos que ya han sido
descubiertos/revelados en el orden 'lineal' del calendario,
eso sí, recordando que hasta que no haya sido desvelado el
contenido de una palabra no será visible la correspondencia
ente la palabra seleccionada y el día del mes al que hace
referencia.
4. Otra vía de lectura posible es la que permite consultar el
mapa o plano de la casa y sus inmediaciones y ver qué objeto conlleva una vía de acceso al texto y dónde está
ubicado.
5. Por último, también el mapa ubica las distintas músicas que
conforman esta dolorosa melodía en el espacio y uno puede
dejarse llevar por lo que la música le sugiere para, a partir
de la música evocada ir al texto correspondiente. Palabras,
números, objetos, músicas y azar son los médiums de este
particular viaje a las tinieblas del alma.
Una nueva experiencia de lectura
En esta tesitura, queremos que surja la pregunta ¿dónde
está la lectura? O mejor ¿dónde está el texto que ha de
leerse si éste es invisible y no aparece más que a partir de una
interacción —mínima, pero interacción al fin y al cabo— como
es una elección, un clic, el establecimiento de un itinerario?
¿Cómo se lee una obra como esta, sin texto —a primera vista—,
sin un orden aparente, sin páginas que pasar, sin ver en qué
punto del relato estamos, sin saber cuánto nos falta para llegar
al final, si es que lo hay? ¿Será la lectura algo susceptible de
ser compartido? ¿Habrá leído todo el mundo el mismo Diario
o será la lectura de cada cual forzosamente distinta? ¿Incluso
uno mismo puede leerlo de distintas maneras en distintas
ocasiones? ¿Hasta qué punto divergirá la lectura lineal, la
lectura más 'literaria' y menos 'lúdico-explorativa' del Diario
de una ausencia, la lectura que también es posible realizar en
papel de las 'lecturas' fragmentadas y aleatorias de páginas
sueltas de un diario? ¿Representará la elección de la música,
del ambiente paisajístico en el que se hallan las palabras, los
objetos y los textos, la lectura digital, en definitiva, un añadido,
una experiencia estética diferente a la lectura analógica y
convencional del Diario como un diario? ¿Qué modo de lectura
emerge en un contexto tan cambiante, con tantos sentidos
implicados, con tantas posibilidades de elección para el lector?
Éstas y otras muchas preguntas sólo podrán ser contestadas por
los estudiantes después de enfrentarse con el Diario. Son
posibles puntos de reflexión para un diálogo abierto respecto
de una materia que se halla en proceso de construcción.","txt","2","",""
"458","6","Supporting Annotation as a Scholarly Tool: Experiences from the Online Chopin Variorum Edition","1","Members of the Centre for Computing in the Humanities,
King's College London, in partnership with researchers
at Royal Holloway College, have been investigating the use of
some text/image comparison enhancement technologies for the
creation of an Online Chopin Variorum Edition (OCVE). The
project's primary research goal is to explore how one might
provide improved support for the comparative scholarly analysis
of (in this case musical) source materials (manuscripts, first
impressions of first editions, and later impressions which often
contain variants), using as a basis the music of the famous 19th
century composer Frédéric Chopin.
OCVE provides access to images of the music directly, rather
than to symbolic representations of that music. In this light, it
investigated three kinds of image manipulation:
1. superimposition: OCVE looked at the laying of images from
two defined filiation chains over top of each other in order
to reveal variants,
2. juxtaposition: OCVE explored the provision of tools to
facilitate the comparison of variants on a bar-by-bar basis,
and
3. combination/interpolation: OCVE considered the utility of
allowing users to create purposeful collations assembled
from the variants.
Figures 1 and 2 illustrate superimposition and juxtaposition in
the context of the OCVE project. Figure 2: OCVE Superimposition
At first glance perhaps OCVE looks like another digital archive
project, but a part of the goal of the project was to probe the
edges of established digital archive practice to see how that
model might be extended and made more useful to scholarship.
Digital library and archive research has been underway in
information and computing science for more than ten years
now, and started full of promise about the expected benefits to
scholars. After ten years, however, it would seem that the
humanities should be reaping these expected benefits that were
set out with such enthusiasm 10 years ago. Indeed, of course
there are clear tangible benefits from using digital archives and
similar resources. Note, for example, a recent report in the
AHDS Newsletter about the launch of the Early English Books
Online (EEBO) resource as a cheaply available resource for
colleges and universities in the UK. There a reader in History
of Early Modern Ideas at Royal Holloway (University of
London) is reported as saying
Once you get a taste of what research can be like with EEBO you
want more. It transforms how you work. I can work at 2am. I can
scribble on my printouts. I'm not restricted by library opening
times. I've cut my transport costs and time. It's simply more
efficient.
(Leon)
Clearly, the potential of simply making rare material more or
less instantly accessible on demand is a clear benefit, and one
that one hopes will be available to more and more researchers
over time.
At the same time, digital libraries in the 1990s seemed to
promise more than improved access alone, and in these other
areas they have proven to be somewhat of a disappointment.
See the recent analysis of the impact of digital libraries on
humanities research from the perspective of several librarians
who did some research on their impact:
While digital resources are becoming more visible in the
humanities, use of these resources by scholars remains limited.
Humanists have come to rely on computers and electronic
communication for some of their daily work, but the use of digital
information resources has yet to become routine. Digitization
projects are bringing texts, data sources, sound, and images to the
scholar's desktop; however, the functions on which research in
the humanities depend are neither well understood nor well
supported by librarians.
(Brockman et al.)
The Brockmann et al. report goes on to examine some aspects
of humanities research in general, and proposes some common
elements that appear in the work of many scholars, and that
perhaps should influence future technical developments in
digital libraries. One of the common elements is 'annotation'.
Humanists write in their books, they scribble notes on
photocopies; they print out material from online sources and
write on it as well. The report claims that the process of writing
these annotations, and the recording and organising of notes
that arise from this work supports the scholarly research process
for many researchers. It is interesting to note that the EEBO
user mentions this ( ""scribbl[ing] on my printouts"" ) explicitly
as one of the benefits of using EEBO as well.
There has been work in computing science developing models
of the role of annotation to support reading and research. Much
of this has evidently been linked to the development of tablet
computers where it is possible for the user to write on a digital
copy in the same way that they might want to write on a printed
one. Catherine Marshall's article ""Towards an Ecology of
Hypertext Annotation"" reports on a study of annotations in
textbooks, and begins the process of developing some models
of annotations, based upon the how the annotator intends to
use them in the future. In Marshall et al. there is a report on
how annotations on tablet computers supported the research
aims of a reading group. Bradley, in Bradley 2004, applied and
extended some of the models outlined by Marshall in her papers
to the task of humanities textual scholarship. This paper will
extend some of the issues presented in part there.
There is also some critical literature on the role of
annotation-like note taking and organisation, and an analysis
of the impact of computing support for these tasks in the social
sciences. There is some discussion of this literature, and its
possible relevance to humanities text-based scholarship in Bradley 2003, and this article draws attention to the potential
of providing computing support for such materials that goes
beyond merely supporting the representation (in something
like TEI) of notes and annotations to also developing tools to
support the process of building and organising the annotations,
and then using them to support study of the materials they are
linked to.
As a response to this work, we created a formal model for
annotations, a prototype annotation tool and an annotation
presentation environment in OCVE. In this paper we shall
discuss how we arrived at the model we had for OCVE, where
it supported (and where it failed to support) the act of analysis,
and we will provide some thoughts on how these tools might
be improved to better support creation and analysis. In addition,
OCVE annotations contained in their model some sense of
annotations for public and for private use. The paper will also
discuss some of the implications we noted in using annotations
in a public vs. a private manner, and how public annotations
relate to recent developments in public collaboration software
such as wikis.
Bibliography
Bradley, John. ""Finding a Middle Ground between
'Determinism' and 'Aesthetic Indeterminacy': a Model for Text
Analysis Tools."" Literary and Linguistic Computing 18.2
(2003): 185-207.
Bradley, John. ""Highlighting the Past: Annotation of historical
texts to support Humanities Scholarship."" Presentation given
at the University of Kentucky and MITH, University of
Maryland. April 2004. Accessed 2005-04-06. <http://ww
w.kcl.ac.uk/humanities/cch/jdb/papers/ken
tucky.pdf>
Brockman, William S., Laura Neumann, Carole L. Palmer, and
Tonyia J. Tidline. Scholarly Work in the Humanities and the
Evolving Information Environment, a report from the Council
on Library and Information Resources. Washington: Council
on Library and Information Resources, December 2001.
Accessed 2005-03-21. <http://www.clir.org/pubs
/reports/pub104/pub104.pdf>
Leon, Pat. ""Early English Books Online: The Holy Grail of
online resources?"" Arts and Humanities Data Service
Newsletter (Autumn/Winter 2004). Accessed 2005-03-21. <h
ttp://www.jisc.ac.uk/index.cfm?name=news_
eebo>
Marshall, Catherine C. ""Towards an Ecology of Hypertext
Annotation."" Hypertext 98 (1998): 40-49.
Marshall, Catherine C., G. Golovchinsky, M. Price, and Bill
Schilit. ""Introducing a digital library reading appliance into a
reading group."" Proceedings DL (1999): 77-84.
Online Chopin Variorum Edition Pilot Project. Accessed
2005-03-03. <http://www.kcl.ac.uk/humanities
/cch/ocve/final/content/index.html>","txt","2","",""
"459","6","Improving Access to Encoded Primary Texts","1","The Access Problem
An impressive amount of our literary heritage has now
been put into digital editions. Much of it is encoded in
XML, often using recognized standards for encoding such as
the TEI. One of the primary scholarly goals behind this activity
has been to increase access to the texts - by publishing them
on-line, and by making the text amenable to searching. The
XML tagging provides further added value for searching and
display. Metadata, where it exists at all, is mostly at the
collection level, or provides only a broad guide to the contents
of a specific work.
Between high-level metadata access, and a direct search on the
word forms of the text, there is little help for the reader. Due
to the immense labour involved in creating detailed subject
indexing, very few scholarly electronic texts have indexes or
finding aids which would draw the reader to specific sections
of the work.
To address this deficiency, a first trial has been made at
automatic indexing of a substantial non-fiction work. The
notebooks of Samuel Taylor Coleridge are a rich treasury of
the thought of one of the 19th century's most important
intellectuals. Comprised of over 6,500 individual entries (in
scope ranging from a single phrase to complete essays), they
are a valuable record of his thought and the active intellectual
currents of the time. We have captured the text of the notebooks
in electronic form, encoded with TEI. As a first step to building
a coherent subject index to this material, we have generated a
mapping between this material and a contemporary subject
index (Roget's first edition of his celebrated Thesaurus).
Our strategy has been to construct connections between the
conceptual categories in the Thesaurus and Coleridge's
individual notes, based upon a weighted measure of similarity
between the words of the note and the terms and sub-terms in
the Thesaurus. Common words are weighted lightly; rarely
used words heavily. Using this measure, we can connect each
note to one or more thesaurus entries, which then makes the
note accessible to searching through the thesaural categories.
Implementing these connections through topic map technology,
we have a stand-off tagging structure that relates these two
encoded works but still leaves both of them unchanged,
available to be delivered and shared with colleagues.
This presentation will describe the process by which we create
an appropriate mapping between Coleridge's text and Roget's
hierarchy, demonstrate the environment for creating and
managing the stand-off tagging, and describe the utility of the
resulting product.
The resulting edifice illustrates three important advantages for
access to scholarly text: the index connects and relates sections
of the text to larger, consistent conceptual categories; it provides
access for searching that is complementary to the texts' own
idiosyncratic terminology; it uses stand-off tagging to provide
access without direct intervention in the electronic source text.
This indexing structure, of value to researchers in its own right,
is also the scaffolding upon which we will construct our subject
index of the Notebooks, using modern terminology and
accessible conceptual categories.
Background to the Project
The notebooks of Samuel Taylor Coleridge are a valuable
and almost unknown resource. Much of Coleridge's work
as poet, philosopher, scientist, linguist, and theologian was
published only partially and fitfully in his time; the notebooks
contain some of his most innovative and interesting work. They
have been published in print in five large double volumes (text
and notes) by Princeton University Press, with indexes to
selected titles, names, and places; but there is no subject index.
The intention for the series was to publish a thematic index to
the whole, as volume 6. However, we argued (to the Canadian
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, who are
funding this work) that at the present time an electronic index
to the work would be of much greater utility to scholars who
wish to know how Coleridge's thought emerged and developed
over the 40 years which these notebooks cover.
The overall goals for the project include:
• creating an accurate electronic text of the entire notebook
corpus;
• creating an index and thesaurus for the notebooks which
will be a start to a synthetic index to Coleridge's thought;
• providing a web-based search and discovery system which
will meet the needs of scholars, making his thought on a
vast variety of topics more accessible. Bibliography
Coleridge, S.T. Ed. Kathryn Coburn. The Collected Works of
Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Bollingen Series 75. Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1969.
Hüllen, W. A history of Roget's thesaurus: origins,
development, and design. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2004.
Pepper, S. The TAO of Topic Maps. 2001. Accessed
2005-03-15. <http://www.ontopia.net/topicmap
s/materials/tao.html>
Sebastiani, F. ""Machine learning in automated text
categorization."" ACM Computing Surveys 34.1 (2002): 1-47.
Thompson, H.S., and D. McKelvie. Hyperlink semantics for
standoff markup of read-only documents. Language Technology
Group, HCRC, University of Edinburgh, 1997. Accessed
2005-03-15. <http://www.ltg.ed.ac.uk/~ht/sgm
leu97.html>","txt","2","",""
"460","6","Learning Objects in Humanities Education","1","I n Understanding Media, Marshal McLuhan suggests that
the content of any new medium, at least initially, is provided
by the medium that it is in the process of supplanting. For
example, the content of early writing, as in Homer's Odyssey,
is the spoken word, and the content of early cinema was theatre
or vaudeville. Developments in Web technology and the use
of this technology in education also seem to follow this pattern.
Exclusive concern with document appearance and presentation
— characteristics inherited from the print world — have
gradually given way on the Web to dynamic and multimedia
formats, and to distributed organizational mechanisms.
Similarly, in distance education and educational technology,
the Web initially took as its content the lectures, overheads,
discussions and other aspects of the traditional classroom. Many
of these aspects — down to the closed classroom door, the
grade book and the classroom whiteboard — have been
faithfully transferred onto the Web via password-protected
course management systems like WebCT and Blackboard.
However, attempts to replicate the face-to-face classroom seem
to be giving way to distributed systems of 'Learning Objects'
that exploit the intrinsically decentralized and decomposable
nature of Web-based content, and that lend themselves to both
'blended' and 'distance' learning approaches.
'Learning Objects' is a term used to describe resources that can
be used, shared and reused across a wide variety of educational
contexts. Such resources can include images, video, Flash
animations, text and HTML documents, as well as more complex aggregations of this content. These resources can take
the form of cultural content (e.g. articles, broadcast clips, or
Websites) that has been adapted for use in educational contexts.
The use of the term 'object' is an intentional reference to
object-oriented programming and design, which has made use
of modularity, hierarchical content structures and standardized
interfaces to promote the use and reuse of programming
resources in software development. With Learning Objects, it
is hoped that some of these advantages can accrue also to
resources used in education. Like content developed through
object-oriented design, these Learning Objects will hopefully
benefit from the congruence of their nature with the
fundamental characteristics of the Web: its distributed nature,
the modular, or decomposable nature of its content, and its use
of agreed upon or de facto technical standards for file formats,
descriptive information, and connectivity protocols (e.g. XML,
Dublin Core, http).
A wide variety of projects in which Learning Objects play a
central role have been underway both in Canada and abroad.
These include the recently completed, pan-Canadian eduSource
project, which has produced infrastructure and support
mechanisms that are being further utilized in the Lionshare,
Apollo and the Eisenhower National Clearinghouse projects.
Many of these large-scale projects collect resources across the
humanities, social and natural sciences. Other 'repository' or
Learning Object collection projects, such as FLORE, MusicGrid
and Internet Shakespeare Editions focus specifically on
language learning, and humanities subjects.
The proposed panel will critically assess the opportunities and
challenges presented by a variety of LO initiatives that are
provincial, national and international in scope, and that reflect
the trends described above. Each panel member and project
represented brings a different emphasis, representative of a
different cross-section of users, relating and contributing in
different ways to humanities education. Each member also
brings a different background from humanities education, and
the extensive experience in the use of digital content in this
area. Discussion among the panelists and with the audience
will focus on the issues, advantages and challenges of this
approach in humanities education:
Terry Butler is the Director of Research Computing in the
Faculty of Arts at the University of Alberta, and recently
completed a stint as Interim Director of Academic Technologies
for Learning. Terry works closely with faculty both in the
humanities and other discipline areas in the integration of
computer technology in research and teaching. As lead on the
Technology Edge project, he has researched and developed
multimedia content to improve the information technology
skills of liberal arts students.
Catherine Caws is an assistant professor in both the
Department of French and the Department of Curriculum and
Instruction at the University of Victoria. Dr. Caws conducts
research in collaborative learning in higher education,
computer-assisted language learning, and computer networking,
and she plays a leadership role in the FLORE repository of
French Language Learning Objects.
Norm Friesen is currently Director of the CanCore Metadata
Initiative, and principal investigator in the SSHRC-sponsored
learningspaces.org project. He is also a visiting Scholar at the
School of Communications at Simon Fraser University, and a
member of the Canadian delegation for the ISO sub-committee
on ""Information Technology for Learning, Education and
Training.""
Scott Leslie is the Manager of the BCcampus Learning
Resources Centre, a multi-disciplinary 'open content' repository.
In addition, he researches course management systems,
repository and eportfolio software as part of the Western
Cooperative on Educational Telecommunications' Edutools.info
team.
Griff Richards concerns himself with the convivial use of
technology to promote the creation, management and transfer
of human knowledge. Griff has a Ph.D. in Educational
Technology from Concordia, and has been active in the
research, development and implementation of computers in
education and training for 25 years. His most recent work has
been in the context of the Mellon Foundation Lionshare Peer
to Peer Learning Object Repository project ( <http://lio
nshare.its.psu.edu/main/> ).
Ray Siemens is Canada Research Chair in Humanities
Computing and Associate Professor of English at the University
of Victoria. Director of the Digital Humanities / Humanities
Computing Summer Institute, founder of Malaspina U-C's
Centre for Digital Humanities Innovation, and founding editor
of the electronic scholarly journal Early Modern Literary
Studies, he is also author of many articles focusing on areas
where literary studies and computational methods intersect.","txt","2","",""
"461","6","Temas de Literatura Universal: Usos y Aplicaciones del Hipertexto Pedagógico","1","La introducción de las tecnologías digitales en los procesos
de aprendizaje ha significado la creación de nuevos
espacios educativos basados en la no-presencialidad y en la
asincronía. Pensamos que la tecnología ofrece mecanismos que
permiten crear marcos de aprendizaje nuevos que deben llenarse
de contenido y de humanidad. En este sentido, en los estudios
de Filología de la Universitat Oberta de Catalunya trabajamos
para que el e-learning sea, también, una manifestación del
e-living. Ante las voces que defienden que el entorno digital
no tiene ninguna especificidad didáctica o pedagógica queremos
mostrar como aquello que es realmente revolucionario -más
allá de si añadimos, o no, una e al concepto aprendizaje- son
los nuevos mecanismos docentes.
El European Plan of Action 'eLearning 2001' define el
e-learning como el uso de tecnologías y de Internet para mejorar
la calidad docente, y en nuestro caso creemos que esta mejora
viene condicionada por la humanización del acompañamiento
docente. El uso de sistemas complejos en un campus virtual
permite y estimula el intercambio y la colaboración, los cuales
conllevan unos resultados más que satisfactorios en las
asignaturas que ofrecemos en la UOC.
La Universitat Oberta de Catalunya nació en el 1995 como la
primera universidad absolutamente virtual del mundo, y por
ello era necesario redefinir conceptos como docencia,
aprendizaje o estudio, ya que al crear un entorno en el cual las
aulas son sustituidas por la virtualidad hay que tener en cuenta
los cimientos en que se ha sustentado siempre el aprendizaje y
la docencia, y sumarle las distintas posibilidades que la nueva
era nos ofrece.
Si tomamos como ejemplo la asignatura 'Temas de Literatura
Universal' se puede ver perfectamente de qué manera se ha
organizado la materia. Partiendo de una serie de textos
relacionados entre sí por el hecho de compartir algunos de los
tópicos de la literatura universal, se ha elaborado un material
hipertextual que combina la lectura lineal con la lectura
secuencial o fragmentaria propia del hipertexto, así como el
vídeo o los recursos sonoros. Lo que ofrecemos son lecturas
de algunos textos literarios cruciales a través de una doble ruta:
la estrictamente literaria, la pictórica o la cinematográfica, de
tal forma que durante el proceso se analiza la obra teniendo en
cuenta otros textos precedentes que la han influenciado. Así,
los itinerarios de lectura atraviesan períodos y tradiciones
culturales distantes en el tiempo y en el espacio mediante
conexiones intertextuales que nos guían por el corpus
hipertextual. Los estudiantes, después de familiarizarse con los
textos del material docente, deben seleccionar un tema y
construir su propio corpus hipertextual con la ayuda constante
del profesor con el que están siempre en contacto.
La apuesta de nuestro trabajo diario como profesores virtuales
se basa en la utilización de materiales didácticos electrónicos,
recursos on-line, bibliotecas digitales, websites de referencia,
exposiciones virtuales, etc. y un taller -muy bien valorado por
los estudiantes- que les permite comparar sus ejercicios con los
de otros compañeros y beneficiarse de sus correcciones. Además
de utilizar estos materiales, resulta del todo necesario considerar
que el acto de enseñanza on-line que utiliza estos recursos debe
transformar su discurso y utilizar nuevas técnicas
comunicativas. El hipertexto muestra una nueva forma de
textualidad basada en la capacidad de penetración de un texto
marcado con enlaces que le abren ventanas a nuevos horizontes
interpretativos y a nuevos sentidos. Con el hipertexto se
desvanece toda pretensión de control y la seducción es la única
motivación que se busca durante la navegación, en la cual
resulta imprescindible el acompañamiento a lo largo del proceso
de aprendizaje mediante la pizarra virtual, la incitación al
debate, el forum virtual, la corrección personalizada de
ejercicios, la respuesta rápida a las dudas, etc. En definitiva, el
proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje concebido de esta manera
acaba convirtiéndose una tarea holística que es beneficiosa para
los estudiantes, ya que tienen que leer, comparar, escuchar a
sus compañeros y al profesor, participar organizar sus ideas de
forma lógica y coherente. Al fin y al cabo, el estudiante organiza
y construye su propio proceso de aprendizaje de manera
subjetiva y utilizando sus propias capacidades e iniciativas, de
tal manera que la docencia se transforma completamente
respecto a la universidad presencial y eje de todo el proceso
docente se centra en el estudiante más que en el profesor.
La puesta en funcionamiento de la asignatura Temas de
literatura universal se produjo el año 2001, justo en el momento
en que intentamos ver si los estudiantes de la UOC eran capaces
de enfrentarse de una manera radical al nuevo entorno desde
su mismo lenguaje: el hipertexto. Éste era el reto, pero al mismo
tiempo también había que ver si nosotros, como profesores,
estábamos preparados para desarrollar nuestro rol a partir de la especificidad de transmisión de contenidos que nos ofrecía
el entorno digital. No se trataba sólo de tener webs u otros
espacios virtuales que complementaran nuestra tarea docente
dentro del aula, ni de elaborar materiales en papel, es decir,
manuales sobre una determinada materia y preparar actividades
para los estudiantes a distancia; hacía falta ver si podíamos
sustituirnos o, cuando menos, trasladarnos a la deslocalización
opaca de un hipertexto. Comprobar si sabíamos des-organizar
nuestro discurso académico tan aparentemente organizado.
Como es lógico, usamos esta peculiar forma textual que el
hipertexto impone a las obras que leemos e interpretamos, una
forma que puede juzgarse como fragmentaria. Fragmentaria
porque practicar el arte del screen writing implica
necesariamente una determinada disposición espacial de los
contenidos que no es discursivamente lineal (en el sentido que
el discurso se atomiza y se fragmenta en ítems: las lexias, que
forman parte de bloques textuales enlazados pero contiguos).
Y también fragmentaria desde el punto de vista de la
accesibilidad a los textos, ya que sólo habían sido seleccionados
fragmentos textuales y no obras enteras Una fragmentariedad,
pues, que es la consecuencia de una determinada estrategia
didáctica, pero que también refleja cambios en la mentalidad
y en la percepción de la realidad que afectan a la lectura y a la
escritura, y en general a la producción cultural.
Finalmente surgieron tres propuestas diferentes de uso
hipertextual que fueron desarrolladas con el objetivo de
fomentar las perspectivas críticas que reconstruyen la historia
de la literatura según unos itinerarios y cánones densamente
personalizados. Y para hacerlo había que establecer una fuerte
alianza entre las dos metodologías usadas para tal finalidad: el
principio de intertextualidad (en la elaboración de los
materiales) y la interacción dialógica (en los debates del foro).
Esta asignatura se propone invertir la relación convencional
entre el lector/crítico y el texto literario, transformando al
primero en sujeto de una exploración que libremente transcurre
de una obra hacia la otra, deshilvanando un hilo temático que
él mismo establece. El formato hipertextual de los materiales
responde, pues, en este tipo de lectura discontinúa que pasa de
una obra a la otra siguiendo una temática preestablecida, en
lugar de agotar cada texto en su integridad. De este modo, los
tres bloques en los que se dividen los materiales representan
tres antologías personales de fragmentos de obras (literarias o
no) seleccionados por su conexión, especialmente representativo
del tema que cada autor ha escogido, y comentados a partir de
esta conexión. La característica esencial de estos materiales es
la de presentar textos y comentarios (escogidos a partir de temas
muy generales en uno formato hipertextual, o sea según
recorridos de lecturas que no son secuenciales (un texto tras
otro), sino intertextuales (un texto dentro de otro). Los que
hemos trabajado en su diseño hemos pensado en las nuevas
formas de lectura que Internet y la informática han creado, por
las cuales los textos ya no están encerrados en sí mismos, y se
abren a un infinito juego de reescrituras e interpretaciones. Al
mismo tiempo el sujeto que lee (o que estudia) es mucho más
libre de seguir su propio itinerario, pasando de un texto a otro
según las asociaciones intertextuales que su experiencia y su
intuición le sugieren. En estos coexisten tres ejemplos de
itinerario intertextual (relativamente) arbitrario y personal en
la medida que, como ya hemos avanzado, el objetivo de la
asignatura es que cada uno de los estudiantes haga lo mismo
al final del semestre (construyendo un corpus textual que
constituirá el trabajo final del curso).
Cabe destacar que en los tres cursos que se ha impartido esta
asignatura, el aumento de estudiantes ha sido exponencial, y
según el análisis de las estadísticas se puede decir que ninguna
otra asignatura de literatura de la UOC ha tenido un éxito
parecido. Los estudiantes manifiestan leer, estudiar y aprender
mucho, a pesar de su sorpresa y desorientación inicial (cuando
ven que el material de la asignatura tiene un formato
hipertextual). Esta confusión inicial siempre acaba
transformándose en un reconocimiento de las especificidades
positivas del medio y la constatación de los beneficios del
abordaje hipertextual llega cuando muchos de los estudiantes
presentan su trabajo final utilizando los mismos recursos
multimedia que se utilizaron en la creación de los materiales.","txt","2","",""
"462","6","A Pilot Study for a Navajo Textbase","1","Introduction
There are a large number of collected and written texts in
various Athabascan languages that form a substantial
literature that could be used for both scholarship and education.
This is especially true of the Navajo language for which there
are a large number of written texts, many that are public domain
or out of copyright protection. This paper describes and
evaluates a project to acquire these texts in electronic format,
in the standard orthography, and develop a dictionary lookup
tool for use with these texts. Collected texts can take many
forms and use many different orthographies. For this pilot study,
the Navajo texts are typewriter written with a non-standard
orthography. The Navajo language has a polysynthetic structure
that poses special problems for dictionary lookup.
Methods
The following steps were used for this project and are
detailed below:
1. Scanner acquisition of images of the original texts.
2. Optical character recognition of the text images and
post-edit.
3. XML encoding of the texts using the Text Encoding
Initiative.
4. Use of an XSLT stylesheet for web display of the texts.
5. Development of an automated look-up tool for the lexicon.
Texts collected in 1929 from the book Navaho Texts by Sapir
and Hoijer (1942) are used for this pilot project. Figure 1 shows
a page fragment from this work that uses a non-standard
orthography. Figure 3 shows that same fragment with the
standard orthography after acquisition.
Figure 1. A page image fragment from Navaho Texts
After the image of a page has been scanned, it must be
recognized using optical character recognition (OCR). For this
project, the open-source Gamera system was used which is
written in the Python language. Gamera allows arbitrary
characters to be trained using an implementation of the k-nearest
neighbor algorithm whose weights are optimized using a genetic
algorithm. Figure 2 shows the Gamera interface that allows
iterative classification of characters from actual text images
and supports training until the error rate is acceptable.
Figure 2. A Gamera Screen shot
The output configuration for a particular project requires Python
programming to define the character mappings. The output is
a mapping from the recognized characters of the text image to
text in the Times New Roman Navajo font. The Text Encoding
Initiative (TEI) is used for encoding that output. A sample of
Navaho Texts that has been encoded using TEI is shown in
Figure 3. It is transformed to HTML using the XSLT stylesheet
that is available at the TEI website, augmented with a CSS file
that includes the Navajo font.
The final step in the workflow is to develop and use a lookup
tool for the lexicon that allows a user to click on a word and
see the correct dictionary page or easily navigate to it. A major
work for the Navajo lexicon is the Analytical Lexicon by Young and Morgan (1992). There is also a project to put the Analytical
Lexicon (AL) on-line that is partially completed and available
at <http://www.speech.cs.cmu.edu/egads/nav
ajo/> . The dictionary lookup tool developed here tries to
map a verb stem parsed from a word to a page (URL) in this
on-line AL. The problem is that a morpheme (the stem) must
be extracted from the complex morphology of the verb for
lookup which is typically a difficult task for users.
Figure 3. The TEI Encoding
A very simple example of a morphological parser for dictionary
lookup is presented here. Pseudo-code for the algorithm is
shown below. The algorithm is implemented in the Perl
programming language.
1. Get the word
2. Look in a list for direct word lookup (no parsing)
3. If found, display the lexical entry
4. Otherwise:
(a) Parse the word (assume it is a verb)
(b) Match the longest common substring to a list of all stem
shapes
(c) Score each match
(d) Rank the matches by score
(e) Link each stem match to the URL for the corresponding
root in the AL
For step 4a, each substring of the verb is compared to a list of
all stem shapes. A simple score is attached to each match in
step 4c where:
score = (index position of the
substring) * (length of the substring)
This privileges matches that are towards the end of the word
and longer substring matches. The ranked matches are displayed
with the recommended one being the one with the highest score.
Example output from the batch version of the Perl program that
shows a correct parse is shown below.
• Word=na'nishkaadgo :
• nish - (12) - <http://www.speech.cs.cm
u.edu/egads2/navajo/entry?nish>
• kaad - (28) - <http://www.speech.cs.cm
u.edu/egads2/navajo/entry?kaad>
• na' - (0) - <http://www.speech.cs.cmu.
edu/egads2/navajo/entry?na%27>
• ni - (6) - <http://www.speech.cs.cmu.e
du/egads2/navajo/entry?ni>
• The recommended stem is kaad
The highest scored match (28) is the correctly recommended
stem. Note that the URL to the on-line AL contains still another
encoding for Navajo characters (a custom Latin1 mapping that
is also URL encoded) and the Perl program must also translate
between the standard orthography and this custom mapping.
Results
The scanning procedure is very simple and does not require
specialized equipment. The process of scanning does not
require any special linguistic expertise and can be carried out
as a batch job that produces the image files. The OCR training
and classification process using the Gamera system is fairly
straightforward and with the output programming pieces
pre-done for a project, it can be performed by domain experts.
The author found that using a training level with an
approximately 15% error rate, he could do all acquisition steps
of the workflow in under 20 minutes for a physical page and
batch pre-scanning would have significantly reduced this time.
The TEI encoding is simple and ensures that the textbase will
be archival.
A formal evaluation of the dictionary lookup tool was
performed. A sample of the first 300 words of the text shown
in Figure 1 was selected and the Perl program parser was run
against this sample in batch mode. This resulted in a list of 300
outputs such as that above. The author then checked each of
the 300 parses for accuracy. Three categories were used to
evaluate this output: correct, incorrect, and non-verb. The non-verb category was used for adverbials, nouns, etc. that do
not transparently map to verb stems. The result of this
evaluation was that the parser was 92% accurate for Navajo
verbs with a breakdown of: correct=124, incorrect=10, and
non-verb=166. 45% of the sample is non-verb. The remaining
problem is how to generally discriminate between verbs and
non-verbs for lookup.
Conclusions
The workflow introduced here appears to be useful for
domain experts that are trying to create on-line textbases
for Athabascan literature. Ultimately these textbases could be
used in the schools for language and cultural studies since they
are easily implemented as web pages. The dictionary lookup
tool goes at least some distance in solving the long-standing
problem of helping users to navigate the complex Navajo
lexicon. The link to the on-line AL is a simple example of
cross-project interaction in the computational humanities. An
updated programmatic interface to the AL would be a significant
one.
Bibliography
Sapir, Edward, and Harry Hoijer, eds. Navaho Texts. Iowa
City: Linguistic Society of America, 1942.
Young, Robert, William Morgan Sr., and Sally Midgette.
Analytical Lexicon of Navajo. Albuquerque: University of New
Mexico Press, 1992.","txt","2","",""
"463","6","The Tibet Oral History Archive Project and Digital Preservation","1","The Tibet Oral History Archive Project 1 (TOHAP) is part
of the research and education program of the Center for
Research on Tibet in the Department of Anthropology at Case
Western Reserve University.2 The Center was created in 1987
by Melvyn Goldstein, John Reynold Harkness Professor of
Anthropology, and Cynthia Beall, Sarah Idell Pyle Professor
of Anthropology, to generate and disseminate new knowledge
about Tibetan culture, society, and history, and was the
academic pioneer in opening Tibet to in-depth anthropological
and historical research. The TOHAP builds on a series of
fieldwork-based studies that have examined the adaptation of
Tibetans to high altitude, and the changes that have occurred
since Tibet's incorporation into the People’s Republic of China
in 1951.
The Tibet Oral History Archive includes three primary
collections:
• The Common Folk Oral History Collection: nearly 2,000
hours of interviews with hundreds of ordinary rural and
urban Tibetans about their life experiences. Since the
number of individuals in Tibet who were adults in 1959 --
the end of the traditional era -- is rapidly dwindling, there
is particular urgency to document the voices of ordinary
Tibetans in order understand the diversity of life as it was
lived in Tibet as well as the way the salient historical events
played out among the different strata of society.
• The Political History Collection: approximately 400 hours
of historical interviews with former Tibetan government
officials who played important roles in modern Tibetan
history, including His Holiness the Dalai Lama. These
interviews cover the traditional period before Tibet was
incorporated into the People's Republic of China
(1913-1951) and the subsequent period up to the end of the
Cultural Revolution in 1976.
• The Drepung Monastery Collection: approximately 350
hours of interviews with about one hundred monks who
were members of Drupung Monastery, Tibet's largest
monastery, at the end of the traditional era. These interviews
are unique in that they provide the only in-depth window
into large-scale monasticism in traditional Tibetan society Conducted primarily in the Tibetan language, the interviews
were taped on audio cassettes which have subsequently been
digitized in three formats: archival WAVE files, medium format
QuickTime files, and compressed delivery MP3 (MPEG) files.
The interviews have been transcribed and translated into English
and were initially saved as Microsoft Word documents.
Professor Goldstein, Editor of the Archive, has partnered with
Kelvin Smith Library to prepare the audio files and transcripts
for online dissemination and long-term preservation. For online
dissemination via the World Wide Web, we are converting the
Word documents to plain text and encoding them in XML using
the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) Document Type Definition
(DTD) for Transcriptions of Speech.3 To facilitate
understanding, the Archive will also include a glossary of terms,
encoded in XML using the TEI-DTD for Printed Dictionaries.4
A programmer has been hired to create a Web-based tool for
creating the glossary and an application for automatically
encoding extended pointer notation to link terms in the
transcripts to their definitions in the glossary. Work is also
underway to design an end user interface which will include
browse and search functions. In the meantime, we are
temporarily transforming the XML files to XHTML and using
the Greenstone Digital Library Software to facilitate local
access.5
A larger concern, however, is how to ensure long-term
preservation of and access to the Archive. In 1996, the
Commission on Preservation and Access (CPA) and Research
Library Group (RLG) Task Force on Archiving of Digital
Information published a seminal report on the long-term
preservation of digital resources.6 Since then, virtually every
significant publication about digital preservation has indicated
that primary responsibility for initiation and management of
the metadata necessary to ensure long-term access to digital
resources begins with the creator of the resource. Traditionally,
it has been the role of librarians and archivists to ensure
long-term viability of and access to cultural heritage materials,
but this is not within the realm of expertise of the majority of
scholars in the humanities and social sciences. Thus, if the
creators of digital resources are responsible for initiating
lifecycle documentation of the descriptive, administrative, and
structural metadata necessary to migrate, emulate, or otherwise
translate existing resources to future hardware and software
configurations -- a task foreign to most discipline-based scholars
-- close collaboration with information technology professionals
early in a project is imperative.
Protocols and standards for digital preservation are now under
vigorous development, yet there are still many unknowns. For
the short-term, multiple copies of the audio and XML files will
be maintained in multiple locations at Case Western Reserve
University, both at the Center for Research on Tibet as well as
in Digital Case, Kelvin Smith Library's Fedora repository.7
For the long-term, the Asian Division of the Library of Congress
has expressed interest in hosting the completed Archive. To
prepare the Tibet Oral History Archive for deposit with the
Library of Congress, we are creating a Submission Information
Package (SIP) in compliance with the Reference Model for an
Open Archival Information System (OAIS),8 using the Metadata
Encoding and Transmission Standard (METS), a metadata
standard for encoding descriptive, administrative, and structural
metadata regarding objects within a digital library.9 This paper
will present a prototype for scholar-librarian collaboration in
the digital preservation of multimedia resources, including a
discussion of the practical aspects of constructing a METS
document for the Tibet Oral History Archive, with particular
attention to the multiple metadata standards that must be
bundled with the digital files to create a robust Submission
Information Package.
1. This project is sponsored by the Henry Luce Foundation with
additional support from the National Endowment for the
Humanities (grant no. RZ-20585-00) and the National Geographic
Society.
2. The Center for Research on Tibet Web Site is <http://www.
case.edu/affil/tibet/index.htm> .
3. Chapter 11 of the TEI Guidelines (P4); see <http://www.te
i-c.org/P4X/TS.html> .
4. Chapter 12 of the TEI Guidelines (P4); see <http://www.te
i-c.org/P4X/DI.html> .
5. Greenstone is open source software for building and distributing
digital library collections, produced by the New Zealand Digital
Library Project at the University of Waikato, and developed and
distributed in cooperation with UNESCO and the Human Info
NGO. See <http://www.greenstone.org> .
6. Commission on Preservation and Access (CPA) and Research
Library Group (RLG). Preserving Digital Information: Report of
the Task Force on Archiving of Digital Information. May 1996.
Online at <http://www.rlg.org/legacy/ftpd/pub/
archtf/final-report.pdf> .
7. Fedora™ Flexible and Extensible Digital Object Repository
Architecture -- is an open source digital repository management
system, developed by Cornell University and the University of
Virginia, available at <http://www.fedora.info> .
8. A SIP is ""an information package that is delivered by the producer
[of a digital object] to the OAIS for use in the construction of one
or more AIPs [Archival Information Packages]."" See ""OAIS
Terms"". Digital Preservation Management: Implementing
Short-term Strategies for Long-term Problems. Cornell University
Library. 2003. Online at <http://www.library.cornel
l.edu/iris/dpworkshop/working/terminology/o
ais.html> . See also, Consultative Committee for Space Data
Systems (CCSDS). Reference Model for an Open Archival
Information System OAIS). CCSDS 650.0-B-1. ISO 14721:2003.
January 2002. Online at <http://ssdoo.gsfc.nasa.go
v/nost/wwwclassic/documents/pdf/CCSDS-650.0
-B-1.pdf> . 9. METS is maintained in the Network Development and MARC
Standards Office of the Library of Congress, and is being
developed as an initiative of the Digital Library Federation. See
<http://www.loc.gov/standards/mets> .
Bibliography
The Center for Research on Tibet's Web Site. Accessed
2005-03-29. <http://www.case.edu/affil/tibet
/index.htm>
""Chapter 11: Transcriptions of Speech."" TEI Guidelines (P4).
Text-Encoding Initiative. Accessed 2005-03-29. <http://
www.tei-c.org/P4X/TS.html>
""Chapter 12: Print Dictionaries."" TEI Guidelines (P4).
Text-Encoding Initiative. Accessed 2005-03-29. <http://
www.tei-c.org/P4X/DI.html>
Fedora. Cornell University and the University of Virginia.
Accessed 2005-03-29. <http://www.fedora.info>
Greenstone. University of Waikato. Accessed 2004-07-16. <h
ttp://www.greenstone.org>
METS. Digital Library Federation. Accessed 2005-01-25. <h
ttp://www.loc.gov/standards/mets>
""OAIS Terms."" Digital Preservation Management:
Implementing Short-term Strategies for Long-term Problems.
Cornell University Library. Accessed 2005-03-29. <http:/
/www.library.cornell.edu/iris/dpworkshop/
working/terminology/oais.html>
Reference Model for an Open Archival Information System
(OAIS). CCSDS Secretariat. Accessed 2002-01. <http://
ssdoo.gsfc.nasa.gov/nost/wwwclassic/docum
ents/pdf/CCSDS-650.0-B-1.pdf>
Waters, Donald, and John Garrett. Preserving Digital
Information: Report of the Task Force on Archiving of Digital
Information. Accessed 2005-03-29. <http://www.rlg.
org/legacy/ftpd/pub/archtf/final-report.p
df>","txt","2","",""
"464","6","DocScapes: Visualizing Document Structures with SVG","1","The task of searching for and browsing documents online
can be a frustrating one. Documents in search results are
typically treated as atomic units rather than structured
collections of information. This paper proposes some ideas for
enhancing search and browsing by producing graphical
'document-scapes' that summarize document characteristics
and provide links into the content of documents. The advantage
of this type of summary is that it can compensate for some of
the visual cues (available when browsing bookshelves) that are
lost in the digital environment. It is possible to visually
summarize document size, structure, density, and the presence
of metadata in such a way that users will be able to tell, at a
glance, the difference between (for example) an interview and
a monograph, or a play and a catalog. The work in this paper
focuses on a particular vocabulary of document markup, TEI,
and a particular collection, Documenting the American South
at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill ( <http:/
/docsouth.unc.edu> .
A great deal of work has been done on the visualization of
collections and search results (see <http://www.cs.umd
.edu/hcil/research/visualization.shtml> for
a summary of online material). There is, however, a remarkable
paucity of scholarship focusing on the visualization of
documents themselves. No doubt this has to do with the
difficulties of dealing with heterogeneous collections.
Comparing the varying structures of text, XML, and PDF
documents, for example, might not be an especially useful
exercise. The technique discussed in this paper can easily be
applied to relatively homogeneous collections of XML
documents, however, and could in theory be generalized to
other document types.
The techniques used in this project are relatively simple.
Essentially, what is involved is the transformation of XML
from one vocabulary to another; in this case TEI to SVG.
Scalable Vector Graphics is an XML application that allows
for the representation of vector graphics in an XML format.
This means that the structure of a document in, for example,
TEI, can be turned into an image via the same processes used
to display the document in HTML or to covert it to PDF for
printing. Since other document formats can be parsed to
generate SAX (Simple API for XML) events, they too could be fed into an XML processing pipeline and turned into
DocScape images.
There are a number of variables which may be used to
distinguish documents marked up in TEI without recourse to
semantic distinctions like subject vocabularies. Since TEI
documents are subdivided by division (<div>, <divN>,
<front>, <back>, etc.), each document has its own internal
structure. Different types of document may have very different
internal structures. For example, a dictionary will consist of a
set of entries (<entry> tags) inside its divisions while a
monograph will contain chapters, sections, and paragraphs
(<p>). The relative size and structure of nested divisions can
be represented graphically in a fairly compact space. Differing
types of content, on the other hand, can be represented using
color.
TEI documents also differ in size (obviously) and this can be
an important metric. Size can be represented visually in a
number of ways. DocSouth's collection varies widely in terms
of absolute size, from short pamphlets to large books and
government documents (up to 800 pages in length). The
representation of relative size must therefore be considered
quite carefully. The first iteration of DocScapes did this using
border thickness. A pixel was added to the border width for
each 100 pages. This sort of scale does not help in handling the
important distinction between the moderately sized (10-50
page) document, and the very short (1-2 pages), a distinction
which encompasses important differences of genre. The next
generation of DocScapes will use more complex SVG
capabilities, such as drop shadows to indicate relative size.
Another important metric is the relative size and complexity
of the TEI Header metadata. DocSouth, whose documents are
largely derived from catalogued library holdings, has very
detailed and thorough header information. By contrast, a TEI
document that was 'born digital' might have fairly minimal
metadata. A visual distinction of different levels of metadata
density will be useful for collection managers and searchers
alike.
A DocScape image is composed of the elements outlined above:
the document itself, any header metadata and structural
container elements (e.g. <div>s in TEI, <section>s in
DocBook, etc). The four TEI Header sections are represented
by blocks of color at the top of the image. The nested divisions
are visualized as nested blocks, moving first left-to-right then
top-to-bottom, and so on. The nested blocks start from different
ends of the light/dark scale, so top-level containers are light
green, then their children are dark green, etc. In addition, the
image attempts to quantify the number of paragraphs per page
or section using color saturation. The relative size of the
document is indicated by the border thickness of the entire
image (see figures 1 and 2).
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 1 provides a nice example of a document with a very
heterogeneous internal structure. The first section is a catalog,
with many nested TEI <div>s, while the following divisions
are more narrative in nature. Figure 2, on the other hand,
represents an interview. The more densely packed paragraph
structure in this document is represented by the lighter shade
of green in the nested sections.
In addition to these basic elements, it is possible to use the
capabilities of SVG to group many documents on a single page
and dynamically zoom into the ones that are of interest. The
document sections may also be linked to the documents
themselves, so that it is possible to drill into the texts from their
visual representations. Finally, it is possible to layer other
information, such as the occurrence of search terms onto the
documents. Figure 3 is an example of a DocScape with personal
names, locations, and dates plotted on the image surface. My
paper will outline the techniques and principles involved in
developing DocScape visualizations and will discuss ways in
which they may be used in digital libraries as a means to browse
textual content. Bibliography
Börner, K. ""Extracting and Visualizing Semantic Structures in
Retrieval Results for Browsing."" Proceedings of the fifth ACM
Conference on Digital Libraries. 2000. 234-235.
Campeseto, O. Fundamentals of SVG Programming: Concepts
to Source Code. Hingham, MA: Charles River Media, Inc.,
2003.
Clark, James. Transformations (XSLT), Version 1.0 (W3C
Recommendation). W3C, 1999. Accessed 2005-03-15. <htt
p://www.w3.org/TR/1999/REC-xslt-19991116>
Clark, James, and Steve DeRose. XML Path Language (XPath),
Version 1.0 (W3C Recommendation). W3C, 1999. Accessed
2005-03-15. <http://www.w3.org/TR/1999/REC-x
path-19991116>
Clark, James, Jun Fujisawa, and Dean Jackson. Scalable Vector
Graphics (SVG) 1.1 Specification (W3C Recommendation).
W3C, 2003. Accessed 2005-03-15. <http://www.w3.or
g/TR/2003/REC-SVG11-20030114>
Documenting the American South. University of North Carolina
at Chapel Hill. Accessed 2005-03-15. <http://docsout
h.unc.edu>
Hornbæk, K., and Erik Frøkjær. ""Reading Patterns and Usability
in Visualizations of Electronic Documents."" ACM Transactions
on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI) 10.2 (2003):
119-149.
Sperberg-McQueen, C.M., and L. Burnard, eds. TEI P4:
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Text
Encoding Initiative Consortium, 2002.
Venn, B. Add Interactivity to Your SVG. IBM developerWorks,
11 December 2003. Accessed 2005-03-15. <http://www-
106.ibm.com/developerworks/web/library/xsvgint/>
Visualization. Human-Computer Interaction Lab / University
of Maryland. Accessed 2005-03-15. <http://www.cs.u
md.edu/hcil/research/visualization.shtml>","txt","2","",""
"466","6","Reflexivity and Arts Informatics","1","Arts Informatics is a recently introduced cross-disciplinary
program at the University of Sydney. Students in this
undergraduate degree take a major in the Faculty of Arts, and
a major in Information Systems in the Department of
Information Science in the Faculty of Science. This paper
reports on the pedagogical and theoretical questions we are
facing in building this program. As an academic unit operating
as the intermediary between two faculties, we are the
articulation point between two different academic worlds. Our
approach is to read the Humanities as (cultural) technologies,
and to unpack the humanity (and social construction) of
information systems.
The Humanities has always been technological, even if that
hasn't always been acknowledged. Arts Informatics draws
heavily from the parts of the humanities tradition that do address
these questions, from Plato's famous critique of writing, to
Derrida's deconstruction and Marshall McLuhan's Gutenberg
galaxy. The recent literature in new media studies directly
addresses the implications of computers for knowledge and
cultural practices (Manovich; Barret and Redmond; Everett
and Caldwell; Wardrupp-Fruin and Montford).
In the other direction, social studies of technology offer the
Arts Informatics program resources to analyse the ways that
information technologies are embedded in wider cultural and
societal processes. Actor network theory's adaptation of
post-structural semiotics to technological change is particularly
useful in offering a symmetrical approach to the human and
non-human components in sociotechnical assemblages.
One of our central themes is the question of reflexivity.
Anywhere computer technologies participate in traditional
humanities practices (research, interpretation, textual
production, communication, teaching), necessarily means
qualitative transformations in that practice. The day-to-day
materiality of work itself changes. Knowledge is acquired,
handled, produced and communicated in different ways. As
Michael Heim's analysis of word processing (1987, 1993)
shows, computers are an additional component in daily
practices, not simply a potentially intelligent opponent. While
some of the claims behind the avante-garde experiments of
1990s hypertext theorists (Landow) seem somewhat overblown,
the growing role of the Internet in everyday teaching, publishing
and research over the past decade is incontrovertible. Of course this recent experience of technocultural change is
not exclusive to Humanities scholars and students. Our students
have recent experience with the web, electronic mail,
multiplayer computer games, DVD, SMS, digital television,
and new cinematic paradigms. Their familiarity with such
developments equips them to begin to understand the
interweaving of technological and cultural transformations.
Students are not as well equipped to deal with the cultural
differences between computer science and the humanities. The
Humanities critiques of science and technology (Heidegger;
Virilio; Coyne) are difficult to reconcile with scientific
conceptions of humanities practices (Holtzman). Each of these
areas places quite different, and often directly conflicting
discourses, techniques and systems of value. It is important to
acknowledge and investigate these differences. Even within
the Humanities, there are very contrasting models for integrating
new media technologies into teaching, theory and research.
Even outside these conflicts, teaching in this area seems to
demand constant revision and updating. The only thing that
changes more quickly than new media technologies themselves
are the concepts used to describe them. Terminology seems to
go in and out of fashion more quickly than new standards for
data storage. Terms such as virtual reality, multimedia,
hypertext, telepresence and artificial intelligence have
controversial histories. The conflicts surrounding these terms
have served to establish a vocabulary for discussing some of
the key cultural changes associated with technological change.
The challenge is to remain open to interdisciplinary and
transdisciplinary paradigms, while offering students a strong
enough grounding in traditional disciplines to have some
historical and epistemological orientation.
Bibliography
Barrett, Edward, and Marie Redmond. Contextual media.
Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1997.
Coyne, Richard. Technoromanticism. Digital narrative, holism,
and the romance of the real. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press,
1999.
Everett, Anna, and John T.Caldwell. New media: theories and
practices of digitextuality. New York and London: Routledge,
2003.
Heidegger, Martin. The question concerning technology, and
other essays. New York: Garland Pub, 1977.
Heim, Michael. Electric language: a philosophical study of
word processing. New Haven and London: Yale University
Press, 1987.
Heim, Michael. The metaphysics of virtual reality. New York
and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Holtzman, Steven R. Digital mantras. The languages of
abstract and virtual worlds. Cambridge, Mass. & London: MIT
Press, 1994.
Landow, George P. Hypertext. the convergence of
contemporary critical theory and technology. Baltimore &
London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1992.
Lister, Martin, Jon Dovey, Seth Giddings, Iain Grant, and
Kieran Kelly. New media: a critical introduction. London:
Routledge, 2003.
Manovich, Lev. The language of New Media. Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press, 2001.
McLuhan, Marshall. The Gutenberg galaxy. Toronto Buffalo
London: University of Toronto Press, 1962.
Poster, Mark. The second media age. Cambridge: Polity Press,
1995.
Virilio, Paul. Lost dimension. New York: Semiotext(e)
(Autonomedia), 1991.
Wardrip-Fruin, Noah, and Nick Montfort, eds. The New Media
Reader. Boston: The MIT Press, 2003.","txt","2","",""
"467","6","Laying that Damned Book Aside? Evaluating the Digital Doctor Faustus","1","Good Angel
O Faustus, lay that damned book aside,
And gaze not on it, lest it tempt thy soul,
And heap Gods heavy wrath upon thy head,
Read, read the scriptures, that is blasphemy.
Evil Angel
Go forward, Faustus, in that famous art,
Wherein all nature's treasury is contained:
Be thou on earth as Jove is in the sky,
Lord and commander of these elements. Exeunt.
(Act 1, Scene 1, Lines 69-76. The Perseus Project, Tragedie of
Doctor Faustus (B text) (ed. Hilary Binda))
I n her introduction to Electronic Text: Investigations in
Method and Theory, Kathryn Sutherland asks if there is
a real danger that the scholar-worker, toiling for years in the remote
regions of the library stacks in the hope of becoming expert in one
small field, will be transformed by the computer into the
technician, the nerdy navigator able to locate, transfer, and
appropriate at an ever faster rate expert entries from a larger set
of information that he/she no longer needs or desires to understand.
(Sutherland 10)
Her inquiry is based on an issue that still plagues many scholars:
with quick access to so much digitized information, how do
we evaluate what we still need and desire to understand? Of
course, her question implies that evaluating printed information
is an evaluation based on less access and therefore a smaller
set of information, and evaluating printed information is not
an uncomplicated issue; it is one which scholars reconsider
constantly. One such group--literary scholar-workers--may
spend years 'toiling' over similar versions of a printed text in
order to produce a single representative edition. In the case of
Christopher Marlowe's The Tragedie of Doctor Faustus, for
example, there is no extant manuscript, nine versions were
printed between 1604 and 1631, and the first appeared almost
nine years after Marlowe's death. Those that appeared in 1604,
1609, and 1611 are similar and are collectively known as the
A-text. The 1616, 1619, 1620, 1624, 1628, and 1631 versions
are also similar and known as the B-text. Which one should a
reader or scholar consult?
Remarkably different, the A- and B-texts have inspired an
extensive amount of critical commentary and scholarly editors
since W.W. Greg appear to agree on one thing: neither the Anor
the B-text is considered wholly representative of Marlowe's
original work. Still, scholars have attempted to represent what
one most needs and desires to understand in an edition of
Doctor Faustus. Evaluating a digital edition of Doctor Faustus
can not—and should not—be based on exactly the same process
even though it may be based on the same set of problems
inherent to the Doctor Faustus work. Standards by which one
may evaluate the digital Doctor Faustus are present in three
very different digital versions of the work: The Perseus Digital
Library edition ( <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu
/> ), Early English Books Online (EEBO-TCP) collection (
<http://eebo.chadwyck.com/home> , and the
Versioning Machine ( <http://mith2.umd.edu/prod
ucts/ver-mach/index.html> ) electronic publishing
environment.
To date, the two most critically important print editions of
Doctor Faustus are W.W. Greg's Marlowe's 'Doctor Faustus'
1604-1616: Parallel Texts (1950) and David Bevington and
Eric Rasmussen's Doctor Faustus A- and B-texts (1604, 1616)
published in 1993. Editors of print editions have sought to
ameliorate the Faustus copy-text problem by printing both the
A and B texts together in one volume. Greg lays out parallel
versions on facing pages while Bevington and Rasumussen
print the texts sequentially, A before B. Certainly, these print
editions still pose some editorial complexities. In order to
construct his facing-page arrangement, Greg had to
""compromise"" Marlowe's representation of the original plays.1
In the original printings, a scene that appears early in the first
act of the A text may not appear until much later in the B text,
but since Greg was attempting to show parallel versions of the
play, he moved those scenes to the same location in each play
to facilitate that comparison (Greg 151). Likewise, Rasmussen
and Bevington admit that while they ""try to give the A- and
B-texts straight,"" they ""do, to be sure, adopt a few B-text
readings in [their] A-text and vice-versa when corruption seems
unmistakable"" (Bevington and Rasmussen n. pag.). Both Greg
and Bevington claim they seek to represent each text as it was
""originally"" intended but the print medium requires that these
editors ""compromise"" their intentions.
Electronic versions of Doctor Faustus in EEBO-TCP and The
Perseus Project allow for types of research that may have been
unthinkable with traditional print resources. EEBO-TCP
provides greater access to the first printings of Doctor Faustus
with facsimiles and searchable text. Facsimiles of the original
printings allow users to see bibliographical codes that a
modernized printing or a digital transcription might otherwise fail to present. The Perseus edition edited by Hillary Binda
provides access to electronic tools for textual analysis. In
Binda's edition of Marlowe's Doctor Faustus the user may
compare Binda's modernized spellings with Greg's A- and
B-texts. The user also has access to one of Marlowe's primary
sources, The English Faust Book of 1592 by P. F. Gent. By
providing the user simultanesou access to both versions, Binda
fulfills her main objective, which is not to favor either version,
an advantage that is replicated in the EEBO-TCP experience
where the reader can choose to read any available printing in
any order.
While the EEBO-TCP and the Perseus editions facilitate a new
perspective of Doctor Faustus, they lack a level of editorial
annotation that print scholarly editions of Faustus have usually
included. Without annotations, unmediated facsimiles of
Renaissance texts like those offered by EEBO-TCP may be
considered misleading. As John Lavagnino points out, ""a
facsimile of an early edition may have more ‘errors' in it than
a modern reprint,"" but without the Renaissance reader's
""awareness of the degree of uncertainty in the text; our corrected
modern editions make it look like we're quite certain about
what the text is supposed to say"" (Lavagnino 67). The Perseus
edition is problematic for other reasons. Binda chooses Greg's
parallel edition ""as a model for linking lines, passages and
scenes between the two texts,"" but Binda also claims she does
not want to indicate a preference for the A- or B-texts (Binda
par. 14). Yet, as previously argued, Greg's paralleled version
(which provides the basis of her encoded text) evinces a clear
bias for B, making her claim untenable. Further, both projects
use the TEI XML encoding standard — a standard that requires
a substantial level of editorial decision-making, yet neither
EEBO-TCP or Perseus discuss these choices, thereby
abstracting another level of editorial influence. That basic
aspects of textuality engendered by text selection or metadata
encoding might not be declared by the editor of an electronic
Faustus appears to elide an adequate level of accountability.
The Versioning Machine is an environment that facilitates
displaying and comparing multiple versions of texts. The VM
environment could be particularly productive in examining the
Doctor Faustus text, because, as Schreibman notes, the text
may be ""freed from the spatial limitations of the codex” and
could provide readers with the “reconstruction of [the] text's
instantiations over time"" (Schreibman “Computer-mediated
texts” 291). Instead of simply providing access to facsimiles,
this environment could provide access to a new perspective on
the textuality of Doctor Faustus by including introductory
material and traditional annotations plus ""manipulatable images
of the witness to be viewed alongside the diplomatic edition""
(Schreibman The Versioning Machine 101). The VM
environment could also provide access to sequential or parallel
readings plus relevant images from first printings and
annotations that discuss pertinent editing issues.
Of course, the Versioning Machine—like other electronic
tools—is not without its limitations. For example, subtle
variations that appear on the printed page (such as font or case
changes, line numbers, act and scene numbers, etc.), must be
'hardcoded' or made explicit to the structure in the XML version,
an encoding practice that is not encouraged by the TEI standard.
Indeed, in order to elucidate editorial practices, the XML must
account for all variations—even seemingly of the most
diminutive significance—a cumbersome encoding process that
may or may not yield a critically productive result for the user.
Further, the encoding encouraged by the Versioning Machine
documentation ( ""parallel-segmentation"" ) yields the same
problems with Faustus that Greg faced; if a large section of
""parallel"" content appears in different locations in the text, the
Versioning Machine cannot currently facilitate the HTML
representation of that comparison (although changes in the
XSLT and CSS could possibly provide alternatives).
It is apparent that our duty as computing humanists is not to
evaluate which digital representation we may access or
'appropriate' most easily or which one might answer all our
questions about what we most need or desire. Certainly,
different scholars use different print versions as means for
different ends. Likewise, a scholar may use EEBO-TCP to
compare the bibliographic details of Doctor Faustus to one of
approximately 125,000 other contemporary artifacts or use the
very act of encoding an electronic version of Doctor Faustus
in the Versioning Machine to analyze limitations in editing
such different versions. The versions of Doctor Faustus that
appear in EEBO-TCP and the Perseus edition and the
relationship a scholar has with these texts in the Versioning
Machine are different—from print editions and from each
other—and they facilitate a different presentation of and
relationship to the work. These electronic versions of Doctor
Faustus should be evaluated on the goals their editors seek to
achieve, the particular audiences for which they are intended,
and the traditional modes of editorial accountability exemplified
by Bevington, Boas, Breymann, Greg, Hunter, and Rasmussen,
but they should also be evaluated in terms of the electronic
medium.
In conclusion, for digital versions, scholars who do more than
""locate, transfer, and appropriate at an ever faster rate expert
entries from larger set of information"" (Sutherland 10) in the
digital environment must rely on the same scholarly pursuits
as always: the desire to create new critical knowledge in the
field. This knowledge, for a Renaissance text with the particular
complexities inherent to Doctor Faustus, for example, may be
dependent on some traditional editorial practices. After all, a
tool like the Versioning Machine may provide access to
sequential or parallel readings, relevant images from first
printings, and annotations that discuss the editing issues at hand
in various sections, but the VM environment, like print, like all
electronic collections and editions, is limited in representing the Doctor Faustus work. For scholars the question is not shall
we listen to the good angel and lay that damned book aside or
listen to the bad angel and be lord and commander of these
elements. The choice, as we know the story goes, is not that
simple.
1. To maintain the parallel representation, Greg admits that he must
""compromise"" the ""typographical arrangement"" between the
quartos in order to facilitate ""the detailed comparison of the texts""
(Greg 151).
Bibliography
Bevington, David, and Eric Rasmussen, eds. The Federalist.
Cleveland: Meridian Books (The World Publishing Company),
1956.
Binda, Hillary. An Overview of this Electronic Doctor Faustus.
Accessed 2005-03-21. <http://www.perseus.tufts
.edu/Texts/faustus2.html>
Greg, W.W., ed. Marlowe's Doctor Faustus 1604-1616:
Parallel Texts. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950.
Lavagnino, John. ""Completeness and adequacy in text
encoding."" The Literary Text in the Digital Age. Ed. Richard
J. Finneran. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press,
1996.
Schreibman, Susan. ""Computer-mediated Texts and Textuality:
Theory and Practice."" A New Computer-Assisted Literary
Criticism? Special edition of Computers and the Humanities
36 (2002): 283-293.
Schreibman, Susan, Amit Kumar, and Jarom McDonald. ""The
Versioning Machine."" Literary and Linguistic Computing 18.1
(2003): 101-107.
Sutherland, Kathryn, ed. Electronic Text: Investigations in
Method and Theory. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997","txt","2","",""
"468","6","Text Modeling and Visualization with Network Graphs","1","As greater quantities of textual source material become
available to Humanities scholars, it becomes ever more
challenging to retrieve, explore and manage these text
collections (Lyman). Large, heterogeneous collections present
further difficulties in attempts to represent the text visually.
Metadata, particularly XML, is highly effective in adding
structure to these collections and therefore aids in the process
of locating and visually rendering the relationship between
documents. Nevertheless, the process of creating high-quality
metadata is both time-consuming and expensive, and this luxury
is not always available.
This presentation will describe a project that is investigating
and implementing statistical and graph-theoretic techniques for
identifying, classifying and representing the content of large
document collections in the absence of metadata. Models of
the collection can be displayed to show various types of
relationships between documents and their content, including
term-based concept maps across a set of texts, document
similarity measures or visualizations of the interaction among
the characters in a novel. Furthermore, this model allows users
to query the collection, in most cases with better recall and
precision than a full-text keyword search.
Constructing a Network Graph
The basis of these investigations is in the representation of
a document collection as a graph of interconnected nodes.
Each node corresponds to either a document or a term appearing
in the collection, and nodes are connected by edges according
to the frequency of their co-occurrence. The list of term nodes
is typically filtered to include only those grammatical
constructs, such as nouns and noun phrases, which tend to carry
more semantic information about the content of the document.
Documents nodes connect only to term nodes and term nodes
connect, likewise, only to document nodes. The connecting
edges are weighted by several factors, including term frequency
and a normalization for document size. Depending on the
analysis being conducted, term nodes can represent single
words, phrases, character names, locations, stylistic data or any combination thereof. Likewise, document nodes may represent
arbitrarily sized text blocks, from sentences to paragraphs to
entire book-length works.
The index derived from the text collection is similar to the
term-document matrix of a vector model, but it is interpreted
differently. For instance, when the collection is being explored
with natural language queries, it proceeds with a technique
called spreading activation (Preese). Each term in the graph
that appears in the search statement is initialized with an amount
of activation energy. This value is dispersed along each edge
according to the established weight of each connection, and
additional nodes are activated with the remaining energy. This
process repeats itself along the graph until the initial amount
of energy has been completely dispersed. Those nodes with the
highest energy levels at the end of this process are considered
most relevant to the query, and the results can be sorted
accordingly. The document nodes become the corresponding
result set while the activated term list can be used as relevance
feedback to the user: a guide to the semantic composition of
the result set (Search::ContextGraph).
This process will not only find documents containing the terms
in the query string, but also relevant documents in which the
search terms do not appear. In full-text keyword searches,
highly relevant documents that do not contain any of the search
terms are necessarily excluded. With a graph-based technique,
however, documents with many shared terms are considered
more closely related, and therefore, the process of traversing
the graph will mark those documents to be relevant even if they
do not contain any of the original search terms. In this way, the
query arctic would likely also return documents that contain
words such as polar, north, ice and tundra, but which happen
not to contain the term arctic. Relevance is determined based
on the overall measure of connectedness between nodes, rather
than whether a term exists in a document.
Visualization
The graph-based model of the text collection is also useful
in creating visualizations of document relationships. This
requires, first, the creation of a distance matrix representing
the degree of similarity between nodes, and second, the scaling
of the matrix to two dimensions. The distance matrix is
calculated by conducting traversals of the graph networks, either
with a breadth-first algorithm or (in order to save processing
time) a random walk of the graph. Then, in order to scale the
graph structure to display on a screen, the system identifies
smaller clusters of nodes, each of which is mapped to a reduced
dimensional space. This technique of locally linear embedding
tends to preserve the general structure of both local and global
clusters of nodes from the original graph (Saul).
When the network of terms and documents are clustered in a
reduced dimensional space, they can be rendered in a browser
window, showing the relative similarity among nodes. This
particular system will output a vector graphic map (SVG), and
a user can both view and interact with the graph.
This technique has proved useful in several experiments to
display the relationship and interaction among characters in
literary texts. First, proper names are extracted with a
part-of-speech tagger (Lingua::EN::Tagger); in the absence of
metadata, variant forms can be combined during an interactive
step. Term nodes, in this case, represent character names, while
document nodes consist of either individual paragraphs or a
window of adjacent paragraphs: the number of paragraphs in
each 'window' typically ranges from one to three. Interaction
between characters is based on the frequency in which
individuals are named, and the strength of that connection is
reflected in both the proximity of the respective terms and the
strength of the connecting edge. In the attached example from
Master and Margarita by Mikhail Bulgakov, the characters
with greater amounts of interaction are clustered accordingly
(see Figure 1). This type of visualization can also allow users
not only to view the relationship among characters in a text,
but also to provide clickable access to the very interactions to
which the model refers. Resolving anaphora, however, remains
a major challenge in assessing a truly accurate measure of
character interaction.
Figure 1
These models of text collections show promise in representing
both content and stylistic similarity among texts. Furthermore,
the ability to quickly and accurately search a collection of texts
shows many advantages over a full-text search. In the absence of metadata, this approach may provide a useful first step in
navigating and managing any sufficiently large text collection.
Bibliography
Bulgakov, Mikhail. Master and Margarita. n.p.: Penguin
Classics, 2001.
Lingua::EN::Tagger (Perl Module). Accessed 2005-04-07.
<http://search.cpan.org/~acoburn/Lingua-E
N-Tagger-0.11/>
Lyman, Peter, and Hal R. Varian. How Much Information.
SIMS, University of California, Berkeley. Accessed
2005-04-07. <http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/ho
w-much-info-2003>
Preese, Scott. A Spreading Activation Model for Information
Retrieval. Ph.D. thesis, University of Illinois, 1981.
Saul, Lawrence, and Sam Roweis. An Introduction to Locally
Linear Embedding. Accessed 2004-06-30. <http://www.
cs.toronto.edu/~roweis/lle/papers/lleintr
oa4.pdf>
Search::ContextGraph (Perl Module). Accessed 2005-04-07.
<http://search.cpan.org/~mceglows/Search-
ContextGraph-0.15/>","txt","2","",""
"469","6","In the Philosophy Room: Australian Realism and the Digital Content Object","1","The recent digitisation of the papers and lecture notes of
the Australian realist philosopher, Challis Professor of
Philosophy John Anderson, has given us cause to reflect upon,
on the one hand, the suitability of the TEI model for encoding
digital documents and, on the other, the possibility that
Anderson's philosophy itself may be relevant to some of the
issues and debates in contemporary markup theory and
practice.1 The claim here is not that Anderson himself
addressed, much less solved, the challenges we face in the
construction of digital content, but that in our current situation
reflection on ontological matters in this way may enlighten our
thinking about the nature of the digital object and its descriptive
encoding. We have come to think that the philosophical issues
to be explored through this inquiry have a bearing on many of
the more immediate empirical questions that we have previously
raised. In this paper we seek to bring the philosophical debate
to the fore. In an earlier presentation opening our case for the
use of TEI in the description of digital library materials (Scifleet
et al.), we argued that the collection and evaluation of
information relating to actual markup practice from various
institutions and research projects over time would further our
understanding of difficult theoretical issues relating to the digital
content object. The current paper extends this project to
questions implicit in the TEI encoder’s task of representing the
text, which is increasingly seen to be a surprisingly problematic
ambition. Our paper aims to contribute to philosophical debates
of TEI encoding that have appeared in the work of a number
of the leading theorists and practitioners in the field over the
past decade.
Our study includes a brief review of debates on TEI ranging
from McGann to Renear.2 The trajectory of these debates
suggests we may no longer be in the “progressive research
program” that we had imagined. Many of the criticisms made
of the ordered hierarchical model for encoding humanities texts
have made an impression. On the other hand, criticisms from
literary scholars of the descriptive encoding model are not warranted in asserting the purely interpretive or constitutive
nature of the encoder’s task. Although the notion of representing
the text in digital form is unclear, descriptive encoding is not
interpretation all the way down. Textual features identified by
our markup practices do have a reality independent of our
thinking so and we do seem to be recording real and significant
features in our assignment of tags to the digital content
object. Nonetheless, there are real problems in practice in
digitising materials such as the Anderson lecture notes and our
project is driven by a desire to work some conceptual confusions
through in a theoretically satisfying manner. Encoding is not
a simple matter of reading off or copying textual features
waiting to be recorded in digital form, for determinations about
the nature of an object must be made. There seems to us to be
a clear need for more information and guidance based on
analysis and evaluation of actual markup practices over time. In
place of this kind of guidance and engagement with real models,
TEI proponents are left to gauge the extent to which they have
failed to represent some ideal abstract object through resort to
“tag abuse"" and other coping mechanisms.
John Anderson is generally recognised as the most original and
important philosopher to have worked in Australia. Between
1927 and 1958 he lectured in the Philosophy Room at the
University of Sydney. His lecture notes in the Archives are
acknowledged to be amongst our most important records of his
philosophical thinking. Anderson developed a systematic
realism which fostered a tradition of thinking about properties,
qualities and relations which would seem to us to have some
relevance to the encoder’s world of elements, attributes and
structural relations. Many of the recent debates on TEI and the
descriptive encoding model have centred on our understanding
of these seemingly intuitive concepts and the hierarchical
structures they commit us to. We think that Anderson's
insistence upon ontological seriousness and objective inquiry
may help to illuminate many of the assertions about TEI's role
in representing the text and that our problems may be clarified
by establishing more clearly the ontological commitments of
the various disputants. It would not surprise us to find that much
of our conceptual thinking about these issues has been
insufficiently critical in Anderson's sense.
In this paper we examine many of the current debates in the
light of our understanding of Anderson’s work: issues relating
to the reality of the text; the descriptive and prescriptive
distinction manifest in markup; whether identifying textual
features is really an imposition upon the text and what this view
might commit us to; whether TEI's acceptance of the markup
language model leaves it unable to adequately represent
imaginative, materially inscribed documents, as opposed to
purely informational manuals and so forth. It is easy to take a
distanced view of these issues and assume they don't directly
affect the practice of encoding either in the digital library or
the scholarly editing environments. However, the peculiar
nature of the TEI use of markup does seem to consistently raise
issues we thought had been resolved, or which seemed to
present no real constraint on practice. There is evidently some
room for conceptual clarification here and it is possible that we
have something to learn by adopting an attitude of ""ontological
seriousness"" in relation to how we think about our markup
practices. In that case, there may be some value in considering
the lessons of an older philosophical tradition as practiced in
John Anderson’s Philosophy Room.
1. The John Anderson Papers at the University of Sydney Library
<http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/oztexts/a
nderson.html/>
2. Renear; Buzzetti; Caton; McGann; Huitfeldt; De Rose et al.; and
Barwell et al.
Bibliography
Barwell, Grahame, Chris Tiffen, Phil Berry, and Paul Eggert.
""The Authenticated Electronic Editions Project."" Computing
Arts 2001: Digital Resources for Research in the Humanities.
Ed. Creagh Cole and Hugh Craig. Sydney: University of
Sydney, 2003. 114-122.
Buzzetti, Dino. ""Digital Representation and the Text Model.""
New Literary History 33 (2002): 61-88.
Caton, Paul. ""Markup's Current Imbalance."" Markup Theory
and Practice 3.1 (2001): 1-13.
DeRose, Steven J., David G. Durand, Elli Mylonas, and Allen
Renear. ""What is Text Really?"" Journal of Computing in
Higher Education 1.2 (1990): 3-26.
Huitfeldt, Claus. ""Multi Dimensional Texts in a One
Dimensional Medium."" Computers and the Humanities 28
(1995): 235-241.
The John Anderson Papers at the University of Sydney Library.
Accessed 2005-03-21. <http://setis.library.usy
d.edu.au/oztexts/anderson.html/>
McGann, Jerome. Radiant Textuality: Literature after the
World Wide Web. New York: Palgrave, 2001.
Renear, Allen. ""Out of Praxis: Three (Meta) Theories of
Textuality."" Electronic Text: Investigations in Method and
Theory. Ed. Kathryn Sutherland. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1997. 107-126.
Scifleet, Paul, Creagh Cole, and Connie Wilson. ""FRBR and
Markup Analysis: A Common Denominator for Discourse.""
Paper delivered at Computing Arts 2004, Newcastle Australia.
2004.","txt","2","",""
"470","6","Developing the Humanities HyperMedia Centre @ Acadia University","3","We propose a panel session of five speakers, one of whom
will act as chair also, to discuss the process of
implementing a new initiative in humanities computing, the
Humanities Hypermedia Centre, that has been under
development at Acadia University since the fall of 2002.
At Acadia all faculty and students are issued with the same
model of laptop computer outfitted with a common software
template in order to enhance networking capabilities and ensure
that all students have the opportunity to become proficient in
the use of that software. Through funding from the McConnell
Family Foundation, the Humanities HyperMedia Centre (HHC)
was implemented to ensure that humanities students in particular
were given opportunities to create their own new media projects
and publish them in a dedicated database, the Acadia
Humanities HyperMedia Archive, or AhHa!
AhHa! will be a database of digital objects and new media
projects created primarily by Acadia students. It will give
students access to each other's work and provide them with
opportunities to contribute-and to know they are contributing-to
the creation of a substantial, verified, body of work. It will also
enable them to compile sophisticated examples of their own
work for display when they leave Acadia. AhHa! is designed
to allow faculty members to share teaching and research
material in a more efficient manner than has been available
previously.
It is the goal of the HHC to ensure that students graduate with
a firm grounding in the Arts and Humanities, as well as a high
level of information literacy and cutting edge skills in digital
communication.
We have learned - sometimes the hard way - that developing
and implementing a complex initiative involving six academic
units (Classics, English, History, Philosophy, the university
library system, and the Acadia Institute for Teaching
Technology-an in-house technological development office) is
a lengthy, challenging, and often surprising process. By the
time of the ACH/ALLC Conference some of the components
of the HHC will be up and running, whilst others will still be
awaiting their launch. We therefore intend to offer the panel
both to discuss the challenges we have faced, and the
discoveries we have made, as we evolved the project from
proposal stage to implementation, and also to solicit advice
from other teams that have undergone or are undertaking the
same process. Specifically we intend to address issues such as:
• The logistics of pedagogy - how do we assure program
viability by gaining long-term financial and teaching
commitments from teaching units, support units, and
administration?
• The pitfalls of program development - unforeseen problems
in proposing, developing, and setting up the administrative
support for a new Multidisciplinary Minor in Hypermedia.
• Factors that contribute to the robustness of a program such
as the HHC - and factors that contribute to its fragility. On
the positive side these can be long term financial
commitments from granting agencies; recognition from
administrative planning sectors that new, multidisciplinary
projects like HHC require a rethink of ""faculty
complement"", especially on a departmental basis; ongoing
technological support that ensures synergy between
pedagogy and technological development, both hardware
and software; and an administrative recognition that the
development of innovative projects such as HHC need to
be factored into the career review of those involved. On the
negative side, bureaucratic neglect, problems of working
within the short-term planning cycle common to most
universities (and especially to most university departments),
departmental parochialism and even outright
competitiveness, and unanticipated events - such as labour
actions or funding changes - can all affect the long-term
viability of a program, however agile its implementation.
• The impact of working on such a project for a group of
young, relatively junior and recently-appointed faculty
members and technical personnel.
We therefore propose to offer a panel consisting of four
members of the HHC team and a student who enrolled in both
of the first two courses offered by the HHC. Each of the team
members will discuss the process of development and implementation from a different perspective, while our student
will offer observations on the challenges and rewards of
participating in the HHC.
Richard Cunningham: The team leader and point-person
whose name is most closely associated with the program
university-wide. His presentation will focus on the senior liaison
aspects of the program, both with administration and with
component departments and non-academic partners.
David Duke: A team member who has been active primarily
on the pedagogical side of the program. His presentation will
focus on the pressures of developing a ""non-departmental""
offering, and will discuss the opportunities inherent in this
particular multidisciplinary project.
John Eustace: A team member who was particularly active in
the early phase of the program, John left on a year-long
sabbatical and has returned to continue his association with the
project. His absence and return allows for a unique perspective
from an ""outsider-insider"" who can comment on the nature of
progress in a project such as this.
Anna Galway: A student in Sixteenth-century Literature and
in Twentieth-century English Literature and Culture, the first
two classes to be offered as HHC courses, will speak to the
experience of learning to create hypertextual documents and
submit them to a database still undergoing beta-testing.
Erin Patterson: A team member who has been active on both
the pedagogical and technical sides of the project, whose
background is not classroom-based but library science. Her
presentation will cover the opportunities and pitfalls inherent
in involving a university sector that has been traditionally
ancillary to the direct pedagogical or curriculum development
sectors of the university.","txt","2","",""
"471","6","Using Ancillary Text to Index Web-Based Multimedia Objects","1","PériCulture is the name of a research project at the Université
de Montréal which is part of a larger project based at the
Université de Sherbrooke. The parent project aimed to form a
research network for managing Canadian digital cultural
content. The project was financed by Canadian Heritage and
was conducted during the fiscal year 2003-2004. PériCulture
takes its name from péritexte and culture, péritexte being one
of a number of terms used (in French, our working language)
to mean ancillary text associated with images and sound. It is
a sister project to DigiCulture, another part of the same larger
research project which studied user behaviours in interactions
with Canadian digital cultural content. The general research
objective of PériCulture was to study indexing methods for
Web-based nontextual cultural content, specifically still images,
video, and sound. Specific objectives included:
1. identifying properties of ancillary text useful for indexing;
2. comparing various combinations of these properties in terms
of performance in retrieval;
3. contributing to the development of bilingual and
multilingual searching environments;
4. developing retrieval strategies using ancillary text and
synonyms of useful terms found therein.
In computer science, research into indexing images and sound
focuses on the low-level approach, performing statistical
manipulations on primitives in order to identify semantic
content. This approach is also referred to as the 'content-based
approach' (e.g. Gupta and Jain, Lew). In information science,
research into indexing images and sound focuses on associating
textual information with the nontextual elements, and this often
involves manipulating ancillary text. This approach is referred
to as the 'high-level' or 'concept-based approach' (e.g.
Rasmussen, O'Connor, O'Connor, and Abbas). A number of
factors militate in favour of automating the high-level approach
as much as possible. These include the very large volume of
Web-based materials available, the disparity among cataloguing
and indexing methods from one collection to another, and the
high cost and relative inconsistency of human indexing. Our work in this project focuses on text associated with
Web-based still images, and builds on previous work in this
area of information science (e.g. Goodrum and Spink,
Jörgensen, Jörgensen et al., Turner and Hudon). We identified
a number of Web sites that met our criteria, i.e., that contained
multimedia objects, that had text associated with these objects
that was broader than file names and captions, that were
bilingual (English and French), and that housed Canadian digital
cultural content. We identified keywords that were useful in
indexing and studied their proximity to the object described.
We looked at indexing information contained in the Meta and
Alt tags, and whether other tags contained useful indexing
terms. We studied whether standards such as the Dublin Core
were used. We identified Web-based resources for gathering
synonyms for the keywords.
Our study found that a large number of useful indexing terms
are available in the ancillary text of many Web sites with
cultural content. We evaluated various types of ancillary text
as to their usefulness in retrieval. Our results suggest that these
terms can be manipulated in a number of ways in automated
retrieval systems to improve search results. Cross-language
comparison of the results reinforces our previous research
results, which suggest that indexing in other languages can be
generated automatically from a single language using
Web-based tools.
Rich information that can be used for retrieval is available in
many places on Web sites with cultural content, from the file
name to explicit information in captions to descriptive
information in surrounding text to the contents of various
HTML tags. Algorithms need to be developed to exploit this
information in order to improve retrieval.
Finally, we feel that our work is useful because of the synergy
created by the approaches we use. We are both interested in
image indexing, but come from different fields. Lyne Da Sylva's
expertise is in linguistics and James Turner's in information
science. By working together, we are able to pool our
knowledge and develop richer methods than would otherwise
be available to either of us for approaching the question of
automating indexing for images and other multimedia objects.
Bibliography
Goodrum, A., and A. Spink. ""Image searching on the Excite
web search engine."" Information Processing and Management
27.2 (2001): 295-312.
Gupta, A., and Ramesh C. Jain. "" Visual information retrieval.""
Communications of the ACM 40.5 (71-79): 71-79.
Jörgensen, Corinne. Image attributes: an investigation. PhD
thesis, Syracuse University, 1995.
Jörgensen, Corinne. ""Image attributes in describing tasks: an
investigation."" Information Processing and Management
34.2/3 (1998): 161-174.
Jörgensen, Corinne, Alejandro Jaimes, Ana B. Benitez, and
Shih-Fu Chang. ""A conceptual framework and empirical
research for classifying visual descriptors."" Journal of the
American Society for Information Science and Technology
(JASIST) 52.11 (2001): 938-947.
Lew, Michael S. Principles of visual information retrieval.
New York: Springer, 2001.
O'Connor, Brian C., Mary K. O'Connor, and June M. Abbas.
""User reactions as access mechanism: an exploration based
upon captions for images."" Journal of the American Society
for Information Science 50.8 (1999): 681-697.
Rasmussen, Edie M. ""Indexing images."" Annual Review of
Information Science and Technology 32 (2004): 169-196.
Turner, James M., and Michèle Hudon. ""Multilingual metadata
for moving image databases: preliminary results.""
L'avancement du savoir : élargir les horizons des sciences de
l'information, Travaux du 30e congrès annuel de l'Association
canadienne des scicnces de l'information. Ed. Lynne C.
Howarth, Christopher Cronin and Anna T. Slawek. Toronto,
2002. 34-45.","txt","2","",""
"472","6","A la Carte Schema: A Case Study Comparison of the Application of DTDs and XML Schema to the Carte Calendar Project Template","1","Introduction
This proposal describes research which compares the
validation capabilities of conventional DTDs and XSD
Schemas using the Carte Calendar Project template of the
Oxford Digital Library (ODL) as a case study.
The Carte Calendar is a manuscript consisting of 75 volumes,
cataloguing political papers on English and Irish history of the
17th century, originally collected and put together in
chronological order by Thomas Carte, and converted into
Library records by the Librarian Edward Edwards in the 19th
century. The ODL is in the process of creating a digital record
of Edwards’ catalogue of Carte’s collection, covering the period
between 1660 and 1688, converting about 17,500 individual
manuscript pages into XML-encoded transcripts using an
EAD-DTD (1998) based transcription template.
The manuscript contains structured data which is repeated on
almost every page, such as the shelf-mark, the unit-date, a
document number, and a page number, as indicated by the
keying sample below, showing the content of the
<unittitle> element.
<!--shelfmark-->
<unitid type=""shelfmark"">MS. Carte 45,
fol(s). 67</unitid>
<!--document number-->
<unitid type=""docno"">34</unitid>
<!--pencil page number-->
<unitid type=""page"">451</unitid>
<!--red number-->
<unitid type=""redno"">?</unitid>
<unitdate> 22 May 1661</unitdate>
<physdesc>
<genreform>Holograph</genreform>
</physdesc>
These data-fields lend themselves well to the application of
user-defined data-types, which Schema language can facilitate,
thus making possible the automated verification of the data.
At any one time four freelance keying operators with varying
levels of experience and three permanent staff might be working
on the transcription of the project. Consistency of data entry is
an ongoing concern, as it requires not only familiarity with the
author’s 19th century hand-writing and the subject matter, but
also a good knowledge of the historical background.
The aim of this research was therefore to test whether the use
of XML Schema could help to improve the accuracy of data
entry by introducing stricter validation constraints than are
mandated by the EAD-DTD. It will highlight some of the
benefits of Schema definition language for the document type
definition of the Carte template, compared to conventional
DTD syntax. It will also consider whether the adoption of
Schema based document type definitions is easily achievable
for users of encoding standards such as EAD and TEI, who
may have little prior knowledge of Schema.
This research is particularly timely, since in June 2004, Daniel
Pitti announced that work was about to begin on developing
one or more official EAD schemas (Pitti, 2004), as it provides
a case study of how such a Schema might work in practice, and
could inform work on the much broader EAD schema standard.
Methodology
The researcher analysed the predefined element structure
of the Carte project, keying template and the intellectual
content provided by the Carte Manuscript to determine areas
which would potentially benefit from the addition of Schema
definitions, by restricting allowable (valid) data-input and
element/attribute use. A template-specific DTD was then created
based on SGML/EBNF syntax, containing specifications for
only those elements/attributes of the EAD standard used in the
template. Although significant changes to the original tag-set
of the template were avoided in order to remain backward
compatible with the original EAD-DTD, some alterations had
to be made so that the addition of Schema’s data-typing
capabilities could later be facilitated.
The 'bespoke' DTD applied much stricter definitions than the
original EAD-DTD with regards to the use of allowable
elements/attributes in the template, the number of occurrences
and their possible location within the document. This allows
for stricter validation of the document structure and content, providing more rigid constraints for keying staff, whose
objective is to produce a valid document following the entry
of data.
The new DTD was converted into XSD Schema language using
XML editing software; oXygen XML editor 4.2 and Altova’s
XMLSPY 2004 Enterprise Edition (XMLSPY v2004 rel. 4 U).
These specific tools were chosen because other packages such
as the XMetal Home Edition (version 2004) provided limited
support for XSD files which contain, for instance, multiple
namespaces.
With the aim of applying even stricter rules to the allowable
elements/attributes of the template’s metadata structure, the
researcher then introduced more rigid input data specifications
to the resulting Schema file, facilitated by the additional
capabilities of Schema definition 'language', which goes well
beyond the potential of conventional DTDs. Further, in order
to explore the benefits of the inbuilt namespace support Schema
offers, two additional Schema files were created and associated
with the main Schema using the <xs:import> element.
Findings
Use of the new DTD
The new project-specific DTD ensured a higher level of
uniformity in structure and data entry verification. It did so by
stipulating, where possible, the order and number of occurrences
of EAD elements used in the template, as well as by specifying
the requirement of all the attributes and possible attribute values.
It also eliminated the very imprecise and inflexible definition
structure of mixed content specifications, determined by the
underlying syntax of conventional DTDs. This project-specific
DTD should, however, only be used for the validation stage of
the project. To assure interoperability and compatibility with
other projects, such as its inclusion in the A2A (Access to
Archives – <http://www.a2a.org.uk> ) records, the
instance document must remain backward compatible with the
official EAD-DTD standard. Thus the more generic DTD file
must be associated with the template again after the
proofreading process.
Benefits of Schema
The Schema allowed for the use of data-typing to increase the
control over data entry by applying stricter validation
parameters to the instance document. For example, when a
user-defined global simple type specification such as ‘content’
(see the ‘content’ type definition below) is included in the
element definition of, for example <geogname>, it ensures
that an element must have content.
The user-defined type definition 'content':
<xs:simpleType name=""content"">
<xs:restriction base=""xs:string"">
<xs:pattern
value=""([a-zA-Z?{$])+(.)*""></xs:pattern>
</xs:restriction>
</xs:simpleType>
This is not enforceable using DTD syntax, which allows the
user either to define empty elements or to specify parsable
character data (#PCDATA), which includes whitespace. The
inclusion of the 'content' datatype in an element's content model
will make sure that — should a transcriber forget to enter data
for the element in question — validation against the Schema
produces an error message pointing at the element’s location
in the instance document.
Further benefits were highlighted by the use of namespaces,
which can help to avoid potential ambiguity problems,
particularly where document exchange and integration is
concerned. Schema allows the user to declare different
namespaces, which can then be applied to individual element
declarations, and thus used to differentiate between the varying
element content models of the same element. In the Carte
Template, for example, the <num> element has four different
instances. This ambiguity was resolved by making use of
additional namespaces for three of the four <num> elements.
Where different names describe the same set of data, Schema
offers document authors the opportunity to define substitution
groups which allow for increased compatibility of different
instance documents. In the case of the Carte project this occurs
with regard to <genreform> and <physfacet>, which
are both allowable child elements of <physdesc> according
to the original EAD-DTD.
On a more basic level, unlike DTD syntax, Schema does allow
for sequencing of child elements, in a mixed content element
model. Occurrence indicators for elements can be set much
more specifically through the use of numerical values ranging
from 0 to infinity, and global type definitions guarantee
re-usability of individual type definitions and element
declarations. All of these features proved useful in the Carte
case study, and will be described in the proposed paper.
Conclusion
The Schema-based keying template was tested by three
experienced encoders at SERS (Systems and Electronic
Resources Service). Their data-input would have validated
against the original EAD-DTD. However, on average 3-4 errors
were found by the oXygen 4.2 parser, pointing at entry format
inconsistencies. For example if the unitdate was entered as 1 January 1661 instead of 01 January 1661 (or 10 January 1661),
the validator highlighted the missing digit as an error, in
accordance with the pre-defined entry parameters provided by
the underlying Schema. Similarly, missing content for the
element <geogname> caused an error message (as the
Schema’s element declaration includes the global type 'content',
discussed above).
These specifications were incorporated in the Schema to make
sure that the encoder double checks the manuscript for such
data fields, and testing proved it had been successful.
Nevertheless a balance must be maintained between accuracy
and speed of transcription in the case of the Carte project.
Extensive data-typing of the shelfmark, docno,
pencilpage, redno and unitdate fields might cause
transcribers to spend more time trying to figure out which data
format creates a valid document than is spent with the actual
data input for each individual record.
The experimental DTD and resulting Schema have proved
successful in helping transcribers to avoid errors and improve
consistency. Yet despite the benefits of using Schema language
over DTD syntax for XML document declarations, its
complexity and to the untrained user’s eye rather complicated
element content modelling structure, underpinned by the W3C
standard recommendation, might discourage potential users
from trying to learn it. Nevertheless, this research has shown
that software already available can help users to make the
transition from DTD to Schema. While the needs of individual
projects must always be considered carefully, the case study
of the Carte project template shows that the benefits of Schema
use should be taken seriously, despite its complexity.
Bibliography
Costello, Roger L. XML Technologies Course, XML-Schemas:
A downloadable schema tutorial. xFront, 2003. Accessed
2005-02-27. <http://www.xfront.com/xml-schem
a.html>
Deitel, H.M., et al. XML: how to program. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000.
Encoded Archival Description. EAD Tag Library for Version
1.0. . Accessed 2005-03-21. <http://www.loc.gov/ea
d/tglib1998/>
LEADERS – Project (October 2001 to March 2004: Linking
EAD to Electronically Retrievable Sources). Accessed
2005-03-21. <http://www.ucl.ac.uk/leaders-pr
oject/>
Mertz, David. ""TEI - the Text Encoding Initiative"": An XML
dialect for archival and complex documents. September 4,
2003. Accessed 2005-02-27. <http://www-106.ibm.c
om/developerworks/library/x-matters30.htm
l>
Pitti, Daniel. EAD and W3C XML Schema. Cover Pages.
Accessed 2005-02-27. <http://xml.coverpages.or
g/ead.html>
Pitti, Daniel. Encoded Archival Description List
(EAD@LISTSERV.LOC.GOV), 4 June 2004. <http://l
istserv.loc.gov/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0406&L=e
ad&P=R605&D=0&I=-3>
Rahtz, Sebastian. Converting to schema: the TEI and Relax
NG. Text Encoding Initiative. Accessed 2005-03-21. <http
://www.tei-c.org.uk/Talks/xmleurope2002/>
Sperberg-McQueen, C.M., and Lou Burnard. Tel P4:
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Text
Encoding Initiative, 2001. Accessed 2005-02-27. <http://
www.tei-c.org/P4X>
Tennant, Roy, ed. XML in libraries. New York: Neal-Schuman
Publishers, Inc., 2002.
Thompson, Henry S. ""XML Schema types and equivalence
classes."" Paper presented at the XML Europe 2000 conference.
2000. Accessed 2005-02-27. <http://www.gca.org/p
apers/xmleurope2000/papers/s06-01.html>
Van der Vlist, Eric. Using W3C XML Schema. O'Reilly
xml.com. Accessed 2005-02-27. <http://www.xml.com
/pub/a/2000/11/29/schemas/part1.html?page
=1>
Watt, Andrew, and R. Allen Wyke. XML Schema Essentials
(e-book). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002.
Women Writers Project. ""Encoding Practice."" Rhode Island:
Brown University. Accessed 2005-02-27. <http://www.w
wp.brown.edu/encoding/research/NASSR/WWP.
html#Heading3>
Women Writers Project. ""Methodological Issues."" Rhode Island:
Brown University. Accessed 2005-02-27. <http://www.w
wp.brown.edu/encoding/research/NASSR/WWP.
html#Heading4>","txt","2","",""
"473","6","Modelling Complex Multimedia Relationships in the Humanities Computing Context: Are Dublin Core and FRBR up to the Task?","1","Introduction
It is now widely recognized that the creation, management,
and analysis of content other than text is extremely
important if the digital humanities are to deliver access to, and
provide an analytical purchase on, the full range of human
culture. However it is not clear to us whether the cataloguing
and classification systems for digital content are up to the task.
Difficulties in this area threaten to impede both the development
of tools and techniques — and the production of sound
theoretical results. In our paper we discuss some of these
problems, focusing on relationships amongst the various
cultural modes of expression. With the intention of convening
a larger discussion of how these confusions might be remedied,
we then propose directions for some clarification and
improvement. However, the larger issues here are not merely
terminological and resist any easy resolution.
The Problem
Within the humanities computing community it has been
a commonplace that while the emphasis on representing
and analyzing textual content may be understandable, it is
important to support the other kinds of content as well. We
agree. The 'digital humanities' must support the full range of
human cultural products: text, music, images, dance, cinema,
architecture, design, and so on. At present there are many
different research communities looking into the organization
of, and enhanced access to, these various modes of cultural
expression. There is a text retrieval community (see Baez-Yates
& Ribeiro-Neto), a growing music information retrieval
community (see Futrelle & Downie), an image retrieval
community (see Hsin-liang & Rasmussen), and so on.
Notwithstanding the real progress being made by each of these,
very astonishingly little work has yet been done to
comprehensively address the issue that each of these individual
modes of expression interact with each other in the ordinary
course of production, management and use, as well as how
formats at varying level of abstraction interact within a single
modality.
First, to illustrate how the modes of expression interact with
each other, let us consider the Othello corpus. An incomplete
inventory of the Othello corpus includes the novella by Giraldi
Cinthio (1565) ""upon which Shakespeare based his play""
(Hunt), Shakespeare's play (1604), the operas by Rossini (1816)
and Verdi (1887), Dvorak's concert overture, Op. 93 (1892),
and the ballet by Lubovitch (2002). If we are going to create a
digital humanities repository worthy of use by humanities
scholars and their students, it is incumbent on us to build a
system that can 'collocate', or gather up, all extant digital
representations of Othello: all recordings, all scores, all movies,
all choreographies, all libretti, all scripts, all set and costume
designs, all critiques, and so on. To aid in this collocation, we
need to clearly express the relationships between each of these
things at both the specific and generic levels. On the specific
level, we need to indicate that, for example, Othello
choreographic labanotation W is directly based on Othello
score X , which was specifically used in Othello movie Y ,
and also released in Othello soundtrack recording Z . On the
generic level, we need to indicate that all Othello scores have
some generic relationship to all Othello recordings, to all
Othello movies, etc. in such a way that explicates that the works
are all members of the Othello corpus.
Second, to illustrate interactions between formats within a
single mode, consider only the music mode of the Othello
corpus. For each musical realization there usually exists a
symbolic score and its individual parts. These symbolic
representations can, in turn, be represented in a variety of digital
formats: MusicXML, TIFF, Finale, etc. The aural aspect of the
music is represented in another variety of digital formats: WAV,
MP3, Ogg Vorbis, etc. Again, complex relationships exist
between the 'symbolic' and 'aural' representations at both the
specific (e.g., recording X used score Y) and generic levels (e.g.,
a 'fakebook' score used to generate different recordings of improvised renditions). Other potentially complex relationships
exist because many of these formats can be used to generate
the others. For example, a TIFF scan of the 'original' score can
be fed through an Optical Music Recognition (OMR) system
to create a MusicXML score file which can generate a MIDI
file which then can generate any of the audio file formats.
Further complicating matters, research is also underway to
'backwards' create scores from audio recordings which would
capture, symbolically, the nuances of a given performance (e.g.,
Plumbley et al.).
Standards for Expressing
Relationships Among and Within
Modes
There is, of course, a body of work — standards and related
research — within the cataloguing and classification
communities that holds some promise for supporting the
relationships described above. The Dublin Core (DC) is perhaps
the most widely used within the digital humanities. IFLA's
Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR)
is becoming increasingly important. Work by organizations
devoted to specific modalities such as the Federation
Internationale des Archives du Film (FIAF)1, and the
International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives
(IASA)2, as well as work by such researchers as Martha M.
Yee (moving pictures — see Yee), and Richard Smiraglia
(music — see Smiraglia), etc., are also contributing insights
and theory to this research domain.
Are We There Yet?
We have reviewed results from projects and analyses that
suggest there is still much work to do before the
functionality envisaged above is a reality. Here we describe
one such project that attempts to use FRBR and the DC to
support inter- and intra-modal relationships. The DC does in
fact hold the most promise for representing these relationships
in a way that enables computer supported exploitation for
retrieval, navigation, analysis, and so on.
Ayres describes a project at MusicAustralia to use FRBR and
DC to create a digital repository that explicates the complex
relationships between the works, expressions, manifestations
and items of a collection of music and lyrics found that:
The DC.Relation element can be used to display and support
navigation between items with flat, horizontal relationships [i.e.,
inter-modal relationships like those between some music and its
text]. However, the kinds of relationships MusicAustralia wants
to expose are a combination of vertical [i.e., intra-modal
relationships like those between a score and its recording] and
horizontal relationships, and rely heavily on abstract but well
understood and demonstrable concepts of the Work and the
Expression or version. At this stage, DC does not offer support
exposure of navigational pathways that explicitly acknowledge
both vertical and horizontal relationships. [Bracketed injections
are ours.]
Indeed, a close look at Dublin Core format and type elements
suggests that the level of precision, and subtlety required is
probably not yet available there. For instance the DC type
vocabulary includes such disparate things as 'sound', 'text'
and 'physical object', and examples for 'sound' include
'music playback file format' and 'an audio
compact disc' (DCMI Usage Board).
Next Steps: Exploring Ayres' Open
Questions
Because the work of Ayres and her colleagues represents
the most thorough examination of the combination of
FRBR modelling and Dublin Core encoding to build a
comprehensive multimodal repository, we are taking it as the
starting point for our present work. The Ayres study uncovers
a series of unresolved open questions associated with FRBR
and the modelling of real-world multimodal information. In
the Ayres case, the two modes are music (i.e., scores,
recordings, etc.) and text (i.e., lyrics, poems, etc.). These two
modes come together to create what we commonly consider to
be 'songs'. To paraphrase Ayre's first open question:
1. Should we model as the primary work:
(a) the music;
(b) the text; or,
(c) the combination of text and music?
Ayres clearly illustrates that each modelling approach above
clarifies a specific set of relationships between the music
compositions and the texts while at the same time obscuring
other relationships. The examination of this question has
implications beyond the simpler music-text modelling case.
For example, what are the implications when we attempt to
model more complex cases (e.g., the Othello corpus, a
Hollywood musical, etc.) with their exponentially growing
relationships between text (novellas, plays, libretti, etc), music
(i.e., notations, recordings, etc.), choreography (i.e., notations,
video), and so on? Our paper examines this very question. We
also explore the broader ramifications of Ayre's three related
subsidiary open questions:
2. Should all notated and performed expressions of music [or
dance, or text, etc.] be modelled as a single expression
category? 3. Should expressions themselves be further modelled to
include sub-categories for notated and performed
expressions?
4. Should performed expressions based on particular notated
expressions be modelled as expressions of expressions?
By examining these fundamental questions, we intend to
encourage a long-overdue conversation within the humanities
computing community. Unless our representation schemes do
justice to the multidimensional complexity of cultural content
in all its modes of expression, we will not realize the full
potential of digital humanities repositories.
1. <http://www.fiafnet.org/uk/>
2. <http://www.iasa-web.org/index.htm>
Bibliography
Ayres, Marie-Louise. ""MusicAustralia: Experiments with
DC.Relation."" Presented at DC-ANZ (Dublin Core in Australia
and New Zealand) Conference in Canberra. February 2003.
Accessed 2004-11-17. <http://www.nla.gov.au/nl
a/staffpaper/2003/ayres1.html>
Baez-Yates, R., and B. Ribeiro-Neto. Modern information
retrieval. 1st ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1999.
DCMI Usage Board. DCMI Type Vocabulary. 2004. Accessed
2004-11-27. <http://dublincore.org/documents
/2004/06/14/dcmi-type-vocabulary/>
Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR).
UBCIM Publications, 19. Accessed 2004-11-27. <http://
www.ifla.org/VII/s13/frbr/frbr.htm>
Futrelle, Joe, and J. Stephen Downie. ""Interdisciplinary
Research Issues in Music Information Retrieval: ISMIR
2000-2002."" Journal of New Music Research 32.2 (2003):
121-131.
Hsin-liang, Chen, and Edie M. Rasmussen. ""Intellectual access
to images."" Library Trends 48.2 (1999): 291-302.
Hunt, Mary Ellen. Review of San Francisco Ballet, ""Othello"".
War Memorial Opera House, San Francisco, CA.
criticaldance.com, 2002. Accessed 2004-11-27. <http://w
ww.criticaldance.com/reviews/2002/sfb-oth
ello_020301.html>
Plumbley, M.D., S.A. Abdallah, J.P. Bello, M.E. Davies, G.
Monti, and M.B. Sandler. ""Automatic Music Transcription and
Audio Source Separation."" Cybernetics & Systems 33.6 (2002):
603-627.
Smiraglia, Richard. The Nature of ""a work"": implications for
the organization of knowledge. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press,
2001.
Yee, Martha M. ""What is a Work?"" The Principles and Future
of AACR: Proceedings of the International Conference on the
Principles and Future Development of AACR, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada, October 23-25, 1997. Ed. Jean Weihs. Ottawa:
Canadian Library Association, 1998. 62-104.","txt","2","",""
"474","6","A Revolutionary Approach to Humanities Computing?: Tools Development and the D2K Data-Mining Framework","3","Introduction
Anew set of humanities computing (HC) research projects
are underway that could revolutionize how the HC
community works together to build, use, and share HC tools.
The set of projects under consideration all play a role in the
development work currently being done to extend the D2K
(Data-to-Knowledge)1 data-mining framework into the realm
of HC. John Unsworth and Stephen J. Ramsay were recently
awarded a significant Andrew W. Mellon Foundation grant2
to develop a suite of HC data-mining tools using D2K and its
child framework, T2K (Text-to-Knowledge). Drs. Unsworth
and Ramsay, along with research assistant, Bei Yu, are working
closely with Geoffrey Rockwell. Dr. Rockwell is the project
leader for the CFI (Canada Foundation for Innovation) funded
project, TAPoR (Text Analysis Portal for Research)3, which is
developing a text tool portal for researchers who work with
electronic texts. J. Stephen Downie and David Tcheng,
through their work in creating the International Music
Information Retrieval Systems Evaluation Laboratory
(IMIRSEL)4, are leading an international researchers group to
develop another D2K child system called M2K
(""Music-to-Knowledge""). This panel session demonstrates how
all of these projects come together to form a comprehensive
whole. The session has four major themes designed, through
presentations and demonstrations, to highlight individual the
project components being developed and their collective impact
on the future of HC research. These themes are:
1. D2K as the overarching framework
2. T2K and its ties to traditional text-based HC techniques
3. M2K and its ties to multi-media-based HC techniques
4. The issues surrounding the HC community's development,
validation, distribution, and re-use of D2K/T2K/M2K
modules.
Participants
J. Stephen Downie, Graduate School of Library and
Information Science (GSLIS), University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign (UIUC)
John Unsworth, GSLIS, UIUC
Bei Yu, GSLIS, UIUC
David Tcheng, National Center for Supercomputng
Applications (NCSA), UIUC
Geoffrey Rockwell, School of the Arts, McMaster University
Stephen J. Ramsay, Department of English, University of
Georgia
Presentations, Demonstrations, and
Discussions (in order)
Overview of the NORA (No One Remembers
Acronyms) project
John Unsworth
For decades, humanities computing researchers have been
developing software tools and statistical techniques for text
analysis, but those same researchers have not succeeded in
producing tools of interest to the majority of humanities
researchers, nor (with the exception of some very recent work
in the Canadian TAPoR project) have they produced tools that
work over the web. Meanwhile, large collections of
web-accessible structured texts in the humanities have been
created and collected by libraries over the last fifteen years.
During that same time period, with improvements database and
other information technologies, data-mining has become a
practical tool, albeit one mostly used in business applications.
We believe data-mining (or more specifically, text-mining)
techniques can be applied to digital library collections to
discover unanticipated patterns, for further exploration either
through traditional criticism or through web-based text analysis. Existing humanities e-text collections from Virginia, Michigan,
Indiana, North Carolina, and other research universities form
the corpus for the project. NORA brings NCSA's D2K
data-mining architecture to bear on the challenges of
text-mining in digital libraries, with special emphasis on
leveraging markup, and on visualizations as interface and as
part of an iterative process of exploration.
Introduction to the D2K framework
David Tcheng
Released in 1999, D2K was developed by the Automated
Learning Group (ALG) at NCSA. D2K has been used to solve
many problems for both industry (e.g., Sears, Caterpillar, etc.)
and government agencies (e.g., NSF, NASA, NIH, etc.).
Academic uses include bioinformatics, seismology, hydrology,
and astronomy. D2K uses a data flow paradigm where a
'program' is a network (directed graph) of processing modules.
Modules can be 'primitive', defined as a single piece of source
code that implements a single well defined task, or can be
'nested' meaning it is defined as a network of previously defined
D2K modules. Decomposition of programs into modules that
implement a well defined input-output relationship promotes
the creation of reusable code. Nesting modules into higher-level
modules helps to manage complexity. D2K parallelizes across
any number different computers by simply running a copy of
""D2K Server"" on each available machine. The D2K software
distribution comes as a basic D2K package, with core modules
capable of doing general purpose data-mining, as well as such
task-specific add-on packages as text analysis (T2K), image
analysis (I2K), and now music analysis (M2K).
Introduction to T2K
Bei Yu
Similar to many data-mining tools, T2K has implemented a
number of automatic classification and clustering algorithms.
Compared to the commercial text mining tools, for example
SAS Text Miner, T2K has richer NLP preprocessing tools,
especially after its integration with GATE. Tools include:
stemmer, tokenizer, PoS-tagger, data cleaning and named-entity
extraction tools. The clustering visualization is tailored for
thematic analysis. On one hand, T2K provides a text mining
platform for the HC community. On the other hand, T2K is also
a platform to automate the HC research results and thus
facilitate their applications to the text mining community in
general. For example, most of the text mining tasks are still
topicality oriented, but the affect analysis has emerged in the
last couple of years. The affect of a document includes the
subjectivity/objectivity, the positive/neutral/negative attitude,
and the strength of emotions, etc. Some researchers have
adapted stylistic analysis techniques from HC to analyze
customer reviews. The found non-thematic features can also
be used as predictors for document genre, readability, clarity
and many other document properties.
The TAPoR portal and D2K
Geoffrey Rockwell
TAPoR has released an alpha of the portal and will have the
beta ready by June 2005. The portal is designed to allow
researchers to run tools (which can be local or remote web
services) on texts (which can be local or remote.) The TAPoR
portal has been designed to work with other systems like D2K
in three ways:
1. Particular tools or chains of tools can be 'published' so that
they are available as post-process tool right in the interface
of another system. Thus one can have a button that appears
on the appropriate results screens of a D2K process that
allows the user to pass results to TAPoR tools.
2. The portal has been released as open source and we are
working on models for projects to run customized versions
of the portal that work within their environment.
3. The portal can initiate queries to remote systems and then
pass results to other TAPoR tools. Thus users can see tools
like D2K (where they have permission) within their portal
account.
The Tamarind project and D2K
Stephen J. Ramsay
Tamarind began with the observation that the most basic text
analysis procedure of all — search — does not typically operate
on the text archive itself. It operates, rather, on a specially
designed data structure (typically an inverted file or pat trie
index) that contains string locations and byte offsets. Tamarind's
primary goal is to facilitate access to analytical data gleaned
from large-scale full text archives. Our working prototype of
Tamarind, for example, can quickly generate a relational
database of graph properties in a text which can in turn be mined
for structural information about the texts in question. Tamarind
creates a generalized database schema for holding text
properties and allows you to specify this structure as one that
should be isolated and loaded into the database. Work is
proceeding on a module that will allow the user to load a
Tamarind database with millions of word frequency data points
drawn from several gigabytes of encoded data. Unlike existing
tools, this newest module includes information about where
those counts occur within the tag structure of the document
(something that is impossible to do without the raw XML). For
the purposes of this project, we intend to use D2K and T2K as
the primary clients for Tamarind data stores. The M2K project
J. Stephen Downie
M2K is being developed to provide the Music Information
Retrieval (MIR) community with a mechanism to access a
secure store of copyright-sensitive music materials in symbolic,
audio and graphic formats. M2K is a set of open-source,
music-specific, D2K modules jointly developed by members
of the IMIRSEL project and the wider MIR community. M2K
modules include such classic signal processing functions as
Fast Fourier Transforms, Spectral Flux, etc. In combination
with D2K's built-in classification functions (e.g., Bayesian
Networks, Decision Trees, etc.), the M2K modules allow MIR
researchers to quickly construct and evaluate prototype MIR
systems that perform such sophisticated tasks as genre
recoginition, artist identification, audio transcription, score
analysis, and similarity clustering.
John Unsworth and J. Stephen Downie will lead a wrap-up
and future work open-forum discussion: For ambitious,
multi-institutional projects like those presented in this panel
many issues arise that can affect the sustainability and impact
of the projects. In particular, the issues surrounding the HC
community's development, validation, distribution, and re-use
of D2K/T2K/M2K modules will be addressed.
1. See <http://alg.ncsa.uiuc.edu/do/tools/d2k> .
2. See <http://www.news.uiuc.edu/news/04/1025me
llon.html> .
3. <http://www.tapor.ca/>
4. See <http://music-ir.org/evaluation>","txt","2","",""
"475","6","A Declarative Framework for Modeling Pronunciation and Rhyme","1","Encoding standards such as TEI give scholars a great deal
of flexibility in annotating texts to meet the particular
needs of a study or project. Researchers necessarily make
choices about which features of a text to highlight, what kinds
of additional information to add, and what facts are left to be
inferred from other sources of evidence apart from markup.
Among the factors to be considered in designing or adopting
text encoding procedures are the prospects for:
• data reuse and generalization beyond the scope of the one's
current project,
• investigating new questions about the texts that hadn't been
anticipated, and
• planning for the integration of texts using other markup
schemes.
This paper discusses considerations motivating the ongoing
design of a software framework for analysis of rhyming
schemes in 19th century Russian poetry. At its simplest, the
application receives as input poems marked up like the example
in Figure 1 and produces output like the following:
?- run('poem.xml').
Line 001 rhymes with Line 003
Line 002 rhymes with Line 004
Line 003 rhymes with Line 001
Line 004 rhymes with Line 002
<POEM OPID=""S1.100"" LINESPAN=""1-4""
COLPAGE=""1.261"" YEAR=""1817""
MASCRHYME=""2"" FEMRHYME=""2""
OTHERRHYME=""0"" MASCUNRHYME=""0""
FEMUNRHYME=""0"" OTHERUNRHYME=""0""
NOENDWORD=""0"" COL13=""2.75"">
<TITLE>Надпись на стене больницы</TITLE>
<LINE LINENO=""001"">Вот здесь лежит
больной студ<STRESS>е</STRESS>нт;</LINE> <LINE LINENO=""002"">Его судьба
неумол<STRESS>и</STRESS>ма.</LINE>
<LINE LINENO=""003"">Несите прочь
медикам<STRESS>е</STRESS>нт:</LINE>
<LINE LINENO=""004"">Болезнь любви
неизлеч<STRESS>и</STRESS>ма!</LINE>
</POEM>
Figure 1
Programs producing output such as the example above could
be written in any of a variety of different programming
languages. They might employ different strategies for
integrating linguistic and orthographic processing rules with
evidence encoded more directly using markup. For example,
we discuss an earlier approach to the current project in Adams
& Birnbaum. Our current implementation, however, is written
in Prolog as an application of the BECHAMEL system for
markup semantics analysis (Dubin et al.). The motivation for
this choice was our wish to plan from the beginning for
extensions to other encoding schemes and generalization to
other kinds of analysis.
Prolog is a declarative language of rules and assertions, and
BECHAMEL is a collection of predicates supporting the
declaration of object classes, properties, relations among
objects, and the execution of inference rules based on
information extracted from XML documents. An example of
a Prolog clause is shown below: it is part of our application's
logic for determining that two sequences of phonemes at the
ends of a pair of orthographic lines all agree with each other
(i.e., that the sounds at the end of the lines rhyme with each
other).
all_agree(P1,P2) :- agree(P1,P2),
/* P1 is written using C1 */
relation_applies(written,[P1,C1]),
relation_applies(written,[P2,C2]),
/* C3 follows C1 */
relation_applies(follows,[C1,C3]),
relation_applies(follows,[C2,C4]),
relation_applies(written,[P3,C3]),
relation_applies(written,[P4,C4]),
all_agree(P3,P4).
In the clause, P1, P2, P3, and P4 are variables representing
phoneme objects, and C1, C2,C3, and C4 are variables
representing character objects. The predicate all_agree(P1,P2)
will be satisfied if each of the predicates following the
implication sign can be satisfied. The logic of the clause can
be read as follows:
Phonemes P1 and P2 'all agree' if phonemes P1-P4 are written
using characters C1-C4, respectively, if C3 follows C1 in the
orthographic line, if C4 follows C2 in the line, if P1 and P2 'agree'
and if P3 and P4 'all agree.'
This clause is one of several in a recursive rule that attempts
to match up corresponding phonemes in rhyming lines, starting
from the line's stressed vowel.
A major advantage of Prolog's declarative approach is the
flexibility to define logic for separate cases in separate clauses
for the same rule. For example, in the clause shown above, it
is presupposed that in both lines there will be a simple
one-to-one mapping from characters in sequence to phonemes.
But accommodating more complex cases need not complicate
the expression of the simple case: if the simpler clause cannot
be satisfied then Prolog's inference engine will search for a
different clause of the same rule that can be satisfied.
Reasoning about poems like the one in the example above
requires that we model their contents at both a phonemic and
orthographic level. The rules for Russian pronunciation include
not only the way that particular vowels and consonants sound,
but also how those phonemes are cued by the way the text is
written (as with, for example, the palatalizing effect of the soft
sign and the soft vowel letters). The BECHAMEL system's
definition predicates for object classes, properties, and relations
gives us the ability to model each of these levels with
declarations such as the following:
/* There are things called phonemes */
declare_class(phoneme).
/* There are things called vowels */
declare_class(vowel).
declare_class(consonant).
/* vowels are a kind of phoneme */
declare_subclass(vowel,phoneme).
declare_subclass(consonant,phoneme).
/* vowels may be stressed or not */
declare_property(vowel,stress,atom).
declare_property(consonant,palatalized,atom),
declare_relation(written, [phoneme,
letter]),
declare_class(character),
declare_property(character,id,atom),
declare_property(character,palatalizing,atom),
In our approach, the phonemic properties of vowels and
consonants are distinct from the orthographic properties of
characters, written words, and lines. But it can occasionally be
convenient for users to ignore these distinctions, particularly
in comparing different proposed models for the same data. We
therefore aim to let the models govern as much processing of
our raw data as possible. For example, both phonemic and
orthographic properties of letters are recorded in a data file
using the same predicate as shown below:
alph_table(1083,id,u043B).
alph_table(1083,name,el).
alph_table(1083,charclass,consonant). alph_table(1083,case,lower).
alph_table(1083,voicing,voiced).
alph_table(1083,place,alveolar).
alph_table(1083,manner,liquid).
In this example, id, name, case, and charclass are all
properties of characters, while voicing, place, and manner
are phonemic properties. As individual characters and phonemes
are instantiated, they acquire only those properties that are
appropriate for their class. This is accomplished through
general-purpose rules that match on the basis of our property
declarations. So if we were to decide (for example) that name
should be a property of the phoneme rather than the character,
we need only change the declaration, and the property value
recorded in the data file would be assigned to phoneme objects
rather than character objects.
BECHAMEL supports superclass and subclass
relations, which allows us to declare that vowels and consonants
are subclasses of phoneme, and that letters, marks, and spaces
are subclasses of character. Since the conventional
superclass/subclass relation can prove awkward in some
situations, BECHAMEL includes class declaration expressions
similar to those found in ontology languages such as OWL
(W3C).
For example, place and manner of articulation in consonants
may be used to describe classes of phonemes, not merely
features of them (the class of stops, the class of velar
consonants, etc.). It would be awkward to declare each
consonant as a subclass of both its place and manner of
articulation. Instead we use a BECHAMEL predicate that
permits us to declare membership in a class based on the value
assigned to a particular property:
declare_propclass(alveolar,place,alveolar).
declare_propclass(velar,place,velar).
declare_propclass(glottal,place,glottal).
declare_propclass(glide,manner,glide).
declare_propclass(liquid,manner,liquid).
declare_propclass(nasal,manner,nasal).
An alveolar, therefore, is anything that takes the value
alveolar on its place property, a nasal anything that takes
nasal for its manner property, and so on. These class
identities are in addition to the one that instantiated the object.
A related feature of BECHAMEL is the ability to define class
membership based on a Boolean expression. The following
example declares that an obstruent is either a stop, a fricative,
or an affricate:
declare_boolean(obstruent,or(stop,
or(fricative,affricate))).
All of these features are employed with the aim of making our
understandings, models, and simplifications regarding the rules
of Russian pronunciation as clear and as explicit as possible.
We express them in the form of declarative rules so as not to
entangle implementation details of our code with aspects of
our model that should be open to criticism, revision, and
extension. For example, our rule governing the devoicing of
word-final obstruents states that if an obstruent O is written
with word-final letter L, then O should take a value of
voiceless on its voicing property (unless it already has that
property value):
mrule2 :- isa(O, obstruent),
relation_applies(written,[O,L]),
property_applies(L,wordfinal,true),
not(property_applies(O,voicing,voiceless)),
apply_property(O,voicing,voiceless),!.
Taking this approach, even a limited application, such as
determining which lines of a poem rhyme, requires a large
number of these declarations and rules; there is a very real sense
in which we are doing it 'the hard way'. But as a result our
application-specific code is only about seven percent of the
size of the supporting declarations and rules. In addition to
strengthening our confidence in our framework's potential for
generalization, the demands of our approach have been a helpful
modeling exercise in their own right.
Bibliography
Adams, L.D., and D. Birnbaum. ""Perspectives on computer
programming for the humanities."" Text Technology 7.1 (1997):
1-17.
Dubin, D., C.M. Sperberg-McQueen, A. Renear, and C.
Huitfeldt. ""A logic programming environment for document
semantics and inference."" Literary and Linguistic Computing
18.2 (2003): 225-233.
W3C. OWL Web Ontology Language Overview (W3C
Recommendation). 10 February 2004. Accessed 2005-04-04.
<http://www.w3.org/TR/2004/REC-owl-featur
es-20040210/>","txt","2","",""
"476","6","Cardplay, a New Textual Instrument","1","Introduction: What is textual play?
We are exploring what it means to 'play' textual literature.
We don't mean, by this, playing games that incorporate
textual material within their structure but rather textual and
literary structures for which play is a primary means of
interaction. We are conducting our exploration both as creators
and scholars of digital media. This paper discusses a number
of related issues — including the notion of ""instrumental texts""
discussed by electronic literature authors, the critical games
proposed by Jerome McGann and Johanna Drucker, and what
Markku Eskelinen has characterized as the challenge of
ludology (the study of games) to traditional literary study. This
discussion then becomes the background for describing a system
we are building — Cardplay — its design goals, our authoring
work within it, and its relationship to prior work in the hypertext
and artificial intelligence communities.
Texts and instruments
I n the electronic writing community there has been
increasing talk, in the last few of years, about the idea of
instrumental texts (Cayley, Moulthrop, Wardrip-Fruin). An
instrumental text is meant to be played, and provides
affordances for such play, much as folk musical instruments
do (as the frets on a guitar invite the production of the notes of
the scale). Such texts can and should provide opportunities for
practice and reward mastery. What is practiced and mastered
— again, the analogy is drawn with musical instruments — is
often presented as a physical discipline. Instrumental texts also
show close resemblances to computer games in these ways.
Given that most works presented as examples of instrumental
texts always use the same material for their play (always, so to
speak, 'play the same tune') the analogy with games may be the
more accurate of the two. However, the type of engagement
that authors hope to produce with instrumental texts may be
more musical than game-like.
A textual instrument, on the other hand, is a tool for textual
performance which may be used to play a variety of
compositions. In this sense it is evocative of Thalia Field's
figure of the ""language piano"" — something that one learns to
play, and which may produce a much wider variety of texts
than is the case for those projects normally discussed as
instrumental texts. However, a textual instrument need not be
like a prepared piano. The direct selection of text, rather than
the manipulation of a non-linguistic device, can be its interface.
And the relationship between a textual instrument's interface
affordances and the possible textual outcomes need not be
one-to-one at all levels (as it is with a piano's keys, though they
may be played in many combinations). Gaining an intuitive
understanding of how a textual instrument will react for a given
composition is part of learning to play that piece. Compositions,
here, consist of a body of text (and/or a means of acquiring
text) and a set of tunings for the instrument(s) used, where a
tuning is a particular configuration of the interaction
mechanisms and settings for the procedures (along with any
instructions on how these change over time).
We have previously built two1 textual instruments — one, for
performing local pre-parsed texts (and for which currently there
is one composition, Regime Change), the other for playing live
network RSS feeds of current news. Both of these operate using
the logic of n-gram statistical models of text (first used in
textual play by Claude Shannon) and exhibited strengths and
weaknesses that might be expected from such a purely statistical
approach. An intuitive understanding of how to get 'good' results
from both works is possible, however, despite the fact that there
is no pre-set goal to the interaction. Because of the aleatoric
nature of the automatic processes in both works, and the size
and opaqueness of a statistical model of even a short text, these
instruments are easy to compose for, but relatively resistant to
precise control, by author or reader. Cardplay, on the other
hand, is designed to operate more directly out of human
authorship (of texts and rules), with interaction techniques and
infrastructural motifs more typical of hypertexts or rule-based
artificial intelligence systems. The aim is a blend of these
parallel (non-intersecting) but closely related sets of techniques.
Playing with games
I nterest in games has a long history within the literary
community. The work of the Oulipo, for example, could be
seen as a relatively recent entry in a series of authoring games
stretching back through literary history. (Amusingly, the Oulipo
have referred to those employing difficult authoring constraints
before them as ""anticipatory plagiarists"" — and characterized
themselves as rats who design the mazes from which they
propose to escape.) Critical interpretation has also been
characterized as a game. Warren Motte has done important
work on 'playtexts'. However there has been little attention to games in a more formal sense — games involving rules, moves,
and outcomes. Perhaps this is because few literal games have,
before the last couple of decades, contained much of literary
interest.
Now this is changing, and rapidly. Critics from literary
backgrounds are among the most active in the formation of the
rising field of 'game studies' (or 'ludology'). Meanwhile, other
critics have proposed means by which the metaphorical game
of literary interpretation can be literalized — via the
introduction of rules, moves, and outcomes into public acts of
interpretation carried out in a computational media environment.
Among those from a literary background who are now helping
create the field of game studies, we will primarily focus on
Markku Eskelinen's recent work. While we might also fruitfully
consider the work of Espen Aarseth, Lisbeth Klastrup, Susana
Tosca, and Torill Mortensen, it is Eskelinen who has most
clearly brought concepts from ludology into contact with the
notions of ""instrumental text"" and ""textual instrument"" . He
points out the importance of overcoming the ""fear of variety""
in order to understand instruments fashioned precisely so that
each reading is different. We must find methods of reading not
only textual outcomes (which vary) but the systems that produce
them (which remain consistent).
In another sense, the creation of systems for 'playing literature'
— but for critical purposes, rather than artistic ones — has been
a focus of the Speculative Computing Laboratory at the
University of Virginia. Best known of these projects is The
Ivanhoe Game first proposed by Jerome McGann and Johanna
Drucker. Here some types of literary interpretation are
formalized in a manner that would be recognizable to
ludologists, even if they do not fully satisfy all formal
definitions of the term 'game'.
Playing cards for drama
I n Cardplay, we are trying to create a textual instrument
whose center of gravity is clearly literary, focused on the
creation of a work, a play, that is in some senses conventionally
literary, and yet to make the process of playing the work
simultaneously be the the process of playing a game in the most
literal sense. In Cardplay, players manipulate virtual cards
(each associated with text that is not fully visible to the players),
in an attempt to win the card game (Solitaire is also possible).
However, a successful play wins points when the card played
interacts with other cards played to advance the creation of the
script of a play, whose transcript accumulates and may be saved.
Copyright in the result may be automatically granted to the
winner of the game, by the program, on the successful
completion of the game. Players of the game are thus in
competition with each other to advance the story. Unlike many
interactive fictions, however, neither player is identified with
a character in the ongoing story, nor is the plot of the story
necessarily determinative of victory in the game.
Significant aspects of Cardplay are inspired by the description
of Mark Bernstein's systems Thespis and Card Shark. In
Berstein's Card Shark, players create texts by playing 'cards'
each containing a fragment of narrative. Each card may have
some named properties, which are active once the card is
played. Cards may also have preconditions which must match
the properties of active cards. Thespis extended this notion to
a self-composing drama system in which a number of artificial
agents try to play their own cards, with a similar condition
system.
In neither of Bernstein's systems was the notion of a game used.
In Thespis, a number of standard AI techniques (Blackboard
systems, Agents) are used in a minimal way to create a reading
experience. Cardplay cards can be divided into two types:
Fundamental cards, which respresent aspects of events,
characters, places; and Master cards, which create textual
content in the transcript. There is no procedural aspect to
Cardplay cards, unlike Bernstein's Thespis agents, and the
conditions by which cards are matched are more complex than
those in Card Shark. A Cardplay card is more like a logical
rule in an AI system, which has variables that it can match in
the cards 'on deck', and results that it presents, to which other
cards can match. When played, a Master card, and the cards
that it has matched with, are all removed, and the transcript is
augmented with the results.
We believe that the methods of symbolic AI provide a fertile
area for exploration in the creation of literary systems and
games. The thorny AI issues of how the knowledge in such
systems is grounded are irrelevant to the creation of the
experience of irreal worlds, which by definition are not so
grounded. As authors, we find what has come to seem the
naivete of early AI methods quite attractive, because it means
that the resulting systems are relatively easy to understand and
control. Finally, we find it interesting that in our system the
reader will play a game whose issue will provide a soul for the
machine that is our text.
1. <http://www.turbulence.org/Works/twotxt/ind
ex.htm>
Bibliography
Bernstein, Mark. ""Card Shark and Thespis: Exotic tools for
hypertext narrative."" Proceedings of the twelfth ACM conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia, Århus, Denmark.
New York, 2001. 41-50.
Cayley, John. From Byte to Inscription: An Interview with
John Cayley. Interviewed by Brian Kim Stefans. The Iowa
Review Web, February, 2003. Accessed 2005-03-21. <http
://www.uiowa.edu/~iareview/tirweb/feature
/cayley/>
Eskelinen, Markku. ""Six Problems in Search of a Solution: The
challenge of cybertext theory and ludology to literary theory.""
Dichtung Digital (March 2004). <http://www.dichtun
g-digital.com/2004/3/Eskelinen/index.htm>
McGann, Jerome. Radiant Textuality: Literature after the
World Wide Web. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001.
Meehan, J.R. The Metanovel: Writing Stories by Computer.
Yale Computer Science Research Report 74. New Haven: Yale,
1976.
Moulthrop, Stuart. Interview with Stuart Moulthrop.
Interviewed by Noah Wardrip-Fruin. Accessed 2005-03-21.
<http://www.uiowa.edu/~iareview/tirweb/fe
ature/moulthrop/> The Iowa Review Web
Wardrip-Fruin, Noah. ""From Instrumental Texts to Textual
Instruments."" Proceedings of Digital Arts and Culture.
Melbourne, Australia, May 2003.","txt","2","",""
"477","6","User Generated Metadata: Creating Personalized Web Experiences","23","Abstract

 This session will focus on the importance of measuring how communities of users interact with digital objects. By drawing on user-performance data and metadata generated for secondary repositories, we explore ways to enhance use and access of documents and digital libraries..

Speaker 1 proposes an approach to representing the structure of a document based on the way readers or users interact with it in the context of a deliberative task. This approach contrasts with other ways to model the structure of documents including approaches which map authorial intention and those which rely upon a well-known information model or genre. This presentation will highlight the benefits of understanding the structure of documents based on the rhetorical reading/using strategies of those who interact with them. These structures can be rendered as paths through a given set of information resources, offering insight into the way that objects and relationships that make up a document can mediate, or complicate, activity. Speaker 1 will conclude by showing some examples which make use of user-performance data to create task-appropriate views of complex (multiscale) documents. 

Speakers 2 and 3 will examine the role of secondary repositories can play in enhancing access and interaction for students and scholars in the humanities. The most entrenched a priori models for information structuring and delivery online are derived from library and archival cataloguing practices. In line with digital library best practices, digitized sources are typically cataloged to describe their bibliographic information, along with technical, administrative, and rights metadata. While these practices are essential for preserving the digital object and making it available to users, unfortunately they do so in a language and guise often difficult to understand within the context of use. In addition, materials in digital libraries do not literally speak for themselves and impart wisdom; they require interpretation and analysis within a context of use. Access and use of digital objects can no longer be thought of in terms of stand alone files or individual digital objects, but rather must directly impact the ways in which users reuse, repurpose, combine and build complex digital objects. This assumption relies on a more complex meaning for the term access that will be detailed and explained in this paper. 

Following the examples in the first paper, speaker 4 will demonstrate an application that can be used to collect user generated metadata. Following the concepts developed in the second paper, speaker 4 will develop the argument in practice that one way we can enhance access to online digital objects  is to facilitate the creation of secondary repositories. These repositories will provide discipline/community specific metadata and applications and will allow users to find, use, manipulate and analyze digital objects more easily. To this end, Speaker 4 has developed Media Matrix  1.0 — an online, server-side suite of tools that allows users to locate specific media and streaming media files found in digital repositories and segment, annotate and organize this media online. This application provides users with an environment both to work with and personalize digital media, and also to share and discuss their findings with a community of users. This paper will explore if the creation of secondary repositories of usage statistics and user-generated materials/metadata (to supplement both traditional cataloging records and discipline-specific online indexes) can help scholars and students in the humanities gain better access to online materials.","txt","2","",""
"478","6","Advanced Topics in TEI","3","In the decade since the 1994 publication of the TEI
Guidelines, this important text encoding standard has seen
widespread use in a variety of research and digitization
environments. In some contexts, its application has become
routine: digital libraries now publish huge volumes of lightly
encoded TEI documents through mechanisms which are well
understood and thoroughly documented. However, in other
quarters intensive research on the TEI continues unabated. Not
only are the Guidelines themselves now being revised (with
the publication of P5 planned for 2005), but applications of the
TEI to specific research areas continue to emerge, and new
tools are continually being developed to support a variety of
analytic and publication functions.
This panel session brings together several short presentations
on advanced topics in the TEI research landscape, which reflect
the breadth and depth of work currently being done in this
community. The presentations include advanced markup issues,
the design of the language in which the TEI itself is written and
documented, and current TEI tools development. The panel
chair will open the panel by giving a very brief contextual
description of the current development context for the TEI: the
goals of P5, the user community, and current trends in analytical
use of TEI markup. Following the four short papers by panelists
(described below), the chair and panelists will lead a discussion
of advanced use of the TEI and future research directions. The
goal of the panel is twofold: first, to provide an update to the
humanities computing community on some important research
efforts within the TEI; and second, to provide an opportunity
for a discussion of the impact and value of this research and its
direction for the future. The first paper will discuss the perennial problem of
overlapping markup, and will describe a TEI implementation
of the CLIX solution, which has emerged from the work of the
TEI Special Interest Group (SIG) on Overlap. The CLIX
approach involves using two empty elements to indicate where
each element in a subordinate hierarchy (or at least, each
element which overlaps an element in another hierarchy) begins
and ends. These empty elements have the same name as would
have been used for the equivalent 'normal' element which has
content, and use special attributes, sID= & eID=, to indicate
that an empty element indicates the beginning or the end of a
pseudo-element (see <http://www.mulberrytech.co
m/Extreme/Proceedings/html/2004/DeRose01
EML2004DeRose01.html#t6> ). RelaxNG, the schema
language underlying TEI P5, is perfectly capable of representing
some of the constraints that would desired to validate this type
of markup. However, ODD, the abstract literate encoding
language in which TEI P5 is written, cannot. A mechanism for
permitting TEI P5 RelaxNG schemas to perform some CLIX
validation without changing the ODD language itself, but rather
by using a slightly more complex 'tangle' process to produce
schemas from the ODD sources, will be presented.
The second paper will discuss analytical approaches to
manuscript description and the use of this markup to support
advanced research in quantitative codicology. Data-centric
manuscript description has recently emerged as a topic of
interest in light of the new opportunities provided by electronic
text technology. While traditional printed manuscript
descriptions have been substantially prose-like (a tendency
reflected in more document-centric encoding approaches), the
more analytical approach presented here (which will be adopted
as part of the new TEI chapter on manuscript description) treats
manuscript description as structured databases rendered in
XML. Highly structured descriptions with rich markup of all
descriptive details (using controlled vocabularies wherever
possible) permit users to conduct much more advanced research,
for instance on the correlation between specific watermarks
and specific orthographic norms, or on the resemblance between
manuscripts in a given set of features. These kinds of questions
go well beyond the tradition of consulting indices or searching
for access points, and enable scholars to envision manuscript
transmission in ways that would otherwise be impossible. This
presentation will illustrate both the provisions of the TEI MS
description module and its application to these advanced
research topics.
The third paper will focus on designing and extending document
models with the TEI. It will present the main characteristics of
the new TEI specification platform, which is being used to
describe both the documentation and technical characteristics
of the next edition of the TEI guidelines (P5). The specification
platform (also known as ODD for ""One Document Does it all"")
allows one to describe elements and their attributes, through a
combination of prose and formal descriptions. It also allows
document model designers to refer to classes of elements, when
similarity of behaviour or semantics have to be taken into
account. The presentation will illustrate the new TEI
architecture by presenting the online environment (Roma) that
allows anyone to design his or her own TEI subset and possibly
extend the TEI capacities by adding or modifying elements and
attributes. We will exemplify these mechanisms in the light of
the new terminology chapter that is to appear in the TEI P5
edition.
The final paper in this panel will present the current landscape
of TEI tools development, and in particular the work of the TEI
Tools Special Interest Group (SIG). It will discuss the current
challenges faced by developers of TEI tools, the genres of tools
which are currently of greatest interest, the ways in which the
TEI community can most effectively assist tool developers (for
instance, by contributing to a library of sample documents for
testing), and the support framework provided by the SIG.","txt","2","",""
"479","6","Hybrid Cyber-Librarians: The CLIR Post-Doctoral Fellowship in Scholarly Information Resources for Humanists","3","The Council on Library and Information Resources ( <http:
//www.clir.org/> ) has developed a unique new program
of crucial interest to the membership of the Association for
Computers and the Humanities: the CLIR Post-Doctoral
Fellowship in Scholarly Information Resources for Humanists.
The stated purpose of this program, now in its first year at ten
U.S. academic libraries, is ""to establish a new kind of scholarly
information professional"" by offering individuals with a recent
Ph.D. in a humanities field a chance to acquire the experience
of the academic librarian in the digital age (CLIR , <http:/
/www.clir.org/fellowships/postdoc/postdoc
.html> , ""Information""). ACH is one of the few professional
associations in which scholars, librarians, and technology
specialists come together as a coherent community; every one
of its members is no doubt aware that communication in other
venues between these three professions is highly problematic.
Moreover, people who undertake humanities computing projects
are frequently frustrated by the fact that their professions lack
a structure that allows new-model collaborative work to be
recognized and rewarded.
Successful humanities computing initiatives such as the Institute
for Advanced Technology in the Humanities ( <http://ww
w.iath.virginia.edu/> ) at the University of Virginia
could not have been possible without the enthusiastic
collaboration of scholars, librarians, and technology specialists.
Those involved in these initiatives understand that the nature
of the work often goes beyond the collaborative or even the
interdisciplinary to become what we might call the
'interprofessional'. On humanities computing projects, it is rare
to find individuals rigidly adhering to their own professional
skills and duties as though on an assembly line. Usually, those
who participate develop into information professionals who
possess various proportions of expertise in scholarship, library
science, and technology.
Such interprofessional work is not credentialed, however, nor
is it generally practiced outside the humanities computing
community. This creates serious problems not only for
individuals whose work has been interprofessional but also for
the whole enterprise of digital scholarship. Scholars who have
been involved in humanities computing projects are far more
likely than other scholars to understand the challenges facing
academic librarians in the digital age — but all scholars are
beginning to expect high-level digital services from their
libraries. CLIR frames this problem thus:
Libraries digitize primary resources to respond to the demands of
individual scholars, but scholars don't recognize the complexity
of carrying out this task nor do they understand the demands placed
on librarians who need to improve access and ensure preservation...
Scholars are increasingly accepting of digital publication, while
librarians are finding that the contract law that controls access to
such publications makes preservation impossible and access
problematic.
(CLIR , <http://www.clir.org/fellowships/post
doc/detail.html> , ""Program"")
But is the creation of a new hybrid professional the answer to
problems such as these, or does a program such as the CLIR
post-doctoral fellowship threaten to undermine the valuable
discrete professional knowledge of librarians, scholars, and
technology specialists? A recent Library Journal article on the CLIR Post-Doctoral Fellowship takes the latter position,
declaring that ""It weakens our profession when we open it to
Ph.D.'s without established library credentials"" ( <http://w
ww.libraryjournal.com/article/CA474993> ,
Crowley) This perspective emphasizes the unique skills
belonging to a particular profession, a perspective that might
well be shared by some scholarly professionals and some
technology professionals. Is the specialized knowledge of these
professions endangered or diluted by the collaborations that
are so common on humanities computing projects? Should
interprofessional credentialization be encouraged?
We suspect that the membership of ACH has much to contribute
to this discussion, and we believe that the first year of the CLIR
Post-Doctoral Fellowship is the ideal time to discuss the
professionalization issues faced by information professionals
engaged in humanities computing projects. We therefore
propose a ninety-minute session in which panelists will engage
in debate about the CLIR Post-Doctoral Fellowship and related
professionalization and specialization issues. We invite the
members of ACH to engage in this discussion of the principles
behind—and future of—this attempt to credential a new species
of digital scholar-librarian.
Bibliography
Council on Library and Information Resources. Post-Doctoral
Fellowship in Scholarly Information Resources for Humanists:
Information for Applicants. Accessed 2005-03-23. <http:
//www.clir.org/fellowships/postdoc/postdo
c.html>
Council on Library and Information Resources. Post-Doctoral
Fellowship in Scholarly Information Resources for Humanists:
Program Background. Accessed 2005-03-23. <http://ww
w.clir.org/fellowships/postdoc/detail.htm
l>
Crowley, Bill. ""Just Another Field?"" Library Journal 129.18
(2004): 44-6. Accessed 2005-03-23. <http://www.libr
aryjournal.com/article/CA474993>
Oder, Norman. ""New Movement for Ph.D.'s To Work in
Academic Libraries."" Library Journal 128.11 (2003): 16-17.
Accessed 2005-03-23. <http://www.libraryjourna
l.com/article/CA302413>","txt","2","",""
"480","6","The Canadian Century Research Infrastructure Project and Computing in the Humanities","3","Introduction
One of the most comprehensive humanities and social
science research projects in Canadian history, the
Canadian Century Research Infrastructure (CCRI) is a
five-year, pan-Canadian initiative to develop a set of interrelated
databases centered on census records for the 1911-1951 period.
The databases being developed from manuscript census records
for the period 1911 to 1951 form the core of a much larger
research infrastructure, the objective of which is to construct
an evidentiary foundation for research on the transformation
of Canadian society from the late 19th century to the later 20th
century. To construct this evidentiary foundation, the CCRI
will have two major components: primary sources and
secondary sources.
Census microdata from the 1911-1951 enumerations form the
first and the core of the four primary data sources. Other
primary data sources include Statistics Canada documentary
sources concerning the enumeration process; newspaper
evidence about the enumerations at the time of each
enumeration; and House of Commons and Senate debates
related to the enumerations. The goal of this component of the
CCRI is to provide researchers with the contextual evidence
necessary to undertake appropriate analysis of the census
microdata. The secondary data sources are intended to facilitate research
on the primary sources, and are equally varied in nature. They
range from introductory descriptive statements about the census
enumeration process, to highly technical discussions of
data-entry and coding issues, and bibliographies of
census-research publications.
Integral to the entire project is the construction of a geographic
framework for the historical census data, using a Geographic
Information System (GIS). GIS map layers are being created to
enable geographic location, selection, aggregation and analysis
of sample data, as well as some mapping of generalized census
data. This will allow researchers to ask questions of the database
which are much more geographically specific than in the past.
Interface tools to make these geographic queries and analysis
as user-friendly as possible are also being developed.
The CCRI will be structured in terms of five distinct
articulations, each devoted to one of the enumeration years
(1911-1951). The CCRI will include cross-census harmonization
bridges (or crosswalks) that connect each of the five
articulations, to enable comparative analysis. A variety of user
guides will be developed to aid researchers. In addition to a
general introduction to each census enumeration, there will be
user guides for each census variable, as well as a separate guide
detailing the coding scheme for that variable. As it is expected
that some variables (such as occupation) may be coded
according to more than one scheme, each scheme will be
discussed in the guides.
The CCRI databases will be made available through Research
Data Centres across Canada; versions will also be available
through the Data Liberation Initiative at Canadian universities.
Once completed, the CCRI databases will be joined to other
databases that cover the periods from 1871 to 1901 and from
1961 to 2001. The result will be a new foundation for the study
of social, economic, cultural, and political change, as the
Canadian Century Research Infrastructure will include an
extraordinary range of data about the twentieth century.
The proposed panel discussion will focus on the following
related issues:
• Integrating Words and Numbers in Historical Databases;
• Mapping Time: Using GIS to enhance historical
understanding;
• Meta-data, Contextual Data, and User Guides for Historical
Evidence: How much is enough?
• Integrating Primary and Secondary Sources in Historical
Research Infrastructures.","txt","2","",""
"481","6","METS in Action: Standardization and Interoperability in the Digital Library","1","The use of SGML/XML for describing collections and
digital objects has been in place since the mid-1990s (for
instance, in the UK's Internet Library of Early Journals (ILEJ)
( <http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/ilej/> ) . By the
end of that decade, the EAD (""Encoded Archival Description"")
had been developed to give the archivist community an
encoding standard for describing archival collections digitally
and for helping scholars and researchers identify and locate
relevant materials in these collections. However the EAD did
not address the problem of how electronic versions of the
individual items comprising an archival collection could
themselves be described digitally in a standard way.
Such an encoding standard needed to provide a means for
inventorying the individual content files (image files, structured
text files, etc.) comprising an electronic version of an archival
item, applying a structure or structures to these content files,
and associating relevant descriptive and administrative metadata
with both structure and content. Beginning in 1997, a Digital
Library Federation initiative called Making of America II sought
to address this need for a digital object encoding standard, and
out of this initiative came the MOA2.DTD; from these origins,
the current METS (""Metadata Encoding and Transmission
Standard"") has developed.
METS is now firmly established within the digital library
community, although the number of projects employing it is still relatively small. It is intended to act as a ""MARC standard""
for digital objects, by providing a standardized framework
within which the metadata detailed above may be contained.
This standardization will allow the degree of interoperability
that has prevailed in the cataloguing world to become possible
in the more complex environment of digital objects, and
hopefully facilitate the pooling of digital resources in similar
ways to the union catalogues that MARC has allowed.
This panel session will provide a short introduction to METS
and its history, and show how it is currently implemented,
demonstrating how it offers solutions of wide applicability to
some difficulties presented by the older standards and
techniques. The participants are all members of the METS
Editorial Board, responsible for the maintenance of the standard.
It is intended that each participant will give a short (10-15
minute presentation) and half an hour will be available for
general discussion.
Rick Beaubian, Software Engineer, Digital Library Projects,
University of California, Berkeley, will trace the evolution of
METS from its origins in the Making of America II initiative
to the present, and examine its progress from a relatively narrow
standard primarily targetting archival and traditional library
materials to one that is now also being applied to encoding
audio and video content as well as to archiving websites. It will
also look briefly at METS' position and application relative to
other emerging content packaging standards: IMS-CP/SCORM
and MPEG-21.
Richard Gartner, Pearson New Media Librarian at Oxford
University Library Services, will discuss ways of integrating
METS and TEI: METS is designed to allow easy integration
with any XML-based documents, either by reference or by
direct embedding within the METS file itself. This talk will
demonstrate how TEI documents can be integrated within
METS files and how the two in tandem can overcome some of
the difficulties experienced when using the TEI on its own. In
particular, he will cover how METS and TEI can handle images
in complex objects more simply than in TEI alone, and how
overlapping hierarchies can be handled neatly using multiple
METS structural maps.
Jerome McDonough, Digital Library Team Leader at New
York University, will discuss the application of METS to video,
specifically a series of videos of performances gathered by the
Hemispheric Institute. He will focus on some of the problem
issues in trying to collect descriptive and structural metadata
on a multi-institution project such as this, and how METS may
help alleviate them.
Susan Dahl, Metadata and Cataloguing Librarian at the
University of Alberta, will discuss how METS can be
incorporated in a project that uses OCLC's Olive Software to
digitize textual materials. Using the Peel's Prairie Provinces
Project at the University of Alberta as an example ( <http:
//peel.library.ualberta.ca/> ), the presentation
will demonstrate how the XML supplied in Olive's format can
be incorporated into METS documents and the benefits this
offers. Also, it will feature how other descriptive, structural
and administrative metadata is included, to make a complete
METS document.
Brian Tingle, Content Management Designer at the California
Digital Library, will discuss the Local History Digital Resources
Project, which explores a model to support the creation of, and
permanent public access to, standardized digital objects with
associated collection guides through a single point of access.
The project aims in particular to develop requirements for, and
helping to select, a common digital project tool that all
contributors will be required to use.
The METS home page is available at <http://www.loc.
gov/standards/mets> .","txt","2","",""
"482","6","Clotel: An Electronic Scholarly Edition","1","Background
In the fall of 2001, Christopher Mulvey, Professor of English
at the University of Winchester, came to the Electronic Text
Center (Etext) at the University of Virginia Library to
collaborate on creating a scholarly electronic edition of William
Wells Brown's Clotel. In the spring of 2005, Adam Matthew
Publishers (UK) and the University of Virginia Electronic
Imprint (US) will jointly publish the product of this
collaboration: Clotel: An Electronic Scholarly Edition. This
collaborative opportunity proved intriguing for a number of
cultural, technical, and theoretical reasons.
The Technical Challenges of History
Of cultural and historical interest, Clotel was the first
African-American novel ever published and its content
proves particularly germane to the University of Virginia since
the institution's ""father"", Thomas Jefferson, is the father of
Clotel, the mulatto fugitive slave and heroine of Brown's novel.
In addition, the novel's publication history spans an incredibly
dynamic period of United States history (slavery, Civil War,
emancipation, and Reconstruction) and the substantive changes
among the four editions of the novel between 1853 and 1867
are certainly reflective of that political environment.
Technically, the Clotel Electronic Edition pushes the bar on
past electronic scholarship that the Electronic Text Center has
engaged specifically, as well as developments in the creation
of electronic scholarly editions generally. The innovative
visualizations that Clotel forced Etext to explore are due, in
large part, to the milieu of cultural events in which the novel
was published. The historical events, which directly affected
William Wells Brown as he went from a fugitive slave to a free
man, engendered a large number of substantive variations
between the different editions of Clotel. Because the editions
are so different from one another, because, in most cases, they
are different artistic ""works"", the task of aggregating them into
a single project for scholarly comparison, analysis, and
discovery provided a sizeable challenge.
Using Early American Fiction's1 first American edition of
William Wells Brown's novel, Clotelle: A Tale of the Southern
States (1864), as a starting point, Mulvey outsourced the
digitization of three more editions: the 1853 first edition
published in London, the 1860 version serialized in the Weekly
Anglo-African, and the 1867 second American edition. Mulvey's
idea was to take each of the editions, mark up regions of
contextual similarity, and then provide tools for the user to
approach the electronic edition in a number of ways without
necessarily privileging any one version. Utilizing the Text
Encoding Initiative (TEI) as the markup standard for the project,
Etext had to take Mulvey's ideal requirements and visually try
to understand how that markup should function in the context
of publication.
Emphasis upon visualizing the changes between the editions
was particularly important for Mulvey. He wanted to compare
the texts in different visual environments: one, for instance,
that was heavy on exposing emendation and another that
privileged the act of reading with optional tools for comparison.
A dominant conceptual view that he maintained actually came
from Microsoft. Having often used the ""track"" tool in Microsoft
Word to compare version changes in his own documents,
Mulvey wanted to develop a similar tool (or use a tool that
already existed) to emulate that functionality so that users could
see the changes that occur between each edition at any given
time. Privileging that act of uninterrupted reading but giving
the option for comparison, under Mulvey's direction Etext
placed the four ""witness"" versions of Clotel in a parallel reading
view in which a user could link to comparable passages in any
of the other three editions at any point in any version of the
text. The edition also gives users attendant ""reading"" copies of
each text along with links to annotations.
Theoretical Implications
Within the larger environment of scholarly publishing
and the framework of debate over its future, the Clotel
project brings to light several speculative issues that may offer
an option to that environment and the role that libraries could
have and are beginning to have in what has historically been
unfamiliar territory. While the Electronic Text Center has
always theoretically aligned itself as being an electronic
""publisher"", it has never had the ancillary apparatuses of the
traditional publishing environment: it has no ""publicity office""
and, more important, no real mechanism for peer review.
However, the stakeholders that the Clotel project has brought
together—an ambitious scholar, two scholarly presses (Adam
Matthew in the UK and the University of Virginia's Electronic
Imprint) and a digital library unit with expertise in content
creation—have made themselves into an ad-hoc publishing
force. While the crisis in scholarly publishing continues, a
collaboration of this sort which brings together these types of players with typically varying interests and priorities is certainly
a stab in a direction, albeit experimental and unknown.
Although the Electronic Text Center has been, for lack of a
better word, ""publishing"" content for well over a decade using
the web and other non-web electronic formats, its line-straddling
between library and publishing culture has never been as
apparent or important as it is now. One might posit that this
position is not one of happenchance or exception, but one
necessarily born by the realities, limits, and failures in the
domain of print culture.
1. Funded by two grants from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation,
Early American Fiction (1789-1875) is a recently completed
collection of digitized early first American editions and primary
source materials. The on-line collection includes 886 volumes
from 136 different authors. There are 199 transcribed manuscript
items (525 pages of drafts, letters, and miscellaneous items) and
124 non-text items (photos, engravings, etc.) included in the
collection. See <http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/ea
f/> . [Ed. note: Clotel is not among the online texts available for
external access. PL]","txt","2","",""
"483","6","Words as Data? Estimating the Fiscal Conservativeness of Provincial Premiers Using the Wordscore Procedure of Content Analysis","1","What is the usefulness of the new computer wordscoring
method developed by Laver, Benoit and Garry (2003)
for research in political science, and particularly for estimating
the policy position of key political actors? This is the central
question I address in this paper. Using the computer
wordscoring methodology I analyze the speeches given in the
legislative assemblies of Quebec and Ontario by provincial
premiers to assess their budgetary policy position. I present the
empirical results of the wordscoring content analysis and discuss
the validity and the effectiveness of this new technique.
Manual content analysis, but also traditional computer content
analysis (either using a dictionary approach or another one) has
involved large amounts of highly skilled labor required for
developing and testing the coding dictionaries that are central
to these approaches. In addition, important human involvement
brings the risk of potentially biased human coders. These two
shortcomings can be avoided by using a new probabilistic
word-scoring method developed recently by Laver, Benoit and
Garry (2002 & 2003) which extracts policy positions from
political texts by treating them as data in the form of words.
The technique using the software Wordscore estimates policy
positions by comparing a set of texts whose positions are known
or can be either estimated with confidence from independent
sources or assumed uncontroversially as representative for a
policy position (reference texts) and a set of texts whose policy
position one must search to uncover (virgin texts).
Using the computer wordscoring methodology I analyze the
policy position of provincial premiers in the budgeting process
in Quebec and in Ontario in the years 1968-2004 using the
'guardian-spender' budgetary framework (Wildavsky 1964 &
1984), which supposes the existence of two main roles attached
to the institutional positions held by the participants in the
budgetary negotiations: they are either 'guardians' of the treasury (participants from central agencies controlling the budget:
Minister of Finance, President of the Treasury board) or
advocates of program spending coming from program ministries
(minister of Health, minister of Education, etc).
Since we can not predict the fiscal behaviour of the government
on the base of a simple partisan left-right dichotomy (Imbeau),
the traditional models of budgetary theories employing
politicians' [here called 'actors'] preferences do not give us any
appropriate measure of the budgetary position of key political
'actors'. Thus, a way to uncover policy position of a premier is
to assess his or her preferences on an additional dimension,
differentiating between budgetary actors with a total vision of
budget (guardians) and those with a partial vision of it
(spenders). The vision is total if the budget balance is more
important than a party's taxing or spending preferences. On the
other hand, the vision of the budget is partial if the party
program (more or less tax and spending) is more important than
the budget balance.
Which texts are representative of the policy position of
budgetary 'actors' we are interested in? We certainly can assume
that the Speech from the Throne delivered by the
Lieutenant-Governor at the opening of each legislative session
expresses the Premier's policy preferences. Its delivery
constitutes one of the central moments in a session, thus it is
carefully crafted by the Premier's Office and its content is
reviewed many times before delivery. The Throne speeches
are compared to two reference texts: the budget speech
representing the guardians' expression of a total view of the
budget, and the preliminary remarks by the Ministers of Health
and of Education at budget hearings representing the spenders'
view of a partial vision of the budget. Although all three texts
are usually drafted so as to represent the position of the
government, they should be differentiated because of the policy
role that each assumes.
Based on these assumptions and using the wordscoring
technique of content analysis, I develop a fiscal conservatism
index of budgetary 'actors'. I then assess the internal validity
of my results using a variety of validity tests.
Bibliography
Imbeau, L.M. ""Deficits and Surpluses in Federated States: A
Review of the Public Choice Empirical Literature."" Paper
presented at the annual conference of the Canadian Political
Science Association, Winnipeg. 2004.
Laver, M., K. Benoit, and J. Garry. Placing Political Parties
in Policy Spaces. Dublin: Trinity College, 2002.
Laver, M., K. Benoit, and J. Garry. ""Extracting Policy Positions
from Political Texts Using Words as Data."" American Political
Science Review 97 (2003): 311-331.
Wildavsky, A.B. The Politics of the Budgetary Process.
Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1964.
Wildavsky, A.B. The Politics of the Budgetary Process (4th
Edition). Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1984.","txt","2","",""
"484","6","An Examination of the Authorship Attributions of Two Major Roman Authors","1","Introduction
This paper describes a stylometric analysis of 16 texts
attributed by the manuscript tradition to two Roman
authors of the first century BCE: Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44;
all dates BCE, unless noted), and Gaius Sallustius Crispus,
commonly referred to as Sallust (86-34). The 'control' consists
of the Lives of the Twelve Caesars of Gaius Suetonius
Tranquillus (77-121 CE at the earliest). All twelve works are
attributed by the tradition to Suetonius, and our analysis, given
in earlier publications, has corroborated this tradition of single
authorship.
The texts analysed include the fourteen books attributed to
Caesar, and two books by Sallust. The texts of Caesar comprise:
the eight books on the war in which he conquered Gaul in the
years from 58 to 50; the three books on the following Civil
Wars (49-48), in which Caesar eliminated his great political
rival Pompey and his Eastern army; and the three books on his
final battles against the surviving generals: in Alexandria
(48-47), Africa (47-46), and Spain (46-45). This study then
completes a similar analysis of the works of Sallust: the war in
Africa against the Numidian king Jugurtha (111-106); and the
failed rebellion of the Roman noble Lucius Sergius Catilina,
known as Catiline, in 63.
Of the eight books of the Gallic Wars, the question arises as to
exactly when and by whom they were created. Some have
argued that the first seven were written as a group, but that the
eighth must be attributed to his general Hirtius, who claims in
the work that he was responsible for both that and the later text
on the war in Alexandria.
Of the further works, the three on the Civil Wars, from his
crossing of the Rubicon in 49, to the battle of Pharsalus in
Thessaly in 48, are generally accepted to have been authored
by Caesar. There is considerable disagreement, however,
concerning the three wars in Egypt, Africa and Spain: the
Alexandrian War, as noted, is claimed by Hirtius; the origin of
the African War is uncertain; and the internal character of the
text of the Spanish War clearly defines it to be the creation of
an unknown person. There is little disagreement on this last
score, since the text on the Spanish War comprises some of the
worst Latin extant, and was probably intended to be the raw
material for a more structured history.
Statistical Routines
The Stylometric Analysis of the 28 texts has been
conducted by use of the SPSS routines Hierarchical
Cluster Analysis, and Principal Component Analysis.
Discriminant Analysis has then been used to test the group
memberships suggested by the first two.
Data
The data for the statistical routines have been provided by
a matrix of 9,000 by 58 real-valued elements that
represent the normalized frequencies of occurrence of unique
lemmas (dictionary head-words) in 58 texts. This matrix has
been generated from the fully disambiguated texts of the 58
works of Caesar, Sallust, Suetonius, and the Scriptores
Historiae Augustae, and involves a reduction from 329,000 to
305,000 numeric values to be handled after the removal of all
proper nouns. This matrix has been sorted in decreasing order
on the frequencies of lemmas, and lists also the number of texts
in which each individual lemma is not found. It has therefore
been easy to choose for analysis the most frequent function
words, verbs, nouns & pronouns, and adjectives in the texts
under consideration.
The main thrust of the research has been conducted on the data
set of function words, but, because the most frequent verbs,
nouns, and adjectives can be identified so accurately in a
disambiguated and tagged text, it has been possible to compare
the statistical results of these three parts of speech with those
from function words, which themselves are considered in the
literature to be standard as data in stylometric analysis. The
first thing noticed, however, has been the necessity of
comparing the results from a full set of lemmas, with a set from
which the most frequent 2 or 3 have been removed. These few
very frequent lemmas can apparently overwhelm the effects of
the other lemmas, and skew the results slightly, but noticeably.
Analysis
I n a test of 37 function lemmas (with the removal of the
three most frequent: et, in, and the separable suffix que), the twelve works of Suetonius, the 'control' works, demonstrate
that the lives remain closely grouped, as found in our earlier
research, with only the life of Titus being slightly removed
from all others. When all 40 of the top function lemmas are
involved, however, there are slight changes in the distances of
most lives, and the life of Otho joins that of Titus at the further
remove, although this removal does not involve any question
of a change of authorship.
In an analysis of Sallust's Catiline and the Jugurthan War, the
results from an analysis of the 37 most common function
lemmas reinforce the manuscript tradition of authorship, with
a very close association; with all 40 of the most frequent
lemmas, however, the relative spacing of the two works
approaches even a possible difference in authorship.
The analysis of 37 of the 40 most common function lemmas in
the works of Caesar provides a greater complexity. There is,
first of all, a very close association between Gallic VIII and
the Alexandrian War, with both being clearly separated from
most of the other works attributed: an apparently clear
vindication of the claims by Hirtius to be the author of both.
The Spanish War, that work of execrable Latin, is obviously
of totally separate authorship. The most remarkable result,
however, is the distance between Book I of the Gallic Wars
(that book with the famous beginning: ""Gallia est omnis divisa
in partes tres"" - ""All Gaul is divided into three parts"" ), and the
other works attributed to Caesar (other than the Spanish War).
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
When all 40 top function lemmas are employed, most
separations between the works attributed to Caesar increase.
Gallic I and Gallic IV are now both at a further remove from
the other works, and are hardly within reasonable attribution
to Caesar. The Alexandrian War, however, is now very close
to other texts, and far from Gallic VIII; and both the African
War and Gallic VIII are now possibly beyond any reasonable
attribution to Caesar, although the attribution of Gallic VIII to
Hirtius remains possible. The Spanish War continues to be far
distant from any other work in the 28 studied.
The analyses of verbs, nouns, and adjectives, all demonstrate
considerable differences amongst the works. For example,
Gallic VIII and the Alexandrian War become relatively distant
in the analysis of nouns (less the top three), although they are still closer to one another than to any other works. In the
analysis of adjectives, however, they appear no longer to be
related, and in addition, Gallic VIII becomes quite close to
several other books of the Gallic Wars and Civil Wars.
Conclusions
I t appears clear that the arguments in the stylometric
literature, describing the necessity of using function lemmas,
remain valid. Nonetheless, verbs, nouns, and adjectives must
not be discarded as being inferior to function lemmas in the
identification of authorship, since they provide valuable insights
to the Latinist on the individual differences in word usage by
the various authors.
The conclusion to be drawn from the differentiation between
the use of all most common lemmas and those lemmas with
the top 2 or 3 removed appears to be that a blind use of the
most frequent lemmas can skew the results, and demonstrates
that close cooperation between statistician and Latinist is
required.
The overall conclusion on the authorship attributions to Caesar
and Sallust are clear. The two works of Sallust appear to be
correctly attributed. The attributions to Caesar remain complex,
however: the text on the Spanish War is undeniably not that of
any literate Roman; and Gallic VIII and the Alexandrian War
appear definitely to be of separate authorship, and quite possibly
that of Hirtius, as the tradition claims. The most striking fact,
however, is that the first book on the Gallic Wars is of a high
literary quality, yet is undeniably different from the other works
of Caesar. Hence it now lies in the realm of the Latinist for a
full analysis of the author's uses of all parts of speech, and the
manner in which he apparently poured so much more effort
into this first book that brought his conquests in a new land to
the attention of the Roman People who would later be voting
on his bitterly fought candidature for the Consulship.
Bibliography
Gurney, L.W., and P. Gurney. ""The Scriptores Historiae
Augustae: History and Controversy."" Literary and Linguistic
Computing 13.3 (1998): 105-109.
Gurney, L.W., and P. Gurney. ""Authorship Attribution of the
Scriptores Historiae Augustae."" Literary and Linguistic
Computing 13.3 (1998): 119-131.
Gurney, L.W., and P. Gurney. ""Subsets and Homogeneity:
Authorship Attribution in the Scriptores Historiae Augustae.""
Literary and Linguistic Computing 13.3 (1998): 133-140.","txt","2","",""
"485","6","Gottlob Frege's Grundgesetze der Arithmetik: Computational Linguistics Meets the Founder of Logicism","1","Our paper deals with the text technological challenges
which arise from the retrodigitalization of Gottlob Frege's
Basic Laws of Arithmetic. The digitalization is the basis for a
hypermedia presentation with various views about the text.
The German mathematician, logician, and philosopher Gottlob
Frege is regarded as the founder of logicism, i.e., the view that
mathematics can be completely derived from pure logic. The
two volumes of the Basic Laws of Arithmetic are Frege's major
work (1893/1903). Here he develops his logicist program in
detail, i.e., he deduces central arithmetic laws from logic.
Frege's work is seen as the basis of modern logic. Therefore it
is of interest not only for mathematicians but also for scholars
of various arts. Apart from its metamathematical considerations
the Basic Laws are relevant especially for philosophers of
language and for linguists, because Frege's investigations on
sense and reference, functions and concepts are accumulated
in these books.
Frege uses in his work a peculiar two-dimensional notation for
formulas of predicate logic. His notation was not taken up by
other logicians and is therefore regarded as hardly readable.
The structure of a formula is primarily symbolized by horizontal
and vertical branching lines, e.g., a little vertical line
symbolizing negation. A line which runs vertically downwards
and then parallel to another horizontal line represents a
conditional clause. Formula parts may be written linearly.
Furthermore Frege uses a lot of special symbols, which he
defines in the Basic Laws. Like his two-dimensional notation,
they were not taken up by others. For these reasons Frege's
notation deviates quite a lot from contemporary logical
formalisms. Compared to his smaller writings the Basic Laws
are therefore studied less frequently.
Our project has the goal to make Frege's work accessible to a
broader scientific community. We will offer various views with modern notations. As a precondition we have digitalized the
Basic Laws using an XML structure according to a specific
DTD. The pure text part was scanned and converted into plain
text by OCR. This part has posed only few problems due to the
high quality of the original typesetting. The digitalization of
the formula parts has cost much more effort. The logical
structure of formulas had to be entered completely by hand.
Automated methods failed due to the peculiarity of the
formalism. Special attention had to be given to the encoding
scheme of the formulas. From the XML code the original
notation should be derivable as well as various modern
notations, among these heuristically simplified notations. Frege
refers from the text to parts and single symbols of the formulas.
Changes of the form of formulas can therefore have impact on
the surrounding text. For example, he represents a universal
quantifier by a bow in a horizontal line which is superscripted
by a Gothic character. He refers to this symbol as the cavity
(Höhlung). In the text all occurrences of cavity must be replaced
by some other description in views with modern formula
notations and deviating symbols for universal quantifiers.
The XML coding of the formula trees has another scientific
application apart from providing the basis for alternate views:
it allows for an automated verification and analysis of Frege's
proofs (formula forests). The extremely compact derivations
in the Fregean calculus practically exclude a manual
verification. Here automated procedures can provide essential
help for the reader by 'unfolding the proofs', i.e., by making
intermediate implicit proof steps fully explicit.
The immediate goal of this project is the derivation of
presentations for two media. We will produce a print and web
version. The target format of the print version is valid LaTeX
documents. For the webpages we use XHTML in order to arrive
at a maximally browser independent representation. We use
exclusively XSLT for transformations. The print version with
the original Fregean formula notation is produced primarily for
control purposes. A print version with modern notational
variants is applied in an ongoing commentary project.
The web version will support a couple of notational variants
as well as proof unfolding. Links will be generated between
text and proof references. A full text search and search facilities
for formulas, definitions and lemmas will be provided.
The forms of presentation and the views sketched above will
considerably enhance the accessibility of Gottlob Frege's Basic
Laws of Arithmetic for many recipients. It provides new ways
of reception for a relevant but formally peculiar text.
Bibliography
Frege, Gottlob. Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, Band I/II. Jena:
Verlag Herman Pohle, 1893/1903","txt","2","",""
"486","6","Delta, Delta Prime, and Modern American Poetry: Authorship Attribution Theory and Method","1","In the three years since John F. Burrows presented Delta,
his new measure of authorial difference, in his Busa Award
lecture (2001), there has been a flurry of activity in the
authorship attribution community and beyond. Delta measures
the difference between test texts and a set of texts by possible
authors in an elegantly simple way: the frequencies of the most
frequent words in the test text and in each of the primary texts
are compared with their mean frequencies in the primary set.
The difference between the test text and the mean is then
compared with the difference between the texts by each author
in the primary set and the mean. Then the absolute values of
the differences between the z-scores for all the words are
summed and the mean is calculated, producing Delta, ""the mean
of the absolute differences between the z-scores for a set of
word-variables in a given text-group and the z-scores for the
same set of word-variables in a target text"" (Burrows 2002a,
271). The primary author whose texts show the smallest Delta,
the smallest mean difference, from the test text has the best
claim to being the author of the test text.
Burrows has published two articles demonstrating the
effectiveness of Delta on Restoration poetry, even for small
texts (2002a, 2003), and has applied the technique to the
interplay between translation and authorship in ""The Englishing
of Juvenal: Computational Stylistics and Translated Texts""
(2002b). David L. Hoover has just published two studies
involving Delta (2004a, 2004b) that automate the process of
calculating and evaluating the results of Delta in an Excel
spreadsheet with macros. Hoover's first article demonstrates
Delta's effectiveness on early 20th century novels, and shows
that increasing the number of frequent words to be analyzed
far beyond the 150 most frequent that Burrows uses—to the
700 or 800 most frequent—substantially improves the results,
as does the removal of personal pronouns and words that are
frequent in the entire corpus only because they are extremely
frequent in a single text. It also shows that large drops in Delta
from the first to the second likeliest author are strongly
associated with correct attributions. The second article shows
that it is possible to improve the accuracy of attribution by
Delta by selecting subsets of the word frequency list for analysis
and by changing the formula of Delta itself, and also extends
the testing of the measures to contemporary literary criticism,
where they continue to perform very well. These new methods
recapture information about whether a word is more or less
frequent than the mean, about how different the test text is from
the mean, about the size of the absolute difference between the
test text and each primary text, and about the direction of the
difference between the test text and the primary text.
In spite of the fact that Burrows's Delta is simple and intuitively
reasonable, it, like previous statistical authorship attribution
techniques, and like Hoover's alterations, lacks any compelling
theoretical justification. Nonetheless, it and some of the
variations upon it are manifestly and surprisingly effective,
even in difficult open authorship attribution situations in which
the claimants cannot be limited to a small number by traditional
means. Other ongoing studies that are not ready for public
discussion are underway by several researchers, involving a
'real life' attribution problem on 19th century prose, another on
a Middle English saint's life, and an application of the technique
and its variants to biology.
In this paper I investigate the effectiveness of Delta and
Hoover's various Delta Prime candidates on a corpus of
1,430,000 words of Modern American Poetry by poets born
between 1902 and 1943. This investigation returns to poetry
but brings the techniques forward to the 20th century. Although
it is well known that changes in language and style across long
spans of time are very considerable, and that many authorship
attribution techniques are sensitive to these differences,
preliminary results show that Delta and the various Delta Primes
are even more accurate on the corpus investigated here than on
the restoration poetry that Burrows investigated. They are so
accurate, in fact, that the differences between the original Delta
and the alternatives are relatively small (it is difficult to improve
much on 100% accuracy). These results may be related to a
greater individuality in poetic styles in modern poetry, with
some poets using rhyme and meter and others working in much
looser forms, and to the presence of dialect. Whatever the cause,
however, they further demonstrate the robustness of the
techniques, which have now been tested on two corpora of
poetry written nearly 300 years apart, on novels from 1900,
and contemporary literary criticism. Further tests on
contemporary prose and on texts tagged for part of speech are
ongoing, not so much in an attempt to further confirm the
effectiveness and reliability of Delta and Delta Prime, which
now seem very solidy validated, but rather in the hope of more
fully understanding why these relatively simple techniques
work so well, and in continuing to improve their already
impressive power. Burrows, J.F. ""Questions of Authorship: Attribution and
Beyond."" Presented at the Association for Computers and the
Humanities and Association for Literary and Linguistic
Computing, Joint International Conference, New York, June
14, 2001. 2001.
Burrows, J.F. ""'Delta': a measure of stylistic difference and a
guide to likely authorship."" Literary and Linguistic Computing
17 (2002a): 267-287.
Burrows, J.F. ""The Englishing of Juvenal: computational
stylistics and translated texts."" Style 36 (2002b): 677-99.
Burrows, J.F. ""Questions of Authorship: Attribution and
Beyond."" Computers and the Humanities 37.1 (2003): 5-32.
Hoover, David L. ""Testing Burrows's Delta."" Literary and
Linguistic Computing 19.4 (2004a): 453-475.
Hoover, David L. ""Delta Prime?"" Literary and Linguistic
Computing 19.4 (2004b): 477-495.","txt","2","",""
"487","6","The Delta Spreadsheet","2","John F. Burrows introduced Delta, a simple measure of
authorial difference in his Busa Award lecture (2001), and
further elaborated upon it in three articles (2002a, 2002b, 2003).
In all of these discussions Burrows relies on an Excel
spreadsheet that helps to simplify and partially automate the
calculation of Delta. At the ALLC/ACH conference in
Gothenburg, David L. Hoover presented the results of further
tests of Delta on prose and discussed a more complex version
of Burrows's spreadsheet that takes the automation of the
calculation and the analysis of results much further (2004a),
and he has just published two articles that rely on such
spreadsheets (2004b, 2004c).
Given the burst of activity in authorship attribution circles
following the introduction of Delta, many researchers are
interested in using it on various projects. Unfortunately, even
Hoover's 2004 versions of the spreadsheet are rather daunting
in their complexity, and their macros are difficult to understand
because they do not include comments. Further, the researcher
must do substantial analytical work on raw word frequency
lists before they can be inserted in the spreadsheet for Delta
testing. Once the lists are produced, the frequencies must be
transformed into text percentages and a zero frequency record
must be inserted in the list for each text if any of the most
frequent words does not occur in that text. This is not a
significant problem for analyses using only a small number of
the most frequent words because nearly all of them will occur
in each text, but, as Hoover has shown (2004b, 2004c),
increasing the word list to the 700-800 most frequent often
improves the accuracy of the analysis, and many of the 800
most frequent words will normally fail to appear in one or more
of the texts. Manually adding zero records may be an acceptable
method in small analyses, but it would be an extremely
time-consuming and error-prone process if the 800 most
frequent words in a set of fifty or more texts were to be
analyzed.
Hoover's analyses also show that removing personal pronouns
and words for which a single text provides nearly all the
occurrences significantly improves Delta (and other kinds of
statistical analyses of authorship), and these are non-trivial
processes that are difficult enough to prevent some researchers
from trying out these techniques. The addition of the various
possibilities for Delta Prime introduced in Hoover's second article (2004c) makes for still greater complication, and seems
likely to prevent the interested humanist who is not an Excel
maven from further testing these innovative measures on new
corpora and from using them in real authorship attribution
problems.
My current project involves further elaboration of Hoover's
spreadsheets to automate more of the necessary processes.
Beginning with a version provided by Hoover that includes
explanatory comments on the macros by Marc LeBlanc of
Wheaton College (MA), I hope to produce a spreadsheet that
can accept as input a list of the authors and texts, the raw word
frequencies from the corpus as a whole and from the individual
primary and test texts. The complete analysis will be performed
within the spreadsheet itself. This will allow anyone who has
access to any of the myriad of software tools that can produce
ranked frequency lists to try out Delta and the various Delta
Primes without needing to have expertise in text analysis, Excel,
or Visual Basic. The project is currently under way, with the
various formulas for calculating Delta and the various Delta
Primes already added and the analytic work planned out and
in progress. Initial testing has begun to determine whether or
not the macros will operate with acceptable speed, and whether
the limitations of Excel will impact the number of frequent
words that can be analyzed. If performance proves too poor, I
intend to use other methods than Visual Basic and link them
as seamlessly as possible with the spreadsheet. By the time of
the conference, I expect to have a fully operational version to
demonstrate and distribute to anyone who is interested.
A secondary benefit of the current project is more wide ranging,
having to do with the question of how to balance using the good
tools for performing the analysis and manipulation of the word
frequency lists (certainly Visual Basic is not one of them!), and
providing a tool that is usable by the largest possible number
of users, even if those users are not particularly computer
literate. This has long been a question of serious interest to
software developers, and the relatively small scale of this project
may allow it to come to the fore in interesting ways. I hope to
benefit from the expertise of conference attendees in continuing
to develop and improve The Delta Spreadsheet.
Bibliography
Burrows, J.F. ""'Delta': a measure of stylistic difference and a
guide to likely authorship."" Literary and Linguistic Computing
17 (2002a): 267-287.
Burrows, J.F. ""The Englishing of Juvenal: computational
stylistics and translated texts."" Style 36 (2002b): 677-99.
Burrows, J.F. ""Questions of Authorship: Attribution and
Beyond."" Computers and the Humanities 37.1 (2003): 5-32.
Burrows, J.F. ""Questions of Authorship: Attribution and
Beyond."" Paper delivered at the Association for Computers and
the Humanities and Association for Literary and Linguistic
Computing, Joint International Conference. June 14, 2001.
Hoover, D.L. ""Testing Burrows's Delta."" Paper delivered at the
Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing and
Association for Computers and the Humanities, Joint
International Conference, Göteborg, Sweden. 2004a.
Hoover, D.L. ""Testing Burrows's Delta."" Literary and
Linguistic Computing 19.4 (2004b): 453-475.
Hoover, D.L. ""Delta Prime?"" Literary and Linguistic
Computing 19.4 (2004c): 477-495.","txt","2","",""
"488","6","Concurrent Markup Hierarchies: a Computer Science Approach","1","Abstract
It is known that text has not, in general, a regular structure.
However, since its invention and despite the fact that it
represents hierarchical structures, XML has gained a lot of
popularity among humanities researchers: XML is easy to use
and it comes with a handful of free processing tools. A variety
of solutions were proposed to represent overlapping structures
in XML. More or less easy to maintain from the point of view
of data management, none of these solutions provides full
support for two of the most demanded processing tasks:
querying and presentation (XSL-like transformation).
We propose a processing framework for complex
document-centric XML which generalizes the traditional way
of XML data management to support overlapping markup
processing. Our framework provides support for overlapping
structures representation in XML, querying, authoring, and
presentation of overlapping hierarchies.
1. Introduction
The newborn TEI Overlapping Markup Special Interest
Group comes to support the fact that overlapping XML
structures are of great interest for the text encoding community.
Why is XML so popular? First at all, XML is the legitimate
descendant of SGML, which was also popular among
humanists. Then there is the fact that XML comes with a
handful of processing (free) tools. This fact is clearly expressed
by TEI's ""Strategic Considerations in Migration of TEI
Documents from SGML to XML"". More specifically, DOM,
SAX, XPath, and XSL and the companion software are very
attractive for humanities computing. In addition, XML is
flexible, intuitive, and readable: it is text, isn't it? However,
there is an annoying detail about XML that does not fit into the
same picture with text encodings: XML allows only properly
nested markup structures. However, overlapping structures
(concurrent hierarchies) often occur in applications. Czymiel
points out that the proposed solutions for the overlapping
markup problem fall in three categories: XML based
workaround (milestones and fragmentation suggested by TEI
in Sperberg-McQueen & Burnard), new markup languages such
as LMNL (Tennison et al.), MECS (Huitfeldt), and TexMecs
(Huitfeldt & Sperberg-McQueen), or content and structure
separation (standoff markup, JITTs (Durusau & O'Donnell)).
None of the solutions previously presented contains complete
answers for the problems of management of concurrent XML
data.
Part of the problem is the correct identification of what is the
""problem of overlapping markup"" . For some researchers in
humanities, the problem lies in determining the markup
elements that can overlap each other, and in devising a way to
apply one of the TEI-based suggestions, such as milestone
elements. For others, the problem lies in specifying the correct
order in which elements overlap, e.g., determining whether
paragraph markup must commence inside or outside the page
markup.
Such considerations are of importance because they are dictated
by the nature of the documents and encoding under
consideration. Yet, successful resolution of such issues for
specific projects does not constitute solving the overarching
problem of representation, storage, management and querying
of overlapping markup. Approaching the general solution of
such a problem requires a change of a viewpoint from that of
a humanities scholar working on document encoding, to the
viewpoint of a computer scientist striving to provide generally
applicable methodology, algorithms and software tools.
In this paper, we address the issues related to overlapping
markup in document-centric XML documents from the
perspective of computer scientists. We show that, in general,
the framework for processing multihierarchical markup is the
same as the framework for processing single-hierarchy XML
documents. The difference comes not in the laundry list of
tasks, and not in overall organization of the framework, but
rather in the approaches to solving individual subproblems/tasks
within it.
The processing framework we describe below covers all the
core XML processing tasks: representation and parsing, data
structure, querying, and presentation.
2. A Framework for Management of
Concurrent Markup Hierarchies
The framework we propose (Figure 1) generalizes the
traditional XML processing framework: parsing an XML
document into a DOM data structure (or, alternatively constructing DOM from an XML database), then using the
DOM API support for editing, querying, and transforming the
XML document.
The core of our processing framework is the data structure for
storing concurrent XML markup: the GODDAG data structure
first introduced by Sperberg-McQueen and Huitfeldt. We
enhanced the GODDAG with API and we have designed and
implemented a parser for building a GODDAG (Iacob, Dekhtyar
& Kaneko) from separate XML files, one file per hierarchy
(this would present the advantage of a basic concurrency control
over authoring the document encodings). In general, a
GODDAG data structure can be built using specialized drivers
for different concurrent markup representations.
In Iacob, Dekhtyar & Zhao, we present an extension of the
XPath query language for querying concurrent markup
represented as a GODDAG. As GODDAG represents a
“multidimensional” generalization of DOM, our extension of
XPath generalizes XPath to deal with concurrent hierarchies.
In the absence of multiple hierarchies, GODDAG reduces to
DOM whereas extended XPath reduces to XPath (the extended
XPath semantics is given at: <http://dblab.csr.uky
.edu/~eiaco0/docs/expath/> ). With the parser and
the query language we provide answers to two of the open
problems in Sperberg-McQueen & Huitfeldt. Moreover, the
presentation issue (XSL) is implicitly solved as we employ
patterns expressed in the extended XPath language we propose.
The XML editorial tools are based on the GODDAG API: text
(PCDATA) update, markup insertion and deletion, and searching
(using the XPath extension).
Figure 1: A framework for management of Concurrent XML Hierarchies
For representing and storing concurrent XML markup we
defined the notion of distributed XML document (Dekhtyar &
Iacob): a virtual collection of XML documents, one document
per hierarchy. The distributed XML document is obtained via
drives from various representations: BUVH and JITTs
introduced by Durusau and O'Donnell, XML documents with
fragmentation and/or milestones (as in TEI).
Finally, we are currently working on implementing persistent
storage support for concurrent XML hierarchies: a specialized
database for storing XML with overlapping structures. Our
plans include providing support for storing XML with
overlapping structures in a relational database.
The framework for processing concurrent XML markup is
successfully implemented in the ARCHway and Electronic
Boethius projects ( <http://www.rch.uky.edu/> ) at
the University of Kentucky. The APIs and (part of) the software
programs are available at: <http://dblab.csr.uky.e
du/~eiaco0/research/cmh/> .
Bibliography
Bauman, S., A. Bia, L. Burnard, T. Erjavec, J. Hekman, T.
Rischer, C. Powell, C. Ruotolo, S. Schreibman, N. Smith, J.
Walsh, S. Wells, and F. Wiering (TEI Task Force on SGML
to XML Migration). Strategic Considerations in Migration of
TEI Documents from SGML to XML. Text Encoding Initiative,
2004. Accessed 2005-04-11. <http://www.tei-c.org
/Activities/MI/miw02.html>
Czmiel, A. ""XML for Overlapping Structures (XfOS) using a
non XML Data Mode."" Paper delivered at the Joint International
Conference of the Association for Humanities Computing and
the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing, June,
Göteborg, Sweden 2004. 2004. Accessed 2005-05-25. <htt
p://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/pro
p104.html>
Dekhtyar, A., and I.E. Iacob. ""A Framework for Management
of Concurrent XML Markup."" Special Issue Data and
Knowledge Engineering 52 (2005): 185–208.
Durusau, P., and M.B. O'Donnell. ""Concurrent Markup for
XML Documents."" Proceedings of XML Europe. Atlanta,
Georgia, 2002. Accessed 2005-04-11. <http://www.ide
alliance.org/papers/xmle02/dx_xmle02/pape
rs/03-03-07/03-03-07.html>
Huitfeldt, C. ""MECS - A Multi-Element Code System ."" 1998.
Accessed 2005-04-11. <http://helmer.hit.uib.no
/claus/mecs/mecs.htm> . Forthcoming in Working
Papers from the Wittgenstein Archives at the University of
Bergen, No 3. Huitfeldt, C., and C.M. Sperberg-McQueen. ""TexMECS: An
experimental markup meta-language for complex documents.""
February 2001.
Iacob, I.E., A. Dekhtyar, and W. Zhao. ""XPath Extension for
Querying Concurrent XML Markup."" Technical Report TR
394-04. University of Kentucky Department of Computer
Science, February 2004. <http://www.cs.uky.edu/~
dekhtyar/publications/TR394-04.pdf>
Iacob, I.E., A. Dekhtyar, and K. Kaneko. ""Parsing Concurrent
XML."" Proceedings of the 6th ACM International Workshop
on Web Information and Data Management (WIDM 2004),
Washington, DC. November 2004.
Sperberg-McQueen, C.M., and Lou Burnard, eds. Guidelines
for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Chicago and
Oxford: TEI P4, 2001.
Sperberg-McQueen, C.M., and C. Huitfeldt. September 2000.
Early draft presented at the ACH-ALLC Conference in
Charlottesville, June 1999.
Tennison, J., G.T. Nicol, and W. Piez. Layered Markup and
Annotation Language (LMNL). Dissertation, University of
Wisconsin, 2002. First introduced at the Extreme Markup
Languages Conference 2002, Montreal.","txt","2","",""
"489","6","Edition Production Technology: an Eclipse-Based Platform for Building Image-Based Electronic Editions","2","We are developing the Edition Production Technology (EPT),
an integrated development environment for building
Image-based Electronic Editions (IBEE) (Kiernan 2005),
through the Electronic Boethius (Kiernan and Porter 2005) and
ARCHway Projects (Kiernan et al. 2004; Kiernan et al. 2005)
at the University of Kentucky. We built the EPT using Java,
and it operates through the Eclipse platform, benefiting from
Eclipse’s open architecture and portability. Currently the EPT
runs on Windows XP, Linux, and Mac OS X.
The goal of the EPT is to provide software support for building
image-based electronic editions of cultural manuscripts. Starting
with images and text, the EPT enables the editor to create an
electronic edition with complex, pervasive XML encodings,
search the electronic edition, link text and images, and deploy
the completed electronic edition using filters and XSLT.
A fully functional demo version of the EPT software suite for
PC, including sample projects, is available for download at <h
ttp://rch01.rch.uky.edu/~ept/download> . Figure 1. A snapshot of EPT illustrating image-based encoding through
ImagText, xMarkup, and xTagger (including an XML view). The figure also
shows the Keyboard panel and Search Tool.
Editorial Tools on EPT Platform
• Project wizard initializes an electronic edition project. The
input data consists of image files, text content (or partially
encoded text) and one or more DTDs (EPT provides support
for concurrent markup using multiple DTDs).
• xMarkup, xTagger and ImagText form the core component
for encoding image-based, document-centric XML, working
together to link text and image. Through xMarkup, the editor
selects edition markup through a series of simple,
configurable templates. xTagger introduces markup into
the text and provides filtered XML views, while ImagText
associates that text section with the corresponding image
region, selected by the editor. In summary, the tagging
works as follows: the editor selects text and image (in any
order), describes the manuscript or textual feature, choosing
tags and attribute values through xMarkup, and inserts the
markup. See Figure 1 for an illustration of the cooperation
between xMarkup, xTagger, and ImagText. The xTagger
ensures that the new markup is well-formed and potentially
valid (Iacob, Dekhtyar, and Dekhtyar).
• DucType provides a specialized interface for describing
individual manuscript letters. The editor configures DucType
through the Letter Template, which also creates and
maintains a repository of letter images for a manuscript.
The letter images are then used by the DucType tool as base
of comparison with any letter image in manuscript image.
• Overlay provides image manipulation support. An editor
may find that multiple images of the same folio are required
for a complete view of the manuscript. Using this tool the
editor lays one image over another image of the same folio
(using, for instance, ultraviolet and normal lightening
conditions) and changes the transparency of the upper layer,
enabling a useful comparison of the two images.
• SaMod is a specialized tool for creating manuscript text
collations with text from multiple sources (for example, the
same text found in different manuscripts). This tool
recognizes differences between transcripts and marks up
these differences as variants of the text the editor identifies
as the base text.
• StaTend: Using a transcript marked with basic navigational
markup – folio and folio line tags – this tool calculates
manuscript statistical tendencies (number of folios, lines
per folio, characters per line, etc.). Based on these statistical
tendencies the tool reconstructs missing folios for which
we can supply the text from another source, based on these
statistics. The StaTend tool also includes functionality,
called RamSome, for taking these textual 'virtual folios' and
translating the text into image, built character by character
using letters taken from the manuscript.
• Quires is a specialized interface for the edition and
visualization of codicological markup. It allows the editor
to build a virtual map of the physical object. We used this
tool in the Electronic Boethius project to reconstruct the
gatherings of a manuscript whose binding was destroyed
by fire.
• The Search GUI is an interface for searching the edition.
The editor can configure it to search any combination of
XML markup, while hiding the intricacies of the query
language (an extension of XPath that supports multiple
hierarchies).
• Datalayer is the API for data access in EPT. Tools request
and deliver edition data (image and text files, DTDs, etc.)
through the Datalayer API, which can interface with a
variety of data storage devices, whether a database, file
system, or remote server.
• Glossary is a data-centric XML editor for creating a glossary
including each word from the edition text. It automatically
generates a complete word list from a transcript file encoded
with basic formatting information (folio and folio line
markup. The glossary links its entries to the text through
the <word> tag – changes made within the edition text are
automatically reflected in the glossary. It provides
customizable templates for parts of speech and tools for
saving the information in XML format (used later on for
searching purposes) and HTML format (used for display
glossed information).
• The HTML browser provides HTML display and general
browser support in EPT. Having a browser integrated in the
platform enables the EPT to direct XSL transformations
dynamically to the browser. • The Keyboard panel enables the editor to configure
keyboards containing special characters (Old English æ,ð,
and þ, Greek characters, etc.).
In addition to editorial tools, the EPT provides support for
project management such as: Project properties editor is a GUI
for various settings related to the project, such as fonts,
encoding, title, etc. It provides support for adding and removing
project images and for customizing markup tags, grouping tags
in meaningful use categories, assigning aliases to tags and
attributes, and adding and removing DTDs from a project. XML
filter allows the editor to create encoding filters for viewing
different combinations of elements from the entire set. The
output of a filter can be used for visualization, XSL
transformation, or data interchange. Extended XPath search is
a search GUI using extended XPath language (an extension of
XPath that applies to concurrent markup structures).
From the Eclipse platform, EPT inherits three important features
for project development: versioning control (CVS), automatic
updates, and help content support. The editing team uses CVS
to share project work-in-progress and as projects repository.
Updates are useful for providing tools updates as well as bug
fixes: an EPT user need only check for updates and download
them if available. Finally, the open help architecture enables
the editor to create and use help files in such a way that the
application help information is added independently of the
application program.
Demo overview
Our demonstration will begin with examples of the most basic
EPT functionality, and depending on time we will demonstrate
any tool or function. We will begin by creating a project and
going through the usual operations for preparing an image-based
electronic edition: content markup (using only text projections
or filtered XML views), automatic linking of images and text,
and text updates. We will demonstrate that our document-centric
XML editor (xTagger) can significantly simplify and speed up
the encoding process. The editor can search for the information,
visualize the encodings using customizable filters, or change
project properties at any point in the editorial process. We will
demonstrate the support for overlapping markup structures by
adding/removing DTDs and markup encodings from external
files. Depending on the interests of the audience, we can also
show how a project can be customized, starting with user
interfaces (toolbox, fonts, encodings, etc.) and ending with
markup customization: associating aliases to tag elements and
attributes, grouping tag elements by functionality, and
displaying status bar information based on XPath queries. We
will also be prepared to demonstrate Quires, Overlay, and
DucType, and show how to customize DucType. Statistical
information for the project encodings can be obtained
dynamically and we can show how this information can be used
in folio reconstruction (text and image) for missing manuscript
part. We can also demonstrate SaMod, showing how it collates
several different texts.
The demo may also include automatic generation of HTML
content from edition data (glossaries, manuscript edition and
manuscript transcription).
We emphasize during the demonstration how the Eclipse’s
open architecture is an excellent platform choice for
implementing the EPT.
Bibliography
Iacob, Ionut Emil, Alex Dekhtyar, and Michael I. Dekhtyar.
""Checking Potential Validity of XML Documents.""
Proceedings, Seventh International Workshop on the Web and
Databases, WebDB@SIGMOD/PODS. 2004. 91-96.
Kiernan, Kevin S. ""Digital Facsimiles in Editing: Some
Guidelines for Editors of Image-based Scholarly Editions.""
Electronic Textual Editing. Forthcoming. A volume of essays
jointly sponsored by the Modern Language Association and
the TEI Consortium, funded by the Mellon Foundation, and
co-edited by John Unsworth, Katherine O’Brien O’Keeffe, and
Lou Burnard, 2005.
Kiernan, Kevin S., Alex Dekhtyar, Jurek Jaromczyk, Dorothy
C. Porter, and Ionut Emil Iacob. ""Edition Production
Technology (EPT) and the ARCHway Project."" DigiCULT.Info
(August 2004): 36-38.
Kiernan, Kevin S., Jurek Jaromczyk, Alex Dekhtyar, Dorothy
C. Porter, Kenneth Hawley, Sandeep Bodapati, and Ionut Emil
Iacob. ""The ARCHway Project: Architecture for Research in
Computing for Humanities through Research, Teaching, and
Learning."" Literary and Linguistic Computing (Forthcoming).
Special issue, papers from Joint International Conference of
the Association for Computers and the Humanities and the
Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing, 2003
Kiernan, Kevin S., and Dorothy C. Porter. ""Edition Production
Technology (EPT) and the Electronic Boethius Project.""
DigiCULT (Forthcoming).","txt","2","",""
"490","6","Animated Dynamic Highlighting","1","1. Introduction
The recent years have seen an exponential increase in the
amount of information available through the Internet on
any given topic. Information retrieval techniques have been
steadily improving and can provide a mass of relevant results,
but those results still have to be processed and digested by a
human reader. Information professionals need technology that
helps people absorb large amounts of text quickly. We introduce
Animated Dynamic Highlighting (ADH), an interactive,
user-controlled technology to improve presentational aspects
of the reading task. We present the research underlying the
ideas of ADH, the ADH technology itself, and some results
from an initial user study evaluating its effectiveness and
usability.
2. Background
The study described in this paper is part of a larger effort
at PARC called Productive Reading. We are looking at
ways in which computation can be applied to the reading
process, in two major ways: to enhance document content, and
to enhance the user experience of reading.
The current model of the reading interface is heavily based on
the static experience of words imaged on paper. This model
has been carried over directly to the presentation of text to the
computer screen. Some attention has been given to using
computation to modify the presentation structure of documents
(Beveret al. 75-87; Walker et al.), but with certain exceptions
(Chang et al.). These presentations are inherently static.
The major exception to this is the presentation technique
commonly known as rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP).
The overview of studies in RSVP given in Sicheritz suggest
that a dynamically altered presentation of text may be able to
enhance comprehension without negatively affecting reading
speeds. However, RSVP is often found to suffer from some
serious disadvantages, notably eyestrain, usually attributed to
the fact that the user's eyes do not move from a fixed position,
and user anxiety, due to the inability to look back at
previously-read text. Other studies such as Castelhano et al.
have demonstrated ways to alleviate some of these issues.
3. ADH
3.1. What ADH does
The goal of ADH is to preserve the apparent advantages of
RSVP, while mitigating the apparent disadvantages. It paces
the user through an electronic document, sequentially
highlighting parts of the text, each a few words long, without
modifying the spatial layout of the original page, so that the
reader's eyes move in a normal reading fashion. The speed with
which the highlighting moves depends on properties of the
chunks and on a base speed set by the user. The reader can
adjust the speed, and also restart ADH from any point in the
document. The reading speed may be at a speed somewhat
faster than the user's habitual reading speed.
3.2. The viewing technology
The ADH presentation system is part of a larger system at
PARC for archiving and reading documents, called UpLib
(Chang; Mackinlay; Zellweger). The UpLib system includes a
document reader, called ReadUp, which normally supports a
conventional page-oriented document display. ReadUp was
modified to present documents in both RSVP and ADH mode. Figure 1: A document page shown with ADH highlighting
3.3. Phrase-breaking technology
The text of a document is first annotated with part-of-speech
tags using the Inxight tagger. In contrast to most taggers, the
Inxight tool has a large inventory of labels to distinguish
between different types of determiners, adverbs, and pronouns.
While the information is less detailed than a syntactic parser
could produce, the markup makes it possible to divide the text
into semantically coherent pieces. We have defined a large set
of phrasal patterns and compiled them into finite-state
transducers (Beesley; Karttunen). The transducers are applied
in a cascade taking the output of one pattern matching step as
input to the next one. This process splits the input text into
phrases proceeding from larger constituents (sentences and
clauses) to smaller constituents (NPs, VPs, PPs) and their
components. Each phrase should contain between 2 and 4
content words (such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs);
the boundaries of syntactic constituents are in most cases
preserved. An example of a partitioned sentence is below:
<phrase>The Marine Corps band</phrase>
<phrase>played the national
anthem</phrase> <phrase>as Dailey
unveiled a space-suited Glenn</phrase>
<phrase>in his new place of
honor,</phrase> <phrase>suspended 40
feet above the floor</phrase> <phrase>of
the museum's breathtaking Gallery
100.</phrase>
Finally, the established phrase boundaries are projected back
to the original source text to enable the dynamic highlighting
in presenting the text to the user.
3.4. Display timing
Each phrase is allocated an initial display time based on the
user-selected speed. This base span is then modified in a number
of ways: shorter phrases get somewhat less time, longer ones
more time. The timespan is further modified to reflect the
findings in Just; Carpenter: phrases ending a line, at the end of
a page, at the beginning of a new line, or ending a sentence all
receive varying amounts of extra time, reflecting the extra time
human subjects tend to take with these kinds of phrases. Finally,
the occurrence of linguistic constructs in the phrase, such as
pronouns and compound nouns, is used to modify the timespan
in additional ways.
4. User Study
4.1. Method
The goal of the user study was to assess the effectiveness of
ADH and to compare it to RSVP (Sicheritz); the same
phrase-breaking and timing were used for ADH and RSVP.
Eighteen test subjects, mostly researchers and interns, were
given three alternative modes of presenting documents: plain
(not modified in any way), ADH, and RSVP. The texts contained
simple factual information and were followed by questions
testing the recall accuracy. The first stage of the experiment
used documents with automatic phrase breaking, the second
one used manual phrase breaking.
The subjects were also asked about their reactions to the ADH
and RSVP technologies.
4.2. Results
Although there were too few subjects for significant results,
some interesting trends emerged. Overall, ADH was found to
be faster than either plain or RSVP mode; it was also somewhat
less accurate. In general, there was a tradeoff between speed
and accuracy in ADH: the faster a document was read, the less
accurate was the recall. However, both the speed and accuracy
results were better with manual phrase-breaking than with
automatic phrase-breaking. Users found both ADH and RSVP
to be somewhat annoying, but rated RSVP worse than ADH.
However, most said they would use ADH again for skimming
through short articles, especially with improved phrase-breaking and timing algorithms. On the other hand, most users rejected
future uses of RSVP. The lower user ratings and reading speeds
may be the result of novelty shock. The results are nevertheless
encouraging: younger subjects in particular were very
enthusiastic about ADH, and the user study produced many
suggestions for future improvements and well as possible
applications of ADH.
5. Conclusion
ADH is one of the many possibilities inherent in the idea of
actively presented text. Interfaces that attempt to work with the
user in understanding the underlying text would seem to have
wide applicability for reading text of all kinds, from technical
papers to email to biography, particularly in overview reading,
such as Adler's systematic skimming and superficial reading
(van Doren; Adler). They may offer special advantages to those
with reading disabilities, or for specific tasks, such as
proofreading. Our initial investigations into this technique seem
promising, and a number of improvements in both phrase
analysis and presentation timing are already being investigated.
Bibliography
Beesley, Kenneth, and Lauri Karttunen. Finite State
Morphology. Stanford: CSLI Publications, 2003.
Bever, Thomas G., Rebecca Burwell, Steven Jandreau, Ronald
M. Kaplan, and Annie Zaenen. ""Spacing printed text to isolate
major phrases improves readability."" Visible Language 25
(1990): 75-87.
Castelhano, Monica S., and Paul Muter. "" Optimizing the
reading of electronic text using rapid serial visual presentation.""
Behaviour & Information Technology 20.4 (2001): 237-247.
Chang, Bay-Wei, Jock Mackinlay, and Polle T. Zellweger.
""Fluidly revealing information in Fluid Documents.""
Proceedings of Smart Graphics 2000 AAAI Spring Symposium.
Stanford University, 2000.
Janssen, William C., and Kris Popat. ""UpLib: a universal
personal digital library system."" Proceedings of the 2003 ACM
symposium on Document Engineering. Grenoble, France, 2003.
234-242.
Just, Marcel Adam, and Patricia A. Carpenter. ""A theory of
reading: From eye fixations to comprehension."" Psychological
Review 87 (1980): 329-354.
Sicheritz, Karen. Applying the Rapid Serial Presentation
Technique to Personal Digital Assistants. Master's Thesis,
Department of Linguistics, Uppsala University, Sweden, 2000.
van Doren, Charles, and Mortimer Adler. How to Read a Book.
New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972.
Walker, Randall C., and Stan D. Walker. An Introduction to
Live Ink Technology. Rochester, MN.: Walker Reading
Technologies, Inc., 2001.","txt","2","",""
"491","6","The ARCHway Software Infrastructure: a Demo of a Platform and Utilities for Building Applications for Electronic Editions","2","As advocated in our paper (Jaromczyk & Bodapati), the
Eclipse platform (Eclipse Platform Technical Overview)
is a suitable choice for building complex systems in
environments that involve interdisciplinary collaboration and
the involvement of researchers and students at different levels.
Eclipse provides a universal tool platform (Eclipse) which
allows different software tools to work together using a plugin
system to form an integrated whole. This architecture underlies
the Edition Production Technology (Kiernan et al.), an
integrated set of tools for creating, managing, and viewing
image-based electronic editions (IBEEs) (Dekhtyar et al.). In
order to provide more comprehensive and integrated support
for the needs of editors and students of electronic editions, we
provide an additional, task-oriented, infrastructure which
provides functionality for extending Eclipse to support tasks
for editing electronic editions.
In this demonstration, we will present several pieces of this
infrastructure. The infrastructure includes support for
management of resources essential for humanities scholars
interested in electronic editions, and a uniform structure for
accessing and combining transcripts, concurrent XML
documents, and images. It is designed to accommodate the
varying needs of editors and allows for specializations ranging
from simple adaptation through the graphical user interface
(GUI), to medium-level changes based on XML configuration
files and wizards, and finally to advanced customization by
developing new plugins in Java. As such, it is intended to meet
needs of individual scholars or large groups.
The infrastructure we present consists of a number of parts,
organized into layers. The lowest layer, sitting directly atop
Eclipse, is the Data Layer, a framework for uniform access to
resources in different physical locations such as filesystems,
databases, and web servers. Above the Data Layer is the Project
Explorer, a tool for modelling resources and projects for IBEEs
and navigating those models. Making use of both the Data
Layer and the Project Explorer is the Resource Registry, which
organizes collections of resources according to user-defined
criteria. Finally, higher-level components of the EPT use these
tools as a framework for managing and organizing the data in
an image-based electronic edition.
This demonstration will present the infrastructure and show
how it fits into the general architecture of the EPT. We will
furthermore give examples illustrating how the tools can be
customized. We demonstrate the use of the Project Explorer to
create, manage, and navigate electronic edition projects,
accessing both local and remote data sources through the Data
Layer. We will also show how the Project Explorer’s
model-based approach to projects allows for highly
customizable views of the structure of an electronic edition. In
particular, the Resource Registry contributes a model of the
contents of a project that can be changed on the fly at runtime.
In addition to this infrastructure, we will present tools which
make use of the infrastructure to help editors produce electronic
editions. The Line Tracer allows editors to annotate (mark up)
images in an electronic edition, using a model based on the
segment tree data structure (Dekhtyar et al.; Jaromczyk &
Moore) that provides a natural support for the concurrent XML
based on image tagging. Another tool, the Image Morpher,
works with the Line Tracer and Resource Registry to re-morph
manuscript pages, correcting deformations of the lines of text
introduced by centuries of wear and tear.
The demo will focus on illustrating how the implemented
infrastructure can be customized to meet a broad range of needs
related to individual and collaborative work on electronic
editions.
Bibliography
Dekhtyar, Alex, et al. ""Database Support for Image-based
Electronic Editions."" Proceedings, 10th International
Workshop on Multimedia Information Systems (MIS 2004).
College Park, MD, August 25-27, 2004. 147-156.
Eclipse. Accessed 2004-10-11. <http://www.eclipse
.org/>
Eclipse Platform, Technical Overview. Object Technology
International, Inc. Last modified Feb. 2003. Accessed
2005-04-12. <http://www.eclipse.org/whitepap
ers/eclipse-overview.pdf>
Jaromczyk, Jerzy W., and Sandeep Bodapati. ""An Architecture
Promoting Collaborative Research, Teaching, and Learning."" Proceedings, Joint International Conference of the Association
for Computers and the Humanities and the Association for
Literary and Linguistic Computing. Athens, GA, May 29-June
2, 2003. 10.
Jaromczyk, Jerzy W., and Neil Moore. ""Geometric data
structures for multihierarchical XML tagging of manuscripts.""
Proceedings, 20th European Workshop on Computational
Geometry. Seville, Spain, 2004. Accessed 2005-04-14. <htt
p://www.us.es/ewcg04/Articulos/jaromczyk.
ps>
Kiernan, Kevin, Jerzy W. Jaromczyk, Dekhtyar, Alex et al.,
Dorothy Carr Porter, Kenneth Hawley, Sandeep Bodapati, and
Ionut Emil Iacob. ""The ARCHway Project: Architecture for
Research in Computing for Humanities through Research,
Teaching, and Learning."" Literary and Linguistic Computing,
2005 (Forthcoming). Special issue, papers from Joint
International Conference of the Association for Computers and
the Humanities and the Association for Literary and Linguistic
Computing, 2003.","txt","2","",""
"492","6","In Search of Humanities Computing in Teaching, Learning and Research","1","Introduction
Humanities computing as a field of study has many facets
which can be used to define it. John Unsworth (2000)
suggested seven 'Scholarly Primitives' of discovering,
annotation, comparing, referring, sampling, illustrating and
representing. These low-level research methods combine and
feed into each other to form the basis for higher-level scholarly
activity not just in the humanities but throughout the academy.
A primary task of humanities computing is to provide the
technological tools to allow academics to apply these primitives
to the range of digital data and resources available across
computer networks and to ensure the viability of these resources
into the future.
Willard McCarty and Harold Short (2002) have produced a
rough intellectual map of humanities computing. At the centre
of the map is a large 'methodological commons' of
computational techniques shared among the disciplines of the
humanities and closely related social sciences, e.g., database
design, text analysis, numerical analysis, imaging, music
information retrieval and communications. Each disciplinary
group contributes techniques to the methodological commons.
As new applications of these techniques are demonstrated in
other disciplines they in turn are exported from the commons
into new disciplinary groups. Humanities computing is the
agency that oversees this development process taking methods
from one discipline, developing them and then applying them
in other disciplines. Part of this process is the identification or
creation of the tools to fulfil the roles of the scholarly primitives
described earlier. The tools do not exist in isolation; they must
be developed and used in ways that satisfy the scholarly criteria
of all the disciplines involved in their production, which is
again a role of humanities computing specialists.
The nature of humanities computing can also be explored by
looking at the teaching and learning taking place in the courses
that are intended to prepare the next generation of practitioners.
Researchers who are active in the field design and implement
the curriculum of these courses. The content therefore reflects what they believe students need to know but do these courses
reveal more about humanities computing than is written in the
course handbook?
Courses at King's College London
The Centre for Computing in the Humanities (CCH) at
King's College London offers undergraduate and
postgraduate degree programmes in Humanities Computing
and Digital Culture and Technology. This paper focuses on the
teaching and learning that takes place primarily in the final year
of the B.A. Minor Programme in Humanities with Applied
Computing. The final year is taken up with a practical applied
computing project. This offers an opportunity to examine how
effective the rest of the programme has been in equipping the
student to tackle the ill-defined, open-ended style of question
asked by researchers in the humanities. Although the emphasis
here is on the final year of the undergraduate programme many
of the issues it raises apply equally to the other programmes of
study and some examples may be drawn from them and indeed
from some of the research projects at King's.
Final Year Projects
The School of Humanities at King's College London has
shown a high level of commitment to developing the
effective use of applied computing in research, teaching and
learning in the Humanities. Their support has allowed the Centre
for Computing in the Humanities to play a central role in
developing humanities computing at King's and in the wider
academic and cultural heritage communities. The students on
the humanities computing courses at King's are drawn from a
broad range of humanities disciplines and have opportunities
to examine an extensive set of humanities computing projects
first hand at King's. Because of this, applications of humanities
computing chosen by the students for their projects are varied
and extensive. The projects vary considerably in content and
scope but many involve the creation of a digital resource;
examples from recent years have included:
• a computer assisted learning module for learning verbs with
common roots in Modern Greek;
• investigating the use of computer animation to analyse
Naval Battles;
• a study of the representation of women in three French
novels from the nineteenth century using text analysis tools;
• using a database to investigate patterns of involvement by
individuals and institutions in corruption scandals in France
during the 1990s;
• exploring the effects of the Mexican Revolution on the
demography of Mexico using a Geographical Information
System;
• an Investigation into how global warming is portrayed by
Online Resources;
• an XML Mark-up Scheme for Texts in a Virtual Museum
of Latin American iconography.
The applications of computing techniques in the humanities
are evolving rapidly, as is the technology being used by the
students. Many challenges are posed by this rapid change when
supervising and assessing the projects.
Conclusion
Humanities computing does not exist in isolation. It
integrates a large body of knowledge from the humanities
disciplines and many facets of computing and information
science into a single discipline. This integrated body of
knowledge has to be applied in a way that satisfies the scholarly
criteria of each of the original source disciplines. The level of
integration means that the teaching of humanities computing
should affect teaching and curriculum development elsewhere.
This raises issues surrounding the institutional role of
humanities computing and new media within the contemporary
academy, including curriculum development and collegial
support for activities in the fields with which which it exchanges
knowledge.
This paper reflects on the use of project work as a means of
teaching humanities computing. Pedagogic, and more pragmatic
issues are discussed from the viewpoints of both the teacher
and learner. The experiences of staff and students on the
undergraduate and postgraduate courses in humanities
computing at King's College London are used to explore the
nature of humanities computing. The project work performed
in the Centre for Computing in the Humanities at King's will
also be drawn on to illustrate key issues where appropriate.
Bibliography
Biggs, J. Teaching for quality learning at university.
Buckingham: Open University Press, 1999.
Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams.
The Craft of Research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
2003.
Borger, R., and A. Seabourne. The Psychology of Learning.
London: Penguin, 1966. Botkin, J., M. Elmandjra, and M. Malitza. No limits to learning:
Bridging the human gap. A report to the Club of Rome. Oxford,
UK: Pergammon Press, 1979.
Freire, P. The Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Harmondsworth:
Penguin, 1972.
Jarvis, P., J. Holford, and C. Griffin. The Theory and Practice
of Learning. Routledge Falmer, 2003.
Jessop, M. ""Humanities or Computing? The Growth and
Development of Humanities Computing."" Association of
Computer Machinery 41.5 (December 2004).
Jessop, M. ""Teaching, Learning and Research in Final Year
Humanities Computing Student Projects."" Literary and
Linguistic Computing (due Summer 2005).
Kolb, D. Experiential Learning: Experience at the Source of
Learning and Development. Kogan Page, 1984.
Marton, F., D. Hounsell, and N. Entwistle, eds. The Experience
of Learning. 2nd ed. Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1997.
McCarty, Willard, and H. Short. A Roadmap for Humanities
Computing. . Accessed 2005-02-15. <http://www.kcl.
ac.uk/cch/allc/reports/map>
Moon, Jennifer A. A Handbook of Reflective and Experiential
Learning: Theory and Practice. London: Routledge Falmer,
2004.
Prosser, M., and K. Trigwell. Understanding Learning and
Teaching. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 1999.
Unsworth. J. Scholarly Primitives: what methods do humanities
researchers have in common, and how might our tools reflect
this? . Accessed 2005-15-02. <http://jefferson.vil
lage.virginia.edu/~jmu2m/Kings.5-00/primi
tives.html>","txt","2","",""
"493","6","Are Targeted User-Centred Interfaces the Key to Facilitating the Conversion of the Traditional Non-User to a User of Archives?","2","Archival digitisation brings limitless opportunities, the
advantages of which are obvious; however in the race to
exploit this new media fundamental user-centred design
principles have been ignored.
Based on body of research undertaken recently in the UK (Sabin
et al.), the Internet is now viewed as a key point of entry to
archival services. This poster examines the issues surrounding
traditional non-user groups and the challenges that the designer
faces when designing an interface to facilitate their needs.
The poster session will afford the opportunity of presenting the
first in a series of prototype user- centred designed interfaces
that aim to actively support the traditional non-user thereby
facilitating the conversion process to that of an archive user. It
will also examine the need for a cohesive national digitisation
strategy that sustains targeted, well designed interfaces.
Based on a MORI poll (2003) nine out of ten adults in the UK
aged fifteen plus are classified as non-archive users. This figure
indicates that there is vast scope to identify and target groups
within the non-user classification with the aim to persuade them
to use an archive service, whether that be locally, nationally or
via the Internet.
The MORI poll found that one in four people stated that making
information available on the Internet was especially important
to them with over a third of respondents stating that they are
most likely to use the Internet to research their family tree
within the next two years.
These figures are promising and suggest that the intellectual
barrier that exists on accessing archive material seems to be
dissipating. This is supported by research undertaken by the
LEADERS project who found that the majority of users in their
survey, 60%, could be categorised as 'personal leisure' users as
opposed to 22% categorised as 'professional or occupational'
users (Sexton et al.).
In response to this shift within the traditional user profile a
small body among the archival profession has begun to address the need for a user-centred approach when developing new
ways to support and develop archival access by online users.
LEADERS is one such project that has examined different types
of users and their requirements in order to develop a set of
open-source tools that can be used by archivists to create online
content (Sexton et al.).
Wendy Duff has called for the establishment of a global
research network of archival user studies. Her work and that
of her colleagues Joan Cherry, Catherine Johnson and Barbara
Craig has focused on the information seeking activities of the
user. She believes that a detailed understanding of the
information seeking behaviour of different types of users is a
pre-requisite to providing the archival services of the future
(Duff).
This growing interest in end-users and how they seek and use
information is a departure from the traditional archivist's
rationale. Wendy Duff offers an explanation as to why end-users
have traditionally been marginalised in the design process. ""At
the heart of archival theory is the record, not its secondary use
nor the various types of researchers who visit archives seeking
information"" (Duff).
This marginalisation of the user manifests itself in the
inadequate consideration given to them and their specific needs
in many of the digitisation best practise guidelines; the focus
being strongly on technical standards and material issues.
Therefore consideration must now be given to all types of users
in order to encourage the next generation of archive users. The
challenge that remote users bring is the inherent difficulty in
their identification and classification of use, this information
is vital when producing comprehensive user requirements.
Without a detailed understanding of the user and their
requirements, the fulfilment of the later is unlikely.
Amanda Hill acknowledges this in her research on the
characteristics of users of online archival resources.
Users of our online services are just as important as users who
enter our record offices and, if we are to form a clear picture of
the overall use of our services, we need to ensure that there are
processes in place to count those users
(Hill)
In order to engage key groups amongst the traditional non-users
it is essential to undertake a comprehensive evaluation of what
has gone before. With the advent of large scale digitisation
projects it has become possible to undertake summative
evaluations of the user's experience of archival digitisation.
My own research into a digitisation project highlighted the
pressures of a publicly funded scheme and the ensuing problems
of designing for the widest possible audience. As a consequence
the user was insufficiently defined which resulted in a poor
understanding of the user's requirements (Johnson).
The current process for bidding for funds for digitisation
compounds this approach. In order to attract new archive users
and offer previously 'unavailable' access of archival material
to the individual, the user must be placed at the centre of the
design process. One significant influence in this pursuit of
converting the non-user has to be a cohesive digitisation
strategy, with local projects uniting under an agreed national
strategy. This could generate a co-ordinated system where the
user could enter at any point and navigate according to their
individual needs.
The need for a targeted approach is the focus of this poster
presentation, the focus of my own research is targeted user
interfaces supporting all levels of users. These prototype
interfaces encompass all that user-centred design can convey
and aid in actively supporting the user in sharing in the vast
opportunities that archival digitisation affords.
A multi-method research strategy which reflects real life has
been utilised to produce a variety of data that provides a rich
picture of the current problem. A number of groups selected
from the non-user classification have been identified as suitable
subjects for prototype users.
Using both summative evaluations of existing digitisation
projects and analytic analysis of prototypes, the design process
is both iterative and ensures the empirical measurement of
prototype usage.
With an early focus on user requirements and tasks, the
prototype interfaces are to undergo a rigorous testing
programme. Understanding the behaviour of users when seeking
information coupled with the amount and type of information
requires further investigation with consideration given to the
presentation and the interpretation of archive resources.
The interfaces presented at the session will include many
features that the evaluation of current projects have shown to
be lacking or poorly designed. The features include a single
directory to help potential users identify what information may
be useful of interest to them, simple navigation tools, a
comprehensive help system and appropriate information of the
archive resources available to the user both locally, nationally
and via the Internet.
All prototype interfaces conform to ISO Standards 9241 and
13 407 and W3C guidelines.
This poster session marks the beginning of my research with
the prototypes being the first in a series, each placing the user
at the centre of the design process, which I believe is
fundamental in securing new audiences for archive services via
the Internet.
This targeted designed process hopes to overcome the
restrictions that funding can often apply to these areas. More research needs to be undertaken to examine at what point
users stop using archival web resources and for what reason
i.e. information overload, poor navigation etc.
Further research, in addition to what has already been produced
by LEADERS (Sexton et al.), Duff and Hill is required into the
types and categories of records users want to have digitised as
most of the current projects have been driven by funding
considerations.
""Review is vital"" (MORI) therefore in an effort to ensure that
archival digitisation delivers consequential accessibility,
computer science has a key role in providing innovative
solutions that actively sustain and promote the use by traditional
non-user groups thereby encouraging new audiences to access
archival material via this exciting media.
Bibliography
Duff, W. ""Understanding the information-seeking behaviour
of archival researchers in a digital age: paths, processes and
preferences."" Proceedings of the DLM Forum 2002.
Luxembourg, 2002. Accessed 2005-02-17. <http://euro
pa.eu.int/historical_archives/dlm_forum/d
oc/dlm-proceed2002.pdf>
Hill, A. ""Serving the invisible researcher: meeting the needs
of online users."" Journal of the Society of Archivists 25.2
(2004).
Johnson, A.C. ""The Mersey Gateway project: How was it for
you?"" A User Centred Evaluation of a Digitisation Project..
Dissertation, University of Lancaster, 2004, 1966.
MORI. Listening to the Past, Speaking to the Future. Annex
D: Non-Archive Users Survey :Omnibus Study. MLA
Publications, 2003. Accessed 2004-11-03. <http://www.
mla.gov.uk/documents/atf_annex_d.pdf>
Sabin, R.W., and L. Samuels. Listening to the Past, Speaking
to the Future. Annex E: Towards a better Understanding of
Non-Users . MLA Publications, 2003. Accessed 2004-11-03.
<http://www.mla.gov.uk/documents/atf_anne
x_e.pdf>
Sexton, A., C. Turner, G. Yeo, and S. Hockey. ""Understanding
Users: a prerequisite for developing new technologies."" Journal
of the Society of Archivists 25.1 (2004).","txt","2","",""
"494","6","Towards an Automatic Index Generation Tool","1","Almost every non-fiction author has been faced from time
to time with the generation of an index. Most novice
authors (myself included) are taken aback by the magnitude of
the task and the limited amount of computational and software
support available.
The current state of the art is significantly improved from the
days of 3-by-5 'index cards', (a telling term?), but only in
mechanical, not intellectual terms. Modern publishing practice
typically involves the author delivering a machine-readable
'manuscript', written in a document-processing system such as
LaTeX. Index entries are defined as specific term/location pairs
by the author. For example, an index entry written in LaTeX,
might look as follows
The \index{Pittsburgh!University of}
University of Pittsburgh was established
in \index{Pittsburgh!city of}
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in the
year....
This will create an index entry on the 'current page', under the
heading ""Pittsburgh, University of"" (as opposed to ""Pittsburgh,
city of,"" which would be the second entry, a related but separate
subentry). Although guidelines for a good index (Northrup;
University of Chicago Press Staff) are commonly available,
the process of producing a good index is still largely
unsupported, even by major and relatively sophisticated
publishing companies such as Prentice-Hall.
What differentiates an index from a mere concordance?
There are at least six cognitive tasks (Maislin; Saranchuk)
related to the production of a good index, as follows. Current
standard support covers only the last.
• Identification of terms to index;
• Location of all informative references in the text;
• Identification/location of synonymous terms (e.g.
""University of Pittsburgh"" / ""Pitt"" );
• Splitting of index terms to split into subterms;
• Development of cross-references within the index itself;
• Compilation of page numbers, I will present a framework for the development of a
'machine-aided index generation system'. This bears the same
relationship to an automatic indexer that machine-aided
translation (MAT) does to machine translation (MT), in that it
provides suggestions and reduces the overall workload for the
human, but post-editing will still be necessary. Specifically,
recent results in corpus linguistics (Charniak; Manning &
Schuetze), including the development of taggers for part of
speech (Cutting et al.; Schmid) the availability of ontologies
and semantics networks, plus the light semantic analysis
capabilities of latent semantic analysis (Landauer et al.), can
be combined in a multi-phased iterative framework and
implemented as user-level software. This paper presents some
aspects of ""good"" indices (Northrup; University of Chicago
Press Staff) and illustrates how they can be achieved
computationally.
In general, following the University of Chicago's dictum that
""it is always easier to drop entries than to add them, err on the
side of inclusiveness,"" (rule 18.120) we start by assuming that
every term is a potential index entry and look for criteria by
which to eliminate enough terms to produce a reasonably-sized
index. (5-15 references/page, between 2% and 5% of the length
of the final work, according to rule 18.120.) For example, rule
18.8 states that ""the main heading of an index entry is normally
a noun or noun phrase---the name of a person, a place, and
object, or an abstraction."" A first pass, then, can use the results
of a part-of-speech tagger and eliminate all terms that do not
appear as a noun in the document. Within this set of nouns, I
suggest two possible heuristics for further pruning; first,
common nouns that are too common or too rare are unlikely to
be useful index terms, and second, words that are too uniformly
distributed are unlikely to be useful index terms. On the other
hand, a case can be made that all proper nouns should be
included. Other suggested heuristic will be discussed.
Within a single index term, ""an entry that requires more than
five or six locators is usually broken up into subentries"" (rule
18.9). This can be treated as an example of word-sense
disambiguation, for example, between Pittsburgh (University
of) and Pittsburgh (city of). Again, I conjecture (and present
supporting evidence) that existing technology can provide a
useful and helpful basis for later human editing. Specifically,
existing semantic representation techniques can model the
context, and therefore the meaning, of each index token. For
truly polysemous terms, cluster analysis of the set of token
representations should yield a set of clusters equivalent to the
degree of polysemy; by setting the separation threshhold to an
appropriate level, the analysis can be forced to produce clusters
of maximum size at most 5-6. At the same time, passing and
uninformative references can be expected to produce isolated
'clusters' containing a single outlier — a strong candidate for
omission. Once a list of index terms is collected, tokens not on
that list can be compared in their semantic representation for
similarity with existing index terms; any word with
near-identical meaning is a potential synonym and a candidate
for a cross-reference.
Unfortunately, the evidence to be presented is largely heuristic
and exploratory in nature. We are currently developing a
prototype system, using LSA (Landauer et al.) and elementary
corpus statistics such as TF-IDF to identify index terms. We
also have a well-developed and intuitive GUI wizard for ease
of use by a non-technical user. At present, the planned heuristics
may or may not be sufficiently reliable to use without a human
post-editor. However, if they can be shown to substantially
reduce the work load on the human author, the resulting tool
may still be of interest. I present the results of some
prototype-scale experiments, plus some ideas about usability
testing and the directions of future development.
Bibliography
Charniak, E. Statistical Language Learning. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press, 1993.
Cutting, D., J. Kupiec, J. Pedersen., and P. Sibun. ""A practical
part-of-speech tagger."" Proceedings of the Third Conference
on Applied Natural Language Processing. Trento, Italy, 1992.
42-46. Association for Computational Linguistics. Also
available as Xerox PARC technical report SSL-92-01.
Landauer, T., P. Foltz, and D. Laham. ""Introduction to latent
semantic analysis."" Discourse Processes 25 (1998): 259-284.
Maislin, S. ""The cognitive half of indexing."" Proceedings of
Massachusetts Society of Indexers Fall Conference.
Massachusetts Society of Indexers, 1996. n. pag. Association
for Computational Linguistics. Also available as Xerox PARC
technical report SSL-92-01.
Manning, C., and H. Schuetze. Foundations of Statistical
Natural Language Processing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1999.
Northrup, M.J. ""The role of indexing in technical
communication."" Proceedings of SIGDOC-90. Association for
Computing Machinery, 1990. n. pag.
Saranchuk, G.R.Z. A new index for the graduate program
manual of the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research at the
University of Alberta. University of Alberta, 1996. Accessed
2005-04-11. <http://www.slis.ualberta.ca/cap
03/georgina/lis600fgsr_introduction.htm>
Schmid, H. ""Part-of-speech tagging with neural networks.""
Proceedings of SIGDOC-90. Proceedings of COLING-94,
1994. n. pag. University of Chicago Press Staff. The Chicago Manual of
Style. 15th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.","txt","2","",""
"495","6","A Prototype for Authorship Attribution Software","2","The task of computationally inferring the author of a
document based on its internal statistics — sometimes
called sylometrics, authorship attribution, or (for the
completists) non-traditional authorship attribution is an active
and vibrant research area, but at present largely without use.
For example, unearthing the author of the anonymously- written
Primary Colors became a substantial issue in 1996. In 2004,
anonymous published Imperial Hubris, a followup to his (her?)
earlier work Through Our Enemies' Eyes. Who wrote these
books? Does the author actually have the expertise claimed on
the dust cover ('a senior U.S. intelligence official with nearly
two decades of experience')? And, why haven't our computers
already given us the answer?
Part of this lack of use can be attributed to simple unfamiliarity
on the part of the relevant communities, combined with a
perceived history of inaccuracy 1. Since 1996, however, the
popularity of corpus linguistics as a field of study and vast
increase in the amount of data available on the Web (Nerbonne)
have made it practical to use much larger sets of data for
inference. During the same period, new and increasingly
sophisticated techniques have improved the quality (and
accuracy) of judgements the computers make.
As a recent example, in June 2004, ALLC/ACH hosted an
Ad-hoc Authorship Attribution Competition (Juola 2004b).
Specifically, by providing a standardized test corpus for
authorship attribution, not only could the mere ability of
statistical methods to determine authors be demonstrated, but
methods could further be distinguished between the merely
'successful' and 'very successful', and analyzed in particular
into possible areas of individual success.
The contest (and results) were surprising at many levels; some
researchers initially refused to participate given the admittedly
difficult tasks included among the corpora. For example,
Problem F consisted of a set of letters extracted from the Paston
letters. Aside from the very real issue of applying methods
designed/tested for the most part for modern English on
documents in Middle English, the size of these documents (very
few letters, today or in centuries past, exceed 1000 words)
makes statistical inference difficult. Similarly, problem A was
a realistic exercise in the analysis of student essays (gathered in a freshman writing class during the fall of 2003) — as is
typical, no essay exceeded 1200 words. Despite this extreme
paucity of data, results could be stunningly accurate. The
highest scoring participant was the research group of Vlado
Keselj, with an average success rate of approximately 69%.
(Juola's solutions, in the interests of fairness, averaged 65%
correct.) In particular, Keselj's methods achieved 85% accuracy
on problem A and 90% accuracy on problem F, both
acknowledged to be difficult and considered by many to be
unsolvably so.
However, the increased accuracy has come at the price of
decreased clarity; the statistics used 2 can be hard to understand,
and perhaps more importantly, difficult to implement or to use
by a non-technical scholar. At the same time, the sheer number
of techniques proposed (and therefore, the number of
possibilities available to confuse) has exploded. This limits the
pool of available users, making it less likely that a casual scholar
— let alone a journalist, lawyer, or interested layman — would
be able to apply these new methods to a problem of real interest.
I present here a prototype and framework for a user-friendly
software system (Juola & Sofko) allowing the casual user to
apply authorship attribution technologies to her own purposes.
It combines a generalized theoretical model (Juola, 2004b) built
on an inference task over event sequences with an extensible,
object-oriented inference engine that makes the system easily
updatable to incorporate new technologies or to mix-and- match
combinations of existing ones. The model treats linguistic (or
paralinguistic) data as a sequence of separable user-defined
events, for instance, as a sequence of letters, phonemes,
morphemes, or words. These sequences are treated to a
three-phase process:
• Canonicization — No two physical realizations of events
will ever be exactly identical. We choose to treat similar
realizations as identical to restrict the event space to a finite
set.
• Determination of the event set — The input stream is
partitioned into individual non-overlapping events. At the
same time, uninformative events can be eliminated from
the event stream.
• Statistical inference — The remaining events can be
subjected to a variety of inferential statistics, ranging from
simple analysis of event distributions through complex
pattern-based analysis. The results of this inference
determine the results (and confidence) in the final report.
As an illustration, the implementation of these phases for the
Burrows method would involve, first, canonicization by
norming the documents of interest. For example, words with
variant capitalization (the, The, THE) would be treated as a
single type. More sophisticated canonicization procedures could
regularize spelling, eliminate extraneous material such as
chapter headings, or even ""de-edit"" (Rudman) the invisible
hand of the editor. During the second phase, the appropriate
set of function words would be determined and presented as a
sequence of events, eliminating words not in the set of interest.
Finally, the appropriate function words are tabulated (without
regard to ordering) and the appropriate inferential statistics
(principle component analysis) performed. However,
replacement of the third stage (and only the third stage) by a
linear discriminant analysis would produce a different technique
(Baayen et al.).
This framework fits well into the now-standard modular
software design paradigm. In particular, the software to be
demonstrated uses the Java programming language and
object-oriented design to separate the generic functions of the
three phases as individual classes, to be implemented as
individual subclasses.
The user can select from a variety of options at each phase, and
the system as a whole is easily extensible to allow for new
developments. For example, the result of event processing is
simply a Vector (Java class) of events. Similarly, similarity
judgement is a function of the Processor class, which can be
instantiated in a variety of different ways. At present, the
Processor class is defined with a number of different methods3.
A planned improvement is to simply define a
calculateDistance() function as part of the Processor class. The
Processor class, in turn, can be subclassed into various types,
each of which calculates distance in a slightly different way.
Similarly, preprocessing can be handled by separate
instantiations and subclasses. Even data input and output can
be modularized and separated. As written, the program only
reads files from a local disk, but a relatively easy modification
would allow files to be read from a local disk or from the
network (for instance, Web pages from a site such as Project
Gutenberg or literature.org). Users can therefore select
functionality as needed on a module-by-module basis both in
terms of feature as well as inference method; the current system
incorporates four different approaches (Burrows; Juola 1997;
Kukushkina et al.; Juola 2003).
From a broader perspective, this program provides a uniform
framework under which competing theories of authorship
attribution can both be compared and combined (to their
hopefully mutual benefit). It also form the basis of a simple
user-friendly tool to allow users without special training to
apply technologies for authorship attribution and to take
advantage of new developments and methods as they become
available. From a standpoint of practical epistemology, the
existence of this tool should provide a starting point for
improving the quality of authorship attribution as a forensic
examination — by allowing the widespread use of the
technology, and at the same time providing an easy method for testing and evaluating different approaches to determine the
necessary empirical valididation and limitations.
On the other hand, this tool is also clearly a research-quality
prototype, and additional work will be needed to implement a
wide variety of methods, to determine and implement additional
features, to establish a sufficiently user-friendly interface. Even
questions such as the preferred method of output —
dendrograms? MDS subspace projections? Fixed attribution
assignments as in the present system? — are in theory open to
discussion and revision. It is hoped that the input of research
and user such as the present meeting will help guide this
development.
1. See, for example, the discussion of the cusum technique
(Farrington) in (Holmes 1998).
2. E.g. linear discriminant analysis of common function words
(Burrows, Baayen et al; Juola & Baayen), orthographic
cross-entropy (Juola, 1996), common byte N-grams (Keselj, 2004).
3. For example, crossEntDistance() and LZWDistance().
Bibliography
Baayen, R. H., H. Van Halteren, and F. Tweedie. ""Outside the
cave of shadows: Using syntactic annotation to enhance
authorship attribution."" Literary and Linguistic Computing
11 (1996): 121-131.
Baayen, R. H., H. Van Halteren, A. Neijt, and F. Tweedie. ""An
experiment in authorship attribution."" Proceedings of JADT
2002. St. Malo, 2002. 29-37.
Burrows, J. ""'An Ocean where each Kind. . . ': Statistical
analysis and some major determinants of literary style.""
Computers and the Humanities 23.4-5 (1989): 309-21.
Burrows, J. ""Questions of authorship : Attribution and beyond.""
Computers and the Humanities 37.1 (2003): 5-32.
Farringdon, J.M. Analyzing for Authorship: A Guide to the
Cusum Technique. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1996.
Holmes, D. I. ""Authorship attribution."" Computers and the
Humanities 28.2 (1994): 87-106.
Holmes, D. I. ""The evolution of stylometry in humanities
computing."" Literary and Linguistic Computing 13.3 (1998):
111-7.
Juola, P. ""What can we do with small corpora? Document
categorization via cross-entropy."" Proceedings of an
Interdisciplinary Workshop on Similarity and Categorization.
Edinburgh, UK: Department of Artificial Intelligence,
University of Edinburgh, 1997. n. pag.
Juola, P. ""The time course of language change."" Computers
and the Humanities 37.1 (2003): 77-96.
Juola, P. ""Ad-hoc authorship attribution competition.""
Proceedings of the 2004 Joint International Conference of the
Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing and the
Association for Computers and the Humanities (ALLC/ACH
2004). Goteborg, Sweden, 2004a. 175-176.
Juola, P. ""On composership attribution."" Proceedings of the
2004 Joint International Conference of the Association for
Literary and Linguistic Computing and the Association for
Computers and the Humanities (ALLC/ACH 2004). Goteborg,
Sweden, 2004b. 79-80.
Juola, P., and H. Baayen. ""A controlled-corpus experiment in
authorship attribution by cross-entropy."" Proceedings of
ACH/ALLC-2003. Athens, GA, 2003. n. pag.
Juola, P., and J. Sofko. ""Proving and Improving Authorship
Attribution Technologies."" Proceedings of CaSTA-2004.
Hamilton, ON, 2004. n. pag.
Keselj, V., and N. Cercone. ""CNG Method with Weighted
Voting."" Ad-hoc Authorship Attribution Contest Technical
Report.
Kucera, H., and W.N. Francis. Computational Analysis of
Present-day American English. Providence: Brown University
Press, 1967.
Kukushkina, O.V., A.A. Polikarpov, and D.V. Khmelev. ""Using
literal and grammatical statistics for authorship attribution.""
Problemy Peredachi Informatii 37.2 (2000): 172-184.
Translated in Problems of Information Transmission.
Nerbonne, J. ""The data deluge."" Literary and Linguistic
Computing (Forthcoming). [In Proceedings of the 2004 Joint
International Conference of the Association for Literary and
Linguistic Computing and he Association for Computers and
the Humanities (ALLC/ACH 2004).]","txt","2","",""
"496","6","Social, Geographical, and Register Variation in Dutch: From Written MOGELIJK to Spoken MOK","1","In spontaneous speech words are often pronounced in
reduced form. Some words are reduced to such an extent
that an orthographic transcription would be very different from
the orthographic norm. An example from Dutch is the word
MOGE-LIJK ('poss-ible'), which can be pronounced not only
as MO.GE.LEK but also as MO.GEK, MO.LEK, or even as
MOK.
Strongly reduced word forms are difficult to interpret without
syntactic or semantic context. When speakers of Dutch are
presented with the word mok in isolation, they tend not to be
able to assign a meaning to this string of phonemes. It is only
when the word is embedded in a sentence that its meaning
becomes available. Interestingly, listeners who understood the
meaning of MOK tend to think they heard the full, unreduced
form MOGELIJK. A central question in the research on the
comprehension of reduced words is what aspects of the
linguistic context allow the listener to access the associated
semantics (Kemps et al.).
An important predictor for the degree of reduction in speech
production is lexical frequency, as demonstrated by Jurafsky
et al.. for function words. The more often a function word is
used in speech, the more likely it is to undergo reduction, in
line with Zipf's law of abbreviation. Furthermore, the degree
of reduction is modulated by the extent to which a word is
predictable from its context. In addition, frequency of
occurrence has been shown to affect the realization of word
final dental plosives in monomorphemic words (Bybee), and
a negative correlation between frequency and acoustic length
has been observed for several kinds of derived words in Dutch,
including words with the suffix -LIJK (Pluymaekers et al.).
It is an open question to what extent the use of reduced forms
is co-determined by social, geographical, and stylistic factors.
Various corpus-based studies have shed light on variation in
the use of language. Biber identified different varieties of
English (and also other languages) by means of factor analyses
of the frequencies of a broad range of morphological and
syntactic variables (Biber). In the domain of literary studies,
Burrows demonstrated regional differences in English narrative,
diachronic change in literary texts, and even sex-specific
differences in the writing of English historians born before
1850 (see, e.g. Burrows). Studies in authorship attribution
revealed, furthermore, that differences in speech habits can
sometimes be traced down even to the level of individual
language users (Holmes; Baayen et al.). Finally, it has been
shown that derivational affixes are used to a different extent in
spoken and written registers (Baayen; Plag et al.).
The aim of the present study is to investigate the extent to which
the use of words in -LIJK varies systematically as a function
of speech register, the speaker's sex, level of education, and of
whether the speaker lives in Flanders or in the Netherlands. For
spoken Dutch, we address the more specific question to what
degree these factors (and contextual predictability) codetermine
the extent to which words in -LIJK are reduced.
We first studied the social and geographic variation in the
frequency of use of words in -LIJK in a corpus of Dutch
newspapers. We selected all occurences of 80 high-frequency
words in -LIJK from seven newpapers using a 2 by 3 factorial
design. We distinguished between Flemish and Dutch
newspapers (Country) and contrasted quality newspapers,
national newspapers, and regional newspapers (Register). In
parallel, we conducted a study using the same design based on
the 80 most frequent function words (pronouns, auxiliaries,
connectives, determiners, numerals, etc.), following Burrows.
In both analyses, we observed significant and remarkably
similar regional and stylistic differentiation. This suggests that
the syntactic habits of journalists (as revealed by their use of
function words) are consistent with their habits with respect to
the use of adverbs and adjectives in -LIJK.
Next, we explored the variation in frequency of use of words
in -LIJK in spoken Dutch. We selected 32 high-frequency words
in -LIJK from the subcorpora of spontaneous, unscripted speech
in the Corpus of Spoken Dutch (CGN), using a 2x2x2 factorial
design in which we contrasted speakers from Flanders with
speakers from the Netherlands (Country), men with women
(Sex), and highly eductated with less educated speakers
(Education). As before, we carried out a parallel study using
the most frequent function words. This time, we observed a
marked difference between the function words and the words
in -LIJK. Speakers with a higher education level tended to use words in -LIJK more often. For the Netherlands (but not for
Flanders), this mirrors the finding that the quality newspaper
made more intensive use of this suffix as well. The analysis of
the function words, by contrast, revealed that men made less
use of function words compared to women, suggesting a slightly
higher information density (carried by content words) for men.
In addition to these main effects, we observed marked (and
significant) differences in how individual function words as
well as individual words in -LIJK were used by men and women
in the two countries as a function of their education level.
Finally, we investigated the social and regional variation in the
degrees of reduction of words in -LIJK for 14 words that
occurred sufficiently often in the different subcorpora of the
CGN defined by our factorial design contrasting Country, Sex
and Education, and that revealed substantial degrees of
reduction. Two transcribers classified the degree of reduction
for a total of 946 tokens. We considered two kinds of reduction,
one primarily affecting the suffix, the other affecting the vowel
in the word initial syllable. Both analyses show that in Flanders
speakers reduce less than in the Netherlands. The reduction
involving the suffix is more prominent for men compared to
women. Moreover, highly educated Flemish speakers use fewer
reduced forms than do less highly educated Flemish speakers.
Finally, there were significant differences in the extent to which
the individual words underwent reduction that we could trace
back to the speaker's region.
In addition to these social and regional factors, the degree of
reduction was significantly co-determined by two linguistic
factors: the word's position in the sentence, and the extent to
which the word is predictable from its context. We used the
Mutual Information measure to gauge contextual predictivity.
Words in -LIJK with a high mutual information, i.e., words that
exhibited a high degree of predictability from the preceding
word, revealed more reduction: As the information load of a
word in -LIJK decreases, its formal distinctiveness in production
decreases as well. In this respect, highly-reduced and
semantically opaque forms in -LIJK such as TUUK (for
NATUURLIJK, 'of course') and EIK (for EIGENLIJK, 'in fact')
are becoming similar to function words. With respect to the
word's position in the sentence, we found that words in -LIJK
that occurred in sentence-final position revealed little reduction.
This is as expected given that words in sentence final position
are often lengthened.
For our analyses, we made extensive use of multilevel modeling
of covariance, a statistical technique that offers two advantages
compared to principal components analysis, factor analysis,
and correspondence analysis. First of all, multilevel modeling
allows the researcher to directly assess the significance of the
predictors in the model, as well as how the individual words
interact with these predictors. In other words, instead of using
both a clustering technique such as principal components
analysis and a technique for group separation such as
discriminant analysis, we were able to fit a single statistical
model to the data that allows us both to trace what predictors
are significant, and to visualize their effects. The second
advantage of multilevel modeling is that it offers the researcher
the possibility to include covariates such as mutual information
in the model.
Although derived words are generally classified as open-class
words, as opposed to the closed class function words, it is
noteworthy that the suffix -LIJK is hardly productive.
Furthermore, we have shown that if the information load of a
word in -LIJK decreases, its formal distinctiveness in production
decreases as well. Thus, high-frequency forms in -LIJK are
becoming more similar to function words with respect to their
lack of productivity and compositionality, with respect to their
being social and stylistic markers, and with respect to their
acoustic form.
Bibliography
Baayen, R.H, H. Van Halteren, and F. Tweedie. ""Outside the
cave of shadows: Using syntactic annotation to enhance
authorship attribution."" Literary and Linguistic Computing
11 (1996): 121-131.
Baayen, R.H. ""Derivational productivity and text typology.""
Journal of Quantitative Linguistics 1 (1994): 16-34.
Biber, D. Dimensions of register variation. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Burrows, J.F. ""Computers and the study of literature.""
Computers and Written Texts. Ed. C.S. Butler. Oxford:
Blackwell, 1992. 167-204.
Bybee, J.L. Phonology and language use. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Holmes, D.I. ""Authorship attribution."" Computers and the
Humanities 28.2 (1994): 87-106.
Jurafsky, D., A. Bell, M. Gregory, and W.D. Raymond.
""Probabilistic relations between words: Evidence from reduction
in lexical production."" Frequency and the emergence of
linguistic structure. Ed. J.L. Bybee and P. Hopper. Amsterdam:
John Benjamins, 2001. 229-254.
Kemps, R, M. Ernestus, R. Schreuder, and R.H. Baayen.
""Processing reduced word forms: The suffix restoration effect.""
Brain and Language 90 (2004): 117-127.
Plag, I., C. Dalton-Puffer, and R.H. Baayen. ""Productivity and
register."" Journal of English Language and Linguistics 3
(1999): 209-288. Pluymaekers, M., M. Ernestus, and R.H. Baayen. Lexical
frequency and acoustic reduction in spoken Dutch. In
preparation.","txt","2","",""
"497","6","The Edition Production Technology (EPT) and the ARCHway and Electronic Boethius Projects","23","Session Statement

This session is based on the collaborative research and interdisciplinary education that have gone into the development of a generic Edition Production Technology (EPT) for building image-based electronic editions of damaged Old English manuscripts and, by extension, any representation of digitized cultural materials for contemporary users.

The concept of an effective, modular, extensible, Edition Production Toolkit (EPT) arose from the difficulties encountered while producing an electronic edition of the Beowulf manuscript. To solve these problems for the Electronic Boethius project, we set out to create a modular Java and XML software framework, including an edition production management system, a native XML database, graphical user interfaces, and a suite of editorial tools, customized to the needs of textual scholars in the humanities. The goal was to allow for the efficient assembly of complex scholarly editions from high-resolution digital facsimiles and XML-encoded texts, apparatus and ancillary materials. While our general approach was sound and the Electronic Boethius project in a few months developed a suite of Java editorial tools operating under an XML framework, and successfully used these tools to begin the edition, the extensible development of the Electronic Boethius toolkit was hampered by the lack of computer science expertise in software engineering.

We were accordingly fortunate to attract computer scientists to join in the ARCHway Project, which deeply involved them and their students in an interdisciplinary effort to create an overarching technology for image-based electronic editions. Guided by the Eclipse programming environment, ARCHway has established an infrastructure for collaborative research and teaching between computer science and the humanities. Our interdisciplinary teams, working together at each stage, have designed formal methodologies for collaborative teaching and research, based on practical goals. Eclipse, our chosen programming environment, maintains an open-standards architecture with modular, extensible, interoperable components to coordinate research and development of novel methods, tools, and associated technologies in a teaching and learning environment involving undergraduate and graduate students. EPT has guided the definition and coordination of well-encapsulated collaborative student projects from semester to semester in specified research projects related to documenting, editing, storing, accessing, and searching image-based electronic editions.

The complementary projects allowed our research teams to pursue these shared goals from both a specific and practical standpoint, with the Electronic Boethius and the Electronic Beowulf projects,  to a more general and theoretical standpoint, with the ARCHway Project. In the following papers, we first present how specific problems of preparing an electronic edition from damaged Old English manuscripts help to define the range of tools required in the EPT; we then show how the computer scientists designed and implemented an EPT with specific components crucial to image-based, document-centric editing; and finally, we present the EPT’s architecture, centering on the utilities that constitute its underlying infrastructure.","txt","2","",""
"498","6","Historical Lexicons in Medieval and Early Modern English and French","23","The TAPoR (Text Analysis Portal for Research) network operates a Lexical Analysis Laboratory in the Robarts Library at the University of Toronto. The lexicographical projects associated with TAPoR Toronto include the Old English Dictionary, Aalma (a database in medieval French), the Lexicons of Early Modern English, and the Mayors and Sheriffs of London (to date, to 1558). These four projects share a scholarly objective, the accurate representation of ancient languages, both terms and names, so that researchers in all TAPoR institutions can access them, whether in SQL databases or in textbases created with XTeXT (Isagn Inc.), through Geoffrey Rockwell's TAPoR portal at McMaster University.

Anne Lancashire is converting her index of the Mayors and Sheriffs of London (MASL), recently published in a book on medieval London history, into an online database so that it can be enhanced and updated well into the future. The conversion process was not an easy one. Relationships among dates and proper names that appear straightforward on the page become problematic within a database designed especially for them. The book is not identical with the structured intelligence that goes into an SQL database. Lancashire describes how working with a web development group of digital librarians expands the historical research that went into the book.

Jennifer Roberts-Smith, a doctoral student in English at Toronto, discusses how Lexicons of Early Modern English, a text-database of over 120 glossaries and dictionaries published in England between 1480 and 1702, contributes to her reassessment of the prosody of Shakespeare and his fellow dramatists. Roberts-Smith, a director and a member of ACTRA, shows that the language of metrics in the Early Modern period is a musical one. From words like tune as used by lexicographers like Robert Cawdrey, it is possible to infer that Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatic verse has ""an inherent temporal rhythm that guides actors as to the relative pace of their delivery."" Many historical scholars have observed that Renaissance English, lexically, offers many of the same problems to a modern reader as does a foreign tongue. This estrangement may now be extended to metrics.

Brian Merrilees is undertaking an online edition of fifteen manuscript glossaries of medieval French that vary widely but are, as a group, termed the Aalma. One challenge in this project is to find a way to give a full collation of variant readings from many manuscripts at the same time as to maintain the integrity of the various manuscript versions. For a long time Merrilees has worked very productively with WordCruncher, a 1980s interactive concordancer. Faced with the challenge of constructing an online hybrid, at once a collection of well-edited texts and a large index of variant readings, Merrilees is experimenting with a new generation of SQL database and XTeXT textbase technologies.

Lancashire, Roberts-Smith, and Merrilees differently show how, once digitized within a structured form, lexical and onomastical materials conspire to become a semantic web.

 (Ian Lancashire)","txt","2","",""
"499","6","Cybertextuality and Text Analysis","8","A cybertext is any oral, written, mental, or
machine-generated language act viewed from within
cybernetics, the study of communication and control in living
organisms and machines, a theory invented by the American
mathematician Norbert Wiener (1894-1964). We author
cybertexts by steering or governing their making according to
the persistent feedback we receive from all those who observe
them. Insofar as computing humanists use software to analyze
both literary works and machine-made texts like concordances,
they may be said to owe something to cybernetics. Our analytic
programs simulate part or all of the messaging and feedback
process, some acting as creators, others as reader-listeners or
noisy channels. The basis for our software is ultimately how
language cognition works. Given that we create most of our
own oral and written utterances unselfconsciously, we first
encounter them as strangers and observers, not as authors; and
our observation always begins with modelling the sense data
we have received from ourselves. These mental models act as
feedback and help shape the next sentences we make.
Cybertextual cycles, each an unselfconscious utterance and a
partially conscious modelling and response to it, steer our
composition even if no one but ourselves is present to reply to
what we utter.
I propose that cybertextual cycles, enacted in cognition, partly
shape the idiolect or personal style exhibited by the texts we
make. We use text-analysis tools today to detect the
idiosyncratic patterns of flat, atemporal documents, but all texts,
being cybertextual, unfold in time. An author's silent feedback
to his own utterings pulses wave-like in the emerging text, but
how can these characteristic waves, that is, the cybertextual
style, be recovered from flat documents? Usability software
offers some tools for this purpose, as do keyloggers, protocol
analysis, and word-processing programs. One way to advance
text-analysis methodology in a post-concordancer age is to
investigate cybertextual style by recording and analyzing the
behaviour of living authors as they write. Usability software
like Morae, because it externalizes working memory, can
capture the tic-tocs of cognitive style.
Bibliography
Aarseth, Espen J. Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic
Literature. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1997.
Baddeley, Alan. ""Working Memory and Language: An
Overview."" Journal of Communication Disorders 36.3 (2003):
228-66.
Galison, Peter. ""The Ontology of the Enemy: Norbert Wiener
and the Cybernetic Vision."" Critical Inquiry 21 (1994):
677-99.
Haraway, Donna. ""A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science,
Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s."" Socialist
Review 80 (1985): 65-108.
Hayles, N. Katherine. How We Became Posthuman: Virtual
Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1999.
Hayles, N. Katherine. Writing Machines. Cambridge, Mass.:
MIT Press, 2002.
Lancashire, Ian. ""Cybertextuality."" TEXT Technology 13.1
(May 2005).
Lancashire, Ian. ""Cognitive Stylistics and the Literary
Imagination."" A Blackwell Companion to Digital Humanities.
Oxford: Blackwell's, 2004.
Lieberman, Philip. Human Language and Our Reptilian Brain:
The Subcortical Bases of Speech, Syntax, and Thought.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000.
Masani, R.P. Norbert Wiener 1894-1964. Basel: Birkhäuser,
1990.
Miller, G.A. ""The Magical Number Seven, plus or minus Two:
Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Information.""
Psychological Review 63 (1956): 89-97.
Morae. Okemos, MI: TechSmith, 2004. Accessed 2004-05-27.
<http://www.techsmith.com/default.asp>
Olson, David R. The World on Paper: The Conceptual and
Cognitive Implications of Writing and Reading. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Pierce, John R. An Introduction to Information Theory:
Symbols, Signals & Noise. 2nd edition. New York: Dover, 1980.
Poeppel, David, and Gregory Hickok. ""Towards a New
Functional Anatomy of Language."" Cognition 11 (2004): 1-12.
Smith, John B., Dana Kay Smith, and Eileen Kupstas.
""Automated Protocol Analysis."" Human-computer Interaction
8 (1993): 101-45. Wiener, Norbert. Cybernetics or Control and Communication
in the Animal and the Machine. 2nd edition. Cambridge, Mass.:
MIT Press, 1961.
Wiener, Norbert. The Human Use of Human Beings:
Cybernetics and Society. 2nd edition. New York: Hearst, 1967","txt","2","",""
"500","6","Using Markup for Multivariate Analyses in the Prosopographical Study ""Formation for the Public Sphere""","1","Introduction
This paper aims to illustrate how markup might be applied
for multiple purposes in research.1 Here, the TEI/XML
encoding scheme2 was used as a research tool when producing
a collective biography in a sociological prosopographical study
on prominent Swedish female pioneers around the turn of the
century 1900.3 In this collective biography the markup is used
for the exploration of biographical information. Although the
markup provided was done for a special reason, namely to
extract specific data in order to apply multivariate analyse
methods, such as correspondence analysis4, it also provides
means for presenting, filtering and indexing the material.
Background
The main purpose of the project Formation for the public
sphere. A Collective Biography of Stockholm Women
1880--1920 is to investigate the social strategies of the first
generations of women entering the public sphere in Sweden.
This period was of crucial significance for women engaged in
philanthropy, reform pedagogy, modern health care, literature
and music. These women’s strategies, investments and careers
differed from their male contemporaries and their contributions
are not easily recognisable. In order to discern and interpret
their contributions to the establishment of the modern welfare
state institutions, a modern educational system and the modern
cultural fields, methods from the French sociological tradition
founded by Pierre Bourdieu have been used.
A central endeavour is to collect information on the women’s
social origin, social intercourse, their networks, educational
trajectories and matrimonial status. Such information is here
called 'assets' or 'capital'. In Bourdieu’s sense certain types of
capital are acknowledged within certain social groups but not
by everyone (Bourdieu, 1992). Each field that is sufficiently autonomous has its own rules for inclusion, exclusion and
rewards, and specific species of capital.5 By analysing the
distribution of certain types of capital among the pioneer women
we try to map the structure, the hierarchies and the polarities
of domains like female culture, education and philanthropy.
Since we favour the collection of data which is sociologically
interpretable data it is important to collect information on
names, dates and places, e.g. where and when and with whom
she lived, where she worked, in order to trace the ""meeting
places"" and networks. Hence a mandatory core set of data was,
whenever possible, harvested to depict some of the most crucial
assets:
• Social origin: father’s and mother’s occupation, education,
positions. Number of brothers and sisters. Woman’s and
parents' place of birth and place of upbringing.
• Educational capital: kind of basic and further education.
Sojourns abroad.
• Social capital: influential relatives, matrimonial status,
number of children, housing, member of state commissions,
foundations.
• Economic capital: wealth, earthly goods and relations to
patrons.
• Political and religious capital: positions in political/religious
organisations, standpoints in such matters.
• Specific symbolic capital: assets being valued either within
certain fields or domains or within women’s networks.
Of course many of the biographical texts cover much more, but
the main aim is trying to make the collection of these core data
as comprehensive as possible for each woman.
Modelling the Data
There are two kinds of datasets of biographical accounts
called capital descriptions. One of the sets consists of one
hundred rather extensive texts written in running prose text by
the researchers, aimed to be published in for example historical
journals or biographical handbooks. The scholars have explored
archival material such as letters, diaries or estate reports, as
well as printed newspapers, journals or books — and of course
existing biographies and autobiographies. The other set is more
than 1200 condensed texts based on excerpted information.6
The excerpts have been transcribed from two volumes, one
from 1914 and one from 1921 with biographic articles on
prominent Swedish women. Both kinds of texts have been
provided with markup according to the TEI guidelines with the
additional TEI tag set ""Names and Dates"" to encode proper
names, date periods and precise dates.7
Similar to the much more extensive and ambitious Orlando
project8 we produce texts and we apply descriptive
model-driven and interpretative markup. Unlike the Orlando
project, though, we have not developed a DTD for this project.
In our content model each woman corresponds to a main
division that contains subdivisions and further subdivisions. In
principle each subdivision or sub-subdivision corresponds to
one type of capital such as <div type=""soc.orig"">. The basic
features marked in a subdivision are:
• a date(range),
• an event or an occurrence,
• name(s).
For each of these elements there is a reciprocal relationship to
a biography and an arbitrary category respectively. This means
that a division is only instantiated when there is a relationship
or an occurrence of a certain kind. Obviously, some instances
are mandatory: we need for example to record a name and a
birth date in order to instantiate a record for a woman. We use
the hierarchies to extract exactly the data we need for the
analyses. Thus, we can extract, the content ""Paris"" out of the
element placeName when and only when it occurs within
div type=""travel"". We might thus extract information
on that the woman in question did travel to Paris, and we do
not have to bother with all other Parises that might appear:
books published in Paris, dresses made in Paris, father born in
Paris. Obviously a consistent use of the content model providing
for the accuracy of the markup become very important since
so much depends on it.
Our approach to apply the content model and do the encoding
in running prose is not unproblematic. We have faced, and are
still facing, many rather difficult decisions on the ways to
encode and how to denote the aspects we want to capture.
Should chronology take precedence over events or the other
way around? The consistent use of divisions corresponding to
the content model is important, since it guarantees that the
internal hierarchy of elements is no hindrance for finding the
specific data.
The corresponding types of data (i.e. the core set) from the two
different datasets have been merged into one dataset for further
processing. We extracted the data needed for analyses into
tables using XSL in order to import the tables into the statistical
software SPSS. SPSS is used for converting string values to
numerical values and for organising, combining, classifying
and aggregating variables. After preparations in SPSS the
datasets were imported into the SPAD software were the
correspondence analyses are done.
Since the material is heterogeneous, it calls for some measures
to guarantee the consistency of data. If we had chosen a
database solution, such as the relational database used by the
project on the prosopography of the Byzantine empire, it would
be a matter of course to opt for a controlled vocabulary, as do Bradley and Short. Thus the categorisation is undertaken prior
to data input into order to ensure the congruency of the recorded
aspects:
Of course, this kind of interpretation of a source — by assigning
some aspect to fit into categories — is in fact very similar to an
important element of most scholarly work: classification and
categorisation are standard part of scholarly practice.
(ibid. 9)
This is very true also in our project. The major decisions on
the categorisation have been taken prior to the collection of
information and prior to the writing of the biographies.
Closing
What might separate this project undertaking from other
similar prosopograhic projects is the aim to maximize
portability. The material is available through an ordinary web
browser, downloadable and reusable with intact markup. Users
should be able to import the material to their own systems or
add additional markup and not be forced to stay on our website
in order to explore the material or perform their own analyses.
Another difference is that the encoded data is used as input to
multivariate quantitative analyses, as will be illustrated at the
presentation. Thanks to the encoding we can provide enhanced
navigation, presentation of different views of the material and
filtering possibilities, which will be demonstrated in the paper
presentation. Altogether we have found that the TEI encoding
scheme has been serving as quite a valuable tool in this kind
of collaborative research practice.
1. Parts of the content in this paper is based on work in progress, a
forthcoming article co-authored with Prof. Donald Broady, titled
""TEI markup as research tool in the prosopographic study
Formation for the public sphere"". In our collaborative work Prof.
Broady answer for the sociological and historical content and the
author of this paper for the markup, application and statistical
analyses.
2. See <http://www.tei-c.org/> and Sperberg-McQueen
& Burnard
3. See <http://www.skeptron.ilu.uu.se/broady/se
c/ffo.htm> . The project is directed by Donald Broady and
funded by the Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation.
4. l’Analyse des Données, introduced by Jean-Paul Benzecri, a
geometer-statistician, in the 1960. The method is done by
modelling data sets as clouds of points in multidimensional
Euclidian spaces and then interpreting the data in the cloud of
points (Lebart et al.). Cf. Bourdieu (1984) for applications and
some explanations.
5. See Broady for a proposed definition on Bourdieuan
prosopography. See also the study on the French academic field
Homo Academicus Bourdieu 1984) for an example of Bourdieu’s
prosopography.
6. Provided that the copyright issues may be solved, there should in
due time be a freely available digital version. Meanwhile the access
is restricted to the researchers and for teaching purposes.
7. cf. Sperberg-McQueen and Burnard, 2002, pp. 499-516 <http
://www.tei-c.org/P4X/ND.html>
8. For information on the Orlando project, documenting ""the
scholarly history of women's writing in the British Isles."" see <h
ttp://www.ualberta.ca/ORLANDO/> . See also e.g.
Grundy et al.
Bibliography
Bourdieu, P. Homo academicus. Paris: Minuit, 1984. English
translation: Homo Academicus. Polity Press, Cambridge, 1988.
Bourdieu, P. Les règles de l’art. Genèse et structure du champ
littéraire. Paris: Seuil, 1992. English translation: The Rules of
Art. Genesis and Structure of the Literary Field. Polity Press,
Cambridge, 1996.
Bradley, J., and H. Short. ""Using Formal Structures to Create
Complex Relationships: The Prosopography of the Byzantine
Empire--A Case Study."" Ed. K.S.B. Keats-Rohan. Oxford: Unit
for Prosopographical Research, Linacre Collage, 2002. Preprint
available at <http://pigeon.cch.kcl.ac.uk/docs
/papers/pbe-leeds> .
Broady, D. ""French prosopography. Definition and suggested
readings."" Poetics 30 (2002): 381-385.
Grundy, I., P. Clements, S. Brown, T. Butler, R. Cameron, G.
Coulombe, S. Fisher, and J. Wood. ""Date ChronStructs:
Dynamic Chronology in the Orlando Project."" Literary and
Linguistic Computing 15:3 (2000): 265-89.
Lebart, L., A. Salem, and L. Berry. Exploring Textual Data.
Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1998.
Sperberg-McQueen, C.M., and L. Burnard, eds. Guidelines
for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange (TEI P4). Oxford,
Providence, Charlottenville, Bergen: TEI Consortium, 2002.","txt","2","",""
"501","6","Markup of Educational Content","2","The purpose of this presentation is to illustrate the
implementation of methods and tools for separating
markup, from the actual XML document. This is being done
in the project Educational Content Markup1 where the object
is to explore and develop tools and methods for the creation
and management of encoded, modularised and portable digital
content to be used in educational settings.2
The underlying idea in the project is to enable the production,
use and reuse of document content in different fields of
application and to support various groups of users and
end-users. Concerning the fields of application our focus is on
teaching and learning in higher education and the production
of academic research publications. Hence, one group of users
are teachers creating e.g. collections of documents to be used
in classes. We picture both students and teachers as a group of
end-users. Another group of users are scholars and other content
providers concerned with document creation and the production
process.
In this project we have chosen to differentiate two kinds of
markup in order to distinguish fields of application and groups
of users. Thus, the differentiation described below guides our
exploration of methods and the development of tools.
• Original/internal markup: Markup placed within the
document - as opposed to stand-off markup- in this context
often capturing the structure of a document or some specific
features such as personal names. Either the markup was
already added to the document by another part or the markup
is created during the document creation process. Markup is
automatically added by controlled input using templates in
the DiVA system3 or semi-automatically by the content
producer.
• Additional markup: Markup added after the creation process
which can be done with optional annotation techniques such
as Annotea or the TEI guidelines4. The additional markup
might be added and stored internally in the document, or,
annotations might be added and stored externally in separate
XML-files, not altering the any markup internally added to
the document. For example Annotea allows annotations to
be attached to resources without modifying the
original/internal markup.
It is important to point out that our two views of markup can
be, and often are different, but this does not mean that the
methods are non-exclusive. However, a markup scheme
designed to catch in-depth descriptions of a chosen aspect,
rather than describing the internal structure of a document,
serves a special purpose and therefore anticipates a different
data model than a structured oriented scheme. That is one reason
why we, in this project, think it is useful to separate the
additional markup from the original/internal markup.
Other reasons to separate different kinds of markup have to do
with different kinds of uses and user-groups. By various means
of organising, filtering and presentation, one and the same
content might be utilized in a range of subject areas and for
different educational levels, from primary to higher education
or in-service and in-company training. In trying to accomplish
this, several different XML techniques and tools are being used
for the implementation of a prototype of an educational content
management system, currently consisting of three related parts.
1. In one part of the project, a prototype provides means to
take the descriptive markup added to the internal XML
markup and treat it as external annotations. The browser is
used as the markup client, using Annotea protocol both on
the client side and both on the server side. At the backend
a RDF5 database is used as the content store. This
architecture allows usage of arbitrary application profiles
and an ability to integrate the information with other tools.6
2. In the second part we explore tools and schemes for adding
external markup - stand-off markup - to documents already
annotated with TEI/XML markup of personal names, dates
and places. Here we will test schemas providing uses of
authority files such as the first draft of MADS which is
designed for description of agents (e.g. people,
organisations) and terms (e.g. topics, geographical places).
3. In the third part we are exploring applicable methods and
tools for adding markup when authoring. The idea is to
integrate the process into the author's natural workflow such
as the software they use for text editing (e.g. OpenOffice or
MS Office). These kinds of tools should support and
facilitate work performed by the author during the
production and revision of texts.
This poster will provide demonstration of a prototype tool
implementation and uses, examples of markup, and a description
of current status in the project progress. We are looking forward
to get a chance to exchange ideas and well-informed feedback
on the underlying ideas, choice of methods and implementation
of tools in this project.
1. The project Educational Content Markup is a joint project and the
partners are: The research program Digital Literature and the Electronic Publishing Centre, both Uppsala University. The
Swedish Royal Library, the National Agency for Education in
Sweden, Ekelunds Publishing Company and Center for IT in
Northern Sweden. The project is funded by the Swedish Agency
for Innovation Systems. The author of this poster presentation is
co-ordinating the project. For participants and further information,
see <http://www.skeptron.ilu.uu.se/broady/dl
/mu.htm> .
2. For further information on the research program Digital Literature
publications and research areas, see: <http://www.skeptr
on.ilu.uu.se/broady/dl/> .
3. DiVA is the Swedish acronym for Academic Archive Online. For
further information on the DiVA system and related publications,
see <http://publications.uu.se/epcentre/proj
ects.xsql> , for the technical report, see: <http://publ
ications.uu.se/epcentre/diverse/hardware_so
ftware.pdf> .
4. See <http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/SO/sow0
6.html> .
5. Resource Description Framework, see <http://www.w3.or
g/RDF/> .
6. For a technical report on the prototype, see Engman.
Bibliography
Annotea. Accessed 2005/03/04. <http://www.w3.org/
2001/Annotea/>
Engman, J. Handling fine-meshed filtering from archive to
resource level. Master thesis, Umeå University, 2004.
Metadata Authority Description Schema. Accessed 2005-03-14.
<http://www.loc.gov/standards/mads/>","txt","2","",""
"502","6","Creating an Archives Management System at the University of Maryland Libraries","1","Encoded Archival Description (EAD) is an XML-based
standard used to encode archival finding aids that reflects
the hierarchical nature of archival collections and that provides
a structure for describing the whole of a collection, as well as
its components (Pearce-Moses 2004).
Archives approach EAD in different ways. The tools available
through the official EAD website at the Library of Congress (
<http://www.loc.gov/ead/> ), such as the EAD
Cookbook , focus on making it possible for archivists to tag
their existing paper/word-processed finding aid content. This
approach works well for smaller institutions, but with over 400
finding aids, manual tagging was not a viable solution at the
University of Maryland.
In order to help define the ideal system for our institution, the
staff of the Archives and Manuscripts Department identified
several main themes. Streamlining workflow was the largest
focus. Finding aids are the natural end result of a series of
archival procedures that begin with appraisal, selection,
arrangement, and finally, description. Since these processes are
related, the creation of a system to help the department
streamline workflow while also simplifying and demystifying
the creation of an EAD document seemed the most practical
course of action. Standardization was another concern. We
wanted to create a system that organized our finding aid data
in such a way that a future generation could easily port it to a
new system. Search capability was a third requirement.
Searching across collections would greatly aid us both with our
reference services and with our processing. Fourthly, we wanted
to create a distinct, usable, and attractive public interface. The department had already created a database in Microsoft
Access to keep track of basic information, such as collection
title , collection size , and location. As a first step, we modified
this database to hold several more collection-related fields and
also added a report that allowed staff to create electronic
accession sheets (the first step in the record-keeping process
for any collection acquired by the department).
Since much of the accession sheet information becomes part
of the later EAD document, the new database tables and
structure were based on the structure of EAD. Many of the
fields were named after their corresponding EAD tags.
The database structure is relatively simple. A main table, named
archdescdid after one of the main components of an EAD
document, contains the bulk of the information. A handful of
smaller tables tie together the <eadheader> information and
the deeper-level descriptive information located in the <dsc>
sections of the EAD document. The biggest challenge was
figuring out a way to design a table that would accurately
represent the ""Box Inventory"" section of the paper finding aids
so that data entry was simple for staff, but that would also easily
convert into the EAD tag structure.
The decision to use Microsoft Access as the primary database
was based on a number of rationale, although the primary ones
were staff familiarity and widespread availability of the product
within the institution. Several other institutions use web forms
for entering EAD information into a database, and while this
method is very flexible and allows the system to be easily
shared across institutions, it would not allow the department
to carry out some of the other collection management tasks.1
In the absence of a skilled programmer, Microsoft Access
adequately served the purposes of the early phases of the
project. Little to no programming expertise was necessary to
create functional database forms and reports. There were,
however, some weaknesses in the Microsoft Access software
that put the project on hold at a crucial point: the plan to create
the EAD document using the Microsoft Access report features
would not work; the reports could not handle the text in large
memo fields. A model for the conversion from Microsoft Access
to EAD came from the Australian Heritage Document
Management System, which was created by the Australian
Science and Technology Heritage Center . It also used an
advanced Microsoft Access database and ASTHC staff was
helpful in discussing the system. After examining their
approach, the University of Maryland realized that the
assistance of a programmer would be needed to properly extract
the data from Microsoft Access.
The Archives and Manuscripts Department thus approached
Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities (MITH)
to assist with the programming support needed, as well as the
project management skills to convert the Microsoft Access
database into a series of outputs (primarily finding aids and
subject guides), as well as create an online publishing system
with a robust search and browse interfaces, and an
administrative management system.
The software itself is comprised of two independent systems:
a converter program written in Java that communicates with
the Microsoft Access database using Java Database
Connectivity (JDBC), and a web application with an XML
Content Management System.2 The web application is based
on Java Servlet API with Model View Controller architecture.
The converter application creates a list of finding aids in the
database and a user can click and generate the EAD-compliant
XML document.
Figure 1: The converter application which transforms the finding aids from
the Microsoft Access database into EAD-compliant XML.
These documents are then uploaded and indexed by the web
application. The web application also generates the subject
guides and finding aids using XSL style sheets. Figure 2. The home page of ArchivesUM, with a pull-down menu listing the
subject guides which are generated through a combination of static HTML
and dynamically-generated content from the database.
Via the administrative interface, the repository editor can
upload, delete, and convert finding aids to HTML. This
pre-processing of the XML document was built into the system
so that the finding aids did not have to be converted to HTML
at the time of the request. Figure 3 shows a result page ranked
in order of relevance. It was decided that in the first instance,
all collections would be represented in the database through an
abstract. As finding aids are converted, they will be made
available through the archive management system. As Figure
3 shows, the interface makes it clear when the finding aid is
available:
Figure 3: A ranked result page indicting which items have finding aids
available.
Generating subject guides proved a greater challenge. Although
it would have been easy to generate the subject guides on the
fly, it was felt that these needed to be converted into static
HTML pages and mounted on the Internet. Subject guides
indexed by Google and other search engines has proved to be
the most popular way for potential users to find the University
of Maryland 's archival resources. Thus, a feature was built into
the administrative interface to create the subject guides through
a combination of static text and abstracts generated from the
EAD document, where <abstract> tags with different ""type""
attributes are located.
Various nodes of the <eadheader> and <archdesc> are
indexed with Lucene and a query interface is provided to search
and browse the finding aid.3 The use of Lucene as a search
index enables compound searches for phrases in the box
inventory, collection title, author, scope, and subject fields of
the EAD document.
Figure 4: A search page enabling users to perform complex searches based
on information in different parts of the EAD finding aid.
The Archives and Manuscripts Department staff and MITH
worked together in the development of several XSLT style
sheets for various parts of the website. In many ways, this
proved to be the most difficult task. The hierarchical nature of
the display of a finding aid made design of the final, and most
important, style sheet extremely complicated. Other repositories
provided examples to build from, but since the EAD of the
<dsc> section of a document varies widely from institution
to institution, advanced customization was necessary.
The administrative interface provides an interface to upload an
XSL style sheet, so that the website administrator can change
the design of the finding aids and subject guides. Much of the
software code for this project has been borrowed from
teiPublisher. Moreover, although staff developed the system
for use with finding aids in three of the units within the
University of Maryland's Archives and Manuscripts
Department, staff constructed it with the possibility that other
archival units on campus could use it, as well as staff in
repositories across the University of Maryland system. While
each repository will have its own Microsoft Access database
so it may generate reports unique to its holdings, there will be
one EAD repository, which will give users unprecedented
access to search across archival units and institutions in a way
not possible currently. This paper will thus address the theoretical, practical, and
programming decisions that contributed to the design of this
archival management system.
1. Virginia Heritage Guides to Manuscript and Archival Collections
in Virginia; Online Archive of California.
2. JDBC <http://java.sun.com/products/jdbc/> .
3. Lucene <http://jakarta.apache.org/lucene/doc
s/index.html> .
Bibliography
Dooley, Jackie M., ed. Encoded Archival Description: Context,
Theory, and Case Studies. Chicago: Society of American
Archivists, 1998.
EAD Help Pages - Software Products. EAD Roundtable of the
Society of American Archivists, 2003. Accessed 2003-08-13.
<http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/ea
d/products.html>
Encoded Archival Description (EAD): Official EAD Version
2002 Website. Library of Congress, 2002. Accessed 2005-03-21.
<http://www.loc.gov/ead/>
Feeney, Kathleen. ""Retrieval of Archival Finding Aids Using
World-Wide-Web Search Engines."" American Archivist 62.2
(Fall 1999): 206-228.
Heritage Document Management System. Australian Science
and Technology Heritage Center, 2003. Accessed 2003-04-15.
<hhttp://www.austehc.unimelb.edu.au/HDMS/
findingaids.html>
Miller, Fredric, ed. Arranging and Describing Archives and
Manuscripts. Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1990.
Online Archive of California. University of California, 2004.
Accessed 2005-03-21. <http://www.cdlib.org/ins
ide/projects/oac/toolkit/>
Pearce-Moses, Richard. ""Encoded Archival Description."" A
Glossary of Archival and Records Terminology. Website:
Society of American Archivists, 2004. <http://www.arc
hivists.org/glossary/>
teiPublisher. Accessed 2005-05-19. <http://teipubli
sher.sourceforge.net/docs/index.php>
Virginia Heritage Guides to Manuscript and Archival
Collections in Virginia. University of Virginia, 2004. Accessed
2004-11-04. <http://www.lib.virginia.edu/vhp
/index.html>","txt","2","",""
"503","6","Story Generators: Models and Approaches for the Generation of Literary Artefacts","23","This session is concerned with the automated creation of fiction or ""literary artefacts"" that might take the form of prose, poetry or drama. Special focus is placed upon those approaches that include the generation of narrative structures and therefore use some kind of story model. First attempts in automated story generation date back to the 1970s, with the implementation of Meehan's TALE-SPIN (1977) based on the achievement of character plans and Klein's automatic novel writer (1973/1979) that simulates the effects of generated events in the narrative universe. Currently, story generators enjoy a phase of revival, both as stand-alone systems or embedded components. Most of them make reference to an explicit model of narrative, but the approaches used are diverse: they range from story grammars in the generative vein to the conceptually inspired engagement-reflection cycle. Real-life applications include the generation of a set of plot plans for screen writers in a commercial entertainment environment, who could use the automatically created story pool as a source of inspiration, and the generation of new kinds of interactive dramas (video games).

The creation process of literary artefacts is of particular relevance to Literary and Humanities Computing. Not only does it provide methods of simulating and modelling narrative processes, but it identifies basic and combinatory elements of story and discourse. The definition of these elements can in turn help scholars involved in the analysis of narrative to produce annotation (mark-up) that might be re-used in the story generation models.

Research into Story Generators is by nature an interdisciplinary project and as such constitutes an exemplary case for Humanities Computing efforts that are of a more speculative kind, as opposed to application oriented approaches. While the humanities – and more particularly, narratology – are called upon to clarify and systematize basic concepts and theoretical models of narration, computer scientists and AI researchers try to translate these models into workable system architectures and processes. Accordingly, our session brings together one theoretical and two applied approaches to the generation of literary artefacts. The theoretical paper presents an attempt towards formulating an ideal Story Generator Architecture based on a narratological model of story generation. The applied papers discuss the role of the story model in a stand-alone fairy tale generator (ProtoPropp), and the problem of story management in games, using Façade and other story (drama) management architectures as examples.","txt","2","",""
"504","6","Mysteries in Time and Space: Historical Computing","23","This session highlights three of the most innovative projects in Canadian historical computing, all aimed at deploying the new technologies new pedagogical ideas to allow us to teach humanities and history in ways we have never been able to teach before.  The session is organized by the Canadian Committee on History and Computing, a committee of the Canadian Historical Association and the leading body in historical computing in Canada. 

The three papers in the session highlight different aspects of the history-technology interface: one involving 3-D reconstructions, the second the linking of historical maps and census information to contemporary GIS based maps, and the third the creation of virtual archives around historic crimes aimed at a new pedagogy of teaching history.","txt","2","",""
"505","6","Reaching Out: What do Scholars Want from Electronic Resources?","1","The potentials for teaching and learning using technology
are tremendous. Now, more than ever before, computers
have the ability to spread scholarship around the globe, teach
students with new methodologies, and engage with primary
resources in ways previously unimaginable. The interest among
humanities computing scholars has also grown. In fact at
ACH/ALLC last year, Claire Warwick and Ray Siemens et al.
gave some excellent papers on the humanities scholar and
humanities computing in the 21st century. Additionally, in the
most recent version of College and Research Libraries
(September 2004), a survey was conducted specifically among
historians to determine what electronic resources they use. The
interest in this is obviously growing, and the University of
Michigan as both a producer of large digital projects as well as
a user of such resources is an interesting testing ground for this
kind of survey data. Theoretically, Michigan should be a
potential model for high usage and innovative research and
teaching. In many cases it is; nevertheless, when one looks at
the use of electronic resources in the humanities across campus
and their use in both the classroom and innovative research, it
is not what it could be. The same is true at other universities.
At many universities across the U.S. and Canada, including
those with similar large scale digitization efforts, use remains
relatively low and new potentials of electronic resources remain
untapped. Why?
During 2004 and 2005, the Text Creation Partnership (TCP)
project, one of the largest digital projects at the University of
Michigan, has undertaken several studies to answer that exact
question, specifically for its own resources but also including
other similar projects. Rather than asking the question of what
the humanities scholar is and wants, TCP has sought to answer
what is inhibiting use of current resources and what can the
community do to enhance their experience with already existing
resources. With the help of the School of Information and
Departments of English and History at the University of
Michigan as well as the cooperation of librarians and scholars
throughout the US, UK, and Canada, TCP has set out to
determine how its databases and other similar resources are
being used, what potentials scholars could see for use, what are the barriers inhibiting use, and what the community can do to
reach out to those scholars who may not have used electronic
technology as much as they perhaps could. The results have
been divergent and quite interesting.
So far in this continuing study, the TCP has tried to cover as
many bases as possible. Project staff and students at relevant
departments have interviewed many relevant scholars in the
field (both those who have used technology and those who have
not), sent out surveys to faculty and students, held a focus group
of University of Michigan faculty and two with faculty from
outside the University of Michigan, completed interviews with
faculty throughout the U.S. and Canada, created sample syllabi
and educational materials for scholarly review, and surveyed
the use of electronic resources and citations within scholarly
literature. Responses have ranged tremendously. Some scholars
see interface as the primary concern; such resources are not
designed to do the kind of search they want. Others see selection
as a problem; the materials that databases choose to select are
too narrow to be of use to scholars outside of that field or are
too broad and produce too many results. Still others question
the legitimacy of the source itself. How can an electronic copy
be as good as seeing the original in a library? Other, more
electronically oriented scholars, see the great value of
accessibility of these resources, but are unaware of the added
potential for research and teaching. The most common concern,
however, is that scholars believe they would use these resources
if they knew they existed. Many are unaware that their library
subscribes to resources or that universities are sponsoring this
kind of research. Others feel that there is no incentive within
the university system for scholars to use these kinds of new
resources. In all, the humanities computing community has a
great deal to do to facilitate further use.
What kinds of things should the community do? Some answers
are as simple as new interface tools and methods of interacting
with the database itself. Yet, even more fundamentally, many
feel that the community needs to raise awareness of these
resources and create incentives to use them. Librarians can
certainly be a part of this in helping to raise awareness among
their local faculty. Faculty also need to be involved by raising
awareness beyond their own community to those colleagues
who may not be as aware of the potential for these kinds of
resources. Some faculty suggested that the community work
together to create even more grants, contests, or prizes to
encourage innovative electronic publication and research.
Others have suggested that, given time, researchers will realize
the potential and use it.
These responses raise several questions. How should designers
of electronic resources structure their databases to maximize
use? How should librarians, scholars, and users of electronic
resources reach out to the community to increase use? What
obstacles are there in increasing use of technology in the
classroom or in scholarly research? What role will such sources
play in the future? How will this change the study of the
humanities? What benefits or detriments does it bring to the
profession? What role does or should the humanities computing
community play in all of this? By analyzing the data to these
questions and by gaining insights from others, it is hoped that
we can supplement and continue an ongoing dialog about what
the community is, what it needs, and what should be doing
either to change current practices or to enhance already existing
ones. In all, there would seem to be much work to do to increase
the potential of electronic resources in the humanities, and the
questions and answers brought up in these surveys may help
to focus thinking on many aspects of the profession.1
1. I would also like to thank Julia Gardner and Kathy Schroeder for
conducting interviews among scholars and working on the survey
materials for this project.
Bibliography
Blouin, Francis X. ""History and Memory: The Problem of
Archive."" Publications of the Modern Language Association
of America 119.2 (March 2004): 296-298.
Dalton, Margaret Stieg, and Laurie Charnigo. ""Historians and
Their Information Sources."" College and Research Libraries
65.5 (September 2004): 400-425.
Gould, Constance C. Information Needs in the Humanities:
An Assessment. Standford, CA: Research Libraries Group,
1988.
Siemens, Ray, Elaine Toms, Stéfan Sinclair, Geoffrey Rockwell,
and Lynne Siemens. ""The Humanities Scholar in the
Twenty-First Century: How Research is Done and What Support
is Needed."" Paper presented at ALLC/ACH 2004, Gothenburg.
2004.
Warwick, Claire. ""No Such Thing as Humanities Computing?
An analytical history of digital resource creation and computing
in the humanities."" Paper presented at ALLC/ACH 2004,
Gothenburg. 2004.","txt","2","",""
"506","6","Human Computing: Modelling with Meaning","23","In bringing the humanities and computing together, the question of how computer science relates to the humanities has to be addressed. Most striking is the starkly different treatment of meaning in the humanities and in computer science. To ignore this issue is to risk investing our limited notion of computer science with unwarranted authority. The commonplace view of computer science suggests a monolithic image of computing, in which all activity reduces to the execution of formal algorithms. Computing in the wild, in contrast, is both incorrigibly plural, and rich in possibilities for marrying a science of computing with a computing of the humanities. This session is designed to explore one such possibility.

The standard way of construing computer science focuses on combinatorics, syntax and algorithms. Its guiding question is ""what can be automated?"" (Denning). The benefits of asking this question are undeniable — more efficient pattern-matching, more advanced data mining, better data representation and the like. But these benefits, and the question that elicits them, do not address the humanities intellectually. They pertain to a relationship analogous to that between an accountant and his or her calculator — hardly a promising one for computing practitioners and humanities scholars alike. If we wish to have a computing of the humanities, we need to be asking a rather different question: ""how can we best integrate automated processing with human thinking and acting?""

Empirical Modelling(EM-website), the approach around which this session has been organized, reflects a radical shift from the logical and linguistic philosophical stance of theoretical computer science to one based on the pragmatic empiricism of William James. It has been developed by two of the authors, Beynon and Russ, at Warwick University. The third author, McCarty, has independently developed a convergent idea of modelling based on the tradition of experimental science, recent historical and philosophical analyses of experiment and the phenomenology of Martin Heidegger, Michael Polanyi and others. The convergence indicates, all will argue, a highly promising basis for interchange between computing science and humanities computing. This basis takes us considerably further than previous attempts. (See e.g. Gardin; Koch; Computing the Future 1992; Computing and the Humanities: Summary of a Roundtable Meeting1998; Orlandi; Beyond Productivity 2003. See also Transforming Disciplines: Computer Science and the Humanities, .)

The first paper discusses the prospects for partnership between the humanities and computing from the alternative perspective afforded by Empirical Modelling. It identifies perceived dualities that separate the two cultures of science and art as the primary impediment to this partnership, and outlines how these can be dissolved in a vision for human computing.

The second paper illustrates the key characteristics and potential for EM for the humanities with reference to a projected modelling exercise addressing the Erlkoenig theme (as represented in the work of Goethe, Schubert and Liszt). It also highlights how each of six varieties of modelling identified by McCarty in (2004) can be represented within an EM model.

The final paper discusses the implications of EM with reference to McCarty's account of the key role for modelling in the humanities (2005), and considers these in relation to James's ""philosophic attitude of radical empiricism"" and ideas from phenomenological sources.","txt","2","",""
"507","6","Heraldic Applications of Computational Linguistics, Computational Geometry and Image Processing","1","Introduction
The official definition of a coat of arms is not the depiction
of the arms but the blazon, which is the text describing
the arms. It requires a skilled heraldic artist to render the arms
from the blazon. Anyone well versed in heraldry can perform
the inverse operation, to render the blazon from the arms.
The paper describes projects to automate these processes, by
capturing the herald painter's skills and drawing upon
computational linguistics (constructing the syntax and parsing
the blazon) and computational geometry (positioning and sizing
the components) and by using image processing techniques
(identifying the components, layer by layer, that make up the
shield). More importantly, the paper emphasizes that these
techniques have wider application in the arts and humanities.
Context
An important rationale for many computer applications is
to capture skills so that tasks can be tackled by unskilled
operators. In the visual arts, computers have long been used to
help people draw or paint two dimensional pictures or to model
and render three dimensional scenes.
One area that provides a considerable challenge is heraldry. It
requires artistic skills to render the arms from the blazon,
thereby limiting the rôle of those unskilled in the use of pen
and paint. It also requires heraldic knowledge to depict or
recognize arms.
The blazon defining the Queen's University's arms (Figure 1)
is: Per saltire azure and argent, on a saltire gules, between in
chief an open book and in base a harp both proper, in dexter
a hand couped of the third, and in sinister a sea-horse vert
gorged with a mural crown of the fourth, an Imperial crown
of the last. From this definition any competent heraldic artist
can draw the shield whereas the quality of computer programs
that attempt to automate this process is at present limited and
inferior. Much the same was said of the printer's art when
desktop publishing was first attempted.
Figure 1: The Queen's University of Belfast
Several exploratory projects to automate this task have been
undertaken at Queen's by final year undergraduates and by
taught course postgraduates.1 The results have been promising
but, because of the time available to those students, limited.
Now is the time to build upon those studies to produce a much
more acceptable application that not only consolidates the work
done to date but also addresses the more challenging questions
that have yet to be tackled. This paper discusses the progress
so far and outlines what problems remain and how they might
be solved.
The artist's skill shows in the disposition and scale of the
components. No program can rival the inventiveness of an artist
but there remains the question of whether an acceptable
rendition can be generated. Such an application draws upon
computational linguistics and computational geometry; it also
entails constructing a dictionary of heraldic terms and a
corresponding library of heraldic images. It may be that a
semi-automatic solution is necessary, allowing the user to make
fine adjustments. In fact, some human intervention will be
required because the set of components that may appear in a
coat of arms is unbounded and new ones will inevitably be
encountered and will have to be entered into the dictionary and
library.
The inverse operation, of deconstructing a coat of arms to
produce the blazon, has also been attempted in a student project
(Flanagan) and is now to be tackled more seriously, using
experience gained from another student project (Taylor) that
uses image processing techniques to extract the contours and other information from a map. Again, the problems and how
they might be resolved are discussed in the paper.
Benefits
The language of blazon has been in continual use since the
Middle Ages. Based on the French of the time, and
subsequently adapted, it has a reasonably precisely defined
grammar and a substantial vocabulary that is extended as
necessary. To most people that are neither heralds nor heraldists
it appears to be arcane. This project should help to make
heraldry more widely accessible; it should make heraldic and
artistic skills available to the unskilled and it should also be a
useful tool for heralds, at least for intermediate sketches if not
for the final grant of arms.
It should also make the production of illustrated rolls of arms
feasible as, at present, there are not enough heraldic artists to
produce an illustrated version of, say, Burke's General Armory,
which describes thousands of shields listed by the names of
their owners. The inverse operation of identifying the owners
of shields is generally accomplished using Papworth's Ordinary,
which is not illustrated and can be difficult to use; automation
can play a useful part here. Heraldic offices are now beginning
to use computers in a more imaginative way and they will want
to develop indexed and illustrated databases of arms.
More generally, it may encourage those working in the visual
arts to develop more precise written descriptions of their
artifacts. Heraldry is somewhat stylised and lends itself to
precise formal descriptions; that is not the case for most art but
it may be that the correspondence between blazon and image
might encourage the development of more precise descriptions
of other works of art, as happens with music or dance notation.
Computational techniques for the construction of grammars,
the disambiguation of syntax and the parsing, processing and
indexing of texts have wide application; we have experience
with subsets of Latin, English, French, Spanish and Esperanto
as well as blazon.
Geometrical and topological techniques for describing and
manipulating two and three dimensional shapes are also widely
applicable; we have experience of applying such techniques to
mechanical and aeronautical engineering artifacts. It is now
time to apply these methods to other areas of scholarship.
Examples & Problems
By way of example, the following coats of arms (Figures
2a-2g) are taken from Foster's Feudal Coats of Arms and
have been generated automatically by computer program from
blazons, some of which have been rephrased.
Figure 2a: Or, on a cross gules five escallops argent.
Bigod, Rauff, of Settrington, Yorks
Glover Roll &c.
Ascribed also to John in the St. George Roll, and to Sir
Raffe, of Norfolk, in the Parly. Roll.
Figure 2b: Azure, six eaglets, 3, 2, 1, or.
Biblesworth, Sir John
Ashmole Roll
Also ascribed to Walter.
Figure 2c: Per pale or and vert, a lyon rampant gules.
Bigod, Roger, Earl of Norfolk,
Earl Marshal of England
at the battle of Falkirk 1298 and sealed the Barons' letter to
the Pope 1301, pp xv, xxiv.
Figure 2d: Quarterly or and gules, a bend sable.
Beauchamp, John, Walter, and William, of Bedford (H. III Roll) Parliamentary, Norfolk and St. George Rolls
[bend gules; in other MSS. bend sable occurs].
Figure 2e: Azure, three cinquefoyles or.
Bardolf, Sir Hugh, a baron 1299
Sealed the Barons' letter to the Pope 1301, pp xvii, xxiv;
bore at the battle of Falkirk 1298 and at the siege of
Carlaverock 1300.
Figure 2f: Or, a chevron azure.
Bastard (---), of Kitley, Devon
Shirley.
Figure 2g: Gules, on a chief argent two mullets sable pierced or.
Bacon, Sir Edmond
at the first Dunstable tournament 1308.
Compound coats, like the arms of Queen's College Belfast
(Figure 3) or those of the Royal University of Ireland (Figure
4), have still to be incorporated but this should not be too hard.
Extending the dictionary of terms and the corresponding library
of images will also be reasonably straightforward, utilising
Elvin's Dictionary of Heraldry and images available online
(Phillips). A much more difficult task will be to extend the
formal grammar to cope with a larger range of blazons. In any
language processing application the construction of a formal
grammar is usually the most time consuming part as textbooks
tend to define syntax informally or by means of examples.
Another difficult problem is the sensible handling of potential
ambiguities.
Figure 3: Queen's College Belfast
Figure 4: The Royal University of Ireland
When we turn to the inverse operation, the decomposition of
a picture into its components in order to derive the blazon, we
meet a different set of problems. As with all image processing applications, we have to remove noise before we can begin to
identify components. Having removed a component we must
then fill in the gap in the component that underlay it. We must
finally construct the blazon, taking care to introduce the
components in the right order and to conform to the standard
conventions of blazoning.
A partly successful example is shown below (Figure 5). Instead
of recognizing the background as per fess or and azure, it treats
each half as a fess, i.e. a horizontal band across the middle of
the shield. However it recognizes the diagonal bend sable. It
is, though, well on the way to establishing that the blazon is
Per fess or and azure a bend sable.
Figure 5: Stages in decomposing a coat of arms: colour separation, noise
reduction, shape filling and component identification
1. See Carswell; Stewart; McVicker; Tinman; Black; Carson; Nicholl;
McGuckin; O'Shea.
Bibliography
Black, Sarah-Jane. Heraldic Register and Ordinary. 2001.
(Student project.)
Burke, J.B. General Armory. Ramsbury, Wiltshire: Heraldry
Today, 1961, 4th impression 1989. Facsimile of The General
Armory of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales; comprising
a Registry of Armorial Bearings from the Earliest to the Present
Time by J. B. Burke (1842, last edition 1884).
Carson, Gayle. Coat of arms. 2002. (Student project.)
Carswell, T. Peter. Displaying coats of arms. 1988. (Student
project.)
Elvin, C.N. Dictionary of Heraldry. London: Heraldry Today,
1969, 2nd printing 1977. Facsimile of the original edition by
C. N. Elvin (1889).
Flanagan, Lorna. Shields software system. 1998. (Student
project.)
Foster, J. The Dictionary of Heraldry – Feudal Coats of Arms
and Pedigrees. With an introduction by J.P.B. Brooke-Little.
London: Bracken Books, 1989. Previously published as Some
Feudal Coats of Arms by Joseph Foster, published by James
Parker & Co. (1902).
McGuckin, Niall. A coats of arms editing package. 2003.
(Student project.)
McVicker, Stephen. The herald's editor. 1997. (Student
project.)
Nicholl, Paul R. Coats of arms. 2002. (Student project.)
O'Shea, Laura. Automated heraldic artistry. 2004. (Student
project.)
Papworth, J.W. Ordinary of British Armorials. With an
introduction by J.P.B. Brooke-Little. London: Heraldry Today,
1985. Facsimile of An Alphabetical Dictionary of Coats of
Arms belonging to Families in Great Britain and Ireland;
forming an extensive Ordinary of British Armorials by J. W
Papworth & A. W. Morant, published by T. Richards (1874).
Phillips, D. Shareware clip art collection of heraldic charges.
Accessed 2005-02-28. <http://www.digiserve.com
/heraldry/gifart.exe>
Stewart, William. Displaying a coat of arms. 1993. (Student
project.)
Taylor, Simon. 3D maps. 2005. (Student project.)
Tinman, Richard. Blazoning arms. 2000. (Student project.)","txt","2","",""
"508","6","Classifying the Chimera","2","While the Digital Library (DL) concept is an extremely
vague one, its paradigm, the real implementation, is,
if possible, still more elusive.
Since the late 80s and during the 90s, the primary concern and
task in the textual digital resources field was really a basic (but
not simple) one: how can we put texts in computers? How can
we encode, manage and memorize them? Which stuff digital
texts are made of?
Other important problems were perceived (visualization, for
example) but they were temporarily put aside for practical
reasons. The Text/Data relationship is really a Castor and
Polydeuces’ one: is Text a particular kind of Data or Data a
particular kind of Text? The main choice, and long-term
winning, in the textual encoding issue was the use of the
powerful Standard Generalized MarkUp Language (SGML),
and – more specifically – the rules (or better guidelines)
established by the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI), which could
actually be considered the de facto standard for encoding
humanistic texts in digital format.
The transition from SGML to the eXstensible MarkUp
Language (XML) was, more than an evolution, a sort of
Copernican revolution for two main aspects: the introduction
of the new stylesheet technology for displaying an XML file,
in particular the powerful Extensible Stylesheet Language
Transformation (XSLT), and the great diffusion and
development of open-source software able to manage XML
documents. This transition has of course also taken place in the
TEI: starting with the P4 version of the Guidelines, XML is
the technology now used. As a logic result different open-source
software tools for implementing a Digital Library with texts
encoded in TEI/XML are now available.
These tools are divided into two main categories. In the first
group there are software created in hard Information
Technology contexts (Database Management Systems, Native
XML Databases, Publishing Framework, etc.), and these
programs need to be adapted to the specific aims of a digital
library1. In the second, and this is a new trend, these tools are
being developed in academic contexts2, created from the
scratch, or using programs from the first group as the basic
core; in both cases the final function is the utilization with
digital cultural resources and overall TEI encoded texts.
Compared to the first group, the logical added value of these
tools is that often they provide some specific features for the
textual field3.
The choice is now much wider than it was just a few years ago,
but it could also cause some confusion in selecting the right
tool. As the experts of knowledge management well know, too
much information, if not well structured and organized, is
equivalent to no information at all, thus being completely
useless. Each software has its own peculiarities, which should
be evaluated and confronted against the characteristics of the
texts being encoded and the general needs and aims of the
project of which the digital library is part. What is the main
aim of a project? It’s the visualization one, with perhaps a
multiple output feature? It’s the research, with some form of
advanced textual analysis? It is possible to combine all these
aspect? And if somebody has already found a solution for our
problems how can we find it over the net?
Trying to find a solution for these problems, or better, trying
to share the same problems to have common solutions, during
the TEI Members Meeting 2003, there was the first reunion of
the TEI Presentation Tools Special Interest Group4. The
Presentation Tools SIG has two main initiatives: the creation
and update of a tool list and of a sample collection of texts for
testing.
The first version of the tool list has been presented during the
TEI Meeting in Baltimore, last October. This list is actually a
digital document encoded with the TEI/XML standard, and in
this way it’s currently published, using an XSLT stylesheet, in
HTML5. With a simple structure this list presents the various
software in an alphabetical order with a short description and
the links to the various implementations. From the descriptions
and the links it’s possible to have an idea of the distinctive
features of each tool, that for example the software XPhilologic
is very good for full-text search and document retrieval6 and
that Apache Cocoon could be implemented so to have an XML
framework for format scalable output of the same TEI
document7 And again, with Anastasia is possible to have an
electronic text/image edition of a medieval manuscript8 and
eXist is a powerful native XML database that could be used for
queries and researches.9
But this is not enough. Perhaps from a list you can obtain some
information, but what is really needed (and planned since the
beginning) it’s an higher level of classification, and this become
more necessary as the number of such software is increasing10.
It’s a software written in Java or in Perl? Which are requisites
for running it on a computer? It’s XML-aware? It allows XSLT
transformation? The texts are stored in the file system or in a
database? What are its peculiar features? It could be integrated
with other software in order to augment the possibilities? It can
be customized? It’s clear that a simple list cannot answer to all
these questions. Many discussions have been made about the kind of
classification to apply to the tool list and in my opinion it should
be made using practical rather than theoretical principles, with
a sort of empirical and pragmatic observation, including also
the links to the most possible numbers of the concrete
implementations of these tools, so to highlight the best practices
and the particular features of each digital library.
A good way of realizing this classification could be the use of
the standard ISO 1325011 or TopicMaps, and the respective
XML Topic Map (XTM) syntax12. A TopicMap is based on the
definition of a general topic, the particular and real occurrences
of that topic, and the associations between different topics, thus
in my opinion it’s the best way to obtain a complete
classification, which will include the various aspects, from the
most technical, concerning the programming languages used
or the technical specification needed, to the functionalities of
visualization, text research and analysis.13
So what is now a TEI document should be elaborated in a XTM
document, detecting, separating, organizing, linking and
classifying all the information that now are presented in a linear
structure.
Once created, the XTM file representing the TopicMap can be
used and navigated in several ways. Being an XML file, it is
possible to apply the same technologies used for the TEI texts,
but there are also available some dedicated software which can
exploit the great potentialities of this standard as, for example,
the Omnigator from Ontopia 14, or the TM4J 15, a java
open-source package expressly developed for creating,
manipulating and publishing topic maps.
The TopicMap technology has been presented for the first time
related to the TEI during the 2003 meeting, and it’s growing
in interest from this community, for its possibility of adding a
metadata semantic layer to the digital collections16. Moreover,
thanks to the possibilities of merging different XTM documents
each representing a different map, the Presentation Tools
TopicMap could be integrated with other map about other
subjects, the textual content for example17 or the documentation
of the local views of the DTDs18, thus creating the basis for
the definition of what could become a 'TEI Ontology'.
1. E.g., Apache Cocoon <http://cocoon.apache.org/> ,
Apache AxKit <http://axkit.org/> , eXist <http://e
xist.sourceforge.net/>
2. Anastasia <http://anastasia.sourceforge.net/> ,
teiPublisher <http://teipublisher.sourceforge.n
et/docs/index.php> , XPhilologic <http://barkov.
uchicago.edu/xphilo/>
3. See for example the TAPoRware set for textual analysis <http
://cheiron.mcmaster.ca/~taporware/> or the
Versioning Machine <http://mith2.umd.edu/product
s/ver-mach/> for the comparison of different versions and
editions of the same text.
4. <http://www.tei-c.org/Members/2003-Nancy/mm
17.html#tap-sig>
5. Available on line at <http://miro.acs.its.nyu.edu/
tei_cms/show.php> .
6. See for example the demo on the Brown Writer Women Collection
at <http://barkov.uchicago.edu/xphilo/search
.brownwwp.html> .
7. A good implementation of Cocoon with TEI can be found at <h
ttp://www.nzetc.org/> .
8. See the Caxtons’ Canterbury Tales at <http://www.cta.d
mu.ac.uk/Caxtons/> .
9. See the Digital Quaker Collection at <http://esr.earlha
m.edu/dqc/> .
10. See the presentations on this subject at ALLC/ACH 2004 <htt
p://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/> . Among the
others: Kumar, Amit et al., teiPublisher a repository management
system for TEI documents <http://www.hum.gu.se/all
cach2004/AP/html/prop118.html> ; Matthew
Zimmerman, Using AMP technology (Apache, MySQL, PHP) for
XML publication <http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach20
04/AP/html/prop156.html> ; Stephen Ramsay, Geoffrey
Rockwell, Stéfan Sinclair, TAPoRware: Simple Portal Tools for
Text Analysis <http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004
/AP/html/prop136.html>
11. <http://www.isotopicmaps.org/rm4tm/>
12. <http://www.topicmaps.org/xtm/1.0/>
13. For an introduction to TopicMap see Steve Pepper, The TAO of
Topic Maps, finding the way in the age of infoglut <http://w
ww.gca.org/papers/xmleurope2000/papers/s11-
01.html> .
14. <http://www.ontopia.net/omnigator/models/in
dex.jsp>
15. <http://tm4j.org/>
16. John Bradley, ""A Model for Text Analysis Tools"" <http://l
lc.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/18/
2/185>
17. See John A. Walsh, ""Topic Maps and TEI-Encoded Literary
Texts"", <http://drh2004.ncl.ac.uk/abstract.php
?abstract=177>
18. Stuart Brown, ""A Topic Map for the TEI"" <http://www.te
i-c.org/Members/2003-Nancy/index.html#SB-ab
s>
Bibliography
Anastasia. Accessed 2005-05-19. <http://anastasia.
sourceforge.net/>
Bradley, John. ""A Model for Text Analysis Tools."" Literary
and Linguistic Computing 18.2 (2003): 185-207. Accessed 2005-05-19. <http://llc.oupjournals.org/cgi/
content/abstract/18/2/185>
Brown, Stuart. ""A Topic Map for the TEI."" TEI Consortium,
2003. <http://www.tei-c.org/Members/2003-Na
ncy/index.html#SB-abs>
Kumar, Amit, et al. ""teiPublisher a repository management
system for TEI documents."" Paper delivered at the ALLC/ACH
2004 Conference, Göteborg. 2004. Accessed 2005-05-19. <h
ttp://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/p
rop118.html>
Pepper, Steve. ""The TAO of Topic Maps, finding the way in
the age of infoglut."" Paper delivered at the XML Europe 2000
Conference, Paris. 2000. Accessed 2005-05-19. <http://w
ww.gca.org/papers/xmleurope2000/papers/s1
1-01.html>
Ramsay, Stephen, Geoffrey Rockwell, and Stéfan Sinclair.
""TAPoRware: Simple Portal Tools for Text Analysis."" Paper
delivered at the ALLC/ACH 2004 Conference, Göteborg. 2004.
Accessed 2004. <http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2
004/AP/html/prop136.html>
TAPoRware. Accessed 2005-03-11. <http://cheiron.
mcmaster.ca/~taporware/>
teiPublisher. Accessed 2005-05-19. <http://teipubli
sher.sourceforge.net/docs/index.php>
Versioning Machine. Accessed 2003-12-09. <http://mit
h2.umd.edu/products/ver-mach/>
Walsh, John A. ""Topic Maps and TEI-Encoded Literary Texts.""
Paper delivered at the Digital Resources for the Humanities
Conference, Newcaslte Upon Tyne. 2004. Accessed
2005-05-19. <http://drh2004.ncl.ac.uk/abstra
ct.php?abstract=177>
XPhilologic. Accessed 2005-05-19. <http://barkov.u
chicago.edu/xphilo/>
Zimmerman, Matthew. ""Using AMP technology (Apache,
MySQL, PHP) for XML publication."" Paper delivered at the
ALLC/ACH 2004 Conference, Göteborg. 2004. Accessed 2004.
<ttp://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/
prop156.html>","txt","2","",""
"509","6","The Computed Synoptic Table Tele-Synopsis for Biblical Research","2","I. Introduction
While over the last two centuries, 'the synoptic problem'
has been one of the controversial subjects in the studies
of the New Testament, only a few studies so far have attempted
to give an objective, statistical explanation of the mutual
relationships between the synoptic Gospels, Matthew, Mark
and Luke (in abbreviation, Mt, Mk and Lk, respectively)
(Conzelmann and Lindemann 45-53). Furthermore, even though
a large number of studies have made various assumptions of
their genealogical interdependence, there still seems to remain
a lack of the computational humanities technology enabling
the Gospel researchers to present valid arguments based on a
huge amount of biblical text data. As the first step of our study,
there is a need to develop some specific applications to
automatically collect the thorough data of the lexical usage
patterns from the electronic bible(Miyake, Akama, Sato and
Nakagawa 2002), thus the web-based biblical software, named
Tele-Synopsis ( <http://nerva.dp.hum.titech.ac.
jp/tele-synopsis/parallel> ), is designed to gather
information of the word usage under various conditions and to
help further statistical approach to the origin of the variant texts II. Tele-Synopsis — Web-based
biblical software
The basic concept design of Tele-Synopsis is founded upon
the possibilities of natural language processing (NLP) for
mediating Thesaurus creation and Conceptual mapping, dual
problematic fields whose key concept is always cognition of
'frame' (Minsky; Winston 211-277). Tele-Synopsis, which
allows us to manipulate lexical data of parallel and variant texts
(Miyake, Akama, Sato, Nakagawa and Makoshi 2004), uses
the NA27th version of the texts (Nestle-Aland) and for the
parallels, the Synopsis Quattuor Evangeliorum by Kurt Aland,
recognized as the most reliable parallel synoptic table (PST)
to date. This system has a merit to make it possible for users
to independently add and remove each sentence so as to
customize their own synoptic table by changing the temporary
segmentation of pericope, yet the challenges are still left on the
optimum solutions available to the users, and so we need a sort
of 'TextTiling' algorithm that allows us to break parallel texts
into units the most suitable for biblical research.
III. Segmentation Problem
Although there are traditionally two types of synoptic tables
covering a lost source called the 'Q' (Mt and Lk) and
Mark (Mt, Lk and Mk) respectively, few trials have been done
to produce synoptic tables treating other combinations of two
Gospels, such as Mt and Mk, Lk and Mk. This kind of
inexhaustiveness is due to the raison d'etre of the synoptic tables
that is to consolidate Two-Source Hypothesis, according to
which Mk and the 'Q' are the origins of quotations (Kloppenborg
et al. and Reader). In addition, we have to note that the two
traditional synoptic tables were solely made by using a Form
Criticism which divided the texts into parts by the arbitrary
unities coming from tradition or reduction. It can be recognized
that the two traditional synoptic tables 'mesh' the world of the
Gospels too roughly (as is the case for the Markan triptych
table) or too finely (for the bilateral table of the 'Q'). As long
as the problem of text segmentation remains unresolved, any
experiment in quantitative text analysis will be still a long way
from being realized. For our goal of the scientific examination
of the Two-Source Hypothesis, we propose a new statistical
method of generating the segmentation criteria of the synoptic
Gospels, a sort of 'TextTiling' methodology enabling a
computed synoptic table (CST) with an objective segmentation
based on objective criteria.
IV. The Computed Synoptic
Table(CST)
The computed synoptic tables (CST) are produced by using
the algorithm called Synoptic Patch (Figure 1) that
consists of the combination of 1) N-gram calculation, 2)
Windowing data gathering and 3) TextTiling method.
1) Data from the n-gram model
We calculated for the 3 parallel texts (Mk,Mt,Lk) all the cases
of n-gram models, thus made an exhaustive list of the instances
where words co-occurred across texts. These overlaps were
classified by the four combination patterns (D:Mt-Lk, C:Mk-Lk,
B:Mk-Mt, A:Mk-Mt-Lk) (Figure 2), and the longest matched
strings of words can be thought of as proofs of cross-citation.
Having in view the occurrence probability of N-gram instances,
we extracted the overall data under the condition of (N>3)
because the significance of the bi-gram data is relatively low.
This process will allow us to build a more objective synoptic
table to replace the traditional one.
2) Data obtained by a windowing method
It is well-known that there has been in the realm of Information
Retrieval (IR) remarkable progress owing to the elaboration of
what we call vector space model or concept-based IR. This
method, that consists of collecting the information about term
i occurring n times in document j, allows us to identify a word
(or a document) using a k-dimensional vector representation.
Each entry of the vector corresponds to the frequency of each
of k co-occurring words. Then the similarity between documents
will be computed by the cosine of the angle between these
vectors in a k-dimensional Euclidian space. Taking into
consideration the principle that a context-sensitive word (or
string of words) is categorized by the neighbor words appearing
within a certain distance from it, we implemented some
functions to set up a set of synchronized windows changing in
size for each parallel n-gram instance (longest matched strings
of words) to be centered in. The rule of the window operation
for recording one by one and simultaneously in the parallel
texts the frequency data of the co-occurring words is that each
window must stop the extension if the border meets that of the
previous (when moving leftward) or the next (when moving
rightward) pericope.
3) Application of TextTiling
Synoptic Patch as a method of partitioning off the texts allows
us to calculate at every step of the window extension the
correlation coefficient between the word frequency vectors
generated from each corresponding window instance. Before the extending operation, the cosine similarity value remains 1,
but as different words are being distributed in the parallel
setting, this value begins to decline and continues to fall down
until another parallel N-gram instance is met in the window
extension (cohesion score graph used in 'TextTiling' (Hearst
33-64)). However, in each pericope, there may be several
instances of centered key strings (a series of the longest
matching words) that are supposed to produce an overlap of
windows and descending similarity curves, so that we computed
at each word position the mean of the correlation coefficients
obtained from all the pairs of parallel word vectors inside a
pericope. The threshold is determined by us at 0.5 to properly
resegment the periscope because the traditional synoptic tables
with the three Gospels tends to include in each frame many
divergent passages making the parallel word vectors nearly
non-correlated or sometimes too highly correlated. That is why
we fixed the segmentation point by using the threshold for the
cohesion score graph instead of selecting, just as Hearst
recommends it, the steepest part of the descending curve.
V. Result and Conclusion
The Synoptic Patch allows us to produce by fulfilling the
identical criteria two remaining bilateral synoptic tables
allocating Mk and Mt for one and Mk and Lt for the other. The
index of difference between the traditional Synoptic Tables
(ST) and the Computed Synoptic Table (CST) can be defined
by the distribution of the words into the 7 categories as shown
in Figure 2. The effects of the new combinations are clearly
revealed by the diminution in quantity of some textual overlaps.
The ratio of the common parts (A+B+C+D) is 60% in the PST
and 42% in the CST (Figure 3). Figure 4 shows the drop in
number of the words belonging to the categories A and D whose
considerable weights would support the two source hypothesis.
It cannot be denied that the new balance between the original
parts E, F and G (increasing) and the common parts A+B+C+D
(decreasing) will influence the verification regarding the
historical formation of the synoptic Gospels. We can
instinctively grasp the changing features of the parallels
attachment by horizontally comparing the two tables in Figure
5. It will be left for the future investigations to completely
evaluate the efficacy of the CST. Further information will be
obtained at : <http://nerva.dp.hum.titech.ac.j
p/tele-synopsis/synopsis.html> Bibliography
Winston, Patrick Henry, and Berthold Horn. The Psychology
of Computer Vision. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975.
Aland, Kurt. Synopsis of the Four Gospels. 9th ed. Stuttgart:
German Bible Society, 1989.
Conzelmann, H., and A. Lindemann. Interpreting The New
Testament. Trans. Siegfried S. Schatzmann. Peabody, Mass.:
Hendrickson Publishers, 1988.
Hearst, Marti A. ""Segmenting text into multi-paragraph subtopic
passages."" Computational Linguistics 23 (1997): 15-36.
Kloppenborg, John S. Q Thomas Reader. Sonoma, Calif:
Polebridge Press, 1990.
Minsky, M.L. A Framework for representing knowledge.
Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology A.I.
Laboratory, 1974.
Miyake, M., H. Akama, M. Sato, and M. Nakagawa.
""Approaching to the Synoptic Problem by Factor Analysis.""
Proceedings of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics 48.2
(2002): 327-337.
Miyake, M., H. Akama, M. Sato, and M. Nakagawa.
""Tele-Synopsis for Biblical Research."" Proceedings of the
IEEE ICALT. , 2004. 931-935.
Nestle, Erwin, and Kurt Aland, et al., eds. Nestle-Aland Novum
Testamentum Graece. 26th ed. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelstiftung,
1979.","txt","2","",""
"510","6","El Trabajo Final de Carrera en Filología: Perspectivas Hacia un Nuevo Horizonte","1","Esta comunicación se inscribe en el marco de la
investigación llevada a cabo durante los últimos cuatro
años por el grupo de investigación Hermeneia: Estudios
Literarios y Tecnologías Digitales. En este período se ha
priorizado una de las líneas de investigación considerada clave
en el contexto docente y académico en que el grupo ha llevado
a cabo su actividad — que es el de la Universitat Oberta de
Catalunya (UOC) —, nos referimos a la observación, el análisis
y la evaluación de los métodos de enseñanza virtual en un
contexto universitario. Dicho grupo no únicamente ha estado
pendiente de la evolución de algunas de las asignaturas que se
impartían en la licenciatura, tomando como referencia el plan
de estudios de filología catalana de la UOC especialmente
adaptado para un entorno virtual de aprendizaje, sino que
además ha considerado clave la implantación de asignaturas
concebidas únicamente para ser impartidas en dicho entorno
virtual a partir de materiales que explotan de una manera real
el concepto de trabajo hipertextual. El trabajo de licenciatura
de filología catalana (TFC) aunque no es en esencia una de
estas asignaturas sí que constituye un banco de pruebas para
los estudiantes que están al punto de concluir un ciclo de
aprendizaje universitario desafiador, inquietante, pero también
completo y gratificante. En este sentido, muchos de los
estudiantes que tras numerosos semestres de estudio se
matriculan en el TFC de filología son personas alfabetizadas
en el uso de las nuevas tecnologías en mayor o menor grado,
familiarizados con un tipo de enseñanza a distancia y virtual,
conscientes de la eficacia de este tipo de enseñanza,
especialmente sensibilizados por los retos que les plantea la
sociedad de la información. Pero sobre todo, están motivados
por poner en práctica no sólo algunos de los conocimientos
prácticos y técnicos que han ido adquiriendo a lo largo de la
licenciatura sino también por explotar al máximo una
concepción nueva del conocimiento y de su difusión a través
de las posibilidades que les brindan las nuevas tecnologías.
Nuestra intención es explicar el funcionamiento de una
asignatura singular dentro del plan de estudios por su
especificidad formativa al final de un ciclo para después mostrar
algunos de los resultados más significativos que se han gestado
a la luz de esta asignatura y que están, además, umbilicalmente
vinculados al proyecto de investigación Hermeneia. El TFC es
una asignatura obligatoria de doce créditos que curricularmente
está situada al final del recorrido académico que plantea la
licenciatura de filología catalana de la UOC. En su momento
fue diseñada y concebida con unas características especiales
con respecto al resto de las que ofrece dicha licenciatura en la
UOC. De entrada es una asignatura que se prolonga durante
dos semestres académicos puesto que entre sus objetivos se
cuentan los de proponer interrogantes, ejercitar habilidades y
avanzar actitudes en el momento de afrontar un trabajo de
investigación a nivel de licenciatura, así como estimular a los
estudiantes para que al final del proceso presenten públicamente
un trabajo de investigación original e inédito. El proceso que
supone esta asignatura y, a su vez, el esfuerzo que deben realizar
los estudiantes requiere, por lo tanto, la distribución de los
créditos requeridos en dos semestres, preferiblemente
consecutivos. En esta asignatura también está prevista la
actuación de dos figuras docentes: la del tutor de contenidos o
director del TFC y la del consultor metodológico o asesor
externo y formal del trabajo. La presencia de estos dos 'agentes'
representa una diferencia notable respecto a la organización de
las demás asignaturas. Por no mencionar el papel más bien
secundario que adquiere el aula virtual en este proceso o la
necesidad de establecer un encuentro presencial al final de todo
el proceso para que el estudiante pueda mostrar, presentar,
justificar y defender el proyecto ante un evaluador externo, así
como el resto de los compañeros, profesores, consultores de la
licenciatura. En esta sucinta descripción hemos querido resaltar
las diferencias que separan el TFC del planteamiento de otras
asignaturas y que la convierten en una peculiar 'pieza' que
encaja en el marco de la licenciatura de filología catalana de la
UOC.
Uno de los aspectos esenciales de la asignatura y que resulta
imprescindible destacar es el hecho de que el grado de 'libertad'
que experimenta el estudiante en esta asignatura no es
comparable a ninguna de las asignaturas previas que ha debido
superar. Entre el material de la asignatura existe un menú de
proyectos de investigación posibles suficientemente amplio
para que el estudiante pueda escoger el marco al cual debe ceñir
su experiencia investigadora. Este menú es diverso y transversal
en ocasiones, aplicado o teórico en otras, pero lo que prima en
estas opciones de que dispone el estudiante es la potenciación
de su capacidad imaginativa, sus intereses y sus inquietudes y
la posibilidad de concretar todo ello en una propuesta asequible
que le permita superar la asignatura. Desde mi experiencia como consultora de la asignatura puedo afirmar que hay pocos
casos en los que el estudiante no haya invertido tiempo y
esfuerzos suficientes para obtener trabajos de un alto nivel
académico: buenos ejemplos de tesis de licenciatura.
Aún así, queremos centrar una parte de nuestra exposición en
la presentación de algunos de los trabajos que han explotado
hasta sus últimas consecuencias las posibilidades que les
brindaban las nuevas tecnologías. Son trabajos que han estado
gestados en el área de la literatura y las nuevas tecnologías.
Cada uno desde un enfoque teórico y práctico diferente y
partiendo de áreas literarias diversas (la poesía, la literatura
infantil y juvenil o la tematología) han conseguido resultados
destacables este área de confluencia que hemos señalado. La
explicación y el análisis de estos trabajos obedece a varios
factores entrelazados. Por una parte, cabe destacar que la tutora
o directora de las tres propuestas que presentaremos es, a su
vez, la directora del grupo de investigación Hermeneia, y en
este sentido, la concepción y la génesis de estas iniciativas de
investigación quedan insertadas en un terreno que aún podemos
llamar experimental. Además, nuestra implicación estos casos
particulares responde a una doble motivación la de consultora
del TFC y la de investigadora del grupo Hermeneia. (Imágenes
1 y 2)
Imágen 1
Imágen 2
Finalmente, es importante señalar una serie de coincidencias
que abordaríamos con más detalle en la comunicación, como
el hecho de que los trabajos que presentaremos pertenezcan al
área de la literatura y que hayan sido realizados por estudiantes
que han cursado una determinada asignatura de Teoría Literaria
y Literatura Comparada que se ofrece desde hace varios
semestres en la licenciatura. Será también necesario, en su
momento, mencionar que la persistencia y el cambio de
concepción en relación a la investigación y difusión en literatura
fueron clave para salvar los temores iniciales de estos
estudiantes al formato digital. En cualquier caso, la posibilidad
de profundizar en estos ejemplos concretos de la asignatura de
TFC nos permitirá explorar las posibilidades no siempre
evidentes de adentrarnos en el fructífero terreno en el que
confluye la literatura, los métodos de investigación y difusión
a nivel de licenciatura universitaria y las nuevas tecnologías.","txt","2","",""
"511","6","An Examination of the Rhetorics of Digital Scholarship and the Emerging Digital Monograph","1","A variety of rhetorics have been applied to digital
compositions: the ""rhetoric of hypermedia"" (e.g.
Landow), ""rhetoric of multimedia"" (e.g. Liestol), and ""rhetoric
of new media"" (e.g. Chun, Manovich) are all terms that have
been used. This work has often focused on the construction of
a digital work at the level of nodes and links, more than on its
narrative techniques. Landow's rhetoric of arrivals and
departures, for instance, looks at the relationships between
individual nodes, and their effect on one another via the rhetoric
of the link. Bernstein, in his discussion of structural patterns
in a hypertext also focuses on relatively smaller groups of
nodes; while Bernstein's patterns are clearly intended to be
composed into larger structures, or to provide components in
the analysis of a larger structure, he does not elaborate how this
composition or analysis works at the level of a whole work.
Liestol and Fagerjord are more concerned with the narrative
construction of digital publications. They are mainly studying
the digital documentary, an expository medium which is similar
in form and intent to scholarly hypertexts. Students of digital
fiction have analyzed larger structures and discussed how
meaning emerges from them (e.g. Walker), but there have not
been many discussions of overall rhetorical structuring in
scholarly web publications.
Projects or publications on the web with academic research
subjects tend to fall into several discrete types. A partial list
follows:
• Conventional linear monographs in digital form, differing
from print monographs only in their medium of publication.
These digital publications will not be discussed in this paper.
• A publication or dissemination of a primary source.
Text-bases or archives are the main representatives of this
class. They are intended for several levels of expertise, and
readers can search through them on their own terms.
• A collection of primary and secondary sources meant to be
explored by diverse audiences for more than one purpose.
These sites have an encyclopedic, expository nature, and
tend to surround primary source material with secondary
sources.
• A collection of primary or secondary sources that explicitly
represent a particular point of view, or publish a particular
phase of research. These sites, with their combination of
secondary and primary material are the prototypes of the
digital monograph.
• A collaborative, annotatable, space that may only be
accessible to a small group of authors. These sites are
composed of collections of texts or other sources. They
resemble laboratories, where research is on-going and
benefits the participants more than the external reader.
Collaborative, emergent projects are not meant to read by third
parties as much as by the participants. They are exploratory
and communicative spaces for their participants, and as such,
the rhetoric they exhibit is often one of annotation and
conversation. Wikis provide a mode of publication that
encourages organic growth and collaboration. The Ivanhoe
Game also shares this modality, although it isn't a means of
publication.
Although any collection or publication that has been consciously
selected inherently reflects a bias and represents a particular
point of view, some web-based projects are more explicit than
others about their motivation and their purpose. Scholarly
projects that have as their goal an edition or a collection of texts
generally identify the guiding principles for their selections.
Examples of such projects are text and image archives, like the
WWP ( <http://www.wwp.brown.edu> ) and The Empire
that Was Russia ( <http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/
empire> )
When a scholar embarks on a project whose goal is to elucidate
a particular topic through primary and secondary materials,
biases become harder to tease out. Often, a project that
originates as a research topic turns into a general expository
publication whose goals are to collect and disseminate primary
sources, and to contextualize them with secondary sources.
Such a publication is inherently user-centered. However,
because the intent of a researcher or student cannot be foreseen
in advance by the creator of the publication, the project is often
designed to allow multiple access and navigational modes, so
that it can accommodate a wide variety of uses. The digital
medium encourages this, and invites an author to attempt to
provide many things to many people: syllabus, guided tour and
resource collection, for example. Any authorial voice or point
of view is overwhelmed by the encyclopedic omniscience and
protean presentation of the publication.
Some publications avoid multi-linear, multi-access presentation
even as they follow this recipe of primary sources surrounded
by a matrix of contextualizing material. Instead, they impose
a very rigid form, as in some instructional materials, where it
is not possible to deviate from a prescribed path beyond a
limited set of carefully scripted choices, if any. This can serve to hide bias or point of view, by making it harder to question
or challenge the publication.
Finally, there are digital publications that resemble the print
monograph in that they prioritize a set of research results and
have an identifiable authorial voice. Primary source materials
coexist with authored text, but they are juxtaposed in support
of the argument that is being made. Like the publications
described above, these publications may also allow a reader
multiple navigational strategies, but they privilege a single
narrative thread. The interface and navigational structure are
designed to reflect the argument, and the principles used in
selecting primary source materials are clear. Readers familiar
with the site or its material may only want to consult some
primary sources, so it is possible to navigate directly to
identifiable nodes, but this kind of navigation is clearly
secondary. One of the best-known web based monographs is
Thomas and Ayers, 2003. One of the earliest is Kolb, 1994.
The authored, digital monograph allows a scholar to do things
that are difficult in a print publication. It is possible, for
example, to present a coherent argument while weaving several
different threads and approaches to a problem; it is also possible
to include supplementary material that would require a
distracting digression in a traditional publication. Conventional
articles are constrained by length limits and by the rhetoric of
the page to making one point. A digital monograph allows an
author with single argument to present multiple threads of
argumentation and discussion which will augment one another,
but which are not necessarily interdependent.
This paper will use examples from projects the author has
participated in, as well as others to discuss emerging features
of the digital monograph, and to compare them with other types
of scholarly, digital publication. It will look at interface and
interaction design, as well as at the information design
underlying the publication.
Bibliography
Bernstein, Mark. ""Patterns of Hypertext."" Proceedings of the
Ninth ACM conference on Hypertext and hypermedia, Links,
Objects, Time and Space (Pittsburgh, PA). NY, NY: ACM
Press, 1998. 21-29.
Bernstein, Mark. ""Structural Patterns and Hypertext Rhetoric.""
ACM Computing Surveys 31:4es, Article 19 (December 1999).
Chun, Wendy Hui Kyong. The Rhetoric of New Media
(MC0150, Brown University). Senior Seminar course; no further
information available.
Fagerjord, Anders. ""Rhetorical convergence: studying web
media."" Digital media revisited: theoretical and conceptual
innovation in digital domain. Ed. G. Liestol, A. Morrison and
T. Rasmussen. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003. 293-326.
The Ivanhoe Game. Accessed 2002-03-31. <http://www.
speculativecomputing.org/ivanhoe/index.ht
ml>
Kolb, David. Socrates in the Labyrinth. Watertown, MA:
Eastgate Systems, 1994.
Landow, George. Hypertext 2.0. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1997.
Liestol, Gunnar. Essays in Rhetorics of Hypermedia Design.
Oslo: Department of Media and Communication, University
of Oslo, 1999. (Doctoral Dissertation)
Thomas, William G., and Edward L. Ayers. ""The Differences
Slavery Made: A Close Analysis of Two American
Communities."" American History Review (December 2003).
<http://www.vcdh.virginia.edu/AHR/>
Walker, Jill. ""Together and Tearing Apart: Finding the Story
in afternoon."" Proceedings of the 10th ACM Conference on
Hypertext and Hypermedia: Returning to Our Diverse Roots
(Darmstadt). NY, NY: ACM Press, 1999. 111-117.
Walker, Jill. ""Fiction and Interaction: How Clicking a Mouse
Can Make You Part of a Fictional World."" Diss., Department
of Humanistic Informatics, University of Bergen, 2003.","txt","2","",""
"512","6","Testing EAD Encoding in the Texas Archival Resources Online (TARO) System with Textual Analysis Techniques","1","Electronic archival finding aids encoded in Encoded
Archival Description (EAD) are transported across
networks and rendered into HTML for display on the browser.
Considering the time, effort and money involved in marking
up the finding aids, has the markup been used for retrieval
purposes? Has the multilevel hierarchical nature of finding aids
been used for searching? A few online EAD tag based retrieval
systems that process queries look for occurrences of the search
term in the corresponding EAD tag, but do not seem to address
subject- or topic-based queries. This study explores the
possibility of using the content of specific EAD tags for subject
retrieval purposes. We studied the consistencies, commonalities
and discrepancies in usages of various critical tags across
repositories participating in the Texas Archival Resources
Online (TARO) project. These usages were compared to EAD
tagging guidelines as well as TARO guidelines. We identified
the <abstract>, <scopecontent> and <bioghist>
tags as good representatives of the finding aid from standard
archival descriptive practice and examined their content for a
sample of repositories within TARO. The content of these tags
was processed using text processing techniques to further study
and arrive at possible similarity metrics to identify similar
finding aids. We feel this would help evaluate EAD as an
information retrieval tool within TARO and if our experiments
help conclude that EAD can be effective as such a tool (or can
be made effective by better descriptive practice), then the
prospect of creating a highly interconnected web of finding
aids exploiting the hierarchical nature of EAD is possible.
This study was conducted on 1226 EAD encoded finding aids
from nine archiving institutions which are part of TARO. Our
study was conducted in three phases. First, we verified the
usage of EAD tags across repositories within TARO with an
aim of determining if there exists a core set of tags within these
finding aids. This part of the study was motivated by the
underutilization of the Dublin Core tags as reported by Shreves,
Kirkham, Kaczmarek and Cole and Ward. From this part of
our study we arrived at a core set of 27 EAD tags from the
entire EAD tag library comprising 146 tags. These 27 EAD
tags form a superset of the tags deemed mandatory by ISAD(G)
as well as the EAD tagging guidelines of other archiving
institutions. Additionally, we observed the varied usage of the
hierarchy of these tags within these finding aids and very limited
usage of tags to achieve electronic linking between documents.
In the second part, we studied if these finding aids have been
encoded according to standard archival descriptive practice
(i.e. if the text within these EAD tags was appropriate). This
was achieved through text processing involving extraction of
the text from the specific tags and processing these to arrive at
a vocabulary. We conducted this study on the part of the finding
aids corresponding to the University of Texas Alexander
Architectural Archive (UTAAA) and University of Texas Benson
Latin American Collection (UTLAC) repositories. Comparisons,
of the vocabularies of the <abstract> tag between two
different repositories indicate that the vocabularies for the said
repositories are quite distinct. We found that the content of
different tags has different word counts and correspondingly
different vocabulary sizes. Additionally, we observed that up
to 65% of the total word count in each of the three tags studied
(<abstract>, <bioghist> and <scopecontent>)
represents the vocabulary, thus indicating that significant
information is embedded in the textual content of each of these
tags.
In the third step, using the vocabularies obtained, we
represented these finding aids as vectors in the vocabulary
space. In such a vector representation of finding aids, we
compared finding aids using a cosine similarity in conjunction
with Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency (TF-IDF)
weighting. The TF-IDF scheme weights rarely used words
higher than commonly used words, and also accounts for the
size of the document. We then clustered these finding aids with
an online clustering tool (wCLUTO) using the agglomerative
clustering algorithm. The agglomerative clustering groups
finding aids based on the similarity of content, resulting in a
tree of documents. The lowest levels of the tree correspond to
individual finding aids and the highest levels of the tree
correspond to the entire sets of finding aids. Our study focused
on low-level clusters, which are of particular interest to
archivists, as these clusters address the descriptive material
embedded in the various EAD tags. To determine the
similarities between finding aids, we extracted vocabularies
for individual tags like <abstract>, <scopecontent>
and <bioghist> and clustered the finding aids based on the
similarity of textual content with respect to these individual
tags. Further, we combined the similarity relations between finding aids, based on these individual tags, to build a space
that encompasses the content similarity for a combination of
tags. Our clustering results on individual and combination of
tags are in agreement with the classification provided by the
curators of the UTAAA repository.
We conclude from our study that if finding aids are marked up
according to standard archival descriptive practice then they
yield meaningful content-based clusters of similar finding aids.
Further, we were able to demonstrate; i) the ability of forming
'neighborhoods' of similar finding aids using either individual
tags or a combination of tags, and, ii) that the 'neighborhoods'
were different for different tags or combination of tags. From
this idea of a 'neighborhood' of finding aids, we propose a
searchable interface for a repository of finding aids by means
of the EAD tags. This search facility, we think, enhances the
prospect of creating a web of similar and, thus, interconnected
finding aids, which, in turn would facilitate research in the field
of archives and help researchers form cliques by common
research interests and goals.
Our study demonstrates the ability to apply the text processing
techniques from the field of information retrieval to the field
of archives with a goal of enabling EAD encoded finding aids
transition to the digital world and be visible in the realm of
online documents and be accessible to researchers.
Bibliography
Shreves, S.L., C. Kirkham, J. Kaczmarek, and T.W. Cole.
""Utility of an OAI Service Provider Search Portal.""
Proceedings 2003 Joint Conference on Digital Libraries. Los
Alimotos, CA: IEEE Computer Society, 2003. 306-308.
Ward, J. ""A Quantitative Analysis of Unqualified Dublin Core
Metadata Element Set Usage within Data Providers Registered
with the Open Archives Initiative."" Proceedings 2003 Joint
Conference on Digital Libraries. Los Alimotos, CA: IEEE
Computer Society, 2003. 315-317.","txt","2","",""
"513","6","The LICHEN Project: The LInguistic and Cultural Heritage Electronic Network","2","The international, interdisciplinary and multilingual
LICHEN project focuses on the languages and cultures
of the northern circumpolar region, that is the region north of
the 55th parallel. Its underlying assumption is that language
and culture are as important to the survival and well-being of
populations as more obvious ecological, social and health issues.
We believe that the creation of a digital portal giving access to
written and spoken texts in the languages of the region will
further its well-being.
Faced with minority languages, governments in the recent past
have pursued policies of assimilation. This has applied to
indigenous languages in Canada, to Gaelic and Scots in
Scotland, and to Finnic minority languages in the Circumpolar
region: Meänkieli and Swedish Finnish in Sweden; the Kven
language in Norway; Viena Karelian, Olonets Karelian and
Vepsian in Russia; the Võro and Seto languages in Estonia;
and Livonian in Latvia.
LICHEN aims to collect and disseminate information about
the languages spoken in the circumpolar region in order to
promote the linguistic confidence and self-image of their
speakers. It will promote cultural awareness among the peoples
of the North, facilitating cross-cultural communication between
them in an age of rapid global change. LICHEN will create
communication between research units in order to promote
discussion on the common needs of research on the minority
languages of the North. We are doing this by: • creating an electronic framework for the collection,
management, online display, and exploitation of corpora of
the languages of the circumpolar regions;
• creating a website with information on these languages and
the peoples speaking them (the LICHEN website will be
launched in January 2005);
• creating a virtual learning environment for teaching the
linguistic and cultural heritage of the circumpolar region;
• carrying out a pilot project on the Meänkieli and Kven
languages;
• identifying research on topics of immediate importance and
common interest;
• setting up an inter-institutional doctoral research
programme.
LICHEN has existing resources and work has begun. We have
Meänkieli tapes totalling about 150 hours and Kven language
tapes of about 100 hours for our immediate use. These tapes
are now being digitized. We have access to both the structure
and contents of the Scottish Corpus of Texts and Speech
(SCOTS) at the University of Glasgow, currently totalling 0.5
million words of spoken and written Scots and Scottish English.
We have the nucleus of a research team based on the English
and Finnish Departments and the Department of Electrical
Engineering at Oulu and the English Language Department and
SCOTS project at Glasgow. This team has considerable
linguistic and computing expertise.
Our first aim in year 1 is to complete the technical specifications
for the electronic framework through consultations between
language and computing staff team members. We are also
consulting other people working in the field of corpus building
at meetings and conferences, and by email. In addition to
housing the data, the system will accommodate management,
administration and programs for concordancing and searching
the data. The ultimate goal of the development of the computing
tools is a shell which can be adapted to any language. For many
languages at risk there is a need both to preserve existing
materials and develop new ones. During this year, we will
design and implement a prototype of this shell. A longer term
goal is to provide an interface to the tools which allows the end
user to define or rename all functions in their own language.
We will continue work on the Meänkieli and Kven recorded
language material. We will work generally on the problem of
languages without standard written forms, starting with Kven
and Scots (a worldwide problem as people endeavour to record
languages before they vanish). As an initial solution to the
problem of written forms, it is proposed that several Kven
speakers should be asked to transcribe a short passage and the
results compared. Scottish Language Dictionaries will be
consulted here. We will investigate the feasibility of working
through community groups in minority language areas. In
addition to harnessing local knowledge, we hope that a policy
of local workshops will stimulate skills development and job
creation.
A poster presentation at ACH/ALLC 2005 will enable us to
publicise the project to other minority language scholars and
to enlist the considerable expertise of the conference participants
in the discussion of the design of the online corpus tools. It is
our intention that the functions of the corpus shell should
include all the basic requirements for a corpus builder and for
a corpus user in an easy-to-use environment. We know the end
users will include many who are not technically sophisticated
and would not have other avenues for finding advice on
digitization or access to an Internet platform to share their
materials. Our idea of 'basic' requirements for online use include
corpus browsing, word and phrase searches, wildcard searches,
concordancing; for corpus building we will include guidelines
on recording, digitization, copyright and data protection. We
would welcome this opportunity to discuss our proposed designs
with the expert community of ACH/ALLC.
Bibliography
Anderson, J., et al. ""The SCOTS Corpus."" Models and Methods
in the Handling of Unconventional Digital Corpora.
Houndsmills: Palgrave Macmillan, Forthcoming.
Institute for the Languages of Scotland. <http://www.ar
ts.ed.ac.uk/celtscot/institutelanguagessc
otland/>
Kven bibliography. <http://www.ub.uit.no/baser
/kvensk/>
Linguistic Atlas Projects. < http://us.english.uga
.edu/>
The Linguistic Data Consortium. <http://www.ldc.up
enn.edu/>
Meänkieli information. <http://modersmal.skolutv
eckling.se/meankieli/index.html>
MediaTeam Oulu research group. <http://www.media
team.oulu.fi/brief/?lang=en/>
The Newcastle Electronic Corpus of Tyneside English. <htt
p://www.ncl.ac.uk/necte/>
Opas, L.L., and F.J. Tweedie. ""Review of Michael P. Oakes,
Statistics for Corpus Linguistics."" Literary and Linguistic
Computing 14.4 (1999): 541-543.
Palander, M., L.L. Opas-Hänninen, and F.J. Tweedie.
""Neighbours or enemies? Competing variants causing differences in transitional dialects."" Computers and the
Humanities 37.4 (2003): .
Ruija kvenmuseum. <http://museumsnett.no/alia
s/HJEMMESIDE/vadsomuseet/kven/>
Ruijan Kaiku newspaper. <http://www.ruijan-kaik
u.no/>
Scottish Corpus of Texts and Speech. <http://www.sco
ttishcorpus.ac.uk/>
TAPoR tools. <http://tapor.humanities.mcmast
er.ca/home.html>
The Text Encoding Initiative. <http://www.tei-c.org
.uk/>
Thule Institute. <http://thule.oulu.fi/>
University Centre for Computer Corpus Research on Language.
<http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/computing/re
search/ucrel/>
Winsa, Birger. ""Language attitudes and social identity.
Oppression and revival of a minority language in Sweden.""
Applied Linguistics Association of Australia Occasional paper
17 (1998).","txt","2","",""
"514","6","Multicultural Issues on the TEI's Horizon: the Case of Tibetan Texts","1","Initially developed by scholars familiar with European and
American manuscripts, the TEI is now being pressed into
service for the encoding of non-western texts. Will the TEI
develop as a closed fraternity of western computer programmers
and editor/scholars, or will it emerge as an open, egalitarian
community of global scholars, who are interested in applying
digital technology to the world’s literature? On the one hand,
there are practical issues faced by encoders of non-western
texts, such as the lack of reliable Unicode for all language
scripts and the economic difficulties associated with training
non-western scholar/editors in TEI. On the other hand, there
are hermeneutic issues raised by TEI going global which are
prompted by the general understanding of texts as information
rather than as the materially embodied corpus of a culture. Some
of the specific issues raised by Tibetan texts in this regard will
be used to examine the theoretical tailoring of TEI without
presuming that non-western texts will wear TEI comfortably.
Tibetan texts present several challenges to the TEI. Among the
practical issues are these: as an endangered language, Tibetan
has no government support for its preservation or for its study
by the international community of digitally trained scholars.
As a minority language, Tibetan waits on a Unicode version
guaranteed to represent all of its scripts. Despite these practical
problems, because the Tibetan cultural heritage is text-based,
it is an obvious candidate for TEI. Even if TEI cannot restore
Tibetan texts to their original cultural function, the preservation
and encoding of Tibetan manuscripts and transcripts can at least
keep one of the most distinctive Asian cultural traditions on
'life support'.
There are, however, other problems raised by the modern
encoding of traditional Tibetan texts—problems that are
hermeneutic in nature, pertaining to our underlying
understanding of what a text is and what needs to be encoded
in a text. Informatics, as used by Haraway and Hayles, is a
theoretical and operational paradigm for treating a text as
abstract information that can be taken out of its material medium
and its cultural context. The TEI aims to describe a text so that
it can be searched, stored and circulated digitally without a loss
of its most meaningful features, and in doing so TEI favors the information in the text that can abandon its material medium
and perhaps even its cultural role. But information—i.e.,
'informing readers'—is not what many Tibetan texts were meant
to provide; the texts were meant to transform readers, helping
them become enlightened. It is not just that Tibetan texts are
sacred; they are practice texts that demand specific kinds of
mental preparation, specific kinds of bodily handling and
gestures linked to their materiality, as well as ongoing religious
commitment from the readers.
With regard to readers' mental preparation, traditional Tibetan
libraries contain many 'restricted' texts, which are not given
wide circulation because of the original esoteric meaning of
these texts. Certain advanced texts were 'classified', so to speak;
they were meant only for meditator/scholars who met certain
conditions: they had achieved the right qualifications for
understanding the meaning of the texts, had received permission
from their teacher to study or use the texts, and had made a
commitment to practice the meditation methods described in
the texts. These advanced Vajrayana texts are, to this day, not
made accessible by traditional Tibetan teachers to any reader
for the asking. (In some sense, this problem of Tibetan
esotericism is similar to the esotericism of the TEI itself: the
TEI tags are a hidden code, developed by, and meant for, a
fairly limited group of advanced practitioners of XML.) The
TEI, which is a digital publishing tool as much as it is a tool
for textual analysis, may make it easier to bring formerly
restricted Tibetan texts into public circulation. Although
encoding these texts would help Tibetan scholars and advanced
practitioners analyze the texts, encoding also makes it more
likely that unqualified readers will 'break into' some of the
advanced, restricted Tibetan texts. With Tibetan culture in
danger, will its textual resources be pillaged by unqualified,
spiritual treasure-seekers, and will TEI become a tool for such
digital plunder?
A second issue raised by traditional Tibetan texts concerns the
ritualistic manner of their reading. Because many of these texts
are practice texts, which lay out the particular steps that a
meditator would follow in his or her daily meditation practice,
the traditional method for reading these practice texts is a
training style. It is unlike the reading style used for most western
texts, because it requires precision of pronouncing each word
(at least in one’s head), accurate counting of the chants requiring
repetition, and accompanying visualizations of a detailed nature.
Within the Tibetan tradition, many manuscripts are not meant
to be read through once from start to finish, but are meant to
be scripts for daily meditation practices, involving ritualized
bodily and mental gymnastics.
To encode a Tibetan practice text as though it is to be read
straight through, in the way that most western texts are read,
would neglect its most important function, which is to train the
reader in meditation. The solution is not to trivialize Tibetan
meditation practices by encoding loops for repeated chants or
by encoding inserted graphical images for visualizations, for
this would not respect accomplishments expected of the
reader/practitioner. It is the reader/practitioners who must
contribute the repetition of chants or the visualization of a
meditation deity to their reading of the practice text, and a
software program that supplied these would sabotage the
training that the text instantiates.
Finally, a third issue concerns whether the TEI codes can
distinguish between different audiences for the encoded
manuscript: can TEI tags be designed to discriminate between
a reader who is practicing meditation with the text and a reader
who is reading the text for standard western research purposes?
A reader who has no interest in meditating or in Tibetan beliefs
may read the text as a work of literature, philosophy or history;
this reader would benefit from TEI codes that mark the structure
and bibliographic details of the text. The TEI tags would allow
this first kind of reader to read the text 'western style'. But a
second kind of reader, who is actively engaged in using the text
in the traditional Tibetan way as a meditation practice text, may
be looking for TEI encoding that will map out the most
important clues for how to succeed at the meditation practice.
Is this a reasonable project for TEI encoding?
The TEI’s application to multilingual, multicultural projects is
not a simple, uniform expansion but is a hermeneutic exercise
in acknowledging and facing its horizons. Textual practices
that are unproblematic within one’s own culture may be
problematic in another culture, because the farther one travels
from one’s own culture, one finds that texts function in radically
di+E2fferent ways. These multicultural horizons need not be
limitations on the TEI, but they should be kept within the broad,
panoramic view of what the TEI is trying to accomplish.
Bibliography
Anderson, Deborah. ""Unicode and Historic Scripts."" Ariadne
37 (2003). Accessed 2005-03-03. <http://www.ariadn
e.ac.uk/issue37/anderson/>
Bia, Alejandro, and Manuel Sanchez-Quero. The Future of
Markup is Multilingual. . Accessed 2005-03-03. <http://
www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop119
.html>
Dreyfus, Georges B.J. The Sound of Two Hands Clapping:
The Education of a Tibetan Buddhist Monk. Berkeley,
California: University of California Press, 2003.
Hayles, N. Katherine. How we became posthuman. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1999. Thurman, Robert A.F. Essential Tibetan Buddhism. San
Francisco: HarperCollins, 1995.","txt","2","",""
"515","6","Automatic Discovery of NLP Resources on the Web","1","The World-Wide Web has become a popular vehicle for
disseminating and obtaining research and educational
resources. In Natural Language Processing (NLP), for example,
the specialist community has accumulated a large amount of
NLP resources which it has developed over years, including
software (part-of-speech taggers, parsers, various corpus
analysis tools) and data (evaluation corpora and datasets,
frequency lists, glossaries, gazetteers). Most of these resources
are freely available, which helps other researchers to save effort
in developing them and allows for direct comparisons with
previous work. However, finding these resources on the web
is not straightforward. Traditional keyword search is often too
costly in terms of time and effort. One can look up collections
of web links on the topic, such as the ACL/NLP Universe.
Unfortunately, as they are manually compiled and maintained,
these collections quickly fall out of date and have limited
coverage.
The purpose of our work (ESRC grant RES-000-23-0010) is
to design a system which will mine the Internet for pages on
NLP resources, extract relevant facts from them and produce
a publicly accessible database with this information. The task
needs to be addressed by a combination of technologies from
the areas of language processing and information retrieval.
While these technologies have long been investigated in
isolation, recent research started to focus on integrating them
in complex information systems to be deployed for real-world
tasks (e.g., Petasis 2003). The main contribution of this paper
is a range of solutions we develop for effective and efficient
integration of the technologies. We here present the design of
the system under development, focusing on interoperability of
its components.
1. Domain crawler
Initial inspection of existing web resources showed there are
two most useful sources for their discovery, manually prepared
collections of links and email announcements on specialized
lists. To find these pages, a web crawler was implemented which (1) seeks out large collections of URLs of interest on
the web and (2) selectively downloads pages mentioned in them
that may be relevant to the domain. This first step produces an
intermediate corpus of potentially useful documents.
2. Format normalization
All the retrieved documents come from extremely diverse
sources. For the purpose of further processing, their formatting
has to be made uniform. To achieve this, the following
pre-processing was performed:
(a) Since email messages typically appear as plain text, the text
layout in them (headings, subheadings, itemized lists,
emphasized text, etc) was automatically recognized and
corresponding HTML tags were inserted.
(b) Character encoding was normalised to ensure that it is
uniform throughout the corpus.
(c) HTML errors were detected and corrected using the HTML
Tidy tool.
3. Text filtering
To identify relevant documents among those downloaded, the
text filtering component implements an interface to Rainbow,
a freely available text categorization toolkit. It classifies all the
downloaded documents into two categories: relevant and
irrelevant ones. As training data, the system uses around 100
pages describing various NLP resources and around 900
irrelevant pages, randomly picked from the output of the crawler
at a pilot run and manually classified. After testing a range of
parameters in the standard categorization procedure (learning
algorithm, feature selection parameters, various tokenization
options, etc.), the most optimal categorization scheme was
determined (F-measure=0.97).
4. Term extraction and gazetteer acquisition
The term extraction component is responsible for the acquisition
of the most important terms and named entities (person and
organization names, dates, names of software and data
resources) in the domain. The list of terms it produces is used
to improve the tokenization necessary for text categorization
and to construct domain gazetteers. This component looks for
the most frequent words and word sequences in the domain
corpus, and applies a range of pattern matching rules to filter
out errors and recognize particular semantic types of terms and
named entities as well as their abbreviations. The term lists are
later revised by an expert to ensure their quality.
5. Language identification
One characteristic of the downloaded documents is that many
of them contain text in two or more languages (e.g., the
description of resources for languages other English). The
purpose of the language identification component is to remove
non-English paragraphs from a document. It uses a
character-based 3-gram model of the language identity of the
text, which allows the correct recognition of the language of
small text snippets. The component puts special tags around
the paragraphs identified as non-English so as to exclude them
from further processing.
6. Named entity recognition
The Named Entity (NE) recognition component identifies
various semantic types of proper nouns, a step preceding
information extraction. NE recognition is carried out by a
combination of methods, which include:
(a) Common NEs (person names, locations, and dates) are
recognized using the GATE system (Cunningham et al.
2002). Its output is customized to the application domain
with the help of a set of post-processing rules (e.g.,
geographical NEs such as oceans and mountain ranges are
irrelevant for the domain, so NE tags are removed from
such words).
(b) NEs specific to the domain are further recognized using (1)
gazetteers automatically acquired from the domain corpus,
(2) a set of transducers (rules for semantic annotation of
text).
(c) A newly proposed method, which exploits text layout to
learn NER rules from already annotated NEs, was applied
to improve the coverage of the NER component.
The NER component is run before language identification and
text categorization. Removing all proper nouns from text before
recognizing its language helps to reduce errors caused by the
presence of foreign names in it. Text categorization profits from
substituting unique proper nouns by their semantic category
labels, whereby all semantically similar NEs are mapped to the
same feature.
7. Coreference resolution
Given that in a particular document, there may be different
ways to refer to NEs (e.g., full names, abbreviations, definite
descriptions), it is important to link such variants into
coreference chains. The component creates coreference chains
for the NE types recognized by the NER component by applying
a set of pre-defined rules firing orthographic cues (Bontcheva
et al. 2002). 8. Information extraction
The information extraction (IE) task consists of identifying
relations between recognized NEs, which are later used to fill
complex templates (Table 1 describes the template to be filled
along with the example fillers). Previous research has developed
a range of IE methods for tasks that require filling one template
per document (e.g., Kushmerick et al. 1997, Freitag 1998).
Here, we opt for an IE method similar to the one proposed by
(De Sitter & Daelemans 2003). This method learns two distinct
machine learning classifiers from an annotated corpus: one
operating on the level of sentences and one on the level of
words. First, the sentence-level classifier scans the document
for sentences that potentially contain template fillers. After
that, the word-level classifier attempts to precisely pinpoint the
filler instance in the relevant sentences by looking at the local
context of each of its words. Thereby, the context of a word
occurrence is represented through features corresponding actual
text tokens, all semantic and HTML tags appended on them,
and part-of-speech tags.
Field Example filler
Name CLAWS part-of-speech tagger
Area PoS tagging
Creator UCREL
Licence Commercial, in-house service
Platform UNIX
Prog_language
Req_applications
Nat_language English
<http://www.comp.lancs.ac
.uk/ucrel/claws/>
URL
Table 1
One difficulty with applying IE to the domain corpus is that
very often a particular document does not contain information
about all the fields of the template (e.g., the field for natural
language remains unfilled for language-independent tools like
annotation software). They should be distinguished from
documents which do not fill the template fields because they
have been erroneously classified as relevant at the text filtering
stage. To draw this distinction, a special verification step is
applied. It is based on estimating the probability of every field
being filled for relevant and irrelevant documents in the gold
standard corpus and comparing the corresponding probability
vectors with a similar vector prepared for each newly processed
document.
A prototype incorporating these components has been
implemented and in subsequent work, we will continue to
perform user-focused tuning of this tool to enhance it with a
view to deployment in the research domain. Although the initial
stages of the BiRD project have addressed IE in the field of
computational linguistics, it will be interesting to evaluate the
system in application to new domains.
Bibliography
Bontcheva, K., M. Dimitrov, D. Maynard, V. Tablan, and H.
Cunningham. ""Shallow Methods for Named Entity Coreference
Resolution."" Chaînes de références et résolveurs d'anaphores,
workshop TALN’2002 (2002).
Cunningham, H., D. Maynard, K. Bontcheva, and V. Tablan.
""GATE: A Framework and Graphical Development
Environment for Robust NLP Tools and Applications.""
Proceedings of ACL'02 (2002).
De Sitter, A., and W. Daelmans. ""Information extraction via
double classification."" Proceedings of the ECML/PKDD’03
Workshop on Adaptive Text Extraction and Mining (ATEM’03)
(2003).
Freitag, D. ""Information Extraction From HTML: Application
of a General Learning Approach."" Proceedings of AAAI’98
(1998).
Kushmerick, N., D. Weld, and R. Doorenbos. ""Wrapper
Induction for Information Extraction."" Proceedings of IJCAI’97
(1997): 729–737.
Petasis, G., V. Karkaletsis, G. Paliouras, I. Androutsopoulos,
and C.D. Spyropoulos. ""Ellogon: A new text engineering
platform."" Proceedings of LREC-02 (2002).","txt","2","",""
"516","6","The Robert Graves Diary (1935-39): a TEI Application using an XML Database (eXist)","2","Our paper will cover both academic and technical
development of the Graves Diary Project (1935-39). The
prototype can be found at <http://www.tapor.uvic.
ca:8080/cocoon/graves/> .
Academic Development
Robert Graves' 1935-39 diary is part of the prized Graves
collection in the UVic Libraries' Special Collection. The
diary has been used extensively by biographers and scholars,
but it has remained inaccessible to a wider readership until
recently. The Robert Graves Trust in Oxford owns the copyright
to the diary and in 2001 they agreed to allow the University of
Victoria Libraries to publish the diary as both an electronic and
a print edition. Beryl Graves, Robert's widow, transcribed the
diary into text and a copy of this text was deposited with the
University of Victoria. In addition the Trust encouraged Chris
Petter to scan an annotated version of the transcript, prepared
by Karl Goldschmidt, Graves' long time secretary. William
Graves, Robert's eldest son by Beryl, offered to contribute notes
that he kept on the Deyá portions of the diary.
Robert Graves (1895-1985) is a major twentieth-century English
poet, novelist and essayist. After surviving the First World War
and subsequent shell shock, he married, studied at Oxford and
began to publish poetry. In 1926 he met Laura Riding, the
American poet whose work he had admired from afar. She
became an enormous influence on him, and on his writing, and
their intense working relationship lasted for over ten years.
They founded the Seizin Press together, and in 1929 they moved
to Deyá, Majorca. The novels that made Graves famous —
Goodbye to All That, I Claudius and Claudius the God — were
written in this period. The diary is an important document
illuminating their life together and that of the little coterie of
writers and artists they gathered around them.
The diary's permanent project team consists of Elizabeth
Grove-White (English Department) who is responsible for the
introductory material; Chris Petter (Library), project manager
and Linda Roberts M.A., who is responsible for encoding,
abstracting and annotation. Spencer Rose, and later Martin
Holmes of UVic’s Humanities Computing and Media Centre
have developed the interfaces. Elizabeth was successful in
landing a two year SSHRC project grant for the diary for
2004-2006. Dr. Patrick Quinn kindly contributed monthly
abstracts for 1935 and 1936 diary entries.
TEI Development
Work began in 2002 when Chris Petter was granted a study
leave from the Library. The manuscript was digitized and an
index created which links the file title to the date. Chris traveled
to the University of New Brunswick Text Centre and then to
Oxford. At UNB Chris was able to restructure the text files into
day entries within month divisions. In Oxford, Sebastian Rahtz
advised on using the TEI.corpus dtd and an XML database to
present the diary. The reason for this advice was because of the
structural difficulties of the diary with its 115 enclosures and
numerous letter logs. Chris also set up databases which could
store information on the names, places and titles mentioned in
the diary. These included the annotations of Karl Goldschmidt
and the notes contributed by William Graves.
Markup
A guiding principle of the Graves diary markup procedure is
to approximate the original document as closely as possible,
so that the character of Graves' 'diary style' is preserved along
with its content. Fortunately, XML (Extensible Markup
Language), with its capacity to convey emendations such as
deletions (crossed out) and supralinear additions allows us to
produce an authentic version which reflects to some extent the
immediacy of the diary mss. It has been necessary to work
constantly with the mss in order to identify and adjust any
changes made in the transcript which diverge from the copy
text, including paragraphing, spelling and punctuation. Any
exceptions will be accounted for in the editorial notes. The markup process allows us to include annotations for names,
places, titles, foreign words, and emendations, as well as notes
and editorial comments.
Technical Implementation: Web
Interface Development
Work on the web interface began in the fall of 2002, and
has since become a platform for testing client-side xml
processing in the rendering of XHTML documents using XSL
stylesheets. Spencer Rose's contribution to this project, through
the Humanities Computing and Media Centre, has involved
transforming updated TEI-conformant XML documents into a
simple and transparent web interface that is intuitive and useful
for researchers.
The first prototype developed by Spencer Rose in 2003 made
use of client-side XML processing, but was expanded to
accommodate more complex XML markup. These xml
processing capabilities became available with advanced web
browser software. Some desirable features of client-side XML
processing included the offloading of processing from the server
to the client, and the direct access of XML files for customizable
display. However, unlike server-side XML-to-XHTML
transformations, client-side processing depends on the
compatibility of the web browser to parse and render using
XSL stylesheets, which, until recently, had been an unstable
feature of standards-compliant browsers.
Web Prototype
The interface design involved two phases. The first phase was
to build a static web display that allowed for easy browsing of
the diary text. The second phase would allow users to perform
complex search querying of the XML documents. For this
prototype, the interface design involved a number of separate
components. Of these components, some might be considered
common to most web development projects such as using CSS
and javascript to web-enable the site; others required special
work. The static components of the site design included the
general web design, XHTML layout and styling using XSL
rendering and Cascading Stylesheets. The dynamic components
involve using javascript for client-side interactivity. These
components are brought together to form a document that is
web-enabled.
XSL Templates and XHTML
The Graves Diary xml documents strictly conform to the Text
Encoding Initiative guidelines and therefore use standard tags
and attributes that describe typographic and analytic structures
of the text. Attention to detail in the XML markup was reflected
in the detail of the XSL-Transformed representation such that
the diary's wide range of styling features — all encoded using
TEI elements — were reproduced in the transformed XHTML
document. As well, the interactive features of the interface —
including image scan and spot-of-reference pop-ups, as well
as other dynamic display elements — were developed using
client-side javascript.
XML Indexing System
The Graves Diary contains numerous enclosures — letters,
poems, photographs — clippings that are components of the
transcription. As with each diary entry, each enclosure has a
separate digital scan that is indexed in XML documents. As
well, each entry and enclosure also contains numerous
biographical, geographical and bibliographical references that
link to an external reference database. Because of this complex
cross-indexing of media, reference information and enclosures,
an important design issue was deciding on a suitable indexing
system that linked these components in a coherent display.
One of the projects greatest innovations was the creation by
Spencer Rose of two modular XML index files: one file
cross-indexes the collection of digital image scans of the diary
(including enclosures) with the main diary files; another XML
file lists reference entries identified with reference locations in
the diary text. Both of these external XML files originated in
different file formats and needed to be transformed into XML
documents. These XML files could then be included with the
diary markup in the XSL templates, and as well made the
creation of image and file index displays straightforward.
Finally, XML pointer files for the diary entries were also used
to isolate the XSL references in the document header from the
actual document. This has the benefit of removing the diary
files from a specific stylesheet reference.
eXist XML Database Late Breaking
Development
The present phase of this interface project is to make the
transcribed Graves Diary documents searchable online. For
this, the implementation of the Open Source native XML
database system eXist ( <http://exist-db.org/> ) has
shown a promising start — with at least the proof of concept
being established in a working prototype.
The eXist search engine makes use of an extended XPath query
language called XQuery to search elements in a document.
XPath is an established document syntax that is integral to XSL
in that it defines the elements of XML documents for stylesheet transformations. eXist's enchanced querying includes basic
XPath expressions to search through the nodal structure of the
XML document, but it is also capable of keyword searches on
XML elements and attributes, as well as queries on the
proximity of search terms and regular expressions. Analyses
of nodal relationships (e.g. parent-child relations between
elements) are also possible with eXist. One feature of the eXist
search engine is that, for a wide range of XPath expressions, it
uses stored index files that reference the structure of the XML
document nodes. Information can then be retrieved without
accessing the collections documents directly. This improves
the speed and efficiency of information retrieval.
The Graves Diary eXist database is still in the process of
development, with the rendering and placement of enclosures
(some multi-page) alongside their digital images proving to be
a challenge for Martin Holmes (Humanities Computing). In
the meantime, the markup of the diary text and the creation of
abstracts for each month by graduate students continues under
the supervision of Linda Roberts. The project is scheduled for
completion by July 2006.
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Bibliography
Meier, Wolfgang. eXist: An Open Source Native XML
Database. . Accessed 2002-11. <http://exist-db.org
/webdb.pdf>","txt","2","",""
"517","6","An Encoding Model for Librettos: the Opera Liber DTD","1","Opera librettos are a very peculiar literary genre. Often
considered an ancillary part of the opera, merely the plot
through which the music can express its power and its beauty
or the pretext for singers to show their capabilities and the
potential of their voices, the libretto is a little studied aspect of
the literature.
A considerable number of web sites are currently presenting
collections of librettos in several formats (doc, pdf, html,
gif, txt). However, they generally do not cite their source
or even which version of the text they are based upon;
furthermore, in most cases they do not respect editorial
traditions of the libretto.
Librettos have some peculiar structural characteristics: they
can be considered a subcategory of drama texts, but they
distinguish themselves form the non-musical drama texts mainly
in two ways:
• the presence of Concertato sections
• the extreme fragmentation of the versification.
The Concertato is a musical term that is passed on in the
librettos tradition to mean normally a scene or part of a scene
performed simultaneously by different characters, each singing
different texts, including several cues and stage directions. The
number of simultaneous sequences can range from a minimum
of two, to a maximum of seven/eight, as in the following
example taken from Falstaff (music by Giuseppe Verdi and
libretto by Arrigo Boito).
Pages 77-78 of the Falstaff libretto
In the libretto the versification is extremely fragmentary: as for
the drama, verses and stanzas are usually split according to the
different cues; furthermore, fin de siècle librettos admit different
metres that can change at any moment, even within a cue.
An important point is that usually the libretto that is printed
and distributed to the public can be markedly different from
the one that is sung on the stage. In the score, verses and words
are adapted to the musical progression and for that reason they
can be stretched, repeated, modified, cut and added. The libretto
is often conceived as a support for the spectator; in the libretto,
indeed, portions of text suppressed in the score, stage directions,
comments, notes that have no match with the performed opera,
can help the spectator to follow the plot. All these peculiarities
need to be seriously taken into consideration before starting
any encoding. Firstly, this is because the librettos' printing
tradition has fixed some conventions to represent the different
characteristics. Second, the public to which a digital collection
of librettos is addressed will expect its habits to be taken into
account.
In the last two years a research project named ""L'Opera prima
dell'Opera"" (The text/literary source before the staging of
Opera) has carried out the creation of a digital library of
librettos called Opera Liber, freely available on the Net
(currently at <http://80.19.150.245/operaliber
/> but will be soon transferred to <http://www.opera
liber.it> ). Opera Liber is a portal for the study and the
documentation of the Italian librettos for the period 1870 -
1920, including works of the main Italian composers such as
Verdi, Puccini, Leoncavallo, Mascagni, Ponchielli and many
others. The main resource of the web site is represented by the
collection of texts, available both for reading and for linguistic
querying. The texts have been encoded in XML TEI format
and are managed and queried using the native XML database
eXist. The Opera Liber DTD is a customization of the TEI
DTD P4, fully documented on the web site, and it is constituted
by a mixed base set (verse and drama) and additional tag sets
such as figure, transcriptions of primary sources, linking, and names and dates. Some customizations of the DTD have been
made, following the prescription of the Chapter 29 of the
Guidelines for Text Encoding and Interchange
(Sperberg-McQueen & Burnard).
In creating the encoding model the main problem was to find
a correct encoding for Concertatos. The Concertato can surely
be considered a sort of structural division, even if not at the
same level of usual structural divisions (such as acts and scenes,
encoded by the TEI <div> elements). A milestone approach
that was also considered would miss the consistency of the
Concertato sequences. For that reason we decided to create a
new element <sequences> that will include a number of
<sequence> elements, according to the number of columns
in the printed form.
We decided also to consider as source physical copies of
librettos, and not so called ideal copies and that because it is
often difficult to determine the belonging of a copy to a
particular edition or issue. Publishers, in fact, usually printed
a large amount of librettos, storing unsold copies, just changing
the front matters to fit the libretto they have in their repositories
to a particular mise en scène, sometimes mixing copies from
different printings. Furthermore, some of the copies we have
considered for encoding contain manuscript notes or
dedications. For all these reasons we settled on recording the
provenance of the encoded copies, creating the element
<copyStmt> (and the child elements <settlement> and
<repository>) inside the <sourceDesc> element.
Another problem was given by the encoding of the name of
characters. One of the peculiar characteristics of 'classic' drama
(from Greek tradition till the beginning of the twentieth century)
is the so called agnition, i.e. a character that is believed to be
a certain person, is recognised to be someone else, often
determining the unravelling of the plot. That means that a
character may have two names, the supposed and the real one,
but it is not two persons and that’s why the possibility of using
two nested <persName> was refused. We decided, instead,
to create a new attribute (called alias) for the <persName>
element to record supposed or virtual names, reserving the reg
attribute for real names.
The different kinds of metre have not been semantically
encoded because in many case the difficulty of understanding
the rationale invites caution. For that reason the metric divisions
have been marked only in really obvious cases, while in other
cases only the physical appearance of the verse has been
encoded by the usage of the <hi> element. In such way we
have recorded the presence of:
• particular indentations, normally, but not always,
representing a changing of metre;
• inverted commas, normally representing not sung verses;
• dashes normally representing the alternation of voices in
choral singing.
A number of minor implementations of the DTD have been
operated, fully documented in the web site.
The web site Opera Liber collects the experience of two years'
work in the field of encoding opera librettos and offers itself
as a point of reference for analogous experiences.
Bibliography
Opera Liber. <http://80.19.150.245/operalibe
r/>
Sperberg-McQueen, C.M., and L. Burnard, eds. TEI P4:
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Text
Encoding Initiative Consortium, 2002. Accessed 2004-10-09.
<http://www.tei-c.org/P4X/>
Verdi, Giuseppe, and Arrigo Boito. Falstaff. New York: G.
Schirmer, 1963.","txt","2","",""
"518","6","SVG Visualization of TEI Texts","2","SVG Visualization of TEI Texts
One of the more interesting benefits of XML technology for
text processing has been the 'network effects' we get from using
different XML technologies together. For example, XSLT
proves to be suitable for a great range of tasks beyond simply
the routine formatting of texts for display in a browser or on
the page (the job for which it was designed): the investment
we make in learning XSLT to generate reading versions of our
XML texts also pays off many times over in enabling us to
perform other kinds of tasks such as extra-schema validation,
heuristic analytics of the markup or the text itself, and even (up
to a point) querying. Likewise, it proves easy to produce a wide
range of different kinds of output to represent the results of
these operations. An XML application such as SVG proves to
be a straightforward target for a transformation from XML data.
The resulting SVG graphics can be anything. For example,
graphs and bar charts of information captured in numerical data
sets and represented in XML are easy to create using
XSLT/SVG. But so are more arcane kinds of depictions of
source datasets or their features, including using SVG as a
display format for 'maps' of a document's structure.
This basic architecture, XML + XSLT -> SVG, has been
demonstrated repeatedly in both the commercial and academic
sectors in recent years (see Bibliography; several applications
by the author demonstrating the use of XSLT to create SVG
graphical depictions of various kinds are included (Piez 2000,
2002, 2003a, 2003b). There is nothing particularly innovative
at this point (late 2004) about this inexpensive and powerful
method of creating graphics. What has been explored perhaps
less deeply is what can be done with stylesheets generating
graphical depictions of specifically literary works, leveraging
descriptive tagging of the 'pure' kind (that is, tagging that has
been designed to reflect documents' logical organization,
without any particular renditions in mind). Not only are the
structures and features of such works of intrinsic interest to
students of literature; they can also serve as a diverse and
heterogeneous testbed for prototyping techniques of rendition
and visualization that could be used on other sources or indeed,
on other kinds of XML data. These techniques would be widely
applicable both to works of narrative or discursive prose and
to more highly structured literary texts such as verse and drama.
Earlier demonstrations of this approach make it clear that we
are now, with the maturation of XML technologies and the
increasing support of SVG in readily available tools (the Mozilla
development team has lately been implementing SVG for their
browser, and Adobe continues work on the technology as well),
in a position where we can perform these operations on a larger
scale. One of the features of the architecture is that a family of
documents marked up consistently with the same tag set (say,
TEI) should be processable with the same stylesheet. The
marginal effort required to create a graphic depiction of a new
text, consequently, is negligible when that text's tagging
conforms to a known and supported usage pattern (preferably
valid to a known DTD). In theory, it should be possible to
generate an entire library of graphics to represent a library of
texts, all with a single stylesheet.
The poster I am proposing for ACH/ALLC 2005 will present
the results of a set of experiments testing these ideas, applying
stylesheets (both extant and new) on a variety of texts from the
Women Writer's Project at Brown University (with their kind
permission and collaboration). This will have the twofold
purpose of exploring what kinds of visual representation of
these structures are most revealing, as well as testing to what
extent single stylesheets or small families of stylesheets can be
used across a document repository, to draw interesting and
revealing comparisons among texts. (It is quite possible that
per-document ""'tuning'"" of the presentation logic will be
necessary, through a customization layer, for best results; but
until we have tried the technique on a range of texts, we will
not know the extent to which stylesheet reuse is practical. This
extent may also vary between different stylesheets used to create
different sorts of graphics.)
Stylesheets developed for this poster will also be contributed
to the WWO (Women Writers Online) project, and made
available to the wider TEI community. Figure 1: Aphra Behn, ""A Pindaric Poem to the Reverend Doctor Burnet""
(1689). An example of a free verse form Figure 2: Catherine Clive. ""The Case of Mrs. Clive"" (1744). An example of a
work in prose. Figure 3: Mary Sidney, Countess of Pembroke. ""The Doleful Lay of the Fair
Clorinda"" (1595). An example showing a regular verse form (sestets containing
couplets).
Bibliography
Birnbaum, David J. ""Analyzing and visualizing the structure
of medieval encyclopedic works with XML-related
technologies."" Paper delivered at the Extreme Markup
Languages 2003, Montreal. August 2003.
Cagle, Kurt. SVG Programming: The Graphical Web. Berkeley,
CA: Apress, 2002.
Eisenberg, J. David. SVG Essentials. Sebastopol, CA, USA:
O'Reilly, 2002.
Mangano, Sal. The XSLT Cookbook. Sebastopol, CA, USA:
O'Reilly, 2002.
Mansfield, Philip A., and Darryl W. Fuller. ""Graphical
Stylesheets: Using XSLT to Generate SVG."" Presented at XML
2001. 2001. On line at <http://www.idealliance.o
rg/papers/xml2001/papers/html/05-05-02.ht
ml>
Piez, Wendell. The Sonneteer: A demonstration of structured
form. . Accessed 2005-04-13. <http://sonneteer.xml
shoestring.com.>
Piez, Wendell. ""SVG By Way of XSLT."" Tutorial delivered at
Extreme Markup Languages 2001, Montreal. August 2001.
Piez, Wendell. ""Visualizing XML document structure using
XSLT and SVG."" interChange, the journal of ISUG (the
International SGML Users' Group) (December 2003): n. pag.
On line at <http://www.xmlshoestring.com/xml4
99/visualizingxml>
Piez, Wendell. ""XSL: Characteristics, Status and Potentials for
the Humanities."" Presented at ALLC/ACH 2000, Glasgow.
July 2000. On line at <http://www.idealliance.or
g/papers/xml2001/papers/html/05-05-02.htm
l>
Tennison, Jeni. Beginning XSLT. Birmingham, UK: Wrox
Press, 2002.","txt","2","",""
"519","6","Regelbasierte Suche in Textdatenbanken mit Nichtstandardisierter Rechtschreibung (Rule Based Search in Text Databases with Non-Standard Orthography)","1","In this paper we describe our interdisciplinary project in
support of the conservation of cultural heritage, especially
for the German reception of Nietzsche. We present a rule based
fuzzy search-engine which allows retrieval of text data
independently of its orthographical realization. The rules used
are derived from statistical analyses, historical works, linguistic
principles and professional administration. Our web based tool
aims at experts as well as interested amateurs. In addition to
its present features, further functions are currently worked out
that include automatic rule derivation and a finer result
classification via a generalized Levenshtein similarity measure.
Dans cette note, nous décrivons notre projet interdisciplinaire
concernant l'édition électronique de la réception allemande des
idées et de l'oeuvre de Nietzsche. Nous avons centré un point
d'intérêt sur la création d'un moteur de recherche accessible
dans le Web. Celui-ci permet la recherche floue, phonétique et
par troncation nécessaire au traitement de la plupart des textes
numérisés écrits avant la réforme de l'orthographe en Allemagne
en 1901/02. Le logiciel est basée sur un algorithme qui déduit
pour chaque nom, verbe et adjectif toute orthographe possible
selon un système de principes ou règles linguistiques cités dans
la littérature historique ou dérivés en collaboration avec des spécialistes. Plusieurs autres options sont prévues y compris
une dérivation automatique des règles et une classification des
résultats basée sur une mesure de similarité généralisée de
Levenshtein.
Im Kontext eines Digitalisierungsprojekts zur
Nietzsche-Rezeption aus den Jahren 1865-1945, das seit
mehreren Jahren in Duisburg in Zusammenarbeit mit dem
Nietzsche-Kolleg in Weimar verfolgt wird [BM02, BM03],
beschäftigt sich das von der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft
geförderte RSNSR-Projekt mit der Erforschung und
Entwicklung eines linguistischen Regelsystems, einer
Transformationsmethodik und zeitabhängiger Filter zur
Unterstützung der Suche in Textdokumenten in
nichtstandardisierter Rechtschreibung.
Es wurde bereits eine Java-basierte Suchmaschine erstellt,
welche es durch einen neu entwickelten phonetischen Regelsatz
ermöglicht, auf Texten, die mehrere hundert Jahre vor der
Rechtschreibvereinheitlichung des Jahres 1901 verfasst wurden,
eine Suche mittels orthographisch genormter Schlagwörter
durchzuführen (vgl. Abbildung 1) [P03]. Durch Einführung
eines Abstandsbegriffs [ZD96] sind verschiedene Stufen der
Ähnlichkeit realisiert. Außerdem erlaubt der Algorithmus durch
einen zusätzlichen speziellen Regelsatz auch die Suche nach
Wörtern, welche durch OCR-Software fehlerhaft erkannt
wurden. Die Suchmaschine ist in das online-verfügbare
HTML-basierte Nietzsche-Archiv integriert.
Mit der regelbasierten Suche verfolgen wir einen anderen
Ansatz als viele große Wörterbuchprojekte. Indem nicht mit
statischen Wortlisten gearbeitet wird, erhoffen wir uns eine
höhere Trefferquote, besonders bei Texten mit stark variierender
Schreibung. Zusätzlich wird der Arbeitsaufwand durch manuelle
Eintragung von Wort-Relationen vermieden. Andererseits
hoffen wir durch Grundlagenforschung, besonders in den
Bereichen der Phonem-Graphem-Struktur des Deutschen, der
unscharfen Suche und der Ähnlichkeitsmetriken, einen
Wortabstandsbegriff zu definieren, der sowohl eine
größtmögliche Differenzierung unterschiedlicher als auch
Zusammenfassung äquivalenter Wörter ermöglicht [A98].
Neben der Anwendung als Suchmaschine sind auch
Einsatzpunkte im Vergleich oder der temporal-lokalen
Einordnung von Texten denkbar. Zentraler
Betrachtungszeitraum sind für uns die Jahre 1700-1900. Eine
spätere Ausweitung des Regelsatzes auch auf frühere
Zeitabschnitte ist durchaus möglich.
Im Einzelnen verfolgt das Projekt die folgenden Ziele:
• Entwicklung von Zeit- und Ortsfiltern für phonetische
Regeln, Revision der Regeln aus der Textbasis und aus
statistischen Analysen, Nutzung eines Kontrollwörterbuchs
gegen Homonymhäufung.
• Entwicklung eines neuen adäquaten Abstandsbegriffs auf
der Basis eines modifizierten graphematischen und
phonetischen Levenshtein-Ähnlichkeitsmaßes,
Berücksichtigung typischer Erfassungsfehler, Entwicklung
von Unschärfeskalen.
• Integration der Suchmaschinen in das Nietzsche-Projekt
und in andere Systeme wie das Deutsche Rechtswörterbuch
oder das Projekt Deutsch Diachron Digital, Entwicklung
von Regelsätzen und Erweiterung der Suchmaschine auf
(früh-)neuhochdeutsche Archive.
Hauptsächliche Arbeitspunkte sind zur Zeit
• eine Verbesserung des Tools in Hinsicht auf Effizienz
• Grundlagenforschung zum regelbasierten Ansatz
• Untersuchungen zur Levenshtein-Distanz
• ein Vergleich regelbasierter mit Wörterbuch-basierter Suche
• eine Einbringung der Suchmaschine in andere Projekte.
Mittelfristig wird eine verbesserte Realisierung mit einem
Java-Frontend, einem Web-Server und einer modernen
XML-basierten Archivlösung angestrebt [FGG02], die auch in
vergleichbaren Digitalisierungsprojekten Anwendung finden
kann.
Abbildung 1: Webinterface zur unscharfen Suche
Arbeitsmethodik
Die zu Grunde liegenden Texte der bisher bearbeiteten
Nietzsche-Rezeption reichen teilweise bis in das Jahr
1865 zurück. Dadurch, dass in diesen Dokumenten Zitate noch
deutlich älteren Ursprungs verwendet werden, treten zusätzlich
Formen auf, die bereits zu dieser Zeit obsolet waren.
Die Verwendung eines historischen Wörterbuchs wurde
zunächst nicht ins Auge gefasst, da ein solches zwar einen Teil
der auftretenden Wörter effizient zu indizieren vermag, eine zumindest annähernd vollständige Erkennung allerdings nicht
ermöglichen kann. Dies beruht auf der enormen Divergenz
prinzipiell möglicher Schreibungen, die mit dem Alter der Texte
immer weiter ansteigt. Es ist ja gerade Merkmal der Texte vor
der Rechtschreibvereinheitlichung von 1901/02, dass —
zumindest prinzipiell — jede Schreibung möglich war, auch
wenn diese nicht immer realisiert wurde.
Allerdings sind diese Allographe durch die Zugehörigkeit von
Graphemen zu bestimmten Lautklassen, die sogenannte
Graphem-Phonem-Korrespondenz, beschränkt: Jedes Phonem
der deutschen Sprache lässt sich nur durch eine endliche Menge
von Graphemen realisieren. Unter der Annahme, dass ein
heutiges Wort sich in seiner Lautstruktur prinzipiell nur
unerheblich von seinem historischen Gegenstück unterscheidet,
kann dieses mittels Variation seiner Phonem-Realisierungen
rekonstruiert werden. Diese Annahme lässt sich immerhin für
das Neuhochdeutsche — und damit für einen Zeitraum von
rund 600 Jahren — bestätigen, wenn auch mit einer in der
historischen Tiefe abnehmenden Sicherheit.
Durch eine Untersuchung, mittels welcher Grapheme damals
eine der wahrscheinlich heute noch gültigen Aussprache
ähnliche Lautung zu erreichen war, können
Repräsentationsfehler vermieden werden.
Grundlage der schon entwickelten Suchmaschine sind somit
phonetische Regeln, welche die in dem betrachteten Zeitraum
möglicherweise auftretenden Schreibweisen nachbilden. Durch
Kombination weniger Regeln ergibt sich bereits eine erstaunlich
realistische Transformationsvariation. Betrachtet man nun noch
die weiteren Variationsmöglichkeiten abhängig von der Initial-,
Medial- oder Finalstellung der Grapheme, so empfehlen sich
keine Arbeitsmethoden, die wie bei vergleichbaren
Realisierungen auf zentraler Verwendung eines Wörterbuchs
basieren.
Die zu jener Zeit vorkommenden Allographe konnten dafür
aus Arbeiten von Rechtschreibreformern wie Adelung und
Schottelius indirekt abgeleitet werden. Indem diese forderten,
dass Schreibung A vermieden und durch Schreibung B zu
ersetzen sei, belegen sie die Existenz der Phonemrealisierung
A. Die vor allem im 16. und 17. Jh. aufkommenden
Normierungsbestrebungen und die endgültige Übernahme des
Hochdeutschen für den gesamten deutschsprachigen Raum
haben glücklicherweise eine Vielzahl gut dokumentierter
linguistischer Arbeiten hervorgebracht.
Eine eingehende Untersuchung der Aussprache des heutigen
Standarddeutschen konnte weitere produktive Regeln
hervorbringen. Das grundlegende Schreibprinzip alphabetischer
Schriftsysteme ""'Schreibe, wie du sprichst, und sprich, wie du
schreibst!""' (phonologisches Prinzip der Rechtschreibung) [K86]
hält hierbei damals wie heute die tatsächlich anwendbare
Gesamtzahl der Allographe in einem überschaubaren Rahmen.
Durch eine modulare Erweiterung des Regelsatzes um spezielle
OCR-Probleme betreffende Produktionen, etwa die
Fehlerkennung des <s> in Fraktur durch <f>, wurde der
Suchmaschine weitere Funktionalität verliehen.
Auf Basis beliebiger HTML-Dokumente werden in der bereits
existierenden Version mittels des verwendeten Regelsatzes
zwei Varianten jedes Schlagwortes gebildet 'unschärfer' und
'noch unschärfer'. Die erste verwendet nur einen Teil der
Regeln, welche die erwartungsgemäß häufigsten Unterschiede
betreffen. Die zweite Variante berücksichtigt alle Produktionen
inklusive möglicher OCR-Fehler. Diese Unterteilung wurde
aufgrund der resultierenden Homonymhäufung getroffen: Durch
die Schlagworttransformationen fallen umso mehr Wörter
zusammen, je umfangreichere Regeln verwendet werden.
Diesem Phänomen wird mit einem Kontrollwörterbuch zu
begegnen sein. Aus den drei Repräsentationen jedes indizierten
Wortes sowie aus dessen Position innerhalb des entsprechenden
Dokumentes werden mittels eines JAVA-Programms die
Tabellen in einer MySQL-Datenbank mit Daten versehen.
Hauptarbeitspunkte
Beim Anlegen der Wort-Tabellen für ein Dokument
erscheint es naheliegend, neben dem Wort auch eine
phonetische Realisierung desselben abzulegen und dann bei
der Suche nur wenige ,nahe' Wörter zu berücksichtigen.
Allerdings ist es äußerst schwierig, eine korrekte phonetische
Realisierung zu einem vorgegebenen Wort zu finden. Es müssen
daher Bewertungsmethodiken entwickelt werden, die
bestimmen, welche Wörter zu dem Suchwort passen. Dabei
können Gesetzmäßigkeiten der Phonetik und Graphematik,
aber auch der Wahrnehmungspsychologie wertvolle Hinweise
liefern.
Wenn wir bei der Suche Transformationen regelbasiert
berechnen sowie relevante Regeln on the fly für einen konkreten
Text auswählen oder generieren und fakultativ validieren,
gelangen wir zu einem schlanken, anpassungsfähigen und
letztlich auch tragfähigeren Werkzeug, das die Verwendung
von Wörterbüchern (mit mehr oder weniger 'modernen'
Einträgen) auf ein Minimum begrenzt und damit die
Abhängigkeit von der Vollständigkeit des Wörterbuchs
aufbricht. Zusätzlich sollen Regeln zu OCR-Fehlern für eine
Suche dazugeschaltet oder aber ganz abgeschaltet werden
können. Wichtig für unseren Ansatz ist dabei eine effiziente
Verwendung einer weiterentwickelten Levenshtein-
Distanzfunktion. Um eine klare Trennung zwischen
OCR-Fehlern und Allographen zu ermöglichen, sollen diese
anders gewichtet werden als Abweichungen phonetisch naher
Schreibweisen. Berücksichtigung bei der Gewichtung finden
sollte die Anzahl der angewendeten Regeln, um die Schreibung
zu erreichen, wie auch ihre Relevanz. Dabei geht allerdings die Symmetrie einer Distanzfunktion verloren, da die Ableitungen
i.a. nicht umkehrbar sind.
Die Suchmaschine behandelt Anfragen in folgender Art und
Weise: In einem Vorverarbeitungsschritt werden Sprache, Zeit
und Ort der zu suchenden Dokumente bestimmt, woraus sich
die anzuwendenden Regelsätze ergeben. Die Suchterme
einschließlich etwaiger Wildcards werden dann durch
Anwendung der Regelsätze und unter Berücksichtigung einer
parallel zu entwickelnden verallgemeinerten
Levenshtein-Ähnlichkeitsmetrik [C&D, 2000] in die internen
Suchbedingungen übersetzt; dabei können durch Vorgabe eines
Schwellwertes und / oder Ausnutzung eines
Kontrollwörterbuchs unwahrscheinliche Varianten
ausgeschlossen werden, bevor die eigentliche Suche
durchgeführt wird. Die Suchergebnisse werden dann nach
absteigender Ähnlichkeit geordnet ausgegeben.
Im Rahmen der nächsten Arbeitsschritte soll die existierende
Suchmaschine bezüglich Retrievalqualität und Funktionalität
verbessert werden. Um eine hohe Anzahl relevanter Dokumente
zu finden, also den Recall zu erhöhen, sollen möglichst alle
Flexionsformen und Schreibvarianten eines Suchwortes bei der
Suche berücksichtigt werden. Hierzu müssen durch Anwendung
der entsprechenden Regelsätze alle Varianten eines
Anfragewortes erzeugt werden, mit denen dann im
Dokumentenbestand gesucht wird. Da der Regelbestand sehr
dynamisch ist, können nicht, wie sonst insbesondere in
experimentellen Information-Retrieval-Systemen üblich, die
Dokumente schon beim Einfügen in die Datenbasis
entsprechend indexiert werden, sondern die Expansion der
Suchwörter muss zum Retrievalzeitpunkt erfolgen. Um die
Antwortzeiten trotzdem gering zu halten, müssen noch
entsprechend effiziente Verfahren implementiert werden.
Durch diese Vorgehensweise können sehr viele Dokumente
gefunden werden, wovon aber auch viele nicht relevant sind.
Nur durch eine entsprechende Rangordnung der
Retrievalantworten kann eine hohe Präzision des
Suchergebnisses gewährleistet werden. Liegen zu einem
Suchbegriff Wörterbucheinträge vor, so sollen diese Angaben
bei der Suche mit berücksichtigt werden. Schreibweisen, die
auch im Wörterbuch auftauchen, erhalten dann ein höheres
Gewicht als andere Varianten.
Zur Erweiterung der Suchfunktionalität soll die Suchmaschine
um gängige Suchoperatoren erweitert werden. Bei der Eingabe
von Einzelwörtern soll Trunkierung erlaubt werden, und
mehrgliedrige Begriffe sollen mit Hilfe von Kontextoperatoren
(Wortabstandssuche) spezifiziert werden können. Mehrere
Suchbedingungen sollen wahlweise durch Boolesche
Konnektoren verknüpft oder in Form einer linearen Anfrage
als Menge von möglicherweise gewichteten Bedingungen
spezifiziert werden können. Hier muss die Retrievalfunktion
dann die Gewichtungen eines Dokumentes bezüglich der
einzelnen Suchbedingungen passend verrechnen. Hierzu können
wir uns an die Definition der Semantik der von uns entwickelten
Anfragesprache XIRQL anlehnen [FG01].
Bibliografie
Ammon, U. Variationslinguistik/ Linguistics of Variation/ La
linguistique variationelle. Tübingen: Niemeyer (Sociolinguistica
12), 1998.
Biella, D., E. Dyllong, H. Kaiser, W. Luther, and Th. Mittmann.
""Wege zur digitalen Erfassung der Nachwirkung Nietzsches in
Deutschland von 1865-1945. Ein Arbeitsbericht zum Duisburger
Retrodigitalisierungsprojekt."" Kolloquium ""Vom Umgang
Nietzsches mit Büchern zum Umgang mit Nietzsches Büchern"",
Weimar 23.09.-25.9.2002, erscheint in einem Sammelband.
Biella, D., E. Dyllong, H. Kaiser, W. Luther, and Th. Mittmann.
""Edition électronique de la réception de Nietzsche des années
1865 à 1945."" Proceedings of ICHIM03, Paris, . 8.-12. Sept.
2003.
Camps, R., and J. Daudé. ""Improving the efficacy of
approximate personal name matching."" Proceedings of the 8th
International Conference on Applications of Natural Language
to Information Systems (NLDB'03). 2003. Accessed 2005-04-13.
<http://www.lsi.upc.es/dept/techreps/ps/R
03-9.ps.gz>
Fuhr, N., N. Gövert, and K. Großjohann. ""HyREX: Hypermedia
Retrieval Engine for XML."" Proceedings of the 25th Annual
International Conference on Research and Development in
Information Retrieval. New York: ACM, 2002. 449. Accessed
2005-04-13. <http://www.lsi.upc.es/dept/tech
reps/ps/R03-9.ps.gz>
Fuhr, N., and K. Großjohann. ""XIRQL: An XML Query
Language Based on Information Retrieval Concepts."" ACM
Transactions on Information Systems 22 (2004): 313-356.
Accessed 2005-04-13. <http://www.lsi.upc.es/de
pt/techreps/ps/R03-9.ps.gz>
Keller, R. Die Deutsche Sprache und ihre historische
Entwicklung. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag, 1986.
Pilz, Th. Unscharfe Suche in Textdatenbanken mit
nichtstandardisierter Rechtschreibung am Beispiel von
Frakturtexten zur Nietzsche-Rezeption. Staatsexamensarbeit,
Universität Duisburg-Essen, 2003.
Zobel, J., and P. Dart. ""Phonetic String Matching: Lessons from
Information Retrieval."" Proceedings of the 19th International
Conference on Research and Development in Information
Retrieval (SIGIR'96). Ed. H.-P. Frei, D. Harman, P. Schäuble
and R. Wilkinson. New York: ACM, 1996. 166-172. Accessed 2005-04-13. <http://www.lsi.upc.es/dept/tech
reps/ps/R03-9.ps.gz>","txt","2","",""
"520","6","The Walt Whitman Archive: Archivist-Scholar Collaboration in Description and Representation","1","Topic
Archivists, librarians, scholars, and technologists are
collaborating to build The Walt Whitman Archive, an
emerging digital thematic research collection that sets out to
make Whitman's vast work easily and conveniently accessible
to students, researchers, and the general public. This massive
undertaking is complicated in part by the physical dispersal of
Whitman's manuscripts, which are located in more than seventy
repositories in the United States, the United Kingdom, and in
France. The sheer volume of materials produced by Whitman
has required the current project team to narrow its focus,
initially at least, to a more manageable subset of the manuscripts
- namely, the poetry manuscripts.
While network and computer technologies have made it possible
to build a virtual archive, the intellectual and technical
complexities in creating and maintaining the collection in
accordance with archival and scholarly standards require an
unusual and close collaboration across professional communities
and among multiple institutions. Several institutions are
intimately involved in the project including the University of
Nebraska-Lincoln, the Institute for Advanced Technology in
the Humanities at University of Virginia, the New York Public
Library, the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas
at Austin, and Duke University. The project as a whole has
contributed to a clearer understanding of technical issues
relating to standards that are still in development, and especially
to the integration of those standards. The poetry manuscripts, which have been the most recent focus
of the Whitman project team, are scattered in over thirty
repositories. At the 2002 ALLC/ACH conference in Tübingen,
Germany, a preliminary report on the project entitled Ordering
Chaos: A Virtual Archive of Whitman s Manuscripts was
presented by Mary Ellen Ducey, Andrew Jewell, and Kenneth
M. Price. Subsequently, the Whitman EAD project team has
successfully created An Integrated Guide to Walt Whitman's
Poetry Manuscripts using Encoded Archival Description
(EAD). XSLT stylesheets are used to harvest information from
various repositories' finding aids so as to create an integrated
finding aid with links back to the original versions. As the
project comes to closure, participants have found it both exciting
and revealing on many levels. Representing the different
community perspectives (scholar, archivist, librarian, and
technologist), the speakers will explore both the opportunities
and the challenges of working together and will discuss the
implications of such collaboration for the future of each
profession.
Organization
Kenneth M. Price, Co-Director of the Walt Whitman
Archive and recently named Co-Director of Digital
Research in the Humanities at the University of
Nebraska-Lincoln, will describe the widely distributed Whitman
manuscripts, the complex history and publication of Whitman,
and the history and objectives of the Archive. He will discuss
the reasons behind the decision to use item-level EAD as a
means of bibliographic and editorial control and of user access.
Our project is demonstrating the power of EAD to pull together
dispersed collections and create a single, scholarly-oriented
view or collocation of the materials. We are also addressing an
unresolved issue in digital scholarship, namely how best to
integrate description and transcription (EAD and Text Encoding
Initiative [TEI] files).
Katherine L.Walter, Chair of Digital Initiatives & Special
Collections and, with Price, Co-Director of Digital Research
in the Humanities at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, will
describe collaborative efforts to provide integrated descriptive
access to Walt Whitman's poetry manuscripts. In some cases,
our EAD files are based upon encoding previously done by the
holding repositories themselves; in other cases, we have created
EAD files based upon paper records. We invariably add
scholarly information to records, and we offer this additional
information back to the individual repositories. Whitman
scholarship is complicated by the fact that the poet only
occasionally titled his manuscripts, and when he did, he often
used a title different from that employed in any of the six
distinct editions of Leaves of Grass. The project is ordinarily
able to identify manuscripts that puzzle non-specialists, and
we also supply date range, uniform title, and Whitman work
IDs within the files.
Terence Catapano, Librarian at Columbia University, will
discuss the complementary use of current technical standards,
in particular EAD, EAC, METS, MODS, and TEI. It is still an
open question how these overlapping standards - created by
various communities - can be best integrated and used
effectively in this kind of highly detailed collection. The
Whitman Archive is sufficiently large, ambitious, and visible
to make it a good case study for testing the integration of
metadata standards. We have made significant progress in the
use of TEI and EAD; we have recently begun to employ METS
in relation to EAD and TEI; we plan soon to work on METS
in relation to MODS as well. The periodical printings of
Whitman's poetry will be used to research the use of MODS
and its integration with the other metadata standards. One
challenge is to figure out what role each standard is to have,
and how they are to interrelate. For example, descriptive
metadata resides in EAD (its primary purpose), in TEI headers
(a secondary purpose), and in METS. Which of the three has
the authoritative data, and which data should be derived from
this authoritative source?
Daniel Pitti, Associate Director of the Institute for Advanced
Technology in the Humanities of the University of Virginia,
will moderate the session and, in conclusion, will discuss the
implications of collaboration for the future of digital
scholarship. Digital thematic research collections are valuable
resources being developed through collaborations between the
library/archival and scholarly communities. One of the points
that has been made regarding such collections is that the
essential standards shaping the infrastructure for these
collections are being developed primarily in the library/archival
communities. The Walt Whitman Archive is demonstrating that
a strong collaboration with equally important contributions
from different professional communities working together offers
another important model for the future of digital scholarship,
and for the development of standards.","txt","2","",""
"521","6","Exhibition: A Problem for Conceptual Modeling in the Humanities","1","Contents
1. Introduction
2. Exhibition
3. An Example
4. Why Exhibition is a Problem for Modeling
5. Relevant Work
6. False Resolutions
7. Conclusion
Introduction
There has recently been increased interest within the
humanities computing community in formalizing the
'semantics' of document markup (e.g., Sperberg-McQueen et
al., Buzzetti, Witt, Renear et al. 2002, Bayerl et al., Dubin et
al., Sasaki), or, in an alternative characterization, developing
'conceptual models' that generalize the representation of the
textual structures (Cover). We endorse this agenda, which has
been a long time in the making (Raymond et al.), but we also
wish to draw attention to some difficulties that may be unique
to cultural material.
Natural human communication is characterized by what might
be termed plenary semiosis. Without waiting for formal
languages to be provided humans immediately proceed to
attempt to say everything they think, and, at least arguably,
they generally succeed. The result is that natural communication
systems exhibit every imaginable feature that troubles
knowledge engineers: fuzzy predicates, modal notions,
non-extensional contexts, incompleteness, inconsistency,
ambiguity, and so on. But there is an additional complexity as
well. Human communication takes place within social contexts
that, as linguists and philosophers have been telling us for some
time, confound efforts to conceptualize it as sets of assertions
only. These two aspects of human communication, plenary
semiosis and multiple interacting levels of non-assertional
representation combine to produce some of the most difficult,
and significant, features of communicative artifacts. We
describe one of these features and argue that unless current
conceptual modeling systems are extended to accommodate
this and other related features those systems will be inadequate
for the representation of cultural objects.
Exhibition
I n ordinary linguistic communication we often use a name
to refer to something in order to then go on to attribute some
property to that thing. However when we do this we do not
naturally construe our linguistic behavior as being at the same
time an assertion that the thing in question has that name. We
do however have a particular cognitive relationship to this latter
state-of-affairs; it is just that this attitude is not one of assertion
— we rely on, or are committed to, or presuppose that the thing
in question has the name we are using to refer to it, but we are
not asserting that it does.
We refer to this relationship as exhibition. We say that the brief
document/utterance ""Moby Dick was written by Herman
Melville"" exhibits the state of affairs that ""the name of the
author of Moby Dick is 'Herman Melville'"", but it does not
assert that state of affairs. What it does assert is that Melville
is the author of Moby Dick. Although naming is our prototypical
example of exhibition in this paper, we believe that exhibition
is a widespread and diverse phenomenon.
An Example
Consider this XML markup, adapted from the TEI
Guidelines (P4):
<bibl>
<author>Edward R. Tufte</author>
<title>Envisioning Information</title>
<pubPlace>Cheshire, Conn.</pubPlace> <publisher>Graphics Press</publisher>
</bibl>
The Guidelines characterize these element types as follows:
• author: ""... contains the name of the author(s), personal or
corporate, of a work ..."".
• title: ""... contains the title of a work ..."".
• publisher: ""...provides the name of the organization
responsible for the publication ... of a bibliographic item"".
• pubPlace: ""contains the name of the place where a
bibliographic item was published.""
Close reading of these definitions reveals that these markup
tags convey two quite different sorts of information:
Set A
1. Edward R. Tufte authored Envisioning Information.
2. Envisioning Information was published by Graphics Press.
3. Envisioning Information was published in Cheshire,
Connecticut.
Set B
1. The name of the author of [this book] is ""Edward R. Tufte"".
2. The name of the publisher of [this book] is ""Graphics Press"".
3. The name of the place where [this book] was published is
""Cheshire, Connecticut"".
Why this is a Problem for Modeling
First, note that the markup is overloaded. The markup tag
author is used to say that something is a name, and it
is also used to say that someone is an author (or the author of
a particular book). Consider a representation in any commonly
used data modeling language, say, RDF's graph-based
representation: nodes for individual entities and arcs for binary
relationships between them. We would expect a single arc for
the assertion represented by a single element — but here
apparently a single element must be unpacked into two arcs.
TEI specialists are fond of saying that TEI markup is about the
text, not about the world the text is about; but we see plainly
this isn't always so. And we also note that this overloading
crosses a profound and famously troublesome semantic
boundary: that between using an expression and mentioning it.
But the most revealing feature of this analysis is that when we
take the union of assertions in sets A and B we will have a
model of possible semantic content that, as a whole, is almost
certainly incorrect; at least in this sense: it is unlikely that there
is any single communicative object whose semantics is correctly
modeled by this set of assertions. There are two cases to
consider; we present them using some terminology ('expression',
'work') from the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic
Records (IFLA 1997) and distinguish two senses of 'XML
document' (Renear et al. 2003).
1. Consider first an XML document that is understood to be
a symbolic expression realizing an intellectual work such
as, say, a manual about web design. Such a document will
be correctly understood as making the assertions in Set A,
but not as asserting any of the assertions in Set B.
2. Now consider an XML document that is a transcription of
a source text, that is, a document that is an expression
realizing a work which is itself a ""theory of the text""
(Sperberg-McQueen); that text (expression) being the text
of the manual (a work). Such a document would generally
be understood as making the assertions in Set B, but not as
asserting any of the assertions in Set A.
As a consequence a correct graph model for either case cannot
represent the assertions (as assertions) in the other case.
However a correct representation of Case 1 could represent
Case 2 assertions as exhibitions — if specific expressive
devices, qualified arcs say, were available for this
representation. This is the extension that we are recommending.
Some clarification of these intricacies may be useful. First note
that the cases are not isomorphic: Case 1 asserts the propositions
in Set A and exhibits those in Set B, but Case 2, although
asserting the propositions in Set B, does not exhibit the
propositions in Set A. While might be plausibly argued that the
propositions in Set B logically imply those in Set A, and so any
document that asserts Set B asserts Set A, we would resist this
for two reasons: first because the intuitive logic of assertion
simply does not seem to require that all logical implications of
asserted propositions are themselves asserted; and second
because we suspect that a completely correct presentation of
Set B, one more in line with TEI doctrine on the textual
orientation of markup, would eliminate all commitments to
books, authors, and authorship, and that paraphrase would block
the logical implications in any case. What one could say
however is that in Case 2 the Set A propositions occur in oratio
obliqua.
We also note, as an illustration of the usefulness of the concept
of exhibition, that scholarly transcription into TEI markup can
be understood as identifying exhibitions and then re-expressing
them as assertions.
Relevant Work
The rudiments of this problem have already made an
appearance in the Semantic Web and Dublin Core
communities. However we do not think its significance, at least
for cultural material involving human communication, is fully
appreciated. Dan Brickley, chair of the W3C Semantic Web
Interest Group has noted that the Dublin Core dc:creator element is defined in a way that encourages a similar confusion
between names and things (Brickley), not surprisingly, as the
definition of dc:creator is similar in logical structure to
the ones we cite from the Guidelines:
""Examples of a Creator include a person, an organization,
or a service. Typically, the name of a Creator should be
used to indicate the entity."" (DCMES 2003)
The varying usage of the dc:creator code (sometimes for
Creators, sometimes for their names) amongst metadata
encoders is now recognized as a serious practical problem for
the development of an 'abstract model' for Dublin Core.
(Powell).
It is of course in the context of efforts to be absolutely precise
and formal that the problem is acute. Jeremy Carroll, co-editor
of the W3C Recommendation Resource Description Framework
(RDF): Concepts and Abstract Syntax, writes in a posting on
w3c-rdfcore-wg:
I have been looking through the (RDF) primer, particularly
looking at the Dublin Core examples (throughout the primer).
These seem like perfectly fair examples of how Dublin Core
is used. Unfortunately, there are many instances where strings
are used to represent people and things rather than themselves.
This is not in agreement with the model theory...
(Carroll)
Carroll then goes on to note that given the RDF model theory
incorrect implications immediately ensue: in our example for
instance, that Moby Dick was authored by a string rather than
by a person.
False Resolutions
Three deflationary perspectives on this problem are
possible.
One, anticipated from the TEI community, is that TEI encoding
always represents the features of the linguistic text only and
'real-world' assertions are either misunderstandings, mistakes,
or anomalies. This may be so, although we are skeptical as to
whether this stance can be maintained with respect to the full
range of TEI applications. But in any event exhibition remains
a common feature of communicative artifacts, characteristic of
many XML element sets, and of many other systems of
symbolic communication. It must be accommodated.
Another approach, this one anticipated from the Semantic Web
community, is simply to insist on an unambiguous corrected
conceptual representation: one arc for being named ""Herman
Melville"", one for authoring Moby Dick. But this resolution
fails for the reasons presented in the preceding section.
Although this model would be in some sense an accurate
representation of ""how the world is"" according to the document,
it would not represent what is asserted by the document. The
authorship arc in the corrected RDF graph model will
correspond to relationships of exhibition, not assertion; and
there is no accommodation for this distinction in the modeling
language.
Finally, it is also natural to feel that the phenomenon of
exhibition is similar in some respects to the already noted much
studied phenomenon of linguistic presupposition and to wonder
whether exhibition is simply a special case of presupposition
(Levinson). Currently we are undecided on this issue but we
note that even if exhibition does turn out to be a form of
presupposition that would remove neither the difficulty
exhibition creates for conceptual modeling, nor its intellectual
significance. In fact it would be a rather substantial finding to
determine the matter one way or the other.
Conclusion
The phenomenon of exhibition is not limited to the simple
naming examples used above. We believe it is
characteristic of communication and communicative cultural
artifacts in general. For instance when we title our articles we
do not say that the title is a title, although we exhibit it as a
title, allowing that inference to be drawn (Renear). Or for a
quite different sort of case: consider how morphological
distinctions exhibit our commitments to syntactical roles,
without actually asserting that the words in question are playing
those roles — though indeed we use those words with those
particular grammatical and syntactical properties in order to
make the assertions we do make.
We conclude that current conceptual modeling projects within
the humanities computing community will fail to be adequate
for the study of cultural objects if they take the approach of the
Semantic Web community and see exhibition as a simple
problem of ambiguity or error, rather than defining new
constructs to express these distinctive relationships. To be
adequate for the humanities, conceptual modeling must be
extended to accommodate the data of the humanities.
Bibliography
Bayerl, P.S., H. Lungen, D. Goecke, A. Witt, and D. Naber.
""Methods for the Semantic Analysis of Document Markup.""
Proceedings of the 2003 ACM symposium on Document
Engineering. ACM Press, 2003. 161-170.
Brickley, D. Using Dublin Core Creator. FOAF Wicki, July
2003. Accessed 2005-03-21. <http://rdfweb.org/to
pic/UsingDublinCoreCreator> Buzzetti, D. ""Digital Representation and the Text Model."" New
Literary History 33.1 (2002): 61-88.
Carroll, J. Dublin Core, the Primer and the Model Theory.
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2005-03-21. <http://lists.w3.org/Archives/Pu
blic/w3c-rdfcore-wg/2002May/0040.html>
Cover, R. Conceptual Modeling and Markup Languages. Cover
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Dubin, D., C.M. Sperberg-McQueen, A. Renear, and C.
Huitfeldt. ""A Logic Programming Environment for Document
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/dublincore.org/documents/dces/>
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Report. UBCIM Publications-New Series. Munchen: K.G.Saur,
1998.
Levinson, S.C. ""Chapter 4: Presupposition."" Pragmatics.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. 167-225.
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004-July/000421.html>
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International Workshop on the Principles of Document
Processing, Washington DC, October 21-23 1992; an earlier
version was circulated privately as ""Markup Considered
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Markup Languages: Theory and Practice 2.4 (2001): 411-420.
Renear, A., D. Dubin, C. M. Sperberg-McQueen, and C.
Huitfeldt. ""Towards a Semantics for XML Markup.""
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Engineering. Ed. R. Furuta, J.I. Maletic and E. Munson.
McLean, VA, November 2002. 119-126.
Renear, A., H.C. Phillippe, P. Lawton, and D. Dubin. ""An XML
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Usdin and S.R. Newcomb. Montreal, Canada, August 2003.
Sasaki, F. ""Combining Markup Semantics and Semantic
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Proceedings of ALLC/ACH 2002. Tuebingen, 2002","txt","2","",""
"522","6","L'Autoguidage: une Approche pour le Perfectionnement du Français Écrit en Milieu Minoritaire","1","Situation des francophones en milieu
minoritaire
Le perfectionnement du français écrit pour les francophones
en milieu minoritaire présente des défis considérables.
Les francophones du Canada sont dispersés sur un territoire
immense et n'habitent pas tous à proximité d'une institution
d'enseignement. Plusieurs d'entre eux sont des adultes sur le
marché du travail qui souhaiteraient obtenir plus de formation
mais sans avoir à retourner sur les bancs d'écoles. D'autres sont
de jeunes francophones aux études qui voudraient ajouter à leur
programme un cours de perfectionnement. Pour compliquer un
peu plus les choses, le bagage linguistique d'un apprenant à
l'autre peut présenter des divergences importantes. De plus,
comme il s'agit de francophones en milieux minoritaires, il faut
tenir compte de l'influence de l'anglais. Le cours de français
écrit idéal pour cette clientèle hétérogène et éparse devrait être
en mesure de s'adapter aux besoins individuels des apprenants.
L'Internet apparaît comme l'outil capable de relever les défis
qui viennent d'être énumérés. Tout le monde connaît déjà les
outils éprouvés de l'enseignement électronique à distance,
comme l'affichage d'informations et d'hyperliens, les courriels,
les forums de discussions, bref tout ce qui permet de simuler
une salle de classe en ligne. Cependant, il reste encore le défi
d'enseigner à une classe grandement disparate.
Le présent projet de communication pour le congrès présentera
une application nouvelle dont le potentiel pourrait utilement
servir les types d'apprenants décrits plus haut. Il s'agit de
l'autoguidage, soit la capacité, pour un cours informatisé,
d'adapter la matière d'enseignement à chacun des apprenants.
Avant d'en parler plus avant, il importe de dire quelques mots
sur le CAFÉ.
Le CAFÉ
CAFÉ est l'acronyme de ""Cours Autodidactique de Français
Écrit"". Ce cours, créé par Dupriez, conçu pour l'apprentissage
individuel, a vu le jour en 1966. Il a été enseigné et a fait l'objet
d'expérimentations dans plusieurs pays de la francophonie ainsi
que divers lycées (Paris et régions). À propos de la ""formule
CAFÉ"" il faut savoir que le traitement statistique des réponses
aux milliers de QCM expérimentées dans des groupes régionaux
permet de mesurer scientifiquement l'utilité probable des
questions à poser à tout nouvel apprenant, en fonction de son
niveau et de son progrès. La formule CAFÉ permet
d'individualiser l'apprentissage, aussi efficacement que
rapidement. Sa force est aussi dans ses contenus informatisés
(12000 QCM sur les fautes courantes et les difficultés
rencontrées en rédaction et dissertation).
Les statistiques obtenues pour la France et le Québec peuvent
ne pas convenir à une population francophone vivant en milieu
minoritaire. Il faudra donc obtenir des statistiques pour la
population visée. Cette tâche sera réalisée au moyen de
questionnaires accessibles sur l'Internet. Il faudra aussi créer
des QCM (questions à choix multiple) traitant de difficultés
spécifiques aux francophones vivant en milieu minoritaire. Ces
items sont produits à partir des erreurs les plus fréquentes
relevées dans les travaux d'étudiants.
À propos de la méthode basée sur des questions à choix multiple
L'enseignement du français, contrairement à d'autres matières
comme les mathématiques ou la chimie, doit compter avec les
particularités propres à chaque région. On n'enseigne pas le
français de la même façon à un anglophone, à un arabophone,
etc. Dû aux interférences linguistiques, chaque région de la
francophonie a des défis qui lui sont particuliers. Ainsi, les
régions d'Afrique centrale doivent compter avec les langues
bantoues, le sangö, etc. Au Québec, comme en France, les
anglicismes sont fréquents. Les interférences sont
particulièrement difficiles à dépister, lorsqu'elles touchent non
pas le vocabulaire mais la syntaxe. C'est en adaptant les
questions et les statistiques aux particularités linguistiques de
chacune de ces régions qu'on peut faire réaliser à chaque
utilisateur un maximum de progrès.
Comment le niveau des questions est-il établi? Pour le Québec,
un sondage a été effectué dans les cégeps et les universités.
Plus de 8000 (75 x 110) questions à choix multiple ont été
posées à 12000 étudiants entre 1995 et 1997. Avec 100
répondants ou plus par question, il est possible de mesurer la
cote de difficulté, de discriminance et de fiabilité avec précision.
Les améliorations notées démontrent que les apprenants du
français pour lesquels un tel cours est élaboré en tirent un
avantage considérable. Ils développent une conscience plus
aiguë de l'usage, en particulier lorsqu'il peut y avoir des interférences entre le français et l'anglais, sans avoir à oublier
l'une de ces langues pour mieux s'exprimer dans l'autre.
La méthode de l'autoguidage
Le CAFÉ a d'abord été conçu comme un cours par
correspondance. La méthode du cours, basée sur les
besoins des apprenants, consiste à donner, dans le corrigé, la
règle en jeu avec des contre- exemples pour chacun des autres
choix de réponses, l'objectif étant de susciter chez l'apprenant
une démarche réflexive où il compare les façons d'écrire en
contexte et selon la norme. Les méthodes du CAFÉ sont
scientifiquement reconnues au Québec, en France et en Afrique.
Figure 1: enseignement linéraire
La plupart des étudiants qui débutent à l'université possèdent
déjà des compétences en français, ce qui n'est pas le cas pour
une discipline comme l'anthropologie par exemple.
Traditionnellement, l'enseignement consiste à commencer avec
les éléments les plus faciles (niveau -1,0), puis de présenter des
éléments de plus en plus difficiles (niveaux -0,8 à 1,0). Pour
les étudiants qui ne savent rien, il s'agit du cours idéal. Pour
les étudiants qui ont déjà des compétences, la première partie
du cours sera un peu pénible, mais, au bout d'un certain temps,
ils apprendront des choses nouvelles. Enfin, pour les étudiants
très avancés, un cours qui ne leur offre que de la matière déjà
apprise sera d'un ennui mortel. Ils risquent de ne pas s'impliquer
activement, voire d'abandonner avant la fin.
Figure 2: enseignement par fourches
En gros la méthode de l'autoguidage consiste à donner à
l'apprenant la matière dont il a besoin. La progression est basée
sur la compétence déjà acquise. En simplifiant, on peut décrire
ainsi la méthode: le cours commence avec des éléments moyens.
Si l'apprenant répond bien, on lui offre une matière un peu plus
difficile. Sinon, on lui offre une matière un peu plus facile,
jusqu'à ce qu'il soit parvenu au niveau qui lui convienne le
mieux. À partir de là, l'apprenant peut vraiment commencer à
apprendre. Le niveau est recalculé constamment, à chaque
nouvelle réponse. Le système informatisé de guidage choisit
comme prochaine question celle qui offre le plus d'intérêt pour
l'apprenant, c'est-à-dire celle qui est la plus proche de son niveau
atteint. De plus, chacun des apprenants travaille à son rythme,
sans ralentir les autres ni se voir bousculé.
Figure 3: apprenant ""moyen""
Un apprenant moyen passe par l'essentiel de la matière et peut
passer outre certains items trop faciles.
Figure 4: apprenant ""fort""
Il serait possible, à un étudiant particulièrement brillant, de
n'avoir à répondre qu'à un très petit nombre d'items. C'est qu'il
maîtrisait déjà bien la matière qu'on lui propose. En ce cas, le
cours est très vite terminé. Figure 5: apprenant ""faible""
L'apprenant faible sera d'abord guidé vers des questions plus
faciles avant d'être ramené à des questions plus subtiles. À la
fin, les étudiants forts, moyens et faibles auront tous atteint
l'objectif. Le zélé peut foncer, le faible peut prendre son temps.
Bibliographie
CAFÉ. Accessed 2005-04-12. <http://www.cafe.edu
/>","txt","2","",""
"523","6","National Support for Humanities Computing: Different Achievements, Needs and Prospects","3","Different countries vary greatly in the kinds of national
structures, services and funding resources they provide
for humanities computing. Most if not all of us involved in the
field are faced by similar challenges, though in different ways
and varying degrees: lack of IT awareness in our subject
communities, shortage of technical support, insufficient
academic recognition, the need to take advantage of new
technological developments in other fields, the need for more,
or better, digital data resources and tools, problems of standards,
and much more. The purpose of this session is to explore the
ways different countries have met and are meeting these
challenges: differences in existing provision at national level,
whether publicly or privately funded; different national needs
and procedures for identifying them; new strategies and
initiatives for the future.
Three panellists represent Canada, the UK and the USA, and
each occupies a key position in humanities computing in their
country. Between now and the conference we shall recruit at
least one further panellist, from a non-English-speaking country
[our planned fourth contributor has had to withdraw]. Even on
their own, however, these three English-speaking countries
show striking differences. Each speaker will make a brief
presentation in respect of his own country on:
• national-level support structures, services and funding
resources;
• new and forthcoming strategic initiatives;
• national needs: how are they or can they be identified, and
how far have they not yet been met?
The ensuing discussion will invite relevant input about other
countries, seek to identify the different issues and problems raised by different forms of support, consider how far national
needs differ, and explore the scope for new forms of
international collaboration in the area.
David Robey (Director, AHRB ICT
in Arts and Humanities Research
Programme): the UK
The UK has latterly developed a strong system of support
by national public funding bodies for humanities
computing. Two funding bodies are involved: the Arts and
Humanities Research Board (AHRB), and the Joint Information
Systems Committee (JISC). Each has provided substantial
support for data-creation projects, generally through open
competition: out of over £100m spent by the AHRB on research
project awards since 1999, about half has been given to projects
with some kind of digital output. Some limited support has also
been given to the creation of software tools and systems of
specifically humanities interest. As far as services are
concerned, the AHRB and JISC jointly fund the Arts and
Humanities Data Service, to the extent of some £1m p.a., with
a brief to provide national support for data creation and
preservation, including a national repository for the digital
output of publicly funded research. JISC and the AHRB jointly
fund Humbul, the humanities hub of the Resource Discovery
Network, providing portal access to on-line resources in the
UK and internationally. JISC has also funded a new suite of
on-line introductory training resources in the use of ICT for
humanities researchers who have not progressed beyond the
elementary use of word-processing, email and web-browsers
(ARIA).
Launched last year, the ICT in Arts and Humanities Research
Programme, a major new initiative by the AHRB, is funding
two new initiatives: the ICT Methods Network, a centre for the
exchange and dissemination of advanced ICT methodologies
in arts and humanities research, which will complement the
AHDS by focussing on methods, processes and uses of data;
and a scheme of ICT Strategy Projects, which will partly gather
knowledge about ICT uses and needs in the arts and humanities,
and partly develop generic ICT resources and tools in the area.
The Programme is also promoting and developing an arts and
humanities e-science, or e-research, agenda, taking advantage
of the high-profile activities currently taking place under this
heading in other domains. All these public supports are funded
for the medium term only, until 2007. In 2006 the AHRB will
conduct a fundamental strategic review of ICT support provision
and the related needs of the arts and humanities research
communities, with a view to determining longer-term systems
of provision.
The UK therefore has some strong support structures in place,
and plans have been laid for better determining future needs.
Nevertheless a lot of problems remain at the level of the
individual humanities researcher. There is insufficient
awareness in the research community of the potential of digital
methods and resources; most importantly generic, low-level
and specialist technical support are inadquate except in a very
small number of institutions. The programme of public activites
that is now being funded will be able to do something about
the first problem, but it will be a long time before the second
one is solved.
Geoffrey Rockwell (Project Leader
for the Text Analysis Portal for
Research project funded by the
Canada Foundation for Innovation):
Canada
This discussion will offer a brief history of the major
centres and organizations of humanities computing in
Canada, with special attention to the emergence of a national
society; an overview of the new and coming programs, both
undergraduate and graduate, and the types of research positions
being created to support them; and a survey of some of the
major research projects and how Canadian researchers have
worked with provincial and federal funding agencies like OIT
(Ontario Innovation Trust), SSHRC (Social Science and
Humanities Research Council) and CFI (Canada Foundation
for Innovation. Special attention will be given to some current
projects including the TAPoR (Text Analysis Portal for
Research) project, and a new initiative, iMatter, that is
developing the case for a national digital arts and humanities
research institute--an initiative which is working within the
context of a major transformation of our research council.
The presentation will be aimed primarily at describing strategies
that have worked and may be applicable elsewhere, and at
describing opportunities for transnational funding. Humanities
computing in Canada has developed a national network around
a society with annual meetings, we have developed a network
of programs, centres and research faculty positions. What is
missing?
One relationship that is stronger in other countries is the
connection with the library and information science community.
Another relationship is with media studies and journalism. A
third and important next step is to make strategic alliances that
will allow us to develop contextualized knowledge, especially
theory, that reflects the pragmatics of digital humanities work.
In this we can work with the digital artists, especially those
working in university contexts who also do research and creation. Research/creation, a term drawn from the UK AHRB
for a new grant program, is a unique form of academic practice
that combines the communicative, the critical and the creative.
In other words, it is time to think systematically and together
about doing and making, and to think through doing and
making. In such an endeavor we can also reach forward into
the emerging games studies or interactive arts community
which, we believe, will develop along similar lines that weave
research and creation together. We are beginning to tell each
other stories of what learning and research will look like in the
next generation of institutes.
John Unsworth (Chair, ACLS
Commission on Cyberinfrastructure
for Humanities and Social Sciences):
the USA
I n the United States, there is no single source of funding for
humanities computing activities. The National Endowment
for the Humanities has, over the past decade, funded a number
of important humanities computing projects, especially in the
realm of editorial work, and more recently in the online state
encyclopedias. The Institute for Museum and Library Services
(now more well-funded than NEH) will also sometimes provide
funding for digital scholarly projects, if they include library,
archive, or museum participation. The National Science
Foundation has been a more difficult source from which to fund
humanities computing projects, but some--especially those that
have something to do with speech recognition or natural
language processing--have gotten funded.
Probably the most consistent source of support for humanities
computing in higher education has been the Andrew W. Mellon
foundation, which has supported large collaborative projects
across a number of disciplines (literature, archaeology, art
history, music, linguistics, etc.). Other private foundations have
been involved as well, but none so prominently as Mellon.
Mellon is also responsible for some of the most significant
non-commercial infrastructure projects, where infrastructure
refers to shared resources: JSTOR, the social science journals
project, is a Mellon creation, as is the more recent ArtStor,
which brings together images useful for teaching and research
in art, art history, archaeology, and other areas. Mellon has also
funded Bibliovault, at the University of Chicago Press (for
converting print backlist books to print-on-demand, for
university presses), the TORCH project at Oxford UP (for
delivering university press materials to individual and
institutional subscribers in electronic form), and the electronic
imprint at the University of Virginia Press, for publishing
born-digital humanities scholarship. Mellon's also been a
persistent funder of digital library research, for example the
FEDORA project (to develop digital object repository
architecture for complex digital content), the Making of America
project, and many others.
While this history is admirable, and the digital library and
humanities computing community owes much to the Andrew
W. Mellon foundation, the leadership of that foundation is about
to change hands, and that makes it an appropriate time to think
about how the base of support for this activity might be
broadened, among private foundations and government agencies
alike. The recent NSF commission on cyberinfrastructure, led
by Dan Atkins, produced a report whose recommendations are
also an occasion for self-examination and strategic planning in
the humanities and social science communities, as we consider
what free-rider benefits there might be, for these communities,
from the work that will be done in the computational sciences,
and as we consider also what work is not likely to be done in
those fields that will be important to the humanities and social
sciences. To address those questions, the American Council of
Learned Societies has assembled its own commission (with
funding from Mellon), and that commission has held public
meetings and private information-gathering and working
sessions throughout 2004. A report from the commission is
forthcoming in 2005, and this presenter, as chair of the
commission, can offer a preview of the results of that process,
and the conclusions of the report.","txt","2","",""
"524","6","TAPoR: Five views through a text analysis portal (COCH/COSH Allied Association Session)","3","A. Session Introduction
The TAPoR project started as a project to create a portal
where users could manage texts, tools and then run tools
on text. The Alpha version of the TAPoR portal nicely
demonstrated the potential of this simple workbench paradigm.
TAPoR.2 builds on the individual project paradigm to make
the portal useful for research communities. It does this in a
number of ways:
1. We have developed a Try It first encounter interface for use
by new users, casual users, and just-in-time users. This
interface has been developed in close coordination with
usability researchers, though it is now going into extensive
testing.
2. TAPoR.2 allows user information to be saved for groups or
made public in a fashion similar to community information
portals like del.icio.us ( <http://del.icio.us> ) and
CiteULike ( <http://www.citeulike.org> ). Some
types of information have always been intended for public
viewing like the News built into TAPoR from the beginning.
We have not only extended the sharing model to all types
of information managed, but we have added communal
editing to selected types of information, especially
documentation, with a wiki editing-like interface.
3. We have extended the project paradigm to allow interfaces
to be created that can be integrated into other projects and
web sites. Thus advanced users can create projects that are
styled to look like part of a different project.
4. We have developed a tool developers interface so that tools
as web services can be added and documentation quickly
entered. We have also used the community building features
of the portal to develop TA!DA! or the TAPoR Developers
Association – a site for the developer community.
5. We have developed TEA, the TAPoR Engine of Association,
which is designed to help the serendipitous exploration of
texts, references, links, people, projects and tools. TEA
combs and visualizes topic maps which associate items
across users.
In this session we are going to present the portal from five
views that move from a conventional first encounter view of a
tool portal to an inverted view of the portal as a research
community association engine. These five views will be
presented as three coordinated papers.
B1. TAPoR: First Encounters
Geoffrey Rockwell
The first paper will demonstrate the first encounter interface,
Try It. Woven into this presentation will be a discussion of the
usability research and testing that led to this interface
hypothesis. It is our hope that this encounter interface will be
of use to novices and advanced, but casual, users. It is an
interface that doesn’t require a portal account so it can be used
occasionally and it is optimized for ease of use and successful
results.
Rockwell will then demonstrate the basic user account paradigm
for people who want to use the portal for sustained text analysis
projects. He will demonstrate how from a first encounter once
can get a myTAPoR account with which to organize links to
texts, organize tools, and manage projects.
B2. TAPoR: Developing Encounters
Stéfan Sinclair
The second paper will demonstrate and discuss the Tool
Developers interface and the community tools designed to assist
developers. In this context Sinclair will discuss the first TAPoR
“hackers ball” funded by the Social Science and Humanities
Research Council of Canada through a grant led by Stéfan
Sinclair. He will also discuss the technical design of the
underlying tool broker and the data interfaces that allow results
to be saved to a Data Bench for use as an input text for a
different tool. This component of the presentation will end with
a blatant attempt to enlist attendees in TA!DA! so we can enrich
the tools collection.
The portal must bring together the text analysis community. In
particular, the portal must make it as easy as possible for
researchers who have existing tools, or want to write new tools
— in their preferred programming language — to make the
tools available through the portal. Web services provide a
standard language and protocol to enable communication
between different programming languages, and therefore are a very appropriate vehicle for connecting text analysis tools
together through the portal. Further, most programming
languages provide tools to publish existing program code as
web services with little or no modification, and little extra setup.
In some cases the tools will take an existing program function
and create the entire infrastructure needed to make the function
available over the internet: the web server, the code to listen
for remote requests and translate them into calls to the local
program code, and code to package the results up and return
them to the original caller.
Text analysis tools provided as web services are easier to
combine in simple ('piped') combinations, but can also be
combined in very sophisticated arrangements (using scripting)
— without requiring that the user learn new programming
languages or run through elaborate setup procedures.
B3. TAPoR: Community Encounters
James Chartrand
The third paper will discuss the underlying technologies
deployed in the portal so as to show how the portal can be
rethought as a community association engine. We chose Apache
Cocoon as our web development framework for the portal.
Cocoon satisfies several of our objectives. Cocoon provides a
basic portal implementation geared towards custom
development. Cocoon is open source. Much of Cocoon is made
up of code donated from large scale software projects; code
that has gone through numerous development cycles on large
systems. Cocoon is actively maintained and supported by
hundreds of developers. Cocoon is therefore stable, secure, and
scalable. In addition, Cocoon runs on Java and therefore, can
run without modification on Linux, Windows and the Mac,
allowing new projects to install the portal with ease.
The portal must provide a uniform and single point of access
for text analysis tools, but must also engender an online
community of knowledge. We chose Topic Maps for knowledge
management because they are adaptable, simple, and standards
based. Topic Maps can be thought of as a very rich index. An
index that doesn't just point into texts, but can describe
relationships between almost any object or idea. In our case,
the relationships are between texts, between tools, between
texts and tools, between projects, between projects and tools,
between projects and users, between users and texts, and so on.
Topic Maps also make the portal more adaptable to the needs
of other projects outside the text analysis community.
In the context of underlying technologies James Chartrand will
demonstrate the portal again, but now from the view-point of
how it can be used to develop a research group or project taking
advantage of the incorporated technologies. He will demonstrate
the deep skinning features that allow users to create views that
suit their research, their groups, or their projects. In this context
he will illustrate how the TAPoR portal, is, from one
perspective, just a web of associations between links, notes,
tools, and topics.
C. Issues
There are a number of key issues that underlie all three
papers.
i. Peer review of tools and academic credit. In a panel
organized for the ACH/ALLC 2003 in Athens Georgia by
Stéfan Sinclair on ""Peer Review of Humanities Computing
Software"" we presented some models for how review of
tools could be supported. TAPoR as a public portal that
gives access to tools elsewhere that run as web services can
be site for the review and documentation of software tools.
We will present a documentation interface that allows public
comments and reviews of tools that could serve some of
the need for a peer review system.
ii. Open source. A popular paradigm for the creation and
maintenance of community tools is to release them as open
source under one of the various licenses available. We will
discuss the way in which the portal as software is open
source and the ways individual tools can be made available
or protected. Likewise we will discuss the need for
authentication for selected texts which cannot be made
available openly.
iii. Humanities software development. The portal must,
fundamentally, meet the needs of a research community.
Needs which aren't, by definition, yet completely defined
as research evolves. To that end, we have adopted an ""agile""
development process that involves regular meetings and
storytelling. This approach has proven extremely effective.
We have avoided getting bogged down in over-analysis and
excessive documentation, and at same time have been able
to adapt development cycles to meet the evolving needs of
the project. Adaptability is particularly important for a
research project like this where midstream research
outcomes can lead to new paths, or close others.
iv. Stories. The 'story' is the fundamental unit of work in our
process. Stories are informal descriptions of how the
end-user would like to use the portal. Stories can be written
in whatever style makes sense for the user. Stories and other
documentation is kept in the TAPoRWiki which is a shared
development space. The stories are then broken down by
the Open Sky Solutions team into 'tasks' that are assigned
time estimates.
v. Adaptability. An important objective of the project is to
enable other projects to adapt the portal and to contribute
to its development. We have, therefore, organized the
development process around standards that make it
straightforward to not only download and install the portal, but to setup the development environment. Our goal is to
ensure continued development of the portal.
D. Conclusions
The TAPoR Portal is fundamentally conceived of and
designed to be an extensible, network-based research
environment. As such, it has been crucial to devise mechanisms
for enriching the portal by allowing developers and users to
encounter the portal, use it, and adapt it for others. It is worth
emphasizing how this approach differs from the development
of text analysis tools of the past, such as OCP and TACT, that
are essentially pre-defined workstation-based programs. TAPoR,
by contrast, seeks to accommodate unknown and unanticipated
resources. Such flexibility requires considerable engineering
to ensure compatibility between disparate texts and tools. We
will present a model for such flexibility, but recognize that it
will need testing and scrutiny to become genuinely useful.","txt","2","",""
"525","6","The Non-Traditional Case for the Authorship of the Twelve Disputed ""Federalist"" Papers: A Monument Built on Sand?","1","Introduction
This paper discusses the controversy over the authorship
of twelve of the ""Federalist"" papers as seen and studied
by over twenty non-traditional authorship attribution
practitioners. The ""Federalist"" papers were written during the
years 1787 and 1788 by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and
James Madison. These 85 propaganda tracts were intended to
help get the U.S. Constitution ratified. They were all published
anonymously under the pseudonym, ""Publius."" The general
consensus of traditional attribution scholars (although varying
from time to time) is that Hamilton wrote 51 of the papers,
Madison wrote 14, Jay wrote 5, while 3 papers were written
jointly by Hamilton and Madison, and 12 papers have disputed
authorship — either Hamilton or Madison.
In 1964, Frederick Mosteller and David Wallace, building on
the earlier unpublished work of Frederick Williams and
Frederick Mosteller, published their non-traditional authorship
attribution study, ""Inference and Disputed Authorship: The
Federalist."" It is arguably the most famous and well respected
example from all of the non-traditional attribution studies. It
is the most statistically sophisticated non-traditional study ever
carried out. There even has been a 40 page paper explicating
the statistical techniques of the Mosteller and Wallace study
(Francis). Since then, hundreds of papers have cited the
Mosteller and Wallace work and over two dozen non-traditional
attributiion practitioners have analyzed and/or conducted
variations of the original study.
These practitioners wanted to test their statistical approaches
against the Mosteller and Wallace touchstone study. Mosteller
and Wallace set the boundry conditions for the subsequent work
— e.g., not using the Jay articles as a control. Their
experimental design and overall report is never questioned.
Most of these later practitioners do not select or prepare the
input text as rigorously as Mosteller and Wallace — whose own selection and preparation was not as rigorous and complete
as it should have been.
Text Selection
(1) ""Federalist"" Papers
This section discusses the way the Federalist papers were
originally published (76 in newspapers and 8 in the book
compilation) and which editions the practitioners chose for
their non-traditional studies — how 84 papers became 85 and
how some papers had different numbers in different editions.
The effect that the lack of Hamilton and Madison holigraphs
had on the studies is discussed. The choice of edition has the
potential of profoundly changing the results of the studies.
Project Gutenberg Etexts are usually created from multiple
editions, all of which are in the Public Domain in the United States,
unless a copyright notice is included. Therefore we do NOT keep
these books in compliance with any particular paper edition,
usually otherwise.
(Front Material of Gutenberg Etext #1404)
The compounding problem of down-loading texts via the
internet is explicated — e.g., one of the texts includes every
variant of every paragraph. It is shown why none of the
Federalist studies used a 'valid' text of the Federalist papers.
The question, ""Does this incorrect input data invalidate the final
'answer?'"" is discussed.
(2) The Control Texts
(a) The ""Known"" Hamilton Sample
This sample cannot contain questionable Hamilton writings.
This sample must also fulfill the other criteria of a valid sample
— e.g., same genre, same constricted time frame. There also
should be a sub-set of this sample set aside for later analysis
in order to guard against the charge of cherry picking the
style-markers. This is not the same as the Mosteller and Wallace
""training sample.""
(b) The ""Known"" Madison Sample
In addition to discussing the way the Madison sample was
constructed, what was said about the Hamilton sample will be
applied here.
Does the lopsided number of Hamilton papers over Madison
papers (51 to 14) pose a problem for the studies? Were the
Hamilton and Madison control texts from outside the Federalist
papers chosen correctly? Why are these ""outside"" controls not
used by most of the other practitioners? This section goes on
to discuss the control problems that arose with the Mosteller
and Wallace study and have been perpetuated through the
subsequent studies. This section also discusses the other control
problems introduced in these studies.
Text Unediting, De-editing, and
Editing
The cumulative effect of NEARLY A THOUSAND SMALL
CHANGES [emphasis mine] has been to improve the clarity and
readability of the text without changing its original argument.
(Scigliano, lii)
(1) The ""Little Book of Decisions""
In the Mosteller and Wallace study, a ""little book of decisions""
is mentioned. This ""book,"" originally constructed by Williams
and Mosteller, contained an extensive list of items that Mosteller
and Wallace unedited, de-edited, and edited before beginning
the statistical analysis of the texts — items such as quotations
and numerals. Unfortunately, neither Williams and Mosteller
nor Mosteller and Wallace published the contents of this ""little
book of decisions"" and only mention five of their many
decisions in the published work. [Mosteller and Wallace 7, 16,
38-41] The little book has been lost and cannot be recovered
or even reconstructed [Mosteller]. This paper goes on to discuss
the many ramifications of the ""little book"" on their study and
the subsequent studies. Also, how the loss of the ""little book""
casts a shadow of ""scientific invalidity"" over the Mosteller and
Wallace work — i.e., it cannot be replicated. Their ""little book""
was not used by any of the following studies — making
meaningful comparisons moot.
(2) Other Decisions
This section goes on to list many of the unediting, de-editing,
and editing items that need to be considered. It lists several of
the mistakes made by the many practitioners and what these
mistakes mean to the validity of the studies (e.g.):
(a) Wrong letters
(b) Quotes — e.g., 131 words of Federalist 5 are a quote from
Queen Ann, 334 words of Federalist 9 are a quote from
Montesque
(c) Footnotes — the author's and the editors'
(d) Numbers
(e) Foreign languages
(f) Spelling
(g) Homographic forms
(h) Contracted forms (i) Hyphenation
(j) Word determination
(k) Disambiguation
(l) Editorial intervention — internal (e.g., Hamilton on
Madison) and external (e.g., from the first newspaper copy
editor to present day editors)
Conclusion
(1) Acceptance of Results by Non-Traditional
Practitioners
Are practitioners (statisticians and non-statisticians) so blinded
by the statistical sophistication that the other elements of a valid
non-traditional authorship study are ignored?
(2) Acceptance of Results by History Scholars
Do professional historians accept, deny, or show indifference
to the body of work that supports the Mosteller and Wallace
study? Why did I spend hours searching for a Mosteller and
LAWRENCE study of the Federalist papers?
(3) Do the multiple flaws in all of these
non-traditional studies invalidate the results.
Is the case put forth by Mosteller and Wallace and buttressed
by the other non-traditional practitioners nothing but a
""Monument"" built on sand? What effect does showing the flaws
in the Federalist studies have on non-traditional studies in
general — i.e., if the best is suspect, what about the rest!
Bibliography
Adair, Douglass. ""The Authorship of the Disputed Federalist
Papers."" The William and Mary Quarterly 1.2 Part I and 1.3
Part II (1944): 97-122 and 235-264.
Avalon Project. Yale Law School. 97-122 Ind 235-264.
Accessed 13 February 2004, 10:30AM. <http://www.ya
le.edu/lawweb/avalon/>
Bosch, Robert A., and Jason A. Smith. ""Separating Hyperplanes
and the Authorship of the Disputed Federalist Papers."" The
American Mathematical Monthly 105.7 (1998): 601-607.
Bourne, E.G. ""The Authorship of the Federalist."" The American
Historical Review 2.3 (1897): 443-460.
Collins, Jeff, et al. ""Detecting Collaborations in Text:
Comparing the Authors' Rhetorical Language Choices in the
Federalist Papers."" Computers and the Humanities 38.1 (2004):
15-36.
constitution.org. Accessed 9-30-03. <http://constitu
tion.org/fed/feder00.htm>
Cooke, Jacob E., ed. The Federalist. Cleveland: Meridian
Books (The World Publishing Company), 1956.
Davis, George. ""RE: Gutenberg edition of Federalist."" Private
E-mail, 20 November 2003 18:46:51.
Engeman, Thomas S., et al., ed. The Federalist Concordance.
Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1980.
Farringdon, Jill. Analysing for Authorship. Cardiff: The
University of Wales Press, 1966.
Farringdon, Michael G., and Andrew Q. Morton. ""Fielding and
the Federalist."" Department of Computing Science Research
Report (1990/R6).
Forsyth, Richard S. ""Stylistic Structures: A Computational
Approach to Text Classification."" Diss. University of
Nottingham, 1995.
Francis, Ivor S. ""An Exposition of a Statistical Approach to the
Federalist Dispute."" The Computer and Literary Style. Ed.
Jacob Leed. Kent Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1966.
38-78.
Fung, Glenn. ""The Disputed Federalist Papers: SVM Feature
Selection via Concave Minimization."" Proceedings of the 2003
Conference on Diversity in Computing. Atlanta, Georgia, 2003.
42-46.
Fung, Glenn. CS 635 Project. Spring Semester 1999. Accessed
2004-11-09. <http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~gfung/G
SVMFP.ps>
Fung, Glenn, and Olvi L. Mangasarian. ""The Disputed
Federalist Papers: SVM Feature Selection via Concave
Minimization."" Paper delivered at the CSNA 2002 Conference,
Madison, Wisconsin. 15 June 2002.
Hamilton, Alexander, et al. Ed. Robert Scigliano. The
Federalist: A Commentary on the Constitution of the United
States. New York: The Modern Library (Random House), 2000.
Hart, Michael. ""RE: Gutenberg edition of Federalist."" Private
E-mail, 21 November 2003 12:59:08.
Hilton, Michael L., and David I. Holmes. ""An Assessment of
Cumulative Sum Charts for Authorship Attribution."" Literary
and Linguistic Computing 8.2 (1993): 73-80.
Holmes, David I., and Richard S. Forsyth. ""The Federalist
Revisited: New Directions in Authorship Attribution."" Literary
and Linguistic Computing 10.2 (1995): 111-127. Khmelev, Dimitri V., and Fiona J. Tweedie. ""Using Markov
Chains for Identification of Writers."" Literary and Linguistic
Computing 16.3 (2001): 299-307.
Kjell, Bradley. ""Authorship Determination Using Letter Pair
Frequency Features with Neural Network Classifiers."" Literary
and Linguistic Computing 9.2 (1994): 119-124.
Kjell, Bradley, et al. ""Discrimination of Authorship Using
Visualization."" Information Processing & Management 30.1
(1994): 141-150.
Martindale, Colin, and Dean McKenzie. ""On the Utility of
Content Analysis in Author Attribution: The Federalist.""
Computers and the Humanities 29 (1995): 259-270.
McColly, William, and Dennis Weier. ""Literary Attribution
and Likelihood-Ratio Tests: The Case of the Middle English
Pearle-Poems."" Computers and the Humanities 17 (1983):
65-75.
Merriam, Thomas. ""An Experiment with the Federalist Papers.""
Computers and the Humanities 23.3 (1989): 251-254.
Mitchell, Ann F.S., and Clive D. Payne. ""A Conservative
Confidence Interval for a Likelihood Ratio."" Journal of the
American Statistical Association 66.336 (1971): 861-866.
Mosteller, Frederick, and David L. Wallace. ""Notes on an
Authorship Problem."" Proceedings of a Harvard Symposium
on Digital Computers and their Applications. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1962. 163-197.
Mosteller, Frederick, and David L. Wallace. ""Inference in an
Authorship Problem. A Comparative Study of Discrimination
Methods Applied to the Federalist Papers."" Journal of the
American Statistical Association 58 (1963): 275-309.
Mosteller, Frederick, and David L. Wallace. Applied Bayesian
and Classical Inference: The Case of the Federalist Papers.
New York: Springer-Verlag, 1984.
Pennebaker, James W. ""The Federalist."" Unpublished
preliminary work.
Pennebaker, James W. ""[no title]."" Private E-mail, Wednesday
09 July 2003, 14:45:34.
Pennebaker, James W. ""[no title]."" Private E-mail, Wednesday
09 July 2003, 15:32:59.
Piaia, Jesse. ""[For Frederick Mosteller]."" Private E-mail,
Tuesday 22 July 2003, 10:57:38.
Piaia, Jesse. ""[For Frederick Mosteller]."" Private E-mail,
Tuesday 22 July 2003, 11:48:04.
Project Gutenberg. Accessed 2003-09-30. <http://prom
o.net/pg/>
Rokeach, Milton, et al. ""A Value Analysis of the Disputed
Federalist Papers."" Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 16.2 (1970): 245-250.
Roland, Jon. ""RE: The Federalist on constitution.org."" Private
E-mail, 11 September 2003, 10:24:36.
Rudman, Joseph. ""Unediting, De-Editing, and Editing in
Nontraditional Authorship Attribution Studies: With an
Emphasis on the Canon of Daniel Defoe."" Papers of the
Bibliographical Society of America 99:1 (March 2005).
Sarndal, Carl-Erik. ""On Deciding Cases of Disputed
Authorship."" Applied Statistics 16.3 (1967): 251-268.
Stamatatos, E., N. Fakotakis, and G. Kokkinakis. ""Text Genre
Detextion Using Common Word Frequencies."" COLING 2000:
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on
Computational Linguistics. 2000. 808-814.
Stamatatos, E., N. Fakotakis, and G. Kokkinakis.
""Computer-Based Authorship Attribution Without Lexical
Measures."" Computers and the Humanities 35 (2001):
193-214.
Tankard, Jim. ""The Literary Detective."" BYTE 11.2 (1986):
231-238.
Tweedie, Fiona J., S. Singh, and D.I. Holmes. ""Neural Network
Applications in Stylometry: The Federalist Papers."" Computers
and the Humanities 30.1 (1996): 1-10.
Wachal, Robert Stanley. Linguistic Evidence, Statistical
Inference, and Disputed Authorship. Dissertation, University
of Wisconsin, 1966.
Waugh, Sam, Anthony Adams, and Fiona Tweedie.
""Computational Stylistics Using Artificial Neural Networks.""
Literary and Linguistic Computing 15.2 (2000): 187-197.
Yang, Albert C.C., et al. ""Information Categorization Approach
to Literary Authorship Disputes."" PHYSICA A ().","txt","2","",""
"526","6","Interface Design","23","Unsworth suggests that humanities computing has progressed
      during the last thirty years through three phases, beginning with
      the design of text analysis tools, moving to the design of online
      digital collections, and now returning to the development of a
      new generation of tools for working with online materials. While
      many of the first generation of text analysis tools focused on
      the analysis of a single text, the emphasis in many of the new
      tools is on data mining and visualization of results across sets
      of documents or even entire collections.

There are several distinct research agendas involved, including
      interest in making digital materials more accessible (Lyman),
      in providing new affordances for doing synthetic research at
      the level of the interface (Ruecker), and in using visualizations
      of digital information not only for analysis but also for further
         access to subsequent information (Flanders).

This session brings together three papers on visualization and
      interface design. First is Ruecker, Sinclair, and Radzikowska's
      The Aesthetic Function: The role of visual communication
      design in interface research, which examines the role of graphic
      design in interfaces to digital collections and visualization
      interface research. Their conclusion is that ""Careful attention to the details of graphic presentation can have a
      significant impact on the perceived value of a digital collection,
      the function of a visualization system, the research results available
      from analysis of visualizations, and the dissemination of findings
      both within the academic community and for the larger public
      audience.""

Second is Alan Galey’s 'Alms for Oblivion': Bringing an Electronic New
      Variorum Shakespeare to the Screen. Galey emphasizes the importance of W3C 
      advanced standards compliance for the delivery of academic collections online. Interfaces to 
      collections like the eNVS call for digital adaptations that can make traditional scholarly apparatus more 
      manageable: ""The value of the eNVS interface lies in reinventing such fundamental scholarly
      mechanisms as the textual collation line, the commentary
      footnote, and the annotated page — three structures from which
      the variorum derives both its archival power and, for many print
      users, its aura of cognitive overload.""

The third paper is Ramsay's Mining Shakespeare, which
      discusses the results and the implications of using the
      StageGraph and D2K software systems for semi-automatically
      mapping scene changes in Shakespeare's plays. Ramsay
      comments not only on the results of this study, but also on the
      implications of data mining in humanities scholarship: ""Though
      it may be used to support or refute hypotheses, data mining is
      far more useful in the service of the broad humanistic mandate
      to find new and insightful ways of looking at textual artifacts.""

These presentations provide a cross-section of current
      research on visualization in the humanities, moving, as does the
      research itself, between intricate detail and broad theoretical
      principles.



Bibliography


Flanders, Julia
Text analysis and the problem of pedantry
Paper delivered at CaSTA 2004: The Face of Text. 3rd conference of the Canadian Symposium on Text Analysis, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario. November 19-21 2004
2004

Lyman, Eugene W.
In pursuit of radiance: Report on an interface developed for the Piers Plowman Electronic Archive
Paper delivered at CaSTA 2004: The Face of Text. 3rd conference of the Canadian Symposium on Text Analysis, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario. November 19-21 2004
2004

Ruecker, Stan
Affordances of Prospect for Academic Users of Interpretively-tagged Text Collections
PhD. Dissertation, Edmonton: University of Alberta
2003

Unsworth, John
Forms of Attention: Digital Humanities Beyond Representation
Paper delivered at CaSTA 2004: The Face of Text. 3rd conference of the Canadian Symposium on Text Analysis, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario. November 19-21 2004
2004","txt","2","",""
"527","6","Academic Libraries and Information Communities: New Models for Supporting Digital Scholarship","1","Since the first forays into digital library activity in the early
1990s, academic libraries have been intimately involved
in the application of technology to the teaching and research
missions of the universities they support. Libraries offer
increasingly sophisticated technology training to faculty, and
provide critical systems infrastructure and programming
expertise to support digital scholarship. As more and more
faculty wish to produce born-digital scholarship, they expect
libraries to supply the basic technology support services that
their academic or campus computing units are often unable to
provide. And libraries have rushed bravely into the breach,
becoming ad hoc publishers, software developers, and
instructional designers. Partly as a result of this electronic
outreach activity, libraries are accumulating a critical mass of
digital materials not governed by any explicit selection policy.
This trend threatens to accelerate, as grant-funded humanities
computing projects of all shapes and sizes are turning to
libraries to aggregate, disseminate and preserve their materials
over the long term. Libraries supporting digital scholarship
must therefore manage both technological development and
collection development in a way that serves scholars' needs and
maximizes the effectiveness of limited resources.
The University of Virginia Library, like many of its peer
institutions, is currently developing a large institutional
repository for the digital content it acquires, along with tools
for ingesting and disseminating that content. But by its very
nature, our repository will have rather rigid requirements with
regard to standards and format. Even when the repository
development is complete, our faculty and their collaborators
will continue to produce scholarly ephemera - born-digital
writings, archival materials, teaching resources, and
experimental tools - that fall outside the repository's collections
parameters but which the Library will nonetheless be expected
to help sustain and organize in some way. At the same time,
the Library will need to encourage the use of its digital
resources beyond the core group of early adopters by making
it easy for users to find and exploit relevant materials in their
subject area.
In order to meet these challenges, the UVa Library has
developed an ""information communities"" model to complement
its digital repository initiatives. We hope this model will allow
us to identify common needs, establish priorities, and minimize
redundant digitization and tool-building efforts. Ideally, a robust
information community will foster scholarly communication
in all its diverse forms; it will encourage innovation and spark
new areas of cross-disciplinary and cross-institutional research.
At its core, the information community involves an equilateral
relationship between people, collections, and tools. The people
are scholars, students, researchers, information professionals,
and (for public institutions) the community at large. These
people serve many roles - they are producers and consumers
of digital content; they are authors, editors, commentators,
selectors, and publishers. The collections are conceived as
broadly as possible - primary and secondary scholarship, both
formal and informal, across all media types: text, images, maps,
datasets, audio and video. The tools can be divided into several
sub-categories: communication tools, like rosters, mailing lists,
wikis, and virtual conferencing tools; analytic and interpretive
tools, such as software for textual collation, or for the
manipulation of statistical data; authoring tools that support
standard markup schemes; and hybrid tools, such as
collaborative editing tools or peer review tools that combine
the communication and authoring functions. This triangular
relationship facilitates sharing - sharing scholarly materials and
sharing tools for accessing and analyzing those materials. The
community can foster the formal or informal scholarly exchange
of ideas, in the form of new publication as well as conferences,
seminars and online discussion.
The University of Virginia has several active information
community prototypes. Two are of particular interest. The
Tibetan and Himalayan Digital Library (THDL), founded by
David Germano in the Religious Studies department, developed
organically from the need to allow a small but globally
dispersed group of Tibetan experts to collaborate effectively,
in order to build a comprehensive online archive of Tibetan
materials. The site includes materials across all media types -
literary and religious texts, dictionaries, image sets, gazetteers,
maps, statistical datasets, timelines and time-based media. The
tools necessary to support this community are highly specialized
and include Tibetan, Nepali, and Chinese fonts, along with the
input tools necessary to generate materials in these languages,
geo-referencing and interactive mapping tools, collaborative
editing tools, and tools for the multilingual transcription of
audio and video materials.
The American Studies Information Community, a two-year
grant-funded pilot project, sought to capitalize on a substantial
but unintegrated body of American Studies-related digital
materials produced by the Library, its electronic centers, and
affiliated research units. Federated search and browse interfaces were developed to create easy access to these widely dispersed
materials. New core collections centering on a locally relevant
topic (the Lewis and Clark expedition) were digitized, and
faculty used these in class both as teaching resources and as
seed materials for digital student projects. The community also
published a collaboratively edited database of electronic
resources in the field, which will help users locate materials
for research and teaching but will also identify gaps in the field
that might indicate opportunities for future digital projects.
Based on our experiences at Virginia, we've identified some
key factors contributing to the success of an information
community or similar initiative. The community needs at least
one dedicated, charismatic faculty leader who can organize and
motivate colleagues across institutional boundaries; this person
should ideally be at a career point where he or she can take
chances on speculative projects that might fail. The community
should be bold and seek out innovative, ambitious ideas, despite
the current budget-conscious institutional inclination toward
caution. An information community is most effective when
centered around ""keystone"" collections of value to the scholarly
community, and should ideally assemble a body of primary
materials large enough to support meaningful analytical study.
A scholarly community needs a sense of purpose and a clear
set of organizational principles based upon its purpose. It needs
a stable institutional home, with sustainable funding. Finally,
it needs to consider all of its potential constituencies and try to
anticipate their particular needs.
Bibliography
The American Studies Information Community. University of
Virginia Library. Accessed 2005-04-04. <http://infoco
mm.lib.virginia.edu/amst/>
The Tibetan and Himalayan Digital Library. University of
Virginia Library. Accessed 2005-04-04. <http://iris.l
ib.virginia.edu/tibet/>","txt","2","",""
"528","6","Modeling Diachrony in Dictionaries","1","Introduction: The variety of lexical
structures
Lexical data appear in a wide variety of forms. These can
range from basic morpho-syntactic structures (Romary
et al.) intended to be used in language engineering applications
to important editorial projects that cover multiple levels of
lexicographic description: morphological information, syntactic
constructs, sense related information (definitions, examples,
usage notes, etc.) or historical information. Entries can also
vary in their internal organization. Among other factors, the
fundamental choice between an onomasiological (concept to
word) and a semasiological (word to concept) representation
directly impacts on the internal structure of entries, as well as
on the possible choice of descriptors attached to them. From a
computational point of view, this situation prevents the design
of one single data structure that would fit all the possible needs,
whereas one would like to be able to have uniform access to
similar information across heterogeneous lexical sources. This
has been the source of strong debates, leading for instance to
the ubiquitous ""Print Dictionaries"" chapter of the TEI (Text
Encoding Initiative) that tries to combine structured and
unstructured views of lexical entries. Still, we want to show in
this paper that it is possible to apply coherent modeling
principles to deal with this variety of structures while providing
a precise account of complex sub-components such as
diachronic information as they appear in dictionaries with wide
lexical coverage. Besides, we want to show that such modeling
principles can guide the possible evolution of the TEI towards
a more flexible data for the concrete representation of
dictionaries. Diachronic information in dictionary
entries
We consider diachronic information along the lines of its
modern, large acceptation as ""a word's biography""
(Baldinger). As such, it covers both etymological information
in a restricted sense — tracing out origin and primitive
significance of a lexeme in its source language — and historical
notes about successive changes of form and meaning once it
entered into the target language. This type of information can
for instance be found in the Oxford English Dictionary (OED),
in the Deutsches Wörterbuch (DWB) or in the Trésor de la
Langue Française (TLF), for which Figure 1 illustrates the
organization of diachronic information within the
micro-structure of a lexical entry (pamplemousse): here, the
Etymol. et Hist. section, separated from the synchronic
description of the lexeme, consists of two parts, the first one
being dedicated to the lexeme’s history within the target
language (modern French) and the second one to etymology
proper, i.e. origin and word sense in the source language
(Dutch).
Figure 1
Historical Notes
The main objective of the historical notes is to provide
(earliest) written testimony for each of the senses — and
possibly different usages of a sense — with respect to the
synchronic description of the entry. Therefore, temporal
information and quoted source text associated with
bibliographical references play a central role in this section.
Whereas the OED and the DWB realise the projection from
synchronic sense organization explicitly by subordinating
historical notes under sense description, the diachronic part of
the TLF takes up each of the four synchronic senses by a sense
identifier, a date, a quotation and bibliographical reference.
The latter might be complex in case of use of secondary
literature. One may also notice that differences in word spelling
led to two testimonies for sense 1a. Despite the very strict
application of the sense projection principle — which is far
from being applied systematically throughout the dictionary,
as mentioned for example in Hausmann et al. — one may
however notice that the synchronization has not been made
explicit, for example through the use of the same sense
identifiers within the synchronic and diachronic sections.
Etymological Notes
The etymology section of dictionaries is concerned with
the origin and development of the lexeme before entering
into the target language. As a central task, it informs about one
or more etymons and determines the etymological class
(inheritance, loan word, word generation) for the oldest sense
of the lexeme under consideration. As a consequence, it is not
directly related to individual senses in the modern stage of the
considered language. In the example, the etymon for the oldest
sense of pamplemousse (1a), is the Dutch pompelmoes, itself
being a word generated via composition from pompel and
limoes. Although there have been attempts to formalize further
etymological notes (cf. etymological formulas, Ross), they are
generally not subject to well defined organisation principles,
at least in current dictionaries. Additionally to core information
about etymon, etymological notes may indicate bibliographical
sources of the etymological hypotheses and discuss other related
issues (phonetic evolution, concurrent hypotheses, confidence
statements, secondary etymons, testimony of etymons,
intermediate states etc.).
A representational model for
diachronic information
I n the following sections, we apply the main modeling
principles of the LMF (Lexical Markup Framework) project
within ISO committee TC 37/SC 4 to outline the structure of
diachronic information in dictionary entries. Those principles
(Ide & Romary) allow one to combine a meta-model, which
informs the main agreed upon practices within a given field,
with data categories, corresponding to elementary information
units attached to the nodes of the metamodel. In the case of
lexical structures, a metamodel is itself the combination of a
core metamodel (a simple structure organizing a lexical entry
with form related information and a hierarchy of senses) and
lexical extensions, seen as additional modules attached to the
core meta-model. In our case, we will consider what kind of
lexical extensions are needed for both etymological and
historical information.
A Lexical Extension for Etymological
Structure
We propose a basic lexical extension for etymological
notes (Etymology, cf. Figure 2), i.e. a structure that accounts for the description of links to etymons. The Etymology
component may occur at most once for a given lexical entry,
under the assumption that lexical entries are purely polysemous,
excluding homonyms, given that the difference between both
is made upon historical criteria, cf. adresse¹ (TLF). This
etymological information is further structured by means of
Etymological Unit and Etymological Link components.
Etymological Unit components are word forms playing the role
of etymons. As such, they might be characterized by any
existing data category defined for the description of lexical
entries, i.e. lemmata and inflected forms (language,
orthography, sense, part-of-speech, inflectional information
etc.). Two points have to be noticed: first, the coverage of
language should be extended to more fine-grained geographical
and diachronic variants as those currently available from the
ISO 639 series. Second, depending on available resources, all
or part of this information could be recovered by a pointing
mechanism. Etymological Link components stand for the
etymological relation between linguistic units. A link is
basically characterized by an etymological target and an
etymological source, i.e. pointers to external resources,
including lexical entries of the current dictionary and
etymological units previously described. Etymological links
are typed by the etymological class (loan word, inheritance
etc.). They may additionally bear information about the
bibliographical source, confidence level or other type of notes.
The full paper will show how this data structure accounts for
different types of etymological notes in current dictionaries,
including cases of concurrent, popular, secondary and multiple
etymons.
Figure 2
A Lexical Extension for Historical
Notes
The modeling of historical notes can actually be seen from
two complementary and somehow sequentially organized
perspectives. Firstly, we have identified that historical notes
are organized as a hierarchy of sense like objects, which leads
to the simple historical extension depicted in Figure 3.
Figure 3
This extension takes up the sense component that already exists
in the core LMF meta-model, while further characterizing it
with specific dating (/date/) and bibliographic
(/bibliography/) information. Such an extension accounts
for the situations where there is no a priori editorial coherence
between the sense organization in the lexical entry and its
possible counterparts in the historical notes as encountered in,
e.g., the TLFi or the OED. In that case, we can see that we keep
open the possibility to actuate links (/synchronic
reference/) between components of the historical notes
and senses in the main entry. If we want to model a more
controlled editorial project, we suggest to move from the
previous extension to an integrated view (cf. Figure 4), which
directly anchors historical descriptions on the corresponding
senses. Doing so, it would always be possible to externalize
the corresponding information, to derive an autonomous
representation conformant to Figure 3.
Figure 4 Implementation in the framework of
the TEI
The final paper will show precisely how the two types of
structures described above can be implemented using the
latest version of the specification platform of the TEI (ODD
— One Document Does it all; Burnard & Rahtz). In particular,
we will show that, on the one hand, we can extend the scope
of the existing <etym> element from the P4 guidelines, and,
on the other hand, it is necessary to introduce a new element
dedicated to the representation of historical notes, which mimics
the behavior of related entries (sub-structure with a strong
structural analogy to a full entry), combined with dating and
bibliographical descriptors. Depending on the feedback we will
receive from the lexicographic community, these extensions
could be incorporated into the next version (P5) of the TEI
guidelines.
Bibliography
Baldinger, K. ""L’étymologie d’hier et d’aujourd’hui.""
Etymologie. Ed. R. Schmitt. Darmstadt, 1977.
Burnard, L., and S. Rahtz. ""Relaxing with Son of ODD, or
What the TEI did Next."" Paper delivered at the Extreme Markup
Languages conference, Montréal (Canada) , 2-6 August 2004.
2004.
Hausmann, F.J., O. Reichmann, H.E. Wiegand, and L. Zgusta,
eds. Wörterbücher. Ein internationales Handbuch zur
Lexikographie. Berlin / New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1990.
Ide, N., and L. Romary. ""International Standard for a Linguistic
Annotation Framework."" International Journal on Natural
Language Engineering (Forthcoming).
Romary, L., S. Salmon-Alt, and G. Francopoulo. ""Standards
going concrete: from LMF to Morphalou."" Coling Workshop
on Enhancing and Using Electronic Dictionaries, Geneva, 29
août 2004. 2004.","txt","2","",""
"529","6","Spanish Morphosyntactic Disambiguator","1","1. Introduction
The written expression of an idea is not achieved only through
the simple combination of the different components of the
grammar based on a given syntax. Other factors take part in
the process, such as semantics and context. But it is obvious
that a first approach requires at least a correct syntactic analysis,
and for this it is necessary, from the computer-science point of
view, to obtain results similar to those obtainable by human
knowledge. In this work, a first approach is achieved by the
identification and then disambiguation of the elements that are
part of a sentence.
Traditionally, syntactic analysis requires a specialized
knowledge of the language, all the more so in the case of
Spanish, due to its wide range of variations which turn the
syntactic analysis into a task only for experts. From the
educational point of view, syntactic analysis is very useful to
help learn to distinguish the different symbols implied: on the
one hand, the correct combination of the elements by means of
the application of grammar rules, and on the other hand, the
incorporation of less tangible, although necessary aspects, like
semantics and context. People usually perform an intuitive use
that hides the true difficulty of the problem.
This system is intended to provide a close view of the Spanish
grammar to researchers, enhancing their performance and reliability. This is a first step that will allow, with the addition
of new features, to keep improving until reaching 100%
accuracy. Any automated processing of a text entails inevitably
the syntactic analysis of its sentences, following the
morphosyntactic disambiguation of the elements that compose
it, allowing for different possible applications: a) to provide a
precise synonym for a given word, b) to analyze its literary
style, c) to reveal its semantics, d) to extract information or
summarize its contents, e) to make trustworthy translations to
other languages, f) to answer to concrete questions on its
content, etc.
2. Methodology
In this work, the number of erroneous syntactic representation
trees, obtained by the application of the rules of the Spanish
grammar by means of a set of structural disambiguation rules,
is notably reduced. In spite of the remarkable amount of
necessary combinations, this system does not limit itself to
subgroups of the grammar like most of the other proposals, but
instead it uses a system of rules which covers all the possible
combinations of the Spanish grammar. In addition to being the
starting point for an automated syntactic analysis system, it
complements the local functional disambiguator developed by
the Group of Data Structures and Computational Linguistics
of the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria ( <http:/
/www.gedlc.ulpgc.es/investigacion/desambi
gua/desambigua.htm> ). As an indicator of its
performance, the accuracy of the disambiguation is raised from
87% to 96%.
A solution is provided to the problem of the appearance of
structural ambiguities that are generated during the process of
construction of syntactic representation trees. The syntactic
structures are combined to each other to allow for the syntactic
representation trees. Many of these combinations generate
erroneous trees. Direct conflicts between rules have been
identified as one of the main causes of the problem. The
characteristics of the different syntactic structures and how they
must be considered at the time of accepting or not the
construction of a representation symbol have been studied for
the development of methods of structural disambiguation.
In view of the great number of possible combinations of the
grammar elements (more evident in verb-phrase constructions
which allow any number of elements and almost in any
combination), the adequate representation mechanisms have
been defined so that all the possibilities are covered, not leaving
valid options unrepresented. When allowing any combination
of possible elements in the verb-phrase, some combinations
appear, which should not be allowed, and would be rejected in
the structural disambiguation processes. In this way, all the
possible combinations are represented, from a structural point
of view, and those not allowed are rejected.
Groups of semantic identification oriented to the recognition
of syntactic structures are catalogued. The processes of
structural disambiguation include some rules that introduce
semantic information. The generated lists have been obtained
from the tables of the ideological dictionaries that can be related
to certain syntactic structures.
3. Knowledge base
The grammar used is based mainly on the description made by
Gili Gaya. To achieve maximum system completeness and
include all the syntactic structures that can appear we followed
Gutiérrez Araus. The examples cited by Gómez Torrego (2002a,
2002b), were useful to test the system and contributed mainly
to illustrate the aspects relative to the compound sentences that
remained to be refined.
For this work, the tagger developed by GEDLC was used ( <h
ttp://www.gedlc.ulpgc.es/investigacion/sc
ogeme02/lematiza.htm> ) which gathers the main
lexicographical repertoires of the Spanish language1, and admits
151103 canonical forms and something more than 4900000
inflectioned and derived forms (without adding the inherent
extension to the prefixes and the enclitic pronouns that have
also been contemplated).
4. Related works
There are other authors that approach this problem for the
Spanish language from diverse points of view. In the same way
as our work, which can be used for free at discretion through
the Internet ( <http://www.gedlc.ulpgc.es/inves
tigacion/desambigua/morfosintactico.htm> ),
we have only been able to find one other operative tool of this
kind on the network: the parser from the Center of Language
and Computing of the University of Barcelona. Given the high
complexity of the problem, they have chosen to write down
exclusively those elements that are explicitly present in the
sentence, which had led them to a simplified treatment of some
syntactic aspects like coordination and some subordinated types
that they leave unsolved. Also, they abandon the concept of
sentence understood like noun-phrase and verb-phrase, opting
for a list of components instead.
Although the computer methodologies applied are different,
they try to reach the same objectives. Our work is based on the
real and complete study of: a) a Spanish grammar that includes
all the possibilities available in the written language, b) the
direct structural ambiguities that cause the appearance of
multiple syntactic representation trees, c) the symbols that cannot cover all the sentence, d) the complex verbal form, e)
other situations where ambiguities can be solved based on
linguistic knowledge about words, grammar categories and
objects involved, and f) the considerations for the generation
of the predicate symbol. Nevertheless, other methodologies
apply statistical criteria for the resolution of ambiguities, with
the consequent loss of reliability for unfrequent cases. The
richness of our language and, particularly, the writers’ freedom
in the construction of syntactic structures makes us reconsider
the probabilistic methods as the only solution to this complex
problem.
5 Conclusions
This work is not limited to subsets of the grammar, but is based
instead on a system of rules for the Spanish grammar in spite
of the remarkable quantity of necessary combinations.
It provides a solution to the problem of the appearance of
functional ambiguities. First a disambiguation process is
applied, based on local syntactic structures that reach an
accuracy of 87%; and second, another disambiguation process
is applied, based on trees of syntactic representation that
improve the average accuracy level up to 96%.
The importance of this work lies on the fact that it fosters the
development of future applications, because:
1. It accelerates the process of syntactic analysis when pruning
incorrect structures.
2. It improves the precision in the results of advanced word
searches.
3. It allows the discarding of non valid options in information
extraction.
4. It detects grammatical errors in the written constructions.
1. Alvar Ezquerra; Casares; García Márquez & Hernández;
Diccionario General de la Lengua Española Vox; Gran Diccionario
de la Lengua Española; Gran Diccionario de Sinónimos y
Antónimos; Moline; Real Academia Española.
Bibliography
Bosque, I., V. Demonte, and F. Lázaro Carreter. Gramática
descriptiva de la lengua española. Madrid: Espasa, 1999.
Casares, J. Diccionario ideológico de la lengua española.
Barcelona: Gustavo Gili, 1994.
Diccionario General de la Lengua Española Vox, Edición en
CD-ROM. Barcelona: Biblograf, S.A., 1997.
Ezquerra, Alvar. M. Diccionario de voces de uso actual.
Madrid: Arco-Libros, 1994.
García Márquez, Gabriel, and Humberto Hernández. Clave.
Diccionario de Uso del Español Actual, Edición en CD-ROM.
Madrid: Ediciones SM, 1997.
Gili Gaya, S. Curso Superior de Sintaxis Española (Higher
Course on Spanish Syntax). Barcelona: Biblograf S.A., 1998.
Gómez Torrego, L. Análisis sintáctico: Teoría y práctica.
Madrid: Ediciones SM, 2002a.
Gómez Torrego, L. Gramática didáctica del español. Madrid:
Ediciones SM, 2002b.
Gran Diccionario de la Lengua Española. Barcelona: Larousse
Planeta, S.A., 1996.
Gran Diccionario de Sinónimos y Antónimos. Madrid:
Espasa-Calpe, 1991.
Gutiérrez Araus, M.L. Estructuras sintácticas del español
actual (Syntactic Structures of Current Spanish). Madrid:
Sociedad General Española de Librería, S.A, 1978.
Moliner, M. Diccionario de Uso del Español, Edición en
CD-ROM. Madrid: Gredos, 1996.
Quesada, J.F. Un modelo robusto y eficiente para el análisis
sintáctico de lenguajes naturales mediante árboles múltiples
virtuales. Sevilla: Centro Informático Científico de Andalucía
(CICA), 1996.
Real Academia Española. Esbozo de una nueva gramática de
la lengua española. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1989.
Real Academia Española. Diccionario de la Lengua Española,
Edición electrónica. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1995.
Santana, O., J. Pérez, Z. Hernández, F. Carreras, and G.
Rodríguez. ""FLAVER: Flexionador y lematizador automático
de formas verbales."" Lingüística Española Actual XIX, 2
(1997): 229-282.
Santana, O., J. Pérez, F. Carreras, J. Duque, Z. Hernández, and
G. Rodríguez. ""FLANOM: Flexionador y lematizador
automático de formas nominales."" Lingüística Española Actual
XXI, 2 (1999): 253 - 297.
Santana, O., J. Pérez, L. Losada, and F. Carreras. ""Hacia la
desambiguación funcional automática en Español.""
Procesamiento del Lenguaje Natural 28 (2002): 1-22.","txt","2","",""
"530","6","Una Herramienta de Recuperación Morfoléxica Aplicada a Microsoft Word","1","1. Introducción
Uno de los aspectos de la investigación en lingüística es
el estudio del uso de la lengua en documentos escritos;
se trata de identificar y analizar la aparición de determinadas
construcciones, lo que, en gran medida, puede entenderse como
una clase particular de lo que en informática se conoce como
recuperación de información. En el ámbito de la recuperación
de información se ha tenido desde siempre conciencia de la
insuficiencia de las búsquedas exacta y parcial de las palabras
de un texto, y también de la necesidad de incorporar
información lingüística para una recuperación más completa.
Las ya antiguas búsquedas con truncamiento parten de la
hipótesis de que las distintas formas de una palabra se
componen de una raíz fija acompañada de un sufijo o un prefijo
variables; tal hipótesis suele ser bastante acertada para lenguas
poco flexivas, pero resulta muy pobre con lenguas muy flexivas
y con altas tasas de irregularidad. Las búsquedas con máscara,
por similitud o en base a expresiones regulares no incorporan
la adecuada información sobre la naturaleza morfológica de las
palabras.
2. Antecedentes
El Grupo de Estructuras de Datos y Lingüística
Computacional (GEDLC, <http://www.gedlc.u
lpgc.es> ) del Departamento de Informática y Sistemas de
la Universidad de las Palmas de Gran Canaria lleva algún
tiempo desarrollando trabajos en morfología computacional,
sintaxis automatizada, análisis de textos y lexicografía que
incluyen lematizadores y flexionadores del español, así como
el estudio de relaciones morfoléxicas entre las palabras.
El bagaje de conocimientos acumulado y la experiencia en el
desarrollo de herramientas en el campo se ponen en este trabajo
al servicio del desarrollo de sistemas de localización de
fenómenos morfológicos del español dentro de un texto. Se ha
realizado una aplicación de búsqueda lingüística aplicada a un
procesador de textos popular —Microsoft Word.
El hecho de que el diálogo ""Buscar y reemplazar"" de MS-Word
XP ofrezca una opción llamada «Todas las formas de la palabra»
que según la ayuda de la aplicación sirve para «Buscar o
reemplazar sustantivos, adjetivos o tiempos verbales» demuestra
el interés de este tipo de búsquedas en el contexto de un
procesador de textos. Pero la propia ayuda de la aplicación hace
dudar del alcance de tales búsquedas al poner ejemplos como:
«reemplace 'manzana' por 'naranja' y, al mismo tiempo,
reemplazará 'manzanas' por 'naranjas'» o «reemplace 'peor' por
'mejor' y, al mismo tiempo, reemplazará 'el peor' por 'el mejor'»
; ambos casos corresponden a simples sustituciones de cadenas
de caracteres que no requieren ningún conocimiento lingüístico
especial y que, de hecho, se pueden realizar sin seleccionar la
opción «Todas las formas de la palabra» ; más prometedor
parece el ejemplo de los verbos: «reemplace 'dormir' por 'salir'
y, al mis mismo tiempo, reemplazará 'dormido' por 'salido'» ,
pero el GEDLC no ha logrado verlo funcionar.
3. La herramienta desarrollada
Se ha desarrollado una herramienta de búsqueda textual
para MS-Word que incorpora los aspectos flexivos,
derivativos y prefijales entre otros mecanismos de formación
de palabras del español, lo que aporta una gran potencia de
búsqueda.
A la hora de diseñar una aplicación que permita especificar
patrones de búsqueda que tengan en cuenta aspectos flexivos
y derivativos de la lengua hay que observar una cuestión
fundamental: la gran cantidad de detalles que son susceptibles
de configuración —la flexión verbal admite 116 configuraciones
diferentes.
3.1 Organización
La aplicación se ha diseñado para presentar distintos niveles
de detalle. El nivel básico muestra: una caja de entrada de texto,
en la que el usuario debe introducir la palabra a buscar, un botón
para iniciar la búsqueda, otro para usar la palabra como parte
de una coocurrencia, y un par de flechas que dan acceso a
mayores detalles. El usuario sólo tiene que escribir una palabra y pulsar el botón
Buscar. El patrón de búsqueda que se aplicará será el que esté
configurado —por defecto corresponde a ""cualquier palabra
del texto que tenga una forma canónica que coincida con alguna
de las formas canónicas de la palabra de búsqueda y que, para
esa forma canónica, tenga la misma flexión"".
En el siguiente nivel de detalle se pueden elegir los grados de
derivación y de flexión; se usan tres escalas independientes:
una para la derivación y otras dos para la flexión de las formas
verbales y de las no verbales.
Si el usuario requiere una recuperación más precisa accederá
al último nivel de detalle de la flexión —las relaciones
morfoléxicas continúan en un nivel paralelo—, donde se podrá
modificar el patrón de búsqueda, ampliando o recortando
elecciones de flexión. Existe la posibilidad de añadir o quitar
del patrón de búsqueda prefijos y, en el caso de los verbos,
pronombres enclíticos.
Cabe tener en cuenta las formas canónicas que correspondan
a la palabra de búsqueda o ignorarlas: por ejemplo, buscar
palabras que sean ""primera persona del singular del presente
de indicativo de un verbo introducido"" o, ignorando la forma
canónica, ""primera persona del singular del presente de
indicativo de cualquier verbo"".
Eligiendo una forma canónica se accede a la interfaz de
configuración de las relaciones morfoléxicas en donde se puede
indicar qué formas relacionadas se desea incluir en la búsqueda.
Si el usuario escribe un asterisco en lugar de una palabra, se
abre la posibilidad de configurar un patrón de búsqueda por
características morfogramaticales, sin determinación léxica;
por ejemplo, localizar todas las palabras que sean ""sustantivos
femeninos plurales"" o ""formas verbales del presente de
indicativo"", independientemente de cualquier forma canónica.
Además de la búsqueda de palabras individuales, es posible la
localización de coocurrencias, tanto con determinación léxica,
como por características morfogramaticales —lo que permite
afinar la búsqueda hasta el punto de poder situar fenómenos
lingüísticos específicos, tales como: perífrasis verbales,
regímenes preposicionales y colocaciones léxicas.
4. Conclusiones
Se ha elegido MS-Word por ser, seguramente, el procesador
de textos más extendido bajo el entorno MS-Windows y
disponer de interfaz COM (Component Object Model) que
facilita la interoperabilidad con otras aplicaciones. La
concepción de la herramienta en si es tal que podría interactuar
con otras aplicaciones que ofrezcan interfaces COM.
De hecho, el objetivo principal consistió en cómo configurar
una interfaz que aprovechara lo motores de lematización
desarrollados por el GEDLC para realizar búsquedas que
incorporen conocimiento lingüístico de forma potente, usable
y efectiva. La decisión de que la herramienta desarrollada se
aplicase a un procesador de textos pretendió evitar las
distracciones derivadas de problemas particulares de otros
ámbitos, tales como los de la navegación, si la herramienta se
aplicaba a realizar búsquedas en la red, por ejemplo. El siguiente
paso será adaptar la interfaz desarrollada para aplicarla a
entornos más complejos que un procesador de textos, tales
como: el análisis de corpus, el estudio del uso de la lengua en
Internet, herramientas de apoyo a la enseñanza, etc. Es un
proceso abordable dada la experiencia que también posee el
GEDLC en ese campo, como se refleja en trabajos previamente
publicados sobre analizadores de páginas Web. Análogamente,
la herramienta desarrollada podría aplicarse a la recuperación
de información en bases de datos textuales.
Bibliografía
Figuerola, Carlos G., Raquel Gómez Diaz, Angel F. Zazo
Rodríguez, and José Luis Alonso Berrocal. ""Spanish
monolingual track: the impact of stemming on retrieval.""
Evaluation of Cross-Language Information Retrieval Systems.
Second Workshop of the Cross-Language Evaluation Forum,
CLEF 2001. Darmstadt, Germany, September 2001; Revised
papers, volume LNCS 2406 of Lecture Notes in Computer
Science (2002): 253-261.
Figuerola, Carlos G., Raquel Gómez, Angel F. Zazo Rodríguez,
and José Luis Alonso Berrocal. ""Stemming in Spanish: A first
approach to its impact on information retrieval."" Results of the
Cross-Language System Evaluation Campaign CLEF 2001,
Darmstadt, Germany. Ed. Carol Peters. September 2001.
197-202.
Santana, O., F. Carreras, J. Pérez, and G. Rodríguez.
""Relaciones morfoléxicas prefijales del español.""
Procesamiento de Lenguaje Natural 32 (2004): 9-36. Santana, O., F. Carreras, J. Pérez, and G. Rodríguez.
""Relaciones morfoléxicas sufijales en español."" Procesamiento
de Lenguaje Natural 30 (Marzo, 2003): 1-73.
Santana, O., J. Pérez, Z. Hernández, F. Carreras, and G.
Rodríguez. ""FLAVER: Flexionador y lematizador automático
de formas verbales."" Lingüística Española Actual XIX.2
(1997): 229-282.
Santana, O., J. Pérez, F. Carreras, Z. Hernández, J. Duque, and
G. Rodríguez. ""FLANOM: Flexionador y lematizador
automático de formas nominales."" Lingüística Española Actual
XXI.2 (1999): 253-297.","txt","2","",""
"531","6","A Digital Environment for Neolatin Studies","1","The 2005 annual convention of the ACH/ALLC to be
hosted at the University of Victoria will have the
intersection of multilingualism and humanities computing as
a prominent theme. It is therefore the perfect venue for
presentation of our work.
The graduate Institute for Latin Studies at the University of
Kentucky, begun in 2000, strongly emphasizes the active use
of the Latin language via pervasive oral immersion and rigorous
assignments in written composition. The faculty conducts a
sequence of graduate classes solely in Latin, and students meet
spontaneously in various extracurricular venues for further
practice. Equally against the grain, the Institute does not restrict
its focus to Republican and Imperial Latin of the ancient world
as Classical Studies departments typically do, but rather
encourages an appreciation of Latin from all periods, from
antiquity through early modern times.
This presentation will explore the many challenges and
opportunities posed for humanities computing by the practices
and emphases of the UK Institute for Latin Studies. These
challenges fall into the general categories of availability of
materials, interface design for a reading environment, and
general computational infrastructure for the study of Latin.
Regarding materials, we are responding to a general lack of
adequate resources for the active use of Latin as well as the
diachronic study of the language. We have produced
TEI-conformant XML editions of numerous Neolatin texts,
including the Moriae Encomium of Erasmus, the Orationes of
Muretus, the Argenis and Icon Animorum of Iohannes Barclaius,
the Eudemia of Ianus Nicius, and the Psyche Cretica of Ioannes
Ludovicus Praschius. We have begun to produce the world's
only unified archive (in any medium) of all known Latin colloquia, dialogues written expressly for the purpose of
teaching people how to speak Latin. We are now completing
work on electronic editions of colloquia by Erasmus, Corderius,
Duncanus, and Vives, and have already identified many more
examples from this genre for inclusion in our archive. We intend
to have a constant stream of students writing (Latin)
commentaries on the texts that we publish. As an example, last
year a graduate student in our program made a selection from
Erasmus' Colloquia, equipping the texts with introductions,
notes and questions to help teachers guide students through
texts that may be unknown to the teachers themselves. This
kind of work will be important in advancing the utility of our
text archive.
Another current digitization project that is related to our goal
of keeping Latin learners' minds in Latin is our production of
a TEI-XML edition of an all-Latin grammar, Grammatica
classicae latinitatis by J. Llobera and E. Alvarez (Barcelona
1919). Also, with support from the UK Center for
Computational Sciences, this year we are developing a separate
grant proposal that would fund a multiyear project to digitize
important all-Latin lexica by Forcellini and Du Cange.
We realize that most teachers currently lack experience in
conducting their classrooms in spoken Latin, so we will also
create our own web-based interactive dialogues (in audiovisual
formats) of progressive sophistication. Such exercises in spoken
Latin will facilitate students' understanding and will foster an
immediate familiarization with the language.
All of the digitized materials we create will be freely available
online and will carry appropriate Creative Commons licenses,
permitting students and scholars worldwide to use them without
cost or restrictions. Our repository will link with others via the
Classical Text Services Protocol now being developed under
the auspices of the Center for Hellenic Studies, broadening the
selection of high quality marked up classical texts available
worldwide, as well as allowing our other tools to operate, at
least partially, on texts outside our project.
What we anticipate as an ultimate synthesis of all these activities
is a digital reading and learning environment, built on the
Apache Cocoon platform, that allows our own resources, and
others flowing in from elsewhere, to be tied together and used
selectively to meet the needs of a vertical spectrum of
Neolatinists. For students we will associate well spoken versions
of the source texts, allow them to click through to
morphological and hence lexical data, connect them with
grammatical and historical notes, show them a variety of
translations, and perhaps even give feedback on their own
pronunciations. More advanced scholars may be able to see
photographs of manuscripts, automatically collate manuscript
transcriptions according to their own stemmatological theories,
or call up related commentaries and other scholarship.
Many of the individuals interested in later Latin are not
professional scholars, but the Internet allows talented amateurs
back into the academic market. How can we best manage the
signal to noise ratio? Moreover, those professional scholars of
Neolatin who do exist are scattered worldwide. We need to
provide tools that not only give everyone access to rarer texts
(and ancillary resources), but also harness the expertise and
enthusiasms of the reading public to improve them. The work
done at the University of Kentucky on the Suda On Line project
showed how a web-based community of scholars could tackle
a project too large for any one individual and gradually make
real progress. Accordingly we plan on extending the results of
that experiment with a framework for lexicography that enables
the continuous improvement of our fundamental reference
works by a distributed set of users.
Bibliography
[No source references provided. Eds.]","txt","2","",""
"532","6","Letters and Lacunae: Editing an Electronic Scholarly Edition of Correspondence","1","Encoding editions of documentary texts, particularly
editions of correspondence, within the Text Encoding
Initiative (TEI) Guidelines raises special challenges not
encountered when editing previously published works. The
challenges fall into three broad categories: 1) difficulties in
capturing bibliographic meta-information describing the
physical object and its transmission history; 2) challenges in
developing a controlled vocabulary suitable to the informal
nature of texts which were never intended for publication; and
3) difficulties in encoding both physical characteristics of the
documentary texts, as well as their intellectual content, i.e.
adopting a principle of encoding the text either as a physical
artifact or as a conceptual work. These challenges, particularly
as they relate to encoding letters, will be explored by through
an edition currently being edited entitled Thomas MacGreevy
and George Yeats: A Friendship in Letters.
During the next two years members of The Thomas MacGreevy
Archive team will be creating for online publication an edition
of the correspondence between George Yeats (1893-1968),
wife of the Irish poet W.B. Yeats, and Thomas MacGreevy
(1893-1967), Irish poet, art and literary critic, and Director of
the National Gallery of Ireland (1950-63). It is a collection
spanning 41 years, comprising 148 letters. The letters are
fascinating documentary records which provide a window not
only into the personal lives of the authors, but into the artistic
and political circles in which they moved, providing a unique
insight into the new Irish Free State and the cultural climate of
Europe during the first half of the twentieth century. The letters
are being encoded using Extensible Markup Language (XML)
according to newly released P5 TEI Guidelines to take
advantage of the TEI’s new chapter on Manuscript Description.
Although the TEI Guidelines were not developed specifically
to encode previously published texts, many of the rules built
into the syntax of the Document Type Definitions (DTDs) favor
this document type. To cite but one example, the content model
of tei.divbot does not allow for a paragraph <p> element
after the closer element <closer>. While the need for
additional paragraphs after closing material in published texts
may be uncommon, letters frequently have a closing salutation,
followed by a postscript. Moreover, it has proved difficult
within the TEI header to detail the type of descriptive
information that editors, scholars, and bibliographers require
when engaging with handwritten documents.
Individual projects (such as DALF: Digital Archive of Letters
in Flanders Project) and subject- area consortiums (such as
The Model Editions Partnership) have developed their own
extensions to the TEI Guidelines to accommodate the needs of
electronic editions of correspondence. After a brief survey of
the strategies employed by these and other editions, we will
discuss how TEI’s new chapter on manuscript description
alleviates some of the problems previous projects solved with
local solutions. The chapter on Manuscript Description builds
on the work of two separate initiatives which have been recently
combined: MASTER project (1999-2001), an EU-funded project
headed by Peter Robinson, and the work of the TEI Medieval
Manuscripts Description Work Group (1998-2000), headed by
Consuelo Dutschke and Ambrogio Piazzoni . The new elements
available in this tagset provide for detailed description of
primary texts including transmission, physical description, the
relationship between parts of the manuscript (for example, when
a poem is enclosed with a letter), dimensions, location,
manuscript identification, provenance, and history of ownership.
Another area to be discussed is the difficulties in developing
an ontology or controlled vocabulary for a correspondence.
The ontology, the backbone for the search page, is more difficult
to develop for a collection of letters than other document types.
Subject headings, such as the Library of Congress Subject
Headings (LCSH), which are used to describe entire collections
or self-contained bodies of information, are not suitable for this
project which describes each letter individually. The problem
with using schemes such as LCSH is twofold: one, the letters
cover many subjects and follow no formal organization pattern,
making it difficult to make a faceted indexing schema like
LCSH worthwhile; secondly, the subject headings were meant
to be used in the cataloging of cohesive works or collections,
and were not designed to be brief entries in the index for a
specific work or collection.
The indexing done for this edition more closely resembles
back-of-the-book style indexing in terms of its description of
the details of the text. Standard controlled vocabularies that
might be used in this type of indexing, like the Getty Art and
Architecture Thesaurus, on the other hand, are too specific and terms do not sufficiently summarize or categorize the topics
discussed. Capturing, representing, and, indeed, interpreting a
multitude of topics present in any given letter — from general
subjects to more intimate personal details — is of paramount
importance. If ontology is defined as a ""formal, explicit
specification of a shared conceptualization"" (Fensel 11), the
burden of interpreting by a third party what a ""shared
conceptualization"" of a text written for an intended audience
of one is immense. Indeed, as the correspondence itself often
indicates, meaning is often misconstrued by the intended
recipient. Given these difficulties, other types of structured
data, such as annotation and abstracts, may be used to mitigate
issues of keywords conveying different meanings when taken
out of textual context.
Another challenge when editing documentary texts for
electronic publication is choosing a philosophy by which to
encode. This is particularly true in the case of editing modern
correspondence. Editors have had to traditionally decide
whether the purpose of the encoding is to capture the physical
appearance of the page (regardless of the text's logical
sequence), or whether it is to record the textual/ontological
flow (regardless of the text's physical appearance). In traditional
print publications, editions (except for facsimiles) reflect a
logical sequencing of the text. For example, text which appears
in the margins is placed where the editor feels it belongs
logically, even when the writing crosses page boundaries (such
as finishing a letter in the margins of the first page when the
author ran out of room on the last).
This edition is exploring methods of encoding both the physical
appearance of the page, as well as the letter’s logic. This is
particularly challenging when encoding, for example,
marginalia. To represent the marginalia within the logical
sequence of the text, the editor must decide where it is to be
anchored within the textual flow. To represent it in a physical
representation, the editor must provide coordinates that will
anchor the text vertically and horizontally in relation to the
main body of the work. While some of this positioning is
absolute, for example, anchoring text at the top of the page,
other positioning is relative, for example, anchoring marginalia
relative to the paragraph it appears next to. While the encoding
must take into account, in some measure, the technologies
available to us today, XSLT, CSS, and JavaScript, for example,
at the same time it must also be encoded with a view to future
presentations, independent of current technologies.
These are a sampling of issues that will be discussed.
Bibliography
Chestnutt, R. David. ""The e Model Editions Partnership: 'Smart
Text' and Beyond."" DLib Magazine (July/August 1997). <h
ttp://www.dlib.org/dlib/july97/07chesnutt
.html>
DALF: Digital Archive of Letters in Flanders Project . Centrum
voor Teksteditie en Bronnenstudie (KANTL). Accessed
2005-03-21. <http://www.kantl.be/ctb/project
/dalf/>
DeRose, Steven J., David G. Durand, Elli Mylonas, and Allen
H. Renear. ""What is Text, Really?"" Journal of Computing in
Higher Education 2.1 (Winter) (1990): 3-26.
Farrow, John. ""All in the Mind: Concept Analysis in Indexing.""
The Indexer 19.4 (1995): 243-247.
Fensel, Dieter et al. Spinning the Semantic Web. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2005.
Matthews, Douglas. ""Indexing Published Letters."" The Indexer
22.3 (2001): 135-141.
Renear, Allen H., Elli Mylonas, and David G. Durand.
""Refining Our Notion of What Text Really Is: The Problem of
Overlapping Hierarchies."" Research in Humanities Computing
4: Selected Papers from the ALLC/ACH Conference, Christ
Church Oxford, April 1992. Ed. Susan Hockey and Nancy Idle.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. 263-280.
Schreibman, Susan. The Thomas MacGreevy Archive.
Accessed 2005-03-21. <http://macgreevy.org>
TEI Guidelines P4 . Accessed 2005-03-15. <http://www
.tei-c.org/Guidelines2/index.html>
TEI Guidelines P5, Manuscript Description Chapter . Accessed
2005-03-15. <http://www.tei-c.org/Activities
/MS/FASC-ms.pdf>","txt","2","",""
"533","6","The Blackwell Companion to Digital Humanities: a Roundtable Discussion","3","This session will reflect on the recently published Blackwell
Companion to Digital Humanities by six of its
contributors and its three editors. This collection marks a turning
point in the field of digital humanities: for the first time, a wide
range of theorists and practitioners, those who have been active
in the field for decades, and those recently involved, disciplinary
experts, computer scientists, and library and information studies
specialists, have been brought together to consider digital
humanities as a discipline in its own right, as well as to reflect
on how it relates to areas of traditional humanities scholarship.
The participants for this panel discussion reflect the broad range
of themes and disciplinary areas of interest that the 38 chapters
of the Companion address. Rockwell's chapter ""New Media""
(co-authored with Andrew Mactavish) is part of the History
section, which considers the field from disciplinary
perspectives. Perry Willett's chapter, ""Perspectives and
Communities"", and Willard McCarty's chapter entitled
""Modelling"", represent the second section, 'Principles', which
includes chapters on databases, text encoding, and communities.
Martha Nell Smith, writing about ""Electronic Scholarly
Editing"", and Claire Warwick, writing on ""Print Scholarship
and Digital Resources"", are part of the Companion's third
section, entitled 'Applications', which covers a wide range of
cross-disciplinary perspectives on how computer-mediation
has changed our approach from fields as diverse as authorship
studies, robotic poetics, and speculative computing. Abby
Smith's chapter on ""Preservation"", is from the Companion's
last section entitled 'Production, Dissemination, Archiving',
which covers a broad range of practical issues (including project
design, conversion of primary sources, text tools, and
preservation).
The panel will open with a discussion of the collection's origins
in the research carried out over the past half a century on
textually-focused computing in the humanities. It will, however,
quickly move on to how broadly the field now defines itself,
which is evident from even the most cursory glance at the
Companion's table of contents. The field remains deeply
interested in text. But as advances in technology have made it
first possible, then trivial to capture, manipulate, and process
other media, the field has redefined itself to embrace the full
range of multimedia. Especially over the last decade with the
advent of the World-Wide Web, digital humanities has
broadened its reach. At the same time, it has remained in touch
with the goals that have animated it from the outset: using
information technology to illuminate the human record, and
bringing an understanding of the human record to bear on the
development and use of information technology. In it is in these
areas that the chapters by Willett and McCarty are especially
relevant.
The first eleven chapters of the Companion address the field
from disciplinary perspectives. Although the breadth of fields
covered is wide, what is revealed is how computing has cut
across disciplines to provide not only tools, but also
methodological focal points. What the editors discovered when
doing final editing of the volume is that there exists a common
focus across disciplines on preserving physical artifacts whether
these have been left to us by chance (ruin, and other debris of
human activity), or that which has been near-impossible to
capture in its intended form (music, performance, and event).
Yet many disciplines have gone beyond simply wishing to
preserve these artifacts, to re-representing and manipulating
them so that their hidden properties and traits can be revealed.
Moreover, digital humanities now also concerns itself with the
creation of new artifacts which are born digital and require
rigorous study and understanding in their own right.
What was also revealed in editing the volume was the
widespread notion that there is a clear and direct relationship between the interpretive strategies that humanists employ and
the tools that facilitate exploration of original artifacts based
on those interpretive strategies. More simply put, those working
in the digital humanities have long held the view that application
is as important as theory. This point is clearly demonstrated in
the chapters by Martha Nell Smith and Clare Warwick. Thus
exemplary tasks traditionally associated with humanities
computing hold the digital representation of archival materials
on par with analysis or critical inquiry, as well as theories of
analysis or critical inquiry originating in the study of those
materials. The field also places great importance on the means
of disseminating the results of these activities as well as the
realization that strategies for preserving digital objects must be
built into the design process at the very earliest stages of project
design, as evidenced by Abby Smith's contribution.
The panel will close with a discussion of how the Companion
serves as a historical record of the field, capturing a sense of
the digital humanities as they have evolved over the past
half-century, and as they exist at the moment. Yet, if one looks
at the issues that lie at the heart of nearly all contributions to
this volume, one will see that the taken as a whole, this
collection reflects a relatively clear view of the future of the
digital humanities, which the panel will also consider. Lastly,
the panel will address how digital humanities is addressing
many of the most basic research paradigms and methods in the
disciplines, to focus our attention on important questions to be
asked and answered, in addition to important new ways of
asking and answering that are enabled by our interaction with
the computer.
Bibliography
Hockey, Susan. Electronic Texts in the Humanities. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2000.
McCarty, Willard. What is Humanities Computing? Toward
a Definition of the Field. Accessed 2005-03-09. <http://
www.kcl.ac.uk/humanities/cch/wlm/essays/w
hat/>
Schreibman, Susan. ""Computer-mediated Discourse: Reception
Theory and Versioning."" Computers and the Humanities 36.3
(2002): 283-293.
Schreibman, Susan, Ray Siemens, and John Unsworth. A
Companion to Digital Humanities. Oxford: Blackwell's, 2004.
Siemens, R.G. ""'A New Computer-Assisted Literary Criticism?'
An introduction to A New Computer-Assisted Literary
Criticism?"" [A special issue of] Computers and the Humanities
36.3 (2002): 259-267.
Unsworth, John. Inaugural E-humanities Lecture at the National
Endowment for the Humanities, April 3, 2001. Accessed
2005-03-21. <http://www.iath.virginia.edu/~j
mu2m/KR/>","txt","2","",""
"534","6","Representation of Meaning: a Graphical and Interactive Approach","1","Introduction
This paper will consist a discussion of some of the
theoretical assumptions underlying the design of a piece
of software and a demonstration of its function. This software,
the Fixed Phrase Tool is part of the first release of TAPoR (text
analysis portal for research). I first saw the desirability of such
software while doing my doctoral dissertation in Toronto, a
computer-aided text analysis of the semantics of story and tale
in Chaucer. It was clear that the lists generated by traditional
texts analysis tools such as TACT were both tedious to examine
and presented information in a serial fashion that was not
suitable to data that were, in some sense, relational. It was also
clear that attempts to reformat the output of such 'listware' into
more relational forms is exceedingly laborious. Of course, this
practical need presupposes certain assumptions about meaning,
which follow this rough outline.
Theory
But if both meanings, or all of them. . . remain ambiguous
after the faith has been consulted, then it is necessary to
examine the context of the preceding and following parts of
the ambiguous place, so that we may determine which of the
meanings among those which suggest themselves it would
allow to be consistent.
(Augustine, 2.2)
The value of the chess pieces depends upon their position upon
the chess board, just as in the language each term has its value
through its contrasts with all the other terms.
(Saussure 88)
For a large class of cases —though not for all— in which we
employ the word 'meaning' it can be defined thus: the meaning
of a word is its use in the language.
(Wittgenstein 20e)
You shall know a word by the company it keeps!
(Firth 179)
We assume in the design of this software a view of
language that sees the meaning of a word as
inextricably linked to its contexts, a view that is in some ways
foreshadowed in Augustine's advice to readers of Scripture to
resolve semantic ambiguities by examining the context of a
passage (3.2.2). To some extent, our software's function and
design is also informed by a Saussurean structuralist semantics
that holds that a word's meaning is ""determined by the
[horizontal] paradigmatic and [vertical] syntagmatic relations""
(Lyons 268) between that word and others in a system of
language. This is illustrated in Saussure's example of the game
of chess in which the value of individual pieces is not the result
of any intrinsic qualities but rather of their relation to other
pieces (Saussure 108, 87 ff.). Of course, the method of deducing
what a word named (its reference) for Augustine becomes a
mode of meaning for Wittgenstein, and while Saussure's focus
is upon a word's place within a language system (its sense),
that of Wittgenstein is upon a word's place within instances of
discourse.
J. R. Firth was perhaps the first linguist to give Wittgenstein's
statement serious consideration when he proposed that one
could define a word by looking at its linguistic context, or ""the
mere word accompaniment, the other word-material in which
[a word is] most commonly or most characteristically
embedded"" (Firth 180). Seeking to differentiate this from
context of situation, Firth called it collocation (195). In a sense,
this study of collocation, the linguistic material or linguistic
context within which a word commonly occurs, involves the
mapping of pathways leading to and from each word (Palmer
76). Firth's idea of collocation, first presented in 1951,
introduced a new type of word meaning, but would have to
await the introduction of computers and electronic texts before
it could be used to study texts of any significant size
(Berry-Rogghe 103). His ideas have most famously borne fruit
in the COBUILD dictionaries and grammar and in the field of
corpus linguistics. The collection and classification of collocates
require the computer's unique ability to perform repetitive tasks
quickly and efficiently. Software like TACT brought this ability
to desktop PC users and thus solved the problem of collection,
but introduced a new set of challenges, one of which was how
to represent the data gathered by such tools. A multitude of
familiar paths lead off from these words in every direction.
(Wittgenstein 143e, 144e)
During the initial phases of memory encoding, it is as if one is
preserving the shape of a letter by walking a particular route
on a lawn. The pattern is dynamic, and is only evident in the
way one moves. After a period of time, however, the grass will
wear through, creating a dirt pathway. At that point, one can
stop walking; the information is preserved structurally (Kosslyn
& Koenig, 351) The significance of a collocate lies repetition and syntagmatic
relation. Therefore, the Fixed Phrase Tool (FPT) focuses on
collecting phrasal repetends, a subclass of collocation. As Ian
Lancashire has noted, phrasal repetends fall into two categories:
""repeating fixed phrases"" in which word order is unchanging
and ""repeating collocations, in which words co-occur, although
in varying order, sometimes with words intervening"" (100).
Repeating fixed phrases (fixed phrases hereafter) may most
closely represent the network of familiar paths that constitute
a person's language. From a neuroscientific perspective, as
Lancashire has noted, they are the result of such paths (188 ff).
He also attempted to represent these neurological structures in
what he called ""phrasal repetend graphs"" (217) .
Figure 1
We have adopted this model fully in the FPT. Although it
outputs the standard list of fixed phrases, the tool can also
automatically format such lists into a form very much
resembling that above, though, at present showing only fixed
phrases. The neurological and philosophical roots of the path
model of meaning also imply a degree of interactivity. This is
implemented in the Java version of the FPT, where each node
word in the graph can itself become a node in its own graph.
Bibliography
Augustine of Hippo. On Christian Doctrine. Trans. D.W.
Robertson. New York: Macmillan, 1958.
Berry-Rogghe, Godelieve L.M. ""The Computation of
Collocations and Their Relevance in Lexical Studies."" The
Computer and Literary Studies. Ed. A.J. Aitken, R.W. Bailey
and N. Hamilton-Smith. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press, 1973. 103-112.
Firth, J.R. ""Modes of Meaning."" Papers in Linguistics,
1934-1951. London: Oxford University Press, 1957. 190-215.
Firth, J.R. ""A Synopsis of Linguistic Theory, 1930-55.""
Selected Papers of J.R. Firth 1952-59. Ed. F.R. Palmer. London,
Eng: Longmans, 1968. 168-205.
Kosslyn, Stephen M., and Olivier Koenig. Wet Mind: The New
Cognitive Neuroscience. New York: The Free Press, 1995.
Lancashire, Ian. ""Uttering and Editing: Computational Text
Analysis and Cognitive Studies in Authorship."" Texte: Revue
de Critique et de Théorie Littéraire: Texte et Informatique
13.14 (1993): 173-218.
Lancashire, Ian. ""Phrasal Repetends and 'The Manciple's
Prologue and Tale'."" Computer-Based Chaucer Studies. Ed.
Ian Lancashire. Toronto: University of Toronto, 1993. 99-122.
Lyons, John. Semantics. 2 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press, 1993.
Lyons, John. Linguistic Semantics: An Introduction.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Lyons, John. ""Firth's Theory of 'Meaning."" In Memory of J.
R. Firth. Ed. C.E. Bazell. London: Longmans, 1966. 288-302.
Palmer, F.R. Semantics. 2nd ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press, 1981.
Saussure, Ferdinand de. Ed. Charles Bally and Albert
Sechehaye. Course in General Linguistics. Trans. Roy Harris.
Chicago: Open Court, 1996.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig. Philosophical Investigations. Trans.
G.E.M. Anscombe. 2nd ed. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1967.","txt","2","",""
"535","6","Keyword Extraction in Information Retrieval","23","","","2","",""
"536","6","Theory and Practise in Literary Textual Analysis Tools","3","Panel Description
Through discussion of several exemplary literary textual
analysis tools, participants on this panel explore elements
of the literary studies community's reaction to textual analysis
computer tool development -- and, particularly, how theorists
perceive the development of tools as an activity that supports,
tests, models, and expands upon their work. Panel contributors
challenge the oft-perceived disparity between the 'lower'
criticism (enumerative, bibliographic, re-presentative, &c.) in
which most computing tools that we use have their origins and
the 'higher' criticism often associated with thematically-oriented
literary critical theory.
Geoffrey Rockwell, McMaster U (presenter)
Matt Jockers, Stanford U (presenter)
Susan Schreibman, U Maryland (presenter)
Ray Siemens, U Victoria (chair and respondent)
Interrupting the Machine to Think About It
Geoffrey Rockwell
""A machine may be defined as a system of interruptions or
breaks (coupures). . . Every machine, in the first place, is
related to a continual material flow (hylè) that it cuts into.""
(Deleuze and Guattari 36)
Text analysis tools (and for that matter any form of analysis)
perform two types of operations. They interrupt the flow of
continuous analog information in order to break it down into
samples that can be quantified and then they synthesize new
eruptions out of the samples. Even the representation of a text
in digital form is a matter of machined sampling and quantitative representation whether you chose to represent a
printed page as pixels or characters.
This interrupting and breaking down is a process that constrains
what computer-based tools can do and that is the first point of
this paper. The sampling and quantization also makes it possible
to develop synthetic processes that create new hybrid artefacts
like text visualizations or sonoric representations, the second
point of this paper.
Finally, the breaking down (and not the transparent functioning)
is the (error) message of the textual machine. We know the
machine when it fails, when it is in error, and when it delivers
monstrous results. To stand back and look at a machine, as
opposed to looking through it, is to think through ambitious
failure.
Such a thinking through a computer is pragmatic theorizing in
a tradition of thinking while tinkering - a thinking often
provoked by what is at hand. What is proposed is a theory of
computer assisted text analysis that addresses the way such
ruptures stress interpretation. Development happens in rupture,
both the programming development that scripts computers and
the performance of thinking (about machines and texts) called
developing a theory.
In the meantime, The Bug that mocks us and interrupts our
demonstrations is also what provokes reflection and adaptation.
We wouldn't want it any other way, except at the moment of
machined interruption, for which reason a demonstration of
TAPoRware text analysis tools will interrupt this paper.
Bibliography
Deleuze, Gilles, and Félix Guattari. Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism
and Schizophrenia. Trans. Robert Hurley. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press, 1983.
Ullman, Ellen. The Bug. New York: Nan. A. Talese, 2003.
Yan, Lian, and Geoffrey Rockwell. TAPoRware. Accessed
2005-03-22. <http://taporware.mcmaster.ca/>
Visualizing the Hypothetical, Encoding the
Argument
Susan Schreibman
The Versioning Machine (VM) <http://www.mith2.um
d.edu/products/ver-mach> was launched at
ACH/ALLC 2002 as a tool to display multiple witnesses of
deeply encoded text. It was designed as a presentation tool so
that editors could engage with the challenging work of textual
editing, rather than becoming experts in other technologies,
such as XSLT, JavaScript and CSS, all components of the
Versioning Machine. The application allows encoders who
utilize the Text Encoding Initiative’s Parallel Segmentation
method of encoding to view their documents through a
browser-based interface which parses the text into its constituent
documents (at present the VM works best with Internet Explorer
6.0 and higher, but it also works with Firefox for PC and Mac).
The Versioning Machine also provides several features for the
end user to engage with texts, including highlighting a structural
unit (paragraphs, lines, or divs) across the witness set,
synchronized scrolling, and the ability to display a robust
typology of notes.
The TEI’s Critical Apparatus tagset (as outlined in Chapter 19
of the TEI’s Guidelines) provides a method for capturing
variants across a witness set. This highly structured encoding
brings together in one document n number of witnesses which
an editor considers the same work. The encoding enabled by
parallel segmentation provides a typology for indicating what
structural units of text, or parts of structural units, belong to
each witness. In this way, content which appears in more than
one version of the work is encoded once, with attribute values
indicating which witness or witnesses it belongs to. It is an
extremely efficient way of encoding in that the editor is saved
the repetitious work of encoding the content which persists
over multiple witnesses, as one would do if each witness were
encoded as a separate document.
The apparatus element or <app> acts as a container element
binding together the various readings, which are encoded within
a reading <rdg> element. Attribute values indicate which
witness or witnesses a particular structural unit (a paragraph or
line, for example), or subunit, belongs to (See figure 1.).
<lg n=""1"">
<l n=""1"">
<app>
<rdg wit=""a1 a2 a3 a4 pub"">The sun burns
out,</rdg>
</app> </l>
<l n=""2"">
<app>
<rdg wit=""a1"">The world withers,</rdg>
<rdg wit=""a3 a4"">The world
withers,<milestone unit=""stanza""/></rdg>
<rdg wit=""a2 pub"">The world
withers<milestone unit=""stanza""/></rdg>
</app> </l>
Figure 1. A fragment of parallel segmentation encoding
When parsed in the Versioning Machine, the aforementioned
fragment, the title of the text, along with the first few lines, is
rendered as follows for the first three versions: Figure 2: The title of ‘Autumn’ rendered in the Versioning Machine
In Lessard and Levison’s 1998 article ""Introduction: quo
vadimus"", they argue that computational humanities research
has not achieved a level of acceptance because of the differences
in ""opposing intellectual paradigms, the scientific and the
humanistic"" . The scientific, they argue, is based on formulation
of hypotheses, collection of data and controlled testing and
replication. The humanistic paradigm, they argue is based on
argument from example, ""where the goal is to bring the
interlocutor to agreement by coming to see the materials at
hand in the same light"" (263).
While the Versioning Machine was designed as a visualization
tool, it is no less importantly an environment within which
editors realize a theory of the text, bringing readers to an
understanding of the work as embodied in its multiple witnesses.
It can thus be seen within Lessard and Levison humanistic
paradigm, as a tool for presenting a reading of the work through
its editing and encoding, itself a primary theoretical event
(McGann 75). Moreover, this primary event can illuminated
and explicated though more traditional scholarly apparatus,
such as annotation, adding an additional layer of textual
analysis.
Thus the Versioning Machine provides a venue not only to
realize contemporary editorial theory, but to challenge it. It
meets the requirement that Stéfan Sinclair outlines in his 2003
article ""Computer-Assisted Reading; Reconceiving Text
Analysis"" in that it is a tool which is relevant to literary critics’
current approaches to textual criticism (178). The Versioning
Machine is an active editing environment: it has been used by
encoders editing texts as different as Renaissance plays and
Dadaist poetry. The Versioning Machine is a tool which takes
as its premise that the goal of much contemporary editing is
not to create a definitive edition, but rather a ""hypothesis"" of
the text (Kane-Donaldson as quoted in McGann 77), which can
be read alongside an unedited edition of the text (that is, a
reproduction of an image of the text in documentary form;
McGann 77, Siemens). As such, it makes visible encoding as
criticism, providing an environment to challenge our approaches
to complex texts in terms of theories of encoding, as well as
contemporary editorial theory.
Bibliography
Lessard, G., and M. Levinson. ""Introduction: quo vadimus?""
Computers and the Humanities 31.4 (1998): 261-269.
McGann, Jerome. Radiant Textuality: literature after the World
Wide Web. New York: Palgrave, 2001.
Schreibman, Susan, Amit Kumar, and Jarom McDonald. ""The
Versioning Machine."" Literary and Linguistic Computing 18.1
(2003): 101-107.
Siemens, Ray. ""‘Unediting and Non-Editions’The Theory (and
Politics) of Editing."" Anglia 119.3 (2001): 423-455.
Sinclair, Stéfan. ""Computer-Assisted Reading; Reconceiving
Text Analysis."" Literary and Linguistic Computing 18.2
(2003): 175-184.
Sperberg-McQueen, C.M., and L. Burnard, eds. TEI P4:
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Text
Encoding Initiative Consortium, 2002. Accessed 2004-10-09.
<http://www.tei-c.org/P4X/>
Vetter, Lara, and Jarom McDonald. ""Witnessing Dickinson's
Witnesses."" Literary and Linguistic Computing 18.2 (2003):
151-165.
Electronic Text Analysis and a New Methodology
for Canonical Research
Matt Jockers
Using a combination of 'typical' text analysis tools (concordance
and collocation) and other custom tools developed by the author,
this paper demonstrates that conventional 'higher' criticism with
its fashionable and thematically-oriented theoretical approaches
fails as a means of assessing and generalizing about canons and
genres of literature. Drawing on a case-study of the canon of
Irish-American prose, the paper employs a quantitative and,
indeed, scientific methodology to offer a radical reinterpretation
of the canon.
In support of this research the author collected, coded, and
categorized a database collection of prose literature including
over 750 individual works written by some 280 different
authors. The collection spans a period of 300 years and nears
being comprehensive in terms of its scope and coverage of the
prose canon and genre of Irish-American ethnic literature. In
addition to the usual metadata associated with electronic
archives, each work in the collection is tagged with metadata
related to the nature of the work: metadata includes geographic
setting (East or West of the Mississippi), regional setting
(Northeast, Southwest, Mountain, Pacific, and etc), information
about whether the work is set in an urban or rural environment
as well as data specific to the author of each text. Using his
own Corpus Analysis Tools Suite (CATools), a set of analytic tools developed using php and mysql for doing both semantic
and quantitative text-analysis of materials specifically housed
within a relational database structure, the author has mined the
material in order to reveal latent chronological, semantic, and
geographic trends within the overall canon since its beginning
in the late 18th century to the present.
The results of this work not only challenge the best available
scholarship on the subject of Irish-American literature but
further challenge the efficacy of contemporary and fashionable
theoretical approaches to literature that are based on the
'close-readings' of texts. In making the case for a re-evaluation
of the Irish-American canon, the paper challenges the basic and
fundamental methodology of traditional literary study, and
demonstrates in clear and indisputable terms that a quantitative
and, indeed, scientific analysis of the literary data is not only
valuable to the study of a genre or a canon of literature but
essential if we are to ever go beyond the mere 'readings' and
interpretations of texts.
Response
Ray Siemens","txt","2","",""
"538","6","Callimachus: A Virtual Archivist for Electronic Markup Projects","1","The field of electronic text editing in the Humanities has
been somewhat polarized along boundaries of preferred
technology. Some feel that relational databases provide a more
robust and powerful representation scheme while others cleave
to the expressive power and transferability of XML.
The Callimachus project at the University of Saskatchewan
was conceived as a way to have our cake and eat it too -
merging the robust scalability of formal database technologies
with the expressive power and Humanist-friendly accessibility
of HTML and XML schema.
First applied to the hypertext edition of Faulkner's The Sound
and the Fury, Callimachus delivers an easy-to-use schema
development and implementation environment that eliminates
the need for client-side editing, document management and
revision control systems.
We propose to present our experiences with The Sound and the
Fury, sharing the lessons learned and some of the surprising
and unanticipated scholarly results that were achievable only
with a system that allowed us to change our minds repeatedly
and reconceive our schema as we moved along.
Callimachus was designed to allow the possibility of using a
true database application to markup Faulkner's 1929 novel on
a token (or word) level. Using free software tools such as
MySQL, we built a Web interface with the database, thereby
circumventing the need for client-side software, and enabling
more than one editor to alter the database simultaneously. By
storing each word of the novel in a separate record, we avoided
the problems caused by imposing a strict hierarchy (like TEI)
on a literary text. The new approach enables us to layer and
overlap tags without fear of corrupting a strictly structured
markup; we can also use conventional data-mining algorithms
to reveal unforeseen relationships between tagged elements in
the text.
These relationships are crucial in understanding any literary
text that builds meaning through association and structure.
Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury is a prime example. With
this custom database and interface, we can discover when and
how a concept appears in the novel. We can discover which
characters dwell on what concepts and to what extent. We can
discover how many words (how much narrative space)
characters use when talking or thinking about specific topics.
We can display relationships with charts and graphs computed
with any combination of variables. And, to share our data, we
can easily script the software to transform our database in
conformance with the TEI or any other schema.
Before the invention of Callimachus, the first version of the
hypertext edition of Faulkner's novel used HTML and
JavaScript to visualize the complicated and apparently
disordered narrative in the book's first chapter. Faulkner, telling
this part of the story through the mind of an 'idiot', normally
provides only obscure clues to mark the mnemonic flashing
from one event to another. The narrative does not follow the
chronological sequence of events in the novel. However, using
HTML and JavaScript to tag each event, we built an interface
that links events in the narrative sequence with events in a
chronologically correct version of the text. For the first time,
readers could reorient themselves in the chronology by clicking
a button, leaving behind the much more confusing original
narrative.
The hypertext edition helped us clarify our understanding of
the novel and yielded some surprising results. We knew that
the 'idiot', narrator, named Benjy, would relive an event (such
as his grandmother's death), would trigger a sequence of
flashbacks, and would often repeatedly return to that initial
event. Benjy's memory of his grandmother's death is interrupted
17 times by other flashbacks. When we isolate this event from
the interruptions, we notice that it is transmitted chronologically.
Hidden in the chaos of so many relived events are small,
coherent, chronological narratives.
This archive ( <www.usask.ca/english/faulkner>
) was recently called ""one of the best applications of the true
potential of hypertext to date"" (Neyt 140) . However, there were
only a few surprises yielded through the approach of this early
edition. In general, we knew what to expect; the manual markup
in HTML and JavaScript made our innovative display possible,
but without search functions or sophisticated computing, we
had to draw graphs manually and show proportions based on
manual word counts. At the ACH / ALLC conference in 2001,
we saw the promise of the TEI and, very slowly, began
rethinking our approach. The Callimachus archive structure is
the result.
The point of Callimachus (named after the Greek poet and
grammarian who was the chief librarian at Alexandria) is to
free Humanities researchers from the burden of having to specify their destination before starting their journey. And we
do so in a way that allows each participating project to take
advantage of analysis tools that might have been originally
created for a different text.
In addition to providing a universally accessible web-based
editing infrastructure, Callimachus offers powerful analysis
tools: on-the-fly visualization to produce graphs of the
relationships inherent in the text; data mining to help identify
textual relationships that were not immediately apparent; and
translation to allow the user to transform the text into arbitrary
formats (such as HTML, TEI or other XML schema) for
exchange with other parties.
Callimachus is designed to grow and adapt with the user, but
without invalidating his or her previous work. The user does
not have to learn another markup language or data formalization
in order to begin exploring the text with state-of-the-art analysis
tools. We prefer to leave the construction of hierarchical
representations schemes until after we've learned what those
relationships are, rather than presupposing what we are going
to find in order to begin.
Bibliography
Neyt, Vincent. ""Review of Stoicheff, Muri, Deshaye, et al.
(eds.): The Sound and the Fury: A Hypertext Edition."" Literary
and Linguistic Computing 19.1 (2004): 137-143.","txt","2","",""
"539","6","Integrating a Massive Digital Video Archive into Humanities Teaching and Research","1","Although the use of digital video in humanities teaching
and research is growing, there are few studies that
examine how it is used and what its impact is. One of the largest
collections of digital video for use in education is the Shoah
Visual History Archive, which was established by Steven
Spielberg following the filming of Schindler's List to create a
visual record of Holocaust survivors for use in education. The
archive collects over 52,000 testimonies by survivors and
witnesses of the Holocaust in 32 languages, yielding more than
110,000 hours of video. Over 38,000 of these testimonies have
been digitized, and over 34,000 have been indexed using a set
of more than 30,000 descriptive terms.
During the 2003-2004 academic years, Rice University, Yale
University, and the University of Southern California jointly
participated in a project funded by the Mellon Foundation to
explore possible uses of the archive in research and teaching.
Although the project has ended, all three universities continue
their support of the archive. The team from Rice University (
<http://shoah.rice.edu> ) will report on applications
of the archive in humanities teaching and research between
2003 and 2005 and cover three basic topics: how the archive
was used in research projects in the humanities, how instructors
adapted the archive for specific pedagogical purposes, and how
the nature and content of the archive affected student
engagement with their course material.
Humanities research
Because it collects so much data and captures the
first-person accounts of Holocaust survivors in a dynamic
form, the Visual History Archive is a rich resource for research.
Students have used the archive for research projects in topics
ranging from rhetoric to violence and trauma. For instance, three graduate students in anthropology presented their
observations on working with the archive as part of a panel at
the American Anthropological Association conference in
December, 2004. Research studies include ""On forms of the
Other and of the chronotope in memories of Rus Czerwona""
(Potoczniak), ""Cultural logics of memorialization reflected in
the Survivors of the Shoah archive"" (Baum), and ""History and
memory: Turkish and Jewish accounts of communal life before
and after WWII on the island of Rhodes"" (Erkan). In addition,
a medical ethicist is using the archive to examine the role of
doctors and nurses in resistance activities.
Despite the archive’s potential for research, the process of
identifying and viewing relevant testimonies proved difficult
for some, since the keyword structure is elaborate, the number
of testimonies potentially overwhelming, the technology
occasionally unreliable, and the length of each testimony
(anywhere from an hour to 18 hours, with 2.5 hours being the
average) daunting. Student and faculty experiences with the
archive, as well as a usability study undertaken by a graduate
student in psychology, yielded significant recommendations
for improvements to the web interface and point to ways that
video archives can be better integrated into education.
Humanities pedagogy
No new courses were created in conjunction with the
project. Rather, we set out to integrate the archive into
existing courses and thereby assess its pedagogical implications
in a broad context, investigating how humanities instructors
would use a vast archive of digital video. Courses in religious
studies, comparative literature, film studies, rhetoric, women
and gender studies, and even classics employed the archive.
Participating faculty were interviewed to elicit their pedagogical
vision. Most perceived that the archive offered an opportunity
for students to work with primary sources and develop
multimedia projects. But in each case, the instructors imagined
specific reasons and practices for engaging with the archive.
Our report includes several vignettes demonstrating divergent
rationalities in humanities pedagogy, giving multiple meanings
to a common digital resource. Among the assignments given
to students were creating documentary videos based upon the
Shoah materials, making presentations comparing pre- and
post-War Jewish life as revealed in Shoah testimonies, and
writing an essay analyzing two testimonies in relation to
Samantha Power’s recent book on genocide, A Problem from
Hell.
Emotions and intellectual
engagement
The faces and voices in the Shoah archive are captivating.
The survivors speak for as long as they want on any
experience they care to recount, and every aspect of their
testimony is preserved. The stories are emotionally charged,
and the possibility that any detail of the testimony could acquire
a sudden significance leads most viewers to attend to the matter
carefully.
Our project team developed a survey to assess the emotional
impact of the testimony on students, finding that students who
responded emotionally to the video also reported a higher level
of intellectual engagement with the course material. An
important secondary finding in our assessment of student
engagement was that students also responded well to unexpected
particularities, atypical experiences, and pre-/post-Holocaust
contexts represented in the archive, justifying the archive’s
attempt at comprehensiveness and its storage in a digital format
to enable essentially random access. For many students, video
proved to be more compelling than written sources, since they
could see the facial expressions of the survivors and hear the
tone of their voices.
Bibliography
Baum, Eric. ""Cultural logics of memorialization reflected in
the Survivors of the Shoah archive."" Paper delivered at the
2004 American Anthropological Association Annual Meetings,
Atlanta, Georgia. 19 December 2004.
Potoczniak, Anthony. ""On forms of the Other and of the
chronotope in memories of Rus Czerwona."" Paper delivered
at the 2004 American Anthropological Association Annual
Meetings, Atlanta, Georgia. 19 December 2004.
Saka, Erkan. ""History and memory: Turkish and Jewish
accounts of communal life before and after WWII on the island
of Rhodes."" Paper delivered at the 2004 American
Anthropological Association Annual Meetings, Atlanta,
Georgia. 19 December 2004.
Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation. Accessed
2005-04-06. <http://www.vhf.org/>","txt","2","",""
"540","6","Early Modern Literary Studies: Preparing for the Long Run","1","Early Modern Literary Studies (EMLS)1 is a peer-reviewed
online journal publishing articles on all aspects of early modern
literature. No registration or subscription is required, and it is
available for free to anyone anywhere in the world with access
to a web browser. All articles which are submitted to it undergo
double-blind peer review, but those which are successful are
usually published within less than a year of submission: a
process much faster than comparable print journals. Since its
foundation in 1994 EMLS has published over a hundred and
fifty scholarly articles, and over two hundred and fifty reviews
of books, films, plays, and multimedia products. In a typical
week, its servers appear to record around 6,000 different readers
in perhaps eighty different countries.
But although it is a veteran in terms of the internet, it is still a
newcomer in a relatively slow-moving field where many of its
rival print journals have pedigrees going back over a century.
This paper reviews the progress of the journal since its
foundation in 1995, and asks how a project like this one should
be preparing for a long-term future.
The most obvious forms of this problem relate to questions of
formatting and archiving. This paper will describe EMLS's
involvement with different forms of archiving system including
the National Library of Canada and the Stanford University
LOCKSS project2, a project to create multiple caches of the
journal's contents at research libraries around the world. The
paper will also review EMLS's policies around file formats,
principally proprietary formats, HTML, and XML, and
problems around revision policies.
But equally important to the journal's long-term future are the
systems for determining its current success or otherwise. In
particular, methods for determining the success of a commercial
website typically include raw number of hits recorded; revenue
generated through subscriptions and advertizing; and sales
resulting directly or indirectly from the site. Methods for
determining the success of an academic journal typically include
print run; citation of articles in it elsewhere; and peer
recognition among leading experts in the field. By which of
these sets of standards should an academic website seek to
measure its success? Or must a new set of standards be
developed to describe this activity? This paper details the results
of research into EMLS's readership statistics (raw statistics
online at <http://www.shu.ac.uk/emls/stats/>
), addressing the question of what can and can't be deduced
from them, before moving on to a consideration of other forms
of esteem factor in terms of their effect in an institutional
context.
If scholarly electronic publishing is to have a long-term future,
it needs to be able to sustain publications over a scale of decades
rather than merely years. This paper will conclude with
recommendations for how to achieve longevity in an electronic
publication.
1. <http://purl.oclc.org/emls/emlshome.html>
2. <http://lockss.stanford.edu/>
Bibliography
Dyck, Paul, R.G. Siemens, Jennifer Lewin, and Joanne
Woolway Grenfell. ""The Janus-Face of Early Modern Literary
Studies: Negotiating the Boundaries of Interactivity in an
Electronic Journal for the Humanities."" Early Modern Literary
Studies 5.3 / Special Issue 4 4 (2000): 1-20. <http://pur
l.oclc.org/emls/05-3/dslwemls.html>
Heimpel, Rod. ""Legitimizing Electronic Scholarly Publication:
A Discursive Proposa."" Computing in the Humanuties Working
Papers A.15 (October, 2000): . <http://www.chass.u
toronto.ca/epc/chwp/heimpel2/>
Keller, Michael A., Vicky Reich, and Andrew Herkovic. ""What
is a library anymore anyway?"" First Monday 8.5 (2003): .
<http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue8
_5/keller/index.html>
McCarty, Willard. ""Changing Shape: The On-line Journal as
a Scholarly Resource."" (Panel abstract) DRH 97 Proceedings.
St. Anne's College, Oxford. September 14-17, 1997.
Reich, Vicky, and David S. H. Rosenthal. ""LOCKSS: A
Permanent Web Publishing and Access System."" D-Lib
Magazine 7.6 (June 2001): . <http://www.dlib.org/
dlib/june01/reich/06reich.html>","txt","2","",""
"541","6","Profiling Stylistic Variations in Dickens and Smollett through Correspondence Analysis of Low Frequency Words","1","The aim of this paper is to present the result of a
corpus-driven, quantitative analysis of the style of
Dickens in comparison with the style of Smollett. The particular
problem discussed is the differing distribution of -ly adverbs
in the texts written by the two authors. By applying a
multivariate stylo-statistics model, this study illustrates how
sharply the two authors differ in their uses of adverbs as well
as how texts are differentiated according to genre and
chronology within authorial groups.
On the relationship between linguistic registers and adverbs,
Biber et al. (1999, 541) present interesting findings from a
large-scale corpus:
It is interesting to note that, overall, fiction ... uses many different
descriptive -ly adverbs, although few of these are notably common
(occurring over 50 times per million words). Rather, fiction shows
great diversity in its use of -ly adverbs. In describing fictional
events and the actions of fictional characters, writers often use
adverbs with specific descriptive meanings.
In fact, -ly adverbs found in Dickens are quite diverse. In the
23 texts used in this study, the number of types amount to 1,728;
Smollet employed 634 types. Among those, a few types are
highly frequent, such as really and certainly, occurring more
than one thousand times. Conversely, a large number of adverbs
occur only once. Such hapax legomena include a few types
which sound very much Dickensian, such as evil-adverbiously,
patientissamentally, Shakespearianly. Although the number of
tokens of -ly adverbs account for only a little more than 1% of
total word-tokens in the texts, the findings by Biber et al.
suggest that -ly adverbs deserve special attention in stylistic
study of fiction.
This study deals with a corpus of texts comprising Dickens'
and Smollett's major works. Dickens' set includes fifteen 'serial
fictions', six 'sketches', one 'miscellany', and one 'history'.
Smollett's contains six 'fictions' and one 'sketch'. The total
word-tokens in the corpus amount to 5.8 million, with the
Dickens component containing 4.7 million tokens and the
Smollett component totalling 1.1 million word-tokens. The
present project was initiated as a study based on a
comprehensive collection, not a sample corpus, of texts by the
targeted authors. Therefore, the imbalance in the number of
texts as well as tokens is inevitable. However, due attention
will be paid in the choice of variables to minimize a potential
effect of the differences in the population of the two sets. All
the texts in the corpus have been annotated with the POS tags,
using Eric Brill's Rule-Based Tagger (also known as the Brill
Tagger). Manual post-editing has been conducted to eliminate
a number of ill-assigned tags.
In an early successful attempt at a computational description
of literary style, Milic compared the style of Jonathan Swift
with the writings of his contemporaries, with special reference
to the relative frequencies of word-classes in the texts and to
grammatical features such as seriation and connection. Cluett
(1971 & 1976) adopted a similar approach to conduct a
diachronic study of prose style across 4 centuries: from the16th
to the 20th centuries. Brainerd's works (1979 & 1980) are
ambitious attempts to apply discriminant analysis to the question
of genre and chronology in Shakespeare plays. Takefuta's
approach to text typology, or register variation, is among the
first to successfully employ factor/cluster analysis to the lexical
differences between registers. His pioneering work, however,
is not widely acknowledged because it was written in Japanese.
Since Burrows (1987) and Biber (1988), it has become popular
practice to employ multivariate techniques in quantitative
studies of texts. Biber carried out factor analysis (FA) on 67
linguistic features to identify co-occurring linguistic features
that account for dimensions of register variation. A series of
research projects based on Biber's
Multi-Feature/Multi-Dimensional approach have been
successful in elucidating many interesting aspects of linguistic
variation, such as language acquisition, ESP, diachronic change
of prose style, and differences between conversational styles
in British and American English, to give a handful of examples
(Biber & Finegan; Conrad & Biber eds.).
The Biber model is one of the most sophisticated approach by
far. Yet it is not without its critics. Nakamura (1995) raises a
major objection. He argues that Biber's variables are ""quite
arbitrarily selected with no definite criterion and mixed levels""
(1995, 77-86). Further, Sigley (1997) notes that almost half of
Biber's 67 linguistic features are too rare in texts of 2,000 words.
Burrows (1987), on the other hand, applied a Principal
Component Analysis (PCA) to the thirty most common words
in the language of Jane Austen. The method demonstrates that
differing frequency patterns in these very common words show
significant differentiations among Austen's characters, and that
the statistical analysis of literary style may lead not only to a
deeper understanding of the novel itself but may also contribute
to our deeper appreciation of it. In this use of a PCA, the frequencies of common words are used as variables. The
Burrows method seems to have higher replicability and
feasibility; since it focuses on common words, most of the
variables are frequent enough to produce stable statistical
results. In addition, it does not require a multi-layered tagging
scheme optimised for Biber's MF/MD approach.
A particular strength of the Burrows methodology is in testing
cases of disputed authorship and national differences in the
English first-person retrospective narrative, known as 'history'.
Among the most successful applications are Burrows (1989,
1992 & 1996), Craig (1999a, b, & c). The Burrows approach
or similar methodology has been applied to Bible stylometry.
Some scholars like Linmans, Merriam, and Mealand use
Correspondence Analysis (CA) instead of PCA. In the context
of text typology, Nakamura (1993) applied CA to the frequency
distribution of personal pronouns to visualize association
between personal pronouns and 15 text categories in the LOB
corpus.
My earlier work (Tabata) also used CA to analyse the
distribution patterns of Part-of-Speech in Dickens's 23 texts
and identified a contrast between serial fiction and sketches.
The present study is different from the Burrows model in that
it extends the range of variables to include low-frequency
words, or rare words, by applying CA in the analysis of -ly
adverbs. CA is one of the techniques for data-reduction
alongside PCA and FA. Unlike PCA and FA, however, CA
does not require intervening steps of calculating correlation
matrix or covariance matrix, and can therefore process the data
directly to obtain solution. CA allows examination of the
complex interrelationships between row cases (i.e., texts),
interrelationships between column variables (i.e., adverbs), and
association between the row cases and column variables
graphically in a multi-dimensional space. It computes the row
coordinates (word scores) and column coordinates (text scores)
in a way that permutes the original data matrix so that the
correlation between the word variables and text profiles are
maximized. In a permuted data matrix, adverbs with a similar
pattern of distribution make the closest neighbours, and so do
texts of similar profile. When the row/column scores are
projected in multi-dimensional charts like Figures 1 to 4,
relative distance between variable entries indicates affinity,
similarity, association, or otherwise between them. One
advantage CA has over PCA and FA is that PCA and FA cannot
be computed on a rectangular matrix where the number of
columns exceeds the number of rows, a concern of the present
study. Yet CA can handle such types of a data table with, for
example, the row cases consisting of thirty texts and the column
variables consisting of hundreds of adverbs. Figures 1-4 summarise the results of applying a CA model in
the frequency analysis of -ly adverbs in texts. Figures 1 and 2,
based on 1,278 -ly adverbs which occur in more than one text,
clearly differentiate between the Dickens and Smollett sets.
The pattern along the horizontal axis allows quite
straightforward interpretation. A more sceptical mind, however,
might attribute it to the imbalance in the number of texts
between the authorial sets as well as in the number of types of
adverbs with the Dickens corpus at 4 times the size of the
Smollett corpus. One might be able to respond to such a
scepticism with Figures 3 and 4, which are based on the most
common 99 -ly adverbs used by both Dickens and Smollett.
Despite the decrease in the number of variables from 1,278 to
99, the configuration of Figure 3 is remarkably similar to that
of Figure 1. Of further interest is that, in each of the two
authors’ sets, earlier works tend to be found towards the bottom
of the chart with later works in the upper half of the diagram.
Additionally, in the Dickensian territory of Figures 1 and 3,
serial fiction texts occupy the right end while other genres, such
as sketches and history, are located slightly towards the left.
The series of results seems to illustrate how the authorial
difference, text genre, and chronology are reflected in the
frequency pattern of -ly adverbs in the texts written by Dickens
and Smollett. This pilot study might suggest the effectiveness
of the stylo-statistical approach based on correspondence
analysis of lower frequency words in texts.
Bibliography
Biber, D. Variation across speech and writing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Biber, D., and E. Finegan. ""The Linguistic Evolution of Five
Written and Speech-Based English Genres from the 17th to the
20th Centuries."" History of Englishes: New Methods and
Interpretation in Historical Linguistics.. Ed. M. Rissanen.
Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 668-704.
Biber, D., S. Johansson, G. Leech, S. Conrad , and E. Finegan.
Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow:
Pearson Education Ltd, 1999.
Brainerd, B. ""Pronouns and Genre in Shakespeare’s Drama.""
Computers and the Humanities 13.3 (1979): 3-16.
Brainerd, B. ""The Chronology of Shakespeare’s Plays: A
Statistical Study."" Computers and the Humanities 14 (1980):
221-230.
Burrows, J.F. Computation into Criticism: A study of Jane
Austen’s novels and an experiment in method. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1987.
Burrows, J.F. ""'A Vision' as a revision?"" Eighteenth-Century
Studies 22 (1989): 551-65.
Burrows, J.F. ""Computers and the Study of Literature.""
Computers and Written Texts. Ed. C.S. Butler. Oxford:
Blackwell, 1992. 167-204.
Burrows, J.F. ""Tiptoeing into the Infinite: Testing for Evidence
of National Differences in the Language of English Narrative.""
Research in Humanities Computing 4. Ed. S. Hockey and N.
Ide. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. 1-33.
Cluett, R. ""Style, Precept, Personality: A Test Case.""
Computers and the Humanities 5 (1971): 257-274.
Cluett, R. Prose Style and Critical Reading. New York:
Teachers College Press, 1976.
Conrad, S., and D. Biber, eds. Variation in English:
Multi-Dimensional Studies. Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd,
2001.
Craig, D. H. ""Johnsonian chronology and the styles of A Tale
of a Tub."" Re-Presenting Ben Jonson: Text Performance,
History. Ed. M. Butler. London: Macmillan, 1999a. 210-232.
Craig, D.H. ""Authorial Attribution and Computational Stylistics:
If You Can Tell Authors Apart, Have You Learned Anything
About Them?"" Literary and Linguistic Computing 14 (1999b):
103-113.
Craig, D.H. ""Contrast and Change in the Idiolects of Ben Jonson
Characters."" Literary and Linguistic Computing 33.3 (1999c):
221-240.
Linmans, A.J. ""Correspondence Analysis of the Synoptic
Gospels."" Literary and Linguistic Computing 13 (1998): 1-13.
Mealand, D.L. ""Style, Genre, and Authorship in Acts, the
Septuagint, and Hellenistic Historians."" Literary and Linguistic
Computing 14 (1999): 479-505.
Merriam, T. ""Heterogeneous Authorship in Early Shakespeare
and the Problem of Henry V."" Literary and Linguistic
Computing 13 (1998): 15-28.
Page 226 Milic, L. T. A Quantitative Approach to the Style of Jonathan
Swift. The Hague: Mouton, 1967.
Nakamura, J. ""Text Typology and Corpus: A Critical Review
of Biber’s Methodology."" English Corpus Studies 2 (1995):
75-90.
Nakamura, J. ""Statistical Methods and Large Corpora: A New
Tool for Describing Text Types."" Text and Technology: In
Honour of John Sinclair. Ed. M. Baker, G. Francis and E.
Tognini-Bonelli. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1993. 293-312.
Sigley, R. ""Text Categories and Where You Can Stick Them:
A Crude Formality Index."" International Journal of Corpus
Linguistics 2.2 (1997): 199-237.
Tabata, T. ""Investigating Stylistic Variation in Dickens through
Correspondence Analysis of Word-Class Distribution."" English
Corpus Linguistics in Japan. Ed. T. Saito et al. Amsterdam:
Rodopi, 2002. 165-182.
Takefuta, Y. コンピューターの見た現代英語: ボキャブ
ラリーの科学 (‘The Computer Analysis of the Contemporary
English Language: a quantitative study of vocabulary’). Tokyo:
Educa, 1981.","txt","2","",""
"542","6","Disciplined: Using Curriculum Studies to Define 'Humanities Computing'","1","Humanities Computing remains an emergent discipline.
Although it has been a full half-century since the work
of Roberto Busa, and the activities described as 'Humanities
Computing' continue to expand in number, sophistication, and
scholarly importance, the field is continually changing,
developing, and defining itself. Most introspection regarding
the role, meaning, and focus of 'Humanities Computing' as a
discipline has come from a practical and pragmatic perspective
from scholars and educators within the field itself. This paper
aims to appropriate techniques from Education and Curriculum
Studies to provide an alternative, externalised, viewpoint of
the history and focus of Humanities Computing, by analysing
the discipline through its teaching programs and message they
deliver, either consciously or unconsciously, about the focus
and scope of the discipline.
It is now over thirty years since the Association of Literary and
Linguistic Computing was founded (in 1973), and almost twenty
years since the first issue of Literary and Linguistic Computing
was issued in 1986.1 Attempts have been made to discuss how
Humanities Computing as a field should be defined (McCarty
1998, Unsworth), how it relates to other disciplines (McCarty
1999), and how it should support the activities with which it is
associated, both on an institutional (McCarty et al. 1997) and
scholarly level (Orlandi). Histories of and companions to the
discipline have begun to emerge (Fraser 1996, Schreibman et
al. 2004), from both research, scholarly, and institutional
perspectives (Warwick). Attention to these issues is intrinsic
to such a multi-disciplinary field; the emergence of related
discussions was a major reason for the creation of the Humanist
discussion list in 1987,2 and associated issues continue to appear
on its postings.
Humanities Computing may now be pursued as part of
undergraduate degree courses, and there are now various
graduate programmes in the humanities, in both European and
North American Universities, in which a computing component
has a significant role. Humanities Computing can therefore be
seen to exist as an independent academic subject, with
undergraduate and graduate students, specialist faculty and research staff, and coherent systems of communication,
publication, peer review, and funding criteria, as well as
reflective historical and academic analysis which has been
undertaken by practitioners in the field.
From the viewpoint of Educational Studies, teaching can be
seen to be at the heart of a discipline (Maskell and Robinson
2001), and the curriculum, or ""content of a particular subject
or area of study"" (Kelly 3) shapes the field. Moreover, the
curriculum can be seen to define the field in the way the
publication record cannot: it is the 'hidden' history of the subject,
the core skill set practitioners have chosen to pass on to younger
scholars, and describes the purposes of the transmission of
knowledge content, and an exploration of the effects that
exposure to knowledge is likely to have (Kelly). An awareness
of the complexity of the relationship between content,
application, and intention of the curriculum is necessary to
create coherent teaching practices and develop a homogeneous
definition of an academic discipline (Knight). Additionally, the
writing styles and practices stressed and encouraged within a
curriculum can in themselves define the field (Monroe). The
curriculum can be taken, therefore, to define what a particular
discipline represents (Becher et al.).
Discussion of the curriculum of Humanities Computing is not
novel. Indeed, there was an entire conference devoted to The
Humanities Computing Curriculum: The Computing Curriculum
in the Arts and Humanities (2001), at Malaspina University
College, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada.3 Most papers
necessarily described the practical aspects of setting up
Humanities Computing programs and courses, and defining an
overview of the contents of courses. For example, Gilfillan and
Musick outlined the practicalities involved in promoting the
use of computing in humanities based teaching and research at
the University of Oregon, and Hockey examined the role of
computing in the humanities curriculum at both postgraduate
and undergraduate levels. Additionally, there was also a seminar
series which was undertaken to define and generate a syllabus
for a graduate course in knowledge representation for humanists
at the University of Virginia, which resulted in a comprehensive
syllabus for a Master's Degree in Digital Humanities (Drucker
et al.). The accompanying report and proposed syllabus serves
as a reference to those who may undertake the teaching of
similar masters programs in the future. More generally, the
Aco*hum project produced a study on how Computing was,
is, and could be used in Humanities subjects (de Smedt). These
studies all serve to illustrate how important defining the
curriculum is to Humanities Computing, and how, as a nascent
subject, much is still being done to define the teaching program,
and the field: although their focus is mostly (and necessarily)
a practical approach to how teaching programs can be
implemented and integrated into academic departments and
scholarly frameworks.
However, from an Educational and Curriculum studies
perspective, the term 'curriculum' applies not only to the content
of a particular subject are of study, but refers to the total
programme of an educational institution: being
the overall rationale for any educational programme, including
those more subtle features of curriculum change and development
and especially those underlying elements [explanation and
justification] — which are the most crucial element in Curriculum
studies.
(Kelly 3)
This paper will report on an analysis of the Humanities
Computing curriculum from an Educational, and Curriculum,
Studies holistic perspective, to be carried out between
November 2004 and May 2005 in the department of Education
and Professional Development, at University College London.
A study of Humanities Computing in this manner will be useful
and interesting for a number or reasons. Firstly, as a nascent
discipline, much of the documentation regarding the
development of the curriculum is still available, and many
practitioners and educators, who have seen the curriculum
develop, are still working in the community, making access to
such material relatively easy. Secondly, from the point of view
of Curriculum Studies, it is quite rare to be able to study a field
which is at this point of breakthrough into becoming an accepted
academic discipline: compare this to more established academic
subjects, where early development of the curriculum are all but
lost. Thirdly, by focussing on the whole curriculum, an
alternative viewpoint can be propagated as to what Humanities
Computing is, and what it does. By rationalising the Humanities
Computing curriculum in terms of Educational Theory, it may
be possible to provide an alternative overview and definition
of the discipline which is not merely limited to describing the
content of courses, or programme syllabuses, but embraces the
curriculum as a totality of purpose and content, including its
formal, informal, planned, received, and hidden agendas.
This research will be carried out by undertaking an analysis of
all available material gathered from the established teaching
programs in the field (from both the UK and the USA),
discussion lists, and educators, combined with surveys and
interviews with leading practitioners (both teachers and
researchers) and computational and content analysis of
published, survey and interview material. Findings will be
related to current theory and practice in Curriculum Studies.
In doing so, it will be a sustained professional enquiry into the
teaching and learning process of Humanities Computing,
adopting the standard techniques from Curriculum Studies to
analyse and understand the disciplinarity of the subject
(Rowland 1993, Rowland 2000).
Questions asked in this study will include: can an analysis of
the curriculum aid in defining Humanities Computing? How
does the curriculum currently on offer differ from the research agenda, as demonstrated through conference and publication
records? Is there a common curriculum in existence between
individual institutions and programs? How can the definition
and rationalisation of the curriculum of this nascent discipline
aid it in becoming entrenched in more traditional academic
disciplines? How does the intention of Humanities Computing
as a teaching discipline differ from the reality? What hidden
implications and definitions are propagated about Humanities
Computing through its curriculum? How does the role of
computing in the discipline detract from the centralized control
of the teacher necessary for steering the curriculum? What
strategies for curriculum change, control, assessment,
evaluation, appraisal, and accountability have been implemented
in the Humanities Computing community? How do the writing
styles promoted by Humanities Computing, through its
curriculum, define and shape the field? If a common curriculum
cannot be defined, does Humanities Computing as a subject
really exist?
As this research will be carried out throughout late 2004 / early
2005, it is impossible to summarise its findings here: however,
the fact that this is a novel and alternative approach to
answering the perennial question ""What is Humanities
Computing?"" , this research should yield useful insights. As
Kelly notes:
A study of curriculum, while not offering us spurious answers to
questions of values, will... draw our attention to important
questions that need to be asked about policies and practices and
help us achieve the kind of clarity which will enable us to see
underlying ideologies more clearly.
(19)
Viewing Humanities Computing from another perspective may
aid us in defining and steering the direction of the discipline,
whilst propagating a useful and alternative definition of the
subject.
1. The Association of Literary and Linguistic Computing published
their journal twice yearly from 1980 to 1985, when this was
merged with ALLC bulletin to become Literary and Linguistic
Computing (1986).
2. <http://www.princeton.edu/~mccarty/humanist
/>
3. The Humanities Computing Curriculum: The Computing
Curriculum in the Arts and Humanities, Malaspina University
College, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada. November 9-10,
2001. <http://web.mala.bc.ca/siemensr/HCCurri
culum/> .
Bibliography
Becher, T., and P.R. Trowler. Higher Education: A Critical
Business. Buckingham: Open University Press/SRHE, 2001.
de Smedt, K., H. Gardiner, E. Ore, T. Orlandi, H. Short, J.
Souillot, and J. Vaughan, eds. Computing in Humanities
Education, a European Perspective. Bergen: University of
Bergen, 1999. Accessed 2005-03-03. <http://helmer.a
ksis.uib.no/AcoHum/book/>
Drucker, J., J. Unsworth, and A. Laue. Final Report for Digital
Humanities Curriculum Seminar. Media Studies Program,
College of Arts and Science, University of Virginia, 2002.
Accessed 2005-03-03. <http://www.iath.virginia
.edu/hcs/dhcs/>
Fraser, M. A Hypertextual History of Humanities Computing.
Oxford University, 1996. Accessed 2005-03-03. <http://
users.ox.ac.uk/~ctitext2/history/>
Fung, Glenn, and Olvi L. Mangasarian. ""What is Humanities
Computing and What is Not?"" Talk delivered in the
Distinguished Speakers Series of the Maryland Institute for
Technology in the Humanities at the University of Maryland,
College Park MD. 5 October 2000.
Gilfillan, D., and J. Musick. ""Wiring the Humanities at the
University of Oregon: Experiences from Year 3."" Paper
delivered at The Humanities Computing Curriculum: The
Computing Curriculum in the Arts and Humanities, November
9-10, 2001, Malaspina University College, Nanaimo, British
Columbia, Canada. November 9-10, 2001. <http://web.
mala.bc.ca/siemensr/HCCurriculum/>
Hockey, D. ""Towards a Curriculum for Humanities Computing:
Theoretical Goals and Practical Outcomes."" Paper delivered at
The Humanities Computing Curriculum: The Computing
Curriculum in the Arts and Humanities, November 9-10, 2001,
Malaspina University College, Nanaimo, British Columbia,
Canada. November 9-10, 2001. <http://web.mala.bc
.ca/siemensr/HCCurriculum/>
Kelly, A.V. The Curriculum: Theory and Practice. 4th ed.
London: Paul Chapman, 1999.
Knight, P.T. ""Complexity and Curriculum: A process approach
to curriculum-making."" Teaching in Higher Education 6.3
(2001): 369-381.
Maskell, D., and I. Robinson. The New Idea of a University.
London: Haven Books, 2001.
McCarty, Willard. What is humanities computing? Toward a
definition of the field. . Accessed 2005-03-21. <http://ww
w.kcl.ac.uk/humanities/cch/wlm/essays/wha
t/> McCarty, Willard. ""Humanities computing as interdiscipline.
Is Humanities Computing an Academic Discipline?"" Paper
delivered at IATH, University of Virginia. 5 November 1999.
McCarty, Willard, L. Burnard, M. Deegan, J. Anderson, and
H. Short. ""Root, trunk, and branch: institutional and
infrastructural models for humanities computing in the U.K.""
Panel session at the Joint International Conference of the
Association for Computers and the Humanities and the
Association for Literary & Linguistic Computing, Queen's
University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. 3-7 June 1997.
McCarty, Willard, and H. Short. A Roadmap for humanities
computing. 2002. Accessed 2005-03-21. <http://www.k
cl.ac.uk/humanities/cch/allc/reports/map/>
Monroe, J. ""Introduction: The shapes of fields."" In ""Writing
and Revising the Disciplines. Ed. J. Monroe. Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 2002. 1-12.
Orlandi, T. The Scholarly Environment of Humanities
Computing: A Reaction to Willard McCarty's talk on The
computational transformation of the humanities. Accessed
2005-03-21. <http://rmcisadu.let.uniroma1.it
/~orlandi/mccarty1.html>
Rowland, S. The Enquiring University Teacher. : Milton
Keynes: Society for Research into Higher Education and Open
University Press, 2000.
Rowland, S. ""An interpretative approach to teaching and
learning."" The Enquiring Tutor: Exploring the Process of
Professional Learning. Ed. S. Rowland. Learning: Falmer Press,
1993. 16-33.
Schreibman, S., R. Siemens, and J. Unsworth, eds. A
Companion to Digital Humanities. : Blackwell Publishing,
2004.
Warwick, Claire. ""No Such Thing as Humanities Computing?
An analytical history of digital resource creation and computing
in the humanities."" Paper presented at ALLC/ACH 2004,
Gothenburg. 2004.","txt","2","",""
"543","6","Finalizing the Multiple-Text Electronic King Lear for Use in the Classroom","1","Summary
As the teaching of Renaissance texts becomes more and
more technologically enabled, it is even more significant
that these technological enhancements are developed
appropriately. Working with both lecturers and students, the
Active Reading project has developed a number of different
interfaces and tools for analyzing variants in multiple-text
editions. The quarto and folio texts of King Lear are imposing
in length alone, and for students to aptly demonstrate their
understanding of the texts, it is important to create an
appropriate learning environment. The most interesting element
of the work appears to be how these interfaces or tools are being
used actively in the classroom. By studying students'
interactions with the online texts and recording their feedback,
I have been able to form my own conclusions about the most
useful ways of presenting a multiple-text electronic edition and
adequately incorporating its textual variants. This paper will
present the findings of these studies.
Introduction
The Active Reading project is involved in developing an
electronic scholarly edition of a Renaissance text
illustrating the textual variants between published editions of
that work. Two quartos and the folio text of King Lear have
been selected for development in this way, allowing the editorial
processes to be unravelled, and the Active Reading process to
be encouraged through interactive involvement. In examining
several paper-based editions of a work for textual variants,
readers may become disoriented between the editions, and find
comparisons difficult to make. In developing an electronic
edition that combines all the versions of a text, it is possible to
form an interactive resource for comparison of variants, and
indeed for composing new editions of a text and taking on the
role of editor. Initially, a prototype combining all the editions of a short
twenty-one-line poem was developed. This was encoded in
XML, and XSL and JavaScript were employed in producing
the interaction methods. Pilot studies were undertaken, looking
at the ways in which readers interact with the electronic edition
and how they compare variants. The results of the studies
enabled the development of a considerably longer text, that of
King Lear. Initially texts were encoded with a scheme
developed specifically for the project, but TEI (Text Encoding
Initiative) standards have since been adopted to allow for more
simplified sharing and greater dissemination of the material.
Empirical studies into the use of the tool and its effect on the
process of Active Reading have enabled refinements in
development. These studies examine the ways in which readers
actively compare variants of a text - through recording
interactive involvement, and by observing the editorial decisions
they make. Two sets of user groups were established so that
the edition could be observed in use. The first set of users were
several groups of undergraduate students on the BA English
Studies degree, taking the course ""Introduction to Poetry"".
These students were looking at the edition within the confines
of what would be their usual seminar session on electronic
resources in the computing labs. The second set of users were
postgraduate students either from the MA English Studies
(Renaissance Literature) degree, or research students completing
their work on Renaissance themes. This second group of
students were observed using the edition in the same computer
labs, but not within any formal seminar session. The results
from these studies provide useful feedback directly from the
student target users, who will be using the edition again within
their future coursework. Overall the project is largely
experimental, exploring the ways in which the material could
most effectively be displayed, and looking at the ways in which
readers interact with the texts and the variants.
Conclusions
This edition and the related research presents novel ways
of comparing textual variants in editions of a
Shakespearean text, and offers support for actively reading and
understanding these texts. The edition has been used in teaching
and as a learning tool, but is also intended to act as a template
for the creation of future electronic editions. In designing and
developing a new edition it has been helpful to be able to
employ methods from the sphere of HCI (Human-Computer
Interaction), and to understand the pedagogical requirements
of the application, enhancing the experience for the reader.
In developing an electronic edition of this kind it is possible
for the reader to compose new editions of a text, effectively
taking on the role of editor. This paper aims to demonstrate the
issues associated with developing the King Lear scholarly
edition. The findings presented will illustrate the advantage of
using interactive technologies and text encoding tools to: a)
provide a facility to examine textual variants independent of
the text; b) allow active involvement in students' understanding
of the text, and; c) offer greater insight into students'
requirements when set the task of editing a multiple-edition
text.","txt","2","",""
"544","6","The MetaMap, an Online Tool for Learning about Metadata","2","The MetaMap ( <http://mapageweb.umontreal.
ca/turner/> ) is a graphic study aid and reference
tool to help people understand how approximately 200 metadata
initiatives worldwide are related to information management
in digital libraries. It represents these in the form of a subway
map to help the user navigate metaspace, and leans heavily on
the conventions of the London Underground Map (London ),
noted for its clarity in helping users sort out complex reality.
Each metadata standard, set, or initiative (MSSI) is represented
as a station on a line. Each line has a theme, and these include
processes of information management (Creation, Organisation,
Dissemination, Preservation), institutions with expertise in
information management (Libraries, Archives, Museums), and
types of digital documentation (Text, Still Images, Moving
Images, Sound). In addition, organisations deeply involved in
Web activity and metadata norms, such as the World Wide Web
Consortium, the IETF, and the IEEE are included on a separate
line. When the user passes the mouse over a station name, the
expanded name of the acronym appears. A mouse click on the
name opens a window with other useful information such as
the purpose of the MSSI, its sponsor, and links to the official
and other useful Web sites. The MetaMap is available in English
and French, and there is some information online in Spanish
and Portuguese while these versions are being built. We are
also negotiating with potential partners to build versions in
several other languages.
The arrival of the World Wide Web and the new networked
environment for information has already radically changed the
approach to information management. This new information
environment has no analogue in history and over the past ten
years or so, it has been necessary to re-think the techniques and
methods used for organising information. Various types of
metadata are being developed in response to various information
management needs. Descriptive metadata is used for
identification, discovery and access, and can also help in
evaluating resources. Recordkeeping metadata helps to order,
to validate, and to archive an organisation's resources and, with
the arrival of electronic information is also considered ""a tool
that can help ensure the meaning, manageability and longevity
of records and the information they contain"" (New South
Wales). In addition, preservation metadata plays the specific
role of contributing to longterm conservation of digital
resources. But whatever the particular reasons for which
metadata is used, all types of metadata have in common the
physical and intellectual management of resources to ensure
access to them both now and in the long term. Basic readings
which are helpful to those who wish to get a grasp on the
concept of metadata include articles by Hodge and Hillman.
The latter article is on use of the Dublin Core (DCMI). Without
common rules and principles for metadata construction, the
metadata and the corresponding resources would remain
underused or would not be used at all (Soft Experience). This
need for uniformity explains why the adoption of metadata
standards quickly became so necessary.
The metadata standards and sets constructed to date already
constitute a long list. As this list continues to grow, it becomes
more and more difficult to keep track of this information, which
forms the basis of the Semantic Web. In addition to standards
and sets, a number of initiatives have been undertaken, often
with a number of collaborators, in order to serve as testbeds
for metadata sets and standards and to demonstrate the
effectiveness of additional techniques for organising networked
information. A number of major players assume the
responsibility for several initiatives (e.g. IETF 2004, IEEE
2003, W3C 2004, DCMI 2004).
The idea of developing a tool such as the MetaMap arose from
the idea that it would be useful to gather in a single place
information about the many MSSIs that have come into
existence over the last several years. Since the focus of attention
in the information management community is the Web, and
since the Web is the chief source for information about metadata
for managing networked information, it was thought to be
particularly helpful to produce a Web-based tool, in addition
to a poster (in colour, French and English recto-verso, 90 x 60
cm) which is available free of charge. The MetaMap is
sponsored by the Groupe départemental de recherche en
information visuelle (GRIV 2003) at the Université de Montréal.
Work on the MetaMap is funded by CoRIMedia ( <http://
www.corimedia.org> ), a research consortium based at
the Université de Sherbrooke. Bibliography
dublincore.org. Accessed 2004-11-21. <http://www.du
blincore.org/>
Hillman, Diane. Using Dublin Core. . Accessed 2001-04-12.
<http://www.dublincore.org/documents/2001
/04/12/usageguide/>
Hodge, Gail. Metadata made simpler. . Accessed 2005-03-25.
<http://www.niso.org/news/Metadata_simple
r.pdf>
ieee.org. Accessed 2005-03-21. <http://www.ieee.or
g/portal/index.jsp>
ietf.org. Accessed 2005-03-14. <http://www.ietf.or
g/>
London Underground: tube maps. . Accessed 2005-03-21. <h
ttp://tube.tfl.gov.uk/content/tubemap/def
ault.asp>
mapageweb.umontreal.ca. Accessed 2004-11-21. <http:/
/mapageweb.umontreal.ca/turner/francais/g
riv.html>
New South Wales Recordkeeping Metadata Standard. .
Accessed 2004-03-02. <http://www.records.nsw.g
ov.au/publicsector/rk/rib/rib18-en.pdf>
Peccatte, Patrick. Métadonnées: une initiation Dublin Core,
IPTC, EXIF, RDF, XMP, etc.. Soft Experience, 2004. <http
://peccatte.karefil.com/Software/Metadata
.htm>
The MetaMap. . Accessed 2005-01-08. <http://mapage
web.umontreal.ca/turner/>
W3C: The World Wide Web Consortium. Accessed 2005-03-21.
<http://www.w3c.org>","txt","2","",""
"545","6","Visual Knowledge: Textual Iconography of the Quixote, a Hypertextual Archive","1","At present, there is no catalogue, in print or online,
covering in a comprehensive manner the textual
iconography of the Quixote. Attempts were made in 1879 and
1895 to offer a representative sampling but the coverage is very
limited in both cases, amounting in the former to 101
illustrations from 60 selected editions, and to 23 plates from a
single edition in the latter. 1
Two key obstacles have prevented the publication of a
comprehensive collection or archive based on the textual
iconography of the Quixote: 1) the rarity of and difficult access
to the materials, and 2) the technical and financial difficulties
in compiling and disseminating such an archive in print format.
The advent of hypertext, digital libraries, and the Internet,
among other technological factors of the information technology
revolution, make the impossible dream of visualizing the
Quixote a realizable goal. Nevertheless, there remain still
considerable obstacles and challenges if the result is to be both
effective and valuable as an educational tool and a research
resource in the humanities.
In this context, the Cervantes Project (CP) has under way the
creation of a fully accessible, searchable and documented
electronic database and digital archive of all the illustrations
that form the textual iconography of the Quixote, as permitted
by copyright limitations, along with the necessary interfaces
and visualization tools to allow for the kind of access and study
until now unavailable.2 We further envision the archive as a
research depository to complement the textual and
bibliographical electronic resources already present in the CP,
as well as a unique digital variorum image collection able to
extend the value of our Electronic variorum edition of the
Quixote, initiated in 1999. The archive will allow worldwide
electronic access to these unique and rare textual and graphic
resources by scholars, students, and users interested in Cervantes' work and the influence of his masterpiece through
400 years from several perspectives: textual, artistic, critical,
bibliographical, and historical.
In the last few years, critical interest on the illustrations of the
Quixote has been renewed as demonstrated by the publication
of three major monographs by J. Hartau, R. Paulson, and R.
Schmidt.3 Of equal significance is the recent exhibition at the
Museo del Prado in Madrid entitled Images of Don Quixote,
as well as the richly illustrated and documented catalogue of
the exhibition prepared under the direction of Patrick Lenaghan,
Curator of prints at the Hispanic Society of America in New
York.4 These studies and events place the illustrations in new
and diverse cultural, aesthetic and historical contexts,
demonstrating their key critical value and role in the reception
and interpretation of the novel, and make evident the urgent
need to provide a more complete and accessible resource to the
rich artistic tradition of the textual iconography of the Quixote
in order to better understand its significant contribution to the
editorial history and critical reception of Cervantes' novel still
largely unknown to readers and unexamined by critics.
The main rare book collection supporting our project is the
Cervantes Project (CP) Collection at the Cushing Memorial
Library and Archives of Texas A&M University. In recent
years, the Cervantes Project (CP) and the Cushing Memorial
Library have acquired a large number of significant illustrated
editions for the purpose of creating a special collection of
illustrated editions of the Quixote. At present (November 2004)
the Quixote textual iconography collection includes 352
editions, published since 1620. The collection comprises over
650 volumes and is concentrated in 18th and 19th century
English, French, and Spanish illustrated editions. We estimate
the digital archive of the collection will eventually include
upwards of 8,000 images and a fully searchable database
complemented by innovative visualization tools.5
An important component of our initial work is the specification
of a comprehensive taxonomy of the episodes, adventures,
themes and characters in the Quixote. The taxonomy,
representing the logical narrative structure of the work, will
provide the addressing mechanism by which illustrations, texts,
and other components can be associated with one another
automatically. Through manipulation of the structure of the
taxonomic elements and through specification of the desired
interrelationships, hypotheses about the work can be posed and
examined through coordinated inspection of text, illustration,
commentary, and bibliography.
Specifically for the Cervantes Project, an XML schema,
compatible with the TEI DTD, is being created representing
the complex and highly significant interrelationships of episodes
and adventures traceable throughout the entire text of Don
Quixote as identified and tagged in our narrative taxonomy. In
the first phase of the textual iconography project, one base text
of the Quixote is being fully encoded in TEI XML. Given the
bilingual nature of our site and the international scope of its
users, we next plan to encode J. Ormsby's English translation,
already available in our digital library of electronic texts. Since
this mark-up will include elements created by project staff to
represent the various episodes, adventures, themes and motifs
present in the narrative, these texts will provide an even richer
searching opportunity for Cervantes scholars and will allow
the subsequent incorporation of other key critical/textual
editions.
The Cervantes Iconography project represents a close
collaboration among four administrative groups on the Texas
A&M University campus-Cervantes scholars based in the
Hispanic Studies Department, professional staff members from
the Texas A&M University Libraries, Information Science
researchers from the Center for the Study of Digital Libraries
(CSDL), and digital imaging specialists from the Texas A&M
University Digital Library (TAMUDL), as diagrammed in
Figure 1. Three separate representations of the collection are
maintained at present-an edition master list (maintained in
Hispanic Studies), a production collection (maintained in the
A&M Libraries), and a research collection (maintained in the
CSDL). The edition master list (Figure 2) serves as a master
index and is imported by the two collections. As editions are
digitized, the collected images are distributed simultaneously
to both collections. The production collection maintains a set
of Dublin-core-based metadata records, which are kept for each
edition (Figure 3) and for each image of interest within each
image (Figure 4). These metadata fields initially are populated
from the master list and are augmented with additional
information as the edition is catalogued, imaged, and associated
with the comprehensive taxonomy. The research collection
currently provides a Web-based ""proofing"" interface (illustrated
in Figure 5 and accessible from our Web pages at <http:/
/www.csdl.tamu.edu/cervantes> ) for the purpose
of allowing quick browsing and searching of the growing
collection. At the time of writing, the project has been ongoing for about
a year and a half. The first year's activities focused on defining
the metadata fields and imaging standards. The TAMUDL's
imaging work began with test scans in Fall 2003, and currently
is reaching production levels. To date, 32 editions have been
imaged locally and another 15 obtained from other sources (the
Library of Congress and the Spanish National Library), with a
total of 1659 images currently available.
The added value of the illustrations in the Quixote textual
iconography digital archive derive in particular from their
innovative treatment and relationship with the collection of
electronic text available already at the CP and in the linkages
allowing connectivity between images, metadata, and
bibliography entries. In addition, the archive provides
interactivity between digital images and electronic texts, from
different entry points. For example, one can browse single
images, images with same metadata in a given field (content),
sequential images from same edition, or all images related to
a particular chapter or adventure by same artist or in the same edition. We also plan to develop a tool to compare, juxtapose
and collage related images from several editions, artists, etc.,
as part of our research to create new approaches and techniques
to display images for analysis, beyond browsing and searching;
in that connection we will expand archival description methods,
and advance ways in which to integrate texts and images with
metadata, as previously done for the images included in the
electronic variorum edition of the Quixote.
The digital images, electronic databases, hypertextual archive,
and visualizations tools to be created will be fully accessible
free of charge through customized interfaces at the Internet
portal of the Cervantes Project, as well as, in Spanish, through
the portals of the National Library of Spain and the University
of Castilla-La Mancha. The wide interdisciplinary interest in
the Quixote throughout the centuries, its canonical and seminal
status in the creation of the novel as a genre, its traditional
inclusion in world literature courses, and its iconic status in
Hispanic culture, are all factors insuring that the potential
audience for the reference materials to be made available by
our proposed project will be large, constant, and varied. It will
include scholars in literary and book history interested in
evaluating the reception and development of the written and
visual text, students of the novel and of illustrations researching
the role and function of iconography in narrative, and curious
readers interested in seeing and appreciating for the first time
a rich artistic tradition.6
1. Iconografía de Don Quixote; reproducción heliográfica y
tipográfica de 101 láminas elegidas entre las 60 ediciones,
diversamente ilustradas, que se han publicado durante 257
años...destinadas a la primera edición de Don Quijote (Barcelona:
P. Riera, 1879). Catálogo de la exposición celebrada en la
Biblioteca Nacional en el tercer centenario de la publicación del
Quijote (Madrid, 1905); Exposición cervantina en la Biblioteca
Nacional para conmemorar el CCCXXX aniversario de la muerte
de Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (Madrid, 1946); Juan Givanel
Mas, Catálogo de la exposición de iconografía cervantina
(Barcelona, 1944).
2. The Cervantes Project (CP) is an ongoing long-term project and
research initiative dedicated to the development of a
comprehensive digital archive based on the works of Miguel de
Cervantes (1547-1616), the cornerstone of Hispanic letters and
one of the world's most influential authors. In partnership with the
Center for the Study of Digital Libraries and the Cushing Memorial
Library and Archives, a division of the Texas A&M University
Libraries, our goal is to create an online repository of textual,
documentary, bibliographic, and visual electronic resources to
serve the needs of students and scholars interested in Cervantes'
life, times and work, and focused in particular on the study of Don
Quixote de la Mancha ( <http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/c
ervantes> ).
3. Johannes Hartau, Don Quijote in der Kunst: Wandlungen einer
Symbolfigur (Berlin: Mann, 1987); Ronald Paulson, Don Quixote
in England: the Aesthetics of Laughter (Baltimore: The Johns
Hopkins UP, 1998); Rachel Schmidt, Critical Images: The
Canonization of Don Quixote through Illustrated Editions of the
Eighteenth Century (Montreal: McGill-Queen's UP, 1999).
4. Patrick Lenaghan, together with Javier Blas y José Manuel Matilla,
Imágenes del Quijote: Modelos de representación en las ediciones
de los siglos XVII a XIX (Madrid: Hispanic Society of
America-Museo Nacional del Prado-Real Academia de Bellas
Artes de San Fernando, Calcografía Nacional, 2003). See also the
catalogue prepared for another related exhibition, El Quijote
ilustrado: Modelos de representación en las ediciones españolas
del siglo XVIII y comienzos del XIX (Madrid: Ministerio de
Educación, Cultura y Deporte-Real Academia de Bellas Artes de
San Fernando, 2003), which visited Texas A&M University in
March-April 2004 during the celebration of Spain Week.
5. Carlos Monroy et al. ""Texts, Images, Knowledge: Visualizing
Cervantes and Picasso"". Proceedings Visual Knowledges
Conference. John Frow, ed. University of Edinburgh: Institute for
Advanced Studies in the Humanities, 2003. <http://webdb
.ucs.ed.ac.uk/ malts/other/VKC/dsp-all-pape
rs.cfm> .
6. We provide a more complete acknowledgement of the many
participants in this project at <http://www.csdl.tamu.e
du/cervantes/V2/CPI/images/iconography-acks
.html>
Bibliography
Catálogo de la exposición celebrada en la Biblioteca Nacional
en el tercer centenario de la publicación del Quijote. Madrid:
Biblioteca Nacional, 1905.
Cervantes Project. <http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/c
ervantes>
csdl.tamu.edu. Accessed June 6, 2002 3:08:05 PM. <http:
//www.csdl.tamu.edu/cervantes/V2/CPI/imag
es/iconography-acks.html>
El Quijote ilustrado: Modelos de representación en las
ediciones españolas del siglo XVIII y comienzos del XIX.
Madrid: Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte-Real
Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, 2003.
Exposición cervantina en la Biblioteca Nacional para
conmemorar el CCCXXX aniversario de la muerte de Miguel
de Cervantes Saavedra. Madrid: Biblioteca Nacional, 1946.
Hartau, Johannes. Don Quijote in der Kunst: Wandlungen
einer Symbolfigur. Berlin: Mann, 1987.
Lenaghan, Patrick, Javier Blas, and José Manuel Matilla.
Imágenes del Quijote: Modelos de representación en las
ediciones de los siglos XVII a XIX. Madrid: Calcografía
Nacional, 2003. Mas, Juan Givanel. Catálogo de la exposición de Iconografía
cervantina. Barcelona: Biblioteca Central, 1944.
Monroy, Carlos, et al. ""Texts, Images, Knowledge: Visualizing
Cervantes and Picasso."" Proceedings of the Visual Knowledges
Conference. Ed. John Frow. University of Edinburgh Institute
for Advanced Studies in the Humanities, 2003. Accessed 2003.
<http://webdb.ucs.ed.ac.uk/malts/other/VK
C/dsp-all-papers.cfm>
Paulson, Ronald. Don Quixote in England: the Aesthetics of
Laughter. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 1998.
Riera, P. Iconografía de Don Quixote; reproducción
heliográfica y foto-tipográfica de 101 láminas elegidas entre
las 60 ediciones, diversamente ilustradas, que se han publicado
durante 257 años...destinadas a la primera edición de Don
Quijote. Barcelona, 1879.
Schmidt, Rachel. Critical Images: The Canonization of Don
Quixote through Illustrated Editions of the Eighteenth Century.
Montreal: McGill-Queen's UP, 1999.","txt","2","",""
"546","6","Mining the Differences between Penninc and Vostaert","1","The Middle Dutch Roman van Walewein (Romance of
Gauvain, ca. 1260) was written by two authors, Penninc
and Vostaert. Only one manuscript containing the complete
text, explicitly dated as copied in the year 1350, is left to us.
Some fragments of another, probably somewhat younger
manuscript contain about 400 lines. The text in the complete
manuscript consists of 11,202 lines of rhyming verse. The
manuscript was written by two clerks. The first seems to have
written the lines 1-5.781 and the second the lines 5,782-11,202.
The second author, Vostaert, explicitly claims to have added
about 3,300 lines to Penninc's text. Because scholars of Middle
Dutch literature came up with other amounts, we decided to
try out modern authorship attribution techniques to find out
whether these would point to a specific line in the text where
the text before and the text after contrasts most. We used a
lexical richness measure, Udney Yule's Characteristic K, and
Burrows's Delta, measuring the differences of frequencies of
the most frequent words in different parts of the text. We split
the text into largely overlapping parts of 2000 lines, moving
through the text in order to search for an exact line in the text
where the contrast before and after would be the most
significant. For measuring Burrows's Delta this meant that for
the sake of our focus on one text (or two, in a way), we
considered the text as a group of texts' and every part' of 2000
lines as a separate text, to be compared with the other 'texts'. Figure 1: Lexical Richness according to Yule's K.
At the conference in Gothenburg in 2004 we were able to show
that both measures yielded the lines 7,881-2 as the point of the
most contrast. In Fig. 1 we present the results of Yule's K for
that part of the text and in Fig. 2 the results of our creative use
of Burrows's Delta can be found. It is very intriguing that both
measurements point to the same place in the text. This suggests
that line 7,882 could very well be the place where Vostaert took
over from Penninc.
Figure 2: Differences in frequencies of the 150 most frequent words according
to Burrows's Delta
We continue our research by concentrating on a quantitative
analysis of the differences between the two parts of the text.
What are in fact the lexical differences between the text parts
before and after line 7,881-2? To find out, we made a list of
lemmata (headwords, comprising all spelling variants or
inflections etc. of a word) that occur significantly more in the
lines before and in the lines after. The top of this list looks as
follows: [etc.]
Summarizing, Penninc makes significantly more use of the first
and second person of the personal pronoun, in contrast to a
significantly higher use of the third person by Vostaert. Penninc
also applies a lot more modal verbs. But why? Are there several
reasons for these differences, or can all be explained by only
one or two special effects' of the individual authors?
The first hypothesis we will explore is that a difference in the
amount of dialogue between the two parts of the text may give
rise to several of the differences we have found. The paper will
investigate whether this is the case. We will present an analysis
of the vocabulary of both authors differentiating between
dialogue, narrator's text, and erlebte Rede' (narrated
monologue). We will also list other possibly differentiating
elements and test whether these play a part in the contrast we
discovered by using Yule's K and Burrows's Delta. This
qualitative phase in the research is meant to yield an overview
of elements contributing to the (quantitative) contrast on the
one hand, and to lead us to a list of key elements in the lexicon
of the two authors on the other. The list of actual differences
will be the input for a new quantitative and qualitative literary
analysis of the character and voice of Penninc and Vostaert.
Furthermore, we will look forward to the next purely
quantitative step we hope to take, in which the results of the
above can help us to establish a formula for authorship
distinction in the genre of Middle Dutch Arthurian Romance,
and help us, so to speak, to leap from the mining to the
modelling of the differences.
Bibliography
Burrows, J. ""'Delta': a Measure of Stylistic Difference and a
Guide to Likely Authorship."" Literary and Linguistic
Computing 17 (2002): 267-287.
Burrows, J. ""Questions of Authorship: Attribution and Beyond.""
Computers and the Humanities 37 (2003): 5-32.
Es, G.A. van, ed. De jeeste van Walewein en het schaakbord
van Penninc en Pieter Vostaert. 2 vols. : Zwolle, 1957.
Holmes, D.I. ""Authorship Attribution."" Computers and the
Humanities 28 (1994): 87-106.
Johnson, D.F., and G.H.M. Claassens, eds. Dutch Romances
I: Roman van Walewein. Trans. D.F. Johnson and G.H.M.
Claassens. Cambridge: Cambridge, 2000. Love, Harold. Attributing Authorship: An Introduction.
Cambridge: Cambridge, 2002.","txt","2","",""
"547","6","The e-Laborate Project and the Usability of Another Textual Paradigm","1","In 2003 we embarked upon the project e-Laborate: a digital
platform for partnerships in the humanities and social sciences.
The web application (at <http://www.e-laborate.nl
/> ) resulting from this project is intended as a virtual
workplace for researchers in the humanities and social
sciences.The e-Laborate collaboratory contains text collections,
collections of statistical data and basic content management
tools for sharing and working on text material and datasets.
The project allows individual researchers as well as research
groups to explore the potential of the collaboratory and to
generate feedback. The tools enable users to expand the
collection of material continuously and to improve its quality.
In our paper we will present e-Laborate as an on line research
collaboratory and as a web enabled tool for editing and
analysing textual content. We will also show how e-Laborate
provided a research environment in which we can explore the
usefulness and usability of a specific text paradigm.
The text material we used in our project issued from the
historical cultural journal ""Vaderlandsche Letteroefeningen"".
The title means ""National Literary Exercises"" and in academic
writing is usually shorthanded as ""VLO"". Published between
1761 and 1876, the ""VLO"" is of great importance for every
research discipline concerned with the study of culture in the
Netherlands during that period. There has long been a widely
held desire to see a complete set of the journal available in
digital form. However, because of its huge size and the
enormous costs that digitisation would entail this has not been
possible before now. The approach we have chosen differs
fundamentally from the way in which textual material has
usually been digitised and published in the past. The ""VLO""
component of the e-Laborate project uses a bottom up
collaborative approach, drawing upon the assistance of
researchers, to produce a continuous developing and evolving
digital version of the publication. Using this approach NIWI will now be able to publish facsimiles (scans) of the first 50.000
pages of ""VLO"" editions by the first quarter of 2005.
We will describe the development process used in building
e-Laborate.The eXtreme Programming protocol (XP) was
closely followed. Researchers' demands concerning the texts
were closely monitored during the project and used to drive the
development of the electronic tools for joint working on text
and textual material. Every two weeks new elements were
delivered, tested and approved of or commented on. Also
critique and additional wishes were communicated with the
developers. In this way we made sure that the tools would really
be what researchers collaboratively working on text wanted
and needed. The participating researchers are enthusiastic about
this development approach and about the tools delivered up till
now. Formal evaluation and retrospection showed especially
appreciation for the pragmatically forward looking vision of
the project (i.e. building the collaboratory brick by brick, feature
by feature).
The paper will provide a functional and architectural overview
of e-Laborate as a collaborative tool for supporting the
production of digital editions. At the core of e-Laborate is the
transcription object. The transcription object is a container
object holding the scanned image of a page from an original
publication and a transcription field. Each transcription object's
authorisation may be tailored by its creator / owner. Depending
on the user's authorisation the transcription field of a
transcription object is depicted either as a text edit box or as
rendered text. Arbitrary additional metadata may be added. In
the case of the ""VLO"" a standard id field is added to hold the
number of the year, volume and page the scan shows. Standard
content management utilities available within the e-Laborate
platform allow for the arbitrary placing and grouping of
individual transcription objects into a page or folder hierarchy.
Any transcription object is automatically indexed so an
authorised user or editor can search through the text base and
present the search results in a comprehensive way. A fuzzy
matching algorithm amends search input as well as the indexed
material for spelling variants. In the future tools to further
process or statistically analyse those results may be added. The
addition of modules, tools, or components to e-Laborate is
easily facilitated by its plain plugin architecture and open source
nature. Current additions under development are the inclusion
of an open source OCR engine to facilitate text recognition on
demand for uploaded scans.
Current work in the project is focused on the development of
a flexible annotation tool. This tool will empower researchers
to create annotations to every part of a scan or the transcription
text of a transcription object, simply by pointing to and
highlighting the image part or text range they desire to annotate.
Researchers will also have the possibility to react to annotations
by annotating the annotation (ad infinitum). A researcher may
choose to categorize his or her annotation using a standard or
personalised typology of annotations. Standard annotation
typologies that will be provided concern a.o. basic formatting
(italic, bold, capitalization etc.), ranges of interpretation (word,
part of the text etc.) and information type (back ground
historical information, biographical etc.). Any annotation may
be categorised in multiple typologies.
The annotation tool will be as much WYSIWYG as possible.
This means that a researcher wanting to add annotations will
not be bothered by laborious tagging and will need no prior
knowledge of any particular mark up language. This is a design
choice fundamental to our view of text and textual research.
We think that it's not a researcher's concern to produce or
validate XML or any other marked up form of text. Knowing
about mark up is not fundamental to the task of a text
researcher, but making inferences about the meaning, structure
and form of a text and putting such inferences into annotations
is. Therefore tools for the production and enrichment of digital
editions should focus on that research related task and not on
mark up particulars. As a consequence the digital editing tools
of e-Laborate will take care of the creation of valid mark up
'in the background', providing ample information about the
name of the user who created the annotation, the date and time
of creation, the part of the text or scan the annotation belongs
to, and of course, the annotation text itself and any additional
metadata provided by the user.
Elementary for our project are the leading principals behind
the design choices described in the preceding paragraph. That
is, the design choice not to define yet another mark up solution,
but to concentrate on the researcher's interactions with the
textual material, leaving the description of these interactions
in the form of XML to the application. We will show that these
principals define another textual paradigm, meaning another
textual paradigm than the text paradigm implicitly emanating
from the concepts of TEI.
At present a powerful surge of TEI-driven edition projects,
seems to have propagated TEI into a de facto standard. Although
undeniably useful as a means for marking up texts for editorial
use, the apparent all round applicability and efficiency of TEI
needs to be contested. We will argue that TEI in it's form of
explicit mark up is not a very efficient means of editorial mark
up. We will also argue that TEI is far from efficient nor very
useful when computer supported textual analysis is the focus
of research. We will show that the use of TEI forces an a priori,
top down view of text onto a researcher trying to model a text
using TEI-tagging. TEI's particular use of XML and its DTD
implicitly present a vision of a text being a flat hierarchy of
meaningful text elements. To a researcher wanting to express
and analyse overlapping interpretations, associative relations,
layered narratives (to name but a few common textual constructs
TEI has difficulty expressing) TEI does not provide effective or efficient solutions. We will argue that such a researcher
would be better off considering the use of lightly embedded
mark up solutions and layered cross tagged mark up as provided
for example by the JITT and LMNL models. Although
problematic in themselves, these models do address the non
linear, non hierarchical nature of texts more adequately than
TEI. We will also argue how these models can be combined to
provide an intuitive way of structuring and annotating text,
resulting in a dynamic layered model of text that can be
represented by proper XML. We will show how within the
context of e-Laborate a graphical user interface enables
structuring and annotating texts according to this dynamic
model of text representation. We are convinced that this
interface enables a researcher to interact with a text on a
research and interpretative level rather than a mark up level.
We will also show that in such a dynamic research environment
it is still possible to provide backward compatibility with TEI
mark up using transformational languages.
Bibliography
Agosti, M., I. Ferro, I. Frommholz, and U. Thiel. ""Annotations
in Digital Libraries and Collaboratories."" Proceedings of the
8th European Conference, EDCL 2004. Bath, UK, September
12-17, 2004. Ed. R. Heery and L. Lyon. Berlin: EDCL, 2004.
244- 255.
Buzzetti, D. ""Digital Representation and the Text Model."" New
literary History 33 (2002): 61-88.
DARE, Digital Academic Repositories. Accessed 2004-11-20.
<http://www.surf.nl/en/themas/index2.php?
oid=7>
e-Laborate. Accessed 2004-11-20. <http://www.e-lab
orate.nl/>
JITT. Accessed 2004-11-20. <http://www.sbl-site2
.org/Extreme2002/> and <http://www.idealli
ance.org/papers/xml02/dx_xml02/index/titl
e/e93017c13fc3874332dee40367.html>
LMNL. Accessed 2004-11-20. <http://lmnl.net/>
McGann, J.P. ""Dialogue and interpretation at the interface of
man and machine, reflections on textuality and a proposal for
an experiment in machine reading."" Computers and the
Humanities 36 (2002): 95-107.
NHDA. Accessed 2004-11-20. <http://www.niwi.kna
w.nl/en/geschiedenis/collecties/>
NIWI-KNAW. Accessed 2004-11-20. <http://www.niw
i.knaw.nl>
SURF. Accessed 2004-11-20. <http://www.surf.nl/
en/home/index.php>
TEI and TEI-Consortium. Accessed 2004-11-20. <http:/
/www.tei-c.org/>
van Dijk, S. ""Introduction."" 'I have heard about you'. Women's
writing crossing borders. Ed. S. van Dijk, P. Broomans, J.F.
van der Meulen and W.R.D. van Oostrum. Hilversum: Verloren,
2004. [Information about the ""VLO"".]
Women Writers. Accessed 2004-11-20. <http://www.ro
quade.nl/womenwriters/>
XML and the World Wide Web Consortium. Accessed
2004-11-20. <http://www.w3c.org/XML>
Xpast. Accessed 2004-11-20. <http://www.e-labora
te.nl/nl/new_2/toon>","txt","2","",""
"548","6","The Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project, the World Wide Web, and the Public Humanities","2","The Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project
(Lincoln Project) at Northern Illinois University presents
primary source materials shedding light upon Abraham
Lincoln's life and context in antebellum Illinois (1831-1861)
on its Lincoln/Net World Wide Web site ( <http://linco
ln.lib.niu.edu> ). Begun in 1998 as a model digital
library project, it has gathered texts and images (over
twenty-five million words of text, and over 2500 images) from
significant historical collections in the state of Illinois in a single
set of searchable databases, and thus dramatically expanded
the ability of students, teachers, scholars, and the public to use
them.
But the Lincoln Project has grown to become more than a large
digital library. It also features original interpretive materials,
written by leading scholars, which help the site's users to think
about the historical context in which Lincoln lived, and in which
he and his contemporaries produced the historical materials on
display. In recent years the project has also produced a
documentary film examining Lincoln's role in the Black Hawk
War of 1832 and a nationwide reading program for public
libraries (in collaboration with the American Library
Association). These projects have added new resources to the
web site, including over one hundred streaming video clips
featuring segments of the project film and leading scholars
discussing major themes in this period's history.
While scholarly researchers make wide use of the Lincoln/Net
site, the Lincoln Project also represents an attempt to use the
opportunities presented by digital technology and the World
Wide Web to expand the scope and effectiveness of the public
humanities.
These opportunities have emerged at several levels. First, a
web site like Lincoln/Net provides its users with an opportunity
to explore primary source materials within an integrated
learning environment including interpretive materials. Many
digital library users who are not professional scholars often
wonder ""What should I search for?"" These secondary resources
help site users to learn about the fundamental questions that
scholars ask about this period in American history. They also
help site users to begin to fashion research questions with which
they may explore the databases. This ability to pursue original
explorations in primary source materials can contribute in new,
rare ways to the public's appreciation for historical contingency
and change.
The World Wide Web and digital technology also provide a
new opportunity to support and enrich more traditional
humanities programming. Traditional public programs in the
humanities provide isolated opportunites to attend lectures,
films, symposia, or other events. But often attendees are left
with nothing more than the few notes they may have scribbled
during the event. The World Wide Web provides an opportunity
to furnish program attendees with an opportunity to follow up
their lecture experience with further explorations in pertinent
primary source materials and additional scholars' interpretations
of them. A web site also provides more prosaic services: the
opportunity to read the text of the original lecture at one's
leisure, or the ability to view a film again via streaming digital
video.
While many members of the ACH and ALLC have devoted their
efforts to devising new scholarly applications for digital
technology and the World Wide Web, I would like to argue
that they represent an unprecedented opportunity for scholars
to open a new dialogue with members of the public who may
harbor an interest in humanities subjects, but find little
opportunity to nourish it. I have built the Abraham Lincoln
Historical Digitization Project on the hypothesis that a
significant segment of the public harbors an interest not only
in exploring primary source materials, but also in imbibing and
considering scholars' research questions and conclusions. The
Lincoln/NetWorld Wide Web site thus presents an opportunity
for these scholars to reach out to a new audience, not by
persuading the public to read their monographs or textbooks,
but by boiling their research conclusions down into readily
accessible interpretations of the primary source materials that
are, thanks to new technology, readily at hand.
This public discourse can serve the humanities well. It can
return them to the civic role that they often enjoyed before the
era of ever-narrower scholarly specialization. Increased
appreciation for, and comprehension of, scholarly work by even
a limited segment of the public can also prove valuable in a
political climate that has often witnessed taxpayer assaults upon
university and college budgets.
I hope that this poster presentation and/or paper will lead
conference attendees to consider using new technology to do
more than refine research techniques, and reach out to a public
audience.","txt","2","",""
"549","6","Databases and Prosopographies: The Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England (PASE) a Case Study","1","Summary
Dr Hafed Walda
Definition
David Pelteret, of the Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England,
wrote that: ""in essence prosopography can be interpreted as the
study of identifiable persons and their connections with others
for the purpose of enabling the modern student to discern
patterns of relationships."" (Peltertet 13).
The Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England Project (PASE)
is based in the department of History, the Centre for Computing
in the Humanities at King's College London and in the
Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Celtic at the University
of Cambridge. The aim of the PASE Project is to record
everything that is known about all Anglo-Saxon individuals
mentioned in any source written between 597 and 1042. This
will create a comprehensive register of the recorded inhabitants
of the period. PASE will be accessible in the form of a freely
available, searchable on-line database.
The past two decades have witnessed enormous growth in the
number and importance of Prosopographies such as PASE.
Following this period of rapid growth will the academic
community find a common technological ground for all these
Prosopographies? This paper explores the issues surrounding
the search for this common ground.
Historical overview
The father of prosopographies is the Corpus Inscriptionem
Latinarum (CIL) edited by Christian Matthias in 1858. After
the publication of the CIL, Mommsen worked on the original
Prosopographicum Inscriptionem Romanorum (PIR) until 1877.
In that he made use of his considerable experience with CIL,
hence his first work mimicked the Inscriptions but was
supplemented by literary sources and papyrology. After a long
delay Professor A.H.M. Jones continued Mommsen's work
with the help of his two pupils John Morris and John Martindale
in the 1950s. The continuation of Mommsen's work became an
international affair. The huge task was divided between the
French (under the direction of H.-I. Marrou) and the British
(under A.H.M. Jones).
A.H.M. Jones died before the first volume of the Prosopography
of the Later Roman Empire (PLRE), covering the years AD
260-395, was published in 1971. He did however manage to
read through and edit the final draft. The British Academy
ensured the survival of the project by providing financial aid
from 1970. John Morris and John Martindale continued to work
on the project, volume two (covering the years AD 395-527)
being published just after the death of John Morris in 1980.
John Martindale was left to edit the third volume, eventually
published in 1992 in two volumes covering AD 527-64, before
he retired in 2000.
The French Prosopographie Chrétienne was divided on a
regional as well as chronological basis. Marrou and Mandouze
produced the volumes for Africa (AD 303-533) in 1982.
Another two volumes covering Italy (AD 313-604) were
published in 1999, under the direction of Charles and Luce
Pietri.
Data and development issues
With the development of scholarship through the increased
availability of written sources, the publication of new editions,
and through the publication of Inscriptions, coins and seals, the
research materials have also increased. New methods using
searchable databases were developed to deal with the sheer
quantity of material available in various formats.
In the past two decades, computer based methods of recording
and manipulating data have offered historians in a variety fields
new opportunities of data manipulation that go beyond what
was formerly feasible for scholars using traditional research
methods geared for paper publication. This was hailed as an
ideal way of converting data into information by processing
and presenting them for human interpretation.
The database approach to the development of Prosopographies
has been found attractive to scholars in Anglo-Saxon studies
(PASE), Clergy of the Church of England (CCE) and
Prosopography of the Byzantine World (PBW). All these
Prosopographies are based in King's College London and
developed in collaboration with the Centre for Computing in
the Humanities (CCH). The role of CCH involves a whole range of activities, including data analysis, system design, the
application of computing tools, and technical advice and
long-term support.
These Prosopographies have benefited hugely from the technical
and academic knowledge that has been accumulated at King's
College London.
In this paper I will draw a comparison between the various
methods of collecting and displaying prosopographical data in
different formats from the earlier book-based to electronic
editions, and will analyze the advantages of each method. The
comparison will involve using actual historical records.
I will be looking closely at the advantages, costs and risks of
using the Relational Database model to drive the data and the
use of web browsers as interfaces to display the information.
The Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England database will be
used as an example of a database driven prosopography.
The Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon
England, 597-1042
Alex Burghart
This section will demonstrate the research possibilities
made available by PASE. It will give a live presentation
of how data from sources has been entered, collated and
reconciled.
A wide range of source types survive from Anglo-Saxon
England, these include chronicles, letters, biographies, and legal
texts. Sources such as Bede's Ecclesiastical History and the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle have generated a prodigious amount
of secondary literature and probably an uncountable number
of editions in a wide variety of vernacular languages. Yet these
editions could not, on their own, answer such basic questions
as, how many Anglo-Saxons held a certain office; or establish
the links between people and overall groupings with systematic
and accessible structure.
Perhaps the most substantial advance that PASE has made on
standard prosopography is that it records not only data
concerning individuals (their status, what they owned, to whom
they were related, what they ate for breakfast &c.) but also
information about how individuals were connected with each
other. This has been embodied in the database by the creation
of EVENT in which is recorded all meetings / relations between
one or more people. This is a significant step in understanding
Anglo-Saxon history because for the first time historians will
be able to search the whole corpus of Anglo-Saxon sources for
associations between people. This lies at the heart of what
prosopography should be.
The major source of associations in Anglo-Saxon history is
that of the charters. The term 'Anglo-Saxon charter' covers a
multitude of documents ranging in kind from the royal diplomas
issued in the names of Anglo-Saxon kings between the last
quarter of the seventh century and the Norman Conquest, which
are generally in Latin, to the wills of prominent churchmen,
laymen, and women, which are generally in the vernacular. A
large proportion of the surviving corpus of about 1500 charters
is made up of records of grants of land or privileges by a king
to a religious house, or to a lay beneficiary. The corpus also
includes records of settlements of disputes over land or
privileges, leases of episcopal property, and records of bequests
of land and other property. Its importance for PASE lies in what
they tell us about individuals. Most charters include invaluable
information about ownership and status, but, as legal
documents, they also frequently include lists of people who
gave their agreement to the settlement described in the charter.
These names give us an insight into the workings of royal and
local courts and communities which we would have otherwise
been denied. In collating these names and relating them to other
source material, PASE grants the researcher the ability to reveal
something of the lives which hide behind them.
Anglo-Saxon charters are the best represented corpus of
medieval documents on the internet. The completion of PASE
will confirm and bolster this position.
Bibliography
Bradley, John, and Harold Short. ""Texts into databases: The
Evolving Field of New-style Prosopography."" Paper delivered
at the ACH/ALLC Conference, University of Georgia, Athens
Georgia. Summer 2003.
Cameron, Averill, ed. Fifty Years Of Prosopography: The
Later Roman Empire, Byzantium and Beyond. Proceedings of
the British Academy, number 118. New York: Oxford
University Press, for the British Academy, 2003.
Clergy of the Church of England. King's College London.
Accessed 2005-03-21. <http://maple.cc.kcl.ac.u
k:8080/cce/rochester/index.html> (Not yet
launched.)
Jones, A.H.M., J. R. Martindale, and J. Morris. The
Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1971.
Klebs, E., P. von Rohden, and H. Dessau. Prosopographia
Imperii Romani. 3 vols. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1956. A
new second edition was published in 1998. Martindale, John Robert, ed. Prosopography of the Byzantine
Empire I (641-867): The CD of the First Period. King's College
London, 2002.
Peltertet, David. ""[Title not provided]."" History and Computing
12.1 (2002): 13.
Prosopograhy Centre. Modern History Research Unit,
University of Oxford. Accessed 2005-03-21. <http://use
rs.ox.ac.uk/~prosop/>
The Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England. King's College
London. Accessed 2005-03-21. <http://www.kcl.ac.
uk/humanities/cch/pase/> ; database site <http:/
/maple.cc.kcl.ac.uk:8080/pase/index.jsp>
(not publicly launched).","txt","2","",""
"550","6","TM4DH (Topic Maps for Digital Humanities): Examples and an Open Source Toolkit","1","My paper will discuss the use of Topic Maps to explore
literary topics and navigate TEI-encoded literary texts.
The presentation will include a brief introduction to Topic Maps
and the XML Topic Map (XTM) syntax; an argument for the
benefits of Topic Maps and similar metadata and ontology
formats in electronic text and textual analysis applications;
examples of fully-developed topic maps describing poetic
genres and verse forms as well as the life and work of an
individual author, Victorian poet Algernon Charles Swinburne.
The presentation will conclude with a demonstration an open
source Topic Map toolkit, developed by the author and
consisting of a Java-based web application and XSLT
stylesheets for the presentation and navigation of XML-based
Topic Maps.
Topics Maps have been the subject of recent attention in the
digital humanities community. They are discussed briefly in
John Bradley's ""A Model for Text Analysis Tools"" in a recent
issue of Literary and Linguistic Computing. And at Digital
Resources for the Humanities (DRH) 2003 and the 2003 TEI
Members Meeting, Stuart Brown gave presentations on Topic
Maps as a means for navigating the TEI Guidelines and
comparing different sets of local TEI extensions. At DRH 2004,
the author presented a paper on ""Topic Maps and TEI-Encoded
Literary Texts"". The current paper will build on this previous
work by exploring more fully developed and generally
applicable topic maps in conjunction with the open source
toolkit that can be used by others in the digital humanities
community to deliver their own Topic Map applications.
Topic Maps are a powerful XML metadata format that may be
used to create multi-dimensional indices and interfaces to
humanities resources and TEI-encoded data. The basic building
blocks of Topic Maps are topics. A topic may represent any
subject or concept. A Topic Map about a poetry collection, for
instance, may contain topics representing ""poetry,"" ""sonnet,""
""lyric,"" ""poet,"" ""Wordsworth, William,"" and ""The Solitary
Reaper."" Topics may have multiple names and may be
connected via associations. For instance, one poet may
""influence"" another, a poet may ""author"" a poem, or a poet may
""mourn"" a historical figure in an elegy. Topics may also be typed and may have multiple types. So ""Hamlet"" may be an
instance of the topic ""play."" Or ""Rossetti, Dante Gabriel"" may
be an instance of both the ""poet"" and ""painter"" topics. Topic
Maps allow one to build lists of concepts important to a
collection or to a particular area of research and link those
concepts to electronic resources, including TEI documents and
individual elements within TEI documents. Topic Maps are
powerful research and pedagogical tools that facilitate the
organization, presentation, navigation, and visualization of
conceptual and factual data.
To illustrate the discussion, I will use Topic Maps and TEI
texts being developed as part of the The Swinburne Project, a
digital collection of works by Victorian poet Algernon Charles
Swinburne. Swinburne was an important cultural figure whose
impact was felt beyond the domains of literature and poetry.
He is an ideal central figure for the study of a wide range of
nineteenth-century cultural and historical topics. Swinburne
was an incredibly learned poet, and his range of form and
allusion is extensive. His works include numerous and often
obscure allusions to the bible, classical mythology, and
Arthurian legend. He wrote a number of political poems
addressing contemporary events. He wrote parodies of other
contemporary poets, including Tennyson, Browning, and
Rossetti. As Jerome McGann has noted, ""[n]o English poet has
composed more elegies than Swinburne."" To address the breadth
and range of form and allusion in Swinburne's work, the
Swinburne Topic Maps include extensive lists of genre forms,
people, biblical figures, mythological figures, Arthurian figures,
as well as events and works by other artists and poets. These
lists may then be used to build elaborate indices, navigation
mechanisms, and data visualizations. The combination of
TEI-encoded texts and XML Topic Maps allows the
construction of a complex database of nineteenth-century British
culture with Swinburne at its center. Supplementing the
Swinburne-specific Topic Maps will be a more generally
applicable Topic Map on poetic genres, meters, and verse forms.
Swinburne was a versatile versifier who wrote in a great variety
of forms. This ""genre map,"" begun as a description of forms
used by Swinburne, and since extended to include additional
forms, may be used in conjunction with other digital collections.
The TM4DH (Topic Maps for Digital Humanities) open source
topic map toolkit consists of a configurable Java-based Web
application and bundled XSLT stylesheets for the presentation
and navigation of topic maps conforming to the XTM 1.0
specification ( <http://www.topicmaps.org/xtm/1
.0/> ), which describes an XML grammar for interchanging
Web-based topic maps. TM4DH generates a homepage for the
topic map. This homepage includes general metadata for the
topic map (author, title, date, etc.) and a listing of major topic
categories. From this homepage users can navigate to pages
for individual topics, including detailed information about the
topic along with its occurrences (internal to the Topic Map or
external on the Web) and associated topics.
Bibliography
[No source references provided. Eds.]","txt","2","",""
"551","6","Exploring the Use of Term Proximity in Collocate-Ranking for Query Expansion","1","The exponential increase in the amount of humanities
information available in digital libraries and archives calls
for better search techniques that can help information users to
retrieve full-text documents matching their information need
with high accuracy. Information Retrieval (IR) research can
lead to improved search techniques that facilitate access to large
collections of humanities literature.
IR researchers focus on various topics to improve the retrieval
performance, such as the representation of documents, the
formulation of queries, and document matching and ranking
techniques. Many established retrieval models do not take into
account relations between words in text. While they work well
with short and semantically homogeneous documents, arguably
they are less appropriate for long multi-topic and more
semantically complex texts. Many documents in the humanities
archives fall under the latter category. In this paper we report
a study that was conducted to develop a new query expansion
technique which uses term proximity information and statistical
term association measures in selecting query expansion terms.
Query expansion is a technique commonly used in IR (e.g.,
Rocchio; Beaulieu) to improve the retrieval performance by
reformulating the original query - either adding new terms or
reweighing the original terms. Query expansion terms can be
automatically extracted from the documents or taken from
knowledge resources, such as thesauri. The main advantage of
the former techniques is that they are collection-independent
and cheaper to construct. Typically either top-ranked documents
in the initially retrieved document set (blind or pseudo-relevance
feedback) or documents judged relevant by the user in the
retrieved set (relevance feedback) are used to extract query
expansion terms. For short and incomplete queries, a substantial
improvement can be achieved by using expanded queries
(Sparck-Jones et al.). Terms added to the original query usually
have the following common characteristics: a) they are
semantically related to the original query terms; b) they are
good at discriminating between relevant and non-relevant
documents. Computational linguists use various statistical
association measures to extract significant word associations
(or co-occurrences), as these measures can judge the degree of
closeness between words. Association measures have been also
used in query expansion to select words that are closely related
to query terms (Ishikawa et al.; Vechtomova et al.).
The query expansion method proposed in this paper is used to
select words which co-occur with the original query terms in
a certain proximity (such as the same sentence, paragraph or a
fixed-size window) in the documents judged as relevant by the
user. We refer to such terms as collocates of the original query
terms. We experimented with a number of parameters for
selecting such terms, such as their distance from the original
query term(s) in text and their degree of association with the
query terms.
Previous related studies investigated the effect of using the
distance information between query terms for document
ranking, whereas we investigated the effect of using term
proximity in collocate-ranking for query expansion. Under the
similar assumption ""if the distance between two words is closer,
the pair is considered as more associated with each other"" , we
proposed to use a distance factor in collocate-ranking formula
to measure the association between collocates and query terms.
The main contribution of our experimentation is that we
combined the distance-weighting factor with the traditional
word association measure of Mutual Information (MI).
The following three hypotheses were explored in this study:
Hypothesis 1: The use of term proximity in collocate-ranking
for query expansion results in a significant performance
improvement over no query expansion.
Hypothesis 2: The use of term proximity in collocate-ranking
formula for query expansion can lead to significant performance
improvements over the current best-performing term selection
values. We used Offer Weight (OW) of the Robertson/ Sparck
Jones IR model as the baseline (Sparck Jones et al.).
Hypothesis 3: The collocate-ranking formula using distance
information results in a significant performance improvement
over the formula without the distance factor.
The experiments were conducted using the Okapi IR system
(Sparck Jones et al.), and TREC (Text REtrieval Conference)
evaluation framework (Voorhees).
The collocate-ranking method is comprised of several formulae
– Cohesion score, Similarity score, MI score and Distance
factor formulae. Cohesion score and Similarity score were
formulated in a similar way to those proposed by Gao et al..
The cohesion score is the final score to select query expansion
terms; the similarity score of a pair (x, y) is the multiplication of the MI score and the distance factor. MI score was
formulated similarly as the local MI score proposed by
Vechtomova et al.. As the goal of this study was to explore the
use of distance in collocate-ranking, different distance factors
that might improve the retrieval performance were investigated.
The best distance factor proved to be Formula 4.
Formulae
We performed statistical analysis of the search results produced
using (a) terms selected by our experimental collocate-ranking
formula (b) original query terms only and (c) query expansion
terms selected by using OW. Figure 1 shows the precision
values at 11-Recall levels using the above three methods. The
analysis results indicate that the experimental search run using
our derived collocate-ranking formula significantly improved
the retrieval performance compared with the no-expansion run,
but did not outperform the OW run. The method using term
proximity in collocate-ranking was proved to be effective.
Hypothesis 1 was supported by the analysis, while Hypotheses
2 and 3 were not supported. The top 10 query expansion terms
selected by MI, the best distance formula and OW for the query
topic #432 are presented in Table 1.
Figure 1: Precision Values at 11-Recall Levels
<num> Number: 432
<title> profiling, motorists, police
<desc> Description:
Do police departments use ""profiling""
to stop motorists?
<narr> Narrative:
A relevant document will report or
discuss police department criteria for
identifying motorists considered likely
to be carrying contraband. Documents
discussing the detention of individuals
by foreign security forces are not
relevant. Table 1: The top 10 query expansion terms for sample topic #432
Some of the findings and recommendations from this study
are: the distance factor has to be compatible with the
collocate-extraction process and the MI score itself is an
effective collocate-ranking formula compared with no query
expansion. Further studies on the use of term proximity for
query expansion need to be carried on through integrating other
promising techniques, such as part-of-speech tagging, into the
query expansion process. This study contributes to advancing high-accuracy retrieval of
documents from large resources and archives in humanities
through the investigation of the role of distance and association
between words in text for selecting useful terms that can be
added to the search formulations and help searchers find more
relevant documents. Retrieval techniques which capture
relations between words in text are particularly promising for
the high-precision retrieval of long multi-topic texts. Large
proportion of the humanities literature consists of such texts.
Query expansion techniques that assume term independence
in text are less appropriate for such collections. The techniques
presented in this paper can also be used in interactive query
expansion. Searchers often have difficulty in formulating their
information need. Previous studies showed that searchers prefer
to formulate short queries and then browse through the
document space and reformulate queries manually. Finding
related terms that co-occur with the query terms and suggesting
them to the searcher can facilitate this process.
Bibliography
Beaulieu, M. ""Experiments with interfaces to support query
expansion."" Journal of Documentation, 53.1 (1997): 8-19.
Gao, J., J. Nie, H. He, W. Chen, and M Zhou. ""Resolving query
translation ambiguity using a decaying co-occurrence model
and syntactic dependence relations."" Proceedings of the 25th
annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and
Development in Information Retrieval. Tampere, Finland, 2002.
183-190.
Ishikawa, K., K. Satoh, and A. Okumura. ""Query term
expansion based on paragraphs of the relevant document.""
Proceedings of Sixth Text Retrieval Conference (TREC-6).
Gaithersburg, MD, USA, 1997. 577-584.
Rocchio, J.J. ""Relevance feedback in information retrieval.""
The SMART Retrieval System – experiments in automatic
document processing. Ed. G. Salton. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Prentic-Hall, 1971. 312-323.
Sparck Jones, K., S. Walker, and S.E. Robertson. ""A
probabilistic model of information retrieval: development and
comparative experiments."" Information Processing and
Management 36.6 (2000): 779-808 (Part 1); 809-840 (Part 2).
Vechtomova, O., S. Robertson, and S. Jones. ""Query expansion
with long-span collocates."" Information Retrieval 6.2 (2003):
251-273.
""Overview of TREC 2003."" Proceedings of the twelfth Text
Retrieval Conference (TREC 2003). Gaithersburg, MD, USA,
2004. 1-13.","txt","2","",""
"552","6","User Centred Interactive Search: a Study of Humanities Researchers in a Digital Library Environment","2","This poster proposal describes research on humanities users
of a digital library (DL). It seeks to understand their needs
and behaviour both in digital and more traditional information
environments, in order to develop and refine a digital library
system, the better to support use in the humanities. This study
of humanities users forms part of the larger User Centred
Interactive Search (UCIS) project.
Background
Large, structured information repositories such as digital
libraries (DLs) are becoming commonplace. To realise
their potential, they need to be usable and useful - by a range
of users, in different situations, supporting a variety of
information tasks. The current generation of DLs still poses
substantial user difficulties: searches are often time-consuming
and frequently unsuccessful (Blandford et al.), and the reasons
for success or failure remain mysterious to most users. Within
the broader information task, the information requirements are
often poorly defined, as users are often trying to refine the
information problem by using available information to
understand what is possible, so that information acquisition is
an evolving, highly interactive activity.
It is widely recognised that creating effective search criteria to
achieve a particular information goal is a demanding and
difficult task, particularly for less experienced users, and
particularly when the goal is as yet under-defined. Shneiderman
et al. observe the challenges of selecting a variety of search
attributes, such as the words to be used in a query and the
syntactic peculiarities of the system at hand. In addition, the mapping of an information need to the use of metadata fields
or full text search can prove difficult (Blandford et al.). Unlike
the web, where the document text is the only possible target
for a search, DLs provide a rich environment for information
seeking: the user has a much wider potential range of selections
(classification, author, publication date, etc.) to make. Effective
searching relies on the careful selection and use not only of
words or syntactic commands, but also of fields and information
sources.
Use in Context
Surprisingly little work on information seeking has set it
within the context of the broader information work of
which it is a component (Attfield et al.). While this divorce
from the context may be valid when considering work in
physical libraries, where the information seeking task is often
a bounded activity delineated by arrival at and departure from
the library building, it is less so for DLs that can be accessed
from the user's normal place of work, removing the marked
transitions between information seeking and other activities.
One hypothesis this study will test is that users expect
information seeking to flow more naturally into their broader
information task when searching from their normal place of
work.
Humanities Users
Humanities researchers are the focus for studying use in
context for several reasons: they typically have little
technical or mathematical knowledge (e.g. for immediately
understanding the designs of complex interactive systems or
intuitively being able to construct the Boolean queries that are
often key to successful query formulation); they often do not
have a clear idea of what they are looking for, but will usually
recognise it when they find it; and they have not been
extensively studied, although they have substantial and
sophisticated information requirements. In summary, humanities
researchers are a particularly challenging population to design
for, and many solutions that work for this user population are
likely to also suit less demanding users. Studies of humanities
researchers have tended to concentrate on needs or the types
of resources used (Library Trends; Open University). Many of
these are now relatively dated, and although their conclusions
were important at the time, both the types of resources available
and the technology used to find them have changed. Studies
by Stone and Watson-Boone established that humanities users
need a much wider range of resources than those in other
disciplines; for example, they may need to refer to material
which is much older than that used by researchers in the
sciences and social sciences. They may still need to use
historical material in the form of manuscripts or early printed
books even if digital surrogates are available (Warwick and
Carty, Duff and Johnson). Relatively low levels of use of digital
resources have been blamed on these particular needs, and on
a lack of knowledge about their capabilities (Corns), but this
has yet to be verified by an empirical survey.
Warwick's previous work suggests that humanities users may
find it difficult to adapt search behaviour from a traditional to
a digital library setting, and thus become discouraged by failed
attempts to locate appropriate resources (Warwick, 1999a;
1999b) She has found that the patterns of use of digital
resources in English literature have changed little since Corns'
work in 1991, and argued that this may be because of lack of
fit between the searching tasks users wish to carry out and the
present capabilities of DLs. This was based on only a small
sample of users, and on theoretical data. It is therefore important
to test these hypotheses by studying a meaningful sample of
humanities users in both a traditional library setting and a digital
environment. This is one of the tasks that the present research
is engaged in.
Aims of the project
Overall, there are four strands of work in the UCIS project:
1. studying use of information in context, focusing on
humanities researchers;
2. studying the development of expertise in searching (focusing
on information management students);
3. identifying requirements on the design of digital libraries;
and
4. developing and testing system modules for a digital library.
The proposed poster will describe the first strand of work,
briefly outlining how it fits within the rest of the project. We
believe that this work is important since very little work has
studied use in context - particularly in the humanities - and
translated findings into testable design requirements.
Methods
Qualitative data (from interviews, observations, diary
studies, transaction logs, etc.) will be gathered from
academics and other researchers in the humanities regarding
their activities with DLs and similar information resources.
Two sub-issues will direct this work: how humanities
researchers work with digital resources and how they integrate
use of electronic and paper resources - both within the broader
task context. The first approach to data collection will be by user diaries, in
which humanities users record their use of information resources
(both traditional and digital) to support their research. This will
provide base-line data to inform the use of techniques for
subsequent study (depending on the patterns of resource use).
The main approach to data collection will be contextual inquiry
interviews, observing users as they work with digital libraries
of their own choice and interviewing them on their perceptions
of the usability of such electronic information sources. The
focus of this data collection will cover what users currently do,
their perceptions of the strengths and limitations of current
technologies (including traditional resources), and requirements
for future systems.
Data will be analysed in two different but complementary ways:
first, using a Grounded Theory-style approach (Strauss and
Corbin) to develop theory on the use of digital resources in
context by humanities users; second, using design-oriented
techniques to draw out requirements for design.
To enable us to focus on new technical challenges rather than
needing to replicate work already done by others, technical
developments will be based on the NZDL Greenstone software,
for which a test collection material specific to the humanities
has been developed. By grounding the work in empirical
studies, we will be able to identify and present further
requirements on the design of such systems. By basing system
development on an established DL platform, we will be able
to test candidate design solutions, deliver working components
as part of the Greenstone system and provide examples for
developers of other DL systems that illustrate tested approaches
to improving user experience.
Findings
The UCIS project began in August 2004 and the humanities
phase will begin in early 2005. We therefore propose to
use this poster to report on early findings of the research. It is
for this reason that we have proposed a poster session, since
this will be a report or work in progress.
Acknowledgement
This work is funded by EPSRC Grant GR/S84798.
Bibliography
Attfield. S.J., A. E. Blandford, and J. Dowell. ""Information
seeking in the context of writing: a design psychology
interpretation of the 'problematic situation'."" Journal of
Documentation 59.4 (2003): 430 - 453.
Blandford, A.E., H. Stelmaszewska, and N. Bryan-Kinns. ""Use
of multiple digital libraries: a case study."" Proc. JCDL 2001.
Roanoke, VA, 2001. 179-188.
Corns, T.N. ""Computers in the humanities: methods and
applications in the study of English Literature."" Literary and
Linguistic Computing 6.2 (1991): 127-131.
Duff, W.M., and C.A. Johnson. ""Accidentally found on purpose:
Information-seeking behavior of historians in archives.""
Library Quarterly 72 (2002): 472-496.
1992.
Open University Library. Safari: Skills in Accessing, Finding
and Reviewing Information. 2001. Accessed 2005-04-15. <h
ttp://www.open.ac.uk/safari/>
Shneiderman, B., D. Byrd, and B. Croft. ""Sorting out
searching."" Communications of the ACM 41.4 (1998): 95-98.
Stone, S. ""Humanities Scholars-Information needs and uses.""
Journal of Documentation 38.4 (1982): 292-313.
Strauss, A., and J. Corbin. Basics of qualitative research:
grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park,
CA: Sage Publications, 1990.
Warwick C., and C. Carty. ""Only Connect, a Study of the
Problems caused by platform specificity and researcher isolation
in humanities computing."" Electronic Publishing 01, 2001 in
the digital Publishing Odyssey. Proceedings of the 5th
International ICCC/IFIP Conference on Electronic Publishing.
Ed. Arved Hubler, Peter Linde and John W.T. Smith. 2001.
36-47.
Warwick, C. ""English Literature, electronic text and computer
analysis: an unlikely combination?"" Proceedings of the
Association for Computers and the Humanities- Association
for Literary and Linguistic Computing, Conference, June 9-13.
University of Virginia, 1999a. 71-74.
Warwick, C. ""The lowest canonical denominator: Electronic
literary texts, and their publication, collection and preservation.""
New Fields for Research in the 21st Century, Proceedings of
the Anglo Nordic Conference 1999. Ed. M. Klasson, B.
Loughridge and S. Loof. Boras, Sweden: Swedish School of
Library and Information Studies, 1999b. 133-141.
Watson-Boone, R. ""The Information Needs and Habits of
Humanities Scholars."" Reference Quarterly 34 (1994):
203-216.","txt","2","",""
"553","6","Annotating Electronic Texts of Shakespeare","2","There are many texts of Shakespeare's plays online, but
most are entirely without notes of any kind, which makes
them only minimally useful to the general reader or beginning
student of Shakespeare. There is a need for reliable and fully
annotated electronic texts.
Currently there are only a handful of annotated Shakespeare
texts online, and they all indicate the presence of a note by
making a word or phrase in the text into a hyperlink. Some of
these annotated texts are misleading because the links often
point to inappropriate entries in a glossary. This problem could
be solved by more careful work on the part of the editor, but a
larger problem is that making words into hyperlinks is not the
best way of annotating Shakespeare.
Notes should be unobtrusive; they should not tease a reader
into looking at a note that he/she doesn't need. Notes should
also be efficient; they should provide needed information at a
glance, without the necessity of losing one's place in the text.
Print texts of Shakespeare exhibit various devices to make the
notes unobtrusive, but at the sacrifice of efficiency. Bevington's
Complete Works of Shakespeare avoids footnote numbers and
markers; the presence of a footnote is indicated by the presence
of a line number. The Riverside Shakespeare goes even farther;
line numbers are given in intervals of five, but the reader has
to look to the bottom of the page to see if there are any notes.
The Folger Shakespeare editions put all notes on a facing page,
with their line numbers, but without any indication in the text
of the presence of a note. All of these make for slow going; it's
up to the reader find the line number that's associated with the
note, and it often takes several shifts of focus from text to notes
and back again to make the correct connection. The Norton
Shakespeare, in a compromise effort, puts notes of one to three
words in the right-hand margin and flags the annotated word
with superscript circle; longer notes are put at the bottom of
the page and flagged by a footnote number.
Making words into hyperlinks is both obtrusive and inefficient.
Hyperlinks are extremely obtrusive; the different-colored
highlighting insists that the reader must be missing something
if he/she doesn't click. And making repeated clicks to get
information is very inefficient.
The scheme which I will demonstrate is not perfect, but is less
obtrusive and more efficient than any other, either print or
electronic. Most notes are presented in a column five pixels to
the right of the column of text. Each of these notes is preceded
by bolded word or phrase which indicates the subject of the
note. Longer notes are indicated by a right-arrow which is a
hyperlink; the hyperlink opens a smaller window, sized to the
length of the note, and positioned to the right of the column of
text. This formatting allows the reader to find most of the
information he/she needs at a glance, and the pop-up windows
allow for an unlimited amount of information, including images,
without forcing the reader to lose his/her place in the text.
The technique that produces this formatting depends the use
of the HTML table and JavaScript.
Each line of text is contained within the center cell of a
three-cell table row. Within the left-hand cell of each fifth table
row is an act, scene, and line number, so the reader always
knows where he/she is, without having to scroll or look to
another part of the page. The last cell of each table row provides
the space for the notes. Tagging the data cells of each table row
as nowrap keeps everything lined up, while at the same time
allowing the reader to zoom in for more readability.
For longer notes, the use of JavaScript to open the windows
means that each window can be a different size, according to
need, and can be positioned in such a way that it does not
obscure the column of text.
I am already applying these techniques to an online edition of
Julius Caesar. To see my work so far, go to this address: <h
ttp://www.clicknotes.com/Julius_Caesar> .","txt","2","",""
"554","6","A New Methodology for Parts of the Dutch Price History, Based on Analysis of the Paalgeld Portbooks, 1771-1778","1","In the early thirties of the last century an international group
of economic historians gathered to set standards for the
writing of national price-histories of the participating countries.
In the Netherlands Nicolaas Posthumus started the Herculean
task of gathering the data for the two volumes he would publish:
Nederlandsche Prijsgeschiedenis (Dutch Price-History), which
was published in 1943 and the second volume that was
published in 1964 after his death in 1960. The last volume was
completed by F.Ketner. Both volumes would become
cornerstones of the Dutch economic and social history.
However, the Second World War made contacts between the
historians involved very difficult and most of them decided to
continue their work based on the agreements made earlier.
Posthumus was very strict in sticking to the rules set by the
committee, although the some of the decisions made by the
group would have far reaching effects on the reliability of his
work. Still, since then these price histories have been seen as
the solid foundations for various discussions, a.o. for the
standard of living debate.
A crucial aspect of the price-histories are the price indexes,
which allow us to see developments over longer periods. There
are two critical aspects in creating indexes: the choice of goods
and their weights in the indexes, and the reference period for
the indexes. It now seems that on both accounts the choice were
unlucky.
There is good reason to question the solidity of the work done
by Posthumus. First of all, the manual compilation of all the
data lead to a selection of the data, since not all of the data from
the Price Currents of the Amsterdam exchange could be
processed. I will show that this selection has been carried out
on a misinterpretation of the sources. For quite a number of
goods there are more than one price notations in the Price
Currents: the meaning of the various prices is not yet fully
known. Posthumus just averaged these prices and used the
average. It is quite unlikely that in cases where the lowest price
notation and the highest price notation for the same good can
vary more than 100% that the meaning of these notations is
identical.
Secondly, the methodology used by Posthumus to fill the gaps
in his data is questionable. His sources were lacking and his
treatment of missing data was quite creative if we put it mildly.
His interpolation of missing data is based on averaging the two
closest available data, not taking into account seasonal
fluctuations. Sometimes the real data were years apart and
interpolations were made for all months in between, creating
a very static picure for some prices. Next to that, Posthumus
did not make clear which prices were real and which were
interpolations. Next to that for some years, for which the data
in Dutch were missing, he used Italian versions of the Price
Currents of the Amsterdam Exchange, forgetting however that
they were dated in the Italian style of Venice, which put them
in the wrong year.
Thirdly , most of the goods chosen for the indexes were
imported to the Netherlands. But, because very little large scale
research had been done about the composition of the total of
goods going around, the choice was mainly based on
pre-conceptions. Posthumus published two forms of indexes:
unweighted and weighted indexes. The choice of goods for the
indexes does not seem to be a real reflection of the importance
of the goods that were traded on the exchange. Likewise the
weights attached to the goods in computing the indexes seems
to have been quite arbitrary.
Based on my recent research on the Portbooks of the levy of
the Paalgeld in Amsterdam, a tax register on incoming shipping
from overseas to the port of Amsterdam, which offer a complete
oversight of all the goods imported to Amsterdam at the end
of the 18th century, I will argue that the composition of the
group of goods for the indexes does not reflect the realities of
the trade. Some of the goods that Posthumus used for his
indexes were not imported at all in the 18 year period, for which
the data of the Paalgeld Portbooks were digitized.
I will offer a statistical analysis of the composition of the
imports to Amsterdam, which will show that a different set of
goods as a basis for indexes will allow a much more reliable
view of the economical fluctuations. There have been plans to
make a machine readable version of the Nederlandse
Prijsgeschiedenis (Dutch Price-History), but I suggest that a
complete rethinking of the whole project is necessary.
Bibliography
Posthumus, Nicolaas Wilhelmus. Nederlandsche
Prijsgeschiedenis. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1943-1964.","txt","2","",""
"555","6","Approaches to Searching for Language and Diversity in a 'Whitebread City' Digital Corpus: The Charlotte Conversation and Narrative Collection","1","Macaulay comments that
Dialects, like languages, have both a unifying and a
separatist function. We speak the way we do to be like those we
wish to associate with and to distinguish ourselves from others.
When that association is based on where we live. . . a distinctive
form of speech is likely to survive. However, we need to look at
the whole configuration of linguistic features and not a few features
which may or may not be the critical ones for the speakers.
(239)
Why? In addition to the ""grammatical, phonetic, and lexical""
features traditionally posited as characterizing a dialect,
Macaulay adds
prosodic features and possibly also voice quality and discourse
characteristics. There is no reason to believe that dialects have
fewer features than other forms of language, and we do not know
in advance which features will be important to distinguish the
dialect.
(229)
In a discussion of features of southern style that warrant further
investigation, Barbara Johnstone cites several which can be
searched at word- and text-level: these lexicogrammatical
features contribute to the reader/hearer's assessment of style,
and include rhetorical genres triggered by particular discourse
markers; style shifts into regional colloquialism, stylization
and self-parody signaled by shifts into nonstandard verbs, for
example, or a judicious sprinkling of double modals to suggest
temporary intimacy. She asks for an investigation of regional
styles of interacting that ""makes strategic use of nostalgia for
neighborhood, local community, or region."" (206) Well, they
said southernly, we have a gracious plenty of data that
accommodates such investigation; the issue is, of course, how
to access, identify, and retrieve it.
The corpus that we are using to investigate these questions is
Project MORE's expanded Charlotte Conversation and
Narrative Collection (CNCC), which is part of the 11.5
million-words in the First Release of the American National
Corpus (ANC). Considered a satellite corpus to the core of the
ANC, which parallels the organization of the British National
Corpus (Reppen et al.), the CNCC goal is far more modest, but
still one of difficulty: to create a corpus of conversation and
conversational narration in a New South city at the beginning
of the 21st century. And that, of course, brings us smack up
against issues of region (Macaulay) and representativeness
(Douglas), of dialect diversity (Wolfram & Dannenberg), and
distinctions between rural and metropolitan features (Tillery,
Bailey & Wikle).
The CNCC is hybrid in some ways; similar to the ONZE corpus
in its evolution through multiple formats and purposes (Gordon
et al.). In addition to being a part of the ANC, it is also included
in the New South Voices (NSV) digital resource housed at the
University of North Carolina at Charlotte Library. NSV includes
interviews that cover a wide range of historical subjects, from
African American churches and Billy Graham crusades to
women's basketball and World War II. Other interviews,
narratives and conversations document the experiences and
language of recent immigrants to the area. As such, it seeks to
address a wide variety of audiences from local historians and
historic preservationists to public school students. By using
NSV, we are able to expand the number and range of interviews
available for linguistic as well as for historical analysis.
If the corpus is to be inclusive of the range of spoken styles
that conglomerate in the elastic borders of a New South city,
it must begin by identifying what they are. In today's Charlotte,
today's North Carolina, this is no longer simple. As Tillery,
Bailey & Wykle note, metropolitanization, foreign and domestic
migration, and expanding ethnic diversity have ""eliminated
many of the vestiges of traditional regional culture and . . . are
radically reshaping the United States"" (228). Their painstaking
study of what they see as the impact of demographic change
on American speech is keyed to 22 socio-demographic and
linguistic variables: 14 phonological features, 3 lexical, and 5
that are lexicogrammatical. They see a balkanization (241; cf
244) with increased divergence of rural and urban ways of
speaking; they ask will ""old towns with new populations"" —
such as Charlotte — create new communities and new ways of
speaking?
Investigation of these phenomena within a database
environment requires a variety of tools and approaches if we
are to extract the information contained in these transcripts.
The reason for this is due to the nature of the types of information we need to obtain from these interviews and then
to the question of how we can best obtain that information.
On the one hand, we need to be able to perform textual analysis
on the interviews and to examine subjects' speech patterns and
linguistic characteristics. This in turn requires that we be able
to extract information that is embedded within discursive text
— looking at how they use language 'in situ'. On the other hand,
there are discrete pieces of information — metadata if you will
— about the participants (place of origin, current residence,
gender, ethnicity, etc.) to which we need access if we are to do
anything meaningful with what we discover from our textual
analysis. This dichotomy pertains to any area doing textual
analysis. As noted by Ronald Bourrett, the roots of this
dichotomy lie in the two types of information with which we
are dealing: document-centric and data-centric.
Due to the different nature of the two types of information —
linguistic analysis and descriptive metadata — we have found
that a single approach does not allow us to fully explore the
types of correlations we were seeking. While our XML database
allows us to find useful things in searching tagged information
within the interviews, it does not provide sufficient flexibility
in searching data-centric information. On the other hand, with
relational database technology we have exactly the opposite
situation.
In addition, during the course of our investigation, we
discovered that there were certain types of textual information
— such as word- and phrase-frequency; retrieving and isolating
particular words and phrases within their context in a document;
and looking for particular words and/or phrases within certain
proximity of each other — that were amenable neither to an
XML database, nor a classic relational database, approach. To
address this need, we decided that a third option — inverted
indexes — was needed to allow us to look for such patterns.
As noted in Zaïane, this technique greatly enhances the ability
to search textual-based information.
Therefore, in designing our database system, we decided to
adopt a mixed approach, one that allowed us to utilize the
strengths of each system without running afoul of its limitations.
In doing so, we use both XML and inverted indexing to do
textual analysis and then a relational database to correlate that
information with relevant demographic criteria. The result is a
hybrid that allows us to do more than any single approach could
provide.
This paper will first present how we are using readily available
tools to implement a searching system that supports
demographic correlation with textual features (including some
features of proximity search and frequency of occurrence).
These tools, all of which are part of the Open Source tools,
allow us to build and configure with ease a system that not long
ago would require extensive and non-trivial programming. They
include:
• eXist (XML) and MySQL (relational) database managers
• php, perl and Java programming languages
• ApacheWeb server
As a way of concluding, we will then earnestly solicit assistance
on how we can best make this collection of roughly 1,000
transcribed oral interviews, conversations and narratives more
useful to any researcher, particularly in the area of text-based,
online searching.
Bibliography
Douglas, Fiona. ""The Scottish Corpus of Texts and Speech:
problems of corpus design."" Literary and Linguistic Computing
18 (2003): 23-37.
Gordon, Elizabeth, Margaret Maclagan, and Jennifer Hay. ""The
ONZE corpus. Manuscript."" Models and Methods in the
Handling of Unconventional Digital Corpora. Volume 2:
Diachronic Corpora. Ed. J.C. Beal, K.P. Corrigan and H. Moisl.
Houndsmills: Palgrave, Forthcoming.
Hudson-Ettle, Diana. ""Nominal that clauses in three regional
varieties of English: a study of the relevance of text type
medium, and syntactic function."" Journal of English Linguistics
30 (2002): 258-273.
Johnstone, Barbara. ""Features and uses of southern style.""
English in the Southern United States. Ed. S. Nagle and S.
Sanders. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
189-207.
Kjellmer, Goeran. ""A modal shock absorber,
empathizer/emphasizer and qualifier."" International Journal
of Corpus Linguistics 8 (2003): 145-168.
Macaulay, Ronald. ""I'm off to Philadelphia in the morning.""
American Speech 77 (2002): 227-241.
Reppen, Randi, and Nancy Ide. ""The American National
Corpus: Overall goals and the first release."" Journal of English
Linguistics 32 (2004): 105-113.
Tillery, Jan, Guy Bailey, and Tom Wikle. ""Demographic change
and American dialectology in the twenty-first century.""
American Speech 79 (2004): 227-249.
Wolfram, Walt, and Clare Dannenberg. ""Dialect identity in a
tri-ethnic context: The case of Lumbee American Indian
English."" English World-Wide 20 (1999): 179-216.
Zaïane, Osmar. Inverted Index for Information Retrieval (Slides
keyed to Chapter 22 of unlisted textbook: CMPUT 391: Database Management Systems). University of Alberta, 2001.
Accessed 2005-04-11. <http://www.cs.ualberta.c
a/~zaiane/courses/cmput391-02/slides/Lect
7/>","txt","2","",""
"556","6","Action and Interaction in Music and New Media Art: Exploration of Musicians' Performative and Interactive Decisions as Evidenced by Annotated Musical Scores","1","Introduction
Preservation and representation of digital art presents a
significant challenge for curators, archivists and artists.
The most notable problem is the fundamentally interactive
nature of this evolving art form. Because there are no clearly
defined frameworks for the authentic representation of the
variations resulting from interactions, curators and archivists
are currently deciding on a case by case basis which interactions
should be preserved, who should be able to interact with a given
piece, and how to represent those interactions in a meaningful
and objective way. Not only is this method problematic from
a representational standpoint, it's very time-consuming. My
thesis will attempt to resolve some of these complexities by
making connections between this new art form and an
established one, namely music; assessing the representational
characteristics of music's notation system and exploring the
methods by which musicians and conductors handle musical
interaction.
Background
One of the most significant challenges for the new media
art community is development of a representation
framework for preservation purposes. There are currently three
preservation models under consideration. The first two have
technical origins, and should be familiar to the general digital
preservation community: migration, the premeditated upgrade
of file formats; and emulation, which focuses on development
of ur-operating systems able to run obsolete media. The third
option, much more radical, and developed by and for the new
media art community, is re-interpretation (Depocas, Ippolito
& Jones); a method intimately related to the presentation, exhibition, and performance of an interactive new media art
object.
While re-interpretation is essential to success in the performing
arts, in the fine arts and electronic preservation communities,
the idea of re-interpretation as a valid preservation strategy
challenges beliefs that are at the heart of these fields.
Specifically, for the purpose of archival preservation, the
characterization of a 'reliable' or 'authentic' object will need to
undergo a significant transformation if these new media art
objects; highly variable, interactive, and data-rich cultural
artifacts, stand a chance of meaningful survival. Although
radical, curators, archivists and conservators could regard the
idea of re-interpretation as a way to honestly address the
realities of presenting a variable work over time. Both migration
and emulation effect subtle re-interpretations of a work, whether
we perceive those changes or not. For example, the processor
speed of an emulated computer will display an interactive work
from the mid-1970s differently than the original operating
system would. Whether that difference fundamentally changes
the work's meaning can only be determined if a representational
framework exists in which the creator/cataloger has the ability
to address the realities of this medium's artistic creation and
representation process: specifically, the highly interactive nature
of the work, the variable quality of output, and technically
complex interactions within the work itself must be addressed.
By embracing the paradigm that includes re-interpretation as
a valid preservation strategy, digital preservationists will need
a thorough and consistent representation of the original from
which to work.
In mid-2004 Richard Rinehart delivered a paper arguing that
new media art is more like a musical performance than it is like
a painting or a book, and therefore more appropriately
represented by a scoring system than the text-centric methods
used today (Rinehart). His proposal of a media art notation
system (MANS), based on the MPEG-21 framework, is a
welcome step forward in the development of a viable
preservation schema for these highly variable and ephemeral
objects. Rinehart's system, however, is more of a metadata
framework or ontology than a scoring system, and therefore
runs into the same problems inherent in any text-based
representational framework that attempts to describe or define
a non-textual entity (Svenonius), and is based on the
‘conduit-metaphor' model of communication (Davis).
Musical Scores
There are numerous examples of existing art forms that
employ re-interpretation as the de facto means of delivery
and representation: namely; drama, for which scripts represent
the work; dance, which often makes use of a notational system
to describe and record body movements across space and time
(Labanotation being the primary example); and music, which
is usually represented in the West using the common notation
system (CNS). In order to develop a less text-centric
representational model for new media art, I chose to explore
the representation and interaction techniques of these art forms,
which have interpretable or variable output.
Music, drama and dance each share characteristics with new
media art. They're temporal: meaning they take place and
change over time; they're performance based and ephemeral:
the performance is the instantiation of the work, and once that
performance is over, it's gone; and they're open to interpretation
within some pre-determined set of values: although it is possible
and expected to interpret freely, each form has a framework
within which the director /choreographer/conductor must work.
However, music has traits uniquely shared with new media art.
For example, music and new media art both share a 'unity of
artistic vision', basically meaning that all instruments, in the
case of an orchestra; and libraries, programs, data sources, in
the case of a new media art object, interact in a specific way to
produce the final product. Another shared trait between music
and new media art is the existence of a level of abstraction that
is not necessarily present in drama or dance. Both the composer
and the programmer use instruments, or tools, to achieve his
or her artistic vision, whereas a playwright or choreographer
works with the more immediately available bodies in motion
and/or words as their means of expression. Finally, a play or
dance does not inherently depend on the availability of tools
to exist, whereas an orchestral / new media art performance
most often does.
In the hopes of developing a set of characteristics to include in
a new media art notation system, I have started exploring the
information contained in musical scores. In addition to
recording the fixed musical elements like pitch, rhythm, tempo,
dynamics, and articulation; this research also seeks to
understand musicians' interpretative decisions, as well as their
interactions with each other, and with the score. Interpretation
and interaction are particularly interesting for the purpose of
this research, because these are the primary means by which
musicians achieve artistic, reliable performances, and that is
the ultimate goal of any new media representation framework.
Although it might be difficult to completely understand
musicians' interpretative choices and interactions, we believe
that the personal notes (annotations) musicians' make on the
scores themselves can provide valuable information regarding
these transient and personal decisions (Marshall).
Research questions
Some of the questions this phase of the research seeks to
answer: Which musical elements must be regulated, which
can be improvised, and which must be freely interpreted? Is this dependant on context of presentation? Can any of these
musical elements transfer usefully to representation of new
media art? Under what circumstances does a musician decide
to do something that is not in the published score? How do
composers communicate over time, space, and cultures, their
intent and goals regarding performance? Are there different
models of interpretation based on different musical styles or
genres? How do composers, conductors, and musicians react
to the idea of official representation of interpretation?
Methodology
With these issues in mind, we developed an experimental
framework consisting of a musician/score collection
methodology; a coding schema, which will help categorize the
annotations; and a method for the systematic exploration of
annotations.
The musician/score hierarchy defines from whom and what
kinds of musical scores this study will consider. It is a structural
arrangement of four parallel interests and skills of each
musician: first is the three 'levels' of music-makers: musician,
conductor, and composer; second is the level of proficiency:
amateur, college-level, and professional; third, we take into
consideration the presence of a conductor: orchestras versus
quartets, for example; and finally, the hierarchy includes a
consideration of style of music – jazz, classical, and musical
theater.
After collecting the scores, we are marking up any annotations
the musicians/composers/conductors might have made on them.
There are two types of mark-up: structural, and content-based.
At the structural level, we decided to mark up at the bar level,
delineating the extent of bars and phrases, where appropriate.
At the content level, there are three types of written notes:
textual, where the musician has actually written a word in the
margins ( ""Less Bow!!!"" or ""FROG!"" ); symbolic, where the
musician has written non-textual symbols (stars, exclamation
points, and glasses); and numeric, where the musician has put
numbers above or below notes for fingering or timing
instructions, or numbered the bars if that information isn't
included in the published score.
At this point in the process we conduct interviews with the
participating musicians, asking questions regarding the process,
and context of annotation behavior (MacMullen). The purpose
of the interview is to get a deeper understanding of musicians'
attitudes toward interpretations and whether their annotation
behavior is in fact an important element in understanding that
interactive quality of musical performance.
The final step in this process is to analyze the annotated scores,
looking for n-way consensus, investigating any 'important' or
consistently documented sections or elements within a piece.
I will normalize at the basic unit of annotation (in this case at
the bar and phrase level); I'll record all instances of annotation:
who, where, what kind; and all count all instances of annotation
to provide percentages at the bar and phrase level between and
among musicians and musical types. Finally, I'll conduct
consensus analysis to determine how often annotations concur
on selections.
Initial Findings
After concluding a pilot study, exploring the initial data
from a university-level orchestra, and interviewing
several musicians and conductors, initial findings indicate that
the premises upon which this study are based are valid.
Annotation of the score provides insight into a number of
different issues relevant to the development of a notation
schema for new media art: annotation analysis identifies those
characteristics of musical notation important across musician
types and skill level, allowing me to make recommendations
for the inclusion of certain characteristics in the new notation
system. Annotation also evidences performance-related
interaction between and among musicians. Finally, annotation
is a physical sign of an individual musician's interaction with,
and interpretation of, the score itself.
This work is ongoing. Data collection will end in April 2005,
when more comprehensive findings will be available.
Acknowledgments
This work was partially funded by an unrestricted research
gift from Microsoft Research to the Annotation of
Structured Data research team in the School of Information
and Library Science at the University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill, whose members contributed to this work: Gary
Marchionini, Paul Solomon, and Catherine Blake, co-PIs; with
team members Tom Ciszek, Xin Fu, Lili Luo, W. John
MacMullen, Cathy Marshall, Mary Ruvane, and David West.
The project's website is available at: <http://ils.unc.
edu/annotation/> .
Bibliography
Davis, Marc. ""Theoretical foundations for experiential systems
design."" Paper presented at ACM SIGMM Workshop on
Experiential Telepresence (ETP) 2003. New York: ACM Press,
2003. Depocas, Alain, Jon Ippolito, and Caitlin Jones. Permanence
through change: The variable media approach. New York,
NY: Guggenheim Museum Publications, 2003.
MacMullen, W.J. ""Annotation as Process, Thing, and
Knowledge: Multi-domain studies of structured data
annotation."" Paper delivered at ASIST Annual Meeting,
Charlotte, NC (October 28 - November 2, 2005). In Review.
Marshall, Catherine C. ""Toward an ecology of hypertext
annotation."" Paper presented at Hypertext98, Pittsburgh, PA,
1998. New York: ACM Press, 1998.
Rinehart, Richard. ""A system of formal notation for scoring
works of digital and variable media art."" Paper presented at
AIC Digital Media Group 2004 Annual Meeting, (Portland,
Oregon: June 14, 2004). 2004.
Svenonius, Elaine. ""Access to nonbook materials: The limits
of subject indexing for visual and aural languages."" Journal
of the American Society of Information Science and Technology
45.8 (1994): 600-606.","txt","2","",""
"557","6","Texttechnologie in der Universitären Lehre","2","Einleitung
An der Universität Bielefeld (eine deutsche Universität mit
ca.16 000 Studierenden) ist an der Fakultät für Linguistik und
Literaturwissenschaft seit wenigen Jahren der Bereich
Texttechnologie in der universitären Lehre vertreten. Die
Studienmöglichkeiten dieses Faches, die in dieser Form
einzigartig sind, sollen auf einem bilingualen Poster (Englisch
und Deutsch) erstmals auf einer wissenschaftlichen Tagung
vorgestellt werden. Wir sind davon überzeugt, dass unsere
Erfahrungen für die Fachkolleginnen und Kollegen an anderen
Instituten sehr interessant sind, da es sich um eine innovative
curriculare Umsetzung von Inhalten aus dem Bereich
Humanities Computing handelt.
Die Texttechnologie an der Universität Bielefeld beschäftigt
sich unter anderem mit Eigenschaften von Texten sowie der
Modellierung und der Strukturierung textueller Information.
Institutionell ist die Texttechnologie dem Arbeitsbereich
Computerlinguistik und damit mittelbar dem Fach Linguistik
zugeordnet. In der Forschung ist die Texttechnologie seit der
Mitte der 1990er Jahre an der Universität Bielefeld vertreten.
Zum Wintersemester 1999/2000 begann die Etablierung der
Texttechnologie in der Lehre, und zwar in Form eines
Magisternebenfachstudiengangs. Dies bedeutete, dass
Texttechnologie mit einem geisteswissenschaftlichen Hauptfach
und einem weiteren Nebenfach verbunden werden musste. Ein
vollständiges Magisterstudium dauert in der Regel 9-10
Semester. Vor ca. zwei Jahren wurden u.a. auf Grund von
Internationalisierungsbestrebungen die Magisterstudiengänge
in Bielefeld abgeschafft und die Studienmöglichkeiten auf
Bachelor- und Masterstudiengänge umgestellt. Dies ist Teil
einer generellen Entwicklung in Europa, die 1999 in der
Bologna Deklaration von 29 europäischen Ländern fest
vereinbart worden ist. Im Zuge dieses Prozesses sollen bis 2010
alle Hochschulstudiengänge auf Bachelor und Master umgestellt
worden sein. Texttechnologie kann seit dem Wintersemester 2002/2003 als
eigenes B.A. Nebenfach studiert werden. Dieses Nebenfach
kann mit unterschiedlichen B.A.-Kernfächern, z.B. Germanistik,
Anglistik, Geschichte, Sozialwissenschaften oder Philosophie
kombiniert werden. Die Lehrinhalte des Nebenfachstudiengangs
sind modular organisiert.
Nachfolgend sollen diese Module kurz beschrieben werden.
Module des Studiums
Grundlagen der Texttechnologie
Computerpropädeutikum (3 Leistungspunkte)
Einführung in die Texttechnologie (4 Leistungspunkte)
Textstruktur und Textsatz (4 Leistungspunkte)
Hypertext (4 Leistungspunkte)
Im ersten Studiensemester findet ein Computerpropädeutikum
statt, das grundlegende praktische Kenntnisse im Umgang mit
Computern vermittelt und dabei auf die Verarbeitung von
Textdaten ausgerichtet ist (Betriebs- und Dateisystem,
Texteditoren, reguläre Ausdrücke). In der Veranstaltung
Einführung in die Texttechnologie werden die Eigenschaften
elektronischer Texte und die Methoden ihrer Erstellung
behandelt. Der Begriff des elektronischen Dokuments, die
Trennung von Struktur und Layout, die Zeichencodierung sowie
Typographie werden ebenfalls angesprochen. Diese Thematiken
werden in der zweistündigen Veranstaltung Textstruktur und
Textsatz weiter vertieft. Das Seminar Hypertext behandelt u.a.
Grundlagen dieser Textsorte (von den verschiedenen
Begriffsdefinitionen und bis zur Geschichte), konkrete, d. h.
praktisch angewendete, Hypertextsysteme und textlinguistische
Themen wie z.B. Kohärenz in Hypertexten.
Formale Methoden der Linguistik
Formale Methoden I, II, III (je 3 Leistungspunkte)
Methoden aus der Mathematik, der Informatik und der Logik
werden in drei teilweise aufeinander aufbauenden Seminaren
besprochen. Zu den Methoden zählen die Mengentheorie als
Sprache zur Formulierung von Strukturen, der Umgang mit der
Hierarchie der formalen Sprachen und deren Grammatiken (der
Chomsky-Hierarchie) und die Verwendung formaler
Automaten. Des Weiteren wird in die Aussagen- und
Prädikatenlogik eingeführt. Darüber hinaus werden
Attribut-Wert-Strukturen und deren Relationen vorgestellt und
deren Operationen (vor allem die Unifikationsoperation)
eingeübt.
Programmierung für die Texttechnologie
Einführung in die Programmierung (12 Leistungspunkte)
Am Beispiel einer konkreten, jeweils aktuellen und für das
Humanities Computing relevanten Programmiersprache wird
sich in diesem Modul mit den grundlegenden, allgemeinen
Prinzipen der Programmierung auseinandergesetzt. Die
Vermittlung der programmiersprachlichen Paradigmen steht
neben dem Erlernen einer konkreten Programmiersprache (z.B.
Java, Perl, PHP oder Prolog) im Zentrum des Moduls.
Anwendungsschwerpunkt der Beispiele und der Übungen bildet
die Verarbeitung (z.T. strukturiert annotierter) Textdaten. Eine
sehr umfangreiche Programmieraufgabe muss nach Abschluss
des Seminars von Studierenden in kleinen Gruppen gelöst
werden.
Informationsstrukturierung und
Auszeichnungssprachen
Auszeichnungssprachen (4 Leistungspunkte)
Informationsstrukturierung (8 Leistungspunkte)
Die Auszeichnungssprachen (engl. Markup Languages) zählen
zu den grundlegenden Standards der Texttechnologie. In dem
Seminar Auszeichnungssprachen wird XML, aber auch SGML,
besprochen, wobei die Themen maschinelle Verarbeitung von
ausgezeichneten Dokumenten, Schemasprachen, Parser,
Transformation und Formatierung von besonderer Relevanz
sind.
In dem Seminar Informationsstrukturierung werden die dann
bekannten Auszeichnungssprachen verwendet, um
Informationen, die aus sehr unterschiedlichen Domänen
stammen, zu strukturieren. Hierbei wird den Studierenden die
Möglichkeit geboten, die Inhalte ihres Kernfachs (bei nahezu
allen Studierenden ist dies eine Geisteswissenschaft) als
allgemeine Information aufzufassen und zum Gegenstand ihrer
Informationsmodellierung werden zu lassen. Die Richtlinien
der Text Encoding Initiative werden in diesem Zusammenhang
genauer angesehen. In dem Seminar werden Kleingruppen
gebildet, die — kollektiv — bestimmte
Informationsmodellierungsaufgaben lösen und der gesamten
Gruppe präsentieren.
Wahlpflichtmodule
Neben den bisher genannten Modulen, die alle studiert werden
müssen, ist von den Studierenden noch eines von drei weiteren
Modulen zu wählen. Sie können sich entscheiden, ob sie für
ca. 3 Semester Sprachkurse (insbesondere Sprachen mit
nicht-lateinischen Schriftsystemen, wie Japanisch oder
Arabisch) besuchen möchten, ob sie sich mit Empirischen
Methoden (u.a. Statistik) oder mit den linguistischen Beschreibungsebenen (z.B. Semantik und Syntax) intensiv
beschäftigen möchten.
Studieninfrastruktur und weitere
Studienmöglichkeiten
Die Mehrzahl der Seminare enthält sehr praxisnah ausgerichtete
Lehrkomponenten. An der Fakultät für Linguistik und
Literaturwissenschaft ist in engem Zusammenhang mit dem
Aufbau des Studiengangs eine Infrastruktur errichtet worden,
die eine derartige praxisnahe Ausbildung ermöglicht. So stehen
zwei Multimediaseminarräume (mit 40 und mit 80
Arbeitsplätzen an 20 bzw. 40 Rechnern, einem didaktischen
Netz, einem Intranet und selbstverständlich mit
Internetanbindung), Rechnerarbeitsplätze für das Selbststudium,
sowie Arbeitsplätze im Hochschulrechenzentrum zur
Verfügung. Erst durch diese Infrastruktur wurde es möglich,
die Praxisnähe auch bei der derzeitigen durchschnittlichen
Seminargröße von 60 bis 80 Personen sicherzustellen.
Neben dem B.A.-Nebenfachstudiengang ist es auch möglich,
Texttechnologie als so genanntes Profil im B.A. Studiengang
Linguistik zu studieren. Darüber hinaus wird an der Universität
Bielefeld der M.A.-Studiengang ""Interdisziplinäre
Medienwissenschaft"" angeboten, der fakultätsübergreifend
verankert ist. Dieser modular organisierte Masterstudiengang,
der auch texttechnologisches Modul beinhaltet, stellt eine von
mehreren weiterführenden Studienmöglichkeiten dar, die von
den Absolventen des Texttechnologiebachelorstudiengangs
gewählt werden können. Es ist natürlich auch möglich nach
dem B.A.-Abschluss einen Beruf zu ergreifen. Da sich
insbesondere auch die klassischen Berufsfelder für
Geisteswissenschaftler/innen (z. B. in den Verlagen oder im
Bereich Journalismus) durch den massiven Einzug der
Informationstechnologie in den vergangenen Jahren sehr stark
verändert haben, sind die Absolventen der Texttechnologie
auch für diese (bei den Studierenden der Geisteswissenschaften
besonders beliebten Berufe) sehr gut vorbereitet. Es existieren
zwar bisher keine Verbleibestatistiken der Studierenden, erste
Erfahrungen zeigen aber, dass das Nebenfach Texttechnologie
den Studierenden tatsächlich das berufsrelevante Wissen
vermittelt, das sich viele Firmen von Absolventen
geisteswissenschafter Studiengänge wünschen.","txt","2","",""
"558","6","From Text to Topics  Zigzagging Towards the Knowledgebase of Tang Civilization","1","Abstract
Afew years ago, the prospect of having access to a large
amount of digitized data promised to give a completely
new direction to the field of Chinese Studies. Although today
we have such databases as the Siku Quanshu (四庫全書¸)
Fulltext Database1, as well as many other texts, some of them
even freely available on the Internet, the benefits of this has
been limited. There are many reasons for this, not all of them
technical. Of the technical reasons, the limited, idiosyncratic
interface that each of these database provides, and the
unstructured data it operates on are probably the most important
ones.
The Knowledgebase of Tang Civilization is an attempt to
remedy this situation, at least for material relating to the Tang,
by providing a comprehensive electronic archive of information
about China during the period of the Tang dynasty (618-907
A.D.) in a way that allows new ways to access, analyze and
expand the information. Work on this Knowledgebase started
in 20032 with initial funding for 5 years. This presentation will
present some of the experiences gained in the first development
phase.
The design of the Knowledgebase uses a two layer model, that
distinguishes the 'information layer' from the 'resource layer'.
The organization of the information layer is based on the topic
map paradigm.3 to allow for the expression of ontology
subtrees, with links from the information layer back to the
resource layer, which will hold primary sources.
Its main point of access for researchers will be a web
application, but other interfaces will be developed.
Initially most of the information to be included will be textual,
but will in due time be enhanced by images, visual
reproductions of objects, digital maps and animations of events.
The distinguishing feature of the knowledgebase is the way information items are interconnected in a flexible and innovative
way.
The information in the knowledgebase will be organized along
the following information axis:
• Personal names, dates and activities of people of the Tang.
• Placenames and georeferences to there locations,
administrative geographical units, digital maps.
• Works created during the Tang, including texts, artefacts
and buildings
• Calendar and time
• Events of importance and influence
Obviously, many if not all information items will be accessible
through more than one of these axes; internally they are
cross-linked and form more of a web-like structure.
Additionally, these items are organized in hierarchical
ontologies. This allows to access the information also based
on their position within the hierarchy, or on the relation with
other items. For geographical locations, like a city for example,
such a hierarchy would consist of the upper administrative units
it belongs to; for persons this could consist of the family line,
but also the region of origin, the school or tradition of thought,
in the case of monks also the ordination line and line of
transmission.
The challenge in the first phase of the development, which will
be concluded by the time this presentation will be given, was
to design a way to bootstrap the Knowledgebase. For this
purpose, two dynastic histories (the Jiu Tang Shu (945) and the
Xin Tang Shu (1060)) and one chronologically arranged
historical account by Sima Guang (Zizhi Tongjian, 1084) have
been chosen to provide a basic set of information about the
Tang period. This idea relies on the fact, that the dynastic
histories do not only provide a day to day chronicle of court
affairs and other events, but also include monographs on a
variety of subject matters, including geography (with detailed
accounts of administrative units, their changes in size and
denomination, local production, population etc.), calendar
(including accounts of the calendar systems in use), ritual
observances, music, astronomy, offices, state finances, law and
a detailed bibliography of works known to have written in that
period. In addition to that, more than half of the text of the
official histories is taken up by biographic accounts. In the case
of the Tang, there are two such histories, since in the eyes of
Ouyang Xiu, the editor of the second, ""new"" history, the first
one had some defects in style and presentation.
The texts are encoded in XML using the TEI vocabulary. In a
first phase, only structural encoding was applied, so that the
texts could be accessed using XML technologies4 and could
be further processed. It was then started to add semantic markup
to allow for automatic extraction of information.
It should be obvious, that this collection provides rich material
that could be mined for inclusion in the Knowledgebase, but
the challenge was to find an efficient way to mine that
information, generate topics from them and relate them to each
other in the way outlined above. The presentation will focus
on the strategies employed and results achieved and will then
try to look at how to generalize these methods. It is also planned
to show a prototype of an interface, that allows further
enhancement of the data.
1. A database published by Chinese University Press, that includes
on 176 CD-ROMS an electronic text of the anthology Siku
Quanshu, which was compiled in China in the 17th century and
takes 1500 volumes in the modern reprint.
2. More information on this project can be found at <http://co
e21.zinbun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/> the website of the Institute
for Research in Humanities, COE 21 section
3. As defined in ISO 13250 (International Organization for
Standardization)
4. Most of this had been done semi-automatically. Just to give an
idea of the amount of the material, the size of the files with only
very basic encoding applied runs at this moment to well above 30
MB.
Bibliography
ISO. ISO/IEC 13250, Information technology - SGML
Applications - Topic Maps. Geneva: ISO, 2000.
Liu Xu. 舊唐書 (Jiu Tang Shu) (945). Beijing: Zhonghua
Shuju, 1975.
Ouyang Xiu. 新唐書 (Xin Tang Shu) (1060). Beijing:
Zhonghua Shuju, 1975.
Sima Guang. 資治通鑑 (Zizhi Tongjian) (1084). Beijing:
Zhonghua Shuju, 1956.
Wenyuange Siku quanshu dianziban. Hong Kong: Chinese
University Press, 1998.","txt","2","",""
"559","6","Reading Potential: The Oulipo and the Meaning of Algorithms","1","Recent efforts to reconceptualize text analysis with
computers in order to broaden the appeal of humanities
computing have invoked the example of the Oulipo, a group
of writers in France that invent 'potential' ways to create
literature using rigorous formal constraints. Rejecting the
practice of using computers as tools for objective, empirical
research with texts, Stephen Ramsay envisions an algorithmic
criticism that transforms texts for ""the purpose of releasing
what the Oulipians would call their 'potentialities'"" (Ramsay
172). Stéfan Sinclair has developed HyperPo as a web-based
tool for helping scholars read and play with texts using
procedures inspired by the Oulipo. The idea of playing with
texts using computers is pursued further by Geoffrey Rockwell
who calls for the creation of web-based playpens where scholars
can experiment with tools and discover the potentialities
inherent in the practice of humanities computing.
Although there are similarities between the activities of the
Oulipo and the new approach to computer-assisted literary
analysis, the development of tools for the express purpose of
encouraging scholars outside of humanities computing to play
with texts does not follow the model of Oulipian research into
potentialities. For the Oulipo, the invention of procedures for
playing with texts is not necessarily a means to greater
engagement with literature: it is its own end, an intellectual
activity that invites application but does not require adoption
by others as an indication of success. According to Raymond
Queneau, one of the founding members of the Oulipo and author
of the Cent mille milliards de poèmes,
The word 'potential' concerns the very nature of literature; that is,
fundamentally it's less a question of literature strictly speaking
than of supplying forms for the good use one can make of
literature. We call potential literature the search for new forms
and structures that may be used by writers in any way they see fit.
(Oulipo 1986, 38)
Queneau makes it clear that what the Oulipo does relates to but
does not constitute literary creation. Writing is a derivative
activity: the Oulipo pursue what we might call speculative or
theoretical literature and leave the application of the constraints
to practitioners who may (or may not) find their procedures
useful. According to François Le Lionnais, another founding
member, a method for writing literature need not produce an
actual text: ""method is sufficient in and of itself. There are
methods without textual examples. An example is an additional
pleasure for the author and the reader"" (Bens 81, my
translation).
The Oulipo did not articulate a clear statement explaining
potential methods for reading literature, but we can extrapolate
a definition from how they described their efforts to invent
methods for writing literature. Potential text analysis is less a
question of interpreting literature than of supplying algorithms
for the good use one can make of reading. Producing exemplary
interpretations with algorithms is a secondary consideration.
It follows that the interpretation of texts using a computer
should not be in and of itself the objective of the new
computer-assisted text analysis. The objective should be the
invention of algorithms that scholars may (or may not) use,
according to their own interests. The potentiality (as opposed
to the reality) of computers as tools for text analysis implies
that scholars engaged in the derivative activity of interpreting
literature may not find such methods useful.
When the Oulipo formed in 1960, one of the first things they
discussed was using computers to read and write literature.
They communicated regularly with Dmitri Starynkevitch, a
computer programmer who helped develop the IBM SEA CAB
500 computer. The relatively small size and low cost of the
SEA CAB 500 along with its high-level programming language
PAF (Programmation Automatique des Formules) provided
the Oulipo with a precursor to the personal computer.
Starynkevitch presented the Oulipo with an ""imaginary""
telephone directory composed of realistic names and numbers
generated by his computer. He also programmed the machine
to compose sonnets from Queneau'sCent mille milliards de
poèmes. In both cases the Oulipo was impressed but did not
believe these computer applications had 'potential'. What
worried the Oulipo was the aleatory nature of computer-assisted
artistic creation: they sought to avoid chance and automatisms
over which the computer user had no control (Bens 147-148).
In 1981 the Oulipo published Atlas de littérature potential
where they described some of the computer applications they
devised for reading literature. Their early experiments included
machine-assisted readings of the Cent mille milliards de poèmes
and Queneau's Un conte à votre façon. The algorithms used to
read these texts provided a certain degree of interaction between
the user and the machine but did not reveal unforeseen
potentialities. Some members of the Oulipo formed ARTA
(Atelier de Recherches et Techniques Avancées) and ALAMO
(Atelier de Littérature Assistée par la Mathématique et les
Ordinateurs) to explore computer-assisted writing, but the
Oulipo itself has not further pursued methods for reading texts
with machines.
This is not to say the Oulipo abandoned the idea of potentialities
in reading. There are at least two examples of original algorithms developed by Oulipians for reading texts. The first
is Harry Mathews's Algorithm, which consists of combinatoric
operations over a set of structurally similar but thematically
heterogeneous texts. These operations generalize the structure
of the Cent mille milliards de poèmes and allow for the
production of new texts. Mathews notes that the algorithm
works not only with letters, words and phrases but with entire
works, entire oeuvres, entire literatures, entire worlds. Creating
a computer program based on this algorithm ( <http://bu
mppo.hartwick.edu/Oulipo/Mathews.php> ) is
relatively simple, but its interest does not lie in its application.
According to Mathews, the aim of the algorithm ""is not to
liberate potentiality but to coerce it"" (Oulipo 1986, 139). A
'new' reading of a text (or a reading of a 'new' text) through the
algorithm is not the objective. The use of the algorithm is
meaningful in that the apparent unity of texts can be dismantled
by the algorithm and give way to a multiplicity of meanings.
Mathews invented a system of constraints that illustrates what
deconstructionists have maintained for decades.
The second example is Raymond Queneau's matrix analysis of
language, published in Etudes de linguistique appliquée and
discussed at length during one of the Oulipo's early gatherings.
Using principles of linear algebra, Queneau devised a
mathematics of the French language that could describe the
structure of texts and provide statistical ""indices of an author's
style that may be interesting, for they escape the conscious
control of the writer and doubtless depend on several hidden
parameters"" (Queneau 319, my translation). Queneau himself
provided analyses of a number of short sample texts. His ability
to apply the algorithm to lengthy texts was limited, however,
because he did his calculations 'by hand': he did not use a
computer. With the availability of part-of-speech taggers such
as Helmut Schmid's TreeTagger, it is easy to use a computer
to perform a matrix analysis of any text written in French ( <h
ttp://bumppo.hartwick.edu/Oulipo/Matrix.h
tml> ). Matrix analysis may prove useful for authorship
attribution in combination with other techniques, such as the
use of Markov chains proposed by Khmelev and Tweedie.
Queneau, however, expressed greater interest in the algorithm's
mathematical properties: he proved several theorems on the
behavior of matrices and identitified similarities between them
and the Fibonacci series. The members of the Oulipo were
intrigued by matrix analysis but looked forward to the creation
of poems written in columns and rows rather than the
transformation of existing poems into matrices (Bens 236-237).
Mathews and Queneau offer two algorithms we can
operationalize with computers for literary analysis, but the
interest of the algorithms lies not in what they help us see in a
given text but in the way they invite us to play rigorously for
play's sake. Oulipian constraints on reading are better
understood as toys with no intended purpose rather than as tools
we use with some objective in mind. These procedures for
making sense of texts provide for their own interpretation: they
are not instruments for meaning but reflections on meaning
itself.
Bibliography
Bens, Jacques. Oulipo: 1960-1963. Paris: Bourgois, 1980.
Khmelev, Dmitri V., and Fiona J. Tweedie. ""Using Markov
Chains for Identification of Writers."" Literary and Linguistic
Computing 16.3 (2001): 299-307.
Oulipo. Atlas de littérature potentielle (1981). Paris: Gallimard,
1988.
Oulipo. Ed. F. Motte Warren Jr. A Primer of Potential
Literature (1986). Trans. F. Motte Warren Jr. Normal, IL:
Dalkey Archive Press, 1998.
Queneau, Raymond. Cent mille milliards de poèmes. Paris:
Gallimard, 1961.
Queneau, Raymond. ""L'Analyse matricielle du langage."" Etudes
de linguistique appliquée 3 (1964): 37-50.
Queneau, Raymond. Bâtons, chiffres et lettres. Paris:
Gallimard, 1965.
Ramsay, Stephen. ""Toward an Algorithmic Criticism."" Literary
and Linguistic Computing. 2003.
Rockwell, Geoffrey. ""What is Text Analysis, Really?"" Literary
and Linguistic Computing 18.2 (2003): 209-219.
Schmid, Helmut. TreeTagger - a language independent
part-of-speech tagger. Institute for Natural Language
Processing, University of Stuttgart. Accessed 2005-03-03. <h
ttp://www.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/projekte/c
orplex/TreeTagger/DecisionTreeTagger.html>
Sinclair, Stéfan. ""Computer-Assisted Reading: Reconceiving
Text Analysis."" Literary and Linguistic Computing 18.2
(2003): 175-184.
Starynkevitch, Dmitri. ""The SEA CAB 500 Computer."" Annals
of the History of Computing 12.1 (1990): 23-29.","txt","2","",""
"560","6","The Online Nahuatl Dictionary: A Model for Interdisciplinary Multicultural Collaboration","2","Nahuatl, one of the world's indigenous languages, is facing
serious threats to its survival. Unjust rural land use
patterns, the lure of perceived urban employment opportunities,
and lingering colonial prejudices are but some of the factors
contributing to the rapid loss of the Nahuatl language in
highland central Mexico today. Classical Nahuatl, as it was
written and spoken until about 1800, is already extinct. At the
end of the eighteenth century native scribes and notaries who
were proficient in written Nahuatl had shifted to the use of
written Spanish, the language of the colonizers. Nahuatl became
an oral language, and fewer and fewer Nahua individuals were
able to read the thousands of manuscripts written in Nahuatl
(using the Roman alphabet, after about 1540) their forebears
had left on archive shelves. The Online Nahuatl Dictionary
project proposes a resource to help reverse these trends: a
reference for modern Nahuas and other interested parties to
gain access to the indigenous language, Classical and modern,
for self-education or other scholarly purposes.
This trilingual dictionary project (Nahuatl, Spanish, and
English) has many facets. It involves the participation of an
institute in Zacatecas, Mexico, where John Sullivan, a teacher
of Spanish and Nahuatl recruits Nahua university students from
the Huasteca region. These students receive training in written
Nahuatl (Classical and modern) and Spanish and collaborate
in the building of the dictionary, entering terms from their
current, everyday speech. They are also entering sixteenth and
seventeenth-century Nahuatl vocabularies compiled by Spanish
priests and their informants, entering them into the dictionary
database. Finally, they are taking courses in cultural history,
paleography, and linguistics, which help prepare them for their
Classical Nahuatl manuscript studies.
The plan is to obtain funding (we have applied for the
NEH/NSF grant Documenting Endangered Languages) to
underwrite a larger number of scholarships, to expand the
student body and diversify it, inviting the participation of
Nahuas from additional regions. This, in turn, will diversify
the dictionary base, with vocabulary, pronunciation variations,
and broadening perspectives from places such as the modern
state of Guerrero. It will also help spread a Nahuatl literacy
movement to different parts of the country. It will prepare more
people to better understand their histories by studying
manuscripts from their communities of the past. These various
students will not be consultants or human subjects but rather
full participants in the project.
The dictionary project also involves the participation of
ethnohistorians at the University of Oregon, Stephanie Wood
and Robert Haskett, who have training in Classical Nahuatl.
Wood and Haskett have considerable experience translating
manuscripts and have access to additional colleagues working
in the same field. They are selecting terminology and contextual
information from recent manuscript translations and are adding
this material to the dictionary, with full citations that will point
philologists back to the original sources. They enter terms just
as they find them in the original manuscripts, capturing a range
of orthographic variation, but they also include in the database
any known standardized versions to facilitate the greatest
possible success for searching. (Because of the diverse ways
of writing Nahuatl, we often lack a single lemma that all would
agree upon as a universal dictionary form.) Wood and Sullivan
will also be adding a linguistically marked-up rendition of each
word, showing vowel length and glottal stops, for instance, in
order to facilitate linguists’ searches and research needs. They
will follow the markup used in Frances Karttunen’s Analytical
Dictionary of Nahuatl (1983).
Sullivan, Wood, and Haskett will work together, in consultation
with linguists such as Frances Karttunen, Johnathan Amith,
and other colleagues in Mexico, to ensure that the English and
Spanish-language search interfaces for the dictionary will meet
the interests of multiple disciplines. Luis Reyes García, who
recently passed away, was a model Nahua scholar who led
translation workshops in Mexico City and Tlaxcala that we
wish to emulate. One of his students, Raul Macuil, and another
Nahua college graduate, Ignacio Silva Cruz, in Mexico City,
are ready to help us test our materials. Sullivan and Wood will
open up dialogue between the student and faculty groups and
encourage a growing appreciation for what each is contributing.
Sullivan will additionally guide the Nahua students in building
the Nahuatl-language search interface.
The Nahuatl interface will be accessible from the trilingual
dictionary home page but it will also work as a stand-alone site,
as a monolingual dictionary aimed at modern speakers. The
intent is to encourage written literacy and to document current vocabularies and word meanings. It will help modern speakers
recapture terms from Classical Nahuatl that have been lost,
whether this might result in an expanded vocabulary in
modern-day usage or only an aid to help with translating cultural
heritage materials. Although there will be an emphasis on the
written language, the Nahuatl portion of the dictionary will
nevertheless offer users access to audio files, as well. Sound
recordings will serve to preserve and document regional
differences in pronunciation and provide access to
vision-impaired users and to those who are still building their
literacy.
As we are proposing it, the Online Nahuatl Dictionary project
offers a unique model for interdisciplinary work that will help
preserve an endangered indigenous language and, at the same
time, create some of the tools needed for the analysis of
neglected cultural heritage materials. It will bring together
modern language consultants with linguists and ethnohistorians
of various cultures (Spanish-speaking and English-speaking,
to start) to document a rapidly disappearing language, reinstate
a lost literacy for Nahuas, and establish a methodology for
international and cross-cultural collaboration in both dictionary
creation and manuscript transcription, translation, and analysis.
Our project has created an online environment for this
international collaboration, allowing native students to work
with native and non-native professors in building a multifaceted
reference database of the Nahuatl Language. This resource can
then be leveraged to provide features that will serve the
participants’ multiple purposes while simultaneously forging
a relationship of greater equality and respect. A key tool to help
facilitate this 'data collection' effort is the most recent version
of FileMaker Pro (Version 7.0) and its 'instant web publishing'
functionality. This technology gives us not only the flexibility
to allow any of the project participants to remotely enter data,
but also enables us to create various database interfaces on the
fly from anywhere via the internet. With the collaborative nature
of our project, this ability to alter the database and the various
interfaces through which different audiences interact with it is
crucial to addressing the needs of all the participants. In
addition, the use of this technology saves us the cost of
purchasing multiple database licenses, helps ensure the validity
of the data by having just one 'collection point' for information
and eases regular data backup. Furthermore, FileMaker Pro
7.0 supports the use of Unicode, facilitating the typing of special
characters that are so essential for written Nahuatl and Spanish
and handles audio files easily, allowing sound to be uploaded
from various locations.
Because the Online Nahuatl Dictionary is in the developmental
phase, our presentation for the ACH/ALLC will highlight our
goals and explore our intended methodology. We will appreciate
and benefit from suggestions from the audience. We see our
approach as unique in the way it combines linguistic with
humanities uses, in a distance research environment, to build
a lexicon that will document and preserve an endangered
language and help resurrect the voices of an extinct language.
Bibliography
Karttunen, Frances. Analytical Dictionary of Nahuatl.
Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1983.","txt","2","",""
"561","6","English Usage Comparison between Native and non-Native English Speakers in Academic Writing","1","Introduction
Discovering the differences in the language usage of native
and non-native speakers contributes to contrastive
linguistics research and second language acquisition. Unlike
grammatical errors, the language usage differences are
grammatically correct, but somehow do not conform to the
native expressions. For example, if an English phrase is used
popularly in a native English speaker group (G1) but not in a
Chinese speaker group (G2), or vice versa, one possible reason
may be first language (L1) impact on second language (L2).
Such an impact may be due to grammar differences or even
culture differences.
Isolating the language usage differences is never an easy task.
There are generally two approaches to detect such differences:
controlled experiments and corpus-based analysis. Many
English as a Second Language (ESL) studies were conducted
in a controlled environment, for example, through manually
comparing the short in-class writing samples by a small number
of college students in G1 and G2. The small data sets and the
small subject groups undermined the result generalization
because conflicting results were sometimes produced regarding
the same language usage.
In contrast, corpus-based approaches (for example,
computational stylistics) facilitate analysis of larger sample
sets written by many subjects. Such approaches involve three
major steps: 1) building a corpus of two comparable subsets;
2) automatically extracting a language usage feature set; 3)
selecting a subset of the features that distinguishes G1 and G2.
Given a corpus and a feature set, we can transform the above
task into a text categorization problem. The goal is to categorize
the texts by the authors' language background. Picking the
subset is then transformed into the feature selection problem
in text categorization.
Oakes used Chi-square test to find vocabulary subsets more
typical of British English or American English. Oakes' work
focused on identifying two feature categories: (1) the features
common in G1 but not in G2; and (2) the features common in
G2 but not in G1, while we hypothesize the existence of a third
discriminative feature category (3): features common in both
G1 and G2, but with different usage frequencies. All the other
features are considered irrelevant. Distinguishing these different
categories of features allows us to discover subtle differences
in the language usage.
In this paper, we propose a simple approach of comparative
feature analysis to compare the language usage between native
English speakers and Chinese speakers in academic writing.
We first select candidate features that are common in at least
one group and then categorize them into the above three feature
categories. Features in category (1) and (2) are ranked by their
differences in document frequency, and features in category
(3) are ranked by their difference indices as defined in the next
few paragraphs.
We use two heuristic constraints to select a ""good"" candidate
discriminative feature:
• Constraint (1): The feature should be common within at
least one of the groups.
• Constraint (2): The feature should be contrastive across the
groups.
We use the normalized document frequency (DF) to measure
the feature commonality within a group. DF means the number
of documents containing this feature. Denote DF_1 and DF_2
as the document frequencies in G1 and G2, respectively, and
T=0.3 as a DF threshold. A feature falls into
• category (1) if (DF_1-DF_2)>=T;
• category (2) if (DF_2-DF_1)>=T;
• category (3) if |DF_2-DF_1|<T and (DF_1 >= T) and (DF_2
>= T).
Intuitively, the features in category (3) are those that are
sufficiently popular in both G1 and G2 and have comparable
DFs in G1 and G2.
After categorizing the features, we then define a Difference
Index (DI) to measure the feature discriminating power and
rank the features in category (3) by DI. We define TF as the
number of occurrences of a feature in a document. Let m_1 and
m_2 be the mean of the TF value of a feature in G1 and G2,
respectively, we define DI as DI =sig(m_1 - m_2)* max(m_1, m_2)/min(m_1, m_2). sig(m_1 - m_2) is 1 if m_1>m_2 and is
-1 otherwise. A positive DI means the feature is more heavily
used in G1 and a negative DI means it is more popular in G2.
The larger the |DI| is, the bigger the difference is.
Corpus Construction
We propose the following fairness constraints for corpus
construction: 1) the subjects in each group should have
similar English proficiency; 2) the text genre and the topic
should not interfere with the language usage analysis.
We collect two datasets that satisfy the constraints above. The
first has 40 selected electronic theses and dissertations (ETD)
from the ETD database at Virginia Tech., in which 20 are from
Chinese students and 20 from American students, all from
computer science and electronic and engineering departments
to avoid genre interference. The second has 40 selected research
articles downloaded from Microsoft Research (MSR), in which
20 are contributed by Chinese researchers in Beijing, China
and 20 by their British colleagues in Cambridge, UK. The
documents in ETD collection are long and each strictly
attributed to one author, while the documents in MSR collection
are much shorter and many are co-authored. We restrict the
co-authors to the same language background. The biographies
in theses and the resumes on MSR website help us identify the
authors' first and second language.
Feature Extraction
We extracted plain text from the original pdf and ps files.
We limit our search for features at the lexical level
because syntactic parsing does not perform well in such a
technical writing corpus due to formulas, tables and figure
captions, etc. In order to avoid topic interference, we choose a
feature set popular in computational stylistic analysis (Koppel
et. al.), the n-gram (we set 0<n<4) common word sequences
(CWS). A common word list consisting of 626 functional words
and some common content words for technical writing (e.g.
""problem"") is used to generate CWS. For example, in ""SW4 is
among the few known wireless system tools for in-building
network design."", the following 3-gram CWS features are
extracted: ""is among the"", ""among the few"", ""the few known"".
Experiments and Results
We used the aforementioned procedure to analyze both
ETD and MSR corpora. The results show that most
""differences"" found in one corpus do not repeat in the other
one, but there are some ""stable"" features across the corpora.
Figure 1 lists the 1-gram, 2-gram and 3-gram CWS features in
all the three categories. Figure 1: 1-gram, 2-gram and 3-gram CWS in category 1, 2, and 3.
• G1: native English speakers (British/American); G2: Chinese speakers.
• Category 1: CWS common in G1 but not G2.
• Category 2: CWS common in G2 but not G1.
• Category 3: CWS common in both G1 and G2 but the frequencies
differ.
• Category 3 (positive): CWS with mean frequency in G1 at least twice
as that in G2.
• Category 3 (negative): CWS with mean frequency in G2 at least twice
as that in G1.
An example in category (1) is the word ""never"". It appears in
75% American students theses in ETD but just in 20% Chinese
student theses, and its frequency mean in the American group
is six times as that in the Chinese group. Similarly, ""never""
appears in 45% MSR papers from UK, but just in 10% MSR
papers from China, and British researchers use it five times
more often than their Chinese colleagues.
Category (2) is surprisingly small with only one stable feature
""according"". Category (3) includes features common in both groups. It has
a positive subset consisting of features more heavily used in
the British/American groups, and a negative subset consisting
of features more popular in the Chinese groups. Examples in
the positive subset are ""specifying"", ""must"", ""were"", ""rather
than"", ""the use of"", etc. Examples in the negative subset include
""novel"", ""respectively"", ""build"", ""show that"", ""according to"",
""used in the"", etc.
We noticed that some feature groups are worth further study,
such as the negation words, modals, personal pronouns, and
parallelism indicators as listed in figure 2. As shown in figure 3, the native English speakers always use
more negation words than the Chinese. It is probably due to
culture difference rather than grammar impact. Note: In figure 3, 4, and 5, a number (positive or negative) in
a cell means the corresponding feature belongs to category (3)
and the number is the feature's difference index (DI) value as
defined in the paper. ""MAX"" instead of a number in a cell
means this feature belongs to category (1) and thus it does not
have a DI value. Similarly, ""-MAX"" means the feature belongs
to category (2).
As shown in figure 4, the native speakers also use more modals
such as ""might"", ""would"" and ""could"". The Chinese use ""will""
more often. There is no big difference between their uses of
""can"". As shown in figure 5, ""us"", ""our"" and ""we"" are the three mostly
used personal pronouns for both groups, but the native speakers
use ""us"" more often while the Chinese use ""our"" and ""we"" more
often. Figure 5: Comparison of personal pronoun usage
""And"" and ""but"" are two parallel structure indicators commonly
used by both groups. The Chinese group use ""and"" slightly
more than the American/British group, but they use ""but"" almost
twice as less than the native English speakers.
Conclusion and Future Work
We use a simple comparative feature analysis method to
compare the differences in the English common word
usage between the native British/American English speakers
and the Chinese speakers in their academic writing. The
proposed method helps us find some interesting or even
surprising differences between these two groups. We also see
that common words are a very limited feature set. We shall
explore more meaningful linguistic features to find more useful
differences.
Bibliography
Koppel, M., S. Argamon, and A.R. Shimoni. ""Automatically
Categorizing Written Texts by Author Gender."" Literary and
Linguistic Computing 17.4 (2003): 401-412.
Oakes, M. ""Text Categorization: Automatic Discrimination
between US and UK English using the Chi-square Text and
High Ratio Pairs."" Research in Language 1 (2003): 143-156.","txt","2","",""
"562","6","Play and Code in Humanist Research","1","1. VHL: An Introduction
The Virtual Humanities Lab is a new humanities computing
project at Brown University. We focus on two areas of
research. First, we are designing and building a web-based
engine for the presentation of semantically encoded primary
texts, and for further annotation of these texts by invited
scholars. Together with this engine we will be publishing
several annotated texts. This engine is complemented by a
weblog and by a discussion forum; both of these invite input
from anyone interested.
We are in the process of semantically encoding, annotating,
and publishing online three early modern Italian texts. The first
and largest, Giovanni Boccaccio's Esposizioni sulla Comedia
di Dante is the vernacular, originally oral text of Boccaccio’s
unfinished lecture series on Dante’s Commedia. Giovanni
Villani's Nuova Cronica (of which we are publishing a part) is
an extensive account of Florentine history up to 1348. It is
written in lively Italian, valuable not only for its record of events
but also for its historiographical methods and political
commentary. Finally, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola's
Conclusiones Nongentae is an aphoristic Humanist text
currently being developed as part of the Pico Project ( <http
://www.brown.edu/pico/> ). All three of these will be
presented electronically for the first time.
The sheer amount of information present in these texts — as
well as their size, relative obscurity and general importance for
the humanities -- lend themselves to semantic encoding,
collaborative annotation and electronic dissemination.
The number and variety of electronic tools being built for
humanities research is ever-increasing. So is the learning curve
for taking full advantage of these tools. Since semantic markup
plays an increasingly important role in electronic humanities
scholarship, having an idea of what it looks like and — broadly
— how it functions seems to be an advantage for academics in
the humanities.
Scholars who have never practiced semantic encoding of texts
as a research tool, or performed complicated searches on
semantically encoded texts, may find themselves reluctant to spend time learning an unfamiliar way of working, even if the
result of such learning may prove useful to them. Such
researchers are a large part of our intended audience, and we
are putting significant effort into writing clear, concise
documentation and hands-on tutorials. The documentation is
aimed at academics relatively new to humanities computing
and, as such, will include a brief overview of the principles of
semantic encoding as well as a guided tour of the VHL toolset.
Our goal is to make these supplementary materials enjoyable
and concise: we want scholars to receive just enough technical
information to enable them to play with their texts.
2. Playing and Modeling
Michael Mahoney says that a sufficiently complex idea
for a piece of machinery cannot be described; the thing
must be made or modeled. In order to be understood, complex
texts should also be modeled.
A usable model of a text need not be comprehensive, but may
rather address one or more specific issues. VHL researchers
read the texts and use semantic encoding to arrange their parts
(linguistic entities, recurrent themes and imagery, rhetorical
devices etc.) in sets of metadata. These sets may overlap and
intersect, and function as scholarly arguments. Encoding once
does not preclude a division of the same text into a different
set of parts, with another purpose or from another angle, or in
response to an argument made through previous encoding. Each
variant model contributes to a deeper understanding of the text
at hand.
2.1 Collaboration
At last year's joint conference, Siemens et al. reported: ""In terms
of mark-up, respondents appear to be a bipolar group with half
expecting to acquire text with no mark-up and half with rich
XML."" This no-middle-ground report seems to imply that once
a user of electronic humanities resources is at all familiar with
semantic encoding, rich markup becomes preferable to weak
markup. Marking up large texts and corpora, common units of
literary study, is a challenge both in terms of resources and
required expertise. Such work calls for collaboration. VHL's
toolset for presenting and working with primary texts (in
development) provides several ways to contribute. A complex
annotation engine and an opportunity to view the encoding
behind any given segment of text are in place. In development
is a tool for suggesting corrections to our encoding (intended
to replace it), or submitting variations on it (intended to be
viewed as alternate encodings of the same text).
While providing increased potential for new forms of
communication, this toolset does not force scholars to change
their preference for working mostly in solitude: Siemens et al.
do warn us that most of the humanists they surveyed ""do not
[currently] see the need for collaborating with other scholars.""
2.2 Atomic Approach to Research
Freehand semantic encoding allows us to construct our own
set of elements, based on prior knowledge of sources both
primary and secondary, modifiable at will. Eventually this set
must be regularized, perhaps later transcribed into a
standardized form. But in the beginning stages such constraint
would be detrimental, limiting the scope of analysis at the
outset.
So we have begun to model without these constraints, permitting
ourselves the spontaneity of a ludic approach. In doing this, we
adapt Edward Hall's 1976 objective in examining culture —
""look at the way things are actually put together"" (13) — to
text analysis. The encoding structure emerges bit by bit out of
the primary source itself, which frees the researcher's critical
eye to note interesting aspects of the text that might have eluded
a pre-existing DTD.
Combining such an atomic approach to gathering research
results with a web-based presentation implies a lot of flexibility
for participating scholars: work may be done in smaller
segments by individuals who live far apart. Here lies a strong
driving force behind our work: similarly to already-successful
electronic means of communication (email, weblogs, discussion
lists), VHL allows small information packets to be published
and discussed. Being unsuitable for the essay format because
of their seemingly incomplete, fragmentary nature, these bits
of information might not otherwise be expressed at all.
Reducing the minimum size of a contribution to the knowledge
base from an article to a paragraph or sentence, provided a
review process is still employed, increases the net amount of
useful knowledge available for discussion. We hope that it will
actively encourage researchers to branch out and participate in
more conversations, perhaps creating a distributed version of
the editing process.
Stripping critical expression down to the essentials as expressed
through semantic tagging will either highlight or address (or
perhaps both) the difficulty Willard McCarty sees humanists
having ""with any intellectual culture whose cognitive activity
is expressed in things rather than in words"" (168). Thinking
about a text by encoding criticism directly into it bridges the
gap between the two, allowing multi-media corpora (literature,
sculpture, films, drawings) to be encoded within the same
electronic framework. Emphasis is shifted from the prose that
delivers ideas (which consumes time and energy and often
dilutes the argument) to precision in presenting the argument
itself. 2.3 Humanists and Code
The encoding process requires considerable resources; writing
up separate documentation is a significant enough amount of
additional work that it isn't often done well. For humanist
academics, it is absolutely necessary to be able to look at
semantic encoding and more or less understand it.
Mahoney, and Henry Ford before him, are right: the masses
are not mechanics. Yet, these days a certain amount of common
knowledge about how machines work is necessary. Since
semantically encoded electronic texts will only multiply as time
goes on, humanists must know what code is and understand
how it works. Knowledge of the underlying principles of
encoding is not yet widespread, and VHL has taken it as a goal
to present these principles in such a way that they become tacit
knowledge for the humanist. We are making all of our XML
code transparent -- any unit of text is viewable with all its code,
and the XML itself is easily human-readable and well
documented. Thus code remains an argument meant to be
discussed and challenged as necessary, not an implicit,
uncontestable premise.
Learning to read code may require non-trivial effort, but carries
with it an important additional benefit: it opens the door to a
format of academic expression markedly different from the
essay. Both have their uses, but mastering the basics of semantic
encoding is a learnable and improvable skill that is likely to
become tacit knowledge more readily than the much more
difficult natural-language rhetorical approach of essay writing.
Sentence structure, flow and finding the right word are essential
to the humanist; but encoding makes it easier to learn and
practice critical, in-depth analysis of texts.
3. Summary
Putting small bits of information together and hoping that a
larger picture will emerge is arguably risky. There is no
guarantee that the results will be interesting or useful. That
said, this risk is inherent in all academic discussion, and recent
experience indicates a movement (back?) toward tinkering with
primary sources directly. Stephen Ramsay's call to go in ""with
a hunch borne of our collective musings"" (171) encourages
play, frightening though it may be to dedicate extremely scarce
resources to the endeavor. This is where a playground like VHL
shines. It is a tool for collaborating, community building and
education that does not require a significant commitment of
finances or time from its participants. In fact, for it to function,
there need only be interest in the subject matter, and the
willingness to record a single thought.
Bibliography
Decameron Web: A Growing Multimedia Archive of Materials
Dedicated to Boccaccio's Masterpiece. Accessed 2005-03-04.
<http://www.brown.edu/decameron/>
Hall, Edward. Beyond Culture. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press,
1976.
Mahoney, Michael. ""Keeping In Touch With the World.""
Commencement Address delivered at Brevard College. 16 May
1998. Accessed 2005-03-04. <http://www.princeton
.edu/~mike/brevard.html>
McCarty, Willard. ""As It Almost Was: Historiography of Recent
Things."" Literary and Linguistic Computing 19.2 (2004):
161-80.
Pico Project. Accessed 2005-03-04. <http://www.brow
n.edu/Departments/Italian_Studies/pico/>
Ramsay, Stephen. ""Toward an Algorithmic Criticism."" Literary
and Linguistic Computing 18.2 (2003): 167-174.
Siemens, Ray, Elaine Toms, Stéfan Sinclair, Geoffrey Rockwell,
and Lynne Siemens. ""The Humanities Scholar in the
Twenty-First Century: How Research is Done and What Support
is Needed."" Paper presented at ALLC/ACH 2004, Gothenburg.
2004.
Virtual Humanities Lab. Accessed 2005-03-04. <http://
www.brown.edu/Departments/Italian_Studies
/vhl/>","txt","2","",""
"563","7","The Identification of Spelling Variants in English and German Historical Texts: Manual or Automatic?","1","In this paper, we describe the approaches taken by two teams of researchers to the identification of spelling variants. Each team is working on a different language (English and German) but both are using historical texts from much the same time period (17th – 19th century).
The approaches differ in a number of other respects, for example we can draw a distinction between two types of context rules: in the German system, context rules
operate at the level of individual letters and represent constraints on candidate letter replacements or n-graphs; in the English system, contextual rules operate at the level of words and provide clues to detect real-word spelling variants i.e. ‘then’ used instead of ‘than’. However,
we noticed an overlap between the types of issues that we need to address for both English and German and also a similarity between the letter replacement patterns found in the two languages.
The aims of the research described in this paper are to compare manual and automatic techniques for the
development of letter replacement heuristics in German
and English, to determine the overlap between the
heuristics and depending on the extent of the overlap, to assess whether it is possible to develop a generic spelling detection tool for Indo-European languages (of which English and German are examples).
As a starting point, we have manually-built letter
replacement rules for English and German. We will compare these as a means of highlighting the similarity
between them. We will describe machine learning
approaches developed by the German team and apply them
to manually-derived ‘historical variant’-‘modern equivalent’
pairs (derived from existing corpora of English and
German) to determine whether we can derive similar
letter replacement heuristics. Using the manually-derived
heuristics as a gold-standard we will evaluate the
automatically derived rules.
Our prediction is that if the technique works in both
languages, it would suggest that we are able to develop generic letter-replacement heuristics for the identification
of historical variants for Indo-European languages.
2. German spelling variation
The interdisciplinary project “Rule based search in text databases with non-standard orthography” which is funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft [German Research Foundation] developed a rule-based fuzzy search-engine for historical texts (Pilz et al. 2005). Its aim of RSNSR is to provide means to perform reliable full text-search in documents written prior to the German unification of orthography in 1901.
On basis of around 4,000 manually collected one-to-one word mappings between non-standard and modern spellings, RSNSR follows three different paths to come
up with an efficient rule set. Those are manual rule
derivation, trained string edit distance and automatic rule learning. Additional mappings will be collected to
further enhance the quality of those approaches. The
manual derivation uses an alphabet of 62 different
sequences, in parts historical n-graphs (e.g. <a>, <äu>,
<eau>), built from combinations of the 30 standard
graphemes of the German language. Being built manually,
the alphabet considers linguistic restraints. Neither in context nor at the position of substitution non-lingual
n-graphs (i.e. grapheme sequences that directly correspond
to phonemes) are allowed. The context may also feature regular expressions using the java.util.regex formalism. The manually derived gold standard features the most elaborate rules. However the design of a rule set for the period from 1803 to 1806, based on only 338 evidences took about three days to create. Furthermore, the manual derivation is prone to human-error. This is especially true as soon as the rule set exceeds certain limits where side effects become more and more likely.
The algorithm used to calculate the edit costs was
proposed in 1975 by Bahl and Jelinek and taken up 1997 by
Ristad and Yianilos who extended the approach by
machine learning abilities. The authors applied the algorithm
to the problem of learning the pronunciation of words in conversational speech (Ristad and Yianilos 1997). In a comparison between 13 different edit distances, Ristad and Yianilos’ algorithm proofed to be the most efficient one. Its error rate on our list of evidences was 2.6 times lower than the standard Levenshtein distance measure and more than 6.7 times lower than Soundex (Kempken 2005).
The automatic generation of transformation rules uses
triplets containing the contemporary words, their
historic spelling variant and the collection frequency of the spelling variant. First, we compare the two words and determine so called ‘rule cores’. We determine the necessary transformations for each training example and also identify the corresponding context. In a second step, we generate rule candidates that also consider the
context information from the contemporary word. Finally,
in the third step we select the useful rules by pruning the candidate set with a proprietary extension of the PRISM algorithm (Cendrowska 1987).
For this paper, we compared the German gold standard,
mentioned above, with the two different machine
learning algorithms. The string learning algorithm produces
a fixed amount of single letter replacement probabilities. It is not yet possible to gather contextual information. Bi- or tri-graph operations are reflected by subsequent application of letter replacements. Therefore they do not map directly onto the manual rules. However, the four most frequent replacements, excluding identities,
correspond to the four most frequently used rules. For the period from 1800 to 1806 these are T→TH, Ä→AE, _→E and E→_.
The manual and the automatic derived rules show
obvious similarities, too. 12 of the 20 most frequently used
rules from the automatic approach are also included in the manually built rules. For six other rules equivalent rules in the manual rule set exist. The rule T→ET from the automatic approach, for example, corresponds to the more generalised form _→E taken from the manual
approach. And again do the first four rules match the four most frequent gold standard ones.
The automatic approaches, rule generation as well as edit distance, could be enhanced by a manual checking.
Nevertheless, even a semi-automatic algorithm allows us to save time and resources. It is furthermore obvious, that the machine learning is already able to provide with a
highly capable rule set for historical documents of German
language.
3. English spelling variation
The existing English system called VARD
(VARiant Detector) has three components. First, a list of 45,805 variant forms and their modern
equivalents, built by hand. This provides a one-to-one mapping which VARD uses to insert a modern form alongside the historical variant which is preserved using an XML ‘reg’ tag. Secondly, a small set of contextual
rules which take the form of templates of words and part-of-speech tags. The templates are applied to find real-word variants such as ‘then’ instead of ‘than’, ‘doe’ instead of ‘do’, ‘bee’ for ‘be’ and detection of the genitive when an apostrophe is missing. The third component consists of manually crafted letter replacement heuristics designed during the collection of the one-to-one mapping
table and intended to reduce the manual overhead for
detection of unseen variants in new corpora.
The rationale behind the VARD tool is to detect and
normalise spelling variants to their modern equivalent in running text. This will enable techniques from corpus
linguistics to be applied more accurately (Rayson
et al., 2005). Techniques such as frequency profiling, concordancing, annotation and collocation extraction will not perform well with multiple variants of each word type in a corpus.
The English manual and automatically derived
rules show a great deal of similarity. Nine of the twenty
most frequent automatically derived rules are in the
manual set. Eight other automatically derived rules have
equivalents if we ignore context. Three automatically
derived rules do not have a match in the manual version.
4. Conclusion
The motivation behind the two approaches of VARD and RSNSR differs. This reflects on the overall structure of rules as well. While VARD is used to
automatically normalise variants and thus takes more
accurate aim to determine the correct modern equivalent,
RSNSR focuses on finding and highlighting those historical
spellings. Therefore its demands for precision are
diminished while recall is the much more important
factor. However, the approaches are highly capable of supporting each other and expanding their original field of application.
References
Cendrowska, J. (1987). PRISM: an algorithm for
inducing modular rules. Int. J Man-Machine Studies,
27(4), pp.349-370.
Kempken, S. (2005). Bewertung von historischen und
regionalen Schreibvarianten mit Hilfe von
Abstandsmaßen. Diploma thesis. Universität
Duisburg-Essen
Pilz, T., Luther, W., Ammon, U., Fuhr, N. (2005).
Rule-based search in text databases with nonstandard
orthography, Proceedings ACH/ALLC 2005, Victoria,
15 - 18 Jun 2005.
Rayson, P., Archer, D. and Smith, N. (2005) VARD versus Word: A comparison of the UCREL variant
detector and modern spell checkers on English
historical corpora. In proceedings of the Corpus Linguistics 2005 conference, July 14-17, Birmingham,
UK.
Ristad, E., Yianilos, P. (1997). Learning String Edit Distance, IEEE Trans. PAMI, 1997
Hessisches Staatsarchiv Darmstadt. http://www.stad.hessen.de/DigitalesArchiv/anfang.html (accessed 25 Nov. 2005)
Bibliotheca Augustana. FH Augsburg. http://www.
fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/augustana.html (accessed 25 Nov. 2005)
documentArchiv.de http://www.documentarchiv.de
(accessed 25 Nov. 2005)","txt","2","",""
"564","7","A General Framework for Feature Identification","1","Large digital libraries typically contain collections of heterogeneous resources intended to be delivered
to a variety of user communities. A key challenge for these libraries is providing tight integration between
resources both within a single collection and across
multiple collections. Traditionally, efforts at developing digital collections for the humanities have tended toward two extremes [5]. On one side are huge collections such as the Making of America [14, 15], Project Gutenberg [18], and Christian Classics Ethereal Library [13] that have minimal tagging, annotation or commentary. On the other side are smaller projects that closely resemble
traditional approaches to editorial work in which editors carefully work with each page and line providing markup and metadata of extremely high quality and detail, mostly
by hand. Projects at this end of the spectrum include
the William Blake Archive [21], the Canterbury Tales Project [11], the Rossetti Archive [19], and the Cervantes
Project [12]. These extremes force library designers
to choose between large collections that provide an
impoverished set of services to the collection’s patrons on the one hand and relatively small, resource intensive projects on the other. Often, neither option is feasible.
An alternative approach to digital humanities projects
recasts the role of the editor to focus on customizing and skillfully applying automated techniques, targeting
limited resources for hand coding to those areas of the collection that merit special attention [6]. The
Perseus Project [16] exemplifies this class of projects.
Elucidating the internal structure of the digital resources
by automatically identifying important features (e.g.,
names, places, dates, key phrases) is a key approach to aid in the development of these “middle ground” used to establish connections between the resources and
to inform visualizations. This task is complicated by the
heterogeneous nature of digital libraries and the diversity
of user community needs.
To address this challenge we have developed a framework
based approach to developing feature identification
systems that allows decisions about details of document
representation and features identification to be deferred
to domain specific implementations of the framework.
These deferred decisions include details of the semantics
and syntax of markup, the types of metadata to be
attached to documents, the types of features to be identified,
the feature identification algorithms to be applied, and
the determination of which features are to be indexed.
To achieve this generality, we represent a feature
identification system as being composed of three layers,
as diagramed in Figure 1. The core of the system is a “Feature
Identification Framework” (FIF). This framework
provides the major structural elements for working
with documents, identifying features within documents,
and building indices based on the identified features.
Implementations customize components of the framework
to interface with existing and new collections and to
achieve domain specific functionality. Applications
then use this framework, along with the appropriate set
of customized modules, to implement visualizations,
navigational linking strategies, and searching and
filtering tools.
Figure 1: Three layered approach to designing a feature
identification system
The document module implements the functionality
needed to represent documents, manage storage and
retrieval, provide an interface to searching mechanisms
and facilitate automatic feature identification. It provides
the following features: 1. Multiple types of documents (e.g., XML, PDF, RTF,
HTML, etc) can be supported without modifying the
APIs with which the rest of the system will interact.
2. Arbitrary syntactical constraints can be associated
with a document and documents tested to ensure
their validity. Notably, this helps to ensure that
the markup of identified features does not violate
syntactic or semantic constraints.
3. Metadata conforming to arbitrary metadata
standards can be attached to documents.
4. Storage and retrieval mechanisms are provided that
allow documents persistence to be managed either
directly by the framework or by external systems.
5. Large documents can be broken into smaller
“chunks” for both indexing and linking. Work in this
area is ongoing.
The feature module builds on this base to provide
the core toolset for identifying the internal structure of
documents. Our design of this component reflects the
highly contextualized nature of the feature identification
task. The relevant features of a document can take many
forms (e.g., a person or place, the greeting of a letter, a
philosophical concept, or an argument against an idea)
depending on both the type of document and the context
in which that document is expected to be read. Equally
contextualized are the algorithms used to identify
features. Dictionary and statistically based methods
are prevalent, though other techniques focusing on the
semi-structured nature of specific documents have also
yielded good results [3, 1, 4, 9, 2, 7]. Ultimately, which
algorithm is selected will depend heavily on the choice
of the corpus editor. Accordingly, our framework has
been designed so that the only necessary property of
a feature is that it can be identified within the text of a
document and described within the structure provided by
the document module.
For applications using the framework to effectively
access and present the informational content, an indexing
system is needed. Given the open ended nature of both
document representation and the features to be identified,
the indexing tools must inter-operate with the other
customized components of the framework. We accomplish
this, by utilizing adapters that are implemented while
customizing the system. These adapters work with the other customized components to specify the elements of
each document to index.
To demonstrate and test this framework, we have
implemented a prototype for a collection of official
records pertaining Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (1547-
1616) originally assembled by Prof. Kris Sliwa [10].
This collection contains descriptions, summaries, and
transcriptions in Spanish of nearly 1700 documents
originally written from 1463 to 1681. These documents
bear witness to the life of both Cervantes and his family
and include inventory lists, birth and death certificates,
and court testimonies.
Our application provides two primary points of access
to the collection; a timeline navigator and a browsing
interface. Following Crane, et al. [7], we have utilized
proper names (people and places) and time as the two
primary dimensions for structuring the documents in
this collection. The timeline navigator, shown in Figure
2, displays a bar chart showing the distribution of the
documents over time. Selecting a bar takes the reader to
a more detailed view of the time period. Once the chart
displays documents as single years, clicking on the bar
for a single year brings up a display listing all documents
from that year. The browsing interface, shown in Figure
3, allows readers to browse lists of both the people and
the places identified within the collection. Upon selecting
an item to view, a page presenting the resources available
for that person or place is displayed. Currently, this includes
a list of all documents in which the specified person has
appeared and a bar graph of all documents in which that
individual has been found as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 2: Timeline interface to the Sliwa collection Figure 3: Browsing interface to the Sliwa Collection
Figure 4: Browsing documents for Francisco de Palacios
Once the user has selected an individual document to
view, through either the timeline or browsing interface,
that document is presented with four types of features
identified and highlighted. Identified people and places
are used to automatically generate navigational links
between documents and the pages presenting the resources
for the people and places identified within a document.
Dates and monetary units are identified and highlighted
in the text.
One challenge with any framework based system is to
ensure that the framework is not so general that customizing
it requires more time and effort than writing an equivalent
application from scratch. Our experience developing the
Sliwa collection prototype suggests that our framework
offers significant benefits. With the framework in place,
we were able to develop and integrate new features in
days; sometimes hours. Moreover, as sophisticated,
general purpose features (e.g., pattern matching,
grammatical parsers, georeferenced locations) are
implemented, it becomes possible to customize and apply
these features in new collections via a web-based interface
with no additional coding involved. Custom document formats are more complex to implement, but can serve in a wide variety of applications. The current implementation sufficient for most XML formats and work is underway
to more fully support TEI encoded documents. Our
approach provides strong support for the general
components of a feature identification system thereby
allowing individual projects to focus on details
specific to the needs of particular collections and user
communities.
We are currently working to apply this framework to a number of other projects, including diaries written
during early Spanish expeditions into southern Texas [8],
scholarly comments about the life and art of Picasso
from the Picasso Project [17], and the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy [20]. This will include
further enhancements to the framework itself including
support for feature identification that utilizes the structure
of the document (including other identified features)
in addition to the text and better support for accessing “chunks” within document in addition to the document as a whole. For the long term, we also plan to explore ways in which this framework can be used assist and shape editorial practices.
References
[1] Bikel, D. M., R. Schwartz, and R. M. Weischedel,
1999. An Algorithm that Learns What‘s in a Name.
Machine Learning, 34(1-3): p.211-231.
[2] Callan J., and T. Mitamura. 2002. Knowledge-based
extraction of named entities. In Proceedings of the eleventh international conference on Information and knowledge management. McLean, Virginia, USA: ACM Press
[3] Chinchor, N. A. 1998. Overview of MUC-7/MET-2.
In Proceedings of the Seventh Message Understanding Conference (MUC-7). Fairfax, Virginia USA. http://www.itl.nist.gov/iaui/894.02/related_projects/muc/proceedings/muc_7_toc.html.
[4] Cohen, W. W., and S. Sarawagi. 2004. Exploiting
dictionaries in named entity extraction: combining
semi-Markov extraction processes and data
integration methods, In Proceedings of the 2004 ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining. Seattle, WA, USA: ACM Press
[5] Crane, G. 2000. Designing documents to enhance the
performance of digital libraries: Time, space, people and a digital library of London. D-Lib Magazine,
6(7/8).
[6] Crane, G., and J. A. 2000. Rydberg-Cox. New
technology and new roles: the need for “corpus
editors.” In Proceedings of the fifth ACM conference on Digital libraries. San Antonio, TX USA: ACM Press.
[7] Crane, G., D. A. Smith and Wulfman, C. E. 2001.
Building a hypertextual digital library in the humanities:
a case study on London. In Proceedings of the
first ACM/IEEE-CS joint conference on Digital
libraries. Roanoke, VA USA: ACM Press.
[8] Imhoff, B., ed. 2002. The diary of Juan Dominguez de Mendoza’s expedition into Texas (1683-1684): A critical edition of the Spanish text with facsimile
reproductions. Dallas, TX: William P. Clements
Center for Southwest Studies, Southern Methodist University.
[9] Mikheev, A, M. Moens and C Grover. 1999. Named Entity recognition without gazetteers, In Proceedings
of the ninth conference on European chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics. Bergen, Norway: Association for Computational Linguistics.
[10] Sliwa, K.. 2000 Documentos Cervantinos: Nueva
recopilación; lista e índices. New York: Peter Lang.
[11] “The Canterbury Tales Project,” De Montfort
University, Leicester, England. http://www.cta.dmu.ac.uk/projects/ctp/index.html. Accessed on May 25, 2002.
[12] “The Cervantes Project.” E. Urbina, ed. Center
for the Study of Digital Libraries, Texas A&M
University. http://csdl.tamu.edu/cervantes. Accessed on Feb 7, 2005.
[13] “Christian Classics Ethereal Library”, Calvin
College, Grand Rapids, MI. httphttp://www.ccel.org/. Accessed on Sept 8, 2005.
[14] “Making of America.” University of Michigan http://www.hti.umich.edu/m/moagrp/. Accessed on Sept 8, 2005.
[15] “Making of America.” Cornell University. http://moa.cit.cornell.edu/moa/. Accessed on Sept 8, 2005.
[16] “Perseus Project” G. Crane, ed. Tufts University. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/. Accessed on Sept 9, 2005.
[17] “The Picasso Project”, E. Mallen, ed. Hispanic Studies Department, Texas A&M University. http://www.tamu.edu/mocl/picasso/. Accessed on Feb 7, 2005.
[18] “Project Gutenberg.” Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. http://www.gutenberg.org/. Accessed on Sept 9, 2005.
[19] “The Rossetti Archive.” J. McGann, ed. The Institute
for Advanced Technologies in the Humanities,
University of Virginia. http://www.rossettiarchive.org/. Accessed on Feb 7, 2005.
[20] “Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.” Stanford University. http://plato.stanford.edu/. Accessed on Nov 14, 2005.
[21] “The William Blake Archive” M. Eaves, R. Essick, and J. Viscomi, eds. The Institute for Advanced
Technology in the Humanities. http://www.
blakearchive.org/. Accessed on Sept 9, 2005.","txt","2","",""
"565","7","Demand Balancing in Fee-free Resource Sharing Community Networks with Unequal Resource Distribution","1","Even the largest libraries struggle to maintain
a comprehensive journal collection. In 2003
Australian universities subscribed to over 1,300,000 journals of which of which 974,000 were in aggregate digital collections. This represented over 273,000 new serial titles and over 150,000 cancellations (Council of Australian University Libraries, 2005). One emerging approach is for libraries to form consortia that take
a joint subscription to digital resource collections. The consolidation of substantial collections with direct
delivery has seen the gradual attrition of subscriptions to the traditional print format (Fox & Marchionini, 1998; Weiderhold, 1995), but this cost saving is offset by the substantial increase in digital resources. The wealth of international research resources presents an even
greater dilemma for small research institutions: how to effectively and economically access such a wide
base of information resources within sometimes
highly constrained budgets. The cost reductions obtained
through aggregate subscriptions and consortia do
not necessarily offset the net growth of fee-for-use
published resources, and may have the consequence
of centralizing subscriptions through a few large
distributors – with the long-term collection risk that this centralization presents.
Small research libraries that cannot afford participation
in national inter-library loan networks have formed
fee-free networks of collaborating libraries that share their journal resources. While a fee-free Inter-Library Loan (ILL) service offers obvious attractions to smaller participating libraries, alternative economic approaches are needed to avoid excessive demand on resource-rich members, and to avoid the phenomenon of “free-riders”. This paper presents the resource distribution approaches
that have been used to balance resource demand in
GratisNet, an Australian network of 250+ health research libraries, where collaboration is fee-free but resource holdings among member are unequal. Dynamic ranking resource-based approaches are used to encourage the equitable distribution of resource load.
2. Economics of demand balancing in a fee-free network
Hooke (1999) highlighted the need for evidence
-based approaches in the management of
information services. In a fee-based environment, the metrics for efficiency may centre of cost versus speed of supply. Fee-free collaboration does not have the same economic driver for equilibrium between demand and resource supply that emerges in the long term in a
fee-based service. Furthermore, resource sharing networks operating in a fee-free environment face
several risks that are common to voluntary online
communities. In Gaming Theory “outcomes” and “payoffs” are differentiated (Shubik, 1975). In the case
of ILL collaboration, the payoffs are the supply of
particular ILL requests in exchange for the provision
of requests raised by other libraries at the risk of
absorbing the costs of supplying requests raised by other libraries. The outcomes include access to a wider base of research resources than would otherwise be available to the library, and the potential for requests to exceed loans and constraints on the limit of demands based on membership of a closed community. One of the risks is the “free-rider” phenomenon, or those who take the benefit of membership of a collaborating community but provide no net contribution of resources. “Free-riders” can be managed in a number of ways: through “closed shops” (the example of unions that limit benefits to those who are members only), or through adjustment of the payoffs(Hamburger, 1979).
3. Demand balancing
Imbalanced distribution of workload in a fee-free environment, if unmanaged, can create imperfect resource management through inequitable distribution of demand over time. These imperfections may be
expressed in terms of a reluctance to declare resources or
supply requests (a form of compliance failure), or
through inequitable distribution of demand resulting in a delay in supply (a queuing problem). This reduces the payoff potential for the larger members of the network. While there is a risk that libraries may reduce their own collections through reliance on wider networks, the
trade-off is the delay in fulfilling requests when they are completed through an ILL rather than directly out of their own collection.
The rational choice in fulfilment of an individual ILL request in a fee-free environment is the selection of
the nearest library that has the highest probability of
fulfilling the request. This provides the best payoff in
probability of fulfilment and timeliness of supply. However,
aggregated over time this choice is likely to place a larger burden on those participating libraries with the largest
collection of resources in a given region. Where staff
represents as much as 80% of document supply cost
(Morris, 2004), this can be a considerable burden on larger participating libraries. In the GratisNet network, search results for resources held by members of the GratisNet network are inversely ranked based on historical workload
contribution. Participating libraries are requested
to select from resources in the top-ranked selections
presented, but compliance is voluntary. Participating
libraries supply ILL requests at no charge to members and with no specific reciprocity. The objective of the
ranking process is to adjust the payoff implied by a ration selection of the largest, nearest library by tempering this
choice through ranking of search results based on
previous workload of participating libraries. Libraries with a higher historical workload are ranked lower in search results. Libraries are encouraged to select from one of the first three listed libraries that have holdings in the journal they are requesting.
Table 1 shows the percentage of libraries that by-passed the computer-recommended ranking when raising ILL requests for the years 2002, 2003 and 2004. Since
compliance is voluntary, this change demonstrates
increasing trust in the workload distribution mechanisms. While participating libraries do exercise a measure of
discretion in selecting outside the recommended
rankings, voluntary compliance to the ranking
recommendations is generally good and has improved over time. Table 1 Compliance in ranking selection
Game-theoretic formulations can provide a useful
approach to the design of co-operative IT systems(Mahajan, Rodrig, Wetherall, & Zahorjan, 2004). To illustrate the contrast between a time-efficient system for ILL delivery and one which distributes workload across the network, these same transactions were reprocessed under to a game scenario which simulated a rational select on the basis of proximity and breadth of holdings matching the
request for the most recent two years. The objective of this
scenario was to contrast the aggregate effect of load-based
ranking with a utility-based approach to request ulfilment (see Table 2 below). In a time-efficient approach, larger
libraries are consistently net providers, reducing
their aggregate payoff from participation. Pure
Egalitarianism takes the approach over time that yields the highest combined utility to participating libraries.
The voluntary element of the ranking yields a
“relative egalitarianism” which balances the result that yields utility achieved overall with the lowest level of frustration.(Moulin, 1988). 
Table 2 Contrasting load-based ranking
to utility-based ranking The risk facing groups collaborating on a fee-free basis is that inequity of resource distribution could result in the resignation of members where their level of “frustration” exceeds the benefit they gain from participation.
4. Conclusion
Participating libraries in the GratisNet network commit to supplying ILL requests at no charge and with no specific reciprocity, on the basis that they can be confident that an increase in demand on their library will be balanced progressively with a lower ranking in
search results. Transactions for the period 2003 to
2005 are analysed to illustrate the ways in which a
ranking-based approach to resource discovery improves workload distribution for participating members overall.
Results from the GratisNet network illustrate the
effectiveness of formal approaches to resource
distribution in fee-free collaborative networks. This
analysis also gives an insight into the ways in which
service metrics can help in the management of workload in a fee-free environment.
References
Council of Australian University Libraries. (2005). Caul statistics 2003. Accessed 29-nov-2005 from http://www.Caul.Edu.Au/stats/caul2003-pub.Xls.
Fox, E. A., & Marchionini, G. (1998). Toward a
worldwide digital library. Communications of the ACM, 41(4), 29-32.
Hamburger, H. (1979). Games as models of social
phenomena. San Francisco: Freeman.
Hooke, J. (1999). Evidence-based pracitice and its relevance to library and information services. LASIE(Sept 1999), 23-34.
Mahajan, R., Rodrig, M., Wetherall, D., & Zahorjan, J. (2004). Experiences applying game theory to
system design. Paper presented at the ACM
SIGCOMM ‘04 Workshop, Aug 30-Sep 3, 2004, Portland, Oregan, USA.
Morris, L. R. (2004). How to lower your interlibrary loan and document delivery costs: An editorial. Journal of Interlibrary Loan, Document Delivery & Information Supply, 14(4), 1-3.
Moulin, H. (1988). Axioms of cooperative decision
making. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Shubik, M. (1975). The uses and methods of gaming.NY: Elsevier.
Weiderhold, G. (1995). Digital libraries, value and
productivity. Communications of the ACM, 38(4), 85-97.","txt","2","",""
"566","7","TEI P5: Whats in It for Me?","1","The Text Encoding Initiative Guidelines for
Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange are a community based standard for text encoding that aim to “apply to texts in any natural language, of any date, in any literary genre or text type, without restriction on form or content.” The basic idea is not to tell scholars,
librarians, and other encoders *what* to encode, but rather
*how* to encode that which they choose to record. Of course the Guidelines cannot possibly anticipate every feature that users may wish to encode, and therefore the capability to extend the encoding scheme described by the Guidelines in a consistent, easily understood, and
interchangeable manner is paramount.
Over the past few years the Text Encoding Initiative Consortium (the organization charged with maintaining, developing, promulgating, and promoting the Guidelines) has been working steadily toward a new release of the Guidelines. This much anticipated version, referred to as “P5”, is significantly different from the current Guidelines
(“P4”), and yet performs the same basic function of
providing a community based standard for encoding literary
and linguistic texts.
In this presentation, the TEI editors will present P5 as of the latest release, with an emphasis on the ease with which P5 can be customized to particular uses. The talk will start with an overview of what P5 is, what it is good for, and why one would want to use it, and then progress to some of the detailed differences between P4 and P5.
Topics addressed will include:
* The general goal of the TEI Guidelines
- TEI is a community initiative, driven by the needs of its members and users * How work gets done in the TEI - technical council and work groups
- open source using Sourceforge
- special interest groups
* Why do this -- isn’t P4 good enough?
- P4 is just P3 in and using XML
- a lot has happened since P3 was released, including the creation of the W3C and the acceptance of Unicode
- there are arenas P4 does not cover
- lots of improvements, repairs, etc. are in order
* What’s new and different
- infrastructural
+ schemata
+ datatypes
+ classes
+ customization
- attributes used wherever textual content allowed
- major updates
+ manuscript description
+ character sets & language identification
+ feature structures (now an ISO standard)
+ pointing mechanism
- less major updates
+ dictionaries
+ multiple hierarchies
+ support for graphics and multimedia
+ support for stand-off markup
- new updates
+ personography
+ terminological databases
+ collation sequences
* customization
- customizations permit a project to select which parts of the TEI scheme they will use, and to add new bits if needed
- in P5, all uses of TEI are customizations of one sort or another
- customizations, and the user’s documentation for them, are written in a TEI file
- thus customizations themselves can be interchanged or even shared
- in theory, a customization can use another customization as its starting point - thus permitting customizations of customizations
* The TEI universe
- the TEI universe is one where all projects share a common base, but many use additional, local markup constructs
- clusters of similar projects can share common subsets of additional markup constructs","txt","2","",""
"567","7","Méthodes automatiques de datation d'un texte","1","Il est classique, en philologie, de dater un texte en
utilisant comme « terminus post quem » la date
d’attestation de certaines de ses formes. L’utilisation de grandes bases de données comme Frantext permet
d’envisager l’automatisation de cette opération, et par conséquent son application à toutes les formes d’un texte, ce qui augmente la précision de la datation. Un certain nombre de précautions (choix du corpus de
référence, prise en compte des variations graphiques,...)
doivent être prises pour mener à bien cette opération, qui peut être améliorée par la prise en compte, au-delà de
la seule date de première attestation, de la fréquence d’utilisation, tout au long de l’histoire de la langue, des formes du texte à dater. _La datation du vocabulaire d’un texte permet également d’apprécier le degré d’archaïsme
et de néologie mis en oeuvre par l’auteur, ce qui a des
applications en stylistique et en histoire des genres. _On envisagera aussi l’utilisation de dictionnaires d’attestations pour effectuer ces opérations de datation, dictionnaires
existants ou à constituer dans ce but. _Les exemples
porteront aussi bien, pour validation, sur des textes dont la date est connue de l’histoire littéraire que de textes dont la datation fait aujourd’hui l’objet de controverses.
It is traditional, in philology, to date a text by using as a “terminus post quem” the date of first attestation
of certain words. The use of a great data base as Frantext
makes it possible to envisage the automation of this
operation, and consequently its application to all the words of a text, which would increase the precision
of the dating. A certain number of precautions (choice
of the reference corpus, recognition of the graphic
variations...) must be taken to perform this operation, which can be improved by the taking into account, beyond the only date of first attestation, of the frequency of use, throughout the history of the language, of the words of the text to be dated. The dating of the vocabulary of a text also makes it possible to appreciate the degree
of archaism and neology implemented by the author, which has applications in stylistics and history of the genres. One will consider also the use of dictionaries
of attestations to carry out these operations of dating, dictionaries existing or to be constituted to this end. The examples will relate as well, for validation, to texts
whose date is known in literary history and to texts
whose dating is the subject of controversies.","txt","2","",""
"568","7","Critique de la bibliométrie comme outil d'évaluation; vers une approche qualitative.","1","The evaluation of the researchers is a problem we are facing at present times. Bibliometric methods use mainly statistical tools, consequently, this approach
does not provide any tools of qualitative evaluation.
Bibliometry is a quantitative evaluation of literature.
Numerous studies contributed to the advance of this science
and to the discovery of indicators allowing to estimate the productivity of a researcher, a country or an institution. So, we suggest to examine the specific details of the bibliographic references in the texts. Our hypothesis is that by locating the indicators in corpus we will provide
sentences localization with linguistics clues. These
specific linguistic units, using the method of contextual exploration, give us opportunities to annotate articles with information about citation. We uses the contextual
exploration method, a linguistic approach, which
allows us to annotate automatically the text. Contextual
Exploration, proposed and developed by Jean-Pierre
Desclés and LaLICC group, is based upon the observation that it is possible to identify specific semantic information contained in certain parts of text. This approach does not depend on the specific domain of articles. Furthermore,
we will resolve the limitation of statistical method,
related to a possible distortion resulting from the negative
citation of authors.The informatic application of this study will be integrated into the platform EXCOM
(EXploration COntexuel Multilingue). We demonstrated
that it was possible to identify and to annotate the
textual segments from bibliography. Furthermore, through this linguistic study of the textual segments, we identified and categorized linguistics clues. The annotation of these linguistics clues facilitates automated processing within
the frame of the contextual exploration method
implemented in the platform EXCOM. This phase
allows us to qualify the relations between the author, the coauthors and also the bibliography. It is possible to
classify citation according to a qualitative approach and it is offering a better use of the bibliography.
1. Les outils bibliométriques
Si l’évaluation de la science et de la production
scientifique des chercheurs est un débat récurrent,
il est de plus en plus présent ces dernières années.
L’approche bibliométrique est la plus développée pour ne pas dire la seule. On pourra citer les écrits de Bradford, Lotka, Zipf et des travaux portant sur l’unification de ces lois. Nous pouvons également présenter les calculs des distributions à travers les mesures de concentration
ou l’entropie de Shannon. Ces méthodes sont
principalement issues de l’univers des statistiques et des grands nombres. Au-delà de l’aspect théorique des
distributions bibliométriques, nous pourrions citer un homme, Eugene Garfield, qui à travers son article
« Citation indexes of science : a new dimension in
documentation throught association of ideas » a proposer
un outil dévaluation de la science connu sous le nom de Facteur d’Impact. Afin de montrer l’importance de
disposer d’un tel outil, nous présenterons deux catégories
d’indicateur et leur utilité: les indicateurs univariés et les indicateurs relationnels.
Les indicateurs univariés permettent avant tout d’évaluer
la productivité d’un chercheur, d’un laboratoire, d’un
domaine ou bien d’un pays. Cependant, cet indicateur reste
déconseillé au niveau de l’individu. Les quantités
mesurables peuvent être le nombre de publications, le nombre de co-signatures et co-publications, le nombre de citations qui montrent l’impact des articles cités. Les liens scientifiques des citations montrent le rapport
d’influence entre communautés scientifiques. Nous
retrouvons ici le fameux facteur d’impact proposé par
M. Garfield et qui est utilisé par l’Information Science
Institute. Enfin, le nombre de brevets ainsi que les citations de brevets sont également des indicateurs d’inventivité, d’innovation et de capacité technologique montrant le résultat des ressources investies dans les activités de
recherche et développement.
Les indicateurs relationnels sont principalement les
co-citations et les co-occurrences de mots. Les co-citations présentent les réseaux thématiques et l’influence des auteurs. L’indice d’affinité mesure les liens entre les pays en calculant le taux relatif des échanges scientifiques
entre deux pays de masse scientifique comparable,
pendant une période donnée par rapport à l’ensemble de la coopération nationale de ces deux pays. L’utilisation
des citations ou des co-auteurs permet de proposer
des relations entre auteurs sous forme matricielle afin d’obtenir des réseaux.
2. Les limitations de l’outil
La bibliométrie apporte donc une mesure des activités
de recherche, mais un ensemble de limites
d’ordre technique et conceptuel ne permet pas l’utilisation
à l’unanimité des indicateurs correspondants. Nous
relèverons les biais suivants: actuellement, seul le premier
auteur est pris en compte. Il faut également considérer les fautes de frappe et l’homonymie. Les domaines sont inégalement représentés et les indicateurs s’appliquent très difficilement pour les sciences humaines et sociales. Toutes les revues ne sont pas recensées et pour celles qui le sont, il peut y avoir sur ou sous-estimation de la
revue et donc des travaux et des équipes. On notera que l’autocitation ou la citation d’un article controversé n’est pas abordé par l’approche statistique. De plus, les ouvrages ne sont pas pris en compte. Nous pouvons aussi constater que deux ans ne suffisent pas pour qu’un article se révèle or il s’agit de la durée retenue pour le calcul du facteur d’impact.
Si les journaux en science de l’information s’intéressent naturellement à cette problématique, nous constaterons
que cette question touche des domaines qui dépassent ce cadre. Garfield mentionnera par la suite : « I first
mentioned the idea of an impact factor in 1955. At that time it did not occur to me that it would one day become the subject of widespread controversy. [...] I expected that it would be used constructively while recognizing that in the wrong hands it might be abused ». On peut non
seulement affirmer que les moyens actuels ne permettent
pas d’identifier la valeur d’un papier. Mais qu’elle
conduit à des pratiques qui peuvent mettre en péril la qualité
des articles. Les conséquences ne sont pas sans
importance. Cela peut provoquer des comportements
antiscientifiques comme le plagiat, la publication dans une revue où le FI est élevé plutôt que dans une revue adéquate ou bien encore de diviser les données en partie
ridiculement petites. Nous sommes dans l’ère du « publier ou mourir ». De ce déclin de la diversité, nous risquons d’avoir à moyen terme une recherche homogène. Si les articles pointant du doigt les biais introduits par cette
méthode d’évaluation sont de plus en plus nombreux, ils ne proposent cependant guère de solutions innovantes, seulement de nouvelles approches statistiques permettant de minimiser les biais introduits.
Il est difficile de mesurer la qualité d’une production scientifique car la bibliométrie, et plus spécifiquement
les indicateurs, caractérisent le contenant et non le contenu. Ils sont des mesures et non des signes précieux de la qualité de la recherche. Si la bibliométrie rajoute de la valeur à la vue des pairs, elle ne peut que difficilement les remplacer. Ce débordement, en dehors des canaux de communication classique n’est-il pas le signe précurseur que l’hégémonie du FI de ces cinquante dernières années a vécu et qu’il est désormais nécessaire de passer d’une évaluation quantitative à une évaluation qualitative de la publication scientifique.
3. Une approche qualitative
Une nouvelle approche de cette problématique doit être envisagée. Nous devons désormais nous
intéresser à l’auteur, à ces co-auteurs et également au contenu
d’un article selon une approche qualitative. Pour cela, une réflexion sur l’étude des publications doit être entreprise. Sans prétendre fournir un traitement sémantique complet d’un article scientifique, nous pourrons dans un premier temps considérer les relations sémantiques entre l’auteur, les co-auteur et les références bibliographiques. Il serait tout à fait pertinent de savoir si un article est cité de façon positive ou négative. Une référence bibliographique citée en contre-exemple est tout à fait révélatrice des relations entre les travaux des chercheurs. Il peut s’agir entre autre
d’une référence par rapport à une définition, une
hypothèse ou bien une méthode, mais également
d’un point de vue, d’une comparaison ou bien d’une
appréciation. Cette approche permettra également de mettre
en évidence l’autocitation. La méthode de l’Exploration
Contextuelle va permettre, à l’aide d’une étude
poussée des indices, une analyse plus fine des références
bibliographiques.
De l’importance des références bibliographiques.
Nous nous proposons d’utiliser les renvois
bibliographiques d’un article afin de déterminer
des segments textuels sur lesquels nous pourrons
appliquer la méthode d’exploration contextuelle. L’appel de citation dans un texte peut prendre différentes formes. Il peut s’agir principalement d’un renvoi numérique ou d’un renvoi par nom d’auteur. Pour cela, nous dresserons une classification des différentes familles numériques et alphanumériques des références bibliographiques. Afin de traiter automatiquement cette tâche d’identification et d’extraction, nous pourrons par exemple définir un alphabet adéquat permettant d’appliquer au corpus un automate fini déterministe. Cette extraction va nous
permettre dans un premier temps d’étiqueter le corpus, puis de dresser des listes d’auteurs, de renvois ainsi qu’une bibliographie complète de l’auteur et de ces
co-auteurs. Il sera également intéressant, dans notre
approche qualitative, d’établir les relations entre les
renvois bibliographiques et la bibliographie.
Approche linguistique et Exploration Contextuelle.
Suite à l’identification des appels bibliographiques,
nous pourrons alors proposer une annotation de
celles-ci avec une catégorie afin de définir comment l’auteur
a été cité. Cette catégorisation est définie par l’étude d’indice que nous relèverons dans la phrase. Nous
rechercherons les indices positifs/négatifs de citation d’un auteur, ainsi que les citations hypothèses/méthodes
utilisées par un auteur. L’application des règles de
l’Exploration Contextuelle permettra ainsi de lever les
indéterminations sémantiques de l’unité linguistique analysée. On caractérisera ce point de vue comme étant
une catégorisation sémantique des références de
citation d’auteur. L’application informatique de cette étude s’effectue dans le cadre de la plateforme EXCOM (Exploration Contextuelle Multilingue) qui est en cours
de réalisation au sein du Laboratoire LaLICC. Ce
moteur d’annotation sémantique s’appuie sur la méthode
de l’Exploration Contextuelle et permet d’étiqueter
automatiquement un texte à partir de ressource linguistique. Nous serons alors en mesure d’apporter une information d’ordre sémantique et à terme de proposer une évaluation
qualitative des renvois bibliographiques. Enfin cette
approche proposera de dépasser le cadre bibliométrique
pour analyser les sources d’un texte et détecter
d’éventuelles cliques entre auteurs au sens de la théorie des graphes.","txt","2","",""
"569","7","Humanities' Computings","1","As discussed by McCarty, Beynon and Russ in a session organised at ACH/ALLC 2005, there is a remarkable convergence between McCarty’s concept of ‘model-building in the role of experimental end-maker’
(McCarty 2005:15) - a cornerstone in his vision for
humanities computing (HC) - and the principles of
Empirical Modelling (EM) (EMweb). More problematic is the tension between the pluralist conception of computing that is an essential ingredient of McCarty’s stance on HC, and the prominent emphasis on ‘dissolving dualities’ in McCarty, Beynon and Russ (ACH/ALLC 2005:138). Resolving this tension transforms the status of HC from one amongst many varieties of computing to that of first amongst equals.
The plurality of computing In presenting his “rationale for a computing practice that is of and foras well as in the humanities”, McCarty (2005:14) emphasises the plurality of computing. Following Mahoney (2005), he calls into question the search for “the essential nature of
computing” and appeals to history as evidence that ‘what people want computers to do’ and ‘how people
design computers to do it’ determine many different
computings. The audacity of McCarty’s vision in
recommending his readers, as would-be practitioners of a variety of computing, to “[turn] their attention from working out principles to pursuing practice”, is striking.
It is hard to imagine a reputable computer science
department encouraging its students to see computing
primarily in terms of its practice - congenial to the
students themselves as this might be. In promoting
computing as an academic subject, there is no recognised focus for developing ‘scientific’ principles other than the theory of computation at its historical core (Turing).
McCarty instead sets out to characterise the practice of HC in such terms that it has its own integrity.
When contemplating McCarty’s boldness, it is instructive
to consider the alternatives. The problematic nature
of the relationship between computer science and the
humanities is notorious. Consider, for instance, Chesher’s observation (ACH/ALLC 2005:39) that - in teaching a course in Arts Informatics: “The Humanities critiques of science and technology (Heidegger, Virilio, Coyne)
are difficult to reconcile with scientific conceptions of humanities practices (Holtzman). Each of these areas
places quite different, and often clearly conflicting
discourses, techniques and systems of value”. From
this perspective, seeking to characterise HC as a unified entity seems to be the only plausible strategy, though it resembles conjuring a stable compound from an explosive
combination of improbable ingredients. Invoking
EM is helpful in critiquing McCarty’s treatment of this unification (2005: 195-8). To elaborate the chemistry metaphor, it illuminates the precise nature of the reaction and identifies it with a more general phenomenon.
How modelling and computer science interact in
humanities computing The semantic orientation of HC is crucial to understanding its chemistry. Where computer
science emphasises prescribing and representing precise
intended meanings, humanities is of its essence obliged to engage with meanings that are ambiguous and unintended.
The authentic spirit of McCarty’s notion of HC is
captured in Ramsay’s ‘placing visualisation in a rhetorical
context’ (in his presentation at ACH/ALLC 2005:200) - the creative construction of an artefact as a subject for personal experience, whose interpretation is to be
negotiated and potentially shared. This theme is amplified
in many topical contributions to the proceedings of ACH/ALLC 20051.
Interpreting such activities from an EM perspective obliges a more prominent shift in emphasis from the accepted view of computing than is acknowledged in (McCarty,
2005) - the rich diversity of HC activities cannot be
attributed primarily to the versatility of the Turing Machine
as a generator of functional relationships2. In EM, the focus is upon the role that observables, dependency
and agency play in the modelling activity, and each of these concepts appeals to a personal experience of
interaction with technology that defies merely functional
characterisation. On this basis, EM trades first and
foremost not in objective ‘formal’ interpretations, but
in speculative constructions that cannot be realised
or mediated without skillful and intelligent human
interaction. Appreciation of observables, dependency relationships and potential agency is acquired through developing familiarity and evolving skills. This is in
keeping with Polanyi’s account - cited by McCarty (2005:44) - of how awareness is transformed through skill acquisition. Functional abstraction can express transcendental computational relationships, but does not encompass such issues, which relate to what is given to the human interpreter in their immediate experience.
A useful parallel may be drawn with musical
performance. Though one and the same functional
relationship between visual stimulus and tactile response is involved, a virtuoso pianist can perform an extended extract from a complex score in the time it takes a novice to identify the initial chord.
In this context, it is significant that - in elaborating his vision for HC, McCarty (2005:53) drew upon his
experience of making a specific model - the Onomasticon
for Ovid’s Metamorphoses - whose construction and
interpretation can be viewed as an EM archetype.
Model-building in the Onomasticon, being based on spreadsheet principles, supplies the framework within which McCarty’s experimental ‘end-maker’ role can be played out most effectively. It is implausible that the same qualities can be realised on account of adopting
other model-building principles, such as the use of
object-orientation, since - in conventional use - their
primary purpose is to rationalise the specification of
complex functional abstractions. This challenges Galey’s - no doubt pragmatically most sensible! - contention (ACH/ALLC 2005:198) that “In order to bring electronic editing projects like the eNVS to the screen, humanists must think past documents to embrace the principles of object-oriented and standards-compliant programming and design.”.
Humanities computing as the archetype for all varieties of computing Though McCarty (2005:14) first discusses
plurality in computing in relation to communities of
practice quite generally, his interest in a conceptual unification of HC and computer science (2005:195-8)
acknowledges the plurality of HC itself. Where
McCarty (2005:198) identifies “general-purpose modelling software, such as a spreadsheet or database” as one component within a more diverse unity, Beynon
and Russ have a radically different conceptualisation
in mind. Their account identifies EM as hybrid part-
automated-part-human processing within a framework for generalised computation similar to that implicit in McCarty’s Onomasticon3. Within this framework, the functionality of the Turing Machine is subsumed by
closely prescribed and highly automated modes of
interaction, whilst modelling with the Onomasticon is a more open-ended human-centred form of processing
- though by no means the most general activity of this
nature. This places EM at the centre of a broader pragmatic
discourse on programming that complements the
conventional rational discourse (Beynon, Boyatt and Russ, 2005).
The emphasis in (McCarty, Beynon and Russ, 2005)
on dissolving dualities within the frame of Radical
Empiricism (James, 1996) may still appear to be
mismatched to the plurality of HC. Klein’s reaction to EM exemplifies the issues. In seeking a technology to support a world-wide collaborative creative venture4, he recognises the qualities of EM as supporting a concept
of creativity that is expressed in the motto: “Build
the camera while shooting the film” (cf. Lubart 1996,
Klein 2002, METISweb). For Klein, this recognition
calls to mind Joas’s concept of creative action, and the processes that shape the evolving meaning of context
in Lévy’s ‘universe in perpetual creation’ (1997). The
relevance of Radical Empiricism even where such
diverse perspectives are being invoked stems from the subject-independent association it establishes between sense-making and the classification of relationships between experiences. For instance, whatever meaningful relationships inform the semiotics of Lévy’s Information
Economy Meta Language (2005) should somewhere
be ‘experiencable’ (cf. James, 1996:160), and in this manner be amenable to EM. Seen in this light, Radical Empiricism and EM relate to universal learning activities
that are orthogonal to the subject of the learning (cf.
Beynon and Roe, 2004). This accords with James’s
monist view of experience and pluralist view of
understanding (James, 1996:194). It is also resonates best with cultures where understanding through relationship has higher priority than objectification. In emphasising interaction and the interpretation of relationships, EM does not prescribe a rigid frame for understanding, but exhibits that positive quality of blandness5 (Jullien, 2004) that affords participation in many relationships. Even within the small community of EM practitioners,
this potential for plurality can be seen in different nuances
and idioms of elaboration, as in relation to analogue,
phenomenological or ecological variants of computing.
The aspiration of EM to connect computing decisively with modelling was also that of object-oriented (OO) modelling, as first conceived nearly forty years ago
(Birtwistle, Dahl, Myhrhaug and Nygaard, 1982). As a young technology, EM cannot yet compete with OO in tackling technical challenges in HC, such as devising adaptive web interfaces for the ‘end-maker’. Perhaps, unlike OO, it can be more widely adopted and developed
without in the process being conscripted to the cause of supporting functional abstraction. If so, it may yet
demonstrate that the modelling activity McCarty has identified as characteristic of HC is in fact an integral and fundamental part of every computing practice: that all computings are humanities’ computings.
Notes
1. For instance: acknowledging that there is no definitive digital representation (Galey, ACH/ALLC 2005:198); recognising the essential need for interactive playful
visualisation (Ramsay, ibid: 200; Wolff, ibid: 273;
Durnad and Wardrip-Fruin, ibid: 61); and appreciating
the importance of collaborative modelling and role
integration (Best et al, ibid: 13; van Zundert and
Dalen-Oskam, ibid: 249).
2. For more background, see McCarty (2005) Figure 4.2 and the associated discussion on pages 195-8.
3. The framework alluded to here is that of the Abstract Definitive Machine, as described at (EMweb).
4. The Metis project (METISweb) is exploring collective
creativity of global virtual teams of students and
professionals in the movie industry.
5. The Chinese ‘dan’, which Jullien translates as ‘fadeur’: Varsano notes that she “would have liked to find an English word that signifies a lack of flavor and that at the same time benefits from the positive connotations
supplied by a culture that honors the presence of
absence” (see Schroeder 2005). References
ACH/ALLC 2005: Conference Abstracts. University of Victoria, BC, Canada, June 2005
Beynon, W.M. (2005) Radical Empiricism, Empirical Modelling and the nature of knowing, Cognitive
Technologies and the Pragmatics of Cognition,
Pragmatics and Cognition, 13:3, 615-646
Beynon, W.M. and Roe, C.P. (2004) Computer Support for Constructionism in Context, in Proc ICALT 04, Joensuu, Finland, August 2004, 216-220
Beynon W.M., Boyatt R.C., Russ S.B. (2005)
Rethinking Programming, In Proc. ITNG 2006, Las Vegas, April 2006 (to appear)
Birtwistle, G M, Dahl, O-J, Myhrhaug, B, Nygaard, K. (1982) Simula Begin (2nd ed.), Studentlitteratur, Lund, Sweden, 1982
Coyne, R. (1999) Technoromanticism, Digital narrative, holism, and the romance of the real. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1999
Heidegger, M. (1977) The question concerning technology, and other essays. New York: Garland Pub.
Holtzman, S.R. (1994) Digital Mantras. The languages of abstract and virtual worlds. Cambridge Mass. & London: MIT Press
Joas, H. (1996) The Creativity of Action, Blackwell
Publishers (UK)
James, W. (1996) Essays in Radical Empiricism (first published 1912), New York: Dover
Jullien, F. (2004) In Praise of Blandness: Proceeding from Chinese Thought and Aesthetics, trans. By Paula M. Varsano, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
Klein, R.R. (2002) ‘La Mètis-pour-créer ? ’Vers l’Analyse
Médiologique d’une Métaphore: La Créativité
Selon la lecture de l’ouvrage de François JULLIEN
(1989) : Procès ou Création. Memoire de MSc
Communications. Université de Nice-Sophia-Antipolis, France, 223pp
Lévy, P. (1997) Cyberculture: rapport au Conseil de l’Europe ed. Odile Jacob, Paris
Lévy, P. Cognitive Augmentation Languages for
Collective Intelligence and Human Development. http://www.icml9.org/program/public/documents/LEVY-CRICS-205153.pdf (accessed 14/11/2005)
Lubart, T.I. (1996) Creativity across cultures, Handbook of creativity (R.J.Sternberg ed.), Cambridge Press.
Mahoney, M.S. (2005) The Histories of Computing(s), Interdisciplinary Science Review, 30(2), June 2005, 119-135
McCarty, W. (2005) Humanities Computing,
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan
McCarty, W, Beynon, W.M. and Russ, S.B. (2005) Human Computing: Modelling with Meaning, in ACH+ALLC 2005, 138-144
Schroeder, S. (2005) Book Review of In Praise of
Blandness: Proceeding from Chinese Thought and Aesthetics, François Jullien. Translated by Paula M. Varsano., Essays in Philosophy, Vol. 6, No. 1,
January 2005
Turing, A.M. (1936) On computable real numbers, with an application to the Entscheidung problems,
Proc. London Math. Soc., 42, 230-265.
Virilio, P. (1991) Lost Dimension, New York: Semiotext(e) (Autonomedia)
EMweb. http://www.dcs.warwick.ac.uk/modelling/
(accessed 14/11/2005)
METISweb. http://www.metis-global.org (accessed 14/11/2005)","txt","2","",""
"570","7","Using Software Modeling Techniques to Design Document and Metadata Structures","1","This paper discusses the applicability of modelling methods originally meant for business applications,
on the design of the complex markup vocabularies used for XML Web-content production.
We are working on integrating these technologies
to create a dynamic and interactive environment for the design of document markup schemes.
This paper focuses on the analysis, design and
maintenance of XML vocabularies based on UML. It considers the automatic generation of Schemas from a visual UML model of the markup vocabulary, as well as the generation of DTDs and also pieces of software, like input forms.
INTRODUCTION
Most authors that treated the relationship between UML and XML [5, 7] only targeted business
applications and did not consider complex document
modelling for massive and systematic production of XML contents for the Web. In a Web publishing project, we need to produce hundreds of XML documents for Web publication.
Digital Library XML documents that model the structure of literary texts and include bibliographic information (metadata), plus processing and formatting instructions, are by far much more complex than the XML data we usually find in business applications. Figure 1 shows a small document model based on the TEI. Although it may seem complex, it is only a very small TEI subset.
This type of markup is not as simple and homogeneous as conventional structured data. In these documents we usually find a wide variety of elements nested up to deep levels, and there are many exceptional cases that can lead to unexpected markup situations that also need to be
covered. Complex markup schemes like TEI [9] and
DocBook [1] are good examples of this versatility.
However, no matter how heterogeneous and unpredictable the nature of humanities markup could get to be, software engineers have to deal with it in a systematic way, so that automatic processes can be applied to these texts in order to produce useful output for Web publishing, indexing and searching, pretty printing, and other end user facilities
and services. There is also a need to reduce content
production times and costs by automating and systematizing
content production. For these, software, documentation and guides of good practice have to be developed.
The building of all these automation, methods and
procedures within the complexity of humanities content structuring can be called Document Engineering. The purpose is to reduce costs, and facilitate content production by setting constraints, rules, methods and implementing automation wherever and whenever is possible.
XML, DTD or Schemas, XSL transforms, CSS
stylesheets and Java programming are the usual tools to
enforce the rules, constraints and transformations necessary to turn the document structuring problem to a systematic automated process that lead to useful Web services. But the wide variety of Schema types, and the individual
limitations of each of them, make the task of setting a production environment like this very difficult.
On one hand we need a markup vocabulary that can
cover all document structuring requirements, even the most
unusual and complex, but that is simple enough for our purposes. In other words, we need the simplest DTD/Schema that fits our needs. We previously treated the
problem of DTD/Schema simplification in [2, 3].
But DTD/Schema simplification, although useful, doesn’t solve all the problems of Document Engineering, like building transformations to obtain useful output or
assigning behaviour to certain structures (like popup
notes, linking, and triggering services). This kind of
environments are usually built incrementally. The design information, if any, is dispersed into many pieces of software (Schemas, transformation, Java applets and servlets), or does not exist at all. A system like this includes
document design (DTD/Schemas), document production techniques and tools (XSL and Java), document
exploitation tools (indexing, searching, metadata,
dictionaries, concordances, etc.) and Web design
altogether.
UML modelling may be the answer to join all those bits and pieces into a coherent design that reduces
design cost, improves the quality of the result, provides
documentation and finally may even simplifies
maintenance. UML modelling for massive Web content production may also lead to automatic generation of some of the tools mentioned.
ADVANTAGES OF MODELING XML DOCUMENTS WITH UML
Apart from modelling the structure of a class of
documents (as DTDs and Schemas do), UML can capture other properties of elements:
- Behaviour: this is related to event oriented functions (e.g. popup notes)
- Additional powerful validation features (e.g. validating consistency of certain fields like author name against a database.)
- Customization of document models to provide
different views or subsets of the markup scheme to different users (e.g. DTDs for development of
different types of news)
We believe that the dynamic and interactive environment
described here will be very useful to professionals
responsible for designing and implementing markup schemes for Web documents and metadata.
Although XML standards for text markup (like TEI and DocBook) and metadata markup (e.g. MODS, EAD) are readily available [8], tools and techniques for automating
the process of customizing DTD/Schemas and
addingpostprocessing functionality are not.
PREVIOUS RELATED WORK
As Kimber and Heintz define it [7], the problem is how do we integrate traditional system engineering
modelling practice with traditional SGML and XML
document analysis and modelling?
According to David Carlson [5], eXtensible Markup
Language (XML) and Unified Modelling Language (UML) are two of the most significant advances from the fields of Web application development and object-
oriented modelling.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT
We are working on integrating these technologies to create a dynamic and interactive environment for the design of document markup schemes (see figure2).
Our approach is to expand the capabilities of Visual Wade1 to obtain a tool that allows the visual analysis, design and maintenance of XML vocabularies based
on UML. Among the targets we are working on the
automatic generation of different types of DTD/Schemas from a visual UML model of the markup vocabulary, code generation when possible (like generating HTML forms or XSLT), documentation and special enhanced
validators that can perform verifications beyond those
allowed by DTDs or Schemas (like verification of certain element content or attribute values against a database).
Fig. 2.: a environment for the design
of document markup schemes.
Carlson [5] suggests a method based on UML class
diagrams and use case analysis for business applications
which we adapted for modelling document markup
vocabularies.
A UML class diagram can be constructed to visually
represent the elements, relationships, and constraints of an XML vocabulary (see figure 3 for a simplified example).
Then all types of Schemas can be generated from the UML diagrams by means of simple XSLT transformations applied to the corresponding XMI representation of the UML model.
Fig. 3.: Example of a UML class diagram (partial view).
The UML model information can be stored in an XML document according to the XMI (XML Metadata
Interchange) standard as described by Hayashi and Hatton [6]: “Adherence to the [XMI] standard allows other groups to easily use our modelling work and because the format is XML, we can derive a number of other useful
documents using standard XSL transformations”. In our case, these documents are Schemas of various types as well as DTDs. Like Schemas, DTDs can be also generated from the XMI representation of the UML model (doted line), but as DTDs are simpler than Schemas, and all types of Schemas contain at least the same information as a DTD,
DTDs can also be directly generated from them.
POSTPROCESSING AND
PRESENTATIONAL ISSUES
In many cases, code generation from a high level
model is also possible. Code generation may include
JavaScript code to implement behaviour for certain
elements like popup notes, hyperlinks, image display
controls, etc. This is the case of input HTML forms that can
be generated from Schemas as shown by Suleman [10].
We have successfully experimented on the generation of XSLT skeletons for XML transformation which save a lot of time. Usually XSL transforms produce fairly
static output, like nicely formatted HTML with tables of contents and hyperlinks, but not much more. In exceptional
cases we can find examples of more sophisticated
interaction.
This high level of flexible interactivity is the real payoff from the UML-XML-XSLT-browser chain.
This sort of functionality is usually programmed
specifically for individual projects, given that it’s highly
dependent on the nature of the markup in any given
document. We aim to provide the ability to specify this at the UML level. For instance, a note could be processed differently according to its type attribute and then be
displayed as a footnote, a margin note, a popup note, etc. In certain cases it can be hooked to a JavaScript function to be popped up in a message window or in a new browser instance according to attribute values. In this sense, we could provide a set of generic JavaScript functions which
could retrieve content from elements and display it in
various ways (popup, insertions, etc.) or trigger events (like a dictionary lookup).
We should look for document models that allow al kinds of presentation, navigation and cognitive metaphors.
- Sequential reading
- Text reuse (links and includes)
- Non-sequential reading
- Hyperlinks
- Collapsible text
- Foot notes, margin notes, popup notes
- The folder metaphor
- TOCs, indexes and menus
All the elements in a structured document have an
associated semantic and a behaviour or function (as in the above example, a popup note must appear on a popup window when a link to it is pressed). This is not reflected in conventional document models: a DTD/Schema may say that a note is a popup note: ... but the behaviour of this note is not stated at all. Some postprocessing must be implemented for the popup effect to happen. A UML
based document model can incorporate the expected
behaviour like methods in a class diagram.
OTHER AUXILIARY TOOLS
FOR DOCUMENT DESIGN
AND OPTIMIZATION
As additional aiding tools for this project we have incorporated two of our earlier developments:
First the automatic simplification of DTDs based on
sample sets of files [2, 3]. This tool can be applied to obtain simplified DTDs and Schemas customized to fit exactly a collection of documents.
Second, automatic element names and attribute names translation can be applied when multilingual markup is required. A detailed explanation of the multilingual markup project can be found in [4].
See figure 2 for an idea of how these tools interact with the UML document modelling.
The techniques described here can also be used for
modelling metadata markup vocabularies.
CONCLUSIONS
Concerning the described set of DTD/Schema
design tools, the integration of UML design with
example based automatic simplification and multilingual vocabulary capabilities, is expected to be a very useful and practical design aid. However, we experienced some
limitations in the use of UML. While commercial non UML products like XML Spy or TurboXML use
custom graphical tree representation to handle XML schemas, comprising very handy collapsing and
navigating capabilities, most general purpose UML
design environments lack these specialized features.
One of the downsides of UML is that it is less friendly when working with the low-level aspects of modelling [11]. For instance, it is easy to order the elements of a sequence in a tree, but it is very tricky to do so in UML.
Although UML proves very useful for modelling document
structures of small to medium complexity (metadata
applications and simple documents), UML models for medium to big sized schemas (100 to 400 elements),
like those used for complex DL documents, become
practically unmanageable2. The diagrams become overloaded
with too many class boxes and lines, which end up being
unreadable. This problem could be solved, or at least
mitigated, by enhancing the interfaces of UML design
programs with newer and more powerful display
functions. Facilities like intelligent collapsing or hiding of diagram parts or elements, overview maps (see figure 3),
zooming, 3-D layouts, partial views, and other browsing capabilities would certainly help to solve the problem.
Footnotes
♣ This work is part of the METASIGN project, and has been supported by the Ministry of Education and
Science of Spain through the grant number: TIN2004-00779.
1 VisualWade is a tool for software development based on UML and extensions. It was developed by our research group, named IWAD (Ingeniería Web y Almacenes de Datos - Web Engineering and
Data-Warehousing), at the University of Alicante. This group also developed the OOH Method (for more information see http://www.visualwade.com/)
2 The DTD used by the Miguel de Cervantes DL for its literary documents contains 139 different elements. The “teixlite” DTD, a simple and widely used XML-TEI DTD, contains 144 elements.
References
[1] Allen, T., Maler, E., and Walsh, N. (1997) DocBook
DTD. Copyright 1992-1997 HaL Computer
Systems, Inc., O’Reilly & Associates, Inc., Fujitsu Software Corporation, and ArborText, Inc.http://www.ora.com/davenport/
[2] Bia, A., Carrasco, R. (2001), Automatic DTD
Simplification by Examples. In ACH/ALLC 2001. The Association for Computers and the Humanities,
The Association for Literary and Linguistic
Computing, The 2001 Joint International Conference, pages 7-9, New York University, New York City,
13-17 June 2001.
[3] Bia, A., Carrasco, R., Sanchez, M. (2002) A Markup Simplification Model to Boost Productivity
of XML Documents. In Digital Resources for the
Humanities 2002 Conference (DRH2002), pages 13-16, University of Edinburgh, George Square, Edinburgh EH8 9LD - Scotland - UK, 8-11 September 2002.
[4] Bia, A., Sánchez, M., Déau, R. (2003) Multilingual Markup of Digital Library Texts Using XML, TEI and XSLT. In XML Europe 2003 Conference and
Exposition, page 53, Hilton Metropole Hotel,
London, 5-8 May 2003. IDEAlliance, 100 Daingerfield
Road, Alexandria, VA 22314.
[5] Carlson, D. (2001) Modeling XML Applications with UML. Object Technology Series. Addison-
Wesley, 2001.
[6] Hayashi, L., Hatton, J. (2003) Combining UML, XML and Relational Database Technologies. The Best of All Worlds For Robust Linguistic Databases. In Proceedings of the IRCS Workshop on Linguistic
Databases, pages 115--124, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, USA, 11-13 December 2001. SIL
International.
[7] Kimber, W.E., Heintz, J. (2000) Using UML to
Define XML Document Types. In Extreme Markup Languages 2000, Montreal, Canada, 15-18 August 2000.
[8] Megginson, D. (1998) Structuring XML Documents. Charles Goldfarb Series. Prentice Hall, 1998.[9] Sperberg-McQueen, M., Burnard, L., Bauman, S., DeRose, S., and Rahtz, S. (2001).Text Encoding Initiative: The XML Version of the TEI Guidelines.
© 2001 TEI Consortium (TEI P4, Guidelines
for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange,
XML-compatible edition) http://www.tei-c.org/P4X/
[10] Suleman, H. (2003) Metadata Editing by Schema. In Traugott Koch and Ingeborg Solvberg, editors,
Research and Advanced Technology for Digital
Libraries: 7th European Conference, ECDL 2003, volume 2769, pages 82-87, Trondheim, Norway, August 2003. Springer-Verlag.
[11] Marchal, B. (2994) Design XML vocabularies with UML tools. March 31st, 2004, http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/xml/library/x-wxxm23/ or ftp://www6.software.ibm.com/software/developer/library/x-wxxm23.pdf","txt","2","",""
"571","7","The Multilingual Markup Website","1","INTRODUCTION
Markup is based on mnemonics (i.e. element
names, attribute names and attribute values). These mnemonics have meaning, being this one of the most interesting features of markup. Human understanding of this meaning is lost when the encoder doesn’t understand the language the mnemonics are based on. By “multilingual
markup” we refer to the use of parallel sets of tags in various languages, and the ability to automatically switch
from one to another.
We started working with multilingual markup in 2001, within the Miguel de Cervantes Digital Library. By 2003, we have built a set of tools to automate the use of
multilingual vocabularies [1]. This set of tools translates
both XML document instances, and XML document
validators (we first implemented DTD translation, and then Schemas [2]). First we translated the TEI tagset, and most recently the Dublin Core tagset [3] to Spanish, and Catalan. Other languages were added later1.
Now we present a Multilingual Markup Website that
provides this type of translation services for public use.
PREVIOUS WORK
At the time when we started this multilingual markup
initiative in 2001 there were very few similar
attempts to be found [4]. Today they are still scarce
[5, 6].
Concerning document content, XML provides built-in
support for multilingual documents: it provides the
predefined lang attribute to identify the language used in any part of a document. However, in spite of allowing users to define their own tagsets, XML does not
explicitly provide a mechanism for multilingual
tagging.
THE MAPPING STRUCTURE
We started by defining the set of possible
translations of element names, attribute names, and attribute values to a few target languages (Spanish, Catalan and French). We stored this information in an XML translation mapping document called “tagmap”, whose structure in DTD syntax is the following:
<!ELEMENT tagmap (element)+ >
<!ELEMENT element (attr)* >
<!ATTLIST element
en CDATA #REQUIRED
es CDATA #REQUIRED
fr CDATA #REQUIRED>
<!ELEMENT attr (value)* >
<!ATTLIST attr
en CDATA #REQUIRED
es CDATA #REQUIRED
fr CDATA #REQUIRED>
<!ELEMENT value EMPTY >
<!ATTLIST value
en CDATA #REQUIRED
es CDATA #REQUIRED
fr CDATA #REQUIRED >
Fig. 1. Structure of the original tagmap.xml file
This structure is pretty simple, and proved useful to
support the mnemonic equivalences in various languages. It was meant to solve ambiguity problems, like having two attributes of the same name in English, who should be translated to different names in a given target language.
For this purpose, this structure obliges us to include
all the attribute names for each element and their
translations. The problem with this is global attributes, which in this approach needed to be repeated, once for each element. This made the maintenance of this file cumbersome. Sebastian Rahtz then proposed another structured, under the assumption that an attribute name has the same meaning in all cases, no mater the element it is associated to, and accordingly it would have only one target translation to a given language. This is usually
the case, and although theoretically there could be
cases of double meaning, as above mentioned, they do not seem to appear within the TEI. So the currently
available “teinames.xml” file follows Sabastian’s
structure. Note that “element”, “attribute” and “value” appear at the same level, instead of nested:
<!ELEMENT i18n (element | attribute | value)+ >
<!ELEMENT element (equiv | desc)* >
<!ATTLIST element
ident CDATA #REQUIRED >
<!ELEMENT attribute (equiv | desc)* >
<!ATTLIST attribute
ident CDATA #REQUIRED >
<!ELEMENT value (equiv)* >
<!ATTLIST value
ident CDATA #REQUIRED >
<!ELEMENT equiv EMPTY >
<!ATTLIST equiv
xml:lang CDATA #REQUIRED
value CDATA #REQUIRED >
In 2004, we discussed the idea of adding brief text
descriptions to each element, the same brief descriptions
of the TEI documentation, but now translated to all supported languages. This would allow the structure to provide help or documentation services in several
languages, as another multilingual aid. This capability
was then added to the “teinames.xml” file structure,
although the translations of the all the descriptions still need to be completed:
<!ELEMENT desc (#PCDATA) >
<!ATTLIST desc
xml:lang CDATA #REQUIRED > Fig. 2. Structure of the teinames.xml file.
THE MULTILINGUAL MARKUP WEB
SERVICE By means of a simple input form, the markup of a
structured file can be automatically translated to
the chosen target language. The user can choose a file to
process (see figure 3) by means of a “Browse” button.
Fig. 3. The Multilingual Markup Translator form.
Currently, only TEI XML document instances are
allowed. In the near future, the translation of TEI DTDs,
W3C-Schemas and Relax-NG Schemas will be added,
and later, other markup and metadata vocabularies will
be supported, like Docbook and DublinCore.
The system uses file extensions to identify the type of
file submitted. Allowed file extensions are: .xml for
document instances, .dtd for DTDs, .xsd for W3C
Schemas, and .rng for RelaxNG schemas.
The document to be uploaded must be valid and
well-formed. If the document is not valid, the translation
will not be completed successfully, and an error page will
be issued. Once the source file has been chosen, the user
must indicate the language of the markup of this source
file, as well as the target language desired for the output.
This is done by means of radio buttons.
It would not be necessary to indicate the language of
the markup of the source file if it was implicit in the file
itself. We thought of three ways to do this:
To use the name of the root tag to indicate the language of
the vocabulary of the XML document. In this way, TEI.2
would be standard English based TEI, TEIes.2 would
indicate that the document has been marked up using the
Spanish tagset, and in the same way TEIfr.2, TEIde.2,
TEIit.2 would indicate French, German, and Italian, for
instance.
To add an attribute to the root element, to indicate the
language of the tagset, for instance: <TEI.2 markupLang
= “it”> would indicate that the markup is in Italian.
Use the name of the DTD to indicate the language
of the tagset. TeiXLite.dtd would be English, while
TeiXLiteFr.dtd would be the French equivalent.
Option 3 is by far the worst method, since a document
instance may lack a DOCTYPE declaration, and there
may be lots of customized TEI DTDs everywhere with
very different and unpredictable names. However,
options 1 and 2 are reasonably good methods to identify
the language of the markup. Consensus is needed to make
one of them the common practice.
IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS For the website pages we used JSP (dynamic pages)
and HTML (static pages), and these are run under a Tomcat 5.5 web server. For the translations, we used XSLT, as described in [1, 2, 3]
AUTOMATIC GENERATION OF MARKUP TRANSLATORS USING XSLT
The XSLT model is thought to transform one input XML file into one output file (see figure 4), which could be XML, HTML, XHTML or plain text, and
this includes program code. It does not allow the
simultaneous processing of two input files.
Fig. 4. The XSLT processing model.
There are certain cases when we would like to process
two input files altogether, like markup translation
(see figure 5).
Fig. 5. The ideal transformation required.
As XSLT does not allow this, two alternatives occurred to us, both comprising two transformation steps.
The first approach is to automatically generate translators.
As Douglas Schmidt said: “I prefer to write code that writes code, than to write code” [7]. This is what we
have done for the MMWebsite, i.e. to pre-process the translation map in order to generate an XSLT translation script which includes the translation knowledge embedded in its logic. Then this generated script can perform all the document-instance translations required. The mapping structure supports the language equivalences for various languages, so we should generate a translator for every
possible pair of languages. Whenever the mapping
structure is modified, a new set of translators must be generated. Fortunately, this is an automated process.
Fig. 6. Pre-generation of a translating XSLT script, to then translate the document instance.
The other alternative would be to merge the two input
files into a new single XML structure, and then to process
such file which would contain both the XML document
instance, and the translation mapping information (see
figure 7). This implies joining the two XML tree structures
as branches of a higher level root.
Fig. 7. Merging the two files before applying XSLT.
Although this approach may prove useful for some
problems, we did not use it for the MMWebsite, because the file merging preprocessing must be done for each file to translate, increasing the web service response time. Using preprocessed translators instead proved to be a faster solution.
This limitation, which is proper of the XSLT processing model, could be avoided by using a standard programming language like Java instead.
HOW WE ACTUALLY DO IT
The mapping document which contains all the
necessary structural information to develop the language converters is read by the transformations
generator, which was built as an XSLT script. XSL can be used to process XML documents in order to produce
other XML documents or a plain text document. As XSL stylesheets are XML, they can be generated as an XSL output. We used this feature to automatically generate both an English-to-local-language XSL transformation
and a local-language to English XSL transformation for each of the languages contained in the multilingual
translation mapping file. In this way we assured both ways convertibility for XML documents (see figure 8).Fig. 8. Schema translation using XSLT.
For each target language we also generate a DTD or a Schema translator. In our first attempts, this took the form of a C++ and Lex parser. Later, we changed the
approach. Now we first convert the DTD to a W3C Schema,
then we translate the Schema to the local language, and finally we can (optionally) generate an equivalent
translated DTD. This approach has the advantage of not using complex parsers (only XSLT) and also solves the translation of Schemas. In our latest implementation, the user can freely choose amongst DTD, W3C Schema and RelaxNG, both for input and output, allowing for a
format conversion during the translation process.
Many other markup translators can be built to other
languages in the way described here.
CONCLUSIONS
Amongst the observed advantages of using markup in one’s own language are: reduced learning times, reduction of errors and higher production. It may also help spread the use of XML vocabularies like DC, TEI, DocBook, and many others, into non-English speaking countries. Cooperative multilingual projects may benefit from the possibility of easily translating the markup to each encoder’s language. Last, but not least, scholars of a given language feel more comfortable tagging their texts with mnemonics based on their own language.
FUTURE WORK
Multilingual Help Services: As already said, brief descriptions for elements and attributes in different languages have been added to the mapping
structure. This allows for multilingual help services, like generating a glossary in the chosen language of the
elements and attributes used in a given document, or a given DTD/Schema. We are working on adding this
feature.
Footnotes
♣ This work is part of the METASIGN project, and has been supported by the Ministry of Education and
Science of Spain through the grant number: TIN2004-00779.
1 Translations of the TEI tagset by: Alex Bia and
Manuel Sánchez (Spanish), Régis Déau (French), Francesca Mari (Catalan), Arno Mittelbach
(German)
References
Endnotes
[1] Bia, A., Sánchez, M., and Déau, R. (2003)
Multilingual Markup of Digital Library Texts Using XML, TEI and XSLT. In XML Europe 2003
Conference and Exposition, Organized by IDEAlliance,
5-8 May 2003, Hilton Metropole Hotel, London,
p. 53, http://www.xmleurope.com/
[2] Bia, A., and Sanchez, M. (2004) The Future of Markup is Multilingual. In ACH/ALLC 2004: Computing and Multilingual, Multicultural
Heritage. The 16th Joint International Conference of the
Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing and
the Association for Computers and the Humanities, 11-16 June 2004, Göteborg University, Sweden, p 15-18, http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop119.html
[3] Bia, A., Malonda, J., and Gómez, J. (2005)
Automating Multilingual Metadata Vocabularies. In DC-2005: Vocabularies in Practice, Eva Mª Méndez
Rodríguez (ed.), p. 221-229, 12-15 September 2005, Carlos III University, Madrid. ISBN 84-89315-44-2. http://dc2005.uc3m.es/
[4] Pei-Chi WU (2000) Translation of Multilingual Markup in XML. In International Conference on the theories and practices of Electronic Commerce, Part II, Session 14, pages 21-36, Association of Taiwan Electronic Commerce, Taipei, Taiwan, October 2000. http://www.atec.org.tw/ec2000/PDF/14.2.pdf
[5] Bryan, J. (2002) KR’s Multilingual Markup,
TechNews Volume 8, Number 1: January/February
2002 http://www.naa.org/technews/TNArtPage.cfm?AID=3880
[6] Cover, R. Markup and Multilingualism, last
visited online 2005-4-25 at Cover Pages: http://xml.
coverpages.org/multilingual.html
[7] Schmidt, D. (2005) Opening Keynote, MoDELS 2005: ACM/IEEE 8th International Conference on Model Driven Engineering Languages and Systems, Montego Bay, Jamaica, 2-7 October 2005.","txt","2","",""
"572","7","Le résumé automatique dans la plate - forme EXCOM","1","Automatic summarization appears to be for the
future an important domain in textual mining and information retrieval. The main purpose of automatic
summarization is the extraction of the relevant information
contained in a document. There are various approaches
to make a summary, some approaches use a semantic
representation of the text to generate a summary, and others find relevant parts of a text to extract them and to constitute the summary. In the first place, we introduce the domain of automatic summarization and then we present the two main approaches. Finally, we expose our method, ours choices, and the software application which proceed from it.
1. Présentation du résumé automatique
Le résumé automatique a pour but de fournir à un
utilisateur l’information pertinente et essentielle d’un document sous forme de rapport synthétique. Il doit au travers d’un résumé retranscrire le sens général de ce que le document original à voulu exprimer. Le parcours
d’un document pour connaître son intérêt lors d’une
recherche par un utilisateur peut être long et inutile,
notamment s’il doit parcourir un grand nombre de textes.
Un logiciel de résumé automatique permet ainsi à
des utilisateurs de ne pas parcourir les textes dans leur
totalité, en ne leur faisant lire que le résumé, ce qui
produit ainsi pour eux un gain de temps important
dans leurs recherches. L’intérêt du résumé automatique apparaît pour la consultation sélective de documents par des personnes dont la lecture entière de ceux-ci est
impossible. Permettant une lecture synthétique, il aide le lecteur à filtrer les documents qui peuvent l’intéresser
pour une lecture ultérieure alors normale du ou des
documents choisis selon sa recherche. On note que la nature du résumé reste floue, il n’existe
pas en effet de résumé standard. De nombreuses
expériences sur des résumeurs professionnels montrent qu’il n’existe pas de résumé type.
Le laboratoire LaLICC de l’université Paris4-Sorbonne
a par ailleurs acquis une expérience dans le domaine
du résumé automatique depuis plusieurs années. La
réalisation de plusieurs projets tels que SERAPHIN,
SAFIR et ContextO ont participé à la réflexion et à la mise en place d’applications concrètes dans ce domaine.
Dans la phase actuelle, ces travaux entrepris sont
repris en étant introduit dans la nouvelle plate-forme
informatique EXCOM (EXploration COntextuelle
Multilingue) qui a pour objectif principal l’annotation
sémantique automatique de texte (dont la tâche de résumé
automatique fait partie).
2. Les différentes approches du résumé automatique
Nous allons présenter ici les deux grandes méthodes
existantes dans le résumé automatiques afin
d’introduire ensuite le projet EXCOM.
La méthode par compréhension
Cette méthode est issue essentiellement du domaine de l’intelligence artificielle. Elle considère la tâche de
résumé automatique comme devant être calquée par
l’activité résumante humaine. La constitution d’un résumé
par un logiciel doit ainsi passer par la compréhension totale du texte. Le logiciel doit pouvoir construire une
représentation du texte, qui éventuellement peut être
modifier ensuite, afin de pouvoir générer à partir de celle-ci
un résumé. L’avantage de cette méthode est de vouloir s’inspirer des processus cognitifs humains utilisés dans la compréhension de texte. Néanmoins en dehors de
cet aspect, des problèmes surgissent. Premièrement, la compréhension de texte par l’homme est une tâche
très loin d’être comprise, donc son implémentation
informatique semble encore impossible. Deuxièmement, la
représentation d’un texte est également très compliquée, et cette notion reste encore difficile pour les linguistes.
Chaque méthode par compréhension propose une
représentation propre, mais aucune n’arrive à représenter
le texte correctement. La complexité d’un texte sous tous ses aspects (discursif, temporel, etc.) est toujours une barrière à la construction correcte d’une représentation. Enfin la génération du résumé qui apparaît comme étant l’étape finale est aussi difficile. Les travaux sur la
production automatique de textes à partir de représentations
sont encore très limitées dans leurs résultats.
La méthode par extraction
Cette méthode est issue essentiellement du domaine de la recherche d’information. L’objectif de cette méthode
est de fournir rapidement un résumé simple à valeur
informative pour l’utilisateur. Elle consiste par l’extraction
des phrases les plus pertinentes du texte traité afin de constituer le résumé devant retransmettre l’essentielle de l’information pertinente générale qui se dégage du texte
original. Le résumé est alors constitué des phrases
extraites du document. Le travail principal se situe alors
dans l’évaluation de la pertinence des phrases du texte suivant un ou plusieurs critères. On peut dissocier alors deux grandes façons de faire. Les techniques statistiques qui prennent comme critère de pertinence la présence de termes fortement représentatifs du texte traité (grâce à un calcul de fréquence). Une phrase est alors extraite ou non suivant la présence de ces termes représentatifs dans celle-ci. Ces techniques sont limitées et se trouvent
confrontées à certains problèmes, comme la synonymie des termes par exemple. Les techniques plutôt linguistiques s’appuient sur la présence de marques linguistiques de surfaces pour établir l’importance ou non d’une phrase dans le texte. Certaines marques bien précises permettent d’attribuer une valeur sémantico-discursive à la phrase
et ainsi de connaître sa pertinence ou non dans la
structure discursive du texte. L’avantage de la méthode par extraction est de ne pas passer par des représentations complexes du texte, et de pouvoir fournir un résumé de façon assez simple (en comparaison d’une méthode par compréhension). Néanmoins les problèmes surviennent dans la qualité du résumé obtenu. Comme le résumé est le résultat de l’extraction d’un ensemble de phrases du texte que l’on a concaténée, la cohésion et la cohérence du résumé peuvent devenir médiocre. Il faut donc dans ces méthodes veiller à la qualité du résumé en sortie,
notamment par des méthodes d’évaluations.
3. La plate forme EXCOM et le résumé automatique
La plate-forme EXCOM est un moteur d’annotation
sémantique travaillant à partir de ressources
linguistiques préalablement rentrées par des linguistes. D’un point de vue technique EXCOM repose
essentiellement sur les technologies XML. Par ailleurs la plate-forme propose une ouverture vers le multilinguisme en prenant en compte d’autres langues que le français
tels que l’arabe et le coréen. La technique utilisée pour l’annotation est celle de la méthode d’exploration
contextuelle constituée au sein du laboratoire. Cette
méthode recherche à identifier des indicateurs linguistiques dans le texte, puis dans le cas où ils seraient présents, explorer le contexte textuel dans lequel ils se situent à la recherche d’autres indices linguistiques afin de pouvoir
attribuer une annotation sémantique sur le segment
textuel désigné par le linguiste. Ce traitement textuel repose
sur deux hypothèses fondamentales : la première admet la présence dans un texte de marques discursives affectées à des points de vue, et la seconde affirmant l’invariance de ces points de vue suivant les domaines traités dans le document. Le choix de points de vue adaptés est ainsi
en rapport avec la nature du texte traitée : articles
scientifiques, articles de journaux, essais, etc… L’essentiel des ressources utilisées correspond donc à un ensemble
de règles d’explorations préalablement construites par les linguistes. Il convient de remarquer que cette méthode
d’exploration contextuelle ne fait pas appel à des
ontologies externes mais que le système reste
entièrement compatible avec celles-ci.
La tâche de résumé automatique, actuellement en
développement sous EXCOM, utilise pour la constitution
de résumé une méthode par extraction de phrases basée sur quatre critères. A la suite de la segmentation préalable du texte en phrases, on attribue à chaque phrase quatre valeurs, correspondant aux quatre critères de pertinence.
Le premier critère de pertinence que nous avons retenu pour une phrase est la valeur de son annotation sémantique qui est attribuée par une règle d’exploration contextuelle. Les principaux points de vue que nous retenons pour le résumé sont l’annonce thématique, la conclusion, la récapitulation et les soulignements de l’auteur.
Le second critère correspond à la position de la phrase dans la structure textuelle. La position de certains types
de phrases (comme les annonces thématiques ou les
conclusions) par rapport à l’organisation des éléments constitutifs de l’argumentation de l’auteur, est déjà une information essentielle pour l’attribution du rôle de la phrase et de sa pertinence au niveau discursif. Ce second critère se trouve ainsi fortement lié au premier. Le troisième critère est lié à la thématique présente dans le texte. Nous cherchons dans les phrases des termes de filtrage, c’est-à-dire qu’ils correspondent aux mots les plus représentatifs de l’univers thématique qui se trouve dans le texte.
Enfin le dernier critère, qui est un critère négatif,
est la présence ou non dans la phrase d’anaphores pronominales. La présence de pronoms personnels sans référent dans le résumé contribue à sa mauvaise lisibilité, et des stratégies discursives devront alors être étudiées pour la sélection ou non de ces phrases.
Il existe donc trois étapes fondamentales dans la
construction du résumé :
• la première étant la phase d’annotation du texte
selon les points de vue
• la seconde étant la construction du résumé par la
sélection des phrases disposant de la meilleure valeur
de pertinence P. La valeur de pertinence P d’une
phrase correspond à une valeur numérique qui est calculée en fonction des quatre critères qualitatifs qui sont affectés à chaque phrase
• enfin la troisième étape étant la phase de nettoyage du résumé obtenu dans la seconde étape à l’aide de règles appropriées, afin d’assurer une cohésion et une cohérence meilleure.
Nous montrerons donc dans la présentation des exemples
de résumés que nous commenterons en expliquant
l’avantage de notre stratégie.","txt","2","",""
"573","7","Third-Party Annotations in the Digital Edition Using EDITOR","1","Recent discussion about the scholarly digital
edition has focussed on ways to change the edition
from a passive text, only there to be consulted, into a
dynamic research environment. Siemens in (Siemens 2005) asks why as yet we have seen no convincing
integration between text analysis tools and the hypertext
edition. Best in (Best 2005) speculates on the
possibilities this vision offers for Shakespeare research. To some extent it seems to be what Mueller is realising in the Nameless Shakespeare (Mueller 2005). An essential
step towards seamless integration of text analysis
tools into the digital edition (TAML, the Text Analysis Mark-up Language) is suggested in (Sinclair 2005).
The most visionary statement of the dynamic edition’s potential is no doubt given by Robinson in (Robinson 2003). A dynamic edition, in his view, while offering text analysis and other tools that may shed light on some
aspect or another of the edited texts, would also be open to the addition of new content, of corrections, of many different types of annotations.
Integrating third-party annotations into the edition is
something that seems especially interesting, as it would
open up the edition to the results of interpretive studies. The output of scholarly processes of textual analysis (as e.g. suggested in Bradley 2003) could be fed back into the digital edition, and made available for querying by other scholars.
This paper will focus on a solution for adding third
party annotations into a digital edition. It will propose a REST (Representational State Transfer, Fielding 2000) API for the exchange of annotation information between
an edition and an annotation server. The edition display
software (which transforms the edition XML source file into HTML) will ask the annotation server for
the annotations that apply to text fragments that are
being displayed to the edition user. Depending on
the parameters the annotation server will return either
annotations formatted for display or instructions for
hyperlinking the text to the annotations. Thus, the digital
edition will be able to include a display of external a
nnotations without knowing about the annotations’
contents or even the annotation data model.
The paper presentation will include a brief
demonstration of a prototype implementation of the protocol. The demonstration will be based on a digital emblem book edition at the Emblem Project Utrecht
(http://emblems.let.uu.nl) and use the EDITOR
annotation toolset under development at the Huygens Institute (http://www.huygensinstituut.knaw.nl/
projects/editor, Boot 2005). EDITOR at present consists of an annotation input component that runs on the user’s workstation and an annotation display component that runs on a web server. The input component displays the CSS-styled edition XML to the user and facilitates the creation of multi-field user-typed annotations to arbitrary ranges of text in the edition. The display component, still at an early stage of development, shows the annotations in conjunction with the edition XML, has some facilities
for filtering and sorting, and will offer, one day,
advanced visualisation facilities. The EDITOR server component will serve up the annotations for display in other contexts, first and foremost, presumably, in the context of the digital edition that they annotate.
As Robinson notes, one of the more complex issues
in annotating the digital edition is the problem of
concurrent hierarchies and the mark-up overlap problems to which this gives rise. The EDITOR annotation toolset assumes the edition and its annotations will be stored in separate locations. Each annotation stores information about the start and end locations of the text fragment to which it applies. There is no need to materialize the annotations into tagging interspersed between the basic edition mark-up, and the overlap issue therefore does not arise (the solution in that respect is similar to the Just In Time Markup described in Eggert 2005). Similarly, as the edition XML remains unmodified, there is no need to worry about potential corruptions during the annotation process.
Making available third-party annotations from within the digital edition will go a long way towards establishing a ‘distributed edition fashioned collaboratively’, to borrow Robinson’s words. My paper will briefly look at some of the wider issues the integration of third-party scholarship into the digital edition raises. How will the presence of third-party material influence the edition’s status? Should there be a review process for third-party contributions?
Or is it old-fashioned to even think in terms of ‘third
parties’? Robinson speaks of the edition as a ‘mutual
enterprise’. Editorial institutes, such as the Huygens
Institute, will need to rethink their role, as scholarly
editions evolve into centrepieces of ever-expanding
repositories of text-related scholarship.
References
Best, Michael (2005), ‘Is this a vision? is this a dream?’: Finding New Dimensions in Shakespeare’s Texts’, CH Working Papers, http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/chwp/Casta02/Best_casta02.htm, accessed 2005-11-13.
Boot, Peter (2005), ‘Advancing digital scholarship using EDITOR’, Humanities, Computers and
Cultural Heritage. Proceedings of the XVI international
conference of the Association for History and
Computing 14-17 September 2005 (Amsterdam: Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences).
Bradley, John (2003), ‘Finding a Middle
Ground between ‘Determinism’ and ‘Aesthetic
Indeterminacy’: a Model for Text Analysis Tools’, Lit Linguist Computing, 18 (2), 185-207.
Eggert, Paul (2005), ‘Text-encoding, Theories of the Text, and the ‘Work-Site’, Lit Linguist Computing, 20 (4), 425-35.
Fielding, Roy Thomas (2000), ‘Architectural Styles and the Design of Network-based Software Architectures’, (University of California).
Mueller, Martin (2005), ‘The Nameless Shakespeare’, CH Working Papers, http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/chwp/Casta02/Forest_casta02.htm, accessed 2005-11-13.
Robinson, Peter (2003), ‘Where we are with electronic
scholarly editions, and where we want to be’,
Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie, http://
computerphilologie.uni-muenchen.de/jg03/
robinson.html, accessed 1005-11-13.
Siemens, Ray (with the TAPoR community) (2005), ‘Text Analysis and the Dynamic Edition? A Working Paper, Briefly Articulating Some Concerns with an Algorithmic Approach to the Electronic Scholarly Edition’, CH Working Papers, http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/chwp/Casta02/Siemens_casta02.htm, accessed 2005-11-13.
Sinclair, Stéfan (2005), ‘Toward Next Generation Text Analysis Tools: The Text Analysis Markup
Language (TAML)’, CH Working Papers, http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/chwp/Casta02/
Sinclair_casta02.htm, accessed 2005-11-13.","txt","2","",""
"574","7","Orlando Abroad : Scholarship and Transformation","1","The Orlando Project, which has regularly reported on its work in progress at meetings of ACH/ALLC, is due for publication in early 2006. In this paper the three originating literary scholars on the project will look
back at the its original goals, consider significant
turning-points in the process, and reflect on what the
project ended up producing for the first release.
The project takes its name from Virginia Woolf’s fantastic narrative of an aspiring English writer who begins life as an Elizabethan male and is transformed in the course of the novel’s romp through history into a woman who lives up to the year of the novel’s publication in1928. The transformation occurs while Orlando is abroad as ambassador extraordinary for King Charles II in Turkey. Woolf’s narrator has much to say about the difficulties
this poses for the historian, lamenting that “the revolution which broke out during his period of office, and the fire which followed, have so damaged or destroyed all those
papers from which any trustworthy record could be drawn,
that what we can give is lamentably incomplete.” The charred fragments offer some clues, but “often it has been necessary to speculate, to surmise, and even to use the imagination.” We would locate the electronic Orlando, like Woolf’s protagonist, as the site of an extraordinary transformation associated with the challenges of moving
between cultures, the limitations of paper, and the necessity
for speculation, imagination, and new approaches to scholarship.
None of us were experienced in humanities computing when the project was begun; we set out to write a feminist literary history. In the process of trying to figure out how to do it, we decided to use computers. Ten years later, we have produced an extensively tagged XML textbase comprising a history of women’s writing in the British
Isles in a form quite unlike any previous history of
writing. At a glance, it may look like another translation
into electronic form of the genre of alphabetical
companion or literary encyclopedia, and it is indeed deeply
indebted to that flexible and enduring form. However, our custom markup system has been used to tag a wide range of semantic content in the textbase, and a backend indexing and delivery system allows that markup to be exploited to produce on-the-fly documents composed of portions of the project’s digitally original source
documents. The result is a very flexible and dynamic
approach to literary history that challenges users to harness
the power of the encoding to pursue their own interests.
Recent argument about the crisis in scholarly publishing, such as that marshaled by Jerome McGann in support of the NINES initiative, has focused on the need to draw a larger community of scholars into best-practice methods
of electronic markup and publication of texts. This is
both crucial as a means of addressing the crisis, and
indispensable to the continued development of electronic
tools to serve the humanities research community. We
offer ourselves as a kind of case study in such a process, given that our project did not originate as humanities computing endeavour but was completely transformed in the course of becoming one. In going electronic, we became radically experimental, tackling problems and producing results that we could not have foreseen at the outset.
We will reflect on the results of taking an already very ambitious project electronic in relation to a range of
factors including:
o the impact on the intellectual trajectory of the
project of engaging with, in addition to our disciplinary
subject matter, a whole new field of inquiry and
undertaking what became an interdisciplinary
experiment in knowledge representation;
o the impact on the project’s temporal trajectory;
o funding, and its relationship to funding structures and opportunities;
o the intensification of collaboration, increase in
project personnel, and transformation of roles and responsibilities;
o the impact on research and writing methods of composing an extensive scholarly text in XML;
o the shaping of the research itself by the use of XML;
o the development a delivery system that aimed at once to be reassuringly accessible and to challenge users to employ the system in new ways;
o dilemmas regarding modes of publication
While the paper will, given the constraints of time,
necessarily touch briefly on some of these various areas,
these reflections will be framed as an inquiry into what it means to bridge the gap between the community of researchers deeply invested in humanities computing and the wider scholarly community.
We have come to see Orlando as a kind of emissary of humanities computing, in that we hope it will prove to be a major step towards establishing methods for
encoding critical scholarly materials. It provides a test case of the feasibility and benefits of employing XML to encode large semantic units of critical discourse. It offers a model which we hope will be employed and adapted by other projects, and we will indicate the direction we would like to take the project in the future. But perhaps most importantly, the Orlando Project offers a substantial resource that in its design will, we hope, alert scholars
beyond the humanities computing community to the
potential of encoding as a means of scholarly inquiry and a tool of critical expression. The proof of that will be in the pudding, of course, so the paper will also report as far as possible on the initial reaction from the scholarly community in the field of English studies to the project’s public release.","txt","2","",""
"575","7","Asynchronous Requests for Interactive Applications in the Digital Humanities","1","Web applications are becoming more
sophisticated and offer a rich user experience that is similar to native client applications. Examples of these applications include Google maps and Flickr.
Interactive applications in the humanities can use some
of these same design patterns to improve the user
experience. The asynchronous update pattern is
evaluated in this paper.
Asynchronous update allows web applications to update without a complete page reload and goes by the popular name of Ajax. “Traditional web applications essentially submit forms, completed by a user, to a web server. The web server responds by sending a new web page back. Because the server must submit a new page each time, applications run more slowly and awkwardly than their native counterparts.
Ajax applications, on the other hand, can send requests to the web server to retrieve only the data that is needed - usually using SOAP or some other XML-based web services dialect. On the client, JavaScript processes the
web server response. The result is a more responsive
interface, since the amount of data interchanged between the web browser and web server is vastly reduced. Web server processing time is also saved, since much of it is done on the client.” (from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AJAX)
This paper presents a case study of an ongoing project to create a digital library of Navajo language texts. After
such texts are put into the database, the texts can be
annotated with interlinear linguistic information using an interactive web application. The model for interlinear
information that exists in TEI was determined to be
inadequate for the present application and a different
model is used. The design of the application for
interactive and collaborative entry of interlinear
linguistic information consists of a browser client using JavaScript and a server-side Exist native XML database that responds to XQueries. The acquisition and parsing methods for the texts are described in Canfield 2005.
The Navajo language texts with annotated interlinear
information are compliant with a Relaxng schema based on the XML from Bow 2003. Since this is a pilot
application, it allows the schema to be tested and perhaps modified before finally adding the schema to TEI using an ODD specification. For example, the interlinear XML for the sentence “t’11’1ko [a’ sisi[“ is:
<phrase>
<item type=”txt”>t’11’1ko [a’ sisi[</item>
<item type=”gls”>then one grabbed me</item>
<words>
<word>
<item type=”txt”>t’11’1ko</item>
<item type=”gls”>just then</item>
<item type=”pos”>adv</item>
</word>
<word>
<item type=”txt”>[a’</item>
<item type=”gls”>one</item>
<item type=”pos”>pro</item>
</word>
<word>
<item type=”txt”>sisi[</item>
<item type=”gls”>3p grabbed me</item>
<item type=”pos”>verb</item>
<morphemes>
<morph>
<item type=”txt”>shi</item>
<item type=”gls”>me</item>
<item type=”pos”>1st person obj
</item>
</morph>
<morph>
<item type=”txt”>yii</item>
<item type=”gls”>he/she/it</item>
<item type=”pos”>3p subj pro</item>
</morph>
<morph>
<item type=”txt”>NULL</item>
<item type=”pos”>classifier</item>
</morph>
<morph>
<item type=”txt”>zi[</item>
<item type=”gls”>grab</item>
<item type=”root”>ZIID(1)</item>
</morph>
</morphemes>
</word>
</words>
</phrase>
All the XML in the database is transformed to XHTML for the user interface of the application. This page uses a tabular interface to allow the user to see and update the interlinear information for each sentence in the text. For example, if a word has already been annotated, it will
appear with all the annotated information. If the word has not been annotated, the user double clicks on the word and the word appears in an editable html text input
box. The user can then edit the detailed interlinear
information for the text informed by an on-line Navajo lexicon. The display for each sentence appears as below, but the font for Navajo is not active so the characters
display as the base ASCII. The sentence is « t’11’1ko
[a’ sisi[ « which means «then one grabbed me.» All fields can be edited when double-clicked except for the base word in each sentence. Note that the last word is a verb «sisi[» and each underlying morpheme is annotated. The JavaScript code that updates each of the fields uses XML HTTP Request which allows the page to be updated
without a page reload. Note that traditional web
applications must reload the entire page for each update.
This is time consuming and disruptive to the user
experience.
A sample of 25 chapter-length documents was used for this evaluation from the Navajo language digital
library. The average document size was about 150kb,
which is not very large for documents common in
humanities applications. Each document update was timed (using JavaScript) in each mode - with
asynchronous requests and with traditional page reloads. The average time for an update of a single field using XML HTTP Request was about 8 ms. The average time for a traditional (whole page reload) update of a field was about 400 ms. The traditional method shows a
large update time that will cause unneeded user waiting. The traditional method also makes for a disruptive user
experience where the page visually reloads while the user is trying to accomplish a task.
Many interactive web applications in the humanities
would benefit from this asynchronous update design
pattern. Whenever a document is large and requires many small updates, the user experience will be improved with asynchronous requests due to shorter load times and a smoother experience with the user interface.
References
Bow, C., Hughes, B., Bird, S. (2003). Towards a General Model of Interlinear Text. Proceedings of EMELD Workshop 2003: Digitizing & Annotating Texts & Field Recordings. LSA Institute: Lansing MI, USA. July 11-13, 2003.
Canfield, K. (2005). A Pilot Study for a Navajo Textbase.
Proceedings of ACH/ALLC Conference 2005.
Victoria, BC, Canada, June 15-18, 2005.","txt","2","",""
"576","7","Problems with Marriage: Annotating Seventeenth - Century French Engravings with TEI and SVG","1","THE TEXTS
This image markup project fits into the larger
context of an electronic anthology, “Le marriage sous l’Ancien Régime: Une anthologie critique.” Since 1998, C. Carlin has been collecting texts about early modern marriage in France for her forthcoming book, L’imaginaire nuptial en France, 1545-1715. Given that the majority of documents studied for the book have not been republished since their original appearance in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the idea of an
electronic anthology should be appealing to scholars in several disciplines (history, literary studies, linguistics,
cultural studies, art history, philosophy, religious
studies). The proposed anthology is discussed in the article
“Drawing Knowledge from Information: Early Modern Texts and Images on the TAPoR Platform” [1].
The radical changes undergone by the institution
of marriage in France during and after the Counter
Reformation generated texts of several different genres.
Included in the anthology will be medical, legal,
religious, satirical and literary documents and engravings,
all heavily annotated. It is the engravings that interest us for this presentation.
As part of a prototype for the anthology, several verse and prose polemics against marriage were encoded with XML markup in 2004 and early 2005. Most engravings of the period whose subject is marriage also fall into the polemical or satirical genre. Six from the collection of the Cabinet des Estampes of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France were requested on CD Rom, and are the test images for this project:
Jacques Lagniet, “Il cherche ce qu’il voudrait ne pas trouver”
Abraham Bosse, “La femme qui bât son mari”
Jean Le Pautre, “Corrige, si tu peux, par un discours honneste”
François Guérard, “Le Grand Bureau ou la confrèrie des martires”
Nicolas Guérard, “Présage malheureux”
Nicolas Guérard, “Argent fait tout” [2]
THE SCHEMA
Marking up annotations in XML required a
framework that allowed for both the text of the annotations, and the image areas to which they
correspond, to be encoded in a single document. Given that well-established tagsets exist for each of these
functions, an XML model was developed based on a
marriage of the Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) 1.1
specification [3], and a subset of the Text Encoding Initiative
(TEI) P5 guidelines [4]. This union allows TEI and SVG markup to operate concurrently. The TEI markup forms the overarching structure of a document, while elements belonging to the SVG vocabulary may appear in specific locations within the TEI encoding.
Elements belonging to the SVG vocabulary are permitted within [div] tags and must be enclosed by the [svg] root element. Therefore, [svg] elements may appear anywhere with the TEI markup where [div] elements are permitted. Within an [svg] element may be any number of [rect] elements whose coordinates demarcate the area on an associated image to which an annotation applies. The texts of the annotations are enclosed in [div] blocks of their own, separate from the SVG encoding. This allows for annotation text to be encoded in any TEI-conformant way, presenting the possibility of integrating annotations
with larger corpora. A [div] element containing an
annotation text is associated explicitly with a set of
annotation coordinates through references to the
coordinates’ svg:id attribute.
Markup validity is enforced through XML Schema or RELAX NG schema files which are bundled with the application. The schema which validates the TEI portion
of the encoding has been generated by the ROMA suite of tools provided by the TEI for the purposes of
specifying and documenting a customization. The TEI schema is supplemented by the addition of a schema
describing the SVG 1.1 specification. The W3C provides the SVG 1.1 schema in either RELAX NG or DTD format, from which an XML Schema version may be derived using Trang [5]. Integrating schema from two different tagsets in this way is greatly facilitated by the modular construction inherent to both the TEI and SVG schema models. SVG may be ‘plugged-in’ to TEI by adding the [svg] root element to the list of allowable content in a particular context, and then associating the requisite schema documents with one another for the purposes of validation.
Taking this approach to schema marriage has several advantages. The TEI guidelines for textual encoding provide a tagset whose usage rules are well-defined and understood, facilitating the portability of the encoding between projects, and easing the integration of corpora from different sources. An earlier method of encoding image annotations in XML, Image Markup Language [6], is based on a standalone markup structure which does not offer the same high degree of interoperability as the current model. The TEI encourages customization of its guidelines to accommodate for a wide range of
implementations, an approach this project demonstrates.
More generally, working with XML allows for the
encoded material to be transformed into other formats
as requirements dictate, such as XHTML, PDF, or
OpenDocument format.
THE IMAGE MARKUP TOOL
Having decided on our approach to a schema, we then began to look at how we might create the markup. We wanted a straightforward tool for defining areas in an image and associating them with annotative markup, and we looked initially at two possible existing tools, INote [7] and the Edition Production Technology [8].
INote, from the University of Virginia, is a Java
application for annotating images. It does not appear to have been updated since 1998. In some ways, INote is an ideal tool; it is cross-platform (written in Java), and covers most of our requirements. However, we rejected INote for several reasons. The program can load only GIF and JPEG images, and we wanted to be able to handle other common image formats such as BMP and PNG.
INote also allows only limited zooming (actual size,
double size, and half size). We required more flexible zooming to handle larger images. Finally, INote uses a proprietary file format.
However, INote does allow for polygonal and elliptical annotation areas, something not yet implemented in our own tool.
The Edition Production Technology (EPT) platform is an Eclipse-based software suite developed by the
ARCHway project [9]. Its ImagText plugin allows the
association of rectangular areas of an image with sections
of transcribed text. Although it promises to be a very powerful tool, especially for the specific job of associating
document scans with transcription text, the interface of the program is complex and would be confusing for
novice users. In addition, the tool developers expect and encourage the use of customized DTDs (“We do not
provide support or guarantees for the DTDs included in the demo release - it is expected that users will provide their own DTDs and thus their own specific encoding practices.” [10]) The EPT also supports only JPEG, GIF, TIFF, and BMP files; other formats such as PNG are not supported ([http://rch01.rch.uky.edu/~ept/Tutorial/
preparing_files.htm#images]).
We therefore decided to write our own markup program, which is called the Image Markup Tool [11].
Fig 1: scrshot_main_1.jpg, avalable at [http://mustard.tapor.uvic.ca/~mholmes/image_markup/scrshot_main_1.jpg] At the time of writing, the program is in at the «alpha» stage, and the first public version will be released under an open-source licence in December 2005. The program is written in Borland Delphi 2005 for Windows 2000 / XP. Development of the tool is guided by the following requirements:
The Image Markup Tool should:
- be simple for novices to use
- load and display a wide variety of different image formats
- allow the user to specify arbitrary rectangles on the image, and associate them with annotations
- allow such rectangles to overlap if the user wishes
- provide mechanisms for bringing overlapped
rectangles to the front easily
- require no significant knowledge of XML or TEI
- allow the insertion of XML code if the user wishes
- save data in an XML file which conforms to a TEI P5-based schema with embedded SVG
- reload data from its own files
- come packaged with an installer, Help file, and basic tutorial
Using the Image Markup Tool, we have been able to perform several types of direct annotations, including the text within the engravings, commentary on that text, commentary on significant gestures depicted, and
information about the engraver and the seal of the library at the time the engraving entered the library’s collection. The tool allows for distinction among types of annotation,
and the use of a TEI-based file format allows us to link easily between the markup of the engravings the
TEI-encoded polemical texts which are also included in the collection.
We are now planning to use the program for a future
project which involves marking up scans of historical architectural plans. One of the aims of this project will be to make the plans available to the public, so that (for example) the current owners of heritage buildings will be able to do renovation and restoration work with more detailed knowledge of the original building plan. References
[1] Carlin, Claire. “Drawing Knowledge from Information:
Eary Modern Texts and Images on the TAPoR
Platform” in Working Papers from the First and Second Canadian Symposium on Text Analysis
Research (CaSTA), [http://www2.arts.ubc.ca/chwp/
Casta02/], and forthcoming in Text Technology.
[2] Bibliothèque nationale (France). Département des estampes et de la photographie and Roger-Armand Weigert, ed. Inventaire du fonds français, graveurs du XVIIe siècle. Paris: Bibliothèque Nationale, 1939.
[3] Ferraiolo, Jon, et al., eds. (2003). Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) 1.1 Specification. World Wide Web Consortium. [http://www.w3.org/TR/SVG/]
[Accessed 03-11-2005].
[4] Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and Lou Burnard, eds.
(2005). The TEI Guidelines: Guidelines for Electronic
Text Encoding and Interchange - P5. The TEI
Consortium. [http://www.tei-c.org/P5/Guidelines/index.html] [Accessed 03-11-2005].
[5] Thai Open Source Software Center. (2003). Trang - Multi-format schema converter based on RELAX NG. [http://www.thaiopensource.com/
relaxng/trang.html] [Accessed 03-11-2005].
[6] Image Markup Language 1.0. (2000). [http://
faculty.washington.edu/lober/iml/] [Accessed
03-11-2005].
[7] _INote_. Intitute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, University of Virginia, 1998. [http://www.iath.virginia.edu/inote/] [Accessed 07-11-2005]
[8] _Edition Production Technology (EPT build 20050301). Kiernan, Kevin et al., University of Kentucky. 2005. [http://rch01.rch.uky.edu/~ept/download/] [Accessed 07-11-2005]
[9] Kiernan, Kevin, et al. The ARCHway Project. University of Kentucky. [http://beowulf.engl.uky.edu/~kiernan/ARCHway/entrance.htm] [Accessed 07-11-2005]
[10] «Tutorial for EPT Demonstration.» [http://rch01.rch.uky.edu/~ept/Tutorial/demo_tagging.htm]
[Accessed 07-11-2005]
[11] Image Markup Tool. Carlin, Claire, Eric Haswell and Martin Holmes. University of Victoria
Humanities Computing and Media Centre. 2005. [http://mustard.tapor.uvic.ca/~mholmes/image_markup/]","txt","2","",""
"577","7","Methods for Genre Analysis Applied to Formal Scientific Writing","1","Overview
Genre and its relation to textual style has long been studied, but only recently has it been a candidate
for computational analysis. In this paper, we apply
computational stylistics techniques to the study of genre,
which allows us to analyze large amounts of text
efficiently. Such techniques enable us to compare
rhetorical styles between different genres; in particular, we are studying the communication of scientists through their publications in peer-reviewed journals. Our work examines possible genre/stylistic distinctions between articles in different fields of science, and seeks to relate them to methodological differences between the fields.
We follow Cleland’s (2002) work in this area and divide the sciences broadly into Experimental and Historical
sciences. According to this and other work in the philosophy of science, Experimental science attempts to formulate
general predictive laws, and so relies on repeatable series of controlled experiments that test specific hypotheses
(Diamond 2002), whereas Historical science deals more with contingent phenomena (Mayr 1976), studying
unique events in the past in an attempt to find unifying
explanations for their effects. We consider the four
fundamental dimensions outlined by Diamond (2002,
pp. 420-424):
1. Is the goal of the research to find general laws or statements or ultimate (and contingent) causes? 2. Is evidence gathered by manipulation or by observation?
3. Is research quality measured by accurate prediction or effective explanation?
4. Are the objects of study uniform entities (which are interchangeable) or are they complex entities (which are ultimately unique)?
The present experiment was designed to see if language
features support these philosophical points. These
linguistic features should be topic independent and
representative of the underlying methodology; we are seeking textual clues to the actual techniques used by the writers of these scientific papers. This paper is partially based on our previously presented results (Argamon, Chase & Dodick, 2005).
2 Methodology
2.1 The Corpus
Our corpus for this study is a collection of recent (2003) articles drawn from twelve peer-reviewed journals in six fields, as given in Table 1. The journals were selected based both on their prominence in their respective fields as well as our ability to access them electronically, with two journals chosen per field and three fields chosen from each of Historical and Experimental sciences. Each article was prepared by automatically removing images,
equations, titles, headings, captions, and references,
converting each into a simple text file for further processing.
2.2 Systemic Functional Linguistics
We base our analysis on the theory of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL; Halliday 1994), which construes language as a set of interlocking choices
or systems for expressing meanings, with general choices
constraining the possible more specific choices. SFL
presents a large number of systems, each representing a certain type of functional meaning for a potential utterance.
Each system has conditions constraining its use and
several options; once within a system we can choose but
one option. Specific utterances are constrained by all the systemic options they realize. This approach to language allows the following types of questions to be asked: In
places where a meaning of general type A is to be expressed
in a text, what sorts of more specific meanings are more likely to be expressed in different contexts? We focused on several systems for this study, chosen to correspond with the posited differences between the types of science we study: Expansion, Modality, and Comment (Matthiessen 1995). Expansion describes features linking clauses causally or logically, tying in to dimensions 1 and 4 above. Its three types are: Extension, linking different
pieces of information; Elaboration, deepening a
given meaning via clarification or exemplification; and
Enhancement, qualifying previous information by spatial,
temporal, or other circumstance. The second system,
Modality, relates to how the likelihood, typicality, or
necessity of an event is indicated, usually by a modal
auxiliary verb or an adjunct adverbial group; as such it may serve to indicated differences on dimensions 2, 3, and 4. There are two main types of modality: Modalization,
which quantifies levels of likelihood or frequency, and
Modulation, which qualifies ability, possibility, obligation, or necessity of an action or event. Finally, the system of Comment is one of assessment, comprising a variety of types of ``comment” on a message, assessing the writer’s attitude towards it, its validity or its evidential status; this provides particular information related to dimensions 1 and 3.
In our analysis, it will be most helpful to look at
oppositions, in which an option in a particular system is strongly indicative of one article class (either Experimental or Historical science) while a different option of that same system is indicative of the other class. Such an opposition indicates a meaningful linguistic difference between the classes of articles, in that each prefers a distinctive way (its preferred option) of expressing the same general meaning.
2.3 Computational analysis
Because hand analysis is impractical on large
document sets the first analyses were done via
computer. We built a collection of keywords and phrases indicating each option in the aforementioned systems. Each document is first represented by a numerical vector corresponding to the relative frequencies of each option within each system. From here, machine learning was
applied in the form of the SMO (Platt 1998) algorithm as implemented on the Weka machine learning toolkit (Witten & Frank 1999), using 10-fold cross-validation in order
to evaluate classification effectiveness. This method was chosen in part because it generates weights for each
feature; a feature has high weight (either positive or negative)
if it is strongly indicative for one or the other class. 2.4 Human annotation
To measure the validity of our computational analysis,
we are also performing hand tagging of systemic
features on a subset of the corpus articles. Two articles from
each journal have been chosen, each to be tagged by two trained raters. Part of the tagging process is to highlight key words or phrases indicating each option; we will compare these statistics to our previously generated feature lists in order to test and refine them. The tagging is currently under way; we will present results at the conference.
4 Results
To determine the distinctiveness of Historical and Experimental scientific writing, the machine learning
techniques described above were applied to pairs of
journals, giving for each pair a classification accuracy indicating how distinguishable one journal was from the other. These results are shown in Figure 1, divided into four subsets: Same, where both journals are from the same
science; Hist and Exper with pairs of journals from different sciences, but the same type; and Diff indicates pairings of Historical journals with Experimental ones. The thick black line indicates the mean for each set, and the outlined box represents the standard deviation. As we see, journal pairs become more distinguishable as their methodological
differences increase. Interestingly, Historical journals
appear more stylistically homogenous than the Experimental
journals, which is a subject for further study.
This shows that SFL is capable of discriminating between the different genres presented. We also examined the most important features across the 36 trials between different journals. The most consistently indicative-those features that are ranked highest for a class in at least 25 trials-are
presented in Table 2. The table is arranged as a series of
oppositions: the features on each row are in the same system,
one side indicating Historical, the other Experimental.
In the system of Expansion, we see an opposition of
Extension and Enhancement for Historical and Experimental
sciences, respectively. This implies more independent
information units in Historical science, and more focused storylines within Experimental science. Furthermore, there are oppositions inside both systems, indicating a
preference for contrasting information (Adversative) and contextualization (Matter) in Historical science and for supplementary Information (Additive) and time-space (Spatiotemporal) relations in Experimental science. The system of Comment also supports the posited
differences in the sciences. The Experimental sciences’ preference for Predictive comments follows directly from their focus on predictive accuracy. On the Historical side, Admissive comments indicate opinions (as opposed to
factual claims), similarly Validative comments show a
concern with qualifying the validity of assertions,
comprising more of strong evidence than rigid proofs.
Finally in Modality we see interesting contrasted features. On the top level we have near-perfect opposition between
Modalization and Modulation in general; Historical sciences speak of what is ‘normal’ or ‘likely’, while Experimental sciences assess what ‘must’ or ‘is able’ to happen.
5 Conclusion
This work is the first step in developing new
automated tools for genre analysis, which promises the possibility of automatically analyzing large corpora
efficiently or stylistic aspects while giving human
interpretable results. The specific research presented has implications for the understanding of the relationship between scientific methodology and its linguistic realizations,
and may also have some impact on science education.
Future work (beyond the hand annotation and analysis already in progress) includes looking into stylistic variation within different article sections, as well as other analysis techniques (such as principle components analysis). Table 1: Journals used in the study; the top represents historical fields with experimental sciences below. Figure 1: Learning accuracy for distinguishing articles in different pairs of journals. ‘Same’ are pairs where both journals are in the same field, ‘Historical’ and ‘Experimental’ represent pairs of journals in different Historical and Experimental fields, and ‘Different’ pairs of journals where one journal is experimental and the other historical.
Means and standard deviation ranges are shown. System
Historical
Experimental
Expansion
Extension(26)
Enhancement(31)
Elaboration
Apposition(28)
Extension
Adversative(30)
Additive(26)
Enhancement
Matter(29)
Spatiotemporal(26)
Comment
Admissive(30) Validative(32)
Predictive(36)
Modality Type
Modalization(36)
Modulation(35)
Modulation
Obligation(29)
Readiness(26)
Modality Value
High(27)
Modility
Orientation
Objective(31)
Subjective(31)
Table 2. Consistent indicator features within each of the
systems used in the study. Numbers in parentheses show in how many paired-classification tests the feature names was
an indicator for the given class of documents.
References
Argamon, S., Chase, P., and Dodick, J.T. (2005). The Languages of Science: A Corpus-Based Study of Experimental and Historical Science Articles.
In Proc. 27th Annual Cognitive Science Society
Meetings.
Baker, V.R. (1996). The pragmatic routes of
American Quaternary geology and geomorphology.
Geomorphology 16, pp. 197-215.
Cleland, C.E. (2002). Methodological and epistemic
differences between historical science and
experimental science. Philosophy of Science.
Diamond, J. (2002). Guns, Germs, & Steel. (New York: W. W. Norton and Company).
Halliday, M.A.K. (1991). Corpus linguistics and
probabilistic grammar. In Karin Aijmer & Bengt Altenberg (ed.), English Corpus Linguistics:
Studies in honour of Jan Svartvik. (London: Longman),
pp. 30-44.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. (London: Edward Arnold).
Halliday, M. A. K., & R. Hasan. (1976). Cohesion in english. London: Longman.
Halliday, M. A. K., & J.R. Martin. (1993). Writing science:Literacy and discursive power. London: Falmer
Joachims, T. (1998). Text categorization with Support
Vector Machines: Learning with many relevant
features. In ECML-98,10th European Conference on Machine Learning, pp. 137-142.
Mayr, E. (1976). Evolution and the Diversity of Life. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press).
Mitchell, T. (1997) Machine Learning. (McGraw Hill).
Platt, J. (1998), Sequential Minimal Optimization:
A Fast Algorithm for Training Support Vector
Machines, Microsoft Research Technical Report MSR-TR-98-14.
Witten, I.H. and Frank E. (1999). Weka 3: Machine Learning Software in Java: http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/~ml/weka.","txt","2","",""
"578","7","Combining Cognitive Stylistics and Computational Stylistics","1","Studies in the computational analysis of texts have been successful in distinguishing between authors and in linking anonymously published texts with their authors but computational tools have yet to be accepted as mainstream techniques in literary analysis. Criticisms are generally centred around the belief that computational analyses make false claims about scientific objectivity and are in fact no less subjective than any other critical approach. This is perhaps because computational projects are in conflict, at a fundamental level, with contemporary post-structuralist notions of subjectivity, meaning and the arbitrary nature of language. This paper will argue
that these objections rest on assumptions about language that need to be examined in light of developments in
linguistics and cognitive psychology and that cognitive linguistics has the potential to bring a more interpretive framework to computational stylistics, a practice that has traditionally been applied in fairly narrow, empirical way.
Whilst computational analysis points to the possibility of subjectivity that is more coherent than some theoretical approaches imply, it does not necessarily diminish the role of culture and context in the formation of texts and subjectivity as highlighted by materialist readings. The application of cognitive linguistics in a computational study provides a model of syntax and semantics which is not independent of context but deeply bound up in context. Cognitive linguistics can explain the existence of computational results in a way that Saussurean based theories can not. It can offer a rich interpretive model that does not neglect the importance of author, reader, or context through its approach to language and literature as an expression of an innately constrained and embodied human mind.
Computational stylistics, particularly in studies of
attribution, generally makes use of function words in order to distinguish between texts. As Craig (2004)
explains, independent variables like genre, are compared
with counts of internal features, or dependent variables, like function words. Correlation of these two kinds of variables is the primary tool of computational stylistics (275-76). Critics of stylistics, most notably Stanley Fish, tend to privilege individual instances of particular words
in interpretive communities over more general rules, and question the validity of the stylistic project. From a cognitive perspective, however, language possesses
universal features because it emerges from the interaction
of “inherent and experiential factors” that are “physical, biological, behavioural, psychological, social, cultural and communicative” (Langacker 1). Langacker claims that each language “represents a unique adaptation to common constraints and pressures as well as to the
peculiarities of its own circumstances” (1). Computational
stylistics of the kind undertaken in this study provides
us with evidence of the peculiarities and creative
adaptations of an individual user, and also highlights more general trends which can be used for comparative purposes.
Our attitude to what we can say about a text depends
largely on our account of language. Widely shared
post-structuralist assumptions about language and
indeterminacy have contributed to the lukewarm reception
of computational stylistics in literary interpretation. In cognitive linguistics “Semantics is constrained by our models of ourselves and our worlds. We have models of up and down that are based on the way our bodies actually
function. Once the word “up” is given its meaning
relative to our experience with gravity, it is not free to “slip” into its opposite. “Up” means up and not down” (Turner 7). Cognitive stylistics views a text as the product of a human action and it therefore carries the mark of that
action. The cognitive belief that language and conventional thought emerge from “our perception of a self within a body as it interacts with an environment” suggests that meaning is somewhat constrained and that “some form of agency is fundamental to language” (Crane 22).
The idea of authorial agency is one that is rejected by structuralist and post-structuralist critics. In proclaiming the death of the author Barthes suggests that the text becomes an ‘open sea’, a space of ‘manifestly relative
significations, no longer tricked out in the colors of an eternal nature’ (Barthes 170). The notion of the
“transcendental signified” rejected by post-structuralist critiques is not, however, the notion of agency proposed
by cognitive stylistics. The view of the “Author”
rejected by Barthes, Derrida and Foucault is as, Seán Burke explains “a metaphysical abstraction, a Platonic type, a fiction of the absolute” (27). Cognitive stylistics tends not to deal in absolutes.
Stylistics is one way of getting evidence and making sense of texts as human actions. Through its approach
to thought and language, cognitive stylistics points to issues that are of concern to scholars of literature, such
as “subject formation, language acquisition, agency and rhetoricity” (Richardson 157). Cognitive philosophy
claims that the mind is embodied and that concepts are therefore created “as a result of the way the brain and body are structured and the way they function in
interpersonal relations and in the physical world” (Lakoff and Johnson 37). The links between the brain and the body mean an objective reality is impossible given the role our sensorimotor system plays in perception. But
as Lakoff and Johnson explain, it is our sensorimotor system’s role in shaping conceptual systems that keeps these systems in touch with the world (44).
The embodied cognitivism of Lakoff and Johnson, also known as second generation cognitivism, argues that our access to the external world is mediated through cognitive processes. Cognitivism provides a framework in which
we can still legitimately engage with psychoanalytic
interpretations, gender focused readings, and the material
conditions of production while using computational and cognitive techniques of analysis. Computers enable us to draw together instances of common forms, and other
features of a text, in a way that would be simply impossible to an individual human reader. Cognitive linguistics provides
a theoretical justification for paying attention to common
forms in the first place, and reveals a way in which the features highlighted by computational approaches can contribute something of value to traditional literary
analysis.
References
Barthes, Roland. On Racine. Trans. Richard Howard. New York: Octagon Books, 1977.
Burke, Seán. The Death and Return of the Author: Criticism and Subjectivity in Barthes, Foucault and Derrida. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1988.
Craig, Hugh. “Stylistic Analysis and Authorship
Studies.” A Companion to Digital Humanities. Eds. Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens and John Unsworth: Blackwell, 2004. 273-88.
Crane, Mary Thomas. Shakespeare’s Brain: Reading
with Cognitive Theory. Princeton and Oxford:
Princeton University Press, 2001.
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Thought. New York: Basic Books, 1999.
Langacker, Ronald W. Foundations of Cognitive
Grammar: Descriptive Applications. Vol. II. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1991.
Richardson, Alan. “Cognitive Science and the Future of Literary Studies.” Philosophy and Literature 23.1 (1999): 157-73.Turner, Mark. Death Is the Mother of Beauty. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.","txt","2","",""
"579","7","The Introduction of Word Types and Lemmas in Novels, Short Stories and Their Translations","1","Introduction
In earlier analyses of the introduction of word types
in literary works authors came to contradictory
conclusions. Some suggested, in accordance with
reader’s intuition, that the launch of new chapters and a sudden increase in the number of the newly introduced word types (NWT) usually coincide. Others, on the other hand, found that there is no clear connection in the rise of NWT and the beginning of chapters, rather an increase in NWT appears at longish descriptions with rather stylistic reasons.
Words do not occur randomly in texts, so the ultimate
goal of building models based on word frequency
distributions may not be the reproduction of the original
text. Nevertheless, models based on the randomness
assumption give reliable information about the structure of the texts (for review see Oakes, 1998; Baayen, 2001). To further our knowledge in this field the source of the bias between the original and the model-based texts should be examined. Baayen (1996; 2001) described a systematic overestimation for the expected vocabulary size and found that this bias disappears when the order of the sentences is randomized, indicating that the bias
should not be attributed to constrains operating on
sentence level.
To prove that this misfit is due to significant changes
on discourse level we introduced several new concepts during the process of building the model and analyzing
the results (Csernoch, 2003). Among these the
fundamental step was to scrutinize NWT in hundred-
token-long intervals rather than examining the overall vocabulary size. Next, instead of eliminating the bias
between these artificial texts and original works, the
significant protuberances on the graphs of NWT were examined. First monolingual sets of works were
processed then, to improve the comparison we also
analyzed original English texts and their Hungarian
translations together with English and German
translations of a Hungarian text.
Assuming that the changes occur on discourse level, the language in which the text is written should have no
significance. In other words, neither syntactic nor semantic
constrains on sentence or paragraph level should matter,
and only events that occur on discourse level will
provide substantial alterations in the flow of the text,
and thus produce considerable protuberances on the
graphs of NWT.
Methods
Building the model
To analyze a text first the number of different word
types was counted, the frequency of each was
determined, and then based on these frequencies a dynamic
model was built (Csernoch, 2003). The model generated an artificial text whose word types had the same frequencies
as in the original text and was able to reproduce the trends of the original text. However, changes which are only seasonal – protuberances – did not appear in the
artificial text. To locate these protuberances the difference
between the original and the model text was calculated.
We then determined the mean (M) and the standard
deviation (SD) of the difference. Protuberances exceeding
M±2SD were considered significant.
The distribution of the hapax legomena was also examined.
Assuming that they are binomially distributed their
expected mean (Mh) and standard deviation (SDh) were calculated and again those points where considered
significant which exceeded Mh+2SDh.
texts compared to their translations
Original texts were not only compared to the
model-generated artificial texts but to their
translations in other natural languages. In this study we analyzed the Hungarian novel, SORSTALANSÁG from Imre Kertész and its English (FATELESS) and German (ROMAN EINES SCHICKSALLOSEN) translations, Rudyard Kipling’s THE JUNGLE BOOKS and their Hungarian translations (A DZSUNGEL KÖNYVE), and Lewis Caroll’s ALICE ADVENTURES IN WONDERLAND and THROUGH THE LOOKING GLASS and their Hungarian translations (ALICE CSODAORSZÁGBAN and ALICE TÜKÖRORSZÁGBAN).
These three languages were chosen because they are
different in their morphological structures, it is hard to trace any common syntactic characteristic which all three share.
Analyzing lemmatized texts
To check whether the analyses of the raw, un-lemmatized texts give reliable information for the introduction
of NWT the lemmatization of both the English and the Hungarian texts was carried out. The English texts were tagged and lemmatized by CLAWS (the Constituent Likelihood Automatic Word-tagging System) [1], while the morphological analysis of the Hungarian texts was carried out by Humor and the disambiguation was based on a TnT tagger [2].
Results
Comparing the texts and their translations it was first found that the morphologically productive
Hungarian texts had the smallest number of running words and lemmas while the largest number of hapax
legomena both in the lemmatized and un-lemmatized versions. In contrast, the English texts contained the most running words but the smallest number of hapax legomena.
To each text and language an individual model was
created. Based on these models the positions of the
significant protuberances were traced and compared to each other in the original texts and their translations. It was noticed that regardless of the actual language these protuberances occurred in most cases at the same
position, that is, at the same event in the flow of the
story.
We could clearly establish that the protuberances were found at places where new, usually only marginally
connected pieces of information were inserted into the text rather than at new chapters. This idea was strengthened by a peculiarity of the English translation of SORSTALANSÁG, namely that the boundaries of chapters are different from those of the Hungarian and German texts, which further
substantiates that the protuberances do neither necessarily
coincide with the beginning nor are hallmarks of a new chapter. Similarly, in the original Alice stories the
boundaries of the chapters are eliminated by unusual typographic tools, while in the Hungarian translation these
boundaries are set back to normal. Neither the English nor the Hungarian texts produced any protuberances at these places. In THE JUNGLE BOOKS we again found that the significant differences between the original text and the model are not necessarily at the beginning of a new tale, except for cases when a new setting is introduced.
The fact that these descriptions have only a stylistic role in the text was further substantiated by examining
the distribution of hapax legomena. The number of
hapax legomena was found to be high exactly at the same
positions of the text where protuberances in the number of the newly introduced word types occurred.
To examine the lemmatized version of the texts carried some risk since loosing the affixes might eliminate the change in mode, time, style, etc., while, on the other hand, might reveal events lost in word types carrying the affixes. Since our dynamic model is capable of giving a relatively good estimation for the introduction of words, the question was whether using lemmas instead of word types would provide additional information gained by comparing the artificial texts and the translations to the original text.
In the English texts the lemmatization did not reveal any additional information, the protuberances occurred at exactly the same places in the lemmatized as in the
un-lemmatized versions. In un-lemmatized Hungarian texts the first protuberance usually occurred later than in corresponding English and German texts, although we were able to locate them by examining protuberances
that were somewhat below the level of significance.
In these cases lemmatization helped, and we got clear
protuberances reaching the level of significance in
lemmatized Hungarian texts.
The comparison of the dynamic model built to lemmatized texts in different languages might also be used to analyze
and compare the vocabulary of the original texts and
their translations. It would, furthermore, enable the
comparison of the stylistic tools used by the original author and the translator in the introduction of new words.
Summary
Using lexical statistical models for analyzing texts the explanation for the difference between the
original and the model-based artificial text was examined.
It was found that changes on discourse rather than on sentence or paragraph levels are responsible for these differences. Two methods were used to prove this. First,
texts and their translations, both lemmatized and
un-lemmatized versions, were analyzed and compared to a dynamic model built on the randomness assumption to find that the significant changes on the graphs of the newly introduced word types occurred at corresponding
positions within the translations. Second, the distribution
of hapax legomena was compared to a binomial
distribution, again to find that the significant differences
between the original and the predicted distributions
occurred at descriptions, only in loose connection with the antecedents and what follows. More importantly, these coincided with the significant changes of the newly introduced word types.
References
Baayen, R. H. (1996) The Effect of Lexical
Specialization on the Growth Curve of the Vocabulary. Computational Linguistics 22. 455-480.
Baayen, R. H. (2001) Word Frequency Distributions.
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Netherlands
Csernoch, M. (2003) Another Method to Analyze the Introduction of Word-Types in Literary Works and Textbooks. Conference Abstract, The 16th Joint
International Conference of the Association for
Literary and Linguistic Computing and the
Association for Computers and the Humanities
Göteborg University, Sweden
Oakes, M. P. (1998) Statistics for Corpus Linguistics. Edinburgh University Press
[1] http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/computing/research/ucrel/claws/
[2] http://corpus.nytud.hu/mnsz/index_eng.html","txt","2","",""
"580","7","Digitizing Cultural Discourses. Baedeker Travel Guides 1875 - 1914","1","The Baedeker project, presented in this proposal,
is initiated within the framework of the Austrian Academy Corpus, a research department at the Austrian Academy of Sciences. The sub corpus comprises first editions of German travel guidebooks brought out by the Baedeker publishing house between 1845 and 1914. The texts cover exclusively non-European destinations.
Today they are rare, which is due to low print runs.
The aim of the project is threefold: 1) it partly deals with
the genre from a literary point of view, 2) it looks
at travel guides as cultural historical resources as well as artefacts that represent various discourses on culture, and 3) it examines the capacities of digital resources.
Travel guidebooks, not regarded as a literary form
in their own right within the classical canon, played
a minor role in comparison with travel narratives for
a long time. Substantial contributions to the historical
development of the genre and its specific language of
expression are still few. Even postcolonial literary criticism
cannot be regarded as an exception in this respect.
Surprisingly enough, few approaches appreciate the
importance and impact of this genre on the establishment
and maintenance of Orientalist discourses and colonial
practises. Linguistic accounts mostly concentrate
on contemporary travel guides and exclude historical development and change. Thus, digital versions of early travel guidebooks can provide an incentive to improve both comparative linguistic and literary genre studies.
Furthermore, research on tourism history, its influence on modern society, its bearing on social and cultural change has increased quantitatively in many fields of the humanities since the 1980s: history in general, art
history, colonial studies, social and cultural anthropology,
economics, geography and tourism studies, today an
accepted sub branch of sociology. In these disciplines it goes without saying that travel guidebooks are valuable sources. Nonetheless, they are often dealt with as sources among many others. (The few exceptions are e.g. James
Buzard 1993; Kathleen R. Epelde 2004, Sabine
Gorsemann 1995, Rudy Koshar 2000 and the research group Türschau 16 1998.)
The Baedeker, appearing from 1832 onwards, set the standard and defeated all competition both inside and outside the German-speaking countries. One cannot talk about travel guides without Baedeker coming to mind. During the first decades of the Baedekers, the focus was on Europe. However, they were issued for non-European
destinations as well, an aspect missing from critical
literature. The guides in the Baedeker-Corpus cover
a variety of regions such as Palestine and Syria
(1875), Lower and Upper Egypt (1877, 1891), North America and Mexico (1883), Asia Minor (1905), the Mediterranean coastline of Africa (1909) as well as
India (1914). Dealing with a wide range of cultural
environments the “Tourist Gaze” upon the “Other” has to be scrutinized in greater depth. Assuming that
images of the “Other” reflect cultural self-perception to a great extent, travel guidebooks tell at least as much about the “Self” as about the “Other”. For well known reasons, none of the components involved here can be taken for granted as precise, unambiguous or fixed and
independent entities. Taking this argument seriously, self-images - like all the other components - are to be understood as flexible phenomena. Moving away from the very frequent restriction on one region or country the Baedeker project turns towards a wider geographical diversification to explore the German repertoire of how one used to speak at the turn of the 19th century about one’s own culture, and at the same time, that of others.
As concerns the digital methods by which these
phenomena are to be investigated, the following has to be pointed out: while XML is now an accepted standard
for the creation and exchange of digital data, it is
necessary to move towards a closer consideration of
domain-specific XML vocabularies. All Baedekers have undergone scanning, OCR and basic XML annotation
as usual with all AAC projects. The task at hand is to devise a schema to markup the features of the Baedekers, relevant for their role in travel history. Existing standards like AnthML and Archaeological Markup Language are focused on material artefacts. A markup language which considers immaterial cultural aspects is missing
so far. As a matter of course the development of a
standardized language needs the expertise of the wider
scholarly community and has to be a team effort - a
requirement not feasible within one institution. Thus, the Baedeker project should be seen as a small contribution in preparing such a markup language, designing a sub-set of tags focusing on a well defined segment of cultural life.
The main challenge is encoding what travel guides are
essentially supposed to do, namely introducing foreign
cultures and people/s, recommending an itinerary,
assessing sites and festivals, cultural and social
conditions, suggesting modes and attitudes of
behaviour to adopt in these places and on these occasions.
Since cultural knowledge as well as recommendations,
valuations, stereotypes or comparisons often is
articulated in an implicit manner, which is difficult to encode, the project targets subject-matters such as
people/s, languages and religions, social, political,
and other cultural concepts as well as sights being
recommended, valuated, stereotyped, and compared
in the travel guides. As an example I will refer to the repertoire of “group designations”, be it ethnic, national, social, religious, political, and occupational, showing how they relate to the historical discourse on culture. The paper will demonstrate that subject-matters can be easily marked up, they allow for an appropriate access to context - i.e. different routes to topics and explicit as well as implicit knowledge - and they provide a basis for comparative analysis. In addition, this strategy separates
annotation from interpretation and limits the risk of
encoding preconceived assumptions.
Detailed domain-specific markup can be applied to
other texts dealing with similar topics - to primary and secondary sources, historical as well as contemporary.
In this respect the Baedeker can be seen as a starting point. Using open standards allows for ongoing quality
enhancement and adjustment. XML annotation, in this sense, is not a single-serving tool, but a permanent
enrichment, accessible and shareable with the wider scholarly community. Retrieval results can be reviewed by different scholars, paving the way for reinterpretation and new questions. It is expected that differing results will come from the same markup.","txt","2","",""
"581","7","TELOTA - the Electronic Life of the Academy. New Approaches for the Digitization of Long Term Projects in the Humanities","1","The Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Science and Humanities (BBAW) [1] is an international and
interdisciplinary association of excellent scholars with a
distinctive humanities profile. The Academy hosts about 30 long term projects in the humanities with a project runtime often longer than 100 years. Examples of these projects include work on academic dictionaries, printed and manuscript editions, documentations, bibliographies,
archival and publishing projects and more. These project
groups have access to information and data made by
outstanding scientists like Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, Albert
Einstein, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, Alexander von Humboldt and many more who were members of the Academy during the last 300 years. Throughout its
history the Society could rank 76 Nobel Laureates among its members.
According to the “Berlin Declaration on Open Access in the Sciences and Humanities” [2], which was signed by the President of the Academy, an initiative was founded to provide a sustainable, interactive and transparent way to inspire activities in supporting research, communication and presentation with electronic media or in other words to “electrify” the long term humanities projects hosted by the Academy. This initiative is called “TELOTA – the electronic life of the academy”. [3]
One part of TELOTA is the so called “Project of the Month” (POM) [4] working group which started work in January 2005. The main task of this working group is to provide solutions for the mentioned issues which are cost efficient, future proven (especially to be independent from commercial vendors) and freely extensible. Every
month the data of a selected academy project is
processed, (re-)structured and presented on the web to give researchers in the humanities, scholars and the
interested public a new view in the extensive knowledge
inventory of the academy. To identify and process
information from the long term projects is one of the
central tasks for POM. Further goals are:
1. To replace older, cost-intensive proprietary tools which are often not very suitable for presentations in the World Wide Web:
• Improve the unification of the developed
solutions for the different projects with respect for already existing solutions and open standards as well as concentration on third party open source software.
• Production of reusable software modules.
2. To offer to the interested public an overview and provide an insight into the work done by the projects hosted by the academy:
• To make new information and resources available on the World Wide Web.
• Adaptation, unification and customization of existing data to offer a new point of view on a
certain project.
• Give access to the raw data which can be queried by arbitrary applications using XQuery. [5]
3. To benefit each humanities project hosted by the academy:
• The projects should be able to access and
administrate the data they produce on their own for a gradual extension of their web presence and
research material.
• Guarantee of long term accessibility and
preservation as a result of consistent data and
coherent administration.
• Real time accessibility to the projects’ results in the World Wide Web.
• Support of the project’s work flow with tools
especially developed for their needs.
All the applied technologies and third party tools are reused, like all the gained experience is transferred from one project to the next. In addition new technologies are adopted to the working group’s portfolio so it is able to react properly to the monthly changing requirements.
This paper will introduce the work of the “Project of the Month” working group and exemplary present two
systems for humanities projects from the viewpoint of an “in-house” working group. It shows the possibilities of developing electronic resources of long term projects in a very short time period. Additionally it demonstrates a way how the mentioned technologies can be combined as flexible as possible.
The first system, the “scalable architecture for electronic editions”, uses the opportunities of web services applied
on critical text editions and was developed while
processing prominent projects such as the “Corpus Medicorum Graecorum/Latinorum” or the “Marx-
Engels Gesamtausgabe”. The main component is a
native XML-Database [6] which is able to interpret XQuery-scripts to form the web application. The user, according to his needs, dynamically decides on the view of the presented texts and translations and the information
which is displayed like line numbers or links to the
apparatus. So he can customize the electronic edition
depending on his scientific position or interests. If possible,
facsimiles are linked to text, translation and apparatus
and if needed it is possible to search the electronic
edition in different scripts, like ancient Greek.
The second system, an approach for digital dictionaries, shows the development stages of an interactive on-line dictionary which currently is work in progress and could contain the digital versions of dictionary projects of the academy in the future. Such a system is necessary for the real time digital presentation of dictionary project results. Examples are the “Dictionary of contemporary German language”, the “Dictionary of Goethe” or the “German Dictionary of Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm”. One main feature besides arbitrary querying the database
using XQuery is the possibility to add and edit own
dictionary articles, if the user is authorized to do so. The search results than can be displayed in HTML or PDF.
Both systems are conceptually designed with a general attempt but currently serve as sample applications. The use of a more technically matured version of this systems should not be limited to one project or just the academy long term projects rather than potentially be open to any kind of critical text edition or dictionary.
References
[1] http://www.bbaw.de
[2] http://www.zim.mpg.de/openaccess-berlin/
berlindeclaration.html
[3] http://www.bbaw.de/initiativen/telota/index.html
[4] http://pom.bbaw.de/index-en.html
[5] http://www.w3.org/TR/2005/CR-xquery-20051103/
[6] http://www.exist-db.org/","txt","2","",""
"582","7","Eccentricity and / or Typicality in Sterne's Sermons ? Towards a Computer - Assisted Tentative Answer","1","Laurence Sterne (1713-1768) is better-known
nowadays as a novelist, but he was also an Anglican minister whose literary style was initially developed in the pulpit. He wrote many sermons before he turned to novel-writing. Indeed, his first publications were single sermons.
Melvyn New, who cannot be praised enough for
publishing the first scholarly edition of his sermons, claims
that it is “foolish” to “argue Sterne’s uniqueness
as a sermon-writer”. Others have followed suit (e.g.
Elizabeth Kraft). However, Paul Goring and Judith Hawley have cogently argued that Sterne’s contemporaries often commented on the distinctiveness of Mr Yorick’s sermons.
As a scholar who has devoted much of her research to eighteenth-century English pulpit literature, I have long had the impression that some of Sterne’s sermons stand
out above all the rest. I therefore propose to test this intuition/assumption through a comparison between
Sterne’s homiletic discourse and a corpus of
contemporary sermons, in order to assess whether it is possible to reconcile the viewpoints of New and Goring.
My working hypothesis is that Sterne as a preacher may have dealt with typical homiletic ideas in a very original (hence ‘eccentric’) idiolect. His innovation may be more
stylistic than doctrinal. Besides, eccentricity seems to be the characteristic feature of only a relatively small
number of Sterne’s sermons, which strike the reader as being more narrative, imaginative or even novelistic texts than standard post-Restoration pulpit oratory. Most
of his other homilies sound much more conventional.
Whether this is due to extensive plagiarism -- as first
systematically analysed by Lansing Van der Heyden Hammond -- or to typically Latitudinarian theology, as argued by New, remains to be seen.
Sterne’s printed sermons will be compared with a
full-text corpus of eighteenth-century English sermons,
comprising works by Jonathan Swift, John Wesley,
perhaps George Whitefield, the manuscripts of John Sharp
(1723-92), and a subset of political sermons published in the first two decades of the century. Furthermore, internal comparisons between the collections of sermons which Sterne himself prepared for publication after the first instalment of Tristram Shandy and the three posthumous volumes published by his daughter are also necessary.
This paper will be based on the approach developed by the predominantly French school of lexicometry and
stylometry, which emphasizes the use of exploratory multivariate statistical methods such as correspondence analysis and cluster analysis. For lack of a single software program that would ideally carry out all the necessary
tasks, several packages will be used, especially
Hyperbase, Lexico3, Weblex, Wordmapper, maybe Wordsmith. The linguistic and stylistic features
identified by Douglas Biber as underlying different text types, especially the dimensions labelled by him as
“narrative versus non-narrative concerns,” “informational versus involved production,” and “persuasion” will be explored.
References
Bandry-Scubbi, Anne & Deconinck-Brossard, F. (2005). ‘De la lexicométrie à la stylostatistique : peut-on mesurer le style ?’ Bulletin de la Société de Stylistique anglaise 26 : 67-85.
Biber, D. (1988). Variation across Speech and Writing. Cambridge: CUP.
Coulthard, M. (2004). ‘Author Identification, Idiolect, and Linguistic Uniqueness,’ Applied Linguistics 25/4: 431-447.
Deconinck-Brossard, F. (1984). Vie politique, sociale et religieuse en Grande-Bretagne d’après les sermons prêchés ou publiés dans le Nord de l’Angleterre, 1738 –1760. Paris : Didier-Erudition.
---------- (1993). ‘Eighteenth-Century Sermons and the Age,’ in Crown and Mitre : Religion and Society in Northern Europe since the Reformation, eds W.M. Jacob & Nigel Yates. Woodbridge : The Boydell P, 105-21.
Delcourt, C. (2002). ‘Stylometry,’ Revue belge de
philologie et d’histoire, 80/3 : 979-1002.
Downey, J. (1978). ‘The Sermons of Mr Yorick:
A Reassessment of Hammond,’ English Studies in Canada 4/2: 193-211.
Goring, P. (2002). ‘Thomas Weales’s The Christian Orator Delineated (1778) and the Early Reception of Sterne’s Sermons,’ The Shandean 13: 87-97.
Greenacre, M.J. (1984). Theory and Applications of Correspondence Analysis. London: Academic.
Hammond, L. (1948). Laurence Sterne’s Sermons of Mr. Yorick. New Haven : Yale U P.
Hawley, J. (1998). ‘Yorick in the Pulpit,’ Essays in
Criticism 48/1: 80-88.
Kraft, E. (1996). ‘A Theologic [sic] Flap Upon the Heart: The Sermons of Mr. Yorick,’ in Laurence Sterne
Revisited. New York: Twayne Publishers. Pp. 24-46.
Lebart, L et al. (1998). Exploring Textual Data. Boston; London: Kluwer Academic.
New, M. (1996). The Sermons of Laurence Sterne: The Notes. Gainsville: U P of Florida.
New, M., ed. (1996). The Sermons of Laurence Sterne: The Text. Gainsville: U P of Florida.","txt","2","",""
"583","7","Deux romans baroques français en ligne","1","Cette communication à trois voix se propose
de mettre en perspective des projets éditoriaux
consacrés à deux longs romans français du XVIIe
siècle (L’Astrée d’H. d’Urfé, 1607-1627 et Artamène ou Le Grand Cyrus de G. et M. de Scudéry, 1649-1653), pour lesquels a été retenue la solution d’une mise en
ligne au format de la Text Encoding Initative, conçue comme un outil philologique et pensé dans un rapport de complémentarité avec une édition traditionnelle sur papier. Il s’agira à la fois de présenter la démarche qui préside, selon des modalités différentes, à ces deux options, et de réfléchir sur le plan théorique aux diverses pratiques de lecture qu’engagent le couplage.
Le rapprochement de ces deux romans n’est pas motivé
par la seule actualité scientifique, au demeurant
inégale (le projet « Artamène » a déjà trouvé sa
réalisation concrète sous http://www.artamene.org);
le chantier de L’Astrée n’est ouvert que depuis un an
environ). On rappellera qu’outre leur appartenance à une même période historique, un lien de filiation objective
les unit, puisque le modèle du roman urféen est
explicitement revendiqué par les auteurs du Grand
Cyrus. D’autre part, un même postulat d’illisibilité pèse sur leur lecture actuelle : trop longs, trop complexes dans leur structure narrative et énonciative, trop accueillants à l’égard de sous-genres hétérogènes (lettres, poésies,
etc.), ces textes sont réputés, l’un aussi bien que
l’autre, inaccessibles au lecteur moderne. On le
montrera cependant, si ces deux textes relèvent de
questionnements comparables, ils imposent cependant des choix éditoriaux spécifiques de traitement et de
visualisation des textes sources encodés au format
XML/TEI.
Or, en procurant des versions en ligne du Grand Cyrus et de L’Astrée, on ne modifie pas seulement de manière
radicale les conditions d’accessibilité de ces deux
romans s’étendant sur des milliers de pages. Cette
approche favorise également une saisie des oeuvres par « morceaux choisis », qui présente de grandes analogies avec les pratiques de lecture originelles, privilégiant les circulations « sélectives » à travers les textes – ainsi que l’atteste, entre autres, l’existence de « Tables » dans les éditions du XVIIe siècle (table des histoires insérées, des lettres, des poésies, des oracles etc.).
L’affinité structurelle possible de ces romans avec le
support informatique en ligne rend donc particulièrement
pertinente la création et le développement de sites
procurant une édition intégrale, munie de dispositifs de lectures parfois inédits (résumés dépliables, fiches
personnages, encyclopédie hypertextuelle, etc.). Mais les deux textes peuvent également retirer d’autres bénéfices majeurs de la migration sur ce nouveau support : dans la mesure, d’abord, où l’encodage en TEI des différentes versions du texte s’inscrit dans le cadre d’une réflexion
cruciale sur la genèse de l’oeuvre ; ensuite, parce
que les possibilités multimédia offertes par l’édition électronique permettent de faire écho au « dialogue des arts » orchestré par ces deux romans (musique, arts
décoratifs, architecture, iconographie, etc).
Mais la communication proposée ne se contentera pas de mettre en évidence ces convergences fondatrices. Elle s’attachera également à soulever quelques points de
difficultés rencontrés et à commenter les diverses
solutions qui y ont été apportées grâce à l’usage de la norme TEI :
- la complémentarité entre livre imprimé et site
Internet : rapport anthologique ou double version
intégrale ? visibilité prioritairement confiée à l’un des deux media ou aux deux ? exigences de rigueur
philologique appliquées aux deux versions du texte ou à une seule ?
- la détermination de l’usager privilégié du site : lecteur d’agrément, chercheur en quête de données, enseignant à la recherche d’un matériau pédagogique, voire les trois, grâce à un mode d’affichage du texte librement choisi en fonction des objectifs de chaque visiteur ?
- l’alliance entre l’exigence de pérennité et la
multiplicité des usages : à la nécessité de figement et de conservation patrimoniale d’un texte s’oppose sa nécessaire adaptation à des modes de diffusion et de lecture hétérogènes (version word, version ebook,
extraction via un moteur de recherche, exportation vers d’autres outils d’analyse textuelle, etc.).
- la création d’une interface de lecture adaptée à un texte spécifique mais compatible aussi bien avec les pratiques philologiques traditionnelles qu’avec les normes explicites et implicites de la navigation sur Internet, de la visibilité/indexabilité des pages
ainsi produites, dans le strict respect d’un standard universel, la TEI.
Two French Baroque Novels
on Line
(L’Astrée by Honoré d’Urfé
and Le Grand Cyrus by Madeleine
and Georges de Scudéry):
PHILOLOGICAL PROCESS
AND READING PROCEDURES
In this paper, we would like to display editorial projects dedicated to two long seventeenth-century French novels (L’Astrée by H. d’Urfé, 1607-1627 and Artamène ou le Grand Cyrus by G. and M. de Scudéry, 1649-1653)
which have been, or will be, put on-line in Text
Encoding Initiative format. This format was thought
up as a philological tool and designed to be
complementary with a traditional paper edition.
We would like to present the process used for these two options and its different methods and consider from a theoretical point of view the different reading practices that this coupling brings on.
It is not only the present scientific situation that brought
us to draw a parallel between the two novels (the
“Artamène” project already exists in concrete terms at http://www.artamene.org, whereas the “Astrée” site was undertaken only a year ago). As well as being from the same historical period, the two texts are linked by an objective relation, seeing that the authors of the Grand
Cyrus explicitly claim they followed the model of
d’Urfé’s novel. Also, nowadays, they both suffer from the same postulate of being unreadable: too long, based on a narrative and enunciative structure that is too complex, including too many different subgenres (letters, poems,
etc.), these texts both have the reputation of being
inaccessible for the modern-day reader. However, as we will demonstrate, even though both texts raise the same questions, they each demand specific editorial choices for the processing and the visualisation of the source texts encoded in XML/TEI format.
By producing on-line versions of the Grand Cyrus and L’Astrée, not only do we radically change the accessibility
of these two novels that stretch out over thousands of
pages, we also encourage the website visitors to read
“selected extracts” in a way that the original reader would have, favouring a selective path through the texts, as it is attested by the tables found in the seventeenth-
century editions (tables of inserted stories, letters, poems, oracles, etc.).
The possible structural affinities of these novels with the on-line medium makes it then very relevant to create and develop websites offering an integral edition with
reading devices (“unfoldable” summaries, character sheets, a hypertextual encyclopaedia, etc.) But for both texts, the migration to a new medium has its advantages:
firstly, insofar as the TEI encoding of the text is done
in the perspective of a crucial consideration of the genesis of the text; secondly, because the multimedia possibilities produced by an electronic edition allow us to echo the “dialogue of arts” created by the two novels (music, decorative arts, architecture, iconography, etc.)
However, in this paper, we will not only point out these different convergences, but we will also bring up some of the difficulties we came up against and comment on the different solutions that were found thanks to the TEI standards:
- the complementarity between the printed book and the website: should one of the two be an anthology, or should both be an integral version? Should one of the two media be favoured? Should strict philological requirements be applied to both versions?
- establishing who should be the favoured website-
user: a pleasure-reader, a scholar looking for
information, a teacher in search of educational
material, or all three, thanks to a visualisation of the text chosen depending on what each visitor is aiming at?
- combining the requirements of durability and the multiplicity of uses: the necessity of freezing and conserving a text as a patrimony is opposed to its
necessity to adapt to different kinds of distribution and
reading (Microsoft Word version, “e-book” version, extraction via a search engine, exportation to other textual analysis tools, etc.)
- creating a reading interface adapted to a specific
text, but compatible as much with traditional
philological procedures as with the explicit and
implicit criteria of Internet navigating and visualising and indexing the pages produced, while complying with a universal standard, TEI.","txt","2","",""
"584","7","The Exhibition Problem. A Real Life Example with a Suggested Solution","1","Background
In a paper presented at ACH/ALLC 2005, Allen H. Renear et.al. describe a problem of potentially great significance (Renear 2005). They argue that:
“In ordinary linguistic communication we often use a name to refer to something in order to then go on to attribute some property to that thing. However when we do this we do not naturally construe our linguistic behavior as being at the same time an assertion that the thing in question has that name. (Ibid, p. 176)”
Further, they claim that this distinction is over-looked
when conceptual models based on encoded texts are
developed.
In our work at the Unit for Digital Documentation at the University of Oslo, we have used XML encoded
material as sources for several of our databases (Holmen
1996, Holmen forthcoming). The way this is done is by marking up texts both descriptively and interpretatively, followed by the use of software to extract information which is included in the databases. If Renear’s argument is correct, we may infer that the databases include assertions
which are based on information in the source texts that is, strictly speaking, not grounded in these texts. For example, we could be using a text as the source of a naming in the database while the naming is merely exhibited, and not asserted, in the text.
The false resolutions
Renear et.al. propose three possible resolutions to this problem, but they also state that all of these are false. Their resolutions are the following:
1. TEI encoding represents features of the text only 2. The use of two arcs, i.e. “The Semantic Web
community solution”, which will be discussed below.
3. Exhibition is a special case of presupposition.
Based on the description of our work above, it should be obvious that resolution no. 1 is not an alternative for us. Semantic modelling of the real world on the basis of descriptions in texts is part of our work.
I find it difficult to understand how resolution no. 3 may represent a possible solution. Whether exhibition is a type of presupposition or not does not change the basic problem; i.e. in our case, the use of a text as the source of a naming which is merely exhibited in the text. The
problem remains the same if the naming is also presupposed
in the text, as long as it is not asserted.
I claim that resolution no. 2 is not false after all, and
below I will demonstrate how the Conceptual Reference
Model (CIDOC-CRM) will solve a similar problem in my example text. The CIDOC-CRM is a ontology
developed in the museum community to be used for
cultural heritage documentation.
My example text
In this paper, no general solution to the problems
identified above will be proposed. However, I
believe that the special solution that I propose could easily
be generalized.
The text used in my example is based on the work of
Major Peter Schnitler. In the 1740s, Major Schnitler was appointed by the Danish government to explore the border
area between the northern parts of Norway and Sweden/Finland. Significant parts of the text in the manuscript that he handed over to the Danish government consist of transcripts of local court interviews which were carried out by Schnitler in order to gather information about the local population as well as what they had to say about
the border areas. The material includes information
directly relevant to the border question, as well as general
information of the areas in question, which corresponds to similar material collected through work carried out in Europe at the time (Burke 2000, pp. 128 f.).
The text fragments below are taken from the very first meeting described in the text (English translation from Danish by me):
[1] Of the Witnesses, supposed to be the most Cunning on the border issue, Were and stood up in the court 1: Ole Larsen Riise.
[2] For these the Kingly order was read out loud [...] and they gave their Bodily Oath
[3] Question: 1: What his name is? Answer: Ole Larsen Riise (Schnitler 1962, p. 1)
In these quotes, we find that several facts are asserted by the text.
Excerpt 1 claims the existence of a witness. We will call this witness x. Being a witness implies being a person. Thus, x is a person. We may also note that x is referred to by using the name “Ole Larsen Riise.”, abbreviated “OLR” below.
Excerpt 2: Person x gave an oath to speak the truth.
Excerpt 3: Person x, according to the text, claims that his name is OLR. The source of the naming is person x, as spoken out loud at a specified place at a specified date in 1742. The text puts forward an assertion by person x that he is named OLR.
Modelling the semantic content from our perspective
My semantic model of these facts will include the
following information:
Assertion
Source
1) There is an x who is a witness
The text
2) x is a person
The meaning of the word “witness” and “person” in this context
3) x gave an oath
The text
4) OLR is the name of person x
x
It is easy to describe the source of the three first
assertions through CIDOC-CRM, by stating that they are documented in Schnitler’s text: In this figure, as well as in the next one, the boxes with names starting with E represents entities, while the boxes with names starting with P represents the properties linking them together.
But how do we describe the source of the naming event? We start with the event in which the attribute was
assigned (the naming event, a speech act), which is an E13 Attribute assignment which states that x carried out this particular speech act:
Figure 2
When looking at these two model figures, it is striking to what extent the modelling of the giving of the oath in Figure 1 compares to the naming of x in Figure 2. The
explanation is that those are similar situations. Our
traditional way of reading made us structure them
differently in the table above, whereas represented in the
CIDOC-CRM structure they came out the same in
Figure 1 and 2. In order to show clearly in what way they correspond, note that line 4 in the table above could be rewritten as follows:
Assertion
Source
4) x named himself ORL
The text
This is a good example of the way modelling may help us understand a text better. What we have done is to
rethink the difference between an event (x gave an oath)
and a fact (ORL is the name of x). In order to model the fact correctly, i.e. to show that it was exhibited rather
than asserted in the text, we had to consider it as a
naming event. Considering it as an event is more feasible in that an event typically has actors who are responsible for the outcome. Further, this makes more sense in that both expressions are speech acts. When it is considered as a speech act, the naming event is the same kind of event as the giving of an oath.
Why solution 2 is not false after all
In order to be able to see the problem with Renear’s solution no. 2, or to realize that the problem is not really there, we have to quote his text in extensio:
“Another approach, this one anticipated from the Semantic Web community, is simply to insist on an unambiguous corrected conceptual representation: one arc for being named “Herman Melville”, one for authoring Moby Dick. But this resolution fails for the reasons presented in the preceding section.
Although this model would be in some sense an
accurate representation of “how the world is”
according to the document, it would not represent what is asserted by the document. The authorship arc in the corrected RDF graph model will correspond
to relationships of exhibition, not assertion; and there is no accommodation for this distinction in the modelling language. (Renear, p. 178)”
In the first couple of sentences in this paragraph, the
resolution of using an “unambiguous corrected conceptual
representation” is said to have failed. The next couple
of sentences weakens his statement by saying that
only RDF does not accommodate this; “there is no
accommodation for this distinction in the modelling
language” (my emphasis). There are no arguments to support why a different modelling language could not solve the problem. In fact, the CIDOC-CRM does solve this, by giving the modeller an opportunity to state
explicitly who is the source of an assertion, as
demonstrated in Figure 2.
In the example above, we knew who made the assertion exhibited in the text. But even if we did not know, we could still make a similar model as long as we accept
that it was made by somebody. In CIDOC-CRM, the
modelling of entities we infer to exist without knowing who
or what they are is quite possible.
Generalization
The example described above is quite special, as it includes an explicit naming. But it can be argued that all person names, at least in 18th century Scandinavia, are based on naming events, as people are baptised. As long as we believe that this is the case, we can include in the model an explicit attribute assignment event as the one in Figure 2 for each name used in the text. This will be an event of which we do not know who carried it out or when it took place, but that is not necessarily a
problem. The will always be things we do not know in historical texts. The naming event we model this way will also be an event that is not documented in the text we are basing the model on. Whether this is acceptable is a decision one has to take when building up such a model.
Conclusion
There is reason to believe that the problem described in Renear’s paper is an important one. But a solution to the problem has been identified. I have shown that for
one specific type of text, the problem may be solved by using CIDOC-CRM modelling including explicit
statements of the sources of the assertions exhibited in the text. Further research may disclose whether this
solution will work for other types of texts as well.
References
Burke, P. (2000) A social history of knowledge : from Gutenberg to Diderot. Cambridge.
CIDOC-CRM. ISO/FDIS 21127. Information and
documentation -- A reference ontology for the
interchange of cultural heritage information
[Definition of the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model].
Holmen, J.; Uleberg, E. (1996) “Getting the most out of it - SGML-encoding of archaeological texts.” Paper at the IAAC’96 Iasi, Romania. URL: http://www.dokpro.uio.no/engelsk/text/getting_most_out_of_it.html (as of 2005-11-14).
Holmen, J.; Jordal, E.K.A; Olsen, S.A.; Ore, C.E. (forthcoming) “From XML encoded text to objects and events in a CRM compatible database. A case study”. In: Beyond the Artifact. Proceedings of CAA 2004, Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology.
Parsons, T. (1990) Events in the semantics of English : a study in subatomic semantics. Cambridge, Mass.
Renear, A.H.; Lee, J.H.; Choi, Y.; Xiang, X. (2005) “Exhibition: A Problem for Conceptual Modeling in the Humanities”. P. 176-179 in: ACH / ALLC 2005. Conference Abstracts. 2nd Edition, Victoria.
Schnitler, P. (1962) Major Peter Schnitlers
grenseeksaminasjonsprotokoller 1742-1745. Bind 1 [Major Peter Schnitlers border examination
protocols 1742-45] / by Kristian Nissen and Ingolf Kvamen. Oslo.","txt","2","",""
"585","7","TEI, CIDOC - CRM and a Possible Interface between the Two","1","In the work of the TEI Ontologies SIG there have been an interest in finding practical ways of combining TEI encoded documents with CIDOC-CRM models.
One way of doing so is including CIDOC-CRM
information in a TEI document and linking CIDOC-CRM
elements to TEI elements where appropriate. In this
paper, this method is described through an example,
together with an outline of the additional elements
necessary in the TEI DTD used.
Background
In projects at the Unit for Digital Documentation, University of Oslo, we have created SGML and later
XML encoded versions of printed and hand-written
museum documents, such as acquisition catalogues, for more
than ten years (Holmen 1996). To be able to store such documents in a standard format, we are planning to use TEI. Much of our material are archaeological documents, and there have been a growing interest in the use of XML in general and TEI in specific in archaeological community the last few years (Falkingham 2005, sec. 3.3, cf. sec. 4.3 and 5.2.3).
We also use CIDOC-CRM as a tool for modelling the contents of such tagged documents as they are read by museum professionals. We use this method to be able to include information from XML encoded documents in our museum inventory databases, with references back to the encoded documents (Holmen forthcoming). We would like to store CIDOC-CRM models in close relation to the TEI encoded document. This paper describes an example of how we try to define a syntax in which to store such datasets.
Extension of a TEI DTD
There are two different ways in which to extend a TEI DTD for inclusion of CIDOC-CRM models. We may include an element for each and every entity and property used in the model, or we may just include one TEI element for CIDOC-CRM entities and one for
properties. We have chosen the latter method. This gives a limited and rather simple expansion of the DTD. This is similar to the way the XML version of the bibliographic
standard MARC is designed (MARCXML).
This method will make it possible to create one document storing both textual markup and semantic interpretations of a text, while keeping the two parts of the document
separate, except for links between specific elements in the two parts. This means that the document can be
published as a text as well as form the base of an import to a database of records based on the interpretation, keeping
the links back to the original text.
In this paper, we use a DTD fragment to show an outline of the extensions we need. The extensions is composed of a root crm element including a number of crmEntity elements and a number of crmProperty elements.
The root CIDOC-CRM element
<!ELEMENT crm (crmEntity*, crmProperty*)>
<!ATTLIST crm
id #ID>
The entity element
<!ELEMENT crmEntity #PCDATA
<!ATTLIST crmEntity
id #ID
typeNumber #NUMBER>
The property element
<!ELEMENT crmProperty #EMPTY
<!ATTLIST crmEntity
id #ID
typeNumber #NUMBER
from #IDREF
to #IDREF>
Example of use
A typical situation in which this approach could be used is in archaeological documents. We have created a short dummy document containing some of the informations types commonly existing in our museum documents, as shown in Example 1.
The excavation in Wasteland in 2005 was performed
by Dr. Diggey. He had the misfortune of breaking the beautiful sword in 30 pieces.
Example 1
A tagging of this could be made as in Example 2.
<p id=”p1”>The
<ab id=”e1”>excavation in
<name type=”place” id=”n1”>Wasteland</name>
</ab> in
<date id=”d1”>2005</date>
was performed by
<name type=”person” id=”n2”>Dr. Diggey</name>.
He had the misfortune of
<ab id=”e2”>breaking
<ab id=”o1”>the beautiful sword</ab>
in 30 pieces
</ab>.
</p>
Example 2
There are many objects and relations of interest when modelling the archaeological world described in this text. A typical museum curator reading could include the elements shown in Table 1.
1. A place identified by a name documented in n1.
2. A person identified by a name documented by n2.
3. A time identified by a date documented in d1.
4. An event (the excavation) documented in e1.
5. An event (the breaking) documented in e2.
6. An object (sword) documented in o1.
7. Dr. Diggey participated in the excavation
8. Dr. Diggey and the sword participated in the
breaking
9. The excavation took place at the place identified by a name documented in n1 and at a time identified by a date documented in d1.
Table 1
A possible CIDOC-CRM representation of one of the entities in Table 1, the excavation in line 4, is shown in Example 3. Included are also references to lines 2, 3, 7 and 9.
Note that Example 3 is only showing part of a model that would represent a normal archaeological reading of the paragraph above. E.g., the date should have a “is
documented in” property such as the ones for the activity
and the person, and the place (Wasteland) should be
documented in a way similar to the person Dr. Diggey.
E7
Activity
--> P2 Has type
--> E55 Type1
--> P14
Carried out by
--> E21 Person
--> P131 Is
identified by
--> E82 Actor appelation2
--> P70 Is
documented in
--> E31 Document3
--> P4 Has
time-span
--> E52 Time-
span
--> P78 Is
identified by
--> E50 Date4
--> P70 Is
documented in
--> E31
Document5
1) archaeological excavation
2) Dr. Diggey
3) the element identified by the id “n2” in the text of Example 2 above
4) 2005
5) the element identified by the id “e1” in the text of Example 2 above
Example 3
Example 4 shows this using the TEI-CRM syntax outlined in the DTD addition above. The crm element holds the small CIDOC-CRM model we have expressed in a TEI syntax, while the link element holds connections between the CIDOC-CRM model and the TEI text from Example 2.
In this example we see that although all the
CIDOC-CRM information may be expressed in such a syntax, an XML validation of the document will only
validate a part of the information. It will not check whether
the model adheres to the rules for e.g. which
CIDOC-CRM properties may be used in connection to which entities.
<crm id=”crm-mod1”>
<crmEntity id=”ent1” typeNumber=”7”>
</crmEntity>
<crmEntity id=”ent2” typeNumber=”55”>
archaeological excavation</crmEntity>
<crmEntity id=”ent3” typeNumber=”21”>
</crmEntity>
<crmEntity id=”ent4” typeNumber=”82”>Dr. Diggey
</crmEntity>
<crmEntity id=”ent5” typeNumber=”31”>
</crmEntity>
<crmEntity id=”ent6” typeNumber=”52”>
</crmEntity>
<crmEntity id=”ent7” typeNumber=”50”>2005
</crmEntity>
<crmEntity id=”ent8” typeNumber=”31”>
</crmEntity>
<crmProperty id=”prop1” typeNumber=”2” from=”ent1” to=”ent2”/>
<crmProperty id=”prop2” typeNumber=”14” from=”ent1” to=”ent3”/>
<crmProperty id=”prop3” typeNumber=”131” from=”ent3” to=”ent4”/>
<crmProperty id=”prop4” typeNumber=”70” from=”ent4” to=”ent5”/>
<crmProperty id=”prop5” typeNumber=”4” from=”ent1” to=”ent6”/>
<crmProperty id=”prop6” typeNumber=”78” from=”ent6” to=”ent7”/>
<crmProperty id=”prop7” typeNumber=”70” from=”ent1” to=”ent8”/>
</crm>
<linkGrp type=”TEI-CRM interface”>
<link targets=”#ent5 #n2”/>
<link targets=”#ent8 #e1”/>
</linkGrp>
Example 4
Conclusion and further research
While different uses of ontological models in
connection to TEI documents will differ in their
technical solutions, e.g. whether the ontological model rests in a separate document or not, and which syntax is chosen for the model, the three main elements shown here have to be present:
• a TEI document
• an ontological model expressed in some XML syntax
• link elements to connect the specific elements from the two together
We have described a way of expanding TEI that gives us the tools we need to include a CIDOC-CRM model in a TEI document, and connect specific CIDOC-CRM entities to specific TEI elements in the non-CRM part of the document. We would like to see research into similar methods of connecting informations in other ontological systems to TEI documents, to discover whether a similar method is feasible. It would also be interesting to see if it is possible to make a general addition to TEI for this use, or if each ontological system needs its own tag set.
In our own research, we will write out an ODD to test this method on samples of our own data, and then continue to implement this model on real data, so that the usability of this method for complete documents and CIDOC-CRM models can be examined.
References
CIDOC-CRM. ISO/FDIS 21127. Information and
documentation -- A reference ontology for the
interchange of cultural heritage information
[Definition of the CIDOC Conceptual Reference
Model].
Falkingham, G. (2005) A Whiter Shade of Grey: a new approach to archaeological grey literature using the XML version of the TEI Guidelines. Internet Archaeology, issue 17. URL: http://intarch.ac.uk/
journal/issue17/falkingham_toc.html (as of 2005-11-14).
Holmen, J.; Uleberg, E. (1996) “Getting the most out of it - SGML-encoding of archaeological texts.” Paper at the IAAC’96 Iasi, Romania. URL: http://www.dokpro.uio.no/engelsk/text/getting_most_out_of_it.html (as of 2005-11-14).
Holmen, J.; Jordal, E.K.A; Olsen, S.A.; Ore, C.E. (forthcoming) “From XML encoded text to objects and events in a CRM compatible database. A case study”. In: Beyond the Artifact. Proceedings of CAA 2004, Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology.
MARCXML. MARC 21 XML Schema. URL: http://www.loc.gov/standards/marcxml/ (as of 2005-11-14).
TEI Ontologies SIG. URL: http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/SIG/Ontologies/ http://www.tei-c.org/wiki/index.php/SIG:Ontologies (as of 2005-11-13).
TEI P5 (2005) Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding
and Interchange. [draft] Version 0.2.1. TEI
Consortium, 2005.","txt","2","",""
"586","7","Modelling Lexical Entries: a Database for the Analysis of the Language of Young People","1","At the Humanities Faculty of University of Pisa, we started a big project devoted to the study of the language and culture of the young people. The enquiries were initially held in the area of provenance of students
of the University of Pisa, including the districts of
Massa-Carrara, Lucca, Pistoia, Pisa, Livorno, Grosseto and the district of La Spezia in the Liguria region. We distributed a questionnaire among students of the last two years of secondary school (around 18 years old). The enquiries took place in towns that host secondary
schools, i.e. towns and big villages of the urbanized country.
The questionnaire includes:
1. a socio-linguistic section enquiring on the social condition, cultural preferences and style of life; usage of the dialect inside the family and usage of forms exclusive for young people;
2. a lexical section that counts 36 onomasiologic
questions (“How do you say for…”) referred to the different spheres of the life of young people
(family, school, external world, interpersonal relations,
judgements, etc.)
3. open fields for spontaneous linguistics insertions.
The enquiries involved 2.500 informants and produced over 70.000 forms. Because of this huge mass of data we have looked for a suitable storage solution that would have let us easily query the data. First of all, we wanted to query the forms themselves in a quick and simple way. Secondly, we wanted to group the results according to different parameters such as place of enquiry, sex of the informants, and socio-cultural divisions. Others goals were the possibility of measuring the dialectal or the mass-media language influence and focalizing any lines of development of the Italian language.
It was immediately clear that the results of the enquiries
could not be directly reversed into a digital format
because of a lack of structured information. Furthermore,
we felt the need of analyzing and classifying the
produced forms from a linguistic point of view, for example
tracing every form to the relevant lemma and recognizing the grammar category in order to enable sophisticated queries.
Firstly we tried to mark data in the XML language,
using the TEI Terminological Databases tag set, but this attempt showed some limitations from the very beginning.
As we know, XML works at its best with semi-structured data such as texts, on the contrary our lexical entries are strongly structured data, and are connected with both linguistic information and personal data supplied by
informants. Performing such links through XPath or
ID-IDREFS system proved to be quite a farraginous mechanisms. Furthermore the TEI Terminological
Database tag set offers just generic elements, providing
poor description of lexical entries; the TEI Consortium itself has considered unsatisfactory such tag set that will be strongly revised in the forthcoming P5 version
(see http://www.tei-c.org/P5/Guidelines/TE.html). In
addition, reversing in XML the data pertinent to two points of enquiry, we obtained so large files that
most common XML applications showed remarkable difficulties in managing them. For all these reasons, we decided to reverse the data in a MySQL relational
database that would have let us to bypass such
limitations. A relational DB is certainly a more suitable and performing solution for strongly structured data as we conceived our entries. We called our database BaDaLì, acrostic for Banca Dati Linguagiovanile, but also an expression that means ‘look over there’ or ‘mind you’ or even, in an antiphrastic sense very common in young people language, ‘never mind’. Figure 1 shows a simplified diagram of the BaDaLì
database.
BaDaLì can be ideally subdivided in four main
modules: the informants module (green area), the
questionnaires module (yellow area), the lemmas
module (blue area) and the forms module (orange area); table lingue (‘languages’) is a lookup shared by lemmas
and forms modules, while table inchieste (‘enquiries’) connects the informants module with the questionnaires module.
Forms module
The very central point of the database is the table forme (‘forms’) and contains the forms produced
by informants. Every form is traced to its grammar
category (categorie grammaticali table). In some cases the
form is also related to a specific dialect (dialetti table), or to a language (lingue table) in case of foreignism. In this way an eventual existing distance between form and lemma (that we call gradiente ‘gradient’) is measured
in terms of dialectal influence, foreign features or
innovative traits on a graphical level.
The forms module is connected to all other modules. Every form, in fact, is traced to its relevant lemma, is produced by an informant, under the stimulation of a question.
Lemmas module
Tracing forms to their relevant lemmas is a crucial point, especially for innovative forms not recorded by dictionaries. For this reason, we selected a reference dictionary and established a number of criterions to create the suitable lemma for the unattested occurrences. We decided to adopt the most complete dictionary of modern Italian, the Grande Dizionario Italiano dell’Uso (Gradit), edited by Tullio De Mauro. When a new lemma is inserted
in the database, specific codes are added to mark its
absence or a semantic innovation in regards of Gradit.
Relevant lemmas (lemma table) have been categorized too, following an updated version of the classification
of lexical components of the language of young people
(componenti lessico table) proposed by Cortelazzo 1994.
Informant module
Table parlanti (‘informants’) collects all the
information pertinent to the informants. A number
of questions pointed out the need of typifying data collected
by the enquiry. For example, the questionnaire asked the informer to declare his/her birthplace and residence. The result was a list of towns and villages that had little
relevance in the case of a large scale enquiry. As the question about birthplace was included to retrieve
information about the origin of the informant’s family in order to determine if an influence of a non local
dialect can be assumed, we decide to group answers in
macro-regional categories. The question on the
residence was introduced to retrieve information about the commuting, to enquire on eventual differences between the language of towns and small villages. As the secondary schools where the enquiries were held are
located in towns or in big villages, we decided to consider
only if the informant lives in the same town where the school is located or elsewhere. In such cases a relative loss of information is compensated for the opportunity of comparing the results of different points of enquiry.
Questionnaires module
Questionnaires module collects data about
questionnaires and questions. We took into account
the possibility of inserting lexical entries produced by
different questionnaires or by updating of our questionnaire.
Therefore the term enquired by the questions (voce
indagata table) is isolated. For example, in case of
the question “How do you say for money?”, the word “money” is the enquired term; the comparison of forms produced by different questionnaires enquiring on the same term is easier by isolating the enquired term form the body of the question.
Our database includes onomasiologic questions (‘How do you say for…’) and thematic questions (‘Which words do you know about…’), so a classification for different types of questions (tipi domanda table) was needed. BaDaLì public interface
The database is currently freely available on the Web at the address http://dblg.humnet.unipi.it.
[FIG. 2] BaDaLì home page
The provided interface allows a number of possible
queries:
1. starting from a lemma (Tipi lessicali), it is possible to retrieve all the forms traced to such a lemma; a further step allows grouping the results according to three parameters: place of the enquiry, sex, and kind of school.
2. starting from the enquired term (Voci Indagate), it is possible to retrieve all the forms produced under the stimulation of such a term. A further step allows
grouping the results according to the same three
parameters as in 1.
3. starting from a form (Forme), it is possible to retrieve forms grouped according to the three parameters as in 1.
Modelling is certainly a crucial point in designing new projects, since the design will determine from the very beginning which requests a tool will be able to satisfy.
In this frame we propose our experience, hoping to
stimulate a reflection on such a topic.
References
Cortelazzo, M. (1994). Il parlato giovanile. In: Storia della lingua italiana, vol. 2, Scritto e parlato, ed. by Luca Serianni /Pietro Trifone, Torino, p. 291-317.
De Mauro, T. (1999). Grande Dizionario Italiano dell’Uso. (Gradit). Torino.
Sperberg-Mcqueen, C.M. and Burnard, L. (2002). TEI P4 Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange: XML-compatible Edition. (P4).
Oxford, Providence, Charlottesville, & Bergen. Available also at http://www.tei-c.org/P4X/.","txt","2","",""
"587","7","Collaborative Indexing of Cultural Resources: Some Outstanding Issues","1","In this paper, we argue that, although collaborative
indexing of cultural resources shows promise as a method of improving the quality of people’s interactions with those resources, several important questions about
the level and nature of the warrant for basing access systems on collaborative indexing are yet to receive full consideration by researchers in cultural informatics.
Specifically, we suggest that system designers look
to three cognate fields---classification research,
iconographical analysis, and annotation studies---for pointers to criteria that may be useful in any serious
estimation of the potential value of collaborative
indexing to cultural institutions.
Collaborative indexing (CI) is the process by which the resources in a collection are indexed by multiple people over an ongoing period, with the potential result that any given resource will come to be represented by a set of descriptors that have been generated by different people. One community of researchers that has demonstrated heightened, ongoing interest in collaborative indexing
is that which is active in cultural informatics, and
specifically in the design and development of systems that
provide patrons of cultural institutions such as libraries, archives, and museums with networked access to digital representations of the objects in institutions’ collections (see, e.g., Bearman & Trant, 2005).
Justifying the collaborative-indexing approach
At a simple level, the quality of any cultural
information system (or any component of a
system such as an indexing mechanism) may be evaluated
by considering its performance in relation to three
imperatives, each of which corresponds to a separate aspect---cultural, political, economic---of the complex mission of contemporary cultural institutions.
1. How effectively does the system allow its users to find the resources in which they have an interest, and to derive optimal value from those resources once found? In order that patrons derive positive value from their experience of interacting with the objects preserved in institutions’ collections, they should be actively supported in their efforts to
develop an interpretive understanding of those objects
and the contexts in which they were produced---both by being given high-quality access to information about (including visual images of) objects, and by being encouraged to express their understanding and share their interpretations with others.
2. How broadly and inclusively does the system serve
all sections of its parent institution’s public?
Managers of cultural institutions commonly express a concern that the opportunity to derive positive
value from the services offered by those institutions
should be distributed justly among, and enjoyed equally by, members of all social groups.
3. How well does it do at delivering maximal quality at minimal cost? The institution which consistently
allows the costs incurred in the collection,
preservation, interpretation, and provision of access to its resources to exceed the value of the benefits enjoyed by its public will not survive for long.
Justifications of the CI approach tend to proceed by drawing attention to the ways in which it can be viewed as responding to one or other of these three imperatives.
Proponents commonly highlight several distinctive
characteristics of CI in this regard:
(a) CI is distributed: No single person is required to index all resources; no single resource needs to be indexed by all people.
(b) CI is cheap: Indexers typically volunteer their efforts at no or low cost to collection managers.
(c) CI is democratic: Indexers are not selected for their expertise by collection managers, but are self-selected according to indexers’ own interests and goals.
(d) CI is empowering: People who might in the past have been accustomed to searching databases by
attempting to predict the descriptors used by “experts”
are now given the opportunity to record their own knowledge about resources.
(e) CI is collaborative: Any given record is potentially representative of the work of multiple people.
(f) CI is dynamic: The description of a given resource
may change over time, as different people come
to make their own judgments of its nature and
importance.
All of these characteristics are relevant, in various
combinations and to various degrees, to any estimation of the success with which CI-based systems are likely to meet the cultural, political, and economic imperatives
described above. But each additionally raises issues of a more problematic nature than is typically admitted.
Given the distributed nature of CI, for example, how can it be ensured that every resource attracts a “critical mass” of index terms, rather than just the potentially-quirky
choices of a small number of volunteers? Given the
self-selection of indexers, how can it be ensured that they are motivated to supply terms that they would expect
other searchers to use? Empirical, comparative
testing of the utility of different prototypes---focusing, for
example, on forms of interface for elicitation of terms, or on algorithms for the ranking of resources---is undoubtedly
an essential prerequisite for the future development of successful CI-based systems (Bearman & Trant, 2005). But it is also important, we argue, that the results of prior
research in a variety of cognate fields be taken into
account when addressing some of the more problematic issues that we have identified.
Classification research
In classification research, for example, it has long been argued that indexers and searchers benefit from having the opportunity to browse or navigate for the terms or class labels that correspond most closely to
the concepts they have in mind, rather than being required to specify terms from memory (see, e.g., Svenonius, 2000). Indexer--searcher consistency, and thus retrieval
effectiveness, can be improved to the extent that a
system allows indexers and searchers to identify descriptors
by making selections from a display of the descriptors that are available to them, categorized by facet or field, and arranged in a hierarchy of broader and narrower terms so that the user can converge on the terms that they judge to be of the most appropriate level of specificity.
Current implementations of CI-based systems shy away from imposing the kind of vocabulary control on which classification schemes and thesauri are conventionally founded: the justification usually proceeds along the lines that indexers should be free, as far as possible, to supply
precisely those terms that they believe will be useful
to searchers in the future, whether or not those terms have proven useful in the past. Yet it remains an open question as to whether the advantages potentially to be gained from allowing indexers free rein in the choice of terms outweigh those that are known to be obtainable
by imposing some form of vocabulary and authority
control, by offering browsing-based interfaces to
vocabularies, by establishing and complying with
policies for the specificity and exhaustivity of indexing,
and by other devices that are designed to improve
indexer--searcher consistency.
Theories of iconographical interpretation
Another related subfield of library and information science is that which is concerned with the effective
provision of subject access to art images (see, e.g.,
Layne, 1994), and commonly invokes the theory of
iconographical interpretation developed by the art
historian Erwin Panofsky (Panofsky, 1955). Current
implementations of CI-based systems for art museums focus on eliciting generic terms for (what Panofsky calls) pre-iconographic elements, i.e., pictured objects, events, locations, people, and simple emotions---the assumption apparently being made that such terms are those that will be most useful to searchers (Jörgensen, 2003). There is very little evidence supplied by studies of the use of
art image retrieval systems, however, to suggest either that pre-iconographic elements are indeed what non-
specialists typically search for, or that generic terms lead non-specialist searchers to what they want. We do know from analyses of questions that visitors ask in museums that non-specialists typically do not have the specialist vocabulary to specify precisely what they are looking for (see, e.g., Sledge, 1995). This does not necessarily mean,
however, that searchers always default to using
pre-iconographic terms whenever they wish to get at more complex themes and ideas, nor that searches for
higher-level elements using pre-iconographic terms will be successful. Further studies of the question-
formulating and searching behavior of non-specialist art viewers and learners are clearly necessary.
Annotation studies
Researchers in the human--computer interaction (HCI) community are continuing to develop an agenda for work in the emerging subfield of annotation studies (see, e.g., Marshall, 1998), focusing on ways to improve interfaces that support annotation behavior of a variety of kinds, in a variety of domains. In this
research, an annotation is commonly considered as
evidence of a reader’s personal, interpretive engagement
with a primary document---a form of engagement that is not so different from that which cultural institutions seek to encourage in their patrons. A cultural annotation system that allowed patrons not only to supply their own descriptions of an institution’s resources, but also to add comments and to build communities around personal collections, could be envisaged as a vital service that
would help patrons interact with and interpret those
resources, largely outside the authority and control of
curators and other specialists. It remains an open question
as to whether a system that allows patrons to supply their
own descriptions of institutions’ resources is most
appropriately evaluated as a tool for creating and accessing
personal annotations, as a tool for sharing and accessing collaborative descriptions, as a retrieval tool pure and simple, or some combination of all three. Unfortunately, our understanding of the purposes and intentions of users of CI-based systems is still spotty, and further research in this area is necessary.
Conclusion
In general, we suggest that particular care needs to be taken by cultural institutions in examining and
adjudicating between potentially conflicting motives for
inviting patrons to provide basic-level descriptions of resources. Classification research shows us that simple
assignment of single-word descriptors unsupported by vocabulary control or browsable displays of the semantic
relationships among descriptors is not enough to guarantee effective access; theories of iconographical interpretation
demonstrate how important it is that non-specialist
indexers should not be led to assume that listing what one sees is somehow all that art-viewing and meaning-making involves; and annotation studies encourage us to consider how cultural institutions may go beyond simple
systems for collaborative description, and develop more-sophisticated systems for truly collaborative annotation that support deeper levels of interpretation and learning.
References
Bearman, D. and Trant, J. (2005). Social terminology enhancement through vernacular engagement: Exploring collaborative annotation to encourage
interaction with museum collections. D-Lib
Magazine, 11(9). http://www.dlib.org/dlib/
september05/bearman/09bearman.html (accessed 7 November 2005).
Jörgensen, C. (2003). Image Retrieval: Theory and
Research. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2003.
Layne, S. S. (1994). Some issues in the indexing of images. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 45: 583-588.
Marshall, C. C. (1998). Toward an ecology of hypertext annotation. In Proceedings of ACM Hypertext ’98 (Pittsburgh, PA, June 20-24, 1998), pp. 40-49. New York: ACM Press.
Panofsky, E. (1955). Iconography and iconology: An introduction to the study of Renaissance art. In
Meaning in the Visual Arts. New York: Doubleday.
Sledge, J. (1995). Points of view. In D. Bearman (ed), Multimedia Computing and Museums: Selected
Papers from the Third International Conference on
Hypermedia and Interactivity in Museums (ICHIM ’95 / MCN ’95; San Diego, CA, October 9-13, 1995), pp. 335-346. Pittsburgh, PA: Archives &
Museum Informatics.
Svenonius, E. (2000). The Intellectual Foundation of Information Organization. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.","txt","2","",""
"588","7","The Septuagint and the Possibilities of Humanities Computing: from Assistant to Collaborator","1","The Septuagint is in many ways a remarkable collection of texts. It represents the first known attempt to
translate the Hebrew Bible into an Indo-European
language, namely Hellenistic Greek. As such, it functions
as an invaluable source for understanding pertinent
linguistic, translational, text-critical, socio-cultural, and philosophical-theological issues that led to its creation and reception. Spanning in its inception from the first translations in the early- to mid-third century BCE to the later revisions in the second century CE, it gives scholars
an insight not only into the development of the Greek
language, but also into the influence of a Semitic language
on its vocabulary and possibly even its syntax. Furthermore, being one of the rare cases where both a translated Greek
text and the Semitic source text are extant, it also offers
a rich source of insight into contemporary translation
techniques and philosophies, albeit influenced by its
hagiographic status, and helps in establishing the
possibility of a clearer understanding of other Greek texts
that are generally deemed to be translations from Semitic originals. Last, but not least, is its reflection of the culture
and ideology of diaspora communities in the eastern
Mediterranean metropoles, which led to the emergence and shaping of two important religious groupings.
The Septuagint is also amongst the ancient texts to
receive early concerted applications of Humanities
Computing approaches. The most prominent project in this line is the Computer Assisted Tools for Septuagint Studies (CATSS) project, which was called into life through the initiative of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies in the early 1970s. Located at the University of Pennsylvania’s emerging
Center of Computer Analysis of Texts (CCAT), this
project sought the use of computing resources
towards three goals: (1) a morphological analysis of the
Greek text, resulting in a tagged electronic text, (2) the
comparison of Hebrew and Greek texts, resulting in an electronic parallel aligned Hebrew and Greek text, and the recording of published critical variants, resulting in an electronic Greek texts, with variants encoded. All these texts are now freely available (upon the signing of a user agreement/declaration) at the CCAT’s gopher and form the basis of most, if not all, current Septuagint
projects and studies making use of computing.
Departing from this pioneering, indispensable, and
foundational application of Humanities Computing
approaches to the study of the Septuagint, this paper will present an appraisal of the Humanities research
questions presently asked of these texts, on the one hand, and of the potential of applying Humanities Computing in answering them, on the other. Beyond the widely agreed proposals of transforming such resources into
established formats, e.g. Unicode for character encoding
and TEI XML for text encoding, I will seek to discuss
concrete problems and possibilities in pursuing
Humanities Computing applications to the Septuagint, while generalising some of the insights within a wider context. The wider question will be: What should be done to and with electronic text(s) of the Septuagint
in order to enrich it as a resource for answering the
philological, historical, socio-cultural, and theological questions currently asked about it?
One of the aims of this paper will be to tease out the current disciplinary boundaries between traditional
Humanities approaches and emerging Humanities
Computing ones and to identify important developments in their relationship. An important presupposition in
this discussion will be the understanding that Humanities Computing, as a hybrid discipline, will only be truly
successful if it reflects a thorough understanding of both Humanities research questions and Computing approaches and develops a balanced negotiation of models and
concepts that successfully bridge between the two. The direction of proposing research questions has to be
pursuit in both directions – both ‘how can one exploit Computing approaches to answer Humanities questions?’
and ‘How do Computing approaches alter the Humanities questions we ask about a research object?’ have to be asked. To push further the metaphor in the name of the aforementioned CATSS project: It is a matter of using
computing approaches as collaborators, rather than as mere assistants.
There are a number of issues in the case of the Septuagint that complicate straightforward conceptual models. To choose but one illustration: Both the textual bases of
Hebrew source text and Greek translation text are disturbed
not only by the textual variants on each side, but also by the fact that the Septuagint texts soon encountered
rival Greek translations, in some cases clearly influencing later revisions. Furthermore, the Hebrew source text for the Septuagint clearly departs occasionally from the Hebrew Masoretic Text. Moreover, the Septuagint also includes a number of apocryphal books, some of which were probably written directly in Greek. It is evident that the conceptual model to deal with this scenario cannot just consist of the juxtaposition of two clearly delimited
texts. But how does one model such a complicated
picture and how does one approach such a picture by computational means? This paper will attempt to propose some answers to this question. It will seek to do so by sketching an ontology and incipit model to accommodate the complication.
As an example of the wider context dealt with in this
paper, I will discuss another, more general current
development in Humanities research projects, not
least influenced by contemporary communication
technologies: the collaborative nature of the research
undertaken. While the negotiation of consensus remains a crucial achievement and necessity in such endeavours,
what are we to do with disagreement? How do we
encode minority opinions and use them as a resource in computational approaches? If the underlying arguments
are important: How do we record them for both
agreements and disagreements?
Selected Literature
Septuagint
Jennifer Dines, The Septuagint, Understanding the Bible and Its World, Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 2004.
Natalio Fernández Marcos, The Septuagint in Context: Introduction to the Greek Version of the Bible,
translated by W. G. E. Watson, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2000.
CATSS
Computer Assisted Tools for Septuagint/Scriptural Study.
Robert A. Kraft, “How I Met the Computer, and How it Changed my Life”, SBL Forum (Spring 2004)","txt","2","",""
"589","7","Capturing Australian Indigenous Perceptions of the Landscape Using a Virtual Environment","1","Introduction
The Digital Songlines project differs from the
approach taken by most others in the field of virtual
heritage. While there are many examples of recreated cultural sites, most of them are of a built form, such as temples, monuments, cities and townships. They are
frequently re-created in 3-dimensions with a high level of realism. On the other hand, the Digital Songlines project’s
focus is on more than simple visualisation, rather its
mission is to recreate an experience; a way of interacting with the simulated environment by identifying the key
elements give to each place and its special cultural
significance that an Aboriginal group identifies as being
within their own tribal boundaries. Integrating the key
cultural elements in a synthetic environment goes some
way towards providing a setting for exploring otherwise
inaccessible or previously destroyed significant sites.
While traditional virtual heritage reconstructions frequently
depend on technological solutions, Digital Songlines depends
more on an understanding of the traditional cultural
values attached to specific landscape by the participating
Aboriginal people and then on a methodology and process for integrating those values in the digital environment with a focus on cultural relevance independent of its level of
visual realism.
The continuing traditional culture of Australian Aborigines is one of the most ancient in the world. Recent research
suggests that it is at least 40000 years old. European colonisation of Australia since the late eighteenth-century,
and farming, mining, tourism and social impacts of
modern civilisation have since threatened this most
remarkable cultural heritage. Aboriginal cultural
custodians realise the urgent need to preserve the evidence of Australian Aboriginal heritage and culture to give young and future generations of Australian Aborigines a chance to identify with their aboriginal roots.
However, creating an Australian Indigenous cultural
heritage environment causes some difficulties. Australian
Aboriginal people perceive, in the landscape, details that non-indigenous people often fail to appreciate. Such details are very much a part of Aboriginal knowledge, spirituality and survival as well as cultural heritage. The landscape is perceived as a cultural entity, and needs to be recognised
in a synthetic environment by Aboriginal people if the
cultural heritage environment is to be perceived as authentic.
One of the difficulties in undertaking such a task is the re-presentation of Aboriginal knowledge. There are few written records, hence it is mostly through the process of interviewing of cultural custodians that information can be gathered. This poses another problem: Aboriginal cultural custodians are not always comfortable with the traditional western research methods of interviewing and recording (AITSIS, 2000); they may prefer to tell their stories in a location which relates to the cultural context of the story, “Aboriginal reading comes out of the land, each place is a repository for information that is rarely commented upon elsewhere in the abstract but is released or stimulated by the place itself” (Strang, 2003, p200) (see figure 1). It is in this context that the Digital Songlines project has set itself the task of collecting cultural knowledge from Australian Aboriginal cultural custodians and Knowledge keepers,
and, to provide a means of sharing that knowledge with
future generations of Australian Aboriginal people through a virtual environment.
Figure 1. Real or simulated ‘Country’ is required contextualise to Australian Aboriginal story telling narratives Collecting Indigenous Cultural Knowledge
The need to ‘locate’ the telling of a story by an
Aboriginal cultural custodian where access to the
original environment is not possible involved reconstructing
some locations using computer generated 3D models. This offers the advantage of portability and flexibility. However, the success of this method relies on its acceptance by the cultural custodians of the synthetic environment as a valid context for sharing their cultural knowledge. Two steps were implemented to try to achieve this. The first step was to identify the elements of the natural landscape that gave it a cultural meaning in the eyes of Indigenous people. The second step was to define a methodology to recreate these elements in a synthetic environment in a way that cultural custodians could recognise the cultural elements. Within
the context of this paper the following describes the
approach used to identify the elements of the landscape;
it explains the protocols for approaching Australian
Aboriginal people and a way of enlisting their trust.
Understanding the cultural elements of the landscape.
To-date some research with Australian Aboriginal people has resulted in suspicion and mistrust. As such , it is essential to inculcate participants in any study at every stage. The Cultural Custodians are the elders of their communities and not generally familiar with virtual reality and multi-media technologies. Therefore, it is necessary to demonstrate the potential of the technology. In this report we discuss an initial study that used a virtual environment showing landscape and approximately 10,000 year-old rock art from Mt Moffat in the Carnavon Gorges National Park in Central Queensland, Australia (see figure 2). It was shown to a group of Australian Aborigines from central Queensland and their reactions observed.
As the initial goal was to gain the trust of the community,
no recording or formal interview took place. Initially the community was suspicious of the researchers and of
the technology but after three hours of community
consultation, the community gained a better understanding
of the technology and, most importantly, the intentions of the researchers.
Following the success of the initial contact, a cultural tour of the region was organised by two of the cultural custodians of the community. This allowed for more observation even though there could still not be any formal
recording of the event. One example of an observation related to the tradition of collecting food. Gathering bush food is a cultural activity. Australian Aboriginal people don’t find food in the wild, they believe food is provided
to them by Country (a Eurocentric analogy might be a form of benevolent land genie). However, there are
conditions. Aboriginal people believe that one has to look after Country if one expects Country to provide for one. That is why, in their view, so many white people died of thirst and starvation in the early white settlement days, because they did not respect the Aboriginal Country law. Looking after Country means more than caring for it, it includes respecting the rituals taught by the ancestors
Figure 2. Approximately 10,000 year-old rock art from Mt Moffat in the Carnavon Gorges National Park in Central Queensland, Australia.
Converting the Observations to VR
The most important thing to come out of these
observations was the attention to detail leading to a “contextual accuracy” that is very important to all the Aboriginal people encountered. Hence, in re-presenting a specific landscape in VR the following information should be gathered from the site. The importance of flora and fauna to a culturally recognisable landscape means more than realism alone. Realism has only a marginal effect on immersion in a virtual environment (Gower, 2003; Lee, 2004; Lombard and Ditton, 1997; Slater,
et al, 1996). Hence, minimal realism yet culturally
accurate virtual environments allows people without
access to advanced technology, including Indigenous
people in remote communities, to gain better access
to the Digital Songlines Project and satisfies the
needs of those communities for cultural sensitivity to
representation of their stories about the land.
Conclusion
There are at least two issues facing the design
of Aboriginal virtual heritage environments,
contextual and cultural accuracy and realism. As the context is one of the most important aspects of culture
sharing within Australian Aboriginal society then
we need to know more about how to re-create a
meaningful context in a virtual environment. It may be easier to evoke this by using reduced detail than highly realistic environments. In order to achieve this we need to learn from Aboriginal people what are the best ‘signs’ that can be used to identify their environments as unique and culturally significant.
Acknowledgment
This work is supported by ACID (the Australasian
CRC for Interaction Design) established and
supported under the Cooperative Research Centres
Programme through the Australian Government’s
Department of Education, Science and Training.
References
Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AITSIS), Guidelines for Ethical Research in Indigenous Studies. 2000.
Strang, V. (1997). Uncommon ground: cultural landscapes and environmental values. Oxford: New York.
Gower, G. (2003). Ethical Research in Indigenous
Contexts and the practical implementation of it: Guidelines for ethical research versus the practice
of research. Edith Cowan University, Perth,
Western Australia.
Lee, K.M. (2004). Presence explicated. Communication Theory, p. 27-50.
Lombard, M. and Ditton, T. (1997). At the Heart of It All: The Concept of Presence. In the Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, JCMC, 3(2).
Slater, M., Linakis, V., Usoh, M., and Kooper, R. (1996). Immersion, Presence, and Performance
in Virtual Environments: An Experiment with Tri-
Dimensional Chess. In ACM VR Software and
Technology, VRST, Green, M. [Ed.], pp163-172","txt","2","",""
"590","7","French-English Literary Translation Aided by Frequency Comparisons from ARTFL and Other Corpora","1","This presentation proposes a procedure for using frequency comparisons to help resolve challenging word choices in French-to-English literary translations. It explores a computer-assisted approach for enhancing the human translation of literary texts by two principal and complementary means: 1) through the comparison of existing translations, when available, as metatranslational,
cognitive choices; 2) through the interlinguistic
comparison by word frequency of cognitively admissible word choices ostensibly available to the source-language
(SL) author and the chronologically distanced target-
language (TL) translator. The methodology explored here does not purport to innovate in regards to machine translation but rather attempts to show how techniques in part developed by researchers in that field can assist human translators working with literature, an area where machine translation would not normally be used.
In translating “L’Illustre Magicien” (The Illustrious
Magician) and “L’Histoire de Gambèr-Aly” (The Story of
Gamber Aly), of Arthur de Gobineau (1816-1882), the presenter compares word frequencies in both languages—French and English—to help determine the most suitable
choice where several reasonable ones exist. This procedure consists of what he calls interlingual and intralingual
frequency comparisons which expand on the concept of componential analysis (CA) proposed by Newmark
(Approaches to Translation, 1981) which the latter proposed
as an improvement on the matrix method, also addressed by Hervey and Higgins (Thinking French Translation, 2nd ed., 2002).
In one example of his CA, Newmark develops an “...‘open’ series of words...and the use and choice of such words is determined as often by appropriate collocation as by intrinsic meaning (i.e. componential analysis): this particularly applies to generic terms or head-words such as ‘big’ and ‘large’, which are difficult to analyze” (29). Newmark also notes that the word-series he chooses
(bawdy, ribald, smutty, lewd, coarse, etc.) creates a
problem in that it is particularly “...closely linked to any SL and TL culture in period of time and social class....”
While the approach proposed here does not distinguish
social class, the interlingual frequency comparisons can usually rely on corpora and subsets established from
literature written in the same time period as the works being
analyzed and as early translations. In this case,
several different corpora are used. For French: ARTFL
(American and French Research on a Treasury of the French Language) and other tools made available by Etienne Brunet and the University of Nice. For English:
Bartleby; the British National Corpus (BNC), the British Women Writers Project and Chadwyk-Healy’s LION
(Literature Online).
Besides the two translations, the overall project includes
critical essays which treat the tales’ major themes of love,
death, and intellectual or emotional obsession. Honoré de Balzac’s La recherche de l’Absolu (1834) floats tempingly in the background of “The Illustrious Magician” since the latter’s author even published an essay on Balzac in 1844. While several different examples will be used for applying the frequency approach, one example of using
interlinguistic frequencies occurs when translating the following French from “The Illustrious Magician”, a
several pages before its conclusion: “En effet, en entrant
dans une des grottes, après en avoir visité deux ou trois, il aperçut son maître assis sur une pierre, et traçant avec le bout de son bâton des lignes, dont les combinaisons savantes annonçaient un travail divinatoire” (Nouvelles
asiatiques, 1876, p. 150). Focusing for the purposes
of this abstract on the clause containing the word
“divinatoire,” we can initially compare the two existing translations. Both were published in New York, the first by Appleton Press in 1878, the second by Helen Morganthau Fox with Harcourt Brace in 1926:
1) Appleton (259): “...the profound combination of which announced a work of divination.”
2) Fox (268): “...the learned combinations of which showed that it was a work of divination.”
3) Draft of presenter’s translation: “ whose learned
combinations revealed a divinatory work.”
One might wonder whether the word “divinatoire” for a French writer in the 1870’s is as recherché as the
word “divinatory” in English. Would it be reasonable to substitute the collocation “divinatory work” for the
earlier one, “work of divination”?
The BNC reveals two (2) occurrences of «divinatory» in 100,000,000 words: 1) A6C Seeing in the dark. ed. Breakwell, Ian and Hammond, Paul. London: Serpent’s Tail, 1990 (32,621 words); 2) CS0 Social anthropology
in perspective. Lewis, I M. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1992, pp. 5-130, (35,946 words). In the British Women Writers Project (http://www.lib.ucdavis.
edu/English/BWRP/) we find no occurrences for eighty (80) texts, 1789-1832. We should conclude that the word “divinatory” is a rare word in English. However, within
the ARTFL database of French works for the years
1850-1874 alone, out of 11,214,324 words, there are four (4) occurrences. Out of the 9,548,198 words in the
database for the period 1875-1899 there are ten (10)
occurrences or a total of 14 in 20,762,522 words or about
67 occurrences per 100,000,000 words, about 30 times more than in the BNC. In the period 1875-1899, its rate of occurrence was about once per million words, the
highest of the four quarters in the century (see http://www.
lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ARTFL/databases/TLF/freqs/tlf.timerseries.html). We must conclude that the French use of “divinatoire” at the time when Gobineau was using it was significantly more common than is its English
counterpart though both uses are nonetheless relatively rare. And the bibliography for the fourteen occurrences covering the period in which the Nouvelles asiatiques was published includes works by well-known authors such as Amiel, Bourget, Flaubert, Garnier, the Goncourts,
Mallarmé and others, as well as Gobineau himself. The one occurrence of «divinatoire» from this last author’s work should of course be subtracted from the total before any comparison with the same publication.
Intralinguistically for French, there are forty-two (42) occurrences of the word “divination,” which is exactly
three times more frequent than “divinatoire” in the
period 1850-1899, out of almost 21 million words.
Forty-two versus fourteen in that number is almost a third of an order of magnitude and worthy of notice. We can preserve the rarer use of divinatoire from French in the translation although the usage appears to be even
rarer in English. However, we should note that there are seven (7) occurrences of “divinatory” in the 20th-century poetry on Chadwyk Healy’s LION site, so the word
can be well represented in the poetic genre. And in
comparisons that will be made in the presentation in both vocabulary and themes between Gobineau and Balzac, the interest of both authors in divination will be highlighted.
Brunet’s database shows seven occurrences of divination/divinations in the Comédie Humaine (CH) and four of divinatoire, a typical total of the two words (11) for the 4,242,038 words in that corpus (CH) and for his time,
1825-1849: 35 occurrences in the 12,352,370 words
contained in the ARTFL database. However, these words are only about one-half as common in French literature for the last quarter of the nineteenth century as in the second quarter. There are 18 occurrences in 9,548,198
words for the ARTFL database during the period 1875-1899 when the Nouvelles asiatiques were published.
Besides the few sample words above where the
computer-assisted techniques have been applied by a human translator of French literature, the presentation
will suggest how such frequency-based comparisons can assist in the translation of thematic groups of words
representing the literary authors’ symbolic universes. Often
such clusters of associated words can be determined from methodically searching the secondary literature: the
thematic areas where critics have focused their interest over the centuries. Furthermore, a complementary technique
for using advanced search engines on the Internet to aid in solving translation problems will be illustrated or
demonstrated.
As long as French and English databases remain available with tools that allow for the appropriate date-stamping,
so to speak, of word usage, a methodology can be
developed using frequencies and simple statistical tests such as z-scores for comparing the ranking of words across chronological gaps. Such resources offer new
and useful tools to the translator both in aiding the
development of metatranslations and justifying both them and final translations. Additionally, this process can facilitate greater detail and support for literary criticism that makes use of intertextual and intratextual linguistic materials.","txt","2","",""
"591","7","Stylometry, Chronology and the Styles of Henry James","1","Contemporary stylistic and stylometric studies usually focus on an author with a distinctive style and often characterize that style by comparing the author’s texts to those of other authors. When an author’s works display diverse styles, however, the style of one text rather than the style of the author becomes
the appropriate focus. Because authorship attribution techniques are founded upon the premise that some
elements of authorial style are so routinized and habitual
as to be outside the author’s control, extreme style
variation within the works of a single author seems
to threaten the validity of the entire enterprise. This
apparent contradiction is only apparent, however, for
the tasks are quite different. Successful attribution of a diverse group of texts to their authors requires only that each author’s texts be more similar to each other than they are to texts by other authors, or, perhaps more accurately, that they be less different from each other than from the other texts. The successful separation of texts or sections
of texts with distinctive styles from the rest of the
works of an author takes for granted a pool of authorial similarities and isolates whatever differences remain.
Recent work has shown that the same techniques that are able to attribute texts correctly to their authors even when some of the authors’ styles are quite diverse do a good job of distinguishing an unusual passage within a novel from the rest of the text (Hoover, 2003). Other quite subtle questions have also been approached using authorship attribution techniques. Nearly 20 years ago, Burrows showed that Jane Austen’s characters can be distinguished by the frequencies of very frequent words in their dialogue (1987). More recent studies have used
authorship techniques to investigate the sub-genres
and varied narrative styles within Joyce’s Ulysses
(McKenna and Antonia, 2001), the styles of Charles Brockden Brown’s narrators (Stewart, 2003), a parody
of Richardson’s Pamela (Burrows, 2005), and two
translations of a Polish trilogy made a hundred years apart (Rybicki, 2005). Hugh Craig has investigated chronological changes in Ben Jonson’s style (1999a, 1999b), and Burrows has discussed chronological
changes in the novel genre (1992a).
I am using authorship attribution techniques to study the often-remarked differences between Henry James’s early and late styles.1 I begin by analyzing a corpus of 46
American novels of the late 19th and early 20th century (12 by James and 34 by eight other authors) to determine the extent to which multivariate authorship attribution techniques based on frequent words, such as principal components analysis, cluster analysis, Burrows’s Delta, and my own Delta Primes, successfully attribute James’s early and late novels to him and distinguish them from novels by eight of his contemporaries.2 Because all of these techniques are very effective in this task, all are appropriate for further investigation of the variation within James’s style, but DeltaLz produces especially
accurate results, correctly attributing all 40 novels by members of the primary set in eleven analyses based on the 2000-4000 most frequent words. All of the results also reconfirm recent findings that large numbers of frequent words are more effective than the 50-100 that have been traditionally used, and that the most accurate results (for novel-sized texts) often occur with word lists of more than 1000 words (see Hoover, 2004a, 2004b). The PCA analysis in Fig. 1, based on the 1001-1990 most frequent words, clusters the novels quite well–better, in fact, than analyses that include the 1000 most frequent words.
When cluster analysis, PCA, Delta, and Delta Prime techniques are applied to nineteen novels by Henry
James, they show that the early (1971-1881) and late styles (1897-1904) are very distinct indeed, and
that an “intermediate” style (1886-1890) can also be
distinguished. DeltaLz again produces especially accurate
results, correctly identifying all early, intermediate, and late novels in 24 analyses based on the 200-4000 most frequent words. These results paint a remarkable picture of an author whose style was constantly and consistently
developing, a picture that is congruent with James’s
reputation as a meticulous craftsman who self-consciously transformed his style over his long career. A comparison
with Charles Dickens and Willa Cather shows that
Dickens’s early and late novels tend to separate, but
do not fall into such neat groups as James’s do, and that Cather’s novels form consistent groupings that are not chronological. These authors seem not to have experienced
the kind of progressive development seen in James. It is dangerous, then, simply to assume chronological
development of authorial style.
Finally, these same techniques show that the heavily revised versions of The American (1877), Daisy Miller (1878), and The Portrait of a Lady (1881) that appear in the New York edition of James’s novels (1907-09) are consistently and dramatically closer to the style of the
later novels. Yet even his notoriously detailed and extensive
revisions do not allow PCA to group the revised early
novels with the late novels. Instead, the revised versions
fall at the border between the early and intermediate
novels in PCA graphs (see Fig. 2), and consistently join with their original versions in cluster analyses. The
results obtained using Delta show that even the errors make sense. In analyses that are not completely accurate,
The Portrait of a Lady and Washington Square, the
latest of the early novels (both 1881) are sometimes
identified as intermediate. The other errors involve the identification of The Spoils of Pointon, the first of the late novels (1897), as intermediate; no analyses incorrectly
identify an early novel as late or a late novel as early.
In the analyses that are completely correct for the 19 unambiguously early, intermediate and late novels, the New York edition versions of earlier novels are identified as follows: the revised early novels The American and
Daisy Miller are universally identified as early, the
revised intermediate novel The Reverberator is universally
labeled intermediate, and the revised early The Portrait of a Lady is usually labeled intermediate, but sometimes
early. This is an intuitively plausible result, with the
latest of the early novels pulled far enough toward the late novels to appear intermediate, but, interestingly enough, DeltaLz, which produces much more accurate results overall, labels all of the novels according to their original
publication dates in eighteen analyses based on the
200-2800 mfw. In the remaining six analyses, the
early Daisy Miller is identified as late, and in one
analysis (based on the 4000mfw) The Portrait of a Lady is
identified as intermediate. Further investigation of the
implications of these results is ongoing.
Authorship attribution techniques thus confirm the
traditional distinction between early and late James,
establish the existence of an intermediate style, and lay the groundwork for a fuller analysis of the linguistic and stylistic differences upon which they rest. Based as they are on a very large proportion of the text of the novels (the 4000 most frequent words typically comprise more than 94% of a novel), these results provide a wealth of material for stylistic analysis. The huge numbers of words involved will, however, require new methods of selection, analysis, and presentation if they are not to
prove overwhelming and incomprehensible. Meeting
these challenges will advance and refine authorship
attribution techniques, and, at the same time, further
illuminate the linguistic bases of James’s style and his process of revision. Fig. 1. 46 Novels by Henry James and 8 Other Authors
Fig. 2. Twenty-Three Novels by Henry James (revised versions marked with triangles)
References
Burrows, J. F. (1987). Computation into Criticism.
Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Burrows, J. F. (1992a). “Computers and the study of
literature.” In Butler, C. S., ed. Computers and Written Texts. Oxford: Blackwell, 167-204.
Burrows, J. F. (1992b). “Not unless you ask nicely:
the interpretative nexus between analysis and
information,” LLC 7: 91-109.
Burrows, J. F. (2002a). “‘Delta’: a measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship”. LLC 17: 267-287.
Burrows, J. F. (2002b). “The Englishing of Juvenal: computational stylistics and translated texts.” Style 36: 677-99.
Burrows, J. F. (2003). “Questions of authorship:
attribution and beyond.” CHUM 37: 5-32.
Burrows, J. F. (2005). “Who wrote Shamela? Verifying the authorship of a parodic text,” LLC 20: 437-450.
Craig, H. (1999a). “Contrast and change in the idiolects of Ben Jonson characters,” CHUM 33: 221-240.
Craig, H. (1999b). “Jonsonian chronology and the
styles of a Tale of a Tub. In Butler, M. (ed.).
Re-Presenting Ben Jonson: Text, History, Performance.
Macmillan. St. Martin’s, Houndmills, England,
210-32.
Hoover, D. L. (2003). “Multivariate analysis and the study of style variation.” LLC 18: 341-60.
Hoover, D. L. (2004a). “Testing Burrows’s Delta.” LLC 19: 453-475.
Hoover, D. L. (2004b). “Delta prime?” LLC 19: 477-495.
McKenna, C. W. F. and A. Antonia. (2001). “The
statistical analysis of style: reflections on form, meaning, and ideology in the ‘Nausicaa’ episode of Ulysses,” LLC 16: 353-373.
Rybicki, J. (2005). “Burrowing into translation: character idiolects in Henryk Sienkiewicz’s trilogy and its two English translations,” LLC Advance Access
published on March 24, 2005. doi:10.1093/llc/fqh051
Stewart, L. (2003). “Charles Brockden Brown:
quantitative analysis and literary interpretation,” LLC 18: 129-138.","txt","2","",""
"592","7","Quite Right, Dear and Interesting: Seeking the Sentimental in Nineteenth Century American Fiction","1","This paper connects research by the nora Project (http://noraproject.org), a study on text mining and humanities databases that includes four sites and
scholars from many areas, with current critical interests in nineteenth century American sentimental literature.
The term sentimental has been claimed and disparagingly applied (sometimes simultaneously) to popular fiction in this time period since its publication; academic study of sentimental fiction has enjoyed widespread acceptance in literature departments only in the past few decades. Academic disagreement persists about what constitutes
sentimentality, how to include sentimental texts on
nineteenth century American syllabi, which sentimental texts to include, and how to examine sentimental texts
in serious criticism. Most of the well-known and
widely-taught novels of the time period exist in XML format in the University of Virginia’s Etext Center, one of the libraries in partnership with the nora Project; the original XML data for three texts discussed below was taken from this source.
The term sentimental novel is first applied to eighteenth century texts such as Henry Mackenzie’s Man of Feeling, Samuel Richardson’s Pamela, and Lawrence Sterne’s
Sentimental Journey and Tristam Shandy. Usually included
in courses on the theory of the novel or eighteenth century
literature, these works illustrate the solidification of
the novel form. Sentimental novels emphasize, like
Mackenzie’s title, (men and women of) feeling. Feeling is valued over reason and sentimental is used with the term sensibility (recall Jane Austen’s title Sense and Sensibility.) Although definitions of sentimentality range
widely, and are complicated by the derogatory deployment
of the term by contemporary and current critics, the group of texts loosely joined as being in the mid-
nineteenth century sentimental period is a crucial link for humanities scholars that work on the novel and British and American texts in the nineteenth century connecting Victorian texts with their predecessors.
Sentimental texts are a particularly good place to look
at how a group of texts may exhibit certain recognizable
features; sentimental fiction uses conventional plot
development, stock characters, and didactic authorial
interventions. The emphasis is the exposure of how a text works to induce specific responses in the reader (these include psychophysiological responses such as crying and a resolve to do cultural work for nineteenth century causes such as temperance, anti-slavery, female education, and labor rights); readers do not expect to be surprised. Instead, readers encounter certain keywords in a certain order for a sentimental text to build the expected response. Although the term sentimental is used to represent an area of study and title literature courses, there is no set canon of sentimental texts because scholars do not agree on what constitutes textual sentimentality. Using text-
mining on texts generally considered to exhibit sentimental
features may help visualize levels of textual sentimentality in these texts and ultimately measure sentimentality in any text.
Two groups of humanist scholars scored three chapters in Harriet Beecher Stowe’s text, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, the most well-known and critically-acknowledged text in the group often considered sentimental. Although chapters
in this text may be quite long and contain varying
levels of sentimentality, the chapter as a unit was preferred
as the original division structure of the text and the fact that humanist scholars expect this division and assign class reading and research by chapter units. UTC was later adapted into theatrical productions, and the idea of scenes (within chapters) may be a fruitful place to begin studying the sentimental fluctuations with a chapter unit in later phases of this project.
For the initial rubric, though, chapters were scored on
a scale of 1 to 10: low is 1-3, medium 4-6, high 7-10. 10
is considered a “perfect”ly sentimental score, and as
such, is only to be used when the peak of sentimental conventions is exhibited: a character nears death and
expires in a room usually full of flowers and mourners who often “swoon.” The training set for this experiment includes two other texts that were scored on the same sentimentality scale, Susanna Rowson’s 1794 novel Charlotte: A Tale of Truth and Harriet Jacobs’s Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl.
Since these texts were considered sentimental, most chapters were scored in the medium or high range, so the categories were changed to “highly sentimental” and “not highly sentimental.” With D2K, the Naive Bayes method was used to extract features from these texts, which we might call markers of sentimentality. Looking at the top 100 of these features, some interesting patterns have emerged, including the privileging of proper names
of minor characters in chapters that ranked as highly
sentimental. Also interesting are blocks of markers that appear equally prevalent, or equally sentimental, we
might say: numbers 70-74 are “wet,” lamentations,” “cheerfulness,” “slave-trade,” and “author.” The line of critical argument that goes that the sentimental works
focus on motherhood is borne out by “mother” at number 16 and “father” not in the top 100.
As we move into the next three phases of the project, we will include stemming as an area of interest in classifying the results. Phase two will use two more novels by the same authors as those in the training set; phrase three may include ephemera, broadsides, and other materials collected in the EAF collection at the UVa Etext Center. Phase four will run the software on texts considered non-sentimental in the nineteenth century and other phases might include twentieth and twenty-first century novels
that are or are not considered sentimental. We hope to discover markers that can identify elements of the
sentimental in any text.","txt","2","",""
"593","7","Performing Gender: Automatic Stylistic Analysis of Shakespeare's Characters","1","1. Introduction
A recent development in the study of language and gender is the use of automated text classification methods to examine how men and women might use language differently. Such work on classifying texts by gender has achieved accuracy rates of 70-80% for texts of different types (e-mail, novels, non-fiction articles), indicating that noticeable differences exist (de Vel et al. 2002; Argamon et al. 2003).
More to the point, though, is the fact that the
distinguishing language features that emerge from these studies are consistent, both with each other, as well as with other studies on language and gender. De Vel et al. (2002) point out that men prefer ‘report talk’, which
signifies more independence and proactivity, while women
tend to prefer ‘rapport talk’ which means agreeing,
understanding and supporting attitudes in situations. Work
on more formal texts from the British National Corpus
(Argamon et al. 03) similarly shows that the male
indicators are mainly noun specifiers (determiners, numbers,
adjectives, prepositions, and post-modifiers) indicating an ‘informational style’, while female indicators are a variety of features indicating an ‘involved’ style (explicit
negation, first- and second-person pronouns, present
tense verbs, and the prepositions “for” and “with”).
Our goal is to extend this research for analyzing the
relation of language use and gender for literary characters.
To the best of our knowledge, there has been little
work on understanding how novelists and playwrights portray (if they do) differential language use by literary
characters of different genders. To apply automated
analysis techniques, we need a clean separation of the speech of different characters in a literary work. In
novels, such speech is integrated into the text and difficult
to extract automatically. To carry out such research,
we prefer source texts which give easy access to such structural information; hence, we focus on analyzing characters in plays. The natural choice for a starting point is the corpus of Shakespeare’s plays.
We thus ask the following questions. Can the gender of Shakespeare’s characters be determined from their word usage? If we are able to find such word use, can we glean
any insight into how Shakespeare portrays maleness
and femaleness? Are the differences (if any) between male and female language in Shakespeare’s characters
similar to those found in modern texts by male and
female authors? Can we expect the same kind of analysis
in understanding Shakespeare’s characters’ gender, to the ones we discussed above? Keep in mind that here we
examine text written by one individual (Shakespeare) meant
to express words of different individuals with differing genders, as opposed to texts actually by individuals of different genders.
To address these questions, we applied text classification methods using machine learning. High classification accuracy, if achieved, will show that Shakespeare used
different language for his male and for his female
characters. If this is the case, then examination of the most important discriminating features should give some insight into such differences and to relate them to previous
work on male/female language. The general approach of our work is to achieve a reasonable accuracy using
different lexical features of the characters’ speeches as input to machine learning and then to study those features
that are most important for discriminating character
gender.
2. Corpus Construction
We constructed a corpus of characters’ speeches from 34 of Shakespearean plays, starting with the texts from the Moby Shakespeare1. The reason behind choosing this edition is that it is readily available on the web and has a convenient hierarchical form of acts and scenes for every play, while we do not expect editorial influence to unduly affect our differential analysis. The files collected from this web resource were converted into text files from hypertext media and then we cleaned the text files by removing stage directions. The gender of each character was entered manually. A text file for each character in each play was constructed by concatenating
all of that character’s speeches in the play. We only
considered characters with 200 or more words. From that collection, all female characters were chosen. Then we took the same number of male characters as female
characters from a play, restricted to those not longer than the longest female character from that particular play. In this way, we balanced the corpus for gender, giving a
total of 83 female characters and 83 male characters, with
equal numbers of males and females from each play. This corpus is termed the ‘First Corpus’. We also built a second corpus based on the reviewer’s comments, in which we equalized the number of words in male and female characters by taking every female character with more than 200 words and an equal number of the longest
male characters from each play. The longest male and female characters were then matched for length by
keeping a prefix of the longer part (male or female) of
the same length (in words) as the shorter part. This
procedure ensured that the numbers of words per play for both genders are exactly the same. This corpus is termed the ‘Second Corpus’. We also split each corpus (somewhat arbitrarily) into ‘early’ and ‘late’ characters.
We used the term early to those plays which were
written in 16th century and late to those in 17th century.
This chronology in plays as captured from Wikipedia1. The numbers of characters from each play for ‘First
Corpus’ and ‘Second Corpus’ are shown in Table 1.
3. Feature Extraction
We processed the text using the ATMan system, a text processing system in Java that we have
developed 3. The text is tokenized and the system produces
a sequence of tokens, each corresponds to a word in the input text file. We use two sets of words as features. A stylistic feature set (FW) is a list of more-or-less
content-independent words comprising mainly function
words, numbers, prepositions, and some common
contractions (e.g., “you’ll”, “he’ll”). A content-based feature
set comprises all words that occur more than ten times in a corpus, termed Bag of Words (BoW).
We calculate the frequencies of these FWs and BoWs and turn them into numeric values by computing their relative frequencies, computed as follows. We first count
the number of times two different features occurring
together; then we divide this number to the count of the feature in reference. In this way we calculate the relative frequency for each feature and a collection forms a feature vector, which represents a document (i.e. a character’s
speech). The FW set has 645 features including
contractions; the BoW set has 2129 features collected from the first corpus and 2002 BoW features collected from the second corpus. The numeric vectors collected for each document is used as an input for machine learning.
4. Text Classification
The classification learning phase of this task is
carried out by Weka’s (Frank & Witten 1999)
implementation of Sequential Minimal Optimization (Platt
1998) (SMO) using a linear kernel and default parameters. The output of SMO is a model linearly weighting the
various text features (FW or BoW). Testing was done via
10 fold cross validation. This provides an estimation of generalization accuracy by dividing the corpus into 10 different subsets. The learning is then run ten times, each time using a different subset as a test set and combining the other nine subsets for training. In this way we ensure that each character is tested on at least once with training that does not include it. Tables 3 and 4 present the results obtained by running various experiments. It is clear that
BoW has performed better than the FW in both selection
criteria, as expected, since it has more features on which
to operate. This shows that both style and content
differ between male and female characters. As expected,
the FWs have proven the stylistic evidence and not the content, which are visible from the Table 4. BoW gives a high 74.09 on over all corpuses with the equalizing on number of words selection strategy. Interestingly, FW
gives highest accuracy of 74.28 in Late plays with only 63 training samples. This indicates that there is a greater stylistic difference between the genders in late
Shakespeare than in early Shakespeare.
5. Discussion
The feature analysis phase is carried out by taking the results obtained from Weka’s implementation
of SMO. SMO provides weights to the features
corresponding to both class labels. After sorting the
features based on their weights, we collected the top twenty
features from both character genders. Tables 5-8 lists the top 20 features from male and female characters and is shown with their assigned weights given by the SMO, for FWs and BoWs respectively. Tables 9-12 list the same for the Second Corpus. These tables also show the ‘Average frequency of 100 words’, which finds the frequency of a particular feature divided by total gender characters, and then for easy readability this figure is scaled by 100 times. To discriminate binary class labels, SMO uses positive and negative weight values in Weka’s implementation. We see from the Tables 5-10, male features are designated
as negative weights and female characters are given as positive weights. In top 20 male features, this can be
observed that ‘Average Frequency of 100 Words’ value of male is more than the corresponding value for female.
This hold same in the case of the top 20 female features where female ‘Average Frequency of 100 Words’ value is more than the male for the same feature.
Feature Analysis: BoW
We can see cardinal number usage is found in male
characters. Plural and mass nouns (‘swords’, ‘dogs’, ‘water’)
are used more in males than females. On the other hand, there is strong evidence for singular noun (‘woman’,
‘mother’, ‘heart’) usage in females. The use of ‘prithee’ as an
interjection is found in female character. This may represent a politeness aspect in their attitude. The past participle form is generally found in females (‘gone’, ‘named’, ‘known’). Present tense verb forms (‘pour’, ‘praise’, ‘pray’, ‘love’, ‘dispatch’, ‘despair’) are used in female characters. In the case of male characters, Shakespeare used these verb forms (‘avoid’, ‘fight’, ‘wrought’). Male characters seem to be aggressive while female characters seem to be projected as supporters of relationships.
Feature Analysis: FW
We observed that Shakespeare’s female characters used more adverbs and adjectives, as well as auxiliary verbs
and pronouns. On the other hand, cardinal numbers,
determiners, and some prepositions are generally indicative
of male characters. These observations are in line with previous work (Argamon et al. 2003) on discriminating author gender in modern texts, supporting the idea that the playwright projects characters’ gender in a manner
consistent with authorial gender projection. We did
observe some contrasting results in the FW features from
the second corpus. Number (i.e. twice) is found in female characters. Certain prepositions are used for females,
while negation only appears distinctive for early females.
Determiner ‘the’ which is a strong male character
indicator in first corpus is found only in early part of second
corpus. Some negation (‘cannot’) is found in late males as well. Clearly, more and deeper analysis is needed. 6. Conclusion
This is the first work, to our knowledge, in analyzing literary character’s gender from plays. It seems clear that male and female language in Shakespeare’s characters is similar to that found in modern texts by male and female authors (Argamon et.al 2003), but more work is needed in understanding character gender. We have
also observed possible differences between early and
late Shakespeare in gender character classification. In particular, the later Shakespeare plays appear to show a greater stylistic discrimination between male and female
characters than the earlier plays. We are particularly
interested in collaborating with literary scholars on this research to explore these issues further. References
Koppel M., Argamon S., Shimoni A. (2004). Automatically Categorizing Written Texts by Author Gender :
Literary and Linguistic Computing 17(4).
Argamon S., Koppel M., Fine J., Shimoni A. (2003). Gender, Genre and Writing Style in Formal Written Texts : Text 23(3), pp. 321–346
Argamon S., Whitelaw C., Chase P., Hota S., Dhawle
S., Garg N., Levitan S. (2005) Stylistic Text
Classification using Functional Lexical Features, Journal of the Association for Information Sciences and Technology, to appear.
Corney M., Vel O., Anderson A., Mohay G. (2002). Gender Preferential Text Mining of E-mail Discourse :
In Proceedings of 18th Annual Computer Security Applications Conference ACSAC
Corney M., Vel O., Anderson A. (2001). Mining E-mail Content for Author Identification Forensics : ACM SIGMOD Record Volume 30, Issue 4 December
Joachims, T. (1998). Text Categorization with Support
Vector Machines: Learning with many relevant
features. ECML-98, Tenth European Conference on Machine Learning.
Platt, J. (1998). Sequential Minimal Optimization:
A Fast Algorithm for Training Support Vector
Machines. Microsoft Research Technical Report MSR-TR-98-14,
Mitchell, T. (1997) Machine Learning. (McGraw-Hill)
Witten I., Frank E. (1999). Weka3: Data Mining Software in Java http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/ml/weka/Tables","txt","2","",""
"594","7","Criticism Mining: Text Mining Experiments on Book, Movie and Music Reviews","1","1. INTRODUCTION
There are many networked resources which now provide critical consumer-generated reviews of humanities
materials, such as online stores, review websites, and various forums including both public and private blogs, mailing lists and wikis. Many of these reviews are quite detailed, covering not only the reviewers’ personal opinions but also important
background and contextual information about the works
under discussion. Humanities scholars should be given the ability to easily gather up and then analytically examine these reviews to determine, for example, how users are impacted
and influenced by humanities materials. Because the
ever-growing volume of consumer-generated review text precludes simple manual selection, the time has come to develop robust automated techniques that assist humanities scholars in the location, organization and then the analysis
of critical review content. To this end, the authors have
conducted a series of very promising large-scale experiments
that bring to bear powerful text mining techniques to
the problem of “criticism analysis”. In particular, our
experimental results concerning the application of the Naïve
Bayes text mining technique to the “criticism analysis”
domain indicate that “criticism mining” is not only feasible but
also worthy of further exploration and refinement. In short,
our results suggest that the formal development of a
“criticism mining” paradigm would provide humanities scholars with a sophisticated analytic toolkit that will open rewarding new avenues of investigation and insight.
2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Our principal experimental goal was to build and then evaluate a prototype criticism mining system that could automatically predict the: 1) genre of the work being reviewed (Experimental Set 1 (ES1)).
2) quality rating assigned to the reviewed item (ES2).
3) difference between book reviews and movie reviews, especially for items in the same genre(ES3).
4) difference between fiction and non-fiction book
reviews (ES4).
In this work, we focused on the movie, book and music reviews published on www.epinions.com, a website
devoted to consumer-generated reviews. Each review in
epinions.com is associated with both a genre label and a numerical quality rating expressed as a number of stars (from 1 to 5) with higher ratings indicating more positive opinions. The genre labels and the rating
information provided the ground truth for the
experiments. 1800 book reviews, 1650 movie reviews and 1800 music reviews were selected and downloaded from the most popular genres represented on epinions.
com. As in our earlier work (Hu et al 2005), the
distribution of reviews across genres and ratings was made as evenly as possible to eliminate analytic bias. Each review contains a title, the reviewer’s star rating of the item, a summary, and the full review content. To make our criticism mining approach generalizable to other sources of criticism materials, we only processed
the full review text and the star rating information.
Figure 1 illustrates the movie, book and music genre taxonomies used in our experiments. Figure 1: Book, movie and music genres from
epinions.com used in experiments; Genres with
the same superscripts are overlapping ones used
in “Books vs. Movie Reviews” experiments (ES3)
The same data preprocessing and modeling techniques were applied to all experiments. HTML tags were removed, and the documents were tokenized. Stop words and punctuation marks were not stripped as previous studies suggest these provide useful stylistic information (Argamon and Levitan
2005, Stamatatos 2000). Tokens were stemmed to unify
different forms of the same word (e.g., plurals). Documents
were represented as vectors where each attribute value was the frequency of occurrence of a distinct term. The model selected was generated by a Naïve Bayesian text classifier
which has been widely used in text mining due to its
robustness and computational efficiency (Sebastiani 2002). The experiments were implemented in the Text-to-
Knowledge (T2K) framework which facilitates the fast
prototyping of the text mining techniques (Downie et al 2005).
3. GENRE CLASSIFICATION TESTS (ES1)
Figure 2a provides an overview of the genre classification
tests. The confusion matrices (Figure 2b, 2c and 2d)
illustrate which genres are more distinguishable from the others
and which genres are more prone to misclassification. Bolded
values represent the successful classification rate for each
medium (Figure 2a) or genre (Figure 2b, 2c and 2d). Figure 2: Genre classification data statistics, results and confusion matrices. The first rows in confusion
matrices represent prediction (P); the first columns represent ground truth (T). 5- fold random
cross-validation on book and movie reviews, 3- fold random cross-validation on music reviews
As Figure 2a shows, the overall precisions are impressively
high (67.70% to 78.89%) compared to the baseline of
random selection (11.11% to 8.33%). The identification of some genres is very reliable e.g., “Music & Performing Arts” book reviews (89%) and “Children” movie reviews
(95%). Some understandable confusions are also
apparent e.g., “Documentary” and “Education” movie reviews (31% confusion). High confusion values appear
to indicate that such genres semantically overlap.
Furthermore, such confusion values may also indicate pairs
of genres that create similar impressions and impacts on users. For example, there might be a formal distinction between the “Documentary” and “Education” genres but the two genres appear to affect significant numbers of users in similar, interchangeable ways.
4. RATING CLASSIFICATION TESTS (ES2)
We first tested the classification of reviews
according to quality rating as a five class problem (i.e., classification classes representing the individual ratings (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 stars)). Next we conducted
two binary classification experiments: 1) negative and positive review “group” identification (i.e., 1 or 2 stars versus 4 or 5 stars); and 2) ad extremis identification
(i.e., 1 star versus 5 stars). Figure 3 demonstrates the
dataset statistics, corresponding results and confusion matrices. Figure 3: Rating classification data statistics, results and confusion matrices. The first rows in confusion matrices represent prediction (P); the first columns represent ground truth (T). 5- fold random cross-validation on book and movie reviews, one single iteration on music reviews
The classification precision scores for the binary rating tasks are quite strong (80.13% to 86.25%), while the five class scores are substantially weaker (36.70% to 44.82%). However, upon examination of the five class confusion matrices it is apparent that the system is “reasonably” confusing adjacent categories (e.g., 1 star with 2 stars, 4 stars with 5 stars, etc.).
5. MOVIE VS. BOOK REVIEW TESTS (ES3)
We first formed a binary classification experiment with movie and book reviews of all genres. We
then compared reviews in each of the six genres common to books and movies. To prevent the oversimplification of the classification task we eliminated words that can
directly suggest the categories: “book”, “movie”, “fiction”,
“film”, “novel”, “actor”, “actress”, “read”, “watch”, “scene”, etc. Eliminated terms were selected from those which
occurred most frequently in either category but not both Figure 4: Overview statistics of book and movie review classification experiments. All results are from 5
- fold random cross validation
The results in Figure 4 show the classifier is amazingly
accurate (consistently above 94.28% precision) in
distinguishing movie reviews from book reviews both in mixed genres and within single genre classes. We conducted a post-experiment examination of the reviews to ensure that the results were not simply based upon suggestive
terms like those we had eliminated pre-experiment.
Therefore, it can be inferred that users criticize books and movies in quite different ways. This is an important finding that prompts for future work the identification of key features contributing to such differences.
6. FICTION VS. NON-FICTION BOOK REVIEW TEST (ES4)
As in ES3, we eliminated such suggestive words as “fiction”, “non”, “novel”, “character”, “plot”, and “story” after examining high-frequency terms of each
category. The classification results are shown in Figure 5. Figure 5: Fiction and non-fiction book review classification data statistics, results and confusion matrix. The first row in confusion matrix represents prediction (P); the first column represents ground truth (T). Results are from 5- fold random cross validation
The precision of 94.67% not only verifies our system is good at this classification task but also indicates reviews on the two categories are significantly different. It is also noteworthy that more non-fiction book reviews (9%) were mistakenly predicted as fiction book reviews than the other way around (2%). Closer analysis on features causing such behaviors will be our future work.
7. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
Consumer-generated reviews of humanities
materials represent a valuable research resource for
humanities scholars. Our series of experiments on the automated classification of reviews verify that important information about the materials being reviewed can be found using text mining techniques. All our experiments
were highly successful in terms of both classification
accuracy and the logical placement of confusion in the confusion matrices. Thus, the development of “criticism
mining” techniques based upon the relatively simple Naïve Bayes model has been shown to be simultaneously viable and robust. This finding promises to make the ever-growing consumer-generated review resources
useful to humanities scholars.
In our future work, we plan to undertake a broadening of our understanding by exploring the application of text mining techniques beyond the Naïve Bayes model (e.g., decision trees, neural nets, support vector machines, etc.). We will also work towards the development of a system to automatically mine arbitrary bodies of critical review text such as blogs, mailing lists, and wikis. We also hope to construct content and ethnographic analyses to help answer the “why” questions that pertain to the results.
References:
Argamon, S., and Levitan, S. (2005). Measuring
the Usefulness of Function Words for Authorship
Attribution. Proceedings of the 17th Joined
International Conference of ACH/ALLC.
Downie, J. S., Unsworth, J., Yu, B., Tcheng, D.,
Rockwell, G., and Ramsay, S. J. (2005). A
Revolutionary Approach to Humanities
Computing?: Tools Development and the D2K Data-Mining Framework. Proceedings of the 17th Joined International Conference of ACH/ALLC.
Hu, X., Downie, J. S., West, K., and Ehmann, A. (2005).
Mining Music Reviews: Promising Preliminary
Results. Proceedings of the Sixth International
Conference on Music Information Retrieval (ISMIR).
Sebastiani, F. (2002). Machine Learning in Automated Text Categorization. ACM Computing Surveys, 34, 1.
Stamatatos, E., Fakotakis, N., and Kokkinakis, G. (2000). Text Genre Detection Using Common Word Frequencies. Proceedings of 18th International
Conference on Computational Linguistics.","txt","2","",""
"595","7","Markup Languages for Complex Documents - an Interim Project Report","1","Background
Before the advent of standards for generic markup, the lack of publicly documented and generally
accepted standards made exchange and reuse of electronic
documents and document processing software difficult and expensive.
SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language)
became an international standard in 1986. But it was only
in 1993, with the introduction of the World Wide Web and its SGML-inspired markup language HTML
(Hypertext Markup Language), that generic markup started to gain widespread acceptance in networked
publishing and communication.
In 1998, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
released XML (Extensible Markup Language). XML is a
simplified subset of SGML, aimed at retaining HTML’s simplicity for managing Web documents, while exploiting more of SGML’s power and flexibility. A large family of applications and related specifications has since emerged
around XML. The scope of XML processing and the complexity of its documentation now surpasses its
parent.
Although proprietary formats (like PostScript, PDF, RTF etc.) are still widely in use, there has been an explosion of markup languages and applications based on XML. Today, XML is not only an essential part of the enabling technology underlying the Web, but also plays a crucial
role as exchange format in databases, graphics and
multimedia applications in sectors ranging from industry,
over business and administration, to education and
academic research.
Problems addressed
For all the developments in XML since 1998, one thing that has not changed is the understanding of XML documents as serializations of tree structures
conforming to the constraints expressed in the document’s
DTD (Document Type Definition) or some form of schema. This seems very natural, and on our analysis the tight
integration of linear form (notation), data structure and constraint language is one important key to XML’s
success.
Notwithstanding XML’s many strengths, there are problem
areas which invite further research on some of the
fundamental assumptions of XML and the document models associated with it. XML strongly emphasizes
and encourages a hierarchical document model, which can be validated using a context-free grammar (or
other grammars that encourage a constituent structure
interpretation, like context sensitive and regular grammars).
Consequently, it is a challenge to represent in XML
anything that does not easily lend itself to representation
by context-free or constituent structure grammars, such as overlapping or fragmented elements, and multiple co-existing complete or partial alternative structures or orderings. For the purpose of our work, we call such structures complex structures, and we call documents containing such structures complex documents.
Complex structures are ubiquitous in traditional
documents — in printed as well as in manuscript sources.
Common examples are associated with the physical
organization of the document and the compositional
structure of the text, in other words, such things as
pages, columns and lines on the one hand, and chapters,
sections and sentences on the other. Sentences and direct speech tend to overlap in prose, verse lines and sentences in poetry, speeches and various other phenomena in drama. Complex structures occur frequently also in databases, computer games, hypertext and computer-based literature.
In the last few years problems pertaining to complex structures have received increasing attention, resulting in proposals for
- conventions for tagging complex structures by existing
notations, by extending such notations, or by
designing entirely new notations;
- alternative data structures;
- explications of the semantic relationships cued by markup in a form that is more easily machine-
processable.
The MLCD (Markup Languages for Complex Documents) project aims to integrate such alternative approaches by developing both an alternative notation, a data structure and a constraint language which as far as possible is compatible with and retains the strengths of XML-based markup, yet solves the problems with representation and processing of complex structures.
MLCD started in 2001 and is expected to complete its work in 2007. The project is a collaboration between a group of researchers based at several different institutions. The remainder of this paper presents an interim report from the project
Data Structure
One of the early achievements of MLCD was the specification of the GODDAG (Generalized
Ordered-Descendant Directed Acyclic Graph) structure.
It was originally based on the realization that overlap
(which was the first kind of complex structure we
considered) can be represented simply as multiple
parentage.
A GODDAG is a directed acyclic graph in which each node is either a leaf node, labeled with a character string, or a nonterminal node, labeled with a generic identifier.
Directed arcs connect nonterminal nodes with each other and with leaf nodes. No node dominates another node both directly and indirectly, but any node may be
dominated by any number of other nodes.
We distinguish a restricted and a generalized form of GODDAG. Conventional XML trees satisfy the
requirements of generalized as well as restricted GODDAGs.
In addition, restricted GODDAGs lend themselves to
representation of documents with concurrent hierarchies
or arbitrarily overlapping elements, whereas generalized GODDAGs also allow for a convenient representation of documents with multiple roots, with alternate orderings, and discontinuous or fragmented elements.
The similarities between trees and GODDAGs allow
similar methods of interpreting the meaning of markup:
properties can be inherited from a parent, overridden by a descendant, and so on. There is some chance for conflict and confusion, since with multiple parents, it is possible that different parents have different and
incompatible properties.
Recent work has revealed a weakness in the current
specification of GODDAG, which leads to problems with
the representation of discontinuous elements. In the full version of this paper we will present the results of our work towards a solution to these problems.
Notation
It is always possible to construct GODDAGs from XML documents. In the general case, they will be trees, which are subsets of GODDAGs. It is also possible to construct GODDAGs from the various mechanisms customarily used in order to represent complex structures
in XML. However, these mechanisms depend on
application-specific processing and vocabularies, and tend to be cumbersome.
Thus, one may either try to establish standards for the
representation of complex structures in XML, or provide
an alternative notation which lends itself to a more straightforward representation of complex structures. We believe that these options are complimentary, and that both should be pursued.
Thus, we have defined an alternative notation to XML, TexMECS. The basic principles of its design are:
- For documents that exhibit a straightforward
hierarchical structure, TexMECS is isomorphic to XML.
- Every TexMECS document is translatable into a GODDAG structure without application-specific processing.
- Every GODDAG structure is representable as a
TexMECS document.
A particular advantage of TexMECS is a simple and straightforward notation for what we have called
complex structures.
We also plan to design algorithms for translating widely recognized XML conventions for representation of complex structures into GODDAGs, and vice versa. In the full version of this paper we will report on our latest work in this area.
Constraint Language
One of the most important remaining tasks for the MLCD project is the identification of a constraint mechanism which relates to GODDAGs as naturally as constituent structure grammars relate to trees, which constitute a subset of GODDAGs. Constraint languages for XML documents exist in the form of XML DTDs, XML Schema, Relax NG and others. These methods invariably define context-free grammars allowing the representation of XML documents in the form of parse trees. However, since GODDAG structures are directed
acyclic graphs more general than trees, they cannot
easily be identified with parse trees based on context-free grammars.
Several possible ways forward exist and remain to be
explored. MLCD has decided to focus on two approaches,
one grammar-based and one predicate-based.
The grammar-based approach starts from the observation that GODDAGs can be projected into sets of tangled
trees. One way to achieve at least partial validation of complex documents, therefore, is to write grammars for each such tree and validate each projection against the appropriate grammar. Each such grammar will treat
some start- and end-tags in the usual way as brackets
surrounding structural units, but treat other start- and
end-tags as if they were empty elements. This allows some
measure of control over the interaction and overlapping of specific elements in different grammars; whether it provides enough control remains to be explored.
Another approach to validation is to abandon the notion of document grammars, and regard validation simply as the establishment of some set of useful invariants. A schema then takes the form of a set of predicates; the document is valid if and only if all of the required
predicates are true in that document. In the XML context, this approach is represented by Schematron. It is clear that it can also be applied to documents with complex structures, if the language used to formulate the required predicates is extended appropriately.
In the full version of this paper we will report on our attempts to pursue each of these two approaches.
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html>, 2001.
Huitfeldt, C. (2003) “Scholarly Text Processing
and Future Markup Systems” in Georg Braungart,
Karl Eibl, Fotis Jannidis (eds.): Jahrbuch für
Computerphilologie 5 (2003), Paderborn: mentis Verlag 2003, pp. 217-233. Available on the Web at <http://computerphilologie.uni-muenchen.de/jg03/huitfeldt.html>
Jaakkola, J. and Kilpeläinen, P. (1998) Sgrep home page, 1998. Available on the Web at <http://www.cs.helsinki.fi/u/jjaakkol/sgrep.html>.
Jagadish, H. V.; Laks V. S.; , Scannapieco, M.;
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Colorful XML: One hierarchy isn’t enough. In
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conference on management of data, Paris, New York, 2004. Association for Computing Machinery Special Interest Group on Management of Data, ACM Press
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A. (2000) “Meaning and interpretation of
markup”. Markup Languages: Theory and Practice 2, 3 (2000), 215–234.
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Web at <http://www.mulberrytech.com/Extreme /Proceedings/html/2004/Witt01 /EML2004Witt01.html>.","txt","2","",""
"596","7","Semantic Timeline Tools for History and Criticism","1","New concepts in the visualization of time-based
events are introduced and applied to the fields
of historiography and criticism. These techniques
(perpendicular timelines, dynamic confidence links, and time-slice relationship diagrams) extend the semantic power of timelines so that they can show the development of complex concepts and interpretations of underlying events. An interactive software tool called “TimeVis” illustrates these techniques with both 2D and 3D views.
History is a referent discipline. Later events build on earlier events, though in unpredictable and complicated
ways. Historiography and literary criticism are the
histories of accumulated comments on a subject. The
underlying history and literature (the “base events”)
occur in one era, and commentary and subsequent events
(“secondary events”) are added later. However,
commentary is not made in the same order as the base events; scholars might spend decades analyzing a
writer’s later works, and subsequently change emphasis to her earlier works.
Visualizing such referent-based relationships through
time is very difficult with a single, conventional
timeline. The concept of stacked timelines of different eras [Jen03] was introduced to align commentary and consequent events with their referents (Figure 1). This is useful when secondary events are evenly distributed, but less useful when they are concentrated on subsets of the base events. Crossing lines are difficult to interpret, and important early events can end up leading to a forest of arrows. What is more, the x-axes of the two timelines have no relation to each other. This lack of relation is in fact the cause of the criss-crossing lines.
This paper describes three new timeline techniques
that can be applied to the study of history, criticism, and other fields with a temporal or referent component. Each technique serves a different research need. Figure 1. Stacked semantic timeline shows
references to earlier timespans.
Techniques
“Perpendicular timelines” are like stacked timelines, but with the second turned 90 degrees, and a second dimension
added (Figure 2). The added dimension is the time
dimension of the first timeline. This means that secondary
events can be visually grouped by the base events that they refer to, yet also be ordered by their own time. In effect, perpendicular timelines allow each original event or topic to spin off its own timeline of commentary and follow-up, arranged perpendicular to the base events.
Figure 2. Perpendicular timeline shows subsequent development of older events.
“Dynamic confidence links” build on perpendicular
timelines, and provide interactive feedback. Each timeline within TimeVis can have one or more “time slices”, which are markers indicating the current point of interest in that timeline (Figure 3).
Figure 3. “Dynamic confidence links” are illuminated
as the focus in the secondary timeline is shifted (via
a slice marker), highlighting revelations of older events.
As we move the current time slice marker in the secondary
timeline, we are focusing on “what we knew at time t about the events in the base timeline”. As those
secondary events occurred in the real world, it changed our interpretation and understanding of the base events. (For example, when Boswell’s papers, thought to be lost, were discovered in the early 20th Century, they revealed details of his life that were formerly hidden.) These changed interpretations and understandings can be represented by gray event or concept markers in the base line, connected
to the revelatory events of the secondary timeline by gray
lines. When the current time slice marker passes a secondary event, its lines and the base events to which it connects can turn from gray to black, indicating that this was the time at which those facts or interpretations became more plausible. That is, the tool dynamically indicates our
confidence in different claims, as a function of time.
(Note that the inverse applies as well. If secondary events tend to reduce our confidence in earlier interpretations, those revelations can cause the base events to turn gray.)
Perpendicular timelines, and the dynamic confidence links they enable, can also be extended from two dimensions to three dimensions (Figure 4). Just as the move from one simple timeline to perpendicular timelines frees the secondary events to be organized both by topic and by time, the extension of perpendicular timelines into an as well as two other criteria.
Figure 4. 3D timeline, with two slice markers showing
time-slice relationship diagrams. This illustrates
the growing importance of the green actor
as we compare time T1 to time T2.
Both the base timeline (now a 3D timeline space) and the secondary timeline (also a 3D timeline space) have more flexibility. Rather than use strict definitions for the two free axes in the base 3D space, they can act as a 2D
surface for organizing the time-oriented topic/subject bars. By shuffling the time-oriented bars around, the links between them can become more understandable. This is similar to the behavior of force-directed 2D network
graph tools such as Visual Thesaurus.
The secondary 3D space can now be organized with one axis for its own events’ time, another axis for theme or subject, and the third axis for actor. This allows us to
illustrate concepts such as “who knew what when?”
“Time-slice relationship diagrams” show how different actors are related to each other at the time pointed to by the current time slice marker. If events are organized around the concept of actors, and laid out in a 3D space,
then a 2D time slice through the 3D space can show a relationship diagram, indicating the “small world”
connections from one actor to another. The diagram is
equivalent to looking down the time axis of the 3D space, backwards in time, with older connections appearing
distant (and thinner) and newer connections appearing large. As the current time slice marker is moved through
time, the user can see relationships forming and
decaying.
Applications
TimeVis is being used to visualize controversies and
cover-ups in history, including Watergate and the Dreyfus
Affair. It is being used to investigate the historiographical record of acceptance of Vertot’s Roman Revolutions (1719), and the literary response, over the centuries, to Boswell’s writings. Those studies should conclude shortly, and while no scholarly breakthroughs are to be expected, what should emerge is a set of visualizations (diagrams, videos, and data files) of use to students and researchers who seek to capture the big picture of such topics that stretch out over time.
References
Akaishi, M. & Okada, Y. (2004), “Time-tunnel: Visual Analysis Tool for Time-series Numerical Data and Its Aspects as Multimedia Presentation Tool”, Proc. of the Eighth International Conference on Information Visualization (IV’04).
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Staley, D. (2002), “Computers, Visualization, and
History”, AHC Book Series, Sharpe, M.e.
Staley, D. (2000), “Historical Visualizations”, Journal of the Association of History and Computing, Vol. III, No. 3, http://mcel.pacificu.edu/JAHC/JAHCIII3/
P-REVIEWS/StaleyIII3.HTML .
Tufte, E.R. (2001), “The Visual Display of Quantitative Information”, Graphics Press, p.28.
Tominski, C., et al (2005), “3D Axes-Based Visualizations for Time Series Data”, Proc. of the Ninth International Conference on Information Visualization (IV’05).","txt","2","",""
"597","7","The Inhibition of Geographical Information in Digital Humanities Scholarship","1","Introduction
Information about place is an essential part of the study of the humanities. People live, events occur, and artefacts are produced by human hand at specific geographical locations and much of what people do is spatially determined or leaves spatial signatures. In
order to gain insight into human activity, past and present,
the influences of geography must be taken into account. Digital scholarship makes powerful new methodologies freely available at relatively low cost. However, the new research opportunities offered by spatial and spatial-temporal data remain relatively unexplored. This paper examines the reasons for this and discusses possible ways forward for the community.
GIS methodology is much more than digital cartography, it gives the researcher the ability to analyse and display data in a variety of maps, networks or hierarchy trees. The need to represent and model time is leading humanities scholars to experiment with the emerging methodologies of dynamic mapping, an approach that was impossible before the advent of digital scholarship.
There are many ways that methods and tools for
structuring, visualising and analysing space, spatial behaviour
and spatial change can benefit humanities research. It is over fifteen years since GIS software with reasonable functionality became available in a PC environment at a relatively low cost. Despite this the use of geographical information in digital scholarship by humanists has been poor. This paper will explore some of this potential but, possibly more importantly, it will also examine why that potential continues to be ignored by many. The author believes there are many reasons, some reflect weaknesses in the methodology and current technologies but possibly the most significant concern our scholarly institutions.
The Developing Role of Geographic
information Systems in Humanities
research
The use of geographical information in digital
humanities research has passed through a sequence
of phases of development. Initially the technology was used to replicate pre-existing methodologies and styles
of work as in projects such as the Atlas of Mortality
in Victorian Britain (Woods and Shelton, 1997). This printed publication used largely standard graphs and
cartographic representations to produce an atlas of patterns
of health and death in Victorian England and Wales. Later
the new methodologies made available by GIS methodology were applied to a variety of new areas for example, the use of 3D digital elevation models to explore the effect that terrain, specifically the gradient required for railway
lines, influenced the development of railways in
Victorian Britain. Other examples include the dynamic maps used in the Valley of the Shadow and Salem Witch Trial projects. The boundaries of the more rigorously quantitative methods are also being pushed back as the use of 3D and 4D work is explored.
So far the majority of the humanities research performed
with GIS has been largely quantitative in nature, but
recently there has been increased interest in the use of
geographical information for more qualitative work. A number of examples of this style of work can be seen in the Perseus Digital Library, for example the Edwin C Bolles Collection and Boyle Papers. These projects make
use of traditional map materials and geographical
information in a variety of ways. The Perseus project itself links a number of different digital libraries using geographical information as an integration tool. This work covers a broad range of activities which links texts, images and numerical data to the places they describe on interactive maps to produce an immersive learning
environments.
Geographical information also has immense
potential both for research and the delivery of information.
It provides an unambiguous method for indexing and searching of information. Recent work on map based front-ends to text and image collections has resulted in source discovery tools that are more intuitive and less culturally specific than traditional textual indexing.
Factors Inhibiting the use of Geographical Information in the Digital Humanities
It is clear that geographical information has immense
potential both for research and the delivery of
information. It provides an unambiguous method for
indexing and searching of information offering the ability
to build source discovery tools that are more intuitive
and less culturally specific that traditional textual
indexing. Despite this it has had little effect in the digital
humanities.
There area number of limiting factors which need to be addressed
Existing Methodologies: Current GIS methodology is rooted deeply in the origins of the software in the earth sciences. The traditions of rich data sources led to the development of software that is ill-equipped to cope with the sparse and fuzzy data of humanities scholarship. We need to consider how to represent the complexities of the subjects of humanities research visually. What does it mean to think spatially and how do we represent the complex phenomena at work in the humanities visually?
Current GIS software has very limited facilities for
the handling of time and even these are based on the scientist’s view of time as being derived from the
phenomenon under study. Humanists require a view of time
that is determinative and that can work at different rates and scales moving backwards as well as forwards on a continuous scale.
Humanities Data: Methodologies must be found for
tackling issues such sparseness, fuzziness and ambiguity but
there are many other broader issues concerning data. The number of digital datasets is growing rapidly and these are often of interest to researchers in fields other than the often highly specialised one that the data was originally derived for but how does one locate them? There is a need for a central archive and a metadata schema that would allow these resources to be discovered. Archivists
could provide a community hub for encouraging and
implementing the use of spatial content into their retrieval models thus providing a further means of linking
different items of evidence.
Research Practice: Ambitious work with GIS requires
a high level of expertise and has a high threshold of
usability. The most effective way of facilitating this style of work is through collaboration with researchers and
practitioners having backgrounds in fields such as geography,
history, information science, computer science, graphic
design, and so on. This marks a move away from
scholars working independently to a model that necessitates
team working which in turn raises further problems. The teams required for this style of collaborative work will be composed of people with very different backgrounds and credentials. There is a strong need to transmit research
traditions between disciplines which may have very
different agendas and ways of working. There also many
issues concerning how the contributions of each
member of the team can be acknowledged. For
example, for those whose technical work requires
considerable expert knowledge far beyond ‘technical
support’ but is fundamentally different from the
traditional academic content of the journals and review boards where the published works will be assessed in
research assessment exercises such those in the UK. It also raises the issue of how best to prepare students for work in an interdisciplinary team after graduation.
Scholarly Institutions: This innovative style of work is often seen as ‘dangerous’ and can be seen as posing a career risk for new academics working in environments where successful research assessment is critical. There
are limited opportunities for publishing the work and
because there are relatively few people with relevant
experience at the top of the profession there can be problems
with peer review. An additional problem is that projects requiring GIS are often very large and require sustained funding. They also frequently produce resources that will need to be maintained after the completion of the original
project. These two funding requirements can pose
problems in current research and funding environments.
Scholarly Perception of Geographical Information Science and visualisation: In order to encourage the greater use of geographical information we need a clear statement of the advantages of GIS, and spatial information generally, expressed in terms of research outcomes. This should be supported by a set of exemplar projects and be made available through a ‘one stop’ source of information. Such a resource could also encourage creative thinking about geographical information and how it can be used
in original ways. The fact that humanists are used
to working primarily with textual sources may be an
inhibiting factor. Many claims are made for the value of GIS as a visualisation tool but it may be that some training is needed in thinking visually and, importantly, the interpretation of the results of visualisation. There could also be more fundamental issues concerning the status and function of images, especially those used
for visualization, in humanities scholarship. A similar
situation exists with spatial thinking too.
Conclusions
Although we are used to the idea of GIS as a positivist tool its big contribution to the humanities may be as a reflexive one. It can be used to integrate multiple perspectives of the past allowing them to be visualised at various scales. Ultimately it could create a dynamic
representation of time and place within culture. This
abstract has introduced some of the many factors that are
currently limiting the use of geographical information in humanities teaching and research, the final paper will discuss these in more detail and suggest some immediate solutions. The greater use of geographical information could allow us to experience a view of the past that is highly experiential, providing a fusion of qualitative and quantitative information that could be accessed by both naive and knowledgeable alike.
References
Gregory, I., Kemp, K.K., and Mostern, R., 2003.
Geographical Information and Historical Research:
Current Progress and Future directions, Humanities and Computing 13:7-22
Jessop, Martyn (2005). The Application of a Geographical Information System to the Creation of a Cultural Heritage Digital Resource. Literary & Linguistic Computing Volume 20 number 1:71-90.
Langren, G., 1992. Time in Geographic Information Systems, Taylor and Francis, London and Washington.
Smith, D. M., Crane, G., and Rydberg-Cox, 2000. The Perseus Project: A Digital Library for the Humanities,
Literary and Linguistic Computing, 15 (2000),
15-25
Woods, R and Shelton, N., 1997. An Atlas of Victorian Mortality, Liverpool.","txt","2","",""
"598","7","The SHSSERI Collaborative KnowledgeSpace : a New Approach to Resource Fragmentation and Information Overload","1","Humanities scholars today are faced with information overload created by the explosive growth of resources
and services on the web, by globalised instant
communication and by the spawning of new personal and intellectual networks outside the confines of discipline and geography. The pace and scale of developments is both exciting and challenging, necessitating the adoption
of new strategies which capitalize on the potential of
digital methods.
The issues
The explosion in information has not been matched by developments in the conceptual framework and
tools we use to manage information, by availability of
digital infrastructure or by the widespread adoption of new methods (other than the basic generic tools of email, wordprocessing and web browsing). Where we have adopted digital tools it is often within existing structures – faster communication, easier preparation of publications, easier access to library catalogues and content – rather
than in novel approaches to research, teaching or
collaboration. Uptake of digital methods in the Humanities
is hindered by lack of funding for infrastructure
development, by the richness and heterogeneity of our domain, by the lack of agreed methods and classificatory
systems and by our relatively slow adoption of
technology.
If we are to overcome the problems of information
overload we must develop – with very limited resources
– e-Research infrastructure and tools which support
and enable our tradition of individual scholarship and
interpretation, rather than the method- and data-driven tools of the sciences (or commerce). Our tools must
reflect the needs of Humanities scholars – low entry
barriers and intuitive structures which reflect the richness and complexity of domain practices. While technologically literate scholars will continue to build or adopt tools and find new ways to use them, how do we enable the rest of the discipline to understand and leverage their potential? The critical need is to develop and propagate authoritative information on Digital Humanities methods repackaged
in a form digestible by less technologically-oriented
Humanities scholars. We need to get the message out.
SHSSERI Collaborative Knowledge Space
The Sydney Humanities and Social Sciences
e-Research Initiative (SHSSERI) is a project to
develop e-Research tools and information which reflect
the needs of Humanities (and Social Sciences) scholars,
particularly tools and which move beyond the mere
collection and delivery of digital information into active
engagement with research methods and the structure of academic communities. Our aim is to provide a resource which becomes a ‘must-have’ by providing a single point of access to scattered resources, tools to manage those resources and authoritative information which shortcuts the process of adopting digital tools (and increases the chances of success). Building on existing work at the University of Sydney and using Open Source software,
we are developing a one-stop-shop – the SHSSERI
Collaborative KnowledgeSpace (CKS) - to support the information, communication, data management, analysis and archiving needs of Humanities and Social Sciences researchers.
In developing the SHSSERI CKS we have identified as our highest priority the management of basic research
information (references, bookmarks and notes) and access
to authoritative information about the practice and potential of the Digital Humanities. A key focus is the integration
of resources. Most researchers store bibliographic
references, internet bookmarks and research notes in
separate systems (eg. EndNote, Firefox and a Blogg –
or on paper). Their CV may be in Word, research
observations in Access, research expenditure and grad student details in Excel, email in Outlook, travel
arrangements in a corporate system, … the list goes on. Our resources are all too often tied to the desktop of a specific computer, scattered, fragmented, unfindable,
inconsistent, redundant, unlinkable and insecure. We work
inefficiently, waste time and effort, and stress out trying
to manage these disparate, inconsistent resources.
TMBookmarker
The TMBookmarker application (name undecided) tackles the management of bibliographic references,
internet bookmarks and note-taking, as well as access to authoritative sources of information on the Digital
Humanities. TMBookmarker is a web-accessible
knowledgebase which will handle conventional
bibliographic information, internet bookmarks and note-taking in a single integrated database. It aims to replace all these forms of machine-specific or special-purpose referencing with a single, integrated searchable database available anywhere one has access to the Internet – from University desk to Internet café in Khatmandu.
In addition to providing consistent anywhere-access and capture/annotation of notes, bookmarks and bibliographic references, the database will generate selective lists for inclusion in web sites, course readings or bibliographies,
and allow keywords and annotation to be attached
to any resource. It aims to reduce a multiplicity of
special-purpose programs, information folders, bloggs, bookmark lists and hand-built web pages to a single, easily understood, web-accessible resource. It will open new avenues of possibility for those who have not
ventured into the blogosphere, mastered EndNote or
managed to migrate their bookmarks from one machine to the next.
Social bookmarking
TMBookmarker also implements concepts of
social bookmarking using a structure we are calling
a databliki (database + blogg + wiki). We allow users to discover and share bookmarks/references through the database, while attaching their own personal notes and classifications to them. We provide wiki-based and blogg-based public editing and annotation of references,
allowing the community of scholars to participate in
expansion and refinement of the reference database, and the development of additional knowledge around the core resource. By mining the database we can identify patterns
of bookmarking and knowledge development which link people with similar interests and use the patterns to
provide relevancy-based searches of the database. Unlike generic social bookmarking systems such as del.icio.us or CiteULike, the SHSSERI CKS identifies users by name and institution. This provides a mechanism for identifying colleagues with similar interests and the
serendipitous discovery of relevant references through folksonomic tagging tied to specific communities of users. We aim to provide improved folksonomy-based searches by calculating co-occurrence of tags across the database, independent of their actual text values, and using these
correlations in combination with user ratings against
specific user-defined groups of colleagues and subject domains to generate targeted relevancy measures.
TMBookmarker has many smarts such as instant web bookmarking, automatic DOI identification and lookup, reference import/export from common systems, RSS feeds, saved custom searches, custom list generation and wiki-style change tracking. It has been in use by a test group since Nov 2005 and should be ready for general release by second quarter 2006. It is written in php and MySQL. We intend to release the code as Open Source.
In this presentation I will explore the basic concepts of managing information through a collaborative reference/bookmark/annotation system rather than a conventional desktop reference management system. I will focus on the benefits of integrated access to information in a single
database, and the advantages of social bookmarking in
an academic referencing system, compared with less structured systems such as del.icio.us or CiteULike. I will also compare the social bookmarking methods developed with those of other academic referencing systems, such as Connotea, and present preliminary results on defining communities of interest through database mining. I will conclude with observations on the relationship between
social bookmarking and peer-review methods in
establishing relevancy and value of published resources.","txt","2","",""
"599","7","Killer Applications in Digital Humanities","1","The field of “Digital Humanities” has been plagued by a perceived neglect on the part of the broader humanities community. The community as a whole tends not to be aware of the tools developed by HC practitioners (as documented by the recent surveys by Siemens et al.),
and tends not to take seriously many of the results of scholarship obtained by HC methods and tools. This
problem has been noticed recently by a number of groups
focusing on issues regarding humanities tools, most
notably the Text Analysis Developers Alliance (Text
Analysis Summit, May 9-11, 2005 at McMasters
University) and IATH (Summit on Digital Tools for the Humanities, September 28-30, 2005, at the University of Virginia).
One possible reason for this apparent neglect is a
mismatch of expectations between the expected needs of audience (market) for the tools and the community’s
actual needs. A recent paper by Gibson on the development
of an electronic scholarly edition of _Clotel_ may
illustrate this. The edition itself is a technical masterpiece,
offering, among other things, the ability to compare
passages among the various editions and even to track word-by-word changes. However, it is not clear who among Clotel scholars will be interested in using this capacity or this edition; many scholars are happy with their print copies and the capacities print grants (such as scribbling in the margins or reading on a park bench). Furthermore, the nature of the Clotel edition does not lend itself well either to application to other areas or to further extension. It is essentially a service offered to the broader research community in the hope that it will be used, and runs a great risk of becoming simply yet
another tool developed by the DH specialists to be ignored.
Matthew Jockers has observed that much of the focus in humanities computing is on “methodologies, not
results.” (Bradley, 2005). This paper argues for a focus on deliverable results in the form of useful solutions to genuine problems, instead of simply new representations.
The wider question to address, then, is what needs the humanities community has that can be dealt with using HC tools and techniques, or equivalently what incentive humanists have to take up and to use new methods. This can be treated in some respects like the computational
quest for the “killer application” -- a need of the user group that can be filled, and by filling it, create an acceptance
of that tool and the supporting methods/results. For
example, MS-Word and similar software has revolutionized
writing, even for non-specialists, to the same degree that Email has revolutionized communication and the World Wide Web has revolutionized publication. They have not only empowered non-specialists to do more, but also created inspiring opportunities for further secondary
research in extending the capabilities of these software tools. Digital Humanities needs a “killer application” -- a Great Problem that can both empower and inspire.
Three properties appear to characterize such Great
Problems. First, the problem itself must be real, in the sense that other humanists (or the public at large) should be interested in the fruits of its solution. Second, the
problem must be interesting, in the sense that the solution
is not obvious and the process of solving it will add
materially to human knowledge. Third, the problem itself
must be such that even a partial solution or an incremental improvement will be useful and/or interesting.
As a historical example of such a Problem (and the
development of a solution), consider the issue of resource
discovery. With the advent of the Web, billions of resources are now broadly available, but no one knows how to find
them. Traditional solutions (journal publications, citation indices, etc.) are no longer adequate as publication can happen through informal channels. Google provides
a partial solution to this problem by automatically
searching and indexing “the Web,” specifically to solve the general problem of finding stuff. At the same time, its algorithms are demonstrably inadequate both in terms of accuracy and in what it can search, leaving much room for incremental development -- but the partial solution that exists has still revolutionized scholarship, and created
a huge economic opportunity precisely to extend and
improve the solution.
To the three criteria above can thus be added an additional, more political aspect of any proposed “killer app.” Any proposed application should be extremely user-friendly, possibly even at the expense of complete generality -- the Perfect should not be the enemy of the Good, especially if the Perfect system is unusably general.
I have argued elsewhere that a possible candidate
for such a killer app would be authorship attribution: determining who (if anyone) from a candidate pool of authors wrote a particular document under discussion. This question is obviously of interest, for example, to scholars who wish either to validate a disputed authorship,
or for authors wishing to investigate if a document of
unknown authorship (say, an unsigned political pamphlet)
can be assigned to a known author (and help illuminate
some political views). Less obviously, “questioned
documents” are often extremely important in a legal and
forensic environment -- but traditional forensic analysis, such as handwriting, cannot address questions about (e.g.) born-digital documents, transcriptions, purported copies, and so forth. At the same time, enough papers have been published recently to demonstrate a strong interest in the problem from a humanities standpoint -- and even an analysis that is not strong enough to be conclusive prove can still suggest lines and approaches for further investigation and scholarship.
Another candidate that has been argued elsewhere is automatic back-of-the-book indexing. A third, discussed
at the recent IATH summit, is an automatic tool for
annotating fully-electronic multimedia documents. These
are difficult problems, and a full solution will involve (and illuminate) many subtle aspects of human cognition
and of the writing process. At the same time, other
scholars will be grateful for the results -- on the one hand, by relieving them of the difficult and expensive burden of generating indices for their own works, and on the other by supporting them in the ability to read and
annotate electronic documents in the way they traditionally
interact with paper.
It would be to the overall benefit to the DH community to
focus at least some effort and resources on the identification
and solution of such Great Problems and on the
development of such killer apps. The apparent alternative is the status quo, where digital research tools are brilliantly developed, only to languish in neglected disuse by the larger community.","txt","2","",""
"600","7","Novel Tools for Creating and Visualizing Metadata for Digital Movie Retrieval","1","Most of the video information retrieval systems today
rely on some set of computationally extracted
video and/or audio features, which may be complemented
with manually created annotation that is usually either arduous to create or significantly impaired at capturing the content. In this research we set out not only to find the computational features relevant to movies, but also
to investigate how much information could be semi-
automatically extracted from the production documentation
created during the actual production stages a film goes through. It was our hypothesis that this documentation, which has been carefully created for the realization of a movie, would prove highly useful as a source of metadata describing the finished movie.
This paper presents research done at the MediaTeam Oulu research group [1] on identifying and structuring
the key metadata descriptors applicable to motion
picture content analysis and use of motion picture content in video-on-demand applications. The underlying research
includes a study of the concepts involved in narrative structure and a series of empirical viewer tests through which a key set of metadata describing the content and structure of motion picture material was identified. Parts of this research were conducted in co-operation with the Department of Finnish, Information Studies and Logopedics at the University of Oulu [2].
First, established theories and concepts of narration were utilized to examine how movies are structured and what mechanisms are used to package and convey information to the viewer. Studying the formalisms and conventions governing film scripts and screenplays, we attempted to identify and characterize the key elements in movies, e.g. characters, actions and various types of plot points [3]. In addition to these primary elements, we also looked at supporting elements [4], i.e. the kinds of production-related techniques and instruments the filmmakers use in trying to guide the viewer’s attention throughout a
movie. We found that, for example, editing rhythm and various changes or events in the audiovisual composition
of a movie are among the most frequently utilized
instruments for highlighting certain sections of a movie where the user should pay more (or less) attention. Our goal in studying these conventions and story-telling instruments
was to first understand the domain of the filmmaker - his intended form and function for a movie - before looking at what actions or reactions the movie causes on the part of the viewer.
Secondly, a series of tests using short clips, trailers and an entire movie was carried out in order to investigate
how people perceive and process movies [5].
Questionnaires and interviews provided information on what kinds of things viewers notice and how they later
describe what they have seen. This information was used to
arrive at a key set of metadata that models movies using the same concepts as viewers do in describing them. It was then our task to match these concepts to the
instruments used by the filmmakers, in order to find a metadata model that is both usable and feasible to create through a semi-automatic process from what is offered by the movie. Furthermore, the model thus constructed was designed hierarchical in order to facilitate dynamic control over the level of detail in any given metadata
category, thereby enabling, for example, the smart
summarization of movies on multiple levels. This metadata
model then became the starting point for the design of the actual browser that an end-user would utilize in
navigating and searching movies.
The next step was to identify the main sources for
obtaining this metadata and the best methods for
obtaining it. In studying the movie production stages and
the documentation relating to each stage, we found that the final script and storyboards, as well as the audio and video tracks of the finished movie were the most
interesting and also most practical sources. A
comprehensive suite of both automatic and semi-
automatic tools for processing these documents and media
objects was developed in order to extract the necessary features and information, such as the participants in any given scene, the speakers and the level of interaction between them, motion activity detected on the video track and a wide range of sound properties extracted from the audio track. These tools included a ScriptTagger,
StoryLinker, Scene Hierarchy Editor and a management tool for the underlying database.
The ScriptTagger is a tool which takes in the raw text of the script and turns it automatically into a structured
XML document, which can then be further refined
semi-automatically to facilitate the tagging of more
advanced features. The StoryLinker is a tool used to bring
together the script, the storyboards and the video and audio tracks of the movie itself to form individual
scenes, where all of the above are linked. The Scene Hierarchy Editor is a semi-automatic tool for grouping together individual scenes using the model constructed on the basis of narrative structure and viewer tests, thus
constructing a hierarchical description of the movie. In addition to these, a number of tools were used to
extract the audio and video features. A management tool
was used to combine the output produced by all the tools above to construct a uniform database.
Ultimately, a prototype of a content-based browser for accessing movies using the metadata model and specialized
feature visualization was developed. The implemented browser prototype is a multimodal, content-based retrieval
system that enables a wide range of searches based on
the hierarchical metadata. This prototype offers users
customized views into a movie using user-selectable criteria.
The main view offered by the prototype is a navigable hierarchical map of the movie, where the user-selected features are visualized as navigation aids. Users can then move from a higher level down to increasingly detailed descriptions of the movie, i.e. from acts to segments and ultimately to scenes, enabling them to navigate their way down to a particular sequence, ultimately allowing cross comparison of similar sequences in other movies in the database. Alternatively, users may progress through a
selected movie on some chosen level of detail, thus
enabling them to see the structure of the movie based on the criteria they have chosen. The criteria can be changed on any level or at any point while browsing, i.e. features can be added or removed, as the user sees fit based on how well the features are applicable to the material on any given level and how well they answer the overall search needs of the user. The browser can visualize any new features as long as those features are submitted into the system in the correct format.
The browser and its associated metadata creation tools have numerous applications ranging from, for example,
commercial video-on-demand applications for both
consumers and media publishing houses to more research
oriented ones, such as analysis tools not only for film
studies but indeed also for linguistic research into dramatic
content, for example of movies and television series. The system could, for example, be used to find certain kinds of conversations or sequences of interest based on their
content, structure or audiovisual makeup. The tool is
suitable for incorporating non-linguistic information into linguistic information, which has various applications when studying multimodal content, for example in the
investigation of expressions of stance, where paralinguistic
features complement the linguistic realization of attitude and emotion.
The ideas developed and lessons learned from the
construction of these tools and browser will also be
applied to a new electronic framework for the collection,
management, online display, and exploitation of
corpora, which is being developed within the LICHEN project (The Linguistic and Cultural Heritage Electronic Network) [6].
[1] MediaTeam Oulu research group, http://www. mediateam.oulu.fi/?lang=en
[2] Department of Finnish, Information Studies and Logopedics, University of Oulu, http://www.oulu.fi/silo/
[3] Field S. Screenplay – The Foundations of Screenwriting. Dell Publishing. 1994.
[4] Adams B. Mapping the Semantic Landscape of Film: Computational Extraction of Indices through Film Grammar. Curtin University of Technology Ph.D. Thesis, 2003.
[5] Lilja J, Juuso I, Kortelainen T, Seppänen T, Suominen V. Mitä katsoja kertoo elokuvasta – elokuvan sisäisten
elementtien tunnistaminen ja sisällönkuvailu.
Informaatiotutkimus 23. 2004.
[6] Opas-Hänninen LL, Seppänen T, Juuso I, Hosio M, Marjomaa I, Anderson J. The LInguistic and Cultural
Electronic Network (LICHEN): Digitizing and disseminating
linguistic data for research and enhancement of the future of minority languages. Second International Conference
on Arctic Research Planning (ICARP II), November
10-12, 2005, Copenhagen, Denmark.","txt","2","",""
"601","7","Cybercultural Capital: ASCII's Preservation of the Digital Underground","1","In my conference presentation, “Cybercultural Capital: ASCII’s Preservation of the Digital Underground,”
I will examine independent electronic magazines
published in the American Standard Code for Information
Interchange, between the years of 1984 and 1993. This period begins with the emergence of the first organized ASCII magazines and ends with the creation of Mosaic, the WWW browser that incorporated HTML and put an end to ASCII’s reign as the most widely-used electronic file-type. This nine-year span saw the creation of many independent ASCII magazines, 288 of which can still be accessed through the textfiles.com archives, currently
storing over ten thousand issues from the era. These
magazines include fiction, poetry, articles, and a plethora of subversive technical manuals on topics such as hacking,
virii, and sabotage. Just as Russian Samizdat publishers attempted to undermine the hegemony of the Soviet state through subversive literature, ASCII publishers of North America attempted to undermine Corporate hegemony. In my presentation, I will examine the ruling ethos in ASCII literature, considering cybercultural resistance to corporate paradigms, the cultural need for cyberwriters, and the influence of hacking, sabotage, and computer
culture on ASCII fiction and poetry. In an age
before the World Wide Web, ASCII text files were a powerful medium for independent publishing, offering disenfranchised suburban cyberpunks easy access to the means of textual production and distribution. While
thousands of ASCII texts are currently archived on
websites like etext.org and textfiles.com, these websites are maintained by amateurs with no formal training as
archivists. As the Internet continues to grow, websites are updated, websites become defunct, and old files are often overwritten by new files. Internet archives are unstable and their documents are at risk of becoming corrupted
or erased. My presentation will highlight the literary
importance of ASCII texts and explain why an archival project must be undertaken immediately to ensure that the writings of this movement are not entirely lost.
Biography
Ihave been active in the Canadian independent
publishing scene since 1995. In the past decade I have
published nearly 400 issues of various ASCII zines,
maintained “The Current Text Scene” (a website
dedicated to tracking contemporary ASCII zines), and published an ASCII-related article with Broken Pencil. My other areas of interest include creative writing and experimental fiction.","txt","2","",""
"602","7","Digital Audio Archives, Computer-Enhanced Transcripts, and New Methods in Sociolinguistic Analysis","1","Introduction
Traditional methods in sociolinguistic analysis have often relied on the repeated close listening of a set of audio recordings counting the number of times
particular linguistic variants occur in lieu of other
variants (a classic sociolinguistic example is the tabulating
of words using final –in’ for final –ing; cf. Fischer 1958, Trudgill 1974, etc.). These tabulations are normally
recorded into a spreadsheet using a program such as
Microsoft Excel, or even just into a hard-copy tabulation
sheet. The results are then presented as summaries in publications or conference papers as the “data” used for description, explanation, and theory building. Some
approaches in linguistics, such as discourse analysis, rely heavily on the development of transcripts of the audio recordings and often the focus of analysis is on the
transcript itself and not the original recording or interview
event. However, scholars following a wide variety of
sociolinguistic approaches have repeatedly highlighted
the confounds that arise from these treatments of
“pseudo-data” (i.e., analysts’ representations of the data) as data. Linguists such as Blake (1997) and Wolfram
(e.g., 1993) have discussed problems relating to the
tabulation and treatment of linguistic variables and raised
the issue that individual scholars’ methods are often not comparable. In discussing transcription theory, Edwards
has repeatedly pointed out that “transcripts are not
unbiased representations of the data” (Edwards 2001: 321). In general, the understanding that linguistic data is more elusive than traditional “hard science” data is
widespread but not acted upon. In this paper, we present
a project underway at North Carolina State University to argue that computer-enhanced approaches can propel sociolinguistic methodology into a new, more rigorous era.
The North Carolina Sociolinguistic Archive and Analysis Project
The North Carolina Language and Life Project (NCLLP) is a sociolinguistic research initiative at North Carolina State University (NCSU) with one of the largest audio collections of sociolinguistic data on
American English in the world. It consists of approximately
1,500 interviews from the late 1960s up to the present, most on analog cassette tape, but some in formats ranging
from reel-to-reel tape to digital video. The collection
features the interviews of Walt Wolfram, Natalie
Schilling-Estes, Erik Thomas, and numerous other
scholars. The NCLLP has partnered with the NCSU
Libraries on an initiative titled the North Carolina
Sociolinguistic Archive and Analysis Project (NC SLAAP). NC SLAAP has two core goals: (1) to preserve the NCLLP’s recordings through digitization; and (2) to enable and explore new computer-enhanced techniques
for interacting with the collection and for conducting
sociolinguistic analysis.
NCSU Libraries has as one of its chief goals the
long-term preservation of the recordings made by the NCLLP,
and it regards digitization as an appropriate means of preservation. Academic libraries may still be less expert than some commercial organizations when it comes to digitizing and storing audio, but they may be even less equipped to maintain analog audio collections properly (cf. Brylawski 2002, Smith, Allen, and Allen 2004). Archivists and librarians also sometimes point out that digitization and storage of audio may not be worth the expense and difficulty if the sole goal is preservation (cf. Puglia 2003). However, when scholarly digital projects
can contribute significantly to the advancement of a
discipline, as in the case of NC SLAAP, surely significant
investments are called for.
The NC SLAAP project has from the beginning planned to integrate sociolinguistic analysis tools into the archive. This has been achieved to a large degree by integrating the open source phonetic software application Praat
(http://www.praat.org) into the web server software. In
brief overview, the NC SLAAP system is an Apache
web server currently housed on a Macintosh G5 computer
running Mac OS 10.4. Data are stored in a MySQL database
and application pages are written in PHP. The web server
communicates with third-party open source applications
to do most of its “heavy” processing. Most importantly,
the web server communicates with Praat to generate
real-time phonetic data (such as the pitch data and the
spectrogram illustrated in Figure 1).
Figure 1: Transcript Line Analysis Example
While certain feature sets are still under development,
NC SLAAP, even in its current state, provides a range of
tools that greatly enhance the usability of the audio data.
These features include an audio player with an annotation
tool that allows users to associate notes with particular
timestamps, an audio extraction feature that allows users
to download and analyze particular segments of audio
files, sophisticated transcript display options (as partly
illustrated in Figure 1, above), and extensive search and
query tools. Importantly, the NC SLAAP software helps
to address concerns about the treatment of “pseudo-data”
as data, because it enables scholars to better access,
check, and re-check their (and their colleagues’) variable
tabulations, analyses, and conclusions. In short, the
NC SLAAP software is an attempt to move us one step
– hopefully, a large step – closer to the “real” data.
The features of the NC SLAAP software have potentially
tremendous implications for a wide range of linguistic
approaches. We focus on only one such feature here: the
implications relating to transcription theory.
Transcription Method and Theory Improvements to the traditional text transcript are
extremely important because the transcript is often
the chief mediating apparatus between theory and data in
language research. Language researchers have long been
concerned with the best method and format for transcribing
natural speech data (cf. Edwards 2001). Researchers
frequently incorporate a number of different transcription
conventions depending on their specific research aims.
Discourse analysts (e.g., Ochs 1979) traditionally focus
most heavily on transcription as theory and practice, but
researchers studying language contact phenomena (as in
Auer 1998) also have their own transcription conventions
for analyzing and presenting their data. At the other end
of the spectrum are variationists and dialectologists, who
also use transcripts, even if often only for presentation
and illustration.
Despite the importance of the transcript for most areas
of linguistics, little work has been done to enhance the
usability and flexibility of our transcripts. Yet the way a
researcher builds a transcript has drastic effects on what
can be learned from it (Edwards 2001). Concerns begin
with the most basic decision about a transcript: how
to lay out the text. Further decisions must be made
throughout the transcript-building process, such as
decisions about how much non-verbal information
to include and how to encode minutiae such as
pause-length and utterance overlap. Furthermore, the
creation of a transcript is a time- and energy-intensive
task, and researchers commonly discover that they must
rework their transcripts in mid-project to clarify aspects
of the discourse or speech sample.
The NC SLAAP software seeks to improve the linguistic
transcript by moving it closer to the actual speech that
it ideally represents (Kendall 2005). In the NC SLAAP
system, transcript text is treated as annotations on the audio
data: transcripts are broken down into utterance-units that
are stored in the database and directly tied to the audio
file through timestamping of utterance start and end
times. Transcript information can be viewed in formats
mimicking those of traditional paper transcripts, but can
also be displayed in a variety of dynamic ways – from
the column-based format discussed by Ochs (1979) to a
finer-level focus on an individual utterance complete with
phonetic information (as shown in Figure 1, above). Conclusion
NC SLAAP is a test case for new ways of
approaching linguistic analysis, using computers to maintain a strong tie between the core audio data and the analysts’ representations of it. In many senses the project is still in a “proof of concept” stage. However, we feel that it has made large steps towards new and more rigorous methods for sociolinguistic analysis and data management. In addition, it can serve as a model for academic libraries as a project that incorporates digital preservation with significant scholarly advancement.
References
Auer, P. (ed.) (1998). Code-Switching in Conversation, London: Routledge.
Blake, R. (1997). Defining the Envelope of Linguistic Variation: The Case of “Don’t Count” Forms in the Copula Analysis of AAVE. Language Variation and Change 9: 57-79.
Brylawski, S. (2002). Preservation of Digitally Recorded
Sound, in Building a National Strategy for
Preservation: Issues in Digital Media Archiving, Council on Library and Information Resources Publication 106.http://www.clir.org/pubs/abstract/pub106abst.html
Edwards, J. (2001). The Transcription of Discourse,
in Handbook of Discourse Analysis, eds. Deborah Tannen, Deborah Schiffrin, and Heidi Hamilton: 321-348, Oxford and Malden, Ma: Blackwell.
Fischer, J. (1958). Social Influences on the Choice of a Linguistic Variant. Word 14: 47-56.
Kendall, T. (2005). Advancing the Utility of the
Transcript: A Computer-Enhanced Methodology,
paper presented at the Twelfth International
Conference on Methods in Dialectology: Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada. August 2005.
Puglia, S. (2003). Overview: Analog vs. Digital for
Preservation Reformatting, paper presented at the 18th Annual Preservation Conference, March 27, 2003, at University of Maryland College Park. http://www.archives.gov/preservation/conferences/papers-2003/puglia.html
Smith, A., D. Allen, and K. Allen (2004). Survey of the State of Audio Collections in Academic Libraries. Council on Library and Information Resources Publication 128. http://www.clir.org/pubs/abstract/pub128abst.html
Ochs, E. (1979). Transcription as Theory, in Developmental Pragmatics, eds. Elinor Ochs and Bambi Schieffelin: 43-72, New York: Academic Press.
Trudgill, P. (1974). The Social Differentiation of English in Norwich, Cambridge: CUP.
Wolfram, W. (1993). Identifying and Interpreting
Variables. American Dialect Research. Ed. Dennis R.
Preston. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 193-221.","txt","2","",""
"603","7","How to Annotate Historical Townplans?","1","In 2003 a project Paper and Virtual Cities, financed by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research was started. The ultimate goal is to make explicit choices in the use of historical maps in virtual (re-) constructions for research and design. In order to do so three projects started, focusing on the historical reliability, the technical
reliability and on the creation of a mark-up language and visualization tool that could combine the historical and technical data. This presentation is on the toolbox and the mark-up that is created in this third project.
Researchers often use historical maps in order to describe the changes that took place in cities. By using techniques
as used in Geographical Information Systems, e.g. rubber sheeting it is possible to make overlays of maps in order to combine data from several sources. Earlier research
(Koster 2001) has shown that such combination can
provide new insight in the transformation processes in the 17th century townscape. But this process can introduce
new errors, for example due to the fact that later copies of maps can depict outdated information. Historical and Architectural Historical research is needed in order to trace this kind of errors.
A second kind of errors is due to the fact that, although the measuring techniques used by 17th century cartographers were very precise, we still need to transform the map in order to make it fit with a modern map. The method of triangulation, measuring angles between high points, e.g. church towers makes that distant points are depicted with
high precision, but the area in between might be less
accurate. This kind of technical irregularities become
visible in the process of rectifying the map. This
process is used to bring all the maps to the same scale and
orientation so they can be layered and compared.
By storing the technical evidence and the historical
evidence in a standardized format, a mark-up language, we are able to connect the two. Such a format visualizes the reliability and veracity of historical town plans and virtual (re-) constructions (separately or in combination)
in relation to function and context. This might help an (urban) historian in making choices in studying and
describing the change of urban form.
But how would such a standardized format look like? And how can we visualize the reliability and veracity? The extensible markup language (XML) offers different
languages that can be used. Historical Events can be
stored in Historical Event Markup Language (HEML)
while the technical evidence can be captured in the
Geography Markup Language. In combination with
library standards (Marc-21) used to describe the physical
document and RDFPIC to describe the digitized image we are able to describe the document in such a way that data from several maps can be combined into one
new standard. In order to do so a new tool has been created that offers the user a way to annotate the digital
representation of a map. This tool, with the working title DrawOverMap contains a number of layers in which a researcher, of even a team of researchers can register their data and store in the new markup language.
The data can be used to create a new data layer that
visualizes the reliability of the map, or even a combination
of maps. With mouse-overs a researcher can query the map, see annotations made by others, and decide what data might be used in research. The user can do so using the DrawOverMap toolbox, but since the XML data is also stored as Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG), again another Markup Language the data can also be browsed interactively over the Internet giving other researchers access to the annotations of historical maps.
With the growing interest in historical maps on the
Internet we need a tool to annotate them, rank them and give a valuation on its usability in historical research. We hope that the markup language produced in this research might help historians in choosing which maps to use
in their research. On a cultural level this research is
important for cultural heritage and for new cultural
creations. In the domain of cultural heritage it facilitates the search, the organization and presentation of different
sources that are necessary for understanding our
urban history. A better understanding of historical
developments can lead to an improvement of tools used in town planning. References
E.A. Koster (2001), Stadsmorfologie (Urban Morphology), Groningen 2001
More on this project:
http://www.let.rug.nl:8080/pvc
HEML: http://www.heml.org
GML: http://www.opengis.org
SVG: http://w3.org/SVG/","txt","2","",""
"604","7","Towards the Global Wordnet","1","The global wordnet is an extensive lexical-semantic
network that constitutes of synonymous sets
(synsets) linked with the semantic relations existing between them. The cross-lingual nature of the global wordnet is provided by the establishing of relations of equivalents between synsets that express the same
meaning in different languages. The global wordnet
offers not only the extensive data for the comparative analysis over lexical densities and levels of lexicalization
but furthermore presupposes the successful implementation
in different application areas such as cross-lingual
information and knowledge management, cross-lingual
content management and text data mining, cross-lingual
information extraction and retrieval, multilingual
summarization, machine translation, etc. Therefore the proper maintaining of the completeness and consistency of the global wordnet is an important prerequisite for any type of text processing to which it is intended.
The EuroWordNet (EWN) extended the Princeton
wordnet (PWN) with cross-lingual relations [Vossen, 1999], which were further adopted by BalkaNet (BWN) [Stamou, 2002]. The languages covered by the EWN are Czech, Dutch, Estonian, French, German, Italian, and Spanish, respectively, and those covered by the BWN are Bulgarian, Greek, Romanian, Serbian and Turkish. The equivalent synsets in different languages are linked to
the same Inter-Lingual Index (ILI) thus connecting
monolingual wordnets in a global lexical-semantic network.
The Inter-Lingual Index is based on the PWN (ILI is consecutively synchronized with the PWN versions), the synsets of which are considered as language independent
concepts. Thus a distinction between the language-
specific modules (English among them) and the language-independent module (the ILI repository) has to be focused. The ILI is considered as an unstructured list of meanings, where each ILI-record consists of a synset (if the language is not English, a proper translation or at least transliteration must be ensured), an English gloss specifying the meaning and a reference to its source.
Both EWN and BWN adopted the hierarchy of concepts and relations’ structure of the English wordnet as a model to be followed in the development of each language-specific wordnet. For the monolingual wordnets a strong rule is observed – strictly to preserve the structure of the PWN because via the ILI a proper cross-lingual navigation is ensured. It is natural, that some of the concepts stored
in ILI are not lexicalized in all languages and there are language specific concepts that might have no ILI
equivalent. In the first case, the empty synsets were created
(called non-lexicalized synsets) in the wordnets for the languages that do not lexicalize the respective concepts. The non-lexicalized synsets preserve the hierarchy and their purpose is to cover the proper cross-lingual
relations. Regarding the second case, the ILI is further extended both in EWN and BWN with some language specific concepts. The language specific concepts that are shared between Balkan languages are linked via a BILI (BalkaNet ILI) index [Tufis, 2004]. The initial set of common Balkan specific concepts consisted mainly of concepts reflecting the cultural specifics of the Balkans
(family relations, religious objects and practices,
traditional food, clothes, occupations, arts, important events, measures, etc).
There are four morpho-semantic relations included in PWN and mirrored in EWN and BWN, Be in state,
Derivative, Derived and Participle [Koeva, 2004]. Those
relations semantically linked synsets although they can actually be applied to the literals only (graphic and
compound lemmas). Consider the following examples:
Be in state is an asymmetric inverse intransitive relation that links derivationally and semantically related adjectives and nouns. The English synset {attractive:3, magnetic:5} with a definition ‘having the properties of a magnet; the ability to draw or pull’ is in a Be in state relation with the synset {magnetism:1, magnetic attraction:1, magnetic force:1} with a definition ‘attraction for iron; associated with electric currents as well as magnets; characterized
by fields of force’; also the synset {attractive:1}
with a definition ‘pleasing to the eye or mind especially through beauty or charm’ is in a Be in state relation with {attractiveness:2} denoting ‘a beauty that appeals to the senses’.
Derivative is an asymmetric inverse intransitive relation
between derivationally and semantically related noun and verb synsets. For example the English synset
{rouge:1, paint:3, blusher:2} with a definition ‘makeup consisting of a pink or red powder applied to the cheeks’ is in Derivative relation with two synsets: {rouge:1} with a meaning ‘redden by applying rouge to’ and {blush:1, crimson:1, flush:1, redden:1} denoting ‘turn red, as if in embarrassment or shame’.
Derived is an asymmetric inverse intransitive relation between derivationally and semantically related adjective and noun synsets. For example the synset {Cuban:1} with a definition ‘of or relating to or characteristic of Cuba or the people of Cuba’ is in a Derived relation with {Cuba:1, Republic of Cuba:1}.
Participle is an asymmetric inverse intransitive relation
between derivationally and semantically related an
adjective synset denoting result of an action or process and the verb synset denoting the respective action or process.
Consider {produced:1} with a definition ‘that is caused by’ which is in a Participle relation with {produce:3, bring about:4, give rise:1} denoting ‘cause to occur or exist’.
As can be seen by the examples, although the synsets are semantically linked, the actual derivational relations are established between particular literals. For the best
performance of the multilingual data base in different text processing tasks a specification of the derivational links must to be kept at the level of literal notes (LNotes).
There are systematic morpho-semantic differences
between English and Slavic languages – namely
derivational processes for building relative adjectives, gender pairs and diminutives. The Slavic languages
possess rich derivational morphology which has to be
involved into the strict one-to-one mapping with the ILI.
A vivid derivational process rely Slavic nouns with
respective relative adjectives with general meaning ‘of or related to the noun’. For example, the Bulgarian relative
adjective {стоманен:1} defined as ‘of or related to steel’ has the Serbian equivalent {čelični:1} with exactly the same definition. Actually in English this relation is
expressed by the respective nouns used with an adjectival
function (rarely at the derivational level, consider wooden↔wood, golden↔gold), thus the concepts exist in English and the mirror nodes have to be envisaged.
The gender pairing is systematic phenomenon in
Slavic languages that display binary morpho-semantic opposition: male↔female, and as a general rule there is no corresponding concept lexicalized in English. The derivation is applied mainly to nouns expressing
professional occupations. For example, Bulgarian synset {преподавател:2, учител:1, инструктор:1} and Serbian
synset {predavač:1} that correspond to the English
{teacher:1, instructor:1} with a definition: ‘a person whose
occupation is teaching’ have their female gender counterparts
{преподавателка, учителка, инструктурка} and {predavačica} with a feasible definition ‘a female
person whose occupation is teaching’. There are some exceptions where like in English one and the same word is used both for masculine and feminine in Bulgarian and Serbian, for example {президент:1} which corresponds to the English synset {president:3} with a definition: ‘the chief executive of a republic’, and as a tendency the
masculine noun can be used referring to females.
Diminutives are standard derivational class for expressing concepts that relate to small things. The diminutives display
a sort of morpho-semantic opposition: big ↔ small,
however sometimes they may express an emotional
attitude too. Thus the following cases can be found with diminutives: standard relation big ↔ small thing,
consider {стол:1} corresponding to English {chair:1} with a meaning ‘a seat for one person, with a support for the back’ and {столче} with an feasible meaning ‘a little seat for one person, with a support for the back’; small thing to which an emotional attitude is expressed. Also, Serbian synset {lutka:1} that corresponds to the English {doll:1, dolly:3} with a meaning ‘with a replica of a
person, used as a toy’ is related to {lutkica} which has both diminutive and hypocoristic meaning. There might be some occasional cases of the expression of that kind of concepts in English, {foal:1} with a definition: ‘a young horse’, {filly:1} with a definition: ‘a young female horse under the age of four’, but in general these concepts are expressed by phrases.
There are several possible approaches for covering
different lexicalization at different languages [Vitas & Krstev, 2005]:
- treat them as denoting specific concepts and define appropriate synsets;
- include them in the synset with the word they were derived from;
- omit their explicit mentioning, but rather let the flexion-derivation description encompass these
phenomena as well.
Treating morpho-semantic relations, relative adjectives,
gender pairs and diminutives, in Slavic languages as
relations that involve language specific concepts requires
an ILI addition for the languages where the concepts are presented (respectively lexical gaps in the rest). This
solution takes grounds from the following observations:
- relative adjectives, feminine gender pairs and
diminutives denote an unique concept;
- relative adjectives, feminine gender pairs and
diminutives are lexicalized with a single word
in Bulgarian, Serbian, Czech and other Slavonic
languages;
- relative adjectives, feminine gender pairs and
diminutives in most of the cases belong to different word class comparing to the word from which they are derived (there are some exceptions, like
diminutives that are derived from neuter nouns in Bulgarian) .
Moreover, as with the other morpho-semantic relations, a special attribute assigned at the LNotes must provide information for one-to-one derivational relations.
Although PWN’s coverage does not compare yet with new wordnets, the latter are continuously extended and improved so that a balanced global multilingual wordnet
is foreseen, thus the task of the proper encoding of
different level of lexicalization if different languages is in a great importance regarding the Natural Language Processing.
References
[Koeva at al., 2004] S. Koeva, T. Tinchev and S.
Mihov Bulgarian Wordnet-Structure and Validation in:
Romanian Journal of Information Science and
Technology, Volume 7, No. 1-2, 2004: 61-78.
[Stamou, 2002] Stamou S., K. Oflazer, K. Pala, D. Totkov, D. Dutoit, M. Grigoriadou, BALKANET:
A Multilingual Semantic Network for the Balkan Languages, Proceedings of the International Wordnet
Conference, Mysore, India, 21-25 January 2002,
12-14.
[Tufis, 2004] D. Tufis, D. Cristea, S. Stamou BalkaNet: Aims, Methods, Results and Perspectives.
A General Overview in: Romanian Journal of Information Science and Technology, Volume 7, No. 1-2, 2004: 1-32.
[Vitas & Krstev, 2005] Duško Vitas, Cvetana Krstev (2005) Derivational Morphology in an E-Dictionary
of Serbian in Proceedings of 2nd Language &
Technology Conference, April 21-23, 2005, Poznań, Poland, ed. Zygmunt Vetulani, pp. 139-143,
Wydawnictwo Poznańskie Sp. z o.o., Poznań, 2005.
[Vossen, 1999] Vossen P. (ed.) EuroWordNet: a
multilingual database with lexical semantic networks for European Languages. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht. 1999.","txt","2","",""
"605","7","Be et have : qualités et défauts","1","Un linguiste français, P. Cotte, fait remarquer que le verbe be s’associe avec des adjectifs qualificatifs à connotation positive ou négative (be courageous, be cowardly) alors que le verbe have est seulement suivi de noms exprimant une qualité (have courage vs. * have cowardice). La particularité de cette construction have + nom est qu’elle donne une caractérisation du sujet avec des noms exprimant une qualité modale focalisée. Contrairement à l’expression de la possession (John has a car) où l’objet réfère à une entité différente du sujet, cette qualité est inhérente au sujet. Il semble que le verbe have introduise des qualités qui différencient le sujet des autres sujets, dont l’énonciateur. Et s’il n’en introduit pas les défauts, c’est probablement en raison d’une empathie semblable à celle décrite par C. Boisson. L’emploi de noms précédés d’un article zéro indéfini pour exprimer
les caractéristiques positives du sujet implique que ces caractéristiques peuvent être partagées par d’autres
personnes que le sujet.
En revanche, le verbe be peut signaler une certaine
distance entre l’énonciateur et le référent du sujet, bien qu’on dise généralement qu’il exprime une identité
entre le sujet et son attribut. Cela est probablement dû au
fait que son histoire a partie liée avec la deixis. De plus, l’emploi d’adjectifs pour dévoiler les caractéristiques
du sujet implique que ces caractéristiques s’appliquent uniquement au sujet, et non à l’énonciateur.
Le linguiste de corpus peut utiliser divers corpus pour vérifier cette hypothèse, même s’il n’est pas possible d’automatiser entièrement la recherche sur ces corpus. Il faut en effet vérifier chaque occurrence pour éliminer des constructions comme have diesel models (nom composé pluriel), Sometimes she had to have water fetched from miles up in the mountain (structure causative), et, moins fréquemment, … the emotional strain ambulance men have day in, day out (circonstants de temps).
J’ai tout d’abord dénombré le nombre d’occurrences pertinentes de have + nom (beauty, courage, intelligence,
patience, tact et leur contraire) ou de be + adjectif
(beautiful, courageous, intelligent, patient, tactful et leur contraire). Le test du χ² a révélé une différence
significative entre les deux constructions dans tous les cas. J’ai ensuite affiné ce résultat en comparant, pour chaque construction exprimant une caractéristique
négative, le pourcentage observé avec le pourcentage
théorique. Les résultats ont toujours confirmé l’hypothèse
de départ. Mais il n’en va pas de même avec les
constructions exprimant une caractéristique positive : dans la majorité des cas, il s’avère que les combinaisons be + adjectif sont plus fréquentes que les combinaisons
correspondantes en have + nom. Ceci montre que
l’approche adoptée en linguistique de corpus permet de dégager les constructions qui ne se conforment pas à l’hypothèse, ce qui est un premier pas vers une explication de ces exceptions.
De plus, au fur et à mesure de l’avancement de cette
recherche, les listes de concordance mettent en avant de
nouvelles caractéristiques des constructions étudiées, comme le caractère [± animé] et [± humain] du sujet. Les premiers résultats tendent à montrer que l’on trouve plus de sujets inanimés avec le verbe be.
Nous montrons enfin que le linguiste de corpus peut donner une réponse plus complète à la question posée en interrogeant différents corpus (le BNC et le BNC
Baby) avec des logiciels de recherche légèrement
différents (SARA ou XAIRA). SARA ne permet pas de formuler des requêtes sur les catégories grammaticales,
alors que XAIRA le permet. Cette possibilité, ainsi que le fait que le BNC Baby soit plus petit que le BNC, me permet de trouver quelles qualités ou quels défauts sont le fréquemment exprimés avec les verbes have et be, ce qu’il serait presque impossible de faire avec le BNC. Les premiers résultats montrent que les qualités et les défauts prototypiques qui intéressent le linguiste théorique ne se rencontrent pas si fréquemment parmi les qualités et les défauts associés à ces deux verbes. Sur les cinq noms de qualité les plus fréquemment associés au verbe have
(experience, knowledge, confidence, responsibility,
character), un seul (character) est mentionné en linguistique
théorique. La situation est encore pire si l’on prend en compte les dix qualités ou défauts associés le plus
fréquemment au verbe be, c’est-à-dire able, nice, careful,
quiet, honest, difficult, good, bold, important, strong, en ordre décroissant. Aucun de ces traits de caractère n’est mentionné en linguistique théorique, même si
une recherche plus approfondie serait nécessaire pour confirmer ces résultats.
Par conséquent, cette étude en cours montre que le
linguiste de corpus peut aborder un problème d’un point de vue assez différent mais toutefois complémentaire
à celui d’un linguiste théorique. Celui-ci s’intéresse
essentiellement aux concepts ; celui-là s’intéresse à la fois aux concepts et aux occurrences.
Be and have: qualities and shortcomings
A French linguist, P. Cotte, remarks that the verb be collocates with qualifying adjectives having a positive or negative connotation (i.e. be courageous, be cowardly) whereas the verb have is followed by nouns expressing a positive quality only (i.e. have courage vs. * have cowardice). This have + Noun construction is quite special in that it expresses a characterisation of the subject with nouns expressing modal qualities which
are focalised. Contrary to the usual expression of
possession (John has a car) in which the object refers to an entity different from the subject, these qualities are part and parcel of the subject. The verb have seems to introduce qualities which differentiate this subject from other subjects, and among them, the speaker. But it does not introduce his/her shortcomings most probably
because of an empathy akin to that delineated by
C. Boisson. The use of nouns preceded by a zero
determiner to express the positive characteristics of the subject implies that these characteristics can be shared by people other than the subject.
On the other hand, the verb be can somehow distance the speaker from the referent of the subject although it is said to express an identity between the subject and its
complement. This is probably due to the fact that its
history is linked to deixis. The use of adjectives to
express the characteristics of the subject implies that these characteristics apply to the subject only, not to the speaker.
The corpus linguist can use various corpora to verify this hypothesis even if research on these corpora cannot be fully automated. One needs to check each and every hit to eliminate constructions such as have diesel models
(plural compound nouns), Sometimes she had to have water fetched from miles up in the mountain (causative constructions) and, less frequently, … the emotional
strain ambulance men have day in, day out (time
adverbials). Then one can make the proper calculations and use the appropriate statistical tools.
First I counted how many occurrences of several
relevant combinations of have + Noun (beauty, courage, intelligence, patience, tact and their opposites) or be + Adjective (beautiful, courageous, intelligent, patient,
tactful and their opposites) there were in the British
National Corpus. The χ² test nearly always showed a
significant difference between the two constructions. To refine this result I compared the percentage observed for each construction expressing a negative characteristic with its theoretical percentage (variance test). The results always confirmed the hypothesis. But it was not the same with constructions expressing a positive characteristic: a majority of be + Adjective combinations proved to
be more frequent than the corresponding have + Noun combinations. This shows that a corpus linguistics
approach helps isolate the constructions that do not comply
with the hypothesis, which is a first step towards finding an explanation to these exceptions.
Moreover, as the research progresses, the concordance lists highlight new characteristics of the constructions
under study, such as the [± animate] and [± human]
features of the subject. Preliminary results tend to show that there are significantly more inanimate subjects with the verb be.
Finally, we see that searching through different corpora (the BNC and the BNC Baby) with slightly different software programmes (SARA or XAIRA) enables the corpus linguist to give a more complete answer to the question raised. SARA does not answer queries about grammatical categories while XAIRA can. This, together
with the fact that the BNC Baby is much smaller
than the BNC, allows me to find out what qualities or shortcomings are more frequently expressed with
the verbs be or have, something that would be almost impossible to do with the BNC. Preliminary results show that the typical qualities and shortcomings in which
the theoretical linguist is interested do not appear so
frequently in the qualities and shortcomings associated
with the verbs be and have. Among the five most
frequent quality nouns associated with have (experience,
knowledge, confidence, responsibility, character), only one (character) is mentioned by the theoretical linguist. The situation is even worse if one considers the ten most frequent qualities or shortcomings associated with be, which are, in decreasing order: able, nice, careful, quiet, honest, difficult, good, bold, important, strong. None of those traits is mentioned by the theoretical linguist,
although further research is necessary to confirm those findings.
This ongoing study thus shows that a corpus linguist can consider the problem from a point of view which is quite different but complementary to that of the theoretical
linguist: the latter is mainly interested in concepts; the former both in concepts and occurrences.
References
Boisson, C. (1987). “ Anglais HAVE, français AVOIR et l’empathie ”. in La Transitivité. Saint Etienne : C.I.E.R.E.C. Travaux 52. pp. 155 -181.
Cotte, P. (1996). L’explication grammaticale de textes anglais. Paris : Presses Universitaires de France. Coll. Perspectives anglo-saxonnes.
Cotte, P. (1998). “ Have n’est pas un verbe d’action : l’hypothèse de la réélaboration ”. in Rousseau, A. (éd.) (1998). pp. 415-439
Rousseau, A. (1998). La transitivité. Villeneuve d’Ascq : Presses Universitaires du Septentrion. Coll. ULS Travaux et Recherches.","txt","2","",""
"606","7","Constructing the Catalogue of English Literary Manuscripts 1450 - 1700","1","Like many people all over the world today, I’m
involved in a project to transform a scholarly work
from book form to online form. There is no longer any serious doubt about the value of such efforts, especially
when the book in question is a reference work; but
everyday scholarly experience shows that there are many questions about what sort of online form is best, and in a few cases reviewers have written analyses that detail the obstacles that can exist to the most advanced
applications (see, for example, Needham, “Counting
Incunables”; Daunton; Williams and Baker). One lesson of such reviews is how different the nature and uses of our various reference works are. All the same, some
reflections on the general questions involved can be productive; this talk seeks to cover the relatively familiar
issues of searching, and the less frequently discussed question of results display and organization.
Our book is the Index of English Literary Manuscripts
covering the period from 1450 to 1700, originally
compiled by Peter Beal and published in four volumes from 1980 to 1993. Its aim was to catalogue all known literary manuscripts of a selection of writers; it was
organized by author and work, not by the contents of manuscripts as is the norm. Those working on more modern
material expect to encounter manuscripts that are in an author’s own hand; but most of those in the Index are copies by other hands, often combined in miscellanies
with works of many other authors. Apart from facilitating
work on the individual authors who were covered, the Index also spurred work on the nature of textual
transmission in early modern Britain, where scribal
publication continued to be important despite the advent of print (see Love).
In making the case for the value of an online version of such a work, a standard claim is to point to the improved
access that can be provided. It is less expensive to
distribute the completed work online than as a set of hefty books, and it is also easier to find certain kinds of information in a searchable online publication. But as we know from the World Wide Web, even badly-done and inaccurate online resources can be put to use, so we need to look to some goal beyond this absolutely minimal one. As the analyses I’ve cited by Needham and others show,
many uses that scholars can imagine for indexes and
catalogues turn out not to be supported in online versions.
In their transformation into online resources, many
books go through a process of atomization into individual items, which may then be reunited in various ways:
so that information once accessible only through the
sequential order of the book, or through manually
constructed aids such as indexes, might now be available in many ways. But, of course, these alternative routes depend on the data and on the machinery used to work with it: problems searches involving difficult forms of information such as dates are by now very familiar,
and they stem from inconsistency of practice, lack of
sophistication in search machinery, and problems in
dealing appropriately with uncertainty.
In our case the information was compiled not only
following the usual sort of guidelines, but by only one person, so there is at least some chance of doing a reasonable job on this score. A further question is how well we can provide not just search results but an orderly view of a different perspective on the information. By this I mean
a display that is organized and focused following the desired point of view, rather than merely being a set of search results. We are familiar with the way that a search on minimally-structured full-text resources produces a set of results that need some working through: the scope of the resulting passages is often not clearly delimited and you need to read around to figure out for yourself what the relevant piece of text is. The sequence of such results is also approximate: experienced scholars learn not to pay too much attention to it. These are systems that do not focus on exactly the results called for, and do not organize the results in the best manner; and improving
on these matters in a full-text system is difficult. In a
catalogue, or anything else that is based on more readily atomized information, there should be more scope for building new perspectives and not just lists of results, but this is another problem that has often proven difficult to solve (see Needham, “Copy Description”). This is more than a mere question of agreeable presentation: as work in the field of visualization has shown, finding ways to present known data such that our minds can work on it is a powerful method, and one that we need more of in the humanities.
The printed Index of English Literary Manuscripts was an extreme example of a resource that offered only one perspective on information of interest from many
perspectives, since there was never an index to offer
alternative ways into the information. As examples will show, though, it is not always straightforward to build a display from a new perspective: in our case we are trying to preserve the original author/work perspective but also offer an organization by manuscript. That calls for more than just a reordering of entries: we find that the material
within entries needs (at the least) to be rearranged,
because even its organization expresses a perspective on the material. There may be a limit to the flexibility of this sort of catalogue, but an awareness of the issue when it’s being built can help us improve the design.
Works Cited
Beal, Peter, compiler, Index of English Literary
Manuscripts (London: Mansell, 1980–1993), 4
volumes.
Daunton, Martin, “Virtual Representation: The History of Parliament on CD-ROM”, Past and Present 167, May 2000, 238–261.
Love, Harold, Scribal Publication in Seventeenth-Century England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993).
Needham, Paul, “Copy Description in Incunable
Catalogues”, Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America 95:2, June 2001, 173–239.
Needham, Paul, “Counting Incunables: the IISTC
CD-ROM”, Huntington Library Quarterly 61:3–4, 1998, 457–529.
Williams, William Proctor, and William Baker,
“Caveat Lector. English Books 1475–1700 and the Electronic Age”, Analytical and Enumerative
Bibliography NS 12:1, 2001, 1–29.","txt","2","",""
"607","7","Les technologies de l'information et de la communication (TIC) aux services de l'enseignement de la logique aux apprenants des disciplines d'humanités : LOGIC, un outil en ligne, dynamique et interactif.","1","LOGIC is a tool which brings, with learning from the disciplines of humanities, a complement with the lecture of logic, based on the method of natural
deduction of Gentzen, exempted by the teacher, in their
propose of the dynamic examples and the interactive exercises. It is a free tool, available on line (http://www.lalic.paris4.sorbonne.fr/LOGIC/).
Se servir de l’informatique comme un outil dynamique
et interactif : dynamique en montrant comment se déroule, dans le temps, une démonstration ; interactif en faisant intervenir l’apprenant qui est ainsi sollicité de
façon active, pour compléter les raisonnements. En cas de difficultés, l’apprenant peut demander en ligne une
aide et obtenir la solution locale et une indication des connaissances utiles à la résolution du problème posé.
Ainsi, on passe, grâce au logiciel, d’une lecture passive d’un ouvrage à une appropriation active d’un savoir par une série ordonnée d’exercices où l’apprenant est sollicité en lui donnant, à chaque pas, les possibilités d’être secouru. On voit donc par ce logiciel, qui peut être appelé à tout
instant, l’apport de l’informatique à un enseignement interactif et actif.
LOGIC est un outil qui apporte, aux apprenants des
disciplines d’humanités, un complément au cours magistral
de logique dispensé par l’enseignant, en leur proposant des exemples dynamiques et des exercices interactifs.
La logique est l’art de bien raisonner, la discipline de
la déduction, des démonstrations rigoureuses, de la
mécanisation des preuves…
Mais la logique est aussi le lieu des interprétations, de la signification des énoncés, celui des modèles ou mondes possibles.
Ainsi, la logique se construit dans l’opposition entre syntaxe et sémantique : la syntaxe est le monde des symboles, des opérations grammaticales vides de tout contenu, la sémantique est le lieu des interprétations, des modèles ou mondes possibles, le lieu des réalisations, le lieu où une signification est donnée.
En logique mathématique, on doit distinguer entre une conception “axiomatique” de la logique, qui fût
celle de Frege, Russel et Hilbert, et une conception plus “pragmatique” en terme d’actes de preuves, que l’on
retrouve dans les systèmes de déduction naturelle de
Gentzen.
LOGIC est basé sur la méthode de déduction naturelle de Gentzen qui présente la notion de démonstration de manière tout à fait naturelle : par exemple, elle tend à imiter la manière spontanée du mathématicien ; elle
permet de montrer comment certaines preuves déductives
propagent l’évidence ; elle tend à expliquer le sens des symboles logiques pris isolément.
Prenons le raisonnement suivant, exprimé en langue
naturelle :
(1) Si le ciel se couvre, il risque de pleuvoir. S’il
risque de pleuvoir, il est bon de prendre un parapluie.
Donc, si le ciel se couvre, il est bon de prendre un parapluie.
Posons les abréviations suivantes pour simplifier les
écritures :
p = le ciel se couvre
q = il risque de pleuvoir
r = il est bon de prendre un parapluie
Le raisonnement (1) s’exprime par l’expression (2), avec les propositions élémentaires p, q et r :
(2) si p, q ; si q, r ; donc si p, r
Nous avons un raisonnement où la dernière proposition (si p, r) est déduite des deux premières (si p, q et si q, r).
Introduisons le connecteur propositionnel ⊃ et le
connecteur de conjonction &. L’expression (2) du
raisonnement s’exprime maintenant par (3) :
(3) (p⊃q) & (q⊃r) donc (p⊃r)
Exprimons maintenant le donc déductif par :
Si les hypothèses (p⊃q) et (q⊃r) sont posées,
Alors il s’ensuit que l’on a (p⊃r)
Nous obtenons l’expression (4) :
(4) si (p⊃q) & (q⊃r) donc (p⊃r)
Pour mieux exprimer le rôle des hypothèses et celui de la conclusion, nous exprimons l’expression (4) par une déduction naturelle :
1 p⊃q hyp
2 q⊃r hyp
3 p⊃r 1, 2
Nous indiquons clairement les hypothèses aux lignes 1 et 2. Nous indiquons la conclusion à la ligne 3, en mentionnant les lignes qui sont les prémisses de la conclusion.
Comment pouvons-nous affirmer que la conclusion exprimée à la ligne 3 est déduite des hypothèses exprimées
aux lignes 1 et 2 ? Quelles sont les règles qui justifient
une telle décision ? La méthode de déduction naturelle
précise justement les règles et l’utilisation des règles
qui permettent de justifier certains raisonnements (les
raisonnements valides) et de rejeter les autres raisonnements.
Une déduction se présente comme une suite de lignes
où :
- chaque ligne est identifiée par un numéro (le numéro
de la séquence dans la déduction) ;
- chaque ligne exprime une proposition qui est soit
posée comme hypothèse, soit déduite des lignes
précédentes en appliquant les règles d’élimination
ou d’introduction ;
- chaque ligne se termine par une justification qui
indique
• soit la (ou les) règle(s) utilisée(s) et les prémisses
appelées par la (ou les) règle(s), ces prémisses étant
identifiées par leurs numéros séquentiels ;
• soit le statut d’hypothèse de la proposition
exprimée à cette ligne.
D’une façon générale, une déduction est une suite de
propositions P1, …, Pi, …, Pn où chaque proposition Pi est
soit une hypothèse que l’on introduit, soit une conclusion
déduite des prémisses P1, …, Pi-1 déjà déduites ou
introduites comme des hypothèses.
Les schémas de règles de la méthode de déduction
naturelle sont soit des schémas d’élimination, soit des
schémas d’introduction d’un symbole logique.
LOGIC propose aux apprenants, à travers une interface
web (http://www.lalic.paris4.sorbonne.fr/LOGIC/)
compatible avec tous les navigateurs acceptant le lecteur
d’applications Flash, un rappel des principaux éléments
théoriques (en particulier les règles d’introduction et
d’élimination des opérateurs) illustrés par des exemples
dynamiques et des exercices interactifs de trois catégories.
Le cours est organisé en deux parties. La première partie
est consacrée à la logique des propositions et comprend
9 exemples et 64 exercices répartis en quatre blocs et
deux séries d’exercices formels en langue naturelle. La
seconde partie est consacrée à la logique des prédicats
et comprend 7 exemples, 46 exercices répartis en neuf
blocs. Ce découpage permet d’introduire les notions
les unes après les autres et de grouper les exercices par
règles, donnant la possibilité aux apprenants de réaliser
un parcours d’apprentissage progressif.
Dans chaque bloc introduisant des règles, le fonctionnement
de chaque règle est illustré par des exemples dynamiques.
L’animation des exemples présente de nombreux
avantages par rapport à une version statique (sur papier,
par exemple), en effet, elle reproduit la présentation
que pourrait en faire le professeur au tableau, étape
par étape. Elle présente également des avantages sur la
présentation du professeur car chaque apprenant peut
aller à son rythme et reprendre à sa guise les points qui
lui pose problèmes. Une fois démarrée, l’animation montre
comment la déduction est construite ligne par ligne en
modifiant la couleur des propositions mise en jeu dans la
règle en cours d’exécution et en construisant la nouvelle
ligne dynamiquement. Dans chaque animation, des boutons
permettent soit d’obtenir de l’aide, soit de modifier le
déroulement de l’animation.
Ecran des exemples animés
Les exercices interactifs sont proposés aux apprenants
afin de leur permettre de tester leur compréhension du
problème. Ces exercices peuvent être classés en trois
catégories :
- les exercices où certaines règles utilisées lors de la
déduction doivent être trouvées : dans ces exercices,
certaines règles qui ont été appliquées lors de la
déduction n’ont pas été indiquées, l’exercice consiste
donc à étudier les expressions afin de déterminer la
règle qui a été utilisée ; Exercice où déterminer les règles
- les exercices où certaines expressions de la déduction
manquent : dans ces exercices, les règles qui ont
été appliquées lors de la déduction sont toutes écrites
mais certaines expressions manquent, l’exercice
consiste donc à appliquer la règle pour déterminer
l’expression ;
Exercice où déterminer les expressions
- les exercices basés sur le langage naturel : dans ces
exercices, il faut formaliser l’énoncé en langue naturelle
dans la logique des propositions ou dans la logique
des prédicats et parfois, faire la démonstration.
Exercice formel
L’apprenant déroule les exercices à son rythme, il écrit
et valide ses réponses ou peut demander de l’aide ou la
solution.
LOGIC est utilisé notamment par les étudiants de
l’université Paris-Sorbonne en Licence « Lettres classiques
et modernes, sciences du langage », parcours « Langue
Française et Techniques Informatiques » et en Master
« Information et Communication. Informatique et
Ingénierie de la Langue pour la Gestion de l’Information »,
parcours « Logique, Sémantique, Cognition et Informatique ».
Ce type d’outil, qui permet à l’apprenant d’approfondir
la formalisation logique des énoncés en langue naturelle
en logique des propositions ou en logique des prédicats,
est encore assez peu fréquent sur internet, en langue
française.
Références
Desclés, J-P. (1995). Méthode de la déduction naturelle
(d’après Gentzen). Cours du DEA MIASH. Université
Paris-Sorbonne
Gentzen, G. (1934). Untersuchungen über das logische
Schliessen. Mathematische Zeitschrift 39
Le Kien Van, C. (2002). Cours interactif de logique. Mémoire de DEA. Université Paris-Sorbonne
Desclés, J-P., Djioua, B., Le Kien Van, C., Le Priol, F. (2005). LOGIC : Aide dynamique et interactive pour l’apprentissage de la logique des propositions
et des prédicats selon la méthode de déduction
naturelle. Cahiers LaLICC n°2005/01","txt","2","",""
"608","7","Our Daily Dose of Rhetoric : Patterns of Argument in the Australian Press","1","As twenty-first century Australian citizens, the main way in which we “do” democracy is through the media. Every important issue in public life comes to us via the mass media, almost always structured as some form of ‘argument’. It is therefore important that these arguments are not only analysed, dissected and evaluated, but are also presented in ways that enable as wide a section of the population as possible to understand them, so that when citizens engage in deliberation about public issues, their dialogue will be logical, systematic and dialectical.
Dialectic is two-sided. It is argument that is constructive
and balanced. Now more than ever, at a time when “social, cultural and religious issues are of growing
significance due to the insecurities of globalization and
the increasing role of non-state players in the security environment” (Aust. Govt. 2004-2005: 9), we need not only greater scrutiny of mediatised arguments, but
also stronger strategies for “[E]nhancing our nation’s
understanding of social, political and cultural issues [which]
will help Australia to engage with our neighbours and the wider global community and to respond to emerging
issues” (Aust. Govt.: 8)
To this end, my aims are threefold: to analyse a range of important public issues presented as arguments in the newspapers read by the majority of Australians, using the argument-diagramming computer software Araucaria (Reed and Rowe 2001); to evaluate each argument thus represented as diagrams, assessing each one in terms of its logical and dialectic reasoning; lastly, to use the
diagrams to develop strategies for maximizing public
understanding of important issues. A discussion of a small
section of the research leading to the first two aims forms the content of the current paper, research that involves the trialling of the conjunction of argumentation schemes (Walton 1996) with the software Araucaria (Reed and Rowe 2001), capable of diagramming the construction of reasoning in a particular set of argumentative texts.
The texts analysed are two sets of ‘columns’ of
argumentative journalism (‘op-eds’) from the two ‘rival’ daily newspapers in Melbourne Australia, The Age, and the Herald Sun (the readership of both together comprising the largest per-capita newspaper reading population in Australia), owned respectively by Fairfax Ltd., and
Rupert Murdoch’s News Ltd. Research of this type has not been done before in Australia in relation to newspaper arguments. Despite many studies on propaganda, bias, ethics, and news framing in the media, often focusing on the Australian media (see for example Hirst and Patching 2005), systematic empirical research into argumentative structures of news writing is tantalizingly absent.
Not only is it important that mediated arguments be
subject to analysis and critique, but also that the findings
from such research be presented so that a wide section of the public can understand logical argument structures,
and thus learn to decide for themselves whether
arguments in the media are logically and dialectically
reasoned. This is turn will aid citizens to engage
optimally in deliberation about important public issues. Research suggests that currently this is not occurring (Kuhn 1991, Van Gelder 2003). As Van Gelder states: “Deliberation is a form of thinking in which we decide
where we stand on some claims in the light of the
relevant arguments. It is common and important, whether in our personal, public or working lives. It is also
complicated, difficult and usually poorly done” (Van Gelder 2003, emphasis added). My project seeks to
address this problem by presenting some of the results in computer-generated graphic format—by making
argument maps. In this way, the inconsistencies, biases, and other fallacies will be able to be clearly understood
by as wide a section of the public as possible. The
benefit of such maps over verbal explanations has been articulated by Van Gelder (2003): “Although prose is the standard way to present reasoning, it is not a good tool for the job. Extracting the structure of evidential reasoning as typically presented in prose is very difficult and most
of the time we do it very badly…” It is hoped that my project will serve to make argument-mapping more
widely known and understood, in terms of both its use in assessing arguments presented in the media, as well as in its potential to improve reasoning and deliberation in the public sphere.
It is likely that some or many arguments will be found—by way of the argument-diagramming and subsequent evaluation—to be one-sided or dialectically ill-reasoned. The proportion found to be like this will have a major bearing on the conclusions of my project. If, for example, the majority of the arguments are found to be invalid, and not to contain a sequence of reasoning, this has serious implications for public understanding of and reasoning about important issues—that is, the skills of deliberation.
Some research has suggested that these skills are not
possessed by up to half the population (Kuhn 1991). But is this inability to deliberate over public arguments due to lack of “basic reasoning and argument skills”, or due to arguments presented by the media in ways that are
illogical, faultily-reasoned or one-sided? Is it possible that flawed or fallacious arguments in the public sphere might in some way be causally linked to this lack of basic
reasoning and argument skills, and so to the inability
of many to deliberate over important issues? Such
questions underpin the aims of my project, because
deliberation is crucial in any public sphere, not simply
because it is about achieving consensus, but rather
because it about seeking knowledge.
References
Australian Government: Australian Research Council.
National Research Priorities and Associated Priority Goals for 2004 – 2005. Consulted December 5 2005: http://www.arc.gov.au/grant_programs/
priority_areas.htm
Fowler, Roger (1996) Linguistic Criticism. Oxford: OUP.
Habermas, Jurgen. The Theory of Communicative
Action. Beacon Press, 1984.
Hirst, Martin, and Patching, Roger (2005) Journalism Ethics: Arguments and Cases. South Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Kuhn, D. (1991) The Skills of Argument. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lamb, Matthew (2005) ‘Left, Right, What’s Wrong?’ Meanjin, vol. 64, no. 3.
Niven, David (2002) Tilt? The Search for Media Bias. Westport & London: Praeger, 2002.
Reed and Norman 2004, Argumentation Machines: New Frontiers in Argumentation and
Computation. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Reed, Chris, and Rowe, Glenn (2001) ‘Araucaria Software for Puzzles in Argument Diagramming and XML.’ Consulted November 15 2005: http://babbage.
Computing.dundee.ac.uk/chris/publications/2001/technreport.pdf
Toulmin, S. E. (1950) The Place of Reason in Ethics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
van Eemeren, F. H. et al (1996a) Fundamentals of
Argumentation Theory: A Handbook of Historical Backgrounds and Contemporary Developments. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
van Eemeren, F. H. and. Grootendorst, R (1996b)
‘Developments in Argumentation Theory,’ in van Benthem, J, van Eemeren, F.H, Grootendorst, R and Veltman, F (eds.), Logic and Argumentation, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 9 – 26.
van Gelder, Tim (2003) ‘Enhancing Deliberation Through
Computer Supported Argument Mapping.’ Consulted
November 19 2005: http://www.arts.unimelb.
edu.au/~tgelder/Reason/papers/Enhancing_
Deliberation.pdf
Verheij, Bart (1996) Rules, Reasons, Arguments: Formal studies of Argumentation and Defeat. Dissertation. Universiteit of Maastricht. Consulted December 7 2005:http://www/ai.rug.nl/~verheij/publications/proefschrift/
Verheij, Bart (2001) Legal Knowledge Based Systems/ JURIX 1999: The Fourteenth Annual Conference (ed by Verheij, Bart et al), Amsterdam, Washington DC: IOS Press, 2001.
Walton, Douglas N. (1996) Argumentation Schemes for Presumptive Reasoning. New Jersey: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Walton, Douglas N. (1998a) The New Dialectic:
Conversational Contexts of Argument. Toronto:
University of Toronto Press.
Walton, Douglas N. (1998b) Ad Hominem Arguments. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Walton, Douglas N. (1999) One-Sided Arguments: A Dialectical Analysis of Bias. New York: State
University of New York Press, 1999.
Walton, Douglas, and Chris Reed (2002) ‘Diagramming, Argumentation Schemes and Critical Questions.’ ISSA, Amsterdam. Consulted November 19 2005: http://www.computing.dundee.ac.uk/staff/creed/
research/publications/2002/isse2002.pdf
Walton, Douglas, and Reed, C.A, (2005) ‘Argumentation Schemes aznd Enthymemes.’ Synthese (2005) 145: 339 – 370.
Webster, N. and Porter, N. (1913) Webster’s Revised Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language. Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam.
Zukerman, Ingrid (2004) Book Review of Argumentation: New Frontiers in Argumentation and Computation by Reed, Chris and Norman, Timothy J. (editors), Computational Linguistics, vol. 31, no. 1","txt","2","",""
"609","7","Digital Humanities or the Gradiva Complex","1","The aim of this study is to explore the mechanisms of digital contextualisation with respect to literary
studies. Reversing Willard Mc Carty’s definition of the field (“Humanities computing is an academic field
concerned with the application of computing tools to arts and humanities data or to their use in the creation of these
data”), I wish to examine in what way literary tools, in the broadest sense, apply to digital and digitised
documents; and, in return what these findings add to
literary studies and more specifically to literary analysis
proper. More specifically, I intend to show in what
respect the notion of the “Gradiva complex” in its widest
acceptation (breathing life into a fixed representation such as a statue), can apply to multimedia representation through the concrete study of two different interfaces.
In reference to this, I shall first briefly comment upon
the vexed link between modernity and tradition, a
paradox emblematic of Humanities Computing which
harmoniously blends the old and the new, giving a new lease of life to past ideas. Humanities Computing provides old representations with a brand new and dynamic frame. Such original context necessarily alters what it displays
and may therefore lead to new discoveries. This is why we should take a fresh look at old methodological habits and old academic divides.
Thanks to elaborate interactive devices, what up
until now seemed fixed and almost fossilised is literally
brought back to life and made more accessible to each one’s sensitivity. This is highlighted in the CD-ROM Freud, Archéologie de l’Inconscient where a sophisticated multimedia environment stages, among other things, the way in which memories are repressed. The section entitled
“Gradiva” - referring to Freud’s famous 1906 essay
Delusions and Dreams in Jensen’s Gradiva – digitally illustrates how Jensen’s short story acts as a literary parable for the psychoanalytic process of repression, disclosing
both the workings of the unconscious and those of
literature - more specifically here, the metaphorical process.
As we explore the CD-ROM and use the pointer to drag to the centre icons or hot-spots that would otherwise
remain partly hidden in the corners1, an eerie music starts
playing. The sounds echo the whirl of smoke that runs across the screen acting as some kind of Ariadne’s thread for the whole information display; it is an aesthetic
and vivid reminder of Freud’s presence. “Gradiva”, the name given to the Pompeii bas-relief representing the protagonist’s obsessive dream, is visually present at the centre but gradually buried under a pile of cinders. Meanwhile, a male voice-over reveals that the stone
woman is a masked figure for a long-forgotten love. The way in which information is made accessible prevents
the user from random investigation. If he or she remains passive, the screen is blurred; it is only when the user
deliberately points to a specific element that the latter figure
emerges from an ever-changing background (the process sometimes requires both patience and reflection, as when the next page is solely made accessible by piecing a
jigsaw together). The designing choices (roll-over,
invisible/visible layers) coincide with the issue at stake: the will to make sense of symptoms on the one hand, of signs and symbols on the other; a difficult quest for knowledge and understanding that mirrors both the
approach of psychoanalysts and of scholars.
The digital extract briefly evoked here can be interpreted as a modern expression of the “Gradiva complex”: the
desire to breathe life into a fixed and cold representation.
Such complex typifies the graphic designer’s art or
perhaps his or her fantasy. In this particular case, even though the CD-ROM is meant as a general introduction
to Freud’s discoveries, the fact that it relies on a
multimedia support implies constant cross-references not only to different forms of representation (static or dynamic, visual or auditory), but to different sources of knowledge (cinema, literature, photography, biology, medicine) that shed light on each other and add to the revivifying effect of the tool. Digital contextualisation
enhances our own understanding of each field’s
specific nature by hyperlinking it to what it isn’t:
maps, music, historical data etc. As McCarty puts it:
“Humanities computing [...] is methodological in nature and
interdisciplinary in scope”.
In the CD-ROM Georgian Cities, broaching 18th century Britain, a short animation accessible in the section entitled “A rhetorical comparison”, aptly illustrates ICTs’
metonymic nature: a quotation taken from Henry
Fielding’s The History of Tom Jones mentioning one of Hogarth’s prints (The Morning) pops up unawares from each corner of the screen while the parts of the engraving
successively referred to, are highlighted on the copy
displayed next to the words: “[Miss Bridget] I would
attempt to draw her picture, but that is done already by a more able master, Mr Hogarth himself, to whom she sat many years ago, and hath been lately exhibited by that gentleman in his print of a winter’s morning, of which she was no improper emblem, and may be seen walking (for walk she doth in the print) to Covent-Garden church, with a starved foot-boy behind, carrying her prayer
book.” [book one, chapter XI]. The preterition
device used by the narrator who initially “refers to [Miss
Bridget] by “professing” not to do so, consists in the ekphrastic depiction of one of Hogarth’s works. In the text, the witty depiction leads to the sketching-out of an almost grotesque figure. In the CD-ROM, the duplication
of the print, juxtaposed with the text discloses the
writer’s technique. Once faced with the actual visual representation, the reader is made to understand the ekphrasis’ literary purpose – to add distance between the subject and the imaginary object, to conceal whilst feigning to disclose. The object of literature and that of art in general remains unattainable, it lies beyond signs, beyond the visible.
In the examples aforementioned, the processes depicted seem to be duplicated by the multimedia device. The promotion of freedom that ICTs permit, along with their inherent dynamism, go hand in hand with the surfacing of cognitive processes invisible up to that point. Therein lies ICTs’ main interest in terms of innovative academic research.
Humanities Computing formally overcomes the paradox between the old and the new, it also gives rise to unique
questioning. It stresses the link which exists between the invisible but apt guidance involved in browsing and
the interactive dimension of the tool. This link is an
inextricable entanglement between apparent freedom and subtle guiding that has forever existed (notably with the literary notion of narrative viewpoint), but which is made more apparent here. Moreover, ICTs bring to
light the tie that exists between creativity and learning;
from objective data gathering and display, to the freest
associations of ideas, thanks to interactivity. All echo the way we learn what we learn: willingly and objectively but also haphazardly and subjectively. We learn because we want to or we have to, but also because the world leaves its mark onto us.
Instead of showing how new technologies can implement humanities technically-wise, I would therefore like to show how the new medium enhances literary theory in itself; in other words - how does praxis affect theory? How from the objective compilation of documents, all rationally organised and displayed, does one move to the more irrational, and the more creative? How does one shift from the objective, the technical and the logical to the more poetical association of ideas; from knowledge acquisition to creativity? If one follows the statements put forward by the philosopher Paul Ricoeur in The Rule of Metaphor, the metaphorical process - at the core of all literary practices - stems from the context not the actual word. It is the whole that prevails, not the part; or rather, the whole is meant in each of its parts and vice-versa. Once again, isn’t it most fortunate that the new medium should now be utilized in order to enhance these very ideas?
To illustrate these points, I will use a Powerpoint
presentation displaying relevant recorded extracts taken from the two cultural CD-ROMs aforementioned.
Footnotes
1 This reversal is in itself significant.
References
Aarseth, E. (1997). Cybertext. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Andersen, P. B. (1997). A Theory of Computer Semiotics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Barthes, R. (1980). La Chambre claire. Paris: Le Seuil Gallimard.
Barthes, R. (1977). “The photographic message”. Image Music Text. Translated by Stephen Heath. New York: Hill and Wang. Barthes, R. (1970). S/Z. Paris: Le Seuil.
Black, M. (1979). “More about Metaphor.” A. Ortony. Metaphor and Thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Bloom, P. (1996). Language and Space. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT press.
Camara, A S. (1999). Spatial Multimedia and Virtual Reality. London: Taylor.
Chernaik, W., Deegan M. & A. Gibson, Eds. (1996). Beyond the Book: Theory, Culture, and the Politics
of Cyberspace. Oxford: Office for Humanities
Communication Publications 7.
Crang, M., P. Crang & J. May. (1999). Virtual
Geographies. Bodies, Space and Relations. London: Routledge.
Cubitt, S. (1998). Digital Aesthetics. London: Sage.
Deegan, M. & S. Tanner. (2002). Digital Futures:
Strategies for the Information Age. London: Library Association Publishing.
Delany, P. & G. P. Landow. (1991). Hypermedia and Literary Studies. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Didi-Huberman, G. (2001). L’Homme qui marchait dans la couleur. Paris: Les Editions de Minuit.
Dodge, M. & R. Kitchin. (2001). Mapping Cyberspace. London: Routledge.
Fauconnier, G. (1997). Mappings in Thought and
Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fielding H. (1707). The History of Tom Jones. (1996). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Freud, S. (1907). Le Délire et les rêves dans la « Gradiva »
de W. Jensen. (précédé de) Jensen, W. Gradiva,
fantaisie pompéienne. (1986). Paris: Folio.
Foucault, M. (1966). Les Mots et les choses. Une
archéologie des sciences humaines. Paris: Gallimard.
Gallet-Blanchard, L. & M.-M. Martinet. (2002).
“Hypermedia and Urban Culture: a Presentation on the CD-Rom Georgian Cities”. Jahrbuch für
Computerphilologie n°4.
Gallet-Blanchard, L. & M.-M. Martinet. (2000). Georgian Cities cdrom. C.A.T.I. Paris: Presses de l’Université Paris-Sorbonne.
Genette, G. (1972). Figures III. Paris: Le Seuil.
Gunthert, A. (mai 1997). « Le complexe de Gradiva. Théorie de la photographie, deuil et résurrection». Etudes photographiques n°2. Paris: Société française de photographie, 115-128.
Kristeva, J. (1980). Desire in Language. A Semiotic
Approach to Literature and Art. New York: Columbia
University Press.
Landow, G.P. (1992). Hypertext. The Convergence of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology.
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Michaud, P.- A. (1998). Aby Warburg et l’image en
mouvement. Paris: Macula.
McCarty, W. (1998). “What is Humanities Computing? Toward a Definition of the Field.”
http://www.kcl.ac.uk/humanities/cch/wlm/essays/what>
Richards, I.A. (1936). The Philosophy of Rhetoric. New York: Oxford University Press.
Ricoeur, P. (1975). La Métaphore vive. Paris: Le Seuil.
Sutherland, K. & M. Deegan. (1997). Electronic Text. Investigations in Method and Theory. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
Sigmund Freud, Archéologie de l’Inconscient. Portrait du Herr Doktor cdrom. (2000). Paris: Syrinx/Le Seuil Multimédia.
Tolva, J. “Ut Pictura Hyperpoesis: Spatial Form,
Visuality, and the Digital World” http://www.cs.unc.edu/~barman/HT96/P43/pictura.htm","txt","2","",""
"610","7","Familles narratologiques et balisage du roman contemporain","1","L’exposé qui suit s’efforce de définir les dimensions de description du roman dans une perspective qui souhaite joindre profilage des textes et linguistique textuelle pour une caractérisation linguistique de familles narratologiques. Les dimensions de description privilégiées portent sur le dispositif énonciatif du roman et concernent la désignation des actants principaux, les niveaux de diégèse et leurs attributs, les séquences de discours rapportés, leurs locuteurs et segments introducteurs, les descriptions focalisées. La méthodologie choisie est celle de la TEI par sa proximité avec XML et les avantages d’interopérabilité. Nous avons enrichi les balises de la TEI concernant le <textClass> et le <profileDesc> et défini un nouveau corps de balises pour décrire les catégories définies plus haut. Nous donnons ensuite un exemple d’exploitation de textes XMLisés par une analyse contrastive des deux parties correspondant à deux types de narrateur dans Le Ravissement de Lol V. Stein de M. Duras. Nous soulignons enfin les problèmes liés à l’exploitation de balisages assez fins : problèmes des chevauchements de balise pour lesquels la solution n’est pas consensuelle, problème de la lisibilité des textes balisés et des désavantages d’un mélange des différentes couches sémiotiques du balisage, problème du manque d’outils conviviaux pour l’analyse topologique des balises et pour la caractérisation des occurrences par leur chemin dans l’arborescence. L’exposé qui va suivre s’inscrit dans une démarche initiée en 2000 sur la caractérisation linguistique des genres écrits, à l’intérieur d’une linguistique textuelle et mettant en jeu la méthodologie TEI de balisage des textes. Il sera centré sur la définition des dimensions nécessaires à la description du genre romanesque et donc sur la création de balises non définies par la TEI; il fera des propositions concernant le développement de nouvelles modalités de questionnement, devenues nécessaires dès que le balisage des séquences textuelles dépasse en richesse et complexité le simple balisage des <div>. Je terminerai par un exemple d’exploitation de roman balisé à l’intérieur du corpus des oeuvres écrites de Duras, en cours de constitution.
1 – Bref historique de la démarche Cette démarche part du présupposé que, sur le versant littéraire, les recherches en poétique ou stylistique ne peuvent que s’appuyer sur une analyse linguistique de la matérialité des textes et que, sur le versant linguistique, l’analyse sémantique d’un énoncé implique une linguistique textuelle, qui va définir comment les traits génériques d’un texte vont contraindre l’analyse syntaxique de la phrase. Le genre apparaît comme un concept nécessaire à cette démarche, car le genre est le lieu où s’articulent les contextes d’énonciation et les normes langagières; c’est le lieu où s’explicitent les jeux des différentes sémiotiques qui informent le texte et contraignent les dimensions cognitives de l’interprétation. L’objectif poursuivi consiste à établir un pont entre la démarche de profilage et la linguistique textuelle. Peut-on caractériser linguistiquement des familles narratives à l’intérieur du roman? La démarche inductive de profilage de 2540 textes à partir de 250 variables morpho-syntaxiques issues de l’analyseur Cordial1 (Malrieu et Rastier, 2001), efficace pour différencier les domaines et champs génériques s’est avérée peu probante pour dessiner des familles narratives au sein du roman “sérieux” (le premier facteur n’expliquant pas plus de 30% de la variance). La démarche inductive de classification des romans rencontrait plusieurs obstacles :
- non disponibilité de corpus raisonnés de romans contemporains suffisamment étoffés.
- nécessité de repenser les variables morphosyntaxiques à prendre en compte dans la classification (insuffisance des variables disponibles dans Cordial : nous en avons redéfini environ 300).
- le profilage permet de catégoriser mais non de comprendre les effets du texte: les calculs obtenus sur le texte dans sa globalité effectuent un lissage qui dilue les différences; le roman est par essence un texte composite (par ex le fort taux de 1PS ne peut différencier le roman homodiégétique et le roman hétérodiégétique fortement dialogué). De plus, la désambiguïsation d’un énoncé implique la prise en compte de séquences inférieures au texte, séquences informées par le genre mais qu’il faut caractériser en tant que telles. D’où l’abandon temporaire de la démarche inductive sur textes entiers pour passer à une représentation qui prenne en compte le genre comme dispositif énonciatif. 2. – Le genre comme dispositif énonciatif : En reformulant les hypothèses de Bakhtine, on peut avancer que le genre définit des contraintes interprétatives par un réglage du dispositif énonciatif , lié aux rapports sociaux et au dispositif communicationnel; il s’exprime dans des structures textuelles préférentielles et dans la prédilection pour certains types d’énoncés.Dans le roman, ce dispositif énonciatif est configuré par un projet esthétique (Danon Boileau, 1982), à la fois dans le mode d’allocution narrateur narrataire, dans la mimésis (les différents discours rapportés, leur poids, leur agencement) (Malrieu 2004), dans le mode de référenciation (dénomination vs désignation qualifiante ou anonymat) (cf plus bas une analyse contrastive des deux types de narrateur dans le Ravissement de Lol V. Stein de M Duras).La nature de l’univers fictif dépend du projet esthétique de l’auteur. Celui-ci contraint la triangulation des rapports narrateur-lecteur, narrateur-personnages, lecteur-personnages. Le roman peut aménager des scènes énonciatives assez diverses, qui dépendent de la place du narrateur dans le récit, de son ethos (narrateur omniscient ou pas, distancié ou empathique, critique de façon explicite ou indirecte, menant un récit anachronique ou pas).
3 - Les dimensions de description et la méthodologie de balisage: Il s’agit donc de définir les dimensions de description de ces scènes énonciatives qui peuvent être instables à l’intérieur d’une oeuvre. (On laissera ici de côté le dispositif particulier du roman épistolaire)2. La méthodologie de balisage choisie est celle de la TEI, car elle présente les avantages d’un standard international lié à XML. Le balisage de la structure arborescente du document est donc celui défini par la TEI; mais nous avons ajouté, en fonction des besoins de description, de nouvelles balises :
- Les diégèses : celles-ci sont décrites pour le texte entier dans le <profileDesc> et balisées dans le <body> : nombre de niveaux d’enchâssement de diégèses; nombre de diégèses de chaque niveau; longueur moyenne des diégèses de chaque niveau; chaque diégèse est balisée et décrite par ses attributs : son niveau, type de narrateur (intra- vs extradiégétique; hétéro- vs homodiégétique), l’identité du narrateur et des personnages appartenant à la diégèse, temps du récit de la diégèse, sa longueur.
- Les focalisations : descriptions focalisées avec identité du foyer optique.
- Les registres de la parole : la parole prononcée (discours direct ou rapporté), la parole intérieure (sous-conversation consciente); leurs marquages explicites sont liés soit à la ponctuation (tiret ou guillemets), soit à des introducteurs du dire (verbes introducteurs ou en incise). Concernant les discours rapportés (DR), on a défini :
- La liste des types de discours rapportés avec un who (identifiant), un speaker éventuel, un whom allocutaire explicite3 ; les segments (le plus souvent propositions ou incises) introducteurs de discours rapportés. (L’automatisation du balisage du DD paraît de prime abord la plus facile ; cependant il est nécessaire d’affecter préalablement le texte à la famille de marquage adéquate (familles que nous avons définies par ailleurs).
<q type=”DD”> désigne le discours direct.
<q type=”DI”> désigne le discours indirect.
<q type=”DDR”> désigne le discours direct rapporté.
<q type=”DRN”> désigne le discours rapporté narrativisé.
<q type=”DIN”> désigne le discours indirect narrativisé.
<q type=”MI”> désigne le monologue intérieur en DD</catDesc
<q type=”MII”> désigne le monologue intérieur en DI.
<q type=”MIN”> désigne le monologue intérieur narrativisé.
<q type=”disc_rapp”> désigne le discussion rapportée résumée.
<q type=”soCalled”> désigne le citation non prise en charge, modalisation autonyme. On éclate donc le discours indirect libre en MIN et DRN.
<ab type=”TdP”><desc>description d’un tour de parole dans une séquence dialoguée par les attributs facultatifs </desc>:
who : désigne le locuteur du tour de parole
whom : par défaut l’interlocuteur
activity : activités et mouvements du locuteur
<seg ana=”geste”> : gestuelle liée à la parole
<q type=”DD” rend=”tiret”>contenu des paroles prononcées en discours direct</q>
Les introducteurs de DR : <seg ana=”incise_di”> balise l’incise de dire; <seg ana=”int”> balise les introducteurs de DD ou le DI
<seg ana=”incise_pe”> : balise l’incise de discours intérieur (MI).
L’attribution dans le roman du locuteur d’un tour de parole dans les dialogues doit pouvoir être partiellement automatisé à partir d’une description des familles de marquages du DD selon les périodes et auteurs.
- Le psycho-récit : description par le narrateur de la vie mentale et affective du personnage sans reproduction de celle-ci; le codage du psycho-récit est effectué sur la base de présence dans la phrase de lexique lié à la cognition ou à la vie affective et émotionnelle du personnage, autre que l’expressivité gestuelle.
- La description des personnages du roman dans
<particDesc> : dénomination des personnages et des locuteurs : on déclare les personnages par leur nom propre (“reg”), par le key, par leur rôle, on note la <div> d’apparition et de disparition du personnage et /ou de sa dénomination par un nom propre dans le texte. L’établissement des actants principaux d’une diégèse se fait par repérage des noms propres
humains et des noms communs avec déterminant
défini singulier les plus fréquents dans la diégèse. On a ainsi les personnages principaux sans nom propre et les actants non humains principaux (qu’on peut aussi identifier par calcul des spécificités, par ex. dans Moderato Cantabile : la fleur de magnolia, la musique, la mer).
Un exemple de profileDesc pour Moderato cantabile:
<profileDesc>
<textClass>
<domaines>littérature</domaines>
<gn>ro.ps</gn>
</textClass>
<totDieg nbNiv=”2”/>
<diegNiv2 nb=”1” surf=”?”/> <diegNiv1 id=”1” narr=”extra_hétérodiég” narTemp=”pas”>
<particDesc><personae key=”ad ch pa enf mg pa in”/> </particDesc> </diegNiv1>
<diegNiv2 id=”2” narr=”intra_hétérodiég” narTemp=”pas pres”><particDesc> <personae key= “Fas Has”/>
<particDesc><personae key=”pa Fas Has”/></particDesc></diegNiv2
<seqNiv2 id=”2” nb=”?” lm=”?”/>
< catDesc>nombre de séquences de la diégèse “2” de niveau 2; longueur moyenne de ces séquences</catDesc>
</totDieg>
Un extrait de texte balisé :
<ab locus=”appartement_de_mg”>
<p><q type=”DD” rend=”tiret”>- Veux-tu lire ce qu’il y a d’écrit au-dessus de ta partition? <seg ana=”incise_di”> demanda la dame.
</seg></q> </p>
<p><q type=”DD” rend=”tiret”>- Moderato cantabile<seg ana=”incise_di”>dit l’enfant
</seg>.</q> </p>
<p><seg ana=”geste”>La dame ponctua cette réponse d’un coup de crayon sur le clavier.
</seg> <seg ana=”geste”>L’enfant resta immobile, la tête tournée vers la partition.
</seg> </p>
<p><q type=”DD” rend=”tiret”>- Et qu’est-ce que ça veut dire, moderato cantabile?</q> </p>
<p><q type=”DD” rend=”tiret”>- Je ne sais pas.</q> </p>
<p><seg ana=”geste”>Une femme, assise à trois mètres de là, soupira.</seg></p>
<p><q type=”DD” rend=”tiret”>- Tu es sûr de ne pas savoir ce que ça veut dire, moderato cantabile? <seg ana=”incise_di”> reprit la dame. </seg></q> </p>
<p>L’enfant ne répondit pas. <seg ana=”geste”><PR>La dame poussa un cri d’impuissance étouffé,</PR> tout en frappant de nouveau le clavier de son crayon.</seg> <seg ana=”geste”>Pas un cil de l’enfant ne bougea.</seg><seg ana=”geste”> La dame se retourna.</seg> </p>
<p><q type=”DD” rend=”tiret”>- Madame Desbaresdes, quelle tête vous avez là<seg ana=”incise_di”>, dit-elle</seg>.</q></p>
Balisage des diégèses dans le <body>:
<diegNiv2><p><q type=”DD” rend=”tiret”>- Ce cri était si fort que vraiment il est bien naturel que l’on cherche à savoir. J’aurais pu difficilement éviter de le faire, voyez-vous.
</q> </p></diegNiv2>
<p>Elle but son vin, le troisième verre.</p>
<diegNiv2><p><q type=”DD” rend=”tiret”>- Ce que je sais, c’est qu’il lui a tiré une balle dans le coeur.</q> </p></diegNiv2>
<p>Deux clients entrèrent. Ils reconnurent cette femme au comptoir, s’étonnèrent.</p>
<diegNiv2><p><q type=”DD” rend=”tiret”>- Et, évidemment, on ne peut pas savoir pourquoi ?</q> </p></diegNiv2>
4 – L’exploitation du corpus XMLisé
L’exploitation des textes balisés reste malheureusement encore très peu ergonomique et conviviale pour le public littéraire ou linguistique et bon nombre de fonctionnalités souhaitables ne sont guère accessibles pour le moment.
- On définit d’abord l’espace de recherche : corpus entier vs sous ensemble de textes défini par un (ou +) trait(s) balisé(s) dans l’en-tête vs un texte.
Ex : l’étude des modaux dans le roman implique de prendre en compte d’un côté (modaux) type de verbes, temps et personnes verbaux; de l’autre (corpus) de prendre en compte le champ générique et le genre (balisé dans l’en-tête dans <textClass>) et dans le roman i) le temps du récit de la diégèse en cours; ii) la séquence en cours : type de DR vs discours narratorial.
- Analyses statistiques contrastives : On peut donner quelques exemples d’exploitations pratiquées sur le roman : o type de narrateur et surface relative des différents DR (Malrieu, 2004)
o les données statistiques morpho-syntaxiques peuvent diagnostiquer certains traits narratologiques : l’étiquetage des verbes du seul discours narratorial permet de voir s’il s’agit d’un récit au passé ou au présent; l’examen sur les différentes div de ce discours permet de voir si ce temps du récit est stable ou pas. De même le poids de la 1S dans ce discours narratorial permet de dire s’il s’agit d’un récit homodiégétique.
o Les modes de désignation des personnages: dénomination vs désignations autres selon les séquences textuelles. Sur un corpus important de romans, et dans une optique plus socio-historique, on peut envisager toutes sortes d’exploitation statistique de données synchroniques ou diachroniques, sur les genres, les actants, les lieux, les moments privilégiés des diégèses, etc.
- L’analyse topologique des balises: ce genre d’analyse n’est pas pratiqué sur l’écrit, (il l’est davantage sur les corpus oraux), il présente un grand intérêt et demanderait le développement de fonctionnalités spécifiques: les cooccurrences, positions respectives, enchaînements, rythmes, répétitions de balises fournissent des informations précieuses sur le fonctionnement du texte et peuvent donner lieu à des visualisations graphiques résumant la répartition d’un phénomène ou d’une classe de phénomènes dans le texte: ex dans le roman, les enchaînements gestuelle/psycho-récit; psycho-récit/monologue intérieur/ DD; sans parler des rythmes prosodiques.
- Concordanciers enrichis : le balisage des séquences textuelles permet un saut qualitatif dans la caractérisation des occurrences d’un phénomène étudié : en effet, on ne dispose plus seulement du contexte d’une occurrence dans une fenêtre de taille n, mais on doit pouvoir caractériser chaque occurrence par l’information sur ses contextes ascendants ou chemins dans l’arborescence: ex : occurrences de on sujet de telle catégorie de verbe à tel temps, selon les contextes: proposition principale ou relative ou conditionnelle; phrase interrogative vs déclarative; type de discours rapporté vs narratorial; paragraphe d’introduction de chapitre, etc; ex : densité des on selon les chapitres du roman et leurs types de séquences dominantes.
- Aide à la désambiguïsation par la prise en compte du contexte balisé: On peut considérer que la prise en compte de l’arborescence des unités supraphrastiques pour l’aide à la désambiguïsation des acceptions (ou des valeurs des temps verbaux par exemple) est un domaine encore en friche : le problème du coût de constitution des corpus finement enrichis fait pencher la balance vers les traitements statistiques lourds sur corpus pauvrement annotés. Mais il n’est pas évident que le coût final de ce dernier choix soit moindre, et la mutualisation de corpus richement annotés permettrait des exploitations illimitées dans les différentes disciplines des sciences du langage ou littéraires. ex : les modes de résolution de la référence anaphorique diffèrent selon que l’on est dans une séquence dialoguée ou dans le discours narratorial. ex : valeur des temps verbaux : si on est dans un genre narratif, si le temps du récit de la diégèse en cours = passé, si le conditionnel est dans un DI, alors le conditionnel a de fortes chances d’être un futur du passé. 5 - Un exemple d’analyse comparée des narrateurs à l’intérieur d’un oeuvre de M. Duras
Les ruptures narratoriales à l’intérieur d’un oeuvre ne sont pas rares chez Duras. Nous allons essayer de qualifier linguistiquement les deux configurations successives à l’intérieur du Ravissement de Lol V. Stein4: d’abord narrateur intra-hétérodiégétique, puis intra-
homodiégétique. Ces deux configurations n’autorisent pas le même psycho-récit (Cohn). L’intradiégéticité met en scène un narrateur qui peut à la fois affirmer son non savoir sur le passé de Lol et impliquer le lecteur dans ses interrogations et s’adonner à un psycho-récit très empathique et projectif qui dépasse largement la parole intérieure ou le savoir du personnage sur lui-même. Le passage au récit homodiégétique affirme la thèse épistémique de Duras : il n’y a de connaissance de l’autre que dans la relation : le récit de cette deuxième partie favorise l’emprise du lecteur en combinant le mimétisme (récit au présent, dialogues en discours direct), et le psycho-récit du vécu du narrateur dans ses réactions à Lol, les deux étant intimement mêlés.
Pour comparer les deux parties, nous avons balisé selon la méthodologie de la TEI-XML5 les différents discours rapportés, les séquences narratoriales (intradiégétiques homo- vs hétérodiégétiques) ainsi que le psycho-récit6. Les variables utilisent les sorties de l’analyseur CORDIAL.
Résultats : Poids des différents discours dans les deux parties Par rapport à la surface totale en nombre de mots de chaque partie, le récit évènementiel (ce qui n’est ni discours rapportés (DR), ni psycho-récit (PR)) occupe des surfaces similaires (environ 40%). Le PR occupe une place plus importante dans le partie hétérodiégétique (38,5% contre 22%), le credo du narrateur sur Lol. La partie homodiégétique comporte davantage de discours direct (DD : 23% de la surface contre 2%) par contre les DR narrativisés sont moins importants (DRN 40%, MIN 15% et le DI 20% dans l’hétérodiégétique7 n’atteignent pas 10% dans la partie Ho). La partie homodiégétique connaît une configuration déictique cohérente : présentification du récit, dont le poids du DD est l’expression, récit au présent, marques déictiques spatiales (immédiateté du corporel et du visuel, qui embarque le lecteur dans un espace partagé). Les temps verbaux : Comme le montre le Tableau 1, l’homodiégétique est massivement dans le présent8, le passé (IMP, PS et PQP) est plus important dans le récit hétérodiégétique (récit Hé).
PR-Ho
PR-Hé
Présent indic
70,2
41,4
Imparfait
5,7
21,9
PS
1,5
11,4
PC
10,5
5,7
Futur
4,2
0,2
Conditionnel
3,4
E193,6
PQP
0,5
7
Impératif
0,8
0,7
Tableau 1 : Les temps dans les deux psycho-récits Les propriétés de la phrase : longueur et ponctuations faibles La distinction du récit évènementiel (récit tout court) et du PR permet d’analyser en quoi l’expressivité des affects et l’idéalisation dans le PR sont corrélés avec des rythmes de phrase différents du récit et d’explorer si ces derniers diffèrent dans l’homo- et l’hétérodiégétique. Nous avons observé la répartition des longueurs de la phrase : le PR, plus nettement le PR Hé, connaît des phrases plus longues que le récit, ce qui confirmerait le caractère plus élaboré du PR dans la partie Hé (plus fort % de substantifs et adjectifs/ mots signifiants, de noms abstraits, de pronoms relatifs); l’hétérodiégétique (récit comme PR) connaît des phrases plus longues que l’homodiégétique. On observe davantage de phrases très brèves dans le récit Ho (10,4% contre 2%). Les phrases ≤ 7mots représentent 18,5% dans le PR Hé contre 30,6% dans le PR Ho.
PR-Ho
PR-Hé
Réc-Ho
Réc-Hé
Hiérarchie
Quartile 1
6
8
5
7
PR Hé > autres
Médiane
12 14
8
12
PR Hé > autres
Quartile 3
21
24
13
18
PR > Récit
Tableau 2 – Répartition des longueurs des phrases en nombre de mots
Nombre de virgules et longueur des phrases :
a) récit homo vs hétérodiégétique :
nombre de virgules : le récit Ho comporte davantage
de phrases sans virgule (63,3% contre 52,8%), le
récit Hé plus de phrases de 2 à 3 virgules.
b) PR homo- vs hétérodiégétique :
Nombre de virgules : le PR Ho, qui connaît des phrases plus courtes, comporte davantage de phrases sans virgules, moins de phrases à 2 ou plus de 4 virgules, sans exclure l’existence de phrases de 8 à 18 virgules. Les phrases à plus de 5 virgules représentent 4,5% dans le PR Ho contre 6,5% dans le PR Hé. Les différences entre homo- et hétérodiégéticité montrent entre autres que l’homodiégétique est dominé par des phrases brèves, il est moins dans la représentation au passé d’un point de vue externe, plus dans la vivacité des évènements au présent. L’homodiégéticité induit une autre forme de psycho-récit : elle autorise moins l’intrusion du discours narratorial de l’auteur et le psycho-récit s’inscrit par petites touches, par phrases brèves à l’intérieur du récit évènementiel ou des dialogues. Cependant elle n’interdit pas la phrase fortement rythmée, exprimant l’exacerbation des affects (cf. l’apparition de la virgule dans des phrases plus courtes et le plus grand nombre de virgules dans les phrases longues dans le psycho-récit homodiégétique). Les indices thématiques : fréquence comparée des lexèmes La comparaison des lexiques des différentes parties vient confirmer ces différences9. Les calculs suivants portent sur les lemmes et non sur les formes. Le % d’hapax /au nombre de lemmes différents de chaque récit ou PR montre davantage d’hapax dans les PR (60% contre 52 et 57% dans le récit homo et le récit hétéro). On peut donc dire que le psycho-récit est le lieu de la richesse lexicale, ce qui n’a rien de surprenant, vu son affinité avec la prose poétique. Les lemmes statistiquement plus fréquents dans les PR par rapport aux récits correspondent à un lexique ayant trait aux affects (absence, aimer, amour, coeur, craindre, douleur, dieu, larme, idée, ignorer, inconnu, infini, joie, mensonge, mentir, mort, nommer, ordre, penser, peur, rêve, souffrance, souffrir, souvenir, souhaiter, surprendre, tristesse) mais aussi l’adjectif démonstratif singulier, certains connecteurs (alors que, mais). L’examen du lexique plus fréquent dans le psycho récit Hé / total indique un déficit pour les pronoms personnels 1S, et une surreprésentation des adjectifs démonstratifs et interrogatifs, de l’exclamation, qui marquent l’implication du narrateur, des privatifs (ignorance, immobilité, immuable, impossible, inconnu, inconsolable, infini, infirme, inimportance, vain), des références au monde distal (infini, monde, univers, murer, terre, dieu, pénétrer, nom, nommer, avenir, à jamais), des métaphores (aurore, cendre, port, hiver, lumière, été, jour, nuit,navire, blancheur d’os, souffle, trou, mot-trou, mot- absence, gong etc). Les spécificités du lexique du psycho-récit Ho par rapport au lexique total (récit + PR) concernent, à côté du pronom personnel ou possessif 1S, les pronoms quantificateurs (tout et rien) ou les adverbes évaluatifs (trop, si), le lexique affectif (larme, mentir, mensonge, souhaiter, joie, amour, peur, épouvante, rêver, sentiment, victoire, coeur, mort, souffrir, aimer, apaiser, accueillir, broyer, confiance, détruire, douceur, effrayer, horreur etc), le lexique épistémique (version, comprendre, ignorer, sens, savoir, se tromper). Conclusion S’il est bien clair que le literary computing et plus précisément la méthodologie de balisage liée à XML et à la TEI autorisent maintenant des analyses contrastives fines des textes, il me semble que les obstacles à surmonter pour convaincre la communauté des littéraires (qui est loin de partager ce point de vue dans sa majorité) sont de quatre ordres :
- arriver à constituer des corpus balisés suffisamment volumineux et mutualiser ces ressources : pour cela il faut surmonter le goulot d’étranglement concernant le passage au format XML. Si le balisage de la structure logique du texte est évidemment d’un intérêt très limité pour l’analyse des textes littéraires, il paraît possible et nécessaire de développer des outils de balisage automatique modulables selon les genres textuels. Par exemple, le balisage de la valeur sémantique de l’italique pourrait être automatisé car son usage est réglé à l’intérieur d’un genre, de même le balisage du discours direct à l’intérieur des familles chronologiques de son marquage typographique; de même le balisage des entités nommées et des actants principaux dans le roman. 
- Un travail collectif de représentation des connaissances liées à un balisage plus fin que la structure logique s’avère nécessaire; une mutualisation
des représentations des balises gagnerait aussi à se définir selon les grands genres de textes (poésie, roman, articles de presse, etc).
- L’intégration des étiquetages morpho-syntaxiques et syntaxiques au sein d’un corpus XMLisé n’est pas non plus aisée pour l’instant. Le problème d’une représentation ergonomique du balisage se pose aussi et la difficulté à lire les corpus lourdement “farcis” pousserait à une séparation en portée des différentes couches de balises (structure logique, séquences textuelles autres, balisage morpho-syntaxique, balisage prosodique etc.).
- Enfin l’exploitation des textes balisés est pour l’instant loin d’être conviviale pour le linguiste ou littéraire non programmeur, et il semble urgent de mettre à la disposition de ces communautés des outils de questionnement qui autorisent aussi bien la qualification de toute occurrence par son chemin dans l’arborescence du texte, que l’analyse topologique de la répartition des balises dans le texte, que la visualisation des occurrences d’un phénomène au sein du texte source. plus dans la vivacité des évènements au présent. L’homodiégéticité induit une autre forme de psycho-récit : elle autorise moins l’intrusion du discours narratorial de l’auteur et le psycho-récit s’inscrit par petites touches, par phrases brèves à l’intérieur du récit évènementiel ou des dialogues. Cependant elle n’interdit pas la phrase fortement rythmée, exprimant l’exacerbation des affects (cf. l’apparition de la virgule dans des phrases plus courtes et le plus grand nombre de virgules dans les phrases longues dans le psycho-récit homodiégétique). Les indices thématiques : fréquence comparée des lexèmes La comparaison des lexiques des différentes parties vient confirmer ces différences9. Les calculs suivants portent sur les lemmes et non sur les formes. Le % d’hapax /au nombre de lemmes différents de chaque récit ou PR montre davantage d’hapax dans les PR (60% contre 52 et 57% dans le récit homo et le récit hétéro). On peut donc dire que le psycho-récit est le lieu de la richesse lexicale, ce qui n’a rien de surprenant, vu son affinité avec la prose poétique. Les lemmes statistiquement plus fréquents dans les PR par rapport aux récits correspondent à un lexique ayant trait aux affects (absence, aimer, amour, coeur, craindre, douleur, dieu, larme, idée, ignorer, inconnu, infini, joie, mensonge, mentir, mort, nommer, ordre, penser, peur, rêve, souffrance, souffrir, souvenir, souhaiter, surprendre, tristesse) mais aussi l’adjectif démonstratif singulier, certains connecteurs (alors que, mais). L’examen du lexique plus fréquent dans le psycho récit Hé / total indique un déficit pour les pronoms personnels 1S, et une surreprésentation des adjectifs démonstratifs et interrogatifs, de l’exclamation, qui marquent l’implication du narrateur, des privatifs (ignorance, immobilité, immuable, impossible, inconnu, inconsolable, infini, infirme, inimportance, vain), des références au monde distal (infini, monde, univers, murer, terre, dieu, pénétrer, nom, nommer, avenir, à jamais), des métaphores (aurore, cendre, port, hiver, lumière, été, jour, nuit,navire, blancheur d’os, souffle, trou, mot-trou, mot- absence, gong etc). Les spécificités du lexique du psycho-récit Ho par rapport au lexique total (récit + PR) concernent, à côté du pronom personnel ou possessif 1S, les pronoms quantificateurs (tout et rien) ou les adverbes évaluatifs (trop, si), le lexique affectif (larme, mentir, mensonge, souhaiter, joie, amour, peur, épouvante, rêver, sentiment, victoire, coeur, mort, souffrir, aimer, apaiser, accueillir, broyer, confiance, détruire, douceur, effrayer, horreur etc), le lexique épistémique (version, comprendre, ignorer, sens, savoir, se tromper). Conclusion S’il est bien clair que le literary computing et plus précisément la méthodologie de balisage liée à XML et à la TEI autorisent maintenant des analyses contrastives fines des textes, il me semble que les obstacles à surmonter pour convaincre la communauté des littéraires (qui est loin de partager ce point de vue dans sa majorité) sont de quatre ordres :
- arriver à constituer des corpus balisés suffisamment volumineux et mutualiser ces ressources : pour cela il faut surmonter le goulot d’étranglement concernant le passage au format XML. Si le balisage de la structure logique du texte est évidemment d’un intérêt très limité pour l’analyse des textes littéraires, il paraît possible et nécessaire de développer des outils de balisage automatique modulables selon les genres textuels. Par exemple, le balisage de la valeur sémantique de l’italique pourrait être automatisé car son usage est réglé à l’intérieur d’un genre, de même le balisage du discours direct à l’intérieur des familles chronologiques de son marquage typographique; de même le balisage des entités nommées et des actants principaux dans le roman. 
- Un travail collectif de représentation des connaissances liées à un balisage plus fin que la structure logique s’avère nécessaire; une mutualisation
des représentations des balises gagnerait aussi à se définir selon les grands genres de textes (poésie, roman, articles de presse, etc).
- L’intégration des étiquetages morpho-syntaxiques et syntaxiques au sein d’un corpus XMLisé n’est pas non plus aisée pour l’instant. Le problème d’une représentation ergonomique du balisage se pose aussi et la difficulté à lire les corpus lourdement “farcis” pousserait à une séparation en portée des différentes couches de balises (structure logique, séquences textuelles autres, balisage morpho-syntaxique, balisage prosodique etc.).
- Enfin l’exploitation des textes balisés est pour l’instant loin d’être conviviale pour le linguiste ou littéraire non programmeur, et il semble urgent de mettre à la disposition de ces communautés des outils de questionnement qui autorisent aussi bien la qualification de toute occurrence par son chemin dans l’arborescence du texte, que l’analyse topologique de la répartition des balises dans le texte, que la visualisation des occurrences d’un phénomène au sein du texte source.
","txt","2","",""
"611","7","De - Constructing the e - Learning Pipeline","1","For the ‘hard-core’ computing humanist, e-learning seems to be a non-topic.1 While foundational issues
and Humanities Computing (HC) curriculum development have been central to our debates, the technological and didactical nitty-gritty of e-learning appears to offer little
insight into questions of theoretical and conceptual
relevance. - This contribution argues to the contrary:
(1) The current form of e-learning is shaped to a significant degree by business and political interests.
(2) Consequently, some of the dominant commercial
e-learning platforms are conceptually flawed: they are implicitly based on a simplistic ‘cognitive
pipeline’-model of learning.
(3) HC can help to deconstruct simplistic e-models of learning and contribute towards a more ‘intelligent’ computational modelling of learning processes.
(4) The latter will be demonstrated by way of a practical example, the intermedial narratological e-course ‘NarrNetz’.
(1) Vested interests
The impression of e-learning as a non-inspiring ‘coal-face’ activity is partly a result of its swift appropriation by commercial software vendors. Indeed: there’s considerable money in e-learning – but where does it come from? In Europe, the EU and its member states have created various funding structures reserved for e-learning projects, notably eLearning: a programme
for the effective integration of Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT) in education and training systems in Europe which aims at the strategic proliferation of e-learning across the European school and university systems. 2
Meanwhile, the initial euphoria about e-learning –
fuelled in no small way by university administrators’ and politicians’ expectation to introduce a cheaper, less
staff-intensive way of teaching – has certainly worn off. The new buzzword is ‘blended learning’: the combination of physical classroom teaching with auxiliary e-learning. According to a survey presented in Schulmeister (2005), the vast majority of e-courses at non-virtual colleges and universities is indeed of an auxiliary (preparatory,
supplementary or remedial) nature. Schulmeister
concludes that in our present situation “E-learning ist die Reparatur am System, das wir einführen” – e-learning is the quick-fix for the BA/MA-system whose current introduction at German universities leads to a dramatic over stretching of teaching resources.
(2) The pipeline model of learning
However, not all short falls can be attributed to
context. In our own practical experience, part of the methodological and didactical problems associated with e-learning stem directly from restrictions imposed
by its platforms. One of the key functionalities of a
good e-learning platform is the personalized, dynamic
assignment of navigation options (so-called ‘content
release’) on the basis of results achieved by a user in
preceding tests. Depending on the scoring, hyperlinks may be made visible or activated, or the system may send
some additional feed-back. If the content manager
decides to use these functionalities, the course content must allow for tests and parallel navigation paths. Under
these conditions, this kind of interactivity can be
hard-wired into the course by the content developer who uses system provided templates for content and test
modules (questionnaires, multiple-choice etc.) and
combines these with logical or quantitative operators that specify navigation rules.
To understand the conceptual premises built into
commercial e-learning platforms (also known as LMS = Learning Management Systems), it is important to take a closer look at the kind of binary logic that drives this type of interactivity. For example, the currently still widely used WebCT Campus Edition 4 allows neither for the specification of complex (conjunctive or additive) rules of the type ‘if student X passed test 1 with > 65% and has already looked at modules 15-17, allow him/her to jump to module 22, else do Y’, nor for a logical ‘or’ in the control of a user’s navigation - fairly trivial process
control decisions which a human teacher will make on the fly in any given class-room situation.3 The impact of such concrete technological restrictions on e-learning’s current shape is severe, considering that the recently
merged WebCT and Blackboard alone account for a
joint 2/3 market share in institutional and commercial
e-learning.4
Courses implemented on the dominant proprietary
platforms, unless their content modules are made
available in pure (non-conditional) hyperlinked form, are thus implicitly based on what we call a ‘pipeline’ model
of learning: the learning process within the system is
organised in terms of a linear accumulation of pre-defined
knowledge and skills. While the genuine dynamics of interactive learning in a real class room is the result of engagement in recursion, exploration and the adoption of a different perspective onto the same problem, systems based e-learning thus reduces much of this functionality
to mere repetition (‘repeat until you pass’), while
outsourcing true interactivity to humans (via chats,
discussion list, e-mail etc.).
Another principled problem with out-of-the-box e-
learning systems is that they are themselves not designed to learn. Whereas commercial data-base driven websites
like Amazon’s combine continuously updated user-
profiling (items bought, pages looked at, duration of visit, etc.) with probability based feed-back (‘other users who have bought item X also bought item Y’), similarly
intelligent behaviour has as yet not been implemented
in the leading commercial e-learning or course-ware
systems. While most e-learning platforms are of course able to track user behavior, they remain unable to act on process-relevant conclusions that might be drawn from this data.5
(3) Towards adaptive e-learning
So, is (e-)learning by necessity a dumber activity than shopping? Certainly not. Current AI research explores various possibilities of making it ‘feel’ more intelligent. For example, Nakano, Koyana and Inuzuka (2003) explore the role of probabilistic algorithms in the automated generation of questions; Steinemann et al (2005) as well as Yang et al (2005) look into the design principles of more sophisticated course management
systems. Providing the user with intelligent corrective feed-back is the main goal of INCOM,6 a project dedicated to developing an e-learning supported logic programming course (Le 2005, Le and Menzel 2005).
On a more general level, Moreno et al. (2005) emphasize the need for so-called ‘adaptive e-learning’ systems:
‘ Adaptive e-learning is a teaching system which adapts
the selection and the presentation of contents to the
individual learner and his learning status, his needs, his learning style, his previous knowledge and preferences.’
This topic receives particular attention in the AH
(Adaptive Hypermedia and Adaptive Web-Based
System) conference series.7 ALFANET, a project
supported by the EU-financed IST- (Information Society
Technologies) initiative, also aimed to introduce
adaptivity.8 According to the project’s self-description,
the prototype can dynamically evaluate a user’s
knowledge and then selectively assign different content
material in order to reinforce or broaden a subject.9
However, the final project report proves this to be an aim, rather than a demonstrable accomplishment.10
(4) Opening the black box
While we stake no claim to developing an
intelligent e-learning system, we do believe that an individual e-learning course can certainly be turned into a more stimulating and challenging experience through comparatively simple system adjustments – provided the system itself is not a proprietary black box. Whether such adaptations and extensions can later be implemented as generic system functionalities remains to be seen.
‘NarrNetz’ – short for ‘Narratology Network’ – uses the widely adaptable PHP/MySQL-based open source platform ILIAS11. Our project is conceptually based on a learning metaphor and an architecture that combines linear modules with explorative, highly personalised
learning experiences. Elements of NarrNetz try to
emulate the user experience of an interactive computer game – a paradigm widely expected to revolutionize the ‘look and feel’ of e-learning (Begg, Dewhurst, Mecleod
2005; Foreman/Aldrich 2005; Schaffer 2005). In
NarrNetz, the user is initially confronted with a problem
modelled on a gaming ‘quest’. However, the system and its architecture allow the combination of linear with
non-linear, systematic (deductive) with immersive
(inductive) learning methods. If learners want to like learning style. Conversely, while sections of the ‘learnflow’ follow a compulsory linear trajectory,
others may be chosen and arranged at will. Fig. 1 sketches
out the NarrNetz-learnflow which maps the user’s
navigation through the landscape of the metaphorical
quest onto the didactically desired cognitive
progression.
In our presentation we will demonstrate how
comparatively simple modifications and modular
extensions of the open-source e-learning platform
ILIAS and the integration of multi-media objects can lead to a significantly enriched, more ‘intelligent’ learning
experience. Specifically, we will discuss the following additional functionalities:
• integration of user-specific avatars with dynamically attributed ‘real-time’ properties symbolizing the user’s past progress and future navigational options at any given point in time;
• automated, personalized navigation control based on disjunctive reasoning and the concept of
multiple, functionally equivalent learning paths
rather than a pipeline-approach;
• representation of the newly acquired skills and knowledge elements in the form of a personalized
dynamic conceptual glossary; glossary entries can be cross-referenced, individually annotated and
linked to content elements of the course.
Conclusion
The conceptualisation and implementation of non-standard, experimental e-learning architectures
constitutes a genuine task of Humanities Computing.
As in other fields of applied humanities computing,
computing humanists are called upon to point out the conceptual shortcomings in simplistic attempts at reverse engineering human cognitive competences for the mere sake of making them ‘computable’. Learning is the most basic cognitive competence in human beings: a good enough reason not to turn a blind eye on how it is being conceptualised – technologically and ideologically.
Footnotes
1) HUMANIST vol. 1-19 contains 46 occurrences of the
keyword ‘e-learning’ in calls for papers, conference and publication announcements, but no genuine discussions of the topic. JLLC vol. 1-17 contains 24 rather loosely related articles, three of which are of a methodological or critical
nature: Koch 1992, Zuern 1994, McGrady 1999. The
relevant HUMANIST (vol. 1-18) and JLLC entries are
listed in www.jcmeister.de/texts/allc-2006/HUM-1-18-JLLC-1-17.doc. – For a recent non-HC affiliated
evaluation of current e-learning methodologies see Meister et.al. 2004 (author not related).
2) On the EU e-learning initiative see http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/programmes/elearning/index_en.html.
3) WebCT Campus Edition 6 claims to support the combination of multiple types of release criteria, using Boolean logic (see http://www.webct.com/ce6/viewpage?name=ce6_content_presentation). However, of four classes of criteria (date, member, group, grade book) only ‘grade book’ (i.e.
test results) is a dynamically instantiated variable; all
others call up absolutely, manually defined attributes. More
importantly, characteristics of a learner’s individual
navigation track cannot be specified as criteria: they are only available for manual inspection or statistical behav
ioral analysis. For details see: Designer and Instructor
Reference. WebCTTM Campus Edition 6.0. Technical Communications Department. July 16, 2005. Chapter 33: Selective Release, 773-791.
4) See http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2005/10/13/merger
5) A word of caution: in teaching and learning, probabilistic
reasoning based system’s feed-back and navigation
control can easily become disfunctional or meet with
learners resistance. What is at stake is the very individuality
of a learning experience that may very well defy statistical
regularity.
6) On INCOM, see http://nats-www.informatik.uni-hamburg.de/view/INCOM/WebHome
7) See http://www.ah2006.org/. Also see the forthcoming
special issue on Adaptive Hypermedia, Journal of Digital
Information: http://jodi.tamu.edu/calls/adaptive_
hypermedia.html
8) On IST, see http://istresults.cordis.lu/
9) See http://istresults.cordis.lu/index.cfm/section/news/Tpl/article/BrowsingType/Short%20Feature/ID/77772
10) See Barera et.al.., 2005: D66 Evaluation results, 18-21. http://rtd.softwareag.es/alfanet/PublicDocs/ALFANET_D66_v1.zip
11) See http://www.ilias.de/ios/index-e.html
References
(All weblinks accessed 08.11.2005)
Begg, M.; Dewhurst, D.; Mcleod, H. (2005). Game-
Informed Learning: Applying Computer Game
Processes to Higher Education. Innovative. Journal of Online Education (August/September 2005: http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=176)
Foreman, J., and Aldrich, C. (2005). The design of
advanced learning engines: An interview with Clark Aldrich. Innovate 1 (6).
Koch, C. (1992). Combining Connectionist and Hypertext
Techniques in the Study of Texts: A HyperNet
Approach to Literary Scholarship. LLC 1992, 7: 209-217; doi:10.1093/llc/7.4.209
Le, N.-T.; Menzel, W. (2005). Constraint-based Error Diagnosis in Logic Programming. 13th International Conference on Computers in Education 2005.
Le, N.-T. (2005): Evaluation of a Constraint-based
Error Diagnosis System for Logic Programming. 13th International Conference on Computers in
Education 2005.
McGrady, D. (1999). Making ‘wreaders’ our of students: some strategies for using technology to teach the humanities. LLC (1999), 14: 237-256; doi:10.1093/ llc/14.2.237
Meister, D.M. et al (eds.) (2004). Evaluation von
E-Learning. Zielrichtungen, methodologische Aspekte,
Zukunftsperspektiven. Münster (Waxmann) 2004.
Moreno et.al. (2005). Using Bayesian Networks in the Global Adaptive E-learning Process. Paper read at the EUNIS conference, June 21-25, University of Manchester http://www.mc.manchester.ac.uk/eunis2005/medialibrary/papers/paper_130.pdf
Nakano, T. (2003). An approach of removing errors from generated answers for E-learning. 17th Annual
Conference of the Japanese Society for AI. http://www-kasm.nii.ac.jp/jsai2003/programs/PDF/000083.PDF
Schulmeister, R. (2005). Studieren in
der Informationsgesellschaft. Vernetzt, modular,
international? (Presentation at the Campus Innovation
2005 conference, Hamburg, 20-21 September 2005.) http://www.campus-innovation.de/upload/dateien/texte/schulmeister_ci_2005.pdf
Shaffer, D. (2005). Epistemic games. Innovate 1 (6). http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view
=article&id=79
Steinemann, M.A. et al (2005). Report on the ‘Virtual
Internet and Telecommunications Laboratory
(VITELS)’ project. IAM Annual Report Academic Year 2004/2005. http://www.campus-innovation.de/upload/dateien/texte/schulmeister_ci_2005.pdf
Yang, F. et al (2005). A Novel Resource Recommendation System Based on Connecting to Similar E-Learners. In: Advances in Web-Based Learning – ICWL 2005. Berlin, Heidelberg: 122-130.
Zuern, J. (1999). The sense of a link: hypermedia,
hermeneutics, and the teaching of critical methodologies.
LLC 1999, 14: 43-54; doi:10.1093/llc/14.1.43
Authors’ e-mail addresses:
Jan Christoph MEISTER – mail@jcmeister.de
Birte LÖNNEKER – birte.loenneker@uni-hamburg.de","txt","2","",""
"612","7","Pcube - Policarpo Petrocchi Project : The Architecture of a (Semantic) Digital Archive","1","The aim of the Pcube (Policarpo Petrocchi Project)
is to create a digital archive about the cultural
and intellectual production of Policarpo Petrocchi. This archive will preserve and disseminate digital objects and their associated metadata, using current technology and metadata standards and will implement features and
functionality associated with the Semantic Web. Policarpo
Petrocchi was an important intellectual and political figure
during the second half of the ninetheenth. Petrocchi is
famous as the author of the “Il Novo dizionario universale
della lingua italiana” (The new universal dictionary of Italian language), used widely in the early twentieth
century, and he was also the author of many literary works,
reviews and translations, as the L’Assommuàr of Émile Zola, and the founder of the society “Italia e Lavoro”.
Petrocchi’s cultural production has left us with an
“information legacy” composed of extremely
heterogeneous materials, which can be divided in three main categories. The first category is archival materials, including letters, press clippings and manuscripts. Second
is the published works, including literary works,
educational and grammar books, novels and translations. The final category is the iconographic material, composed
of loose photographs and a family photo album.
Moreover none of these materials has been digitized until
now, and the relative metadata have been catalogued in two separated databases: the first, for the archival
description, with WinISIS <http://www.unesco.org/
webworld/isis/isis.htm>, using a structure that has been designed to be ISAD(G) compatible; the second, for the bibliographic records, has been created with EasyCat <http://www.biblionauta.it/biblionauta/easycat.php>, using the ISBD(G) <http://www.ifla.org/VII/s13/pubs/isbdg.htm> format, with the possibility of an UNIMARC <http://www.ifla.org/VI/3/p1996-1/sec-uni.htm> export. Even if widely used in library and archival contexts, these two databases are far from optimal starting points, an OPAC using plug-in and extensions, they cannot be
directly integrated, and this is contrary to the goal of having
a homogeneous and open system as the infrastructure for this digital archive, which must integrate electronic texts, digital images and metadata about both the analog and digital objects. Currently, the best model for this kind of infrastructure is certainly the Open Archival Information
System (OAIS), with its concept of the different
types of “Information Packages” and in particular the
Archival Information Package (AIP). With the OAIS Model in mind the architecture of the Policarpo Petrocchi Digital Archive has been designed with three different levels. The first level is the data layer, perhaps the most delicate one, because it’s where actually lie the roots for any possibility of interoperability between the different data sets. Another classification of the different materials can be made using the nature of the digital representation
that will be obtained from them, being either visual
or textual. All the photos, most of the letters and
manuscripts, and the most important part of the literary works will be digitized in an image format, following the guidelines of the Digital Library Federation<http://www.diglib.org/>, with a high quality format for preservation
and a lower quality format for dissemination. XML will be used for the digitizing the content of some of the
archival documents and novels, and for the encoding of the metadata of all the analog items. EAD (Encoded
Archival Description) <http://www.loc.gov/ead> is the most suitable metadata format for the archival documents, and EAD allows links to digital representations, wheter textual or iconographic, from the EAD finding aid. For published articles and books, the MODS <http://www.loc.gov/standards/mods> schema a rich bibliographic metadata format, will be used. Another issue which will be described, is the possibility of conversion into EAD and MODS from the legacy data of the databases, in a direct way, using XML export features, with some string
manipulation through a programming language, or, when needed, in a manual way. The content of the books
and the manuscripts will be encoded using the TEI
Guidelines. The coherence and cohesion of all these
standards, and of all the related digital objects, can be achieved using the METS <http://www.loc.gov/
standards/mets> schema, the primary function of which is the encoding of descriptive, administrative and
structural metadata of the items constituting a digital object(14). The second level is the framework layer, the implementation of the software architecture which has to provide the basic functions of a digital library, using as a base the data of the first level. During the last couple of years the number of this kind of software programs,
and their availability in open-source mode, has constantly
increased(15). Notwithstanding this, due to the
characteristics of the Policarpo Pretrocchi Digital
Archive, what is needed is an high level of customization,
and the integrated use of the Apache Cocoon Framework <http://cocoon.apache.org> with the XML Database
eXist <http://exist.sourceforge.net> its probably the
most suitable choiche. Using these two programs, the
potentialities of the XML technologies XQuery and XSLT
offer a lot of possibilities, from textual and metadata
researches to electronic edition with multiple output
format and text/image visualization. The final level is the semantic layer, which aims to create a network of
relationships among the items contained in the archive and possibly external resources and thereby to offer advanced
navigation functionalities to the archive users. The
ontology takes as a model the CIDOC-Conceptual
Reference Model (CRM) <http://cidoc.ics.forth.gr>, which “provides definitions and a formal structure for describing the implicit and explicit concepts and
relationships used in cultural heritage documentation”. This abstract model must be rendered to an actual syntax and for this role has been chosen the ISO standard of the TopicMaps <http://www.topicmaps.org> with the XTM serialization. The reason of this choice is the growing
adoption of TopicMaps in the Digital Humanities
community, compared for example to RDF/OWL.
Starting from the particulare case of the Pcube project, this paper will analyze, extract and outline the general
guidelines and the best strategies in the creation of a
digital archive composed by very different starting
materials, in order to make these strategies applicable to several other projects, which are currently facing the same issue in crossing the borders from the old models
of the cultural heritage preservation towards the new
paradigms of the digital library.
References
Aa. Vv. (2000). ISAD (G) : general international
standard archival description. Ottawa, Canada. International Council on Archives.
Aa. Vv. (2002). Reference Model for an Open Archival
Information System (OAIS). Wasghinton, USA.
Consultative Committee forS pace Data Systems.
McDonough, J. (2002). Encoding Digital Objects with METS. in Tennant, R (ed). XML in Libraries.
Neal-Shuman Publisher. pp. 167-180.
Meschini, F. (2006). TMS – TEI Management Systems. in Aa.Vv. ODOK ’05. VÖB.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. and Burnard, L. (eds).
(2002). TEI P4: Guidelines for Electronic Text
Encoding and Interchange. Text Encoding Initiative
Consortium.
Tuohy, C. (2005) New Zealand Electronic Text Centre: Using XML Topic Map to present TEI. TEI Members Meeting 2005 Presentation. Bulgaria.
Walsh, J. (2005).TM4DH (Topic Maps for Digital
Humanities): Examples and an Open Source Toolkit. in
ALLC/ACH 2005 Proceedings. Victoria. Canada.","txt","2","",""
"613","7","Tagging Categorial Fuzziness and Polyfunctionality","1","While electronic databases have constantly improved
as regards their quantitative and qualitative validity and relevance, compromises have sometimes
been made in their tagging by relying on pre-corpus-
linguistic grammatical descriptions, resorting to
automatic (i.e., non-interactive) tagging, or imposing neat category labels on the data. One of the motivating factors in my present project, which aims at producing a web-based tagged corpus of Scottish letters (Corpus of Scottish Correspondence, 1500-1730, CSC), is my conviction that, besides ensuring the authenticity of data by digitising original manuscripts rather than editions, it is also necessary to create text annotation principles and methods appropriate for dealing with the great degree of linguistic variation and variability recorded in historical documents. Tagging may distort evidence by applying overly rigid rules in categorisation, so ignoring the inherent
fuzziness of categories, and by simplifying complex
patterns of variation or using tags that fail to reflect
processes of change over a long time-span. These problems
are particularly challenging in the tagging of corpora for the study of those regional and local varieties of English which may significantly differ from previously described standardised varieties. One of these is Scots, an internally quite heterogeneous variety.
In my paper I will discuss variationist principles of
tagging, focusing on how multiple category membership
resulting from variation over time and space has been dealt with in the system applied to the CSC. The general practice is that the tag, consisting of a lexel and a grammel, provides descriptive information about structural and
contextual properties, and may contain comments
permitting, for example, semantic specification or
disambiguation, but the properties listed in the tag do not
suggest a straightforward categorisation. Instead, the tag indicates the variational pattern that the tagged item is a member of, allowing the creation of valid inventories for the study of the continual variation and change inherent in any variety, idiolectal, local, regional, or supraregional.
In creating variationist typologies, the deciding factor is that variants in a particular typology have been observed to show patterning at a particular level of analysis, be it structural or syntactic, or related to communicative or text-structuring functions. Thus the textual, discoursal, sentential and clausal levels are distinguished from one another. For example, subordinators such as since, as, because and for (the first two in the role of cause) and connective adverbs such as therefore may be members of the same semantically defined inventory, but their
membership of a syntactically defined group is not as straightforward as the traditional categorisation into
conjunctions and adverbs would suggest. For in particular
requires a careful analysis of the data. When the
qualifications of these items for membership are assessed
at the discoursal and textual levels, there is evidence that they are not members of the same patterns of variation (Meurman-Solin 2004a).
Secondly, the system has been tailored to meet the
challenge of tracing developments over a long time-span. This requires that the source of a particular item or collocate
is kept transparent over time, even though a later
grammaticalisation or reanalysis, for instance, would permit recategorisation. Thus, according to is tagged 'accord/vpsp-pr>pr and 'to/pr<vpsp-pr, seeing that 'see/vpsp-cj{c} and 'that/cj<, and exceedingly 'exceed/vpsp-aj-av and '-ly/xs-vpsp-aj-av, indicating that the ultimate source of all these is a present participle. Tags
providing information about potential rather than
established membership of categorial space are intended to ensure that comprehensive inventories can be created for examining the full scale of variation. For example, the tag for the variational pattern of upon (the) condition that includes upon this condition that ('condition/n-cj<pr), even though the determinative element this positions the
variant at the end of the cline where an abstract noun
followed by a nominal that-clause as the second unit would
be analysed as an appositive structure. The approach to lexicalisation is the same. Consequently, in an invariable
collocate such as anyway the two units are tagged
separately, and their interrelatedness is indicated by
arrows: 'any/aj>n-av and 'way/n-av<aj.
The third factor stressed in the theoretical approach is the inherent fuzziness and polyfunctionality recorded in
language use when examined by drawing on representative
large-scale corpora. The tagging principles have been influenced by the discussion of notional or conceptual properties, elaborated tags making the interrelatedness of the members of a particular notional category explicit (Anderson 1997). Even though conventional part-of-speech labels are used in the tags, strings of such labels indicate fuzziness and polyfunctionality by referring to the co-ordinates of items on a cline, rather than insisting
on membership of a single category. Concepts such as ‘nouniness’ and ‘adverbhood’ reflect this approach.
Right honorable as a term of address is tagged 'right/av,
'honour/aj-n{ho}-voc and '-able/xs-aj-n{ho}-voc ({ho} commenting on the honorific function, ‘voc’ being an abbreviation of vocative). The tag type with two core
category names combined by a hyphen (here aj-n) permits searches concerned with fuzziness or polyfunctionality. This practice can be illustrated by conform to, 'conform/aj-pr>pr and 'to/pr<aj-pr, and as soon as, 'as/av>cj 'soon/av-cj 'as/cj<av. Ambiguity is made explicit by using comments such as {syntactic ambiguity>} and {syntactic merger>}, which alert the user to re-examine the problematic structure that follows the comment.
In applying the variationist approach to the reconstruction of historical language varieties, it is necessary to keep in mind that due to scarcity of texts, in the early periods in particular, there may be significant gaps in our knowledge base. Ideally, members of a particular pattern of variation have all been attested in the data as genuine alternatives, and can be related to one another by addresses provided by the tags. In practice, if only fragments are available, rather than a balanced and representative collection of texts, we will also have to deal with potential, though
unattested, variants. In these cases, we must resort to
typological information on corresponding systems in later
periods, or those representing other languages or language varieties.
Therefore, another essential ingredient in the theoretical approach is that zero realisations are included in variationist
paradigms. There is a wide range of zero realisation types, and the tagging principles vary accordingly. Elliptical items, including features carefully discussed in grammars such as that-deletion, are indicated by comments such as {zero v}, {zero aux}, {zero that}, and {zero S}, while in the relative system both a comment and a tag introduced by a zero are used: {zero rel} followed by '/0RO{y1}, for instance. Since the explicit marking of semantic relations at various levels is a salient feature in early letters, zero marking being much less frequent in the historical data examined than in similar registers in Present-day English
(Meurman-Solin 2004b), comments are also used to
indicate the absence of logical connectors. It should be noted that, in principle, the term zero-realisation can be considered misleading, since it may not always be possible to verify empirically that something has been omitted.
However, in the present approach a zero realisation is
indicated when a variational pattern comprising explicitly
expressed variants and those left implicit has been
repeatedly attested in the data.
References
Anderson, J. M. (1997). A Notional Theory of Syntactic
Categories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jackendoff, Ray. 2002. Foundations of language: brain,
meaning, grammar, evolution. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Meurman-Solin A. (2004a). Towards a Variationist Typology of Clausal Connectives. Methodological Considerations Based on the Corpus of Scottish Correspondence. In Dossena, M. and Lass, R. (eds), Methods and Data in English Historical Dialectology. Bern: Peter Lang, pp. 171-197.
Meurman-Solin A. (2004b). From inventory to typology
in English historical dialectology. In Kay, C. J.,
Horobin, S. and Smith, J. J. (eds), New Perspectives
on English Historical Linguistics, Vol. I: Syntax and Morphology. Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John
Benjamins, pp. 125-151.","txt","2","",""
"614","7","Writing With Different Pictures : New Genres for New Knowledges","1","Note: This is an abstract only and it refers to a more
complex audiovisual essay that will form the heart of this ‘paper’. A early version of such a work (which forms part of a different networked videographic essay) is available to be viewed if necessary. It is an archive (http://hypertext.rmit.edu.au/downloads/ACH06.zip) which requires QuickTime 7.x or better, to view and is 10MB in total size. I provide this to give some indication of the sort of work that will be written and presented for this paper.
The SMIL Annotation Film Engine (presented at Digital Resources in the Humanities 2002) was a middle scale computing humanities project that sought to combine a real time video stream, an idiosyncratic
metadata scheme, and the annotation and presentation affordances of SMIL.
The first version of this project “Searching”, was based on John Ford’s 1956 western _The Searchers_ and a
metadata scheme was defined from a hermeneutic claim, that “doorways in _The Searchers_ represent liminal
zones between spaces that are qualities”. Doors, as they appear in the film, were encoded around a small data set (camera is inside, outside, or between, and is looking
inside, outside, or between) and still images from the film are provided. A search by a user yields all the stills that meet the search criteria, and clicking on any still loads the appropriate sequence from the film for viewing in its cinematic context.
As I argued in 2002, “Searching” operated as a ‘discovery engine’ rather than a metadata archival project, so what it developed in the engine is a process for the unveiling of patterns of meaning, and this would seem to offer an
engaged middle ground for distributed humanities content
that provides access to material while also foregrounding an applied critical or interpretive activity. Since 2002 such idiosyncratic data schemes have emerged via social software as folksonomies, and I have adopted the implications of this earlier project to develop a series of interactive video ‘sketches’ that foreground and explore the implications of a critical videographic essay practice. This is the writing of video, sound, text, and image into audiovisual knowledge objects that are porous to the
contemporary network. These works have implications for new media and humanities pedagogy, as they offer a possible heuristic for teaching and learning that is between
the traditional essay and the ‘interactive’ (whether online or CDROM hardly matters) reference work.
These sketches are academic works that aim to reverse the usual hierarchy (and ideology) of relations between
text and image that exists in academic research by
allowing video and sound to ‘drive’ the writing (and vice versa). The model proposed allows academics or
students to write their own interactive video based essays that are multilinear, academically sound, and network appropriate.
The work has implications for humanities disciplines that study time and image based media, new media theory,
and contemporary multimedia pedagogies, and the
‘paper’ will be such an ‘networked knowledge object’.","txt","2","",""
"615","7","Digital Gazetteers and Temporal Directories for Digital Atlases","1","Digital gazetteers—databases of named places--are becoming widely recognized as an integral
element of any application or library that includes
geographical information. In the humanities, where
historical maps and texts are replete with place names but precise spatial information is often limited, it is
often a good practice to conceive of the development of
geographical information as beginning from place names (a gazetteer) rather than geometry (a GIS).
As a reference work, digital gazetteers are an exceptionally useful tool in their own right, making it possible to trace the history of named places, relate places to one another, link multiple names for the same place across languages, and (with even rudimentary georeferencing), and make
maps. As a component of a digital library or web
application, gazetteers permit place-based or map-based
search, display and integration of any kind of content
that includes named places. Finally, using existing
service protocols, multiple gazetteers can be searched and used together, allowing very specialized research in historical geography to be used in new contexts.
This paper has several components. First, I introduce recent research in digital gazetteers for digital libraries and the humanities, with a primary focus on work by the Alexandria Digital Library and modifications to its standard by the Electronic Cultural Atlas Initiative.
Second, I work through several examples of gazetteer
design from my personal research in early modern
Chinese history, looking at frequently changing places in a time of rapid political change, complex and localized
religious spatial hierarchies, and multiple, coexisting
civil and military spatial systems. I reflect on a classic cultural geography notion of space from Yi-fu Tuan that “as centers of meaning, the number of places is
enormous, and cannot be contained in the largest
gazetteer.” In response to Tuan, who made this claim in 1975, I respond both that more recent developments
in database design and networked systems mitigate the “largest gazetteer” concern; but also, I claim that it is possible—and, for use in the humanities and related fields of cultural heritage management, essential—to create a gazetteer that acknowledges places as centers of meaning, not just administrative spaces.
Finally, I discuss on emerging work by myself and other colleagues in the design of named time period directories.
While digital gazetteers are a well-recognized genre
(indeed, their antecedents begin long before the digital era), databases of time periods are not. Nevertheless, search, display and integration of historical and cultural information demands that such a resource be developed. Times, like places, have names—overlapping, multiple,
hierarchical, and rich with information. Just as time
modifies place (as cities are founded, rivers change course,
or empires are vanquished), so too does place modify
time (as the Abbasid Caliphate refers to a political
formation on a particular part of the earth at a given time,
or the Neolithic Period begins and ends at different
times in, say, the Yellow River valley or the Andes). This
paper introduces some of the issues concerned with data modeling and visualization of time period directories along with gazetteers in digital atlases, and discusses next steps.","txt","2","",""
"616","7","L'apport pédagogique de la vidéo dans le module « Chairing a meeting »","1","C’est en réponse à un appel d’offre de LUNO
(Lorraine Université Ouverte) que l’équipe
enseignante du CTU (Centre de Télé-enseignement Universitaire) de Nancy 2 a proposé de créer le module « Chairing a meeting in English / Conduire une réunion en anglais ».
LUNO est un programme de formation ouverte et à
distance conduit par les établissements d’enseignement supérieur lorrains regroupés autour d’une charte et initié par le Conseil Régional de Lorraine en septembre 2000. Ces établissements ont développé dans leurs champs
de compétence respectifs, des modules de formation
utilisables à distance et accessibles à tout demandeur d’emploi ou salarié lorrain.
Le module « Chairing a meeting in English » est destiné
à des étudiants en formation continue pouvant suivre
une formation en ligne. La spécificité du public fut le premier critère à prendre en compte dans l’avant-projet.
Contrairement aux étudiants « classiques » dont la
motivation est extrinsèque (objectif premier : obtention du diplôme), ces apprenants ont une motivation plus intrinsèque (objectifs : plaisir d’apprendre, satisfaction
personnelle) qui est considérée comme le plus haut
niveau de motivation autodéterminée. Nous souhaitions toutefois susciter davantage encore l’intérêt de ce public en adaptant les outils aux besoins d’apprenants qui sont déjà sur le marché du travail.
L’autre critère à prendre en considération concernait les différences de niveau de langue entre les apprenants. Les uns, le baccalauréat professionnel fraîchement décroché, souhaitaient simplement apprendre quelques expressions appartenant à un champ lexical spécifique. Les autres, pour qui les études an anglais ne représentaient qu’un souvenir lointain, devaient se réapproprier les bases en
anglais général en même temps que d’acquérir un
vocabulaire spécialisé. Afin de répondre aux attentes de ce public hétérogène, notre ambition fut d’élaborer un module ayant pour double objectif une remise à niveau et un approfondissement des connaissances.
Nous devions également tenir compte du degré de
motivation et d’engagement des participants. Le taux d’abandon étant particulièrement élevé en enseignement
à distance, nous souhaitions trouver un moyen de
captiver l’attention de l’apprenant tout au long du
module. La vidéo nous a semblé la plus appropriée pour remplir ce rôle de motivateur, encore fallait-il l’utiliser à bon escient. Notre effort devait porter à la fois sur le contenu pédagogique et sur la scénarisation.
Après un premier travail consacré à la recherche des outils linguistiques, notamment dans des ouvrages spécialisés en anglais commercial et des affaires, nous souhaitions
rédiger des dialogues pouvant susciter l’intérêt des
apprenants. Notre public était prioritairement lorrain (LUNO) mais nous envisagions également de l’offrir en ressources complémentaires à des étudiants inscrits
en Licence d’anglais au CTU. Nous souhaitions
également apporter une touche d’humour au scénario. C’est ainsi que prit forme la société LMD (Lorraine
Mirabelles Drinks), fabricant de liqueurs, dont les
exportations vers le Royaume-Uni sont menacées.
L’ordre du jour de la réunion sera essentiellement
consacré à l’analyse de la situation financière et aux
mesures à prendre pour redresser l’entreprise.
Le module « Chairing a meeting » devait être utilisé dans le cadre de LUNO avec un tutorat réduit (autoformation
complète ou accompagnement limité). Il s’agissait
donc d’un apprentissage collaboratif plutôt que d’un
apprentissage coopératif. La collaboration (apprenant-
machine) demandant plus d’autonomie que la
coopération (apprenant-enseignant et machine), nous souhaitions simplifier au maximum l’ergonomie du
produit afin de ne pas accentuer les difficultés d’orientation
de l’apprenant dans le module. Nous devions nous
efforcer d’adapter la technique aux exigences de la
pédagogie et non l’inverse.
L’enregistrement vidéo a été effectué par la société de production VIDEOSCOP (Nancy 2) avec des moyens
techniques et humains importants. Cinq enseignants
anglophones ont joué les différents rôles (directeur, chef des ventes, chef du personnel, représentant du personnel et responsable des ventes au Royaume-Uni).
Nous avons décidé de découper l’enregistrement en 11 séquences afin que l’apprenant puisse adapter l’utilisation
des outils à son rythme de travail. Pour chacune des
séquences, l’interaction est privilégiée : possibilité de revoir
un passage de l’enregistrement, de faire une pause le temps de prendre des notes, de lire la transcription des dialogues, etc.
Mais l’originalité du module se situe au niveau du
découpage « chirurgicale » de très courtes séquences.
L’apprenant a la possibilité de visionner uniquement les phrases propres à la « conduite de réunion ». Isolées de leur contexte (les problèmes rencontrées par la société
LMD...), elles sont données à l’état brut pour inviter
l’apprenant à les réutiliser dans un contexte différent. Elles sont accompagnées par des phrases synonymes, disponibles sous forme d’enregistrements audio, afin de montrer l’étendu des outils linguistiques qui servent à prendre ou redonner la parole, reformuler, conclure, etc.
Des outils d’auto-évaluation permettent à l’apprenant de se situer. La variété des tâches, dont certaines ont un
caractère ludique, évite la passivité de l’apprenant.
Certains exercices comportent plusieurs niveaux de
difficulté pour essayer de répondre aux besoins de chaque apprenant. Enfin, un lexique, français-anglais et anglais-français, est également disponible. Nous avons fait le choix d’obliger l’apprenant à cliquer sur un mot s’il veut en obtenir la traduction, afin de le maintenir réceptif.
Une évaluation du module est en cours. Il s’agira
notamment de vérifier la corrélation entre le profil des apprenants et leur degré d’autonomie. Mais la priorité de ce questionnaire sera de dresser un bilan sur l’utilisation
de la vidéo, ceci dans le but d’améliorer le module
existant et d’en tenir compte dans la création de
nouveaux produits.
Après la présentation du module « Chairing a meeting », le colloque sera l’occasion d’analyser cette évaluation, en mettant l’accent sur l’apport pédagogique de la vidéo dans la formation.
References
Asensio, M. Strom, J. Young, C. (2001) Click and Go Video. 8th EDINEB Conference ‘Educational
Innovation in Economics and Business Administration’,
Nice, June 2001 Banks S., McConnell D., Hodgson V. Author, B.
(2004). Advances in Research on Networked
Learning. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Dewald, B.W.A (2000). “Turning part-time students’
feedback into video programs”. Education and
training, Vol 42, Issue 1.
Dembo M., Lynch R. (2004).The Relationship Between Self-Regulation and Online Learning in a Blended Learning Context. http://www.irrodl.org/content/v5.2/lynch-dembo.html
Marx, R and Frost, J. (1998) Toward optimal use of video in management education: examining the
evidence. Journal of Management Development, Vol 17, Issue 4.
Sherman J. (2003). Using Authentic Video in the
Language Classroom. Cambridge University Press. The teaching contribution of
video in the “Chairing
a meeting” module In response to a demand made by LUNO (Lorraine Open University), the teaching team of the CTU (University Distance Teaching Centre) of Nancy 2
offered to create a module entitled “Chairing a meeting in English / Conduire une réunion en anglais”.
LUNO is an open university regrouping the main higher education establishments of Lorraine, which are bound by a charter. The project was mainly funded by the Regional Council of Lorraine in September 2000. The members of LUNO have developed numerous course modules in their respective fields of competence.
The online courses are accessible to any employee or job-seeker in Lorraine. The “Chairing a meeting in
English” module is thus aimed at learners in vocational
training schemes who wish to follow on-line courses. The specificity of the learners was the first criterion to be taken into account in the preliminary draft. Contrary to academic students, who are extrinsic goal orientated (main objective: to obtain a grade), such learners are more intrinsic goal orientated (main objective: personal
challenge) and are consequently more likely to set
specific learning goals. However, we endeavoured to arouse the interest of those “non academic” students
even more and to adapt the teaching material to the
requirements of learners who are already in the labour market.
The other criterion was the learners’ differences in
language level. Some, who have just obtained their
professional baccalauréat, just needed to learn expressions
belonging to a specific lexical field. Others, who had
finished secondary education a long time ago, wanted to revise the basic language skills before acquiring this
specialized vocabulary. Our ambition was to elaborate
a module whose flexibility enabled the needs of the
broadest and most heterogeneous public possible to be met.
We had also to take into account the degree of motivation and commitment of the participants. The rate of dropout being particularly high in distance teaching, we wished to find a means of captivating the learner’s attention throughout the module. Streaming video seemed to us the most appropriate tool to fulfil this role providing that we used it advisedly. We focused our efforts both on the teaching contents and on the storyboard.
After the initial work consisting in looking for linguistic tools, mainly in books specialized in commercial and business English, we wished to write dialogues with the objective of arousing the learner’s interest. We planned to give a touch of humour to the content. Thus took form the LMD company (Lorraine Mirabelle Drinks), a liquor manufacturer, whose exports to the United Kingdom are threatened. The agenda of the meeting would primarily be devoted to the analysis of the financial situation and to the measures taken to put the company on its feet again.
The “Chairing a meeting” module would be used within the framework of LUNO with a reduced tutorial scheme
(complete self-training or reduced tutorial). It was a
collaborative training rather than a co-operative one.
Collaboration (learner-machine) asking for more autonomy
than co-operation (learner/teacher and machine), we wished to simplify ergonomy (video and audio quality, screen visibility, design, weight) to offer the best learning
environment possible and to facilitate the learner’s
orientation within the module. We had to adapt the
technique to the requirements of pedagogy and not the reverse. production company of Nancy 2, with significant technical
means and staffing. Five native speakers played the
various parts: managing director, personnel manager, sales manager, managing director, staff representative, salesperson for Britain.
We decided to divide the recording into 11 sequences to allow the learner to adapt his use of the tools to his own pace. For each sequence, we privileged interaction: the possibility of reviewing a passage of the recording, of
making a pause, etc.
The originality of the module lies in the “surgical cutting”
of very short sequences. It offers the learner the possibility
to view only the sentences useful to “chair a meeting” .Isolated from their context (the problems encountered by the LMD company...), learners are invited to use them again in a different context. They are accompanied by synonymous sentences, available in the form of audio
recordings, in order to offer a wide range of linguistic
tools that are used for taking or giving the floor,
reformulating, concluding, etc.
Different learning activities provide diverse forms of
formative assessment. The variety of short activities
encourages the learner. Some exercises comprise several
levels of difficulty to try to meet the needs of each
learner.
Lastly, a lexicon (French-English and English-French) is also available. We made the choice to oblige the learner to click on a word if he wants to obtain the translation of it, in order to enhance his receptiveness.
An evaluation of the module by the learners has been carried out. The priority of this questionnaire is to
evaluate the use of video. The form includes a rating scale and open-ended questions that ask what the learner thinks about the training materials and activities. This research
does not include the evaluation of the trainer and the
training environment. Our main objective is the
upgrading of new video based material that we want to realise. We also intend to revise the different tasks
offered in this module to fit the needs of future learners.
After the presentation of the “Chairing a meeting”
module, the conference will be the occasion to analyze the results of this evaluation, by stressing the contribution
of video in the module.","txt","2","",""
"617","7","The Digital Dinneen Project : Further Avenues for CELT","1","Rev. Patrick Stephen Dinneen’s Irish-English Dictionary is widely regarded as the most
authoritative scholarly dictionary of modern Literary Irish currently available. Published in 1934, it has seen numerous reprints, but is not available in digital form. Indeed, no scholarly Irish-English dictionary of modern Literary Irish is available in digital form.
The Corpus of Electronic Texts, supported by the Irish
Research Council for the Humanities and Social Sciences, has embarked upon a three year project to deliver a digital version of Dinneen’s Dictionary. The Research Associate responsible for the preparation of the Digital Dinneen is Julianne Nyhan, and the Principal Investigator on the project is Professor Donnchadh Ó Corráin, University College Cork (hereafter UCC). Dr Gregory Toner, from the University of Ulster at Coleraine, and Dr Seán Ua Súilleabháin from the Department of Modern Irish at UCC, are associate investigators.
Dinneen’s dictionary is a complicated document that contains a wealth of information. Its data comprises, inter alia, headwords, grammatical information, definitions, usage examples and translations, as well as references to dialectical sources and to informants used by Dinneen. This paper will briefly discuss the TEI mark-up of other Irish language dictionaries, such as the eDIL (electronic
Dictionary of the Irish language). The use of TEI to
encode Dinneen will then be illustrated, and the necessary
customisations briefly discussed.
In addition to creating a digital edition of Dinneen, the research assistant is endeavouring to develop an edition that is more user-friendly that the hard copy edition of the same work. Much of the information contained in the dictionary remains inaccessible even to experienced speakers of the language, because the hard copy contains
mixed font (Cló Gaelach/Roman), and many people are not able to read Cló Gaelach. This barrier will be
removed from the digital edition, and end-users will have the choice of viewing the text in either mixed font or Roman font only. Furthermore, the dictionary contains orthographic forms that pre-date the spelling reform
of 1946, and as many current day speakers are
unfamiliar with such orthography, they have difficult
locating headwords. The systematic incorporation of
modern orthographic forms as meta-data will enable
access for modern speakers who are unfamiliar with
historical spelling - and today they are probably the
majority of Irish speakers.
This paper will focus on how the Digital Dinneen will be integrated into the existing CELT infrastructure, and into the wider infrastructure of Humanities Computing in Irish. An electronic Lexicon of variants of medieval Irish, the subject of Julianne Nyhan’s PhD research, will become available on the CELT website in 2006/2007. Incorporating id references into Dinneen will allow end users to trace a word back to its medieval form in the Lexicon of variants. Furthermore, for the last two years, CELT has been involved in a cross-border collaboration
with the University of Ulster at Coleraine, where
an electronic edition of the Dictionary of the Irish
Language (eDIL) is being prepared. It is hoped that links between Dinneen and the eDIL will be easily generated. The research carried out at CELT into an XSLT lookup tool to facilitate links between works cited in eDIL, and the corresponding text in the CELT corpus, will also
be extended to Dinneen. This mechanism will enable scholars on-line access to works cited by Dinneen - many of which are available only in the best research libraries. A Javascript plug-in, that enables end users of the CELT corpus to highlight a word, click on a lookup icon and
retrieve the word in question from either the Lexicon of medieval Irish or the Digital Dinneen will also be
discussed. Finally, the possibilities for future research will be touched upon, for example, the possibility of augmenting Dinneen’s citations with examples from the CELT corpus as more texts are added to it.","txt","2","",""
"618","7","Monumenta Frisingensia - a Digital Edition of the Oldest Slovenian Text","1","Monumenta frisingensia – the 10th century
Freising Manuscripts (Slovenian: Brižinski
spomeniki) – are the oldest written Slovenian text and also the oldest Slavic text written in the Latin alphabet.
The manuscripts consist of three religious texts,
comprised within the Codex latinus monacensis 6426 (Munich State Library). The Monumenta frisingensia
(MF) were written in a script based on Carolingian
minuscule after AD 972 (MF II and MF III probably before
1000) and before 1039 (MF I most probably by 1022 or 1023). The provenance of the MF is either Upper
Carinthia or Freising (now in Austria or Germany
respectively); in any case, they were used in the Carinthian
estates of the Freising diocese.
Slovenian historians, linguistic and literary scholars
consider the MF to be the very first document of early Slovenian language. This is the reason why these manu
scripts bear an outstanding importance not only for
the scientific comprehension of the development of
Slovenian language and literature but also for Slovenian
national identity and historical consciousness. In this
respect Monumenta frisingensia represent the genesis and the beginnings of Slovenian national individuality.
The digital edition of the Monumenta is based upon
a printed one (the critical edition by the Slovenian
Academy of Sciences and Arts), which encompasses a complex apparatus with facsimile, diplomatic, critical and phonetic transcriptions, translations into Latin and
five modern European languages, and a dictionary
covering these transcriptions and translations (plus Old
Church Slavonic). This edition furthermore contains introductory studies, apparatus, a bibliography and an index of names.
The MF are preserved in one single manuscript only. For this reason, the traditional philological and critical task – to examine the ms. witnesses – is not possible in this case. On the contrary, it is of great importance that the edition is founded on the opposite concept: on that of reception. In what way the MF were studied, understood and published? What were the main differences between the transcriptions and editions? Can a digital edition grasp at least crucial points of their research during the two centuries from their discovery, 1806–2006?
For this reason, besides all the components of the
printed edition, the digital one contains a selection of earlier diplomatic and critical transcriptions (in full text) and enables parallel views to compare them. This is of considerable importance as the Frisingensia were often a subject of polemical scientific interpretations, especially with regard to the place of their origin and their linguistic genesis. The edition should, therefore, enable a pluralism of readings and understandings as well as a hierarchy of proofs and ascertainments. By inclusion of all major transcriptions of the Freising Manuscripts since the very
first diplomatic transcription in 1827 (P. Koeppen),
the e-edition offers a panoramic retrospective of 200 years of research of these precious manuscripts. Such a retrospective, evidenced by historical transcriptions themselves, can reveal cultural and philological history of the Frisingensia.
As another extension, specific for digital edition, we decided to include the digitized audio recordings of the read manuscripts and integrate the segmented audio
files to both phonetic transcription and modern Slovenian
normalization. The scope of this audio extension is to
offer a reconstruction (based on historical linguistics)
of medieval Slovenian speech which can be sensibly juxtaposed and compared with transcriptions. We plan to publish a pedagogical adaptation of this e-edition as well, aimed for school-reading, where audio component with the archaic pronunciation can produce a clear image of historical development of the Slovenian language.
Such materials present significant challenges for
encoding, esp. the high density and variety of markup, extreme parallelism (per-line alignment between the text views), and special historic and phonetic characters used in the transcriptions.
The paper details our methodology used to turn the
printed edition (plus extensions) into a Web edition with a standardized encoding, extensive hyperlinking, and multimedia capabilities. We concentrate on the following issues:
- Structuring of materials in a text editor
- Adoption of standard solutions: Unicode/XML/XSLT/TEI-P4/
- Collaborative practices using fast prototyping
and cyclical improvement: up-converting to XML–TEI --> down-converting to HTML --> proofs,
corrections --> re-applying the up-conversion …
Our presentation details these issues, and highlights
the most challenging aspects of entire process, where
the central goal is to enable a complex and lively
communication with the 10th century Monumenta
frisingensia.
Acknowledgments
The Monumenta Frisingensia e-edition was prepared (and is freely available on-line) within a collaborative project “Scholarly digital editions of Slovenian literature”
(http://nl.ijs.si/e-zrc/index-en.html). It is a joint project of the Institute of Slovenian literature (Scientific Research
Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and
Arts, Ljubljana) and the Department of Knowledge Technologies (Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana). The
project was undertaken to provide an application of
traditional text-critical principles and editorial technique to the publication of selected Slovenian texts in the digital
medium. Among these editions, the current digital
edition of the MF occupies a superior position.
References
Bernik F. et al., ed. by (2004). Brižinski spomeniki.
Monumenta frisingensia. Znanstvenokritièna izdaja. Založba ZRC, Ljubljana.","txt","2","",""
"619","7","The Margins of the Scholarship: Children's Literature and the Hypertext Edition","1","Based on a consideration of recent editorial criticism concerning issues of marginality, this presentation
calls for developing a greater number of hypertext
editions of children’s literature. To demonstrate an
engagement with and a response to such criticism, this presentation introduces a hypertext edition of the literary
tale “The Grey Wolf” by George MacDonald (1871), in which the guiding methodology and digital design,
interface, materials, and critical apparatus fit the particular
research and educational needs of scholars and students of children’s literature.
This presentation proposes that more critical hypertext
editions of children’s literature will continue to help
reduce scholarly assumptions that dismiss children’s
literature as straightforward, transparent, and marginal to the more central concerns of literary criticism. Recent
feminist and minority textual studies critics have already
identified some of the ways in which editorial and
publishing practices reproduce hegemonic and positivist
discourses that relegate certain authors and genres to a marginal status in bibliographical and literary studies.
For example, feminist critic Ann Thompson argues
that the masculinist discourses implicit in editorial
conventions have produced critical editions that re-inscribe
male-biased assumptions, selections, omissions, and
interpretations of texts. Similarly, William Andrews points
out that while the literature of minority authors is
beginning to appear more frequently in electronic archives
and student editions, this editorial work is done in place of developing research-based critical editions for the use
of professional academics. But although many kinds of children’s literature infrequently contain textual
allusions, challenging language, and references that require
annotative explanations, children’s literature scholar
Jack Zipes argues that the simplistic narratives and
symbolic elements that characterize children’s literature
often carry the most potent and subversive political
agendas for the very reason that they are considered
harmless and transparent. Taking cues from these
critics’ awareness of how the elision of marginal voices and texts creates disproportionate literary interpretation, dissemination, and canonization, this presentation considers
the dynamic potential of communicating the relatively
marginalized genre of children’s literature in critical
hypertext editions in ways that would benefit scholars and students. With each new publication of a text that belongs to a “marginal” genre, hypertext critical editions produce what D.C. Greetham describes in Theories of the Text (1993) as the “deferral and dispersion” (5) of
the pervasive hierarchical and hegemonic editorial
conventions that continue to privilege certain texts, authors,
and genres over others.
Thus, this presentation aims to demonstrate the
theoretical, practical, and pedagogical fit between
research strategies in children’s literature studies and the
capabilities of hypertext to present and connect visual, contextual, literary and bibliographical material. Because the oral folk tale has no single origin, and because critical work in the area of children’s literature often compares thematics and narrative structures in related historical, national, and transnational texts, hypertext editions of children’s literature can be designed to present multiple
versions of narrative material in ways that de-centre
traditional editorial principles of “best text” and “authorial
intention.” Moreover, critics have recently argued that the editor’s annotations contribute to the (re)production of the text in fundamental ways, further problematizing
the notion of “authorial intention.” For example, in
discussing some of the methodological issues that the editors
faced in creating The Prufrock Papers: A Hypertext Resource for “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”
(1999), Peter Stoicheff and his colleagues regard the
hypertext edition as that which “permits a variety of copy-texts” whose hyperlinks and critical apparatus create “a new kind of interpretive ‘copy-text’.” Feminist editor Brenda Silver further proposes that the adaptation of a text is a form of editorializing that does more than interpret an original text; adaptation, in the author’s view,
performs its interpretation. In a related vein, Julia
Flanders argues that the xml transformation of the codex text into hypertext necessitates semantic tagging, and that editor’s interpretive annotations combine with the text at the xml level. It follows, then, that any hypertext edition is not only a re-presentation of the author’s text but is itself an adaptation, in which the author’s content and
the editor’s presentation of the content join as a single,
collaborative performance. Guided by this editorial
criticism, then, an annotated hypertext edition of a
children’s literary tale would enact the editorial theory
that encourages a de-centering and de-privileging of
traditional editorial conventions by offering a maximum
amount of relational play between textual versions and literary interpretations, of which the hypertext edition
itself is one.
Not only does the editorial theory concerning issues of marginality encourage a de-centring of versions and authorial intent, but hypertext editions that prescribe
to such methodologies can also offer the user diverse interpretive materials for analyzing children’s literature.
For example, literary tale scholars often trace the
historical development and codification of oral folktales, collate and compare versions, and examine codex editions
as cultural artifacts in that they reflect and reproduce
political, economic, and moral norms and values. Also, the hypertext edition can offer additional interpretive
dimensions to the text by reproducing bibliographical
information in digital images, including watermarks and signatures, as well as graphics such as the scripts, borders and illustrations. The hypertext edition can also present
audio or visual cinematic adaptations of the literary tale for comparison. Thus, there is immense potential for
reproducing children’s literature in hypertext format,
particularly since the electronic text may – with hyperlinks,
split screens, digital image rendering and audio/visual clips – present a variety of research materials relevant to children’s literature studies that the traditional codex edition could not. In the spirit of Peter Shillingsburg’s
assertion that “experimentation and a variety of approaches are to be encouraged” in hypertext edition production, this presentation suggests ways in which the digital transmission of children’s literature de-centres editorial conventions while facilitating scholarly research in this area.
To demonstrate this fit between certain editorial theories concerning marginality and adaptation and the practice of studying and comparing textual and literary elements of children’s literature, this presentation introduces a hypertext edition of “The Grey Wolf,” first published in 1871 in a ten-volume set of MacDonald’s work,
entitled Works of Fancy and Imagination. This hypertext
edition offers different interpretations of the text through
colour-coded popup annotations and through the
presentation of related texts in a split-frame interface. It also contains an enumerative and analytical bibliography
of the 1871 edition, and compares this edition to a
paperback edition published by Eerdmans over one
hundred years later (1980). Furthermore, this bibliographical
component of the edition familiarizes student users
with the field of textual studies, and suggests how
bibliographical elements may contribute to literary
interpretations in meaningful ways. My approach to
editing “The Grey Wolf: A Hypertext Edition” is guided
by an integrated matrix of textual studies theory and
literary criticism, an approach that has been called for
by a growing number of textual studies and literary
critics, such as Michael Groden and Marie-Laure Ryan. This approach also draws attention to the issues of marginality,
versioning and the hypertext apparatus through which
the text is mediated, as well as how this remediation
inevitably influences the reception and interpretation of the text.
References
Andrews, W. (1997). “Editing Minority Texts.” The Margins of the Text. Ed. by D.C. Greetham. Ann
Arbor: U of Michigan P. 45-56.
Flanders, J. (1997). “The Body Encoded: Questions of Gender and the Electronic Text.” Electronic Text: Investigations in Method and Theory. Ed. Kathryn Sutherland. Oxford: Clarendon, 127-43.
Greetham, D.C. (1999) “Gender in the Text.” Theories of the Text. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1999. 433-486.
Groden, M. (1991). “Contemporary Textual and Literary Theory.” Representing Modernist Texts: Editing as Interpretation. Ann Arbour: U of Michigan P.
MacDonald, G. (1871). Works of Fancy and Imagination. Vol.10. London: Strahan and Co., 1871.
---. (1980). The Gray Wolf and Other Stories. Grand
Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
Ryan, M-L. (1999). Cyberspace Texuality: Computer
Technology and Literary Theory. Bloomington: Shillingsburg, P. (1997). “Guidelines for Electronic
Scholarly Editions.” Modern Languages
Association of America Committee on Scholarly Editions. 12 Oct 04. http://sunsite.berkley.edu/MLA/
guidelines.html
Silver, B. (1997). “Whose Room of Orlando’s Own? The Politics of Adaptation.” The Margins of the Text. Ed. D.C. Greetham. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P. 57-82.
Stoicheff, P. et al. (1999). “The Editor in the Machine:
Theoretical and Editorial Issues Raised by the
Design of an HTML Literary Hypertext.” The
Prufrock Papers: A Hypertext Resource for “The
Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock.” University of
Saskatchewan. 06 Jan 2005. http://www.usask.ca/english/prufrock/index.html
Thompson, A. (1997). “Feminist Theory and the
Editing of Shakespeare: The Taming of the Shrew Revisited.” The Margins of the Text. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P. 83-104.
Zipes, J. (1983). Fairy Tales and the Art of
Subversion. New York, NY: Wildman, 1983.","txt","2","",""
"620","7","Just Different Layers? Stylesheets and Digital Edition Methodology","1","In the last few years a consistent number of papers
focussed on new theoretical frameworks for scholarly digital editions practice (Vanhoutte 2000a, Vanhoutte 2000b
and Flanders 1998). The main attention has been paid
on text encoding, on the production of apparatus criticus or variourum and its transposition form the paper to the digital format (Vanhoutte 2000a, Vanhoutte 2000b, McGann 1996 and Lavagnino 1996). Another focus is the role of the editor and whether a scholar edition must have as a goal the production of a text (a quotable text) or just different textual materials in order to allow the reader to choose his/her version of the text; a third
possibility being an equilibrium (to be found) between the two school of thinking (Vanhoutte 2005). Connected
to the latter point is the consideration that a digital
edition based on encoding can be re-used for many purposes
(e.g. electronic inspection, computer assisted analysis), and gives the possibility of producing different versions of the same text (critical, diplomatic, facsimile, reading editions, hypertext editions), according with different kind of users and readers from the same encoded text by the application of different stylesheets. In this paper I will address to a different consideration of stylesheets to be seen not only as a tool to produce different layers
of the encoded texts, but as an essential component of the scholar’s work and a possible shortcut toward a
compromise in the dichotomy textual criticism vs.
cultural criticism, as in Vanhoutte 2005.
Some time ago I started to prepare a digital edition of an Italian Renaissance’s comedy, Lo Stufaiuolo, written by Anton Francesco Doni, presumably in 1550-1551. We posses two different autographic manuscripts of the text, each of them witnessing a different and remarkable
version, a fact that involves the necessity of a synoptic
edition. The first question to be answered in digital edition field is certainly which kind of edition to
produce: an editor-oriented or a user-oriented edition. In my opinion, according with the Italian editorial school’s theories, an editor must produce a quotable, reliable text or at least, to provide an orientation to the reader: the editor is probably the person who know the most about the text, and can not skip the task to provide the readers his circumspect opinion/version of the text. On the other side, an editor must also provide all the documentation
possible of his work, according to a fundamental
presumption of the scientific nature of a critical edition that
lays on the possibility for the reader to reproduce/
control/verify the editorial work. For that reasons I chose
to provide different versions of the text (of both texts, in this case), ranging from a minimum to a maximum
of editorial intervention, in order to satisfy different
readers’ needs, accompanied by ancillary documentation on the editorial work and by the photographic reproduction
of the source.
Due to the big interest of the Doni’s language, a peculiar point of the edition would have been the preserving of the original face of the text, allowing at the same time to non-scholar readers to appreciate the text itself, that is very funny and with a huge literary value. Starting the work, I focussed my attention to the very first level of the language: orthography and punctuation. In paper-based critical editions there is often the necessity of re-write the text in order to allow modern reader to easy decrypt it. The orthography and punctuation rules of most modern languages have sensibly changed from Middle Age since today. At the dawn of the writing of modern languages we can not even speak of orthography but of different
writing habits, relayed to different cultural centres.
Furthermore, very early texts are in scriptio continua and for many centuries the word-borders have been sensibly
different from the present ones. Orthography and
punctuation have reached the present relative stability through different phases and approximation levels in
relative recent years; for Romance languages, for example,
the Latin graphical habits had a long persistence in writing. Normally, in the editorial practice, editors “translate” from
ancient writing-face, according to modern rules,
declaring in preliminary sections of the printed book the
transcription’s criteria. In this way paper-based editions are able to give just a summary of the original’s reality and can not be used by scholars who want to study the original language face, punctuation, orthography or the writing supports: as for apparatus criticus or variorum, transcription criteria in prefatory pages do not allows de facto the possibility of reproducing the editorial work. In such cases to turn back to original or facsimile editions is the only possibility, but such editions are totally resistant to electronic inspections and limit the scholar’s chance of availing large corpora of data.
This limitation can be overruled by electronic editions
based on text encoding. In fact, the encoding allows
adding new meaningful layers without losing any aspect
of the original face of the text. For example, adopting
the TEI encoding schema, it is possible to encode the original face of the text as follow:
<p><orig reg=”Perché”>Per che</orig> le lettere sono state sempre poste <orig reg=”nei”>ne i</orig> degni
<orig reg=”e”>et</orig> <orig reg=”onorati”>honorati
</orig> luoghi…</p>
We can also preview a more sophisticated encoding able to classify the kind of regularization provided (after
having extended the TEI encoding schema in order to
enable a “type” attribute for the <orig> element):
<p><orig reg=”Perché” type=”wordBorder”>Per che</orig> le lettere sono state sempre poste <orig reg=’nei’ type=”wordBorder”>ne i</orig> degni <orig reg=’e’ type=”lat”>et</orig> <orig reg=’onorati’ type=”lat”>honorati</orig> luoghi…</p>
With such encoding it will be possible to display the text according to the <orig> face or to the reg face using
suitable XSLT stylesheets. In case of multiple editions
from the same text, we can also think to editions
regularizing each time particular sets of “type”,
according with different purposes, for example considering
just punctuation or just orthography regularization.
The usage of stylesheets can be also anticipated from the delivery phase to the encoding/editorial phase. A useful application of stylesheets during the encoding can be managed by the encoder/editor to monitor its own work and its interventions on the text. Stylesheets, in fact, are able to produce at any moment of the work statistical
data in real time, a fact which can help the editor to
better understand the writing habits of the author or of the copyist and, at the same time, to keep under control its own work. Similar considerations can be made over
the encoding of readings and lemmas, where lists of
refused or accepted readings can profitably support the editorial work in every phase. Stylesheets are a low-cost
(or a non-cost), flexible and suitable technology,
relatively easy to understand in its principal applications and can be managed directly by the editor, not a secondary
concern in low budget projects.
In the delivery phase, the same lists and data can be
produced to the scientific community, giving explicitness to the editorial practice and overruling the compactness of the introductory notes of paper-based editions.
Stylesheets can be reasonably considered not only an ancillary part of the editorial practice, a technology to be recalled after the finish of the scholar work (maybe committed to computer science people), but a part of the work committed to the editor himself/herself, able to
support his/her tasks in monitoring the work step by step and able to produce different texts for different tastes, under the editorial control.
The paper will conclude by presenting the digital edition of the Doni’s Stufaiuolo, in order to exemplify the results obtained with such methodological approach.
References
Flanders, J. (1998). “Trusting the Electronic Edition,” Computers and the Humanities 31/4.
Lavagnino, J. (1996). “Reading, Scholarship, and
Hypertext Editions”, TEXT, 8
McGann, J. (1996). “The Rationale of HyperText”, TEXT, 9.
Sperberg-Mcqueen, C.M. and Burnard, L. (2002). TEI P4 Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange: XML-compatible Edition. (P4). Oxford, Providence, Charlottesville, & Bergen: The TEI Consortium. Available also at http://www.
tei-c.org/P4X/.
Vanhoutte, E. (2000a). “Textual Variation, Electronic Editions and Hypertext”. Paper. ACH/ALLC 2000. Glasgow (UK): Glasgow University. 23 July 2000. Abstract available at: http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/allcach2k/Programme/session4.html#433.
Vanhoutte, E. (2000b). “Where is the editor? Resistance in the Creation of an Electronic Critical Edition”, DRH98: Selected Papers from Digital Resources for the Humanities 1998, ed. Marilyn Deegan, Jean
Anderson, and Harold Short (London: Office for Humanities Communication, 2000).
Vanhoutte, E. (2005). “Editorial theory in crisis. The concepts of base text, edited text, textual apparatus and variant in electronic editions”. Paper. DRH
2005. Lancaster (UK): Lancaster University.
5 September 2005.
Vanhoutte E. and Van der Branden, R. (2005).
“Describing, Transcribing, Encoding, and Editing
Modern Correspondence Material: a Textbase
Approach”. Fred Unwalla & Peter Shillingsburg (eds.), Computing the edition. Toronto, Toronto
University Press. Preprint on http://www.kantl.be/ctb/pub/2004/comedvanvanfig.pdf.","txt","2","",""
"621","7","De l'index nominum à l'ontologie. Comment mettre en lumière les réseaux sociaux dans les corpus historiques numériques ?","1","Dresser les index fait partie intégrante du travail d’élaboration d’une édition critique de sources. Dans le cadre du support papier, les index permettent de donner aux lecteurs une idée du contenu et, surtout, d’accéder précisément à une information : un nom de lieu ou de personne dans le cas des index nominum, ou un concept dans le cas des index rerum. L’index est en revanche quasiment absent des éditions numériques et des bases de données textuelles, et plusieurs raisons
peuvent expliquer cette absence. D’une part, dans la plupart
des cas, le but de telles entreprises n’est pas de proposer des éditions critiques de sources, mais plutôt des bases de données textuelles. Les formulaires d’interrogation
constituent le point d’accès principal à l’information, et la primauté du texte intégral a pu faire croire dans un
premier temps à l’inutilité de l’index. D’autre part, mettre
en place un index représente un travail long et fastidieux, qui entraîne un coût non négligeable difficile à supporter pour des éditeurs commerciaux.
Pourtant, même dans le cadre du support numérique, en particulier sur le Web, la pratique de l’indexation trouve des justifications. Ainsi, alors que dans le cas de corpus médiévaux, la lemmatisation automatique est très difficile à mettre en place, surtout sur les noms de personnes et de lieux qui présentent les graphies les plus disparates,
l’indexation peut constituer une première réponse à ce
problème. Par ailleurs, l’index offre un panorama des noms
de lieux et de personnes présents dans l’ouvrage, ce qui est impossible avec les bases de données textuelles qui ne proposent aucun moyen de prendre connaissance du contenu du corpus de manière globale. Aujourd’hui
commencent à apparaître sur le Web des éditions critiques
proprement dites, qui s’appuient sur la structure
originelle de ce type de travail de recherche ; logiquement,
elles comprennent aussi un index, celui-ci faisant
partie intégrante de la tradition scientifique de l’édition
critique. C’est en adoptant cette démarche que se
dégagent les prémices d’une exploitation innovante de l’index dans le contexte de l’édition électronique.
Dans le cadre de l’organisation hypertextuelle de
l’information, alors que l’index n’était qu’un outil de
repérage souvent difficile d’emploi sur le support papier, il devient un moyen rapide d’accès à l’information surtout
dans le cas d’un survol et d’une prise de contact du
corpus par l’internaute, et fait apparaître de nouveaux parcours de lecture.
Malgré ces disparités existantes d’un ouvrage à l’autre, quatre parties récurrentes peuvent être distinguées dans un index :
• L’entrée de l’index ;
• L’ensemble des formes présentes dans le texte et
faisant référence à cette entrée ;
• Des indications biographiques et/ou généalogiques ;
• L’emplacement dans l’ouvrage des occurrences de l’index.
Les index de noms sont souvent organisés de manière hiérarchique, induisant des liens entre les entrées. Toutes
ces informations constituent une première couche
interprétative. Pourtant, l’index est cantonné dans ce rôle de repérage et d’accès à l’information, et ces données sont rarement exploitées pour traiter le corpus. Or, ce travail pourrait servir de socle à la construction d’une ontologie, qui constituerait un index commun à plusieurs corpus, jouant en quelque sorte le rôle d’un fichier d’autorité.
Une ontologie informatique, à ne pas confondre avec
celle des philosophes, permet de définir des concepts et de décrire les relations qui peuvent exister entre ces différents concepts. L’avantage d’une ontologie sur une base de données relationnelle réside dans la possibilité de définir des règles logiques entre les concepts et entre les relations, et de dépasser ainsi le concept d’organisation
hiérarchique qui prévaut dans les formes traditionnelles de l’index. Par exemple, soit la relation « frère de » symétrique et la propriété « A frère de B », alors l’inférence « B frère
de A » est déduite automatiquement. De la même façon, soit la relation « enfant de » transitive de la relation
« parent de » et la propriété « A parent de B », alors la propriété « B est enfant de A » est déduite automatiquement.
Ce mécanisme, qui peut sembler simple et logique à l’appréhension humaine, est en réalité assez complexe à reproduire dans un contexte d’automatisation du traitement de l’information.
Il existe plusieurs langages pour mettre au point une ontologie. Le langage OWL défini par le W3C et basé sur RDF, permet d’envisager, grâce à sa syntaxe XML, une transformation simple par feuilles de style XSL des données du corpus encodés en XML vers l’ontologie au format OWL. Pour peupler l’ontologie, en récupérant à la fois l’ensemble des noms de personnes et de lieux
indexés sous une forme régularisée, et la relation de ces noms avec les différents documents du corpus, nous
pouvons alors nous appuyer sur la structuration en XML des corpus historiques selon la DTD TEI.
Pour un corpus encodé selon la version dite P4 de la TEI, l’élément vide <index/> peut être utilisé pour indexer un point dans le texte. Mais cet élément ne permet pas la récupération des différentes formes des entrées indexées.
En revanche, l’élément <persName> accompagné de l’attribut reg permet d’encoder un nom de personne
et d’indiquer une forme régularisée, et l’élément
<placeName> permet quant à lui d’encoder un nom de lieu.
Une fois le cadre structurel des entrées d’index ainsi défini,
il importe de mettre en place ce qui sera la structure de
l’ontologie adaptée pour représenter les réseaux sociaux. L’indication de l’emplacement des occurrences d’une entrée d’index dans le corpus structuré en XML permet de créer automatiquement les relations entre les noms de personnes ou de lieux et les unités structurelles du corpus. Pour autant, le rôle ou la place des personnes dans l’unité
structurelle peuvent être précisés. Dans le cas de chartes, nous pouvons préciser s’il s’agit de l’auteur de l’acte juridique, du bénéficiaire ou d’un témoin, par exemple. Pour finir, il faut ajouter les relations entre les personnes et entre les personnes et les lieux, en s’appuyant sur les relations mises en lumière à travers la présence dans un document et/ou sur d’autres sources de première ou de seconde main.
Trois méthodes de visualisation sont à mettre en oeuvre pour exploiter pleinement le potentiel de cette démarche.
Tout d’abord, une visualisation proche de la mise en page d’un index traditionnel est indispensable pour
assurer le rôle de transition vers l’appropriation du support
électronique par les chercheurs. Dans un second temps, l’ontologie est proposée dans une forme apte à donner la
vision d’ensemble du contenu : des interfaces de navigation à facettes offrent sous forme de listes combinables des parcours dans le corpus qui sont entièrement définis par l’utilisateur. Enfin, une visualisation graphique révèle
pleinement le potentiel de l’ontologie. Le graphe fait
apparaître de manière tangible les relations entre les
personnes, les documents et les lieux, ainsi que le type de relations qui ont été définies. C’est alors que peuvent être mis en lumière les réseaux sociaux qui existent à l’état sous-jacent dans les documents.
Grâce à cette dernière méthode de visualisation sous forme de graphe, l’ontologie prouve son utilité dans le cadre de l’encodage des index nominum. Une base de données relationnelle, étant incapable de modéliser des relations autres que hiérarchiques, ou de déduire les
inférences des relations exprimées, rend impossible la modélisation complète des réseaux sociaux. L’ontologie, au contraire, autorise ce processus et permet à l’index de dépasser son rôle de point d’accès pour devenir un véritable
outil d’analyse de corpus. Les réseaux sociaux mis en
lumière par l’ontologie sous forme de graphe deviennent
plus faciles à appréhender, ce qui constituera, une fois cette technologie déployée sur des corpus historiques significatifs, un moyen essentiel d’étudier la présence d’un groupe de personnes dans un espace géographique
en fonction de leurs relations. La mise en place de
l’index nominum sous forme d’ontologie, s’appuyant sur des corpus structurés en XML, montre bien comment une technologie comme RDF, en transformant la façon dont l’information est modélisée, peut décupler l’intérêt d’un outil bien identifié.
The elaboration of critical edition of sources
basically includes the setting up of indexes. In the paper media, the index provides an overview of the content, and makes it possible to access directly a piece
of information : the name of a place or a person in the case of index nominum, or a concept in the case of
index rerum. Though, indexes are hardly ever integrated in electronic publishing and textual databases, and this
can be easily explained. On the first hand, in most
cases, the goal of such initiatives isn’t to propose critical
editions of sources, but to gather vast amounts of texts. Search forms are the main access tool, and the primacy of full text used to make indexes seem useless. On the other hand, setting up an index is a long and fastidious
work, and the cost is not affordable for commercial
publishers. Though, even within the digital media, and particularly on the Web, indexing is a worthy effort. It can solve the problem of lemmatisation, which is very hard to proceed automatically on a medieval corpus,
especially regarding the diversity of writings of the names
of people and places. Moreover, the index provides an overview of the names that appear in the work, when in textual databases there is no way to have a global
approach of the corpus. Today, we’re beginning to see on the Web real critical editions, that rely upon the original structure of this kind of scholarly work ; logically, they also include an index, since this is part of the academic tradition of critical edition. Through this approach, it is possible to outline innovative uses of indexes within the context of electronic publishing.
While in the paper media the index was only a hard to use location tool, within hypertextual organisation of information, it becomes a quick access tool, gives the overview of the corpus when discovering it for the first time, and reveals new courses of reading. Beside
some disparities between different works, an index is composed of four stable parts :
• the entry
• the different writings in the text corresponding to this entry
• biographical and/or genealogical explanations
• the location of occurrences in the text.
Name indexes are often organized hierarchically,
inducing links between entries. All this information
represents a first interpretative layer. Though, the
index is stuck in this purpose of finding and accessing
information, and these data aren’t used to analyse the corpus. It would be possible to use this work as the
basis of an ontology, which would be a common index for various works or corpus, playing a role similar to a list of authorities. A computer ontology, not to be confused
with philosophical ontologies, allows to describe
concepts and relations between these concepts. The
advantage of an ontology over a relational database is to enable logical rules between concepts and relations, and to go further than the hierarchical classification
traditionally used for indexes. For instance, the symmetric
relation “ brother of ” and the property “ A is brother of B ” allows to automatically deduce the inference “ B is brother of A ”. Similarly, the relation “ child of ”, transitive
to the relation “ parent of ”, and the property “ A is
parent of B ” the inference “ B is child of A ” is deduced.
This mechanism, for simple and obvious that it seems to a human being, is actually quite complex to reproduce in the context of information treatment automation.
There are various languages to set up an ontology. The OWL language, defined by the W3C and based on RDF,
allows, thanks to the XML syntax, a simple XSLT
transformation of the data encoded in the corpus in XML towards the OWL ontology. To populate the ontology, we can use the XML structure of historical works encoded following the TEI DTD, to gather all the names of people and places indexed in a regular form, and the relation of these names with the documents in the corpus. For a corpus encoded with the P4 version of TEI, the empty
tag <index/> can be used to locate a point in the text, but it is not possible to reuse the different forms of the indexed entries. On the contrary, the <persName> tag with the reg attribute allows to encode the name of a
person and to indicate the regular form, and so is it with the <placeName> for places. Once we defined the structural
framework on index entries, we can work on the intended structure of the ontology in order to represent social networks. The location of the occurrences of the entry in the corpus structured in XML allows to automatically create relations between names of persons and places, and the structural entities of the corpus. Thus we can also indicate the role or place of the persons : in the case of a charter, we can indicate if it’s the author of the juridical action, the beneficiary or a witness, for example. Finally, we have to add the relations between people and placing,
basing ourselves upon the relations revealed by the
document, or other primary or secondary resources.
Three visualisation methods can be used to fully reveal the benefits of this approach. In the first place, a visualisation close to the presentation of traditional indexes is required
in order to ensure the transition towards assimilation of the digital media by the scholars. Second, the ontology is proposed in a manner proper for giving an overview of the content : faceted navigation interfaces propose combined lists that allow the end-user to define by himself different courses in the corpus. Finally, the graphical visualisation
reveals the full potential of the ontology. The graph
makes the relations between people, documents and places tangible, as well as the relations types that have been
defined. Thus we can unveil the social networks that exist in a hidden state in the documents. The visualisation in the form of a graph proves the usefulness of ontologies when encoding an index nominum. Because a relational database cannot show relations other than hierarchical, or deduce inferences of expressed relations, it cannot
completely realise the modelling of social networks.
On the contrary, an ontology allows this process and transforms the index from a classical access point into an real tool for analysing the corpus. The social networks revealed by the ontology in the graph form become easier
to apprehend, and this will constitute, once this technology
is implemented on significant historical corpus, an
essential manner to study the presence of a group of people
in a geographic space according to their relations. The setting up of the index nominum as an ontology relying on XML structured works shows how a technology like RDF can grow the interest of a well identified tool using the modelling of information.","txt","2","",""
"622","7","Axiomatizing FRBR : An Exercise in the Formal Ontology of Cultural Objects","1","Most current conceptual modeling methods were originally designed to support the development of business-oriented database systems and cannot easily
make computationally available many of the features
distinctive to cultural objects. Other modeling approaches,
such as traditional conceptual analysis can complement
and extend contemporary conceptual modeling and
provide the computing humanist with methods more
appropriate for cultural material and humanistic inquiry.
The Humanities and the Problem of Method
Dilthey famously distinguished the methods of the cultural sciences from those of the natural sciences,
claiming that the natural sciences seek to explain
whereas the sciences of culture seek to understand as well.
Although there is no generally accepted account of this distinction, it is still a not uncommon belief that when
humanists analyze, explain, and interpret the cultural world,
they are, at least in part, using distinctive methods. The question has a long history but it is now especially acute in the practice of humanities computing.
One compromise is to accept the separation and treat computational support as preliminary or ancillary — or, even if constitutive, partial, and the lesser part. We
believe that such a resolution will result in missed
opportunities to develop intrinsic connections between the methods of managing computational support and
traditional methods of advancing humanistic insight. Conceptual Analysis
The early Socratic dialogues focus on cultural concepts such as justice, piety, courage, beauty, friendship, knowledge, and so on. Socrates asks what these are and attempts to determine what features
are significant, sometimes considering hypothetical
cases to elicit modal intuitions, sometimes reasoning discursively from general principles. This now familiar style of reasoning may be called “conceptual analysis”, or, when formalized with the general principles articulated
as axioms, “axiomatic conceptual analysis”. Often
discussions of cultural objects by humanist scholars can be
seen to be some variation of this sort of reasoning or
situated within a framework of concepts which could be explicated in this way.
This approach to understanding cultural facts has been widely criticized, from both hermeneutic and positivist quarters; however recent work on the nature of social facts may provide some support. Searle and others have argued that social and cultural facts are established through acts of “collective intentionality” (Searle, 1995). If so then at least part of the nature of that reality would seem to be directly accessible to the participating agents. We cannot investigate galaxies, electrons in this way, because we in no way create them as we do poetry, music, and social institutions. Searle’s account is consistent with the approach taken by the phenomenologists of society and culture, such as Reinach and Ingarden, as well as with classical Anglo-American philosophical analysis (Smith, 2003).
An Example: Bibliographic Entities
In the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic
Records (FRBR) the conceptual modeling is explicit and the conceptual analysis latent. In the text of FRBR we read (IFLA, 1998):
Work: “a distinct intellectual or artistic creation”
Expression: “the intellectual or artistic realization
of a work in the form of alphanumeric, musical, or
choreographic notation, sound, image, object, movement...”
(e.g., a text).
Manifestation: “the physical embodiment of an expression of a work”. (e.g., an edition).
Item: “a single exemplar of a manifestation”. (e.g., an individual copy of a book)
The novel Moby Dick, a work, is realized through various expressions, the different texts of Moby Dick, including different translations. Each one of these expressions may be embodied in a number of different manifestations, such as different editions with different typography. And each of these manifestations in turn may be exemplified in a number of different items, the various individual copies of that edition. Each entity is also assigned a distinctive set of attributes: works have such things as subject and genre; expressions a particular language; manifestations have typeface and type size; and items have condition and location.
Below is the “entity relationship diagram” representing these entities and relationships:
Figure 1: ER Diagram of FRBR Group 1 Entities and Primary Relationships
[diagram from IFLA (1998)]
Entity relationship diagrams are a widely used conceptual modeling technique in the development of information
management systems and there are algorithms for
converting ER diagrams into robust lower level
abstractions, such as normalized relational tables, that can be implemented in database systems. However
standard ER diagrams cannot make all aspects of cultural
material computationally available. There is no method
for saying explicitly under what formal conditions
entities are assigned to one entity set or another, for
distinguishing entities from relations and attributes, or for identifying necessary or constituent features. Moreover,
relationships are understood extensionally, and modal or other intentional assertions, including propositional
attitudes and speech acts that are critically important in the study of society and culture cannot be expressed.
(Renear and Choi, 2005).
Extending Conceptual Modeling with Conceptual Analysis
[Caveat: In what follows we intend no position on the plausibility of any ontological theory of cultural objects. Our claim is only that there are such positions, that they
cannot be easily represented with current conceptual
modeling techniques, and that they can be represented with other techniques.]
The text of FRBR provides much information that,
despite appearances, is not represented in the FRBR ER diagram. Some of this disparity has been discussed
elsewhere (Renear and Choi, forthcoming); here we take up features especially relevant to cultural material.
For example, the FRBR ER diagram does show embodiment, realization, and exemplification relationships, of course, but it does not indicate their particular significance. The “is” of “...is the physical embodiment...” is not the “is” of mere predication. It is a conceptually constitutive “is”: we are being told not just a fact about manifestations, but what manifestations (conceptually) are. The cascade of definitions suggests this formalization:
work(x) … x is an artistic or intellectual creation
expression(x) =df (∃y)[realizes(x,y) & work(y)]
manifestation(x) =df (∃y)[embodies(x,y) & expression(y)]
item(x) =df (∃y)[exemplifies(x,y) & manifestation(y)]
Now we can see that the concept of work is taken as a quasi-primitive entity, the three characteristic
relationships are also each primitive, and essentially
involved in the definitions of the entities, and the
appearance of interdefinition is made explicit. Because none of this is modeled in the FRBR ER model, that
model does not fully represent FRBR’s perspective and, moreover, these features will not be reflected in information
systems generated from that model and will not be
computationally available for analysis.
Bibliographic Platonism
Already we see inferences not entirely trivial, such as the theorem that bibliographic items imply the existence of corresponding (abstract) manifestations,
expressions, and works:
P1 item(v) ⊃ (∃x)( ∃y)( ∃z) [manifestation(x)
& expression(y) & work(z) & exemplifies(v,x)
& embodies(x,y) & realizes(y,x) ]
But consider the converse of that conditional:
A1 work(v) ⊃ (∃x)( ∃y)( ∃z) [item(x)
& manifestation(y) & expression(z)
& exemplifies(v,x) & embodies(x,y) & realizes(y,z) ]
A1, a bibliographic analogue of the Aristotelian thesis that only instantiated universals exist does not follow from the definitions.
Represented in this way FRBR now raises a traditional
problem for Platonist ontologies of art: if works are
abstractions existing independently of their instantiations,
then how can they be created?
Bibliographic Aristotelianism
An alternative approach could take items as
primitive.
work(x) =df (∃y)[IsRealizeBy(x,y) & expression(y)]
expression(x) =df (∃y)[IsEmbodiedBy(x,y) &
manifestation(y)]
manifestation(x) =df (∃y)[IsExemplifiedBy(x,y) & item(y)]
item(x) =df a (material) artistic or intellectual
creation
This is a “moderate” realism in which A1 is now a theorem and P1 no longer one. Here abstract objects cannot exist independently of their physical instantiations, although they do exist (as real objects) when their corresponding
items exist. However P1 will certainly need to be
added as an axiom to support our intuition that items do
imply works in any case. Or, another approach to the same end is to leave work as primitive, as before, but add
P1 as an axiom. Either might better fits our commonsense intuitions about artistic creation, But we may now have
problems characteristic of moderate realism: how to
exclude abstract objects which have an intermittent being,
going in and out of existence as their instances do — which would be in contradiction to another commonsense intuition: that “a thing cannot have two beginnings in time” (Locke). A Third Way
In FRBR the notion of a work seems poorly accounted for, tempting further development. Jerrold Levinson defends this definition of musical work:
x is a musical work =df
x is a sound/performance_means-structure-as-indicated-
by-S-at-t.
Levinson argues that works are “initiated types” (other examples: the Ford Thunderbird and Lincoln penny) which do not exist until indication but once created exist independent of their concrete instances. Our intuitions about artistic creation are now accommodated, but at a cost: a special class of abstract object which, at least
arguably, has a beginning in time but never an end,
as in Karl Popper’s “third world” of cultural objects.
Revising the formalization to represent this view is left to the reader as an exercise. It is a little harder than you might think.
International Federation of Library Associations (1998)
Levinson, J (1980). “What a Musical Work Is,” The Journal of Philosophy 77.
Renear, A. and Choi, Y. (2005) “Trouble Ahead:
Propositional Attitudes and Metadata”. Proceedings of the 68th Annual Meeting of the American Society for Information Science and Technology (ASIST). Charlotte NC.
Renear, A. and Choi, Y. (forthcoming) “Modeling our Understanding, Understanding Our Models — The Case of Inheritance in FRBR”.
Searle, J. (1995). The Construction of Social Reality. 1995.
Smith, B. (2003) ‘”John Searle: From Speech Acts to Social Reality”, in B. Smith (ed.) John Searle. Cambridge University Press.","txt","2","",""
"623","7","Collaborative Scholarship: Rethinking Text Editing on the Digital Platform","1","INTRODUCTION
Based at Brown University, the Virtual Humanities
Lab [1] is one of twenty-three “models of
excellence” in humanities education, supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities for 2004-06. [2] The project is being developed by the Department of Italian Studies in collaboration with Brown’s Scholarly Technology Group and with scholars in the U.S. and in Europe.
This paper will report on the achievements of VHL’s work during the first two years of its existence as a
platform for collaborative humanities research. We will discuss the editing process as we envision it: as a form of interdisciplinary and collaborative knowledge work. We will present issues arising from our experiment with subjective (or “idiosyncratic”) text encoding; challenges
we face in organizing the work of an international group of collaborators and the procedures for that work;
and the process of annotating and indexing large texts collaboratively. Finally, we will hint at VHL’s potential applications for pedagogical purposes.
TEXT ENCODING
We have made three Early Modern Italian
texts available online: Giovanni Boccaccio’s Esposizioni sopra la Comedia di Dante; portions of
Giovanni Villani’s Cronica Fiorentina; and Conclusiones
Nongentae Disputandae by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. These three texts were selected as representative of different textual typologies (commentary, chronicle and treatise) that solicit different encoding and annotating strategies. The first two are large (around 700 and 200 modern print pages respectively) and heavily semantically encoded. The third is organized as a textual database meant to
provide a flexible platform for annotation. All texts share the technical infrastructure of the VHL.
The encoding was performed along interdisciplinary
lines by scholars of Italian literature and history.
The Cronica was encoded by two collaborators; the
Esposizioni had one principal encoder and several
researchers investigating specific issues. All three encoders
were asked to annotate without a DTD, using whatever elements they deemed appropriate based on two criteria:
– that the categories elucidated by the encoding are broad enough to produce interesting search results; and
– that, in their estimation, researchers interested in these texts would generally find their encoded
aspects interesting as well.
All three encoders received training; further guidance was available upon request. None of the three scholars had had previous semantic encoding experience.
Although the encoding proceeded separately for each text, similarities in what seems most interesting have emerged. Both texts contain encoding of proper names (including people, places, literary works mentioned) and the themes most prevalent in the narratives. These
similarities, and the exigencies of the Philologic [3] search engine being built, have prompted us to homogenize encoding across texts, and make it TEI-compliant to the extent possible. It is important to note that this step was taken after the encoding was completed. This afforded
our encoders freedom of analytical thought without
burdening them with an unfamiliar and very complex set of encoding guidelines.
The encoding process itself presented a challenge on several fronts. As often happens, it took the encoders a while to get used to doing work almost entirely at the computer. Because of the collaborative nature of the
project, and because it is good practice in general, we used a versioning system, and the encoders had to deal with the necessity of having an internet connection at least at the beginning and end of each working interval. The two editor-encoders of the Villani text faced particular
challenges, working as they were at different institutions, neither of which is Brown. So in addition to juggling the unintuitive (to them) practice of encoding with their other commitments, they faced the need to coordinate their schedules and responsibilities within the editing process. Combined with sometimes unreliable internet access, these circumstances channeled most communication into email and our work weblog.
Blogging, particularly posting incomplete reflections on a work in progress, was initially an obstacle. However, this work has brought two remarkable benefits. First, we have received feedback from people not directly involved in the project. Second, each participant was constantly updated on others’ progress. This gave all involved an idea of where VHL as a whole was going, and encouraged discussion at the grant-project level.
ANNOTATING
Built by the Scholarly Technology Group, the
annotation engine allows scholars with sufficient
access privileges to annotate texts. [Figure 1]
Annotations can be visualized, anchored to one or more passages of one or more texts. [Figure 2] A contributor’s
own annotations can always be modified or deleted
by that contributor. At the moment, a feature of the
annotation interface is in development that will allow (again, registered) scholars to reply to annotations made by others. We hope that this will foster collaborative
thinking and maintain an informal, workshop-like
environment for research.
An international group of around thirtyforty-five scholars has agreed to begin annotation of the Pico text. Having completed first-pass encoding of the other two works, we are assembling similar groups for them as well. Invited
annotators serve as alpha testers of the search and
annotation engines. Depending on the results, we plan to open up the process to the scholarly web community at large. One issue we face is whether to leave annotation open-ended (according to individual scholars’ interests and will) or to provide stricter guidelines – a working plan to be followed by all annotators. For now we have opted for an open process: participants will be free to
annotate the portions of the text that they prefer. The VHL discussion forum provides a venue were issues arising from the annotating process may be critically addressed.
INDEXING
We have generated indexes of the encoded texts. Merely compiling them took weeks – automatically generated lists revealed encoding mistakes
to be corrected, and highlighted many entries to be
researched further. We are not yet confident in the indexes’
accuracy, but have neither time nor resources to properly address the issue by ourselves. Here, again, the feedback of the scholarly community will be essential.
We see this as an opportunity to test out the already
mentioned discussion forum that completes the VHL toolkit, and to gather potentially interested users for
alpha-testing and feedback on the collaboration process
itself. A call for participation was disseminated on
relevant mailing lists, and mailed directly to relevant academic departments at many North American and
European universities. We aim to gather a group of
qualified [post]graduate and undergraduate students to help us verify the sizable indexes. At the time of this writing (March 2006), several young scholars have
expressed interest in contributing.
CONCLUSIONS AND A LOOK TO THE FUTURE
As a final step during the present grant period, we are organizing the existing toolset (search and
annotation engines, indexes, weblog and discussion forum)
under an umbrella category of the Virtual Seminar Room, which will serve as the venue where editing practices will be consistently linked to pedagogical activities. This move is prompted in part by the success of the Decameron
Web’s Pedagogy section, which continues to receive
positive feedback from teachers of Boccaccio all over the world.
It is too early to state definitively how the VHL will be used by humanists. Based on our prior experience with the Decameron Web [4] and the Pico Project [5],
however, we are cautiously optimistic. It is true that work performed entirely online, and collaboration as a mode of research, have been slow to catch on in the humanities.
Recent publications and tool developments point to a
desire on the part of humanist academics to have spaces
akin to science labs, where they can mingle and talk
informally about their research. [6] Such labs are difficult
and impractical to set up in physical space. So we have created a place online where scholars may interactively
edit and annotate texts, and develop pedagogical modules for their individual purpose. With user feedback, we hope to make the VHL attractive enough to humanities scholars that they’ll be convinced to come play with us, even if the modes of interaction may be unusual or confusing at first.
The past two years have resulted in a long wishlist of features to implement in the future, given time and
resources:
– addition of automatic lemmatizers and other
pedagogical parsing and mapping tools, aimed at the various textual typologies of VHL content;
– hosting and inclusion of texts uploaded by users;
– possibility of using the editing process as part of a seminar-like pedagogical experience;
– possibility of adding images as a consistent part of the editing/illustrating process;
– tools for transcription of manuscripts and incunabula; and others.
The future of the humanities is shaping up to be both
online and collaborative. The question is not whether
humanists will work together, but where they will do so, and what forms their knowledge work will take in the
public research arena provided by the web. The VHL is one practical step towards answering this question.
[1] http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Italian_
Studies/vhl/
[2] National Endowment for the Humanities. (2004) “NEH Grants Support Models of Excellence in Humanities Education: $3.8 million awarded to 23
projects to create new humanities resources and
develop new courses.” http://www.neh.gov/news/
archive/20040419.html
[3] http://philologic.uchicago.edu/
[4] http://www.brown.edu/decameron/
[5] http://dev.stg.brown.edu/projects/pico/
[6] Gina Hiatt’s 2005 article in Inside Higher Ed (http://insidehighered.com/views/2005/10/26/hiatt) is a good example of discussion on the topic. “What I
am advocating,” she writes, “is injecting into the
humanities department some of the freewheeling dialogue found in the halls outside the conference presentation or in some of the better scholarly
blogs.” Tool makers have heeded the siren song of collaboration as well; resources such as TAPoR (http://tapor.mcmaster.ca/) and the Virtual Lightbox (http://www.mith2.umd.edu/products/lightbox/)
attest to this.","txt","2","",""
"624","7","Use of Computing Tools for Organizing and Accessing Theory and Art Criticism Information: the TTC - ATENEA Proj","1","INTRODUCTION. BACKGROUND AND INITIAL GOALS
The main purpose of this article is to introduce and describe a new digital resource, the Tesauro
Terminológico-Conceptual (TTC), designed to perform
research online, and the Atenea Corpus. The structure
of the TTC thesaurus is conceptually innovative, and it has been specifically build to assist the user in the
epistemological, terminological, textual and theoretical aspects of art research.
The TTC is a development of the research done by
Nuria Rodriguez for her doctoral dissertation [1]. The goal
was to find a satisfactory answer to the terminological/conceptual problems that hinder research in the history, theory and criticism of art, and the TTC is the solution proposed(1). This project is closely related to the Getty Research Institute (Los Angeles, USA), and particularly to its Vocabulary Program, and the Art & Architecture
Thesaurus (AAT).(2) The TTC is also linked to the
Spanish version of the AAT, translated and managed by the “Centro de Documentación de Bienes Patrimoniales” based in Chile.(3)
The TTC can be broadly defined as a knowledge tool for art specialists and other users, that helps to obtain a compilation of described, analyzed, classified and linked terms and concepts, primarily those having to do with theory, criticism and aesthetics. In order to build this type of tool it is essential to perform an interpretative analysis of these concepts and terms due to the ambiguity that define them. After that, these terms and concepts must be incorporated into the structure of the TTC with all the
relevant information associated to them. An important outcome of this process is the development of a digitalized
set of artistic texts: the Atenea Corpus, since one of the epistemological and methodological basis of this project is the study of the terms in their textual contexts.
Therefore, this project creates a virtual net made up of two complementary components: a text database, and the terminological conceptual thesaurus (TTC). The textual database consists of all the digitalized texts that supply the terms and concepts recorded by the thesaurus [see figure 1].
Fig. 1.: the TTC and ATENEA resources.
INITIAL GOALS
Why to create a new type of thesaurus? The initial
context in which the project began substantially determined the conception and the characteristics of what would become the TTC. For further information on this type of thesaurus see also [2, 3, 4 and 5].
1. Terminological/conceptual problems: ambiguity and interpretative inaccuracy.
The main purpose of this project was to provide a
satisfactory answer to the terminological/conceptual
problems that encumber the task of conducting research in
the history of art. Some of the problems most frequently
found in the field of art history are terminological and discursive ambiguity, vagueness, and inaccuracy,
particularly when dealing with theory and criticism. This situation derives from the high degree of semantic density
typical of artistic terminology, as well as from frequent
semantic alterations and shifts in meaning that terms
undergo as a result of multiple reinterpretations and new uses. Thus, studying the semantic properties of terms and their diverse domains of meaning became a priority from the beginning. This approach required identifying and organizing the various meanings of each term and the semantic scope of every concept by comparing the variations found in the different discourses.
None of the available thesauri was capable of performing
these tasks: 1. Conventional thesauri do not take into account the theoretical and discursive contexts in which concepts appear; 2. The brief definition (or scope note)
attached to each descriptor in conventional thesauri barely satisfies the needs of specialists in theory or
criticism. The scope note has a very specific function, which is to limit the meaning of the descriptor to the framework
of the thesaurus itself. As a result, theoretical and
critical analyses are irrelevant in defining and describing
concepts. Lacking these sorts of analyses, the complexity inherent to artistic concepts, with all their nuances and variations, ends up either simplified or ignored.
2. Linguistic and expressive richness.
Besides categorizing the semantic component of the
terminology and solving its ambiguities, a further objective
was to compile and analyze the rich variety of verbal and expressive resources that characterizes the field of art
history. In order to reach this goal it was necessary to collect,
describe and classify all the expressive resources used by specialists in their writings about art, whether the lexical
expressions were specific, or not (such as metaphoric or metonymic terms, literary or rhetorical resources).
The criteria applied to the compilation of expressive
resources went beyond the standards of conventional
thesauri, for they only register terms identified as belonging
to a particular field of study.
3. Textual and discursive approach.
The essential notion underlining the project is that their use, as they appear in a particular text; with respect to terms, they are regarded as functional entities with a contextually determined role and meaning. Consequently,
the identification and analysis of terms and concepts had to be done at the discursive level, paying especial
attention to the way in which authors and specialists used and defined them. Since these terminological and
conceptual uses needed to be examined within their
textual context, the thesaurus had to include the relevant discursive fragments. Again, conventional thesauri could not offer this type of information because, even though they provide the bibliographical sources for the terms,
they do not include the textual citations themselves.In view of the shortcomings of conventional thesauri, it
became clear that only the development of a new thesaurus
prototype would achieve the desired results.Fig. 2: structure and parts of the TTC.
It follows that the TTC simultaneously develops in three dimensions:
• Conceptual and Epistemological Dimension:
comprises a collection of artistic concepts described,
classified into a conceptual structure and linked among them.
• Linguistic and Terminological Dimension: consists
of every term and verbal expression that acquires
artistic meaning in the discourses being analyzed;
all of them are described, classified according
to terminological typologies, and assigned to the concepts they denote.
• Textual and Discursive Dimension: contains the texts that are the sources for the concepts and terms registered in the TTC.
Thus, the structure of the TTC, as we will explain with detail in the presentation, can be simply described as the way in which these dimensions are organized [see figure 2].
THE TEXTUAL DATABASE
The database comprises the set of Spanish artistic
texts used to extract all the concepts and terms
registered in the TTC. This is why the textual database and the TTC can be described as two complementary tools that are virtually linked. Once there is a suitable
computer application to implement the project, it will be possible to go from the textual fragments found in
the TTC to the full textual sources; likewise, it will be possible to access the TTC from the textual database to obtain detailed information about the terms and concepts that appear in the texts.
In addition to its complementary role, the textual corpus has also been designed to function as an independent tool that can be used by any specialist or researcher interested in aesthetics, theory, or art criticism. Indeed, a key goal of this project is to turn the textual corpus ATENEA into an exhaustive repository of pictorial and artistic texts
that could serve as a basic reference tool for theoretical and critical studies, and, more generally, for research
dealing with texts, sources and documents. This textual corpus represents an important contribution to the study of Spanish art history and theory since there are no other systematically digitalized texts in this field.
The encoding of the texts was done at the Miguel
Hernández University(4), following the TEI standards(5).
The markup was performed using the Spanish set of TEI tags, allowing for automatic conversion to standard
English-based TEI tags when necessary [4]. We considered
that marking Spanish texts with Spanish mnemonics is more coherent than using English based marks, and improve their understanding and usability by Spanish speaking scholars [5].
For Web management and operation we used the
PhiloLogic System.(6) This system was developed by the ARTFL project in collaboration with the University of Chicago Library’s Electronic Text Services(7) for the purpose of running texts compiled on digital corpuses.
The textual database offers a diversity of search options
that are redundant in terms of their versatility and
polyvalence [see figure 3]. Depending on their interests, users will be able to:
• Access a digitized copy of the complete text or texts of the author or authors being examined.
• Find a listing of all the data related to a specific term, such as how it is used in a particular treatise, the
frequency with which it appear, the various
meanings it assumes, or even compare different treatises.
• Get information about the sources or documents themselves. To this effect the textual corpus is being implemented with an additional database containing all the information related to the digitalized texts in specially structured and codified fields.Fig. 3: uses and possibilities of ATENEA database.
USES AND POSSIBILITIES OF THE TTC
The TTC has been conceived and developed as a
research tool whose main emphasis is the
terminological, conceptual and theoretical/critical
analysis of artistic texts. However, the potential uses of the TTC are not limited to textual analyses for it has the capability of becoming a polyvalent tool applicable to a variety fields to the study of art in the Web.
In general terms, there are four main potential applications that deserve to be emphasized:
1. Terminological and conceptual research
2. Tasks related to documentation and indexing of
visual resources and textual material
3. In connection with this last point, retrieval of artistic information mounted on the Web.
4. Finally, the structure of TTC can also work as an abstract and standardized model that could be used by other specialists or other projects. These “other” TTCs could be linked as microthesauri.
FOOTNOTES
(1) The development and management of this type of thesaurus was an integral part of a project called
Desarrollo y gestión de recursos cibernéticos para la sistematización , producción y difusión del
conocimiento artístico, based at the University of Málaga, under the supervision of Nuria Rodriguez. Recently, this project, newly called Desarrollo de un tesauro terminológico-conceptual (TTC) sobre los discursos teórico-artísticos españoles de la Edad Moderna, complementado con un corpus de textos informatizado (ATENEA), has got a grant from the Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia of Spain, which will support its development during the next three years.
(2) http://www.getty.edu/research/conducting_
research/vocabulary.aat
(3 http://www.aatespanol.cl
(4) The markup for this project was performed by Juan Malonda and Alejandro Bia. (5) Text Encoding Initiative
(6) http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ARTFL/philologic/index.html
(7) http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/ets/
References
[1] Rodríguez Ortega, N. (2003). Tesauro terminológico-
conceptual de los discursos teóricos sobre la
pintura (primer tercio del siglo XVII). Málaga:
published on CD-ROM by the Servicio de
Publicaciones de la Universidad de Málaga.
[2] Rodríguez Ortega, N. (1999). “Un proyecto de estudio en la historia del arte: presentación y descripción de un modelo de tesauro pictórico-artístico (I)”. Boletín de Arte, 20. pp. 395-421.
[3] Rodríguez Ortega, N. (2004). “Una ‘realidad’ para la investigación en la Historia del Arte: tesauro
terminológico-conceptual de los discursos teórico-críticos y estéticos (II)”. Boletín de Arte, 24. pp.
71-101.
[4] Rodríguez Ortega, N. “El conocimiento artístico en Red. Desarrollo de herramientas cibernéticas
para la investigación en Historia del Arte: tesauro
terminológico-conceptual (TTC) y corpus
digitalizado de los discursos teórico-críticos
españoles”. Actas del XV Congreso Nacional de
Historia del Arte. Modelos, intercambios y recepción
artística (De las rutas marítimas a la navegación en red). Palma de Mallorca, 20-23 de octubre de 2004 (en preparación).
[5] Rodríguez Ortega, N. (2006). Facultades y maneras
en los discursos de Francisco Pacheco y Vicente
Carducho. Tesauro terminológico-conceptual. Málaga: Universidad de Málaga, Academia de
Bellas Artes de San Telmo, Colegio Oficial de Peritos
e Ingenieros Técnicos de Málaga.
[6] Bía, A., Malonda, J. and Gómez, J. (2005).
“Automating Multilingual Metadata Vocabularios”. DC-2005: Vocabularies in Practice. Madrid, Carlos III University, 12-15 September 2005.
[7] Bía, A. and Sánchez-Quero, M. (2004). “The
Future of Markup is Multilingual”. ACH/ALLC 2004:
The 16th Joint International Conference of the
Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing and
the Association for Computers and the Humanities. Göteborg University, Sweden, 11-16 June 2004, pp. 15-18.","txt","2","",""
"625","7","The Ghost of the Printed Page: New Media Poetry and Its Ancestry","1","In 1996, the Visible Language journal published,
according to Eduardo Kac, “the first international
anthology to document a radically new poetry, one that is impoosible to present directly in books and that challenges
even the innovations of recent and contemporary
experimental poetics” (98). The enthusiasm for the
“radical newness” of new media poetry with which Kac introduces the anthology has been realized in part over the last ten years by a veritable explosion of new media poetry available online and in CD/DVD-ROM format.
The interest of new media poets in semantic
experimentation as well as with investigations of materiality have lead most critics to locate the roots of this genre in the tradition of the many avant-garde movements and experimental poetries of the twentieth-century, including surrealism, cubism, Dadism, forms of visual poetry, the L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E movement and futurism, just to new a few. Not surprisingly, this critical approach has tended to favor artists and those works, like Kac’s
“Insect.Desperto” and Melo e Castro’s “The Cryptic Eye,” that most noticeably demonstrate certain tendancies
of the avant-garde such as multi or non-linearity, non-narrative or non-grammatical strings of words, and the
priveleging, to use Roberto Simanowski’s term of the “optic gesture” of the word over its “semantic meaning” (7).
By contrast, works that fall under the purview of new media poetry by nature of their digital rendering and their use of multi-media software, but that, nonetheless, bear resemblances to more traditional twentieth-century poetries are often dismissed from consideration. This presentation will begin by exploring this critical resistance to digital work that bears resemblance to traditional print-based poetry; a resistance, I will argue, that belies the great number of new media poems that incorporate
formal techniques and conventions characteristic of
non-experimental poetry--in particular, techniques and conventions typical of the free verse lyric style that
characterized much of the poetry of the twentieth century.
By glancing at any of the online databases for new media poetry, we can see poets utilizing conventions such as iambic meter, stanzaic organization, alliteration, white space, and enjambment, among others, to organize and present the poetic line to the reader. For example, in Farah Marklevit’s “How They Sleep” the author uses a combination of end-stopped and enjamed lines to juxtapose what can be said to be the internal movement of the verse with the scrolling motion of the text on screen. The stop/start motion of the poem underscores the story being told--a romantic struggle between a husband and
wife whose heads are “tuned to different pitches / like glasses of water.” As we can see in this example, the use of the rolling text serves not as an alternative to
enjambment and punctuation, but rather as a vehicle by which these formal techniques are more fully realized by their incorporation into the multimedia presentation.
The above is just one example of how attention to
traditional formal poetic conventions can enhance our understanding of the aesthetic strategies of new media work; there are many others. It will be the contention of this presentation that, contrary to what most of the
existing scholarship on new media poetry would suggest, the influence of traditional poetic forms and techniques is pervasive in the genre of electronic literature. Rather than rendering these formal strategies obsolete, moreover, the electronic environment offers poets the opportunity
to render these strategies in ways that cannot be
replicated on the printed page. In addition, I will attempt to show how situating new media poetry solely within the heritage of experimental poetry movements can not fully account for the aesthetic qualities of a great number of works.
Rather than attempt an inclusive survey of these works, my presentation will focus specifically on the web-based work of Thomas Swiss, a poet who began, and continues, to write in print format and has recently forayed into the genre of new media poetry. I will focus on those poems
that both explore the ramifications of new writing
technologies as well as lay bare their debt to more
traditional print-based poetry. It will be my argument that it is precisely by utilizing formal conventions typical of the free verse lyric and by preserving the visual style of the printed poem that Swiss interrogates the ways in which our pre-established patterns of reading are affected
by the migration of the poem from page to screen.","txt","2","",""
"626","7","Non-traditional Authorship Attribution : The Contribution of Forensic Linguistics","1","INTRODUCTION
Black’s Law Dictionary (648) defines forensic
linguistics as:A technique concerned with in-depth evaluation of linguistic characteristics of text, including grammar, syntax, spelling, vocabulary and phraseology, which is accomplished through a comparison of textual
material of known and unknown authorship, in an
attempt to disclose idiosyncracies peculiar to authorship to determine whether the authors could be identical.
At the 2002 ALLC/ACH Conference in Tuebingen,
Laszlo Hunyadi et al. discussed some of the
contributions that humanities computing makes to
forensic linguistics. In this paper I point out the many contributions that forensic linguistics has and is making
to the larger field of non-traditional authorship
attribution -- contributions that are unknown or largely ignored by most non-forensic practitioners of non-
traditional authorship attribution (this statement is based on the lack of references to the wealth of studies in
forensic linguistics -- a quick glance at the bibliography will show some exceptions):
1) Immediacy
2) Techniques
3) Scientific Validity
4) Gatekeeping 5) Levels of Proof
6) Rules of evidence
7) Organization
The paper goes on to propose closer formal ties between the ALLC/ACH and the IAFL. In each of the following
sections, there is an emphasis on how the forensic
techniques should be employed by the non-forensic
practitioner and on the contributions of humanities
computing to the field.
IMMEDIACY
This section discusses how immediacy forces a more
careful, more restrictive methodology on the forensic practitioner (versus the non-forensic):
Forensic linguistics is a sub-set of authorship
attribution that is much more immediate and in many ways demands a “correct” attribution. Forensic
linguistics often deals in criminal guilt or innocence
-- with serious ramifications -- even life or death!
TECHNIQUES
This section discusses:
1) The necessity of employing corpus linguistic
techniques.
a) Looking at style markers as deviations from the norm.
b) Looking at grammatical, stylistic, spelling,
punctuation, and orthographical errors as style
markers.
c) The limiting of one control group to “suspects.”
2) The need for non-forensic practitioners to acquire
the skills necessary to navigate bibliographic
research in forensics (primary and secondary
resources in case law -- and the many
commentaries).
SCIENTIFIC VALIDITY
This section discusses:
1) The concept that all scientific methods should be brought to bear on an authorship problem -- e.g. handwriting analysis, paper analysis, type font
analysis.
2) The strict definition of expert witness -- and the role they are allowed to play -- e.g. guides to help the jury interpret the facts.
3) How methodology must be “generally accepted by the community of scholars” to be allowed.
GATEKEEPING
This section discusses:
1) The role of the courts (of various countries) as
gatekeepers.
2) The role of the International Association of
Forensic Linguists IIAFL as gatekeeper and
certifier of gatekeepers.
This does not mean that there are not flaws in the system -- e.g. allowing the Morton CUSUM method as a valid technique even after its debunking on live TV.
LEVELS OF PROOF
This section discusses:
How the “answer” is presented - while non-forensic practitioners for the most part present “probabilities”,
forensic linguistics presents a “preponderance of
evidence” concept and one of being “beyond a
reasonable doubt.”
RULES OF EVIDENCE
This section discusses:
The intricacies of the rules of evidence and how these rules can give direction to non-forensic
attribution studies. Rules of evidence are not
universal -- different countries have different rules -- in the United States, different states have different les. A set of rules distilled from all those available is advocated or the non-forensic practitioner.
a) Dauber
b) Post-Dauber
ORGANIZATION
This section discusses:
1) The IAFL, a “professional” organization with the
requirement that its full members show evidence of “linguistic qualifications.”
a) The IAFL’s journal -- Speech, Language and the Law (Formerly - Forensic Linguistics) Having a paper published here -- the implicit nihil obstat of the IAFL -- gives added weight to the credentials of the practitioner. Among other important journals are, Expert Evidence, Forensic Science International, and Journal of Forensic Document Examination.
b) The IAFL’s conference
The IAFL holds a biennial conference. The last one was in July, 2005 at Cardiff University, UK. Seven of the presented papers are of interest (and importance) to non-forensic practitioners -- e.g. Sanchez et al.’s
“Intra and Inter-author Comparisons: The Case of
Function Words: Are Function Words Really
Functional in Stylometric Studies of Authorship
Attribution.”
c) There are some members (formal and contributing) of ALLC and ACH that are also members of the
IAFL but their work published in non-forensic
journals is quite different.
CONCLUSION
Forensic linguistis is not a “perfect” discipline. One unfortunate aspect of forensic linguistics is the
adversarial role in presenting evidence -- many forensic
linguistic presentations, while not necessarily fraudulent
or even unethical are not in the best interests of
practitioners who want to present the “whole truth.” Another unfortunate side-effect of the judicial system on the complete reporting of authorship studies is the all
too common practice of “sealing” court records when a settlement is reached outside of the courtroom. I have seen some of these sealed records and only hope that the techniques will be duplicated and published elsewhere.I do not want to give the impression that non-forensic
attribution is a poor cousin with nothing to offer -- the many disciplines that form the bulk of the field (e.g. computer science, stylistics, statistics) are the “core” -- but this is for another time.
References
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Shiffman. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. pp. 92-121.
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Guardian Wednesday 7 October.
Canter, D. (1992). “An Evaluation of the ‘Cusum’
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1.3: 93-99.
Carpenter, R H. (1990). “The Statistical Profile of
Language Behavior with Machiavellian Intent or While Experiencing Caution and Avoiding Self-
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Chaski, C E. (2001). “Empirical Evaluations of
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Finegan, E. (1990). “Variation in Linguists’ Analyses of Author Identification.” American Speech 65.4: 334-340.
Fitzgerald, J R. (2002). “The Unabom Investigation: A Methodological and Experimental Study from a Forensic Linguistic Perspective.” Preprint from the author. July.
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Grant, T., and K. Baker. (2001). “Identifying Reliable,
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Hardcastle, R A. (1993). “Forensic Linguistics: An
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Holmes, D I., and F J. Tweedie. (1995): “Forensic
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"627","7","Proposing an Affordance Strength Model to Study New Interface Tools","1","This paper suggests a new approach to the study of potential interface tools, by examining not the tools themselves, but instead a set of factors that
contribute to the possible benefit that might be provided by the tools. Since the proposed “affordance strength model” does not require a working version of the tool to study, it can therefore be applied at several points,
beginning even very early in the research cycle, at the
initial concept stage. Many standard usability instruments,
such as GLOBAL, include questions that cover different aspects of the user’s perception of the tools, but require
a working prototype. Other usability protocols exist
for studying systems at an early design stage, such as TAM (Morris and Dillon 1997). However, these do not include a complete range of the factors in the proposed
“affordance strength model.” This proposed model
can also be used at later stages, both at the point where
prototypes have been created, and later still, once
working versions are in production. Researchers can also begin to compare the affordance strength of different kinds of software tools.
An affordance is an opportunity for action (Gibson
1979). For computer interface designers attempting to create new software tools—that may in some cases
offer new opportunities for action—a perennial problem
exists concerning how best to study an affordance that was not previously available. Comparisons against
previous interfaces with different affordances tend toward
category error (comparing apples to oranges), and
comparisons against interfaces with similar affordances but different designs tend to be studies of design rather than of opportunities for action.
Given the need to specify the significant relational
factors that characterize the strength of an affordance, it
is possible to distinguish eight factors that together
represent the relational aspects of the object, the perceiver, and the dynamics of the context. These factors together
can be used to create a vector space that defines the
relational aspects of affordance strength in an operational
way. Although these eight factors are not the only
possible candidate factors, it is possible to explain how they work together to create a relatively strong picture of the total affordance strength:
affordance strength = (tacit capacity, situated potential, awareness, motivation, ability, preference, contextual support, agential support).
Tacit Capacity
The first necessary factor is the tacit capacity of the object to provide the affordance in situations of the kind being studied. For example, if a given adult wishes
to keep dry while walking two blocks in the rain, the
unfactored affordance of the object is the twin capacity to be carried while walking and, simultaneously, keep
someone dry. In this case, the tacit capacity of the umbrella
in situations where a person needs to walk two blocks in the rain while staying dry would be very high, while the tacit capacity of, for example, a wrench, would be zero. The wrench has an excellent tacit capacity for other types of actions. In fact, because it is a specialized tool (like the umbrella), it has a primary affordance. But for the work at hand it is useless.
Situated Potential
The second necessary relational factor is the situated potential of the object, not generally in circumstances
of the kind under investigation, but in one particular
situation at one particular time. It is all very well for the
person about to walk in the rain to realize that an
umbrella has an excellent tacit capacity for keeping a person
dry, when at the point of setting out there is no umbrella available, or the umbrella that is available is torn.
These two factors – tacit capacity and situated potential –
are relational attributes where the attention of the
researcher is directed toward the object or environment and its relevant affordances for action. There are other
factors that treat the relational aspects of the agent,
where the researcher’s attention is directed at what have been called the perceiver’s effectivities (Turvey and Shaw 1979). Awareness
The first of these factors is awareness. For the person about to walk in the rain, a perfectly good umbrella might be sitting to hand, but if the person is distracted
or confused or in a rush, the umbrella might not be
perceived, and for all of its high tacit capacity and situated
potential, the umbrella still stays dry while the person gets wet.
Motivation
The second factor is motivation. If the person in question wants to walk in the rain and would prefer not to get wet but does not really mind it all that much, that person’s tendency to seek and adopt an available affordance is significantly reduced in comparison with the person who hates getting wet, has just had a cold, and is wearing clothes that will be damaged by the rain. The former person may casually take up an available umbrella if one were available, since the tacit capacity and situated potential are high enough that the action has an appropriately low resource load. If only a newspaper is available, the lower tacit capacity might be such that the person would prefer to simply get rained on. For the latter person, it is likely that the high motivation and
absence of an umbrella would lead to extremes of behavior
such as deciding not to walk but take a taxi instead, or perhaps going back into the building to see if an umbrella could be found somewhere.
Like many of the other factors, motivation is a composite of a wide range of sub-factors, however, it is not unreasonable
to ask someone with respect to a given scenario: “how
motivated would you say you would be to carry out such
and such an action, on a scale of zero to five?”
Ability
The third relational factor that is associated with the perceiver is ability. For a person with a physical disability that makes grasping difficult or lifting the arm problematic, the option of carrying anything above the head may simply not be available. In this case, all the other factors may be present, including an umbrella with
high tacit capacity and an excellent situated potential, a strong awareness of the umbrella on the part of the
perceiver and a correspondingly strong motivation to use it.
But inability to grasp the handle renders the affordance zero for this particular person at this particular time.
Preference
The last factor related to the perceiver represents the role played by individual preference. All other
factors being equal or even roughly equal, it is often the case
that individual adoption of affordances depends at least to some extent on established preferences. In the case of the person who wants to stay dry in the rain, if there are two umbrellas available and one is a favorite, that will probably be the one that gets employed. Preference can be based on any one of a dozen sub-factors, ranging from aesthetic considerations to interpersonal influence to previous personal experience. Preference is distinct, however, from ability, and although preference is related to motivation, the two are not equivalent.
The final factors in the proposed vector space are needed in order to adequately account for features of the situation
that are relevant but are not directly related to the
relationship between the perceiver and the object. They stand instead for the relationship between the affordance and its context.
Contextual Support
The first of these factors is contextual support, where factors in the environment that are not part of the affordance have an influence one way or the other on the perceiver’s interaction with the affordance. There are a wide range of possible contextual supports, including aspects of the situation that are physical, cognitive, and environmental, and the precise nature of the contextual supports in a given situation should be outlined during the process of analyzing the affordance as a whole.
In the example of someone who wishes to stay dry in the rain, the contextual factors would include environmental facts such as how hard it is raining, whether it is warm or cold outside, how hard the wind is blowing and in what fashion, and so on.
Agential Support
The other feature that has not been accounted for yet in an explicit form is the role of other agents in the scenario. Contextual support includes all those
factors (excluding the affordance itself) that are present in the environment at the time of the perceiver becoming involved with the affordance. Agential support, on the of the other people, animals, insects, and so on who are also potentially part of the situation. Agents are distinct from other factors of the environment in that they have agency, which is to say volition, goals, and actions of their own, which may have some bearing either directly or indirectly on the particular affordance.
For instance, for the person who wishes to stay dry in the rain, it may turn out that there are other people present who also wish to walk outside. One of them might be elderly or frail and lacking an umbrella, in which case our perceiver could be motivated to behave altruistically and turn over the superior affordance of the umbrella to the other perceiver, choosing instead an inferior solution such as a folded newspaper.
Applying the Model
One straightforward means of applying this model to the study of interface tools is to have participants consider a particular affordance, in order to rate each
factor on a Likert scale from 0-5. A rating of zero for any
factor effectively zeroes out the strength of the entire
affordance, suggesting that it might be further worthwhile
to obtain a composite number by multiplication of the individual items. The number could then be used to
compare the affordance strength of different kinds of tools.
Combining this rating with comments for each factor would add a further layer of information that can contribute to the interface designer’s decision process.
References
Gibson, J. J. (1979). The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
Morris, M. and Dillon, A. (1997). How User Perceptions Influence Software Use. IEEE Software, 14(4), 58-65.
Turvey, M. T. and Shaw, R. S. (1979). The primacy of perceiving: An ecological reformulation of perception for understanding memory. In L.G. Nilsson (Ed.), Perspectives on memory research. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.","txt","2","",""
"628","7","Exploring the Wiki as a Mode of Collaborative Scholarship","1","Over a decade has passed since Ward Cunningham created his Portland Pattern Repository and coined the term “wiki” (from the Hawaiian word for
“quick”) to describe the application that enabled its
pathbreaking web-based collaborative editing capabilities.
Since that time, wikis have flourished on the Web. There
are now well over 100 freely available wiki software
applications, in a wide variety of programming languages.
Wikipedia, the best-known wiki instance, features 2.3 million articles written in over 200 languages by almost 90,000 individual contributors.
Despite this popular success, wikis have been slow to catch on in the academic world, and in the humanities in particular -- surprising given their enormous potential
to transform the nature of scholarly communication.
Certainly this is due in part to the inherently solitary and linear nature of most academic writing; blogs seem a more intuitive fit for this type of writing, as evidenced by their much greater popularity among scholars. Yet even in the hands of an individual researcher working alone, a wiki can be a valuable tool for organizing and archiving complex scholarly material. In a passage that
evokes Vannevar Bush and his mythical memex, Leuf and Cunningham invite scholars to imagine abandoning
their scattered scraps of paper and Post-It notes and instead «directly asking your scattered notes where references
to ‘thingamy’ are and having the appropriate bits of
paper levitate into view, slide out of bookshelves, and be there at your fingertips ... eventually everything starts to interconnect: notes, files, e-mail, contacts, comments, relational cross-links, Internet resources, and so on ... the whole thing evolves almost organically in response to your growing body of notes” (84).
Of course, the real fun with wikis begins when a complex
knowledge representation like the one described above is opened up to a large community of contributors. By
virtue of its inherent design, the wiki breaks down the process of text creation into component functions (structuring, drafting, revising, annotating) typically performed by a solitary author, and allows these to be performed by different persons. Wikis are highly unique in this regard. With blogs and discussion boards, earlier postings cannot be altered except by an administrator and the chronological or topical ordering of the content cannot be restructured. With wikis, however, content is continuously reorganized and revised, often by many different hands. This dispersed, depersonalized method of content creation explains certain rhetorical features of the typical wiki article, which is usually impersonal, unsigned, POV-neutral prose written in the 3rd person. When individual comments and suggestions about a wiki article, often signed and highly personal, are debated,
voted upon, and gradually incorporated into the article
itself, we see a polyphony of opinion slowly coalesce into a kind of collective understanding. The ideal wiki article would be a highly polished nugget of scholarly consensus, carefully crafted and continuously updated
by an informed community, embedded in a dense
associative web of related content.
Clearly, there are roadblocks on the way to this ideal. A wiki must achieve a certain critical mass of content before it is truly useful, and without a dedicated core of regular contributors at the outset it is apt to languish unused. “Document mode” -- the anonymous, impartial style of the typical wiki article -- may be familiar from encyclopedias and other reference texts, but it is largely alien to writing in the humanities. Because the precise expression of ideas in words is the very essence of their work, humanities scholars may be particularly reluctant
to subject their writing to revision by strangers. Conversely, they are more sensitive to the “legitimation crisis” that arises when text is not attributed in an obvious way
(Barton). These problems might exist even if the wiki was restricted to a closed and vetted group of scholarly peers.
The final paper will explore these issues through a series of case studies, and will suggest some optimal uses for wiki technology in an academic setting.
References
Barton, Matthew D. “The Future of Rational-Critical Debate in Online Public Spheres.” Computers and Composition 22:2 (2005), 177-190.
Bush, Vannevar. “As We May Think.” The Atlantic Monthly, July 1945.
Dennis, Brian, Carl Smith, and Jonathan Smith. “Using Technology, Making History: A Collaborative E
xperiment in Interdisciplinary Teaching and
Scholarship.” Rethinking History 8:2 (June 2004), pp. 303-317.
di Iorio, Angelo and Fabio Vitali. “Writing the Web.” Journal of Digital Information 5:1 (2004). http://jodi.tamu.edu/Articles/v05/i01/DiIorio
Leuf, Bo and Ward Cunningham. The Wiki Way: Quick Collaborations on the Web. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Longman, 2001.
Noel, Sylvie and Jean-Marc Robert. “How the Web Is Used to Support Collaborative Writing”. Behavior and Information Technology 22:4 (2003), pp. 245-262.
Obendorf, Hartmut. “The Indirect Authoring Paradigm
– Bringing Hypertext into the Web.” Journal of
Digital Information 5:1 (2004). http://jodi.ecs.soton.ac.uk/Articles/v05/i01/Obendorf/
Szybalski, Andy. “Why it’s not a wiki world (yet). 14 March 2005. http://www.stanford.edu/~andyszy/
papers/wiki_world.pdf","txt","2","",""
"629","7","Many Houses, Many Leaves: Cross-Sited Media Productions and the Problems of Convergent Narrative Networks","1","Humanities scholarship has traditionally viewed a
literary work of art as an act of production belonging
to larger social and cultural networks, yet remaining
relatively fixed within a single medium. The recent
identification of patterns of convergence in technological, social/organic, economic and global contexts seems to suggest, however, that although these same traditional models of literary production still constitute a significant portion of the cultural output, they are being transformed
and shifted in order to accommodate increasingly
intersectional exchanges between media forms and content.
In many cases, these shifts have made it possible to
develop new structures that shatter the fixity of narrative
as a single-medium endeavor and establish instead a multiply-mediated storyworld, a cross-sited narrative, defined here as multisensory “clustered” or “packeted”
stories told across a divergent media set. The
proliferation of cross-sited narratives—across film,
literature, music, video games, live performance and the internet—presents significant challenges to the current modalities of humanistic theory and practice. As both a product of and a reaction to the process of the discrete nature of digitization, cross-sited narratives require us to not only “imagine an infinitely segmentable media
market” (Coit-Murphy 91) but also, it seems, an infinitely
segmentable and infinitely mediated story that, as a network, draws and exchanges narrative information from site to site. Evidence of this sort of networking can be seen in works such as Mark Danielewski’s House
of Leaves, which operates across no less than 5 media channels (novel, novella, live performance, recorded music, the web), each integral to the establishment of the narrative storyworld.
The question posed by this paper, then, is whether we can use current models of digital archiving and editioning as the means through which to preserve and distribute a
narrative network such as Danielewski’s. Is it possible, in the context of contemporary textualities, to retain even a semblance of such a work? Although similar crisis points have always plagued the arts, exposing in many ways the utter ephemerality of even venerated and “durable”
technologies such as codex book, we’ve looked towards the digital as the means through which the fragile materials
of paper and print are hardened and made permanent from a bitstream that flows from an electronic fountain of youth. Paradoxically, studies of new media have recently (and perhaps belatedly) moved toward the preservation of
digital objects such as early computer games and interactive fictions, recognizing rightly that an entire generation of artifacts is in danger of being obliterated by hardware and software advancements. Although it is universally acknowledged that there is obviously no possible way to replicate the historical moment during which a given
work is produced, we have, for the most part, been
content to instead refashion the work into whatever
single medium seemed to have the greatest potential
for preservation. Friedrich Kittler’s assertion that “the transposition of media is always a manipulation and must leave gaps” (1990:267) does hold some sway
here but, in the sense that a given text (such as Emily Dickinson’s letters or William Blake’s illuminated
manuscripts) has content that is somewhat extractable from its form, such gaps are acceptable when the tradeoffs are vastly improved distribution and conservation. It will be argued here that such an approach will inevitably fail when confronted with the preservation of a cross-sited narrative, as the transcoding of a narrative that relies
on the tensions between multiple media sites into a
single medium will irrevocably disrupt the network that constitutes its storyworld. We’ve found ways to
overcome the displacement of a medium, but can we hope to approximate a narrative/media network? In short, we can’t.
Drawing upon (cognitive) narratology (Herman 2004; Ryan 2003, 2004; Bortolussi and Dixon 2004), cognitive linguistics (Turner 2003; Fauconnier and Turner 2002), convergence theory (Jenkins 2004, 2006; Kittler 1990),
archiving strategies for “network” fictions (Montfort
and Wardrip-Fruin 2004; Liu, Durand, et al. 2005) and Pierre Levy’s theories of virtualization (1998), the
focus of this paper will be as follows: 1) to outline the structures of cross-sited narratives, focusing particularly on their network structure, 2) to assess the current methods
of archiving/ preserving literature, such as those
proposed by the Electronic Literature Organization, and especially methods that deal with transient texts and networked stories (such as hypertext and interactive
fiction) 3) to propose that such methods are inadequate
for transcribing the complex interactions between
media that occurs within cross-siting and 4) to suggest a new model of temporal textuality that argues that these networks cannot be transposed except through primary materials, and that, often, this primacy is fleeting and not reproducible. In fact, it is possible that the only remnant
of these textual networks that will remain are in the
annotations and collaborations left by users on message
boards, blogs and chat rooms.
The structures that will be recommended for cross-
siting are presented as a series of gradient models
representing the continuum between a text’s materiality
and it’s narrative. The works that will be studied
include Danielewski’s House of Leaves, The Matrix, Neil Young’s Greendale and the alternate reality game, I Love Bees, a selection that provides a range of blindspots in
current practices of textual preservation. Through text, gaming, comic books, live phone calls, the texture of
paper and the spontaneity of live performance, each of these works exposes the single-medium logic through which most textual preservation operates. If we are truly entering an era of convergence where media come
together in conversation over narrative, then we must also be aware that this coming together is not without consequence. Indeed, the end product of this convergence
just might be the erasure of many of the networks it
produced.
References
1. Bortolussi, Marisa and Peter Dixon.
Psychonarratology. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003.
2. Fauconnier, Gilles and Turner, Mark. The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. New York: Basic, 2002.
2. Herman, David. “Toward a Transmedial
Narratology,” in Ryan, Marie-Laure (ed.) Narrative Across Media. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2004 (47-75).
3. Kittler, Friedrich. Discourse Networks 1800/1900. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1990.
4. Levy, Pierre. Becoming Virtual: Reality in the Digital Age. New York: Plennum, 1998.
5. Liu, Alan , David Durand, Nick Montfort, Merrilee Proffitt, Liam R. E. Quin, Jean-Hugues Réty, and
Noah Wardrip-Fruin. “Born-Again Bits: A
Framework for Migrating Electronic Literature.”
6. Montfort, Nick and Noah Wardrip-Fruin.
“Acid-Free Bits: Recommendations for Long-Lasting Electronic Literature.”
7. Murphy, Priscilla Coit. “Books Are Dead, Long Live Books.” inThorburn, David and Henry Jenkins, eds. Rethinking Media Change. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2004 (81-93).
8. Ryan, Marie-Laure. Narrative As Virtual Reality:
Immersion and Interactivity in Literature and
Electronic Media (Parallax: Re-Visions of Culture and Society). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2003.
9. ---. Narrative Across Media: The Languages of
Storytelling. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004.
10. Turner, Mark. “Double-Scope Stories” in David Herman ed. Narrative Theory and the Cognitive Sciences. Stanford: CSLI, 2003 (117-142).","txt","2","",""
"630","7","Can I write like John le Carré?","1","In a presentation at a previous ALLC/ACH
conference, later developed in a paper for Literary and Linguistic Computing (Rybicki 2005), one of the authors has begun to investigate the relationship between a literary original and its various translations, basing
on Burrows’s well-established method first used in
his study of Jane Austen (1987) and later developed,
evaluated and applied by a number of scholars, including
Hoover (2002). Although the results obtained with
Delta (Burrows 2002) seem equally promising for
computer-assisted translation studies, the first author of this paper (himself a translator of British, American, and Canadian literature) feels that the potential of the older method has not been exhausted in this particular domain – and that it is especially well-suited for case studies such as the one presented here.
The above-mentioned first study investigated character
idiolects in a classic Polish trilogy of 19th - century
historical romances and its two English translations (made
a century apart) and found that many relationships
(“distances”) between characters in the original were preserved in both, or at least one, of the translations. This time, the works chosen were two “most literary spy
novels” by John le Carré, A Perfect Spy (1986) and
Absolute Friends (2003). Written 17 years apart, they were translated by Rybicki into Polish less ten months one from the other in 2003 and 2004.
From the very start, it was evident for the translator that the two novels will be an interesting subject of study due to their being built according to a very similar model,
especially where characterization is concerned. Both
feature a slightly foolish British agent (le Carré’s famous
trademark), his highly intellectual yet physically
handicapped East German nemesis, the British agent’s boss/friend, etc. Since these two very similar works
shared their Polish translator – who continued to
experience a very strong feeling of déjà vu while working on the two novels, this case seemed perfect for a study of stylistic relationships between original and translation.
The following observations have been made: (1) In the narrative, the styles of the originals are more unique than those of the translation. This may be a consequence of the 17 years’ distance between the English versions as opposed
to the 10 months that separate the translations. (2) Of
the three above-mentioned couples of corresponding
characters, two are very expectedly similar, while one
(the two East-German double agents) are not. Their
similarity is “regained” in the translation – an interesting
corroboration of the translator’s “intuitive” suspicion
during his work on the Polish version.
These results show that, at least in this – very special – case, the accuracy of studies performed by Multidimensional
Scaling of correlation matrices of relative frequencies of the most frequent words is quite considerable when
applied to translation. This is true despite the
disquieting fact, to quote Hoover’s statement given in a somewhat different context, that “like previous
statistical authorship attribution techniques, (this
correspondence) lacks any compelling theoretical
justification” (2004). The tentative explanations proposed so far by Opas and Kujamaki (using the van-Leuven-Zwart postulate of microstructural changes influencing
the text’s macrostructure, 1995) or McKenna, Burrows and Antonia (“common words influence syntactic
structures and translations of them can influence the
meanings we read in a text”, 1999), are certainly not
enough. Even more telling is the silence that Burrows maintains on the subject in his most translation-oriented study (2002), already quoted above. Since overlapping
semantic fields of the most frequent words of texts
and divergent linguistic systems make one-on-one
correspondences impossible, a more general underlying mechanism must be found. At the same time, empirical
studies that have hinted at the existence of such a
mechanism have still been very few. This is why more are needed to explain the compelling yet somewhat mystical
successes of Burrows’s “old” method, and Delta and its
various clones. The results presented in this paper are
at least a good incentive to study this phenomenon in
translations by the same translator; they are, in fact, part of a greater project to investigate the stylometry of all Polish
versions by Rybicki, covering a wide range of modern
English-language literature. References
Burrows, J.F. (1987). Computation into Criticism: A Study of Jane Austen’s Novels and an Experiment in Method. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Burrows, J.F. (2002). The Englishing of Juvenal:
computational stylistics and translated texts. Style 36.
Hoover, D.L. (2002). New Directions in Statistical
Stylistics and Authorship Attribution. Proc. ALLC/ACH.
Hoover, D.L. (2004) Delta, Delta Prime, and Modern American Poetry: Authorship Attribution Theory and Method. Proc. ALLC/ACH.
McKenna, W., Burrows, J.F. and Antonia, A. (1999). Beckett’s Trilogy: Computational Stylistics and the Nature of Translation, Revue informatique et
statistique dans les sciences humaines 35.
Opas, L.L. and Kujamaki, P. (1995). A Cross-linguistic Study of Stream-of-consciousness Techniques, LLC 10/4.
Rybicki, J. (2006). Burrowing into Translation: Character Idiolects in Henryk Sienkiewicz’s Trilogy and its Two English Translations. LLC.","txt","2","",""
"631","7","What is text? A Pluralistic Approach","1","Since the beginning of Humanities Computing, text theory has been a fundamental issue. The question „What is text?“ has been repeatedly raised at ALLC/ACH
conferences. One of the answers, “text is an ordered
hierarchy of content objects” (the OHCO-model), has been
dominating the discussion for a while and has laid ground for well-established and paradigmatic standards such as the TEI Guidelines. But there has also been criticism since the beginning which questioned this model from different perspectives (Buzzetti, McGann, Olsen, Caton, Huitfeld). Do we in fact have an unsolvable problem? As Jerome McGann puts it: “What is text? I am not so naïve as to imagine that question could ever be finally settled. Asking such a question is like asking ‘How long is the coast of England?’.”
Starting Points.
Questions are there to be answered. I’ll start with the authorities. First, I’ll introduce Isidore of Seville, the patron saint of the Internet, who described
“oratio” as threefold. Second, I’ll take up Willard
van Orman Quine’s famous ontological slogan “no
entity ithout identity” and use it as a lever. Using as a guiding question “When are two things one text?”, I will develop a pluralistic theory of text which will integrate a wide range of traditional notions of text. This theory will give us the means to describe the identity conditions of text.
The Wheel of Text.
In a rather free reading, Isidor distinguishes the three components “sense”, “expression” and “sign”. I
relate Isidor’s components to the notions of text as
meaning and intention (text-i), text as speech and linguistic utterance (text-l), and text as object and document
(text-d). There are other notions of text, which fill the space between those concepts. We talk about the text as structure or ‘work’ (text-w), placed between text-i and text-l. We also talk about the text as fixed written version (text-v) between text-l and text-d. And we talk about the semiotic text as a picture and as a complex sign (text-s) between text-d and text-i. This concludes the wheel of text and constitutes a comprehensive theoretical model of “What text really is”.
Practical implications.
But what is such a theory good for? It has at least two fields of application. First, it has applications in the field of history and in analytical fields. The pluralistic model gives us a tool to describe and locate historical text technologies in relation to certain notions of text. All text technologies promote certain concepts of text while hindering others. This can be shown for oral tradition, manuscript culture and print; for electronic technologies
like “plain text”, “WYSIWYG” or “markup”; for
concepts like hypertext or the OHCO-model; for academic
trends like the linguistic turn, pictorial turn or material philology; and even for the description of certain current cultural developments.
In a second application, the pluralistic theory of text has consequences for the assessment and development of future text-technologies. How can markup languages be understood in the light of a pluralistic text model? How are epistemological and ontological questions in markup theory (like the foundational distinction between
text and markup) to be answered? How can markup be used and maybe even conceptually extended to truly
cover and support all notions of text? How can we develop
text technologies beyond the markup paradigm to cope with notions of text constantly hindered by the concept of markup and the OHCO-model?
Conclusion.
How long is the coast of England? The answer lies in a closer examination of the question: “What do you mean by ‘coast’?”, “How close will you look at it?” and “Which instruments will you measure it with?”. The same holds true for the text. The answer lies in the eye and in the mind of the reader. What is text? - “Text is what you look at. And how you look at it.”
References
Buzzetti, Dino: Digital Representation and the Text Model. In: New Literary History 33 (2002), p. 61-88.
Caton, Paul: Markup’s Current Imbalance. In: Markup Languages – Theory and Practice 3/1 (2001), p. 1-13.
Ciotti, Fabio: Text encoding as a theoretical language for text analysis. In: New Media and the Humanities:
Research and Applications. Ed. by Domenico Fiormonte
und Jonathan Usher. Oxford 2001. p. 39-48.
Dahlström, Mats: När är en text?. In: Tidskrift för
Dokumentation (Nordic Journal of Documentation) 54/2 (1999), p. 55-64.
DeRose, Steven J.; Durand, David D.; Mylonas, Elli; Renear, Allen H.: What is Text, Really? In: Journal of Computing in Higher Education 1/2 (1990), p. 3-26.
Durand, David G.; Mylonas, Elli; DeRose, Steven:
What Should Markup Really Be? Applying
theories of text to the design of markup systems. ALLC-ACH’96 Conference Abstracts, University of Bergen, 1996, p. 67-70.
DuRietz, Rolf E.: The Definition of ‘text’. In: TEXT – Swedish Journal of Bibliography 5/2 (1998), p. 51-69.
Eggert, Paul: Text-encoding, Theories of the Text, and the ‘Work-Site’. In: Literary and Linguistic Computing 20/4 (2005), p. 425-435.
Flanders, Julia; Bauman, Syd: Markup, Idealism, and the Physical Text. ALLC-ACH’04 Conference
Abstracts, Göteborg 2004, p. 56-57.
Greetham, David: The Philosophical Discourse of
[Textuality]. In: Reimagining Textuality: Textual Studies in the Late Age of Print. Ed. by Elizabeth Bergmann Loizeaux und Neil Fraistat. Madison (WI) 2002, p. 31-47.
Hawkins, Kevin; Renear, Allen: Theoretical Issues in Text Encoding: A Critical Review. ALLC/ACH’04 Conference Abstracts, Göteborg 2004, p. 173-175.
Hayles, N. Katherine: Translating media – Why we should rethink textuality. In: Yale Journal of Criticism 16/2 (2003), p. 263-290.
Hockey, Susan; Renear, Allen; McGann, Jerome: What is Text? A Debate on the Philosophical and
Epistemological Nature of Text in the Light of
Humanities Computing Research. ACH/ALLC’99 Charlottesville (VA).
Huitfeld, Claus: Multi-Dimensional Texts in a One-
Dimensional Medium. In: Computers and the
Humanities 28 4/5 (1995), p. 235-241.
McGann, Jerome: Endnote: what is text? In: Ma(r)king the Text – The presentation of meaning on the literary page“, ed. by Joe Bray, Miriam Handley und Anne C. Henry. Aldershot u.a. 2000, p. 329-333.
Lavagnino, John: Completeness and Adequacy in Text Encoding. In: The Literary Text in the Digital Age. Ed. by Richard Finneran. Ann Arbor (Mi) 1996.
p. 63-76.
Phelps, C. Deirdre: Where’s the Book? The Text in the Development of Literary Sociology. In: TEXT – An Interdisciplinary Annual of Textual Studies 9 (1996), p. 63-92.
Piez, Wendell: Beyond the “descriptive vs. procedural” distinction. In: Markup Languages – Theory and Practice 3/2 (2001), p. 141-172.
Renear, Allen: The Descriptive/Procedural Distinction is Flawed. In: Markup Languages: Theory and Practice 2/4 (2000), p. 411-420.
Renear, Allen: Out of Praxis: Three (Meta)Theories of Textuality. In: Electronic Text - Investigations in Method and Theory. Ed. by Kathryn Sutherland.
Oxford 1997. p. 107-126.
Ricoeur, Paul: What is a text? Explanation and understanding. In: Paul Ricoeur, Hermeneutics and the human sciences, Essays on language, action and interpretation. Ed. by John B. Thompson. Cambridge 1981, p. 145-164.
Schreibman, Susan: Computer-mediated Texts and
Textuality: Theory and Practice. In: Computers and the Humanities 36/3 (2002), p. 283-293.
Smiraglia, Richard P.: The Nature of “A Work”. Lanham (Maryland) 2001.
Sutherland, Kathryn: Revised Relations? Material Text, Immaterial Text, and the Electronic Environment. In:
TEXT – An Interdisciplinary Annual of Textual
Studies 11 (1998), p. 35-36.","txt","2","",""
"632","7","El Reconocimiento Automático de la Composición en Español","1","It deals with computerizing one of the processes of words formation in Spanish: the composition. They will solely be studied those cases in which the compound word has been consolidated like the graphical union of the elements that compose it, in regular or irregular way. The formation rules and the application criteria in each case are deduced, consequently, they allow the automated
identification of the compound words. The different
compounds are extracted from several lexical sources
and the applied mechanisms of recognition will be
studied, likewise the grammatical categories of original
words and the resultant compound. The found recognition
criteria are classified and the detected exceptions and
irregularities are considered.
INTRODUCCIÓN
La creatividad léxica, según Merving Lang (Lang, 1997), representa una característica fundamental para el habla y la escritura. Los escritores siempre han ideado sus palabras para librarse de las restricciones que les vienen impuestas por el léxico establecido, por lo que utilizan la derivación y la composición como recursos
léxicos. Los ejemplos referentes a la formación de
palabras se encuentran también en los neologismos de la terminología científica, en la tecnológica, en el comercio, en los medios de comunicación, en el lenguaje creativo
de la literatura moderna y en el lenguaje coloquial e
innovador del habla actual. Este trabajo centra su estudio
en la yuxtaposición y se excluyen otros por no haberse consolidado como palabra el compuesto resultante —se destaca la importancia de la composición constituida por un elemento verbal y un complemento por ser el más caudaloso de los tipos de composición. Se trata, en suma, de procedimientos para crear neologismos —constituyen una alternativa moderna que enriquece la lengua.
LA COMPOSICIÓN EN ESPAÑOL
La Real Academia de la Lengua Española define la composición como el “procedimiento por el cual se forman palabras juntando dos vocablos con variación morfológica o sin ella —cejijunto, lavavajillas. Se aplica
también a las voces formadas con vocablos de otras
lenguas, especialmente del latín y el griego —neuralgia,
videoconferencia” (RAE, 2001). La composición se
sirve de procedimientos para la creación de nuevas
palabras, como son: sinapsia, disyunción, contraposición,
yuxtaposición, elementos compositivos y acortamiento.
La unión de los miembros en la sinapsia es de naturaleza sintáctica, no morfológica, por lo que es difícil determinar si se ha producido lexicalización o no; suele existir un nexo de unión entre las dos palabras que dan lugar al nuevo término, generalmente con las preposiciones ‘de’ y ‘a’ —pan de azúcar, paso a nivel, cuerda sin fin, flor de la abeja. La disyunción da origen a un tipo de lexías
en la que los dos elementos participantes no se han
soldado gráficamente, por más que la lexicalización sea un hecho —alta mar, peso pluma, pájaro mosca; algunas de tales composiciones pueden llegar a la unión gráfica de sus elementos: caballo de mar-->caballo marino, tela de araña-->telaraña, agua nieve-->aguanieve,... En un grado más alto de unión gráfica está la contraposición, donde los elementos que participan se escriben unidos por un guión que, generalmente, no aparecerá debido a las restricciones del español —coche-bomba-->coche bomba, faldapantalón-->falda pantalón—, aunque la Real Academia Española establece que “cuando no hay fusión sino oposición o contraste entre los elementos componentes, se unirán estos con guión” (RAE, 1995) —físico-químico. El más generoso de los procesos de composición es la yuxtaposición o lexías compuestas, aquí la fusión gráfica de los elementos participantes en el compuesto es total, así como su lexicalización y su gramaticalización —carnicol, malqueda, cochitril,
hincapié. Aunque la frontera entre derivación y
composición no resulta muy clara, sobre todo en el
caso del abreviamiento —coyotomate— o la acronimia
—información automática-->informática, poliestar
galo-->tergal—, muchos autores consideran el acortamiento
como un procedimiento de formación de neologismos que por su naturaleza no constituiría una derivación sino que más bien formaría parte de la composición. La utilización de raíces cultas greco-latinas es frecuente en los procesos de generación de nuevas palabras —particularmente en los campos científicos y técnicos—; las voces en cuya formación intervienen podrían, según varios autores, no considerarse propiamente compuestas, ya que la mayoría de sus raíces no pueden aparecer aisladamente, pero
tampoco pueden considerarse derivadas, puesto que
tienen un comportamiento peculiar —significado léxico— que los aleja de los auténticos afijos. A este tipo de raíces se les da el nombre de elementos prefijales o sufijales —elementos compositivos—, en función de si se anteponen a otra raíz o se posponen.
En el presente estudio se tratan, desde un punto de
vista morfológico, los compuestos yuxtapuestos o lexías
compuestas, al igual que algunos casos especiales de acortamiento, elementos compositivos y parasíntesis por composición. Los restantes tipos no se consideran
debido a la dificultad para justificar que constituyen
un verdadero compuesto en español, ya que habría que tener en cuenta factores sintácticos y semánticos que
inicialmente no se consideran en este trabajo.
REGLAS DE COMPOSICIÓN
Se parte de una base de unos 4000 compuestos
recopilados del Diccionario General de la Lengua
Española Vox (Bibliograf, 2003) y del glosario de
compuestos del libro “La composición nominal en español”
de Eugenio Bustos (Bustos, 1986) —basado en obras de carácter general, DRAE, y en otras de carácter regional o dialectal: hablas leonesas, aragonesas, meridionales,
español de América—, además, se han añadido unos 6000
compuestos, que incorporan elementos prefijales,
procedentes de diversos diccionarios de español (Clave, 1997; Espasa Calpe, 1991; Casares, 1990; Larousse, 1996; Alvar, 2003; Moliner, 1996; ). Los compuestos analizados se clasifican en grupos según la categoría
gramatical de sus constituyentes. Se busca, a partir del estudio del comportamiento de los vocablos constituyentes del compuesto, las reglas de
formación del mismo; algunas coinciden con las tratadas
por algunos lingüistas, aunque con una adaptación
informática justificada por el comportamiento mayoritario
observado —aeriforme-->aeri + forme, según el Diccionario General de la Lengua Española Vox (Bibliograf, 2003),
sin embargo, el comportamientos mayoritario es aero.
Se define regla de formación a todo comportamiento mayoritario que permita concretar un mecanismo capaz de relacionar los elementos constituyentes del compuesto, para su reconocimiento por medios informáticos. Se estudian
además, las reglas fonéticas —cambios gráficos para mantener el sonido de una consonante: anquirredondo-->anca + redondo— que se producen como consecuencia de haber aplicado una regla de formación. Se obtiene un
conjunto de reglas que, junto a las excepciones encontradas, permiten el reconocimiento automático de las palabras compuestas y en el futuro su generación.
PROCESAMIENTO DE LAS REGLAS DE COMPOSICIÓN
Se parte de la palabra compuesta y se comprueba que cumpla unas ciertas condiciones —tamaño de
la palabra, mayor a cinco caracteres, o bien, número
de sílabas, mayor que tres: uñalbo. El proceso de
reconocimiento propone partir la palabra hasta que se encuentre un vocablo o ambos, a los que se les aplica la regla correspondiente o bien se tratan como excepción; se pueden obtener múltiples soluciones —algunas o
todas incorrectas. La secuencia de cortes permite añadir otro tipo de condicionantes: por ejemplo, las palabras que forman el compuesto no deben ser derivadas, sino
constituir una unidad léxica —no contener prefijos,
particularmente en el primer elemento del compuesto—, o no admitir la flexión del diminutivo en la segunda
palabra del compuesto.
Hay que tener en cuenta que en un estudio cuyo objetivo sea la automatización de la composición con medios
informáticos, los aspectos formales o teóricos no tienen
por qué coincidir con los estrictamente lingüísticos. Así, *clarovidente —falsa composición, pues lo correcto
sería clarividente— no tendría por qué tratarse de una mala formación al no contravenir ninguna regla fonotáctica
del lenguaje, ni siquiera la norma de la estructura
silábica del español.
CONCLUSIONES
Se trata de un trabajo novedoso, ya que han resultado
infructuosas las búsquedas de referencias sobre
procesamiento automático de la composición en español, a pesar de la presumible trascendencia de tal proceso.
Internet y el lenguaje periodístico recogen, con frecuencia, neologismos compositivos debido a la rápida evolución
de los acontecimientos y a su inmediata trascripción al mundo de las tecnologías de la información: movichandal, ciberamor, eurosueldo,... Son imprescindibles procesos
automáticos que sean capaces de identificar estas
palabras y situarlas en un contexto lingüístico adecuado:
morfológico y semántico.
El reconocimiento de palabras compuestas en español es útil en aplicaciones para el procesamiento automático del lenguaje natural, debido a que lleva implícito vínculos semánticos, sobre todo en los compuestos endocéntricos. Asimismo, potencia las búsquedas en Internet al ampliar el abanico de relaciones morfoléxicas deducidas de los compuestos estudiados, sus derivaciones y flexiones
Referencias
1. Biblograf, s.a. 2003. “Diccionario General de la Lengua Española VOX” en CDROM. Barcelona.
2. Clave SM. 1997. “Diccionario de Uso del Español Actual”. Clave SM, edición en CD ROM. Madrid.
3. David Serrano Dolader. 1995. “Las formaciones parasintéticas en español”, Ed. Arco/Libros, S.L.
4. Espasa Calpe. 1991. “Gran Diccionario de Sinónimos y Antónimos”, 4a edic. Espasa Calpe, Madrid.
5. Eugenio Bustos Gisbert. 1986. “La composición nominal en español”, Universidad de Salamanca.
6. Jose Alberto Miranda. 1994. “La formación de
palabras en español”. Ediciones Colegio de España.
7. Julio Casares. 1990. “Diccionario Ideológico de la Lengua Española”, 2a Edición. Ed. Gustavo Gili, s.a. Barcelona.
8. Larousse Planeta, s.a. 1996. “Gran Diccionario de la Lengua Española”. Larousse Planeta, s.a., Barcelona. 9. Manuel Alvar Ezquerra. 2002. “La formación de las palabras en español”. Cuadernos de lengua
española, Ed. Arco/Libros, Madrid.
10. Manuel Alvar Ezquerra. 2003. “Nuevo diccionario de voces de uso actual”. Ed. Arco/Libros, Madrid.
11. María Moliner. 1996. “Diccionario de Uso del
Español”, edición en CD ROM. Gredos, Madrid.
12. Mervyn Francis Lang. 1992. “Formación de palabras en español. Morfología derivativa productiva en léxico moderno”. Cátedra, Madrid.
13. Ramón Almela Pérez. 1999. “Procedimientos
de formación de palabras en español”. Ed. Ariel Practicum.
14. Real Academia Española y EspasaCalpe. 2001. “Diccionario de la Lengua Española”, edición
electrónica. 22a edn. Madrid.
15. Soledad Varela Ortega. 1990. “Fundamentos de Morfología”, Ed. Síntesis.
16. Waldo Pérez Cino. 2002. “Manual Práctico de
formación de palabras en español I”, ed. Verbum.","txt","2","",""
"633","7","A Fresh Computational Approach to Textual Variation","1","If there is one thing that can be said about the entire
literary output of the world since the invention of
writing it is that literary works exist in multiple versions.
Such variation may be expressed either through the
existence of several copies of a work, through alterations and errors usually in a single text, or by a combination of the two. A textual feature of this degree of importance
ought to be at the forefront of efforts to digitise our
written cultural heritage, especially at a time when
printed media are becoming less important. Until now literature has been represented digitally through systems of markup such as XML, which are ultimately derived from formal languages developed by linguists in the 1950s (Chomsky 1957; Hopcroft and Ullman 1969); but over recent years it has gradually become clear that the hierarchical structure of such languages is unable to accurately represent variation in literary text. Alan
Renear (1997), for example, admits that variation is one exception that does not fit into his hierarchical model of text; likewise Vetter and McDonald (2003) conclude that markup provides ‘no entirely satisfactory method’ for
representing variation in the poetry of Emily Dickinson.
More general discussions of the shortcomings of
hierarchical markup, including the problem of variation, have recently been made by Dino Buzzetti (2002) and Edward Vanhoutte (2004).
An alternative approach, not yet tried, is to use graphs to represent variation. Graphs were first studied in the 18th century by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler, who is best remembered for his solution to the famous
‘Bridges of Königsberg’ problem (Trudeau 1993). The type of graph which most closely resembles textual
variation does not appear to have yet been described by anyone; however, it can be derived from the following example. Consider four versions of the simple sentence:
A The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.
B The quick white rabbit jumps over the lazy dog.
C The quick brown ferret leaps over the lazy dog.
D The white quick rabbit playfully jumps over the dog.
Collapsing the five versions into collapsing the four versions. Such repetitions are clearly undesirable. If they were present in an electronic edition each time one copy was changed, an editor would have to check that the other copies were changed in exactly
the same way. If all this redundancy is removed by
collapsing the four versions wherever the text is the same,
the following graph results:
Figure 1
This is a type of ‘directed graph’, which we call a
‘textgraph’. Its key characteristics are:
a. It has one start and one end point.
b. The ‘edges’ or ‘arcs’ are labelled with a set of
versions and with a fragment of text, which may be empty.
c. There are no ‘directed cycles’ or loops.
d. It is possible to follow a path from start to end for each version stored in the graph, which represents the text of that version.
In figure 1 version D contains an insertion: ‘playfully’ and a deletion ‘lazy’. These are represented in the graph
as empty edges. In fact insertions and deletions are
the same thing viewed from different perspectives: every deletion is an insertion in reverse and vice versa.
Transpositions, as in version ‘D’ - the transposition of ‘white’ and ‘quick’ in relation to version ‘B’, can be viewed as a deletion of some text in one place and its insertion in another. All that is then needed is some way to refer back to the original text to avoid copying, e.g. by ‘pointing’ to it. This feature has been shown in figure 1 by drawing the transposed text in grey, which does not change the structure of the graph.
This model is equally applicable to variation arising from a single manuscript or from the amalgamation of
multiple manuscripts of the same work. Its biggest
advantage is that it can handle any amount of overlap without duplicating text. One example of a rigorous test of this model can be found in the archives of the ‘Digital Variants’ website. The poem ‘Campagna Romana’ by the modern Italian poet Valerio Magrelli exists in four drafts, the first of which is shown in figure 2.
Figure 2
In original manuscripts like this it is often unclear how variants are to be combined. For example, in the line
‘Il suo arco sereno/certo/scandito/ ha la misura d’un
sospiro/misura la sera/’ it is impossible to say if there ever was a version: ‘Il suo arco scandito misura la sera’. The sensible way to proceed here is simply to provide a mechanism for recording any possible set of readings,
and to leave the interpretation up to the editor.
Figure 3
Documents which are based on this graph structure
we call ‘multi-version documents’ or mvd’s. One
application of this format is the applet viewer shown in
figure 3 (Schmidt, 2005). This currently allows the user
to view one readable version or layer of text at a time.
In reality only the differences between each layer are
recorded, and the user can highlight these using red to
indicate imminent deletions and blue for recent insertions.
The text is also searchable through one version or all
versions simultaneously. This visualisation tool is in
an early stage of development and as yet it can only
handle plain text. However, because it cleanly separates
the content of the document (represented by the edges of
the graph) from its variation (represented by the graph’s
structure), the same method could also be used to record
versioning information in almost any kind of document
- including XML, graphical, mathematical and other
formats:
Figure 4
This allows a multi-version document to utilise existing
technology. By removing variability from a text, and
effectively representing it as a separate layer, the mvd
format allows technologies like XML to be used for what
they were designed to do: to represent non-overlapping
content. One way this could be achieved would be
to edit the text in an existing editor but to modify the
editor slightly so that instead of reading and writing
the document directly it would read and write only one
version at a time to an mvd file, as shown in figure 4.
There are a couple of possible objections to the overall
technique described here. Firstly, because it is not based
on markup, it is no longer practical for the user to see the
contents of the document in its merged form. Secondly,
existing XML technology currently utilises markup to
record information about the status of individual variants.
This data would have to be re-encoded as characteristics
of the bits of varying text, since the document content
would no longer carry any information about variation.
However, the very idea of ‘variants’ embedded in the
text is a structure inherited from the critical edition,
which is now widely regarded as obsolescent (Ross
1996; Schreibman 2002). Through the printed medium
traditional philology advanced the notion of textual
‘truth’ in its effort to restore a lost original, whereas our
model is directed toward the fruition of the text as it
really is. As we move forward into an age when
digital text has the primary focus, some of the old ideas
associated with paper-based methodologies may have to
be revised or given up entirely (Fiormonte 2003).
In conclusion, the use of ‘textgraphs’ to represent variation
appears to overcome the problems of redundancy and
overlap inherent in current technologies, and to reduce
document complexity. Thus far, a file format has
been devised and has been demonstrated in a working
multi-version document viewer for plain text, which
is capable of representing original documents of high
variability. By separating variation from content it also
has the potential to leverage existing document handling
technologies. This technique represents a new method
of handling textual variation; it is mathematical and
wholly digital in character, and unlike what it purports to
replace, it is not based on the inherited structures of the
printed edition. References
Buzzetti, D. (2002) Digital Representation and the Text Model, New Literary History, 33(1): 61-88.
Chomsky, N. (1957) Syntactic Structures, Mouton & Co: The Hague.
Fiormonte, D. (2003) Scrittura e filologia nell’era
digitale, Bollati Boringhieri: Turin.
Hopcroft, J.E. and Ullman, J.D. (1969) Formal
Languages and their Relation to Automata,
Addison-Wesley: Reading, Massachusetts.
Renear, A. (1997) Out of Praxis: Three (Meta) Theories of Textuality in Electronic Text, Sutherland K. (ed.), Clarendon Press: Oxford, 107-126.
Ross, C. (1996) The Electronic Text and the Death of the Critical Edition in R. Finneran (ed.), The Literary Text in the Digital Age, 225-231.
Schmidt, D. (2005) MVDViewer Demo, available at: http://www.itee.uq.edu.au/~schmidt/cgi-bin/MVDF_sample/mvdviewer.wcgi
Schreibman, S. (2002) The Text Ported, Literary and Linguistic Computing, 17: 77-87.
Trudeau, R.J. (1993) Introduction to Graph Theory, Dover: New York.
Vanhoutte, E. (2004) Prose Fiction and Modern
Manuscripts Limitations and Possibilities of Text-Encoding for Electronic Editions in Unsworth, J., O’Brien, K. O’Keeffe and Burnard, L. (eds.), Electronic Textual Editing. (forthcoming - available at http://www.kantl.be/ctb/vanhoutte/pub.htm#arttg)
Vetter, L. and McDonald, J. (2003) Witnessing
Dickinson’s Witnesses, Literary and Linguistic Computing, 18: 151-165.","txt","2","",""
"634","7","Cross - Collection Searching : A Pandora's Box or the Holy Grail?","1","While many digital library initiatives and digital humanities centers still create collection-based
projects, they are increasingly looking for ways of
federating these collections, enhancing the possibilities of discovery across media and different themed-research.
Facilitating access to these objects that are frequently
derived from different media and formats, while belonging
to different genres, and which have traditionally been described in very different ways, poses challenges that more coherently-themed collections may not.
In the last few years it has become increasingly evident to those in the digital humanities and the digital library communities, and the agencies which fund their research, that providing federated searching for the immensely rich digital resources that have been created over the past decade is a high priority. Several recent research grants
speak to this issue, such as the Mellon-funded NINES:
A Network Funded Initiative for Nineteenth Century Electronic Scholarship , or The Sheet Music Consortium .
While digital objects organized around a specific theme
or genre typically provide opportunities for rich metadata creation, providing access to diverse collections that seem
to have little in common (except that they are owned
by the same institution) often poses problems in the
compatibility of controlled vocabulary and metadata schema.
While this problem has been noticed on much larger
scales before and addressed by initiatives such as z39.50
and the Open Archives Initiative’s Protocol for Metadata Harvesting, addressing the problem within a library’s or center’s own digital collections is a vital part of making such initiatives successful by leveraging cross-collection discovery through the internal structure of the metadata scheme as well as a consistent approach to terminology. This presentation will explore the issues surrounding creating an archive of cross-searchable materials across
a large spectrum of media, format, and genre at the
University of Maryland Libraries . It will examine the way
some of these interoperability problems can be addressed
through metadata schema, targeted searching, and
controlled vocabulary.
Description of Research
This paper will be based on the research done at the University of Maryland Libraries using two ongoing projects. The first project utilizes The Thomas
MacGreevy Archive , a full-text digital repository
(following the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) Guidelines ),
to explore the development of metadata and descriptors to facilitate searching across individual collections which
are described at different levels of granularity. The
second project involves using the knowledge based on the research carried out for the more cohesive MacGreevy Archive for the more diverse repository the UM Library
is developing utilizing Fedora as its underlying repository architecture.
The Thomas MacGreevy Archive is being explored
as a microcosm from which to examine issues of
searchability of content divided into collections that
cannot be described using a single controlled vocabulary and has different modes of display. The necessity for cross-collection searches has arisen due to the Archive expanding its content from digitized versions of books and articles, to two collections of correspondence (one relatively small collection of seven letters, the other quite large, c 150 letters), and making images that are currently
available only via hyperlink from within texts
individually discoverable. Preliminary findings involving this research were shared at the joint 2005 ACH/ALLC Conference at University of Victoria.
Another issue that the MacGreevy Archive can model is problems of controlled vocabularies across different
collections. The current controlled vocabulary descriptors use a faceted approach to describe articles and books written on such topics as art, music, and literature. Since
both the correspondence and images differ in form and function from the existing objects in the archive, the
current controlled vocabulary descriptors are not granular enough to capture either the variety of themes common to letters, or the additional descriptors to describe what the images are of and about.
The experience gained in exploring the more homogenous
MacGreevy Archive is being applied to the much more diverse collections and formats being housed in the
Fedora repository in which rich collection-specific
controlled vocabulary across multiple formats is being
developed at the same time as a vocabulary which
provides users the opportunity of discovery across all collections. While specific controlled vocabularies exist that would adequately describe each collection, they are generally too specific for materials outside that collection. On the other hand, Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH), while sufficiently broad in scope, are unwieldy
in form, taking a post-faceted approach by combining
several smaller descriptors into a predefined string.
These long strings cause multiple problems in searching (including not being amenable to Boolean searching) but are ubiquitous within university libraries, forming
the underlying basis for the vast majority of online
catalogues. LCSH descriptors will be necessary, however,
for those objects that will occur concurrently in the
library catalog.
In exploring cross-collection search capabilities in this larger, more diverse environment, the use of controlled vocabulary for subject access is only one possible source
of commonalities. Within the Fedora repository, the University of Maryland Libraries will create a metadata
scheme that represents a hybrid of the elements and
concepts chiefly found in qualified Dublin Core , and the Visual Resources Association Core < http://www.vraweb.org/vracore3.htm >. This scheme and hybrid approach was first used by the University of Virginia, and the UM Libraries is refining that element set and list of required elements specifically with cross-collection searching in mind. By requiring elements that include information such as the century and geographic focus of individual objects, designers aim to define and render searchable the broader topics that objects from disparate collections of narrow focus may have in common. Designers must
also use or define standard vocabularies to be used to
populate these broader elements to ensure successful cross-collection discovery.
Previous Research
The integrated design of online information retrieval systems has been studied most prominently by Marcia Bates (2001). However, most research in this field takes a more atomized approach, focusing solely on one aspect of design: metadata schemes for instance, or GUI design for search screens. Other research has examined
the particular needs and searching habits of users,
particularly in humanities disciplines, when faced with online search interfaces. Prominent among these has been the work of Deborah Shaw (1995) and the series of reports from the Getty Online Searching Project
(Bates, 1994, 1996; Bates et.al. 1993, 1995; Siegfried et.al. 1993). The majority of this research was carried out in the late 1990s and follow-up has been more in specific
application of digital library systems than in respect to user-oriented, integrated design, such as Broughton (2001).
Another area of inquiry relevant to this research involves the use of faceted classification systems for web-based discovery. The most recent white paper produced by the NINES project neatly summarizes current research (NINES 2005). KM’s ‘The Knowledge Management Connection’ discusses faceted classification within the context of information-intensive business environments.
Denton (2003) discusses how to develop a faceted
classification scheme, while Bates (1988) surveys the
various approaches to subjection description for web-based
discovery.
Conclusion
This paper will build on previous research as
mentioned above in the development of a controlled
vocabulary, metadata schema, and faceted classification scheme which provides for both rich collection-specific discovery, as well as federated searching across collections.
References
Bates, M.J. (1988) How to Use Controlled Vocabularies More Effectively in Online Searching. Online 12 (November) 45-56.
Bates, M. J., Wilde, D.N., & Siegfried, S. (1993). An analysis of search terminology used by humanities scholars: the Getty online searching project report no. 1. Library Quarterly, 63. (September). 1-39.
Bates, M. J. (1994). The Design of Databases and Other Information Resources for Humanities Scholars: The Getty Online Searching Project Report No. 4. Online and CD-ROM Review, 18. (December). 331-340.
Bates, M. J. (1996). Document Familiarity in Relation
to Relevance, Information Retrieval Theory, and Bradford’s Law: The Getty Online Searching
Project Report No. 5. Information Processing &
Management 32. 697-707.
Bates, M.J. (2002). The cascade of interactions in the digital library interface. Information Processing and Management: An International Journal, 38:3. (May). 381-400.
Bates, M. J., Wilde, D.N., & Siegfried, S. (1995).
Research Practices of Humanities Schoars in an Online
Environment: The Getty Online Searching Project
Report No. 3. Library and Information Science
Research, 17 (Winter). 5-40.
Broughton, V. (2001). Faceted Classification as a Basis for Knowledge Organization in a Digital Environment;
the Bliss Bibliographic Classification as a Model
for Vocabulary Management and the Creation of Multi-Dimensional Knowledge Structures. The New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia, 7. 67-102.
KM (Knowledge Management Connection). Faceted Classification of Information.
NINES: A Federated Model for Integrating Digital
Scholarship. (2005) White Paper (September)
< http://www.nines/org/about/9swhitepaper.pdf>
Shaw, D. (1995). Bibliographic database searching by graduate students in language and literature: search strategies, system interfaces, and relevance
judgements. Library and Information Science
Research, 17. 327-45.
Siegfried, S., Bates, M. J. and Wilde, D. N. (1993). A Profile of End-User Searching Behavior by
Humanities Scholars: The Getty Online Searching Project Report No. 2. Journal of the American
Society for Information Science, 44. (June).
273-291.
William, Denton. (2003) How to Make a Faceted
Classification and Put it on the Web.","txt","2","",""
"635","7","Exploring the Generic Structure of Scientific Articles in a Contrastive and Corpus - Based PersPective","1","This paper will describe and analyse the generic structure of linguistic articles, using a corpus-based methodology and working within a contrastive (English-French) perspective. The main question that we wish to answer is the following: “Do scientific articles – and more particularly linguistics ones – have a generic structure,
and to what extent does this structure vary from one
language to another?”
We will answer this linguistic question using techniques from computational and corpus linguistics.
The notion of genre is more and more present, as much in linguistics as in information retrieval or in didactics. Genres and texts are intimately connected, as genres could not be tackled within the restricted framework
of the word or the sentence. Indeed, genres can only
be perceptible using text corpora both generically
homogeneous and representative of the genre studied.
The progress of information technology and the
possibilities of digitization have made it possible to
gather homogeneous and synchronic corpora of written
texts to analyse and characterize genres.
Moreover, the development of computational linguistics,
of linguistic statistics and more generally of corpus
linguistics has led to that of tools and methods to process
large corpora which make it possible nowadays to detect linguistic phenomena and regularities that could not have been traced before. In that sense, inductive typological
methods and multi-dimensional statistical methods (see Biber, 1988) seem crucial to make the criteria which
define the genres appear more clearly.
If literary genres have been largely explored, the study of academic / scientific and professional genres has mainly been undertaken for about thirty years within a
more applied trend. English for Specific Purpose, is a rhetorical-functional trend which is interested in
macro-textual descriptions and in describing genres from a phrasal or propositional point of view. The description of rhetorical moves (see Swales, 1990) is rather qualitative
than quantitative, as the moves can scarcely be
automatically identified – although several studies have set out to demonstrate their relative identification by training classifiers on manually annotated corpora
(Kando, 1999 and Langer et al., 2004).
Our perspective is however different, as we do not start from a set of predefined moves: our objective is indeed to describe the genre of the article and its structure in a quantitative perspective, starting from three levels of description: the structural, the morphosyntactic and the lexical level.
The study is based on a generically homogeneous corpus composed of French and English journal articles that all belong to the linguistic domain, chosen as this is the field we have the best expertise in. The French corpus is made
up of 32 issues of 11 linguistic journals, that amounts to 224 articles; whereas the English one includes 100
articles, that is 16 issues of 4 linguistic journals. Texts have all been issued between 1995 and 2001 to limit the possibilities of diachronic variations.
In order to describe the document structure of scientific articles, we first marked up the document structure and the article constituents according to the Text Encoding Initiative Guidelines (Sperberg-McQueen et al., 2001), to ensure the corpus reusability and comparability with other corpora: the article sections were taken into account
(introduction, body, divisions, conclusion), as well as its titles, subtitles, and specific components (examples,
citations, appendices, etc.).
This XML markup enabled us to obtain the main
characteristics of the article structure and organization in the two languages (number of sections, structure depth, etc.) and to assess their stability and differences, using XSL stylesheets.
Once these characteristics were established, we focused
on the article sections: as both French and English
linguistics articles are not submitted to an IMRAD structure
(Introduction, Materials and methods, Results, Analysis, Discussion), only introductions and conclusions could be directly observed and compared. Indeed, it would have been irrelevant to analyze “third sections” as many texts are only divided into two main parts.
The linguistic properties of introductions and
conclusions were described thanks to two different levels of description: the lexical and the morphosyntactic levels,
which did not require the same processing. The lexical characteristics of the sections were first obtained using Alceste and its Hierarchical Descendant Classification.
We then concentrated on the morphosyntactic level, on the one hand because morphosyntactic variables easily lend themselves to voluminous data as they are formal
enough to be tagged and calculable and on the other
hand because various studies have demonstrated their
efficiency in genre processing (Karlgren & Cutting 1994;
Kessler et al., 1997; Malrieu & Rastier 2001; Poudat, 2003).
Although several taggers are available, they are generally
little adapted to the processing of scientific texts; for
instance, the French Inalf Institute trained Brill tagger on 19th century novels and Le Monde articles. Most of the English taggers are trained on the Penn TreeBank corpus and use very robust tagsets which interest is descriptively very weak. As many available taggers are trainable (Brill
Tagger, TreeTagger, TnT tagger, etc.), we decided to
develop our own tagset and to generate a new tagger
devoted to the processing of scientific texts. We then used
a specific tagset of 136 descriptors (described in Poudat, 2004) to process the French corpus. The tagset is devoted to the characteristics of scientific discourse, and gathers
the general descriptive hypothesis put forward in the
literature concerning scientific discourse. Among the very specific variables we developed, we can mention symbols, title cues (such as 1.1.), modals, connectives,
dates, two categories for the IL personal pronoun, in
order to distinguish between the French anaphoric and impersonal IL, etc.
The training task is very costly, as it requires the building
of a manually annotated training corpus that has to be large enough to enable the system to generate tagging
rules. For this reason, it was only led on the French corpus,
using TnT tagger. We then adapted the tags and the
outputs of CLAWS (the Constituent Likelihood Automatic
Word-tagging System developped at Lancaster University, see Garside, 1987) to get comparable data.
The morphosyntactic characteristics of the French
and English introductions and conclusions were then
determined, using statistical methods.
After having described our methodology, we will present the results obtained thanks to this same methodology. The last part of our paper will discuss the conclusions that could be drawn from these findings.
References
Biber, D. (1988). Variation across Speech and Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Garside, R. (1987). The CLAWS Word-tagging System. In Garside, R., Leech, G. and Sampson, G. (eds),
The Computational Analysis of English: A
Corpus-based Approach. London: Longman.
Kando, N. (1999). Text Structure Analysis as a Tool to Make Retrieved Documents Usable. In Proceedings
of the 4th International Workshop on Information
Retrieval with Asian Languages, Taipei, Taiwan, Nov. 11-12, pp. 126-135.
Karlgren, J. and Cutting, D. (1994). Recognizing Text Genres with Simple Metrics Using Discriminant Analysis. Proceedings of COLING 94, Kyoto, pp. 1071-75.
Kesler, B., Nunberg, G. and Schütze, H. (1997).
Automatic Detection of Genre. Proceedings of
the 35th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 8th Meeting of the European Chapter of the Association for
Computational Linguistics. San Francisco CA:
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, pp 32-38.
Langer, H. Lüngen, H. and Bayerl, P. S. (2004).
Towards Automatic Annotation of Text Type
Structure. Experiments Using an XML-annotated Corpus and Automatic Text Classification Methods. Proceedings of the LREC-Workshop on XML-based richly annotated corpora, Lisbon, Portugal, pp.
8-14.
Malrieu, D. and Rastier, F. (2001). Genres et variations morphosyntaxiques. TAL, 42(2) : 547-578.
Poudat, C. (2003). Characterization of French Linguistic Research Papers with Morphosyntactic Variables. In Fløttum K. and Rastier F. (eds). Academic discourses - Multidisciplinary Approaches. Oslo :Novus, pp. 77-96
Poudat, C. (2004). Une annotation de corpus dédiée à la caractérisation du genre de l’article scientifique.
Workshop TCAN - La construction du savoir
scientifique dans la langue, Maison des Sciences Humaines - Alpes, Grenoble, 20 octobre 2004.
Sperberg-McQueen, C.M. and Burnard, L. (eds) (2002). TEI P4: Guidelines for Electronic Text
Encoding and Interchange. Oxford, Providence, Charlottesville, Bergen: Text Encoding Initiative Consortium. XML Version.
http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines2/index.xml.ID=P4 and http://www.tei-c.org/P4X/ (accessed 14 November 2005).
Swales, J. (1990). Genre Analysis : English in Academic
and Research Settings. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.","txt","2","",""
"636","7","Giving Them a Reason to Read Online: Reading Tools for Humanities Scholars","1","Overview
A good deal of the emerging research literature
concerned with online information resources
focuses on information retrieval, which is concerned with the use of search engines to locate desired information.
Far less attention has been paid to how the found
materials are read and how that critical engagement can be enhanced in online reading environments. Building on research reported in relation to Willinsky’s work in and around the Public Knowledge Project (http://www.pkp.ubc.ca/), Warwick’s “No Such Thing as Humanities Computing?” (ALLC/ACH 2004), and Siemens, et al., “The Humanities Scholar in the Twenty-first Century”
(ALLC/ACH 2004), among others pertinent to our
community, this paper reports on a study examines the question of whether a set of well-designed reading tools can assist a sample of 15 humanities computing scholars in comprehending, evaluating and utilizing the research literature in their area. In progress at present, the study of our group will conclude in January 2006, with results available in March 2006. Should the paper be accepted for presentation at the conference, at that time the authors will revise their abstract, fully detailing the results of the study, which will include an analysis of the degree
to which different types of reading tools (providing
background, related materials, etc.) contributed, if at all, to these scholars’ reading experience. Context
The larger study, a subset of which is devoted to computing humanists, investigates how journal websites can be designed to better support the reading
of research in online settings for a wider range of readers than has traditionally been the case with research. Given
that well over 75 percent of research journals now
publish online, with a number of them made free to
read, the reading experience and audience for research is changing. This work looks at whether the design and structure of the journal’s “information environment”
can improve the reading experience of expert and novice readers of this literature. Specifically, it examines whether
providing far richer context of related background
materials for a given text than is available with print,
assists the online reading process. In this way, the study seeks to understand, better, reading for information in online environments.
Growing out of Willinsky’s design work in online
information environments for schools, policy forums, and academic journals over the last five years, and work
within the digital humanities, this study evaluates whether
the specific online tools and resources that journals are now able to provide can assist expert and novice readers in making greater sense and use of the research literature. By drawing on related work in reading comprehension in schools, as well as from initial design experiments with journals in online settings, it is posited that information environments that provide links to related resources will enable a wide range of readers to establish a greater
context for comprehending and potentially utilizing the research they have come to read. It may also support the critical engagement of more expert readers.
This study focuses on testing a context-rich Reading Tools which can accompany each journal article (and if proven useful can also be used with online conference
papers, reports, and theses). This tool provides (a)
background on the article and author, (b) links from each research article to directly relevant materials (based on the keywords provided by the author), and (c) opportunities
for interactivity, such as commenting and contacting the author. Utilizing research studies in medicine and
education as the publishing content to be read online, the contribution of this Tool will be assessed with a sample
of faculty members and students in education and
medicine, as well as well as with a sample of
policymakers and members of the public.
The study, in this case, is being conducted with computing humanities scholars. A sample of 15 scholars will read
an article in their field, and utilize the Reading Tools to see which tools, if any, and to what degree, these tools
contribute to their comprehension, evaluation, and
interest in utilizing the work they are reading. These
tools will connect the reader to the author’s other works,
related studies, book reviews, summaries of literary
critics; work, online forums, instructional materials, media reoports, and other data bases. The readers will be asked to reflect on their reading and use of the tools in a think-aloud protocol, with the researcher. Lessons
drawn from these and other readers’ experience and
assessment of the value of the Reading Tools will assist
our understanding of the nature of online reading, the
potential readership of online research, the role of context
in reading, while the study is also intended to contribute to improving the design of journals and other informational resources in online environments.
References
Siemens, R. G. (2001). “Unediting and Non-Editions.” In The Theory (and Politics) of Editing. Anglia 119.3: 423-455. Reprint of “Shakespearean Apparatus,”
with additional introduction. “Shakespearean
Apparatus? Explicit Textual Structures and the
Implicit Navigation of Accumulated Knowledge.”
Text: An Interdisciplinary Annual of Textual
Studies 14. Ann Arbor: U Michigan P, 2002. 209-240. Electronic pre-print published in Surfaces 8 (1999): 106.1-34. < http://www.pum.umontreal.ca/revues/surfaces/vol8/siemens.pdf>.
Siemens, R. G. (2004). “Modelling Humanistic Activity in the Electronic Scholarly Edition.” Presented at
The Face of Text (CaSTA: The Third Canadian
Symposium on Text Analysis Research), McMaster U (November).
Siemens, R.G., Susan Schreibman, and John
Unsworth. (2004). The Blackwell Companion to
Digital Humanities. Oxford: Blackwell. xxvii+611 pp. Siemens, R. G, et al. (2002). The Credibility of
Electronic Publishing: A Report to the Humanities and Social Sciences Federation of Canada. R.G.
Siemens (Project Co-ordinator), Michael Best and Elizabeth Grove-White, Alan Burk, James Kerr and Andy Pope, Jean-Claude Guédon, Geoffrey
Rockwell, and Lynne Siemens. Text Technology 11.1: 1-128. < http://www.mala.bc.ca/~siemensr/
hssfc/index.htm>.
Siemens, R. G, and Jean-Claude Guédon. (forthcoming). “Peer Review for Humanities Computing Software
Tools: What We Can Draw from Electronic
Academic Publication.” A section of “Peer Review for Humanities Computing Software Tools” an
article cluster, in progress, with Stéfan Sinclair,
Geoffrey Rockwell, John Bradley, and Stephen Ramsay.
Warwick, Claire. “No Such Thing as Humanities
Computing?” Presented at ALLC/ACH, Tuebingen,
2004 <http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop8.html>.
Willinsky, J. (in press). The case for open access to research and scholarship. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Willinsky, J. (2003). Policymakers’ use of online academic
research. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 11(2). Retrieved October 6, 2003, from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v11n2/.
Willinsky, J. (2002). Education and democracy: The missing link may be ours. Harvard Educational
Review, 72(3), 367-392.
Willinsky, J. (2001). Extending the prospects of evidence-based education. IN>>SIGHT, 1(1), 23-41.
Willinsky, J. (2000). If only we knew: Increasing the public value of social science research. New York: Routledge.
Willinsky, J. (1999). The technologies of knowing:
A proposal for the human sciences. Boston: Beacon.
Willinsky, J., and Forssman, V. (2000). A tale of two
cultures and a technology: A/musical politics of
curriculum in four acts. In C. Cornbleth (Ed.),
Curriculum, politics, policy: Cases in context (pp. 21-48). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.","txt","2","",""
"637","7","Music and Meaning in a Hopkins ""Terrible Sonnet""","1","In this paper, I will examine the phonetic/phonological patterning of a sonnet by Gerard Manley Hopkins,
No Worst, There Is None, one of the sequence of ‘Terrible Sonnets’ written during a period of deep despair toward
the end of his life. My paper illustrates the use of a
computer program, the Pattern-Finder, to develop the
conventional, close-reading techniques in literary criticism, as exemplified in Burke (1973) or Vendler (1988), beyond
what can be discovered by even the most aware naked eye and ear. I will argue that by using this new computational
approach, we can discover a level of meaningful
sound-structure present in the poem but previously
inaccessible. (A full description of the computationally-based
technique which I will be using is found Smolinsky & Sokoloff’s abstract proposal for the poster presentation plus software display Introducing the Pattern-Finder (#140), immediately preceding this abstract.)
Hopkins was an accomplished linguist (in the sense of ‘language-learner:’ see Davies 1998), and one of the most consciously linguistically aware of all poets
writing in English. He truly knew his medium, and used
it to the fullest. In No Worst, we see this in his syntax, as in the Shakespearian epithet “no-man-fathomed” or the elided “that” relative in “under a comfort [that] serves in a whirlwind.” Both compressions embody the excruciating pressure which the poet is expressing; the second one also gives a sense of uncontrollable velocity.
We see Hopkins’ awareness of his medium just as much in his phonetics. One example is the striking /iy/
assonance in six of the end-rhymes, also echoed
inside the lines, in “heave,” “leave,” “shrieked,” “steep or deep” and “each,” /iy/ being the vowel with the highest pitch (Peterson and Barney 1952): in this context, I would argue, the most evocative of a scream. Another is the
/p/ alliteration in the first two lines, all in pre-stressed
(‘opening’ (de Saussure 1959), maximally plosive,
aspirated (Ladefoged 1982) and forceful) position: “pitched past pitch” “pangs” “(fore)pangs” the complete absence of /p/ in lines 3-9, and the gradual accumulation of /p/’s in final (‘closing’ de Saussure op.cit, non-aspirated (Ladefoged op cit), minimally forceful position in lines 10-14. The movement of the poem is from increasing
paroxysms of pain, up to a climax and then down to an uneasy annihilation in “sleep,” the last word of the
sonnet. The placing of the two groups of /p/ alliterations,
the strong opening /p/’s at the beginning and the weak closing /p/’s at the end, embody this progression.
So far, I have given instances of Hopkins’ control of his medium, the English language, which anyone willing to read slowly and carefully can find for him- or herself. But I would argue that his capacity to build meaningful linguistic structures in his poem goes well beyond what even the most conscientious reader can pick out. If we look below the level of normal speech-sound repetitions
(rhyme, alliteration, assonance) we will see that
patternings of phonetic/phonological features of the speech sounds in the sonnet also support, even embody, its meaning. Aided by the Pattern-Finder, I will give two simple examples.
The first is the distribution of pre-tonic voiceless
consonants, that is to say, those consonants in the positions
spotlighted by stress (see illustration 1: file Hopkins
C cons-stress voiceless). We can think of voiceless
consonants (speech sounds which are in the minority among
English consonants, and in an even smaller minority if we consider the total number of English speech sounds) as a small—and especially salient because small—number of interruptions to the stream of vocal vibration ocurring as the poet or reader recites the sonnet. These interruptions
will take the form either of small explosions (plosives)
or small frications (fricatives) or something of both
(affricates). We see how noticeable they are in the explosive
first line’s “pitched past pitch of grief,” or the dragging, elongated quality of the tenth line’s “frightful, sheer
no-man-fathomed! Hold them cheap”
There are other things to be said about the function of pretonic voiceless consonants in the sonnet (see, again, illustration 1: file Hopkins C cons-stress voiceless), but here we will focus only on distributional gaps—where they are absent. We note that while there may be as many as five in a line (see frequency counts (leftmost, in red) for lines 2, 5 and 10), there is only one line with a single pre-tonic voiceless consonant, and only one with none at all. Line 4, with no pre-tonic voiceless consonants, is one in which the poet appeals to the Virgin Mary for “relief.” The forcefulness of his expression of distress is softened by the maternal presence which he is addressing; he begs and wails as a small child would. The last line, 14 evokes the dropping away of painful sensation into oblivion; the paroxysms are temporarily quieted. The final thing the poet focuses on is the state of “sleep,” and this is the only word in the line picked out by an initial voiceless consonant.
Another feature-distribution worth mentioning, this one a contrast, is that of the stressed front versus the stressed back vowels in the sonnet. Stressed front vowels very much predominate: they are just over twice as frequent as stressed back vowels (see illustration 2: file Hopkins
V stress front vs stress back). In the literature on
phonetic symbolism, an area in which much work has been
done on symbolic attributions to speech sounds, such as brightness and darkness, largeness and smallness, front vowels have been found to be bright, active, small, sharp and fast, and back vowels, dark, passive, large, dull and slow (see Sapir 1929, Newman 1933, Grammont 1946 among many others). So, given that the sonnet is about suffering, our finding might at first seem counterintuitive. But then we consider that the suffering described is acute (“Pitched past pitch of grief”), and that the consciousness
evoked in the poem is just as intensely pleading for
release (“my cries heave”). Moreover, the form of release
grudgingly granted (“Here! Creep/ Wretch”) is only the temporary one of sleep. Thus, we realize that the sharp, bright, wakeful quality of the front vowels is apt for the evocation of a painful emotional state which is bound to recurr. We see that in line 11 and the beginning of 12, where the largest cluster of back vowels in the poem is found, these dominate for only a minute stretch: “Nor long does our small durance…” but are then taken over by the front vowels again “deal with that steep or deep. Here! Creep/Wretch..” Finally, the last line is the only one without any back vowels: there will be no true
escape into something larger than the suffering self. The consciousness is to be granted only a temporary respite in the “whirlwind.”
This is a preliminary sample of the kind of work one is able to do using the Pattern-Finder. As I said earlier, Hopkins was an accomplished linguist; he is known for two terms, ‘inscape’ and ‘instress’ that suggest the
influence of subliminal awareness on poetic meaning. His concepts would lead us to believe that his poetry is a natural candidate for our approach:“ The word ‘inscape’ (coined by analogy with ‘landscape’) varies in its
implications. But its main meaning is distinctive pattern, the relationship between parts that creates the integrity of the whole, which in turn is different at different times. ‘All the world is full of inscape and chance left free to act falls into an order as well as purpose.’ So there is pattern even in natural accident…No two things, if properly seen, are identical. Individuality is irreplaceable. The key-note
of inscape is therefore not just pattern, but unique
pattern.” (Myitalics) “Instress is the active energy that binds
parts of the inscape of the whole…It is also a faculty of the human mind when it brings things into creative
relationship. It demands an act of pure attention…for ‘the eye and the ear are for the most part shut and instress
cannot come…’ ” (Davies, 1998, quoting Hopkins)
References
Burke, K. (1973) On Musicality in Verse in The
Philosophy of Literary Form, Berkely, CA: University
of California Press
Davies, W, (ed) (1998) Poetry and Prose of Gerard
Manley Hopkins, London, UK: J. M. Dent
Grammont, M. (1946) Traité de Phonétique, Paris:
Delagrave
Ladefoged, P. (1982) A Course in Phonetics, New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich Inc.
Martin, R. B. (1991) Gerard Manley Hopkins: A Very Private Life, London, UK: HarperCollins
Newman, S. (1933) Further experiments in phonetic symbolism, American Journal of Psychology v 45, pp 53-75
Peterson, G.E. and H. L. Barney, (1952) Control methods used in the study of the identification of vowels, Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America v 24 # 2, pp175-184
Sapir, E. (1929) A study in phonetic symbolism, Journal of experimental psychology, v 12, pp 225-239
Saussure, F. de (1959) Course in General Linguistics, New York, NY: The Philosophical Library
Vendler, H (1988) The Music of What Happens,
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.","txt","2","",""
"638","7","White Rabbit: A Vertical Solution for Standoff Markup Encoding and Web - Delivery","1","Below is an extract of a conventional, TEI encoded stanza from an Early Modern ballad by an anonymous author:*
For what we with our flayes coulde get
To kepe our house and seriauntes
That dyd the freers from us fet
And with our soules played the marchantes
And thus they with theyr false warantes
Of our sweate have easelye lyved
That for fatnesse theyre belyes pantes
So greatlye have they us deceaved
This form of XML markup, which imbeds the markup within the artifact itself, will be familiar to most readers. In their 1997 essay, “Hyperlink Semantics for Standoff Markup of Read-Only Documents”, Henry S. Thompson and David McKelvie describe a system of “standoff markup” in which markup data resides in a physically
separate file from that which it describes. Using
a standoff markup system of the type described by Thompson and McKelvie, all of the TEI markup from the above citation would be stored in a separate file from the text itself, relying on a pointer system to describe its relation to the root text:*
The above example uses the order of words in the root text to define inclusionary collections of words that are described by the XML elements in the standoff markup file. It provides the same markup description of the text as the more familiar, traditional example given above, but without intruding into the integrity of the root text file.
As noted by Thompson and McKelvie, one major advantage
of a standoff markup system is that it presents the
condition of possibility for utilizing multiple, overlapping
hierarchies to describe the same root artifact—something that cannot be achieved using a conventional, single-file markup approach. At the Maryland Institute for Technology and the Humanities (MITH, http://www.mith.umd.edu),
we are currently collaborating with the Library of
Congress (LOC, http://www.loc.gov/) to develop a
platform for the encoding and delivery of digital
resources in the LOC’s American Memory collection (http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/) utilizing an interactive, standoff markup system designed specifically to allow multiple, overlapping markup hierarchies, including markup provided by web-users visiting the collection via the American Memory website.
This platform, named White Rabbit, is a vertical standoff markup solution that provides an easy to use Graphical
User Interface (GUI) for editorially controlled base-
document preparation, a collection of web-service
applications that allow users to browse, search, and
retrieve recourses using a standard, HTML web-browser or to retrieve raw XML source for each resource, and, most importantly, provides a web-based interface for users to add their own markup layers to texts in the collection.
On the technical side, White Rabbit functions by tokenizing
raw, ascii textual data at the level of base, lexically
significant units (most often words, but frequently other diacritical and textual elements) and storing an ordered list of tokenized elements in a SQL database. It then
allows users to construct XML using a simple point and click interface and to validate this XML against a DTD. XML “layers,” including those created by resource
consumers visiting the LOCs website, are stored in a
collection of related database tables.
As new markup layers are added to each artifact, resource consumers gain the ability to choose which markup “layers” to apply to the text on delivery. Once a markup layer is chosen, users can then perform advanced XML searching, parsing, and manipulation of artifacts using any web browser. For example, using the example of the Early Modern ballad extracted above, the user could
search within a single or collection of Ballads for all
instances of the occurrence of a particular word or phrase within a refrain only. Using convential markup systems, this type of functionality is available only using specialized XML browsers.
White Rabbit also provides a collection of “hierarchy analysis” tools that allow users to analyze the ways in which multiple markup layers for a given text relate to each other. Using these views, a user can identify filtered
or un-filtered collections of layers and search for statistically
significant patterns of convergence and divergence between multiple markup layers in these collections. Over time, this aspect of White Rabbit’s functionality provides an increasingly valuable bank of data regarding the ways in which a growing collection of users understand both formal and thematic elements of artifacts contained in the collection.
With White Rabbit you can have your cake and eat it too, applying multiple markup strategies to the same text for retrieval and display when determined by particular
scholarly contexts, providing robust analysis of the
patterns in textual structure that emerge through
multiple, overlapping markup layers, and delivering
finely tuned XML parsing and searching of texts to any user with a standard web-browser.
White Rabbit is comprised of a collection of cross-
platform, Java-based client and server applications and applets that communicate with a SQL database. It is an open-source platform specifically designed to be easily exportable to a variety of platforms and uses and will be available for public download in both compiled and source distributions in late 2006.
The proposed paper will present a brief introduction to the concept of standoff markup as described above, an interactive demonstration of the advantages of standoff markup, and, finally, an interactive demonstration of the White Rabbit platform. Detailed information about how to download and implement White Rabbit and/or
participate in open-source project development will also be provided.
* please note that submission of XML examples
above in plain-text was breaking the automated the submission interface. As such, entity references were used to replace certain elements. This will
dramatially decrease the readability of example if abstract is read in plain-text.","txt","2","",""
"639","7","A Mathematical Explanation of Burrows's Delta","1","Introduction
While many methods have been applied to the
problem of automated authorship attribution, John F. Burrows’s “Delta Method” [1] is a particularly simple, yet effective, one [2,3] The goal is to automatically determine, based on a set of known training documents labeled by their authors, who the most likely author is for an unlabeled test document. The Delta method uses the most frequent words in the training corpus as the features that it uses to make these judgments. The Delta measure is defined as:
the mean of the absolute differences between the z-scores for a set of
word-variables in a given text-group
and the z-scores for the same set of
word-variables in a target text [4].
The Delta of the test document is computed with respect
to each of the training documents, and that author whose
training document has minimal Delta with the test
document is chosen for attribution.
While this method is intuitively reasonable, we may still ask: Why does this method work so well? Why z-scores?
Why mean of absolute differences? Perhaps if we
understood the mathematical underpinnings of the method, we could modify it to make it more effective. Furthermore, we would know better when it is applicable and when using it would not make sense.
Hoover has implemented Delta-based attribution as a spreadsheet [5]; we have re-implemented it as Java
program with several options for using different variations,
which we are experimenting with. This program will be made available to the research community once it has reached a stable state.
Probabilistic formulation
This section will briefly show how Burrows’s Delta may be profitably viewed as a method for ranking authorship candidates by their probability. Let X and Y be n-dimensional vectors of the word frequencies in
two documents. Note that the z-score is obtained by subtracting out the mean and dividing out the standard
deviation. Then the Delta measure between these
documents can be reformulated, as shown in Figure 1.
Note that the value of mean[i], the mean frequency of word i, cancels out, with the only effect of the training corpus as a whole being the normalizing factor of std[i], the standard deviation for word i.
Thus, Delta is like a scaled distance between the 2
documents. It is not the ordinary distance “as the
crow flies”, but rather it is the sum of each dimension independently, called the “Manhattan distance”. It is like walking the streets of Manhattan as we stay on the grid.
Note that if we consider the mean of a distribution
in place of Y[i], this has a form similar to a Laplace
probability distribution [6]. Specifically, it is the exponent of the product of independent Laplace distributions. Thus,
we are assuming that the individual document that we are comparing the testing document against is a sort of average document for that author. Taking of the z-score corresponds to the normalization in the exponent. So, in a sense, Delta is measuring the probability of a document being written by an author taking each word frequency independently and then choosing the document with the highest probability.
In effect, that we are using the z-score means that we are estimating the parameters of the Laplace distribution by the sample mean and standard deviation. However,
the maximum likelihood estimator of the Laplace
distribution is the median and the mean absolute deviation
from the median [6]. This gives us our first variation of the Delta measure. Instead of using the z-score, we should use the median and “median deviation”. Whereas the Delta measure gives a distance in a purely abstract
space, this variation provides a well-founded probability.
Now that we know we are looking at a probabilistic model, we can try putting in other distributions. A commonly-used distribution is the Gaussian, or normal, distribution. It is similar to the Laplace distribution except that it uses a sum of squares rather than of absolute values, based on the mean of the mean and standard deviation, hence using the z-score is appropriate here. Note that in this case, we have the “as the crow flies” Euclidean distance instead of the Manhattan distance.
Further, note that the previous measures consider each
dimension independently. In this sense, they are axis-
aligned. This means that the use of each word is assumed to have nothing to do with the use of any other words. Of course, this assumption is false, but may be a reasonable approximation. To take this co-occurrence into account, we can use a rotated method, eigenvalue decomposition. Previously we used the z-score of individual words.
Instead of using the standard deviation, we can generalize
to using the entire covariance matrix. In this, we take the largest magnitude eigenvalues from the covariance matrix and use the corresponding eigenvectors as the features.
Evaluation
We are currently performing empirical tests. To compare these new variants to the original and each other, we will use 3 corpora. First, we will use the data in the spreadsheets from [5] to check that our
implementation is working properly and so we can
directly compare results. The second will be a collection of essays written by students taking a psychology course. There are up to 4 essays by each author. The third will be the 20 newsgroups corpus from http://people.csail.mit.edu/jrennie/20Newsgroups/. These corpora will be split into testing and training such that the training has only
1 or 0 of each author. Having 0 allows for the possibility of
an unknown author. Each of these variations will be run on the corpora and the results of each classification will be split into 5 categories, based on who the attributed author is (lowest Delta candidate), and whether the attribution is considered reliable. This is determined via a threshold on attribution confidence, such that confidences below the threshold are considered “unknown”. To determine the confidence, we use Delta-z, following Hoover [3]. The first type of classification decision, a, is a true
positive, where the correct author is attributed. Next, b is a false positive, where a known author is chosen, but not the correct one. Another false positive is g, where a known author is chosen, but the true author is not in the training. Fourth, d is a false negative, where no author was recognized, but should have been. Finally, e is a true negative, where the true author was not in the training set and was not recognized.
These allow us to calculate the true positive and false positive rate, where:
true positive rate = a/(a+d)
and
false positive rate = (b+g)/(b+g+e)
These values can be used to make a receiver operating
characteristic (ROC) graph (Figure 2), which shows the sensitivity of a method to the signal in the data. It is
trivial to declare everything a negative, which would give 0 to both TP and FP. As you classify more instances as positive, there is more of a risk that an instance classified
as positive is not. An overall measure of a method’s
efficacy can be computed as the area under the ROC curve (AUC); this score will be used for comparison between the methods. AUC measures the trade off between false positives and false negatives, with the baseline at 50% (where the line goes straight from 0,0 to 1,1) and the
best possible value of 1, meaning always getting true
positives with no false positives. In this way, it will allow us to judge and compare how well the different variations work.
Conclusion
We have reformulated Burrows’s Delta method in terms of probability distributions. This allows us to extend the method to use multiple different probability distributions and to interpret the result as a probability. At the conference, we will present results comparing the effectiveness of these variations. More importantly, this work provides a more solid foundation for understanding
Delta. In particular, the probabilistic assumptions that it makes, such as word frequency independence and
that authors have similarly-shaped word-frequency
distributions, are made explicit, allowing us better
understanding of the uses and limitations of the method. For example, it is now clear why the method should only be applied to documents all of the same well-defined text type.Figure 1: Reformulating Burrows’s Delta
as a distance measure.Figure 2: A sample ROC curve. The X-axis is the false positive rate FP, while the Y-axis is the true positive
rate TP. Note that TP increases monotonically with FP,
and that TP=1 once FP=0.4.
References
[1] Burrows, J. F.. (2002a). Delta: a Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. Literary and Linguistic Computing 17, pp. 267--287.
[2] Hoover, D.. (2004b). Delta Prime?. Literary and
Linguistic Computing 19.4, pp. 477--495.
[3] Hoover, D.. (2004a). Testing Burrows’s Delta. Literary and Linguistic Computing 19.4, pp. 453--475.
[4] Burrows, J. F.. (2002). The Englishing of Juvenal: Computational Stylistics and Translated Texts. Style 36, pp. 677--699.
[5] Hoover, D.. (2005). The Delta Spreadsheet. Literary and Linguistic Computing 20.
[6] Higgins, J., Keller-McNulty, S.. (1994). Concepts in Probability and Stochastic Modeling. Duxbury Press, 1 ed..
[7] Juola, P.. (2005). A Prototype for Authorship Attribution Software. Literary and Linguistic Computing 20.","txt","2","",""
"640","7","Annotation en mode collaboratif au service de l'étude de documents anciens dans un contexte numérique","1","Les mutations liées au numérique, nous invitent à revisiter une approche traditionnelle d’édition de textes telle qu’elle est pratiquée dans les sciences
humaines en tant qu’outil de recherche. Notre proposition
s’applique au problème d’édition électronique des
documents judéo-espagnols en écriture hébraïque sur
lesquels des techniques de translittération et transcription sont mises en oeuvre. Nous étudions les possibilités
de construction d’une plate-forme collaborative sur
laquelle les documents pourront être annotés et organisés
en tant que réservoir numérique de référence au service des chercheurs de ce domaine spécifique. Au delà de la description nécessaire à l’identification des documents
(la norme descriptive Dublin Core), notre objectif
est de favoriser l’annotation (sous une forme libre,
complémentaire à la méta-description) des documents enregistrés à des fins d’étude et de discussion. Les
documents sources (sous forme de fichiers images, par exemple) sont transformés par la transcription or
translitteration en documents numériques qui deviennent des outils de recherche. L’annotation (effectuée par le chercheur ou expert du domaine) intervient à la fois pour métadécrire la source et les documents “ dérivés ”
(à des fins d’identification, de localisation des ressources
appartenant au réservoir numérique) mais aussi pour
permettre une mise en discussion (interpréter, commenter,
réfuter, traduire, accepter …).
Un premier travail nous a permis de proposer un modèle
conceptuel définissant la structuration des données
nécessaire à ce double objectif d’identification et
d’annotation (Rouissi, Stulic 2005).
Nous adoptons le point de vue selon lequel la mise en place réussie d’un dispositif socio-technique adapté aux besoins des chercheurs d’une communauté scientifique dépend de la définition pertinente de ces fonctionnalités.
Pour les définir dans ce contexte précis, qui concerne
une communauté scientifique relativement réduite et
géographiquement dispersée, nous avons prévu la réalisation
d’une enquête auprès des chercheurs concernés. Cette enquête a pour objectif de confronter nos hypothèses
initiales (modèle conceptuel de définition des annotations)
avec les pratiques déclarées par les universitaires. Les résultats de l’enquête doivent nous permettre d’identifier
les besoins et les attentes des chercheurs interrogés de
façon à déterminer des pistes de développement et de mise
en place de fonctionnalités adaptées. Il s’agit également de mesurer les niveaux d’intégration des technologies de l’information et de la communication (TIC) dans leurs pratiques actuelles (types d’outils technologiques utilisés, cadre individuel ou collectif, recours à l’annotation sur des documents numériques, participation éventuelles à des environnements collaboratifs …). L’analyse des
réponses se fera à un niveau quantitatif (questions fermées)
et à un niveau qualitatif (analyse de contenu) pour nous permettre de proposer une typologie des pratiques
déclarées et/ou des besoins.
Dans les lignes générales, notre travail s’oriente vers l’élaboration d’une plate-forme accessible en mode
full-web et basée sur des solutions existantes respectant
notamment les principes de l’Open Source. Mais ce sont les fonctionnalités attendues par les membres de la communauté qui vont modeler les choix techniques
concrets.
Nous envisageons un format propriétaire pour le modèle en question, mais pour des raisons de portabilité celui-ci devra permettre des exportations basées sur des formats d’échanges de données. Ces formats doivent s’appuyer sur des schémas largement partagés et respectant une démarche normative comme la Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) pour la structuration des documents ou encore le Dublin Core pour la description des documents de
travail.
La plate-forme devra favoriser l’annotation en mode
collaboratif (avec divers niveaux possibles de participation :
du lecteur à l’éditeur) et organiser la discussion (celle-ci ayant plusieurs buts possibles : de transcrire, de traduire, de commenter, de proposer …) tout en la caractérisant (selon des vocabulaires restant à construire, pas forcément
pris en compte dans les spécifications comme la TEI). Le dispositif final comprendra aussi la construction d’un
corpus documentaire numérique qui sera exploitable grâce à des fonctionnalités de recherche (dans un but d’identification, de sélection…) des documents. Un
futur utilisateur du dispositif pourra dans un premier temps
effectuer une recherche (de type sélection) sur les documents numériques constituant le corpus, puis après sélection
d’un document, consulter la discussion sur celui-ci et
selon son rôle (son profil) il pourra éventuellement
participer en annotant le document et/ou en réagissant à une des annotations existantes. L’utilisateur pourra générer une nouvelle version comportant ses propres annotations
et exporter celle-ci selon les formats et standards (à prévoir
et à implémenter) qui lui seront proposés. Malgré
l’apparente singularité de notre contexte lié au traitement des textes judéo-espagnols, notre réflexion est menée
vers une approche plus large. A terme, notre but est
de construire un environnement numérique qui pourrait être appliqué dans les domaines de recherche avec des
besoins similaires autour de l’organisation de corpus
documentaires à des fins d’étude.
Annotations in Collaborative Mode for Ancient Documents Study in Digital Environment
The development of digital technology make us
revisit the traditionnal approach of text edition as a
research tool such as used in the Humanities. Our proposal applies to the problem of electronic editing of Judeo-Spanish documents in Hebrew characters over which the translitteration and transcription techniques are carried out. We study the possibilities of collaborative platform
construction in which these documents could be
annotated and organized as a reference digital repository for the scholars of this specific domain. Beyond the meta description necessary for the document identification (Dublin Core metadata standard), we aim to promote the annotating of the uploaded documents (in the free form, complementary to the metadescription) for the purpose of study and discussion. The source documents (presented as image files, for instance) are transformed into digital
documents, which become then the research tools. The role of annotation (carried out by a researcher or a domaine
expert) is to convey the metadata information about the source and the “ derived ” documents (for the purpose
of identification and localization of digital repository
resources) and to make possible the discussion over these
documents (to interprete, comment, refuse, accept, translate,
and so forth). In a previous paper we proposed a
conceptual model defining the data structuring necessary to this double purpose of identification and annotation (Rouissi, Stulic 2005).
Our point of view is that the successful setting up of
socio-technical device for the researchers of a particular
scientific field depends on the definition of appropriate functionalities. In order to define them in this context of relatively small and geographically dispersed scientific community, we planned to realise a survey that should confront our initial hypothesis (our conceptual annotation model) with the declared academic practices. The survey
results should allow us to identify the needs and the
expectations of researchers and to determine the direction of project development and the setting up of appropriate
functionalities. It should also measure the level of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) integration in their current activities (the type of
technological tools in use, the individual or collective framework, the use of annotation over digital documents, the participation in collaborative work environments…). The answers will be analysed at the quantitative (closed questions) and the qualitative level (the content analysis) so as to provide a typology of declared practices and/or needs.
In broad lines, our work is oriented towards the elaborating of the full Web platform and is based on the existent open source solutions. But only with the clear definition of the functionalities that are expected by the scientific community members we will be able to model the final technical choices.
We envisage the proprietary format for the model in question, but it should permit the exportation through the standardized formats for data interchange like Text Encoding Initiative for document structuring or Dublin Core for meta description of working documents. The platform should promote the annotating in collaborative mode (with different levels of participation : from reader different purposes : to transcribe, to translate, to comment,
to propose…) by qualifiying it (following the vocabularies
that are still to be defined, not necessarily taken into
account in the specifications such as TEI). The final
platform will include also the documentary corpus
building that will be exploitable thanks to the search functionalities.
The future user will be able to effectuate a search (of
‘selection’ type) among digital documents which constitute
the corpus, and after the document selection, to consult the related discussion and according to his/her profile, he/she will be able to participate by adding the annotation and/or reacting to the annotation previously added by other user(s). The user will be able to generate a new version with his/her own annotations and to export it
following the proposed formats and standards.
Although the context to which we apply our project is very specific, our reflexion is oriented towards a larger approach. Our aim is to construct a digital environment which could be applied to the research domains with similar needs for documentary corpus organisation and work on documents.
References
Rouissi, S. Stulic, A. (2005). Annotation of Documents
for Electronic Edition of Judeo-Spanish Texts:
Problems and Solutions, à paraître dans les Actes de la
conférence Lesser Used Languages and Computer Linguistics, Bolzano, EURAC, 27-28 octobre 2005. Résumé consultable en ligne : http://www.eurac.edu/NR/rdonlyres/9F93F5B9-95F6-44AC-806D-C58FF69AFD27/8812/ConferenceProgramme2.pdf
TEI P5, Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and
Interchange, C.M. Sperberg-McQueen and Lou
Burnard, 2005, Text Encoding Initiative Consortium,
http://www.tei-c.org/
Strings, Texts and Meaning
Manfred THALLER
Universität zu Köln
From a technical point of view, texts are represented in computer systems currently as linear strings of atomic characters, between which no distinction is being made on the technical level. In the markup discussions within the Humanities, this is usually accepted as an
immutable fact of technology.
We propose, that the handling of Humanities texts could be considerably easier, if an engineering model
could be created, which is built upon a more complex understanding of text.
1. Basic model of “text” proposed
For this we start with the proposal to understand a text as a string of codes, each of which represents “meaning” measurable in a number of ways.
More detailed:
Texts – be they cuneiform, hand written or printed –
consist of information carrying tokens. This tokens fall into a number of categories, which are differentiated by the
degrees of certainty with which they can be used in various
operations. The trivial example are ASCII or Unicode
characters. Less trivial are symbolic tokens, like, e.g. the (primitive) string representing the term “chrismon”, a bit map representing a Chrismon (or something similar) etc.
A string made up of such tokens, which represents a
text, can be understood to exist in an n-dimensional
conceptual universe. Such dimensions, which have
different metrics are, e.g.:
• A dimension which has coordinates with only two possible values (“yes”, “no”) which describes, whether a token has an additional visible property, like being underscored.
• Another dimension, which has coordinates on a metric scale, which assigns a colour value, which allows to define similarities.
• Another dimension describing the position of a token like “Chrismon” with a ontology describing the relationships between Chrismons and other
formulaic forms.
• A real number, giving the relative closeness between a bitmap representing a Chrismon and an
idealtypische Chrismon.
If we view such a string from a specific point in the
conceptual space – a.k.a. an individual’s research
position – many of these dimensions tend to collapse
in the same way, as 3 dimensional objects collapse their z-value when represented in two dimensional drawings.
2. Relationship between text, markup and processing
We assume, that string processing, on a very low level of engineering, can be implemented in such a way, that the low level programming tools, which are used today for the generation of programs handle texts, can tackle the implications of this model directly.
This implies, e.g., a low level function, which can
compare two strings “sensitive for differences between included symbolic tokens beyond a specified ontological
distance” or “insensitive for this” very much like
current implementations of low level tools can compare
can compare two strings as “case sensitive” or “case
insensitive”.
While currently all textual phenomena have to be
described with one integrated system of markup,
expressing attributes, which can only be observed on the character level, without necessarily being interpretable on the spot, as well as highly abstract textual structures, the proposed approach would divide textual attributes into two classes: Textual attributes in the more narrow sense, which can be handled as properties of the strings
used to represent the texts and structural (and other
attributes) which are handled by a software system
implying the presence of the underlying capabilities of the low level textual model, while focusing itself upon a class of higher level problems: E.g. a data base operating upon an abstract content model of a drama, relying upon
the handling of page references as well as critical apparatus by the underlying string handling tools.
The later implies that documents will – seen from today’s
perspective – usually be marked up in at least two
concurrent ways. Some implications of that will be
listed.
3. Possibilities of generalizing the basic model.
Our model so far has assumed, that information is handled by strings, i.e. by tokens which form one-dimensional sequences. (Non linear structures are one-dimensional as well in this sense: a path within a graph has a length, measured as the number of nodes through which it passes. It cannot be measured in two
dimensions, as the relative location of the nodes within
a two dimensional drawing is just a property of the
visualization, not the structure itself.)
There is no reason, however, why the notion of meaning
represented by an arrangement of tokens carrying
information should not be generalized to two dimensions
(images), three dimensions (3D objects) or four
dimensions (e.g. 3D representations of historical
buildings over time).
A problem arises, however, when one compares
some operations on one- with the same operations on more-dimensional arrangements of information carrying tokens. A good example is the comparison of “insertion operations” in strings v. the same operation in images.
We conclude by proposing to solve that problem by the notion, that a textual string is a representation of an
underlying meaning with a specific information density,
which usually will transfer only part of the meaning
originally available, just as a digital image represents only part of the visual information available in the
original.
This in turn leads to the notion, that not only the handling of information carrying tokens can be generalized from the one to the more-dimensional case, but the properties of markup languages can as well.
4. Concluding remark
While the generalisation of the model quoted
above is presented in Paris for the first time, the idea of a specilised data type for the representation of Humanities text goes back to the early nineties (Thaller 1992, Thaller 1993). Various intermediate work never has been published, an experimental implementation, focusing on the interaction between texts and databases administering the structure embedded into the text does
exist, however and is used in the production level
system accessible via http://www.ceec.uni-koeln.de (Thaller 2004). More recently a project started at the chair of the author, to implement a datatype “extended string” as a series of MA theses in Humanities Computer Science. The first of these (Neumann 2006) provides a core implementation of the most basic concepts as a class augmenting Qt and fully integrated into that library.
References
Neumann, J. (2006). Ein allgemeiner Datentyp für die implizite Bereitstellung komplexer Texteigenschaften in darauf aufbauender Software. Unpubl. MA thesis, University at Cologne. Accessible via:
http://www.hki.uni-koeln.de/studium/MA/index.html
Thaller, M. (1992). “The Processing of Manuscripts”,
in: Manfred Thaller (Ed.) Images and
Manuscripts in Historical Computing, Scripta
Mercaturae (=Halbgraue Reihe zur Historischen
Fachinformatik A 14).
Thaller, M. (1993). “Historical Information Science: Is there such a Thing? New Comments on an Old Idea”, in: Tito Orlandi (Ed.): Seminario discipline
umanistiche e informatica. Il problema dell’
integrazione (= Contributi Del Centor Linceo
Interdisciplinare ‘Beniamo Segre’ 87).”
Thaller, M. (2004). “Texts,Databases, Kleio: A Note
on the Architecture of Computer Systems for the Humanities”, in: Dino Buzzetti, Giuliano Pancaldi, Harold Short (Eds.): Digital Tools for the History of Ideas (= Office for Humanities Communication
series 17) 2004, 49 - 76.","txt","2","",""
"641","7","Modelling a Digital Text Archive for Theatre Studies -- The Viennese Theatre Corpus","1","The submitted paper gives an overview of the
recently founded project Viennese Theatre
Corpus (VTC), a sub-project within the wide range of work undertaken by the Austrian Academy Corpus
research group at the Austrian Academy of Sciences
in Vienna. In general the presentation will deal with the specific content mark up of theatre-related materials making use of XML and discuss the application of new technologies and the possibilities of advanced research
methods for the complex and unique historical and
socio-political situation of theatre and its language
spoken on stage in Vienna during the 19th century.
Focusing on the Viennese theatre of the 19th century , the playwright Johann Nepomuk Nestroy (1801-1862), is the centre of interest and represents the main starting point for the development of the corpus. Johann Nestroy dominated the commercial stage as actor-dramatist for nearly thirty years in the Austrian theatre of the 19th
century and wrote about 80 plays. Using different
registers of Viennese German ranging from stagy literary German to colloquial Viennese, the work of this supreme comic dramatist is full of allusion, vivid metaphor and cynical criticism. Emphasising linguistic inventiveness
his comedies reflect a deep-rooted discontent with
moral double standards, static and mendacious society, false friendship and unfounded prejudices.
The Historical-Critical Edition of the Collected Plays
of Nestroy, which appeared between 1924 and 1930,
published by Otto Rommel and Fritz Brukner represents
the core text of this theatre corpus. With the aim
to provide a structured overview of the critical and
historical reception of Nestroy’s work and a valuable collection of different registers of language used on the stage of the Viennese popular theatre, a large amount of contemporary dramas from others of the 19th century like Friedrich Kaiser, Carl Elmar, Carl Giugno and Alois Berla will be incorporated. Furthermore historical and socio-economic descriptions, press criticism, texts from the theatre censorship of this period, legal publications and memoirs of famous actors and stage directors offer a well-assorted and wide-ranging collection of different text types.
In its function as a main place for entertainment and
social contact, the theatre was expanding in this period.
In general the Viennese public was used to about
thirty new premieres a year and new plays and new
productions in European capitals like London and Paris led to a very rapid production and exchange of theatre texts. As a consequence, translations and adaptations of English and French plays reached the Austrian capital
very quickly, often in pirated editions. Therefore
Nestroy’s work was highly influenced by the literary
production of other European countries. Works
by Charles Dickens, Eugène Scribe, Paul de Kock,
Dupeuty, Bayard as well as Varin served him as
stimulation or models for his own plays and for this reason the incorporation of a wide selection of Nestroy’s sources from English and French literature is planned.
The challenge for the development of a specific content
mark up due to this diversity of text types and
language resources is one of the main topics of the paper.
The paper will briefly illustrate the annotation system
which is used for the Viennese Theatre Corpus,
discuss the scope of XML for dramatic texts and
illustrate the incorporation of the critical appendix of the printed version of Nestroy’s Collected Plays. Due
to the contradiction between performed speech, the
action on stage and the subsequent publication as printed
text, drama is often structurally complicated. The
paper will address the dominant question how XML and cognate technologies can help to structure a play, to illustrate the underlying dramatic composition and its use as an analytical tool by means of a specific
semantic tagging strategy rather than as a simple
archiving solution.
The VTC, a thematically oriented text corpus, will
provide access to a variety of original source documents and secondary material. In consideration of the special textual and material requirements of theatrical works the paper will finally discuss the potential contribution of this specific corpus of Viennese plays of the 19th century
to scholarly knowledge within the wide range of
philological, historical and literary research domains.","txt","2","",""
"642","7","Textual Iconography of the Quixote: A Data Model for Extending the Single - Faceted Pictorial Space into a Poly - Faceted Semantic Web","1","Since its initiation in 1995, the Cervantes Project has focused on creating a comprehensive on-line
resource centered on the iconic Hispanic author Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616). The project, a collaboration of researchers in Hispanic Studies and Computer Science,
provides bibliographical, biographical, and textual
materials, including an Electronic Variorum Edition based on first editions of Cervantes’ best known work, Don Quixote. Recent additions include an exhibit of bookplates (ex libris) inspired by the Quixote. Soon to be released are a significant collection of illustrations
associated with key Quixote editions (the textual
iconography) and a presentation of the musical aspects and influences of Cervantes’ works. These latter two
collections will be discussed further in this paper.
As our work with the Cervantes Project has evolved, we have become increasingly aware of the need to
develop rich interlinkages between the panoply of resources
collected for and produced by this project [3]. Within the broader scope of the project as a whole, our textual iconography collection offers a fertile ground for exploring the needs of large, interdisciplinary collections, and the
techniques for integrating the resources they contain.
The textual iconography collection (Figure 1) is intended
to facilitate a more complete understanding of the iconic
transformations of the Quixote [5] throughout history
by assembling a digital collection of more than 8,000
illustrations taken from over 400 of the most significant
editions of this seminal book [15]. In the process of
assembling and working with this collection, we have
found traditional approaches to presenting image-based
collections in both print and digital media to be lacking
[12]. While print has long been the dominant media
of scholarly communication, it does not scale well to
projects of this scope [8]. Digital image collections, on
the other hand, are often focused on presenting large
numbers of images and associated metadata but lack
the scholarly commentary and integration with other
textual resources required for scholarly investigations.
Moreover, we have found a need to adopt a rich model
of hypertext, based on automatically-generated links
and multiply-rooted to reflect multiple interpretations of
simultaneous significance.
Figure 1: The textual iconography’s browsing interface allows viewing of the collection
and its metadata. The collection’s editors also have access to maintenance tools. We have aggressively pursued the development of this collection 2 with the intention that it will enable new forms of textual, visual and critical analysis. In particular, it enables scholarly research in two major directions that remain poorly understood despite the incredible amount of scholarly attention devoted to the Quixote. First, the textual iconography of the Quixote is a key resource to help literary scholars better understand its reception and interpretation throughout history—the illustrations acting as a “hand-mirror 3 ” that allows us to see how successive generations of readers, including our own, have literally painted themselves into Cervantes’ story [7]. Second, this collection is an invaluable dataset for art historians enabling them to better explore the tools and techniques employed in the often neglected field of book illustration 4. The illustrations found in the pages of the Quixote trace the evolution of graphic art in modern
printed works, from the first wood cuts of early 17th
century, to the copper engravings, etchings aquatints of the middle and late 17th century and 18th century, to the xilographs and lithographs of the 19th century, and finally the mechanical techniques of the 20th century including
offset printing [10,13,14]. These areas remain poorly
understood, not simply because of a lack of attention, but in large part because traditional approaches do not
adequately support investigations of this nature.
The value of the textual iconography collection is not limited to the scholarly community. Its canonical status
in world literature courses, its iconic nature in Hispanic culture, and the renewed interest awaked by the recent celebrations surrounding the 400th anniversary of its publication, ensure a continued popular interest in the Quixote. The illustrations of the adventures continue to captivate the popular imagination and help to bring
the book alive to millions of readers. By making the
collection available to the public in digital format, we are able to radically increase the resources available to students of the Quixote from all walks of life. Our goal, however, is not simply to provide a large pile of
pictures for students to peruse, but to further enrich their
understanding of both the Quixote and of art history by supplementing the illustrations with commentary about the significance of the images, their relationship to the text, and the artistic achievement of the illustrators and engravers who created them.
To adequately support both the scholarly and popular
communities that will access the collection, it is not
sufficient to merely provide an online catalogue of the illustrations, regardless of the completeness of the
collection or the detail of the metadata. Instead, we
have identified three levels of information required to successfully present these materials:
1. Descriptive metadata: The first level of information
includes factual descriptions of the items it describes.
For our collection, descriptive metadata is provided
for both individual illustrations and the editions in which those illustrations were published. This
information includes the title of the image, its physical size and the size of the page it is printed on, the name of the artist and/or engraver, the style of the image, and the printing technique used.
2. Scholarly commentary: The second level goes beyond simple descriptions of the items in the
collection to provide a critical assessment of those items, their narrative context, and their hermeneutic and aesthetic significance. Within our collection we are developing biographical commentary about artists and engravers and technical and artistic commentary about each individual image.
3. Hypertextual connections: The third level consists
of the information needed to develop dense
hypertextual structures and the tools to effectively navigate them.
A key challenge in constructing collections of this type is developing appropriate strategies for interconnecting the resources being continuously added to the collection.
While most traditional editorial approaches require
editors to carefully edit each resource by hand, this is beyond the scope of our current resources and would greatly limit the size of our collection, the speed with which it could be made available, and the degree of
interlinkages that could be provided.
Accordingly, we are using two strategies for automatically
interlinking digital resources. One approach relies
heavily on the metadata associated with each digital image.
We use this metadata information to automatically
discover relationships between existing and new resources
and then to generate navigational structures based on those relationships. A prototype of this system has been employed internally for use in a project centered on the music in Cervantes’ works [9] (Figure 2). One key
application of this approach allows us to integrate multiple resources, including illustrations, with the textual and narrative structure of the Quixote [2]. To accomplish this we have developed a formal taxonomy of the narrative and thematic elements of the Quixote, which is then used in cataloging each image and can be used for the associated commentary. This allows us to codify the connections
between the illustrations and commentary without requiring
a particular version of the text. The second approach
to interlinking resources we have developed involves elucidating the internal structure of the textual resources in the collection and using that structure to automatically generate navigational links and to inform visualizations
[1]; an approach that generalizes Crane’s [4]. In this
context, we have developed a toolkit to implement this
approach for a collection of historical documents pertaining
to Cervantes and his family.
Figure 2: The display of resources pertaining to Cervantes’ works is automatically constructed from fragmentary entries. Structured links are generated by the system to allow access to a range of resources associated with key phrases. The hypertextual collections created for our purposes
create separately rooted structures over a common set of interlinked elements. For example, in the music collection
referred to above, natural collection roots include the
compositions, the composers of the pieces, the instruments
associated with the pieces, and the texts that refer to the pieces. Each rooted collection includes information
specific to the collection (e.g., biographies of the composers
and musical scores are associated with their respective collections), but ultimately collections are cross-linked
(e.g., between compositions and composers, between
instruments and compositions). The texts provide a unifying
framework that draws the other components together, yet the texts themselves represent a distinct collection. The structures in the textual iconographic collection show
similar relationships, with the added complexity implicit in the three-level categorization of collection information.
In conclusion, by adding detailed scholarly commentary
in addition to descriptive metadata and to providing
sophisticated tools for automatically building a hypertextual
structure into the collection, we are able to provide a new resource that better meets the research needs of scholars
and to assist the general public in understanding and
appreciating the significance both of the Quixote itself, as well as its reception and visual history. Our approach allows the readers of scholarly commentaries more direct access to the primary source materials used to develop and support those commentaries 5 [6,11]. Conversely, it allows individuals focusing on the primary materials
access to secondary scholarly works to better understand
a variety of reading perspectives and to explore and formulate their own interpretations of these unique
materials. Moreover, the nature of the collection and its information relationships has required the addressing of canonical hypertextual structuring issues. Taken as a whole, our collection and hypertextual archive opens previously unavailable opportunities for scholarly study of the Quixote and its unique literary, cultural and iconic status.
Footnotes
1. http://cervantes.tamu.edu/
2. In 2001, the Texas A&M University Cushing Memorial Library began an ongoing effort to assemble a rare book collection comprised of all significant illustrated editions of the Quixote. Currently this collection contains 413 editions in 15 languages: Don Quixote
Illustrated: An Exhibit in Celebration of the 4th
Centenary of the Quixote, 1605-2005. Texas A&M University; Austin: Wind River Press, 2005.
3. John Harthan points out that “book illustration is like a hand-mirror in which one can see reflected great historical events, social changes and the movement of ideas down the centuries” (Harthan, 1981).
4. Indeed, Harthan states that “a history of modern book illustration could almost be written in terms of this perennially popular classic alone” (Harthan, 1981).
5. This echoes our previous work in developing an electronic variorum hyperedition that gives readers access to the primary textual sources used to reach editorial conclusions, thus allowing readers to form their own opinions about which of several variants more likely constitutes the correct text of a disputed passage. http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/cervantes/V2/variorum/index.htm
References
1. Audenaert, Michael Neal. 2005. “Feature
Identification Framework and Applications.” M.S. Thesis, Texas A&M University.
2. Audenaert, N., Furuta, R., Urbina, E., Deng, J., Monroy, C., Sáenz, R., and Careaga, D. (2005)
Integrating Collections at the Cervantes Project. Proceedings of the Joint Conference on Digital
Libraries, JCDL’05, Denver. 287-288.
3. Audenauert, N., Furuta, R., Urbina, E., Deng, J., Monroy, C., Sáenz, R., and Careaga, D. (2005)
Integrating Diverse Research on a Digital Library Focused on a Single Author (Cervantes). Lecture Notes in Computer Science: Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries: 9th ECDL, Vienna. 151-161.
4. Crane, G., Wulfman, C. E., and Smith, D. A. (2001) “Building a Hypertextual Digital Library in the
Humanities: a Case Study on London. Joint
Conference on Digital Libraries, JCDL01, Roanoke. 426-434. 5. Cervantes, Miguel de. Don Quijote de la Mancha. English translation by Edith Grossman (New York: HarperCollins, 2003).
6. Kochumman, R., Monroy, C., Furuta, R., Goenka,
A., Urbina, E., and Melgoza, E. (2001) Towards
an Electronic Variorum Edition of Don Quixote.
Proceedings of the First ACM/IEEE-CS Joint
Conference on Digital Libraries. 444-445.
7. Harthan, J. (1981) The History of the Illustrated Book: the Western Tradition. New York: Thames and Hudson.
8. McGann, J. (1997) The Rationale of Hypertext. In Sutherland, K. (ed.): Electronic Text: Investigations
in Method and Theory. Oxford UP, New York.
19-46.
9. Pastor, J. J. Música y literatura: la senda retórica. Hacia una nueva consideración de la música en
Cervantes.(2005) Doctoral Dissertation, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha.
10. Urbina, E., et al. (2004) “Iconografía textual del Quijote: repaso y nueva aproximación de cara al IV centenario.” Le mappe nascoste di Cervantes. Actas
Coloquio Internacional de la Associazione Cervantina di Venecia (Venice, 2003). Carlos Romero, ed. Treviso: Edizioni Santi Quaranta. 103-114.
11. Urbina, E., General Editor and Director. Electronic variorum edition of the Quixote. Cervantes Project, Texas A&M University. http://cervantes.tamu.edu/V2/variorum/index.htm (accessed November 15, 2005).
12. Urbina, E., Furuta, R., and Smith, S. E. (2005) Visual Knowledge: Textual Iconography of the Quixote, a Hypertextual Archive. Proceedings
Abstracts ACH/ALLC 2005, Association for Computers in the Humanities. University of Victoria (Canada). http://web.uvic.ca/hrd/achallc2005/abstracts.htm (accessed November 15, 2005).
13. Urbina, E. (febrero-marzo 2005) Don Quijote, libro ilustrado. Contrastes (Valencia) 38, Special issue: “Quijote intesdisciplinar”. 37-41.
14. Urbina, E. (2005) Iconografía textual e historia
visual del Quijote. Cervantes y el pensamiento
moderno. José Luis González Quirós and José María Paz Gago, eds. Madrid: Sociedad Estatal de
Conmemoraciones Culturales (in press).
15. Urbina, E. (2005) Visual Knowledge: Textual
Iconography of the Quixote. Don Quixote Illustrated:
Textual Images and Visual Readings. Eduardo Urbina and Jesús G. Maestro, eds. (Biblioteca Cervantes 2). Pontevedra: Mirabel Editorial. 15-38.","txt","2","",""
"643","7","Le livre « Sous la loupe ». Nouvelles métaphores pour nouvelles formes de textualité électronique","1","1. Introduction
Les expériences sur support électronique de Joyce
(1989), Moulthrop (1995), Jackson (1995),
Amerika (1997) ont attiré l’attention sur le potentiel du médium électronique comme médium de création
littéraire. Elles ont également marqué l’avènement d’un nouveau type d’esthétique, s’intéressant principalement
au remplacement éventuel du livre imprimé par le
livre électronique (Bolter, 1991; Landow, 1997; Birkerts, 1994), au dilemme de la fin du livre et du livre sans fin (Douglas, 2000), à la capacité prospective de l’hypertexte (Joyce, 2000) ou de la littérature ergodique (Aarseth,
1997) et à la réconciliation de l’immersion et de
l’interactivité comme idéal artistique de la «littérature basée sur le langage» (Ryan, 2001).
A la différence des interfaces antérieures (tablettes,
rouleaux, codex), l’interface électronique suppose
l’existence de deux types de textes. D’un côté, le texte destiné au lecteur ou écrit par l’auteur, d’un autre côté, le code écrit dans un langage de programmation ou de balisage et déterminant le fonctionnement de l’interface. Cette interaction entre le texte visible et le texte caché,
entre les possibilités d’expression pratiquement
illimitées du langage naturel et les contraintes du langage
de programmation, représenterait un des éléments
centraux dans la production de nouvelles formes
textuelles électroniques. Il s’agit alors d’une dépendance à double sens : les codes existants aident à la création de nouvelles formes textuelles et ces formes inspirent à leur tour le développement de nouveaux types d’encodage de plus en plus souples.
2. Enjeux théoriques et pratiques
D’une perspective théorique, notre projet porte
principalement sur l’interaction littérature - science - technologie numérique, écriture - programmation, visuel - textuel, dans la création de nouvelles formes textuelles sur support électronique. Nous nous intéressons aussi aux implications de cette interaction sur le domaine de la critique littéraire et notamment aux enjeux d’une mise en relation de l’esthétique du médium électronique avec
d’autres champs de la critique contemporaine (close
reading, new historicism, critique génétique) et des sciences cognitives ou de l’information.
Du point de vue pratique, le projet consiste à expérimenter
une nouvelle forme de navigation et d’expression,
exploitable par l’intermédiaire de l’ordinateur. Plus
précisément, il s’agit de la conception d’un nouveau type
d’interface (un éditeur construit dans le langage de
programmation Java et utilisant des textes annotés en XML),
permettant à l’utilisateur d’augmenter ou de diminuer
le degré de détail du texte par une procédure qui
rappelle « l’effet de loupe » et la géométrie des fractales.
La principale caractéristique de ce type de textualité
serait la structuration par niveaux de profondeur,
accessibles par des opérations de zoom-in et zoom-out, le texte de chaque niveau se retrouvant augmenté sur les niveaux subséquents.
Inspirée par la construction fictionnelle de Stephenson
(2000) et par le concept de fractale de Mandelbrot
(1983), notre démarche se propose d’explorer les
nouveaux types de rapports auteur - texte - médium -
lecteur, de personnages, d’intrigue, de stratégie narrative,
de structuration des connaissances ou d’organisation
informationnelle suscités par ce genre de développement
conceptuel et textuel à plusieurs «échelles». De ce point de vue, notre intérêt porte sur les applications possibles de cette forme d’écriture et de lecture «sous la loupe», impliquant un parcours à mi-chemin entre la linéarité et la non-linéarité, entre l’immersion et l’interactivité,
caractéristiques habituellement reliées par les théoriciens
du médium électronique au livre imprimé et respectivement
à l’hypertexte. Dans ce qui suit, nous reprenons
brièvement quelques exemples.
3. Applications possibles
Une première application aurait comme point de départ le concept de close reading, une méthode d’analyse qui examine, à partir d’extraits de texte, le
style, les nuances de tons, les stratégies rhétoriques,
les hypothèses de nature philosophique ou socio-
linguistique (Gallagher et Greenblatt, 2000), et le
concept de new historicism, une approche qui met en
lumière certains aspects d’une oeuvre, en essayant de
reconstruire son contexte culturel et historique (Greenblatt,
2004). Ce que l’éditeur « sous la loupe » permettrait dans ce cas, est une sorte de fusion du texte avec l’analyse
historique ou littéraire, développée sur plusieurs niveaux de détails. Par un procédé d’expansion à différentes
échelles, on pourrait passer ainsi graduellement du
texte littéraire au contexte historique et culturel qui l’a engendré ou imaginer l’outil comme un instrument
d’annotation, faisant fusionner le texte, les commentaires
critiques et les notes marginales, dans un processus
complexe qui rejoint la lecture, la relecture et l’écriture.
Une deuxième application concernerait le domaine de la critique génétique qui s’intéresse aux mécanismes
de production textuelle, aux secrets de l’atelier, du
laboratoire d’écriture (Grésillon, 1994) et aux rapports existant entre l’écriture et son contexte culturel, entre l’acte de lecture et l’écriture en «train de se faire» (D’Iorio et Ferrer, 2001). De ce point de vue, une analyse «sous la loupe» impliquerait une organisation par niveaux, reliant la forme définitive, les différentes variantes manuscrites,
jusqu’aux premiers plans esquissant l’idée de départ du texte. Ce mode d’organisation textuelle mettrait en
évidence, de manière graduelle, les hésitations et la
dynamique de l’écriture ou les éventuelles traces des
lectures antérieures au texte.
Un troisième type d’application viserait l’expérimentation de différentes formes d’expression littéraire. On pourrait imaginer, par exemple, un texte auto-reflexif, qui décrive, par une accumulation graduelle de détails, le processus
de sa propre création, en retraçant à rebours le trajet de la lecture à l’écriture, de l’expérience vécue à l’expression
verbale, et où l’immersion par degrés de profondeur fasse partie de la stratégie narrative. D’autres approches pourraient concerner le développement des personnages dans un texte littéraire. Greenblatt (2004) suggère que, dans Venus and Adonis, Shakespeare utilise une technique
de rapprochement et d’éloignement du lecteur par
rapport aux personnages, en augmentant ou en diminuant le degré de «proximité physique ou émotionnelle». D’un autre côté, Alan Palmer (2003) fait référence au terme de «narration behavioriste» définie comme une narration objective, focalisée sur le comportement des personnages,
donc plutôt sur les actions que sur les pensés et
sentiments. Pourrait-on imaginer par conséquent une forme narrative permettant une alternance de proximité
et de distance par rapport aux protagonistes ou qui, à
partir d’une approche béhavioriste, sonde graduellement, les profondeurs psychologiques des personnages ?
D’autres applications du modèle pourraient viser : le domaine pédagogique (structuration des connaissances par degrés de complexité, de l’intuitif vers l’abstrait) ; la construction des dictionnaires ou des encyclopédies
(comme collections d’articles « extensibles » adressés
à une large catégorie de lecteurs) ; les sciences de
l’information (systèmes permettant des réponses par
degrés de précision aux interrogations-utilisateur), etc.
4. Conclusion
Bien sûr, il ne s’agit pas de dresser une liste exhaustive
des applications du modèle, mais de signaler quelques hypothèses d’étude. Le but de notre présentation serait ainsi une reconsidération de « l’effet de loupe » et de la géométrie des fractales en tant que métaphores pour une nouvelle forme de textualité électronique mettant en lumière certains aspects de la dialectique texte / analyse
textuelle ou historique, expression écrite / idée ou
expérience vécue, essentiel / détail, intuitif / abstrait,
précis / vague, dans la production et l’interprétation du texte ou de l’information en général.
The Book “under the Magnifying Glass”. New Metaphors for New Forms of Electronic Textuality
1. Introduction
The recent experiments on digital support of Joyce (1989), Moulthrop (1995), Jackson (1995) or
Amerika (1997) have drawn attention to the potential of the electronic medium as a medium for literary creation.
The emergence of the electronic literature has also determined the coming out of a new form of aesthetics
mainly concerning the possible replacement of the
printed book by its electronic counterpart (Bolter, 1991; Landow, 1997; Birkerts, 1994), the dilemma of the end of book versus the book without end (Douglas, 2000), the prospective capacity of the hypertext (Joyce, 2000) or of the ergodic literature (Aarseth, 1997), and the
reconciliation of immersion and interactivity as a “model
for purely language-based literature” (Ryan, 2001).
Unlike the previous interfaces (tablets, roll, codex), the electronic interface supposes the existence of two types of texts: on the one hand, the text intended to be read and on the other, the code written in a programming or markup language, and determining the performances of the interface. This interaction between the visible and the hidden text, between the huge potential of expression of the natural language and the constraints of the programming language, represents one of the central elements in the production of new forms of electronic textuality. This kind of dependence implies a double sense relationship:
the code supports the creation of new textual forms
and these forms can inspire new types of encoding,
increasingly flexible.
2. Theoretical and practical assumptions
From a theoretical point of view our project deals with the relationship literature – science – digital technology, writing - programming, visual – textual, in the creation of new forms of electronic textuality. We are
also interested in the implications of this kind of interaction upon the domain of literary criticism and especially in the possible relationships between the aesthetics of the electronic medium and other fields of the contemporary
criticism (close reading, new historicism, genetic
criticism), or of the information and cognitive sciences.
The present study consists in an experimental approach dealing with the unexplored possibilities of the electronic support as a medium for textual investigation. Its goal is the construction of a new type of interface (an editor written in Java programming language and using XML
annotated texts) allowing the writer and the reader to
increase or decrease the degree of detail of the text, by a procedure evoking the “magnifying glass effect” and
the fractals geometry. Inspired by the fictional construction
of Stephenson (2000) and by the fractal theory of
Mandelbrot (1983), this new kind of textuality would be a layout on levels of “depth”, accessible by operations of zoom-in and zoom-out, the text of the most abridged level being reproduced and appropriately augmented on the subsequent, deeper levels. The study deals with the new types of relationship author – text – medium – reader,
characters, plot, narrative strategy or knowledge
organization determined by this form of “scalable” textual and conceptual structure. The main question addressed by the study would be therefore related to the possible applications of this form of electronic text intended to be written and explored “under the magnifying glass”, and implying a halfway between linearity and non-linearity, immersion and interactivity, features usually associated with the printed book and respectively with the hypertext.
3. Possible Applications
The first application would be related to the concepts of close reading, a method using short excerpts from a text and carefully examining its style, rhetorical strategies, philosophical and sociological assumptions (Gallagher and Greenblatt, 2000), and of new historicism, an approach bringing to light some aspects of a literary work by trying to reconstruct its historical and cultural context (Greenblatt, 2004). The use of the magnifying glass editor would therefore allow a sort of fusion of the text with the literary or historical analysis, developed on several levels of detail. We could thus imagine the editor as a tool relating, at different “scales”, the literary text with the historical and cultural context having produced it, or with the critical commentaries and marginal notes, in a complex process of reading, re-reading and writing.
The second type of application would concern the field of genetic criticism interested in the dynamics of the
process of writing (Grésillon, 1994), and in the intertextual
dimension and reading/writing dialectics of the “work in progress” (D’Iorio and Ferrer, 2001). From this point of view, an analysis “under the magnifying glass” would imply a layout on levels relating the definitive form, through different variants, to the first plan sketching the idea of the text. This layout could therefore facilitate the understanding of the gradual dynamics of the act of
writing or the recognition of the eventual traces of
previous readings. Another type of application may
concern the narrative strategies. We can imagine, for
instance, a sort of auto-reflexive text, conceived as a set of reflections on the act of writing and trying to retrace by details accumulation the path backwards from writing to reading, from verbal expression to life experience, and involving different “degrees of immersion” as part of the storytelling.
Other approaches could be related to the development of the characters in a literary text. Greenblatt (2004)
suggests that in Venus and Adonis, Shakespeare uses a technique of approaching or distancing the reader from the characters, by increasing or decreasing his “physical
and emotional proximity”. On the other hand, Alan
Palmer (2003) discusses the term of “behaviorist narrative”
defined as an objective narrative focalized on the
characters’ behavior, i.e. on their actions rather than on their feelings and thoughts. Could we therefore imagine
a narrative allowing an alternation of proximity and
distance or starting with a behaviorist approach and
gradually investigating the psychological depths of the characters?
Other applications of the model could include: the
cognitive and pedagogic domain (knowledge organization
on levels of complexity, from intuitive to abstract
descriptions); the construction of dictionaries and
encyclopedias (as collections of expanding articles
intended to larger categories of readers); the domain of information science (systems providing several degrees of precision in response to users’ queries), etc.
4. Conclusion
Of course, there is not an exhaustive list of possible
applications, but rather some directions of study. Our presentation will concern the reconsideration of the
“magnifying glass” and fractal geometry as metaphors for a new form of electronic textuality, drawing attention to some aspects of the dialectics: text / textual or historical
analysis, written expression / idea or life experience,
essential / detail, intuitive / abstract, precision / vagueness, in textual production and interpretation.
References
Aarseth, E.J. (1997). Cybertext. Perspectives on Ergodic Literature. Baltimore, London: The John Hopkins
University Press.
Amerika, M. (1997). Grammatron. http://www.
grammatron.com.
Birkerts, S. (1994). The Gutenberg Elegies. The Fate of Reading in an Electronic Age. London, Boston:
Faber and Faber.
Bolter, J.D. (1991). Writing Space. The Computer,
Hypertext, and the History of Writing. New Jersey :
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers Hillsdale.
D’Iorio P., Ferrer D. (2001). Bibliothèques d’écrivains. Paris: CNRS Editions.
Douglas, J.Y. (2000). The End of Books – Or Books without End? Reading Interactive Narratives. Michigan: Ann Arbor, The Univerity of Michigan Press.
Gallagher C., Greenblatt S. (2000). Practicing New Historicism. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
Greenblatt, S. (2004). Will in the World. How Shakespeare became Shakespeare. New York – London: W.W. Norton & Company.
Grésillon, A. (1994). Eléments de critique génétique.
Lire les manuscrits modernes. Paris: Presses
Universitaires de France.
Jackson, S. (1995). Patchwork Girl by Mary/Shelley and herself. Watertown, MA: Eastgate Systems,
http://www.eastgate.com/catalog/PatchworkGirl.html.
Joyce, M. (1989). Afternoon, a story. Riverrun, Eastgate Systems, http://www.eastgate.com/catalog/Afternoon.html.
Joyce, M. (2000). Othermindedness. The Emergence of Network Culture. Michigan: Ann Arbor, The
University of Michigan Press.
Landow, G.P. (1997). Hypertext 2.0. The Convergence of Contemporary Chritical Theory and Technology. Baltimore, London: The John Hopkins University Press.
Mandelbrot, B. (1983). The Fractal Geometry of
Nature. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Moulthrop, S. (1995). Victory Garden. Eastgate
Systems, http://www.eastgate.com/VG/VGStart.html.
Palmer, A. (2003). The Mind Beyond de Skin. In Narrative Theory and the Cognitive Sciences. Edited by David Herman. Stanford, California: CSLI Publications.
Ryan, M.L. (2001). Narrative as Virtual Reality. Immersion
and Interactivity in Literature and Electronic
Media. Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press.
Stephenson, N. (2000). The Diamond Age or A Young Lady’s Illustrated Primer. New York: A Bantum Spectra Book.","txt","2","",""
"644","7","If You Build It Will They Come? The Lairah Study: Quantifying the Use Of Online Resources in the Arts and Humanities Through Statistical Analysis of User Log Data","1","The LAIRAH (Log Analysis of Internet Resources in the Arts and Humanities) project aims to determine
whether, how and why digital resources in the humanities are used, and what factors might make them usable and sustainable in future. Based at UCL and funded by the UK Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) ICT Strategy scheme, LAIRAH is a year long study which will analyse patterns of usage of online resources through real time server log analysis: the data internet servers collect automatically about individual users. This paper will discuss the findings of our research to date, and the techniques of log analysis as applied to major digital
humanities projects. In doing so, we address concerns about the use, maintenance and future viability of digital humanities projects, and aim to identify the means to which an online project may become successful.
Context
Hundreds of projects have been funded to produce digital resources for the humanities. In the UK alone, over 300 of them have been funded by the AHRC since 1998. While some are well known, others have been relatively quickly forgotten, indicating financial
and intellectual wastage. Little is known of user
centred factors determining usage. (Warwick, 1999) The
aim of the LAIRAH study (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/slais LAIRAH/) is to discover what influences the long-term
sustainability and use of digital resources in the humanities through the analysis and evaluation of real-time use. We are utilising deep log analysis techniques to provide
comprehensive, qualitative, and robust indicators of
digital resource effectiveness. The results of this research
should increase understanding of usage patterns of digital humanities resources; aid in the selection of projects for future funding, and enable us to develop evaluator measures for new projects.
Technical problems that can lead to non-use of digital projects are relatively well understood.(Ross and Gow, 1999) However, evidence of actual use of projects is anecdotal; no systematic survey has been undertaken, and the characteristics of a project that might predispose it for sustained use have never been studied. For example,
does the presence in an academic department of the
resource creator, or enthusiast who promotes the use of digital resources, ensure continued use? Do projects in certain subject areas tend to be especially widely used?
Are certain types of material, for example text or
images, more popular? Is a project more likely to be used if it consulted with the user community during its design phase? An understanding of usage patterns through log data may also improve use and visibility of projects.
Project aims and objectives
This project is a collaboration between two research centres at UCL SLAIS: CIBER (The Centre for Information Behaviour and the Evaluation of Research),
(http://www.ucl.ac.uk/ciber) and the newly created
CIRCAh (The Cultural Informatics Research Centre for the Arts and Humanities) (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/slais/
circah/). CIBER members are leading researchers in the use of deep log analysis techniques for the evaluation of online resources. (Huntington et al. 2003) Their strong record in user site evaluation in the health, media and scholarly publishing sectors is now being applied to the arts and humanities. We believe that no one has undertaken log analysis work in this sector: the LAIRAH project therefore offers great opportunities for knowledge and technology transfer.
The LAIRAH project is analysing raw server transactions of online digital resources (which automatically record web site use) and will relate these to demographic user data to provide a comprehensive and robust picture of resource effectiveness. CIBER have developed robust, key metrics and concepts such as site penetration (number of views
made in a session), returnees (site loyalty), digital
visibility (impact of positioning on usage), search success
(search term use and the number of searches conducted) and micro-mining (mapping individual tracks through
websites) in order to understand usage in the digital
environment and relate this to outcomes and impacts. (Nicholas et al., 2005) By applying this knowledge in the LAIRAH project, we are bringing quantitative and robust analysis techniques to digital resources in the Arts and Humanities.
Methods
Phase 1: Log analysis
The first phase of the project is the deep log analysis. Transaction and search log files have been provided by the three online archives supported by AHRC: the AHDS Arts and Humanities Collection (http://www.ahds.ac.uk/); Humbul Humanities Hub (http://www.humbul.ac.uk/) and the Artifact database for the creative and
performing arts (http://www.artifact.ac.uk/), (Humbul and
Artifact merged at the end of 2005). This provides rich data for comparing metrics between subject and resource
type. The search logs show patterns of which resources users are interested in, and in the case of the AHDS (which provides links through to resources themselves), which ones users go on to actually visit. This project is of limited duration, thus we are not able to analyse logs from individual projects at this stage of funding, given the difficulty of accessing log data from projects which may have limited technical support.
We are analysing a minimum of a year’s worth of
transaction log data (a record of web page use automatically
collected by servers) from each resource. This data gives a relatively accurate picture of actual usage, is seamless, and is easily available, providing: user information on the words searched on (search logs), the pages viewed (user logs), the web site that the user has come from (referrer logs), and basic, but anonymous, user identification tags, time, and date stamps. (Huntington et al., 2002) We have also designed short online questionnaires, covering user characteristics and perceived outcomes, which will be matched to actual search and usage patterns. We are also sharing the results of these and the log data analysis with another project, also funded under the AHRC ICT scheme,
(http://www.ahrbict.rdg.ac.uk/) the RePAH project
(User Requirements analysis for Portals in the Arts and Humanities http://repah.dmu.ac.uk/), based at De Montfort
and Sheffield universities. This project is studying the use of Portal sites in the arts and humanities, and is
testing new prototype portal designs, including applications
such as personalisation functions used on commercial
portals, to determine whether they are appropriate for
humanities users.
As part of the initial phase of the project, we have also carried out a study to determine how humanities users find digital resources and portal sites, when beginning their search from their university library or faculty web pages. This study is described in a separate poster
proposal.
Phase 2: Case Studies
Through the above log analysis, we have identified ten projects that have high and low patterns of use across different subject areas and types of content and these are being studied in depth. Project leaders and
researchers are being interviewed about project development, aims, objectives, and their knowledge of subsequent usage. Each project is analysed according to its content, structure, and design and whether it has undertaken any outreach or publicity. We are seeking to discover whether projects have undertaken user surveys, and if so how they responded to them and whether they undertook any
collaboration with similar projects. We are also asking about technical advice that the project received, whether from institutional support people, from Humanities
Computing Centres or from central bodies like the AHDS.
All these measures are intended to determine whether there are any characteristics which projects which continue to be used may share. For example does good technical
advice predispose a project to be usable or might contact with potential users prove as important? We shall also interview a small sample of users of each resource about their opinions about the reasons why it is useful for their work. This aspect of the project will be collaborative with another CIRCAh project, which is studying the reaction of humanities users to digital projects: the UCIS project.
We nevertheless recognise that it is also important to
study projects that are neglected or underused. We are therefore running a workshop with the AHRC ICT Methods Network to study the possibility of the reuse of neglected resources. A small group of humanities users will be given an opportunity for hands on investigation of a small number of resources and there will be time for discussion of factors that might encourage or deter their future use. We will seek to find out whether their lack of use is simply because users had not heard of a given resource, are whether there are more fundamental
problems of design or content that would make the resource
unsuitable for academic work.
Findings
Collecting the log data has proved to be an
unexpectedly difficult process. This in itself is
noteworthy, since it indicates that levels of technical
support even for large, government supported portals could still be increased. The situation for individual
projects is likely to be even more problematic, and suggests
that the issue of long term maintenance and support is one
that institutions and funding councils must take more
seriously.
We are currently beginning to analyse data, and, by July, we will be in the final quarter of the project. We will
therefore be able to report on the results of both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the study. These should prove valuable to anyone at the conference who is currently running or planning to run a future digital resource for the humanities. Like all other matters in the humanities, building a digital resource which is successful in term of attracting and keeping users is not an exact
science. We do not mean to limit the creativity of
culture developers by suggesting the application of a rigid list of features to which all future projects must conform. Nevertheless, since resource creators spend such large amounts of precious time, effort and money on making their project a reality, they must surely be keen to see it used rather than forgotten. We aim to suggest factors which may predispose a resource to continued success, in terms of users: a topic of interest to project designers, project funders and users alike.
Acknowledgement
The LAIRAH project is funded by the AHRC ICT Strategy scheme. References
Huntington P, Nicholas D, Williams, P. (2003)
‘Characterising and profiling health web users and site types: going beyond hits’. Aslib Proceedings 55 (5/6): 277-289
Huntington P, Nicholas D, Williams P, Gunter B. (2002) ‘Characterising the health information
consumer: an examination of the health information
sources used by digital television users’. Libri 52 (1): 16-27
Nicholas D, Huntington P, and Watkinson A. (2005) ‘Scholarly journal usage: the results of a deep log analysis.’ Journal of Documentation 61 (2): 248 – 280.
Ross, S., and Gow, A. (1999) Digital Archaeology,
Rescuing neglected and damaged data resources. HATII,
University of Glasgow. Online http://www.hatii.arts.gla.ac.uk/research/BrLibrary/rosgowrt.pdf
Warwick, C. (1999) ‘English Literature, electronic text and computer analysis: an unlikely combination?’ Paper presented at The Association for Computers and the Humanities- Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing, Conference, University of Virginia, June 9-13.","txt","2","",""
"645","7","Code, Comments and Consistency, a Case Study of the Problems of Reuse of Encoded Texts","1","Introduction
It has long been an article of faith in computing that when a resource, a program or code is being created, it ought to be documented. (Raskin, 2005) It is also an article of faith in humanities computing that the markup should be non-platform-specific (e.g. SGML or XML). One important reason for both practices is to make reuse of resources easier, especially when the user may have no knowledge of or access to the original resource creator. (Morrison et al, nd, chapter 4)
However, our paper describes the problems that may emerge when such good practice is not followed. Through a case study of our experience on the UCIS project, we demonstrate why documentation, commenting code and the accurate use of SGML and XML markup are vital if there is to be realistic hope of reusing digital resources.
Background to the Project
The UCIS project (www.uclic.ucl.ac.uk/annb/DLUsability/UCIS) is studying the way that humanities researchers interact with digital library environments We aim to find out how the contents and interface of such collections affect the way that humanities scholars use them, and what factors inhibit their use. (Warwick, et al., 2005) An early work-package of the project was to build a digital text collection for humanities users, delivered via the Greenstone digital library system. We chose to use texts from the Oxford Text Archive, (OTA) because this substantial collection is freely available and contains at least basic levels of XML markup. However this task
was to prove unexpectedly difficult, for reasons that
extend beyond the particular concerns of UCIS.
Findings
On examination of a sample of the files, we found that although they appeared to be in well formed XML, there were many inconsistencies in the markup.
These inconsistencies often arise from the electronic history of the documents. The markup of older (Early and Middle) English texts is complex, and many of the
problems stem from succeeding revisions to the underlying content. One common early standard was Cocoa markup, and many of the documents still contain Cocoa tags which meant that the files would not parse as XML.
In Cocoa, the (human) encoder can provide tags that
indicate parts of the original document, their form and clarity.
These tags were retained in their original Cocoa
form which was mistaken for potential TEI tags by the processing software. Many characters found in earlier
English were encoded using idiosyncratic forms where modern (Unicode or SGML Entity) alternatives now exist.
The earlier, Cocoa, form may render the modern electronic encoding unparsable in either XML or SGML.
Another problem with Cocoa markup is that it was
never fully standardised, and tags are often created or used
idiosyncratically. (Lancashire, 1996) This complicates a number of potential technical solutions (e.g. the use of XML namespaces). Some content included unique tags such as “<Cynniges>”: not part of any acknowledged
hybrid of the original standard. The nature of this is unclear.
It may be an original part of the text, (words actually
surrounded by ‘<’ and ‘>’), a Cocoa tag, or a TEI/SGML/XML
tag. The distinction of forms known to a modern TEI/XML
document is straightforward; the distinction between
Cocoa and SGML/XML is not possible in this context.
Even parts of the same document used the same tag
inconsistently. For example, distances (e.g. “ten lines of space”) may be rendered in numeric form (‘10 lines’) or textual form ‘ten lines’) and distance units may be given in full or abbreviated.
One common character notation was ‘&&’ to represent the ‘Thorn’ character (in upper case) and ‘&’ to represent the same character in lower case. This was interpreted
as a SGML/XML entity, but parsers were unable to
successfully interpret the original scheme. Furthermore, as the SGML/XML format was used in other parts of the document, even a bespoke parser could not successfully
disambiguate the intention of every occurrence of the ‘&’ character. Thus, content is effectively lost. Other characters remain in forms such as ‘%’ for ‘&’ or ‘and’ –because of the original special use of ‘&’. Such
characters thus remain unintelligible to an SGML or XML
document reader. Given these complications, it is often impossible for a computer to determine the proper form of the document without human intervention, making automatic processing and indexation impossible.
As Giordano (1995) argues, ‘No text encoded for
electronic interpretation is identifiable or usable unless it is accompanied by documentation’. Yet in none of these cases did we find that markup decisions had been
documented, nor was the code commented. The OTA
supplied each file with a TEI header, which provides some basic metadata about its creation. However, the header was intended to act as the kind of metadata that aids in resource discovery, rather as code books were used to find a specific social science dataset on a magnetic tape. The <encodingdesc> element is not mandatory, and was intended to explicate transcription practices rather
than detailed markup decisions. (Giordano, 1995) We certainly did not find any examples of attempts to
elucidate markup schemes in the headers. Documentation
was also not available for any of the files we looked at. Though the OTA strongly encourage depositors to document their work, they do not mention markup specifications as an element of basic documentation, so even documented files might not have provided the information we needed. (Popham, 1998). We were therefore forced to attempt to reconstruct decisions made from visual examination of each file.
Despite the help of the OTA with cleaning up the data, the task proved so large that we had to abandon the use of these files. We have therefore used commercially produced resources, with the permission of Chadwyck Healey limited. The advantage of using their material for our project was that the markup is consistent, has been documented and conforms to written specifications.
Conclusions
It is to be hoped that simply by drawing attention to some of the problems that may occur in reuse, our work will cause resource creators to take seriously the importance of documentation and consistency. We have reported a case study of one UK-based repository, but since the OTA is one of the most reputable sources of good quality electronic text in the world, our findings should be of interest to the creators and users of other electronic texts well beyond this particular example. Not all electronic texts are of such high quality, nor are they
always collected by an archive, and so such considerations become even more important when texts are made available
by single institutions such as libraries, university
departments or even individual scholars.
One of the objectives of the Arts and Humanities Data Service (the organisation of which the OTA is a part) since its foundation has been to encourage the reuse of digital resources in humanities scholarship. Yet our
experience has shown that the lack of consistency and documentation has made this task almost impossible. The advantage of markup schemes such as XML should be that data is easily portable and reusable irrespective of the platform within which it is used. Yet the idiosyncratic uses of markup that we found have almost negated this advantage.
The creators of the resources probably thought only of their own needs as researchers and were happy with markup that made sense to them. It is still common for projects that use TEI to create their own extensions,
without necessarily documenting them. Unlike computer
scientists, whose collaborative research practices make them aware of the importance of adhering to standards and conventions that make their code comprehensible, humanities scholars are rewarded for originality, and tend to work alone. Research paradigms do not oblige scholars to think about how their work might be reused,
their data tested, or their resource used to further
research collaboration. One recommendation that follows
from our work is that humanities scholars should at least take advice from, and ideally collaborate with, computer scientists or technical specialists, whose collaborative research practices make them aware of the importance of adhering to standards and conventions that make their code comprehensible.
This might not matter if the creators of a resource are its only users, but given the intellectual and monetary cost of resource creation, their authors ought at least to
be aware of the possible implications of applying
idiosyncratic markup without comments or documentation. This paper provides the evidence of just such consequences.
References
Giordano, R. (1995) ‘The TEI Header and the
Documentation of Electronic Texts.’ Computers and the Humanities, 29 (1): 75-84.
Lancashire, I. (1996) Bilingual Dictionaries in an
English Renaissance Knowledge Base. Section 3.
Computers in the Humanities Working Papers.
University of Toronto. Available at http://www.chass.
utoronto.ca/epc/chwp/lancash1/lan1_3.htm
Morrison, A. Popham, M and Wikander, K. (no date) Creating and Documenting Electronic Texts: Guide to Good Practice, AHDS publications. Available at http://ota.ahds.ac.uk/documents/creating/
Popham, M. (1998) Oxford Text Archive Collections
Policy - Version 1.1, AHDS Publications. Available
at http://ota.ahds.ac.uk/publications/ID_AHDS-
Publications-Collections-Policy.html
Raskin, J. (2005) ‘Comments are more important than code’. Queue 3 (2): 64-66.
Warwick, C., Blandford, A., Buchanan, G. &
Rimmer, J. (2005) ‘User Centred Interactive Search in the Humanities.’ Proceedings of 5th ACM/IEEE-CS joint conference on Digital libraries. New York: ACM press. p. 400.","txt","2","",""
"646","7","The Three - Dimensionalisation of Giotto's 13th - Century Assisi Fresco: Exorcism of the Demons at Arezzo","1","Giotto’s Fresco
Giotto’s thirteenth-century fresco Exorcism of the
Demons at Arezzo in the Church of San Francesco in Assisi is often referred to as marking the transition from the flattened medieval Byzantine ritualised image to the more spatially realistic perspectives of the Renaissance proper (Damisch, 1994; Edgerton, 1991; Gombrich, 2000; Kemp, 1990; Kubovy, 1989; Panofsky, 1991) (see figure 1). His achievements were recognised by his contemporaries such as Dante and Cennini, and his teacher Cimabue. He had a profound influence on Florentine painting in general and inspired the generation of artists that followed such as
Masaccio and Michelangelo. In this, the tenth panel of a
series of twenty eight frescos, we see an awkward
(by modern standards) attempt to depict depth on a two-dimensional surface. His frescos attempted to illustrate the natural world with depth cues such as receding lines and chiaroscuro shading techniques. He also broke with the tradition of strictly depicting size relationships between people in a scene according to their hegemonic hierarchy.
Instead, Giotto illustrated a spatial hierarchy between
objects in a scene – including people. On the left we see the cathedral of San Donato (now the Diocesan Museum) with St Francis and Brother Sylvester attempting to drive out the demons aloft over the city, to the right of the fresco.
The cathedral has been constructed with lines receding to the left suggesting distance. This is incongruous,
however, with the city buildings to the right which have their diminishing lines marching to the right (see figure 2). Hence, as a complete composition, it does not portray the truly unified perspectival space we are more accustomed to that came later in the Renaissance. Nevertheless, in his clumsy way Giotto had established a sense of depth in his paintings which would have been just as profound to the uninitiated as any photograph we could produce of the scene today.
Figure 1. Giotto’s thirteenth-century fresco Exorcism
of the Demons at Arezzo in the Church
of San Francesco in Assisi (KFKI, 2004).
Was Giotto’s depiction of depth really that clumsy
though? Perhaps by today’s mathematically precise
algorithmic computer-generated perspectives it is. Or, perhaps Giotto was not attempting to depict a realistic scene, as much as later Renaissance paintings would, but simply hinting at the spatial arrangements of the city of Arezzo, the cathedral and surrounding countryside? The city of Arezzo depicted in Giotto’s fresco dates back to the sixth century BC. At the time, the city was situated on the top of the Donato Hill where we can now find the Prato Gardens and the fifteenth-century Medici Fortress.
Between the Cathedral and the Fortress was a vast
natural depression. The cavity has since been filled in
to construct the Prato Gardens. Many of the original
features are present in his fresco. Figure 2. Spatial analysis of Giotto’s fresco.
The Three-Dimensionalisation of Giotto’s Fresco
To determine how accurate, or rather what are the
spatial interrelationships between the various
buildings and landscape depicted in his fresco, the author of this paper embarked upon its three-dimensionalisation.
In the spirit of the endeavour that Giotto himself took, I worked directly from an image of the fresco meticulously
reconstructing each individual element in it. In an
architectural sense, one would normally work from plans and project the three-dimensional volumes over them. In this case, there are no plans, so a different strategy had to be found. Working as Giotto himself may have done, the method adopted was based on one of simple proportions. A geometrical analysis of the image produced a grammar of sorts that appeared to be consistent across most of the city buildings. For example, there are simple geometric
relationships between the window openings and the
masonry that surrounds them (1:1, 1:2, 1:3, and so on). The next relationship is the relative heights. If we assume most of the main buildings were at most two storeys then,
judging by their relative heights, four distinct ground levels emerge that these buildings are perched on. In the thirteenth
century the extent of building technology typically
only allows for a maximum of four storeys in domestic construction. Hence, the towers are typically twice the
height of the average dwelling. From here a topology
emerges consistent with the actual site in Arezzo today.
Analysis of the Model
The next stage was to assemble the city buildings. While at first, they just seem to be a dense agglomeration, by their three-dimensional modelling and organisation, and
according to the picture analysis, an order emerges. This was revealed as much by the reconstructive modelling as it was by analysis of the picture itself. For example, clearly some buildings were in front of others, and others to the side of these. Hence, once the proportions were determined gaps could be detected between buildings (when viewed from above) that are not immediately obvious in Giotto’s original fresco. Indeed, an overall layout for the city (that part that was visible in Giotto’s fresco) includes what appears to be open spaces connected by access alleys between buildings.
At one stage of the project a significant city square was
revealed by the overall layout. However, when the different
levels of the buildings were taken into account, this turned out to be simply a steep section of land that could not be built on (see figure 3).
Figure 3. Bird’s-eye-view of the three-dimensionalisation
of Giotto’s fresco. Note the open spaces
and alleys between buildings too. For example, all the towers house a bell. This, in
conjunction with the airborne demons, the gesticulations
of the priests, and citizens gathered at the city gates,
suggests that Giotto’s depiction of so many bell towers
had a purpose. The 3D model is an interactive spatial
model that can be navigated in real-time. As such, within the multimedia reconceptualisation of his fresco it was
possible to add the sounds of the bells. This adds a
level of meaning to the fresco that is not apparent from the
picture alone (see figure 4).
Figure 4. Screen grab of interactive real-time navigable model of Giotto’s fresco three-dimensionalised.
What was Revealed
Together, the details derived from the analysis of Giotto’s fresco, the spatial characteristics of its subsequent three-dimensionalisation, and the addition of bell ringing provide another level of experience and understanding of Giotto’s work that he could not have anticipated. More than this, it exposes Giotto’s spatial reasoning to be more developed than many had thought previously. The fact that such an accurate reconstruction of his fresco can be produced suggests greater insights into spatial relationships between the objects in his fresco were present than previously reported. However, as much
of the original city of Arezzo was dismantled in the
fifteenth century to build the Medici fortress it is almost impossible to determine if the arrangement of buildings
in Giotto’s city of Arezzo are a natural recording.
Nevertheless, we do know that he was one of the new breed of naturalists actively seeking greater clarity in
illustrating the world around him, therefore it is
reasonable to assume that his pictorial depiction of the city is much more than a simple, stylised, ritualistic,
scenography.
References
Damisch, H. (1994). The Origin of Perspective.
Goodman, J. (trans.) MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, London, England.
Edgerton, S. Y. (1991). The Heritage of Giotto’s
Geometry: Art and Science on the Eve of the
Scientific Revolution. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, London.
Gombrich, E. H. (2000). Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology of Pictorial Representation. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford.
Kemp, M. (1990). The Science of Art: Optical Themes in Western Art from Brunelleschi to Seurat. Yale
University Press, New Haven and London.
Központi Fizikai Kutató Intézet (KFKI). Web Gallery of Art. source: www.wga.hu/ Dec, 2004.
Kubovy, M. (1989). The Psychology of Perspective and Renaissance Art. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
Panofsky, E. (1991). Perspective as Symbolic Form. Wood, C., (Trans.), Zone Books, New York.","txt","2","",""
"647","7","Connecting Text Mining and Natural Language Processing in a Humanistic Context","1","Recent integration of advanced information technology and humanistic research has seen many interesting
results that are brand new to traditional humanistic
research. In the NORA project this integration was largely
exemplified. In an effort to produce software for discovering,
visualizing and exploring significant patterns across
large collections of full-text humanities resources in
digital libraries and collections, NORA project features the powerful D2K data mining toolkit developed by NCSA
at University of Illinois, and the creative Tamarind
preprocessing package developed by University of Georgia.
In NORA project, D2K and Tamarind need to talk to each other, among other relevant components. The idea behind this connection is as follows:
- Make use of existing efforts and try to avoid
duplication. Natural language processing, such as part-of-speech tagging, word sense disambiguation, and bilingual dictionary creation, has long been
recognized as an important technique for text data mining (Amstrong, 1994). D2K has proved to be an effective and comprehensive data mining toolkit, and Tamarind prepares data gleaned from large-scale full text archives. Getting them work together is an easy and time-saving way of achieving the goal of NORA.
- Separate different tasks according to institution makes the multi-institutional project easier. D2K has been developed and used in several institutions
within University of Illinois, and Tamarind was
developed in University of Georgia for simplifying
primary text analysis tasks. This separation keeps each institution focusing on a relatively independent module that they have the most experience with.
- Prepare information about tokens once and for all. Natural language processing tasks prove time-
consuming and computation-intensive. Separating
these tasks from data mining part of this project
obviates D2K toolkit from performing basic data analysis every time it runs, thus streamlining the whole process.
The problem, however, is that D2K and Tamarind are developed using different programming languages and have different communication mechanisms. To put them together requires reconcilement and restructuring at both sides. This has eventually been achieved in a prototype application, where a collection of Emily Dickinson’s poems is classified as either “hot” (erotic) or “not hot” based on the language used (Kirschenbaum, 2006).
As the size of data increases, the problem of scalability emerges. The huge size of many humanistic collections will make unrealistic the solution of storing all the tables in the database. A perfect method to address this problem has not been found, and content presented here demonstrates
how we approach the text mining problem in the
prototype when the size of collections is not very large.
2 The D2K Toolkit
D2K - Data to Knowledge is a flexible data mining and machine learning system that integrates analytical
data mining methods for prediction, discovery, and
deviation detection, with information visualization tools
(D2K). It provides a graphic-based environment where users with no knowledge in computation and programming can easily bring together software functional modules and make an itinerary, in which a unique data flow and a task are performed. These modules and the entire D2K environment are written in Java for maximum flexibility and portability.
The data mining and machine learning techniques that have been implemented in D2K include association rule, Bayes rule, support vector machine, decision tree, etc. These techniques provide many possibilities of classifying collections available to this project, like hundreds of Emily Dickinson’s poems.
Although D2K has the ability of performing basic natural language processing tasks, it is still beneficial to delegate those tasks to a toolkit that is specifically designed to do this, i.e., Tamarind. Both D2K and Tamarind use Gate as their fundamental natural language processing toolkit. Gate has been in development at the University of Sheffield since 1995
and has been used in a wide variety of research and
development projects (Gate).
Tamarind is a text mining preprocessing toolkit built on Gate, analyzing XML-based text collections and putting the results into database tables (Downie 2005). It serves
as a bridge between Gate and D2K, and connects them through the use of persistent database. It supports
JDBC-based data retrieval, as well as SOAP-based
language-independent APIs.
Table 1 shows a typical table in Tamarind database. The “xpath” field contains the location of a token in the TEI document in terms of XPath expression, “doc_id” is the unique ID of the TEI
document, while “t_type_id” is the part-of-speech tag. Based on this table, some statistical characteristics of tokens, like term occurrence (term frequency), co-
occurrence and document frequency, could be generated,
thereby obviating the data mining toolkit (D2K) from performing the data-preparing task.After the whole collections is parsed and analyzed, the information related to the position, part of speech and type of each token is stored in a PostgreSQL database for future access. The Tamarind application exposes these
information so that D2K as a client can connect and
retrieve them through JDBC (Java Database Connectivity)
or SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol).
4 NORA Architecture
Several issues were raised as to how to effectively and efficiently connect physically and institutionally
distributed components in the NORA project. For example,
should Tamarind expose its data to client through Java API (as a Java JAR file) or SOAP API (through Web
service)? Should Tamarind just provide raw data like that in the previous table or something more advanced and complicated like the frequently used TF-IDF value? Is D2K responsible for converting the database table to a data structure more convenient for D2K to handle, like D2K table? How can the user requests be conveyed to D2K in a user-friendly and compact fashion?
Experiments and discussion eventually led to the adoption of JDBC-based data retrieval and SOAP-based Web service
for user request delivery. Although SOAP-based Web service providing more advanced and platform-independent
API interface is a good choice for delivering Web-based requests, it seems inefficient to transmit large amount of data, like the occurrences of all tokens in the whole collection, through HTTP protocol, especially when the data
store and the text mining application do not reside on the same host. This, however, does not exclude the
possibility of implementing some not-so-data-intensive APIs, like metadata retrieval, through SOAP in the future.
Table 2 gives sample data pairs pulled out of Tamarind
database. It is a list of which token occurs in which
document and is generated by a join of several tables in the Tamarind database.
Table2 : Data (document-token pairs) from Tamarind Database
After data about tokens is pulled out of the Tamarind
database, it is converted to a structure called “D2K
table” which is convenient for the D2K toolkit to handle.
Actually the D2K table is the restructuring of the
token-document pairs taken from the database as a
matrix containing the occurrences of each token in each
document. Table 3 gives an example. Depending on the
collection, it could contain hundreds of rows and thousands
of columns machine learning techniques, like naive Bayes and
support vector machine. For the Dickinson prototype, naive Bayes algorithm is used and an overall classification
accuracy of over 70% is achieved. In the prototype, the D2K toolkit is launched by Infovis, an information
visualization toolkit, through Web service.
Figure 1 depicts the control flow of the whole prototype system.
Figure 1. NORA Architecture
References
Armstrong, S. (1994). Using Large Corpora. MIT Press.
Kirschenbaum, M. Plaisant, C. Smith, M. Auvil, L. Rose, J. Yu, B. and Clement, T. (2006) Undiscovered
public knowledge: Mining for patterns of erotic
language in Emily Dickinson’s correspondence with Susan (Gilbert) Dickinson. ACH/ALLC 2006.
http://alg.ncsa.uiuc.edu/do/tools/d2k.
http://gate.ac.uk.
Downie, S. Unsworth, J. Yu, B. Tcheng, D. Rockwell, G. and Ramsay S. (2005) A revolutionary approach to humanities computing?: Tools development and the D2K data-mining framework. ACH/ALLC 2005.","txt","2","",""
"648","7","Toward Discovering Potential Data Mining Applications in Literary Criticism","1","1. Introduction
Over the past decade text mining techniques have been used for knowledge discovery in many
domains, such as web documents, news articles, biomedical
literature, etc. In the literary study domain, some data mining applications have emerged, among which
document categorization may be the most successful example (Meunier 2005). But the overall progress of computer assisted literary study is not significant.
The goal of this research is to discover more potential data mining applications for literary study. The basic belief underneath our research is that in order to better adapt data mining techniques to literary text, one has to grasp the unique characteristics of literary research and to leverage its uniqueness and its similarity with data mining. Buckland (Buckland, 1999) claimed that
vocabulary is a central concept in information transition
between domains. Comparing the vocabularies between
the corpora in different domains may shed light on
discovering the similarity and difference in the research activities between these domains. So we propose a 3-stage
approach to map research activities between data miners and literary scholars as reflected in the vocabulary use in their research publications. Stage 1 is to investigate
literary scholars’ unique research activities by verb
analysis and topic analysis in critical literature, and see if any available data mining techniques can be applied
to assist the scholars in these activities. Stage 2 is to
investigate the mainstream data mining practices and the representations of the discovered knowledge by keyword
analysis in data mining literature, and see if they also
appear in critical literature setting. The shared research
activities and knowledge representations will suggest
some research problems on which data mining
experts and literary scholars can start their collaboration. The two stages are complimentary to each other rather than sequential. In the last stage, potential literary text
mining problems are summarized into a list of questions, and some literary scholars are interviewed to verify if these applications are useful and which of them can be
specified to be ready for text mining.
Up to date we have finished the first two stages. We will be interviewing 5-10 literary scholars between now and the conference. The results of the interviews will be
included in our presentation at the conference.
2. Corpus Construction
Three corpora have been constructed for the
vocabulary use analysis in stage 1 and 2. The first is the data mining corpus (named “KDD”) which
consists of 442 ACM SIGKDD conference paper abstracts
from 2001 to 2005. The ACM SIGKDD conference has been the premier international conference on data
mining. The paper titles and abstracts are extracted from the ACM Digital Portal. We do not use full text because it contains too many technical details that are not relevant to literary research.
The second is the literary criticism corpus (named “MUSE”) which consists of 84 ELH Journal articles and 40 ALH articles downloaded from Project Muse, all
on the subject of the 18th and 19th century British and American literature. The selection is based on the subject indexes assigned by the publisher. The plain text versions are generated by removing all the tags and quotations from the corresponding HTML versions.
The third is the New York Times subset of American National Corpus (named “ANC-NYTIMES”) which consists of thousands of news articles with more than 2 million words. This “everyday English” corpus serves as a contrast group to test if the discovered similarities
between the research behaviors in data mining and
literary study are significant.
3. Stage 1: discovering literary scholars’ unique research activities
This stage consists of three steps. Firstly, the plain text MUSE documents are part-of-speech tagged
using GATE. Document frequency (DF) and term
frequency (TF) serve as the basic indicators for a term’s popularity in a collection. Arbitrary DF is defined as the number of documents that contain the term. Normalized DF is defined as the percentage of the arbitrary DF in the collection (denote as “DF-pcnt”). Arbitrary TF is defined as the term’s total number of occurrences in the whole collection. Normalized TF is defined as the proportion per million words (denote as “TF-ppm”). The verbs are cascade sorted by their DF and TF.
A literary scholar picked out some representative verbs
(with both DF and TF between 5 and 10) in critical
literature setting: “clarifies”, “cleared”, “Knowing”, “destabilizes”, “analyzing”, “annotated”, “juxtaposed”,
“evaluated”, “recapitulates”, “merit”, “detail”,
“portraying”, and “stemming”.
Secondly, a unique MUSE verb list is generated by
comparing the verbs in MUSE and ANC-NYTIMES, also cascade sorted by DF and TF. The top 10 unique
verbs are “naturalizing”, “narrating”, “obviate”,
“repudiate”, “Underlying”, “misreading”, “desiring”, “privileging”, “mediating”, and “totalizing”.
Obviously the two verb lists do not overlap at all. Actually, the representative verbs (except “recapitulates”) picked out by the literary scholar turn out to be common in ANC-NYTIMES corpus too. After examining the unique MUSE verb list, two literary scholars were surprised to find many unexpected unique verbs, which means their uniqueness is beyond the scholars’ awareness.
Thirdly, simple topic analysis shows that many MUSE essays are trying to build connections between writers, characters, concepts, and social and historic backgrounds. As an evidence, 56 out of 84 ELH essays and 24 out of 40 ALH essays titles contain “and” - one of the parallel structure indicator. But genre is the only topic that can be mapped directly to text mining application - document categorization.
In conclusion, literary scholars are not explicitly aware of
what are the unique research activities at the vocabulary-use level. They might be able to summarize their scholarly primitives as Unsworth did in (Unsworth, 2000), but does not help computer scientist to understand the data mining needs in literary criticism.
4. Stage 2: discovering the mainstream data mining activities and the representations of discovered knowledge in KDD and MUSE corpora
This stage of analysis consists of two steps: 1)
extracting keywords from KDD paper titles,
identifying mainstream data mining activities and knowledge representations in data mining; and 2)
comparing the DFs and TFs of the KDD keywords between
KDD, MUSE, and ANC-NYTIMES corpora, identifying the keywords common in both KDD and MUSE but not in ANC-NYTIMES.
In the first step, non-stop words are extracted and stemmed (using Porter Stemmer) from paper titles and sorted only by their TF. 18 out of 102 non-stop stemmed title words
with TF>5 are identified as the representative data
mining keywords. The left out terms include general terms
(e.g. “approach”), technical terms (e.g. “bayesian”), terms about specific data (e.g. “gene”), and terms with different meaning in MUSE (e.g. “tree”).
Table 1 compares the frequencies of the 18 words between MUSE and ANC-NYTIMES. It shows that 11 data mining keywords are common in literary essays but not in news articles. Figure 1 visualizes their significant
differences in TF-ppm. The 11 keywords stand for
models, frameworks, patterns, sequences, associations,
hierarchies, classifications, relations, correlations,
similarities, and spatial relations. It’s not surprising that none of these keywords can be found in MUSE essay titles. The context of the keywords extracted from KDD abstracts and MUSE full text also has little in common.
In the left 7 KDD keywords, “rule”, “serial/seri” and
“decis” are common in both corpora, “cluster” and “stream”
are common in neither of them. Interestingly “network” and “graph(ic)” are much more common in ANC-
NYTIMES. It seems literary scholars do not think much in graphic models.
In conclusion, literary scholars are actually “data miners”, except that they look for different kinds of knowledge. For example, in terms of pattern discovery, literary scholars
look for “narrative patterns”, “marriage patterns”,
“patterns of plot”, etc. But data miners concern pattern in a more abstract manner - “sequential patterns”, “association patterns”, “topological patterns”, etc.
5. Stage 3: interview the literary scholars to verify the potential literary data mining applications
In this stage we are going to interview 5-10 literary scholars to examine 1) how the scholars discover the kinds of knowledge identified in stage 2; 2) how to specify these kinds of knowledge so that computational algorithms can be designed to discover them for literary study purpose. Table 1: KDD keyword frequency comparison between MUSE and ANC-NYTIMES
Note: Because of the limitation of Porter Stemmer, some words with the same stems have to be manually merged together, such as “graphs” and “graphics”. In these cases the TF-ppm can be summed up, but the DF-pcnt can not be
merged, so both DF-pcnts are listed.
Figure 1: The frequencies (in ppm) of KDD keywords in MUSE and NYTIMES
References
Buckland, M. (1999). Vocabulary as a central concept in library and information science. In Digital Libraries:
Interdisciplinary Concepts, Challenges, and
Opportunities, proceedings of the Third International Conference on Conceptions of Library and Information Science. Dubrovnik, Croatia, pp. 3–12.
Mei, Q. and Zhai, C. (2005). Discovering evolutionary
theme patterns from text. Proceedings of The 11th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining. Chicago, Illinois, pp. 198-207.
Meunier, J. G., Forest, D. and Biskri, I. (2005).
Classification and categorization in computer-
assisted reading and text analysis. In Cohen, H. and Lefebvre, C. (eds), Handbook on Categorization in Cognitive Science. Elsivier.
Unsworth, J. (2000). Scholarly primitives: what methods do humanities researchers have in common, and how might our tools reflect this? Symposium on
Humanities Computing: formal methods, experimental practice. King’s College, London. Available: http://www.iath.virginia.edu/~jmu2m/Kings.5-00/primitives.html","txt","2","",""
"649","7","AN ODD BASKET OF ODDS","9","The Text Encoding Initiative’s Guidelines for
Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange version P4 provides for separate steps of ‘customization’ and ‘extension’. The former consists of choosing which TEI tag-sets to use, and is typically performed either in the document type declaration subset or using the PizzaChef. The latter consists of various other alterations, including renaming elements, adding elements, deleting elements, and modifying content models or attribute lists. Although the PizzaChef can help ease this process, most of the work is done by re-defining TEI parameter entities using the DTD language. An ‘extension’ may extend the set of documents valid against the resulting DTD, may restrict that set, or may create a completely non-overlapping set. In all cases, it is still called an ‘extension’.
In TEI P5, these two steps have been rolled into one. The selection of modules (including the few mandatory
ones) is performed in a customization file. Changes to the schema, including the deletion of elements, the
addition of elements, etc., are also performed in this same customization file.
Because module selection is a necessary process, in
order to use P5 a user must start with a customization file
(even if it is just one of the sample customization files shipped with TEI). Luckily, the P5 method of creating customizations is substantially simpler than P4’s DTD method. This means they are easier to write, easier to document, and easier to share.
P5 customization files are written in TEI, using the
module for tagset documentation. This is also true for the
Guidelines themselves — they are written in TEI, using
the module for tagset documentation. Because using this tagset one encodes a single file from which all the
needed outputs are produced (the prose Guidelines, the
reference documentation, and the schemata), this language
is called ODD, for “one document does it all”. Therefore the customization files are usually referred to as “ODD files”, and given the extension .odd.
Because ODD files are written using a language the user already knows (TEI), rather than a special schema-
language syntax, creation of customizations is quite a bit easier. Furthermore, the TEI class system (which groups elements for convenient use) and datatype system (which provides restrictions for attribute values) are significantly
simplified since P4. And last, but far from least, there is a significant web interface (“Roma” at http://www.
tei-c.org.uk/Roma/) that presents a form interface for creation of the ODD customization files. This means that instead of trying to remember whether the
correct identifier for the module for names and dates is “namesdates”, “namesAndDates”, “namesDates”, etc., the user need only click on the “add” next to “Names and Dates”.
Because the same language as that used for the Guidelines themselves is used, brief documentation about added or changed elements or attributes can be placed directly
within the customizations themselves. Examples of
usage and remarks can also be encoded within the
customizations, and standard TEI style-sheets will
produce reference documentation from these. Furthermore,
because ODD files are written in TEI, the usual
prose elements (like <p>) can be used alongside the
specialized customization elements to provide more
in-depth documentation for the customization in the same
file. finally, since a customization file is a TEI XML file, it can be validated and easily transferred via any Unicode
aware exchange method. Because it contains the
documentation as well as the customizations themselves, it can be easily understood by the recipient.
But what do customizations look like? What are they good for? How does one make them? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of various customizations?
This panel presentation hopes to answer these questions not by having TEI “experts” lecture, but rather by having actual TEI users who have performed P5 customizations present their projects.
Each of the following projects will give a brief
presentation including a discussion of the reasons and motivations behind their customization, a careful look at the ODD file itself, a glance at the output reference documentation (some of which will be non-English), and perhaps an overview of the tool-chain used, culminating in a demonstration of sample output.","txt","2","",""
"650","7","The Henry III Fine Rolls Project","9","The Henry III fine Rolls Project is a three year
project which aims to publish a series of legal
documents, known as ‘fine rolls’, which chart offers of money made to King Henry III of England in exchange for
a wide range of concessions and favours. There is a fine roll for each of his fifty-six years on the throne (1216–1272) and they offer significant insight into the political,
governmental, legal, social and economic history of the day. Based at King’s College London and the UK’s
National Archives, the project aims to publish the rolls up to the year 1248 in both book and electronic form.
The electronic version will enable the indexing and
searching of a wide variety of legal terms relating to office, finance, witnesses and the nature of the legal
documents themselves, as well as more general terms
relevant to the period, such as those associated with
social status, ethnicity and family structure.
Our use of TEI inevitably involves a large degree of
customisation: partly due to the specific legal nature of the fine rolls (hence the addition of new elements), partly due to the practical needs inherent in any multi-editor collaborative environment (which have made us examine
ways to simplify markup structures) and partly due to the rich ‘subject’ terms which are being encoded
(leading to our tailoring the attribute values permitted
for a given term). I will assess the impact on this
project of the new customisation facilities available in P5,
describing the customisation itself, the consequences for work-flow in an ever-evolving scholarly process, the production of documentation, and the wider benefits for the publication process","txt","2","",""
"651","7","Tagalog Lexicon","9","The encoding of lexicographical data for Tagalog and related languages presents significant challenges. While the P4 additional tagset for print dictionaries (and the current instantiation of the P5 module) has proved
quite adequate for encoding dictionaries of Western
languages, the morphology and semantic patterning of languages in the Philippine sub-group of the West
Austronesian family require extensions which provide a good
indicator of the power and flexibility of P5 customization techniques.","txt","2","",""
"652","7","The Mapas Project","9","The Mapas Project is a multi-year project that aims to publish exemplary early Mesoamerican pictorial
manuscripts in electronic form and indexed to allow for scholars working on these or similar manuscripts to find key terminology or pictorial elements from multiple
manuscripts to support philological, historical, art historical,
anthropological, geographical, and linguistic research.
We will start by showing and describing one particularly interesting manuscript, the Mapa de Mixtepec. This sizable manuscript (47 cm x 74 cm) was painted on deer hide in the late seventeenth century. It comes from a Zapotec town (San Andrés Mixtepec) in what is now the state of Oaxaca. It shows the people’s ancient origins in Zaachila, their historic and legendary migration, the founding of their town, a genealogy of their leading families, and their colonization by Christians. The mapa is primarily
pictorial with multiple textual elements arranged and
relating to one another cartographically rather than in any particular linear order.
Our current aim is to encode the secondary textual
material developed by Wood and other scholars in TEI P5,
directly linking various annotations to the image,
and describing the relationship of the annotation to the
indicated section of the image. With the possible exception of problems posed by special terminology such as selecting
restricted sets of attribute values to encode key terms in indigenous languages (e.g., “altepetl”, the term for the key Nahua socio-political unit), the adaptations of TEI will be fairly straightforward. There are additional
complications, however, including the aforementioned need to create relationships between annotations and the whole document, relating text and image to each other and to their actual location within the manuscript, and due to the special nature of the manuscripts and the
multi-editorial and internationally collaborative nature of the project","txt","2","",""
"653","7","Resources for Research on Tang Civilization","9","The Project “Resources for Research on Tang
Civilization” attempts to provide a wide range of original texts in Chinese pertaining to the research of
the Tang period (7th to 10th century). This includes
histories, annals and administrative documents, but also literary, religious and philosophical works, compilations and encyclopedias. The networked workspace we plan to provide will allow the researcher to navigate in the multifaceted and multidimensional conceptual space and enable him to record his discoveries, and thus contribute to the resource while using it.
We use TEI at different levels in this project. In a
heavily customized version, we capture the texts and our affirmations about them. The customizations mainly
reflect constructs necessary for certain features of
Chinese texts, but are also partly due to special requirements
of our workflow. While we started out using a hand-crafted version derived from a P4 DTD, we later converted our
customization to P5 using ODD. In this presentation,
I will introduce this customization and talk about the
process of developing and applying them.","txt","2","",""
"654","7","Epigraphic Documents in TEI XML (EpiDoc)","9","Under the rubric of ‘EpiDoc’ one finds a growing community of scholars intent upon using the TEI for the digital encoding and interchange of epigraphic
documents; i.e., modern digital editions—both print-
derived and ‘born digital’—of inscribed and incised texts
emanating from the areas associated with the Roman
empire at any period before the medieval. This community’s
chief deliverable to date has been a set of guidelines
setting out agreed standards for the application of TEI P4 to such work, together with a customized DTD and various
software tools. The success of the effort is demonstrated, and has been advanced by, three flagship projects: one at King’s College London under the direction of Charlotte Roueché (Aphrodisias in Late Antiquity (2d. ed.) and The Inscriptions of Aphrodisias) another at Brown University under the direction of John Bodel (The U.S. Epigraphy
Project) and a third at Oxford University under the
direction of Alan Bowman, Charles Crowther, and John Pearce (The Vindolanda Tablets Online).
The EpiDoc community is poised to move from P4 to P5. At P4, our extensive and growing guidelines were developed under the auspices of the same customized DTD that we promulgated for epigraphic encoding, with various resulting infelicities and shortcomings. Our strategy for P5 is to separate the schemata for the EpiDoc
Guidelines from that for the encoding recommended by those guidelines. In moving the EpiDoc Guidelines to P5 first, we create a standard, but highly structured, TEI ODD that will, in turn, instantiate a P5 schema to govern EpiDoc-compliant encoding practice.
We shall begin with a brief overview of the EpiDoc
Guidelines, focusing on those features that are dictated either by the requirements of epigraphic markup itself or by the community’s open development practices, in which software tools and the EpiDoc Guidelines themselves are multi-authored by individuals whose TEI expertise
varies considerably one to another. Given this mode of collaboration, the flexible application of constraint possible with the RelaxNG schema technology has significant
advantages over the Backus-Naur content models of P4. We shall also discuss the elements we have added as
extensions or adaptations to the P5 tagset, such as tags for typographic forms and those supporting the integration
of linked typographic examples, encoding examples and regular expressions. These data ‘tuples’ form the basis for automated verification of EpiDoc-specific XSLT
stylesheets and custom text conversion tools, as well
as the internal consistency of the EpiDoc Guidelines themselves","txt","2","",""
"655","7","QUANTITATIVE CODICOLOGY AND THE REPERTORIUM WORKSTATION","9","The Repertorium of Old Bulgarian Literature and Letters (henceforth “the Repertorium”) is a
series of projects begun in 1994 by Anisava Miltenova (Institute of Literature, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences), David J. Birnbaum (Department of Slavic Languages and Literatures, University of Pittsburgh), Andrej Bojadzhiev (University of Sofia), and Milena Dobreva (Institute of Mathematics and Informatics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences) and designed to explore the opportunities for exploiting computational resources to advance the study of Slavic philology in original and innovative ways. From
its inception the Repertorium set out to transcend the impressive but ultimately limited achievements of
many other projects in humanities computing, such as structured document development, structured searching,
variable rendering for multiple uses, etc. While the
Repertorium has appreciated these technologies and has used them productively, its long-term goal has been not merely to enhance traditional philological activities (such as publishing and searching), but also to facilitate new
types of philological research that would have been not merely impractical, but essentially unthinkable without the use of computational tools.
Over the past ten years the Repertorium has overseen the encoding of more than 350 manuscript descriptions by members of the Institute of Literature, and it has also coordinated and directed compatible large-scale joint projects with British and Swedish researchers. The
Repertorium DTD, begun before both the TEI P5
manuscript description module and the European
MASTER initiative, is designed as a conformant
modification of the TEI DTDs, but it imposes tighter and more consistent structure than any comparable project of which we are aware, and this attention to structure (whereby a manuscript description is as much a database as a document) is designed specifically to facilitate not
merely rendering or structured searching, but also
data-mining for analytical purposes, an enterprise for which I have coined the term “quantitative codicology.”
In a keynote address at one of the recent Extreme Markup conferences, Tommie Usdin (Mulberry Technologies) observed that “XML has made true all of the lies that we told about SGML.” When the Repertorium team began encoding manuscript descriptions in SGML the mid-1990s, we took on faith that at some point it would be possible to perform the sort of analysis we needed for our data, but it is only with the introduction of such relatively recent ancillary XML technologies as XSLT, XQuery, and SVG that it has been possible to exploit
the Repertorium inventory for the innovative and
sophisticated analysis that is was originally intended to facilitate.
My presentation at the 2006 Digital Humanities
conference will concentrate on describing both the
technologies developed within the framework of the
Repertorium initiative for analyzing medieval Slavic manuscript materials and the philological principles that guided our research. In particular, this presentation will demonstrate the ability for a scholar seated behind a
standards-conformant web browser anywhere on the
Internet to combine on the fly and in varied ways
structured searching with the generation of such graphic representations of the relationships among manuscripts as dendrograms and plectograms (about which see my “Computer-Assisted Analysis and Study of the Structure of Mixed-Content Miscellanies,” Scripta & e-Scripta,. vol. 1 (2003), 15–54 [preprint available on line at http://clover.slavic.pitt.edu/~djb/2003_ljubljana/2003_ljubljana_paper.pdf]).
What is most new and significant since my initial
introduction of these technologies into manuscript
studies is my integration of them and of other tools into a “Repertorium Workstation,” an integrated and coherent platform where users can browse and search manuscript descriptions, generate plectograms on the fly (through behind-the-scenes XQuery and XSLT transformations to SVG), use the plectograms to launch new queries, and,
in general, explore the range of relationships among
manuscript witnesses without constraint in ways
that have never been exploited before in humanities computing, and that were essentially unthinkable due
to technological limitations until very recently. The
presentation will combine a demonstration of the
Repertorium Workstation with a discussion of its
philological motivation, its design principles, the types of original and innovative primary scholarship that it supports, and plans for further development.
All Repertorium materials, from the raw data files to
the Internet-based Workstation, are (or will be) freely accessible on the Repertorium web site (http://clover.
slavic.pitt.edu/~repertorium/). While many of the
technologies underlying the Repertorium Workstation
were developed to address specific needs of Slavic
medievalists (e.g., Unicode-based support for multiple and uncommon writing systems), the system has great general applicability to medieval studies in other cultural tradition, as well as to non-medieval studies of textual
traditions. In particular, its innovative use of SVG to model the structural similarities among manuscript
witnesses can serve as an example (easily adapted
to other projects) of how graphic representations can provide insights into textual information that would
otherwise remain virtually imperceptible.","txt","2","",""
"656","7","Metadata and Electronic Catalogues : Multilingual Resources for Scientific Medieval Terminology","9","The Metadata and Electronic Catalogues project
(2004–06), a component of the Repertorium of Old
Bulgarian Literature and Letters, is designed to create electronic catalogues and authority files that will serve as integrated repositories of terminological information that has been developed and applied successfully in already existing projects in the realm of medieval Slavic languages,
literatures, and cultures. One innovative feature of this project is that beyond serving as a central repository for such information, it will expand the organizational
framework to support a multilingual superstructure along the lines of I18N initiatives elsewhere in the world of electronic text technology in general and humanities computing in particular.
This project is based on distinguishing the meanings of particular terms and notions that appear in the text of
medieval written documents both within the primary
corpus and in comparison to established scholarly
terminology (for example, medieval Slavic writers used
several terms—sometimes systematically and sometimes
not—to identify what modern scholars might call,
variously, a sermon, a homily, an instruction, etc.). This orientation is designed to support the development and implementation of software tools for finding multilingual
counterparts to both original (medieval) and scholarly (modern) terminology, and for sorting, searching, and mining this data in a way that is independent of both the entry and the query languages.
The project presumes the possibility (unique for such
initiatives in Slavic humanities computing, and uncommon
in humanities computing in general) of linking the standardized terminological apparatus for description, study, edition, and translation of medieval texts, on the one hand, to authoritative lists of key-words and terms used in bibliographic descriptions, on the other. This will allow the integration of scholarly meta-data and bibliographic references under a single unified framework. Another aim of the project is to create a mechanism for allowing the extraction of different types of indices based upon the imported documents even when the languages of
encoding may vary, so that, for example, Serbian-language
descriptions of medieval Slavic (not necessarily
Serbian) manuscripts could be collated with Bulgarian-
language descriptions of other medieval Slavic manuscripts
in a way that would enable automated systems (such as the plectogram-generating tool described in David J.
Birnbaum’s proposal for our panel) to recognize when entries that differ textually are nonetheless to be treated as the same. The primary manuscript description texts are encoded in a TEI-based XML format in the context of the broader Repertorium initiative, and their utility for the type of multilingual authority files, bibliographic
databases, and other broad reference resources illustrates
the multipurposing that is characteristic of XML
documents in the humanities, but on a broader scale than is usually envisioned (that is, going beyond the more common tasks of transformation into multiple presentation formats or exploitation in structured searching).
The Metadata and Electronic Catalogues project is based at the Institute of Literature, Bulgarian Academy
of Sciences, where the working team concists of
Anisava Miltenova (Institute of Literature, director of the project), Ana Stojkova (Institute of Literature), Andrej
Bojadzhiev (Sofia University), Margaret Dimitrova
(Sofia University), and Svetla Koeva (Institute of Bulgarian
Language BAS).
The outcome of the project is twofold:
1. The development of a database that will provide the terminological and bibliographic apparatus that will support the study of the medieval Slavic texts for both research and educational purposes.
2. The development of an on-line query interface that will enable this database also to serve as a sort of
independent encyclopedic reference to medieval Slavic written culture.
The Repertorium Intitiative: Computer Processing of Medieval Manuscripts
Anissava Miltenova
Institute of Literature, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
The application of computer technologies to store, publish and—most importantly—investigate written sources belongs to the most promising tasks at the boundary
between the technical sciences and the humanities. The Repertorium Initiative was founded in 1994 at the
Department of Old Bulgarian Literature of the Institute of Literature of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences in collaboration with the University of Pittsburgh (US). The Repertorium is a universal database that incorporates
archeographic, paleographic, codicological, textological,
and literary-historical data concerning the original and translated medieval texts distributed through Slavic
manuscripts between the eleventh and the seventeenth centuries. These data include both parts of actual texts
and the results of their scientific investigation, with
particular attention to the study manuscripts typology, a traditional aspect of philological scholarship that has been reinvigorated by the introduction, through the
Repertorium Initiative, of computational methodologies.
The descriptions and examples of real texts are based on the XML (Extensive Markup Language), an informatic standard that incorporates special “markup” characters within natural language texts. The markup tags demarcate certain parts of the texts (elements) and signal what the data represents, simplifying the identification and
extraction of data from the text not just during conversion
for rendering (the most common procedure in humanities
projects), but also during data-mining for analysis. The most recent model of description of manuscripts in an XML format derived from the TEI (Text Encoding
Initiative) guidelines has been developed by Andrei
Bojadzhiev (Sofia University), following five main
principles, formulated in the context of the project by David J. Birnbaum in 1994:
1. Standardizing of document file formats;
2. Multiple use (data should be separated from processing);
3. Portability of electronic texts (independence of local platforms);
4. Necessity of preservation of manuscripts in electronic form;
5. The well-structured division of data according to
contemporary achievements in textology, paleography
and codicology.
he working team in the Institute of Literature has already developed a digital library of over 350 electronic documents.
Since its inception as a joint Bulgarian-US project over ten years ago, the Repertorium Initiative has expanded to include a joint Bulgarian-British project describing
Slavic manuscripts in the collection of the British Library
(London), as well as a project with University of
Gothenburg (Sweden) concerning the study of late medieval
Slavic manuscripts with computer tools. The Repertorium Initiative has grown not only in terms of its geography
and its participants; it has also come to include a unique
set of possibilities for linking the primary data to a
standardized terminological apparatus for the description,
study, edition, and translation of medieval texts, as well as to key words and terms used in the bibliographic
descriptions. This combination of structured descriptions
of primary sources with a sophisticated network of
descriptive materials permits, for example, the extraction of different types of indices that go well beyond traditional
field-based querying.
In recognition of the ground-breaking achievements of The Repertorium Initiative, its directors and principal researchers were appointed in 1998 by the International
Committee of Slavists (the most important such international association) to head a Special Commission for the Computer Processing of Slavic Manuscripts and Early Printed Books. Other evidence of the achievements of this project include, the organization three international conferences (Blagoevgrad 1994, Pomorie 2002, Sofia 2005) and the publication by the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences of three anthologies (1995, 2000, 2003). The Internet presence of the Repertorium Initiative is located at http://clover.slavic.pitt.edu/~repertorium/ .
Because the Repertorium Initiative goes beyond manuscript studies in seeking to provide a broad and encyclopedic
source of information about the Slavic medieval
heritage, it also incorporates such auxiliary materials as bibliographic information and other authority files. In this capacity the Repertorium Initiative is closely coordinated
with three other projects: the project for Authority
Files, which defines the terms and ontology necessary for medieval Slavic manuscript studies; Libri Slavici, a joint undertaking of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and the University of Sofia in the field of bibliography on medieval written heritage; and identifying the typology of the content of manuscripts and texts with the aid of computational tools. All three of these share the common structure of the TEI documents and use a common XSLT
(Extensible Stylesheet Language for Transformations)
library for transforming documents to a variety of formats
(including XML, HTML [Hypertext Markup Language], and SVG [Scalable Vector Graphics]) thus providing a sound base for the exchange of information and for
electronic publishing.
The relationship among the three projects could be
described in the following way:
1. The Repertorium Initiative is a innovative from both philological and technological perspectives in its
approach to the description and edition of medieval texts. It takes its metadata for description from its Authority Files and its bibliographic references from the Libri Slavici.
2. The Authority Files project gathers its preliminary
information on the basis of descriptions and prepares
guidelines in the form of authority lists for the use the metadata by researchers.
3. Libri Slavici accumulates its data from various
sources, including descriptions and authority files, and shares common metadata with both of them.
4. Visualization of typology is radically new non-textual
representations of manuscript structures. This
development demonstrates that computers have done more than provide a new way of performing such
traditional tasks as producing manuscript descriptions.
Rather, the production of electronic manuscript
descriptions has enabled new and innovative
philological perspectives on the data.
The future of the Repertorium Initiative is to continue integrate into a network full text databases of medieval Slavic manuscripts, electronic description of codices, and electronic reference books with terminology. Preserving the cultural heritage of European libraries and archives,
it provides for data and metadata search and retrieval on the basis of paleographic, linguistic, textologic, and
historical and other cultural characteristics. The connections
among the different subprojects thus lead to a digital
library that is suitable for the use of a wide community
of specialists, and, in the same time, continues to inspire related new projects and initiatives.
References
Miltenova, A., Boyadzhiev, A. (2000). “An Electronic
Repertory of Medieval Slavic Literature and
Letters: a Suite of Guidelines”. In: Medieval Salvic Manuscripts ans SGML: Problems and Perspectives. Sofia:“Marin Drinov” publishing house, 44-68.
Miltenova, A. Boyadzhiev, A. Radoslavova, D. (2003). “A Unified Model for the description of the Medieval Manuscripts?”. In: Computational Approaches to the study of Early and Modern Slavic Languages and Texts. Sofia:“Boyan Penev” Publishing Center, 113-135.","txt","2","",""
"657","7","The Repertorium Initiative: Computer Processing of Medieval Manuscripts","9","The application of computer technologies to store, publish and—most importantly—investigate written sources belongs to the most promising tasks at the boundary
between the technical sciences and the humanities. The Repertorium Initiative was founded in 1994 at the
Department of Old Bulgarian Literature of the Institute of Literature of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences in collaboration with the University of Pittsburgh (US). The Repertorium is a universal database that incorporates
archeographic, paleographic, codicological, textological,
and literary-historical data concerning the original and translated medieval texts distributed through Slavic
manuscripts between the eleventh and the seventeenth centuries. These data include both parts of actual texts
and the results of their scientific investigation, with
particular attention to the study manuscripts typology, a traditional aspect of philological scholarship that has been reinvigorated by the introduction, through the
Repertorium Initiative, of computational methodologies.
The descriptions and examples of real texts are based on the XML (Extensive Markup Language), an informatic standard that incorporates special “markup” characters within natural language texts. The markup tags demarcate certain parts of the texts (elements) and signal what the data represents, simplifying the identification and
extraction of data from the text not just during conversion
for rendering (the most common procedure in humanities
projects), but also during data-mining for analysis. The most recent model of description of manuscripts in an XML format derived from the TEI (Text Encoding
Initiative) guidelines has been developed by Andrei
Bojadzhiev (Sofia University), following five main
principles, formulated in the context of the project by David J. Birnbaum in 1994:
1. Standardizing of document file formats;
2. Multiple use (data should be separated from processing);
3. Portability of electronic texts (independence of local platforms);
4. Necessity of preservation of manuscripts in electronic form;
5. The well-structured division of data according to
contemporary achievements in textology, paleography
and codicology.
he working team in the Institute of Literature has already developed a digital library of over 350 electronic documents.
Since its inception as a joint Bulgarian-US project over ten years ago, the Repertorium Initiative has expanded to include a joint Bulgarian-British project describing
Slavic manuscripts in the collection of the British Library
(London), as well as a project with University of
Gothenburg (Sweden) concerning the study of late medieval
Slavic manuscripts with computer tools. The Repertorium Initiative has grown not only in terms of its geography
and its participants; it has also come to include a unique
set of possibilities for linking the primary data to a
standardized terminological apparatus for the description,
study, edition, and translation of medieval texts, as well as to key words and terms used in the bibliographic
descriptions. This combination of structured descriptions
of primary sources with a sophisticated network of
descriptive materials permits, for example, the extraction of different types of indices that go well beyond traditional
field-based querying.
In recognition of the ground-breaking achievements of The Repertorium Initiative, its directors and principal researchers were appointed in 1998 by the International
Committee of Slavists (the most important such international association) to head a Special Commission for the Computer Processing of Slavic Manuscripts and Early Printed Books. Other evidence of the achievements of this project include, the organization three international conferences (Blagoevgrad 1994, Pomorie 2002, Sofia 2005) and the publication by the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences of three anthologies (1995, 2000, 2003). The Internet presence of the Repertorium Initiative is located at http://clover.slavic.pitt.edu/~repertorium/ .
Because the Repertorium Initiative goes beyond manuscript studies in seeking to provide a broad and encyclopedic
source of information about the Slavic medieval
heritage, it also incorporates such auxiliary materials as bibliographic information and other authority files. In this capacity the Repertorium Initiative is closely coordinated
with three other projects: the project for Authority
Files, which defines the terms and ontology necessary for medieval Slavic manuscript studies; Libri Slavici, a joint undertaking of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and the University of Sofia in the field of bibliography on medieval written heritage; and identifying the typology of the content of manuscripts and texts with the aid of computational tools. All three of these share the common structure of the TEI documents and use a common XSLT
(Extensible Stylesheet Language for Transformations)
library for transforming documents to a variety of formats
(including XML, HTML [Hypertext Markup Language], and SVG [Scalable Vector Graphics]) thus providing a sound base for the exchange of information and for
electronic publishing.
The relationship among the three projects could be
described in the following way:
1. The Repertorium Initiative is a innovative from both philological and technological perspectives in its
approach to the description and edition of medieval texts. It takes its metadata for description from its Authority Files and its bibliographic references from the Libri Slavici.
2. The Authority Files project gathers its preliminary
information on the basis of descriptions and prepares
guidelines in the form of authority lists for the use the metadata by researchers.
3. Libri Slavici accumulates its data from various
sources, including descriptions and authority files, and shares common metadata with both of them.
4. Visualization of typology is radically new non-textual
representations of manuscript structures. This
development demonstrates that computers have done more than provide a new way of performing such
traditional tasks as producing manuscript descriptions.
Rather, the production of electronic manuscript
descriptions has enabled new and innovative
philological perspectives on the data.
The future of the Repertorium Initiative is to continue integrate into a network full text databases of medieval Slavic manuscripts, electronic description of codices, and electronic reference books with terminology. Preserving the cultural heritage of European libraries and archives,
it provides for data and metadata search and retrieval on the basis of paleographic, linguistic, textologic, and
historical and other cultural characteristics. The connections
among the different subprojects thus lead to a digital
library that is suitable for the use of a wide community
of specialists, and, in the same time, continues to inspire related new projects and initiatives.
References
Miltenova, A., Boyadzhiev, A. (2000). “An Electronic
Repertory of Medieval Slavic Literature and
Letters: a Suite of Guidelines”. In: Medieval Salvic Manuscripts ans SGML: Problems and Perspectives. Sofia:“Marin Drinov” publishing house, 44-68.
Miltenova, A. Boyadzhiev, A. Radoslavova, D. (2003). “A Unified Model for the description of the Medieval Manuscripts?”. In: Computational Approaches to the study of Early and Modern Slavic Languages and Texts. Sofia:“Boyan Penev” Publishing Center, 113-135.","txt","2","",""
"658","7","THE RHETORIC OF PERFORMATIVE MARKUP","9","In the classic account first proposed by DeRose et al. (1990) and subsequently developed by Renear et al. (1996) and finally by Renear (2001), text markup of the sort typically practiced by humanities computing scholars is a reflection of reality. It seeks to express observations about the nature of the text, rather than giving orders to a processor. Markup of this sort—labeled as “logical indicative” markup in the most recent formulation—is widely familiar in the scholarly community, instantiated
in markup languages like TEI, EpiDoc, and other
languages intended for the transcription and preservation of primary sources.
What we think of as logical indicative markup, however,
is almost never that simple. Although markup in the
indicative mood claims to advance a simple statement of fact (“This is a paragraph”), the actual intellectual activity being undertaken is often much more complex. Despite the early claims of the OHCO theorists that markup observes what text “really is”, it is only under tightly constrained circumstances that indicative markup truly makes something approaching factual observations concerning textual features. Within a given disciplinary community the identification of a paragraph or a line of verse may be uncontroversial (so that one would appear
to be quibbling if one paraphrased as “I believe this to
be a paragraph”). Within a digital library context the
encoding may be so slight that its claims about the text carry almost no information (so that marking something
with may mean only “this is a block of text”) and
hence no information with which it would be possible to
disagree. But if we broaden the context at all—using markup to communicate between disciplinary groups, or to describe more complex documents—we enter a very different and less factual terrain. For any early work where the modern generic distinctions are not yet solid, identifying a passage of text as, variously, a paragraph, a verse line, an epigraph, or some other less determinate segment is not an act of factual observation and correct
identification, but of strategic choice. The question
is “how does it make sense to describe this textual
feature?” rather than “what is this feature?” And implicit in the idea of “making sense” are qualifiers such as “for me”, “now”, “for my present purposes”, “here at this project”, “given my constraints”, and others that can readily be imagined. The choice of the phrase “making sense” is not casual here: the act of encoding is indeed an
act of making sense, creating conditions of intelligibility.
Renear, in his essay “The Descriptive/Procedural
Distinction is Flawed,” extends the earlier taxonomy of markup types by adding the dimension of “mood”, by which markup may be characterized as indicative,
imperative, or performative. Where indicative markup is the kind described above—making factual statements about the textual world—and imperative markup is
the kind that issues a command (for instance, to
formatting software), performative markup is a less familiar domain, which Renear identifies with authoring. As his phrase “markup that creates” suggests, this domain has to do with calling text into being and in particular with naming and effecting the structures through which that text expresses meaning. It is tempting to make a clean distinction between this kind of “authorial markup” and the more familiar indicative markup on the basis of the type of document concerned: authorial, performative
markup being what we use when we write new
documents, and ordinary indicative (or perhaps
“editorial”) markup being what we use when we transcribe
existing source material. However, having noted this
distinction we must immediately trouble it: first, because
these categories are often intermingled (for instance, annotations and commentary in a scholarly edition are “authored” in this sense). But more significantly, even with content that is not “new”, markup does not exist solely to name what is there, but also serves to express
views about it, and the expression of these views
constitutes an authorial act just as surely as the
generation of a sentence of commentary. Authorial markup brings a structure into being just as writing brings
words into being, and in some cases the two may be
isomorphic. Adding the TEI element amounts to the same thing, informationally speaking, as adding a note whose
content is “this sentence is unclear in the source; we
believe the reading to be X.” To extend Renear’s terms, can be either an indicative, editorial statement (“this passage
is unclear”) or a performative, authorial statement
(“I make this assertion about unclarity”, “I create this meaning with respect to the unclear reading”).
This authorial dimension to markup systems like the TEI is unfamiliar, little used, obscure. But it crucially amplifies our understanding of the rhetoric of markup,
and of the kinds of meaning it can carry. Most
importantly, it suggests that Jerome McGann’s assertion
that text markup cannot represent “the autopoietic
operations of textual fields—operations specifically
pertinent to the texts that interest humanities scholars” (2004, 202-3) reflects a very limited sense of the potential rhetorical operation of markup. In characterizing the TEI as “an allopoietic system” which “defines what it marks...as objective”, McGann draws on markup’s own conventionalized account of itself. This account,
which as we have seen locates systems like the TEI
firmly within the indicative realm, deals solely with the editorial rhetoric of statement and description—not with
interpretation and certainly not with performance. It ignores the extent to which even this indicative markup can make statements which are not simply factual: which represent local knowledge, perspective, contingency,
belief, positionality, uncertainty, purposiveness, and even
deception.
Most importantly, it ignores the authorial quadrant of
Renear’s grid: the space of performative logical markup, in which an author brings meaning into existence either by creating new marked content, or by adding markup to an existing text and performing upon it a new set of
meanings. This latter case would in fact resemble
performative instruments like the Ivanhoe Game, which represent for McGann the archetypal scholarly textual
activity: a performative apparatus, in effect, through which scholars express interventions in a textual field: “readings”, commentary, textual engagements that
inflect the object text rather than simply standing apart
from it. The extended version of this paper will expand on this point, exploring how performative or authorial markup might enact the kinds of textual engagements
that McGann calls for as constitutive of humanistic
textual study.
McGann is correct in identifying the predominant use of markup systems like TEI as “coding systems for storing and accessing records” (202). But this predominant use does not define the limits of capability for such markup systems, let alone for text markup in general. Our choice to use markup in this way derives from the collective sense, within the humanities disciplines, that this is what
markup should be for: a technological tool external
to ourselves, rather than an expressive medium. In
expecting, as McGann does, that markup cannot be made of the same stuff as poetry, we create a self-fulfilling
prophecy. In fact, we make markup in our own image—in the image of our own fears.
References
DeRose, Steven, J., David Durand, Elli Mylonas and Allen H. Renear. “What is Text, Really?,” Journal of Computing in Higher Education. 1:2 (1990).
Liu, Alan. “Transcendental Data: Toward a Cultural
History and Aesthetics of the New Encoded Discourse.”
Critical Inquiry 31:1 (Autumn 2004), 49-84.
McGann, Jerome. “Marking Texts of Many
Dimensions” in A Companion to Digital Humanities, ed. Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens, and John Unsworth. Blackwells, 2004.
Renear, Allen. “The Descriptive/Procedural Distinction is Flawed.” Markup Languages: Theory and Practice
2.4 (2001): 411-420.
Renear, Allen, Elli Mylonas, and David Durand.
“Refining our Notion of What Text Really Is: The Problem of Overlapping Hierarchies.” Research in Humanities Computing, ed. Nancy Ide and Susan Hockey. Oxford University Press, 1996.","txt","2","",""
"659","7","The Rhetoric of Digital Structure","9","This paper will examine the rhetoric of textual markup by relating it to mapping. I begin with the observation that markup is a kind of poesis, which is itself a species of mapping: to paraphrase Theseus at the end of A Midsummer Night’s Dream, it is the embodiment of form, the giving to airy nothing a local habitation and a name. I will discuss so-called “mapping art,” a digital art form that uses data sources, or streams, or pools, or bases, and filters them to create works of art that are, in some way, connected to the source, if only functionally.
I will focus on pieces that claim informational status
and discuss the way rhetoric inevitably inflects the
transformation/mapping of data into information. These pieces, I will claim, shed a new light on the rhetorical nature of textual markup.
This by itself is nothing new: we’ve long understood
that all marking is interpretation. But I will extend this observation to discuss the relation of mapping and
marking to information and reading. I will examine
linguist Geoffrey Nunberg’s discussion of the term
“information,” comparing it with Shakespeare’s notion of poeis as (ex)formation, and consider the proposition that reading is information, and there can be no information without a map.
The argument turns at this point to consider the possibility that markup is not mapping so much as it is tracing: not the translation of data from one domain to another but a kind of delineation, a marking on the body of the text itself. Thus “informing the corpus” is replaced with “inscribing the corpse,” and instead of Shakespeare’s
depiction of imaginative creation, we have Kafka’s
fascist nightmare In the Penal Colony.
Between these two poles must be a middle way of
reading, and I will conclude by briefly considering
how the Lacanian notion of the Phallus can help us
understand the desire for markup, with a gesture
towards Harold Bloom’s anxieties of Influence and maps of misreading.","txt","2","",""
"660","7","The Rhetoric of Mapping Interface and Data","9","In this paper I want to continue to the discussion of the rhetoric of the digital monograph I presented at ACH-ALLC2005. That paper looked at past discussions of rhetoric as applied to scholarly hypertext and to the web.
As a continuation of this line of thought, I’d like to
consider the relationship of underlying “data” to user-facing
“interface.” Two significant current theoretical models of digital publication are the notions of the “digital
archive” and the “database.” Theorists like Daalgard and Moulthrop see the internet as a global archive; their choice of term privileges the function of the collection of data, its completeness and lack of a singular perspective or notion of truth. For them, the archive is specifically a very large collection of homogeneous or heterogeneous
documents available in digital form, like the internet,
or the NY Times archive. Lev Manovich uses the term “database” as the informing paradigm for the
organization of new media productions; his terminology privileges the mode of interaction enables by a particular
technology. For Manovich the “database” is a more
suitable replacement for “narrative” when discussing the potential and effect of digital art and other (constrained)
websites. Like Moulthrop and Daalgard, Alan Liu uses the term “archive” for digital collections that are XML-based, as opposed to scholarly collections that are
database driven, and views both sorts of collection as
functionally equivalent.
In this paper, I’d like to move between the larger and more generic archive and the database informed individual
website. Manovich’s idiosyncratic use of the term database to refer to any structured data can be confusing, but in this paper, implementation methods, whether XML markup, database, or some other technology, will not affect the discussion.
Alan Liu has described the change in user interface
and in the role of the scholar/author as more websites become template driven. He identifies a shift from the craftsmanlike activity of early website creation, to a
model where the interface and the underlying source data are intentionally separate, as are the roles of their collector and designer. Interface designers are designing pages with empty space into which data pours, over the content of which they have no control. The user interface is usually considered the locus of meaning in a website or in a digital publication. In the case of the contained,
authored “monograph” the user interface is where
an author can present a point of view and engender
behaviors in the readers of the work. At first glance, even in a digital archive, the user interface determines what a user can do, or learn about the underlying material. However, the underlying data, which may be structured
either as a database or using XML markup, also is
inextricably linked to the interface. Rhetorical casts that have been inserted into the data interact with the interface, just as the interface affects not only users’ technical ability to manipulate the data, but their view of what manipulations make sense for that data.
This interaction occurs in the space between the data and the interface. That space contains the process enabled by a web site whose most important part can be described as a mapping between interface and data. This mapping necessitates an interaction of surface and infrastructure and can only be understood in the context of an awareness of the rhetoric that belongs to each side of the map. Part of this space is the domain of information designers and
interface designers. They are the ones who plan user
interactions, lay out the relationships of pages that a user sees, and are familiar with human cognitive ability
and usability. But before one can draw the map of the presentation, the map of the content must exist, and this is also an intentional product. Because of this, at the most significant level, these decisions inhere in the scholar
who is amassing the archive or who is authoring the
monograph. The scholar can indicate what to markup, and what kinds of interactions a user should be able to have with the digital work.
The importance of the relationships between “source” and “visualization” or “content” and “presentation” has already given rise to a new genre of art, that explores these relationships in a playful way. Artists represent
existing, often real-time, data streams such as internet
traffic, economic or geophysical data using visual
representations. Manovich suggests that one way to
engage critically with such works is to look at how
effectively the choice of mapping functions as a
commentary on the data stream. This same approach may be applied to digital publications in order to
evaluate and understand the dependencies between
interface and data.
These theories will be tested by discussing some
representative websites such as the Women Writers
Project (www.wwp.brown.edu), documents in the Virtual
Humanites Lab (http://www.brown.edu/Departments/
Italian_Studies/vhl/vhl.html) and Thomas and Ayers, The Differences Slavery Made (http://www.vcdh.
virginia.edu/AHR/).
References
[1] Daalgard, Rune, “Hypertext and the Scholarly
Archive - Intertexts, Paratexts and Metatexts at Work”,
in Proceedings of the twelfth ACM conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia (14-18 August, Aarhus, Denmark). New York: ACM Press: 175-184
[2] Liu, Alan, “The Art of Extraction: Toward a
Cultural History and Aesthetics of XML and Database-
Driven Web Sites.” http://dc-mrg.english.ucsb.edu/conference/2002/documents/Alan_Liu_Art_of_
Extraction.html.
[3] Transcendental Data: Toward a Cultural History and Aesthetics of the New Encoded Discourse. By: Liu, Alan. Critical Inquiry, Autumn 2004, Vol. 31 Issue 1, p49-84
[4] Manovich, Lev, The Language of New Media. MIT Press, 2002.
[5] Manovich, Lev, The Anti-Sublime Ideal in New Media. Chair et Metal 7, 2002. http://www.chairetmetal.com/cm07/manovich-complet.htm
[6] Moulthrop, S. The analog experience of digital culture, in R. Koskimaa and M. Eskelinen (eds.), Cybertext
Yearbook 2000. Jyvaskyla: Publications of the
Research Centre for Contemporary Culture, 2001. pp. 183-98.
[7] Moulthrop, Stuart, “What the Geeks Know:
Hypertext and the Problem of Literacy” in Proceedings
of Sixteenth ACM Conference on Hypertext and
Hypermedia, ACM Press 2005, pp xx-yy.
[8] Christiane Paul: Databases, data visualization and mapping in Christiane Paul: Digital Art, Thames and Hudson 2003, pp. 174-189
[9] Ryan, Marie-Laure, Cyberspace, Cybertexts,
Cybermaps. Dichtung-Digital 2004, issue 1. http://www.dichtung-digital.org/2004/1-Ryan.htm","txt","2","",""
"661","7","THE NORA PROJECT: TEXT MINING AND LITERARY INTERPRETATION","3","This panel brings together three papers showcasing
different facets of the nora Project, a multi-
institutional, multi-disciplinary Mellon-funded initiative
to apply text mining and visualization techniques to
digital humanities text collections.
We are currently one year into the initial two-year
phase of the project. Though most of our methods remain
tentative, most our findings speculative, and our
technical environment experimental, we nonetheless have significant progress to report. In practical terms, work on the project has advanced considerably since the initial demos and research agendas that were presented at last year’s conference (2005). We have conducted four sustained text mining investigations (two of which are discussed in detail in the papers below), built a complete technical environment that allows a non-specialist user
to engage in the text mining process, and we have
begun to achieve some consistency in our understanding
of what data mining in the humanities, particularly
literary interpretation, might be good for. While our
findings in this last area remain contingent in the extreme,
they nonetheless tend to cluster around activities such as provocation, patterning, anomaly, and re-vision (in
the most literal sense). In both of the literary test cases documented in the papers in this session, text mining has produced compelling insights that already provide the
basis for more traditional scholarly interventions—
papers and articles—in their respective subject fields. The technical environments featured in the papers likewise
have promise in their own right and stand ready to
support text analysis (Tamarind), structured text
visualization (Maryland’s adaptation of the InfoVis
Toolkit), and a newly designed visual environment in support of the kind of complex, aggregative operations endemic to data mining (the Clear Browser).
In “Undiscovered Public Knowledge,” Kirschenbaum
et al. report on their experiments mining for patterns
of erotic language in the poetry and correspondence
of Emily Dickinson. This paper also describes
significant components of the complete nora architecture,
including the end-user visualization toolkit. In
“Distinguished Speakers,” Ramsay and Steger explore
keyword extraction methods as a way of prompting
critical insight. Using the particular case of Virginia Woolf’s novel The Waves, they explore the use of the tf-
idf formula and its variations for finding the “distinctive vocabulary” of individual characters in a novel. They also discuss their use of Tamarind (an XML preprocessor for scholarly text analysis used by the nora project) to make such
investigations faster and easier. In “The Clear Browser,”
Ruecker, Rossello and Lord describe their attempt
to create a visual interface design that is effectively
positioned to be attractive for humanists. The goal of this sub-project is to help make the system accessible and
interesting for scholars who might have an interest in the results of data mining, but are not immersed in the
technology.
All authors listed in the papers have communicated their willingness to participate.
References
S. Downie, J. Unsworth, B. Yu, D. Tcheng, G. Rockwell and S. Ramsay (2005). “A revolutionary approach to humanities computing?: Tools development and the D2K data-mining framework.” ACH/ALLC 2005.","txt","2","",""
"662","7","""Undiscovered Public Knowledge"": Mining for Patterns of Erotic Language in Emily Dickinson's Correspondence with Susan Huntington (Gilbert) Dickinson","9","This paper develops a rationale for “provocational” text mining in literary interpretation; discusses a specific application of the text mining techniques to a corpus of some 200 XML-encoded documents; analyzes the results from the vantage point of a literary scholar with subject expertise; and finally introduces a tool that lets non-specialist users rank a sample set, submit it to a data mining engine, view the results of the classification task, and visualize the interactions of associated metadata using scatterplots and other standard representations.
Text mining, or machine learning as it is also known, is a rapidly expanding field. Canonical applications are
classification and clustering (Weiss 2005, Widdows 2004,
Witten 2000). These applications are becoming common in industry, as well as defense and law enforcement. They are also increasingly used in the sciences and social sciences,
where researchers frequently have very large volumes
of data. The humanities, however, are still only just
beginning to explore the use of such tools. In the
context of the Nora Project, a multidisciplinary team is collaborating to develop an architecture for non-
specialists to employ text mining on some 5 GB of 18th
and 19th century British and American literature. Just as
importantly, however, we are actively working to discover what
unique potential these tools might have for the humanist.
While there are undoubtedly opportunities for all
of the normative text mining applications in large
humanities repositories and digital library collections, their
straightforward implementation is not our primary
objective with Nora. As Jerome McGann and others have argued, computational methods, in order to make
significant inroads into traditional humanities research, must concern themselves directly with matters of
interpretation (2001). Our guiding assumption, therefore, has been that our work should be provocational in spirit—rather than vocational, or merely utilitarian—and that the intervention and engagement of a human subject expert is not just a necessary concession to the limits of machine learning but instead an integral part of the interpretative
loop. In important respects we see this work as an
extension of insights about modeling (McCarty 2004),
deformation (McGann 2001), aesthetic provocation (Drucker 2004), and failure (Unsworth 1997). It also comports with some of the earliest applications of
data mining, such as when Don Swanson associated
magnesium deficiency with migraine headaches, an insight
provoked by patterns uncovered by data mining but only
subsequently confirmed through a great deal of more
traditional medical testing (Heast 1999).
We began with a corpus of about 200 XML-encoded
letters comprising correspondence between the poet Emily
Dickinson and Susan Huntington (Gilbert) Dickinson, her sister-in-law (married to her brother William Austin). Because debates about what counts as and constitutes the erotic in Dickinson have been primary to study of her work for the last half century, we chose to explore
patterns of erotic language in this collection. In a first step our domain expert classified by hand all the documents
into two categories “hot” and “not hot.” This was done in order to have a baseline for evaluation of the automatic classifications to be performed later.
We then developed an exploratory prototype tool to allow users to explore automatic classification of documents based on a training set of documents classified manually. The prototype allows users to read a letter and classify it as “hot” or “not-hot” (Fig 1). After manually classifying
a representative set of examples (e.g. 15 hot and 15
not-hot documents) this training set is submitted to the data mining classifier. For every other letter in the
corpus, users can then see the proposed classification,
review the document, and accept or change the proposed classification. The words identified by the data mining as possible indicators of erotic language are highlighted in the text of the document.
Importantly, this process can be performed in an iterative fashion as users improve the training set progressively and re-submit the automatic classification. Currently results are presented in the form of a scatterplot which allows users to see if there is any correlation between the classification and any other metadata attribute of the letters (e.g. date, location, presence of mutilation on the physical document, etc.) Users can see which documents
have been classified by hand (they are marked with
triangles) and which have been categorized automatically
(they appear as a circle). Letters that have been classified as not-hot always appear in black, and in color for hot, making it easy to rapidly spot the letters of interest.
A key aspect of our work has been to test the feasibility
of this fairly complex distributed process. The Web user
interface for manual and automatic classification is a Java
Web Start application developed at the University of
Maryland, based on the InfoVis Toolkit by Jean-Daniel
Fekete (2004). It can be launched from a normal Web
page and runs on the user’s computer. The automatic
classification is performed using a standard Bayesian
algorithm executed by a data mining tool called D2K,
hosted at the University of Illinois National Center for
Supercomputing Applications. A set of web services
perform the communication functions between the Java
Interface and D2K. The data mining is performed by
accessing a Tamarind data store provided by the
University of Georgia, which has preprocessed and
tokenized the original XML documents. The entire system
is now functional.
What of the results? The textual critic Harold Love
has observed of “undiscovered public knowledge”
(consciously employing the aforementioned Don
Swanson’s phrase) that too often knowledge, or its
elements, lies (all puns intended) like scattered pieces
of a puzzle but remains unknown because its logically
related parts are diffused, relationships and correlations
suppressed (1993). The word “mine” as a new indicator
identified by D2K is exemplary in this regard. Besides
possessiveness, “mine” connotes delving deep,
plumbing, penetrating--all things we associate with the
erotic at one point or another. So “mine” should have
already been identified as a “likely hot” word, but
has not been, oddly enough, in the extensive critical
literature on Dickinson’s desires. “Vinnie” (Dickinson’s
sister Lavinia) was also labeled by the data mining classifier
as one of the top five “hot” words. At first, this word
appeared to be a mistake, a choice based on proximity
to words that are actually erotic. Many of Dickinson’s
effusive expressions to Susan were penned in her early
years (written when a twenty-something) when her
letters were long, clearly prose, and full of the daily details
of life in the Dickinson household. While extensive
writing has been done on the blending of the erotic with
the domestic, of the familial with the erotic, and so forth,
the determination that “Vinnie” in and of itself was just as
erotic as words like “mine” or “write” was illuminating.
The result was a reminder of how or why some words are
considered erotic: by their relationship to other words.
While a scholar may un-self-consciously divide
epistolary subjects within the same letter, sometimes
within a sentence or two of one another, into completely
separate categories, the data mining classifier will
not. Remembering Dickinson’s “A pen has so many
inflections and a voice but one,” the data mining has made
us, in the words of our subject expert, “plumb much more
deeply into little four and five letter words, the function
of which I thought I was already sure, and has also
enabled me to expand and deepen some critical connections
I’ve been making for the last 20 years.”
Figure 1: Users can select a document in the collection
(here “Her breast is fit for pearls”) and read the document.
They can then classify it as hot (red) or not-hot (black),
which helps build the training set.
Figure 2: After requesting that the remaining documents be
automatically classified, purple color squares are placed
next to each document that had not been classified manually.
Bright colors mean that the data mining suggests that the
document might be “hot” and black means “not hot”. On
the most left pane, a list of words is provided, with the words
found to be more representative of the hot documents of the
training set listed at the top. Figure 3: This is an alternate ”scatterplot” view of the
collection. Each dot represent a document. Time (i.e. the
median of the estimated date range) is mapped on the X axis,
and the length of the document is mapped on the Y axis.
Color represents hotness. The same color coding is used.
We can see that the longer documents were written earlier
on. The display also suggests that there is no correlation
between time and hotness, and no particular time periods
where significantly more hot documents were written.
Zooming is possible to inspect particular clusters.
References
Drucker, J. and B. Nowviskie. (2004). “Speculative
Computing: Aesthetic Provocations in Humanities
Computing.” In S. Schreibman, R. Siemens, and
J. Unsworth (eds.), The Blackwell Companion to
Digital Humanities (pp. 431-447). Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing Ltd.
Fekete, J-D. (2004). “The Infovis Toolkit.” In Proceedings
of the 10th IEEE Symposium on Information
Visualization (pp. 167-174). Washington DC: IEEE
Press.
Hearst, M. (1999). “Untangling Text Data Mining.”
At <http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~hearst/papers/
acl99/acl99-tdm.html>.
Love, H. (1993). Scribal Publication in Seventeenth-
Century England. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
McCarty, W. (2004). “Modeling: A Study in Words
and Meanings.” In S. Schreibman, R. Siemens, and
J. Unsworth (eds.), The Blackwell Companion to
Digital Humanities (pp. 254-270). Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing Ltd.
McGann, J. (2001). Radiant Textuality: Literature After
the World Wide Web. New York: Palgrave.
Plaisant, C., Rose, J., Yu, B., Auvil, L.,
Kirschenbaum, M.G, Smith, M.N, Clement, T.
and Lord, G. (2006). Exploring Erotics in Emily
Dickinson’s Correspondence with Text Mining and
Visual Interfaces, to appear in the Proceedings of the
Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (JCDL 06).
Unsworth, J. (1997). “The Importance of Failure.” The
Journal of Electronic Publishing 3.2. At < http://
www.press.umich.edu/jep/03-02/unsworth.html>.
Weiss, S., et al. (2005). Text Mining: Predictive Methods
for Analyzing Unstructured Information. New York:
Springer.
Widdows, D. (2004). Geometry and Meaning. Stanford:
CLSI Publications.
Witten, I. and E. Frank. (2000). Data Mining: Practical
Machine Learning Tools and Techniques with Java
Implementations. San Diego: Academic Press.","txt","2","",""
"663","7","Distinguished Speakers: Keyword Extraction and Critical Analysis with Virginia Woolf's The Waves","9","From the earliest epistolary novels of the eighteenth
century to the stream-of-consciousness narratives
of the twentieth, English novelists have constructed
narratives in which a single story is told from a variety
of different first-person viewpoints. The motivations for this technique are as ramified as the variations of
the technique itself; some authors have used it to
demonstrate the contingent nature of subjectivity, while others have employed the technique merely as a way of increasing dramatic irony and tension. In most cases,
the individuated chorus of speakers is distinguished
stylistically. One might compare, in this context, the scientific formality of the male characters in Dracula with the more personable journalistic endeavors of Mina and the twittering effusions of Lucy; the unprepossessing
nobility of Hartright with the urbane wickedness of
the Count in The Woman in White; the fractured, acausal narrative of Benjy Compson with the neurotic eloquence of his brother Quentin in The Sound and the Fury.
Virginia Woolf’s 1931 novel The Waves employs this
approach to narrative in order to trace the lives of six friends
from early childhood to old age. The characters each tell their stories at seven distinct stages of their lives. Each monologue is clearly delineated, and all six characters share some of the same experiences at different points in the narrative.
Yet some critics claim these characters are not differentiated from one another stylistically, and that the distinguishing
features of the characters have more to do with the
complex symbolic landscape each one inhabits -- a motif
foregrounded by the lack of stylistic differentiation.
J. Guiget, for example, maintains that “these are not voices,
in the sense that they are not differentiated. But for the ‘Bernard said’ or ‘Jinny said’ that introduces them, they would be indistinguishable; they have the same texture,
the same substance, the same tone” (283). Likewise
M. Rosenthal suggests that although the speeches are
highly stylized, the language is undifferentiated. He goes
on to say that “although the different speakers all have different points of view and preoccupations, they use the same kind of sentence rhythms and employ similar kinds
of image patterns” (144). For these critics, the six
characters are not characters at all, but voices
indistinguishable by means of language or imagery.
There is, however, an opposing critical position that stresses the importance of stylistic differentiation among the characters in the novel (the specific contours of this difference being the main point of scholarly contention). Charlotte Mendez draws the line of differentiation along the gender axis. Hermione Lee emphasizes the distinction
between the worldly speakers and the more solitary
speakers. Susan Gorsky emphasizes the individuality of the characters through a clustering of their primary images. According to her research, “the speech of each character is made distinct within the mask of the formal monologue by the repetition of key phrases and images. Diction varies from one speaker to the next because of the words repeated in the image patterns” (454).
With this critical backdrop, certain questions naturally emerge. Do the characters employ similar image patterns or distinctive language patterns? Is there a way to group characters based on similarities in their speeches? Are there six voices in the novel or is there only one?
Our goal was not to adjudicate the matter, but to seek further entry points into these axes of intelligibility. Knowing that vocabulary (symbolic or not) would be one vector of interest, we employed several variations of the tf-idf formula as a way to separate the characters.
Tf-idf -- a popular formula in information retrieval -- weighs term frequency in a document against the
frequency of that term throughout a corpus. By assigning
weights to terms, it attempts to re-fit a word frequency list so that terms are not distributed according to Zipf’s law. We compared every word token in each of the six characters to every other character’s vocabulary, and used the resulting lists of “distinctive terms” as the basis for further reflection on the individuation of character in Woolf’s novel.
In generating our results, we had recourse to Tamarind (one of the software subsystems for the nora project). This system, which acts as an XML pre-processor for scholarly text analysis, tokenizes, parses, and determines
part-of-speech markers for each distinct token in a
corpus. Using this system as a base, we were able to conduct
comprehensive term-comparisons using only 50 lines of code (in Common Lisp). We therefore think of this
project as a test case for the feasibility of using Tamarind as way to simplify complex text analysis procedures of the sort envisioned by the larger nora project.
In this paper, we present the results of our investigation into Woolf’s narrative, while also looking at the ways in which the software architecture for nora enabled us to undertake the study quickly and easily. Drawing on similar work with tf-idf in digital humanities (e.g.
Rydberg-Cox’s work with Ancient Greek literature), we suggest some of the ways in which the results of keyword visualized. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, we discuss the ways in which the computerized generation of “suggestive pattern” can enable critical reflection in literary study.
References
Gorsky, Susan (1972). “The Central Shadow:
Characterization in The Waves.” Modern Fiction Studies 18.3: 449-466.
Guiguet, Jean (1965). Virginia Woolf and Her Works. London: Hogarth.
Lee, Hermione. Virginia Woolf. New York: Vintage, 1996.
Mendez, Charlotte Walker (1994). “Creative
Breakthrough: Sequence and the Blade of
Consciousness in Virgina Woolf’s The Waves.”
Virginia Woolf, Critical Assessments. Ed. Eleanor McNees. Mountfield, England: Helm Information.
Rosenthal, Michael (1979). Virginia Woolf. London: Routledge.
Rydberg-Cox, Jeffrey A. (2002). “Keyword Extraction from Ancient Greek Literary Texts .” LLC 17: 231-44.
Woolf, Virginia (1931). The Waves. New York: Harcourt.","txt","2","",""
"664","7","The Clear Browser: Visually Positioning an Interface for Data Mining by Humanities Scholars","9","We describe in this paper a strategy for interface design based on the concept of visual positioning. We apply this strategy to the design of an interface for the Nora project, which presents a unique opportunity to create tools to accommodate a powerful technology-data mining-to a new group of users-humanities scholars.
The goal of the Nora project is to apply state-of-the-art data mining processes to a wide range of problems in the humanities (Unsworth 2005), not only in the service of hypothesis testing, but also as a means of contributing to hypothesis formulation (Shneiderman 2001; Ramsay
2003). In both of these cases, however, the question
arises of how to make the power of data mining for text collections accessible to academics who are neither
mathematicians nor computer programmers. Typical
interfaces for data mining operations involve either
command lines, such as are used in working in UNIX, or else GUIs, the visual positioning of which frequently places them in a technical domain-many resembling the interfaces used in software compilers. For humanities scholars, it is necessary to consider alternative designs that attempt to adopt a visual position that is at once more
congenial and more appropriate for humanists, while
at the same time sacrificing as little as possible of the functional control of the underlying system.
The concept of visual positioning has become widespread
in the visual communication design community. An
early formulation of the principle was provided by Frascara
(1997) who pointed out that since one of the primary goals of the graphic designer is to improve communication, it is necessary to consider the visual environment and
visual preferences of the users in order to increase the success of the design in communicating with them. The application of this concept to interface design suggests that there are going to be designs that are more or less successful for a particular group of users, and that the same designs won’t necessarily be successful to the same degree with a different group that does not share the same visual position.
In connection with the Nora project, the necessary
communication is between the technical mechanism of the data mining processes and the potential user-the
humanities scholar. A typical data mining operation
consists of the following stages:
1) the system provides the user (in this case, a scholar) with a sample of documents from the collection
2) the scholar chooses among the sample documents those which are of interest for a particular study. In the two Nora project examples, a sample of poems
from a collection of Emily Dickinson was rated
in terms of erotic content, and a sample of novel chapters was rated according to their instantiation of the concept “sentimentalism.”
3) the system performs a set of “feature extraction”
actions in order to determine shared characteristics of the selected documents
4) the scholar examines the shared characteristics and iteratively adjusts the result as necessary
5) the system applies the resolved characteristics to the larger collection in order to automatically identify similar documents
6) the scholar studies both the shared characteristics and the result set, often by using a visualization tool (in Nora, the InfoVis toolkit).
We call the interface intended to facilitate this process
the clear browser. It is based on the idea of rich-
prospect browsing, where some meaningful representation
of every item in the collection is combined with a set of tools for manipulating the display (Ruecker 2003). In this case, the primary tools are in the form of a set of “kernels” which encapsulate in visual form the results of the data training stage. The kernels allow a simple
means of storing the results of feature extraction
processes for further modification or use, and also give the user a simple mechanism for applying the process, by
dragging and dropping the kernel within the representation of all the collection items (Figure 1). The effects of the kernel are to visually subset the collection items into two groups-selected and unselected-so that the user can subsequently access the items in the selected subset. The design also allows for combinations of kernels, and for a single kernel to provide multiple functions, including not only subsetting the items, but also adding further
grouping or sorting functions, as well as changes to the form of representation.
Figure 1. The Clear Browser provides a number of blank kernels that can be configured by the user through a data mining “training” process. These kernels can then be
applied to the larger collection by dragging and dropping them. This sketch shows a total collection of 5000 author names, with a subset selected by the kernel.
One of the important aspects of the visual positioning for humanities scholars is the proposed form of the meaningful representation of the individual items in the collection. These items are each a piece of text, and
together they form a large body of text that is displayed
on screen as the default interface. It perhaps goes
without saying that humanities scholars are comfortable
with text, whether in print or on screens, and the choice
to represent collection items with text can therefore
contribute to their ability to interpret quickly and intuitively
what is happening with a system that might otherwise be unfamiliar or disorienting.
For purposes of illustration, it might be helpful at this point to introduce a scenario involving changes to
the form of representation. Such a change might be
introduced by the system in connection with a
sorting action. For example, if the items in the collection
are initially represented as the titles of poems, and the user elects to sort the selected poems by date of first
publication, it would typically be useful at that point
to add the date to the name of each poem. This
addition would constitute a change to the individual
representations of items. Alternatively, in cases where the
user prefers to group the items rather than sort them, the additional information might be attached to the
entire group in the form of a group label, in which case the
representations of the individual items in the group would
remain unchanged.
Another aspect of the visual positioning is the animated
actions of the kernels, which interact with the field of representations with an effect like oil and water. The
animation of the movement of the text items, which move
to the periphery of the display or the centre of the
area associated with the kernel, provides two kinds of cognitive reassurance. First, the user has a sense of being
able to follow the action of the data mining process as
encapsulated in the kernel. Second, the animated transitions
of the text items provide reassurance that the system is rearranging the collection without adding or subtracting any items. This second factor is particularly important in cases where one of the other functions of the kernel is to add or subtract components from the meaningful
representation. By animating the movements and changes
in discrete steps, the interface helps make the results of the process understandable. The animated actions of the items become part of the visual positioning, not because cognitive reassurance isn’t important for all users, but because some users can benefit more than others from having it provided in this form.
References
Frascara, Jorge (1997). User-centered Graphic Design. London: Taylor and Francis.
Ramsay, Stephen (2003). “Toward an Algorithmic
Criticism.” Literary and Linguistic Computing. 18.2.
Ruecker, Stan (2003). Affordances of Prospect for
Academic Users of Interpretively-tagged Text
Collections. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation.
Edmonton: University of Alberta.
Shneiderman, Ben (2001). “Inventing Discovery Tools: Combining Information Visualization with Data
Mining.” Keynote for Discovery Science 2001
Conference, November 25-28, 2001, Washington, DC.
Unsworth, John (2004). “Forms of Attention: Digital Humanities Beyond Representation.” Paper delivered at CaSTA 2004: The Face of Text. 3rd conference
of the Canadian Symposium on Text Analysis,
McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario. November
19-21 2004.","txt","2","",""
"665","7","COMPARING AGGREGATE SYNTAXES","9","Recently, large and representative databases have become available which record how languages and dialects differ syntactically, i.e. with respect to the way in which words and phrases combine. Barbiers, Cornips and van der Kleij (2002) and Longobardi are examples of
such data collections, and several more are in construction, and should be available presently. This availability of
large amounts of digitized, controlled syntactic data
enables several new questions to be addressed, including how syntactic features are geographically distributed (dialectology and geolinguistics, see Spruit, 2005), to what degree syntactic features associate with one another (typology), and the degree to which syntactic features follow phonological and lexical features in their geographic or linguistic (typological) patterning.
Perhaps most intriguingly both Guardino & Longobardi (2005) and Dunn et al. (2005) postulate that syntactic features are more resistant to change than other linguistic
properties, so that careful examination of shared
syntactic features and especially shared syntactic innovation should be not only a welcome addition to the techniques
of historical reconstruction in linguistics, which rely
primarily on phonetic and morphological evidence, but potentially an improvement.
None of these investigations is conceivable without extensive computational support. Not only is the data digitized, but the analytical procedures, the statistical analysis of the results and their visualization all require significant processing time.
The purpose of this special session will be to present
representative studies exploring the various ways in which
these syntactic databases are being exploited, including ways which might engage other students of the history of human culture.
There will be three papers, one each by the groups at Nijmegen, Trieste and Groningen-Amsterdam. Michael Dunn of Nijmegen will present further aspects of the
Nijmegen group’s work, featured earlier this year in Science,
aimed at using syntactic comparison to reconstruction language history in New Guinea, Giuseppe Longobardi will present new aspects of his work (with Gianollo and Guaridano) exploring especially the value of abstract syntactic features in historical reconstruction, and Marco Spruit and John Nerbonne will present their work (with Heeringa) comparing syntactic distances on the one hand with lexical and phonetic differences on the other.
References
Barbiers, S., L. Cornips & S. van der Kleij (eds). (2002) Syntactic Microvariation. Electronic publication of Meertens Institute and NIWI. URL: http://www.meertens.knaw.nl/books/synmic
Dunn A.M., Terrill A., Reesink G., Foley R. & Levinson
S.C. (2005) Structural Phylogenetics and the
Reconstruction of Ancient Language History. Science,
(309), 2072-2075.
Gianollo, C., C.Guardino, & G.Longobardi (2004, in press) Historical Implications of a Formal Theory of Syntactic Variation. In S.Anderson & D.Jonas (eds.) Proc. of DIGS VIII.
Guardino, C. (2005) Parametric Comparison and
Language Taxonomy. In M.Batallori, M.L.Hernanz,
C.Picallo, and F.Roca (eds.) Grammaticalization and Parametric Variation. Oxford: OUP. pp.149-174.
Spruit, M. (2005) Classifying Dutch dialects using a syntactic measure: The perceptual Daan and Blok
dialect map revisited. In J. Doetjes & J. van de
Weijer (eds.) Linguistics in the Netherlands. Benjamins,
Amsterdam. 179-190.","txt","2","",""
"666","7","Contact and Phylogeny in Island Melanesia","9","Due to the continual process of erosion of the lexical material in a language,the phylogenetic signal
detectable by the comparative method inevitably
disappears into noise at some point in the past. Dunn et al. (2005) presents some results of a project investigating deep time relationships between the non-Austronesian group of languages (the so-called ‘Papuan’ languages) in Island Melanesia, a group of languages which (i) could plausibly be related (especially when considering recurrent typological similarities across most of the group), but which (ii) cannot be shown to be related using standard linguistic methods. Methods from computational biology
have been adapted to address questions of language
history, treating structural features of language as
genealogically transmitted traits.
Island Melanesia is a fascinating natural laboratory for the study of language change. From 30000 to 3000 years before present these islands (the Bismarck Archipelago,
Bougainville, and the Central Solomons) formed the
furthermost limit of human dispersal into the south
Pacific. In the last 3000 years the Austronesian expansion
encompassed near Island Melanesia, and continued
eastwards into the Pacific. Currently 90% of the languages
in near Island Melanesia are members of the Oceanic
subgroup of the Austronesian family. With a few interesting
exceptions, these languages fall into reconstructable genealogical relationships using standard comparative
methods. The remaining 10% of the languages of the
region are the hitherto unrelatable Papuan remnants of the pre-Austronesian linguistic diversity. The Papuan languages are largely out of contact with each other.
The stability of individual structural features relative to the lexicon is known to be variable, yet it takes rather special conditions of prolonged contact for extensive
exchange of structure to take place. While we do not have
evidence to support a claim that language structure is
universally more conservative than lexical form based
relationships, it is plausible that in some cases it would be so, and the languages of Island Melanesia seems likely candidates. This is in any case an empirical question.
The presence of the Oceanic Austronesian languages in the region gives us a control group of languages with known phylogeny from standard methods. Structural phylogenetic methods use an independent set of data to the lexical data of the comparative method, so once a computational tool can be shown to detect a phylogenetic signal that matches the known signal of the control, it becomes scientifically interesting to apply the tool to the target group of lexically unrelatable Papuan languages. The set of relationships shown by the linguistic structural
data are geographically plausible, and have provided
hypotheses for testing in human genetics.
To date the main method we have used to investigate structural relationships between languages is maximum parsimony, which emphasises the phylogenetic component of the historical signal carried by structural traits. There is no doubt that that a process of reticulation through
borrowing and contact must also explain some of the variation. Any set of linguistic structural data will show some reticulation (in linguistic terms, homology due to contact-induced change and chance convergence). In
biological systems these phenomena are relatively rare, and the methods for investigating them are newer. The NeighborNet method implemented in the SplitsTree package (Bryant and Moulton, 2004) is emerging as the current standard (used e.g. by Bryant, Filimon and Gray 2005; Cysouw and coworkers with the WALS data at MPI EVA, Leipzig). These networks concur with the
observations of descriptive linguists that Oceanic-Papuan
ontact has had a significant influence on some groups of languages within Island Melanesia. Deeper exploration of the typological database used shows--not unexpectedly--
that traits are differentially involved in horizontal
transfer between genera, leading to the possibility of
developingdata-driven methods for statistically
compensating for the conctact signal and amplifying the signal of phylogeny.
While for a long period strict adherence to the comparative method has provided a needed rigor to counterbalance other more dramatic but ultimately unverifiable methods
(e.g. the ‘megalo-comparativists’; Matisoff 1990),
advances in areal linguistics and statistical approaches now allow us to investigate linguistic change outside the scope of the comparative method.
References
Bryant, D. & Moulton, V. 2004. NeighborNet: an
agglomerative algorithm for theconstruction of
phylogenetic networks. Molecular iology and
Evolution 21(2):255-265. Bryant, D., Filimon, F. & Gray, R. 2005. Untangling our past: Languages, Trees, Splits and Networks. In: The Evolution of Cultural Diversity: Phylogenetic Approaches. ed. by R. Mace, C. Holden, S. Shennan. UCL Press.
Dunn M., Terrill A., Reesink G., Foley R. & Levinson
S.C. 2005. Structural Phylogenetics and the
Reconstruction of Ancient Language History. Science,
309:2072-2075 .
Matisoff, J.A. 1990. On megalo-comparison: a discussion note. Language 66:106-20.","txt","2","",""
"667","7","Is a 'History and Geography of Human Syntax' meaningful?","9","In addition to its theoretical impact, the development of molecular biology has brought about the possibility
of extraordinary scientific progress in the historical study of classification and geographical distribution of
different species and different human populations
(cf. Cavalli Sforza et al., 1994).
We want to suggest that parametric theories of linguistic variation in generative grammar can prompt analogous
progress in the study of the history and geographical
distribution of different language families.
Thus, this work aims at unifying two traditionally
unrelated lines of investigation:
- the formal study of syntactic variation in generative grammar
- the reconstruction of historical relations among
languages (phylogenetic taxonomy)
The pursuit of this approach will be argued to seriously question the traditional belief in the orthogonality of grammatical typology and language diachrony/genealogy,
enabling us to tentatively suggest a positive answer to the following problem, that we conventionally label ‘Humboldt’s problem’:
Are the typological and the genealogical (phylogenetic)
classifications of languages significantly isomorphous?
From the second half of the 19th century on, three different types of enterprises attempted to classify languages and/or populations separated for centuries or millennia into historically significant families:
A) for relatively shallow time depths and in particularly favored cases, the classical linguistic comparative
method, based on inspection of the lexicon, can
often provide sharp taxonomic conclusions, immune
from the need of serious probabilistic evaluation, since the relatedness hypotheses are warranted by few patently highly improbable phenomena, most notably recurrent (optimally ‘regular’) sound
correspondences. These properties largely solve the problem of a safe choice of comparanda, allowing
for solid conclusions.
B) Beyond the classical one, the only other linguistic method so far proposed is Joseph Greenberg’s (e.g. 1987, 2000) mass comparison; still based on the lexicon, it suggests more far-reaching but much
less rigorous and widely acceptable taxonomic
conclusions, because the very choice of the compared
entities, based on pretheoretical resemblance among arrays of words, is less safe from chance. Obvious
probabilistic questions, often of unmanageable
complexity, arise and receive controversial answers.
C) A third comparative practice stems from a different discipline, population genetics (cf. Cavalli Sforza et al., op. cit.): no question arises here about the
comparability of the basic entities, since they are drawn from a finite and universal list of biological options: a blood group must be compared to the same blood group in another population, obviously, not to other sorts of genetic polymorphisms. The only issue concerns the statistical and empirical
significance of the similarities discovered. This is why population genetics is considered so useful to complement linguistics in the task of classifying
populations and languages.
We propose that the contribution of linguistics proper to such issues can be completely renovated on the grounds
of parametric generative theories, which in principle
allow one to bring modern cognitive science to bear on issues of cultural variation and historical explanation.
Since parameters form a finite and universal list of
discrete biological (though culturally set) options, they resemble the set of polymorphisms studied by population
genetics and potentially enjoy similar (and perhaps even greater) formal advantages, overcoming in principle all questions on the choice of comparanda affecting linguistic
methods based on the vocabulary. On the other side, the a priori probative value of parametric comparison is
mathematically very high: e.g. just 30 binary independent
parameters generate 230 languages = 1,073,741,824. The probability for two languages to coincide in the values of 30 independent parameters with binary equiprobable values = 1/230, of three languages = (1/230)2, i.e. less than one in one billion billions.
We will test and exploit such a potential by establishing exact comparisons of parameter values among some languages whose degree of cognation is independently known, in order to prove the effectiveness of the method to provide historically correct taxonomic insights before applying it to controversial cases.
For the past fifteen years, a number of scholars have
studied the parametric variation of the structure of nominal
phrases in several languages. Relying on this and new specific work and following the MGP method of
Longobardi (2003: relatively many parameters in relatively
many languages in a single limited subdomain), we have worked out a preliminary list of 50 binary parameters
affecting DP-internal syntax and tested their values in over 20 ancient and contemporary varieties drawn from several
Indoeuropean and non-Indoeuropean subfamilies
(including Modern Italian, French, European Portuguese,
Latin, Classical Greek, Modern Greek, Gothic, Old
English, Modern English, German, Bulgarian, Serbo-Croat, Arabic, Hebrew, Hungarian, Wolof, among others). Each
relevant parameter has been tentatively set for such
languages, obtaining up to 50 precise correspondence sets of parameter values, and for every pair of languages we could
arithmetically count identities and differences. In our
formalism, the relative distance between any two languages
is expressed by a coefficient, which consists of an ordered pair of positive integers <i,d>, where i is the number of identities and d the number of differences. This procedure of lexically blind comparison, coupled with especially
designed empirical and statistical methods, will be argued
to prove adequate to generate the essentially correct phylogenetic tree, as resulting from traditional methods of lexical comparison. This is why the answer to
Humboldt’s problem above appears (perhaps surprisingly) tendentially positive.
The elaboration of a compact variation model of a whole syntactic subdomain, even though for the mere purposes of historical taxonomy, begins, in turn, to yield a number
of insights for parameter theory itself from both a
synchronic and a diachronic point of view:
- we will show how parameters, even in a limited area of grammar, appear to be tightly interrelated and not freely orthogonal to each other (cf. Fodor
2000): some parameters become irrelevant (in
different senses, to be technically distinguished) in a language due to the setting of other parameters (or to variation in the composition of the lexicon: Kayne 2003);
- parameters can be evaluated according to their relative historical weight:
1) certain parameters may understate or overstate
identities and differences because they trigger a high number of irrelevant settings in the other parameters.
Their diachronic resetting will be much more
consequential (catastrophic in Lightfoot’s 1999 sense)
than that of others;
2) some parameters appear to be taxonomically more significant than others because they are diachronically more stable. The possibility that this may be due to different degrees of exposure to external triggers and other modules at the interface, along the lines of Keenan’s insight about Inertia, will be explored.
This line of investigation will be construed as a peculiar
way to progress ‘beyond explanatory adequacy’ in
generative grammar (Chomsky 2001), leading to a better
understanding of both classical and new issues in the cultural and natural history of the language faculty.
References
Cavalli Sforza, L. P. Menozzi, and A. Piazza (1994). The History and Geography of Human Genes.
Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Chomsky, N. (2001). Beyond explanatory adequacy.
Eliminating labels. MIT Working Papers in
Linguistics.
Fodor, J. (2000) The Mind doesn’t Work that Way :The Scope and Limits of Computational Psychology. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Greenberg, J. (1987). Language in the Americas.
Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Greenberg, J. (2000). Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family. Volume I: Grammar. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Kayne, R. 2003. “Antisymmetry and Japanese”, English Linguistics 20. 1-40.
Lightfoot, D. (1999) The Development of Language:
Acquisition, Change, and Evolution. Oxford:
Blackwell.
Longobardi, G. (2003) Methods in Parametric
Linguistics and Cognitive History. Linguistic Variation
Yearbook 3, pp. 103-140.","txt","2","",""
"668","7","Associations among Linguistic Levels","9","We are now in a position to assess the dialectometric
distances among fairly many sites at three
different linguistic levels: pronunciation (phonetics and phonology), lexicon (or vocabulary), and syntax. We shall refer to pronunciation differences as phonological, even if they involve subphonological variation as well.
We measure lexical and syntactic differences at a
nominal level, effectively using techniques introduced by Seguy (1971) and Goebl (i.a. 1982), and we measure
pronunciation differences numerically, using Levenshtein
distance (Nerbonne, Heeringa and Kleiweg, 1999;
Heeringa, 2004). The novelty of this paper consists first in the opportunity to include syntax among the linguistic levels we analyze, and second, in its attention to potential,
mutually structuring elements among the linguistic levels.
While most linguists would predict that vocabulary is more volatile than pronunciation and syntax, and might predict that lexical choice should show little association with other linguistic levels, there have been predictions
linking pronunciation with syntactic properties (Donegan
& Stampe, 1983). Both pronunciation and syntax are highly structured systems, within which a single linguistic
parameter might lead to a multitude of concrete and measurable effects.
We address two research questions in the present paper, the first of which is fairly straightforward:
1) To what degree are aggregate phonological, lexical,
and syntactical distances associated with one
another when measured among varieties of a single language?
1a) Are syntax and phonology more strongly
associated with one another than either (taken
separately) is associated with lexical distance?
To answer the questions above, it is sufficient to calculate correlation coefficients among the distance measurements for the three linguistic levels. This is a reasonable measure
of the degree to which the three linguistic levels are
associated.
It would be a mistake, however, to interpret any such
correlation as influence without checking for the influence
of a third factor. This is not merely the methodological
reminder that one ought not interpret correlation as
causation. More specifically, geography has independently
been shown to that correlate highly with each of these linguistic levels, and it is quite plausible that geography could influence each of the levels separately, leading to the impression of structural influence between them. We suggest that this should be regarded as a null hypothesis, i.e. that there is no influence among the various linguistic levels. the This leads to the second research question we wish to address in this paper:
2) Is there evidence for influence among the linguistic
levels, even once we control for the effect of
geography?
2a) Do syntax and phonology more strongly
influence one another than either (taken separately)
influences or is influenced by lexical distance?
We attack these latter questions in multiple regression
designs, checking for the effects of linguistic levels
on one another once geography is included as an
independent variable.
References
Donegan, P., and D. Stampe (1983). Rhythm and the holistic organization of language structure. In:
Richardson, J. F. et al. (eds.) Papers from the
Parasessioon on the interplay of phonology,
morphology and syntax. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic
Society, 337--353.
Goebl, H. (1982). Dialektometrie. Prinzipien und
Methoden des Einsatzes der Numerischen Taxonomie
im Bereich der Dialektgeographie, Wien: Austrian Academy of Science.
Heeringa, W. (2004). Measuring dialect pronunciation
differences using Levenshtein distance. U.Groningen,
Ph.D. Thesis.
Nerbonne, J., W. Heeringa, and P. Kleiweg (1999). Edit Distance and Dialect Proximity. In: David Sankoff and Joseph Kruskal (eds.) Time Warps, String Edits
and Macromolecules: The Theory and Practice of Sequence Comparison, Stanford: CSLI Press,
pp.v-xv.
Séguy, J. (1971). La relation entre la distance spatiale et la distance lexicale. In: Revue de linguistique romane, 35: 335--357.","txt","2","",""
"669","7","DIGITAL RESEARCH OR DIGITAL ARTS?","9","To date, humanities computing has been entrenched
in an archival sensibility. While the technologies involved in this field may be innovative, they are
still geared toward the production of traditional
research papers rooted in the materiality, methods and
ideology of print culture. I suggest that humanities computing should not only focus on the preservation
of the human record, but should also foster the
invention of research methods more suitable to a
digital culture. In addition, digital humanities projects
should serve not only to better our understanding of human artifacts, but should also consider the impact of technology on the humanities and on human being itself. I will pursue this argument by presenting some of my own research projects, which blur the boundaries between the arts, critical theory, and the humanities. The projects in question may be viewed at the following URL’s: http://www.spleenhouse.net; http://www.dreadmill.net .
For the time being I gave up writing--there is already too much truth in the world--
an overproduction of which apparently cannot be consumed!
-Otto Rank, Letter to a Friend, 1933
In his brilliantly digressive response to the question, “Is Humanities Computing an Academic Discipline?” Geoffrey Rockwell quotes Phaedrus (http://www.iath.
virginia.edu/hcs/rockwell.html). Within this famous
passage, a Socratic account of the invention of writing, is
King Thamus’s response to the enthusiastic inventor, Theus:
O man full of arts, to one it is given to create the things of art, and to another to judge what measure of harm and of profit they have for those that shall employ them.
My concern is that humanities computing, challenged by the need to financially sustain and legitimate itself in a rampant technocracy, has lost sight of the latter assignment noted by Theus. How do we measure the harm and profit that digital tools have for humanists, and for humanity in a more global sense? I do not expect to answer this question adequately in a single presentation, but I believe it is worthy of discussion--and in effect its absence would be conspicuous--at a conference in the digital humanities.
I will approach the question by examining some specific
projects in digital criticism that blur the boundaries between
artistic practice and humanistic scholarship. In addition, I will argue that such projects point the way toward a new digital aesthetics in humanities research.
Following John Guillory, I argue in E-Crit: Digital Media,
Critical Theory, and the Humanities (U of Toronto Press, 2006) that critical theory lent the humanities a
much-needed aura of “rigor” at a time when academic
institutions sought a fuller integration within the dominant technobureaucracy. I also argue that media technologies are serving the very same legitimating purpose for the
humanities today, now that theory’s aura has all but
dissipated. Humanities computing, in this sense, is the new critical theory. But my hope is that the production of digital tools for the humanities is not simply an effect of what Heidegger called technology’s “challenging forth.” My hope as well, is that humanities computing, with its primary concern for preserving artifacts, will not fashion itself as a neo-traditional (though digital) backlash to the perceived threat imposed by critical theory on the
canon. Finally, my hope is that computing humanists will draw on the methodological innovations, ontological
suspicions, and phenomenological conceptions of
technology, as put forth by Heidegger, Foucault, Derrida, etc., to develop research projects that both critique and make full use of the expressive forms available in digital media. Who will invent the scholarly methods suitable to a digital culture? The inventors of such tools should not only be given to create things of art, but should also be given to measure the harm and profit of such things.
As a former student of Gregory Ulmer, I came to
Phaedrus--the first discourse on method--with a very clear purpose in mind: to understand how scholarly method is invented, and how it works within the communications
apparatus that makes it materially possible. To date, humanities computing projects, rooted in an “archival” sensibility, have done little more than increase the speed and efficiency of hermeneutic research methods developed
in and for a print culture. My concern for the future of the humanities, then, is summarized in the following
question, which I extend to the creators of digital humanities
research tools, myself included: “What will we do with all this information once it has been digitally archived?”
I believe that humanities computing can sustain and
legitimate itself not only through the preservation of the human record, but also through the invention of new, digitally mediated research methods that serve to better our understanding not only of human artifacts, but of the impact of technology on the humanities and on human being. To that end, I will introduce two digital media projects, a performance and an installation, that attempt to combine humanistic scholarship, digital art, and the critique of technology.
Project 1: Dreadmill (http://www.dreadmill.net)
The “dreadmill” is a treadmill hardwired to a
computer so that a runner’s speed and heart rate control a multimedia show. In performances of 5-7 kilometres, I run on the dreadmill and discuss the “collusion of death and technology,” drawing primarily on Heideggerian phenomenology, existentialism, and cultural theory. This performance, which I have given at several universities
and art galleries in Canada and the United States, is
designed to challenge preconceived notions of what
defines humanistic scholarship and the dissemination of research. Not only does Dreadmill critique the immobility
of the human body in a screen obsessed culture, it also critiques the sedentary practices of scholars, who
submit themselves physically to the print apparatus. As a
provocative contrast to the conventional lecture or the reading of a conference paper, Dreadmill radically
implicates my body in the act of information delivery. I will show brief video footage of the performance and discuss its relevance to humanistic research practices.
Project 2: Spleenhouse (http://www.spleenhouse.net)
Spleenhouse, an extensive installation project, is designed to rescue the land, language, and practices of one of the few remaining French farmsteads in Ontario, Canada. The project involves relocating a greenhouse from a heritage site in LaSalle, Ontario, and relocating it in the nearby Art Gallery of Windsor, Ontario. Digital documentary footage of the few remaining Francophone farmers in the region will be projected onto the roof of the structure, providing light for the growth of vegetables inside the greenhouse. In the attempt to fuse form and content, this installation, provides a visceral environment for the encounter of rustic agrarian practices and digital techniques, rural simplicity and urban sophistication. I will show slides of the project, play a brief sample of the video footage, and discuss how Spleenhouse presents a new approach for disseminating humanities research in a digital culture. This project is especially suitable to this conference since the final destination of Spleenhouse is in Paris, France, and conference attendees will be able to visit it if they are interested.
For the past decade, I have incessantly been asked to define my work as either humanities research or digital art. This confusion regarding my area of specialization is something that I have consciously fostered. As I will argue throughout this presentation, humanities scholars have a great deal to gain by drawing on the practices and techniques of digital artists. The object of research in the projects outlined above might very well have been
approached from a uniquely print oriented perspective,
resulting in the production of academic essays and books—indeed, these projects have resulted in scholarly publications. But as I will discuss in my presentation, the media chosen to disseminate this research enhances it in several ways, providing an argument for the integration of artistic practices and materials in humanistic scholarship. In addition, the use of digital media in these projects is essential for engaging in a self-reflexive assessment of the impact of technology on the human condition.","txt","2","",""
"670","7","Interactive Matter in the Arts and Humanities","9","Digital Arts and Digital Humanities at first glance
seem different, but do we know how they are
different? One way to explore the intersections of the digital arts and humanities is to identify the location of differences and similarity, especially in research/creation practices, dissemination, and projects.
This paper will tackle three issues around the differences between digital arts and humanities:
1. Practices or Methods. The practices of digital
artists and digital humanists are evolving towards a common craft of interactive matter. The project cycles, funding issues and types of tools developed for interpretative purposes and aesthetic purposes have more in common than the practices of digital humanists have with their traditional colleagues. It is common in both the digital arts and humanities to involve students in apprentice-like opportunities on projects and train them that way.
Further, there are emerging similarities in the types of computing processes used in web projects in the arts and humanities. In this paper there will be demonstration of examples of digital art works and text visualization works to show the similarity and overlap. This overlap raises
questions about the differences between an interpretative
relationship with matter and a aesthetic relationship.
Once we consider digital data as a form of material
(McCullough, 2003) that is formed by the artist/craftsperson
or by the humanist interpreter, we discover that the
formative practices are similar even if the aims are not. It is instructive to imagine a topology of formative practices
that might be common.
2. Research and Creation Dissemination. An
arguable difference between the arts and humanities is the context of dissemination. The research of the humanities
is typically disseminated through journals and
monographs as part of a larger textual dialogue. Even if that which is studied is not itself textual, the community of researchers exchange information and disseminate their research through writings (and to a lesser extent through presented “papers”.) By contrast the research/creation of artists is disseminated through exhibits in galleries or museums, and it is typically disseminated in non-linguistic (or textual) form. If we ignore, for a
moment, the textual ephemera of art dissemination
(artist’s statements, biographies, and curatorial documents),
and also ignore all the textuality of art, the context and form of dissemination is different.
But will it always be so? The web as venue for dissemination
is being used by both humanists and artists. The interactive web site as a form of dissemination is common to both
digital artists and computing humanists. In certain
interesting cases, like “TextArc” (www.textarc.org) it is not clear if the interactive site is art or academic work. For example, Matthew Mirapaul, Arts Columnist of the _New York Times_ is quoted on the “TextArc” site as writing, “TextArc evolves from an academic tool into a full-fledged work of digital art. ... This is the reading
process made visible.” (www.textarc.org/Reactions.html)
It is easy to say that such examples are the exceptions
that make the rule of difference between academic
interpretation and digital art. Given the importance of interface design to the field of computing, especially
networked computing, it is harder to maintain this
distinction in humanities computing projects. All digital humanities projects that aim to develop interactive works
have to engage issues of design, though one could still
argue that there is a difference between design and art that is based on a relationship between aesthetics
and function. This paper will argue that there is a
convergence through issues of usability and interface
design between interactive art and humanities and that the site of this convergence is a common practical concept of interactive matter which has both form and content. This should not surprise us as one of the major achievements of humanities computing is the development of a mature
discourse around the relationship between (logical) form and content for electronic texts that evolved out of
discussions around markup and the Text Encoding
Initiative. Recent work by McGann and Buzzetti
problematizes the distinction between markup (structure) and text (content) re-proposing that markup is diacritical
and that “Books are simulation machines as well, of course.”
(Buzzetti and McGann) In both the digital arts and
humanities we are moving to working with concepts like interface, interactivity, networks, simulation, and design, that have both form and content.
3. Interactive Matters. We are, if you will, returning
to an older idea of the humanities as an alternative to
scholasticism and disciplinary specialization. The
Italian humanists of the 15th and 16th centuries like Bruni,
Alberti, Valla, and Ficino resurrected a Ciceronian ideal of interdisciplinary exchange and textual criticism that crossed then formal scholarly boundaries. They imagined
a new culture of knowledge around the symposium or _convito_ that would bring together people interested in new types of questions. Likewise the emergence of
interactive multimedia, from the hypertext, computer game, to interactive art, poses a challenge to disciplinary distinctions. Who should study the computer game? What sort of training does one need to create an interactive
installation? What matters about interactivity? This presentation will conclude by presenting the results of an interdisciplinary consultation (funded by SSHRC) that developed a concept paper around Interactive Matter. The iMatter project consulted widely to see if the case could be made for a strategic research creation cluster across media arts, digital humanities and game studies. One conclusion of the consultation was that our generation of “professors” are “digital immigrants” who were trained traditionally
and only later crossed to digital research, while youth
today are “digital natives” comfortable with digital practices
as part of study across the arts and humanities. The
differences encoded in disciplinary distinctions that are
obvious to us are not to a generation interested in interactive
media as a site for creative and playful expression. One of the things that matters, therefore, in the study of interactive works is our encounter through teaching and research with a generation for whom digital practices are not the site of interdisciplinary boundary-crossing and conflict. What can we learn about what we could be from those for whom interactivity matters?
References
Buzzetti, Dino and McGann, Jerome. “Critical Editing in a Digital Horizon” in _Electronic Textual Editing_ will be published by the MLA in 2006. I have quoted
the preview version from http://www.tei-c.org/
Activities/ETE/Preview/mcgann.xml .
McCullough, Malcolm. _Abstracting Craft; The Practiced Digital Hand_, MIT Press, 2003.","txt","2","",""
"671","7","Videogames and Critical Practice : case studies and a potential future for digital humanities","9","I will present a case study of interactions and
interventions with the Center for Interamerican
Studies at the University of Texas at El Paso. These
interventions have challenged rigid definitions of
professional academic identities, and have been challenged
by regimes that reinforce said identities. I will include
successes as well as failures. These interventions
occured across disciplines and across media and across bureaucratic entities. I will further introduce collaborations
with collaborations with the Computer Sciences at
the University of Denver where the creation of digital videogames is the integrative activity that affords and asserts a critical and humane presence in the sciences, and proposes a role for critical humanism in both game industries and marketplaces.
The interventions to be shared in this presentation were
created in a situation that can best be described as a
cyberpunk present which presages future conditions for digital humanities based in arts practices. This dark
vision of digital practices - bereft of funding, but full of innovation - will be explored, with linkages not only
to the arts and humanities, but also to contemporary
economic models of the city and policy planning.","txt","2","",""
"672","7","CREATING CTS COLLECTIONS","3","The Classical Text Services protocol [CTS] provides the means for coordinating and integrating XML-
encoded documents on a single subject. Collaborative
efforts among the Stoa Consortium and the Collaboratory
for Research in Computing for Humanities at the
University of Kentucky and Harvard’s Center for Hellenic
Studies have led to the development of several
projects that seek to take advantage of CTS to provide
comprehensive access to classical literary collections. Among these projects, some focus only on the textual aspects of the source materials, and the project content consists only of XML files (encoded according to the TEI Guidelines). Other projects are more elaborate and seek to link source texts to the physical artifacts which contain them, and these projects consist of TEI-XML files and digital image files.
CTS provides the means for organizing, referencing, and querying classical texts. Developed by classicists Chris Blackwell (Furman University) and Neel Smith (College of the Holy Cross), the aim of the Classical Text Services
protocol is to define a network service enabling use of a distributed collection of texts according to notions
that are traditional among classicists. The CTS adopts and extends the hierarchical scheme of bibliographic
entities defined by the OCLC’s and IFLA’s Functional
Requirements for Bibliographic Records, or FRBR [http://www.oclc.org/research/projects/frbr/default.htm].
FRBR describes bibliographic records in terms of a
hierarchy of Works, each of which is realized through one or more Expressions, realized in turn through one or more Manifestations, realized through one or more Items. CTS implements this hierarchy using the traditional terms
Work, Edition or Translation, and Exemplar, while
extending the hierarchy upwards, grouping Works under
a notional entity called “TextGroup’” (corresponding to authors, in the case of literary texts, or any other traditional
and useful corpus, such as “Attica” for inscriptions, or “Berlin” for a published corpus of papyri). CTS also
extends FRBR’s hierarchy downwards, allowing
identification and abstraction of citeable chunks of text (Homer, Iliad Book 1, Line 123), or ranges of citeable
chunks (Hom.~ Il. 1.123-2.22). The CTS protocol
allows sharing of information about texts at any level of the conceptual hierarchy, and allows retrieval of sections
of an identified text at any hierarchical level supported by its scheme of citation.
In this session, we will describe the Classical Text
Services protocol and explain how editors can use it to organize and query texts. We will also explain how we use CTS in one text-focused project, the Neo-Latin
Colloquia project, and how we are expanding the CTS for use in the image-based Venetus A project. We
end our session with a demonstration of the CTS
Implementation Tool (CTS-IT), and introduce the
prototype of the Network Tool for Collaborative Electronic
Editing over the Internet (NeT-CEE), a tool that builds on CTS to provide support for large-scale editing
projects requiring the special talents of geographically distributed individuals.","txt","2","",""
"673","7","Creating a CTS Text Collection: The Neo-Latin Colloquia Project","9","Scholastic colloquia are didactic works from the 15th and 16th centuries designed to teach Latin
to younger students through interactive listening and speaking. Accordingly, many of the colloquia deal with the everyday life of schoolboys, enabling them to speak in ordinary situations using proper Latin. These dialogues,
generally short and written with many idiomatic
constructions, were simple enough for beginners who already possessed a basic knowledge of Latin grammar. Mastery of sermo quotidianus (“daily conversation”) was and remains an excellent means of reaching the stage where one thinks directly in Latin rather than translating from a native language. Moreover, students who learn
idiomatic Latin then read classical texts with greater
facility, and their own written style improves. Writers such as Petrus Mosellanus (early sixteenth century) assert that colloquia offered the means for the learner to master
the cultivated but familiar speech found in Cicero’s
letters or Terence’s plays, but applied to subject matter
and thoughts never treated by Cicero or Terence. Erasmus thought his contemporaries could learn the best Latin style for contemporary use by reading the best authors, but also imitating the Latin conversation of those who “spoke just as the best authors wrote.”
Colloquia scholastica form a genre of largely unexplored texts that reveal much about the pedagogical practice that supported the continuing use of Latin as Europe’s universal language for the educated into the Early Modern era,
when it was no longer anyone’s native tongue. The
perpetuation of a stable language (“dead” in the argot
of the linguists) based on texts only, supported by no
vernacular usage, for so many centuries represents a
significant and potentially illuminating linguistic
phenomenon. The colloquia offer an untapped source from which we can learn more about the history of
pedagogy during the rise of western humanism. In
addition, the colloquia provide plentiful insights into
social history. Designed to promote the use of spoken Latin
for discussion of daily affairs, they reveal a great deal about the conditions and customs of life at the time when they were produced, especially about scholars, teachers, and students in and out of schools or universities, but also about conditions among the citizens, merchants, and tradesmen at large.
Over the last three years, a group at the Stoa Consortium has begun to assemble the most comprehensive collection of neo-Latin colloquia availably anywhere in the world, in any medium. So far we have imposed the structural markup prescribed by the Text Encoding Initiative [TEI] in its “Base Tag Set for Drama” [http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/html/DR.html] on over 650 colloquia containing over 620,000 words of text. We continue to
build the collection through the addition of complex TEI markup, and we have enabled preliminary access to the collection online using the Classical Text Services
protocol [CTS].
CTS allows us to access the Colloquia Collection on two levels. First, using CTS we can create a citation scheme specific to each set of colloquia, based on the organization of the dialogues themselves, and the internal structure of the individual dialogues. This structure is based mainly on the “Base Tag Set for Drama” as described in the TEI P5 Guidelines, so the typical citation scheme would follow the structure of a <div> for each individual colloquia, containing a <sp> for each speaker in turn, containing a <p> for the spoken text. CTS thus provides us with a way to easily cite (and thus to link to) any specific point in the colloquia texts.
In addition, CTS also enables us to create citations for the quotations (mainly from classical authors) that appear
regularly in the colloquia. Colloquia originally served as a bridge to canonical literature. Including markup to
identify references, both those specifically made by the colloquia authors, and those identified within the text by the modern editors, will illuminate how the
colloquia authors used the classical texts, and which
classical authors and works were most influential for early modern pedagogy. Encoding these bibliographical references will also enable us in many cases to point to full texts in the Perseus Digital Library [www.perseus.
tufts.edu], where users may peruse the full context of
the quotations or allusions. Using the TEI markup for Bibliographic Citations and References, we identify
quotations and non-quotation references that the
colloquia make to biblical and classical texts. For example, the author Pontanus quotes and refers to classical authors
(and more recent ones) after each colloquium in his
Annotationes, a section of notes following each
colloquium.
In addition to bibliographic citations, we are explicitly marking references to specific dates, people, and place
names. These references may be to historical events or people, or to events contemporary with the writing of the colloquia. Using the TEI tagset for Names and
Dates [http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/html/ND.html], we mark instances where the colloquia name specific people, places, dates, and events. In the short example below, the author Vives names both a specific
person and a place. TEI not only enables us to mark
names as they appear in the text, but also include a
regularized version to simplify both searching and reading
of the text (<orig> for the original version, <reg> for the regularized version).
<sp>
<speaker>Mag.</speaker>
<p>Ubi fecisti Latinae linguae tyrocinium? Nam
non videris mihi prave institutus.</p>
</sp>
<sp>
<speaker>Nep.</speaker>
<p> <placeName> <choice><orig>Brugis
</orig><reg>Bruges</reg></choice> </placeName>, sub <persName> <choice><orig>Joanne Theodoro Nervio</orig><reg>Johannes Theodorus Nervius </reg></choice> </persName>.</p>
</sp>
<sp>
<speaker>Mag.</speaker>
<p>Viro diligenti, docto, probo. <placeName>
<choice><orig>Brugae </orig><reg>Bruges
</reg></choice></placeName> elegantissimae: nisi quod pereunt in dies vitio plebis profusissimae,
dolendum </p>
</sp>
(Colloquium 7, in Ludovicus Vives, Linguae Latinae Exercitatio Joan. Lodov. Vivis Valentini: libellus valde doctus, et elegans, nuncque primum in lucem editus, una cum rerum, et verborum memorabilium diligentissimo indice. Parisiis: apud Joannem Foncher et Vivantium Gaultherot, 1538, p. 298.)
In this presentation, we will discuss the reasons for building CTS support into our edition, and give examples of the encoding we use to open up the colloquia to querying and organization through CTS.","txt","2","",""
"674","7","Using CTS for Image-Based Electronic Editions: The Venetus A Project","9","The Classical Text Services protocol [CTS] enables
the integration of related texts – primary text
transcriptions, different editions, translations, derived works, and annotations of any of these. The MultiText H
omer project (MTH) is a difficult editing project
because it seeks to connect all these various types of texts
relating to the Iliad, starting with the oldest (and, arguably, the most important) manuscript of the text, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, Venice, Venetus A.
In addition to the text of the Iliad, Venetus A includes numerous commentaries called scholia, which serve to describe particular aspects of the main text. The textual variants that are preserved in the scholarly commentary of the Venetus A allow us to recover some of the multiformity that was lost in the process of text fixation that gave final or near-final shape to these two monumental oral poems. Variants also give us valuable insights into the process of oral composition-in-performance. The Homer scholia help us reconstruct the broad diachronic dimensions inherent in the evolution of Homeric textual traditions. Different
Homeric textual traditions may have been definitive at different historical moments, but no single Homeric textual
version can be deemed definitive beyond its own historical context. The scholia to the Venetus A manuscript of the Iliad preserve a treasury of ancient variants and allow us the opportunity to consider many possible texts at many different stages of transmission. Through the scholia, we can recover both a more accurate and a more accessible picture of the fluidity inherent in the Homeric tradition, especially during the earliest stages of the text.
The scholia, though vital for building an understanding of the Iliad, have never been completely edited, or even transcribed. The reason for this may be obvious given a cursory glance at the manuscript: their appearance on the page is incredibly complex. See Figure 1 below for one small example that shows a representative section of Venetus A. Figure 1: A slice from Venetus A, folio 111v, showing
(from left to right): Marginal numbers in the Greek
alpha-numeric system; marginal scholia (main collection);
illuminated capital, showing the first letter in a new book;
inter-marginal scholia; book title; main text of the Iliad,
including interlinear notes.
The layers of text evident throughout Venetus A are
perhaps best described by Thomas W. Allen in an article
of 1898, the last paragraph of an article concerning the
history of the creation of Venetus A [Allen]. We include
it here in its entirety:
To recapitulate the history of the MS. which we have
now reconstructed; the sheets, numbered and ruled,
were given out to be written. The scribe who received
them wrote the text and the principal scholia in the
places ruled to contain them; during the act of
writing he made corrections from time to time both
in the text and the scholia. This done, he apparently
began the book again and wrote in the irregular space
left between the scholia and the text, and between
the lines of the text, other shorter scholia in a different
type of hand. He took advantage of this opportunity
to correct in an exhaustive manner the text he had
written; he added and altered breathings, accents
and apostrophes, added and corrected critical signs,
and wrote above or in the inner margin corrections
of words. The book, thus complete in substance, was
given to the original scribe who had numbered the
quires and ruled the lines; he compared it throughout
with the archetype and noted on the edge of the page
differences; sometimes he accompanied these with
a mark to call attention; he added lines left out, and
omitted scholia either in the ruled margin or the
intermediate space. In a few places he explicitly refers
to his authority to defend himself from corrections
already made in the text by, as it would seem, the
first hand on his second round. Lastly, a third person
reviewed in detail the suggestions of the reviser;
deleted a great number of them in favour of the reading
in the text, and in other cases substituted a correction
of his own. He added likewise omitted scholia and
remarks of a general nature upon the context. This
excessive carefulness in the preparation of the book
is further seen in the numbering of the similes, the
quantitative marks, and the supplements of the
elisions.
For a successful edition, we need software and encoding
support that will enable the editors to separate out and
edit these multiple layers of text, and changes made to the
manuscript over time, while specifying the relationships
among those layers.
To ensure that the TEI-XML files are accessible to CTS
querying, we need to ensure that the various manuscript
texts (main text and scholia) are encoded clearly, while
at the same time maintaining links among the texts and
between the texts and the manuscript images. We are
currently storing main text and scholia for each of the
24 books of the Iliad, plus introduction, in separate XML
files – 50 files in all. The various scholia are encoded as
separate divisions, one division each for marginal scholia
(Am), intermarginal scholia (Aim), interior marginal
scholia (Aint), interlinear scholia (Ail), book subscription
(Asub), and book metrical introduction (Amet) – six
divisions total. Within the divisions, groups of scholia
that comment upon or provide alternate readings for a
single lemma are grouped together as numbered segments
alongside the lemma. The following example shows the
encoding for the first set of marginal scholia in Book 4:
<div type=”marginal” n=”Am.4”>
<p n=”1”>
<seg type=”lemma”>Lemma for first marginal
scholia, Book 4</seg> <seg type=”schol” n=”1”>First marginal scholion, Book 4</seg>
<seg type=”schol” n=”2”>Second marginal scholion, Book 4</seg>
</p>
The “n” attributes provide the means by which CTS can access the scholia texts and build citations either from the
lowest level – all the marginal scholia (Am – all marginal scholia)– to within the individual scholion (Am.4.1.0 – the lemma for the first marginal scholia of Book 4).
In addition to the XML files we have 641 image files, one for each side of the manuscript folios that survive and contain text. We are currently using the File Section and Structural Map functions of the Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard [METS] to build indices that associate image files to the corresponding areas in the main text file, and that will associate areas of the image files with the corresponding TEI-encoded scholia. For this presentation, we will describe the complex textual and physical organization of the Venetus A manuscript including display of representative folios containing all of the six types of scholia. We will illustrate how CTS along with TEI and METS provides a robust scheme for organizing and accessing a complex image-based editing project.","txt","2","",""
"675","7","Tools for Building CTS Projects: CTS-IT and NeT-CEE","9","For building both text editions and image-based editions, we have extended the CTS reference
implementation [http://chs75.harvard.edu/projects/
diginc/code/ctswebapp] to create the CTS Implementation
Tool (CTS-IT). CTS-IT works with TEI files stored in an eXist XML database, providing a user-friendly interface through which an editor can upload TEI-encoded files, sort the files into groups and build a citation scheme to enable CTS querying of the data. As described in the CTS specification [http://chs75.harvard.edu/projects/
diginc/specs/cts], information about the edition files is stored in the CTS Text Inventory file (TextInventory.xml), which provides an index of the files housed in the server, along with important metadata about those files.
The CTS-IT Upload function incorporates CTS metadata into the eXist upload capabilities, creating the relevant sections of the Text Inventory when storing documents
in the database. CTS-IT uses the eXist API, the CTS
library [http://chs75.harvard.edu/projects/diginc/code/ctslib], and the file upload functionality from Apache Commons. Functionality includes:
· Create a new textgroup in eXist and assign the
textgroup a unique ID. Both the textgroup name and ID can be updated (changed) later.
· Add new texts to the textgroup
· Separate IDs for editions and translations
· Automatically validates the TEI files against DTDs or Schemas that are stored online, if they are declared in the file.
· Automatically names the uploaded file as an online node, named according to : textgroupID_projectName_projectID
· During upload, given input from the editor, CTS-IT assigns a citation scheme based on the structure of the individual files.
· Cross-check – make sure that there is a file for
everything in the Text Inventory, and that every
listing in the Inventory has a match in the database.
· Set eXist as a block inside the Cocoon publishing framework, so we can build on-the-fly pages based on the information stored in the database.
However, the CTS-IT provides only basic support for text-only editions. Though it is a good start, we have started development of a new tool, the Network Tool for Collaborative Electronic Editing over the Internet (NeT-CEE), which will vastly expand the functionality of CTS, allowing an editor to relate XML text files with digital images of the physical objects on which the texts
are founded. NeT-CEE will allow scholars to build
editions encompassing text, images, and annotations using the Extensible Markup Language (XML), the de facto standard for encoding electronic editions in the humanities, complying with the Text Encoding Initiative
(TEI) standards for markup. NeT-CEE will also support overlapping XML markup, which will occur when (for example) an edition includes markup to describe a word in a text, and that word on the page is broken between two lines.
NeT-CEE will be oriented towards collaborative
electronic edition projects that bring together a number of scholars with diverse skills and interests. NeT-CEE will implement a distributed editing framework, with access
control and version management systems which will allow several different editors to collaborate on an
edition with different levels of access, and without fear that one editor might inadvertently overwrite another's work. Finally, since NeT-CEE will be accessible through a regular web browser it will encourage collaborative work among individuals who are geographically dispersed,
and may encourage electronic editing by those many
accomplished humanities scholars who are familiar with a browser view but who may be put off by regular XML
editing software.Software that enables image-based
collaborative editing will be applicable to countless
manuscripts and papyri that have their own complex textual organizations. We will provide the means to cite not only the primary text of a document, but also the
array of marginal notes and annotations that accompany it (as in Venetus A). Likewise, manuscripts of Euclid and Plato include not only marginal commentaries but tables and figures to which we wish to provide access. In
addition, many historical scientific texts are already available though the CTS protocol and collaborative image-based editions could be compiled by importing new manuscript images into the existing CTS compliant texts.
We anticipate that NeT-CEE will foster the creation of scholarly works by forging partnerships between individuals and institutions, enabling them to share resources, both physical resources (in the form of texts and images) and intellectual (in the form of subject knowledge and editing experience). Because we will release NeT-CEE under an Open-Source license, it will especially promote cooperation
among smaller institutions that might not have the
resources to purchase expensive software. NeT-CEE will be a significant resource for scholars, but also for
teachers and students, potentially encouraging collaborative
projects between K-12 schools in different regions of the United States (or, indeed, around the World).
In this presentation, we will demonstrate the functionality
of the CTS-IT and the prototype NeT-CEE.
[Allen] T. W. Allen. “On the Composition of Some Greek Manuscripts.” Journal of Philology, vol. XXVI, pp. 161-181, 1898.
[CTS] Classical Text Services Protocol. <http://chs75.harvard.edu/projects/diginc/techpub/cts>
[METS] Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard <http://www.loc.gov/standards/mets/>
[TEI] TEI P5 Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding
and Interchange, edited by C.M. Sperberg-
McQueen and Lou Burnard. Revised and re-
edited by Syd Bauman and Lou Burnard. January
2005.","txt","2","",""
"676","7","[TEXT, ANALYSIS, TOOLS]. define()","9","The unusual nomenclature of this paper’s title is meant to draw attention to one of the conceptual
features that has intrigued us the most in the development of the Text Analysis Portal for Research (TAPoR) : the simultaneous modularity and interdependence of the three substantives that describe our work of elaborating
text analysis tools. To better understand what we are
intuitively doing in developing the Portal (without always
making our presuppositions explicit beforehand), and to imagine how the Portal can best fulfil its mandate as a workspace for scholars working with electronic texts and tools, we are motivated to examine text analysis
tools both at the atomic and molecular level. Or, to return
to the programming metaphor of the title, we wish to
examine each object individually (Text, Analysis, Tools) and also as a composite object of objects (Text Analysis Tools).
The ambiguity of the method define from the title (whether it applies to the individual objects iteratively or to the collection of objects) is deliberate. The pseudo-code of this paper is polymorphous: the process of defining (that constitutes the content of the paper itself) operates
on different levels and on several types of objects.
Furthermore, it should be noted that the use of unquoted,
capitalized words for the objects to define is deliberate:
as per object-oriented convention is, these represent
classes of things rather than particular instances. As such, we are not so much interested in, say, the use of tools to analyze a particular text, but rather, the particularities of texts in general as relevant to use of analysis tools. More pragmatically, we are interested in how the concepts that we take for granted in developing text analysis tools can in fact yield a rich array of useful design principles for the Portal, when examined more closely.
This paper is structured as a sequence of definitions of the relevant components in isolation, accompanied with - in increasing intensity - a discussion of how these
component are transformed when combined with one another. In other words, text analysis tools are not
merely the amalgam of its constituent parts, but some class of object that extends beyond them. We will
conclude by outlining some of the practical consequences
that these reflections might have on the next phases of developing the TAPoR Portal.
1. Text
At first glance the concept of text seems relatively
easy to define, something like “a meaningful
sequence of characters, or abstract symbols, that forms a structural unit.” Debatable though this definition may be, it certainly allows us to identify an essential common characteristic that encompasses everything from Egyptian hieroglyphic tablets to the Gutenberg bible and even text messages that are exchanged through mobile phones.
Just as importantly, it allows us to distinguish such
objects from other human artefacts such as hammers, oral stories, and television shows, which do not use symbolic characters to transmit meaning within a defined scope.
However, several potential problems with this definition
quickly become apparent. For instance, how do we
define something as fluid and subjective as meaning?
Similarly, how do we delineate as a text an object that may
be structurally complex (cf. clauses, sentences, paragraphs,
chapters, sections, books, volumes, etc. in prose). The latter assumes even greater significance since the
structuralist and poststructuralist theorizing of
intertextuality. As Roland Barthes reminds us, texts are themselves an interweaving of elements – from the
etymological roots of the Latin textere for tissue – and those elements can include the most culturally diverse objects (not just other texts). This leads theorists such as Julia Kristeva to state that everything, including culture itself, is a text. Although this logical expansion of the term text is theoretically generative, such a move also ultimately renders the notion of text ineffectual, since it looses any specificity and ceases to be capable of aiding in distinguishing different types of cultural artefacts.
Potentially more interesting than the question of the scope of text is what happens to the notion of text in Lusignan (1985) and Richard Lanham (1993) to Espen Aarseth (1997) and Jerome McGann (2001) have observed, a fundamental epistemological shift occurs when moving from print to electronic textuality. In particular, although print text is composed of discreet symbols (characters) and is therefore, in a sense, already digital, the electronic
medium is considerably better suited to infinite
reorganizations and manipulations of those symbols;
the computer makes such transformations trivial to
accomplish. As a consequence, the electronic text is
unstable: it is in a perpetual state of readiness to be
reconfigured. And though a deformed electronic text may
no longer be recognizable from its “original”, it still
retains associations with it through (undoable) algorithmic
processes. Whereas print text can be thought of as a stable unit of meaningful characters, electronic text is better thought of as a dynamic process that encompasses several potential states for units of meaningful characters.
2. Analysis
Analysis is a classic 18th century practice worked
out by John Locke and Etienne Condillac that
has been adapted by humanities computing for a set of interpretative techniques that can be automated by the computer. Analysis stands in for various careful techniques of decomposing complex phenomena for the purposes of study. Digitization and computer-based tools provides us the ability to analyze large amounts of textual data quickly. This section will take three approaches to defining analysis in the context of humanities computing:
1. The difference between searching and analysis – We will look at how text analysis is different from
everyday search features.
2. Five theses on analysis – We will present five theses on analysis in texual computing.
3. A reflection on analysis – We will walk through the process and results of a project to conduct analysis on analysis.
1. The difference between searching and analysis
One way into analysis is to look at what it is not. The tools of computer-assisted text analysis often resemble everyday tools. Word processors have searching tools that allow you to find a word or phrase. Such finding
tools can be used as a simple text analysis environment.
Likewise commercial search engines like Google do text analysis on a large scale over millions of web pages. Your word processor and Google are not, however, suited to searching large texts interactively, nor do they show
you the results of a search in a way that can help you understand a literary text. Computer-assisted text analysis
environments typically do three types of things beyond what the “Find” tool of a word processor might do:
i. Text analysis systems can search large texts quickly.
They do this by preparing electronic indexes to the text so that the computer does not have to read
sequentially through the entire text. When finding
words can be done so quickly that it is “interactive”,
it changes how you can study the text - you can
serendipitously explore without being frustrated by the slowness of the search process.
ii. Text analysis systems can conduct complex searches. Text analysis systems will often allow you to search for lists of words or for complex patterns of words, for example you can search for the cooccurence of two words or for the words before a pattern. Where you have structured text you can use the structure (typically TEI encoding) to ask questions about parts of the text.
iii. Text analysis systems can present the results in ways that suit the study of texts. Text analysis systems can display the results in a number of ways; for example,
a Keyword In Context display shows you all the
occurrences of the found word with one line of context
as a concordance.
One can understand text analysis in the humanities as a convergence of traditions of interpretation in the humanities
that evolved through print tools like the concordance with features of commercial text systems like rapid search and indexing. There is no simple history of text analysis.
Instead there is a dialectic between the culture of
computing and the culture of the humanities where both borrow ideas from the other. Visualization and text data mining are two new approaches that humanities computing is borrowing for analytical purposes. In the presentation we will briefly show some analytical tools borrowed from other traditions.
2. Five theses on analysis
Analysis is often understood as a set of techniques that involve the breaking apart of a complex into atomic parts for individual study. Whether it is a complex concept that is broken down into simpler concepts or a text broken
into words (or characters), analysis starts with an
interruption of a continuum into parts that can be
synthesized into new representations. We propose these five theses on analysis as a way of analyzing analysis:
i. Analysis is not just about breaking down an
object of study into parts. Every interruption of a
continuous phenomenon like a text is also a
synthesis – a building up of another representation. We don’t access the atomic parts by themselves, they are always represented back to us in a new synthesis
of parts that pretends to be atomic.
ii. Digitization is analysis. Analysis is usually thought of as a set of practices for the study of digital texts, but the choices made in the digitization of a text and its preparation for study constrain how the text can be broken apart by the computer. To give a simple example, a digital image of a document will have different atomic parts (pixels) that are amenable to analysis than a character string. Analysis starts with decisions about what to digitize, how to digitize the what, and what formats to use. The computer can only work with the data that was input. Garbage input, garbage analyzed.
iii. The analysis is in the interface. One form in which a text is represented is through the interface of our
tools, including the tools of editing and research. The relatively low resolution computer tool forces texts to be broken into facets that you scroll through,
page through or navigate with hypertext links. The design of reading interfaces can thus involve a
breaking down imposed by the software.
iv. Text analysis is not neutral. The act of analysis
changes the phenomenon analyzed. There is the
illusion of stability – that we have texts that can be studied safely without affecting the original. We will argue that there is no original electronic text, only conditions of representation that change.
v. Text analysis is in a tradition of interpretation. What matters is the conversation we have through asking questions of others and other texts. Text analysis is one way to ask questions, but it is in a tradition that involves practices that are not automated. It is a
moment of the humanities, one that may be gone.
3. A reflection on analysis
This section of the paper will close with a reflection on text analysis using text analysis. We will walk through a study on text analysis using tools available in the TAPoR portal. The analysis will be reflective in the sense that it will use text analysis on texts about text analysis.
i. We will show how one can build a corpus of
materials about a concept like text analysis using portal tools like the Googlizer. Just-in-time tools that build on large search engines like Google provide
a way of doing conceptual analysis on the fly. This will be compared with a prepared corpus like the abstracts for the ACH/ALLC 2005 at <web.uvic.ca/hrd/achallc2005/text_analysis.htm> . The abstracts database is available from the University of Victoria web site in XML and plain text.
ii. We will show how standard analytical tools that
provide word frequency lists, collocates, and repeating
patterns can help one think through how the phrase “text analysis” is used on the web.
iii. We will show how a simple visualization based on cluster analysis of the corpora can suggest anomalies for further thought.
3. Tools
What is a tool in the context of humanities
computing? What would defining “tool” achieve? Like many of the concepts of humanities computing, those close at hand, like “tool”, are often overlooked theoretically. Tools, as Heidegger reminds us, are things at hand that you pick up and use. Work is done through
the tools, without reflecting on the tools, but on the
interpretative work. A good tool disappears before the interpretative work. In scholarly work, however, there are moments when the assumptions encoded in tools and techniques need to be recovered, if only to ensure that the results of interpretative practices are consistent. In this paper we will look first at four relevant definitions of tool, and then how
Working Definitions of “Tool”
Here are four candidates for what a text analysis tool is that can be illustrated by the TAPoR portal:
1. Tool as Process. An automated process for the
transformation of text data. In the case of humanities computing the process would typically be for the
transformation of linguistic data or strings and it would be a process that can be executed on a computer, but need not be. The earliest text analysis tools – concording tools – took tested and useful human processes and automated them.
TAPoR encodes this definition by distinguishing between
texts and tools. The distinction seem uncontroversial, until one asks just what a text is, and especially what an electronic text it. In this paper we will illustrate some problem cases encountered in the design of TAPoR.
2. Tool as Program. A utility program that implements
a process (see definition 1) that is packaged in a form that can be used easily on a computer. By this definition the program is the tool, not the process. Generally a tool is not a full-blown interactive application like a word
processor.
By this account MS Word would not be a tool as you can use it interactively and you can use it to do many different things even if you could use it like a tool. Grep (global regular expression print), on the other hand, is a tool that does one task efficiently. Further, the UNIX notion of tools that can be piped together evolved in the
extrication of utility processes from larger environments. (See Hauben and Hauben, Netizens, chapter 9)
TAPoR treats very specific things as tools. While there
are lists of tools on the web, TAPoR priviledges web
services that can be used through the portal. This has the advantage that one can try the tool, but it also limits the tools available and it presumes a model of what a tool is. A problem example, XTeXT, where “one” tool
is represented in the portal as many tools, will be
demonstrated.
3. Tool as Technique. An intellectual technique that involves transformative or interpretative practices
defined with sufficient rigor that some of the practices
might be automated on the computer as processes. A
technique encompasses both the human and automated
practices. Even more generally one can talk about methods that might be made up of various techniques.
One way to think of tools that goes back to Engelbart’s
work on augmentation and to think of a tool as
something that extends our capacity to do intellectual work. The tool doesn’t replace us, it extends our ability to accomplish tasks. What is important is the intellectual task and the techniques that can be adapted to the task. Within the context of a task a tool can automate some part of the technique used to achieve the task.
One of the weaknesses of a tool driven project like
TAPoR is that it focuses on the tools not the techniques. The intellectual techniques are taught, trained, or played with, but they cannot be fully programmed. The human transformation of internalizing a technique to the point where tools can be used transparently needs support at this juncture in humanities computing too. Some of the extensions to the portal to support training will be
demonstrated.
4. Tool as Environment. An interactive environment or game in which one can run a set of transformations for a single purpose. There is obviously a grey area between an atomic tool that does one thing (if we can imagine the doing of “one” thing) and an environment that serves multiple purposes. At what point does a tool get so much functionality that it becomes an environment for processes that isn’t really ONE tool but more a workbench of tools? The point, however, is that we will call an environment a tool if it is used in a context for one end. Thus Excel becomes a tool if I just use it to sort columns of text.
This distinction between tool and environment is central to the design of the TAPoR portal. The portal is a particular
type of environment (a communal portal) where one has access to tools (and other things.) TAPoR encodes this distinction, which in some cases, is a draw back. The
artificiality of any interface paradigm can be seen when it breaks down. A good example in the case of TAPoR is the repositories of indexed texts. Are these tools or
collections of texts? (In the presentation we will review a number of these anomalies.)
What can we learn from defining tools?
What is interesting about these definitions of tools is the reflection that goes into and through tools when they are designed and used. In the second part of this paper we will step back and look generally at the rhetoric of
tools. In particular we will look at a history of the software
tool as a primitive in Engelbart and in the development of UNIX. This sense of a tool, as in “grep is a tool”, doesn’t really get at whether processes, techniques and practices are tools at all, it maintains an analogy between a class of software and other practices. We can define what a tool is, but we have to ask if “tool” is the right thing to define in the first place. For many humanists, the word “tool” seems unsuited to humanities research. It smacks of the trades as if intellectual work was like joinery. If we look at Engelbart’s language we see him using the woodworking tool analogy,
“A number of people, outside our research group here, maintain stoutly that a practical augmentation system should not require the human to have to do any computer
programming--they feel that this is too specialized a
capability to burden people with. Well, what that means
in our eyes, if translated to a home workshop, would be like saying that you can’t require the operating human to know how to adjust his tools, or set up jigs, or change
drill sizes, and the like.” (Engelbart, “Augmenting Human Intellect,” section III.B.6)
The problem is the lack of alternatives to the tool analogy
that can convey to humanists what utility programs
can do. That said, we can imagine and will present an alternative analogy based on direct manipulation
that would not represent text analysis as texts and
tools, but as toys for manipulating texts in a game. This is the paradigm a study environment like the Ivanhoe game draws on. (See <www.speculativecomputing.org/
ivanhoe/>)
An associated problem is the presumption that a tool is utilitarian - that is something used not for play, but for achieving a well defined goal, that it is a means not an end. Obviously for the tool designer the tool can be an end, but is it for user too? Users reflect on tools when they are learning them and when they break down. The experience of a new tool is not that of a known tool like a hammer, which one can pick up an use, unreflectively.
A tool is not a tool at that moment of first encounter.
It becomes a tool with repeated use or distraction.
Humanities computing has a particular relationship with
computing tools that can be seen by looking at a different discipline.
“Language is the principal - or perhaps the only - tool of the philosopher. For Wittgenstein, and for analytic
philosophy in general, philosophy consists in clarifying
how language can be used. The hope is that when
language is used clearly, philosophical problems are found to dissolve.” (Wikipedia, “Analytic philosophy” <en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy>)
Humanities computing also has a practice of clarification through tool use. Just as philosophy tries (and seems to repeatedly fail) to dissolve problems through careful language about language, humanities computing tries to engage problems through the development of computing
tools, whether those tools are electronic editions,
hypertexts, or text analysis programs. Encoding, in the sense of instantiating something in code, is itself a tool or practice that attempts to clarify the something sought. The problems we engage never dissolve; no tool answers
our questions, that was a Wittgenstinian dream of a ladder that could be discarded. Rather, questions and problems tire and recede before new questions, like the philosophical question, what is a tool?
4. Text Analysis Tools
To this point, we have traced some of the evolution of the words “text,” “analysis” and “tools” as they have transmuted over time through successive shifts in technology and practice. In contrast, the expression “text analysis tool” is a relatively recent composite term and much more closely tied to the specific contexts in which
it is used (it cannot be examined generally, as we did with the other terms, because it is always already
idiosyncratic for the circumstances in which it is used).
To conclude this essay, we will outline some of the ways in which the concept of text analysis tools has informed
the development of the TAPoR Portal, but also how
TAPoR has caused us to reconsider what we think of as text analysis tools.
References
Aarseth, E. J. (1997). Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press.
de Condillac, E. B. (2001), Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge, Trans. Aarsleff, H. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Engelbart, D.C. (1962). “Augmenting Human Intellect:
A Conceptual Framework,” Summary Report AFOSR-3223 under Contract AF 49(638)-1024,
SRI Project 3578 for Air Force Office of Scientific
Research, Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park,
CA. Accessed online at <www.bootstrap.org/augdocs ahi62index.html>
Hanna, R (1998). “Conceptual analysis,” In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
London: Routledge. See <www.rep.routledge.com/article/U033>
Hauben, M. and R. Hauben (1997). Netizens: On the
History and Impact of Usenet and the Internet,
Wiley. A plain-text online version is available at <www.columbia.edu/~hauben/netbook/>.
Kernighan, B.W. and P.J. Plauger (1976). Software
Tools, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.
Lancashire, I., J. Bradley, W. McCarty, M. Stairs, and T. R. Wooldridge (1996).Using TACT with Electronic Texts, The Modern Language Association
of America: New York.
Lanham, R. A. (1993). The Electronic Word: Democracy, Technology, and the Arts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Lusignan, S. (1985). Quelques réflexions sur le statut épistemologique du texte électronique. Computers and the Humanities 19, 209-12.
McGann, J. (2001). Radiant Textuality : Literature after the World Wide Web. Palgrave: New York.","txt","2","",""
"677","7","JOINING UP THE DOTS: ISSUES IN INTERCONNECTING INDEPENDENT DIGITAL SCHOLARLY PROJECTS","9","Acharacteristic of the Centre for Computing in the Humanities (CCH), King’s College London, is its significant involvement with a large number of research
projects that are producing digital products. At the
present there are more than 30 in which our involvement
is substantial, and for many of these projects our
involvement stretches over a number of years.
During this time two related challenges have emerged.
First, several of the projects naturally tend to group
together – a user of one is likely to be interested in another
as well. We have, at present, three significant groupings of this kind – a set of potentially interrelated projects about Anglo-Saxon England, a set of projects from the Classical period, and a set of Art History projects drawn from religious materials. Although the projects are done separately by different discipline specialists, there is some interest in sorting out ways that users can usefully
switch from one to the other. The second challenge
relates to the mix of technologies that each project uses.
Some of these projects structure their materials in ways afforded by the relational model while others are using XML (primarily, of course, TEI). Eventually, perhaps,
the tools available for XML will provide facilities
comparable to the database engines available for the
relational model, and at that point the XML model might
well replace the relational one (see Bradley 2005 for some discussion about looking at XML in a relational sense), but at present this is not the case and we are
finding that both our relationally-oriented projects and our XML-oriented ones have need of both relational and XML technology to varying degrees. There are several
different ways in which the two technologies can be
interrelated, and at CCH we are currently working out a set of best practices for this issue ourselves.
In this session we have three papers that touch on several of these issues:
(a) The paper presented by Paul Spence describes two pieces of technology (xMod and rdb2java) that we have developed to support the presentation of XML and relational materials on the WWW. The very different natures of XML and the relational model
are reflected in the very different nature of these two technologies, and several key aspects of these
differences are described here.
(b) The second paper, presented by John Bradley,
describes several projects from the Anglo-Saxon
group of projects, and the discussion will focus
on several concrete examples of the two issues
mentioned above.
(c) The third paper, presented by Paul Vetch, describes some of the ways that these independent projects can be presented in, as much as possible, a consistent and unified manner over the WWW.
References
Bradley, J. (2005). Documents and Data: Modelling
Materials for Humanities Research in XML and
Relational Databases. In Deegan M. (ed) Literary and
Linguistic Computing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Vol 20 No 1. pp 133-151.","txt","2","",""
"678","7","Building Web Applications That Integrate TEI XML and Relational data: xMod and rdb2java","9","Both the relational database model and the document-focused XML model are regular staples in humanities
computing projects, and at the Centre for Computing
in the Humanities, King’s College London, the two technologies have been used extensively across a large number of the thirty-plus projects that we have been
involved in over the last few years. But whether for
practical reasons (limited resources) or for more
‘ideological’ reasons (the conviction that one or other technology provides superior modelling capabilities), it seems as if relational database and document-centric
XML-based approaches are often each viewed as
alternatives that almost entirely preclude the use of the other.
Since both technologies tend to involve quite distinct views of how the core data may be represented, it is perhaps not surprising that a strategic choice is usually made to use one or the other across a given project, and where they do co-exist, it is often the case that development cycles are largely autonomous, with the only true points of contact being the initial strategy stage and the final presentation of the integrated data.
This was certainly the case in a number of projects
involving CCH until recently, where having decided early on that the core materials required either a fundamentally
‘data-centered’ or a ‘document-centered’ approach, and then finding that the other was also necessary to represent a subset of the data, we faced significant challenges in bridging the two.
Our extensive use of TEI XML- to mark up anything
from classical inscriptions; to medieval charters; to
musicological bibliographies; to born digital ‘presentational’
websites,- has led to the creation of ‘xMod’, a highly
modular application which can transform a heterogeneous
repository of TEI XML documents into a completely finished website. Similarly, our wealth of experience in
modelling humanities data (in particular prosopographical
data) using relational databases has resulted in the
development of an equally modular application called ‘rdb2java’, which facilitates the connection of a database
to the web, simplifying greatly the creation of data
queries, the updating of data and its final presentation. Both
applications operate on common principles of separation
of concerns (separating functionality from design),
assist development (via the creation of a base layer of programming logic that can be easily extended) and aim to use standards-based approaches as far as possible.
In spite of the similarity in the basic objectives and conceptual approaches behind each application, the fact is that in the first two projects where both tools were
deployed,1 the process of integration happened very late in the day, at the presentational stage. Since we have found time and time again that it is inappropriate to try to shoe-horn the entire dataset for a project into a
single technology, and are facing increasing requests for
features that require data to be shared between the two applications in increasingly rich and complex ways, it seemed logical to explore points of connection in a much broader sense.
One way of re-examining the parallel processes that
we followed in the afore-mentioned projects was to
appropriate the model proposed by Jesse James Garrett in
his well-known ‘Elements of user experience’ diagram.2 According to this model, the development of websites crosses five planes (strategy, scope, structure, skeleton
and surface), with a dissecting line cutting down
through each so that we may compare and contrast the nature of each plane according to the type of technological approach taken (‘Web as software interface’ or ‘Web as hypertext system’).
Although the model does not match our situation
perfectly, we actually found the comparison extremely useful. As in the Garrett diagram, the bottom and top layers were the two parts of our development process that were integrated most closely. At the bottom (‘strategy’)
level, project objectives were, of course, set globally,
and user needs were easily assessed independently
of technological approach taken. Similarly, at the top (‘surface’) layer, the visual design of each component
had to be co-ordinated in such a way that an integrated
digital publication was produced. Here there had to be some consistency between the two areas of the site, and although there were some obvious presentational
differences stemming from the particular nature of each technology, it had to seem to the user as if they both
formed part of a seamless whole as far as was possible.
However, in the intermediate three stages, there were some key differences. These particularly interested us, because having decided to investigate the extent to which there could be greater integration between our database and TEI XML applications, we started to ask ourselves to what degree the differing underlying models proposed by each technology would be an insurmountable obstacle in developing an integrated application that was not only seamless on the outside, but also on the inside.
Following Garrett’s model, the ‘web as software’ path starts at the ‘scope’ level by defining the ‘feature set’ for a given set of data. The next stages are to create a structure that governs how the system responds to the user, and then to build an interface that manages these different interactions. The primary focus is on ‘tasks’.
Meanwhile, the ‘web as hypertext system’ model begins with an analysis of how the content is to be arranged, translates this into a structural arrangement of content elements and then adds the navigational design necessary to negotiate the information structure. The primary concern
here is ‘information’, and there is often a strong bias
towards the ‘document’ view of data.
Leaving aside the web publication challenges, and
focusing instead on the analytical paths and processes that
each technology encourages, we find further differences. The process of marking up a text using TEI XML often involves adding structure to texts which already exist, thereby placing significant emphasis on the archival
integrity of the source ‘text’, whereas in the relational database view of data, a given structure is modelled first and then populated with data. In this sense, TEI XML is often ‘reporting on’ or ‘describing’ data, whereas relational databases model, aggregate and order abstract data.
In textual markup projects, most of the decisions about technical approach and data structure are taken near the beginning of the life of the project, at the stage of
document analysis. This is less true of humanities-focused
database projects however- for while the process does start with some intense initial analysis, the perspective can change considerably as the project progresses since the cognitive process takes place as data is added to the project, necessitating changes to the database structure
and making it more difficult to visualise the data
presentation in the early stages.
Translating this to the experience of our two applications, the document-focus of xMod means that there is a much closer correlation between data representation (TEI XML
markup) and its presentation, making it far easier to
produce initial output using this tool than is the case with rdb2java, where more work needs to be done to display the data.
However, when it comes to searching/indexing, we find that the hierarchical ‘tree-view’ model proposed by XML has a strong effect on the kinds of query that it is easy to carry out, and the relative performance of each,
whereas relational data can be re-ordered and queried in more flexible ways. At one point, native XML databases seemed to provide the means for complex XML structures to be queried in an efficient manner, but in our experience, they have not so far lived up to their expectations and still fall short in terms of efficiency and scalability.
In this paper we will outline plans to build an integrated
application that deals with many of these challenges, and
in doing so, reconciles as far as possible the different
technological perspectives that each brings to this
unlikely association. At a more basic level, this includes
unified design principles managed from a single point, with common CSS/XHTML components, shared
libraries of styles, shared overall wireframe design and where appropriate, a single means of maintaining the central navigation system for a given project.
We will also describe some of the more complex
associations possible when data is connected, shared or ‘piped’ between the two types of application, and explore generic ways in which we can facilitate the transmission of data to and from each in a manner that will, moreover, facilitate wider interoperability with other projects using different technological approaches.
Finally, we will discuss the ramifications of a more
integrated database-TEI XML strategy for the overall project development process, with an outline of some of the technical strategies that might facilitate common
development.
Footnotes
1 These were CCEDb and PASE: The Clergy of the Church of England Database, King’s College
London, the University of Kent at Canterbury and the University of Reading. Accessed 2005-11-11. http://www.ccedb.org.uk/. The Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England. King’s College London and Cambridge University. Accessed 2005-11-11. <http://www.pase.ac.uk/>
2 The Elements of User Experience, Jesse James Garrett website. Accessed 2005-11-11. <http://www.jjg.net/elements/pdf/elements.pdf>
References
CCH projects page. Centre for Computing in the
Humanities. Accessed 2005-11-11. <http://www.cch.kcl.ac.uk/projects/>
xMod, a TEI-based publishing application. Centre for Computing in the Humanities. Accessed 2005-11-11. <http://www.cch.kcl.ac.uk/xmod/>
Garrett, Jesse James (2002). The elements of user
experience: user-centered design for the web. New York: AIGA/New Riders.","txt","2","",""
"679","7","Unity and Diversity: Finding Common Ground Among Separate Anglo - Saxon Digital Projects.","9","The Centre for Computing in the Humanities (King’s College London) (CCH) is currently engaged with members of the Department of History at KCL, and the Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Celtic in
Cambridge in the development of three digital projects related to Anglo-Saxon England. The Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England (PASE) has been under development since 2000 and has recently gone online at www.pase.ac.uk. In addition, CCH has been involved more recently in two other projects with Cambridge: AsChart – a project
investigating the creation of formal digital transcripts
of Anglo-Saxon legal charters and then making them available digitally, and the eSawyer project, which will make available online the wealth of materials which
was originally collected and published in the magisterial Anglo-Saxon Charters: an Annotated List and Bibliography
by Professor Peter Sawyer and which is now being updated
in light of more recent scholarship. Both AsChart and eSawyer are an outgrowth of the work of the British
Academy and Royal Historical Society’s Joint Committee on Anglo-Saxon Charters. In addition, these projects have informal connections with other projects involving CCH or Cambridge that work with materials from the Anglo-Saxon period. LangScape (Joy Jenkyns, Oxford) aims to make accessible information about the boundary  clauses found in legal documents that describe the
borders of property, and the Corpus of Early Medieval Coin Finds at the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.
On one hand, these various projects should be connected
to each other – they all cover materials that come from the Anglo-Saxon period in England. On the other, they involve significantly different approaches to the
materials – in both a technical and a scholarly sense. PASE strives to record information from sources written in Anglo-Saxon times about all Anglo-Saxon individuals (great and small) and non-Anglo-Saxons important in the Anglo-Saxon world, and is strongly centred on its relational database. Aspects of its technical and conceptual
framework are described, with other prosopographies in which CCH is involved, in Bradley and Short 2005.
AsChart is in some ways a classic textual edition
project, exploring the use of TEI markup for the texts of the charters that fall within its mandate. ESawyer, which has grown out of the both the pioneering work of Prof. Sawyer in the 1960s, and from more recent scholarship,
provides bibliographic information about the charter
manuscripts and editions including, for each, a standardised
summary of its content, a list of manuscripts where it has been preserved, a list of printed editions and translations, and a summary of scholarly commentary that has been published. Technically, ESawyer data has been stored in a structured database (FileMaker), but work is now
underway to use XML-based markup to represent its
materials.
At first glance, the jumble of technologies and the
technical and scholarly issues that the bringing together of these three projects involves might seem to present an insuperable challenge. However, the use of the XML and/or relational databases is, we believe, in the case of all three projects appropriate – PASE (for reasons described in Bradley and Short 2005) interprets its resources in a highly structured form, and takes advantage of the rich interconnectedness of these objects that can, at least at present, be best developed and manipulated using the
relational approach. AsChart, as a largely classic textual
edition project, needs to take advantage of the rich
expressive power of TEI markup over its texts. ESawyer is mostly a bibliographic project and sits in-between – containing structured material for which a relational-like database approach has provided benefits, but also finding that the relational model does not entirely suit several aspects of its bibliographic materials (although neither does XML).
Scholars interested in charter texts may well wish to move between these three projects. Having found an
individual of interest in one charter text, for example, a scholar might well wish to see where else, if at all, the same individual turns up in other textual sources.
Alternatively, a scholar who comes to the charter
materials through an individual of interest may wish to consult the ESawyer information on that charter to get a sense of what scholarly commentary about the text is available. Connections between the character texts are fortunately well established because the “Sawyer
Number”, created by Peter Sawyer in the 1960’s,
continues to represent a definitive identifier for the charter
texts. Thus, all four of our projects here, and many others, use the Sawyer number in this way and at the document level, the connections between the different projects are well established. However, other connections are potentially
more difficult. Another clear link should be between people that appear in the sources and the PASE prosopography. Because both the AsChart project and PASE involve the same scholars, there is general agreement about who is who in the PASE and AsChart project, and part of the task in AsChart markup is, as a result, to formally connect references to names in the text to appropriate individuals in PASE. However, the link to individuals in the other Anglo-Saxon projects mentioned above – in spite of the strong spirit of collaboration that has characterised our work together so far – is not so straightforward. The Coin hoard project grows out of a different kind of research
strategy to identify individuals, and in some cases
strategies to map the hoard project’s prosopographical materials to PASE’s will present difficulties. In addition,
identifiers for place and pieces of property (as
possessions) figures in the PASE database, and ways to link between PASE and LangScape (which has place
and property a central focus) still have to resolved.
Furthermore, even the reading of the texts varies between
LangScape and AsChart in a few significant places. Thus, there will be hard collaborative work necessary if these projects are to find ways to fully link together in ways that best benefit their respective users.
Digital collaboration between independent entities has been an important subtask in the computing world for a few years. Work on digital ontologies (which aim to
develop a common vocabulary and shared significance of key ideas within a community), and web services and related technologies such as WSDL (which provide mechanisms
to allow separate systems to exchange formal data) have begun to tackle some of the problems, although primarily for the business community. Our Anglo-Saxon projects have also begun to tackle the issues of sorting out at least informally common ontologies and exploring the various formal mechanisms to query and exchange data between projects, and they have begun to experience the technical and administrative problems that similar work, elsewhere, has also experienced. In this paper we will be reporting on these issues.
References
Bradley, J. and Short S. (2005). Texts into databases: the Evolving Field of New-style Prosopography. In Deegan, M (ed) Literary and Linguistic Computing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Vol 20 Suppl 1:3-24.
Corpus of Early Medieval Coin Finds. Fitzwilliam
Museum, Cambridge, Available at http://www.
fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/coins/emc/
LangScape, Language of Landscape: Reading the
Anglo-Saxon Countryside. http://www.kcl.ac.uk/humanities/cch/langscape/content/index.html. The principal investigator is Joy Jenkyns (Oxford and KCL).
Prosopography of Anglo-saxon England. http://www.pase.ac.uk. The co-directors for this project are
Janet Nelson FBA (King’s College London) and
Simon Keynes FBA (Cambridge)
Sawyer, P. (1968). Anglo-Saxon Charters: an Annotated List and Bibliography, London: Royal Historical Society Guides and Handbooks 8.
Erik Christensen E., Curbera F., Meredith G. and Weerawarana S. (2001). Web Services Description Language (WSDL) 1.1. W3C online publication at http://www.w3.org/TR/wsdl","txt","2","",""
"680","7","Connecting Web Resources with Deep Hyperlinking","9","In the field of Humanities Computing, the idea that related resources should be interlinked not merely via the relatively superficial mechanism of the hyperlink, but more fundamentally intertwined in a more structured and meaningful way, has been espoused for many years. Indeed, one of the most rewarding aspects of work in this field is that - as projects progress - the more academics begin to understand more about humanities computing
and the implications it has for their research and
interests, the more imaginatively they begin to perceive
connections and relationships within their source materials
which were never before apparent. This process of
scholarly enquiry and discovery often means that the practice of creating digital humanities resources often has to accommodate considerable change as project
outcomes are remodelled and refined better to reflect the true nature of the source materials as it emerges. Of course
it is not only within the context of a single project that connections arise: most projects begin with knowledge of related resources and the potential for partnerships and collaboration.
There have traditionally been two approaches to
integrating separate digital resources: firstly, by
supplying an overarching portal fabric to tie the resources
together and present the data in a unified manner; or
secondly to insist on the separation of the resources and allow superficial cross linking between them. The most successful portal environments have traditionally been found in the context of the digital library, where they are almost always focussed on information retrieval by search: OCLC’s FirstSearch service, for example, provides
a unified environment for querying numerous digital
resources although it is not well suited to a more
browsing-oriented model of usage.
Between humanities computing projects, the desire for formal relationships with related resources - expressed through data connections – certainly exists, although as yet often remains unexpressed: over and above simple hyperlinks, close integration with other projects is often simply not feasible. There are several reasons for this. Firstly the Web Services approach, as it has largely so far been seen, necessitates a rather different view of a finished project to the traditional, digital library model
preferred by many funding bodies who (albeit with
notable exceptions) remain attached to the idea of a
‘deliverable’, a unique resource with a distinct identity and presence. Secondly, even when funding does allow for more flexibility, the lingering metaphor that digital
resources are somehow like giant books whose intellectual property must be protected often precludes projects from even considering the possibility of low level connections with other resources and the considerable scope for rich and rewarding collaboration this would afford.
One possible explanation for this situation is that whilst
there are established technical standards for data
interchange that fit perfectly the model of distributed
knowledge – viz. Web Services – there are no generic standards or agreements in place to deal with the broader
implications of connecting academic resources to one another, across institutional and national boundaries. In the UK, whilst there are certainly funded initiatives
looking into the establishment of such a standard, we are not close to an answer, and what work is being done is focused more on the needs of the scientific community
than of the humanities. Until a standard is agreed upon, we will be left in a situation where, for the most part, projects are developed in relative isolation and we must therefore continue to try and integrate resources as best we can, after the event. Moreover the thousands of rich web resources which were developed before the advent of technologies such as WDSL cannot be ignored simply because their technical implementation is outdated.
One solution to this is to start thinking about how
projects can be more seamlessly integrated at a higher level – within the presentation layer. In other words: if hyperlinking is the only viable option for linking one resource to another, how can it be improved upon as a concept? The obvious answer seems at first glance to be a simple one: using hyperlinks to target low level data, in context, within other sites, i.e. creating connections from
points deep within one site to deep within another.
Although implementation may require some sort of low level access to the target site – such as analysis of the core database or XML repository so that authority lists and links can be constructed – the cost implications would nevertheless be trivial. Whilst linking resources in this way does nothing actually to integrate them, each
individual project remains free to maintain an independent
framework of secondary and supporting material, and in fact it may be beneficial to a user to see related data in a number of different contexts - as long as the transition
from one context to another is sympathetic enough to
allow the data to remain intelligible in each environment.
This last clause reveals why realising a ‘deep
hyperlinking’ solution is far from simple: allowing users to jump between resources with separate visual identities, interfaces and structures presents potentially massive problems in terms of usability and, more fundamentally,
HCI. If one humanities web resource is to rely, heavily,
on the content of another, yet the two must retain
individual branding, how will the user perceive the
relationship between them? How should this interconnection
be presented? The biggest difficulty lies in the fact that, allowing for the fact that users may be sent between a number of very obviously different digital resources, at all times the visual environment must keep the user aware of where he is (not only to the extent of indicating where
he is within a resource, but also which resource he is
actually viewing), how he got there, and what his options are (i.e. explore the current site; return to the previous
site; explore a related resource on a third site, etc). There are equally tricky subsidiary issues to consider: how should
URLs be managed? Should sites share a common
vocabulary, extending the scope of ontologies to include
consistent labels for special pages, functions and
navigational concepts across connected websites? Could digital library technologies such as OpenURL be brought to bear on the problem?
Of course, from any user’s point of view, what is important
is not so much how interconnection between two or
digital resources is achieved as what the experience of following connections will be. Put simply, any user must to be able to follow cross references and view related resources as simply and smoothly as possible. What is needed here is some way of creating a ‘seamless seam’: making it obvious to the user that they have switched
into another resource, whilst adhering to the HCI
concepts of context and orientation.
One possible, low cost approach to this problem is
to think about setting up, for each project, a special
‘reception’ or ‘landing pad’ area specifically to cater for people visiting the resource from another site, built upon middleware able to detect and reassure an itinerant
visitor from another resource a) where they have come from, b) how they can get back, and c) what their
options are. This is not per se a new concept: commercial
websites have for some time used query strings in urls to post data between one another to allow a site to
offer customised content specific to users coming from a
certain context. The challenge from the perspective of
interconnected humanities computing resources is, however, that users may well want to return to the context from which they have come, and pick up exactly where they left off; equally of course they may decide that they wish to stay in the context of the ‘new’ resource in which they find themselves.
In this paper I shall explore these issues further, discussing how we at CCH have approached such problems across a number of related projects all oriented around the field of Anglo Saxon studies. Although we are now striving to interlink these projects to a considerable degree, this sort of functionality was never a significant part of the way they were originally conceived and so each project has been developed to have a ‘standalone’ existence of the type I have described here. Low-level interconnects were not possible for many of the reasons outlined above, but, because of the involvement of CCH as a key stakeholder in each project, we have been in a unique position to be able to tackle experimentally some of the difficulties with deep hyperlinks, taking users from a deep context within one site directly to a related deep context in another. I will describe the HCI strategy and technical system we are developing to allow for ‘context sensitivity’ in our newest projects, specifically to accommodate peripatetic users as they move between one resource and the next.","txt","2","",""
"681","7","Using the OED as a Learning / research Tool in Universities","2","The OED is one of a range of reference resources now available to students and researchers in universities.
Since 2000, when the OED went online, the results of the dictionary’s major
revision programme have been published online in regular (three-monthly)
instalments.
The associated search software offers extensive scope for project-based research on the English language in many disciplines: English language and literature, of course, but also much more widely.
More recently, the OED online has developed a learning resources site associated with the dictionary, which offers suggestions for different types of investigation and research. And the OED is keen to hear from researchers who are interested in contributing to this by sharing their search strategies and findings with others.
The ALLC-ACH conference provides an excellent opportunity to continue this dialogue.","txt","2","",""
"682","7","What Every Digital Humanities' Scholar Should Know about Unicode : Considerations on when to Propose a Character for Unicode and When to Rely on Markup","2","The international character encoding standard
Unicode provides scholars a means to encode their texts with a widely supported standard. It is the default
for the World Wide Web and plays a prominent role
in the P5 version of the TEI Guidelines (Sperberg-
McQueen and Burnard 2005). Yet even with over 97,000 characters defined, Unicode is still missing characters
from various specialized fields, including characters for Byzantine Greek and Latin epigraphy, and several
historic and modern minority scripts (Anderson 2003). Indeed, the TEI Guidelines acknowledges the challenges of being able to cover the full gamut of textual materials,
by noting “there will always be a need to encode
documents which use non-standard characters [i.e., which are not in Unicode] and glyphs, particularly but not exclusively in historical material” (chapter 4,
Sperberg-McQueen and Burnard 2005). And in chapter 25, P5 goes on to provide guidance on how to encode
letters and symbols not in Unicode with a “gaiji” module.
The trend seems to be away from proposing new characters
for inclusion in the Unicode Standard, at least the
Unicode Technical Committee has received relatively few requests since 2004 from digital humanities projects,
with the exception of a proposal by medievalists
(Everson, Haugen, et al. 2005). Since characters aren’t being proposed, projects must be relying on markup
with entities, employing the newly proposed “gaiji”
mechanism, using a font solution (i.e., using the
Private Use Area or a proprietary font with non-standard
encodings), or a combination of these.
However, if texts are going to be exchanged electronically
and ultimately made available to future generations of students and scholars (such as via large scale digital
projects such as Open Content Alliance or as a part of online teaching materials), it might be advisable in the long run for scholars to seriously consider proposing the characters to Unicode, if they are eligible. This talk will address practical considerations digital humanists should weigh when deciding whether to pursue – or forego -- standardizing the characters in their texts.
A primary consideration is to weigh the time and effort
required when formally proposing a character: The
process takes two to five years, and requires an advocate
to work on a proposal, be available to answer questions, and to stay involved in the process.
Other issues to consider:
* Is there broad consensus from the user community
in support of the character? (Deep divisions amongst scholars will discourage the standards committees from approving a character.)
* Even if a given character is identified as needed, not all characters may be approved. Scholars may need to be flexible with the standards committees, and be open to compromise.
* Some characters are unlikely to be encoded:
precomposed forms, decorations that do not appear to have semantic content, idiosyncratic letters and marks, and ligatures. Color as a feature of a character is also outside the realm of Unicode.
* Note that even after a character is approved, fonts need to be created and, in the case of complex rendering
of a character (or script), users may need to wait for upgrades to rendering engines (i.e., Uniscribe)
before the character can be displayed properly.
Though the onus falls on digital humanists to prove
the need for the requested characters to the standards committees, the rewards of standardization can outweigh
the obstacles: Because the character is part of the
standard, users can expect decent rendering and display
behavior from off-the-shelf software. Standardizing the characters will also make them searchable by search
engines, thereby making the textual materials available to a wider audience.
The poster will include a few examples of successful character encoding proposals, which can serve as useful
models for humanities text encoders, if they pursue
proposing new characters. References
Anderson, Deborah. “Unicode and Historic Scripts.” Ariadne, Issue 37, 30 October 2003.
URL: http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue37/anderson/intro.html
Everson, Michael, Odd Einar Haugen, et al. “N2957: Preliminary proposal to add medievalist characters to the UCS.” URL: http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2957.pdf
Sperberg-McQueen, C.M., and Lou Burnard. TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Revised and re-edited. Oxford —
Providence — Charlottesville — Bergen, 2005. URL: http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/html/
The Unicode Consortium. The Unicode Standard, Version 4.0.1, defined by: The Unicode Standard, Version
4.0 (Reading, MA, Addison-Wesley, 2003. ISBN
0-321-18578-1), as amended by Unicode 4.0.1. URL: http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode4.0.1","txt","2","",""
"683","7","A Study of Buddhist ChineseA Digital Comparative Edition of the Bieyi za ahan jing 別譯雜阿含經 (T.100) with English Translation","2","The Digital Comparative Edition of the Bieyi za ahan
jing is a project undertaken by the the Chung-hwa
Institute for Buddhist Studies, Taipei (www.chibs.edu.tw)
and funded by a three - year grant from the Chiang
Ching-kuo Foundation of Scholarly Exchange (www.cckf.
org/index-e.htm).
As Humanities Computing in Chinese is still a newcomer
to the scene, this poster presentation aims to introduce a
project that produces a sophisticated comparative edition of
texts in ancient Asian languages using modern “western”
technology (XML/TEI). We hope to discuss with other
participants, learn, listen and try find ways of bridging
the culture gap that exists between Humanities in the
West and Asia.
TheBieyi za ahan jing 別譯雜阿含經 (BZA) in 16 fascicles
belongs to the early Chinese Buddhist texts collectively
called Ahan (Āgama) sutras 阿含經 The Ahan sutras
belong to the earliest stratum of Buddhist literature.
Their originals in Buddhist Sanskrit are largely lost, only
a few fragments have survived. Next to the Chinese
tradition only the Theravāda tradition has preserved
a comprehensive set of these sutras in Pāli. For the
Theravāda tradition the Nikāyas, as the Ahan sutras
are called here, contain the “words of the Buddha”
and therefore have been extensively studied and fully
translated into English, Japanese and German. On the
other hand there are extremely few translations or critical
editions of the Chinese Ahan sutras.
Generally, all of the 364 short sutras contained the
BZA have at least one parallel in Chinese and one Pāli
parallel (with commentary). Often there are several
parallels in Chinese and Pāli, sometimes even a fragment
in Buddhist Sanskrit has survived. The aim of the project is
to create a digital comparative edition of the BZA, which
clarifies these text-clusters. The edition will be freely
available to the public. Moreover we are working on an
English translation of the BZA text. Textbase for Chinese
is the digital CBETA edition, for Pāli text the Vipassana
Research Institute has granted us permission to use the
text of the Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana CD.
The markup of the XML files is designed according to the
encoding scheme of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI)
which is transformed into HTML for the user. The parallel
texts in each cluster get markup that expresses the basic
dialogic structure of the content, names, differentiates
between prose and verse parts, and connects them to the
authoritative printed versions. The clusters are linked
through a comparative catalogue. If time allows, we
will add phrase-level markup for better alignment of the
parallels within a text-cluster. Middleware between the
source files and the user application will be eXist, an
XML database.
The digital edition will help to gain a better understanding
of the textual history of the BZA, especially as to the
as well as of the relationship between the BZA and its
Chinese, Pāli and Sanskrit parallels. This is a major
contribution to the research on the formation of canonical
texts in early Buddhism. By a comparison of the BZA with
its Chinese parallels we will learn more about the rendition
techniques of the early translators. With the help of
algorithisms for authorship attribution it might
even be possible to profile the ideolect of the BZA’s
translator(s).
The use of digital analysis for studies in Buddhist Chinese
textual history is still terra nova and faces a number of
problems different from European languages (incomplete
character sets, no automated word-segmentation etc.).
Also the delivery system based on eXist is a first for
Buddhist Studies as well as Humanities Computing in
Taiwan.
We hope that with the poster presentation we can start a
dialogue and continue to work towards a comprehensive
framework for textual studies across cultures.","txt","2","",""
"684","7","Exploring Self-Advocacy Through Digital Exchange","2","The use of digital technology has become more common for those with educational or financial resources; at the same time, it has tended to marginalize
communities who lack access to higher education
or disposable income. This situation is especially acute
for individuals with developmental disabilities*. In
secondary school, typically the most advanced educational level for these learners, they are sometimes excluded from interaction with emergent information and new media technologies, and as a result, their opportunities for expression have been limited. My research addresses
this profound neglect and provides pragmatic
methodologies to include “self-advocates” (a designation those with developmental disabilities prefer) as authors, video directors and educators. Without the direct input of self-advocates, their embodied experiences will suffer from misguided re-interpretation by others. Computer and information technologies have allowed millions of individuals to contribute to a collective understanding of the human condition, exhibited on websites and through digital media production. My research addresses this question: how to work with marginalized individuals to achieve agency in sharing their knowledge with a wider social network. In the Prologue to his book Collective Intelligence, Canada Research Chair and Professor at the University of Ottawa, Pierre Lévy (1997: p.xxvii)
has written: “…if we are committed to the process
of collective intelligence, we will gradually create the technologies, sign systems, forms of social organization
and regulation that enables us to think as a group,
concentrate our intellectual and spiritual forces, and
negotiate practical real-time solutions to the complex problems we must inevitably confront.”
This poster presentation maps the digital exchange that took place during the first year of This Ability Media Club, a community-based media arts program held in Burnaby, BC, east of Vancouver. Since March 2005, six to eight core participants have met weekly with two paid staff, one a documentary video-maker with experience in community arts and the other, a veteran support worker who also serves as liaison to the sponsoring agency. Both are also academic researchers associated with Canadian
universities. Initially, our goals were to form a group that met regularly and to train individuals to handle the
technical and conceptual challenges of media production, regardless of actual form. With the advice of stakeholders,
who met regularly as an Advisory Committee, a theme was developed. The emerging filmmakers were asked to create a short video work that explored the theme: “What does community or citizenship mean to you?”
Throughout 2005, six participants developed and directed a short video project or digital story. These media works
will be featured on the home page at CitizenShift, a
National Film Board of Canada (NFB) website for “free range media” in April 2006 at the url <http://citizen.nfb.ca/>. This Ability Media Club is co-sponsored by the NFB, the Burnaby Association for Community Inclusion
(BACI) and the United Way of the Lower Mainland,
in consultation with Philia – A Dialogue on Caring
Citizenship.
In the first year, the project was based on principles that Berg (2004: p.195-6) identifies with Action research:
“…participation, reflection, empowerment and
emancipation of people and groups interested in improving
their social situation or condition.” This Ability Media
Club is a video variation of Photovoice. In her
description of the role of Photovoice within Participatory
Action Research (PAR), one of the original researchers
in the field, Caroline C. Wang (1999: p.187) writes, “In line with the values that characterize PAR, photovoice integrates a citizen approach to documentary photography,
the production of knowledge, and social action. As
Sontag has noted, “Photographs furnish evidence.””
In the case of This Ability Media Club, my research
is conducted through working with the community,
engaging in an active exchange. Knowledge about digital
technology is transferred, between the researchers and the group, from old members to new ones and with
frequent visitors to the Club. Through their explorations
in documentary video and digital storytelling, self-
reflexive aspects of the lives of participants are
exposed. By creating the media content, the directors
negotiate another level of knowledge transfer through the CitizenShift website, one that is external to the group. Data is also being created, through transcripts of media
workshops where the directors interview each other
and are interviewed. These texts will be coded and
individual changes in outlook and behaviour will be mapped over time. The research will be tracking words,
phrases or images that could indicate a shift in the
participants’ relationship to media content. Do they see themselves as consumers, fans, producers or instruments of social change and does that affect content creation?
The themes that emerge will be compared to the
researcher’s ethnographic field notes and will be viewed in
the context of the media works created by the directors.
In summer 2006, the Media Club will develop a method
of leading digital storytelling workshops through
conducting informant design sessions. The storytelling
workshops will allow self-advocate artists to
engage members of the general Burnaby community in constructing short narratives that reflect their human
and social relationships. The intention of this exhibition project is to reflect not the history of one community, but rather, by virtue of the social exchanges guided by the self-advocate artists, creation of a much wider narrative of the municipality’s story. These additional short media
works will be contributed to an exhibition (50 Years of BACI) in October 2006 at Burnaby’s Shadbolt Centre
for the Arts. A storytelling workshop will be designed that utilizes the leadership qualities and creative and technical skills of self-advocates in the group, based on their abilities and capacity for understanding through narrative interaction. In this way, self-advocates will not only contribute to the social capital of a local community but also to an international dialogue based on their usage of information technology.
The practical basis of my poster presentation will be
informed by a more theoretical investigation into social
and computational theories of collective intelligence (Lévy 1997, Rodriguez 2005), social capital (Putnam 2000), community informatics (Gurstein 2000), and the involvement of artists working within disability arts and culture (Frazee 2004). My interests are in understanding
the relationship between theoretical collective
intelligence or social capital, its applications within a physical community and how the process of content creation affects participants.
Although some academics may build a social network with those most connected to them by technology and education, my work attempts to connect marginalized
communities with an overall collective and social network, characterized by inclusion and engagement. Community informatics addresses this issue through
promoting a “bottom-up” rather than a “top-down”
approach to technological use within specific communities.
This approach to technological access is based on the real needs of the community, rather than the priorities of the researcher. In the 2004 keynote address at kickstART Festival of Disability Arts and Culture, Catherine Frazee examined cultural production by artists with disabilities, highlighting their unique perspectives and gifts while carefully avoiding sentimental re-interpretations of their experiences. My poster presentation will document the
shift, if any, in individual self-reflexivity in reference
to the texts that the artists themselves have created.
Analysis of the data will determine if they have been able to enact the term “self-advocate” through their collective actions and exhibitions.
* Developmental disabilities, in this context, are
defined as an impairment of general intellectual functioning manifested before the age of 22 that may also be accompanied by physical limitations.
References
Berg, Bruce L.. (2004) Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Frazee, Catherine. (2004) Keynote address at
Kickstart2 Festival of Disability Arts and Culture. Retrieved PDF October 4, 2005 from http://www.s4dac.org/.
Gurstein, Michael [ed]. (2000). Community informatics :
enabling communities with information and
communications technologies. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Pub..
Gurstein, Michael. (2003). Effective use: A community informatics strategy beyond the Digital Divide. first monday Vol. 8, No. 12. Retrieved October 8, 2005
at http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue8_12/gurstein/.
Hawkins, Jeff with Blakeslee, Sandra. (2004) On
intelligence. New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC.
Lévy, Pierre. (1997). Collective intelligence : mankind’s emerging world in cyberspace; translated from the French by Robert Bononno. New York : Plenum Trade.
Putnam, Robert D. Putnam. (2000) Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon & Shuster.
Rodriguez, Marko A. (2005) The Hyper-Cortex of Human Collective-Intelligence Systems. Retrieved
October 4, 2005 PDF from http://soe.ucsc.edu/~okram.
Wang, C. C. (1999) Photovoice: A Participatory
Action Research Strategy Applied to Women’s Health.
Journal of Women’s Health , 8, 2, 185-192.
Wang, C., & Redwood-Jones, Y. A. (2001). Photovoice
ethics. Health Education and Behavior 28(5),
560-572.","txt","2","",""
"685","7","A Response to the B2C ""Cultural Hegemony"" in Humanities Computing: Pliny","2","For a number of years now the WWW has acted as
the dominant paradigm for the delivery of digital resources for the humanities. At King College London’s CCH and indeed at other computing humanities centres with which I am familiar, a “digital project” is in almost
all cases equated to a project that delivers its results to a user community over the WWW. This, of course, is natural
and understandable. There is a large community of
potential resource users who have access to the WWW, and are already familiar with using a browser. Because access is browser-based it is relatively easy for a humanist in his/her office to start to use them. Furthermore, the technologies
that allow materials to be delivered in this way–in
particular XML and XSLT – are now mature, and
within the grasp of many within the humanities computing
community. The downside is that the browser provides
limited capabilities for interaction with the resource – the user can only view it on the screen, print it out and
potentially save a copy (many browser users don’t know even how to do this).
Recently these limitations have begun to hit home, and groups both within Humanities Computing (HC) and
outside it have been working on strategies for tackling it. Within HC, the TaPOR portal is an excellent of example of the kind of thing that can be done within the WWW
model. It provides an interesting working arena where users provide their own texts and select from a set of operations that can be applied against them. Improving the experience
of the browser user has also been in the air recently
outside of HC as well with the development of Ajax
and other Web 2.0 initiatives. These use sophisticated
browser-based extensions to allow for a richer user
experience of WWW- delivered materials.
In addition to these browser-oriented developments,
there has been more radical rethinking of how interaction might be enriched from the commercial sphere. There the kind of interaction that is browser-based has been
labelled “B2C” (“business to customer”). In B2C
transactions the customer was seen as an individual who needs little more than choose the product, indicate how s/he wanted to pay for it, and specify where the goods where to be shipped to. When businesses wanted to
sell goods to large businesses over the internet – “B2B” (“business to business”) – the process became more complex: one complex computer system representing the buyer needed to interact with the computer system representing seller, and the client was no longer going to be using a browser, but instead a computing system run by the client such as the purchasing system. Out of this work arose the whole model of web services, and with it a host of related technologies and standards. For an overall view of developments in this area from a
business perspective see the ebXML website which purports to enable “enterprises of any size, in any global region, to conduct business using the Internet”.
It has been my contention for some time that the
humanities end user needs more like B2B access to
resources than B2C. After all, it has been (with people like Rosanne Potter or John B Smith) the central view
of digital humanities from the very beginning that
humanities computing was about allowing the researcher
(the “end user”) to use the strengths of the machine to
engage with materials of study in new ways. Simply using the computer (via the browser) to view and print materials would surely seem to them as a betrayal of
several of the most important goals of humanities
computing! By applying the B2B way of thinking to
humanities computing we see that we need to give end users tools that support rich access to materials made available from digital archives so that they can do
interesting, independent things with them.
So, what kind of interesting thing could be done? The
recent Summit on Digital Tools for the Humanities, held at the University of Virginia and sponsored in part by UVa’s IATH, discussed some of these issues, and it emerged that one of areas for new tools was in the area of “scholarly interpretation”. The tool envisioned at this meeting supported established scholarly practice,
which was understood to be based on the act of
developing a scholarly interpretation out of acts of
reading and note-taking, the organising of these notes as a means to support the development of an interpretation, and then writing about the structure that emerged. During the breakout group that discussed this issue in some
detail, it was agreed that there were no existing
computing tools that could support the interpretive act in this way. Interestingly, having seen the idea described during the breakout session, about half the people in the room (there were 18 in all) wanted to build something to support it, and all wanted to use it! It was also interesting
to note that the approach that emerged was rather
conservative in that unlike much HC thinking it focuses
on supported established non-computing scholarly
practice rather than opening up new approaches. This was clearly surprising to some present at the summit.
Pliny is a prototype of such a tool. It reflects some recent writing (see Bradley 2003, 2004 and Bradley and Vetch 2005) I have done on the subject of scholarly interpretation and annotation. It is also influenced by our work at CCH
on the Online Chopin Variorum Edition (OCVE) which
included some facilities for user annotation and note
management. It takes up the model of a computing
application that, although it interacts with resources
available over the Internet, provides its user with the ability to enrich materials found there with notes that are similar to annotations that they might make in a printed resource.
Furthermore, since, these notes are digital, they are
potentially available for further manipulation, and Pliny
demonstrates some of things users might want to do with their note collection. The focus is on using the machine to assist the researcher to develop his/her interpretation in a largely traditional way.
Technically, Pliny is built on top of Eclipse. This is not a coincidence. Eclipse, an open source software product described (at least until recently) on its website as “a kind of universal tool platform - an open extensible IDE for anything and nothing in particular”, provides a rich “plugin” model for software development that supports independent tool development, but promotes interactivity between these tools. This approach would allow others to extend any tool kit they might build within Eclipse in such a way that sophisticated interaction with Pliny and other independently developed tools would be possible.
In my demonstration I will be showing a mature Pliny prototype, and explain how I believe that it can support the interaction with digital materials in ways that support the development of a scholarly interpretation of them, and this in ways that are compatible with existing widespread scholarly practice. I will show how Eclipse supports not only the development of this tool, but the development of a whole set of independently built tools that would
provide a much richer level of interaction between them than is practical elsewhere. Finally, I will describe how Pliny currently interacts with existing resources over the Internet, but how resource delivery within the Humanities might change to provide a richer and more sophisticated experience by taking on more of the B2B model.
References
Bradley, J. (2003). Finding a Middle Ground between ‘Determinism’ and ‘Aesthetic Indeterminacy: a
Model for Test Analysis Tools. In Deegan M. (ed) Literary and Linguistic Computing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Vol. 18 No 2. pp 185-207.
Bradley, J. (2004). “What you (fore)see is what you get: Thinking about usage paradigms for computer assisted
text analysis” in Text Technology (forthcoming).
Preprint available at http://www.kcl.ac.uk/humanities/cch/jdb/papers/FofT/index.html.
Bradley, J. and Vetch, P. (2005). “Supporting annotation
as a scholarly tool: experiences from the Online
Chopin Variorum Edition”, a presentation given at the ACH/ALLC conference 2005, Victoria BC, Canada. http://www.cch.kcl.ac.uk/legacy/staff/jdb/papers/
victoria/index.html
ebXML: Enabling a Global Electronic Market (2005). Website available at http://www.ebxml.org/
Garrett, J. J. (2005). Ajax: A New Approach to Web Applications. In adaptive path website. http:
//www.adaptivepath.com/publications/essays/
archives/000385.php
Summit on Digital Tools for the Humanities (2005).
University of Virginia, 28-30 September, 2005. http://www.iath.virginia.edu/dtsummit/
TAPoR: Text Analysis Portal for Research (2002-5). http://tapor.humanities.mcmaster.ca/home.html
Web 2.0 Conference (2005). http://www.web2con.com","txt","2","",""
"686","7","Customized Video Playback Using a Standard Metadata Format","2","A key mantra in the early days of the digital cellular
telephone revolution was “anything, anytime, anywhere.” Nicolas Negroponte, director of MIT’s
Media Lab, modified the thrust of this declaration, coining a phrase that some would say should be the slogan of the
Information Age, “nothing, nowhere, never unless it is timely, important, amusing, relevant, or capable of engaging my imagination.” It is growing increasingly difficult to meet the challenge posed by this high principle, given the exponential explosion of digital media that the world faces today. Sheer volume is making it increasingly difficult
to accurately identify in time and space where digital
assets of interest are to be found. To find what we need (or want!), when we need it, techniques are needed to not only to represent the assets, but also to describe these in a way that facilitates storage, search, retrieval, and even playback.
The Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) and the associated
international and interdisciplinary standard have addressed
this challenge and made it possible for a wide variety
of individuals and organizations to encode texts in such a way as to facilitate sharing of encoded texts and
processing tools, thus enabling important improvements in research and teaching. Yet, the Information Age is such that it is no longer possible to rely primarily on corpora
created from the written word alone. Because cultural and historical artifacts of today’s society are often based on digital media other than text, it is necessary to devise standard solutions in order to ensure that all resources, which exist as all sorts of digital media, are accessible, retrievable, and useable in a wide variety of settings.
Similar principles were important for TEI, and they are important for digital media today, such as DVDs and audiovisual files transmitted over the Internet.
With this wide array of distribution solutions, the problem
of access now takes on new forms that exist on two levels:
macro (global) and micro (local). At a macro or global
level, it can be a challenge to find a particular type of video
asset that conforms to some list of desired characteristics. Once a video “document” (that is, an asset) is located, however, then access takes on a micro- or local-level dimension as it becomes necessary to show only those segments of interest or to avoid showing portions that are not pertinent or appropriate, for whatever reason, to the need at hand. Such selective use can be problematic from many standpoints, some that are technical and some that are of a legal nature, depending on the circumstances.
Whether we are talking about access at the macro (global) level or access at the micro (local) level, access at both levels is dependent upon the availability of a descriptive mechanism that is sufficiently powerful to find the right portion of the right digital video asset. Such a descriptive mechanism, or Video Asset Description (VAD), should
provide clear and searchable metadata that can be
combined with display systems that are based on specialized
DVD players driven by lists of video clips selected from a VAD. In either case, such systems provide access at both levels, to the video materials themselves and to
specific portions of the video.
For such systems to work it is necessary to efficiently describe digital media, a need addressed by the Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) that has developed a standard for describing multimedia content data known
as MPEG-7. In contrast with previous efforts of this
committee that resulted in the standards for compressing and/or streaming digital video this effort produced an XML schema, somewhat comparable in purpose to TEI. This standard, formally named “Multimedia Content Description Interface,” supports some degree of semantic interpretation that is accessible by compatible software
and has been adopted by the International Standards
Organization (ISO).
Our group at Brigham Young University participated in the latter phases of the MPEG-7 development process, working specifically with representatives of Motorola and NHK (the Japan Broadcasting Corporation). This group developed an MPEG-7 “profile” (a subset of the MPEG-7 standard) that has been incorporated into Part 9 of the recently published MPEG-7 standard. Given the complexity of MPEG-7, it was necessary to develop
these profiles as subsets of MPEG-7 “tools” (data element
types) that cover certain functionalities.
Our interest in MPEG-7 grew out of our long-held desire to give teachers, researchers, and learners easy access to video clips in a wide variety of settings: homes, learning centers, offices, classrooms, and libraries. Indeed, we have based our work on desire to make available what
is needed, when it is needed. It is clear that this principle is important not only for consumers or users of digital
media, but for producers of the media, as well as libraries or online repositories where the digital media are stored. The end result is “customized video playback (CVP)” made possible by technologies built on descriptions created using standard metadata formats. CVP includes playback of a video asset under the control of a list of commands that define which segments of the video are played in what order and with which annotations the viewer can interact.
Our approach to Customized Video Playback helps achieve repeatable, customized viewing of a video
program. There are basically two ways to achieve
digital-technology-based Customized Video Playback. One approach is a file-based approach that requires clips to be digitized and encoded for playback, raising several
challenges that have to be addressed. Particular
drawbacks to this approach are (1) it is time-consuming, (2) it requires specialized skills, (3) it requires specialized, expensive, software and hardware tools, and (4) it can violate copyright law. A second approach, one for which we have developed important techniques and technologies, involves the creation of a content data model that very accurately describes the video asset of interest.","txt","2","",""
"687","7","Voice Mining: A Promising New Application of Data Mining Techniques in the Humanities Domain","2","1. INTRODUCTION
There is a growing interest by digital humanities researchers to examine the cultural computation utility of those data mining (DM) techniques that have been traditionally used by the scientific community. The scientific community has for a long time now used such techniques as Naïve Bayes, Support Vector Machines,
Neural Networks and Decision Trees, etc. to build
weather prediction systems, classification structures, risk management models and so on. Over the years, the
scientific community has developed several DM
experimenting environments that have reached such a level of maturity that one no longer needs to be
especially an expert in the use of these systems. One such moderately easy-to-use DM toolkit is Weka (http://www.
cs.waikato.ac.nz/ml/weka/) from the University of
Waikato in Hamilton, NZ. Another is the Data-to-Knowledge
(D2K)/Text-to-Knowledge (T2K) DM toolkit developed
by the Automated Learning Group (ALG) at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC)
(Downie et al 2005) (http://alg.ncsa.uiuc.edu/do/
downloads/d2k). The relative maturity of DM environments
like these has provided opportunities for humanities
researchers to focus on the generation of new types of
research questions that could be addressed by DM methods
by freeing them from the previously arduous task of writing their own complicated DM algorithms. Witness the NORA project (http://www.nora.lis.uiuc.edu) whose project description states:
“In search-and-retrieval, we bring specific queries to collections of text and get back (more or less useful)
answers to those queries; by contrast, the goal of
data-mining (including text-mining) is to produce new knowledge by exposing unanticipated similarities or differences, clustering or dispersal, co-occurrence and trends.” [Emphasis is ours.]
Inspired by the NORA project’s spirit of “…exposing unanticipated similarities or differences…and trends”, this poster/demonstration is intended to illustrate some novel types of research questions that can be addressed through the intra-textual application of sophisticated DM techniques. More specifically, we are currently exploring the application of a variety of DM procedures to the text associated with utterances made by characters in plays. That is, we are deeming the utterances made by each
character (i.e., the words they speak along with their
frequency of use) to be the set of attributes that “define” that character.
We have coined the phrase “voice mining” as the rubric for this new line of computer-assisted textual inquiry. We chose “voice” to highlight that we are interested in the characters as “individuals” who, through the words they “speak”, create their own individual identities and personas. We are thus adopting an anthropomorphic reading of the play text which constructs it as being analogous to the transcription of real human-to-human interactions. This
anthropomorphic reading stance could be considered as a kind of extension to those traditional stylometric
analyses wherein the collection of words (along with their
relative frequencies) written by a given author makes
up the set of attributes for describing that author.
“Mining” was chosen to denote that DM techniques are the technological mode of exploration.
2. SAMPLE “VOICE MINING” RESEARCH QUESTIONS:
Character Identification: Is it possible to construct a DM generated model that can successfully identify the character which uttered a given line of play text? If yes, what are the characteristics that contribute to the construction of each character’s unique voice? Even if not entirely successful, are there interesting patterns of confusion (i.e., are two or more “voices” consistently
misattributed)? Do confusions suggest a kind of affinity or clustering among sub-groups of characters (perhaps providing otherwise non-obvious indications of such things as class or gender identity)?
Gender Identification: Is it possible to construct a DM generated model that can successfully identify the gender of the character which uttered a given line of play text? If so, what are the characteristics that make up the gender identities of the characters? If not, are there consistent and interesting patterns of confusion? Do the confusions
suggest a possible “deliberate” subversion of gender
roles?
Class/Status Identification: Is it possible to construct a DM generated model that can successfully identify the socio-economic class or status of the character which
uttered a given line of play text? If so, what are the
characteristics that make up the socio-economic status or
class of the characters? If not, are there consistent and interesting patterns of confusion? Do the confusions
suggest a possible “deliberate” subversion of class or
status roles?
As one can see, it is possible to come up with many other
similarly framed research questions under the voice
mining paradigm. The repetitive nature of the sample questions above is deliberate and is designed to emphasize that our voice mining work is not being presented as technological magic box that provides the researcher with definitive and positive proofs. Rather, we want to stress that “voice mining” is an exploratory procedure
and it is very important to use ones own intrinsic
analytical abilities. As an exploratory procedure, prima facie “failure” to successfully model a given question should be seen as an invitation to explore the potential
explanations for the “failure” because the “failed”
model could, in fact, be based upon hitherto unnoticed
groupings that indicate important stylistic or subversive intentions of the creator of the play’s characters.
3. OUR POSTER/DEMONSTRATION
Because there is no a priori way to predict which
particular DM techniques are the best at answering
the kinds of questions that can be posited under the
voice mining paradigm, we have limited our initial proof-
of-concept work to three play texts drawn from the Project
Gutenberg collection (http://www.gutenberg.org/):
Oscar Wilde: “The Importance of Being Earnest” (http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext97/tiobe10.txt) Bernard Shaw: “Pygmalion” (http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext03/pygml10.txt)
Bernard Shaw: “Arms and the Man” (http://www.
gutenberg.org/dirs/etext03/rmsmn10.txt)
These plays were chosen for our initial exploratory
studies for they have:
a) relatively limited character sets;
b) relatively balanced representations of female and male characters; and,
c) a mix of characters by class and status.
Our poster/demonstration uses these three play texts as illustrative case studies in the application of voice
mining techniques. Using examples run through both the
Weka and the D2K/T2K toolkits, our poster/demonstration walks the audience step-by-step through the procedures necessary to conduct a voice mining exploration. These procedures include:
a) preprocessing of raw play text using PERL scripts to strip out extraneous text (e.g., stage directions, etc.);
b) conversion of clean text into the form needed by the DM tools (e.g., ARFF, CVS);
c) use and effects of possible attribute selection
techniques;
d) selection and running of one (or more) DM
algorithms; and,
interpretation of results output for signs of successful modeling and for indications of meaningful confusions.
(See Figure 1 for an example output set from our
“Important of Being Earnest” voice mining exploration on gender identity).  Figure 1. Results from a Naïve Bayes voice mining experiment constructed to explore gender identity in Wilde’s “Importance of Being Earnest” using the Weka DM toolkit.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
Our initial voice mining experiments show great promise as Figure 1 demonstrates with its strong positive results on the gender identification task. We hope
this success will prod other humanities scholars to pose new and interesting questions that voice mining could help them explore. While this poster/demonstration of voice mining techniques is intended to be an illustrative proof-of-concept, we have begun work on selecting more challenging texts from which to extract character voices.
We initially chose play texts as our proof-of-concept
medium because each character is clearly associated with
its own utterances by the convention of script writing. Book texts, for example, pose significant pre-processing
challenges in that there are fewer reliable clues that
consistently provide labels for “who is saying what” upon which to build DM input.
References:
Downie, J. S., Unsworth, J., Yu, B., Tcheng, D.,
Rockwell, G., and Ramsay, S. J. (2005). A
Revolutionary Approach to Humanities Computing?:
Tools Development and the D2K Data-Mining
Framework. Proceedings of the 17th Joined
International Conference of ACH/ALLC.","txt","2","",""
"688","7","Delivering Course Management Technology: an English Department Evaluates Open Source and For-Profit Course Management Systems","2","To meet the challenge of supporting our faculty who are interested in utilizing web based course management technology, we have tested four Course Management Systems (CMS), two open source and
two for-profit. The poster will show results from a
technology use survey conducted during Summer 2005 and our assessment results of four course management systems: WebCT, Turnitin.com, Moodle, and Sakai. The poster will argue for a “stair step,” open source,
locally controlled approach to CMS. Further, a
demonstration class housed on each CMS will be
available for viewing.
Background
As we ask our faculty members to incorporate
technology into their teaching, we are faced with the challenge of delivering and supporting technologies that multilevel skilled users can manipulate. Further,
faculty desire a wide variety of tools housed in a CMS, some simple and some complex. Given these concerns, Texas A&M University’s English Department tested four CMS:
1. WebCT (webct.com)
2. Turnitin.com (turnitin.com)
3. Moodle (moodle.org)
4. Sakai (sakaiproject.org)
Several criteria impacted our evaluation of each CMS.
We have three departmental teaching needs:
1. Traditional classroom,
2. Computer classroom, and
3. Web delivered (distance) courses.
We are working within a department and university that supports technology use. Our University’s Vision 2020 plan, the strategic plan of the University over the next years, includes 10 key goals, one of which is to
“Increase Access to Knowledge Resources.” The charge
is that “wedding of communications and computer
technology will, no doubt, yield the most formidable change in academe by 2002. Texas A&M University must lead the adaptation” (5). Given this charge and our corresponding survey results that note that close to 100% of our faculty would like to either use technology in the classroom or improve their technology skills for this use.
We are working with faculty who have a variety of technology skill levels. While we know that our faculty would like to use technology, the other side of the coin is that we are working with a faculty population that
is not particularly advanced in ability. In a technology survey our users rated themselves as follows: Novice (29%) Intermediate (54.8%) Advanced (16.1%). Given the diversity of skill levels, we believe that one CMS will not meet all users’ needs and plan to offer several choices. Because of our faculty skills, we have adopted
a “stair step” approach to technology. We encourage
faculty to use technology a bit at a time and, at the same
time, help them to see the rewards of using technology in the classroom. Accordingly, we hope to introduce faculty to a simple CMS and, as their skills and usage grow, move them to more advanced CMS with additional tools.
We have the staff and facilities to support CMS. Our department is fortunate to have a developed technology center and staff. We have two full time computer staff, a Coordinator of Instructional Technology faculty position (myself), and two part time student technicians. Further, we have a number of servers housed in our server room on which to put a CMS. And, most importantly, we have a group that has the technological ability to mount, run
and modify most open source CMS. Further, my
position, Coordinator of Instructional Technology, is charged with developing and administering training sessions, and one of our full time computer staff is
charged with one on one, as needed support of faculty using technology in teaching. Therefore, we are able to provide a broader range of CMS than departments that must rely on the University for all support.
Choosing a Course Management System
The poster will show the differences between each of the evaluated course management systems using the following criteria:
• Accessibility
• Complexity
• Control (local v. central)
• Cost
• Customizable
• Design
• Tools
Findings
Our evaluations reveal the following:
1. Turnitin.com is an excellent introductory CMS.
It is for-profit, but the license fee is low. Further,
it has a simple interface and a small number of
helpful tools, making it an excellent CMS for
novice users.
2. Moodle is an open source, robust CMS of use to intermediate to advanced users. We are able to run Moodle on our server, provide training, add tools
and customize the code. Further, the Moodle
community continues to develop integrated tools that are beneficial to humanities users.
3. WebCT is offered to faculty through the University, but we have discouraged its use based on our test
results.
4. Sakai remains an interesting CMS, but needs a bit more development before its tools are useful to most of our faculty users. TAMU is planning to enter the Sakai partnership, and we will continue to monitor the development of Sakai.
To illustrate the differences between the CMS, I will set up a sample course in each CMS for attendees to view.
References
Jadud, M. (2004). “Considering the Alternative.” <http://www.cs-ed.org/blogs/mjadud/archives/000556.html>
Katz, S. (2005). “Why technology matters: the humanities in the twenty-first century.” Interdisciplinary Science Reviews. 30.2: 105-118.
Palmquist, M. (2003). “A brief history of computer
support for writing centers and writing-across-the-curriculum programs.” Computers and Composition. 20.4 395-413.
Texas A&M University. (2000). “Vision 2020: Creating
a Culture of Excellence.” College Station: Texas A&M University.
Unsworth, J. (2004). “The Next Wave: Liberation
Technology,” The Chronicle of Higher Education’s Chronicle Review.","txt","2","",""
"689","7","Corpus Linguistic Techniques to Reveal Cypriot Dialect Information","2","The objective of this work is the creation and
exploitation of a corpus consisting of traditional poems for the extraction of dialect information. We focus on the island of Cyprus. Though there have been various collections of traditional Cypriot songs and poems, they
all are in hardcopy forms and as such they have
been only processed manually. Language resources on minority languages are still in their infancy (McEnery et al., 2000). A corpus in electronic form however, can be processed using corpus linguistic techniques in a
complete, accurate and quick way that could not be achieved manually (Biber, 1998; Ooi, 1998).
The Cypriot dialect belongs to the Eastern-Greek
dialects with 18 local variations, while that and the Tsakonian dialect are the oldest Greek dialects still alive
(Κοντοσόπουλος, 2001). Because of Cyprus rich
history, words of various origins can be found in the
Cypriot dialect: the ancient Cypriot dialect of the Achaeans, the Homer age, the Hellinistic period, the Medieval French, the Italian, the Catalan, the Arabic, the Turkish, the English. The dialect is very rich in words and expressions with ancient roots. Depending on the area, the dialect cannot be easily (if at all) understood by
non-Cypriot Greeks. The dialect is mainly used in
spoken language. Otherwise, it is mainly used for writing down spoken language, e.g. poems, fairytales, theatre
dialogues etc. (Καρυολαίμου, 2001). Nowadays
however, due to the modern way of living, the media, tourism and education, young Cypriots tend to use the common modern Greek instead of their dialect.
The Cypriot traditional poems are not simply an
expression of their creators. They express the people who share the same geographical area and the same time of the poem’s creation. They express their lives, feelings,
hopes. They can be categorized into various types: love, satiric, immigration, history, social, religious,
celebration, national and more. The language they use is simple and direct, same as that used by common people. As such, the exploitation of the poems could reveal dialect
characteristics of the real language use (Χατζηιωάννου, 1999a; Χατζηιωάννου, 1999b).
We apply corpus linguistic techniques on a corpus of
Cypriot traditional songs that we created to extract dialect
information. We present a sample of the linguistic
information extracted for the geographical areas studied. Our corpus is currently consisted of traditional poems from two geographical areas, Nicosia and Famagusta.
The size of the Nicosia corpus, in terms of number
of words, is 88,637, while the size of the Famagusta
corpus is 82,625 words. For the comparisons between the two areas we normalize frequencies to 88,000 words. We introduce three dialect phenomena that we currently explore.
The first important dialect characteristic of the Cypriot dialect electronically explored, is the use of the archaic
verbal endings “-ασιν” and “-ουσιν” (pronounced
“-asin” and “-usin”) for the third person in plural, past and present tense respectively, instead of the common
modern Greek ones “-αν” and “-ουν” (pronounced “-an” and “-un”). For example, in the Nicosia corpus, we find the dialect word “επήρασιν” (pronounced “epirasin”)
instead of the common modern Greek “επήραν”
(pronounced “epiran”), meaning “they took”. The
archaic endings survive the after-Byzantium period and are used interchangeably to the modern Greek ones, which appear at the beginning of the Middle-Age period. It is
believed that the archaic endings are extensively used in some areas.
Over the total of verbs ending in “-ασιν” and “-αν”,
25.11% end in “-ασιν” in Nicosia, and 43.96 in
Famagusta. In the area of Famagusta, the percentage of the use of the dialectic ending “-ασιν” is almost double to that of Nicosia. The residents of Famagusta, being in a rather rural area, use the dialect without many changes. Over the total of verbs ending in “-ουσιν” and “-ουν”, 25.73% end in “-ουσιν” in Nicosia, and 32.79 in
Famagusta. The use of the archaic ending “-ουσιν”
is also higher in Famagusta than in Nicosia. The
phenomenon is explored deeper in terms of the type of verbs that prefer the archaic endings “-ουσιν” and
“-ασιν” and those that prefer the common modern Greek
“-ουν” and “-αν”. Another parameter for future
exploitation is the context analysis for both type endings,
i.e. could it be that archaic endings prefer a specific
syntactic of semantic environment?
A second interesting research question is on the use of the dialect negatives “εν” (pronounced “en”) and “μεν”
(pronounced “men”), instead of the common modern Greek “δεν” (pronounced “then”) and “μην” (pronounced “min”), all meaning “not”, e.g. “εν παίρνω” (pronounced “en perno”) instead of “δεν παίρνω” (pronounced “den perno”), meaning “I do not take”. We compare the use between “εν” and “δεν” and the use between “μεν” and “μην”. Regarding “δεν”, corpus processing provides us the information that in almost all the occurrences it is pronounced as “εν” in both geographical areas (“εν” is found in 92% of the cases in the Nicosia corpus, and 98% in the Famagusta corpus). Similar case we find for “μην”, where the dialectic “μεν” is found in 96% of the cases in the Nicosia corpus and in 100% of the cases in the Famagusta corpus. These findings agree (as before) to that dialect characteristics are stronger in Famagusta than in Nicosia. Again, further exploitation could be on the syntactic and semantic context that the rare common Greek negatives “δεν” and “μην” tend to prefer.
Tsitakism is another interesting dialect phenomenon to explore where the “κ” (“k”) is pronounced as full “τζ” (“dj”). Let us see three words found in both geographical areas: “και” (pronounced “ke”) meaning “and”, “καιρός” (pronounced “keros”), meaning “time” or “weather” and “κεφαλή” (pronounced “kefali”) meaning “head”. From our corpus we extract the information that the dialectic “τζ” (“dj”) is much more common than “κ” (“k”) for both geographical areas for all the three example words. The word “καιρός” is used 23 times in its dialectic form in Nicosia and only once in its common modern Greek form, while in Famagusta it only appears in its dialectic
form (10 occurrences). The word “κεφαλή” is only
used in its dialectic form in both geographical areas
(10 occurrences in Nicosia, 1 in Famagusta). The word “and” appears in Famagusta 17 times more often in its dialectic form (379 occurences) than in its common
modern Greek form (22 occurences) and in Nicosia
7 times more, i.e. 1640 on its dialectic form and 218 times on its common modern Greek form. Again, we observe the dialect phenomenon to be stronger in Famagusta.
We gave a small sample of the dialect information that can be extracted applying corpus linguistic techniques on a traditional Cypriot poems corpus. Future work focuses on the following:
• Enhancement of the corpus with more traditional poems covering more Cypriot geographical areas.
• Continuous processing of the dynamic corpus for updating the dialectic knowledge with complete and accurate information.
• Enhancement of the corpus with other forms of
dialect speech.
• Continuous processing of the dynamic corpus
for the extraction of extra-linguistic cultural
information.
• Comparisons of the extracted dialect and
extra-linguistic information with that extracted of the
Dodecanese traditional songs corpus for acquiring knowledge on similarities and differences among the dialects and language idioms (Frantzi, 2005).
• Construction of an electronic Cypriot dictionary of dialect words and collocations.
References
Biber, D., Conrad, S., Reppen, R. (1998). Corpus
Linguistics - Investigating Language Structure and Use. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
Frantzi, K.T. (2005). Preserving and Exploiting the
Dodecanese Traditional Songs. In Book of Extended
Abstracts of the 1st South-Eastern European
Digitization Initiative (SEEDI) Conference,
Digital Re_Discovery of Culture (Physicality
of Soul) – Playing Digital, Ohrid, FYROM,
September, 11-14 2005, pp. 41-45.
McEnery, A.M., Baker, P., Burnard, L. (2000). Corpus Resources and Minority Language Engineering. In M. Gavrilidou, G. Carayannis, S. Markantontou, S. Piperidis and G. Stainhauoer (eds) Proceedings of
the Second International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, Athens, Greece, 2000, pp.801-806.
Ooi, V. (1998). Computer Corpus Lexicography.
Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh.
Καρυολαίμου, Μ. (2001). Η Ελληνική γλώσσα στην Κύπρο. Στο Εγκυκλοπαιδικός Οδηγός για τη γλώσσα, Α.-Φ. Χριστίδης επιστ. Υπευθ., Υπουργείο Παιδείας και Θρησκευμάτων, Θεσσαλονίκη, Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας, 180-184, (in Greek).
Κοντοσόπουλος, Γ.Ν. (2001). Διάλεκτοι και ιδιώματα της Νέας Ελληνικής. Εκδόσεις Γρηγόρη, 3η έκδοση, Αθήνα (in Greek).
Χατζηιωάννου Κ. 1999a. Γραμματική της Ομιλούμενης
Κυπριακής Διαλέκτου με Ετυμολογικό προσάρτημα. Εκδόσεις Ταμασός, Λευκωσία, 1999 (in Greek).
Χατζηιωάννου Κ. 1999b. Ετυμολογικό Λεξικό της Ομιλούμενης Κυπριακής Διαλέκτου. Εκδόσεις Ταμασός, Λευκωσία, 1999 (in Greek).","txt","2","",""
"690","7","Musicology of the Future","2","The AHRC ICT Methods Network is a new
initiative which provides a national forum for the exchange and dissemination of expertise in the use of ICT (Information Communication Technology) for Arts and Humanities research. The aim of the poster is to show the Methods Network’s contribution to the promotion and development of advanced use of ICT in musicology.
“We stand at the moment of opportunity”; Nick Cook’s opening statement at this year’s International Society
for Music Information Retrieval conference (ISMIR)
highlights the sense of optimism that surrounds
collaborations between musicology and computer
science. If we look at some of the areas being
developed within computer science research centres, it is clear that this is a key topic. To name only a few;
these include the research into being undertaken into intelligent sound and computing systems at the
Centre for Cognition and Computing (Goldsmith’s
College University of London), the music and audio
technology projects at the Centre for Digital Music (Queen Mary’s, University of London), and the research into audio-visual media at the Lancaster Institute for Contemporary Arts (Lancaster University). Furthermore,
this area of research is by no means confined to the
United Kingdom; the Integrated Media Systems Centre
at the University of Southern California and the
German Research Centre for Artificial Intelligence
(among others) are examining the study of musical
performance, whilst the Music Technology Centre at
McGill University (Canada) are looking into music classification software, and the Institute of Information Science in Taiwan (China) have been concerned with
retrieving audio material through audio queries, to name only a few.
However, despite the fact that the tools that are being
developed by such computing specialists are innovative
and in many cases, highly sophisticated, they have
received little response from musicologists. That is not to say that advancements have not been made within
the musicological community, far from it. Many
musicologists use such electronic resources on a frequent
basis for their research, and the development of
resources such as Centre for the History and Analysis
of Recorded Music (a major online discographic
project), the Digital Archive of Medieval Music (an
online resource for the study of fragments and complete manuscripts of European Medieval Polyphonic Music), and the Online Chopin Variorum Edition (online primary resource materials of Chopin’s editions) show attempts
at engaging with computing as part of musicological
research. How musicologists use this technology within their research has yet to be seen. In general, it appears that despite the keenness of many computer scientists to advance the topic of music information retrieval, the musicological community as a whole is unsure how to take up the technological opportunities being offered and apply them to their own research.
One aspect of the AHRC ICT Methods Network’s
activities is to bring together these two disciplines
to discuss how computer scientists can best serve
musicologists, and promote and develop the use of
advanced ICT methods throughout the musicological community. Whilst it is funded by a UK funding agency
to promote ICT methods in the UK, the Methods
Network also has an international remit and is keen to foster international partnerships and promote advanced ICT methods that are being developed outside of the UK.
The Methods Network’s first major activity concerned with music is an Expert Seminar entitled “Modern Methods for Musicology: Prospects, Proposals and Realities”. The aim is to bring together leading academics in music information retrieval and musicology to assess the current engagement
of musicologists with information technology, consider
the implications of music-computational tools for
musicologists, and see what tools information scientists might offer musicologists in the future and whether these need to be adapted for use by non-technical musicians.
This will be the first step to enable the Methods Network to identify current and future needs of this community, and identify strategic issues which can be addressed in
follow-up workshops or other activities (which the Methods Network will support). Future directions (and activities) which arise from this event in the coming months will be included in the poster.
In summary, this poster reveals the framework for
the promotion of advanced ICT research methods in music (which is one aspect of the Methods Network’s activities). In doing so, it shows the importance of the Network in facilitating discussions between disciplines and in promoting collaboration, as well as the need for activities (such as seminars and training) in order to advance the use of ICT within the arts and humanities. Cook stated; “All the potential for a major disciplinary advance in musicology is there, but we’ve got to put
in place the conditions to make it actually happen.
Otherwise we could be standing at this moment of
opportunity for a long time to come.” The role of the Methods Network is to “make it happen” and in doing so, lay the foundations for the future musicologists.
References
Cook, Nicholas [accessed 11 November 2005].
“Towards the compleat musicologist?” http://
ismir2005.ismir.net/documents/Cook-Compleat
Musicologist.pdf
Crawford, Tim. [accessed 17 March 2006]. “Music
Information Retrieval and the future of Musicology”
http://www.ocve.org.uk/redist/pdf/crawford.pdf
Craig-McFeely, Julia and Marilyn Deegan. [accessed 17 March 2006]. “Bringing the Digital Revolution
to Medieval Musicology: The Digital Image
Archive of Medieval Music (DIAMM).” http://www.rlg.org/en/page.php?Page_ID=20666#article1
Fujinaga, Ichiro [accessed 17 March 2006]. “Application
of Optical Music Recognition technologies for the development of OCVE”. http://www.music.mcgill.ca/~ich/misc/OCVE_OMR/OCVE_OMR.html
Hewlett, Walter B. and Eleanor Selfridge-Field (1991). “Computing in Musicology, 1966-91.” Computers and the Humanities vol. 25, pp.381-392.
Wathey, Andrew, Margaret Bent, and Julia Craig-
McFeely (2001). “The Art of Virtual Restoration: Creating the Digital Archive of Medieval Music.”
in “The Virtual Score: Representation, Retrieval,
Restoration.” Computer in Musicology vol. 12, pp. 227-240.","txt","2","",""
"691","7","Towards a Union Catalogue of XML-Encoded Manuscript Descriptions","2","The recent work of the European MASTER project (1999-2001) and the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) (Burnard & Rahtz, 2005) in developing an XML
standard for encoding manuscript descriptions has
provided an opportunity to explore methods of making such
information more widely available through a web-based system. While traditional web database applications built on relational systems such as MySQL are well-suited for web delivery of data-centric, tabular information, they are
less useful for documents with an irregular and unpredictable structure. The emergence of native XML databases as a viable storage medium has made web delivery of irregularly-structured XML easier and more efficient.
The poster discusses a prototype system developed as part of a research project for the MA in Electronic Communication and Publishing at the School of Library, Archive and Information Studies, University College
London. The project, carried out at the University of
Copenhagen’s Arnamagnæan Institute, created a
earchable, web-based catalogue of descriptions of
Scandinavian manuscripts dating from the medieval
period. Using PHP and the eXist native XML database, a three-tier web database application was developed. Users of the system are provided with a facility for executing queries on the database through a web form which allows complex queries to be formulated involving many different
criteria. User input from a search form submission is
processed by PHP into an XQuery expression which is then passed to the database. Results are returned to the user after being processed by an XSLT engine on the
server. The web system is multi-lingual and places an emphasis on usability, standards-compliance and the use of open source software.
The realisation of this project is a significant first step towards the development of a comprehensive electronic tool for manuscript studies. In its current state, the system
demonstrates research opportunities not previously available with manuscripts from the Arnamagnæan
collection. The large number of possible search criteria, and
the ability to combine these criteria in complex ways, allows researchers to assemble datasets which may
otherwise have been difficult to gather. Given that there are clear limitations on the number of researchers able to physically view a manuscript due to constraints of time, funding and manuscript fragility, providing electronic
access benefits researchers significantly. There also exists the possibility that researchers may discover useful and interesting information which they had previously not even considered (Driscoll, 2002).
The prototype system demonstrates a method by which manuscript repositories may undertake similar projects involving XML-encoded source material. In addition, it shows how a standardised approach to XML encoding can facilitate the integration of records from disparate repositories into a single resource, thereby creating a
larger, more complete, and more useful catalogue.
Indeed, this type of union catalogue was one of the primary
goals of the MASTER project.
The goal of creating a unified catalogue of European
medieval manuscripts may demand some measure of a standardised approach to encoding, as the ability to
program query functionality is dependent on data that is structured in a similar manner across all documents being queried. Despite the availability in TEI P5 of a general tagset for encoding manuscript descriptions, the number of possible combinations of elements and different stylistic approaches to encoding present some obstacles to total
integration. Surmounting the challenges imposed by
encoding irregularities may be possible, however, through
the use of query techniques which accommodate these differences. More work is needed to assess the implications of such an approach. It is also uncertain at this stage how feasible it is to expect the system to smoothly scale
upwards as the number of documents increases. Initial indicators are positive, but a more rigorous case-study is required.
The development of a union catalogue is therefore
dependent on the availability of a technical infrastructure
of sufficient flexibility and reliability. The work done in developing the prototype, and the positive results from it thus far, suggest that this is indeed possible and within reach. The eXist XML database is a viable option for
storage and document management. XML documents need
only to be uploaded to the database in their complete form to be added to the collection, greatly simplifying management and allowing for participating repositories to be widely dispersed geographically. A fully-functioning
deployment would require a centralised server and some direct coordination of the system and its various
collections, but these are logistical matters that can be readily addressed with the provision of adequate funding and, more importantly, the enthusiastic participation of manuscript repositories.
The poster will comprise of a discussion of the web
resource, including examples of XML source material, the eXist database system, PHP code used to build the application, and the web interface. Further discussion will centre around the potential for involving other
manuscript repositories and issues raised in this regard.
Potential beneficiaries of this work might include those exploring methods of deploying XML-encoded material through a web interface, particularly if the material is not of the type that lends itself to incorporation into a relational database system, and those interested in the development of electronic tools for manuscript scholarship.
References
Burnard, Lou and Rahtz, Sebastian (2005). P5 Fascicule. [online]. Text Encoding Initiative. Available from: http://www.tei-c.org.uk/Activities/MS/FASC-ms.pdf [Accessed 27 March 2006].
Driscoll, Matthew (2002). “The MASTER Project:
Defining Standards for Electronic Manuscript Catalogue
Records”. In: Fellows-Jensen, Gillian and Springborg, Peter (eds): Care and Conservation of Manuscripts: Proceedings of the sixth international seminar held at the Royal Library, Copenhagen 19th-20th October 2000. Copenhagen: Royal Library. pp. 8-17.","txt","2","",""
"692","7","Personal Video Manager: A Tool for Navigating in Video Archives","2","The amount of digital information has been growing tremendously. Digital set-top-boxes are more and more common in every home. Until recently people have recorded their favourite television shows on video tapes and stored them in their bookshelves. Now they have the opportunity to record them in digital format to the hard disk of a digital receiver. This leads to growing repositories of digital video content with no annotation except the title of the recording. As the amount of data grows large enough it will be more and more difficult to find a particular video. This problem is not new. The problems were more or less the same before the digital
era of today. Poorly labelled piles of VHS cassettes
stored in bookshelves did not provide much help for people
searching for their favourite episode of a television series recorded years ago.
The traditional way to search for a particular scene in a video stored in a large archive is to select a video and start searching from the beginning. Searching stops when the relevant position of the video is found or the end is
reached. This type of search method may take a long time,
especially if the user does not know the content of the video at hand well enough. Moreover, generic searches such as finding video clips with a certain theme are even more demanding using this methodology.
What we propose here is a new computer-aided way for searching and browsing through a video repository. The video collections are processed and analyzed automatically by the computer that controls the data. Based on the analysis, the computer produces some additional data
structures that will later support the search process
targeted at this archive. Using this approach, the time consuming searching of videos to find something specific is no longer necessary. Actually, one does not even have to remember the title of the video one is looking for. The only information required for creating queries consists
of keywords and mental imagery about the subject of interest. This kind of information is easier to remember than categorical information, such as titles of videos. In addition, the required search time using this type of methodology is only a small fraction of the time needed when using more conventional searching methods. The search concept described above is called content-based video retrieval.
A prototype of this search concept, Personal Video
Manager, was developed at the MediaTeam Oulu research
group [1] of the Department of Electrical and Information
Engineering at the University of Oulu, Finland. It is a video search and browsing application and has been
developed especially for digital set-top-boxes, as the application combines sophisticated video analysis and search software with an easy-to-use user interface.
Analysis of the video material is fully automatic and thus no manual annotation is required. The user interface was designed to be simple and effective, so that the system would be usable without special training.
The research of automatic video content analysis and retrieval has years of tradition at the MediaTeam Oulu research group. The technologies developed include ones that measure visual similarities between video clips using novel relevance metrics [2][3], and efficient
content-based indexing structures that utilise both
automatically constructed speech transcripts and specific
visual cues extracted from the videos [4]. The Personal Video Manager application makes use of these and other technologies developed during the past years.
The video material must be indexed before the search system can be used. Indexes are created by analysing the video content automatically. At first, the software
segments long videos into video shots. Each shot represents
one consistent camera run bounded by visual transitions.
The shots are then analyzed by extracting numerical
descriptions from the visual content and indexed for
content-based retrieval by the search system. Text transcripts
are pre-processed by a simple stemming and stop word removal and inverse document indexes are created with a temporal expansion. The resulting text indexes are
matched with the extracted shot segments. A search collects
and returns the shots matching the query definition.
Therefore users can efficiently locate relevant spots within
a time frame of seconds, even when the collections
contain several hours of video.
Due to the demanding usability requirements of our
prototype, a large proportion of the time spent for the system
design was devoted to the user interface. The final version of the prototype provides users with two navigational methods complementary to each other. The principal method of access, which is also the more traditional one, is based on a simple keyword search. User defined query terms are compared to the text indexes of the whole video database and the most relevant video shots are returned.
The system ranks the results by their relevance and
displays them to the user as still images accompanied with a short piece of descriptive text. In this representation each
image corresponds to a single shot stored in the archive.
The displayed text is an extract of the text content in the shot. Based on the given information the user can
quickly get an impression of the shot content.
Another navigational tool is based on visual similarities between video clips. For each result returned from the
keyword based search, the system provides visually
similar video shots based on computational similarity
measurements. When a visually close match to the search need is found, it is possible to find several other relevant
candidates from the visually similar results. This
functionality provides an alternative way of finding
relevant content, even when there are no textual content
descriptions available.
By using the search methods presented above, relevant results can be obtained relatively quickly. The better the user can describe what he/she is looking for, the faster the search process is. When a relevant video shot is found, it can easily be played using the video player software provided. The user can also view the video in its entirety using conventional video playback options.
The prototype system was developed for the Oulu
Expo exhibition [5], a showcase for the technological know-how of Oulu, where the public can try it out. The system contains video material consisting of over sixteen hours of news material provided by the Finnish public service broadcasting company YLE [6]. Detailed user instructions are provided in order to make sure that all visitors of the exhibition will be able to use the system. It has been configured to collect information about how the users actually use the system. This will help to assess which of the offered navigational methods users prefer.
We strongly believe that the problem imposed by growing digital video archives will create the need for applications such as the Personal Video Manager. Such systems will probably be a standard part of future digital set-top-boxes when the required technological maturity is reached.
References
[1] MediaTeam Oulu research group. http://www.
mediateam.oulu.fi/?lang=en
[2] Ojala T, Rautiainen M, Matinmikko E & Aittola M.
(2001). Semantic image retrieval with HSV
correlograms. Proc. 12th Scandinavian Conference on Image Analysis, Bergen, Norway, 621 – 627.
[3] Rautiainen M & Doerman D. (2002). Temporal Color Correlograms for Video Retrieval. Proc. 16th International Conference on Pattern Recognition, Quebec, Canada, 1:267 - 270.
[4] Rautiainen M, Ojala T & Seppänen T. (2004).
Analysing the performance of visual, concept and text features in content-based video retrieval. Proc. 6th ACM SIGMM International Workshop on
Multimedia Information Retrieval, New York, NY, 197-205.
[5] Oulu Expo. http://www.tietomaa.fi/eng/nayttelyt/ouluexpo.html
[6] YLE. http://www.yle.fi/fbc/thisyle.shtml","txt","2","",""
"693","7","Projet métis : passerelle entre design d'interface et création cinématographique dans le cadre des Jeux Olympiques Humanistes de Pékin 2008.","2","Metis Global virtual Network is allowing some scientists, artists, developers and other partners to shoot an advocacy advertainment movie toward Beijing Olympics 2008 while building the Camera. This metaphore
means that while the creative project is evolving, the
virtual team is also involved in customizing the groupware tools and tracing the creative process in order to
enhance the cooperative and individual expression. The groupware interface co-design is meant to help mediate the Metis approach to creativity (Klein, 2002), inviting to consider the universe as a continuous process of creation without totality (Levy, 1997), in which the constantly changing global context can usually be better perceived in connexion with other team members, and by allowing also the interface to be continuously adapted to an ever
changing environment, along the lines of Empirical
Modelling. Groupwares, very much alike adaptive forms of computing are likely to invite more contextual and sustainable innovations and may trigger more ethical concerns and deliberation than single-user-only softwares. Appropriate Groupware interface design might facilitate
the very mediation of creators, developers, scientists
and others within the complex field of Humanities
Computing. Metis is bridging aesthetics and technology and invites to a rediscovery of the Greek Teknè and its cosmogony (Detienne, 1974; Debray, 2000).
Nous présentons dans cet article l’avancement de
notre projet de recherche Métis pour favoriser à la fois
la création collective mais aussi la collaboration active des informaticiens et des auteurs au sein d’une équipe virtuelle globale. Cette problématique nous amène au design d’interface d’un studio virtuel de cinéma, tout au long du projet de création pour favoriser l’expression au sein de l’équipe interculturelle.
Introduction
En novembre 2005, à 1000 jours des JO de
Pékin 2008, le projet Mètis est un grand chantier
exploratoire qui échappe souvent à la logique des
laboratoires participants. Nous présenterons les
développements du projet, les résultats ainsi que les écueils.
En 1999, le projet coordonné par Rody Klein débute à l’Université de Nice au Département Sciences InfoCom sous la supervision du psychanalyste Yannick Geffroy.
Il s’agit d’analyser la définition scientifique de la
créativité : “La créativité est la capacité de produire une chose qui est à la fois nouvelle (originale, inattendue) et adaptée (utile, adaptée aux contraintes) (Lubart, 1999)
Cette définition pragmatique nord américaine sera
comparée à la conception européenne de la créativité qui est plutôt une “métaphore” dominée au contraire par la volonté d’expression “gratuite”, détachée de toute utilité, quasiment coupée de la réalité (Joas 1999). Ce qui est un concept scientifique aux USA est une métaphore en Europe, et ce pour des raisons historiques et sociopolitiques
complexes. L’étude des métaphores exige d’autres
talents que l’analyse des concepts scientifiques. Elle présuppose du moins que l’on soit prêt à admettre que le phénomène cerné indirectement et à tâtons puisse faire l’objet d’une expérience réelle (Joas, 1999).
En 2001, ce constat nous a amené à explorer notre
héritage culturel et à nous pencher sur les travaux
concernant la Métis des Grecs (Détienne et Vernant, 1974).
Ce travail nous a conduit à étudier l’oeuvre du philosophe
- sinologue François Jullien (1989) afin de porter un
regard neuf sur l’innovation Occidentale, vue de Chine. Ces travaux ont donné lieu à la rédaction d’un mémoire (Klein, 2002) non publié. En résumé, pour permettre aux acteurs contemporains de retrouver cette prudence
ancienne au sein des processus de création artistique
et d’innovation technologique radical, il faudrait que grâce à la médiation d’une interface, ils puissent être
sensibilisés continuellement à ce qui faisait la fibre
des Humanités : la Mètis. Détienne et Vernant (1974)
décrivent la Mètis des Grecs, comme une espèce d’habileté
et de prudence avisée, fondée sur “la délibération en vue d’un bien”. C’est la différence cruciale entre la démarche ancienne du “Technite” grec d’une part et celle d’autre
part de notre ingénieur contemporain, “technicien”
moderne qui a été généralement coupé d’une vision
cosmologique du monde de par sa spécialisation extrême;
c’est donc la différence entre « le Sage et l’Apprenti sorcier ». Cette année là, les professeurs Régis Debray (2000), Francois Jullien et Bruno Latour (1996) nous ont accueillis et ont contribué à nos orientations par leur
conseils: ‘vers la Chine’. La Chine où l’harmonie des
individus dans la voie (Le Tao) découlait de la conscience
d’appartenir à la nature: ce qui constituait la reconnaissance
fondamentale de la continuité et de la connexion
(corrélativité) entre toutes choses. L’innovation y était donc conçue différemment, il s’agissait d’un processus d’efficience (accommodation inclination) plutôt que d’efficacité, liant ainsi le manifeste et le latent (Jullien, 1989).
En 2003 suite a des recherches en collaboration avec l’Ecole Nationale des Jeux vidéo et Média Interactifs
basée au CNBDI d’Angoulême, se met en place un réseau
international entre l’Europe, l’Amérique du Nord, la Chine et l’Afrique, afin de tenter de concrétiser un
projet scientifique, technique et artistique qui permettrait
d’inclure les aspects suivants :
1°) Une équipe virtuelle globale interculturelle de
volontaires, composée de chercheurs en informatique
et sciences humaines, de professionnels du cinéma et artistes, d’industriels et d’étudiants attirés par la recherche interdisciplinaire.
2°) Un projet de réalisation cinématographique de type Advertainement dans le cadre des Jeux Olympiques Humanistes de Pékin 2008.
3°) Un projet de Test/Conception d’une plateforme
collaborative (CSCW/CSCL) permettant
l’accompagnement et la Médiation artistique,
scientifique, technologique et commerciale du projet Métis.
Nous faisons le point du Projet Mètis en novembre 2005 : quelques études préliminaires ont donné lieu à des publications dans les domaines du Management de l’innovation (Cao Sanxing, 2004) de l’ergonomie (Pang,2005), de la gestion des documents multimedia (Cao Sanxing, 2004, 2005) de l’éducation (Klein 2004a) et enfin des besoins technologiques des NGOs (Klein, 2005). Nous avons cherché à clarifier comment organiser
une telle démarche innovante, a la fois sur le plan
artistique et technologique, mais aussi aux niveaux
commercial, formation et recherche. Nous avons aussi réalisé
d’autres études qui décrivent les aspects concrets de la créativité collective en Chine et en Occident (XuLi et al, 2005). Enfin nous avons aussi exploré le thème des jeux Olympiques humanistes, spécifiques à Pékin 2008, en relation avec la thématique du commerce de l’Art entre esthétique et économie (Klein, 2004;Xu Li, 2005).
1. Equipe virtuelle globale : La mise en place d’une telle équipe virtuelle globale est difficile. Nous nous sommes en fait assurés d’intégrer toutes les difficultés propres à chacun des domaines : Sur le plan commercial, le projet innovant est très en amont et ne peut encore présenter de prototype, ce qui constitue un handicap à l’investissement
des partenaires industriels potentiels. Sur le plan
scientifique, la nature interdisciplinaire du projet
n’attire qu’à moitié les laboratoires qui ne peuvent en réalité survivent que grâce à la publication d’articles
très spécialisés. Par ailleurs, si la nature évolutive et
artistique du projet a l’avantage d’être passionnante, elle permet cependant difficilement de savoir exactement
ce que l’on veut faire et génère jusqu’à ce jour une
certaine inertie quand il s’agit de demander des fonds de
recherche conséquents. La question de la scientificité
se pose d’autant plus que le projet acquiert une grande visibilité. Sous les feux de la rampe, la crainte des erreurs
se fait de plus en plus évidente. Comme le dit Lévy-
Leblond (1984) le monde des sciences et de la technologie
évite de se présenter comme une errance, ce qui ne
facilite pas le rapport avec les Humanités.
2. Projet Cinématographique Pékin 2008 : En ce qui concerne les Jeux Olympiques de Pékin, les publications communes (Klein,2004b; XuLi, 2005) et les accords passés avec le Laboratoire HOSC (Humanistic Olympic
Study Center) nous encouragent à persévérer. Le projet d’advertainment mêle la réalisation publicitaire avec la dimension artistique. Elle peut s’appliquer aussi à des films de type « advocacy » visant à promouvoir une
conception toujours plus humaniste des Jeux Olympiques
où se conjuguent désintéressement de l’intention et
passion des engagements sportifs, volontaire et artistique.
Ne faut-il pas résister à la tentation de réduire les
JO à une dimension uniquement commerciale et
professionnelle? Enfin, le dispositif artistique du
projet Mètis vise à décloisonner sciences, art, commerce et technologie afin de poser les questions plus larges et sociétales de la Globalisation nécessaire des cultures vers la paix et le respect de l’environnement, mais aussi de l’importance de sauvegarder la richesse de nos diversités
individuelles, communautaires et écologiques. C’est
un message qui passe très bien en Chine ainsi qu’en
Occident : il y’a donc là des réserves d’espoir et d’humanité
qui pour être communiquées doivent être relayées
par les TIC dont les principes technologiques et les
ressorts idéologiques ne peuvent pas/ne doivent pas être seulement fondés sur la culture occidentale.
3. CSCW/CSCL : Sur le plan technologique, il est
apparu difficile de commencer le projet sans outil ou tout au moins sans une connaissance partagée par les acteurs, des outils collaboratifs de base. Nous avons tenté d’utiliser sans succès l’ENT Cartable Electronique
de l’Université de Savoie. Nous nous heurtons aux
mêmes genres de problèmes avec le collecticiel E-Learning
JoinNet de l’Université Sun Yat Sen de Taiwan. Pourtant ce dernier est bilingue (anglais-chinois) et d’utilisation intuitive. Nous avons un administrateur
de plateforme CSCL. Nous avons bien aimé le collecticiel 2.0 de Groove.net qui est d’utilisation très intuitive, mais nous n’avions aucun accès au développement. Mais
d’autres problèmes se greffent là-dessus, tels que la
disparité de l’accès à Internet entre les régions et les
difficultés de faire tourner certains logiciels sur Windows
NT version chinoise quand ils ont ‘sans doute’ été
développés pour les versions occidentales. Saul Greenberg
(Tse, 2004) nous avait avertis, de son côté qu’il avait en effet re-orienté ses recherches en CSCW sur le ‘single
display’ pour contourner les problèmes posés par la
collaboration à distance qui s’avèrent encore très
importants même entre certaines régions du Canada.
Conclusion
Les travaux d’ingénierie logicielle de Pierre Lévy (CIweb) sur une théorie de l’Evolution culturelle
grâce au NTIC ainsi que le nouveau langage IEML
pour traquer cette évolution sur la toile, constituent
une avancée notable dans l’esprit de nos travaux
interdisciplinaires. Les recherches de Modélisation
Empirique (EMweb) présentées l’année dernière par Mc Carty, Beynon et Russ (McCarty 2005) semblent laisser aussi envisager la possibilité de faire face avec l’informatique, à la complexité du Projet Mètis dont les besoins généralement imprévisibles seront en constante
évolution à la frontière entre Humanités et
Technologies. Merci à l’avance de vos suggestions et de votre aide (MètisWeb).
Références
Cao, S., Klein, R., Zheng, G., Geng, W. (2004).
Metis Global Virtual Network Toward Beijing
Olympics 2008: Managing Uncertainty in Media Content Platforms. Total Innovation Management mediated by CSCW Design. Proc. 4th Intl. Symp.
on Management of Technologies. Zhejiang
UniversityPress, Hangzhou, p.171-175.
Cao S., Klein R., Liu J. (2005). Enhancing the
usage pattern mining performance with temporal segmentation of QPop Increment in digital libraries. J Zhejiang Univ SCI 6A(11):1290 1290-1296
Debray, R. (2000). Introduction à la médiologie. (puf).
Detienne, M., Vernant, J.P. (1974) Les ruses de
l’Intelligence, la Mètis des grecs. (Ed. Champ
Flammarion).
Joas, H. (1999). La créativité de l’agir, trad. De
l’allemand par Pierre Rusch (éd. Cerf) Paris.
Jullien F. (1989). Procès ou Création, Une Introduction à la Pensée des lettrés chinois. (Des travaux / Seuil).
Klein R. (2002). ‘ La Mètis-pour-créer ? ’Vers l’Analyse
Médiologique d’une Métaphore: La Créativité
Selon la lecture de l’ouvrage de François JULLIEN
(1989) : “Procès ou Création”. Mémoire de DEA
Sciences InfoCom. Université de Nice –Sophia-
Antipolis, France . 223p.
Klein R. (2004a). METIS: Chinese-Western Intercultural Approach to innovation and Global virtual teams CSCW for talent students and innovative individuals
International Forum on Education Model and
Policy Issues for Cultivating Talent Student / P.1-4 , HangZhou PR China, 22- 23rd May
Klein R. (2004b). How to Manage Global Virtual R&D cross cultural Teams using a groupware in the film industry. Proceedings Beijing 2008 Olympic Games Symposium, HOSC, Renmin University of China. June 2004. at url: http://www.c2008.org/rendanews/english_te.asp?id=894 (accessed 10/11/2005)
Klein R., Letaief R., Carter S., Chabert G., Lasonen J., Lubart T. (2005). CSCL for NGO’s Cross Cultural
Virtual Teams in Africa: An Ethiopian Children
Advocacy Case Study against Exclusion and toward
Facilitation of Expression, Innovation and Creativity. Proc. ETCC-ICALT’05 Kaohsiung, Taiwan P.1037-1041.
Latour B. (1996). Petite réflexion sur le culte moderne des dieux fétiches, Paris, Ed. Les empêcheurs de penser en rond.
Lévy, P. (1997). Cyberculture: Rapport au Conseil de l’Europe. (Ed. Odile Jacob).
Lévy-Leblond J-M. (1984). L’esprit de sel: Science,
Culture, Politique. (Points/ Nouvelle édition/
sciences). Lubart, T.I. (1999). Creativity across cultures.
Handbook of creativity (R.J. Sternberg ed.)
Cambridge Press.
McCarty, W, Beynon, W.M. and Russ, S.B. (2005). Human Computing: Modelling with Meaning, in ACH+ALLC, 138-144
Pang N., Cao S., Schauder D., Klein R (2005). A
Hybrid Approach in the Evaluation of Usability for
Multimedia Objects: Case Study of the Media
Assets Management Platform for an Advertainment
Production Project toward Beijing Olympics 2008 . Proceedings ICITA 05 Sidney.
Tse E. Histon J., Scott S., Greenberg S. (2004). Avoiding Interference : How people use spatial separation and partitioning in SDG workspaces. CSCW 2004, Chicago Vol. 6 Issue 3, P.252-261
Xu L.,Cao S.,KLEIN R., HU B.,CHEN J., JIN Y. (2005). METIS Advertainment Movie for Beijing
Olympics 2008: A Study of Cultural Economy and Cross-cultural Collaborative IT Innovation.
Proceedings Beijing 2008 Olympic Games Symposium,
HOSC, Renmin University of China. June, PP. 54-68
EMweb at url: http://www.dcs.warwick.ac.uk/modelling/
CIweb - Collective Intelligence and IEML - at url : http://137.122.100.152/
MètisWeb at url: http://www.metis-global.net","txt","2","",""
"694","7","Analyse d'un extrait du roman de Pieyre de Mandiargues, La Motocyclette, assistée par le logiciel de statistique lexicale TACT","2","Dans le cadre d’un séminaire de théorie littéraire, nous avons choisi de faire une étude d’un texte, en utilisant l’approche de la stylostatistique. Notre propos a été d’observer ce qu’une étude du vocabulaire pouvait apporter à la compréhension d’un texte. Nous entendons le terme vocabulaire selon la définition de Jean-Marie Viprey (Analyses textuelles et hypertextuelles des Fleurs du mal) dont nous rappelons ici la terminologie :
Nous appellerons ‘vocable’ tout ‘lexème’ actualisé (employé) dans l’’énoncé’ observé et ‘vocabulaire’ le système où s’organisent les ‘vocables’ (autrement dit, le niveau lexical de l’énoncé). (65)
Le choix de notre corpus littéraire s’est tourné vers le
roman, car ce genre nous a semblé moins fréquenté par les
études statistiques, aux contraires des genres de la poésie et du théâtre. Toujours selon Viprey :
Lire un poème particulier est – presque toujours la manière “normale” d’entrer dans un recueil (ce qui, au passage, est propre aux genres poétiques et n’est guère vrai du roman). Il est donc également assez conforme aux pratiques du texte poétique de
s’emparer “comme au hasard”, au cours d’un poème, d’un fil d’Ariane dont on ne sait pas immédiatement
où il nous conduira, et c’est bien sûr le charme
possible de cette lecture, hypertextuelle par excellence.
Au point que c’est sans doute à la poésie, parmi les genres “traditionnels”, que l’hypertexte est le plus directement utile. (63)
Afin de suivre l’approche poétique de Viprey, nous
choisissons de rompre la linéarité du récit, afin d’en
étudier un extrait, plutôt que de l’étudier dans son entité. Nous entendons par récit un assemblage structuré de fragments, tout comme un recueil de poésie est un
ensemble structuré de poèmes. Ceci signifie également que nous employons l’aspect poétique de la prose de Mandiargues pour indiquer ce que Gabriel Saad appelle une construction et un exercice d’écriture :
À partir d’une couleur, le blanc, la prose de
Mandiargues prolifère. Et c’est ainsi qu’elle devient poétique, car cette prolifération est non seulement
une construction, comme nous l’avons montré dans notre analyse, mais aussi un exercice d’écriture
qui consiste à donner à certains mots une valeur particulière, propre au texte dans lequel ils sont employés. Il ne s’agit donc nullement d’une dérive sémantique mais d’un jeu dont les règles sont aussi rigoureuses que celles de la peinture ou de la poésie. (« La prose d’André Pieyre de Mandiargues : ut
pictura poesis », p122)
Si Saad étudie la combinatoire de forme et de sens du style de Mandiargues dans une nouvelle, nous nous
demandons si un fragment d’un récit de roman amène aux mêmes aspects stylistiques?
Nous étudions les occurrences lexicales de ce que Saad appelle le fonctionnement singulier de l’écriture de
Mandiargues (113) : d’un côté, la pluralité des voix narratives
(narrateur + personnage) et d’un autre côté, la définition d’une ‘palette’ (113) de couleurs reliant les thèmes de la mort et de l’érotisme ((L’union étroite des deux thèmes : Eros et la mort, 116).
Par conséquent, nous avons choisi d’indexer un extrait de La Motocyclette (Pieyre de Mandiargues, 1963) qui inclut en même temps l’aspect stylistique de la ‘palette’ et l’aspect polyphonique des voix narratives. La scène choisie se trouve aux pages 118, 119 et 120 du roman (Gallimard, coll. L’Imaginaire, 1999). Dans cet extrait,
Rebecca (le personnage principal) s’arrête dans une station essence pour remplir le réservoir de sa moto.
Observant à distance les couleurs et les formes de ce qui est devant elle, le narrateur décrit son moment de
panique face à la vision de cette station et de son pompiste.
La scène se termine par la fuite : elle ouvre les gaz et n’a pas rempli son réservoir.
Le récit est pris en charge par un narrateur omniscient qui semble se dédoubler entre le récit de l’introspection de Rebecca et ses propres commentaires, qui sont marqués typographiquement par la présence de virgules ou de parenthèses. (Rappelons que l’étude de Saad avait déjà noté que la polyphonie narrative de Mandiargues était marquée typographiquement).
La méthodologie de Saad est d’abord statistique puis stylistique. Nous choisissons d’inverser le processus.
En effet, nous voulons que ce soient les résultats de
l’indexation du texte qui nous ramène à notre hypothèse de lecture textuelle : y a-t-il un changement lexicologique
quand il y a un changement de voix narrative ?
Nous fournissons trois résultats de notre indexation de corpus.
1. La ‘palette’ de Rebecca et son occurrence dans
l’extrait.
2. En second lieu, la ‘palette’ du narrateur et son
occurrence dans l’extrait.
3. La lecture hypertextuelle vérifie si les changements lexicologiques suivent une règle générique dans les marques du genre féminin (substantifs, adjectifs et causes déterminantes).
Notre objectif est de voir si le changement de lexique peut prouver l’omniprésence du genre féminin dans le vocabulaire employé par le narrateur et donc si l’aspect polyphonique du récit est un artifice utilisé par Mandiargues pour donner un aspect androgyne au récit du narrateur.
Pour cette étude, nous avons utilisé le logiciel de traitement
de données lexicales TACT, créé à l’université de
Toronto par John Bradley dans les années 80. L’interface en
français a été écrite par les professeurs Russell Wooldridge
(Université de Toronto) et Émilie Devriendt (École
Normale Supérieure de Paris). Elle est disponible en
ligne sur le site du département français de l’Université de Toronto.
Nous avons utilisé les ressources MAKEBASE et USEBASE pour réaliser l’indexation de note extrait et TACTSTAT pour obtenir des résultats.
Le logiciel lui-même étant en anglais, nous avons dû faire quelques ajustements techniques concernant la non équivalence de la langue anglaise et française (par exemple
la non prise en compte de accents qui peut changer la forme des ‘vocables’ indexés et donc sa catégorie
grammaticale). Notre poster souligne le lien entre la statistique et son champ théorique : la stylistique.
Analysis of an Extract of the Novel
of Pieyre de Mandiargues,
La Motocyclette, Assisted by
the Lexical Statistics Software TACT
Within the framework of a literary seminar of theory, we choose to study a text using the
stylostatistical approach. Our intention is to observe what a study of vocabulaire could bring to the stylistical
comprehension of a text. We define the term “ vocabulaire”
according to the definition of Jean-Marie Viprey (Analyses textuelles et hypertextuelles des Fleurs du mal):
Nous appellerons ‘vocable’ tout ‘lexème’ actualisé (employé) dans l’’énoncé’ observé et ‘vocabulaire’ le système où s’organisent les ‘vocables’ (autrement dit, le niveau lexical de l’énoncé). (65)
The choice of our literary corpus is the novel as this
literary genre has received less attention by statistical
studies, which seem to prefer studies on poetry and theatre
genres. Still, according to Viprey:
Lire un poème particulier est – presque toujours la manière “normale” d’entrer dans un recueil (ce qui, au passage, est propre aux genres poétiques et n’est guère vrai du roman). Il est donc également assez conforme aux pratiques du texte poétique de
s’emparer “comme au hasard”, au cours d’un poème, d’un fil d’Ariane dont on ne sait pas immédiatement
où il nous conduira, et c’est bien sûr le charme
possible de cette lecture, hypertextuelle par excellence.
Au point que c’est sans doute à la poésie, parmi les genres “traditionnels”, que l’hypertexte est le plus directement utile. (63)
In order to follow Viprey’s poetic approach, we choose to break the linerarity of a novel’s account and study an extract rather than studying it in its entity. Therefore, our corpus will be a scene extracted from the linearity of the account. We understand a novel as being a structural
assembly of fragments, like a collection of poetry is a structural assembly of poems. This means also that we use the poetic aspect of Mandiargues’ prose to reveal
what Gabriel Saad calls une construction and un
exercice d’écriture :
À partir d’une couleur, le blanc, la prose de
Mandiargues prolifère. Et c’est ainsi qu’elle devient poétique, car cette prolifération est non seulement
une construction, comme nous l’avons montré dans notre analyse, mais aussi un exercice d’écriture
qui consiste à donner à certains mots une valeur particulière, propre au texte dans lequel ils sont employés. Il ne s’agit donc nullement d’une dérive sémantique mais d’un jeu dont les règles sont aussi rigoureuses que celles de la peinture ou de la poésie. ((« La prose d’André Pieyre de Mandiargues : ut pictura poesis », p122)
If Saad is studying the combinatoire de forme et de sens of Mandiargues’ style in a short story, we wonder if a fragment of a novel’s account can also lead us to the same stylistical observations?
We study the lexical occurrences serving what Saad calls le fonctionnement singulier de l’ écriture de Mandiargues (113): in one hand, the plurality of the narrative voices (narrator + character), and on the other hand, la définition d’une ‘palette’ (113) of colors connecting the topics of death and erotism (L’union étroite des deux thèmes : Eros et la mort, 116).
Therefore, we choose to index an extract of La
Motocyclette (Pieyre de Mandiargues, 1963) which
includes both this ‘palette’ aspect and the polyphonic
aspect. The selected scene is on pages 118, 119 and 120 (Gallimard, coll. L’Imaginaire, 1999). In this extract,
Rebecca (the main character) stops in a gasoline
station to fill up her motorcycle. Observing the colours and
forms of what is in front of her, the narrator describes her moment of panic regarding this place and its pump assistant. The scene ends with an escape: she starts the bike yet does not fill up the tank.
The account is recited by an omniscient narrator who seems to duplicate himself between the introspections of Rebecca and his own perceptions. His comments are
indicated typographically by the presence of commas and
brackets. (Let us recall that the study of Saad had already noted that the narrative polyphony in Mandiargues’ style is typographically marked.) Saad’s methodology is firstly stylistical, then statistical. We choose to inverse the process. Indeed, we want the results of the text indexation to lead us to our textual
hypothesis: is there a lexical change when there is a change
of narrative voice?
We provide three results of our corpus indexation:
1. The ‘palette’ of Rebecca and its occurrence in the extract.
2. The ‘palette’ of the narrator and its occurrence in the extract.
3. The hypertextual reading verifies if the lexical
changes follows a generic rule in the marks of the feminine gender (substantives, adjectives and
determinants).
Our objective is to see whether the change of lexicon could be proven by the omnipresence of the feminine gender of the vocabulary used by the narrator. Therefore, is the polyphonic aspect of the narration an artifice used by Mandiargues to give an androgynous aspect to the narrator’s account?
For this study, we use a lexical data processing software called TACT, created at the University of Toronto by John Bradley during the Eighties. The French interface was written by the professors Russell Wooldridge (University
of Toronto) and Émilie Devriendt (École Normale
Supérieure de Paris) and is available online on the French
department’s web site at the University of Toronto. We used MAKEBASE and USEBASE for the indexation
process and TACTSTAT for the display of results. As the software itself is in English, we had to make some technical adjustments with respect to the non-equivalencies
of the English and the French languages (for example
accents indexation, which is an important part of the french
language that can change the form of the ‘vocable’, and therefore its grammatical category).
Our poster emphasizes the link between statistics and its theoretical field: stylistics.
Références
Delcroix, M. ; Fernand H. (sous la dir. de). 1990 [1987]. Introduction aux études littéraires. Méthodes du
texte. Bruxelles, Duculot.
Giquel, B. (1999). Stylistique littéraire et Informatique.
Arras, Artois Presses Université, coll. Cahiers
scientifiques de l’Université d’Artois, n°8.
Muller, Ch. (1977). Principes et méthodes de statistique lexicale. Paris, Hachette Université, coll. Langue – Linguistique – Communication.
Pieyre de Mandiargues, A. (1963). La Motocyclette.
Paris, Gallimard, coll. L’Imaginaire.
Saad, G. (1996 ). « La prose d’André Pieyre de
Mandiargues : ut pictura poesis », dans Des récits poétiques contemporains, Sylviane Coyault (sous la dir. de), université Blaise Pascal, C.R.L.M.C., p.113-122.
Viprey, J.-M. (2002). Analyses textuelles et
hypertextuelles des Fleurs du mal. Paris, Honoré Champion, coll. Lettres numériques.
Wooldridge, R. ; Devriendt, E. TACT et TACTweb,
Logiciels de recherche de données textuelles
structurées. Interface en français mise en ligne à l’URL http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~wulfric/
articles2/poitiers2001/","txt","2","",""
"695","7","Managing a Short -Term Graduate Level Text Encoding Project","2","This poster presentation will demonstrate not only the development of a digital scholarly edition of a mid-nineteenth-century social reform pamphlet, but also the successful management of a short-term encoding project at the graduate studies level.
The period between 1830 and 1860 saw a dramatic
increase in the production of social reform texts in
Britain. The question of how to alleviate the suffering of the labouring classes was explored in novels, poetry, pamphlets, and letters. While excellent collections of
literary and non-literary social reform texts exist, what is lacking is a comprehensive research database of social
reform writing that will make lesser-known non-literary texts available to scholars. I am currently creating a
digital scholarly edition of one such text for my master’s thesis. This electronic textual editing project is the first
in a proposed series of editorial projects that will make non-literary social reform texts available in digital form.
My master’s thesis involves both editorial practice and literary analysis. The editorial project will culminate in the creation of a digital scholarly edition of “Slaves of the Needle,” a pamphlet written by Ralph Barnes Grindrod
in 1844. “Slaves of the Needle” is representative of
mid-nineteenth century British social reform rhetoric. Creation of the digital scholarly edition will involve
encoding the pamphlet’s structural features and using interpretive markup to identify the text’s rhetorical
patterns.
The second focus of my master’s thesis is an analysis of the depiction of seamstresses in nineteenth-century
British literature. The results of this analysis will be
included in the digital edition of “Slaves of the Needle.”
Once completed, the digital scholarly edition will
illustrate prevailing concerns about the labour conditions of female garment workers in mid-nineteenth century England. In the future, the digital edition of “Slaves of the Needle” will be part of a body of work concerning mid-nineteenth century social reform texts.
This project faces two challenges. The first challenge
is posed by the text itself. The pamphlet includes a
number of different types of text, such as letters, poetry, and eyewitness accounts, each with its own encoding difficulties. Before I begin creating the digital edition, I must research existing electronic textual editing projects and determine what methodology I will use. Because I will be using an interpretive markup scheme, I must
decide which features I will identify and how I will classify
rhetorical figures.
Creating a digital scholarly edition is an ambitious project. In this case, the project is made all the more challenging
by the temporal limitations of a master’s program.
Estimated time from the project’s inception to its completion
is nine months. As opportunities for graduate-level
digital humanities projects increase, students and
advisors will be faced with the task of managing this kind
of short-term encoding project. This poster presentation will show the digital scholarly edition in progress and discuss the project management process.","txt","2","",""
"696","7","Generating Hypertext Views to Support Selective Reading","2","In many contexts, e.g. in interdisciplinary research, in scientific journalism and in specialised lexicography, readers search for information in a scientific domain in which they have previous but no expert knowledge. Their time is constrained, and they have to solve a very specific type of problem. In scenarios like these, users often read excursively and perceive only parts of longer
documents. When these documents are sequentially
organised, i.e. designed to be read from the beginning to the end, this selective reading may result in coherence
problems. For example, a reader, jumping right in the middle of a sequential document, may not understand (or may misunderstand) a paragraph because he lacks the prerequisite knowledge given in the preceding text.
The approach presented in our presentation generates
hypertext views on sequential documents with the goal of avoiding coherence problems and making selective
reading and browsing more efficient and more convenient
than it would be possible with printmedia.
II. Strategies for the Generation of
Hypertext Views
In contrast to other approaches to text-to-hypertext
conversion, we generate hypertext views as additional
layers while preserving the original sequence and
content of the sequential documents. Thus, readers still have the option to perceive the documents in their original sequential form, provided they have the time to do so. The hypertext views mark an additional offer for those readers who only have the time for selective reading.
Our approach processes information coming from two levels:
1) On the document level the documents are annotated with regard to three annotation layers:
• On the “document structure layer” we annotate
structural units (such as chapters, paragraphs,
footnotes, enumerated and unordered lists) using an annotation scheme derivated from DocBook.
• On the “terms and definitions layer” we annotate
occurrences of technical terms as well as text
segments in which these terms are explicitly defined.
• On the “cohesion layer” we annotate text-
grammatical information of various types, e.g.
co-reference, connectives, text-deictic expressions (cf. Holler et al. 2004).
While the annotation was performed manually in the first phase of the project, we currently investigate methods for automatic annotation (cf. Storrer & Wellinghoff 2006).
2) On the domain knowledge level we represent the semantics of technical terms occurring in the
documents in a WordNet-style representation that we call “TermNet”.
Using the annotations of the document structure layer, our hypertext views are generated using the segmentation principle “one-paragraph-is-one-node” as a starting point (which we refine in various ways). The rationale behind this is the expectation that paragraphs should be self-contained, and can thus be used as basic “building blocks” for a hypertext (Hammwöhner 1997). To support the selective reading of the resulting hypertext nodes, we enrich these nodes using two types of strategies:
1) Reconstructing cohesive closedness: Paragraphs in sequential documents often contain cohesion
markers that point to information located external to the node – either in the preceding or in the subsequent
text. Examples of such cohesive features are
connective particles (“furthermore”), anaphoric expressions (“the aforementioned specification”).
In our hypertext views we try to reconstruct cohesive
closedness by liberating these cohesive markers
from their linkage to a specific reading path. For this
purpose, we implemented four basic operations:
• Anaphora resolution: In the case of anaphoric
expressions, its antecedents will pop up (cf. figure
1).
• Linking: Text-deictic expressions such as “the
aforementioned specification” are transformed into
links connected to the respective text segments.
• Deletion: Connectives, which first and foremost
serve the creation of a fluent text (e.g. “yet”), are
deleted.
• Node expansion: When a connective is directly
bound to the preceding or subsequent text (e.g.
“furthermore”), we provide the option to expand
the current node and display the preceding or
subsequent paragraph. With this option users may
accumulate as much context as they need for properly
understanding the node’s content.
2) Linking according to knowledge prerequisites: With
these types of strategies we offer additional information,
which may be helpful for selective text comprehension.
In our approach we concentrate on information
related to the meaning of technical terms, because for
our user scenario – the rapid search for information
in a scientific domain – technical terms play a
central role. In our hypertext views we offer two options
to support the selective readers to better understand
the terms and their underlying concepts:
• On the basis of the annotation layer “definitions
and technical terms”, we link the terms occurring in
the documents to their definitions within the same
document (cf. figure 2).
• On the basis of our TermNet, we generate glossary
views, which show how a given term is linked to
other terms and concepts of the domain (cf. figure
3). These glossary views also contain hyperlinks
to text segments, in which the respective terms are
explicitly defined. The glossary views are connected
to all term occurrences in the documents; but
the glossary can also be used as an additional
stand-alone component.
Figure 1: The NP anaphora “der Ebenen” (engl. the levels) is
coreferent with each of the text segments “Die Speicherebene”
(storage level), “der konzeptionellen Ebene” (conceptional
level) and “der Präsentations- und Interaktionsebene”
(presentational level) which occur in the preceding text.
All three antecedents are displayed in a popup window.
Figure 2: Popup showing a definition of a term.
Figure 3: Glossary view of the term “modul”, including
a link to its definition (top left). We implemented our strategies using a German corpus of 20 non-fictional documents (103.805 words) belonging to two specialised research domains, namely text technology and hypertext research.
III. Implementation Issues
All data – the TermNet as well as the annotated
documents in our corpus – are represented and processed using XML technology.
TermNet is represented using the Topic Map Standard (Pepper & Moore 2001). To provide easy access to the data, we have developed an XSLT key library for XML
Topic Maps (a key being comparable to an associative
array in other programming languages). We use this library
to perform simple consistency checks and to automatically
infer additional TermNet relations, which may be of
interest to the hypertext user browsing the glossary. In a subsequent step the TermNet, together with the newly
inferred relations, is transformed into the hypertext
glossary, again using the key library. Accordingly, the TermNet can be stored and maintained without redundant and error-prone information.
The documents of our corpus are annotated with respect to the three annotation layers described above: (1) the document structure layer, (2) the terms and definitions
layer, (3) the cohesion layer. Following the approach
developed by Witt et al. 2005, we store the three annotation
layers in separate files. Thus, each layer can be annotated and maintained separately and can be validated against its corresponding document grammar (DTD or schema
file). In a subsequent unification step, the different
annotation layers of our corpus documents are merged. The resulting unified representation is the basis for another XSLT transformation, which automatically generates the hypertext views along the guidelines of our linking and segmentation strategies:
• Information from the “document structure layer” is used to generate an overall layout, to extract a table of contents and to perform text segmentation.
• On the basis of the “terms and definitions layer”, we
generate hyperlinks from technical terms to an ordered
list of definitions for that term (the order being based
on definition type and the position of the term
relative to the definition).
• The “cohesion layer” is used for the reconstruction
of cohesive closedness by means of one-to-one links,
one-to-many links, anaphora resolution, deletion and node expansion.
All hypertext features are implemented using HTML
and JavaScript as the target language of the XSLT
transformation. This XSLT transformation is straightforward,
but it has one disadvantage: each time when a linking
or segmentation strategy is modified, or when the
document grammar (of one of the three annotation
layers) is changed, it is neccessary to adjust the (rather complex) programming code. In our project, where
hypertextualisation strategies are to be tried out and tested,
this turned out to be tedious (and sometimes error-prone) work.
In order to address this problem and facilitate the flexible testing and modification of our strategies, we designed
the Hypertext Transformation Language (HTTL), a
declarative language suitable for expressing rules of
hypertextualisation (cf. Lenz in preparation). The language
was designed with a hypertext expert in mind who writes a set of rules for linking and segmentation strategies; it
offers general rules operating on abstract hypertext notions
such as “hypertext nodes”, “one-to-many links” or “node expansions”. The expert may formulate segmentation and linking rules using HTTL, which is easier to learn than XSLT code, and allows for flexible experimenting with and refinement of hypertext conversion rules. HTTL also allows the user to use different rule sets for different
situations. For example, a more coarse-grained segmentation strategy can be chosen for long text types.
Once stated, these rules are compiled into an executable XSLT program that performs the actual transformation of the annotated sequential documents into hypertext.
Although some of the linking rules in HTTL may become
rather complex (allowing for the generation of, e.g., one-to-many links with ordered link ends or node expansions),
hypertextualisation rules in HTTL are much more concise – and thus more maintainable – than the generated XSLT code.
References
Hammwöhner, R. (1997). Offene Hypertextsysteme. Konstanz: Universitätsverlag Konstanz. Holler, A., Maas, J.F. and Storrer, A. (2004). Exploiting
coreference annotations for text-to-hypertext
conversion. In: Proceedings of LREC, May 2004, Lisboa. 651-654.
Lenz, E. A. (in prep.). Hypertext Transformation
Language (HTTL). In: Dieter Metzing and Andreas
Witt (eds.): Linguistic modeling of information
and Markup Languages. Dordrecht: Springer.
In preparation.
Pepper, S. and Moore, G. (2001). XML Topic Maps (XTM) 1.0. Topic-Maps.Org specification, March 2001. URL http://www.topicmaps.org/xtm/1.0/.
Storrer, A. and Wellinghoff, S. (2006). Automated
detection and annotation of term definitions in
German text corpora. Accepted for LREC 2006.
Witt, A., Goecke, D., Sasaki, F. and Lüngen, H. (2005). Unification of XML Documents with Concurrent Markup. Lit Linguist Computing, 20(1):103–116, 2005.","txt","2","",""
"697","7","Fixing the Federalist: Correcting Results and Evaluating Editions for Automated Attribution","2","Introduction
In the history of authorship attribution, the analysis
of The Federalist Papers plays an important role. However, most previous non-traditional (stylistic) authorship studies have been flawed, mainly due to the use of improper editions, as documented by Rudman (2005). Our goal in this work was to perform a correct study by using a revised corpus of the Federalist papers based in large part on Rudman’s critique. We used machine-
learning techniques for analyzing the use of lexical features
for authorship attribution of the papers. Another goal of our study was to explore how different corruptions of the corpus may affect the accuracy of the classification results, and the differences between them.
The Federalist Papers were written during the years 1787 and 1788 by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and James Madison. These 85 propaganda tracts were intended to help to get the U.S. Constitution ratified, and were all published anonymously under the pseudonym ”Publius”. According to Avalon project (Yale Law School) Hamilton wrote 51 of the papers, Madison wrote 15, Jay wrote five, while three papers were written jointly by Hamilton and Madison, and 11 papers have disputed authorship – either Hamilton or Madison, although most evidence points to Madison as the author. The Federalist Papers have presented a classic research problem for authorship attribution, and many studies on them have been done since Mosteller and Wallace’s seminal attribution study (1964). Professor Joseph Rudman (2005) argues that in previous studies, textual flaws in the corpus were not properly addressed. To summarize Rudman’s critique, problems in previous versions of the corpus included: Wrong letters and misspellings, due to letters typed by mistake or typos; inconsistency in inclusion of greetings and signatures in the papers; inclusion of foreign language words and quotations from other sources in the analysis; and inconsistent treatment of footnotes. Therefore, there is a doubt regarding the results of previous studies based on a flawed corpus.
The Corpus
We constructed a new corpus based on the one made available by the Avalon project, which is a collection of various papers that are related to United States history available on-line under the supervision of Yale Law School. The Avalon version is currently the most accurate on-line version of the Federalist Papers.
To create a more accurate edition of the Papers, we
compared the Avalon corpus to the edition of the Federalist
book collection (THE FEDERALIST: A COLLECTION OF ESSAYS, 1788, Special Collection, Northwestern University) and corrected the flaws mentioned above. We used XML tags to group words by marking them specifically in the corpus in order to include or exclude
them while processing the corpus. This option was used for comparison between the corrupt and corrected
versions of the corpus or between the corpus with or without
the groups. For example, footnotes, the remarks that the editor included in the corpus, were ignored by using XML tags while processing the corrected version. We addressed several problems in the corpus wrong letters and spelling in the papers, which were marked and fixed, according to the original source. Quotes and footnotes, were marked and fixed according to the original source in order to process the text with and without the marked data. Endings and openings that marked the text openings
(“the People of the State of New York:” etc.) and the
endings of the papers (“PUBLIUS”), were used in order to process the text with and without the marked data. These
corrections address most of Rudman’s criticism. In this work we disregarded punctuation because processing of the corpus was done automatically by extracting words, and this processing method doesn’t take any punctuation issues into consideration.
Attribution Study
After we fixed the corpus, we counted various words to compute feature values. This operation included the extraction of frequent words and frequent collocations from the fixed corpus. We defined frequent words as the k most frequent words in the corpus where
k is a parameter of the system. Frequent collocations
(Argamon) and (Hoover) were defined as pairs of words occurring within a given threshold distance (window size) between them (for example, “for”, “are” and “sure” appearing within 10 words of each other in a sentence, with a window size of 10). Given such a threshold, the most frequent such collocations were determined over the whole corpus. Given each particular feature set
(frequent words, or collocations), the method was used to represent each document as a numerical vector, each of whose elements is the frequency of a particular feature of the text. For example, the word “the” was represented in a numerical vector as the number of times it occurs in the text divided by the number of words in the text. We then applied the SMO learning algorithm (Platt) with default parameters, which gives a model linearly weighting the various text features. SMO is a support vector machine algorithm; these have been applied successfully to a wide variety of text categorization problems (Joachims).
To analyze our results and to examine the accuracy of the classification we used 10-fold cross-validation, which
is a common and reliable technique, to examine the
generalization error of the model. 10-fold cross-validation
divides the whole data set into 10 subsets of equal size; trains 10 times, each time leaving out one of the subsets from training, and then averages the results.
To find out the effect of corruption of the corpus, we
performed 10-fold cross validation on the known Hamilton
and Madison documents in both corrupt version and
the corrected version of the corpus and compared the
accuracy of results. We also examined the consistency attribution by building a model using all of the known training documents and classifying the 11 disputed
papers, comparing the attributions derived from the
corrected corpus as well as various corrupt versions of the corpus and various features sets. This experiment to evaluate the benefit of creating a corrected corpus as suggested by Rudman (2005).
Results
The 10-fold cross validation experiment on the
corrected corpus vs. the corrupt corpus produced results that allowed us to examine which corpus is better suited for further research. Our findings are described in tables 1, 2 and 3 indicate that the experiments performed
on the corrected corpus using different feature sets
produced either slightly more accurate or similar results to the ones produced on the corrupt corpus. Our findings support the argument that the corrected corpus is a better source for further study of the federalist papers attribution problem.
We also addressed the authorship attribution problem of the 11 disputed papers, by building a model using the known papers as training documents and classifying the 11 disputed papers. Our results are summarized in table 4 and show that the experiment conducted on both corpora, the corrected and the corrupt, produced the same results.
The results clearly attribute the authorship of the
disputed papers to Madison. Our findings are thus
consistent with the universal accepted allocation that disputed papers were authored by Madison (Carey and McClellan).
Discussion
We have constructed a more accurate corpus of the Federalist papers, which was corrected and is now available for further research. Furthermore, the evaluation and analysis on both corpora were done by using modern machine learning methods that are
completely automated. Our results show that using the
corrected corpus for authorship attribution studies produces
slightly better results than the corrupt corpus. Thus, our corrected corpus may be a better source for further study of the federalist papers attribution problem.
Moreover, this study provides additional support to the almost universally accepted allocation that Madison is the author of the disputed Federalist papers. We will be making our new corpus available for public use and we hope that it will become a useful tool for the research community in the future. Conclusions
The corrected corpus of the Federalist papers that we have generated in this study was found to be a better source for further study of the Federalist
papers attribution problem than the corrupt version. The
experiments we conducted on the corrected and the
corrupt corpus by using different feature sets provided
results that support this argument. Furthermore, our study supports the universal opinion that Madison is the author of the disputed Federalist papers.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Joseph Rudman for his advice on all aspects of this project. References
Rudman, J. (2005). The Non-Traditional Case for The Authorship of the Twelve Disputed “Federalist” Papers: A Monument Built on Sand. Association for Computers and the Humanities and the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing.
Rudman, J. (2005). Unediting, De-editing, and Editing in Non-traditional Authorship Attribution Studies: With an Emphasis on the Canon Of Daniel Defoe. The Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America, 99.1 pp 5-36
Mosteller, F. and Wallace, D. L. (1964). Inference and Disputed Authorship: The Federalist. Reading, Mass.: Addison Wesley.
Avalon project Yale Law School (http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/federal/fed.htm)
THE FEDERALIST: A COLLECTION OF ESAAYS (As agreed upon by the federal convention September 17, 1787, in two volumes). Publisher: New-York: Printed and sold by J. and A, M’Lean 1788. The source was found in Library of Special Collections/Northwestern University.
Argamon, S., Levitan S., (2005). Measuring the Usefulness
of Function Words for Authorship Attribution.
Association for Computers and the Humanities and the
Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing.
Hoover, D.L. (2004). Frequent collocations and authorial style. Literary and Linguistic Computing 18.3 261-282
Goutte, C. (1997). Note on free lunches and cross-
validation, Neural Computation, 9(6):1246-9.
Joachims, T. (1998). Text categorization with Support
Vector Machines: Learning with many relevant
features. In Machine Learning: ECML-98, Tenth European Conference on Machine Learning, pp. 137-142.
Platt, J. (1998). Sequential Minimal Optimization:
A Fast Algorithm for Training Support Vector
Machines, Microsoft Research Technical Report MSR-TR-98-14.
The federalist, the Gideon edition, Edited by George W. Carey and James McClellan.","txt","2","",""
"698","7","A Context-Sensitive Machine-Aided Index Generator","2","Back-of-the-book indexing is the process of
generating a list of relevant terms from a corpus and providing the user with the page references of these
terms. It differs from web indexing in its ability to identify
synonyms and subcategories. This indexing process
has become somewhat automated through computer
applications, most of which can at best generate a
concordance, or list of keywords in the text. The difficulty
lies in the ability to make intelligent decisions regarding which words or phrases to include. Human indexers
primarily do this step. The biggest drawback is the time
required to perform this task. It is estimated that every hundred pages of text takes one week to index manually
(Chicago, 2003). The challenge, which the authors of this paper hope to have met, is to develop a software
program that bridges the gap between computerized
concordances and manual indexing, to provide a much more robust draft index, which a human indexer can
refine in a fraction of the time. This application takes the ideas put forth in (Juola, 2005) and extends them to a working prototype system.
There are many different types of software available
today for performing parts of the indexing process.
Natural language parsers determine which words or phrases
are subjects. Concordance-generation packages, such as AntConc, use a cluster analysis technique to study the relationships between words and their surrounding text, but still require the user to provide the specific words to search. Another application that uses cluster analysis, Grokker, aids in searches of text by creating visual maps
of related terms. Many indexers use products like
CINDEX, MACREX, and SKY Index, which function like
databases, and can be integrated with Microsoft Access and dbase III. Each row of data consists of a heading, a
subheading (if applicable), and the page number (locator). These programs take user-entered index information and provide an interface for grouping, censoring, sorting, and
finally generating a clean index as output. No single
application that is commercially available today, however,
handles all of the processes described above. It is the
intent of the computer-aided application described herein
to do all of these things.
Our software application takes advantage of existing
natural language parsers, and uses a factor analysis
technique, based on the principles of Latent Semantic Analysis (Landauer, 1998 and Wiemer-Hastings, 2004) and Latent Semantic Indexing (Deerwester, 1990), to study the relationships among nouns / phrases and their surrounding text. This type of multivariate analysis uses matrix manipulation of the words and their locations
in sentences, to create clusters of related words and
contexts, and will assign probabilities to these clusters of
words that can be translated into degrees of importance. A certain cutoff level of importance will be used to limit
the size of the resulting list. The proximity of words to other words will also help to determine which words
appear to be synonyms (terms that correlate highly in every
dimension), and which words seem to be subcategories
of broader terms (these terms, hyponyms, correlate
highly in one or more dimensions.) In our application, LSA
is used to generate the synonyms that will translate to cross-references and the hyponyms that will translate to subheadings of terms in the resulting index.
There are several resources currently available that define what makes a good index. One such resource is the NISO technical reference, “Guidelines for Indexes and Related
Information Retrieval Devices” (Anderson, 1997).
Anderson defines an index as “a systematic guide designed
to indicate topics or features of documents in order to
facilitate retrieval of documents or parts of documents.” He
further states that an index should include the following components: (a) terms representing the topics or features of documentary units; (b) a syntax for combining terms
into headings in order to represent compound or
complex topics; (c) cross-references among synonymous
and other related terms; (d) a procedure for linking
headings with particular documentary units; (e) a
systematic ordering of headings (in displayed indexes). It is the objective of our application to successfully
incorporate each of these components.
The task of evaluating our application’s overall
performance (i.e., how “close” the resulting indices are to fulfilling the guidelines above) is a difficult one, which
we attempt to answer by performing side-by-side
comparisons of an index generated for a given corpus by our application and by a typical human indexer. We then compare the indexes generated by each, and create a
matrix comparing (i) what we and the indexer both included
in the index, (ii) what we included but the indexer did not, (iii) what the indexer included but we did not, and (iv) what neither of us included. We also note the relative
times required for performing the task in each case.
Our feeling is that if we can generate a similar index in a fraction of the time, then this application is a success.
It is our hope that this all-inclusive software, a “one-
stop shop” for back-of-the-book indexing needs, will
revolutionize the indexing industry by providing an
easy to use, accurate means of generating an index in a drastically reduced amount of time.
References
Anthony, L. (2006). Ant Conc 3.1.2 concordance generation
software, http://www.antlab.sci.waseda.ac.jp/
American Society of Indexers. (2006). http://www.asindexing.org/site/index.html.
Anderson, J. (1997). NISO Technical Report 2: Guidelines for Indexes and Related Information Retrieval Devices. 8. Bethesda: NISO Press.
Deerwester, S., et al. (1990). “Indexing by latent semantic
analysis.” Journal of the American Society for
Information Science, 41(6), 391-407. Wiley.
Groxis, Inc. Grokker software, http://www.groxis.com. San Francisco: Groxis, Inc.
Indexing Research. CINDEX Indexing Software, New
York, NY, http://www.indexres.com. New York:
Indexing Research.
Juola, P. (2005). “Towards an Automatic Index
Generation Tool.” Proceedings of the 2005 Joint
Annual Conference of the Association for Computing
and the Humanities and the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing (ACH/ALLC 2005).
Jurafsky, D., Martin, J. (2000). “Word Sense
Disambiguation and Information Retrieval.” Speech and Language Processing, 631 – 666. NJ: Prentice Hall.
Landauer, T., et al. (1998). “An Introduction to Latent Semantic Analysis.” Discourse Processes, 25: 259 – 284. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
Liu, H., MIT Media Lab. (2004). MontyLingua: An end-to-end natural language processor with
common sense, http://web.media.mit.edu/~hugo/montylingua/.
Macrex Indexing Services. (2005). Macrex Indexing Program, http://www.macrex.com. Daly City, CA: MACREX.
O’Grady, W., et al. (2001). “Computational Linguistics.” Contemporary Linguistics 4th Edition, 663 – 703. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.
Press, W., et al. (1992). “Singular Value Decomposition.”
Numerical Recipes in C: The Art of Scientific
Computing, 59 – 70. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
SKY Software. SKY Index 6.0 Professional Edition, http://www.sky-software.com. Stephens City, VA: SKY Software.
Smith, L. (2002). “A Tutorial on Principal Components Analysis.” www.cs.otago.ac.nz/cosc453/student_
tutorials/principal_components.pdf.
University of Chicago Press Staff. (2003). The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th Edition, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wiemer-Hastings, P. (2004). “Latent Semantic Analysis.” Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier.","txt","2","",""
"699","7","Synoptic Gospels Networked by Recurrent Markov Clustering","2","In this research, we represent the lexical co-occurrence information on the Synoptic Gospels under the form of a graph where the vertices correspond to the words or the concepts and the edges to the semantic paths. The aim of this study is to take advantage of the semantic network that is made for the Synoptic Gospels. This network is automatically constructed by a graph clustering method, a powerful technique to classify and reconnect the words
in documents. To generate the network, we are now
challenging to apply to the Gospels our original
clustering algorithm (Jung, 2005), whose key idea
derives from Markov Cluster Algorithm (MCL) that has been developed by van Dongen (2000).
Since the semantic network of the Synoptic Gospels is now articulated with lexical clusters that can be taken as “concepts” respectively, it might permit us to find the overview of the biblical world as well as to discuss the (genealogical) relationship among the Gospels, whose features will be projected onto some parts of the graph and traced at the same time by the flow of conceptual association.
Clustering Algorithm
For automatically drawing a concise semantic
panorama of the world into a graph, we have
recently proposed a new graph clustering algorithm, called Recurrent Markov Clustering (RMCL) method, which is one of the derivative methodologies of MCL.
The original MCL is based on random walks on a graph,
and its model simulates flow by using two simple
algebraic operations expansion and inflation on the
stochastic transition matrix. This algorithm is applied in several research fields such as biology, linguistics and psychology. It is worth enumerating, for instance,
Tribe-MCL for clustering proteins by Enright et al. (2002), Synonymy Network of Gfeller (2005) created with the addition of noise data, and Lexical Acquisition by Dorow et al. (2005) where some MCL clusters are merged for reconnecting concepts areas.
The new concept, RMCL uses the output of MCL as its input again. This improvement allows us to extract from the MCL results crucial information of clustered entities
and their hierarchical relationships. RMCL is intended
for a suitable control of the sizes of concept areas by the way of changing the granularity of the graph and the generality of the concepts.Articulating the recurrent
process, we go back from the resulting converged
state toward any on-going clustering step. This reversal
procedure is the core part of RMCL to generate a
virtual adjacency matrix of the hard cluster-nodes
obtained through MCL process. This downsized matrix
represents a simpler graph of the concepts built up
by the similar words. We introduce here one of the
recursive methodology, called Stepping-stone type
algorithm, which consists of combining the particular
clustering stages in progress of MCL with the final
converged clustering stage.
RMCL process steps as follows:
Step1: MCL process with an adjacency matrix, where each node represents a word.
Step2: Reversal procedure to build a virtual adjacency matrix, where each node represents a cluster of MCL.
Step3: Repeated MCL process with the virtual
adjacency matrix to compute a hard clustering for closing the cycle of a RMCL process.
Methodology
The following steps describe how to generate a network graph for the Synoptic Gospels by
applying RMCL to the lexical co-occurrence data
obtained from them:
1) Word Pairs Data obtained by a windowing method
Before using MCL process, it is necessary to make a list of word pairs that co-occur within a certain range of text. We practiced the windowing method to do this, which lead us to get a simplified representation of similarity
level suitable for clustering. The technique is that the window of a certain size slides over the sequences
in a text to thoroughly extract fixed-sized grams (for example, tri-gram) of words (Vechthomova, 2003). The pairs were made afterwards by the combination of all the extracted words.
In the case of the Synoptic Gospels, the windowing
method is applied to the Greek texts of the NT26th
version by Nestle and Aland (1979), where a verse is set
as document boundary. Various data are to be collected by
changing window size from 2 (words) through 10. But we extract solely the word pairs which are simultaneously common to Mark, Luke and Matthew so as to focus on the common aspect of the Bible and show only the data of the window size 2 to manipulate 4930 word pairs which are composed of 769 word occurrences.
2) Dictionary-based Stemming
Since we are interested in the lexical-semantic
information rather than the lexical-grammatical one, we took the stem form from words. The Stemming process was performed manually with BibleWorks Greek New Testament (BNM) Morphology. Additionally, 73 noise words were eliminated such as articles, prepositions, pronouns and conjunctions.
Finally we obtained a list of 1053 pairs with 468 word occurrences, and applied RMCL process to a 468*468 adjacency matrix.
3) RMCL Steps
At the step1, starting from the adjacency matrix of
co-occurrence, the MCL process generated a
nearly-idempotent matrix at the 13th cluster stage with 119 hard clusters. The reversal procedure computed a virtual adjacency matrix for each stepping cluster at the step2, and here we got 12 kinds of matrices. At the step3, we applied once again the MCL process to each virtual adjacency matrix obtained at the previous step. The reuse of the adjacency matrix generated with the 2nd cluster stage made the repeated MCL process flow until the 8th loop, where the number of the RMCL hard cluster turned out to be 65.
Results and Discussion
At the step 3, each intermediate cluster stage
generates different adjacency matrix. As for
selecting a particular one to be the most appropriate for interpretation, the variance of the RMCL cluster sizes can be considered as a criterion. The high variance means that the clusters are properly diversified to represent the multiple features of the text.
According to this criterion, we select the RMCL hard clusters of the 2nd cluster stage. Taking into account the result of MCL process, each hard cluster could be taken this time as a semantic or concept category.
If the symbol of “{ }” can be used for representing a component of words related with one another, there are some interesting components extracted, such as {“be pleased”, “beloved”} or {“sleep”, “die”}. The antonym
category is also found as in {“forgiveness”, “sin”}
and {“dead(noun)”, “live”}, the latter component
representing the concept of “resurrection”. The
component of {split, curtain temple} makes us think of the presence of the idiom category, and in fact this one is referred to in Mk15:38. We have also found the topic
category, in the components. For example, {new, fresh, old, wine, wine-skin} precisely means “new testament”.
For the RMCL clusters, the largest component cluster
included almost 30% of concept nodes. As the contents of this cluster can be described in terms of Jesus’ redeem and passion, we can conclude from this that it represents as a whole the synoptic gospel genre itself.
Conclusion and Ongoing tasks
In conclusion, the application of RMCL to the
Synoptic Gospels permitted us to create a compact semantic network in biblical lexicography, where the subject categories typical of the bible can be identified as concept clusters linked one another. Furthermore, it might be possible to use RMCL as a sort of ontology generator for the biblical studies, because we recognized that some of the main RMCL clusters contain a set of key words capable of producing taxonomic schemes or meta-data.
Obviously, the results of MCL clustering are more or less influenced by the initial selection of the co-occurring pairs, that is, the fixation of the breadth of the windowing
frame. We are now working on the estimation of
the appropriate values of parameters together with
the morphological manipulations respecting various viewpoints such as Redaction criticism and Collocation (Syntax). Our final goal is to accomplish the ontology of the
Synoptic Gospels, which would be able to represent the fundamental categories of the Bible with the information on their mutual relationship.
Further information and more detail results will be found at the URL: http://home.a04.itscom.net/hilolani/sgn.htm.
References
Enright, A. J., Van Dongen, S.,and Ouzounis, C. A.
(2002). An efficient algorithm for large-scale
detection of protein families, Nucleic Acids, 30(7),1575-84.
BNM: BibleWorks LXX/OG Morphology and Lemma
Database (2004). BibleWorks Greek New
Testament.
Dorow, B. et al. (2005). Using Curvature and Markov Clustering in Graphs for Lexical Acquisition and Word Sence Discrimination, MEANING-2005.
Gfeller, D., Chappelier, J.-C., De Los Rios, P. (2005). Synonym Dictionary Improvement through Markov Clustering and Clustering Stability, International Symposium on Applied Stochastic Models and Data Analysis, 106-113.
Jung, J., Miyake, M., Hatanaka, N., Akama, H. (2005). For the Development of Composition Support
System based on Semantic Network by Repeated Clustering, IPSJ SIG-CE, No123, p99-105.
Nestle-Aland (1987). Novum Testmentum Graece 26th edition, German Bible Society Stuttgart.
Van Dongen, S. (2000). Graph Clustering by Flow
Simulation, PhD thesis, University of Utrecht.
Vechthomova, O., Roberston, S., Jones, S. (2003). Query expansion with long-span collocates,
Information Retrieval, vol6, p251-273.","txt","2","",""
"700","7","A Pilot Project to Assess the Suitability of the Voice-based Conferencing System Horizon Wimba for Use by Distance Education Students Registered in Second Language Courses at Athabasca University, Canadas Open University","2","Introduction
At Athabasca University, Canada’s Open University situated in Alberta, approximately 1400 students register each year in second language courses (German, Spanish, English as a Second Language and French). In a distance education setting such as this a major challenge
for both students and instructors is to find a satisfactory way of dealing with the oral component of language courses. At present students practise language skills by listening to the cassettes or CDs contained in their course materials and complete oral exercises and exams by telephone with their assigned tutor. Some phonetics exercises are also available in the digital reading room of the university library. The aim of the WIMBA pilot project was to ascertain whether the use of on-line voice
communication might aid students to increase their oral and aural competence in second language learning.
We also hoped to establish an on-line community of
learners by providing students with the opportunity to communicate with each other and so compensate for the lack of interaction which is inevitable in a distance education setting.
Implementation of the project
For the pilot project coordinators sent an e-mail to students to request volunteer participants. The participants were recruited from students registered in French and German language courses. Students were provided with a microphone.
A WIMBA Resource Website was created to orient the participants and to give them access to the system. During the orientation phase of the project, course coordinators
introduced themselves to the students via the voice
discussion board and asked students to reply by introducing
themselves. Any technical malfunctions or questions from students regarding the operation of WIMBA were dealt with during this phase.
During the implementation phase coordinators put the course oral exercises on the WIMBA system and asked the students to practice and consult the coordinator for feedback until they felt ready to complete the actual oral exercise over the phone. Except for overseas students,
students were still expected to complete the oral
exercises over the phone in the usual manner. Overseas
students had the opportunity to use voice e-mail to
complete the oral exercises.
In addition to the course oral exercises one main discussion board was created for each language group to encourage
peer interaction. The French and German course
coordinators were active participants/moderators in these activities, although students were encouraged to use the voice board without instructor intervention.
At the end of the testing period a questionnaire was sent to students to elicit their opinion about the usefulness of the WIMBA system. The evaluation of the pilot project
asked students, course coordinators and the WIMBA
administrator to evaluate the project based on ease of use of WIMBA, increased oral communication, improved
oral communication, and the success of building an
on-line community.
Results
The student responses to the questionnaire were
generally positive.
A high percentage of students (85%) agreed or strongly agreed that using the computer assisted language learning system helped improve their oral communication, 15% of the students were neutral that the medium helped their speaking skills. Likewise, the greater part of students (92%) agreed or strongly agreed that using the medium improved their listening skills and 8% of the students were neutral. All students reported listening to the voice boards more than once and 71.4% of students listened to the voice boards more than five times. However, even though a majority of participants agreed that WIMBA
helped improve oral and aural communication, 60%
of the student participants never used WIMBA to
communicate with their peers.
Implications of these findings
The pilot project seems to suggest that we might have to take into account the self-directed and “silent
learning community” of students who mentioned
benefitting from listening to their peers’ voices without necessarily responding. Even though students did not post to the boards containing oral exercises, the survey shows that they listened to these and used them to practise. This may imply that they listened to the introductions posted on the introductory voice board, and that they thus “got to know” their fellow classmates even though they did not actively engage in conversation with them.
At first glance the results from the pilot project seemed
discouraging since we had hoped for much greater
active involvement from the participants. However it may be that we need to rethink how researchers and the teaching community define and assess language learners’ participation in a distance education context. Generally our students are self-directed learners, though some need more encouragement to achieve learner autonomy. The challenge for language instructors and course developers
at Athabasca University is to help students improve their oral and aural competence whilst maintaining the
flexibility of the distance education model. Students are working independently and will therefore not all be at the same point in a course at the same time, but we feel that it is important to offer students a forum which allows them to practise their language skills and discuss the
course material. We would like to find a way of integrating
WIMBA into our language courses and increasing
students’ awareness of the value of participating in the voice-boards without making this a compulsory part of any course. To this end we hope to continue experimenting with the WIMBA system in order to find out which
discussion subjects are most likely to get a response from students and to find ways of improving performance on oral exercises and exams.
Eventually WIMBA may be used in other areas such as literature and culture courses where voice discussion would enhance the learning experience of students.","txt","2","",""
"701","7","The (In)Visibility of Digital Humanities Resources in Academic Contexts","2","This poster aims to determine how easy is to find digital resources for humanities use, and whether
links are made to such resources or portal sites (such
as Humbul and AHDS) from library and humanities
department websites. We have undertaken this task
because one hypothesis about low levels of usage of digital
resources by humanities scholars is that there is a lack of knowledge about appropriate resources. (Warwick, 2004) Thus if we determine that it is difficult for users to find information or resources, and that digital humanities projects are not promoted within academic contexts, then this would support such an explanation.
Context
This research is being undertaken as part of the
LAIRAH project (Log Analysis of Internet
Resources in the Arts and Humanities, (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/slais/LAIRAH/)), a collaboration between two
research centres at University College London (UCL): the
Centre for Information Behaviour and the Evaluation of Research (CIBER, (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/ciber)), and the newly created Cultural Informatics Research Centre for the Arts and humanities (CIRCAh (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/slais/circah/)). The aim of the LAIRAH survey is to
investigate what influences the long-term sustainability
and use of digital resources in the humanities through the analysis and evaluation of real-time use. This will
provide comprehensive, quantitative, qualitative, and robust
measures for evaluation of real-time use, utilising deep log analysis techniques on automatically recorded server data, and undertaking user analysis of digital humanities projects. The results of this research should increase understanding of usage patterns of digital humanities
resources; aid in the selection of projects for future
funding, and enable us to develop evaluator measures for new projects.
Since 1998, over 300 projects have been funded by
the Arts and Humanities Research Council in the UK to produce digital resources in the humanities, but while
some of them have made an impact on humanities
scholarship and are frequently used by scholars others have been relatively unsuccessful indicating financial and intellectual wastage. Limited research has been done into whether user centred factors determine usage (Warwick et al, 2005)
Through early CIRCAh group discussions we identified a limitation in the knowledge of how users access and locate digital resources for the humanities. Information seeking itself is a well researched area. As Dalton and Charnigo argue, in recent years the amount of literature about scholars and their information needs and information seeking behaviours has become a flood. Although useful
recent work on humanities scholars has been done by Talja and Maula (2003), Greene (2000) and Ellis and Oldman, (2005) much of the literature tends to conflate information seeking and information needs in relation to humanities scholars. In the area of information needs, seminal work done by Stone (1982) and Watson Boone, (1994) showed that humanities users need a wide range of resources, in terms of their age and type. This is still true in a digital environment, where humanities users continue to need printed materials, or even manuscripts as well as electronic resources, which by their nature may imply a much greater age of materials than those used by scientists. (British Academy, 2005) Nevertheless, we are
not aware of a study that has looked specifically at
how or indeed whether humanities users seek digital resources. Thus this relatively small scale study should give rise to interesting findings, to be compared with the more general work of others.
Methods
Our study uses the methodologies of chaining, a term first coined by Ellis (1993), to describe the location of resources by information seeking by making links from references in text, and of browsing rather than key word searching. This is because these techniques are known to be widely used by humanities scholars (Bates, 2002). Humanities scholars do of course use keyword searches on Google. But to gain meaningful results from such a search scholars need to have enough knowledge
to decide which terms to use. They may therefore
prefer to chain or browse before they do so. Therefore the
researcher, who is an experienced information searcher but does not have a background in digital humanities - thus eliminating the effect of knowledge transfer - will attempt to find digital resources for humanities scholar.
The researcher plays the part of an interested but not
particularly expert humanities scholar or graduate
student researching a project or looking for information
about a specific topic
Our sample takes 16 UK Russell Group universities, and will compare these to a sample of 16 UK post 1992 universities. The two types of university were chosen to represent a sample of the range of different universities in the UK higher education system. New universities are in general not as research intensive as older universities, and may teach subjects in different ways. Our sample was therefore chosen to avoid a concentration on one type of institution. The researcher searched for links to digital
humanities resources and projects by using the university
library websites and through websites for humanities departments or, if they are evident, scholars’ web pages within these sites.
A total of eight History departments, eight English
departments, eight Modern Languages departments
and eight Film or Media studies departments were
investigated. In each case four were from a new
university and four from an old one. The universities were not duplicated (in other words we did not use both the English and History departments from UCL, but to chose those from different universities).
The researcher also used websites for the few research
centres or courses on digital humanities that exist, as a starting point for her search. In the UK only 6 universities run such courses or host research centres. They are:
1. Centre for Computing in the Humanities, King’s College London (U.K.)
2. Centre for Technology and the Arts, De Montfort University, Leicester (U.K)
3. Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute, University of Glasgow (U.K.)
4. Pallas (Humanities Computing), Exeter University (U.K.)
5. School of Library, Archive and Information Studies, University College London (U.K)
6. Humanities Research Institute, Sheffield University, UK
These were chosen because scholars may choose to start searches from the pages of known centres of excellence in digital humanities research and teaching.
Results
Initial findings indicate that locating and using digital
resources for the humanities is a difficult and time
consuming task which may help to account for low
levels of use. For example, from eight universities
providing courses in film and media only two have digital resources links in their course/department web site. One has an easy accessible digital resources library catalogue,
two have digital resources library catalogues but it is
almost impossible to find them. The user has to be expert
in information seeking in order to locate and access them (the researcher was able to find them only by accessing the web site map, something that a less experienced user would find it difficult to find). Finally three of the eight universities had no link at all in digital resources for film and media specifically and humanities in general. This represents only a quarter of our expected results, and we have chosen to present a poster because at the time of submission research is not yet complete. Thus we do not yet know how typical such results may be. However, the detailed results of further topics in this study will be analysed and presented at the conference to illustrate our findings, should the poster be accepted.
Conclusion
This study should prove illuminating, because of the lack of work that has been done on how humanities scholars find digital resources when beginning from web sites themselves. In the LAIRAH project, our overall aim is to discover the factors which make a resource usable,
and one of these must be visibility. If users cannot
discover that a resource exists, evidently they cannot use it. Our study therefore presets a small but important
subset of results, which will inform our final findings about
how resource creators and information professionals
might make digital resources more usable to future
researchers.
References
Bates, M. J.,( 2002) The cascade of interactions in the digital library interface. Information Processing & Management. 38: 3 381 -400
British Academy (2005), E-resources for Research in the Humanities and Social Sciences - A British
Academy Policy Review. section 3.5 Available from http://www.britac.ac.uk/reports/eresources/report/sect3.html#part5
Dalton, M. S, and Charnigo, L. (2004) Historians and their information sources. College & Research
Libraries. 65 (5) 400-425.
Ellis, D. (1993) Modelling the Information Seeking
Patterns of Academic Researchers- a Grounded Theory
Approach. Library Quarterly 63 (4): 469-486
Ellis, D. and Oldman H. (2005) The English literature
researcher in the age of the Internet. Journal of
Information Science, 31 (1): 29-36.
Green, R., (2000) Locating sources in humanities
scholarship: The efficacy of following bibliographic references. Library Quarterly. 70 (2): 201 -229
Stone, S. (1982) ‘Humanities Scholars-Information needs and uses’ Journal of Documentation. 38 (4): 292-313
Talja, S. and Maula, J. (2003) Reasons for the use and non-use of electronic journals and databases -
A domain analytic study in four scholarly disciplines.
Journal of Documentation. 59 (6): 273-291
Warwick, C. (2004) ‘Digital resources and Print
Scholarship’ in Ray Siemens, Susan.Schreibman and John Unsworth (eds.) Blackwell Companion to digital humanities. Oxford, Blackwell. pp. 366-383.
Warwick, C., Blandford A. and Buchanan, G. (2005) User Centred Interactive Search: A study of humanities
users in a digital library environment. Presented at he Association for Computers and the Humanities- Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing, Conference 2005. University of Victoria, Canada, June 15-18.
Watson-Boone, R. (1994) The Information Needs and Habits of Humanities Scholars, Reference Quarterly, 34, 203-216","txt","2","",""
"702","7","User Requirements for Humanities Digital Libraries","2","Introduction
This proposal describes an initial set of end user studies conducted as part of the UCIS (User
Centred Interactive Search with digital libraries1) project.
Traditionally, digital library research has focused on
improving system capabilities (such as the work reported
by information retrieval literature), with little attention
being paid to how information seeking behaviour
develops over time and how this development can best be supported (e.g. Bates 1995). This project takes a three
pronged approach in its research agenda: studying
Humanities scholars’ use of resources in context of the broader information task (such as writing), studying the
development of expertise over the three year undergraduate
degree program with Information Management students, and developing and testing novel interface features that support novice users and the development of expertise in the utilization of digital resources.
Context
With the advent of the World Wide Web there has been a dramatic increase in the digitization of
information and artefacts. There is much discussion about
how societies can benefit from this electronic delivery of information as well as cautionary tales of problems
associated with such a rapid take-up (Lesk 2004). The Scientific community has embraced the technologies
facilitated by the World Wide Web, indeed creating and
nurturing them. Humanities researchers have, in general,
not been so quick to weave these resources into their
research repertoire, with the exception of generic tools such
as Google and online library catalogues and bibliographic tools. Reasons for this could include a lack of comfort and confidence with information technology, a reliance on
colleagues and networking events as a source of information,
reliance on their own personal collections, and a slower, more serendipitous way of searching and formulating their research ideas (see Barrett 2005 for an overview of these positions). Humanities researchers reportedly tend to find chaining, (or following up links from footnotes) to be a more useful activity than searching (Green 2000). Despite the hypertextual nature of the web, this activity is seldom well supported in online environments (Bates 2002).
Over these past few months the largest organisations that provide WWW search engine services have been
competing to create impressive digital libraries that will give
the widest possible audience access to very large
bundles of resources (e.g. Mathes 2005 & BBC 2005). Many
of the resources being donated or used by these projects will be of significant value to Humanities scholars. Our research is immediately relevant to such projects, since
it offers a solid foundation of knowledge about the
working practices, experiences and attitudes of their
intended audiences.
Methodology
We are therefore studying humanities users, and their interactions with information, in both physical and virtual environments. An important facet of our work is that users are studied in as naturalistic
a context as possible, to gain a fuller understanding of the nature of their information work. Data is being
gathered using interviews, observations, electronic logging
and diary studies of use of digital and traditional library
materials. Three focused research agendas are being
tackled, looking at Humanities scholars, postgraduate
researchers and first year undergraduates. Data collection
and analysis are ongoing; we currently have data from 25 interviews and observations, the majority being from English literature and history specialists, and expect the final paper to be based on detailed analysis of data from approximately 40 participants.
Findings and Discussion
Using broad grained discourse analytical techniques
proposed by Potter and Wetherell (1987) a list of themes that have emerged from the transcribed
interviews will be presented. Offered here is a brief
overview of such themes:
Insights into the positive and negative aspects of the
Humanities ‘research experience’
Detailed descriptions of their research activities revealed
the “Sherlock Holmes” nature of their work; how it
develops across the use of many sources and how the ‘mystery’ is investigated by ‘chasing up leads’. Additionally,
the depths of engagement experienced during interaction
with the actual source materials were described. So for example, hunting down a rare 16th century book in a
second hand shop and slowly leafing through it over the weekend was described as a highly pleasurable, personal
experience. This poses a significant design challenge: How can digital resources best support the work of the research ‘Sleuth’ and how can the experience of doing so be enhanced to facilitate engagement whilst interacting with technology?
The Physical and the Electronic (Real and Virtual)
Different experiences in a variety of physical libraries
were discussed, and how these research experiences
differed to the use of electronic resources was also
explored. We shall be addressing how some of the
qualities of the physical browsing activity can be best supported by electronic resources. This is being done by developing, prototyping and testing interfaces that offer additional information to the user in a variety of ways, such as statistics on article use, related material, and
similar search pathways through the data.
Space, place and people
The importance of, and problems of, places (libraries,
auction houses, book fairs), spaces (e.g. working in
particular libraries) and the relationships with other
people were also revealing. These findings can be set against electronic resources to see how well they support
or hinder these relationships. Do these technologies
need to consider ways of incorporating additional
communication tools to support research communities? How resources are assessed
The criteria scholars used to evaluate resources were
often implicit. These interviews revealed issues of
accuracy and ease of use for both physical and electronic resources. Our prototyped interfaces are exploring ways of expressing, for example, how results are ranked and how the user can interact with the system in order to
present the data according to their own preferences.
Embracing technology
Participants discussed how different sorts of technology fitted into their research practices over the last 25 years, including first use of email, and more recently the Web and electronic resources.
Problems with technologies old and new
Critiques were offered of microfiche, microfilm, CD Roms as well as library catalogues and Internet search
engines. By understanding barriers to previous
technological take up in general, improved techniques can be developed to promote these resources to the
Humanities research community.
The modern researcher and a need for training
The impact of Internet search engines on the quality of students’ work was also discussed, and how there is now a greater need for the researcher to undertake more formal training to acquire the necessary skills to discriminate between information and their sources. Discussion of electronic resource use amongst a wide set of humanities scholars is informing how such training would best be structured and prioritised.
Discussion
This research is enabling us to develop, test and
deliver open source working systems that support the
development of expertise in information seeking with digital libraries. System development is based on the Greenstone software (www.nzdl.org), allowing us to
focus on questions of interaction rather than developing our
own technical infrastructure. Our research will provide a detailed account of the development of expertise in
information seeking with digital libraries, and allow
the development of models of information seeking
behaviour with these resources, contextualised within an understanding of the broader information tasks (researching and writing) of Humanities academics.
These initial studies have been useful for us in the development of scenarios and personas that form the basis of the project’s user requirements. These have proved to be highly useful to design teams in general (Jordan 2000) and are particularly useful in illustrating the user, and the context within which they work, to the technical designers on this project. The initial engagement with humanities scholars has gathered rich information that is shaping our initial designs. These subject matter experts will continue to participate in the project by evaluating our prototypes as part of an iterative design process.
Acknowledgement
This research is part of the User Centred Interactive Search project which is funded by the EPRSC grant number GR/S84798.
Footnotes
1 http://www.uclic.ucl.ac.uk/annb/DLUsability/UCIS.html
References
Barrett, A. (2005) The information seeking habits of graduate student researchers in the humanities. The Journal of Academic Librarianship. 31(4), 324-331.
Bates, M. J. (1995) The Getty End-User Online
Searching Project in the Humanities: Report No. 6:
Overview and Conclusions. College & Research
Libraries. 57, 514-523.
Bates, M. J. (2002) The cascade of interactions in
the digital interface. Information Processing &
Management. 38(3), 381-400.
BBC News (2005) Microsoft Scans British Library http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/technology/4402442.stm (visited 4th November 2005)
Green, R. (2000) Locating sources in Humanities scholarship: The efficacy of following bibliographic references. Library Quarterly. 70(2), 201-229
Jordan, P. W. (2000) Designing Pleasurable Products: An Introduction to the new Human Factors. Taylor & Francis Books; U.K.
Lesk, M. (2004) Understanding Digital Libraries. 2nd Edition. San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmaann.
Mathes, A. (2005) Preserving Public Domain Books. http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2005/11/preserving-public-domain-books.html
Potter, J. & Wetherell, M. (1987) Discourse and social
psychology: Beyond attitudes and behaviour.
London: Sage.","txt","2","",""
"703","7","Introducing the Pattern-Finder","2","We would like to present the Pattern-Finder, a new computational tool for analyzing texts with specific application to the close reading of poetry. It was designed and created by Smolinsky & Sokoloff, and can be found at www. patternfinder.net. Our program was
invented to examine whether (and if so, how) the phonetic/
phonological structure of a poem may contribute to its meaning and emotional power—to take a close look at how the ‘music’ of poetry actually works. Two Pattern-Finder studies have already been completed (on Keats’ Bright Star sonnet, and on the Wallace Stevens lyrics
Bantams in Pine-Woods and Fabliau of Florida). These, we claim, uncover aspects of poetic technique
inaccessible to the naked ear; displays from these
studies will form part of our presentation. A third study, on
Hopkins’ Terrible Sonnet No Worst, There Is None, is being proposed as a paper for this conference. Below,
we describe briefly the theoretical background to our
invention; then we describe how the Pattern-Finder is used
on a text, and the type of sound patterning it is designed to bring to light.
Our approach comes from combining two sources, one literary and one linguistic. The first is the traditional
critical close-reading focus on sound repetitions, on
phenomena like alliteration, assonance, rhyme and meter
(for the closest predecessor to our approach, see Burke,
1973). The second derives from the study of a topic in linguistics known as phonetic symbolism. This is an
ongoing area of research, which started in the U.S. over 70 years ago with Edward Sapir’s (1929) experimental Investigation in phonetic symbolism. Following Sapir, many researchers have continued investigating whether isolated speech sounds are not in themselves experienced
as carrying some intrinsic meaning. There is growing
evidence that they can indeed trigger attribution of qualities,
such as smallness or largeness, brightness or darkness. (See, among many others, Chastaing (1958, 1962)
Fischer-Jørgensen (1978) Fonagy (1979) Magnuse (1999) Newman (1933) Smolinsky (2001) and Tanz (1971)).
In one part of Sapir’s experiment, subjects were given two made-up words for “table,” mal and mil (/mal/ and /miyl/ in the SAMPA (Wells, 1997) transcription system we are using). The subjects then had to decide which table was ‘bigger’ and which was ‘smaller.’ Since the vowels in these words were varied while the surrounding frame of consonants were kept the same, in effect, it was the perceived ‘size’ of the vowels which was being tested. Sapir, testing a range of vowels, found there was significant consistency of response, and Newman (1933) continuing
Sapir’s experiment four years later, found enough
consistency in subjects’ responses to go as far as setting up scales for vowels and consonants, showing brightest to darkest and largest to smallest.
Certain regularities in both Sapir’s and Newman’s
findings suggest that the way such attributions of qualities
to speech sounds may work is by features: “Phonetic propert[ies] used to classify sounds,” (Ladefoged, 1982, p 38). For example, one such feature of consonants is voicing (whether they are made with or without vibration of the vocal cords, as in the voiceless /t/ and /s/, which have as their voiced counterparts /d/ and /z/). To illustrate, there is a pronunciation rule in English that when a noun ends in a voiceless consonant, its plural suffix will also be voiceless: cat /kAt/ pluralized is cats /kAts/. But if the noun ends in a voiced consonant, for example dog /dQg/, then its plural will also be voiced: dogs /dQgz/. This rule also has an important extra clause: if, as in midge /mIj/ or roach /rowC/, the noun ends in a voiced or voiceless consonant which is coronal (i.e., one made by raising the blade of the tongue: (Chomsky and Halle, 1968) and
sibilant (characterized by marked loudness and a sustained
high-frequency noise (Ladefoged, op cit.), then the plural suffix is realized as a whole syllable: midges /mIjIz/ or roaches /rowCiz/.
For our purposes, what is relevant about this kind of pronunciation rule, operating below the conscious
level, is that if native English-speakers are given a series of made-up nouns, such as drobe /drowb/, bloph /blQf/ or nutch /nVC/, and asked to pluralize them aloud, they
can, without any apparent effort, produce the correct
plurals for all three unknown words. It seems that they automatically scan each noun’s last sound for the presence of, respectively, voiced, voiceless and sibilant-plus-coronal features, and assign the suffixes accordingly. Thus, it can be strongly argued that features like voiced or coronal
must be available in our subconscious for obeying
pronunciation rules. If so, then they should also be available for symbolizing use, as in Sapir’s “large” and “small” mal and mil examples. We, as readers, might be affected by such symbolizing material in a poem (for example, a sense of spaciousness or constriction) without quite knowing what in its music has triggered our response,
any more than we ‘know’ why the plural of mirage is mirages with its extra syllable. The exploration of this hypothesis—that feature-patterning is the driving
force in the ‘music’ of poetry—was the idea behind the
creation of the Pattern-Finder.
The process of Pattern-Finder analysis is as follows: Firstly, we put the text into a (broad) phonetic transcription; this is an essential step, since a consistent relationship
between sounds and their written representations is
needed—one hardly provided by normal English
orthography. We have chosen the SAMPA phonetic transcription alphabet (see Wells, op.cit.) because it uses the same characters as a normal keyboard: once the
reader has the key to the system, it is immediately available
for use. Prosodic features (three degrees of stress, two pause lengths) are also transcribed with keyboard
characters. The text is then input to the Pattern-Finder with a search command for a feature or features; next, the program analyzes it for the feature(s) required, and finally the analyzed version of the text is output with
highlighted displays of the distribution of the feature(s), together with the frequency count(s).
Most of the Pattern-Finder’s features are the conventional ones found in any phonetics textbook, such as high for a vowel, or bilabial for a consonant. But a number of extra features were added, wider-ranging ones (such as upper, which includes both high and mid-high vowels, or labial, which includes any consonant made with the lips) and more narrowly-focused ones, such as breathy and sibilant, which distinguish between higher-pitched
and lower-pitched sounds involving frication. In
designing our range of features, the intention was to imitate as much as possible of the range of unconscious
phonetic/phonological distinctions in the mind of the
English-speaking poet and reader. In this way, we hoped to capture more of the sound-patterning, broad or narrow, which we hypothesize underlies the music of a poem. The Pattern-Finder offers an extensive range of analyses, single or combinatory, segmental and/or prosodic. Users may analyze the text for up to four features in one search.
They may request “one-highlight” displays, i.e., of a
single set of speech sounds identified either by one feature
(e.g., all the high vowels) or by two features (e.g., all
the high and back vowels). Or they may request two-highlight “versus” dsiplays, i.e., of two sets of speech sounds identified by either one feature (all the high versus all the low vowels), or by two features (all the high and back versus all the low and back vowels). The availability of prosodic features means that users may also search, e.g., for all the stressed and high vowels in a text, or stressed and high vowels versus pre-pause and voiceless consonants.
The resulting highlighted displays of speech sounds,
picked out by one or two features, allow the user to track
their distribution throughout the text. In this way, one is able to match feature-patterning (for example, whether this sound appears in clusters at one or two places in the text, or more sparsely but at regularly-spaced intervals, or is almost, or totally, absent) to meaning (such as contrasts
of atmosphere or subject, correspondences between
apparently disparate images, locus of climax, and so on).
Naturally, we are most eager for the chance to share this program with our peers. (Besides English, we can also
offer clear explanations in French, Russian, Spanish,
Catalan, and Hindi.) We feel that we have invented a kind of X-ray machine for poetry—or, indeed, for longer texts—and we are keen to invite all who love literature to join with us in using this new instrument for investigating
its sound-structures.
References
Phonetics and Phonological Features
Brosnahan, L F. and B. Malmberg (1970) Introduction to phonetics, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press
Chomsky, N. and M. Halle (1968) The sound-pattern of English. New York: Harper & Row
Gimson, A. C. (1989) Introduction to the pronunciation of English. (4th edition) London: Edwin Arnold
Hyman, L. M. 1957 Phonology: theory and analysis. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston
Jakobson, R., G. Fant and M. Halle (1951) Preliminaries
to speech analysis: the distinctive features and their correlates. Cambridge MA: MIT Press
——— and M. Halle (1971) Fundamentals of language. The Hague: Mouton
Ladefoged, P. (1962) Elements of acoustic phonetics. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press
——— (1982) A course in phonetics. (2nd edition) New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich Inc.
Peterson, G. E and H. L. Barney (1952) Control methods
used in a study of the identification of vowels,
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
v 24 #2, pp 175-184
——— and I. Lehiste (1960) Duration of syllable
nucleii in English. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America v 32, pp 693-703
Pickett, J. M. (1980) The sounds of speech communication.
Baltimore, MA: University Park Press
Phonetic Symbolism and Literary Criticism
Burke, K. (1973) “On Musicality in Verse” in The
Philosophy of Literary Form. Berkley, CA: University
of California Press
Chastaing, M. (1958) Le symbolisme des voyelles,
signification d’i, Journal de Psychologie v 55, pp 403-423 & 461-481
——— (1962) La brillance des voyelles, Archivum
Linguisticum v 14, pp 1-13
Fisher-Jørgensen, El. (1978) On the universal character
of phonetic symbolism with special reference to vowels, Studia Linguistica v 32, pp 80-90
Fónagy, I. (1979) La métaphore en phonétique. Ottawa: Marcel Didier
——— (1983) La vive voix. Paris: Payot
Grammont, M. (1946) Traité de phonétique. Paris:
Delagrave Jakobson, R. (1978) Language in literature. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University
Jespersen, O. (1933) The symbolic value of the vowel i in Linguistica: Selected writings of Otto Jespersen. Copenhagen: Levin & Munksgard pp 283-303
Magnus, M. (1999) Gods of the Word. Kirksville MO: Thomas Jefferson University Press
Marchand, H. (1959) Phonetic symbolism in English word-formation, Indogermanische Forschungen
v 64, pp 146-68, 256-277
Newman, S. S. (1933) Further experiments in phonetic symbolism, American Journal of Psychology v 45, pp 53-75
Ohala, J. J. (1994) The frequency code underlies the sound-symbolic use of voice-pitch, in Sound
Symbolism (eds Hinton, L., J. Nichols and J. J. Ohala)
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
Sapir, E. (1927) Language as a form of human behavior, The English Journal v 16, pp 421-433
——— (1929) A study in phonetic symbolism, Journal of Experimental Psychology v 12, 225-239
Smolinsky, Stephanie (2001) Brilliance, energy and size in vowels: a cross-linguistic study of phonetic symbolism. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, CUNY Graduate Center, NYC.
Tanz, C. (1971) Sound symbolism in words relating to proximity and distance, Language and Speech v 17, pp 87-94
Transcription
SAMPA www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa
Wells, J. C., (1997) ‘SAMPA computer readable phonetic alphabet’. In Gibbon, D., R. Moore and R. Winski, (eds.) Handbook of Standards and Resources for Spoken Language Systems. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Part IV, section B.","txt","2","",""
"704","7","Creating and Using a Digital Version of Giovanni Villani's ""Nuova Cronica""","2","On a 1300 pilgrimage to Rome the Florentine
merchant Giovanni Villani was inspired by the crumbling glories of the ancient metropolis. It occurred to him that his own city, the daughter and creature of Rome,
was on the rise and had need of an historian to do the
patriotic duty of a Virgil, a Sallust, or a Livy. Despite
reservations about his ability to measure up to such eminent
men, without, that is, the aid and grace of God, Villani resolved to begin a record of the “deeds and beginnings” of the Florentines and matters in the wider world. He would undertake this work “with reverence for God and Saint John, and in praise of our city of Florence”. The result, his immense Nuova Cronica, traced the working of God’s providence in the vicissitudes of Florence, Italy, and Europe; it glorified Florence as a worthy inheritor of the mantle of Rome; it revealed the righteous judgment of God against the sinful; it sought to provide a stock of moral and political exempla to future generations of Florentines.
We are engaged in an ongoing project to make this
tremendously important chronicle more widely available to students and scholars: we are creating a fully encoded and
annotated online version of the chronicle which will be accompanied by its first complete English translation.
This project is supported by an N.E.H. grant and is part of Brown University’s Virtual Humanities Lab. The V.H.L.
provides texts and databases which are encoded,
annotated, and contextualized. These include the
Decameron Web, the Pico Project, and the Catasto/Tratte.
The long term aim is to create a kind of virtual Florence
where students and scholars can access searchable versions of fundamental texts placed in rich historical
context. We hope that the streets and plazas of our electronic
Florence will serve the same social and intellectual
function as those of the original: we want the V.H.L. to be a forum for exchange and collaboration in learning and scholarship.
Professor Diakite and I began our work in the final book, which runs from 1342 through 1347. These were significant
years for the history of Florence, Italy and Europe:
the abortive lordship of Walter of Brienne, the disarray
of Angevin power in Southern Italy, the stunningly
successful campaigns of Edward III, and the first news of the Black Death. Villani shifts masterfully between the
narrow stage of his native city and the events of the wider world; his treatment is nuanced and detailed. Our choice to “begin at the end” of the chronicle was dictated by the brilliance and the usefulness of this final book.
Our first task was to develop an encoding scheme. After
much discussion about the potential scholarly and
pedagogical uses of the electronic text, we crafted a scheme
which takes in textual structure and textual elements,
citations and sources, dates, place-names, personages, and recurrent themes.
After we had fully encoded the final book of the
chronicle, we began producing annotations linking
significant words and passages to ancillary material.
Particularly important episodes will be linked to contextual
essays and bibliographies; proper names will be linked to biographies and bibliographies; place names will be linked to descriptions and maps; references to sources
will be linked, where possible, to the original texts.
Perhaps most excitingly we plan to create links to alternate
descriptions of the same events in other chronicles. The
resulting web of medieval voices, Italian and European, will provide a complex and nuanced view of the major events of the 14th century.
The fully encoded and annotated Nuova Cronica will be a powerful tool. Students and scholars will have Italian and English versions of the chronicle, richly commented and woven into a web of complementary voices. They will be able to conduct complex and fruitful searches: a student of 14th century Italian politics, for example, could easily find every occasion where Villani moralizes against
the tyrannous acts of lords while a student of 14th
century economic history could find every occasion where
Villani records a price. The most important dimension of our project, however, is the contribution we hope users will make to its development. We intend to “open the door” to scholars who are interested in working with the chronicle; they will be invited to add links to material
and to create annotations. We also intend to create a
forum for scholarly discussion and electronic publication.
We hope, in other words, that our digital text will be the center of a collective lavoro and lettura.
Our poster will trace the challenges involved in encoding and annotating a work as complex as the Nuova Cronica and will provide a preliminary balance of our accomplishments. Its focus, however, will be the relationship between scholarly and pedagogical uses of the electronic text. This was a matter of some concern as we developed our project: how could we make our electronic text both relevant for scholars and useful for students? We will describe how we sought to match our encoding scheme to two very different sets of users. We will explore ways to integrate the chronicle, along with the other components of the V.H.L., into courses on Italian literature and history. We will present sample projects which would allow students to explore our text and to exploit its encoding and annotation. We will propose ways to involve students in the work of scholars through the posting and discussion of papers in online seminars and through the use of chat rooms.","txt","2","",""
"705","7","The Buccaneers of America: A Multilingual Comparative Electronic Edition","2","In 1678, the Amsterdam printer Jan ten Hoorn
published De americaensche Zee-Roovers, a historical
(yet understandably sensational) account of the
pirates who preyed upon the Spanish treasure fleets and
Caribbean colonies of the seventeenth century. Although
somewhat obscure in origin, the text was later able to be attributed to Alexandre Olivier Exquemelin, a
Huguenot ship’s surgeon to the buccaneers who witnessed
most of the events he describes. The book proved suitably
tantalizing to readers to ensure its rapid translation into German (1679), Spanish (1681), English (1684), and
ultimately French (1686). While making the text (known as The Buccaneers of America in English) available to readers in new countries and cultures, the translators of these editions also accomplished a second, somewhat
more duplicitous, task: adding new material of their
own which transformed the texts completely to suit the purposes of the societies for which they were printed. Subsequent editions of each different language version have thus only continued to corrupt the original text,
further complicating the history of textual transmission of the original but ultimately elucidating the socio-political
and ideological climates out of which they arose.
Participants in the Buccaneers of America project are
attempting to prepare an interlinked “meta-edition” of the
original Dutch text and its early translations into German, Spanish, English and French. The Dutch, English and French texts have been digitally photographed and
tagged in basic TEI at the University of Virginia Library;
German and Spanish editions from the Library of
Congress have been photographed and will be TEI-
encoded. One of the primary goals of the project being to aid scholars in their comparisons of the texts across
different language versions, several means of interlinking
the texts -- linguistically, structurally and thematically -- will be attempted. First, a selection of keywords from the texts will be encoded with cross-references to period and modern translations occurring in other parts of the editions: therefore searching and/or browsing for the key title term “bucaniers” in English will also retrieve results for “aventuriers” in French, “piratas” in Spanish,
“See-Raeubers” in German, and “Zee-Roovers” in Dutch, plus the usual twentieth-century terms used in published
titles. In addition, further structural and thematic
comparisons between the editions will be made by the use of descriptive text collations. The web interface of the collations will feature passages of text encapsulated in brief summaries, categorized by narrative and thematic divisions, and presented in the order they occur in the text. Corresponding passages that “track” between the two editions will be linked to represent their association to the reader. Readers will also note that for some passages
in one edition, there is no corresponding passage in
another edition, as well as remarking that even when
passages occur in both comparison editions, they may have
been reordered. Links from each of the text divisions in the collation will take readers off to the corresponding
section of the edition itself, or to desired paratextual
material.
Although such keyword indexing as mentioned above is able to be at least partially automated, it still requires a certain amount of manual manipulation of the data (thus being somewhat labor-intensive), and remains at best
an incomplete solution to the key issue of linguistic transparency across the editions, pointing to a key
concern of project participants: accessibility and utility of
the editions to interested scholars everywhere, especially in the Caribbean itself, with the smallest barriers to use possible. Related to this is the larger issue of cultural
heritage and its “appropriation,” however unintentional, by outside cultures and agencies involved in the editions’ organization and execution.","txt","2","",""
"706","7","Travelers in the Middle East Archive (TIMEA): Integrating Texts and Images in DSpace with GIS and Teaching Resources","2","Like other digital archives, the Travelers in the Middle
East Archive (TIMEA) acts as a repository for
digital texts and images, in this case works documenting
travel to the Middle East between the 18th and early 20th centuries. In TIMEA (http://timea.rice.edu), sponsored by the Institute of Museum and Library Services and Rice University’s Computer and Information Technology
Institute, one can find digitized versions of historic
stereocards and postcards depicting such sites as the
pyramids and the sphinx, along with TEI-encoded texts such as travel guides, travel narratives, and scholarly works.
Yet offering access to unique sources is only one of the
project’s goals. TIMEA, which is based at Rice University, also aims to provide valuable resources for teaching;
improve information literacy and research skills; offer a model for building learning communities that use
electronic resources; and develop innovative mechanisms
for using GIS tools in cultural heritage projects. Thus
TIMEA demonstrates the geographical nature of its focus by creating dynamic GIS maps that combine geospatial
data such as elevation and water with layers displaying different historical maps and travel and trade routes. In addition, TIMEA addresses the critical need to cultivate
information fluency and research skills and build
learning communities. As studies have found, students lack essential skills in finding and using information:
“University libraries have outstanding information
resources available to their student populations… and they
have powerful tools for accessing these materials… but many college students are either unaware of these resources or they do not know how to use them” (Quarton 120). By creating research and teaching guides, TIMEA develops fundamental methods among students at the same time that it gives access to a particular body of material. These guides are presented in Connexions (http://cnx.rice.edu), an open, collaboratively-authored repository of electronic course materials.
To deliver the texts and images, TIMEA uses DSpace, an open-source digital repository system. The choice of DSpace was driven by several factors: it is open-source, supports the Open Archives Initiative (OAI), and provides a long term archiving solution that will ensure access to
the TIMEA digital assets well into the future. Moreover, Rice University’s Digital Library Initiative recently adopted DSpace, making a commitment to support and develop the system. Initially DSpace was designed for research materials and scholarly papers, so it currently has several limitations for digitization projects: support for viewing
XML documents in a user-friendly way is not yet available,
there is limited support for structural metadata, and the interface design cannot easily be customized for each community within an institution’s installation of
DSpace. However, institutions such as Texas A & M and the University of Rochester are beginning to experiment
with using DSpace for archives of digitized materials. TIMEA and Rice are contributing to these efforts by addressing the problems of XML support and interface
design. In collaboration with Texas A & M, Rice is
working on providing a customizable user interface for each DSpace community that is driven by Cocoon and XML, which will allow TIMEA to have its own unique look and feel. Likewise, Rice is developing support for XML publishing in DSpace. We are awaiting METS
support for structural metadata, which is currently being developed and will be included in a future DSpace release.
By bringing together multimedia resources such as XML texts, digital images, and GIS maps with teaching and research modules, TIMEA faces a crucial challenge:
integration, both technical and intellectual. In so doing, TIMEA is building on the work done by complex digital
projects such as the Valley of the Shadow and Perseus. TIMEA content resides in three separate systems: texts and images in DSpace; GIS maps in ESRI’s ArcIMS map server; and research and teaching modules in
Connexions. By using these systems, TIMEA can leverage is an ongoing project, its technical team continues to
explore the best means for integration, such as a web
services solution that leverages the availability of data in each system in XML. In large part, success depends upon active collaboration among the various contributors,
including the GIS team, digital library systems developer,
project managers, Connexions staff, and module authors. To provide interlinking among the texts, images, and
Connexions modules, the project team is taking advantage of the permanent URIs for digital objects generated by DSpace and the rich linking capabilities for research modules in Connexions. In order to connect GIS maps with texts, the GIS support specialist has authored a
program that automatically drops in links to map locations
in the XML files based on place names. So that users can seamlessly navigate TIMEA’s various elements,
the digital library systems developer is working on the aforementioned project to provide a customized web
interface in DSpace.
Even as the TIMEA team works through the technical issues of integrating a complex archive, it also faces questions about how to realize the project’s scholarly and educational goals and serve its user community of
teachers, students, researchers and museum professionals.
How can the research and teaching modules be used to
augment rather than overdetermine students’ understanding
of TIMEA materials? How can TIMEA provide
links among the various components that lead to new
understanding rather than overwhelm the end user? These
questions are being addressed through collaboration among the project team members, active consultation with scholars and teachers, and user testing.
As a whole, we hope that TIMEA’s components will come together to support the project objectives in a way that highlights the scope and depth of available resources.
As a contribution to computing in the humanities,
TIMEA is an example of how diverse resources can be integrated to enable more sophisticated means of
conducting scholarly inquiry.
References
Henry, Geneva, Baraniuk, Rich, and Christopher Kelty, “The Connexions Project: Promoting Open Sharing of Knowledge for Education,” Syllabus2003 Conference, July 2003. http://www.syllabus.com/summer2003/pdf/T03.pdf
Perseus Digital Library. Accessed 2005-11-14. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/.
Quarton, Barbara, “Research Skills and the New
Undergraduate.” Journal of Instructional Psychology.
30.2 (June 2003): 120-124.
Smith, MacKenzie, et al. “DSpace: An Open Source
Dynamic Digital Repository.” DLib 9.1 (January 2003).
http://www.dlib.org/dlib/january03/smith/01smith.html
Texas A & M. TXSpace. Accessed 2005-11-14. http://txspace.tamu.edu/
University of Rochester. UR Research. Accessed 2005-11-14. https://urresearch.rochester.edu/index.jsp
Valley of the Shadow. Accessed 2005-11-14. http://
valley.vcdh.virginia.edu/","txt","2","",""
"707","7","Humanities Computing and the Geographical Imagination: The Mark Twain's Mississippi Project","2","The Mark Twain’s Mississippi Project World Wide Web site (http://dig.lib.niu.edu/twain) presents users with a digital library featuring humanities materials shedding light upon the historical milieu in which Samuel Clemens grew to maturity, and which he remembered and imagined as Mark Twain in a series of celebrated
works based in the Mississippi River Valley of the
mid-nineteenth century. The site will present Mark Twain’s
Mississippi works (The Adventures Tom Sawyer, The
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, and Life on the Mississippi)
online in a fully searchable digital format, along with other contemporary authors’ descriptions, accounts, and definitions of that region. Project staff members have
gathered and digitized over 100 primary source texts,
including travel accounts, immigrants’ guides, gazetteers,
and reminiscences, from participating libraries, and are at work presenting them on the project web site. They have also gathered nearly one thousand images from
these texts, as well as participating institutions’ collections
of visual materials, and are mounting these materials in a parallel database. Project staff have identified and
gathered mid-nineteenth century sheet music totaling some twenty songs describing and mythologizing the Mississippi River, its valley, and its culture. Musicians
have recorded versions of these songs, which will be
featured in database of sound recordings. Finally, the project
World Wide Web site presents spatial data via Geographic Information Systems technology, including geographical features and data sets depicting the changing demographic,
economic, and political contours of the region in this
period. Using these online tools, project users may compare
Mark Twain’s accounts of the Mississippi Valley of the nineteenth century with those produced by other observers, thereby exploring and analyzing significant themes in American literature and history.","txt","2","",""
"708","7","Digital Humanities Quarterly","2","The proposed poster will highlight Digital
Humanities Quarterly (DHQ), a new open-access, peer-reviewed, digital journal covering all aspects of
digital media in the humanities. Published by the Alliance
of Digital Humanities Organizations (ADHO), DHQ is also a community experiment in journal publication, with a commitment to:
• experimenting with publication formats and the
rhetoric of digital authoring
• co-publishing articles with Literary and Linguistic Computing (a well-established print digital humanities
journal) in ways that straddle the print/digital
divide
• using open standards to deliver journal content
• developing translation services and multilingual
reviewing in keeping with the strongly international
character of ADHO
DHQ will publish a wide range of peer-reviewed
materials, including:
• Scholarly articles
• Editorials and provocative opinion pieces
• Experiments in interactive media
• Reviews of books, web sites, new media art
installations, digital humanities systems and tools
• A blog with guest commentators
The poster will be developed by DHQ’s technical editor,
with contributions from other editors and staff. In
addition to providing general information about the
journal, the poster will provide details about the
technical development and infrastructure behind DHQ, including the TEI-based DQH authoring schema, the
open source content management system that manages
and delivers DHQ content, and the combinations of XML, XSLT, CSS, and other Web technologies that
drive the DHQ interface.
It is hoped that DHQ will become an important resource
for the digital humanities community. The poster will serve both to promote an important new venue for
scholarship and research in digital humanities and to
provide valuable information about the technological
development of a complex and evolving online resource.","txt","2","",""
"709","7","The Virtual Mesoamerican Archive: Exploring Expansion Possibilities, Automated Harvesting, and Migration to MySQL","2","The Virtual Mesoamerican Archive (VMA) is work in progress. It is intended to be an extensive,
academic, portal website. It aims to codify, integrate, and provide Internet links to the vast and internationally dispersed collections of digitized cultural and historical materials of early Mesoamerica (1800 BCE to 1800 CE)
as provided by archives, libraries, museums, private
collections, and individual scholars.
The potential audience for this reference material
includes scholars, graduate and undergraduate students, secondary and elementary students and teachers, and a broad cross-section of the general public in many nations interested in Mexican and Central American history,
whether because of their own heritage and/or a
fascination with the cultural richness offered by the ancestors of these global neighbors (ancestors such as the Olmecs, Aztecs, Mixtecs, Zapotecs, Mayas, and others.).
Begun in 2002 by Stephanie Wood and Judith Musick at the Wired Humanities Project, University of Oregon, as a “proof of concept” effort, and currently only accessible in preview form, the VMA will allow users online access to thousands of records in five inter-related databases. We currently have over 5,500 records in these databases. The contents are selected by our subject experts, then gleaned manually from electronic and print sources, or solicited directly from institutions and individuals, with data entry performed by closely supervised undergraduate students. We are sorting this material into multiple categories, with extensive information and hyperlinks to:
• Repositories – museums, galleries, archives, and libraries – that hold Mesoamerican cultural heritage materials.
• Collections held by each repository, including
collection inventories when available.
• Digitized facsimiles of significant Mesoamerican cultural materials, with added keywords.
• Online articles and websites authored by scholars, with added keywords.
• Contact information, education details, publication
records, and career histories for scholars who
devote their time to Mesoamerican studies.
We have a number of tasks that remain, which we would
like to explore with our peers at this ACH poster
session.
• We aim to augment and expand content, not just manually, as we have been doing, but through the provision of online submission forms that would
feed into holding tanks for the contents to be
approved prior to being merged with existing
databases.
• We also wish to explore the possibilities of
automated data harvesting protocols, always with permission from targeted institutions. We can
envision a use for this with sites that have hundreds or thousands of items of cultural heritage materials already available on line, such as the Justin Kerr Precolumbian Portfolio of 1,618 images, or the Peabody Museum online collections, with 10,109 Maya pieces, among others.
• We plan to improve and expand our search
functionality, with better access to the materials we have accumulated. This will include embellishing our advanced search mechanisms and preparing for the browsing of preset bodies of data, anticipating users’ interests.
• This past summer we undertook a test migration of our database contents and their presentation on the web from FilemakerPro to MySQL. This was
successful, and we hope to fully realize this
transition when the databases are more complete, to ensure accessibility and longevity for the project. MySQL and PHP compatibility may also facilitate automated data harvesting and mergers.
• We also have yet to encode the texts we have either
authored ourselves, such as the biographical
sketches of Mesoamericanist scholars, or texts we have harvested and inserted into our databases, such as from museum websites (always with their permission). We plan to use TEI Lite for this, since these texts are fairly short and simple. Online essays and websites, on the other hand, will not be encoded because we do not actually serve these, only brief descriptions and links to them.
• We have already begun establishing a professional
advisory board, but we need to expand it. The board’s responsibilities will include the formalization
of editorial standards and procedures as well as the facilitating of inter-institutional partnerships to
sustain the VMA.
The URL for the VMA preview:
http://whp.uoregon.edu/vma_preview/
username = aza
password = PERSIA","txt","2","",""
"710","7","Ontology for a Formal Description of Literary Characters","2","Astory plot would not work without the actions
of the literary characters included. Actually, their actions and reactions do essentially form the plot.
Furthermore, these characters are often provided with special behaviours or features enriching the story. Thus, within literature studies, the analysis of characters is an important task for analysing and interpreting literature. But the focus in recent approaches is often very restricted so that only some parts of literary characters are shown
(Note [1]) or they demonstrate only a theoretical
classification and do only partially provide evidence for the analysis on literature. Other approaches deal only with special characters so that a generalisation for all characters is often not possible. (Note [2]) Representing and describing a character in most of its facets is often not reached in a (nearly) complete way.
We will present an application of a formal ontology for literary characters. The concepts, which are included
in the ontology, combine several theories for literary
characters. The goal is to derive a model of the structure
of literary characters. For this task, it is required to
establish a flexible and open system so that newly found categories or aspects can be included without restructuring
the ontology. Additionally, it should be possible to
integrate the representation of many characters.
The definition of ‘ontology’ originates from philosophy
and was transferred to the field of the ‘Artificial
Intelligence’ (AI). In general, the philosophical theories of ontology are used to explain the existence of things in the world.(Note: [3]) When the terminus ‘ontology’ was introduced in the field of AI the definition of ontology underwent a semantic change. In AI ontology is defined
as the modelling of concepts of the real world in
computer systems. A definition is given by Gruber: “An ontology is a formal, explicit specification of a shared
conceptualisation.” (Note: [4]) The main goal of an
ontology is to represent information in a structured way. Thus, an ontology comprises hierarchically structured
concepts of a part of the ‘world’, called ‘domain’.
Additionally, there are relations between these concepts.
Usually, an ontology is built up by ‘classes’ or rather
‘concepts’, ‘properties’ (also ‘slots’ or ‘roles’), and
restrictions. By adding so called ‘instances’ individual objects of a class can be realised. The representation of a formal ontology is expressed in a machine-readable format. A formal ontology is represented in form of a logical formalism. This has the advantage that the given information can be used as the base for inferring new information.
Since the 90s, ontologies representing information have become a focussed research field. They are used in many disciplines especially in linguistics or in life sciences. (Note: [5]) Adapting the concept of an ontology in the field of humanities computing is rather new. To our knowledge applying a formal ontology to the representation of literary characters has not been realised so far.
Modelling of the structure of literary
characters
This approach combines several theories of literary
characters to develop the base of the ontology.(Note: [6]) This results in a definition of literary characters as mental information structures of the person who analyses them.(Note: [7]) The information structure consists of a bundle of properties and features.(Note: [8]) It is not always possible to observe all aspects but it is important to take most of them as background for the analyses of literary characters.
In our approach, classes, properties, instances, and
relations of the ontology together form a complex
formal description of the structure of a character. A literary
character is represented by several instances. This differs from other ontologies because there, an individual, e.g.
a special protein in the Gene Ontology, is represented
as one instance. But the outlined ontology represents a
feature or an information of a literary character as one
instance. Otherwise, it is not possible to include all facets
of a character.
Up to now, a first prototype of an ontology was realised.
A rough set of classes and properties was developed.
This set was modelled in the ontology editor ‘Protégé’
(Note: [9]). An extract of the ontology in this editor is
shown in figure 1. Protégé allows the representation of
a formal ontology in the W3C-Standard ‘Web Ontology
Language’ (OWL).(Note: [10])
For applying the ontology, a corpus of selected characters
is constantly integrated into the system. The corpus
consists of selected ‘devil’ characters in literature
covering the motive “Doctor Faustus”. The group of
devil characters are interesting because they show
properties of human beings as well as properties of
supernormal characters. The text corpus comprises an
intersection of several literary epochs like ‘Sturm and
Drang’ or the period of ‘Biedermeier’ and different kinds
of text (e.g. tragedy, early prose, prose). A large part
of the text corpus is already XML-annotated. The
annotation is based on TEI P5 (Note: [11]), but user
defined modifications of the tag set are included as well.
An aim is to cross-reference from the ontology to parts in
a text showing a special event of the character and vice
versa.
After an evaluation phase the ontology system will
be adapted to the needs of a potential user. Later, the
ontology will be open for the community, so that interested
users can describe literary characters and can do a search
for them. Therefore, the inclusion of new categories for
the ontology is allowed. Providing the ontology to the
community enables the development of extensions as
well as the inclusion of further characters. We expect that
such an ontology can be a good resource for the comparative
literature studies, especially since inferences across
several characters can be drawn automatically.
Our approach is focussed on a community which is
interested in literary characters and formal ontologies.
Accessing the ontology has to be realised in an intuitive
way so that a user does not need to have much knowledge
about the applied technologies.
Fig. 1: Part of the ontology of literary characters
in the Protégé editor.
Summary The presented approach proposes a way to model the
information about literary characters in a formal
way. Making use of this concept it is not intended that the
ontology contains a consensus of analysing and describing
characters. In this respect our ontology differs from
ontologies, from the “hard sciences”, where an ontology
is regarded as a “shared conceptualisation” of a field. By
applying the technique of a formal ontology a flexible
and extensible system can be realised. This offers new
and individual perspectives on literary characters.
Because the ontology is modelled with the rather new
web technology standard OWL, a prerequisite for an
open access is satisfied.
In the near future the functions for describing and
searching characters will be improved. It is also planned
to integrate more literary characters. Notes:
[1] For example, Propp or Greimas analyse literary
characters only as far as their functions for the plot are concerned (see Propp 1975, Greimas 1983).
[2] Wahl Armstrong 1979, Propp 1975.
[3] See also Puppe et al. 2000.
[4] Gruber 1993, p.199.
[5] An example of an application in natural science is the Gene Ontology (GO, http://www.geneontology.org). In linguistics many applications of semantic webs like WordNet (http://wordnet.princeton.edu), GermaNet which are very similar to an ontology are developed.
[6] Some categories of the approaches of Fotis Jannidis,
Werner Kummer, Jurij M. Lotman, and Göran
Nieragden are adopted (see Jannidis 2004,
Kummer 1975, Lotman 1972, Nieragden 1995).
[7] See Jannidis, 2004, p.185.
[8] This definition relates to Lotman’s approach
(Lotman 1972).
[9] See http://protege.stanford.edu
[10] See http://www.w3.org/2004/OWL/
[11] See http://www.tei-c.org/P5/
References
Greimas, A.J. (1983). Les Actants, les Acteurs et les
Figures. In: Algirdas Julien Greimas: Du sens II: Essais
sémiotiques. Paris: Editions du Seuil. pp.46-66.
Gruber, T. R. (1993). A translation approach to portable ontology specifications. Knowledge Acquisition, 5. pp.199-220.
Jannidis, F. (2004). Figur und Person - Beitrag zur
historischen Narratologie. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
Kummer, W. (1975). Grundlagen der Texttheorie -
Zur handlungstheoretischen Begründung einer
materialistischen Sprachwissenschaft. Hamburg:
Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag.
Lotman, J.M. (1972). Die Struktur literarischer Texte. Chapter: Der Begriff der Figur; Von der Spezifik
der künstlerischen Welt, Figur und Charakter.
München: Wilhelm Fink Verlag.
Nieragden, G. (1995). Figurendarstellung im Roman: Eine narratologische Systematik am Beispiel von
David Lodges Changing Places und Ian McEwans The Child in Time. Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier.
Propp, V. (1975). Morphologie des Märchens. Karl
Eimermacher (Eds.). Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.
Puppe, F. et al. (2000). Knowledge Engineering.
In: Günther Görz et al.(Eds.): Handbuch der
Künstlichen Intelligenz. München: Oldenbourg
Verlag 2000. pp.599 - 641.
Wahl Armstrong, M. (1979). Rolle und Charakter –
Studien zur Menschendarstellung im Nibelungenlied. Göppingen: Kümmerle Verlag.","txt","2","",""
"711","8","QRedit: An Integrated Editor System to Support Online Volunteer Translators","","1. Introduction
We are currently developing an English-to-Japanese
computer-aided translation (CAT) system with the aim
of aiding online volunteer translators, who are involved in
translating online electronic documents in their free time. In
the following, we will first describe the characteristics of target
users, and discuss the basic concept of the system within which
the choice of functions and system specifications has been
made. Then we will describe the prototype CAT system which
we are now experimentally providing to a limited number of
online translators.
2. Background and basic concepts
Many CAT systems have been developed to date [see
Kay 1997 for background information and Gow 2003
for a comparison of several CAT systems]. While some existing
CAT systems have proved useful for some translators and
translation companies, volunteer translators who work online
do not use these systems [Kageura, et. al. 2006; see also Fulford
and Granell Zafra 2004 in relation to the situation of freelance
translators in Britain], for a variety of reasons: they are too
expensive for personal use (except for Omega-T, which is free
[Omega-T 2007]); they have more functions than are necessary;
such translators are not under pressure from managers to keep
a translation log in order to control quality, etc. This shows that
some sort of CAT-lite system is required by online translators,
which shares some basic functionalities with existing
commercial CAT systems but with a different emphasis and
overall design principle [Boitet, et. al. 2005].
We have therefore been engaged in developing a CAT system
for online volunteer translators, based on the principle of
maximally aiding the translators' work flow by removing
existing obstacles, rather than providing extra functions which
translators have never used. Thus we are taking a bottom-up
approach in developing system functions, reflecting the concrete
requirements of translators. Another essential principle we have
adopted is that it should be translators who make decisions, not
the system.
After consulting some 15 volunteer translators working online,
we identified the following issues as being particularly
important:
1. Most English-to-Japanese volunteer translators do not have
native level command in the source language (English). As
a result, unlike such CAT systems as TransType
[Macklovitch 2006] which assume that the target users are
bilingual, well-trained and professional translators, and
therefore try to reduce the time used for inputting the target
language text, the main point to be tackled in our
environment is making the reference lookup process as easy
as possible.
2. When selecting translation expressions, translators examine
various possibilities. When necessary, they look up more
than one dictionary and check other information resources
such as print encyclopaedias or Wikipedia, etc. The CAT
system should facilitate the translation process by reducing
the effort involved in looking up multiple resources. As it
is not the mission of the system to decide on behalf of
translators, good output for the system is considered to be
a range of candidates and information that translators can
take into account in making decisions, and not simply the
same expression as translators chose.
3. Some online translators do not use online dictionaries,
because doing so breaks the rhythm of translation and
hinders the construction of the target text. Partly because
of this, some prefer using print or standalone electronic
dictionaries. A few use dictionaries built into the text editor,
but none of them are fully satisfied with the dictionary
look-up environment.
4. There is a pressing need for improved idiom and phrasal
look-up. The importance of this function derives from two
factors: (a) many translators, even experienced ones, have
relatively less knowledge of idioms than of words, and (b)
some idioms may not be identified as such by translators,
because they make sense without an idiomatic interpretation.
This leads to translation mistakes.
5. As our system does not aim to choose and restrict
information on behalf of translators by using ""sophisticated""
NLP techniques, the amount of information it provides will
naturally tend to increase. As a result, the user-interface
becomes an important issue. 3. The prototype system QRedit
Based on these concepts and requirements, we are currently
developing a prototype system that supports online
translators. The system runs on the TOMCAT server and users
access the system through a Web browser. The overall image
of QRedit is shown in the figure. The browser screen is divided
into two areas: (i) the source text area, and (ii) the target text
area. The users can choose between horizontal and
perpendicular division of the areas, i.e. source text area on the
bottom and target language area on the top, or source text area
on the left and target language area on the right. The two areas
are linked with a synchronised scroll function.
3.1 Functions in the source text area
After a translator inputs the URL of a Web page (in which case
the system analyses the tags and extracts the textual area
automatically) or copies and pastes text into the source text
area, the system activates the dictionary look-up functions.
When the user clicks on a particular word in the source text
area with the mouse, the system shows the translation candidates
in a pop-up window.
Dictionary look-up functions
The system displays translation candidates from the dictionaries
incorporated into the system [Sanseido 2004; Eijiro 2006]. The
system does not only incorporates simple word look-up
functions but also incorporates flexible idiom look-up functions.
The idiom look-up functions can match such idiom occurrences
as ""He said that with his big fat tongue in his big fat cheek""
with the dictionary entry ""with one's tongue in one's cheek.""
This function has not been realised in any English-Japanese
MT systems we have checked, and while some CAT systems
realise similar functions through approximate matching, they
do not specifically target the look-up of idioms with their
variations. The system alerts users to idioms by marking them
with an underline.
Displaying translation candidates
The system can display information in two ways. One is a small
pop-up window displayed within the source text area, which
includes only target word candidates. The other is a large pop-up
window that displays all the information given under the
headings in the dictionaries. The latter is particularly useful
when translators wish to examine related information in detail
before deciding on a translation, while the former is convenient
for more straightforward dictionary look-up.
3.2 The connection between the source text area
and the target text area
Translators can paste a selected expression from the list of
candidates in the pop-up area to the target text area by clicking
the mouse. The system also provides automatic transformation
of numerical expressions to Japanese conventions and the
pasting of HTML tags. This mouse operation does not affect
the keyboard operation, and whatever the user does with the
mouse, the keyboard cursor always stays on the target text
editing area, so that the user can input translated text
continuously.
3.3 Target text area
The target text area consists of the open source Web editor
FCKeditor, which offers WYSIWYG textual decoration and
editing, as well as saving and loading functions. The text can
be saved in HTML as well as in basic textual format. The target
area is split into paragraph spaces which correspond to the
source text.
4. Conclusions
We are currently running a prototype system of QRedit
that incorporates these functions, and accumulating
feedback from a few online volunteer translators. The feedback
that we have obtained so far can be categorised into two types:
1. The need to refine existing functions and improve basic
usability, e.g., to improve the accuracy of the extraction of
the textual area when the user specifies an URL for the
source text area.
2. The need to incorporate higher-level functions, e.g. to allow
the user to specify the register of the text that (s)he is
translating, in order to have the system block irrelevant
dictionary information from being displayed.
3. In addition, we are developing a module that automatically
compiles bilingual technical terminologies from the Web,
a module that detects existing translation pairs and recycles
the translation information, and a system that detects
candidates for transliterated expressions of proper names
from the Web, all of which will be integrated into the
QRedit environment.
Bibliography
Boitet, Christian, Youcef Bey, and Kyo Kageura. ""Main
Research Issues in Building Web Services for Mutualized, Non-commercial Translation ."" Proceedings of the SNLP: 6th
Symposium on Natural Language Processing . 2005.
Eijiro. Accessed 2006-10-31. <http://www.eijiro.j
p>
FCKeditor. Accessed 2006-10-31. <http://www.fcked
itor.net>
Fulford, Heather, and Joaquin Granell Zafra. ""The Uptake of
Online Tools and Web-based Language Resources by Freelance
Translators: Implications for Translator Training, Professional
Development, and Research ."" Proceedings of the Second
International Workshop on Language Resources for Translation
Work, Research and Training . 2004. 37-44.
Kageura, K. et. al. ""Improving the Usability of Language
Reference Tools for Translators ."" Proceedings of the 10th of
Annual Meeting of the Japan Association for Natural Language
Processing . 2006. 707-710.
Kay, Martin. ""The Proper Place of Men and Machines in
Language Translation."" Machine Translation 12.1-2 (1997):
3-23.
Macklovitch, Elliott. TransType2: The Last Word. LREC, 2006.
167-172.
Omega-T. 2007. <http://www.omegat.org/omegat/
omegat_en/omegat.html>
Sanseido. Grand Concise English Japanese Dictionary. Tokyo:
Sanseido, 2006.","txt","2","",""
"712","8","Citation Networks: A New Humanities Tool?","","This paper proposes to use citation networks as a tool for
mapping out links among disciplines and research areas
in & around humanities. By collecting papers from main
journals in diverse areas like cognitive science, art history and
psychoanalysis, this study aims to build a small citation network
that will be visualized and published as a 3d web page. The
end-map will be the backbone of a dissertation, which tries to
analyze the influence of various movements and disciplines
onto the art historical canon. Used as such, a citation network
can become more than a frozen map that has more than a
one-time use value.
Access to online electronic databases and tools such as
Google scholar have led to a significant improvement in
the discovery of secondary literature. However, organizing the
vast amount of bibliographic information from various
discipline-specific databases continues to be an impediment to
truly interdisciplinary work. My project attempts to construct
virtual maps of electronic databases or digital libraries capable
of providing scholars with significant links between disciplinary
relations, interdisciplinary research areas, or tendencies,
approaches and methodologies inside a single discipline.
Moreover, as I will show, if the third dimension, namely history,
is added to these maps, the transformation of the disciplines,
the merging of research areas, and the changes in the taxonomic
structure of the academy will be revealed to the expert eye. As
an example of how such a virtual time-map could become a
valuable analytic tool during the research process, I will
construct such a tool and, using my dissertation as a test case,
demonstrate how it can be applied to map intersections between
art historiography, psychoanalysis and cognitive science.
As a PhD candidate in UCLA's Art History program, my
dissertation traces the changes of the critical discourse from the 1970s, when the so-called ""New Art History"" clashed with
traditional art historians, and gave rise to a whole new
approach—one that has now become known as Visual Cultural
Studies. However, in such a broad context, one needs to handle
a deluge of texts and interrelations. A simple timeline, a linear
outline constituted of chapters and subchapters is not enough
to depict the map of overlapping layers, concepts and relations
between opposite but—in this case still—allied methodologies.
In order to render all these visible, I would like to create a
multidimensional space of such relations. To that end I propose
to collect significant papers, extract citation information using
various text-analysis programs and visualize the end results as
a citation network that runs along three different trajectories,
namely the history of psychoanalytical and cognitive scientific
methodologies and their impact on the evolution of New Art
History into Visual Cultural Studies.
History:
Arelatively new research venue, called ‘scientometrics’ or
‘bibliometrics’, specializes in creating such maps for
delineating growth, relations and interactions in scientific
fields.1 Bibliometrics uses text analysis to extract citation data
from papers and makes use of this data as a way of evaluating
scientific publications. To obtain information from scientific
papers and using he results in mapping out scientific relations
has a long history. As early as 1964 Garfield and his colleagues
suggested using citation data to evaluate the development of
science.2 From 80’s on, the research in this area accelerated
with the advancement of computers and various combinations
of statistical methods used to extract and evaluate information
such as citations, co- citations with reference of various
bibliometric data. The end-results are usually rendered as
so-called ‘citation networks’ which are a variation of social
networks.3 Now it is a common practice to evaluate a scholar
or a journal according to how many times it/he/she is cited.
Moreover, there is so much research done using citation
networks as a methodology to analyze the disciplines, many
scholars are now questioning the efficacy of this approach.4
Among the ample publications in this area, two general
approaches distinguish themselves: the citation networks are
either built to support an idea or to enhance the way in which
such networks are composed. In the first instance, a search is
done to filter out unnecessary papers. The maps generated in
this way are limited with a scope, and generally give an
overview of the research topic. These maps are not created from
a relational database and are not published for further use. That
means they are not applicable to other research questions and
the enormous work put into collecting papers and preparing
them for network analysis is done on a case-by-case basis
because access to the databases is restricted and therefore the
datasets themselves cannot be made available. In the second
instance papers are extracted from the electronic database
without any filtering. Instead a time limit is imposed. These
types of publications tend to focus more on the technical details
and explore the mathematical substructure of social networks.
Usually open-source databases are preferred, since the main
idea is to test the application’s performance on huge datasets.
Papers about such studies do not interpret the resulting map
and instead detail the mathematical innovation of the
applications.
Despite the popularity of this approach in the sciences, I have
yet to find a paper that uses Humanities databases. Even the
most comprehensive citation network, a data set that
encompasses ""7,121 journals covering over 1 million documents
in the combined Science Citation and Social Science Citation
Indexes” does not delve into the Arts and Humanities Citation
Index.5 Rather than simply applying the same techniques to
Humanities materials, a fresh approach, one that is not only
suits to humanities scholarship, but addresses some of the issues
raised in the scientific communities seems desirable.6 Although
my long-term goal is to create a dynamic citation network that
can become a part of an ongoing research project in digital
humanities, in this paper I will focus on creating a static citation
network using open-source tools. My research plan to achieve
this aim is as follows:
1. Collecting papers: I have already collected around 2000
papers, mostly from prominent journals in Art History (such
as Art Bulletin, October, Art Journal and Leonardo), and
in Cognitive Science (Trends in Cognitive Sciences). Beside
these resources I would like to include the classical texts in
psychoanalysis; which can be found in electronic format in
the Psychoanalytic Electronic Publishing database. The
main criterion used for selecting pertinent papers is to use
keywords that are relevant for the research topic. For
example I used keywords such as ""Freud"", ""psychoanalysis"",
""aesthetic"", ""artist"" while searching in a cognitive science
journal whereas I chose keywords like ‘cognition"",
""cognitive science"", ""vision"", ""artist"" etc. for the search in
the domain of psychoanalysis.
2. Preprocessing the database for text analysis & extraction
the needed information: The acquired corpus is preprocessed
for text mining and analysis. Preparing a list of keywords
and bibliometric data (author name, date, journal name,
title, etc.) will be enough for the preprocessing stage. We
will experiment with different text- mining and text analysis
programs and report on those that work well at this stage
of data preparation.
3. Construction of social networks: A social network is a graph
representation of social relations. Graphs are the most
popular and widely researched data structure for
representing and processing relational data. In a graph, each
node represents one entity (a person in a social network; a
researcher or a work in a citation network) and the edges (or arcs, if they are directed) of the graph represent some
relation. One can also indicate the strength of the relation
by associating weights with the edges of the graph. Then,
by using tools like Pajek7, the graph nodes can be placed
in a 3D space in such a way to minimize an energy term.
Thus, the nodes that are close to each other semantically
(through the interpretation of graph edges) are placed in
proximity, even when they don't have actual links. On a
social network, clusters and cliques can be identified,
indirect relations can be uncovered, and relevance judgments
can be made based on quantitative or qualitative measures.
Even the location of the nodes (center vs. periphery) can
be informative for a person thoroughly acquainted with the
represented structure.
The use of such a graph tool is simple; nodes and arcs are read
from a file, and the graph visualization is accomplished with a
few commands. For a citation or semantic network, text mining
tools can be employed to derive the entities in relation
automatically. Once such a network is built, Pajek can import
the graph in 3D file formats like 3xd and VRML; both are now
becoming standards for internet publication in 3D.8
Conclusion
The proposed tool serves not only as a bibliographic aid,
but will become the main framework for my dissertation.
By incorporating the 3D virtual map into my dissertation, I
hope to demonstrate a new form of digital scholarship--one that
springs from the new possibilities that digital technologies
affords scholars in the humanities whose work is inherently,
and exuberantly, interdisciplinary.
1. To read more on the history of scientometrics see Katy Börner,
Jeegar T. Marus, and Robert L. Goldstone. ""The Simultaneous
Evolution Of Author And Paper Networks,"" PNAS 101 (suppl.1)
(2004): 5266-5273.
2. All these search engines providing citation index information are
products of Thomson ISI. The original foundation was called
simply Institute for Scientific Information. Garfield launched it,
again in 1964, see ibid.
3. Doreian Patrick, ""A Measure Of Standing Of Journals In Stratified
Networks,"" Journal of the American Society for lnformation
Science 8.5-6 (1985): 341-363.
4. See R. E. Rice et al., ""Journal-To-Journal Citation Data,""
Scientometrics Vol. 15.3-4 (1989): 257-282; Lindsey D, ""Using
Citation Counts As A Measure Of Quality In Science Measuring
What's Measurable Rather Than What's Valid,"" Scientometrics
15.3-4 (1989): 189-203; Nederhof, A. J., and Zwaan, R. A.
""Quality Judgments of Journals as Indicators of Research
Performance in the Humanities and the Social and Behavioral
Sciences,"" Journal of the American Society for Information
Science 42.5 (1991): 332– 40; Nederhof Anton J., ""Bibliometric
Monitoring Of Research Performance In The Social Sciences And
The Humanities: A Review,"" Scientometrics 66.1 (2006): 81-100;
Leydesdorff Loet, ""Can Scientific Journals Be Classified in Terms
of Aggregated Journal-Journal Citation Relations Using the Journal
Citation Reports?,"" Journal Of The American Society For
Information Science And Technology (March 2006): 601-614.
5. Boyack, Kevin W., Klavans Richard, Börner Katy,"" Mapping The
Backbone Of Science,"" Scientometrics 64.3 (2005): 351.374
6. Even though the end results of the “citation networks” give a
scholar a good overview, they are still not integrated into the
academic research facilities like Web of Science, Science Citation
Index, Social Citation Index or Arts & Humanities Citation Index
etc. The main reason is that once a citation network is derived, it
becomes a static entity; it covers a limited time and scope. Thus
citation networks, by their very definitions and aims, fail to keep
up with new publications.
7. You can find more information about Pajek, its history and
application areas at <http://vlado.fmf.unilj.
si/pub/networks/pajek/default.htm>, last
accessed 2006-11-15.
8. Please check <http://www.w3.org/> to see the latest
standards of World Wide Web in relation to 3d publishing, last
accessed 2006-11-15.","txt","2","",""
"713","8","Gender, Race, and Nationality in Black Drama, 1850-2000: Mining Differences in Language Use in Authors and their Characters","","The Black Stage has been an important focus of evolving Black
identity and self-representation, touching on many of the most
contentious issues in American history since
Emancipation—such as migration, exploitation, interracial
unity, racial violence, and civil rights activism (Hill 2003).
Alexander Street Press (ASP), in collaboration with the ARTFL
Project, has developed an extensively tagged database of over
1,200 plays containing 13.3 million words by Black playwrights,
from the middle of the 19th century to the present, including
many previously unpublished works. Like other ASP datasets,
the Black Drama database is remarkable for its detailed
encoding and amount of metadata associated with authors, titles,
acts/scenes, performances, and characters. Of particular interest
for this study are the data available for authors and characters
which are stored as ""stand-off mark-up"" data tables. The
character table, for example, contains some 13,360 records with
some 30 fields including name(s), race, age, gender, nationality,
ethnicity, occupation, sexual orientation, performers, if a real
person, and type. More extensive information is available for
authors and titles. The character data are joined to each character
speech, giving 562,000 objects that can be queried by the full
range of character attributes. The ARTFL search system,
PhiloLogic, allows for joining of object attribute searches,
forming a matrix of author/title/character searching. For
example, one can search for words in speeches by female, black,
American characters depicted by male, non-American authors
in comedies first published during the first half of the 20th
century.
While user-initiated full-text searches on such author and
character attributes can help answer specific questions, we
believe that advanced text data mining systems have the
potential to reveal important new patterns of variation in general
language use, broken down by various combinations of author
and character attributes. Initial work on racial epithets in this
collection has revealed striking differences in the use of such
language between male and female authors and characters, as
well as American and non-American authors. While illustrative,
such micro-studies can do no more than hint at larger discursive
and representation issues that we believe can be identified by
text mining techniques. Prior studies using text mining for
analyzing variation in language use among different classes of
authors have succeeded in identifying meaningful linguistic
features distinguishing author gender, age, and personality type
(e.g. Argamon et al. 2003, Koppel et al. 2002).
As might be expected of a collection of a particular class of
literary texts, the Black Drama database cannot be considered
a ""random"" sample. The database contains 963 works by 128
male playwrights and 243 pieces by 53 female playwrights.
Plays by Americans dominate the collection (831 titles), with
the remaining 375 titles representing the works of African and
Caribbean authors. The database contains 317,000 speeches by
8,392 male characters and 192,000 speeches by 4,162 female
characters. There are 336,000 speeches by 7,067 black
characters and 55,000 by 1,834 white characters with a
smattering of speeches by other racial groups. As would be
expected, the predominance of American authors is reflected
in the nationalities of speakers in the plays, with 272,000
speeches, compared with 71,000 by speakers represented as
coming from a variety of African nations.
Using these data, we are examining the degree to which machine
learning can isolate stylistic or content characteristics of authors
and/or characters having particular attributes—gender, race,
and nationality—and the degree to which pairs of
author/character attributes interact. The first step to discover if
lexical style- or content-markers can be found which can be
used to reliably distinguish plays or speeches broken down by
a particular characteristic, such as gender of character. A
positive result would constitute strong evidence for distinctive,
in this case, male and female, character voices in the sample
of plays. If distinctiveness can be shown, we then seek some
'characterization' of the differences found, in terms of
well-defined grammatical or semantic classes. The experimental
protocol which we have been developing for this purpose, as
applied by, e.g., Argamon et al. (2003), addresses both goals
using techniques from machine learning, supplemented by more
traditional computer-assisted text analysis. First, to analyze a corpus of texts for distinctiveness, we need
to determine if effective predictive models can be learned from
the texts, which accurately classify new texts (that the system
has not seen). The standard technique of 10-fold cross-validation
can be used to estimate the usefulness of a learning method for
constructing models that work for 'out-of-sample' data. The
corpus is divided into 10 random subsets, and training is
repeated for each of the 10 sets of 9 of those subsets, with
accuracy of the resulting model is measures on the remaining
subset. The average of these 10 numbers then forms a
reasonably good estimate of how a model learned on the entire
corpus would perform for new data. If this cross-validation
accuracy is high (at least 70% for 50-50 balanced data), we
may conclude that the two classes of texts in the corpus are
linguistically 'distinctive'.
Second, to characterize the difference found (if any), all textual
features extracted (frequencies of lexemes, lemmas,
parts-of-speech, etc.) are ranked by some measure of how each
of them enables prediction of a text's correct class. One such
measure is to use feature weights computed during learning
(for SVM or Naive Bayes learners, which compute such
weights). Features with high weights (positive or negative) are
the most influential in classifying a text as one class or the other
(dependent on the sign of the weight). While a direct measure
of influence, these weights can be difficult to interpret since
the effect of a feature must be considered in the context of all
the other features influencing classification. Another approach
is to use a function that measures the 'distinguishability' of a
feature without regard to other features, such as information
gain or binormal separation (Forman et al. 2003). The downside
here is that some features may be of little use alone, but in
conjunction with others may have great discriminating power.
In the current study we will be examining the usefulness of
multiple measures of both types, and see which approach proves
to be the more useful.
We conducted preliminary tests using the SVM-Light system
(Joachims 1999) with PGPDT (Zanghirati 2004, Zanni 2006)
to build the models. We extracted all speeches with character
gender attributes from the corpus, splitting them into tokenized
word frequency vectors for all authors, all characters, male
authors, female authors, male characters, and female characters.
For each of these, PGPDT built a model to identify authors and
characters by gender.
Table One
As indicated in Table One, the system the system correctly
identified 88.2% of the authors' gender and 77.4% of the
speakers' gender. Performance varied when examining subsets
of the corpus, from 86.6% for gender of author in male
characters to 69.7% for gender of speaker in female authors.
All of these indicators show significant differences in words
used by male and female authors and speakers. The differences
in accuracy in male and female author/character may, however,
result from the fact that male authors tend to include fewer
female characters and that the have fewer words as well as
having fewer female authors in the sample. This is shown in
the Majority row of Table One, which indicates the rate of male
instances for each assessment. For female authors, male
characters constitute 54.5% of the speakers.
We then equalized a test sample for class by discarding
instances until we have a balanced set with an attempt to correct
for word frequencies as well. As shown in Table Two, author
and character gender can be discriminated well. Furthermore,
we see that identification of author gender is consistently more
accurate than gender of speaker.
Table Two
As shown in Table 3, male authors/speakers are correctly
somewhat more often in five of the six cases, with the sole
exception of almost exactly the same correct identification of
speaker gender in female authors.
Table Three
These results suggest that female lexical choices, both used by
authors and depicted in characters, are somewhat less marked
(or more varied) than male use of language. The full paper will
explore this phenomenon in greater detail. While the accuracy
of identification of gender in significant in all the cases we
example, we expect that using some sort of feature set selection,
as in, for example, Hota, Argamon, and Chung (2006), will
improve the precision of the identification.
From this preliminary analysis, it would appear that the
authorial gender is rather more readily identified than the
represented gender in characters. Initial examination of the
features that best predict gender of character, as identified by
information gain, range from the expected (male characters
speak of wives and swear more frequently), to the somewhat opaque, such as the words 'nonsense' and 'reason' being strongly
male associated. It is also important to note that both strongly
male and female character terms in this sample are used at about
the same rates (per 10000 words) by male and female authors.
This suggests that male and female authors are able to use
certain linguistic gender markers effectively. As noted, it is
significant that the machine learning algorithms employed are
less accurate in most cases in identifying female as opposed to
male authors and speakers.
The final paper will report results using similar techniques to
examine the the degree to which additional character attributes
-- race and nationality -- can be distinguished and, if this proves
to be effective, examine the most important features
distinguishing between the language of white and black speakers
and American/non-American speakers. An initial examination
of racial slurs in this dataset suggests that speaker race and
nationality may also be readily identified.
As we have seen, machine learning and text mining techniques
can support higher orders of generalization and characterization
than the more traditional user-driven search methods widely
used in computer-aided textual research. This approach is most
effective when used in relatively constrained experiments where
classification criteria are clearly defined, such as the social
attributes of authors and their characters. Some results may be
trivial on a literary level— of course men talk more of wives
and only women tend to call other women hussies —but such
common sense results allow us to argue that the technique gives
meaningful results, and so odd results should be examined
further, using more traditional systems like PhiloLogic. We
therefore argue that approaching the interpretative process
starting with highly structured and constrained experimental
hypotheses, we can take advantage of machine learning methods
to find new and unexpected foci for examining literary
questions, which may in turn shed new light on critical issues
such as race and gender.
Bibliography
Argamon, Shlomo, Moshe Koppel, Jonathan Fine, and Anat
Rachel Shimoni. ""Gender, Genre, and Writing Style in Formal
Written Texts."" Text 23.3 (2003).
Forman, George, Isabelle Guyonl, and André Elisseff. ""An
Extensive Empirical Study of Feature Selection Metrics for
Text Classification."" Journal of Machine Learning Research
3.7-8 (2003): 1289-1305.
Hill, Errol G., and James V. Hatch. A History of African
American Theatre. New York: Cambridge University Press,
2003.
Hota, Sobhan, Shlomo Argamon, Moshe Koppel, and Iris
Zigdon. ""Performing Gender: Automatic Stylistic Analysis of
Shakespeare's Characters."" Paper presented at Digital
Humanities 2006, Paris Sorbonne, 5-9 July 2006 . 2006.
Hota, Sobhan, Shlomo Argamon, and Rebecca Chung. ""Gender
in Shakespeare: Automatic Stylistics & Gender Character
Classification Using Syntactic, Lexical and Lemma Features.""
Paper presented at the Chicago Colloquium on Digital
Humanities and Computer Science, Nov. 2006, Chicago,
Illinois. 2006.
Joachims, Thorsten. ""Making large-Scale SVM Learning
Practical."" Advances in Kernel Methods - Support Vector
Learning. Ed. Bernhard Schölkopf , Christopher J. C. Burges
and Alexander J. Smola. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999.
Koppel, Moshe, Shlomo Argamon, and Anat Rachel Shimoni.
""Automatically Categorizing Written Texts by Author Gender.""
Literarcy & Linguistic Computing 17.4 (2002): 401-12.
Olsen, Mark. ""Gender Representation and Histoire des
Mentalités: Language and Power in the Trésor de la Langue
Française,."" Histoire et Measure VI (1991): 349-73.
Olsen, Mark. ""Écriture Féminine: Searching for an Indefinable
Practice?"" Literary & Linguistic Computing 20 Supplement 1
(2005): 147-164.
Olsen, Mark. ""Making Space: Women's Writing in France,
1600-1950."" Paper presented at ALLC/ACH 2004 Conference,
Göteborg, Sweden. 2006.
Zanghirati, Gaetano, and Luca Zanni. ""A Parallel Solver for
Large Quadratic Programs in Training Support Vector
Machines."" Parallel Computer 29 (2003): 535-551.
Zanni, Luca, Thomas Serafini, and Gaetano Zanghirati. ""Parallel
Software for Training Large Scale Support Vector Machines
on Multiprocessor Systems."" JMLR 7 (2006): 1467-1492.
Software Sites
• PhiloLogic:
<http://philologic.uchicago.edu/>
• Parallel GPDT:
<http://www.dm.unife.it/gpdt/>
• SVM-Light:
<http://svmlight.joachims.org/>","txt","2","",""
"714","8","Discourse, Power and Écriture Féminine: Text Mining Gender Difference in 18th and 19th Century French Literature","","It is well documented that men and women use informal
language, such as conversation and correspondence, in
rather different ways, reflecting a wide variety of cultural forces
and practices (Tannen 1990, Eckert & McConnell-Ginet 2003).
Recent work has suggested that gender differences may also
be found in more formal, written communications. Koppel,
Argamon, et al (2002) have shown that gender of author can
be accurately predicted between 70 and 80 percent of cases of
published samples from the British National Corpus, using
machine learning and text mining techniques. Using simple
statistical and collocation techniques, Olsen (2005) has argued
that there are distinct gender differences in literary French from
the 17th to the early 20th centuries. He (Olsen: 2004) further
proposed that the differences between male and female writing
during this time does not appear to support a ""two cultures""
model (Liberman 2004), but that it was a more conscious
political activity of domain specific writing in which men and
women deployed the same language.
We are addressing several issues that arise from our previous
work on gender and public writing in this study. The first is to
apply machine learning and data mining techniques to the same
sample used by Olsen to examine the degree to which
conclusions found in Koppel, Argamon, et al. can be replicated
for larger sample of French literary texts. The methodologies
used by Koppel, Argamon, et al. and Olsen may have privileged
identification of particular features, with Koppel focusing on
more stylistic aspects of writing and Olsen examining
significant frequency differences of content words. Use of a
common approach will allow us to examine the degree to which
gender differences can be compared between cultures and time
periods. We also expect use of machine learning techniques
will allow us to test Olsen's claim that gender differences in
French literature are best explained as examples of what
Liberman describes as ""dominance"" theories of gender
distinction. If the features that best characterize gender
difference are more ""stylistic"", this would suggest that
""difference"" or two culture models are more applicable, but if
differences are shown in content words and these words are
used in similar ways, we would argue that the ""dominance"" or
political theory may be a more effective explanatory model.
And finally, we are comparing several distinct statistical
techniques, most notably Support Vector Machine (SVM) and
information gain models, to see which are most effective at
extracting weighted features that can be used to interpret
observed differences in male and female writing, comparing
these with more traditional examinations of differences in term
frequency. Becuase of the need to pick apart the learned model
to examine its inner workings, with the model itself as the end
product of the learning process, some Digital Humanities
applications of machine learning techniques will differ in
emphasis from more common data mining tasks, where the end
goal is often to maximize performance on the classification of
unknown data, and the model may be viewed as a black box.
This study is based on the creation of two samples of 300 texts
roughly balanced by genre, collection and time period driven
by texts by French women writers available to us. For each of
the 300 texts by 67 female authors (18.5 million words), we
selected the chronologically closest male document by genre
and, where available, by collection, leading to a comparison
collection of 300 texts by 170 authors (27 million words). As
noted in Olsen (2005), the samples are largely drawn from the
18th-early 20th centuries with strongest representation in the
19th century, owing to the predominance of romantic novelists
in the available collections of female writers. The sample is
also skewed by the presence of many works by particular
notable authors, in particular George Sand. The ARTFL project
is currently adding a large block of texts to our collection of
French Women Writers (FWW) and these will be integrated
into the full study, depending on how much is available in time.
Each text in the corpus has been prepared by first tokenizing
it and running it through TreeTagger to determine lemmas and
parts-of-speech for each token. In cases of uncertainty, each
possible assignment is assigned a probability value between 0
and 1 by TreeTagger; currently, we only consider the most
likely analysis for each token (though we will apply more
sophisticated techniques in the sequel). We consider in the study several types of lexical features by which to represent
the texts numerically: Word Frequencies (WF), Lemma
Frequencies (LF), Part-of-speech Frequencies (PF), Word
Bigram Frequencies (WBF), Lemma Bigram Frequencies
(LBF), and POS Bigram Frequencies (PBF). For each such
feature set, we compute a vector of numeric values for each
text, where elements of the vector represent the relative
frequencies of various features in the set. For example, a WF
vector may contain entries for ""la"", ""l'"", ""femme"", and
""femmes"", while the corresponding LF vector will contain
entries just for ""la"" and ""femme"", and the corresponding LBF
vector may contain an entry for ""la/femme"". Features that occur
less than 10 times in the entire corpus are elided; in some
experiments, more stringent criteria for feature inclusion will
be used, to see how few features we can get away with.
For classification, we are applying the SVM method; SVMs
are one of the most successful modern methods for text
categorization (Joachims 2002). We are currently working with
the Weka (Witten & Frank 2005) implementation, using a linear
kernel and the default parameters. (Other options do not appear
to improve accuracy by much, so we used the simplest option,
which also enables easier interpretation of the results.) As the
work progresses, we will be evaluating computational
efficiency, and may switch to other, faster, software codes if
necessary. The classification model constructed is a ""linear
model"", which means that it assigns a single numeric weight
to each input feature, positive for one input class (say, ""femme"")
and negative for the other (say, ""homme""). The magnitude of
the weight corresponds to the importance or influence of the
feature's value for classification; high weights indicate those
features with the most effect on the classification of a given
text (in a specific model). Once classified by the SVM method,
we apply the information gain and other metrics (Forman et al.
2003) to identify those features that are most relevant to the missing the strong preference noted in Olsen for abstractions
and numbers. However, when examining the PoS measures,
ordinal numbers are preferred by male writers. These variations
arise from using the IG measure as opposed to differences in
relative frequencies to assess ""importance"" and examination of
a small but more random sample, issues which will be explored
in the full paper.
Text mining techniques can identify gender of author using a
variety of models with impressive accuracy. The features ranked
most highly in learned classification tend to confirm previous
results and point to the possibility of cross-language patterns
of gendered language use. The full paper will explore the
reasons for the higher accuracy performance in identifying male
authors and examine in more detail the male and female author
feature sets with specific reference to the differences in ranked
features arising from different techniques. Finally, we will
address the larger question of whether the clear distinctions of
male and female public writing in this sample arise from a ""two
cultures"" interpretation or more conscious political stances by
a systematic analysis of word collocations around particularly
gender specific terms.
Software Sites
• PhiloLogic:<http://philologic.uchicago.e
du/>
• TreeTagger:<http://www.ims.uni-stuttgart
.de/projekte/corplex/TreeTagger/>
• Weka 3: <http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/ml/
weka/>
Bibliography
Argamon, Shlomo, Moshe Koppel, Jonathan Fine, and Anat
Rachel Shimoni. ""Gender, Genre and Writing Style in Formal
Written Texts."" Text 23.3 (2003): 321–346.
Eckert, Penelope, and Sally McConnell-Ginet. Language and
Gender. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Forman, George, Isabelle Guyon, and André Elisseff. ""An
Extensive Empirical Study of Feature Selection Metrics for
Text Classification."" Journal of Machine Learning Research
3.7-8 (2003): 1289-1305.
Koppel, Moshe, Shlomo Argamon, and Anat Rachel Shimoni.
""Automatically Categorizing Written Texts by Author Gender.""
Literary &Linguistic Computing 17.4 (2002): 401-12.
Liberman, Mark. ""Sexing Rivka."" Language Log. May 8, 2004.
<http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagel
og/>
Liberman, Mark. ""Gender and Tags."" Language Log. May 9,
2004. <http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/langu
agelog/>
Mitchell, Tom. Machine Learning. McGraw Hill, 1997.
Olsen, Mark. ""Making Space: Women's Writing in France,
1600-1950."" Paper presented at ALLC/ACH 2004 Conference,
Göteborg, Sweden.
Olsen, Mark. ""Gender Representation and histoire des
mentalités:Language and Power in the Trésor de la langue
française."" Histoire et measure VI (. 1991. 349-73.
Olsen, Mark. ""Écriture Féminine: Searching for an Indefinable
Practice?"" Literary & Linguistic Computing 20 (2005): 147-164.
Tannen, Deborah. You Just Don't Understand. William Morrow,
1990.
Witten, Ian H., and Eibe Frank. Data Mining: Practical
Machine Learning Tools and Technique. 2nd. Morgan
Kaufmann, 2005.
classification task. Tokens and lemmas found in this step will
be compared to differential frequency tables already used by
Olsen.
Preliminary classification results using Weka Sequential
Minimal Optimization (SMO) implementation of a support
vector classifier with 10 fold cross-validation confirm that
author gender in this sample can be detected with surprising
reliability. For the entire sample, gender of author was correctly
identified 85.9% of the time using word lemmas and 85.7% on
tokens, with lower performance for both generic POS (73%)
and more specific POS (75%). A second test on paired 100
document male/female collections, to reduce the number of
works by Sand and smooth other main sample anomalies,
achieved slightly better performance, with correct classification
by author gender at 87% for both surface word forms (tokens)
and lemmas, with POS again performing less well at 76.5%
and POSgroups (abstract POS) at 72%. The accuracy
performance of classifications based on tokens and lemmas
(86% and 87%) is somewhat higher than the 70-80%
performance for a sample modern English documents reported
by Koppel et al. (2002) This may be due to our use of all of the
words in this experiment, suggesting that men and women tend
to write about different things and use somewhat different
vocabularies.
Table 1 shows the confusion matrix from the Weka SMO
classification expressed as the correct classification rate broken
down by feature type. In both samples, the highest performing
features (tokens and lemmas) are considerably better at
identification of male authors than female authors. We have
noted this difference in other recent work on modern English
data. Surprisingly, the opposite is true (in 3 of 4 instances) for
part of speech features, though it is unlikely that the differences
are statistically significant.
Table 1
Using a variety of techniques, we can effectively distinguish
between male and female authors. Examination of the highest
weighted features using the information gain (IG) measure on
the 2x92 subset sample reveals clear agreement with previous
work. Female authors show a strong preference for writing
about women (noted by the pronoun elle), adopt a more personal
and reflective frame (je, me), and address (vous). This is
consistently shown in both selected tokens and lemmas, and is
also indicated in the part of speech analysis by a preference for
the use of personal pronouns, indefinite pronouns and possessive
pronouns. Examination of tokens assigned a high information
gain in the subset selected to correct for sample biases reveals
the same female concern for descriptions of internal, subjective
and emotive states described by Olsen (2005). These terms
include émotions, amitié, chagrin, courage, craint* esprit*
desire. generosité, larmes, motifs, peines, penser, plaisirs,
réflexions, sensible, sentiment, sentis, soin*, and souffrance.
The IG measures are notable for some striking absences from
Olsen's examination, including terms like amour* and aim*
which were strongly correlated to female discourse, as well as
many kinship terms (oncle, maman, enfant, parents, etc.). Terms
with high information gain values that are more common in
male than female writers are less clearly grouped and are","txt","2","",""
"715","8","Viewing Texts: An Art-Centered Representation of Picasso's Writings","1","The Picasso Project is a web-based, dynamic catalogue
raisonné currently containing digital images and
descriptive metadata for more than 11,000 of Picasso’s works
(Mallen, 2006). The catalogue includes commentary for many
artworks, along with notes detailing sales of the item,
exhibitions in which it has been displayed, and scholarly
literature in which it has been cited. In addition to these works,
the catalogue also provides extensive biographical information
including nearly 7,500 entries. The biography is linked to
artworks, photographs of key people, maps of the various places
Picasso lived and worked, and related documents (for example,
Picasso’s birth certificate). Tools are provided to support
side-by-side comparisons of two artworks and to build custom
subcollections from which an illustrated, color catalogue can
be automatically generated for printing. Within this context,
we have become increasingly interested in exploring Picasso’s
writings which have, until recently, been largely neglected in
favor of his more well known work in painting, sculpture, and
collage.
Picasso, first and foremost an artist, wrote texts that are
strikingly visual, both in terms of the design of the texts
themselves, as well as the decorative elements that adorn the
pages on which these texts are found. These intensely visual
writings present his editor with significant
challenges—challenges that exemplify the TEI consortium's
guidelines for when TEI should not be used (Lavagnino, 2006).
As Lavagnino points out, ""to make the [TEI] edition work as
intended it is generally necessary to interpret features and not
merely reproduce their appearance."" Picasso's writings do not
readily yield to a single fixed interpretation that can be
understood by an editor and transcribed in some definitive form.
Indeed, their interest stems, in part, from their complex and
indeterminate nature. Furthermore, transcription involves the
selection of relevant features of a work and production of a
digital (text plus encoding) description of them. In cases where
this digital description has little value for analysis, alternative
forms of presentation must be pursued. The two examples of
this cited by Lavagnino, ""works intended as mixtures of words
and images, and very complex draft manuscripts in which the
sequence of text or inscription is difficult to make out,"" are both
characteristic of Picasso's writings.
Despite these difficulties, there have been a number of efforts
to produce transcriptions of Picasso’s writings as published
books (Bernadac, 1998; Michaël, 2005). This approach gives
primacy to the textual content of these works, at the expense
of losing almost all of the visual elements. To remedy this, most
editions include facsimile reproductions of illustrative samples
of his writings alongside the transcriptions. While this is helpful
in conveying a sense of the original context of these works, it
remains inadequate for many purposes. Beyond limitations of
scale (it is only feasible to include a limited number of
facsimiles), this approach treats the literal textual elements of
Picasso’s writings as
Figure 1: Two of Picasso's intensely visual texts.
primary, bringing in the images of the original, visually
constructed pages in order to illustrate and elaborate. This
approach to remediate the writings of Picasso divorces Picasso
the writer from Picasso the artist, limiting the productive
interchange of ideas that might result from a blending of literary
and art history-based approaches.
While Picasso’s writings provide a compelling example of the
limitations of a purely textual approach to representing
manuscripts and other documents, this problem is not unique. Within the digital textual studies community there is an
increasing recognition of the need to pair robust text encoding
with access to images of the original source material (Dicks,
1997; McGann, 2001). Over the past decade, a number of
projects have focused on presenting documents as images while
providing additional support via transcriptions (McGann, 1996;
Viscomi, 2002). Others have supplemented textually-oriented
systems by providing access to digitized images of the original
documents in a variety of formats (Furuta, 2001; Robinson,
1996). Image based representations of documents have placed
particular strain on hierarchical methods for representing and
encoding the features of a text and alternative formal models
have been proposed (Dekhtyar, 2006; Renear, Durand, and
Mylonas, 1993).
Approach
Within the Picasso Project, we have encountered the
problem of developing digital representations of texts
from a different perspective than that found in either print based
transcriptions or in digital textual projects—namely, we have
treated Picasso’s writings, first as works of art, and secondarily
as art that contains text. By conceiving of and contextualizing
the writings of Picasso in a form common to traditional
approaches to art (that is, the catalogue raisonné) we are able
to reap immediate benefits for understanding these texts in ways
not readily supported by the tools grounded in a textual
approach to these works. This approach to visualizing Picasso's
texts places them squarely within the context of the other works
that he was painting and thinking about at the same time. This
helps inform our understanding of both the artworks that Picasso
produced as well as his writings. For example, Figure 2 shows
a typical thumbnail view of the last fifteen items in the catalogue
for the year 1935. In the poem in the center of the last line
(OPP.35:004), Picasso refers to a small girl. In the context of
drawings made by Picasso around the same time we see
connections with Picasso’s daughter, Maya, at three and three
and a half months old (OPP.35:031 and OPP.35:032), followed
by Marie-Thérèse, Maya’s mother (OPP.35:034). Similarly,
using the comparison tool to compare a text dated 28 November
1935 with a painting made earlier that year highlights possible
connections between verbal imagery of the text and the visual
imagery of the painting. References in the text to ""tongue of
fire,"" ""stabbing,"" and ""the eye of the bull"" take on new meanings
when seen in this context.
In addition to visually contextualizing writings in relationship
to Picasso’s other works, the digital catalogue raisonné (unlike
a corresponding print version) allows us to make accessible
images of Picasso’s writings suitable for reading and analysis.
Closer examinations of the text enables scholars to consider
multiple states of a text, to see annotations, deletions, and
additions to a text, to explore Picasso’s use of color to provide
structural divisions or graphical bars rather than traditional
punctuation to divide conceptual segments of the text. These
tasks, which are difficult or impossible to perform
Figure 2: la petite fille"" with drawings of Maya and Marie-Thérèse
Figure 3: Courses de taureaux and ""lengua de fuego""
using transcriptions alone, are encouraged by the online
presentation. To further enable access to the textual component
of these works, we are initially adding transcriptions of these
texts to the biographical section of the catalogue. Since the
online catalogue presents the biographical text in parallel with
the artworks, this technique permits easy cross-referencing
between the transcriptions and images while we investigate
more sophisticated means for encoding and presenting the
content of these writings.
Implications and Future Work
Framing our approach to Picasso’s writings in terms of
artworks that contain text, encourages us to look for text
in artworks in general. Like many other artists of his day,
Picasso began incorporating words into his artworks in a variety
of ways and forms, notably in the newspaper clippings pasted into his papiers-collés. These works reinforce our conviction
that we need develop tools for working with text in art grounded
to the needs of the artistic disciplines rather than those of the
traditional textual studies community.
Picasso's unique works offer fertile ground for exploring the
techniques and tools that can be applied to visually constructed
texts but much work is needed—both in terms of understanding
the needs of the scholars and other readers interested in
Picasso’s writings as well as formulating new models for
representing and working with these texts in a digital
environment. We are currently investigating the potential for
techniques based in spatial hypertext research for interpreting
and presenting these texts. In spatial hypertext, Figure 3:
Courses de taureaux and ""lengua de fuego"" nodes of information
that are connected by visual elements (for example, text style,
2-D position, color) rather than by explicit links (Shipman,
1999). Our current efforts are focused in understanding how
the texts might be sub-divided into their constituent parts and
manipulated in a 2-D space in ways that enhance understanding.
We are also looking at how formal relationships between these
parts can be incrementally added as an expression of an
editor/reader's evolving understanding. In addition to purely
image based approaches, we are interested in studying methods
of encoding the textual content of Picasso's works to support
content based retrieval, enable automatic processing, and
facilitate reading.
Summary
By translating a traditional print-based approach for working
with a large corpus of artworks, the catalogue raisonné, into a
digital format, we increase the level of support provided for
three scholarly primitives (Unsworth, 2000): comparing (either
two works side by side, or many works in a thumbnail view),
sampling select artworks from the collection as a whole, and
representing the artworks not merely as thumbnails, but also
with higher resolution images. With these enhancements, the
digital catalogue raisonné, though not its printed counter-part,
provides a natural medium for presenting the writings of
Picasso. In this context, his writings are presented against the
backdrop of other artworks while enabling the textual elements
of these artworks to be read and carefully studied as texts. In
addition to the immediate benefits that this approach brings in
terms of accessing Picasso’s writings, it also offers a new
paradigm for working with these texts that suggests several
promising directions for further work.
Bibliography
Bernadac, M. L., ed. Picasso: Collected Writings. London:
Aurum Press Ltd, 1989.
Dekhtyar, Alex, et al. ""Support for XML Markup of
Image-based Electronic Editions."" International Journal on
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Furuta, Richard, et al. ""The Cervantes Project: Steps to a
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I. Sølvberg . ECDL 2001, Lecture Notes In Computer Science.
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Lavagnino, John. ""When Not to Use TEI."" Electronic Textual
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John Unsworth. New York: Modern Language Association of
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McGann, Jerome. ""Rethinking Textuality."" Radiant Textuality.
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McGann, Jerome. ""The Rosetti Archive and Image-Based
Electronic Editing."" The Literary Text in the Digital Age. Ed.
Richard J. Finneran. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
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Michaël, A., ed. Picasso: Poèmes. Paris: Le Cherche Midi,
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Renear, Allen, David Durand, and Elli Mylonas. Refining Our
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Robinson, P. M. W. ""Is There a Text in These Variants'."" The
Literary Text in the Digital Age. Ed. Richard J. Finneran. Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996.
Shipman, F. M., and C. C. Marshall. ""Spatial Hypertext: An
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mu.edu/ > Unsworth, John. ""Scholarly Primitives: What Methods Do
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tives.html >
Viscomi, J. ""Digital Facsimiles: Reading the William Blake
Archive."" Image-based Humanities Computing 36.1 (2002):
27-48.","txt","2","",""
"716","8","A Flexible System for Text Analysis with Semantic Networks","","1. Introduction
The explosive growth of digital and digitized text creates
opportunities for scholars and students to conduct new
analyses and develop unique insights about our written culture
and heritage. To effectively use large collections of textual data,
scholars and students need flexible, easy to use tools that
provide powerful analysis and visualization.
1.1 Goals
The Automated Learning Group is developing interactive tools
for mining large, complex semantic networks, which were
automatically extracted from a text corpus. The corpus could
be a collection of documents or a stream of messages. The semantic network represents the concepts in the collection as
entities and relations. The visual environment allows the user
to query the semantic network to retrieve portions of the graph.
The display allows the user to view and navigate these networks
to discover patterns in the collection.
1.2 Technical Approach
Our approach to the visual analysis of text documents
implements extraction and visualization of important
entities and the relations among them. This is accomplished in
the following high-level steps:
1. Perform lexical analysis of textual document set
2. Extract key entities and relations from the text
3. Compose entity-relation triples into semantic network model
summarizing key information in document corpus
4. “Publish” the semantic network in a repository
5. Visualize semantic network model as graph
6. Search and prune visual graph through appropriately
structured queries against semantic network model.
2 Text Analysis
Textual processing is accomplished by passing documents
through a series of syntactic, semantic, and functional
analysis tools. These tools primarily consist of D2K 1and T2K,
our own analytic software, working in concert with GATE 2and
MontyLingua 3. These tools are seamlessly connected together
into the D2K visual programming environment
The GATE toolkit is utilized for standard syntactic processes
including tokenization, sentence splitting, and part-of-speech
tagging. Syntactically annotated documents are passed to
GATE’s Named Entity (NE) tagger. The GATE NE tagger
identifies proper nouns in the text that belong to relevant
categories such as “Person”, “Organization”, and “Location.”
NE tagging passes through three modules that perform different
kinds of co-reference2. The final output of the NE tagging and
co-referencing processes are a set of annotations that identify
references to “Person”, “Organization”, and “Location” entities.
After NE extraction, we identify key relations in the text using
a tool within MontyLingua. This Jister tool extracts sentence
structures called “jists,” which carry thematic-role information
such as verb, subject, and object. This is similar to semantic
role labeling 2, but less formally structured. An example jist:
Tiger Woods wrapped up the tournament at noon.
(Verb: ‘wrap up’, Subj: ‘Tiger Woods’,
Obj1: ‘tournament’,Obj2: ‘at noon’)
The next step involves the normalization of references in the
MontyLingua jists with entities identified in the analysis. For
example, “Tiger Woods” may have been identified as a
entity:PERSON, and “tournament” referenced back to “Masters
Golf Tournament” appearing earlier in the text. Tagging the
verb “wrap up” as an entity:ACTION, and “at noon” as a TIME
relation to the verb, we can generate triples as follows: <Tiger
Woods> <is-a> <entity:PERSON> <Masters Golf
Tournament> <is-a> <entity:EVENT> <wrap
up> <is-a> <entity:ACTION> <Tiger Woods>
<actor> <wrap up>
Figure 1 shows the D2K toolkit with a view of the text
processing itinerary. The itinerary is a dataflow graph: the nodes
in the figure are D2K modules (major processing blocks),
connected by edges representing the flow of data during
execution. The itinerary can exploit both data parallelism
(multiple documents at the same time) and task parallelism
(different modules in parallel). The D2K itinerary can be run
on a desktop or scaled up to multiple computers or High
Performance Computer systems.Figure 1 shows the D2K toolkit
with a view of the text processing itinerary. The itinerary is a
dataflow graph: the nodes in the figure are D2K modules (major
processing blocks), connected by edges representing the flow
of data during execution. The itinerary can exploit both data
parallelism (multiple documents at the same time) and task
parallelism (different modules in parallel). The D2K itinerary
can be run on a desktop or scaled up to multiple computers or
High Performance Computer systems.
3 Semantic Network Storage and
Retrieval
The triples generated from the semantic extraction process
are stored in an RDF 5metadata store. We use Kowari,
developed by Tucana Technologies 6. Additional triples are
generated to represent metadata in conformance with a common
vocabulary, and user annotations can be included as well.
Queries are coded in an SQL-like query language called iTQL.
The result is a set of triples, which represents a semantic graph
6.
This architecture demonstrates a key design principle for robust
Cyberinfrastructure. The analysis is decoupled from the
visualization, so that a large scale analysis can asynchronously
update the triples as new results are computed, while interactive
tools will automatically pick up the new data by refreshing the
query. The triples generated from the semantic extraction
process can be combined with many other similar relation triples
from many sources, and additional triples are generated to
represent a common vocabulary. 4 Visual Investigation of Semantic
Networks
Using the visual environment, investigators can perform
searches over the semantic networks extracted from a
text corpus. The familiar web browser paradigm was employed
in the user interface design. The user interface allows one to
construct more complex queries by incorporating multiple rules
and filters. Each user query is converted into iTQL and executed
by the Kowari server6 . The query history is available as a
pull-down menu, just as query histories are in a web browser.
Investigators can directly observe semantic relationships
between entities in an interactive link-node graph visualization.
(Figure 2)
Relations between entities in the resulting semantic network
graph are displayed as a link-node graph visualized using
Prefuse 7, and also as a hierarchical tree of entities conforming
to the common vocabulary. The subject and object entities in
the relations are displayed as nodes in the graph visualization,
predicates are displayed as links. This simplification of the
more complex semantic network, stored in Kowari, provides a
compact and usable abstraction of the important relations
extracted from the text streams.
The Entity pane at the upper left displays lists of entities. The
Relations pane at the lower left displays a list of relations, with
additional options to highlight synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms
or hypernyms based on WordNet. Selecting an entity in the left
pane also highlights the corresponding node or edge in the
visualization.
Every entity in the graph maintains a link back to the original
text document from which it was extracted. By right-clicking
on a node, and selecting View Source Documents, the text of
the original document will be retrieved from the repository and
displayed.
5 Collections
This tool can be applied for many different types of text,
across one or many collections. In addition, it can analyze
evolving collections of text, such as documents from one or
more RSS feed.
This tool has been used as part of the Nora project, a
multi-institution collaboration to produce software for
discovering, visualizing, and exploring significant patterns
across large collections of full-text humanities resources in
existing digital libraries.8
For example, we are experimenting with the digitized text of
the novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin, available as part of the Early
American Fiction Collection from the University of Virginia9.
The system performs feature extraction in order to determine
shared characteristics of the selected documents, such as
chapters of the novel. The resulting arc-node graph can be
viewed and navigated to discover patterns and relations within
and among the texts. Figure 2 illustrates an example analysis
of text from nineteenth century novels, showing the use of
concepts related to “Mother” and “Man”.10
6 Conclusion
This paper described interactive tools for mining large,
complex semantic networks automatically extracted from
a text corpus. These approaches can be applied to news feeds,
technical literature, or literary collections.
We believe this is a promising approach, although we are only
beginning to develop these tools for use by humanists, who
will be the ultimate judges of the utility and validity of this
approach. The general purpose semantic analysis is widely
applicable to many types of text, though it is difficult to predict
the impact of such analysis on our understanding of texts.
The query interface and graphical displays are still under
development. The entity-relationship graphs may be quite
complicated, so we must find new visual methods and
metaphors to enable scholars and students to understand the
information in the graphs, and to use them formulate
hypotheses, and answer questions.
7 Acknowledgements
The Nora project is funded in part by the Mellon
Foundation. This work was funded in part by the National
Center for Advanced Secure Systems Research (NCASSR) at
the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC), a
multi-institutional cybersecurity research team. NCASSR is
led by the National Center for Supercomputing Applications
(NCSA) and supported by funding from the Office of Naval
Research (ONR). Substantial portions of the code were
implemented by David Clutter and Fang Guo. Thanks to Patricia
S. Taylor. Figure 1: D2K Itinerary showing text processing.
Figure 2: Visual interface showing result of a query.
1. <http://alg.ncsa.uiuc.edu>
2. <http://gate.ac.uk>
3. <http://web.media.mit.edu/~hugo/montyli
ngua>
2. <http://gate.ac.uk>
2. <http://gate.ac.uk>
5. <http://www.w3.org/RDF>
6. <http://kowari.org>
6. <http://kowari.org>
6. <http://kowari.org>
7. <http://prefuse.org>
8. <http://www.noraproject.org>
9. <http://etext.virginia.edu/eaf/overview
.html>
10. Tom Horton, Kristen Taylor, Bei Yu and Xin Xiang, ""Quite Right,
Dear and Interesting”: Seeking the Sentimental in Nineteenth
Century American Fiction""Digital Humanities 2006, pp. 81-82","txt","2","",""
"717","8","TEI Constrained: Yet Another Presentation System","","The Text Encoding Initiative Consortium1 claims that its
new Guidelines (P5)2 can be customized for almost any
purpose, including writing new documents (as opposed to
transcribing existing ones). This author regularly teaches
workshops on text encoding using the Text Encoding Initiative
Guidelines, and believes it is important that TEI advocates “eat
our own dog food” — that is, we should use TEI to encode the
documents used to teach TEI. This includes the slides displayed
during a presentation or lecture, and any associated handouts.
Initially the author’s workshops were written in TEI Lite and
the slides were created using Sebastian Rahtz’s stylesheets for
slides provided by the TEI Consortium. Quite quickly it became
clear that a more reliable, better documented, and easier to use
system was needed; the hallmark feature of such a system would
be a highly constrained schema tailored to the needs of a
workshop presentation.
Such a highly constrained schema tailored to the particular
purpose has several important advantages. First, it makes
authoring much easier. A large variety of elements that make
no sense in the context of a workshop slide are available in TEI
Lite, e.g. <gap> or <interpGrp>. When writing slides for
the workshop, the author needs to pick and choose from among
the available elements, including those which make no sense.
Eliminating these makes the author’s encoding task much
simpler. Second, the semantics of elements can be expressed
more explicitly. E.g., a <slide> element can be used instead
of <div type=""slide""> . This may seem like a minor
point, but the third advantage requires it: that constraints
required for the purpose can be enforced in the schema. E.g.,
in TEI Lite the <head> element is an optional child of a
<div>, whereas it can be made a required child of a <slide>,
and still be an optional child of a <div>.
In order to ascertain how difficult it is to create such a highly
constrained, specialized schema using P5, a new system was
developed using the TEI’s new ODD (one document does it
all) system.3 Because there are already quite a few presentation
systems available to the workshop instructor, both proprietary
and open, both XML-based and others, the new system is called
Yet Another Presentation System, or “yaps”. Accordingly, its
icon is a dog. Yaps provides the capability to write a single document for a presentation, and from that document create
slides, notes intended for the lecturer, and notes intended to be
part of a hand-out for participants. The system is well
documented, with an intended audience being a person who is
familiar with TEI and is generally technologically savvy, but
may not have much direct experience with complex
transformations and stylesheets. Many such TEI users use the
commercial XML editor oXygen, which includes most of the
needed software packages (e.g., xmllint and Saxon 8) built-in.
Therefore instructions are provided for using the system from
within oXygen, as well as from the command-line.
The system comprises (in order of academic interest):
• An extensive TEI customization which provides a TEI
markup language for presentations, and documentation for
the use of that language.
• An XSLT stylesheet that transforms a document conforming
to the markup language described by the ODD to XHTML.
• CSS stylesheets for viewing both the source and the various
outputs in a browser.
• A shell script front-end (for GNU/Linux, Mac OS X, or
similar systems) for executing the commands necessary to
generate the system documentation and schemas from the
ODD file. This relies on roma.sh, the ODD processing tool
written for the TEI by Sebastian Rahtz.4
• A shell script front-end (for GNU/Linux, Mac OS X, or
similar systems) for executing the commands necessary to
apply the XSLT transformations to a source yaps file,
generating multiple linked XHTML files.
TEI customization
The TEI customization or ODD file that defines both the
yaps schema and its documentation is large (currently
almost 2000 lines) and thorough. It demonstrates several
interesting features (e.g., deletion of classes, use of
Schematron). But more controversially, the documentation
therein is not only for the language described, but is also the
documentation for its use. This is certainly not a “pure” or
intended use of TEI ODD, and some might even say it is
inappropriate. On the other hand, ODD provides a reasonable
place for such documentation, and TEI provides a reasonably
rich and familiar language with which to write such
documentation.
The markup language described by the ODD is much smaller
and far more structured than the TEI most of us are used to.
From the beginning the goal has been to create a markup
language that would be easy to use (because the authors using
it are already well versed in TEI), but constructed specifically
for the production of slides and associated materials to be used
during a presentation. The language is deliberately highly
constrained. For example, even in cases where order would be
irrelevant as far as processing is concerned, a particular order
is required by the schema primarily for the benefit of the author,
who has to make fewer guesses about what should come next,
and make few if any decisions between equivalent encodings.
The yaps language was not designed as a standalone language
and then retrofitted to TEI, but neither were significant
compromises to the desired language made to make it easy to
express it as a TEI language. Thus the customization ODD is
somewhat complicated in order that the end result be a simple,
applicable language. For example, the <body> element with
its <div>s is replaced by a <presentation> element which
has nothing but <section> (or <sectionGrp>) children.
It would have been easier to design a customization which used
<div type=""section"">. While this would have been
semantically equivalent, it is not possible (in ODD) to provide
the desired syntactic constraints on <div>, whereas it is easy
to provide such constraints on <section>.
There are only three possible children of a <section>: one
for a slide, one for instructor’s notes, and one for an
accompanying handout. There are currently only 96 elements
defined in this language, many of which are metadata elements
used in the <teiHeader>. As an example of its simplicity,
there are only 14 elements available to an author writing the
content of a <slide>; there are well over twice that many
available to the author of a TEI Lite document using <div
type=""slide"">.
XSLT
The stylesheet is a single parameterized XSLT 2.0
stylesheet that is over 1000 lines long. It creates relatively
abstract valid XHTML output (i.e., most of the input YAPS
elements are represented by XHTML <span> elements that
make use of the class= attribute). I am hopeful that it is of
high enough quality to be a useful example for beginners;
simultaneously I am hoping XSLT experts will be able to
provide pointers and advice on improvements.
Further Features
Although the system is quite usable in its current state (Julia
Flanders, Christian Wittern, and I have all made use of
it for workshops) there are, of course, a lot of improvements
still to be made. Many of these improvements I expect to have
in place before the conference.
• Make locations of stylesheets, etc., more generalized
• Make licensing conditions (e.g., GPL) more explicit
• Update documentation to match current release of oXygen Consider use of a configuration file that would make
customization of some of the CSS features easy
• Consider creation of a transform to/from APXL (Apple’s
schema for Keynote)
• Generate PDF as well as XHTML (not expecting to do this
before conference)
1. See <http://www.tei-c.org/>, in particular <http
://www.tei-c.org/Consortium>.
2. As of this writing the current alpha release (0.6) is available both
via the TEI website and on Sourceforge. See <http://sour
ceforge.net/project/showfiles.php?group
_id=106328&package_id=141127> or <http://
www.tei-c.org/P5/>.
3. For the definition of the ODD system, see Chapter 27
“Documentation Elements,” Guidelines for Electronic Text
Encoding and Interchange, ed. Syd Bauman, Lou Burnard, & C.
M. Sperberg-McQueen (Text Encoding Initiative Consortium,
2006).<http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/t
ei-p5-doc/html/TD.html>. For a tutorial on the ODD
system, see Rahtz & Burnard, ""One Document Does it all"",
presented at the TEI annual Members’ Meeting 2005, Sofia,
Bulgaria. <http://www.tei-c.org/Talks/2005/
Sofia/odds.pdf>. For an overview and discussion of the
theoretical implications, see Bauman & Flanders, ""Odd
Customizations"", presented at Extreme Markup Languages 2004,
Montreal, Canada. <http://www.idealliance.org
/papers/extreme/proceedings/html/2004/B
auman01/EML2004Bauman01.html>. For a variety of
samples of ODD in use, see Bauman et al., “An Odd Basket of
ODDs”, presented at DH 2006, Paris, France.
4. Available on Sourceforge at <http://sourceforge.ne
t/project/showfiles.php?group_id=106328
&package_id=141128>.","txt","2","",""
"718","8","Digital Humanities and the Solitary Scholar","","""The process of creating new knowledge -- of research and
scholarship -- is also evolving rapidly away from the solitary
scholar to teams of scholars, perhaps spread over a number of
disciplines.""
(James J. Duderstadt, ""Transforming the University to Serve
the Digital Age,"" CAUSE/EFFECT 20.4 (Winter 1997-98):
21-32.)
In the epigraph for our session, Duderstadt succinctly
describes a major challenge facing the humanities –
specifically the scholars who make the practice of humanities
research their own – as they head into a digital future. The
typical scholar in the humanities is generally perceived as a
loner, an individual working more or less in isolation towards
publications that will be his or her sole responsibility. Scholars
are not completely isolated, of course. The sharing of
pre-publication knowledge is common, and workshops and
conferences abound in all fields to give scholars the opportunity
to find out what others are doing, to present their own work to
the community, and to talk with others whose interests and
research overlap their own. However, as a glance at the contents
pages of the most recent issue of any historical or literary
journal will suggest, it is not common for more than one
humanist to claim authorship for a single piece of scholarship.
There is contrast here with scholarship in the hard sciences and
engineering, where much work is done by groups, collaboration
is the norm, and where several people usually claim authorship
to any one publication. Digital humanities inherits from both of these traditions, encouraging cross-disciplinary collaboration
within a community that has traditionally valued independence.
This short paper session will present the experiences of three
scholars working more or less in isolation within the context
of this collaborative environment. These individuals are alike
in that they are all actively involved in the development of
digital projects, but their experiences vary widely with regard
to time available for working on these projects, their own
technical/programming skills and like support available from
their institutions, and the availability of funding to support their
projects. In addition to these three scholars, we also welcome
two others whose work exists to support the efforts of solitary
scholars. However, it may be seen that even ""solitary"" scholars
are not so alone in the digital humanities.
""I'm ready to start a project! What
do I need to know?""
Our first two speakers represent the technically skilled
scholar.
Birnbaum has developed two XML-related projects on his own
and he will report on the logistics of these projects. Funding
and support for both projects is light and he is responsible for
all the technology, although his colleagues provide philological
knowledge.
Norton will discuss his experience as a computer scientist with
a PhD in Music History developing a project on digital
representations of medieval liturgical manuscripts. He is
working on the project independently, and while he has the
programming and design skills necessary for success, he is
facing limitations of time (as he is also trying to write a book,
a familiar problem for many).
""Well, how do I learn?""
Our third speaker will discuss alternatives for solitary
scholars to learn how to take steps towards developing
digital projects.
Rockwell will talk first about how to take advantage of
university resources. Many universities have Teaching and
Learning Centers and Digital Library Services that you can
draw on for help. Some universities have special Humanities
Computing units that specialize in supporting digital projects
in the humanities. Rockwell will summarize some of the
services you can look for at your university.
In addition, Rockwell will speak as a the project leader of the
Text Analysis Portal for Research (TAPoR) project (<http:
//www.tapor.ca/>), which makes text analysis tools
available to scholars for integration into their electronic text
projects. Rockwell will discuss the TAPoR tools, and will
discuss how scholars working in isolation can take advantage
of them without the need for programming experience or access
to programming support.
""I have the skills, I have a great
idea... what about funding?""
Our final two speakers will present two different aspects
of acquiring funding for digital humanities projects.
Patrik will discuss issues that she has encountered while
attempting to organize a TEI encoding project at a liberal arts
college. Although Patrik's institution is supportive of her digital
endeavors, she has not had success applying for funds from the
major funding agencies. Unfortunately, without access to
graduate student labor and a dedicated support staff and with
the lack of time that comes from being a full-time professor in
an institution where the focus is on undergraduate teaching,
Patrik is at a disadvantage. She is interested in exploring the
possibilities of collaborating with larger institutions, moving
from isolation to collaboration.
Winter will discuss the NEH Digital Humanities Initiative, and
how the initiative can support the work of solitary or
independent project directors. He will focus on two of the new
DH-specific grant initiatives: Digital Humanities Start-Up
Grants
(<http://www.neh.gov/grants/guidelines/dig
italhumanitiesstartup.html>) and Digital
Humanities Fellowships
(<http://www.neh.gov/grants/guidelines/dhf
ellowships.html>).
Each of our speakers will have seven to ten minutes to discuss
his or her work, making reference to limitations of time,
technical support, and funding, and how those limits impact
their projects. The remainder of the session will be a roundtable
discussion, and the audience will be encouraged to ask questions
of the panel and to discuss their own experiences working in
isolation","txt","2","",""
"719","8","The Paradise Lost Flash Audiotext","","In many Digital Humanities projects, the focus has been on
acquiring, digitizing, and encoding materials for online
search and retrieval, rather than on interface design. A common
notion in Humanities computing, carried over from the
information technology industry, is that content should be
prepared so as to as to be deliverable through pre-existing
interfaces as well as those yet to be conceived. But this
procedure suits developers more than users. Simply making a
wealth of primary and supplemental materials available in
digital form does not make them usable. Moreover, the practice
of coding and representing humanities materials as information
objects flies in the face of many humanities scholars and
teachers, who view works of art and culture as historically and
materially situated, as unique combinations of form and content.
Digital humanists, rather than merely archiving these materials
in standard formats, should design interfaces that bespeak their
unique qualities and accommodate the desiderata of scholars,
teachers, and students.
In designing the interface for our own project, we began with
the premise that new media can be used to enhance student
comprehension of complex poems, even those for which print
resources are rich and abundant. The complex poem we had in
mind was John Milton’s Paradise Lost (hereafter, PL), perhaps
the single literary work most often assigned to English-speaking
university students around the world. Whether students run
through excerpts from PL in a sophomore survey or pore over
the entire epic in an upper-division course, they famously find
Milton’s poetry difficult to follow. Instructors usually assume
that this difficulty owes to its unfamiliar ideas and Milton’s
intimidating erudition—and surely these are part of the problem.
But we have found that when students hear an instructor declaim
passages from PL as they follow along in their textbooks, the
thrust of the lines suddenly becomes plainer. Recent research
on multimedia learning indicates that distinct, additive cognitive
pathways mediate the aural and visual reception of language
(Mayer 2001). Reading and listening to the same text
demonstrably improves understanding and recall.
The aural register is especially crucial for the study of PL. Blind
Milton composed his epic orally, dictating it to amanuenses
and even insisting that he was relaying what the Muse had first
dictated to him as he slept. The original text of PL, then, was
not a mute manuscript but a narrative voice attentively heard
and transcribed. Even when present-day students successfully
comprehend Milton’s poetry during a solitary, silent reading,
reading through the eyes alone diminishes the aural impact of
the verse and the voice as its medium. Instructors and students
now seem to be recognizing that the merely visual reading of
PL leaves something to be desired. In recent years an increasing
number of marathon group readings of Milton’s epic has
occurred at colleges and even high schools in the U.S.A. and
elsewhere. Such voluntary meetings are unlikely to become
standard practice any time soon, however, and classroom time
does not permit instructors to read aloud or play a recording of
the poem (10,565 lines), even if they recognize that
comprehension increases markedly when students both see and
hear the text.
In the fall of 2004, having thought through this pedagogical
situation, we developed an interface design that would correlate
an electronic text with an audio track of PL. We then solicited
volunteers to record Book Nine, the selection most often
anthologized and assigned to undergraduates. In the spring of
2005, with the aid of a Liberal Arts Instructional Technology
Services (LAITS) grant, we developed a prototype “audiotext”
of Book Nine. This prototype, which is now publicly available
at <http://www.laits.utexas.edu/miltonpl/>,
uses Adobe/Macromedia Flash technology to synchronize a
modernized text with audio and annotations within a single
window designed to look like an open book. It uses a
karaoke-style moving highlight to indicate the line being voiced
and an optional stationary highlight to mark annotated words
and phrases. Because Flash is not free software, some may
object to its widespread use in digital humanities projects. But
developing the audiotext with an open standard such as SMIL
and/or SVG would have been far more difficult, if not
impossible. Furthermore, Adobe has released the Flash file
format specification (SWF), spawning a large and robust open
source Flash community as well as third party software that
generates SWF files. The SWF format now rivals PDF and
HTML in readability and accessibility, respectively. Making
the audiotext accessible to users who require screen readers
seemed particularly important to us, given a work composed
by Milton.
During the Fall of 2005, more than 200 students tested the
prototype in various courses: a freshman honors seminar in
world literature, a large lecture section of the mandatory
sophomore literature survey, and an upper division course
devoted to Milton. According to the results of an anonymous
survey administered by the instructors, the majority of students
(91%) said that they understood the action better than they did when using a print version only. Such improvement in
comprehension implies that students also better understood
Milton's notoriously intricate syntax, line by line, and thus
became more sophisticated readers overall. These student
surveys, as well as comments we received from instructors,
testify to the pedagogical utility of our design. But we also
believe that our interface provides a better solution for scholars
and general readers. Although we have deliberately adhered to
the logic and aesthetics of the printed page, our design also
uses the capacities of contemporary information technology to
improve upon the book. During audio playback, the pages turn
automatically, minimizing the cognitive break of page-turning
and further encouraging users to continue uninterrupted with
the reading.
More importantly, our design solves a problem of print
technology that has persisted in digital technology: the tendency
of supplemental materials, such as explanatory or textual notes,
to disrupt the sort of immersive reading experience vital to the
understanding of challenging literary texts. Although notes can
enrich a reader’s appreciation, when they are printed on the
same page as the primary text (footnotes), they can be visually
and mentally distracting. On the other hand, if they are printed
in an appendix (endnotes), they are difficult to compare with
the primary text and are in practice often ignored altogether.
Unfortunately, the majority of hypertexts and ebooks have
simply reproduced footnote or endnote schemes. Our interface
design exploits Flash technology to smooth out this age-old
snag in reading, allowing the user to make notes and other
supplements appear and disappear as needed, without scrolling,
turning pages, or negotiating multiple windows or frames. When
the audiotext is in annotation mode, explanatory notes simply
replace the text on the page facing the one being read/heard.
In the spring of 2005, we responded to student and instructor
feedback by adding two more viewing modes to the prototype.
The “comparison” mode displays our modernized reading text
in parallel with a diplomatic transcript of the 1674 text on which
it is based. This mode allows teachers to point out differences
in orthography and punctuation without asking their students
to consult a facsimile edition. The “your notes” mode,
meanwhile, allows students to edit and save their own notes
for each page. These notes are stored on the student’s computer
in a separate file, from which they are then imported for each
new session. This mode thus reproduces a capacity of print
books seldom reproduced in electronic formats—space for
readers’ own annotative marginalia. Teachers who ask their
students to keep reading journals may find this mode especially
useful. Unlike similar features in Blackboard and other online
classroom systems, the notes are individually rather than
collaboratively composed, and the mode does not require
usernames and passwords. In fact, we encourage users to
download the audiotext for offline use rather than load it online
in their browsers. The audiotext in this regard represents a
departure from the “Web 2.0” movement, a convergence of
applications that make the network, rather than the user’s own
computer, the platform. Although our interface design is
applicable to many of these technologies, the audiotext itself
provides an example of a richer and more flexible desktop
solution for teachers and students than print books or ebooks.
Ultimately, we hope to complete audiotexts of all twelve books.
In 2006-2007, with the help of a second LAITS grant, we are
developing Books One and Two. John Rumrich has also applied
for an NEH Digital Humanities Fellowship that would enable
him to complete additional audiotexts in 2007-2008. In the next
phase of the project, we plan to develop a separate front-end
utility that will search the text of the poem in an XML document
that conforms to the P5 guidelines of the Text Encoding
Initiative. This utility, which will also be able to search the
annotations and user notes, will return results that correspond
and connect to specific pages in the audiotexts.
Bibliography
Mayer, Richard E. Multimedia Learning. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2001.","txt","2","",""
"720","8","The Encoding of Terminology Related to the Medieval Slavic Manuscripts: Philological and Technological Results and Perspectives","","The author of the presentation makes an attempt to
summarize problems and prospects concerning
terminology used in computer supported description of Slavic
manuscripts in two Slavic languages – Bulgarian and Russian,
and, at the same time – in English and German. The report is
a result of a working team in the Bulgarian Academy of
Sciences and Sofia University: Anisava Miltenova (Institute of
Literature, director of the project), Andrej Bojadžiev (University
of Sofia), Margaret Dimitrova (University of Sofia), Irina
Kuzidova (Institute of Literature), Regina Koycheva (Institute
of Literature), Maya Petrova (Institute of Literature), and Svetla
Koeva (Institute of Bulgarian Language). They are working in
the frames of the project Metadata and Electronic Catalogues
(2004–08), a component of the Repertorium of Old Bulgarian
Literature and Letters. The project is oriented to create
electronic catalogues and authority files that will serve as
integrated repositories of terminological information that has
been developed and applied successfully in already existing
projects in the realm of medieval Slavic languages, literatures,
and cultures. One innovative feature of this project is that
beyond serving as a central repository for such information, it
will expand the organizational framework to support a
multilingual superstructure along the lines of I18N initiatives
elsewhere in the world of electronic text technology in general
and humanities computing in particular.
The project presumes the possibility of linking the standardized
terminological apparatus for description, study, edition, and
translation of medieval texts, on the one hand, to authoritative
lists of key-words and terms used in bibliographic descriptions,
on the other. This will allow the integration of scholarly
meta-data and bibliographic references under a single unified
framework. Another aim of the project is to create a mechanism
for allowing the extraction of different types of indices based
upon the imported documents even when the languages of
encoding may vary. The primary manuscript description texts
are encoded in a TEI-based XML format in the context of the
broader Repertorium initiative, and their utility for the type of
multilingual authority files, bibliographic databases, and other
broad reference resources illustrates the multipurposing that is
characteristic of XML documents in the humanities, but on a
broader scale than is usual.
One of the project’s main aims is to propose an approach with
the help of which the main terms of the Medieval culture could
be further explained with the original texts, translations and
current research activities. In this respect we could distinguish
several areas of knowledge: name of the various texts and
principles of such a naming, the author of the text(s) and
problems related with the transliteration and transcriptions of
the names; terms related to the text history its structure and
function; the language(s) of the text; the relationship between
the text and the codex; the Medieval mankind represented in
the texts, etc. This project is based on distinguishing the
meanings of particular terms and notions that appear in the text
of medieval written documents both within the primary corpus
and in comparison to established scholarly terminology.
In the frame of the project several types of indices have been
created: names of the texts (in four languages), genre
terminology (in the field of hymnography, hagiography,
homiletic literature, different kinds of instructions, etc.), types
of manuscripts (concerning their function), palaeographic and
codicological terms, linguistic terminology These indices could
be divided into two types:
• Entries in the form of lists which contain information for
usage of particular notion in the original Medieval texts .
• Entries in the form of terminological XML tool, which
contain research metadata, in the form of thesaurus.
The main difference between the both is the absence (in the
former) and the presence (in the latter) of definitions, and a
strict hierarchy of concepts. The first type of the information
represents a simple multilingual list of terms. The function of
this list could be explained as “It could be the standard way to
say this or to write this”. The entries of the second type have
more sophisticated structure, very close resembling to the
encyclopaedic article. A compulsory element of this type of
entries is the reference to the authority source, from which the
material is extracted and which is very appreciated among
scholars. In the informational area the specifications to the
particular standards are used.
The project is very actual in the context of discussions in the
frames of ISO activities for definitions of markup of the
terminological information (cf. TMF: Terminological Markup
Framework). Our model is based on the approved standard ISO
12000. The report includes demonstration of the current
project’s results both in the philological and technical aspects.","txt","2","",""
"721","8","Making a Contribution: Modularity, Integration and Collaboration Between Tools in Pliny","","Computing tools have been an issue since the foundation
of Humanities Computing, and building modular tools
that work together has been recognised as important since at
least the CETH meetings in 1995. Geoffrey Rockwell and I
first raised issues of modularity in our paper given at the
Canadian Learned Societies Conference in June 1992 entitled
“Towards new Research Tools in Computer-Assisted Text
Analysis”. Our proposed tool framework combined data-flow
tool modularity with the ability to create pages that mixed
scholarly writing with interactive elements like in a
Mathematica “Notebook”. Of course the WWW was sweeping
all this away by 1995 and when we took a paper (Bradley,
Rockwell 1995) to the CETH “tools” meeting we were merging
our modular view with the WWW as it was then emerging.
In our community “modularity” often comes down to the
sharing of file formats. Separate tools that can all read the same
file format can all operate on common data, and therefore can
contribute their particular facilities to the task at hand. File- or
Unix-style modularity is a part of what I called the
“transformation model” of computing (Bradley 2005), and
provides a powerful approach to manipulating data. TuStep
(described in Ott 2000) is a splendid example. The model holds
a strong attraction within the Digital Humanities community –
even extraordinarily creative projects as TAPoR’s text analysis
portal (TAPoR 2006) or the Nora project (Nora 2006) are, in
fact, primarily based on this. However, thinking of modularity
primarily in those terms limits our views to those of computing
about 25 years ago – before the advent of the graphical user
interface (GUI).
The GUI radically changed the way we think about computing,
and even today, more than 25 years later, its significance
continues to reverberate. It is surely true to say that most
humanists have the GUI as a model driving how they think of
their computer. The impact has been twofold:
• First, users now expect that the computer screen will allow
them to directly manipulate materials that interest them.
Think of the words in a word processor.
• Second, interaction between tools needs to be possible not
only between files, but also on the screen as well. Users
expect to be able to incorporate parts of spreadsheets inside
word documents, for example.
To reflect this broader sense of collaboration between tools,
we need some different language. In this paper I will use the
word integration for that aspect of tool collaboration that
focuses on GUI issues. The use of integration might make us
also think of the integrative nature of humanities scholarship
– an intentional parallel.
Integration in the GUI presents challenges. First, the
development of tools allowing for direct manipulation of objects
on the screen is more complex and costly than resolving
file-sharing issues. Furthermore, if independent tools are to
interact on the screen – elements maintained by potentially
different tools sharing screen space – then they must operate
in a computing framework that makes this kind of thing
practical.
Pliny (Pliny 2006) has been developed precisely to draw
attention to these two issues and to encourage some thinking
about cooperating tools beyond file-oriented “modularity”. It
both significantly broadens how computers can support
humanities research and suggests a much richer and more
acceptable interface to those tools that might well attract a larger
number of scholars. Pliny tackles this in two ways. First, it is
supports annotation and note taking – functions central to
several aspects of humanities scholarship and which I believe
have been largely neglected by the DH community – and,
second, it is built using a framework called Eclipse (Eclipse
2006) which is deliberatively created to support GUI-level
interaction between tools of the kind I mentioned above. Eclipse
also supports rich collaboration between tools developed by
independent developers.
Personal annotation and note-taking compels us to think about
tool integration because it is widespread in humanities
scholarship and runs across all kinds of scholarly work. Scholars
write notes to record their reactions to not only books they read,
but also web pages they view. Furthermore, if they have tools
that do (say) text analysis, they would probably want to record
notes about that as well. The provision of note-taking within a
particular website is insufficient for personal note-taking
(although it might well fulfil a useful need supporting public
comment about the material the website offers) because most
scholars work across a broad range of materials, and their note
taking capability must reflect this. Notes from a book will at
some point need to be brought in contact with notes about, say,
an online archive or a journal, or about findings from the text analysis tool. Personal scholarly note taking integrates by its
very nature.
Personal annotation also draws our attention back to the
software application as the context in which tools can and
should be built, rather than thinking of the browser as the
context for tool delivery. It is surprising how difficult it is to
make this point to those in the Digital Humanities. Of course
part of the reason is that XML, one of the key technologies that
fuels some portion of the DH community, has been developed
specifically to work in the context of the WWW. However, if
we wish to develop a more broadly based humanities
community who use technology in more sophisticated ways to
support their research we need to broaden our focus beyond
the WWW. Providing scholarly resources on the WWW
supports scholars, of course, and there remains some excitement
that they can get materials readily right to their desktop.
However, as I argued in Bradley 2005, once on that desktop
all they can do with them is read them on the screen or print
them out – a webpage, even one designed with all the clever
parts of CSS and AJAX, allows only manipulation within its
own page context. It contributes little to the integrative aspect
of personal scholarship which must, by its very nature, often
bring materials together from disparate sources.
Software Applications work with personal materials. Surely
this is a central element of humanities scholarship. A word
processor creates materials that belong to the researcher. Until
web browsers can be used to create materials that are stored as
personal data – on the user’s own machine – they cannot replace
applications (see a similar assertion from a technical perspective
in Charland 2005). Even the XML folk – part of the community
driving a WWW view of humanities computing because of
XML’s compatibility with website creation – use an application
such as Oxygen to create XML materials in the first place. For
the same reason that the creation of an XML file involves an
editor rather than a web browser, the creation of personal notes
– especially those gathered from reactions across a great range
of sources – requires a personal application. Furthermore, more
than one study into computing and humanities scholarship (see
both Brockman et al and Siemens et al 2004) has found that
scholars have tried to apply inappropriate applications such as
word processors to support this need, and have not been very
satisfied with the result.
Applications can be built in several different frameworks. Pliny
is written in Java using the Eclipse framework rather than the
one provided by Sun to create desktop tools. I didn’t choose
Eclipse because it was easy for me to use it – indeed I had to
learn it from the beginning during the past year or so. I choose
Eclipse because it is designed specifically to support the
integration of tools developed by separate developers. Eclipse
provides a way to share out screen space between windows
managed by different tools. Furthermore, it also provides
mechanisms for elements from separate tools to share the same
window (called “making a contribution” in Eclipse). Tools built
with the Eclipse plug-in model need not operate in isolation
from other related tools. A text analysis tool built in Eclipse
could use Pliny elements to allow users to record notes while
using the TA tool, and the notes that were recorded in this way
would also be visible in the context of notes created with other
materials – say from reading a book, or annotating a web page.
So, in this presentation I have an impossible task. First, I am
promoting the idea that we focus more on application
development than web development, a technically more
demanding activity, and one that goes against the grain of much
work in DH over the last decade. Second, for those who might
subscribe to this idea, I am promoting that we build our tools
according to the Eclipse model rather than the more widely
understood Sun/Java framework. Perhaps I won’t convince
anyone here. However, I believe that unless we start to think
of tools in the context of applications, as our scholarly
community does, and unless we start to think more seriously
of tool building in the context of GUI integration in addition
to data sharing, we will never get the attention of most scholars
in the humanities.
Bibliography
Bradley, John. ""What You (Fore)see is What You Get: Thinking
about Usage Paradigms for Computer Assisted Text Analysis.""
Text Techology 14.2 (2005): 1-19. Accessed 2006-09-01. <ht
tp://texttechnology.mcmaster.ca/pdf/vol14
_2/bradley14-2.pdf>
Bradley, John, and Geoffrey Rockwell. ""Towards New Research
Tools in Computer-Assisted Text Analysis."" Paper presented
at The Canadian Learned Societies Conference, June 1992.
1992. <http://www.cch.kcl.ac.uk/legacy/staf
f/jdb/papers/learneds.html>
Bradley, John, and Geoffrey Rockwell. ""The Components of
a System for Computer Assisted Text Analysis."" Paper
presented at the CETH Workshop on Future Text Analysis
Tools, October 1995. 1995. <http://www.cch.kcl.ac
.uk/legacy/staff/jdb/papers/ceth95.html>
Brockman, William S., Laura Neumann, Carole L. Palmer, and
Tonyia J. Tidline. Scholarly Work in the Humanities and the
Evolving Information Environment. Washington, D.C.: Digital
Libary Federation and Council on Library and Information
Resources, 2001.
Charland, Andre. ""Will Ajax Replace the Desktop?""
developer.com. 2005. Accessed 2006-10-01. <http://www.developer.com/design/article.php/10925_3
574116_1>
Eclipse. 2006. Accessed 2006-10-01. <http://www.ecli
pse.org/>
Nora. 2006. Accessed 2006-10-01. <http://www.norap
roject.org/>
Ott, Wilhelm. ""Strategies and Tools for Textual Scholarship:
the Tübingen System of Text Processing Programs (TUSTEP).""
Literary & Linguistic Computing 15.1 (2000): 93-108.
Pliny. 2006. Accessed 2006-10-01. <http://pliny.cch
.kcl.ac.uk/>
Siemens, Ray, Elaine Toms, Stéfan Sinclair, Geoffrey Rockwell,
and Lynne Siemens. ""The Humanities Scholar in the
Twenty-first Century: How Research is Done and What Support
is Needed."" ALLC/ACH 2004 Conference Abstracts. Göteborg:
Göteborg University, 2004.
TAPoR: Text Analysis Portal for Research. 2006. <http://
test-tapor.mcmaster.ca/portal/portal>","txt","2","",""
"722","8","Spatially Enabling RiverWeb, a Web-Based Resource for Historical Exploration of the American Bottom","","RiverWeb (<http://www.riverweb.uiuc.edu>)
is a web-based education and outreach program to
promote environmental education and historical awareness
about rivers and their watersheds. One aspect of the project is
an extensive collection of historical materials pertaining to early
settlements in the “American Bottom,” a location just south of
the confluence of the Mississippi, Illinois and Missouri rivers,
near modern-day St. Louis. This also includes a large historical
record of the early development of East St. Louis (IL), from its
early settlement through the twentieth century, up to and
including the most recent census.
This poster illustrates efforts to spatially enable the RiverWeb
collection. The outcome is a dynamic web mapping application
that forms a browser-based flexible user interface to the
collection of historical materials, newspaper clippings,
directories and census information. The system has been built
using open source software compatible with Open GIS
Consortium (OGC) standards and includes web mapping
functionality, a gazetteer and basic geovisualization. The paper
describes the design and architecture of the system and the implementation of the linkage between the historical
information and its spatial imprint. This is illustrated with a
historical analysis of neighborhood change in East St. Louis as
a result of redlining policies in the early 20th century. Change
in neighborhood profile over time and across space can be
visualized and basic exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA)
techniques provide ways to quantify these patterns.","txt","2","",""
"723","8","Distributed Multivalent Encoding","","Distributed multivalent encoding (DME) describes a web-based
text encoding practice and the result of that practice. It assumes
a digital text resource with a browser interface that allow users
to associate N encodings with N texts in the resource. Users
need have no other connection with the resource than their
using it and constraints should be minimal; hence the encoding
is distributed among multiple creators and multiple conceptual
approaches. To realize their encoding(s) users may ignore
existing encodings; they may apply one tagset to one text, or
to multiple texts, or they may apply multiple tagsets to one text,
or multiple texts; any element they create can reference any
other element created by themselves or by someone else. Thus
the resource’s encoding becomes multivalent in part and in
whole.
A cluster of activities defines the space of distributed
multivalent encoding, including annotation, keywording
(including “folksonomizing”), editing, and humanities criticism.
For any one component of DME anticipatory previous work
exists.1 Any newness of DME lies only in the surprising fact
that the components have never been fully assembled, though
they have all been present for some years. Now, however, we
can see DME emerging, albeit in hesitant, not-fully-developed
forms.2
A DME resource has a base text (or texts), a web interface for
creating encoding, and a mechanism for storing encoding; these
three things enable all subsequent activities: editing, deleting,
retrieving, searching, etc. Considering each of the three parts
in a little more detail we will see few real technical obstacles
in DME’s path.
Distributed multivalent encoding starts with a reference base
digital text. A reference base text should be clearly marked as
such by the resource managers. Only they may change it (or
give someone else permission to change it), and any change
must be well publicized. A reference base text must have a
well-defined beginning and end, and a well-defined internal
base reference structure. While it is certainly possible to regard
either the simple byte sequence or the character sequence as
the base reference structure and then link encodings to byte or
character offsets, this is not a robust solution. Practicality
suggests the internal base reference structure should itself be
an encoding; convenience and practicality further suggest a presentation-based encoding, on the grounds that presentation
in a medium reflects a community’s sense of that medium’s
main communicative organization and delivery units (Caton,
2001). A TEI Lite encoding (<http://www.tei-c.org/
Guidelines2/index.xml.ID=lite>), for example, or
one conforming to DLF Level 4 (<http://www.diglib.
org/standards/tei.htm#level4>), would be suitable.
We should stress, though, that the reference structure makes
no claim to being representationally definitive. Within the
structure, distinctions between tags and #PCDATA are purely
structural and do not define either “text” (as general
phenomenon) or “the text”. A supplementary encoding – ie. an
encoding created by a user – associates with the text as
represented within the reference structure, not “the text” as
some reified cultural object. If we follow the reasoning of
Renear et al on the relationship between FRBR entities and
XML documents, we would probably consider the base
reference text a manifestation of an expression, especially
because we incline towards a presentation-based encoding
(which, as Caton argues, is what OHCO-style encoding
is)(Renear et al, 2004, Caton 2001). The FRBR vocabulary,
however, hardly resolves the problematic semantics of the
common phrases “the text” and “a text”. Hence our insistence
on treating the internal reference structure as definitive only
within the DME resource as a system. Indeed the very point of
a DME resource is to allow users to create encodings that they
can treat as definitive for their purposes.
The web interface presents the base text to the user and allows
the user to associate encoding(s) with parts of the text. The
encoding must allow for multiple overlapping hierarchies, and
so a format such as CLIX/TEI HORSE should be used (DeRose,
2004, Bauman, 2005). While the interface programming might
be complex in terms of having to manage numerous details,
the required functionality is straightforward. The actual
mechanics a resource employs are not important, except as
regards the degree to which they make the process awkward.
They will vary according to programmers’ preferences and with
changes in technology. The proof-of-concept Limner interface,
for example, uses HORSE and relies on explicit element IDs
and user-selected strings to mark where start and end tags go.
DeRose notes that ‘[o]ne often hears that … IDs are somehow
""safe"" pointers into documents (DeRose, 2004). However, this
is not true; they are at most “safer” than many other methods.’
His point is well taken. However, there must be some reference
system, and unless we resign ourselves to inline markup and
unwieldy file sizes, it seems preferable to keep the
supplementary markup separate from the base text and use a
system that is (to view the cup as half full rather than half
empty) at least safer than many other methods. A combination
of full XPath plus element ID plus a string of sufficient length
to have a strong chance of being unique should allow a DME
resource to consistently associate a stored out-of-line element
with its proper position with respect to the internal base
reference system. The Limner implementation is rather crude
and already dated; the DOM scripting features of current
browsers together with wider availability of XPath handling
functions in programming languages offer many opportunities
to improve upon it.
The actual details of storage are also of limited importance.
Relational databases can hold the information (as with Limner)
but it seems likely that future DME resources will use native
XML databases.
Without downplaying the amount of work involved, we can
confidently say that DME is perfectly possible with current
technology and that DME resources will be built in the near
future. The real unknowns (and potential problems) lie on the
social side. Who gets to encode? Will all supplementary
encodings be equal, or will some be “more equal” than others?
Will encodings be moderated? Will differently encoded and
competing base reference texts proliferate until the very notion
of a base reference becomes utterly compromised? Will a class
system of resources emerge, driven by a scholarly fear of
non-scholars’ contributions? The relative success of Wikipedia
in the face of all the things that could have stopped it should
make us optimistic. Probably DME will initially develop in
constrained forms, with resources authorizing users and
retaining ultimate editorial control over supplementary
encodings. In time we hope to see distributed multivalent
encoding become a widespread, democratic practice
1. For example, the resource based around Pico Della Mirandola’s
Conclusiones CM publicae disputandae (PICO) features an
annotation system which is also employed by the Virtual
Humanities Lab (VHL), a resource whose development plan
includes implementing a form of DME.
2. See LIMNER, for example: a site intended as a proof-of-concept
DME resource, still in an early stage.
Bibliography
Bauman, Syd. ""TEI HORSEing Around."" Proceedings of
Extreme Markup Languages 2005, Montréal, Québec, August
2005. 2005. <http://www.mulberrytech.com/Extr
eme/Proceedings/html/2005/Bauman01/EML200
5Bauman01.html>
Caton, Paul. ""Markup's Current Imbalance."" Markup
Languages: Theory and Practice 3.1 (2001).
DeRose, Steven. ""Markup Overlap: A Review and a Horse.""
Proceedings of Extreme Markup Languages 2004, Montréal,
Québec, August 2004. 2004. <http://www.mulberrytech.com/Extreme/Proceedings/xml/2004/DeRos
e01/EML2004DeRose01.html>
Digital Library Federation. TEI Text Encoding in Libraries:
Guidelines for Best Encoding Practices. Version 2.1. 2006. <h
ttp://www.diglib.org/standards/tei.htm#le
vel4>
LIMNER . . <http://golf.services.brown.edu/p
rojects/Limner/>
PICO . <http://www.stg.brown.edu/projects/p
ico/index.php>
Renear, Allen H., Pat Lawton, Christopher Phillippe, and David
Dubin. ""An XML Document Corresponds to which FRBR
Group 1 Entity?” ."" Proceedings of Extreme Markup Languages
2004, Montréal, Québec, August 2004. 2004. <http://www
.mulberrytech.com/Extreme/Proceedings/htm
l/2003/Lawton01/EML2003Lawton01.html>
TEI Lite . <http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines2/
index.xml.ID=lite>
Virtual Humanities Lab (VHL) . . <http://golf.servic
es.brown.edu/projects/VHL/>","txt","2","",""
"724","8","The WWW as Curricular Method in the Digital Humanities","","The National Panel Report released by the Association of
American Colleges and Universities (2002), calls for a
“dramatic reorganization of undergraduate education” to address
the challenges faced by higher education in a time of
transformation from an industrial to a knowledge-based society
(vii). The report states that “education practices invented when
education served only the few are increasingly disconnected
from the needs of contemporary students”(viii) and the demands
of citizens of a diverse and interconnected world.
The Report recommends an invigorated and practical liberal
education offering knowledge that all students, regardless of
backgrounds, fields, or chosen higher education institutions,
should acquire. The college student of the twenty-first century
needs to become an “intentional learner” who can thrive in a
complex world, and who can adapt to new environments,
integrate knowledge from different sources, and transform
information into knowledge and knowledge into judgment and
action (xi.). The Report urges an “end to the traditional, artificial
distinctions between liberal and practical education” and
advocates a kind of instruction and learning that looks beyond
the classroom to the world’s major questions” (xii).
The changing nature of colleges and universities and the
reconstruction of education it calls for is in great part
conditioned by what Douglas Kellner calls the “Great
Transformation,” powered by one of the most dramatic
technological revolutions in history (2003, 51). The revisioning
of higher education is increasingly seen in correlation with the
development of digital technologies, which are changing not
only traditional models of work, leisure and communication,
but also the nature of knowledge itself, as well as models of
acquiring and processing information cognitively. In the Report
it is asserted that the “intellectual and practical skills that
students need are extensive, sophisticated and expanding with
the explosion of new technologies” (xi). Like the AACU Report,
Kellner too argues that traditional and specialized aspects of
education need to be overcome in order to develop alternative
pedagogies and multiple “literacies” to meet the challenges of
an interconnected global society. The study of interrelationships,
connectivity, transfer, and integration, leading to the
development of critical judgment, is proposed as the basis of
the new liberal curriculum in all disciplines of the humanities. The five key concepts for the new curriculum are in fact not so
much concepts as they are markers of cognitive processes. As
such, the reform of higher education is to take place primarily
in terms of methodology of teaching. Given that “hypertext is
a mental process, as well as a digital tool” (Gilster, 137), and
the WWW is “an embodiment of human knowledge”(W3C),
exploring the relationships between cognition and technology
in the context of the new humanities and pedagogy can be
useful. I would like to suggest that the digital media offer a
useful concrete, but also a cognitive tool for teaching the five
processes that are to be the core of the new humanities. This
claim has theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically,
it calls for becoming more aware how the computer is altering
our ways of engaging with specific disciplinary questions
cognitively and methodologically (McCarty, 1). My concerns
in this paper, however, have to do with the practical applications
of the impact of digital media on cognition within the area of
the humanities. Practically, the claim calls for explicit
instruction within the context of each discipline in the methods
of organization and manipulability that underlie the presentation
of material on the WWW.
The main vehicle of the digital media, the WWW, in its nature
embodies, illustrates and enables through its functioning all
four of the processes suggested as the basis for the new liberal
curriculum--interrelationships, connectivity, transfer, and
integration. By their very nature “the new media technologies
externalize and objectify reasoning” (Manovich, 59). The
WWW resists attempts at standard systematization, and
demonstrates the co-existence of and interrelationships between
multiple and apparently contradictory perspectives on a single
issue. One GOOGLE keyword search will retrieve hundreds
of documents linked by one single term, but applied variously
in different contexts, emphasizing the importance and nature
of connectivity, transfer and integration.
In relation to a given subject of inquiry or task, the non-linearity
in the presentation of material and ideas on the WWW
encourages “intentional” involvement on the part of learners,
as there is no longer one “solution” or a single “interpretation,”
but a variety, all situated within their own context and
knowledge. In order to find solutions to given questions or
problems, learners have to engage in a process of discovering
connections among apparently disparate materials and contexts,
then find ways of transferring and integrating parts of materials
into a new context. The WWW also offers alternative models
of grouping materials, such as scaffolding, and it promotes the
idea that conceptual knowledge cannot be separated from the
contexts in which it is represented (Wiles and Littlejohn, 2003;
Campbell, 2004; Cole, 2000; Carr, 1998;). The ready
availability of various information on the WWW turns research
and interpretation not so much into an exercise that depends
upon finding information, but one that strongly emphasizes
cognitive operations depending on critical thinking:
classification of it (finding meaningful interrelationships) and
making use of it (transferring it) by arranging it meaningfully
in a give context (integrating it). Scholarship and instruction
in the humanities has always relied on these processes; however,
with computer connectivity and the speed with which these
processes happen, the WWW amplifies them, enables them
“physically” and “on-demand” and thus makes them more
explicitly and self-consciously “teachable” than before.
In addition, because the WWW offers multiple presentations
of information, it illustrates that knowledge and heuristics are
not absolute, but situated within various communities of
knowing. Conceptually there is no “closure” or “ending” online,
but rather a constant process of evaluation of materials (Rhodes
and Sawday, 12) that are open to revisions, additions and
remodeling. Becoming aware of the implications the nature of
the WWW has for understanding what constitutes knowledge,
argument, opinion, analysis and interpretation, leads to the
development of critical discernment, evaluative capacity and
judgment.
While traditional “mass education tended to see life in a linear
fashion based on print models and developed pedagogies which
broke experience into discrete moments and behavioral bits,”
a new critical pedagogy of the digital humanities could produce
skills that “enable individuals to better navigate the multiple
realm and challenges of contemporary life” (Kellner, 9). Making
the WWW, its capabilities and operating functions explicit
models of intentional learning can help educators in the digital
humanities illustrate how knowledge in the humanities is
positively affected by the digital medium, and how the new
pedagogy leads to learning as an active, social process bound
up with experience connected with wider socio-political
paradigms of change.
Bibliography
Greater Expectations: A New Vision for Learning as a Nation
Goes to College: National Panel Report. Washington, D.C.:
Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2002. <h
ttp://www.greaterexpectations.org>
Campbell, Kathy. E-ffective Writing for E-Learning
Environments. Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing,
2004.
Carr, Kevin Michael. Dissertation. University of Idaho, 1998.
Cole, Robert A., ed. Issues in Web-Based Pedagogy: a Critical
Primer . The Greenwood Educators Reference Collection.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000.
Gilster, Paul. Digital Literacy. New York: John Wiley, 1997. Kellner, Douglas. ""Toward a Critical Theory of Education.""
Democracy and Nature 9.1 (2003): 51-44.
Manovich, Lev. The Language of the New Media. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press, 2001.
McCarty, Williard. We Would Know How We Know What We
Know: Responding to the Computational Transformation of
the Humanities. Accessed 2004-05-06. <http://digital
humanities.org/views/Essays/WMcCartyCompu
tationalTransformation>
Rhodes, Neil, and Jonathan Sawday, eds. The Renaissance
Computer: Knowledge Technology in the First Age of Print .
London: Routledge, 2000.
Wiles, Kathy, and Allison Littlejohn. ""Supporting Sustainable
E-Learning: A UK National Forum."" Interact, Integrate, Impact:
Proceedings of the 20th Annual Conference of the Auatralasian
Society for Computers in Learning in Tertairy Education. Ed.
G. Crisp, et al. Adelaide, Australia, 2003.
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Definition of WWW.
retrieved from: <http://www.bitpipe.com/tlist/W
orld-Wide-Web.html>","txt","2","",""
"725","8","Expressing Complex Associations in Medieval Historical Documents: The Henry III Fine Rolls Project","","This paper will focus on the use of technologies
traditionally associated with knowledge management and
ontological representation to express complex associations
between entities in historical texts that have been marked up
in XML according to the Text Encoding Initiative guidelines.1
In particular, we will describe our exploration of the potential
use of RDF (Resource Description Framework)/OWL (Web
Ontology Language) technologies and will reflect on the role
of an ontology in facilitating the interpretation of implicit and
hidden associations in the sources, examining its use and limits
in a digital humanities project in connection with editing tools
and delivery issues.
We will demonstrate our findings based on the Henry III Fine
Rolls project,2 where an RDF ontology is being developed to
make explicit information about person, place and subject
entities marked up as “instances” in the core texts themselves.
The Henry III Fine Rolls project and
the need for authority lists
The Henry III Fine Rolls is a three-year collaborative
project between King's College London and the National Archives (UK) that aims to represent the complexity of a
historical object known as the 'fine rolls' which chart offers of
money made to King Henry III of England in exchange for a
wide range of concessions and favours. A total of 64 rolls
containing around 800 parchment membranes, one for almost
all of the fifty-six years of Henry III’s reign from 1216-72,
survive in the UK National Archives.3 Each fine roll was
compiled in Latin by a handful of scribes and taken as a body
of documentary evidence, the rolls are of “prime importance
in the study of political, social, and economic history and of
government and administration at a local and national level.”4
The project will cover the first thirty-two years of Henry III’s
reign down to 1248 and will result in both print and digital
editions of the rolls, using as a model the format of the
traditional printed 'calendar' (an English summary of records,
plus a set of indices) in connection with the digitised images
of the rolls themselves. The digital edition will have a
sophisticated search interface and both print and digital editions
will provide a series of indices for people, places and subjects
that include complex associations between the various entries.
The core texts were encoded in XML using the TEI guidelines
and include mark-up related to some aspects of the physical
structure of the rolls as material artefacts.5 Particular attention
has been given in the mark-up to the occurrences of names of
persons, places and institutions. Furthermore, the project
researchers have identified and marked-up relevant subjects in
the fine rolls. Therefore, while the general mark-up in TEI XML
provides a framework for theoretical analysis and practical
encoding of the text of the calendar as it is being edited and
summarised in English, the need for additional modelling has
emerged so as to:
• associate textual instances of the same person, subject
occurrence or place to their correspondent logical authority
—whether that be a person (identified or anonymous), a
subject class or a place;
• express the mutual relationships between the relevant
authorities (e.g. individuals, locations, institutions and
subjects).
Why RDF/OWL?
In previous work on projects requiring an expression of the
associations between sources in core texts marked up using
TEI XML we have taken more traditional approaches using
XML structures or relational databases to solve the problem,
but have increasingly found these wanting. There has been
some research in the TEI community in this area lately,
particularly around 'biographical and prosopographical data'6,
but at the time of writing this was not mature enough for us to
make a commitment to using it and in any case our attention
was drawn to other standards whose main objectives are closer
to what we are trying to achieve.
After conducting a comparative evaluation of possible standards
to create authority lists structures that included research into
RDF/OWL, Topic Maps and MADS (Metadata Authority
Description Schema), we opted for RDF/OWL.
The main reasons for this choice were the following:7
• RDF/OWL models provide a logical organisation of data
together with the possibility of a flexible manipulation of
meanings (e.g. rich expression of relationships among
objects/entities mentioned in the source text, where an
object/entity might be a person, a place or a subject);
• RDF/OWL decreases ambiguity by identifying unique
entities independently from their instances in a decentralised
way.
While the more practical advantages are that:
• as a set of standards which are at the heart of the Semantic
Web, RDF/OWL is internationally recognised and supported
- its models could facilitate the interconnection between
humanities computing projects in general and between
directly related data in particular;
• there is a relatively good selection of tools for RDF/OWL
compared to the other technologies that we have explored;
• RDF/OWL can be expressed in XML format, thus allowing
the re-purposing of data for web delivery (e.g. creation of
indices through the use of XSLT).
Ontology: Structure, Tool and
Delivery
The RDF schema and OWL are used to define the
knowledge domain around the core materials on the
project (the fine rolls) using classes and predicates. Already
existing predicates are used as extensively as possible (e.g.
CIDOC-CRM, Dublin Core, Friend of a Friend, Simple
Knowledge Organization System).
The connection between the TEI source files and the ontology
play an important role in our model.8 Indeed the XML files not
only feed the ontology with some data (e.g. variants of a certain
person name), but they are themselves part of the ontological
model. The fact that they exhibit names and assert facts related
to those names can be modelled in the ontology together with
the statement that a person name (proper name or in general
reference string) is associated to a specific person as an instance
of the entity person (e.g. that has a gender, a possible status
etc.). Quoting Eide,9 we include “explicit statements of the
sources of the assertions exhibited in the text”: The concrete connection between the XML files and the
ontology is maintained through the use of identifiers, as in the
example below:
<persName key=""arsic_robert""> Robert Arsic
< / p e r s N a m e > → < f r h 3 : M a n
rdf:ID=""arsic_robert""> … </frh3:Man>
Evidently, the value and granularity of the ontology depends
on various factors, which include the richness of the source
files themselves (e.g. how well do the fine rolls express the
reality of the roles/occupations in the thirteenth century?), the
specific interests of the researchers (e.g. in the types of fines
rather than in the amount of money they keep record of) and
the definability of the knowledge domain itself (as shown in
the contrast between the identification of individuals and the
much more blurred identification of subjects).
In addition to expressing complex associations in an abstract
intellectual sense, it was also crucial to the project to create a
system endowed with sophisticated facilities for editing and
final publication. We will describe our experience in creating
such tools, in particular taking into account such project
requirements as:
• the facilities for managing/editing data: the addition of new
information, new classes/predicates/literal values; the
definition of relationships between entries, the possibility
to merge instances of classes or subclasses (e.g. while
editing we may realise that person A and B are actually the
same);
• the connection and synchronisation between the ontology
structure and data on the one hand, and the TEI source files
on the other (e.g. links from classes in authority list to actual
references to those classes as exhibited in the mark-up);
• the facility to browse information alphabetically or
categorised in some way (e.g. by date, county, role, kind of
relation) and to search for particular associations as
expressed in the ontology (e.g. all the locations connected
to the person called 'Robert Arsic' or all the relatives of
Robert Arsic).
Conclusions
In the case of the fine rolls (as is true of many projects
involving complex primary sources) it is not enough to
mark-up an occurrence of a person name if you wish to create
complex indices or to create structured search functions.
Moreover, an authority-based approach is essential in order to
make the resource interoperable; external authority lists are
needed to record information in a systematic, comprehensive
and possibly standardised way, so as to:
• store additional information related to persons, places and
subject (exhibited and marked up as corresponding instances
in the TEI XML files);
• make explicit the multiple connections between places,
persons and subjects;
• merge or disambiguate identifications and eventually correct
the original mark-up of the rolls.
Our paper will describe how, for the Henry III Fine Rolls
project, an RDF/OWL ontology was used to model complex
associations and how this has assisted the project researchers
in the interpretation of the material they are editing and
facilitated the production of a digital resource that will allow
future users to browse the material under different perspectives,
to explore the relationships among mentioned individuals,
locations and subjects, and to foster new understandings.
1. <http://www.tei-c.org>
2. <http://www.frh3.org.uk>
3. <http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/>
4. Dryburgh, Paul. “Henry III Fine Rolls Project” (paper presented
at the Institute of Historical Research, London , February, 9, 2006).
5. For a more detailed presentation of the mark-up model see Ciula,
Arianna. “Searching the Fine Rolls: A Demonstration of the
Electronic Version” (paper presented at the International Medieval
Congress, University of Leeds, July 10-13, 2006).
6. See “Biographical and Prosopographical Data”. In
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and Burnard, Lou, eds. ""TEI P5
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange"". <ht
tp://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-d
oc/html/ND.html#NDPERS> (accessed 15 November
2006). 7. OWL is a language developed on top of RDF by W3C to write
ontologies. For W3C RDF specifications on RDF see <http:
//www.w3.org/RDF/>. For an overview and further
resources on OWL see <http://www.w3.org/2001/s
w/>
8. For a similar approach see Eide, Øyvind and Ore, Christen-Emil.
“TEI, CIDOC-CRM and a Possible Interface between the Two”
(paper presented at Digital Humanities 2006, Université
Paris-Sorbonne, July 5-9, 2006) <http://www.allc-ac
h2006.colloques.paris-sorbonne.fr/DHs.p
df>.
9. Eide, Øyvind. “The Exhibition Problem. A Real Life Example
with a Suggested Solution” (paper presented at Digital Humanities
2006, Université Paris-Sorbonne, July 5-9, 2006) <http://w
ww.allc-ach2006.colloques.paris-sorbonn
e.fr/DHs.pdf>.
Bibliography
Boot, Peter. ""Decoding Emblem Semantics."" Literary &
Linguistic Computing 21(Supplement 1) (2006): 15-27.
Ciula, Arianna. ""Searching the Fine Rolls: A Demonstration
of the Electronic Version."" Paper presented to the International
Medieval Congress 2006, University of Leeds, July 10-13,
2003.
Dryburgh, Paul. ""Henry III Fine Rolls Project."" Paper presented
to the Institute of Historical Research, London , February 9,
2006.
Eide, Øyvind. ""The Exhibition Problem. A Real Life Example
with a Suggested Solution."" Paper presented at Digital
Humanities 2006, Université Paris-Sorbonne, July 5-9, 2006.
Abstract available at <http://www.allc-ach2006.co
lloques.paris-sorbonne.fr/DHs.pdf> (accessed
15 November 2006).
Eide, Øyvind, and Christian-Emil Ore. ""TEI, CIDOC-CRM
and a Possible Interface between the Two."" Paper presented at
Digital Humanities 2006, Université Paris-Sorbonne, July 5-9,
2006. Abstract available at <http://www.allc-ach200
6.colloques.paris-sorbonne.fr/DHs.pdf>
(accessed 15 November 2006).
Poupeau, Gautier. ""De l’index nominum à l’ontologie. Comment
mettre en lumière les réseaux sociaux dans les corpus
historiques numériques?"" Paper presented at Digital Humanities
2006, Université Paris-Sorbonne, July 5-9, 2006. Abstract
available at <http://www.allc-ach2006.colloque
s.paris-sorbonne.fr/DHs.pdf>(accessed 15
November 2006).
Spence, Paul. ""The Henry III Fine Rolls Project."" Paper
presented at Digital Humanities 2006, Université
Paris-Sorbonne, July 5-9, 2006. Abstract available at <http:
//www.allc-ach2006.colloques.paris-sorbon
ne.fr/DHs.pdf> (accessed 15 November 2006).
""Biographical and Prosopographical Data."" TEI P5: Guidelines
for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Ed. C. M.
Sperberg-McQueen and Lou Burnard. Accessed 2006-11-15.
<http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-
doc/html/>
Tuohy, Conal. ""Using XML Topic Maps to Present TEI."" Paper
presented at the 5th TEI Meeting, Sofia, Octobery 28-29, 2005.","txt","2","",""
"726","8","'Something that is interesting is interesting them': Using Text Mining and Visualizations to Aid Interpreting Repetition in Gertrude Stein's The Making of Americans","1","With The Making of Americans1, Stein’s goal was to
record “being” as it is manifested in repetition. Lauded
by some critics who thought Stein accomplished what T.S. Eliot
demanded of all writers—to make art, literature, and language
“new”—she was also criticized by others like Malcolm Cowley
who said Stein’s “experiments in grammar” made her novel
“one of the hardest books to read from beginning to end that
has ever been published.”2 More recent critics have attempted
to aid interpretation by charting the correspondence between
structures of repetition and the novel’s discussion of identity
and representation. Yet, the use of repetition in The Making of
Americans is far more complicated than manual practices or
traditional word-analysis programs (such as those that make
concordances or measure word-frequency occurrence) could
indicate. The text’s large size (almost 900 pages and 3183
paragraphs), its particular philosophical trajectory, and its
complex patterns of repetition make it a useful case study for
analyzing the interplay between the development of text mining
tools and the hermeneutics employed in interpreting literary
texts in general.
The reason that text mining procedures might be particularly
illuminating for Stein’s The Making of Americans is not that
these procedures make reading the text easier or because text
mining might “solve” a literary conundrum. In fact, such a
reductive approach would be very uninteresting to the literary
scholar. Many Stein critics argue that the “difficulty” the
repetition engenders in The Making of Americans is valuable
precisely because it is rooted in indeterminacy: that is, the text’s
use of repetition represents a postmodernist project that
challenges readerly subjectivity and deconstructs the role
language and the process of writing plays in determining
meaning. The more “difficult” the text is to read, the more it
meets its philosophical goals of making the reader question
acts of representation and interpretation in general. Thus the
text mining process is useful for literary analysis for three
reasons:
1. Text mining may be used to determine relationships (clusters
and patterns) in large bodies of data (in this case, the
confusing network of Stein’s repetitions ).
2. Text mining can be used to identify relationships within the
text that are not predetermined by meaning but are based
on structural elements of the content (such as repetitive
phrases or words).
3. Text mining also requires “subjective human evaluation”
as an essential part of the analytical process.3
Analyzing The Making of Americans has already provided rich
opportunities for thinking about both tool development and
processes of literary analysis. For example, initial analyses on
the text using the Data to Knowledge (D2K) application
environment for data mining4 (which was used in the nora
project5) has yielded clusters based on the existence of frequent
patterns. Instead of using single words for analyzing the text,
the features used were phrases (i.e. ngrams). Executing a
frequent pattern analysis algorithm6 produced a list of patterns
of the phrases co-occurring frequently in paragraphs. This
frequent pattern analysis generated thousands of patterns
because slight variations generated a new pattern. Because the
number of frequent patterns was so large, another algorithm
was applied that clustered these frequent patterns.7Although
the analytics that were used are sophisticated, the results are
not presented in a manner that makes them easy for scholars to understand. For example, one cluster has 85 frequent patterns
(see Figure 1). A scholar could piece clustered phrases back
together to form a longer repetitive phrase (“part of Gossols
where no other rich people were living”), but this is difficult,
and, in addition, the results do not indicate where the phrase
occurs in the document. The impact of Stein’s repetition, after
all, is always contingent on context, on what comes before and
after a particular string of letters, on what those strings (or
words) mean in the context of a sentence, a paragraph, and the
larger narrative or project according both to Stein and to the
scholar/user’s theoretical perspective.
Thus, this first attempt at producing clusters was only
marginally useful for scholarly study because the rules by which
the items are clustered are not readily apparent and the results
are detached from the context of the text. One method for
helping scholars understand the rules is by including the scholar
in identifying the features by which the frequent patterns are
determined. For instance, she could develop a “productive”
question about the text, a question that correlates to specific
linguistic and narrative features that can be extracted and
eventually mined. For example, a question might be: how do
linguistic and syntactic variations reflect, advance, or deter
from the progression of the text’s more abstract features such
as argument and narrative? Specifically, do changes in repetition
correspond to the novel’s evolving theories about identity and
representation? And how? Features which might be considered
include, but are not limited to, repetition across words and
phrases (including “trivial” and “motivated” recurrences);8
grammatical features (such as shifting perspectives, oscillating
verb-tenses, or dropped pronoun referents); syntactic features
(such as diagrammic versus run-on or fragmented sentences);
and narrative features (such as shifts between description or
“telling” and narrative or “showing”). More work needs to be
done to create the features described above for use in the
analytics. This paper will discuss our attempts to augment these
analyses.
In addition, in order to link these patterns back to the context,
it is essential to develop an environment that facilitates a
self-reflective, critical evaluation of the scholar’s theoretical
perspective and ultimately, her ability to influence how data is
culled, to assert what Ben Shneiderman has called “user
control.” Thus, the text’s features must be visualized in a
meaningful way so the scholar can “see” the text mining results
and engage with the techniques to improve the results. For
instance, in our first attempt, we created frequent patterns
without using stemming. After reviewing the list of results, we
realized that stemming was valuable to regulate pluralism, verb
tense, etc. Stemming was deployed. Our experience with the
norainterface has also demonstrated that providing easy access
to context within the text is important to understanding the
results of classification algorithms—a task which is relatively
easy when the entire text is a short poem (see Figure 2). A
scholar who is attempting to study repetition across the
900-page text, however, needs new ways to access the context
of each instance of repetition. She needs tools that take her
beyond searching tools which list the context of a single line
(see Figure 3 for results using “grep” on a file). To this end,
we have explored various visualization methods such as a
weighted centroid (Figure 4), a scatterplot (Figure 5), a heat
map (Figure 6), and a line graph (Figure 7).After our team
considered the advantages and disadvantages of each of these
tools, Anthony Don led the effort to design FeatureLens (Figure
8), a tool which allows the user to see features derived from
text mining results within the context of the original text. This
tool will serve as the main focus of this talk.
Ben Shneiderman calls the powerful combination of text mining
and visualization, “discovery” based because it empowers users
“to specify what they are seeking and what they find
interesting.”9 Gertrude Stein has this to say about the same
topic:
It is very likely that nearly every one has been very nearly certain
that something that is interesting is interesting them . . . The only
thing that is different from one time to another is what is seen and
what is seen depends upon how everybody is doing everything.
This makes the thing we are looking at very different and this
makes what those describe it make of it, it makes a composition,
it confuses, it shows, it is, it looks, it likes it as it is, and this makes
what is seen as it is seen.10
Text mining allows the literary scholar to “see” the text
“differently” by facilitating analytical approaches that chart
repetition across thousands of paragraphs and visualizations
that empower her to tweak the results, focus her search, and
ultimately (re)discover “something that is interesting.” This
paper will discuss how this process of analyzing repetition in
The Making of Americans has impacted the ways in which nora
has combined text mining and visualization applications.
Figure 1: A list of frequent patterns for one cluster Figure 2: With the nora interface, users can review the results of the data
mining, see which documents contain the feature words returned by the
algorithm, and see the location of the words in a selected document. ()
Figure 3: Identifying repetition as it emerges in a list of frequent pattern clusters
in a simple ""grep"" text file.
Figure 4: Using Text Arc, we are able to see where the word ""Repeating"" is
repeated throughout the entire second section of The Making of Americans.
The text of the section is represented by the lines in the outer ring. The word
""repeating"" is situated in the circle according to where it appears most often
in the outer ring; the green lines represent lines in which the word appears;
and the orange lines point to word's occurrence in those lines. ()
Figure 5: Common phrases displayed on a scatterplot, with frequencies in
section 1 on the X axis and frequency in section 2 on the Y axis. We can see
than ""men and women"" and ""I was saying"" is a lot more common than any
other phrases, and used equally in both sections. ()
Figure 6: This heat map allows us to compare the frequency of phrases in five
sections. Each line is a different phrase. The red lines show when a phrase
occurs more than 100 times in a section. ()
Figure 7: This line graph shows frequent phrases compared across five sections.
Each line represents a different phrase. Here we can immediately see that ""men
and women"" appears almost as frequently in two sections of the text. () 1. Gertrude Stein, The Making of the Americas: Being a History of
a Family's Progress, (Normal, IL: Dalkey Archive Press, 1995).
First published by Contact Editions, Paris, 1925.
2. Malcolm Cowley, ""Gertrude Stein, Writer or Word Scientist"" The
Critical Response to Gertrude Stein, (Westport, CT: Greenwood
Press, 2000): 148.
3. This description of text mining is detailed further in Sholom M.
Weiss et al., Text Mining: Predictive Methods for Analyzing
Unstructured Information, (New York: Springer Science+Business
Media, Inc., 2005)
4. Developed by the Automated Learning Group (ALG) at the
National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA),
alg.ncsa.uiuc.edu
5. The nora project (www.noraproject.org) is a Mellon-funded
collaborative (including computing, design, library science, andd
English departments at the University of Alberta; University of
Illinois, Urbana-Champaign; University of Maryland; University
of Nebraska; and the University of Virginia) which is developing
text mining and visualization software in order to ""explore
significant patterns across large collections of full-text humanities
resources.""
6. J. Pei, J. Han, R. Mao, ""CLOSET: An Efficient Algorithm for
Mining Frequent Closed Itemsets (PDF)"", Proceedings of the
2000 ACM-SIGMOD International Workshop on Data Mining
and Knowledge Discovery (DMKD'00), Dallas, TX, May 2000.
7. Xifeng Yan, Hong Cheng, Jiawei Han, and Dong Xin,
""Summarizing Itemset Patterns: A Profile-Based Approach,""
Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Knowledge
Discovery and Data Mining (KDD 05), Chicago, IL, August 2005.
8. ""Trivial"" and ""motivated"" recurrences are used by Calvin Brown
in his book Repetition in Zola's Novels, (Athens, GA: University
of Georgia Press, 1952). Examples of such recurrences include
""tags"" (repeated descriptions such as ""her face was worn, her
cheeks were thin,"" ""her worn, thin, lined determined face,"" ""her
lined, worn, thin, pale yellow face""), ""key passages"" (a relatively
long repetition of a fundamental idea) and ""hammer word"" (a
strong or exclusive obsession with any single idea).
9. Ben Shneiderman, ""Inventing Discovery Tools: Combining
Information Visualization with Data Mining."" Information
Visualization 1.1 (2002): 11.
10. Gertrude Stein, Composition as Explanation, (London: The
Hogarth Press, 1926). Accessed 2006-11-01. <http://www.
centerforbookculture.org/context/no8/st
ein.html>
Page","txt","2","",""
"727","8","Extending PhiloLogic","","This presentation will demonstrate how PhiloLogic 31 uses
a mixed processing mode to leverage both the efficiency
of relational databases and the richness of TEI-XML encoding.
We will discuss the specific scripting and database techniques
used to enable fast execution of object level searches on large
collections of electronic texts. We will also show how this
stand-off model can be extended to allow for more complex
nested object and word searching.
By way of background and context, PhiloLogic is a full-text
search, analysis, and retrieval tool developed by the ARTFL
Project and the Digital Library Development Center at the
University of Chicago. The main purpose of PhiloLogic is to
run word searches on large corpora of literary texts and to
display results quickly. The system supports full boolean and
proximity searches and provides a number of reporting
functions, including KWICs, collocation tables and a variety
of word frequency breakdowns. To achieve the required speed,
PhiloLogic pre-indexes each word, storing byte offsets in a flat
file. PhiloLogic handles document structure, currently extending
down to seven levels of depth, in a similar manner, abstracting
a structure by assigning numbers to each nested object-level of
each document. Thus, on the general continuum of database
systems, from pure (or native) XML systems like eXist to
traditional SQL systems like MySQL, PhiloLogic falls
somewhere in the middle.2 It is not just a word search engine.
Rather, it uses an abstract representation of document structure,
shredding the XML into sets of related database tables. This
means that PhiloLogic can process TEI-XML or a variety of
other document encoding schemes by extracting structural
information from available text tagging. Storing both
bibliographic data and object-level data in SQL tables,
PhiloLogic can search document structure and refine word
searching by using the shredded XML.
In the first part of our presentation, we will explain how
PhiloLogic stores object-level data in MySQL for flexible and
speedy results retrieval. PhiloLogic extracts metadata at various
object depths from full-text documents and outputs that data
into flat files. Called dividx.raw and subdividx.raw, these flat
files contain object-level addresses and attributes of those
objects. These flat files can be loaded into MySQL either
manually, after PhiloLogic indexing finishes, or automatically,
using the generated SQL scripts, load.database.sql and
load.subdoctables.sql. When the user then executes a div-level
search, the PhiloLogic search engine queries these tables,
refining search results dynamically.
The user can thus limit searches to individual speakers, speaker
genders, or other meta-characteristics, within a corpus of plays,
a selection of acts, or even within scenes in individual works.
Here is an example of dividx.raw from a database of plays:
5:1 Characters castlist 5
The first field contains the document id and the object-level
separated by a colon. Here, counting up from zero, this is the
first subobject in the sixth text. The second field contains the
object header. The third denotes what kind of object it is, as
specified in the type attribute of the div tag. The last field
contains the document id again. The file subdividx contains
data about lower level objects, such as individual speakers'
speeches:
0:2:0:0:3 speaker CH00016 Lizette Grimaud F
Businessman's wife French White Heterosexual 0
Once again, the first field contains the specific address of the
object. The second field denotes that the object is a speaker tag.
The rest of the fields contain metadata about the specific
character. These stand-off tables allow the user to delimit word
searches by speaker and speaker characteristics.
When applied to digitized dictionaries, this functionality allows
the user to restrict searching to headwords, as opposed to article
or entry bodies. A line from the divindex.raw from an Urdu
dictionary:
0:1:538 अपुष्पित apushpit article अपुष्पित _apushpit 0 0 The first field, of course, is the object address for the headword.
The following fields contain the headword in both romanized
and UTF-8 formats.
In the second part of the presentation, we will show how
PhiloLogic can be modified to talk to standoff concordance
tables, not loaded into MySQL, that enable the user to search
for alternate and variant forms of words. The indexing engine
creates a flat, single-field concordance file, called words.R,
containing the surface forms of every word in a database. After
the load, the database administrator can run a simple script on
this file to convert it into a multi-field table, called
words.R.wom. By making a few standard edits to the word
exploder, crapser, searches can be executed for simplified,
lemmatized, or transliterated forms of each word. To cite an
example from a collection of classical Greek texts, the
words.R.wom file has fields that contain a non-accented Greek
form of the word, the original form, and a romanized form:
συναγαπαν συναγαπ􀀀ν sunagapan
Any of these forms can be entered into the keyword search field
to find the original, indexed word. On the search page, the user
clicks a radio button to indicate which form she is entering.
This selection triggers a subroutine in the word exploder that
finds the entered form in words.R.wom, finally passing the
indexed form to the search engine.
The extensions discussed above have been fully implemented
to address the needs of particular projects. Looking forward,
we have begun work on a new extension to the core PhiloLogic
system to support several text mining tasks in conjunction with
the standard full-text analysis capabilties. This effort, currently
named ""Philomine,""3 will allow users to do perform text mining
tasks on user selected subsets of a PhiloLogic database,
facilitating comparative analyses of stylistic and content features
at the document level. The first stage will use a set of freely
avilable Perl modules, including SVMLight, naive-Bayesian,
and decision tree modules. This will give the user a choice of
algorithms when running data mining experiments. Result sets
will be linked to the search functions of PhiloLogic, allowing
for rapid inspection of text mining results. We hope that
PhiloLogic extensions, coupled with these widely tested
machine learning tools, will allow humanists to bring a new
level of computational rigor to textual analysis and to broaden
its scope, revealing differences and similarities across large
textual corpora.
1. PhiloLogic is an open source software for Linux, OS-X, and Solaris
systems used by a number of Digital Humanities projects. Please
consult <http://philologic.uchicago.edu/>
for additional information and recent releases.
2. For more on XML versus relational database systems, and options
in between, see these articles: ""Comparing XML and relational
storage: A best practices guide,"" March 2005; Davies, Mark, ""The
advantage of using relational databases for large corpora: Speed,
advanced queries, and unlimited annotation"", International Journal
of Corpus Linguistics, Volume 10, Number 3, 2005, pp. 307-334;
Lapis, George, ""XML and Relational Storage – Are they mutually
exclusive?"", XTech 2005: XML, the Web and beyond, May 25-7,
Amsterdam; Pardede, E., Rahayu, J.W., and Taniar, D.,
""Preserving Composition in XML Object Relational Storage"",
19th International Conference on Advanced Information
Networking and Applications (AINA 2005), 2, IEEE Computer
Society, pp. 695-700, Taipei, Taiwan.
3. Suggested pronunciation: ""Feelomeen,"" like the French feminine
name.","txt","2","",""
"728","8","The Anthropology of Knowledge: From Basic to Complex Virtual Communities in the Arts and Humanities","","An online community may be defined very simply as any group
of people who collaborate regularly and/or formally using
internet technologies. Such communities are becoming
increasingly important in arts and humanities research. They
include blogs, wikis, mailing lists and other such fora. The
Jiscmail and Listserv services (<http://www.jiscmail
.ac.uk; http://www.lsoft.com>), and the availability
of well-known open source wiki and blog software (e.g. <ht
tp://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/MediaWiki> and
<http://twiki.org>) have made it so easy to establish
online communities that most projects in the digital and
humanities now have one of some kind or another. However
such fora are founded on relatively basic technologies. The
various arts and humanities e-science and cyberinfrastructure
programmes underway in many countries offer huge
opportunities to enable online communities in ways that go far
beyond what is generally available now. These approaches will
be based on incomparably more complex tools, methods and
technologies such as Virtual Organizations (VOs), Virtual
Research Environments (see <http://www.ahessc.ac.
uk/briefing-paper>) collaborative virtual workspaces,
and Semantic Web. If these tools, methods and technologies
are to be exploited by practice-led arts researchers and
humanists to the greatest effect, they will need to be grounded
in a strategic, rigorous and systematic understanding of the
behaviours of current online communities, as complex online
systems will clearly evolve from collaboration tools currently
in use. The proposed paper will offer an overview of current
usage of various online fora, and propose a high-level mapping
from that overview onto the capabilities of the e-science-based
collaborative systems of the future, such as MyVocs (<http
://www.myvocs.org/>).
Of immediate importance to the humanities are VREs, as they
help geographically dispersed research groups to come together
in virtual laboratories that allow modelling and experimentation
as much as discussion of research results. The e-Science concept
of a Virtual Organisation on the other hand is seen as a set of
institutions and/or individuals defined by resource sharing
policies. 1 A VO is a community with the will to share resources
and information across the internet, while VREs enable VOs
by adding tools and methods that help the community to work
together and share resources in a secure manner. VREs attempt
to bring together researchers across disciplines and
administrative boundaries. Many argue that humanities
computing in general constitutes such an attempt, where the
‘glue’ is to find ‘methodological commons’2 to present the
disciplinary kinships among different disciplines in the
humanities and in computing. A hi-tech VRE for arts and
humanities computing could therefore make these computational
methods the subject of online discussions enabled by advanced
information discovery technologies. As a case study, this paper
will report on our efforts to set up such a VRE.
The Arts and Humanities e-Science Support Centre (AHESSC)
is in regular and direct contact with many online communities,
and is in an excellent position to offer an overview. We will
present findings from detailed research on the recent history of
a range of existing discussion fora. These will include both
moderated and unmoderated groups critically and qualitatively
assessing the difference this makes, and extrapolate an agenda
for the management systems needed for VREs. We will examine
both direct and indirect links between messages, semantic
commonalities, disciplinary vocabularies and threading patterns,
and hyperlinking behaviour. We will also examine other
well-established wiki and blog communities of relevance to the
humanities in much the same way. The paper will draw out
commonalities, identify points of conflict and the reasons
underlying them, the implementation and practice of
“netiquette’ codes, and the importance of sustaining archives
and maintaining access to them. We argue that regardless of
the technology, these are essential questions if the adoption of
advanced collaborative tools is to be a success. A key remit of
AHeSSC itself is to help develop a community of e-science
‘early adopters’, and the research presented forms a central part
of this mission. We believe that more complex collaborative
technologies will not only enable the transmission of
‘traditional’ scholarly communication in the form of text and
images as in the current basic systems; but also they will
facilitate access to large scale, complex and fuzzy data, and
allow scholars to work together in real time with that data. For
example, instead of sending a complex dataset as an email
attachment to a group whose members then manipulate it
according to their expertise and locally available software, and
then send it back to the originator, the new architectures will
allow two or (many) more to work on it in real time, to discuss
it, expose it to analytical tools, and to annotate it online, whilst
preserving a complete record of the workflow. We will show
how close critical analysis of the existing lo-tech systems should
inform the design of such architectures. This will be illustrated by considering a VRE for arts and
humanities computing methodologies for which funding is
currently being sought. This project will continue the
community building efforts of the UK’s AHRC ICT Methods
Network (see <http://www.methodsnetwork.ac.u
k>), with a taxonomy of computational methods developed by
the Arts and Humanities Data Service (see <http://ahds
.ac.uk/about/projects/documents/pmdb_taxo
nomy_v1_3_1.pdf>). This is seen as a first step to build a
semantically enriched VRE, using the taxonomy as the
foundation of an ontology. The taxonomy will be verified
against papers from online databases or websites presenting
tools and methods. Ontological approaches are used that allow
not only the semantic integration of different text and
multimedia resources, but also the tracking of exchanged
arguments that help users better understand decisions about
methodologies. Our paper will illustrate the evolutionary
relationship between an advanced environment such as this,
and the basic environments with which we are all familiar. 1. Foster and C. Kesselman, The Grid 2: Blueprint for a new
computing infrastructure, (Morgan-Kaufmann, 2004).
2. See Willard McCarty Humanities Computing, (Basingstoke:
Palgrave McMillan, 2005).","txt","2","",""
"729","8","Open Source and Digital Humanities","","Funding agencies such as NEH and AHRC have clearly
stated that the open source approach to digital humanities
work is necessary for both short-term financial support of
projects and long-term success of digital humanities work.
However, both agencies have predominantly emphasized the
creation of open source projects rather than asking scholars to
consider the possibilities offered when projects tap into the use
of externally produced open source software. Even less
emphasis has been placed on how academic projects might
structure projects to invite participation from the open source
development community.
There are excellent examples of groups that have modeled the
importance of open source methodologies in Digital Humanities
including the TEI/XML movement to standardize an XML
appropriate to humanities projects and NINES, currently
developing open source tools for use by the broader community.
Less common, however, is the exploration of how we might
engage the developer community with our work. Examples
abound in the larger technology framework. BBC’s Backstage
movement has created a model that asks a free developer
community to produce vast numbers of prototypes based on
existing RSS feeds and open source software. This movement
provides a possible model and possible interfaces that could
benefit digital humanities work. OSCON (Open Source
Convention) offers another possible model. While academics
struggle to find the appropriate tools for digital humanities and
appropriate standardization practices within the context of
academic restraints (budget and promotion issues in particular),
we might consider how to engage the broader open source developer community and how to rewrite and use open source
software for our digital humanities projects.
This panel will explore various approaches to engaging with
open source software and development. As is fitting for a panel
that looks to engage a non-academic audience in the
development of our projects, we have put together three papers
from diverse contributors: a linguist interested in the use of
open source software for text mining; a literary scholar
interested in testing open source programs such as Ruby on
Rails and Google maps, in a digital archive; and a computer
programmer who has actively worked with the open source
development community, and OSCON in particular, over the
past 10 years. The panel participants will discuss the use of
particular pieces of software, benefits and limitations of such
approaches, ways to open digital humanities work to a broader
development community, and how to engage the open source
development community in our work.
Text Mining and Computer-Assisted Thematic
Analysis: Using Open-Source Software to Discover
Knowledge from Unstructured Documents
Dominic Forest
During the last decades, many humanities research initiatives
have been concentrating their efforts on digitalizing large
amounts of text (British National Corpus, Brown corpus,
Gallica project, Oxford Text Archive, etc.). Simultaneously,
technologies were developed for more accurate and faster
digitalization processes, and for more flexible and robust digital
document encoding (XML), storing and retrieval. In the last
years, some results of these digitalization initiatives have been
made available on various supports and in many digital formats.
Digitalization initiatives partly motivated the need for robust
large-scale text analysis software.
The development of text analysis tools has been influenced
(and has often integrated) concepts and techniques from many
academic fields. Among the main disciplines involved in the
conception and development of text analysis software, we find
linguistics (natural language processing), information science,
and computer science. However, in the last years important
research developments in the general field of text analysis
emerged from the areas of data analysis, artificial intelligence
and machine learning. Initially, the concepts and techniques
developed in these areas where mostly applied on numerical
data. This led to a rapidly growing research area known as “data
mining”. The primary objective of data mining tools is to rapidly
extract valuable (and previously unknown) information from
large sets of quantitative data. Many researchers, mostly familiar
with the information retrieval community, saw the potential of
this emerging technology in the domain of text analysis. The
application of data mining concepts and techniques on large
textual databases quickly became an active interdisciplinary
research field known as “text mining”.
Although some more or less efficient commercial text mining
software is becoming available, these tools suffer from two
main problems in an academic research context. First,
commercial text mining suites are very expensive and therefore
have not been fully integrated in academic practices. Secondly,
and more importantly, these suites have been conceived in order
to mainly assist business-related text mining tasks. They are
not adapted to the variety and specificity of humanities
academic research. Nevertheless, very recent academic projects
have started to explore the potential of text mining techniques
applied to large humanities and social sciences corpora. These
research initiatives are mainly based on open-source text mining
modules.
The objectives of our talk are 1) to report an experiment in
which we use open- source text mining tools to assist thematic
analysis from unstructured texts and 2) identify the benefits
and limits of using open-source text mining tools in the context
of text analysis tasks in the humanities.
Our talk will be divided in three main parts. In the first part,
we will present the fundamental concepts and techniques of
text mining. More specifically, we will present how two
fundamental knowledge discovery processes (text clustering
and text categorization) can be assisted – and in some cases
accomplished automatically – using state-of-the-art text mining
techniques.
The second part will be dedicated to the presentation of a
specific text mining methodology to assist thematic analysis
of unstructured documents. This methodology is composed of
four main steps: 1) text pre-processing, 2) text transformation
using vector-space model, 3) knowledge discovery (using
clustering or categorisation processes), and 4) thematic analysis.
In this part, we will present each step in details and we will
present open-source text mining tools that can accomplish each
process.
In the third part, we will report the main results obtained using
this four-step methodology on a Belgian newspaper corpus.
In conclusion, based on experiments using open-source text
mining technology, we will identify and discuss some benefits
and limits of open-source text mining tools in the context of
humanities text analysis. An Open-Source Approach to Digital Humanities:
Testing the Limits of Open Source Ideology in the
19th-Century Concord Digital Archive
Amy Earhart
The 19th-Century Concord Digital Archive collaborators are
exploring the utilization of a wide variety of open source tools
in archive construction as well as following a distribution
method that will encourage the participation of an open source
development community. As the 19th-Century Concord Digital
Archive nears beta test (Summer 2007), it seems an appropriate
moment to consider the impact of the open source ideology of
the project. A core value of many of the currently produced
digital humanities projects is an open and free archive. This
approach generally implies that users experience the free use
of archive materials delivered through the web and, in rare
instances, the development of open source tools that may be
applicable to projects that use similar standards, such as
TEI/XML. What has been given little attention, both in practice
and in theory, has been a careful consideration of how
non-academic open source programs might be leveraged for
digital humanities projects, particularly digital archives, and
what the positive and negative impact of such an approach
might be. Using the Digital Concord project as a test case, the
paper examines the possibilities offered by contemporary
web-based technologies. This paper will discuss two such
possible non-academic open source tools as well as planning
practices. The presentation will then extrapolate from the
experience of archive development to generalize some of the
ways that non-academic open source approaches might
positively and negatively impact digital humanities.
Of the various non-academic open source applications in use
in the construction of the Digital Concord archive, this paper
will focus on the two: Ruby on Rails and Google Map Hacks.
Ruby on Rails
Ruby on Rails has produced some of the hottest buzz of recent
open source technologies. Rails is a web application framework
that not only offers amazing capabilities, but has attracted some
of the best and brightest of the open source development
community. It is particularly useful to digital humanities work
because it shows remarkable promise for rapid development
of real world applications and works well with TEI/XML,
relational databases, and RDF, a means of relating disparate
information. And, given the interest in Rails, the development
community has begun development of a broad set of beta
programs that, with some modification, might prove helpful to
our current digital humanities work. During the presentation,
I will highlight some of the uses that Rails offers and discuss
positive and negative impacts of the approach.
Google Map Hacks
In an attempt to provide multiple user interfaces and remedy
the lack of responsiveness to a user experience with some digital
humanities work, the Digital Concord project has sought to
develop multiple interfaces. One such interface is visual and
based on a manipulation of Google Maps. While GIS is a
well-developed tool and has been applied to some digital
humanities projects, there are other tools that might be of greater
use to digital humanists due to cost, development, and specific
disciplinary needs. Rather than rely on GIS tools, the Concord
archive experiments with programs that are under development
in an open source community in the expectation that such an
approach will offer a way for academics to tap into a previously
unexplored group of participants and developers. The advances
made by individuals interested in such maps are ongoing;
projects chronicled at the blog “Google Maps Mania” <http
://googlemapsmania.blogspot.com/> show the
possibilities for incorporating Google maps with a variety of
data. Using the Concord interface as a starting point, the paper
will discuss multiple possibilities for Google Map Hacks.
Designing Humanities Data for Open Source
Developers
While the use of such open source technologies might have a
very real impact on digital projects, the potential for engaging
the open source community in digital humanities offers an even
greater opportunity. Models from Moodle to the BBC backstage
project <http://backstage.bbc.co.uk/> suggest that
the possibilities for engaging a broad developer community in
digital work is possible with the right set of data and appropriate
interface. While the Digital Concord project has no illusions
of generating the type of interest as seen in previously
mentioned projects, there are ways that the project can open
data and create a community of interest around digital
humanities work that could have positive repercussions. The
paper will close with a discussion of potential strategies that
individual archives might take to interest the open source
community.
Interfacing with the Open Source Community:
An OSCOM approach
James Smith
Academic progress seems to depend on a person's ability to
contribute to society as measured by attributable work such as
articles and monographs in areas that are interesting to society.
These attributions depend on copyrights and patents, the keys
to establishing and protecting intellectual property ownership.
The various print journals and publishing houses act as a
peer-reviewed intermediary. The academy establishes social interest in a project by the project's ability to attract financial
support.
Digital Humanities (DH) relies heavily on what is now being
called Web 2.0: technologies that allow nearly seamless
cross-platform client/server applications (e.g., AJAX and
Comet). Most of these technologies have roots in the Open
Source Community (OSC). Much of the talent is also in the
OSC. Until this talent is brought into DH, DH is in danger of
being a field looking in from outside, watching technology
advance as it tries to catch up. Yet, DH is rooted in the academy
and must meet the expectations of the academy.
The Open Source Community has its roots in the academy, but
has lived for a while in the wild among amateurs in the classic
sense. Many people participate in open source because they
enjoy doing so, though some participate because of their
employment. The OSC is built on a stereotype of the academy:
information is free and everyone is able to work on problems
they find interesting. Just as professors enjoy working in a
University or College with other smart people in their field,
OSC members are attracted to projects with smart people. OSC
members also value the openness with which they can develop
and discuss projects.
The Open Source Community has not abandoned the notion of
attribution and social relevancy. The openness of a project's
development creates a trajectory along which the project travels.
This trajectory is a measure of the talent behind the project and
is apparent to most who are interested in the project.
Misappropriating a particular release of a project captures only
a single point on that trajectory. Because any particular release
of a project does not bring with it any of the talent behind the
project, `stealing' from the project is worth much less.
Attribution in the OSC is much more than just the name beside
the copyright or on the patent.
An Open Source project is socially relevant if it is widely used
and has a strong community. There are no financial
requirements for a project to be successful. Sorceforge.net hosts
Open Source projects at no cost to the project not because any
particular project is worth the cost, but because the OSC itself
is socially relevant. People contribute their time to a project
not necessarily because they get paid but because they enjoy
the project and, if they make significant contributions, they can
become a well known talent in the OSC.
The problem, then, is how to balance the requirements of the
academy against the need to create an environment that is
inviting to the open source community. By openly involving
the open source community, DH can access a wide variety of
talent which will be involved in various projects not because
they are being paid to help, but because they love the project.
At the same time, DH can maintain the attribution required for
academic progress.
One academic field of study that is leading the way with
technology is Physics with the development of the world wide
web at CERN to aid in sharing documents to the electronic
pre-print server (<http://xxx.lanl.gov/> ). The Physics
community can do this because it is small enough that its
members know each other. Reputation is built much as it is in
the Open Source Community: by personal experiences between
members of the community. Formal peer review plays a
secondary role. By reviewing the output of a physicist, another
can see the pattern and tell if something new fits that pattern.
If any company represents the commercial potential of Digital
Humanities, it is Google. They have been able to attract some
of the top talent in the industry by providing a work
environment that resembles the Open Source Community in
many aspects. Some of the more interesting projects for DH
have come from employees' `play time.' Google has brought a
lot of smart people together under one roof, much as a
University or College might do.
By looking to other academic fields and the Open Source
Community, Digital Humanities can create a new environment
encouraging rapid evolution of ideas without sacrificing the
need for attribution, reputation, or social relevance.","txt","2","",""
"730","8","Synergies: The Canadian Information Network for Research in the Social Sciences and the Humanities","","Funded by the Canada Foundation for Innovations,
“Synergies: The Canadian Information Network for
Research in the Social Sciences and Humanities” will be a
national distributed platform with a wide range of tools to
support the creation, distribution, access and archiving of digital
objects such as journal articles. It will enable the distribution
and use of Social Sciences and Humanities (SSH) research, as
well as to create a resource and platform for pure and applied
research. In short, Synergies will be a research tool and a
dissemination tool that will greatly enhance the potential and
impact of SSH scholarship.
Canadian SSH research published in Canadian journals and
elsewhere, especially in English, is largely confined to print.
The dynamics of print mean that this research is
machine-opaque and hence invisible on the internet, where
many students and scholars begin and sometimes end their
background research. In bringing Canadian SSH research to
the internet, Synergieswill not only bring that research into the
mainstream of worldwide research discourse but also it will
legitimize online publication in SSH. The acceptance of this
medium will open the manner in which knowledge can be
represented. On one plane, researchers will be able to take
advantage of an enriched media palette—color, image, sound,
moving images, multimedia. On a second plane, researchers
will be able to take advantage of interactivity. And on a third
plane, those who query existing research will be able to broaden
their vision by means of navigational interfaces, multilingual
interrogation and automatic translation, metadata and intelligent
search engines, and textual analysis. On still another plane
scholars will be able to expand new areas of knowledge such
as bibliometrics and technometrics, new media analysis,
scholarly communicational analysis and publishing studies.
Canadian researchers in the SSH require two research
communication services that can be provided within one
structure. The first is an accessible online Canadian research
record. The second is access to an online publication service
that will place their work on record and will ensure widespread
and flexible access. Synergies provides both these functions.
Built on the foundation of Érudit, a Quebec-based research
publication service provider in existence since 1998, Open
Journal Systems, which is a tested online journal publishing
software suite, and the technical expertise developed by its
three other partners, Synergies will integrate work being done
within its five-party consortium to create a decentralized
national platform for SSH research communication. Synergies
is designed to eventually encompass a range of
formats—including published articles, pre-publication papers,
data sets, presentations, electronic monographs—to provide a
rich scholarly record, the backbone of which is existing and
yet to be created peer-review journals. Synergies will bring
Canadian SSH research into mainstream of worldwide research
discourse using a cost-effective public/not-for-profit partnership
to maximize knowledge dissemination.
The members of the Synergies consortium are the University
of New Brunswick, Université de Montréal (lead institution),
University of Toronto, University of Calgary, and Simon Fraser
University. Each brings appropriate but different expertise to
the project. At its first level, Synergies consists of this
five-university consortium that will provide a fully accessible,
searchable, decentralized and inclusive national SSH database
of structured primary and secondary SSH texts. This distributed
environment is technically complex to implement, and it also
represents a major political and social collaboration which
attests to the project’s transformative dimension for Canadian
SSH research and researchers. Synergies will be a primary
aggregator of research that, in providing publishing services,
will allow journals editors (and other producers) to structure
subscriptions and maintain revenue control. At a second level,
Synergies will reach out to 16 regional partner universities who
will benefit from and contribute to extend Synergies
functionality. At a third level, in a producer-to-consumer
relationship with university libraries and organizations such as
the Canadian Research Knowledge Network (CRKN), Synergies
will make possible national accessibility. Using this relationship
as a model, Synergies will be positioned to facilitate similar
relationships for journals with buyer consortia around the world.
Synergies is not only a pan-Canadian technical infrastructure
but also a mobilizing and enabling resource for the entire
scholarly community of Canadian SSH researchers. In
embracing the whole of the social sciences and humanities,
Synergies will foster cross-disciplinary, problem- and
issue-oriented queries while also allowing queries that can be
time-framed, discipline-based, media or methodologically
specific, theoretically constrained or geo-referenced.
Synergies will also provide a needed infrastructure for the Social
Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) to follow
through its in-principle commitment to open access and
facilitate its implementation by extending the current venues and means for online publishing in Canada. With Synergies in
place the funding of journals based on dissemination
effectiveness rather than sales levels will become both feasible
for journals and possible as a evaluative criterion for SSHRC
funding. The Canadian Federation for the Humanities and Social
Sciences, with a membership of over 30,000, has also recently
adopted a position in favor of open access and indicate the role
that Synergies can play.
In summary, Synergies is the vehicle by which Canadian SSH
research communication can be modernized. It embraces
emerging research practice by utilizing existing texts, enriching,
expanding, and greatly easing access to scholarly data and to
audiences. It organizes a fragmented research record, ensuring
and enhancing access to existing data sets. It facilitates access
via aggregation of journals and an ability to facilitate
agreements between Canadian SSH journals and other
producers' and buyers' consortia such as CRKN. It lays a
foundation for expanding the research record to encompass all
scholarly inquiry in order to achieve maximum accessibility
and circulation. Synergies represents a project in parallel with
other national projects and disciplinary databases emerging in
other countries, for example, Project Muse, Euclid, JStor, and
HighWire in the United States, and in France, Persée and
Adonis.","txt","2","",""
"731","8","How Rhythmical is Hexameter: A Statistical Approach to Ancient Epic Poetry","","In this paper, I argue that the later a given specimen of
hexamater is, the less rhythmical it tends to be. A brief
discussion of the background of ancient Greek and Latin metrics
and its connections to orality is followed by an account of
spectral density analysis as my chosen method. I then go on to
comment on the experimental data obtained by representing
several samples of ancient poetry as coded sequences of binary
values. Hexameter’s decreasing rhythmicity is then illustrated
with reference to particular authors. In the last section, I suggest
how spectral density analysis may help to account for other
features of ancient meter.
The ancient epic poems, especially the most archaic Greek
poetry attributed to Homer, are usually referred as an
extraordinary fact in the history of European literature. For
present-day readers educated in a culture of writing, it seems
unbelievable that such a large body of poetry should have been
composed in a culture based on oral transmission. In fact,
despite of genuine singers' and audience's memory, epic poems
did not emerge at once as fixed texts, but they were
re-composed in each performance (Lord 2000, Foley 1993,
Nagy 1996). The surviving ancient epic poetry displays some
features that reflect archaic techniques of oral composition,
formulaic structure being probably the most characteristic (Parry
1971: 37-117).
Since formulaic diction prefers some fixed rhythmical patterns
(Parry 1971: 8-21), we can ask some questions about the role
of both versification and rhythm in oral composition. Why was
all of ancient epic poetry, both Greek and Latin, composed in
one particular type of meter called hexameter? Does the choice
of meter influence the rhythmicity of a text? Why does
hexameter, in spite of its relatively restricted possibilities of
shaping rhythm, differ so much from one writer to another some
(cf. Duckworth 1969: 37-87)? And, last but not least, what
possible reasons are there for those wide differences between
particular authors?
It is commonly known that poetry is in general easier to memorization. In a culture without writing, memorization is
crucial, and much depends on the quality of oral transmission.
In epic poems from an oral culture rhythm is thus likely to be
particularly important for both singers and hearers, even though
they need not consciously perceive poetic texts as rhythmical
to benefit from rhythm as an aid to memory.
It may then be expected on theoretical grounds that non-oral
poems, such as the Latin epic poetry or the Greek hexameter
of the Alexandrian age, will be largely non-rhythmical, or at
least display weaker rhythm effects than the archaic poems of
Homer and Hesiod. Although formulaic diction and other
techniques of oral composition are noticeable mostly in Homer’s
epics (Parry 1971, Lord 2000, Foley 1993, etc.), the later
hexameters, both Greek and Latin, also display some features
of oral diction (Parry 1971: 24-36). The metrical structure of
hexameter might be quite similar: strongly rhythmical in the
oldest (or rather, the most archaic) epic poems, and less
conspicuous in poems composed in written form a few centuries
after Homer. The aim of the present study is to test the
hypothesis that the later a given specimen of hexameter is, the
less rhythmical it tends to be.
Because of its nature versification easily lends itself to statistical
analysis. A great deal of work has already been done in this
field, including studies of Greek and Latin hexameter (Jones
& Gray 1972, Duckworth 1969, Foley 1993, etc.). However,
the main disadvantage of the methods applied in existing
research is that they describe a given meter as if it were a set
of independent elements, which is actually not true. In each
versification system, the specific sequence of elements plays a
far more important role in establishing a particular type of
rhythm than the relations between those elements regardless
their linear order (language ""in the mass"" vs. language ""in the
line""; cf. Pawlowski 1999).
Fortunately, there are a few methods of statistical analysis (both
numeric and probabilistic) that study verse by means of an
ordered sequence of elements. These methods include, for
example, time series modeling, Fourier analysis, the theory of
Markov chains and Shannon's theory of information. In the
present study, spectral density analysis was used (Gottman
1999, Priestley 1981, etc.). Spectral analysis seems to be a very
suitable tool because it provides a cross-section of a given time
series: it allows us to detect waves, regularities and cycles which
are not otherwise manifest and open to inspection. In the case
of a coded poetry sample, the spectrogram shows not only
simple repetitions of metrical patterns, but also some subtle
rhythmical relations, if any, between distant lines or stanzas.
To verify the hypothesis of hexameter’s decreasing rhythmicity,
7 samples of Greek and 3 samples of Latin epic poetry were
chosen. The specific selection of sample material was as
follows: 3 samples from Homeric hexameter (books 18 and 22
from the Iliad, book 3 from the Odyssey), 1 sample from Hesiod
(Theogony), Apollonius (Argonautica, book 1), Aratos
(Phainomena), Nonnos (Dionysiaca, book 1), Vergil (Aeneid,
book 3), Horace (Ars poetica), and Ovid (Metamorphoses, book
1). In each sample, the first 500 lines were coded in such a way
that each long syllable was assigned value 1, and each short
syllable value 0. Though it is disputed whether ancient verse
was purely quantitative or whether it also had some prosodic
features (Pawlowski & Eder 2001), the quantity-based nature
of Greek and Roman meter was never questioned. It is possible
that rhythm was generated not only by quantity, but it is certain
that quantity itself played an essential role in ancient meter.
Thus, in the coding procedure, all prosodic features were left
out except the quantity of syllables (cf. Jones & Gray 1972,
Duckworth 1969, Foley 1993, etc.). A binary-coded series was
then obtained for each sample, e.g., book 22 of the Iliad begins
as a series of values:
1110010010010011100100100100111001110010010011...
The coded samples were analyzed by means of the spectral
density function. As might be expected, on each spectogram
there appeared a few peaks indicating the existence of several
rhythmical waves in the data. However, while the peaks
suggesting the existence of 2- and 3-syllable patterns it the text
were very similar for all the spectograms and quite obvious,
the other peaks showed some large differences between the
samples. Perhaps the most surprising was the peak echoing the
wave with a 16-syllable period, which could be found in the
samples of early Greek poems by Homer, Hesiod, Apollonius,
and Aratos. The same peak was far less noticeable in the late
Greek hexameter of Nonnos, and totally absent in the samples
of Latin writers. Other differences between the spectograms
have corroborated the observation: the rhythmical effects of
the late poems were, in general, weaker as compared with the
rich rhythmical structure of the earliest, orally composed epic
poems.
Although the main hypothesis has been verified, the results
also showed some peculiarities. For example, the archaic poems
by Homer and Hesiod did not differ significantly from the
poems of the Alexandrian age (Apollonius, Aratos), which was
rather unexpected. Again, the rhythm of the Latin hexameter
turned out to have a different underlying structure than that of
all the Greek samples. There are some possible explanations
of those facts, such as that the weaker rhythm of the Latin
samples may relate to inherent differences between Latin and
Greek. More research, both in statistics and in philology, is
needed, however, to make such explanations more nuanced and
more persuasive. Bibliography
Duckworth, George E. Vergil and Classical Hexameter Poetry:
A Study in Metrical Variety. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Press, 1969.
Foley, John Miles. Traditional Oral Epic: ""The Odyssey"",
""Beowulf"" and the Serbo-Croatian Return Song. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1993.
Gottman, John Mordechai, and Anup Kumar Roy. Sequential
Analysis: A Guide for Behavioral Researchers. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Jones, Frank Pierce, and Florence E. Gray. ""Hexameter Patterns,
Statistical Inference, and the Homeric Question: An Analysis
of the La Roche Data."" Transactions and Proceedings of the
American Philological Association 103 (1972): 187-209.
Lord, Albert B. Ed. Stephen Mitchell and Gregory Nagy. The
Singer of Tales. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
2000.
Nagy, Gregory. Poetry as Performance: Homer and Beyond.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Parry, Milman. Ed. Adam Parry. The Making of Homeric Verse:
The Collected Papers of Milman Parry. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1971.
Pawlowski, Adam. ""Language in the Line vs. Language in the
Mass: On the Efficiency of Sequential Modeling in the Analysis
of Rhythm."" Journal of Quantitative Linguistics 6.1 (1999):
70-77.
Pawlowski, Adam, and Maciej Eder. ""Quantity or Stress?
Sequential Analysis of Latin Prosody."" Journal of Quantitative
Linguistics 8.1 (2001): 81-97.
Priestly, M. B. Spectral Analysis and Time Series. London:
Academic Press, 1981.","txt","2","",""
"732","8","From TEI to a CIDOC-CRM Conforming Model: Towards a Better Integration Between Text Collections and Other Sources of Cultural Historical Documentation","","Introduction
In the last couple of years, there has been a growing interest
towards including into TEI documents information about
the world rather than information concerning the text of the
document to be encoded only. We see examples of this through
recent additions to the TEI standard, e.g. the person element
(TEI P5, sec. 20.4.2), as well as through the work in the
Ontologies SIG since it was established in 2004 (TEI Ontology
SIG WIKI). In the SIG, the topic of discussion is how to
organise this kind of information about the world according to
specific ontologies.
One particularly promising ontology in this context is the CRM
(CIDOC 2003). It has been used together with Topic Maps to
organize information from TEI documents (Tuohy 2006) and
as an attempt to find a solution to the so-called exhibition
problem (Eide 2006). Further, attempts have been made to
formalise a way to connect TEI and CRM documents (Ore
2006).
In this paper, we propose a method for automatic generation
of CRM conforming models based on TEI documents. We will
discuss limitations to this approach, as well as ways these may
be overcome. Our proposed method
The method we propose will include two important steps
that should be possible to implement to any given TEI
document: Mapping and model building.
Mapping
A mapping from the TEI document into a model conforming
with CRM should be created. It will be based on a general
mapping of TEI elements to CRM we are currently developing.
But in TEI, many elements are defined quite loose, and
depending on the way they are used, they may be modelled
differently in CRM. According to the TEI guidelines, tag usage
may be described in the TEI header. Such descriptions may
help to decide which type of modelling is the most appropriate.
Ideally, such a specific mapping should be created based on an
automatic reading of the TEI header. But an element description
in a tagUsage element in the TEI header is in prose and will
generally not be stringent enough to be understood by an
automatic reading (TEI P5, sec. 5.3.4). Human interaction will
be needed. It may be the case that use of the equiv element will
make automatic creation of mappings possible, as a reference
to a certain CRM class may be included as an external link
(ibid, sec. 6.3.4).
Model building
A CRM conforming model based on the TEI document and
populated with all instances of mapped elements should then
be created. This model may be used as a query or a data mining
system where the user looks for interesting structures in the
CRM conforming model alone, as well as in combination with
textual information collected from the TEI source document.
But this model may also be used in connection with other CRM
conforming models, such as museum databases. The
connections will be based on regional or global object
identification, such as authority lists of names and classification
schema. The resulting ""super model"" may then be used as a
data mining tool based on semantic integration between
heterogeneous resources.
An example of a TEI input document
We are currently developing the building blocks for a
system based on the method described above. The
example text used in our work is taken from a manuscript
describing examinations about geographical matters performed
as court interviews in 1740s, printed in the 1960s (Schnitler
1962). The printed edition was digitised and marked up in a
typical TEI way, with names of places and people as well as
dates tagged. A short paragraph of this tagged version, based
on page 73 in the printed book, is translated to English and
included below.
<p xml:id=""s1_24449""> Answ: Named <name type=""person""
xml:id=""s1_24454""> Ole Nilsen</name>, is born in <name
type=""place"" xml:id=""s1_24457""> Tydals </name> mountains,
Which is in
<name type=""place"" xml:id=""s1_24460""> Norway </name>,
of Sami parents, is 50 years old, married, and having one child;
has mostly dwelled in <name type=""place"" xml:id=""s1_24466""
> Tydals </name> mountains, and now dwelling in the
Norwegian <name type=""place"" xml:id=""s1_24469"">
Mærragers </name> mountains. </p>
What is tagged — and what is not
Names and dates are tagged in our document. This means that
many references to persons, places and times are included. But
there are a lot of other references to similar real world entities
that are not tagged, e.g. when words other than proper names
are used to refer to them. In the example above, ""one child"" is
not tagged, whereas other references to the same historical
person in terms of his or her name are tagged as person names.
Furthermore, events are not tagged in this text. Thus, whereas
the name of a boy who is born and the place of his birth is
tagged, the event connecting these together, i.e. the birth, is not
marked up.
This is common to most TEI documents, and is based on the
text centric tradition of the TEI community. There were good
reasons why this tradition was established, but it may be the
case that for some types of documents, textual references to
e.g. events should be marked up.
A simple CRM model of parts of the paragraph above is
included as Figure 1. The solid lines represent what can be
directly read from XML elements in the TEI document, whereas
the dotted lines shows the parts not based on the TEI markup.
This shows that the information needed to model the connection
between the person and the mountain - that he was born there
- is not tagged in the TEI document. How to find the events
As the models created through the use of our proposed method
is based on the XML tags alone, important information in the
text is not considered when the model is created. Several
possible ways to improve this exist. One is automatic event
detection, as used e.g. in the Perseus project (Smith 2002). The
use of this method too causes some problems. One problem is
that fact that even if the system works quite good for English
material, considerable work remains to be done to create a
similar tool for 18th century Danish, even though the method
is implemented also for smaller languages such as Finnish
(Makkonen 2003). Named entity recognition systems are
developed for modern Danish (Johannessen 2004), but this is
of no use in the common situation where names are already
tagged in the documents. Another problem is the fact that these
kinds of methods will always be imperfect, resulting in either
missed events, false positives, or both of these.
Another way to solve the problem would be to reread the text,
identifying events and tagging them. This would be a reliable
method, but time-consuming. Even a combination of these
strategies, a semi automatic method, would mean quite a lot of
work.
A possible way to solve the problem of event identification is
to use the model. Any person or place in the CRM model has
a link to the name of the person or place, an from the name in
the CRM model to the TEI name element. This means that the
textual distance to other person name elements, place name
elements and date elements can be calculated. Further, it is
possible to locate all words within a certain distance, and all
words between two names.
This is similar to the first approach above. But in addition, we
propose to connect the CRM model to external databases. An
example of this would be if we have a CRM version of a
database based on church book records. In this church book
based CRM model a person may be found with a name similar
to Ole Nilsen, a birth date in a possible range for being a witness
in 1742, and a birth place with a name similar to a place name
mentioned in the text in connection to the person's name. This
external source may then help us to include the E67 Birth event
in our model. This may turn out to be impossible without
manual work, but we hope at least to make the manual work
more effective.
Conclusion
Ageneral observation from our work is that the more
relevant information types is marked up in a TEI
document, the easier it is to use automatic methods to generate
CRM conforming models. But even a limited tagging with only
names and dates marked up do help. We will continue our work
on the implementation of a system based on the method
described in this abstract. We believe this will improve the
usability of TEI documents as information sources as well as
simplifying the process of adding more information, such as
event elements, into such documents.
Bibliography
TEI Ontology SIG WIKI. Accessed 2006-11-12. <http://
www.tei-c.org.uk/wiki/index.php/SIG:Ontol
ogies>
Burnard, Lou, and Syd Bauman, eds. TEI P5: Guidelines for
Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Ver. 0.5. Accessed
2006-11-13. <http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc
/tei-p5-doc/html/>
CIDOC. ""Definition of the CIDOC Conceptual Reference
Model."" ISO/DIS 21127. 2003. Accessed 2006-11-13. <http
://cidoc.ics.forth.gr/definition_cidoc.htm
l>
Eide, Øyvind. ""The Exhibition Problem. A Real Life Example
with a Suggested Solution."" Digital Humanities 2006
Conference Abstracts. Paris: CATI, Université Paris-Sorbonne,
2006. 58-61.
Johannessen, Janne Bondi, Eckhard Bick, Kristin Hagen, Dorte
Haltrup, Åsne Haaland, Andra Björk Jónsdottir, Dimitrios
Kokkinakis, Paul Meurer, and Anders Nøklestad. ""The Nomen
Noscio Project - Scandinavian Named Entity Recognition.""
ALLC/ACH 2004 Conference Abstracts. Göteborg: Göteborg
University, 2004.
Makkonen, Juha, and Helena Ahonen-Myka. ""Extraction of
Temporal Expressions from Finnish Newsfeed."" Proceedings
of 14th Nordic Conference of Computational Linguistics
(NoDaLiDa 2003). Reykjavik, 2003.
Ore, Christian-Emil, and Øyvind Eide. ""TEI, CIDOC-CRM
and a Possible Interface between the Two."" Digital Humanities
2006 Conference Abstracts. Paris: CATI, Université
Paris-Sorbonne, 2006. 62-65.
Schnitler, Peter. Major Peter Schnitlers
grenseeksaminasjonsprotokoller 1742-1745. Bind 1 [Major
Peter Schnitler's border examination protocols 1742-45. Volume
1]. Oslo, 1962.
Smith, David A. ""Detecting Events with Date and Place
Information in Unstructured Text."" International Conference
on Digital Libraries. Proceedings of the 2nd ACM/IEEE-CS
joint conference on Digital libraries. Portland, 2002. 191-196. Tuohy, Conal. ""Topic Maps and TEI – using Topic Maps as a
tool for presenting TEI documents."" TEI Day in Kyoto 2006.
2006. 85-98.","txt","2","",""
"733","8","Bits and Pieces of Text: Appraisal of a Natural Electronic Archive","","This paper presents the methods and tools designed to
appraise a digital archive. The attributes characterizing
the archive at hand led to the development of the concept of
natural electronic archives that would allow transforming the
archive as a whole into a unit of analysis. The methodology for
appraising the archive combines traditional archival concepts
while adding tools –such as text mining and social network
analysis– taken from other fields.
The digital archive belongs to a philanthropic agency whose
activities in support of the arts, sciences and social welfare in
Argentina span from the mid 1980s until its closure in
December of 2005. In the early 1990s the institution
implemented a networked server to store, retrieve, and share
electronic texts, email, applications, and databases. In it, each
employee had a virtual folder with his or her initials to store
the files that they created. To comply with legal requirements
the archive must be kept closed but accessible for the next 10
years. In parallel, appraisal needed to be undertaken to decide
on the archive’s long term destiny. An initial survey of the
archive led to the development of the natural archive concept
and suggested an appraisal method to establish archival
evidence.
The natural electronic archive concept grew while I was
surveying the server and from the interviews conducted with
staff members who had worked in the organization since it
opened. Based on my analysis, I concluded that the manner in
which records were generated and kept could not easily be
ascribed to digital archiving models currently discussed in the
literature. These models focus more on the creation of sound
electronic records, the design of electronic record-keeping
systems, and on institutional repository archiving models than
on the way in which digital archives exist “in the wild”
(Bearman & Trant, 1997; Cox, 1997; Duranti et al., 2002;
InterPARES Authenticity Task Force 2002; Jones et al., 2006).
The natural archive concept builds partly on that of “natural
collections” proposed by Phillip Cronenwett to describe
collections of literary manuscripts as they leave the hand of the
creator (Cronnenwett, 1984, p.106). I suggest that this concept is relevant both to the case study at hand, as well as to archives
of public or private persons and institutions showing similar
characteristics.
Creation of natural electronic archives involves a set of ad-hoc
practices developed as people adjust to and learn how to use
information technologies. A natural archive is not designed or
managed by records managers or archivists. Instead, it is what
those working in institutions, in different capacities, using
different technologies, and making decisions, make of it. In a
natural archive, records are created, named, destroyed, or
retained according to individual work-practices. Each record
creator decides on structure and naming conventions for files
and folders, spontaneously or consistently, according to
individual mnemonic rules or the spur of the moment. Within
the virtual folders, images, spreadsheets, texts, web sites,
databases, back-ups, and applications live together under the
same roof, placed or misplaced, in organized or disorganized
fashion, in general without descriptive clues.
In a context without explicit recordkeeping rules, bits and pieces
of text are ubiquitous inhabitants. Either shared by different
members of a network or used repeatedly by their creators, they
constitute the core of many records. This repetition of fragments
afforded by the cut and paste function of the text editor, speaks
as much of provenance, group collaboration and fair use, as of
hierarchies and corporate culture. As a consequence of all of
these phenomena, records within a natural archive are difficult
to identify and lack formal documentation. This creates doubts
about their capacity to provide evidence.
An appraisal method that uses Text Mining and Social Network
Analysis was designed to determine what type of evidence of
the organization that created it is provided by a natural
electronic archive. The method is rooted in concerns expressed
by Peter Boticelli in his study of networked organizations
(Boticelli, 2000). It considers the need to document dynamics
and changes in organizations and it explores the meaning of
evidence and archival bond –understood as the “network of
relationships between records” – in an ambiguous environment
(Duranti & Guercio, 1997). Also, it highlights the importance
of preserving evidence of the archive’s formation process that
will allow the study of its technological history and social uses
(Lubar, 1996; Parezo, 1996). Its main departure from other
appraisal methods is that it uses digital tools to analyze a large
corpus of records inductively.
Determining archival evidence implies being able to map the
organization through its records. Text Mining and Social
Network Analysis use computing algorithms to discover
knowledge about the relations among electronic records. By
measuring the similarity between texts produced and
co-produced by staff members within frameworks of time and
provenance, the strength of relationships between records and
between the staff members and/or functions that created them
can be established. In turn, by averaging the similarities between
the records of all pairs of staff members or functions across
time, organizational structure and functions as well as
correspondent changes in dynamics emerge. To confirm the
validity of the findings, results are contrasted against the
narratives of staff members about who they collaborated with,
when, and in what. In this way, the evidence provided by the
electronic records in this natural archive can be attested
A proof of concept was conducted to determine the feasibility
of the appraisal method. For this, copies of electronic text
records from the archive were used, while the original archive,
kept with its directory structure intact, remains as guarantee of
provenance and original order. Pre-processing documents
involved using file management software to sort files within
directories and sub-directories to construct sets belonging to a
group of staff members that worked in the organization during
a one year period. After conversion to .txt format, the sets were
submitted to Rainbow, an open source text classification and
retrieval tool, to obtain a vector space model (McCallum, 1996).
In this phase, several trials were conducted to find the best way
to narrow the vocabulary without losing language subtleties.
From this model, pair-wise distances between documents where
calculated using the cosine similarity formula in MatLab on a
UNIX server. The resultant matrix was submitted to the social
network analysis software UCINET to obtain a network drawing
of the distances between texts (Borgatti et al., 2002). In turn,
the average of distances corresponding to each staff member
were calculated to obtain a matrix of relationships between staff
members during one year.
The experiment suggested that relationships between staff
members do emerge from the similarities and differences
between the texts that they create. Testing showed that staff
members who were leaving the organization and wrote farewell
or personal records were less related to those cooperating in
the preparation of monthly or annual reports. Also, project
proposals written by grant applicants and stored in the shared
server were barely related to reports or appropriation requests
written by members of the organization. These preliminary
results indicated that shifts in functions and consequent
relationships between staff members can emerge from electronic
texts.
The proof of concept also examined the use of cluster analysis
to explore the concept of archival bond in natural electronic
archives. Analyzing the content of strongly and poorly related
records can explain what characterizes relationships between
records –provenance, date, type of record, contents, topic – and
whether these features can be mapped onto theoretical
conceptualizations of archival bond. It will also explain the role
of drafts, versions, and non-records by finding the proportion
in which they exist in the natural archive and how close or not
they are to complete records. Before issuing the final appraisal protocol, changes had to be
implemented and concerns addressed. Since the archive contains
formats as old as Microsoft Word 5.0 for DOS, a converter
with broad file format support was found to transform old files
to ANSI text so they can be processed by Rainbow. Because
there are various pieces of software involved, processes need
to be automated and simplified as much as possible and issues
related to the size of the text sets and matrices vis a vis the
power of the processing tools have to be considered. Through
a research grant from the University of Texas at Austin a
programmer was hired to modify existing applications and
develop new ones. Rainbow’s tokenizer was modified to
recognize Spanish characters and to include the Oleander
Spanish stemmer (Oleander Solutions, 2006). The cosine
similarity algorithm was coded in C++ so that bigger matrices
can be processed efficiently in a UNIX server. To improve the
ability to distinguish the characteristics of individual texts,
Tf-idf capabilities were added to the script. The program outputs
both a matrix of cosine similarities between every other
document and a matrix of the averages of cosine similarity
distances between every other author in the sample. Current
testing involves processing sets with all the texts produced in
one year by every author to determine changes in collaboration
dynamics. After processing the matrices with UCINET,
preliminary results for author’s yearly averages show
relationships that concur with their functions in the institution
(See Fig. 1 and 2).
Figure 1. Network drawing of averages of cosine similarities between a set of
544 records of different staff members during the year 1996. The director is
at the center of the network which corresponds with his functions in the
organization and the data gathered in the interviews. Most of the records
produced by the financial manager are non-textual and remained within the
database systems which explains the distance between him and the director.
Figure 2. Network drawing of averages of cosine similarities between 719
records of different staff members during the year 1997. As new staff members
added their records in the networked directory and started their own
relationships, the majority of the director’s previous relationships and his
status in the network remained stable.
The use of Text Mining and Social Network Analysis promises
to allow archivists to explore and define the meaning of
evidence in natural electronic archives. Instead of intuition and
art, as appraisal has been characterized, the opportunity exists
to use inductive quantitative methods to make of appraisal a
research endeavor (Eastwood, 1992). Moreover, the use of these
methods opens the doors to the enormous potential of digital
tools in the analysis and processing of digital archives.
Bibliography
Authenticity Task Force. Requirements for Assessing and
Maintaining the Authenticity of Electronic Records.
InterPARES, 2002. Accessed 2005-10-06. <http://www.I
nterPARES.org/display_file.cfm?doc=ip1_au
thenticity_requirements.pdf>
Bearman, David, and Jennifer Trant. ""Electronic Records
Research Working Meeting May 28-30, 1997: A Report from
the Archives Community."" D-Lib ( July/August 1997). Accessed
2005-10-03. <http://www.dlib.org/dlib/july97/
07bearman.html>
Borgatti, Stephan P., , and Freeman, L.C. UCINET 6 Social
Networks Analysis Software. 2002. Accessed 2005-04-01. <h
ttp://www.analytictech.com/ucinet/ucinet.
htm>
Boticelli, Peter. ""Records Appraisal in Network Organizations.""
Archivaria 49 (2000): 161-191.
Cox, Richard J. "" Electronic Systems and Records Management
in the Information Age: An Introduction."" ASIS 23.5 (1997). Accessed 2005-10-03. <http://www.asis.org/Bulle
tin/Jun-97/cox.html>
Cronenwett, Philip N. ""Appraisal of Literary Manuscripts.""
Archival Choices: Managing the Historical Record in an Age
of Abundance. Ed. Nancy E. Peace. Lexington, MA: Lexington
Books, 1984. 105-116.
Duranti, Luciana, Terry Eastwood, and Heather McNeil.
Preservation of the Integrity of Electronic Records. Boston:
Kluwer Academic, 2002.
Duranti, Luciana, and Maria Guercio. ""Research Issues in
Archival Bond."" Electronic Records Meeting, Session I. 1997.
Accessed 2006-03-29. <http://www.archimuse.com/
erecs97/s1-ld-mg.HTM>
Eastwood, Terry. ""Towards a Social Theory of Appraisal."" The
Archival Imagination: Essays in Honor of Hugh A. Taylor .
Ed. Barbara L. Craig. Ottawa: Association of Canadian
Archivists, 1992. 71-89.
Jones, Richard, Theo Andrew, and John MacColl. The
Institutional Repository. Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing
Limited, 2006.
Lubar, Steven. ""Learning from Technological Things."" Learning
from Things. Ed. W. David Kingery. Washington, D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996. 31-34.
McCallum, Andrew K. Bow: A Toolkit for Statistical Language
Modeling, Text Retrieval, Classification and Clustering. 1996.
Accessed 2005-02-02. <http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~mc
callum/bow>
Oleander Solutions. Oleander Stemming Library. 2006.
Accessed 2006-11-24. <http://www.oleandersoluti
ons.com/stemming.html>
Parezo, Nancy J. ""The Formation of Anthropological Archival
Records."" Learning from Things. Ed. W. David Kingery.
Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996.
145-174.","txt","2","",""
"734","8","Rushdie's Computers: Born-Digital Archives and Humanities Scholarship","","As questions and concerns about digital preservation and
sustainability become increasingly audible in the spheres
of digital humanities and humanities computing, the necessity
to build strong ties between digital humanities and digital
libraries only intensifies. Howard Besser, in his essay, The Past,
Present, and Future of Digital Libraries,” underscores the
connections between these two fields. He explains digital
libraries not only “provide access to original source material,
contextualization, and commentaries, but they also provide a
set of additional resources and service”.1 Besser then delineates
some of these resources and services, including digital
collections of traditional print materials, lexical analysis, and
increased accessibility. In addition to these important
contributions to humanities research, I would like to highlight
the emerging role libraries play in processing, preserving,
maintaining, and providing access to important archives that
house born-digital content. This role will not only contribute
to humanities research in decades to come, but will also impact
how research is performed by directing what content is made
available and how researches may access it.
In this paper, I will examine the Emory University Libraries’
acquisition and processing of a singular personal archive as a
case study to explore the methods and practices of handling
born-digital archival materials and the implications such
methodologies and their outcomes may have on humanities
research.
Emory University’s acquisition of Salman Rushdie’s personal
archive represents an important addition to the Manuscript and
Rare Books Library, and contributes significantly to the
University’s digital library resources and research. Rushdie’s
rich personal archive includes traditional manuscript materials
such as journals, personal correspondence, and notebooks, as
well as less traditional archival materials, namely a series of
personal computers that cover a significant span in his personal
and literary life. This digital archive includes five computers,
one early Macintosh desktop and four Macintosh laptops,
including both obsolete and current models. While MARBL
has previously acquired collections containing some digital
materials, Rushdie’s computers represent the first significant, sizeable digital component to the University’s extensive
holdings of rare and unique materials.
Such an acquisition requires archivists to engage with
technologists to ensure that the library can most effectively
serve current and future researchers and scholars. The curation
of such an archive raises important questions about how libraries
should process, index, and present these materials while
simultaneously addressing preservation and authenticity
concerns. Such questions include: What is the research value
of such an archive? How important is the physical artifact? Do
researchers need access to exact systems emulation? Is
providing search and browse access to the data sufficient or
will researchers be interested in Rushdie’s original directory
structure? Once data is migrated from the original environments,
do we continue to maintain those outdated systems? How do
archives sustain both master and access instances of born-digital
archives?
As digital librarians and archivists at Emory begin processing
the born-digital components of this important archive, they
must keep these questions, and the host of secondary concerns
circulating around them, in the foreground of workflow and
process discussions. In this paper, I will argue for the
importance of balancing the urgent needs of data and system
stabilization with the more long-term challenges of considering
the ideal outcomes and products of processing and providing
access to a rare and unique born-digital archive. This talk will
track the early stages of processing the physical and digital
materials comprising Rushdie’s digital archive, outline
approaches to handling the more complex processing
requirements, discuss proposed approaches to presenting the
archive to both local and distant researchers, and generalize
observations drawn from the experiences with this born-digital
archive to broader implications within digital libraries, digital
curation, and humanities computing.
With the acquisition of any archive, a research library takes on
multiple responsibilities to preserve, index, and provide access
to the rare and unique materials. Libraries—digital, brick and
mortar, or otherwise—must “incorporate the component of
stewardship over a collection.”2 Such stewardship carries with
it important responsibilities, especially in cases of archival
materials. Thus, with the arrival of the first shipment of
Rushdie’s digital archive, consisting of three out of the five
computers, our library and archive staff faced both immediate
preservation demands and distant challenges for archival
curation. We elected to produce a workflow that is both staged
and modular, which I will only summarize here. The first task
is to provide a secure and stable environment for the machines
themselves. As our archives had not previously included
technological artifacts, this first step required some intensive
space and environment analysis. Once we stabilized the physical
objects, this born digital archive next challenged staff with
questions of data recovery, data preservation, and data
duplication. Such challenges prompted us to develop a
partitioned data architecture that duplicates and preserves all
master data. The original is preserved, a master duplicate is
generated and stored darkly, a duplicate collection of the master
database is housed in a secure repository for in-house processing
and staging, and, finally, a fully-processed instance of the data
is made available through a production database. Such an
approach provides for preservation of original artifacts and
master data, while ensuring a level of security for data while it
is being processed for embargoed material.
In addition to preservation and security, authenticity of the
archived data is of particular importance to archivists, digital
librarians, and humanities researchers. Graham Barwell’s
discussions about originality and authenticity within the fields
of textual studies and electronic textuality resonate with archives
such as Rushdie’s born-digital materials.3 How can we most
authentically represent the digital archives included in the
Rushdie collection? Is the data the only component of real
research value or is the context that holds this data, the
paratextual elements, if you will, of equal importance to
researchers? I will explore these questions and provide
illustrations from our processing of the Rushdie archive to offer
some preliminary insights.
1. From Besser’s essay, “The Past, Present, and Future of Digital
Libraries” in A Companion to Digital Humanities, 2004, p. 557.
2. Besser, p. 559.
3. Graham Barwell, “Original, Authentic, Copy: Conceptual Issues
in Digital Texts” in Literary & Linguistic Computing 20.4 (1995)
see pages 416, 418, and 419.","txt","2","",""
"735","8","Markup and the Digital Paratext","","Abstract:
According to the French rhetorician and literary critic
Gerard Genette a paratext is a transitional zone: a
privileged space of a ""pragmatics"", of ""strategy"", and of action
over the audience (Genette 1997). In a digital environment, the
idea of the paratext may allow us to recognize the significance
and the mode of operation of certain crucial textual formations
that might otherwise seem inconsequential. These formations,
unlike traditional paratexts, are not always literally visible as
part of the legible textual surface, but instead operate through
the representational and performative mechanisms of the digital
interface. Their separateness is demarcated through markup,
which not only creates a boundary between text and paratext
but also makes the paratext into a space of function and
behavior: of meaning instantiated through action rather than
simply through textual signification.
Proposal:
According to the French rhetorician and literary critic
Gerard Genette a paratext is a transitional zone: a
privileged space of a ""pragmatics"", of ""strategy"", and of action
over the audience (Genette 1997). This paratextual
space—instantiated in what are traditionally considered
secondary or ancillary texts such as footnotes, commentary,
translation, and so forth—produces and ramifies the ""main""
text, the object that is thus presented to our interest as primarily
significant. It is precisely through the paratexts that the concept
of a ""main"" text emerges at all: in a given historical moment,
depending on social, cultural, political, and other factors, a
certain text emerges, and slowly starts to circulate and acquire
status through the effects of its paratexts: comments, editions,
translations, dedications, and so forth.
In a digital environment, the idea of the paratext may allow us
to recognize the significance and the mode of operation of
certain crucial textual formations that might otherwise seem
inconsequential. An example of such a formation is the
information we might call ""microtexts"": that is, external,
contingently visible “microcontents” (Nielsen 2000) that
describe, illustrate or complete information within a web page
or resource. These include also embedded alternate texts that
usually appear when you move the mouse over an image, link
or any other semiotic device (Zinna 2005). Another example
is what we might call ""metatexts"", a category embracing both
formal metadata and also looser kinds of descriptive, normative
or regulative information, usually not directly visible to the
user, that is added in order to allow search engines and other
processing to produce coherent and useful results.
These terms arise from an external classification (one which
could be extended) emphasizing the different ways these
paratexts function as part of a publication architecture. But
digital paratexts can be also organized, according to their
cognitive and semiotic functions, into at least three flexible
(and mutually permeable) categories:
1. 1. descriptive (syntagmatic and paradigmatic axes): those
paratexts which contain information about a text, including
various kinds of metadata;
2. 2. normative: those which constrain the behavior of the text
(for instance, schemas)
3. 3. pragmatic: those which mediate or represent the text as
a discursive object, and which produce its digital
phenomenology.
These formations, unlike traditional paratexts, are not always
literally visible as part of the legible textual surface: their
""strategy"" and ""pragmatics"" operate through the representational
and performative mechanisms of the digital interface. In print,
the paratext has (despite its marginality) a certain visible
presence on the page: its meaning may be wholly in relation to
the text it supports, but it is not different in kind from that text
(Tomasi 2005). The digital paratexts we are describing,
however, occupy a different stratum and have a different kind
of visibility and functional effect. Their presence may be felt
primarily in what the text does or in how we discover it, rather
than in the words we see when we read it. Their separateness
is demarcated through markup, which not only creates a
boundary between text and paratext but also makes the paratext
into a space of function and behavior: of meaning instantiated
through action rather than simply through textual signification.
In this respect, these categories of paratext (and in particular
the last, which is the realm of markup proper) are analogous to
the punctuation, formatting, and presentational conventions
through which a printed text is realized for a reader, or through
which an oral text is concretized in print. As Genette observes,
any transcription, including the written transcription of an oral
speech, is a form of paratext, and we can usefully extend this
idea to digital forms by observing that any encoding—in effect,
any transmediation—constitutes a form of paratext as well. Each of the three categories above illustrates a distinctive
dimension of the digital paratext, and raises a set of questions
and issues that can help us reach a clearer understanding of the
role of markup and the nature of digital texts. If we consider
markup in Genette’s terms as a “privileged space” of “action”
and “pragmatics”, what effect does this have on our
understanding of text encoding as a transcriptional activity? To
what extent do our disciplinary expectations about documentary
evidence run counter to the logic implied by these terms? The
boundary between transcription and authoring (and our sense
of where the distinction lies) may turn out to be harder to pin
down than has previously been suggested.
Similarly, to what extent does metadata operate as an active,
rather than a passive component of the textual ecology? If we
understand metadata creation as part of the authoring of the
digital document, does this change our sense of who should be
creating it and what its sources should be?
Finally, if schemas and stylesheets can also be understood as
paratexts (for instance, as suggested in Pierazzo 2006), then
we need to rethink our conception of textual meaning and
rhetoric to include not only the forms a text actually takes, but
also those which its constraints permit it to take: in other words,
the potential as well as actual forms through which we
apprehend the text.
Bibliography
Genette, Gerard. Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation. Trans.
Jane A. Lewin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Nielsen, Jakob. Designing Web Usability: The Practice of
Simplicity. Indianapolis, IN: New Riders, 2000.
Pierazzo, Elena. ""Just Different Layers? Stylesheets and Digital
Edition Methodology."" Paper presented at Digital Humanities
2006, Paris Sorbonne, 5-9 July 2006. 2006.
Tomasi, F. ""Il paratesto nei documenti elettronici."" I dintorni
del testo: approcci alle periferie del libro. Atti del Convegno
internazionale. Roma, 15-17 novembre 2004; Bologna, 18-19
novembre 2004. Ed. M. Santoro and M. G. Tavoni. Roma:
Edizioni dell'Ateneo, 2005. 712-722.
Zinna, A. Le interfacce degli oggetti di scrittura. Roma:
Meltemi, 2004.","txt","2","",""
"736","8","The Voyage of the Slave Ship Sally: Exploring Historical Documents in Context","","The Voyage of the Slave Ship Sally is a digital project
developed as part of the work of Brown University's
Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, which in 2003 was
formed to investigate the university's historical relationship to
slavery and the slave trade. The committee's research included
working with archival materials from the John Carter Brown
Library and the John Hay Library at Brown University. A
significant subset of these materials concerned a single slave
voyage conducted by John and Nicholas Brown in the 1760s,
for which a large amount of documentary evidence survives,
including ship's manifests, invoices and receipts, letters, bills
of lading, and the captain's trade book. The Brown University
Scholarly Technology Group (STG) worked with Professor
James Campbell, chair of the committee, and Patrick Yott,
director of the Center for Digital Initiatives, to develop a
resource through which these documents could be read and
explored.
The goal of the project was to present these materials in a digital
form that would respond to the committee's expressed goal to
""help the campus and the nation reflect on the meaning of this
history in the present, on the complex historical, political, legal,
and moral questions posed by any present-day confrontation
with past injustice."" The project thus presented a number of
challenges: the breadth of audience, the need to engage readers
with widely varying levels of familiarity with the historical
background, and the need to offer as many ways as possible of
engaging with and probing these materials, so that they would
yield the maximum possible insight into the social, political,
historical, cultural, and economic circumstances surrounding
the slave trade. The initial version of the site, which was
released concurrently with the committee's report, emphasizes
access to the primary source documents through page images and TEI transcriptions. The second phase of the project's
development, which will be completed by the end of 2007, will
provide more detailed forms of access through specialized
interface tools that draw on additional contextual data being
developed by the project faculty.
This poster and demonstration focuses on three areas of
particular significance arising from this project:
1. The interface design, which emphasized ways of engaging
readers of all skill and education levels and providing them
with contextual information needed to interact meaningfully
with the primary source documents
2. The management of interconnections between TEI
transcriptions, metadata, images, and contextual data, which
support a set of exploratory tools.
3. The exploratory tools themselves, which encourage readers
to probe the historical sources and their context in ways that
go beyond the authoritative information provided by the
site itself.
Interface design
One of the central premises guiding the project's design
was the fact that we were anticipating readers in two
broad categories: those familiar with the historical context who
would be immediately interested in exploring the primary source
documents and able to make some sense of them, and those
coming to the site with no prior knowledge, who might have
no initial interest in the documents at all and no way of
exploring them meaningfully. Readers in the former group
would need powerful tools to allow them to probe the
documents, while those in the latter group would need a more
narrative interface emphasizing the historical context and its
modern significance, and providing readers with a sense of why
the primary source documents constitute an important
intellectual resource. The interface is designed with the aim of
leading all readers, eventually, to the documents via links from
the historical narrative to the relevant documentary material,
but it also provides readers with search and exploration tools
that embody as much contextual information as possible:
glossed timelines and maps, social networks of people, and lists
of commodities involved in the slave trade, all drawn from the
information carried in the primary source documents
themselves.
Data Structures
The documents and contextual information are represented
through a set of interrelated data structures, specifically:
• TEI transcriptions of the primary source documents
• digital images of each document at a variety of resolutions
• METS records representing the structure of each digital
object
• a set of simple XML data structures to represent four
categories of contextual information on persons, places,
events, and commodities named in the texts, to allow for
glosses and information about the interconnections between
items in these groups (such as social networks, family
relationships, classifications of commodities, and so forth).
The TEI transcriptions capture a comparatively large amount
of information about the documents' content, by encoding
all references to persons, places, commodities, and financial
transactions so that these can be indexed, glossed,
regularized, and searched. The transcriptions use this
encoding to reference the contextual information, using
key= attributes which point to the relevant records
describing the person, place, event, or commodity in
question. This allows both for basic hooks to allow (for
instance) links to glosses directly from the text, and also
for more advanced exploratory tools which process this
information and represent it through visualizations and
advanced search mechanisms.
Exploratory tools
The primary source documents for the Sally project are
often individually compelling, but they are most
significant when understood as part of a social and economic
network. The existence of this network, however, can only be
grasped indirectly and fragmentarily through the documents
themselves; the reader needs tools for exploration that allow
patterns and connections to become visible, and that can draw
on the contextual information provided. When completed the
project will include a set of interface tools that facilitate
precisely this kind of exploration. For instance, the reader will
be able to explore the network of people and social relations
that surround the Sally voyage and inhabit its documentary
record--owners, captain, seamen, outfitters, workmen,
employees, enslaved Africans, slave traders. Their documentary
relationships (for instance, the senders and receivers of letters
and invoices) will be visible along with all of the metadata
about those exchanges (place and date of writing, type of
document, etc.) so that readers can construct a detailed and
vivid picture of the vectors of communication through which
this voyage is documented. Similarly detailed information
supports the exploration of the commodities described in these
documents, both those that were explicitly traded for slaves
(rum, cloth, iron bars), and those that were structurally essential
to the trade (weapons, sugar, the ship's provisions).
Visualization tools such as word clouds, manipulable
representations of networks, and generated timelines will give
readers a variety of ways to explore this information in ways that allow an overall grasp of the landscape as well as direct
connections to the documentary evidence at every point.
Conclusions
Because the collection of documents associated with the
Sally voyage is comparatively small (on the order of a
hundred or so), the greatest informational value was to be gained
by an emphasis on detail (through the encoding of the
transcriptions) and on contextual information (through the
associated XML data structures that represent ontological
relationships between the various persons, commodities, and
so forth). This kind of approach is uncommon for collections
of historical documents, which characteristically emphasize
scale (consider for instance the Valley of the Shadow, or the
Making of America projects). Using visualization tools to model
and interact with information of this type is also comparatively
rare; visualization tools are being increasingly used for
exploration of very large data sets (often not encoded in XML
at all) but are less common for small, heavily tagged document
collections. This project thus offers opportunities for an
exploration of digital methods which may yield some useful
results at its conclusion--in particular, on the question of how
much value is added by detailed markup and tools that exploit
it.","txt","2","",""
"737","8","Round Table: Coalition of Digital Humanities Centers","3","The members of the panel will discuss with the audience other American centers not represented at the summit meeting
and centers in other countries.
the outcome of the national summit meeting of American
digital humanities centers and major funders held at the National
Endowment of Humanities headquarters on April 12-13,
co-sponsored by the NEH and the University of Maryland.
The purpose of the meeting was to take seriously the ACLS
Cyberinfrastructure Commission’s call for digital humanities
centers to become key nodes of cyberinfrastructure in the United
States. To that end, the summit explored how best to foster
collaboration among national digital humanities centers, among
major funders of the digital humanities, and between centers
and funders, along with the possibility of creating a national
coalition of digital humanities centers.
Among the salient issues are the creation of mechanisms for
promoting timely exchange of information between centers and
identifying opportunities for collaboration among them; the
articulation of mutual research goals as well as particular areas
of emphases so as to avoid duplication of effort among centers;
the development of joint policy agendas and successful
strategies for pursuing them; better articulating funding needs
to funding agencies; methods for optimizing collaborative
opportunities between humanities content specialists and the
technological community; and advancing the place of the digital
humanities on campus, including such issues as infrastructure
and the role of the Digital Humanities in promotion and tenure.
This roundtable session will focus upon the initiatives begun
at the summit meeting and engage in a general discussion about
them, with the hope of widening the conversation to include","txt","2","",""
"738","8","Extracting Stylistic Distances from Texts for Forensic Linguistics Purposes","","The paper proposes a method for the automatic processing
of forensic texts for the extraction of similarities and
dissimilarities to be used for authorship identification purposes.
Forensic Linguistics expresses the application of linguistics to
the analysis of forensic language in written or oral form, the
study of the language of the law, the study of legal interpretation
and translation, the alleviation of disadvantage produced by
language in legal processes, the provision of forensic linguistic
evidence and of linguistic expertise in issues of legal drafting
and interpretation (Conley & O’Barr, 1998; Shy 1998; Cotterill,
2002; McMenamin & Dongdoo 2002; Semino & Culpeper,
2002; Gibbons, 2003). Our forensic texts belong to a Greek
terrorist organization, “17 November” (Kassimeris, 1997;
Παπαχελάς & Τέλλογλου, 2002; Frantzi, 2004). 17N started
its action in 1975, while the summer/autumn of 2002, all (or
most) of the members were arrested. The case is currently in
court for the second time. 84 of the proclamations, that used to
follow a 17N attack, have been characterized as genuine
(Κάκτος, 2002). Their authorship is an open issue. The final
aim of this project is to map each of the 17N proclamations to
its possible author (Frantzi & Ananiadou, 2006). In this work
we propose a way to characterise an organization’s text, i.e.
proclamation, pleading, replication, by values on its stylistic
characteristics. The values are used for extracting similarities
and dissimilarities among texts.
We consider the following stylistics features: the average
sentence and word length, the number of different nouns, proper
nouns, adjectives, active voice verbs, passive voice verbs,
adverbs, the number of future tense references, the use of
conjunctions, preposition, pronouns, particles, determiners,
articles, question words, punctuation, content words. For each
pair of possibly owned by the same author writings, we create
a matrix which we call distance-matrix (Table 1). Each cell of
the matrix contains a number that corresponds to a stylistic
feature distance between the two writings. In order to compute the distance-matrix for a pair of writings,
we need to assign a value to each cell that corresponds to a
particular stylistic feature. This value gives the difference
(distance) between the two writings regarding the specific
feature. Then the distance between the two writings is evaluated
by the average value of all the feature-distances in the
distance-matrix. A feature-distance is assigned to a cell and is
calculated by the average of all phenomena distances for that
feature. The phenomena distances for a feature are calculated
by their normalized frequencies of occurrence in the two
writings. The algorithm for the processing of the
feature-distances is the following:
Each author is characterized by his/her pleadings and
replications. If we could match a proclamation to a pleading
(and replication) then we could possibly match a proclamation
to the corresponding author. We need to compare all pleadings
(and replications) to the proclamations, to find the smallest
“distance” in terms of their feature values. The smallest distance
assigns a proclamation to a pleading, i.e. an author.
In this work we apply the distance-table method for
comparisons between the pleadings and replications: we already
know the authors of the pleadings and proclamations, so we
can present how the distance-table works. We apply the method
to three writings: one pleading and two replications. Let us
consider Yotopoulos’s (the person accused to be the main leader
and one of the main authors of the proclamations) pleading of
18321 words, and replication of 2036 words, and Koufontinas’s
(also accused to be a leading member) replication of 326 words.
We will evaluate the distance-matrix for the pairs of writings
(Yotopoulos’s pleading, Yotopoulos’s replication) and
(Yotopoulos’s pleading, Koufontinas’s replication). We will
show the evaluation for one of the cells of the two
distance-matrixes, the distance-matrix[1,1], i.e. the cell that
keeps the distance regarding the stylistic feature of the particles’
use, while the evaluation is analogous for the rest of the cells.1
There are five particles in Greek: “να”, “για”, “θα”, “ας” and
“μα”. Table 2 gives the frequencies of occurrence and
normalized frequencies (to 10,000 words) for the five particles
found in Yotopoulos’s pleading (Yp) and replication (Yr) and
those in Koufodinas’s replication (Kr).
The distance-matrix[1,1] cell for the (Yotopoulos’s pleading,
Yotopoulos’s replication) distance-matrix holds the distance
regarding the use of particles. We evaluate the distance on the
use of each of the five particle between the two writings and
we assign to the distance-matrix1,1] cell the average of all the
particles’ distances. Then we do the same for the
distance-matrix1,1] cell of the (Yotopoulos’s pleading,
Koufodinas’s replication) distance-matrix. The particles’
distances for the particle “να” for the two pair of writings are
calculated according the above-given algorithm as:The
distance-matrix[1,1] cell for the (Yotopoulos’s pleading,
Yotopoulos’s replication) distance-matrix holds the distance
regarding the use of particles. We evaluate the distance on the
use of each of the five particle between the two writings and
we assign to the distance-matrix[1,1] cell the average of all the
particles’ distances. Then we do the same for the
distance-matrix[1,1] cell of the (Yotopoulos’s pleading,
Koufodinas’s replication) distance-matrix. The particles’
distances for the particle “να” for the two pair of writings are
calculated according the above-given algorithm as:
Particles_distance(Yp,Yr)[να]=|245.619 - 294.695| / (245.619
+ 294.695)=0.091 Particles_distance(Yp,Κr)[να]=|245.619 -
122.699| / (245.619 + 122.699)=0.334
Table 3 gives the results of the calculations for all the particles’
distances for those pair of writings. We get the average for each
of the columns of Table 3, i.e. 0.289 and 0.409. These averages
will be assigned to distance-matrixes.[1,1] cells for the two
pairs of writings distance-matrixes.
Table 4 gives all the feature-distances for the (Yotopoulos’s
pleading, Yotopoulos’s replication) distance-matrixwhile Table
5 for the (Yotopoulos’s pleading, Koufodinas’s replication)
one. When matrixes are filled up, we can evaluate the total distances
for the pairs of writings as the average of all the cell values:
matrix-distance(Yp, Kr)= 0.5593 matrix-distance (Yp,Yr)=
0.3382
As a result Yotopoulos’s pleading is linked to Yotopoulos’s
replication (smaller distance), which actually means that these
two writings have been found to be closer as for their language
style than the writings of Yotopoulos’s pleading and
Koufodinas’s replication.
Future work involves:
• Augmentation of the distance-matrix with more stylistics
features, e.g. the use of collocations (Frantzi & Ananiadou,
2007),
• use of weights for the stylistics features,
• application of the method for characterizing the
proclamations for the provision of authorship evidence,
• comparisons among the proclamations for their grouping
according to their linguistic profile.
1. We cannot present the evaluation of all cells here due to space
restrictions.
Bibliography
Conley, John M., and William M. O'Barry. Just Words – Law,
Language, and Power. Chicago and London: The University
of Chicago Press, 1998.
Cotterill, Janet, ed. Language in the Legal Process. MacMillan,
2002.
Frantzi, Katerina T. ""Corpus Linguistics: What can it do with
Terrorism?"" International Journal of Humanities 2.2 (2004):
1603-1608.
Frantzi, Katerina T., and Sophia Ananiadou. ""Automatic
Authorship Identification."" Proceedings of the International
Association of Forensic Linguistics 2nd European Conference
on Forensic Linguistics / Language & the Law. Barcelona,
Spain. 14-16.
Frantzi, Katerina T., and Sophia Ananiadou. ""C-value for
Authorship Identification."" Proceedings of the International
Association of Forensic Linguistics 8th Biennial International
Conference on Forensic Linguistics / Language & the Law –
IAFL 8, Seattle, Washington, July 12-15 2007. forthcoming.
Gibbons, John. Forensic Linguistics: An Introduction to
Language in the Justice System. Language in Society 32.
Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2003.
Kassimeris, George. Europe’s Last Red Terrorists: The
Revolutionary Organization 17 November. C. Hurst & Co. Ltd,
1997.
McMenamin, Gerald R., and Choi Dongdoo, eds. Forensic
Linguistics : Advances in Forensic Stylistics. CRC Press, 2002.
Semino, Elena, and Jonathan Culpeper, eds. Cognitive Stylistics:
Language and Cognition in Text Analysis. Linguistic
Approaches to Literature 1. John Benjamins Publishing
Company, 2002.
Shuy, Roger W.>. The Language of Confession, Interrogation
and Deception . Empirical Linguistics Series. Sage Publications,
1998.
Κάκτος. 17N – Οι προκηρύξεις. Αθήνα: Κάκτος, 2002.
Παπαχελάς, Α., and T. Τέλλογλου. Αθήνα, Ελλάδα: Εστία,
2002.","txt","2","",""
"739","8","Ancient Technical Manuscripts: the Case of 17th-century Portuguese Shipbuilding Treatises","","During the 16th- and 17th-centuries European seafaring
underwent an incredible transformation driven mainly
by the exploration of newly discovered lands, the contact with
previously unknown cultures, and the increase in maritime
commerce. The social changes that resulted from this cultural
revolution affected the long chain of events entailed by the
construction of oceangoing ships and determined a number of
technical innovations in the construction of ships. From an
original oral tradition, where apprentices learned from masters
the intricacies of shipbuilding techniques; this process evolved
into a more formal field as masters began to follow guidelines,
materials used, and construction sequences in a more systematic
way, forming a corpus of information that was soon compiled
in manuscripts known as shipbuilding treatises.
The first shipbuilding treatises, understandably, were written
by mathematicians, priests and other learned men, reflecting a
reality where shipbuilders probably were largely illiterate. Rich
in technical descriptions, shipbuilding treatises play a key role
in Nautical Archaeology both for scholars and students. Scholars
access these manuscripts for several reasons. For example,
working on the reconstruction of sunken ships, they can provide
vital information for reassembling fragments and damaged
timbers of ship remains recovered from underwater excavations.
Also, their contents often help our understanding of shipbuilding
techniques. In addition, they can be used to compare different
construction traditions both from geographical and
chronological standpoints. Moreover, they are great sources
for understanding the evolution of shipbuilding (Figure 2 shows
our treatises browser).
Nautical Archaeology students—although not carrying out the
complex tasks of ship reconstruction—are exposed to treatises
early in their studies. For them treatises are a good source to
understand the basic terminology and concepts they will be
using during the rest of their studies. Current teaching practices
are constrained to browse physical copies of the original
sources; with obvious restrictions such as limited number of
copies and access, or unknown language—depending of their
provenance, they were written in different languages, and
difficult technical terminology. In fact, treatises inherit most
of the limitations of printed books.
Providing ways in which shipbuilding treatises can be used
digitally by both scholars and students is an attractive
interdisciplinary effort for a number of reasons. First, is the
opportunity to investigate the variety of ways in which
manuscripts’ contents (both texts and illustrations) can be
structured and classified. Second, is the opportunity to make
original-source material available at the location of an
excavation; the treatises description of the construction of the
physical objects can provide valuable information about
fragments of ship timbers that are recovered from an excavation
site. This effort clearly draws techniques from the earlier
projects in the digital humanities that examine the characteristics
of digital representations of paper-based texts. However the
linkage to physical artifacts opens up additional possibilities
and considerations.
Digital humanities projects involving manuscripts or printed
texts have been related, for the most part, to literature and
historical records; some Know: Responding to the
Computational Transformation of the well-known examples
include the Canterbury Tales Project.1, the Rossetti Archive2,
and the Perseus Digital Library 3. We have been involved in
creating collections of this form as well for Cervantes4,Donne,5
and Picasso6. In the context of Nautical Archaeology, the
manuscript of Michael of Rhodes captures the knowledge
obtained by this 15th century seaman during his 4- decade-long
career7. The presentation of the manuscript, oriented to a general
audience, hints at the value that such materials will have to the
professional archaeologist when representations and tools are
provided that meet his scholarly needs.
Until relatively recently, ships were the most advanced and
complex transportation means designed. Nautical treatises hold
the key to understanding their technical complexity. In essence,
the collection of treatises represents the technical manuals
describing the components, their use, and the steps taken in
manufacturing of the ship. Several characteristics of treatises
make understanding them a very challenging task. Language
is a major problem; in order to better understand their contents,
it is necessary to provide translations and explanations of concepts, pieces, and sequences. Beyond the multiple languages
in which the treatises were written, they also come from diverse
geographical locations and span centuries, making terms,
concepts, and descriptions difficult to understand. Different
units and standards of measurement—a key aspect in technical
descriptions—raise problems about not only comparing treatises
with different provenance, but also translating them into modern
scales; units of measurement used in the treatises are not
necessarily the ones used by archaeologists to measure
recovered evidence. To tackle these problems, we have
developed a multilingual glossary, in which terms include their
corresponding translation and definition into ten languages
(which can be expanded as needed). The incorporation of
“roles,” enables us to expand characteristics related to the terms,
for example spellings and synonyms. Our framework allows
multiple values per role as well the addition of more roles as
they are required (see figure 1).
However, despite common features shared by physical
fragments and their corresponding descriptions in the texts,
fragments obtained from individual ships have important
differences because of the differing physical conditions that
they have been exposed to. Damaged and incomplete ship
remains require the adoption of an encoding scheme to describe
and quantify uncertainty; textual descriptions do not encompass
“uncertainty.”
In the previous paragraphs we have briefly outlined the
relationship between physical archaeological evidence and
written descriptions in the treatises. However, treatises in
themselves have properties that make them unique. For
example, an important question is how similar or different are
treatises in terms of the sequences, construction techniques,
and materials used. An initial approach would suggest that
probably the encoding used in their description could be used
to quantify the degree of similarity.
Since treatises are “technical manuals,” illustrations are essential
in their understanding; therefore, we adopted a two-step process.
First, illustrations have to be segmented, an illustration Ij, can
be composed of a set of components C = {c1, c2,… ck}, where
a component ci has a list of properties P = {p1, p2 …pk}.
Second, each component might have a description within the
text, thus a linkage between the two is required. To make things
more complex, a component cj can be formed from a subset of
components, a step that resembles a recursive property, where
the ship as a whole is formed by small parts, which in turn are
composed by smaller ones, and so on. Figure 3 depicts the
interface for capturing coordinates in images linking them to
terms from the glossary.
Conversely, components can be mapped to other
representations; a good example is a model created in 3D
rendering software such as Rhino. We have done preliminary
tests, exporting geometric data from Rhino models into XML
and linking them to both 2D slides of the model and their
corresponding occurrences in the treatises.
Although linking text and images has been extensively studied;
the context of treatises raises a series of complex issues. For
example, the text of a treatise could be segmented in a variety
of ways based on different needs; assemblage sequences,
materials used, and section of the ship being described. This in
turn raises some interesting questions, for example: could the
components being included in part of the text give a hint of
what that section is about, or what section of the ship it
describes? How could components in different treatises be
compared?
Our current collection includes digital images and transcriptions
of three of the most relevant late 16th and early 17th century
Portuguese treatises: 8 Fernando Oliveira’s Livro da Fabrica
das Naos (dated to 1580), João Baptista Lavahna’s Livro
Primeiro da Architectura Naval9 (dated between 1608 and
1615), and Manoel Fernandez’s Livro de Tracas de Carpintaria
(dated to 1616). We expect to add more manuscripts as
permissions from holders are granted.
The treatises’ dual role as historically-significant text and as
formal specification of elements of ship design affords an
opportunity to investigate the relationship of techniques
developed within the context of textual studies to applications
with physical objects and virtual 3D models. Further, the
treatises provide the foundation for our development of the
Nautical Archaeology Digital Library (<http://nadl.ta
mu.edu/>), which will center on providing resources in
support of archaeologists’ work and on dissemination of
expedition artifacts10. The combination holds promise of
extending the reach of the digital humanities.
Figure 1: The multilingual glossary interface depicting terms, translations,
and definitions in various languages. Figure 3: Treatises markup utility allows to mark certain areas of the image
and associate them with terms and categories in the glossary.
1. The Canterbury Tales Project Accessed 2006-11-12. <http:/
/www.canterburytalesproject.org/>
2. The Rossetti Archive Accessed 2006-11-12. <http://www.
iath.virginia.edu/rossetti/>
3. The Perseus Digital Library Accessed 2006-11-12. <http://
www.perseus.tufts.edu/>
4. Eduardo Urbina, Electronic Variorum Edition of the Quixote
Accessed 2006-11-12. <http://www.iath.virginia
.edu/rossetti/>
5. Gary Stringer, Digital Donne. Accessed 2006-11-12. <http:/
/www.csdl.tamu.edu/donne>
6. Enrique Mallen, The On-line Picasso Project Accessed 2006-11-12.
<http://picasso.tamu.edu/>
7. Michael of Rhodes Accessed 2006-11-12. <http://www.i
ath.virginia.edu/rossetti/>
8. Special thanks to Academia de Marinha, Lisbon Portugal for
providing the facsimiles. Accessed 2006-11-12. <http://ww
w.marinha.pt/Marinha/PT/Menu/DescobrirM
arinha/Actividade/AreaCultural/academia
/>
9. Lavahna, Joao Baptista. Livro Primeiro da Architectura Naval, c.
1610. Facsimile, transcription, and translation into English, Lisbon,
Academia de Marinha, 1996.
10. Dissemination of archaeological artifacts also has been the focus
of other significant efforts including ArchaeoML, used in OCHRE
Accessed 2006-11-12. <http://ochre.lib.uchicag
o.edu/>formerly XSTAR, and ETANA Accessed 2006-11-12.
<http://www.etana.org/>","txt","2","",""
"740","8","Digitization and Publication of the Goethe-Dictionary on the Internet","","The Goethe Dictionary(Goethe Wörterbuch = GWb) is one of
the most ambitious projects in German lexicography. Its
importance for literary and linguistic research on the writings
of the most famous German author Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe (1749-1832) can not be overestimated. Although still
a work in progress – hitherto four volumes (A—inhaftieren)
have been completed – the GWb has become an essential tool
not only for the study of the wide ranging vocabulary of an
individual author, but also – due to the enormous influence of
this author – an indispensable instrument for research on the
history of the German language and culture during one of the
key periods of their development. The vocabulary of Goethe
comprises about 90.000 words, more than any other writer in
German has ever used, because he not only wrote as a poet, but
was also engaged in serious research in fields like anatomy,
geology and botany; and in addition to that he served as a
minister to the court of Weimar and was well familiar with all
aspects of the administrative language of his time.
The preparation of the GWb began shortly after the 2nd world
war in 1947, the 1st volume appeared in 1978, the second
instalment of the 5th volume (Jammernachbar—kanonieren)
in 2005. In 2003 plans were developed for the creation of a
digital version of the GWb which so far had been published
only in a printed form. A grant proposal for the digitization had
been drawn up by the Competence Centre for Electronic
Retrieval and Publication Methods in the Humanities
(Kompetenzzentrum für elektronische Erschließungs- und
Publikationsverfahren) at the University of Trier in
collaboration with the Interacademic Committee for the Goethe
Dictionary of three German Academies of Sciences and
Humanities (Berlin-Brandenburg, Göttingen, Heidelberg).
After receiving a grant from the German Research Association
(Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) the digitization project
started in May 2004 at the University of Trier. By end of 2005
the first 3 volumes were made freely available on the internet
(<http://www.gwb.uni-trier.de>) in a preliminary
version which has been refined in the following time
considerably. In future the GWb will continue to be published
in print, but will be also made freely available on the Internet
in a version which is closely related to the printed form with
its stable references for reliable quotations. Conservative
Goethe-scholars with their prejudices towards the new media
may quote the book, although their secretaries got the quotations
from the digital version. It is therefore essential that the digitized
version is an absolutely correct rendering of the printed version
and offers the same degree of reliability. However, the Internet
version will offer much more than the book with its restriction
caused by the procrustean bed of its alphabetical macrostructure:
Via a comfortable and user-friendly interface, the electronic
GWb is to provide flexible and innovative possibilities for
literary and linguistic research on Goethe and the history of the
German language and its vocabulary as well as for everyone
interested in Goethe and the language of his time, both in
Germany and abroad. The following short description of the
digitization project will outline the main features of its
innovative approach to making the informational potential of
a traditional dictionary fully available. The various steps of the
project will be described in detail in the proposed paper.
The first task in the project’s working plan consisted of a minute
analysis of all the typographical features of the microstructure
of an entry in order to draw up a carefully organised set of
instructions or functional specifications (Pflichtenheft) for the
typists who should be enabled to apply appropriate tags related
to the specific typographical functions. This preliminary tagging
is done by the typist during his keying in the text of an entry;
it saves a considerable amount of time in a later stage of the
project when XML/TEI conformant markup is applied.
The text of the GWb has been made machine readable via
double keying, a method strongly recommended by Wilhelm
Ott and successfully practised in previous lexicographical
projects of the Trier Competence Centre, e.g. the Middle High
German Dictionaries Interlinked (Mittelhochdeutsche
Wörterbücher im Verbund), <http://www.MWV.uni-tr
ier.de>, and the digitization of the 33 vols. of the Deutsches
Wörterbuch by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, <http://www.
DWB.uni-trier.de>, the German equivalent to the OED.
The idea of scanning the GWb and using OCR software for
processing the data had been excluded from the beginning,
because of the highly specialised typography and the far too
time-consuming and costly correction processes afterwards.
The data input took place in China. Two teams were capturing
the GWb in MS-Word via double keying and using
TUSTEP-tags for encoding the typographical features and the
special characters. After the transfer of the data to Germany
via e-mail, the data were converted into the TUSTEP-format.
The two versions were collated automatically by
TUSTEP-routines; TUSTEP also generated a list of differences,
which has been corrected manually after comparing the printed GWb. The result of this step was an error-free TUSTEP-version
of the GWb.
Apart from fulltext retrieval, the TUSTEP-version already offers
a number of other searches, but it is difficult to perform
combined queries without further markup. For this step the
TEI-Guidelines were used; they were not followed always
strictly, some deviations were necessary to suit the specialities
of the microstructure of a GWb-entry. Because of the huge
amount of data, the XML/TEI-conformant markup had to be
inserted by using automatic routines wherever possible. For
this we used again TUSTEP-modules which proved to work
efficiently and with an outmost degree of accuracy.
The XML/TEI-encoded data were stored in a data base and a
graphical user interface was developed using several tools and
methods which we had used for the previous lexicographical
projects and which have been described elsewhere in detail by
Thomas Burch (<http://aspn.activestate.com/A
SPN/Tcl/TclConferencePapers2002/Tcl2002pa
pers/>).
The contribution will present a detailed introduction to the user
interface and the functionalities of the electronic GWb. We
took great pains to display the GWb in a way that makes it
attractive and easy to use. Unlike other digital dictionaries
(OED, TLF) we did not allow to break up the macrostructure
in single entries separately shown (one screen = one entry), but
kept the structure of the printed dictionary thus allowing a
comfortable overview over series of compounds beginning with
the same determinative. The framing of the window allows an
easy navigation especially through long entries with an
elaborated hierarchical microstructure, thus helping the user to
find as quickly as possible what he is looking for. – As the
project is still a work in progress, the presenting author would
gladly discuss the perspectives of what remains to be done.","txt","2","",""
"741","8","Up-To-Date Means of Access to Full-Text Databases","","Introduction
Among mankind’s priceless treasures are not only
handmade artefacts but also creations reflecting
mankind’s ability of thinking and speaking. These are texts.
Thousands, tens of thousands, hundreds of thousands of
manuscripts created during the past thousands years that reached
our days are of great historic, artistic and cultural value. There
is no doubt that written texts were and remain one of the most
valuable witnesses of the past of mankind, its achievements
and discoveries, world view, sufferings and errors.
It is well known that natural human language and texts in natural
language, accordingly, are among the most complicated things
for study and interpretation. The complexity increases several
times for old texts.
One of the most effective means of preserving and increasing
knowledge of old texts is the steady philological, historical and
textual study of and commentary on them using the manuscripts.
Unfortunately, the major part of the world manuscript heritage
is in need of the comprehensive study. Many manuscripts are
unpublished and inaccessible.
Objectives
Up-to-date computer technologies offer wide possibilities
for preservation, processing, study and popularisation of
the manuscript cultural heritage of mankind. The most
promising method of comprehensive study of manuscripts is
the creation of digital libraries in the form of full-text databases.
The advantages of this type of collection are the volume of
stored information, speedy search, advanced data retrieval and
ordering functionality, the ability to supplement the database
with new information and the ability to access it through the
Internet. The weaknesses of full-text databases are their complexity and
the expenditure of labour required to access the manuscript/text
and its components. The depth of fragmentation, number and
composition of units, their properties and values all must be
determined beforehand, so the text is considerably simplified
and the means of establishing relationships between fragments
can be absent.
While developing the Manuscript system 1 (<http://manu
scripts.ru/index_en.html>) intended for storage,
processing and publication of ancient manuscripts, the research
group of philologists and programmers at Udmurtia State
University developed a unique module for accessing the full-text
database: a specialised text editor called OldEd. Its distinctive
feature is its combination of the functions of traditional text
processors with their visual presentation of text and formatting
capabilities, with the ability to build a corresponding
object-oriented database for each textual unit, which can be
combined into relationship hierarchies.
As is well known, text processors like Microsoft Word are well
suited to extension using their powerful object model and
therefore provide a means of interaction with databases as an
interface to it (in this case, with full-text databases of ancient
texts). However an analysis of such a means of interacting with
the database using Microsoft Word showed that the
development of our own tools for editing Old Russian texts
stored in the database would be considerably less
labour-consuming than customizing Microsoft Word or other
software
Methodology
To work with data stored in full-text databases, it is
advisable to create special editors. In the process of
developing the OldEd editor, our research group was guided
by the following requirements:
1. creation, input and editing of the document through direct
interaction with the database;
2. representation of the manuscript text in a form that would
be close to the original, including reproduction of glyph
variants (Figure 1);
3. selection and creation of the manuscript/text units and
manipulation of their properties and values (Figure 2);
4. work with unit relationships (creation, change of
subordination, deletion, change of properties, visualization
of relationships);
5. work with various hierarchical structures (unit selection,
creation of the relationship with the parent unit etc.) and
representation of unit relationships in the hierarchy as a tree
(Figure 3);
6. work with unit dictionaries, their properties and values and
relationships (Figure 4);
7. support for simultaneous work with several manuscripts;
8. multi-user support.
Figure 1: : Many texts, many languages and accurate reproduction of glyphs
Figure 2: Text units, their properties and values
Figure 3: Text fragments and their dictionary equivalents. Technological description
From a technical point of view, the editor comprises a range
of components providing access to data, the ability to read
and record objects into the database, visualisation of the units
of the manuscripts/texts and their hierarchical relationships,
and representation of the document in the form of formatted
text.
The editor was written in C++, and the components were
developed with the use of ATL (Active Template Library). The
client part was written using MFC (Microsoft Foundation
Classes). In operation the client interacts with the database of
the Manuscript system by means of a server API-procedure
written as packages for the Oracle database management system.
Results and Business benefits
The smallest unit that can be operated on by the editor is
the glyph and its variants. The largest units are the
manuscript and text. It should be noted that the relationships
among the latter could be described by the notion ‘many to
many’: the manuscript can have many texts; one text can be
represented in many manuscripts.
The OldEd editor allows the user to work effectively with the
visualised data – units, their relationships, properties and values
– of texts/manuscripts. The editor enables representation of the
hierarchies existing in a text/manuscript and of the text as a
transformed geometrical hierarchy. When working with the
text, the editor allows the user to edit the text and divide it into
fragments. When scrolling, the editor displays information on
the relationships between the text units, structural units and
dictionary units; allows creation and deletion of relationships
between units; allows viewing and correction of their properties
and allows creation of new units (including texts). When
displaying relationships, the user can view and edit all unit
relationships.
Further steps
The editor’s functional possibilities are being expanded in
several directions:
• Since working with the editor currently requires a constant
connection with the database, it would be desirable to have
a feature allowing the user to download part of the document
and work with it offline.
• The present version of the editor could be used with a direct
remote connection to the database, but this is not allowed
only for security reasons. This is why the database
management system is currently behind a firewall and
inaccessible from outside of the local network. This situation
should be changed, as the value of the system considerably
increases if many researchers can access it not only to
acquire information, but also to enrich the database. To
achieve this goal, a new additional web interface to data
using the SOAP protocol should be developed. Information
on the ancient hand-written treasures stored in the database
is already accessible through a special web-interface in
viewing mode (as an illustration see our site devoted to the
Putyata’s Menaion manuscript <http://manuscript
s.ru/mns/portal.main?p1=19&p_lid=2&p_si
d=1>).
Conclusions
The editor provides features for working with full-text
databases: the text/manuscript and their units are
represented in a view that is close to the original; the
text/manuscript can be divided into fragments described by
their respective properties and values; units belonging to the
same content area can be organized in a hierarchy; any unit can
have a standard variant (corresponding dictionary unit);
relationships can be established between any units (even distant
ones); and editing of units, their properties, values and
relationships can be done by the user directly in the text. In
other words, the digital copy of the manuscript/text can be
represented not like a linear chain of units, but like a complex
network, each part of which is a model of a certain area of
information in the manuscript. All editor features are intended,
first of all, so that versatile operations can be performed on
manuscripts/texts for further processing of them in the
databases, preparation of reference materials and creation of
printed and digital editions. One of the most important advantages of the editor is that it
allows simple, consistent visual manipulation of the various
units of structurally complex manuscripts and texts so that users
do not need to learn difficult markup languages
For more detail about the editor see <http://manuscrip
ts.ru/pub/rd/>.
Acknowledgment
The work was made possible thanks to the financial support
of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (Grant
05-07-90217-в).
1. Baranov, V.A., Votintsev, A.A., Gnutikov, R.M., Mironov, A.N.,
Oshchepkov, S.V., and Romanenko, V.A., ""Old Slavic Manuscript
Heritage: Electronic Publications and Full-Text Databases"" EVA
2004 London (Electronic Imaging, the Visual Arts Conference &
Beyond). Conference Proceedings. University College London,
Institute of Archaeology. Principal Editor: James Hemsley.
London, 2004.
Baranov, V.A., Votintsev, A.A., Gnutikov, R.M., Zuga, O.V.,
Mironov, A.N., Nikiforova, S.A., Oshchepkov, S.V. Romanenko,
V.A., and Ryabova, E.V. (2003) ""Electronnyje izdanija drevnikh
pis’mennykh pamjatnikov i tekhnologija sozdanija polnotekstovykh
baz dannykh (Electronic Editions of Old Manuscripts and
Technology of Creation of Full-Text Databases)."" Krug idej:
electronnye resursy istoricheskoj informatiki, Мoscow, pp.
234–260.
Baranov, V.A., Votintsev, A.A., Gnutikov, R.M., Mironov, A.N.,
and Romanenko, V.A., (2003) ""Spetsializirivannyj tekstovyj
redactor “Manuscript” Sistemy obrabotki drevnikh rukopisej
(Specialized Text Editor Manuscript of the System for Processing
Old Manuscripts)."" Informatsionnyj bjulleten’ assotsiatsii “Istorija
i komp’juter 31: 159-165.","txt","2","",""
"742","8","Geographical Information Systems and the Exploration of French Culture and Society","","This presentation describes the principal humanities
application of a recent grant project that used
Geographical Information Systems (GIS). It explores the
institutional context in which the project took place, curricular
and survey results, implications for faculty development using
a GIS tool in the humanities, and a glimpse at where the project
is leading in the study of language, literature and culture. A
GIS methodology we used allowed us to map statistical
information to make visible what might otherwise have been
merely a matrix of numeric data. It allowed us to distinguish
meaningful patterns. We have found that when the data come
to bear upon historical, political or sociological situations, they
can have an impact upon the study of language, culture and
even literature, thus the humanities. Such was the premise of
our project, the International Studies/Language Technology
Initiative, funded by three American philanthropic foundations
from 1999-2002, the Culpeper Foundation, the Archbold
Charitable Trust, and the Rockefeller Brothers Fund.1
Our GIS initiative focused on International Studies, Sociology,
and Modern Languages and Literatures. We sought to improve
our own analytical skills across disciplinary divisions as a model
for our students and to promote foreign languages across the
curriculum (FLAC).2 For French and Spanish, we introduced
maps into the curriculum, combined maps with data sets, and
encouraged students to answer questions in the foreign language
using these materials, which involved relatively simple but
relevant statistics that usually had an historical or a sociological
context.
The first level consisted of faculty development, followed by
the creation and pilot application of interactive maps to help
students fill significant gaps in their knowledge of geography,
where they could work in pairs or small groups to discuss clues
about a country’s characteristics or location, then click on the
area within the borders to reveal the name and see if they were
correct. This approach eventually led to the creation of
multimedia GIS maps where the name of the country, capital
city or other regions would be pronounced and where other
multimedia materials such as digital video with subtitles or
captioning would appear to assist language learners (Figures 1 and 2, originally in color).3 The multimedia tagging of maps
using a proprietary GIS tool, MapInfo, allowed us to experiment
with a kind of hypertext and hypermedia suggested by Vannevar
Bush’s article “As We May Think” (Atlantic Monthly, July
1945, 101-108) and which have been explored by countless
other researchers for a host of applications. We are currently
investigating the viability of non- proprietary GIS tools such
as QGIS and Google Earth applications.
In our project, we created some maps that showed change in
demographic or other features over time, others that showed
local, regional, national, and transnational patterns in trade, use
of resources, socio-demographics and politics. Several of these
custom-designed GIS maps will be shown at the presentation.
Faculty anecdotally concluded that this work enhanced students’
ability to read tables, recognize spatial data, read maps, and use
the computer as an analytical tool, not just a word processor,
e-mailing device, or means to browse the Internet.
When applied to studies and classes in modern languages and
literatures, we developed pedagogies to encourage analytical
and critical thinking. One successful application was to pair
this author’s French Translation class (FR 265) with a class in
Urban/Suburban Sociology (SO 163) on several occasions,
where the latter’s students were charged with a task that is far
from trivial, one that Martyn Jessop in the 2006 ADHO
conference identified: “The number of digital datasets is
growing rapidly and these are often of interest to researchers
in fields other than the often highly specialised one that the
data was originally derived for but how does one locate them?”
(Digital Humanities 2006, p. 101). The task in our case was a
“mapquest” activity to find French census data that would allow
both the French Translation and anglophone Sociology classes
to analyze patterns of North African demographics in France.
These results were applied to the discussion in another French
class reading short selections from francophone North African
literature and about the political situation in France. The
presentation will more fully describe the survey results, partially
illustrated in Figure 4, based on the students’ responses to
questions concerning the team activity and their learning.
Applications of these maps to the study of French language and
culture and francophone literature come into focus when one
“zooms” into a region, city, Parisian arrondissement (district)
and neighborhood and how it actually looks, much as Stendhal
zoomed in on the little town of Verrières in the first chapter of
Le rouge et le noir (1830). Our project constantly strove to put
a human face on what might otherwise have simply been an
aerial photo or a map showing colorful patterns. Zooming in
on the La Glacière métro stop in Paris through French census
data yields one sense of the community. Another one emerges
when one views the neighborhood from street level and watches
a documentary clip on street basketball (Figure 1).4
An historical example includes a GIS map of the population
density in the Paris region which surprised us as an illustration
compatible with the Concentric Zone Theory proposed by the
Chicago School of Ernest Burgess, Robert Parks and others in
the 1920’s.5 The results of the French policy of centralization
start to become clear from this perspective by using a map that
shows contrasts in population (Figure 3, originally in color).
This map and similar ones have sparked student discussions of
the differences in schooling between the United States and
France, of the relative sizes of cities, and other conversations
that have yielded a good number of “aha” moments. The
complexity of these thoughts and their expression depend upon
the students’ language level. However, students starting with
the second year of university French study have been able to
grasp and discuss the implications of “L’Etat, c’est moi” for
the general French population under Louis XIV, a statement
that presaged the migratory movement that would lead
approximately one quarter of the entire French population to
live within a forty-four-mile (seventy-one-kilometer) radius
starting from the center of Paris (Figure 3).
GIS tools have allowed us to create maps that help answer
sociodemographic and other questions that might never have
been asked. These new products have made visible certain
patterns that would otherwise have been hidden in census and
other data (Figure 4, originally in color). This presentation
shares the background, materials and procedures by which the
project was created and has been sustained in several disciplines
since 1999. To our knowledge, no creation of similar materials
for French and Sociology had been created.6
Further work will involve the collection of authentic materials
by U.S. students on study abroad in France and by faculty
members. The new materials will include interviews with
residents whose lives may already span various generations,
photographs linked to GPS coordinates, historical documents,
and current realia. These authentic materials will be integrated
into language acquisition curricula as well as higher-level
courses by faculty in our French program in the proof of concept
phase. One prospective benefit is the encouragement of study
abroad as students become much more familiar with the people,
sounds, sights, arts, thoughts and sociological fabric of various
towns and cities in France. Quantitative and qualitative aspects
will provide students with a fuller ability to appreciate French
culture and civilization as well as give them the chance to work
with peers who do not have the linguistic background to access
the materials first hand. The results of a small-scale study of
such interaction (Figure 5, originally in color) suggest that
helping speakers of a foreign language add a GIS analytical
ability at the university level and in a career is an easier task
than the obverse, training users of GIS sufficiently in the foreign
language to allow them first-hand access to the foreign language
materials. 1. See results reported on the Modern Languages, Literatures and
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) Web page at <http:
//www.faculty.fairfield.edu/jgoldfield/
MLL-GISprojects.htm> and <http://www.facu
lty.fairfield.edu/jgoldfield/ISLT-Webpg
0201.htm> (Feb. 28, 2007). Dr. Kurt Schlichting, Chair and
Professor Sociology and Anthropology at Fairfield University
directed the ISLT Initiative and, together with Mr. Chris Calienes,
assisted the author in the preparation of the GIS maps.
2. See information on successes of FLAC in the liberal arts and
professional schools, such as at the University of Rhode Island
and the University of Connecticut, at: <http://press.uc
sc.edu/archive/95-96/10-95/101695-
National_conference.html> (Feb. 28, 2007). An
important report on FLAC from the American Council on the
Teaching of Foreign Languages appears at: <http://www.a
ctfl.org/files/public/Fall1995LangAcrs.
pdf> (Feb. 28 2007)
3. The digital annotation tool was obtained from Tandberg
Educational, Inc., and Divace Oy (now known as Sanako, Inc.), Divace Solo, v. 4.0 (Turku, Finland: Divace Oy, 1997-2003). The
product is now known as Media Assistant Solo, CD-ROM,
published by Sanako, Inc. (Turku, Finland). The sample scene of
inner-city basketball in Paris was part of instruction materials
created by the author for French courses of various levels,
necessitating varying types of linguistic assistance, such as the
English subtitles pictured here. Other versions of the same
audio-video materials included French captions or no linguistic
support materials.
4. Thompson, Chantal P. and Bette G. Hirsch. Videotape to
accompany Ensuite: Cours intermédiaire de franc􀀀ais. 4th ed.
Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2003.
5. Burgess, Ernest. The Growth of the City: An Introduction to a
Research Project. Eds. Robert Park, Ernest Burgess and R. D.
McKenzie. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1925.
6. Since March 1, 2000, a monumental integration of GIS, historical,
cultural, linguistic, artistic and other materials for the study of
Asian cultures has been carried out by Professor David Germano
and colleagues for the Tibetan and Himalayan Digital Library at
the University of Virginia: <http://www.thdl.org/in
dex.php> (Feb. 28, 2007).","txt","2","",""
"743","8","Zeta and Iota and Twentieth-Century American Poetry","","In his intriguing “All the Way Through: Testing for
Authorship in Different Frequency Strata”, John F. Burrows
follows up his much-discussed Delta (Burrows, 2002a, 2002b,
2003; Hoover 2004a, 2004b, 2006) with two new measures of
textual difference: Zeta and Iota (Burrows 2006; see also
Burrows 2005).
Both measures begin with a full word frequency list for a sample
of Restoration poetry (approximately 20,000 words) by a single
primary author. The sample is then divided into five sections
of equal size, and word frequency lists are created for them.
Zeta deals with words of moderate frequency, words occurring
in at least three of the five sections. To compare two poets, the
word list is reduced further by removing any occurring more
than three times in the second poet’s sample. Where many
authors are being compared, the list is reduced by removing
any words present in the text samples of most of the other
authors. Both methods remove from consideration the most
frequent words of English that have been the focus of so much
recent work. Whether there are two or many authors, the result
is a list of words that are moderately frequent in the primary
author but much less frequent in the other author(s).
For Iota, the word list is first limited to words appearing in at
most two of the primary author’s sections. To compare two
authors, the list is further limited to words that are completely
absent from the second author’s sample. Where many authors
are being compared, the list is further reduced by removing
words that appear in more than half the other authors. In either
case, very frequent and moderately frequent words are
eliminated, leaving words that are not very frequent in the
primary author but are rare or non-existent in the other author(s).
Zeta and Iota are remarkably effective in attributing poems as
short as 1,000 words to the correct authors. Even more
important, they allow the analyst to concentrate on a relatively
small subset of characteristic words, nearly all content words.
These lead back to the text and to important questions of
interpretation and style.
Both Zeta and Iota will require further testing before they can
be confidently applied to genuine questions of authorship and style, and we can begin with a study of twentieth-century poetry.
For these tests my corpus consists of samples of 14,000 to
129,000 words of poetry by twenty-six poets as the primary set
and fifty-six independent poems from 900 to 21,000 words long
as the secondary set, thirty-six of these by poets in the primary
set and twenty by other poets (poems by primary authors are
removed from their main samples). The texts were downloaded
from Chadwyck-Healey’s Literature Online and edited to
regularize hyphens and to remove prose sections and
non-authorial text, such as publication information, notes,
section numbers, epigrams and other quotations. Delta tests
were used to determine which of the poems and poets are most
difficult to attribute, and these were analyzed using Zeta and
Iota.
My head-to-head tests of Wallace Stevens vs Archibald
MacLeish and Edwin Arlington Robinson vs Robert Frost give
even more definitive results than Burrows achieves for Marvell
vs Waller, though my much larger samples require minor
adjustments in technique). The new measures have no difficulty
distinguishing the two poets, whichever poet’s word list is used.
When Burrows tests Marvell and Waller (using each poet’s
own primary word list) against the samples and twenty-four
independent poems by twenty-four other main authors and
twenty-one poems by other authors, Iota works very well for
both authors, and Zeta works based on Waller’s list. Marvell’s
list produces a group of failures which Burrows suggests are
likely to be result from the contrast between the political satires
being tested and the largely pastoral nature of most of Marvell’s
poetry.
My tests using the primary word lists of eight different authors
yields strong results for Zeta on James Dickey, Vachel Lindsay,
Robert Frost, and Wallace Stevens, with all of their individual
poems ranking higher than any poem or sample by any other
author. Zeta is very successful on two of William Vaughn
Moody’s independent poems, but the third ranks far below
other author samples and individual poems, and it fails badly
when based on the word lists of Edwin Arlington Robinson,
Kenneth Rexroth, and Archibald MacLeish. For Iota, only the
lists of Stevens and Lindsay produce completely correct results,
though those of Moody and Rexroth produce good results except
for a single poem by each author. Further research into the
causes of these poorer results is underway, but the problems
with Iota may be related to my larger samples. (The definition
of “rare” is obviously very different for 20,000-word samples
and 120,000-word samples.)
One alteration of Zeta that produces perfect results using
Robinson’s word list not only limits the word list to words that
appear in at least three of the author’s five sections, but also
sets a lower limit on the word’s frequency in the main set and
limits the total frequency of the word in the twenty-five
counter-sets. Another, still under investigation, calculates the
standard deviation of the word’s frequency in the five base
sections and divides it by the mean frequency. Sorting the word
list on the resulting Coefficient of Variation (or Relative
Standard Deviation) makes it easy to limit the list to words that
appear at relatively consistent frequencies in the five sections,
besides appearing in at least three of them and in a limited
number of the counter-set samples. A word appearing five times
in each of a poet’s five sections seems intuitively more
“characteristic” of the author than one appearing twenty-three
times in one section and once in each of two others.
Whatever the outcome of further testing and modification may
be, Zeta, especially, is very effective in focusing attention on
a poet’s characteristic words, a useful task in its own right. In
head-to-head tests on MacLeish and Stevens, much more
stringent stipulations than Burrows used produce fascinating
results: the twenty-six words occurring in all five sections of
MacLeish’s sample but with a frequency less than three in
Stevens’s sample are good potential MacLeish authorship
markers, and the same stipulations produce forty potential
Stevens authorship markers. These words range in rank within
their word lists from about the 200th to the 1,400th most
frequent. These two sets of marker words return our attention
to the texts:
Characteristic Stevens words rare in MacLeish:
reality, except, centre, element, colors, solitude, possible, ideas,
hymns, essential, imagined, nothingness, crown, inhuman,
motions, regard, sovereign, chaos, genius, glittering, lesser,
singular, alike, archaic, luminous, phrases, casual, voluble,
universal, autumnal, café, inner, reads, vivid, clearest, deeply,
minor, perfection, relation, immaculate
Characteristic MacLeish words rare in Stevens:
answered, knees, hope, ways, steep, pride, signs, lead, hurt,
sea’s, sons, vanish, wife, earth’s, lifted, they’re, swing, valleys,
fog, inland, catch, dragging, ragged, rope, strung, bark
Stevens’s words are longer and more abstract, especially the
nouns, and his list is saturated with adjectives. MacLeish’s list
has very few adjectives and more verbs and concrete nouns.
Searching for marker words in each poet’s work yields a
remarkable pair of short poems: MacLeish’s short poem
“‘Dover Beach’–A Note to that Poem” (215 words) contains
seven of his twenty-six marker words, including the three
italicized in this brief passage:
. . . It’s a fine and a
Wild smother to vanish in: pulling down---
Tripping with outward ebb the urgent inward.
Speaking alone for myself it’s the steep hill and the
Toppling lift of the young men I am toward now . . .
In his even shorter poem, “From the Packet of Anacharsis”
(144 words), six of Stevens’s forty marker words appear, including the three italicized in this brief passage (internal
ellipsis in the original):
And Bloom would see what Puvis did, protest
And speak of the floridest reality . . .
In the punctual centre of all circles white
Stands truly. The circles nearest to it share
Its color . . .
Preventing the huge numbers of items being analyzed from
masking any meaningful results is one of the most difficult
challenges for quantitative analyses of literature. By selecting
for examination words that are particularly characteristic of an
author, Zeta and Iota are potentially very useful for literary
analysis as well as authorship attribution, no matter what further
refinements they may require.
Bibliography
Burrows, John F. ""Delta’: A Measure of Stylistic Difference
and a Guide to Likely Authorship."" Literary & Linguistic
Computing 17.3 (2002a): 267-287.
Burrows, John F. ""The Englishing of Juvenal: Computational
Stylistics and Translated Texts."" Style 36 (2002b): 677-99.
Burrows, John F. ""Questions of Authorship: Attribution and
Beyond."" Computers and the Humanities 37 (2003): 5-32.
Burrows, John F. ""Who Wrote Shamela? Verifying the
Authorship of a Parodic Text."" Literary & Linguistic Computing
20.4 (2005): 437-450.
Burrows, John F. ""All the Way Through: Testing for Authorship
in Different Frequency Strata."" Literary & Linguistic
Computing (2006). Advanced Access published January 6,
2006
Hoover, David L. ""Testing Burrow's Delta."" Literary &
Linguistic Computing 19.4 (2004a): 453-475.
Hoover, David L. ""Delta Prime?"" Literary & Linguistic
Computing 19.4 (2004b): 477-495.
Hoover, David L. ""Word Frequency, Statistical Stylistics, and
Authorship Attribution."" Advanced ICT Methods Guide to
Linguistics. Ed. Tony McEnery. : , Forthcoming.","txt","2","",""
"744","8","Updating Delta and Delta Prime","","John F. Burrows's Delta, a unitary measure of textual
difference, has created a flurry of interest in authorship
attribution and statistical stylistics since its introduction in 2001
(Burrows 2001, 2002a, 2002b, 2003, 2005; Hoover 2004b;
García and Martín 2006; other studies are in progress). Burrows
uses a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet to simplify and partially
automate his calculation of Delta, and I have presented
increasingly complex versions of The Delta Spreadsheet that
more fully automate the calculation and the analysis of results
(2004a, 2005a). I have also suggested possible improvements
in how Delta is calculated or defined, which I have tentatively
called “Delta Primes” (Hoover 2004c, 2005a, 2006).
The growing popularity of Delta analysis will surely lead to its
further increased use. In addition to a number of studies in
progress in the broad area of humanities computing, studies by
other researchers are either already ongoing or being planned
using Delta in the evaluation of high-stakes educational testing
of writing in high schools, in the “authorship” of film direction,
in evolutionary biology, and in studies of adverse drug reactions.
The simplicity of automated versions of Delta analysis is critical
to its increased use, especially for those who are not specialists
in authorship attribution or humanities computing.
In its current state, The Delta Spreadsheet allows the user to
paste in raw word frequency lists and then to perform a
complete Delta analysis automatically by running a Visual
Basic macro that calls other macros. One of the macros removes
any words from the word list that are not found in the primary
set of texts (the presence of such words would prevent the
calculation of Delta by causing division by zero). Another
macro changes the raw word frequencies into text percentages
and inserts a zero frequency record in the word list for each
text whenever any of the most frequent words does not occur
in that text. This process is extremely tedious, time-consuming,
and liable to error if done manually, especially on the large
word lists that are now typically used in Delta analysis
(800-4,000 words). Another optional macro removes personal
pronouns. These pronouns are entered into a column in the
spreadsheet, along with the master word list to be analyzed,
and the user also can enter there any other words that should
be eliminated (for example, noise words or proper names). The
spreadsheet also allows the user to specify whether the word
list should be culled to remove words for which a single text provides most of the occurrences, and, if so, to specify what
percentage of occurrences should be used as the cut-off. The
user can also specify the size of the word list to create for the
analysis and the total number of words to analyze; the analysis
macro can also be set to run several times based on increasing
or decreasing numbers of words. The result of all this
automation is that an entire Delta analysis can be performed as
a background task. And, on modest numbers of texts that are
not very large, an entire analysis can be performed easily in an
hour. This allows a researcher to try many different
combinations of options in the search for the most accurate and
reliable results.
My current project involves further elaboration of The Delta
Spreadsheet to automate more of the necessary processes. I
have created an additional spreadsheet into which the user can
enter a list of texts to be processed. Once the texts and their
authors have been entered and the primary and secondary text
sets specified, the user runs a macro that collects the word
frequency lists of these files from the current directory and adds
the appropriate text and author labels. This allows the user then
to cut and paste the word lists into The Delta Spreadsheet for
processing, which simplifies the process, saves time, and
reduces error. A third spreadsheet designed for quicker analysis
of results allows the user to paste in the results of a series of
Delta analyses and run a macro that reformats, sorts, and
prepares the data for graphing, with similar benefits.
A final significant upgrade of The Delta Spreadsheet takes
advantage of an analysis by Shlomo Argamon (forthcoming)
of the statistical bases of Delta. Argamon shows that Delta (as
well as my proposed Delta Primes) can be calculated without
relying on the mean frequencies of words in the primary set of
texts. The revised method of calculation makes possible a more
streamlined version of The Delta Spreadsheet that allows me
to increase the number of texts that the spreadsheet can process.
It should also improve the performance of the macros, which
can take several hours to process a large number of long novels.
My poster will show how the modifications improve the
performance of the spreadsheets and will present an example
with a very large number of authors. I will also be prepared to
do a live software demonstration of the operation of the
spreadsheets at the conference, both on already existing word
frequency lists and on texts which conference attendees supply.
Bibliography
Argamon, Shlomo. ""Interpreting Burrows’s Delta: Geometric
and Probabilistic Considerations."" Literary & Linguistic
Computing (Forthcoming).
Burrows, John F. ""Questions of Authorship: Attribution and
Beyond."" Paper presented at ALLC/ACH Joint International
Conference, New York, June 14, 2001. 2001.
Burrows, John F. ""Delta’: A Measure of Stylistic Difference
and a Guide to Likely Authorship."" Literary & Linguistic
Computing 17.3 (2002a): 267-287.
Burrows, John F. ""The Englishing of Juvenal: Computational
Stylistics and Translated Texts."" Style 36 (2002b): 677-99.
Burrows, John F. ""Questions of Authorship: Attribution and
Beyond."" Computers and the Humanities 37 (2003): 5-32.
Burrows, John F. ""Who Wrote Shamela? Verifying the
Authorship of a Parodic Text."" Literary & Linguistic Computing
20.4 (2005): 437-450.
Burrows, John F. ""All the Way Through: Testing for Authorship
in Different Frequency Strata."" Literary & Linguistic
Computing (2006). Advanced Access published January 6,
2006
Garcia, A. M., and J.C. Martin. ""Function Words in Authorship
Attribution Studies."" Literary & Linguistic Computing (2006).
Advance Access published November 14, 2006
Hoover, David L. ""Testing Burrows’s Delta."" Paper presented
at ALLC/ACH Joint International Conference, Göteborg,
Sweden, June 11-16, 2004.
Hoover, David L. ""Testing Burrow's Delta."" Literary &
Linguistic Computing 19.4 (2004a): 453-475.
Hoover, David L. ""Delta Prime?"" Literary & Linguistic
Computing 19.4 (2004b): 477-495.
Hoover, David L. ""Delta, Delta Prime, and Modern American
Poetry: Authorship Attribution Theory and Method."" ACH/ALL
2005 Conference Abstracts. Victoria: University of Victoria
Humanities Computing and Media Centre, 2005a. 83-84.
Hoover, David L. ""The Delta Spreadsheet."" ACH/ALLC 2005
Conference Abstracts. Victoria: University of Victoria
Humanities Computing and Media Centre, 2005b. 85-86.
Hoover, David L. The Delta Calculation Spreadsheet Online
. 2005c. <http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/engli
sh/dlh/TheDeltaSpreadsheets.html>
Hoover, David L. ""Word Frequency, Statistical Stylistics, and
Authorship Attribution."" Advanced ICT Methods Guide to
Linguistics. Ed. T. McEnery. Forthcoming.","txt","2","",""
"745","8","Mining Eighteenth Century Ontologies: Machine Learning and Knowledge Classification in the Encyclopédie","","One of the crowning achievements of the 18th century
Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire
raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, par une Société
de Gens de lettres, edited by Diderot and d'Alembert. Published
in Paris between 1751 and 1772, in 17 volumes of text and 11
volumes of plates, it contains 74,000 articles written by more
than 140 contributors.1The Encyclopédie was a massive
reference work for the arts and sciences, as well as a machine
de guerre which served to propagate Enlightenment ideas. The
impact of the Encyclopédie was enormous. Through its attempt
to classify learning and to open all domains of human activity
to its readers, the Encyclopédie gave expression to many of the
most important intellectual and social developments of its time.
The scale and ambition of the Encyclopédie inspired its editors
to adopt three distinct modes of organization which, taken
together, Diderot described as encyclopedic: dictionary,
hierarchical classification, and the renvois (cross-references).
The interaction of these three modes has led modern
commentators to describe the Encyclopédie as an ""ancestor of
hypertext"" and to depict Diderot as ""l'internaute d'hier""2.
D'Alembert underscores the importance of the organization of
knowledge in the Discours Préliminaire:
As an Encyclopedia, it is to set forth the order and connection of
the parts of human knowledge. As a Reasoned Dictionary of the
Sciences, Arts, and Trades, it is to contain the general principles
that form the basis of each science and each art ... and the most
essential facts that make up the body and substance of each.3
Of the three modes of organization, the dictionary mode
(organization of entries in alphabetical order) is certainly the
simplest and the most arbitrary. The second mode of
organization is classification, wherein each dictionary entry is
assigned to a ""class of knowledge,"" placing it within the ""order""
of human understanding, as depicted in the Système Figuré des
connaissances humaines. Modeled after Bacon's classification
of knowledge and Enlightenment theories of epistemology, all
understanding is founded upon memory, reason, or imagination,
with numerous categories and sub-categories branching out
from these three faculties.4 However, simply placing an entry
into this hierarchy of knowledge was insufficient to indicate
the interconnections of knowledge. Thus, Diderot created an
extensive system of renvois, the third mode of organization,
providing a lattice of interconnections between individual leaves
of the tree as well as between classes of knowledge.5
The central role of the classification system in the intellectual
objectives of the Encyclopédie editors is indicated by the extent
to which it has been discussed and debated by both
contemporaneous scholars and later researchers. The editors
were remarkably diligent in assigning classes of knowledge to
each article and sub-article. Of the 73,840 main and sub articles,
55,227 were assigned classes of knowledge. The editors were,
however, somewhat less diligent in maintaining a precisely
controlled list. Thus the classifications as found in the text are
an amalgam of abbreviations, conflations, and even entries that
are not found on the Système Figuré. We have recently
completed orthographic normalization of the classes of
knowledge assigned to each article,6"" resulting in some 54,289
articles with 2,600 normalized classes of knowledge. The twenty
most frequent classifications by number of articles are:
5513 Géographie
4794 Géographie moderne
3084 Géographie ancienne
2396 Jurisprudence
2304 Grammaire
1894 Marine
1483 Commerce
1277 Histoire naturelle. Botanique
1194 Histoire moderne
1115 Mythologie
1069 Histoire naturelle
889 Histoire ancienne
796 Medecine 730 Architecture
689 Jardinage
682 Littérature
627 Maréchallerie
614 Botanique
558 Histoire ecclésiastique
517 Théologie
Like the Système Figuré, these classifications are a reflection
of how knowledge was ordered and classified in the 18th
century. Given the assumptions that ontologies are historically
contingent and that the Encyclopédie is by far the most
consistent and coherent representation of the structure of 18th
century knowledge in French, this paper reports the results of
our current experiments using machine learning and data mining
techniques to understand and exploit this unique resource. Our
initial objectives are three-fold. First, we plan to examine the
relationship of the classifications to the content of the articles
using machine learning techniques to identify feature sets that
characterize classes of knowledge in the 55,000 articles
classified by the editors of the Encyclopédie. Secondly, we will
apply these feature sets to the 19,500 articles for which we do
not have a class of knowledge and evaluate the accuracy of
classification by randomly selecting articles with known authors
which scholars will then inspect. Most contributors to the
Encyclopédie worked on fairly specific domains -- Rousseau
contributed exclusively on music, for example -- so we can use
authorship as one control for judging the accuracy of
classification. Similarly, the cross-references will also serve as
an evaluation control, since 50% of the renvois link to articles
within the same class of knowledge. Finally, we plan to apply
these feature sets to the unclassified ""plate legends"" in an effort
to determine accuracy by examining the degree to which
classification of the plate legends reflects the relationship of
particular plate legends to particular articles.
For our initial experiments, we have extracted the text from all
articles that are more than 100 words in length, and which are
categorized within one of the 50 most frequent normalized
classifications. Explicit markers of class of knowledge, present
at the beginnings of these articles, were removed to ensure that
they do not provide facile criteria for classification. The texts
are tokenized and lemmatized7, and frequencies of words and
lemmas are computed both globally and for each article. Words
and lemmas with more than 100 occurrences in the entire
Encyclopédie were used as attributes, and vectors for each
article were generated from the number of occurrences of each
attribute in that article.
We are using the SMO implementation of a support vector
machine in the Weka8 data mining engine for initial
experimentation on smaller data samples, and an SVM-Light9
classifier for larger datasets. While support vector learning
algorithms are very effective for classification problems10, we
are also evaluating several other data metrics and machine
learning techniques, including information gain statistics and
J48 decision tree classification as implemented in Weka, to
examine the the most salient features that are used in the
classification process and to test the effectiveness of various
feature set selections.11
Results from preliminary experimentation indicate that SVM
classifiers applied to the articles of the Encyclopédie are very
effective at distinguishing articles from different classes. We
examined 936 unlemmatized articles in our sample dataset
belonging to the classes Medecine (499) and Mythologie (437).
The Weka SMO classifier using default options with 10-fold
cross-validation correctly recognized 98.29% of the articles
(920/936). Under the same parameters, the Weka J48 tree
classifier achieved slightly lower performance (91.66%
accuracy). The decision tree showed a clear split on medical
content words, such as maladie, humeurs, inflammation, and
so on. Such strong performance may be due to the fact that one
would not expect to find similar vocabularies in articles dealing
with medicine and mythology. We achieved similar
performance by classifying 2,448 articles equally divided
between modern and ancient geography. The SMO training
achieved 100% accuracy with 92.2% accuracy on
cross-validation. Inspection of the most important features in
both J48 tree and InfoGain measures shows a strong preference
for classical authors (Pline, Ptolomée) and places (Gaule,
Thrace), and the strings ""l"", ""lib"" and ""liv"", which correspond
to citations of classical authors (e.g. Pline, l. IV. c. xvj.).12
Distance and location terms (lieues, long., latit.) are strongly
correlated with modern geography. Furthermore, the function
words ""selon"" and ""dit"", which are far more prevalent in ancient
geography articles as the authors were citing classical
descriptions, are given high InfoGain scores.
We anticipate assigning classes of knowledge to articles that
were not originally classified by the editors iteratively by
comparing all unknown articles to specific classes of knowledge
rather than trying to classify all unknown articles en masse. To
test this approach, we assembled two sets of articles each
containing 1,209 instances. The first set contained articles
categorized by the editors as belonging to ancient geography,
while the second set was constituted by selecting, for each
article in the first set, an article as close as possible in length
but belonging to a different class of knowledge. Using SMO
training, we achieved 97.8% accuracy with standard 10-fold
cross-validation. Again, the most heavily weighted features
were terms denoting classical authors and place names, along
with a greater preponderance of more general geographic terms,
comporting nicely with a reasonable human's intuitive
understanding of what makes a document on ancient geography
distinct from another documents. We further validated our
results by running another experiment identical to the first
except that each article was randomly labeled as either ancient geography or not ancient geography, irrespective of its true
classification. The principle of Random Falsifiability states that
if random labels can be learned with the same ease (for SVM,
'ease' can be defined as proportion of support vectors required
13) as true class labels, the method must be rejected as
unreliable. After 10-fold cross-validation, SMO achieved a
mere 50.2895% accuracy on the classification, barely surpassing
random chance. That our method cannot learn the random labels
at all suggests that our success in discrimination is in fact based
on inherent differences between the two classes and not merely
a greedy model's exploitation of arbitrary patterns in the data
distribution.
The SMO model derived from comparing ancient geography
to a random selection of articles in other classes allows us to
test classification on a set of unclassified articles. To do this,
we assembled 5,000 randomly selected articles containing more
than 100 words for which classification was unknown and with
attributed authorship. We then applied the ancient geography
SMO model to this set in an effort to identify articles pertaining
to this category. The recall of this experiment was far too high.
In the future we intend to implement a classifier that reports a
numeric score rather than a simple binary categorization. There
were, however, within the results a number of correctly
classified articles such as the river ASOPE and the articles
GARAMANTES and Ionique Transmigration. Many of the
misclassified articles, such as ADONIES, ou FESTES
ADONIENNES and Danse astronomique, pertain to classical
history, mythology and other related fields. In addition to
implementing a ranking classifier, we will also investigate
moving up the tree of knowledge in order to use a coarser
classification scheme; e.g., rather than remaining at the leaves
of ""ancient"" and ""modern"" geography, we would use the branch
of geography itself as a general category.
The impressive performance of machine learning algorithms
suggests that the editors of the Encyclopédie were quite
judicious in their assignments of classifications, a claim which
will be tested further in the full paper. Examination of the
features most effective in classification tasks will establish a
sort of thesaurus which will give scholars a better understanding
of the organization of knowledge during the Englightenment.
Furthermore, we believe that the creation of well-verified
training sets on this large corpus will allow us to test the degree
to which we may profitably apply what the systems have learned
to articles and plate legends which were not classified at the
time, using the contemporary ontologies. If this series of
experiments is successful, we would anticipate using the training
sets from the classifications in the Encyclopédie to attempt to
classify passages in other 18th century French documents.
1. The ARTFL implementation of the Encyclopédie is discussed in
Robert Morrissey, Jack Iverson and Mark Olsen, ""Présentation:
L'Encyclopédie Electronique"" Robert Morrissey and Philippe
Roger, eds., L'Encyclopédie de réseau au livre et du livre au
réseau, (Paris: Champion, 2001): 17-27, and Leonid Andreev,
Jack Iverson and Mark Olsen, ""Re-engineering a War Machine:
ARTFL's Encyclopédie"" Literary & Linguistic Computing 14.1
(1999): 11-28.
2. Eric Brian, ""L'ancêtre de l'hypertexte"", Les Cahiers de Science et
Vie 47 (Oct. 1998): 28-38.
3. English translation cited in Nelly Hoyt and Thomas Cassier's
""Introduction"" to Encyclopedia (1965): xxiii (our emphasis).
4. For various representations of the Système Figuré and the Editors'
description, see <http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/
efts/ARTFL/projects/encyc/texts/> and <ht
tp://artfl.uchicago.edu/cactus/>.
5. Blanchard and Olsen examined the structure of the renvois
generating a ""mappemonde"" of the cross-references and node level
classes of knowledge. See Gilles Blanchard and Mark Olsen, ""Le
système de renvois dans l'Encyclopédie: une cartographie de la
structure des connaissances au XVIIIème siècle"", Recherches sur
Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie 31-32 (April 2002): 45-70.
6. This project was accomplished in collaboration with Professor
Dena Goodman at the University of Michigan.
7. <http://www.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/projek
te/corplex/TreeTagger/>
8. Ian H. Witten and Eibe Frank, Data Mining: Practical Machine
Learning Tools and Techniques 2nd ed. (Morgan Kaufmann, 2005)
and <http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/ml/weka
/>
9. SVM-Light: <http://svmlight.joachims.org/>
See T. Joachims, ""Making large-Scale SVM Learning Practical"",
Advances in Kernel Methods - Support Vector Learning, B.
Schölkopf and C. Burges and A. Smola eds. (MIT-Press, 1999).
Note that we are using a parallel implementation. See <http:
//www.dm.unife.it/gpdt/>, G. Zanghirati, L. Zanni,
""A Parallel Solver for Large Quadratic Programs in Training
Support Vector Machines"", Parallel Computing 29 (2003):
535-551 and L. Zanni, T. Serafini, G. Zanghirati, ""Parallel Software
for Training Large Scale Support Vector Machines on
Multiprocessor Systems"", JMLR 7 (July 2006): 1467-1492.
10. S. Dumais, et. al., ""Inductive learning algorithms and
representations for text categorization"", CIKM-98, 1998.
11. See the discussion conformity and uniformity in Chih-Ming Chen,
et. al. ""A Hierarchical Neural Network Document Classifier with
Linguistic Feature Selection"" Applied Intelligence 3 (December
2005).
12. We checked these using the PhiloLogic build of the Encyclopédie
(<http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ARTF
L/projects/encyc/>), suggesting the importance of
checking text mining results with full text analysis systems.
13. A. Ruiz and P.E. López-de-Teruel, ""Random Falsifiability and
Support Vector Machines"" (<http://learn98.tsc.uc 3m.es/~learn98/papers/abstracts/paper01
3/abstract.html>).","txt","2","",""
"746","8","Understanding the Linguistic  Construction of Gender in Shakespeare via Text Mining","","1. Introduction
Can computational analysis better reveal how
Shakespeare's words and phrases construct characters
clearly gendered as male and female? What happens when
stylistic analysis is brought to bear on a longstanding notion in
literary and cultural studies that gender identity is a discursive
(i.e. a culturally-decodable lexical and semantic) construction?
How helpful can linguistic style be in explaining aspects of
literary style?
Last year we presented our first results (Hota et al. 2006) in
analyzing lexical items of character gender in Shakespeare. Our
observations on gender character were in line with previous
work (Argamon et al. 2003) on discriminating author gender
in modern texts, supporting the idea that Shakespeare projects
character gender in a manner consistent with patterns of
authorial gender projection found in other texts both literary
and nonliterary.
In this abstract, we extend and refine our methods by focusing
on lexical and semantic language use by Shakespeare for
determining the gender of his literary characters. Here we used
a better version of Shakespeare corpus, the Nameless
Shakespeare. In the Nameless Shakespeare, each lexical item
is fully tagged with lemma entries. Our accuracy has improved
to 81% using lemma features, compared to last year’s results.
We observe that lemmas and tri-grams help identify a
Shakespearean character’s gender. In addition, discrimination
models using lemmas and tri-grams may allow literary and
cultural scholars to see discursive patterns that, while impossible character’s attitudes as male or female
The fact that these patterns hold across literary and nonliterary
texts, and from early-modern to modern English, supports their
possible significance in understanding discursively-formed
gender identity. We further observe other distinguishing
features, including the fact that some feature constellations
match well to previous reports of features that distinguish male
from female authors (Argamon et al. 2003). We have analyzed
the concordance lines of lexical and lemma tri gram occurrences
from the corpus and found patterns of phrasal usage that indicate
significant gender differences in language use in the plays.
We are interested in understanding gender characterization
based on major characters and minor characters, and in
understanding how prose and verse forms impact gendered
speech in Shakespeare. We are also interested in how words
highly-associated with a particular gender may also help with
plotting, dramatic tension, and closure. We will present our
findings at the conference.
2. Methodology
We applied text classification methods using machine
learning with feature sets described above, under the
umbrella of a well-tagged corpus. If reasonable classification
accuracy is achieved with these new sets of features, it will
show that Shakespeare used words differently for his male and
for his female characters. If this is the case, then examining the
most discriminating features should give some insight into how
gender stylistics flows into socio-linguistic and literary gender
construction.
2.1 Corpus Construction
We constructed a corpus of characters' speeches from 35
Shakespearean plays, collected from the
lexically-and-lemmatically-tagged Nameless Shakespeare. The
plays are in XML (Extensible Markup Language) format. To
import them into our system, we extracted the speeches and
the gender of each character automatically, cleaning the stage
directions. A text file for each character in each play was
constructed by concatenating all of that character’s speeches
in the play. We only considered characters with 200 or more
words. From that collection, all female characters were chosen.
Then we took the same number of male characters as female
characters from a play, restricted to those not longer than the
longest female character from that particular play. In this way,
we balanced the corpus for gender, giving a total of 101 female
characters and 101 male characters, with equal numbers of
males and females from each play (see Table 1). We balance
the corpus to avoid bias in the automated learning procedure;
this introduces other issues which we address below.
2.2 Feature Extraction
We processed the text using the ATMan system, a text
processing system in Java that we have developed. The text is
tokenized and the system produces a sequence of tokens. Each
token corresponds to a word in the input text file. We used
lexical and lemma features with n = 1, 2 and 3 gram
combinations. In order to understand gendered language more
deeply, we extracted those n-grams most linked to gender
(Tables 2, 3). We collected most frequent 500 words, bigrams
(2670) and trigrams (356) from the lexical entries. In the same
way 2001 unigrams, 2860 bigrams, and 571 trigrams from
lemmas were collected. We calculated the frequencies of these
various features and computed their relative frequencies. The
list of various feature sets with their counts is given Tables 3-5. 2.3 Text Classification
The classification learning phase of this task is carried out by
Weka's (Frank & Witten 1999) implementation of Sequential
Minimal Optimization (Platt 1998) (SMO) using a linear kernel
and default parameters. The output of SMO is a model linearly
weighting the various features. Testing was done via 10 fold
cross validation. With this methodology, we ensure that each
character is tested on at least once with training that does not
include it. Table 4 presents the results obtained by running
various experiments.
3 Results: Accuracy and Feature
Analysis
Many feature combinations give classification accuracies
near or above 70%, which is quite good (random would
be 50%, since the corpus is balanced). The highest accuracy of
all (80.69%) was attained using the 500 most frequent word
lemmas as features. Lexical (surface tokens) also worked well,
with unigrams plus bi grams plus tri grams combination as a
whole giving the highest accuracy (75.74%). The accuracy is
captured in Table 4.
The feature analysis phase is carried out by taking the results
obtained from Weka’s implementation of SMO. SMO provides
weights to the features corresponding to both class labels. To
discriminate binary class labels, SMO uses positive and negative
weight values in a linear model. After sorting the features based
on their weights, we collected the top ten features indicative of
each gender. We have also computed the average value of each
feature for each gender (Tables 5-10). For reasons of space we
consider here just those feature sets giving the most insight (as
well as good classification accuracy). We also ranked features
using information gain (IG), defined as the expected reduction
in entropy caused by partitioning the training set according to
the attribute.
Lemma Unigrams:
In Shakespeare, several meaningful clusters of words emerge.
Female lemmas indicate family relationships (‘husband’,
‘mother’, ‘court’) , feelings (‘sick’, ‘merry’), emotional
injections (‘alas’, ‘o’, ‘prithee’), and integration of personal
context (‘he’, ‘you’). Male features indicate concern with
quantification (‘three’) and social status (‘noble’, ‘solemn’,
‘savage’). Male lemmas also include some less-clearly
interpretable verb forms (‘begin’, ‘alight’, ‘beat’).
Lemma Trigrams: More specific meaning patterns can be seen in lemma triples.
Female trigrams mostly indicate construal of self and others
(‘I/see/you’, ‘for/I/to’, ‘I/know/I’, ‘be/he/not’, ‘say/I/be’),
politeness (‘thank/you/for’), conditionals (‘if/he/have’), and
questions (‘who/be/that’). Male trigrams focus on assertions
(‘I/say/to’) mainly about personal/social status (‘but/I/be’,
‘be/a/very’, ‘be/a/ass’, ‘I/be/ he’), possessions (‘have/no/more’,
‘I/have/lose’), and manner (‘the/manner/of’).
Analysis of Concordance Lines:
For both lexical and lemmatic trigrams, we contextualize usage
by examining concordance lines. For males, 'the name of'’ is
followed usually by 'truth', 'hero', 'love', 'justice', 'whore', while
for females, this trigram is followed by 'wife', 'jesting' and
sometimes with the name of a female character. Men use this
to invoke overarching abstractions (or to insult women), while
women talk about “names of” in a less metaphorical and more
neutral fashion. For 'do you know', males tend to follow with
another question, but not females. Strikingly, males use 'the
manner of,' to set up dramatic contrasts or even shifts in
dramatic action, but female use of this trigram is entirely
unremarkable in this way. 4 Discussion
These findings capture word patterning in Shakespeare
inaccessible to non-computational methods of literary
analysis, because of the scale of data processing involved.
Literary scholars work almost exclusively with well-elaborated
methods of semantic analysis (New Criticism, structuralism,
and post-structuralism), developed with all the strengths and
limitations posed by a book-only, eye-centered,
subjectivity-dependent research context. In contrast, these
findings encourage comparisons between non-computational
and computational approaches. It is remarkable that these
findings support aspects of non-computational methodology
(words linked together in meaningful patterns like informational
discourse/male and involved discourse/female), while also
bringing to light new structural features of Shakespeare’s
discursive gender construction through language: parts of speech
use, tri-gram combinations of words. These findings may, in
addition, capture creative and literary patterning in greater detail
than is possible with noncomputational literary methods alone.
Since Shakespeare’s plays depend greatly on gender-identified
characters, the words linked to gender most likely also serve
literary purposes. In the plays, heterosexual romance is linked
not only to characterization, but also to action, and in the case
of romantic comedies, to how the plays conclude. In the cases
of complex characterization, a character’s misuse of gendered
speech may also be central to how Shakepeare develops
dramatic action. Limitations:
The editorial procedures for The Nameless Shakespeare are
sound and practical for the project’s purposes and for the work
of this paper, but they need to be read and understood fully:
both by literary scholars wanting to apply these findings to
particular words in particular plays, and by computational
scholars thinking through the problem of establishing textual
accuracy prior to inviting a wider community to conduct
searches. Also, with respect to Shakespeare’s literary art, the
findings here do not at this stage account for the impact of blank
verse dialogue (for high or elite characters) versus prose
dialogue (for low or common-born characters) on word choices
and the numbers of words. It may be that blank verse fosters
semantically significant tri-gram constructions because
Shakespeare needed short words to complete plays primarily
written in ten-syllable lines. But at least the question can be
asked, and the answer will tell us something about Shakespeare
both as dramatist and as poet. In addition, our work focuses on
the heternormativity clearly present in Shakespeare’s plays, but
does not exclude nonheteronormative gender construction.
Finally and significantly, the gender-balancing used here had
the odd result of excluding from the corpus all major male
characters in Shakespeare, including every male character
named in a play’s title, because all these characters speak more
than 600 lines. All major female characters (including females
named in titles) are included. We now know that very-long
speech length per play efficiently identify characters as male,
but we also will test our findings on the males excluded so far
and report the results at the conference.
5 Conclusions
This is the first work, to our knowledge, in analyzing
various textual features (lexical and lemma) collected
from a single source in understanding literary character gender.
We see, as in our earlier work (Hota et al. 2006) that the male
and female language in Shakespeare’s characters is similar to
that found in modern texts by male and female authors
(Argamon et.al 2003). Here we also observed the importance
of trigrams for lexical and lemma features. Trigrams are few
in number, so they are information rich and computationally
efficient for identifying gender. The true import of the features
identified by this analysis need to be confirmed by more
traditional digital humanities methods such as examining
concordance lines, to allow a more properly contextual
interpretation. In any case, we believe that this study shows
how classification learning can be used as a tool in developing
new ‘statistical’ interpretative methodologies for bodies of
literary works.
Acknowledgements:
Many thanks to Dr. Martin Mueller for providing us the
Nameless Shakespeare corpus and many helpful
comments in gender characterization in Shakespeare.
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Abstracts. Paris: CATI, Université Paris-Sorbonne, 2006.
100--106.
Joachims, Thorsten. "" Text Categorization with Support Vector
Machines: Learning with Many Relevant Features."" ECML-98,
Tenth European Conference on Machine Learning. 1998.
Koppel, Moshe, Shlomo Argamon, and Anat Rachel Shimoni.
""Automatically Categorizing Written Texts by Author Gender.""
Literarcy & Linguistic Computing 17.4 (2002): 401-12.
Mueller, Martin. ""The Nameless Shakespeare."" TEXT
Technology 14.1 (2005): 61-70. <http://texttechnolo
gy.mcmaster.ca/pdf/vol14_1_06.pdf>
Platt, J. Sequential Minimal Optimization: A Fast Algorithm
for Training Support Vector Machines. Microsoft Research
Technical Report MSR-TR-98-14. 1998.
Witten, Ian, and Eibe Frank. Weka3: Data Mining Software in
Java. <http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/ml/weka/>","txt","2","",""
"747","8","Distinguishing Editorial and Customer Critiques of Cultural Objects Using Text Mining","","1. Introduction:
There exists a large number of critical writings regarding
humanities objects such as reviews, forum posts, mailing
lists and blogs. In many cases, readers do not necessarily know
the authenticity and credibility of such writings. It is desirable
to have a tool that is able to distinguish professional criticisms
from lay comments, and furthermore, to measure the
authenticity of criticisms on humanities objects. Such tools can
have many applications ranging from mass mail filtering to
customized criticism recommendation and summarization. In
a preceding study we demonstrated that a simple machine
learning model can be used to automatically differentiate
editorial critiques (i.e., those written by professional critics)
from customer critiques (i.e., those written by interested
members of the general public) (Hu et al. 2006a). In this poster,
we extend and build upon our earlier work to include a new
class of cultural objects (i.e., United States Literature) and to
uncover the set of influential features that contribute to making
“editorial” and “customer” reviews distinct.
For the sake of comparison, we use the same dataset as in (Hu
et al 2006a), namely reviews from amazon.com, the largest
online retailer of various humanities materials including books
and music. On amazon.com, many book and music objects have
both editorial reviews and customer reviews. The former are
written by editors in amazon.com, who can be seen as experts,
while the latter are written by arbitrary users from the general
public. Besides the two product categories analyzed in (Hu et
al 2006a), British Classic Literature books and Classical music
CDs, we add a third category, United States Classic Literature.
The three categories are among the most relevant to the
humanities, yet cover different media and cultures. To eliminate
possible product bias, we downloaded both editorial and
customer reviews of the same objects that were randomly
selected through the Amazon Web Services open APIs1. The
descriptive statistics are shown in Table 1. It is noteworthy that
the length of the customer reviews is highly variable. Also,
customer reviews on classical music have a smaller vocabulary
than editorial reviews.
Table 1
2. Experimental Setup:
Hu (Hu et al 2006a) demonstrated that a binary text
classifier based on a Nai􀀀ve Bayesian model was able
to classify editorial and customer reviews at accuracies of about
86%. Two sets of features were used in building the models.
The first one is unigrams of all original tokens including content
words, function words and punctuations, with the purpose of
preserving all stylistic clues carried by the original writings.
The second one is unigrams of all function words2 which can
carry important stylistic fingerprints (Stamatatos et al., 2002,
Argamon et al., 2003). We discovered interesting features
unique to each type of criticism. For example, professional
critiques tend to use numbers while customers tend to use terms
referring to personal experiences. However, unigram features
bear virtually no context information. Therefore in this poster,
we deepen our understanding by analyzing features with broader
context information: bigrams and trigrams of the
aforementioned two sets of tokens (Banerjee & Pedersen 2003).
For easy comparison, the results of the classification
experiments are presented in Table 2. It shows function words,
though a small token set, can capture most of the differences
of the two kinds of criticism. Comparing features with varying
depths of context, we found bigram features consistently
improve classification accuracies (to a level of 87.22% --
89.25%) while trigram features do not achieve consistent
improvement on classification accuracies. It is noteworthy that
trigrams of function words are not as good as other feature sets.
In fact, the genuine function word trigrams are too sparse in
the datasets, so here we define a function word trigram is a
sequence of 3 function words that occur within a window of 5
tokens in the text. Upon a closer examination of the classification result on British
Literature review set using trigrams of all tokens where the
mean accuracy (72.80%) significantly worsened compared to
its bigram and unigram counterparts, we found only 1.1%
editorial reviews were wrongly classified as customer reviews
but 53.1% customer reviews were misclassified as editorial
reviews. This means the model can identify features unique to
customer reviews but cannot reliably identify those unique to
editorial reviews. A possible reason for this phenomenon is the
British Literature dataset is dominated by reviews of similar
books. This is supported by the bigram and trigram feature
analyses described in next section. A large portion of the top
features in this dataset is related to Shakespeare.
3. Feature Analyses:
Knowing that editorial and customer reviews are separable
is not sufficient in and of itself; rather, we must strive
toward understanding what features make them distinct. The
binary Nai􀀀ve Bayesian text classifiers applied here can rank
the terms according to their relative importance in the
construction of the categorization model (Hu & Downie 2006).
Table 3 – 8 list the top 10 features from each of the six feature
sets in each review categories. 4. Discussion:
As we can see from the tables, there are features consistent
in editorial reviews across the three types of humanities
objects that distinguish editorial critiques from customer
critiques:
1. Numbers, both ordinal and cardinal, e.g., “in the twentieth”,
“than forty”, “hundredth”
2. Technical terms e.g., “songwriter”, “bassist”, “in D Major”
3. Author or artist names using diacritical characters: e.g.,
“Bronte􀀀”, “Barto􀀀k”, “Taka􀀀cs""
4. Authoritative resources, e.g., “Folger Shakespeare Library”,
“CliffsNotes study guides”
5. Emphasis of the third person voice
Similarly, there are important features found in the customer
reviews that contribute to their identity:
1. Terms referring to personal experience and the first person
voice: e.g., “I found”, “I’m”, “I read”
2. Exclamation marks (“!”): from unigram to trigram, “!”
consistently appear as top features.
3. Adverbs: e.g., “definitely”, “actually”, “possibly”
4. Contractions: e.g., “I’d”, “won’t”, “you’re”, “that’s”,
“wouldn’t”,
5. Variations of artist names without diacritical characters:
e.g., “Bartok”, “Takacs”
6. Quotations (“&quot;” in XML documents) : e.g., “. quot;
The ”, “, quot; is”
7. Colloquial phrases, e.g., “is like”, “is actually”, “have to
say
8. Nonstandard words and marks: e.g., “_”, “cd”, “cds”
Most of the observed differences seem reasonable. Experts like
to have more accurate descriptions by using numbers, citing
authoritative resources, etc. While experts write in a more
objective manner by using a third person voice, ordinary readers
tend to connect humanities objects with their own personal
experiences and prefer to express their emotions. Experts also
use many technical terms while ordinary readers tend to use
informal writing styles such as spoken language, contractions
and nonstandard marks. Both experts and common readers refer
to authors or artists, but very few readers bother using proper
diacritical characters, instead opting to use basic Latin letters.
It is interesting to see that common readers use more quotations,
adverbs and punctuations than experts.
5. Conclusions and Future Work:
We extended our previous work on classifying
editorial/professional reviews and customer reviews
on humanities objects, and then examined the influential
features in each of the review categories. Particularly, we
examined two feature sets, “all tokens” and “function words
only”, with context depths ranging from unigrams to trigrams.
Results show that the two kinds of reviews are distinct. By
using the NB feature ranking method, we found interesting and
unique features associated with each type of review. Such
features are important in enriching digital humanities
repositories and facilitating criticism filtering and
recommendation. The feature analyses also disclose new
questions such as how criticism on literatures from various
countries (e.g. British vs. U.S.) differs among one another. This
will be part of our future work. We will also examine other
critical writing resources such as mailing lists and forums for
similar patterns between “expert” and “lay” contributors.
1. aws.amazon.com
2. The list of function words was edited by the Laboratory of
Linguistic Cognition at Illinois Institute of Technology. It is
available at <http://shekel.jct.ac.il/~argamo
n/gender-style/function-words.txt>
Bibliography
Argamon, Shlomo, Moshe Koppel, Jonathan Fine, and Anat
Rachel Shimoni. ""Gender, Genre and Writing Style in Formal
Written Texts."" Text 23.3 (2003): 321–346.
Banerjee, Satanjeev, and Ted Pedersen. ""The Design,
Implementation, and Use of the Ngram Statistic Package.""
Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on
Intelligent Text Processing and Computational Linguistics,
Feb. 2003. Mexico City, Mexico, 2003.
Hu, Xiao, and J. Stephen Downie. ""Stylistics in Customer
Reviews of Cultural Objects,."" Proceedings of the 2nd SIGIR 2006 Stylistics for Text Retrieval Workshop, Aug. 2006, Seattle,
Washington. 2006.
Hu, Xiao, J. Stephen Downie, and Jin Ha Lee. ""Stylistic
Analysis on Reviews of Humanities Objects."" Poster presented
at the Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer
Science, Nov. 2006, Chicago, Illinois. 2006a. <http://dh
cs.uchicago.edu/abstracts/hu.pdf>
Hu, Xiao, J. Stephen Downie, and M. Cameron Jones.
""Criticism Mining: Text Mining Experiments on Book, Movie
and Music Reviews."" Digital Humanities 2006 Conference
Abstracts. Paris: CATI, Université Paris-Sorbonne, 2006b.
88-93.
Stamatatos, E., N. Fakotakis, and G. Kokkinakis. ""Text Genre
Detection Using Common Word Frequencies."" Proceedings of
18th International Conference on Computational Linguistics,
July 2000, Saarbrücken, Germany. 2000.","txt","2","",""
"748","8","What is Transcription?","","Background
One common task in digital humanities is the creation of
digital representations of cultural artifacts, often in the
form of transcriptions of existing physical documents. When
we say, though, that a resource is a transcription of a particular
document, what do we mean? What inferences are licensed by
that claim? Given a transcription and adequate knowledge of
the rules it follows, what do we learn about the document of
which it is a transcription?
This paper proposes a formal account of transcription, as a way
of elucidating the concept as it applies in scholarly editing and
in the creation of digital resources. This approach may also
provide insight into the nature of electronic representations of
cultural artifacts, digital preservation, and text encoding more
generally. It may have practical consequences for quality
assurance and for the representation of markup semantics in
formal systems.
In this abstract, we first present the basic outlines of our
approach and our model of transcription, for simplicity's sake
addressing only the very simplest cases. We then address some
issues pertaining to less simple cases and discuss elaborations
of the model. Because this is work in progress, the abstract is
more sketchy on the latter issues, on which we expect to report
more extensively in the paper as presented at the conference.
General outline of the approach
In general, one document (the transcription, T) is said to be
a transcription of another document (the examplar, E) if T
was copied out from E with the intent, successfully achieved,
of providing a faithful representation of a text as witnessed in
E. Often the purpose is to make this representation easier to
make use of, than E itself. (For example, T may be easier to
read or duplicate than E, or may be able to travel while E
cannot.) made and the uses to which it may be put. These matters may
be essential in deciding whether T is a transcription of E. In
this paper, however, we investigate to what extent it is possible
to characterize, without taking such matters into account, the
relationship between T and E which allows the one to serve as
a record of information derived from the other. In the simplest
cases, where both E and T have an unproblematic, clearly
legible inscription, this relation is simple: the two documents
contain the same sequence of letters, spaces, punctuation marks
and other symbols.
But what does it mean to say that a manuscript letter is “the
same” as e.g. a typed or printed transcription of that manuscript?
In simple cases, the question rarely arises, yet in transcriptions
of historical documents it may be urgent. The difficulty of
reading often consists precisely in the difficulty of deciding
which letters the various marks on a manuscript page indicate
(if any), and may be one reason for transcribing in the first
place.
In order to establish a more precise account of the “sameness”
of sequences of letters, we begin by distinguishing the concepts
document, mark, token and type.
By a document we understand an individual physical object
containing marks. A mark is a perceptible feature (normally
something visible, e.g. a line in ink) of a document. Marks may
be identified as tokens in so far as they are instances of types,
and collections of marks may be identified as sequences of
tokens in so far as they are instances of sequences of types. In
other words, a mark is a token if, but only if, it is understood
as instantiating a type.
The distinction among marks, tokens, and types may be applied
at various levels: letters, words, sentences, texts. The
identification and separation of the marks, tokens, and types of
a document requires a competent reader. A theory of
interpretation or of reading is not the concern of our paper,
however — our goal is only to elucidate what it means to say
that T is a transcription of E, however the interpretive processes
resulting in T are properly understood.
Based on this outline of the relation between E and T and the
distinction among documents, marks, tokens, and types, the
following gives a first approximation to a more formal account
of the meaning, in the simplest cases, of the statement that T
is a transcription of E:
1. E and T are documents. (It follows that E and T each contain
marks.)
2. The marks of each document are interpreted as instantiating
a sequence of types:
• Each mark is identified as constituting one and only one
token.
• Each token is identified as instantiating one and only
one specific type.
• To the tokens of each document, an ordering is assigned
which is total, relative and linear.
3. The two sequences of tokens thus identified instantiate
identical sequences of types.
A more explicit account of these points is best given not in
prose but in a more formal notation. The full paper will provide
translations of the description above into the modeling language
Alloy [Jackson 2006]; for brevity, these formalisms are omitted
from this abstract.
This simple account agrees well enough with common usage.
Vander Meulen and Tanselle (1999), for example, describe
transcription as “the effort to report — insofar as typography
allows — precisely what the textual inscription of a manuscript
consists of”. We take “textual inscription” to denote the physical
tokens of the document, and the method of reporting the textual
inscription of the exemplar to be the creation of another
document whose textual inscription produces (when rightly
read) the same sequence of abstract types.
Even commonplace phenomena require further elaboration of
this model (see below), but this simple model already illustrates
some essential features of transcription.
• In a transcription, “an A is an A is an A” — one instance
of a letter type is (for purposes of transcription)
interchangeable with any other. Detailed information about
the shape of individual marks is lost; the only salient
information about the token in the exemplar is which type
it maps to.
• The set of letter types distinguished in a transcription helps
define that transcription; the choice of an appropriate
inventory is a basic responsibility of the transcriber and a
fertile source of disagreements.
• The formal relation between exemplar and transcript is
symmetric and transitive. (Not necessarily so the concept
of transcription — just the formal relation.)
Application and elaboration
Asatisfactory formal account of transcription must deal
with complications ignored above and will require
elaboration of the basic outline. Our account has some affinity
with Nelson Goodman's theory of notation [Goodman 1976].
We have no general characterization of these complications
yet, so we introduce them here in the form of examples:
Some transcriptions must account both for systematic ambiguity
of tokens in the writing system (a particular shape sometimes
instantiates one type, sometimes another) and for uncertainty about which token is actually present. These cases present
special difficulties for the choice of the appropriate type
inventory.
The mapping from mark to type may depend on context: marks
of similar shape may be read now as commas, now as full stops.
Paleographic transcriptions often mark line breaks by vertical
bars; the type sequence in the transcript thus appears to include
items not present in that of the original. Shall the line breaks
of the exemplar be understood as a special kind of letter token?
Some transcribers normalize or regularize the spelling of the
exemplar, sometimes silently. The unit of transcription, in such
cases, is the lexical item or word form, rather than the letter.
Scribal abbreviations pose a challenge: expanding them destroys
the one-to-one correspondence between the tokens in the
original and in the transcript. How can such expansions best
be modeled? Perhaps each token in the exemplar corresponds
to one or more tokens in the transcript? But then what of
shorthand transcriptions made for private use, in which
abbreviations are not expanded but introduced? The relation
between the type sequences of exemplar and transcript must
be more complex than simple identity.
Sometimes transcriptions include marks to which no mark in
the exemplar seems to correspond. Vertical lines in a
paleographic transcription may (as suggested above) be
interpretable as transcribing line breaks in the exemplar. But if
the transcription provides line numbers as well, it's difficult to
stretch the notion of allographic variation to cover them.
Similarly, transcriptions may contain expansions of
abbrevations, supply letters or words assumed to be left out
from the exemplar by slips of the pen, transcriber's comments
on the wording or physical appearance of the examplar, etc.,
i.e. “additional” content not found in the exemplar.
The most fundamental problem, however, is given by the silent
assumption, in the preceding remarks, that the text represented
in a particular document, and thus the document itself, can
usefully be represented as a one-dimensional sequence of types.
This view appears painfully simplistic in the light of recent
years' work on XML and text encoding. Even in conventional
printed books, characters seldom have only one possible
sequence. And digital representations seldom limit themselves
to preserving the sequence of graphemes in the exemplar;
normally, they use markup to identify larger textual units and
make explicit aspects of the text which may lack any
conventional orthographic representation.
One might take the structural units identified by markup (e.g.
the elements of an XML document) as instantiating complex
types; such an approach would in some ways resemble
Goodman's analysis of ‘characters’, with the markup used to
make the identification of complex characters explicit and
reliable. Alternatively, one might treat marked up documents
as representing a mixed notation, with character data content
operating in one way, and markup in a different way. Goodman,
for example, analyses drama as a mixed notation, in which the
dialog functions as a “score”, but the stage directions function
as a “script”; the analogy with markup may prove informative.
Whatever the approach, a key challenge for any formal
treatment of transcription is to make it fit into the more powerful
notions of textual structure reflected in modern markup systems.
This is the most important topic to be addressed in the further
development of the formal model of transcription.
Bibliography
Driscoll, Matthew. ""Levels of Transcription."" Electronic Textual
Editing. Ed. Lou Burnard, Katherine O'Brien O'Keeffe and
John Unsworth. New York: Modern Language Association of
America, 2006. 254-261.
Goodman, Nelson. Languages of Art. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett
Publishing Company, 1976.
Huitfeldt, Claus. ""Multi-dimensional Texts in a One
Dimensional Medium."" Computers and the Humanities 28
(1995): 235-241.
Huitfeldt, Claus. ""Philosophy Case Study."" Electronic Textual
Editing. Ed. Lou Burnard, Katherine O'Brien O'Keeffe and
John Unsworth. New York: Modern Language Association of
America, 2006. 181-196.
Jackson, Daniel. Software Abstractions: Logic, Language, and
Analysis. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006.
Kline, Mary-Jo. A Guide to Documentary Editing. Second
edition. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.
Robinson, Peter. The Transcription of Primary Textual Sources
Using SGML. Office for Humanities Communication
Publications, Number 6. [Oxford: OHC], 2004.
Robinson, Peter, and Elizabeth Solopova. ""Guidelines for the
Transcription of the Manuscripts of the Wife of Bath's
Prologue."" The Canterbury Tales Project Occasional Papers
Volume I. Ed. Norman Blake and Peter Robinson. Office for
Humanities Communication Publications, Number 5. [Oxford:
OHC], 1993.
Stevens, Michael E., and Steven B. Burg. Walnut Creek, CA:
Altamira Press, 1997.
Vander Meulen, David L., and G. Thomas Tanselle. ""A System
of Manuscript Transcription."" Studies in Bibliography 52
(1999): 201-212.","txt","2","",""
"749","8","Un Outil pour un Nouveau Savoir Musical","1","La musicologie a toujours été une discipline multi- et
interdisciplinaire, de nombreuses disciplines étant
pertinentes à l'étude de la musique et des textes musicaux:
l'histoire, l'ethnologie, la sociologie, l'informatique, la
linguistique... Le travail présenté ici illustre cette
interdisciplinarité. En effet, notre outil fait appel à des
compétences en histoire musicale et générale, théorie musicale,
linguistique et informatique et fait collaborer des chercheurs
du groupe«Lexique Musical de la Renaissance (LMR)» (EA
2560, Patrimoines Musicaux, Université Paris-Sorbonne) et du
laboratoire«Langages Logiques, Informatique Cognition
Communication (LaLICC)» (FRE2919, Université
Paris-Sorbonne/CNRS).
Cet outil se présente sous la forme d'un dictionnaire du langage
musical depuis la naissance de la théorisation musicale en
langue vernaculaire jusqu'au seuil de la formation du langage
tonal. Les entrées de ce dictionnaire sont fournies par les textes
eux-me􀀀mes; textes essentiellement en langues néolatines à
cause me􀀀me de la matrice de la théorisation musicale: le latin.
Il réunit des citations se référant aux modalités d'élaboration,
de production, de réception et circulation des savoirs théoriques
musicaux qui constituent la base de données du projet. Son
dictionnaire formera le fondement de la réflexion
musicologique: réflexion unilingue définissant les champs
sémantiques; réflexion interactive multilingue établissant des
rapports entre les termes et les concepts.
Le but final de l'outil est sans aucun doute la musique,
c'est-à-dire la partition produite au moment étudié. Mais au lieu
de lui appliquer une théorisation a posteriori et des schémas
musicaux/mentaux qui ne lui appartiennent pas, il est préférable
d'aller d'abord aux textes théoriques et pratiques de la musique
produite, ainsi qu'aux témoignages philosophiques, littéraires
ou didactiques sur la discipline. L'étude de ceux-ci, leur
élaboration à partir de leur contexte culturel et linguistique,
fournira un outil propre à saisir et à comprendre nouvellement
la musique de ce temps sans pour autant chercher à résoudre
la dichotomie entre langage et musique.
Des dictionnaires techniques de la musique existent: ils
présentent tous la caractéristique d'offrir une terminologie
appréhendée et définie à partir du moment où leurs éléments
sont conceptualisés et offerts à la consultation des spécialistes,
musicologues ou musiciens. Une contemporanéité,
d'aujourd'hui, qui offre à l'observateur un outil d'analyse
anachronique, pour le passé. Dans cette perspective, la réflexion
sur le terme musical est donc faite après sa mise en oeuvre dans
l'histoire par le musicien, le théoricien ou le praticien, au travers
d'un rideau temporel et de la superposition de strates-culturelles,
techniques et musicales, multiples.
Depuis des décennies la musicologie a, en partie, fléchi ces
orientations et le présent projet s'inscrit dans une lignée qui
n'est pas totalement novatrice. Nous remarquerons d'abord que
bien des études inscrivent leur réflexion sur le texte musical
ancien dans le contexte de la production théorique
contemporaine. Ainsi, pour s'en tenir à un exemple, les derniers
travaux de Margarita Bent (« Diatonic ficta»; Early Music
History, 4, 1984; trad. Français, Paris, Minerve,2003) ou Bonnie
J. Blackburn (« On compositional Process in the Fifteenth
Century»; Journal of American Musicological Society, 1987,
trad. Français, ibid.) sont en effet proches de la pensée musicale
théorisée de l'époque avant que de l'appliquer à leur approche
analytique des oeuvres mises à l'épreuve. Mais les critères de
sélection de ces textes ne sont jamais justifiés et ce ne sont que
quelques textes choisis qui viennent appuyer ou infléchir la
lecture dont l'on notera qu'elle se fait toujours dans un rapport
triangulaire (texte théorique + musicologue auteur + collègue
musicologue pris à témoin dans l'acquiescement ou la réfutation
de l'argumentation). Notre travail s'inscrit dans la lecture
textuelle de l'époque mais celle-ci se veut sinon exhaustive, du
moins totalisante. Par ailleurs nous ne chercherons pas a priori
à adopter une attitude favorable ou contraire à l'une ou l'autre
orientation musicologique actuelle. Seuls les résultats futurs
permettront, ou non, d'adopter une nouvelle épistémologie des
oeuvres musicales de la période considérée.
Durant la seconde moitié du XXe siècle, d'autres dictionnaires
tels que le « Handwörterbuch der musikalischen Terminologie
(Htm) » fondé par Hans Heinrich Eggebrecht ouvrent également
une voie nouvelle d'approche de la lexicologie musicale.
Cependant sa remarquable entreprise reste marquée par les
prospectives antérieurs et ne s'en affranchit que dans les années
1970-1980. A partir de ces dates naissent, avec les nouvelles
technologies, de nouveaux outils qui ont mis en ligne les textes
originaux (Université d'Indiana, USA: textes en latin, français
et italien) ou cherchent à en dresser des études lexicales (sur le
latin: prof. Bernhard, université de Munich en collaboration de l'université de d'Indiana; sur le corpus italien: prof. Wiering,
université d'Utrecht).
Le présent projet est plus proche du«Lessico italiano del canto»
(Canto) par son recours systématique aux textes contemporains
et aux disciplines conjuguées de la linguistique et de la
musicologie. Fondé en 1987 par le prof. Sergio Durante
(université de Padoue), le programme Canto recherche la mise
en rapport entre textes théoriques et musique mais cette
recherche s'effectue dans une aire géographique déterminée et
une temporalité définie. Cette recherche embrasse, en Italie,
les paramètres du phénomène du chant de 1600 à 1800.
Notre étude vise à d'établir la genèse d'une pensée proprement
lexico-musicale et de l'amplifier à d'autres aires linguistiques
et à d'autres temporalités. L'originalité de notre travail consiste
en la recherche d'une totale autonomie de la pensée musicale,
tant dans la formation du thesaurus lexical et des citations que
dans la réflexion menée sur le corpus.
Les objectifs finaux sont:
• de relire et repenser les traités de théorie et pratique
musicales, et autres écrits véhiculant le langage sur la
musique, de la période considérée;
• de dresser un corpus plurilingue des termes techniques, dans
un sens générique, touchant la musique en ses moments de
préparation, de production, de perception et de réception;
• de former un dictionnaire raisonné comprenant un répertoire
de citations pertinentes des différentes langues techniques
musicales vernaculaires en pleine élaboration dans leur
saisie du phénomène sonore;
• de définir le niveau de compréhension du phénomène sonore
en chaque langue et en des périodes distinctes c'est-à-dire
de réfléchir aux vitesses d'implantation, de consolidation et
d'évacuation ou permanence des termes/concepts dans la
langue technique;
• de créer une nouvelle articulation entre les deux niveaux de
langage en un projet sémiotique entre le langage théorique
musical et la propre création de l'objet musical;
• de redéfinir ainsi un outil de lecture interprétative et
d'analyse de la musique à partir de la perception des acteurs
de l'époque par la création de nouveaux champs de contenus
musicaux;
• de mettre à la disposition des chercheurs l'acquisition de ce
nouveau savoir, par l'accès à la base de données.
Les étapes préparatoires au projet ont fait l'objet d'échanges
entre les chercheurs afin de permettre de former des outils
favorisant un travail pouvant e􀀀tre mené en commun mais
également de façon autonome.
Le corpus bibliographique des langues principales (français,
italien, espagnol) a été constitué. D'autres langues sont appelées
à s'y joindre et demandent une approche bibliographique encore
en cours de réalisation (portugais, catalan, roumain...). Le choix
des textes, imprimés ou manuscrits, est établi au plus près de
l'édition originale qui sert d'unique référence. Si celle-ci est
inaccessible, il y aura lieu de recourir aux facsimilés ou films
des originaux. A défaut l'édition critique la plus fiable est
exploitée.
Un prototype de la base de données a été élaboré1 avec le
logiciel Microsoft Access. Gérée sur un poste unique, cette
base était alimentée par les chercheurs de manière indirecte et
n'était pas accessible en consultation. Chaque chercheur
effectuait sa propre campagne de relevés de citations et la
stockait dans un fichier Microsoft Word dont l'organisation
avait été préalablement discutée. Les fichiers étaient envoyées
à l'administrateur de la base de données qui y intégrait ces
données.
Pour le développement du projet, deux constats se sont imposés:
• les chercheurs impliqués dans la constitution des ressources
devaient pouvoir directement saisir leurs données et y
accéder;
• toutes les ressources devaient e􀀀tre mise à la disposition
de tous les musicologues, musiciens... par le biais d'internet.
Ainsi, du prototype développé avec un système de base de
données fermé, nous sommes passé à un système ouvert, basé
sur la trilogie Apache-PHP-MySQL, accessible sur internet
(<http://www.pm.paris4.sorbonne.fr/LMR>).
La base de données fournit aujourd'hui un réservoir de citations
et des définitions d'acceptions multiples à tout chercheur. Sa
mise en ligne permet un questionnement élaboré par la création
de liens de consultations ou d'interrogations qui intègrent les
exemples musicaux et les illustrations iconographiques contenus
dans les traités. Elle donne aux chercheurs participant à
l'élaboration des ressources constitutives de l'outil, un accès
sécurisé, pour la saisie, les modifications et les corrections de
leurs données et l'organisation sémantique du dictionnaire.
Cet outil vise un nouveau savoir musical où la formulation
d'une pensée musicale doit e􀀀tre linguistiquement autonome
dans une aire géographique donnée. Il doit favoriser
l'élaboration d'études spécialisées sur des champs précis de la
théorie musicale et permettre de faire apparai􀀀tre des
connexions entre ce corpus musical et la contemporanéité de
l'état social, politique et le savoir culturel: pouvoir et
institutions, philosophie et humanisme, nouvelles orientations
scientifiques.
1. Réalisé par Alexandre Dutra-Cançado (gorupe LMR, Patrimoines
Musicaux, Université Paris-Sorbonne), grâce à la collaboration de Detlev Schumacher (groupe Canto, Bibliothèque Nationale de
Florence)
Références
Musica e storia , X/1, Venise: Fondazione Ugo e Olga Levi,
2002. Actes du colloque tenu à Venise à la Fondation Levi, La
musica fra suono e parola: ricerche sul lessico musicale in
Europa (26-28 ottobre 2000 et corrodonnée par Fiamma
Nicolodi et Sergio Durante. Communications du groupe LMR:
• Chevalier, Jean-Claude, Delport, Marie-France, ""De la
citation à la définition. Tañer et tocar. Ou: «jouer n'est pas
souffler»"", pp 15-26.
• Robledo, Luis, ""El léxico musical en el contexto humanista
español: la prosa didáctica y la preceptiva retórica"",pp
151-164.
• Jambou, Louis, Dutra-Cançad, Alexandre, ""Les genres grecs
dans la théorie musicale de la Renaissance en langue
vernaculaire: l'exemple de l'espagnol"", pp 165-184.
De la lexicologie à la théorie et à la pratique musicales , actes
du colloque tenu en Sorbonne le 16 juin 2001, textes réunis par
Louis Jambou, Paris, Editions hispaniques, 2002. Contient les
textes suivants:
• Durante, Sergio, «Per un incontro di lessicologia musicale»,
pp 7-10.
• Jambou, Louis, «La temporalisation dans les traités
musicaux: l’exemple de Bermudo (1555) et de Sancta Maria
(1565)», pp 11-22.
• Robledo Estaire, Luis, «Una taxonomi􀀀a ética de la
mu􀀀sica: el Libro primero del espejo del pri􀀀ncipe
christiano (Francisco de Monzón), pp 23-30.
• Olmos, Ángel Manuel, «L’acoustique chez Francisco Tovar
et les théoriciens du début du XVIe siècle: le tapage des
sphères», pp 31-41.
• Grasso Caprioli, Leonella, «Note per uno studio
lessicografico sul canto in Rossini», pp 43-56.
• Chevalier, Jean-Claude, Delport, Marie-France,«De
l’enseignement d’un corpus», pp 57-69.
Journée d'études autour des projets ""LMR"" (Paris-Sorbonne)
et ""Canto"" (Univ. Padoue) , 1 avril 2000. Sorbonne. Avec la
participation de Madame Grasso Caprioli (Un. de
Padoue/Bologne) et Monsieur Schumacher (BN Florence).
Journée d’études «Musique ancienne en Sorbonne» , 2 juin
2006, Maison de la Recherche, Sorbonne, Paris. Présentation
par Florence le Priol et Louis Jambou des Problématiques et
enjeux du«Lexique Musical de la Renaissance» (LMR)","txt","2","",""
"750","8","Digital Visualization as a Scholarly Activity","","Introduction
The numerous visual metaphors that describe cognitive
processes hint at the nexus of relationships between what
we see and what we think. We say we ‘see’ when we mean we
understand, we try to organize and make our ideas ‘clear’ by
bringing them into ‘focus’, and so on. When faced with tasks
that require substantial thought or organization of ideas we will
often reach for a pen and paper to ‘sketch out’ (another visual
metaphor) our thoughts. We have a deep understanding that
we can enhance our thought processes by finding ways of
linking external perception with our interior mental processes.
Graphic aids to thinking are not new but the development of
computers has provided a new medium with remarkable
functionality. This in turn offers the potential for new research
methodologies that amplify cognition. These tools serve two
distinct purposes. One of these is often described by the
hackneyed phrase “A picture is worth ten thousand words”.1
This misses the true point of visualization as what is being
described here is just a matter of transmission, of having high
bandwidth to transmit large volumes of information. Of far
greater importance is the ability of these tools to allow visual
perception to be used in the creation or discovery of new
knowledge. Knowledge is not transferred, revealed, or
perceived, but is created through a dynamic process. This raises
epistemological issues concerning visualization and points the
way to an intellectual approach to the subject.
Computer visualization techniques began as a methodology for
understanding the meaning of large volumes of numeric data.
Scientists needed a means of visualizing the flood of data that
can be collected by modern monitoring and measuring
instruments. The National Science Foundation initiative on
Scientific Visualization launched in 1985 led in a very short
time to Scientific Visualization becoming recognised as not
just a methodology but a discipline in its own right. A similar
trend may now be developing in the Humanities. For example
the London Charter seeks to establish principles for the use of
3D visualization in research and communication of cultural
heritage that ensure the intellectual integrity of the methods and outcomes derived from it. How is visualization being used
in the humanities at the moment? Is there a potential counterpart
to Scientific Visualization in the digital humanities – a field of
‘humanistic visualization’? What issues does it raise? Where
is the common ground and what are the intellectual issues
involved?
Visualization in the Digital
Humanities
There are many ways of structuring an examination of the
use of visualization in the humanities; by discipline, by
type of information structure and so on. To set the context for
this paper I have chosen to look at the type of data that is being
visualized. The boundaries of data types are sometimes blurred
but a starting point could be as follows
• Numbers. Quantitative analysis and visualization has been
an established tool in many humanities disciplines for a
long time. It is found in generic statistical analysis software
or embedded in specialised applications such as text
analysis. It is gradually permeating into new areas of the
humanities through work such as that of Franco Moretti
(2005) who has argued for a wider application of
quantitative methods in areas such as literary history.
• Text: Visualization techniques using tables and graphs have
been commonplace in text analysis for many years. These
visualizations are sometimes variants of statistical
visualizations of numeric data (as in word frequencies) but
in other cases they are specialised visual forms of text
analysis. Projects such as the TAPoR and NORA Projects
are developing imaginative new visual forms and
applications. These new methods apply not just to the visual
representation of the results of analysis but also to the
visualization of the texts themselves. This aims to support
interpretive scholarship by allowing areas or relationships
of interest to be identified within large volumes of text.
Projects have explored specific texts in this way, for
example Dante’s Inferno , Hume’s Dialogues and The Shape
of Shakespeare but there is substantial scope for a tool that
could be applied to any text. The use of the word ‘tool’ here
should not be taken to imply that this is a computational
problem, this is far from the truth, as what is being grappled
with here are conceptual problems. For example, what is a
text? How should it be displayed visually? Humanities
computing provides a medium with a myriad of possibilities
of representation; uni-dimensional or two dimensional
physical objects, abstract objects showing relations among
words or between words and annotations, and animations.
Further questions arise from this work; is there a need for
representational as well as interpretive markup? What are
the relationships between text visualization and the
interpretation of texts? The visualizing of texts is also an
area which links humanities computing work to the arts, for
example the interactive installation Text Rain by Camille
Utterback and Romy Achituv.
• Narratives and relationships. These can be grouped and
referred to as diagrams . Edward Tufte has drawn public
attention to this style of diagram; famous examples include
the work of Playfair and Charles Minard’s narrative graphic
of Napoleon’s ill-fated campaign against Russia in 1812.
In many respects this has been a neglected field since the
advent of digital tools because diagrams of this type are not
easily implemented in software. They are also potentially
of enormous value to the humanities as narratives and the
study of relationships between people, events and artefacts
are studied by many disciplines.
• Space. The study of spatial relationships and a sense of
place occur in many humanities disciplines. This area is
dominated by Geographical Information System (GIS)
software but this was developed for scientific data and is
not ideally suited to the qualitative data used in the
humanities (Jessop, 2006). Digital dynamic maps are one
of many alternatives offering media that are better suited
to humanists (Jessop, 2006). The Electronic Cultural Atlas
Initiative (ECAI) with its utilization of Timemap provides
an indication of possible future developments.
• Time. Digital visualization provides a very powerful
medium for temporal visualisation. Tools such as timelines
allow one to explore the development of complex historical
events and the inter-relationships between precursor events.
They are of obvious value in the study of history where later
events build upon earlier ones but they can also be applied
elsewhere. Historiography and literary criticism are both
histories of accumulated comments on a subject. Matt Jensen
(2006) has developed a number of timeline tools which are
intended to answer the styles of questions that are asked by
humanists, for example in the case of political scandals
questions of the style ‘who knew what and when’ or for
exploring the response to an author’s writing over a period
of many years
• 3D Visualization. Much of this work has centred upon
visualizations of the built environment. It is of interest to
not only historians and archaeologists but also anyone who
seeks to find out how the buildings of the past worked in
human terms, for example the Pompey Theatre and Theatron
projects are based on historical and archaeological data but
are primarily of interest to scholars of theatre studies. 3D
visualization is of especial interest in the context of this
paper because there is currently great deal of work focused
on defining not only good practice (see ICT Methods
Network) but also principles for maintaining the intellectual
integrity of such work, for example the London Charter. It
may therefore provide pointers for similar work in the development of a broader humanistic visualization as a
whole.
Any demarcations between the applications of visualization
between different disciplines are misconceived. There is much
common ground offering considerable potential for humanities
computing and the digital humanities. This is where we need
to focus our attention if digital visualization is to achieve
recognition as a rigorous intellectual activity in research and
teaching.
Conclusion
We accept that texts and documents are produced as
readings resulting from acts of interpretation between
the reader and the text; we now need to regard images in the
same way. Every representation, visual or otherwise, is an effort
to structure an argument and as such it is a rhetorical device.
We need to understand the relationship between what is being
communicated and how it is being communicated.
Information graphics, and indeed images generally, can be
considered as historical artefacts themselves, filled with
interesting incidental and substantive information embodied in
their production, style, and graphical properties. But perhaps
more importantly, they are expressions of procedures for
generating knowledge through the act of visualization and ways
of displaying knowledge embodied in visual imagery (Drucker,
2003).
Visualization addresses epistemological and pedagogical issues
that are common to the digital humanities and are at the
forefront of the developing discipline of humanities computing.
This is a vast topic the main aim here is to identify some of the
underlying intellectual issues arising from visualization and
the use of images in digital humanities scholarship.
1. This is commonly believed to be based on a “Chinese proverb”
however Paul Martin Lester believes that it was in fact made up
by the advert writer Federick R. Barnard. See <http://www
5.Fullerton.edu/les/ad.html> and Printers’ Ink,
March 10, 1927.
Bibliography
Barthes, Roland. Elements of Semiology. New York: Hill and
Wang, 1968.
Bertin, Jacques. The Semiology of Graphics: Diagrams,
Networks and Maps. Trans. William J. Berg. 1967. Madison,
WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.
Card, Stuart K., Jock Mackinlay, and Ben Shneiderman, eds.
Readings in Information Visualization: Using Vision to Think.
San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1999.
Drucker, Johanna. ""Graphesis: Visual Knowledge Production
and Representation ."" 2003. Accessed 2006-10-20. <http:/
/www.noraproject.org/reading.php>
Gombrich, E. H. Art and Illusion. New York: Bollingen, 1961.
Ivins, William M., Jr. Prints and Visual Communication.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1969.
Jessop, Martyn. ""The Visualization of Spatial Data in the
Humanities."" Literary & Linguistic Computing 19.3 (2004):
335-350.
Jessop, Martyn. ""Dynamic Maps in Humanities Computing.""
Human IT 8.3 (2006): 68–82. <http://www.hb.se/bhs
/ith/3-8/mj.pdf>
Keeler, Mary. ""The Place of Images in a World of Text.""
Computers and the Humanities 36.1 (2002): 75-93.
McCarty, Willard. Humanities Computing. Basingstoke, UK:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
McCormick, B. H., and T. H. DeFanti. ""Visualization in
Scientific Computing."" Computer Graphics 21.6 (1987).
Moretti, Franco. Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a
Literary Theory. London: Verso, 2005.
Norman, Donald A. Things that Make Us Smart. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley, 1993.
Rockwell, Geoffrey. ""What is Text Analysis, Really?"" Literary
& Linguistic Computing 18.2 (2003): 209-219.
Rohrer, Randall, David Ebert, and John Sibert. ""The Shape of
Shakespeare: Visualizing Text Using Implicit Surfaces.""
Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Information
Visualization. 1998.
Scaife, Mike, and Yvonne Rogers. ""External Cognition: How
do Graphical Representations Work?"" International Journal of
Human-Computer Studies 45.2 (1996): 185-213.
Schreibman, Susan. ""Computer-mediated Texts and Textuality
Theory and Practice."" Computers and the Humanities 36.3
(2002): 283-93.
Sinclair, Stéfan. ""Computer Assisted Reading: Reconceiving
Text Analysis."" Literary & Linguistic Computing 18.2 (2003):
175-184.
Tufte, Edward R. The Visual Display of Quantitative
Information. Cheshire, CT: Graphic Press, 1983.
Unsworth, John. ""Forms of Attention: Digital Humanities
Beyond Representation."" Paper presented at ""The Face of Text:
Computer-Assisted Text Analysis in the Humanities,"" the third
conference of the Canadian Symposium on Text Analysis (CaSTA), McMaster University, November 19-21, 2004. 2004.
Accessed 2006-10-20. <http://www3.isrl.uiuc.edu
/%7Eunsworth/FOA/>
Unsworth, John. ""New Research Methods for the Humanities.""
The Lyman Award Lecture, National Humanities Center,
November 11, 2005. 2005. Accessed 2006-10-20. <http://
www3.isrl.uiuc.edu/~unsworth/lyman.htm>
Wurman, Richard Saul. Information Design. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press, 1999.
Web Resources
• A Visualization of Dante's Inferno <http://urizen.
village.virginia.edu/hell/>
• Electronic Cultural Atlas Initiative (ECAI) <http://ec
ai.org/>
• ICT Methods Network <http://www.methodsnetw
ork.ac.uk/index.html>
• King’s Visualization Lab <http://www.kvl.cch.kc
l.ac.uk/>
• The London Charter <http://public-repository
. e p o c h - n e t . o r g / T h e
LondonCharter_v1.pdf>
• Nora Project <http://www.noraproject.org/de
scription.php>
• Pompey Theatre Project <http://www.kvl.cch.kc
l.ac.uk/pompey.htm>
• Text Analysis Portal for Research (TAPoR) Project <htt
p://www.tapor.ca/>
• TimeMap <http://www.timemap.net/>
• Theatron <http://www.theatron.org/>","txt","2","",""
"751","8","The Other Side of the Rug: TokenX on the Willa Cather Archive","","[Schools] can only teach those patterns which have proved
successful. If one is going to do new business the patterns
cannot help, though one does not deliberately go out to do
that. My Ántonia, for instance, is just the other side of the rug,
the pattern that is supposed not to count in a story.
(Willa Cather, 1925)
Tools for text analysis have long been a focus of many digital
humanities scholars, yet the results produced by those tools are
rarely utilized in typical literary and cultural criticism. Though
the reasons for this disconnect are varied, we believe two
primary hurdles are visibility and accessibility. Specifically,
most text analysis tools and research are not found on the
sites—like thematic digital text archives—that scholars use
most, and most text analysis tools are not designed for ordinary
scholars, but are meant for those with more technical
sophistication.
Our essay discusses a novel approach to filling this gap between
scholars and text analysis, an ongoing collaborative experiment
in humanities computing to bring a ""new business"" that willfully
counters the ""patterns which have proved successful"" in literary
criticism in order to add a new dimension to literary research.
In ""The Other Side of the Rug: TokenX on the Will Cather
Archive,"" we discuss the application of Brian Pytlik Zillig's text
analysis, visualization, and play tool, TokenX (<http://to
kenx.unl.edu>) to the Willa Cather Archive (<http:/
/cather.unl.edu>), a free, educational resource dedicated
to the study of Willa Cather's life and writings and edited by
Andrew Jewell. When this application of TokenX debuts in the
summer of 2007, scholars will be able to analyze the entire
corpus of Cather's fiction, from her first college publications
to her final short story. In many ways, our project is in the
tradition of research that seeks to use text analysis tools to arrive
at, in Ramsay and Steger's language, ""suggestive patterns"" to
""enable critical reflection in literary study."" However, in
creating this tool for application on the Cather Archive, we
were faced with two distinct challenges: (1) how to develop TokenX to make it capable of the envisioned crossdocument
analysis which is sensitive to changes over time, and (2) how
to design an interface that would make sophisticated text
analysis a manageable, useful tool for the widest possible range
of Cather scholars, scholars unaccustomed to using such tools.
The project is a interdisciplinary collaboration between Pytlik
Zillig, a Digital Initiatives Librarian with specialization in XSLT
and text analysis, and Jewell, Assistant Professor of Digital
Projects with a Ph.D. in American literature, both of the
University of Nebraska-Lincoln's Center for Digital Research
in the Humanities. The paper, likewise, is a collaborative work
that represents two distinct but complementary perspectives on
the issue.
Pytlik Zillig asserts that, for digital humanities, the development
and ready availability of tools to assist in the noticing and
appreciation of texts is of increasing importance. Unsworth has
observed that “by paying attention to an object of interest, we
can explore it, find new dimensions within it, notice things
about it that have never been noticed before, and increase its
value."" For the first iteration of the TokenX/Cather
collaboration, the TokenX tool has generated a word frequency
data set containing nearly half a million data cells. These data
reveal the frequency of usage of words in fifteen TEI-encoded
XML texts, representing Cather’s complete corpus of
book-length fiction. This data set will be available for dynamic,
user-centered queries to assist in formulating theories and
facilitating explorations of Cather’s changing diction over time.
(See Figure 1 for initial results on ten sample terms within
Cather's corpus, detailing her usage of certain ""body"" words
within each of her published books of fiction.) If a text’s
common words are, as John Burrows suggests, ""a barely visible
web that gives shape to whatever is being said"" (323), then it
must be the ambition of tools such as TokenX to expose the
dimensions of that web for further inquiry. (Plans are underway
to add TokenX to the Text Analysis Portal for Research
[TAPoR], which will enable TokenX users to visualize, analyze
and play with documents stored on the TAPoR portal.)
Jewell argues that introduction of and experimentation with
new tools for engagement with literary texts are an important
way to make author-centric sites, like the Willa Cather Archive,
models of innovation. The audience of the Cather Archive is
not one inherently inclined to think about literary texts
numerically. The onus on the designer, then, is to consider the
sorts of research questions driving Cather and American
literature scholarship and to make this tool something that would
contribute to tackling such questions. For example, how might
text analysis contribute to a scholar exploring Cather's work
with a cultural studies or gender studies approach? What about
a scholar looking at contexts, themes, or references within a
single novel, or the fiction of a finite span in Cather's career?
How might this tool aid a researcher interested in tracking
evolutions in Cather's prose over a long period of time? (See
Lindemann and the program of the 2005 International Cather
Seminar for examples of these approaches). By designing an
interface that is sensitive to a range of scholarly inquiry, one
that allows for a significant amount of flexibility and user input,
TokenX on the Cather Archive can represent an innovative use
of digital research that is brought into the mainstream of
scholarship. By demonstrating sensitivity to researcher interests
and seeking to design broadly useful tools, we demonstrate to
colleagues that such tools are not just for specialists, but can
enrich diverse arguments, any that find foundation— as most
literary scholarship does—on the use of words.
Bibliography
Burrows, John. ""Textual Analysis."" A Companion to Digital
Humanities. Ed. Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens and John
Unsworth. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, Ltd, . 323-347.
Lindemann, Marilee. A Cambridge Companion to Willa Cather.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Program of the International Cather Seminar 2005. . <http
://cather.unl.edu/seminar2005/sem_schedul
e.html>
Ramsay, Stephen, and Sara Steger. ""Distinguished Speakers:
Keyword Extraction and Critical Analysis with Virginia Woolf’s
The Waves."" Paper presented at Digital Humanities 2006, Paris
Sorbonne, 5-9 July 2006. 2006. <http://www.allc-ach
2006.colloques.parissorbonne.
fr/DHs.pdf>
Unsworth, John. ""Forms of Attention: Digital Humanities
Beyond Representation.."" Paper presented at The Face of Text:
Computer-Assisted Text Analysis in the Humanities, the third
conference of the Canadian Symposium on Text Analysis
(CaSTA), McMaster University, November 19-21, 2004. 2004.
<http://www3.isrl.uiuc.edu/~unsworth/FOA>","txt","2","",""
"752","8","Macro Analysis (2.0)","","At the 2005 meeting in Victoria, I presented a paper with
the revised title, “A Macro-Economic Model for Literary
Research.” That paper marked an early phase in a project aimed
at leveraging large, digital, text corpora for what I now call
“Macro-Analysis.” The work presented in Victoria was largely
a proof-of-concept using an electronic bibliography of 775
works of Irish-American literature. For that paper I performed
a dumbed down sort of macro-analytic text analysis using
metadata fields and the titles of works in the bibliography.
Today the software has improved significantly, and in place of
the title analysis of 2005, this paper offers results derived from
a macro-analysis of the full text of 1125 British and American
novels from the 19th century. In the presentation, I provide a
general overview of the tool(s) and an explanation of the
methodology employed in the analysis.
The tools and techniques I have develop utilize both supervised
and unsupervised text-mining techniques. The supervised
techniques allow for a focused analysis in which a researcher
probes the corpus for items meeting a specific research criteria.
A very simple example might involve tracing the behavior or
“frequency” of some “signal” (linguistic pattern, literary theme,
or author style) over the course of the corpus. I should note
here that while this process sounds similar in some ways to the
supervised machine learning approach being used by the NORA
project, it is specifically not like NORA in that I am not
employing machine learning or utilizing previous identified,
“marked,” training data. Instead the “signal” is developed ad
hoc by the researcher/user.
An easy way to understand the project is to visualize the tool
being used: A user is given an interface that allows for the usual
sort of corpus searching. The user performs a corpus wide
search for some term (or other feature such as a word cluster
or syntactical pattern). The result page reports all of the texts
in the corpus in which the search term(s) is found, and then the
user is given a “toolbox” of macro-analytic tools with which
to process and analyze the result set. These tools are varied and
perform diverse sorts of analysis.
A topic-modeling tool, for example, provides the ability to
harvest the salient themes from the text in the result set. The
user is thus able to say, for example, that works in the corpus
that contain word “x” show a predominance of the ""n"" topic.
In my own work with ethnic American literature, I have found
this tool valuable in assessing and quantifying the dominant
themes that occur in works where ethnic markers (words
denoting race or ethnicity) occur. This technique is derived
from the work of David Newman and his research team at the
University of California—Irvine.1
Another tool offers a type of literary time series analysis. Figure
1 shows a graph produced by my “timeline” tool.
Figure 1
With the timeline tool, the results of any query of the corpus
can be mapped over time. Say, for example, that I am interested
in how some textual feature evolves over time. I perform the
necessary query to isolate the occurrences of that feature and
then choose the timeline tool. The resulting graph provides a
visual time-series analysis of the frequency of the pattern. The
graph shown here was produced after a simple search for
occurrences of the word “romance” in the titles of 7300 novels
from the 18th and 19th century. The raw counts are displayed
in red beneath each year. In addition to providing this timeline
of raw hits (figure 1), a second graph (figure 2) is also produced
that shows a normalized result in the form of “hits-per-100”
texts.
Figure 2
In this case, the normalized graph is particularly revealing
because it shows that the frequency of “romance” as a key word
in titles is not especially noteworthy. Aside from a very brief
period (1800-1810) where the word appears in 2-3% of all titles,
its use is steady at 1% or 1 occurrence per 100 titles in a given
year.
The macro-analytic tools developed in this research exist as
both command line applications and as a (beta) extension to
the open-source eXtensible Text Framework (XTF) application
developed by Martin Haye and the California Digital Library.2
The successful implementation of the tools into XTF has been
achieved with the assistance of Stanford Undergraduate digital
humanities major Jenny Loomis who will spend the final five
minutes of this presentation giving a live demonstration of the
tool as implemented into the XTF application. 1. Newman’s work is profiled on line at the following sites: <htt
p://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20060
802-7408.html>
<http://www.ics.uci.edu/community/news/
press/view_press?id=51>
2. See <http://www.cdlib.org/inside/project
s/xtf/>","txt","2","",""
"753","8","Preserving Information About Linearization in Document Graphs","","Many operations are more conveniently performed on a
graph representation than on a linear representation of
a marked up document, and vice versa. Therefore, it is
sometimes important to ensure that no relevant aspect of the
information contained in a document represented in one of these
forms is lost or distorted when the document is converted to
the other form.
Conventional methods for converting between XML documents
and their graph representations [W3C 2000] are typically seen
to preserve such information; standards and methods have been
established for ensuring what is in most contexts considered
full preservation of all relevant aspects of the linearization
[W3C 2001].
However, what is considered relevant may of course vary,
depending on context of use. It would probably be hard to find
serious arguments to the effect that literally all aspects of the
linear representation of a document are relevant for any
generally interesting use. Typically, conventional conversion
methods are not guaranteed to preserve e.g. attribute order,
declaration order, and insignificant whitespace. But it is not
hard to find complaints about, for example, lack of preservation
of attribute order in certain applications.
Our focus in this paper is on methods for the preservation of
element serialization order in marked up documents which
make use of mechanisms for representing non- hierarchic
complex structures such as overlapping, discontinuous and
virtual elements. (For convenience, we use the term ""complex
structures"" to refer to such phenomena.) We do not wish to
claim that preservation of element order is always or even
generally relevant, our aim is limited to providing a method for
such preservation in cases where it is considered relevant.
The customary graph representation of XML is in the form of
an ""XML tree"", a restricted kind of directed acyclic graph
(DAG). More specifically, XML trees are DAGs with single
parenthood and total ordering on leaf nodes. For certain purposes, however, a different kind of graph representation has
been proposed, the so-called Goddag [Sperberg-McQueen and
Huitfeldt 2000]: Roughly, Goddags are like XML trees except
that they allow multiple parenthood and do not require a total
ordering on leaf nodes; leaf nodes may be ordered only relative
to their immediate parents. (Thus, XML trees constitute a subset
of Goddags.)
For certain purposes this data structure provides a more
convenient representation of complex structures than XML
trees. Documents using different XML mechanisms for
representing such structures in linear form (e.g. milestones,
fragmentation, virtual elements etc. [Barnard et.al. 1995,
Sperberg-McQueen and Huitfeldt 1999]) can be mapped on to
Goddags, though not without knowledge of application-specific
semantics of the markup vocabulary. The experimental markup
system TexMecs [Sperberg-McQueen and Huitfeldt 2001]
offers mechanisms for the representation of complex structures
which can be mapped on to Goddags independently of such
knowledge.
However, in both cases, i.e. whether the graph is built from
XML or TexMecs, reserialization from the graph is not in
general guaranteed possible without changes to the structure
and order of elements in the original linearization. For example,
if an XML document has used milestones or fragmentation of
elements to represent overlapping elements it is possible to
build a Goddag representing the non-hierarchic structure of the
document. But when reserializing back to XML, the Goddag
does not contain any information about which elements to
represent as milestones or as fragmented elements.
Similarly with TexMecs: Some element structures can be
represented by alternative serialization constructs, and the
Goddag as currently defined does not preserve information
about the choice of construct in each particular case. In
TexMecs the problem is made more severe by the fact that the
graph does not, in the case of e.g. virtual or discontinuous
elements, preserve complete information about the serial orderof
elements in the original input.
Consider the following example, marked up according to
TexMECS, and illustrating how a discontinuous constituent
element <q> may be represented.
(1) <s|<q|Why|-q>, he said,<+q| me?|q>|s>
In TEI-based XML, the example could e.g. be marked up as:
(1’) <s><q part=""I"">Why<q/>, he said,<q
part=""F""> me?</q></s>
The resulting Goddag, whether based on the XML or the
TexMecs input, would normally look like this:1
Since the second leaf node (containing the string "", he said,"")
does not share any parent with either of the two other leaf nodes,
it is not ordered with respect to these. Therefore, the
linearization in (1) is equivalent to the following two
linearizations, both placing the second leaf node in a position
relative to the other two that it does not have in (1):
(3) <s|<q|Why me?|q>, he said,|s>
(4) <s|, he said,<q|Why me?|q>|s>
Thus, the Goddag in (2) would be the same whether built from
(1), (3) or (4). Similarly, a choice whether to linearize (2) in
the form of (1), (3) or (4) will either have to be arbitrary, or
based on purely practical considerations.
A solution to the linearization problem lies, we propose, in
considering the Goddag used for representing marked up text
as a path ordered directed acyclic graph; a Podagra. Building
a Podagra from (1), we get a graph consisting of three paths,
in the order indicated as follows:2
(5)
1. s → q → ""Why""
2. s → "", he said,""
3. s → q → "" me?""
Building a Podagra from (3), however, produces the following
path order:
(6)
1. s → q → ""Why me?""
2. s → "", he said,""
whereas from (4) we get the following paths:
(7)
1. s → "", he said,"" 2. s → q → ""Why me?""
The Podagras (5), (6) and (7) all correspond to the Goddag (2),
but each maps uniquely to the linearizations (1), (3) and (4),
respectively.
In the full paper, we will present an algorithm yielding Podagras
from TexMECS documents containing different linearizations
also of overlapping and virtual elements. We intend to show
how path ordered Goddags can faithfully restore the original
linearization of such documents.
Since TexMECS is a purely experimental markup language,
these results may be said to have limited practical relevance.
However, a number of projects currently build Goddags from
XML-encoded documents (by the use of application-specific
semantics). Therefore, we also hope to indicate how the
proposed method may used for preservation of the original
linearization of XML documents using well-known methods
for representation of overlapping, discontinuous and virtual
elements.
1. For simplification, we are consciously ignoring certain unresolved
issues concerning the representation of discontinuous elements in
Goddags [Huitfeldt and Sperberg-McQueen 2006].
2. The simplicity of the example allows us to indicate nodes by their
generic identifiers. I.e. the three occurrences of ""s"" all indicate the
single node labelled s, and the two occurrences of ""q"" indicate the
single node labelled ""q"".
Bibliography
Barnard, David, Lou Burnard, Jean-Pierre Gaspart, , C. Michael
Sperberg-McQueen, and Giovanni Battista Varile. ""Hierarchical
Encoding of Text: Technical Problems and SGML Solutions.""
The Text Encoding Initiative: Background and Contents. Ed.
Nancy Ide and Jean Véronis. 1995. 211-231.
Huitfeldt, Claus, and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen. ""Representation
and Processing of Goddag Structures: Implementation Strategies
and Progress Report."" Proceedings of Extreme Markup
Languages 2006. 2006. <http://www.idealliance.o
rg/papers/extreme/proceedings/>
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and Claus Huitfeldt. ""Concurrent
Document Hierarchies in MECS and SGML."" Literary &
Linguistic Computing 14.1 (1999): 29-42.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and Claus Huitfeldt. ""TexMECS:
An Experimental Markup Meta-language for Complex
Documents."" 2001. <http://decentius.aksis.uib.
no/mlcd/2003/Papers/texmecs.html>
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and Claus Huitfeldt. ""GODDAG:
A Data Structure for Overlapping Hierarchies."" DDEP-PODDP
2000. Ed. P. King and E. V. Munson. Lecture Notes in
Computer Science 2023. Berlin: Springer, 2004. 139-160.
W3C. Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification.
The World Wide Web Consortium, 2000. <http://www.w
3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1>W3C Recommendation,
September 2000
W3C. Ed. J. Boyer. Canonical XML. 2001. W3C
Recommendation, March 2001","txt","2","",""
"754","8","From Bibliography to Timeline: Flexible Infrastructure Bears Fruit","","Heurist (HeuristScholar.org) – introduced at last year’s
Digital Humanities conference – is an online system
which integrates internet bookmarking with standard
bibliographic functions, and provides strong social bookmarking
and workgroup management capabilities. These include
workgroup-centred tagging, rating and data sharing (private
and public wiki spaces, threaded discussions and automated
notifications) as well as publication of dynamically-generated
subsets of the database.
Heurist is aimed at an academic audience. Signup requires
authorisation by the system owner and, unlike generic systems
such as Delicious or CiteULike, depends on social constraints
to promote data quality (users are identifiable rather than
anonymous). Heurist is available as a free service to academics
(sensu lato) worldwide. We plan to release it as Open Source
software in the course of 2007, once we have developed
peer-to-peer communication between instances.
In developing the bibliographic functions of Heurist we did not
wish to follow the ‘easy way out’ solution adopted by almost
all existing bibliographic systems; that is, treating each
bibliographic entry as an independent record in a ‘flat file’
database, using ‘generic’ fields with different meanings in
different record types and redundantly repeating data such as
book and publisher details in every chapter record.
First, we developed a method of recording variant records using
metadata instances (a technique we pioneered for the Electronic
Cultural Atlas Initiative metadata clearinghouse –
www.ecai.org), allowing for a completely flexible data-defined
and instantly extensible structure which handles missing data
and repeating fields with ease. Fields and record types are
soft-coded within the database and can therefore be added
instantly through a web form; data entry forms are created
on-the-fly from the soft-coded definitions.
Secondly, we construct complete bibliographic records by
‘normalising’ data into separate records reflecting discrete
entities, thus reducing data redundancy and all its consequent
problems. For example, a book chapter will be composed of
four records - a chapter, a book, a book series and a publisher.
These four records are linked together by inter-record
relationships to form a complete bibliographic reference for
the chapter. Correcting the book information will thus correct
it for all chapters within the book.
There are a number of spin-off benefits in Heurist’s data
structure. In addition to all the normal field types –
variable-length text, integer, decimal, date, logical and
controlled lists – Heurist has three special field types which
reflect the needs of the data structure and the particular interests
of the research team:
• Geographic objects: Heurist stores point, point and direction,
circle, rectangle, (poly)line and polygon objects. Geographic
objects can be entered through a browser-based digitising
function embedded in the data entry forms. We believe
Heurist is the only spatially-enabled generic bibliographic
database in existence;
• File objects: Heurist implements a generic method for
uploading and managing files of various types – images,
text, spreadsheets, sound, video etc. Multiple files can be
attached to any record in the database and files can be
assigned specific roles (eg. logo, thumbnail, introductory
sound bite). Files can be embedded in output;
• Inter-record relationships: Heurist has rich functionality for
relating a record in the database to any other record(s) in
the database. To do this it defines a special type of field –
a relationship field – which is a pointer to another record
in the database. Relationship fields may be open or restricted
to point to a specific type of database record. During data
entry relationship fields pop up a search into the database,
filtered to the appropriate record type. Relationships
between records in the database are then just another type
of soft-coded database record containing two relationship
fields and a relationship type field. Some tricky code handles
addition of new relationship types and directionality, so that
a parent-child relationship, for instance, is reversed to
child-parent if viewed from the other side. Relationship
records also provide a datestamp (the range of time over
which the relationship applies) and all the annotation
capabilities of other Heurist records (including tagging,
personal notes, wiki pages, threaded discussion, personal
bookmarking and searchability).
We have been able to use the relationship functions of Heurist,
combined with its flexible record typing and geographic objects,
for some novel applications. These include mapping a network
of research centres, projects, grants, methods, sites, researchers
and publications (the 3DVISA network –
heuristscholar.org/resource/45089) and recording a set of
historical events and their relationships to create a browsable
view of history (Silk Road TimeLine -
heuristscholar.org/resource/45317). The underlying data for the Silk Road timeline is rendered as
a browsable list of interrelated events. When an event is
selected, all related events are listed, grouped by relationship
type – the web of relationships can be navigated by clicking
on one of the listed events to select it as the ‘root’ of a new list
of related events. The related events displayed in the list are
simultaneously shown on a TimeMap web map
(www.timemap.net) which is automatically updated whenever
the list changes. Links on the map and on the list allow
navigation between them and direct access to the backend
database records. The model can be extended to visualising a
different slice of history simply by copying the web page and
seeding it with a different starting record, or by linking a starting
record to the generic “Timeline Nodes” event which we have
created in the database (heuristscholar.org/resource/48600).
Our next step in this project is to develop a visual timeline
which is generated on-the-fly from the current list of events
and also linked to the TimeMap map and the event listing.
In this paper I will show how Heurist and TimeMap have been
used to build this generic collaborative content creation model
and visualiser for historical events, illustrated through the
example of the Silk Road timeline project, and discuss the
underlying data structures. I will discuss planned developments
in the data model we use to describe historical events, and our
research on improved visual methods of entering and viewing
the web of relationships between historical events (or other
types of record), including timelie visualisations. I will also
discuss specific applications of the methodology adapted to
museums, visitor centres, online encyclopaedias and the
classroom.
Heurist and TimeMap have been developed by the
Archaeological Computing Laboratory at the University of
Sydney, under my direction, as part of the Sydney Humanities
and Social Sciences e-Research Initiative (Heurist) and with
funding from the Australian Research Council, ECAI,
MacquarieNet and other user groups (TimeMap).","txt","2","",""
"755","8","Relationship Mapping for Art Education and Research","","Introduction
The catalogue raisonné, or reasoned catalogue, has long been
a standard tool for representing large art collections. A typical
catalogue raisonné includes images of artworks along with
descriptive metadata, commentary, and background information
(often a biography of the artist) about the collection. More
recently, technological and infrastructural advances (in
particular, cheaper secondary memory, increased network
bandwidth, computational power, and digitization technology)
have enabled development of the digital catalogue raisonné.
Some of these catalogues have been developed primarily to
support the construction of print-based catalogues (Lanzelotte,
et al., 1993; Gladney, et al. 1998), while others are intended
for online use (for example, The Vincent van Gogh Gallery
and Gemini G.E.L.). The Picasso Project (Mallen, 2006) has
developed a digital catalogue raisonné containing 11,000 of
Picasso's artworks, along with 7,000 biographical entries. It is
the most complete and up-to-date collection of Picasso's
prodigious body of work. Building on the premise that the logical structures of the book
do not support scholarly inquiry adequately (McGann, 1997),
we are using the Picasso digital catalogue to facilitate scholarly
work with art collections. Researchers, students, and teachers
in disciplines such as art history, painting, drawing, history of
art, and art appreciation deal with art collections. They analyze
and critique individual works and compare and contrast these
with other works. They identify similarities between pieces of
art and trace threads of influence between artworks, artists,
styles, materials, themes, and social, geo-political, or personal
events. These scholars interpret artworks, identify missing links,
and communicate their findings. In the context of the Picasso
collection, we support scholars in expressing and visualizing
the complex, multifarious relationships between artworks via
a Web-accessible software interface.
Approach
In a series of informal interviews with faculty members from
art education, history, Hispanic studies, art history, and with
local K-12 art teachers we found a diverse set of needs, interests,
and approaches to working with artworks in both education
and research settings. One key theme running through each of
these areas is the need to discover and present relationships
between artworks, although the specific relationships of interest
varied by discipline. The art history scholar wishes to
investigate relationships between artworks displayed together
in an exhibition or to study works composed when an artist was
with a particular lover. The historian wishes to view art in the
context of significant historical events, for example, artworks
created while Europe was anticipating World War I. K-12
teachers are interested in identifying artworks that provide good
examples of specific drawing or painting techniques, such as
the two-point perspective or the use of complementary color
schemes.
In addition to the interviews, we also attended sessions of two
college-level art history survey courses. We observed that
instructors typically showed one or two examples of artworks
from different artists or art movements, discussing each for a
few minutes. In subsequent interviews, the instructors explained
that lack of time constrains their ability to include additional
works. Creating thematic sub-collections based on the
relationships discussed in class could alleviate this problem,
enabling students to study additional examples of materials
covered in the classroom. These observations of classroom
interaction and feedback from educators and researchers have
informed our enhancements for supporting the representation
and visualization of diverse relationships over the Picasso
project’s artwork catalogue.
Picasso’s works cover a broad range of themes, topics, and
materials, thus presenting a rich substrate of artworks for
building a network of semantically diverse, meaningful
relationships. In addition to the image collection, the Picasso
project includes extensive metadata related to these works, such
as its place and date of creation, medium, dimensions, current
location, as well as exhibitions and books in which it has
appeared. We leverage much of this metadata to express
relationships based on ownership, materials, patronage, or
chronology.
Interactive Relationship Visualizer
The Interactive Relationship Visualizer (IRV), an interactive,
Web-based application, enables visualization of relationships
that exist between artworks in the archive. The IRV interface
displays image sub-collections connected by the relationship
of the viewer’s focus. In addition, it presents connections that
exist within artworks in the sub-collection as well as those with
others in the archive, enabling users to navigate the intricately
interconnected hypertextual web defined by these relationships.
While browsing, the the display changes to reflect the dominant
relationship being displayed. In order to express a rich set of
relationships, we are augmenting existing metadata to include
type (such as still life or portrait), art movement (cubism,
fauvism, surrealism), and content (woman, nude, vase, mirror).
The IRV distinguishes two broad categories of relationships,
""inferred"" and ""specified."" Inferred relationships are those which
can be expressed in terms of the metadata elements provided
for each artwork. Some inferred relationships can be expressed
in terms of a single metadata value, such as ""artworks created
with oil on canvas."" Others require mapping a range of metadata
values onto a higher-level concept and require definitions
involving multiple metadata fields. For example, identifying
""paintings created in Paris around the time of World War II""
is a two-step process. The system must map the timeframe of
World War II to a portion of the traditional calendar and locate
paintings created during this time. It then selects from this set,
those that were created in Paris Finally, relationships such as
""expensive paintings"" involve subjective, theory-driven, and
potentially variable definitions. A price that would be expensive
in one art market might be comparatively inexpensive in
another. Inferred relationships provide a powerful mechanism
for exploring, discovering, and expressing relationships between
artworks that leverages existing metadata. In contrast to relationships inferred directly from existing
metadata, other types of relationships must explicitly be stated.
We refer to these as ""specified"" relationships. For example,
Picasso sketched several rough drafts of large works,
interspersed with smaller works. Thus, a chronological view
of artwork around the time the Guernica was painted results in
a sub-collection that includes these preparatory works as well
as other, unrelated works. Hence, this ""preparatory work""
relationship must be expressed between early sketches of the
Guernica and the final masterpiece. Another specified
relationship is images based on a shared subject, for example,
Picasso’s interpretive series of works of Diego Velásquez’s
Las Meninas. Specified relationships afford us the ability to
define and represent relationships between artworks that are
difficult to derive from the descriptive metadata associated with
each work. This category of relationships is critical for the
expression of concepts based in established and novel analytical
approaches to Picasso's work—allowing relationships based
on information beyond that which is encoded in the collection.
The drawback is that participation in specified relationships
must be manually encoded.
Figure 1 displays the IRV system design. The Web interface
employs specific visualizations for displaying different kinds
of relationships. For example, the display of Guernica and its
preparatory images uses a visualization that illustrates the
centrality of Guernica relative to the other images displayed.
In contrast, the display of all artworks in the Las Meninas series
uses a table-like view, since no image is clearly central to this
sub-collection. We employ artwork images from the Picasso
project, reinterpret and extend existing metadata to express
myriad connections between these artworks, and facilitate
visualization of these relationships to support art scholars from
various disciplines.
Future Work
We continue to add new metadata to enrich the
relationships expressed in our archive. While new
attributes enable us to express additional relationships, the
growing number of relationships gets increasingly difficult to
represent visually. We are investigating mechanisms to display
secondary visualizations without overwhelming the presentation
of the primary relationship views. As scholars analyze Picasso’s
works and life, the relationships of their interest are likely to
increase in complexity as well as variety. It is not possible to
express all imaginable relationships among these artworks a
priori, nor is it possible to have all the necessary metadata.
Enabling scholars to define useful metadata as well as
supporting them in forming new relationships will engage them
as partners in this project rather than as mere users.
The IRV has potential for exploration of artwork relationships
in the classroom as well as for evaluating student performance
via homework and papers. For example, students could explore
a relationship and write a short paper about the artworks it
encompasses. An instructor could create a relationship and ask
students to identify the relationship embodied by the included
artworks. Educators need assistance in the form of targeted
features for successful use of the IRV in the classroom setting.
We continue our dialog with instructors to channel the IRV’s
expressive power for enriching education.
Bibliography
Gladney, H. M., et al. ""Digital Access to Antiquities.""
Communications of the ACM 41.4 (1998): 49-57.
Lanzelotte, R. S. G. ""The PROTINARI Project: Science and
Art Team up Together to Help Cultural Projects."" Proceedings
of 2nd International Conference on Hypermedia and
Interactivity in Museums, Cambridge, UK (1993). .
Mallen, E., ed. The Picasso Project . Texas A&M University
. Accessed 2006-10-06. <http://picasso.tamu.edu/
>
McGann, J. ""The Rational of Hypertext."" Electronic Text:
Investigations in Method and Theory. Ed. K. Sutherland. New
York: Oxford UP, 1997. 19-46.
The Vincent van Gogh Gallery . . <http://vggallery.c
om/>
Washington DC: National Gallery of Art . Gemini G.E.L.:
Online Catalogue Raisonné. Texas A&M University. Accessed
2006-09-07. <http://www.nga.gov/gemini/>","txt","2","",""
"756","8","Done: ""Finished"" Projects in the Digital Humanities","3","Done: “Finished” Projects in the Digital
Humanities
Matthew Kirschenbaum
As the digital humanities continue to mature—theoretically,
institutionally, as a set of critical practices—there will be an
increasing desire to measure milestones, achievements,
completion, and closure. While one instinct might be to bristle
at such tendencies, and the traditional print-based scholarship
they seem to imply or infer, being pushed to formulate a more
fully realized set of responses can be a healthy exercise for a
rapidly expanding field. “Done,” as a shorthand convention
that has quickly become ubiquitous in the culture of professional
knowledge work, is emblematic in this regard, on the one hand
unequivocal and absolute, on the other hand useful only in the
context of low-level tasks that accumulate, often without finite
bounds or comprehensive structure, in the service of some
larger, less-defined endeavor. A server-side PHP upgrade may
be “done,” but what about the thematic research collection it
exists to support?
So how do we decide when we’re done? What does it mean to
finish something? How does the “open ended nature of the
medium” (a phrase we all pay lip service to) jibe with the reality
of funding, deadlines, and deliverables? What can we learn
from finished projects, both successful and unsuccessful? For
that matter, how do we define success and failure? Are “we”
the ones who ought to be defining it? If not, who? This panel
attempts to begin formulating responses to such questions, by
bringing together practitioners and project leaders from multiple
institutional settings and contexts. William A. Kretzschmar’s
paper traces the local history of one particular project, grafting
milestones and markers of what its gotten “done” to various
versions and releases, a common enough convention in software
and information and technology. His remarks raise issues not
only for how one assesses closure, but also digital preservation
and version control. David Sewell addresses the questions I’ve
posed from the perspective of a publisher. His work at the
University of Virginia Press’s Rotunda digital imprint, itself
unique in the field, offers a very different context, one where
finding some measure of “done” is a financial and professional
necessity. Finally, the team from the Orlando project offers the
perspectives of one of the largest and longest running
undertakings in the digital humanities, at the moment when the
project has gone to press. The co-authors discuss not only what
is done, but also what will stay done (and relevant) only by
virtue of the ongoing expenditure of effort and resources, in
the form of continual upgrades.
Large-Scale Humanities Computing Projects:
Snakes Chasing Tails, or Every End is a New
Beginning?
William A. Kretzschmar, Jr.
One of the motivating questions for this session is “What does
it mean to finish something?” As it happens, the word “finish”
can mean two things that have quite different implications for
large-scale humanities computing projects. On one hand,
according to the OED (sv) “finish” can mean ‘To bring to
completion; to make or perform completely; to complete.’ On
the other hand, the word can also mean ‘To perfect finally or
in detail; to put the final and completing touches to (a thing).’
In my own work of this kind, the American Linguistic Atlas
project (<http://www.lap.uga.edu>), we do neither of
these things. We cannot come to an end of the work because
we are witnesses and archivists of how Americans talk, and
they keep talking differently across time and space. Neither do
we think that our humanities-computing representation of our
research is capable of being finally perfected, of achieving some
perfect state, because the demands placed upon our research
keep changing. If we view the entirety of the Linguistic Atlas
Project as a “large-scale humanities computing project,” the
word “finish” is just not part of the deal. However, it is quite reasonable to ask, as our granting agencies must ask, “what do
you want money for this time?” or “did you accomplish what
we gave you money to do?” From this viewpoint, the Atlas
Project consists of a series of particular tasks or experiments,
each one of which is capable of being “finished” in both senses
of the word. In this paper, I would like to discuss the reality of
funding, deadlines, and deliverables, as they relate to the
sequence of tasks that make up the larger Atlas Project. In so
doing, I hope to show the special character of work done
deliberately as part of a sequence for a large-scale project, as
opposed to work proposed as a singular task. The
contextualization of the separate tasks leads to special cases of
what it means to “finish” the work in either sense. The point
of what follows is not the Atlas Project itself, but instead the
way that individual tasks respond to the technical and academic
situation at the time, and how our work and thinking over the
years must change so that we can avoid the charge of being the
snake that chases its own tail.
The Linguistic Atlas Project Web site has been notable over
many years for its twin goals of interactivity for research
(including the use of GIS) and making its data sets accessible
and available to the public. I first programmed a GIS system
on the Mac platform for our Linguistic Atlas data in 1990 (Kirk
and Kretzschmar 1991, 1992; Kretzschmar 1992). It was widely
used for teaching and research on American English in the early
1990s, and it immediately led to breakthroughs in how we were
able to think about language variation data (Kretzschmar 1994,
1996; Kretzschmar and Lee 1992). The immediate task was
“finished” in both senses, but the larger Atlas Project required
more developments. While the Mac system was widely used,
it was limited by restricted storage available to distribute data
sets (at that time, chiefly through diskettes).
As the next task in the sequence, we then ported the system to
the Web, which I first demonstrated at a conference in 1996
(Kretzschmar 1996b). We had been working on an interactive
ftp/gopher system as early as 1994, but when Web technology
became available we saw that it enabled perfectly what we had
been attempting from another direction. The Web allowed us
to make all of our textual data available, with many additional
GIS features for locating speakers and information. The Atlas
Web was a significant advance for both teaching and research
(Kretzschmar 1997, 2002a), in line with the goals for an
electronic atlas first set forth nearly a decade earlier
(Kretzschmar 1988). After a while, we wanted to do new things,
so we began work on a major revision of the Web site that
finally came on line in 2003, which added even more interactive
choices such as more flexible searches and tallies of the
speakers and language data set. However, we kept ""The Old
Site"" as a link on the new one, so that long-time users would
find what was familiar to them, and also for users who did not
want the greater complexity that came with greater flexibility
of use. We could not just move it, however, because “The Old
Site” had to run on a new platform and had to be compatible
with the extensive Python scripting that ran functions on the
New Site. The task of importing the Mac-based GIS system to
the Web was complete by 1996, but not finished until 2003
with the platform change and the final touches of the more
flexible site.
Still, the larger Atlas Project is nowhere near at an end. We are
now rethinking what the site should do, from a text-based
system to one that features audio and stored images along with
text and GIS. This change has become possible only in the last two years, as much greater network-attached storage has become available (measured in Tb, before long Pb). We are now the one of the largest clients at the U of Georgia institutional storage array (which we share with bio-informaticists, physicists, and
others usually considered to be power users) because of our
archival audio files, and we are just at the beginning for audio
and images. We now conceive of our new interviews as
conversational corpora, in which text transcriptions serve as
time-linked indices to audio files (Kretzschmar, Barry, and
Kong 2005; Kretzschmar, Anderson, Beal, Corrigan,
Opas-Hanninen, and Plichta 2006). While many users will want
to listen to our speakers, others will want to perform acoustical
analyses, now a strong trend in language variation research, as
we ourselves now perform them (Kretzschmar, Lanehart, Barry,
Osiapem, and Kim 2004; Kretzschmar, Kim, and Kong 2005).
Our next task is to integrate sound with text and to enable
acoustical research functions, while maintaining our interactive
GIS functions—a whole new set of tools and problems from
the previous task (Kretzschmar 2002b). New options for both
hardware and for text encoding make it possible to consider
the new site, just as the Web was a new option for the previous
task.
So, are we ""finished""? Yes, with the GIS Mark 2 of ""The Old
Site,"" but never finished either with keeping that site and its
successors available or with new approaches to the information
we keep as new technical possibilities and research demands
appear. We can complete particular tasks, and often we can
even “finish” particular tasks in the sense of polishing them for
improved use. Yet one experiment does not make the whole
line of research. One research proposal does not make the whole
research program. While we can succeed with each task, we
must always see tasks as part of the larger process that must
continue if future users are still going to be able to take
advantage of our resources. We would be the snake chasing its
tail if all we did was keep polishing a single task, but we do
well to make every end a new beginning as new possibilities
become available.
The implications of the Atlas Project situation for other projects
are definite and important. First of all, each project needs to
consider whether it wants to be a single task, or whether it will
be one of those continuing efforts for which any particular site or tool is just a single stage in a larger, longer process. The
reality of funding, deadlines, and deliverables makes it easier
to propose and defend the single tasks, but in many cases we
will be more honest, and better off in the long term, if we
recognize that what we are doing is evolutionary rather than
singular. We may have to work harder to convince funding
agencies to support long-term work like the Atlas Project, but
we must do that nonetheless. At the same time, our experience
shows that we can indeed identify separate stages in our work
that have independent value, and are thus fundable under the
demands of deadlines and deliverables. Indeed, the demands
of funding agencies can help those of us with long-term projects
to organize our overall effort so that we keep it vital, interesting,
and in the forefront of what new technology and standards can
offer.
Bibliography
Kirk, John, and William A. Kretzschmar, Jr. """"The Analysis
and Interpretation of Dialect Databases by Interactive
Mapping""."" ACH/ALLC Conference, Tempe, 1991. 1991.
Kirk, John, and William A. Kretzschmar, Jr. ""Interactive
Linguistic Mapping of Dialect Features."" Literary & Linguistic
Computing 7.3 (1992): 168-75.
Kretzschmar, William A. Jr. "". Linguistic Theory and Computer
Modeling of Linguistic Survey Data."" ACH/ALLC, Paris, 1994.
Kretzschmar, William A. Jr. ""Quantitative Areal Analysis of
Dialect Features."" Language Variation and Change 8.1 (1996a):
13-39.
Kretzschmar, William A. Jr. ""The LAMSAS Internet Site.""
NWAVE, Las Vegas. 1996b.
Kretzschmar, William A. Jr. ""Teaching American English
Online."" Journal of English Linguistics 30.4 (2002a): 318-327.
Kretzschmar, William A. Jr. ""TEI and Linguistic Interviews.""
2002b. <http://www.tei c.org/>
Kretzschmar, William A. Jr., Jean Anderson, Joan Beal, Karen
Corrigan, Lisa-Lena Opas-Hänninen, and Bartek Plichta.
""Collaboration on Corpora for Regional and Social Analysis.""
Journal of English Linguistics 34.3 (2006): 172-205.
Kretzschmar, William A. Jr., Betsy Barry, and Nicole Kong.
""Publication of Full Interviews from the Atlanta Survey
Project."" ADS/LSA 2005, Oakland. 2005.
Kretzschmar, William A. Jr. ""Interactive Computer Mapping
for the Linguistic Atlas of the Middle and South Atlantic States
(LAMSAS)."" Old English and New: Essays in Language and
Linguistics in Honor of Frederic G. Cassidy. Ed. N. Doane, J.
Hall and R. Ringler. New York: Garland, 1992. 400-14.
Kretzschmar, William A. Jr. ""Computer-Assisted Study of
American English Lexical Data."" In From AElfric to the New
York Times: Studies in English Corpus Linguistics. Ed. Udo
Fries, Viviane Müller and Peter Schneider. Amsterdam: Rodopi,
1997. 239-47.
Kretzschmar, William A. Jr., MiRan Kim, and Nicole Kong.
""Vowel Formant Characteristics from the Atlanta Survey
Project."" ADS/LSA 2005, Oakland. 2005.
Kretzschmar, William A. Jr., Sonja Lanehart, Betsy Barry,
Iyabo Osiapem, and MiRan Kim. ""Atlanta in Black and White:
A New Random Sample of Urban Speech."" NWAVE 2004, Ann
Arbor. 2004.
Kretzschmar, William A. Jr. ""Computers and the American
Linguistic Atlas."" Methods in Dialectology: Proceedings of the
Sixth International Conference on Methods in Dialectology.
Ed. Alan Thomas. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1988.
200-24.
It’s For Sale, So It Must Be Finished: Digital
Projects in the Scholarly Publishing World
David Sewell
Since late 2004, the University of Virginia Press has been
offering as part of its catalog a group of scholarly publications
that exist in online format only. Distributed under our Rotunda
imprint (<http://rotunda.upress.virginia.ed
u>), these publications are a mix of born-digital, digitized print,
and hybrid creations in digital humanities and social sciences.
Some of them began independently as self-published projects,
usually under the auspices of one or another digital center such
as the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities or
the Electronic Text Center at the University of Virginia; others
were initiated by the Press. Whatever their origins, once
accepted as Rotunda publications they have all been subject to
conditions of production similar to those for our printed books,
namely contracts, peer review, marketing campaigns, and
agreed-upon scope and deadlines. Clearly the academic
marketplace offers an extrinsic definition of a finished digital
project: if it’s for sale it must be done.
From this point of view, there is nothing inherently different
between print and digital scholarship. Academic publishers
have long been in the business of imposing admittedly arbitrary
conventions, limitations, and deadlines on masses of scholarly
discourse in the interest of presenting them as discrete units
that can be offered in the marketplace as completed products
(not just for purchase, but also for authoritative review and
citation). And this always entails negotiation between the
author’s ideal creation (which may well be both theoretically
unbounded and technically unachievable) and the publisher’s
available time and resources. The result is a pragmatic
compromise, one that has worked reasonably well for both authors and readers. I would argue that the yoking of digital
humanities projects to theories of the open-ended text is in
many ways an unfortunate by-product of their initial emergence
during the ascendancy of postmodernist theory, with a
glorification of the unfinished that may harm their credibility.
When a publisher issues a scholarly article, book, or digital
publication, its status as “finished” represents a social contract
that the necessary stages of peer review, editing and design,
and quality assurance (proofreading, plus user testing for digital
work) have been performed.
Here is one possible typology of digital projects according to
their degree of completion at the time of publication:
1. Self-contained monograph-like objects. All content and
functionality that is ever intended to be part of the project
is present at first publication. Future updates are expected
only for corrections and migration as required to new
software environments
2. “Version 1.0” digital projects. All substantive content is
complete at first publication, but not all planned aspects of
the user interface. Future updates are expected to add
functionality that was not originally available.
3. Series-like projects. Content is added in discrete stages; it
may be quite large in extent, but is definable. All intended
functionality may be present in the first installment, or may
expand as in category #2. Print analogues would include
literary or documentary editions published in multiple
volumes over a number of years or decades, and ongoing
reference works where new and updated entries are added
periodically.
4. Truly open-ended projects. The nature of the content, subject
matter, and/or authorship is such that no particular state of
the project could ever be meaningfully said to represent
“completion.”
To date, Rotunda has published digital projects that fit into each
of the first three categories. Their work flows and timetables
have been more fluid and sometimes more tentative than for
the Press’s printed books, but not different in their basic nature.
It has always been possible to define what will constitute a
finished project, outline the steps necessary to arrive at it, and
establish reasonably solid deadlines for the process.
I will provide concrete examples for several Rotunda
publications of decisions we have made in conjunction with
authors about what could or could not be accomplished by a
deadline, the distinctions between Version 1.0 and Version 2.0
features, and the kinds of updates we have found ourselves
needing to make to finished publications. I will also discuss
why the truly open-ended projects of category 4 are more
problematic for traditional scholarly publishers; our experience
suggests that they are the most likely to require new
mechanisms and/or institutions for quality control and
sustainability.
Orlando Done! The Tension Between Projection
and Completion in Digital Scholarly Research
Susan Brown
Patricia Clements
Isobel Grundy
Orlando: Women Writers in the British Isles from the
Beginnings to the Present was published on the world wide
web, by subscription, by Cambridge University Press in June
2006 (Brown, Clements and Grundy). Its freshly researched,
scholarly, literary-historical prose is encoded in an XML
application designed for this purpose by the Orlando research
team and repeatedly revised and tweaked during the course of
research and writing. The searching functionality and the
production architecture were created at a later stage but largely
by the same team.
The project’s cofounders were new to digital humanities
research, so our notions of scholarly process and completion
related to conventional print publications. As Claire Warwick
has noted, the idea of what is “complete” or “publication-ready”
in academic culture has emerged from a complex set of human
factors relating to such matters as the attribution of credit by
institutions and funding structures, as well as the conception
of what is required intellectually for a product to be done
(Warwick 368). Such factors undoubtedly entered into how
Orlando got done. Although our projected milestones for the
project broke out a number of steps, our research plan and our
proposal to our funding agency had projected a single moment
of completion when the planned electronic history would be
ready alongside several related print volumes of scholarship.
Once underway, we found getting done more challenging than
anticipated, as the enormity of what we had undertaken on the
technical side became evident. This is clearly a risk of
methodologically experimental research of any kind, and
particularly relevant to digital humanities work. One thing that
seems crucial in the design of digital humanities projects is to
design projects modularly, with a number of discrete and in
some way publishable deliverables. Orlando struggled for
funding in later stages as a result, we believe, of research design
that end-loaded deliverables, combined with a funding
environment that was not attuned to digital humanities work.
It soon became clear that it would be necessary to stage the
completion of the project. We uncoupled the electronic from
the print publication in terms of timing, so that the former stands
alone initially, even though we will integrate the print volume
material, now being written, with the existing published
textbase. Although over the course of Orlando’s development
we felt some pressure from both prospective users and from the digital humanities community to publish at an interim stage
a small portion of the electronic materials, we held back for
two major reasons. First, we had a strong sense that there were
intellectual demands for a critical mass of materials with a
certain degree of coverage. We wouldn’t be “done”, for
instance, without having completed the materials on Virginia
Woolf and, because much feminist work has resisted the
establishment of a small canon of female writers at the expense
of others, Woolf needed to be situated in relation to her less
prominent contemporaries. Staging releases of material is
increasingly common for digital electronic projects, but we
would contend that a certain critical mass remains necessary
to establish scholarly confidence in quality of a resource,
although what that critical mass is will differ from project to
project. Secondly, because our customized tagset required us
to build a fairly complex XML delivery system, we felt we
needed a relatively “complete” interface, with some usability
testing, that could demonstrate to users some strengths of the
markup into which the project invested so much time and
intellectual labour. For these strengths of the system to be
apparent, we again needed a critical mass of materials for
hyperlinking and search results. Research conceptualization
and publication options are thus both crucial determinants of
what “done” will mean for a particular project.
Orlando’s decision to publish with an online press, in one sense
made it easy to know when the textbase was done. Published
is traditionally done (though even then, glitches in getting the
textbase up and running on the publisher’s server meant that
we actually celebrated the publication some days before it
happened). But published electronic projects don’t get put on
a shelf in a library. Being unconstrained by the materiality of
print reinforces the arbitrariness of deciding that something is
done in the sense of complete, defined in the Oxford English
Dictionary as “Having all its parts or members; comprising the
full number or amount; embracing all the requisite items, details,
topics, etc.; entire, full.” In this sense, Orlando remains undone,
and our contract with our publisher recognises this fact by
stipulating for updates.
Regular updating of content (more entries, expansion of existing
entries, more contextual material) has already, therefore, begun
with an update adding new material in January 2007. This is
an obvious publicity tool. Enhancement of functionality (quite
apart from action rendered necessary by, for instance, the advent
of a new version of Internet Explorer), though it may be less
productive of instant, visible returns than enhancement of
content for most users, is nevertheless going to be vital for
achieving the status of a first-stop general reference work, and
for retaining its currency in the evolving electronic environment.
This continuing updating of both content and functionality
means that the core team must be held together and the project
must continue to find funding. As part of its strategy of
sustainability, and with the purpose of giving Orlando a
continuing institutional identity, the textbase has been licensed
to the University of Alberta. This gives a much broader
constituency an interest in the project’s success, and ensures
that the team of this moment forms a continuity with the future
as well as the past. It would be easy to cast all of this
proliferating responsibility somewhat negatively, as though
continuing work on an already-published project were a burden,
but the fact is that all of the previous research, writing and
encoding that has been done towards publication will work
together with user feedback to enable new and newly informed
research. Both expansion of content (even into new areas) and
enhancement of functionality represent continuing research
potential, even while they ensure that “done” can – need? --
never be anything but a figure of speech.
Apart from the issues of sustainability, the degree of Orlando’s
long-term success still hangs in the balance. Publication is,
potentially, the beginning of the road to success, not its end.
We would define success not merely as the selling of
subscriptions (though obviously Orlando needs to do well in
the marketplace if a substantial portion of its funding needs are
to be met from royalties), but also as the establishing and
maintaining of a pattern of heavy use of the textbase by its
subscribers: indeed, a pattern of reliance on it as the first stop
for either specialist or general information. We would further
define it as having users exploit the broad range of possibilities
represented by the encoding.
This abstract, written four months after publication, is in every
way provisional, but it is clear from early (and so far highly
encouraging) user feedback in the form of emails and a single
brief review that for most of our users the electronic side of the
textbase is ancillary to the content. They comment on content,
apparently assuming that the new resource should stand or fall
on content alone. Nevertheless, those who built the textbase
understand that this feedback must be to a large extent
influenced by the users’ responses, not directly articulated and
perhaps not even consciously formulated, to Orlando’s
functionality.
At this early stage most user messages come from the
literary-specialist part of an audience which will hopefully also
take in computing specialists and general readers. Most
messages comment on the coverage of individual authors (or
very particular groups of authors), on whom the commenting
user tends to be an expert, so that feedback is skewed both
towards the literary and towards the individual author entries,
which are in electronic terms the least sophisticated part of the
text. Several user messages have praised the “links”. This likely
means the hyperlinking of words tagged as names, organization
names, titles, or places. Such linking is an obvious and
elementary feature of myriad electronic texts. It seems therefore
that users who said they appreciated the links probably had in mind the way that the encoding sorts and organises the contexts
in which linked words are used, and the very particular design
of the links screen to convey this information. Messages which
praise the searching, or the navigation, are even harder to
decode.
We look forward to more comment on functionality and
production, and further reports from general-interest users who
have begun, for instance, by looking at coverage of gardening,
as well as to a breakdown of statistics about kinds of use. In
addition, we want to undertake standard usability testing. Log
analysis would also be invaluable if we could overcome some
technical hurdles. This sense in which work on Orlando remains
“undone” should be common to most digital humanities
projects: if we are to evolve useful tools and resources, both
our own and those to come, we need carefully to assess how
people approach and use them.
This project directs its research towards two practically
inexhaustible fields (women’s literary history and the capacity
of computing, and specifically of extensive XML markup, to
serve the needs of this humanities topic). Neither of those fields
becomes closed to further investigation by the fact that the
project is “done” in the sense that it has reached the public. For
this project, so closely focused on its major deliverable, the
new, post-publication phase has simply opened a third area of
enquiry: that of the relations between Orlando and its users.
Bibliography
Brown, Susan, Patricia Clements, and Isobel Grundy. Orlando:
Women’s Writing in the British Isles from the Beginnings to
the Present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Online,
2006. <http://orlando.cambridge.org>
Warwick, Claire. ""Print Scholarship and Digital Resources."" A
Companion to Digital Humanities. Ed. Susan Schreibman, Ray
Siemens and John Unsworth. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
Ltd, 2004. 366-82.","txt","2","",""
"757","8","Semantic Clustering in the Wild","","Problem Space and Context
The Southern Changes Digital Archive is a digital
collection of 25 years of Southern Changes, a publication
of the Southern Regional Council.1 The Beck Center of
Woodruff Library has digitized the issues of Southern Changes
and made them available as a fully searchable text archive. 2
The collection consists of 25 volumes, over 100 issues,
containing nearly 1000 articles.
Emory University is participating in the Digital Library
Federation's Aquifer Project and the Southern Changes Digital
Archive is one of the bodies of work that we proposed to
include. As we inspected the elements of the MODS Aquifer
schema,3 it became clear to us that every item in the metadata
collection would end up with identical labeling, since the
collection lacked subject assignments for the individual articles.
Thus, the challenge that we faced, in order to make this material
useful to users of the MODS-Aquifer metadata, was to assign
subject classifications to each of the articles in the collection
with some level of automation and a minimum level of human
intervention (given the ~1000 individual articles). We also
realized that this undertaking would help to make the collection
more browseable by providing a subject-based access point
into the digital library. To achieve these ends, we turned to the
tools and techniques developed on the MetaCombine project
here at Emory.
Semantic Clustering in the DL
Production Environment
Semantic clustering is the notion of using computing
techniques to group formerly unorganized artifacts based
on latent aspects of meaning. For library information, this
translates into grouping texts and metadata records by their inherent “topics.” Semantic clustering techniques have come
far in recent years, and hold great promise for enriching many
information applications. However, there is a wide gulf between
the state-of-the-art research in this area, and its uptake in
real-world applications.
A major reason for this disjunct is that research systems for
semantic clustering (and related techniques such as
classification) are not fit for the production environment: they
are too ad hoc, too brittle, too encumbered by intellectual
property constraints, too specialized, poorly organized, and
they typically require programming to deploy in the local
computing environment and adapt into situational use.
But there is another factor that is more interesting for this study:
that the automated aspect of semantic clustering covers only
part of the production process; as we found on the
MetaCombine 4 project (and which many others confirm), some
human refinement is always needed. However, tools and
facilities which mesh the automatic with the manual to perform
this refinement seem to be unavailable.
In sum, there exist few (if any) turnkey systems that are
accessible to digital librarians which allow the integration of
semantic clustering into the DL environment.
We began taking steps to address these problems on the
MetaCombine project, by adding to core semantic clustering
systems a some HTML-based report, a visual browsing
application and a “scheme editing” system. All of these systems
operated on the ""raw"" outputs of semantic clustering, and served
to help comprehend, navigate, and (in the case of the latter)
manually refine the output.
The central specific problems we found with semantic clustering
results in MetaCombine 5 were:
• redundant clusters
• confusing and otherwise ""rough"" cluster descriptors (labels)
• spurious clusters
• questionable classifications
The scheme editor was created to allow the revision of a cluster
hierarchy to ameliorate the above issues, helping to make it a
more true category (or subject) hierarchy, fit for end-use
applications (such as subject tagging and subject-based
browsing).
We have now begun the process of using these tools to work
semantic clustering techniques into production digital library
services. The focus of the present paper is one of these
real-world test cases: the Southern Changes collection and
digital library. However, key for our investigation is that the
library production environment itself is a major point of interest;
thus this work represents more of an exploration of the
application of the MetaCombine tools to this environment,
rather than another quantitative test of clustering or
classification accuracy for the particular algorithmic kernel.
Our Study
We have approached the Southern Changes clustering
investigation as an informal study. This is both because
the needs of the Southern Changes project are practical and
because this investigation does not have the scale to have the
form of a controlled experiment or series of experiments.
The structure of the study is:
1. interface the collection with the clustering system
2. perform clustering with a variety of parameter settings
3. explore and refine output in MetaCombine tools (HTML
reports, scheme editor, visual viewer).
4. implement refinements to clustering (tweak parameters, fix
bugs)
5. implement refinements to MetaCombine tools programs
6. go to step 2.
The study thus has an iterative nature and is open-ended, and
as we go through these iterations, we are learning much about
the nature of clustering and the contextualization of the task in
the digital library environment. As indicated above, our
clustering tools are also evolve throughout, moving beyond
research to practice.
The insights gleaned from this process form the core of our
reporting for this forum. The types of items we intend to report
on, along with initial impressions include (but are not limited
to):
• The utility of the scheme editor, HTML reports, and other
tools
Thus far, these tools have proven quite useful for determining
the latent topics discovered by the clustering engine, and give
a basic level of understanding of what kind of documents are
assigned to each. However, it remains difficult to get a more
complete or holistic sense of how well a large number of
documents has been assigned.
• The difficulty of deploying the tools
Thus far, the difficulty is moderate, for a librarian with some
programming experience. Some problems in deployment of the
scheme editor tool were isolated and future distributions will
have fixed them; so the difficulty level is improving.
We have not broached the topic of re-deploying the clustering
kernel itself for this project. However, this may not ultimately
be necessary, as we are pursuing a federated model for this and
other metadata enhancement services. • The utility of clustering itself
Flat (one-level) clustering seems to do quite well with the right
parameters and with the documents for which there is the most
confidence. Fidelity seems to deteriorate rapidly for hierarchical
clustering past the first level (with the first of two hierarchical
clustering methods), though it is still unclear if this is more a
result of the collection or the clustering system. Our second
method of hierarchical clustering needs further development
to be fully evaluated in end-use.
We believe we have established that the multiclassification
functionality of the system is extremely useful; as topical
ambiguity is compensated for by the multiple labels. This makes
intuitive sense, as there typically is no single categorization for
an interdisciplinary humanities article.
It appears significant work needs to be done in thresholding
classification assignments, as well as making the determination
of if and when confidence is high enough to consider a record
“classified”.
• The feasibility of integrating outputs of clustering into
production systems
As described in more detail below, we believe there will be
little difficulty in utilizing the outputs of this system, once we
have determined that output is satisfactory.
Given the proliferation of XML handling tools, at minimum,
our current, simple XML format for representing a clustered
collection organization should be easily translatable into our
existing digital library system. The most challenging part may
in fact prove to be combining the generated subject tags with
the existing TEI metadata structure.
Implementation Plans
The results of the clustering are XML files that contain the
renamed category, associated with the article by means
of the id attribute assigned to the article. We will apply an XSLT
transform to add an attribute that indicates the subject(s)
assigned to each article, using the TEI ""ana"" attribute. We can
then harvest the records with the subject information, and as a
further step, add a subject browsing capability to the web site,
using the ""interpGrp/interp"" elements. This will enable
dynamically generated categories for searching and browsing.
Figure 1:
1. Southern Regional Council <http://southerncounci
l.org>
2. Southern Changes Digital Archive <http://beck.libra
ry.emory.edu/southernchanges/>
3. Aquifer MODS Guidelines <http://www.diglib.org
/aquifer/dlfmodsimplementationguideline
s_finalnov2006.pdf>
4. MetaCombine project site <http://www.metacombine
.org/>
5. MetaCombine Final Report <http://www.metacombin
e.org/reports/project/MetaCombine-Final
-Report.pdf>","txt","2","",""
"758","8","Digital Representation and the Hyper Real","3","Art has never been a mere mirror up to nature, yet as in no
other medium has it been so easy to create a simulacra
of reality as with digital technology: a 'heterocosm', both
simulating the familiar while deconstructing it. This session
brings together three theoretical papers that explore how
mimesis might be used as a paradigm from which to explore
the relationship between the digital world, the analogue world,
and the space between them; digital surrogates and their
analogue counterparts; how familiar terms like object, imitation,
copy, original function in the digital realm; and the notion that
a digital representation may be more appropriately termed a
simulacral identity, reflecting, not the object itself, but our
beliefs and conventions about it. This session will explore
digital representation as conscious fashionings of hyper-reality,
computational zones or subspaces which employ the unreal and
non-existent to recreate the material world, pointing to the past,
and the future, in unexpected, fresh, or subversive ways
Being Digital, or Analogue, or Neither
John Lavagnino
When I speak of something being digital or analogue, I draw
on a connected pair of terms that is often thought to cover all
possibilities in a way that's theoretically well grounded. But
the origin of these two terms is not theoretical, and the
conventional opposition reflects a pragmatic view of approaches
to making computing machinery rather than deep and inherent
qualities of information. The two terms also do not exhaust the
world: most things are neither digital nor analogue, because
those terms describe information that has been carefully
prepared for machine processing. Nonmachines get by in the
world without that restriction of input.
The separate ideas of digital and analogue representation come
not from theory but from engineering. Digital representation
has its background prior to the days of the digital computer, in
the longer history of numerical calculating machines, and in
particular in the use of punch cards and tabulating machinery,
which could not only perform computations but provided ways
to manage large bodies of information. Analogue representation
goes back to a different tradition of calculating machinery, in
which physical operations that could be interpreted as
performing computations mattered much more than storage of
information in any quantity. In the mid-twentieth century, a
moment came when both approaches had significant
applications, and two separate strands of technological
development became a pair of options, both sometimes
applicable to the same tasks (Wiener; Mindell). Today the two
are commonly thought to exhaust all possibilities; but at the
same time there is a marked status hierarchy, as digital systems
continue to spread everywhere and analogue systems have a
minor or nearly invisible existence in unexciting devices like
thermostats. On this view, the digital has the prestige of being
made by us, and the analogue has the consolation of covering
everything that isn't manmade and a few things that are. Or, in
one very common version of this opposition, thought is digital
and reality is analogue.
Although many people assume in this way that everything is
either digital or analogue, most things aren't actually either,
because most things are not information prepared for machine
processing. All our machinery for processing information,
analogue or digital, has the common property of ignoring all
but a restricted slice of the world as we experience it, and having
no way to notice phenomena beyond that slice. We craft these
machines to work with particular inputs and sometimes learn
to change our behavior so that machines get the right sort of
input. Representations made for other purposes (art, in
particular) are based on selections, too, but because they are
not created to serve as a basis for computation they don't present
the same kind of claim to be authoritative versions of reality.
Nothing is digital or analogue until we actually get it into a
computational system; these properties result from our choices
about how to process reality, and are not inherent in reality
itself.
If reality is not by default analogue, thinking is not by its nature
digital. Much work in artificial intelligence has been based on
the hypothesis that the brain and mind work like digital
computers: so that, while our current systems might be crude,
they are still on the right path of development towards the real
thing, and it's important that the real thing is digital. The
hypothesis has been highly productive as a basis for useful
work, but is at odds with the biological account of how the
brain works; John von Neumann argued that the brain's
machinery was essentially different from that of both digital
and analogue computers. That difference is unsurprising, since
machines of other kinds work very differently from biological
systems with comparable functions. The natural form of
technology “is typically tiny, wet, nonmetallic, non-wheeled, and flexible; human technology is mainly the opposite: large,
dry, metallic, wheeled, and stiff” (Vogel 271).
In one classical line of discussion of the digital-and-analogue
pairing, Nelson Goodman's, written texts serve as an example
of the digital mode: on this view, written symbols are intended
as discrete and unambiguous tokens chosen from a fixed set
(142). The way that texts lend themselves so naturally to
transformation into electronic form may seem to provide
evidence for this view: that they're not only readily made into
usable digital objects but that they inherently are such objects.
But in Goodman's account the digital nature of the alphabet is
an idealization: you are supposed to be able to tell your letters
apart unambiguously, yet we get by working with handwriting
and bad print that fails in this regard. Much more significantly,
we notice other things than the choice of token; as many
accounts of communication point out (Roman Jakobson's, for
example), there are many functions of verbal messages besides
the transmission of the information. Digital representation in
computers is different because they are designed to recognize
nothing but the choice of token; what is an idealized account
when applied to human use of the alphabet is a perfect account
of computing, because it describes how computers are built to
work.
Conventional accounts of digital representation rarely mention
how much of the workings of a computer are there to keep the
digital data digital, to prevent it from being degraded by noise;
works on electronic engineering never omit the point. We miss
a key feature of the digital and the analogue when we think of
them as static properties that happen to everything without
effort; they are instead deliberate creations. They have been
highly successful creations, representations of reality that lend
themselves to many uses; we ought to recognize them as our
creations, and not mistake them for natural phenomena.
Bibliography
Goodman, Nelson. Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory
of Symbols. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1968.
Jakobson, Roman. ""Linguistics and Poetics."" Linguistics and
Poetics. Ed. Thomas A. Sebeok. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1960. 350–377.
Mindell, David A. Between Human and Machine: Feedback,
Control, and Computing before Cybernetics. Baltimore, MD:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.
Vogel, Steven. Cat's Paws and Catapults: Mechanical Worlds
of Nature and People. New York: Norton, 1998.
Von Neumann, John. The Computer and the Brain. 2nd ed. .
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.
Wiener, Norbert. Cybernetics; or, Control and Communication
in the Animal and the Machine. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1948.
Looking Backward, Figuring Forward: Modelling,
its Discontents and the Future
Willard McCarty
Alan Turing’s scheme has not been adequate to computing “in
the wild” for more than 50 years (Mahoney 1997: 621), but it
does have two fundamental implications for work in the
humanities. Its first implication is that intellectual gain from
the computational analysis of a cultural artefact comes primarily
from comparing it to its digital representation as this is
improved through repeated trials and adjustments. Its second
implication is that in principle there can be no limit other than
human ingenuity to the forms computing can take. Hence
computing’s basic tradeoff: on the one hand, reduction of the
artefact to computational form guarantees a permanent though
changing gap between its transcendent reality and its calculable
representation; on the other, the mutability of computing allows
for no end to the perfective attempt to reach the former with
the latter. This attempt I have called “modeling” (McCarty
2005).
The proposed paper takes the centrality of modeling for granted,
but it attempts to move beyond the inherent limitations of a
process that by definition only imitates. Modeling is directed
to a pre-existing conception of an artefact one wishes to study;
its strength is in contesting that conception in comparison
against one’s best attempt at representing it rigorously. The
discrepancies it discovers may well be, in Jerome McGann’s
words, “the hem of a quantum garment” that trails into our
future (2004: 201), but modeling gives us little help in
imagining that future. Turing’s scheme guarantees innumerable
forms of computing, but how best are we to work toward them?
Although, as Edsger Dijkstra remarks in his contribution to
Beyond Calculation: The Next Fifty Years of Computing, it may
seem “utterly preposterous” to predict this future, as teachers
we do it all the time in deciding what to teach, what to ignore
(1997: 59). As researchers we get hints of the future, or hopes
for it, when no existing data model, or way of using computers,
will do – when (to take an example from my own work) neither
textual encoding nor relational database design satisfies, and
we are left with a hunger for something other than what we
have. Can we do better than such backward looking glances
into the future? Can we imagine it directly?
One answer is supplied by Empirical Modelling (EM), presented
to the last North American ACH/ALLC conference (Beynon,
Russ and McCarty 2006) and further articulated in a recent
MSc dissertation (King 2006). EM focuses on the present and
presence of tacit experience, which is as close to the future as we ever get. Another answer comes out of work in critical
theory, e.g. by N. Katherine Hayles, whose focus on writing,
and cultural productions generally, lifts the gaze to what is
emerging – to “emergent” phenomena, as they are known
(1999). Taking clues from both, I propose to explore and talk
about a third answer arising from reflective work in the history,
philosophy and anthropology of the natural sciences. In the
philosophy of physics, for example, Ian Hacking has argued
that rigorously imagined entities are made real when we learn
to manipulate them (1983). In the history of technology, Peter
Galison shows that the devices we invent tend to pull us forward
into conformity with them (2007) – an argument quite close to
one Northrop Frye made at the first joint ACH/ALLC
conference, citing such human inventions as the wheel and the
book (1990). In the history of chemistry, Mi Gyung Kim
examines how 19th Century researchers worked to establish
the reality of their substances, suggesting a surprisingly
immediate interrelation of the imagined and the real (2000). In
biological anthropology, Terrence Deacon argues beyond the
uncomfortable limitations of a mechanical world-view and strict
Darwinian evolution to a new conception of teleology, “to
identify a real and substantial sense of the ‘pull’ of future
possibilities in terms of ‘pushes’ from the past” (2006).
In the proposed paper, I summarize this work in the natural
sciences and use it to construct a theory of emergence in
humanities computing. I base my exposition on the underlying
argument that use of computing, with its emphasis on “how we
find out, not… what we find out” (Hacking 2002), brings us
into productive relation with the experimental sciences without
in any way compromising our orientation to the humanities
(McCarty 2002, 2006, 2007). Sumarizing my earlier work, I
suggest briefly at the beginning of the paper how computing
has allowed us to create within the humanities a computational
zone or subspace, within which practitioners may treat cultural
artefacts as if they were only data, and so apply to them
something like natural law. I argue that the conjectural, as-if
status of what may be done within this zone gives us a
defensible way of importing powerful scientific conceptions,
such as Hacking’s realization-by-manipulation or Deacon’s
biological teleology, and apply them to our artefacts of study,
not in order to test what we think we know but to imagine and
realize what we do not know.
In earlier work I have used this conjectural relation with the
natural sciences to ground the practice of modelling in its
scientific past (McCarty 2005). Here I use it as entry-point to
speculations on how humanities computing might lead the
disciplines which it most immediately serves into a fruitful
relationship with the sciences and so to an end of the epistemic
wars foreseen by Richard Rorty (2000).
Bibliography
Beynon, Meurig, Steve Russ , and Willard McCarty. ""Human
Computing – Modelling with Meaning."" Literary & Linguistic
Computing 21.2 (2006): 141-57.
Deacon, Terrence W. ""Emergence: The Hole at the Wheel’s
Hub."" The Re-Emergence of Emergence: The Emergentist
Hypothesis from Science to Religion. Ed. Philip Clayton and
Paul Davies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
Dijkstra, Edsger W. ""The Tide, not the Waves."" Beyond
Calculation: The Next Fifty Years of Computing. Ed. Peter J.
Denning and Robert M. Metcalfe. New York: Copernicus, 1997.
59-64.
Frye, Northrop. ""Literary and Mechanical Models."" Research
in Humanities Computing 1: Selected Papers from the 1989
ACH-ALLC Conference. Ed. Ian Lancashire. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1991. 3-12.
Galison, Peter. Building, Crashing, Thinking. Forthcoming.
Hacking, Ian. Representing and Intervening: Introductory
Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Hacking, Ian. Historical Ontology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 2002.
Hales, N. Katherine. How We Became Posthuman: Virtual
Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature and Informatics. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1999.
Kim, Mi Gyung. ""Chemical Analysis and the Domains of
Reality: Wilhelm Homberg’s Essais De Chimie, 1702-1709.""
Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science 31.1 (2000):
37-69.
King, Karl George. “Uncovering Empirical Modelling”.
Unpublished MSc dissertation. Computer Science Department,
Warwick University, 2006.
Mahoney, Michael S. ""Computer Science: The Search for a
Mathematical Theory."" Science in the Twentieth Century. Ed.
John Krige and Dominique Pestre. Amsterdam: Harwood
Academic Publishers, 1997. 617-34.
McCarty, Willard. Humanities Computing. Basingstoke:
Palgrave, 2005.
McCarty, Willard. ""The Imaginations of Computing."" Richard
W. Lyman Award lecture, National Humanities Center,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 6 November. 2006.
McCarty, Willard. ""Humanities Computing: Essential Problems,
Experimental Practice."" Literary & Linguistic Computing 17.1
(April 2002): 103-25. McCarty, Willard. ""Being Reborn: The Humanities, Computing
and Styles of Scientific Reasoning."" Renaissance Studies and
New Technologies: A Collection. Ed. William R. Bowen and
Raymond G. Siemens. Tempe, AZ: Medieval and Renaissance
Texts and Studies, Forthcoming.
Rorty, Richard. ""Being That Can Be Understood Is Language.""
Gadamer's Repurcussions: Reconsidering Philosophical
Hermeneutics. Ed. Bruce Krajewski. Berkeley: University of
California Press, 2004.
Beautiful Untrue Things: The Digital Dilemma
Susan Schreibman
In Oscar Wilde's dialogue The Decay of Lying, Vivian and Cyril
discuss the interdependence of Nature and Imagination, with
imagination, in that typically Wildean fashion, more faithfully
representing the real than the material world. For much of the
dialogue, Vivian reads an essay that he has authored to Cyril:
his thesis is that there must be a return to 'lying in art' (5): a
return to the roots of art in the purely imaginative abstract. This
imaginative work, rooted in the 'unreal and non-existent' takes
as its rough material life, 'recreates it, and refashions it in fresh
forms, absolutely indifferent to fact', to what is true or natural
or real (20).
Wilde's theory of artistic process can also serve as a starting
point in articulating a theory of digital mimesis; of
understanding the relationship(s) between the original and its
digital manifestation(s), as well as the relationship between and
amongst digital surrogates. Moreover, it can be taken as a
framework for exploring the complex and shifting relationship
between a digitally-presented hyper-reality and material reality.
As has been argued elsewhere, art has never been a mere mirror
up to nature, but in no other medium has it been so easy to
create a simulacra of reality; a 'heterocosm', simultaneously
simulating the familiar while deconstructing it. While the
mimetic effect of visualizations, simulations, and virtual reality
inherit a set of conventions between an audience and its
expectations of a work, these conventions are ultimately
unstable, shifting as the technology, and our expectations of it,
change.
Digital representations of three dimensional objects, necessarily,
lose their corporeality, becoming two-dimensional artifacts1
engaged with through the mediating presence of an electronic
viewing device (a computer monitor, a mobile phone, an
e-book). What we engage with, however, are only
representations of digital corporeality: what we see are
manifestations of the underlying code, much as the prisoners
in Plato's allegory of the cave saw only shadows cast on the
wall. What we engage with is in fact, not the digital object, but
a representation of it.
Johanna Drucker in 'Digital Ontologies: The Ideality of Form
in/and code Storage – or – Can Graphesis Challenge Mathesis?'
posits that although throughout the Western history, images
have been charged with being essentially deceptive or
illusionary, the algorithmically-generated code of digital images
may, in fact, be a perfect representation of an object; a
representation which is not tainted through display or
representation. On the other hand, without the representation
of the code, the image exists outside our ability to perceive it.
In traditional discussions of mimesis the thing being represented
typically reflects, however distorted the lens, the represented;
the essence of the represented recognizable in the simulacra.
With digital media, however, paradoxically, to see beyond the
surface of the material world, objects are transmuted into a
series of electric currents represented to the computer as binary
code. What is being encoded is the object as it never existed,
a simulation or hyper-realization.
The intention of a simulation may be to represent an object as
it never existed in the material world reflecting our theories
and beliefs about it. Digital imagery may be used, for example,
to make visible the characters of a manuscript which are no
longer perceptible to the human eye. What is represented is not
the manuscript as it existed before the damage occurred, nor
the manuscript as it exists today: it is not the shadows on the
cave wall, nor the reality which casts those shadows, but a
hyper-reality which exists between these worlds
As more of our cultural heritage is represented in digital form,
the artifacts that people engage with are the simulations without
reference to the originals. These disembodied objects exist
outside time and space in a way that material objects do not.
Digital objects to not decay due to the ravages of time or
environment (although digital objects may be rendered useless
by our not having the proper hardware and software to read it).
Our display paradigms privilege certain readings of these
objects; they are surrounded by metadata, typically, if part of
a library's holdings, Library of Congress Subject Headings
which categorize and group the known world according to a
Victorian perception of the universe. Images are not represented
to scale, so a map that is 3x2 feet appears the same size as one
that is 8x10 inches. Our search engines reduce hundreds,
thousands, even millions of objects to a text string displayed
ten to a page, or a table populated by 40 2x2 inch thumbnails.
This homogenization of results further decontextualize digital
simulacra. These deconstructions of the object's material
existence reframe the relationship between the perceived and
the perceiver, refashioning it, as Wilde writes, 'absolutely
indifferent to fact' of what is true or natural or real (20).
This paper will thus explore mimesis from two distinct, but not
unrelated aspects of digital technology. The first part will
explore the relationship between digital surrogates and their
analogue counterparts; how familiar terms like object, imitation, copy, original function in the digital realm; what is lost and
gained in the transfer to the digital when the materiality of a
three-dimensional object is transmuted into a two-dimensional
plane; the concept of 'trusted digital objects': digital files that
will live on when we, and the objects they were created from,
no longer exist; the notion that a digital representation may be
more appropriately termed a simulacral identity, reflecting, not
the object itself, but our beliefs and conventions about it. The
second part will explore mimesis from the viewpoint of digital
representations as conscious fashionings of hyper-reality or in
Wildean terms, employing the unreal and non-existent to
recreate the material world in unexpected, fresh, or subversive
ways.
Bibliography
Aarseth, Espen J. Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic
Literature. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1997.
Baudrillard, Jean. Simulations. New York: Semiotext[e], 1983.
Davis, Michael. Poetry of Philosophy: On Aristotle's ""Poetics"".
South Bend, IN: St Augustine's Press, 1999.
Drucker, Johanna. ""Digital Ontologies: The Ideality of Form
in/and Code Storage – or –Can Graphesis Challenge Mathesis?""
Leonardo, the International Society for the Arts, Sciences and
Technology 34.2 (2001): 141-145.
Hales, Katherine, N. Writing Machines. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press, 2002.
Halliwell, Stephen. The Aesthetics of Mimesis: Ancient Texts
and Modern Problems. Princeton: Princeton University Press,
2002.
Levy, David M. Authenticity in a Digital Environment. CLIR,
2000. <http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub
92/levy.html>
Potolsky, Matthew. Mimesis: The New Critical Idiom. New
York: Routledge, 2006.
San Segundo, Rosa. ""A New Conception of Representation of
Knowledge."" Knowledge Organization. 2004. 106-111.
Wilde, Oscar. The Decay of Lying: An Observation. Cork:
CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts, 1999. Accessed 2006-09-06.
<http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/E800003
-009/>
1. This is true even when the computer emulates three-dimensional
space, such as utilizing software to be able to view 380° of a
sculpture, or using virtual reality software to emulate perspective.","txt","2","",""
"759","8","BFM Old French Text Corpus: Current State and Prospective Developments","","The BFM (Base de Français Médiéval) Old French Corpus
was founded in 1989 by Prof. Ch. Marchello-Nizia, and
its compilation continues. Céline Guillot has been the project
leader since 2006. At present, the main corpus, BFM1, includes
74 complete Old and Middle French texts (approx. 3 000 000
words).
The texts included in the BFM cover a considerable geographic
area and an extensive time span, with texts from the 9th century
(including the first known French text, the Serments de
Strasbourg) to the end of the 15th century. Both verse and prose
texts are represented, as well as different domains and genres.
The initial aim of the project was to provide scholars with
reliable text data on the oldest period of the history of the
French language. It was meant to complement the Middle
French Text database (14th and 15th centuries) and
FRANTEXT database (16th – 21st centuries), both developed
in Nancy by the ATILF laboratory. However a number of
Middle French texts have been added to the database for
different projects.
By now, about 50 theses and a significant number of research
books and articles have been prepared with the use of the BFM.
All texts in the main corpus are digitized critical editions. The
choice to use editions, and not manuscript transcriptions, was
made in order to create an extensive corpus in a relatively short
period of time: transcribing a manuscript requires much more
time and funds than digitizing a modern edition. However, a
subcorpus of manuscript transcriptions is being developed. One
of its aims is to provide a precise evaluation of the reliability
of critical editions as a source of data for different kinds of
linguistic research. In general we argue that using editions or
manuscripts are complementary and not mutually exclusive
approaches to creating old text corpora (cf. Heiden & Lavrentiev
2004).
All BFM texts are XML encoded with the tags recommended
by the TEI. However some of them contain only a very limited
markup (headers with some metadata and page breaks or lines in verse for reference purposes). A richer TEI encoding is
applied to a little more than a half of the BFM texts. Its
principles are described in (Heiden & Guillot 2002) and a
complete description is available at the BFM website.
The BFM texts are not directly accessible to users. They can
be searched by means of precise queries (e.g., discrete lexical
items, word and phrase concordances, co-occurrences, statistical
analyses, etc.) via Weblex search and analysis engine (using
CQP query language).
At present, several directions have been chosen for the
development of the BFM.
The first direction is concerned with the elaboration of precise
text typology, which is necessary to evaluate the
representativeness of a text database, a crucial question for all
corpus studies. The texts in the BFM are characterized by a
number of variables, such as the date, the region, the author,
the domain, the genre, etc. The definition of almost each
variable is in fact connected with a number of methodological
and technical issues. The date can be for instance that of the
original text composition or that of the manuscript. Author’s
age can also be a factor to take into consideration. Only
approximate dating is available for many texts and manuscripts.
Domain and genre are the main variables that contribute to
characterizing the reprensentativeness of a corpus (cf. Lee
2001). It is however extremely difficult to set a unified genre
taxonomy valid over a number of centuries. Many texts belong
simultaneously to several domains (e.g. religious and literary,
historical and literary).
To deal with this complexity, most of the variables have been
encoded by means of multiple fields in the metadata database.
Depending on the nature of a query, these can be used in
different ways. If the aim of the query is to get a list of texts
corresponding to certain criteria, “informal” fields with keyword
value type can be used. If the aim is to “cut” the corpus for
some kind of contrastive analysis, a unique value is selected
for each text on the basis of a formal procedure. If the aim is
to place a text in a multidimensional typological environment,
it is necessary to model the relations between the different
values of a variable and to quantify these values.
The work on text typology in the BFM is in progress, and we
will present its current state by the time of the conference.
Another direction in the BFM development is its linguistic
annotation. A few texts have been morphologically tagged in
a semi-manual mode (with SATO software developed by
François Daoust at the University of Québec in Montréal). A
complete automatic morphological annotation optimized on
the basis of text typology is currently envisaged. Annotation
of particular linguistic features (e.g. semantic features of
demonstrative adjectives) is conducted in the framework of
related linguistic research projects.
The development of the BFM is closely related to that of
Weblex. A completely new platform making possible
personalized corpus creation and online annotation is under
construction.
An important effort is being made to work out consensual text
encoding and description procedures with the other projects of
diachronic French corpora. The TEI Recommendations are in
fact too general to ensure real corpora interoperability. A
Consortium for Medieval French Corpora (CCFM) was created
in 2004 with the purpose of consolidating efforts of different
projects. The BFM team participates in this consortium along
with Laboratoire de français ancien (University of Ottawa),
DMF team (ATILF laboratory, Nancy, France), University of
Stuttgart (Germany), University of Zürich (Switzerland),
Anglo-Norman Dictionary project (UK) and others.
Web
BFM: <http://bfm.ens-lsh.fr>
Weblex: <http://weblex.ens-lsh.fr/wlx/>
Bibliography
Heiden, S., and C. Guillot. ""Capitalisation des savoirs par le
web: une application de la TEI pour l’encodage et l’exploitation
des textes de la Base de Français Médiéval."" Ancien et moyen
français sur le Web, enjeux méthodologiques et analyse du
discours. Ed. Pierre Kunstmann, France Martineau and Danielle
Forget. Ottawa: Les éditions David, 2002. 77-92.
Heiden, S., and A. Lavrentiev. ""Ressources électroniques pour
l’étude des textes médiévaux: approches et outils."" Revue
française de linguistique appliquée IX.1 (2004): 99-118.
Lee, David Y. W. ""Genres, Registers, Text Types, Domains
and Styles: Clarifying the Concepts and Navigating a Path
Through the BNC Jungle."" Language Learning & Technology
5.3 (2001): 37-72.","txt","2","",""
"760","8","Exploring New Worlds in Old Texts: Text Encoding Projects for the Undergraduate Study of Spanish American Colonial Literature","","Teaching Spanish colonial literature to undergraduate
students is a difficult pedagogical task, because students
in that level don’t have an extensive knowledge of the language
of the times or the books’ historical context. Indeed, graduate
classes and even scholars writing in the field rarely grapple
with the early modern editions themselves, because of their
accessibility and because they can be so difficult to penetrate.
A scholarly collection of essays by Danny Anderson and Jill
S. Kuhnheim, that discusses strategies for teaching this material,
encourages an approach to these texts based on cultural theory
and literary criticism rather than on a close examination of the
texts themselves. At Wheaton College (Norton, MA), on the
contrary, we have spent the last two years experimenting with
a different approach: students’ direct involvement with a digital
portion of a colonial text (supported by digital cartographic
evidence from the period, and mediated by the faculty’s
suggestions) enhances their comprehension and interest for the
actual original book.
In three literature classes undergraduate students have
contributed to the creation of a digital critical edition of a 16th
century Spanish rare book: Libro de los Infortunios y Naufragios
(Book of the Misfortunes and Shipwrecks) by Gonzalo
Fernández de Oviedo, partially published in Seville in 1535,
as part of the La Historia General de las Indias (General
History of the West Indies). To date Fernandez de Oviedo’s
shipwreck narrative has received only scant scholarly attention
by literary critics because of the rarity of the book and
accessibility to the XVI century printed edition (Kohut).
The class goal is to produce a digital edition of Fernandez de
Oviedo’s book. The process comprises a variety of steps, aimed
to direct students’ attention to the texts themselves, their
structure, the meaning of words and phrases, and even of
individual letters. Students first learn to use accurate
transcription techniques and electronic textual editing practices,
and then move on to the text encoding based on an XML
encoding scheme developed by the Text Encoding Initiative
(TEI). We have found that using the TEI encoding is an
effective pedagogical tool because, as Allen Renear notes in a
article, the standard can “improve our ability to describe textual
features…. The TEI Guidelines represent an elucidation of
current practices, methods, and concepts that open the way to
new methods of analysis, new understandings, and new
possibilities for representation and communication” (235).
The TEI encoding project functions as a pedagogical tool to
study an Early Modern Spanish text; it helps students become
more knowledgeable regarding the primary text and the context
in which it was written. By using TEI students focus their
attention on three main levels: linguistic, geographical and
historical. While working directly with a text with the purpose
of encoding one of its portions, students have a chance to learn
across multiple disciplines, e.g. learning about the ancient
Spanish denomination of a place, and creating a link to its
location on a map of the times.
The encoding projects are divided into several stages. First,
students use text editing software to create a transcription from
digital images of original print editions – a process that involves
deciphering difficult 16th century typography and finding codes
to represent the many characters that are no longer used in
contemporary Spanish. After completing the transcription, the
students employ a rigorous, descriptive “tagging” process, using
the TEI XML encoding scheme. They begin by marking the
structural parts of the text – where each chapter begins and
ends, each section heading, each paragraph, and so on. They
then use TEI encoding to tag historical people names, places,
and unfamiliar or archaic vocabulary in the text. And as a final
stage of the project, the students perform appropriate research
about their texts, and using TEI, define all of the tagged people,
places, and vocabulary – essentially providing electronic
footnotes to the digital editions of the text. During this stage
of the project, students also work with scans of original maps
from the period – locating on the maps many places they have
tagged, and linking segments of text in their documents to the
scans.
This process presents many pedagogical advantages. Students
are extremely motivated by projects like this: they work so
closely with the text and end up creating their own annotated
edition, thus feeling a sense of ownership of the documents. Many students are excited that this project reaches beyond
typical Humanities class work and that they see the results of
their hard work very quickly published on the World Wide
Web. The students' digital editions of the texts also help
preserve and eventually widen the distribution of out of print
texts. And finally, this project introduces an academic rigor in
studying this literature, which shows in the accuracy taken to
encode and validate the text encoding. Within the last few years,
Wheaton has been instituting a new curriculum that emphasizes
that students should gain a breadth and depth of knowledge
through their course work. The process of creating a digital
edition of texts like these ensures that students have an in depth
experience with a text unlike most other experiences they have
had in the humanities. This approach to a text encourages them
to apply a systematic, almost scientific approach to humanities
scholarship. This work, therefore, is well in line with the goals
of many of digital humanities scholarship. A goal, which Susan
Hockey expressed in a comprehensive article about the history
of the Digital Humanities: “to bring the rigor and systematic
unambiguous procedural methodologies characteristic of the
sciences to address problems within the humanities that had
hitherto been most often treated in a serendipitous fashion” (3).
Our experience teaching with TEI at Wheaton has been very
positive: students learn to understand and appreciate the original
rare book, only once they have had their experience with
creating the digitally enhanced version of it. At that point
they’re ready to visit a prestigious library like the John Carter
Brown Library at Brown University, and look at the book and
at the maps of the period. Undergraduates benefit from the text
encoding experience in many ways: better understanding of the
topic of study, better understanding of the foreign language,
and interest, or at least curiosity, for the rare book itself.
Assessment on student learning has been very positive: students
retain a lot more than with traditional teaching, and can
sometimes also spot irregularities and even fake news in the
texts they study. The load on the faculty member and on the
library liaison is very high, but it pays off with the students’
satisfaction.
Bibliography
Anderson, Danny J., and Jill S. Kuhnheim. Cultural Studies in
the Curriculum: Teaching Latin America. New York: Modern
Language Association of America, 2003.
Burnard, Lou, and Syd Bauman, eds. TEI P5:Guidelines for
Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. TEI Consortium,
2006. <http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei
-p5-doc/html/>
Burnard, Lou, Katherine O'Brien O'Keeffe, and John Unsworth,
eds. Electronic Textual Editing. New York: Modern Language
Association of America, 2006.
Cohen, Daniel J., and Roy Rosenzweig. Digital History : A
Guide to Gathering, Preserving, and Presenting the Past on
the Web. Philadlephia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press,
2006.
Finneran, Richard J., ed. The Literary Text in the Digital Age.
Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1996.
Finneran, Richard J., ed. The Literary Text in the Digital Age.
Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1996.
Hockey, Susan. ""The History of Humanities Computing."" A
Companion to Digital Humanities. Ed. Susan Schreibman, Ray
Siemens and John Unsworth. Malden, MA: Blackwell
Publishing Ltd, 2004. 3-19.
Kohut, Karl. ""Fernández De Oviedo: Historiografía e
Ideología."" Boletin de la Real Academia Española 73.259
(1993): 367-82.
Renear, Allen H. ""Text Encoding."" A Companion to Digital
Humanities. Ed. Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens and John
Unsworth. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2004. 218-239.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and Lou Burnard, eds. P4:
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange.
Oxford, UK: TEI Consortium, 2002.
The Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia. The Etext
Center Introduction to TEI and Guide to Document Preparation.
. <http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/standards
/tei/uvatei.html>
Women's Writer's Project. WWP Training Materials. . <http
://www.wwp.brown.edu/encoding/training/in
dex.html>","txt","2","",""
"761","8","Human Centered Analysis and Visualisation Tools for the Blogosphere","","Motivation
Blogging has become a new and disruptive communication
medium. Blogs have changed the way people and
organizations express, interact, and—quite
unforeseen—exercise influence. David R. Ellis’ film Snakes
on a Plane (2006) starred by Samuel L. Jackson became the
first movie to incorporate materials suggested by bloggers long
before the movie finished filming. A social mass of blog-based
fans influenced the Hollywood creation providing ideas about
plots and scenes that finally made it into the released movie.
The digital nature of the blog media provides access to an
always-expanding corpus of information. It would take more
than a lifetime to read all the available blogs necessary to
answer questions such as what were the more relevant plots
suggested or what key concepts were managed by bloggers in
their ideas. However, human-centered analysis and visualization
techniques may help users navigate such enormous corpus.
This paper presents how human-centered analysis and
visualization techniques help identifying relevant post portions
and visualizing concept relations in the blogosphere—Google
blogs in particular are used for illustrative purposes.
The rest of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 presents
a brief overview of the techniques and visualizations proposed
to track the blogsphere. We describe in section 3 how such
tools can be applied to track the blogosphere. Finally, we
present some conclusions and further research directions in
section 4.
2 Snakes, Bloggers, and
Human-Innovation
Tracking the blogosphere requires at least (1) gathering
blog posts and (2) storing them in a structured metadata
store before any analysis and visualization can take place. Blogs
rely on syndication feeds, usually incarnating in the form of
RSS or Atom feed—both based on XML (Miller, 2001;
AtomEnabled, 2006). The first step is to properly process blog
feeds by retrieving, annotating, and storing the posts’ contents
in the feeds for later analysis. Our approach stores the posts in
a RDF-based (Shadbolt, 2006) metadata store􀀀Mulgara
(Gearon, 2006)􀀀waiting to be analyzed. Then, we use the
extracted text as the input of three different analysis and
visualization techniques. It is important to mention here that
our approach is based on statistics instead of more traditional
approaches based on natural language processing—from which
we may benefit in future stages.
2.1 BITS: Getting the relevant terms and excerpts
of a post
BITS (blog induced topic selection) is a ranking algorithm for
words and sentences in a blog. Higher ranked words may be
regarded as main topics used in a blog. Similarly, higher ranked
sentences express how key concepts are used in the posts. BITS
is inspired by HITS (hypertext induced topic selection)
algorithm proposed by Kleinberg (1999). BITS ranking is based
on mutually reinforcing relationship between sentences and
words: important sentences include many important words and
important words are included by many important sentences.
The rankings are obtained by an iterative calculation􀀀further
details can be found elsewhere (Kleinberg, 1999). Each iteration
we update the score of each sentence using the sum of scores
of all the words of the sentence; we also update the score of
words using the sum of scores of all the sentences containing
the word.
This mutually recursive calculation provides two important
outputs: (1) the ranking of relevant words for a blog, and (2)
the ranking of relevant sentences. The ranking of words can be
regarded as a summarization of the topics discussed on a given
blog. On the other hand, we regard the ranking of sentences as
an excerpt extraction technique capable of providing relevant
excerpts of a blog and, hence, a summarization tool. 2.3 ISNP: Modelling posts elements
The text contained in a post can be turned into a n-dimensional
vector of features using text mining techniques (Weiss,
Indurkhya, Zhang, &Damerau, 2006). Each feature is a word
in a blog post once stop words are removed. Each vector entry
represents a frequency measure for the a given word—TFIDF
in our particular case (Weiss, Indurkhya, Zhang, & Damerau,
2006). This simple transformation enables the usage of machine
learning techniques as tools for exploring and understanding
the processed blog posts. ISNP (Identifying Self/Non-self Post)
is an algorithm and visualization technique to create predictive
models of posts on a given blog. ISNP uses the postbased
feature vectors to learn models that describe and predicts what
post belong to a feed. In particular ISNP induce linear models
based on support-vector machines (Vapnik, 1999; Cristianini
& Shawe-Taylor, 2000; Shawe-Taylor &Cristianini, 2004).
Once the models are learned, we can use them to: (1) predict
pertinence to a feed given a blog, (2) compare multiple feeds
to measure degrees of topic overlapping, and (3) visualize the
key elements that identify self in a post.
The proposed visualization based on ISNP results allows the
analyst to quickly distinguish the main topics that characterize
a feed, and also obtain a measure of the existing overlap
between feeds from different posts. The visualization presents
a polar arrangement of the terms that distinguish self and
non-self blog feeds and the strength of each them—see Figure
1. ISNP also provides another visualization of how topics
change as new posts are added to the blogs feed stream by
displaying sliding windows of the TFIDF values across the
sequences of post of a blog—see Figure 2.
2.3 KeyGraph: Visualizing concept relations
When applied to blogs, KeyGraph (Ohsawa, Benson, &
Yachida, 1998) is a chance discovery technique (Ohsawa &
McBurney, 2003) which provide a visual map of the contest of
the posts of a blog feed. A KeyGraph is a graph where nodes
are words on the blog posts and links indicate co-ocurrence of
words in sentences. KeyGraph has been widely used as tools
to support human innovation and creativity in on-line scenarios
(Llor`a, Goldberg, Ohsawa, Matsumura, Washida, Tamura,
Masataka, Welge, Auvil, Searsmith, Ohnishi, & Chao, 2006).
KeyGraph starts computing high-frequency terms and
high-frequency links among them given the sentences of a blog.
Then, relevant low frequency terms (key terms) and links (key
links) are identified. A key terms and key links bridge high
frequency clusters together, flagging interesting transitions
between the concepts described by those clusters. Finally,
ranking high frequency and key terms based on the connectivity
degree allows the KeyGraph to identify keywords.
KeyGraph visualization represents concepts and their relations
as visual maps, favoring humanreflection. Moreover, it provides
a simple exploratory method to evaluate bridges between
concepts, fundamental building blocks of innovation and
creativity. KeyGraphs are usually presented nodes and links
using three colors: grey to identify high frequency terms and
links, red to display key terms and links, and green border nodes
to identify keywords—as shown in Figure 3.
3. Tracking the Google Blog
To illustrate the capabilities of BITS, ISNP, and KeyGraphs
we tracked the Google Blog (<http: //googleblo
g.blogspot.com/>) from November 10th to November
14th. A detailed description of the methodology and results is
beyond the scope of this paper and can be found elsewhere
(Llor`a, Yasui, Welge, &Goldberg, 2007). However, we present
some illustrative examples of the blog analysis and visualization
techniques proposed in this paper. Unless noted otherwise, the
results described below present the analysis of the post entitled
“Old world meets new on Google Earth”1
• BITS. The BITS ranking provide the following terms as
relevant: map, earth, historic, explore, old, world, tool, and
cartography. The more relevant and descriptive sentence
of the post was: “I was able to explore and fly around the
old maps and use the transparency slider to compare the
old world and the new; as I did this, I thought to myself that
this is the perfect marriage of historic cartographic
masterpieces with the innovative contemporary software
tools of Google.” After reading the complete post􀀀not
reproduced due to its length􀀀it became clear that the terms
provided by BITS were an accurate description of the topics
discussed in the post. Moreover, the extracted excerpts by
BITS acted as a relevant summary of the posts in the blog.
• ISNP. ISNP was used to learn models that uniquely identify
posts. The linear model based on support-vector machines
was able to accurately distinguish between the ten post of
the feed during the period of observation. Moreover, the
visualization of such models—see Figure 1— correctly
identified topic overlapping with two other posts talking
about Google Earth. ISNP also provided a simple
visualization of how term relevance changed through time,
identifying recurrent topics—Figure 2 displays recurrent
topics as wide areas on the accumulated vertical axis graph.
• KeyGraphsFinally, the last analysis and visualization
tool􀀀KeyGraph􀀀provided a clear map of the concepts
managed in the overlapping posts “Old world meets new
on Google Earth” and “Know where you are”2, as well as
their bridging relations􀀀see Figure 3. KeyGraph clearly
visualize the two main discourse clusters provided by the overlapping posts, and also made explicit the connection
between them.
4. Conclusions and Further Work
This paper has presented how human-centered analysis and
visualization techniques used to support innovation and
creativity can also help to identify relevant post portions and
to visualize concept relations in the blogosphere. BITS, ISNP,
and KeyGraphs were introduced and used to analyze the posts
on the Google Blog for illustrative purposes. The proposed
techniques showed how humancentered techniques can easily
assist tracking the blogosphere for relevant information,
concepts, and relations, filtering the amount of information that
the analyst need to review by providing meaningful summaries
and visualizations.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the Automated Learning Group
at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications
for their friendship and support while hosting this joint
collaboration. This work was sponsored by the Air Force Office
of Scientific Research, Air Force Materiel Command, USAF,
under grant F49620-03-1-0129, and the National Science
Foundation under grant IIS-02-09199. The US Government is
authorized to reproduce and distribute reprints for Government
purposes notwithstanding any copyright notation thereon.
Figure 1: Radial map of the key terms involved in the ISNP models for each
of the posts. Different posts are displayed in different colors. The area provided
by the measure of relevance of the terms provide a qualitative measure of model
overlapping for the different post. Post number 5 corresponds to the analyzed
“Old world meets new on Google Earth”.
Figure 2: ISNP visualization of term dynamics across the different post. Figure 3: Visual map of the concepts involved in the two overlapping posts
“Old world meets new on Google Earth” and “Know where you are”.
KeyGraph clearly visualize the two main discourse clusters provided by the
overlapping post, and also makes explicit the connection between them.
The views and conclusions contained herein are those of
the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily
representing the official policies or endorsements, either
expressed or implied, of the Air Force Office of Scientific
Research, the Technology Research, Education, and
Commercialization Center, the Office of Naval Research, the
National Science Foundation, or the U.S. Government.
1. <http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2006/11
/old-world-meets-new-on-google-earth.ht
ml>
2. <http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2006/11
/know-where-you-are.html>.
Bibliography
AtomEnabled, A. What is atom? . <http://www.atome
nabled.org/>
Cristianini, N., and J. Shawe-Taylor. An Introduction to
Support Vector Machines. Cambridge Press, 1997.
Gearon, P. Mulgara Metadata Store . <http://www.mul
gara.org/>
Kleinberg, J. ""Authoritative Sources in a Hyperlinked
Environment."" Journal of the ACM 46.1 (1993): 604-632.
Llorà, Xavier, M. Welge, N. I. Yasui, and D. E. Goldberg.
""Analyzing Trends in the Blogosphere Using Human-Centered
Analysis and Visualization Tools."" Proceedings of the
International Conference of Weblogs and Social Media. in
press.
Llorà, Xavier, et al. ""Innovation and Creativity Support Via
Chance Discovery, Genetic Algorithms, and Data Mining.""
New Mathematics and Natural Computation 2.1 (2006): 85-100.
Miller, E. W3C RSS 1.0 news feed creation how-to . 2001. <w
ww.w3.org/2001/10/glance/doc/howto>
Ohsawa, Y., B.E. Benson, and M. Yachida. ""KeyGraph:
Automatic Indexing by Cooccurence Graph Based on Building
Construction Metaphor."" Proceedings of Advances in Digital
Libraries. 1998. 12-18.
Ohsawa, Y., and P. McBurney. Chance Discovery. Springer,
2003.
Shadbolt, N. ""The Semantic Web Revistited."" IEEE Inteligent
Systems 21.3 (2006): 96-101.
Shawe-Taylor, J., and N. Cristianini. Kernel Methods for Patter
Analysis. Cambridge Press, 2004.
Vapnik, V. The Nature of Statistical Learning Theory. Springer,
1999.
Vapnik, V. Kernel methods for patter analysis. Springer, 1999.
Weiss, S., N. Indurkhya, T. Zhang, and F> Damerau. Text
Mining: Predictive Methods for Analyzing Unstructured
Information. Springer, 2006.","txt","2","",""
"762","8","The Digital Museum in the Life of the User","","artifacts and collections at an astounding rate (Institute of
Museum and Library Services, 2005). The potential of increased
access to digital collections has tremendous implications for
digital humanities researchers, and many recent projects have
focused on the technical mechanics of digitizing cultural
heritage resources. While these considerations are extremely
worthwhile, there is an equally important need to explore how
people use these digital resources once they become available
(Cameron, 2003; Knell, 2003).
This paper explores the role digital museum resources play in
the lives of the users of those resources. It presents results from
an international survey (administered to nearly 1500 visitors
at nine different online museums) that addressed the relationship
between digital and physical museum resources in the lives of
museum visitors. The survey questions focused on how museum
professionals can encourage their visitors to form lifelong
relationships with museums: visiting in person when they can,
and visiting online when they cannot. The results of the survey
help museum researchers and professionals understand the
complementary, cyclical relationship that exists between digital
and physical museums from a user-centered perspective.
A growing number of researchers are interested in studying
how the many different users of museum resources (museum
visitors and professionals, information providers and consumers)
employ digital museum resources in their everyday lives (White,
2004). Museum professionals today work in a changing
environment where information resources are becoming more
technically-complex, and where the users of those resources
are becoming more information-savvy. Over the past decade,
the needs and expectations of museum visitors have become
increasingly sophisticated, and museum professionals are
increasingly concerned with ensuring that the right information
resources are available to all users, inside and outside the
museum (Marty, Rayward &Twidale, 2003).
To meet the changing needs of their visitors, museum
professionals have dramatically changed the way museum
visitors interact with museum resources. Increased access to
digital collections has removed many traditional barriers
between museums and their visitors, offering new opportunities
for interacting with collections and information resources.
Douma and Henchman (2000), for example, discuss an online
exhibit that allows visitors to digitally “strip away” layers of a
painting (Bellini’s Feast of the Gods), examining earlier
versions using simulated infrared or x-ray lenses. Gillard (2002)
explores how the National Museum of American History’s
HistoryWired project encourages visitors to manipulate a
collection of artifacts, uncovering connections between objects
along temporal, cultural, and thematic lines.
These changes have led museum professionals to express
concerns about the impact new information technologies have
on the relationship between museums and their visitors. Some
worry whether providing online access to digital museum
resources will result in a decrease in visits to physical museums
and a corresponding loss of financial revenue (Haley-Goldman
& Wadman, 2002). In the process of providing access to digital
museum resources, someone usually asks, “if visitors can access
these resources over the Internet, will they still come to the
museum?” The simple answer to this question is “yes, they
will,” and a number of recent surveys have shown that online
visitors are also physical visitors (Kravchyna & Hastings, 2002).
This makes sense; nobody asks, “if people can look at pictures
of beaches online, will they still vacation in Florida?” Similarly,
the ability to access digital museum resources online should in
theory serve as a lure, encouraging potential visitors to come
to the physical museum.
Despite this commonsense approach, worries about the
relationship between physical and digital museum resources
persist. Why? The truth is that these worries have far less to do
with financial remuneration than with understanding how the
users of digital museum resources perceive the integration of
those resources into the sociocultural fabric of their everyday
lives. To understand the relationship between digital and
physical museums, one must ask, “what role do digital museum
resources play in the life of the user of digital museums?”
Framing the question in this manner reflects a shift in
perspective away from the “user in the life of the museum” to
the “museum in the life of the user”—a shift that parallels one
that has taken place in the library and information science
community over the past few decades.
Very little is known about why users seek digital museum
resources or how users integrate digital museum resources into
their everyday lives, despite valuable studies that have explored
what visitors do at museum websites (Thomas & Carey, 2005).
Understanding the relationship between digital museums and
their users becomes critically important as more museums offer
digital resources online, and the number of visitors to online
museums increases to be five to ten times the number of visito.rs
to physical museums. If one wants to encourage a situation where visitors make museums part of their everyday lives and
feel connected to museums whether they are physically there
or not, there is a need to explore the digital museum in the life
of the user.
To meet this need, this study explored the following research
questions:
• What is the role of the digital museum in the life of the
museum visitor?
• How can museums use museum websites to build stronger
relationships with their visitors, before and after a museum
visit?
• What needs do digital museum resources meet for museum
users outside the museum?
• When and how do people use museum websites before and
after visiting museums?
• What do visitors prefer to do on museum websites vs. in
the museum, and vice versa?
• How do museum websites influence the visitors’ desire to
visit the museum?
To answer these questions, the researcher developed an online
survey that asked online museum visitors about their use of
digital museum resources before and after museum visits, and
how they integrate digital and physical museum resources in
their everyday lives. The survey was advertised on the websites
of nine different museums, including the Fine Arts Museums
of San Francisco, the Science Museum of Minnesota, the
Australia War Memorial Museum, the Victoria and Albert
Museum, and the National Museum of Wildlife Art. From
October 2005 to October 2006, 1464 online visitors responded
to the survey.
The survey results provide valuable insights into the behavior
of visitors to online museums around the world. Certain key
findings from the study are summarized in the following list:
• Online museum visitors consider it very important for
museums to have a website.
• They are very likely to visit a museum’s website before
visiting the museum.
• They are likely to use a museum’s website to determine
whether they want to visit the museum.
• They have strong preferences for what they want to do in
the museum vs. what they want to do using the museum’s
website.
• They are likely to visit the museum’s website after visiting
a museum.
• After leaving a museum, they expect to be able to find the
museum’s website easily, and they rely on the museum’s
website to answer questions about the museum.
• They are likely to establish a relationship where they visit
a museum and its website repeatedly, visiting the museum
when they can, and its website when they cannot.
• They are likely to visit museum websites in their daily life,
independent of planning or returning from a museum visit.
These results indicate that online museum visitors view
museums and museum websites as complementary, and that
digital museum resources are not likely to replace physical
museum resources in the lives of museum visitors. The users
of digital museums are constructing, mostly on their own
initiative, a complicated relationship between digital and
physical museum resources in their own lives. By focusing
solely on the user in the life of the museum, one sees only how
visitors use resources there, not how they make use of all
museum resources, digital and physical, in the museum and
online, in their own lives. Studies of the digital museum in the
life of the user, therefore, are more likely to paint an actual
picture of the complex interactions the users of museum
resources experience at the boundary of physical and digital
museums.
This study explores the broader implications of access to digital
culture by addressing the relationship between physical museum
objects and digital information resources. Much of the world’s
cultural resources are located in small museums, historical
societies, and community heritage associations—organizations
that are just now digitizing their collections. Without a solid
understanding of how people use digital museum resources in
their everyday lives, what good does it do those institutions to
create those same resources? If one is to create a sustainable
future for the digital humanities, one must improve the overall
understanding of how individuals use digital information
resources in ways that augment their appreciation and
understanding of physical artifacts and cultural heritage
worldwide.
Bibliography
Cameron, F. ""Digital Futures I: Museum Collections, Digital
Technologies, and the Cultural Construction of Knowledge.""
Curator 46 (2003): 325-340.
Douma, M., and M. Henchman. ""Bringing the Object to the
Viewer: Multimedia Techniques for the Scientific Study of
Art."" Museums and the Web 2000: Selected Papers from an
International Conference. Ed. D. Bearman and J. Trant.
Pittsburgh, PA: Archives &Museum Informatics, 2000. 59-64.
Gillard, P. ""Cruising Through History Wired."" Museums and
the Web 2000: Selected Papers from an International Conference. Ed. D. Bearman and J. Trant. Pittsburgh, PA:
Archives &Museum Informatics, 2002.
Haley Goldman, K., and M. Wadman. ""There's Something
Happening Here, What it is ain’t Exactly Clear."" Museums and
the Web 2000: Selected Papers from an International
Conference. Ed. D. Bearman and J. Trant. Pittsburgh, PA:
Archives &Museum Informatics, 2002.
Institute of Museum and Library Services. Status of Technology
and Digitization in the Nation’s Museums and Libraries. 2005.
Accessed 2006-10-31. <http://www.imls.gov/resou
rces/TechDig05/Technology+Digitization.pd
f>
Knell, S. ""The Shape of Things to Come: Museums in the
Technological Landscape."" Museum and Society 1.3 (2003):
132-146.
Kravchyna, V., and S. Hastings. ""Informational Value of
Museum Web Sites."" First Monday 7.2 (2002). Accessed
2006-10-31. <http://firstmonday.org/issues/is
sue7_2/kravchyna>
Marty, P.F., W.B. Rayward, and M. Twidale. ""Museum
Informatics."" Annual Review of Information Science and
Technology 37 (2003): 259-294.
Thomas, W.A., and S. Carey. ""Actual/Virtual Visits: What are
the Links? ."" Museums and the Web 2005. Ed. D. Bearman and
J. Trant. Toronto, CA: Archives &Museum Informatics, 2005.
White, L. ""Museum Informatics: Collections, People, Access,
and Use."" Bulletin of the American Society for Information
Science and Technology 30.5 (2004): 9-10.","txt","2","",""
"763","8","Digital Editing, Infrastructure Obstacles, and the World of Virtual Appliances","","Achallenge that is often too daunting for new collaborative
digital editing projects is that of production and
publication infrastructure. The TEI Consortium has done a
wonderful job of providing a wealth of resources to speak to
this need for infrastructure support; with the online guidelines,
samples, and stylesheets, to the Roma customization generator,
to the (underutilized) TEI wiki, a project in the planning stages
has the ability to gather more than enough information and
advice for developing a solid infrastructure for software
encoding, database storage, web delivery.
Unfortunately, information and advice often isn't enough, and
projects which don't have access to sufficient technical skills
sometimes cannot even get their database installed, their web
server up and running, or their transformations working
properly. This lack of infrastructure support often leaves
promising projects floundering and potential digital humanities
scholars soured on the ability of technology to deliver on its
revolutionary promises.
There are some viable products that have become available in
the past few years specifically designed to alleviate this problem
of a general lack of infrastructure support. For example,
<teiPublisher> a Publishing system built on the eXist database
and the Lucene search engine, describes itself as “an extensible,
modular and configurable xml-based repository . . . designed
to provide administrative tools to help repository managers
with limited technical knowledge manage their repositories”
(http://teipublisher.sourceforge.net). More ambitiously,
Sebastian Rahtz has created a collection of Linux packages at
http://tei.oucs.ox.ac.uk/teideb/ which provide instant
TEI-informed installation of such products as eXist, the Cocoon
publishing system, the Saxon XSL transformation engine, and
so forth. However such products are not in widespread use,
perhaps because those who need them the most are even
struggling with more basic infrastructure problems such as
getting a web server installed.
Enter the appearance of virtual appliances. The world of
hardware virtualization has exploded over the past few years; IT professionals from a wide variety of fields have seen the
benefits of having a single piece of hardware run multiple
“virtual machines,” each appearing to be a real machine to the
outside networked world. Virtual appliances are small imprint
virtual machines, each designed for a different job, that can
reside on a physical machine and perform some sort of task in
relation to other virtual appliances (or physical machines) that
it is networked to. As appliances rather than software packages,
they are designed to be nearly functional out of the box, with
some basic configuration usually performed through a web
interface but with most of the configuration pre-installed,
pre-set, and pre-tested. Virtual machines and virtual appliances
have been successfully used in commercial and educational
settings to provide instant infrastructure support, allowing users
to concentrate on what their tasks are to be rather than how
things work underneath – in other words, well-designed virtual
appliances should function as turn-key devices, alleviating the
need for a given project to have a dedicated systems
administrator.
The purpose of this poster session, then, is to put forth the
concept of virtual appliances as an answer for the obstacle that
many digital editing projects face. I will create a set of virtual
appliances that can be deployed as a group—one will be a web
server, one a relational database server, one an XML database
server, one an XML transformer, and so forth—that forms the
core foundation of an online digital project. Each of the virtual
appliances is a configured “machine,” with only basic
information needing to be set through a web interface to each
of the pieces. A project hoping to utilize this group of virtual
appliances would perform the following steps:
1. A project will procure a physical machine.
2. The project will install the software to run the virtual
machines. In the case of this poster session, this will be
VMWare Server (free of charge), as VMWare is one of the
leaders in the development of virtual machine technology
(see <http://www.vmware.com/vmtn/applianc
es/faq.html>); however, conceptually, the same type
of virtual appliance network could be developed for the Xen
virtualization software.
3. The project will download the virtual appliances it chooses
onto the physical machine, one of which will be a central
control machine.
4. The project will use a web interface to the central control
machine to supply the relevant details—IP address, project
name, etc.
5. The project will then have an instant network of “servers”
that can act as a home for collaborative encoding storage,
database management, and web delivery of the materials to
be published.
Obviously, there are many issues that my proposal does not
seek to solve—projects will still have to worry about creating
materials, for example, or setting up a higher-level front end
for accessing the materials. But even these problems might,
down the road, find a solution in virtual appliance technology;
imagine, perhaps, that one of the virtual appliances in this
network runs a pre-configured installation of teiPublisher, thus
providing a repository management system for project
collaborators. Another virtual machine might have nothing on
it but Roma and some validators, and act as a localized (yet
still networked) project schema management system. A third
could have a turn-key wiki for collaborative documentation
writing.
By seeking to use virtualization technology and the concept of
ready-made, plug-and-play virtual machines, I hope to make
the world of digital editing and publishing available to a wider
range of scholars and users. This new model of “software”
distribution—treating infrastructure as appliances—will
eliminate many of the lower-level technical obstacles that
prevent too many good ideas from finding a home in the digital
world.","txt","2","",""
"764","8","A Network Structure of the Synoptic Gospels Employing Clustering Coefficients","","In this presentation, we propose a graph-theory approach to
the systematization of the texts of the Synoptic Gospels.
Specifically, we apply a new graph-clustering technique for
data processing that utilizes a clustering-coefficient threshold
in creating semantic networks for the Gospels. Taking Greek
texts (Nestle-Aland, 1979) as the textual source, an adjacency
matrix for graphs is created from word co-occurrence data for
a given range of the texts. We also develop a web-based
application for the dynamic representation of the network
structures based on the relationships between words and
concepts.
Network representations are useful in modeling natural language
semantics (Stevers, & Tenenbaum, 2005). Recently, Dorow
(2006) has proposed the notion of curvature (clustering
coefficient) as a clustering tool to detect ambiguity and to
acquire semantic classes rather than using word frequencies.
The clustering coefficient represents the interconnective strength
between neighboring nodes in a graph. Following Watts and
Strogatz (1998), the clustering coefficient of the node (n) can
be defined as: (number of links among n's
neighbors)/(N(n)*(N)-1)/2), where N(n) denotes the set of n's
neighbors. The coefficient assumes values between 0 and 1.
In processing a text, word pairs are computed by a windowing
method (Takayama, Flournoy, Kaufmann, &. Peters). The
windowing method provides a relatively simple representation
of similarity levels that is suitable for clustering. The technique
involves moving a certain sized window over a text to extract
all fixed-sized word grams (Vechthomova, Roberston, & Jones,
2003). Word pairings are subsequently made by combining all
extracted words. Co-occurrence data is computed with two
window sizes that reflect syntactic and semantic considerations.
The first size is set at 2 for the nearest co-occurrence, while the
second size is set to 20 to collect words both before and after
a sentence. Morphological data for the BibleWorks Greek New
Testament Morphology (BNM) was used in a stemming process
to obtain base word forms from morphological variants.
Consequently, 2,688 word occurrences were identified.
In Figure 1, the degree distribution for the word occurrences
nodes are plotted in log-log coordinates with showing the best
fitting power law distribution (r=1.4). Following Barabasi and
Albert (1999), the feature of power-law degree distribution
indicates the small-world structure of the semantic network.
Figure 2 is a plot for the clustering coefficient as a function of
degree. There are 16 words that have a clustering coefficient
value of less than 0.1. These are articles, prepositions, pronouns,
and conjunctions, which are usually regarded as ""noise"" words.
We use the clustering coefficient value as a threshold in order
to eliminate such noise words and to control the datasets for
graph clustering. In applying the clustering technique, nine
datasets were created with 0.1 increments in the value of the
clustering coefficient (from 0.1 to 0.9). The datasets for each
window size were converted into adjacency matrices for
Recurrent Markov Clustering (RMCL) (Jung, Miyake, &
Akama, 2006).
RMCL is an improved form of Markov Clustering (MCL) (van
Dongen, 2000). The MCL algorithm is based on random walks
for a graph, and its model simulates flow by using the two
simple algebraic operations of expansion and inflation on the
stochastic transition matrix. The method has been applied to a
number of corpora, such as a French synonym dictionary
(Gfeller, 2005) and the British National Corpus (Dorow,
Widdows, Ling, Eckmann, Danilo, and Moses, 2005). In
contrast, RMCL allows for greater control over the sizes of
concept domains by modifying graph granularity and the
generality of concepts. The recurrent process gets feedback
from the state of overlapping clustering before the output of
MCL. This reversal procedure is a key feature of RMCL in
generating a virtual adjacency matrix for the non overlapping
clusters as a resultant state of convergence actually yielded by
the MCL process. The resultant downsized matrix provides a
simpler graph of the conceptual structures underlying similar
words.
Figure 3 shows the transitions in cluster sizes for the MCL and
RMCL processes as a function of the clustering coefficient with
a window size of 2, while Figure 4 shows similar data with a
window size of 20. The term input data refers to the initial
adjacency matrices. Figure 4 indicates that while cluster sizes
are almost identical for RMCL and MCL at clustering
coefficient values of 0.6 or more, RMCL clearly yields smaller
clusters at values of 0.5 or less. The MCL clustering results in
Figure 4 for the window size of 20 indicate the strong
connectedness between nodes, as all nodes are grouped into a
single cluster for coefficient values of 0.2 or less.
The results for both the MCL and RMCL processes are
implemented as graph network structures in a web application,
which has been developed to dynamically represent the
relationships between words and how MCL components might
correspond to concepts. Figure 5 is a screen shot of the web application, which uses Apache2 as an http server and Tomcat5
as a JSP and servlet engine. WebMathematica is used to call a
Mathematica kernal to calculate the graphs.
In conclusion, the clustering coefficient represents a useful tool
for manipulating datasets to eliminate noise words. The RMCL
methods allows for the creation of compact semantic networks,
which clearly present the relationships between words.
In future works, we will apply different clustering-coefficient
thresholds to detect ambiguous words, particularly words with
low coefficient-low degree values. We will also evaluate
systematizations of the Synoptic Gospels by biblical scholars
and explore the effectiveness of our approach in furthering
biblical studies.
Figure 1: The Degree Distributions
Figure 2: Clustering coefficient plotted as a function of degree
Figure 3: Clustering Coefficient (window size =2)
Figure 4: Clustering Coefficient (window size =20) Figure 5: Screen shot of a web application
Bibliography
Baranbasi, A.L., and R. Albert. ""Emergence of Scaling in
Random Networks."" Science 286 (1999): 509-512.
Dorow, B., D. Widdows, K. Ling, J. Eckmann, D. Sergi, and
E. Moses. ""Using Curvature and Markov Clustering in Graphs
for Lexical Acquisition and Word Sense Discrimination.""
MEANING-2005, 2nd Workshop organized by the MEANING
Project, February 3rd-4th 2005, Trento, Italy. Trento,Italy,
2005.
Dorow, K. ""A Graph Model for Words and Their Meaning"".
Doctoral Thesis. University of Stuttgart, 2006. <http://el
ib.uni-stuttgart.de/opus/volltexte/2007/2
985/pdf/diss_27022007.pdf>
Gfeller, D., J. C. Chappelier, and P. De Los Rios. ""Synonym
Dictionary Improvement through Markov Clustering and
Clustering Stability."" International Symposium on Applied
Stochastic Models and Data Analysis. . 106-113.
Jung, J., Maki Miyake, and H. Akama. ""Recurrent Markov
Cluster (RMCL) & #12288; Algorithm for the Refinement of
the Semantic Network, LREC2006lity."" International
Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation. .
1428-1432.
Nestle-Aland. Novum Testmentum Graece . 26th edition.
Stuttgart: German Bible Society, 1987.
Steyvers, M., and J. B. Tenenbaum. ""The Large-Scale Structure
of Semantic Networks: Statistical Analyses and a Model of
Semantic Growth."" Cognitive Science 29.1 (2005): 41-78.
Takayama, Y., R. Flournoy, S. Kaufmann, and S. Peters.
Information Mapping: Concept-based Information Retrieval
Based on Word Associations. . <http://www-csli.sta
nford.edu/semlab-hold/infomap/theory.html>
van Dongen, Stijn Marinus. ""Graph Clustering by Flow
Simulation"". PhD Thesis. University of Utrecht, 2000. <http
://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/dissertat
ions/1895620/inhoud.htm>
Vechthomova, O., S. Robertson, and S. Jones. ""Query
Expansion With Long-Span Collocate."" Information Retrieval
6 (2003): 251-273.
Watts, D., and S. Strogatz. ""Collective Dynamics of
‘Small-World’ Networks."" Nature 393 (1998): 440-442.","txt","2","",""
"765","8","Quantitative Data, Formal Analysis. Reflections on 7,000 Titles [British Novels, 1740-1850]","8","This opening plenary presentation provided an overview
of a century of British literary history as reflected in
novelistic titles. Three main issues were investigated: the
dramatic shortening of titles, and its possible causes; the
structure and significance of extremely short titles; and the
ways in which titles allude to specific literary genres.","txt","2","",""
"766","8","Roundtable Panel: Modeling and Visualizing Historical Narrative","3","The modeling and visualization of temporal
phenomena—events and narratives—is an important area
of research in the digital humanities that has received relatively
little attention to date. There are some exceptions. Matt Jensen’s
SemTime, Johanna Drucker and Bethany Nowviskie’s Temporal
Modeling Project, the Center for History and New Media’s
Timeline Builder, and Bruce Robertson’s Historical Event
Markup Language are important projects that have been
presented to or developed within this community. However, in
spite of these exceptions, the limits of work in this area are
clear when compared, for instance, with the closely allied area
of spatial modeling and historical GIS. In recent years,
interactive digital maps have become increasingly prevalent.
In addition to the ubiquitous Google Earth, other map resources
produced by universities and textbook publishers allow users
to pan and zoom, hyperlink to related content, control layers
of spatial information, and select temporal ranges. However,
history textbooks are filled with timelines as well as maps, and
temporal thinking is critical not only to history, but to many
other disciplines besides. Nevertheless, in contrast to mapping,
the problem of modeling and visualizing time in an interactive
and digital environment has received almost no attention. With the hope of raising the visibility of current efforts and
inspiring new research, this panel brings together six individuals
working in the area of temporal modeling and interactive
timeline development. Our goal is to introduce current
developments; to identify interesting and significant areas of
development that will make temporal modeling and
visualization into a robust field of research, and to discuss
models for an interactive database and historical event
visualization system.
Some components of a historical event model are well
developed. Temporal ontologies such as DAML-Time and ISO
19108 offer essential guidance for formalizing temporal objects.
The Historical Event Markup Language and, more recently,
the Named Time Period Directory Standard have developed
XML models for describing historical events. Creative efforts
to improve timeline visualization are surprisingly limited, but
there are several noteworthy exemplars. The MIT Media Lab’s
SIMILE project has an intuitive and flexible interface and
allows several timelines at different scales to be manipulated
together. However, it implicitly embodies a historical model
of individual unambiguous and unrelated events rather than
complex narratives, replicating the “tickmarks on a line” model
familiar from static textbook and wall chart timelines. By
contrast, the Temporal Modeling Project and SemTime are
visualization experiments that allow developers to incorporate
agency, causality and relationships.
Better handling of relationships is among most important issues
for future development of temporal modeling in the digital
humanities. Historical events have complex, multiple and
perspectivally unique relationships to one another. Historical
events and narratives also all have a relationship to spatial
information. Events occur somewhere, even when they are
global, and the same event (the Neolithic, modernity) may occur
at quite different times in different places. Finally, timelines
and event databases can be considered as components of holistic
information systems. All of these issues will be explored in this
roundtable session. Other topics that have not been addressed
by previous researchers in temporal modeling include the
representation of temporal and temporo-spatial ambiguity and
uncertainty, and the specifications for historical event systems
and services with multiple users. These topics, too, will feature
in our planned roundtable. All of these areas have implications
for modeling of both data and systems, and also for very new
kinds of visual representation.
The proposed Modeling and Visualizing Historical Narrative
Roundtable brings together a number of individuals who are
working actively in this area. This panel includes some
individuals (Drucker and Robertson) who have been researching
temporal modeling and visualization for some time, and others
(Johnson, Lancaster, Mostern, all affiliated with the Electronic
Cultural Atlas Initiative) who have worked primarily on spatial
visualization for history and the humanities and have begun to
engage in research on temporality as an extension of that
interest.
Ruth Mostern, as panel organizer, will introduce the panel with
a discussion of work-to-date on temporal modeling and possible
directions for future research. The rest of the panelists will
discuss their own areas of development, as follows:
• Ian Johnson will discuss developments in the Heurist
generic collaborative content creation system and the
TimeMap spatial browser to create a model and visualizer
for historical events, illustrated through the example of a
Silk Road timeline project. He will discuss the underlying
data structures, planned developments in the data model
used to describe historical events, and research on improved
visual methods of entering and viewing the web of
relationships between historical events, including timeline
visualizations.
• Lewis Lancaster will demonstrate the What, Where, When
and Who prototype for library catalogue searching and web
browsing. In this system, a directory of named events
extracted from Library of Congress subject headings serves
as the basis for structured searching. Searchers can browse
a library catalogue by using a timeline and a map linked to
the time period directory and a place-name gazetteer rather
than conducting a traditional text-based search. The user
may expand the search from a library catalogue to include
Wikipedia and other on-line systems. Named events, place
names, and personal names are interrelated to allow complex
search parameters.
• Bruce Robertson will talk about the latest developments for
the Historical Event Markup Language. The first of these
is an RDF syntax for historical events that makes historical
markup of timed, labeled events associated with persons,
places and keywords simple for students and others. The
other development is the use of OWL web ontology
reasoning to express chronological reasoning (i.e. how we
know that the battle of Marathon was in 490 BC). This will
be associated with RDF reification
• Johanna Drucker, an important researcher in this area,
regrets that she will not able to attend the conference due
to a prior commitment. However, she has offered to produce
visualizations based on her recent work to be presented by
the conference organizer.
Because of the large number of presenters and the desirability
of open dialogue, we are proposing a roundtable format. The
panel organizer and each presenter (including Drucker in
absentia) will make a presentation of 10 minutes. Each presenter
will discuss his or her current work and future plans in the area
of temporal modeling and visualization. This will allow time
for a moderated discussion among the presenters and between
the presenters and the audience.","txt","2","",""
"767","8","Collex: Facets, Folksonomy, and Fashioning the Remixable web","","Collex is an online toolset designed to aid students and
scholars working in networked archives and federated
repositories of humanities materials: a sophisticated
COLLections and EXhibits mechanism for the semantic web.
It allows users to search, browse, annotate, and tag electronic
objects and to repurpose them in illustrated, interlinked essays
or exhibits. By saving information about user activity (including
the construction of annotated collections and exhibits) as
""remixable"" metadata, the Collex system writes current practice
into the scholarly record and permits knowledge discovery
based not only on predefined characteristics or ""facets"" of digital
objects, but also on the contexts in which they are placed by a
community of scholars. Collex builds on the same semantic
web technologies that drive MIT's SIMILE project and social
bookmarking systems like Connotea and Zotero, but it also
brings folksonomy tagging to trusted, peer-reviewed scholarly
archives and features an integrated publication system. This
exhibits-builder is analogous to high-end digital ""curation""
tools currently affordable only to large institutions like the
Smithsonian. Collex is free, generalizable, and open source and
is presently being implemented in a large-scale pilot project
under the auspices of NINES.
Collex is constructed with pragmatic scholarly needs in mind,
and under the assumption that ""the general field of humanities
education and scholarship will not take the use of digital
technology seriously until one demonstrates how its tools
improve the ways we explore and explain our cultural
inheritance – until, that is, they expand our interpretational
procedures"" (McGann, Radiant Textuality xii; my emphasis).
Collex facilitates primary interpretive gestures of exploration
and explanation in a broad and socially-networked manner, and
aims to form a locus for further expansion of interpretive
methods in digital humanities.
The first formal iteration of Collex (released in February 2007)
federates more than 60,000 digital objects of 19th-century
literature, art, culture and criticism from the most prominent
and acclaimed online journals, archives, and repositories in the
field. This pilot project forms the core of NINES, the Networked
Infrastructure for Nineteenth-century Electronic Scholarship,
a trans-Atlantic federation of scholars and of peer-reviewed
primary and secondary materials constituting a federated
collective. Endorsed by the NINES steering committee and
under development for the past year at ARP, the University of
Virginia's Applied Research in Patacriticism lab, Collex is both
the central clearing-house for NINES and the interpretive hub
around which we hope a vital community of scholars and
students will coalesce.
Humanists eager to develop new ways to integrate and explore
digital works currently lack crucial institutional and technical
resources. Even the best models that scholars of (for instance)
nineteenth century literature and culture now follow and imitate
— the Whitman Archive, Romantic Circles, the Rossetti Archive,
the William Blake Archive — are stand-alone projects that can
only be loosely integrated through web browsers, even when
shared through OAI protocols. As a consequence, what you see
now on the web is what you get: an agglomeration of sites and
projects whose content is atomized and whose scholarly and
educational value is indeterminate. While it is possible for
tech-savvy scholars, using ad-hoc tools and methods, to produce
and distribute annotated, re-organized, or selected versions of
existing online resources, they presently lack coordination
within a peer-reviewed digital publishing environment. Because
of this, their productions — personal web pages and online
course packets — are difficult to maintain, are not readily
interoperable or standards-compliant, and are easily dismissed
as heterogeneous grab-bags of links. NINES was founded to
work against this debilitating situation.
The inherent complexity of available resources is a further
obstacle to the penetration digital humanities into the
disciplines. Collex is designed to aid humanities scholars doing
research in complex digital collections like the Rossetti Archive
(its initial test case) or within federated research environments
like NINES. Such environments often stymie their users through
the sheer quantity of information made available to them in
top-level tables of contents, sitemaps, and idiosyncratic search
engines. Our tool operates under the assumption that the best
paths through a complex digital resource are those forged by
use and interpretation. A Collex approach works to assist
scholars in recording, sharing, and building on the interpretive
purposes to which they put their online teaching and research
environments.
Collex uses semantic web principles and technologies to explore
and develop the research potential of the digital scholarship
aggregated in NINES. Two critical concepts embodied in a
NINES environment shaped by the Collex application fall under
the rubrics widely known as ""faceted classification"" and
""folksonomy."" Facets and folksonomies structure an approach
to descriptive metadata. They generate an evolving interface
between the fully-integrated peer-reviewed electronic resources that constitute NINES and the user communities that re-imagine
NINES content through interpretation, contextualization, and
critical and creative re-fashioning.
""Full integration"" means that each of our NINES-participating
resources has contributed a package of metadata representing
all of the digital objects they wish to make browseable,
collectible, and available to users for re-purposing within
Collex. An important innovation of Collex lies in the way these
objects are defined by their contributing editors. Collex uses a
Dublin Core flavor of RDF, the ""resource description
framework"" of the semantic web, to define collectible ""objects""
without limiting them to their expression as web pages. Where
other social bookmarking tools are designed to allow collection
and annotation of whole web pages, Collex allows contributors
of resources to make finer-grained distinctions, and users of
the system to build collections and exhibits more attuned to the
patterns of attention in humanities scholarship.
A clear example of interpretive modeling through object
definition is the Collexrepresentation of a book of poetry in the
Rossetti Archive. Using XSLT transformations, we have created
RDF metadata for intellectual and material objects at differing
levels in this book. One RDF object (typed as a secondary
resource, with supplemental genre and date identifiers)
expresses the editor's commentary on the book as a concept.
Another object, also articulated in metadata, expresses one
particular edition of the book. Within that high-level expression,
each page of the book has been shared with Collex users as a
collectible object, as has each poem on each page. Such fine
disambiguation ensures that Collex users can locate, annotate,
and exhibit objects specifically suited to the scholarship they
wish to perform – whether their attention is focused on
bibliographic, social, or textual matters. It also ensures that
archive maintainers have the fullest control, in the Collex
environment, over the use of their intellectual property and the
artifacts they minister.
Because RDF objects share a common (and relatively simple)
metadata scheme, they are discoverable through ""facets"" in the
Collex search and faceted-browsing interface. Faceted
classification is a non-hierarchical means of expressing
ontological relationships. Any given object will share a number
of facets with other objects – common dates, genres, authors,
etc. Exposing these facets makes it possible not only for users
to manually ""drill down"" into certain categories or explore
lateral relationships, it also opens possibilities for algorithmic
serendipity in research. In other words, Collex can exploit
formally-expressed facets to offer more options and avenues
to users interested in a particular object: ""more like this"" – more
objects in the repository sharing one or more attributes with a
researcher's subject of attention. Even more interesting is the
ability of Collex to record and analyze user activity, and to
translate the products of user interaction into RDF objects within
the system itself. In this way, in addition to ""more like this,""
Collex can suggest to recent collectors of a particular object
that they view the published collections and exhibits into which
other users have placed the object, or objects like it. Because
this content can be expressed as subscription-based RSS feeds,
a web service, or an API, it is possible for the maintainers of
scholarly resources to patch into Collex directly from their
individual web page or listserv interfaces, offering information
about user annotations and re-mediations for any given object
without requiring users to visit Collex at all.
All Collex activity takes place within the ordinary web-browsing
environment that scholars presently use to access digital
resources, and will require nothing in the way of plugins or
downloads. The overhead (in terms of initial metadata
production) for contributors of resources to the federated
collections in which Collex can operate has also been kept
purposely low, and is thoroughly compatible with Open
Archives protocols. We predict that both of these factors –
combined with the strong endorsement and example of NINES
– will facilitate the adoption of Collex into day-to-day practices
of humanities scholars in networked research and publishing
environments.
Screenshots
A Collex sidebar list view (user-collected objects in the ""visual art"" genre)
with the same constraint in the faceted browser A different constraints set, and a detail view of one object (for tagging,
annotation, and knowledge discovery) in the sidebar
Bibliography
""Access to the Literature: The Debate Continues."" Nature Web
Focus (2004). <http://www.nature.com/nature/f
ocus/accessdebate/>
Broughton, V. ""Faceted Classification as a Basis for Knowledge
Organization in a Digital Environment; the Bliss Bibliographic
Classification and the Creation of Multi-Dimensional
Knowledge Structures."" New Review of Hypermedia and
Multimedia 7 (2001): 67-102.
Golder, Scott, and Bernardo Huberman. ""The Structure of
Collaborative Tagging Systems."" Information Dynamics Lab,
HP Labs (2005). <http://www.hpl.hp.com/researc
h/idl/papers/tags/tags.pdf>
Hammond, Tony. ""Social Bookmarking Tools (I): A General
Overview."" D-Lib Magazine (April 2005). <http://www.d
lib.org/dlib/april05/hammond/04hammond.ht
ml>
Lessig, Lawrence. Free Culture. . <http://www.free-c
ulture.cc>
Lynch, Clifford A.. ""Institutional Repositories: Essential
Infrastructure for Scholarship in the Digital Age."" ARL
Bimonthly Report 226 (2003).
Mathes, Adam. ""Folksonomies - Cooperative Classification
and Communication Through Shared Metadata."" Paper written
for LIS590CMC Computer Mediated Communication, Graduate
School of Library and Information Science at the University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, December 2004. 2004. <ht
tp://www.adammathes.com/academic/computer
-mediated-communication/folksonomies.html>
McGann, Jerome. Radiant Textuality: Literature After the World
Wide Web. Palgrave MacMillan, 2001.
McGann, Jerome. ""Culture and Technology: The Way We Live
Now, What is to Be Done?"" Paper presented at the University
of Chicago, April 23, 2004. 2004. <http://www.nines.
org/about/bibliog/mcgann-chicago.pdf>
from=""ROOT"" targOrder=""U""/>
MLA. ""The Future of Scholarly Publishing: Report of the Ad
Hoc Committee on the Future of Scholarly Publishing.""
Profession 2002 (2002): 172-186.
Nowviskie, Bethany. Collex: Semantic Collections and Exhibits
for the remixable Web . <http://www.patacriticism
.org/collex/about>
Nowviskie, Bethany, and Jerome McGann. NINES: A Federated
Model for Integrating Digital Scholarship . White paper version
available at <http://www.nines.org/about/9swhi
tepaper.pdf>
Unsworth, John. ""Not-so-Modest Proposals: What Do We Want
Our System of Scholarly Communication to Look Like in
2010?"" Paper presented at the CIC Summit on Scholarly
Communication, December 2, 2003. 2003. <http://www.
iath.virginia.edu/~jmu2m/CICsummit.htm>
Unsworth, John. ""Tool Time, or 'Haven't We Been Here
Already?' Ten Years in Humanities Computing."" Paper
presented at Transforming Disciplines: The Humanities and
Computer Science, NINCH conference, Washington, DC,
January 18, 2003. 2003. <http://www.iath.virginia
.edu/~jmu2m/carnegie-ninch.03.html>
Van de Sompel, H et. al. D-Lib Magazine (September 2004).","txt","2","",""
"768","8","The Visionary Cross: An Experiment in the Multimedia Edition","","A reservation I should wish to express is that customarily
levelled at digital projects, which is that while the technology
(brilliantly, beautifully, wonderfully) enables and indeed
encourages the presentation of multiple points of view, so
putting the burden of interpretation onto the individual reader,
there is a concomitant loss of genuine decision-making by
those claiming to be responsible for the work as a whole...
Editors should edit: will they?
Our epigraph comes from the report of an external assessor
to the original funding application for our project. We
cite it because it represents a common question asked of the
Digital Humanities by traditional scholars: “Can it be as
significant as it is pretty?”
For editors of text-based digital projects, the answer is
increasingly clear. The last decade has seen the development
of a relatively solid consensus as to basic technological and
generic expectations (see O'Donnell 2004 for a summary). Best
practice now expects that text-based digital projects will be
encoded using XML, preferably TEI. It assumes they will
contain an archive with transcriptions and full colour facsimiles
of primary sources; that some means will be provided for
comparing variant readings; and that users will be able to test
editorial assumptions by comparing or constructing alternative
editorial texts. While there is some debate as to whether
text-based projects have yet lived up to their original promise
(Robinson 2005), there can be little doubt they are beginning
to be recognised as important works of scholarship in their own
right.
For developers of projects that depend heavily on multimedia
or collaborative technologies, however, the answer to this
question is far less clear. While open standards exist for the
encoding of image, moving pictures, and sound, there is little
agreement as to how these are to be presented to the end user:
unlike text-based projects, multi- and mixed media projects
still commonly rely on proprietary software or specific operating
systems (e.g. Foys 2002, Reed-Kline 2000; British Library
Board, n.d.). And while many digital projects propose using
collaborative technology in their design, there is as yet no
agreement on the fundamental issue of how such collaboration
can function in a research culture based on peer review and the
preservation of authorial integrity. A number of exemplary
projects are beginning to show how such technologies can be
applied in specific contexts or to solve specific research
problems (e.g. Ó Croinin et al. [n.d.], Toth et al. [n.d.]). But
we are still far from agreeing as to how they can be used more
generally to support day-to-day research by working humanities
scholars.
The Visionary Cross project addresses this problem by treating
it as a research question. Our goal is to produce a mixed-media
and extensible edition of a key group of Anglo-Saxon artefacts
associated with the “Visionary Cross” tradition in Anglo-Saxon
England: the eighth-century Ruthwell and Bewcastle standing
stone crosses, the tenth-century Vercelli Book dream of the
Rood poem, and the eleventh century Brussels Reliquary Cross
(for this tradition, see Ó Carragáin 2005).
These objects include some of the best known and most studied
of the period. The Ruthwell Cross is a 17 foot high stone cross
erected near a former Roman military site in Dumfriesshire
Scotland. It is perhaps best known to Anglo-Saxonists for a
runic inscription that may be the oldest known record of an
Anglo-Saxon vernacular poem, versions of which can be found
in the tenth-century Vercelli Book and eleventh-century
Brussels Cross (see Ó Carragáin 2005, 58-60; O'Donnell 1996,
287-288, for bibliography).
The Brussels Cross is a reliquary that once contained a fragment
from the supposed True Cross. It is built on an oak core that
was covered with precious metal and jewels and perhaps a
crucifixion (stolen sometime before 1793; see Van Ypersele
de Strihou 2000; Webster 1984; Ó Carragáin 2005). Gilt silver
decoration on the cross’s back and side bands bearing a
vernacular inscription have survived. On the centre of the back
of the cross is a depiction of the Agnus Dei; symbols of the
four evangelists are found at the terminals. An Old English
inscription around the edge quotes from a version of the same
poem found on the Ruthwell Cross and in the Vercelli Book.
A second inscription explains that the cross was made by two brothers in memory of a third. On the back we are told the name
of the artist responsible for its manufacture.
The Bewcastle Cross is a standing stone cross found, like the
Ruthwell Cross, at a former Roman military site. Approximately
the same size as Ruthwell and belonging perhaps to the same
artistic school, the severely weathered Bewcastle Cross still
stands in its original location (see Bailey and Cramp 1988). It
has the remains of a sundial on its side and may have been
painted and decorated with other metalwork or glass
attachments. The west face is carved with three figural panels,
of which two also appear on Ruthwell. The east side of the
cross is decorated with a continuous vinescroll similar to
Ruthwell; its north and south sides are carved with panels of
interlace, geometric, and foliate ornament. The lowest panel
on the west face shows a falconer wearing secular dress. This
usually is understood to represent the deceased man
commemorated in a now largely illegible runic inscription.
The Vercelli Book Dream of the Rood poem ties the members
of this collection together (ed. Swanton 1996). The Dream
poem describes an encounter with an object that is at once and
alternately a tree, a beacon (a word used to describe the Cross
on the Bewcastle Cross), a sign, and a cross sometimes covered
with blood, and sometimes covered (as in Brussels) with gold
and jewels. It ends with the Cross instructing the dreamer to
tell what he or she has seen and with the dreamer reciting an
expression of devotion and commemoration. The Dream is one
of only about 25 poems and poetic fragments known to have
survived the Anglo-Saxon period in more than one copy
(O'Donnell 1996; see also Orton 2000). If the runic carving on
Ruthwell is coeval with the rest of the monument, then the
poem has a textual history that is longer and more
geographically and linguistically diverse than almost any
vernacular poem in the period. The citation of a couplet from
the text on Brussels, moreover, suggests that it occupied a very
significant place in the vernacular literary imagination: the only
other known example of a similar verse citation in the period
is from the translation of the Psalter.
Together, these objects form a cultural matrix whose members
are associated along a number of textual, art historical,
liturgical, and archaeological planes. The goal of this project
is to use new technology to study these objects and their
relationships in ways impossible in print—or even in person.
Just as a textual edition improves upon witnesses by
contributing an interpretive apparatus, so to our edition will
improve on readers' knowledge of this matrix by placing it in
a hypermedia apparatus that will assist in its interpretation.
The value of this approach is perhaps most obvious in the case
of the crosses, which can be understood as multimedia objects
in their own right. In all three cases, the monuments gain
meaning from the interaction of text, image, and context. The
stone crosses appear to have been “read” by walking around in
a direction determined by their geographical orientation and
the order of the Liturgy. The Brussels cross—depending on
one's view of the object's original function—would likely have
been seen by contemporary audiences either as an altar piece
or carried in procession (On this spatial aspect see especially
Ó Carragáin 2005).
The new technologies also allow us to ask new questions about
the objects relationships with each other. Had an Anglo-Saxon
observer been lucky enough to see all four in a single lifetime
(an impossible proposition given their temporal and geographic
distribution), he or she would have understood them both as
individual works of art and as part of a larger web of cultural
traditions and references extending along various textual, art
historical, and generic planes. By taking advantage of
hypermedia's strength in the representation of arbitrary
connections, we as editors can now represent these connections
to modern scholars in a way that translates and augments the
original artefacts—in our edition, linking becomes a type of
hypermedia collation. In our edition, scholars will be able to
both to study the individual objects as objects in their own right
and follow the connections among them. In doing so they will
have access both to a collection unavailable to any single
Anglo-Saxon observer and the benefit of immediate access to
the best of recent criticism and centuries of secondary
scholarship.
By using recent developments in collaborative technologies,
finally, we hope this project—like the cultural knowledge it
attempts to capture and represents—will be open to
augmentation as our knowledge develops. By using standoff
markup, we intend to allow developers and users to anticipate
connections to other objects in the matrix or discover new
connections among existing objects in much the same way
contributors to the Wikipedia can predict the existence of
articles that have yet to be written or contribute “stubs” for
subsequent elaboration while retaining intellectual ownership
of their contributions (see Ore 2004 for a discussion of
collaborative editing; O'Donnell 2006 discusses some strengths
and weaknesses of the model for scholars).
If multimedia projects are going to answer our reviewer's
question, they must learn to do more than simply display—they
must also learn to edit. This paper discusses the approaches we
are and will be taking to this important problem in developing
a complex multimedia “edition” of a cultural matrix.
Bibliography
British Library. Turning the Pages. n.d.. <http://www.bl
.uk/collections/treasures/digitisation4.h
tml> Foys, Martin K., ed. The Bayeux Tapestry. Leicester: Scholarly
Digital Editions, 2003.
Ó Carragáin, Éamonn. Ritual and the Rood: Liturgical Images
and the Old English Poems of the Dream of the Rood Tradition.
Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005.
Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí, et al. ""Profilometry of Medieval Irish Stone
Monuments."" Foundations of Irish culture AD 600-850. n.d..
<http://www.foundationsirishculture.ie/ma
in.php?id=4>
Ore, Espen E. ""Monkey Business - or What is an Edition?""
Literary & Linguistic Computing 19.1 (2004).
O’Donnell, Daniel Paul. ""Manuscript Variation in Multiple
Recension Old English Poetic Texts: The Technical Problem
and Poetical Art."" PhD Thesis. Yale University, 1996.
O’Donnell, Daniel Paul. ""The Doomsday Machine, or, ‘If You
Build it, Will They Still Come Ten Years from Now?’."" Heroic
Age 7 (2004). <http://www.heroicage.org/issues
/7/ecolumn.html>
O’Donnell, Daniel Paul. ""O Captain! My Captain! Using
Technology to Guide Readers through an Electronic Edition.""
Heroic Age 8 (2005b). <http://www.heroicage.org/
issues/8/em.html>
O’Donnell, Daniel Paul. ""Why Should I Write for your Wiki?""
Working Paper 1. Readex Community Academic Advisor
Board. 2006.
Reed Kline, Naomi, ed. A Wheel of Memory: The Hereford
Mappamundi. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press,
2001.
Robinson, Peter. ""Current Issues in Making Digital Editions of
Medieval Texts—or, Do Electronic Scholarly Editions Have a
Future?"" Digital Medievalist 1.1 (2005). <http://www.di
gitalmedievalist.org/article.cfm?RecID=6>
Swanton, Michael James. ""The Dream of the Rood."" Old and
Middle English Texts. Exeter: University of Exeter, 1996.
Toth, Michael B., et al. The Archimedes Palimpsest. n.d.. <ht
tp://www.archimedespalimpsest.org/>
Van Ypersele de Strihou, Anne. Le Trésor de la Cathédrale
des Saints Michel et Gudule à Bruxelles. Brussels: Cathedral,
2000.
Webster, Leslie. ""The Brussels Cross."" The Golden Age of
Anglo-Saxon Art, 966-1066. Ed. Janet Backhouse, D. H. Turner
and Leslie Webster. London: British Museum, 1984.","txt","2","",""
"769","8","The LInguistic and Cultural Heritage Electronic Network (LICHEN): A New Electronic Framework for the Collection, Management, Online Display, and Exploitation of Multimodal Corpora","","The international, interdisciplinary and multilingual
LICHEN project, initiated by the Department of English
and the MediaTeam research group (Dept. of Electrical and
Information Engineering, MediaTeam 2006) at the University
of Oulu and the SCOTS corpus project at the University of
Glasgow (Scottish Corpus of Texts and Speech, 2006), focuses
on the languages and cultures of the northern circumpolar
region. Its underlying assumption is that language and culture
are as important to the survival and well-being of populations
as more obvious ecological, social and health issues and thus
it is also a member of the Circumpolar Health and Wellbeing
research programme run by the Centre for Arctic Medicine,
University of Oulu (Thule Institute 2006).
The aim of the project is two-fold: firstly, the project aims to
collect, preserve and disseminate information about the
languages spoken in the circumpolar region, thus also enabling
research on them. This will also help to promote the linguistic confidence and self-image of the speakers of these languages,
strengthening their cultural awareness and facilitating
cross-cultural communication between these peoples in an age
of rapid global change (Winsa 1998).
Secondly, and more importantly, the project aims to create an
electronic framework for the collection, management, online
display, and exploitation of existing corpora of the languages
of the circumpolar regions, which is also applicable to other
corpora that represent regional, social and other varieties of
languages. Humanities computing researchers, in particular,
have long recognized the need for new, more sophisticated
tools to aid scholarly research of textual data, not to mention
tools that would be able to handle multimodal data. Although
a number of tools have been developed, they suffer from various
restrictions, e.g. they are only applicable to the data they were
developed for, importing data is laborious, user interfaces and
encoding standards are outdated, considerable expertise in
programming is assumed, no support for multilinguality is
included, or they promise more than they offer. While there
have been some very promising advances made in this direction
(e.g. TAPOR Tools 2006), it is clear that more tools are needed.
The framework being developed in this project is intended to
be the equivalent of an extendable toolbox for corpus linguists.
It will attempt to offer much-needed functionality in an
easy-to-use package, which is shaped and built-on according
to real user needs. Initially emphasis will be given to the
implementation of the text capabilities of the system, but other
modalities (such as audio and video) are also taken into account.
The idea is to facilitate queries into a multimodal database using
both proven and novel ways of finding and displaying
information (Seppänen 2006). Metadata and metadata
visualisation, particularly in conjunction with the new
modalities, will be essential in achieving this. While we support
the use of best practices for the collection, preservation and
presentation of corpus data, we also recognize that some data,
particularly legacy data, may not be in a position to do so and
the shell must also support such data (Kretzschmar et al. 2006).
The system will also make migration to and from other tools
straightforward by offering import and export features for
commonly used programs. It will enable users to bring in their
own data, which they can keep private or make public using
the built-in web functionality. The database will also be capable
of handling several different versions of any document (for
example, revisions, interpretations or translations); these are
linked, a feature that can be made use of in queries. Queries
can be made using regular expressions, which may combine
free-form text (words, phrases) and part-of-speech tags, for
example.
The system is implemented in Java making it platform
independent and taking advantage of the many technological
components developed for that language. The ultimate goal of
the development of the computing tools is a shell which can be
adapted to any language. Therefore, support for multiple
languages and a variety of character encoding schemes are
important.
The main focus of the project is on Meänkieli and Kven, two
Finnic minority languages spoken in Sweden and Norway,
respectively, and Scots and Scottish English. At present we
have about 150 hours of tapes in Meänkieli and 100 hours of
tapes in Kven. More Kven material is currently being collected.
We also have access to both the structure and contents of the
Scottish Corpus of Texts and Speech (SCOTS) at the University
of Glasgow, currently totalling 3.5 million words of spoken
and written Scots and Scottish English.
The project began in 2004 and a prototype of the shell has now
been constructed. We will demonstrate this shell, showing some
of the basic functionality of the system while looking into
concrete research questions focusing on the image of
Scottishness as presented in Irvine Welsh’s Trainspotting
(1996). Since the story is found in novel, play and movie
versions, it affords an excellent testbed for a toolbox that can
handle multimodal data. Using a few key scenes as examples,
our research focuses on the questioning of national stereotypes
in terms of landscape, language and culture. We are thus
interested in the comparison of the images presented in the
three versions, which will also demonstrate the ability of the
toolbox to support versioning. While we concentrate on
linguistic features of Scottish English, we also demonstrate
how easy-to-use access to sound and images linked to the
transcription of the movie and the linking between the three
versions of the text greatly facilitate research such as ours that
must take into consideration images created both on all levels
of a text and across texts. Finally, we demonstrate the possibility
of making use of online dictionaries as an added tool in the
analysis of data from within the toolbox.
Since the shell is still in prototype form, we would welcome
this opportunity to discuss our needs and goals at DH2007, thus
drawing on the considerable expertise of the conference
participants in order to ensure that our tools benefit as wide a
range of users as possible.
Bibliography
TAPOR Tools . . Accessed 2006. <http://tapor.human
ities.mcmaster.ca/home.html>
Trainspotting. Dir. Danny Boyle.
4 Play. Vintage, 2001.
Hodge, John. Trainspotting. DVD. Vintage, 1996. Opas-Hänninen, and B. Plichta. ""Collaboration on Corpora for
Regional and Social Analysis."" Journal of English Linguistics
34.3 (2006): 175-205.
MediaTeam. Oulu Research Group . . Accessed 2006. < ht
tp://www.mediateam.oulu.fi/brief/?lang=en>
Scottish Corpus of Texts and Speech . . Accessed 2006. <htt
p://www.scottishcorpus.ac.uk/>
Seppänen, Tapio. ""Multimedia Information Retrieval."" Plenary
talk at Digital Humanities 2006, Paris, 5-8 July 2006. 2006.
Thule Institute . . Accessed 2006. < http://thule.oulu
.fi/>
Winsa, B. ""Language Attitudes and Social Identity. Oppression
and Revival of a Minority Language in Sweden."" Applied
Linguistics Association of Australia 17 (1998).","txt","2","",""
"770","8","The Role of the Computer in Humanities Computing","8","Professor Ott delivered the 2007 Busa Prize Lecture under this
title. What follows is the introduction to the lecture, provided
by Michael Sperberg-McQueen.
As John Unsworth has just said, the fourth Busa Award is given
to Wilhelm Ott. The members of the committee for this cycle
of the Busa Award were:
• Lorna Hughes (chair)
• Lisa Lena Opas-Hänninen
• Espen Ore
• Steve Ramsay
• Stefan Sinclair
The members of the Award committee have asked me to say a
few words about the work of Wilhelm Ott.
Like many of us, Wilhelm Ott came to our field by a circuitous
route.
As a young man, he studied at the Collegium Germanicum, a
seminary in Rome, but, if I understand correctly, he experienced
some tensions with his superiors. As in the traditional university,
a four-year study of the liberal arts was required before students
were allowed to embark on the study of the queen of sciences,
theology. Herr Ott and some of his fellow students incurred the
displeasure of the authorities by sneaking across the road in
some otherwise unoccupied time, to sit in on a series of lectures
on Paul's epistle to the Romans.
And then, in his master's thesis, that chapter on Heidegger!
Well, really.
Let's say just that when he continued his education elsewhere,
it was a mutual decision.
It was natural, perhaps, that from theology he should turn to
classical philology. As a student of modern languages, I have
always envied classicists their extensive set of ancillary tools,
their lexica, their dictionaries, their handbooks.
But to someone coming to classics from theology and Biblical
literature, of course, what seems most striking classics is the
striking poverty of the instrumentarium. Specialized glossaries and grammars for individual authors, concordances, systematic
lists of all kinds were much less thick on the ground than one
might wish.
And so, characteristically, he set out to help fill this gap.
His first work in this vein is a series of books published
beginning in 1970 providing tables and data for the systematic
study of the Latin hexameter: first of all a volume of Metrische
Analysen zur Ars poetica des Horaz, which provides tables of
scansions, elision, ictus, and related information for each line
of Horace's poem, modeled on similar tables for metrical studies
provided by Eduard Norden in his edition of the Aeneid.
Similar volumes followed, over the years, for the twelve books
of Vergi's Aeneid, for the Georgica and the Bucolica, for
Lucretius, and so on.
In the Foreword to the volume on Book VI of the Aeneid, there
appears a sentence which seems to sum up, programmatically,
both the capabilities and the potential limits of digital
processing:
Electronic data processing can be put into service whenever
data of any kind — notably including texts — must be processed
according to rules which are unambiguously formulatable and
completely formalizable.
What more compact formulation could we find of the
fundamental program of our field? And what more matter of
fact reminder that this is a description of those places where
computers can successfully be deployed, without any suggestion
of belief that they can be deployed absolutely everywhere.
The metrical tools set an emphasis which has continued to
characterize all of Herr Ott's work throughout his career:
computers should serve scholarly purposes, not vice versa. In
his discussion of the tables and their preparation, three virtues
are seen as particularly important:
• completeness
• reliability
• verifiability
All of these concerns characterize Herr Ott's later work as well.
There is, too, a concern for accessibility. Initially, it motivated
the publication of the metrical analyses in book form, to make
them accessible to classicists without compuational expertise
or means. Later, the concern for accessibility led to efforts to
make the software which generated those analyses accessible
to other scholars, to extend them to make a more tool useful
for other kinds of analysis as well. In due course, these efforts
produced a suite of programs for scholarly work with text,
which at some point acquired the name Tustep, the Tübingen
System of Text Processing tools.
Tustep embodied a number of important ideas:
• completeness: It can be used for all parts of a project's
normal work. There is an editor for data capture and
revision, there are copy commands and tape utilities for
archiving and moving data, there are a variety of general
and specialized proceessing tools for manipulating
documents, for sorting things, for extracting relevant items
from lists, for laying documents out on the page, for
photocomposition of the resulting pages, and so on.)
• verifiability: Every action undertaken with Tustep will be
logged, unless you take very active steps to avoid having it
logged.
• stability: Since projects may live for years or decades, the
stability of the program and of Tustep files is critically
important.
• consistency: Years before anyone outside of Bell Labs had
heard of Unix, Tustep adopted the principle that every tool
would have one primary input and one primary output, and
that the output of every tool would be usable as the input
to any other tool. In practice, this means that the primary
input and the primary output of each tool use the Tustep
file format.
This principle of ensuring that other Tustep programs can read
the primary output of any Tustep program is consistently
implemented, even in cases where one might have expected a
different choice. When I learned that the typesetting program
of Tustep also produces a Tustep file as its output — the PDF
or photocomposer file is, formally speaking, a side effect — I
admired the consistent application of the design principle but
privately thought that it bordered on the academic. Since for
practical purposes the main output of a typesetting program is
typeset pages, producing a Tustep file seems likely to be an
anticlimax. What useful output can it produce? Perhaps just a
copy of its input?
The most important idea of Tustep, though, is that it is the
responsibility of the software to serve the needs of scholarship,
and not vice versa, and that the responsibility of the scholar is
to respect the significant particularities of the material and the
demands of his discipline (not any standards of practice imposed
from outside, and least of all any limitations imposed by the
software.)
Tustep developed over thirty years of listening to the needs of
scholarship, consulting with projects and adding to Tustep the
functionality they needed to enable them to do their work.
Hundreds of editions have been prepared with it, some all the
way from beginning to end, from data capture through typeset
pages, others just translated into Tustep for the typesetting —
apparatus criticus is not easy to set!
If we are to take responsibility, as humanists, for our use of
machines, then it is necessarily now a part of humanities
scholarship to understand and develop ways to make machines adapt to the requirements of our work, and (while remaining
open to the exploitation of new and unforeseen opportunities)
to resist the temptation to adjust our practices to suit the
convenience of the machine. In this sense, Wilhelm Ott's
decades of work on Tustep have been not only the work of a
software developer, but more profoundly the work of a gifted
humanist.
It has been the great good fortune of our field to benefit from
Wilhelm Ott's work as a scholar. His work has taught a great
deal over the years to those wise enough to learn from it. And
I for one am grateful for the chance, this evening, to learn from
him in person.","txt","2","",""
"771","8","Bringing the Digital Revolution to Judaic Music: The Judaica Sound Archives (JSA)","","The Judaica Sound Archives at Florida Atlantic University
(FAU) has been in existence since 1990s with primary
funding from the FAU Libraries and some private funding from
donors. It was started as a grassroots effort by a Cantor to just
preserve and save some cantorial music and has now grown to
encompass all the arrays of Judaica music including as many
as 70,000 recordings. JSA’s aims and objectives have evolved
from the initial goal of establishing a preservation-quality digital
archive for at-risk sources of Judaic music to a full online
delivery system for sound, images and metadata with tools for
scholarly research and annotation. However, what has not
wavered or changed is the total commitment to the highest
quality and resolution for sound and images, excellent work
practices and rigorous quality control and constant evolution
and adaptation to new evolving technologies for audio and
textual digitization.
This abstract describes the JSA project from its inception to its
current phase, showcasing the innovative work that is being
done to develop this project, using computer technology to
overcome certain challenges and the usage of computing in a
unique method to make this collection more accessible to a
wider range of scholars and students.
JSA came about as a result of a fortuitous collision between of
a corpus of music recordings being donated to the FAU
Libraries and the rapid advances in digital technologies at FAU
Libraries making music accessibility to the academic users a
possibility. All these recordings are primary sources that revolve
around the life related to Jewish and Yiddish/Hebrew speaking
cultures in the United States in the early and mid-years of the
20th century. The principal work of this project falls into two
broad categories: digitizing rare at-risk recordings and making
these available digitally to the scholars, researchers and students
interested in computing humanities sound recordings. Beginning
with less than a thousand 78 rpm recordings, JSA’s holdings
have expanded to include LP albums, cassette tapes and 45 rpm
records. Taken together, this represents well over 70,000 sound
tracks. The collection is continually growing as a result of
material donations from institutions and individuals. The 78
rpm sound recordings received at JSA are identified by song, performer, and composer and entered into a database which is
searchable on this website. At present the collection holds 3,450
different titles on 78 rpm records, representing almost 7,000
different sound tracks produced between 1901 and the
mid-1950s. And JSA’s current short term goal is to digitize the
best example of every recording in the collection. The original
phonograph records or tapes are saved, shelved and protected
from further damage. One digitized copy is filtered and
enhanced electronically to improve the quality of the sound.
Another is kept in its original form.
According to, Samuel Brylawski, head of Recorded Sound
Section at the Library of Congress,” Digital media have the
advantage of not suffering any loss of information as they are
copied, unlike the generational losses inherent in the duplication
of analog media such as discs and cassette tape. The future of
audio preservation is reformatting audio tapes and discs to
computer files and systematically managing those files.”
University of California reported the first digital audio project
in the 1980s. Since then there has been a steady increase in
digital audio preservation projects. In a survey conducted by
Richard Griscom, about 42 libraries in the US responded to
having some kind of digital audio project available. However,
JSA is the only project in the nation that works on not only
preserving, but also digitizing and making accessible online
and on-site the rare Judaic recordings. Other important work
in the field of audio digitization is being done by Cornell
University, Indiana University and University of California,
Berkeley. However, Indiana University is the only library
system that is dealing with audio that is music much like JSA.
The difference in their approach is that it is not specific to a
certain culture or region and they are more focused on music
images and sheet music scores unlike the JSA focus on making
music files accessible and available. The music is searchable
using a database that implements the Daitch-Mokotoff Soundex
encoding. The music is then streamed onto the listeners’
computer.
This poster discussion will also include the various steps
involved in digitizing audio. We will discuss the Analog Format
Inspection, Playback Equipment Calibration, Analog to Digital
Conversion, Digital Editing System, and Accessibility and
Distribution. For the digital media, the goal is to make the
collection as generic as possible, thereby maximizing
accessibility and setting the stage for easy migration to the next
generation of digital storage.
In conclusion, this poster will provides a detailed overview of
the critical steps relevant to the digitization process of these
analog primary resource materials and making this music
available and searchable online.","txt","2","",""
"772","8","The Encoding of Time in Manuscripts Transcription: Toward Genetic Digital Editions","","Writing is a process that occurs in time. This simple and
obvious consideration involves many issues both from
a theoretical and practical point of view. A critical evaluation
of timing is really crucial in the case of modern authors'
autograph draft manuscripts because different layers of
corrections, deletions and additions can give insight into an
author’s way of working, key to the interpretations of his/her
works and the evolution of the author’s Weltanschaung, as
highlighted in genetic criticism over the last few years.1
Medieval manuscripts copied by one ore more scribes are also,
of course, the result of a process that occurred in time, but the
different kind of authorship involved in such cases seems to
involve a difference in the evaluation of the cultural weight of
recorded variants.
When a scholar inspects a written text, especially a manuscript,
s/he has in his/her hands the final result of that process and can
choose whether to approach it from a
codicological/documentary point of view, “photographing” the
resulting product, or from a genetic point of view, trying to
describe the teleological flow of authoring. The first approach
is more typical of scribes’ copies, the latter of autographic
(draft) manuscripts.
Practically, time based editions are really difficult to represent
in printed works, because of the bi-dimensionality of paper
sheets.
On voudrait représenter dans la bidimensionalité des pages un
processus génétique dont on s’est pourtant appliqué à montrer
que sa proprieté est d’ajouter à l’écrit, qui est bidimensionel,
une troisième dimension, qui est celle du temps!
(Gresillon 1994:121)
In a digital framework bi-dimensionality can be overruled by
a hypertextual/multimedia approach that can allow the creation
of a more flexible context for the presentation of a genetic
edition. The problem of a time based encoding has been
discussed in several circumstances (i.e. TEI Manuscripts SIG
Meeting Report 01, Vanhoutte 2002 that suggests the usage of
the markup solution employed in the transcription of speech
for the purpose), but – up till now – a coherent encoding model for such editions has not been proposed. And for a good reasons:
while it is possible to describe a relative-timed process, it is
very complicated, if not impossible, to draw a general
absolute-timed framework.
Analysis and time-based encoding of
authorial interventions
Let us consider a couple of examples taken from page 3595
of Zibaldone of Giacomo Leopardi.
Fig. 1
In this line we can detect two corrections: 1) deletion of the
line under “si” and 2) deletion of “dotti” corrected into “denti”.
We can try to draw the timing of the creation of the segment
as follow:
Time 1: writing “che e’ si rechi a dotti”
Time 2: deletion of “dotti”; consequent writing of “denti”
Time 3: underlying of “si”
Time 4: deletion of the line under “si”
Time 5: underlying of “rechi” and “denti”
Time 6: writing of “l’un d’essi cibi”
Other timetables are also possible, but let’s assume this is the
more probable one. The text can be encoded using a TEI-based
mark-up with the help of a new global attribute (@time),
intending that it’s just an example to help the conceptualization
of the problem: <seg time=""1"">che e' <del
type=""underline deletion"" time=""4"">
<hi rend=""underline"" time=""3"">si</hi>
> </del>
<hi rend=""underline"" time=""5"">rechi a'</hi>
<del type=""overstrike"" time=""2"">dotti</del>
</seg>
> <seg time=""2"">
<hi rend=""underline"" time=""5"">denti</hi>
</seg>
<seg time=""6"">l'un d'essi cibi</seg>
Such transcription tries to model the real flow of writing, but
such a model may not be workable. In fact, it will fragment the
flow of the plain writing in potentially infinite pieces. To
simplify it, we can assume as Time 0 (default) the time of the
normal plain writing flow, timing just editorial interventions.
The schedule will then be modified as follows:
Time 0: writing “che e’ si rechi a dotti”
Time 1: deletion of : “dotti”
Time 0: writing of “denti”
Time 2: underlying of “si”
Time 3: deletion of the underline under “si”
Time 4: underlying of “rechi” and “denti”
Time 0: writing of “l’un d’essi cibi”
A further simplification is also possible: assuming that – in
genetic criticism terms – so-called “writing variant” (deletion
of a single word substituted by another that immediately follows
on the same line) occurs during the normal writing flow, the
following model can be drawn:
Time 0: writing “che si rechi a dotti”; deletion of : “dotti”;
writing of “denti”; writing of “l’un d’essi cibi”
Time 1: underlying of “si”
Time 2: deletion of the underline under “si”
Time 3: underlying of “rechi” and “denti”
This will be the consequent new encoding: che e' <del
type=""underline deletion"" time=""2""> <hi
rend=""underline"" time=""1"">si</hi></del>
<hi rend=""underline"" time=""3"">rechi a'</hi>
<del type=""overstrike"">dotti</del> <hi
rend=""underline"" time=""3"">denti</hi> l'un
d'essi cibi
The last possibility should not imply that any inline correction
is to be considered as done in Time 0, but just the one followed
by the correction. In fact, in the case of a deletion of an adjective
or of any other word not essential from a syntactical point of
view, the correction can occur in any time.
Fig. 2
This passage can be timed as follow:
Time 1: writing “che di due Eroi a”;
Time 2: deletion of “a”;
Time 3: writing of “quanto si voglia pari di”
Time 4: interlinear addition of “o più” after “Eroi”
Time 5: deletion of the addition
Time 6: interlinear addition of “o più” after “due”
Or, in the simplified version, as follow:
Time 0: writing of “che di due Eroi a”; deletion of “a”;
writing of “quanto si voglia pari di”
Time 1: interlinear addition of “o più” after “Eroi”
Time 2: deletion of the addition
Time 3: interlinear addition of “o più” after “due” The encoding model (simplified version): che di due <add
place=""intralinear"" time=""3"">o più</add>
Eroi <del type=""overstrike"">a</del> <del
type=""overstrike"" time=""2""><add
place=""intralinear"" time=""1"">o
più</add></del> quanto si voglia pari di
By applying different stylesheets to the encoded texts, it will
be possible to show all the different stages and to give the user
the possibility of browsing among them.
Relative or absolute?
The two above examples occur on the same page: shall we
then consider Time 1 of the first example the same of
Time 1 of the second example? The answer should be: no; very
little can be said about the timing of editorial/authorial
intervention in two different segments. The possibility of
establishing an absolute timing for correction is applicable only
where we have strong palaeographic evidences or authorial
declarations dating or describing a revision.
For instance, we can imagine an author used to typewrite his/her
texts and then to correct them by hand: in this case the
assumption of an absolute time is possible. But as different
layers of hand corrections can also occur, there will be, in this
case also, the necessity of considering relative-timed
interventions. This situation can be represented in encoding
distinguishing absolute and relative timing for instance by the
application of two different attributes, i.e. @timeRel and
@timeAbs In a digital framework an incorrect consideration
of time as absolute or relative can bring to display texts that
never existed. Let us imagine for a moment that we build an
XSLT based tool able to display at a time either Time 1, Time
2 or Time 3 etc. variants: the results would be the display of
variants that might have lived in different moments.
I think that, in absence of explicit authorial declarations or of
palaeographic evidence, the only possible display would be to
show timing of variants segment by segment, i.e. to give
evidence just of relative timed corrections.
In the presentation I will present some examples from different
authors (Giacomo Leopardi, Jane Austen, Virginia Woolf and
some others) to examine the complexity of representation of
temporal factors in digital genetic editions.
1. The question is too complex just to try to give some basic
references; anyway Gresillon 1994 will offer a good starting point.
Bibliography
Grésillon, A. Eléments de critique génétique. Lire les manuscrits
modernes. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1994.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and Lou Burnard, eds. TEI P4:
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, XML
Compatible Edition. Oxford: TEI Consortium, 2002. <http:
//www.tei-c.org/P4X/index.html>
TEI Manuscripts SIG. Meeting Report 01. Nancy: ATILF,
November 8th 2003 . <at http://www.tei-c.org.uk
/Activities/SIG/Manuscript/mssigr01.xml.I
D=body.1_div.3>
Vanhoutte, Edward. ""Putting Time Back in Manuscripts. Text
Ontology, Critique Génétique and Modern Manuscript."" Paper
presented at ALLC/ACH 2002 Tübingen: University of
Tübingen, 25 July 2002. 2002. <http://www.uni-tueb
ingen.de/cgi-bin/abs/abs?propid=93>","txt","2","",""
"773","8","Form and Format: Towards a Semiotics of Digital Text Encoding","","Theories of the sign
This consideration begins in the theories of signification
proposed in Structuralism, particularly as elucidated by
Ferdinand de Saussure and interpreted by Roland Barthes
(drawing on Hjelmslev and others). It will further be informed
by the general theory of “autopoiesis” as articulated by
Maturana and Varela (1987) and by other recent studies of
language and signification influenced by systems theory.
Of particular importance to this treatment are the following
Structuralist principles:
• Composite nature of the sign - a sign is an event or a relation
between two components, a signifying part (signifier,
expression, or token) and a signified part (the content or
meaning of the sign).
• Arbitrary nature of the sign - the relation between signifier
and signified in a sign is arbitrary, not inevitable or given
by nature. Thus slippage is possible in principle and, in
some systems, is common. This potential for slippage is
what accounts for much of the flexibility, adaptability and
power of sign systems.
• Signs work in combination: individual words, for example,
have their significations, but when words are combined into
sentences they become more useful and more expressive.
• Complete signs (considered as signifier/signified pairs) can
also enter into signifying relations. For example, a
metalanguage is a system of signs that describes another
system of signs; expressions in the metalanguage represent
signs in the signified sign system. Metalanguages provide
channels of regulation and feedback that are conducive to
the development of the sign systems they describe, and
eventually (when formalized sufficiently) enable automated
processes to manipulate signs systematically. Conversely,
a connotative system is a system of signs in which the
signifying parts of signs are themselves signs (one might
think of literary texts). Connotative systems demonstrate
the reciprocal relations between layers in a sign system and the way significations at higher levels can condition and
affect signification at lower levels, even apart from the
application of metalanguages. While metalanguages abstract
and formalize the sign systems they describe, connotative
systems work by deploying signs as they are used concretely
in other contexts, bringing alternative significations into
play. Likewise, while metalanguages systematize and
formalize, and thus indicate where automated rules-based
processing is possible, connotative systems draw on and
reflect particular significations available only in specific
local contexts, and indicate where automation by traditional
means is difficult or impossible.
Figure 1: In both natural and artificial systems, a combination of simplicity
of design with complexity, versatility and adaptability of application is achieved
through a layered structure in which components with distinctive functions are
made by combining simpler components.
The Semantics of Layers and the
Layering of Semantics
Avery useful distinction can be made between two different
modes of signification, which we can call operational
and representational semantics. The representational semantics
of a sign corresponds to the conventional notion of what a sign
is and how it functions, that a sign “stands for” something,
reflecting and naming an actually existent “thing” in a real or
imagined world. In contrast, the operational semantics describes
not what the sign refers to in a purported world (which may or
may not be present to the senses), but rather simply how it
operates within the signifying system — which generally
includes the world, or at least the present and active
circumstances of the sign's use. (This in itself is the major
difference between “human” and “machine” semantics [Piez
2002].) The rules of combination that allow any given set of
signs to be assembled into a higher-order organization, which
itself has signifying potential, are part of their operational
semantics; but so also are any disambiguating “incidentals”.
At all layers, operational semantics may be conditioned or
constrained by their context of operation: the “meaning” of a
sign is not built into the sign, but is established ad hoc, by
means of those distinctions between it and possible alternatives
that result in particular outcomes in application.
Interestingly, careful consideration suggests that while we often
consider that the representational aspect of a sign is fundamental
to its operation and provides part of its operational semantics,
in general the opposite is the case: operational semantics are
primary, and representational semantics can only be established
once operational semantics are set and perhaps codified. Once
a sign's operation has been established repeatedly it can start
to “carry its context with it” — that is, its context can begin to
include prior contexts, implicitly recognized — and this is the
beginning of representation. (A compelling description of this
process in human language development as well as in the more
rudimentary linguistic capabilities of chimpanzees, bonobos
and gorillas, may be read in [Greenspan and Shankar 2004].)
Thus, what any given sign represents must be inferred from its
context of operation — which may include the traces of other
occasions of its use — and much energy is given, in the
application of sign systems to doing useful work in the world,
to negotiating these inferences.
The construction of layered sign systems, in which complex
representations may be reliably constructed by a rules-based
assembly from simpler components, has the precise advantage
of managing and reducing this expenditure of energy.
Metalanguages (such as an orthography, formal logic, or the
grammars of natural or artificial languages), which describe
sign systems themselves and stipulate rules for their operation,
are more than sterile intellectual exercises. By abstracting and
codifying the application of rules to signs, they reduce the need
to rely on sheer brute force methods (memorization or
negotiation) to support the assembly of signs into sign systems,
thus reducing overall complexity and enabling more
sophisticated operations at higher levels.
Accordingly, media can be built out of building blocks
constituted of other media. Within a (relatively highly evolved)
language, utterances take the form of sentences or statements,
composed out of words; words are composed of phonemes (or
of letters, in the case of written words). When sentences or
statements or propositions are combined, they constitute yet
another medium at a higher level, which might be identified
with argument or narrative. Thus, media are built in layers,
each layer a hierarchy of subsystems on a lower layer. This is
characteristic of complex systems generally in both the natural
and artificial worlds (see [Simon 1996]).
In general, this layering is characterized by two related
phenomena: • The distinctions between the layers becomes clearer over
time: media formats evolve and become more systematic
and coherent in composition. More and more complex and
comprehensive structures become progressively easier to
realize, at the cost of a certain kind of expressive power
characteristic of early or individual experiments. The higher
layers, as they solidify and consolidate, induce a process of
simplification and rationalization at lower layers.
• Likewise, as you go up the stack, the distinction between
layers becomes less clear. The difference between a letter
and a word is almost always clear, but the distinction
between a statement and an argument is less so.
As media ascend in complexity, each layer is capable of more
“meaningfulness” than the layer it is built on; or at least it has
greater representational power, due to the consolidation of
operational and (on that basis) even of representational
semantics at lower layers. In turn, the context provided by the
combination of any set of tokens at any layer provides
information relevant to the construing of the local meaning of
each of the constituent tokens. This interpenetrating influence
between layers, familiar to all students of language and
literature, is an important feature of the entire system.
The most complex and “highest” of these layers currently might
go by the name of information architectures. Until recently we
have not really needed to have a name for this layer or members
of it (signs that appear in it), as they have for the most part been
identified with print media: we have spoken of indexes,
cross-references, tables of contexts, abstracts, summaries and
bibliographies without being aware that these things might not
have to be printed on paper. This is because traditionally, in
order to stabilize complex bodies of information, particular
features of print media have been indispensible — temporal
persistence and asynchrony; “random” or holistic access;
conventions of citation; graphic and typographic queues
representing organization and providing for navigability;
economies of scale afforded by mass production; and so on.
Now these features are available in the formats provided by
digital media — along with elaborations of them such as the
hyperlink, dynamic display and device independence — it
becomes useful to consider this higher layer without identifying
it with print technology.
Figure 2: Various different forms of communications media are formed by
layering.
Figure 3: At lower layers, alignments between constituent parts are generally
possible, leading to representational correspondences not only between media
and the world, but across media themselves. At higher layers, media find their
own particular strengths, constituting 'worlds of their own' whose
representational capabilities are both presumably greater, and more
problematic.
The Emergence of the Digital
Like all media (cf. Marshall McLuhan), digital formats
begin as representations (operational refigurations) of
prior media. But just as alphabetic literacy, following the logic
of its own peculiar operational semantics, quickly assumes
forms distinct from the oral forms it begins by mediating, digital
media soon become something other than the print counterparts
that were to be “transmitted” by telecommunications
technologies. Again, it achieves these forms by layering.
Despite the highly developed form of the processing stack when
it comes to the computer's own processing (its operations),
however, when it comes to digital media we are still at a point when these layers are inchoate — although the standardization
efforts of the last decade (especially as regards HTML, CSS,
XML and XSLT) are providing a level of metalinguistic control
conducive to their development and maturation. Yet for the
most part, applications of digital media are still either derivative
of other forms (in the sense that a page on the web may be
almost entirely analogous to the same document in print) or
directly in service to them; digital media have not fully come
into their own.
Nonetheless, the usefulness and power of layering in this
context too has long been recognized: we only need to recall
the familiar dogma (and the discussion that has surrounded it)
of the “separation of format from content” in the design and
deployment of markup-based publication systems (see
[Sperberg- McQueen and Burnard, 1994], [Durand et al. 1996],
[Piez 2001], [Sperberg-McQueen et al. 2002], [Piez 2002]).
This tradition recognizes that so-called “descriptive encoding”
works by anticipating and expressing at a lower layer (in what
we call source code), the rationale for structures to be expressed
at higher layers through site organization, page layout,
typography, screen widgetry, linking and all the apparatus of
a full-blown architecture. In this respect, the tagging of an XML
document whose encoding is descriptive and data-oriented
rather than prescriptive and application-oriented proves to be
a connotative system, as the signifiers (the element names “title”
and “p”) that describe the data (this chunk of text is a nominal
paragraph; that one a title) are themselves signs, to be
transformed by a heuristic and rules-based process into
renditions that will themselves signify to readers that they are
paragraphs or titles. This anticipation or prolepsis by markup
of further signification elucidates the confusion as to whether
we consider descriptive encoding to be at a “higher” or “lower”
layer, as indeed it is paradoxically both. Within a classical
three-tiered architecture, the XML encoding is “below” its
HTML (or print, or SVG, or ODF) rendition; yet we also
describe the conversion from descriptive XML into a
presentational format such as HTML as a “down-conversion”
(since it “loses information”), by rendering only indirectly in
presentational features, if at all, what is explicit in the source.
The reason we can, in effect, go down to go up, is that here the
lower layer achieves its aim of scalability and reusability by
working to describe a higher layer that it is not yet practical (if
it ever will be) for the computer to infer on its own: it provides,
in representational form by a kind of ""sleight of hand"" (the
operational semantics being invisible to the machine and left
to the stylesheet designer), information that would ordinarily
be available only by a processing context not yet available —
the act of reading itself. In fact, the transformation from
descriptive XML to HTML is not actually taking it “up” the
ladder towards richer information design; it is merely
transposing the data into another stack altogether, where, since
the operational semantics of HTML are more tightly bound to
standard processing contexts (the browser), its implicit
functionalities can be elaborated, while the representational
aspect can be deferred to where it makes more sense — where,
because the tagging now signifies “large and bold”, the reader
can be trusted to infer “title”.
Yet the same discussion has also masked deeper problems and
issues (see [Buzzetti 2002], [Caton 2005]) stemming from the
limitations in current markup systems, which can gracefully
handle only a single organizational hierarchy at a time, and thus
lack the representational and expressive power necessary to
take full advantage of the computer's capabilities for useful
automated processing of complex textual artifacts.
Nevertheless, understanding digital text encoding technologies
as complex sign systems elucidates how and why they function
without resorting to the metaphysical appeal that “good”
encoding should be designed to describe the “thing itself”.
Especially given the limitations inherent in XML's design, such
a position proves soon to be untenable; yet XML systems
succeed in doing useful work notwithstanding, and provide the
foundations for sustainable, scalable and navigable information
resources, whose presentational features (interfaces) can be
improved over time. This in itself represents a major advance
over what was ever possible in the past.
More generally, a consideration of digital text encoding as a
distinctive semiotic system, with its own metalanguages and
its own relation to media artifacts, suggests why the humanistic
study of digital media remains so foreign to traditional
disciplines in the humanities. Likewise, it points the way to the
future, as it becomes clear what, and how much, still remains
to be done.
Figure 4: While metalanguages can be expensive to maintain, they provide
means not only to describe but also to maintain and control the communications
media they describe. Bibliography
Barthes, Roland. Elements of Semiology. Trans. Annette Lavers
and Colin Smith. New York: Wang and Hill, 1967.
Buzzetti, Dino. ""Digital Representation and the Text Model.""
New Literary History 33.1 (2002): 61-88..
Caton, Paul. ""Markup's Current Imbalance."" Markup
Languages: Theory and Practice 3.1 (2001).
Caton, Paul. ""LMNL Matters?"" Proceedings of Extreme Markup
Languages 2005, Montréal, Québec, August 2005. 2005. <ht
tp://www.idealliance.org/papers/extreme/p
roceedings/author-pkg/2005/Caton01/EML200
5Caton01.zip>
Durand, David, Steven J. DeRose, and Elli Mylonas. ""What
Should Markup Really Be? Applying Theories of Text to the
Design of Markup Systems."" ACH/ALLC 1996. Available from
<http://cs-people.bu.edu/dgd/ach96_talk/R
edefining_long.html>
Greenspan, Stanley I., and Stuart G. Shanker. The First Idea:
How Symbols, Language, and Intelligence Evolved from our
Primate Ancestors to Modern Humans. Da Capo Press, 2004.
Maturana, Humberto R., and Francisco Varela. The Tree of
Knowledge: The Biological Roots of Human Understanding.
1987. Shambhala, 1992.
Piez, Wendell. ""Beyond the 'Descriptive vs. Procedural'
Distinction."" Proceedings of Extreme Markup Languages 2001,
Montréal, Québec, August 2001. . <http://www.ideall
iance.org/papers/extreme/proceedings/html
/2001/Piez01/EML2001Piez01.html>
Piez, Wendell. ""Human and Machine Sign Systems.""
Proceedings of Extreme Markup Languages 2002, Montréal,
Québec, August 2002. Ed. B. T. Usdin and S. R. Newcomb.
2002. <http://www.idealliance.org/papers/ex
treme/proceedings/html/2002/Piez01/EML200
2Piez01.html>
Renear, Allen. ""The Descriptive/Procedural Distinction is
Flawed."" Extreme Markup Languages 2000, Montréal, Québec,
August 2000. Reprinted in Markup Languages: Theory and
Practice. 2000.
Renear, Allen H., David Dubin, C. M.Sperberg-McQueen, and
Claus Huitfeldt. ""Towards a Semantics for XML Markup.""
Proceedings of the 2002 ACM Symposium on Document
Engineering, McLean, VA, November 2002. Ed. Richard Furuta,
Jonathan I. Malectic and Ethan V. Munson. New York:
Association for Computing Machinery, 2002. 119-126.
Saussure, Ferdinand de. Course in General Linguistics. Trans.
Wade Baskin. 1916. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966.
Simon, Herbert. The Sciences of the Artificial. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press, 1996.
""A Gentle Introduction to SGML."" Guidelines for Electronic
Text Encoding and Interchange. Ed. C. M. Sperberg-McQueen
and Lou Burnard. 1994. Chicago: TEI Consortium, 1997. 13-36.
<http://www.isgmlug.org/sgmlhelp/g-index.
htm>
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., David Dubin, Claus Huitfeldt, and
Allen H. Renear. ""Drawing Inferences on the Basis of Markup.""
Proceedings of Extreme Markup Languages 2002, Montréal,
Québec, August 2002. Ed. B. T. Usdin and S. R. Newcomb.
2002. <http://www.idealliance.org/papers/ex
treme/proceedings/html/2002/CMSMcQ01/EML2
002CMSMcQ01.html>","txt","2","",""
"774","8","Phonemic Accumulations and the Analysis of Poetry","","Ishall present my latest work on the theory of phonemic
accumulations and its application to the study of poetry.
Computerized stylistics tends to concentrate on words: word
frequencies, word co-occurrences, word collocations, and word
distributions. My computer-assisted study of stylistics
concentrates on the phonemic content of the texts. Computerized
phonemic analysis is beginning to yield interesting insights into
written texts, especially those, such as poetry, for which sound
patterning constitutes a significant element. In A Companion
to Digital Humanities (2004), Ian Lancashire mentions sound
as a future source of inquiry in textual stylistics: “As the
implications of cognitive research become understood,
text-analysis systems may change, and with them stylistics.
Texts in languages whose spelling departs widely from its
sounding will likely be routinely translated into a phonological
alphabet, before processing, as researchers recognize the
primacy of the auditory in mental language processing”
(“Cognitive Stylistics and the Literary Imagination”). I have
begun undertaking this work with a computer application that
translates poems into their broad phonetic transcriptions. The
program can then provide visualizations of the phonemic
content of the poems, and it can perform calculations on the
content.
The theory of phonemic accumulations is based on the theory
of the persistence of vision: the effect of a phoneme when
reading is carried through to the following phonemes. At the
same time, its effect tapers off. When the same phoneme is
encountered while the effect of the first phoneme has not been
nullified, a cumulative effect of the two phonemes is produced.
This gives rise to important sound effects in poetry and literature
in general, the most obvious of which is alliteration. The
cumulative effect of the /s/ phonemes in “silver silent sails” far
exceeds the effect of the individual /s/ phonemes if the words
occurred at a greater distance from each other. My computer
program is able to quantify the impression the /s/ phonemes
may have on the reader of these words.
While many different possibilities present themselves for
analysis, my current work focusses on calculations of the
fricative accumulations and the plosive accumulations of a
poem. The fricative consonants are often regarded as soft
sounds, while the plosive consonants are often regarded as
harsh sounds. I have already shown that the percentage of
plosives and fricatives in poems is mostly constant across poems
and authors. Consequently, the occurrence of these phonemes
on their own do not produce a significant effect; it is the
groupings or occurrences in proximity with each other that
seem to produce effects upon the reader. Graphs of their
phonemic accumulations exhibit distinct peaks and troughs,
and the differences between the two accumulations reveal
interesting insights.
For example, Robert Browning’s “Two in the Campagna” has
a very intense climax of the difference of the fricative and
plosive accumulations in its fifth, sixth, and seventh stanzas.
These stanzas are those that are most expressive of true love
and passion: while the whole poem is an expression of love,
more negative thoughts such as the fleetingness of life and the
inability to achieve true love on earth are intermingled with the
attempts to seduce. The three stanzas with the fricative
accumulation climax, however, are the most rhapsodic, the least
tainted with doubt. Similarly, in Browning’s “Porphyria’s
Lover,” a poem about the murdering of a woman whom the
speaker loves too intensely, the stanza (or five-line set—the
poem is not officially divided into stanzas) with the greatest
climax of the difference of the fricative and plosive
accumulations is the fifth, where the speaker of the poem tells
how Porphyria expresses her love for him. The rest of the poem
is predominantly heavier on the plosive accumulation side. The
pattern that emerges is that when the difference between the
fricative and plosive accumulations favours the fricatives, the
sentiment of the poem is more positive, loving, and sincere.
When the plosives are favoured, the sentiment of the poem is
more insincere, withdrawn, and bleak. I shall present my results
for these and other poems of a similar structure. These are early
results, but the results are very promising.
This work is important for the study of literature. This is the
first time (that I am aware of) that the phonemic content of a
text, i.e. its sound on the page, is put to such advanced
calculations. Literary analyses often have to rely upon
impressionistic language when discussing the effect of the
sounds of the words upon the reader: phrases such as, “the
prevalence of s sounds in the final stanza leaves the reader with
a soothing, peaceful feeling, one that has countered the chaos
of the opening stanzas.” Through the analysis of phonemic
content such as I am performing, I can provide critics with
quantifiable data upon which to base their claims. Further, the
possibility that phonemic accumulations are related to the ideas
expressed in the poems suggests strongly that a computer can
begin to interpret poetry: that it can distinguish passages with
expressions of intense, sincere love from passages with
expressions of self-doubt or insincerity. Phonemic analysis may
produce significant developments in the field of artificial
intelligence.","txt","2","",""
"775","8","Examples of Images in Text Editing","","In 2002, Computers and the Humanities dedicated an issue
to “Image-based Humanities Computing” at a time when
“a majority of first generation image-based humanities
computing projects have reached at least an initial plateau of
completion.” (Kirschenbaum, p. 3) Since that time interest in
incorporating primary source images into “text” editions has
blossomed, as can be attested by recent threads on the TEI
listserv and work on the TEI council to develop
recommendations for specific methods for integrating image
files – and pointers to areas of image files – into traditional text
encoding projects. The number of image-based projects has
multiplied in that time as well, although it takes some effort to
find who is working on such projects. There is not (yet) a central
listing of all image-based TEI projects under development.
Practical work has been done on tool development since 2002
as well. As of March 1, 2007 there are no less than six tools of
which I am aware that serve to edit or display images within
the context of text editing. The majority of these tools are for
linking text and image for digital display.1 Add to these
additional tools for the simple annotation of images2 and tools
for tagging multimedia.3 Undoubtedly, the proliferation of tools
focused on image editing and display reflects a growing interest
in incorporating images into digital editions.
The number of tools available for working with text plus image
in digital editing highlights a simple truth: projects and their
sources are different, and technologies that will work for one
project might be incompatible with another. On the other hand,
technologies applicable in simple circumstances might be
expanded and combined with other technologies to suit much
more complex situations. In this presentation, I will describe
the sources of two digital projects with reference to their
requirements for becoming viable digital projects. One is quite
simple and the other complex, but the same methods inform
both projects.
MS Cambridge, Pembroke College MS 25, the subject of the
Digital Edition of Cambridge, Pembroke College MS 25 ,
(Pembroke 25 project) directed by Paul Szarmach, Director of
the Medieval Academy of America, and Thomas N. Hall at the
University of Notre Dame. Pembroke 25 is a collection of
Anglo-Latin homilies, copied at the scriptorium at Bury St.
Edmunds in the late eleventh or early twelfth century by a scribe
– or perhaps two scribes – who used the round English Caroline
minuscule common there rather than the more pointed Norman
Caroline minuscule that came to prominence in England in the
period immediately following the Norman Conquest. Following
the disillusionment of Bury St. Edmunds in 1538, Pembroke
25 disappeared for a time, but it was given to Pembroke College,
Cambridge, at the end of the sixteenth century, and it still lives
in that library today. It has been well maintained, it is not
damaged, and the script is clear and easy to decipher.
For an edition of this sort, a single text from a single manuscript,
the encoding requirements are relatively simple. This
manuscript is purely textual, not illustrated or illuminated in
any way, but we are noting all abbreviations and distinctive
paleographical aspects in the manuscript (including scribal
emendations), as well as marginalia. The TEI Header contains
some descriptive information, notably a descriptive list of all
abbreviation types that are linked to the individual abbreviations
throughout the project. We are using the EPPT for the
text-image linking in this project, and I will give a brief
demonstration of the project as it stands at the time of the
conference.
The Electronic Aelfric , directed by Aaron Kleist at Biola
University and developed by a large group of collaborators,
seeks to edit eight Old English homilies by Ælfric of Eynsham,
who was arguably the most educated and prolific writer of tenth
century England. These homilies cover the period from Easter
to Pentecost, and trace their development through six phases
of authorial revision and then through nearly 200 years of
transmission following Ælfric’s death: twenty-four sets of
readings or strands of textual tradition found in twenty-eight
manuscripts produced in at least five scriptoria between 990
and 1200.
The contrast between the Electronic Aelfric and Pembroke 25
is great: while Pembroke 25 is one manuscript, the Electronic
Aelfric draws from twenty-eight manuscripts. Although no
single homily out of the eight occurs in more than ten of these
manuscripts, it is still a great number of textual variants to deal
with. In addition to the text, the project also needs to address
the individual manuscripts – six of which are from the infamous
Cotton Collection (now housed in the British Library), damaged
by fire in 1731. Those manuscripts that are not damaged still
have singularities, such as marginalia, that we also wish to
encode and link to image. We are using the EPPT for this
project, partnered with the TEI Apparatus tags, to bring together
the text and images of several different manuscripts. I will show
examples of corresponding manuscript pages, as well as sample
code illustrating multiple variants partnered with image-text
linking. 1. Edition Production and Presentation Technology (EPPT),
developed by Kevin Kiernan under the aegis of the Electronic
Boethius project, <http://www.eppt.org/eppt-tr
ial/EPPT-TrialProjects.htm>
Image processing services, developed by Neel Smith and
Christopher Blackwell through Harvard's Center for Hellenic
Studies, at Digital incunabula: a CHS site devoted to the
cultivation of digital arts and letters, <http://chs75.ha
rvard.edu/projects/diginc/techpub/image
s>
Juxta, developed through the NINES project (networked
infrastructure for nineteenth-century electronic scholarship), <h
ttp://www.nines.org/tools/juxta.html>
Florian Thienel, “Konzept für einen editionsphilologischen
EDV-Arbeitsplatz auf der Basis von XML und verwandten
Standards” Diplomarbeit im Fach Informatik, Universität
Würzburg
2. UVic Image Markup Tool (1.3.0.3), <http://www.tapor
.uvic.ca/~mholmes/image_markup/>
3. Doug Reside at the Maryland Institute of Technology in the
Humanities (MITH) at the University of Maryland is developing
still-unnamed tool to tag not only images, but video and audio
files as well
Bibliography
Carlquist, Jonas. """"Medieval Manuscripts, Hypertext and
Reading. Visions of Digital Editions."" Literary & Linguistic
Computing 19.1 (2004): 105-118.
Cross, James E. Cambridge Pembroke College MS. 25: A
Carolingian Sermonary Used by Anglo-Saxon Preachers.
King’s College London Medieval Studies, 1. London: King's
College, 1987.
Dué, Casey, and Mary Ebbott . ""As Many Homers As You
Please: an On-line Multitext of Homer."" Classics @ (2004).
<http://classics.furman.edu/classicsAt2/d
ue-ebbott_2004_all.html>
Godden, Malcolm. Aelfric’s Catholic Homilies: Introduction,
Commentary and Glossary. New York: Published for the Early
English Text Society by the Oxford University Press, 2000.
Kiernan, Kevin. ""Digital Facsimiles in Editing: Some
Guidelines for Editors of Image-based Scholarly Editions.""
Electronic Textual Editing. Ed. Lou Burnard, , Katherine
O’Brien O’Keeffe and John Unsworth. New York: Modern
Language Association, 2005. preprint at <http://www.te
i-c.org/Activities/ETE/Preview/kiernan.xm
l>
Kiernan, Kevin, Jerzy W. Jaromczyk, Alex Dekhtyar, and
Dorothy Carr Porter. ""The ARCHway Project: Architecture for
Research in Computing for Humanities through Research,
Teaching, and Learning."" Literary & Linguistic Computing 20
(Suppl 1) (2005): 69-88. doi:10.1093/llc/fqi018
Kiernan, Kevin, W. Brent Seales, and James Griffioen. ""The
Reappearances of St. Basil the Great in British Library MS
Cotton Otho B. x."" Computers and the Humanities 36.1 (2002):
7-26.
Kirschenbaum, Matthew G. ""Editor's Introduction: Image-based
Humanities Computing."" Computers and the Humanities 36.1
(2002): 3-6.
Lecolinet, Eric, Laurent Robert, and Francois Role. ""Text-image
Coupling for Editing Literary Sources."" Computers and the
Humanities 36.1 (2002): . 49-73.","txt","2","",""
"776","8","Digital Text Resources for the Humanities - Legal Issues","3","The session ""Digital Text Resources for the Humanities –
Legal Issues"" consists of three papers that address the
legal aspects connected to several crucial phases of handling
text resources: collecting, compiling, curating, analysing,
distributing, and archiving text resources such as corpora, are
tasks carried out on a day-to-day basis by people involved in
fields such as, for example, humanities computing,
computational and corpus linguistics, information retrieval and
text mining. Despite the ubiquity of document collections, the
legal issues that are intrinsically tied to virtually all texts created
and published by third parties (most importantly, their
copyright, as well as privacy issues), do not typically attract a
lot of interest. Though these issues are acknowledged, they are
often regarded as rather insignificant for the research question
at hand, or a project does not have any jurisprudential expertise
to deal with legal issues in an adequate way. As a consequence,
distributing a corpus (for example, to other interested researchers) whose provenance is unknown or questionable, or
publishing excerpts from a document collection on a website,
may become next to impossible from a legal point of view. This
is why scholars often decide not to publish their collections (or
parts thereof) online at all, in order to avoid any potential legal
problems. The session aims to provide an overview of the
following legal aspects:
• The first contribution, ""Language Corpora – Copyright –
Data Protection: The Legal Point of View"" (Timm
Lehmberg, and Felix Zimmermann), highlights the legal
requirements that hold with regard to the construction of
digital text resources, special emphasis is given to the aspect
of copyright and data protection (for example, potential
reasons for the need to anonymise text corpora).
• The second presentation, ""Collecting Legally Relevant
Metadata by Means of a Decision-Tree-Based Questionnaire
System"" (Timm Lehmberg, Christian Chiarcos, Erhard
Hinrichs, Georg Rehm, and Andreas Witt), consists of two
parts: first, a web-based questionnaire is introduced that
was developed to capture the requirements research projects
have with regard to the archiving and distribution of their
corpora; second, initial results from a study that spans three
large research centres and more than 60 individual research
projects are reported.
• The final paper, ""Corpus Masking: Legally Bypassing
Licensing Restrictions for the Free Distribution of Text
Collections"" (Georg Rehm, Andreas Witt, Heike
Zinsmeister, and Johannes Dellert), introduces the idea of
masking an annotated text corpus whose original source
text collection is copyright-protected, so that the masked
version can be distributed without any restrictions;
furthermore, a fully working tool for masking an
XML-annotated corpus is presented.
The authors of the three papers are associated with a joint
project situated in three Collaborative Research Centres (SFB,
Sonderforschungsbereich) that are sponsored by the German
Research Foundation (DFG, Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft): SFB 441 (Linguistic Data Structures,
Tübingen University), SFB 538 (Multilingualism, Hamburg
University), and SFB 632 (Information Structure, Potsdam
University). Each of these three research centres consists of
about 15 to 20 research projects. Most projects work with digital
text collections, in practically all cases these collections and
corpora are constructed by the respective researchers
themselves. A problem people involved in the fields of digital
humanities or computational linguistics are often confronted
with concerns the fact that the sustainability and reusability of
corpora is not given too much attention – or that these aspects,
in a worst case scenario, are completely ignored. Corpora are
often created for an application or for a project that has a very
specific research question, but when the project is finished it
becomes next to impossible (especially for third parties) to gain
access to the resource that took several months or maybe even
years to create. The joint project Sustainability of Linguistic
Data was therefore established to provide the conceptual,
technical and infrastructural basis for a solution to the problem
of sustainably archiving these digital text collections, addressing
issues as diverse as, for example, annotation and metadata
frameworks, best practice guidelines, legal issues of distributing
text collections, and unifying diverse tag sets by means of an
ontology.
Session Chairs: Georg Rehm and Andreas Witt
Language Corpora – Copyright – Data Protection:
The Legal Point of View
Felix Zimmermann and Timm Lehmberg
1 Introduction
Creating comprehensive and sustainable archives of linguistic
data and making them (or parts of them) accessible to the
research community leads to a number of essential legal
questions being raised by different aspects of law. Like any
discipline handling large amounts of data, the digital humanities
are confronted with a complex system of authorities and
restrictions. From acquisition, through storing and processing
to the annotation and finally publication of the data, there are
a number of rights as well as duties each participant in this
process has to consider. Additionally, some legal systems
provide special rules for the use of data for scientific purposes.
On the one hand the opacity of the legal position leads to the
assumption that, in many cases, linguistic data are used and
transferred in a way that does not comply with legal
requirements. On the other hand there is a noticeable tendency
not to transfer linguistic data for fear of breaking the law (see
Jüttner 2000, and Patzelt 2003).
2 Relevant Areas of Law
Two different areas of law play an important role in the use of
linguistic data for research purposes:
• ""Intellectual Property Rights"" provide legal protection of
non-material goods which are any kind of intellectual
property of a third party. This includes, amongst others,
literary works as well as databases, software and utility
patents. In terms of law language corpora are defined as
databases.
• ""Privacy and Personal Data Protection Law"" imposes
restrictions for the processing of any personal data, i.e., any
data that can be linked to an individual. In the face of
linguistic data processing any audio and video recordings (and their transcriptions) as well as metadata that contain
personal information on speakers are covered by this law.
Both areas are relevant to the complete process of data
processing and have to be considered from the initial step of
the data based work (normally the acquisition of the data) to
the time of publication.
3 Aspects of National and International Law
In everyday legal practice a particularly relevant role is played
by those legislative rulesets that are based on constitutional
norms. Within these, interests and entitlements of other involved
individuals and institutions, which are worthy of protection,
are often outlined in minute detail in relation to the procurement,
processing, and transfer of linguistic primary data.
Federal states, which contain individual member states with
their own legislative authority (such as the US, Germany,
Switzerland, Austria, Spain) may have enacted specific member
state rules. This leads to the possibility that there may be
complex and potentially internally conflicting legislation within
a state in a federation.
It is not just, however, the original national legal situation which
regulates the use of linguistic data. International obligations
may, through direct or indirect applicability, have considerable
impact. In 2007, 27 member states of the European Union
adhere to European legal instruments (such as directives and
regulations) in relation to the national and international use of
data. Pursuant to the doctrine of direct applicability enshrined
in Article 10 of the Treaty establishing the European
Communities, these norms have priority in relation to potentially
conflicting national norms. What needs to be borne in mind is
that the individual member states have some leeway in the
implementation of the instruments, which may lead to minute
differences in the level of protection.
Finally, public international treaties which oblige their
signatories to adhere to certain minimal standards need to be
taken into consideration. In relation to linguistic data and the
problem of copyright, the Copyright Treaty of the World
Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO, 1996) is to be
considered as particularly relevant. The question of personality
rights with a view to individuals whose data are processed is
addressed in the Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms (1950). Additionally, the Convention for the
Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing
of Personal Data (1981) provides further normative guidance
for the member states of the European Union.
4 The Legal Impact of Intellectual Property
Copyright protection of language corpora is provided by
different aspects of applicable law. In order to simplify the
presentation, there will be a focus on the law of harmonised
rules by the European Communities that are placed within the
framework of the World Intellectual Property Organisation
(WIPO).
4.1 Directive 91/250/EC on the Legal Protection of Computer
Programs
The different tasks of linguistic data processing (transcription
as well as annotation etc.) require a considerable number of
software tools. For this purpose, apart from commercial
development, software is written by the research establishment's
employees. The participants in this process rarely bother with
legal protection of their work. By implementing the Directive
91/250/EC, computer programs in all Member States of the
European Community are protected by copyright law. In
accordance with Article 1.3 of the Directive 91/250/EC, a
computer program is protected, if it is original in the sense that
it is the author's own intellectual creation. Ideas and principles
of a computer program are not protected by this Directive. The
term of protection is the author's lifetime plus a period of 50
years. The author owns the exclusive rights to reproduce,
translate, adapt and publicly distribute his computer program.
If a computer program has been created by an employee, in
accordance with Article 2.3 of the Directive 91/250/EC, the
employer is, unless otherwise provided by contract, the
copyright holder of the resource. In the case of software being
developed within a research project, from this point of view
the copyright is held by the respective research establishment
(University etc.).
4.2 Directive 96/9/EC on the Legal Protection of Databases
In accordance with Article 1.2 of the Directive 96/9/EC, a
database is defined as a ""collection of independent works, data
or other materials arranged in a systematic or methodical way
and individually accessible by electronic or other means"".
Without exception, linguistic corpus data come under this
protection. This Directive makes two significant stipulations.
First, it offers protection by copyright to databases which, by
reason of the selection or arrangement of their contents,
constitute the author's own intellectual creation. Thereby the
author owns the exclusive right to carry out or authorise the
reproduction, alteration and distribution. Secondly the Directive
creates an exclusive right protection sui generis for makers of
databases, independent of the degree of innovation. This
protection of any investment allows the makers of databases
to prevent unauthorised extraction and/or re-utilisation.
4.3 Copyright Directive 2001/29/EC
The Copyright Directive 2001/29/EC adapts legislation on
copyright and related rights to reflect technological
developments into European Community law. In this process,
it discusses and harmonises the property of reproduction,
communication and distribution rights. Concerning linguistic
research data, attention should be paid to Article 5.3(a) of the Copyright Directive. It gives freedom to Member States in
supporting non-commercial science by making copyright less
restrictive for academic use of copyrighted work.
5 The Legal Impact of Data Protection
Directive 95/46/EC on the protection of individuals with regard
to the processing of personal data imposes strict restrictions for
the elevation and utilisation of personal data. Personal data are
pieces of information which can be linked to a specific person.
The processing of personal data only is permitted by law, if
there is a clear and lawful purpose at the time of data
procurement, and if the respective person has expressed his/her
consent. Further restrictions are imposed, if the racial, national
or ethnical origin, political opinion, religious or philosophical
beliefs are apparent. The same applies to the disclosure of health
conditions or sexual life. If personal data are transferred to
countries outside of the European Union (Transborder Dataflow
to third countries), a level of protection has to be guaranteed
that is equivalent to the European level, for example by means
of the Safe-Harbour-Principles. The respective person may
enforce his/her rights by means such as disclosure and deletion
of the data. Article 6.2, Article 11.2 and Article 13.2 of the
Data Protection Directive contain privileges for academic
research. An escape strategy in respect of data protection law
problems is complete anonymisation (disguising by removing
personal information by abbreviating names, locations etc.) or
pseudonymisation (disguising by aliasing individuals, locations,
etc.) of the personal data. However, it remains unsolved which
level of abstraction constitutes sufficient anonymisation,
particularly if it is possible to draw conclusions by joining the
data with other resources.
Figure 1 gives an overview about the different types of right
holders to a database.
Figure 1: The different types of right holders
Legal Competence by Trusted Third Parties
An additional option is given by the use of a trusted third party
hosting the information that has been disguised by
anonymisation or pseudonymisation. It may act as a trustee,
passing the aliased or anonymised data from its origin to a
requesting research institution. The trusted party is not required
by law, but it has the ability to provide a high level of data
security, integrity and protection during the whole data
transaction process (Kilian et al 1995, p. 63). Additionally a
trusted party can provide specialist advice in technical and
copyright matters. Further, we suggest proceedings to increase
legal certainty in case of creating and using linguistic databases.
Bibliography
Jüttner, Irmtraud. ""Mannheimer Korpus und Urheberrecht. Die
Einbeziehung zeitgenössischer digitalisierter Texte in die
computergespeicherten Korpora des IDS und ihre juristischen
Grundlagen."" Sprachreport 3 (2000).
Kilian, Wolfgang. ""Daten für die Forschung im
Gesundheitswesen."" Gutachten II. Toeche-Mittler Verlag, 1995.
57-76.
Patzelt, Johannes. ""Unter juristischem Blickwinkel: Textkorpora
und Urheberrecht."" Korpuslinguistik deutsch: synchron –
diachron – kontrastiv: Würzburger Kolloqium 2003,. Ed.
Werner Wegstein and Johannes Schwitalla. Würzburg, 2003.
Collecting Legally Relevant Metadata by Means
of a Decision-Tree-Based Questionnaire System
Timm Lehmberg, Christian Chiarcos, Erhard
Hinrichs, Georg Rehm, and Andreas Witt
1 Introduction and Overall Concept
Most metadata standards used for corpus linguistic purposes
(TEI, OLAC, IMDI etc., for a complete overview see Lehmberg
and Wörner 2007) require elements that contain legal
information about the rights holder to the particular resource
and/or its accessibility. Normally these metadata elements are
kept very abstract and do neither distinguish between the
different types of personal rights nor do they consider the option
of multiple holders of copyright.
The legal situation upon which the evaluation of linguistic data
to be used for scientific purposes is based is clearly defined,
but too complex to be understood completely by non-experts.
Furthermore, it varies from one country to the other and is in
a constant state of flux. In the framework of our joint sustainability initiative (see the
introduction to this session), a large number of heterogeneous
corpora have been acquired from multiple sources and multiple
projects, and processed with regard to different individual
requirements (Schmidt et al. 2006). This heterogeneity is
responsible for the problem that the legal metadata that need
to be collected strongly vary with regard to the respective corpus
and data situation. Only for a small number of projects
associated with our sustainability initiative are detailed sets of
legal metadata that inform a potential user of the corpus about,
for example, stipulations or copyright holders, readily available.
For the majority of projects and corpora, this task has to be
performed retroactively.
Figure 1: A concept map visualising the query structure
Facing the complexity of the legal context (see Zimmermann
and Lehmberg, in this session), it is almost impossible for
non-experts to evaluate the situation of their language data and
to extract the relevant metadata without professional advice.
To reduce the complexity of this task, concept maps were
created with the goal of making the legal situation as well as
the legal terminology transparent and understandable to
non-professionals. Unlike mindmaps that are primarily used
for the (often spontaneous and intuitive) mapping of ideas and
processes, the technique of concept mapping is intended more
for knowledge modelling: concepts are represented by nodes,
links represent the relations between them.
As a utility to create the concept maps modelling the legal
situation within our joint sustainability initiative we used
CmapTools, a program distributed by the Institute for Human
and Machine Cognition (IHMC). IHMC CmapTools provide
a client/server architecture that allows users at different
locations to work collectively on Concept Maps and to discuss
their structure and content online.
Based on these schemata and following the principles of
decision-trees, we built an additional concept map representing
the query structure of a questionnaire. Digressing from the
original principles of concept mapping mentioned above, in
this map queries are represented as nodes whereas responses
are represented as links between them. The primary query given
in the centre node (see figure 1) corresponds to two central
aspects of law (data protection and copyright, see Zimmermann
and Lehmberg, in this session). Each response leads to a large
number of additional queries that again, depending on the users'
response, have subordinated queries. Further sections of the
concept map deal with the accessibility of the data as well as
their respective principles and standards of data processing.
In same manner we modelled the query structure that surveys
the meta information that ideally has been collected in
connection with the compilation process of corpora. Therefore
it contains queries asking for established metadata standards
(TEI, DC, OLAC, IMDI etc.) that may have been used, and if
necessary asks for additional information.
Due to the fact that the IHMC CmapTools provide an export
of concept maps into an XML-based format, the content and
structure of the concept map can be processed automatically to
create the web based questionnaire that is described in the
following section.
The complete concept map structures will be demonstrated in
conjunction with example scenarios in our presentation.
2 Implementation
As the questionnaire has to be accessible from different research
project locations, it has been implemented using a XAMP (any
operating system, Apache, MySQL and PHP) architecture to
create a user-friendly, web-based interface. The conceptual
structure represented by the concept map is transformed into a
relational database model. Accordingly, it is possible both to
model the tree structure of the queries (Celko, 2004) and to
save responses to these questions within the database.
Additionally, the database includes user data (as well as user
access control data) and links them to the metadata sets of the
resource being acquired by the questionnaire.
Figure 2: A web-based wizard guides the user through the questionnaire
The user interface is generated by a script that parses the
database and guides the user though the questionnaire tree with the help of a web-based wizard (see figure 2). This architecture
has several advantages:
Figure 3: An overview page gives information about the data collection progress
• Subordinate queries that refer to specific details of some
legal aspects automatically can be skipped if they become
superfluous. For instance, there is no need to query
contractual agreements with subjects if there is no personal
data contained in the corpus.
• The data model provides users with the option of registering
multiple corpora and running the questionnaire wizard
individually. Furthermore, users can share the data they
entered into the system with other registered users so that
it is possible to edit the data across project locations (for
example, queries can be skipped, answered later, or left to
other users).
• Should the structure or content of the questionnaire tree be
changed, the database will be modified accordingly. If the
change leads to unanswered queries, this will be indicated
to the user in a status page. For this reason, every user
account has an overview page that gives information about
the state of progress of every registered resource (see figure
3).
• The questionnaire includes queries about metadata content
and standards that already have been applied to the
registered corpora, so that users do not have to insert
redundant information already contained in existing
metadata sets.
• Administrator users have unlimited access to all data in the
database, so that users can be provided with support, if
needed.
We are currently in the process of collecting legally relevant
metadata from about 60 different research projects with the aid
of the questionnaire system described in this paper. Content
and structure of the concept maps is available on our project
homepage at <http://www.sfb441.uni-tuebingen
.de/c2/>.
Bibliography
Celko, Joe. Trees and Hierarchies in SQL for Smarties. San
Mateo: Morgan Kaufmann, 2004.
Lehmberg, Timm, and Kai Wörner. ""Annotation Standards.""
Corpus Linguistics, Handbücher zur Sprach- und
Kommunikationswissenschaft (HSK). Ed. Anke Lüdeling and
Merja Kytö. Berlin: de Gruyter, In press.
Schmidt, Thomas, Christian Chiarcos, Timm Lehmberg, Georg
Rehm, Andreas Witt, and Erhard Hinrichs. ""Avoiding Data
Graveyards: From Heterogeneous Data Collected in Multiple
Research Projects to Sustainable Linguistic Resources.""
Proceedings of the E-MELD 2006 Workshop on Digital
Language Documentation: Tools and Standards – The State of
the Art, East Lansing, Michigan, June 2006. 2006.
Corpus Masking: Legally Bypassing Licensing
Restrictions for the Free Distribution of Text
Collections
Georg Rehm, Andreas Witt, Heike Zinsmeister,
and Johannes Dellert
1 Introduction
Though XML-annotated text collections are commonplace in
humanities computing, the value of the annotation is often
underestimated, as interesting applications can be realised by
ignoring the content and considering the annotation exclusively.
At the same time, the distribution of text collections (e. g.,
linguistic resources) is often restricted by rigid licence
agreements. Usually, a corpus consists of a source text
collection (STC) acquired from third parties such as web sites
or publishers, and annotation layers that refer to, for example,
structural or linguistic properties. In practically all cases the
STC is a copyrighted property, so that it is up to the copyright
holder to decide if, and under which conditions, the corpus - a
crucial part of which is the STC - can be made available to the
public or to the research community.
The example we use in this paper is TüBa-D/Z (""Tübingen
Treebank of Written German"" (Telljohann et al, 2004 &
Telljohann et al, 2006)). This manually annotated treebank is
based on a CD ROM that contains an archive of the issues the
newspaper die tageszeitung (taz) has published since 1986. If
a researcher (the licencee) wants to obtain TüBa-D/Z, available
for academic purposes free of charge, he or she has to sign a
licence agreement with Tübingen University's Linguistics
Department (the licencer) which states that the licencer is the
copyright holder of the annotation and that the STC, as
published on the taz CD ROM, is copyrighted by contrapress media GmbH. The licencee has to certify that he, she or the
institution the person works for has a valid licence for this CD
ROM.1
Figure 1: Masking linguistic corpora by example of the TüBa-D/Z treebank
We propose the notion of corpus masking, i. e., obfuscating the
STC, but not the annotation layer(s), the STC is ""removed"", so
that the original licensing restrictions no longer hold for the
""new"" resource. The advantage is that the valuable annotation
information can be made available for free (see figure 1).2
2 Corpora – Licence Restrictions – Sustainability
When linguists have created a corpus it can become quite
difficult to gain access to the corpus once the project is finished.
In an ideal world, academics can turn to a sustainability
initiative in order to archive their datasets and to make them
available to other researchers, e. g., by means of a web-based
corpus platform (Dipper et al, 2006 & Schmidt et al 2006).
Apart from issues such as providing standardised markup
languages and metadata sets (Chiarcos et al, 2006 & Wörner
et al, 2006), sustainability initiatives have to take the copyright
of the original data into account.
We developed a tool that is able to mask corpora on the fly.
Should someone who is interested in a corpus that is available
under a rigid licence model not have a valid STC licence, he
or she can still receive the corpus, albeit in masked form. A
corpus potentially can be associated with several accessibility
regulations: full access to TüBa-D/Z requires a licence for the
taz CD ROM, whereas masked versions can be placed under,
say, the GNU Free Documentation or a Creative Commons
Licence. Therefore, a sustainability initiative has to come up
with a flexible system of representing the relationships and
dependencies between the STC and the different annotation
layers and their individual licence restrictions.
3 How to Mask Linguistic Resources
The easiest option to obfuscate an annotated corpus is to remove
the text. A less radical solution substitutes every STC character
with, for example, ""x"" and every digit with ""0"". In addition to
preserving word length, this process retains information on
upper and lower case by substituting these with ""x"" and ""X""
(Toms & Campbell, 1999).
We developed CorpusMasker, a Java-based tool for the
parameterised masking of linguistic resources represented as
XML documents. The XML element(s) or attribute(s) that
comprise the actual words or tokens to be masked (in case of
TüBa-D/Z, the <orth> element) can be specified to handle
arbitrary annotation schemes. CorpusMasker features a
dictionary approach: after collecting all word forms, every word
is mapped onto a randomly generated string and replaced by
that string. Word length can be retained, as well as information
on the distribution and positioning of vowels and consonants.
If a word is usually written with an initial lower case character
and that word appears with an initial upper case character, the
same randomised word is used (e. g., ""dort"" -> ""kulp"", ""Dort""
-> ""Kulp""). CorpusMasker performs an affix analysis that is
similar to morphology induction. The algorithm analyses certain
words, masks the roots, but retains the affixes, so that the text
is masked but valuable linguistic information that in itself is
insufficient to reconstruct the source text or even to interpret
the masked text, is kept intact for further analysis. Parameterised
masking can be performed with several different degrees of
retaining linguistic information, from the complete removal of
the STC to a rather light but sufficient masking that keeps, e.
g., closed word classes unchanged (see table 1; affixes are
marked in italics).3
Linguistic corpora often contain POS information so that the
randomisation process results in a list that could act as a key
to unlock the masked corpus, i. e., to reconstruct the STC. As
publication of this complete list would contradict the purpose
of the tool, we will only provide a reduced version of the file
so that the randomly generated words can be mapped onto POS
tags.   2. The institution that created the annotation holds its copyright and
can decide the distribution conditions. As modern corpora may
comprise several annotation layers created by more than one
research group, each group can be considered the creator of its
annotation layer and can decide its terms of distribution (as a
consequence, every annotation layer should potentially comprise
a complete metadata record). Commercially available software
tools that were used in the annotation process might restrict the
terms of distribution of the resulting data set as well.
3. After DH 2007, a downloadable version of CorpusMasker will be
available on our web site under an Open Source licence (<http
://www.sfb441.uni-tuebingen.de/c2/>).
4. For centuries, typographers and graphic designers use the ""Lorem
ipsum dolor sit amet"" text fragment to evaluate new layouts without
resorting to writing actual text. The blind text gives the impression
of a natural distribution of characters and whitespace without
distracting the reader by conveying any meaning that could be
interpreted intuitively. This approach might be useful for
visualising masked corpora by means of XML to SVG
transformations (Piez, 2004).
5. In a message posted to Corpora-List on Aug 19th, 2006, Péter
Halácsy suggested an interesting method to distribute a copyrighted
corpus under ""fair use"" conditions. Part of the copyright notice
Halácsy et al. apply to the Creative Commons-based licence of
the ""Hunglish"" corpus (D. Varga et al, 2005) reads: ""We prevented
the illegal use of copyrighted material by shuffling the texts at
sentence level. This form is still useful for research purposes, while
it does not infringe upon the rightholders' interests.""","txt","2","",""
"777","8","Literate Documentation for XML","","The Current State of XML
Documentation
Current practices for the documentation of XML schema
have not progressed much beyond the recommendations
made in Eve Maler and Jeanne El Andaloussi’s (1996) text
Developing SGML DTD’s: From Text to Model to Markup.
That volume recommended an approach to DTD design called
document type modeling to SGML DTD designers that, if
followed, produces both a reusable and customizable DTD and
a well-structured reference manual that documents that DTD.
Despite the development of XML itself, multiple XML schema
languages, and the proliferation of XML applications across
many disciplines this is still about all the documentation most
XML applications provide today. In fact in many cases the
documentation provided is much more inconsistent and
haphazard than that recommended by Maler and El Andaloussi.
The lack of consistent and structured prose documentation is
especially problematic to humanists who use XML. To a
humanist creating finding aids, marking up historic texts, or
preparing a text for linguistic analysis the clear communication
of the markup language designer’s intentions is critical in
making decisions on how to properly apply markup.
The problem of interpreting the designer’s intentions is
compounded by the fact that XML lacks a formalized,
machine-readable knowledge representation technology that
allows a designer to explicitly represent in unambiguous fashion
the semantics of a XML application (Renear et al., 2002). Given
the difficulties that researchers working in this area have made
towards realizing a system that can reliably represent
machine-readable markup semantics (Dubin et al., 2002)(Dubin
et al., 2003) (Dubin, 2003) (Dubin and Birnbaum,
2004)(Marcoux, 2006) it may be more profitable to experiment
with a system that can improve the quality of the prose
documentation made available with XML applications.
This project proposes a XML schema authoring environment
based on the literate programming paradigm that also contains
constructs that force the markup language designer to consistently and unambiguously document the application using
natural language. This approach can help bridge the gap
between current XML documentation practices until tools that
can specify machine-readable semantics for XML appear in
the future.
Literate Programming and XML
Literate programming directs the author specify both the
program source and the prose documentation for that code
within the same file (Knuth 1984). This file is then fed through
a processor that produces both executable program code and
formatted prose documentation for the program. A XML literate
programming environment produces both a validating schema
and prose documentation for that schema. The experimental
XML literate programming system sketched out in this project
utilizes the Text Encoding Initiative’s One Document Does it
All (ODD) literate programming system.
The TEI P5 (Sperberg-McQueen and Burnard, 2005), the most
recent revision of the guidelines, has substantially updated the
ODD system. The guidelines now use Relax NG for the
validating schema component and formally include and
document the elements and attributes that make up the ODD
system (Burnard and Rahtz, 2004). This new module (Chapter
27) provides TEI users a formal way to document local
customizations of the TEI and produce consistent,
well-formatted prose documentation for these extensions. The
documentation chapter of the TEI P5 describing the ODD states
that the ODD is not restricted to just serving as the means to
document and generate the TEI, but can also be used to
document and produce a schema for any type of markup scheme
(Sperberg-McQueen and Burnard, 2005).
The ODD+
This project takes advantage of the general purpose
component of the ODD to create an experimental general
purpose XML literate programming system that could be termed
the ODD+. The support for modularity, element and attribute
classes, schema customization, and XML namespaces within
the ODD (Burnard and Rahtz, 2004) make it an ideal tool to
make up the core of a literate programming system for XML.
The advance of the ODD+ system will be the provision of a
“semantic checklist” that the author must complete for each
element and attribute in a XML application. This checklist will
force the markup language designer to document new elements
or attributes with precision and consistency. If the checklist is
not properly completed the ODD+ processor will fail. The
ODD+ application will be implemented by using the TEI P5
extension mechanism to extend the current ODD module to
include the elements and attributes that will be necessary to
implement the ODD+.
Identifying the Semantic Checklist
What sort of questions will be included in the semantic
checklist? The researchers who have investigated the
question of XML semantics have identified a number of
constructs that occur within markup that seem appropriate
candidates for inclusion in the semantic checklist (Renear et
al., 2002)(Sperberg-McQueen, Huitfeldt, and Renear, 2000).
The questions identified by these researchers include:
1. Can an element have different meanings depending on the
content within it is used?
2. Issues of propagation: does the property declared by a given
element or attribute apply to child elements, their attributes,
and character data contained within them?
3. Issues of class memberships:
1. Does the element or attribute serve as a superclass?
2. Is the element or attribute derived from another?
4. Relationships to other elements:
1. What are the properties that a parent child relationship
implies?
2. What are the properties that a sibling relationship
implies?
The author will report on the difficulty of integrating the above
questions and others into a workable semantic checklist that
can be deployed within a general purpose literate programming
system for XML like the ODD. The author will experiment
with the ODD+ system and widely used XML applications in
the humanities, such as the TEI itself or the Metadata Encoding
and Transmission Standard (METS). The author will work with
interesting subsets within each application and produce
documentation for them using ODD+. This will illustrate the
viability of the ODD+ as a potential general purpose literate
programming tool for XML.
The author will experiment with different techniques that will
strive to ensure consistency of format and language usage in
the prose documentation produced by the ODD+. These may
come in the form of Schematron rules written to ensure that
the author uses language consistency when discusses issues of
propagation for example. The author may also experiment with
XSLT templates that may contain the outlines of statements
that describe class relationships within a XML schema. These
outline statements could then be filled in with the specific
element or attribute names of the language designer’s schema.
This approach is an approximation of the skeleton sentence technique suggested by Sperberg-McQueen, Huitfeldt, and
Renear (2000). The author will report the results of these various
experiments and present a demonstration of the ODD+ system.
Bibliography
Burnard, Lou, and Syd Bauman, eds. TEI P5: Guidelines for
Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. TEI Consortium,
2005. <http://www.tei-c.org.uk/P5/Guideline
s/index.html>
Burnard, Lou, and Sebastian Rahtz. ""RelaxNG with Son of
ODD."" Proceedings of Extreme Markup Languages 2004,
Montréal, Québec, August 2004. Ed. B. T. Usdin. Montréal,
Canada, 2004.
Dubin, David, and David J. Birnbaum. ""Interpretation Beyond
Markup."" Proceedings of Extreme Markup Languages 2004,
Montréal, Québec, August 2004. Ed. B. T. Usdin. Montréal,
Canada, 2004.
Dubin, David, C. M. Sperberg-McQueen, Allen Renear, and
Claus Huitfeldt. ""A Logic Programming Environment for
Document Semantics and Inference."" Paper presented at
ALLC/ACH 2002, Tübingen, Germany, July 2002. 2002.
Dubin, David, C. M. Sperberg-McQueen, Allen Renear, and
Claus Huitfeldt. ""A Logic Programming Environment for
Document Semantics and Inference."" Literary & Linguistic
Computing 18.2 (2003): 225-233.
Dubin, David. ""Object Mapping for Markup Semantics.""
Proceedings of Extreme Markup Languages 2003, Montréal,
Québec, August 2003. Ed. B. T. Usdin. Montréal, Canada, 2003.
Knuth, Donald. ""Literate Programming."" The Computer Journal
27 (1984): 97-111.
Maler, Eve, and Jeanne El Andaloussi. Developing SGML
DTDs: From Text to Model to Markup. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall PTR, 1996.
Marcoux, Yves. ""A Natural-language Approach to Modeling:
Why is some XML so Difficult to Write?"" Proceedings of
Extreme Markup Languages 2006, Montréal, Québec, August
2006. Ed. B. T. Usdin. Montréal, Canada, 2006.
Renear, Allen H., David Dubin, C. M.Sperberg-McQueen, and
Claus Huitfeldt. ""Towards a Semantics for XML Markup.""
Proceedings of the 2002 ACM Symposium on Document
Engineering, McLean, VA, November 2002. Ed. R. Furuta, J.
I. Malectic and E. Munson. New York: Association for
Computing Machinery, 2002. 119-126.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., David Dubin, Claus Huitfeldt, and
Allen H. Renear. ""Drawing Inferences on the Basis of Markup.""
Proceedings of Extreme Markup Languages 2002, Montréal,
Québec, August 2002. Ed. B. T. Usdin and S. R. Newcomb.
Montréal, Canada, 2002.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., Claus Huitfeldt, and Allen H.
Renear. ""Meaning and Interpretation of Markup."" Markup
Languages: Theory and Practice 2.3 (2000): 215-234.","txt","2","",""
"778","8","Digital Text Projects in Eastern Europe: Promoting International Interoperability","","The widely divergent languages and cultures of Russia,
Eastern Europe & Eurasia (hereafter Eastern Europe),
present a rich terrain for digital scholarship, but owing to a
number of factors—including poorly-endowed or
mutually-incompatible infrastructures, language barriers, and
different approaches to the construction of metadata—the
corpora already in existence and those in development are often
poorly known elsewhere, and in many cases are hidden from
international resource discovery and data sharing.
In view of this situation, it was clear to the Digital Projects
Subcommittee of the American Association for the Advancement
of Slavic Studies (<http://www.aaass.org>) that
improved documentation would constitute an important step
toward the promotion of knowledge sharing and
interoperability.1 The Slavic & East European Library at UIUC
is therefore building an international Inventory of Slavic, East
European and Eurasian Digital Projects (<http://www.l
ibrary.uiuc.edu/spx/inventory>). The Inventory
already describes at least 360 collections in 110 projects, and
we also foresee web submissions from international partners
to promote collaborative registration. But even now the
Inventory is heavily used; recent statistics indicate that in the
period July 2005-June 2006 it received around 25,000 hits. It
has also become an OAI Data Provider, and although inventory
contents (unlike the digital collections they record) are
sometimes not reflected in aggregated search services like
OAIster (<http://oaister.umdl.umich.edu/o/oa
ister/>), the Inventory’s records have indeed been harvested
and now display in OAIster searches—likely to improve
dramatically the visibility of substantive digital projects in the
Slavic field.
But the project goals go far beyond the compilation of a mere
inventory. Besides the implementation of intensive content
development, promotion of metadata standardization, expanded
reference assistance and interactive user options, the Inventory
will focus on an expansion of the OAI data provider system
and item-level harvesting. (It also hopes to explore customized
delivery services and an archival framework for at-risk
collections in the Slavic field, currently being explored through
an inter-institutional grant proposal).
Nevertheless, the project team acknowledges that metadata
practices in Eastern Europe are still very diverse, and far from
standardized. At one end of the scale, where relatively simple
encoding is involved, even schemes like Dublin Core are poorly
recognized. This makes the implementation of relatively
well-established data-sharing protocols like OAI-PMH (Open
Archives Initiative: Protocol for Metadata Harvesting) little
known in Eastern Europe. A registry of OAI data providers at
UIUC demonstrates that while OAI data providers are well
established in the US and Western Europe, they are much less
widely encountered further East.2 True, the implementation of
OAI data interchange is not necessarily well standardized in
countries with far more providers.3 Furthermore, the whole
question of the efficacy of OAI-PMH as a metadata transfer
protocol is still somewhat open to question.4 Nevertheless, its
power is generally well-recognized, and its further penetration
into Eastern Europe is certainly a desirable goal.
At the other end of the scale, the level of deep encoding is even
less widely standardized in Eastern Europe. The decade-long
Institute of World Literature project in Moscow known as FEB
(Fundamental'naia elektronaia biblioteka) (<http://www.
feb-web.ru/>) has an enviable collection of over 50,000
Russian literature texts, all heavily encoded in SGML—but not
according to the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) Guidelines.
True, the TEI is not a standard, but interoperability with such
an impressive collection would be highly desirable. Other such
examples are available. To be sure, there are exceptions: the
recent TEI meeting in Sofia, Bulgaria revealed the extent to
which TEI projects are beginning to gain root in South Eastern
Europe.5 There are also similar developments in a more abstract
sense. The TEI Guidelines have been translated into Russian,6
and efforts are also being made to promote the further
internationalization of the Guidelines, and to ensure their
availability in a greater number of languages, including
Bulgarian.
Yet even when East European scholarly projects adopt the TEI,
standardized approaches to the conversion of metadata to
OAI-compliant formats are also at issue, and there is evidently
much ground still to be covered. Hence, the object of this paper
will be to:
1. Design and conduct a survey of metadata practices in a
number of East European digital centers (including existing
UIUC partners) that are sponsored both by institutions and
by individual faculty teams;
2. Produce an up-to-date analysis of their awareness,
evaluation and observance of international metadata
standards; 3. Identify problems and practices preventing their
implementation;
4. Suggest ways in which steps can be taken to ameliorate this
situation, including crosswalks and other technical
procedures.
The results of this exercise will not only assist in a practical
sense the development of the Inventory of Slavic, East European
and Eurasian Digital Projects (the only registry of substantive,
scholarly East European digital initiatives), but will also result
in better awareness and information-sharing among Slavic
digital practitioners. This is especially vital as the institutional
repository movement gains ground.7 Experience shows,
particularly in West Europe, that the issue of standardized
metadata is paramount, and that subject repositories are
becoming of even greater interest since they tend to be
populated by scholars working on their own projects and
producing more substantive metadata. In this environment, East
European scholars should not excluded from the pool of
informed experience.
1. Other points in the group’s charge include: (2) fostering informed
participation in future initiatives; (3-4) increasing digital
information and training opportunities for Slavic librarians; (5)
complementing national efforts to establish digital repositories.
See <http://www.library.uiuc.edu/spx/BnD
/DigPro.htm#charge>
2. See <http://gita.grainger.uiuc.edu/regis
try/ListTLDs.asp>. U.S. providers are proliferating: in
the past year the number of “edu” domains increased from 265 to
332, and “org” domains from 149 to 182. Likewise in Western
Europe: U.K. DPs went from 89 to 114, Germany from 73 to 99.
But in Eastern Europe it is different; the totals for Hungary (4),
Czech Republic (2) and Slovenia (2) stayed the same this year,
and Russia increased only slightly, from 3 to 4. Only Poland
increased significantly, from 4 to 18.
3. As reported at the Oct. 2005 OAI workshop in Geneva, the German
Initiative for Networked Information (DINI) has installed a
certificate system in order to bring OAI providers into greater
standardization.
4. The Open Archives Initiative OAI-Implementers group announced
on Nov. 3 2005 that it is “studying the effectiveness of OAI and
some other related methods of creating interoperable online
libraries” and has “posted a questionnaire 'Survey on Common
Interface Frameworks for Online Libraries' on the web.”
5. See Milena Dobreva, “TEI in South-Eastern Europe: Experience
and Prospects,” TEI Members Meeting, Sofia, Bulgaria, October
28, 2005.
6. See <http://www.tei-c.org.uk/Lite/teiu5_
ru.rtf>.
7. Here again the number of East European repositories lags far
behind. In July 2006 there were 144 DSpace instances worldwide,
and less than half were in the U.S. and U.K. (62), indicating that
many non-English-speaking countries (like Japan) are aware of
and attracted to this increasingly popular open source software.
But in Eastern Europe only 2 DSpace sites were listed (in Russia).
This lack of awareness was substantiated at an e-text conference
in Eastern Russia in July 2006 entitled Modern Informational
Technologies and Written Heritage: From Ancient Manuscripts
to Electronic Texts at which I gave a presentation entitled
“Promoting the TEI in scholarly communities: OAI harvesting,
digital repositories.” Conference attendees described many
sophisticated projects, but there was little familiarity with OAI or
digital repository software used in the West. One scholar was
familiar with these technologies, but in a presentation entitled: “A
Computer System for the Creation and Maintenance of Electronic
Collections of Ancient Texts,” V. S. Iuzhikov (Kazan State
University) wrote: “For the creation and development of electronic
libraries there are several systems. Among the best known are
Greenstone and DSpace. But they are oriented mostly toward text
libraries with small number of illustrations, which are poorly suited
for the collection of old printed works. Therefore it is less
time-consuming and gives better result to build a local system.”
Given the specialized nature of his material, this conclusion was
understandable. Yet the general lack of East European involvement
with these international standards and methodologies remains true.","txt","2","",""
"779","8","Modeling, Explanation, and Ontology in the Cultural Sciences","","Humanities computing must make conceptual modeling
one of its defining activities. This is necessary not only
to provide more effective computational support for scholarship
in the humanities, but also in order for humanities computing
itself to become something more than a “bag of tricks”. This
paper describes promising developments already underway in
several areas within humanities computing, generalizes from
past, if partial, successes (text encoding), draws parallels with
recent work in bioinformatics, and argues that the logical
identity of conceptual modeling and theory-construction makes
conceptual modeling simply a computationally oriented variant
of scientific explanation, and, more broadly, interpretation and
understanding in general. As an example of how model
development can provide fundamental insights into the cultural
world a case is described where a set of ontology evaluation
criteria developed within computer science is applied to an
influential framework for cultural entities and the result that a
radical reconfiguration of that framework is suggested.
Acknowledgements: There is undoubtedly much here that is
influenced by seminal papers on these issues by Willard
McCarty and John Unsworth; I acknowledge a debt to them
without of course any suggestion that they see things as
described here. Introduction
The nature of humanities computing has long been
problematic in the digital humanities community. Part of
the reason for this anxiety is that humanities computing is
struggling to move out of a pre-scientific phase. “Science” here
is of course intended to be taken in the broadest possible sense
— the point is not to separate disciplines such as physics on
the one hand from, say, literary studies on the other, but rather
to distinguish practices that have primarily non-epistemic
non-theoretical objectives from those that have understanding,
explanation, and knowledge as their principal immediate goals.
Nor is there any implication of a clear boundary between
scientific practices and non-scientific practices, or that there
isn’t a complex and essential mutual involvement — the claim
is only that some rough distinction of this sort is possible and
useful.
If humanities computing is to mature as a coherent field of
intellectual inquiry it will need to make a transition from being
an ad hoc set of useful techniques, to more systematic general
methods and theories that make direct contact with the specific
methods and theories of the disciplines it supports. This theme
is not new, but our progress has been modest so far and some
further discussion and elaboration is in order.
First, there are new reasons to be optimistic. For one thing this
progress is already occurring in other informatics
fields—bioinformatics as an example—and the specifics of
these changes provide an indication of how things might go in
humanities computing as well. Moreover the growing
significance of conceptual models and ontologies that is already
in evidence in humanities computing, and the nature of the
discourse around them, is a sign that this transition is perhaps
already underway. Finally one of the most theoretically
productive areas within the humanities computing community,
namely text encoding, arguably has been as successful as it has
precisely to the extent that it has embodied the features
recommended here — and owes its limitations and
disappointments to the extent to which it has not. What all these
things have in common is the foregrounding of conceptual
modeling, explicitly or implicitly.
I use the term “conceptual modeling” broadly, meaning any
formally defined abstract representation of a domain of interest.
Typical examples of modeling languages are the ER and UML
diagrams used in business applications, logic-based knowledge
representation formalisms such as description logics or the
frame languages (such as the KL-ONE family) common in
artificial intelligence, and the various formal ontologies now
used in computational biology and elsewhere
Science in the broad sense is the development of understanding.
Scientific understanding comes typically in the form of theories,
and theories are at least in part the systematic identification of
objects and relationships that are the salient features of some
domain. Informatic disciplines must put these theories,
formalized as conceptual models that support computational
processing, at the center of their identity. And for informatic
disciplines to be sciences themselves they must not only exploit
such conceptual models, but participate in their development
and exploration. This is true for informatics in general, and for
humanities computing in particular. Modeling in Bioinformatics
Other areas that began as craft-like bag-of-tricks
approaches to applying computing to a scientific field
have now begun to evolve a more coherent body of method,
theory, and metatheory. Perhaps the most dramatic case is
bioinformatics. Although initially a haphazard and opportunistic
application of computing techniques, there are now a
considerable number of families of well-theorized methods
tightly tied to biological theory. Of particular interest here is
the role of so-called ontologies in contemporary bioinformatics
such as the Gene Ontology (Ashburner et al., 2000), the
Foundational Model of Anatomy (Rossee & Mejino, 2003),
and other ontologies in genomics, molecular function,
neuroscience, biodiversity, and other areas of the life sciences
as well. An enormous amount of effort is going into the
development and use of these formal models.
In some cases the influence on biological science per se has
still been modest, but generally the results are extremely
promising and in a few cases the influence has been stunning.
The Gene Ontology in particular, has been enormously
successful and provides the overall framework for contemporary
genomics. Of special significance for us is the extent to which
the fundamental explanatory entities and properties of biological
theories are explicitly identified as the core constituents of these
conceptual models, blending the work of first order science
with its bioinformatics support.
Modeling in the Cultural Sciences
Within the humanities computing community text
encoding systems such as the TEI can be seen as a step
in the same direction as the new ontology-based models in
computational biology. Behind the methods of the TEI is at
least arguably an informal positing of text models, components,
and relationships. However unlike the bioinformatic ontologies
the models being indicated by text encoding techniques are
only indirectly and implicitly identified. This has been pointed
out by a number of critics (Raymond & Tompa, 1992;
Raymond, Tompa, & Wood, 1996, 1998, 2001; Buzzetti, 2002),
and projects to develop remedies are underway
(Sperberg-McQueen et al., 2002; Renear et al., 2003).
Another promising sign are the ontologies being developed in
museum studies CIDOC/CRM (Crofts et al., 2003) and library
science (IFLA 1998). For the most part these are being put
forward as frameworks for designing digital information
management systems or shaping the development of standards,
policies, and procedures, but to the extent that they succeed at
efficient, functional, and interoperable systems they may be
considered confirmed as substantive theoretical proposals for
how to understand the nature of the cultural world. And where
these models and ontologies appear to be applications of
existing explanatory theories of cultural objects and
relationships that is more evidence that they are achievements
which advance our understanding of that world.
An Example: Revising FRBR
What follows is an example intended to support two
claims. First that the evolution of conceptual models
intended to support information systems design can in fact be
an activity of first order science (in the broad sense), and second
that precisely the same techniques designed for general
evaluation of ontologies in natural science can be effectively
employed in evaluating cultural ontologies.
Several models for cultural objects identify such things as
works, texts, editions, and individual items as types of things,
fundamental kinds. Not only are various sorts of conceptual
arguments advanced in favor of such an analysis, but so is the
relative success of such frameworks in guiding the design of
effective information systems that are effective, efficient, and
interoperable. That is, the conceptual and practical success of
these systems can be taken as indicating that they correctly
represent how things are. A well-known model of this sort is
IFLA’s Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records
(IFLA 1998), a framework designed primarily to support library
cataloguing, but which clearly has wider application — FRBR
in fact describes itself as a “conceptual model of the
bibliographic universe”.
A puzzle recently emerged about an assignment of one
particular cultural object (XML documents, as defined in the
W3C XML standard) to the appropriate FRBR entity type.
Some considerations argued for an assignment to the FRBR
expression (roughly: text) entity type, and other competing
considerations argued for assignment to the FRBR manifestation
(roughly: edition, or format) entity type. The proposed
resolution was an awkward and unsatisfying exception to the
FRBR framework which preserved the ontology of works,
expressions, editions, at the cost of complexities elsewhere.
(Renear et al 2002, Renear 2005).
Two years later however it was noted that when a proposed
criterion for ontology evaluation which had been developed
for scientific and general purpose ontologies (Guarino & Welty,
2000; Guarino & Welty, 2002) was applied to the FRBR
framework the result was an anomaly that suggested refactoring
the four Group 1 entity types into new entities and
corresponding roles. (Renear, 2006). Under the resulting revised
model the manifestation and expression entity types are not
treated as true entity types (fundamental kinds), but rather roles
(relationships) that entities of other types have in particular circumstances—and in fact this revision was extended to all
four FRBR entities (Renear & Dubin, forthcoming). We realized
that this new way of conceptualizing cultural objects appeared
to be an application of a more general approach developed by
John Searle (1995) as well as consistent with some work in
aesthetics (Levinson 1980). In short, all four FRBR “entities”
can be reinterpreted not as entities but as roles that other
non-cultural things have under specific social contexts of
“collective intentionality”.
That this is not just a practical adjustment in a conceptual model
for humanities computing, but a substantive claim in the science
of cultural objects in general, can be established by comparing
it to familiar claims about cultural objects by scholars such as
Ingarden, Wellek, Richards, Fish, Goodman, Tanselle,
Schillingsburg and others. In this comparison contradiction will
serve as well as convergence to make the point that these
assertions fall within the domain of humanist inquiry, and not
merely within some auxiliary practice.
The Relative Neutrality of these
Recommendations
It may be thought that putting conceptual modeling at the
heart of humanities computing and seeing the development
of models as first order scholarship in the humanities requires
accepting some archaic and dubious philosophical view, a
positivistic scientism perhaps, or even philosophical realism.
But this is not so. It is possible to engage in ontology without
taking a philosophical meta-ontological position. Many different
philosophical positions (including constructivism and
relativism) are all perfectly consistent with taking conceptual
modeling as the natural activity of humanities computing, and
at least part of humanities scholarship more generally. Of course
the results of modeling will not be neutral vis-à-vis other first
order theories, but the activity of modeling need not be
exceptionally controversial. Again the experience of
bioinformatics, where researchers with different philosophical
views (or no philosophical views at all) nevertheless often agree,
or more importantly disagree, on specific issues without
rejecting the overall approach, is significant.
This is not to say that the position is entirely neutral. It may
well conflict with some general accounts of humanistic inquiry
which hold that such inquiry is radically different than the
natural sciences, especially if those accounts are understood as
applying in general or without exception to the entire range of
humanistic scholarship — although I am not yet convinced that
it does in fact conflict with the traditions of hermeneutics and
verstehen, despite the differences in tone and direction. In any
case that the recommendation is not entirely uncontroversial
cannot be taken as a decisive mark against it at the outset.
Whether it is sound or not will depend on how it fares against
its competitors in improving our knowledge and understanding
of the cultural world.
Concluding Remarks
Ihave argued that humanities computing must make
conceptual modeling its central defining activity if it is to
fully realize its promise to substantially advance humanities
scholarship, and that such modeling is an intrinsic part of first
order humanities inquiry, and not merely an auxiliary activity.
Bibliography
Ashburner, Michael, et al. ""Gene Ontology: Tool for the
Unification of Biology."" Nature Genetics 25 (2000): 25-29.
Buzzetti, Dino. ""Digital Representation and the Text Model.""
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Crofts, Nick, I. Dionissiadou, Martin Doerr, and Matthew Stiff.
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/~jmu2m/KR/>","txt","2","",""
"780","8","The AXE Tool Suite: Tagging Across Time and Space","","Since the codification of the Text Encoding Initiative
standards in the mid-1990s, the process of the creation of
digital editions and archives is largely one of ""marking up""
existing texts in XML. Originally, this was often done ""by
hand."" Scholars would add XML tags to existing text documents
using a text editor-a tedious process often fraught with errors.
Over the last decade several tools have been produced which
make this process somewhat more efficient and accurate, though
most still require more than a beginners familiarity with XML
encoding, and few are open source. Moreover, many digital
humanities projects have, of late, become far more
multi-medial--relying on image, video, and audio files as well
as text. Existing markup tools have only begun to work with
these non-textual artifacts. As digital archives continue to grow,
the markup tools used to encode them must become more
flexible and easier to use. The Ajax XML Encoder (AXE),
developed at the Maryland Institute for Technology in the
Humanities (MITH) is intended to be the tool suite that meets
this need.
AXE is a free tool suite that will allow users with limited
technical skills to deeply tag text, images, video, and audio files
for inclusion in digital archives. The program combines and
extends the functionality of proprietary online tools such as
YouTube and Flickr in a (mostly) open source1, web-based
platform for scholarly use. The tagging tool is designed in
AJAX and Macromedia Flash and generates and uses a MySQL
database. Like the mythological Ajax's axe, MITH's AXE
provides users with enough power and flexibility to accomplish
their tasks without a great deal of assistance from higher powers
(the technical or professorial ""gods"" graduate student workers
must often invoke when using earlier encoding tools).
Users of this tool are divided into two classes: managing editors
and editor-users. Managing editors are permitted to define the
sorts of tags all users can use and are able to remove items from
the database. All users, however, are able to add new
multimedia content to the database, tag it, and search for
preexisting content in the database. Tagging is naturally
accomplished in different ways depending on the media. For
sound files, an mp3 file is played through a Flash plug-in. When
the user pauses a sound file once, the timing is recorded. When
the user pauses the file again, the end time is recorded and the
user is presented with a web-based form to tag the selection. If
appropriate, a textual transcript of the sound with corresponding
times can be made. Providing a tool for image tagging was
more difficult. Although popular websites like Myspace and
Facebook provide some models for folksonomic image tagging,
the tag-spaces are usually limited to regular polygons (like
squares) and do not store the resulting data in a form that can
be easily shared. A better model for image tagging is the
ARCHway Project's ""Image Tagger,"" described in the June
2006 issue of the International Journal on Digital Libraries by
designers Dekhtyar, Iacob, Jaromczyk, Kiernan, Moore, and
Porter . The program is hindered, though, by the clumsy
Java-based interface that requires users to install and learn
specialized software. Our program uses an AJAX website which
allows the user to add points to an image map (represented on
the image itself via a 1 pixel div element with a red border)
[see figure 1]. Once the image map is drawn, the user can
describe it with tags defined by the editor (or editors) of the
project. The entire image can also be so described
Figure 1
Video tagging, as one might expect, uses a combination of the
image and audio tagging methods. The video is first converted
to flash movie format using FFMpeg. The audio portion of the
movie is handled in exactly the same way as stand alone audio.
The visual portion of the movie is handled with a combination
of the techniques used for images and sound. The user can tag,
for instance, the start and end times of a particular segment and
add metadata to this portion. AXE even allows users to tag
images within the frames of movie files. If the user wished, for
instance, to tag a tree in the background of a shot, the user first
marks the time period in which the appropriate image appears.
A user-defined number of the frames from this segment are
then stacked and rendered translucent. With some adjustments,
the user can then click a series of coordinates which define the
selection over the space of the segment. This process is rendered
through Javascript and Macromedia's Flash.
Once all the tags have been created, they are parsed into a
mySQL database (the XML is generated first to allow users to
work offline and then feed the XML to the database later). This database can be searched through traditional keyword or tag
cloud searches, but the interface also allows guided browsing.
When the user views a multimedia object, the user is also
presented with a series of ""related"" objects (after the
e-commerce model in which customers are presented with a
series of products related to one they are currently viewing). If
the user selects a sub-element in the document (perhaps
something like a tree in the background of a photograph), the
""related"" documents will change to reflect relationships centered
on the user's choice. The user can also set global limits to what
suggestions are made. The related documents will change to
reflect user selection of sub-elements. The user can set global
limits on what relations are presented (e.g. related documents
must be dated after the current document). New tags and
documents from remote sites can also be added to the database
by editor-users. Later users can decide whose tags they trust
and block those by anonymous or unreliable taggers.
AXE is currently being used in a project headed by Angel David
Nieves to create a multi-perspective history of a 1976 student
uprising in Soweto, South Africa. Dr. Nieves has an enormous
wealth of multimedia primary documents surrounding the event
and hoped that the mass of materials would provide new ways
of telling the story. We needed, however, to process and present
this material in an unbiased way that allowed for multiple
interpretations of the events. AXE is being used to create an
interface which, as much as possible, left the arrangement and
interpretation of the materials up to the individual users.
AXE may eventually prove essential in the creation of digital
library archives. Although academic libraries are now fairly
adept at the digital preservation of textual material, few libraries
provide searchable digital archives of sound and video. As the
average available bandwidth of both users and institutions
increase, software will be needed to allow the cataloging and
access of this material. AXE seeks to fill this need.
1. Although all code written at MITH will be published on the web,
the use of Adobe's Flash prevents the project from being truly
open source.","txt","2","",""
"781","8","Digital Humanties! The Musical","","It has now been twenty-five years since the development of
the first personal computer, and while many humanities
scholars have begun to explore how these machines might assist
them in their work, there have been very few attempts to
consider how electronic tools might be used to study musical
theater. Musical theater seems particularly well-suited, though,
to the multimedia capabilities of the modern PC. David Saltz’s
Virtual Vaudevilleand the “Web Operas” on Paul Howarth and
Jim Farron’s Gilbert and Sullivan Archive prove that dramatic
text and music can be presented together in interesting ways
through a digital interface. However, neither is precisely the
right model for presenting musical theatre texts. This
presentation will describe the particular suitability of
contemporary musical theater for electronic presentation and
will demonstrate the author’s electronic edition of the musical
Parade.
The electronic edition of Parade serves as a prototype for an
upcoming series of electronic critical editions musical theater
texts the author is currently working with the Library of
Congress to develop. Using the standards designed by the Text
Encoding Initiative (TEI), the text of the Broadway and the
touring version of the libretto of Parade were encoded into one
file. Textual, critical, and explanatory notes were also encoded
in the text using the same system. The text is presented in an
interactive AJAX website. Users can choose how much of these
texts to view and the way in which they should be displayed.
This functionality allows users to compare varying versions of
the text and score side by side, or (using transparency) even
one on top of the other. When the user clicks the lyrics of a
song, the music begins playing at the beginning of the associated
section and stops at the end (or when paused by the user).
Analytical tools such as an automated collation feature, an
exhaustive concordance of every word in the libretto, and a
tool which extracts all the lines for a particular character along
with cue lines to aid actors in memorization of their parts are
also included. Future editions will include tools that will allow
users to analyze patterns in the textual, musical, and
terpsichorean languages of the poem. For example, a
concordance of words will be linked to a concordance of
musical phrases and both, in turn, will be linked to a
concordance of choreographed movements. Videos of dance
numbers will be linked to computer animations of the movements of individual dancers. The early versions of these
features will also be demonstrated in this presentation.
This presentation will also describe how such editions will
benefit musical theater studies. Musical theater scholarship is
growing rapidly. An increasing number of scholarly works are
being published by academic presses, and in the past year alone
there were over fifty dissertations written on the topic. While
this scholarship is promising, the academy as a whole remains
relatively uninterested in the musical. A recent panel on
composer-lyricist Stephen Sondheim was scheduled for the
Modern Language Association’s annual conference but was
later cancelled for lack of interest. The musical is still usually
relegated to popular culture studies and is rarely included in
the syllabi of contemporary drama courses. In part, this may
be a reaction to the preponderance of mostly formulaic works
in the genre. Today, aside from revivals and the occasional
limited run at Lincoln Center, artistic (as opposed to purely
commercially driven) musicals can rarely generate enough
investor interest to go on Broadway. The creators of artistic
musical theater bemoan the fact there is not a venue for their
work. In a recent article for Opera News, musical theater
composer Michael John LaChiusa (composer-lyricist of many
recent artistic musicals), writes of recent Broadway hits, “All
sense of invention and craft is abandoned in favor of delivering
what the artist thinks a musical should deliver.”1
Composer-lyricist Jason Robert Brown echoes this complaint
in an interview with the author, “Only in [today’s Broadway]
musicals do things exist with the sole purpose of entertaining
their people and not hoping to make them think about the
world.” It could be that these are nothing but the complaints of
artists unable to achieve widespread commercial success, yet
the fact remains that the Broadway musical has, in the last
fifteen years, almost completely consisted of light comedy and
pastiche.
Significantly, although non-musical plays suffer many of the
same pressures, a few serious plays regularly open and close
on Broadway every season. A play can afford to fail, not only
because production costs for plays are usually lower than for
musicals, but because it is viewed as “high art.” Producers are
more willing to lose money on plays because they are
contributing to works of “cultural importance.” The musical,
on the other hand, is trapped in a degrading cycle. The scholarly
community, which might elevate the cultural respectability of
the musical, generally ignores the form because so few musicals
are artistically interesting (thereby withholding the cultural
blessing which might inspire producers to fund more interesting
musicals).
One way to break the cycle may be to provide scholars with
better access to the best works of musical theater. There is
evidence that increased access to the material can lead to
increased cultural respect. The Gershwin’s Of Thee I Sing, the
first musical for which the libretto was commercially published,
went on to become the first musical to win Pulitzer prize.
Unfortunately, the full text of a musical is often available only
to theater practitioners who rent the performance texts from
theater licensing companies for a production. Despite Stephen
Sondheim’s reputation, there is, at the time of this writing, no
commercially published libretto of his Merrily We Roll Along
or Saturday Night If Arthur Miller’s or Tom Stoppard’s work
were available only under such conditions one wonders if the
literary community would have been so willing to embrace
them.
Of course, the extremely multi-medial nature of musical theater
makes the traditional codex a clumsy tool for presenting editions
of the texts. Further, musicals often exist in many different
versions with no one text definitely representing the title. The
musical Show Boat , for instance, may be better thought of as
the sum of the total of all its major incarnations rather than as
any one production. Although this notion of textuality is
difficult to represent in print, it is well-suited for an electronic
edition. Further, electronic editions will assist not only
individual scholars of musical theater, but instructors of the
form as well. Teaching close reading of musical theater texts
has always been an awkward matter. The problem of linking
text to sound and the limited available of important texts often
force instructors to assign videotaped or movie versions of the
works. This approach does not encourage careful study of the
written words of the musical. If scholarly electronic editions
of musical theater are eventually produced, it may be that
musical theater will finally find a firm footing in academic
scholarship. The first printed libretto of a musical won a Pulitzer
Prize. It seems possible electronic editions will increase the
respectability of an art form that is even now slowly finding its
deserved place in literary scholarship. Perhaps scholarly interest
will generate more funding for serious musicals. Optimistic
thoughts, to be sure—perhaps better suited for a Rodgers and
Hammerstein song than a conference presentation. Still, at the
very least, electronic editions of musical theater will provide a
new way of studying and experiencing this important art form.
1. Michael John LaChiusa, “The Great Gray Way,” Opera News
(August 2005): 30-35.","txt","2","",""
"782","8","Why Take Games Seriously? Digital Humanities and the Study of Games","","Until recently, the study of games from a humanities
perspective has been a surprisingly impoverished field,
with the relatively few titles generally philosophical or
ethnographic in nature. Yet the recent rise of game studies has
generated a wealth of scholarship as interdisciplinary as the
games themselves. What is it about computer games that caused
such an increase in attention? Why do these games merit such
scrutiny? With a robust industry comprised of both popular and
independent studios that have produced thousands of virtual
worlds and environments, computer games have become one
of the fastest rising modes of new media expression. As Janet
Murray asserts, ""the largest commercial success and the greatest
creative effort in digital narrative have so far been in the area
of computer games"" (Hamlet on the Holodeck 51). If the
computer represents a “single new medium of representation,
the digital medium, formed by the braided interplay of technical
invention and cultural expression,” (Murray, New Media
Theory Reader 3), the game is its most prominent genre,
simulating sport, adventure, exploration, war, economies, and
even life itself. In fewer than fifty years, computer games have
grown from allowing text-based adventurers to crawl through
fictionalized caves to generating miles upon miles of virtual
landscape inhabited by its digital citizens and with economies
rivaling that of several real-world countries. Whereas a single
white dot once floated across a dark screen in an abstraction of
table tennis, players can now top-spin their way through the
rankings at a virtual Grand Slam tournament.
This paper examines both the long and short history of gaming
and its scholarship within a humanities context, arguing that
games play a crucial role in any serious academic study of new
media and within the overarching framework of the digital
humanities. After an overview detailing how games have
influenced and engaged with traditional humanities topics, I
discuss three ways that games should be taken seriously in the
digital humanities: as models for learning and rhetoric (as with
the “Serious Games” movement); as objects that are part of the
larger digital media ecology desperately in need of preservation;
and as objects of critical study. In short, this paper addresses
why, and how, humanities scholars should take games seriously.
I begin with a brief review of games’ rich ‘long history’ in the
humanities, which includes art both about games, such as the
11th-century Chinese painting of “Ladies Playing Double
Sixes,” and the artistry of games, such as the pieces from a
19th-century Indian chess set, whose delicate nature suggests
that they are as much decorative as functional. From a cultural
historical perspective, games reveal much about social
hierarchies: the extravagance of the late sixteenth-century
Moghul ruler Akbar, who had elaborate Pachisi boards
constructed of flagstones so that he might play, using beautiful
girls dressed in appropriate colors; or the inclusion of a game
within the Chinese literati’s four key accomplishments in the
arts: mastery of the zither, calligraphy, painting, and weiqi
(perhaps better recognized by its Japanese name: Go); or the
simple modesty of card and board games found at all levels of
society. From a literary perspective, games inflect upon the
playfulness of Dadaism, the linguistic games of the Oulipo, or
even as plot device, as with Scrooge, so taken with the party’s
games “wholly forgetting in the interest he had in what was
going on, that his voice made no sound in their ears, he
sometimes came out with his guess quite loud, and very often
guessed quite right, too” (Dickens, A Christmas Carol 69).
The long history of games conspires with the shorter history
of the modern computer game, which both remediates (in Bolter
and Grusin’s sense) previous artistic and ludic forms, while
also taking advantage of the unique feedback mechanisms
afforded by modern computing technology. While sometimes
marked by William Higginbotham's 1958 Tennis for Two,
created at Brookhaven Labs using an analog computer
connected to an oscilloscope, most scholars attribute the first
digital computer game to Steve Russell, who wrote SpaceWar!
on a PDP-1 mainframe computer in 1962. The first text
adventure game, ADVENTURE, was created by William
Crowther and later refined by Don Woods in 1975. Both a game
and a simulation, ADVENTUREwas inspired by the Mammoth
Cave system in Kentucky, which Crowther and his wife
regularly explored. Now, over six million players quest through
the vast reaches of Azeroth in the online multiplayer game
World of Warcraft, while others learn of redemption in the
single-player Prince of Persia trilogy. With an over forty year
history of their own, computer games, their rise, complexity,
and popularity, have reminded us that games – the long history
of games – are perhaps our most understudied form of art and
communication.
The recent prominence of games has led educators and policy
makers to turn (once again) to interactive gaming media as a
way to educate students and influence opinion, resulting in
titles like Darfur is Dying, the language and culture military
education game Tactical Iraqi, the educational game Discover
Babylon, or the social critique of Kinko’s worker in Disaffected.
Taking games seriously requires understanding their
mechanisms, both in order to exploit strategies for successful education but also to provide suitable, knowledgeable critique
of an increasingly prevalent rhetorical platform. Through this
continuous process of understanding these models for interactive
rhetoric, entertainment, and education, scholars also can begin
to build a framework that allows for the preservation for the
many digital media forms that are too slowly finding their way
into our public archival institutions (with a few notable
exceptions).
Games deserve our attention not only because of their potential
in education, and not simply for their role as a cultural, historical
artifact, but also because they are perhaps the
computer-as-medium's most unique art, one that takes the basic
function of computing – interactivity – and refines it into an
expression, a meaningful exchange often articulated by a
challenge between opposing interests. I conclude by providing
one example of how to ‘take games seriously’ as an object of
critical study based on its own merits. I provide an overview
of ‘game fiction,’ which I define as a sub-genre of game that
draws upon and uses narrative strategies to create, maintain,
and lead the user through a fictional environment. The
relationship of computer games to more traditional forms, and
especially narrative, has been a contentious issue within the
growing field of game studies. Understanding games’
indebtedness to and departure from other expressive works,
particularly the narrative forms of prose fiction and film, proves
a delicate challenge. The solution, I argue, stems partly from
creating an understanding of genre within games that addresses
underlying mechanisms as much as subject matter, and moves
beyond the genres that heretofore have been casually outlined.
With the example of ‘game fiction,’ I suggest a framework for
studying games – and for distinguishing types of games that
are all too often lumped together under a singular rubric – that
both draws on existing scholarly practice while also taking into
account the unique computational framework of the modern
computer game.","txt","2","",""
"783","8","ALLC Panel: Digital Resources in Humanities Research: Evidence of Value","3","While most of us who do humanities computing need no
convincing of its value, academic colleagues - including
those on appointment and promotion panels - still need to be
convinced, and even more so funders. If we want backing for
the use and further development of digital resources, both data
and processes, we need to collect more extensive concrete
evidence of the ways in which they enable us to do research
better, or to do research we would not otherwise be able to do,
or to generate new knowledge in entirely new ways. Since the
value of humanities research as a whole is qualitative, not
quantitative, it is qualitative evidence in particular we should
be looking for: digital resources providing the means not simply
of doing research, but of doing excellent research.
One major task is therefore to accumulate a body of evidence
of what researchers have done, and achieved, with digital
resources— evidence that is not always as easy to find as one
would wish. But what researchers do with these resources is
also dependent on the nature and quality of the resources
themselves: their academic rigour and completeness, and their
technological design. Where a new digital research resource is
created, to what extent does an assessment need to focus on the
methods of analysis, design and construction of the resource,
and to what extent on its usefulness to the community or
communities of researchers? How important are the technical
standards adopted? What about sustainability? What are the
opportunities for re-use and for developing research materials
that can be re-configured in a variety of ways? We therefore need not only to accumulate evidence of value,
but to think more about the criteria and methods we should use
for doing so. For instance, where an analytical method is based
on the methods used in other disciplines, e.g. statistics, there
may be methods of assessment that can be likewise borrowed.
Many of us believe the evidence is there, but we do not have
the range of coherent, agreed and tested methods of assessment
that will enable us to make assertions of value that will be
reliable and will carry weight.
The panel session will seek to identify the range and kinds of
evidence that exists, the methods of assessment that are needed,
and the methods of re-use and reconfiguration that can give
assurances of value.
Contributors:
David Robey (convenor): Introduction
Harold Short : Examples and case studies
Thornton Staples : Design and management for flexible use
Geoffrey Rockwell : Text analysis
Sheila Anderson : e-Science","txt","2","",""
"784","8","Text Analysis Portal for Research, Using the Public Release","","Introduction
In April of 2007 the TAPoR project, after extended testing
and two public beta versions, released Version 1.0 of the
Text Analysis Portal for Research.1 This portal gathers text
analysis tools configured as web services into an environment
where users can define the texts they want to work with, select
the tools that best work with different text formats, and log
their research. The portal is, on the one hand a broker for piping
electronic texts to tools and then managing the results, and on
the other hand is a study environment where projects can be
managed over time. Our poster will do three things:
• Show an overview of how the portal works with annotated
screen shots.
• Show the life of the project including the user testing phases.
• We will have a laptop in order to demonstrate a live version
of the portal to interested.
Demonstration
Provided we can have a live internet connection we will be
prepared to demonstrate:
• How the portal can be used even without an account using
the Try It feature or myLinks pages where users can publish
sets of texts for analysis.
• How to get a free account from TAPoR.
• How to define texts that may be elsewhere on the internet
or uploaded. How to organize these texts using tags and
how to publish a set of searchable texts for students or
colleagues.
• How to use the Workbench to organize a set of texts and
specific tools for a project. How to run tools on texts and
how to save results. • How to log the progress of a research project and share it
through TAPoR.
If a live connection is not available we will have a local version
running based on the TAPoR Live CD which is a bootable
version of linux and the portal that works locally.
User Testing and the Life Cycle of a
Tool Project
Version 1.0 of the portal is the result of extensive user
testing which will be visually represented in the poster
as will ways new users can provide us feedback as we develop
the priorities for further releases. 2
For those familiar with earlier versions of the portal there are
a number of improvements including:
• A new type of news channel called a Research Log. Users
can save results from tools to this log along with comments.
They can also save the text/tool configuration to run again.
• A new feature called Analyze Text that will open a window
with the text on the right and suggested tools on the left for
close study of one text.
• The myLinks feature has been adapted so users can publish
their public texts for others to search across and for other
to analyze. This can be used, for example, for providing
students with a study set of texts.
• The interface has been simplified to make it easy for users
to get projects going.
Background
The TAPor Portal is one of the outcomes of a 5 year project
funded by the Canada Foundation for Innovation (CFI)
that involves 6 universities across Canada, including the
University of Victoria, the University of Alberta, McMaster
University, the University of Toronto, the Université de
Montréal and the University of New Brunswick. Provincial
funding bodies and our respective universities have also
supported the TAPoR project. The portal was developed by
Open Sky Solutions with a team primarily at McMaster
University. The poster will recognize the supporting institutions
but will focus on the portal and not present the wealth of other
projects that are part of TAPoR. 3
This poster will show the current version of a major text analysis
tools development effort that developed a model for sustainable
and modular text analysis for a broad community. This is a
challenge that has concerned computing humanists since the
1980s. As Susan Hockey put it in a post to HUMANIST in
1996 that reported on a meeting she convened at CETH, ""For
some time, those of us active in humanities computing have
felt the need for better and/or more widely accessible text
analysis software tools for the humanities. There have been
informal discussions about this at a number of meetings, but
so far no substantial long-term plan has emerged to clarify
exactly what those needs are and to identify what could to be
done to ensure that humanities scholars have readily-available
text analysis tools to serve their computing needs into the next
century.""4
The TAPoR model meets a number of the objectives described
for text analysis tools in the 1990s by Hockey and others.5 It
is widely accessible. It provides a long-term model using web
services to bring tools together where they can be used in a
study environment. It allows new tools to be added and existing
tools to be improved or replaced over time as new needs
emerge. It allows research to be recorded and shared.
Future Plans
The TAPoR Portal also has limitations. Depending on tools
provided as web services by others increases the chances
of simple operations not working. Many of the tools are not
multi-lingual. The tool broker model where the portal gets a
remote text and passes it to a remote tool is not as efficient as
an all-in-one model where texts can be preindexed. And, as
with any large software project there are still inconsistencies,
awkward interface panels, and bugs.
The poster will conclude by outlining future plans. TAPoR
hopes to be funded for a second phase through the CFI Leading
Edge Fund in order to add large-scale text datamining and
aggregation tools. Currently the portal model does not pre-index
large collections (except in limited cases) and provides limited
aggregation or crawling tools. TAPoR 2, if funded, will continue
improving the interface and will add large-scale functionality
by adapting crawling, scraping and data mining tools to the
study space.
1. For more about the TAPoR project see <http://www.tap
or.ca>
2. TAPoR interface at <http://www.tapor.ca/interf
ace> details a persona oriented investigation conducted by
Audrey Carr and Joanna Dacko. Dr. Wendy Duff at the University
of Toronto also conducted extensive interviews that have not been
published, but which were absracted for the portal development
team. Finally, we have a layered testing process combined with
the gathering of tool statistics that is being conducted on the
release.
3. Mind Technologies edited by Raymond Siemens and David
Moorman (U of Calgary Press, 2006) includes a number of articles
about the variety of projects supported by TAPoR. 4. Susan Hockey, Humanist Discussion Group 10.54 (23 May 1996).
See <http://lists.village.virginia.edu/l
ists_archive/Humanist/v10/0054.html>. There
is also a note from Michael Sperberg-McQueen pointing to a trip
report available at <http://tigger.uic.edu/~cmsm
cq/trips/ceth9505.html>
5. Geoffrey Rockwell and John Bradley, ""Eye-ContTact: Towards
a New Design for Text-Analysis Tools"", CHWP A.4. (1998). See
<http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/chwp/
rockwell/>","txt","2","",""
"785","8","Recent Developments in the Music Encoding Initiative Project: Enhancing Digital Musicology and Scholarship","","Introduction
The MEI (Music Encoding Initiative) is an encoding toolset
meant for modeling music information (Roland, 2006).
This does not refer to audio, but to the symbolic representation
of Common Music notation (CMN), the “standard” form of
music notation used between 1700 and 1935 (see Fig. 1). MEI
is an XML application expressed in DTD form (for the present),
with a TEI-like header (Fig. 2), a <music> element instead
of <body>, and <front> and <back> to accommodate text.
The goals for MEI are to encode CMN “out of the box”, to limit
verbosity without compromising the self-documenting aspect
of XML, to support repertoires other than CMN, and to support
creation of multi-lingual interfaces by allowing generic
identifier names to be changed, all to better enable creation of
scholarly editions. In this poster presentation we highlight the
recent developments made to improve and extend MEI with a
special emphasis on the impacts these developments can have
on digital musicology and scholarship.
Figure 1. Sample CMN rendition of ""Quem queritis"" <?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""
standalone=""no"">
< ! D O C T Y P E m e i S Y S T E M
""http://www.lib.virginia.edu/digital/resndev/mei/mei17b/
mei17b.dtd"">
<mei version=""1.7b"">
<meihead>
<meiid/>
<filedesc>
<titlestmt> <title>""Quem queritis""</title>
</titlestmt>
<notesstmt>
<bibnote type=""encoding-date"">2003-03-15</
bibnote>
</notesstmt>
</filedesc>
<profiledesc>
<langusage>
<language id=""la""/>
</langusage>
</profiledesc>
<revisiondesc>
<change>
<changedesc>
<p>Transcoded from MusicXML version 1.0</p>
</changedesc>
<date>2006-09-26-04:00</date>
</change>
</revisiondesc>
</meihead>
Figure 2.Sample of the TEI-like MEI header for ""Quem
queritis"".
Recent Developments
MEI is extending its notation encoding capacity beyond
CMN. While most representations of notation have
been limited to CMN, MEI has a TEI P4-like
extension/restriction mechanism which can be used to expand
the universe of sources to which it can be applied. Work is
progressing in two particular areas: “White mensural” notation
and “Medieval neumatic” notation. Both of these developments
also better situate MEI as an encoding mechanism for serious
digital musicology (see Section 3).
Mensural notation is a musical notation system used from the
later part of the 13th century until about 1600. The name
“mensural” refers to the capacity of this system to notate
complex rhythms with great exactness and flexibility. Mensural
notation was the first system used for European music that
systematically used individual note shapes to denote temporal
durations. Measure-less music requires structural reorganization,
or score-by-staff encoding rather than score-by-measure-by-staff
encoding: the staff must directly allow features previously
available only within <measure>, such as for timed events.
MEI is introducing new concepts to enable such encoding:
events -- ligature, mensuration and proportion signs;
orthographic vs. semantic accidentals; barlines, and new
attributes and attribute values.
Neumes are the basic elements of Western and Eastern systems
of musical notation prior to the invention of five-line staff
notation. Neumatic notation eventually evolved into modern
musical notation, but remains standard in modern editions of
plainchant. MEI is introducing new concepts to enable encoding
of this system: single and compound neumes, ligatures,
mensuration and proportion indicators, orthographic accidentals,
custos, interpretative marks (episema, liquescent neumes,
quilisma) that can be treated as timed events, mora (an
augmentation dot) that may be handled the same as a modern
augmentation dot, and new attributes and attribute values.
MEI is now supporting data collection via MusicXML (Good,
2002), a translator and interchange format for common Western
musical notation from the 17th century onwards. A new 2mei
XSL style sheet facilitates transformation of MusicXML to
MEI, creating an input path from any software that supports
export of MusicXML. On average the resulting MEI files are
only 51% as large as the original MusicXML files.
Enhancing Support for Digital
Musicology and Scholarly Editions
MEI has been gaining favorable reception among those
engaged in digital music scholarship. For example, the
MeTAMuSe project has said, ""In contrast to MusicXML, which
is the de facto industry standard, but which is rather limited in
the representation of musicological concepts such as multiple
divergent sources, MEI has definite advantages in the
musicological context"" (Byrd et al., 2006). MEI has also been
described as one of ""two really serious contenders"" in this
problem space (Kay, 2004).
Digital critical editions of music start with the encoding of the
musical sources, and then add layers for presentation and
meaning. MEI's improved capacity to encode multiple types of
notation, provide support for non-transcriptional text
commentary/annotation, as well as improved methods of data
capture into the encoding format and data export will hopefully
foster new efforts to create scholarly critical editions using
XML. Such content-based encoding modeled on text encoding
formats is not only best-suited to the development of these
digital editions, but can potentially best document the
intellectual process of the development of the corpus, making
the critical work better suited for verification and scholarly
argument.
MEI is well-suited for the creation of scholarly editions that
document the creation and revision history of a single musical
composition. In MEI, a single file supports encoding of the data
common to all sources only once, rather than requiring
redundant markup and encoding in multiple files. The
<source> element holds bibliographic and physical description of a single source document and can be linked to
specific data via its data attribute, while data can be linked to
the source via the source attribute, a mechanism not unlike the
“declarable/ declaring” attributes in TEI. When the meiCrit
parameter entity is enabled, parallel alternative encodings are
possible at the score, measure, and staff levels. This feature
would be particularly useful for the construction of such
scholarly editions as the “Online Chopin Variorum Edition”
(<http://www.ocve.org.uk/>). In the case of
manuscript music, the <handlist> element in the header
and the “hand” attribute (available on most music content
elements) allow one to track the scribes, copyists, etc. who
notated the music.
MEI now supports non-transcriptional text
commentary/annotation. The <annot> element provides a
way to group participating events, the notes that form a
descending bass line, for example, and provide a label for the
group. An editorial or analytical observation, encoded
elsewhere, may be pointed to using the linking attributes.
Alternatively, the observation may be included directly within
the <annot> element.
Ongoing and Future Work
Work is progressing to support two modes of visualization
and export. The first is a conversion from MEI to
MusicXML which will allow any software that reads
MusicXML to display/manipulate the data. This is analogous
to the method, i.e., conversion to HTML which is used to
display SGML/XML. This MEI-to-MusicXML conversion, is,
however, lossy. The second mode, direct conversions to other
internal representations, requires writing a filter for each
existing data format. This is a time-consuming task, but will
greatly reduce data loss.
Also, additional elements necessary for manuscript encoding
are planned: <add> (for something added by another person
or at a later date), <del> (for something marked out),
<unclear> (for illegible passages), <damage>(damage to
the carrier), <supplied> (for data supplied by the editor),
and <handshift> to indicate a change in scribal hands.
Appendix
<work>
<music>
<mdiv>
<score>
<scoredef>
<staffgrp>
<staffdef n=""1"" id=""P1"" label.full=""Voice""
clef.line=""2"" clef.shape=""G"" midi.div=""2""/>
</staffgrp>
</scoredef>
<section>
<measure n=""1"" id=""d1e18"" right=""dbl"">
<staff def=""1"">
<layer def=""1"">
<note id=""d1e32"" tstamp=""0"" pname=""g""
oct=""4"" dur=""4"" dur.ges=""2"" stem.dir=""up"">
<verse n=""1"">
<syl>Quem</syl>
</verse>
</note>
<note id=""d1e53"" tstamp=""2"" pname=""f""
oct=""4"" dur=""4"" dur.ges=""2"" stem.dir=""up""/>
<note id=""d1e69"" tstamp=""4"" pname=""d""
oct=""4"" dur=""4"" dur.ges=""2"" stem.dir=""up"">
<verse n=""1"">
<syl wordpos=""i"" con=""d"">que</syl>
</verse>
</note>
<note id=""d1e90"" tstamp=""6"" pname=""f""
oct=""4"" dur=""4"" dur.ges=""2"" stem.dir=""up""/>
<note id=""d1e104"" tstamp=""8"" pname=""e""
oct=""4"" dur=""4"" dur.ges=""2"" stem.dir=""up""/>
<note id=""d1e120"" tstamp=""10"" pname=""f""
oct=""4"" dur=""4"" dur.ges=""2"" stem.dir=""up"">
<verse n=""1"">
<syl wordpos=""m"" con=""d"">ri</syl>
</verse>
</note>
{CODE DELETED FOR SPACE}
</measure>
</section>
</score>
</mdiv>
</music>
</work>
</mei>
Bibliography
Byrd, Donald, Time Crawford, and Geraint Wiggins.
MeTAMuSE: Methodologies and Technologies for Advances
Musical Score Encoding. Project proposal submitted to The
Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. Final Version, 19 May 2006,
Typescript. 2006.
Good, Michael. ""MusicXML in Practice: Issues in Translation
and Analysis."" Proceedings of First International Conference MAX 2002: Musical Application Using XML, Milan, September
19-20, 2002. 2002. 47-54.
Kay, Michael. XSLT 2.0 Programmer's Reference. 3rd edition.
Indianapolis, IN: Wiley, 2004.
Roland, Perry. The Music Encoding Initiative (MEI) . 2006.
<http://www.lib.virginia.edu/digital/resn
dev/mei/>","txt","2","",""
"786","8","Multilevel Displays and Document Blueprints: Dynamic Browsing Using XML Structures and Text Features","","Abstract
In this paper, we discuss how researchers can benefit from
tools that allow them to work with visualizations that rely
on XML data at different levels of granularity. For these
visualizations, we propose using a single interface that draws
on the underlying structural information at both the collection
level and the level of the contents of the individual documents.
We compare two models of this kind of interactivity that are
the subjects of our current interface design and prototyping
activities. One of these systems is predicated on displays relying
on sequence, and the other on visualizing the structure of items
and facilitating their traversal.
Discussion
The common goal of these interface systems is to provide
researchers with experimental means of combining
overviews of a document with tools for manipulating the
display. First is our multilevel document visualization system
(Ruecker et al. 2005) that combines three or more simultaneous
displays, including a microtext column showing collection
items, a separate microtext column showing the contents of a
particular document, and a reading view of the document. These
different levels of display are combined with tools for selecting
and manipulating a portion of the text in a subsequent display.
The purpose of the multilevel system is to allow the user to
work with a digital document within the visual context of related
material. We have currently installed it as a feature in the
prototype for watching digital scripts, where the standard
reading view is supplemented with a digital stage that allows
the reader to see both the dynamic text playback and the
blocking of the characters as they move around the stage. We are currently carrying out a user study of actors using the system
to learn their lines.
In addition to the dynamic text, we have recently begun to
consider the possibilities of using the microtext columns as
opportunities for providing overviews that can provide further
data. For example, they might be colour-coded and re-organized
according to some useful principle. In the Watching the Script
demo, one form of colour-coding currently available – for plays
that have been encoded in XML that marks the character names
– is to help the reader differentiate between characters.
For purposes of a director planning the play, this overview
allows exploration of the various relationships of the characters
on the stage. It can be use to address questions such as who is
on stage when, and with who, and how many lines does each
actor have? By selectively applying colour only to the character
or characters of interest, and having the remainder display in
regular black text, the director has a tool for studying the entire
play from the perspective of the staging.
Another overview panel in the prototype provides a list of the
characters. As a simple display it does not provide many
affordances, but with the addition of some further information
and the ability to sort, this list also has potential benefits. For
example, if we give the user the opportunity of adding next to
each character the number of lines that character speaks, or a
total of time spent on stage, or both, and then rearranging the
characters according to those numbers, we have another tool
for use in understanding the play at an overview level, and for
planning production. Combined with the blocking tool, these
overviews and their related tools begin to create a tool suite
that we hope will prove useful to actors, directors, and students
of theatre.
The second prototype produces what we are calling a Document
Blueprint: a compact visual representation of the markup in a
document. This blueprint can be used to suggest encoding
particularities of a document by colour-coding tags and
attributes in flexible ways. The identity – and therefore
colour-coding – of sections can be defined in ways that ignore
certain nodes in an XML tree, including elements, attributes,
and text.
Our first application of this system is to generate a document
view where the table of contents is initially displayed in a
legible font size and the markup of sections are displayed in
small, blueprint mode (where visual cues from the text emerge
but the text itself is too small to be legible). The Document
Blueprint system allows the user to define which elements to
toggle between legible and blueprinting modes. Depending on
which elements the user chooses, the system provides a variety
of overviews that can help both in understanding and navigating
the document, much as the conventional table of contents has
always done, but with the important differences of dynamic
display and interactivity (Ruecker 2005).
Future Directions
For the multilevel display, we are currently working to
extend the affordances of the various overview items. It
may be useful, for instance, to allow the entire surface to be
temporarily subsumed by the overview that currently only
occupies one column. The more complex display would show
the data, still not at a reading view, but at a smaller level of
granularity. Colour-coding and reorganizing this form of display
could prove both interesting and useful.
The document blueprinting project is the youngest of our
prototype projects and will likely evolve the most in the coming
year. We are developing this system in collaboration with the
Orlando Project, which in its next phase will be producing
literary critical material in volume form. The dynamic table of
contents in this case will be used as a navigation aide for readers
interested in browsing through the extended prose of the three
volumes. As has been the case with each of the prototypes, we
will pursue an iterative cycle of design, prototyping, and
development, with user study and experiment at each stage of
the cycle.
Bibliography
Ruecker, Stan. ""The Electronic Book Table of Contents as a
Research Tool."" President’s Panel. Congress of the Humanities
and Social Sciences: Consortium for Computers in the
Humanities / Consortium pour Ordinateurs en Sciences
Humaines (COCH/COSH) Annual Conference. London,
Ontario. May 27- 30, 2005. 2005.
Ruecker, Stan, Eric Homich, and Sinclair, Stéfan. ""Multi-level
Document Visualization."" Visible Language 39.1 (2005).
Sinclair, Stéfan. ""Computer-Assisted Reading: Reconceiving
Text Analysis."" Literary & Linguistic Computing 18.2 (2003):
175-184. doi:10.1093/llc/18.2.175","txt","2","",""
"787","8","Twelve Hamlets: A Stylometric Analysis of Major Characters' Idiolects in Three English Versions and Nine Translations","","Following my own comparative stylometric analyses of
originals and translations of literary works (Rybicki 2006,
2006a), I have decided to expand the scope of this research to
more than just two languages. This has been made possible by
the fact that Burrows’s well-established method, first used in
his study of Jane Austen (1987), and later developed, evaluated
and applied by a number of scholars, including Hoover (2002),
can be applied to the most frequent words of any text, also in
a language unknown (or less-known) to the researcher. Quite
self-evidently, Shakespeare’s Hamlet was chosen for its status
of a crucial work of English literature and its numerous
translations. The fact that the English Hamlet exists in three
primary versions (First Quarto, Second Quarto, First Folio) was
also a serious incentive.
Character parts were extracted from the three above-mentioned
originals and nine translations: Czech (by Josef Jirí Kolár,
1855), French (François-Victor Hugo, 1863), German (August
Wilhelm Schlegel, 1798), Hungarian (János Arany, 1864),
Italian (Goffredo Raponi, 1999), Polish (ca. 1875), Portuguese
(1966) Russian (Mikhail Morozov, 1954), and Spanish (Leandro
Fernandez de Moratin, 1798). The selection of the translations
was a compromise between their age (the older the better) and
availability in electronic form. The three originals were taken
from the collection of exemplary electronic texts on TACT CD
(1996). Most frequent words were identified in each version,
basing on the rule that a given word was allowed if it appeared
in at least 5 of the major character parts: these included
Claudius, Gertrude, Hamlet, Horatio, Laertes, Ophelia and
Polonius. As a result, the number of the most frequent words
included in the analysis varied from 157 (First Quarto,
obviously the shortest text) to 282 (the Italian translation).
Relative frequencies were then obtained for each character’s
use of each of the above-mentioned words; matrices of the
relative frequencies were then used to produce multidimensional
scaling (MDS) graphs for each version of the play. The same
material was also treated with cluster analysis, usually with
good agreement with MDS.
The following observations have been made:
1. Graphs for each version of the play always included at least
two peripheral data points, invariably including the two
female characters, Gertrude and Ophelia;
2. Laertes and Horatio frequently joined Gertrude and Ophelia
in their peripheral orbits around the data point for Hamlet,
usually central in all graphs (with the notable exception of
the Czech translation);
3. In many translations, the idiolect of Hamlet was more or
less similar to those of some other characters: its closeness
to Polonius (or Corambis) in the First Quarto lessened in
the Second, only to be replaced by a much stronger
similarity to Laertes. An even stronger similitude was
observed between Hamlet, Polonius and Claudius in the
Portuguese translation, or to Claudius alone in the Italian
version. In general, Polonius and Claudius were the idiolects
most consistently similar to that of the main character.
4. The closest similarity of pattern between entire graphs was
that between the First Quarto and Schlegel’s German
translation (Hamlet and Polonius surrounded by even-spaced
peripheral characters);
5. The general pattern was also quite similar between the
Second Quarto and the Folio (peripheral Gertrudes, Horatios
and Ophelias, central Hamlets, other characters in-between);
it was also roughly reproduced in the translations by Arany,
Moratin and Paszkowski.
6. The clearest gender division was observed in the Czech,
Hungarian, and Russian translations.
This introductory study seems to offer several promising
avenues for development. The similarity of pattern between the
Second Quarto and the Folio is not surprising; even less so is
its above-mentioned reproduction by three translations, since
their source material was usually a compilation of the two
original versions. On the other hand, Schlegel’s similarity to
the First Quarto seems pure coincidence, as the so-called “bad
quarto” was discovered more than twenty years after the early
German translation. The peripheral position of female characters
in all graphs is perhaps the most consistent feature of most of
European writing so far analysed with MDS; this effect also
travels very well in translation.
Yet the greatest potential for expanding this study lies in the
sheer number of Hamlet translations. In the languages included
in this study, they are at least five, and very often more than
ten; cultures such as Polish, German, or French, have produced
almost twenty Hamlets each. The inclusion of at least some of
these would provide a fuller picture of patterns of stylistic
differences between Shakespeare’s fundamental play and its
various realisations in other languages. Bibliography
Burrows, J. F. Computation into Criticism: A Study of Jane
Austen’s Novels and an Experiment in Method. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1987.
Hoover, David. ""New Directions in Statistical Stylistics and
Authorship Attribution."" ALLC/ACH 2002 Conference
Abstracts. Tübingen: Tübingen University, 2002.
Rybicki, Jan. ""Burrowing into Translation: Character Idiolects
in Henryk Sienkiewicz's Trilogy and its Two English
Translations."" Literary & Linguistic Computing 21.1 (2006):
91-103.
Rybicki, Jan. ""Can I Write like John le Carré?"" Digital
Humanities 2006 Conference Abstracts. Paris: CATI, Université
Paris-Sorbonne, 2006a.","txt","2","",""
"788","8","GRADE: a GRAmmar Development Engine","","The Grade project allows authors of complex reference works
to encode documents using familiar features from print
reference works, but, crucially, adds the possibility for the
author to mark where For_‘Dummies’-level information stops
and For_The_Dozen_Living_Experts-level information starts,
plus the relevant stages in between. In turn, readers of Grade
documents are able to switch from ‘Dummies’ mode to Expert
mode at the click of a button. The back-end to all of this is
provided by an XML database. Open-source release of Grade
1.0 is planned to coincide with Digital Humanities 2007.
Rationale
Existing grammars of any language are not easy to use and
typically envisage only one kind of user at a time. But a
user may vary in her preferences from moment to moment.
Does she want 'just the rule' right now? Does she want to see
examples, cited in the original language and in translation, and
perhaps print them out? But tomorrow, perhaps, she also wants
the evidence for that rule, or discussion of its problematic status
as a rule?
Any printed reference grammar, even one for a homogeneous
audience, is inevitably a product of compromises. Space devoted
to discussion of different schools of thought detracts from
clarity; space devoted to exceptions detracts from main rules;
space devoted to examples and translations clutters the page,
etcetera. Paradoxically, then, every good grammar is a bad
grammar precisely for the reasons that it is good. A solid
number of sensibly discussed examples coupled with a fair
representation of scholarly opinion on an issue will never fail
to obscure what should be the statement of a simple rule; a
simple statement of a rule, however, will never do justice to
the complexity of the language and needs, at a minimum,
illustrations from actual texts.
An electronic reference grammar, on the other hand, does not
have to make any of these painful choices. What it can offer
instead is the capability for any end user to select, with the click of a button, for any part of the syntax, the level of detail he or
she wishes to see at that particular moment, and to switch at
any time to further detail, extra examples, or, conversely, back
to only the main rule, with no exceptions, no examples, and no
translations of examples. If desired, users can choose for
themselves what section to print, and in what format (through
application of XSLT).
Current collections of thematically unified materials, such as
The Perseus project (perseus.tufts.edu) offer user configuration
in the form of cookies, which set a user's default language
(original texts or translations), default font, and the like.
However, Perseus and collections like it derive most of their
power not primarily from this user configurability but from the
intelligent linking of resources that were previously separate:
Words in the texts can be analysed by the morphological parser,
which in turn provides links to the lexicon, which in turn allows
for further word searches, etcetera.
The Perseus texts, then, can be said to 'talk to each other' and
enhance the usability of resources compared to their print
versions: The system is aware, for instance, that a user is reading
Thucydides when she clicks on a word to get a parse or a
meaning; accordingly, the system will highlight Thucydides
citations in any dictionary entry called up. GRADE takes this
configurability one step further in allowing users to retrieve
information customized not just for the text that they are reading
but for the level of complexity that they select.
While traditional rich encoding following, e.g., TEI guidelines
has typically aimed for faithful transcription of an original print
publication, or generally, has aimed to serve the intents of an
author/publisher, the current project uses its XML schema to
allow the end user this flexibility at all times, so that this one
grammar can become, in effect, all grammars to all people. At
the same time, GRADE empowers the author in all the ways
that electronic publishing has started to empower authors, and
then some: a GUI for authoring, the possibility for piecemeal
and immediate publication, as found in blogs and wikis, but
paired with a capacity for richly structured data and full editorial
oversight.
GRADE finds its origin in the second author's need for a
grammar authoring tool, but we submit that the system can be
re-used for many projects that share the characteristics of
complexity and an intended audience with widely varying goals
and levels of expertise. Accordingly, in this demonstration of
the beta version, a second humanities application is offered in
the form of a Latin learners’ vocabulary which is organized in
sets of basic vocabulary and author-specific vocabulary, and
in which database translations from Latin into several languages
can be stored. Users can opt for display of the vocabulary in
Latin and any of these languages, can select particular authors
or genres, can opt for display in flashcard format, etc.
Design Features
GRADE is written in Perl, chosen for its robustness and
because it is a well-supported Web-centric application
programming framework. GRADE is written in such a way
that even a novice computer programmer can write extensions
that increase its functionality. Two templates (grammars and
vocabularies) will be available in June 2007; tutorials on
extensions are foreseen for Summer 2007.
GUI for XML database
The project has a graphical user interface for its XML
database, which allows for entry, update and management
of the objects (grammar sections) and their hierarchical
organization (grammar chapters and smaller sections) in the
database and for their encoding as specific types of information:
text can be marked as examples, translations, notes, levels of
complexity, tables, and lists. Authors can enter text in a standard
browser (Firefox) without having to add in XML tags by hand
(figure 1:editor screen). This makes for convenience for the
authors but also avoids validation problems. The native XML
database backend is based on Sleepycat Software's open-source
Berkeley DB XML 2, provides full support for Unicode UTF-8
and allows queries via XPath 2.0 and XQuery 1.0. Standard
open-source tools are used throughout, including Apache and
Perl.
Rendering Engine
The rendering engine gets objects from the database
(sections of the document) and renders them with XSLT.
Users (that is, readers of the grammar) can browse through
different levels of complexity, choosing to display more or less
information, and what types of information to display, with a
click on 'collapse boxes' or by adjusting their preferences (figure
2: Rendering options).
GRADE supports common Web formats and protocols for
information exchange (XML, XMLRPC, and JSON), so that
another project could potentially even integrate a real-time data
feed (that is to say, up-to-date data rather than a particular
revision which may become obsolete). Alternately, ""calling""
programs can also request a specific revision of a document to
ensure its stability.
User registration and privileges
Users on the authoring side need administrative privileges
to edit the database (see further below). For non-author users, cookies will retain preferences (for display level,
translation display, etc.) during one session. Users may choose
to register in order for preference to be retained beyond sessions.
The user database recognizes different levels of privileges for
users. It permits those with administrative privileges to make
changes to the database at will, subject to hierarchical controls
that prevent changes to sections controlled by higher-order
administrators. A versioning system, at the bottom of the editing
screen, guarantees the integrity of all documents in the system
and permits users to compare prior edits of a given section. In
its final state, GRADE will provide the kind of precise revision
tracking necessary for a rigorous academic project, including
one feature that all existing Wiki software (including
MediaWiki, the software used by Wikipedia) lacks -- the ability
to see, from within a document, who wrote what portions of it
and when.
What GRADE is not
GRADE is emphatically not a pedagogy application or
learning management system, a la SCORM from ADL.
It empowers both authors, by allowing them to present richly
coded complex content, and end users, by giving them a flexible
document to use and explore, not by feeding them content
piecemeal or by tracking them. An internet-savvy audience, we
submit, now long-accustomed to browsing hypertexts, should
not be forced into SCORM’s ‘sequencing,’ which aims to have
users experience content in previously specified order.
Conclusion
GRADE enhances electronic publishing formats in
important ways. It offers an important toolkit for authors
in the Humanities and beyond that will allow them to empower
the readers of their texts and thereby reach wider audiences.
GRADE allows for co-authoring without jettisoning editorial
oversight or losing track of who wrote what; it provides a
powerful tool both for authors in fields in which a rich tradition
of grammatical description already exists, such as many
European languages, as well as for those in need of a tool for
writing the first reference grammar of a language ever to be
published.
Figure 1: Editor screen. Note ‘depth level’ 5 next to ‘paragraph’.
Figure 2: Rendering options","txt","2","",""
"789","8","The Versioning Machine 3.0: Lessons in Open Source Software [Re]Development","","The Versioning Machine made its debut at the 2002
ALLC/ACH Conference in Tübingen. It is a software tool for
displaying and comparing multiple versions of texts designed
by a team of programmers, designers, and literary scholars. A
primary goal of the software was to create a display
environment which provides for features traditionally found in
codex-based critical editions – such as annotation and
introductory material – that also takes advantage of
opportunities offered by editing and displaying witnesses in an
electronic environment.
The VM was designed as open source software that would allow
literary editors to concentrate on editing and displaying multiple
versions of text using the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI), rather
than expecting them to build a custom environment. The
developers deliberately built the tool with JavaScript, CSS, and
XSLT, as these technologies are presumably within the reach
of a humanities scholar if she wanted to alter the environment.
The Versioning Machine is now in its third iteration, and has
been demoed at various humanities computing conferences
over the years. This poster session will not focus on the VM as
a tool per se, but will focus on the issues and lessons learned
developing open source software for the humanities. As this
tool was developed for a very specific goal for a potentially
small community of users, this poster will focus on the issues
raised by developing software for an emerging practice, the
difficulties posed by changing technologies, and the issues
raised by moving from fairly standard book-based presentation
paradigms for scholarly editions, to the relative vacuum of
agreed-upon conventions for web-based editions
Developing Software for an Emerging
Practice
At any gathering of digital humanists, there is a plea for
software designed specifically for humanities
applications. The Versioning Machine was developed to fill a
fairly narrow niche. As such, its development has had as a
central focus the exploration of the possibilities, as well as the
limitations, of electronic editions that focus on the presentation
of multiple witnesses.
For the first time in the software's development, rigorous and
methodical usability testing will be carried out by a team
member not directly concerned with software development.
This testing will not only assess user-friendliness, accessibility,
performance, and overall structure, but will also investigate the
larger issue of whether The Versioning Machine functions as
an asset to the community of scholars it is meant to serve. The
test participants will be comprised of 10-15 literary scholars
and textual editors. They will be given a series of tasks to
perform and will be asked to comment on what they are doing
or trying to do. They will also be asked to comment on the
overall difficulty or ease of use, as well as the degree to which
The Versioning Machine has or could enhance their scholarship.
Because many of the participants will not be on-site, a
web-based survey will be used to capture their impressions.
Additionally, a number of participants will be tested on site so
that our observations can be compared with the self-reported
experiences. The resulting findings will be used as a framework
to make further changes to the software.
Difficulties Posed by Changing
Technologies
Persistent issues frequently faced in web-based open source
tools development include shifting platforms,
technologies, and standards on which software is constructed;
personnel changes within the development team; and finding
enough time to not only do software development, but create
the documentation and procedures which allow others access.
The difficulties of attempting to adhere to standards, while
ensuring cross-browser compatibility, is one issue that will be
addressed in the poster as representative of these issues.
During the early stages of the tool's development, it was not
possible to replicate the functionality available for browsers on
the PC on the Mac OS operating systems. It was decided to go
live with limited browser support rather delay the software
further. By 2.0, many of the compatibility issues had been
worked out, with support for Mozilla-based browsers and
Apple's Safari. 3.0 focused both on expanding features of The Versioning Machine as well as addressing several major
compatibility issues. This involved a significant reworking of
both the XSLT stylesheet and the CSS style rules that power
the tool. Earlier versions were lacking in compliance with W3C
standards, which accounted for a large part of the cross-browser
compatibility issues. A change in personnel meant that several
of the people involved in versions 1.0 and 2.0 were no longer
on the project team. A lack of both comprehensive
documentation and time ensured that, even in its current form,
The Versioning Machine would not correctly validate as
standards-compliant. Thus a pragmatic approach was adopted
in which the most obvious discrepancies were addressed, while
ensuring that all new additions were coded with respect to the
relevant W3C standards.
Of the newly added features, the most significant was the
introduction of optional line numbering, drawn from the TEI
markup of the document. This proved one of the more difficult
features to implement, in large part because of the different
ways that various browsers implement CSS. A presentation
that looked acceptable in Internet Explorer, for example, did
not look acceptable in Firefox or Safari. Toggling line numbers
on and off presented another problem. In this case, the
JavaScript required worked differently on all three browsers.
This was one example of a problem that strict adherence to
W3C standards could not solve. There was more than one
standards-compliant way of achieving similar functionality,
but the difficulty was in finding one method that worked
consistently across multiple platforms.
The ability to directly modify the version 2.0 source code
certainly expedited the design process for version 3.0. On the
other hand, it also meant that we were forced to address many
of the shortcomings of the earlier version as well. Thankfully,
Amit Kumar, who had worked with the earlier version and
implemented the majority of the version 3.0 changes, was able
to provide insight into the workings of the application, and to
bring his experience working with it to bear on the new
compatibility challenges.
As part of the 3.0 redevelopment, a thorough re-evaluation of
the interface was undertaken which would move it toward a
more finished, professional look. A common pitfall of interface
design is that the person designing the interface is often so
familiar with the product that they are unable to view it from
a new user’s perspective. Bringing in a new designer for release
3.0 meant not only a fresh approach to the visual side, but also
a new set of eyes completely unfamiliar with The Versioning
Machine.
Other than the addition of a “backup” menu to the footer, the
interface elements of 3.0 are not significantly different from
release 2.0 — however, their arrangement has been streamlined
for better usability. Even those changes that appear purely
cosmetic have a level of thought behind them. For example,
the text in the upper left that said “Versioning Machine” now
spells out the release version of the software. To the left of that
a tagline (“A Tool for Displaying & Comparing Different
Versions of Literary Texts”) has been added to spell out in
broad strokes the software's intended purpose.
What Does an Electronic Scholarly
Edition Look Like?
Lastly, this poster will address some of the theoretical
issues that the developers of The Versioning Machine
have faced in designing an environment to present a web-based
scholarly edition. There is today, ten years after the development
of the World Wide Web, little consensus within the editing
community about the features and standards that should be
required, or at least desired, in these editions. The user testing
on The Versioning Machine to be presented at Digital
Humanities 2007, the ongoing development of the software to
keep apace with standards, and changing user expectations,
will contribute a small piece to that dialogue.
Bibliography
Better Desktop. Accessed 2006-11-12. <http://www.bet
terdesktop.org>
Burstein, Cari D. ""Viewable with Any Browser Campaign.""
2006. Accessed 2006-11-12. <http://www.anybrowser
.org/campaign/index.html>
Cockburn, Craig . ""Cross Browser Compatibility and Website
Design."" 2005. <http://www.siliconglen.com/usa
bility/browsers.html>
Kaufman, Joshua. ""Practical Usability Testing."" 2006. Accessed
2006-11-12. <http://www.digital-web.com/artic
les/practical_usability_testing/>
Levi, Michael D., and Frederick G. Conrad. ""Usability Testing
of World Wide Web Sites."" U.S. Department of Labor: Office
of Survey Methods Research, 2002. Accessed 2006-11-08. <h
ttp://stats.bls.gov/ore/htm_papers/st9601
50.htm>
Nielsen, Jakob. ""'Alertbox: Why You Only Need to Test with
5 Users."" 2000. Accessed 2006-11-08. <http://www.use
it.com/alertbox/20000319.html>
Olson, George. ""The State of the Web: Browser Incompabilities
Undermine Web's Foundations."" 2000. Accessed 2006-11-12.
<http://www.webstandards.org/press/releas
es/2000-state-web> Petersen, Jeremy. ""A Barebones Guide to Usability Testing.""
. Accessed 2006-11-08. <http://javaboutique.inte
rnet.com/articles/Usability/index-3.html>
Schreibman, Susan. ""Computer-mediated Texts and Textuality:
Theory and Practice."" Computers and the Humanities 36.2
(2002): 283-293.
Schreibman, Susan. ""The Text Ported."" Literary & Linguistic
Computing 17.1 (2002): 77-87.
Smith, David. ""Textual Variation and Version Control in the
TEI."" Computers and the Humanities 33.1-2 (1999): 103-112.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and Lou Burnard, eds. TEI P4:
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange,
XML-Compatible Edition. Oxford, UK: TEI Consortium, 2002.","txt","2","",""
"790","8","Meaning and Mining: the Impact of Implicit Assumptions in Data Mining for the Humanities","","In working across and between disciplines, it is the tacit
assumptions that may be most destructive to meaningful
collaboration. Ours is a state of mutual ignorance, and the goals
and practice of the professional literary historian and the
machine-learning researcher are equally obscure. But in
collaboration mutual ignorance becomes an opportunity for
self-reflection, clarification, and the speaking of what is usually
unspoken. Willard McCarty writes, “Computational form, which
accepts only that which can be told explicitly and precisely”
proves “useful for isolating ... tacit and inchoate” knowledge
(256). Collaborators are forced to set out a program in detail,
one that is mutually comprehensible but also one that delivers
results that are simultaneously meaningful in two disciplines.
In this paper, we discuss the tacit assumptions that accompany
data set preparation, hypothesis testing, and data exploration
in order to deliver prescriptive claims. We propose a
communication protocol designed to bring hidden and tacit
assumptions into plain view where they may be discussed and
analyzed. This paper is the third in a series of collaborative
efforts undertaken by the two authors. It is informed by real
experience working together: working often at cross purposes,
garbling a common language, but ultimately producinresults
that are of interest to both computer scientists and literary
scholars.
Transforming literary content into data for machine learning
methods requires the adoption of a number of initial
assumptions, each of which significantly impacts the final
results. First, the collaborators must select or design an
appropriate data representation. The selection of a bag of words
model may be one such decision, but other feature mappings
such as parse trees or link structure graphs may be more
informative for a given task. Once the textual material is
represented, we must decide upon a method of feature
weighting; that is, we must decide if some features are more important than others and how much so. Because many learning
methods prove intractable when working with very large
numbers of features, feature selection is necessary in order to
enable computation. Sophisticated, ambiguous, unstable texts
must be normalized to make comparisons across texts
meaningful—so that the choice of normalization method is
critical. So, too, are methods of noise filtering. There are no
clear objective choices among methods, because each choice
introduces a set of assumptions and biases. We demonstrate
these difficulties with experiments on a range of literary data.
A loose analogy is here drawn as the literary scholar may choose
to cite post-colonial theory to the exclusion of queer theory or
practice close reading to the exclusion of historical analysis.
We do not argue that structuring assumptions be minimized or
eliminated--this is impossible--but we do make the case that in
interdisciplinary work especially, it is important for the impact
of each assumption to be assessed and reported at the outset.
The critic is often a bricoleur, borrowing from literary theory
in promiscuous fashion. In preparing data, bricolage is not a
ready option and the collaborators must make painful
compromises.
The use of machine learning for the testing of literary claims
also has several potential pitfalls. The broadest is the impact
of the No Free Lunch Theorem, which states that there can be
no single machine-learning algorithm that gives optimal
performance on all data sets. The choice of a learning algorithm
entails, again, the adoption of tacit assumptions about the
underlying structure of the data. We may assume that data is
linearly separable (which is often a true assumption in text
classification), or that the data examples are statistically
independent of one another (which is often false in the text
domain). As we demonstrate experimentally, these assumptions
carry significant impact on the results of the data mining. In
the literary domain, selection bias seems particularly
problematic as we navigate the politics of canon formation, the
difficulty of defining of genre, and the vagaries of influence--all
of which trouble the initial selection of texts.
An important question in both machine learning and literature
is that of generalization. Do the results and models we discover
apply only to our particular data set (as in the case of rote
learning), or do these patterns also describe new periods and
genres, data we have not yet investigated? In truth,
machine-learning methods can never guarantee generalization.
However, they do offer statistical bounds on the probability
that a model will generalize. According to the Probably
Approximately Correct paradigm of computational learning
theory, a model that achieves a given level of accuracy on a
training data set will likely achieve a predicted level of accuracy
on a test data set from the same distribution. The computer
scientist emphasizes that generalization bounds are only valid
under assumptions of statistical independence in the training
data. Care must be taken in the literary domain to ensure that
probabilistic assumptions are satisfied. Otherwise, the findings
may reflect little more than the selection bias of the investigator.
We provide concrete examples of these issues using data from
literary analysis, and give guidelines for determining when a
generalization assumption may or may not be valid.
The literary scholar often turns to computational methods to
explore large numbers of texts--more texts than one human
could ever read closely. In this last case, the scholar may not
have a hypothesis to test, but is instead looking for new
perspectives on literary history. In a word, the literary scholar
hopes to be surprised by the computer scientist. However,
surprise is too easy a commodity to supply in data mining.
Consider that some of the first literary data miners were the
Dadaists and Surrealists, who produced poetry by cutting a
printed text nto pieces and pulling those pieces randomly from
a bag. In machine learning, this method of textual analysis is
known as Gibbs sampling (Duda), and has been used in recent
work on probabilistic author-topic modeling (Steyvers). This
sort of surprise, however, may not be that which a literary
scholar desires--it may not be a meaningful surprise. Thus, the
scholar must define for the machine-learning specialist exactly
what sort of surprises are desired, so that the appropriate data
mining methods may be applied. This is a curious hermeneutic
circle--the critic worries that requesting a particular kind of
surprise effectively removes true surprise from the process.
Data exploration requires a bound on the unknowns to be
meaningful and productive. We adduce examples of this need
with experiments in anomaly detection on literary data.
Data exploration may be performed by employing data
visualization techniques, or by using unsupervised methods of
machine learning such as clustering. In both of these situations,
it is important to keep the cartographer's dilemma in mind. In
order to understand large data sets in high-dimensional space
both the literary scholar and the computer scientist require some
form of dimensionality reduction. While reductive methods
may, indeed, enable new insights, they may also produce
artifacts--strange islands analogous to the distorted, massive
projection of Greenland on most two-dimensional maps of the
world--that give a distorted view of the underlying structure.
Two specific dangers, then, accompany data exploration. The
first is that a distorted artifact, a picture, may be mistaken for
an underlying truth. The second is that once a data set has been
fully explored, it may no longer be valid to use it for hypothesis
testing. An exhausted data set prompts us to move on to a new
set of texts, to generalize as discussed above. But moving to a
new set of data, we often discover that our hypothesis is not
portable and fails to generalize. The history of literature is a
""collective system,"" as described by Franco Moretti in Graphs,
Maps, and Trees (4), but law-like generalizations are difficult
to frame and even harder to transport from text collection to
text collection: we discover patterns, yes, and congruent patterns may be discovered in different collections. To say more is to
abandon many of the certainties that the literary scholar had
hoped machine learning would provide him with. In preparing
a data set we construct a system; leaving that data set behind
we leave behind its artificial systematicity as well. Here the
literary scholar is surprised to find the computer scientist a
more thoroughgoing poststructuralist than himself.
It may seem that data mining offers no more claims to
objectivity than literary scholarship -- and indeed, from a certain
perspective, this is the case. At its worst, data mining and
visualization techniques produce mere inkblots that do little
more than manifest the hidden (and indeed, perhaps even
unknown) biases of the researchers. However, these explorations
gain in consequence as the tacit assumptions of both the literary
scholar and the data miner are clearly stated. To assist in
foregrounding assumptions, we propose a protocol for
researchers in these disparate fields. This protocol includes
ways of talking about patterns in a common language, for
defining meaningful data representations, and for selecting
appropriate statistical assumptions. Only when careful
preparatory work is done can data mining have a claim to
meaning in the humanities.
Bibliography
Duda, R. O., P. E. Hart, and D. G. Stork. Pattern Classification.
2nd Edition. Wiley-Interscience, 2000.
McCarty, Willard. ""Modeling: A Study in the Meaning of
Words."" A Companion to Digital Humanities. Ed. Susan
Schreibman, Ray Siemens and John Unsworth. Malden, MA:
Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2004. 255-70.
Moretti, Franco. Graphs, Maps, Trees. London: Verso, 2005.
Salzberg, Steven. ""On Comparing Classifiers: Pitfalls to Avoid
and a Recommended Approach."" Data Mining and Knowledge
Discovery 1.3 (1997): 317-328.
Steyvers, M., P. Smyth, M. Rosen-Zvi, and T. Griffiths.
""Probabilistic Author-Topic Models for Information Discovery.""
Proceedings of the Tenth ACM SIGKDD international
Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining. New
York: ACM Press, 2004. 306-315.","txt","2","",""
"791","8","Reading Tools, or Text Analysis Tools as Objects of Interpretation","","Computer-assisted text analysis has over 50 years of history
in providing tools to help scholars interpret texts (see,
for instance, Potter, 1991, Burrows, 2004, Bradley, 2004). The
tools themselves are the products of a large range of
circumstances in computing and text criticism, from the
availability of certain hardware to the fluctuating fortunes of
structuralist approaches in literary criticism. In this paper we
will reverse the usual interpretive flow from tools to text by
attempting to interpret tools themselves as artifacts of human
creation. We will frame this interpretive exercise as a
Gedankenexperiment; in particular: if a scholar one hundred
years from now were to study the TAPoR Portal as cultural
artifact, what would it reveal about its theoretical
presuppositions, the methodological practices of its times, its
cultural value, and even its authors?
This thought experiment is predicated on the assumption that
tools can be studied as cultural artifacts in ways similar to, say,
literary texts. To examine this assumption more closely, we
will outline several ways in which tools may be studied and
interpreted, including:
• as functional systems fulfilling an identified need
• as code that corresponds to certain expectations in terms of
structure, brevity, creativity, etc.
• as interfaces that may have an aesthetic appeal
• as pedagogic tools that are intended to assist users in
developing skills
• as artifacts that express an author's perspective
• as artifacts that express characteristics about a community
Several differences are evident between literary texts and tools
as objects of study. For instance, tools manifest themselves at
two (at leaset) layers of visibility: the code layer, generally
reserved for developers, and the interface layer, generally
intended for users. Literary texts, in contrast, have only one
layer of exposure. It may also be that text analysis tools are fundamentally too different from texts to be considered using
approaches of literary criticism. A similar debate has raged in
game studies for the past several years (see, for instance Frasca,
1999): can games be studied as narratives (the literary camp)
or do they require an entirely different approach (the ludology
camp)? We will argue for a hybrid approach: while literary
criticism can be useful to interpret certain aspects of tools, other
aspects require their own framework of study. Moreover, this
hybrid approach leads to certain practical consequences when
considering how to peer-review tools and their development
(see Sinclair et al., 2003). As a case study for interpreting tools,
we will use the TAPoR Portal, an initiative to build a web-based
gateway to electronic texts and tools (see <http://tapor
.ca/> and Sinclair, 2002). The TAPoR Portal is reaching the
end of its development cycle, after approximately five years.
It serves as a convenient case study for several reasons,
including its duration (a five year project), its collaborative
nature (involving several dozen researchers at five Canadian
universities, its development model (a blend of academic and
private sector contributions), its interdisciplinarity (representing
several branches of the digital humanities and computer
science), and, of course, its size and complexity (over 165, 000
new lines of code). Indeed, given the size of this ""corpus"",
examples can be found for just about any interpretation that
might be proposed, but such is the open-ended nature of
interpretation.
Bibliography
Bradley, John. ""Text Tools."" A Companion to Digital
Humanities. Ed. Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens and John
Unsworth. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2004. 505-522.
Burrows, John. ""Textual Analysis."" A Companion to Digital
Humanities. Ed. Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens and John
Unsworth. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2004. 323-347.
Frasca, Gonzalo. ""Ludology Meets Narratology: Similitudes
and Differences Between (Video) Games and Narrative."" 1999.
Accessed 2006-11-13. <http://www.ludology.org/a
rticles/ludology.htm>
Potter, Rosanne G. ""Statistical Analysis of Literature: A
Retrospective on Computers and the Humanities, 1966-1990.""
Computers and the Humanities 25.6 (1991): 401-429.
Sinclair, Stéfan, John Bradley, Stephan Ramsay, Geoffrey
Rockwell, and Ray Siemens. ""Peer Review of Humanities
Computing Software."" ACH/ALLC 2003 Conference Program.
2003. Accessed 2006-11-13. <http://www.english.ug
a.edu/webx/abstracts/final/sessions.pdf>
Sinclair, Stéfan, and Terry Butler. ""TAPoR - A Canadian Text
Analysis Portal for Research."" Digital Resources in the
Humanities. London: Office for Humanities Communications,
2002.
TAPoR Project. Accessed 2006-11-13. <http://www.tap
or.ca/>","txt","2","",""
"792","8","Agora.Techno.Phobia.Philia: Gender, Knowledge Building, and Digital Media","","The editors of a special issue of Signs: Journal of Women
in Culture and Society, a prominent scholarly feminist
journal, wrote in 1990 that “the degree to which American
society has embraced and absorbed computer technologies is
astonishing. The degree to which the changes provoked by
computers leave prevailing inequalities is troubling.”1 This
observation preceded the development of the World Wide Web,
which has enabled computational tools to suffuse much work
of the humanities. The questions that have informed our work
as feminist theorists and scholars—how do our items of
knowledge come into being, who made them, for what purposes,
and how does gender play a role in knowledge making—inhere
in our digital humanities work. That the two fields are or should
be inextricably intertwined seems, therefore, an inevitable fact
of life. But is this just personal coincidence, a fact produced
by the trajectory of our careers and interests? What is
humanities computing anyway, and why should it be important
for feminist cultural, social, and intellectual work?
Concomitantly, can feminism enhance and improve the world
and work of computer science, of humanities computing, of
digital humanities? After all, “very early in life, computing is
claimed as a male territory. At each step from early childhood
through college, computing is both actively claimed as “guy
stuff” by boys and men and passively ceded by girls and
women. The claiming is largely the work of a culture and
society that links interest and success with computers to boys
and men.”2
A culture that says to use computing tools expertly one must
know how machines work, or at least must be deft programmers,
dominates much of the world of humanities computing. It is as
if those who have fretted over literary and other humanities
fields becoming feminized or soft have been rescued by a field
that is hard science. Thus through computing, humanities is
being remasculinized. Scientific matters of mathematics and
computation, objective and hard, are not subject to the concerns
of gender, race, or sexuality. Either explicitly or implicitly,
concerns that had taken over so much academic work in
literature—of gender, race, class, sexuality—were assumed to
be irrelevant to humanities computing. 2 + 2, so the reasoning
goes, always equals 4, whether you are black, female, queer,
or straight. The codes always work, whatever one’s personal
identity or social group, and, as matters of objective and hard
science, are best dealt with by those who have been most
interested in being engineers and computational scientists of
critical inquiry. So surely those interested are also folks who
do not want to clutter sharp, disciplined, methodical philosophy
with considerations of the gender-, race-, and class-determined
facts of life. After all, in the wake of the sixties, the humanities
in general and their standings in particular had suffered,
according to some, from being feminized by these things.
Humanities computing seemed to offer a space free from all
this messiness and a return to objective questions of
representation.
Yet such dreams of a return to the “objective,” uncluttered by
messy identity questions, are nostalgic. That humanities
disciplines were in fact foundationally changed by feminist
scholarship of the twentieth century is obvious from project
development within humanities computing itself, and each of
the panelists is deeply involved with a major digital humanities
project informed by feminist scholarship—the Dickinson
Electronic Archives, The Poetess Archive, The Forget-Me-Not
Hypertextual Archive, a cyberfeminist archive, The Assemblage
Gallery. Our work as feminists leads us to concur with social
scientist Jane Margolis and computer scientist Allan Fisher that
“the goal is not to fit women into computer science [digital
humanities] as it is currently taught and conceived. Rather, a
cultural and curricular revolution is required to change computer
science [digital humanities] so that the valuable contributions
and perspectives of women are respected within the discipline.”3
In other words, this panel will posit ways in which the methods
of feminist, queer, and race critical inquiry might benefit the
work of digital humanists across the board (or screen, as it
were) rather than serving as a special niche of interest (for
example, the methods might benefit the multi-institutional
NORA project, <http://noraproject.org>, and its
second phase, MONK, tremendously).
Descriptions of the roundtable presenters are below and we
trust will serve to show the range of experience and expertise
on which we will draw to pose our questions, posit ways in which the messiness of such critical inquiry can advance digital
humanities, entertain questions and suggestions before, during,
and after our session in order to collaborate with audience
members in knowledge production.
Martha Nell Smith is Professor of English and Founding
Director of the Maryland Institute for Technology in
the Humanities (MITH) at the University of Maryland. Author
of more than 40 articles, including “Electronic Scholarly
Editing” in the Blackwell Companion to Digital Humanities,
her publications include Open Me Carefully: Emily Dickinson’s
Intimate Letters to Susan Dickinson, with Ellen Louise Hart
(1998); Comic Power in Emily Dickinson, with Cristanne Miller
and Suzanne Juhasz (1993); and Rowing in Eden: Rereading
Emily Dickinson (1992). With Mary Loeffelholz, she is editing
the Blackwell Companion to Emily Dickinson (forthcoming in
2007). She is also Coordinator and Executive Editor of the
Dickinson Electronic Archives projects at the Institute for
Advanced Technology in the Humanities (IATH) at the
University of Virginia. With Lara Vetter, she is a general editor
of Emily Dickinson’s Correspondence: A Born-Digital Inquiry,
forthcoming from the Mellon-sponsored University of Virginia
Press Rotunda Electronic Imprint. Her digital humanities work
is an extension of her work as a feminist literary theorist and
scholar. Because her interest in the possibilities afforded by
computers as powerful and empowering tools of humanities
scholarly work became so keen as the World Wide Web was
gaining precedence, her work in humanities computing has
been powerfully influenced by cyberculture and new media
studies. As a digital humanities specialist she has focused on
the sociologies of knowledge production in our
technology-saturated world—what data is reproduced and made
accessible, and to whom, and what new knowledge has been
produced by computational tools. Her questions, suggestions,
and models will be drawn from the multi-institutional data
mining and visualization NORA Project (<http://norap
roject.org>).
Carolyn Guertin is an Assistant Professor of Digital Media
and Director of the eCreate Lab in the Department of
English at the University of Texas at Arlington. During the
2004 to 2006 academic years, she was a Senior McLuhan
Fellow and SSHRC Postdoctoral Fellow in the McLuhan
Program in Culture and Technology at the University of Toronto
~ most recently giving the closing keynote address at
""Re-Reading McLuhan: An International Conference on Media
and Culture in the 21st Century"" at the University of Bayreuth
in Germany. She does both theoretical and applied work in
cyberfeminism, digital narrative, digital design, media literacy
(or postliteracy) and performance. She is a founding editor of
the online journal MediaTropes, and a literary advisor to the
Electronic Literature Organization. She has written textbooks
on hypertext and literature and information aesthetics, and is
currently working on a new book project called Connective
Tissue: Queer Bodies, Postdramatic Performance and New
Media Aesthetics. Guertin is best known as curator and founder
of Assemblage: The Women's New Media Gallery <http:/
/tracearchive.ntu.ac.uk:80/traced/guertin
/assemblage.htm>, the only site devoted exclusively to
born-digital art and lit by women on the Web ~ soon to be
relaunched in a 2.0 version. She will be examining the trend
toward personal media and participatory culture that is a product
(or fallout) of the politicizing of diversity, the women’s
movement, and queer issues. Where notions of interactivity
focused on the technology as the most important component,
participatory or user-generated culture—from wikis to podcasts
to FaceBook to Second Life—puts the backchannel into the
foreground, and puts people of all genders back as active users
in the system.
Laura Mandell is Associate Professor in eighteenth-century
and Romantic British literature at Miami University. Her
book, Misogynous Economies: The Business of Literature in
Eighteenth-Century Britain, discusses the feminist potential of
anti-feminist writings produced during the long eighteenth
century. She has published essays in ELH, MLQ, European
Romantic Review, Studies in Romanticism, and
Nineteenth-Century Prose. She has edited The Castle of Otranto
and The Poetess Archive Database (<http://unixgen.m
uohio.edu/~poetess>), a TEI-encoded bibliographic
finding aid and full-text resource about the men and women
who wrote popular poetry in Britain and America between 1750
and 1900. Within the next year, this resource will contain author
and title information from tables of contents of all the major
anthologies and literary annuals. Within the next few years, it
will expand to periodicals.
Katherine D. Harris, Assistant Professor, San Jose State
University, has created an online hypertextual archive
of the first literary annual, the Forget Me Not, re-presenting
various aspects of the book as well as the poetry, prose and
engravings: “Forget Me Not: A Hypertextual Archive of
Ackermann’s 19th-Century Literary Annual” <http://www
.orgs.muohio.edu/anthologies/FMN/Index.ht
m>. With Laura Mandell, she serves as an editor of The Poetess
Archive Database, which now contains a bibliography of over
4,000 entries for works by and about writers working in and
against the “poetess tradition,” the extraordinarily popular, but
much criticized, flowery poetry written in Britain and America
between 1750 and 1900. Their presentation for this panel will
not be a show-and-tell of these archives, but an in-depth
consideration of ways in which the feminist theories that have
identified the scholarly needs for this resource and informed
their development can advance the work of digital humanities
at large. 1. Jean F. O’Barr, ed., From Hard Drive to Software: Gender,
Computers, and Difference. Special Issue of Signs: Journal of
Women in Culture and Society 16:1 (Autumn 1990).
2. Jane Margolis and Allan Fisher. Unlocking the Clubhouse: Women
in Computing (Cambridge, Massachusetts and London England:
The MIT Press, 2002), p. 4.
3. Unlocking the Clubhouse, p. 6.","txt","2","",""
"793","8","Lost in the Archives, Found in Digital Collections","","Abstract
The proliferation of digital collections on the web has
dramatically expanded access to content that would
remain otherwise underutilized or undiscovered. Organizations
that have been actively involved in large scale
digitization—through Google, the Open Content Alliance
(OCA), or other means—most often limit the scope of these
projects to digital replication of materials. Not surprisingly,
given the size and extent of many collections selected for
digitization, the costs of applying extensive research and
scholarship to primary documents are often prohibitive, if such
actions are even considered by project staff. Digital scholarly
editions offer many research advantages that exceed the
limitations of traditional and linear print publications. Their
potential has been already instantiated by a few prominent
projects, among them Rotunda by the University of Virginia
Press and the Perseus Digital Library. 1 Encouraged by these
exemplars, Documenting the American South (DocSouth),
UNC-Chapel Hill Library’s digital publishing program, sought
to create two online scholarly documentary histories: a
collection of documents related to antebellum student life at the University of North Carolina and a collection of documents
about the institutional development of the university during the
same period. Through careful planning and analysis,
collaboration with research scholars and subject librarians, and
the application of open-source technology and international
standards, DocSouth's ""True and Candid Compositions: The
Lives and Writings of Antebellum Students at the University
of North Carolina"" and ""The First Century of the First State
University"" 2 represent rare examples of scholarly publications
with annotations and interpretive essays that include both color
facsimile and transcription access to unique primary documents.
Documenting the American South has ten years of experience
encoding printed materials using TEI guidelines; however,
creating online documentary histories required a more complex
approach than had previously been employed with our
collections. ""True and Candid Compositions"", for example,
was originally conceived as a monograph including diplomatic
transcription of manuscript documents; textual, biographical,
and interpretive annotations; several scholarly essays; and an
extensive index—all prepared by Dr. Erika Lindemann,
professor of composition at the UNC-Chapel Hill. In presenting
Lindemann's project on the web, we strove to include all of the
features of her project, plus features only possible through and
valuable for an online publication. [See Figure 1 and Figure 2
for screenshots.]
Figure 1: Screenshot of True and Candid index page
Figure 2: Screenshot of document with image of manuscript
Application of Technologies
In both online publications, we wanted to provide users with
several options to fully explore and discover content in
these unique collections. We offer several ""browse by"" indices
that were compiled by extracting information from the
TEI-XML files. For ""True and Candid Compositions"" and for
""The First Century,"" a total of 500 transcribed manuscript
documents and over 20 scholarly essays were encoded by
graduate students from the English Department and School of
Information and Library Science using ""TEI in the Libraries""
recommendations for level 5 of encoding.3 All personal, place,
and organization names were disambiguated by scholars and
assigned a unique id number, a regularized name, and one of
three type descriptors (i.e., person, place, organization). This
information was then encoded within <name> elements with
relevant attributes as part of each document XML file. Images
of all manuscript pages were scanned and saved in TIFF and
JPEG formats.
The XML and image files became input for a publishing
mechanism comprised of two distinct parts: (1) conversion of
XML to XHTML and (2) generation of search and browse
functionality in XHTML pages on the web. [See Figure 3:
Document Processing Workflow.] First, we extracted metadata from each XML file (one XML
file per document) and then converted the XML files to
XHTML. The resulting XHTML files have the distinctive
DocSouth format and include links to images and biographical
annotations, both of which open in separate windows (pop-ups).
This step is accomplished with the use of the XSLT technology,
available from the <teiPublisher> software4, which we modified
to meet our project needs. We used <teiPublisher> with locally
customized XSLT files to transform manuscript and essay XML
files into XHTML files. Our customizations included:
displaying the TEIHeader under tabbed buttons; highlighting
names for which regularized names are viewable as a
mouseover; adding icons to personal names to indicate that
biographical essays are available in pop-up window, and adding
URL links to scanned page images in separate XHTML files.
Second, we generated indices with a custom Java program and
our primary MySQL database, using JAXP/JDBC/XPath
technologies. ""XML is a good match for Java. It pairs Java’s
code portability feature with its data portability…""5 The Java
programming language has a number of proven APIs for
working with XML, including the Java API for XML Processing
(JAXP). In concert with XPath and JDBC (Java API for
database interactions), the language is a powerful tool for
performing a variety of operations with XML documents.
Additionally, Java is platform agnostic and secure. We designed
this program to perform a wide range of operations, including:
reporting errors in XML files for quality control; retrieving a
variety of data from XML files; exporting data into the MySQL
database; generating an XHTML file for every page image of
each document; and extracting data from the database to create
indices of personal names, geographic names, organization
names, authors, genres, and topics.
This Java program extracted rich metadata from the XML files,
specifically from the <teiHeader> and from the key, reg,
and type attributes of the <name> element. These varied data
were stored in the primary DocSouth MySQL database, which
contains all the metadata for all DocSouth online collections.
In processing, the Java program extracted all encoded names
and recorded their regularized names, types, and occurrence
locations in the XML files to the database. In a similar process,
biographical information contained in an additional XML file
was processed and stored in the same database. A number of
scholars and subject librarians wrote this expansive biographical
information for hundreds of identified and researched proper
names, which has served to add valuable contextual richness
to the collection.
We also designed our Java program to generate two types of
""browse by"" indices—proper name indices and document
indices. The program generated proper name indices by type;
these indices are hyperlinked to a PHP program that searches
the database and provides a list of documents in which the name
appears. Each linked document displays a document page
highlighting the selected name. Finally, the program uses
available metadata to generate document indices that offer other
chapter-level ""browse by"" options, including: documents listed
by chapter, topic, genre, and author. As a result of this Java
processing, these two online documentary histories have 2,340
personal names, 170 organization names, and 420 place names
in indices generated from the XML files.
DocSouth's ""True and Candid Compositions"" and ""First
Century"" collections represent exciting additions to our digital
library. More than just collections of digitized manuscripts,
these online histories benefit from collaboration with scholars
and DocSouth's considerable experience and technical expertise.
The confluence of unique primary documents, scholarship, and
judicious application of open-source technology solutions
allowed us to develop two online scholarly documentary
histories that far exceed the limitations of traditional print
publications. No longer lost in the archives, these enhanced
digitized primary source materials are readily available to
enthusiasts, scholars, and learners everywhere.
1. <http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/ind
ex.php?page_id=About > and
<http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/>
2. ""True and Candid Compositions: The Lives and Writings of
Antebellum Students of the University of North Carolina.""
Documenting the American South Ed. Erika Lindeman. (University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Libraries). <http://docs
outh.unc.edu/true/>""The Carolina at Chapel Hill
Libraries
3. The TEI Consortium, ""TEI Text Encoding in Libraries. Guidelines
for Best Encoding Practices"" <http://www.diglib.or
g/standards/tei.htm>.
4. <http://sourceforge.net/projects/teipub
lisher/>
5. Akmal B. Chaudhri, XML Data Management: Native XML and
XML-Enabled Database Systems (Boston: Addison-Wesley, 2003)
p. 342.","txt","2","",""
"794","8","Digital Innovations in Teaching and Learning: Interactive Computer Environments in the Undergraduate Classroom","","Instructional use of interactive three-dimensional computer
models is transforming undergraduate education at the
University of California, Los Angeles. A surge of faculty
interest in virtual environments over the past ten years has
resulted in a broad spectrum of projects now making their way
into Humanities and Social Sciences classrooms. Art history
and architecture students can now interactively explore the
digital Roman Forum developed by UCLA’s Experiential
Technologies Center (the successor organization to the Cultural
Virtual Reality Lab) in place of filmic slides or PowerPoint
presentations. Near Eastern Languages and Cultures students
can tour through Qumran, the settlement associated with the
Dead Sea Scrolls, in a computer reconstruction developed by
the Qumran Virtual Reality Project, or compare the first century
Herodian Temple Mount with the eighth century Umayyad
structures on the site through the real-time visual simulation
model developed jointly by the Urban Simulation Team at
UCLA and the Israel Antiquities Authority. Archaeology
students can experience the ancient Egyptian sites of Karanis
and Karnak created with support from UCLA’s Office of
Instructional Development and Academic Technology Services.
Spanish and Portuguese students can culminate their studies of
the pilgrimage route in Spain with a virtual visit to the
Romanesque Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, complete
with authentic period music. In American History classrooms,
students can experience the wonders of the World’s Columbian
Exposition of 1893 by interacting with a model developed by
the Urban Simulation Team.
The proposed paper will describe the results of over 600 student
surveys administered in the past two years by the UCLA
Experiential Technologies Center (ETC) staff to solicit reactions
to this new form of instructional technology. The survey
instruments were completed following regularly scheduled
class meetings held either in a technology-enabled classroom
or UCLA’s Visualization Portal (a campus facility with a 160
degree spherically wrapped projection screen specifically
designed for displaying these virtual environments). In the
surveys, Likert-style ratings gauged the students’ overall
experience with the computer model, their understanding and
interest in the content of the virtual environment, and their
reactions to the technology as a learning tool and compared to
more traditional types of instructional technologies. Multiple
choice and ranking questions explored the students’ interest in
using the virtual environments outside of the classroom and
the aspects of the environment most important for creating an
engaging learning experience. Short answer questions delved
into the students’ likes and dislikes, and thoughts on the learning
benefits of interactive computer models.
The paper will also explore instructor reactions to the classroom
use of interactive computer models. Concurrent with the student
surveys, ETC staff administered instructional technology
questionnaires to twenty five undergraduate instructors from
around the country who participated in an NEH Summer
Institute focused on “Models of Ancient Rome” and conducted
personal interviews with twelve instructors actively using the
models in their classrooms to explore faculty reactions to
teaching with virtual environments. The results of these surveys
identify the perceived challenges and benefits to classroom use
of interactive computer environments, general concerns about
instructional technology, curricular integration, perceived and
experienced pedagogical impacts, and instructor expectations
for virtual environments.
The paper will conclude with an analysis of how the student
and instructor reactions to the UCLA environments are
informing ongoing project development, and a discussion of
future research regarding digital pedagogy in the Humanities.
Associated websites:
• UCLA Experiential Technologies Center (<http://www
.etc.ucla.edu>)
• UCLA Academic Technology Services (<http://www.
ats.ucla.edu>)
• The Urban Simulation Team at UCLA (<http://www.
ust.ucla.edu>)
• UCLA Office of Instructional Development (<http://w
ww.oid.ucla.edu>)","txt","2","",""
"795","8","Scholarly (R)evolution: Roles of E-texts in the Research Process in the Humanities","","Introduction
The study on the roles of electronic texts (e-texts) in the
research process in the humanities investigates how
academics in literary and historical studies work with electronic
textual resources and how interaction with electronic texts
affects their research processes. It is situated in the context of
discussions about the cultural revolution triggered by the
development of digital media. The common comparison with
the print revolution suggests that textual sources are at the centre
of the change, which is particularly significant for scholars in
the humanities. Since text is the basic working material for
research in the humanities, the provision of text in an adequate
electronic form is crucial for qualitatively new applications of
computer technology in humanistic disciplines. At the same
time, an understanding of scholars’ interactions with e-texts is
critical for decisions on how to present existing sources and
for any work on further developments.
In his seminal book, Radiant Textuality, Jerome McGann talks
about the ‘material revolution’ in which we reconceive the
entity of our cultural archive of materials. Since these
repositories provide the basis for all traditional scholarly work,
institutional changes have been having a radical effect on the
traditional scholarship (McGann 2001). The acceptance of
digital resources in the humanities has not been as clear and as
decisive as in sciences, but reports from different countries over
the last few years point to a positive shift in the quantity and
quality of scholars’ engagement with information and
communication technologies (Houghton, Steele, and Henty
2003; The British Academy 2005; American Council of Learned
Societies 2006)
A range of studies explored the information behaviour of the
humanities scholar; some were focused on the use of digital
resources in the humanities but none dealt primarily with the
use of electronic texts. Several studies have been conducted,
dealing briefly with the use of electronic texts as part of a
broader investigation (Massey-Burzio 1999; Brockman et al.
2001) or surveying the use of a particular electronic resource
(Flanders 1998; Porter 1998; Duff and Cherry 2000; Cherry
and Duff 2002). The literature suggests that electronic texts,
while much appreciated by those who use them, have not
become widely accepted, even in disciplines that are heavily
based on textual studies (Warwick 1999; Brockman et al. 2001).
Studies of citation patterns, such as Graham’s investigation of
citations in historians’ professional publications, show that
electronic resources do not rate highly in published works
(Graham 2000, 2001). However, citation patterns may indicate
intellectual exchanges to some extent, but they are not an
accurate reflection of the use of electronic resources. Palmer
(2005) points out that there are scholars who have begun to
create digital resources for themselves, which is one of the
indications of how scholars wish to engage new technologies
in their research.
There is a gap in our knowledge about the roles of electronic
texts in the research process so we need to explore various
aspects of scholars’ interactions with e-texts and explain how
these interactions contribute to the research process.
Methodology
The exploratory study on the roles of electronic text in the
research enquiry used qualitative methodology to
investigate research projects in which e-texts have been used
and the nature of academics’ interactions with these texts. The
following research questions guided the development of the
study:
1. How do academic researchers in literary and historical
studies work with electronic texts?
• How and for what purposes do researchers interact with
electronic texts?
• How do researchers think and feel about the research
context in which they work with e-texts?
2. How are the interactions with e-texts integrated in the
research process?
3. What is the contribution of e-texts to the research process?
4. What are the obstacles and aids in engagement with
electronic texts?
The study has dealt with the use of electronic texts as a resource
and tool, as opposed to projects that aim to produce electronic
textual editions or enhance electronic texts in any way. The
participants saw their work as traditional humanities research
or discussed their projects aiming to have traditional outputs.
Investigated research projects were in the areas of literary and
historical studies, because both fields are known for extensive
and sophisticated use of textual resources. Participants from
six universities in two Australian cities and one participant from a university in the USA (altogether 16 participants) participated
in the study and discussed thirty research projects.
The term ‘electronic text’ in this study means any textual
material in electronic form, used as a primary source in literary
and historical studies. Primary materials are usually poetry,
stories, novels, plays, and a variety of historical documents —
government, public or private. Digitised archival copies of
magazines and newspapers, as well as web-sites and blogs,
could be electronic texts as defined here when they are used as
primary sources. Electronic texts could be written or spoken
(e.g., oral histories), digitised or created electronically,
stand-alone documents or part of electronic databases and
editions.
The study has had two phases. The first phase included in-depth
semi-structured interviews, examination of participants’
manuscripts and published works as well as examination of
some e-texts they mentioned during interviews. The second
phase involved detailed data-gathering from a small group of
academics drawn from the participants in the first phase. The
grounded theory techniques described by Strauss (1987), Strauss
and Corbin (1998a; 1998b) and Glaser (1998) were used for
data analysis.
Roles of e-texts
This paper presents findings directly related to roles of
e-texts in the research process but the understanding of
the roles is based on other findings that emerged from the study.
Firstly, scholars in the study perceived e-texts as fluid entities,
which combine different media and formats in a way that does
not match the traditional divisions of library materials. The
perceived fluidity of electronic textuality leads to converging
and transformed practices of networking and information
searching. These practices combine aspects of networking,
chaining, browsing and web-surfing in traditional and new ways
so that the pattern of a new information behaviour emerges. I
called this new practice netchaining (Sukovic 2006).
The roles of e-texts are based to a large extent on working with
e-texts as fluid entities. Four main roles of e-texts in the research
process emerged from the study.
1. Support in finding documents and information. Search
capabilities combined with the provision of full text documents
provide a powerful aid in information discovery. E-texts provide
support in information retrieval and discovery of primary
materials; they lead to other sources and aid in working with
analogue sources; supplement hard copies and contribute to the
current awareness.
This is the most fundamental role. Not only do information
discovery and retrieval provide a basis for all other roles, but
the nature of scholars’ interaction with e-texts during the
retrieval determines other roles to a large extent (Role 3, for
example).
2. Aid in managing the research process. Access to e-texts
allows scholars to plan visits to remote collections; aids the
publication process and provides sources for some research
activities (e.g., ordering digital images, confirming publication
rights, and exchanging files with collaborators and publishers).
3. Aid in investigation of the topic. The multiplicity of sources,
formats and textual information that could be quickly brought
together is a basis of exploration that allows scholars to see
different meanings and aspects of the topic. Exploration of
research questions through interactions with e-texts took four
main forms:
• exploration of patterns and connections by searching and
comparing diverse bodies of electronic texts;
• production and/or interrogation of textual databases to
explore research questions;
• exploration of electronically born literature and
• exploration as part of the academic research to be used in
creative.
4. Contribution to writing and presenting research results. The
use of e-texts improves the speed and accuracy in writing by
allowing copying and pasting of passages. Interactions with
e-texts and digital media in general promote new, less structured
and linear ways of thinking about the topic, which influences
the academic writing style. From subtle changes in presenting
the argument to more radical combinations of academic and
creative writing styles, the participants reflected on different
ways in which electronic textuality was influencing their
traditional academic writing. Interactions with e-texts also
encourage thinking about alternative modes for presenting
research findings that do not fit traditional academic genres.
E-texts contribute to the final research stages in a complex
process of negotiation with the research tradition.
These roles serve two main functions:
• aid in providing basis for research (support roles) or
• aid in exploring the topic and presenting research findings
(substantive roles).
E-texts provide basis for research, or play support roles, when
they make some aspects of the research process quicker and
easier. The speed and convenience, or frustration sometimes
associated with working with electronic sources, may influence
the process, but they normally do not affect the scholar’s
intellectual engagement with the topic in a significant way. The
first two roles, Support in finding information and Aid in
managing research process, are support roles. The fourth,
Contribution to writing and presenting research results, plays a support role when e-texts help in improving the speed and
accuracy.
E-texts aid in exploring the topic and presenting research
findings, or play substantive roles, when they take part in
shaping the scholar’s thinking process. Interactivity is an
essential element in following hunches, testing hypotheses and
making connections in a way that was impossible or impractical
without e-texts. The scholar’s thinking about the topic develops
in the interplay with the e-text and this experience can influence
the presentation of research results. The third role, Aid in
investigation of the topic, is a substantive content-oriented role.
In Contribution to writing and presenting research results,
e-texts have a substantive role when they influence the writing
style and presentation of research results.
Conclusion
Understanding of the roles of e-texts in the research process
contributes to our understanding of the envisaged
scholarly change as well as information needs and behaviour
in the humanities. It confirms the recent reports on the change
of research practices resulting from the use of ICTs and explores
the impacts of interactions with e-texts on the research process.
The study can have practical implications for the development
of digital collections and software applications, approaches to
text encoding and development of training programs and
institutional policies.
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"796","8","A Statistical Study of Superlatives in Dickens and Smollett: A Case Study in Corpus Stylistics","","1. Introduction
This study gives a quantitative overview of the use of
superlatives in Dickens in comparison with Smollett. The
focus is laid on the differing distribution of superlatives in the
texts written by the two authors. By applying correspondence
analysis, this study tries to illustrate how sharply the two authors
differ in their uses of superlatives as well as how texts are
clustered according to chronology within authorial sets.
Despite a number of studies on Dickens’ style have noted a
tendency for overstatement in his fiction (Brook 1970; Sorensen
1985; Golding 1985; Hori 2004, etc.), surprisingly little
attention has been paid to superlatives as a whole. Apart from
Dickens studies, however, Biber et al. (1999) gives an
interesting account of superlatives in four linguistic registers:
conversation, fiction, news, and academic prose. According to
Biber et al., —est superlative adjectives are most frequent in
news reportage (c. 1400 times per million words) while “the
comparatively low frequency of superlatives in academic
writing (c. 800 per million) reflects a general reluctance to make
extreme claims” (Biber et al., 521), with fiction showing even
lower frequency for the word class (c. 700 per million). Dickens and Smollett stand in contrast in the frequency of
superlative forms. In Dickens’ 23 texts used in this study, the
number of tokens for superlatives amounts to 4,960, whereas
Smollett employs them 634 times in his seven works. In the
normalised frequency scale per million words, the frequency
in Dickens is nearly twice as high as in Smollett: 1,049 versus
568.
Table 2
With regard to the number of types, 423 different superlative
forms are found in total. Among those, a few types are highly
frequent such as, most, best, and least, occurring more than one
thousand times. Conversely, more than one third of the whole
types occur only once. Such hapax legomena include unique
words, such as, superlativest and unfortunatest.
This study deals with a corpus of texts comprising Dickens’
and Smollett’s major works. Dickens’ set includes fifteen ""serial
fictions"", six ""sketches"", one ""miscellany"", and one ""history"".
Smollett’s contains six ""fictions"" and one ""sketch"". The total
word-tokens in the corpus amount to 5.8 million, with the
Dickens component containing 4.7 million tokens and the
Smollett component totalling 1.1 million word-tokens. The
present project was initiated as a study based on a
comprehensive collection, not a sample corpus, of texts by the
targeted authors. Therefore, the imbalance in the number of
texts as well as tokens is inevitable. However, due attention
will be paid in the choice of variables to minimize a potential
effect of the differences in the population of the two sets.
2. Quantitative approaches to
style/register variation
Milic (1967) is among the earliest successful specimens
of a quantitative description of style. He compared the
style of Jonathan Swift with the writings of his contemporaries,
with special reference to the relative frequencies of word-classes
in the texts and to grammatical features such as seriation and
connection. Cluett (1971 & 1976) adopted a similar approach
to conduct a diachronic study of prose style across 4 centuries:
from 16th to 20th Centuries. Brainerd’s works (1979 & 1980)
are ambitious attempts to apply discriminant analysis to the
question of genre and chronology in Shakespeare plays.
Takefuta’s (1981) approach to text typology, or register
variation, is among the first to successfully employ factor/cluster
analysis to the lexical differences between registers. His
pioneering work, however, is not widely acknowledged because
it was written in Japanese.
Since Burrows (1987) and Biber (1988), it has become popular
practice to employ multivariate techniques in quantitative
studies of texts. Biber carried out factor analysis (FA) on 67
linguistic features to identify co-occurring linguistic features
that account for dimensions of register variation. A series of
research based on Biber’s Multi- Feature/Multi-Dimensional
approach have been successful in elucidating many interesting
aspects of linguistic variation, such as diachronic change of
prose style, variation within a single author, and differences
between conversational styles in British and American English,
to give a few examples (Biber & Finegan 1992;
Opas-Ha􀀀nninen 1996, Watson 1997, Conrad & Bibereds.
2001)
The Biber model is one of the most sophisticated approaches
by far. Yet it is not without its critics. Nakamura (1995) raises
a major objection. He argues that Biber’s variables are “quite
arbitrarily selected with no definite criterion and mixed levels”
(1995: 77-86). Further, Sigley (1997) notes that almost half of
Biber’s 67 linguistic features are too rare in texts of 2,000
words.
Burrows (1987), on the other hand, applied a Principal
Component Analysis (PCA) to the thirty most common words
in the language of Jane Austen. The method demonstrates that
differing frequency patterns in these very common words show
significant differentiations among Austen’s characters, and that
the statistical analysis of literary style may lead not only to a
deeper understanding of the novel itself but may also contribute
to our deeper appreciation of it. In this use of a PCA, the frequencies of common words are used as variables. The
Burrows method seems to have higher replicability and
feasibility; since it focuses on common words, most of the
variables are frequent enough to produce stable statistical
results. In addition, it does not require a multi-layered tagging
scheme optimised for Biber’s MF/MD approach.
A particular strength of the Burrows methodology is in testing
cases of disputed authorship and national differences in the
English first-person retrospective narrative, known as ‘history’.
Among the most successful applications are Burrows (1989,
1992 & 1996), Craig (1999a, b, & c). The Burrows approach
or similar methodology has been applied to Bible stylometry.
Some scholars like Linmans (1998), Merriam (1998), and
Mealand (1999) use Correspondence Analysis (CA) instead of
PCA. In the context of text typology, Nakamura (1993) applied
CA to the frequency distribution of personal pronouns to
visualize association between personal pronouns and 15 text
categories in the LOB corpus.
3. Methodology
The present study is different from the Biber and Burrows
models in that it extends the range of variables to include
low-frequency words, or rare words, by applying CA in the
analysis of superlatives. CA is one of the techniques for
data-reduction alongside PCA and FA. CA allows examination
of the complex interrelationships between row cases (i.e., texts),
interrelationships between column variables (i.e., words), and
association between the row cases and column variables
graphically in a multi-dimensional space. It computes the row
coordinates (word scores) and column coordinates (text scores)
in a way that permutes the original data matrix so that the
correlation between the word variables and text profiles are
maximized. In a permuted data matrix, adverbs with a similar
pattern of distribution make the closest neighbours, and so do
texts of similar profile. When the row/column scores are
projected in multi-dimensional charts, relative distance between
variable entries indicates affinity, similarity, association, or
otherwise between them. One advantage CA has over PCA and
FA is that PCA and FA cannot be computed on a rectangular
matrix where the number of columns exceeds the number of
rows, a concern of the present study. Yet CA can handle such
types of a data table with, for example, the row cases consisting
of thirty texts and the column variables consisting of hundreds
of words.
Table 3: Frequency matrix for 242 types of superlatives across 30 texts: raw
frequency scores
4. Results
Figures 1 and 2 demonstrate a result of CA based on 242
superlative forms across 30 texts. The solution given as
Dimension 1, the most powerful axis, allows quite
straightforward interpretation: the horizontal axis of Figure 1
distinguishes between the Dickens and the Smollett sets. It is
also interesting that the early Dickensian texts, such as Sketches
by Boz, Pickwick Papers, and Nicholas Nickleby, are among
the closest to Smollett’s texts along the horizontal axis.
Figure 1: Correspondence Analysis of superlatives in Dickens & Smollett based
on 242 types that appear in two or more texts: Text-map showing
interrelationships between 30 texts Figure 2: Correspondence Analysis of superlatives in Dickens & Smollett based
on 242 types that appear in two or more texts: Word-map showing
interrelationships between 242 superlatives
The Dickens corpus is more than four times the size of the
Smollett corpus, and the number of types used by Dickens is
nearly four times as many as those used by Smollett (see Table
2). It is necessary to ensure that a size factor does not come
into play in the outcome of analysis. Figures 3 and 4 are derived
from 105 superlatives common to both authors. Despite the
decrease in the number of variables from 242 to 105, the
configuration of texts and words is remarkably similar to that
based on 242 items. Of further interest is that, in each of the
two authors’ sets, early works tend to have lower scores with
later works scoring higher along Dimension 2.
Such result seems to illustrate how the authorial difference and
chronology are reflected in the frequency pattern of superlatives
in the texts written by Dickens and Smollett. This study might
suggest the effectiveness of the stylo-statistical approach based
on correspondence analysis of texts.
Figure 3: Correspondence Analysis of superlatives in Dickens & Smollett based
on the 105 types common to both authors: Text-map showing interrelationships
between 30 texts
Figure 4: Correspondence Analysis of superlatives in Dickens & Smollett based
on the 105 types common to both authors: Word-map showing interrelationships
among 105 superlatives
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"797","8","Researching e-Science Analysis of Census Holdings: The ReACH project","","e-Science technologies have the potential to enable
large-scale datasets to be searched analysed, and shared
quickly, efficiently, and in complex and novel ways. So far,
little application has been made of the processing power of grid
technologies to humanities data, due to lack of available large
scale datasets which would warrant such high performance
computing, and little understanding of or access to e-Science
technologies. The ReACH workshop series, funded by the UK’s
Arts and Humanities Research Council, was established in June
2006 at University College London to investigate the potential
application of e-Science and high performance computing
technologies to a large dataset of interest to historians,
humanists, digital consumers, and the general public: historical
census records.
The ReACH series consisted of various workshops undertaken
over the summer of 2006 to investigate the academic, technical,
and managerial aspects that would have to be taken into account
in order to set up a large scale project which would utilise
UCL’s high performance computing facilities to analyse large
scale historical census datasets from the UK’s National
Archives, in conjunction with the genealogy firm, Ancestry.
By undertaking a scoping study in this manner, it was hoped
to determine the academic merits of such a proposal: it may be
feasible to undertake this analysis, but would it be useful to
historical researchers? What would the analysis do? What would
the technical implementation of such a project involve? What
staffing and funding costs would be required? The workshop
series featured input from various project partners, and
interdisciplinary experts, to ascertain whether a full scale project
would be worthwhile to undertake. Moreover, the workshop
series aimed to ascertain if and how e-Science (defined as “a
specific set of advanced technologies for Internet
resource-sharing and collaboration: so-called grid technologies,
and technologies integrated with them, for instance for
authentication, data-mining and visualization. (AHRC ICT
2006)”) can be applied to the arts and humanities.
Public interest in historical census data is phenomenal, as the
overwhelming response to mounting the 1901 census online at
The National Archives demonstrates (Inman, 2002). Yet the
data is also much used for research by historians (see Higgs
2005 for an introduction). There are many versions of historical
census datasets available, covering a variety of aspect of the
census, and digitised census records are one of the largest digital
datasets available in arts and humanities research. In the Arts
and Humanities Data Service repository collection alone there
are currently 155 datasets pertaining to historical census data
(from the UK and abroad) created for research purposes (AHDS
2006). Commercial firms dealing (or having dealt) in genealogy
information (such as Ancestry1, Genes Re-united2, QinetiQ 3,
British Origins4, The Genealogist5, and 1837Online6 ) have
digitised vast swathes of historical census material (although
to varying degrees of completeness and accuracy). There is
much interest from the historical community in using this
emerging data for research, and developing tools and
computational architectures which can aid historians in
analysing this complex data (see Crocket, Jones and Schürer
(2006) for an advanced proposal regarding the creation of a
longitudinal database of English individuals and households
from 1851 to 1901, see also the work of the North Atlantic
Population Project7). However, there have been few
opportunities for the application of high performance computing
to utilise large scale processing power in the analysis of
historical census material, especially analysing data across the
spectrum of census years available in the UK (7 different
censuses taken at 10 year intervals from 1841-1901). Although
certain digitized datasets of the UK census are in the public
domain (18818) most were digitized by commercial companies
and are unavailable to the academic researcher. Most historians
do not have access to, or do not know how to use, high
performance computing facilities.
The aim of the ReACH series was to bring together disparate
expertise in Computing Science, Archives, Genealogy, History,
and Humanities Computing, to discuss how e-science scale
techniques could be applied to be of use in the historical
research community. The project partners each brought various
expertise and input to the project:
• UCL School of Library, Archives and Information Studies9,
who have expertise in digital humanities and advanced
computational techniques, as well as digital records
management,
• The National Archives10, who select, preserve and provide
access to, and advice on, historical records, e.g. the censuses
of England and Wales 1841-1901 (and also the Isle of Man,
Channel Islands and Royal Navy censuses)
• Ancestry.co.uk11, who own a massive dataset of census
holdings worldwide, and who have digitized the censuses
of England and Wales under license from The National
Archives. The input of Ancestry was central to this research
to gain access to the complete range of UK census years in
digital format. • UCL Research Computing12, the UK's Centre for Excellence
in networked computing, who have extensive high
performance computing facilities available for use in
research.
The project aimed to investigate the reuse of pre-digitised
census data: presuming there was not funding available to be
in the business of digitisation of other record data for any pilot
project. The project also wished to investigate the use of
commercial datasets (as many of the large census data sets are
owned by commercial firms: in this case, Ancestry), and the
licensing and managerial issues this would raise for future
projects. The project also wanted to establish how feasible, and
indeed useful, undertaking such an analysis of historical census
data would be.
The results of the well attended workshop series was a sketch
for a potential project, and recommendations regarding the
implementation of e-science (high performance computing)
technologies in this area. However, at this time, it was not
thought possible to pursue the potential project at this time in
the following e-Science call which emanated from the AHRC
in October 2006 due to a variety of reasons which are elucidated
in this paper. Reasons for not taking the project forward at this
time were not technical or managerial, but historical: it will be
a few years before all the digitized data required to make this
project a success will be available (or be of high enough quality,
see Holmes 2006). Nevertheless, the scoping nature of this
project did highlight interesting aspects of the application of
high performance computing to humanities data: discussing
the nature, size and quality of humanities datasets (as opposed
to scientific datasets), and managerial and technical expertise
in data management, security, and licensing. Importantly, the
nature of working with a commercial company on their sensitive
data was also explored from a legal aspect, highlighting issues
regarding use and reuse of digital data for the arts and
humanities: who “owns” resulting datasets from collaborative
projects?
This paper describes the methodology of the workshops,
reporting on suggestions made during the series regarding
potential applications of high performance computing which
would benefit academic historians, sketching out a future project
regarding how historical census material can be analysed
utilising high performance computing, and extrapolates
recommendations that can be applied in general to the use of
e-Science and high performance computing in the arts and
humanities research sectors.
1. <http://www.ancestry.com/>
2. <http://www.genesreunited.co.uk/>
3. <http://www.qinetiq.com/>
4. < http://www.origins.net/BOWelcome.asp
x>
5. <http://www.thegenealogist.co.uk/>
6. <http://www.1837online.com/>
7. <http://www.nappdata.org/napp/>
8. The 1881 Census for England and Wales, the Channel Islands and
the Isle of Man (Enhanced Version) was deposited in the Arts and
Humanities Data Service repository by K. Schürer (University of
Essex. Department of History) in 2000, and is available from <h
ttp://www.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/collecti
on.htm?uri=hist-4177-1>
9. <http://www.slais.ucl.ac.uk/>
10. <http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/
>
11. <http://www.ancestry.co.uk/>
12. <http://www.ucl.ac.uk/research-computin
g/>
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Research, 2005.
Holmes, R. ""The Accuracy and Consistency of the Census
Returns for England 1841-1901 and their Indexes."" M.A.
Dissertation. School of Library, Archive and Information
Studies, University College London, 2006.
Inman, Phillip. ""Genealogy."" The Guardian (Thursday
September 26, 2002). Accessed 2006-11-03. <http://www
.guardian.co.uk/internetnews/story/0,,798
781,00.html>","txt","2","",""
"798","8","ADHO Panel: Beyond Text","3","This panel will engage in a discussion of work being done
in the humanities that is computational but not
literary/linguistic, or at least not primarily focused on text. The
panel will also discuss the possibilities for collaboration across
the different paradigms of humanities computing/new
media/visual culture/grid computing/critical studies.
Moderator: John Unsworth
Participants:
Kevin Franklin
Kevin Franklin is executive director of the University of
California Humanities Research Institute (UCHRI) and a former
deputy director of the San Diego Supercomputer Center. He
serves as co-chair for the Humanities, Arts and Social Science
Research Group for the Global Grid Forum and is a member
of the UC Humanities, Arts and Social Science Technology
Council and the Worldwide University Network Grid Advisory
Committee. Franklin coordinates UCHRI research and
development activities at the interface of the humanities, arts,
science and technology.
Lev Manovich
Lev Manovich (<http://www.manovich.net>) is a
Professor in the Visual Arts Department, University of
California, San Diego where he teaches courses in new media
art and theory. He is the author of The Language of New Media
(The MIT Press, 2001), Tekstura: Russian Essays on Visual
Culture (Chicago University Press, 1993) as well as many
articles which have been published in 28 countries. Manovich
is in demand to lecture on new media; since 1999 he delivered
over 180 lectures in North and South America, Europe, and
Asia. His awards include Mellon Fellowship and Guggenheim
Fellowship (2002-2003).
Matt Kirschenbaum
Matthew G. Kirschenbaum is an Associate Professor in the
Department of English at the University of Maryland and
Associate Director of the Maryland Institute for Technology
in the Humanites (MITH), an applied thinktank for the digital
humanities. He is also an affiliated faculty member with the
Human-Computer Interaction Lab at Maryland, and a Vice
President of the Electronic Literature Organization.
Kirschenbaum specializes in digital humanities, electronic
literature and creative new media (including games), textual
studies, and postmodern/experimental literature. He has a Ph.D.
in English from the University of Virginia, and was trained in
humanities computing at Virginia's Electronic Text Center and
Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities (where
he was the Project Manager of the William Blake Archive).
His dissertation was the first electronic dissertation in the
English department at Virginia and one of the very first in the
nation.
Catherine Plaisant
Dr. Catherine Plaisant is Associate Research Scientist at the
Human-Computer Interaction Laboratory of the University of
Maryland Institute for Advanced Computer Studies. She earned
a Doctorat d'Ingenieur degree in France in 1982. In 1987 she
joined Professor Ben Shneiderman at the Human-Computer
Interaction Laboratory. She enjoys most working with
multidisciplinary teams on designing and evaluating new
interface technologies that are useable and useful. Her research
contributions range from focused user interaction techniques
(e.g. Excentric Labeling) to innovative visualizations (such as
LifeLines for personal records or SpaceTree for hierarchical
data exploration) and interactive search interface techniques
such as Query Previews. Those interaction techniques have
been carefully validated with user studies and are finding
applications in industry and government information systems
and digital libraries. She has written over 90 refereed technical
publications on the subjects of information visualization, digital
libraries, universal access, image browsing, input devices, online
help, home automation, network management, telemedicine
etc. She recently co-authored with Ben Shneiderman the 4th
Edition of Designing the User Interface, one of the major books
on the topic of Human-Computer Interaction.","txt","2","",""
"799","8","Second Life for Museums and Archeological Modeling","","Museums have been exploring the use of multi-user
virtual environments (MUVE) for more than a decade,
often in the form of proprietary virtual worlds built for select
audiences such as teachers and students. Since launching in
2003, the online virtual community of Second Life (<http:
//www.secondlife.com>) has attracted over one million
dedicated 'residents' who are laying the foundations for
widespread adoption of MUVE. In many ways, the growth of
MUVE mirrors the growth of the Web. New technologies
transition from small scale prototypes constructed by researchers
at great expense to large scale, rapidly growing mainstream
products and services available to the general public. These
products are not only used by many people, but are co-created
by them. With the Web this was a matter of using hypertext to
create websites, initially inspired by various genres of print
media, and soon evolving their own genres. In the case of
MUVE like Second Life (SL), residents can create 3D artifacts,
buildings, and social spaces where people interact. The social
nature of Second Life is a critical component of understanding
how it is, can, and should be used.
Already we can see a wide range of museum-like activities
occurring in Second Life. A recent survey identified over 150
museums, galleries or museum-like activity spaces in Second
Life. These museums offered visitors opportunities to view
collections of real-life and fictional spacecraft, digitized
versions of real-life artworks, exhibitions of artworks created
in Second Life, living history reenactments, or archaeological
monuments (Urban, Marty & Twidale, 2007). Reflecting the
patterns of development of the early World Wide Web, most
of these SL museum spaces have been created by enthusiasts
- residents who are not affiliated with real-life museums.
Game studies researchers have suggested that the behaviors of
players in other massively multi-player online games (MMOG)
such as World of Warcraft are blurring the boundaries between
work, play and learning (Castronova, 2006; Steinkuehler &
Williams, 2006; Yee, 2006). Like other passionate user
communities, Second Life residents are turning the virtual world
into a 'third place' where they can engage in serious leisure
pursuits. Museums and cultural heritage institutions are not
unfamiliar with serious leisure as they often engage with
amateur archaeologists, natural scientists, living-history
re-enactors or family historians. Unlike traditional museum
audiences, these individuals are ""involved participants rather
than consumers"" (Orr, 2006; Stebbins, 1992).
The degree to which individual residents decide to place
themselves on a continuum from pure work to pure play can
affect the results of their activities in Second Life. Some
residents seek to evoke a particular historic place, while others
engage in the serious work of conducting research, visiting the
real-life places and artifacts upon which their Second Life
representations are based. Some residents see Second Life as
primarily a social space that requires a lower degree of
authenticity and accuracy. As long as the stage can provide the
necessary background, it can facilitate social interactions
(DiBlas, 2005). Other residents are using Second Life as a new
expressive medium that allows them to create new artworks or
to accurately represent cultural artifacts as best they can.
As residents create museum-like activities, humanities scholars
are exploring Second Life as a virtual classroom. The New
Media Consortium (<http://www.nmc.org/sl/>) has
constructed a virtual campus where classes are held in ""outdoor""
amphitheaters, faculty and students are staging plays, poetry
readings and providing space for digital artists to create new
works. The Stanford Humanities Lab (<http://shl.sta
nford.edu/>), the Humanities, Arts, Science and
Technology Advanced Collaboratory (HASTAC - <http:/
/www.hastac.org/>) have also staked some ground in
Second Life.
Observations of how Second Life residents are currently
engaging in serious leisure activities around museums and
archaeological models can inform many kinds of research. We
can study the early stages of a new online social medium being
co-created and evolving into a new form, just as the early days
of the web led to the development of new forms of creating,
sharing and manipulating information, including cultural
materials. We can also use the work of these technological
pioneers to inform ways to create new learning spaces for
students. Second Life also affords researchers and students an
opportunity to demonstrate what is possible when more rigorous
methods are applied. While many projects have created models using highly accurate rendering systems, Second Life can add
value to this work by providing tools for social engagement for
a broader audience (Di Blas, 2003, 2005; Eiteljorg, 2004). The
serious leisure activities of Second Life residents also suggest
a more open and inquiry based approach to learning. Instead
of presenting students with already completed models, Second
Life can engage students through co-creation and collaborative
discovery.
This poster will present examples of museum-like spaces and
activities taking place in Second Life with a particular focus
on archeological-themed representations. It will illustrate how
Second Life museums are largely the product of resident’s
serious leisure activities. Using these activities as an example
of what is possible it will explore how early attempts at teaching
in Second Life might be informed by resident’s serious leisure
activities.
Figure 1: Themiskyra Throne Room
Bibliography
Castronova, Edward. Synthetic Worlds: The Business and
Culture of Online Games. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 2006.
Di Blas, Nicoletta, Evelyne Gobbo, and Paolo Paolini. ""The
SEE Experience: Edutainment in 3D Virtual Worlds."" Museums
and the Web 2003: Selected Papers from an International
Conference. Ed. David Bearman and Jennifer Trant. Pittsburgh,
PA: Archives & Museum Informatics, 2003. 173-182. <http
://www.archimuse.com/mw2003/papers/diblas
/diblas.html>
Di Blas, Nicoletta, Evelyne Gobbo, and Paolo Paolini. ""3D
Worlds and Cultural Heritage Realism vs. Virtual Presence.""
Museums and the Web 2005: Proceedings. Ed. David Bearman
and Jennifer Trant. Toronto, Ontario: Archives & Museum
Informatics, 2005. <http://www.archimuse.com/mw2
005/papers/diBlas.html>
Eiteljorg II, Harrison. ""Computing for Archeologists."" A
Companion to Digital Humanities. Ed. Susan Schreibman, Ray
Siemens and John Unsworth. Malden, MA: Blackwell
Publishing Ltd, 2004. 20-30.
Orr, Noreen. ""Museum Volunteering: Heritage as ‘Serious
Leisure’ ."" International Journal of Heritage Studies 12.2
(2006): 194-210.
Stebbins, Robert A. Amateurs, Professionals and Serious
Leisure. Montreal: Queens University Press, 1992.
Steinkueler, Constance, and Dmitri Williams. ""Where
Everybody Knows Your (Screen) Name: Online Games as
‘Third Places’ ."" Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication 11.4 Article 1 (2006).
Urban, Richard, Paul F. Marty, and Michael B. Twidale. ""A
Second Life For Your Museum: 3D Multi-user Virtual
Environments and Museums."" Museums & the Web 2007
(Forthcoming).
Yee, Nick. ""The Labor of Fun: How Video Games Blur the
Boundaries of Work and Play ."" Games and Culture 1 (2006):
68-71. <http://www.nickyee.com/pubs/Yee%20-
%20Labor%20of%20Fun%202006.pdf>","txt","2","",""
"800","8","Re-imag[en]ing Cervantes Don Quixote: a Multi-layered Approach to Editing Visual Materials in a Hypertextual Archive","","It is often stated by critics that the Quixote is a theatrical,
graphic, and visual book. Thus, visual representations, like
theatrical performances, popular iconography and book
illustrations, have been recognized as significant contributions
to the understanding of Cervantes’ masterpiece.1 2 Nevertheless,
the thousands of woodcuts, engravings, etchings, drawings,
and lithographs that have accompanied the text are, for the most
part, a little known interpretative tradition, and a much neglected
critical and artistic treasure.3
Obstacles, such as the difficulty of accessing rare books, have
prevented the illustrative tradition from being appreciated by
scholars, students, and users in general. In 2001 the Cervantes
Project (CP) started the creation of a hypertextual archive to
include digital images of the illustrations taken from over 500
of the most significant editions to form the textual iconography
of the Quixote (as permitted by copyright limitations). Our
main objectives are to make the illustrations more accessible
and to establish their contribution to the reception and
interpretation of the text. At the present time, the archive has
digitized, and made available online more than 7,000 images,
supported by a fully searchable database and complemented
by rich metadata and innovative visualization tools.4 (Figure 1
shows the reader’s Web-based access to the collection.)
The multidisciplinary approach of our project enables scholars
to go beyond the literary aspect of Cervantes’ works. As an
invaluable pictorial depository, we emphasize supplying
information regarding the historic value and artistic significance
of the images. The hermeneutic and aesthetic values of each
individual image have been carefully examined by art historians
and the results incorporated in the archive as scholarly
commentary. Additionally, we include biographical commentary
about artists and engravers. These rich scholarly commentaries
will help to boost the study of book illustration art, which has
been to date secondary in Art History, in aspects such as the
evolution of techniques, from the first woodcuts (early 17th
century) to modern mechanical offset (20th century), and the
influence or achievement of an individual engraver, illustrator,
or lithographer. We associate the text and the images through
a taxonomy of episodes, adventures and narrative motifs for
both parts of the Quixote. The 308 taxonomic elements in which
we have divided the 126 chapters of the text encompass as
descriptive categories the totality of the tradition of illustrations
present in the editions in our collection. (See Figure 2 for an
example selection from the taxonomy.)
The reader’s interface offers access to all the levels of editorial
annotation about the artists, textual location, image information
and technique, aesthetic and textual commentary. In addition,
users can obtain, through links, specific information related to
the narrative, biographical information about the creators, and
the meaning of engraving techniques. We are in the process of
incorporating these and other categories into our current search
tool, as well as developing a controlled vocabulary about themes
and characters in the Quixote and about generic area content (flora, fauna, architecture, music, etc.) to facilitate the use and
exploration of the images in the archive by researchers other
than literary scholars. (Figure 3 shows the advanced search
interface.)
As a multidisciplinary project that involves library staff
digitizing the images, computer scientists coding the
applications, Hispanic scholars providing textual editing and
edition metadata, art historians examining the image metadata,
and finally the general public traversing the archive, it is critical
to have an efficient production line and a strategy for
consistently sharing information among the different parties.
After several attempts, we reached a work flow that we found
to work efficiently. The procedure starts with Hispanic scholars
providing bibliographic information and specifying the editions
to be digitized, the pages where the images reside, and the
naming scheme for the electronic files. This information is
recorded on a work sheet and sent to library personnel. Upon
receiving such a work sheet, the library staff responsible for
the digitization reviews the information, clarifies any possible
discrepancies, digitizes the illustrations, and saves them on a
library server as archival TIFF files. A copy of the images is
then transferred to the development site where a computer
scientist processes them into JPEGs, whose sizes are more
appropriate for Web traffic. Afterwards, the references to the
JPEGs are added to the database. At that point, the interfaces
automatically update and these images become available online.
The art historian in charge of image metadata has access to the
original illustrations and then remotely enters the information
using the online Web form. As soon as these commentaries are
finalized, they are published online alongside the images.
A Web-based interface is provided for maintenance of the
collection. The collection maintenance application supports
management functions such as inserting, deleting, or modifying,
project-wide data. The editor's Web form also offers a typology
of illustrations divided into 17 categories, i.e., frontispiece,
vignette, portrait, map, etc., and a 17 item index of engraving
techniques. Much of the design effort in preparing this interface
has focused on specification of the most appropriate handling
of default values and modes. Using an iterative development
methodology, we have focused on the art historian’s tasks,
refining the means for inheriting and modifying values between
entries with the goal of focusing his data-entry activities on
differences rather than similarities. The taxonomic and
typological categories are part of the rich image metadata
approach we have developed to capture and make accessible
the variety of image content present in the iconography of the
Quixote. They are of value both to collection editor and reader
as they are part of the editor's metadata template and of the
reader’s advanced search tool. (Figure 4 shows the tools used
by the editor in specifying metadata.)
The readers’ Web-based interface, introduced earlier, which is
separate from the collection maintainer’s interface, also has
undergone refinement during the project’s development. At
present, it provides a four-layered browsing design: a) an edition
index; b) a thumbnail overview of one entire edition; c) a
low-resolution image together with meta-data; and d) a
high-resolution image. One interesting characteristic in the
public interface is the provision of uncommon relationships
among the artifacts. One particular example is the
ancestor-descent relationship. For instance, an engraver is often
related to another as his master or disciple, or even father or
son; one illustration or a set of illustrations is inherited from
an earlier edition as simply reprints or sometimes after
re-engraving. In cases where ancestral and/or familial ties exist,
we provide a description of the ties, as well as physical links
pointing to the referred artifacts for the purpose of more
in-depth investigation. Navigation along the ties provides an
intuitive way to look closely at the propagation of engraving
skills from one person to another, the effect of the technology
evolution upon art works as reflected in re-engravings, and the
significance, elegance, and popularity of certain artists or
illustrations serving as the archetypes for imitation. At present,
the links are manually encoded on a one-by-one basis. We are
in the process of setting up a keyword-anchor list for automatic
linking.5 (Figure 5 shows the reader’s views of the collection
and metadata.)
The project’s metadata is imbedded into a Dublin Core
framework. We use a MySQL server as the database core to
store the metadata and the references to image files. The
readers’ and maintainers’ Web-based applications occupy a
display tier on top of the database tier.
The availability of the archive will contribute to a more
complete understanding and appreciation of Cervantes’ novel
by initiating new explorations from many perspectives: textual,
artistic, critical, bibliographical, and historical. In particular,
we provide resources and assistance to examine the reception
and evolution of the Quixote’s readings across time, culture,
audience, and milieu. Furthermore, the images can be grouped
according to several layers of content to respond to the users’
need for information selection of a specific critical focus, i.e,
art, geography, history, etc. This is achieved by 1) cataloging
each image using a comprehensive taxonomy of the episodes
and adventures, 2) including multiple levels of textual
annotation about each individual illustration, including
technical, historical, and artistic information, and 3) providing
descriptive and critical commentary related to the content and
textual context of the illustrations. The result is a multi-layered
and multi-directional collection of digital objects recombining
bibliographical, textual and visual materials
(edition-text-image-metadata), and the development of a rich
hypertextual archive encompassing a new form of critical apparatus in which the illustrations are newly re-contextualized
and re-imag[in]ed.
Figure 1: The front page of the collection (left) and the interface to the
iconography collection (right).
Figure 2: An example set of menus showing the selection of an entry in the
thematic taxonomy.
Figure 3: The reader’s advanced search interface.
Figure 4: Screen shots from the editor’s metadata specification toolkit. At top
left is the editor’s view of the collection, which resembles the reader’s. In
addition to allowing selection of editions, this screen allows editing of edition
metadata, lower left. Selecting an edition brings up the middle display, which
flags images still requiring metadata entry. The metadata is then provided
using the screen on the right.
Figure 5: The reader’s view of image magnifications and metadata. At top left
is the collection view, seen before. Selecting an edition from the collection
brings up its images, lower left. Next, selecting an image brings up more detail
about an image, including its metadata, center top. Here, the reader can request
detail about persons mentioned in the metadata (center bottom) and an
additional image magnification (right).
1. Funding and support provided by the National Endowment for the
Humanities, the Cátedra Cervantes at the University of Castilla-La
Mancha, Grupo Santander, Texas A&M University, and the
Cushing Memorial Library, Texas A&M University Libraries.
2. See for instance, Jean Canavaggio, Don Quichotte du livre au
mythe (Paris: Librairie Arthème Fayard, 2005) and José Manuel
Lucía Megías, “Don Quijote de la Mancha: del libro al mito,” En
torno al Quijote: Adaptaciones, imitaciones, imágenes y música
(Madrid: Biblioteca Histórica Municipal de Madrid, 2005) 27-55.
3. Much has been done in conjunction with the 400th centenary
celebration to remedy this situation; in addition to our own project
and digital archive at <http://cervantes.tamu.edu
/> (accessed November 12, 2006) see the Banco de imágenes del
Quijote directed by J.M. Lucía Megías at <http://www.qb
i2005.com/> (accessed November 12, 2006).
4. Fernando González Moreno et al, “La colección de Quijotes
ilustrados del Proyecto Cervantes: Catálogo de ediciones y archivo
digital de imágenes,” Cervantes: Bulletin of the Cervantes Society
of America 25.1 (2005) [2006]: 79-104 and E. Urbina et al, “Visual
Knowledge: Textual Iconography of the Quixote, a Hypertextual
Archive.” "" Literary & Linguistic Computing"" 21.2 (2006): 247-58. 5. Neal Audenaert et al, “A General Framework for Feature
Identification,” Digital Humanities 2006 Conference Abstracts,
Association for Digital Humanities Organization International
Conference, Université Paris-Sorbonne, (2006) 5-9, and E. Urbina
et al, “Textual Iconography of the Quixote: a Data Model for
Extending the Single-Faceted Pictorial Space into a Poly-Faceted
Semantic Web,” Digital Humanities 2006 Conference Abstracts
(2006) 215-20.","txt","2","",""
"801","8","Automatic Techniques for Generating and Correcting Cultural Heritage Collection Metadata","","In cultural heritage domains the central element of interest explanatory texts for educational purposes or exhibitions, or
scholarly publications. A third type of textual metadata is the
thesaurus or ontology, which aims to capture a standardized
list or set of terms that occur in the domain, and possibly some
basic relations between them such as synonymy, hyponymy,
and hyperonymy, or more domain-specific relations. Fourth,
auxiliary resources peripheral to the domain may exist that
contain information of overlapping interest, such as lists of
geographical names.
There is a need, clearly expressed by many cultural heritage
institutions, for digitizing the metadata of cultural heritage
collections, in order to make them searchable and accessible at
unprecedented scales. After the basic metadata is digitized,
allowing simple keyword-based search, an important next step
is the enrichmentphase, the result of which enables more
complex and advanced types of search that better resemble the
typical questions of scholarly researchers. The key step in the
enrichment phase is to link all resources into a single network.
By establishing all meaningful links, a particular object
effectively becomes a node in this network, meaningfully
connected to all other entities that have a direct relation to that
object, such as the artist who created it, or the location in which
it was found.
By traversing the network, a search engine can explore complex
relations among sets of objects, and unions and intersections
of such sets, allowing, for instance, biologists to perform
large-scale searches for patterns and trends, such as the
occurrence of animals in a certain family, in particular stretches
of time (e.g. the last century) and space (e.g. the Amazon rain
forest). To achieve this goal, we develop language technology
of two types: (1) preprocessing technology for the automatical
correction and normalization of our textual resources, and (2)
metadata enrichment technology for identifying relevant
concepts in all textual metadata, and linking all resources into
a connected, searchable network.
Preprocessing: Automatic metadata
cleanup
The first step in enriching textual metadata is to make sure
that the textual metadata is as correct and consistent as
possible. In Sporleder et al. (2006a, 2006b) we describe two
complementary methods. The first method, horizontal
correction, aims at correcting inconsistent values in a database
record based on the other values in that record, and all other
records in the same database, while the second method, vertical
correction, focuses on values which were entered in the wrong
column. Both methods are language-independent, rely solely
on the database itself, and are fully automatic. Their novelty
lies in the fact that they can deal with textual material in
database cells, where most traditional error correction methods
only work for numeric (Hawkins, 1980) or atomic categorial
data (Knorr and Ng, 1998).
In a range of experiments on a natural history specimen database
we observed that the two methods can effectively zoom in on
the errors in the database. Instead of having to manually inspect
all 16 thousand records in our database, each characterized by
47 attributes (columns), the methods only flag in the order of
several hundreds of errors. The errors flagged tend to capture
well above 90% of all actual errors, and typically raise about
as many false alarms as proper hits. The method is implemented
into a prototype system that draws the attention of the expert
user, with simple visual means, to alleged errors in the database.
The user is able to approve and effectuate the correction, or to
enter another correction, or to dismiss the error message.
Other cleanup methods currently under investigation are the
identification and normalization of different language versions
of the same location names (Van Erp, 2006), the disambiguation
of proper names referring to different entities (Bagga and
Baldwin, 1998) and the normalization of time expressions.
Automatic metadata generation
After resources have been cleaned and normalized, similar
methods can be used to generate more metadata, in order
to improve access to the core data. Again, we follow a strategy
which is fully automatic and completely self-sufficient, not
relying on any source other than the data itself, because in the
typical cultural heritage domain there is little useful background
resource besides the data itself.
As a first example, Sporleder et al. (2006c) describe a
bootstrapping method to generate lists of proper names of
persons, locations, and taxonomic animal names from a
specimen database. In general, an object database offers its own
structured annotation by means of its column titles, such as
""location"" (of the place where an animal specimen was found).
Gathering the contents of cells in a particular column results
in a list of named entities of that particular type, that may be
found elsewhere in the same database, e.g. in comment fields,
or in other textual metadata resources such as field books or
scholarly articles. These texts can then be linked to the entries
in the database that contain the same location name, and the
occurrences of the name in the other texts can be automatically
annotated as being ""location"" names.
In ongoing work we explore the usage of clustering methods
to discover hidden events that are not explicitly coded or
mentioned, but that do explain certain groupings of objects. An
example in the natural history domain is the concept of
expedition, which is not coded in the database, but which is the
cause for certain animals to be found within a concentrated period of time in a relatively restricted area by the same person
or group of persons. Adding such entities and linking them to
the objects that are associated to them, makes the object
database searchable in more than the original dimensions.
Bibliography
Bagga, A., and B. Baldwin. ""Entity-based Cross-document
Coreferencing Using the Vector Space Model."" Proceedings
of the Thirty-Sixth Annual Meeting of the Association for
Computational Linguistics and Seventeenth International
Conference on Computational Linguistics. 1998. 79-85.
Bontcheva, K.., D. Maynard, H. Cunningham, and . ""Using
Human Language Technology for Automatic Annotation and
Indexing of Digital Library Content."" Proceedings of the 6th
European Conference on Research and Advanced Technology
for Digital Libraries. 2002. 613-625.
Chapman, A.D. "" Principles and Methods of Data Cleaning -
Primary Species and Species Occurrence Data."" Report for the
Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Copenhagen, 2005.
Hawkins, D.M. Identification of Outliers. London: Chapmal
and Hall, 1980.
Knorr, E. M., and R. T. Ng. ""Algorithms for Mining
Distance-based Outliers in Large Datasets."" Proceedings of the
24th International Conference on Very Large Data Bases
(VLDB'98). 1998.
Sporleder, Caroline, Marieke van Erp, T. Porcelijn, and Antal
van den Bosch. ""Spotting the 'Odd-One-Out': Data-Driven Error
Detection and Correction in Textual Databases."" Proceedings
of the EACL 2006 Workshop on Adaptive Text Extraction and
Mining (ATEM-06). Trento, Italy, 2006a.
Sporleder, Caroline, Marieke van Erp, T. Porcelijn, and Antal
van den Bosch. ""Correcting 'Wrong-Column"" Errors in Text
Databases."" Proceedings of the Annual Machine Learning
Conference of Belgium and The Netherlands (Benelearn-06).
Ghent, Belgium, 2006b.
Sporleder, Caroline, Marieke van Erp, T. Porcelijn, Antal van
den Bosch, and P. Arntzen. ""Identifying Named Entities in Text
Databases from the Natural History Domain."" Proceedings of
the Fifth International Conference on Language Resources and
Evaluation (LREC-06). Genoa, Italy, 2006c.
van Erp, M. ""Bootstrapping Multilingual Geographical
Gazetteers from Corpora."" Proceedings of the 11th ESSLLI
Student Session. Malaga, Spain, 2006. 
in terms of information and knowledge, but also in terms
of objective and subjective value, is the object. Text is an
important medium in retrieving objects, or information about
these objects. Even in cases of non-textual cultural heritage
collections, text plays a crucial role, since text is the pervasive
medium used for metadata, next to numeric identification codes
and measurements (Chapman, 2005). At the same time,
language is a noisy and ambiguous medium, and usage of
textual metadata ultimately implies robustness to noise and
proper disambiguation. If the goal is to automate the process
of searching and retrieving information about objects from
digitized metadata, language technology can aid in
disambiguating, translating, and correcting textual metadata
(Bontcheva et al., 2002). In this paper we describe ongoing
work in the MITCH (Mining Information in Texts from the
Cultural Heritage) project in which we employ diverse language
technologies to enrich textual metadata of a large object
collection in the natural history domain.
Textual metadata can take many forms. Many document
collections are made searchable through the use of index
systems (pre-digital as well as digital) that use keywords, titles,
and proper names (e.g. of authors). Alternatively, objects may
be described more verbosely in annotations, captions,","txt","2","",""
"802","8","Through the Reading Glass: Generating an Editorial Microcosm Through Experimental Modelling","","Introduction
The Centre for Scholarly Editing and Document Studies
(CTB) is preparing a digital edition of De Trein der
Traagheid, a novella by the 20th century Flemish author Johan
Daisne. The project initially aimed at a print reading edition,
involving the constitution of a reading text based on a
text-critical analysis of 19 witnesses of the novella's print
history. However absent from the original project proposal, the
TEI markup scheme was adopted early in the project as the
means for digitally representing the edition. Its provisions for
marking up textual variation with the so-called
parallel-segmentation method informed the construction of a
single XML source text containing the transcriptions of all 19
text witnesses under consideration as well as the constituted
reading text, records of their mutual textual variation, and
editorial annotations. The subsequent development of the
electronic edition proved this unitary source text's potential for
modelling a microcosm of user-generated editions. This paper
will focus on characteristics, difficulties, and theoretical
challenges of this particular editorial constellation, as well as
the tools developed for probing into it.
Modelling
Refocusing the goal towards an electronic edition added
an experimental dimension to the project. The lack of well-established models for (creating) electronic scholarly
editions forced us to conceptualise the boundaries of this
particular electronic edition in the course of its development.
Initially, traditional notions of scholarly editing (explicitly
formalised as 'a print reading edition' in the initial project
proposal) provided a good starting point for the development
process. At first, development was guided by mimicking the
familiar print edition model, aimed at generating a reading text
with apparatus variorum from the XML source text. However,
this denotative model of the print edition (McCarty, 2004) soon
evolved to a guiding principle itself for conceptualising new
ideas, an exemplary model for electronic editions. The added
potential of an interactive edition framework allowing for
user-driven input opened up new ways of exploring possible
engagements of the user with the textual tradition. On a
theoretical level, this exemplary model for electronic scholarly
editions informed some challenging insights and rethinking of
the nature of this model's object (the edition).
Technology and tools
On the most basic level, the seminal potential of the XML
source text for our edition could be realised through the
use of several open source XML-related technologies and tools
that are currently being adopted as a standard amalgam for
accessing XML resources. Key technologies for deploying
XML texts like the Extensible Stylesheet Transformation
Language (XSLT) and XML Query language (XQuery) allow
for flexible manipulation and retrieval of XML encoded
information, commonly achieved through dedicated XSLT and
XQuery processors, and native XML databases.The advent of
XML publishing environments like the Cocoon web
development framework has made it possible to integrate these
functionalities in dynamic user interfaces for presenting and
querying XML content via easily accessible delivery
technologies such as a web browser. This integrative potential
stimulated the development of our XML text processing scripts
initially developed as a tentative instrument for a specific task,
to what we named the 'Morkel system', a generalisable suite of
XSLT and XQuery scripts for driving electronic scholarly
editions in an open source software environment.
Views on textual tradition
In the course of its experimental development the Morkel
system became a tool facilitating a multi-faceted user-driven
view on the textual tradition captured in the unitary XML source
text.The scope of this view can be adjusted from micro- to
macro-level. Users can have access to singular texts in the
tradition, by requesting specific versions of the text as
orientation version which presents itself as a faithful
reconstruction of this text version. A broader view on the
tradition can be accomplished by selecting a parallel edition,
in which different episodes in the textual tradition can be viewed
and contrasted, literally next to each other. This parallel
presentation mode of different text versions for visual
comparison resembles that of the Versioning Machine,
developed by the Maryland Institute for Technology in the
Humanities. Finally, the entire textual tradition can be taken
into account when a variorum edition is selected. In its ability
to compare any number of text versions with an orientation
version, this variorum edition is similar to the Juxta tool,
developed by the Applied Research in Patacriticism group at
the University of Virginia. The focal point of this text
comparison in the Morkel system is the contextual external
apparatus variorum containing only the relevant variants for
the selected comparison set and providing a locus for reorienting
the edition. This scope on the textual tradition can be further
refined on an intra-textual level. Complete text versions can be
compared, as well as separate text divisions (one of the 33
chapters or the dedication). Where applicable when comparing
different text versions, an entry to a generated apparatus is
provided both at chapter level and at paragraph level.
Edition formats
One end of the delivery spectrum features the dynamic
XHTML visualisation discussed so far. The versatility
of XML equally allows for the generation of a PDF visualisation
of the (different) edition(s), closely resembling a traditional
print view of the textual tradition. A PDF rendering consists of
an orientation version, either as an integral text or as a chapter
sample, possibly compared to any number of comparison
versions, as reflected in an inline contextualised apparatus
variorum. However dynamic this generative edition frame is
(Vanhoutte & Van den Branden, forthcoming), its boundaries
are still present. To cater for this limitation and to enhance
scientific independence, the other extreme of the delivery range
is offered as well: the Morkel system equally allows users to
generate pure XML renderings of the selected comparison
version texts or chapters, containing their parallel-segmented
inline record of the textual variation. These source texts can
then be used in completely different usage scenarios, perhaps
featuring completely different software environments.
Challenges
In short, the Morkel system enables users to generate their
own edition(s) along 3 axes (comparison set (19 text
witnesses and 1 reading text), textual scope (all or 1 of the 34
text divisions), delivery format (3 possible formats)), combining
to 58 different visualisation parameters. This generates the potential for 53.477.376 different views on the text, and
problematises some traditional text theoretical concepts, as well
as the defining role of tools for the electronic editions they
facilitate or constitute. An obvious consequence of this
generative edition paradigm (Vanhoutte & Van den Branden,
forthcoming) is the promotion of each text witness to a
candidate orientation version, instead of the adoption of one
text version as a base text for the edition against which all other
versions are calibrated. Instead, this calibration itself is made
relative by the possibility of restoring each different textual
witness as an autonomous landmark in the textual tradition,
thence allowing a forward or backward look into the tradition.
As a matter of fact, the constituted reading text itself has
become integrated as 'just' a (commented) view on the textual
tradition, against which all variant versions of the text can be
plotted. A dynamic selection of a comparison set not only
transforms the apparatus variorum to a dynamic, contextualised
rendering of the relevant textual variation, but equally promotes
it to a performative instrument for reorienting the edition to
another point in the textual history. Due to the dynamic selection
of comparison sets, the notion of variable classification becomes
relativised. Discerning different types of textual variants
becomes irrelevant: a variant can hold as a spelling variant in
one comparison set but can change classes and become a
semantic variant when compared to another version in the
textual tradition. The search capabilities of the Morkel system
even extend the view on the textual tradition from text level,
by allowing simple search operations inside one text version
(intra-textual), to collection level, by allowing complex search
operations over different text versions (extra-textual). To
conclude, this generative paradigm for electronic scholarly
editions seems to articulate the defining role of the specific
tools for accessing electronic texts more sharply. On its own,
the XML representation of text-critical research is a valuable
record of scientific labour, but it is the specific (generative)
interface which instantiates it as an editorial microcosm by
providing a range of user-driven access methods that enable
dynamic exploration of a textual tradition. The characteristics
and exact nature of this user-driven scholarly edition or
constellation of editions is strongly determined by the
boundaries this generative interface provides, allowing for a
microscopic, telescopic, stereoscopic, or kaleidoscopic view
on the textual tradition.
Bibliography
Juxta . <http://www.patacriticism.org/juxta
/>
McCarty, Willard. ""Modeling: A Study in Words and
Meanings."" A Companion to the Digital Humanities. Ed. Susan
Schreibman, Ray Siemens and John Unsworth. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2004. 254-70.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and Lou Burnard, eds. TEI P4:
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange,
XML-compatible edition. Oxford: TEI Consortium, 2002. <h
ttp://www.tei-c.org/P4X/>
Van Hulle, Dirk . Textual Awareness: A Genetic Study of Late
Works by Joyce, Proust & Mann. Ann Arbor, MI: University
of Michigan Press, 2004.
Vanhoutte, Edward, and Ron Van den Branden. ""Describing,
Transcribing, Encoding, and Editing Modern Correspondence
Material: A Textbase Approach."" Computing the Edition.
Toronto: Toronto University Press, Forthcoming.
Versioning Machine . <http://www.v-machine.org
/>","txt","2","",""
"803","8","TEI By Example","","The TEI (Text Encoding Initiative)1 has provided a complex
and comprehensive system of provisions for scholarly text
encoding. Although a major focus of the “digital humanities”
domain, there is little evidence that it has been embraced by
and taught to humanities students at university level, which is
important to encourage the adoption of the TEI’s
recommendations and the widespread use of its text encoding
guidelines. Very little training material exists for either
individuals who wish to teach themselves TEI, or university
level teachers who wish to have access to adequate training
materials to use with their classes.
If the digital humanities community wants to promote the TEI
markup framework as a serious candidate for dedicated courses
in the booming curricula on digital humanities, humanities
computing, digital culture, or humanities informatics, to name
just a few of the labels this archipelago of disciplines gets, as
well as integrating the TEI further with digital librarianship,
then there is an urgent need for an on-line TEI course by
example which is less generic than the two tutorials published
on the TEI website (Sperberg-McQueen and Burnard (2002a)
Sperberg-McQueen and Burnard (2002b)) and more user
friendly, comprehensive, and up to date than the “latest” Teach
Yourself TEI materials currently online (all of which date from
2002).2
The TEI By Example3 project is currently developing a range
of freely available online tutorials walking individuals through
the different stages in marking up a document in TEI. TEI By
Example aims to provide online tutorials which give examples
for users of all levels. Examples will be provided of different
document types, with varying degrees in the granularity of
markup, to provide a useful teaching and reference aid for those
involved in the marking up of texts. Likewise, the availability
of a software toolkit for teaching text encoding will support the
potential trainers to take up the challenge to teach TEI on
several occasions. In order to support multilingualism in the
text encoding community, the on-line tutorials are being
considered for translation into a number of languages. The
translations proper, however, are outside the scope of this
project.
The deliverables of the project are: on-line tutorials TEI By
Example, a printable PDF version of the tutorials TEI By
Example, an on-line software toolkit for text encoding, a
downloadable CD-ROM image for burning off-line toolkits for
use by course participants, and adequate documentation to
enable the tutorials to be used elsewhere if needed.
Project partners are The Centre for Scholarly Editing and
Document Studies (CTB)4 of the Royal Academy of Dutch
Language and Literature, the Centre for Computing in the
Humanities (CCH)5 of King's College London, and the School
for Library, Archive, and Information Studies (SLAIS)6 of
University College London, with an international advisory
board consisting of experts in textual encoding and markup.
The deliverables will be published and hosted by CCH (King's
College London) under endorsement by the Association of
Literary and Linguistic Computing. Development of the tutorials
began in October 2006 and will start to appear online in Spring
2007. It is hoped that the project results will be relevant to the
trainers of TEI, the students of TEI, the text encoding, and the
humanities computing community in general.
A major point of attention at the start of the project was the
status of the TEI model. Since early 2002, the TEI Consortium
has been engaged in a major (backward-incompatible) revision
of the TEI specification, migrating it from version P4 (released
in 2002, see TEI (2004) to P5 (2005 onwards, see TEI (2005)).
Featuring more than just changes in the markup model and the
content of the guidelines, P5 entails an overhaul of the complete
production process of the standard. It seems that the timing of
this TEI By Example project coincides with a turning point in
the transition of TEI P4 to P5: the advantages of P5 adoption
for this project seemed to outweigh the disadvantages of P4.
The most recent snapshot indeed suggests that stability is at
hand (Van den Branden 2006). As a result, the project is
developing materials in P5.
Eight tutorials are under construction. The first, an introduction
to text encoding and the TEI, encourages the user to explore
textual encoding and markup to foster an understanding of why
this is useful, or even necessary, to allow texts to be processed
automatically and used and understood by others. The TEI
header tutorial covers the type of information and metadata
captured in the header element. Three tutorials focus on
examples of individual types of text: Prose, Poetry, and Drama,
and a further two tutorials deal with examples of Manuscript
Transcription and Scholarly Editing. The final tutorial investigates how the TEI can be customized, and the use of
ODD and Roma.
Although under development at time of writing of this poster
proposal, the tutorials will be available for demonstration by
Digital Humanities 2007, and this poster aims to highlight the
format, structure, testing, and development of the tutorials. As
well as informing the academic audience at DH2007, and
publicising the project, this poster will aim for feedback to
allow further development of the online material.
1. <http://www.tei-c.org/>
2. <ttp://www.tei-c.org/Tutorials/index-la
test.html>
3. <http://www.teibyexample.org>
4. <http://www.kantl.be/ctb/>
5. <http://www.kcl.ac.uk/schools/humanitie
s/cch/>
6. <http://www.slais.ucl.ac.uk/>
Bibliography
Burnard, Lou, and Syd Bauman, eds. TEI P5: Guidelines for
Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. TEI Consortium,
2005. <http://www.tei-c.org.uk/P5/Guideline
s/index.html>
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and Lou Burnard, eds. TEI P4:
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, XML
Compatible Edition. Oxford: TEI Consortium, 2002. <http:
//www.tei-c.org/P4X/index.html>
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and Lou Burnard. ""A Gentle
Introduction to XML."" TEI P4: Guidelines for Electronic Text
Encoding and Interchange, XML Compatible Edition. Ed. C.
M. Sperberg-McQueen and Lou Burnard. Oxford: TEI
Consortium, 2002a. <http://www.tei-c.org/P4X/SG
.html>
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and Lou Burnard. TEI Lite: An
introduction to Text Encoding for Interchange. 2002b. <http
://www.tei-c.org/Lite/teiu5_en.html>
Van den Branden, Ron. [TBE-R001] - TEI by Example, Initial
Report, 2006/06/09. 2006. <http://www.kantl.be/ct
b/project/2006/TBE-R001.htm>","txt","2","",""
"804","8","The Complete Works of W.F. Hermans. Using Automatic Text Comparison and XML for a Voluminous Edition","","Introduction
In November 2005 the first volume of the Volledige Werken
(Complete Works) of Willem Frederik Hermans appeared.
This publication marked the official beginning of the largest
Dutch edition project ever undertaken in the field of modern
literature. There are two sides to the edition: a publication in
print, aimed at a general public, and a web site, where the reader
can find the editorial principles, a description of the textual
history and listings of editorial emendations. The project is
exceptional not only because of its size, but also because right
from the beginning it has been set up as an experimental digital
research project.
The initial impetus came from the need for automated text
comparison. An academic edition cannot do without careful
comparison of the different versions of a text. In the case of
Hermans, about one third of all print editions has been revised,
which brings the volume of research material to about 50,000
pages. This implied manual collation was not feasible. We will
give an overview of the procedure to transform a large amount
of print material into accurate digital text, demonstrate a system
which outputs XML-TEI-encoded collation results and show
an example of the possible uses of these documents.
The edition
Willem Frederik Hermans is widely regarded as the most
important Dutch author of the second half of the
twentieth century. In addition to novels, Hermans (1921-1995)
wrote short stories, plays, poetry and essays; he also translated
several texts, including Ludwig Wittgenstein’s Tractatus
Logico-Philosophicus. His work is receiving more and more
international attention; over the past few years several novels
have been translated into German, French and English. Beyond
Sleep (Nooit meer slapen) was hailed in the English press as a forgotten masterpiece of post-war European literature, or in the
words of the Times ‘a welcome if belated introduction to an
original and challenging voice in modern European literature’.
Hermans was a very prolific author. The edition will consist of
a total of 24 volumes, each with an average of about 800 pages.
The Huygens Institute (a research institute within the Royal
Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences) is responsible for
the preparation of a reliable edition text in accordance to
scholarly standards. For each work, the last version Hermans
authorised is the point of departure for the critical edition. The
editors review this version in the light of the results of archival
research and of a comparison with selected other versions of
the text.
Automatic text comparison
Traditionally the meticulous comparison of selected
versions of a text has been one of the most important tasks
of an editor. Until a few decades ago manual collation – which
is extremely time-consuming – was the only possibility.
However, in computer science theoretical and practical research
into automated text comparison has been taking place since the
1970s. In computer science, the general task of ""text
comparison"" has to be expressed as a formal procedure in order
to make the development of an algorithm possible. More
precisely, ""text comparison"" has been understood as a procedure
which results in a list of changes between two versions of a
text. The application of all changes to version A transforms
version A into version B. The algorithm should try to keep the
list as short as possible. This approach has led to a basic
algorithm by Eugene Myers, on which some variations have
been developed, and various implementations, of which the
Unix/Linux tool ‘diff’ is the most widely used. Source code
implementing this algorithm is readily available for all major
programming languages.
Somewhat apart from these developments in computer science,
in the world of scholarly editing there have also been initiatives
to use computers for text comparison and, by extension, for the
production of editions. The best-known examples are Peter
Robinson’s program Collate and Wilhelm Ott’s TUSTEP.
Collate is only available for the Macintosh Classic platform,
an operating system which has now been replaced by OS X.
The program is particularly suitable for older texts which have
been divided into relatively short passages beforehand and in
which there are not too many long or complex variants. The
algorithm used to extract variants remains undocumented. Mr.
Robinson has announced a successor to Collate called
EDITION. TUSTEP is actually a comprehensive environment
for textual research and the production of editions. It is a rather
complex instrument to work with and is more something like
a programming language in itself. Another impediment is the
absence of a graphical user interface (GUI). Recently, another
interesting application, called Juxta, has become available.
Unfortunately, for now the program lacks the option to export
the collation results. According to the project web site, this will
change with the next release later this year.
On the one hand automatic text comparison has great
advantages: the comparison is based on a formally defined
algorithm, free of errors and in principle reproducible by others.
Moreover, the use of computers saves a huge amount of time,
which may be of crucial importance as often resources are
lacking to collate texts manually. On the other hand, there is
no ready-made solution for the average user; whichever option
is chosen, some extra training of the prospective user is
necessary, and experience with scripting will probably come
in handy. Of course this learning process also takes time and
energy. For small projects the effort may outweigh the
advantages, but considering the size of the Hermans project,
in this case the investment did seem worthwhile. To date we
have made extensive use of Collate and software tools such as
diff.
Automatic collation requires accurate digital sources. For a
scholarly edition, OCR-results aren't good enough. A checking
system is necessary. Moreover, some presentational markup
like quotes, the use of bold, italic etc., and expressive white
space has to be captured as semantic markup, while other
presentational features (page width, fonts used...) have no
importance, in any case for the Hermans edition, and can be
quietly disregarded. So a phase of checking and automatic
encoding before the actual collation is required. We will discuss
this operation in more detail in our poster presentation.
XML-encoded collation results
The result of these preparations are reliable and detailed
overviews of all the differences between sometimes a
dozen versions of a text, encoded as a base text with in-line
apparatus conforming to the TEI Guidelines. This means that
a complex text history can be examined down to the tiniest
detail in a manageable way. The use of XML enables the editor
to observe patterns in variants, to categorize findings, and to
examine them in greater detail. Due to systematic encoding of
the material the accumulated data can be searched accurately
and checked for correlations, and working hypotheses can be
continually tested (for example by using XML search languages
such as XPath and XQuery) and if necessary modified.
Currently, we are working on ways to present the multiple
versions of the text and the conclusions reached in research in
a dynamic way, partly on the basis of the digital research
documentation and the findings of the analysis of De tranen
der acacia’s (a major novel which appeared in the first volume).
During the poster session, we will display the short story ‘Paranoia’. The digital presentation of this story contains the
reading text of the Hermans edition and all the text versions
which were of importance for the editorial research. We intend
to place a short introductory section before the full-text
documentation in which some important revisions in the short
story are discussed, as a reader’s guide. For example, in the
version of this story in the first publication in book form in
1953 Hermans puts more emphasis on the theme of the housing
shortage, which was a key concern in the Netherlands after the
war, especially in Amsterdam, where the story is set. Due to
adjustments in substance and narrative, the events in the book
version of ‘Paranoia’ are described more from the perspective
of the character Cleever than in the magazine publication of
1948, a significant revision in a story about someone who
suffers from persecution mania.
In the digital publication we will integrate observations and
analyses into the texts to which they refer, as a form of empirical
evidence. Relevant text passages will therefore be tagged in
the online presentation so that they can be seen separately and
in context. We are also examining other presentation options.
There are analyses conceivable, such as a narratological study
of narrative structure, which in the form of hypertext can serve
as a point of access or a guide to Hermans’s work. Ideally, in
future digital text presentations text and research will constitute
an integrated collection of data which can constantly be
consulted, modified and expanded. Or as Hermans himself once
put it: ‘...a collection, an enormous accumulation of movements
and ideas.’
Bibliography
Juxta. <http://www.patacriticism.org/juxta/>
Myers, Eugene W. ""An O(ND) Difference Algorithm and Its
Variations."" Algorithmica 1.2 (1986): 251-266.
Ott, Wilhelm. ""Strategies and Tools for Textual Scholarship:
The Tübingen System of Text Processing Programs (TUSTEP).""
Literary & Linguistic Computing 15.1 (2000): 93-108.
Robinson, Peter. Collate 2: A User Guide. Oxford: The
Computers and Variant Texts Project, 1994.","txt","2","",""
"805","8","SDH/SEMI Panel: Explorations in a Variety of Interfaces for the Reading of a Database","","A Textual Database of Dreams and the New
Context of Reading
Christian Vandendorpe (Département de letters françaises,
Université d’Ottawa)
The advent of the web has fostered the development of
specialised textual databases, dedicated to tabular collections
of snippets of our literary heritage. Their purpose is to facilitate
the study of a particular phenomenon through the centuries.
Henceforth, the act of reading tends to adopt a tabular way of
reading as the one advocated by Claude Levy Strauss for the
study of myths. In order to focus on a specific case, we shall
examine the textual mysql database <http://www.reves
.ca>, a collection of some fifteen hundred dream narratives
from various cultures since Homer and the Bible, and discuss
its goals and its initial interface. The challenge is to design an
interface that would be both efficient and exciting, inducing in
the reader the desire of reading and helping him or her to
explore the database and to make meaningful relations between
the data. The Mandala as an Interface to a Textual
Database
Stan Ruecker (University of Alberta) and Stéfan Sinclair
(McMaster University)
The Mandala is a Java-xml application that makes visible the
relations between sets of data. Its playful interface is designed
to elicit a meaningful reading activity by the user in order to
facilitate an in-depth exploration of the contents. We shall
examine how it works with <http://www.reves.ca>, its
potential and its pertinence in the new context of reading.
Towards More Powerful Semantic Interfaces
Dominic Forest (École de bibliothéconomie et des sciences de
l'information, Université de Montréal)
In this presentation, I will discuss the preliminary results of a
research initiative where we explored the relevance of applying
text mining techniques on a literary corpus. The corpus used
in this work is composed of short thematically-related literary
texts stored in a database. The main objective of this project is
twofold. First, we want to explore if traditional text mining
techniques can successfully be used to assist the extraction and
analysis of relevant information found in literary texts.
Secondly, we also want to explore if computer-assisted text
analysis tools and text mining techniques can be useful to help
access to valuable literary information stored in a textual
database. This talk will be divided in three main parts. First, I
will present the fundamental text mining concepts and
techniques. In the second part, I will describe the
computer-assisted text analysis processes that were applied on
the online textual database (<http://www.reves.ca>).
Finally, I will discuss some of the results we obtained and give
an overview of the future work that will be done in this project.","txt","2","",""
"806","8","A Descriptive Classification Generator for Electronic Editions","","Introduction
Electronic scholarly editions which mimick conventional
models of scholarly editions as prescribed by different
theoretical and methodological schools provide denotative
models (Geertz, 1993, p. 93) which thrive on the otherness of
the digital medium but re-emphasize the computational aspect
of the 'computer-based' (Steding, 2002), 'Computergestützte'
(Kamzelak, 1999), or computer-assisted scholarly edition. The
isomorphism between the digital and the print medium aimed
at by the application of computational techniques to the praxis
of scholarly editing confirms what we already know. What is
interesting, however, is not the degree to which the computer
can assist the editor in digitizing, creating, and publishing an
edition, but the intentional artefacts which are built by using
the computer as a modelling tool (Smith, 2002). They are
instrumental in two crucial activities of humanities research,
that is, the discovery of meaning and the making of meaning.
As products of (experimental) modelling, their purpose is 'to
achieve failure so as to raise and point the question of how we
know what we know' (McCarty, 1999), 'what we do not know',
and 'to give us what we do not yet have.' (McCarty, 2004, p.
255) This paper will address the role of experimental modelling
and the assessment of exemplary models of scholarly editions
in the development of a useful classification, typology, and
description of electronic editions. Classification
As psycholinguistic research has shown, categorization is
innate in human cognition (Giannakopoulou, 2003) and involves the formation and use of patterns in a self-maximizing
system (deBono, 1978, pp. 25-43). Operations which can be
classified under this scholarly primitive are naming, labelling,
classifying, cataloguing, indexing, sorting, etc. Categorizing
as a mind process can result in the production of formalized
instruments such as bibliographies, indexes, catalogues,
classification schemes, and taxonomies for which advanced
subject analysis is needed. For the most part, however, it
remains a culturally determined mind tool particularly where
it is used for the selection of usefulness. This means that
categorizing is not determined by how the world is, but tries to
develop convenient ways in which to represent it (Hacking,
1999, p. 33).
Traditions and Typologies
Textual scholarship is fragmented by the development of
different theories, methods, and praxes which are based
on a diversity of attitudes and perspectives (author, language,
audience, function, format, etc.). This becomes especially clear
when studying current typologies and classification schemes
for scholarly editions. Heinrich Meyer (1992) surveyed the
literature on textual scholarship in Germany in the twentieth
century and listed more than forty names for different types of
editions that were used. As he argued, the 'ausgabentypoligische
Terminologiewirrwarr' (Meyer, 1992, p. 17) is the result of a
methodological pluralism both inside and across editorial
traditions.
As a consequence, there is no one theoretical paradigm for
textual scholarship across all traditions, periods, languages, and
authors and there is no one universally applicable taxonomy of
editorial types. Moreover, the existing taxonomies are seldom
internally consistent in their applied perspective. The simplified
representation in the German school, for instance, offers a
taxonomy which runs from the archive edition over the
historical-critical edition to the study and the reading edition
(Kanzog, 1970, pp. 9-44). Where 'archive edition' denotes the
archival function of this type of edition and hints at the extent
of the documentary set presented, 'historical-critical' refers both
to the method used to create the edition and the format in which
that edition comes before the user. The study-edition and
reading edition, on the other hand, identify the envisioned
function of the product and its intended audience in their
naming. In the Anglo-American tradition, the copy-text edition
refers to a specific theory of establishing a text whereas the
types of scholarly editions David Greetham mentions in his
Textual Scholarship. An Introduction mainly refer to the format
or appearance of the edition, such as 'parallel print edition',
'variorum edition', or 'type facsimile edition', or to a combination
of format and method such as 'Eclectic Clear-Text Edition with
Multiple Apparatus'. (Greetham, 1994, p. 383)
The least useful typology of scholarly editions is based on the
publication medium. Here we have print edition, hybrid edition,
and electronic edition. Especially this last one is often presented
as a meaningful class while it is widely used to name almost
anything which is available in an electronic format. A sad
example is, for instance, the édition électronique of the
correspondence of René Descartes which is nothing more than
a 35 page MSWord file which has been made available online
<http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/Des
cartes/correspondance/descartes_correspon
dance.doc> .
Electronic editions
With respect to the classification of electronic editions,
it becomes difficult to maintain the application of
conventional typologies and taxonomies, or ignore them
altogether. The danger of a normative typology and hence a
rigid theoretical frame for textual scholarship is that it
establishes its principles firmly without allowing the
advancement of its theories, methodologies, and practices.
However, as a scholarly discipline, scholarly editing should be
interested in both. Especially when, in the case of electronic
scholarly editing, exemplary modeling is employed as a
scholarly method to generate electronic editions rather than the
epigonuous application of rigid theory and method to the
electronic edition.
Classification Generator
For reasons of identification and bibliographic research on
electronic editions (Lavagnino, 1996; Dahlström, 2002;
Kirschenbaum, 2002; Van der Weel, 2005), there is a need for
some integrated scheme by which editors of electronic editions
can describe their edition according to several parameters. With
the classification generator which we propose here, we believe
we have developed a tool which can be of aid to that purpose.
The classification generator is an on-line tool which allows the
editor to input the details of the electronic edition atomized in
meta-information on the edited text (language, period, genre)
and information on the edition via a user-friendly form. The
latter minimally contains details about method, intended
audience, content, format, encoding, technology, function, and
functionality of the edition. Once the edition is described
according to these parameters, a descriptive classification code
is generated that can be included in the published edition. This
classification code is an alphanumerical string that exactly
describes the electronic edition from multiple perspectives. The
classification generator serves at least three goals. First, it
liberates the field of electronic scholarly editing from the
conventional text-editorial theories with their rigid and generator atomizes the different facets of the electronic edition
and presents the sum total of this documentation as a description
of the product. Second, the user confronted with an electronic
edition gets a detailed description of the kind of electronic
edition one is using on inputting the classification code in the
classification generator. Third, the codes derived from the
classification generator can be of use for an (analytical)
bibliography of electronic editions. The description of an
improved re-release of an electronic edition will generate a
different classification code which could be collated against
the codes of other releases of the same edition.
A last feature of the classification generator is the option to
register an edition's classification code together with a formal
bibliographic description in a database. This database will allow
theorists of electronic scholarship and bibliographers of new
media to perform interesting forms of analysis on its contents.
Bibliography
Dahlström, Mats. ""Nya medier, gamla verktyg."" Human IT 6.4
(): 71-116. <http://www.hb.se/bhs/ith/4-02/md.
pdf>
deBono, Edward . Lateral Thinking: A Textbook of Creativity.
Harmondsworth: Peguin, 1978.
Geertz, Clifford. The Interpretation of Cultures. London:
Fontana, 1993.
Giannakopoulou, Anastasia. ""Prototype Theory: An
Evaluation."" Ecloga Online Journal 3 (2003). <http://ww
w.strath.ac.uk/ecloga/Giannakopoulou.htm>
Greetham, D. C. Textual Scholarship. An Introduction. New
York: Garland Publishing, 1994.
Hacking, Ian. The Social Construction of What?Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
Kamzelak, Roland, ed. Computergestützte Text-Edition.
Beihefte zu Edition, 12. Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1999.
Kanzog, Klaus . Prolegomena zu einer historisch-kritischen
Ausgabe der Werke Heinrich von Kleists. Theorie und Praxis
einer modernen Klassiker-Edition. München: Carl Hanser
Verlag, 1970.
Kirschenbaum, Matthew G. ""Editing the Interface: Textual
Studies and First Generation Electronic Objects."" TEXT: An
Interdisciplinary Annual of Textual Studies 14 (2002): 15-51.
Lavagnino, John . ""The Analytical Bibliography of Electronic
Texts."" Paper presented at ALLC/ACH 1996, Bergen, Norway,
June 25, 1996. 1996.
McCarty, Willard. ""Humanities Computing as Interdiscipline.""
A seminar in the series ""Is Humanities Computing an Academic
Discipline?"", held under the auspices of the Institute for
Advanced Technology in the Humanities (IATH), at the
University of Virginia, Guy Fawkes Day 1999. 1999. <http
://ilex.cc.kcl.ac.uk/wlm/essays/inter/> <h
ttp://www.iath.virginia.edu/hcs/mccarty.h
tml>
McCarty, Willard. ""Modeling: A Study in Words and
Meanings."" A Companion to the Digital Humanities. Ed. Susan
Schreibman, Ray Siemens and John Unsworth. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2004. 254-70.
Smith, Brian Cantwell. ""The Foundations of Computing.""
Computationalism: New Directions. Ed. Matthias Scheutz.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002. <http://www.jhfc.
duke.edu/jenkins/courses/p256/readings/p2
56foc.pdf>
Steding, Sören A. Computer-Based Scholarly Editions: Context
- Concept - Creation - Clientele. Berlin: Logos Verlag, 2002.
Van der Weel, Adriaan. ""Bibliography for the New Media.""
Qaerendo 35.1-2 (2005).","txt","2","",""
"807","8","MusicXML: An XML Based Approach to Automatic Musicological Analysis","","1. Introduction
Computational music is a young discipline undergoing
ever increasing development. Most research conducted
to date concerns digital audio, multimedia, automatic
composition, score writing, etc. A humanities-oriented approach
(i.e. musicological) is a more recent, less well-defined
development, though it is also growing.
The application of such studies regard, to mention only a few:
• automatic extraction of statistics;
• verification of grammar rules applied to music;
• automatic application of models for formal and harmonic
analysis;
• validation of models for different analysis types.
The MIDI format is the technology most often used in
computational music. Developed in the early 1980s, MIDI is
a digital representation of music, used especially for
communication between electronic musical instruments,
including computers. The MIDI message associates an integer
number to each note (e.g. central C is 60), so it is suitable to a
wide range of studies.
A newer technology, MusicXML, offers the same possibilities
and more, but requires different techniques for data retrieval.
The following abstract presents the results of a statistical
analysis of the tenor parts of some operas by Giacomo Puccini,
encoded in MusicXML for the Research Institution “Centro
Studi Giacomo Puccini” in Lucca, Italy. Specifically, it
examines the arias of Rodolfo from La Bohème and Principe
Calaf from Turandot.
The encoding of these musical pieces was discussed in one of
the author’s thesis dissertation for his degree in Computer
Science for the Humanities at the University of Pisa, under the
supervision of Professor Elena Pierazzo. The dissertation deals
with the possibilities for automatic applications illustrated in
section 4 herein.
2. What is MusicXML?
LLC is an American Internet music publishing and software
company; it developed and promoted the MusicXML
encoding language, which can represent the music notation
system established in the West since the 17th Century.
MusicXML is a royalty-free format that implements all the
features offered by XML technology:
• data structure
• modularity
• extensibilty
• possibility of querying and interaction through XML family
technologies.
MusicXML is designed to represent a score in a digital format,
so most of information contained in a human-readable score is
retrievable in the encoding and can be used for various kinds
of analyses. Features such as lyrics, author or reviewer notes,
dynamics, agogic indications, and so on, are encoded with their
position in the score.
An important part of the encoding is the Score Header, which
contains metadata, such as author, poet, work number,
instruments, etc. An instrument data section even enables
specifying the MIDI instrument channel to be used to play the
music.
3. Automatic statistical extraction:
an example application.
The encoded tenor parts have been inserted into eXist, an
Open Source XML database, to be queried with the
XQuery language.
The goal was to extract statistical data with relevance to the
humanities. Indeed, such data was used for a musicological
dissertation on vocalism in Puccini’s works.
The statistics are based on the criteria proposed by Marco
Gilardone and Franco Fussi in Le voci di Puccini. Un’indagine
sul canto (The Voices of Puccini. An inquiry on singing). The
statistics presented in such work were extended and adapted to
include the ossias.1
The statistics are the percentage occurrences in the distribution
of notes according to the following classification of tones: The upper and lower limits are the extreme notes of the analyzed
part; the numbers beside to the notes denote the octave; the
notes highlighted in grey are transition tones, which are
interesting due to their difficulty of execution within the part.
The original statistics were extended to account for the
incidence of dynamic aspects such as piano, pianissimo,
mezzoforte, forte in transition tones and acute tones.
The XQuery query language was used, as it offers many
possibilities for data extraction from an XML database, though
it is often redundant and does not provide for complex structures
such as arrays or the like.
Starting with the retrieved numerical data, a musicologist can
construct a dramatic character profile. For example, Calaf’s
singing parts exhibit a high percentage of acute tones (27.39%),
transition tones (17.63%) and a high ratio between acute and
grave tones. This is a deliberate aesthetic choice, made to
portray a character in less realistic terms than other tenor roles,
perhaps because he is part of a fantastic drama; indeed, his
vocality tends to be heightened.
Rodolfo, instead, exhibits ‘milder’ musical behavior; he sings
less transition notes (10.37%), and those with dynamic
indications are sung in piano. The middle tones are greatly
predominant (69.63%); Rodolfo is indeed a character who tends
to be more intimate, and displays less dramatic presence.
All the statistics are produced via a query, and each piece of
information needed for calculations is furnished directly from
the encoded score.
Beginning with this model, many other searches may be carried
out, such as graphs or division of the notes in each act, etc.
Deeper analysis with the model provides for clearer delineation
of a character’s profile.
4. Thematic extraction based on
Retì’s musicological analysis
In the 1950s, Rudolf Retì developed a musicological analysis
based on the repetition of thematic cells. Such cells may
occur in different ways and can be found by considering the
melodic interval.2
Consider, for example, the following sequence of notes:
Figure 1
Between C and E there is an interval of two tones, while E and
D are separated by only one tone. If the following sequence
Figure 2
occurs later on in the part, it can be compared to the sequence
in figure 1, because the intervals correspond: there is an interval
of two tones between G and B, and one tone between B and A.
Retì views entire compositions as based on a few thematic cells.
The cell can occur in the same sequence as the initial one or in
a different sequence, that is:
• notes in inverse order
• exchanged position of the notes
• transposition to different notes, but with the same interval.
Any transformation of the cell can also occur with
“interpolated” notes, which are inserted between the principal
notes.
Starting from the corpus encoded in the author’s dissertation
for the Research Institute Centro Puccini, an algorithm was
envisioned for automatic retrieval of the repercussions of such
thematic cells.
Although such algorithm was implemented with XQuery, it
proved unable to fulfill the task, because of the lack of advanced
structures in XQuery. The study is still ongoing, as is the
implementation of the algorithm in other programming
languages, in particular, Java or Perl. 5. Limits of MusicXML
Even if MusicXML offers many possibilities for research,
not every prerequisite of high level academic research
can be satisfied: it is designed to be a sufficient but not optimal
representation of musical scores. For instance, with MusicXML
it is impossible to encode ossias, but for this research it was
enough to encode only one of the two options of the score. On
the other hand , the encoding model would not be optimal for
a study that has as a goal to represent a score exactly as it
appears. Anyway MusicXML is extensible and many other
encoding models can be developed starting from the actual
model. At this stage it should be pointed out that there are other
encoding models that are starting to be used in the academic
research, such as MEI (Music Encoding Initiative). MEI is
designed to represent with effectiveness also information about
the physical support and provides a more complex structure of
metadata. Still the weakness of MEI is the lack of plug-ins that
can convert from score writing software or from optical
recognition programs. As a matter of fact, most research based
on MEI uses XSLT technology to convert from MusicXML to
MEI. This area of research is constantly evolving.
6. Conclusions
The abstract presents MusicXML as an alternative
technology for conducting automatic analysis of music,
adopting a statistical approach. The potentials of such
techniques are considerable: in the future they are likely to be
applied for advanced research, such as pattern matching and
automatic formal analysis, or for added encoding, including
commentaries, metadata for retrieval, harmonic analyses, as
well as for retrieval from digital collections of scores.
1. An ossìa is an alternative way to execute part of a measure or one
or more measures.
2. A melodic interval is the tonal distance between two notes in
sequence.","txt","2","",""
"808","8","The Use of TEI and OAI in Manuscript, an Informational-Analytical System","","Currently there are at least a few hundred ancient Slavic
manuscripts of the 11th to 14th centuries, which, despite
their significant scholarly, cultural, and historic value, are not
accessible to a wide range of researchers of various specialties
and to all who are interested in Russian history and culture.
The reason is simple: a large portion of the manuscripts are still
unpublished, and if they are published, these editions are
rareties, accessible only in major research libraries, which are
often located far from scholars' places of work. Even publishing
a manuscript often requires constant consultation of the original,
especially if studying its paleography, appearance, or other
similar questions. Furthermore, existing print editions
unfortunately usually lack reference material necessary for
getting acquainted with a text and studying it, and the
manuscripts themselves are published with poor quality. The
solution to the inaccessibility of ancient and medieval
manuscripts for research, teaching, and popular use is the
creation of electronic publications capable not only of replacing
print editions but also of exceeding their capabilities: (a) by
providing continual access to digital copies of manuscripts and
reference material on the Internet; (b) by providing the user
with the capability of retrieving data from a multifunctional
interface not only on the level of meta- and analytical data but
also on the level of grammatical, semantic, and thematic
characteristics of texts; and (c) by allowing collaborative work
on a manuscript.
One example of an information system designed to solve
some of the above problems is Manuscript, an
informational-analytical system.
Manuscript is oriented toward the entry, storage, automatic
manipulation, research, and publication of ancient texts having
an identical graphico-orthographic appearance and structure to
the original. Currently Manuscript contains a few dozen unique
ancient and medieval Slavic texts.
Currently Manuscript consists of a few multifunctional modules
that interact with a single database containing a hierarchically
structured data: • a specialized editor,
• a query and retrieval module,
• a module for electronic publishing,
• a module of linguistic dictionaries, and
• a module for loading texts and reference material for print
publication.
The main task right now of the team behind Manuscript is to
present the accumulated information for analysis and study by
a wide range of researchers. The main path: to create specialized
modules intended for muti-function, user-friendly, and
straightforward manipulation of the data. The second task is to
create the means to exchange meta-, analytical, and textual data
between teams of researchers creating analogous collections
of material, with the goal of presenting users with the ability
to use manuscript- and text-specific tools for working with
ancient documents, created by various teams.
It's essential to use standard formats and protocols to maximize
access to the various tools for aggregating information in
Manuscript.
The Open Archive Initiative (OAI) and Text Encoding
Initiative (TEI) were chosen as the basis for solving this
task:
• OAI – for indexing the existing texts and their fragments;
• TEI – for presenting meta- and analytical information, and
likewise the texts themselves.
Manuscript is currently working to become an OAI data
provider. A new module is being developed to present the
metadata in Dublin Core format. This module will allow the
gathering of metadata not only from the texts themselves but
also from their fragments (various elements of the hierarchy).
Users can retrieve metadata or full text from Manuscript in TEI
XML format using a unique identifier.
The TEI Guidelines are well-established around the world, so
it was entirely logical for the developers of Manuscript to use
it for the metadata and full text of the manuscripts.
Manuscript uses a network model of data for describing the
objects (entities) of manuscripts and the relations between them,
so the main problem with using TEI was XML's requirement
of a strict hierarchy. One consequence of this is that it's
impossible to receive all information about a text in Manuscript
in one document.
Two modules are being developed to integrate the technology
of Manuscript with the TEI.
The module for storage and manipulation of meta- and
analytical data is intended for working with archeographical,
textological, and other findings from the manuscripts, texts,
and fragments themselves, and also for formulating queries and
retrieving information using these findings. Searching in this
module is possible only using meta- and analytical data.
A special module processes user queries for retrieving certain
elements of text in TEI format from Manuscript. The main
capabilities of the module are the following:
• retrieving of any element of text, stored in Manuscript as
an independent unit, in TEI format;
• setting priorities in the creation of a TEI document: This
option is necessary in order to get around the
single-hierarchy limitation of XML. The user can rank the
priority of various structures within a document;
• receiving meta- and analytical information with or without
full text;
• The queried document is created at the moment of query,
so any change will be available immediately.
Manuscript and its tools are being continually developed.
During the presentation, Manuscript, including the
above modules and technologies, will be demonstrated.
Translated from the Russian by Kevin S. Hawkins.","txt","2","",""
"809","8","Interoperability of Metadata for Thematic Research Collections: A Model Based on the Walt Whitman Archive","","Topic:
Created by scholars in collaboration with librarians/archivists,
thematic research collections are directed primarily at other
scholars, though they are also used by students and by the
general public. Their development and preservation pose several
challenges: 1) they require very detailed encoding and metadata
to serve their demanding audience; 2) they often involve
materials which are dispersed; and, 3) critically, they
incorporate a variety of different types of materials with
different digitization and metadata requirements. Digital
thematic research collections often include texts, images, finding
aids to archival material, and administrative records. While
standards have been developed for each of these data and
metadata types (e.g., TEI, TIFF, EAD, and MODS), there has
not yet been a disciplined effort to integrate the standards and
explore where overlap and commonalities are, and to document
best practices for recording appropriate metadata with a
minimum of duplication.
These issues are crucial to creators of digital thematic research
collections because 1) the primary resources are held by the
archives and libraries, and many of the repositories are
digitizing materials and making them available to scholars,
even though the digital representations frequently are not as
richly represented as those which the scholars will ultimately
create; 2) archives and libraries will ultimately be responsible
for the collections that are created; and 3) if publishers are to
have a role in the publication of digital thematic research
collections, standards will be essential for portability, and these
standards will by and large come out of the library world.
That said, thematic collections are generally far more complex
and dependent on intricate metadata interrelations than digital
objects created for most digital libraries. This complexity is
due in part to the interpretive aspects of projects in which
scholars are deeply engaged with the materials. For example,
the poetry manuscripts section of the Whitman Archive
incorporates images, transcriptions with scholarly annotations,
copyright and administrative information, and finding aids. All
of these materials are encoded, presented through XSLT
stylesheets, and made available via various search options. The
Whitman Archive uses an array of data and metadata standards:
TIFF, TEI, EAD, and MODS. Because of its complexity, the
Whitman Archive is a good case study for investigating the use
and adequacy of Metadata Encoding and Transcription Standard
(METS) as a bundling tool for coordination of the standards
found in digital thematic research collections.
In 2005, the Institute of Museum and Library Services awarded
a two-year grant to the University of Nebraska-Lincoln to
explore interoperability of metadata for thematic research
collections and to demonstrate the power of METS as an
ingestion package. The current project builds on an earlier grant
project to create an integrated guide to dispersed manuscripts.
One hypothesis of the current project is that by standardizing
the way metadata is encoded, creators of digital thematic
research collections can make their work more sustainable and
ingestible; in other words, digital scholarship will be collected
in a form that will allow libraries and other entities to
incorporate into their holdings digital thematic research
collections created at diverse locations by a variety of scholars.
As the research team’s work has progressed, the group has
naturally experienced evolution in its thinking and approaches
to metadata. Members of the project team will report on project
processes and findings.
Organization:
Katherine L. Walter, Co-Director of the Center for Digital
Research in the Humanities (CDRH) and co-project
director for the interoperability of metadata project, will provide
a brief introduction to the topic, including a description of thematic research collections such as the Whitman Archive, the
varying types of metadata that may be involved, the impetus
to study integration of overlapping standards for such
collections, and the project goals originally set by the research
team. Walter will introduce speakers, moderate the panel, and
invite questions from the audience at the end.
Brett Barney, Senior Associate Editor and Project Manager of
the Walt Whitman Archive, will describe the team’s approach
to exploring what constitutes redundancy in metadata and its
exploration of questions such as what is really redundancy and
what is not? When is it desireable and when is it not? Does
redundancy stymie ingestion or aid it? His report will pose
conclusions regarding the value of redundancy and its
drawbacks in the ingestion of thematic research collections into
open-source library catalogs. Barney will also describe the
thinking of the team in selecting different kinds of representative
digital objects in the Whitman Archive for the ingestion
demonstration project.
Julia Flanders, Women Writers’ Project, Brown University,
will describe issues raised for scholars in contributing all or
part of a thematic research collection into library catalogs.
Questions explored will include what responsibility does an
acquiring library have to preserve or honor a scholar’s intentions
in creating and shaping such a collection? Is a library in fact
ingesting a collection or simply objects in a collection? This
will include thoughts on preserving contextual aspects of
thematic research collections, navigational features, and
interface. As a member of a standards board, she will speak
about the value of this kind of research for standards bodies.
Terence Catapano, Special Collections Analyst/Librarian,
Libraries Digital Program, Columbia University, will describe
the importance and adequacy of METS as a publication and
ingestion package, or in OAIS terms, how a Submission
Information Package (SIP) is derived for ingestion into a Digital
Library, and the development of a METS Profile for Thematic
Research Collections. Catapano will briefly describe work of
digital library projects that helped inform this study, such as
the DLF MODS Implementation Guidelines for Cultural
Heritage Materials, Descriptive Metadata Guidelines for RLG
Cultural Materials, DLF Aquifer, and others.
Daniel Pitti, Associate Director of the Institute for Advanced
Technology in the Humanities will discuss whether metadata
should exist in different forms at different stages; and describe
ingestion of the Whitman Archive into FEDORA, what this
means for other thematic research collections, and reflect on
the thoughts the FEDORA group at the University of Virginia
has with respect to preservation of such collections.","txt","2","",""
"810","8","Three Play Effects: Eliza, Tale-Spin, and SimCity","","In the mid-1960s Joseph Weizenbaum created a stunning
piece of software. Years before HAL 9000's screen debut
in 2001: A Space Odyssey, this software, Eliza, made it possible
to have a conversation with a computer. Eliza's most famous
script, Doctor, caused the software to parody the conversational
patterns of non-directive therapists during an initial visit. While
Eliza/Doctor can seem quite smart at first blush, each script for
Eliza is actually just a set of linguistic tricks. Most of these
tricks use keyword-driven ""decomposition rules"" to take the
user's last statement, divide it into pieces, and selectively reuse
portions to rephrase it as a question.
But when we interact with a piece of software we don't
necessarily get a clear picture of how it actually operates
internally. And many users of Eliza/Doctor initially developed
very mistaken ideas about its internals. Weizenbaum (1976)
discusses users who assumed that, since the surface appearance
of an interaction with the program could resemble something
like a coherent dialogue, internally the software must be very
complex. Some at first thought it must be something close to
the fictional HAL: a computer program intelligent enough to
understand and produce arbitrary human language. This
happened so often, and was so striking, that computer science
circles developed a specific term for this kind of
misunderstanding: ""the Eliza effect.""
This paper is a brief look at the Eliza effect, and at two
previously-unnamed effects that can arise in the relationship
between the surface appearance of a digital system and its
internal operations. More specifically, this paper looks where
others haven't when exploring versions of this relationship: the
area of play.
While the initial experience of Eliza/Doctor can create the
surface impression of an incredibly complex internal system,
sustained interaction with the system, the verbal back-and-forth,
invites play ... and linguistic play with Eliza/Doctor quickly
begins to destroy the illusion. In other words, precisely the
open-ended textual interaction that helped foster the illusion of
internal complexity and intelligence enables play that draws
attention to the system's rote simplicity, its distance from human
interaction. On the other hand, a sort of inverse of the Eliza effect can be
seen with James Meehan's 1976 Tale-Spin, the first major story
generation program. Tale-Spin generates stories from rules for
character behavior and a set of facts about the virtual world.
When generating stories in interaction with an audience it asks
questions to fill in details about locations, objects, relationships,
and so on. In addition, internal Tale-Spin mechanisms draw
""inferences"" from the facts. For example, if it is asserted that
a character is thirsty, then the inference mechanisms result in
the character knowing she is thirsty, forming the goal of not
being thirsty, forming a plan for reaching her goal, etc.
Further, Tale-Spin characters can use its inference mechanisms
to ""speculate"" about the results of different courses of action.
Meehan's The Metanovel (1976) describes a story involving
such speculation, in which a hungry Arthur Bear asks George
Bird to tell him the location of some honey. We learn that
George believes that Arthur trusts him, and that Arthur will
believe whatever he says. So George begins to use the Tale-Spin
inference mechanisms to ""imagine"" other possible worlds in
which Arthur believes there is honey somewhere. George draws
four inferences from this, and then he follows the inferences
from each of those inferences, but he doesn't find what he's
after. In none of the possible worlds about which he's speculated
is he any happier or less happy than he is now. Seeing no
advantage in the situation for himself, he decides, based on his
fundamental personality, to answer. Specifically, he decides to
lie.
This is a relatively complex piece of psychological action, and
certainly tells us something about George as a character. But
the surface output of a Tale-Spin story never contains any
information about this kind of action. No matter how creatively
one plays with Tale-Spin, such hidden action cannot be deduced
from its surface. This is probably why, though Tale-Spin is seen
as a landmark in computer science circles, it is often treated
with near-ridicule in literary circles. Janet Murray, Espen
Aarseth, Jay David Bolter, and other critics have failed to see
what makes Tale-Spin interesting, focusing instead on what its
output looks like on the surface. Or, to put it another way,
Tale-Spin fails to display its interesting internal processes in a
manner that makes them visible to even the most careful of
critics.
This situation is far from uncommon in digital media, perhaps
particularly in the digital arts, where fascinating processes —
drawing on inspirations ranging from John Cage to the cutting
edge of computer science — are often encased in an opaque
surface. In fact, this effect is at least as common as the Eliza
effect, though I know of no term that describes it. Given this,
I propose ""the Tale-Spin effect"" as a term for works that appear,
on their surface, significantly less complex than they are
internally.
An effect quite different from both of these can be seen in the
case of Will Wright's 1989 game SimCity. The seed for this
project was planted as Wright created a landscape editor for
authoring his first game, an attack helicopter simulation.
Working with the editor, he realized he was having more fun
making virtual spaces than blowing them up. From this the idea
for Wright's genre-defining SimCity was born.
SimCity, of course, unlike a terrain editor, doesn't simply wait
for a user to do something. Time begins passing the moment a
new city is founded. A status bar tells the player what's needed
next — starting with basic needs like a residential zone and a
power plant and, if play succeeds for any period, ramping up
to railroads, police stations, stadiums, and so on. As cities grow,
areas respond differently. Some may be bustling while others
empty out, or never attract interest. SimCity provides different
map views that can help diagnose problems with abandoned
areas. Players can try changing existing areas of the city (e.g.,
building additional roads) or create new areas with different
characteristics. Observation and comparison offer insights,
while answers are found by trying different approaches and
considering the results.
In other words, the process of play with SimCity is one of
learning to understand the system's operations. Conversely, as
Wright explains, the challenge of game design is to create a
surface experience that will make it possible for audiences to
build up an appropriate model of the system internals.
Here, again, we lack a term for an experience. I propose ""the
SimCity effect"" for this important phenomenon: a system that,
through play, brings the player to an accurate understanding of
the system's internal operations. Of course, the SimCity effect
is named for cases where the system is complex, but the
phenomenon can be observed generally. Pong works as well
as it does because it effectively communicates at the surface
level its quite simple internal operations.
What is exciting about the SimCity effect, and about Wright's
work generally, is that it helps us get at the new possibilities
opened by working with computational media. Pong is very
similar to games we play without computers, but SimCity is a
more complex system than even the most die-hard Avalon Hill
fan would want to play as a tabletop game. This ability to work
with computational processes, to create complex computational
systems, is the opportunity that digital media affords — and
the SimCity effect points the way toward creating experiences
of this sort that succeed for audiences. Bibliography
Aarseth, Espen J. Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic
Literature. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
Bolter, Jay David. Writing Space: The Computer, Hypertext,
and the History of Writing. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Inc, 1991.
Meehan, James R. PhD thesis. Yale University, 1976.
Murray, Janet H. Hamlet on the Holodeck. New York: The
Free Press, 1997.
Weizenbaum, Joseph. Computer Power and Human Reason:
From Judgment to Calculation. New York: W.H. Freeman,
1976.","txt","2","",""
"811","8","The Master Builders: LAIRAH Research on Good Practice in the Construction of Digital Humanities Projects","","Abstract:
This paper describes the results of research carried out
during the LAIRAH (Log analysis of Internet Resources
in the Arts and Humanities) project (<http://www.ucl.a
c.uk/slais/circah/lairah/>) which is based at
UCL’s School of Library Archive and Information Studies. It
was a fifteen month study (reporting in October 2006) to
discover what influences the long-term sustainability and use
of digital resources in the humanities through the analysis and
evaluation of real-time use.
At Digital Humanities 2006 we reported on the early stages of
the project, in which we carried out deep log analysis of the
AHDS and Humbul portals to determine the level of use of
digital resources. (Warwick et al. 2006) This proposal will
discuss the results of the final phase of the research in which
we examined digital resources from the point of view of those
who designed and built them. We aimed to discover whether there were common characteristics and elements of good
practice linking resources that are well- used.
Numerous studies have been carried out into the information
needs and information seeking practices of humanities scholars
(Barrett, (2005) Talja and Maula (2003), Herman (2001) and
British Academy, (2005)). However, our research is original
because it surveys the practices of those who produce digital
humanities resources. We also based the selection of our
projects on deep log analysis: a quantitative technique which
has not previously been applied to digital humanities resources
to ascertain real usage levels of online digital resources.
Method:
We selected a sample of twenty one publicly funded
projects with varying levels of use, covering different
subject disciplines, to be studied in greater depth. We classified
projects as well-used if the server log data from the Arts and
Humanities Data Service (AHDS) and Humbul portals showed
that they had been repeatedly and frequently accessed by a
variety of users. We also mounted a questionnaire on these sites
and asked which digital resources respondents found most
useful. Although most nominated information resources, such
as libraries, archives and reference collections for example the
eDNB, three UK publicly funded research resources were
mentioned, and thus we added them to the study. We also asked
representatives of each AHDS centre to specify which resources
in their collections they believed were most used. In the case
of Sheffield University the logs showed that a large number of
digital projects accessed were based at the Humanities Research
Institute. We therefore conducted interviews about the HRI and
its role in fostering the creation of digital humanities resources.
The selected projects were studied in detail, including any
documentation and reports that could be found on the project’s
website. We also interviewed a representative of the project,
either the principal investigator or a research assistant.
Results:
Institutional context:
The majority of projects that we interviewed had been well
supported in technical terms, and this had undoubtedly aided
the success of the project, especially where it was associated
with a centre of digital humanities excellence such as the Centre
for Computing in the Humanities at Kings College London or
the HRI at Sheffield. Critical mass aided the spread of good
practice in the construction and use of digital resources in the
humanities. Where a university valued such activities highly
they tended to proliferate. More junior members of staff were
inspired to undertake digital humanities research by the success
of senior colleagues and early adopters respected for their
traditional and digital research. Unfortunately such critical mass
is relatively rare in UK universities and some PIs reported that
their digital resource was not understood or valued by their
departments, and thus their success had not lead to further
digital research.
Staffing:
PIs also stressed how vital it had been to recruit the ideal RAs.
These were however relatively difficult to find, as they had to
have both disciplinary research expertise and good knowledge
of digital techniques. Most RAs therefore required training,
which many PIs often found lacking or of poor quality. A
further frustration was the difficulty of finding funding to
continue research, this meant that an expert RA might leave,
necessitating further training of a new employee if the project
was granted future funding.
Dissemination:
The strongest correlation between well-used projects and a
specific activity was in the area of dissemination. In all the
projects studied, staff had made determined efforts to
disseminate information as widely as possible. This was a new
challenge for many humanities academics, who were more used
to writing books, marketed by their publishers. This might
include giving papers at seminars and conferences both within
the subject community and the digital humanities domain;
sending out printed material; running workshops, and in the
most unusual instance, the production of a tea-towel!
User contact:
Very few projects maintained contact with their users or
undertook any organised user testing, and many did not have
a clear idea how popular the resource was or what users were
doing with it. However, one of the few projects that had been
obliged to undertake user surveys by its funders was very
well-used, and its PI had been delighted at the unexpected
amount and range of its use. Another project came to the belated
realisation that if it had consulted users the process of designing
the resource would have been simpler and less demanding.
Documentation:
Few of the projects kept organised documentation, with the
exception of those in archaeology, linguistics and archival
studies, where such a practice is the norm in all research. Most
projects had kept only fragmentary, internal documents, many
of which would not be comprehensible to someone from outside. Documentation could also be difficult to access, with
only a small minority of projects making this information
available from its website. This is an important omission since
documentation aids reuse of resources, and also provides vital
contextual information amount its contents and the rationale
for its construction that users need to reassure them about the
quality of the resource for academic research.
Sustainability:
Another area of concern was the issue of sustainability.
Although the resources were offered for deposit with the AHDS,
few PIs were aware that to remain usable, both the web interface
and the contents of the resource would require regular updating
and maintenance, since users tend to distrust a web page that
looks outdated. Yet in most cases no resources were available
to perform such maintenance, and we learnt of one ten year old
resource whose functionality had already been significantly
degraded as a result.
Conclusion and recommendations
Well-used projects do therefore share common features
that predispose them to success. The effect of
institutional and disciplinary culture in the construction of
digital humanities projects was significant. We found that
critical mass was vital, as was prestige within a university or
the acceptance of digital methods in a subject. The importance
of good project staff and the availability of technical support
also proved vital. If a project as to be well-used it was also
essential that information about it should be disseminated as
widely as possible.
Even amongst well-used projects, however we found areas that
might be improved, these included organised user testing, the
provision of and easy access to documentation and the lack of
updating and maintenance of many resources.
Recommendations:
Documentation:
• Projects should keep documentation and make it available
from the project web site, making clear the extent,
provenance and selection methods of materials for the
resource.
• Funding bodies might consider making documentation a
compulsory deliverable of a funded project.
• Discussions could be held between relevant stakeholders
and the funding bodies, with the aim of producing an agreed
documentation template. This should specify what should
be documented and to what level of detail.
Users:
• Projects should have a clear idea of whom the expected
users might be; consult them as soon as possible and
maintain contact through the project via a dedicated email
list , website feedback or other appropriate method
• They should carry out formal user surveys, software and
interface tests and integrate the results into project design.
• Applicants for funding should show that they have consulted
documentation of other relevant projects and discuss what
they have learnt from it in their case for support. The results
of such contact could then be included in the final report as
a condition of satisfactory progress.
Management:
• Projects should have access to good technical support,
ideally from a centre of excellence in digital humanities.
• Projects should recruit staff who have both subject expertise
and knowledge of digital humanities techniques, then train
them in other specialist techniques as necessary.
• Funding bodies might consider requiring universities to
offer more training for graduate students and RAs in digital
humanities techniques.
Sustainability:
• Ideally projects should maintain and actively update the
interface, content and functionality of the resource, and not
simply archive it with a data archive such as the AHDS.
However this is dependent on a funding model which makes
this possible.
Dissemination:
• Disseminate information about itself widely, both within
its own subject domain and in digital humanities.
• Information should be disseminated widely about the
reasons for user testing and its benefits, for example via
AHRC/AHDS workshops. Projects should be encouraged
to collaborate with experts on user behaviour. Acknowledgements:
This project was funded by the Arts and Humanities
Research Council ICT Strategy Scheme. We would also
like to thank all of out interviewees for agreeing to talk to us.
Bibliography
Barrett, A. ""The Information Seeking Habits of Graduate
Student Researchers in the Humanities."" The Journal of
Academic Librarianship 31.4 (2005): 324-331.
British Academy. E-resources for Research in the Humanities
and Social Sciences - A British Academy Policy Review section
3.5 . 2005. <http://www.britac.ac.uk/reports/e
resources/report/sect3.html#part5>
Herman, E. ""End-users in Academia: Meeting the Information
Needs of University Researchers in an Electronic Age Part 2
Innovative Information-accessing Opportunities and the
Researcher: User Acceptance of IT-based Information
Resources in Academia."" Aslib Proceedings. 2001. 431-457.
Talja, S., and H. Maula. ""Reasons for the Use and Non-use of
Electronic Journals and Databases - A Domain Analytic Study
in Four Scholarly Disciplines."" Journal of Documentation 59.6
(2003): 673-691.
Warwick, C., M. Terras, P. Hungtington, and N. Pappa. ""If You
Build It Will They Come? The LAIRAH Survey of Digital
Resources in the Arts and Humanities."" Paper presented at
Digital Humanities 2006, Paris Sorbonne, 5-9 July 2006. 2006.","txt","2","",""
"812","8","The KWIC-step: A Dance for 2 or More","","This cross-discipline paper considers the use of corpus
linguistics as it applies to a study of dance writing.
Argument/Premise
Linguists and Computational Linguistic Engineers who
have studied language for special purposes (LSP)
generally agree that the lexicon used by those in a specialist
discipline offers insight into the concepts and ideologies of that
discipline. As Dance is a specialist discipline, it should then
follow that the lexicon of dance writing can demonstrate
aesthetic concepts and theoretical approaches and beliefs
through generalized language patterns detected using KWIC
methods. This research supports that contention in that the
empirical approach (specifically key words in context), when
used against a corpus of 1.4 million words from written dance
texts, does offer a means to develop an ontology of the
discipline of dance. One ontological example supported by the
empirical data is that of both hierarchical and rhizomatic
structures of relationships between participants in the dance
event. Through this example, this paper will demonstrate both
the process and analytical product of using corpus linguistics
methods and models to develop an ontology of Dance.
Analytical Method
Due to a dearth of research into dance writing, especially
in the area of corpus linguistics, there were no tested,
dance-specific models on which to base this study. Therefore,
this research contains a variety of methodologies and
approaches in the disciplines of corpus linguistics and dance
analysis. The corpus methodologies are based on the work of
Sinclair (2003), Ahmad (2002), and Biber (1998). Linguistic
analyses based on KWIC (key words in context) such as word
frequencies, collocations, concordances, and POS tagging were
performed on the data generated by computing tools (e.g.
System Quirk, Unitex, CLAWS). Additional methods proposed
by Traboulsi et al (2003) for identifying a local grammar were
used against samples of critical texts (i.e. dance performance
reviews). Finally, through a two-pronged approach, the data was analysed using the analytical modes of description,
interpretation, and evaluation proposed for dance by Adshead
et al (1988).
After establishing the written language of Dance as a specialist
language (or language for special purposes) through the
frequency of open class words in the top 100 most frequently
used words, weirdness factors, and Z-scores, the data was
analysed in a variety of ways. For example, for the purposes
of this particular study into ontological relationships between
participants, general concepts were identified by focusing on
those open class words (OCWs) within the top 100 most
frequently used words in a general dance corpus (the Surrey
Dance Corpus, or SDC). Finding that the OCWs included
several conceptual possibilities which appeared at times to cross
conceptual boundaries, it became apparent that a method for
categorisation was required to provide distinctions between the
concepts. Therefore, the analytical model introduced by
Adshead et al (1988) was used for the categorisation. This
model calls for a deconstruction of a dance work via description,
interpretation, and evaluation based upon identifiable
characteristics of the individual work. The identified distinctions
include not only the movement and production components,
but also concepts of form, concepts through which we view a
dance, and concepts particular to a dance. After determining
the conceptual categories, the analysis went beyond the top 100
most frequently used words, and considered the relative
frequencies of the concept words in the subsequent groups of
most frequently used words (top 200, 300, etc.). Word counts
also were performed on personal pronouns and conceptual
metaphor (using Charteris-Black’s method). Finally,
collocations and concordances using the concept words as target
words were generated and analysed.
Each step was repeated using additional corpora: a group of
sub-corpora defined by content of the texts and/or writers’
particular activity within the discipline (e.g. critic, scholar,
choreographer); and a corpus focused on one choreographer
(used as a case study throughout the research).
Conclusion
Through this research into dance writing, Dance can be
shown to be a LSP with a lexicon specific to the
discipline. So, too, have several unexpected patterns been
detected that reflect various concepts and ideologies, one of
which is that of the relationships between and among the
participants in the dance event (e.g. dancer, choreographer,
audience, critic, company). The relational connections are
further supported by a general belief in the collective, as shown
through word counts and concordances. Additional methods
used in dance analysis provide a structure for studying and
further clarifying the empirically generated patterns. The
choreographic and analytic concepts in Dance as they are
perceived and expressed through written dance texts
demonstrate not only the importance of these concepts to
specialists in the discipline of Dance, but also the benefit of
using the corpus linguistics approach to studying dance writing.
Bibliography
Adshead, J., V. A. Bringinshaw, P. Hodgens, and M. Huxley.
Ed. J. Adshead. Dance Analysis: Theory and Practice. London:
Dance Books, 1988.
Ahmad, K. ""The Role of Specialist Terminology Management
in Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge Acquisition.""
Applications Oriented Terminology Management. Ed. S. E.
Wright and G. Budin. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2001.
809-844.
Biber, D, S. Contrad, and R. Reppen. Corpus Linguistics:
Investigating Language Structure and Use. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Charteris-Black, J. . Corpus Approaches to Critical Metaphor
Analysis. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2004.
Sinclair, J. Reading Concordances. London: Pearson Education
Limited, 2003.
Trabousli, H., D. Cheng., and K. Ahmad. 2003.","txt","2","",""
"813","8","The Abbey Inside the Machine: The MonArch Project","","Description of Project
MonArch (The Monastic Archaeology Project) is a
collaborative project based on the excavations at the
Abbey of Saint-Jean-des-Vignes in Soissons, France under the
joint directorship of Sheila Bonde (Brown University) and Clark
Maines (Wesleyan University). The monastery at
St.-Jean-des-Vignes remains with us today in two media: in the
physical remains of the abbey and in the textual remains left
behind by its inhabitants. The most significant of the latter are
the community's Customary, which describes the roles and
activities of the abbey's inhabitants over the course of the
religious year, and the Abbey's Obituary, which lists, by month
and day of death, the members of the monastic community and
laics who had provided service or gifts to the monastery, with
a description of their donations.
Two websites have been developed as part of the MonArch
Project. The first was implemented at Wesleyan (<http://
www.wesleyan.edu/monarch/>), and provides thorough
documentation of the excavations, annual field reports, and
inventories of finds. The second, which is the focus of this
paper, is a research effort in its own right, one that explores the
ways in which encoded representations of archaeological data
may be used enhance their use. The often complex
interrelationships among textual, architectural, and
archaeological evidence are difficult to represent and explicate
in traditional formats; the work described here attempts to use
digital representations to create a new form of scholarly
expression.
Research Questions
MonArch has always focused beyond a simple description
of concrete artifacts to a thoroughgoing investigation
and elaboration of a concept: from the outset, the project was
conceived as a multi-disciplinary endeavor that took
monasticism rather than the monastery as its object of study.1
Therefore, to the extent that its digital manifestation is to be a
direct reflection of the project's aims, it too must take as its
focus an abstraction and not a collection of materials.
Such a focus makes designing the digital reflection more
challenging. It cannot be a simple linked, digital collection,
because such an organization would put undue emphasis on
the monastery and its artifacts. And because the site needs to
be built around concepts and questions — about monasticism
and the archaeology of monasticism — the digital project cannot
be conceived or designed without considerable knowledge of
those concepts or an understanding of medieval social,
economic, architectural, and religious history and the role of
archaeology in elucidating it all. It must, in other words, express
the archaeological definition of monasticism Bonde and Maines
are deriving from their work, a definition that is based on the
following factors:
• The monastic complex as the physical expression of
spiritual, social, and economic motives;
• The functions of the abbey's structures;
• The communitas who used these structures and the routine
of their lives;
• The economy of the surrounding region — the farms, mills,
priories, parishes, and other holdings that constituted the
abbey's domain;
• The place of the abbey (defined as both buildings and
community) in the local, regional, and inter-regional
networks of power and influence;
• The way these phenomena changed over time.
The relationship of the texts — both primary and secondary —
to the archaeological data is complex, because the
archaeological material supports and illustrates the texts at the
same time that the texts contextualize the archaeology and
architecture. These two kinds of remains — 􀀀􀀀 the textual
and the physical — become two inter-referential and mutually
reinforcing centers from which the concepts of monasticism
emerge. The research focus of the current digital project is on
designing an infrastructure and and an interactive interface that
simultaneously represent the authors' arguments and allow users
of the site to form their own interpretations. Considering Use
We argue that it is most fruitful to conceive the digital
manifestation of the MonArch project as a reading.
Insofar as its goal is to provide a definition, the resource is
fundamentally rhetorical: it has an argument, and it supports
its claims with evidence drawn from a variety of evidential
sources. That argument, generally stated, entails an
archaeological definition of monasticism, whose refinement is
the ongoing and iterative task of the MonArch project. The task
of the digital resource, therefore, must be unusually subtle: it
must express this archaeological definition through an intricate
blend of textual and material evidence, and it must provide a
way for readers to interact with and question the argument and
its claims.
In fact, insofar as the digital resource is the manifestation of
this argument, the mutually referential presence of both encoded
texts and artefactual simulacra constitutes a claim in itself, a
claim that a 'definition' of monasticism can be manufactured
through a reading of monastic text, monastic space, and
monastic time, and perhaps only in this way. That is to say, the
boundaries established by the site (and here the web site and
the excavation site perhaps begin themselves to lose their
boundaries) determine how monasticism is to be understood.
Research Goals
Our research, then, is focused on establishing a layered set of
models that enable researchers to articulate their understanding
of monasticism and allow scholars (students, readers, users) to
interact with that understanding. Underlying the whole project
is a fundamental data model that represents the characteristics
of the texts, spaces, buildings and artifacts that form the object
of study. Overlaying the data model is another model, that of
the relationships that embody the intellectual connections that
the researchers have made as they work over their materials
and which embody their definition of monasticism. These
connections are the evidence for their claims. At the topmost
layer is a model of user interaction, one consisting of visual
juxtapositions that illustrate the relationships among the
historical evidence and that enable further questioning.
The problem of structuring information in order to enhance
argument is part of a larger problem. One of the major powers
promised by digital resources is the instantiation of the kind of
textuality envisioned by postmodern theorists like Roland
Barthes and Jacques Derrida, among others: the simultaneous
availability of vast amounts of information in a form that makes
the interconnections, both explicit and implicit, traversable.
Yet benightedness is a clear danger: it is all too easy to become
lost: in 'hyperspace,' in the library, in the labyrinth, or in the
wood of error. As digital resources grow in size and complexity,
the need for prospects — lookouts, overviews of the textscape
— becomes ever greater. Digital resources must therefore
become responsive: when a reader examines an argument or
claim in a digital publication, the resource should respond to
her, helpfully putting on the virtual desk before her materials
that are relevant to her evolving inquiry. Thus, in loftiest terms,
our goal must be to assist, supplement, and augment a human
agent􀀀􀀀's investigation of accumulated cultural knowledge,
a goal congruent with the aims of research over the past
half-century in fields from information retrieval to artificial
intelligence.
1. Sheila Bonde and Clark Maines, Saint-Jean-des-Vignes in
Soissons: Approaches to its Architecture, Archaeology and History,
Biblioteca Victorina vol. XV (Turnhout: Brepols Press, 2003).
Bibliography
McCarty, Willard. Humanities Computing. Basingstoke:
Palgrave McMillan, 2005.
Bernstein, Mark, J. David Bolter, Michael Joyce, and Elli
Mylonas. ""Architectures for Volatile Hypertexts."" Hypertext
'91 Proceedings. San Antonio, TX: Association for Computing
Machinery, 1991.
Bonde, Sheila, and Clark Maines. ""The Archaeology of
Monasticism, Ten Years of Work at the Augustinian Abbey of
Saint-Jean-des-Vignes, Soissons."" Medieval Europe, 1992
(Pre-printed Papers of the Conference on Medieval
Archaeology in Europe, York, 21-24.IX.1992). York, 1992.
83-88.
Bonde, Sheila, and Clark Maines. Saint-Jean-des-Vignes:
Approaches to its Architecture, Archaeology and History.
Biblioteca Victorina vol. XV. Turnhout: Brepols Press, 2003.
Wulfman, Clifford, Julia Flanders, and Elli Mylonas. ""The
Rhetoric of Performative Markup."" Digital Humanities 2006
Conference Abstracts. Paris: CATI, Université Paris-Sorbonne,
2006. 248-251.
Monarch. Monastic Archaeology Project . <http://www.w
esleyan.edu/monarch/>
The Abbey of St.-Jean-des-Vignes . <http://dev.stg.b
rown.edu/projects/Monarch/>
Unsworth, John. ""What is Humanities Computing and What Is
Not?"" <http://www.computerphilologie.uni-mu
enchen.de/jg02/unsworth.html>","txt","2","",""
"814","8","An Evaluation of Text Classification Methods for Literary Study","","Asurvey study 1 shows that text classification is a typical
scholarly activity in literary study, and automatic text
classification methods can be used in three scenarios. The first
is information organization - a classifier can learn the target
category concepts (e.g. news article about trade, acquisition,
etc.) from the training documents, and then assign new
documents into these predefined categories. The second purpose
is knowledge discovery - a successful classifier can provide
insights to understand a target concept by revealing the
correlations between the features and the concept. The third
purpose is example-based retrieval - a classifier might be able
to learn a concept from a small number of training documents
with the help of semi- supervised learning or active learning
methods, and then retrieve more documents similar to the
training examples from a large collection.
Text classification techniques have been well developed in the
past twenty years. With the availability of many text
classification methods, empirical evaluation is important to
provide guidance for method selection in applications. Because
of the sub jectivity in the class concept definition, analytical
evaluation of text classifiers is difficult. Therefore empirical
experiments became the common text classification evaluation
methods.2 The major text classification methods have been
evaluated on topic classification tasks using some benchmark
data sets, such as the Reuters-21578 news collection and the
Usenet newsgroup collection. Some topic classification
evaluation results have been widely accepted. For example,
SVM is currently the best text classifier3; no feature selection
improves SVM performance 4; SVM feature selection is better
than Odds Ratio for naive Bayes, etc.5 There are mixed
conclusions regarding some document preprocessing techniques,
such as stemming and stop word removal.
However, these evaluation data sets were limited to news and
web documents; the evaluation tasks were limited to topic
classification for information organization purpose. The target
concepts in literary text classification range from topic to style,
genre, emotion, and more. These different types of target
concepts can also be called document properties. Previous study
6 showed that document properties interact with clustering
methods. Will the various document properties in literary text
classification tasks affect the classification methods? Are the
previous evaluation results still valid for literary text
classification?
This paper describes an empirical evaluation of text
classification methods for literary study. We choose a new kind
of data - the literary documents - to evaluate classification
methods. Because no benchmark data is available in the literary
domain, we select two literary text classification problems -
the eroticism classification in Dickinson’s poems and the
sentimentalism classification in early American novels - as two
cases for this study. Both problems focus on identifying certain
kinds of emotion - a document property other than topic.
We also choose two popular text classification algorithms -
naive Bayes and Support Vector Machines (SVM), and three
feature engineering options - feature merging (stemming),
stopword removal and statistical feature selection (Odds Ratio
and SVM) - as the sub jects of evaluation. We aim to examine
the effects of the chosen classifiers and feature engineering
options on the two emotion classification problems, and the
interaction between the classifiers and the feature engineering
options. As a special case of feature merging, we also examine
the impact of Dickinson’s unconventional capitalizations on
classification performance. We choose bag-of-words (BOW)
model for document representation.
We seek empirical answers to the following research questions:
1. 1. Is SVM a better classifier than naive Bayes regarding
classification accuracy, new literary knowledge discovery
and potential for example-based retrieval?
2. 2. Is SVM a better feature selection method than Odds Ratio
regarding feature reduction rate and clas- sification accuracy
improvement?
3. 3. Does stop word removal affect the classification
performance?
4. 4. Does stemming affect the performance of classifiers and
feature selection methods?
Our experiment results show that SVM is not a universal winner
in literary text classification. After fea- ture reduction naive
Bayes achieves high accuracies in both cases while SVM
succeeds in the sentimentalism classification only. Figure 1
and 2 show that SVM and naive Bayes select their top features
from different frequency ranges. Naive Bayes tends to pick
unique words, which are often not frequent. The large number
of low frequency words results in the success of naive Bayes
in the eroticism classification. These unique words also
surprised the Dickinson scholars, who finally found some new
erotic indicators from them. SVM tends to pick high frequent and discriminant words, which are scarce in the Dickinson
collection. These words (such as personal pronouns) are within
the scholars’ expectation and therefore not interesting anymore.
Figure 1: Dickinson feature ranks and frequencies
Figure 2: Sentimentality feature ranks and frequencies
Despite the high classification accuracies, the learned naive
Bayes eroticism classifier, and also the SVM classifier with
low accuracy, are useless for example-based retrieval purpose.
Figure 3 shows that the concept of eroticism can not be learned
from small number of examples, and the classifiers’ prediction
confidence drop quickly with the expanding prediction
coverage.
Both classifiers achieve high classification accuracies in the
sentimentalism classification task, which in- dicate that
sentimentalism is a more straightfoward concept than eroticism
for bag-of-words representation. The two classifiers still choose
different top features but reach comparable performances for
the sentimen- talism classification. So for the purpose of
feature-category correlation analysis the two methods should
be used as complemental to each other rather than one over the
other. This time the unique words picked by naive Bayes are
so strange that the scholars can not make sense of it. The
common but discriminant words picked by SVM are still within
the scholars’ expectation. The learning curves and confidence
curves in figure 4 show that both classifiers yield high potential
for example-based retrieval. The experiment results also show that self feature selection
helps both naive Bayes and SVM improve classification
accuracies. For SVM the improvement is not as significant as
for naive Bayes. Odds Ratio is better than SVM as feature
selection method for naive Bayes. However Odds Ratio cannot
improve the SVM performance. Without feature selection the
stemmed and unstemmed features obtain similarly low
classification accuracies in both cases, so did the case merging
in the Dickinson case. The micro level analysis finds that the
effects of good mergings and bad mergings are neutralized
overall. Stemming does not affect both feature selection
methods in the eroticism classification case, but we are surprised
to find that stemming negatively affects both feature selection
methods, especially SVM, in the sentimentalism classification
case.
We have found that the stop words obtained from the Brown
corpus are also overly common and useless in sentimentalism
classification. However, the Brown stop words are mostly
uncommon in the Dickinson collection. Personal pronouns -
the group of function words usually treated as stop words -
turns out to be highly relevant features for eroticism
classification.
Our study extends the empirical evaluation of text classification
methods to emotion classification tasks in the literary domain.
Some conclusions are consistent with what are obtained in
previous research, such as Odds Ratio does not improve SVM
performance and stop word removal might harm classification.
Some conclusions contradict previous results, such as SVM
does not beat naive Bayes in both cases. Some findings are new
to this area - SVM and naive Bayes select top features in
different frequency ranges; stemming might harm feature
selection methods. These experiment results provide new
insights to the relation between classification methods, feature
engineering options and non-topic document properties. Figure 3: Figure: potential for Dickinson example-based retrieval Figure 4: Figure: potential for sentimentalism example-based retrieval
Our experiment results also provide guidance for classification
method selection in literary text classifi- cation applications.
We suggest that both SVM and naive Bayes be used for
feature-category correlation analysis purpose. The number of
support vectors in the SVM model indicates the complexity of
the target concept. A complex concept is hard to learn from
small training set. Feature reduction produces smaller and more
generalizable models, but statistical methods are a better choice
than the arbitrary feature reduction (like stemming and stop
word removal) which are insensitive to particular classification
tasks.
1. Bei Yu and John Unsworth, "" Toward Discovering Potential Data
Mining Applications in Literary Criticism,"" Digital Humanities
2006 Conference Abstracts (Paris: CATI, Université
Paris-Sorbonne, 2006): 237-239.
2. Fabrizio Sebastiani, "" Machine Learning in Automated Text
Categorization,"" ACM Computing Surveys 34.1 (2002): 1-47.
3. Thorsten Joachims, "" Text Categorization with Support Vector
Machines: Learning with Many Relevant Features,"" Proceedings
of ECML-98, 10th European Conference on Machine Learning
1998, and Yiming Yang and Xin Liu, "" A Re-evalution of Text
Categorization Methods,"" Proceedings of the 22nd Annual
International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and
Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR’99), (Berkley, CA:
AMC, 1999): 42–49
4. George Forman, "" An Extensive Empirical Study of Feature
Selection Metrics for Text Categorization,"" Journal of Machine
Learning Research 3 (2003): 1289–1305, and Dunja Mladenic
and Marko Grobelnik, "" Feature Selection for Unbalanced Class
Distribution and Nave Bayes,"" Proceedings of the Sixteenth
International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML) (199):
258–267.
5. Dunja Mladenic, Janez Brank, Marko Grobelnik, and Natasa
Milic-Frayling, "" Feature Selection Using Linear Classifier
Weights: Interaction with Classification Models,"" ACM SIGIR
’04 (2004): 234–241.
6. J. Morato, J. Llorens, G. Genova, and J. A. Moreiro, "" Experiments
in Discourse Analysis Impact on Information Classification and
Retrieval Algorithms,"" Information Processing and Management
39 (2003): 825– 851.","txt","2","",""
"815","8","RolandHT and Reconceiving the Notion of Corpus","","RolandHT
For the past several years I have been pursuing the study
of a semi-fictional character's manifestations in different
art forms, throughout Europe and North America, in the last
thousand years. Roland is the protagonist of the French epic
Song of Roland and France's national hero. He first appeared
in written record at the end of the eleventh century, and hasn't
left us since then – although his character has undergone
significant changes. He has easily passed from one culture to
another; but Roland is not merely borrowed – he is mercurial.
He has been used by writers and artists as a container for the
promotion of moral and political exigencies relevant to their
circumstances. Thus, in France he is a staunch protector of the
Christian faith (Song of Roland); in Germany, a religious martyr
(Konrad); in Italy, a lover and a comedic character (Boiardo,
Ariosto); in England, a mystical traveler (Browning); in the
United States, a roadie (Silverstein) and a gunslinger (King).
Nevertheless, the French Roland has easily identifiable
personality traits, such as his infamous pride (which cost him
and twenty thousand of Charlemagne's best men their lives)
and his physical prowess. There are also artifacts, such as his
enchanted sword and his sounding horn that can be heard for
miles. These features have prompted me to make a case for the
existence of a Roland corpus that is held together by recurrent
themes and imagery. In my dissertation titled RolandHTI show
these recurrences by encoding them in XML.1 This corpus has
never been considered as a whole. An examination of themes
recurrent in it offers insight into the evolution of art and the
pace of intercultural transmission. This insight is relevant to
the study of literature at the dawn of Western secular writing;
but it also sheds light on our own literary present, in an age of
widely accessible electronic writing, when the processes of
composition and transmission are changing again.
The Roland corpus consists of works in such diverse media as
literature, live and puppet theater, opera, sculpture and stone
carvings, painting, film, contemporary music, and comics. This
presents a problem in my use of the word corpus, which
conforms to its theoretical definition but not to any of its prior
use in practice. I propose that the electronic medium, and
semantic encoding in particular, allow for the study of corpora
bound not by format or authorship, but by semantic content.
RolandHT is a collection of excerpts from works that feature
Roland, encoded for recurring characters, imagery and themes.
Some annotations are present. Works span most of Europe and
the United States, and date from between the late 1090s to 1995.
Most of the corpus objects are text-based – poems, prose, drama,
operatic lyrics. One particularly interesting corpus object –
Greg Roach's computer game The Madness of Roland – is a
blend of text and images. Other image-based corpus objects
include comic-book panels and photographs of medieval
stonework found in France and Croatia. Included are also
excerpts from the 1999 film Beowulf, in QuickTime (.mov)
format. Other objects will be added as time and copyright
restrictions allow.
Technical Details
The project is processed for web presentation using XSLT,
JavaScript and CSS. The website is a technical
collaboration with Ethan Fremen.
Our approach is standards- and client-based. All features except
bookmarking can be used with static files accessed locally. This
permits RolandHT to be archived on a CD, DVD or other
storage device; access to a networked server is not necessary
to view the work. This is an advantage for the purposes of
submitting a doctoral thesis, but being entirely client-side, our
method would not scale well: a substantially larger corpus will
require an XML database in order to remain efficient. As it
stands, the roughly 800KB XML file containing all text data
(but not the separately-stored images or multimedia files) must
be loaded entirely before the project is viewed, rendering it
unwieldy for slow connections if RolandHT is accessed over
the web. However, once it is loaded, subsequent operations are
performed client-side and connection speed no longer matters,
except when fetching the aforementioned images and
multimedia files.
The notion of corpus
The notion of corpus is used in the study of languages
(corpus linguistics), literature, and objects (architecture,
archaeology). Definitions of _corpus_ provided by several
different dictionaries of English and of literary terms are
variations of ""a related 'body' of writings, usually sharing the
same author or subject-matter."" (Baldick 52) It is almost never
further defined in the context of specific studies. Instead, corpus
is taken for granted, and is found far more often in headings
than in discussion. When it is used in the text itself, the set of
objects under consideration invariably has an author, time period and/or geographical area in common. None of these things can
usefully delimit the Roland corpus. However, some past uses
of corpus would justify the use of the word to describe works
about Roland.
Most often the contested word is used in corpus linguistics.
One book in particular defines corpus as ""a subset of an ETL
[electronic text library], built according to explicit design
criteria for a specific purpose."" (Ghadessy et al. 179) This is
the only non-dictionary definition I have found, and if we
substitute ""Western artistic production"" for ""ETL,"" it becomes
relevant to the construction of RolandHT. The purpose of
defining it is to shed light on how its protagonist has survived
so unusually long while at the same time undergoing
fundamental changes. However, the subjective nature of the
definition process demands a willingness to alter design criteria
as texts are encoded, and a leap of faith that scholars may be
reluctant to make. Working with a semantically encoded body
of work requires acceptance of XML as a valid format for
making a scholarly argument. This in turn calls for critical
responses that are also at least partly expressed in XML. (""I
disagree with this encoding. How about this alternative
instead?"")
Roland is a flexible corpus that emerges and evolves in the
course of its analysis. Its unifying subject may be a default
connecting thread by virtue of Roland's name, but since the
actual connecting threads are recurrent themes and imagery,
the way to ascertain a work's status as a corpus object (or not)
is a close reading of it. In this case, micro-results of the close
reading are recorded by XML encoding.
The above describes a practical application of Gregory Ulmer's
theory of heuretics. In his 1994 Heuretics: The Logic of
Invention, Ulmer states that theory is assimilated into the
humanities in two principal ways: by critical interpretation and
by artistic experiment. Heuretics is the latter – it is a heuristic
approach to theory, a reading process that, instead of attempting
to theorize ""what might be the meaning of an existing work,""
guides ""a generative experiment: Based on a given theory, how
might another text be composed?"" (5)
Why not use words that have been used more frequently to
describe Roland, such as myth or legend? Both of these terms
imply homogeneity that the corpus does not possess, and deny
Roland's historicity, however tenuous. Similarly, the terms
closest to corpus – oeuvre and canon – are limiting to the point
of inaccuracy: the Roland corpus has too many authors to be
called oeuvre and too little institutionalized authority to be a
canon.
Finally, RolandHT is not an archive. It does not strive for
completeness, either within single works (only excerpts are
presented) or within the corpus (which is, to date, representative
but incomplete). More importantly, RolandHT is intended to
be the opposite of a static collection of unchanging documents;
its primary-source contents, encoding and annotations are all
meant to change as research progresses.
Summary
If semantic encoding is to be taken seriously as a research
tool by philologists, art historians and other humanists used
to working in more traditional ways, a common language must
first be built and justified. At Digital Humanities 2007 I hope
to contribute to the effort of expanding the inflluence of digital
research methods into mainstream humanities. I will do this by
expanding the notion of corpus to include bodies of works that,
because of their disparate formats, do not lend themselves to
formal study using traditional methods.
1. The electronic part of the dissertation can be found at <http:
//wordsend.org/rht/xml/index_2006.php>.
N.B.: it is a work in progress. New content is being added often.
Please note also that the project can only be viewed using
Firefox/Mozilla or another XSLT-aware browser.
Bibliography
Ariosto, Ludovico. Ed. Rudolf Gottfried. Orlando Furioso;
Selections from the Translation of Sir John Harrington.
Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1963.
Beowulf. Dir. Graham Baker, Perfs. Christopher Lambert,
Rhona Mitra, Oliver Cotton and Götz Otto. DVD. Panorama
Entertainment, 1999.
Baldick, Chris. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary
Terms. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Boiardo, Matteo Maria. Orlando Innamorato. Trans. Charles
Stanley Ross. Berkley, CA: University of California Press,
1989.
Browning, Robert. ""Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came.""
English Poetry Full-Text Database. Cambridge, UK:
Chadwick-Healey Ltd. Accessed 2004-03-26.
Ghadessy, Mohsen, Alex Henry, and Robert L. Roseberry, eds.
Small Corpus Studies and ELT: Theory and Practice.
Amsterdam: J. Benjamins Pub. Co., 2001.
King, Stephen. Dark Tower I-VII. New York: Signet,
1989-2003.
Konrad, Der Pfaffe. Priest Konrad's Song of Roland. Trans. J.
W. Thomas. Columbia, SC: Camden House, 1994. Roach, Greg. Madness of Roland. CD-ROM. Los Angeles, CA:
HyperBole Studios, 1995.
The Song of Roland. Trans. Dorothy L. Sayers. Harmondsworth,
UK: Penguin Books, 1957.
Silverstein, Shel. ""Roland the Roadie And Gertrude the
Groupie."" Belly Up!. Perf. Dr. Hook and the Medicine Show.
CBS, 1973.
Ulmer, Gregory L. Heuretics: The Logic of Invention.
Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994","txt","2","",""
"816","8","The Use of TEI and OAI in Manuscript, an Informational-Analytical System / Применение технологий TEI и OAI в ин","2","Внастоящее время по крайней мере несколько сотен
древнейших славянских письменных памятников
XI-XIV вв., имеющих большую научную, культурную,
историческую ценность, недоступны широкому кругу
исследователей разных специальностей и всем, кто
интересуется русской историей и культурой. Причины
просты: большая часть рукописей еще не издана, а если и
есть издание, то оно является раритетом и работа с ним
возможна только в крупных центральных библиотеках.
Работа же непосредственно с рукописью часто осложняется
удаленностью места работу исследователя от места
хранения памятника. Но даже издание памятника в ряде
случаев требует постоянного обращения к оригиналу, если
дело касается его палеографии, оформления и других
аналогичных вопросов. Кроме того, в существующих
печатных изданиях, к сожалению, часто отсутствуют
необходимые для знакомства с текстом и для его
исследования справочные материалы, а сами рукописи
изданы со значительным упрощением оригинала. Выходом
из существующей ситуации недоступности письменных
памятников древности и средневековья для научной,
учебной и популяризаторской деятельности является
создание электронных публикаций, которые способны не
только заменить печатные издания, но и во многом
перевести работу с ними на функционально иной уровень:
(а) предоставить постоянный доступ к электронным копиям
рукописей и к справочным материалом через интернет, (b)
предоставить пользователю возможность выборки данных
на основе многофункциональных справочных интерфейсов
как на уровне мета- и аналитических данных, так и на
уровне собственно грамматических, семантических,
тематических характеристик текстов, (c) дать возможность
коллективной работы над изучением памятника.
Одним из примеров информационной системы,
предназначенной для решения части указанных проблем, является информационно-аналитическая система
«Манускрипт» (ИАС «Манускрипт»)
ИАС «Манускрипт» ориентирована на ввод, хранение,
автоматизированную обработку, исследование и издание
древних текстов, имеющих идентичные оригиналу
графико-орфографический вид и структуру. В настоящее
время ИАС «Манускрипт» уже содержит несколько
десятков уникальных древних и средневековых славянских
текстов.
В настоящее время ИАС «Манускрипт» состоит из
нескольких разнофункциональных модулей,
взаимодействующих с единой базой данных, в которой
хранятся иерархически структурированные данные:
• специализированный редактор,
• модуль запросов и выборок,
• модуль электронных изданий,
• модуль лингвистических словарей,
• модуль выгрузки текстов и справочных материалов для
печатных публикаций.
Основной задачей коллектива авторов и разработчиков на
данном этапе развития системы является предоставление
накопленной информации для анализа и изучения
широкому кругу исследователей. Основной путь – создание
специализированных модулей, предназначенных для и
функционально разнообразного, дружественного и
понятного манипулирования данными. Второй задачей
является создание средств обмена мета-, аналитическими
и текстовыми данными между коллективами, которые
создают аналогичные по материалу коллекции, с целью
предоставления пользователям возможностей использовать
для анализа рукописей и текстов инструментальные
средства работы с древними документами, созданные
различными коллективами.
Для обеспечения максимально широкого доступа
различными инструментальными средствами к накопленной
в ИАС информации необходимо использовать
стандартизованные форматы и средства обмена данными.
Вкачестве основы для решения этой задачи решено
использовать технологии Open Archive Initiative (OAI)
и Text Encoding Initiative (TEI):
• OAI – для индексации существующих текстов и их
фрагментов;
• TEI – для предоставления мета и аналитической
информации, а также самих текстов.
В настоящее время ведутся работы по включению ИАС
«Манускрипт» в состав открытого сообщества OAI в
качестве Data Provider. Для предоставления
метаинформации в формате Dublin Core разрабатывается
отдельный модуль системы. Данный модуль позволит
собирать метаинформацию не только по самим текстам,
но и по их фрагментам (различные элементы иерархий).
Найденный уникальный идентификатор средствами
интерфейса OAI возможно использовать для получения
метаинформации или полного текста из системы
«Манускрипт» в формате XML-TEI.
Сегодня рекомендации консорциума TEI являются
общепризнанными в мире. Поэтому вполне логичным стало
решение разработчиков ИАС «Манускрипт» использовать
именно этот инструмент для описания метаинформации и
полных документов для обмена данными.
ИАС «Манускрипт» использует сетевую модель данных
для описания объектов (единиц) рукописей и связей между
ними, поэтому при создании записей в формате XML-TEI
основной проблемой стали структурные ограничения,
накладываемые стандартами XML: структура XML
документа, которым является документ в формате
XML-TEI, должна быть строго иерархической. Следствием
этого, например, является невозможность получить всю
информацию о тексте (имеющуюся в системе
«Манускрипт») в виде одного документа.
Для реализации интегрирования технологий ИАС
«Манускрипт» с технологиями TEI разрабатываются два
модуля.
Модуль хранения и обработки мета- и аналитических
данных предназначен для работы с археографическими,
текстологическими и иными сведениями о самих
рукописях, текстах и их фрагментах, а также для
формирования запросов и выборок на основе этих сведений.
Средствами этого модуля поиск возможен только по мета-
и аналитическим данным.
Запросы пользователей на получение определенных
элементов текста в формате XML-TEI из системы
«Манускрипт» обрабатывает специальный модуль.
Основные возможности данного модуля:
• получение любого элемента текста в формате XML-TEI,
описанного в ИАС «Манускрипт» в качестве
самостоятельной единицы;
• расстановка приоритетов по созданию документов
XML-TEI. Данная опция необходима ввиду
накладываемых ограничений на структуру XML
документа. Пользователь сам может выбирать, какая
структура для него является приоритетной, а какая –
менее приоритетной. Иначе говоря, при создании
документа максимально отображается приоритетная
структура, внутри • получение мета и аналитической информации как
вместе с полным текстом, так и отдельно;
• запрашиваемый документ собирается в момент запроса,
поэтому любое изменение в тексте тут же будет
использовано.
ИАС «Манускрипт» постоянно развивается, и вместе
с ней модернизируются указанные инструменты.
Во время доклада будет продемонстрирована работа ИАС
«Манускрипт», описанных модулей и технологий.

//

C
urrently there are at least a few hundred ancient Slavic
manuscripts of the 11th to 14th centuries, which, despite
their significant scholarly, cultural, and historic value, are not
accessible to a wide range of researchers of various specialties
and to all who are interested in Russian history and culture.
The reason is simple: a large portion of the manuscripts are still
unpublished, and if they are published, these editions are
rareties, accessible only in major research libraries, which are
often located far from scholars' places of work. Even publishing
a manuscript often requires constant consultation of the original,
especially if studying its paleography, appearance, or other
similar questions. Furthermore, existing print editions
unfortunately usually lack reference material necessary for
getting acquainted with a text and studying it, and the
manuscripts themselves are published with poor quality. The
solution to the inaccessibility of ancient and medieval
manuscripts for research, teaching, and popular use is the
creation of electronic publications capable not only of replacing
print editions but also of exceeding their capabilities: (a) by
providing continual access to digital copies of manuscripts and
reference material on the Internet; (b) by providing the user
with the capability of retrieving data from a multifunctional
interface not only on the level of meta- and analytical data but
also on the level of grammatical, semantic, and thematic
characteristics of texts; and (c) by allowing collaborative work
on a manuscript.
One example of an information system designed to solve
some of the above problems is Manuscript, an
informational-analytical system.
Manuscript is oriented toward the entry, storage, automatic
manipulation, research, and publication of ancient texts having
an identical graphico-orthographic appearance and structure to
the original. Currently Manuscript contains a few dozen unique
ancient and medieval Slavic texts.
Currently Manuscript consists of a few multifunctional modules
that interact with a single database containing a hierarchically
structured data:
Page 237
Digital Humanities 2007
• a specialized editor,
• a query and retrieval module,
• a module for electronic publishing,
• a module of linguistic dictionaries, and
• a module for loading texts and reference material for print
publication.
The main task right now of the team behind Manuscript is to
present the accumulated information for analysis and study by
a wide range of researchers. The main path: to create specialized
modules intended for muti-function, user-friendly, and
straightforward manipulation of the data. The second task is to
create the meansto exchange meta-, analytical, and textual data
between teams of researchers creating analogous collections
of material, with the goal of presenting users with the ability
to use manuscript- and text-specific tools for working with
ancient documents, created by various teams.
It's essential to use standard formats and protocolsto maximize
access to the various tools for aggregating information in
Manuscript.
T
he Open Archive Initiative (OAI) and Text Encoding
Initiative (TEI) were chosen as the basis for solving this
task:
• OAI – for indexing the existing texts and their fragments;
• TEI – for presenting meta- and analytical information, and
likewise the texts themselves.
Manuscript is currently working to become an OAI data
provider. A new module is being developed to present the
metadata in Dublin Core format. This module will allow the
gathering of metadata not only from the texts themselves but
also from their fragments (various elements of the hierarchy).
Users can retrieve metadata or full text from Manuscript in TEI
XML format using a unique identifier.
The TEI Guidelines are well-established around the world, so
it was entirely logical for the developers of Manuscript to use
it for the metadata and full text of the manuscripts.
Manuscript uses a network model of data for describing the
objects(entities) of manuscripts and the relations between them,
so the main problem with using TEI was XML's requirement
of a strict hierarchy. One consequence of this is that it's
impossible to receive all information about a text in Manuscript
in one document.
Two modules are being developed to integrate the technology
of Manuscript with the TEI.
The module for storage and manipulation of meta- and
analytical data is intended for working with archeographical,
textological, and other findings from the manuscripts, texts,
and fragmentsthemselves, and also for formulating queries and
retrieving information using these findings. Searching in this
module is possible only using meta- and analytical data.
A special module processes user queries for retrieving certain
elements of text in TEI format from Manuscript. The main
capabilities of the module are the following:
• retrieving of any element of text, stored in Manuscript as
an independent unit, in TEI format;
• setting priorities in the creation of a TEI document: This
option is necessary in order to get around the
single-hierarchy limitation of XML. The user can rank the
priority of various structures within a document;
• receiving meta- and analytical information with or without
full text;
• The queried document is created at the moment of query,
so any change will be available immediately.
Manuscript and itstools are being continually developed.
During the presentation, Manuscript, including the
above modules and technologies, will be demonstrated.
Translated from the Russian by Kevin S. Hawkins","txt","2","",""
"817","9","The Homer Multitext Project","23","The Homer Multitext Project (HMT) is a new edition that
presents the Iliad and Odyssey within the historical framework
of its oral and textual transmission.
The project begins from the position that these works,
although passed along to us as written sources, were originally
composed orally over a long period of time. What one would
usually call “variants” from a base text are in fact evidence of
the system of oral composition in performance and exhibit
the diversity to be expected from an oral composition. These
variants are not well refl ected in traditional modes of editing,
which focus on the reconstruction of an original text. In
the case of the works of Homer there is no “original text”.
All textual variants need to be understood in the historical
context, or contexts, in which they fi rst came to be, and it
is the intention of the HMT to make these changes visible
both synchronically and diachronically. The fi rst paper in our
session is an introduction to these and other aspects of the
HMT, presented by the editors of the project, Casey Dué and
Mary Ebbott. Dué and Ebbott will discuss the need for a digital
Multitext of the works of Homer, the potential uses of such
an edition as we envision it, and the challenges in building the
Multitext.
The works of Homer are known to us through a variety of
primary source materials. Although most students and scholars
of the classics access the texts through traditional editions,
those editions are only representations of existing material. A
major aim of the HMT is to make available texts from a variety
of sources, including high-resolution digital images of those
sources. Any material which attests to a reading of Homer –
papyrus fragment, manuscript, or inscription in stone – can and
will be included in the ultimate edition. The HMT has begun
incorporating images of sources starting with three important
manuscripts: the tenth-century Marcianus Graecus Z. 454
(= 822), the eleventh-century Marcianus Graecus Z. 453 (=
821), and the twelfth/thirteenth-century Marcianus Graecus
Z. 458 (= 841). Marcianus Graecus Z. 454, commonly called
the “Venetus A,” is arguably the most important surviving copy
of the Iliad, containing not only the full text of the poem but
also several layers of commentary, or scholia, that include many
variant readings of the text. The second paper in our session,
presented by project collaborators W. Brent Seales and A. Ross
Scaife, is a report on work carried out in Spring 2007 at the
Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana to digitize these manuscripts,
focusing on 3D imaging and virtual fl attening in an effort to
render the text (especially the scholia) more legible.
Once text and images are compiled, they need to be published
and made available for scholarly use, and to the wider public.
The third paper, presented by the technical editors Christopher
Blackwell and Neel Smith, will outline the protocols and
software developed and under development to support the
publication of the Multitext.
Using technology that takes advantage of the best available
practices and open source standards that have been developed
for digital publications in a variety of fi elds, the Homer
Multitext will offer free access to a library of texts and images,
a machine-interface to that library and its indices, and tools
to allow readers to discover and engage with the Homeric
tradition.

References:
The Homer Multitext Project, description at the Center for
Hellenic Studies website: http://chs.harvard.edu/chs/homer_
multitext
Homer and the Papyri, http://chs.harvard.edu/chs/homer___
the_papyri_introduction
Haslam, M. “Homeric Papyri and Transmission of the Text”
in I. Morris and B. Powell, eds., A New Companion to Homer.
Leiden, 1997.
West, M. L. Studies in the text and transmission of the Iliad.
München: K.G. Saur 2001
Digital Images of Iliad Manuscripts from the Marciana Library,
First Drafts @ Classics@, October 26, 2007: http://zeus.chsdc.
org/chs/manuscript_images","txt","2","",""
"818","9","Imaging the Venetus A Manuscript for the Homer Multitext","3","In May, 2007, a collaborative group of librarians, scholars and
technologists under the aegis of the Homer Multitext project
(HMT) traveled to Venice, Italy to undertake the photography
and 3D scanning of the Venetus A manuscript at the Biblioteca
Nazionale Marciana. Manoscritto marciano Gr.Z.454(=822):
Homer I. Ilias, or Venetus A, is a 10th century Byzantine
manuscript, perhaps the most important surviving copy of
the Iliad, and the one on which modern editions are primarily
based. Its inclusion will have the utmost signifi cance for the
HMT edition. In addition to the Iliad text, Venetus A contains
numerous layers of commentary, called scholia, which serve to
describe particular aspects of the main text. The scholia are
written in very small script (mostly illegible in the only available
print facsimile (Comparetti 1901)), and their organization on
the page appears as a patchwork of tiny interlinking texts (see
fi gure 1). The scholia are what truly set this manuscript apart,
and their inclusion is of the greatest importance for the HMT.
For this reason, we included 3D scanning in our digitization
plan, with the aim to provide digital fl attening and restoration
that may help render the text (especially the scholia) more
legible than digital images on their own. In this presentation
we will describe how we obtained both digital photographs
and 3D information, and will show how we combined them to
create new views of this manuscript.
[Figure 1: This slice from Venetus A shows the main
text, along with several layers of scholia: interlinear,
marginal (both left and right), and intermarginal.]
This particular manuscript presents an almost perfect case
for the application of digital fl attening in the context of an
extremely important, highly visible work that is the basis
for substantial and ongoing scholarship in the classics. In the
thousand-plus years since its creation, the environment has
taken its toll on the substrate, the parchment upon which the
texts are written. Several different types of damage, including
staining, water damage, and gelitination (degradation of the
fi ber structure of the parchment) affect different areas of the
manuscript. Much more widespread, affecting each folio in the
manuscript and interfering with the reading of the text, is the
planarity distortion, or cockling, that permeates the manuscript.
Caused by moisture, cockling causes the folios to wrinkle
and buckle, rather than to lie fl at (see fi gure 2). This damage
has the potential to present diffi culties for the scholars by
obstructing the text, especially the scholia. Virtual fl attening
provides us with a method for fl attening the pages, making the
text easier to read, without physically forcing the parchment
and potentially damaging the manuscript.
[Figure 2: Cockling is visible along the fore edge of the Venetus A]
Digital Flattening
The procedure for digital fl attening involves obtaining a 3D
mesh of the object (a model of the shape of the folio), in
addition to the 2D photograph. The photographic texture
information can then be mapped on to the 3D mesh, and the
3D mesh can be deformed (or unwarped) to its original fl at
2D shape. As the associated texture is deformed along with
it, the original 2D texture can be recovered. For the digital
fl attening of the Venetus A, the project used the physical-based
modeling approaches established in (Brown 2001, Brown
2004). The largest previous published application of this digital
fl attening technique was to BL Cotton Otho B. x, a signifi cantly
more damaged 11th century manuscript consisting of 67 folios
(Kiernan 2002, Brown 2004). By contrast, Venetus A consists of
327 folios, a nearly fi ve-fold increase. Thus, a system was needed
which could apply the necessary algorithms for fl attening
without manual intervention, in an automated fashion. We also
required a reliable system for imaging the document, acquiring
3D scans, and obtaining calibration data.
Imaging: 2D and 3D
Digital photographs were taken using a Hasselblad H1 with
a Phase One P45 digital back, capable of a resolution of
5428x7230 (39.2 megapixels). The manuscript was held by a
custom cradle built by Manfred Mayer from the University of
Graz in Austria. The cradle enabled the photography team to
hold the book open at a fi xed angle and minimize stress on
the binding, and consisted of a motorized cradle and camera
gantry perpendicular to the page being imaged. The camera
was operated via FireWire, to reduce the need for manual
adjustments.
To acquire data for building the 3D mesh, we used a FARO
3D Laser ScanArm. Since we were unlikely to be able to use
a fl at surface near the cradle to mount the arm, we set the
arm on a tripod with a custom mount. The ScanArm consists
of a series of articulating joints, a point probe, and a laser line
probe device attachment. The system operates by calibrating
the point probe to the arm, such that for any given orientation
of joints, the arm can reliably report the probe’s position in
3D space. Another calibration procedure calibrates the point 
probe to the laser line probe. The result is a non-contact 3D
data acquisition system which can obtain an accurate, highresolution
untextured point cloud.
Imaging Procedure
As the document required a minimum of 654 data sets to be
fully imaged (verso and recto of each folio), data acquisition
was split into a number of sessions. Each session typically
represented a 4 hour block of work imaging a sequence
of either recto or verso, with two sessions per day. Fifteen
sessions were required to image the entire manuscript. Due
to the size and fragility of the codex, it was moved as seldom
as possible. Thus, each session was bookended by a set of
calibration procedures before and after placing the manuscript
in the cradle. In order for the extrinsic calibration to be
accurate, neither the FARO nor the cameras could be moved
during a session.
The process for a typical page was thus:
• Position the page and color calibration strips, then turn on
the vacuum to suction the page down
• Open the barn door lights on both sides of the cradle
• Photograph the page, via USB control
• Close lights to minimize damage to the manuscript
• Scan the page with the laser line probe on the ScanArm
(due to the small width of the line, this last step usually took
2-5 minutes)
Periodic spot-checks of the calibration data were carried out
to ensure that good data was being obtained. Test fl attenings
were also performed to check that everything worked as
expected.
Relationship between 2D and 3D
As the 2D and 3D data acquisition systems are completely
separate (unlike the tightly coupled systems of (Brown 2001,
Brown 2004, Brown 2007)), a calibration procedure was
required to determine the correspondence between 3D points
in the arm and 2D points in the camera. By calibrating the
camera and ScanArm in relation to one another, we were able
to determine the location of any point in the three dimensional
space within view of the camera and to fl atten the folios within
that space. As we were unsure of the amount of control we
would have over the primary photography, we used our own
camera (a Canon EOS 20D, which was attached to the camera
gantry immediately beside the Hasselblad) to obtain a set of
control images for each page and calibration data for each
session. The Canon was set to manual focus and a fi xed focus
and zoom, in order to have intrinsic camera calibration which
would remain relatively stable. As the goal of the Hasselblad
photography was to obtain the highest quality photographs
of each page, it did not retain the same focal length for every
page and would instead be focus on the current page depth. As
a result, intrinsics (including focal length, distortion matrix, and
center of radial distortion) were acquired using the average
focus that the camera would be at during a session. Once all
this information was obtained – photographs, 3D information,
and calibration – we were able to map the photographs to
the 3D mesh and unwrap it to its 2D shape, helping to make
legible texts that may otherwise be diffi cult to read.
The publication of legible, high-resolution digital photographs
of the Venetus A manuscript is the fi rst step towards an
electronic edition of the text, scholia, and translation which will
constitute a resource with far-reaching implications. Students
and scholars of Greek literature, mythology, and palaeography
could study in minute detail the most important manuscript
of the Iliad. This codex has been seen by only a handful of
people since its discovery and publication by Villoison in 1788
(Villoison 1788). Although Comparetti published a facsimile
edition in 1901 (Comparetti 1901), very few copies of even
this edition are available, even in research libraries, and the
smallest writing in Comparetti’s facsimile is illegible. The Homer
MultiText, with its high-resolution digital images linked to full
text and translation, will make this famous manuscript freely
accessible to interested scholars (and others) worldwide.
Bibliography:
Baumann, R. Imaging and Flattening of the Venetus A. Master’s
Thesis, University of Kentucky, 2007.
Brown, M. S. and Seales, W. B. “Document Restoration Using
3D Shape: A General Deskewing Algorithm for Arbitrarily
Warped Documents.” ICCV 02 (2001): 367-375.
Brown, M. S. and Seales, W. B. “Image Restoration of
Arbitrarily Warped Documents.” IEEE Transactions on Pattern
Analysis and Machine Intelligence 26: 10 (2004): 1295-1306.
Brown, M. S., Mingxuan, S., Yang R., Yun L., and Seales, W. B.
“Restoring 2D Content from Distorted Documents.” IEEE
Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 29: 11
(2007): 1904-1916.
Comparetti, D. Homeri Ilias Cum Scholiis. Codex Venetus A,
Marcianus 454. Phototypice editus, Praefatus est Dominicus
Comparettix. Lugduni Batavorum: A. W. Sijthoff, 1901.
Kiernan, K., Seales, W. B., and Griffi oen, J. “The Reappearances
of St. Basil the Great in British Library MS Cotton Otho B.
x.” Computers and the Humanities 36: 1 (2002): 7-26.
Lin, Yun. Physically-based Digital Restoration Using Volumetric
Scanning. PhD Dissertation, University of Kentucky, 2007.
De Villoison, J. B. G., ed. Homeri Ilias ad veteris codicis Veneti
fi dem recensita. Venice, 1788.","txt","2","","817"
"819","9","The Homer Multitext: Infrastructure and Applications","3","The Homer Multitext (HMT) seeks to create a library of
materials documenting the history of the Homeric tradition,
all of which will be freely available online. To support this
aim, Neel Smith and Christopher Blackwell, in collaboration
with other scholars, librarians, and technologists, have spent
fi ve years defi ning a set of protocols for a distributed digital
library of “scholarly primitives”. The protocols aim to be as
technologically agnostic as possible and to afford automatic
discovery of services, the materials they serve, and the internal
structures and citation schemes.
In winter 2007, the initial contents of the Homer Multitext
were published online using the fi rst generation of web-based
applications built atop implementations of these protocols.
In this presentation we will describe and demonstrate these
protocols and discuss how they contribute to the vision of the
Homer Multitext.
The TICI Stack
The technical editors of the Center for Hellenic Studies call the
set of technologies that implement these protocols the “TICI
Stack”, with TICI being an acronym for the four categories
of materials offered by the Homer Multitext Library: Texts,
Images, Collections, and Indices.
Texts
The Texts components of the HMT are electronic editions
and translations of ancient works: transcriptions of specifi c
manuscripts of the Iliad and Odyssey, editions of Homeric
fragments on papyrus, editions of ancient works that include
Homeric quotations, and texts of ancient commentaries on
Homeric poetry. These texts are marked up in TEI-Conformant
XML, using very minimal markup. Editorial information is
included in the markup where appropriate, following the
EpiDoc standard. More complex issues that might be handled
by internal markup (complex scholarly apparatus, for example,
or cross-referencing) is not included; these matters are handled
by means of stand-off markup, in indices or collections.
Access to texts is via implementations of the Canonical Text
Services Protocol (CTS), which is based on the Functional
Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR). CTS extends
FRBR, however, by providing hierarchical access from the
broadest bibliographic level (“textgroup”, or “author”), down
through “work”, “edition/translation”, and into the contents of
the text itself. The CTS protocol can point to any citeable unit
of a text, or range of such units, and even more precisely to a
single character. For example, the CTS URN:
urn:cts:tlg0012.tlg001:chsA:10.1
points to Homer (tlg0012), the Iliad (tlg001), the edition
catalogued as “chsA” (in this case a transcription of the text
that appears on the manuscript Marcianus Graecus Z. 454
[= 822]), Book 10, Line 1. A CTS request, handed this URN,
would return:
Ἄλλοι μὲν παρὰ νηυσίν ἀριστῆες Παναχαιῶν
A more specifi c URN would be:
urn:cts:tlg0012.tlg001:chsA:10.1:ρ[1]
would point to the second Greek letter “rho” in this edition of
Iliad 10.1, which appears in the word ἀριστῆες.
Images
The HMT currently offers over 2000 high resolution images
of the folios of three Homeric manuscripts, captured in the
spring of 2007 at the Biblioteca Nationale Marciana in Venice.
These images are accessible online through a basic directorylisting,
but also through a web-based application, described
below. To relate these images with bibliographic data, technical
metadata, and associated passages of texts, the HMT relies on
Collections and Indices.
Collections
A collection is a group of like objects, in no particular order.
For the CTS, one example is a Collection of images, with each
element in the collection represented by an XML fragment
that records an id, pointing to a digital image fi le, and metadata
for that image. Another example is a Collection of manuscript
folios. Each member of this Collection includes the name of the
manuscript, the folio’s enumeration and side (“12-recto”), and
one or more CTS URNs that identify what text appears on
the folio. Collections are exposed via the Collection Service,
which allows discovery of the fi elds of a particular collection,
querying on those fi elds, and retrieval of XML fragments. A
fi nal example would be a collection of lexicon of Homeric
Greek.
Indices
Indices are simple relations between two elements, a reference
and a value. They do much of the work of binding together
TICI applications.
The Manuscript Browser
The fi rst data published by the HMT Library were the images
of manuscripts from Venice. These are exposed via the
Manuscript Browser application, the fi rst published application
built on the TICI Stack.
http://chs75.harvard.edu/manuscripts
This application allows users to browse images based either
on the manuscript and folio-number, or (more usefully) by
asking for a particular manuscript, and then for a particular
book and line of the Iliad.
Users are then taken to a page for that folio. Online interaction
with the high-resolution images is through the Google Maps
API, and AJAX implementation that allows very responsive
panning and zooming, without requiring users to download
large fi les.
From the default view, users can select any other views of that
page (details, ultraviolet photographs, etc.), and can choose to
download one of four versions of the image they are viewing:
an uncompressed TIFF, or one of three sizes of JPEG.
This application draws on a CTS service, two indices, and
a collection of images. It queries a CTS service to retrieve
bibliographic information about manuscripts whose contents
are online--the CTS protocol is not limited to electronic texts,
but can deliver information about printed editions as well.
When a user requests a particular book and line of the Iliad, it
queries one index whose data looks like this:
<record>
<ref>urn:cts:greekLit:
tlg0012.tlg001:1.1</ref>
<value>msA-12r</value>
</record>
Here the <ref> element contains a URN that, in this case,
points to Book 1, Line 1 of the Iliad, and the <value> element
identifi es folio 12, recto, of “manuscript A”. This allows the
application to query a collection of manuscript folios and to
determine which images are available for this folio.
The display of an image via the Google Maps API requires it to
be rendered into many tiles--the number depends on the size
and resolution of the image, and the degree of zooming desired.
For the images from Venice, we produced over 3,000,000
image tiles. This work was made possible by the Google Maps
Image Cutter software from the UCL Centre for Advanced
Spatial Analysis, who kindly added batch-processing capability
to their application at our request.
Next Steps
Currently under development, as of November 2007, is the
TICI Reader, a web-based application to bring texts together
with indexed information and collections. This is intended
to coincide with the completion of six editions of the Iliad,
electronic transcriptions of important medieval manuscripts of
the Iliad, and a new electronic edition of the medieval scholarly
notes, the scholia, that appear on these manuscripts.
Availability
All of the work of the HMT is intended to be open and
accessible. The images and texts are licensed under a Creative
Commons License, all tools are based on open standards
and implemented in open source technologies. And work is
progressing, and more planned, on translations of as many
of these materials as possible, to ensure that they reach the
widest possible audience.
Bibliography
Canonical Texts Services Protocol: http://chs75.harvard.edu/
projects/diginc/techpub/cts
Creative Commons: http://creativecommons.org/
EpiDoc: Epigraphic Documents in TEI XML: http://epidoc.
sourceforge.net/
Google Maps API: http://www.google.com/apis/maps/
IFLA Study Group on the Functional Requirements of
Bibliographic Records. “Functional Requirements of
Bibliographic Records: fi nal report.” München: K. G. Saur,
1998: http://www.ifl a.org/VII/s13/frbr/frbr.pdf
TEI P4: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange.
Edited by C. M. Sperberg-McQueen and Lou Burnard. The TEI
Consortium: 2001, 2002, 2004.","txt","2","","817"
"820","9","Defining an International Humanities Portal","3","What would a portal for humanists look like? Who would it
serve and what services would it provide?
centerNet, an international network of digital humanities
centers, proposes a panel to discuss an ongoing conversation
about the need for an International Humanities Portal (IHP)
to serve students and researchers. The panelists will present
different perspectives a number of questions we have posed
to the larger network. The panel will both present their own
positions on the case for a Portal and will report back on the
collaborative development of a common Needs Analysis that
identifi es the need and the potential scope of such a portal.
We propose a panel as a way to refl ect back to the community
the discussions so far and to solicit further input on the need
and case for a common infrastructure. The participants bring
an international perspective to the discussion that is central
to what we imagine.
Some of the questions the panelists will address are:
1. Who would be the users of a humanities portal? Would
a portal serve only researchers or would it serve students
and anyone else interested in the humanities? Would a
portal serve primarily digital humanists or would it serve all
humanists?
1. The need for a portal starts with the defi nition of the
audience and how a portal might serve their interests. As
the title suggests and the participants in the panel represent,
we have also started from the position that research
crosses national and linguistic boundaries and that we
should therefore imagine an international portal that can be
multilingual and support the needs of international research.
2. Who might support such a portal? How might the
development of such a portal be funded and how would
it be maintained? centerNet includes centers with access
to development and support resources, but no center has
the capacity to support a successful international portal.
We therefore imagine a distributed model that will draw
on expertise and support from the centerNet community
and beyond. We also imagine that the development of
a consensus about the need and scope of a portal by
centerNet could help individual centers to secure support
from national and other funding bodies to develop and
maintain components. Ultimately we hope the support
needed at any one center will be easier to secure and easier
to maintain if backed up by an articulated Need Analysis
from a larger body like centerNet.
3 What a humanities portal might look like? Will it actually
be a portal or should we imagine providing services to
existing university portals? Many universities are developing
student and faculty portals as are scholarly associations and
projects. Portals now seem dated in light of Web 2.0 social
technologies. For this reason we imagine that an IHP will
need to interoperate with other portals through “portlets”
or OpenSocial (code.google.com/apis/opensocial/) plug-ins
that can be added to project sites. The IHP will itself need to
play well with other resources rather than aim to organize
them.
4. What services might it provide? What services are already
provided by centers and projects? Can the portal provide
an entry point into the richness of existing resources?
The panelists will survey the variety of resources already
available to their communities and discuss what new
resources are needed. Above all a portal should be a door
into an area of inquiry -- panelists will refl ect on what they
and their community would expect to have easy access
to from something that promised to be an International
Humanities Portal.
5. Just as important as defi ning the services is imagining
how services might interoperate. A humanist familiar with
the web will know of resources from Voice of the Shuttle
to Intute: Arts and Humanities, but can we imagine how
these services might be brought together so that one can
search across them? Can we imagine a mashup of services
providing new and unanticipated possibilities?
6. What are the next steps? How can the case for an IHP be
strengthened? How can centerNet help, not hinder, projects
that want to develop and support components that meet
the needs of the community? One of the purposes of this
panel is to solicit feedback from the larger digital humanities
community.
Portals are typically characterized by two features. First, their
users can customize their account to show or hide particular
resources.. Thus users of the TAPoR portal, for example, can
define texts and tools that they want to use and ignore the rest. 
The ease of customization and the depth of customization are
important to users if they use portals regularly. Second, users
expect that a portal provides access to the breadth of services
and resources they need for a domain of inquiry. Thus students
expect a student portal to provide access to all the online
resources they need as a student, from the library account
to their course information. A portal should be just that -- a
door into a domain. Is it possible for an IHP to be on the one
hand easy to use (and customizable), and on the other hand
truly provide broad access to resources? Is it possible that an
IHP is too ambitious and would either be to complicated for
humanists to use or not broad enough in scope to be useful?
The answer in part lies in imagining an initial audience and
conducting the usability studies needed to understand what
they would expect. Thus we imagine an iterative process of
designing for a fi rst set of users and redesigning as we learn
more. This means a long term development commitment
which is beyond most project funding. The challenges are
enormous and we may be overtaken by commercial portals
like Google or Yahoo that provide most of what humanists
need. We believe, however, that the process of defi ning the
opportunities and challenges is a way to recognize what is
useful and move in a direction of collaboration. We hope that
in the discussion modest fi rst steps will emerge.
Bibliography
centerNet: http://www.digitalhumanities.org/centernet/
Detlor, Brian. Towards knowledge portals: From human issues
to intelligent agents. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 2004.
Intute: Arts and Humanities: http://www.intute.ac.uk/
artsandhumanities/
TAPoR: Text Analysis Portal for Research: http://portal.tapor.
ca
VoS: Voice of the Shuttle: http://vos.ucsb.edu/","txt","2","",""
"821","9","The Good, the Bad and the Ugly: Corralling an Okay Text Corpus from a Whole Heap o' Sources","1","An increasingly important variety of digital humanities activity
has recently arisen among Stanford’s computing humanists, an
approach to textual analysis that Franco Moretti has called
“distant reading” and Matthew Jockers has begun to formally
develop under the name of macro-analysis. At its most simple,
the approach involves making literary-historical arguments
based on statistical evidence from “comprehensive” text
corpora. One of the peculiarities of this activity is evident from
the very beginning of any foray into it: it nearly always requires
the creation of “comprehensive” literary corpora. This paper 
Digital Humanities 2008 _____________________________________________________________________________
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14
discusses the roles and challenges of the digital librarian in
supporting this type of research with specifi c emphasis on the
curation (creation, licensing, gathering, and manipulation) of a
statistically signifi cant corpus.
Because the arguments at stake are largely statistical, both the
size of the “population” of texts under examination, and any
inherent bias in the composition of the corpus, are potentially
signifi cant factors. Although the number of available electronic
texts from which to draw a research corpus is increasing
rapidly, thanks both to mass digitization efforts and to
expanding commercial offerings of digital texts, the variability
of these texts is likewise increasing: no longer can we count
on working only with well-behaved (or even well-formed)
TEI texts of canonical literary works; no longer can we count
on the relatively error-free re-keyed, proofread, marked-up
editions for which the humanities computing community has
spent so much effort creating standards and textual corpora
that abide by these standards.
In addition to full texts with XML (or SGML) markup that
come to us from the model editions and exemplary projects
that we have come to love (such as the Brown Women Writers
Project), and the high-quality licensed resources of similar
characteristics (such as Chadwyck Healey collections), we are
now additionally both blessed and cursed with the fruits of
mass digitization (both by our own hands and by commercial
and consortial efforts such as the Google Library Project and
Open Content Alliance), which come, for the most part, as
uncorrected (or very lightly corrected) OCR. Schreibman,
et al., 2008, have described University of Maryland efforts to
combine disparate sources into a single archive. And a similar
effort to incorporate “messy data” (from Usenet texts) into
usable corpora has been described in Hoffman, 2007; there is
also, of course, a rich literature in general corpus design. This
paper will discuss the application of lessons from these other
corpus-building projects to our own inclusion of an even more
variant set of sources into a corpus suitable for this particular
fl avor of literary study.
This digital librarian’s particular sympathies, like perhaps those
of many or most who participate in ADHO meetings, lie clearly
with what we might now call “good,” “old-fashioned,” TEIbased, full-text digital collections. We love the perfectionism of
“true” full text, the intensity and thoughtfulness and possibility
provided by rich markup, the care and reverence for the text
that have always been hallmarks of scholarly editing, and that
were embraced by the TEI community even for less formal
digital editions.
Now, though, in the days of “more” and “faster” digital text
production, we are forced to admit that most of these lessthan-perfect full-text collections and products offer signifi cant
advantages of scale and scope. While one certainly hesitates to
claim that quantity actually trumps quality, it may be true that
quantity can be transformed into quality of a sort different
from what we’re used to striving for. At the same time, the
“macro-analysis” and “distant reading” approaches demand
corpora on scales that we in the “intensely curated” digital
library had not really anticipated before. As in economics, it is
perhaps diffi cult to say whether increased supply has infl uenced
demand or vice versa, but regardless, we are certainly observing
something of a confl uence between mass approaches to the
study of literary history and mass digitization of its textual
evidence.
This paper examines, in a few case studies, the gathering
and manipulation of existing digital library sources, and the
creation of new digital texts to fi ll in gaps, with the aim of
creating large corpora for several “distant reading” projects at
Stanford. I will discuss the assessment of project requirements;
the identifi cation of potential sources; licensing issues; sharing
of resources with other institutions; and the more technical
issues around determining and obtaining “good-enough” text
accuracy; “rich-enough” markup creation, transformation and
normalization; and provision of access to the corpora in ways
that don’t threaten more everyday access to our digital library
resources. Finally, I’ll discuss some of the issues involved in
presenting, archiving, and preserving the resources we’ve
created for “special” projects so that they both fi t appropriately
into our “general” digital library, and will be useful for future
research.
References
Sebastian Hoffmann: Processing Internet-derived Text—
Creating a Corpus of Usenet Messages. Literary and
Linguistic Computing Advance Access published on June
1, 2007, DOI 10.1093/llc/fqm002. Literary and Linguistic
Computing 22: 151-165.
Susan Schreibman, Jennifer O’Brien Roper, and Gretchen
Gueguen: Cross-collection Searching: A Pandora’s Box or
the Holy Grail? Literary and Linguistic Computing Advance
Access published on April 1, 2008, DOI 10.1093/llc/fqm039.
Literary and Linguistic Computing 23: 13-25.","txt","2","","9164"
"822","9","Narrate or Describe: Macro-analysis of the 19th-century American Novel","1","Does the 19th-century American novel narrate, or does it
describe? In 1936, Georg Lukács argued that over the course
of the nineteenth century description replaced narration as the
dominant mode of the European (and especially French) novel.
What happens, we want to know, for the American novel?
We begin with a structuralist distinction between the logics
of narration and description: narration as the articulation of
the events that make up a story; description as the attribution
of features to characters, places, and objects in the story. We
then set out, with the help of computational linguistics, to
identify the computable sentence-level stylistic “signals” of
narration and description from a small training sample (roughly 
Digital Humanities 2008 _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
15
2,000 sentences), and thus to develop a model that can classify
narration and description in “the wild”—a corpus of over 800
American novels from 1789 to 1875. This paper will discuss
how we have refi ned our research problem and developed
our classifying model—trial-and-error processes both; our
initial results in “the wild”; and fi nally how macro-analysis of
this kind leads to new problems for literary history.
Existing scholarship suggests that “realist” description enters
the American novel with the historical novel; thus our initial
training set of samples was taken from 10 American historical
novels from the 1820s, 1830s, and 1840s (by J.F. Cooper and
his rivals). Participants in the Beyond Search workshop have
tagged random selections from these 10 novels. The unit of
selection is, for convenience, the chapter. Selected chapters
are broken (tokenized) into individual sentences and humantagged using a custom XML schema that allows for a “type”
attribute for each sentence element. Possible values for the
type attribute include “Description,” “Narration,” “Both,”
“Speech,” and “Other.” Any disagreement about tagging the
training set has been resolved via consensus. (Since the signals
for description may change over time—indeed, no small
problem for this study—we plan to add an additional training
sample from later in the corpus.)
Using a maximum-entropy classifi er we have begun to
investigate the qualities of the evolving training set and to
identify the stylistic “signals” that are unique to, or most
prevalent in, narrative and descriptive sentences. In the case
of description, for example, we fi nd a marked presence of
spatial prepositions, an above average percentage of nouns
and adjectives, a relatively low percentage of fi rst and second
person pronouns, above average sentence lengths, and a high
percentage of diverse words (greater lexical richness). From
this initial work it has become clear, however, that our fi nal
model will need to include not simply word usage data, but also
grammatical and lexical information, as well as contextualizing
information (i.e., the kinds of sentence that precede and follow
a given sentence, the sentence’s location in a paragraph). We
are in the process of developing a model that makes use of
part of speech sequences and syntactic tree structures, as well
as contextualizing information.
After a suitable training set has been completed and an
accurate classifying model has been constructed, our intention
is to “auto-tag” the entire corpus at the level of sentence.
Once the entire corpus has been tagged, a straightforward
quantitative analysis of the relative frequency of sentence
types within the corpus will follow. Here, the emphasis will be
placed on a time-based evaluation of description as a feature of
19th-century American fi ction. But then, if a pattern emerges,
we will have to explain it—and strictly quantitative analysis
will need to be supplemented by qualitative analysis, as we
interrogate not just what mode is prevalent when, but what
the modes might mean at any given time and how the modes
themselves undergo mutation.","txt","2","","9164"
"823","9","Tracking the ""Voice of Doxa"" in the Victorian Novel","1","The nineteenth-century British novel is known for its
moralizing: is it possible to defi ne this “voice of doxa,” or
conventional wisdom, in terms of computable, sentence-level
stylistic features? A familiar version of the voice of doxa is
the “interrupting narrator,” who addresses the reader in the
second person in order to clarify the meaning of the story.
This project seeks to go beyond simple narrative interruption
to the explication of ethical signals emitted in the process of
characterization (how the portrayal of a character unfolds
over the course of a novel). It also takes a more precise
look at the shift in tense noted by narratologists from the
past tense of the story to the present-tense of the discourse,
in which meaning can be elaborated in terms of proverbs or
truisms. (An example from Middlemarch: “[Fred] had gone
to his father and told him one vexatious affair, and he had left
another untold: in such cases the complete revelation always
produces the impression of a previous duplicity” 23). This
project is the fi rst attempt to generate a set of micro- stylistic
features that indicate the presence of ethical judgment.
Through an analysis of data derived through ad hoc harvesting
of frequently occurring lexical and syntactic patterns (e.g. word
frequencies, part of speech saturation, frequent grammatical
patterns, etc) and data derived through the application of
supervised classifi cation algorithms this research attempts to
determine a set of grammatical features that tend to cluster
around these moments of direct narrative discourse.
This research is an alternative application of the method
developed in Joe Shapiro’s Beyond Search workshop project
(see abstract above), which seeks to identify computable
stylistic differences between narrative and descriptive prose in
19th century American fi ction. In this work we seek to create
another category within the “descriptive,” a subcategory that
captures moments of explicitly moralized description: the
Voice of Doxa. We identify the formal aspects of this authorial
“voice” in order to “hunt” for similar moments, or occurrences,
in a series of novels. The work begins with a limited search
for patterns of characterization evident among characters in a
single George Eliot novel; from this we develop a model, which
we will then apply to the entire Eliot corpus. In the end, the
target corpus is extended to include 250 19th century British
novels wherein we roughly chart the evolutionary course of
the “ethical signal.""","txt","2","","9164"
"824","9","Hackfests, Designfests, and Writingfests: The Role of Intense Periods of Face-to-Face Collaboration in International Research Teams","1","As the authors of this paper have become increasingly active in
international, interdisciplinary, collaborative research projects,
we have progressively adopted a growing range of online
tools to help manage the activities. We’ve used Basecamp for
task assignment, Meeting Wizard for scheduling conference
calls, project listserves for discussion, and research wikis for
archiving the results. We have SVN for software versioning,
and Jira for tracking and prioritizing programming tasks. Our
websites provide a public face, with project rationales, contact
information, and repositories for research presentations and
articles. We also try whenever possible to provide online
prototypes, so that our readers have the opportunity to try
our interface experiments for themselves, with appropriate
warnings that things might be held together on the back end
with duct tape, and participant agreements for those occasions
when we hope to capture log records of what they are doing.
All of the online tools we use contribute to our productivity.
However, we have also become increasingly convinced of the
benefi ts of periodic face-to-face working sessions, where we
gather from the twelve-winded sky to focus our attention
on the project. In the words of Scott Ambler, “have team,
will travel.” The value of such face-to-face meetings is well
understood by distance educators (e.g. Davis and Fill 2007),
who see such focused time as a signifi cant factor in student
learning. We have been speculatively trying variations of our
working sessions, such as choice of location, numbers of
participants, types of work, and other logistical details like
meals and entertainment. Over the past three years, we have
held fourteen such events. They have involved a number of
participants ranging from as few as two to as many as fi fteen.
Nine of the events were dedicated to writing and designing;
three were used for programming and designing; one was
devoted just to programming, and another to just designing.
Our goal in this paper is to provide the insights we’ve gained
from these variations for the benefi t of other researchers
who are interested in trying their own project-oriented work
fests.
Digital Humanities 2008 _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
17
Types of Work
It is important that these not be meetings. No one expects
to get work done at a meeting, not in the sense of writing a
paper, designing a system, or programming, so the expectations
are at odds with the goal of the exercise. Meetings typically
carry a lot of connotative baggage, not least of which is
ineffi ciency and frustration, as expressed by the educational
videos with John Cleese entitled “Meetings, Bloody Meetings.”
Humanists are rarely trained in conducting meetings effi ciently
and productively, and it shows. By emphasizing to all the
participants that the goal is to work productively together in
the same room, we can hit the ground running and get a lot
accomplished in a short period of time. We have in almost
every case combined people who are working on different
kinds of tasks. In the two instances where we had only a single
task (programming and designing, respectively) we had a sense
of accomplishing much less. It is diffi cult in some ways to verify
this perception, but the energy levels of participants in both
cases seemed lower. Our interpretation would be, not that
there is competition per se between different disciplines, but
that it is harder to judge how much another disciplinary group
is accomplishing, and that uncertainty helps to keep people
motivated.
Location, Location, Location
There are many temptations to locate the events in places
that will be convenient. We have found that in this instance it is
better to avoid temptation if possible. For example, if there are
fi ve participants and three are from the same city, why not hold
the event in that city? It reduces costs, in particular for travel
and accommodations, and the participants can also serve as
hosts for their out-of-town colleagues. In practice, however, we
have found that holding a hackfest in some of the participant’s
hometown, lowers the hackfest’s productivity level. The
biggest obstacle is the local demands on the attention of the
resident participants. We have found that local participants are
constantly on call for work and domestic commitments, which
means they tend to absent themselves from the event. One
local host for a comparatively large number of participants is
less problematic, since the periodic absence of one participant
is not as critical a factor in maintaining the momentum of
the entire group, but for small groups it can be signifi cant.
An alternative is therefore to transport the participants to
a pleasant working location, provided that the attractions
of the location are not so powerful as to be distracting. We
are all familiar with conferences in exotic locations where
participants have diffi culty focusing on the conference because
the beach is calling. Given this mixture of considerations, our
current guideline is therefore to use a location no closer than
an hour’s travel from some cluster of the participants, so that
both the overall travel costs and local demands for time can
be reduced.
Participants
In general, the participants on our research projects know what
they are doing. In fact, many of them are eager to get going on
tasks that have fallen behind due to the other demands on
their time. So in general, it has not been necessary to provide
a large administrative overhead in terms of controlling and
monitoring their activities during the event. Given the nature
of interdisciplinary collaboration, too much attempt to
control is counter-productive in any case. However, the nature
of task assignment during a hackfest is a matter that may
require some fi nesse. We have made errors where we had
someone working on an assignment that was not the kind of
assignment they could tackle with enthusiasm. In these cases,
a little preliminary consultation with the individual participant
would have made a big improvement. This consultation could
have occurred either before the hackfest or even upon arrival,
but it was a misstep not to have it early. In terms of numbers
of participants, it appears that you need enough people to
generate momentum. Two or three is not enough, although
four seems to be. Our largest group so far has been fi fteen,
which is somewhat large to co-ordinate, and they end up
working anyway in smaller groups of 2-5, but a larger group
also makes the event more dynamic and can provide greater
opportunities for cross-disciplinary consultation.
Our hackfests are set up according to a fl at organizational
structure. All participants are treated as equals and decisions
are, as much as possible, based on consensus. Even when
planning a hackfest, we consult with all invited participants
on potential locations, duration, and objectives. In rare cases
where leadership is required during the event, it is clear to
everyone that the overriding structure is based on equality.
For mid-sized groups, we fi nd that it is useful to have a “rover”
or two, who constantly moves between the different groups
and tries to identify potential problems and opportunities for
bridging group efforts.
A further point related to participants is to, whenever possible,
consider the past, present, and future of the project. It is too
easy to focus on what needs to be done immediately and to
only include those who are currently active in the project.
However, we have found that including previous participants
– even if they are not currently active on the project – helps
to remind the team of some of the institutional history,
providing some context for past decisions and the current
situation. Similarly, a hackfest is an excellent opportunity to
recruit prospective new colleagues in an intense and enjoyable
training experience.
Meals and Accommodations
We want these events to be highlights for people on the
projects, so it is important that the meals and accommodations
be the best that we can reasonably afford. Eating, snacking,
and coffee breaks provide time for discussions and developing
social capital, both of which are signifi cant for the success of
a research project. We have a senior colleague in computing 
Digital Humanities 2008 _____________________________________________________________________________
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18
science, not related to our group, who holds hackfests at his
cottage, where the graduate students take turns doing the
cooking. We would hesitate to recommend this approach, since
there would be lost time for the cook that could be more
productively used on the project. At our most recent event,
we hired a caterer. This strategy also worked well because it
removed the added stress of fi nding, three times a day, a good
place to feed everyone. In terms of sleeping accommodations,
we have tended to provide one room per participant, since
the additional stress of living with a roommate seems an
unnecessary potential burden to introduce; private rooms can
also be a space to individually unwind away from what may be
an unusually concentrated period of time with the same group
of colleagues.
Work Rooms
The situated environment of work is very important. We have
worked in the common areas of cluster housing, in the lounges
of hotels, in boardrooms, in university labs, and on one occasion
in a rustic lodge. We hesitate to say it, because there were
problems with the internet connectivity and task assignment,
but our four days in the rustic lodge were probably the most
successful so far. We were in rural Alberta, but there was a
nearby pond, a place for ultimate Frisbee games, and there
were fi re pits, hot tubs, and wood chopping that we could
amuse ourselves with during breaks. There is a value value in
having varied forms of entertainment and leisure, which can
provide mental breaks. We prefer if possible to have a mix
of physical activities and pure entertainment (music, movies),
although it is important to be sensitive to different tastes.
Pair Programming
Even when there are a dozen participants, it is normally the
case that we end up working in smaller groups of 2, 3, or 4. The
dynamics of the group and the task can indicate the appropriate
group size. We have also recently tried pair programming,
where two programmers both work on the same computer. It
seems to be a useful approach, and we intend to do more of
it. However, the type of activity that can be paired-up seems
to depend on the nature of the participants’ discipline and
typical work approach. For example, we have found that two
designers work well together on concept planning and paper
prototypes, but they need divided tasks, and two computers,
when it comes to creating a digital sketch.
Wrapping-up
We think that if participants feel, at the end of the hackfest,
that the project has moved forward and their time was well
spent, they tend to continue progressing on the project. We
have tried a few different methods to create that sense of
conclusion and, therefore, satisfaction. At Kramer pond, for
example, we concluded the hackfest by a show-andtell of
tasks accomplished during the event, and an agreement about
the next steps participants would take upon returning home.
We have also tried to end a hackfest with a conference paper
submission. This strategy has had mixed results – about half of
the intended papers managed to reach the submission stage.
Documentation
Increasingly, we have focused a portion of our hackfest energy on
documenting the event. We have used image posting sites, such
as fl ickr.com, wiki posts, and video recording. Documentation
serves as a reminder of agreed-upon and accomplished tasks,
fosters a sense of satisfaction with the activity, and maintains a
record of successes (and failures) emergent from the activity.
Future Directions
Although there are costs associated with hackfesting, we feel
that the benefi ts so far have been tremendous. Projects typically
take a quantum leap forward around the momentum that can
be gained at a hackfest. We need to learn more about ramping
up, and we are also interested in better documentation of the
events themselves, perhaps in the form of videography.
References
Ambler, Scott. 2002. “Bridging the Distance.” http://www.ddj.
com/article/printableArticle.jhtml?articleID=184414899&dep
t_url=/architect/
Davis, Hugh, and Karen Fill. 2007. Embedding Blended
Learning in a University’s Teaching Culture: Experiences and
Refl ections. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38/5, pp.
817-828.","txt","2","","9165"
"825","9","Hackey: A Rapid Online Prototyping Game for Designers and Programmers","1","Researchers in Humanities Computing are frequently involved
in the production of new online software systems. The
specifi c roles vary, with some researchers work primarily
as humanists interested in building a tool in order to carry
out their own next project, while others may be archivists
creating a digital collection as a public resource, programmers
developing prototype systems for testing a concept, or
designers experimenting with new approaches to interfaces
or visualizations. The semi-serious slogan of the Text Analysis
Developer’s Alliance (TADA) summarizes the activity in this
way: “Real humanists make tools.” In the case of design of the
tools, it is useful to consider three levels, which in some contexts
we have referred to as basic, advanced, and experimental.
A basic tool is one that will run without diffi culty in every
contemporary browser. It provides functionality that everyone
expects. A search function is a good example. In a basic tool, it
is usual to follow the current best practices for online design,
with due attention to the standard heuristics that can help 
Digital Humanities 2008 _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
19
ensure that the result is usable. Nielsen (2000) provides a list
of ten such criteria: (1) Use simple and natural dialogue. (2)
Speak the users’ language. (3) Minimize user memory load.
(4) Consistency. (5) Feedback. (6) Clearly marked exists. (7)
Shortcuts. (8) Good error messages. (9) Prevent errors. (10)
Help and documentation.
An advanced tool is a basic tool with more features. For
example, an advanced search function might provide support
for Boolean operators, or allow nested queries, or include
proximity searches, where a search is successful if the target
words occur with in a specifi ed number of words from each
other. Advanced tools may have an experimental dimension,
but they are still largely recognizable as something a typical
user can be expected to have seen before. They are still within
the realm of contemporary best practices.
In the case of experimental tools, however, the goal is not
primarily to implement the current best practices, but instead
to experiment with new visual forms for information display
and online interaction. Often the prototype will serve as the
basis for user testing involving a new opportunity for action.
Examples might include Shneiderman et al’s (1992) concept of
direct manipulation, where the data and the interface are so
tightly coupled that the visualization is the interface, Bederson’s
(2001) approach to zoomable user interfaces (ZUIs) where
levels of magnifi cation become central to interaction, or Harris
and Kamvar’s (2007) constellation approach to emotional
expression in the blogosphere, where the results of blog
scrapes are plotted as patterns that dynamically emerge from
a constantly changing visual fi eld. As Lev Manovich put it during
a question and answer period in a paper session at Digital
Humanities 2007, “in this line of research, a prototype is itself
a theory.”
The experimental design of interfaces and visualization tools
is a special case for researchers in humanities computing,
because it involves the extension of concepts into areas that
are not well defi ned. In our research projects, we typically
have a content expert, programmer, and visual communication
designer working closely together in a cycle of static sketching,
kinetic sketching, prototyping, and refi nement, where each
iteration may require as much as several months or as little as
a few hours. One of our ongoing interests is in fi nding ways to
facilitate the process.
In this paper, we describe our initial experiments in creating
an online system that encourages the research team to focus
on details taken one at a time, in order to support rapid
turnaround in design and development. Hackey provides
the designer and programmer with a means of focusing on
individual issues in the process, and rapidly exchanging idea,
sketches, and prototypes. The game also includes a third role,
in the form of the “pit boss” who lurks on the conversation
and can step in to provide guidance or suggestions. Either
player can also choose during a turn to address a question to
the pit boss, usually in the form of clarifi cation or appeal for
arbitration of some kind.
In addition to encouraging rapid turnaround, Hackey is also
intended to encourage fun. By treating the exchanges as a
kind of collaborative game, there is room for the players to
contextualize their activity as more than a task list or a series
of Jira tickets. Hackey provides a framework for discussions
that can be at the same time serious and lighthearted. The
principle is that the bounds of discourse are opened slightly
by the game metaphor, to allow for mutual interrogation of
the underlying assumptions held by both the designer and the
programmer. This framework addresses an ongoing diffi culty
with interdisciplinary collaboration, where experts from
two fi elds need to be able to fi nd common ground that can
accommodate the expertise of both, without undo compromise
of the disciplinary expertise of either party. What we would
like to avoid is the situation where the programmers feel that
they are “working for” the designers, or the designers feel that
they are not considered important partners in the process by
the programmers, and that their proposals can be rejected out
of hand without discussion. In this respect, the third party “pit
boss” role is useful, since in extreme situations it can serve as
a court of second appeal for either of the players, and under
normal conditions it constitutes a presence that helps maintain
the spirit of free and open exchange of ideas.
Future Directions
The Hackey prototype is still in its early stages, and we are still
in the phase of experimentation, but we hope to make it more
widely available for interdisciplinary teams who are seeking
new methods for collaborative work. By logging their dialogues
in the system and treating these records as an objective of
interpretive study, we hope to be able to elaborate the original
concept with additional features appropriate to the general
goals.
References
Bederson, B. 2001. PhotoMesa: A zoomable image browser
using quantum treemaps and bubblemaps. Proceedings of the
14th annual ACM symposium on user interface software and
technology. 71–80. http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/502348.502359.
Harris, J. and S. Kamvar. 2007. We feel fi ne. http://wefeelfi ne.
org.
MONK. 2007. Metadata Offer New Knowledge. www.
monkproject.org.
Nielsen, J. 2000. Designing web usability: The practice of simplicity.
Indianapolis, IN: New Riders.
Shneiderman, B., Williamson, C. and Ahlberg, C. (1992).
Dynamic Queries: Database Searching by Direct
Manipulation. Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human
factors in computing systems. pp. 669-670. http://doi.acm.
org/10.1145/142750.143082. Accessed March 10, 2006.","txt","2","","9165"
"826","9","Rules of the Order: The Sociology of Large, Multi-Institutional Software Development Projects","1","Digital Humanities is increasingly turning toward tool
development, both as a research modality and as a practical
means of exploiting the vast collections of digital resources
that have been amassing over the last twenty years. Like the
creation of digital collections, software development is an
inherently collaborative activity, but unlike digital collections,
complex software systems do not easily allow for loosely
aggregated collaborations. With digital text collections, it
might be possible to have several contributors working at
their own pace—even at several institutions—with a high
level of turnover and varying local workfl ows, but this is rarely
possible with software development. However discretized the
components of a system might be, the fi nal product is invariably
a tightly integrated whole with numerous dependencies and a
rigidly unifi ed architectural logic.
For most digital humanities practitioners, amassing a team of
developers almost requires that work be distributed across
institutions and among a varied group of people. Any nontrivial application requires experts from a number of different
development subspecialties, including such areas as interface
design, relational database management, programming,
software engineering, and server administration (to name only
a few). Few research centers in DH have the staff necessary
for undertaking large application development projects, and
even the ones that do quickly fi nd that crossdepartmental
collaborations are needed to assemble the necessary
expertise.
There are a great many works on and studies of project
management for software development, but very few of these
resources address the particular situation of a widely distributed
group of developers. Most of the popular methodologies
(Rational Unifi ed Process, Theory of Contraints, Event Chain)
assume a group of developers who are all in one place with
a clear management structure. More recent “agile methods”
(such as Extreme Project Management) invariably stipulate a
small groups of developers. Reading the ever useful (if slightly
dispiriting) works on project failure, such as Brooks’s famous
1975 book The Mythical Man Month, one wonders whether
project success is even possible for a distributed group.
Development of open source software might seem an
instructive counter-example of project success arising from
massive, distributed teams of developers, but as several studies
have shown, the core development team for even the largest
software development projects (Apache, Mozilla, and the
Linux kernel, for example) are considerably smaller than the
hundreds of people listed as contributors might suggest, and
in most cases, the project was able to build upon a core code
base that was originally developed in a single location with
only a few developers.
The MONK Project, which endeavors to build a portable
system for undertaking text analysis and visualization with
large, full text literary archives, might seem a perfect storm
of management obstacles. The project has two primary
investigators, half a dozen co-investigators, nearly forty
project participants at eight different institutions, and includes
professors of all ranks, staff programmers, research fellows,
and graduate students. The intended system, moreover,
involves dozens of complex components requiring expertise
in a number of programming languages, architectural principles,
and data storage methods, and facility with a broad range of
text analytical techniques (including text mining and statistical
natural language processing).
This paper offers some refl ections on the trials and triumphs
of project management at this scale using the MONK Project
as an example. It focuses particularly on the sociology of
academia as a key element to be acknowledged in management
practice, and concludes that honoring existing institutional
boundaries and work patterns is essential to maintaining a
cohesive (if, fi nally, hierarchical) management structure. It also
considers the ways in which this apparently simple notion runs
counter to the cultural practices and decision making methods
of ordinary academic units—practices which are so ingrained
as to seem almost intuitive to many.
The MONK Project has from the beginning studiously avoided
references to cloisters and habits in its description of itself.
This paper offers a playful analogy in contrast to that tradition,
by suggesting that most of what one needs to know about
project management was set forth by Benedict of Nursia
in his sixth-century Rule for monks. Particular emphasis is
placed on Benedict’s belief that social formations become
increasingly fractured as they move from the cenobitic ideal
(which, I suggest, is roughly analogous to the structure of the
typical research center), and his belief that the Abbot (like the
modern project manager) must assert a kind of benevolent
despotism over those within his charge, even if the dominant
values of the group privilege other, more democratic forms of
leadership.
References
Benedict of Nursia. Regula. Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press,
1981.
Brooks, Frederick. The Mythical Man Month: Essays on Software
Development. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1975.
DeCarlo, Douglas. Extreme Project Management. New York:
Wiley-Jossey, 2004.
Kruchten, Philippe. The Rational Unifi ed Process: An Introduction.
3rd ed. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley, 2003.
Leach, Lawrence P. Critical Chain Project Management. 2nd ed.
Norwood, MA.: Artech, 2004.
Digital Humanities 2008 _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
21
Mockus, Audris. Roy T. Fielding, James D. Herbsleb. “Two Case
Studies of Open Source Software Development: Apache
and Mozilla.” ACM Transactions on Software Engineering and
Methodology 11.3 (2002): 309-46.
Skinner, David C. Introduction to Decision Analysis. 2nd ed.
Sugar Land, TX: Probabilistic, 1999.","txt","2","","9165"
"827","9","Sustainability in Cultural Heritage Management","1","Introduction During the last decades, a large amount of information in cultural heritage institutions have been digitised, creating the basis for many different usage scenarios. We have been working in this area for the last 15 years, through projects such as the Museum Project in Norway (Holmen et al., 2004). We have developed routines, standardised methods and software for digitisation, collection management, research and education. In this paper, we will discuss long term sustainability of digital cultural heritage information. We will discuss the creation of sustainable digital collections, as well as some problems we have experienced in this process. We have divided the description of sustainability in three parts. First we will describe briefl y the technical part of sustainability work (section 2). After all, this is a well known research area on its own, and solutions to many of the problems at hand are known, although they may be hard to implement. We will then use the main part of the paper to discuss what we call organisational sustainability (section 3), which may be even more important than the technical part in the future — in our opinion, it may also be more diffi cult to solve. Finally, we briefl y address the scholarly part of sustainability (section 4). Technical Sustainability Technical sustainability is divided in two parts: preservation of the digital bit patterns and the ability to interpret the bit pattern according to the original intention. This is an area where important work is being done by international bodies such as UNESCO (2003), as well as national organisations such as the Library of Congress in the USA (2007), and the Digital Preservation Coalition in the UK (DPC,2001). It is evident that the use of open, transparent formats make sit easier to use preserved digital content. In this respect XML encoding is better compared to proprietary word processor formats, and uncompressed TIFF is more transparent than company-developed compressed image formats. In a museum context, though, there is often a need to store advanced reproductions of objects and sites, and there have been problems to fi nd open formats able to represent, in full, content exported from proprietary software packages. An example of this is CAD systems, where the open format SVG does not have the same expressive power as the proprietary DXF format (Westcott, 2005, p.6). It is generally a problem for applications using new formats, especially when they are heavily dependent upon presentation. Organisational Sustainability Although there is no sustainability without the technical part, described above, taken care of, the technical part alone is not enough. The organisation of the institution responsible for the information also has to be taken into consideration. In an information system for memory institutions it is important to store the history of the information. Digital versions of analogue sources should be stored as accurate replica, with new information linked to this set of historical data so that one always has access to up-to-date versions of the information, as well as to historical stages in the development of the information (Holmenetal.,2004, p.223). To actually store the fi les, the most important necessity is large, stable organisations taking responsibility. If the responsible institution is closed without a correct transfer of custody for the digital material, it can be lost easily. An example of this is the Newham Archive (Dunning, 2001) incident. When the Newham Museum Archaeological Service was closed down, only a quick and responsible reaction of the sacked staff saved the result of ten years of work in the form of a data dump on fl oppies. Even when the data fi les are kept, lack of necessary metadata may render them hard to interpret. In the Newham case the data were physically saved but a lot of work was needed to read the old data formats, and some of the information was not recoverable. Similar situations may even occur in large, stable organisations. The Bryggen Museum in Bergen, Norway, is a part of the University Museum in Bergen and documents the large excavation of the medieval town at the harbour in Bergen which took place from the 1950s to the 1970s. The museum stored the information in a large database. Eventually the system became obsolete and the database fi les were stored at the University. But there were no explicit routines for the packing and future unpacking of such digital information. Later, when the fi les were imported into a new system, parts of the original information were not recovered. Fortunately all the excavation documentation was originally done on paper so in principle no information was lost. Such incidents are not uncommon in the museum world. A general problem, present in both examples above, is the lack of metadata. The scope of each database table and column is well known when a system is developed, but if it is not documented, such meta-information is lost. In all sectors there is a movement away from paper to born digital information. When born digital data based on archaeological excavations is messed up or lost – and we are afraid this will happen – then parts of our cultural heritage are lost forever. An archaeological excavation destroys its own sources and an excavation cannot be repeated. For many current excavation projects a loss of data like the Bryggen Museum incident would have been a real catastrophe. The Newham example demonstrates weak planning for negative external effects on information sustainability, whereas the Bergen example shows how a lack of proper organisational responsibility for digital information may result in severe information loss. It is our impression that in many memory institutions there is too little competence on how to introduce information technologies in an organisation to secure both interchange of information between different parts of the organisation and long-term sustainability of the digital information. A general lack of strategies for long term preservation is documented in a recent Norwegian report (Gausdal, 2006, p.23). When plans are made in order to introduce new technology and information systems into an organisation one has to adapt the system to the organisation or the organisation to the system. This is often neglected and the information systems are not integrated in the everyday work of the staff. Thus, the best way to success is to do this in collaboration and understanding with the employees. This was pointed out by Professor Kristen Nygaard. In a paper published in 1992 describing the uptake of Simula I from 1965 onwards, Nygaard states: “It was evident that the Simula-based analyses were going to have a strong infl uence on the working conditions of the employees: job content, work intensity and rhythm, social cooperation patterns were typical examples” (Nygaard, 1992, p. 53). Nygaard focused on the situation in the ship building industry, which may be somewhat distant from the memory institutions. Mutate mutandis, the human mechanisms are the same. There is always a risk of persons in the organisation sabotaging or neglecting new systems. Scholarly Sustainability When a research project is fi nished, many researchers see the report or articles produced as the only output, and are confi dent that the library will take care of their preservation. But research in the humanities and beyond are often based on material collected by the researcher, such as ethnographic objects, sound recordings, images, and notes. The scholarly conclusions are then based on such sources. To sustain links from sources to testable conclusions, they have to be stored so that they are accessible to future researchers. But even in museums, this is often done only in a partial manner. Objects may fi nd their way into the collections. But images, recordings and notes are often seen as the researcher’s private property and responsibility, and may be lost when her career is ended. Examples of this are hard to document, though, because such decisions are not generally made public. Conclusion Sustainability of data in the cultural heritage sector is, as we have seen, not just a technical challenge. The sustainability is eased by the use of open and transparent standards. It is necessary to ensure the existence of well funded permanent organisation like national archives and libraries. Datasets from museums are often not considered to lie within the preservation scope of the existing organisations. Either this has to be changed or the large museums have to act as digital archives of museum data in general. However, the most important measure to ensure sustainability is to increase the awareness of the challenge among curators and scholars. If not, large amounts of irreplaceable research documentation will continue to be lost. References DPC(2001): “Digital preservation coalition”. http://www. dpconline.org/graphics. Dunning, Alastair(2001): “Excavating data: Retrieving the Newham archive”. http://ahds.ac.uk/creating/case-studies/ newham/. Gausdal, Ranveig Låg (editor) (2006): Cultural heritage for all — on digitisation, digital preservation and digital dissemination in the archive, library and museum sector. A report by the Working Group on Digitisation, the Norwegian Digital Library. ABM-Utvikling. Holmen, Jon; Ore, Christian-Emil and Eide,Øyvind(2004): “Documenting two histories at once: Digging into archaeology”. In: Enter the Past. The E-way into the Four Dimensions of Cultural Heritage. BAR, BAR International Series 1227, pp. 221-224 LC(2007): “The library of congress. Digital preservation. http://www.digitalpreservation.gov. Nygaard, Kristen(1992): “How many choices do we make? How many are diffi cult? In: Software Development and Reality Construction, edited by Floyd C., Züllighoven H., Budde R., and R., Keil-Slawik. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 52-59. UNESCO (2003): “Charter on the preservation of digital heritage. Adopted at the 32nd session of the 9/10 general conference of UNESCO” Technical Report, UNESCO. http:// portal.unesco.org/ci/en/fi les/13367/10700115911Charter_ en.pdf/Charter_en.pdf. Westcott, Keith(2005): Preservation Handbook. Computer Aided Design (CAD). Arts and Humanities Data Service. http:// ahds.ac.uk/preservation/cad-preservation-handbook.pdf.","txt","2","","9166"
"828","9","Sustaining Collection Value: Managing Collection/Item Metadata Relationships","1","Introduction Collections of texts, images, artefacts, and other cultural objects are usually designed to support particular research and scholarly activities. Toward that end collections themselves, as well as the items in the collections, are carefully developed and described. These descriptions indicate such things as the purpose of the collection, its subject, the method of selection, size, nature of contents, coverage, completeness, representativeness, and a wide range of summary characteristics, such as statistical features. This information enables collections to function not just as aggregates of individual data items but as independent entities that are in some sense more than the sum of their parts, as intended by their creators and curators [Currall et al., 2004,Heaney, 2000,Lagoze et al., 2006, Palmer, 2004]. Collection-level metadata, which represents this information in computer processable form, is thus critical to the distinctive intellectual and cultural role of collections as something more than a set of individual objects. Unfortunately, collection-level metadata is often unavailable or ignored by retrieval and browsing systems, with a corresponding loss in the ability of users to fi nd, understand, and use items in collections [Lee, 2000, Lee, 2003, Lee, 2005, Wendler, 2004]. Preventing this loss of information is particularly diffi cult, and particularly important, for “metasearch”, where itemlevel descriptions are retrieved from a number of different collections simultaneously, as is the case in the increasingly distributed search environment [Chistenson and Tennant, 2005, Dempsey, 2005, Digital Library Federation, 2005, Foulonneau et al., 2005, Lagoze et al., 2006, Warner et al., 2007]. The now familiar example of this challenge is the “‘on a horse’ problem”, where a collection with the collection-level subject “Theodore Roosevelt” has a photograph with the item-level annotation “on a horse” [Wendler, 2004] Item-level access across multiple collections (as is provided not only by popular Internet search engines, but also specialized federating systems, such as OAI portals) will not allow the user to effectively use a query with keywords “Roosevelt” and “horse” to fi nd this item, or, if the item is retrieved using item-level metadata alone, to use collection-level information to identify the person on the horse as Roosevelt. The problem is more complicated and consequential than the example suggests and the lack of a systematic understanding of the nature of the logical relationships between collectionlevel metadata and item-level metadata is an obstacle to the development of remedies. This understanding is what is required not only to guide the development of contextaware search and exploitation, but to support management and curation policies as well. The problem is also timely: even as recent research continues to confi rm the key role that collection context plays in the scholarly use of information resources [Brockman et al., 2001, Palmer, 2004], the Internet has made the context-free searching of multiple collections routine. In what follows we describe our plans to develop a framework for classifying and formalizing collection-level/item-level metadata relationships. This undertaking is part of a larger project, recently funded by US Institute for Museum and Library Services (IMLS), to develop tools for improved retrieval and exploitation across multiple collections.1 Varieties of Collection/Item Metadata Relationships In some cases the relationship between collection-level metadata and item-level metadata attributes appears similar to non-defeasible inheritance. For instance, consider the Dublin Core Collections Application Profi le element marcrel: OWN, adapted from the MARC cataloging record standard. It is plausible that within many legal and institutional contexts whoever owns a collection owns each of the items in the collection, and so if a collection has a value for the marcrel: OWN attribute then each member of the collection will have the same value for marcrel:OWN. (For the purpose of our example it doesn’t matter whether or not this is actually true of marcrel:OWN, only that some attributes are sometimes used by metadata librarians with an understanding of this sort, while others, such as dc:identifi er, are not). In other cases the collection-level/item-level metadata relationship is almost but not quite this simple. Consider the collection-level attribute myCollection:itemType, intended to characterize the type of objects in a collection, with values such as “image,” “text,” “software,” etc. (we assume heterogeneous collections).2 Unlike the preceding case we cannot conclude that if a collection has the value “image” for myCollection: itemType then the items in that collection also have the value “image” for that same attribute. This is because an item which is an image is not itself a collection of images and therefore cannot have a non-null value for myCollection:itemType. However, while the rule for propagating the information represented by myCollection:itemType from collections to items is not simple propagation of attribute and value, it is nevertheless simple enough: if a collection has a value, say “image,” for myCollection:itemType, then the items in the collection have the same value, “image” for a corresponding attribute, say, myItem:type, which indicates the type of item (cf. the Dublin Core metadata element dc:type). The attribute myItem:type has the same domain of values as myCollection: itemType, but a different semantics.  When two metadata attributes are related as myCollection: itemType and myItem:type we might say the fi rst can be vconverted to the other. Roughly: a collection-level attribute A v-converts to an item-level attribute B if and only if whenever a collection has the value z for A, every item in the collection has the value z for B. This is the simplest sort of convertibility — the attribute changes, but the value remains the same. Other sorts of conversion will be more complex. We note that the sort of propagation exemplifi ed by marcrel:OWN is a special case of v-convertibility: marcrel:OWN v-converts to itself. This analysis suggests a number of broader issues for collection curators. Obviously the conversion of collection-level metadata to item-level metadata, when possible, can improve discovery and exploitation, especially in item-focused searching across multiple collections. But can we even in the simplest case be confi dent of conversion without loss of information? For example, it may be that in some cases an “image” value for myCollection:itemType conveys more information than the simple fact that each item in the collection has “image” value for myItem:type. Moreover there are important collection-level attributes that both (i) resist any conversion and (ii) clearly result in loss of important information if discarded. Intriguingly these attributes turn out to be carrying information that is very tightly tied to the distinctive role the collection is intended to play in the support of research and scholarship. Obvious examples are metadata indicating that a collection was developed according to some particular method, designed for some particular purpose, used in some way by some person or persons in the past, representative (in some respect) of a domain, had certain summary statistical features, and so on. This is precisely the kind of information that makes a collection valuable to researchers, and if it is lost or inaccessible, the collection cannot be useful, as a collection, in the way originally intended by its creators. The DCC/CIMR Project These issues were initially raised during an IMLS Digital Collections and Content (DCC) project, begun at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 2003. That project developed a collection-level metadata schema3 based on the RSLP4 and Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI) and created a collection registry for all the digital collections funded through the Institute of Museum and Library Services National Leadership Grant (NLG) since 1998, with some Library Services and Technology Act (LSTA) funded collections included since 20065 . The registry currently contains records for 202 collections. An item-level metadata repository was also developed, which so far has harvested 76 collections using the OAI-PMH protocol6 . Our research initially focused on overcoming the technical challenges of aggregating large heterogeneous collections of item-level records and gathering collections descriptions from contributors. We conducted studies on how content contributors conceived of the roles of collection descriptions in digital environments [Palmer and Knutson, 2004, Palmer et al., 2006], and conducted preliminary usability work. These studies and related work on the CIC Metadata Portal7 , suggest that while the boundaries around digital collections are often blurry, many features of collections are important for helping users navigate and exploit large federated repositories, and that collection and item-level descriptions should work in concert to benefi t certain kinds of user queries [Foulonneau et al., 2005]. In 2007 we received a new three year IMLS grant to continue the development of the registry and to explore how a formal description of collection-level/item-level metadata relationships could help registry users locate and use digital items. This latter activity, CIMR, (Collection/Item Metadata Relationships), consists of three overlapping phases. The fi rst phase is developing a logic-based framework of collection-level/ itemlevel metadata relationships that classifi es metadata into varieties of convertibility with associated rules for propagating information between collection and item levels and supporting further inferencing. Next we will conduct empirical studies to see if our conjectured taxonomy matches the understanding and behavior of metadata librarians, metadata specifi cation designers, and registry users. Finally we will design and implement pilot applications using the relationship rules to support searching, browsing, and navigation of the DCC Registry. These applications will include non-convertible and convertible collection-level/item-level metadata relationships. One outcome of this project will be a proposed specifi cation for a metadata classifi cation code that will allow metadata specifi cation designers to indicate the collectionlevel/itemlevel metadata relationships intended by their specifi cation. Such a specifi cation will in turn guide metadata librarians in assigning metadata and metadata systems designers in designing systems that can mobilize collection level metadata to provide improved searching, browsing, understanding, and use by end users. We will also draft and make electronically available RDF/OWL bindings for the relationship categories and inference rules. Preliminary Guidance for Practitioners A large part of the problem of sustainability is ensuring that information will be valuable, and as valuable as possible, to multiple audiences, for multiple purposes, via multiple tools, and over time. Although we have only just begun this project, already some preliminary general recommendations can be made to the different stakeholders in collection management. Note that tasks such as propagation must be repeated not only as new objects are added or removed but, as new information about objects and collections becomes available. For metadata standards developers: 1. Metadata standards should explicitly document the relationships between collectionlevel metadata and itemlevel metadata. Currently we have neither the understanding nor the formal mechanisms for such documentation but they should be available soon. For systems designers: 2. Information in convertible collection-level metadata should be propagated to items in order to make contextual information fully available to users, especially users working across multiple collections. (This is not a recommendation for how to manage information internally, but for how to represent it to the user; relational tables may remain in normal forms.) 3. Information in item-level metadata should, where appropriate, be propagated to collection level metadata. 4. Information in non-convertible collection-level metadata must, to the fullest extent possible, be made evident and available to users. For collection managers: 5. Information in non-convertible metadata must be a focus of data curation activities if collections are to retain and improve their usefulness over time. When formal specifi cations and tools based on them are in place, relationships between metadata at the collection and item levels will integrated more directly into management and use. In the mean time, attention and sensitivity to the issues we raise here can still improve matters through documentation and policies, and by informing system design. Acknowledgments This research is supported by a 2007 IMLS NLG Research & Demonstration grant hosted by the GSliS Center for Informatics Research in Science and Scholarship (CIRSS). Project documentation is available at http://imlsdcc.grainger. uiuc. edu/about.asp#documentation. We have benefi ted considerably from discussions with other DCC/CIMR project members and with participants in the IMLS DCC Metadata Roundtable, including: Timothy W. Cole, Thomas Dousa, Dave Dubin, Myung-Ja Han, Amy Jackson, Mark Newton , Carole L. Palmer, Sarah L. Shreeves, Michael Twidale, Oksana Zavalina References [Brockman et al., 2001] Brockman, W., Neumann, L., Palmer, C. L., and Tidline, T. J. (2001). Scholarly Work in the Humanities and the Evolving Information Environment. Digital Library Federation/Council on Library and Information Resources, Washington, D.C. [Chistenson and Tennant, 2005] Chistenson, H. and Tennant, R. (2005). Integrating information resources: Principles, technologies, and approaches. Technical report, California Digital Library. [Currall et al., 2004] Currall, J., Moss, M., and Stuart, S. (2004). What is a collection? Archivaria, 58:131–146. [Dempsey, 2005] Dempsey, L. (2005). From metasearch to distributed information environments. Lorcan Dempsey’s weblog. Published on the World Wide Web at http:// orweblog.oclc.org/archives/000827.html. [Digital Library Federation, 2005] Digital Library Federation (2005). The distributed library: OAI for digital library aggregation: OAI scholars advisory panel meeting, June 20–21, Washington, D.C. Published on the World Wide Web at http:// www.diglib. org/architectures/oai/imls2004/OAISAP05.htm. [Foulonneau et al., 2005] Foulonneau, M., Cole, T., Habing, T. G., and Shreeves, S. L. (2005). Using collection descriptions to enhance an aggregation of harvested itemlevel metadata. In ACM, editor, Proceedings of the 5th ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, pages 32–41, New York. ACM/ IEEE-CS, ACM Press. [Heaney, 2000] Heaney, M. (2000). An analytical model of collections and their catalogues. Technical report, UK Offi ce for Library and Information Science. [Lagoze et al., 2006] Lagoze, C., Krafft, D., Cornwell, T., Dushay, N., Eckstrom, D., and Saylor, J. (2006). Metadata aggregation and automated digital libraries: A retrospective on the NSDL experience. In Proceedings of the 6th ACM/IEEECS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, pages 230–239, New York. ACM/IEEE-CS, ACM Press. [Lee, 2000] Lee, H. (2000). What is a collection? Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 51(12):1106–1113. [Lee, 2003] Lee, H. (2003). Information spaces and collections: Implications for organization. Library & Information Science Research, 25(4):419–436. [Lee, 2005] Lee, H. (2005). The concept of collection from the user’s perspective. Library Quarterly, 75(1):67–85. [Palmer, 2004] Palmer, C. (2004). Thematic research collections, pages 348–365. Blackwell, Oxford. [Palmer and Knutson, 2004] Palmer, C. L. and Knutson, E. (2004). Metadata practices and implications for federated collections. In Proceedings of the 67th ASIS&T Annual Meeting (Providence, RI, Nov. 12–17, 2004), volume 41, pages 456–462. [Palmer et al., 2006] Palmer, C. L., Knutson, E., Twidale, M., and Zavalina, O. (2006). Collection defi nition in federated digital resource development. In Proceedings of the 69th ASIS&T Annual Meeting (Austin, TX, Nov. 3–8, 2006), volume 43.  [Warner et al., 2007] Warner, S., Bakaert, J., Lagoze, C., Lin, X., Payette, S., and Van de Sompel, H. (2007). Pathways: Augmenting interoperability across scholarly repositories. International Journal on Digital Libraries, 7(1-2):35–52. [Wendler, 2004] Wendler, R. (2004). The eye of the beholder: Challenges of image description and access at Harvard., pages 51–56. American Library Association, Chicago. Notes 1 Information about the IMLS Digital Collections and Content project can be found at: http://imlsdcc.grainger.uiuc.edu/about.asp. 2 In our examples we will use imaginary metadata attributes. The namespace prefi x “myCollection:” indicates collection-level attributes and the prefi x “myItem:” indicates item-level attributes. No assumptions should be made about the semantics of these attributes other than what is stipulated for illustration. The current example, myCollection: itemType, does intentionally allude to cld:itemType in the Dublin Core Collections Application Profi le, and “image,” “text,” “software,” are from the DCMI Type Vocabulary; but our use of myCollection:itemType differs from cld:itemType in entailing that all of the items the collection are of the indicated type. 3 General overview and detailed description of the IMLS DCC collection description scheme are available at: http://imlsdcc.grainger. uiuc.edu/CDschema_overview.asp 4 http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/metadata/rslp/ 5 http://www.imls.gov/ 6 http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/openarchivesprotocol.html 7 http://cicharvest.grainger.uiuc.edu/","txt","2","","9166"
"829","9","Sustainability of Annotated Resources in Linguistics","1","Introduction In practically all scientifi c fi elds the task of ensuring the sustainability of resources, data collections, personal research journals, and databases is an increasingly important topic – linguistics is no exception (Dipper et al., 2006, Trilsbeek and Wittenburg, 2006). We report on ongoing work in a project that is concerned with providing methods, tools, bestpractice guidelines, and solutions for sustainable linguistic resources. Our overall goal is to make sure that a large and very heterogeneous set of ca. 65 linguistic resources will be accessible, readable, and processible by interested parties such as, for example, other researchers than the ones who originally created said resources, in fi ve, ten, or even 20 years time. In other words, the agency that funded both our project as well as the projects who created the linguistic resources – the German Research Foundation – would like to avoid a situation in which they have to fund yet another project to (re)create a corpus for whose creation they already provided funding in the past, but the “existing” version is no longer available or readable due to a proprietary fi le format, because it has been locked away in an academic’s hidden vault, or the person who developed the annotation format can no longer be asked questions concerning specifi c details of the custombuilt annotation format (Schmidt et al., 2006). Linguistic Resources: Aspects of Sustainability There are several text types that linguists work and interact with on a frequent basis, but the most common, by far, are linguistic corpora (Zinsmeister et al., 2007). In addition to rather simple word and sentence collections, empirical sets of grammaticality judgements, and lexical databases, the linguistic resources our sustainability project is primarily confronted with are linguistic corpora that contain either texts or transcribed speech in several languages; they are annotated using several incompatible annotation schemes. We developed XML-based tools to normalise the existing resources into a common approach of representing linguistic data (Wörner et al., 2006, Witt et al., 2007b) and use interconnected OWL ontologies to represent knowledge about the individual annotation schemes used in the original resources (Rehm et al., 2007a). Currently, the most central aspects of sustainability for linguistic resources are: • markup languages • metadata encoding • legal aspects (Zimmermann and Lehmberg, 2007, Lehmberg et al., 2007a,b, Rehm et al., 2007b,c, Lehmberg et al., 2008), • querying and search (Rehm et al., 2007a, 2008a, Söhn et al., 2008), and • best-practice guidelines (see, for example, the general guidelines mentioned by Bird and Simons, 2003). None of these points are specifi c to the fi eld of linguistics, the solutions, however, are. This is exemplifi ed by means of two of these aspects. The use of markup languages for the annotation of linguistic data has been discussed frequently. This topic is also subject to standardisation efforts. A separate ISO Group, ISO TC37 SC4, deals with the standardisation of linguistic annotations. Our project developed an annotation architecture for linguistic corpora. Today, a linguistic corpus is normally represented by a single XML fi le. The underlying data structures most often found are either trees or unrestricted graphs. In our approach we transform an original XML fi le to several XML fi les, so that each fi le contains the same textual content. The markup of these fi les is different. Each fi le contains annotations which belong to a single annotation layer. A data structure usable to model the result documents is a multi-rooted tree. (Wörner et al., 2006, Witt et al., 2007a,b, Lehmberg and Wörner, 2007). The specificities of linguistic data also led to activities in the fi eld of metadata encoding and its standardisation. Within our project we developed an approach to handle the complex nature of linguistic metadata (Rehm et al., 2008b) which is based on the metadata encoding scheme described by the TEI. (Burnard and Bauman, 2007). This method of metadata representation splits the metadata into the 5 different levels the primary information belongs to. These levels are: (1) setting, i.e. the situation in which the speech or dialogue took place; (2) raw data, e.g., a book, a piece of paper, an audio or video recording of a conversation etc.; (3) primary data, e.g., transcribed speech, digital texts etc.; (4) annotations, i.e., (linguistic) markup that add information to primary data; and (5) corpus, i.e. a collection of primary data and its annotations. All of these aspects demonstrate that it is necessary to use fi eld specifi c as well as generalised methodologies to approach the issue “Sustainability of Linguistic Resources”. References Bird, S. and Simons, G. (2003). Seven dimensions of portability for language documentation and description. Language, 79:557–582. Burnard, L. and Bauman, S., editors (2007). TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Text Encoding Initiative Consortium. Dipper, S., Hinrichs, E., Schmidt, T., Wagner, A., and Witt, A. (2006). Sustainability of Linguistic Resources. In Hinrichs, E., Ide, N., Palmer, M., and Pustejovsky, J., editors, Proceedings of the LREC 2006 Satellite Workshop Merging and Layering Linguistic Information, pages 48–54, Genoa, Italy. Lehmberg, T., Chiarcos, C., Hinrichs, E., Rehm, G., and Witt, A. (2007a). Collecting Legally Relevant Metadata by Means of a Decision-Tree-Based Questionnaire System. In Schmidt, S., Siemens, R., Kumar, A., and Unsworth, J., editors, Digital Humanities 2007, pages 164–166, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA. ACH, ALLC, Graduate School of Library and Information Science, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Lehmberg, T., Chiarcos, C., Rehm, G., and Witt, A. (2007b). Rechtsfragen bei der Nutzung und Weitergabe linguistischer Daten. In Rehm, G., Witt, A., and Lemnitzer, L., editors, Datenstrukturen für linguistische Ressourcen und ihre Anwendungen – Data Structures for Linguistic Resources and Applications: Proceedings of the Biennial GLDV Conference 2007, pages 93–102. Gunter Narr, Tübingen. Lehmberg, T., Rehm, G., Witt, A., and Zimmermann, F. (2008). Preserving Linguistic Resources: Licensing – Privacy Issues – Mashups. Library Trends. In print. Lehmberg, T. and Wörner, K. (2007). Annotation Standards. In Lüdeling, A. and Kytö, M., editors, Corpus Linguistics, Handbücher zur Sprach-und Kommunikationswissenschaft (HSK). de Gruyter, Berlin, New York. In press. Rehm, G., Eckart, R., and Chiarcos, C. (2007a). An OWL-and XQuery-Based Mechanism for the Retrieval of Linguistic Patterns from XML-Corpora. In Angelova, G., Bontcheva, K., Mitkov, R., Nicolov, N., and Nikolov, N., editors, International Conference Recent Advances in Natural Language Processing (RANLP 2007), pages 510–514, Borovets, Bulgaria. Rehm, G., Eckart, R., Chiarcos., C., Dellert, J. (2008a). Ontology-Based XQuery’ing of XML-Encoded Language Resources on Multiple Annotation Layer. In Proceedings of LREC 2008, Marrakech, Morocco. Rehm, G., Schonefeld, O., Witt, A., Lehmberg, T., Chiarcos, C., Bechara, H., Eishold, F., Evang, K., Leshtanska, M., Savkov, A., and Stark, M. (2008b). The Metadata-Database of a Next Generation Sustainability Web-Platform for Language Resources. In Proceedings of LREC 2008, Marrakech, Morocco. Rehm, G., Witt, A., Zinsmeister, H., and Dellert, J. (2007b). Corpus Masking: Legally Bypassing Licensing Restrictions for the Free Distribution of Text Collections. In Schmidt, S., Siemens, R., Kumar, A., and Unsworth, J., editors, Digital Humanities 2007, pages 166–170, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA. ACH, ALLC, Graduate School of Library and Information Science, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Rehm, G., Witt, A., Zinsmeister, H., and Dellert, J. (2007c). Masking Treebanks for the Free Distribution of Linguistic Resources and Other Applications. In Proceedings of the Sixth International Workshop on Treebanks and Linguistic Theories (TLT 2007), number 1 in Northern European Association for Language Technology Proceedings Series, pages 127–138, Bergen, Norway. Schmidt, T., Chiarcos, C., Lehmberg, T., Rehm, G., Witt, A., and Hinrichs, E. (2006). Avoiding Data Graveyards: From Heterogeneous Data Collected in Multiple Research Projects to Sustainable Linguistic Resources. In Proceedings of the EMELD 2006 Workshop on Digital Language Documentation: Tools and Standards – The State of the Art, East Lansing, Michigan. Söhn, J.-P., Zinsmeister, H., and Rehm, G. (2008). Requirements of a User-Friendly, General-Purpose Corpus Query Interface. In Proceedings of LREC 2008 workshop on Sustainability of Language Resources and Tools for Natural Language Processing, Marrakech, Morocco. Trilsbeek, P. and Wittenburg, P. (2006). Archiving Challenges. In Gippert, J., Himmelmann, N. P., and Mosel, U., editors, Essentials of Language Documentation, pages 311–335. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, New York. Witt, A., Rehm, G., Lehmberg, T., and Hinrichs, E. (2007a). Mapping Multi-Rooted Trees from a Sustainable Exchange Format to TEI Feature Structures. In TEI@20: 20 Years of Supporting the Digital Humanities. The 20th Anniversary Text Encoding Initiative Consortium Members’ Meeting, University of Maryland, College Park. Witt, A., Schonefeld, O., Rehm, G., Khoo, J., and Evang, K. (2007b). On the Lossless Transformation of Single-File, Multi-Layer Annotations into Multi-Rooted Trees. In Usdin, B. T., editor, Proceedings of Extreme Markup Languages 2007, Montréal, Canada. Wörner, K., Witt, A., Rehm, G., and Dipper, S. (2006). Modelling Linguistic Data Structures. In Usdin, B. T., editor, Proceedings of Extreme Markup Languages 2006, Montréal, Canada. Zimmermann, F. and Lehmberg, T. (2007). Language Corpora – Copyright – Data Protection: The Legal Point of View. In Schmidt, S., Siemens, R., Kumar, A., and Unsworth, J., editors, Digital Humanities 2007, pages 162–164, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA. ACH, ALLC, Graduate School of Library and Information Science, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Zinsmeister, H., Kübler, S., Hinrichs, E., and Witt, A. (2008). Linguistically Annotated Corpora: Quality Assurance, Reusability and Sustainability. In Lüdeling, A. and Kytö, M., editors, Corpus Linguistics, HSK. de Gruyter, Berlin etc. In print.","txt","2","","9166"
"830","9","New collaborations between information technology and the humanities","3","e-Science in the UK and elsewhere stands for a broad agenda
as important for the humanities as it is for the natural sciences:
to extend the application of advanced information technologies
to develop new kinds of research across the whole range of
academic disciplines, particularly through the use of internetbased resources. The aim of this session is to introduce some
recent UK developments in this area, side by side with related
developments in other parts of Europe.
• David Robey: Introduction
• Stuart Dunn: e-Science developments in the UK: temporal
mapping and location-aware web technologies for the
humanities
• Laszlo Hunyadi: Virtual Research Organizations for the
Humanities in Europe: technological challenges, needs and
opportunities
• Dino Buzzetti: Interfacing Biological and Textual studies in
an e-Science Environment","txt","2","",""
"831","9","Understanding TEI(s): A Presentation and Discussion Session","3","The Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) is a consortium which
collectively develops and maintains a standard for the
representation of texts in digital form. Its chief deliverable
is a set of Guidelines which specify encoding methods for
machine-readable texts, primarily in the humanities, social
sciences and linguistics. Since 1994, the TEI Guidelines have
been widely used by libraries, museums, publishers, and
individual scholars to present texts for online research,
teaching, and preservation. In addition to the Guidelines
themselves, the Consortium provides a variety of supporting
resources, including resources for learning TEI <http://www.
tei-c.org/Support/Learn/>, information on projects using
the TEI <http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/Projects/>, TEIrelated publications <http://www.tei-c.org/Support/Learn/>,
and software <http://www.tei-c.org/Tools/> developed for
or adapted to the TEI. The TEI Consortium is a non-profi t
membership organization composed of academic institutions,
research projects, and individual scholars from around the
world. For more information, see http://www.tei-c.org/.
This panel provides an opportunity beyond the project- and
researcher-centred papers of the DH2008 conference for
members of the TEI community to present on and discuss
aspects of the TEI community itself, among them the nature
and infl uence of Special Interest Groups (SIGs), recent trends
in the integration of TEI with other schema and systems,
issues of the annual conference and community support, and
education and outreach now, and in the future.","txt","2","",""
"832","9","Digital Resources in Humanities Research: Evidence of Value (2)","3","This takes further the issues discussed at the ALLC session at
DH2007.
While most of us who do humanities computing need no
convincing of its value, academic colleagues - including those
on appointment and promotion panels - still need to be
convinced, and even more so funders. If we want backing for
the use and further development of digital resources, both data
and processes, we need to collect more extensive concrete
evidence of the ways in which they enable us to do research
better, or to do research we would not otherwise be able to
do, or to generate new knowledge in entirely new ways. Since
the value of humanities research as a whole is qualitative, not
quantitative, it is qualitative evidence in particular we should be
looking for: digital resources providing the means not simply
of doing research, but of doing excellent research.
The DH2007 panel session discussed a wide range of general
issues arising in the discussion of the value of humanities
computing, both in terms of its impact and results, and in
terms of the intrinsic structures and qualities of digital objects
created for research purposes.
The present panel session takes this further one the one hand
by presenting recent work in the UK that has systematically
tried to capture the value of humanities computing support
activities, of digital tools development projects, and in general
of the impact of of digital methods on research in the arts and
humanities. Lorna Hughes and David Robey will discuss the
results of the evaluation process at the end of the AHRC ICT
Methods Network at King’s College London, and of related
work on a set of resource-development projects funded by
the AHRC ICT in Arts and Humanities Research Programme.
John Unsworth and David Hoover will take a somewhat
more anecdotal approach, and one that emphasizes North
America rather than the UK. They will focus on a variety of
ways of assessing and enhancing the value of digital humanities
research in the areas of access, analysis, and advancing one’s
career. What kinds and levels of access to digital material have
the most impact? What kinds of analysis and presentation,
and what venues of publication or dissemination are most
persuasive and effective? How does or can the exploitation of
digital materials enhance the career of the (digital) humanist?
We hope that participants from other countries will contribute
their points of view in the discussion.","txt","2","",""
"833","9","Text Analysis Developers' Alliance (TADA) and T-REX","3","The Text Analysis Developers’ Alliance (TADA) is an informal
affi liation of designers, developers, and users of text analysis
tools in the digital humanities. The TADA wiki (http://tada.
mcmaster.ca/) has steadily grown since the group’s fi rst
meeting three years ago, and now contains a wide range of
useful documents, including general information about text
analysis, pedagogically-oriented text analysis recipes, and
content from several projects engaged in open research
(publicly documenting themselves). Most recently TADA has 
Digital Humanities 2008 _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
35
announced its inaugural T-REX event (http://tada.mcmaster.ca/
trex/), a community initiative with the following objectives:
• to identify topics of shared interest for further
development in text analysis
• to evaluate as a community ideas and tools that emerge
from the topics
• to present results from this process as research in various
venues
This panel will provide a more detailed account of the history
and activities of TADA, as well as a preliminary account of TREX from the participants themselves, where possible.","txt","2","",""
"834","9","Agora.Techno.Phobia.Philia2: Feminist Critical Inquiry, Knowledge Building, Digital Humanities","3","In the later twentieth century, the humanities were transformed
by the rise of gender studies and related critical movements
that investigate the impact of socialized power distribution
on knowledge formations and institutions. Throughout the
humanities, the very research questions posed have been
fundamentally altered by the rise of feminist and, more
recently, critical race, queer, and related social justice-oriented
critiques. These critical perspectives, as speakers in last
year’s DH2007 panel “Agora.Techno.Phobia.Philia: Gender,
Knowledge Building, and Digital Media” amply demonstrated,
have much to contribute not only to thinking about women
in relation to information and communication technologies
but also to advancing the work and effi cacies of information
and communications technologies. The session we propose
extends and deepens the critical inquiries posed in last year’s
session. Though Carolyn Guertin will not be able to join us
in Finland this year, we each will take into account the telling
survey (available upon request) she presented of virtual space
and concomitant debates devoted to women and information
technology, as well as her compelling analysis of the stakes
involved for female participants in such debates. Important
also for our considerations are the special issue of Frontiers
devoted to gender, race, and information technology (http://
muse.jhu.edu/journals/frontiers/toc/fro26.1.html); recent
books by feminist thinkers such as Isabel Zorn, J. McGrath
Cohoon and William Aspray, Lucy Suchman; and the most
recent issue of Vectors devoted to Difference (Fall 2007; http://
www.vectorsjournal.org/index.php?page=6%7C1). Though
these publications demonstrate keen and widespread interest
in messy and ambiguous questions of diversity and technology
and new media, such work and debates seem oddly absent
from or at least underappreciated by the digital humanities
(DH) community itself.
It’s not that the Digital Humanities community feels hostile to
women or to feminist work per se. Women have historically
been and currently are visible, audible, and active in ADHO
organizations, though not in equal numbers as men. The
language used in papers is generally gender-aware. Conference
programs regularly include work about feminist projects, that
is to say ones that focus on feminist content (such as the
interdisciplinary The Orlando Project, The Poetess Archive,
Women Writers Project, Dickinson Electronic Archives).
Though other DH projects and initiatives are inter- or transdisciplinary,
their interdisciplinarities have tended not to
include feminist elements, presumably because those feminist
lines of inquiry are assumed to be discipline- or content-based
(applicable only to projects such as those mentioned above),
hence are largely irrelevant to what the digital humanities in
general are about. Thus DH conference exchanges tend to
have little to do with gender. In other words, DH debates
over methodological and theoretical approaches, or over
the substance of digital humanities as a fi eld, have not been
informed by the research questions fundamentally altered
by feminist, critical race, queer, and related social justiceoriented
critiques, the very critiques that have transformed
the humanities as a whole.
Why? The timing of the rise of the “fi eld” perhaps?-much of
the institutionalization and expansion, if not the foundation,
of digital humanities took place from the late 20th century
onwards. As recent presentations at major DH centers make
clear (Smith @ MITH in October 2007, for example), there is
a sense among some in the DH community that technologies
are somehow neutral, notwithstanding arguments by Andrew
Feenberg, Lucy Suchman, and others in our bibliography that
technology and its innovations inevitably incorporate patterns
of domination and inequity or more generalized social power
distributions. Yet if we have learned one thing from critical
theory, it is that interrogating the naturalized assumptions that
inform how we make sense of the world is crucial in order to
produce knowledge. Important for our panel discussion (and
for the companion poster session we hope will be accepted as
part of this proposal) is feminist materialist inquiry, which urges
us to look for symptomatic gaps and silences in intellectual
inquiry and exchange and then analyze their meanings in order
to reinfl ect and thereby enrich the consequent knowledgebuilding
discourses. So what happens if we try to probe this
silence on gender in digital humanities discourse, not only in
regard to institutions and process, but in regard to defi ning
and framing DH debates?
Building on the work of Lucy Suchman and the questions of
her collaborators on the panel, Martha Nell Smith will show
how questions basic to feminist critical inquiry can advance
our digital work (not just that of projects featuring feminist
content): How do items of knowledge, organizations, working
groups come into being? Who made them? For what purposes?
Whose work is visible, what is happening when only certain
actors and associated achievements come into public view?
What happens when social orders, including intellectual and
social framings, are assumed to be objective features of social
life (i.e., what happens when assumptions of objectivity are
uninformed by ethnomethodology, which reminds us that
social order is illusory and that social structures appear
to be orderly but are in reality potentially chaotic)? Doing
so, Smith will analyze the consequences of the politics of
ordering within disambiguating binary divisions (Subject
and object; Human and nonhuman; Nature and culture; Old
and new) and the consequent constructions and politics of
technology: Where is agency located? Whose agencies matter?
What counts as innovation: why are tools valorized? How
might the mundane forms of inventive, yet taken for granted
labor, necessary (indeed VITAL) to the success of complex
sociotechnical arrangements, be more effectively recognized
and valued for the crucial work they do? Smith will argue that
digital humanities innovation needs to be sociological as well
as technological if digital humanities is to have a transformative
impact on traditional scholarly practices.
Susan Brown will open up the question-what happens if we try
to probe this silence on gender in digital humanties discoursein
a preliminary way by focusing on a couple of terms that
circulate within digital humanities discourse in relation to what
the digital humanities are (not) about: delivery and service.
Delivery and interface work are intriguingly marginal rather
than central to DH concerns, despite what we know about the
impact of usability on system success or failure. Willard McCarty
regards the term “delivery” as metaphorically freighted with
connotations of knowledge commodifi cation and mug-and-jug
pedagogy (6). However, informed by feminist theory and the
history of human birthing, we might alternatively mobilize the
less stable connotations of delivery as “being delivered of, or
act of bringing forth, offspring,” which offers a model open to
a range of agents and participants, in which the process and
mode of delivery have profound impacts on what is delivered.
The history of the forceps suggests a provocative lens on
the function of tools in processes of professionalization and
disciplinary formation. An emphasis on delivery from conception
through to usability studies of fully developed interfaces willif
it takes seriously the culturally and historically grounded
analyses of technology design and mobilization modeled by
Lucy Suchman-go a considerable distance towards breaking
down the oppositions between designer and user, producer
and consumer, technologist and humanist that prevent digital
humanities from having transformative impacts on traditional
scholarly practices. This sense of delivery foregrounds
boundaries as unstable and permeable, and boundary issues, as
Donna Haraway was among the fi rst to argue, have everything
to do with the highly politicized-and gendered-category of the
human, the subject/object of humanist knowledge production.
The relationships among service (often married to the term
“support”), disciplinarity, and professionalization within
debates over the nature and identity of humanities computing
are similarly important for reimagining how DH work might be
advanced and might have a greater impact on the humanities
as a whole. Service, a feminized concept, recurs as a danger to
the establishment of legitimacy (Rommel; Unsworth). Sliding,
as Geoffrey Rockwell points out, easily into the unequivocally
denigrating “servile,” service too challenges us to be aware of
how institutional power still circulates according to categories
and hierarchies that embed social power relations. As Susan
Leigh Star has argued, marginality, liminality, or hybridity,
multiple membership that crosses identities or communities,
provide valuable vantage points for engagement with shifting
technologies (Star 50-53). These two liminal terms within
digital humanities debates may open up digital humanities
debates to new questions, new prospects, and Brown will offer
examples of some ways in which this might be done in order
to enrich DH work in general.
By focusing on the terms gynesis and ontology, Laura Mandell
examines the relationship between concepts in traditional
epistemological discourses and those concepts as they appear
in discussions about and implementations of the semantic web:
hierarchy, ontology, individual, and class. First, she will look at
traditional meanings of these terms, performing philological
analysis of their origin and province as well as locating them
in their disciplinary silos - in the manner of Wikipedia’s
disambiguation pages. Next, she will look at how the terms
are defi ned in discussions of the emerging semantic web, and
also at how they function practically in XML Schema, database
design, and OWL, the Web Ontology Language. Much work
has been done by feminist theorists and philosophers from
Luce Irigaray to more recently Liz Stanley and Sue Wise in
critiquing the sexism implicit in concepts of hierarchy, being,
and individuality; Mary Poovey has tracked the emergence of
modern notions of class in her book about the history of the
fact. Mandell will extend these foundational critiques, asking
whether any of the insights achieved by that work apply to
the semantic web. Of particular concern for Mandell is the
category of error. Simone de Beauvoir’s Second Sex fi rst
brought to light the notion of woman as Other, as “error”
to the man, and Julia Kristeva (following anthropologist Mary
Douglas) fi nds female agency lurking in the dirt or ambiguity of
any logical system. If computational and generational languages
such as those producing the semantic web cannot tolerate
ambiguity and error, what will be repressed? Does the syntax
of natural language allow for women’s subjectivity in a way that
ontological relationships might not? What are the opportunities
for adding relationships to these systems that capitalize upon
the necessary logical errors that philosopher Luce Irigaray has
designated as necessary if “The Human are two”?
Rounding out this panel will be two respondents to these
three 12-15 minute presentations by experts in feminist and
queer theory and practice, both of whom have expressed
keen interest in DH through the evolving practices of their
work in knowledge-building and pedagogy. Professors Katie
King, who has worked for the past two decades on writing
technologies and their implications for knowledge production,
and Marilee Lindemann, who is a leading queer studies theorist
and a blogger who has been exploring new forms of scholarly
writing in her creative nonfi ction, Roxie’s World (http://roxiesworld.
blogspot.com/) will respond to the questions posed by
Smith, Brown, and Mandell, formulating questions that aim to
engage the audience in discourse designed to advance both
our practices and our theories about what we are doing,
where we might be going, and how augmenting our modes and
designs for inquiry might improve both our day-to-day DH
work and its infl uence on humanities knowledge production.
Their questions will be posed ahead of time (by the end of
May) on the website we will devote to this session (http://
www.mith.umd.edu/mnsmith/DH2008), as will “think piece”
interactive essays contributed by all of the participants (we
are mostly likely to use a wiki).
As a result of ongoing work with feminist graduate students
interested in new media, the possibilities realized and unrealized,
we propose extending this panel asynchronously so that
current dissertation research be featured as case studies more
than suitable for testing some of the hypotheses, exploring the
questions, and refl ecting upon the issues raised by the panel
presentations. Thus we propose two poster sessions (or one
with two components) by University of Maryland graduate
students: Rebecca Krefting, “Because HTML Text is Still a Text:
The (False) Promise of Digital Objectivity,” and Amelia Wong,
“Everyone a Curator?: The Potential and Limitations of Web
2.0 for New Museology.”","txt","2","",""
"835","9","A New Context for the Electronic Book","1","The power of the book has preoccupied readers since before
the Renaissance, a crucial time during which the human record
entered print and print, in turn, facilitated the radical, crucial
social and societal changes that have shaped our world as we
know it. It is with as much potential and as much complexity, that
the human record now enters the digital world of electronic
media. At this crucial time, however, we must admit to some
awkward truths. The very best of our electronic books are
still pale refl ections of their print models, and the majority
offer much less than a refl ection might. Even the electronic
document – the webpage mainstay populating the World
Wide Web – does not yet afford the same basic functionality,
versatility, and utility as does the printed page. Nevertheless,
more than half of those living in developed countries make use
of the computer and the internet to read newspaper pieces,
magazine and journal articles, electronic copies of books, and
other similar materials on a daily basis; the next generation of
adults already recognises the electronic medium as their chief
source of textual information; our knowledge repositories
increasingly favour digital products over the print resources
that have been their mainstay for centuries; and professionals
who produce and convey textual information have as a chief
priority activities associated with making such information
available, electronically – even if they must do so in ways that
do not yet meet the standards of functionality, interactivity,
and fostering of intellectual culture that have evolved over 500
years of print publication.
Why, then, are our electronic documents and books not living
up to the promise realized in their print counterparts? What is
it about the book that has made it so successful? How can we
understand that success? How can we duplicate that success,
in order to capitalize on economic and other advantages in
the electronic realm?
This introductory paper frames several responses to the
above, centring on issues related to textual studies, reader
studies, interface design, and information management, and
framing the more detailed responses in the areas below.","txt","2","","9167"
"836","9","'Humanities scholars, research and reading, in physical and digital environments'","1","It may initially seem strange to suggest that research on what
seems to be such a traditional activity as reading might be
a vital underpinning to the study of digital resources for the
humanities. Yet, to design digital resources fi t for research
purposes, we must understand what scholars do in digital
environments, what kind of resources they need, and what
makes some scholars, particularly in the humanities, decline
to use existing digital resources. One of the most important
things that humanities scholars undertake in any environment
is to read. Reading is the fundamental activity of humanities
researchers, and yet we have little knowledge of how reading
processes are modifi ed or extended in new media environments.
In the early to mid 1990s, many humanities scholars expressed
excitement about the possibilities of electronic text, predicting
that the experience of reading would change fundamentally
(e.g., Bolter, 1991; Landow, 1992; Nunberg, 1996; Sutherland,
1997). Such prophetic writings, however, were not based on and
rarely followed up by studies with readers, particularly readers
in humanities settings. Through the last fi fteen years critical
interest within humanities circles with respect to reading has
waned and little progress has been made in understanding
how electronic textuality may affect reading practices, both of
academic and non-academic readers.
We are, however, beginning to understand the relationship
between reading in print and online, and how connections may
be made between the two (Blandford, Rimmer, & Warwick
2006), and how humanities scholars relate to information
environments, by reading and information seeking. In this
paper we will discuss our research to date, undertaken as part
of the UCIS project on the users of digital libraries, and on
the LAIRAH project, which studied levels of use of a variety
of digital humanities resources. (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/slais/
research/circah/)
Research has been based on a use-in- context approach,
in which participants have been interviewed about their
preferences for the use of digital resources in a setting which
is as naturalistic as possible. We also report on the results of
user workshops, and of one to one observations of the use of
digital resources.
As a result of these studies, we have found that humanities
researchers have advanced information skills and mental
models of their physical information environment, although
they may differ in that they fi nd these skills and models difficult
to apply to the digital domain (Makri et al. 2007). Humanities
researchers are aware of the available functions as well as
the problems of digital environments, and are concerned
with accuracy, selection methods, and ease of use (Warwick
et al. 2007). They require information about the original item
when materials are digitized and expect high-quality content:
anything that makes a resource diffi cult to understand – a
confusing name, a challenging interface, or data that must be
downloaded – will deter them from using it (Warwick et al.
2006).
It is therefore vital that such insights into the information
behaviour of humanities scholars should be used to inform
future studies of reading. It is also vital that this research is
informed by the insights from other members of the wider
research group, who work on textual studies and interface
and resource design. The paper will therefore end with a short
discussion of future plans for such collaboration.
References
Bolter, J. David. (1991). Writing space: the computer, hypertext,
and the history of writing. Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.
Blandford, A., Rimmer, J., & Warwick, C. (2006). Experiences
of the library in the digital age. Paper presented at 3rd
International Conference on Cultural Covergence and Digital
Technology, Athens, Greece.
Landow, G. P. (1992). Hypertext: the convergence of
contemporary critical theory and technology. Baltimore, MD:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.
Makri, S., Blandford, A., Buchanan, G., Gow, J., Rimmer, J., &
Warwick, C. (2007). A library or just another information
resource? A case study of users’ mental models of traditional
and digital libraries. Journal of the American Society of
Information Science and Technology, 58(3), 433-445.
Nunberg, G (ed.) (1996) The Future of the Book. Berkeley,
University of California Press.
Sutherland, K. (Ed) (1997) Electronic Text: Investigations in
Method and Theory. Oxford, Clarendon Press
Warwick, C., Terras, M., Huntington, P., & Pappa, N. (2007) “If
you build it will they come?” The LAIRAH study: Quantifying
the use of online resources in the Arts and Humanities
through statistical analysis of user log data. Literary and
Linguistic Computing, forthcoming","txt","2","","9167"
"837","9","A Book is not a Display: A Theoretical Evolution of the E-Book Reader","1","In our part of this panel session, we will discuss the design
of the physical electronic book—the reading device—from
a user perspective. There has been a tendency on the part
of producers of information to disassociate the information
from its media. This makes sense in a digital age: there are
ineffi ciencies in production that can be made more effi cient by
remediation. Additionally, there is little intrinsic justifi cation for
preferring one medium over another, unless one wishes to take
into account the situated context of use. Designers, however,
insofar as they are distinct from producers of information,
have had a longstanding tendency to become absorbed in the
situated context of use.
When the conventions of HTML were determined in such
a way that they discounted formatting, and for very good
reasons of cross-platform compatibility, designers began the
uphill battle of changing the conventions, because they felt
that formatting, and not just content, was important. For
example, Travis Albers says of his recent project Bookglutton.
com: “BookGlutton is working to facilitate adoption of on-line
reading. Book design is an important aspect of the reader, and
it incorporates design elements, like dynamic dropcaps.”
The issue at stake with existing electronic book readers is their
function as an interface, which can, according to Gui Bonsiepe,
create the “possibilities for effective action or obstruct them”
(62). Interface issues like eye strain, contrast, and resolution are
being addressed through the use of E-Ink’s electronic paper in
Sony’s 2007 / 2007 Sony E Book, Bookeen, iRex Technologies,
and Amazon’s Kindle (2008) electronic book readers. Samsung
and LG Philips are addressing object size of ebook readers
with 14 inch lightweight epaper formats; and Polymer Vision’s
Readius, “a mobile device” is a “fl exible 5-inch e-paper display
that unfurls like a scroll.” However, these formats lack the
intuitive, familiar feeling of the book. Acknowledging that
ebook proprietary software issues, copyright, and cost might
keep people from investing in a reading device in order to be
able to read a book, and noting the continued superiority of
the paper book in both form and function over the electronic
book reader, we will look to the range of design issues which
continue to plague the potential viable sales for the electronic
book reader.
References
Balas, Janet L. “Of iPhones and Ebooks: Will They Get
Together?” Computers in Libraries. Westport: Nov/Dec 2007.
Vol. 27, Iss. 10; pg. 35, 4 pgs
Bina. “DON’T Upgrade the REB 1100!!,” Published
November 6, 2004. Accessed November 17, 2007. http://
www.amazon.com/RCA-REB1100-eBook-Reader/dp/
B00005T3UH
Geist, Michael. “Music Publisher’s Takedown Strikes The
Wrong Chord” Published Tuesday October 30, 2007.
Accessed November 17, 2007 http://www.michaelgeist.
ca/content/view/2336/135/
Teaching and learning: Dual educational electronic textbooks:
the starlight platform
Grammenos, Dimitris. et al “Teaching and learning: Dual
educational electronic textbooks: the starlight platform”
Proceedings of the 9th international ACM SIGACCESS
conference on Computers and accessibility Assets ‘07
October 2007
Hodge, Steve, et al. “ThinSight: versatile multi-touch sensing
for thin form-factor displays” Symposium on User Interface
Software and Technology archive. Proceedings of the 20th
annual ACM, Newport, Rhode Island, USA, 2007, pp. 259 - 268
Farber, Dan. “Sony’s misguided e-book” Published February
22nd, 2006. Accessed November 17, 2007. http://blogs.zdnet.
com/BTL/?p=2619
Forest, Brady. “Illiad, a new ebook reader” Published
September 21, 2006. Accessed November 17, 2007 http://
radar.oreilly.com/archives/2006/09/illiad_a_new_ebook_
reader.html
Mangalindan, Mylene. “Amazon to Debut E-Book Reader”
Wall Street Journal. Published November 16, 2007; Page B2.
Morrison, Chris. “10 Taking a Page Out of the E-Book.”
Business 2.0. San Francisco: Oct 2007. Vol. 8, Iss. 9; pg. 34
Oswald, Ed “Sony Updates Electronic Book Reader”
Published October 2, 2007, 2:50. Accessed November 17,
2007. <http://www.betanews.com/article/Sony_Updates_
Electronic_Book_Reader/119135092>
Stone, Brad. “Envisioning the Next Chapter for Electronic
Books” Published: September 6, 2007. Accessed November
17, 2007. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/06/technology/
06amazon.html","txt","2","","9167"
"838","9","Unicode 5.0 and 5.1 and Digital Humanities Projects","1","In theory, digital humanities projects should rely on standards
for text and character encoding. For character encoding,
the standard recommended by TEI P5 (TEI Consortium, eds.
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange
[last modifi ed: 03 Feb 2008], http://www.tei-c.org/P5/) is
the Unicode Standard (http://www.unicode.org/standard/
standard.html). The choices made by digital projects in
character encoding can be critical, as they impact text analysis
and language processing, as well as the creation, storage, and
retrieval of such textual digital resources. This talk will discuss
new characters and important features of Unicode 5.0 and
5.1 that could impact digital humanities projects, discuss the
process of proposing characters into Unicode, and provide the
theoretical underpinnings for acceptance of new characters by
the standards committees. It will also give specifi c case studies
from recent Unicode proposals in which certain characters
were not accepted, relaying the discussion in the standards
committees on why they were not approved. This latter
topic is important, because decisions made by the standards
committees ultimately will affect text encoding.
For those characters not in Unicode, the P5 version of the
TEI Guidelines deftly describes what digital projects should do
in Chapter 5 (TEI Consortium, eds. “Representation of Nonstandard
Characters and Glyphs,” Guidelines for Electronic
Text Encoding and Interchange [last modifi ed: 03 Feb
2008], http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/
WD.html [accessed: 24 March 2008]), but one needs to be
aware of the new characters that are in the standards approval
process. The presentation will briefl y discuss where to go to
look for the new characters on public websites, which are “in
the pipeline.”
The release of Unicode 5.0 in July 2007 has meant that an
additional 1,369 new characters have been added to the
standard, and Unicode 5.1, due to be released in April 2008,
will add 1,624 more (http://www.unicode.org/versions/
Unicode5.1.0/) In order to create projects that take advantage
of what Unicode and Unicode-compliant software offers, one
must be kept abreast of developments in this standard and
make appropriate changes to fonts and documents as needed.
For projects involving medieval and historic texts, for example,
the release of 5.1 will include a signifi cant number of European
medieval letters, as well as new Greek and Latin epigraphic
letters, editorial brackets and half-brackets, Coptic combining
marks, Roman weights and measures and coin symbols, Old
Cyrillic letters and Old Slavonic combining letters. The Menota
project (http://www.menota.org/guidelines-2/convertors/
convert_2-0-b.page), EMELD’s “School of Best Practice”
(http://linguistlist.org/emeld/school/classroom/conversion/
index.html), and SIL’s tools (http://scripts.sil.org/Conversion)
all provide samples of conversion methods for upgrading
digital projects to include new Unicode characters.
Since Unicode is the accepted standard for character
encoding, any critical assessment of Unicode made to the
body in charge of Unicode, the Unicode Technical Committee,
is generally limited to comments on whether a given character
is missing in Unicode or--if proposed or currently included
in Unicode--critiques of a character’s glyph and name, as
well as its line-breaking properties and sorting position.
In Chapter 5 of the TEI P5 Guidelines, mention is made of
character properties, but it does not discuss line-breaking
or sorting, which are now two components of Unicode
proposals and are discussed in annexes and standards on the
Unicode Consortium website (Unicode Standard Annex #14
“Line Breaking Properties,” Unicode Technical Standard #10,
“Unicode Collation Algorithm,” both accessible from www.
unicode.org). Users should pay close attention to these two
features, for an incorrect assignment can account for peculiar
layout and sorting features in software. Comments on missing
characters, incorrect glyphs or names, and properties should
all be directed to the Unicode online contact page (http://
www.unicode.org/reporting.html). It is recommended that an
addition to Chapter 5 of P5 be made regarding word-breaking
and collation when defi ning new characters.
The Unicode Standard will, with Unicode 5.1, have over
100,000 characters encoded, and proposals are underway
for several unencoded historic and modern minority scripts,
many through the Script Encoding Initiative at UC Berkeley
(http://www.linguistics.berkeley.edu/sei/alpha-script-list.html).
Reviewing the glyphs, names, and character properties for
this large number of characters is diffi cult. Assistance from
the academic world is sought for (a) authoring and review of
current proposals of unencoded character and scripts, and (b)
proofi ng the beta versions of Unicode. With the participation
of digital humanists, this character encoding standard can be
made a reliable and useful standard for such projects.","txt","2","",""
"839","9","Variation of Style: Diachronic Aspect","1","Introduction
 Among works, devoted to the quantitative study of style,
an approach prevails which can be conventionally called as
synchronic. Synchronic approach is aimed at solving various
classifi cation problems (including those of attribution), making
use of average (mean) values of characteristics, which refl ect
the style of the whole creative activity of an author. This
approach is based on the assumption that the features of an
individual style are not changing during lifetime or vary in time
very little, due to which the changes can be disregarded as
linguistically irrelevant.
This assumption can be tested in experiments, organised
within a diachronic approach, whose purpose is to compare
linguistic properties of texts, written by the same author at
different periods of his life.
This paper presents the results of such a diachronic study
of the individual style of famous American romantic poet
E.A.Poe. The study was aimed at fi nding out whether there
were linguistically relevant differences in the style of the poet
at various periods of his creative activity and if so, at revealing
linguistic markers for the transition from one period to the
other.
Material
The material includes iambic lyrics published by Poe in his 4
collections of poems. Lyrics were chosen because this genre
expresses in the most vivid way the essential characteristics of
a poet. In order to achieve a common basis for the comparison
only iambic texts were taken, they usually did not exceed 60
lines. It should be noted that iamb was used by Poe in most of
his verses. Sonnets were not taken for analysis because they
possess specifi c structural organization. Poe’s life is divided
into three periods: (1) from Poe’s fi rst attempts to write
verses approximately in 1824 till 1829, (2) from 1830 till 1835
and (3) from 1836 till 1849.
Characteristics
For the analysis 27 characteristics were taken. They include
morphological and syntactic parameters.
Morphological characteristics are formulated in terms of
traditional morphological classes (noun, verb, adjective,
adverb and pronoun). We counted how many times each of
them occurs in the fi rst and the fi nal strong (predominantly
stressed) syllabic positions – ictuses.
Most of syntactic characteristics are based on the use of
traditional notions of the members of the sentence (subject,
predicate, object, adverbial modifi er) in the fi rst and the fi nal
strong positions in poems. Other syntactic parameters are
the number of clauses in (a) complex and (b) compound
sentences.
There are also several characteristics which represent what
can be called as poetical syntax. They are the number of
enjambements, the number of lines divided by syntactic pauses
and the number of lines, ending in exclamation or question
marks. Enjambement takes place when a clause is continued
on the next line (And what is not a dream by day / To him
whose eyes are cast / On things around him <…>). Pause is
a break in a line, caused by a subordinate clause or another
sentence (I feel ye now – I feel ye in your strength – <…>).
The values of the characteristics, which were obtained as a
result of the analysis of lyrics, were normalised over the size
of these texts in lines.
Method
One of multivariate methods of statistical analyses –
discriminant analysis – was used. This method has been
successfully used in the study of literary texts for authorship
detection (Stamatatos, Fakatakis and Kokkinakis 2001; Baayen,
Van Halteren, and Tweedie 1996, etc.), genre differentiation
(Karlgen, Cutting 1994; Minori Murata 2000, etc.), gender
categorization (Koppel et al. 2002; Olsen 2005), etc.
Discriminant analysis is a procedure whose purpose is to fi nd
characteristics, discriminating between naturally occurring
(or a priori formed) classes, and to classify into these
classes separate (unique) cases which are often doubtful and
“borderline”. For this purpose linear functions are calculated in
such a way as to provide the best differentiation between the
classes. The variables of these functions are characteristics of
objects, relevant for discrimination. Judging by the coeffi cients
of these variables we can single out the parameters which
possess maximum discriminating force. Besides, the procedure
enables us to test the statistical signifi cance of the obtained
results (Klecka, 1989).
In this paper discriminant analysis is used to fi nd out if there is
any difference between groups of texts written during Periods
1–3, reveal characteristics differentiating these text groups and
establish their discriminating force.
Results
It would be natural to expect that due to Poe’s relatively short
period of creative activity (his fi rst collection of poems was
published in 1827, his last collection – in 1845) his individual style
does not vary much, if at all. Nevertheless the results show that
there are clearly marked linguistic differences between his texts
written during these three periods. Out of 27 characteristics,
used in the analysis, 14 proved to possess discriminating force,
distinguishing between the verse texts of different periods
of the author’s life. The strongest discriminating force was
observed in morphological characteristics of words both in
the fi rst and fi nal strong positions and syntactic characteristics
of the initial part of verse lines. These parameters may be used
for automatic classifi cation of Poe’s lyrics into three groups
corresponding to three periods of his creative activity with
100% correctness.
The transition from the fi rst to the second period is mainly
characterised by changes in the number of verbs, nouns and
pronouns in the fi rst and the last strong positions, as well as
in the number of subordinate clauses in complex sentences,
words in the function of adverbial modifi er in the initial position
in the line. The development in Poe’s style from the second to
the third period is also marked by changes in the number of
morphological classes of words in the initial and fi nal strong
positions of the line (nouns, adverbs and pronouns).
It should be stressed that these changes refl ect general
tendencies of variation of frequencies of certain elements and
are not present in all the texts. In the following examples the shift
of verbs from the fi nal part of the line, which is characteristic
of the fi rst period, to the initial strong position of the line (i.e.
second syllable) in the second period is observed.
Period 1
But when within thy waves she looks –
Which glistens then, and trembles –
Why, then, the prettiest of brooks
Her worshipper resembles –
For in my heart – as in thy streem –
Her image deeply lies <...>
(To the River)
Period 2
You know the most enormous fl ower –
That rose – <...>
I tore it from its pride of place
And shook it into pieces <...>
(Fairy Land)
On the whole the results show that there are certain
linguistic features which refl ect the changes in the style of
E.A.Poe. Among important period markers are part of speech
characteristics and several syntactic parameters.
Bibliography
Baayen, R.H., Van Halteren, H., and Tweedie, F. (1996) Outside
the cave of shadows: Using syntactic annotation to enhance
authorship attribution. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 11:
121–131.
Karlgen, J., Cutting, D. (1994) Recognizing text genres with
simple metrics using discriminant analysis. Proceedings of
COLING 94, Kyoto: 1071–1075.
Klecka, W.R. (1989). Faktornyj, diskriminantnyj i klasternyj analiz.
[Factor, discriminant and cluster analysis]. Moscow: Finansi i
statistica.
Koppel, M, Argamon, S., and Shimoni, A.R. (2002)
Automatically Categorizing Written Texts by Author Gender.
Literary & Linguistic Computing, 17: 401–412.
Murata, M. (2000) Identify a Text’s Genre by Multivariate
Analysis – Using Selected Conjunctive Words and Particlephrases.
Proceedings of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics,
48: 311–326.
Olsen, M. (2005) Écriture Féminine: Searching for an
Indefi nable Practice? Literary & Linguistic Computing, 20:
147–164.
Stamatatos, E., Fakatakis, N., & Kokkinakis, G. (2001).
Computer-Based Authorship Attribution Without Lexical
Measures. Computers and the Humanities, 35: 193–214","txt","2","",""
"840","9","Exploring Historical Image Collections with Collaborative Faceted Classification","1","The US Government Photos and Graphics Collection include
some of the nation’s most precious historical documents.
However the current federation is not effective for
exploration. We propose an architecture that enables users
to collaboratively construct a faceted classifi cation for this
historical image collection, or any other large online multimedia
collections. We have implemented a prototype for the
American Political History multimedia collection from usa.gov,
with a collaborative faceted classifi cation interface. In addition,
the proposed architecture includes automated document
classifi cation and facet schema enrichment techniques.
Introduction
It is difficult to explore a large historical multimedia humanities
collection without a classifi cation scheme. Legacy items
often lack textual description or other forms of metadata,
which makes search very diffi cult. One common approach
is to have librarians classify the documents in the collection.
This approach is often time or cost prohibitive, especially
for large, growing collections. Furthermore, the librarian
approach cannot refl ect diverse and ever-changing needs and
perspectives of users. As Sir Tim Berners-Lee commented: “the
exciting thing [about Web] is serendipitous reuse of data: one
person puts data up there for one thing, and another person
uses it another way.” Recent social tagging systems such as del.
icio.us permit individuals to assign free-form keywords (tags)
to any documents in a collection. In other words, users can
contribute metadata. These tagging systems, however, suffer
from low quality of tags and lack of navigable structures.
The system we are developing improves access to a large
multimedia collection by supporting users collaboratively
build a faceted classifi cation. Such a collaborative approach
supports diverse and evolving user needs and perspectives.
Faceted classifi cation has been shown to be effective for
exploration and discovery in large collections [1]. Compared
to search, it allows for recognition of category names instead
of recalling of query keywords. Faceted classifi cation consists
of two components: the facet schema containing facets and
categories, and the association between each document and
the categories in the facet schema. Our system allows users to
collaboratively 1) evolve a schema with facets and categories,
and 2) to classify documents into this schema. Through users’
manual efforts and aided by the system’s automated efforts, a
faceted classifi cation evolves with the growing collection, the
expanding user base, and the shifting user interests.
Our fundamental belief is that a large, diverse group of people
(students, teachers, etc.) can do better than a small team
of librarians in classifying and enriching a large multimedia
collection.
Related Research
Our research builds upon popular wiki and social tagging
systems. Below we discuss several research projects closest
to ours in spirit.
The Flamenco project [1] has developed a good browsing
interface based on faceted classifi cation, and has gone through
extensive evaluation with digital humanities collections such as
the fi ne art images at the museums in San Francisco. Flamenco,
however, is a “read-only” system. The facet schema is predefi
ned, and the classifi cation is pre-loaded. Users will not be
able to change the way the documents are classifi ed.
The Facetag project [2] guides users’ tagging by presenting a
predetermined facet schema to users. While users participate
in classifying the documents, the predetermined facet schema
forces users to classify the documents from the system’s
perspective. The rigid schema is insuffi cient in supporting
diverse user perspectives.
A few recent projects [4, 7] attempt to create classifi cation
schemas from tags collected from social tagging systems. So far
these projects have generated only single hierarchies, instead
of multiple hierarchies as in faceted schemas. Also just as
any other data mining systems, these automatic classifi cation
approaches suffers from quality problems.
So far, no one has combined user efforts and automated
techniques to build a faceted classifi cation, both to build the
schema and to classify documents into it, in a collaborative and
interactive manner.
Architecture and Prototype
Implementation
The architecture of our system is shown in Figure 1. Users
can not only tag (assign free-form keywords to) documents
but also collaboratively build a faceted classifi cation in a wiki
fashion. Utilizing the metadata created by users’ tagging efforts
and harvested from other sources, the system help improve
the classifi cation. We focus on three novel features: 1) to allow
users collaboratively build and maintain a faceted classifi cation,
2) to systematically enrich the user-created facet schema, 3)
to automatically classify documents into the evolving facet
schema.
Figure 1. System Architecture
We have developed a Web-based interface that allows
users create and edit facets/categories similar to managing
directories in the Microsoft File Explorer. Simply by clicking
and dragging documents into faceted categories, users can
classify (or re-classify) historic documents. All the fi les and
documents are stored in a MySQL database. For automatic
classifi cation, we use a support vector machine method [5]
utilizing users’ manual classifi cation as training input. For
systematic facet enrichment, we are exploring methods that
create new faceted categories from free-form tags based on a
statistical co-occurrence model [6] and also WordNet [8].
Note that the architecture has an open design so that it can
be integrated with existing websites or content management
systems. As such the system can be readily deployed to enrich
existing digital humanity collections.
We have deployed a prototype on the American Political
History (APH) sub-collection (http://teachpol.tcnj.edu/
amer_pol_hist) of the US Government Photos and Graphics
Collection, a federated collection with millions of images
(http://www.usa.gov/Topics/Graphics.shtml). The APH
collection currently contains over 500 images, many of which
are among the nation’s most valuable historical documents.
On the usa.gov site, users can explore this collection only
by two ways: either by era, such as 18th century and 19th
century, or by special topics, such as “presidents” (Figure 2).
There are only four special topics manually maintained by the
collection administrator, which do not cover most items in
the collection. This collection is poor with metadata and tools,
which is common to many digital humanity collections that
contain legacy items that have little pre-existing metadata, or
lack resources for maintenance.
Figure 2. American Political History Collection at usa.gov
The prototype focused on the collaborative classifi cation
interface. After deploying our prototype, the collection has
been collaboratively classifi ed into categories along several
facets. To prove the openness of system architecture, the
prototype has been integrated with different existing systems.
(Figure 3)
The system integrated with a Flamenco-like Interface
The system integrated with Joomla!, a popular
content management system
Figure 3. Multi-facet Browsing
As users explore the system (such as by exploring faceted
categories or through a keyword search), besides each item
there is a “classify” button which leads to the classifi cation
interface. The classifi cation interface shows the currently
assigned categories in various facets for the selected item. It
allows user to drag and drop an item into a new category. At
this level user can also add or remove categories from a facet,
or add or remove a facet.
Faceted Classifi cation button on the bottom of the screen (the button
to the right links to a social tagging system, del.icio.us)
The classifi cation interface. Users can create/edit facets
and categories, and drag items into categories
Figure 4. Classifi cation Interface
Evaluation and Future Steps
Initial evaluation results in a controlled environment show
great promise. The prototype was tested by university students
interested in American political history. The collection was
collaboratively categorized into facets such as Artifact (map,
photo, etc.), Location, Year, and Topics (Buildings, Presidents,
etc.) The prototype is found to be more effective than the
original website in supporting user’s retrieval tasks, in terms
of both recall and precision. At this time, our prototype does
not have all the necessary support to be deployed on public
Internet for a large number of users. For this we need to work
on the concept of hardening a newly added category or facet.
The key idea behind hardening is to accept a new category or
facet only after reinforcement from multiple users. In absence
of hardening support our system will be overwhelmed by
the number of new facets and categories. We are also
exploring automated document classifi cation and facet schema
enrichment techniques. We believe that collaborative faceted
classifi cation can improve access to many digital humanities
collections.
Acknowledgements
This project is supported in part by the United States National
Science Foundation, Award No. 0713290.
References
[1] Hearst, M.A., Clustering versus Faceted Categories for
Information Exploration. Communications of the ACM, 2006,
49(4).
[2] Quintarelli, E., L. Rosati, and Resmini, A. Facetag: Integrating
Bottom-up and Top-down Classifi cation in a Social Tagging System.
EuroIA 2006, Berlin.
[3] Wu, H. and M.D. Gordon, Collaborative fi ling in a
document repository. SIGIR 2004: p. 518-519
[4] Heymann, P. and Garcia-Molina, H., Collaborative Creation
of Communal Hierarchical Taxonomies in Social Tagging Systems.
Stanford Technical Report InfoLab 2006-10, 2006.
[5] Joachims, T. Text categorization with support vector
machines. In Proceedings of 10th European Conference on
Machine Learning, pages 137–142, April 1998.
[6] Sanderson, M. and B. Croft, Deriving concept hierarchies
from text. SIGIR 1999: p. 206-213.
[7] Schmitz and Patrick, Inducing Ontology from Flickr Tags.
Workshop in Collaborative Web Tagging, 2006.
[8] WordNet: An Electronic Lexical Database. Christiane
Fellbaum (editor). 1998. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.","txt","2","",""
"841","9","Annotated Facsimile Editions: Defi ning Macro-level Structure for Image-Based Electronic Editions","1","Facsimile images form a major component in many digital
editing projects. Well-known projects such as the Blake
Archive [Eaves 2007] and the Rossetti Archive [McGann 2007]
use facsimile images as the primary entry point to accessing
the visually rich texts in their collections. Even for projects
focused on transcribed electronic editions, it is now standard
practice to include high-resolution facsimile.
Encoding standards and text processing toolkits have been
the focus of signifi cant research. Tools, standards, and formal
models for encoding information in image-based editions have
only recently begun to receive attention. Most work in this
area has centered on the digitization and presentation of visual
materials [Viscomi 2002] or detailed markup and encoding
of information within a single image [Lecolinet 2002, Kiernan
2004, Dekhtyar 2006]. Comparatively little has been work has
been done on modeling the large-scale structure of facsimile
editions. Typically, the reading interface that presents a facsimile
determines its structure.
Separating the software used to model data from that used
to build user interfaces has well-known advantages for both
engineering and digital humanities practices. To achieve this
separation, it is necessary to develop a model of a facsimile
edition that is independent of the interface used to present
that edition.
In this paper, we present a unifi ed approach for representing
linguistic, structural, and graphical content of a text as an
Annotated Facsimile Edition (AFED). This model grows out of
our experience with several digital facsimile edition projects
over more than a decade, including the Cervantes Project
[Furuta 2001], the Digital Donne [Monroy 2007a], and the
Nautical Archaeology Digital Library [Monroy 2007b]. Our work
on these projects has emphasized the need for an intuitive
conceptual model of a digital facsimile. This model can then
serve as the basis for a core software module that can be
used across projects without requiring extensive modifi cation
by software developers. Drawing on our prior work we have
distilled fi ve primary goals for such a model:

• Openness: Scholars’ focused research needs are highly
specifi c, vary widely between disciplines, and change over
time. The model must accommodate new information needs
as they arise.
Figure 1: A simplifi ed diagram showing an edition
of collected poems (in two volumes) represented
as an annotated facsimile edition.
• Non-hierarchical: Facsimile editions contain some
information that should be presented hierarchically, but
they cannot be adequately represented as a single, properly
nested hierarchy.
• Restructuring: A facsimile is a representation of the
physical form of a document, but the model should enable
applications to restructure the original form to meet
specifi c needs.
• Alignment: Comparison between varying representations
of the same work is a fundamental task of humanities
research. The model must support alignment between
facsimiles of different copies of a work.
Annotated Facsimile Editions
The Annotated Facsimile Edition (AFED) models the macro
level structure of facsimile editions, representing them as a
stream of images with annotations over that stream. Figure 1
shows a simplifi ed diagram illustrating a two-volume edition
of collected poems. Annotations encode the structure of the
document and properties of the structural elements they
represent. Separate annotation streams encode multiple
analytical perspectives. For example, in fi gure 1, the annotations
shown below the image stream describe the physical structure
of the edition (volumes, pages, and lines) while the annotations
shown above the image stream describe the poetic structure
(poems, titles, epigraphs, stanzas). Annotations within a
single analytical perspective—but not those from different
perspectives—follow a hierarchical structure.
The Image Stream
The image stream intuitively corresponds to the sequential
ordering of page images in a traditional printed book. These
images, however, need not represent actual “pages.” An image
might show a variety of artifacts including an opening of a
book, a fragment of a scroll, or an unbound leaf of manuscript
notes. While it is natural to treat facsimile images sequentially,
any particular linear sequence represents an implementation
decision—a decision that may not be implied by the
physical document. For example, an editor may choose to
arrange an edition of letters according to the date written,
recipient, or thematic content. The image stream, therefore,
is an implementation detail of the model. The structure of the
edition is specifi ed explicitly by the annotations.
Annotation Management
Perspective Analytical perspective e.g., physical structure, narrative
elements, poetic.
Type The name of this type of annotation, e.g., page, volume,
chapter, poem, stanza
Start Index The index into the image stream where this annotation
starts.
Stop Index The index into the image stream where this annotation
ends.
Sequence A number for resolving the sequence of multiple
annotations on the same page.
Content
Canonical Name A canonical name that uniquely identifi es this content
relative to a domain specifi c classifi cation scheme.
Display Name The name to be displayed when referring to an instance
this annotation
Properties A set of key/value pairs providing domain specifi c
information about the annotation.
Transcriptions A set of transcriptions of the content that this annotation
specifi es.
Structural Information
Parent A reference to the parent of this annotation.
Children A list of references to the children of this annotation
Table 1: Information represented by an annotation.
Many historical texts exist only as fragments. Many more have
suffered damage that results in the lost of a portion of the
original text. Despite this damage, the general content and
characteristics of the text may be known or hypothesized based
on other sources. In other cases, while the original artifact may
exist, a digital representation of all or part of the artifact may
unavailable initially. To enable scholars to work with missing or
unavailable portions of a facsimile, we introduce the notion of
an abstract image. An abstract image is simply a placeholder
for a known or hypothesized artifact of the text for which no
image is available. Annotations attach to abstract images in the
same way they attach to existing images.
Annotations
Annotations are the primary means for representing structural
and linguistic content in the AFED. An annotation identifi es a
range of images and specifi es properties about those images.
Table 1 lists the information specifi ed by each annotation.
Properties in italics are optional. As shown in this table,
annotations support three main categories of information:
annotation management, content, and structural information.
49
The annotation management and structural information
categories contain record keeping information. Structural
information describes the hierarchical structure of annotation
within an analytical perspective. The annotation management
category specifi es the annotation type and identifi es the image
content referenced by the annotation. The sequence number is
an identifi er used by AFED to determine the relative ordering
of multiple annotations that have the same starting index.
AFED is agnostic to the precise semantics of this value. The
annotation type determines these semantics. For example,
a paragraph annotation may refer to the paragraph number
relative to a page, chapter, or other structural unit.
The content category describes the item referenced by the
annotation. Annotations support two naming conventions. To
facilitate comparison between documents, an annotation may
specify a canonical name according to a domain specifi c naming
convention. Canonical names usually do not match the name
given to the referenced item by the artifact itself and are rarely
appropriate for display to a general audience. Accordingly, the
annotation requires the specifi cation of a name suitable for
display.
Descriptive metadata can be specifi ed as a set of key/value
properties. In addition to descriptive metadata, annotations
support multiple transcriptions. Multiple transcriptions allow
alternate perspectives of the text; for example, a paleographic
transcription to support detailed linguistic analysis and a
normalized transcription to facilitate reading. Transcriptions
may also include translations.
AFED’s annotation mechanism defi nes a high-level syntactical
structure that is suffi cient to support the basic navigational
needs of most facsimile projects. By remaining agnostic
to semantic details, it allows for fl exible, project specifi c
customization. Where projects need to support user
interactions that go beyond typical navigation scenarios, these
interactions can be integrated into the user interface without
requiring changes to the lower-level tools used to access the
facsimile.
Discussion
AFED has proven to be a useful model in our work. We have
deployed a proof of concept prototype based on the AFED
model. Several of the facsimile editions constructed by the
Cervantes Project use this prototype behind the scenes. Given its
success in these reader’s interfaces, we are working to develop
a Web-based editing toolkit. This application will allow editors
to quickly defi ne annotations and use those annotations to
describe a facsimile edition. We anticipate completing this tool
by the summer of 2008.
By using multiple, hierarchical annotation streams, AFED’s
expressive power falls under the well-studied class of
document models, known as OHCO (ordered hierarchy of
content objects). Specifi cally, it is an instance of a revised form
of this generic model known as OHCO-3, [Renear 1996].
Whereas most prior research and development associated
with the OHCO model has focused on XML-based, transcribed
content, we have applied this model to the task of representing
macro-level structures in facsimile editions.
Focusing on macro-level document structure partially isolates
the AFED model from the non-hierarchical nature of documents
both in terms of the complexity of the required data structures,
and in terms of providing simplifi ed model to facilitate system
implementation. If warranted by future applications, we can
relax AFED’s hierarchical constraint. Relaxing this constraint
poses no problems with the current prototype; however,
further investigation is needed to determine potential benefi ts
and drawbacks.
In addition to macro-level structures, a document model
that strives to represent the visual content of a document
for scholarly purposes must also account for fi ne-grained
structures present in individual images and provide support
for encoded content at a higher level of detail. We envision
using the AFED model in conjunction with models tailored for
these low-level structures. We are working to develop a model
for representing fi ne-grained structure in visually complex
documents grounded in spatial hypermedia theory.
Acknowledgements
This material is based upon work support by National Science
Foundation under Grant No. IIS-0534314.
References
[Dekhtyar 2006] Dekhtyar, A., et al. Support for XML markup
of image-based electronic editions. International Journal on
Digital Libraries 6(1) 2006, pp. 55-69.
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Blake Archive. http://www.blakearchive.org/ [24 November
2007]
[Furuta 2001] Furuta, R., et al. The Cervantes Project: Steps
to a Customizable and Interlinked On-Line Electronic
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Coupling for Editing Literary Sources. Computers and
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[McGann 2007] McGann, J., The Complete Writings and Pictures
of Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Institute for Advanced Technology
in the Humanities, University of Virginia. http://www.
rossettiarchive.org/ [24 November 2007]
[Monroy 2007a] Monroy, C., Furuta, R., Stringer, G. Digital
Donne: Workfl ow, Editing Tools and the Reader’s Interface of
a Collection of 17th-century English Poetry. In Proceedings of
Joint Conference on Digital Libraries JCDL 2007 (Vancouver, BC,
June 2007), ACM Press: New York, NY, pp. 411-412.
[Monroy 2007b] Monroy, C., Furuta, R., Castro, F. Texts,
Illustrations, and Physical Objects: The Case of Ancient
Shipbuilding Treatises. In Proceedings of ECDL 2007, LNCS,
4675. Springer-Verlag: Heidelberg, pp. 198-209.
[Renear 1996] Renear, A., Mylonas, E., Durand, D. Refi ning our
Notion of What Text Really Is: The Problem of Overlapping
Hierarchies. In Ide, N., Hockey, S. Research in Humanities
Computing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
[Viscomi 2002] Viscomi, J. (2002). ‘Digital Facsimiles: Reading
the William Blake Archive’. Kirschenbaum, M. (ed.) Imagebased
Humanities Computing. spec. issue of Computers and
the Humanities, 36(1): 27-48.","txt","2","",""
"842","9","CritSpace: Using Spatial Hypertext to Model Visually Complex Documents","1","In this paper, we present a Web-based interface for editing
visually complex documents, such as modern authorial
manuscripts. Applying spatial hypertext theory as the basis for
designing this interface enables us to facilitate both interaction
with the visually complex structure of these documents and
integration of heterogeneous sources of external information.
This represents a new paradigm for designing systems to
support digital textual studies. Our approach emphasizes the
visual nature of texts and provides powerful tools to support
interpretation and creativity. In contrast to purely image-based
systems, we are able to do this while retaining the benefi ts of
traditional textual analysis tools.
Introduction
Documents express information as a combination of written
words, graphical elements, and the arrangement of these
content objects in a particular media. Digital representations of
documents—and the applications built around them—typically
divide information between primarily textual representations
on the one hand (e.g., XML encoded documents) and primarily
graphical based representations on the other (e.g., facsimiles).
Image-based representations allow readers access to highquality
facsimiles of the original document, but provide little
support for explicitly encoded knowledge about the document.
XML-based representations, by contrast, are able to specify
detailed semantic knowledge embodied by encoding guidelines
such as the TEI [Sperberg-McQueen 2003]. This knowledge
forms the basis for building sophisticated analysis tools and
developing rich hypertext interfaces to large document
collections and supporting materials. This added power comes
at a price. These approaches are limited by the need to specify
all relevant content explicitly. This is, at best, a time consuming
and expensive task and, at worst, an impossible one [Robinson 2000]. Furthermore, in typical systems, access to these texts mediated almost exclusively by the transcribed linguistic
content, even when images alongside their transcriptions.
By adopting spatial hypertext as a metaphor for representing
document structure, we are able to design a system that
emphasizes the visually construed contents of a document
while retaining access to structured semantic information
embodied in XML-based representations. Dominant
hypertext systems, such as the Web, express document
relationships via explicit links. In contrast, spatial hypertext
expresses relationships by placing related content nodes near
each other on a two-dimensional canvas [Marshall 1993]. In
addition to spatial proximity, spatial hypertext systems express
relationships through visual properties such as background
color, border color and style, shape, and font style. Common
features of spatial hypermedia systems include parsers capable
of recognizing relationships between objects such as lists,
list headings, and stacks, structured metadata attributes for
objects, search capability, navigational linking, and the ability
to follow the evolution of the information space via a history
mechanism.
The spatial hypertext model has an intuitive appeal for
representing visually complex documents. According to this
model, documents specify relationships between content
objects (visual representations of words and graphical elements)
based on their spatial proximity and visual similarity. This allows
expression of informal, implicit, and ambiguous relationships—
a key requirement for humanities scholarship. Unlike purely
image-based representations, spatial hypertext enables users
to add formal descriptions of content objects and document
structure incrementally in the form of structured metadata
(including transcriptions and markup). Hypermedia theorists
refer to this process as “incremental formalism” [Shipman
1999]. Once added, these formal descriptions facilitate system
support for text analysis and navigational hypertext.
Another key advantage of spatial hypertext is its ability to
support “information triage” [Marshall 1997]. Information
triage is the process of locating, organizing, and prioritizing large
amounts of heterogeneous information. This is particularly
helpful in supporting information analysis and decision making
in situations where the volume of information available makes
detailed evaluation of it each resource impossible. By allowing
users to rearrange objects freely in a two-dimensional
workspace, spatial hypertext systems provide a lightweight
interface for organizing large amounts of information. In
addition to content taken directly from document images,
this model encourages the inclusion of visual surrogates for
information drawn from numerous sources. These include
related photographs and artwork, editorial annotations, links
to related documents, and bibliographical references. Editors/
readers can then arrange this related material as they interact
with the document to refi ne their interpretive perspective.
Editors/readers are also able to supply their own notes and
graphical annotations to enrich the workspace further.
System Design
We are developing CritSpace as a proof of concept system
using the spatial hypertext metaphor as a basis for supporting
digital textual studies. Building this system from scratch, rather
than using an existing application, allows us to tailor the
design to meet needs specifi c to the textual studies domain
(for example, by including document image analysis tools). We
are also able to develop this application with a Web-based
interface tightly integrated with a digital archive containing
a large volume of supporting information (such as artwork,
biographical information, and bibliographic references) as well
as the primary documents.
Initially, our focus is on a collection of manuscript documents
written by Picasso [Audenaert 2007]. Picasso’s prominent use
of visual elements, their tight integration with the linguistic
content, and his reliance on ambiguity and spatial arrangement
to convey meaning make this collection particularly attractive
[Marin 1993, Michaël 2002]. These features also make his work
particularly diffi cult to represent using XML-based approaches.
More importantly, Picasso’s writings contain numerous features
that exemplify the broader category of modern manuscripts
including documents in multiple states, extensive authorial
revisions, editorial drafts, interlinear and marginal scholia, and
sketches and doodles.
Figure 1: Screenshot of CritSpace showing a document
along with several related preparatory sketches
Picasso made for Guernica about the same time.
CritSpace provides an HTML based interface for accessing the
collection maintained by the Picasso Project [Mallen 2007] that
contains nearly 14,000 artworks (including documents) and
9,500 biographical entries. CritSpace allows users to arrange
facsimile document images in a two dimensional workspace
and resize and crop these images. Users may also search
and browse the entire holdings of the digital library directly
from CritSpace, adding related artworks and biographical
information to the workspace as desired. In addition to content
taken from the digital library, users may add links to other material available on the Web, or add their own comments to
the workspace in the form of annotations. All of these items
are displayed as content nodes that can be freely positioned
and whose visual properties can be modifi ed. Figure 1 shows
a screenshot of this application that displays a document and
several related artworks.
CritSpace also introduces several features tailored to support
digital textual studies. A tab at the bottom of the display opens
a window containing a transcription of the currently selected
item. An accordion-style menu on the right hand side provides
a clipboard for temporarily storing content while rearranging
the workspace, an area for working with groups of images, and
a panel for displaying metadata and browsing the collection
based on this metadata. We also introduce a full document
mode that allows users to view a high-resolution facsimile.
This interface allows users to add annotations (both shapes
and text) to the image and provides a zooming interface to
facilitate close examination of details.
Future Work
CritSpace provides a solid foundation for understanding how
to apply spatial hypertext as a metaphor for interacting with
visually complex documents. This perspective opens numerous
directions for further research.
A key challenge is developing tools to help identify content
objects within a document and then to extracted these object
in a way that will allow users to manipulate them in the visual
workspace. Along these lines, we are working to adapt existing
techniques for foreground/background segmentation [Gatos
2004], word and line identifi cation [Manmatha 2005], and
page segmentation [Shafait 2006]. We are investigating the
use of Markov chains to align transcriptions to images semiautomatically
[Rothfeder 2006] and expectation maximization
to automatically recognize dominant colors for the purpose of
separating information layers (for example, corrections made
in red ink).
Current implementations of these tools require extensive
parameter tuning by individuals with a detailed understanding
of the image processing algorithms. We plan to investigate
interfaces that will allow non-experts to perform this
parameter tuning interactively.
Modern spatial hypertext applications include a representation
of the history of the workspace [Shipman 2001]. We are
interested in incorporating this notion, to represent documents,
not as fi xed and fi nal objects, but rather objects that have
changed over time. This history mechanism will enable editors
to reconstruct hypothetical changes to the document as
authors and annotators have modifi ed it. It can also be used to
allowing readers to see the changes made by an editor while
constructing a particular form of the document.
While spatial hypertext provides a powerful model for
representing a single workspace, textual scholars will need
tools to support the higher-level structure found in documents,
such as chapters, sections, books, volumes. Further work is
needed to identify ways in which existing spatial hypertext
models can be extended express relationships between these
structures and support navigation, visualization, and editing.
Discussion
Spatial hypertext offers an alternative to the dominate
view of text as an “ordered hierarchy of content objects”
(OCHO) [DeRose 1990]. The OCHO model emphasizes the
linear, linguistic content of a document and requires explicit
formalization of structural and semantic relationships early
in the encoding process. For documents characterized by
visually constructed information or complex and ambiguous
structures, OCHO may be overly restrictive.
In these cases, the ability to represent content objects
graphically in a two dimensional space provides scholars the
flexibility to represent both the visual aspects of the text they
are studying and the ambiguous, multi-facetted relationships
found in those texts. Furthermore, by including an incremental
path toward the explicit encoding of document content, this
model enables the incorporation of advanced textual analysis
tools that can leverage both the formally specifi ed structure
and the spatial arrangement of the content objects.
Acknowledgements
This material is based upon work support by National Science
Foundation under Grant No. IIS-0534314.
References
[Audenaert 2007] Audenaert, N. et al. Viewing Texts: An Art-
Centered Representation of Picasso’s Writings. In Proceedings
of Digital Humanities 2007 (Urbana-Champaign, IL, June, 2007),
pp. 14-17.
[DeRose 1990] DeRose, S., Durand, D., Mylonas, E., Renear, A.
What is Text Really? Journal of Computing in Higher Education.
1(2), pp. 3-26.
[Gatos 2004] Gatos, B., Ioannis, P., Perantonis, S. J., An
Adaptive Binarization Technique for Low Quality Historical
Documents. In Proceedings of Document Analysis Systems 2004.
LNCS 3163 Springer-Verlag: Berlin, pp. 102-113.
[Mallen 2006] Mallen, E., ed. (2007) The Picasso Project. Texas
A&M University http://picasso.tamu.edu/ [25 November
2007]
[Manmatha 2005] Manmatha, R., Rothfeder, J. L., A Scale
Space Approach for Automatically Segmenting Words from
Historical Handwritten Documents. In IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 28(8), pp. 1212-1225.
[Marin 1993] Marin, L. Picasso: Image Writing in Process.
trans. by Sims, G. In October 65 (Summer 1993), MIT Press:
Cambridge, MA, pp. 89-105.
[Marshall 1993] Marshall, C. and Shipman, F. Searching for
the Missing Link: Discovering Implicit Structure in Spatial
Hypertext. In Proceedings of Hypertext ’93 (Seattle WA, Nov.
1993), ACM Press: New York, NY, pp. 217-230.
[Marshall 1997] Marshall, C. and Shipman, F. Spatial hypertext
and the practice of information triage. In Proceedings of
Hypertext ’97 (Southampton, UK, Nov. 1997), ACM Press:
New York, NY, pp. 124-133.
[Michaël 2002] Michaël, A. Inside Picasso’s Writing Laboratory.
Presented at Picasso: The Object of the Myth. November,
2002. http://www.picasso.fr/anglais/cdjournal.htm [December
2006]
[Renear 1996] Renear, A., Mylonas, E., Durand, D. Refi ning our
Notion of What Text Really Is: The Problem of Overlapping
Hierarchies. In Ide, N., Hockey, S. Research in Humanities
Computing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
[Robinson 2000] Robinson, P. Ma(r)king the Electronic Text:
How, Why, and for Whom? In Joe Bray et. al. Ma(r)king the
Text: The Presentation of Meaning on the Literary Page. Ashgate:
Aldershot, England, pp. 309-28.
[Rothfeder 2006] Rothfeder, J., Manmatha, R., Rath, T.M.,
Aligning Transcripts to Automatically Segmented Handwritten
Manuscripts. In Proceedings of Document Analysis Systems 2006.
LNCS 3872 Springer-Verlag: Berlin, pp. 84-95.
[Shafait 2006] Shafait, F., Keysers, D., Breuel, T. Performance
Comparison of Six Algorithms for Page Segmentation. In
Proceedings of Document Analysis Systems 2006. LNCS 3872
Springer-Verlag: Berlin, pp. 368-379.
[Shipman 1999] Shipman, F. and McCall, R. Supporting
Incremental Formalization with the Hyper-Object Substrate.
In ACM Transactions on Information Systems 17(2), ACM Press:
New York, NY, pp. 199-227.
[Shipman 2001] Shipman, F., Hsieh, H., Maloor, P. and Moore,
M. The Visual Knowledge Builder: A Second Generation
Spatial Hypertext. In Proceedings of Twelfth ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia (Aarhus Denmark, August 2001),
ACM Press, pp. 113-122.
[Sperberg-McQueen 2003] Sperberg-Mcqueen, C. and
Burnard, L. Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and
Interchange: Volumes 1 and 2: P4, University Press of Virginia,
2003.Press, pp. 113-122.
[Sperberg-McQueen 2003] Sperberg-Mcqueen, C. and
Burnard, L. Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and
Interchange: Volumes 1 and 2: P4, University Press of Virginia,
2","txt","2","",""
"843","9","Glimpses though the clouds: collocates in a new light","1","This paper demonstrates a web-based, interactive data
visualisation, allowing users to quickly inspect and browse the
collocational relationships present in a corpus. The software is
inspired by tag clouds, fi rst popularised by on-line photograph
sharing website Flickr (www.fl ickr.com). A paper based on
a prototype of this Collocate Cloud visualisation was given
at Digital Resources for the Humanities and Arts 2007. The
software has since matured, offering new ways of navigating
and inspecting the source data. It has also been expanded to
analyse additional corpora, such as the British National Corpus
(http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/), which will be the focus of this
talk.
Tag clouds allow the user to browse, rather than search for
specifi c pieces of information. Flickr encourages its users to
add tags (keywords) to each photograph uploaded. The tags
associated with each individual photograph are aggregated; the
most frequent go on to make the cloud. The cloud consists of
these tags presented in alphabetical order, with their frequency
displayed as variation in colour, or more commonly font size.
Figure 1 is an example of the most popular tags at Flickr: Figure 1. Flickr tag cloud showing 125 of the
most popular photograph keywords
http://www.fl ickr.com/photos/tags/ (accessed 23 November 2007)
The cloud offers two ways to access the information. If the
user is looking for a specifi c term, the alphabetical ordering
of the information allows it to be quickly located if present.
More importantly, as a tool for browsing, frequent tags stand
out visually, giving the user an immediate overview of the
data. Clicking on a tag name will display all photographs which
contain that tag. The cloud-based visualisation has been successfully applied to
language. McMaster University’s TAPoR Tools (http://taporware.
mcmaster.ca/) features a ‘Word Cloud’ module, currently in
beta testing. WMatrix (http://ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/wmatrix/) can
compare two corpora by showing log-likelihood results in
cloud form. In addition to other linguistic metrics, internet
book seller Amazon provides a word cloud, see figure 2. Figure 2. Amazon.com’s ‘Concordance’ displaying the
100 most frequent words in Romeo and Juliet
http://www.amazon.com/Romeo-Juliet-Folger-Shakespeare-
Library/dp/sitb-next/0743477111/ref=sbx_con/104-
4970220-2133519?ie=UTF8&qid=1179135939&sr=1-
1#concordance (accessed 23 November 2007)
In this instance a word frequency list is the data source, showing
the most frequent 100 words. As with the tag cloud, this list
is alphabetically ordered, the font size being proportionate to
its frequency of usage. It has all the benefi ts of a tag cloud; in
this instance clicking on a word will produce a concordance
of that term.
This method of visualisation and interaction offers another
tool for corpus linguists. As developer for an online corpus
project, I have found that the usability and sophistication of
our tools have been important to our success. Cloud-like
displays of information would complement our other advanced
features, such as geographic mapping and transcription
synchronisation.
The word clouds produced by TAPoR Tools, WMatrix and
Amazon are, for browsing, an improvement over tabular
statistical information. There is an opportunity for other
corpus data to be enhanced by using a cloud. Linguists often
use collocational information as a tool to examine language
use. Figure 3 demonstrates a typical corpus tool output: Figure 3. British National Corpus through interface developed
by Mark Davies, searching for ‘bank’, showing collocates
http://corpus.byu.edu/bnc/ (accessed 23 November 2007)
The data contained in the table lends itself to visualisation as
a cloud. As with the word cloud, the list of collocates can be
displayed alphabetically. Co-occurrence frequency, like word
frequency, can be mapped to font size. This would produce an
output visually similar to the word cloud. Instead of showing
all corpus words, they would be limited to those surrounding
the chosen node word.
Another valuable statistic obtainable via collocates is that of
collocational strength, the likelihood of two words co-occurring,
measured here by MI (Mutual Information). Accounting for
this extra dimension requires an additional visual cue to be
introduced, one which can convey the continuous data of an MI
score. This can be solved by varying the colour, or brightness
of the collocates forming the cloud. The end result is shown
in figure 4: Figure 4. Demonstration of collocate
cloud, showing node word ‘bank’
The collocate cloud inherits all the advantages of previous cloud
visualisations: a collocate, if known, can be quickly located due
to the alphabetical nature of the display. Frequently occurring
collocates stand out, as they are shown in a larger typeface,
with collocationally strong pairings highlighted using brighter formatting. Therefore bright, large collocates are likely to be
of interest, whereas dark, small collocates perhaps less so.
Hovering the mouse over a collocate will display statistical
information, co-occurrence frequency and MI score, as one
would fi nd from the tabular view.
The use of collocational data also presents additional
possibilities for interaction. A collocate can be clicked upon
to produce a new cloud, with the previous collocate as the
new node word. This gives endless possibilities for corpus
exploration and the investigation of different domains.
Occurrences of polysemy can be identifi ed and expanded
upon by following the different collocates. Particular instances
of usage are traditionally hidden from the user when viewing
aggregated data, such as the collocate cloud. The solution is to
allow the user to examine the underlying data by producing
an optional concordance for each node/collocate pairing
present. Additionally a KWIC concordance can be generated
by examining the node word, visualising the collocational
strength of the surrounding words. These concordance lines
can even by reordered on the basis of collocational strength,
in addition to the more traditional options of preceding or
succeeding words.
This visualisation may be appealing to members of the public,
or those seeking a more practical introduction to corpus
linguistics. In teaching use they not only provide analysis, but
from user feedback, also act as stimulation in creative writing.
Collocate searches across different corpora or document sets
may be visualised side by side, facilitating quick identifi cation
of differences.
While the collocate cloud is not a substitute for raw data, it
does provide a fast and convenient way to navigate language.
The ability to generate new clouds from existing collocates
extends this further. Both this iterative nature and the addition
of collocational strength information gives these collocate
clouds greater value for linguistic research than previous cloud
visualisations.","txt","2","",""
"844","9","The function and accuracy of old Dutch urban designs and maps. A computer assisted analysis of the extension of Leiden (1611)","1","Historical manuscripts and printed maps of the pre-cadastral1
period show enormous differences in scale, precision and
color. Less apparent are differences in reliability between maps,
or between different parts of the same map. True, modern
techniques in computer assisted cartography make it possible
to measure very accurately such differences between maps
and geographic space with very distinct levels of precision and
accuracy. However differences in reliability between maps, or
between different parts of the same map, are not only due to
the accuracy measurement techniques, but also to their original
function and context of (re-)use. Historical information about
the original context of function and context of (re-)use can
give us insight how to measure accuracy, how to choose the
right points for geo-referencing and how to rectify digital maps.
On the other hand computer assisted cartography enables
us to trace and to visualize important information about
mapmaking, especially when further historical evidence is
missing, is hidden or is distorted, consciously or unconsciously.
The proposed paper is embedded in the project: Paper and
Virtual Cities, (subsidized by the Netherlands Organization for
Scientifi c Research) that aims at developing methodologies
that a) permit researchers to use historical maps and related
sources more accurately in creating in digital maps and virtual
reconstructions of cities and b) allow users to recognize
better technical manipulations and distortions of truth used in
the process of mapmaking.2
In this paper we present as one of the outcomes of this project
a method that visualizes different levels of accuracy in and
between designs and maps in relation to their original function
to assess their quality for re-use today. This method is presented
by analyzing different 17th century designs, manuscript and
engraved maps of the city of Leiden, in particular of the land
surveyor, mapmaker Jan Pietersz. Dou. The choice for Leiden
and Dou is no coincidence.
One of the reasons behind differences the accuracy of maps is
the enormous variety in methods and measures used in land
surveying and mapmaking in the Low Countries.3 This variety
was the result of differences in the private training and the backgrounds of the surveyors, in the use of local measures
and in the exam procedures that differed from province to
province.4 These differences would last until the 19th Century.
However, already by the end of the 16th Century we see in and
around Leiden the fi rst signs of standardization in surveying
techniques and the use of measures.5 First of all, the Rhineland
rod (3.767 meter) the standard of the water-administration
body around Leiden is used more and more, along local
measures in the Low Countries and in Dutch expansion
overseas. A second reason to look at Leiden in more detail is
that in 1600 a practical training school in land surveying and
fortifi cation would be founded in the buildings of its university,
the so-called Duytsche Mathematique, that turned out to be
very successful not only in the Low Countries, but also in
other European countries. This not only contributed to the
spread and reception of the Rhineland rod, but also to the
dissemination of more standardized ways of land surveying
and fortifi cation.6 The instructional material of the professors
of this training school and the notes of their pupils are still
preserved, which allows us to study the process of surveying
and mapmaking in more detail.
The reason to look into the work of Jan Pietersz. Dou is his
enormous production of maps. Westra (1994) calculated that
at least 1150 maps still exist.7 Of the object of our case study
alone, the city of Leiden, Dou produced at least 120 maps
between 1600 and 1635, ranging from property maps, designs
for extensions of the city and studies for civil engineering
works etc. We will focus on the maps that Dou made for the
urban extension of the city of Leiden of 1611. Sometimes
these (partial) maps were made for a specifi c purpose; in other
cases Dou tried in comprehensive maps, combining property
estimates and future designs, to tackle problems of illegal
economic activities, pollution, housing and fortifi cation. Since
these measurements were taken in his offi cial role of, sworn-in
land surveyor we can assume that they were supposed to be
accurate. This variety in designs and maps for the same area
allows us to discuss accuracy in relation to function and (re-
)use of maps. We will also explain that the differences between
designs and maps require different methods of geo-referencing
and analysis.
In particular, we will give attention to one design map of Dou
for the northern part of the city of Leiden RAL PV 1002-
06 (Regionaal Archief Leiden) to show how misinterpretation
of features lead to unreliable or biased decisions when the
historical context is not taken into account, even when we
can consider the results, in terms of accuracy, satisfactory.
Since Dou later also made maps for commercial purposes
of the same northern extension of Leiden it is interesting to
compare these maps.
Conclusions are drawn addressing the question of whether
Dou used the same measurements to produce a commercial
map or that he settled for less accuracy given the different
purpose of the later map compared to his designs and
property maps. To answer this question, we use modern digital
techniques of geo-processing8 to compare the old maps to
modern cartographical resources and to the cadastral map
of the 1800s in order to determine how accurate the various
maps in question are. We do this, by using the American
National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA) to defi ne
accuracy at a 95% confi dence level. By point-based analysis we
link distributional errors to classifi ed features in order to fi nd
a relationship between accuracy and map function.9
Notes
(1) Cadastral mapping refers to the “mapping of property
boundaries, particularly to record the limitation of title or
for the assessment of taxation”. The term “cadastral” is also
used for referring to surveys and resurveys of public lands
(Neumann, J. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Cartography in 25
Languages 1.16, 1997).
(2) The project Paper and Virtual Cities. New methodologies
for the use of historical sources in computer-assisted urban
cartography (2003-2008) is a collaboration between the
department of Alfa-Informatics of the University Groningen
and the Virtual Knowledge Studio of the Royal Netherlands
Academy of Arts and Sciences subsidized by the Netherlands
Organization for Scientifi c Research (NWO). http://www.
virtualknowledgestudio.nl/projects/paper-virtualcities.php
(3) Meskens, A, Wiskunde tussen Renaissance en Barok.
Aspecten van wiskunde-beoefening te Antwerpen 1550-
1620, [Publikaties SBA/MVC 41-43], [PhD, University of
Antwerp],Antwerp, 1995.
H.C. Pouls, “Landmeetkundige methoden en instrumenten
voor 1800”, in Stad in kaart, Alphen aan den Rijn, pp. 13-28
Winter, P.J. van, Hoger beroepsonderwijs avant-la-lettre:
Bemoeiingen met de vorming van landmeters en ingenieurs
bij de Nederlandse universiteiten van de 17e en 18e eeuw,
Amsterdam/Oxford/New York, 1988.
(4) Muller, E., Zanvliet, K., eds., Admissies als landmeter in
Nederland voor 1811: Bronnen voor de geschiedenis van de
landmeetkunde en haar toepassing in administratie, architectuur,
kartografi e en vesting-en waterbouwkunde, Alphen aan den Rijn
1987
(5) Zandvliet, K., Mapping for Money. Maps, plans and
topographic paintings and their role in Dutch overseas expansion
during the 16th and 17th centuries. (PhD Rijksuniversiteit
Leiden], Amsterdam, 1998 describes this development as
part of a process of institutionalization of mapmaking, esp, pp.
75-81.
(6) Taverne, E.R.M., In ‘t land van belofte: in de nieue stadt. Ideaal
en werkelijkheid van de stadsuitleg in de Republiek 1580-1680,
[PhD, University of Groningen]Maarssen, 1978. Heuvel, C. van den, ‘Le traité incomplet de l’Art Militaire et
l’ínstruction pour une école des ingénieurs de Simon Stevin’,
Simon Stevin (1548-1620) L’emergence de la nouvelle science,
(tentoonstellingscatalogus/catalogue Koninklijk Bibliotheek
Albert I, Brussel/Bibliothèque Royale Albert I, Bruxelles,
17-09-2004-30-10-2004) Brussels 2004, pp. 101-111. idem,
“The training of noblemen in the arts and sciences in the
Low Countries around 1600. Treatises and instructional
materials” in Alessandro Farnese e le Fiandre/Alexander and the
Low Countries (in print)
(7) Frans Westra, Jan Pietersz. Dou (1573-1635). “Invloedrijk
landmeter van Rijnland”, Caert-thresoor, 13e jaargang 1994, nr.
2, pp. 37-48
(8) During geo-referencing a mathematical algorithm is
used for scaling, rotating and translating the old map to give
modern coordinates to it and allow further comparisons
to modern sources. This algorithm is defi ned by a kind of
transformation we decide to use based on the selection of a
number of control points (GCPS). These items are described
in detail later in this paper. All this processing was done by
using different kind of software for digital and geographical
processing and statistics (PCI Geomatics, ARCGIS, Autocad,
MS Excel, among others).
(9) Jakeline Benavides and John Nerbonne. Approaching
Quantitative Accuracy in Early Dutch City Maps. XXIII
International cartographic Conference. ISBN 978-5-9901203-
1-0 (CD-ROM). Moscow, 2007.","txt","2","",""
"845","9","AAC-FACKEL and BRENNER ONLINE. New Digital Editions of Two Literary Journals","1","In this paper two highly innovative digital editions will be
presented. The digital editions of the historical literary journals
“Die Fackel” (published by Karl Kraus in Vienna from 1899
to 1936) and “Der Brenner” (published by Ludwig Ficker in
Innsbruck from 1910 to 1954) have been developed within the
corpus research framework of the “AAC - Austrian Academy
Corpus” at the Austrian Academy of Sciences in collaboration
with other researchers and programmers in the AAC from
Vienna together with the graphic designer Anne Burdick from
Los Angeles. For the creation of these scholarly digital editions
the AAC edition philosophy and principles have been made
use of whereby new corpus research methods have been
applied for questions of computational philology and textual
studies in a digital environment. The examples of these online
editions will give insights into the potentials and the benefi ts
of making corpus research methods and techniques available
for scholarly research into language and literature.
Introduction
The “AAC - Austrian Academy Corpus” is a corpus research
unit at the Austrian Academy of Sciences concerned with
establishing and exploring large electronic text corpora and
with conducting scholarly research in the fi eld of corpora and
digital text collections and editions. The texts integrated into
the AAC are predominantly German language texts of historical
and cultural signifi cance from the last 150 years. The AAC has
collected thousands of texts from various authors, representing
many different text types from all over the German speaking
world. Among the sources, which systematically cover various
domains, genres and types, are newspapers, literary journals,
novels, dramas, poems, advertisements, essays on various
subjects, travel literature, cookbooks, pamphlets, political
speeches as well as a variety of scientifi c, legal, and religious
texts, to name just a few forms. The AAC provides resources
for investigations into the linguistic and textual properties of
these texts and into their historical and cultural qualities. More
than 350 million running words of text have been scanned, digitized, integrated and annotated. The selection of texts is
made according to the AAC’s principles of text selection that
are determined by specifi c research interests as well as by
systematic historical, empirical and typological parameters.
The annotation schemes of the AAC, based upon XML
related standards, have in the phase of corpus build-up been
concerned with the application of basic structural mark-up
and selective thematic annotations. In the phase of application
development specifi c thematic annotations are being made
exploring questions of linguistic and textual scholarly research
as well as experimental and exploratory mark-up. Journals are
regarded as interesting sources for corpus research because
they comprise a great variety of text types over a long period
of time. Therefore, model digital editions of literary journals
have been developed: The AAC-FACKEL was published on 1
January 2007 and BRENNER ONLINE followed in October
2007. The basic elements and features of our approach
of corpus research in the fi eld of textual studies will be
demonstrated in this paper.
AAC-FACKEL
Figure 1. AAC-FACKEL Interface
The digital edition of the journal “Die Fackel” (“The Torch”),
published and almost entirely written by the satirist and
language critic Karl Kraus in Vienna from 1899 until 1936,
offers free online access to 37 volumes, 415 issues, 922
numbers, comprising more than 22.500 pages and 6 million
tokens. It contains a fully searchable database of the journal
with various indexes, search tools and navigation aids in an
innovative and functional graphic design interface, where
all pages of the original are available as digital texts and as
facsimile images. The work of Karl Kraus in its many forms,
of which the journal is the core, can be regarded as one of
the most important, contributions to world literature. It is a
source for the history of the time, for its language and its moral
transgressions. Karl Kraus covers in a typical and idiosyncratic
style in thousands of texts the themes of journalism and
war, of politics and corruption, of literature and lying. His
infl uential journal comprises a great variety of essays, notes,
commentaries, aphorisms and poems. The electronic text,
also used for the compilation of a text-dictionary of idioms
(“Wörterbuch der Redensarten zu der von Karl Kraus 1899
bis 1936 herausgegebenen Zeitschrift ‘Die Fackel’”), has been
corrected and enriched by the AAC with information. The
digital edition allows new ways of philological research and
analysis and offers new perspectives for literary studies.
BRENNER ONLINE
Figure 2. BRENNER ONLINE Interface
The literary journal “Der Brenner” was published between
1910 and 1954 in Innsbruck by Ludwig Ficker. The text of 18
volumes, 104 issues, which is a small segment of the AAC’s
overall holdings, is 2 million tokens of corrected and annotated
text, provided with additional information. “Die Fackel” had set
an example for Ludwig Ficker and his own publication. Contrary
to the more widely read satirical journal of Karl Kraus, the
more quiet “Der Brenner” deals primarily with themes of
religion, nature, literature and culture. The philosopher Ludwig
Wittgenstein was affi liated with the group and participated in
the debates launched by the journal. Among its contributors
is the expressionist poet Georg Trakl, the writer Carl Dallago,
the translator and cultural critic Theodor Haecker, translator
of Søren Kierkegaard and Cardinal Newman into German,
the moralist philosopher Ferdinand Ebner and many others.
The journal covers a variety of subjects and is an important
voice of Austrian culture in the pre and post second world
war periods. The digital edition has been made by the AAC
in collaboration with the Brenner-Archive of the University of Innsbruck. Both institutions have committed themselves
to establish a valuable digital resource for the study of this
literary journal.
Conclusion
The philological and technological principles of digital editions
within the AAC are determined by the conviction that the
methods of corpus research will enable us to produce valuable
resources for scholars. The AAC has developed such model
editions to meet these aims. These editions provide well
structured and well designed access to the sources. All pages
are accessible as electronic text and as facsimile images of
the original. Various indexes and search facilities are provided
so that word forms, personal names, foreign text passages,
illustrations and other resources can be searched for in
various ways. The search mechanisms for personal names have
been implemented in the interface for BRENNER ONLINE
and will be done for “Die Fackel”. The interface is designed to
be easily accessible also to less experienced users of corpora.
Multi-word queries are possible. The search engine supports
left and right truncation. The interface of the AAC-FACKEL
provides also search mechanisms for linguistic searches, allows
to perform lemma queries and offers experimental features.
Instead of searching for particular word forms, queries for all
the word forms of a particular lemma are possible. The same
goes for the POS annotation. The web-sites of both editions
are entirely based on XML and cognate technologies. On the
character level use of Unicode has been made throughout. All
of the content displayed in the digital edition is dynamically
created from XML data. Output is produced through means of
XSLT style sheets. This holds for the text section, the contents
overview and the result lists. We have adopted this approach
to ensure the viability of our data for as long a period as
possible. Both digital editions have been optimized for use
with recent browser versions. One of the basic requirements
is that the browser should be able to handle XML-Dom and
the local system should be furnished with a Unicode font
capable of displaying the necessary characters. The interface
has synchronized fi ve individual frames within one single
window, which can be alternatively expanded and closed as
required. The “Paratext”-section situated within the fi rst frame
provides background information and essays. The “Index”-
section gives access to a variety of indexes, databases and
full-text search mechanisms. The results are displayed in the
adjacent section. The “Contents”-section has been developed,
to show the reader the whole range of the journal ready to
be explored and provides access to the whole run of issues
in chronological order. The “Text”-section has a complex
and powerful navigational bar so that the reader can easily
navigate and read within the journals either in text-mode or
in image-mode from page to page, from text to text, from
issue to issue and with the help of hyperlinks. These digital
editions will function as models for similar applications. The
AAC’s scholarly editions of “Der Brenner” and “Die Fackel”
will contribute to the development of digital resources for
research into language and literature.
References
AAC - Austrian Academy Corpus: http://www.aac.ac.at/fackel
AAC - Austrian Academy Corpus: AAC-FACKEL, Online
Version: Die Fackel. Herausgeber: Karl Kraus, Wien 1899-
1936, AAC Digital Edition No 1, 2007, (http://www.aac.
ac.at/fackel )
AAC - Austrian Academy Corpus and Brenner-Archiv:
BRENNER ONLINE, Online Version: Der Brenner.
Herausgeber: Ludwig Ficker, Innsbruck 1910-1954, AAC
Digital Edition No 2, 2007, (http://www.aac.ac.at/brenner )","txt","2","",""
"846","9","e-Science in the Arts and Humanities - A methodological perspective","1","The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of e-Science
and e-Research activities for the arts and humanities in the UK.
It will focus on research projects and trends and will not cover
the institutional infrastructure to support them. In particular,
we shall explore the methodological discussions laid out in
the Arts and Humanities e-Science Theme, jointly organised
by the Arts and Humanities e-Science Support Centre and the
e-Science Institute in Edinburgh (http://www.nesc.ac.uk/esi/
themes/theme_06/). The second focus of the paper will be the
current and future activities within the Arts and Humanities
e-Science Initiative in the UK and their methodological
consequences (http://www.ahessc.ac.uk).
The projects presented so far are all good indicators of what
the future might deliver, as ‘grand challenges’ for the arts and
humanities e-Science programme such as the emerging data
deluge (Hey and Trefethen 2003). The Bush administration will
have produced over 100 million emails by the end of its term
(Unsworth 2006). These can provide the basis for new types of
historical and socio-political research that will take advantage
of computational methods to deal with digital data. However,
for arts and humanities research an information is not just an
information. Complicated semantics underlie the archives of
human reports. As a simple example, it cannot be clear from
the email alone which Bush administration or even which Iraq
war are under consideration. Moreover, new retrieval methods
for such data must be intuitive for the user and not based on
complicated metadata schemes. They have to be specifi c in
their return and deliver exactly that piece of information the
researcher is interested in. This is fairly straightforward for
structured information if it is correctly described, but highly
complex for unstructured information. Arts and humanities
additionally need the means to on-demand reconfi gure the
retrieval process by using computational power that changes
the set of information items available from texts, images,
movies, etc. This paper argues that a specifi c methodological
agenda in arts and humanities e-Science has been developing
over the past two years and explores some of its main tenets.
We offer a chronological discussion of two phases in the
methodological debates about the applicability of e-science
and e-research to arts and humanities.
The fi rst phase concerns the methodological discussions
that took place during the early activities of the Theme. A
series of workshops and presentations about the role of e-
Science for arts and humanities purported to make existing
e-science methodologies applicable to this new fi eld and
consider the challenges that might ensue (http://www.nesc.
ac.uk/esi/themes/theme_06/community.htm). Several events
brought together computer scientists and arts and humanities
researchers. Further events (fi nished by the time of Digital
Humanities 2008) will include training events for postgraduate
students and architectural studies on building a national einfrastructure
for the arts and humanities.
Due to space limitations, we cannot cover all the early
methodological discussions during the Theme here, but
focus on two, which have been fruitful in uptake in arts and
humanities: Access Grid and Ontological Engineering. A
workshop discussed alternatives for video-conferencing in
the arts and humanities in order to establish virtual research
communities. The Access Grid has already proven to be of
interest in arts and humanities research. This is not surprising,
as researchers in these domains often need to collaborate
with other researchers around the globe. Arts and humanities
research often takes place in highly specialised domains and
subdisciplines, niche subjects with expertise spread across
universities. The Access Grid can provide a cheaper alternative
to face-to-face meetings.
However, online collaboration technologies like the Access
Grid need to be better adapted to the specifi c needs of
humanities researchers by e.g. including tools to collaboratively
edit and annotate documents. The Access Grid might be a good
substitute to some face-to-face meetings, but lacks innovative
means of collaboration, which can be especially important in
arts and humanities research. We should aim to realise real
multicast interaction, as it has been done in VNC technology
or basic wiki technology. These could support new models of
collaboration in which the physical organisation of the Access
Grid suite can be accommodated to specifi c needs that would
e.g. allow participants to walk around. The procedure of
Access Grid sessions could also be changed, away from static
meetings towards more dynamic collaborations.
Humanities scholars and performers have priorities and
concerns that are often different from those of scientists and
engineers (Nentwich 2003). With growing size of data resources
the need arises to use recent methodological frameworks
such as ontologies to increase the semantic interoperability of
data. Building ontologies in the humanities is a challenge, which
was the topic of the Theme workshop on ‘Ontologies and
Semantic Interoperability for Humanities Data’. While semantic
integration has been a hot topic in business and computing research, there are few existing examples for ontologies in the
Humanities, and they are generally quite limited, lacking the
richness that full-blown ontologies promise. The workshop
clearly pointed at problems mapping highly contextual data as
in the humanities to highly formalized conceptualization and
specifi cations of domains.
The activities within the UK’s arts and humanities e-Science
community demonstrate the specifi c needs that have to be
addressed to make e-Science work within these disciplines
(Blanke and Dunn 2006). The early experimentation phase,
which included the Theme events presented supra, delivered
projects that were mostly trying out existing approaches in e-
Science. They demonstrated the need for a new methodology
to meet the requirements of humanities data that is particularly
fuzzy and inconsistent, as it is not automatically produced, but
is the result of human effort. It is fragile and its presentation
often diffi cult, as e.g. data in performing arts that only exists
as an event.
The second phase of arts and humanities e-Science began
in September 2007 with seven 3-4 years projects that are
moving away from ad hoc experimentation towards a more
systematic investigation of methodologies and technologies
that could provide answers to grand challenges in arts and
humanities research. This second phase could be put in a
nutshell as e-science methodology-led innovative research in
arts and humanity.
Next to performance, music research e.g. plays an important
vanguard function at adopting e-Science methodologies,
mostly because many music resources are already available
in digital formats. At Goldsmiths, University of London,
the project ‘Purcell Plus’ e.g. will build upon the successful
collaboration ‘Online Musical Recognition and Searching
(OMRAS)’ (http://www.omras.org/), which has just achieved
a second phase of funding by the EPSRC. With OMRAS, it will
be possible to effi ciently search large-scale distributed digital
music collections for related passages, etc. The project uses
grid technologies to index the very large distributed music
resources. ‘Purcell Plus’ will make use of the latest explosion in
digital data for music research. It uses Purcell’s autograph MS
of ‘Fantazies and In Nomines for instrumental ensemble’ and
will investigate the methodology problems for using toolkits
like OMRAS for musicology research. ‘Purcell Plus’ will adopt
the new technologies emerging from music information
retrieval, without the demand to change completely proven
to be good methodologies in musicology. The aim is to suggest
that new technologies can help existing research and open
new research domains in terms of the quantity of music and
new quantitative methods of evaluation.
Building on the earlier investigations into the data deluge and
how to deal with it, many of the second-phase projects look
into the so-called ‘knowledge technologies’ that help with data
and text mining as well as simulations in decision support for
arts and humanities research. One example is the ‘Medieval
Warfare on the Grid: The Case of Manzikert’ project in
Birmingham, which will investigate the need for medieval states
to sustain armies by organising and distributing resources.
A grid-based framework shall virtually reenact the Battle of
Manzikert in 1071, a key historic event in Byzantine history.
Agent-based modelling technologies will attempt to fi nd out
more about the reasons why the Byzantine army was so
heavily defeated by the Seljurk Turks. Grid environments offer
the chance to solve such complex human problems through
distributed simultaneous computing.
In all the new projects, we can identify a clear trend towards
investigating new methodologies for arts and humanities
research, possible only because grid technologies offer
unknown data and computational resources. We could see how
e-Science in the arts and humanities has matured towards the
development of concrete tools that systematically investigate
the use of e-Science for research. Whether it is simulation of
past battles or musicology using state-of-the-art information
retrieval techniques, this research would have not been
possible before the shift in methodology towards e-Science
and e-Research.
References
Blanke, T. and S. Dunn (2006). The Arts and Humanities e-
Science Initiative in the UK. E-Science ‘06: Proceedings of the
Second IEEE International Conference on e-Science and Grid
Computing, Amsterdam, IEEE Computer Society.
Hey, T. and A. Trefethen (2003). The data deluge: an e-Science
perspective. In F. Berman, A. Hey and G. Fox (eds) Grid
Computing: Making the Global Infrastructure a Reality. Hoboken,
NJ, John Wiley & Sons.
Nentwich, M. (2003). Cyberscience. Research in the Age of the
Internet. Vienna, Austrian Academy of Science Press.
Unsworth, J. (2006). “The Draft Report of the American
Council of Learned Societies’ Commission on
Cyberinfrastructure for Humanities and Social Sciences.”
from http://www.acls.org/cyberinfrastructure/","txt","2","",""
"847","9","An OWL-based index of emblem metaphors","1","This paper describes an index on metaphor in Otto Vaenius’
emblem book Amoris divini emblemata (Antwerp, 1615). The
index should be interesting both for its contents (that is, for
the information about the use of metaphor in the book) and
as an example of modelling a complex literary phenomenon.
Modelling a complex phenomenon creates the possibility to
formulate complex queries on the descriptions that are based
on the model. The article describes an application that uses this
possibility. The application user can interrogate the metaphor
data in multiple ways, ranging from canned queries to complex
selections built in the application’s guided query interface.
Unlike other emblem indices, the metaphor index is not meant
to be a tool for resource discovery, a tool that helps emblem
scholars fi nd emblems relevant to their own research. It presents
research output rather than input. The modelling techniques
that it exemplifi es should help a researcher formulate detailed
observations or fi ndings about his research subject – in this
case, metaphor – and make these fi ndings amenable to further
processing. The result is an index, embedded in an overview
or explanation of the data for the reader. I will argue that for
research output data it is up to the researcher who uses these
modelling techniques to integrate the presentation of data in
a narrative or argument, and I describe one possible way of
effecting this integration.
The paper builds on the techniques developed in (Boot 2006).
The emblem book is encoded using TEI; a model of metaphor
(an ontology) is formulated in OWL; the observations about
the occurrence of metaphors are stored as RDF statements.
An essay about the more important metaphors in this book
is encoded in TEI. This creates a complex and interlinked
structure that may be explored in a number of ways. The essay
is hyperlinked to (1) individual emblems, (2) the presentation of
individual metaphors in emblems, (3) searches in the metaphor
data, and (4) concepts in the metaphor ontology. From each of
these locations, further exploration is possible. Besides these
ready-made queries, the application also facilitates user-defi ned
queries on the metaphor data. The queries are formulated
using the SPARQL RDF query language, but the application’s
guided query interface hides the actual syntax from the user.
Metaphor model
There is a number of aspects of metaphor and the texts where
metaphors occur that are modelled in the metaphor index.
A metaphor has a vehicle and a tenor, in the terminology of
Richards (1936). When love, for its strength en endurance
in adversity, is compared to a tree, the tree is the vehicle,
love is the tenor. It is possible to defi ne hierarchies, both
for the comparands (that is, vehicles and tenors) and for the
metaphors: we can state that ‘love as a tree’ (love being fi rmly
rooted) belongs to a wider class of ‘love as a plant’ (love
bearing fruit) metaphors. We can also state that a tree is a
plant, and that it (with roots, fruit, leaves and seeds) belongs
to the vegetal kingdom (Lakoff and Johnson 1980). It often
happens that an emblem contains references to an object
invested with metaphorical meaning elsewhere in the book.
The index can record these references without necessarily
indicating something they are supposed to stand for.
The index can also represent the locations in the emblem (the
text and image fragments) that refer to the vehicles and tenors.
The text fragments are stretches of emblem text, the image
fragments are rectangular regions in the emblem pictures. The
index uses the TEI-encoded text structure in order to relate
occurrences of the comparands to locations in the text.
The metaphor model is formulated using the Web Ontology
Language OWL (McGuinness and Van Harmelen 2004). An
ontology models the kind of objects that exist in a domain,
their relationships and their properties; it provides a shared
understanding of a domain. On a technical level, the ontology
defi nes the vocabulary to be used in the RDF statements in
our model. The ontology thus limits the things one can say;
it provides, in McCarty’s words (McCarty 2005), the ‘explicit,
delimited conception of the world’ that makes meaningful
manipulation possible. The ontology is also what ‘drives’ the
application built for consultation of the metaphor index. See
for similar uses of OWL: (Ciula and Vieira 2007), (Zöllner-
Weber 2005).
The paper describes the classes and the relationships between
them that the OWL model contains. Some of these relationships
are hierarchical (‘trees belong to the vegetal kingdom’), others
represent relations between objects (‘emblem 6 uses the
metaphor of life as a journey’ or ‘metaphor 123 is a metaphor
for justice’). The relationships are what makes it possible to
query objects by their relations to other objects: to ask for all
the metaphors based in an emblem picture, to ask for all of the
metaphors for love, or to combine these criteria.
Application
In order to present the metaphor index to a reader, a web
application has been developed that allows readers to consult
and explore the index. The application is an example of an
ontology-driven application as discussed in (Guarino 1998):
the data model, the application logic and the user interface are
all based on the metaphor ontology.
The application was created using PHP and a MySQL database
backend. RAP, the RDF API for PHP, is used for handling RDF.
RDF and OWL fi les that contain the ontology and occurrences are stored in an RDF model in the database. RDF triples that
represent the structure of the emblem book are created from
the TEI XML fi le that contains the digital text of the emblem
book.
The application has to provide insight into three basic layers of
information: our primary text (the emblems), the database-like
collection of metaphor data, and a secondary text that should
make these three layers into a coherent whole. The application
organizes this in three perspectives: an overview perspective,
an emblem perspective and an ontology perspective. Each of
these perspectives offers one or more views on the data. These
views are (1) a basic selection interface into the metaphor
index; (2) an essay about the use and meaning of metaphor in
this book; (3) a single emblem display; (4) information about
metaphor use in the emblem; and (5) a display of the ontology
defi ned for the metaphor index (built using the OWLDoc).
The paper will discuss the ways in which the user can explore
the metaphor data.
Discussion
The metaphor index is experimental, among other things in
its modelling of metaphor and in its use of OWL and RDF
in a humanities context. If Willard McCarty is right in some
respects all humanities computing is experimental. There is,
however, a certain tension between the experimental nature
of this index and the need to collect a body of material and
create a display application. If the aim is not to support resource
discovery, but solely to provide insight, do we then need this
large amount of data? Is all software meant to be discarded, as
McCarty quotes Perlis? The need to introduce another aspect
of metaphor into the model may confl ict with the need to
create a body of material that it is worthwhile to explore. It
is also true, however, that insight doesn’t come from subtlety
alone. There is no insight without numbers.
McCarty writes about the computer as ‘a rigorously disciplined
means of implementing trial-and-error (…) to help the scholar
refi ne an inevitable mismatch between a representation and
reality (as he or she conceives it) to the point at which the
epistemological yield of the representation has been realized’.
It is true that the computer helps us be rigorous and disciplined,
but perhaps for that very reason the representations that the
computer helps us build may become a burden. Computing can
slow us down. To clarify the conceptual structure of metaphor
as it is used in the book we do not necessarily need a work
of reference. The paper’s concluding paragraphs will address
this tension.
Figure 1 Part of the classes that make up the metaphor ontology.
Arrows point to subclasses. The classes at the bottom level are
just examples; many other could have been shown if more space
were available.For simplicity, this diagram ignores class properties
Figure 2 A metaphor and the properties
relating it to the comparands
Figure 3 Objects can be queried by their relations
Figure 4 Overview perspective Figure 5 Clicking the hyperlink ‘plant life’ (top right)
executes a query with hits shown in the left panel
Figure 6 Emblem perspective with one
metaphor highlighted in picture and text
Figure 7 Ontology perspective , with display of class metaphor
Figure 8 Expert search, start building query
Figure 9 Expert search. Click ‘+’ to create more criteria
Figure 10 Expert search. Select the desired criterion
Figure 11 Expert search. Final state of query Figure 12 Expert search. Display of executed
query and generated RDQL in results panel
References
Antoniou, Grigoris and Van Harmelen, Frank (2004), A
Semantic Web Primer (Cooperative Information Systems;
Cambridge (Ma); London: MIT Press).
Boot, Peter (2006), ‘Decoding emblem semantics’, Literary and
Linguistic Computing, 21 supplement 1, 15-27.
Ciula, Arianna and Vieira, José Miguel (2007), ‘Implementing an
RDF/OWL Ontology on Henry the III Fine Rolls’, paper given
at OWLED 2007, Innsbruck.
Guarino, Nicola (1998), ‘Formal Ontology and Information
Systems’, in Nicola Guarino (ed.), Formal Ontology in
Information Systems. Proceedings of FOIS’98, Trento, Italy, 6-8
June 1998 (Amsterdam: IOS Press), 3-15.
Lakoff, George and Johnson, Mark (1980), Metaphors we live
by (Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press).
McCarty, Willard (2005), Humanities Computing (Basingstoke:
Palgrave Macmillan).
McGuinness, Deborah L. and Van Harmelen, Frank
(2007), ‘OWL Web Ontology Language. Overview. W3C
Recommendation 10 February 2004’, <http://www.w3.org/
TR/owl-features/>, accessed 2007-02-24.
Richards, Ivor Armstrong (1936), The Philosophy of Rhetoric
(New York, London: Oxford University Press).
Zöllner-Weber, Amelie (2005), ‘Formale Repräsentation
und Beschreibung von literarischen Figuren’, Jahrbuch für
Computerphilologie – online, 7.","txt","2","",""
"848","9","Collaborative tool-building with Pliny: a progress report","1","In the early days the Digital Humanities (DH) focused on
the development of tools to support the individual scholar
to perform original scholarship, and tools such as OCP and
TACT emerged that were aimed at the individual scholar. Very
little tool-building within the DH community is now aimed
generally at individual scholarship. There are, I think, two
reasons for this:
• First, the advent of the Graphical User Interface (GUI)
made tool building (in terms of software applications that
ran on the scholar’s own machine) very expensive. Indeed,
until recently, the technical demands it put upon developers
have been beyond the resources of most tool developers
within the Humanities.
• Second, the advent of the WWW has shifted the focus
of much of the DH community to the web. However, as a
result, tool building has mostly focused on not the doing of
scholarly research but on the publishing of resources that
represent the result of this.
DH’s tools to support the publishing of, say, primary sources,
are of course highly useful to the researcher when his/her
primary research interest is the preparation of a digital edition.
They are not directly useful to the researcher using digital
resources. The problem (discussed in detail in Bradley 2005)
is that a signifi cant amount of the potential of digital materials
to support individual research is lost in the representation in
the browser, even when based on AJAX or Web 2.0 practices.
The Pliny project (Pliny 2006-7) attempts to draw our attention
as tool builders back to the user of digital resources rather than
their creator, and is built on the assumption that the software
application, and not the browser, is perhaps the best platform
to give the user full benefi t of a digital resource. Pliny is not
the only project that recognises this. The remarkable project
Zotero (Zotero 2006-7) has developed an entire plugin to
provide a substantial new set of functions that the user can do
within their browser. Other tool builders have also recognised
that the browser restricts the kind of interaction with their
data too severely and have developed software applications
that are not based on the web browser (e.g. Xaira (2005-7),
WordHoard (2006-7), Juxta (2007), VLMA (2005-7)). Some of
these also interact with the Internet, but they do it in ways
outside of conventional browser capabilities.
Further to the issue of tool building is the wish within the
DH community to create tools that work well together.
This problem has often been described as one of modularity
– building separate components that, when put together, allow the user to combine them to accomplish a range of
things perhaps beyond the capability of each tool separately.
Furthermore, our community has a particularly powerful
example of modularity in Wilhelm Ott’s splendid TuStep
software (Ott 2000). TuStep is a toolkit containing a number
of separate small programs that each perform a rather abstract
function, but can be assembled in many ways to perform a
very large number of very different text processing tasks.
However, although TuStep is a substantial example of software
designed as a toolkit, the main discussion of modularity in the
DH (going back as far as the CETH meetings in the 1990s)
has been in terms of collaboration – fi nding ways to support
the development of tools by different developers that, in fact,
can co-operate. This is a very different issue from the one
TuStep models for us. There is as much or more design work
employed to create TuStep’s framework in which the separate
abstract components operate (the overall system) as there is
in the design of each component itself. This approach simply
does not apply when different groups are designing tools
semi-independently. What is really wanted is a world where
software tools such as WordHoard can be designed in ways
that allow other tools (such as Juxta) to interact in a GUI, on
the screen.
Why is this so diffi cult? Part of the problem is that traditional
software development focuses on a “stack” approach. Layers
of ever-more specifi c software are built on top of moregeneral
layers to create a specifi c application, and each layer in
the stack is aimed more precisely at the ultimate functions the
application was meant to provide. In the end each application
runs in a separate window on the user’s screen and is focused
specifi cally and exclusively on the functions the software was
meant to do. Although software could be written to support
interaction between different applications, it is in practice still
rarely considered, and is diffi cult to achieve.
Pliny, then, is about two issues:
• First, Pliny focuses on digital annotation and note-taking
in humanities scholarship, and shows how they can be used
facilitate the development of an interpretation. This has
been described in previous papers and is not presented
here.
• Second, Pliny models how one could be building GUIoriented
software applications that, although developed
separately, support a richer set of interactions and
integration on the screen.
This presentation focuses primarily on this second theme,
and is a continuation of the issues raised at last year’s poster
session on this subject for the DH2007 conference (Bradley
2007). It arises from a consideration of Pliny’s fi rst issue
since note-taking is by its very nature an integrative activity
– bringing together materials created in the context of a large
range of resources and kinds of resources.
Instead of the “stack” model of software design, Pliny is
constructed on top of the Eclipse framework (Eclipse 2005-
7), and uses its contribution model based on Eclipse’s plugin
approach (see a description of it in Birsan 2005). This approach
promotes effective collaborative, yet independent, tool
building and makes possible many different kinds of interaction
between separately written applications. Annotation provides
an excellent motivation for this. A user may wish to annotate
something in, say, WordHoard. Later, this annotation will need
to be shown with annotations attached to other objects from
other pieces of software. If the traditional “stack” approach
to software is applied, each application would build their own
annotation component inside their software, and the user
would not be able to bring notes from different tools together.
Instead of writing separate little annotation components inside
each application, Eclipse allows objects from one application to
participate as “fi rst-class” objects in the operation of another.
Annotations belong simultaneously to the application in which
they were created, and to Pliny’s annotation-note-taking
management system.
Pliny’s plugins both support the manipulation of annotations
while simultaneously allowing other (properly constructed)
applications to create and display annotations that Pliny
manages for them. Furthermore, Pliny is able to recognise
and represent references to materials in other applications
within its own displays. See Figures I and II for examples of
this, in conjunction with the prototype VLMA (2005-7) plugin
I created from the standalone application produced by the
VLMA development team. In Figure I most of the screen
is managed by the VLMA application, but Pliny annotations
have been introduced and combined with VLMA materials.
Similarly, in fi gure II, most of the screen is managed by Pliny
and its various annotation tools, but I have labelled areas on
the screen where aspects of the VLMA application still show
through.
Figure I: Pliny annotations in a VLMA viewer Figure II: VLMA objects in a Pliny context
This connecting of annotation to a digital object rather than
merely to its display presents some new issues. What, for
example, does it mean to link an annotation to a line of a
KWIC display – should that annotation appear when the same
KWIC display line appears in a different context generated as
the result of a different query? Should it appear attached to
the particular word token when the document it contains is
displayed? If an annotation is attached to a headword, should it
be displayed automatically in a different context when its word
occurrences are displayed, or only in the context in which the
headword itself is displayed? These are the kind of questions of
annotation and context that can only really be explored in an
integrated environment such as the one described here, and
some of the discussion in this presentation will come from
prototypes built to work with the RDF data application VLMA,
with the beginnings of a TACT-like text analysis tool, and on
a tool based on Google maps that allows one to annotate a
map.
Building our tools in contexts such as Pliny’s that allow for a
complex interaction between components results in a much
richer, and more appropriate, experience for our digital user.
For the fi rst time, perhaps, s/he will be able to experience
the kind of interaction between the materials that are made
available through applications that expose, rather than hide, the
true potential of digital objects. Pliny provides a framework
in which objects from different tools are brought into close
proximity and connected by the paradigm of annotation.
Perhaps there are also paradigms other than annotation that
are equally interesting for object linking?
References
Birsan, Dorian (2005). “On Plug-ins and Extensible
Architectures”, In Queue (ACM), Vol 3 No 2.
Bradley, John (2005). “What you (fore)see is what you get:
Thinking about usage paradigms for computer assisted text
analysis” in Text Technology Vol. 14 No 2. pp 1-19. Online at
http://texttechnology.mcmaster.ca/pdf/vol14_2/bradley14-
2.pdf (Accessed November 2007).
Bradley, John (2007). “Making a contribution: modularity,
integration and collaboration between tools in Pliny”. In
book of abstracts for the DH2007 conference, Urbana-
Champaign, Illinois, June 2007. Online copy available at http://
www.digitalhumanities.org/dh2007/abstracts/xhtml.xq?id=143
(Accessed October 2007).
Eclipse 2005-7. Eclipse Project Website. At http://www.eclipse.
org/ (Accessed October 2007).
Juxta (2007). Project web page at http://www.nines.org/tools/
juxta.html (accessed November 2007).
Ott, Wilhelm (2000). “Strategies and Tools for Textual
Scholarship: the Tübingen System of Text Processing
Programs (TUSTEP)” in Literary & Linguistic Computing, 15:1
pp. 93-108.
Pliny 2006-7. Pliny Project Website . At http://pliny.cch.kcl.ac.uk
(Accessed October 2007).
VLMA (2005-7). VLMA: A Virtual Lightbox for Museums and
Archives. Website at http://lkws1.rdg.ac.uk/vlma/ (Accessed
October 2007).
WordHoard (2006-7). WordHoard: An application for close
reading and scholarly analysis of deeply tagged texts. Website
at http://wordhoard.northwestern.edu/userman/index.html
(Accessed November 2007).
Xaira (2005-7). Xaira Page. Website at http://www.oucs.ox.ac.
uk/rts/xaira/ (Accessed October 2007).
Zotero (2006-7). Zotero: A personal research assistant. Website
at http://www.zotero.org/ (Accessed September 2007).","txt","2","",""
"849","9","How to find Mrs. Billington? Approximate string matching applied to misspelled names","1","In this paper we discuss some of the problems that arise when
searching for misspelled names. We suggest a solution to
overcome these and to disambiguate the names found.
Introduction
The Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition (NCSE) is a digital
edition of six nineteenth-century newspaper and periodical
titles. It is a collaborative project between Birkbeck College,
King’s College London, the British Library and Olive Software
Inc. funded by the UK’s Arts and Humanities Research Council.
The corpus consists of about 100,000 pages that were microfi
lmed, scanned in and processed using optical character
recognition software (OCR) to obtain images for display in
the web application as well as the full text of the publications.
In the course of this processing (by Olive Software) the text
of each individual issue was also automatically segmented
into its constituent parts (newspaper departments, articles,
advertisements, etc.).
The application of text mining techniques (named entity
extraction, text categorisation, etc.) allowed names, institutions
and places etc. to be extracted as well as individual articles to
be classifi ed according to events, subjects and genres. Users
of the digital edition can search for very specifi c information.
The extent to which these searches are successful depends, of
course, on the quality of the available data.
The problem
The quality of some of the text resulting from the OCR process
varies from barely readable to illegible. This refl ects the poor
print quality of the original paper copies of the publications. A
simple search of the scanned and processed text for a person’s
name, for example, would retrieve exact matches, but ignore
incorrectly spelled or distorted variations.
Misspellings of ordinary text could be checked against an
authoritative electronic dictionary. An equivalent reference
work for names does not exist. This paper describes the
solutions that are being investigated to overcome these
diffi culties.
This theatrical notice on page 938 of the Leader from
17.11.1860 highlights the limitations of OCR alone.
The actress Mrs. Billington is mentioned twice. OCR recognised
the name once as Mrs. lUllinijton and then as Mrs.
BIIMngton. A simple search for the name Billington would
therefore be unsuccessful.
By applying a combination of approximate string matching
techniques and allowing for a certain amount of spelling errors
(see below) our more refi ned approach successfully fi nds the
two distorted spellings as Mrs. Billington. However, it
also fi nds a number of other unrelated names (Wellington
and Rivington among others). This additional problem is
redressed by mapping misspelled names to correctly spelled
names. Using a combination of string similarity and string
distance algorithms we have developed an application to rank
misspelled names according to their likelihood of representing
a correctly spelled name.
The algorithm
As already briefl y mentioned above we are applying several
well known pattern matching algorithms to perform
approximate pattern matching, where the pattern is a given
name (a surname normally), and the “text” is a (huge) list of
names, obtained from the OCR of scanned documents. The
novelty of this work comes from the fact that we are utilizing
application-specifi c characteristics to achieve better results
than are possible through general-purpose pattern matching
techniques.
Currently we are considering the pattern to be error-free
(although our algorithms can easily be extended to deal with
errors in the pattern too). Moreover, all the algorithms take as
input the maximum “distance” that a name in the list may have
from the pattern to be considered a match; this distance is
given as a percentage. As one would expect, there is a tradeoff
in distance - quality of matches: low distance threshold yields
less false positives, but may miss some true matches; on the
other hand, a high distance threshold has less chances of
missing true matches, but will return many fake ones. At the heart of the algorithms lies a ranking system, the
purpose of which is to sort the matching names according to
how well they match. (Recall that the list of matching names
can be huge, and thus what is more important is really the
ranking of those matches, to distinguish the good ones from
random matches.) Obviously, the ranking system depends on
the distance-metric in use, but there is more to be taken into
account. Notice that, if a name matches our pattern with some
error, e, there are two cases:
- either the name is a true match, and the error e is due to
bad OCR, or
- the name (misspelled or not, by OCR) does not
correspond to our pattern, in which case it is a bad match
and should receive a lower rank.
It is therefore essential, given a possibly misspelled (due to
OCR) name, s’, to identify the true name, s, that it corresponds
to. Then, it is obvious that s’ is a good match if p = s, and a bad
match otherwise, where p is the pattern. To identify whether a
name s’ in our list is itself a true name, or has been mispelled
we use two types of evaluation:
- We count the occurrences of s’ in the list. A name that
occurs many times, is likely to be a true name; if it had been
misspelled, it is very unlikely that all its occurrences would
have been misspelled in exactly the same manner, by the
OCR software.
- We have compiled a list L of valid names; these names are
then used to decide whether s’ is a valid name (s’ ∈ L) or
not (s’ ∉ L).
In the case where s’ is indeed mispelled by OCR, and is thus
not a true name, one must use distance metrics to identify
how closely it matches the pattern p. Given that the pattern is
considered to be error-free, if the distance of the name from
the pattern is large then it is very unlikely (but not impossible)
that too many of the symbols of the name have been mispelled
by OCR; instead, most probably the name does not really
match the pattern.
Taking into account the nature of the errors that occur in our
application, when computing the distance of a name in the
list from our pattern, we consider optical similarities. That is,
we drop the common tactic where one symbol is compared
against another symbol, and either they match - so the distance
is 0, or they don’t - so the distance is 1; instead, we consider
a symbol (or a group of symbols) to have a low distance
from another symbol (or group of symbols) if their shapes
look similar. As an example, check that “m” is optically very
similar to “rn”, and thus should be assigned a small distance,
say 1, while “m” and “b” do not look similar to each other and
therefore should have a big distance, say 10.
The results of our efforts to date have been very promising.
We look forward to investigating opportunities to improve
the effectiveness of the algorithm in the future.
Bibliography
NCSE website: http://www.ncse.kcl.ac.uk/index.html
Cavnar, William B. and John M. Trenkle. “N-Gram-Based
Text Categorization”, in: Proceedings of SDAIR-94, 3rd Annual
Symposium on Document Analysis and Information Retrieval, Las
Vegas 1994, 161-175; http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/68861.html;
accessed Nov 2007.
Cavnar, William B. “Using An N-Gram-Based Document
Representation With A Vector Processing Retrieval Model”,
in: TREC, 1994, 269--277; http://trec.nist.gov/pubs/trec3/
papers/cavnar_ngram_94.ps.gz; accessed Nov 2007.
Gusfi eld, Dan. Algorithms on strings, trees, and sequences:
computer science and computational biology, Cambridge (CUP)
1997.
Hall, Patrick A. V. and Geoff R. Dowling. “Approximate String
Matching”, in: ACM Computing Surveys, 12.4 (1980), 381--
402; http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/356827.356830; accessed
November 2007
Jurafsky, Daniel Saul and James H. Martin. Speech and Language
Processing: An Introduction to Natural Language Processing,
Computational Linguistics, and Speech Recognition, Upper Saddle
River, NJ (Prentice Hall) 2000, Chapter 5.
Lapedriza, Àgata and Jordi Vitrià. “Open N-Grams and
Discriminant Features in Text World: An Empirical Study”;
http://www.cvc.uab.es/~jordi/AgataCCIA2004.pdf; accessed
November 2007.
Navarro, Gonzalo. “A guided tour to approximate string
matching”, in: ACM Computing Surveys, 33.1 (2001), 31--
88; http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/375360.375365; accessed
November 2007
Navarro, Gonzalo and Mathieu Raffi not. Flexible pattern
matching in strings: practical on-line search algorithms for texts
and biological sequences, Cambridge (CUP) 2002.
Oakes, Michael P. Statistics for corpus linguistics, Edinburgh
(Edinburgh Univ. Press) 1998, (Edinburgh textbooks in
empirical linguistics, XVI), Chapter 3.4","txt","2","",""
"850","9","Degrees of Connection: the close interlinkages of Orlando","1","Orlando: Women’s Writing in the British Isles from the Beginnings
to the Present is a literary-historical textbase comprising more
than 1,200 core entries on the lives and writing careers of
British women writers, male writers, and international women
writers; 13,000+ free-standing chronology entries providing
context; 12,000+ bibliographical listings; and more than 2
million tags embedded in 6.5 million words of born-digital
text. The XML tagset allows users to interrogate everything
from writers’ relationships with publishers to involvement in
political activities or their narrative techniques.
The current interface allows users to access entries by name
or via various criteria associated with authors; to create
chronologies by searching on tags and/or contents of dated
materials; and to search the textbase for tags, attributes, and
text, or a combination. The XML serves primarily to structure
the materials; to allow users to draw on particular tags to
bring together results sets (of one or more paragraphs
incorporating the actual ‘hit’) according to particular interests;
and to provide automatic hyperlinking of names, places,
organizations, and titles.
Recognizing both that many in our target user community of
literary students and scholars dislike tag searches, and that
our current interface has not fully plumbed the potential of
Orlando’s experimentation in structured text, we are exploring
what other kinds of enquiry and interfaces the textbase can
support. We report here on some investigations into new ways
of probing and representing the links created by the markup.
The current interface leverages the markup to provide
contexts for hyperlinks. Each author entry includes a “Links”
screen that provides hyperlinks to mentions of that author
elsewhere in the textbase. These links are sorted into groups
based on the semantic tags of which they are children, so that
users can choose, for instance, from the more than 300 links
on the George Eliot Links screen, between a link to Eliot in
the Elizabeth Stuart Phelps entry that occurs in the context of
Family or Intimate Relationships, and a link to Eliot in Simone
de Beauvoir’s entry that occurs in the discussion of features
of de Beauvoir’s writing. Contextualizing Links screens are
provided not only for writers who have entries, but also for
any person who is mentioned more than once in the textbase,
and also for titles of texts, organizations, and places. It thus
provides a unique means for users to pursue links in a less
directed and more informed way than that provided by many
interfaces.
Building on this work, we have been investigating how Orlando
might support queries into relationships and networking,
and present not just a single relationship but the results of
investigating an entire fi eld of interwoven relationships of
the kind that strongly interest literary historians. Rather than
beginning from a known set of networks or interconnections,
how might we exploit our markup to analyze interconnections,
reveal new links, or determine the points of densest
interrelationship? Interface design in particular, if we start to
think about visualizing relationships rather than delivering
them entirely in textual form, poses considerable challenges.
We started with the question of the degrees of separation
between different people mentioned in disparate contexts
within the textbase. Our hyperlinking tags allow us to
conceptualize links between people not only in terms of direct
contact, that is person-to-person linkages, but also in terms of
linkages through other people, places, organizations, or texts
that they have in common. Drawing on graph theory, we use
the hyperlinking tags as key indices of linkages. Two hyperlinks
coinciding within a single document—an entry or a chronology
event--were treated as vertices that form an edge, and an
algorithm was used to fi nd the shortest path between source
and destination. So, for instance, you can get from Chaucer to
Virginia Woolf in a single step in twelve different ways: eleven
other writer entries (including Woolf’s own) bring their names
together, as does the following event:
1 November 1907: The British Museum’s reading room
reopened after being cleaned and redecorated; the dome
was embellished with the names of canonical male writers,
beginning with Chaucer and ending with Browning.
Virginia Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own describes the
experience of standing under the dome “as if one were a
thought in the huge bald forehead which is so splendidly
encircled by a band of famous names.” Julia Hege in Jacob’s
Room complains that they did not leave room for an Eliot
or a Brontë.
It takes more steps to get from some writers to others: fi ve,
for instance, to get from Frances Harper to Ella Baker. But this
is very much the exception rather than the rule. Calculated according to the method described here, we have
a vast number of links: the textbase contains 74,204 vertices
with an average of 102 edges each (some, such as London at
101,936, have considerably more than others), meaning that
there are 7.5 million links in a corpus of 6.5 million words.
Working just with authors who have entries, we calculated
the number of steps between them all, excluding some of the
commonest links: the Bible, Shakespeare, England, and London.
Nevertheless, the vast majority of authors (on average 88%)
were linked by a single step (such as the example of Chaucer
and Woolf, in which the link occurs within the same source
document) or two steps (in which there is one intermediate
document between the source and destination names).
Moreover, there is a striking similarity in the distribution of the
number of steps required to get from one person to another,
regardless of whether one moves via personal names, places,
organizations, or titles. 10.6% of entries are directly linked, that
is the two authors are mentioned in the same source entry or
event. Depending on the hyperlinking tag used, one can get to
the destination author with just one intermediate step, or two
degrees of separation, in 72.2% to 79.6% of cases. Instances of
greater numbers of steps decline sharply, so that there are 5
degrees of separation in only 0.6% of name linkage pages, and
none at all for places. Six degrees of separation does not exist
in Orlando between authors with entries, although there are a
few “islands”, in the order of from 1.6% to 3.2%, depending on
the link involved, of authors who do not link to others.
These results raise a number of questions. As Albert-Lászlo
Barabási reported of social networks generally, one isn’t dealing
with degrees of separation so much as degrees of proximity.
However, in this case, dealing not with actual social relations
but the partial representation in Orlando of a network of social
relations from the past, what do particular patterns such as
these mean? What do the outliers—people such as Ella Baker
or Frances Harper who are not densely interlinked with
others—and islands signify? They are at least partly related
to the brevity of some entries, which can result either from
paucity of information, or decisions about depth of treatment,
or both. But might they sometimes also represent distance
from literary and social establishments? Furthermore, some
linkages are more meaningful, in a literary historical sense,
than others. For instance, the Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography is a common link because it is frequently cited by
title, not because it indicates a historical link between people.
Such incidental links can’t be weeded out automatically. So we
are investigating the possibility of using the relative number
of single- or double-step links between two authors to
determine how linked they ‘really’ are. For instance, Elizabeth
Gaskell is connected to William Makepeace Thackeray, Charles
Dickens, and George Eliot by 25, 35, and 53 single-step links,
respectively, but to Margaret Atwood, Gertrude Stein, and
Toni Morrison by 2, 1, and 1. Such contrasts suggest the likely
utility of such an approach to distinguishing meaningful from
incidental associations.
The biggest question invited by these inquiries into linkages
is: how might new modes of inquiry into, or representation
of, literary history, emerge from such investigations? One
way to address this question is through interfaces. We have
developed a prototype web application for querying degrees of
separation in Orlando, for which we are developing an interface.
Relationships or associations are conventionally represented
by a network diagram, where the entities are shown as nodes
and the relationships as lines connecting the nodes. Depending
on the content, these kinds of fi gures are also referred to as
directed graphs, link-node diagrams, entity-relationship (ER)
diagrams, and topic maps. Such diagrams scale poorly, since
the proliferation of items results in a tangle of intersecting
lines. Many layout algorithms position the nodes to reduce the
number of crisscrossing lines, resulting in images misleading to
people who assume that location is meaningful.
In the case of Orlando, two additional complexities must be
addressed. First, many inter-linkages are dense: there are often
50 distinct routes between two people. A conventional ER
diagram of this data would be too complex to be useful as
an interactive tool, unless we can allow the user to simplify
the diagram. Second, the Orlando data differs from the kind
of data that would support “distant reading” (Moretti 1), so
our readers will need to access the text that the diagram
references. How, then, connect the diagram to a reading view?
We will present our preliminary responses to these challenges
in an interface for degree of separation queries and results. We
are also experimenting with the Mandala browser (Cheypesh
et al. 2006) for XML structures as a means of exploring
embedded relationships. The current Mandala prototype
cannot accommodate the amount of data and number of tags
in Orlando, so we will present the results of experimenting
with a subset of the hyperlinking tags as another means of
visualizing the dense network of associations in Orlando’s
representations of literary history.
References
Barabási, Albert-Lászlo. Linked: The New Science of Networks.
Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing, 2002.
Brown, Susan, Patricia Clements, and Isobel Grundy, ed.
Orlando: Women’s Writing in the British Isles from the Beginnings
to the Present. Cambridge: Cambridge Online, 2006.
Cheypesh, Oksana, Constanza Pacher, Sandra Gabriele,
Stéfan Sinclair, Drew Paulin and Stan Ruecker. “Centering the
mind and calming the heart: mandalas as interfaces.” Paper
presented at the Society for Digital Humanities (SDH/SEMI)
conference. York University, Toronto. May 29-31, 2006.
Mandala Rich Prospect Browser. Dir. Stéfan Sinclair and Stan
Ruecker. http://mandala.humviz.org Accessed 22 November
2007.
Moretti, Franco. Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a
Literary Theory. London: Verso, 2005.","txt","2","",""
"851","9","The impact of digital interfaces on virtual gender images","1","This paper documents an exploratory research in progress,
investigating the relationship between the quality of digital
interfaces, their technical conditions and the interfacial
mediation of the users’ body. Here, we focus on the bodily
dimension of gender. For this reason, we analysed two online
role playing games with different representation modes
(text-based versus image-based) asking which impact the
digital interface and their technical conditions have on gender
performances.
Following sociological investigations (Bahl, 1998/ Goffman,
2001/ Lübke, 2005/ Müller, 1996), the bodily aspect of gender
plays a central role in communication settings due to its
social, cultural meaning which nowadays strongly is mediated
by information technology. For this reason, we focus on the
interfaces. We claim that their representation mode, their
design and software constraints have a crucial impact on the
virtual patterns of gender referring to individual performance,
spatial movement and communication.
This interfacial analysis is just a part of an interdisciplinary
inquiry about the interrelation between gender, design and
ICT. It is allocated in the overlapping fi eld of sociology, gender
studies, design research and information technology.
In this respect, we regard the body and its gender as culturally
constructed interface of social interactions and advocate for
refl ecting it within the process software development and
interface design.
Introduction
Today’s communication is highly infl uenced by information
technology, which substitutes more and more physical body
representations in face-to-face communication. Disembodied
experiences have become a part of ordinary life as self
performances and interactions are often mediated by designed
hardware and software interfaces.
In this context, designers who make ICT accessible via their
product and screen designs can be regarded as mediators
between technological requirements and user needs.
They usually regard interfaces from the point of view of
formal-aesthetic (Apple Computer, Inc, 1992; McKey, 1999;
Schneiderman/ Plaisant, 2005), or of usability (Krug, 2006;
Nielsen/ Loranger, 2006) and interaction-design (Cooper/
Reimann, 2003; Preece/ Rogers/ Sharp, 2002). But designers
not only make ICT usable, but also culturally signifi cant. In this
respect, they also deal with the cultural constructions and
implications of gender which have to be refl ected by their
screen designs. The interfacial conditions decide about the
bodily representations in ICT interaction.
By referring to interactionist (Goffman, 2001), constructivist
(Butler, 2006/ Teubner, Wetterer, 1999/ Trettin, 1997/
West, Zimmermann, 1991, 1995) theories and sociological
investigations of virtual environments (Eisenrieder, 2003/
Lübke, 2005/ Turkle, 1999), we claim that the bodily aspect
of gender is an essential reference point of individual
performance, communication, even spatial movements not
as a physical property of the body, but due to its cultural
meaning and connotative potential. It is supposed to be the
most guiding information referring to interaction contexts
(Goffman, 2001/ Lübke, 2005). It has a crucial impact on the
behavior: Being polite, e.g. opening the door for someone is
often a decision made in dependence of the counterpart’s
gender (Müller, 1996). Not knowing about it causes behavioral
confusion (Bahl, 1998/ Lübke, 2005).
Research Perspectives & Research
Questions
In contrast to a sociological point of view, a conventional
design perspective or technological requirements, we add a
completely new aspect to design and technologically driven
inquiries in two respects:
- By taking the body as a benchmark for analyzing gender
representations of digital interfaces.
- By investigating the virtual body and its gender
representations from an interfacial point of view.
Our investigations and refl ections are guided by the
following questions:
- Which gender images do exist in virtual spaces?
- Which impact do the digital interface and their technical
conditions have on gender performances?
Furthermore, we are particularly interested in knowing about
the impact of design on preserving traditional and stereotype
gender images as well as on modifying or deconstructing
them. Objects of Investigation
Objects of investigations are two online role playing games,
so called Multi User Dungeons (MUDs). They are especially
suitable for this purpose because they directly refer to bodily
representations in form of virtual characters. We choose
two MUDs with different representation modes in order
to compare the effects of opposite interfaces on the virtual
embodiment of gender: LambdaMOO, a popular text-based
online role playing game (see Image 1 LM), is contrasted
with Second Life, the currently most popular and populated
graphical MUD (see Image 1 SL). Examining their interfaces
promise to get concrete insights into the interfacial infl uence
on virtual gender images.
Image 1 LM: Interface
Image 1 SL: Interface
Methodology
We use the methods of content analysis and participatory
observation – the fi rst in order to explore the interfacial offer
of options and tools to create virtual gender representations
and the second in order to know, how it feels developing
and wearing the respective gendered skin. The analysis and
observations are guided and structured using the different
dimensions of the body as a matrix of investigating which
are empirically generated from the observations themselves.
Within these bodily categories, different aspects of gender are
identifi ed:
Body presence
- modes of existence or being there
Personality / individuality
- forms of personal performance
- forms of non-verbal communication (facial expressions,
gestures, vocal intonations and accentuation)
- modes of emotional expressions
Patterns of gender
- categories or models of gender
Actions and spatial Movements
- modes of behavior and actions
- modes of spatial orientation and navigation
Patterns of social behavior
- modes of communication and interaction
- community standards, behavioral guidelines and rules
Research Results
The main fi ndings show, how interfaces and their specifi c
technical conditions can expand or restrict the performance
of gender. Moreover, they demonstrate how the conventional
bipolar gender model of western culture can be re- and
deconstructed by the interfacial properties and capacities.
The table below gives a summarizing overview about how
the different bodily aspects are treated by the respective
interface of LambdaMOO or Second Life. Interfacial elements
which explicitly address gender aspects are indicated in bold
italics. Reference to images are marked “see Image # LM
(LambdaMOO)/SL(Second Life)”. The comparison demonstrates that both interfaces use nearly
the same patterns of embodiment. Referring to the bodily
aspect of gender, Second Life is a poor and conservative space.
Gender modifi cations besides the common model seem not
to be intended by the interface: In case of gender switches the
gender specifi c gestures set does not shift correspondently
(see images 11.1 SL and11.2 SL). In case of a male-to-female modifi cation, the avatars clothes
do not fi t any more (see image 12 SL). In contrast to that, LambdaMOO questions the analogue gender
model by violating and expanding it up to 10 categories.
Outlook
This inquiry belongs to a design research project which
generally deals with the relation between gender and design.
It aims at the development of a gender sensitive design
approach investigating the potential of gender modifi cation
and deconstruction by design.
References
Apple Computer, Inc. (1992): Macintosh Human Interface
Guidelines (Apple Technical Library), Cupertino
Bahl, Anke (1998): MUD & MUSH. Identität und Geschlecht
im Internet Ergebnisse einer qualitativen Studie. In Beinzger,
Dagmar/ Eder, Sabine/Luca, Renate/ Röllecke, Renate (Hrsg.):
Im Weiberspace - Mädchen und Frauen in der Medienlandschaft,
Schriften zur Medienpädagogik Nr.26, Gesellschaft für
Medienpädagogik und Kommunikationskultur, Bielefeld, p. 138
– 151
Bahl, Anke (1996): Spielraum für Rollentäuscher. Muds:
Rollenspielen im Internet: http://unitopia.uni-stuttgart.de/
texte/ct.html (also in: c’t, 1996, Heft 8)
Becker, Barbara (2000): Elektronische
Kommunikationsmedien als neue „Technologien des Selbst“?
Überlegungen zur Inszenierung virtueller Identitäten in
elektronischen Kommunikationsmedien. In Huber, Eva (Hrsg.):
Technologien des Selbst. Zur Konstruktion des Subjekts, Basel/
Frankfurt a. M., P. 17 – 30
Bratteteig, Tone (2002): Bridging gender issues to technology
design. In Floyd, C. et al.: Feminist Challenges in the Information
Age. Opladen: Leske + Budrich, p. 91-106.
Butler, J. (2006): Das Unbehagen der Geschlechter, 1991,
Suhrkamp Frankfurt a. M.
Clegg, S. and Mayfi eld, W. (1999): Gendered by design. In
Design Issues 15 (3), P. 3-16
Cooper, Alan and Reimann, Robert (2003): About Face 2.0. The
Essentials of Interaction Design, Indianapolis
Eisenrieder, Veronika (2003): Von Enten, Vampiren und
Marsmenschen - Von Männlein, Weiblein und dem “Anderen”.
Soziologische Annäherung an Identität, Geschlecht und Körper in
den Weiten des Cyberspace, München
Goffman, Erving (2001); Interaktion und Geschlecht, 2. Aufl age,
Frankfurt a. M.
Kleinen, Barbara (1997): Körper und Internet - Was sich in
einem MUD über Grenzen lernen lässt: http://tal.cs.tu-berlin.
de/~fi nut/mud.html (or in Bath, Corinna and Kleinen, Barbara
(eds): Frauen in der Informationsgesellschaft: Fliegen oder Spinnen
im Netz? Mössingen-Talheim, p. 42-52.
Krug, Steve (2006): Don’t make me think! Web Usability. Das
intuitive Web, Heidelberg
Lin, Yuwei (2005): Inclusion, diversity and gender equality:
Gender Dimensions of the Free/Libre Open Source Software
Development. Online: opensource.mit.edu/papers/lin3_
gender.pdf (9.5.2007)
Lübke, Valeska (2005): CyberGender. Geschlecht und Körper im
Internet, Königstein
McKey, Everett N. (1999): Developing User Interfaces for
Microsoft Windows, Washington
Moss, Gloria, Gunn, Ron and Kubacki, Krysztof (2006):
Successes and failures of the mirroring principle: the case
of angling and beauty websites. In International Journal of
Consumer Studies, Vol. 31 (3), p 248-257. Müller, Jörg (1996): Virtuelle Körper. Aspekte sozialer
Körperlichkeit im Cyberspace unter: http://duplox.wz-berlin.
de/texte/koerper/#toc4 (oder WZB Discussion Paper FS II
96-105, Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin
Nielsen, Jakob and Loranger, Hoa (2006): Web Usability,
München
Oudshoorn, N., Rommes, E. and Stienstra, M. (2004):
Confi guring the user as everybody: Gender and design
cultures in information and communication technologies. In
Science, Technologie and Human Values 29 (1), P. 30-63
Preece, Jennifer, Rogers, Yvonne and Sharp, Helen (2002):
Interaction Design. Beyond human-computer interaction, New
York
Rex, Felis alias Richards, Rob: http://www.LambdaMOO.info/
Rommes, E. (2000): Gendered User Representations. In
Balka, E. and Smith, R. (ed.): Women, Work and Computerization.
Charting a Course to the Future. Dodrecht, Boston: Kluwer
Academic Pub, p. 137-145.
Second Life Blog: April 2007 Key Metrics Released http://blog.
secondlife.com/2007/05/10/april-2007-key-metrics-released/,
http://s3.amazonaws.com/static-secondlife-com/economy/
stats_200705.xls
Teubner, U. and A. Wetterer (1999): Soziale Konstruktion
transparent gemacht. In Lober, J. (Editor): Gender Paradoxien,
Leske & Budrich: Opladen, p. 9-29.
Thomas, Sue (2003): www.barcelonareview.com/35/e_st.htm,
issue 35, March - April
Trettin, K. (1997): Probleme des
Geschlechterkonstruktivismus. In: G. Völger, Editor: Sie und Er,
Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum, Köln
Turkle, Sherry (1986): Die Wunschmaschine. Der Computer als
zweites Ich, Reinbek bei Hamburg
Turkle, Sherry (1999): Leben im Netz. Identität in Zeiten des
Internet, Reinbek bei Hamburg
West, C., Zimmermann, D.H. (1991): Doing Gender. In Lorber,
J. and Farell, S. A. (eds): The Social Construction of Gender,
Newbury Park/ London, p. 13 – 37
West, C., Zimmerman, D.H. (1995): Doing Difference. Gender
& Society, 9, p. 8-37.","txt","2","",""
"852","9","Towards a model for dynamic text editions","1","Creating digital editions so far is devoted for the most part
to visualisation of the text. The move from mental to machine
processing, as envisaged in the Semantic Web initiative, has not
yet become a priority for the editorial practice in a digital
environment. This drawback seems to reside in the almost
exclusive attention paid until now to markup at the expense of
textual data models. The move from “the database as edition”
[Thaller, 1991: 156-59] to the “edition as a database” [Buzzetti
et al., 1992] seems to survive only in a few examples. As a way
forward we might regard digital editions to care more about
processing textual information rather than just being satisfi ed
with its visualisation.
Here we shall concentrate on a recent case study [Rehbein,
forthcoming], trying to focus on the kind of logical relationship
that is established there between the markup and a database
managing contextual and procedural information about the
text. The relationship between the markup and a data model
for textual information seems to constitute the clue to the
representation of textual mobility. From an analysis of this
kind of relationship we shall tentatively try to elicit a dynamic
model to represent textual phenomena such as variation and
interpretation.
I.
The case study uses the digital edition of a manuscript containing
legal texts from the late medieval town Göttingen. The text
shows that this law was everything else but unchangeable.
With it, the city council reacted permanently on economical,
political or social changes, thus adopting the law to a changing
environment. The text is consequently characterised by its
many revisions made by the scribes either by changing existing
text or creating new versions of it. What has come to us is, thus,
a multi-layered text, refl ecting the evolutionary development
of the law.
In order to visualise and to process the text and its changes, not
only the textual expression but, what is more, its context has
to be regarded and described: when was the law changed, what
was the motivation for this and what were the consequences?
Answers to these questions are in fact required in order
to reconstruct the different layers of the text and thereby
the evolution of the law. Regarding the text nowadays, it is
however not always obvious how to date the alterations. It is
sometimes even not clear to reveal their chronological order. A simple example shall prove this assumption. Consider the
sentence which is taken from the Göttingen bylaws about
beer brewing
we ock vorschote 100 marck, de darf 3 warve bruwen
together with 150 as a replacement for 100 and 2 as a
replacement for 3. (The meaning of the sentence in Low
Middle German is: one, who pays 100 (150) marks as taxes, is
allowed to brew beer 3 (2) times a year.) Without additional
information, the four following readings are allowed, all
representing different stages of the textual development:
R1: we ock vorschote 100 marck, de darf 3 warve bruwen
R2: we ock vorschote 100 marck, de darf 2 warve bruwen
R3: we ock vorschote 150 marck, de darf 3 warve bruwen
R4: we ock vorschote 150 marck, de darf 2 warve bruwen
With some more information (mainly palaeographical) but still
limited knowledge, three facts become clear: fi rstly, that R1
is the oldest version of the text, secondly that R4 is its most
recent and thirdly that either R2 or R3 had existed as text
layers or none of them but not both. But what was, however,
the development of this sentence? Was it the path directly
from R1 to R4? Or do we have to consider R1 > R2 > R4 or
R1 > R3 > R4? In order to answer these questions we need
to know about the context of the text, something that can
not be found in the text itself. It is the external, procedural
and contextual knowledge that has to be linked to the textual
expression in order to fully analyse and edit the text.
Textual mobility in this example means that, to a certain extent,
the textual expression itself, its sequence of graphemes, can be
regarded as invariant and objective, the external knowledge
about its context cannot. It is essential in our case study not
only to distinguish between the expression and the context of
the text but what is more to allow fl exibility in the defi nition
and reading of (possible) text layers. It became soon clear,
that for both, visualising and processing a dynamic text, a new
understanding of an edition is needed, and, as a consequence,
the mark-up strategy has to be reconsidered. This new
understanding would “promote” the reader of an edition to
its user, by making him part of it in a way that his external
knowledge, his contextual setting would have infl uence on the
representation of the text. Or in other words: dynamic text
requires dynamic representation.
The way chosen in this study is to regard textual expression
and context (external knowledge) separately. The expression
is represented by mark-up, encoding the information about
the text itself. Regarding this stand-alone, the different units of
the text (its oldest version, its later alterations or annotations)
could indeed be visualised but not be brought into a meaningful
relationship to each other. The latter is realised by a database
providing structured external information about the text,
mainly what specifi c “role” a certain part of the text “plays”
in the context of interest. Only managing and processing both,
markup and database, will allow to reconstruct the different
stages of the text and consequently to represent the town law
in its evolutionary development.
Using the linkage mechanism between mark-up and database,
the whole set of information is processable. In order to create
a scholarly edition of the text, we can automatically produce
a document that fulfi ls TEI conformity to allow the use of the
widely available tools for transformation, further processing
and possibly interchange.
II.
The case study just examined shows that in order to render an
edition processable we have to relate the management system
of the relevant data model to the markup embedded in the text.
But we cannot provide a complete declarative model of the
mapping of syntactic markup structures onto semantic content
structures. The markup cannot contain a complete content
model, just as a content model cannot contain a complete
and totally defi nite expression of the text. To prove this fact
we have to show that a markup description is equivalent to
a second-order object language self-refl exive description and
recall that a second-order logical theory cannot be complete.
So the mapping cannot be complete, but for the same reason
it can be categorical; in other words, all the models of the text
could be isomorphic. So we can look for general laws, but they
can provide only a dynamic procedural model.
Let us briefl y outline the steps that lead to this result. In a
signifi cant contribution to the understanding of “the meaning of
the markup in a document,” [Sperberg-McQueen, Huitfeldt, and
Renear, 2000: 231] expound it as “being constituted,” and “not
only described,” by “the set of inferences about the document
which are licensed by the markup.” This view has inspired the
BECHAMEL Markup Semantics Project, a ground breaking
attempt to specify mechanisms “for bridging [...] syntactic
relationships [...] with the distinctive semantic relationships
that they represent” [Dubin and Birnbaum, 2004], and to
investigate in a systematic way the “mapping [of] syntactic
markup structures [on]to instances of objects, properties,
and relations” [Dubin, 2003] that could be processed trough
an appropriate data model. Following [Dubin and Birnbaum,
2004], “that markup can communicate the same meaning in
different ways using very different syntax”, we must conclude
that “there are many ways of expressing the same content,
just as there are many ways of assigning a content to the same
expression” [Buzzetti, forthcoming].
The relationship between expression and content is then
an open undetermined relationship that can be formalized
by taking into account the “performative mood” of markup
[Renear, 2001: 419]. For, a markup element, or any textual
mark for that matter, is ambivalent: it can be seen as part of the text, or as a metalinguistic description/ indication of a certain
textual feature. Linguistically, markup behaves as punctuation,
or as any other diacritical mark, i.e. as the expression of a
refl exive metalinguistic feature of the text. Formally, markup
behaves just as Spencer-Brown’s symbols do in his formal
calculus of indications [1969]: a symbol in that calculus can
express both an operation and its value [Varela, 1979: 110-
111].
Markup adds structure to the text, but it is ambivalent. It
can be seen as the result of a restructuring operation on
the expression of the text (as a textual variant) or as an
instruction to a restructuring operation on the content of the
text (as an interpretational variant). By way of its ambivalence
it can act as a conversion mechanism between textual and
interpretational variants [Buzzetti and McGann, 2006: 66]
[Buzzetti, forthcoming].
Markup originates a loop connecting the structure of the
text’s expression to the structure of the text’s content. An
implementation of the markup loop would considerably enhance
the functionality of text representation and processing in a
digital edition. To achieve implementation, markup information
could be integrated into the object (or datatype) ‘string’ on
which an application system operates. Extended strings, as a
datatype introduced by Manfred Thaller [1996, 2006], look as
a suitable candidate for the implementation of the markup
loop.
Markup originates a loop connecting the structure of the
text’s expression to the structure of the text’s content. An
implementation of the markup loop would considerably
enhance the functionality of text representation and processing
in a digital edition. To achieve implementation, markup
information could be integrated into the object (or datatype)
‘string’ on which an application system operates. Extended
strings, as a datatype introduced by Manfred Thaller [1996,
2006], look as a suitable candidate for the implementation of
the markup loop.
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Birnbaum. ‘Interpretation Beyond Markup,’ Proceedings
of Extreme Markup Languages 2004, Montréal, Québec,
2004: URL = <http://www.idealliance.org/papers/extreme/
proceedings//html/2004/Dubin01/EML2004Dubin01.html>
[McGann, 1991] McGann, Jerome. The Textual Condition,
Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1991.
[McGann, 1999] McGann, Jerome. ‘What Is Text?
Position statement,’ ACH-ALLC’99 Conference Proceedings,
Charlottesville, VA, University of Virginia, 1999: URL =
<http://www.iath.virginia.edu/ach-allc.99/proceedings/hockeyrenear2.
html>
[Rehbein, forthcoming] Rehbein, Malte. Reconstructing the
textual evolution of a medieval manuscript.
[Rehbein, unpublished] Rehbein, Malte. Göttinger Burspraken
im 15. Jahrhundert. Entstehung – Entwicklung – Edition. PhD
thesis, Univ. Göttingen.  [Renear, 2001] Renear, Allen. ‘The descriptive/procedural
distinction is fl awed,’ Markup Languages: Theory and Practice,
2:4 (2001), 411–420.
[Sperberg-McQueen, Huitfeldt and Renear, 2000] Sperberg-
McQueen, C. M., Claus Huitfeldt, and Allen H. Renear.
‘Meaning and Interpretation of Markup,’ Markup Languages:
Theory and Practice, 2:3 (2000), 215-234.
[Thaller,1991 ] Thaller, Manfred. ‘The Historical Workstation
Project,’ Computers and the Humanities, 25 (1991), 149-62.
[Thaller, 1996] Thaller, Manfred. ‘Text as a Data Type,’ ALLCACH’
96: Conference Abstracts, Bergen, University of Bergen,
1996.
[Thaller, 2006] Thaller, Manfred. ‘Strings, Texts and Meaning.’
Digital Humanities 2006: Conference Abstracts, Paris, CATI
- Université Paris-Sorbonne, 2006, 212-214.","txt","2","",""
"853","9","Reflecting on a Dual Publication: Henry III Fine Rolls Print and Web","1","A collaboration between the National Archives in the UK,
the History and Centre for Computing in the Humanities
departments at King’s College London, the Henry III Fine Rolls
project (http://www.frh3.org.uk) has produced both a digital
and a print edition (the latter in collaboration with publisher
Boydell & Brewer) [1] of the primary sources known as the
Fine Rolls. This dual undertaking has raised questions about
the different presentational formats of the two resources and
presented challenges for the historians and digital humanities
researchers involved in the project, and, to a certain extent,
for the publisher too.
This paper will examine how the two resources evolved: the
areas in which common presentational choices served both
media, and areas in which different presentational choices and
production methodologies were necessary. In so doing, this
paper aims to build a solid foundation for further research into
the reading practices and integrated usage of hybrid scholarly
editions like the Henry III Fine Rolls.
Presentation as interpretation
In Material Culture studies and, in particular, in studies of the
book, the presentational format of text is considered to be of
fundamental importance for the study of production, social
reading and use. Therefore, description of and speculation
about the physical organisation of the text is essential of
understanding the meaning of the artefact that bears that text.
Similarly, in Human Computer Interaction studies and in the
Digital Humanities, the presentation of a text is considered
to be an integral outgrowth of the data modelling process;
a representation of the text but also to some degree an
actualisation of the interpretative statements about the text.
Indeed, to the eyes of the reader, the presentational features of
both a printed book and a digital written object will not only
reveal the assumptions and beliefs of its creators, but affect
future analysis of the work.
Dual publication: digital and print
On the practical side, within the Henry III Fine Rolls project,
different solutions of formatting for the two media have been
negotiated and implemented. The print edition mainly represents a careful pruning of the
digital material, especially as pertains to the complex structure
of the indexes.
The indexes were built upon the marked-up fi ne rolls texts
and generated from an ontological framework (Ciula, Spence,
Vieira, & Poupeau; 2007). The latter, developed through
careful analysis by scholars and digital humanities researchers,
constitutes a sort of an a posteriori system that represents
familial networks, professional relationships, geo-political
structures, thematic clusters of subjects, and in general various
types of associations between the 13th century documents
(the so called Fine Rolls) and the the roles played by places
and people in connection with them.
The ontology is used to produce a series of pre-coordinate
axes (the indices) that the reader can follow to explore the
texts. The fl exibility of the ontology allows the texts to be fairly
exhaustively indexed, just as the presentational capabilities
of the digital medium allow for the display and navigation of
indexes that are correspondingly large.
By contrast, the print edition had to follow the refi ned
conventions of a well established scholarly tradition in
publishing editions in general and calendar [2] editions in
particular, both in terms of formatting and, more importantly
for us, in terms of content selection/creation and modelling.
Though the indices within the printed edition are also precoordinate
axes along which to explore the text, the way in
which they are produced is perceived to be a nuanced and
intuitive aspect of the scholarship and one that revealed
itself to be less tolerant to change.This, coupled with the
presentational constraints of the printed medium result in
indices that present information succinctly and with a minimum
of conceptual repetition. Similarly, the fi rst print volume of
around 560 pages gives absolute prominence -something that
can be stated much more strongly in a linear publication than
in a digital one- to a long and detailed historical introduction,
followed by a section on the adopted editorial strategies.
However, the two artefacts of the project also share many
points in common, either because the digital medium had to
mirror the tradition of its more authoritative predecessor, or
for more practical -nevertheless not to be dismissed- reasons
of work-fl ow and foreseen usage. An interesting example
of the latter is the adopted layout of footnotes, where the
print format was modelled on the base of the digital layout
and, although it was a completely unusual arrangement, was
accepted as suitable by the publisher.
On the base of the work done so far and on the feedback on
the use of the book and the website, the presentational format
will be refi ned further for future print volumes to come and
for the additional material to be included in the digital edition
before the end of the project.
One reading process
On the methodological side, we believe that further research
into the usage and reading process of these parallel publications
could lead towards a better understanding of scholarly needs
and therefore a better modelling of such a dual product that
is becoming a more and more common deliverable in digital
humanities projects.
As this paper will exemplify, the presentation of data needs
to be tailored to take into account the more or less fi ne
conventions of two different media which have different
traditions, different life cycles, different patterns of use and,
possibly, different users.
However, although very different in nature, these two
publications are not necessarily perceived and – more
importantly- used as separate resources with rigid boundaries
between them. For a scholar interested in the fi ne rolls, the
reading of the edition and the seeking of information related
to it (persons, places, subjects and any other interesting clue to
its historical study in a broader sense) is a global process that
does not stop when the book is closed or the the browser
shut. We believe that, when supported by a deep interest in
the material, the connection between the two publications is
created in a rather fl uid manner.
The reality of the reading process and information seeking,
as it happens, is infl uenced by the products it investigates,
but ultimately has a form of its own that is different from the
objects of analysis. It is dynamic and heterogeneous, it leaves on
the integration between different types of evidence, no matter
what their format is, including other kind of external sources.
Indeed, the library or archive is the most likely environment
where a scholar of the fi ne rolls would fi nd herself browsing
the print or digital edition, eventually the original primary
sources or their digital images, plus any range of secondary
sources.
Studying the integration of print and
digital
The data behind the two publications are drawn from the
same informational substrate, but are separated to create two
presentational artefacts. As established, reading is expected to
be the primary activity performed using both and a stated
design goal for the project is that the two artefacts will form
a rich body of materials with which to conduct historical
research.The heterogeneity of the materials, however, suggests
that working with texts will of necessity also involve periods
of information seeking: moments while reading that give rise
to questions which the material at hand cannot answer and
the subsequent process embarked upon in order to answer
them. Our working hypothesis is that to fi ll these information
gaps (Wilson, 1999), the reader will turn to particular texts in
the alternative medium to fi nd answers, moving between the
website and the books, fl uctuating between states of reading
and seeking. Thus, the analytical stream in this paper will move from the
practices of creating two types of resources to establishing
an analytical framework for evaluating their use. Situating the
project materials and domain experts within the literature of
information behaviour research, we will identify and develop a
model for evaluating how well the features of the website and
the book support information seeking activities that bridge
(Wilson, 1999) reading within the individual media.
Conclusions
Based on our experience in creating a hybrid edition for the
Henry III Fine Rolls project, the challenges and adopted solutions
for the two types of published resources are a starting point
from which to refl ect on the integrated production of a dual
object. At the same time, continuing work begun elsewhere
in the digital humanities (Buchanan, Cunningham, Blandford,
Rimmer, & Warwick; 2006) to adapt methodologies used in
Information Science and Book Studies, a rationale and method
for the design of an analysis of their use and, in particular, of
the interaction between scholars and the website/books can
be outlined.
Notes
[1] The fi rst volume was published in September 2007 (Dryburgh et
al. 2007).
[2] Calendar stays here for an an English summary of the Latin
records.
Bibliography
Buzetti, Dino and Jerome McGann (2005) “Critical Editing in
a Digital Horizon”. In Burnard, O’Keeffe, and Unsworth eds.
Electronic Textual Editing.
<http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/ETE/Preview/mcgann.xml>.
Buchanan, G.; Cunningham, S.; Blandford, A.; Rimmer, J. &
Warwick, C. (2005), ‘Information seeking by humanities
scholars’, Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries,
9th European Conference, ECDL, 18--23.
Ciula, A. Spence, P., Vieira, J.M., Poupeau, G. (2007) Expressing
Complex Associations in Medieval Historical Documents:
The Henry III Fine Rolls Project. Paper presented at Digital
Humanities 2007, Urbana-Champaign, 4-8 June, 2007.
<http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dh2007/abstracts/xhtml.
xq?id=196>
Dervin, B. (1983) “An overview of sense-making research:
Concepts, methods, and results to date”, International
Communication Association Annual Meeting, Dallas, TX, 1983.
Drucker, Johanna (2003). “The Virtual Codex from Page Space
to E-space.” The Book Arts Web <http://www.philobiblon.
com/drucker/>
Dryburgh, Paul and Beth Hartland eds. Arianna Ciula and José
Miguel Vieira tech. Eds. (2007) Calendar of the Fine Rolls of the
Reign of Henry III [1216-1248], vol. I: 1216-1224, Woodbridge:
Boydell & Brewer.
Lavagnino, John (2007). Being Digital, or Analogue, or Neither.
Paper presented at Digital Humanities 2007, Urbana-
Champaign, 4-8 June, 2007. <http://www.digitalhumanities.
org/dh2007/abstracts/xhtml.xq?id=219>
McGann, Jerome. (1997) “The Rational of Hypertext.” In
Kathryn Sutherland ed. Electronic text: investigations in method
and theory. Clarendon Press: Oxford: 19-46.
Siemens, Ray, Elaine Toms, Stéfan Sinclair, Geoffrey Rockwell,
and Lynne Siemens. “The Humanities Scholar in the Twentyfi
rst Century: How Research is Done and What Support is
Needed.” ALLC/ACH 2004 Conference Abstracts. Göteborg:
Göteborg University, 2004. <http://www.hum.gu.se/
allcach2004/AP/html/prop139.html>
Wilson, T. (1999) “Models in information behaviour research.”
Journal of Documentation 55(3), 249-270.","txt","2","",""
"854","9","Performance as digital text: capturing signals and secret messages in a media-rich experience","1","Argument
As libraries increasingly undertake digitisation projects, it
behooves us to consider the collection/capture, organisation,
preservation, and dissemination of all forms of documentation.
By implication, then, these forms of documentation go beyond
written text, long considered the staple of library collections.
While several libraries have funded projects which acknowledge
the need to digitise other forms of text, in graphic and audio
formats, very few have extended the digital projects to
include fi lm, much less performed texts. As more performing
arts incorporate born-digital elements, use digital tools to
create media-rich performance experiences, and look to the
possibility for digital preservation of the performance text, the
collection, organisation, preservation, and dissemination of the
performance event and its artefacts must be considered. The
ARTeFACT project, underway at the Digital Media Lab at the
University of Virginia Library, strives to provide a basis for the
modeling of a collection of performance texts. As the collected
texts document the creative process both prior to and during
the performance experience, and, further, as an integral
component of the performance text includes the streaming
of data signals to generate audio/visual media elements, this
paper problematises the capture and preservation of those
data signals as artefacts contained in the collection of the
media-rich performance event.
Premise
In a report developed by a working group at the New York
Public Library, the following participant thoughts are included:
Although digital technologies can incorporate fi lmic ways
of perceiving [the performing arts], that is the tip of the
iceberg. It is important for us to anticipate that there are
other forms we can use for documentation rather than
limiting ourselves to the tradition of a camera in front of
the stage. Documentation within a digital environment far
exceeds the fi lmic way of looking at a performance’ (Ashley
2005 NYPL Working Group 4, p.5)
How can new technology both support the information
we think is valuable, but also put it in a format that the
next generation is going to understand and make use of?’
(Mitoma 2005 NYPL Working Group 4, p.6)
These quotes, and many others, serve to point out current issues
with the inclusion of the documentation of movement-based
activities in the library repository. Two important library tasks,
those of the organization and dissemination of text, require
the development of standards for metadata. This requirement
speaks towards the need for enabling content-based searching
and dissemination of moving-image collections. However, the
work being performed to provide metadata schemes of benefi t
to moving image collections most often refers to (a) a fi lmed
dramatic event, e.g. a movie, and/or (b) metadata describing
the fi lm itself. Very little research has been completed in which
the moving image goes beyond a cinematic fi lm, much less is
considered as one text within a multi-modal narrative.
In an attempt to address these issues, the authors developed
the ARTeFACT project in hopes of creating a proof-of-concept
in the University of Virginia Library. Not content, however, to
study the description of extant, fi lmic and written texts, the
project authors chose to begin with describing during the
process of the creation of the media-rich, digital collection,
including the description of a live performance event. The
decision to document a performance event begged another set
of answers to questions of issues involved with the collection
of texts in a multiplicity of media formats and the preservation
of the artefacts created through a performance event.
Adding to this layer of complexity was the additional decision
to create not just a multi-media performance, but to create
one in which a portion of the media was born-digital during
the event itself. Created from signals transmitted from sensor
devices (developed and worn by students), the born-digital
elements attain a heightened signifi cance in the description
of the performance texts. After all, how does one capture the
data stream for inclusion in the media-rich digital collection?
Methodology
The ARTeFACT project Alpha includes six teams of students
in an Introductory Engineering Class. Each team was asked to
design and build an orthotic device that, when worn, causes
the wearer to emulate the challenges of walking with a physical
disability (included are stroke ‘drop foot’ and paralysis, CP
hypertonia, Ricketts, etc.) During the course of the semester,
the student teams captured pre-event process in a variety of
digital formats: still and video images of the prototypes from
cameras and cell phones, PDF fi les, CAD drawings, PowerPoint
fi les and video documentation of those presentations. The
digital fi les were collected in a local SAKAI implementation.
In addition to these six teams, two other teams were assigned
the task of developing wireless measurement devices which,
when attached to each orthotic device, measures the impact of the orthotic device on the gait of the wearer. The sensor
then transmits the measurement data to a computer that
feeds the data into a Cycling74’s software application: Max/
MSP/Jitter. Jitter, a program designed to take advantage of data
streams, then creates real-time data visualization as output.
The resultant audio visual montage plays as the backdrop to a
multi-media event that includes student ‘dancers’ performing
while wearing the orthotic devices.
The sensors generate the data signals from Bluetooth devices
(each capable of generating up to eight independent signals)
as well as an EMG (electro-myogram) wireless system. At any
given time there may be as many as seven signalling devices
sending as many as 50 unique data streams into the computer
for processing. As the sensor data from the performers arrives
into Max/MSP/Jitter, it is routed to various audio and video
instruments within the application, processed to generate the
data visualization, then sent out of the computer via external
monitor and sound ports. The screenshot below displays
visual representations of both the input (top spectrogram)
and output (bottom: sonogram) of a real-time data stream.
The data can be visualized in multiple ways; however, the data
stream as we wish to capture it is not a static image, but rather
a series of samples of data over time.
There are several options for capturing these signals, two of
which are: writing the data directly to disk as the performance
progresses and/or the use of external audio and video mixing
boards that in the course of capturing can display the mix.
Adding to the complexity, the performance draws on a wide
variety of supporting, media rich, source material created
during the course of the semester. A subset of this material is
extrapolated for use in the fi nal performance. These elements
are combined, processed, morphed, and reformatted to fi t the
genre of the presentation and although they may bear some
similarity to the original material, they are not direct derivatives
of the source and thus become unique elements in the
production. Further, in addition to the capture of data streams,
the totality of the performance event must be collected. For
this, traditional means of capturing the performance event
have been determined to be the simplest of the challenges
faced. Therefore, a video camera and a microphone pointed
at the stage will suffi ce to fi ll this minimum requirement for
recording the event.
Conclusion
The complexity of capturing a performance in which many
of the performance elements themselves are created in real
time, processed, and used to generate audio visual feedback
is challenging. The inclusion of data elements in the artefact
collection begs questions with regard to the means of capturing
the data without impacting the performance. So, too, does it
require that we question what data to include: Does it make
sense to capture the entire data stream or only the elements
used at a specifi c instance in time to generate the performance;
what are the implications of developing a sub-system within
the main performance that captures this information? When
creating a collection based on a performance as digital text,
and before any work may be done to validate metadata
schemes, we must answer these questions. We must consider
how we capture the signals and interpret the secret messages
generated as part of the media-rich experience.
Sample bibliography
Adshead-Lansdale, J. (ed.) 1999, Dancing Texts: intertextuality
and interpretation London: Dance Books.
Goellner, E. W. & Murphy, J. S. 1995, Bodies of the Text New
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Kholief, M., Maly, K. & Shen, S. 2003, ‘Event-Based Retrieval
from a Digital Library containing Medical Streams’ in
Proceedings of the 2003 Joint Conference on Digital Libraries
(Online) Available at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/login.
jsp?url=/iel5/8569/27127/01204867.pdf
New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, Jerome
Robbins Dance Division 2005, Report from Working Group
4 Dance Documentation Needs Analysis Meeting 2, NYPL: New
York.
Reichert, L. 2007, ‘Intelligent Library System Goes Live as
Satellite Data Streams in Real-Time’ (Online) Available at
http://www.lockheedmartin.com/news/press_releases/2001/
IntelligentLibrarySystemGoesLiveAsS.html","txt","2","",""
"855","9","Function word analysis and questions of interpretation in early modern tragedy","1","The use of computational methods of stylistic analysis to
consider issues of categorization and authorship is now a
widely accepted practice. The use of computational techniques
to analyze style has been less well accepted by traditional
humanists. The assumption that most humanists make about
stylistics in general, and about computational stylistics in
particular, is that it is “concerned with the formal and linguistic
properties of the text as an isolated item in the work” (Clark
2005). There are, however, two other points of emphasis that
are brought to bear on a text through a cognitive approach.
These are: “that which refers to the points of contact between
a text, other texts and their readers/listeners”, and “that which
positions the text and the consideration of its formal and
psychological elements within a socio-cultural and historical
context” (Clark 2005). Urszula Clark (2005) argues that these
apparently independent strands of analysis or interpretive
practice are an “integrated, indissolvable package” (Clark
2005).
Computational stylistics of the kind undertaken in this
study attempts to link statistical fi ndings with this integrated
indissolvable package; it highlights general trends and features
that can be used for comparative purposes and also provides
us with evidence of the peculiarities and creative adaptations
of an individual user. In this case, the individual user is Elizabeth
Cary, the author of the earliest extant original play in English by
a woman, The Tragedy of Mariam, The Fair Queen of Jewry (1613).
As well as Mariam, the set of texts in the sample includes
the other 11 closet tragedies associated with the “Sidney
Circle”, and 48 tragedies written for the public stage. All
plays in the study were written between 1580 and 1640.1 The
only other female authored text in the group, Mary Sidney’s
Antonius, is a translation, as is Thomas Kyd’s Cornelia2.Alexander
Witherspoon (1924), describes the Sidnean closet tragedies
as “strikingly alike, and strikingly unlike any other dramas in
English” (179). He attributes this to the extent to which the
closet writers draw on the work of French playwright Robert
Garnier as a model for their own writing. In contrast to other
plays of the period closet tragedies have not attracted much
in the way of favourable critical attention. They are, as Jonas
Barish (1993) suggests, “odd creatures” (19), and Mariam is
described as one of oddest.
Mariam, as it turns out, is the closet play that is most like a play
written for the public stage, in terms of the use of function
words. But this isn’t immediately obvious. Some textual
preparation was carried out prior to the analysis. Homographs
were not tagged, but contracted forms throughout the texts
were expanded so that their constituents appeared as separate
words. The plays were divided into 2,000 word segments and
tagged texts were then run through a frequency count using
Intelligent Archive (IA). A total of 563 two-thousand word
segments were analysed, 104 of which were from closet plays,
and 459 from plays written for the public stage. A discriminant
analysis on the basis of the frequency scores of function words
demonstrates that there are signifi cant differences between
the two groups of plays. Table 1 shows the classifi cation results
for a discriminant analysis using the full set of function words.
In this test, 561 of the 563 segments were classifi ed correctly.
One segment from each group was misclassifi ed. Thus 99.6%
of cross-validated grouped cases were correctly classifi ed on
the basis of function words alone. The test also showed that
only 38 of the 241 function word variables were needed to
successfully discriminate between the groups.
Table 1
Classifi cation results for discriminant analysis using
the full set of function words in 60 tragedies (1580-
1640) closet/non-closet value correctly assigned a Cross validation is done only for those cases in the
analysis. In cross validation, each case is classifi ed by the
functions derived from all cases other than that case.
b 99.6% of original grouped cases correctly classifi ed.
c 99.6% of cross-validated grouped cases correctly classifi ed. Figure 1. Discriminant scores for correctly identifi ed
public and closet play segments from 60 tragedies
(1580-1640) in 2000 word segments on the basis
of 38 most discriminating function words Figure 2. Principal component analysis for 60 tragedies (1580-
1640) in 4000 word segments for 54 most discriminating
function words selected from 100 most frequently occurring
function words - word plot for fi rst two eigenvectors
Figure 3. Principal component analysis for 60
tragedies (1580-1640) in 4000 word segments for
54 most discriminating function words selected from
100 most frequently occurring function words
A principal component analysis (PCA) gives additional
information about the differences and similarities between
the two sets. An Independent-samples T-test was used to
identify the variables most responsible for the differences. This
process picked out 54 variables that were signifi cant at the
level of 0.0001 and these 54 variables were used for the PCA.
PCA looks to defi ne factors that can be described as most
responsible for differences between groups. For this text, the
texts were broken into 4000 word segments to ensure that
frequencies remained high enough for reliable analysis. This
produced 268 segments in total (50 closet segments and 218
public play segments). Figure 2 plots the 54 most discriminating
words-types for the fi rst two eigenvectors (based on factor
loadings for each variable) and shows which words behave
most like or unlike each other in the sample.
In Figure 3 the eigenvalues from the component matrix have
been multiplied through the standardised frequencies for each
of the 4,000 word segments to show which segments behave
most like or unlike each other on the fi rst two principal
components. The scores that produce Figure 3 are “the sum of
the variable counts for each text segment, after each count is
multiplied by the appropriate coeffi cient” (Burrows and Craig
1994 68). High counts on word variables at the western end of
Figure 2 and low counts on word variables at the eastern end
bring the text segments at the western end of Figure 3 to their
positions on the graph. The reverse is true for text segments
on the eastern side of Figure 3. We can see that the far western
section of Figure 3 is populated predominantly with public play
segments, and that the eastern side of the y-axis is populated
exclusively with segments from stage plays. It is clear that in
the case of these most discriminating variables, the segments
from Mariam are the closet segments most intermingled with
the segments written for the public stage.
Looking at Figure 2 there is evidence of an “emphasis on
direct personal exchange” in western section of the graph.
In the opposite section of the graph there is evidence of a
more disquisitory style of language that is “less personal”, with
“markers of plurality, past time, and a more connected syntax”
(Burrows and Craig 1994 70). It may be that the results refl ect
the kinds of observations that critics have long made about
early modern closet tragedy and tragedy written for the public
stage, suggesting that “word-counts serve as crude but explicit
markers of the subtle stylistic patterns to which we respond
when we read well” (Burrows and Craig 1994 70). It may also
be the case, however, that we can link these statistical results
with more interpretive work.
Returning to Mariam, the function words which most distinguish
the Mariam segments from the rest of the segments of both
closet and public plays, are the auxiliary verbs did (8.4) and
had (6.9). In the case of did over 500 of the segments have
scores of between -1 and 2. Six of the eight of the Mariam
segments are extremely high (the two middle segments of
Mariam have fairly average z-scores for did). The lowest score
occurs in segment 4, when Mariam is conspicuously absent
from the action. A very similar pattern emerges for had. In
conventional grammars do and other auxiliaries including be
and have are viewed as meaningless morphemes that serve
a grammatical purpose. Langacker argues that serving a
specifi able grammatical function is not inherently incompatible
with being a meaningful element (1987 30).
Cognitive linguistics suggests that function word schemas
interact with each other to produce what Talmy calls a
“dotting” of semantic space (1983 226), and that they “play
a basic conceptual structuring role” (Talmy 88 51). In this
framework, auxiliaries are viewed as profi ling a process
– they determine which entity is profi led by a clause and
impose a particular construal. Langacker argues, for example,
that do always conveys some notion of activity or some kind
of volitionality or control on the part of the subject. Have
designates a subjectively construed relation of anteriority and
current relevance to a temporal reference point (Langacker
1991 239). Talmy argues that have can be understood in terms
of force dynamics patterns; it “expresses indirect causation
either without an intermediate volitional entity…or… with such an entity” (1988 65). Talmy goes further to suggest that
the “concepts” of force dynamics are “extended by languages
to their semantic treatment of psychological elements and
interactions” (1988 69).
Bringing the tools of cognitive linguistics to bear on the results
of computational analysis of texts can provide a framework
that validates the counting of morphemes like did and had.
The same framework may also shed light on questions of
interpretation. This approach appears to provide a disciplined
way of identifying and analyzing the linguistic features that are
foregrounded in a text, while supporting their interpretation
as part of an integrated, indissolvable package.
Notes
1 Thomas Kyd wrote for both the public and the private stage. Kyd’s
Cornelia and The Spanish Tragedy are included in the study.
2 John Burrows (2002) explores some of the issues around
translation and whether it can be “assumed that poets stamp their
stylistic signatures as fi rmly on translation as their original work”
(679). Burrows found that Drydan was able to “conceal his hand”, but
in other cases it appeared that a “stylisitic signature”, even in the case
of a translation, remained detectable (696).
References
Barish, J. (1993). Language for the Study: Language for
the Stage. In A. L. Magnusson & C. E. McGee (Eds.), The
ElizabethanTheatre XII (pp. 19-43). Toronto: P.D. Meany.
Burrows, J. (2002). The Englishing of Jevenal: Computational
stylistics and translated Texts. Style, 36, 677-750.
Burrows, J. F., & Craig, D. H. (1994). Lyrical Drama and the
“Turbid Mountebanks”: Styles of Dialogue in Romantic and
Renaissance Tragedy. Computers and the Humanities, 28, 63-86.
Cooper, M. M. (1998). Implicature and The Taming of the Shrew.
In J. Culpeper, M. H. Short & P. Verdonk (Eds.), Exploring the
Language of Drama: From Text to Context (pp. 54-66). London:
Routledge.
Clark, U. (2005). Social cognition and the future of stylistics, or
“What is cognitive stylistics and why are people saying such good
things about it?!” Paper presented at the PALA 25: Stylistics
and Social Cognition.
Connors, L. (2006). An Unregulated Woman: A computational
stylistic analysis of Elizabeth Cary’s The Tragedy of Mariam,
The Faire Queene of Jewry. Literary and Linguistic Computing,
21(Supplementary Issue), 55-66.
Sweetser, E. (1990). From Etymology to Pragmatics: Metaphorical
and cultural aspects of semantic change. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Langacker, R. W. (1999). Losing control: grammaticization,
subjectifi cation, and transparency. In A. Blank & P. Koch (Eds.),
Historical Semantics and Cognition (Vol. 13, pp. 147-175). Berlin:
Mouton de Gruyter.
Talmy, L. (1983). How language structures space. In H. Pick
& L. Acredolo (Eds.), Spatial orientation: Theory, research, and
application. New York: Plenum Press.
Talmy, L. (1988). Force Dynamics in Language and Cognition.
Cognitive Science, 12. 49-100.
Witherspoon, A. M. (1924: rpt. 1968). The Infl uence of Robert
Garnier on Elizabethan Drama.","txt","2","",""
"856","9","Deconstructing Machine Learning: A Challenge for Digital Humanities","1","Machine learning tools, including document classifi cation
and clustering techniques, are particularly promising for
digital humanities because they offer the potential of using
machines to discover meaningful patterns in large repositories
of text. Given the rapidly increasing size and availability of
digital libraries, it is clear that machine learning systems will,
of necessity, become widely deployed in a variety of specifi c
tasks that aim to make these vast collections intelligible.
While effective and powerful, machine learning algorithms and
techniques are not a panacea to be adopted and employed
uncritically for humanistic research. As we build and begin to
use them, we in the digital humanities must focus not only on
the performance of specifi c algorithms and applications, but
also on the theoretical and methodological underpinnings of
these systems.
At the heart of most machine learning tools is some variety
of classifi er. Classifi cation, however, is a fraught endeavor in
our poststructuralist world. Grouping things or ideas into
categories is crucial and important, but doing so without
understanding and being aware of one’s own assumptions is a
dubious activity, not necessarily for moral, but for intellectual
reasons. After all, hierarchies and orders of knowledge have
been shown to be both historically contingent and refl ections
of prevailing power structures. Bowker and Star state that
“classifi cation systems in general... refl ect the confl icting,
contradictory motives of the sociotechnical situations that gave
rise to them” (64). As machine learning techniques become
more widely applied to all forms of electronic text, from the
WWW to the emerging global digital library, an awareness of
the politics of classifi cation and the ordering of knowledge
will become ever more important. We would therefore like to
present a paper outlining our concerns about these techniques
and their underlying technical/intellectual assumptions based
on our experience using them for experimental research.
In many ways, machine learning relies on approaches that seem
antithetical to humanistic text analysis and reading and to
more general poststructuralist sensibilities. The most powerful
and effective techniques rely on the abilities of systems to
classify documents and parts of documents, often in binary
oppositions (spam/not spam, male/female, etc). Features of
documents employed in machine learning applications tend to
be restricted to small subsets of available words, expressions
or other textual attributes. Clustering of documents based on
relatively small feature sets into a small and often arbitrary
number of groups similarly tends to focus on broad patterns.
Lost in all of these operations are the marginal and exceptional,
rendered hidden and invisible as it were, in classifi cation
schemes and feature selection.
Feature set selection is the fi rst necessary step in many text
mining tasks. Ian Witten notes that in “many practical situations
there are far too many attributes for learning schemes to handle,
and some of them -- perhaps the overwhelming majority -
- are clearly irrelevant or redundant” (286-7). In our work,
we routinely reduce the number of features (words, lemmas,
bigrams, etc) using a variety of techniques, most frequently by
fi ltering out features which occur in a small subset of documents
or instances. This selection process is further required to avoid
“overfi tting” a learner to the training data. One could build an
effective classifi er and train it using features that are unique
to particular documents, but doing so would limit the general
applicability of the tool. Attempting to classify French novels by
gender of author while retaining the names of characters (as
in Sand’s novel, Conseulo) or other distinctive elements is very
effective, but says little about gendered writing in 19th century
France (Argamon et. al., Discourse). Indeed, many classifi cation
tasks may be successful using a tiny subset of all of the words
in a corpus. In examining American and non-American Black
Drama, we achieved over 90% accuracy in classifying over
nearly 700 plays using a feature set of only 60 surface words
(Argamon et. al., Gender, Race). Using a vector space similarity
function to detect articles in the Encyclopédie which borrow
signifi cantly from the Dictionnaire de Trévoux, we routinely get
impressive performance by selecting fewer than 1,000 of the
400,000 unique forms in the two documents (Allen et. al.).
The requirement of greatly reductive feature set selection for
practical text mining and the ability of the systems to perform
effective classifi cations based on even smaller subsets suggests
that there is a signifi cant distance from the texts at which
machine learning must operate in order to be effective.
Given the reductive nature of the features used in text mining
tasks, even the most successful classifi cation task tends to
highlight the lowest common denominators, which at best
may be of little textual interest and at worst extremely
misleading, encouraging stereotypical conclusions. Using
a decision tree to classify modern and ancient geography
articles in the Encyclopédie, we found “selon” (according to)
to be the primary distinction, refl ecting citation of ancient sources (“selon Pline”). Classifi cation of Black Drama by
gender of author and gender of speaker can be very effective
(80% or more accuracy), but the features identifi ed by the
classifi ers may privilege particular stereotypes. The unhappy
relationship of Black American men with the criminal justice
system or the importance of family matters to women are
both certainly themes raised in these plays. Of course, men
talk more of wives than women and only women tend to call
other women “hussies,” so it is hardly surprising that male
and female authors/characters speak of different things in
somewhat different ways. However, the operation of classifi ers
is predicated on detecting patterns of word usage which most
distinguish groups and may bring to the forefront literary
and linguistic elements which play a relatively minor role in
the texts themselves. We have found similar results in other
classifi cation tasks, including gender mining in French literary
works and Encyclopédie classifi cations.
Machine learning systems are best, in terms of various
measures of accuracy, at binomial classifi cation tasks, the
dreaded “binary oppositions” of male/female, black/white and
so forth, which have been the focus of much critical discussion
in the humanities. Given the ability of statistical learners to
fi nd very thin slices of difference, it may be that any operation
of any binary opposition may be tested and confi rmed.
If we ask for gender classifi cation, the systems will do just
that, return gender classifi cations. This suggests that certain
types of hypothesis testing, particularly in regard to binary
classifi cations, may show a successful result simply based on
the framing of the question. It is furthermore unclear as to just
what a successful classifi cation means. If we identify gender or
race of authors or characters, for example, at a better than
80% rate and generate a list of features most associated with
both sides of the opposition, what does this tell us about the
failed 20%? Are these errors to be corrected, presumably
by improving classifi ers or clustering models or should we
further investigate these as interesting marginal instances?
What may be considered a failure in computer science could
be an interesting anomaly in the humanities.
Machine learning offers great promise to humanistic textual
scholarship and the development of digital libraries. Using
systems to sift through the ever increasing amounts of
electronic texts to detect meaningful patterns offers the ability
to frame new kinds of questions. But these technologies bring
with them a set of assumptions and operations that should be
subject to careful critical scrutiny. We in the digital humanities
must do this critical work, relying on our understanding of
epistemology and our technical skills to open the black box
and shine light on what is inside. Deconstruction in the digital
library should be a reading strategy not only for the texts
found therein, but also of the systems being developed to
manage, control and make the contents of electronic resources
accessible and intelligible.
Bibliography
Allen, Timothy, Stéphane Douard, Charles Cooney, Russell
Horton, Robert Morrissey, Mark Olsen, Glenn Roe, and
Robert Voyer. “Plundering Philosophers: Identifying Sources
of the Encyclopédie using the Vector Space Model” in
preparation for Text Technology.
Argamon, Shlomo, Russell Horton, Mark Olsen, and Sterling
Stuart Stein. “Gender, Race, and Nationality in Black Drama,
1850-2000: Mining Differences in Language Use in Authors
and their Characters.” DH07, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois. June
4-8, 2007.
Argamon, Shlomo, Jean-Baptiste Goulain, Russell Horton, and
Mark Olsen. “Discourse, Power, and Ecriture Féminine: Text
Mining Gender Difference in 18th and 19th Century French
Literature.” DH07, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois. June 4-8, 2007.
Bowker, Geoffrey C. and Susan Leigh Star. Sorting Things Out:
Classifi cation and its Consequences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1999.
Introna, L. and H. Nissenbaum. “Shaping the Web: Why the
Politics of Search Engines Matters.” The Information Society,
16(3): 1-17, 2000.
Witten, Ian H. and Eibe Frank. Data Mining: Practical Machine
Learning Tools and Techniques, 2nd ed. San Francisco, CA:
Morgan Kaufmann, 2005.","txt","2","",""
"857","9","Feature Creep: Evaluating Feature Sets for Text Mining Literary Corpora","1","Machine learning offers the tantalizing possibility of discovering
meaningful patterns across large corpora of literary texts.
While classifi ers can generate potentially provocative hints
which may lead to new critical interpretations, the features sets
identifi ed by these approaches tend not to be able to represent
the complexity of an entire group of texts and often are too
reductive to be intellectually satisfying. This paper describes
our current work exploring ways to balance performance of
machine learning systems and critical interpretation. Careful
consideration of feature set design and selection may provide
literary critics the cues that provoke readings of divergent
classes of texts. In particular, we are looking at lexical groupings
of feature sets that hold the promise to reveal the predominant
“idea chunklets” of a corpus.
Text data mining and machine learning applications are
dependent on the design and selection of feature sets.
Feature sets in text mining may be described as structured
data extracted or otherwise computed from running or
unstructured text in documents which serves as the raw data
for a particular classifi cation task. Such features typically include
words, lemmas, n-grams, parts of speech, phrases, named
entities, or other actionable information computed from the
contents of documents and/or associated metadata. Feature
set selection is generally required in text mining in order to
reduce the dimensionality of the “native feature space”, which
can range in the tens or hundreds thousands of words in
even modest size corpora [Yang]. Not only do many widely
used machine learning approaches become ineffi cient when
using such high dimensional feature spaces, but such extensive
feature sets may actually reduce performance of a classifi er.
[Witten 2005: 286-7] Li and Sun report that “many irrelevant
terms have a detrimental effect on categorization accuracy
due to overfi tting” as well as tasks which “have many relevant
but redundant features... also hurt categorization accuracy”. [Li
2007]
Feature set design and selection in computer or information
science is evaluated primarily in terms of classifi er performance
or measures of recall and precision in search tasks. But the
features identifi ed as most salient to a classifi cation task may be
of more interest than performance rates to textual scholars in
the humanities as well as other disciplines. In a recent study of
American Supreme Court documents, McIntosh [2007] refers
to this approach as “Comparative Categorical Feature Analysis”.
In our previous work, we have used a variety of classifi ers and
functions implemented in PhiloMine [1] to examine the most
distinctive words in comparisons of wide range of classes, such
as author and character genders, time periods, author race
and ethnicity, in a number of different text corpora [Argamon
et. al. 2007a and 2007b]. This work suggests that using different
kinds of features -- surface form words compared to bilemmas
and bigrams -- allows for similar classifi er performance on a
selected task, while identifying intellectually distinct types of
differences between the selected groups of documents.
Argamon, Horton et al. [Argamon 2007a] demonstrated that
learners run on a corpus of plays by Black authors successfully
classifi ed texts by nationality of author, either American or
non-American, at rates ranging between 85% and 92%. The
features tend to describe gross literary distinctions between
the two discourses reasonably well. Examination of the top 30
features is instructive.
American: ya’, momma, gon’, jones, sho, mississippi, dude,
hallway, nothin, georgia, yo’, naw, alabama, git, outta, y’,
downtown, colored, lawd, mon, punk, whiskey, county, tryin’,
runnin’, jive, buddy, gal, gonna, funky
Non-American: na, learnt, don, goat, rubbish, eh, chief,
elders, compound, custom, rude, blasted, quarrel, chop, wives,
professor, goats, pat, corruption, cattle, hmm, priest, hunger,
palace, forbid, warriors, princess, gods, abroad, politicians
Compared side by side, these lists of terms have a direct
intuitive appeal. The American terms suggest a body of plays
that deal with the Deep South (the state names), perhaps the
migration of African-Americans to northern cities (hallway and
downtown), and also contain idiomatic and slang speech (ya’,
gon’, git, jive) and the language of racial distinction (colored). The
non-American terms reveal, as one might expect, a completely
different universe of traditional societies (chief, elders,
custom) and life under colonial rule (professor, corruption,
politicians). Yet a drawback to these features is that they have a
stereotypical feel. Moreover, these lists of single terms reduce
the many linguistically complex and varied works in a corpus
to a distilled series of terms. While a group of words, in the
form of a concordance, can show something quite concrete
about a particular author’s oeuvre or an individual play, it is
diffi cult to come to a nuanced understanding of an entire corpus through such a list, no matter how long. Intellectually,
lists of single terms do not scale up to provide an adequate
abstract picture of the concerns and ideas represented in a
body of works.
Performing the same classifi cation task using bilemmas (bigrams
of word lemmas with function words removed) reveals both
slightly better performance than surface words (89.6% cross
validated) and a rather more specifi c set of highly ranked
features. Running one’s eye down this list is revealing:
American: yo_mama, white_folk, black_folk, ole_lady,
st_louis, uncle_tom, rise_cross, color_folk,front_porch,
jim_crow, sing_blue black_male, new_orleans, black_boy,
cross_door, black_community, james_brown,
Non-American: palm_wine, market_place, dip_hand,
cannot_afford, high_priest, piece_land, join_hand,bring_
water, cock_crow, voice_people, hope_nothing, pour_
libation, own_country, people_land, return_home
American (not present in non-American): color_boy,
color_girl, jive_ass, folk_live
Here, we see many specifi c instances of Africian-American
experience, community, and locations. Using bigrams instead
of bilemmas delivers almost exactly the same classifi er
performance. However, not all works classifi ed correctly using
bilemmas are classifi ed correctly using bigrams. Langston
Hughes, The Black Nativity, for example, is correctly identifi ed as
American when using bigrams but incorrectly classifi ed when
using bilemmas. The most salient bigrams in the classifi cation
task are comparable, but not the same as bilemmas. The
lemmas of “civil rights” and “human rights” do not appear in
the top 200 bilemmas for either American or non-American
features, but appear in bigrams, with “civil rights” as the 124th
most predictive American feature and “human rights” as 111th
among non-American features.
As the example of The Black Nativity illustrates, we have found
that different feature sets give different results because, of
course, using different feature sets means fundamentally
changing the lexically based standards the classifi er relies on
to make its decision. Our tests have shown us that, for the
scholar interested in examining feature sets, there is therefore
no single, defi nitive feature set that provides a “best view” of
the texts or the ideas in them. We will continue exploring
feature set selection on a range of corpora representing
different genres and eras, including Black Drama, French
Women Writers, and a collection of American poetry. Keeping
in mind the need to balance performance and intelligibility, we
would like to see which combinations of features work best
on poetry, for example, compared to dramatic writing. Text
classifi ers will always be judged primarily on how well they
group similar text objects. Nevertheless, we think they can
also be useful as discovery tools, allowing critics to fi nd sets of
ideas that are common to particular classes of texts.
Notes
1. See http://philologic.uchicago.edu/philomine/. We have largely
completed work on PhiloMine2, which allows the user to perform
classifi cation tasks using a variety of features and fi ltering on entire
documents or parts of documents. The features include words,
lemmas, bigrams, bilemmas, trigrams and trilemmas which can be
used in various combinations.
References
[Argamon 2007a] Argamon, Shlomo, Russell Horton,
Mark Olsen, and Sterling Stuart Stein. “Gender, Race, and
Nationality in Black Drama, 1850-2000: Mining Differences
in Language Use in Authors and their Characters.” DH07,
Urbana-Champaign, Illinois. June 4-8, 2007.
[Argamon 2007b] Argamon, Shlomo, Jean-Baptiste Goulain,
Russell Horton, and Mark Olsen. “Discourse, Power, and
Ecriture Féminine: Text Mining Gender Difference in 18th and
19th Century French Literature.” DH07, Urbana-Champaign,
Illinois. June 4-8, 2007.
[Li 2007] Li, Jingyang and Maosong Sun, “Scalable Term
Selection for Text Categorization”, Proceedings of the 2007
Joint Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language
Processing and Computational Natural Language Learning
(EMNLP-CoNLL), pp. 774-782.
[McIntosh 2007] McIntosh, Wayne, “The Digital Docket:
Categorical Feature Analysis and Legal Meme Tracking in
the Supreme Court Corpus”, Chicago Colloquium on Digital
Humanities and Computer Science, Northwestern University,
October 21-22, 2007
[Witten 2005] Witten, Ian H. and Eibe Frank. Data Mining:
Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques, 2nd ed. San
Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann, 2005.
Yang, Yiming and Jan Pedersen, “A Comparative Study on
Feature Selection in Text Categorization” In D. H. Fisher
(ed.), Proceedings of ICML-97, 14th International Conference
on Machine Learning, pp. 412-420, Nashville, US. Morgan
Kaufmann Publishers, San Francisco, US.","txt","2","",""
"858","9","Hidden Roads and Twisted Paths: Intertextual Discovery using Clusters, Classifi cations, and Similarities","1","While information retrieval (IR) and text analysis in the
humanities may share many common algorithms and
technologies, they diverge markedly in their primary objects
of analysis, use of results, and objectives. IR is designed to
fi nd documents containing textual information bearing
on a specifi ed subject, frequently by constructing abstract
representations of documents or “distancing” the reader from
texts. Humanistic text analysis, on the other hand, is aimed
primarily at enhancing understanding of textual information as
a complement of “close reading” of relatively short passages.
Interpreting a poem, a novel or a philosophical treatise in the
context of large digital corpora is, we would argue, a constant
interplay between the estranging technologies of machine
learning and the direct reading of passages in a work. A
signifi cant element of interpreting or understanding a passage
in a primary text is based on linking its specifi c elements
to parts of other works, often within a particular temporal
framework. To paraphrase Harold Bloom, ‘understanding’
in humanistic textual scholarship, ‘is the art of knowing the
hidden roads that go from text to text’. [1] Indeed, situating
a passage of a text in a wider context of an author’s oeuvre,
time period, or even larger intellectual tradition, is one of the
hallmarks of textual hermeneutics.
While fi nding the “hidden roads and twisted paths” between
texts has always been subject to the limitations of human
reading and recollection, machine learning and text mining
offer the tantalizing prospect of making that search easier.
Computers can sift through ever-growing collections of
primary documents to help readers fi nd meaningful patterns,
guiding research and mitigating the frailties of human memory.
We believe that a combination of supervised and unsupervised
machine learning approaches can be integrated to propose
various kinds of passages of potential interest based on the
passage a reader is examining at a given moment, overcoming
some limitations of traditional IR tools. One-dimensional
measures of similarity, such as the single numerical score
generated by a vector space model, fail to account for the
diverse ways texts interact. Traditional ‘ranked relevancy
retrieval’ models assume a single measure of relevance that
can be expressed as an ordered list of documents, whereas
real textual objects are composed of smaller divisions that
each are relevant to other text objects in various complex
ways. Our goal is to utilize the many machine learning tools
available to create more sophisticated models of intertextual
relation than the monolithic notion of “similarity.”
We plan to adapt various ideas from information retrieval and
machine learning for our use. Measures of document similarity
form the basis of modern information retrieval systems, which
use a variety of techniques to compare input search strings to
document instances. In 1995, Singhal and Salton[2] proposed
that vector space similarity measures may also help to identify
related documents without human intervention such as humanembedded
hypertext links. Work by James Allan[3] suggests
the possibility of categorizing automatically generated links
using innate characteristics of the text objects, for example by
asserting the asymmetric relation “summary and expansion”
based on the relative sizes of objects judged to be similar.
Because we will operate not with a single similarity metric but
with the results of multiple classifi ers and clusterers, we can
expand on this technique, categorizing intertextual links by
feeding all of our data into a fi nal voting mechanism such as a
decision tree.
Our experiments with intertextual discovery began with using
vector space calculations to try to identify that most direct of
intertextual relationships, plagiarism or borrowing. Using the
interactive vector space function in PhiloMine[4], we compared
the 77,000 articles of the 18th century Encyclopédie of Diderot
and d’Alembert to the 77,000 entries in a reference work
contemporary to it, the Dictionnaire universel françois et latin,
published by the Jesuits in the small town of Trévoux. The Jesuit
defenders of the Dictionnaire de Trévoux, as it was popularly
known, loudly accused the Encyclopédists of extensive
plagiarism, a charge Diderot vigorously refuted, but which
has never been systematically investigated by scholars. Our
procedure is to compare all articles beginning with a specifi c
letter in the Encyclopédie to all Trévoux articles beginning with
the same letter. For each article in the Encyclopédie, the system
displays each Trévoux article that scores above a user-designated
similarity threshold. Human readers manually inspect possible
matches, noting those that were probably plagiarized. Having
completed 18 of 26 letters, we have found more than 2,000
articles (over 5% of those consulted) in the Encyclopédie were
“borrowed” from the Dictionnaire de Trévoux, a surprisingly
large proportion given the well-known antagonism between
the Jesuits and Encyclopédists.[5] The Encyclopédie experiment has shown us strengths and
weaknesses of the vector space model on one specifi c kind
of textual relationship, borrowing, and has spurred us to
devise an expanded approach to fi nd additional types of
intertextual links. Vector space proves to be very effective
at fi nding textual similarities indicative of borrowing, even in
cases where signifi cant differences occur between passages.
However, vector space matching is not as effective at fi nding
articles borrowed from the Trévoux that became parts of
larger Encyclopédie articles, suggesting that we might profi t
from shrinking the size of our comparison objects, with
paragraph-level objects being one obvious choice. In manually
sifting through proposed borrowings, we also noticed articles
that weren’t linked by direct borrowing, but in other ways
such as shared topic, tangential topic, expansion on an idea,
differing take on the same theme, etc. We believe that some
of these qualities may be captured by other machine learning
techniques. Experiments with document clustering using
packages such as CLUTO have shown promise in identifying
text objects of similar topic, and we have had success using
naive Bayesian classifi ers to label texts by topic, authorial style
and time period. Different feature sets also offer different
insights, with part-of-speech tagging reducing features to a
bare, structural minimum and N-gram features providing a
more semantic perspective. Using clustering and classifi ers
operating on a variety of featuresets should improve the
quality of proposed intertextual links as well as a providing
a way to assign different types of relationships, rather than
simply labeling two text objects as broadly similar.
To test our hypothesis, we will conduct experiments linking
Encyclopédie articles to running text in other contemporaneous
French literature and reference materials using the various
techniques we have described, with an emphasis on
intelligently synthesizing the results of various machine learning
techniques to validate and characterize proposed linkages. We
will create vector representations of surface form, lemma,
and ngram feature sets for the Encyclopédie and the object
texts as a pre-processing step before subjecting the data
to clustering and categorization of several varieties. Models
trained on the Encyclopédie will be used to classify and cluster
running text, so that for each segment of text we will have a
number of classifi cations and scores that show how related
it is to various Encyclopédie articles and classes of articles. A
decision tree will be trained to take into account all of the
classifi cations and relatedness measures we have available,
along with innate characteristics of each text object such as
length, and determine whether a link should exist between
two give text objects, and if so what kind of link. We believe
a decision tree model is a good choice because such models
excel at generating transparent classifi cation procedures from
low dimensionality data.
The toolbox that we have inherited or appropriated from
information retrieval needs to be extended to address
humanistic issues of intertextuality that are irreducible
to single numerical scores or ranked lists of documents.
Humanists know that texts, and parts of texts, participate in
complex relationships of various kinds, far more nuanced than
the reductionist concept of “similarity” that IR has generally
adopted. Fortunately, we have a wide variety of machine
learning tools at our disposal which can quantify different
kinds of relatedness. By taking a broad view of all these
measures, while looking narrowly at smaller segments of texts
such as paragraphs, we endeavor to design a system that can
propose specifi c kinds of lower-level intertextual relationships
that more accurately refl ect the richness and complexity of
humanities texts. This kind of tool is necessary to aid the
scholar in bridging the gap between the distant view required
to manipulate our massive modern text repositories, and the
traditional close, contextual reading that forms the backbone
of humanistic textual study.
Notes
1. “Criticism is the art of knowing the hidden roads that go from
poem to poem”, Harold Bloom, “Interchapter: A Manifesto for
Antithetical Criticism” in, The Anxiety of Infl uence; A Theory of Poetry,
(Oxford University Press, New York, 1973)
2. Singhal, A. and Salton, G. “Automatic Text Browsing Using Vector
Space Model” in Proceedings of the Dual-Use Technologies and Applications
Conference, May 1995, 318-324.
3. Allan, James. “Automatic Hypertext Linking” in Proc. 7th ACM
Conference on Hypertext, Washington DC, 1996, 42-52.
4. PhiloMine is the text mining extensions to PhiloLogic which the
ARTFL Project released in Spring 2007. Documentation, source code,
and many examples are available at http://philologic.uchicago.edu/
philomine/ A word on current work (bigrams, better normalization,
etc).
5. An article describing this work is in preparation for submission to
Text Technology.","txt","2","",""
"859","9","A novel way for the comparative analysis of adaptations based on vocabulary rich text segments: the assessment of Dan Brown's The Da Vinci Code and its translations","1","In this work the appearance of the newly introduced words
of The Da Vinci Code and its different translations have been
analyzed and compared. The concept “newly introduced words”
refers to the words whose fi rst appearance is detected at a
certain point of the text. In general the number of the newly
introduced words follows a monotonic decay, however, there
are segments of the texts where this descending is reversed
and a sudden increase is detectable (Csernoch, 20066a,
2006b, 2007) – these text slices are referred to as vocabulary
rich text slices. The question arises whether the detectable,
unexpectedly high number of newly introduced words of the
original work is traceable in the different translations of the
text or not.
Before advancing on the project let us defi ne the concept of
translation. In this context the defi nition of Hatim and Mason
(1993) is accepted, that is any adaptation of a literary work
is considered as translation. Beyond the foreign language
translations of The Da Vinci Code two more adaptations, the
lemmatized and the condensed versions of the original work
were analyzed.
The comparison of the newly introduced word types and
lemmas of the different translations allows us to trace how
precisely translation(s) follow(s) the changes in the vocabulary
of the original text. Whether the vocabulary rich sections of
the original text appear similarly rich in the translations, or the
translations swallow them up, or the translations are richer
at certain sections than the original work. In addition, could
the changes in the newly introduced words, as an additional
parameter to those already applied, be used to give a hint of
the quality of a translation?
To carry out the analysis a previously introduced method
was applied (Csernoch, 2006a, 2006b). The text was divided
into constant-length intervals, blocks. The number of the
newly introduced words was mapped to each block. Those
text segments were considered vocabulary rich, in which the
number of the newly introduced words signifi cantly exceeds
that predicted by a fi rst-order statistical model.
The original The Da Vinci Code
In the original The Da Vinci Code eleven signifi cant, vocabulary
rich, text slices were detected. This number is similar to what
was found in other, previously analyzed works (Csernoch,
2007). However, a further analysis of these text slices was
applied to reveal their nature. Four parameters,
– the distribution of these text slices within the text,
– their length – the number of blocks in the signifi cant text
slice,
– their intensity – the local maximum of the relative number
of the newly introduced words, and
– their content were determined.
The majority of the signifi cant text slices of The Da Vinci Code
both in lengths and intensity turned out to be unusually small,
containing descriptions of events, characters and places. None
of them stands for stylistic changes which usually (Baayen,
2001) trigger extremely vocabulary rich text slices. The
distribution of them is uneven, they mainly appear in the fi rst
half of the text. This means that the second half of the novel
hardly introduces any more vocabulary items that predicted
by a fi rst-order statistical model.
The analysis of the lemmatized texts
To see whether the word types, with all their suffi xes, are
responsible for any losses of vocabulary rich text slices, the
lemmatization, as an adaptation of the text, was carried out.
As it was found earlier (Csernoch, 2006b), the lemmatization
of the text produced minor, if any, differences in the analysis
of the word types in an English text. To the English nonlemmatized
and lemmatized The Da Vinci Code their Hungarian
correspondences were compared. Unlike the English texts, at
the beginning of the Hungarian texts the number of newly
introduced word types was so high that up to the fi rst two
hundred blocks (20,000 tokens), some of the text slices with
signifi cantly high number of newly introduced word types
might be swallowed up.
The foreign language translations of
The Da Vinci Code
While the absolute numbers of the newly introduced words of
texts in different languages cannot, their relative numbers can
be compared using the method outlined in Csernoch (2006a).
Relying on the advantages of the method three different
translations were compared to the original text, the Hungarian,
the German, and the French. If the vocabulary rich text slices
are found at the same positions both in the original and in
the translated text, the translation can then be considered as
exact in respect of vocabulary richness. In the Hungarian translation the lengths and the intensities
of the vocabulary rich text slices were not altered, however
their distribution was more even than in the English text, and
their number increased to sixteen. While the vocabulary rich
text slices of the English text were all found in the Hungarian
text, further such text slices were identifi ed in the second
half of the Hungarian text. The comparison revealed that the
Hungarian text is richer in vocabulary than the English text.
The German translation replicated the vocabulary rich text
slices of the original English text, and provided fi ve more,
which, similarly to the Hungarian translation, means that these
text slices are richer in vocabulary than the corresponding
text slices in the English text.
In the French translation only nine signifi cant text slices were
found. All of these text slices were only one block long, and
their intensities were also surprisingly small. This means that
the distribution of the newly introduced words in the French
translation hardly differs from that predicted by the model.
Furthermore, they are quite different in content from the
vocabulary rich text slices in the other languages. Thus, there
are hardly any concentrated, vocabulary rich text slices in the
French text.
The condensed versions of The Da Vinci
Code
Finally, the condensed versions of the English and Hungarian
texts were compared to the corresponding full-length text
and to each other. Several questions are to be answered in
this context. By the nature of this adaptation it is obvious that
the length of the text is curtailed to some extent. However,
this parameter does not tell much about the nature of the
condensation. We do not know from this parameter whether
the condensation is only a cropping of the original text –
certain text segments are left out while others are untouched
– or the whole text is modifi ed to some extent. If the text
is modifi ed, the percentage of the remaining tokens, word
types, lemmas, and hapax legomena are parameters which tell
us more about the condensation. To get a further insight it is
worth considering how the vocabulary rich text segments of
the original text are transferred into the condensed text. This
last parameter might be a great help in deciding from which
fi rst order adaptation a second order adaptation of a text – in
this case the condensed Hungarian text – is derived.
Both the English and the Hungarian condensed texts are 45%
of the original texts in length. The number of word types is
64 and 55%, the number of lemmas are 64 and 61%, while
the number of hapax legomena is 70 and 56% of the English
and Hungarian full-length texts, respectively. These parameters
indicate that the Hungarian condensed text bore more serious
damage than the English did. The number of vocabulary rich
text segments dropped to six – somewhat more than the half
of original number – in the English text. On the other hand, the
number of these text segments in the Hungarian text dropped
to one-third, which is a notable difference compared to the
full-length Hungarian text. Both in the condensed English
and Hungarian texts the vocabulary rich segments were
concentrated to the fi rst half of the texts representing the
same events, none of the segments unique to the full-length
Hungarian text appeared in the condensed Hungarian text. The
cumulative length of the vocabulary rich text slices dropped
to 51% in the English and to 43% in the Hungarian text. Again,
the Hungarian text seemed to be damaged to a greater extent.
All the analyzed parameters thus clearly indicate that for the
condensed Hungarian version the condensed English text was
the direct source.
Bibliography
Baayen, R. H. (2001) Word Frequency Distributions. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands
Csernoch, M. (2006a) The introduction of word types and
lemmas in novels, short stories and their translations. http://
www.allc-ach2006.colloques.paris-sorbone.fr/DHs.pdf. Digital
Humanities 2006. The First International Conference of the
Alliance of Digital Humanities Organisations. (5-9 July 2006,
Paris)
Csernoch, M. (2006b) Frequency-based Dynamic Models for
the Analysis of English and Hungarian Literary Works and
Coursebooks for English as a Second Language. Teaching
Mathematics and Computer Science. Debrecen, Hungary
Csernoch, M. (2007) Seasonalities in the Introduction of
Word-types in Literary Works. Publicationes Universitatis
Miskolcinensis, Sectio Philosophica, Tomus XI. – Fasciculus 3.
Miskolc 2006-2007.
Hatim, B. and Mason, I. (1993) Discourse and the Translator.
Longman Inc., New York.","txt","2","",""
"860","9","Converting St Paul: A new TEI P5 edition of The Conversion of St Paul using stand-off linking","1","In researching the textual phenomena and scribal practices of
late-medieval drama I have been creating an electronic edition
of The Conversion of St Paul. This late-medieval verse play
survives only in Bodleian MS Digby 133. My edition attempts
to be a useful scholarly work, which where possible leverages
existing resources to create an agile interoperable resource.
In undertaking this work I have been able to explore a number
of issues related to the creation of such editions which may
have pedagogic benefi t as a case study to others. These include
shortcuts to speed up the creation of the initial edition, the
generation of additional resources based solely on a single
XML encoded text, the use of new mechanisms in the TEI
P5 Guidelines, and the exploitation of stand-off markup to
experiment with seamlessly incorporating external resources.
The TEI P5 Guidelines have been followed in production of
this edition, and specifi cally I have used a number of features
which are new additions to TEI P5 and which others may not
yet be familiar. It was developed in tandem with early drafts of
the Guidelines, in part to test some of the features we were
adding.
These include:
• A customised view of the TEI expressed as a TEI ODD fi le.
This allows generation not only of constrained TEI Schemas
and DTDs but also project specifi c documentation through
the TEI’s ODD processor ‘Roma’.
• A manuscript description of MS Digby 133, and the
manuscript item of this play, using the TEI’s new module for
manuscript description metadata.
• Consistent and in-depth use of the new <choice>
structure to provide alternative textual information at
individual points in the text. Specifi cally, in this highlyabbreviated
medieval text, this has been used to provide
both abbreviations and expansions which then can be
toggled in the rendered version. Regularisation of medieval
spelling has been handled with stand-off markup, but could
equally have been incorporated into <choice>
• Inside abbreviations and expansions, the new elements
<am> (abbreviation marker) and <ex> (expanded text)
have been used. This allows the marking and subsequent
display of abbreviation marks in a diplomatic edition view
and italicised rendering of the supplied text in the expanded
view.
• The edition also records information about the digital
photographic surrogate provided by the Bodleian using the
new <facsimile> element. While this will also allow linking
from the text to particular zones of the images, this has not
yet been undertaken..
• The edition also uses various new URI-based pointing
mechanisms and datatype constraints new to TEI P5.
To speed up the creation of the edition I took an out of
copyright printed version of the text (Furnivall 1896) which
was scanned and passed through optical character recognition.
This was then carefully corrected and proofread letter-byletter
against freely available (though restrictively licensed)
images made available online by the Bodleian Library, Oxford
(at http://image.ox.ac.uk/show?collection=bodleian&manu
script=msdigby133). I used OpenOffi ce to create the initial
edition, with specialised formatting used to indicate various
textual and editorial phenomena such as expanded material,
superscript abbreviation markers, stage directions, and notes.
The up-scaling of the markup through using this presentational
markup was achieved when I converted it, using XSLT, to very
basic TEI XML. While this is a quick method of data entry
familiar to many projects, it only tends to work successfully
in non-collaborative projects where the consistency of the
application of formatting can be more easily controlled as any
inconsistencies can lead to signifi cant manual correction of the
generated XML.
Another of the issues I was interested in exploring in
this edition was the use of stand-off markup to create
interoperable secondary resources and how this might effect
the nature of scholarly editing. While I could have stored much
of this information I needed in the edition itself, I wanted to
experiment with storing it in external fi les and linking them
together by pointing into the digital objects. The motivation for
this comes from a desire to explore notions of interoperability
since stand-off markup methodology usually leaves the base
text untouched and stores additional information in separate
fi les. As greater numbers of good scholarly academic resources
increasingly become available in XML, the pointing into a
number of resources, and combining these together to form
an additional greater resource is becoming more common.
Stand-off markup was used here partly to experiment with the
idea of creating an interoperable fl exible resource, that is an
‘agile edition’. For example, an edition can be combined with
associated images, a glossary or word list, or other external
resources such as dictionaries. In the case of this edition, I
generated a word list (encoded using the TEI dictionaries
module) using XSLT. The word list included any distinct
orthographic variants in the edition. This was based on a ‘deepequals’
comparison which compared not only the spelling of
words, but all of their descendant elements, and thus captured
differences in abbreviation/expansion inside individual words.
The location of individual instances of orthographic variance
in the edition could easily have been stored along with the
entry in the word list. However, since part of the point was to
experiment with handling stand-off markup, I stored these in a third fi le whose only purpose was to record <link> elements
pointing both to an entry in the word list and every single
instance of this word in the edition. This linking was done using
automatically-generated xml:id attributes on each word and
word list entry. This enables a number of usability features.
The clicking on any individual word in the edition takes you
to its corresponding entry in the word list. From any entry in
the word list you can similarly get back to any other individual
instance of that word in the edition. Moreover the word list
entry also contains an optionally displayed concordance of
that word to allow easy comparison of its use in context.
In addition to using resources created by myself, it was a desired
aim of this investigation into stand-off markup to use external
resources. The most appropriate freely-available resource in
this case is the Middle English Dictionary (MED), created by
the University of Michigan. As this scholarly edition was being
created in my spare time, I did not want to exhaustively check
orthographic words in my edition against the MED and link
directly to the correct senses. While that is certainly possible,
and should be the recommended text-critical practice, it
would take a signifi cant amount of time and be prone to error.
Instead I desired to pass a regularised form of the word to the
MED headword search engine, and retrieve the results and
incorporate them dynamically into the display of the entry for
that word in the word list. However, this proved impossible
to do from the MED website because their output, despite
claiming to be XHTML, was not well-formed. Luckily, they
were willing to supply me with an underlying XML fi le which
provided not only headwords, but also their various different
orthographic forms and the MED id number to which I could
link directly. Thus, I was able to achieve the same effect as
transcluding the MED search results by reimplementing the
functionality of their search directly in my XSLT and thus
providing pre-generated links in each entry to possible
headwords in the MED. While successful for my resource, in
terms of true interoperability it is really a failure, one which
helps to highlight some of the problems encountered when
pointing into resources over which you have no control.
The proposed paper will describe the process of creation
of the edition, the benefi ts and drawbacks of using standoff
markup in this manner, its linking to external resources,
and how the same processes might be used in either legacy
data migration or the creation of new editions. One of the
concluding arguments of the paper is that the advent of new
technologies which make the longpromised ability for the
interoperability of resources that much easier, also encourages
(and is dependent upon) us making our own existing materials
accessible in a compatible manner.
Bibliography
Baker, Donald C., John L. Murphy, and Louis B. Hall, Jr. (eds)
Late Medieval Religious Plays of Bodleian MSS Digby 133 and E
Museo 160, EETS, 283 (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1982)
Eggert, Paul. ‘Text-encoding, theories of the text and the
“work-site”’. Literary and Linguistic Computing, (2005), 20:4,
425-435
Furnivall, F. J. (ed.) The Digby Plays, (New Shakespeare Society
Publications, 1882) Re-issued for EETS Extra Series LXX,
(London: EETS, 1896)
Robinson, P. ‘The one and the many text’, Literary and Linguistic
Computing, (2000), 15:1, 5-14.
Robinson, P. ‘Where We Are with Electronic Scholarly
Editions, and Where We Want to Be’, Jahrbuch für
Computerphilologie, 5 (2003), 123-143.
Robinson, P. ‘Current issues in making digital editions of
medieval texts or, do electronic scholarly editions have a
future?’, Digital Medievalist, (2005), 1:1, Retrieved 1 Nov. 2007
<http://www.digitalmedievalist.org/journal/1.1/robinson/>
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. Textual Criticism and the Text
Encoding Initiative. Annual Convention of the Modern
Language Association, 1994. reprinted in Finneran, R. J. (Ed.)
(1996) The Literary Text in the Digital Age. Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Press. 37-62
TEI Consortium, eds. TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text
Encoding and Interchange. Retrieved 1 Nov. 2007 <http://www.
tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/index.html>
Unsworth, J. Electronic Textual Editing and the TEI. Annual
Convention of the Modern Language Association, 2002.
Retrieved 1 Nov. 2007. <http://www3.isrl.uiuc.edu/
~unsworth/mla-cse.2002.html>.
Vanhoutte, E. ‘Prose fi ction and modern manuscripts:
limitations and possibilities of text-encoding for electronic
editions’. In J. Unsworth, K. O’Keefe, and L. Burnard (Eds).
Electronic Textual Editing. (New York: Modern Language
Association of America, 2006), p. 161-180.","txt","2","",""
"861","9","ENRICHing Manuscript Descriptions with TEI P5","1","ENRICH is a pan-European eContent+ project led by the
Czech National Library, starting 1 December 2007, which
is creating a base for the European digital library of cultural
heritage (manuscript, incunabula, early printed books, and
archival papers) by the integration of existing but scattered
electronic content within the Manuscriptorium digital library
through the use of the metadata enrichment and coordination
between heterogeneous metadata and data standards. The
consortium brings together critical mass of content, because
the project groups together the three richest owners of
digitized manuscripts among national libraries in Europe
(Czech Republic, Iceland and Serbia as associated partners);
ENRICH partner libraries possess almost 85% currently
digitized manuscripts in the national libraries in Europe, which
will be enhanced by substantial amount of data from university
libraries and other types of institutions in terms of several
hundreds of thousands of digitized pages plus hundreds of
thousands of pages digitized by the partners through the
European Library data collections. When the project has
fi nished the consortium will make available more than an
estimated 5,076,000 digitized pages.
ENRICH <http://enrich.manuscriptorium.com/> builds
upon the existing Manuscriptorium platform <http://www.
manuscriptorium.com/> and is adapting it to the needs of
those organizations holding repositories of manuscripts.
The principle of integration is centralisation of the metadata
(descriptive evidence records) within the Manuscriptorium
digital library and distribution of data (other connected
digital documents) among other resources within the virtual
net environment. That is, the metadata of the manuscript
descriptions is aggregated in a single place and format to assist
with searching these disparate repositories, but the images and
original metadata records remain with the resource-holding
institutions.
ENRICH target groups are content owners/holders, Libraries,
museums and archives, researchers & students, policy makers
and general interest users. The project allows them to search
and access documents which would otherwise be hardly
accessible by providing free access to almost all digitized
manuscripts in Europe. Besides images it also offers access
to TEI-structured historical full texts, research resources,
other types of illustrative data (audio and video fi les) or large
images of historical maps. The ENRICH consortium is closely
cooperating with TEL (The European Library) and will become
a component part of the European Digital Library when this
becomes reality.
Institutions involved in the ENRICH project include:
• National Library of Czech Republic (Czech Republic)
• Cross Czech a.s. (Czech Republic)
• AiP Beroun s r.o. (Czech Republic)
• Oxford University Computing Services (United Kingdom)
• Københavns Universitet - Nordisk Foskningsinstitut
(Denmark)
• Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze National Library
in Florence (Italy)
• Università degli Studi di Firenze - Centro per la
comunicazione e l integrazione dei media Media
Integration and Communicaiton Centre Firenze(Italy)
• Institute of mathematics and informatics (Lithuania)
• University Library Vilnius (Lithuania)
• SYSTRAN S.A. (France)
• University Library Wroclaw (Poland)
• Stofnun Árna Magnússonar í íslenskum fræðum (Iceland)
• Computer Science for the Humanities - Universität zu
Köln (Germany)
• St. Pölten Diocese Archive (Austria)
• The National and University Library of Iceland (Iceland)
• Biblioteca Nacional de Espana - The National Library of
Spain (Spain)
• The Budapest University of Technology and Economics
(Hungary)
• Poznan Supercomputing and Networking Center (Poland)
Manuscriptorium is currently searchable via OAI-PMH from
the TEL portal, this means that any ENRICH full or associated
partner automatically enriches the European Digital Library.
The main quality of ENRICH and Manuscriptorium is the
application of homogeneous and seamless access to widespread
resources including access to images from the distributed
environment under a single common interface. ENRICH
supports several levels of communication with remote digital
resources, ranging from OAI harvesting of partner libraries
to full integration of their resources into Manuscriptorium.
Furthermore, ENRICH has developed free tools to assist in
producing XML structured digitized historical documents, and
these are already available and ready to use. However, the
existing XML schema refl ects the results of the now-dated
EU MASTER project for TEI-based manuscript descriptions. It
also incorporates other modern content standards, especially
in the imaging area. It is this schema that is being updated to
refl ect the developments in manuscript description available
in TEI P5. The internal Manuscriptorium format is based on
METS containerization of the schema and related parallel
descriptions which enables a fl exible approach needed by the
disparate practices of researchers in this fi eld.
The Research Technology Services section of the Oxford
University Computing Services is leading the crucial workpackage
on the standardization of shared metadata. In addition
to a general introduction to the project it is the progress of
this work-package which the proposed paper will discuss. This
work-package is creating a formal TEI specifi cation, based on
the TEI P5 Guidelines, for the schema to be used to describe manuscripts managed within Manuscriptorium. The use of
this specifi cation enables automatic generation of reference
documentation in different languages and the creation of a
formal DTD or Schemas as well as formal DTD or Schemas. A
suite of tools is also being developed to convert automatically
existing sets of manuscript descriptions, where this is feasible,
and to provide simple methods of making them conformant
to the new standard where it is not. These tools are being
developed and validated against the large existing base of
adopters of the Master standard and will be distributed free
of charge by the TEI.
The proposed paper will report on the development and
validation of a TEI conformant specifi cation for the existing
Manuscriptorium schema using the TEI P5 specifi cation
language (ODD). This involved a detailed examination of the
current schema and documentation developed for the existing
Manuscriptorium repository and its replacement by a formal
TEI specifi cation. This specifi cation will continue to be further
enhanced in light of the needs identifi ed by project participants
and the wider MASTER community to form the basis of a new
schema and documentation suite. The paper will report on the
project’s production of translations for the documentation in
at least English, French, Czech, German, as well as schemas to
implement it both as DTD and RELAXNG. The production of
these schemas and the translated documentation are produced
automatically from the TEI ODD fi le.
A meeting of representatives from other European institutions
who have previously used the MASTER schema has been
organized where the differences in how they have used the
schema will have been explored, along with their current
practice for manuscript description. The aim is to validate both
the coverage of the new specifi cation and the feasibility and
ease of automatic conversion towards it. The outputs from this
activity will include a report on any signifi cant divergence of
practice amongst the sample data sets investigated. The ODD
specifi cation will continue to be revised as necessary based
on the knowledge gained from the consultation with other
MASTER users. This will help to create an enriched version of
the preliminary specifi cations produced. Finally, software tools
are being developed to assist in conversion of sets of records
produced for earlier MASTER specifi cations, and perhaps
some others, to the new TEI P5 conformant schema. These
tools are being tested against the collection of datasets gained
from the participants of the meeting with other MASTER
users, but also more widely within the TEI community. OUCS
is also preparing tutorial material and discussion papers on
the best practice to assist other institutions with migration
existing MASTER material to the new standard. In this subtask
ENRICH is cooperating with a broader TEI-managed effort
towards the creation of TEI P5 migration documentation and
resources.
An OAI-PMH harvester is being implemented and incorporated
into Manuscriptorium. The fi rst step is to ensure that OAI/
PMH metadata is available for harvesting from all the resources
managed within Manuscriptorium. Appropriate software tools
to perform this harvesting are also being developed. Eventually,
the internal environment of Manuscriptorium will be enhanced
through implementation of METS containerization of the
Manuscriptorium Scheme. This will involve an assessment
of the respective roles of the TEI Header for manuscript
description and of a METSconformant resource description
and will enable different kinds of access to the resources
within the Manuscriptorium. This will help to demonstrate for
others the interoperability of these two important standards,
and in particular where their facilities are complementary.
Improvement and generalization of Unicode treatment in
Manuscriptorium is the fi nal part of the OUCS-led work
package. As Manuscriptorium is basically an XML system, all the
data managed is necessarily represented in Unicode. This could
cause problems for materials using non-standard character
encodings, for example where manuscript descriptions
quote from ancient scripts and include glyphs not yet part of
Unicode. The TEI recommendations for the representation of
nonstandard scripts are being used within ENRICH project
which is producing a suite of non-standard character and glyph
descriptions appropriate to the project’s needs.
The proposed paper is intended as a report on the work
done in the conversion and rationalization of manuscript
metadata across a large number of archives with disparate
practices. While it will introduce the project to delegates
at Digital Humanities 2008, it will concentrate on reporting
the the problems and successes encountered in the course
of these aspects of project. Although the overall project will
not be fi nished by the time of the conference, the majority
of the work in developing a suite of conversion tools will be
complete by this time and the paper will focus on this work.
As such, although it will detail work done by the author, it will
rely on work by project partners who although not listed as
authors here will be briefl y acknowledged in the paper where
appropriate.","txt","2","",""
"862","9","Editio ex machina - Digital Scholarly Editions out of the Box","1","the most part, digital scholarly editions have been
historically grown constructs. In most cases, they are oriented
toward print editions, especially if they are retro-digitized. But
even “digital-born” editions often follow the same conventions
as printed books. A further problem is that editors start to
work on a scholarly edition without enough previous in-depth
analysis about how to structure information for electronic
research. In the course of editing and the collection of data, the
requirements and wishes of how the edited texts should be
presented frequently changes, especially when the editor does
not have a chance to “see” the edition before it is complete.
Usually all the data is collected, the text is edited and the last
step is to think about the different presentation formats.
One of the fi rst steps in the production of a digital scholarly
edition should be to analyze what kind of information might
be of interest to a broad audience, and how this should
be structured so that it can be searched and displayed
appropriately. The crucial point in the process of designing the
data structure should be that different scholars have different
intellectual requirements from resources. They are not always
happy with how editors organize scholarly editions.
Michael Sperberg-McQueen demanded in 1994, “Electronic
scholarly editions should be accessible to the broadest
audience possible.”[1] However, current scholarly editions are
produced for a certain audience with very specialized research
interests. The great potential of a digital scholarly edition is
that it can be designed fl exibly enough to meet the demands
of people with many different viewpoints and interests. So why
not let the audience make the decision as to which information
is relevant and which is not? Some information might be of
more interest, other information of less interest or could be
entirely ignorable.
Imagine a critical scholarly edition about medicine in ancient
Greece provided by editors with a philological background.
A philologist has different needs relating to this edition than,
e.g., a medical historian, who might not be able to read Greek
and might be only interested in reading about ancient medical
practices. Who knows what kinds of annotations within the
text are of interest for the recipients?
The digital world provides us with many possibilities to
improve scholarly editions, such as almost unlimited space to
give complete information, more fl exibility in organizing and
presenting information, querying information, instant feedback
and a range of other features.
We have to think about how we can use these benefi ts to
establish a (perhaps formalized) workfl ow to give scholars
the chance to validate their work while it is in progress and
to present their work in progress in an appropriate way for
discussion within a community. This would not just validate
the technical form of the work, but also improve the quality of
the content, often due to ongoing feedback, and improve the
intellectual benefi ts.
On the other hand, digital editions should be brought online
in an easy way without weeks of planning and months of
developing software that may fi t the basic needs of the editors
but in most cases is just re-inventing the wheel. If needed,
digitized images should be included easily and must be citeable.
As it might be about work in progress, all stages of work must
be saved and documented. Therefore, a versioning system is
needed that allows referencing of all work steps.
Finally, it is necessary that the scholar is able to check his or
her work viewed in various media by the click of a button - for
example, how the edition looks like on screen or printed, or
even with different layouts or website designs.
What is the potential of such a system? It offers an easy way
to present the current state of a work in progress. Scholars
can check their work at any time. But this is not useful without
modifi cations for the special needs of certain digital editions
and special navigation issues. Nevertheless, it can be used as
base system extensible by own scripts, which implement the
needs of a concrete project.
And last but not least, such a system should offer the possibility
of re-using data that is based on the same standard for other
projects. This is especially true for more formalized data, such
as biographical or bibliographical information, which could be
used across different projects that concern the same issue or
the same period.
This paper will give a practical example of what an architecture
that follows the aforementioned demands would look like.
This architecture gives scholars the possibility of producing
a scholarly edition using open standards. The texts can be
encoded directly in XML or using WYSIWYG-like methods,
such as possible with the oXygen XML editor or WORD XML
exports.
The “Scalable Architecture for Digital Editions” (SADE)
developed at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences
and Humanities is a modular and freely scalable system that
can be adapted by different projects that follow the guidelines
of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI)[2] or easily use other XML
standards as input formats. Using the TEI is more convenient,
as less work in the modifi cation of the existing XQuery and
XSLT scripts needs to be done. Scalability of SADE relates to the server side as well as to
the browser side. Browser-side scalability is equivalent to the
users’ needs or research interests. The user is able to arrange
the information output as he or she likes. Information can be
switched on or off. The technological base for this functionality
is AJAX or the so-called Web 2.0 technologies.
Server-side scalability is everything that has to do with
querying the database and transforming the query results into
HTML or PDF. As eXist[3], the database we use, is a native
XML database, the whole work can be done by XML-related
technologies such as XQuery and XSLT. These scripts can be
adapted with less effort to most projects’ needs.
For the connection between text and digitized facsimile, SADE
uses Digilib[4], an open-source software tool jointly developed
by the Max-Planck-Insitute for the History of Science, the
University of Bern and others. Digilib is not just a tool for
displaying images, but rather a tool that provides basic image
editing functions and the capability of marking certain points
in the image for citation. The versioning system at the moment
is still a work in progress, but will be available by conference
time.
Documents can be queried in several ways - on the one hand
with a standard full text search in texts written in Latin or
Greek letters, and on the other hand by using a more complex
interface to query structured elements, such as paragraphs,
names, places, the apparatus, etc. These query options are
provided by SADE. Furthermore, all XML documents are
available not rendered in raw XML format, and so can be
integrated in different projects rendered in a different way.
SADE could be the next step in improving the acceptance of
digital editions. Texts are accessible in several ways. The editor
decisions are transparent and comprehensible at every stage
of work, which is most important for the intellectual integrity
of a scholarly edition. The digitized facsimiles can be referenced
and therefore be discussed scientifi cally. The database back end
is easy to handle and easy to adapt to most projects’ needs.
A working example, which is work in progress and extended
continually, is the website of the “Corpus Medicorum
Graecorum / Latinorum”[5] long term academy project at the
Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities[6].
This website exemplifi es how a recipient can organize which
information is relevant for his or her information retrieval.
Other examples can be found at http://pom.bbaw.de.
References
[1] Cited in http://www.iath.virginia.edu/~jmu2m/mla-cse.2002.html
[2] http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml
[3] http://www.exist-db.org/
[4] http://digilib.berlios.de/
[5] http://pom.bbaw.de/cmg/
[6] http://www.bbaw.de/
Bibliography
Burnard, L.; Bauman, S. (ed.) (2007): TEI P5: Guidelines for
Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. <http://www.tei-c.org/
release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/index.html>
Buzzetti, Dino; McGann, Jerome (2005): Critical Editing in
a Digital Horizon. In: John Unsworth, Katharine O’Brien
O’Keeffe u. Lou Burnard (Hg.): Electronic Textual Editing. 37–50.
Czmiel, A.; Fritze, C.; Neumann, G. (2007): Mehr XML – Die
digitalen Projekte an der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie
der Wissenschaften. In: Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie -online,
101-125. <http://computerphilologie.tu-darmstadt.de/jg06/
czfrineu.html>
Dahlström, Mats (2004): How Reproductive is a Scholarly
Edition? In: Literary and Linguistic Computing 19/1, S. 17–33.
Robinson, Peter (2002): What is a Critical Digital Edition? In:
Variants – Journal of the European Society for Textual Scholarship
1, 43–62.
Shillingsburg, Peter L. (1996): Principles for Electronic
Archives, Scholarly Editions, and Tutorials. In: Richard Finneran
(ed.): The Literary Text in the Digital Age. 23–35.","txt","2","",""
"863","9","Talia: a Research and Publishing Environment for Philosophy Scholars","1","Introduction 
Talia is a distributed semantic digital library and publishing
system, which is specifi cally designed for the needs of the
scholarly research in the humanities. The system is designed
for the diverging needs of heterogeneous communities. It is
strictly based on Semantic Web technology1 and computational
ontologies for the organisation of knowledge and will help
the defi nition of a state-ofthe-art research and publishing
environment for the humanities in general and for philosophy
in particular.
Talia is developed within the Discovery project, which aims
at easing the work of philosophy scholars and researchers,
making a federation of distributed digital archives (nodes)
each of them dedicated to a specifi c philosopher: Pre-Socratic,
Diogenes Laertius, Leibniz, Nietzsche, Wittgenstein, Spinoza,
and others.
Use Case and Requirements
One of the use cases that Talia should satisfy is called
The Manuscripts Comparer.The archive contains digital
reproductions of handwritten manuscripts by one philosopher.
The scholar wants to browse them like books, navigating by
chapters and pages. The archive also contains transcriptions of
the different paragraphs, on which to click to see the correct
transcription.
Moreover, the scholar is interested in comparing different
versions of the same thought, placed by the philosopher in
different paragraphs of his works, so the scholar needs to fi nd
all those different versions. Finally, he/she can write his own
remarks on those paragraphs, so that they are published in the
archive, after a peer review process.
From this use case, we can devise some technical requirements
that drive the design of Talia:
1. Making metadata remotely available. The metadata content
of the archives shall be made available through interfaces
similar to those of URIQA2, which will allow automated
agents and clients to connect to a Talia node and ask
for metadata about a resource of interest to retrieve its
description and related metadata (e.g., the author, the
resource type, etc.). This type of services enable numerous
types of digital contents reuse.
2. Querying the system using standard query-languages. It shall
possible to directly query the distributed archives using the
SPARQL Semantic Web Query Language. SPARQL provides
a powerful and standard way to query RDF repositories but
also enables merging of remote datasets.
3. Transformation of encoded digital contents into RDF. The
semantic software layer shall provide tools to transform
textually encoded material, for example the transcription of
manuscripts in TEI3 format, into RDF.
4. Managing structural metadata. “Structural” metadata
describes the structure of a document (e.g., its format, its
publisher, etc.). It shall be necessary to provide tools to
manage these kinds of metadata.
5. Import and exporting RDF data. It shall be important to
include facilities in Talia to import and export RDF data
with standard and well know formats like RDF/XML and
N-Triples.
Talia should also provide facilities to enrich the content of the
archives with metadata, whose types and formats depend on
the kind of source and on the user community which works on
the data. For example, in some archives, different versions of
the same paragraph may exist in different documents. In order
to allow the users to follow the evolution of that particular
philosophical thought, the relations among these different
versions must be captured by the system.
An Overview of the Talia System
Talia is a distributed semantic digital library system which
combines the features of digital archives management with an
on-line peer-review system.
The Talia platform stores digital objects, called sources, which
are identifi ed by their unique and stable URI. Each source
represents either a work of a philosopher or a fragment of it
(e.g., a paragraph), and can have one or more data fi les (e.g.,
images or textual documents) connected to it.The system
also stores information about the sources, which can never be
removed once published and are maintained in a fi xed state.
Combined with other long-term preservation techniques, Talia
allows the scholars to reference their works and gives the
research community immediate access to new content. The most innovative aspect of Talia is that for the fi rst time,
at least in the fi eld of humanities, all the interfaces exposed
publicly will be based on proven Semantic Web standards
enabling data interoperability within the Talia federation, and
eases the data interchange with other systems. Two additional
features of Talia are the highly customisable Graphic User
Interface (GUI) and the dynamic contextualisation.
Figure 1: An Example of the Talia User Interface.
The web interface framework, based on modular elements
called widgets, allows to build GUIs according to requirements
coming from heterogeneous communities. Widgets can be
packaged independently and used as building blocks for
the application’s user interface. In particular, Talia provides
semantic widgets that interact with an RDF Knowledge Base.
To customise the site’s appearance, it also would be possible
to add custom HTML rendering templates. Figure 1 shows a
screenshot of a Talia’s GUI.
The dynamic contextualisation provides a means for data
exchange among different and distributed digital libraries
based on the Talia framework. The dynamic contextualisation
allows a Talia library (node) to share parts of its RDF graph in
a peer-to-peer network. By using this mechanism, a node may
notify another node that a semantic link between them exists,
and the other node may use this information to update its
own RDF graph and create a bidirectional connection.
Talia uses computational ontologies and Semantic Web
technology to help the creation of a state-of-the-art research
and publishing environment. Talia will provide an innovative
and adaptable system to enable and ease data interoperability
and new paradigms for information enrichment, dataretrieval,
and navigation.
Computational Ontologies
Ontologies have become popular in computer science as a
means for the organisation of information. This connotation of
ontology differs from the traditional use and meaning it has in
philosophy, where ontologies are considered as A system of
categories accounting for a certain vision of the world [2]
In computer science, the concept of (computational) ontology
evolved from the one fi rst provided by Gruber [3], who
defi ned an ontology as a specifi cation of a conceptualisation4
to a more precise one, extracted from Guarino’s defi nitions
[4]: A computational ontology is A formal, partial specifi cation
of a shared conceptualisation of a world (domain).
Intuitively, a computational ontology is a set of assumptions
that defi ne the structure of a given domain of interest (e.g.,
philosophy), allowing different people to use the same concepts
to describe that domain. Talia will use computational ontologies
to organise information about writings of a philosopher or
documents (manuscripts, essays, theses, and so on) of authors
concerning that philosopher.
Related Work
Talia is directly related to the Hyper Platform which was used
for the HyperNietzsche archive [1], a specialised solution,
designed for specifi c needs of the Nietzsche communities.
HyperNietzsche has a fi xed graphical user interface, it does
not use Semantic Web technology and it is not adaptable for
different communities with heterogeneous needs.
Talia shares some properties with other semantic digital
library systems like JeromeDL [5], BRICKS [6], and Fedora
[7]. However, these projects are mostly focused on the backend
technology and none of them offers a fl exible and highly
customisable research and publishing system like Talia.
Conclusion and Future Work
Talia is a novel semantic digital web library system, which aims
to improve scholarly research in the humanities, in particular
in the fi eld of philosophy. Thanks to the use of Semantic Web
technology, Talia represents a very adaptable state-of-the art
research and publishing system.
The ontologies used in Talia are currently being developed by
Discovery’s content partners, who are in charge of organising
their contributions. These ontologies will be part of the fi nal
core Talia application. At the moment, only a fi rst public demo
version is available5.
Although Talia is currently intended only for philosophy scholars,
it should be straightforward to adopt it for humanities, with
the help of suitably developed ontologies. Using dynamic Ruby
as programming language and the RubyOnRails framework,
Talia provides an ideal framework for the rapid development
of customised semantic digital libraries for the humanities.
Acknowledgements
This work has been supported by Discovery, an ECP 2005 CULT
038206 project under the EC eContentplus programme.
We thank Daniel Hahn and Michele Barbera for the fruitful
contributions to this paper. Notes
1 http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/
2 http://sw.nokia.com/uriqa/URIQA.html
3 http://www.tei-c.org/
4 A more up-to-date defi nition and additional readings can be found
at http://tomgruber.org/writing/ontologydefi nition-2007.htm
5 http://demo.talia.discovery-project.eu
References
[1] D’Iorio, P.: Nietzsche on new paths: The Hypernietzsche
project and open scholarship on the web. In Fornari, C.,
Franzese, S., eds.: Friedrich Nietzsche. Edizioni e interpretazioni.
Edizioni ETS, Pisa (2007)
[2] Calvanese, D., Guarino, N.: Ontologies and Description
Logics. Intelligenza Artifi ciale - The Journal of the Italian
Association for Artifi cial Intelligence, 3(1/2) (2006)
[3] Gruber, T.R.: A translation approach to portable ontology
specifi cations. Knowledge Acquisition 5(2) (1993) 199-220
[4] Guarino, N.: Formal Ontology and Information Systems.
In Guarino, N., ed.: 1st International Conference on Formal
Ontologies in Information Systems, IOS Press (1998) 3-15
[5] Kurk S., Woroniecki T., Gzella A., Dabrowski M. McDaniel
B.: Anatomy of a social semantic library. In: European Semantic
Web Conference. Volume Semantic Digital Library Tutorial. (2007).
[6] Risse T., Knezevic P., Meghini C., Hecht R., Basile F.:
The bricks infrastructure an overview. In: The International
Conference EVA, Moscow, 2005.
[7] Fedora Development Team: Fedora Open Source
Repository software. White Paper.","txt","2","",""
"864","9","Bootstrapping Classical Greek Morphology","1","In this paper we report on an incremental approach to
automated tagging of Greek morphology using a range of
already existing tools and data. We describe how we engineered
a system that combines the many freely available resources
into a useful whole for the purpose of building a searchable
database of morphologically tagged classical Greek.
The current state of the art in electronic tools for classical Greek
morphology is represented by Morpheus, the morphological
analyzer developed by Gregory Crane (Crane 1991). It
provides all possible parses for a given surface form, and the
lemmas from which these are derived. The rich morphology of
Greek, however, results in multiple parses for more than 50%
of the words (http://grade-devel.uchicago.edu/morphstats.
html). There are fully tagged corpora available for pre-classical
Greek (early Greek epic, developed for the ‘Chicago Homer’,
http://www.library.northwestern.edu/homer/) and for New
Testament Greek, but not for the classical period.
Disambiguating more than half of our 3 million-word corpus
by hand is not feasible, so we turned to other methods. The
central element of our approach has been Helmut Schmid’s
TreeTagger (Schmid 1994, 1995). TreeTagger is a Markovmodel
based morphological tagger that has been successfully
applied to a wide variety of languages. Given training data of
20,000 words and a lexicon of 350,000 words, TreeTagger
achieved accuracy on a German news corpus of 97.5%. When
TreeTagger encounters a form, it will look it up in three places:
fi rst, it has a lexicon of known forms and their tags. Second,
it builds from that lexicon a suffi x and prefi x lexicon that
attempts to serve as a a morphology of the language, so as
to parse unknown words. In the absence of a known form
or recognizable suffi x or prefi x, or when there are multiple
ambiguous parses, it will estimate the tag probabilistically,
based on the tags of the previous n (typically two) words;
this stochastic model of syntax is stored as a decision tree
extracted from the tagged training data.
Since classical Greek presents, prima facie, more of a challenge
than German, given that it has a richer morphology, and is
a non-projective language with a complex syntax, we were
initially unsure whether a Markov model would be capable of
performing on Greek to any degree of accuracy. A particular
complicating factor for Greek is the very large tagset: our full
lexicon contains more than 1,400 tags, making it diffi cult for
TreeTagger to build a decision tree from small datasets. Czech (Hajič 1998) is comparable in the number of tags, but has
lower rates of non-projectivity (compare Bamman and Crane
2006:72 on Latin).
Thus, for a fi rst experiment, we built a comprehensive lexicon
consisting of all surface forms occurring in Homer and Hesiod
annotated with the parses occurring in the hand-disambiguated
corpus--a subset of all grammatically possible parses--so that
TreeTagger only had about 740 different possible tags to
consider. Given this comprehensive lexicon and the Iliad and
Odyssey as training data (200,000 words), we achieved 96.6%
accuracy for Hesiod and the Homeric Hymns (see http://
grade-devel.uchicago.edu/tagging.html).
The experiment established that a trigram Markov model was
in fact capable of modeling Greek grammar remarkably well.
The good results can be attributed in part to the formulaic
nature of epic poetry and the large size of the training data,
but they established the excellent potential of TreeTagger
for Greek. This high degree of accuracy compares well with
state-of-the-art taggers for such disparate languages as Arabic,
Korean, and Czech (Smith et al., 2005).
Unfortunately, the Homeric data form a corpus that is of little
use for classical Greek. In order to start analyzing classical
Greek, we therefore used a hand-tagged Greek New Testament
as our training data (160,000 words). New Testament Greek
postdates the classical period by some four hundred years,
and, not surprisingly, our initial accuracy on a 2,000 word
sample of Lysias (4th century BCE oratory) was only 84% for
morphological tagging, and performance on lemmas was weak.
Computational linguists are familiar with the statistic that
turning to out-of-domain data results in a ten percent loss of
accuracy, so this result was not entirely unexpected.
At this point one could have decided to hand-tag an
appropriate classical corpus and discard the out-of-domain
data. Instead, we decided to integrate the output of Morpheus,
thereby drastically raising the number of recognized forms
and possible parses. While we had found that Morpheus alone
produced too many ambiguous results to be practical as a
parser, as a lexical resource for TreeTagger it is exemplary.
TreeTagger’s accuracy on the Lysias sample rose to 88%, with
much improved recognition of lemmas. Certain common Attic
constructs, unfortunately, were missed wholesale, but the
decision tree from the New Testament demonstrated a grasp
of the fundamentals.
While we are also working on improving accuracy by further
refi ning the tagging system, so far we have seen the most
prospects for improvement in augmenting our New Testament
data with samples from classical Greek: When trained on our
Lysias sample alone, TreeTagger performed at 96.8% accuracy
when tested on that same text, but only performed at 88% on
a new sample. In other words, 2,000 words of in-domain data
performed no better or worse than 150,000 words of Biblical
Greek combined with the Morpheus lexicon. We next used a
combined training set of the tagged New Testament and the
hand-tagged Lysias sample. In this case, the TreeTagger was
capable of augmenting the basic decision tree it had already
extracted from the NT alone with Attic-specifi c constructions.
Ironically, this system only performed at 96.2% when turned
back on the training data, but achieved 91% accuracy on the new
sample (http://grade-devel.uchicago.edu/Lys2.html for results
on the second sample). This is a substantial improvement given
the addition of only 2,000 words of text, or less than 2% of
the total training corpus. In the longer term, we aim at handdisambiguating
40,000 words, double that of Schmid (1995),
but comparable to Smith et al. (2005).
We conclude that automated tagging of classical Greek to
a high level of accuracy can be achieved with quite limited
human effort toward hand-disambiguation of in-domain data,
thanks to the possibility of combining existing morphological
data and machine learning, which together bootstrap a highly
accurate morphological analysis. In our presentation we will
report on our various approaches to improving these results
still further, such as using a 6th order Markov model, enhancing
the grammatical specifi city of the tagset, and the results of
several more iterations of our bootstrap procedure.
References
Bamman, David, and Gregory Crane (2006). The design
and use of a Latin dependency treebank. In J. Hajič and J.
Nivre (eds.), Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on
Treebanks and Linguistic Theories (TLT) 2006, pp. 67-78. http://
ufal.mff.cuni.cz/tlt2006/pdf/110.pdf
Crane, Gregory (1991). Generating and parsing classical
Greek. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 6(4): 243-245, 1991.
Hajič, Jan (1998). Building a syntactically annotated corpus:
The Prague Dependency Treebank. In Eva Hajičova (ed.),
Issues of Valency and Meaning, pp. 106-132.
Schmid, Helmut (1994). Probabilistic part-of-speech tagging
using decision trees. In International Conference on New
Methods in Language Processing, pp. 44-49. http://www.ims.unistuttgart.
de/ftp/pub/corpora/tree-tagger1.pdf
Schmid, Helmut (1995). Improvements in part-of-speech
tagging with an application to German. In Proceedings of the
ACL SIGDAT-Workshop. http://www.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/ftp/
pub/corpora/tree-tagger2.pdf
Smith, Noah A., David A. Smith, and Roy W. Tromble (2005).
Context-based morphological disambiguation with random
fi elds. In Proceedings of Human Language Technology Conference
and Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language
Processing, pp. 475-482. http://www.cs.jhu.edu/~dasmith/sst_
emnlp_2005.pdf","txt","2","",""
"865","9","Mining Classical Greek Gender","1","This paper examines gendered language in classical Greek
drama. Recent years have seen the emergence of data mining in
the Humanities, and questions of gender have been asked from
the start. Work by Argamon and others has studied gender in
English, both for the gender of authors of texts (Koppel et al.
2002, Argamon et al. 2003) and for that of characters in texts
(Hota et al. 2006, 2007 on Shakespeare); Argamon et al. (in
prep. a) study gender as a variable in Alexander Street Press’s
Black Drama corpus (gender of authors and characters) and
(in prep. b) in French literature (gender of authors).
Surprisingly, some of the main fi ndings of these studies show
signifi cant overlap: Female authors and characters use more
personal pronouns and negations than males; male authors
and characters use more determiners and quantifi ers. Not
only, then, do dramatic characters in Shakespeare and modern
drama, like male and female authors, prove susceptible to
automated analysis, but the feature sets that separate male
from female characters show remarkable continuity with
those that separate male from female authors.
For a scholar of Greek, this overlap between actual people
and dramatic characters holds great promise. Since there
are barely any extant Greek texts written by women, these
results for English give us some hope that the corpus of Greek
drama may serve as evidence for women’s language in classical
Greek.
After all, if the results for English-language literature showed
signifi cant differences between male and female characters,
but no parallels with the differences found between male
and female authors, we would be left with a study of gender
characterization by dramatists with no known relation to the
language of actual women. This is certainly of interest from a
literary and stylistic point of view, but from a linguistic point
of view, the English data hold out the promise that what we
learn from Greek tragedy will tell us about gendered use of
Greek language more generally, which is arguably a question
of larger import, and one we have practically no other means
of learning about.
There is some contemporary evidence to suggest that Greek
males considered the portrayal of women on stage to be true
to life. Plato’s Socrates advises in the Republic against actors
portraying women. Imitation must lead to some aspects of
these inferior beings rubbing off on the (exclusively male) actors
(Republic 3.394-395). Aristophanes, the comic playwright, has
Euripides boast (Frogs 949f.) that he made tragedy democratic,
allowing a voice to women and slaves alongside men.
Gender, of course, also continues to fascinate modern readers
of these plays. For instance, Griffi th (1999: 51) writes, on
Antigone: “Gender lies at the root of the problems of Antigone.
(...) Sophocles has created one of the most impressive female
fi gures ever to walk the stage.” Yet there are no full-scale
studies of the linguistic characteristics of female speech on
the Greek stage (pace McClure 1999).
In this paper, we report our results on data mining for gender
in Greek drama. We started with the speakers in four plays of
Sophocles (Ajax, Antigone, Electra, and Trachiniae), for a total of
thirty characters, in order to test, fi rst of all, whether a small,
non-lemmatized Greek drama corpus would yield any results
at all. We amalgamated the text of all characters by hand into
individual fi les per speaker and analyzed the resulting corpus
with PhiloMine, the data mining extension to PhiloLogic (http://
philologic.uchicago.edu/philomine).
In this initial experiment, words were not lemmatized, and
only occurrences of individual words, not bigrams or trigrams,
were used. In spite of the modest size, results have been
positive. The small corpus typically resulted in results of
“100% correct” classifi cation on different tasks, which is to
be expected as a result of overfi tting to the small amount of
data. More signifi cantly, results on cross-validation were in the
80% range, whereas results on random falsifi cation stayed near
50%. We were aware of other work on small corpora (Yu 2007
on Dickinson), but were heartened by these positive results
with PhiloMine, which had so far been used on much larger
collections.
In our presentation, we will examine two questions in more
depth, and on the basis of a larger corpus.
First, there is the overlap found between work on English and
French. Argamon et al. (2007) laid down the gauntlet:
“The strong agreement between the analyses is all the more
remarkable for the very different texts involved in these two
studies. Argamon et al. (2003) analyzed 604 documents from
the BNC spanning an array of fi ction and non-fi ction categories
from a variety of types of works, all in Modern British English
(post-1960), whereas the current study looks at longer,
predominantly fi ctional French works from the 12th - 20th
centuries. This cross-linguistic similarity could be supported
with further research in additional languages.”
So do we fi nd the same tendencies in Greek, and if so, are
we dealing with human, or ‘Western’ cultural, universals?
Our initial results were mixed. When we ran a multinomial
Bayes (MNB) analysis on a balanced sample, we did indeed see
some negations show up as markers for female characters (3
negations in a top 50 of ‘female’ features; none in the male top 50), but pronouns and determiners show up in feature sets
for both the female and male corpus. An emphatic form of the
pronoun ‘you’ turned up as the most strongly male feature in
this same analysis, and two more personal pronouns showed
up in the male top ten, as against only one in the female top
ten. Lexical items, on the other hand, were more intuitively
distributed. Words such as ‘army’, ‘man’, ‘corpse’ and ‘weapons’
show up prominently on the male list; two past tense forms of
‘die’ show up in the female top ten. A larger corpus will allow
us to report more fully on the distribution of function words
and content words, and on how selections for frequency
infl uence classifi er results.
Secondly, after expanding our corpus, regardless of whether we
fi nd similar general results for Greek as for English and French,
we will also be able to report on variation among the three
tragedians, and give more fi ne-grained analysis. For instance,
in our initial sample, we categorized gods and choruses as
male or female along with the other characters (there are
usually indications in the text as to the gender of the chorus
in a given play, say ‘sailors’, ‘male elders’, ‘women of Trachis’).
Given the formal requirements of the genre, we expect that it
will be trivial to classify characters as ‘chorus’ vs. ‘non-chorus’,
but it will be interesting to see whether gender distinctions
hold up within the group of choruses, and to what extent
divinities conform to gender roles. The goddess Athena was
the character most often mis-classifi ed in our initial sample;
perhaps this phenomenon will be more widespread in the full
corpus. Such a fi nding would suggest (if not for the fi rst time,
of course) that authority and gender intersect in important
ways, even as early as the ancient Greeks’ conceptions of their
gods.
In conclusion, we hope to demonstrate that data mining
Greek drama brings new insights, despite the small size of the
corpus and the intense scrutiny that it has already seen over
the centuries. A quantitative study of this sort has value in its
own right, but can also be a springboard for close readings
of individual passages and form the foundation for a fuller
linguistic and literary analysis.
References
Argamon, S., M. Koppel, J. Fine, A. Shimoni 2003. “Gender,
Genre, and Writing Style in Formal Written Texts”, Text 23(3).
Argamon, S., C. Cooney, R. Horton, M. Olsen, S. Stein (in prep.
a). “Gender, Race and Nationality in Black Drama.”
Argamon, S., J.-B. Goulain, R. Horton, M. Olsen (in prep. b).
“Vive la Différence! Text Mining Gender Difference in French
Literature.”
Griffi th, M. (ed.), 1999. Sophocles: Antigone.
Hota, S., S. Argamon, M. Koppel, and I. Zigdon, 2006.
“Performing Gender: Automatic Stylistic Analysis of
Shakespeare’s Characters.” Digital Humanities Abstracts
2006.
Hota, S., S. Argamon, R. Chung 2007. “Understanding the
Linguistic Construction of Gender in Shakespeare via Text
Mining.” Digital Humanities Abstract 2007.
Koppel, M., S. Argamon, A. Shimoni 2002. “Automatically
Categorizing Written Texts by Author Gender”, Literary and
Linguistic Computing 17:4 (2002): 401-12.
McClure, L., 1999. Spoken Like a Woman: Speech and Gender in
Athenian Drama.
Yu, B. 2007. An Evaluation of Text-Classifi cation Methods for
Literary Study. Diss. UIUC.","txt","2","",""
"866","9","Information visualization and text mining: application to a corpus on posthumanism","1","The world we live in generates so much data that the very
structure of our societies has been transformed as a result.
The way we produce, manage and treat information is changing;
and the way we present this information and make it available
raises numerous questions. Is it possible to give information
an intuitive form, one that will enable understanding and
memory? Can we give data a form better suited to human
cognition? How can information display enhance the utility,
interest and necessary features of data, while aiding memories
to take hold of it? This article will explore the relevance
of extracting and visualizing data within a corpus of text
documents revolving around the theme of posthumanism.
When a large quantity of data must be represented, visualizing
the information implies a process of synthesis, which can be
assisted by techniques of automated text document analysis.
Analysis of the text documents is followed by a process of
visualization and abstraction, which allows a global visual
metaphoric representation of information. In this article, we
will discuss techniques of data mining and the process involved
in creating a prototype information-cartography software; and
suggest how information-cartography allows a more intuitive
exploration of the main themes of a textual corpus and
contributes to information visualization enhancement.
Introduction
Human civilization is now confronted with the problem of
information overload. How can we absorb an ever-increasing
quantity of information? How can we both comprehend it and
fi lter it according to our cognitive tools (which have adapted
to understand general forms and structures but struggle with
sequential and cumulative data)? How can we mine the riches
that are buried in information? How can we extract the useful,
necessary, and essential pieces of information from huge
collections of data?
Most importantly, how can we guarantee the literal survival of
memory? For why should we remember when an uncountable
number of machines remember for us? And how can we
remember when machines won’t allow us to forget? Human
memory has endured through time precisely because it is
unaware of the greater part of the signals the brain receives
(our senses gather over 11 million pieces of information per
second, of which the brain is only aware of a maximum of 40
(Philipps, 2006, p.32)). Memory exists because it can forget.
Is an electronic archive a memory? We must rethink the way
that we produce and handle information. Can we give it a more
intuitive form that would better lend itself to retention and
understanding? Can we better adapt it to human cognition?
How can we extrapolate narratives from databases? How
can we insert our memories into this machine memory? The
answer is simple: by visualizing it.
For the past few years, the technical aspect of information
representation and visualization has been the subject of active
research which is gaining more and more attention (Card et
al., 1999; Chen, 1999; Don et al., 2007; Geroimenko and Chen,
2005; Perer and Shneiderman, 2006; Spence, 2007). Despite
the richness of the work that has been done, there is still a
glaring lack of projects related to textual analyses, specifi cally of
literary or theoretical texts, which have successfully integrated
advances in the fi eld of information visualization.
Objectives
Our project is part of this visual analytical effort. How can
we visually represent posthumanism? How can we produce an
image of its questions and challenges? How can we transform
the enormous quantity of associated information the concept
carries into something intuitive? We believe that the creation
of a thematic map is part of the solution. Why a map? Because
the information-driving suffocation we experience is also
our inability to create cognitive maps (as Fredric Jameson
suggested). And so we challenged ourselves to create a map
of posthumanism, one that could be read and understood
intuitively.
To do this, we have chosen to use Google Earth (GE) as
the basic interface for the project. GE’s interface is naturally
intuitive. It corresponds to our collective imagination and it also
allows users to choose the density of information they desire.
GE allows the user to “dive” into the planet’s geographical,
political, and social layers, or to stay on higher, more general
levels. GE “tells” the story of our way of seeing the world. GE
shows us the world the way science describes it and political
maps draw it.
This leads us to confront three primary challenges: the fi rst
was to fi nd an area to represent posthumanism. The second
was to give this area a visual form. The third was to integrate,
in an intuitive way, the signifi cant number of data and texts on
the subject. Methodology
In order to successfully create this thematic map, we fi rst
compiled a signifi cant number of texts about posthumanism.
The methodology used to treat the corpus was inspired by
previous work in the fi eld of text mining (Forest, 2006; Ibekwe-
Sanjuan, 2007; Weiss et al., 2005). The goal of the analysis is to
facilitate the extraction and organization of thematic groups.
Non-supervised clustering technique is used in order to
produce a synthetic view of the thematic area of the subject
being treated. The data is processed in four main steps:
1. Segmentation of the documents, lexical extraction and fi ltering
2. Text transformation using vector space model
3. Segment classifi cation
4. Information visualization
Having established and sorted a sizeable informationpopulation,
a new continent was needed. The continental
outline of Antarctica was adopted. Antarctica was chosen
because its contours are relatively unknown and generally
unrecognizable; it tends to be thought of more as a white sliver
at the bottom of the world map than a real place. Politically
neutral Antarctica, whose shape is curiously similar to that of
the human brain, is a large area surrounded by oceans. These
qualities made it symbolically ideal for utilization in a map of
posthumanism, a New World of the 21st century.
Antarctica also allowed us to avoid information overload typical
of a populated area: it carries minimal associative memories
and historic bias; few people have lived there. To differentiate
our new continent, the contour of Antarctica was moved into
the mid Pacifi c. The continent was then reskinned visually with
terrain suggestive of neurology, cybernetics, and symbiosis. The
end result was a new land mass free of memories ready for an
abstract population.
Visualizing the results
After identifying the thematic structure of the corpus, themes
are converted into regions. Themes are assigned portions of
the continent proportional to their occurrence. Inside each
major region are 2 added levels of analysis: sub-regions and subsub-
regions, each represented by several keywords. Keywords
correspond to clusters discovered during the automated text
analysis. So it is possible to burrow physically downward into
the subject with greater and greater accuracy; or to rest at an
attitude above the subject and consider the overall ‘terrain’.
Each area is associated with a category of documents. From
each area it is possible to consult the documents associated
with each region.
Figure 1. A general level of the visualized thematic map
The system offers users a certain number of areas, based on
the algorithms used to process the data. These areas represent
themes. Clicking on the brain icons allows the user to read an
excerpt from one of the texts that is part of the cluster.
Figure2. A specifi c level of the thematic map
When the user zooms in on a region, the application shows
the next level in the hierarchy of data visualization. Within one
theme (as shown below) several sub-themes appear (in red).
A greater number of excerpts is available for the same area. Figure 3. Looking at a document from the thematic map
The icons indicating the availability of texts may be clicked on
at any time, allowing the user to read the excerpt in a small
pop-up window, which includes a link to the whole article. This
pop-up window can serve to show pertinent images or other
hyperlinks.
Figure 4. 3-dimensional rendering of the thematic map
At any time, the user can rotate the point of view or change its
vertical orientation. This puts the camera closer to the ground
and allows the user to see a three dimensional landscape.
Conclusion
We see the visualization of data, textual or otherwise, as part
of a fundamental challenge: how to transform information into
knowledge and understanding. It is apparent that the signifi cant
amount of data produced by research in both science and the
humanities is often much too great for any one individual.
This overload of information sometimes leads to social
disinvestment as the data eventually cancel each other out.
We think that giving these data an intuitive form will make
their meaning more understandable and provide for their
penetration into the collective consciousness. Posthumanism
seems particularly well adapted to pioneer this system because
it questions the very defi nition of what it is to be human.
References
Alpaydin, E. (2004). Introduction to machine learning. Cambridge
(Mass.): MIT Press.
Aubert, N. (2004). “Que sommes-nous devenus?” Sciences
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Card, S. K., Mackinlay, J. and Shneiderman, B. (1999). Readings
in information visualization: using vision to think. Morgan
Kaufmann.
Chen, C. (1999). Information visualisation and virtual
environments. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Clement, T., Auvil, L., Plaisant, C., Pape, G. et Goren, V. (2007).
“Something that is interesting is interesting them: using text
mining and visualizations to aid interpreting repetition in
Gertrude Steins The Making of Americans.” Digital Humanities
2007. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, June 2007.
Don, A., Zheleva, E., Gregory, M., Tarkan, S., Auvil, L., Clement,
T., Shneiderman, B. and Plaisant, C. (2007). Discovering
interesting usage patterns in text collections: integrating text
mining with visualization. Rapport technique HCIL-2007-08,
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Garreau, J. (2005). Radical Evolution. New York: Doubleday.
Geroimenko, V. and Chen, C. (2005). Visualizing the semantic
web: XML-based Internet and information visualization. New
York: Springer-Verlag.
Forest, D. (2006). Application de techniques de forage de
textes de nature prédictive et exploratoire à des fi ns de gestion
et d’analyse thématique de documents textuels non structurés.
Thèse de doctorat, Montréal, Université du Québec à
Montréal.
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Levy, S. (1992). Artifi cial life. New York: Vintage Books, Random
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Manning, C. D. and H. Schütze. (1999). Foundations of statistical
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Perer, A. and Shneiderman, B. (2006). “Balancing systematic
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on Visualization and Computer Graphics. Vol. 12, no 5, pp. 693-
700.
Philips, H. (2006). “Everyday fairytales.” New Scientist, 7-13
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Plaisant, C., Rose, J., Auvil, L., Yu, B., Kirschenbaum, M., Nell
Smith, M., Clement, T. and Lord, G. (2006). “Exploring erotics
in Emily Dickinson’s correspondence with text mining and
visual interfaces.” Joint conference on digital libraries 2006.
Chapel Hill, NC, June 2006.
Ruecker, S. 2006. “Experimental interfaces involving visual
grouping during browsing.” Partnership: the Canadian journal
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1-14.
Salton, G. (1989). Automatic Text Processing. Reading (Mass.):
Addison-Wesley.
Spence, R. (2007). Information visualization: design for interaction.
Prentice Hall.
Tattersall, I. (2006). “How we came to be human.” Scientifi c
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Unsworth, J. (2005). New methods for humanities research.
The 2005 Lyman award lecture, National Humanities Center,
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Unsworth, J. (2004). “Forms of attention: digital humanities
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21 November 2004.
Weiss, S. M., Indurkhya, N., Zhang, T. and Damereau, F. J.
(2005). Text mining. Predictive methods for analyzing unstructured
information. Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag.","txt","2","",""
"867","9","How Rhythmical is Hexameter: A Statistical Approach to Ancient Epic Poetry","1","In this paper, I argue that the later a given specimen of hexamater
is, the less rhythmical it tends to be. A brief discussion of
the background of ancient Greek and Latin metrics and its
connections to orality is followed by an account of spectral
density analysis as my chosen method. I then go on to comment
on the experimental data obtained by representing several
samples of ancient poetry as coded sequences of binary values.
In the last section, I suggest how spectral density analysis may
help to account for other features of ancient meter.
The ancient epic poems, especially the most archaic Greek
poetry attributed to Homer, are usually referred as an
extraordinary fact in the history of European literature. For
present-day readers educated in a culture of writing, it seems
unbelievable that such a large body of poetry should have
been composed in a culture based on oral transmission. In
fact, despite of genuine singers’ and audience’s memory, epic
poems did not emerge at once as fi xed texts, but they were
re-composed in each performance (Lord 2000, Foley 1993,
Nagy 1996). The surviving ancient epic poetry displays some
features that refl ect archaic techniques of oral composition,
formulaic structure being probably the most characteristic
(Parry 1971: 37-117).
Since formulaic diction prefers some fi xed rhythmical patterns
(Parry 1971: 8-21), we can ask some questions about the role
of both versifi cation and rhythm in oral composition. Why was
all of ancient epic poetry, both Greek and Latin, composed
in one particular type of meter called hexameter? Does the
choice of meter infl uence the rhythmicity of a text? Why does
hexameter, in spite of its relatively restricted possibilities of
shaping rhythm, differ so much from one writer to another
some (cf. Duckworth 1969: 37-87)? And, last but not least,
what possible reasons are there for those wide differences
between particular authors?
It is commonly known that poetry is in general easier to
memorize than prose, because rhythm itself tends to facilitate
memorization. In a culture without writing, memorization is
crucial, and much depends on the quality of oral transmission.
In epic poems from an oral culture rhythm is thus likely to
be particularly important for both singers and hearers, even
though they need not consciously perceive poetic texts as
rhythmical to benefi t from rhythm as an aid to memory. It may then be expected on theoretical grounds that non-oral
poems, such as the Latin epic poetry or the Greek hexameter
of the Alexandrian age, will be largely non-rhythmical, or at
least display weaker rhythm effects than the archaic poems
of Homer and Hesiod. Although formulaic diction and other
techniques of oral composition are noticeable mostly in
Homer’s epics (Parry 1971, Lord 2000, Foley 1993, etc.), the
later hexameters, both Greek and Latin, also display some
features of oral diction (Parry 1971: 24-36). The metrical
structure of hexameter might be quite similar: strongly
rhythmical in the oldest (or rather, the most archaic) epic
poems, and less conspicuous in poems composed in written
form a few centuries after Homer. The aim of the present
study is to test the hypothesis that the later a given specimen
of hexameter is, the less rhythmical it tends to be.
Because of its nature versifi cation easily lends itself to statistical
analysis. A great deal of work has already been done in this
fi eld, including studies of Greek and Latin hexameter (Jones
& Gray 1972, Duckworth 1969, Foley 1993, etc.). However,
the main disadvantage of the methods applied in existing
research is that they describe a given meter as if it were a set
of independent elements, which is actually not true. In each
versifi cation system, the specifi c sequence of elements plays
a far more important role in establishing a particular type of
rhythm than the relations between those elements regardless
their linear order (language “in the mass” vs. language “in the
line”; cf. Pawlowski 1999).
Fortunately, there are a few methods of statistical analysis
(both numeric and probabilistic) that study verse by means
of an ordered sequence of elements. These methods include,
for example, time series modeling, Fourier analysis, the theory
of Markov chains and Shannon’s theory of information. In the
present study, spectral density analysis was used (Gottman
1999, Priestley 1981, etc.). Spectral analysis seems to be a very
suitable tool because it provides a cross-section of a given
time series: it allows us to detect waves, regularities and cycles
which are not otherwise manifest and open to inspection. In
the case of a coded poetry sample, the spectrogram shows
not only simple repetitions of metrical patterns, but also
some subtle rhythmical relations, if any, between distant lines
or stanzas. On a given spectrogram, a distinguishable peak
indicates the existence of a rhythmical wave; numerous peaks
suggest a quite complicated rhythm, while a pure noise (no
peaks) on the spectrogram refl ects a non-rhythmical data.
To verify the hypothesis of hexameter’s decreasing rhythmicity,
7 samples of Greek and 3 samples of Latin epic poetry were
chosen. The specifi c selection of sample material was as
follows: 3 samples from Homeric hexameter (books 18 and
22 from the Iliad, book 3 from the Odyssey), 1 sample from
Hesiod (Theogony), Apollonius (Argonautica, book 1), Aratos
(Phainomena), Nonnos (Dionysiaca, book 1), Vergil (Aeneid,
book 3), Horace (Ars poetica), and Ovid (Metamorphoses,
book 1). In each sample, the fi rst 500 lines were coded in
such a way that each long syllable was assigned value 1, and
each short syllable value 0. Though it is disputed whether
ancient verse was purely quantitative or whether it also
had some prosodic features (Pawlowski & Eder 2001), the
quantity-based nature of Greek and Roman meter was never
questioned. It is probable that rhythm was generated not only
by quantity (especially in live performances), but it is certain
that quantity itself played an essential role in ancient meter.
Thus, in the coding procedure, all prosodic features were left
out except the quantity of syllables (cf. Jones & Gray 1972,
Duckworth 1969, Foley 1993, etc.). A binary-coded series was
then obtained for each sample, e.g., book 22 of the Iliad begins
as a series of values:
1110010010010011100100100100111001110010010011...
The coded samples were analyzed by means of the spectral
density function. As might be expected, on each spectrogram
there appeared a few peaks indicating the existence of several
rhythmical waves in the data. However, while the peaks
suggesting the existence of 2- and 3-syllable patterns it the text
were very similar for all the spectrograms and quite obvious,
the other peaks showed some large differences between the
samples. Perhaps the most surprising was the peak echoing
the wave with a 16-syllable period, which could be found in the
samples of early Greek poems by Homer, Hesiod, Apollonius,
and Aratos (cf. Fig. 1). The same peak was far less noticeable in
the late Greek hexameter of Nonnos, and almost absent in the
samples of Latin writers (cf. Fig. 2). Other differences between
the spectrograms have corroborated the observation: the
rhythmical effects of the late poems were, in general, weaker
as compared with the rich rhythmical structure of the earliest,
orally composed epic poems.
Although the main hypothesis has been verifi ed, the results also
showed some peculiarities. For example, the archaic poems by
Homer and Hesiod did not differ signifi cantly from the poems
of the Alexandrian age (Apollonius, Aratos), which was rather
unexpected. Again, the rhythm of the Latin hexameter turned
out to have a different underlying structure than that of all the
Greek samples. There are some possible explanations of those
facts, such as that the weaker rhythm of the Latin samples
may relate to inherent differences between Latin and Greek.
More research, both in statistics and in philology, is needed,
however, to make such explanations more nuanced and more
persuasive. Bibliography
Duckworth, George E. Vergil and Classical Hexameter Poetry:
A Study in Metrical Variety. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Press, 1969.
Foley, John Miles. Traditional Oral Epic: “The Odyssey”, “Beowulf ”
and the Serbo-Croatian Return Song. Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1993.
Gottman, John Mordechai, and Anup Kumar Roy. Sequential
Analysis: A Guide for Behavioral Researchers. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Jones, Frank Pierce, and Florence E. Gray. Hexameter
Patterns, Statistical Inference, and the Homeric Question: An
Analysis of the La Roche Data.Transactions and Proceedings of
the American Philological Association 103 (1972): 187-209.
Lord, Albert B. Ed. Stephen Mitchell and Gregory Nagy. The
Singer of Tales. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
2000.
Nagy, Gregory. Poetry as Performance: Homer and Beyond.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Parry, Milman. Ed. Adam Parry. The Making of Homeric Verse:
The Collected Papers of Milman Parry. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1971.
Pawlowski, Adam. Language in the Line vs. Language in the
Mass: On the Effi ciency of Sequential Modeling in the Analysis
of Rhythm. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics 6.1 (1999): 70-77.
Pawlowski, Adam, and Maciej Eder. Quantity or Stress?
Sequential Analysis of Latin Prosody. Journal of Quantitative
Linguistics 8.1 (2001): 81-97.
Priestley, M. B. Spectral Analysis and Time Series. London:
Academic Press, 1981.","txt","2","",""
"868","9","TEI and cultural heritage ontologies","1","Since the mid 1990s there has been an increase in the interest
for the design and use of conceptual models (ontologies)
in humanities computing and library science, as well as in
knowledge engineering in general. There is also a wish to use
such models to enable information interchange. TEI has in its
20 years of history concentrated on the mark up of functional
aspects of texts and their parts. That is, a person name is
marked but linking to information about the real world person
denoted by that name was not in the main scope. The scope
of TEI has gradually broadened, however, to include more real
world information external to the text in question. The Master
project (Master 2001) is an early example of this change.
In TEI P5 a series of new elements for marking up real world
information are introduced and several such elements from
the P4 are adjusted. TEI P5 is meant to be a set of guidelines
for the encoding of a large variety of texts in many cultural
contexts. Thus the set of real world oriented elements in TEI
P5 should not formally be bound to a single ontology. The
ontological part of TEI P5 is, however, close connected to the
authors implicit world view. Thus we believe it is important
to study this part of TEI P5 with some well defi ned ontology
as a yardstick. Our long experience with memory institution
sector makes CIDOC CRM (Conceptual Reference Model) a
natural choice. CIDOC CRM (Crofts 2005) has been proven
useful as an intellectual aid in the formulation of the intended
scope of the elements in a new mark up schemes and we
believe the model can be useful to clarify the ontological
part of TEI. This will also clarify what is needed in order to
harmonize it with major standards like CIDOC CRM, FRBR,
EAD and CDWA Lite.
CIDOC CRM
CIDOC CRM is a formal ontology intended to facilitate the
integration, mediation and interchange of heterogeneous
cultural heritage information. It was developed by
interdisciplinary teams of experts, coming from fi elds such
as computer science, archaeology, museum documentation,
history of arts, natural history, library science, physics and
philosophy, under the aegis of the International Committee
for Documentation (CIDOC) of the International Council
of Museums (ICOM). The harmonisation of CIDOC CRM
and IFLA’s FRBR (FRBR 1998) is in the process of being
completed. The EAD has already been mapped to CIDOC
CRM (Theodoridou 2001).
CIDOC CRM is defi ned in an object oriented formalism
which allow for a compact defi nition with abstraction and
generalisation. The model is event centric, that is, actors, places
and objects are connected via events. CIDOC CRM is a core
ontology in the sense that the model does not have classes
for all particulars like for example the Art and Architecture
Thesaurus with thousands of concepts. CIDOC CRM has little
more than 80 classes and 130 properties. The most central
classes and properties for data interchange are shown below.
Example: The issue of a medieval charter can be modelled as
an activity connecting the issuer, witnesses, scribe and place
and time of issue. The content of the charter is modelled as
a conceptual object and the parchment as a physical thing. In
cases where it is necessary for a scholarly analysis and when
suffi cient information has been preserved, an issuing of a
charter can be broken down into a series of smaller events, e.g.,
the actual declaration in a court, the writing of the parchment
and the attachment of the seals. This conceptual analysis can
be can be used an intellectual aid in the formulation a data
model and implementation.
In 2005 the CRM was reformulated as a simple XML DTD,
called CRM-Core, to enable CRM compliant mark up of
multimedia metadata (Sinclair 2006). A CRM-Core XML
package may contain information about a single instance
of any class in the CRM and how it may be connected to
other objects via events and properties. The German Council
of Museum has based its standard for XML based museum
data interchange, MUSEUMDAT, on a combination of the
Getty standard CDWA Lite and CRM Core. The CDWA Lite
revision group currently considers these changes to CDWA
Lite in order to make it compatible with CRM.
TEI P5 ontology elements in the light
of CIDOC CRM
In TEI P5 the new ontologically oriented elements is introduced
in the module NamesPlaces described in chapter 13 Names,
Dates, People, and Places. There are additional elements
described in chapter 10 Manuscript Description, in the TEI
header and in connection with bibliographic descriptions as
well. In this paper we concentrate on the elements in chapter
13. The central elements in this module are: person, personGrp, org,
place and event. Person, personGrp and org are “elements which
provide information about people and their relationships”.
CIDOC CRM has the corresponding classes with a common
superclass E29 Actor.
The element event is defi ned as “contains data relating to any
kind of signifi cant event associated with a person, place, or
organization” and is similar to the CIDOC CRM class E5 Event
and its subclasses. In the discussion of the marriage example
in chapter 13, event element is presented as a “freestanding”
element. In the formal defi nition it is limited to person and
org. To make this coherent, the formal part will have to be
extended or the example have to be changed.
Still event is problematic. The marriage example demonstrates
that it is impossible to express the role a person has in an
event. Without knowing the English marriage formalism one
doesn’t know if the “best man” participated. The very generic
element persRel introduced in P5 does not solve this problem.
A possible solution to this problem would be to introduce
an EventStateLike model class with elements for roles and
participants.
The model classes orgStateLike, personStateLike, personTraitLik,
placeStateLike, placeTraitLike group elements used to mark
up characteristics of persons, organisations and places. The
elements in ...TraitLike model classes contain information about
permanent characteristics and the elements in ...StateLike
information about more temporal characteristics. The model
classes contain the generic Trait and State elements in addition to
specialised elements. The intention is to link all characteristics
relating to a person, organisation or place. It is not possible to
make a single mapping from these classes into CIDOC-CRM.
It will depend partly on which type of trait or strait is used,
and partly on the way in which it is used. Many characteristics
will correspond to persistent items like E55 Types, E3 String
and E41 Appellation, and are connected to actors and places
through the properties P1 is identifi ed, P2 has type and P2 has
note. Other elements like fl oruit, which is used to describe a
person’s active period, are temporal states corresponding to
the CIDOC-CRM temporal entity E3 Condition State. From an
ontological point of view the two elements state and trait can
be considered as generic mechanism for typed linking between
the major classes.
All the elements in ...TraitLike and ...StateLike model classes
can be supplied with the attributes notAfter and notBefore
defi ning the temporal extension of their validity. This is a very
powerful mechanism for expressing synoptically information
based on hidden extensive scholarly investigation about real
world events. As long as the justifi cation for the values in
these elements is not present, however, it is hard to map this
information into an event oriented conceptual model like the
CRM. Thus, it is important to include descriptions of methods
for such justifi cation in the guidelines, including examples.
TEI ontology – conclusion
The new elements in TEI P5 bring TEI a great step in the
direction of an event oriented model. Our use of CRM
Core as a yardstick has shown that small extensions to and
adjustments of the P5 elements will enable the expression of
CRM Core packages by TEI elements. This is a major change to
our previous suggestions (Ore 2006) in which the ontological
module was outside TEI.
To continue this research, an extended TEI tagset should be
developed with element for abstracts corresponding to the
ones in FRBR and CRM. This will not change the ontological
structure of TEI signifi cantly. But these adjustments will make
the ontological information in a TEI document compliant with
the other cultural heritage models like for example EAD,
FRBR/FRBRoo, CIDOC CRM and CDWA-Lite. There is an
ongoing harmonisation process between all these initiatives in
which it is important that TEI is a part.
Bibliography
Crofts, N., Doerr, M., Gill, T., Stead, S. and Stiff M. (eds.)
(2005): Defi nition of the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model.
(June 2005). URL: http://cidoc.ics.forth.gr/docs/cidoc_crm_
version_4.2.doc (checked 2007-11-15)
CDWA Lite www.getty.edu/research/conducting_research/
standards/cdwa/cdwalite.html (checked 2007-11-25)
FRBR (1998). Functional Requirement for Bibliographic
Records. Final Report. International Federation of Library
Associations. URL: http://www.ifl a.org/VII/s13/frbr/frbr.pdf
(checked 2007-11-24)
MASTER (2001). “Manuscript Access through Standards for
Electronic Records (MASTER).” Cover Pages: Technology
Reports. URL: http://xml.coverpages.org/master.html
(checked 2007-11-25)
MUSEUMDAT (www.museumdat.org/, checked 2007-11-25)
Ore, Christian-Emil and Øyvind Eide (2006). “TEI, CIDOCCRM
and a Possible Interface between the Two.” P. 62-65 in
Digital Humanities 2006. Conference Abstracts. Paris, 2006.
Sinclair, Patrick & al.(2006). “The use of CRM Core in
Multimedia Annotation.” Proceedings of First International
Workshop on Semantic Web Annotations for Multimedia
(SWAMM 2006). URL: http://cidoc.ics.forth.gr/docs/paper16.
pdf (checked 2007-11-25)
TEI P5 (2007). Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding
and Interchange. URL: http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/P5/
(checked 2007-11-15) Theodoridou, Maria and Martin Doerr (2001). Mapping of
the Encoded Archival Description DTD Element Set to the CIDOC
CRM, Technical Report FORTH-ICS/TR-289. URL: http://
cidoc.ics.forth.gr/docs/ead.pdf (checked 2007-11-25)","txt","2","",""
"869","9","Homebodies and Gad-Abouts: A Chronological Stylistic Study of 19th Century French and English Novelists","1","The assumption that authorial style changes over time is a
reasonable one that is widely accepted in authorship attribution.
Some important studies concentrate on individual authors,
using a wide array of methods, and yielding varied results,
however, so that is unwise to generalize (see the overview in
Stamou 2007). Henry James’s style, for example, changes in a
remarkably consistent and extreme way (Hoover 2007), and
Austen’s stylistic development also seems consistent (Burrows
1987), but Beckett’s texts are individually innovative without
showing consistent trends (Stamou 2007: 3). For some authors,
different investigators have obtained inconsistent results. We
know of no general study that investigates how authorial style
changes over a long career. We thus explore how working and
otherwise living abroad for periods exceeding two years may
affect an author’s vocabulary and style.
Our presentation begins a broadly based study of the growth
and decay of authorial vocabulary over time. Although we limit
our study to nineteenth-century prose, to reduce the number
of possible variables to a manageable level, we compare French
and English authors, allowing us to test whether any discovered
regularities are cross-linguistic. Because authors’ vocabularies
seem related to their life experiences, we compare authors
who spent most of their lives in a single geographical area
with others who traveled and lived extensively abroad. For the
purposes of this study, we defi ne extensive living and working
abroad as at least two consecutive years, somewhat longer than
the contemporary American student’s or faculty member’s
stay of a semester or a year. This differentiation allows us to
investigate in what signifi cant ways, if any, extensive foreign
travel affects an author’s vocabulary.
Our investigation of these questions requires a careful selection
of authors and texts. Although research is still ongoing, we
have selected the following eight authors–two in each of the
four possible categories–for preliminary testing and further
biographical study: Domestic authors:
English
• George Meredith (1828-1909). German schooling at age
fi fteen, but apparently no signifi cant travel later; fi fteen
novels published between 1855 and 1895 available in digital
form.
• Wilkie Collins (1824-1889). No foreign travel mentioned in
brief biographies; 20 novels available over 38 years.
French
• Honoré de Balzac (1799-1850). He traveled little outside
of France until 1843. Subsequent excursions abroad in
the last seven years of his life, mainly for romance, were
relatively infrequent and never exceeded fi ve consecutive
months. Over two dozen novels in digitized format are
available.
• Jules Barbey d’Aurevilly (1808-1889). Raised in France and
schooled in the law, he was devoted to his native Normandy
and seldom ventured abroad. Initially cultivating the image of
the dandy, his novels and novellas create a curious paradox
in his later writing between sexually suggestive themes and
nostalgia for earlier aesthetics and a defense of Catholicism.
His literary productivity can be divided into the three
periods of 1831-1844 (fi rst published novel and novella),
1845-1873 (return to Catholicism; work as both literary
critic and novelist), and 1874-1889. At least fourteen novels
or novellas are available in digitized format.
Traveling authors:
English
• Dickens (1812-1870). Seven novels available 1836-43,
foreign travel for 3 yrs 1844-47, and more travel in 1853-55;
four novels after 1855 available.
• Trollope (1815-1883). Travel to Brussels in 1834, but
briefl y; six novels available before 1859, Postal missions to
Egypt, Scotland, and the West Indies, 1858-59; 1871 trip
to Australia, New Zealand, and US; travel to Ceylon and
Australia, 1875, South Africa 1877, Iceland 1878; fi ve novels
available after 1878.
French
• Arthur de Gobineau (1816-1882). Raised partly in France,
partly in Germany and Switzerland, he learned German
and began the study of Persian in school while his mother,
accused of fraud and estranged from her military husband,
kept the family a step ahead of the French police. Three
periods encompassing his publication of fi ction and often
related to career travel can be divided as follows: 1843-
1852 (at least 4 novellas and 1 novel); 1853-1863 (1 novella);
1864-1879 (10 novellas, 2 novels). Living mainly in France
from 1831-1849, he was a protégé of Alexis de Tocqueville,
who brought him into the French diplomatic service in
1849. Gobineau was then stationed in Switzerland and
Germany (1849-1854), Persia (1855-1858, 1861-1863),
Newfoundland (1859), Greece (1864-1868), Brazil (1868-
1870) and Sweden (1872-1873). Following travel through
Europe in 1875-77, he left the diplomatic service. His fi rst
short fi ction was published and serialized in 1846. At least
a dozen novellas written throughout his career (mostly
written and published as collections) and two novels (1852
and 1874) are available in digitized format.
• Victor Hugo (1802-85). Raised in France except for a
six-month period in a religious boarding school in Madrid
(1811-12), Hugo began writing his fi rst novel, Bug-Jargal
(1826) in 1820. This initial literary period includes 1820-
1851. Aside from a few short trips lasting less than three
months, Hugo lived and wrote mainly in his homeland
until his exile on the Island of Guernsey during the reign
of Louis-Napoléon from 1851-1870. The third period
encompasses his triumphant return to Paris in 1871 until his
death, celebrated by a state funeral, in 1885.
Research on the French authors is being facilitated by use of
PhiloLogic and the ARTFL database, complemented by local
digitized works and tools that are also used to investigate the
English authors.
Preliminary testing must be done on all the authors to discover
overall trends or principles of vocabulary development
before investigating any possible effects of foreign travel. The
importance of this can be seen in fi gures 1 and 2 below, two
cluster analyses of English traveling authors, based on the 800
mfw (most frequent words). Dickens’s novels form two distinct
groups, 1836-43 and 1848-70, a division coinciding with his
1844-47 travels. For Trollope, the match is not quite so neat,
but it is suggestive. Ignoring Nina Balatka, a short romance set
in Prague, and La Vendee, Trollope’s only historical novel, set in
France in the 1790’s, only two remaining novels in the early
group were published after his travel to Egypt, Scotland, and
the West Indies in 1858-59.
Fig. 1 – Fifteen Dickens Novels, 1836-1870 Unfortunately, comparing cluster analyses of the English
domestic authors casts doubt on any simple correlation
between travel and major stylistic change. Meredith, like
Dickens and Trollope, shows a sharp break between his two
early novels 1855-57 and the rest of his novels (see Fig. 3). And,
ignoring Antonina (an historical novel about the fall of Rome),
Collins’s novels also form early and late groups (see Fig. 4).
Fig. 3 – Fifteen Meredith Novels, 1855-895
Fig. 4 – Twenty Collins Novels, 1850-1888
Furthermore, although our results for French authors are
more preliminary, a test of six works by Gobineau shows that
two of his earliest texts, written before any extensive travel,
are quite similar to some of his latest texts (see Fig. 5).
Fig. 5 – Six Texts by Gobineau
We are still developing the techniques for the study of the
effects of travel, but preliminary testing based on a division of
each author’s career into early, middle, and late periods allows
us to check for consistent trends rather than simple differences
between early and late texts, and to begin comparing the four
categories of authors. Choosing novelists with long careers
allows us to separate the three periods, selecting natural gaps
in publication where possible, but creating such gaps where
necessary by omitting some texts from the study. For traveling
authors, these divisions also take into account the timing of
their travel, creating gaps that include the travel.
Three stylistic periods create six patterns of highest, middle,
and lowest frequency for each word in the an author’s texts.
Depending on the number and size of the novels, we include
approximately the 8,000 to 10,000 most frequent words, all
those frequent enough to show a clear increase or decrease
in frequency; we delete words that appear in only one period.
Thus, as shown in Fig. 6, each of the six patterns would be
expected to occur about one-sixth (17%) of the time by
chance.
Fig. 6 –Six Patterns of Change (“E” =
early; “M” = middle; “L” = late)
Results for the English authors, shown in Fig. 7, are both
surprising and suggestive (note that the axis crosses at the
“expected” 16.7% level, so that it is easy to see which patterns
are more or less frequent than expected for each author.
Gradual decrease in frequency, E > M > L, is the only pattern
more frequent than expected for all four authors (Meredith’s
fi gure is only very slightly more frequent than expected), and
both M > E > L and L > E > M are less frequent than expected
for all four authors. Although the patterns for these authors
suggest some regularity in the growth and decay of vocabulary,
no simple relationship emerges. Consider also the surprising
fact that vocabulary richness tends to decrease chronologically
for Dickens, Trollope, and possibly Collins, while only Meredith
shows increasing vocabulary richness. (These comments are based on a relatively simple measure of vocabulary richness,
the number of different words per 10,000 running words;
for more discussion of vocabulary richness, see Tweedie and
Baayen, 1998 and Hoover, 2003.) These facts contradict the
intuitive assumption that the main trend in a writer’s total
vocabulary should be the learning of new words.
Similar comparisons are being developed for the French
authors in question. The conference presentation will include
not only a comparison of style within each language group,
but between language groups. Such comparisons also build
on strengths of corpus stylistics important to translation
(Goldfi eld 2006) and a possible related future for comparative
literature (Apter 2005).
Fig. 7 – Patterns of Frequency Change
in the Words of Six Authors.
References
Apter, Emily (2006) The Translation Zone: A New Comparative
Literature, Princeton.
Burrows, J. F. (1992a). “Computers and the study of
literature.” In Butler, C. S., ed. Computers and Written Texts.
Oxford: Blackwell, 167-204.
Goldfi eld, J. (2006) “French-English Literary Translation
Aided by Frequency Comparisons from ARTFL and Other
Corpora,” DH2006: Conference Abstracts: 76-78.
Hoover, D. L. (2003) “Another Perspective on Vocabulary
Richness.” Computers and the Humanities, 37(2), 151-78.
Hoover, D. L. (2007) “Corpus Stylistics, Stylometry, and the
Styles of Henry James,” Style 41(2) 2007: 174-203.
Stamou, Constantina. (2007) “Stylochronometry: Stylistic
Development, Sequence of Composition, and Relative
Dating.” LLC Advance Access published on October 1, 2007.
Tweedie, F. J. and R. H. Baayen. 1998. “How Variable May a
Constant Be? Measures of Lexical Richness in Perspective”.
Computers and the Humanities 32 (1998), 323-352.","txt","2","",""
"870","9","The Heinrich-Heine-Portal. A digital edition and research platform on the web (www.heine-portal.de)","1","In this paper we are presenting the Heinrich Heine Portal,
one of the most sophisticated web resources dedicated
to a German classical author. It virtually combines the two
most defi nitive critical editions (DHA=Düsseldorfer Heine-
Ausgabe and HSA=Heine Säkularausgabe) in print together
with digital images of the underlying textual originals within
an elaborated electronic platform. The project, which has been
established in 2002, is organized as a co-operation between
the Heinrich-Heine-Institut (Düsseldorf) and the Competence
Centre for Electronic Publishing and Information Retrieval in
the Humanities (University of Trier). It has been funded by the
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research
Organisation) as well as the Kunststiftung Nordrhein-Westfalen
(Foundation for the Arts of North Rhine Westphalia). The
work within the project consists of two major parts. On the
one hand it has to transfer the printed texts into a digital
representation which serves as the basis for its electronic
publication. On the other hand it aims at a complete revision
of important parts of the printed critical edition and provides
new results of the Heinrich-Heine research community.
The fi rst part of the workfl ow is organized as a typical
retro-digitization project. Starting with the printed editions,
consisting of nearly 26,500 pages with an amount of about 72
millions of characters, the text was sent to a service partner
in China, where it was typed in by hand. During this process
two digital versions of the text were produced and then sent
back to Germany, where they were automatically collated.
After that the listed differences were manually corrected
by comparing them with the printed original. The result of
this step is a digital text that corresponds with the printed
version providing a quality of nearly 99.995%. The next task
was to transform this basic digital encoding into a platform
independent representation, which then can be used as the
main data format for all following project phases. In order to
achieve this goal a pool of program routines was developed
which uses the typographical information and contextual
conditions to generate XML-markup according to the TEI
guidelines. Because of the heterogeneous structures of
the text (prose, lyrics, critical apparatus, tables of contents
etc.) this was a very time consuming step. At the end of
this process a reusable version of the data that can be put into the archives on a long time basis exists. Using the XML
encoding the digital documents were imported into an online
database, where different views onto the data are stored
separately, e.g. metadata for the main information about the
letter corpus (list of senders, addressees, dates and places
etc.) or bibliographical information on the works. In order to
get access to the information from the database the project
has been supplied with a sophisticated graphical user interface,
which has been built with the help of a content management
framework (ZOPE).
Besides providing online access to the basic editions DHA and
HSA the Heinrich-Heine-Portal offers a completely revised
and updated version of the letter corpus and displays newlydiscovered
letters and corrigenda, which are being added
constantly. Additionally, the portal is an electronic archive
which contains and presents more than 12,000 digital images
of original manuscripts and fi rst editions, linked to the text and
the apparatus of the edition. Most of those images were made
available by the Heinrich-Heine-Institut, Düsseldorf, which
holds nearly 60% of the Heine-manuscripts known today.
The collection of the Heine-Institut was completely digitized
for this project. In addition, 32 other museums, libraries
and literary archives in Europe and the United States are
cooperating with the Heine-Portal and have given us consent
to present manuscripts from their collections. Among them are
the British Library and the Rothschild Archive in London, the
Russian Archives of Social and Political History in Moscow, the
Foundation of Weimar Classics and many others. One of the
long-term goals of the Heine-Portal is a “virtual unifi cation” of
all of Heine’s manuscripts. Beyond that the Heine-Portal offers
extensive bibliographies of primary sources and secondary
literature, from Heine’s own fi rst publications in a small journal
(1817) up to the most recent secondary literature. Other
research tools of the Heine-Portal are a powerful search
engine and a complex hyperlink structure which connects
the texts, commentaries and the different sections of the
Portal with each other and a database of Heine’s letters with
detailed information on their edition, their availability and the
institutions which hold them.
Our paper will describe the technical and philological aspects
of the work process that was necessary for the completion of
the Heine-Portal, it will give an account of its main functions
and demonstrate their use for students and scholars alike, and
it will discuss possible pedagogical applications for schools as
well as university teaching.
Bibliography
Bernd Füllner and Johannes Fournier: Das Heinrich-Heine-
Portal. Ein integriertes Informationssystem. In Standards und
Methoden der Volltextdigitalisierung. Beiträge des Internationalen
Kolloquiums an der Universität Trier, 8./9. Oktober 2001. Hrsg.
von Thomas Burch, Johannes Fournier, Kurt Gärtner u.
Andrea Rapp. Trier 2002 (Abhandlungen der Akademie
der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Mainz; Geistes- und
Sozialwissenschaftliche Klasse), pp. 239-263.
Bernd Füllner and Christian Liedtke: Volltext, Web und
Hyperlinks. Das Heinrich-Heine-Portal und die digitale
Heine-Edition. In Heine-Jahrbuch 42, 2003, pp. 178-187.
Bernd Füllner and Christian Liedtke: Die Datenbanken des
Heinrich-Heine-Portals. Mit fünf unbekannten Briefen von
und an Heine. In Heine-Jahrbuch 43, 2004, pp. 268-276.
Nathalie Groß: Das Heinrich-Heine-Portal: Ein integriertes
Informationssystem. In Uni-Journal 3/2004, pp. 25-26.
Nathalie Groß: Der Digitale Heine – Ein Internetportal
als integriertes Informationssystem. In Jahrbuch für
Computerphilologie - online. Hg. v. Georg Braungart, Karl Eibl
und Fotis Jannidis. München 2005, pp. 59-73. Available online:
http://computerphilologie.uni-muenchen.de/jg04/gross/gross.
html
Christian Liedtke: Die digitale Edition im Heinrich-Heine-
Portal – Probleme, Prinzipien, Perspektiven. In editio.
Internationales Jahrbuch für Editionswissenschaft. Tübingen 2006.
Bernd Füllner and Nathalie Groß: Das Heinrich-Heine-Portal
und digitale Editionen. Bericht über die Tagung im Heinrich-
Heine-Institut in Düsseldorf am 6. Oktober 2005. In Heine-
Jahrbuch. 45. 2006, pp. 240-248.","txt","2","",""
"871","9","The New Middle High German Dictionary and its Predecessors as an Interlinked Compound of Lexicographical Resources","1","The paper gives, fi rstly, a brief overview over the history of
Middle High German (MHG) lexicography leading to the new
MHG dictionary. Secondly, it describes the digitisation of the
old MHG dictionaries which form a subnet in a wider net
of German dictionaries. Thirdly, this network, together with
specifi c tools and digital texts, is seen as an essential source
for compiling the new MHG dictionary, of which, fourthly, the
essential features, esp. its online version, are mentioned briefl y,
but will be demonstrated in detail in the full paper.
1. Looking back at the beginnings of Humanities Computing
in the sixties, one of the major subjects was the support the
computer would give to lexicographers. Many e-texts have been
created then for mere lexicographical purposes (Wisbey 1988).
The production of concordances and indices was at its heights
between 1970 and 1980 (cf. Gärtner 1980). However, the road
to real dictionary making came only gradually in sight when
lemmatization was required and semantics began to dominate
the discussion of computer application in lexicography. The
work on the dictionaries to the medieval Germanic languages
benefi ted a great deal from this development. This has
certainly been the case regarding MHG, the period of German
from ca. 1050 to ca. 1350 resp. – in the earlier periodisations
– to 1500. During the 20th century, the situation of MHG
lexicography had become more and more deplorable. Since
Lexer’s dictionary appeared in 1878, all plans for a new
dictionary had been unsuccessful. Therefore, many editors
of MHG texts published after 1878 provided glossaries as a
means of presenting such material that was not included in the
earlier dictionaries edited by Benecke/Müller/Zarncke (BMZ)
and Lexer with its Nachträge. It was not until 1985 that a group
of researchers at the University of Trier started compiling the
Findebuch which was published in 1992. The Findebuch was a
compilation of glossaries to editions in order to make up for
the lack of a new MHG dictionary. Also in the late eighties, on
the basis of the work on the Findebuch, planning began to work
out a new MHG dictionary (cf. Gärtner/Grubmüller 2000).
This time the plans were successful, and work on the new
dictionary started in 1994. The scientifi c use of the computer
had meanwhile become a conditio sine qua non, also for the new
MHG dictionary (cf. Gärtner/Plate/Recker 1999).
2. The work on a new dictionary relies to a great deal on
its predecessors. As the Findebuch had been compiled with
extensive use of the computer and existed in machine readable
form, the need for digitizing the old MHG dictionaries was
strongly felt from the beginning of the new dictionary’s
planning. The old dictionaries (BMZ, Lexer with Nachträge)
and the Findebuch are closely interconnected and can only
be used simultaneously. They were ideal candidates for the
composition of an electronic dictionary compound. Therefore,
as a supporting research project to the new dictionary, the
old ones were digitized and interlinked thus forming a digital
network (MWV). The work on this project has been described
to the LLC readers in detail (Fournier 2001; see also Burch/
Fournier 2001). Moreover, this network formed the starting
point for a wider net that interlinks many more dictionaries
to the German language and its dialects (cf. Woerterbuchnetz).
The most prominent among them is the 33vols. Deutsches
Wörterbuch (DWB) by the brothers Grimm.
3. The work on the new MHG dictionary (MWB) was
considerably supported by two more projects. First and
most essential for lexicographers working in different places
was the implementation of a web based workbench for the
composition of dictionaries. The development of a toolkit for a
collaborative editing and publishing of the MWB has also been
described to LLC readers in detail (Queens/Recker 2005). The
second project supporting the work on the new dictionary
was the extension of the digital text archive. At the beginning
of the work on the MWB, the lexicographical workbench
had to rely only on a small corpus of digital texts. This
number was effectively increased by a collaborative project
with the Electronic Text Center of the University of Virginia at
Charlottesville (cf. Recker 2002 and MHDTA/MHGTA 2004).
By now nearly all the texts of the Findebuch corpus have been
digitized and added to the corpus of the new dictionary.
4. In 2006 the fi rst instalment of the new MWB was published
together with a CD-ROM containing a PDF of the printed
form. The online version was to follow in 2007.
All digital resources created for the new dictionary are
fi rstly to the advantage of the lexicographer, and secondly
and still more important to the advantage of the user as
well. The lexicographer’s workbench provides an alphabetical
list of headwords (Lemmaliste), it offers an easy and quick
access to the old dictionaries (BMZ, Lexer, Findebuch), to
the lemmatized archive of instances (Belegearchiv) in form of
a KWIC-concordance, and fi nally to the whole corpus of etexts
which can be searched for more evidences. Not only
the lexicographer, but also the user of the online version has
access to all information on the usage of a MHG word, as I will
demonstrate in detail.
As the new MWB is a long term project, the online version
not only offers the already published instalments, but also the
complete material the forthcoming fascicles are based upon.
Furthermore, for the entries still to be worked out the old
dictionaries are always present for consultation together
with the new material of the archive and the corpus of etexts.
Thus, linking old and new lexicographical resources proves immensely valuable not only for the workbench of the
lexicographer, but also for the user of his work.
Images
Lexer’s MHG Dictionary within the Dictionary Net
The Online Version of the New MHG Dictionary
Bibliography
(Apart from the dictionaries, preferably research papers in
English are listed)
BMZ = Georg Friedrich Benecke, Wilhelm Müller, Friedrich
Zarncke: Mittelhochdeutsches Wörterbuch. Leipzig 1854–1866.
Nachdruck mit einem Vorwort und einem zusammengefaßten
Quellenverzeichnis von Eberhard Nellmann sowie einem
alphabetischen Index von Erwin Koller, Werner Wegstein und
Norbert Richard Wolf. Stuttgart 1990.
Burch, Thomas / Fournier, Johannes / Gärtner, Kurt / Rapp,
Andrea (Eds.): Standards und Methoden der Volltextdigitalisierung.
Beiträge des Internationalen Kolloquiums an der Universität
Trier, 8./9. Oktober 2001 (Abhandlungen der Akademie der
Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Mainz; Geistes- und
sozialwissenschaftliche Klasse; Einzelveröffentlichung Nr. 9).
Stuttgart 2002.
Burch, Thomas / Fournier, Johannes: Middle High German
Dictionaries Interlinked. In: Burch/Fournier/Gärtner/Rapp
2002, p. 297-301. Online-version: http://germazope.uni-trier.
de/Projects/MWV/publikationen
DWB = Deutsches Wörterbuch der Brüder Grimm.
Erstbearbeitung. 33 vols. Leipzig 1864-1971. Online-Version
(OA): http://www.DWB.uni-trier.de Offl ine-Version:
Der Digitale Grimm. Deutsches Wörterbuch der Brüder
Grimm. Elektronische Ausgabe der Erstbearbeituung.
Bearbeitet von Hans-Werner Bartz, Thomas Burch, Ruth
Christmann, Kurt Gärtner, Vera Hildenbrandt, Thomas
Schares und Klaudia Wegge. Hrsg. vom Kompetenzzentrum
für elektronische Erschließungs- und Publikationsverfahren
in den Geisteswissenschaften an der Universität Trier in
Verbindung mit der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie
der Wissenschaften. 2 CD-ROMs, Benutzerhandbuch,
Begleitbuch. 1. Aufl age. Frankfurt am Main: Zweitausendeins
2004, 5. Aufl age, 2007.
Findebuch = Kurt Gärtner, Christoph Gerhardt,
Jürgen Jaehrling, Ralf Plate, Walter Röll, Erika Timm
(Datenverarbeitung: Gerhard Hanrieder): Findebuch zum
mittelhochdeutschen Wortschatz. Mit einem rückläufi gen Index.
Stuttgart 1992.
Fournier, Johannes: New Directions in Middle High German
Lexicography: Dictionaries Interlinked Electronically. In:
Literary and Linguistic Computing 16 (2001), p. 99-111.
Gärtner, Kurt: Concordances and Indices to Middle High
German. In: Computers and the Humanities 14 (1980), p. 39-45.
Gärtner, Kurt: Comprehensive Digital Text Archives: A Digital
Middle High German Text Archive and its Perspectives, in:
First EU/NSF Digital Libraries All Projects Meeting, Rome
March 25-26, 2002. http://delos-noe.iei.pi.cnr.it/activities/
internationalforum/All-Projects/us.html Gärtner, Kurt / Wisbey, Roy: Die Bedeutung des Computers
für die Edition altdeutscher Texte. In: Kritische Bewahrung.
Beiträge zur deutschen Philologie. Festschrift für Werner
Schröder zum 60. Geburtstag. Hrsg. von E.-J. Schmidt. Berlin
1974, p. 344-356.
Gärtner, Kurt / Grubmüller, Klaus (Eds.): Ein neues
Mittelhochdeutsches Wörterbuch: Prinzipien, Probeartikel,
Diskussion (Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in
Göttingen. I. Philologisch-historische Klasse, Jg. 2000, Nr. 8).
Göttingen 2000.
Gärtner, Kurt / Plate, Ralf / Recker, Ute: Textvorbereitung und
Beleggewinnung für das Mittelhochdeutsche Wörterbuch. In:
Literary and Linguistic Computing 14, No. 3 (1999), p. 417-423.
Lexer = Lexer, Matthias: Mittelhochdeutsches Handwörterbuch.
Nachdruck der Ausgabe Leipzig 1872-1878 mit einer
Einleitung von Kurt Gärtner. 3 Bde. Stuttgart 1992.
Lexer Nachträge = Matthias Lexer: Nachträge zum
mittelhochdeutschen Handwörterbuch. Leipzig 1878.
MHDTA/MHGTA = Final report on the Project „Digital
Middle High German Text Archive“ to the DFG and NSF.
Charlottesville / Trier 2004. http://www.mhgta.uni-trier.
de/MHGTA_Final_Report.pdf
MWB = Mittelhochdeutsches Wörterbuch Online-Version
(OA): http://mhdwb-online.de Print-Version with CD:
Mittelhochdeutsches Wörterbuch. Im Auftrag der Akademie der
Wissenschaften und der Literatur Mainz und der Akademie
der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen hrsg. von Kurt Gärtner,
Klaus Grubmüller und Karl Stackmann. Erster Band, Lieferung
1ff. Stuttgart 2006ff. Project Homepage: http://www.mhdwb.
uni-trier.de/
MWV = Mittelhochdeutsche Wörterbücher im Verbund.
[Middle High German Dictionaries Interlinked] Online-
Version (OA): http://www.MWV.uni-trier.de Offl ine-Version:
Mittelhochdeutsche Wörterbücher im Verbund. Hrsg. von Thomas
Burch, Johannes Fournier, Kurt Gärtner. CD-ROM und
Begleitbuch. Stuttgart 2002.
Queens, Frank; Recker-Hamm, Ute: A Net-based Toolkit
for Collaborative Editing and Publishing of Dictionaries. In:
Literary and Linguistic Computing 20 (2005), p. 165-175.
Recker, Ute: Digital Middle High German Text Archive. In:
Burch / Fournier / Gärtner / Rapp 2002, p. 307-309.
Wisbey, Roy: Computer und Philologie in Vergangenheit,
Gegenwart und Zukunft. In: Maschinelle Verarbeitung
altdeutscher Texte IV. Beiträge zum Vierten Internationalen
Symposion, Trier 28. Februar bis 2. März 1988. Hrsg. von Kurt
Gärtner, Paul Sappler und Michael Trauth. Tübingen 1991, p.
346-361.
Wörterbuch-Netz: http://www.woerterbuchnetz.de","txt","2","",""
"872","9","Domestic Strife in Early Modern Europe: Images and Texts in a virtual anthology","1","The seventeenth-century engravings and texts collected for
the project Le mariage sous l’Ancien Régime: une anthologie
virtuelle all belong to the polemical genre. The institution of
marriage was undergoing intense scrutiny and criticism in
light of Reformation questioning of Catholic practices, and
popular discourse and images refl ected this malaise. The
cuckold attacked both verbally and physically by a nagging
wife, or, conversely, a sassy wife receiving her “correction”
are themes of the Middle Ages reproduced frequently during
the early modern period, but with new sophistication as
engravings became the primary site for the representation
of problems with marriage, as DeJean has shown. Whereas
polemical writings fl ourished in the fi rst half of the century
according to Banderier and Carlin 2002, images gained more
complexity in design and incorporated increasing amounts of
commentary during the reign of Louis XIV (1661-1715). New
variations on medieval topics occur, as bourgeois women in
salons comment on marriage or wrestle with their husbands
over the pants in the family. A novel twist on spousal confl ict
appears in engravings such as “L’invention des femmes”
(Lagniet) and “Operateur céphalique” (Anon.): inspired by the
Renaissance interest in dissection, the notion that behaviour
could be modifi ed through radical brain surgery introduces a
new kind of violence into marriage satire.
From the beginning of the project, our approach to construction
of the corpus has been based on the ideal that texts and images
must both be full and equivalent members of the collection.
Images have been treated as texts, and our goal has been to
make explicit, in textual annotations, as much of the signifi cant
information they encode as possible. In this respect, the
Mariage project is very different from other markup projects
which integrate images and texts, such as those described in
Porter 2007; while projects such as Pembroke 25 (Szarmach
& Hall n.d.) and the Electronic Aelfric integrate images and
text in sophisticated ways, the images are of manuscript pages,
and the at the heart of these digital editions is the process of
transcription. By contrast, while the engravings in the Mariage
collection may include fairly extensive textual components
— see, for instance, “Le Fardeau du Menage” (Guérard 1712),
which incorporates over 60 lines of verse — the text is
ancillary to the scenes depicted. Thus, the engravings in the
Mariage project are somewhere on a continuum between the
page-images of a digital edition of a manuscript, and the images of artworks in a project such as the On-Line Picasso Project
(Mallen n.d.).
At the simplest level, marking up the images means transcribing
and clarifying any text which actually appears on the engravings.
This makes the text on the images as searchable as that of the
poetry and prose. Following this, we have begun to identify and
discuss the signifi cance of individual fi gures in the engravings,
as well as linking these fi gures to similar elements in other
engravings, or to texts in the collection. Figure 1 shows this
kind of linking in as it appears to the reader in a Web browser.
The wife’s lover is a recurrent fi gure in images and texts of the
period, and the annotation links to textual references, and also
to a segment of another image. Figure 1: Linking between image areas and other texts.
In addition, the search system on the site has been designed to
retrieve both blocks of text and segments of images, based on
annotations to the images. Figure 2 shows part of the result
set from a search for “frapp*”, including sections of images and
a line from a poem. In the case of an image hit, clicking on the
link will lead to the annotated image with the “hit annotation”
selected.
Figure 2: Results of a search, showing sections of images
as well as a poem retrieved from the database.
We are now marking up symbols and devices, and have begun
to contemplate the possibility that we might mark up virtually
every object which appears in the engravings. Although this
would be rather laborious, it would enable the discovery of
more correspondences and perhaps more symbolism than is
currently apparent. To be able to search for “poule”, and retrieve
all the depictions of hens which appear in the collection (as well
as instances of the word itself), and view them together on the
same page, would provide a powerful tool for researchers. This
level of annotation (the identifi cation and labelling of everyday
objects) does not require any signifi cant expertise, but it will
contribute a great deal to the value of the collection.
Using the combination of textual and image markup, our team
has been able to uncover links across the decades as well as
slowly developing differences among diverse types of polemical
images. Research questions we have begun to explore include
the following:
- How does the use of key vocabulary evolve over the
sixteenth to eighteenth centuries?
- How does the use of objects, especially the instruments of
violence, change over this period?
- How does the use of stock verses and verse forms
develop over the course of this period?
In addition to discussing the research tools and insights
emerging out of the Mariage project, this presentation will
look at the development of the Image Markup Tool, an open source Windows application which was created initially for
use in the Mariage project, but which is now used in a range
of other projects as well. The IMT has acquired a number of
new features in response to the requirements of the Mariage
project, and is also developing in reaction to changes in TEI P5.
The original approach of the IMT was to blend SVG with TEI
to produce a dual-namespace document (Carlin, Haswell and
Holmes 2006), but the incorporation of the new <facsimile>,
<surface> and <zone> elements in the TEI transcr module (TEI
Consortium 2007, 11.1) now provide a native TEI framework
which appears suited to image markup projects such as
Mariage, and in December 2007, a new version of the Image
Markup Tool was released, which relinquishes the SVG-based
approach in favour of a pure TEI schema. This simplifi cation
of the fi le format will, we hope, make it much easier for endusers
to integrate markup produced using the IMT into Web
applications and other projects.
Further developments in the IMT are projected over the next
few months. The current version of the application is really
focused on marking up the single, standalone images which
are central to the Mariage project. However, <facsimile> is
described in the TEI Guidelines as containing “a representation
of some written source in the form of a set of images rather
than as transcribed or encoded text” (TEI Consortium
2007, 11.1). The IMT really ought to be capable of producing
documents which contain multiple images, and we plan to
extend it to make this possible.
References
Anon. n.d. “Operateur Cephalique”. Bibliothèque Nationale
de France Cote RES TF 7 4e (Cliché P123-IFFNo190). [http://
mariage.uvic.ca/xhtml.xq?id=operateur_cephalique] Accessed
2007-11-05.
Banderier, G. “Le mariage au miroir des poètes satiriques français
(1600-1650).” In Le mariage dans l’Europe des XVIe et XVIIe
siècles: réalités et représentations, vol. 2. Ed. R. Crescenzo et al.
Presses de l’Université Nancy II, 200. 243-60.
Carlin, C. “Misogamie et misogynie dans les complaintes des
mal mariés au XVIIe siècle.” In La Femme au XVIIe siècle. Ed.
Richard G. Hodgson. Biblio 17, vol. 138. Tübingen: Gunter
Narr Verlag, 2002. 365-78.
Carlin, C., E. Haswell and M. Holmes. 2006. “Problems with
Marriage: Annotating Seventeenthcentury French Engravings
with TEI and SVG.” Digital Humanities 2006 Conference
Abstracts. 39-42. [http://www.allc-ach2006.colloques.parissorbonne.
fr/DHs.pdf]. July 2006. Accessed 2007-11-05.
Carlin, C. et al. 2005-2007. Le mariage sous L’Ancien Régime:
une anthologie virtuelle.[http://mariage.uvic.ca/] Accessed
2007-11-05.
DeJean, J. 2003. “Violent Women and Violence against Women:
Representing the ‘Strong’ Woman in Early Modern France.”
Signs, 29.1 (2003): 117-47.
Guérard, N. 1712. “Le Fardeau du Menage”. Bibliothèque
Nationale de France Cote EE 3A PET FOL, P. 7 (Cliché
06019648). [http://mariage.uvic.ca/xhtml.xq?id=fardeau]
Accessed 2007-11-05.
Holmes, M. 2007. Image Markup Tool v. 1.7. [http://www.tapor.
uvic.ca/~mholmes/image_markup/] Accessed 2007-11-05.
Lagniet, J. ca. 1660. “L’Invention des femmes.” Bibliothèque
Nationale de France, Cote TE 90 (1) FOL (Cliché 06019644).
[http://mariage.uvic.ca/xhtml.xq?id=invention_femmes_1]
Accessed 2007-11-05.
Mallen, E., ed. n.d. The Picasso Project. Texas A&M University.
[http://picasso.tamu.edu/] Accessed 2007-11-05.
Porter, D. C. 2007. “Examples of Images in Text Editing.” Digital
Humanities 2007 Conference Abstracts. 159-160.
Szarmach, Paul, and Thomas H. Hall. n.d. Digital Edition of
Cambridge, Pembroke College MS 25. (Pembroke 25 project.)
Cited in Porter 2007.
TEI Consortium, eds. 2007. “Digital Facsimiles.” Guidelines for
Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. [Last modifi ed date:
2007-10-28]. [http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5- doc/
en/html/PH.html] Accessed 2007-11-07.","txt","2","",""
"873","9","Rescuing old data: Case studies, tools and techniques","1","Much of the work done by digital humanists could arguably be described as “rescuing old data”. Digitizing texts is a way of rescuing them from obsolescence, from obscurity, or from physical degradation. However, digitizing in itself does not amount to permanent rescue; it is merely transformation, and digital texts have turned out to have lifetimes vastly shorter than printed texts. As Besser pointed out in 1999, “Though most people tend to think that (unlike analog information) digital information will last forever, we fail to realize the fragility of digital works. Many large bodies of digital information (such as signifi cant parts of the Viking Mars mission) have been lost due to deterioration of the magnetic tapes that they reside on. But the problem of storage media deterioration pales in comparison with the problems of rapidly changing storage devices and changing file formats. It is almost impossible today to read files off of the 8-inch fl oppy disks that were popular just 20 years ago, and trying to decode Wordstar fi les from just a dozen years ago can be a nightmare. Vast amounts of digital information from just 20 years ago is, for all practical purposes, lost.”
As Kirschenbaum (2007) says, “The wholesale migration of literature to a born-digital state places our collective literary and cultural heritage at real risk.” To illustrate this point, consider that searches for the original news source of Besser’s claim about the Viking Mars mission reveal links to articles in Yahoo, Reuters, and Excite, but all of these documents are now unavailable. Only the Internet Archive has a copy of the story (Krolicki 2001). This paper will examine two cases in which we have recently had to rescue digitized content from neardeath, and discuss some tools and techniques which we developed in the process, some of which are available for public use. Our experiences have taught us a great deal, not just about how to go about retrieving data from obsolete formats, but also about how better to protect the data we are generating today from obsolescence. Our paper is not intended to address the issue of digital preservation (how best to prevent good digital data from falling into obsolescence); an extensive literature already exists addressing this problem (Vogt-O’Connor 1999, Besser 1999, and others). The fact is that, despite our best efforts, bit-rot is inexorable, and software and data formats always tend towards obsolescence. We are concerned, here, with discussing the techniques we have found effective in rescuing data which has already become diffi cult to retrieve. Case Study #1: The Nxaʔamxcín (Moses) Dictionary Database During the 1960s and 70s, the late M. Dale Kincaid did fi eldwork with native speakers of Nxaʔamxcín (Moses), an aboriginal Salish language. His fi eldnotes were in the form of a huge set of index cards detailing vocabulary items, morphology and sample sentences. In the early 1990s, the data from the index cards was digitized using a system based on a combination of Lexware and WordPerfect, running on DOS, with the goal of compiling a print dictionary. The project stalled after a few years, although most of the data had been digitized; the data itself was left stored on an old desktop computer. When this computer finally refused to boot, rescuing the data became urgent, and the WordPerfect fi les were retrieved from its hard drive. We then had to decide what could usefully be done with it. Luckily, we had printouts of the dictionary entries as processed by the Lexware/WordPerfect system, so we knew what the original output was supposed to look like. The data itself was in WordPerfect files. The natural approach to converting this data would be to open the files in an more recent version of WordPerfect, or failing that, a version contemporary with the fi les themselves. However, this was not effective, because the fi les themselves were unusual. In addition to the standard charset, at least two other charsets were used, along with an obsolete set of printer fonts, which depended on a particular brand of printer, and a specific Hercules graphics card. In addition, the original fonts were customized to add extra glyphs, and a range of macros were used. In fact, even the original authors were not able to see the correct characters on screen as they worked; they had to proof their work from printouts. When the fi les were opened in WordPerfect, unusual characters were visible, but they were not the “correct” characters, and even worse, some instances of distinct characters in the original were collapsed into identical representations in WordPerfect. Attempts to open the fi les in other word processors failed similarly. Another obvious approach would be to use libwpd, a C++ library designed for processing WordPerfect documents, which is used by OpenOffice.org and other word-processing programs. This would involve writing handlers for the events triggered during the document read process, analysing the context and producing the correct Unicode characters. Even given the fact that libwpd has only “Support for a substantial portion of the WordPerfect extended character set”, this technique might well have succeeded, but the tool created as a result would have been specifi c only to WordPerfect fi les, and to this project in particular. We decided that with a similar investment of time, we would be able to develop a more generally-useful tool; in particular, we wanted to create a tool which could be used by a non-programmer to do a similar task in the future. Comparing the contents of the fi les, viewed in a hex editor, to
the printouts, we determined that the fi les consisted of:
-blocks of binary information we didn’t need (WordPerfect file headers)
-blocks of recognizable text
-blocks of “encoded text”, delimited by non-printing
characters The control characters signal switches between various WordPerfect character sets, enabling the printing of nonascii characters using the special printer fonts. Our task was to convert this data into Unicode. This was essentially an enormous search-and-replace project. Here is a sample section from the source data: (where [EOT] = end of transmission, [BEL] = bell, [SOH] =
start of header, [SO] = shift out, and [US] = unit separator).
This image shows the original print output from this data,
including the rather cryptic labels such as “11tr” which were to be used by Lexware to generate the dictionary structure: Working with the binary data, especially in the context of
creating a search-and-replace tool, was problematic, so we transformed this into a pure text representation which we could work with in a Unicode text editor. This was done using the Linux “cat” command. The command “cat -v input_file > output_file” takes “input_file” and prints all characters, including non-printing characters, to “output_file”, with what the cat manual refers to as “nonprinting characters” encoded in “hat notation”. This took us from this:
À[EOT][BEL]ÀÀ1[SOH]ÀkÀ[SO][EOT]À
to this:
M-@^D^GM-@M-@1^AM-@kM-@^N^DM-@
From here, our task was in two stages: to go from the hatnotation data to a Unicode representation, like this: and thence to a TEI XML representation:
In the fi rst stage, we established a table of mappings between control character sequences and Unicode sequences.
However, dozens of such sequences in our data contained
overlaps; one sequence mapping to one character might
appear as a component of a larger sequence mapping to a
different character. In other words, if we were to reconstruct the data using search-and-replace operations, the order of those operations would be crucial; and in order to fix upon the optimal progression for the many operations involved, some kind of debugging environment would be needed.
This gave rise to the Windows application Transformer, an
open-source program designed for Unicodebased search-andreplace operations. It provides an environment for specifying, sequencing and testing multiple search-and-replace operations on a text file, and then allows the resulting sequence to be run against a batch of many fi les. This screenshot shows Transformer at work on one of the Moses data files. The ability to test and re-test replacement sequences proved
crucial, as we discovered that the original data was inconsistent.
Data-entry practices had changed over the lifetime of the
project. By testing against a range of fi les from different periods
and different data-entry operators, we were able to devise a
sequence which produced reliable results across the whole
set, and transform all the data in one operation.
Having successfully created Unicode representations of the
data, we were now able to consider how to convert the
results to TEI XML. The dataset was in fact hierarchically
structured, using a notation system which was designed to be
processed by Lexware. First, we were able to transform it into
XML using the Lexware Band2XML converter (http://www.
ling.unt.edu/~montler/convert/Band2xml.htm); then an XSLT
transformation took us to TEI P5.
The XML is now being proofed and updated, and an XML
database application is being developed.
Case Study #2: The Colonial
Despatches project
During the 1980s and 1990s, a team of researchers at the
University of Victoria, led by James Hendrickson, transcribed virtually the entire correspondence between the colonies of British Columbia and Vancouver Island and the Colonial Offi ce in London, from the birth of the colonies until their incorporation into the Dominion of Canada. These documents include not only the despatches (the spelling with “e” was normal in the period) between colonial governors and the bureacracy in London; each despatch received in London went through a process of successive annotation, in the form of bureaucratic “minutes”, through which its signifi cance was discussed, and appropriate responses or actions were mooted, normally leading to a decision or response by a government minister. These documents are held in archives in BC, Toronto and in the UK, and were transcribed both from originals and from microfi lm. It would be diffi cult to overestimate the historical signifi cance of this digital archive, and also its contemporary relevance to the treaty negotiations which are still going on between First Nations and the BC and Canadian governments.
The transcriptions take the form of about 9,000 text fi les
in Waterloo SCRIPT, a markup language used primarily for
preparing print documents. 28 volumes of printed text were generated from the original SCRIPT fi les, and several copies still exist. The scale of the archive, along with the multithreaded and intermittent nature of the correspondence, delayed as it was by the lengthy transmission times and the range of different government offi ces and agents who might be involved in any given issue, make this material very well-suited to digital publication (and rather unwieldy and diffi cult to navigate in print form). Our challenge is converting the original script files to P5 XML.
This is an example of the Waterloo Script used in this
project: We can see here the transcribed text, interspersed with structural milestones (.par;), editorial annotations such a sindex callouts and footnote links, and other commands such as .adr, which are actually user-defi ned macros that invoke sets of formatting instructions, but which are useful to us because they help identify and categorize information (addresses, dates, etc.). Although this is structured data, it is far from from ideal. It is procedural rather than hierarchical (we can see where a paragraph begins, but we have to infer where it ends); it is only partially descriptive; and it mixes editorial content with transcription. This is rather more of a challenge than the Moses data; it is much more varied and more loosely structured. Even if a generic converter for Waterloo SCRIPT fi les were available (we were unable to fi nd any working converter which produced useful output such as XML), it would essentially do no more than produce styling/printing instructions in a different format; it would not be able to infer the document structure, or convert (say) a very varied range of handwritten date formats into formal date representations. To create useful TEI XML files, we need processing which is able to make complex inferences from the data, in order to determine for instance where for example an <opener> begins and ends; decide what constitutes a <salute></salute>; or parse a human-readable text string such as “12719, CO 60/1, p. 207; received 14 December” into a  structured reference in XML. The most effective approach here was to write routines specific to these texts and the macros and commands used in them. As in the Moses project, we used the technique of stringing together a set of discrete operations, in an environment where they could be sequenced, and individual operations could be turned on and off, while viewing the results on individual texts. We gutted the original Transformer tool to create a shell within which routines programmed directly into the application were used in place of search-and-replace operations. The resulting interface provides th feature in Tranformer would have enabled us to write that
code in script form, and combine it with conventional searchand-
replace operations in a single process, without modifying
the application itself.
Although this paper does not focus on digital preservation,
it is worth noting that once data has been rescued, every
effort should be made to encode and store it in such a way
that it does not require rescuing again in the future. Good
practices include use of standard fi le formats, accompanying
documentation, regular migration as described in Besser
(1999), and secure, redundant storage. To these we would add
a recommendation to print out all your data; this may seem
excessive, but if all else fails, the printouts will be essential,
and they last a long time. Neither of the rescue projects
described above would have been practical without access to
the printed data. Dynamic rendering systems (such as Web
sites that produce PDFs or HTML pages on demand, from
database back-ends) should be able to output all the data in
the form of static fi les which can be saved. The dynamic nature
of such repositories is a great boon during development,
and especially if they continue to grow and to be edited, but
one day there may be no PHP or XSLT processor that can
generate the output, and someone may be very glad to have
those static fi les. We would also recommend creating virtual
machines for such complex systems; if your project depends
on Tomcat, Cocoon and eXist, it will be diffi cult to run when
there are no contemporary Java Virtual Machines.
References
Besser, Howard. 1999. “Digital longevity.” In Maxine Sitts (ed.)
Handbook for Digital Projects: A Management Tool for Preservation
and Access, Andover MA: Northeast Document Conservation
Center, 2000, pages 155-166. Accessed at <http://www.gseis.
ucla.edu/~howard/Papers/sfs-longevity.html>, 2007-11-09.
Holmes, Martin. 2007. Transformer. <http://www.tapor.uvic.
ca/~mholmes/transformer/>
Hsu, Bob. n.d. Lexware.
Kirschenbaum, Matthew. 2007. “Hamlet.doc? Literature in a
Digital Age.” The Chronicle of Higher Education Review, August
17, 2007. Accessed at <http://chronicle.com/free/v53/i50/
50b00801.htm>, 2007-11-09.
Krolicki, Kevin. 2001. “NASA Data Point to Mars ‘Bugs,’
Scientist Says.” Yahoo News (from Reuters). Accessed at
<http://web.archive.org/web/20010730040905/http://
dailynews.yahoo.com/h/nm/20010727/ sc/space_mars_life_
dc_1.html>, 2007-11-09.
Hendrickson, James E. (editor). 1988. Colonial Despatches of
British Columbia and Vancouver Island. University of Victoria.
libwpd - a library for importing WordPerfect (tm) documents.
<http://libwpd.sourceforge.net/>
The Nxaʔamxcín (Moses) Dictionary Database. <http://
lettuce.tapor.uvic.ca/cocoon/projects/moses/>
Vogt-O’Connor, Diane. 1999. “Is the Record of the 20th
Century at Risk?” CRM: Cultural Resource Management 22, 2:
21–24.e same options
for sequencing and suppressing operations, and for running
batch conversions on large numbers of fi les, but the underlying
code for each operation is project-specifi c, and compiled into
the application.
This screenshot shows the application at work on a despatch
fi le:
The bulk of the original SCRIPT fi les were converted in this
way, at a “success rate” of around 98% --meaning that at least
98% of the fi les were converted to well-formed XML, and
proved valid against the generic P5 schema used for the project.
The remaining fi les (around 150) were partially converted, and
then edited manually to bring them into compliance. Some of
these fi les contained basic errors in their original encoding
which precluded successful conversion. Others were too
idiosyncratic and complex to be worth handling in code. For
instance, 27 of the fi les contained “tables” (i.e. data laid out
in tabular format), each with distinct formatting settings, tab
width, and so on, designed to lay them out effectively on a
page printed by a monospace printer. The specifi c formatting
information was not representative of anything in the original
documents (the original documents are handwritten, and
very roughly laid out); rather, it was aimed specifi cally at the
print process. In cases like this, it was more effi cient simply to
encode the tables manually.
The project collection also contains some unencoded
transcription in the form of Word 5 documents. To retrieve this
data and other similar relics, we have built a virtual machine
running Windows 3.11, and populated it with DOS versions of
Word, WordStar and WordPerfect. This machine also provides
an environment in which we can run the still-famous TACT
suite of DOS applications for text-analysis. The virtual machine
can be run under the free VMWare Server application, and we
hope to make it available on CD-ROM at the presentation.
Conclusions
The data fi les in both the projects we have discussed above
were all in standard, documented formats. Nevertheless, no
generic conversion tool or process could have been used
to transform this data into XML, while preserving all of the
information inherent in it. We were faced with three core
problems:
- Idiosyncracy. Waterloo SCRIPT may be well documented,
but any given corpus is likely to use macros written
specifi cally for it. WordPerfect fi les may be documented, but
issues with character sets and obsolete fonts can render
them unreadable. Every project is unique.
- Inconsistency. Encoding practices evolve over time, and
no project of any size will be absolutely consistent, or free
of human error. The conversion process must be fl exible
enough to accommodate this; and we must also recognize
that there is a point at which it becomes more effi cient to
give up, and fi x the last few fi les or bugs manually.
- Non-explicit information. Much of the information
we need to recover, and encode explicitly, is not present in
a mechanical form in the original document. For example,
only context can tell us that the word “Sir” constitutes a
<salute>; this is evident to a human reader of the original
encoding or its printed output, but not obvious to a
conversion processor, unless highly specifi c instructions are
written for it.
In Transformer, we have attempted to create a tool which can
be used for many types of textual data (and we have since used
it on many other projects). Rather than create a customized
conversion tool for a single project, we have tried to create
an environment for creating, testing and applying conversion
scenarios. We are currently planning to add scripting support
to the application. For the Colonial Despatches project, we
resorted to customizing the application by adding specifi c
application code to accomplish the conversion. A scripting","txt","2","",""
"874","9","Digital Editions for Corpus Linguistics: A new approach to creating editions of historical manuscripts","1","Introduction
One relatively unexplored area in the expanding fi eld of digital
humanities is the interface between textual and contextual
studies, namely linguistics and history. Up to now, few digital
editions of historical texts have been designed with linguistic
study in mind. Equally few linguistic corpora have been
designed with the needs of historians in mind. This paper
introduces a new interdisciplinary project, Digital Editions for
Corpus Linguistics (DECL). The aim of the project is to create
a model for new, linguistically oriented online digital editions
of historical manuscripts.
Digital editions, while on a theoretical level clearly more
useful to scholars than print editions, have not yet become
the norm for publishing historical texts. To some extent this
can be argued to result from the lack of a proper publishing
infrastructure and user-friendly tools (Robinson 2005), which
limit the possibilities of individual scholars and small-scale
projects to produce digital editions.
The practical approach taken by the DECL project is to develop
a detailed yet fl exible framework for producing electronic
editions of historical manuscript texts. Initially, the development
of this framework will be based on and take place concurrently
with the work on three digital editions of Late Middle and Early
Modern English manuscript material. Each of these editions—a
Late Medieval bilingual medical handbook, a family of 15thcentury
culinary recipe collections, and a collection of early
17th-century intelligence letters—will serve both as a template
for the encoding guidelines for that particular text type and
as a development platform for the common toolset. Together,
the toolset and the encoding guidelines are designed to enable
editors of manuscript material to create digital editions of
their material with reasonable ease.
Theoretical background
The theoretical basis of the project is dually grounded in the
fi elds of manuscript studies and corpus linguistics. The aim
of the project is to create a solid pipeline from the former
to the latter: to facilitate the representation of manuscript
reality in a form that is amenable to corpus linguistic study.
Since context and different kinds of metatextual features are
important sources of information for such fi elds as historical
pragmatics, sociolinguistics and discourse analysis, the focus
must be equally on document, text and context. By document we
refer to the actual manuscript, by text to the linguistic contents
of the document, and by context to both the historical and
linguistic circumstances relating to text and the document. In
practice this division of focus means that all of these levels are
considered equally important facets of the manuscript reality
and are thus to be represented in the edition.
On the level of the text, DECL adopts the opinion of Lass
(2004), that a digital edition should preserve the text as
accurately and faithfully as possible, convey it in as fl exible a
form as possible, and ensure that any editorial intervention
remains visible and reversible. We also adopt a similar approach
with respect to the document and its context: the editorial
framework should enable and facilitate the accurate encoding
and presentation of both the diplomatic and bibliographical
features of the document, and the cultural, situational and
textual contexts of both the document and the text. In keeping
with the aforementioned aims, the development of both the
editions, and the tools and guidelines for producing them, will
be guided by the following three principles.
Flexibility
The editions seek to offer a fl exible user interface that will be
easy to use and enable working with various levels of the texts,
as well as selecting the features of the text, document and
context that are to be included in the presentation or analysis
of the text. All editions produced within the framework will
build on similar logic and general principles, which will be
fl exible enough to accommodate the specifi c needs of any
text type.
Transparency
The user interfaces of the editions will include all the features
that have become expected in digital editions. But in addition
to the edited text and facsimile images of the manuscripts,
the user will also be able to access the raw transcripts and
all layers of annotation. This makes all editorial intervention
transparent and reversible, and enables the user to evaluate
any editorial decisions.
Expandability
The editions will be built with future expansion and updating in
mind. This expandability will be three-dimensional in the sense
that new editions can be added and linked to existing ones,
and both new documents and new layers of annotation or information can be added to existing editions. Furthermore, the
editions will not be hardwired to a particular software solution,
and their texts can be freely downloaded and processed for
analysis with external software tools. The editions will be
maintained on a web server and will be compatible with all
standards-compliant web browsers.
Technical methods
Following the aforementioned principles, the electronic
editions produced by the project will reproduce the features
of the manuscript text as a faithful diplomatic transcription,
into which linguistic, palaeographic and codicological features
will be encoded, together with associated explanatory notes
elucidating the contents and various contextual aspects of the
text. The encoding standard used for the editions will be based
on and compliant with the latest incarnation of the TEI XML
standard (P5, published 1.11.2007), with any text-type specifi c
features incorporated as additional modules to the TEI schema.
The XML-based encoding will enable the editions to be used
with any XML-aware tools and easily converted to other
document or database standards. In addition to the annotation
describing the properties of the document, text and context,
further layers of annotation—e.g. linguistic analysis—can be
added to the text later on utilising the provisions made in the
TEI P5 standard for standoff XML markup.
The editorial strategies and annotation practices of the three
initial editions will be carefully coordinated and documented
to produce detailed guidelines, enabling the production of
further compatible electronic editions. The tools developed
concurrently with and tested on the editions themselves
will make use of existing open source models and software
projects—such as GATE or Heart of Gold, teiPublisher and
Xaira—to make up a sophisticated yet customisable annotation
and delivery system. The TEI-based encoding standard will also
be compatible with the ISO/TC 37/SC 4 standard, facilitating
the linguistic annotation of the text.
Expected results
One premise of this project is that creating digital editions
based on diplomatic principles will help raise the usefulness
of digitised historical texts by broadening their scope and
therefore also interest in them. Faithful reproduction of the
source text is a requisite for historical corpus linguistics,
but editions based on diplomatic transcripts of manuscript
sources are equally amenable to historical or literary enquiry.
Combining the approaches of different disciplines—historical
linguistics, corpus linguistics, history—to creating electronic
text databases should lead to better tools for all disciplines
involved and increase interdisciplinary communication and
cooperation. If they prove to be successful, the tools and
guidelines developed by DECL will also be readily applicable
to the editing and publication of other types of material,
providing a model for integrating the requirements and desires
of different disciplines into a single solution.
The fi rst DECL editions are being compiled at the Research
Unit for Variation, Contacts and Change in English (VARIENG)
at the University of Helsinki, and will form the bases for three
doctoral dissertations. These editions, along with a working
toolset and guidelines, are scheduled to be available within the
next fi ve years.
Since the aim of the DECL project is to produce an open
access model for multipurpose and multidisciplinary digital
editions, both the editions created by the DECL project
and the tools and guidelines used in their production will
be published online under an open access license. While the
project strongly advocates open access publication of scholarly
work, it also acknowledges that this may not be possible due
to ongoing issues with copyright, for example in the case of
facsimile images.
The DECL project is also intended to be open in the sense that
participation or collaboration by scholars or projects working
on historical manuscript materials is gladly welcomed.
References
DECL (Digital Editions for Corpus Linguistics). <http://www.
helsinki.fi /varieng/domains/DECL.html>.
GATE (A General Architecture for Text Engineering). <http://
gate.ac.uk>. Accessed 15 November 2007.
Heart of Gold. <http://www.delph-in.net/heartofgold/>.
Accessed 23 November 2007.
ISO/TC 37/SC 4 (Language resource management).
<http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_technical_committee.
html?commid=297592>. Accessed 15 November 2007.
Lass, Roger. 2004. “Ut custodiant litteras: Editions, Corpora
and Witnesshood”. Methods and Data in English Historical
Dialectology, ed. Marina Dossena and Roger Lass. Bern: Peter
Lang, 21–48. [Linguistic Insights 16].
Robinson, Peter. 2005. “Current issues in making digital
editions of medieval texts—or, do electronic scholarly
editions have a future?”. Digital Medievalist 1:1 (Spring 2005).
<http://www.digitalmedievalist.org>. Accessed 6 September
2006.
TEI (Text Encoding Initiative). <http:/www.tei-c.org>.
Accessed 15 November 2007.
teiPublisher. <http://teipublisher.sourceforge.net/docs/index.
php>. Accessed 15 November 2007.
VARIENG (Research Unit for Variation, Contacts and Change
in English). <http://www.helsinki.fi /varieng/>.
Xaira (XML Aware Indexing and Retrieval Architecture).
<http://www.oucs.ox.ac.uk/rts/xaira/>. Accessed 15
November 2007.","txt","2","",""
"875","9","The Moonstone and The Coquette: Narrative and Epistolary Styles","1","In his seminal work on Austen, John F. Burrows demonstrates
that characters can be distinguished from each another on
the basis of the frequencies of the most frequent words of
their dialogue treating the characters as if they were authors
(1987). Computational stylistics has also been used to study
the distinctive interior monologues of Joyce’s characters in
Ulysses (McKenna and Antonia 1996), the styles of Charles
Brockden Brown’s narrators (Stewart 2003), style variation
within a novel (Hoover 2003), and the interaction of character
separation and translation (Rybicki 2006). Here I address two
kinds of local style variation: the multiple narrators of Wilkie
Collins’s The Moonstone (1868) and the multiple letter writers
in Hannah Webster Foster’s sentimental American epistolary
novel The Coquette (1797).
The Moonstone has several narrators whose styles seem
intuitively distinct, though all the narrations share plot elements,
characters, and physical and cultural settings. The Coquette,
based on an infamous true story, and very popular when it
was published, is read today more for its cultural signifi cance
and its proto-feminist tendencies than for its literary merit.
Nevertheless, one would expect the coquette, the evil
seducer, the virtuous friend, and the disappointed suitor to
write distinctively. Treating the narrators and letter writers of
these two novels as different authors will test how successfully
Collins and Foster distinguish their voices and shed light on
some practical and theoretical issues of authorship and style.
Computational stylistics cannot be applied to narrators
and letter writers of these novels, however, unless they can
distinguish Collins and Foster from their contemporaries.
Experiments on a 10-million word corpus of forty-six Victorian
novels confi rm that Collins is easily distinguished from fi ve
of his contemporaries, as shown in Fig. I. For The Coquette, I
have made the task more diffi cult by comparing Foster’s letter
writers to those of fi ve other late 18th-century epistolary
novels by fi ve authors. I separated all the letters by writer and
addressee and retaining only the 22 writers with the most
letters, then combined the letters between each single writer
and addressee and cut the combined texts into 42 sections
of about 3,500 words. Both Delta and cluster analysis do a
good job on this diffi cult task, and many Delta analyses give
completely correct results. Cluster analysis is slightly less
accurate, but several analyses are correct for fi ve of the six
authors; they also show that individual letter writers strongly
tend to group together within the cluster for each novel (see
Fig. 2).
Examining the individual novels reveals a sharp contrast:
Collins’s narrators are internally consistent and easy to
distinguish, while Foster’s letter writers are much less internally
consistent and much more diffi cult to distinguish. For Collins,
cluster analysis consistently groups all narrative sections of
6 of the 7 narrators. When a modifi ed technique developed
especially for investigating intra-textual style variation is used
(Hoover 2003), the results are even better. As Fig. 3 shows,
all sections by all narrators sometimes cluster correctly (the
sections range from 4,300 to 6,900 words).
“Tuning” the analysis to produce better clustering may seem
circular in an analysis that tests whether Collins’s narrators
have consistent idiolects. But this objection can be answered by
noting the consistency of the groupings. The stable clustering
across large ranges of analyses with different numbers of
MFW that is found here is obviously more signifi cant than
frequently-changing clustering.
Note also that the sections strongly tend to occur in narrative
order in Fig. 3: every two-section cluster consists of contiguous
sections. This “echo” of narrative structure provides further
evidence that the analysis is accurately characterizing the
narrators’ styles. A fi ne-grained investigation of The Moonstone involving smaller
sections and including more narrators puts Collins’s ability to
differentiate his narrators to a sterner test, but some cluster
analyses are again completely correct. The distinctiveness of the
narrators of The Moonstone is thus confi rmed by computational
stylistics: the narrators behave very much as if they were
literally different authors. Given the length of the novel, the
generic constraints of narrative, and the inherent similarities
of plot and setting, this is a remarkable achievement.
For my analysis of The Coquette, I have added 3 more sections
of letters, so that there are 13 sections of approximately 3,000
words by 6 writers, with separate sections by a single writer
to two different addressees. Although these sections should
be considerably easier to group than those in the fi ne-grained
analysis of The Moonstone, the results are not encouraging.
Cluster analyses based on the 300-700 MFW produce very
similar but not very accurate results, in all of which letters by
Boyer and Eliza appear in both main clusters (see Fig. 4). Lucy’s
letters to Eliza also cluster with the last section of Eliza’s letters
to Lucy in all of these analyses a misidentifi cation as strong as
any correct one. In a real authorship attribution problem, such
results would not support the conclusion that all of Boyer’s
or Eliza’s letters were written by a single author. Perhaps one
could argue that Boyer’s letters to Selby should be different
from his letters to Eliza, and perhaps it is appropriate that
Eliza’s last section includes only despairing letters written
after Boyer has rejected her. Yet such special pleading is almost
always possible after the fact. Further, any suggestion that
Boyer’s letters to Eliza should be distinct from those to Selby
is impossible to reconcile with the fact that they cluster so
consistently with Eliza’s early letters to Lucy. And if Eliza’s early
and late letters should be distinct, it is diffi cult understand the
clustering of the early letters with those of Boyer to Selby and
the consistent clustering of the late letters with Lucy’s letters
to Eliza. It is diffi cult to avoid the conclusion that Foster has
simply failed to create distinct and consistent characters in
The Coquette.
In contrast, Fanny Burney, whose Evelina is included in the
novels compared with The Coquette, above, creates very
distinct voices for the letter writers. Although only four of
the writers have parts large enough for reasonable analysis,
Evelina writes to both her adoptive father Mr. Villars and her
friend Miss Mirvan, and Villars writes both to Evelina and
to Lady Howard. One might expect signifi cant differences
between letters to these very different addressees. Evelina’s
style might also be expected to change over the course of this
bildungsroman. However, analyses of all 34 sections of letters
from Evelina (approximately 2,500 words long), show that
Burney’s characters are much more distinct and consistent
than Foster’s, as a representative analysis shows (see Fig. 5).
This dendogram also strongly refl ects the narrative structure
of the novel. Burney, like Collins, is very successful in creating
distinctive voices for her characters.
Criticism of Foster’s novel has paid little attention to the
different voices of the characters, but what commentary there
is does not suggest that the patterns shown above should
have been predictable. Smith-Rosenberg, for example, suggests
a contrast between Eliza and “the feminized Greek chorus of
Richman, Freeman, and Eliza’s widowed mother, who, at the
end, can only mouth hollow platitudes” (2003: 35). Although
these women and Julia are often considered a monolithic
group urging conventional morality, the distinctness of Julia’s sections, especially from Lucy’s (see Fig. 5) might suggest
a reexamination of this notion, and might reveal how the
styles of Julia and the other women are related to more
signifi cant differences of opinion, character, or principle.
Various suggestions about changes in Eliza over the course of
the novel might also benefi t from a closer investigation of the
language of the letters. Because Foster’s novel is of interest
chiefl y on cultural, historical, and political grounds rather than
literary ones, however, such an investigation is more likely to
advance the theory and practice of computational stylistics
than the criticism of The Coquette. It is clear, at any rate, that
computational stylistics is adequate to the task of distinguishing
narrators and letter writers, so long as the author is adequate
to the same task.
References
Burrows, J. (1987) Computation into Criticism. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
Hoover, D. (2003) Multivariate Analysis and the Study of Style
Variation’, LLC 18: 341-60.
Smith-Rosenberg, C. (2003) Domesticating Virtue: Coquettes
and Revolutionaries in Young America’, In M. Elliott and C.
Stokes (eds),American Literary Studies: A Methodological Reader,
New York: NewYork Univ. Press.
Rybicki, J. (2006). “Burrowing into Translation: Character
Idiolects in Henryk Sienkiewicz’s Trilogy and its Two English
Translations,” LLC 21:91-103.
Stewart, L.”Charles Brockden Brown: Quantitative Analysis
and Literary Interpretation,” LLC 2003 18: 129-38.","txt","2","",""
"876","9","Term Discovery in an Early Modern Latin Scientific Corpus","1","This paper presents the results of a pilot project aimed at
the development of automatic techniques for the discovery
of salient technical terminology in a corpus of Latin texts.
These texts belong to the domain of mechanics and date
from the last quarter of the sixteenth and the fi rst quarter
of the seventeenth century, a period of intense intellectual
activity in which engineers and scientists explored the limits
of the Aristotelian and Archimedean paradigms in mechanics.
The tensions that arose ultimately were resolved by the new
“classical mechanics” inaugurated by Newton’s Principia in
1687 (cf. Damerow et al. 2004).
The work presented here forms part of a larger research
project aimed at developing new computational techniques to
assist historians in studying fi ne-grained developments in longterm
intellectual traditions, such as the tradition of Western
mechanics that begins with the pseudo-Aristotelian Problemata
Mechanica (ca. 330 B.C.E.). This research is integrated with two
larger institutional projects: the working group “Mental Models
in the History of Mechanics” at the Max Planck Institute for
the History of Science in Berlin, and the German DFG-funded
Collaborative Research Center (CRC) 644 “Transformations
of Antiquity.”
The purpose of this paper is to present initial results regarding
the development of effi cient methods for technical term
discovery in Early Modern scientifi c Latin. The focus is on the
identifi cation of term variants and on term enrichment. The
methodology employed is inspired by Jacquemin (2001), whose
approach allows for the use of natural language processing
techniques without the need for full syntactic parsing, which is
currently not technically feasible for Latin.
The present paper extends prior work in term discovery
along two vectors. First, work in term discovery has primarily
addressed the languages of Western Europe (especially
English and French), with some work also in Chinese and
Japanese. Latin presents some typological features that require
modifi cations to established techniques. Chief among these is
the rich infl ectional morphology (both nominal and verbal)
of Latin, which is a language of the synthetic type. Latin also
exhibits non-projectivity, i.e. syntactic constituents may be
represented non-continuously (with the intrusion of elements
from foreign constituents). Although the non-projectivity of
Renaissance Latin is considerably less than what is found in the
artistic prose (and a fortiori poetry) of the Classical language
(Bamman and Crane 2006), term detection must proceed
within a framework that allows for both non-projectivity and
(relatively) free word order within constituents. Second, researchers in the fi eld of term discovery have focused
almost exclusively on contemporary scientifi c corpora in
domains such as biomedicine. In contemporary scientifi c
literature, technical terms are characterized by a particularly
high degree of denotative monosemicity, exhibit considerable
stability, and follow quite rigid morphological, syntactic, and
semantic templates. Although these characteristics are also
applicable to the terminology of Latin scientifi c texts, they are
applicable to a lesser degree. In other words, the distinction
between technical terminology and ordinary language
vocabulary is less clear cut than in the case of contemporary
scientifi c and technical language. The lesser degree of
monosemicity, stability, and structural rigidity of terminology
holds implications for automatic term discovery in corpora
earlier than the twentieth (or at least nineteenth) century.
The corpus of Early Modern mechanics texts in Latin is welldesigned
for carrying out experiments in adapting established
techniques of term discovery to historical corpora. Mechanics
is by this time a scientifi c discipline that possesses an extensive
repertoire of characteristic concepts and terminology. Thus
it is broadly comparable to contemporary scientifi c corpora,
while still presenting unique features that merit special
investigation. Several thousand pages of text are available in
XML format, which have been digitized by the Archimedes
Project, an international German/American digital library
venture jointly funded by the DFG and NSF. It will be possible
to extend future work to a multilingual context, by examining
in addition closely-related vernacular works (in Italian, Spanish,
and German) that are contemporary with the Latin corpus.
(Some of these are translations and commentaries.)
The set of technical terminology discovered by the
methods presented in this paper is intended to further the
computationally-assisted framework for exploring conceptual
change and knowledge transfer in the history of science
that has been described by Hyman (2007). This framework
employs latent semantic analysis (LSA) and techniques for
the visualization of semantic networks, allowing change in the
semantic associations of terms to be studied within a historical
corpus. The concluding section of the present paper will survey
the applications of technical term discovery within historical
corpora for the study of the confl ict, competition, evolution,
and replacement of concepts within a scientifi c discipline and
will suggest potential applications for other scholars who are
concerned with related problems.
References
Bamman, D. and G. Crane. 2006. The design and use of a Latin
dependency treebank. In Proceedings of the TLT 2006, edd. J.
Hajič and J. Nivre, Prague, pp. 67–78.
Damerow, P., G. Freudenthal, P. McLaughlin, J. Renn, eds.
2004. Exploring the Limits of Preclassical Mechanics: A Study
of Conceptual Development in Early Modern Science: Free Fall
and Compounded Motion in the Work of Descartes, Galileo, and
Beeckman. 2d ed. New York.
Hyman, M.D. 2007. Semantic networks: a tool for investigating
conceptual change and knowledge transfer in the history of
science. In Übersetzung und Transformation, edd. H. Böhme, C.
Rapp, and W. Rösler, Berlin, pp. 355–367.
Jacquemin, C. 2001. Spotting and Discovering Terms through
Natural Language Processing. Cambridge, MA.","txt","2","",""
"877","9","Markup in Textgrid","1","The paper will discuss the decisions in relation to markup
which have been made in Textgrid. The fi rst part of the paper
will describe the functionality and principal architecture of
Textgrid, the second part will discuss Textgrid’s baseline
encoding. Textgrid is a modular platform for collaborative
textual editing and a fi rst building block for a community grid
for the humanities. Textgrid consists of a toolkit for creating
and working with digital editions and a repository offering
storage, archiving and retrieval.
Textgrid’s architecture follows a layered design, built for
openness on all levels. At its base there is a middleware layer
providing generic utilities to encapsulate and provide access
to the data grid’s storage facilities as well as external archives.
Additionally, indexing and retrieval facilities and generic services
like authorisation and authentication are provided here.
A service layer built on the middleware provides automated
text processing facilities and access to semantic resources.
Here, Textgrid offers domain-specifi c services like a
confi gurable streaming editor or a lemmatizer which uses the
dictionaries stored in Textgrid. All services can be orchestrated
in workfl ows, which may also include external services.
Every service deploys standard web service technologies.
As well, tools in the service layer can work with both data
managed by the middleware and data streamed in and out of
these services by the caller, so they can be integrated with
environments outside of Textgrid.
The full tool suite of Textgrid is accessible via TextGridLab, a
user interface based on Eclipse which, besides user interfaces
to the services and search and management facilities for
Textgrid’s content, also includes some primarily interactive
tools. The user interface provides integrated access to the
various tools: For example, an XML Editor, a tool to mark
up parts of an image and link it to the text, and a dictionary
service. From the perspective of the user, all these tools are
part of one application.
This software framework is completely based on plug-ins and
thus refl ects the other layers’ extensibility: it can be easily
extended by plug-ins provided by third parties, and although
there is a standalone executable tailored for the philologist
users, TextGridLab’s plugins can be integrated with existing
Eclipse installations, as well.
Additionally, the general public may read and search publicized
material by means of a web interface, without installing any
specialized software.
Designing this infrastructure it would have been a possibility
to defi ne one data format which can be used in all services
including search and retrieval and publishing. Instead the
designers chose a different approach: each service or software
component defi nes its own minimal level of format restriction.
The XML editor, which is part of the front end, is designed to
process all fi les which are xml conform; the streaming editor
service can handle any kind of fi le etc. The main reason for this
decision was the experience of those people involved and the
model of the TEI guidelines to allow users as much individual
freedom to choose and use their markup as possible even if
the success of TEI lite and the many project specifi c TEI subsets
seem to point to the need for defi ning strict standards.
But at some points of the project more restrictive format
decisions had to be made. One of them was the result of the
project’s ambition to make all texts searchable in a way which
is more useful than a mere full text search. On the other hand
it isn’t realistic to propose a full format which will allow all
future editors, lexicographers and corpus designers to encode
all features they are interested in. So Textgrid allows all projects
to use whatever XML markup seems necessary but burdens
the project with designing its own interface to these complex
data structures. But in this form the project data are an island
and there is no common retrieval possible. To allow a retrieval
across all data in Textgrid which goes beyond the possibilities
of a full text research, the Textgrid designers discussed several
possibilities but fi nally settled down on a concept which relies
very much on text types like drama, prose, verse, letter etc.
and we differentiate between basic text types like verse and
container text types like corpora or critical editions.
Interproject search is enabled by transforming all texts into
a rudimentary format which contains the most important
information of the specifi c text type. This baseline encoding is
not meant to be a core encoding which covers all important
information of a text type but it is strictly functional. We
defi ned three demands which should be met by the baseline
encoding, which is meant to be a subset of the TEI:
1) Intelligent search. Including often used aspects of text
types into the search we try to make text retrieval more
effective. A typical example would be the ‘knowledge’ that a
word is the lemma of a dictionary entry, so a search for this
word would mark this subtree as a better hit than another
where it is just part of a paragraph.
2) Representation of search results. The results of an interproject
search have to be displayed in some manner which
preserves some important aspects of the source texts.
3) Automatic reuse and further processing of text. A typical
example for this would be the integration of a dictionary
in a network of dictionaries. This aspect is notoriously underrepresented in most design decisions of modern
online editions which usually see the publication as the
natural goal of their project, a publication which usually only
allows for reading and searching as the typical forms of text
usage.
Our paper will describe the baseline encoding format for
some of the text types supported by Textgrid at the moment
including the metadata format and discuss in what ways the
three requirements are met by them.
One of the aims of our paper is to put our arguments and
design decisions up for discussion in order to test their
validity. Another aim is to refl ect on the consequences of this
approach for others like the TEI, especially the idea to defi ne
important text types for the humanities and provide specifi c
markup for them.","txt","2","",""
"878","9","Breaking down barriers: the integration of research data, notes and referencing in a Web 2.0 academic framework","1","In this paper I argue that the arbitrary distinction between
bibliographic data and research data – which we see in the
existence of specialised library catalogues and bibliographic
systems on the one hand, and a multitude of ad hoc notes,
digitized sources, research databases and repositories on the
other – is a hangover from a simpler past, in which publication
and bibliographic referencing was a well-defi ned and separate
part of the research cycle.
Today published material takes many different forms, from
books to multimedia, digital artworks and performances.
Research data results from collection and encoding of
information in museums, archives, libraries and fi eldwork, as
well as output from analysis and interpretation. As new forms
of digital publication appear, the boundary between published
material and research data blurs. Given the right enabling
structures (eg. peer review) and tools (eg. collaborative
editing), a simple digitized dataset can become as valuable as
any formal publication through the accretion of scholarship.
When someone publishes their academic musings in a personal
research blog, is it analogous to written notes on their desk
(or desktop) or is it grey literature or vanity publishing?
The drawing of a distinction between bibliographic references
and other forms of research data, and the storing of these data in
distinct systems, hinders construction of the linkages between
information which lie at the core of Humanities research. Why
on earth would we want to keep our bibliographic references
separate from our notes and developing ideas, or from data
we might collect from published or unpublished sources? Yet
standalone desktop silos (such as EndNote for references,
Word for notes and MSAccess for data) actively discourage
the linking of these forms of information.
Bespoke or ad hoc databases admirably (or less than admirably)
fulfi ll the particular needs of researchers, but fail to connect
with the wider world. These databases are often desktopbased
and inaccessible to anyone but the user of their host
computer, other than through sharing of copies (with all the
attendant problems of redundancy, maintenance of currency
and merging of changes). When accessible they often lack multiuser
capabilities and/or are locked down to modifi cation by a
small group of users because of the diffi culties of monitoring
and rolling back erroneous or hostile changes. Even when accessible to the public, they are generally accessible through
a web interface which allows human access but not machine
access, and cannot therefore be linked programmatically with
other data to create an integrated system for analyzing larger
problems.
For eResearch in the Humanities to advance, all the digital
information we use – bibliographic references, personal notes,
digitized sources, databases of research objects etc. – need
to exist in a single, integrated environment rather than in
separate incompatible systems. This does not of course mean
that the system need be monolithic – mashups, portals and
Virtual Research Environments all offer distributed alternatives,
dependant on exposure of resources through feed and web
services. The ‘silo’ approach to data is also breaking down
with the stunning success of web-based social software
such as the Wikipedia encyclopaedia or Del.icio.us social
bookmarking systems. These systems demonstrate that – with
the right level of control and peer review – it is possible to
build substantial and highly usable databases without the costs
normally associated with such resources, by harnessing the
collaborative enthusiasm of large numbers of people for data
collection and through data mining of collective behaviour.
To illustrate the potential of an integrated Web 2.0 approach
to heterogeneous information, I will discuss Heurist
(HeuristScholar.org) – an academic social bookmarking
application which we have developed, which provides rich
information handling in a single integrated web application
– and demonstrate the way in which it has provided a new
approach to building signifi cant repositories of historical data.
Heurist handles more than 60 types of digital entity (easily
extensible), ranging from bibliographic references and internet
bookmarks, through encyclopaedia entries, seminars and
grant programs, to C14 dates, archaeological sites and spatial
databases. It allows users to attach multimedia resources
and annotations to each entity in the database, using private,
public, and group-restricted wiki entries. Some entries can be
locked off as authoritative content, others can be left open to
all comers.
Effective geographic and temporal contextualisation and linking
between entities provides new opportunities for Humanities
research, particularly in History and Archaeology. Heurist
allows the user to digitize and attach geographic data to any
entity type, to attach photographs and other media to entities,
and to store annotated, date-stamped relationships between
entities. These are the key to linking bibliographic entries to
other types of entity and building, browsing and visualizing
networks of related entities.
Heurist represents a fi rst step towards building a single point
of entry Virtual Research Environment for the Humanities.
It already provides ‘instant’ web services, such as mapping,
timelines, styled output through XSLT and various XML feeds
(XML, KML, RSS) allowing it to serve as one component in a
decentralized system. The next version will operate in a peerto-
peer network of instances which can share data with one
another and with other applications.
The service at HeuristScholar.org is freely available for
academic use and has been used to construct projects as varied
as the University of Sydney Archaeology department website,
content management for the Dictionary of Sydney project (a
major project to develop an online historical account of the
history of Sydney) and an historical event browser for the
Rethinking Timelines project.","txt","2","",""
"879","9","Constructing Social Networks in Modern Ireland (C.1750-c.1940) Using ACQ","1","Associational Culture in Ireland (ACI) project at NUI
Maynooth explores the culture of Irish associational life from
1750 to 1940, not merely from the point of view of who, what,
where and when, but also to examine the ‘hidden culture’ of
social networking that operated behind many clubs and societies
throughout the period. Recently commissioned government
research on civic engagement and active citizenship in Ireland has
highlighted the paucity of data available for establishing ‘trends
in volunteering, civic participation, voting and social contact in
Ireland’ (Taskforce on Active Citizenship, Background Working
Paper, 2007, p. 2). The same research has also confi rmed the
importance in Ireland of informal social networking compared
to many other economically developed countries (Report of
the Taskforce on Active Citizenship, 2007). The objective of the
ACI project is to provide a resource to enable scholars of Irish
social and political life to reconstruct and highlight the role
that the wider informal community information fi eld played in
the public sphere in Ireland from the mid-eighteenth century.
The project will also provide long-term quantitative digital data
on associational culture in Ireland which is compatible with
sophisticated statistical analysis, thereby enabling researchers
to overcome one of the hindrances of modern-day purpose
based social surveys: the short timeframe of data currently
available.
Associational Culture and Social
Networking
All historians are aware of the importance of social networks
that underpin the foundations of social and political life in the
modern world (Clark, 2000; Putnam, 2000). However, given the
often-transient nature of much of these networks, they can be
quite diffi cult to reconstruct.
One way to examine social networks is to trace them through
the structures of a developing associational culture where the
cultivation of social exclusivity and overlapping membership
patterns provide insights into the wider organisation of civil
society at local, regional and national levels. To this end, the
ACI project mines a wide range of historical sources to piece
together as comprehensive a view as possible of the various
voluntary formal associations that existed in Ireland during the
period c.1750-c.1940.
The fi rst phase of the project concentrated on collecting
data on Irish associational culture and social networking
in the period 1750-1820; the current phase centres on the
period 1820-1880 and the third phase will focus on the
years between 1880 and 1940. The research results so far
testify to the vibrancy of associational activity in Ireland and
already patterns in social networking are becoming apparent
in different parts of the country. The results so far indicate
that particular forms of associational culture were popular in
different parts of the country from the mid-eighteenth century,
which in turn produced their own particular social networking
systems. In many respects these patterns were maintained into
the nineteenth century with similar continuities in patterns
of sociability even though these continuities were sometimes
expressed through different organisations, e.g. the ubiquitous
Volunteering movement of the later eighteenth century
gave way to local Yeomanry units in the beginning of the
nineteenth century. Associational culture among the urban
middling strata also appeared to increase somewhat moving
into the nineteenth century with the increasing appearance of
charitable and temperance societies in different parts of the
country.
Software Development
Given the vast range of data available in the sources and
the multiplicity of question types posed by the fi ndings, the
organisation and dissemination of the research was one of
the main priorities for the project. The desire to present a
quantitative as well as qualitative profi le of Irish associational
culture, which can be expanded upon by future research,
presented particular diffi culties in terms of the production
of the project’s fi ndings. A multi-skilled, partnership approach
was adopted, fusing historical and computer science expertise
to digitally represent the data recovered from the sources
and expose the resultant social networking patterns through
the construction of an appropriate online database for the
project. Encompassing over seventy individual data fi elds for
each association, the online ACI database is fully searchable by
organisation and by individual – the later feature in particular
allowing social patterns behind Irish associational culture to
be traced over the course of two centuries.
Bradley (2005) points out XML is well suited to document
oriented project materials (such as written text), whereas
relational database implementations are better suited to data
oriented project materials. Furthermore, he indicates that
projects may often use both, given that textual materials often
contain data materials that are more suited to relational models.
He argues that even if one begins with a text, the materials
may be data-orientated and better served by a relational
model where certain characteristics, for example, linkages
between data objects and powerful querying are more easily
expressed using SQL (Structured Query Language) than XML searching facilities, for example, XPATH or XQUERY. It was
necessary, for our project to use a relational model to encode
data orientated materials, even though data were derived
from newspaper articles which are typically more suited to
encoding in XML. Our relational objects are densely linked,
and it is often necessary to build SQL queries incorporating
multiple joins across many database tables.
The database contains over 100 individual database tables
related to associations, members, sources, relationships,
associate members, locations, etc. Authenticated data entry
and access is available using online forms. Test, rollback and
moderation facilities are available for different classes of user.
Research queries may be formulated using a specifi cally designed
English language-type formal grammar called Associational
Culture Query Language (ACQL), which is parsed by the
software system to extract and present information from the
database – parsing involves evaluating ACQL and converting it
into appropriately constructed SQL suitable for querying the
database. Users may construct ACQL manually or they may
use an online query builder (see Figure 1).
The software engineering process began with all partners
involved in a collaborative process concentrating on the
construction of a Specifi cation of Requirements (SR)
document which essentially formed the contract between
the ACI historians and software engineers – this key
document was used to derive all phases of the software
development process, for example, System Analysis, System
Design Specifi cations, Software Specifi cations, and Testing and
Maintenance. These phases were implemented using a rapid
prototyping model, where successive passes through a designdevelopment-
testing cycle provided new prototypes which
could be evaluated against the SR document. As is typical
of such development projects, there was some requirement
drift, but the rapid prototyping approach ensured insignifi cant
divergence between prototypes and expectations outlined in
the SR document.
In order to produce the SR document, the ACI historians
composed a series of research questions, which were used
to extract the information categories necessary for the
construction of social networks. During the collaborative
process, these research questions and sources were used to
identify and model the relationships between the associations
and individuals in the sources. A key requirement was that
ACI historians wanted to be able to answer specifi c research
questions related to social networking, for example, “Are there
any illegal women’s associations/clubs active in Ireland after
1832?” It was necessary to revise these research questions
during the Analysis phase, however, as it became apparent that
the historians did not expect a yes/no answer to this question,
but rather a list of the associations and clubs, if they existed.
Most research questions went through a revision process
where the cardinality or result context was explicit, i.e. “List
the illegal women’s associations active in Ireland after 1832”.
This research question could be reformulated in ACQL as
follows:
LIST THE BODIES (NAME) (
WHERE THE GENDER IS “Female” AND
WHERE THE STATUS IS “Illegal” AND
WHERE THE FOUNDING DATE
IS GREATER THAN 1st OF January 1832
)
The parsing software then converts this
ACQL query into the following SQL:
SELECT BodyName.bodyName
FROM Body, BodyGender,
BodyName, BodyStatus
WHERE (Body.idBody = BodyName.
Body_idBody) AND
(Body.idBody = BodyGender.
Body_idBody AND
BodyGender.gender =’Female’ AND
(Body.idBody = BodyStatus.
Body_idBody AND
BodyStatus.typeOfStatus =’Illegal’ AND
(Body.foundingDate > ‘1832-01-1’)
)
);
This query is then executed by the Relational Database
Management System (RDBMS) and the results are returned
to the environment for presentation to the user.
We examined over one hundred questions of this type
ensuring that our relational model provided appropriate
answers. We developed ACQL to map research questions
into SQL queries, thereby removing the requirement for the
user to have knowledge of the database, table joins, or even
SQL. Researchers need not have an intimate knowledge of the
relationship between the database tables and their associated
fi elds to perform searches. Another advantage of this approach
is that the underlying database structure could change and the
users would not have to change the format of their queries
implemented in ACQL.
Ongoing and Future Developments
The success of this project depends on the research
community using and contributing to the information
contained in the online database. We are heartened, however,
by the reports of Warwick et al (2007) who have shown
that when information aggregation sites have user-friendly
interfaces, contain quality peer-reviewed information, and fi t
research needs, the research community scholars are more
likely adopt the digital resource. We believe that ACQL is a
crucial component in making this system usable by professional
historians interested in social networking. In particular, as the
volume of data within the database expands in digital format,
the potential for developing further social analysis tools such
as sociograms will be initiated. All in all, the ACI database,
by providing quantitative and qualitative data on specific associations, regions, and groups of individuals, comparable
with international data sources, will greatly aid historical and
social science researchers to establish Irish trends in civic
participation, social inclusion, marginalisation and grassroots
organising in modern Ireland.
References
Bradley, J. (2005) Documents and Data: Modelling Materials
for Humanities Research in XML and Relational Databases.
Literary and Linguistic Computing, Vol. 20, No. 1.
Clark, P. (2000) British clubs and societies, 1500-1800: the origins
of an associational world. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Putnam, R. (2000) Bowling alone: the collapse and revival of
American community. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Taskforce on Active Citizenship (2007) Statistical Evidence
on Active Citizenship in Ireland, Background Working Paper.
Retrieved March 25, 2008 from the World Wide Web: http://
www.activecitizen.ie/UPLOADEDFILES/Mar07/Statistical%20
Report%20(Mar%2007).pdf.
Taskforce on Active Citizenship (2007) Report of the Taskforce
on Active Citizenship. Dublin: Secretariat of the Taskforce on
Active Citizenship.
Warwick, C., Terras, M., Huntington, P. and Pappa, N. (2007). If
You Build It Will They Come? The LAIRAH Study: Quantifying
the Use of Online Resources in the Arts and Humanities
through Statistical Analysis of User Log Data. Literary and
Linguistic Computing, Vol. 22, No. 1. pp. 1-18.","txt","2","",""
"880","9","Unnatural Language Processing: Neural Networks and the Linguistics of Speech","1","The foundations of the linguistics of speech (i.e., language
in use, what people actually say and write to and for each
other), as distinguished from ?the linguistics of linguistic
structure? that characterizes many modern academic ideas
about language, are 1) the continuum of linguistic behavior, 2)
extensive (really massive) variation in all features at all times, 3)
importance of regional/social proximity to “shared” linguistic
production, and 4) differential frequency as a key factor in
linguistic production both in regional/social groups and in
collocations in text corpora (all points easily and regularly
established with empirical study using surveys and corpora,
as shown in Kretzschmar Forthcoming a). Taken together, the
basic elements of speech correspond to what has been called a
?complex system? in sciences ranging from physics to ecology
to economics. Order emerges from such systems by means of
self-organization, but the order that arises from speech is not
the same as what linguists study under the rubric of linguistic
structure. This paper will explore the relationship between the
results of computational analysis of language data with neural
network algorithms, traditionally accepted dialect areas and
groupings, and order as it emerges from speech interactions.
In both texts and regional/social groups, the frequency
distribution of features (language variants per se or in proximal
combinations such as collocations, colligations) occurs as the
same curve: a ?power law? or asymptotic hyperbolic curve
(in my publications, aka the ?A-curve?). Speakers perceive
what is “normal” or “different” for regional/social groups and
for text types according to the A-curve: the most frequent
variants are perceived as “normal,” less frequent variants are
perceived as “different,” and since particular variants are more
or less frequent among different groups of people or types of
discourse, the variants come to mark identity of the groups
or types by means of these perceptions. Particular variants
also become more or less frequent in historical terms, which
accounts for what we call “linguistic change,” although of course
any such “changes” are dependent on the populations or text
types observed over time (Kretzschmar and Tamasi 2003). In
both synchronic and diachronic study the notion of “scale”
(how big are the groups we observe, from local to regional/
social to national) is necessary to manage our observations
of frequency distributions. Finally, our perceptions of the
whole range of “normal” variants (at any level of scale) create
“observational artifacts.” That is, the notion of the existence
of any language or dialect is actually an “observational artifact”
that comes from our perceptions of the available variants (plus
other information and attitudes), at one point in time and for
a particular group of speakers, as mediated by the A-curve. The notion “Standard,” as distinct from “normal,” represents
institutional agreement about which variants to prefer, some
less frequent than the “normal” variants for many groups of
speakers, and this creates the appearance of parallel systems
for “normal” and “Standard.”
The best contemporary model that accommodates such
processing is connectionism, parallel processing according to
what anthropologists call “schemas” (i.e., George Mandler’s
notion of schemas as a processing mechanism, D’Andrade 1995:
122-126, 144-145). Schemas are not composed of a particular
set of characteristics to be recognized (an object), but instead
of an array of slots for characteristics out of which a pattern is
generated, and so schemas must include a process for deciding
what to construct. One description of such a process is the
serial symbolic processing model (D’Andrade 1995: 136-
138), in which a set of logical rules is applied in sequence to
information available from the outside world in order to select
a pattern. A refi nement of this model is the parallel distributed
processing network, also called the connectionist network, or
neural net (D’Andrade 1995: 138-141), which allows parallel
operation by a larger set of logical rules. The logical rules
are Boolean operators, whose operations can be observed,
for example, in simulations that Kauffman (1996) has built
based on networks of lightbulbs. Given a very large network
of neurons that either fi re or not, depending upon external
stimuli of different kinds, binary Boolean logic is appropriate
to model “decisions” in the brain which arise from the on/off
fi ring patterns. Kauffman’s simulations were created to model
chemical and biological reactions which are similarly binary,
either happening or not happening given their state (or pattern)
of activation, as the system cycles through its possibilities.
The comparison yields similar results: as D’Andrade reports
(1995: 139-140), serial processing can be “’brittle’--if the input
is altered very slightly or the task is changed somewhat, the
whole program is likely to crash” (or as Kauffman might say,
likely to enter a chaotic state cycle), while parallel processing
appears to be much more fl exible given mixed or incomplete
input or a disturbance to the system (or as Kauffman might
say, it can achieve homeostatic order).
Computational modeling of neural networks appears, then, to be
an excellent match for analysis of language data. Unfortunately,
results to date have often been disappointing when applied
to geographic language variation (Nerbonne and Heeringa
2001, Kretzschmar 2006). Neural network analysis cannot be
shown reliably to replicate traditional dialect patterns. Instead,
self-organizational patterns yielded by neural net algorithms
appear to respond only in a general way to assumed dialect
areas, and often appear to be derived not from the data but
from conditions of its acquisition such as “fi eld worker” effects
(Kretzschmar Forthcoming b). However, this paper will show,
using results from experiments with an implementation of
a Self-Organizing Map (SOM) algorithm (Thill, Kretzschmar,
Casas, and Yao Forthcoming), that application of the model from
the linguistics of speech to computer neural network analysis
of geographical language data can explain such anomalies. It
is not the implementation of neural nets that is the problem,
but instead lack of control over the scale of analysis, and of
the non-linear distribution of the variants included in the
analysis, that tends to cause the problems we observe. In the
end, we still cannot validate traditional dialect areas from the
data (because these areas were also derived without suffi cient
control over the dynamics of the speech model), but we can
begin to understand more clearly how the results of neural
network analysis do reveal important information about the
distribution of the data submitted to them.
References
D’Andrade, Roy. 1995. The Development of Cognitive
Anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kauffman, Stuart. 1996. At Home in the Universe: The Search
for the Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Kretzschmar, William A., Jr. 2006. Art and Science in
Computational Dialectology. Literary and Linguistic Computing
21: 399-410.
Kretzschmar, William A., Jr. Forthcoming a. The Linguistics of
Speech. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kretzschmar, William A., Jr. Forthcoming b. The Beholder?s
Eye: Using Self-Organizing Maps to Understand American
Dialects. In Anne Curzan and Michael Adams, eds., Contours of
English (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press).
Kretzschmar, William A., Jr., and Susan Tamasi. 2003.
Distributional Foundations for a Theory of Language Change.
World Englishes 22: 377-401.
Nerbonne, John, and Wilbert Heeringa. 2001. Computational
Comparison and Classifi cation of Dialects. Dialectologia et
Geolinguistica 9: 69-83.
Thill, J., W. Kretzschmar, Jr, I. Casas, and X. Yao. Forthcoming.
Detecting Geographic Associations in English Dialect
Features in North America with Self-Organising Maps. In Self-
Organising Maps: Applications in GI Science, edited by P. Agarwal
and A. Skupin (London: Wiley).","txt","2","",""
"881","9","Digital Humanities 'Readership' and the Public Knowledge Project","1","As the amount of scholarly material published in digital form
increases, there is growing pressure on content producers
to identify the needs of expert readers and to create online
tools that satisfy their requirements. Based on the results
of a study conducted by the Public Knowledge Project and
introduced at Digital Humanities 2006 (Siemens, Willinsky and
Blake), continued and augmented since, this paper discusses
the reactions of Humanities Computing scholars and graduate
students to using a set of online reading tools.
Expert readers were asked about the value of using online
tools that allowed them to check, readily, related studies that
were not cited in the article; to examine work that has followed
on the study reported in the article; to consider additional
work that has been done by the same author; and to consult
additional sources on the topic outside of the academic
literature. In the course of this study, these domain-expert
readers made it clear that reading tools could make a defi nite,
if limited, contribution to their critical engagement with journal
articles (especially if certain improvements were made). Their
reactions also point to an existing set of sophisticated reading
strategies common to most expert readers.
Our fi ndings indicate that online tools are of most value to
expert readers when they complement and augment readers’
existing strategies. We have organized the results of the
study around a number of themes that emerged during our
interviews with domain expert readers as these themes speak
to both readers’ existing reading processes and the potential
value of the online reading tools. By entering user responses
into a matrix, we have been able to measure user responses
and track both negative and positive reactions to different
aspects of the online reading tools.
In addition to these fi ndings, we also discovered that users’
experiences with the online reading tools was infl uenced by
their existing research methods, their familiarity with online
research, and their expectations of online publishing. While
many respondents felt that the “information environment”
created by the online tools was benefi cial to their evaluation
and understanding of the material, they also expressed some
dissatisfaction with their experience. Some users questioned
the relevance and usefulness of the contextual material
retrieved by the online tools. Users were also concerned with
the perceived credibility of research published online and the
limited amount of freely available online material.
The results of our study reveal both the potential strengths
and perceived weaknesses of online reading environments.
Understanding how users read and evaluate research materials,
anticipating users’ expectations of the reading tools and
resources, and addressing user concerns about the availability
of online material will lead to improvements in the design and
features of online publishing.
Bibliography
Affl erbach Peter P. “The Infl uence of Prior Knowledge on
Expert Readers’ Main Idea Construction Strategies.” Reading
Research Quarterly 25.1 (1990): 31-46.
Alexander, P. A. Expertise and Academic Development: A New
Perspective on a Classic Theme. Invited keynote address to
the Biennial meeting of the European Association for the
Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI). Padova, Italy.
August 2003.
Chen, S., F. Jing-Ping, and R. Macredie. “Navigation in
Hypermedia Learning Systems: Experts vs. Novices.”
Computers in Human Behavior 22.2 (2006): 251-266.
Pressley, M., and P. Affl erbach. Verbal Protocols of Reading:
The Nature of Constructively Responsive Reading. Hillsdale NJ:
Erlbaum, 1995.
Schreibman, Susan, Raymond George Siemens, and John M.
Unsworth, eds. A Companion to Digital Humanities. Oxford, UK:
Blackwell, 2004
Siemens, Ray, Analisa Blake, and John Willinsky. “Giving Them
a Reason to Read Online: Reading Tools for Humanities
Scholars.” Digital Humanities 2006. Paris.
Stanitsek, Geog. “Texts and Paratexts in Media.” Trans. Ellen
Klien. Critical Inquiry 32.1 (2005): 27-42.
Willinsky, J. “Policymakers’ Use of Online Academic
Research.” Education Policy Analysis Archives 11.2, 2003, <http://
epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v11n2/>. Willinsky, J., and M. Quint-Rapoport. When Complementary
and Alternative Medicine Practitioners Use PubMed. Unpublished
paper. University of British Columbia. 2007.
Windschuttle, Keith. “Edward Gibbon and the
Enlightenment.” The New Criterion 15.10. June 1997. <http://
www.newcriterion.com/archive/15/jun97/gibbon.htm>.
Wineburg, S. “Historical Problem Solving: A Study of the
Cognitive Processes Used in the Evaluation of Documentary
and Pictorial Evidence.” Journal of Educational Psychology 83.1
(1991): 73-87.
Wineburg, S. “Reading Abraham Lincoln: An Expert/Expert
Study in the Interpretation of Historical Texts.” Cognitive
Science 22.3 (1998): 319-346.
Wyatt, D., M. Pressley, P.B. El-Dinary, S. Stein, and R. Brown.
“Comprehension Strategies, Worth and Credibility
Monitoring, and Evaluations: Cold and Hot Cognition When
Experts Read Professional Articles That Are Important to
Them.” Learning and Individual Differences 5 (1993): 49–72.","txt","2","",""
"882","9","Using syntactic features to predict author personality from text","1","The style in which a text is written reflects an array of
meta-information concerning the text (e.g., topic, register,
genre) and its author (e.g., gender, region, age, personality).
The fi eld of stylometry addresses these aspects of style. A
successful methodology, borrowed from text categorisation
research, takes a two-stage approach which (i) achieves
automatic selection of features with high predictive value for
the categories to be learned, and (ii) uses machine learning
algorithms to learn to categorize new documents by using the
selected features (Sebastiani, 2002). To allow the selection of
linguistic features rather than (n-grams of) terms, robust and
accurate text analysis tools are necessary. Recently, language
technology has progressed to a state of the art in which the
systematic study of the variation of these linguistic properties
in texts by different authors, time periods, regiolects, genres,
registers, or even genders has become feasible.
This paper addresses a not yet very well researched
aspect of style, the author’s personality. Our aim is to test
whether personality traits are refl ected in writing style.
Descriptive statistics studies in language psychology show a
direct correlation: personality is projected linguistically and
can be perceived through language (e.g., Gill, 2003; Gill &
Oberlander, 2002; Campbell & Pennebaker, 2003). The focus
is on extraversion and neuroticism, two of “the most salient
and visible personality traits” (Gill, 2003, p. 13). Research in
personality prediction (e.g., Argamon et al., 2005; Nowson
& Oberlander, 2007; Mairesse et al., 2007) focuses on
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and
neuroticism.
We want to test whether we can automatically predict
personality in text by studying the four components of
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: Introverted-Extraverted,
Intuitive-Sensing, Thinking-Feeling, and Judging-Perceiving. We
introduce a new corpus, the Personae corpus, which consists of
Dutch written language, while other studies focus on English.
Nevertheless, we believe our techniques to be transferable to
other languages. Related Research in Personality
Prediction
Most of the research in personality prediction involves the
Five-Factor Model of Personality: openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. The so-called Big
Five have been criticized for their limited scope, methodology
and the absence of an underlying theory. Argamon et al. (2005)
predict personality in student essays using functional lexical
features. These features represent lexical and structural choices
made in the text. Nowson & Oberlander (2007) perform
feature selection and training on a small and clean weblog
corpus, and test on a large, automatically selected corpus.
Features include n-grams of words with predictive strength for
the binary classifi cation tasks. Openness is excluded from the
experiments because of the skewed class distribution. While
the two studies mentioned above took a bottom-up approach,
Mairesse et al. (2007) approach personality prediction from
a top-down perspective. On a written text corpus, they test
the predictive strength of linguistic features that have been
proposed in descriptive statistics studies.
Corpus Construction
Our 200,000-word Personae corpus consists of 145 BA student
essays of about 1,400 words about a documentary on Artifi cial
Life in order to keep genre, register, topic and age relatively
constant. These essays contain a factual description of the
documentary and the students’ opinion about it. The task was
voluntary and students producing an essay were rewarded
with two cinema tickets. They took an online MBTI test and
submitted their profile, the text and some user information. All
students released the copyright of their text to the University
of Antwerp and explicitly allowed the use of their text and
personality profile for research, which makes it possible to
distribute the corpus.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Myers & Myers, 1980) is a
forced-choice test based on Jung’s personality typology which
categorizes a person on four preferences:
• Introversion and Extraversion (attitudes): I’s tend to
refl ect before they act, while E’s act before they refl ect.
• iNtuition and Sensing (information-gathering): N’s rely
on abstract or theoretical information, while S’s trust
information that is concrete.
• Feeling and Thinking (decision-making): While F’s decide
based on emotions, T’s involve logic and reason in their
decisions.
• Judging and Perceiving (lifestyle): J’s prefer structure in
their lives, while P’s like change.
MBTI correlates with the Big Five personality traits
of extraversion and openness, to a lesser extent with
agreeableness and consciousness, but not with neuroticism
(McCrae & Costa, 1989).
The participants’ characteristics are too homogeneous for
experiments concerning gender, mother tongue or region, but
we fi nd interesting distributions in at least two of the four
MBTI preferences: .45 I vs. .55 E, .54 N vs. .46 S, .72 F vs. .28 F,
and .81 J and .19 P.
Personality measurement in general, and the MBTI is no
exception, is a controversial domain. However, especially for
scores on IE and NS dimensions, consensus is that they are
correlated with personality traits. In the remainder of this
paper, we will provide results on the prediction of personality
types from features extracted from the linguistically analyzed
essays.
Feature Extraction
While most stylometric studies are based on token-level
features (e.g., word length), word forms and their frequencies
of occurrence, syntactic features have been proposed as more
reliable style markers since they are not under the conscious
control of the author (Stamatatos et al., 2001).
We use Memory-Based Shallow Parsing (MBSP) (Daelemans et
al., 1999), which gives an incomplete parse of the input text, to
extract reliable syntactic features. MBSP tokenizes, performs
a part-of-speech analysis, looks for chunks (e.g., noun phrase)
and detects subject and object of the sentence and some
other grammatical relations.
Features occurring more often than expected (based on the
chi-square metric) in either of the two classes are extracted
automatically for every document. Lexical features (lex) are
represented binary or numerically, in n-grams. N-grams of
both fi ne-grained (pos) and coarse-grained parts-of-speech
(cgp) are integrated in the feature vectors. These features have
been proven useful in stylometry (cf. Stamatatos et al., 2001)
and are now tested for personality prediction.
Experiments in Personality Prediction
and Discussion
We report on experiments on eight binary classifi cation tasks
(e.g., I vs. not-I) (cf. Table 1) and four tasks in which the goal is
to distinguish between the two poles in the preferences (e.g., I
vs. E) (cf. Table 2). Results are based on ten-fold cross-validation
experiments with TiMBL (Daelemans & van den Bosch, 2005),
an implementation of memory-based learning (MBL). MBL
stores feature representations of training instances in memory
without abstraction and classifi es new instances by matching
their feature representation to all instances in memory. We
also report random and majority baseline results. Per training document, a feature vector is constructed, containing commaseparated
binary or numeric features and a class label. During
training, TiMBL builds a model based on the training data by
means of which the unseen test instances can be classifi ed.

Table 2 shows results on the four discrimination tasks, which
allows us to compare with results from other studies in
personality prediction. Argamon et al. (2005) fi nd appraisal
adjectives and modifi ers to be reliable markers (58% accuracy)
of neuroticism, while extraversion can be predicted by function
words with 57% accuracy. Nowson & Oberlander (2007)
predict high/low extraversion with a 50.6% accuracy, while
the system achieves 55.8% accuracy on neuroticism, 52.9% on
agreeableness, and 56.6% on conscientiousness. Openness is
excluded because of the skewed class distribution. Taking a
top-down approach, Mairesse et al. (2007) report accuracies
of 55.0% for extraversion, 55.3% for conscientiousness,
55.8% agreeableness, 57.4% for neuroticism, and 62.1% for
openness.For the I-E task - correlated to extraversion in the Big Five - we
achieve an accuracy of 65.5%, which is better than Argamon
et al. (2005) (57%), Nowson & Oberlander (2007) (51%), and
Mairesse et al. (2007) (55%). For the N-S task - correlated to
openness - we achieve the same result as Mairesse et al. (2007)
(62%). For the F-T and J-P tasks, the results hardly achieve
higher than majority baseline, but nevertheless something is
learned for the minority class, which indicates that the features
selected work for personality prediction, even with heavily
skewed class distributions.
Conclusions and Future WorkE xperiments with TiMBL suggest that the fi rst two personality
dimensions (Introverted-Extraverted and iNtuitive-Sensing)
can be predicted fairly accurately. We also achieve good
results in six of the eight binary classifi cation tasks. Thanks to
improvements in shallow text analysis, we can use syntactic
features for the prediction of personality type and author.
Further research using the Personae corpus will involve a
study of stylistic variation between the 145 authors. A lot of
the research in author recognition is performed on a closedclass
task, which is an artifi cial situation. Hardly any corpora
– except for some based on blogs (Koppel et al., 2006)
– have more than ten candidate authors. The corpus allows
the computation of the degree of variability encountered in
text on a single topic of different (types) of features when
taking into account a relatively large set of authors. This will
be a useful complementary resource in a fi eld dominated by
studies potentially overestimating the importance of these
features in experiments discriminating between only two or a
small number of authors.
Acknowledgements
This study has been carried out in the framework of the
Stylometry project at the University of Antwerp. The
“Computational Techniques for Stylometry for Dutch” project
is funded by the National Fund for Scientifi c Research (FWO)
in Belgium.References
Argamon, S., Dhawle, S., Koppel, M. and Pennebaker, J. (2005),
Lexical predictors of personality type, Proceedings of the Joint
Annual Meeting of the Interface and the Classifi cation Society of
North America.
Campbell, R. and Pennebaker, J. (2003), The secret life of
pronouns: Flexibility in writing style and physical health,
Psychological Science 14, 60-65.
Daelemans, W. and van den Bosch, A. (2005), Memory-Based
Language Processing, Studies in Natural Language Processing,
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Daelemans, W., Bucholz, S. and Veenstra, J. (1999), Memory-
Based Shallow Parsing, Proceedings of the 3rd Conference on
Computational Natural Language Learning CoNLL, pp. 53-60.
Gill, A. (2003), Personality and language: The projection
and perception of personality in computer-mediated
communication, PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh.
Gill, A. & Oberlander J. (2002), Taking care of the linguistic
features of extraversion, Proceedings of the 24th Annual
Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, pp. 363-368.
Koppel, M., Schler, J., Argamon, S. and Messeri, E. (2006),
Authorship attribution with thousands of candidate authors,
Proceedings of the 29th ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and
Development on Information Retrieval, pp. 659-660.
Mairesse, F., Walker, M., Mehl, M. and Moore, R. (2007), Using
linguistic cues for the automatic recognition of personality in
conversation and text, Journal of Artifi cial Intelligence Research.
McCrae, R. and Costa, P. (1989), Reinterpreting the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator from the perspective of the Five-Factor
Model of Personality, Journal of Personality 57(1), 17-40.
Myers, I. and Myers, P. (1980), Gifts differing: Understanding
personality type, Mountain View, CA: Davies-Black Publishing.
Nowson, S. and Oberlander, J. (2007), Identifying more
bloggers. Towards large scale personality classifi cation of
personal weblogs, Proceedings of International Conference on
Weblogs and Social Media ICWSM.
Sebastiani, F. (2002), Machine learning in automated text
categorization, ACM Computing Surveys 34(1), 1-47.
Stamatatos, E., Fakotakis, N. and Kokkinakis, G. (2001),
Computer-based authorship attribution without lexical
measures, Computers and the Humanities 35(2), 193-214.","txt","2","",""
"883","9","An Interdisciplinary Perspective on Building Learning Communities Within the Digital Humanities","1","Introduction
Recent research at the Centre for Computing in the Humanities
at King’s College London has focussed on the role and place
of the digital humanities in the academic curriculum of Higher
Education (see Jessop:2005, Jessop:forthcoming). This work
is based on the experience of both our undergraduate and
postgraduate programmes focusing particularly on the way in
which students are encouraged to integrate the content of
a variety of digital humanities courses and apply it to their
own research project. In the case of the undergraduates this is
developed in conjunction with their home department. These
courses are designed to train not just the new generation of
young scholars in our discipline but also the majority who will
gain employment in a variety of professions in industry and
commerce.
Our students come from a range of disciplines and backgrounds
within the humanities and what is highlighted in each case is
the necessity to ensure that their projects meet the scholarly
criteria of their home disciplines and the interdisciplinary
aspects of humanities computing. This emphasises the need for
training the students in collaborative method and refl ective
practice; the need to build a community of learning which will
lead to a community of practice. This paper discusses recent
research and initiatives within distance learning, focussing on
how these can be repurposed for campus-based courses, and
is illustrated by the fi ndings of their use in a digital humanities
course.
Context
There have been a number of initiatives that are pertinent
to this topic. The published report on the accomplishments
of the Summit on Digital Tools for the Humanities convened
in 2005 at the University of Virginia (http://www.iath.virginia.
edu/dtsummit/ ) identifi ed areas where innovative change was
taking place that could lead to what they referred to as “a new
stage in humanistic scholarship”. The style of collaboration
enabled by digital learning community tools is identifi ed as one
such area. This has been further reinforced at the National
Endowment of the Humanities hosted Summit Meeting of
Digital Humanities Centers and Funders held in April 2007 at
the University of Maryland. (https://apps.lis.uiuc.edu/wiki/display/DHC/Digital+Humanitie
s+Centers+Summit )
On the summit wiki among the areas of research priorities
and funder priorities John Unsworth lists:
• Collaborative work
• Teaching and learning
• Collaboration among scholars
(https://apps.lis.uiuc.edu/wiki/display/DHC/Areas+of+researc
h+priorities%2C+funder+priorities )
Building communities of learning and developing strategies
for collaborative working has been the subject of much study
within the distance learning community (Anderson:2004,
Brown:2006, Perry and Edwards:2005, Swan:2002, et al) and
here it is argued that this also needs to be a consideration
for campus-based academic programmes. The growing trend
among undergraduate programmes of a movement away from
set courses to the introduction of modular and credit systems
means that students no longer follow a single programme of
study. Their time is fragmented between their chosen course
options and they often only come together with their peers
for ‘core courses’. Thus in the last two decades study has
become more of an individual rather than community-based
activity. This trend needs to be compensated for by teaching
collaborative skills, the very same skills that are at the heart of
the majority of digital humanities research projects.
The ‘Community of Inquiry’ model (developed by Garrison,
Anderson and Archer:2000 and 2004) draws out the basic
elements which overlap to form the educational experience
of the distance learner: social, cognitive, and teaching
presence. This model is used as a framework to analyse the
effectiveness of asynchronous discussion methodologies
(which encourage refl ective practice), with particular regard
for cognitive presence (where students construct meaning
through communication with their peers, which is particularly
important in the development of critical thinking), when used
in campus-based courses.
Building Networked Communities for
Collaborative and Refl ective Teaching
and Learning
The highly collaborative nature of modern research practice
makes it clear that future humanities scholars need to be trained
in the collaborative process and to understand the importance
of critical refl ection (Jessop:2005, Jessop:forthcoming). This
emphasis on collaborative practice represents a shift in the
academic culture of humanities away from the popular funding
model of a single researcher towards one of team working
where no single person has complete control or ownership.
This is closer to models in operation in the sciences where
progress is often based on team efforts and reports frequently
have many authors; we may need to develop protocols that
borrow some aspects of science research practice. The results
of the author’s limited research into the effectiveness of the
collaborative process in medical research practice are also to
be included in this study.
To develop an environment that fosters collaboration and
refl ection students should be actively encouraged to engage
with each other both inside and outside of the classroom.
With social software (MySpace, Facebook, LiveJournal, inter
alia) students are already building networked communities,
and the blog and wiki have provided educators with simple,
readily available tools to build learning communities. The wiki
can be deployed as an experiential and formative learning
environment outside of the classroom with students able
to create their own content, comment on each others, and
share resources using tools like del.icio.us and MyIntute. The
blog supports this with a less formal refl ective space which
belongs to the students themselves rather than their course.
The asynchronous nature of these media gives students the
opportunity to refl ect on their classmates’ contribution in the
processes of creating their own (Swan:2000) and so instil the
practice of critical refl ection. Further, with simple applications
such as MyYahoo and iGoogle students can draw all their
varied networks together along with course and departmental
webpages thus giving a single interface or ‘Personal Learning
Portal’ (PLP) through which to access and manage their online
resources.
In their PLP students create a web interface for their own
digital environment that includes:
• Content management where they integrate both personal
and academic interests
• A networking system for connection with others
• Collaborative and individual workspace
• Communications setup
• A series of syndicated and distributed feeds
This model is based on a presentation given by Terry Anderson
at the Centre for Distance Education, University of London in
March 2007:
http://www.cde.london.ac.uk/support/news/generic3307.
htm). In this Anderson discusses how the Personal Learning
Environment (PLE), such as that used at Athabasca, is an
improvement on the popular Virtual Learning Environment
(VLE). That argument is developed here with stress upon the
further advantages of the PLP introduced earlier.
What is notable is that this model represents an approach
rather than a specifi c application and is portable and not dependant on a single department or even institution. This
ensures sustainability as it allows and encourages students to
take the tools and skills from one area and apply them in others
(arguably the basis of humanities computing, see McCarty
and Short:2002). At the same time it puts the emphasis for
the responsibility for managing their own learning and web
resources on the students.
In this approach learners are encouraged to interact and
collaborate in a way that does not occur when static webpages
are viewed with a traditional browser. The pages on a wiki and
the student’s PLP are dynamic and mutable as they can be
edited by the user through their web browser. Learners gain
the ability to enrich the material and, unlike a print publication
where those annotations are only for personal use, make
these available for others. Such exchanges of ideas are central
to the processes of building communities of learning and it is
in this way that knowledge grows as we are able to push the
boundaries of scholarship. The model that is developing here is
one in which the student moves from being a reader of other
peoples’ material to active engagement with that material; a
transition from being a ‘reader’ to being an ‘interpreter’.
Conclusion
Education is an academic, individual, and a social experience
that requires a sustainable community of learning. The tools
and experiences developed in the distance learning fi eld can
be re-purposed for the ‘analogue’ students. The suggested
model based on the student’s PLP is grounded in collaborative
practice, uses asynchronous discussion to develop refl ective
practice and ensure cognitive presence; it is sustainable and
portable. Putting this in the wider context, it is by building
a community of learners that we will instil the cooperative,
collaborative, and refl ective skills needed for a community of
humanities scholars; skills that are equally in demand outside
of the academy. The tools have already been subject to limited
trials in the digital humanities programmes at King’s College
London but the current academic year will see a more extensive
application of them across our teaching. The fi nal version this
paper will report on the results of the experiences of both
teachers and learners of this model applied to a humanities
computing course. The work contributes to the pedagogy of
the digital humanities in the academic curricula both within
the teaching of humanities computing and the development
of tools for collaborative research and on-line learning
communities.
Bibliography
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Athabasca University online books: http://www.cde.athabascau.
ca/online_book/ (last accessed 01/11/07)
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Garrison D, Anderson T, and Archer W (2000) ‘Critical inquiry
in a text-based environment: computer conferencing in higher
education’. The Internet and Higher Education Volume 2, Issue 3
pp.87-105
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cognitive presence, and computer conferencing in distance
education’. The American Journal of Distance Education Volume
15, Issue 1 pp.7-23.
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thinking and computer conferencing: A model and tool for
assessing cognitive presence’. http://communitiesofi nquiry.
com/documents/CogPresPaper_June30_.pdf (last accessed
26/10/07)
Jessop M (2005) ‘Teaching, Learning and Research in Final year
Humanities Computing Student Projects’, Literary and Linguistic
Computing. Volume 20, Issue 3.
Jessop M (Forthcoming) ‘Humanities Computing Research as
a Medium for Teaching and Learning in the Digital Humanities’,
Digital Humanities Quarterly.
Mahony S (2007) ‘Using digital resources in building and
sustaining learning communities’, Body, Space & Technology,
Volume 07/02.
McCarty W and Short H (2002) ‘A Roadmap for Humanities
Computing’ http://www.allc.org/reports/map/ (last accessed
04/11/07)
Moon J (2004) A Handbook of Refl ective and Experiential Learning:
Theory and Practice, RoutledgeFalmer
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events/2005conf/ref/ODLAA2005PerryEdwards.pdf (last
accessed 04/11/07)
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online courses in relation to students’ perceived learning and
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pp. 68-88
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"884","9","The Middle English Grammar Corpus - a tool for studying the writing and speech systems of medieval English","1","The Middle English Grammar Project
The Middle English Grammar Project (MEG), shared by the
Universities of Glasgow and Stavanger, is working towards
the description of Middle English orthography, morphology
and phonology. MEG is among the fi rst attempts to span the
gap between Jordan’s Handbuch der mittelenglischen Grammatik:
Lautlehre (1925) and now. Our aim is to combine the advances
in Middle English dialectology in the latter half of the 20th
century and the computing power currently available in the
service of writing an up-to-date grammar of Middle English.
Middle English dialects and
dialectology
The study of Middle English dialects took a giant leap
forward by Angus McIntosh’s insight that Middle English texts
represent distinct regional varieties in their spelling systems,
and therefore the spelling variants of these texts could be
studied in their own right and not merely as refl ections of
the then speech systems, i.e. dialects (McIntosh 1963). This
multitude of regional spellings arose when English had been
replaced by French and Latin in all important aspects for
nearly two centuries after the Norman Conquest: the reintroduction
of English into literary and utilitarian registers
from the thirteenth century onwards was not governed by any
nationwide standard and thus English was written according
to each scribe’s perception of the ‘correct’ spelling. McIntosh’s
vision led to a project that grew into A Linguistic Atlas of Late
Mediaeval English (LALME; 1986).
Aims of MEG
The Middle English Grammar project builds on the work of
the LALME team and aims at producing a description of Middle
English orthography, phonology and morphology, from 1100 to
1500. Here we use the term grammar in a wide, philological
sense. Eventually, the grammar is meant as an replacement
to Richard Jordan’s Handbuch der mittelenglischen Grammatik:
Lautlehre, and to provide a reference point for the students and
scholars of Middle English in the form of a broad description
of the Middle English usages accompanied by more specifi c
county studies, and eventually also all the base material we
accumulate for this task (Black, Horobin, and Smith 2002: 13). The Middle English Grammar: How?
The fi rst task of MEG is to compile a corpus of Middle English
texts localized in LALME. The corpus is called The Middle
English Grammar Corpus, or MEG-C (the fi rst installment
forthcoming 2007). Secondly, the corpus texts need appropriate
lemmatization and annotation in order to be usable in the
course of MEG.
Linguistic data is collected by transcribing extracts from either
the original manuscripts, or good-quality microfi lms. The
prioritised material are the texts that were localized in LALME,
although later texts that were not analysed for LALME will be
taken into account as well. LALME covers years 1350-1450
(-1500); the material for the studies in 1100-1350 will be
drawn from A Linguistic Atlas for Early Middle English (LAEME)
(Laing and Lass, forthcoming 2007).
The manuscript texts are represented by 3,000-word extracts
(or in toto, if shorter), which should be suffi ciently for studies
on orthography, phonology and morphology. The planned
corpus will sample c. 1,000 texts, therefore the projected size
of the corpus is 2.5-3 M words.
The conventions of transcription have been derived from
those of the LAEME and A Linguistic Atlas of Older Scots projects
(LAOS), with certain modifi cations. The most important
questions that have been addressed during the transcription
process have been whether to emphasise fi delity to the
original vs. wieldy transcripts, and should the transcripts offer
an interpretative reading of the manuscript text rather than
the scribe’s actual pen strokes. According to the principles
chosen, the transcriptions attempt to capture the graphemic
and broad graphetic details, but not necessarily each detail on
the level of individual handwriting (Black, Horobin, and Smith
2002: 11).
MEG-C: lemmatization, annotation,
publication
The second practical task is to lemmatize and to annotate the
Corpus. Previous historical English corpora (Helsinki Corpus,
Middle English Medical Texts) show the limitations the lack of
lemmas set to the corpus user when tackling the variety of
spellings attested to by Middle English texts. The lemmas in
MEG-C will have an Oxford English Dictionary headword. There
will also be another cue in the source language (the direct
source languge before Middle English, usually Old English,
French/Anglo-Norman or Latin). These two reference points
on either side of Middle English will provide the user the means
to search for occurrences of a lexical item even when the full
range of spelling variation in Middle English is not known.
As regards the annotation of words of a text, they are divided
into bound morphemes and other spelling units (this system
is partly derived from Venezky (1970)). Each word is divided
into a word initial sequence containing Onset and Nucleus,
and they are followed by a series of Consonantal and Vowel
Spelling Units. Each spelling unit is also given the equivalents in
the source language and in Present Day English, thus enabling
the search for e.g. all the ME refl exes of OE [a:] or or the
spelling variants in Middle English that correspond to Present
Day English word initial spelling sh-.
For the task of annotation and lemmatization the corpus is
rendered into a relational database. The database plan has
tables for different extralinguistic information, and the actual
texts will be entered word by word, i.e. in the table for corpus
texts, there will be one record for each word. The annotation
plan we are intending to carry out should result in a corpus
where one can search for any combination of extralinguistic
factors and spelling units with reference points embedded in
the actual Middle English texts and also in the source language
and PDE spelling conventions.
The fi rst installment of MEG-C will be published in 2007,
containing roughly 30 per cent of the texts in the planned
corpus in ASCII format. It will be on the Internet, accessible
for anyone to use and download. Our aim with publication
is two-fold: fi rstly, we will welcome feedback of any kind, and
especially from scholars who know the texts well; secondly, we
want to encourage and to see other scholars use the corpus.
References
Black, Merja, Simon Horobin and Jeremy Smith, 2002.
‘Towards a new history of Middle English spelling.’ In P. J.
Lucas and A.M. Lucas (eds), Middle English from Tongue to Text.
Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 9-20.
Helsinki Corpus = The Helsinki Corpus of English Texts (1991).
Department of English, University of Helsinki. Compiled
by Matti Rissanen (Project leader), Merja Kytö (Project
secretary); Leena Kahlas-Tarkka, Matti Kilpiö (Old English);
Saara Nevanlinna, Irma Taavitsainen (Middle English); Terttu
Nevalainen, Helena Raumolin-Brunberg (Early Modern
English).
Horobin, Simon and Jeremy Smith, 1999. ‘A Database of
Middle English Spelling.’ Literary and Linguistic Computing 14:
359-73.
Jordan, Richard, 1925. Handbuch der mittelenglischen
Grammatik. Heidelberg: Winter’s Universitätsbuchhandlung.
LAEME = Laing, Margaret, and Lass, Roger, forthcoming
2007. A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English. University of
Edinburgh. Nov. 22nd, 2007. http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/ihd/
laeme/laeme.html
Laing, M. (ed.) 1989. Middle English Dialectology: essays on some
principles and problems by Angus McIntosh, M.L. Samuels and
Margaret Laing. Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press. LALME = McIntosh, M.L., Samuels, M.L. and Benskin, M.
(eds.) 1986. A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English. 4 vols.
Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press. (with the assistance of
M. Laing and K. Williamson).
LAOS = Williamson, Keith, forthcoming 2007. A Linguistic
Atlas of Older Scots. University of Edinburgh. Nov. 22nd, 2007.
http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/research/ihd/laos/laos.html
McIntosh, A. 1963 [1989]. ‘A new approach to Middle English
dialectology’. English Studies 44: 1-11. repr. Laing, M. (ed.) 1989:
22-31.
Middle English Medical Texts = Taavitsainen, Irma, Pahta, Päivi
and Mäkinen, Martti (compilers) 2005. Middle English Medical
Texts. CD-ROM. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Stenroos, Merja, 2004. ‘Regional dialects and spelling
conventions in Late Middle English: searches for (th) in the
LALME data.’ In M. Dossena and R. Lass (eds), Methods and
data in English historical dialectology. Frankfurt am Main: Peter
Lang: 257-85.
Stenroos, Merja, forthcoming 2007. ‘Sampling and annotation
in the Middle English Grammar Project.’ In Meurman-Solin,
Anneli and Arja Nurmi (eds) Annotating Variation and Change
(Studies in Variation, Contacts and Change in English 1).
Research Unit for Variation, Change and Contacts in English,
University of Helsinki. http://www.helsinki.fi /varieng/journal/
index.html
Venezky, R., 1970. The Structure of English Orthography. The
Hague/Paris: Mouton.","txt","2","",""
"885","9","Designing Usable Learning Games for the Humanities: Five Research Dimensions","1","A fair amount of research suggests that video games can be
effective tools for learning complex subject matter in specifi c
domains (Cordova & Lepper, 1996; Ricci, Salas, & Cannon-
Bowers, 1996; Randel et al., 1992; Fiore et al., 2007; Garris &
Ahlers et al., 2002). Although there has been much work in
situating “serious gaming” (Sawyer, 2002) as a legitimate vehicle
for learning in all types of disciplines, there is no central source
for research on crafting and designing what is considered to
be a usable game for the humanities. In this paper, we discuss
research issues related to the design of “usable” humanitiesbased
video games and situate those research questions along
fi ve interrelated dimensions.
We fi rst provide our defi nition of usability as used in this
context. A usable humanities game is a game which is both
functionally capable in terms of an interface and its human
interactions as well as appropriately designed to support the
types of learning objectives attached to its scenarios or levels.
This defi nition is formed from the convergence of traditional
interface usability and learning effectiveness. We support our
delineation of research questions using theoretical work from
scholars writing about gaming as well as applied examples
from our own research and game development prototypes.
Drawing from three years of experience building a variety
of games, and literature culled from our various fi elds, we
discuss some of the unique research questions that designing
for the humanities pose for scholars and game designers. We
separate these questions across fi ve dimensions, each with
representative humanities learning questions: 1. Participation: how can we encourage diverse groups
of students and researchers to interact together in virtual
space? How can we design a space that is appealing and
equitable to both genders and to a diverse range of
demographic profi les?
2. Mechanics: how do you design algorithms that are
applicable to the types of tasks commonly sought in
humanities courses? For instance, how might one develop an
algorithm to “score” morally relative gameplay decisions in
an ethical dilemma?
3. Ontology: how is a player’s self-image challenged when
shifting from a real to what Gee (2003) calls a projected
identity, and how is this process changed through the use
of varying perspectives such as fi rst-person or third-person
perspective?
4. Hermeneutics: how do we probe the hidden layers that
exist between game worlds, source content, and human
computer interfaces? What “voices” are encouraged in
virtual worlds, and what voices are repressed within this
rhetorical space?
5. Culture: how are the cultural facets of primary source
content mediated through the process of digitization?
To consider these dimensions, we craft a theoretical base
formed from a wide range of researchers such as Gee (2003),
Prensky (2001), Squire (2002), and Jenkins (2006a, 2006b). From
Gee, we draw inspiration from his discussion of well-designed
games and his exploration of the implicit learning occurring in
several different genres of digital video games. Much of Gee’s
work has involved applying insights from the cognitive sciences
to traditional humanities domains such as literature in order
to explore identity, problem solving skills, verbal and nonverbal
learning, and the transfer of learned abilities from one task to
another. Marc Prensky notes that musical learning games in
the humanities have been used for hundreds of years -- Bach’s
Well Tempered Clavier and The Art of the Fugue are his “learning
games,” simple to complex musical exercises that build skill.
Prensky’s work also informs our historical analysis as well
as insights from the pioneers working in the fi eld of serious
gaming for military applications.
Jenkins’ work in applying the interests of gaming fans as critical
lenses provides insight for both formative guidelines and posttask
measures of “success” in learning game environments.
These gaming discourse communities often form wildly active
and infl uential fan groups, and these groups cultivate their
own forms of expression and understanding through complex
jargon, virtual initiations, and ritualistic rules and procedures
in virtual interaction. Gaming environments and virtual worlds
have also been shown to offer rich sources of material for
investigating notions of gender, race, ethnicity, and cultural
identity (Berman & Bruckman, 2001; Squire, 2002).
Building on the work of these scholars, others have extended
these general notions of digital game based learning to account
for specifi c curricula or learning objectives such as media
project management for humanities computing (McDaniel et
al., 2006). To build these humanities learning games, we have
assembled an interdisciplinary team composed of faculty
members from Digital Media, English, and Philosophy. Individuals
from this group have worked in a variety of capacities, as script
writers, artists, programmers, and producers. Undergraduate
and graduate students, in both classroom and research lab
roles, have worked and contributed to each of these games
in varying capacities. Five different games have been produced
through these collaborations:
1. Discover Babylon (Lucey-Roper, 2006), a game produced
by the Federation of American Scientists, the Walters
Art Museum in Baltimore, and UCLA’s Cuneiform Digital
Library Initiative (CDLI). One of our team members
developed the storyline for this game.
2. The Carol Mundy Underground Railroad game (Greenwood-
Ericksen et al., 2006) examines issues of African-American
history and culture and leads a player on an adventure from
a Southern plantation to safety in the North through the
Underground Railroad’s system of safehouses. This was a
“modded” game built atop Neverwinter Nights.
3. The Turkey Maiden (Underberg, forthcoming) is an
educational computer game project based on a version
of Cinderella collected by folklorist Ralph Steele Boggs
in 1930s Ybor City, Florida. This variant of the Cinderella
story, called “The Turkey Maiden” (from Kristin Congdon’s
anthology Uncle Monday and Other Florida Tales, 2001) forms
the narrative structure of the game, which has been further
developed by integrating specifi c tasks that the heroine
Rosa (“Cinderella”) must successfully complete to advance
in the game that are based in lessons to be learned by the
player about Florida history and culture.
4. Chaucer’s Medieval Virtual World Video Game is a virtual
medieval world game based on Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales.
This tale emphasizes the battle between men’s perceived
authority and women’s struggles for power. This game
uses Chaucer’s narrative gap as a springboard for a virtual
medieval quest. In addition to experiencing historical
scenarios, the knight will disguise his identity and experience
the world from various gender and social classes, the Three
Estates of Clergy, Nobility, and Peasantry as well as the
three feminine estates of virgin, widow, and wife.
5. The Medium is a prototype ethics game designed using
the Torque game engine. This three year project was funded
by the University of Central Florida’s Offi ce of Information
Fluency and is in its earliest stages of design. The game pairs
a time travel theme with a switchable fi rst and third person
perspective and also includes an environmentalist subtext.
We will use brief examples culled from these games to support our theoretical assertions and discuss ways in
which usable humanities games can act as a springboard for
bringing together subject matter experts, technologists, and
learners. In their 2006 report on Cyberinfrastructure for
the Humanities and Social Sciences, the American Council of
Learned Societies writes the following in regards to digital
networked technologies for the humanities: “A cyberstructure
for humanities and social science must encourage interactions
between the expert and the amateur, the creative artist and
the scholar, the teacher and the student. It is not just the
collection of data—digital or otherwise—that matters: at least
as important is the activity that goes on around it, contributes
to it, and eventually integrates with it” (14). Our goal is to
foster this type of humanistic, communicative environment
using new technologies for virtual worlds, usability testing, and
game-based learning environments. We hope that the scholarly
community working the fi eld of digital humanities can help
us to explore and refi ne both theoretical models and applied
technologies related to this goal.
References
American Council of Learned Societies. 18 July, 2006.
“Our Cultural Commonwealth: The Report of the
American Council of Learned Societies’ Commission on
Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities and Social Sciences.”
13 October 2007. <http://www.acls.org/cyberinfrastructure/
OurCulturalCommonwealth.pdf>.
Berman, J. & Bruckman, A. (2001). The Turing Game: Exploring
Identity in an Online Environment. Convergence, 7(3), 83-102.
Congdon, K. (2001). Uncle Monday and other Florida Tales.
Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi.
Cordova, D. I., & Lepper, M. R. (1996). Intrinsic motivation
and the process of learning: benefi cial effects of
hypercontextualization, personalization, and choice. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 88(4), 715-730.
Fiore, S. M., Metcalf, D., & McDaniel, R. (2007). Theoretical
Foundations of Experiential Learning. In M. Silberman (Ed.),
The Experiential Learning Handbook (pp. 33-58): John Wiley &
Sons.
Garris, R., R. Ahlers, et al. (2002). “Games, Motivation, and
Learning: A Research and Practice Model.” Simulation Gaming
33(4), 441-467.
Gee, J. P. (2003). What Video Games Have to Teach Us About
Learning and Literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Greenwood-Ericksen, A., Fiore, S., McDaniel, R., Scielzo, S., &
Cannon-Bowers, J. (2006). “Synthetic Learning Environment
Games: Prototyping a Humanities-Based Game for Teaching
African American History.” Proceedings of the 50th Annual
Meeting of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. Santa
Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence Culture. New York: New York
University Press.
Jenkins, H. (2006). Fans, Bloggers, and Gamers. New York: New
York University Press.
Lucey-Roper M. (2006), Discover Babylon: Creating A Vivid
User Experience By Exploiting Features Of Video Games
And Uniting Museum And Library Collections, in J. Trant and
D. Bearman (eds.). Museums and the Web 2006: Proceedings,
Toronto: Archives & Museum Informatics, published March 1,
2006 at <http://www.archimuse.com/mw2006/papers/luceyroper/
lucey-roper.html>.
McDaniel, R., Fiore, S. M., Greenwood-Erickson, A., Scielzo,
S., & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. (2006). Video Games as Learning
Tools for Project Management. The Journal of the International
Digital Media and Arts Association, 3(1), 78-91.
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Game-Based Learning. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Randel, J. M., Morris, B. A., Wetzel, C. D., & Whitehill, B. V.
(1992). The effectiveness of games for educational purposes:
a review of recent research. Simulation & Gaming, 23(3), 261-
276.
Ricci, K. Salas, E., & Cannon-Bowers, J. (1996). “Do Computer-
Based Games Facilitate Knowledge Acquisition and
Retention?” Military Psychology 8(4), 295-307.
Sawyer, B. (2002). Serious Games: Improving Public Policy through
Game-based Learning and Simulation. Retrieved June 24 2006,
from http://www.seriousgames.org/images/seriousarticle.pdf.
Squire, K. (2002). Cultural Framing of Computer/Video
Games. Game Studies, 2(1).
Underberg, Natalie (forthcoming). “The Turkey Maiden
Educational Computer Game.” In Folklife in Education
Handbook, Revised Edition, Marshall McDowell, ed.","txt","2","",""
"886","9","Picasso's Poetry: The Case of a Bilingual Concordance","1","Studying Picasso as writer might seem strange, considering
that the Spanish artist is mostly known for his paintings.
However, in the Fall of 2006 we began working on Picasso’s
writings. Audenaert, et.al. [1], describe the characteristics of
Picasso’s manuscripts, and the challenges they pose due to
their pictorial and visual aspects. With over 13,000 artworks
up-to-date catalogued, the On-line Picasso Project [5] includes
a historical narrative of relevant events in the artist’s life. In
this paper we discuss the contents of the texts—from the
linguistic standpoint—and the implementation of a bilingual
concordance of terms based on a red-black tree. Although
concordances have been widely studied and implemented
within linguistics and humanities, we believe that our collection
raises interesting challenges; fi rst because of the bilingual
nature of Picasso’s poems, since he wrote both in Spanish
and French, and second, because of the connection between
his texts and his paintings. The work reported in this paper
focuses on the fi rst issue.
Integrating Texts Into the On-line
Picasso Project
A catalogue raisonné is a scholarly, systematic list of an
artist’s known works, or works previously catalogued. The
organization of the catalogues may vary—by time period, by
medium, or by style—and it is useful to consult any prefatory
matter to get an idea of the overall structure imposed by the
cataloguer. Printed catalogues are by necessity constrained to
the time in which they are published. Thus, quite often catalogue
raisonnés are superseded by new volumes or entirely new
editions, which may (or may not) correct an earlier publication
[2]. Pablo Picasso’s artistic creations have been documented
extensively in numerous catalogs. Chipp and Wofsy [3], started
publishing a catalogue raisonné of Picasso’s works that contains
an illustrated synthesis of all catalogues to date on the works
of Pablo Picasso.
In the Fall of 2007 Picasso’s texts were added to the collection
along with their corresponding images, and a concordance of
terms both in Spanish and French was created. The architecture
created for Picasso’s poems is partially based on the one we
developed for the poetry of John Donne [7]. As often happens
in the humanities, each collection has its own characteristics,
which makes a particular architecture hard if not impossible
to reuse directly. For example, Donne’s texts are written in
English; Picasso in contrast wrote both in Spanish and French.
The Concordance of Terms
A concordance, according to the Oxford English Dictionary,
is “an alphabetical arrangement of the principal words
contained in a book, with citations of the passages in which
they occur.” When applied to a specifi c author’s complete
works, concordances become useful tools since they allow
users to locate particular occurrences of one word, or even
more interestingly, the frequency of such words in the entire
oeuvre of an author. Apparently, the fi rst concordances in
English ever put together were done in the thirteenth century,
and dealt with the words, phrases, and texts in the Bible. Such
concordances were intended for the specialized scholar of
biblical texts and were never a popular form of literature. As
might be expected, these were soon followed by a Shakespeare
concordance.
A concordance of the literary works of Pablo Picasso has
more in common with a Biblical concordance than with a
Shakespearian concordance, due to the manner in which the
Spanish artist/poet composed his poems. Many critics have
pointed out the heightened quality of words in Picasso’s
texts, a value that surpasses their own sentential context.
One gets the impression that words are simply selected for
their individual attributes and are then thrown together in the
poems. Picasso himself appears to admit using this technique
when he is quoted as saying that “words will eventually fi nd
a way to get along with each other.” For this reason, readers
of Picasso’s poems become well aware of the frequent
recurrence of certain “essential words,” which one is then
eager to locate precisely in each of the poems to determine
signifi cant nuances. Figure 1. A tabbed interface presents users with
French and Spanish Texts in chronological order. On
the right are text and image presentations
By narrowing down the number of these “essential words,”
the concordance also allows users to delimit the “thematic
domain” elaborated in Picasso’s writings. Clearly many words
deal with physical duress and the confrontation between good
and evil, as manifestations of concrete human suffering during
the Spanish Civil War and the German occupation of France in
World War II. By identifying the range of words employed, users
can clearly determine the political and cultural environment
that surrounds Picasso’s artistic creations during this period.
Nevertheless, one must not forget that Picasso’s main
contribution to the world is that of a plastic artist. A
Concordance will allow users to identify each of the words
Picasso used and link them to specifi c graphic images in his
artworks. It has been argued that Picasso’s poetry is quite
“physical” (he often refers to objects, their different colors,
textures, etc.). Even in his compositional technique, one gets
a sense that the way he introduces “physical” words into his
poems emulates the manner in which he inserted “found
objects” in his cubist collages. Many critics have pointed out,
on the other hand, that Picasso’s art, particularly during his
Cubist period, is “linguistic” in nature, exploring the language
of art, the arbitrariness of pictorial expression, etc.
Mallen [6] argues that Cubism explored a certain intuition
Picasso had about the creative nature of visual perception.
Picasso realized that vision involves arbitrary representation,
but, even more importantly, that painting also does. Once
understood as an accepted arbitrary code, painting stopped
being treated as a transparent medium to become an object
in its own right. From then on, Picasso focused his attention
on artistic creation as the creative manipulation of arbitrary
representations. Viewed in this light, painting is merely another
language, governed by similar strict universal principles as we
fi nd in verbal language, and equally open to infi nite possibilities
of expression. A concordance allows users to see these two
interrelated aspects of Picasso’s career fl eshed out in itemized
form.
Concordances are often automatically generated from texts,
and therefore fail to group words by classes (lexical category,
semantic content, synonymy, metonymy, etc.) The Concordance
we are developing will allow users to group words in such
categories, thus concentrating on the network of interrelations
between words that go far beyond the specifi c occurrences in
the poems.
Picasso is a bilingual poet. This raises several interesting
questions connected to what has been pointed out above.
One may wonder, for instance, if Picasso’s thematic domain is
“language-bound,” in other words, whether he communicates
certain concepts in one language but not in the other. A
Concordance will allow users to set correspondences between
words in one language and another. Given Picasso’s strong
Spanish heritage, it would be expected that concrete ideas
(dealing with food, customs, etc) will tend to be expressed
exclusively in Spanish, while those ideas dealing with general
philosophical and religious problems will oscillate between
the two languages. The possible corroboration of this point is
another objective of the planned Concordance.
Figure 2. Concordance with term frequency.
On the right, term-in-context display.
The Red Black Tree Implementation
Term concordances require the extraction of terms from a large
corpus along with the metadata related to their occurrences,
an operation often computationally expensive. The Digital
Donne for instance, is a pre-computed concordance. On the
other hand, repositories of texts are under constant revision
as errors are detected and corrected. When the corpus is
modifi ed, part or the entire concordance has to be rebuilt. To
solve this problem, the Picasso’s concordance is computed on
the fl y, without requiring any previous processing.
The repository of poems has initially been divided into poems,
stanza, and lines, then stored in a database. Using standard join
operations, the poems are reconstructed, allowing the terms
to be retrieved along additional metadata such as title, section,
and line number. Once the poems have been reconstructed,
each poem line is broken down into terms, which are defi ned
as a series of characters delimited by a textual space. Each occurrence of each term in turn, is inserted into the data
structure, as well as its occurrence metadata.
Our algorithm consists of an augmented data structure
composed of a Red Black Tree [4,8], where each node
represents one term found in Picasso’s writings and is used as
pointer to a linked list. A Red Black Tree is a self balanced binary
tree, that can achieve insert, delete, and search operations in
O(log n) time. Because only insertions and random access
is not required on the linked list, term occurrences can be
traversed sequentially in O(n) time. Picasso’s literary legacy
can be browsed and explored using titles as surrogates, which
are ordered by date and by the term concordance. Each entry
provides the number of occurrences and its corresponding
list, which can be used as index to browse the poems.
The retrieval process for terms and their occurrences is
carried out by selecting specifi c terms or choosing from an
alphabetical index of letters. To achieve this, a subtree is
extracted from the data structure and it is traversed, obtaining
every occurrence of a term along with additional metadata
including a unique poem identifi er, page and line number.
Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations (XSLTs) are
used to transform the resulting XML output, and extract
the specifi c term occurrences within a line of the poem
and produce a surrogate, which is composed of a portion
of the text. Additionally, this surrogate gives access to the
corresponding poems through hyperlinks.
A new component of our implementation is a Spanish-French
thesaurus that correlates terms in both languages, along with
their meanings and commentary. Because our concordance is
created on the fl y, we have to devise a mechanism to support
this. Additionally, this approach still remains to be tested
with different corpuses in other languages, especially where
terms are separated uniquely and spaces between them play
a different role in language constructs. The term extraction
algorithm is effi cient using spaces as delimiters—a common
case both in Spanish and French. However, other languages
might include composite words.
Acknowledgements
This material is based upon work supported by the National
Science Foundation under Grant No. IIS-0534314.
References
1. Audenaert, N., Karadkar, U., Mallen, E., Furuta, R., and
Tonner, S. “Viewing Texts: An Art-Centered Representation of
Picasso’s Writings,” Digital Humanities (2007): 14-16.
2. Baer, B. Picasso Peintre-Graveur. “Catalogue Raisonné de
L’oeuvre Gravé et des Monotypes.” 4 Vols. Berne, Editions
Kornfeld, 1986-1989.
3. Chipp, H. and Wofsy, A. The Picasso Project. San Francisco:
Alan Wofsy Fine Arts. 1995-2003.
4. Cormen, T., Leiserson, C., Rivest, R., and Stein, C.,
Introduction to Algorithms, The MIT Press, 2nd Edition, 2001.
5. Mallen, Enrique. “The On-line Picasso Project.” http://
picasso.tamu.edu accessed October 2007.
6. Mallen, Enrique. The Visual Grammar of Pablo Picasso.
Berkeley Insights in Linguistics & Semiotics Series. New York:
Peter Lang. 2003.
7. Monroy, C., Furuta, R., and Stringer, G., “Digital Donne:
Workfl ow, Editing Tools, and the Reader’s Interface of a
Collection of 17th-century English Poetry.” Proceedings of
JCDL 2007, Vancouver, B.C. 2007.
8. Red-Black Tree. Accessed 2007-11-15, http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Red_black_tree","txt","2","",""
"887","9","Exploring the Biography and Artworks of Picasso with Interactive Calendars and Timelines","1","Scholars and general users of digital editions face a diffi cult
and problematic scenario when browsing and searching for
resources that are related to time periods or events. Scrolling
continuously through a long list of itemized search results
does not constitute an unusual practice for users when
dealing with this type of situation. The problem with this
searching mechanism is that a notion of the corresponding
dates or keywords associated with the event are required and
constitute a precondition to a successful search.
An ordered list is unable to provide the required affordances
and constraints that users need and desire to conduct scholarly
research properly. It is a common practice among users to
utilize the search mechanism present in most web browsers,
and then perform another search among the obtained results
to “narrow down” or limit the results to a smaller working
set that is easier to manage. The use of an external search
mechanism in a digital edition is a strong indicator that improved
interfaces must be designed, conceived and implemented, just
to achieve the sole purpose of facilitating scholarly research.
Background
The Online Picasso Project (OPP) is a digital collection and
repository maintained by the Center for the Study of Digital
Libraries at Texas A&M University, and the Foreign Languages
Department at Sam Houston State University. As of November
2007, it contains 13704 catalogued artworks, 9440 detailed
biographical entries, a list of references about Picasso’s life
and works, and a collection of articles from various sources
regarding the renowned Spanish artist.
How does the OPP provide its content? Java Servlets are
used to retrieve the documents and metadata from a MySQL
database. As a result, a Apache Tomcat web server outputs a
XML which is linked to XSLTs and CSS. The later are used to
perform a dynamic transformation into standards-compliant
HTML, achieving a clear separation between content and
presentation.
The OPP includes an interface that allows scholars and users
in general to browse through the signifi cant events in his life,
artworks, and a list of museums and collections that hold
ownership to the various art objects created by the artist
during his lifetime. The implemented navigation scheme works
well for experienced scholars who have a deep knowledge of
Picasso’s life and works. The amount of available information can
be overwhelming to the project audience, composed primarily
of art scholars and historians, because of its magnitude and
painstaking detail.
The Humanities rely profoundly on dates to create a strong
relationship between events and documents. It is obvious to
assume that key events infl uenced Picasso in such a way, that
they caused signifi cant changes in artistic style and expression.
The OPP contains a vast amount of information that could be
used in conjunction with the proposed interfaces, in order to
help answer this type of inquiries. The calendars and timelines in
the OPP propose an alternate method for exploring an existing
document collection since they use date-related metadata as
a discriminating factor, instead of an ordering criterion. Dates
are used to provide mechanisms and interfaces that allow rich
exploration of the artist’s legacy in order to get a more whole
and concise understanding of his life
Calendars
The calendar interfaces were developed to provide a timetable
for the creation of artworks and occurrence of events
cataloged in the OPP. Their purpose is to provide with a quick
glance, relevant biographical and artistic dates. Additionally, the
calendars provide means for formulating direct comparisons
between dates within a single year. months and seasons.
The calendar interfaces have 5 display possibilities to fi lter
results, which apply to the artworks and to the narrative:
1. Show start date and end date: used to display “exact
matches”.
2. Show start date or end date:
3. Show start date only:
4. Show End date only
5. Show Ranges of dates
Surrogates are provided in the form of artwork thumbnails
and textual description of the events. Clicking on the specifi ed
date, month or season produces a web page, where detailed
descriptions can be accessed. Colors were added to the dates containing items, to show the
distribution of the artworks and events. The design decision
to include additional stratifi cation schemes relates to the
research goal of providing an enhanced browsing mechanism.
The inclusion of this feature does not implicate any greater
additional processing of the data, but it provides a richer
environment for browsing the document collection. Figure 1: Artwork surrogates – ranges of dates
The use of calendar interfaces provides new possibilities for
scholars and users in general: the discovery of relationships
between documents, which standard HTML interfaces do not
facilitate. The main advantages derived from their use include:
1. The possibility of visualizing an entire year in Picasso’s
biography and artistic career.
Through the use of a Calendar-based interface, artworks can
be visually identifi ed to their specifi c dates of creation. This
provides a visualization mechanism that allows the user to
navigate through a potentially large number of artworks in one
screen. The number of artworks that can be accessed, depends
on how esthetically prolifi c the artist was in that specifi c year.
Figure 2: Event surrogates – start and end dates
Additionally, this interface allows the users of the project to
quickly determine periods where the artist was more prolifi c.
Dates where Picasso was “active” are clearly visible and
identifi able. This data stratifi cation gives users an additional
layer of information.
For the case of biographical events, a similar scenario is
created. Users can navigate through an entire year of events,
and the information is presented in a way that affords quick
navigation and encourages interaction. Visually, periods where
more events occurred in Picasso’s life are easily identifi able.
2. The possibility of moving to specifi c day, month or season
within a year in one single interaction with the interface.
Through the use of information surrogates, users have the
possibility of moving to a specifi c day, month or season within
a year with a single click. The actions produced by scrolling
through multiple screens are eliminated, and users can view the
artifacts produced on a specifi c date with ease. Consequently,
comparisons between artworks can be achieved fl uidly due
to the enhancements in the browsing environment. Similarly,
users can read about the specifi c events in Picasso’s biography
by visually selecting concrete dates.
The deployment of the Calendar interfaces, produce
visualizations that enable scholars to determine time periods
or specifi c dates in Picasso’s life. They serve as a tool that helps
identify when the artist was more prolifi c, as well the opposite:
when less artworks were produced. This analysis could also
be accomplished by browsing through the artwork collection
but it requires additional interaction from the user, which
at the end equals more time and effort. The interfaces also
constitute a new way of browsing the document collection: visually and in strict correlation to time. They also facilitate
further exploration of artworks and events in certain days,
months, seasons and years.
Timelines
This new browsing mechanism in the OPP, based on the Simile
Timeline, was introduced by placing artworks as markers in
a time frame. It was designed to allow users to examine the
artworks produced, along with the recorded events of a given
year. Further modifi cations were necessary, since the Simile
Timeline was designed to support single events occurring in
one day.
Initially, the timeline was designed to focus only on Picasso’s
artworks. This design choice gave users great freedom to
explore large amounts of information in a manipulatable visual
space. However, the biographical events were being excluded.
These events included in the OPP, are particularly important
since provide a historical framework, which is crucial to the
understanding of the artist’s legacy and are tightly bound to
his work rhythm.
Moreover, some of the artworks produced by Picasso have a
certain degree of uncertainty in their dates of creation, since
their start and end dates were not documented. The timelines
provide a mechanism for dealing with uncertainty, where the
artworks are represented with a time bar with a lower level of
saturation in their color. This gives a visual clue that the start
and end dates are not fi xed, and are subject to speculation.
Additional information such as changes in style and location
were injected to the timeline, which were extracted from the
artist’s biography. Their purpose is to provide an additional
layer of information that can be used to interpret the events
that lead to the creation and mood of certain artifacts, and
thus enhancing the browsing environment.
Figure 3: Exploring artwork - event correlation
The advantages gained through the use of timelines include:
1. The possibility of grasping visually time-extensions in
Picasso’s output.
Picasso worked on several artworks at times, which share a
similar theme. Even though they share common characteristics,
they are not identical. Each of these artworks has variations,
which differentiate them.
On the other hand, the timelines allow users to freely explore
all the artworks and events within a given year, and point
out their similarities and differences, and affords further
examination regarding the evolution of a common and shared
theme.
2. The possibility of visually comparing works ordered in
chronological order.
The timelines provide a mechanism that fi lters artworks
according to their year of creation. The enhanced navigational
scheme provided, allows scholars to view artifacts in
chronological order. The addition of surrogates allows users
to point out a specifi c item, and then compare them in relation
to others through and their time correlation.
3. The possibility of seeing correlations between change of
location and artwork creation.
The deployed timelines allow the exploration of correlations
between location changes and the creation of specifi c artworks.
Changes in location are marked in the timelines, and clearly
denote a point in time where exposure to a new or recurring
context occurred.
Figure 4: Changes in location
4. The possibility of comparing different stylistic periods as
they relate to concrete artworks and specifi c locations. The timelines produce a visualization that puts changes in
thematic periods and in locations in a common context, along
with the artworks that were elaborated in that time span.
This tool is augmented with the navigational ease of clicking
through a series of artworks, to compare their characteristics
and perform a deeper analysis if necessary.
The interfaces have been deployed taking into account that
additional functionality could be introduced with ease. As
a consequence, information regarding Picasso’s writings
and poems will be included into the next iteration of the
timelines and calendars. This will allow a deeper understanding
of his legacy, since it could potentially provide a greater
understanding of his artworks and biography. The writings and
poems constitute a compendium of his thoughts and insights,
extremely valuable because they were written by the artist
himself.
The timeline interfaces in the OPP, narrow the gap and visually
correlate biographical entries with artworks. They provide
scholars a bigger picture of Picasso’s artistic landscape and
how events they could have affected his artworks. The dynamic
nature of the web-accessible interfaces facilitate the insertion
of new documents and metadata and thus altering the graphical
space, which is not feasible on static and printed editions.
References
The Online Picasso Project. Available at http://picasso.tamu.
edu. [Accessed May 17, 2007]
SIMILE Project. Available at http://simile.mit.edu/. [Accessed
on May 24, 2007]
Monroy, R. Furuta, and E. Mallen, “Visualizing and Exploring
Picasso’s World,” in Proceedings of the 3rd ACM/IEEE-CS joint
conference on Digital Libraries, 2003, IEEE Computer Society,
pp. 173- 175.
Kumar, R. Furuta, and R. Allen, “Metadata visualization for
digital libraries: interactive timeline editing and review,” in
Proceedings of the third ACM conference on Digital Libraries,
1998, ACM Press, pp. 126 – 133.
Monroy, R. Furuta, E. Urbina, and E. Mallen, “Texts, Images,
Knowledge: Visualizing Cervantes and Picasso,” in Proceedings
of the Visual Knowledges Conference, 2003, John Frow, www.
iash.ed.ac.uk/vkpublication/monroy.pdf.
N. Audenaert, U. Karadkar, E. Mallen, R. Furuta, and S. Tonner,
“Viewing Texts: An Art-centered Representation of Picasso’s
Writings,” In Proceedings of Digital Humanities 2007, 2007.
C. Monroy, R. Furuta, and E. Mallen, “Creating, Visualizing,
Analyzing, and Comparing Series of Artworks,” 2003,
Unpublished paper.","txt","2","",""
"888","9","Computer Assisted Conceptual Analysis of Text: the Concept of Mind in the Collected Papers of C.S. Peirce","1","Computer assisted reading and analysis of text (CARAT)
has recently explored many variants of what has become
fashionable to call “text mining” strategies. Text mining
strategies are theoretically robust on large corpus. However,
since they mainly operate at a macro textual level, their use is
still the object of resistance by the expert readers that aim at
fi ne and minute conceptual analysis. In this paper, we present
a computer assisted strategy for assisting conceptual analysis
based on automatic classifi cation and annotation strategies.
We also report on experiment using this strategy on a small
philosophical corpus.
Conceptual analysis is an expert interpretation methodology
for the systematic exploration of semantic and inferential
properties of set of predicates expressing a particular concept
in a text or in a discourse (Desclés, 1997; Fodor, 1998;
Brandom, 1994; Gardenfors, 2000; Rastier, 2005). Computer
assisted reading and analysis of text (CARAT) is the computer
assistance of this conceptual analysis.
The strategy of CACAT
Our text analysis strategy rests on the
following main hypothesis:
The expression of a canonical concept in a text presents
linguistics regularities some of which can be identifi ed using
classifi cation algorithms
This hypothesis itself unwraps into three sub hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1: conceptual analysis can be realized by the
contextual exploration of the canonical forms of a concept
This is realized through the classical concordance
strategy and variances on a pivotal term and its linguistic
variants (e.g. mind, mental, mentally, etc.) (Pincemin
et al., 2006; McCarthy, 2004; Rockwell, 2003). Hypothesis 2: the exploration of the contexts of a concept is itself
realized through some mathematical classifi cation strategy.
This second hypothesis postulates that contexts of
a concept present regularities that can be identifi ed
by mathematical clustering techniques that rest
upon similarities found among contextual segments
(Jain et al. 1999; Manning and Schütze, 1999).
Hypothesis 3: Classes of conceptual of similar conceptual
contexts can be annotated so as to categorize their semantic
content.
This last hypothesis allows to associate to each segment of a
class of contexts some formal description of their content be it
semantic, logical, pragmatic, rhetorical, etc. (Rastier et al., 2005;
Djioua and Desclés, 2007; Meyers, 2005; Palmer et al., 2005;
Teich et al., 2006). Some of these annotations can be realized
through algorithms; others can only be done manually.
Experiment
From these three hypotheses emerges an experiment which
unwraps in fi ve phases. This experiment was accomplished
using C.S. Peirce’s Collected Papers (volumes I-VIII) (Peirce,
1931, 1935, 1958). More specifi cally, this research aimed
at assisting conceptual analysis of the concept of “Mind” in
Peirce’s writings.
Phase 1: Text preparation
In this methodology, the fi rst phase is text pre-processing.
The aim of this fi rst phase is to transform the initial corpus
according to phases 2 and 3 requirements. Various operations
of selection, cleaning, tokenisation, and segmentation are
applied. In the experiment we report on, no lemmatisation or
stemming was used. The corpus so prepared was composed of
74 450 words (tokens) with a lexicon of 2 831 word types.
Phase 2: Key Word In Context (KWIC)
extraction (concordance)
Using the corpus pre-processed in phase 1, a concordance
is made with the pivotal word “Mind”. The KWIC algorithm
generated 1 798 contextual segments of an average of 7 lines
each. In order to be able to manually evaluate the results of the
computer-assisted conceptual analysis, we decided to select in
the project only a random sampling of the 1 798 contextual
segments. The sampling algorithm delivered 717 contextual
segments. This sample is composed of 3 071 words (tokens)
and 1 527 type words.
Phase 3: KWIC clustering
The concordance is in itself a subtext (of the initial corpus). A
clustering technique was applied to the concordance results. In
this project, a hierarchical agglomerative clustering algorithm
was applied. It generated 83 clusters with a mean 8.3 segments
per class. It is possible to represent spatially the set of words
in each class. Figure 1 illustrates such a regrouping for cluster
1.
Figure 1. Graphical representation of cluster 1 lexicon.
It is often on this type of representation that many numerical
analyses start their interpretation. One traditional critic
presented by expert analysts is their great generality and
ambiguity. This kind of analysis and representation give hints
on the content of documents, but as such it is diffi cult to use
for fi ne grained conceptual analysis. It must hence be refi ned.
It is here that the annotation phase comes into play.
Phase 4: Annotation
The annotation phase allows the expert reader to make more
explicit the type of information contained in each clusters
(generated in phase 3). For instance, the interpreter may indicate
if each cluster is a THEME, a DEFINITION, a DESCRIPTION,
an EXPLANATION, an ILLUSTRATION, an INFERENCE, or
what is it MODALITY (epistemic, epistemological, etc.). The
variety of annotation types is in itself a research object and
depends on various textual and linguistic theories.
Annotation results
In this abstract, size constraints do not allow us here to present
detailed results of classifi cation and annotation processes.
We shall only present a sample on a few segments of three
classes.
Annotations of cluster 1: The fi rst cluster contained 17 segments
all of which have received an annotation. Here are samples of
annotation for two segments of cluster 1. The annotation is
preceded by the citation itself from the original text.
[SEGMENT NO 512]
“Finally laws of mind divide themselves into laws of the universal
action of mind and laws of kinds of psychical manifestation.”
ANNOTATION: DEFINITION: the law of mind is a general
action of the mind and a psychological manifestation [SEGMENT NO 1457]
“But it differs essentially from materialism, in that, instead of
supposing mind to be governed by blind mechanical law, it
supposes the one original law to be the recognized law of mind,
the law of association, of which the laws of matter are regarded
as mere special results.”
ANNOTATION: EXPLICATION: The law of mind is not a
mechanical materialism.
Phase 5: Interpretation
The last phase is the interpretative reading of the annotations.
Here, the interpreter situates the annotated segments into
his own interpretative world. He may regroup the various
types of annotation (DEFINITIONS, EXPLANTIONS, etc.)
and hence build a specifi c personal data structure on what
he has annotated. From then on, he may rephrase these in his
own language and style but most of all situate them in some
theoretical, historical, analytical, hermeneutic, epistemological,
etc. perspective. It is the moment where the interpreter
generates his synthesis of the structure he believes underlies
the concept.
We present here a sample of the synthesis of conceptual
analysis assisted by the CARAT process on cluster 1 (the
concept of “mind” in C.S. Peirce’s writings – cluster 1).
The law of Mind: association
The Peircian theory of MIND postulates that a mind is governed
by laws. One of these laws, a fundamental one, is associative
(segment 512). This law describes a habitus acquired by the
mind when it functions (segment 436).
Association is connectivity
This functioning is one of relation building through connections.
The connectivity is of a specifi c nature. It realizes a synthesis (à
la Kant) which is a form of “intellectual” generalisation (segment
507).
It is physically realized
Such a law is also found in the biological world. It is a law that
can be understood as accommodation (segment 1436). In
fact, this law is the specifi c form of the Mind’s dynamic. It is a
fundamental law. But it is not easy for us to observe it because
we are victim of a interpretative tradition (segment 1330) that
understands the laws of mind as laws of nature. This is a typical
characteristic of an “objective idealism” (segments 1762 and
1382). The laws of mind do not belong to mechanist materialism
(segments 90 and 1382).
And there exist a variety of categories
There exist subdivisions of this law. They are related to the
generalisation process that is realised in infanthood, education,
and experience. They are intimately related to the growth of
consciousness (segments 375 and 325).
Conclusion
This research project explores a Computer-Assisted Reading
and Analysis of Text (CARAT) methodology. The classifi cation
and annotation strategies manage to regroup systematically
segments of text that present some content regularity. This
allows the interpreter to focus directly on the organized
content of the concept under study. It helps reveal its various
dimensions (defi nitions, illustrations, explanations, inferences,
etc.).
Still, this research is ongoing. More linguistic transformations
should be applied so as to fi nd synonymic expressions of a
concept. Also, various types of summarization, extraction and
formal representation of the regularities of each class are to
be explored in the future.
But the results obtained so far reinstate the pertinence of the
concordance as a tool for conceptual analysis. But it situates it
in a mathematical surrounding that aim at unveiling the various
dimensions of a conceptual structure. Most of all, we believe
that this methodology may possibly interest expert readers
and analysis for it gives a strong handle and control on their
interpretation process although assisting them throughout the
process.
References
Brandom, R.B. (1994). Making it Explicit. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press.
Desclés, Jean-Pierre (1997) “Schèmes, notions, predicats et
termes”. Logique, discours et pensée, Mélanges offerts à Jean-
Blaize Grize, Peter Lang, 9-36. 47.
Djioua B. and Desclés, J.P. (2007), “Indexing Documents
by Discourse and Semantic Contents from Automatic
Annotations of Texts”, FLAIRS 2007, Special Track “Automatic
Annotation and Information Retrieval : New Perspectives”,
Key West, Florida, May 9-11.
Fodor, J. (1998) Concepts: Where Cognitive Science Went Wrong.
Oxford: OUP.
Gardenfors, P. (2000) Conceptual Spaces. Cambridge (Mass.):
MIT Press.
Jain, et al. (1999). Data Clustering: A Review. ACM Computing
Surveys, 31(3):264–323.
Manning, C. and Schutze, H. (1999) Foundations of Statistical
Natural Language Processing, Cambridge Mass. : MIT Press.
Meyers, Adam (2005) Introduction to Frontiers in
CorpusAnnotation II Pie in the Sky Proceedings of the
Workshop on Frontiers in Corpus Annotation II: Pie in the Sky,
pages 1–4, New York University Ann Arbor, June 2005. McCarthy, W. (2004) Humanities Computing, Palgrave
MacMillan Blackwell Publishers.
Palmer, M., Kingsbury, P., Gildea, D. (2005) “The Proposition
Bank: An Annotated Corpus of Semantic Roles”.
Computational Linguistics, vol. 31, no 1, pp. 71-106.
Peirce, C.S. (1931-1935, 1958), Collected Papers of Charles
Sanders Peirce, vols. 1–6, Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss
(eds.), vols. 7–8, Arthur W. Burks (ed.), Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, MA, 1931–1935, 1958.
Pincemin, B. et al. (2006). Concordanciers: thème et
variations, in J.-M. VIPREY (éd.), Proc. of JADT 2006, pp. 773-
784.
Rastier, F. (2005) Pour une sémantique des textes théoriques.
Revue de sémantique et de pragmatique, 17, 2005, pp. 151-180.
Rastier, F. et al. (eds) (1995) L’analyse thématique des données
textuelles: l’exemple des sentiments. Paris: Didier Érudition.
Rockwell, G. (2003) What is text analysis, really? Literary and
Linguistic Computing, 18(2): 209–219.","txt","2","",""
"889","9","Topic Maps and Entity Authority Records: an Effective Cyber Infrastructure for Digital Humanities","1","The implicit connections and cross-references between and
within texts, which occur in all print collections, can be made
explicit in a collection of electronic texts. Correctly encoded
and exposed they create a framework to support resource
discovery and navigation by following links between topics. This
framework provides opportunities to visualise dense points
of interconnection and, deployed across otherwise separate
collections, can reveal unforeseen networks and associations.
Thus approached, the creation and online delivery of digital
texts moves from a digital library model with its goal as the
provision of access, to a digital humanities model directed
towards the innovative use of information technologies to
derive new knowledge from our cultural inheritance.
Using this approach the New Zealand Electronic Text Centre
(NZETC) has developed a delivery system for its collection of
over 2500 New Zealand and Pacic Island texts using TEI XML,
the ISO Topic Map technology1 and innovative entity authority
management. Like a simple back-of-book index but on a much
grander scale, a topic map aggregates information to provide
binding points from which everything that is known about a
given subject can be reached. The ontology which structures
the relationships between dierent types of topics is based on
the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model2 and can therefore
accommodate a wide range of types. To date the NZETC
Topic Map has included only those topics and relationships
which are simple, veriable and object based. Topics currently
represent authors and publishers, texts and images, as well as
people and places mentioned or depicted in those texts and
images. This has proved successful in presenting the collection
as a resource for research, but work is now underway to
expand the structured mark-up embedded in texts to encode
scholarly thinking about a set of resources. Topic-based
navigable linkages between texts will include ‘allusions’ and
‘infl uence’ (both of one text upon another and of an abstract
idea upon a corpus, text, or fragment of text).3
Importantly, the topic map extends beyond the NZETC
collection to incorporate relevant external resources which
expose structured metadata about entities in their collection
(see Figure 1). Cross-collection linkages are particularly valuable where
they reveal interdisciplinary connections which can provide
fertile ground for analysis. For example the National Library
of New Zealand hosts a full text archive of the Transactions
and Proceedings of the Royal Society containing New Zealand
science writing 1868-1961. By linking people topics in the
NZETC collection to articles authored in the Royal Society
collection it is possible to discern an interesting overlap
between the 19th century community of New Zealand Pakeha
artists and early colonial geologists and botanists.
In order to achieve this interlinking, between collections, and
across institutional and disciplinary boundaries, every topic
must be uniquely and correctly identied. In a large, full text
collection the same name may refer to multiple entities,4 while
a single entity may be known by many names.5 When working
across collections it is necessary to be able to condently
identify an individual in a variety of contexts. Authority control
is consequently of the utmost importance in preventing
confusion and chaos.
The library world has of course long worked with authority
control systems, but the model underlying most such systems
is inadequate for a digital world. Often the identier for an
entity is neither persistent nor unique, and a single name or
form of a name is unnecessarily privileged (indeed, stands in as
the entity itself). In order to accommodate our goals for the
site, the NZETC created the Entity Authority Tool Set (EATS),6
an authority control system that provides unique, persistent,
sharable7 identiers for any sort of entity. The system has two
particular benets in regards to the needs of digital humanities
researchers for what the ACLS described as a robust cyber
infrastructure.8
Firstly, EATS enables automatic processing of names within
textual material. When dealing with a large collection, resource
constraints typically do not permit manual processing --
for example, marking up every name with a pointer to the
correct record in the authority list, or simply recognising
text strings as names to begin with. To make this process at
least semi-automated, EATS stores names broken down (as
much as possible) into component parts. By keeping track of
language and script information associated with the names,
the system is able to use multiple sets of rules to know how
to properly glue these parts together into valid name forms.
So, for example, William Herbert Ellery Gilbert might be
referred to in a text by “William Gilbert”, “W. H. E. Gilbert”,
“Gilbert, Wm.”, or a number of other forms; all of these can be
automatically recognised due to the language and script rules
associated with the system. Similarly Chiang Kai-shek, being a
Chinese name, should be presented with the family name fi rst,
and, when written in Chinese script, without a space between
the name parts (蒋介石).
Figure 1: A mention of Samuel Marsden in a given text
is linked to a topic page for Marsden which in turn
provides links to other texts which mention him, external
resources about him and to the full text of works that he
has authored both in the NZETC collection and in other
online collections entirely separate from the NZETC.
The ability to identify entities within plain text and add
structured, machine-readable mark-up contributes to the
growth of electronic text corpora suitable for the types of
computational analysis oered by projects such as the MONK
environment.9 This is, however, distinct from the problem of
identifying substrings within a text that might be names, but
that are not found within EATS. This problem, though signicant,
does not fall within the main scope of the EATS system.10
Similarly, disambiguating multiple matches for the same name
is generally best left to the determination of a human being:
even date matches are too often problematic.11
Secondly, the system is built around the need to allow for
an entity to carry sometimes confl icting, or merely dierent,
information from multiple sources, and to reference those
sources.12 Having information from multiple sources aids in
the process of disambiguating entities with the same names;
just as important is being able to link out to other relevant
resources. For example, our topic page for William Colenso
links not only to works in the NZETC collection, but also to
works in other collections, where the information on those
other collections is part of the EATS record.
It is, however, barely sucient to link in this way directly from
one project to another. EATS, being a web application, can itself
be exposed to the net and act as a central hub for information
and resources pertaining to the entities within the system.
Since all properties of an entity are made as assertions by
an organisation, EATS allows multiple such organisations to
use and modify records without touching anyone else’s data;
adding data harvesting to the mix allows for centralisation of
information (and, particularly, pointers to further information)
without requiring much organisational centralisation. One benefi t of this approach is handling entities about which
there is substantial dierence of view. With topics derived
from research (such as ideas and events) there are likely
to be dierences of opinion as to both the identifi cation of
entities and the relationships between them. For example
one organisation may see one event where another sees two.
To be able to model this as three entities, with relationships
between them asserted by the organisations, a potentially
confusing situation becomes clear, without any group having
to give up its own view of the world. The EATS system can
achieve this because all information about an entity is in the
form of a property assertion made by a particular authority in
a particular record (see fi gure 2).
The technologies developed and deployed by the NZETC
including EATS are all based on open standards. The tools and
frameworks that have been created are designed to provide
durable resources to meet the needs of the academic and wider
community in that they promote interlinking between digital
collections and projects and are themselves interoperable with
other standards-based programs and applications including
web-based references tools, eResearch virtual spaces and
institutional repositories.
Figure 2: The EATS objects and basic relationships
Only once both cultural heritage institutions and digital
humanities projects adopt suitable entity identiers and
participate in a shared mapping system such as EATS, can there
exist unambiguous discovery of both individual resources and
connections between them. The wider adoption of this type
of entity authority system will contribute substantially to the
creation of the robust cyber infrastructure that will, in the
words of the ACLS “allow digital scholarship to be cumulative,
collaborative, and synergistic.”
Notes
1 For further information see Conal Tuhoy’s \Topic Maps and TEI |
Using Topic Maps as a Tool for Presenting TEI Documents” (2006)
http://hdl.handle.net/10063/160.
2 The CIDOC CRM is an ISO standard (ISO 21127:2006) which
provides denitions and a formal structure for describing the implicit
and explicit concepts and relationships used in cultural heritage
documentation. For more information see http://cidoc.ics.forth.gr/.
3 The initial project work is being undertaken in collaboration with
Dr Brian Opie from Victoria University of Wellington and is centred
around the work and infl uences of William Golder, the author of the
fi rst volume of poetry printed and published in New Zealand.
4 For example, the name Te Heuheu is used in a number of texts to
refer to multiple people who have it as part of their full name.
5 For example the author Iris Guiver Wilkinson wrote under the
pseudonym Robin Hyde.
6 For more analysis of the weakness of current Library standards for
authority control and for more detail information on EATS see Jamie
Norrish’s \EATS: an entity authority tool set” (2007) at http://www.
nzetc.org/downloads/eats.pdf.
7 Being a web-based application the identiers are also dereferencable
(ie resolve a web resource about the entity) and therefore can be
used as a resource by any web project.
8 “Our Cultural Commonwealth: The fi nal report of the American
Council of Learned Societies Commission on Cyberinfrastructure
for the Humanities & Social Sciences” (2006) http://www.acls.org/
cyberinfrastructure/OurCulturalCommonwealth.pdf.
9 Metadata Oer New Knowledge http://www.monkproject.org/.
10 EATS can be provided with name data on which to make various
judgements (such as non-obvious abbreviations like Wm for William),
and it would be trivial to get a list of individual parts of names from
the system, for identication purposes, but there is no code for actually
performing this process.
11 That said, the NZETC has had some success with automated
ltering of duplicate matches into dierent categories, based on name
and date similarity (not equality); publication dates provide a useful
cut-o point for matching.
12 A source may be a primary text or an institution’s authority
record.","txt","2","",""
"890","9","2D and 3D Visualization of Stance in Popular Fiction","1","In analyzing literary style through statistical methods, we
often show our results by plotting graphs of various types, e.g.
scatterplots, histograms, and dendrograms. While these help
us to understand our results, they always necessarily “fl atten”
the data into a 2- dimensional format. For the purposes of
visualization of complex data, we might be better off trying to
look at it three dimensionally if a suitable vector representation
of the data is found fi rst. This paper investigates stance in three
groups of popular fi ction, namely romance fi ction, detective
fi ction written by female authors and detective fi ction written
by male authors, and presents the results using both 2
dimensional and three dimensional visualization.
Romance fi ction and detective novels are both characterized
by the fact that they all have the same basic story. In romance
fi ction it is the story of how the hero and heroine meet,
how their relationship develops and how the happy ending
is achieved. In detective fi ction it is the story of the murder,
the unraveling of the case, the misleading clues and the fi nal
solution. The same story is being retold over and over again,
just as in the oral storytelling tradition (Radway 1984:198). The
reader is not left in suspense of the fi nal outcome and each
story is different from the others in the details of the events
and the way the story is told. Through this the reader becomes
involved in the story and partakes in the emotions, attitudes
and thoughts of the protagonist. These feelings, emotions and
moods are marked by syntactic and semantic features often
referred to as markers of stance.
Stance refers to the expression of attitude and consists of
two different types of expressions of attitude: evidentiality
and affect (Biber and Finegan 1989). Evidentiality means that
the reader becomes privy to the speaker’s attitudes towards
whatever knowledge the speaker has, the reliability of that
knowledge and how the speaker came about that knowledge.
Affect refers to the personal attitudes of the speaker, i.e. his/
her emotions, feelings, moods, etc. Biber and Finegan (1989)
investigated 12 different categories of features deemed to
mark stance: certainty/doubt adverbs, certainty/doubt verbs,
certainty/doubt adjectives, affective expressions, hedges,
emphatics and necessity/possibility/predictive modals. They
showed that different text types are likely to express stance
in different ways. Opas and Tweedie (1999) studied stance
in romance fi ction and showed that three types of romance
fi ction can be separated by their expression of stance. This
paper continues these studies, paying special attention to the
visualization of the results.
Materials and methods
Our total corpus is 760 000 words. It consists of three parts:
romance fi ction, female-authored detective fi ction and maleauthored
detective fi ction, all published in the 1990s. The
romance fi ction comprises a total of 240 000 words from the
Harlequin Presents series, the Regency Romance series and
Danielle Steel’s works, which are often classifi ed as women’s
fi ction or ’cross-overs’. The female-authored detective fi ction
part of our corpus includes Patricia Cornwell, Sue Grafton,
P.D. James, Donna Leon, Ellis Peters, and Ruth Rendell. These
texts make up 295 000 words. The rest of the corpus (229 000
words) is made up of male-authored detective fi ction texts,
including Colin Dexter, Michael Dibdin, Quintin Jardine, Ian
Rankin and Peter Tremayne.
Principal components analysis was used to reduce the 12
markers of stance to three dimensions which describe 52.4%
of the variation in the data.
Results
In a previous study Opas and Tweedie (2000) concluded
that the detective stories seem to mark evidentiality, i.e. the
characters express their certainty and doubt. The romance
stories, on the other hand, seem to mainly mark affect, i.e.
the characters express their emotions and moods. In Biber
and Finegan’s terms (1989), the detective fi ction texts show
‘interactional evidentiality’ and the romance fi ction texts show
‘emphatic expression of affect’.
The results in Figures 1 and 2 below show the female-authored
detective stories in shades of red and yellow, the male-authored
detective stories in shades of blue and the romance stories in
shades of black. While in Figure 1 the female-authored texts
are perhaps slightly more clearly separatable from the others,
it still seems that all these texts are far more overlapping and
less clearly distinguishable as three groups than the texts in
previous studies were. However, broadly speaking, the romance
texts are in the lower half of the graph, the female-authored
detective texts in the upper half and the male-authored
detective texts in the middle. What is surprising though is that
no features seem to “pulling” texts downwards, towards the
lower half of the graph; and that the feature that “pull” the
texts upwards include both markers of certainty/doubt and
affect. Figure 1. PC1 and PC2 for detective and romance fi ction
Figure 2. PC2 and PC3 for detective and romance fi ction
Figure 2 seems to show similar results. Here, perhaps, the
female-authored detective texts are even slightly more easily
separated from the others, but the general impression of
the male-authored texts and the romance texts overlapping
remains. Yet again it seems that there are hardly any features
accounting for the texts on the left-hand side of the graph and
that the feature “pulling” the texts to the right include both
features marking evidentiality and those marking affect.
These results are quite surprising. Either male-authored
detective stories mark evidentiality and affect in the same
manner as romance fi ction, and here is seems that they don’t
show many features that would mark stance, or there is
something more complex at work here. To help us understand
these phenomena better, we would suggest visualizing the
workings of the markers of stance in a 3 dimensional model.
To this end, we have built a tool that takes the principal
components analysis data, reduces dimensionality down to
three components with the most energy and presents the data
with these components. The software tool is implemented
in the MATLAB® environment (The MathWorks, Inc.,
Massachusetts, USA) utilizing its 3D graphical functions. The
tool is an interactive one, allowing the researcher to turn the
3D model and look for the angles that best show the clustering
structure and the differences between the texts. We will
demonstrate how tools such as this one signifi cantly improve
the researcher’s ability to visualize the research results and to
interpret them.
References
Biber, D. and E. Finegan (1989) Styles of Stance in English:
Lexical and Grammatical Marking of Evidentiality and Affect.
Text 9.1: 93-124.
Opas, L.L. and F.J. Tweedie (1999) The Magic Carpet Ride:
Reader Involvement in Romantic Fiction. Literary and Linguistic
Computing 14.1: 89-101.
Opas, L.L. and F.J. Tweedie (2000) Come into My World: Styles
of stance in detective and romantic fi ction. Poster. ALLCACH2000.
Glasgow, UK.
Radway, J. A. (1984) Reading the Romance. Chapel-Hill: University
of North Carolina Press.","txt","2","",""
"891","9","TEI Analytics: a TEI Format for Cross-collection Text Analysis","1","The Monk Project (http://www.monkproject.org/) has for the
last year been developing a Web-based system for undertaking
text analysis and visualization with large, full-text literary
archives. The primary motivation behind the development of
this system has been the profusion of sites like the Brown
Women Writers Project, Perseus Digital Library, Wright
American Fiction, Early American Fiction, and Documenting
the American South, along with the vast literary text corpora
oered by organizations like the Text Creation Partnership and
Chadwyck-Healey. Every one of these collections represents
fertile ground for text analysis. But if they could be somehow
combined, they would constitute something considerably
more powerful: a literary full text-corpus so immense as to be
larger than anything that has yet been created in the history
of computing.
The obstacles standing in the way of such a corpus are well
known. While all of the collections mentioned above are
encoded in XML and most of them are TEI-conformant, local
variations can be so profound as to prohibit anything but the
most rudimentary form of cross-collection searching. Tagset
inclusions (and exclusions), local extensions, and local tagging
and metadata conventions dier so widely among archives, that
it is nearly impossible to design a generalized system that can
cross boundaries without a prohibitively cumbersome set of
heuristics. Even with XML and TEI, not all texts are created
equal.
TEI Analytics, a subset of TEI in which varying text collections
can be expressed, grew out of our desire to make MONK
work with extremely large literary text corpora of the sort
that would allow computational study of literary and linguistic
change over broad periods of time.
TEI Analytics
Local text collections vary not because archive maintainers
are contemptuous toward standards or interoperability, but
because particular local circumstances demand customization.
The nature of the texts themselves may require specialization,
or something about the storage, delivery, or rendering
framework used may favor particular tags or particular
structures. Local environments also require particular metadata
conventions (even within the boundaries of the TEI header).
This is in part why the TEI Consortium provides a number of
pre-fabricated customizations, such as TEI Math and TEI Lite,
as well as modules for Drama, transcriptions of speech, and
descriptions of manuscripts. Roma (the successor to Pizza
Chef) similarly allows one to create a TEI subset, which in turn
may be extended for local circumstances.
TEI Analytics, which is itself a superset of TEI Tite, is designed
with a slightly dierent purpose in mind. If one were creating a
new literary text corpus for the purpose of undertaking text
analytical work, it might make the most sense to begin with
one of these customizations (using, perhaps, TEI Corpus). In
the case of MONK, however, we are beginning with collections
that have already been tagged using some version of TEI with
local extensions. TEI Analytics is therefore designed to exploit
common denominators in these texts while at the same time
adding new structures for common analytical data structures
(like part-of-speech tags, lemmatizations, named-entities,
tokens, and sentence markers). The idea is to create a P5-
compliant format that is designed not for rendering, but for
analytical operations such as data mining, principle component
analysis, word frequency study, and n-gram analysis. In the
particular case of MONK, such documents have a relatively
brief lifespan; once documents are converted, they are read in
by a system that stores the information using a combination
of object-relational database technology and binary indexing.
But before that can happen, the texts themselves need to be
analyzed and re-expressed in the new format.
Implementation
Our basic approach to the problem involves schema harvesting.
The TEI Consortium’s Roma tool (http://tei.oucs.ox.ac.uk/
Roma/) was fi rst used to create a base W3C XML schema for
TEI P5 documents, which we then extended using a custom
ODD fi le.
With this basis in place, we were able to create an XSLT
“meta-stylesheet” (MonkMetaStylesheet.xsl) that consults
the target collection’s W3C XML schema to determine the
form into which the TEI P4 les should be converted. This
initial XSLT stylesheet is a meta-stylesheet in the sense that it
programatically authors another XSLT stylesheet. This second
stylesheet (XMLtoMonkXML.xsl), which is usually thousands
of lines long, contains the conversion instructions to get from
P4 to the TEI Analytics’s custom P5 implementation. Elements
that are not needed for analysis are removed or re-named
according to the requirements of MONK (for example,
numbered <div>s are replaced with un-numbered <div>s).
Bibliographical information is critical for text analysis, and both
copyright and responsibility information must be maintained,
but much of the information contained in the average
<teiHeader> (like revision histories and records of workfl ow)
are not relevant to the task. For this reason, TEI Analytics uses
a radically simplied form of the TEI header. Here is a sample template in the meta-stylesheet (in a
somewhat abbreviated form):
<xsl:template match=”xs:element[@
name=$listOfAllowableElements/*]”>
<!-- elements are identified in the
MONK shema, and narrowed to list
of allowable elements-->
<xsl:element name=”xsl:template”>
<!-- begins writing of ‘xsl:template’
elements in the final XMLtoMonkXML.xsl
stylesheet -->
<xsl:attribute name=”match”>
<!-- begins writing of the (approximately
122 unique) match attributes on
the ‘xsl:template’ elements -->
<xsl:choose>
<xsl:when test=”$attributeName
= $attributeNameLowercase”>
<xsl:value-of select=”@name”/>
</xsl:when>
<xsl:otherwise>
<xsl:value-of select=”concat(@
name,’ | ‘,lower-case(@name))”/>
</xsl:otherwise>
</xsl:choose>
</xsl:attribute>
<!-- ends writing of the match
attributes on the ‘xsl:template’
elements -->
<xsl:element name=”{$attributeName}”>
<!-- writes the unique contents of
each ‘xsl:template’ element in the
XMLtoMonkXML.xsl stylesheet -->
<xsl:for-each select=”$associ
atedAttributeList/list”>
<xsl:choose>
<xsl:for-each select=”child::
item[string-length(.) &gt; 0]”>
<!-- all strings (in the dynamicallygenerated
list of associated
attributes) greater than
zero are processed -->
<xsl:when>
<xsl:attribute name=”test”>
<xsl:value-of select=”concat(‘@’,.)”/>
</xsl:attribute>
<xsl:copy-of>
<xsl:attribute name=”select”>
<xsl:value-of select=”concat(‘@’,.)”/>
<!-- copies the element’s
attributes, constrained to a list
of attributes desired by MONK -->
</xsl:attribute>
</xsl:copy-of>
</xsl:when>
</xsl:for-each>
<xsl:otherwise> </xsl:otherwise>
<!-- any zero-length strings (in
the dynamically-generated list of
associated attributes) are discarded -->
</xsl:choose>
</xsl:for-each>
<xsl:apply-templates/>
</xsl:element>
<!-- ends writing of ‘xsl:template’
elements in the final XMLtoMonkXML.xsl
stylesheet -->
</xsl:template>
All processes are initiated by a program (called Abbot) that
performs, in order, the following tasks:
1. Generates the XMLtoMonkXML.xsl stylesheet
2. Edits the XMLtoMonkXML.xsl stylesheet to add the
proper schema declarations in the output fi les.
3. Converts the entire P4 collection to MONK’s custom P5
implementation.
4. Removes any stray namespace declarations from the
output fi les, and
5. Parses the converted les against the MONK XML schema.
These steps are expressed in BPEL (Business Process Execution
Language), and all source fi les are retained in the processing
sequence so that the process can be tuned, adjusted, and rerun
as needed without data loss. The main conversion process
takes, depending on the hardware, approximately 30 minutes
for roughly 1,000 novels and yields les that are then analyzed
and tagged using Morphadorner (a morphological tagger
developed by Phil Burns, a member of the MONK Project at Northwestern University). Plans are underway for a plugin
architecture that will allow one to use any of the popular
taggers (such as GATE or OpenNLP) during the analysis
stage.
Conclusion
We believe that TEI Analytics performs a useful niche function
within the larger ecology of TEI by making disparate texts
usable within a single text analysis framework. Even without
the need for ingestion into a larger framework, TEI Analytics
facilitates text analysis of disparate source fi les simply by
creating a consistent and unied XML representation. We also
believe that our particular approach to the problem of XML
conversion (a small stylesheet capable of generating massive
stylesheets through schema harvesting) may be useful in other
contexts|including, perhaps, the need to convert texts from
P4 to P5.","txt","2","",""
"892","9","The Dictionary of Words in the Wild","1","The Dictionary of Words in the Wild [1] is an experiment
in social textuality and the perceptual dynamics of reading.
The Dictionary is a social image site where contributors can
upload pictures of words taken “in the wild” and tag them so
they are organized alphabetically as an online visual dictionary.
Currently the Dictionary has 2227 images of 3198 unique
words and 24 contributor accounts. The images uploaded
and tagged are of text, usually single words or phrases, that
appear in the everyday environment. Images uploaded include
pictures of signs, body tatoos, garbage, posters, graffi ti, labels,
church displays, gravestones, plastic bags, clothing, art, labels,
and other sights. The site is structured with an application
programming interface to encourage unanticipated uses.
In this paper we will,
• Give a tour through the online social site and its API,
• Discuss current scholarship on public textuality and the
perceptual dynamics of reading,
• Refl ect on the Dictionary in these contexts, and
• Conclude with speculations on its possible contributions
to our understanding of textuality and reading.
Outline of the Dictionary
The following is a narrative of the demonstration part of the
presentation.
The Dictionary was developed with Ruby on Rails by Andrew
MacDonald with support from the TAPoR project under the
direction of Geoffrey Rockwell. Users can get a free account
in order to start uploading images. (We discovered once the
project was visible for a few months that spambots were
automatically creating accounts so we have introduced a
CAPTCHAlike graphical challenge-response feature to weed
out false accounts.) When you upload a picture you are given the opportunity
to crop it and are prompted to provide a list of words that
appear in the text. You can also provide a brief description or
discussion of the word image.
Once uploaded the image is fi led in a database and the interface
allows you to access the images in different ways:
• You can click on a letter and browse images with words
starting with that letter. An image with “On” and “Off” will
be fi led twice, though at present the label is the fi rst word
tagged.
• You can search for a word and see the images that have
been tagged with that word.
• You can type in a phrase and get a sequence of images.
• You can see what comments have been left by others on
your images and respond to them.
The API allows the user to create other processes or text
toys that can query the dictionary and get back an XML fi le
with the URLs for word images like:
<phrase>
<word href=”href_for_image”>Word</word>
<word>Word_with_no_image</word>
</phrase>
One of the goals of the project is to support mashups that use
the dictionary for new projects. This is where the Dictionary
is different than other such projects, many of which use Flickr
to pull images of letters or words.
Theoretical Discussion
The Dictionary is an exploratory project designed to
encourage the gathering of images of words in the wild and
to provoke thinking about our encounters with these words.
It did not start with an articulated theory of text that it set
out to illustrate, nor in the contributors’ experience does
the actual collecting of words tend to be governed by this or
that theory. Rather, in its simplicity, the Dictionary encourages
participants to document public textuality as they encounter
and perceive it.
At least in the initial phase of the project, the designers have
imposed no rules or guidelines for the collecting, editing and
tagging of words. Although it is clear that certain requirements
for entering words into the Dictionary would make subsequent
research questions easier to pursue, the designers prefer not
to impose them so as to discover what in fact participants fi nd
to be interesting and practical to record. Because recording of
words is voluntary and would seem inevitably to be limited to
a few individuals, the time and effort required must be kept to
a minimum in order to have a collection suffi ciently large to
allow the research potential of the Dictionary to emerge.
The Dictionary is meant to provoke refl ection on the actual
verbal environment in its totality, on the moment-by-moment
encounter with individual words and phrases where one fi nds
them and on the experience of reading them as each reading
unfolds.
Collecting of verbal images for the Dictionary presents
collectors with a way of defamiliarizing familiar environments.
Conventional techniques for framing a photograph and digital
tools for cropping it give them limited but surprisingly powerful
means of recording defamiliarized sights. Additional means are
provided by a commentary feature, but the amount of time
required to compose this commentary tends to discourage
much of it. Theoretical refl ection on the encounter with words
in the wild would seem to require participation in the project
to be adequate to the data. For this reason collecting is not a
task to be done separately from theorizing. Whatever theory
is to emerge will come from participant observation.
In some cases, we have found, what appears interesting to
record is relatively static, requiring little compositional care or
subsequent cropping. In many cases, however, the experience
of reading is a dynamic event, as when part of a verbal message,
not necessarily fi rst in normal reading order, is perceived fi rst,
then submerged into the overall syntax of its verbal and/or
visual environment. In other cases, the experience may include
a specifi c detail of the environment in which the text of interest
is embedded but not be informed signifi cantly by other details.
Occasionally one has suffi cient time to frame a photograph to
capture the experience adequately, but most often photographs
must be taken quickly, as when unwelcome attention would be
drawn to the act of photography or the situation otherwise
advises stealth (an inscription on a t-shirt, for example). The
Dictionary, one might say, is a record of psycholinguistic events
as much or more than simply of environmental data.
In more theoretical terms, is the project aims to study how
language acts as a semiotic system materially placed in the real
word. In order to interpret this multidimensional, “semiotic”
role of language, our analysis focuses on how dictionary users
perceive different signs and attribute meanings to words by
referring to these signs. We will argue that through this kind
of visual dictionary contributors can interact and play with
language by using visual artifacts (photos, images, graffi ti etc)
to express and defi ne the meanings of words. We have strong
theoretical reasons for regarding text as co-created by the
reader in interaction with the verbal signs of the document
being read. The Dictionary gives the reader of words in the
wild a means of implementing the act of reading as co-creative,
but with a signifi cant difference from those acts that have
previously been the focus of theoretical work. The collector
of wild words, like the reader of literature, is obviously not so
much a viewer as a producer of meaning, but unlike the literary
reader, the collector is operating in a textual fi eld whose realworld
context is highly unlikely ever to be otherwise recorded.
It so obviously goes without saying that it also goes by and
vanishes without ever being studied. The title of the project suggests a distinction between text in
two different places: the kind at home and the kind in the wild.
But the collector’s gaze rapidly suggests that the distinction
is only in part one of place. Text at home can also be ‘wild’
if it can be defamiliarized, e.g. the title of a book on its spine
taken in poor light conditions inside a house. The wildness of
words, is then ‘in the eye of the beholder’, though the domestic
environment is usually so well regulated that opportunities
for perceiving wildness are far more limited than in relatively
undomesticated environments. Thus such opportunities
tend to occur far less frequently in well-kept or wealthy
neighbourhoods than in poorly kept ones, where rubbish is
frequently encountered and advertising of all kinds is evident.
This suggests ironically that poorer neighbourhoods are in
respect of the sheer amount of reading more rather than less
literate. But the correlation between wealth and verbosity is
not so straightforward. Airport lounges, for example, are rich
in examples of wild words. What would seem to matter in this
correlation is the acquisitive desire of the population: those
who have tend not to read for more.
Such theorizing, however, is clearly at a quite preliminary
stage. The project calls for a more systematic ethnography
of textuality and its everyday occurence. Insofar as it can
be conceptualized, the long-term goal of the project can be
put as a question: would it be possible to develop a panoptic
topology of the appearance of the legible in everyday life, if
even just for one person?
Similar Work
The Dictionary is one of a number of projects that use the
internet to share images of textuality. For example, Typography
Kicks Ass: Flickr Bold Italic [2] is Flash toy that displays messages
left by people using letters from Flickr. The London Evening
Standard Headline Generator [3] from thesurrealist.co.uk
generates headlines from a Flickr set of images of headlines.
IllegalSigns.ca [4] tracks illegal billboards in Toronto and has
a Clickable Illegal Signs Map [5] that uses Google Maps. On
Flickr one can fi nd sets like Its Only Words [6] of images of
texts.
What all these projects have in common is the photographic
gaze that captures words or phrases in a context whether
for aesthetic purposes or advocacy purposes. The Dictionary
is no different, it is meant to provoke refl ection on the wild
context of text as it is encountered on the street.
The Future
The success of the project lies in how the participants
push the simple assumptions encoded in the structure. The
project would have failed had no one contributed, but with
contributions come exceptions to every design choice. The
types of text contributors want to collect and formally tag has
led to the specifi cation of a series of improvements that are
being implemented with the support of TAPoR and SSHRC.
The paper will conclude with some images and the future
directions they have provoked:
• We need to parse phrases so that we remove punctuation.
For example, “faith,” won’t fi nd the image for “faith”.
• We need to allow implicit words to be entered with
parentheses where the word doesn’t appear, but is
implicit. An example would be http://tapor1-dev.mcmaster.
ca/~dictwordwild/show/694 which is fi led under “Average”
even though the word doesn’t appear.
• We need to allow short phrasal verbs and compounds to
be entered with quotation marks so they are fi led as one
item. An example would be “come up” or “happy days”.
• We need to allow images of longer passages to identifi ed
as “Sentences in the Sticks”, “Phrases in the Fields” or
“Paragraphs in the Pastures”. These would not be fi led
under individual words, but the full text could be searched.
• We need to allow people to control capitalization so that,
for example, “ER” (which stands for “Emergency Room”) is
not rendered as “Er”.
• We need to let people add tags that are not words so
images can be sorted according to categories like “Graffi ti”
or “Billboard”.
Links
1. Dictionary of Worlds in the Wild: http://tapor1-dev.
mcmaster.ca/~dictwordwild/
2. Typography Kicks Ass: http://www.typographykicksass.com/
3. The London Evening Standard Headline Generator: http://
thesurrealist.co.uk/standard.php
4. IllegalSigns.ca: http://illegalsigns.ca/
5. Clickable Illegal Signs Map: http://illegalsigns.ca/?page_id=9
6. Its Only Words: http://www.fl ickr.com/photos/red_devil/
sets/72157594359355250/ Bibliography
Davis, H. and Walton, P. (1983): Language, Image, Media,
Blackwell, Oxford.
Kress, G. and Van Leeuwen, T. (1996): Reading images: the
grammar of visual design, Routledge, London.
Kress, G. and Van Leeuwen, T. (2001): Multimodal Discourse:
the modes and media of contemporary communication, Arnold,
London.
McCarty, Willard. 2008 (forthcoming). “Beyond the word:
Modelling literary context”. Special issue of Text Technology,
ed. Lisa Charlong, Alan Burke and Brad Nickerson.
McGann, Jerome. 2004. “Marking Texts of Many Dimensions.”
In Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens and John Unsworth, eds.
A Companion to Digital Humanities. Oxford: Blackwell. www.
digitalhumanities.org/companion/, 16. (12/10/07). 198-217.
Scollon, R. and Scollon, S. (2003): Discourses in Places: Language
in the material world, Routledge, London.
Van Leeuwen, T. (2005): Introducing social semiotics, Routledge,
London.","txt","2","",""
"893","9","The TTC-Atenea System: Researching Opportunities in the Field of Art-theoretical Terminology","1","The purpose of this presentation is to demonstrate the
research opportunities that the TTC-ATENEA system offers
to specialists in Art Theory. Principally, we will focus on
those functionalities that are able to assist specialists in the
interpretation of the theoretical discourses, a complex task
due to the ambiguity and inaccuracy that distinguish this type
of artistic terminology.
Introduction
The TTC-ATENEA system is currently being developed under
my supervision in a Project supported by the Ministerio de
Educación y Ciencia of Spain called Desarrollo de un tesauro
terminológico conceptual (TTC) de los discursos teórico-artísticos
españoles de la Edad Moderna, complementado con un corpus
textual informatizado (ATENEA) (HUM05-00539). It is an
interdisciplinary project integrated by the following institutions:
University of Málaga (Spain), University of de Santiago de
Compostela (Spain), University of Valencia (Spain), European
University of Madrid (Spain), the Getty Research Institute (Los
Angeles, EE.UU.), the University of Chicago (EE.UU.) and the
Centro de Documentación de Bienes Patrimoniales of Chile.
Also, it maintains a fruitful collaboration with the Department
of Computational Languages and Sciences of the University
of Málaga, specifi cally with the Project called ISWeb: Una
Infraestructura Básica para el Desarrollo de La Web Semántica y su
Aplicación a la Mediación Conceptual (TIN2005-09098-C05-01).
This system can be defi ned as a virtual net made up of two
complementary components: an electronic text database
(ATENEA), and the terminological conceptual thesaurus
(TTC). The TTC is a knowledge tool for art specialists that
consists of a compilation of described, classifi ed and linked
terms and concepts. The textual database consists of important
art-historical texts (16th -18th centuries), encoded in XMLTEI
(1), that supply the terms and concepts recorded in the
thesaurus (2).
We want to remark the signifi cant contribution of ATENEA
database to the fi eld of the virtual and digital libraries in Spain.
Despite the fact that the building of digital and virtual libraries
is an important area of development (3), ATENEA represents
one of the fi rst textual databases about specialized subject
matter –with exception of the digital libraries on literary texts-
(4). It is a very different situation from other contexts, where
we fi nd relevant specialized electronic textual collections. It is the case, for example, of the digital libraries about Italian
artistic texts developed and managed by Signum (Scuola
Normale Superiore di Pisa) (5); or the collections included in
the ARTFL Project (University of Chicago) (6).
Providing Solutios to the Ambiguity of
Art-theoretical Terminology
The confi guration of the ATENEA-TTC system was determined
by the main purpose of the project itself--that is, to provide
a satisfactory answer to the terminological/conceptual
problems that encumber the task of conducting research in
art theory, due to the high degree of semantic density of the
terminology contained in historical documents. In this respect,
it is important to point out that the objective of the Project is
not only to distinguish the terminological polysemy, that is, the
different concepts that a term denotes (i.e., disegno as product,
disegno as abstract concept, disegno as formal component of
the paintings…), but also the different interpretations that the
same concept assumes in discourses belonging to different
authors. For instances, the concept disegno, understood as an
abstract concept, has not the same interpretation in Zuccaro´s
treatise than in Vasari´s one, what implies that the term disegno
does not mean exactly the same in such texts. Indeed, this is
one of the more problematic aspects of textual interpretation,
since the same term assumes different semantic nuances in
each text or treatise, increasing, in that way, the possibilities
for ambiguity and error.
In connection with this question, the eminent Professor
Fernando Marías (7) has suggested the development of a
“cronogeografía” of the art-theoretical concepts and terms. In
his words, the so-called “cronogeografía” should be a precise
means of control of the emergence and use of the theoretical
vocabulary as well as of the ideas behind this. We consider that
the methodology proposed by this Project could be an answer
to Professor Marías´ suggestion.
It is clear that this approach requires, fi rstly, a comparative
conceptual analysis among the artistic texts stored in ATENEA
in order to identify the different interpretations of each
concept and, as a result, the semantic variations assumed by
every term. To make visible in the thesaurus these semanticconceptual
distinctions, we have proceeded to tag concepts
and terms by mean of parenthetical qualifi ers related to authors,
which have been specifi cally developed to this end. These
qualifi ers specify the author who has used or defi ned them.
Thus, the TTC records the conceptual-semantic variations
among concepts and terms used by different authors, and also
shows them graphically and visually. For example, the following
representation generated by the system (fi gure 1):
Fig. 1. Uses and interpretations of vagueza in
the Spanish art –theory (17th century).
reveals us, at a glance, that vagueza has the same interpretation
in Sigüenza and Santos´s discourses, but that this assumes
other senses in Carducho and Martinez´s treatises.
This procedure implies other signifi cant feature of the
ATENEA-TTC system: that terms and concepts are described
in the TTC according to how they has been used or defi ned in
each particular text. This last point deserves to be emphasized.
Effectively, there are other projects that also link terms to online
dictionary entries, in which the user fi nds general defi nitions
of the terms. Nevertheless, in the TTC terms and concepts are
defi ned in reference to the specifi c texts in where they have
been located. So, clicking on the selected term or concept, the
user gets information about how such term or concept has
been specifi cally used and defi ned in a particular text or by a
particular author.
In addition to that, the TTC-ATENEA system provides full
interaction between the ATENEA corpus and the TTC. The
system easily allows the defi nition of connections between a
term or a concept in an XML-TEI marked text and the registry
of the TTC. Thus, terms and concepts in the text are linked
to all their relevant information, stored and structured in the
TTC records. In the same way, the system allows to establish
a connection between terms and concepts registered in the
TTC and the different places where they appear in the XMLTEI
marked texts. As far as XML-TEI marked texts and TTC
are stored in the same database, we can establish these links in
a totally effective and effi cient way without having to access to
different data repositories to retrieve and link this information.
Consequently, one of the most important potentialities of
the system as a research tool derives from the interactions
that users are able to establish among the different types of
information compiled in each repository.
Finally, future extensions of the TTC-ATENEA will study
the possibility of use not only a thesaurus but a full fl edged
OWL [7] ontology and its integration in the Khaos Semantic Web platform [8] [9] [10] in order to achieve a formal explicit
representation of the artistic epistemology contained in the
texts.
Research Possibilities
The system allows users to retrieve the stored information
from both terminological-conceptual and textual repositories.
Nevertheless, as indicated above, the most important research
possibilities derive from the interactions that users are able
to establish between each repository. To illustrate this, we will
give a brief example.
1. ATENEA Corpus as a starting point. Imagine that a
specialist is interested in studying the meanings of the terms
used by the Italian author F. Pacheco in his Spanish treatise
(Diálogos de la Pintura, 1633). ATENEA Corpus enables the
specialist to visualize the electronic transcription of the text,
and explore it linguistically by means of different queries -
concordances, frequency lists, co-occurrences…- since the
system has been implemented with its own textual analyzer.
These functionalities do not constitute any novelty; all we
know that. Consequently, the most relevant feature resides in
the fact that the system allows user to browse directly from
a term or concept located in a text to the TTC record where
such term or concept is described according to its use in
Carducho´s text (fi gure 2).
Fig. 2. Connection between a concept in an XML-TEI marked
text (ATENEA) and the TTC record, where it is described.
In this way, the specialist is able to identify the precise senses
that the terms used by Carducho assume, and, therefore,
analyze with more accuracy his theory about the painting.
Once the specialist has accessed to the TTC records, the
system offers him other research possibilities given that
the recorded information is linked to other sections of the
TTC as well as to other texts stored in ATENEA. Thus, the
specialist is able to go more deeply in his investigation and
to get complementary information browsing through the site.
The presentation will show some clarifying examples of these
other possibilities.
2. TTC as a starting point. Imagine now that the specialist is
interested in the use of a particular term. In this case, the most
convenient is to search the term in the TTC. Made the query,
the specialist retrieves the different concepts associated to
the term, as in a conventional specialized dictionary. However,
as the term is marked with the author-parenthetical qualifi ers,
the specialist also fi nds out in which discourses the term has
been identifi ed denoting each concept (see fi gure1). In fact,
various hyperlinks enable him to go from the TTC record to
the exact point of the texts -stored in ATENEA- where the
term appears denoting such concepts (fi gure 3).
Fig. 3. Connection between a concept registered in the TTC and
the places where they appear in the XML-TEI marked texts.
Once in ATENEA Corpus, the specialist has the opportunity
to use its functionalities in order to specify his investigation.
The presentation will show in full detail these possibilities of
usage derived from this interactivity-based approach, and will
include time for Q&A. We believe that the questions taken
into consideration in our exposition will be of interest to
other humanistic disciplines, since the diffi culties of textual
interpretations due to the terminological ambiguity is a
common place in the fi eld of the Humanities.
Notes
(1) http://www.tei-c.org. The DTD used in this Project has been
created from the TEI-Lite DTD. We have selected those elements
that best adjusted to our requirements and we have added others
considered necessaries.
(2) For further information on this system see [1], [2] and [3].
(3) The most paradigmatic example is, without doubt, the Biblioteca
Virtual Miguel de Cervantes [http://www.cervantes.virtual.com]. For
more information, see the directories of the Junta de Andalucía
[http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/cultura/bibliotecavirtualandalucia/
recursos/otros_recursos.cmd], Ministerio de Cultura [http://www.
mcu.es/roai/es/comunidades/registros.cmd] or the list posted on the
web of the University of Alicante [http://www.ua.es/es/bibliotecas/
referencia/electronica/bibdigi.html]. Also, see [4] and [5]. (4) Other Spanish projects about specialized digital library are: the
Biblioteca Virtual del Pensamiento Político Hispánico “Saavedra Fajardo”,
whose purpose is to develop a textual corpus of documents and
sources about the Spanish theories on politic [http://saavedrafajardo.
um.es/WEB/HTML/web2.html]; and the Biblioteca Digital Dioscórides
(Complutense University of Madrid) that provides digitalized texts
from its biomedicine-historical collection [http://www.ucm.es/
BUCM/foa/presentacion.htm].
(5) http://www.signum.sns.it
(6) http://humanities.uchicago.edu/orgs/ARTFL/
(7) See [6]
References
[1] Rodríguez Ortega, N. (2006). Facultades y maneras en
los discursos de Francisco Pacheco y Vicente Carducho . Tesauro
terminológico-conceptual. Málaga: Universidad de Málaga.
[2] Rodríguez Ortega, N. (2006). “Use of computing tools
for organizing and Accessing Theory and Art Criticism
Information: the TTC-ATENEA Project”, Digital Humanities`06
Conference, 4-9 de julio (2006), Universidad de la Sorbonne,
París.
[3] Rodríguez Ortega, N. (2005). “Terminological/Conceptual
Thesaurus (TTC): Polivalency and Multidimensionality
in a Tool for Organizing and Accessing Art-Historical
Information”, Visual Resource Association Bulletin, vol. 32, n. 2,
pp. 34-43.
[4] Bibliotecas Virtuales FHL (2005). Madrid, Fundación Ignacio
Larramendi.
[5] García Camarero, E. y García Melero, L. A. (2001). La
biblioteca digital. Madrid, Arco/libros.
[6] Marías, F. (2004). “El lenguaje artístico de Diego Velázquez
y el problema de la `Memoria de las pinturas del Escorial´”,
en Actas del Simposio Internacional Velázquez 1999, Junta de
Andalucía, Sevilla, pp. 167-177.
[7] OWL Web Ontology Language. http://www.w3.org/TR/
owl-features/
[8] Navas-Delgado I., Aldana-Montes J. F. (2004). “A
Distributed Semantic Mediation Architecture”. Journal
of Information and Organizational Sciences, vol. 28, n. 1-2.
December, pp. 135-150.
[9] Moreno, N., Navas, I., Aldana, J.F. (2003). “Putting the
Semantic Web to Work with DB Technology”. IEEE Bulletin
of the Technical Committee on Data Engineering. December, pp.
49-54.
[10] Berners-Lee, T., Hendler, J., Lassila, O. (2001). “The
semantic web”. Scientifi c American (2001).","txt","2","",""
"894","9","Re-Engineering the Tree of Knowledge: Vector Space Analysis and Centroid- Based Clustering in the Encyclopédie","1","The Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond
d’Alembert is one of the crowning achievements of the French
Enlightenment. Mobilizing many of the great – and the not-sogreat
– philosophes of the eighteenth century, it was a massive
reference work for the arts and sciences, which sought to
organize and transmit the totality of human knowledge while at
the same time serving as a vehicle for critical thinking. The highly
complex structure of the work, with its series of classifi cations,
cross-references and multiple points of entry makes it not
only, as has been often remarked, a kind of forerunner of
the internet[1], but also a work that constitutes an ideal test
bed for exploring the impact of new machine learning and
information retrieval technologies. This paper will outline our
ongoing research into the ontology of the Encyclopédie , a data
model based on the classes of knowledge assigned to articles
by the editors and representing, when organized hierarchically,
a system of human understanding. Building upon past work,
we intend to move beyond the more traditional text and data
mining approaches used to categorize individual articles and
towards a treatment of the entire encyclopedic system as it
is elaborated through the distribution and interconnectedness
of the classes of knowledge. To achieve our goals, we plan on
using a vector space model and centroid-based clustering to
plot the relationships of the Encyclopédie‘s epistemological
categories, generating a map that will hopefully serve as a corollary to the taxonomic and iconographic representations
of knowledge found in the 18th century.[2]
Over the past year we have conducted a series of supervised
machine learning experiments examining the classifi cation
scheme found in the Encyclopédie, the results of which were
presented at Digital Humanities 2007. Our intent in these
experiments was to classify the more than 22,000 unclassifi ed
articles using the known classes of knowledge as our training
model. Ultimately the classifi er performed as well as could
be expected and we were left with 22,000 new classifi cations
to evaluate. While there were certainly too many instances
to verify by hand, we were nonetheless encouraged by the
assigned classifi cations for a small sample of articles. Due
to the limitations of this exercise, however, we decided to
leverage the information given us by the editors in exploring
the known classifi cations and their relationship to each other
and then later, to consider the classifi cation scheme as a whole
by examining the general distribution of classes over the entire
work as opposed to individual instances. Using the model
assembled for our fi rst experiment - trained on all of the
known classifi cations - we then reclassifi ed all of the classifi ed
articles. Our goal in the results analysis was twofold: fi rst, we
were curious as to the overall performance of our classifi cation
algorithm, i.e., how well it correctly labeled the known articles;
and secondly, we wanted to use these new classifi cations to
examine the outliers or misclassifi ed articles in an attempt to
understand better the presumed coherency and consistency
of the editors’ original classifi cation scheme.[3]
In examining some of the reclassifi ed articles, and in light
of what we know about Enlightenment conceptions of
human knowledge and understanding – ideas for which the
Encyclopédie and its editors were in no small way responsible
– it would seem that there are numerous cases where the
machine’s classifi cation is in fact more appropriate than
that of the editors. The machine’s inability to reproduce the
editors’ scheme with stunning accuracy came somewhat as
a surprise and called into question our previous assumptions
about the overall structure and ordering of their system of
knowledge. Modeled after Sir Francis Bacon’s organization
of the Sciences and human learning, the Système Figuré des
connaissances humaines is a typographical diagram of the various
relationships between all aspects of human understanding
stemming from the three “root” faculties of Reason, Memory,
and Imagination.[4] It provides us, in its most rudimentary
form, with a view from above of the editors’ conception of
the structure and interconnectedness of knowledge in the
18th century. However, given our discovery that the editors’
classifi cation scheme is not quite as coherent as we originally
believed, it is possible that the Système fi guré and the expanded
Arbre généalogique des sciences et arts, or tree of knowledge, as
spatial abstractions, were not loyal to the complex network
of contextual relationships as manifested in the text. Machine
learning and vector space analysis offer us the possibility, for
the fi rst time, to explore this network of classifi cations as
a whole, leveraging the textual content of the entire work
rather than relying on external abstractions.
The vector space model is a standard framework in which
to consider text mining questions. Within this model, each
article is represented as a vector in a very high-dimensional
space where each dimension corresponds to the words in
our vocabulary. The components of our vectors can range
from simple word frequencies, to n-gram and lemma counts,
in addition to parts of speech and tf-idf (term frequencyinverse
document frequency), which is a standard weight used
in information retrieval. The goal of tf-idf is to fi lter out both
extremely common and extremely rare words by offsetting
term frequency by document frequency. Using tf-idf weights,
we will store every article vector in a matrix corresponding to
its class of knowledge. We will then distill these class matrices
into individual class vectors corresponding to the centroid of
the matrix.[5]
Centroid or mean vectors have been employed in classifi cation
experiments with great success.[6] While this approach is
inherently lossy, our initial research suggests that by fi ltering
out function words and lemmatizing, we can reduce our class
matrices in this way and still retain a distinct class core. Using
standard vector space similarity measures and an open-source
clustering engine we will cluster the class vectors and produce
a new tree of knowledge based on semantic similarity. We
expect the tree to be best illustrated as a weighted undirected
graph, with fully-connected sub-graphs. We will generate
graphs using both the original classifi cations and the machine’s
decisions as our labels.
Due to the size and scale of the Encyclopédie, its editors adopted
three distinct modes of organization - dictionary/alphabetic,
hierarchical classifi cation, and cross-references - which, when
taken together, were said to represent encyclopedic knowledge
in all its complexity.[7] Using the machine learning techniques
outlined above, namely vector space analysis and centroidbased
clustering, we intend to generate a fourth system of
organization based on semantic similarity. It is our hope that a
digital representation of the ordering and interconnectedness
of the Encyclopédie will highlight the network of textual
relationships as they unfold within the work itself, offering a
more inclusive view of its semantic structure than previous
abstractions could provide. This new “tree of knowledge” can
act as a complement to its predecessors, providing new points
of entry into the Encyclopédie while at the same time suggesting
previously unnoticed relationships between its categories. References
[1] E. Brian, “L’ancêtre de l’hypertexte”, in Les Cahiers de
Science et Vie 47, October 1998, pp. 28-38.
[2] R. Darnton. “Philosophers Trim the Tree of Knowledge.”
The Great Cat Massacre and Other Essays in French Cultural
History. London: Penguin, 1985, pp. 185-207.
[3] R. Horton, R. Morrissey, M. Olsen, G. Roe, and R. Voyer.
“Mining Eighteenth Century Ontologies: Machine Learning
and Knowledge Classifi cation in the Encyclopédie.” under
consideration for Digital Humanities Quarterly.
[4] For images of the Système fi guré des connaissance humaines
and the Arbre généalogique des sciences et des arts principaux
see, http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ARTFL/projects/encyc/
systeme2.jpg; and http://artfl .uchicago.edu/cactus/.
[5] G. Salton, A. Wong, and C. S. Yang. “A vector space model
for automatic indexing.” Communications of the ACM.
November 1975.
[6] E. Han and G. Karypis. “Centroid-Based Document
Classifi cation.” Principles of Data Mining and Knowledge
Discovery. New York: Springer, 2000, pp. 424-431.
[7] G. Blanchard and M. Olsen. “Le système de renvois
dans l’Encyclopédie: une cartographie de la structure des
connaissances au XVIIIème siècle.” Recherches sur Diderot et
sur l’Encyclopédie, April 2002.","txt","2","",""
"895","9","Assumptions, Statistical Tests, and Non-traditional Authorship Attribution Studies -- Part II","1","Statistical inferences are based only in part upon the
observations. An equally important base is formed by prior
assumptions about the underlying situation. Even in the
simplist cases, there are explicit or implicit assumptions
about randomness and independence....
Huber
Introduction
Controversy surrounds the methodology used in nontraditional
authorship attribution studies -- those studies
that make use of the computer, stylistics, and the computer.
[Rudman 2003] [Rudman 1998] One major problem is
that many of the most commonly used statistical tests have
assumptions about the input data that do not hold for the
primary data of these attribution studies -- the textual data
itself (e.g. normal distributions, randomness, independence).
“...inappropriate statistical methods....In particular, asymtotic
normality assumptions have been used unjustifi ably, leading
to fl awed results.” [Dunning, p.61] “Assumptions such as the
binomiality of word counts or the independence of several
variables chosen as markers need checking.” [Mosteller and
Wallace]
This paper looks at some of the more frequently used tests
(e.g. chi-square, Burrows Delta) and then at the questions, “Are
there assumptions behind various tests that are not mentioned
in the studies?” and “Does the use of statistical tests whose
assumptions are not met invalidate the results?” Part I of this
paper was presented at the “10th Jubilee Conference of the
International Federation of Classifi cation Societies,” 28 July
2006 in Ljubljana, Slovenia. The idea behind Part I was to get
as much input as possible from a cross-section of statisticians
from around the world. Part II takes the statisticians’ input
and continues looking at the problem of assumptions made
by various statistical tests used in non-traditional attribution
studies.
Because of the complicated intertwining of disciplines in
non-traditional authorship attribution, each phase of the
experimental design should be as accurate and as scientifi cally
rigorous as possible. The systematic errors of each step must
be computed and summed so that the attribution study can
report an overall systematic error -- Mosteller and Wallace
come close to doing this in their “Federalist” study -- and it
seems that no one else tries. It is the systematic error that drives the focus of this paper --
the assumptions behind the statistical tests used in attribution
studies. I am not concerned with assumptions made by
practitioners that are not an integral part of the statistics -
- e.g. Morton, using the cusum technique, assumes that style
markers are constant across genre -- this has been shown
to be false but has nothing to do with the cusum test itself.
[Sanford et al.]
There are many statistical tests along with their many
assumptions that are used in non-traditional attribution studies
- e.g the Efron-Thisted tests are based on the assumption that
things (words) are well mixed in time [Valenza] -- obviously
not true in attribution studies. Because of time constraints,
I want to limit the number of tests discussed to three: the
chi-square, Burrows’ Delta, and the third being more of a
`catagory’ -- machine learning.
This paper looks at each test and attempts to explain why the
assumptions exist -- how they are determined -- how integral
assumptions are to the use of the test.
Chi-Square test
The chi-square test, in all of its manifestations, is ubiquitous
in non-traditional authorship studies. It also is the test that
has recieved the most criticism from other practitioners.
Delcourt lists some of the problems [Delcourt (from Lewis
and Burke)]:
1) Lack of independence among the single events or
measures
2) Small theoretical frequencies
3) Neglect of frequencies of non-occurence
4) Failure to equalize the sum of the observed frequencies
and the sum of the theoretical frequencies
5) Indeterminate theoretical frequencies
6) Incorrect or questionable categorizing
7) Use of non-frequency data
8) Incorrect determination of the number of degrees of
freedom
Does the chi-square test always demand independence and
randomness, and ever a normal distribution? Gravetter and
Wallnau say that although the chi-square test is non-parametric,
“...they make few (if any) assumptions about the population
distribution.” [Gravetter and Wallnau, 583]
The ramifi cations of ignoring these assumptions are
discussed.
Burrows’ Delta
This section discusses the assumptions behind Burrows’
Delta.
The assumptions behind Burrows’ delta are articulated by
Shlomo Argamon:
1) Each indicator word is assumed to be randomly
distributed
2) Each indicator word is assumed to be statistically
independent of every other indicator word’s frequency
The ramifi cations of ignoring these assumptions are
discussed.
Do the assumptions really make a difference in looking at the
results? Burrows’ overall methodology and answers are to be
highly commended.
Machine Learning -- Data Mining
Almost all machine learning statistical techniques assume
independence in the data.
David Hand et al. say, “...of course...the independence
assumption is just that, an assumption, and typically it is far
too strong an assumption for most real world data mining
problems.” [Hand et al., 289]
Malerba et al. state, “Problems caused by the independence
assumption are particularly evident in at least three situations:
learning multiple attributes in attribute-based domains,
learning multiple predicates in inductive logic programming,
and learning classifi cation rules for labeling.”
The ramifi cations of ignoring these assumptions are
discussed.
Conclusion
The question at hand is not, “Does the violation of the
assumptions matter?”, but rather, “How much does the
violation of assumptions matter?” and, “How can we either
correct for this or calculate a systematic error?”
How are we to view attribution studies that violate assumptions,
yet show some success with studies using only known authors?
The works of McNemar, Baayen, and Mosteller and Wallace
are discussed.
The following are answers often given to questions about
assumptions: 1) The statistics are robust
The tests are so robust that the assumptions just do not
matter.
2) They work until they don’t work
You will know when this is and then you can re-think what
to do.
3) Any problems are washed out by statistics
There is so much data that any problems from the violation
of assumptions are negligible.
These answers and some solutions are discussed.
Preliminary References
Argamon, Shlomo. “Interpreting Burrows’ Delta: Geometric
and Probabilistic Foundations.” (To be published in Literary
and Linguistic Computing.) Pre-print courtesy of author, 2006.
Baayen, R. Harald. “The Randomness Assumption in Word
Frequency Statistics.” Research in Humanities Computing
5. Ed. Fiorgio Perissinotto. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996,
17-31.
Banks, David. “Questioning Authority.” Classifi cation Society of
North America Newsletter 44 (1996): 1.
Box, George E.P. et al. Statistics for Experimenters: An
Introduction to Design, Data Analysis, and Model Building. New
York: John Wiley and Sons, 1978.
Burrows, John F. “`Delta’: A Measure of Stylistic Difference
and a Guide to Likely Authorship.” Literary and Linguistic
Computing17.3 (2002): 267-287.
Cox, C. Phillip. A Handbook of Introductory Statistical
Methods. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1987.
Delcourt, Christian. “Stylometry.” Revue Belge de Philologie et
d’histoire 80.3 (2002): 979-1002.
Dunning, T. “Accurate Methods for the Statistics of Suprise
and Coincidence.” Computational Linguistics , 19.1 (1993):
61-74.
Dytham, Calvin. Choosing and Using Statistics: A Biologist’s Guide.
(Second Edition) Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.
Gravetter, Fredrick J., and Larry B. Wallnau. Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences. (5th Edition) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Thomson Learning, 2000.
Hand, David, et al. Principles of Data Mining. Cambridge, MA:
The MIT Press, 2001.
Holmes, David I. “Stylometry.” In Encyclopedia of Statistical
Sciences (Update of Volume 3). Eds. Samuel Kotz, Campbell,
and David Banks. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1999.
Hoover, David L. “Statistical Stylistics and Authorship
Attribution: An Empirical Investigation.” Literary and Linguistic
Computing 16.4 (2001): 421-444.
Huber, Peter J. Robust Statistics. New York: John Wiley and
Sons, 1981.
Khmelev, Dmitri V., and Fiona J. Tweedie. “Using Markov
Chains for Identifi cation of Writers.” Literary and Linguistic
Computing 16.3 (2001): 299-307.
Lewis, D., and C.J. Burke. “The Use and Misuse of the Chisquared
Test.” Psychological Bulletin 46.6 (1949): 433-489.
Malerba, D., et al. “ A Multistrategy Approach to learning
Multiple Dependent Concepts.” In Machine Learning and
Statistics: The Interface. Eds. G. Nakhaeizadeh and C.C. Taylor.
New York: John Wiley and Sons, 87-106.
McNemar, Quinn. Psychological Statistics (3rd Edition). New
York: John Wiley and Sons, 1962.
Mosteller, Fredrick, and David L. Wallace. Applied Bayesian and
Classical Inference: The Case of the “Federalist Papers.” New York:
Springer-Verlag, 1984.
Rudman, Joseph. “Cherry Picking in Non-Traditional
Authorship Attribution Studies.” Chance 16.2 (2003): 26-32.
Rudman, Joseph. “The State of Authorship Attribution
Studies: Some Problems and Solutions.” Computers and the
Humanities 31 (1998): 351-365.
Sanford, Anthony J., et al. “A Critical Examination of
Assumptions Underlying the Cusum Technique of Forensic
Linguistics.” Forensic Linguistics 1.2 (1994): 151-167.
Valenza, Robert J. “Are the Thisted-Efron Authorship Tests
Valid?” Computers and the Humanities 25.1 (1991): 27-46.
Wachal, Robert Stanly. “Linguistic Evidence, Statistical
Inference, and Disputed Authorship.” Ph.D Dissertation,
University of Wisconsin, 1966.
Williams, C.B. “A Note on the Statistical Analysis of Sentence
Length as a Criterion of Literary Style.” Biometrica 31 (1939-
1940): 356-351.","txt","2","",""
"896","9","Does Size Matter? A Reexamination of a Timeproven Method","1","Previous stylometric studies (Rybicki 2006, 2006a, 2007) of
patterns in multivariate diagrams of correlation matrices
derived from relative frequencies of most frequent words in
character idiolects (Burrows 1987) in a number of originals
and translations (respectively, Sienkiewicz’s trilogy of historical
romances and its two English translations; Rybicki’s Polish
translations of novels by John le Carré; and the three English
versions of Hamlet, Q1, Q2, F, and its translations into nine
different languages) have all yielded interesting similarities in
the layout of data points in the above-mentioned diagrams for
corresponding originals and translations. The repetitiveness of
the observed phenomenon in many such pairs immediately
raised some questions as to its causes – the more so as the
most-frequent-word lists for any original and its translations,
consisting primarily of functions words, modals, pronouns,
prepositions and articles (if any in a given language) contains
few direct counterparts in any two languages.
The primary suspect for a possible bias was the difference
in size between the parts of individual characters, since that
particular feature invariably remains proportionally similar
between original and translation (Rybicki 2000). The import
of this element remained unnoticed in many other studies
employing Burrows’s time-proven method (later developed,
evaluated and applied by a number of scholars, including Hoover
2002) since they were either conducted on equal samples or,
more importantly, although some did address the problem of
translation, they never dealt with so many translations at a
time as did e.g. the Hamlet study (Rybicki 2007).
The emerging suspicion was that since the sizes of the
characters studied do not vary signifi cantly between the twelve
versions of Hamlet, this proportion might heavily infl uence
the multivariate graphs produced – the more so as, in most
cases, the most talkative characters occupied central positions
in the graphs, while the lesser parts were usually limited to
the peripheries. This (together with similar effects observed
in earlier studies) had to lead to a reassessment of the results.
Also, since most studies were conducted in traditional maledominated
writing, resulting in female characters speaking
little in proportion even to their importance in the plot,
these peripheries usually included separate groups of women;
while this was often seen as the authors’ ability to stylistically
differentiate “male” and “female” idiom, the size bias could
distort even this quite possible effect.
A number of tests was then performed on character
idiolects and narrative fragments of various sizes and various
confi gurations of characters from selected English novels
and plays – ranging from Ruth and David Copperfi eld; from
Conan Doyle to Poe; narration in Jane Austen, or plays by Ben
Jonson and Samuel Beckett – to investigate how the impact
of size distorts the image of stylistic differences presented in
multivariate diagrams.
One possible source of the bias is the way relative frequencies
of individual words are calculated. Being a simple ratio of
word frequency to size of sample, it may be as unreliable
as another very similar formula, the type-to-token ratio (or,
indeed, one as complex as Yule’s K), has been found to be
unreliable as a measure of vocabulary richness in samples
of different size (Tweedie & Baayen 1997). Also, due to the
nature of multivariate analyses used (both Factor Analysis and
Multimensional Scaling), it is not surprising that the less stable
statistics of the less talkative characters would have their data
points pushed to the peripheries of the graph. Finally, since the
list of the most frequent words used in the analysis is most
heavily infl uenced by the longest parts in any text, this might
also be the reason for the “centralising” bias visible in data
points for such characters.
It should be stressed that the above reservations do not,
in any way, invalidate the entire method; indeed, results for
samples of comparative size remain reliable and unbiased. Also,
it should not be forgotten that size of a character’s part is in
itself an individuating feature of that character.
References
Burrows, J.F. (1987). Computation into Criticism: A Study of
Jane Austen’s Novels and an Experiment in Method. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
Hoover, D.L. (2002). New Directions in Statistical Stylistics and
Authorship Attribution. Proc. ALLC/ACH.
Rybicki, J. (2000). A Computer-Assisted Comparative Analysis of
Henryk Sienkiewicz’s Trilogy and its Two English Translations. PhD
thesis, Kraków: Akademia Pedagogiczna.
Rybicki, J. (2006). Burrowing into Translation: Character Idiolects in
Henryk Sienkiewicz’s Trilogy and its Two English Translations. LLC
21.1: 91-103.
Rybicki, J. (2006a). Can I Write like John le Carré. Paris: Digital
Humanities 2006.
Rybicki, J. (2007). Twelve Hamlets: A Stylometric Analysis of
Major Characters’ Idiolects in Three English Versions and Nine
Translations. Urbana-Champaign: Digital Humanities 2007.
F. Tweedie, R. Baayen (1997). Lexical ‘constants’ in stylometry
and authorship studies, <http://www.cs.queensu.ca/achallc97/
papers/s004.html>","txt","2","",""
"897","9","The TEI as Luminol: Forensic Philology in a Digital Age","1","A signifi cant number of digital editions have been published
in recent years, and many of these serve as exemplars for
those of us working within the digital editing community. A
glance at Electronic Text Editing, for example, published in 2006,
indicates that such projects address a wide berth of editorial
problems, ranging from transcriptional practices to document
management to authenticity. And they offer a wealth of
information to editors working on various types of digital
editions.
In this paper, I consider an editorial problem that has yet to be
resolved. My discussion centers on the diffi culties that arise
in editing a single, albeit somewhat unusual, Icelandic saga:
Hafgeirs saga Flateyings. This saga is preserved in an unsigned,
eighteenth-century manuscript, Additamenta 6, folio (Add. 6,
fol.). Today housed in the collection of the Arni Magnusson
Institute for Icelandic Studies in Reykjavík, Iceland, the
manuscript was originally held as part of the Arnamagnæan
Collection in Copenhagen, Denmark. According to the fl yleaf:
“Saga af Hafgeyre fl ateying udskreven af en Membran der
kommen er fra Island 1774 in 4to exarata Seculo xij” (Hafgeirs
saga Flayetings was copied from a twelfth-century manuscript
written in quarto, which came [to Copenhagen] from Iceland in
1774).
While such a manuscript might appear unremarkable, as a
number of paper manuscripts were copied during the late
eighteenth century in Copenhagen, then the capital of Iceland
and the seat of Icelandic manuscript transmission during this
period, only twelve Old Norse/Old Icelandic manuscripts of
those catalogued in the Copenhagen collections are dated to
the twelfth century, while a mere eighteen are dated to 1200
(Kalund 512). The dating on the fl yleaf is therefore unusual, and
as it turns out, suspect as well, since no catalog entry exists
to record the existence of the alleged source manuscript.
Moreover, according to Jorgensen, the motif sequences found in
Hafgeirs saga bear a striking resemblance to those found in the
well-known mythical-heroic saga Hálfdanars saga Brönufóstra
(157). And in a fascinating argument based primarily on this
fact, Jorgensen argues that Add. 6, fol. is a forgery, claiming that
Þorlákur Magnússon Ísfi ord, an Icelandic student studying and
working in Copenhagen during the 1780s, composed and sold
Hafgeirs saga as a copy of an authentic medieval Icelandic saga
(163).
In spite of its questionable origin, Hafgeirs saga stands as a
remnant of Iceland’s literary, linguistic, and textual history, and
Add. 6, fol. can therefore be viewed as an important cultural
artefact. As the editor of the Hafgeirs saga manuscript, my
aim is to provide a ‘reliable’ (see “Guidelines for Editors of
Scholarly Editions” Section 1.1) electronic edition of the text
and the manuscript. But the question, at least until recently,
was how? What is the best way to represent such a text?
Encoding the work according to a markup standard such
as the TEI Guidelines is surely a starting point, but doing so
doesn’t solve one of the primary concerns: How to represent
the manuscript reliably (which presents a complex editorial
problem of its own), while at the same time illuminating the
textual and linguistic ‘artefacts’ that may offer readers insight
into the saga’s origin?
At the 2007 Digital Humanities Summer Institute, Matthew
Driscoll gave a talk entitled “Everything But the Smell: Toward
a More Artefactual Digital Philology.” The talk provided a brief
history of the shift toward ‘new’ philology, and, importantly,
underscored the signifi cance of the material or ‘artefactual’
aspect of new philology, which views manuscripts as physical
objects and thus as cultural artefacts which offer insight into
the “process to which they are witness” (“Everything But the
Smell: Toward a More Artefactual Digital Philology”). The TEI,
Driscoll pointed out, offers support for artefactual philology, and
the descriptive framework of the P5 Guidelines, which defi nes
Extensible Markup Language (XML) as the underlying encoding
language, is ideal for this kind of work. Moreover, as Driscoll
suggests, there is “no limit to the information one can add to
a text - apart, that is, from the limits of our own imagination”
(“Electronic Textual Editing: Levels of Transcription”). To be
sure, this paper does not lapse into what McCarty refers to
as the ‘complete encoding fallacy’ or the ‘mimetic fallacy’ (see
Dahlström 24), but it does agree with Driscoll in arguing that
P5-conformant editions, which can offer a signifi cant layering
of data and metadata, have the potential to move the reader
beyond the aesthetics of sensory experience.
By defi nition, artefactual philology portends a kind of
‘evidentiary’ approach, one that can frame textual features,
including linguistic and non-linguistic features (such as lacunae)
for example, as kinds of evidence. Evidence of what? That is
in the hands of the editors and the readers, but conceivably:
linguistic development, the transmission process, literary merit,
and so on. And when an evidentiary approach to philology is
defi ned within a ‘generative’ approach to a scholarly edition
(see Vanhoutte’s “Generating” 164), a new direction in
electronic editing becomes possible.
This paper explores this new direction. It shows how the
Hafgeirs saga edition employs such a framework to address
the problem of describing linguistic and non-linguistic artefacts,
which are precisely the kinds of evidence that can bear witness
to the composition date and transmission process. And it
demonstrates how the display decisions result in an interactive
and dynamic experience for the edition’s readers.
For example, in addition to elements defi ned within existing
modules of the TEI, the edition’s schema defi nes four new
elements1. Drawn from the perspectives of historical and
socio- linguistics, these elements are intended to aid readers
in evaluating the saga’s composition date. Given the ‘logic of abundance’ (see Flanders 135), encoding the metadata
described in the new elements beside the descriptive data
described by pre-defi ned elements (such as <del> for example)
can be accomplished without sacrifi cing the role of the text as
a literary and cultural artefact. Because the transformation of
the source XML has been designed to display interactively the
various encodings of the text2, readers can view or suppress the
various descriptions and generate their own novel versions of
the text. Readers can display archaisms, for instance, and assess
whether they are “affectation[s] of spurious age” (Einar 39) or
features consistent with the textual transmission process, and
they can view borrowings, for instance, and assess whether
they preclude a medieval origin or are to be expected in a
text ostensibly copied by a scribe living in Copenhagen during
the eighteenth century. Or they can suppress these features
and view the normalized transcription, the semi-diplomatic
transcription, emendations, editorial comments, or any
combination of these.
Ultimately, this paper synthesizes aspects of text editing,
philology, and linguistics to explore a new direction in digital
editing. In doing so, it frames P5 XML as a kind of luminol that,
when transformed, can be used to illuminate new types of
evidence: linguistic and philological data. And the goal is identical
to that of a crime-scene investigator’s: Not necessarily to solve
the case, but to preserve and to present the evidence.
Notes
[1] The <borrowing> element describes a non-native word which
has been adopted into the language. Distinct from the <foreign>
element, a borrowing may have the following attributes: @sourcelang
(source language), @borrowdate (date of borrowing), @borrowtype
(type of borrowing; e.g. calque, loanword). The <modernism>
element describes a word, phrase, usage, or peculiarity of style
which represents an innovative or distinctively modern feature. The
<neologism> element describes a word or phrase which is new to
the language or one which has been recently coined. The <archaism>
element describes an archaic morphological, phonological, or syntactic
feature or an archaic word, phrase, expression, etc.
[2]My discussion of the display will continue my in-progress work
with Garrick Bodine, most recently presented at TEI@20 on
November 1, 2007: “From XML to XSL, jQuery, and the Display of
TEI Documents.”
References
Burnard, Lou, and Katherine O’Brien O’Keefe and John
Unsworth eds. Electronic Text Editing. New York: The Modern
Language Association of America, 2006.
Dalhström, Mats. “How Reproductive is a Scholarly Edition?”
Literary and Linguistic Computing. 19:1 (2004): 17-33.
Driscoll, M.J. “Everything But the Smell: Toward a More
Artefactual Digital Philology.” Digital Humanities Summer
Institute. 2007.
Driscoll, M.J. Text Encoding Initiative Consortium. 15 August
2007. “Electronic Textual Editing: Levels of Transcription.”
<http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/ETE/Preview/driscoll.xml>.
Einar Ól. Sveinsson. Dating the Icelandic Sagas. London: Viking
Society for Northern Research, 1958.
Flanders, Julia. “Gender and the Eectronic Text.” Electronic
Text. Ed. Kathryn Sutherland. Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1997.
127-143.
“Guidelines for Editors of Scholarly Editions.” Modern
Language Association. 25 Sept. 2007. 10 Nov. 2007. <http://
www.mla.org/cse_guidelines>.
Jorgensen, Peter. “Hafgeirs saga Flateyings: An Eighteenth-
Century Forgery.” Journal of English and Germanic Philology.
LXXVI (1977): 155-164.
Kalund, Kristian. Katalog over de oldnorsk-islandske handskrifter
i det store kongelige bibliotek og i universitetsbiblioteket.
Kobenhavn: 1900.
Vanhoutte, Edward. “Traditional Editorial Standards and the
Digital Edition.” Learned Love: Proceedings from the Emblem
Project Utrecht Conference on Dutch Love Emblems and the
Internet (November 2006). Eds. Els Stronks and Peter Boot.
DANS Symposium Publications 1: The Hague, 2007. 157-174.","txt","2","",""
"898","9","A Multi-version Wiki","1","If, until the middle of the nineties, the main preoccupation
of the scholarly editor had been that of conserving as
faithfully as possible the information contained in the original
sources, in the last ten years attention has shifted to the
user’s participation in the production of web content. This
development has occurred under pressure from the ‘native’
forms of digital communication as characterised by the term
‘Web 2.0’ (Tapscott and Williams, 2006). We are interested in
harnessing the collaborative power of these new environments
to create ‘fl uid, co-operative, distributed’ (Robinson 2007: 10)
digital versions of our textual cultural heritage. The approach
taken by Hypernietzsche (Barbera, 2007) similarly tries to
foster collaboration around cultural heritage texts. However,
while Hypernietzsche focuses on annotation, what we have
developed is a wiki-inspired environment for documents that
were previously considered too complex for this kind of
editing.
Before explaining how this can work in practice, it is worthwhile
to refl ect on why it is necessary to change our means of
editing cultural heritage texts. G.T. Tanselle has recently argued
(2006) that in the digital medium ‘we still have to confront the
same issues that editors have struggled with for twenty-fi ve
hundred years’. That may be true for analysis of the source
texts themselves, but digitisation does change fundamentally
both the objectives of editing and the function of the edition.
For the representation of a text ‘is conditioned by the modes
of its production and reproduction’ (Segre, 1981). The wellknown
editorial method of Lachmann, developed for classical
texts, and that of the New Bibliography for early printed books,
both assumed that the text was inherently corrupt and needed
correction into the single version of a print edition. With
the advent of the digital medium textual critics ‘discovered
that texts were more than simply correct or erroneous’
(Shillingsburg, 2006: 81). The possibility of representing multiple
versions or multiple markup perspectives has long been seen
as an enticing prospect of the digital medium, but attempts to
achieve this so far have led either to complexity that taxes the
limitations of markup (Renear, 1997: 121) or to an overload of
information and a ‘drowning by versions’ (Dalhstrom, 2000).
It is now generally recognised that written texts can contain
complexities and subtleties of structure that defeat the power
of markup alone to represent them (Buzzetti, 2002).
In our talk we would like to present three examples of how
overlapping structures can be effi ciently edited in a wiki: of
a modern genetic text in Italian, of a short classical text, the
‘Sybilline Gospel’, and of a short literary text marked up in
various ways. Our purpose is to demonstrate the fl exibility of
the tool and the generality of the underlying algorithm, which
is not designed for any one type of text or any one type of
editing. However, because of the limited space, we will only
describe here the Sibylline Gospel text. This is a particularly
interesting example, because it not only has a complex
manuscript tradition but it has also been deliberately altered
throughout its history like agenetic text.
The Sibylla Tiburtina is an apocalyptic prophecy that describes
the nine ages of world history up to the Last Judgement. The
fi rst version of this prophecy, which enjoyed a widespread and
lasting popularity throughout the whole medieval era, was
written in Greek in the second half of the 4th century. Of this
lost text we have an edited Byzantine version, dating from the
beginning of the 6th century, and several Latin versions, besides
translations in Old French and German, in oriental languages
(Syric, Arabic and Ethiopian) and in Slavic and Romanian.
The known Latin manuscripts number approximately 100,
ranging in date from the mid 11th century to the beginning
of the 16th. In the course of these centuries, with a particular
concentration between the 11th and 12th centuries, the text
was subjected to continuous revisions, in order to adapt it.
This is demonstrated both by the changing names of eastern
rulers mentioned in the ninth age, which involves the coming
of a Last Roman Emperor and of the Antichrist, and by the
introduction of more strictly theological aspects, especially in
the so-called ‘Sibylline Gospel’, that is an account of Christ’s
life presented by the Sibyl under the fourth age. No critical
edition of the Sibylla Tiburtina based on all its Latin versions
has yet been produced, although this is the only way to unravel
the genesis of the text and the history of its successive
reworkings. A classical type of critical edition, however, would
not be appropriate, nor would it make sense, to establish a
critical text in the traditional sense as one ‘cleaned of the
errors accumulated in the course of its history and presented
in a form most closely imagined to have been the original’.
With this kind of representation one would have on the one
hand the inconvenience of an unwieldy apparatus criticus and
on the other, the serious inconsistency of a ‘critical’ text that
never had any real existence.
To handle cases like this, we are well advanced in the
development of a multi-version document wiki application.
The multi-version document (or MVD) concept is a further
development of the variant graph model described at Digital
Humanities 2006 and elsewhere (Schmidt and Fiormonte,
2007). In a nutshell the MVD format stores the text as a
graph that accurately represents a single work in digital form,
however many versions or markup perspectives it may be
composed of. An MVD fi le is no mere aggregation of separate
fi les; it is a single digital entity, within which versions may be
effi ciently searched and compared. It consists of three parts: 1) The variant-graph consisting of a list of the differences
between the versions
2) A description of each of the versions, including a short
name or siglum, e.g. ‘L10’, a longer name e.g. ‘London, Brit.
Lib. Cotton Titus D.III, saec. XIII’ and a group name.
3) A list of groups. A group is a name for a group of versions
or other groups. For example, in the Sybilline Gospel
text there are three recensions, to which each of the
manuscripts belong.
The wiki application consists of two JAVA packages (outlined
in bold):
At the lower level the NMerge package implements all the
functionality of the MVD format: the searching, comparison,
retrieval and saving of versions. It can also export an MVD into
a readable XML form. The text of each version is recorded in
a simplifi ed form of TEI-XML, but the MVD format does not
rely on any form of markup, and is equally capable of handling
binary fi le formats.
Building on this package, the Phaidros web application provides
various forms for viewing and searching a multi-version
document: for comparing two versions, for viewing the text
alongside its manuscript facsimile, for reading a single version
or for examining the list of versions. The user may also edit and
save the XML content of each of these views. Since NMerge
handles all of the overlapping structures, the markup required
for each version can be very simple, as in a real wiki. In the
drawing below the differences between the two versions are
indicated by underlined or bold text.
This application is suitable for collaborative refi nement of
texts within a small group of researchers or by a wider public,
and attempts to extend the idea of the wiki to new classes of
text and to new classes of user.
References
Barbera, M. (2007) The HyperLearning Project: Towards a
Distributed and Semantically Structured e-research and
e-learning Platform. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 21(1),
77-82.
Buzzetti, D. (2002) Digital Representation and the Text Model.
New Literary History 33(1), 61–88.
Dahlström, M. (2000) Drowning by Versions. Human IT 4.
Retrieved 16/11/07 from http://www.hb.se/bhs/ith/4-00/
md.htm
Renear, A. (1997) Out of Praxis: Three (Meta) Theories of
Textuality. In Electronic Text, Sutherland, K. (Ed.) Clarendon
Press, Oxford, pp. 107–126.
Robinson, P. (2007) Electronic editions which we have made
and which we want to make. In A. Ciula and F. Stella (Eds),
Digital Philology and Medieval Texts, Pisa, Pacini, pp. 1-12.
Schmidt D. and Fiormonte, D. (2007) Multi-Version
Documents: a Digitisation Solution for Textual Cultural
Heritage Artefacts. In G. Bordoni (Ed.), Atti di AI*IA Workshop
for Cultural Heritage. 10th Congress of Italian Association for
Artifi cial Intelligence, Università di Roma Tor Vergata, Villa
Mondragone, 10 Sept., pp. 9-16.
Segre, C. (1981) Testo. In Enciclopedia Einaudi Vol. 14. Einaudi,
Torino, pp. 269-291.
Shillingsburg, P. (2006) From Gutenberg to Google. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
Tanselle, G. (2006) Foreword in Burnard, L., O’Brien O’Keeffe,
K. and Unsworth, J. (Eds.) Electronic Textual Editing. Text
Encoding Initiative, New York and London.
Tapscott, D., and Williams, A. (2006) Wikinomics: How Mass
Collaboration Changes Everything. Portfolio, New York.","txt","2","",""
"899","9","Determining Value for Digital Humanities Tools","1","Tool development in the Digital Humanities has been the
subject of numerous articles and conference presentations
(Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), 2006; Bradley,
2003; McCarty, 2005; McGann, 2005; Ramsay, 2003, 2005;
Schreibman, Hanlon, Daugherty, Ross, 2007; Schreibman, Kumar,
McDonald, 2003; Summit on Digital Tools for the Humanities,
2005; Unsworth, 2003). While the purpose and direction of
tools and tool development for the Digital Humanities has
been discussed and debated in those forums, the value of tool
development itself has seen little discussion. This is in part
because tools are developed to aid and abet scholarship – they
are not necessarily considered scholarship themselves. That
perception may be changing, though. The clearest example of
such a shift in thinking came from the recent recommendations
of the ACLS Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities
and Social Sciences, which called not only for “policies for
tenure and promotion that recognize and reward digital
scholarship and scholarly communication” but likewise stated
that “recognition should be given not only to scholarship that
uses the humanities and social science cyberinfrastructure but
also to scholarship that contributes to its design, construction
and growth.” On the other hand, the MLA Report on Evaluating
Scholarship for Tenure and Promotion found that a majority of
departments have little to no experience evaluating refereed
articles and monographs in electronic format. The prospects
for evaluating tool development as scholarship in those
departments would appear dim. However, coupled with the
more optimistic recommendations of the ACLS report, as well
the MLA Report’s fi ndings that evaluation of work in digital
form is gaining ground in some departments, the notion of tool
development as a scholarly activity may not be far behind.
In 2005, scholars from the humanities as well as the social
sciences and computer science met in Charlottesville, Virginia
for a Summit on Digital Tools for the Humanities. While the summit
itself focused primarily on the use of digital resources and digital
tools for scholarship, the Report on Summit Accomplishments
that followed touched on development, concluding that “the
development of tools for the interpretation of digital evidence
is itself research in the arts and humanities.”
The goal of this paper is to demonstrate how the process of
software or tool development itself can be considered the
scholarly activity, and not solely a means to an end, i.e. a feature
or interface for a content-based digital archive or repository.
This paper will also deal with notions of value: both within the
development community and as developers perceive how their
home institutions and the community for which the software
was developed value their work.
The data for this paper will be drawn from two sources. The
fi rst source is a survey carried out by the authors in 2007 on
The Versioning Machine, the results of which were shared at
a poster session at the 2007 Digital Humanities Conference.
The results of this survey were intriguing, particularly in the
area of the value of The Versioning Machine as a tool in which
the vast majority of respondents found it valuable as a means
to advance scholarship in spite of the fact that they themselves
did not use it. As a result of feedback by the community to
that poster session, the authors decided to conduct a focused
survey on tool development as a scholarly activity.
After taking advice from several prominent Digital Humanities
tool developers, the survey has been completed and will be
issued in December to gather information on how faculty,
programmers, web developers, and others working in the
Digital Humanities perceive the value and purpose of their
software and digital tool development activities. This paper will
report the fi ndings of a web-based survey that investigates
how tools have been conceived, executed, received and used
by the community. Additionally, the survey will investigate
developers’ perceptions of how tool development is valued in
the academic community, both as a contribution to scholarship
in their particular fi elds, and in relation to requirements for
tenure and promotion.
The authors will use these surveys to take up John Unsworth’s
challenge, made at the 2007 Digital Humanities Centers Summit
“to make our diffi culties, the shortcomings of our tools,
the challenges we haven’t yet overcome, something that we
actually talk about, analyze, and explicitly learn from.” By
examining not only how developers perceive their work, but
how practitioners in the fi eld use and value their tools, we
intend to illuminate the role of tool development in the Digital
Humanities and in the larger world of academia.
Bibliography
American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS), Our Cultural
Commonwealth: The Final Report of the American Council of
Learned Societies Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for the
Humanities & Social Sciences, 2006, <http://www.acls.org/
cyberinfrastructure/OurCulturalCommonwealth.pdf>
Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), AHRC ICT
Methods Network Workgroup on Digital Tools Development for
the Arts and Humanities, 2006, <http://www.methnet.ac.uk/
redist/pdf/wg1report.pdf>
Bradley, John. “Finding a Middle Ground between
‘Determinism’ and ‘Aesthetic Indeterminacy’: a Model for
Text Analysis Tools.” Literary & Linguistic Computing 18.2
(2003): 185-207. Kenny, Anthony. “Keynote Address: Technology and
Humanities Research.” In Scholarship and Technology in the
Humanities: Proceedings of a Conference held at Elvetham Hall,
Hampshire, UK, 9th-12th May 1990, ed. May Katzen (London:
Bowker Saur, 1991), 1-10.
McCarty, Willard. Humanities Computing. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2005.
McGann, Jerome. “Culture and Technology: The Way We Live
Now, What Is to Be Done?” New Literary History 36.1 (2005):
71-82.
Modern Language Association of America, Report of the MLA
Task Force on Evaluating Scholarship for Tenure and Promotion,
December 2006, <http://www.mla.org/tenure_promotion_
pdf>
Ramsay, Stephen. “In Praise of Pattern.” TEXT Technology 14.2
(2005): 177-190.
Ramsay, Stephen.“Reconceiving Text Analysis: Toward an
Algorithmic Criticism.” Literary and Linguistic Computing 18.2
(2003): 167-174.
Schreibman, Susan and Ann Hanlon, Sean Daugherty, Tony
Ross. “The Versioning Machine 3.1: Lessons in Open Source
[Re]Development”. Poster session at Digital Humanities
(Urbana Champaign, June 2007)
Schreibman, Susan, Amit Kumar and Jarom McDonald. “The
Versioning Machine”. Proceedings of the 2002 ACH/ALLC
Conference. Literary and Linguistic Computing 18.1 (2003) 101-
107
Summit on Digital Tools for the Humanities (September
28-30, 2005), Report on Summit Accomplishments, May 2006.
<http://www.iath.virginia.edu/dtsummit/SummitText.pdf>
Unsworth, John. “Tool-Time, or ‘Haven’t We Been Here
Already?’: Ten Years in Humanities Computing”, Delivered
as part of Transforming Disciplines: The Humanities and
Computer Science, Saturday, January 18, 2003, Washington,
D.C. <http://www.iath.virginia.edu/~jmu2m/carnegie-ninch.03.
html>
Unsworth, John. “Digital Humanities Centers as
Cyberinfrastructure”, Digital Humanities Centers Summit,
National Endowment for the Humanities, Washington,
DC, Thursday, April 12, 2007 <http://www3.isrl.uiuc.edu/
~unsworth/dhcs.html>","txt","2","",""
"900","9","Recent work in the EDUCE Project","1","Popular methods for cultural heritage digitization include
fl atbed scanning and high-resolution photography. The
current paradigm for the digitization and dissemination of
library collections is to create high-resolution digital images
as facsimiles of primary source materials. While these
approaches have provided new levels of accessibility to many
cultural artifacts, they usually assume that the object is more
or less fl at, or at least viewable in two dimensions. However,
this assumption is simply not true for many cultural heritage
objects.
For several years, researchers have been exploring digitization
of documents beyond 2D imaging. Three-dimensional surface
acquisition technology has been used to capture the shape
of non-planar texts and build 3D document models (Brown
2000, Landon 2006), where structured light techniques are
used to acquire 3D surface geometry and a high-resolution
still camera is used to capture a 2D texture image.
However, there are many documents that are impossible to
scan or photograph in the usual way. Take for example the
entirety of the British Library’s Cotton Collection, which was
damaged by a fi re in 1731 (Tite 1994, Prescott 1997, Seales
2000, Seales 2004). Following the fi re most of the manuscripts
in this collection suffered from both fi re and water damage,
and had to be physically dismantled and then painstakingly
reassembled. Another example is the collection of papyrus
scrolls that are in the Egyptian papyrus collection at the British
Museum (Smith 1987, Andrews 1990, Lapp 1997). Because of
damage to the outer shells of some of these scrolls the text
enclosed therein have never been read - unrolling the fragile
material would destroy them.
Certain objects can be physically repaired prior to digitization.
However, the fact is that many items are simply too fragile
to sustain physical restoration. As long as physical restoration
is the only option for opening such opaque documents,
scholarship has to sacrifi ce for preservation, or preservation
sacrifi ce for scholarship.
The famous Herculaneum collection is an outstanding
example of the scholarship/preservation dichotomy (Sider
2005). In the 1750s, the excavation of more than a thousand
scorched papyrus rolls from the Villa dei Papiri (the Villa of
the Papyri) in ancient Herculaneum caused great excitement
among contemporary scholars, for they held the possibility of the rediscovery of lost masterpieces by classical writers.
However, as a result of the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in A.D. 79
that destroyed Pompeii and also buried nearby Herculaneum,
the papyrus rolls were charred severely and are now extremely
brittle, frustrating attempts to open them.
A number of approaches have been devised to physically open
the rolls, varying from mechanical and “caloric”, to chemical
(Sider 2005). Substrate breakages caused during the opening
create incomplete letters that appear in several separate
segments, which makes reading them very diffi cult. Some efforts
have been made to reconstruct the scrolls, including tasks such
as establishing the relative order of fragments and assigning to
them an absolute sequence (Janko 2003). In addition, multispectral
analysis and conventional image processing methods
have helped to reveal signifi cant previously unknown texts.
All in all, although these attempts have introduced some new
works to the canon, they have done so at the expense of the
physical objects holding the text.
Given the huge amount of labor and care it takes to physically
unroll the scrolls, together with the risk of destruction caused
by the unrolling, a technology capable of producing a readable
image of a rolled-up text without the need to physically open
it is an attractive concept. Virtual unrolling would offer an
obvious and substantial payoff.
In summary, there is a class of objects that are inaccessible
due to their physical construction. Many of these objects may
carry precise contents which will remain a mystery unless and
until they are opened. In most cases, physical restoration is
not an option because it is too risky, unpredictable, and labor
intensive.
This dilemma is well suited for advanced computer vision
techniques to provide a safe and effi cient solution. The EDUCE
project (Enhanced Digital Unwrapping for Conservation and
Exploration) is developing a general restoration approach
that enables access to those impenetrable objects without
the need to open them. The vision is to apply this work
ultimately to documents such as those described above, and
to allow complete analysis while enforcing continued physical
preservation.
Proof of Concept
With the assistance of curators from the Special Collections
Library at the University of Michigan, we were given access to
a manuscript from the 15th century that had been dismantled
and used in the binding of a printed book soon after its
creation. The manuscript is located in the spine of the binding,
and consists of seven or so layers that were stuck together,
as shown in fi gure 1. The handwritten text on the top layer is
recognizable from the book of Ecclesiastes. The two columns of
texts correspond to Eccl 2:4/2:5 (2:4 word 5 through 2:5 word
6) and Eccl 2:10 (word 10.5 through word 16). However, it was
not clear what writing appears on the inner layers, or whether
they contain any writing at all. We tested this manuscript using
methods that we had refi ned over a series of simulations and
real-world experiments, but this experiment was our fi rst on
a bona fi de primary source.
Figure 1: Spine from a binding made of
a fi fteenth-century manuscript.
Following procedures which will be discussed in more detail
in our presentation, we were able to bring out several layers
of text, including the text on the back of the top layer. Figure 2
shows the result generated by our method to reveal the back
side of the top layer which is glued inside and inaccessible. The
left and right columns were identifi ed as Eccl. 1:16 and 1:11
respectively.
To verify our fi ndings, conservation specialists at the
University of Michigan uncovered the back side of the top
layer by removing the fi rst layer from the rest of the strip of
manuscript. The process was painstaking, in order to minimize
damage, and it took an entire day. First, the strip was soaked in
water for a couple of hours to dissolve the glue and enhance
the fl exibility of the material which was fragile due to age; this
added a risk of the ink dissolving, although the duration and
water temperature were controlled to protect against this
happening. Then, the fi rst layer was carefully pulled apart from
the rest of the manuscript with tweezers. The process was
very slow to avoid tearing the material. Remaining residue was
scraped off gently.
The back side of the top layer is shown in fi gure 3. Most of
the Hebrew characters in the images are legible and align well
with those in the digital images of the manuscript. The middle
rows show better results than the rows on the edges. That is
because the edge areas were damaged in structure, torn and
abraded, and that degraded the quality of the restoration.
Figure 2: Generated result showing the back side of
the top layer, identifi ed as Eccl. 1:16 and 1:11. Figure 3: Photo of the back side of the top
layer, once removed from the binding.
Without applying the virtual unwrapping approach, the choices
would be either to preserve the manuscript with the hidden
text unknown or to destroy it to read it. In this case, we fi rst
read the text with non-invasive methods then disassembled
the artifact in order to confi rm our readings.
Presentation of Ongoing Work
In November 2007, representatives from the Sorbonne in
Paris will bring several unopened papyrus fragments to the
University of Kentucky to undergo testing following similar
procedures to those that resulted in the uncovering of the
Ecclesiastes text in the fi fteenth-century manuscript. And in
June 2008, a group from the University of Kentucky will be at
the British Museum scanning and virtually unrolling examples
from their collections of papyrus scrolls. This presentation at
Digital Humanities 2008 will serve not only as an overview
of the techniques that led to the successful test described
above, but will also be an extremely up-to-date report of the
most recent work of the project. We look forward to breaking
down the dichotomy between preservation and scholarship
for this particular class of delicate objects.
Bibliography
Andrews, C.A.R. Catalogue of Demotic Papyri in the British
Museum, IV: Ptolemaic Legal Texts from the Theban Area. London:
British Museum, 1990.
Brown, M. S. and Seales, W. B. “Beyond 2d images: Effective 3d
imaging for library materials.” In Proceedings of the 5th ACM
Conference on Digital Libraries (June 2000): 27-36.
Brown, M. S. and Seales, W. B. “Image Restoration of
Arbitrarily Warped Documents.” IEEE Transactions on Pattern
Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 26:10 (October 2004): 1295-
1306.
Janko, R. Philodemus On Poems Book One. Oxford University
Press, 2003.
Landon, G. V. and Seales, W. B. “Petroglyph digitization: enabling
cultural heritage scholarship.” Machine Vision and Applications,
17:6 (December 2006): 361-371.
Lapp, G. The Papyrus of Nu. Catalogue of Books of the Dead in
the British Museum, vol. I. London: British Museum, 1997.
Lin, Y. and Seales, W. B. “Opaque Document Imaging: Building
Images of Inaccessible Texts.” Proceedings of the Tenth IEEE
International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV’05),
Prescott, A. “’Their Present Miserable State of Cremation’:
the Restoration of the Cotton Library.” Sir Robert Cotton
as Collector: Essays on an Early Stuart Courtier and His Legacy.
Editor C.J. Wright. London: British Library Publications, 1997.
391-454.
Seales, W. B. Griffoen, J., Kiernan, K, Yuan, C. J., Cantara, L.
“The digital atheneum: New technologies for restoring
and preserving old documents.” Computers in Libraries 20:2
(February 2000): 26-30.
Seales, W. B. and Lin, Y. “Digital restoration using volumetric
scanning.” In Proceedings of the Fourth ACM/IEEE-CS Joint
Conference on Digital Libraries (June 2004): 117-124.
Sider, D. The Library of the Villa dei Papiri at Herculaneum. Getty
Trust Publications: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2005.
Smith, M. Catalogue of Demotic Papyri in the British Museum,
III: the Mortuary Texts of Papyrus BM 10507. London: British
Museum, 1987.
Tite, C. G. The Manuscript Library of Sir Robert Cotton. London:
British Library, 1994.","txt","2","",""
"901","9","""It's a team if you use 'reply all'"": An Exploration of Research Teams in Digital Humanities Environments","1","Introduction
This proposal reports on a research project exploring the
nature of research teams in the Digital Humanities community.
It is a start to understanding the type of supports and research
preparation that individuals within the fi eld require to
successfully collaborate within research teams.
Context
Traditionally, research contributions in the humanities fi eld
have been felt to be, and documented to be, predominantly
solo efforts by academics involving little direct collaboration
with others, a model reinforced through doctoral studies
and beyond (See, for example, Cuneo, 2003; Newell & Swan,
2000). However, Humanities Computing/Digital Humanities is
an exception to this. Given that the nature of research work
involves computers and a variety of skills and expertise, Digital
Humanities researchers are working collaboratively within
their institutions and with others nationally and internationallly
to undertake the research. This research typically involves the
need to coordinate efforts between academics, undergraduate
and graduate students, research assistants, computer
programmers, librarians, and other individuals as well as the
need to coordinate fi nancial and other resources. Despite this,
there has been little formal research on team development
within this community.
That said, efforts toward understanding the organizational
context in which Digital Humanites research is situated is
beginning in earnest. Two large-scale survey projects (Siemens
et al., 2002; Toms et al., 2004) have highlighted issues of
collaboration, among other topics, and Warwick (2004) found
that the organizational context has had an impact on the manner
in which Digital Humanities/Humanities Computing centres
developed in the United States and England. Other studies
are underway as well. In addition, McCarty (2005b) explores
the ways that computers have opened the opportunities for
collaboration within the humanities and has explored the
associated challenges of collaboration and team research within
the HUMANIST listserve (2005a). Finally, through efforts such
as the University of Victoria’s Digital Humanities/Humanities
Computing Summer Institute and other similar ventures, the
community is working to develop its collaborative capacity
through workshops in topics like community-specifi c project
management skills, which also includes discussion of team
development and support.
This study draws upon these efforts as it explores and
documents the nature of research teams within the Digital
Humanities community to the end of identifying exemplary
work patterns and larger models of research collaboration
that have the potential to strengthen this positive aspect of
the community even further.
Methods
This project uses a qualitative research approach with indepth
interviews with members of various multi-disciplinary,
multi-location project teams in Canada, the United States, and
the United Kingdom. The interview questions focus on the
participants’ defi nition of teams; their experiences working in
teams; and the types of supports and research preparation
required to ensure effective and effi cient research results. The
results will include a description of the community’s work
patterns and relationships and the identifi cation of supports
and research preparation required to sustain research teams
(as per Marshall & Rossman, 1999; McCracken, 1988).
Preliminary Findings
At the time of writing this proposal, fi nal data analysis is being
completed, but clear patterns are emerging and, after fi nal
analysis, these will form the basis of my presentation.
The individuals interviewed currently are and have been a part
of a diverse set of team research projects, in terms of research
objective, team membership size, budget, and geographical
dispersion, both within their own institution, nationally, and
internationally. The roles they play are varied and include
research assistant, researcher, computer programmer, and lead
investigator. There are several commonalities among these
individuals in terms of their skill development in team research
and their defi nition of research teams and communities.
When fi nal data analysis is complete, a series of exemplary
patterns and models of research collaboration will be
identifi ed and outlined. These patterns and models will include
the identifi cation of supports and research preparation which
can sustain research teams in the present and into the future.
The benefi ts to the Digital Humanities community will be
several. First, the study contributes to an explicit description
of the community’s work patterns and relationships. Second, it
also builds on previous efforts to understand the organizational
context in which Digital Humanities/Humanities Computing
centres operate in order to place focus on the role of the
individual and teams in research success. Finally, it identifi es
possible supports and research preparation to aid the further
development of successful research teams. References
Cuneo, C. (2003, November). Interdisciplinary teams - let’s
make them work. University Affairs, 18-21.
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (1999). Designing qualitative
research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE
Publications.
McCarty, W. (2005a). 19.215 how far collaboration? Humanist
discussion group. Retrieved August 18, 2005, from http://lists.
village.virginia.edu/lists_archive/Humanist/v19/0211.html
McCarty, W. (2005b). Humanities computing. New York, NY:
Palgrave MacMillan.
McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview (Vol. 13). Newbury
Park, CA: SAGE Publications.
Newell, S., & Swan, J. (2000). Trust and inter-organizational
networking. Human Relations, 53(10), 1287-1328.
Siemens, R. G., Best, M., Grove-White, E., Burk, A., Kerr, J.,
Pope, A., et al. (2002). The credibility of electronic publishing: A
report to the Humanities and Social Sciences Federation of
Canada. Text Technology, 11(1), 1-128.
Toms, E., Rockwell, G., Sinclair, S., Siemens, R. G., & Siemens,
L. (2004). The humanities scholar in the twenty-fi rst century:
How research is done and what support is needed, Joint
International Conference of the Association for Computers
and the Humanities and the Association for Literary &
Linguistic Computing. Göteborg, Sweden. Published results
forthcoming; results reported by Siemens, et al., in abstract
available at http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/
prop139.html.
Warwick, C. (2004). “No such thing as humanities
computing?” an analytical history of digital resource
creation and computing in the humanities, Joint International
Conference of the Association for Computers and the
Humanities and the Association for Literary & Linguistic
Computing. Göteborg, Sweden. (Prepublication document
available at http://tapor.humanities.mcmaster.ca/html/
Nosuchthing_1.pdf.).
Doing Digital Scholarship
Lisa Spiro
lspiro@rice.edu
Rice University, USA
When I completed my dissertation Bachelors of Arts:
Bachelorhood and the Construction of Literary Identity in Antebellum
America in 2002, I fi gured that I was ahead of most of my peers
in my use of digital resources, but I made no pretense of
doing digital scholarship. I plumbed electronic text collections
such as Making of America and Early American Fiction for
references to bachelorhood, and I used simple text analysis
tools to count the number of times words such as “bachelor”
appeared in key texts. I even built an online critical edition
of a section from Reveries of a Bachelor (http://etext.virginia.
edu/users/spiro/Contents2.html), one of the central texts of
sentimental bachelorhood. But in my determination to fi nish
my PhD before gathering too many more gray hairs, I resisted
the impulse to use more sophisticated analytical tools or to
publish my dissertation online.
Five years later, the possibilities for digital scholarship in the
humanities have grown. Projects such as TAPOR, Token-X, and
MONK are constructing sophisticated tools for text analysis
and visualization. Massive text digitization projects such as
Google Books and the Open Content Alliance are making
it possible to search thousands (if not millions) of books.
NINES and other initiatives are building communities of digital
humanities scholars, portals to content, and mechanisms for
conducting peer review of digital scholarship. To encourage
digital scholarship, the NEH recently launched a funding
program. Meanwhile, scholars are blogging, putting up videos
on YouTube, and using Web 2.0 tools to collaborate.","txt","2","",""
"902","9","Doing Digital Scholarship","1","When I completed my dissertation Bachelors of Arts:
Bachelorhood and the Construction of Literary Identity in Antebellum
America in 2002, I fi gured that I was ahead of most of my peers
in my use of digital resources, but I made no pretense of
doing digital scholarship. I plumbed electronic text collections
such as Making of America and Early American Fiction for
references to bachelorhood, and I used simple text analysis
tools to count the number of times words such as “bachelor”
appeared in key texts. I even built an online critical edition
of a section from Reveries of a Bachelor (http://etext.virginia.
edu/users/spiro/Contents2.html), one of the central texts of
sentimental bachelorhood. But in my determination to fi nish
my PhD before gathering too many more gray hairs, I resisted
the impulse to use more sophisticated analytical tools or to
publish my dissertation online.
Five years later, the possibilities for digital scholarship in the
humanities have grown. Projects such as TAPOR, Token-X, and
MONK are constructing sophisticated tools for text analysis
and visualization. Massive text digitization projects such as
Google Books and the Open Content Alliance are making
it possible to search thousands (if not millions) of books.
NINES and other initiatives are building communities of digital
humanities scholars, portals to content, and mechanisms for
conducting peer review of digital scholarship. To encourage
digital scholarship, the NEH recently launched a funding
program. Meanwhile, scholars are blogging, putting up videos
on YouTube, and using Web 2.0 tools to collaborate.
Despite this growth in digital scholarship, there are still too
few examples of innovative projects that employ “digital
collections and analytical tools to generate new intellectual
products” (ACLS 7). As reports such as A Kaleidoscope of
American Literature and Our Cultural Commonwealth suggest,
the paucity of digital scholarship results from the lack of
appropriate tools, technical skills, funding, and recognition. In a
study of Dickinson, Whitman and Uncle Tom’s Cabin scholars,
my colleague Jane Segal and I found that although scholars
are increasingly using digital resources in their research, they
are essentially employing them to make traditional research
practices more effi cient and gain access to more resources,
not (yet) to transform their research methodology by
employing new tools and processes (http://library.rice.edu/
services/digital_media_center/projects/the-impact-of-digitalresources-
on-humanities-research). What does it mean to do
humanities research in a Web 2.0 world? To what extent do
existing tools, resources, and research methods support digital
scholarship, and what else do scholars need? To investigate these questions, I am revisiting my dissertation
to re-imagine and re-mix it as digital scholarship. I aim not only
to open up new insights into my primary research area--the
signifi cance of bachelorhood in nineteenth-century American
culture--but also to document and analyze emerging methods
for conducting research in the digital environment. To what
extent do digital tools and resources enable new approaches
to traditional research questions—and to what extent are
entirely new research questions and methods enabled? I am
structuring my research around what John Unsworth calls
the “scholarly primitives,” or core research practices in the
humanities:
1. Discovering: To determine how much information
is available online, I have searched for the nearly 300
resources cited in my dissertation in Google Books, Making
of America, and other web sites. I found that 77% of my
primary source resources and 22% of my secondary sources
are available online as full-text, while 92% of all my research
materials have been digitized (this number includes works
available through Google Books as limited preview, snippet
view, and no preview.) Although most nineteenth-century
books cited in my dissertation are now freely available
online, many archival resources and periodicals have not yet
been digitized.
2. Annotating: In the past, I kept research notes in long,
unwieldy Word documents, which made it hard to fi nd
information that I needed. New software such as Zotero
enables researchers to store copies of the digital resources
and to make annotations as part of the metadata record.
What effect does the ability to share and annotate
resources have on research practices? How useful is tagging
as a mechanism for organizing information?
3. Comparing: Through text analysis and collation software
such as Juxta and TAPOR, scholars can compare different
versions of texts and detect patterns. Likewise, the Virtual
Lightbox allows researchers to compare and manipulate
digital images. What kind of new insights can be generated
by using these tools? In the course of doing my research,
I am testing freely available tools and evaluating their
usefulness for my project.
4. Referring: With digital publications, we not only can refer
to prior work, but link to it, even embed it. What is the
best means for constructing a scholarly apparatus in digital
scholarship, particularly in a work focused not only on
making an argument, but also on examining the process that
shaped that argument?
5. Sampling: With so much information available, what
criteria should we use to determine what to focus on?
Since not everything is digitized and search engines can be
blunt instruments, what do we ignore by relying mainly on
digital resources? In my blog, I am refl ecting on the selection
criteria used to produce the arguments in my revamped
dissertation.
6. Illustrating: What kind of evidence do we use to build
an argument in a work of digital scholarship, and how is that
evidence presented? In my dissertation, I generalized about
the signifi cance of bachelorhood in American literature by
performing close readings of a few key texts, but such a
method was admittedly unsystematic. By using text analysis
tools to study a much larger sample of primary texts, I
can cite statistics such as word frequency in making my
argument--but does this make my argument any more
convincing?
7. Representing: How should a work of digital scholarship
be presented? Ideally readers would be able to examine
the evidence for themselves and even perform their
own queries. At the same time, information should be
offered so that it is clear and consistent with familiar
academic discourse. How should I make available not
only research conclusions, but also the detailed research
process that undergirds these conclusions--the successful
and unsuccessful searches, the queries run in text analysis
software, the insights offered by collaborators? How will
the digital work compare to the more traditional original
dissertation? What kind of tools (for instance, ifBook’s
Sophie) will be used to author the work?
In addition to Unsworth’s list, I offer two more:
8. Collaborating: Although humanities scholars are thought
to be solitary, they collaborate frequently by exchanging
bibliographic references and drafts of their essays. How do
I engage the community in my research? I am encouraging
others to comment on my (re-) work in progress (http://
digitalhumanities.edublogs.org/) using Comment Press.
Moreover, I am bookmarking all web-based sources for
my study on delicious (http://del.icio.us/lms4w/digital_
scholarship) and making available feeds from my various
research sources through a PageFlakes portal (http://www.
pagefl akes.com/lspiro/). On my blog, “Digital Scholarship
in the Humanities,” I explore issues and ideas raised by
my research (http://digitalscholarship.wordpress.com/). I
am examining what it takes to build an audience and how
visibility and collaboration affect my research practices.
9. Remixing: What would it mean to take an earlier
work--my own dissertation, for example--use new sources
and approaches, and present it in a new form? What
constitutes a scholarly remix, and what are the implications
for intellectual property and academic ethics? I also plan
to experiment with mashups as a means of generating and
presenting new insights, such as a Google Map plotting
census statistics about antebellum bachelors or a visual
mashup of images of bachelors.
This project examines the process of doing research digitally,
the capabilities and limits of existing tools and resources, and
the best means of authoring, representing and disseminating
digital scholarship. I aim to make this process as open, visible,
and collaborative as possible. My presentation will focus on emerging research methodologies in the humanities,
particularly the use of tools to analyze and organize
information, the development of protocols for searching and
selecting resources, and the dissemination of ideas through
blogs and multimedia publication.
References
American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS). Our Cultural
Commonwealth: The Report of the American Council of Learned
Societies Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities
and Social Sciences. New York: American Council of Learned
Societies, 2006.
Brogan, Martha. A Kaleidoscope of Digital American Literature.
Digital Library Federation. 2005. 22 May 2007 <http://www.
diglib.org/pubs/dlf104/>.
Unsworth, John. “Scholarly Primitives: what methods do
humanities researchers have in common, and how might our
tools refl ect this?’ 13 May 2000. 20 November 2007. <http://
jefferson.village.virginia.edu/~jmu2m/Kings.5-00/primitives.
html>","txt","2","",""
"903","9","Extracting author-specifi c expressions using random forest for use in the sociolinguistic analysis of political speeches","1","This study applies stylistic text classifi cation using random
forest to extract author-specifi c expressions for use in the
sociolinguistic analysis of political speeches. In the fi eld of
politics, the style of political leaders’ speeches, as well as their
content, has attracted growing attention in both English (Ahren,
2005) and Japanese (Azuma, 2006; Suzuki and Kageura, 2006).
One of the main purposes of these studies is to investigate
political leaders’ individual and political styles by analyzing their
speech styles. A common problem of many of these studies
and also many sociolinguistic studies is that the expressions
that are analyzed are selected solely on the basis of the
researcher’s interests or preferences, which can sometimes
lead to contradictory interpretations. In other words, it is
diffi cult to determine whether these kind of analyses have
in fact correctly identifi ed political leaders’ individual speech
styles and, on this basis, correctly characterised their individual
and political styles. Another problem is that political leaders’
speech styles may also be characterised by the infrequent use
of specifi c expressions, but this is rarely focused on.
In order to solve these problems, we decided to apply stylistic
text classifi cation and feature extraction using random forest
to political speeches. By classifying the texts of an author
according to their style and extracting the variables contributing
to this classifi cation, we can identify the expressions specifi c
to that author. This enables us to determine his/her speech
style, including the infrequent use of specifi c expressions, and
characterise his/her individual and political style. This method
can be used for the sociolinguistic analysis of various types
of texts, which is, according to Argamon et al. (2007a), a
potentially important area of application for stylistics.
Experimental setup
We selected the Diet addresses of two Japanese prime
ministers, Nakasone and Koizumi, and performed two
classifi cation experiments: we distinguished Nakasone’s
addresses from those of his 3 contemporaries (1980-1989),
and Koizumi’s addresses from those of his 8 contemporaries
(1989-2006). Because Nakasone and Koizumi were two of
the most powerful prime ministers in the history of Japanese
politics, and took a special interest in the content or style of their own speeches (Suzuki and Kageura, 2007), their addresses
are the most appropriate candidates for initial analysis. Suzuki
and Kageura (2006) have demonstrated that the style of
Japanese prime ministers’ addresses has changed signifi cantly
over time, so we compared their addresses with those of
their respective contemporaries selected by the standard
division of eras in Japanese political history. We downloaded
the addresses from the online database Sekai to Nihon (The
World and Japan) (www.ioc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~worldjpn), and
applied morphological analysis to the addresses using ChaSen
(Matsumoto et al., 2003). We united notational differences
which were distinguished only by kanji and kana in Japanese.
Table 1 sets out the number of addresses and the total number
of tokens and types for all words, particles and auxiliary verbs
in each category.
Table 1. Basic data on the corpora
As a classifi cation method, we selected the random forest (RF)
method proposed by Breiman (2001), and evaluated the results
using out-of-bag tests. RF is known to perform extremely well
in classifi cation tasks in other fi elds using large amounts of
data, but to date few studies have used this method in the area
of stylistics (Jin and Murakami, 2006). Our fi rst aim in using RF
was thus to test its effectiveness in stylistic text classifi cation.
A second and more important aim was to extract the
important variables contributing to classifi cation (which are
shown as high Gini coeffi cients). The extracted variables
represent the specifi c expressions distinguishing the author
from others, and they can show the author’s special preference
or dislike for specifi c expressions. Examining these extracted
expressions enables us to determine the author’s speech style
and characterise his/her individual and political styles. In an
analogous study, Argamon et al. (2007b) performed genderbased
classifi cation and feature extraction using SVM and
information gain, but as they are separate experiments and RF
returns relevant variables contributing to classifi cation, RF is
more suitable for our purposes.
We decided to focus on the distribution of particles and
auxiliary verbs because they represent the modality of
the texts, information representing authors’ personality
and sentiments (Otsuka et al., 2007), and are regarded as
refl ecting political leaders’ individual and political styles clearly
in Japanese (Azuma, 2006, Suzuki and Kageura, 2006). We
tested 8 distribution combinations as features (see Table 2).
Though Jin (1997) has demonstrated that the distribution of
particles (1st order part-of-speech tag) is a good indicator of
the author in Japanese, the performances of these features,
especially auxiliary verbs, have not been explored fully, and
as the microscopic differences in features (order of part-ofspeech
and stemming) can affect the classifi cation accuracy, we
decided to test the 8 combinations.
Results and discussion
Table 2 shows the precision, recall rates and F-values. Koizumi
displayed higher accuracy than Nakasone, partly because he
had a more individualistic style of speech (see also Figure 2
and 3), and partly because a larger number of texts were used
in his case. Many of the feature sets show high classifi cation
accuracy (more than 70%) according to the criteria of an
analogous study (Argamon et al., 2007c), which confi rms
the high performance of RF. The results also show that the
distribution of the auxiliary verbs and combinations can give
better performance than that of the particles used in a previous
study (Jin, 1997), and also that stemming and a deeper order of
part-of-speech can improve the results.
Table 2. Precisions and recall rates
Figure 1 represents the top twenty variables with high Gini
coeffi cients according to the classifi cation of combinations of
features (2nd order and with stemming). The fi gure indicates
that several top variables had an especially important role in
classifi cation. In order to examine them in detail, we plotted in
Figure 2 and 3 the transitions in the relative frequencies of the
top four variables in the addresses of all prime ministers after
World War 2. These include variables representing politeness
(‘masu’, ‘aru’, ‘desu’), assertion (‘da’, ‘desu’), normativeness
(‘beshi’), and intention (‘u’), and show the individual and political
styles of these two prime ministers well. For example, ‘aru’ is
a typical expression used in formal speeches, and also Diet
addresses (Azuma, 2006), and the fact that Koizumi used this
expression more infrequently than any other prime minister
indicates his approachable speech style and can explain his
political success. Also, the fi gure shows that we can extract the
expressions that Nakasone and Koizumi used less frequently
than their contemporaries as well as the expressions they
used frequently. These results show the effectiveness of RF
feature extraction for the sociolinguistic analysis of political
speeches.
Figure 1. The top twenty variables with high Gini coeffi cients.
The notations of the variables indicate the name of partof-
speech (p: particle, av: auxiliary verb) followed by (in
the case of particles) the 2nd order part-of speech. Figure 2. Transitions in the relative frequencies of the top
four variables (Nakasone’s case) in the addresses of all
Japanese prime ministers from 1945 to 2006. The ‘NY’s
between the red lines represent addresses by Nakasone,
and other initials represent addresses by the prime minister
with those initials (see Suzuki and Kageura, 2007).
Figure 3. Transitions in the relative frequencies of the top
four variables (Koizumi’s case) in the addresses of all
Japanese prime inisters from 1945 to 2006. The ‘KJ’s
between the red lines represent addresses by Koizumi, and
the other initials represent addresses by the prime minister
with those initials (see Suzuki and Kageura, 2007).
Conclusion
This study applied text classifi cation and feature extraction
using random forest for use in the sociolinguistic analysis of
political speeches. We showed that a relatively new method
in stylistics performs fairly well, and enables us to extract
author-specifi c expressions. In this way, we can systematically
determine the expressions that should be analyzed to
characterise their individual and political styles. This method
can be used for the sociolinguistic analysis of various types of
texts, which will contribute to further expansion in the scope
of stylistics. A further study will include more concrete analysis
of extracted expressions.
References
Ahren, K. (2005): People in the State of the Union: viewing
social change through the eyes of presidents, Proceedings
of PACLIC 19, the 19th Asia-Pacifi c Conference on Language,
Information and Computation, 43-50.
Argamon, S. et al. (2007a): Stylistic text classifi cation using
functional lexical features, Journal of the American Society for
Information Science and Technology, 58(6), 802-822.
Argamon, S. et al. (2007b): Discourse, power, and Ecriture
feminine: the text mining gender difference in 18th and 19th
century French literature, Abstracts of Digital Humanities, 191.
Argamon, S. et al. (2007c): Gender, race, and nationality in
Black drama, 1850-2000: mining differences in language use in
authors and their characters, Abstracts of Digital Humanities,
149.
Azuma, S. (2006): Rekidai Syusyo no Gengoryoku wo Shindan
Suru, Kenkyu-sya, Tokyo.
Breiman, L. (2001): Random forests, Machine Learning, 45,
5-23.
Jin, M. (1997): Determining the writer of diary based on
distribution of particles, Mathematical Linguistics, 20(8), 357-
367.
Jin, M. and M. Murakami (2006): Authorship identifi cation with
ensemble learning, Proceedings of IPSJ SIG Computers and the
Humanities Symposium 2006, 137-144.
Matsumoto, Y. et al. (2003): Japanese Morphological Analysis
System ChaSen ver.2.2.3, chasen.naist.jp.
Otsuka, H. et al. (2007): Iken Bunseki Enjin, Corona Publishing,
Tokyo, 127-172.
Suzuki, T. and K. Kageura (2006): The stylistic changes of
Japanese prime ministers’ addresses over time, Proceedings
of IPSJ SIG Computers and the Humanities Symposium 2006,
145-152.
Suzuki, T. and K. Kageura (2007): Exploring the microscopic
textual characteristics of Japanese prime ministers’ Diet
addresses by measuring the quantity and diversity of nouns,
Proceedings of PACLIC21, the 21th Asia-Pacifi c Conference on
Language, Information and Computation, 459-470.","txt","2","",""
"904","9","Gentleman in Dickens: A Multivariate Stylometric Approach to its Collocation","1","This study proposes a multivariate approach to the collocation
of gentleman in Dickens. By applying a stylo-statistical analysis
model based on correspondence analysis (Tabata, 2004, 2005,
2007a, and 2007b) to the investigation of the collocation
of the word gentleman, the present study visualizes the
complex interrelationships among gentleman’s collocates,
interrelationships among texts, and the association patterns
between the gentleman’s collocates and texts in multidimensional
spaces. By so doing, I shall illustrate how the
collocational patterns of gentleman refl ects a stylistic variation
over time as well as the stylistic fi ngerprint of the author.
One thing that strikes readers of Dickens in terms of his style
is the ways he combines words together (i.e. collocation).
Dickens sometimes combines words in a quite unique manner,
in a way that contradicts our expectation to strike humour, to
imply irony or satire, or otherwise. Dickens also uses fi xed/
repetitive collocations for characterization: to make particular
characters memorable by making them stand out from others.
The collocation of word gentleman, one of the most frequent
‘content’ words in Dickens, is full of such examples, and would
therefore be worthy of stylistic investigation.
The signifi cance of collocation in stylistic studies was fi rst
suggested by J. R. Firth (1957) more than half a century ago.
Thanks to the efforts by Sinclair (1991) and his followers,
who have developed empirical methodologies based on largescale
corpora, the study of collocation has become widely
acknowledged as an important area of linguistics. However,
the vast majority of collocation studies (Sinclair, 1991;
Kjellmer, 1994; Stubbs, 1995; Hunston and Francis, 1999, to
name but a few) have been concerned with grammar/syntax,
lexicography, and language pedagogy, not with stylistic aspects
of collocation, by showing the company a word keeps. Notable
exceptions are Louw (1993), Adolphs and Carter (2003), Hori
(2004), and Partington (2006). The emergence of these recent
studies seems to indicate that collocation is beginning to draw
increasing attention from stylisticians.
Major tools used for collocation studies are KWIC
concordances and statistical measures, which have been
designed to quantify collocational strength between words
in texts. With the wide availability of highly functional
concordancers, it is now conventional practice to examine
collocates in a span of, say, four words to the left, and four
words to the right, of the node (target word/key word) with
the help of statistics for fi ltering out unimportant information.
This conventional approach makes it possible to detect a
grammatical/syntactic, phraseological, and/or semantic relation
between the node and its collocates. However, a conventional
approach would not be suitable if one wanted to explore
whether the company a word keeps would remain unchanged,
or its collocation would change over time or across texts. It
is unsuitable because this would involve too many variables to
process with a concordancer to include a diachronic or a crosstextual/
authorial perspective when retrieving collocational
information from a large set of texts. Such an enterprise would
require a multivariate approach.
Various multivariate analyses of texts have been successful
in elucidating linguistic variation over time, variation across
registers, variation across oceans, to say nothing of linguistic
differences between authors (Brainerd, 1980; Burrows, 1987
& 1996; Biber and Finegan, 1992; Craig, 1999a, b, & c; Hoover,
2003a, b, & c; Rudman, 2005). My earlier attempts used
correspondence analysis to accommodate low frequency
variables (words) in profi ling authorial/chronological/crossregister
variations in Dickens and Smollett (Tabata, 2005,
2007a, & c). Given the fact that most collocates of content
words tend to be low in frequency, my methodology based
on correspondence analysis would usefully be applied to a
macroscopic analysis of collocation of gentleman.
This study uses Smollett’s texts as a control set against which
the Dickens data is compared, in keeping with my earlier
investigations. Dickens and Smollett stand in contrast in the
frequency of gentleman. In 23 Dickens texts used in this study,
the number of tokens for gentleman amounts to 4,547, whereas
Smollett employs them 797 times in his seven works. In the
normalised frequency scale per million words, the frequency
in Dickens is 961.2, while the frequency in Smollett is 714.3.
However, if one compares the fi rst seven Dickens texts with
the Smollett set, the discrepancy is even greater: 1792.0 versus
714.33 per million words. The word gentleman is signifi cantly
more frequent in early Dickens than in his later works.
Stubbs (2001: 29) states that “[t]here is some consensus, but
no total agreement, that signifi cant collocates are usually found
within a span of 4:4”. Following the conventional practice to
examine collocation (Sinclaire, 1991; Stubbs, 1995 & 2001), the
present study deals with words occurring within a span of four
words prior to, and four words following, the node (gentleman)
as variables (collocates) to be fed into correspondence
analysis.
The respective frequency of each collocate is arrayed to form
the frequency-profi le for 29 texts (Smollett’s The Adventure of
an Atom is left out of the data set since it contains no instance of
gentleman). The set of 29 collocate frequency profi les (collocate
frequency matrix) is then transposed and submitted to
correspondence analysis (CA), a technique for data-reduction.
CA allows examination of the complex interrelationships
between row cases (i.e., texts), interrelationships between
column variables (i.e., collocates), and association between
the row cases and column variables graphically in a multidimensional
space. It computes the row coordinates (word scores) and column coordinates (text scores) in a way that
permutes the original data matrix so that the correlation
between the word variables and text profi les are maximized.
In a permuted data matrix, adverbs with a similar pattern of
distribution make the closest neighbours, and so do texts of
similar profi le. When the row/column scores are projected in
multi-dimensional charts, relative distance between variable
entries indicates affi nity, similarity, association, or otherwise
between them.
Figure 1. Correspondance analysis of the
collocates of gentleman: Text-map
Figures 1 and 2 demonstrate a result of correspondence
analysis based on 1,074 collocates of gentleman across 29
texts. The horizontal axis of Figure 1 labelled as Dimension
1, the most powerful axis, visualizes the difference between
the two authors in the distribution of gentleman’s collocates.
It is also interesting that the early Dickensian texts, written in
1830s and early 1840s, are lying towards the bottom half of the
diagram. The same holds true for Smollett. Thus, the horizontal
axis can be interpreted as indicating authorial variation in the
collocation of gentleman, whereas the vertical axis can be
interpreted as representing variation over time, although text
entries do not fi nd themselves in an exact chronological order.
On the other hand, Figure 2 is too densely populated to identify
each collocate, except for the outlying collocates, collocates
with stronger “pulling power”. However, it would be possible
to make up for this by inspecting a diagram derived from
much smaller number of variables (say, 100 variables, which
will be shown shortly as Figure 4), whose overall confi guration
is remarkably similar to Figure 2 despite the decrease in the
number of variables computed.
Figure 2. Correspondence analysis of the collocates
of gentleman: A galaxy of collocates
The Dickens corpus is more than four times the size of the
Smollett corpus, and the number of types as well as tokens
of gentleman’s collocates in Dickens is more than four times
as many as those in Smollett. It is necessary to ensure that
a size factor does not come into play in the outcome of
analysis. Figures 3 and 4 are derived from the variables of 100
collocates common to both authors. Despite the decrease in
the number of variables from 1,074 to 100, the confi guration
of texts and words is remarkably similar to that based on
1,074 items. The Dickens set and the Smollett set, once again,
can be distinguished from each other along Dimension 1.
Moreover, in each of the two authors’ sets, early works tend
to have lower scores with later works scoring higher along
Dimension 2. The results of the present analysis is consistent
with my earlier studies based on different variables, such as –ly
adverbs, superlatives, as well as high-frequency function words.
It would be possible to assume that authorial fi ngerprints
are as fi rmly set in the collocation of gentleman as in other
component of vocabulary. These results seem to illustrate
multivariate analysis of collocates could provide interesting
new perspectives to the study of collocation. Figure 3. Correspondence analysis of 100 most
common collocates of gentleman: Text-map
Figure 4. Correspondance analysis of 100 most common
collocates of gentleman: Word-map of 100 collocates
References
Adolphs, S. and R. A. Carter (2003) ‘Corpus stylistics: point of
view and semantic prosodies in To The Lighthouse’, Poetica, 58:
7–20.
Biber, D. and E. Finegan (1992) ‘The Linguistic Evolution of
Five Written and Speech-Based English Genres from the
17th to the 20th Centuries,’ in M. Rissanen (ed.) History
of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretation in Historical
Linguistics. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 668–704.
Brainerd, B. (1980) ‘The Chronology of Shakespeare’s Plays: A
Statistical Study,’ Computers and the Humanities, 14: 221–230.
Burrows, J. F. (1987) Computation into Criticism: A study of
Jane Austen’s novels and an experiment in method. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
Burrows, J. F. (1996) ‘Tiptoeing into the Infi nite: Testing
for Evidence of National Differences in the Language of
English Narrative’, in S. Hockey and N. Ide (eds.) Research in
Humanities Computing 4. Oxford/New York: Oxford UP. 1–33.
Craig, D. H. (1999a) ‘Johnsonian chronology and the styles of
A Tale of a Tub,’ in M. Butler (ed.) Re-Presenting Ben Jonson: Text
Performance, History. London: Macmillan, 210–232.
Craig, D. H. (1999b) ‘Authorial Attribution and Computational
Stylistics: If You Can Tell Authors Apart, Have You Learned
Anything About Them?’ Literary and Linguistic Computing, 14:
103–113.
Craig, D. H. (1999c) ‘Contrast and Change in the Idiolects of
Ben Jonson Characters,’ Computers and the Humanities, 33. 3:
221–240.
Firth, J. R. (1957) ‘Modes of Meaning’, in Papers in Linguistics
1934–51. London: OUP. 191-215.
Hoover, D. L. (2003a) ‘Frequent Collocations and Authorial
Style,’ Literary and Linguistic Computing, 18: 261–286.
Hoover, D. L. (2003b) ‘Multivariate Analysis and the Study of
Style Variation,’ Literary and Linguistic Computing, 18: 341–360.
Hori, M. (2004) Investigating Dickens’ style: A Collocational
Analysis. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hunston, S. and G. Framcis (1999) Pattern Grammar: A Corpus-
Driven Approach to the Lexical Grammar of English. Amsterdam:
John Benjamins.
Kjellmer, G. (1994) A Dictionary of English Collocations: Based on
the Brown Corpus (3 vols.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Louw, W. (1993) ‘Irony in the text or insincerity in the writer?
The diagnostic potential of semantic prosodies’, reprinted in
G. Sampson and D. McCarthy (eds.) (2004) Corpus Linguistics: Readings in a Widening Discipline. London and New York:
Continuum. 229–241.
Partington, A. (2006) The Linguistics of Laughter: A Corpus-
Assisted Study of Laughter-Talk. London/New York: Routledge.
Rudman, J. (2005) ‘The Non-Traditional Case for the
Authorship of the Twelve Disputed “Federalist” Papers:
A Monument Built on Sand?”, ACH/ALLC 2005 Conference
Abstracts, Humanities Computing and Media Centre,
University of Victoria, Canada, 193–196.
Sinclair, J. (1991) Corpus, Concordance, Collocation. Oxford: OUP.
Stubbs, M. (1995) ‘Corpus evidence for norms of lexical
collocation’, in G. Cook and B. Seidlhofer (eds.) Principle
and Practice in Applied Linguistics: Studies in Honour of H. G.
Widdowson. Oxford: OUP. 243–256.
Stubbs, M. (2001) Words and Phrases: Corpus studies of lexical
semantics. Oxford: Blackwell.
Tabata, T. (2004) ‘Differentiation of Idiolects in Fictional
Discourse: A Stylo-Statistical Approach to Dickens’s Artistry’,
in R. Hiltunen and S. Watanabe (eds.) Approaches to Style and
Discourse in English. Osaka: Osaka University Press. 79–106.
Tabata, T. (2005) ‘Profi ling stylistic variations in Dickens and
Smollett through correspondence analysis of low frequency
words’, ACH/ALLC 2005 Conference Abstracts, Humanities
Computing and Media Centre, University of Victoria, Canada,
229–232.
Tabata, T. (2007a) ‘A Statistical Study of Superlatives in
Dickens and Smollett: A Case Study in Corpus Stylistics’,
Digital Humanities 2007 Conference Abstracts, The 19th Joint
International Conference of the Association for Computers and
the Humanities and the Association for Literary and Linguistic
Computing, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, June 4–June
8, 2007, 210–214.
Tabata, T. (2007b) ‘The Cunningest, Rummest, Superlativest Old
Fox: A multivariate approach to superlatives in Dickens and
Smollett ’, PALA 2007—Style and Communication—Conference
Abstracts, The 2007 Annual Conference of the Poetics and
Linguistics Association, 31 Kansai Gaidai University, Hirakata,
Osaka, Japan, July–4 August 2007, 60–61.","txt","2","",""
"905","9","Video Game Avatar: From Other to Self-Transcendence and Transformation","1","The aim of this paper is to establish a model for the
relationship between the player of a video game and the avatar
that represents that player in the virtual world of the video
game. I propose that there is an evolution in the identifi cation
of the player of a video game with the avatar character that
performs embodied actions in the virtual world of the game.
This identifi cation can be described through an examination of
theories from a variety of subject areas including philosophy,
literary studies, video game theory, and educational theory.
Specifi cally, theories in hermeneutics, literary immersion,
embodiment, empathy, narrative, game ego, play, and learning
theory are synthesized to produce a broad picture of the
player/avatar relationship as it develops over time. I will
identify stages in the process of feeling immersed in a game.
This feeling of immersion can, but may not necessarily will,
occur as the player engages in game play over a period of
time. I will identify this process in stages: “other”; “embodied
empathy”; “self-transcendence”; and “transformation.” At the
fi nal stage, the game play can offer a critique of the player’s
worldview, to call into question the player’s approach and even
presuppositions about the world. I suggest here, the player
no longer sees the avatar as an “other” a character to be
understood in some way, and not as some virtual representation
of the self, something apart from himself, and not even as some
sort of virtual embodiment of himself. I suggest that the player
transcends even the avatar as any sort of representation, that
the avatar disappears from the consciousness of the player
altogether. A result of this critique is a transformation that
takes place within the player that may actually transform one’s
self-understanding, thus providing the player with an authentic
learning experience.
There is a sense of embodiment that goes along with controlling
an avatar in a virtual world that, I believe, is not present when
becoming immersed in a fi lm or a book. In a video game, the
player’s actions have direct and immediate consequences
in terms of reward or punishment as well as movement
through the virtual world. The narrative effect helps drive the
character through this reward and punishment. The idea of
affordances is often used in terms of game design and the use
of emotional affordances to help propel the player into the
virtual environment. Thus, with a video game, there is a more
complete immersion into the constructed imaginary world—
an embodied immersion and an emotional immersion.
I would like to clarify the defi nition of this feeling of immersion
that happens as a video game progresses. Various terms are
used in the fi elds of literary analysis, psychology, video game theory, and philosophy. Terms like literary transport, fl ow,
presence, immersion, identifi cation, and self-transcendence
are often used to describe the feeling of the self moving out
of the real world and into a constructed imaginary world.
I use Janet Murray’s offers a commonly accepted defi nition
used in the gaming industry for this term, a sense of being
physically submerged in water (Murray 1997, p. 99). My goal
here is to illuminate the idea that there is a process to gaining
this feeling of immersion. The player proceeds step-by-step
into the game world. The work of Gallagher in philosophy
of mind acknowledges that there is a growth process that
takes place in developing an understanding of other people,
through primary and secondary interaction. Gallese offers an
alternative argument that the biological basis of this growth
in understanding happen initially as a neural response from
the mirror neuron system, then as a more mature empathetic
response. Ultimately, I would like to establish a sequence that
combines the work of Gallese and Gallagher with the work
of digital narrative theorists Ryan and Murray. The sequence
of immersion could be stated as: other→empathy→selftranscendence→
transformation.
The fi rst stage of approaching the avatar is learning the
mechanics of the game. In this stage the player sees the avatar
as “other,” as an awkward and theoretical representation of the
self. Initially, the avatar is a picture or symbol for the self. The
player learns to manipulate the keyboard, mouse, or controller.
The avatar is “other,” a foreign virtual object that must be
awkwardly manipulated by the player. In this stage there is little
personal identifi cation with the avatar, except on a theoretical
level. The avatar cannot function effi ciently according to the
will of the player, but operates as a cumbersome vehicle for
the player’s intentions.
I propose that the player in the second stage the player begins
to view the avatar as a character in a world, and the player
begins to empathize with the character in a novel or in a fi lm.
Let me clarify, here, that at this stage the avatar is still viewed
as Other, but a component of empathy now emerges through
the use of narrative. The player now has learned to effectively
manipulate the character, to move the character through the
virtual world. I believe, here, embodiment plays an important
biological role in helping to establish this feeling of empathy
for the character. There is also an important component of
narrative that drives the player toward empathy with the
avatar. The work of Marie-Laure Ryan is an important theoriest
in this area.
In the third stage, which I call “self-transcendence,” the player
experiences full identifi cation with the avatar, not as empathizing
with another character, but embodying the actions and world
of the avatar as if it were his own. On this point, I will refer to
Gadamer’s idea of the self-transcendence of play as well as his
article “The Relevance of the Beautiful” and several authors
working on the concept of immersion and game ego in video
game theory (Murray, Wilhelmsson, Ryan). The literature
on video game theory uses the terms immersion, fl ow, and
presence in a similar way, but I feel Gadamer’s term “selftranscendence”
more aptly fi ts the description I will offer.
At the point of self-transcendence, transformation can happen.
Learning theory and the philosophy of hermeneutics, especially
as stated in the work of Gallagher in Hermeneutics and
Education and the hermeneutic theories of Gadamer
(specifi cally his fusion of horizons), can establish how
understanding happens and how transformation of the self can
take place more completely in the virtually embodied world
of video games.
View of the avatar character by the player of
a video game as game play progresses.
References
Brna, Paul. “On the Role of Self-Esteem, Empathy and
Narrative in the Development of Intelligent Learning
Environments” Pivec, Maja ed. Affective and Emotional Aspects
of Human-Computer Interaction: Game-Based and Innovative
Learning Approaches. IOS Press: Washington, DC. 2006.
Dias, J., Paiva, A., Vala, M., Aylett, R., Woods S., Zoll, C., and
Hall, L. “Empathic Characters in Computer-Based Personal
and Social Education.” Pivec, Maja ed. Affective and Emotional
Aspects of Human-Computer Interaction: Game-Based and
Innovative Learning Approaches. IOS Press: Washington, DC.
2006.
Gadamer, H.G. Truth and Method. Weinsheimer and Marshall,
trans. New York: Crossroad, 1989.
Gallagher, Shaun. Hermeneutics and Education. Albany: State
University of New York Press, 1992.
Gallagher, Shaun. How the Body Shapes the Mind. Oxford
University Press: New York, 2005.
Gallagher, S. and Hutto, D. (in press-2007). Understanding
others through primary interaction and narrative practice.
In: Zlatev, Racine, Sinha and Itkonen (eds). The Shared Mind:
Perspectives on Intersubjectivity. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Gallese, V. “The ‘Shared Manifold’ Hypothesis: From Mirror
Neurons to Empathy.” Journal of Consciousness Studies. 8:33-
50, 2001.
Goldman, A. “Empathy, Mind, and Morals.” In Mental Simulation.
Ed. M. Davies and T. Stone, 185-208. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995.
Grodal, Torben. “Stories for Eye, Ear, and Muscles: Video
Games, Media, and Embodied Experiences.” The Video
Game Theory Reader. Mark J. Wolf and Bernard Perron, eds.
Routledge: New York, 2003. Johnson, Mark (1987) The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of
Meaning, Imagination and Reason. Chicago: Chicago University
Press, 1987 and 1990.
Lahti, Martti. “As We Become Machines: Corporealized
Pleasures in Video Games.” The Video Game Theory Reader.
Mark J. Wolf and Bernard Perron, eds. Routledge: New York,
2003.
McMahan, Alison. (2003). “Immersion, Engagement, and
Presence: A Method for Analysing 3-D Video Games.” The
Video Game Theory Reader. Mark J. Wolf and Bernard Perron,
eds. Routledge: New York.
Murray, Janet. Hamlet on the Holodeck: The Future of Narrative
in Cyberspace. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997.
Ryan, Marie-Laure. Narrative as Virtual Reality: Immersion and
Interactivity in Literature and Electronic Media. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 2001.
Sykes, Jonathan. (2006). “Affective Gaming: Advancing the
Argument for Game-Based Learning.” Pivec, Maja ed.
Affective and Emotional Aspects of Human-Computer Interaction:
Game-Based and Innovative Learning Approaches. IOS Press:
Washington, DC.
White, H. (1981). “Narrative and History.” In W.J.T. Mitchell,
ed., On Narrative. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wilhelmsson, Ulf. (2006). “What is a Game Ego? (or How
the Embodied Mind Plays a Role in Computer Game
Environments).” Pivec, Maja ed. Affective and Emotional Aspects
of Human-Computer Interaction: Game-Based and Innovative
Learning Approaches. IOS Press: Washington, DC.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig. Philosophical Investigations. Trans. G.E.M.
Anscombe. Blackwell Publishing: Cambridge, 1972.","txt","2","",""
"906","9","Normalizing Identity: The Role of Blogging Software in Creating Digital Identity","1","We offer a new in-depth methodology for looking at how
the use of blogging software delineates and normalizes the
blogger’s creation of posts and, by extension, the creation of
her blog self. The simple choice of software is not simple at
all and in fact has a great infl uence on the shape a blogger’s
identity will take through the interface, program design,
and data structures imposed on her by the software. This
primarily technical discussion of a topic seldom considered
in studies which look at the cultural impact of blogging, will
illuminate the inner workings of the medium and gives due
credence to Marshall McLuhan’s argument that “the ‘message’
of any medium or technology is the change of scale or pace or
pattern that it introduces into human affairs”.
Technology plays such an integral part in distinguishing the blog
as a new medium, apart from that of written (paper-based)
text; as a result, a study of the blog that does not investigate
its infrastructure is incomplete. Critics of blogging scholarship
point out the lack of technical discussion around the software
used by bloggers as a weakness (Scheidt 2005, Lawley 2004).
The criticism is valid; critics’ attention has been focused on
the output of the blogs, categorizing them as an extension of
existing genres, whether that be of the diary (Rak 167) or the
newspaper (Koman). This study serves as a response to the
criticism, and aims to start the discussion by looking into the
dark recesses of the software, databases, and code to illustrate
just how infl uential infrastructure is in defi ning identity.
Programmers do not care about the content of any given
blog. The people who develop Movable Type, Blogger,
LiveJournal, and Wordpress are developing software which
helps making blogging a much simpler process, and they do
listen to customer requests for features. But the developer
is not concerned whether your blog will be an online journal,
a political commentary, or a collection of cat pictures – what
she is concerned about is memory allocation, disk usage, and
transaction speed. Every shortcut taken in the source code,
every data type or archiving scheme not supported, every
function written, and every decision made by the programmer
to achieve these goals has an infl uence on the interface, and
therefore on the content the blogger produces. Despite
working at an indifferent distance, the developer heavily
infl uences the blog – and by extension, blogger’s identity – by
the decisions she makes when she codes the software. The way we structure language helps create meaning;
likewise, the way in which it is stored also has meaning. To
the programmer, language is nothing more than a set of bits
and data types, which must be sorted into different containers.
How the programmer deals with data affects how she creates
the interface; if she has no data structure in place to handle
a certain kind of information, she cannot request it from the
user in the interface. The data structure is created through
a process called normalization – breaking data down into its
smallest logical parts. Developers normalize data in order
to make it easier to use and reuse in a database: the title of
your blog entry goes in one container; the body text goes
into another, and so on. The structure of the data does not
necessarily match the structure of its original context, however.
Although a title and the body text are related to the same
entry, no consideration is given by the developer as to whether
one comes before the other, whether it should be displayed
in a specifi c style, or if one has hierarchical importance over
the other in the page. The data structure is dictated by the
individual pieces of data themselves. The developer takes the
data within each of these containers and stores it within a
database. This may be a simple database, such as a CSV1 or
Berkeley DB2 fi le, or it may reside within a more complex
relational database such as MySQL or Microsoft SQL Server.
Within the database exists a series of tables, and within each
table resides a series of fi elds. A table holds a single record
of data – a blog entry – and the table’s fi elds hold properties
of that data, such as the title or entry date. Figure 1 illustrates
an example of the above; a developer has created an Entries
table with the fi elds EntryID3, Title, Date, BodyText, ExtendedText,
Keywords, Category, and Post Status.
When is possible, such as with the Category and Post Status
fi elds, the developer will actually replace a string (alphanumeric)
value with a numeric pointer to the same data within another
table in the database. For example, an author may create a set
of categories for her blog (such as “Personal Life,” “School,” et
cetera, which are stored in a separate database table named
Categories and associated with a unique ID (CategoryID).
When an entry is marked with the Personal category, the
software queries the database to see what the CategoryID
of the Personal category is in the Categories table, and places
that in the Category fi eld in an entry’s record in the Entries
table (see Figure 2). This sets up a series of relations within
a database, and helps keep the database smaller; an integer
takes far less space in the database than a string: 1 byte to
store a single-digit integer, compared to 8 bytes for the string
“Personal”; when you start working with hundreds of entries,
this difference adds up quickly. It is also easier to maintain; if
you want to rename the “Personal” category to “Stories from
the woeful events of my unexaggerated life” for example, you
would only have to update the entry once in the Categories
table; because it is referenced by its CategoryID in each entry,
it will automatically be updated in all records that reference it.
By abstracting often-used data such as a category into separate
database tables, data can be reused within the database, which
in turn keeps the size of the database smaller. If we know
we will be referring to a single category in multiple entries, it
makes sense to create a table of possible categories and then
point to their unique identifi er within each individual entry.
Each fi eld within a database table is confi gured to accept a
specifi c format of information known as a data type. For
example, the Date fi eld in the Entries table above would be
given a data type of DATETIME,4 while the Category fi eld would
be given a data type of INT (to specify an integer value). The
body text of an entry would be placed in a binary data type
known as the BLOB, since this is a type of data whose size
is variable from record to record. Normalization conditions
data to its purpose, and ensures that the developer always
knows what kind of data to expect when he or she retrieves
it later. It also has the benefi t of loosely validating the data by
rejecting invalid data types. If an attempt to store a piece of
INT data in the Date fi eld is made, it will trigger an error, which
prevents the data from being misused within an application.
The decisions made by the developer at this point, which
involve confi guring the tables and fi elds within the database,
ultimately determine what will appear in the blog’s interface.
If tables and fi elds do not exist in the database to support
categorization of an entry, for example, it is unlikely to appear in
the interface since there is no facility to store the information
(and by extension, not prompt the blogger to categorize her
thoughts).
The interface gives the blogger certain affordances, something
Robert St. Amant defi nes as “an ecological property of the
relationship between an agent and the environment” (135).5
Amant describes affordance as a function we can see that is
intuitive: “we can often tell how to interact with an object or
environmental feature simply by looking at it, with little or no
thought involved” (135, 136) – for example, we instinctively
know not only what a chair is for, but the best way to make
use of it. St. Amant further breaks down the affordance
into four separate affordance-related concepts: relationship,
action, perception, and mental construct (136-7). He goes
on to discuss how to incorporate the idea of affordance into
developing a user interface, focusing on action and relationship.
The last of these concepts, affordance as a mental construct,
is most relevant to our discussion. St. Amant writes “these
mental affordances are the internal encodings of symbols
denoting relationships, rather than the external situations
that evoke the symbols” (137). In the authoring of the blog,
the affordance of developing identity cannot be pinned on a
single HTML control or text box; it is the process as a whole.
LiveJournal and DiaryLand, for example, have the affordance
of keeping a personal journal, or online diary. Blogger has
the affordance of developing identity in a broader way by not
necessarily focusing it on an autobiographical activity. The
interface leads the blogger into a mode of writing through
the affordances it provides The infrastructure of the blog is its
most fundamental paratextual element creating a mirror for
the blogger to peer into, but it is the blogger that makes the
decision to look. Notes
1 Comma-Separated Values. Each record of data consists of a single,
unbroken line within a text fi le, which contains a series of values
– each separated by a comma or other delimiter. An example of a
CSV fi le for our entry would look like the following: EntryID,Title,Da
te,BodyText,ExtendedText, Keywords,Category, PostStatus
1,My Entry,12/15/2006,This is the entry,,personal,Personal,Published
2,My Other Entry,12/20/2006,Look – another entry,And some
extended text,personal,Personal,Published
2 Berkeley DB is a fi le-based database structure, which offers some
basic relational mechanisms, but is not as robust or performant as
other database systems.
3 For compatibility with multiple database systems, spaces are
generally discouraged in both table and fi eld names.
4 For the purposes of this section, I will use MySQL Data types. Data
types may vary slightly between different database applications.
5 As an interesting historical footnote, St. Amant wrote about the
affordance in user interfaces around the time the fi rst blog software
packages were released in 1999.
References
Bolter, J.D. & Grusin, R. Remediation: Understanding New Media.
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1999
Lawley, Liz. “Blog research issues” Many 2 Many: A group
weblog on social software. June 24, 2004. Online. <http://many.
corante.com/archives/2004/06/24/blog_research_issues.php>
Accessed October 23, 2007.
Koman, Richard. “Are Blogs the New Journalism” O’Reilly
Digital Media. January 8, 2005. Online. Accessed April 8, 2007.
http://www.oreillynet.com/digitalmedia/blog/2005/01/are_
blogs_the_new_journalism.html
McLuhan, Marshall. Understanding Media: The Extension of
Man. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1994.
Rak, Julie (2005, Winter). “The Digital Queer: Weblogs and
Internet Identity.” Biography 28(1): 166-182.
Scheidt, Lois Ann. “Quals reading – Outlining in Blood”
Professional-Lurker: Comments by an Academic in
Cyberspace. Online. Accessed May 23, 2005. <http://www.
professional-lurker.com/archives/000410.html>
Serfaty, Viviane. The Mirror and the Veil: An Overview of
American Online Diaries and Blogs. Amsterdam & New York:
Rodopi, 2004.
St. Amant, Robert. “Planning and User Interface Affordances”
Proceedings of the 4th international conference on Intelligent user
interfaces. 1998.","txt","2","",""
"907","9","A Modest proposal. Analysis of Specific Needs with Reference to Collation in Electronic Editions","1","Text collation is a vital aspect of textual editing; its results
feature prominently in scholarly editions, either in printed
or electronic form. The Centre for Scholarly Editing and
Document Studies (CTB) of the Flemish Royal Academy
for Dutch Language and Literature has a strong research
interest in electronic textual editing. Much of the research for
the electronic editions of De teleurgang van den Waterhoek
(2000) and De trein der traagheid (forthcoming) concerned
appropriate ways of visualising textual traditions. Starting from
the functionality of collation results in electronic editions, as
illustrated in the latter edition, this paper will investigate the
needs for a dedicated automatic text collation tool for textcritical
research purposes.
The second section sets out with identifying different scenarios
in the production model of electronic scholarly editions (based
on Ott, 1992; Vanhoutte, 2006). Consequently, possible criteria
for an automatic text collation tool in these production
scenarios are identifi ed, both on a collation-internal and
generic software level. These criteria are analysed both from
the broader perspective of automatic differencing algorithms
and tools that have been developed for purposes of automatic
version management in software development (Mouat, 2002;
Komvoteas, 2003; Cobéna, 2003; Cobéna e.a., 2002 and [2004];
Peters, 2005; Trieloff, 2006), and from the specifi c perspective
of text encoding and collation for academic purposes (Kegel
and Van Elsacker, 2007; Robinson, 2007). Collation-internal
criteria distinguish between three phases of the collation
process: the automatic text comparison itself, representation
of these comparisons and aspects of visualisation. Especially
in the context of electronic scholarly editions, for which TEI
XML is the de facto encoding standard, a degree of XMLawareness
can be considered a minimal requirement for
collation algorithms. A dedicated collation algorithm would
be able to track changes on a structural and on word level.
Moreover, since textual editing typically deals with complex
text traditions, the ability to compare more than two versions
of a text could be another requirement for a collation
algorithm. Regarding representation of the collation results,
an XML perspective is preferable as well. This allows for easier
integration of the collation step with other steps in electronic
editing. In a maximal scenario, a dedicated text collation tool
would represent the collation results immediately in one or
other TEI fl avour for encoding textual variation. Visualisation
of the collation results could be considered a criterion for a
text collation tool, but seems less vital, however prominent it features in the broader context of developing an electronic
edition. From a generic software perspective, a dedicated tool
would be open source, free, multi-platform, and embeddable in
other applications. These criteria are summarised in a minimal
and a maximal scenario. The plea for a tool that meets the
criteria for a minimal scenario is illustrated in the third section
of the paper.
The third section of the paper is a case study of another
electronic edition in preparation at the CTB: the complete
works of the 16th century Flemish poetess Anna Bijns,
totalling around 300 poems that come in about 60 variant
pairs or triplets. The specifi c circumstances of this project led
to an investigation for collation solutions in parallel with the
transcription and markup of the texts. After an evaluation of
some interesting candidate tools for the collation step, the
choice was made eventually to investigate how a generic
XML-aware comparison tool could be put to use for multiple
text collations in the context of textual editing. Besides
formal procedures and a set of XSLT stylesheets for different
processing stages of the collation results, this development
process provided an interesting insight in the specifi c nature
of ‘textual’ text collation, and the role of the editor. The
description of the experimental approach that was taken will
illustrate the criteria sketched out in the previous section,
indicate what is possible already with quite generic tools, and
point out the strengths and weaknesses of this approach.
Finally, the fi ndings are summarised and a plea is made for a text
collation tool that fi lls the current lacunae with regards to the
current tools’ capacities for the distinct steps of comparison,
representation and visualisation.
References
Cobéna, Grégory (2003). Change Management of semistructured
data on the Web. Doctoral dissertation, Ecole
Doctorale de l’Ecole Polytechnique. <ftp://ftp.inria.fr/INRIA/
publication/Theses/TU-0789.pdf>
Cobéna, Grégory, Talel Abdessalem, Yassine Hinnach (2002).
A comparative study for XML change detection. Verso report
number 221. France: Institut National de Recherche en
Informatique et en Automatique, July 2002. <ftp://ftp.inria.
fr/INRIA/Projects/verso/VersoReport-221.pdf>
Cobéna, Grégory, Talel Abdessalem, Yassine Hinnach ([2004]).
A comparative study of XML diff tools. Rocquencourt,
[Unpublished update to Cobéna e.a. (2002), seemingly
a report for the Gemo project at INRIA.] <http://www.
deltaxml.com/dxml/90/version/default/part/AttachmentData/
data/is2004.pdf>
Kegel, Peter, Bert Van Elsacker (2007). ‘“A collection, an
enormous accumulation of movements and ideas”. Research
documentation for the digital edition of the Volledige Werken
(Complete Works) of Willem Frederik Hermans’. In: Georg
Braungart, Peter Gendolla, Fotis Jannidis (eds.), Jahrbuch für
Computerphilologie 8 (2006). Paderborn: mentis Verlag. p. 63-
80. <http://computerphilologie.tu-darmstadt.de/jg06/kegelel.
html>
Komvoteas, Kyriakos (2003). XML Diff and Patch Tool. Master’s
thesis. Edinburgh: Heriot Watt University. <http://treepatch.
sourceforge.net/report.pdf>
Mouat, Adrian (2002). XML Diff and Patch Utilities. Master’s
thesis. Edinburgh: Heriot Watt University, School of
Mathematical and Computer Sciences. <http://prdownloads.
sourceforge.net/diffxml/dissertation.ps?download>
Ott, W. (1992). ‘Computers and Textual Editing.’ In
Christopher S. Butler (ed.), Computers and Written Texts.
Oxford and Cambridge, USA: Blackwell, p. 205-226.
Peters, Luuk (2005). Change Detection in XML Trees:
a Survey. Twente Student Conference on IT, Enschede,
Copyright University of Twente, Faculty of Electrical
Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science. <http://
referaat.cs.utwente.nl/documents/2005_03_B-DATA_AND_
APPLICATION_INTEGRATION/2005_03_B_Peters,L.
J.-Change_detection_in_XML_trees_a_survey.pdf>
Robinson, Peter (2007). How CollateXML should work.
Anastasia and Collate Blog, February 5, 2007. <http://www.
sd-editions.com/blog/?p=12>
Trieloff, Lars (2006). Design and Implementation of a Version
Management System for XML documents. Master’s thesis.
Potsdam: Hasso-Plattner-Institut für Softwaresystemtechnik.
<http://www.goshaky.com/publications/master-thesis/XMLVersion-
Management.pdf>
Vanhoutte, Edward (2006). Prose Fiction and Modern
Manuscripts: Limitations and Possibilities of Text-Encoding
for Electronic Editions. In Lou Burnard, Katherine O’Brien
O’Keeffe, John Unsworth (eds.), Electronic Textual Editing. New
York: Modern Language Association of America, p. 161-180.
<http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/ETE/Preview/vanhoutte.xml>","txt","2","",""
"908","9","(Re)Writing the History of Humanities Computing","1","Introduction
On several occasions, Willard McCarty has argued that if
humanities computing wants to be fully of the humanities, it
needs to become historically self-aware (McCarty, 2004, p.161).
Contrary to what the frequently repeated myth of humanities
computing claims (de Tollenaere, 1976; Hockey, 1980, p. 15;
1998, p. 521; 2000, p. 5; 2004, p. 4), humanities computing, like
many other interdisciplinary experiments, has no very wellknown
beginning.
A Common History
Several authors contradict each other when it comes to
naming the founding father of digital humanities. At least four
candidates compete with each other for that honour. Depending
on whether one bases one’s research on ideas transmitted
orally or in writing, on academic publications expressing and
documenting these ideas, or on academic writings publishing
results, Father Roberto Busa s.j., the Reverend John W. Ellison,
Andrew D. Booth, and Warren Weaver are the competitors.
This is not surprising since, when the use of automated digital
techniques were considered to process data in the humanities,
two lines of research were activated: Machine Translation (MT)
and Lexical Text Analysis (LTA). Booth and Weaver belonged to
the MT line of research and were not humanists by training,
whereas Busa and Ellison were LTA scholars and philologists.
As Antonio Zampolli pointed out, the fact that MT was
promoted mainly in ‘hard science’ departments and LTA was
mainly developed in humanities departments did not enhance
frequent contacts between them. (Zampolli, 1989, p. 182)
Although real scholarly collaboration was scarce, contacts
certainly existed between the two on the administrative level.
Since, as Booth (1967, p. VIII) observes, pure linguistic problems
such as problems of linguistic chronology and disputed
authorship, have profi ted from work on MT, the transition from
MT to Computational Linguistics, dictated by the infamous US
National Academy of Sciences ALPAC report (ALPAC, 1966),
was a logical, though highly criticized, step. Moreover, the early
writings on MT mention the essential use of concordances,
frequency lists, and lemmatization – according to Zampolli
(1989) typical products of LTA – in translation methods, which
shows that both Computational Linguistics and Humanities
Computing share a common history. This early history of both
has never been addressed together, but it seems necessary for
a good understanding of what it is that textual studies do with
the computer.
The History of Humanities
Computing
Researching and writing the history of humanities computing
is no less but neither no more problematic than researching
and writing the history of computing, technology in general, or
the history of recent thought. Beverley Southgate considers
the history of thought as an all-embracing subject matter
which can include the history of philosophy, of science, of
religious, political, economic, or aesthetic ideas, ‘and indeed
the history of anything at all that has ever emerged from
the human intellect.’ (Southgate, 2003, p. 243) Attached to
the all-embracing nature of what she then calls ‘intellectual
history/history of ideas’ is the defi ance from the constraints
of disciplinary structures it creates with its practitioners. The
history of humanities computing for instance must consider
the history of the conventional schools of theory and practice
of humanities disciplines, the general histories of computing
and technology, the history of relevant fi elds in computing
science and engineering, and the history of the application of
computational techniques to the humanities.
The History of Recent Things
The history of recent things, however, poses some new and
unique challenges for which, in Willard McCarty’s vision,
a different conception of historiography is needed. As an
illustration for his point, McCarty focuses on the different
qualities of imagination that characterize the research and
writing of the classical historian on the one hand and the
historian of recent things on the other and situates them in
a temporal and a spatial dimension respectively. A successful
classical historian must manage the skill to move into the
mental world of the long dead, whereas the historian of
the recent past, like the anthropologist, must master the
movement away ‘from the mental world we share with our
subjects while remaining engaged with their work’ (McCarty,
2004, p. 163). In a rash moment, this double awareness of
the historian of the recent is fair game to triumphalism, the
historian’s worst fi end. The temptation to search for historical
and quantitative, rather than qualitative, ‘evidence’ to prove
the importance of their own fi eld or discipline is innate in
somewhat ambitious insiders attempting at writing the history
of their own academic fi eld. Also since, as Alun Munslow has
reiterated, it is historians rather than the past that generates
(writes, composes?) history (Munslow, 1999), McCarty’s
astute but non-exhaustive catalogue of the new and unique
challenges presents itself as a warning for the historiographer
of the new, and I endorse this list fully: ‘volume, variety, and
complexity of the evidence, and diffi culty of access to it; biases
and partisanship of living informants; unreliability of memory;
distortions from the historian’s personal engagement with his
or her informants—the ‘Heisenberg effect’, as it is popularly
known; the ‘presentism’ of science and its perceived need for
legitimation through an offi cial, triumphalist account; and so
on.’ (McCarty, 2004, p. 163). All history is inevitably a history for, and can never be
ideologically neutral, as Beverly Southgate has recently
emphasized in a review of Marc Ferro’s The Use and Abuse of
History, or, How the Past is Taught. (Southgate, 2005) Therefore
the question can never be ‘Comment on raconte l’histoire aux
enfants à travers le monde entier’ as the original title of Ferro’s
book reads. Greg Dening would say that writing history is a
performance in which historians should be ‘focused on the
theatre of what they do’. (Dening, 1996, p. 30) According to
McCarty, the different conception of historiography, could profi t
from acknowledging ethnographic theory and ethnography as
a contributory discipline since it entails a poetic of ‘dilatation
beyond the textable past and beyond the ‘scientifi c’ reduction
of evidence in a correct and singular account.’ (McCarty, 2004,
p. 174)
Prolegomena
The current lack of theoretical framework that can defi ne and
study the history of humanities computing echoes what Michael
Mahoney wrote with respect to the history of computing: ‘The
major problem is that we have lots of answers but very few
questions, lots of stories but no history, lots of things to do
but no sense of how to do them or in what order. Simply put,
we don’t yet know what the history of computing is really
about.’ (Mahoney, 1993)
Three possible statements can be deducted from this
observation:
• We don’t know what history is about;
• We don’t know what humanities computing is about;
• We don’t know what the history of humanities computing
is about.
This paper aims at addressing these three basic questions
by sketching out prolegomena to the history of humanities
computing.
References
ALPAC (1966) Languages and machines: computers in
translation and linguistics. A report by the Automatic Language
Processing Advisory Committee, Division of Behavioral Sciences,
National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, National
Research Council (Publication 1416).
<http://www.nap.edu/books/ARC000005/html/>
Booth, A.D. (1967). Introduction. In Booth, A.D. Machine
Translation. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company,
p. VI-IX.
De Tollenaere, Felicien (1976). Word-Indices and Word-Lists to
the Gothic Bible and Minor Fragments. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Dening, Greg (1996). Performances. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Hockey, Susan (1980). A Guide to Computer Applications in the
Humanities. London: Duckworth.
Hockey, Susan (1998). An Agenda for Electronic Text
Technology in the Humanities. Classical World, 91: 521-42.
Hockey, Susan (2000). Electronic Texts in the Humanities.
Principles and Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hockey, Susan (2004). The History of Humanities Computing.
In Schreibman, Susan, Siemens, Ray, and Unsworth, John
(eds.), A Companion to Digital Humanities. Malden, MA/Oxford/
Carlton, Victoria: Blackwell Publishing, p. 3-19.
Southgate, Beverley (2003). Intellectual history/history of
ideas. In Berger, Stefan, Feldner, Heiko, and Passmore, Kevin
(eds.), Writing History. Theory & Practice. London: Arnold, p.
243-260.
Southgate, Beverley (2005). Review of Marc Ferro, The Use
and Abuse of History, or, How the Past is Taught. Reviews in
History, 2005, 441.
<http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/reapp/southgate.html>
Mahoney, Michael S. (1993). Issues in the History of
Computing. Paper prepared for the Forum on History
of Computing at the ACM/SIGPLAN Second History of
Programming Languages Conference, Cambridge, MA, 20-23
April 1993.
<http://www.princeton.edu/~mike/articles/issues/issuesfr.
htm>
McCarty, Willard (2004). As It Almost Was: Historiography of
Recent Things. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19/2: 161-180.
Munslow, Alun (1999). The Postmodern in History:
A Response to Professor O’Brien. Discourse on
postmodernism and history. Institute of Historical Research.
<http://www.history.ac.uk/discourse/alun.html>
Zampolli, Antonio (1989). Introduction to the Special Section
on Machine Translation. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 4/3:
182-184.","txt","2","",""
"909","9","Knowledge-Based Information Systems in Research of Regional History","1","Representation of data on regional history by means of Web
sites is practised in many countries, because such Web sites
should perform – and more often than not they really perform
– three important functions. First, they further preservation
of historical information related to a certain region. Second,
Web sites on regional history promote and publicize historical
and cultural heritage of a region, hence they can serve as a
specifi c ‘visiting-card’ of a region. Third, they facilitate progress
in regional historical studies by means of involving researchers
in Web-community and providing them with primary data
and, at the same time, with appropriate research tools that
can be used for data retrieving and processing. However,
implementation of the above-mentioned functions calls for
different information technologies. For instance, preservation
of historical information requires structuring of information
related to a certain region, therefore databases technologies
should be used to perform this function. In order to draft and
update a ‘visiting-card’ of a region, a Web site can be designed on
the basis of Content Management System (CMS). Meanwhile,
coordination of research activities within the frameworks of
a certain Web-community calls for implementation of modern
technologies in order to create knowledge-based information
systems.
In this paper, a concept of a knowledge-based information
system for regional historical studies is framed and a pattern of
data representation, aggregation, and structuring is discussed.
This pattern can be described as a specialized semantic network
hereafter defi ned as Historical Semantic Network (HSN).
Up to now, the most popular pattern of representation
of regional historical information is a traditional Web site
that consists of static HTML-pages. A typical example is the
Web site Latgales Dati (created in 1994, see http://dau.lv/ld),
which provides information about the history and cultural
heritage of Eastern Latvia – Latgale (Soms 1995; Soms and
Ivanovs 2002). On the Web site Latgales Dati, historical data
are stored and processed according to the above-mentioned
traditional pattern. The shortcomings of this pattern are quite
obvious: it is impossible to revise the mode of processing and
representation of data on the Web site; it is rather diffi cult to
feed in additional information, to retrieve necessary data, and
to share information.
In the HEML project, a special language of representation
and linkage of information on historical events has been
developed (http://www.heml.org). Advantages of this language
are generally known: a modern approach to processing and
representation of historical information on the basis of XML,
a developed system of tools of visualization of information,
etc. However, the processing of information is subjected to
descriptions of historical events. It can be regarded as a drawback
of this language, since such descriptions do not form a solid
basis for historical data representation in databases. Actually,
any description of a historical event is an interpretation
of narratives and documentary records. For this reason,
databases should embrace diverse historical objects, namely,
documents and narratives, persons, historical monuments and
buildings, institutions, geographical sites, and so on, and so
forth. These objects can be described using different attributes
simultaneously, which specify characteristic features of the
objects. Sometimes, objects can be labelled with defi nite, unique
attributes only. The detailed, exhaustive information about
the objects can be represented by means of links between
objects, thus creating a specifi c semantic network. Within
this network, paramount importance is attached to special
temporal objects – the chronological ‘markers’. Connecting
links between a number of historical objects, including special
temporal objects, will form rather a solid basis for historical
discourse upon historical events, processes, and phenomena.
The fi rst characteristic feature of the semantic network, which
is being created on the basis of the Web site Latgales Dati,
is the principle role assigned to such historical objects as
documentary records and narratives. Thus, the connecting links
between the objects are constituted (actually, reconstructed) in
accordance with the evidences of historical sources. In order
to provide facilities for verifi cation of the links, the semantic
network should contain full texts of historical records as well
as scanned raster images of them. On the one hand, texts
and images can be directly connected with the objects of the
semantic network by means of SVG technology; on the other
hand, this connection can be established by means of mark-up
schemes used in XML technology (Ivanovs and Varfolomeyev
2005).
The second characteristic feature of HSN is fuzziness of almost
all aspects of information in the semantic network (Klir and
Yuan 1995). The source of this fuzziness is uncertainty of expert
evaluations and interpretations of historical data; moreover,
evidences of historical records can be either fragmentary and
contradictory, or doubtful and uncertain. Therefore, the level of
validity of information is ‘measured’ by variables, which can be
expressed by ordinary numbers (0–1). However, it seems that
they should be expressed by vector quantities as pairs (true,
false); the components true and false can assume values from
0 to 1. In this case, the pair (1,1) refers to very contradictory
and unreliable information, meanwhile the pair (0,0) means the absence of information. This approach was used in
construction of four-valued logic (Belnap 1977). The fuzziness
values defi ned for some objects can be propagated within a
semantic network by means of logical reasoning (Hähnle 1993).
This ‘measurement’ of validity of data is performed by users of
HSN; the results of ‘measurement’ should be changeable and
complementary, thus refl ecting cooperation of researchers
within the frameworks of Web-community.
Creating a semantic network, a number of principal
operations should be performed: reconstruction, linkage, and
representation. Reconstruction is either manual or automatic
generation of interrelations between objects that are not
directly refl ected in historical records. In this stage, new
historical objects can emerge; these objects are reconstructed
in accordance with the system of their mutual relations.
Linkage can be defi ned as detection of similar (in fuzzy sense)
objects, which within a semantic network (or within a number
of interrelated networks) form a defi nite unit. Representation is
a number of operations of retrieving of data from the semantic
network including representation of information by means of
tables, graphs, timeline, geographic visualization, etc.
HSN as a basic pattern of representation of historical
information in Internet provides researchers with proper
tools, which can easily transform data retrieved from such
Web sites. However, some problems should be solved in order
to ‘substitute’ the traditional Web site Latgales Dati for HSN.
There are different approaches to representation of semantic
networks in Internet. A generally accepted approach is division
of network links into subjects, predicates, and objects followed
by their representation by means of RDF. However, the RDF
pattern (actually, directed graph in terms of mathematics) is not
adequate to the hyper-graph pattern accepted in HSN, since
in HSN one and the same link can connect different objects
simultaneously. In order to represent hyper-graphs, different
semantic networks – such as WordNet (Fellbaum 1998),
MultiNet (Helbig 2006), topic maps (Dong and Li 2004) or even
simple Wiki-texts interconnected by so-called ‘categories’ –
should be used. Unfortunately, the above-mentioned semantic
networks do not provide proper tools to perform the tasks
set by HSN. For this purpose, the experience acquired by
designers of universal knowledge processing systems (e.g.
SNePS, see Shapiro 2007, or Cyc, see Panton 2006) should be
taken into consideration.
One more important problem is linkage of different HSN,
including Latgales Dati. Such linkage can be conducive to
cooperation of researchers, since it ensures remote access
to historical data and exchange of information and results of
research work. It seems that Web-services technology can
carry out this task. In this case, HSN should be registered in
a certain UDDI-server. A user’s query activates interaction of
a Web-server with numerous related Web-servers, which are
supplied with HSN-module. As a result, a semantic network
is being generated on the basis of fragments of different
networks relevant to the initial query.
The principles of creation of HSN substantiated above are
used in designing a new version of the knowledge-based
information system Latgales Dati. As software environment
a specialized Web application created at Petrozavodsk State
University is applied (http://mf.karelia.ru/hsn).
References
Belnap, N. A Useful Four-Valued Logic. In J.M. Dunn and G.
Epstein, ed. Modern Uses of Multiple-Valued Logic. Dordreht,
1977, pp. 8-37.
Fellbaum, C., ed. WordNet: An Electronic Lexical Database.
Cambridge, Mass., 1998.
Hähnle, R. Automated Deduction in Multiple-Valued Logics.
Oxford, 1993.
Helbig, H. Knowledge Representation and the Semantics of
Natural Language. Berlin; Heidelberg; New York, 2006.
Ivanovs, A., Varfolomeyev, A. Editing and Exploratory Analysis
of Medieval Documents by Means of XML Technologies. In
Humanities, Computers and Cultural Heritage. Amsterdam, 2005,
pp. 155-60.
Klir, G.R., Yuan, B. Fuzzy Sets and Fuzzy Logic: Theory and
Applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1995.
Dong, Y., Li, M. HyO-XTM: A Set of Hyper-Graph Operations
on XML Topic Map toward Knowledge Management. Future
Generation Computer Systems, 20, 1 (January 2004): 81-100.
Panton, K. et al. Common Sense Reasoning – From Cyc to
Intelligent Assistant. In Yang Cai and Julio Abascal, eds. Ambient
Intelligence in Everyday Life, LNAI 3864. Berlin; Heidelberg;
New York, 2006, pp. 1-31.
Shapiro, S.C. et al. SNePS 2.7 User’s Manual. Buffalo, NY, 2007
(http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/sneps/Manuals/manual27.pdf).
Soms, H. Systematisierung der Kulturgeschichtlichen
Materialien Latgales mit Hilfe des Computers. In The First
Conference on Baltic Studies in Europe: History. Riga, 1995, pp.
34-5.
Soms, H., Ivanovs, A. Historical Peculiarities of Eastern Latvia
(Latgale): Their Origin and Investigation. Humanities and Social
Sciences. Latvia, 2002, 3: 5-21.","txt","2","",""
"910","9","Using Wmatrix to investigate the narrators and characters of Julian Barnes' Talking It Over","1","The focus of this paper is on Wmatrix (Rayson 2008), and
how the output from this relatively new corpus tool is proving
useful in connecting language patterns that occur in Talking It
Over - a novel by Julian Barnes - with impressions of narrators
and characters. My PhD research is concerned with: 1) the
role of the narrator and author in characterisation in prose
fi ction, in particular how the narrator intervenes and guides
our perception of character – something that, in my opinion,
has not been satisfactorily dealt with in existing literature; and
2) how corpus tools can be usefully employed in this type of
investigation. In this paper I will show that Wmatrix helps to
highlight parts of the novel that are important insofar as theme
and/or narratorial style and/or characterisation. I will go on to
discuss diffi culties I encountered during my investigation, and
possible developments to Wmatrix that could be benefi cial to
future researchers.
Of course, computer-assisted approaches to the critical
analyses of novels are no longer completely new, and corpus
stylistics (as it is sometimes known) is a steadily growing area of
interest. Indeed, corpus approaches have already been used to
investigate character in prose and drama. McKenna and Antonia
(1996), for example, compare the internal monologues of three
characters (Molly, Stephen and Leopold) in Joyce’s Ulysses,
testing the signifi cance on the most frequent words in wordlists
for each character, and showing that common word usage
can form “[…] distinct idioms that characterize the interior
monologues […]” (McKenna and Antonia 1996:65). Also,
more recently, Culpeper (2002) uses the ‘KeyWord’ facility
in WordSmith Tools (Scott 1996) to demonstrate how the
analysis of characters’ keywords in Shakespeare’s Romeo and
Juliet can provide data to help establish lexical and grammatical
patterns for a number of the main characters in the play.
While my research adopts similar approaches to the two
examples above, it takes a small yet useful step beyond wordlevel
analysis, focussing instead on semantic analysis and keyconcepts.
This is possible because Wmatrix can analyse a text
at the semantic level (see below).
Wmatrix
Wmatrix (Rayson 2008) is a web-based environment that
contains a number of tools for the analyses of texts. Plain-text
versions of texts can be uploaded to the Wmatrix web-server
where they are automatically processed in three different
ways:
1) Word level – frequency lists of all the words in a text are
compiled and can be presented either in order of frequency
or alphabetically;
2) Grammatical level – using the Constituent Likelihood
Automatic Word-tagging System (CLAWS – see Garside
1987, 1996; Leech, Garside and Bryant 1994; and Garside
and Smith 1997) developed by the University Centre for
Computer Corpus Research on Language (UCRELi) at
Lancaster University, every word in a text is assigned a
tag denoting the part-of-speech (POS) or grammatical
category to which the word belongs. The words are then
presented in list form either alphabetically (by POS tag) or
by frequency (the most frequent POS tags at the top of the
list);
3) Semantic level – every word is semantically tagged using
the UCREL semantic analysis system (USASii) and then listed
in order of frequency or alphabetically by semantic tag.
USAS groups words together that are conceptually related.
It assigns tags to each word using a hierarchical framework
of categorization, which was originally based on MacArthur’s
(1981) Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English. Tags consist
of an uppercase letter, which indicates the general discourse
fi eld, of which there are 21 – see Table 1.
Table 1 The 21 top level categories of the USAS tagset The uppercase letter is followed by a digit, which indicates
the fi rst sub-division of that fi eld. The tag may also include a
decimal point followed by a further digit to indicate fi ner subdivision
of the fi eld. For example, the major semantic fi eld of
GOVERNMENT AND THE PUBLIC DOMAIN is designated by the letter
G. This major fi eld has three subdivisions: GOVERNMENT, POLITICS
AND ELECTIONS – tagged G1; CRIME, LAW AND ORDER – tagged
G2; and WARFARE, DEFENCE AND THE ARMY – tagged G3. The fi rst
subdivision (G1 - GOVERNMENT, POLITICS AND ELECTIONS) is further
divided into: GOVERNMENT ETC. – which is has the tag G1.1; and
POLITICS – which is tagged G1.2. From these initial lists, further analyses and comparisons are
possible within the Wmatrix environment. However, the focus
of this paper will be on my analysis of the USAS (semantic)
output from Wmatrix, as this output proves to be the most
interesting and the most useful interpretatively.
Data
Talking It Over, by Julian Barnes, is a story with a fairly familiar
theme – a love triangle – that is told in a fairly unusual way
– there are nine fi rst person narrators. This offers interesting
data with regard to the interaction between character and
narrator, as the story is told from a number of different
perspectives, with the different narrators often commenting
on the same events from different angles. Of the nine narrators
Oliver, Stuart and Gillian are the three main ones, not only
because they are the three people involved in the love triangle,
but also because they say substantially more than any of the
other narrators in the novel. The six other narrators are
people whose involvement in the story is more peripheral, but
come into contact with one or more of the main narrators.
Within the novel each contribution by different narrators is
signalled by the narrator’s name appearing in bold-type at the
beginning of the narration. Some chapters consist of just one
contribution from one narrator while others consist of several
“narrations”. The three main narrators make contributions of
varying lengths throughout the novel.
Approach
The exploration of narrators described in this paper adopts
a similar approach to that used by Culpeper (2002) in his
analysis of characters in Romeo and Juliet. That is, I compare
the words of one narrator with the words of all the other
narrators combined, using Wmatrix in its capacity as a tool
for text comparison. This comparison produced a number of
lists ranked by statistical signifi cance. The measure of statistical
signifi cance used by Wmatrix is log-likelihood (LL).
The process of comparison involved, to some extent,
disassembling the novel, in order to extract, into separate text
fi les, the narrated words of each of the three main narrators.
The disassembly process had to take into account the fact
that within the different narrations there were the words of
other people and characters. That is to say, the narrations
contained speech, writing and thought presentation (SW&TP).
This needed to be accounted for in the analysis in order to
be as precise as possible about descriptions and impressions
of narrators based on the Wmatrix output. The best way to
achieve this was to produce a tagged version of the novel,
from which relevant portions could be extracted more exactly
using computer-tools. These extracted portions could then be
analysed using Wmatrix.
My paper will discuss the tagging process, the Wmatrix output
and the subsequent analysis and show how key semantic
concepts highlighted for each of the three main characters
draw attention to important themes within the narrations, and
to styles of narration which can then be linked to character
traits. Included in my discussion will be issues concerning
Wmatrix’s lexicon and the type of automated semantic analysis
Wmatrix carries out.
Conclusions
Interpretative conclusions
The list of semantic groups produced by Wmatrix for each
of the three main narrators show a number of differences
in narrator characteristics and narratorial styles. Stuart’s list
contains semantic groups that relate to his job. An investigation
of highly signifi cant categories in the list showed that Stuart’s
attitude relating to particular themes or concepts change
during the novel. For example, Stuart’s relationship with money
alters, which is refl ected in a change of attitude toward love.
Stuart also becomes less worried about disappointing people
and more concerned about not being disappointed himself.
An investigation of items in Gillian’s list of semantic categories
identifi ed a more conversational style to her narration
when compared to the rest of the narrators, as well as a
determination to give an account of the story that was
accurate and complete.
The top item in Oliver’s list of categories contains the words
that Wmatrix could not match. While on one hand this could
be seen as a short-coming of Wmatrix, in the case of this study,
the result gave a clear indication of the number of unusual,
foreign and hyphenated words Oliver uses, and showed that
he has very broad vocabulary as well as knowledge of a wide
variety of topics. The list of unmatched words also highlighted
Oliver’s creativity with language, and that creativity is very
much part of his style. He uses unusual, technical and poetic
words in place of more commonplace synonyms and this
could be seen as evidence towards Oliver being showy and
fl amboyant.
Wmatrix development
The results from this study, in particular those relating to
Oliver’s narration and the failure of Wmatrix to successfully
categorise many of the words used in it, raise issues regarding
the tool’s lexicon and the semantic categories it uses.
These issues will be discussed as potential avenues for the
development of this useful corpus tool. For instance, the
Wmatrix-lexicon is currently progressively updated and
expanded, meaning that, in practice, there is no one static point
from which comparisons of texts can be made. While there
is a case for a lexicon that is as comprehensive as possible,
the present way of managing the lexicon can cause diffi culties
for research projects that continue over an extended period
of time. However, creating a ‘standard’ fi xed lexicon is not
without diffi culties and raises questions about what counts as
‘standard’. Even though Wmatrix allows users to defi ne their
own lexicon, a possible way forward might be to have multiple lexicons, such as a scientifi c lexicon or a learner-English
lexicon, which researchers could select depending on their
research needs.
Notes
i For further information about UCREL see http://www.comp.lancs.
ac.uk/ucrel/
ii For further information about USAS, see http://www.comp.lancs.
ac.uk/ucrel/usas/
References
Culpeper, J. (2002) “Computers, language and
characterisation: An Analysis of six characters in Romeo and
Juliet.” In: U. Melander-Marttala, C. Ostman and Merja Kytö
(eds.), Conversation in Life and in Literature: Papers from the
ASLA Symposium, Association Suedoise de Linguistique Appliquee
(ASLA), 15. Universitetstryckeriet: Uppsala, pp.11-30.
Garside, R. (1987). The CLAWS Word-tagging System. In: R.
Garside, G. Leech and G. Sampson (eds), The Computational
Analysis of English: A Corpus-based Approach. London: Longman.
Garside, R. (1996). The robust tagging of unrestricted text:
the BNC experience. In J. Thomas and M. Short (eds) Using
corpora for language research: Studies in the Honour of Geoffrey
Leech. Longman, London, pp 167-180.
Garside, R., and Smith, N. (1997) A hybrid grammatical tagger:
CLAWS4, in Garside, R., Leech, G., and McEnery, A. (eds.)
Corpus Annotation: Linguistic Information from Computer Text
Corpora. Longman, London, pp. 102-121.
Leech, G., Garside, R., and Bryant, M. (1994). CLAWS4: The
tagging of the British National Corpus. In Proceedings of the
15th International Conference on Computational Linguistics
(COLING 94). Kyoto, Japan, pp622-628.
McKenna, W. and Antonia, A. (1996) “ ‘A Few Simple Words’ of
Interior Monologue in Ulysses: Reconfi guring the Evidence”.
In Literary and Linguistic Computing 11(2) pp55-66
Rayson, P. (2008) Wmatrix: a web-based corpus processing
environment, Computing Department, Lancaster University.
http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/ucrel/wmatrix/
Rayson, P. (2003). Matrix: A statistical method and software
tool for linguistic analysis through corpus comparison. Ph.D.
thesis, Lancaster University.
Scott, M. (1996) Wordsmith. Oxford:Oxford University Press","txt","2","",""
"911","9","The Chymistry of Isaac Newton and the Chymical Foundations of Digital Humanities","1","My paper will examine both a specifi c digital humanities project,
The Chymistry of Isaac Newton <http://www.chymistry.org/>,
and refl ect more broadly on the fi eld of digital humanities, by
suggesting useful parallels between the disciplines of alchemy
and digital humanities. The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project is
an effort to digitize and edit the alchemical writings of Newton
and to develop digital scholarly tools (reference, annotation,
and visualization) for interacting with the collection.
Newton’s “chymistry” has recently become a topic of
widespread public interest.[1] It is no longer a secret that the
pre-eminent scientist of the seventeenth century spent some
thirty years working in his alchemical laboratory, or that he
left a manuscript Nachlass of about 1,000,000 words devoted
to alchemy. Newton’s long involvement in chymistry fi gures
prominently in NOVA’s 2005 “Newton’s Dark Secrets,” and
it occupies a major portion of the documentary’s website
at <http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/newton/>. Even more
attention was devoted to Newton’s alchemy in the 2003 BBC
production “Newton: The Dark Heretic.” Newton’s chymistry
also is featured in recent popularizing studies such as Gleick’s
2003 Isaac Newton and White’s 1997 Isaac Newton: the Last
Sorcerer. Despite the fascination that Newton’s chymistry holds
for the public, the subject has not received a corresponding
degree of scrutiny from historians since the untimely passing
of B.J.T. Dobbs in 1994 and Richard Westfall in 1996. Dobbs
had made the issue of Newton’s alchemy a cause célèbre in her
infl uential historical monograph, The Foundations of Newton’s
Alchemy of 1975, and Westfall built upon her work in his own
magisterial biography of Newton, Never at Rest , of 1980.
The relative lack of subsequent scholarly grappling with
Newton’s alchemy is regrettable for many reasons, particularly
since Dobbs and Westfall raised strong claims about the
relationship of his alchemical endeavors to his physics. In
particular, they suggested that Newton’s concept of force at
a distance was strongly infl uenced by his work in alchemy,
and that it was alchemy above all else that weaned Newton
away from the Cartesian mechanical universe in favor of a
world governed by dynamic interactions operating both at the
macrolevel and the microlevel. Although Dobbs backed away
from these earlier positions in her 1991 Janus Faces of Genius,
she made the equally strong claim there that Newton’s alchemy
was primarily concerned with the operations of a semi-material
ether that acted as God’s special agent in the material world.
Westfall too emphasized the putative connections between
Newton’s religion and his alchemy. Interestingly, the historical speculations of Westfall, Dobbs,
and their popularizers have relatively little to say about the
relationship of Newton’s alchemy to the alchemical tradition
that he inherited. Perhaps because of the underdeveloped state
of the historiography of alchemy in the 1970s, both Westfall
and Dobbs portrayed Newton’s seemingly obsessive interest
in the subject as something exotic that required the help of
extradisciplinary motives to explain it. Hence Dobbs looked
beyond chymistry itself, invoking the aid of Jungian psychology
in her Foundations (1975) and that of Newton’s heterodox
religiosity in her Janus Faces (1991). In neither case did she
see chymistry as a fi eld that might have attracted Newton
on its own merits. Recent scholarship, however, has thrown a
very different picture on alchemy in the seventeenth-century
English speaking world. We now know that Newton’s associate
Robert Boyle was a devoted practitioner of the aurifi c art,
and that the most infl uential chymical writer of the later
seventeenth century, Eirenaeus Philalethes, was actually the
Harvard-trained experimentalist George Starkey, who tutored
Boyle in chymistry during the early 1650s. Boyle’s “literary
executor,” the empiricist philosopher John Locke, was also
deeply involved in chrysopoetic chymistry, and even Newton’s
great mathematical rival, Leibniz, had an abiding interest in the
subject. In short, it was the norm rather than the exception
for serious scientifi c thinkers of the seventeenth century to
engage themselves with chymistry. We need no longer express
amazement at the involvement of Newton in the aurifi c art, but
should ask, rather, how he interacted with the practices and
beliefs of his predecessors and peers in the burgeoning fi eld
of seventeenth-century chymistry. A fi rst step in this endeavor,
obviously, lies in sorting out Newton’s chymical papers and
making them available, along with appropriate digital scholarly
tools, for systematic analysis.
The most recent phase of the project focuses on digital tools,
including a digital reference work based on Newton’s Index
Chemicus, an index, with bibliographic references, to the fi eld
and literature of alchemy. Newton’s Index includes 126 pages
with 920 entries, including detailed glosses and bibliographic
references. Our online reference work edition of Newton’s
Index will not be constrained by Newton’s original structure
and will extend functionality found in traditional print-based
reference works. It will leverage information technologies
such as searching and cross-linking to serve as an access point
to the domain of seventeenth-century alchemy and a portal to
the larger collection and to visualizations that graphically plot
the relative occurrences of alchemical terms, bibliographic
references, and other features of the collection. Other tools
being developed include systems for user annotation of XMLencoded
texts and facsimile page images.
My presentation will look at current progress, developments,
and challenges of the Chymistry of Isaac Newton. With this
project as context, I will venture into more theoretical areas
and examine parallels between alchemy and digital humanities.
For example, like digital humanities, alchemy was an inherently
interdisciplinary fi eld. Bruce T. Moran, in his Distilling Knowlege
describes alchemy as an activity “responding to nature so as
to make things happen without necessarily having the proven
answer for why they happen” (10). This approach has a
counterpart in the playful experimentation and affection for
serendipitious discovery found in much digital humanities work.
Moran also explains that the “primary procedure” of alchemy
was distillation, the principle purpose of which was to “make the
purest substance of all, something linked, it was thought, to the
fi rst stuff of creation” (11). Similarly, much of digital humanities
work is a process of distillation in which visualizations or
XML trees, for instance, are employed to reveal the “purest
substance” of the text or data set. Codes and symbols and
metadata were important parts of the alchemical discipline, as
they are in digital humanities. Alchemy also had a precarious
place in the curriculum. Moran, again, indicates that “although
a sprinkling of interest may be found in the subject within the
university, it was, as a manual art, always denied a part in the
scholastic curriculum” (34). Digital Humanities is likewise often
cordoned off from traditional humanities departments, and its
practice and research is conducted in special research centers,
newly created departments of digital humanities, or in schools
of information science. The idea of the alchemist as artisan and
the digital humanist as technician is another interesting parallel
between the two fi elds. My paper will examine these and other
similarities between the two fi elds and examine more closely
the works of individual alchemists, scientists, and artists in this
comparative context. Alchemy is an interdisciplinary fi eld--
like much digital humanities work--that combines empirical
science, philosophy, spirituality, literature, myth and magic,
tools and totems. I will argue that, as we escape the caricature
of alchemy as a pseudo-science preoccupied with the occult,
alchemy can serve as a useful model for future directions in
digital humanities.
[1]As William R. Newman and Lawrence M. Principe have
argued in several co-authored publications, it is anachronistic
to distinguish “alchemy” from “chemistry” in the seventeenth
century. The attempt to transmute metals was a normal
pursuit carried out by most of those who were engaged in
the varied realm of iatrochemistry, scientifi c metallurgy, and
chemical technology. The fact that Newton, Boyle, Locke,
and other celebrated natural philosophers were engaged
in chrysopoeia is no aberration by seventeenth-century
standards. Hence Newman and Principe have adopted the
inclusive term “chymistry,” an actor’s category employed
during the seventeenth century, to describe this overarching
discipline. See William R. Newman and Lawrence M. Principe,
“Alchemy vs. Chemistry: The Etymological Origins of a
Historiographic Mistake,” Early Science and Medicine 3(1998),
pp. 32-65. Principe and Newman, “Some Problems with the
Historiography of Alchemy,” in William R. Newman and
Anthony Grafton, Secrets of Nature: Astrology and Alchemy
in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001),
pp. 385-431. References
Dobbs, Betty Jo Teeter. The Foundations of Newton’s Alchemy or,
“The Hunting of the Greene Lyon”. Cambridge: Cambridge UP,
1975.
- --. The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton’s
Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1991.
Gleick, James. Isaac Newton. New York: Pantheon, 2003.
Moran, Bruce T. Distilling Knowledge: Alchemy, Chemistry, and the
Scientifi c Revolution. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2005.
Newman, William R. Promethean Ambitions: Alchemy and the
Quest to Perfect Nature. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2004.
Newton, Isaac. The Chymistry of Isaac Newton. Ed. William R.
Newman. 29 October 2007. Library Electronic Text Resource
Service / Digital Library Program, Indiana U. 25 November
2007. <http://www.chymistry.org/>.
Westfall, Richard. Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton.
Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1980.
White, Michael. Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer. Reading:
Addison-Wesley, 1997.","txt","2","",""
"912","9","Document-Centric Framework for Navigating Texts Online, or, the Intersection of the Text Encoding Initiative and the Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard","1","Electronic text projects range in complexity from simple
collections of page images to bundles of page images and
transcribed text from multiple versions or editions (Haarhoff,
Porter). To facilitate navigation within texts and across texts,
an increasing number of digital initiatives, such as the Princeton
University Library Digital Collections (http://diglib.princeton.
edu/) and the Oxford Digital Library (http://www.odl.ox.ac.
uk/), and cultural heritage organizations, such as the Culturenet
Cymru (http://www.culturenetcymru.com) and the Library
of Congress (http://www.loc.gov/index.html), are relying on
the complementary strengths of open standards such as the
Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) and the Metadata Encoding and
Transmission Standard (METS) for describing, representing,
and delivering texts online.
The core purpose of METS is to record, in a machine-readable
form, the metadata and structure of a digital object, including
fi les that comprise or are related to the object itself. As such,
the standard is a useful tool for managing and preserving
digital library and humanities resources (Cantara; Semple).
According to Morgan Cundiff, Senior Standards Specialist for
the Library of Congress, the maintenance organization for the
METS standard:
METS is an XML schema designed for the purpose of
creating XML document instances that express the
hierarchical structure of digital library objects, the names
and locations of the fi les that comprise those digital objects,
and the associated descriptive and administrative metadata.
(53)
Similarly, the TEI standard was developed to capture both
semantic (e.g., metadata) and syntactic (e.g., structural
characteristics) features of a document in machine-readable
form that promotes interoperability, searchability and textual
analysis. According to the Text Encoding Initiative web site, the
TEI standard is defi ned thusly: The TEI Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange
defi ne and document a markup language for representing
the structural, renditional, and conceptual features of texts.
They focus (though not exclusively) on the encoding of
documents in the humanities and social sciences, and in
particular on the representation of primary source materials
for research and analysis. These guidelines are expressed
as a modular, extensible XML schema, accompanied by
detailed documentation, and are published under an opensource
license. (“TEI Guidelines”)
METS, as its name suggests, is focused more exclusively on
metadata. While digital objects—such as a text, image, or
video—may be embedded within a METS document, METS
does not provide guidelines, elements and attributes for
representing the digital object itself; rather, the aim of METS is
to describe metadata about a digital object and the relationships
among an object’s constituent parts. In sum, METS is datacentric;
TEI is document-centric.
In April 2006, the Indiana University Digital Library
Program released a beta version of METS Navigator (http://
metsnavigator.sourceforge.net/), a METS-based, open source
software solution for the discovery and display of multi-part
digital objects. Using the information in the METS structural
map elements, METS Navigator builds a hierarchical menu that
allows users to navigate to specifi c sections of a document,
such as title page, specifi c chapters, illustrations, etc. for a
book. METS Navigator also allows simple navigation to the
next, previous, fi rst, and last page image or component parts
of a digital object. METS Navigator can also make use of the
descriptive metadata in the METS document to populate the
interface with bibliographic and descriptive information about
the digital object. METS Navigator was initially developed at
Indiana University (IU) for the online display and navigation
of brittle books digitized by the IU Libraries’ E. Lingle Craig
Preservation Laboratory. However, realizing the need for
such a tool across a wide range of digital library projects and
applications, we designed the system to be generalizable and
confi gurable. To assist with the use of METS Navigator for new
projects, a METS profi le, also expressed in XML, is registered
with the Library of Congress (http://www.loc.gov/standards/
mets/profi les/00000014.html). The profi le provides detailed
documentation about the structure of the METS documents
required by the METS Navigator application.
Cantara reported in her brief article, “The Text-Encoding
Initiative: Part 2,” that discussion of the relationship between
the TEI and METS was a primary focus during the Fourth
Annual TEI Consortium Members’ Meeting held in 2004 at
Johns Hopkins University (110). The relationship between
the standards was also a topic of discussion during the
2007 Members’ Meeting, and was specifi cally raised in Fotis
Jannidis’ plenary entitled “TEI in a Crystal Ball.” Despite
these discussions, the community is still lacking a welldocumented
workfl ow for the derivation of METS documents
from authoritative TEI fi les. We believe the TEI, if properly
structured, can be used as the “master” source of information
from which a full METS document can be automatically
generated, facilitating the display of text collections in METS
Navigator. The TEI, much like METS, provides a rich vocabulary
and framework for encoding descriptive and structural
metadata for a variety of documents. The descriptive metadata
typically found in the TEI Header may be used to populate the
corresponding components (descriptive metadata section) of
a METS document. The embedded structural metadata that
describe divisions, sections, headings and page breaks in a
TEI document may be used to generate the structural map
section of a METS document. Unlike the TEI, the METS scheme
has explicit mechanisms in place for expressing relationships
between multiple representations of the digital content such
as encoded text fi les and page images. By integrating the TEIMETS
workfl ow into METS Navigator, scholars and digital
library and humanities programs can more easily implement
online text collections. Further, the intersection between TEI
and METS documents can provide the foundation for enhanced
end-user exploration of electronic texts.
The IU Digital Library Program as a result of enhancing the
functionality and modularity of the METS Navigator software
is also in the process of formalizing and integrating the TEIMETS
workfl ow in support of online page turning. Our paper
will trace the development of METS Navigator including the
TEI-METS workfl ow, demonstrate the METS Navigator system
using TEI-cum-METS documents, review METS Navigator
confi guration options, detail fi ndings from recent user studies,
and outline plans for current and future development of the
METS Navigator. References
Cantara, Linda. “Long-term Preservation of Digital
Humanities Scholarship.” OCLC Systems & Services 22.1
(2006): 38-42.
Cantara, Linda. “The Text-encoding Initiative: Part 2.” OCLC
Systems & Services 21.2 (2005): 110-113.
Cundiff, Morgan V. “An introduction to the Metadata Encoding
and Transmission Standard (METS).” Library Hi Tech 22.1
(2004): 52-64.
Haarhoff, Leith. “Books from the Past: E-books Project at
Culturenet Cymru.” Program: Electronic Library and Information
Systems 39.1 (2004): 50-61.
Porter, Dorothy. “Using METS to Document Metadata
for Image-Based Electronic Editions.” Joint International
Conference of the Association for Computers and the
Humanities and the Association for Literary and Linguistic
Computing, June 2004. Göteborg: Centre for Humanities
Computing (2004): 102-104. Abstract. 18 November 2007
<http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop120.html>.
Semple, Najla. “Develpoing a Digital Preservation Strategy at
Edinburgh University Library.” VINE: The Journal of Information
and Knowledge Management Systems 34.1 (2004): 33-37.
“Standards, METS.” The Library of Congress. 18 November
2007 <http://www.loc.gov/standards/mets/>.
“TEI Guidelines.” The Text Encoding Initiative. 18 November
2007
< http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/>.","txt","2","",""
"913","9","iTrench: A Study of the Use of Information Technology in Field Archaeology","1","This paper presents the results of a study by the VERA project
(Virtual Research Environment for Archaeology: http://vera.
rdg.ac.uk ) which aimed to investigate how archaeologists use
information technology (IT) in the context of a fi eld excavation.
This study was undertaken by researchers at School of Library,
Archive and Information Studies, University College London,
who collaborate on the project with the School of Systems
Engineering, and the Department of Archaeology, University
of Reading.
VERA is funded by the JISC Virtual Research Environments
Programme, Phase 2, (http://www.jisc.ac.uk/whatwedo/
programmes/vre2.aspx) and runs from April 2007 until March
2009. We aim to produce a fully operational virtual research
environment for the archaeological community. Our work is
based on a research excavation of part of the large Roman town
at Silchester, which aims to trace the site’s development from
its origins before the Roman Conquest to its abandonment
in the fi fth century A.D (Clarke et al 2007). This complex
urban site provides the material to populate the research
environment, utilising the Integrated Archaeological Data
Base (IADB: http://www.iadb.co.uk/specialist/it.htm), an online
database system for managing recording, analysis, archiving
and online publication of archaeological fi nds, contexts and
plans. The dig allows us to: study the use of advanced IT in
an archaeological context; investigate the tasks carried out
within archaeological excavations; ascertain how and where
technology can be used to facilitate information fl ow within
a dig; and inform the designers of the IADB how it may be
adapted to allow integrated use of the tools in the trench
itself.
Research Context
Although archaeologists were quick to embrace IT to aid in
research analysis and outputs (Lafl in 1982, Ross et al 1990,
Reilly and Rahtz 1992), and the use of IT is now central to the manipulation and display of archaeological data (Lock
and Brown 2000, McPherron and Dibble, 2002, Lock 2003)
the use of IT to aid fi eld archaeology is in its relative infancy
due to the physical characteristics of archaeological sites, and
the diffi culties of using IT in the outdoor environment. Whilst
the use of electronic surveying equipment (total stations,
(Eiteljorg, 1994)) and digital cameras is now common place
on archaeological sites there are relatively few archaeological
organizations that use digital recording methods to replace the
traditional paper records which rely on manual data input at
a (sometimes much) later date. With ever increasing amounts
of data being generated by excavations onsite databases are
becoming increasingly necessary, for example at the excavations
at Catalhoyuk in Turkey (http://www.catalhoyuk.com/database/
catal/) and the site of Terminal 5 at Heathrow airport (http://
www.framearch.co.uk/t5/), and some archaeologists have
begun to use digital data input from total stations, PDAs, tablet
PCs, digital cameras, digital callipers, digital pens and barcodes
(McPherron and Dibble, 2003, Dibble et al., 2007). For many
excavations, however, the use of IT is restricted to the analysis
stage rather than fi eld recording. The aim of the VERA project
is to investigate the use of IT within the context of a fi eld
excavation and to ascertain if, and how, it may be appropriated
to speed up the process of data recording, entry and access.
Method
We used a diary study to gather information about the work
patterns of different archaeological roles and the way that they
are supported by both digital and analogue technologies. The
study was carried out by the UCL team, at the Silchester dig
during the summer of 2007. (http://www.rdg.ac.uk/AcaDepts/
la/silchester/publish/fi eld/index.php) Researchers from
Reading also carried out a study into the use of ICT hardware
to support digging and data entry. A detailed record of the
progress of both the dig and the study was kept on the VERA
blog (http://vera.rdg.ac.uk/blog).
Diary studies enable researchers to understand how people
usually work and can be used to identify areas that might
be improved by the adoption of new working practices or
technologies. (O’Hara et al. 1998). They have been used in the
area of student use of IT, and to study the work of humanities
scholars. (Rimmer et. al. Forthcoming) however, this is the
fi rst use of this method to study fi eld archaeology that we
are aware of.
During diary studies, participants are asked to keep a
detailed record of their work over a short period of time.
The participant records the activity that they are undertaking,
what technologies they are using and any comments they
have on problems or the progress of their work. This helps us
to understand the patterns of behaviour that archaeologists
exhibit, and how technology can support these behaviours.
We also obtained contextual data about participants using a
simple questionnaire. This elicited information about the diary
survey participants (role, team, status) and their experience
of using the technology on site. A cross section of people
representing different types of work and levels of experience
were chosen. For example we included inexperienced and
experienced excavators; members of the fi nds team, who
process the discoveries made on site; those who produce
plans of the site and visitor centre staff.
A defi ned area of the Silchester site was used to test the
use of new technologies to support excavation. In this area
archaeologists used digital pens and paper, (http://www.
logitech.com/index.cfm/mice_pointers/digital_pen/devices/
408&cl=us,en ) digital cameras, and Nokia N800 PDAs (http://
www.nokia.co.uk/A4305204). Diaries from this area were
compared to those using traditional printed context sheets to
record their work.
Findings
This paper will present the fi ndings from the study, covering
various issues such as the attitude of archaeologists to diary
studies, previous and present experiences of using technology
on research excavations, the effect of familiarity of technology
on uptake and use, and resistance and concerns regarding
the use of technology within an archaeological dig. We also
evaluate specifi c technologies for this purpose, such as the
Nokia N800 PDA, and Logitech Digital Pens, and ascertain how
IT can fi t into existing workfl ow models to aid archaeologists
in tracking information alongside their very physical task.
Future work
This year’s diary study supplied us with much interesting data
about the past, current and potential use of IT in the trench.
We will repeat the study next year to gain more detailed data.
Participants will be asked to focus on a shorter period of time,
one or two days, as opposed to fi ve this year. Next year we
will have a research assistant on site, allowing us to undertake
interviews with participants, clarify entries, and build up a
good working relationship with experts working on the
excavation. Two periods of diary study will also be undertaken,
allowing for analysis and refi ning methods between studies.
This will also be juxtaposed with off-site user testing and
analysis workshops of the IADB, to gain understanding of how
archaeologists use technology both on and off site. We also
plan to run an additional training session in the use of ICT
hardware before the start of next year’s dig, in addition to the
usual archaeological training.
Conclusion
The aim of this study is to feed back evidence of use of IT to
the team developing the virtual environment interface of the
IADB. It is hoped that by ascertaining and understanding user
needs, being able to track and trace information workfl ow
throughout the dig, and gaining an explicit understanding of
the tasks undertaken by archaeologists that more intuitive technologies can be adopted, and adapted, to meet the needs
of archaeologists on site, and improve data fl ow within digs
themselves.
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the input of the other members
of the VERA project team, Mark Barker, Matthew Grove (SSE,
University of Reading) Mike Fulford, Amanda Clarke, Emma
O’Riordan (Archaeology, University of Reading), and Mike
Rains, (York Archaeological Trust). We would also like to thank
all those who took part in the diary study.
References
Clarke, A., Fulford, M.G., Rains, M. and K. Tootell. (2007).
Silchester Roman Town Insula IX: The Development of an
Urban Property c. AD 40-50 - c. AD 250. Internet Archaeology,
21. http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue21/silchester_index.html
Dibble, H.L., Marean, C.W. and McPherron (2007) The use
of barcodes in excavation projects: examples from Mosel
Bay (South Africa) an Roc de Marsal (France). The SAA
Archaeological Record 7: 33-38
Eiteljorg II, H. (1994). Using a Total Station. Centre for the Study
of Architecture Newsletter, II (2) August 1994.
Lafl in, S. (Ed). (1982). Computer Applications in Archaeology.
University of Birmingham, Centre for Computing &
Computer Science.
Lock, G. (2003). Using Computers in Archaeology. London:
Routledge.
Lock, G. and Brown, K. (Eds). (2000). On the Theory and
Practice of Archaeological Computing. Oxford University School
of Archaeology
McPherron, S.P. and Dibble H.L. (2002) Using computers in
archaeology: a practical guide. Boston, [MA]; London: McGraw-
Hill/Mayfi eld. See also their website http://www.oldstoneage.
com/rdm/Technology.htm
McPherron, S.P. and Dibble H.L. (2003) Using Computers in
Adverse Field Conditions: Tales from the Egyptian Desert.
The SAA Archaeological Record 3(5):28-32
O’Hara, K., Smith, F., Newman, W., & Sellen, A. (1998). Student
readers’ use of library documents: implications for library
technologies. Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human
factors in computing systems. Los Angeles, CA. New York, NY,
ACM Press/Addison-Wesley.
Reilly, P. and S. Rahtz (Eds.) (1992). Archaeology and the
Information Age: A global perspective. London: Routledge, One
World Archaeology 21.
Rimmer, J., Warwick, C., Blandford, A., Buchanan, G., Gow, J.
An examination of the physical and the digital qualities of
humanities research. Information Processing and Management
(Forthcoming)
Ross, S. Moffett, J. and J. Henderson (Eds) (1990). Computing
for Archaeologists. Oxford, Oxford University School of
Archaeology.","txt","2","",""
"914","9","LogiLogi: A Webplatform for Philosophers","1","LogiLogi is a hypertext platform featuring a rating-system
that tries to combine the virtues of good conversations
and the written word. It is intended for all those ideas that
you’re unable to turn into a full sized journal paper, but that
you deem too interesting to leave to the winds. It’s central
values are openness and quality of content, and to combine
these values it models peer review and other valuable social
processes surrounding academic writing (in line with Bruno
Latour). Contrary to early websystems it does not make use
of forumthreads (avoiding their many problems), but of tags
and links that can also be added to articles by others than the
original author. Regardless of our project, the web is still a very
young medium, and bound to make a change for philosophy in
the long run.
Introduction
The growth of the web has been rather invisible for philosophy
so far, and while quite some philosophizing has been done
about what the web could mean for the human condition,
not much yet has been said about what it could mean for
philosophy itself (ifb; Nel93; Lev97, mainly). An exception is
some early enthusiasm for newsgroups and forums in the
nineties, but that quickly died out when it became apparent
that those were not suitable at all for in-depth philosophical
conversations. The web as a medium however is more than
these two examples of early web-systems, and in the meantime
it has further matured with what some call Web 2.0, or social
software (sites like MySpace, Del.icio.us and Wikipedia). Time
for a second look. . .
LogiLogi Manta (Log), the new version of LogiLogi, is
a webplatform that hopes to — be it informally and
experimentally—allow philosophers and people who are
interested in philosophy to use the possibilities that the
internet has in stock for them too. It was started with a
very small grant from the department of Philosophy of the
Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. It is Free Software, has been
under development for almost 2 years, and will be online by
June 2008.
In the following paragraph we will explain what LogiLogi is,
and in section 3 LogiLogi and the web as a new medium are
embedded in the philosophical tradition. Optionally section 2
can be read only after you have become interested by reading
3.
A Webplatform for Philosophers
LogiLogi becomes an easy to use hypertext platform, also
featuring a rating- and review-system which is a bit comparable
to that found in journals. It tries to fi nd the middle-road
between the written word and a good conversation, and it’s
central values are openness and quality of content.
It makes commenting on texts, and more generally the linking
of texts very easy. Most notably it also allows other people
than the original author of an article to add outgoing links
behind words, but it does not allow them to change the text
itself, so the author’s intellectual responsibility is guarded. Also
important is that all conversations on the platform run via links
(comparable to footnotes), not via forum-threads, avoiding
their associated problems like fragmentation and shallowing
of the discussion.
To maximize the advantages of hypertext, texts are kept short
within LogiLogi, at maximum one to a few pages. They can be
informal and experimental and they can be improved later on,
in either of two ways: The text of the original document can be
changed (earlier versions are then archived). Or secondly, links
can be added inside the text, possibly only when some terms
or concepts appear to be ambiguous, when questions arise, or
when the text appears to arouse enough interest to make it
worth of further elaboration.
Links in LogiLogi can refer to documents, to versions, and
— by default — to tags (words that function as categories or
concepts). Articles can be tagged with one or more of these
tags. Multiple articles can have the same tag, and when a link is
made to a tag or to a collection of tags, multiple articles can be
in the set referred to. From this set the article with the highest
rating is shown to the user.
In essence one can rate the articles of others by giving
them a grade. The average of these grades forms the rating
of the article. But this average is a weighted average. Votingpowers
can vary. If an authors contributions are rated well,
he receives more voting-power. Authors can thus gain ’status’
and ’influence’ through their work. This makes LogiLogi a peerreviewed
meritocracy, quite comparable to what we, according
to Bruno Latours philosophy of science, encounter in the
various structures surrounding journals (Lat87). Most notably
this quality control by peer review, and it’s accompanying social
encouragement, was missing from earlier web-systems.
But the comparison goes further, and in a similar fashion to
how new peergroups can emerge around new journals, in
LogiLogi too new peergroups can be created by duplicating
the just described rating-system. Contributions can be rated
from the viewpoints of different peergroups, and therefore an
article can have multiple ratings, authors won’t have the same
voting-power within each peergroup, and visitors can pick
which peergroup to use as their fi lter. Thus except meritocratic,
LogiLogi is also open to a diversity of schools and paradigms in the sense of early Thomas Kuhn (Kuh96), especially as here
creating new peergroups—unlike for journals—does not bring
startup-costs.
Plato, Free Software and
Postmodernism
The web is a relatively new medium, and new media are
usually interpreted wrongly — in terms of old media. This
is has been called the horseless carriage syndrome (McL01);
according to which a car is a carriage without a horse, fi lm
records theater-plays, and—most recently—the web enables
the downloading of journals. Even Plato was not exempt of
this. In Phaedrus he stated that true philosophy is only possible
verbally, and that writing was just an aid to memory. Regardless
of this ironically enough his ’memory aid’ unleashed a long
philosophical tradition (dM05). New media take their time.
And we should not forget that the web is still very young
(1991). Also the web is especially relevant for philosophy in
that it combines conversation and writing; the two classical
media of philosophy.
And where previous mass-media like TV and radio were not
suitable for philosophy, this was because they were one to
many, and thus favored the factory model of culture (Ado91). The
web on the other hand is many to many, and thereby enables
something called peer to peer production (Ben06). An early
example of this is Free Software: without much coordination
tenthousands of volunteers have created software of the
highest quality, like Linux and Firefox. Eric Raymond (Ray99)
described this as a move from the cathedral- to the bazaarmodel
of software development. The cathedral-model has a
single architect who is responsible for the grand design, while
in the bazaar-model it evolves from collective contributions.
This bazaar-model is not unique for the web. It shares much
with the academic tradition. The move from the book to
the journal can be compared with a move in the direction
of a bazaar-model. Other similarities are decentralized
operation and peer-review. The only new thing of the Free
Software example was it’s use of the web which — through
it’s shorter turnaround times — is very suitable for peer to
peer production.
Another development that LogiLogi follows closely is one
within philosophy itself: Jean-Franois Lyotard in his La Condition
Postmoderne proclaimed the end of great stories (Lyo79).
Instead he saw a diversity of small stories, each competing
with others in their own domains. Also Derrida spoke of
the materiality of texts, where texts and intertextuality gave
meaning instead of ’pure’ ideas (Ber79; Nor87). The web in
this sense is a radicalisation of postmodernism, allowing for
even more and easier intertextuality.
And instead of trying to undo the proliferation of paradigms, as
some logic-advocates tried, and still try, we think the breakdown
of language—as in further segmentation—is here to stay, and
even a good thing, because it reduces complexity in the sense
of Niklas Luhmann (Blo97). Take human intelligence as fi xed
and you see that specialized (or ’curved’ as in curved space)
language allows for a more precise analysis. LogiLogi thus is
explicitly modeled to allow for fi ne-grained specialization, and
for a careful defi nition and discussion of terms in context.
Conclusion
To reiterate; LogiLogi will offer an easy to use hypertextenvironment,
and thanks to it’s rating system a combination of
quality and openness will be achieved: everyone can contribute,
and even start new peergroups, but within peergroups quality
is the determining factor. LogiLogi thus combines the informal,
incremental and interactive qualities of good conversations,
with conservation over time and space, as we traditionally know
from the written word. LogiLogi is still very experimental.
Nevertheless what we can be sure about is that the web, as
a medium that has proven to be very suitable for peer to peer
production and that promises increased inter-textuality and
differentiation of language, is bound to make a change for
philosophy in the long run; with or without LogiLogi.
References
[Ado91] Theodor Adorno. Culture industry reconsidered. In
Theodor Adorno, editor, The Culture Industry: Selected Essays
on Mass Culture, pages 98–106. Routledge, London, 1991.
[Ben06] Yochai Benkler. The Wealth of Networks. Yale
University Press, London, 2006.
[Ber79] Egide Berns. Denken in Parijs: taal en Lacan, Foucault,
Althusser, Derrida. Samsom, Alpen aan den Rijn, 1979.
[Blo97] Christiaan Blom. Complexiteit en Contingentie: een
kritische inleiding tot de sociologie van Niklas Luhmann. Kok
Agora, Kampen, 1997.
[dM05] Jos de Mul. Cyberspace Odyssee. Klement, Kampen,
2005.
[ifb] http://www.futureofthebook.org. The Institute for the
Future of the Book, MacArthur Foundation, University of
Southern California.
[Kuh96] Thomas Kuhn. The Structure of Scientifi c Revolutions.
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1996.
[Lat87] Bruno Latour. Science in Action. Open University Press,
Cambridge, 1987.
[Lev97] Pierre Levy. Collective Intelligence: Mankinds Emerging
World in Cyberspace. Plenum Press, NewYork, 1997.
[Log] http://foundation.logilogi.org. LogiLogi & The LogiLogi
Foundation. [Lyo79] Jean-Franois Lyotard. La condition postmoderne:
rapport sur le savoir. Les ditions de Minuit, Paris, 1979.
[McL01] Marshall McLuhan. Understanding Media: The
Extensions of Man. Routledge, London, 2001.
[Nel93] Ted Nelson. Literary Machines: The report on, and of,
Project Xanadu concerning word processing, electronic publishing,
hypertekst, thinkertoys, tomorrow’s intellectual. . . including
knowledge, education and freedom. Mindful Press, Sausalito,
California, 1993.
[Nor87] Christopher Norris. Derrida. Fontana Press, London,
1987.
[Ray99] Eric S. Raymond. The cathedral & the bazaar: musings
on Linux and open source by an accidental revolutionary. O’Reilly,
Beijing, 1999.","txt","2","",""
"915","9","Clinical Applications of Computer-assisted Textual Analysis: a Tei Dream?","1","This research is the result of the collaboration of the
Departments of Literature and Medicine of the University of
Rome “Tor Vergata”.
Marco Zanasi’s idea of coding and studying dream reports
of his patients at Tor Vergata University Hospital Psychiatric
Unit started a team research on a challenging hypothesis: Is
there any correlation between linguistic realization of dream
reports and the psychopathology from which the dreamer is
suffering? So far, analyses of dream reports have focused mainly
on actants, settings, and descriptors of emotional condition
during the oneiric activity.
The goal of “Dream Coding” is to collect, transcribe,
catalogue, fi le, study, and comment on dreams reported by
selected patients at Tor Vergata University Hospital in Rome.
In the group of observed patients, different psychopathological
statuses are represented.
The aim of the project is to build up a code which would
enable a different reading of the reports that patients make of
their dreams. A code that in the future could also provide new
tools for initial and on-going diagnoses of the psychopathology
affecting the patients.
Then we want to verify a set of linguistic features that can
be signifi cantly correlated to the type of psychopathology
on a statistical basis. Numerous aspects, both theoretical and
methodological, are discussed in this paper, ranging from the
nature of the variation of language to be investigated to the tag
set to be used in corpus preparation for computer analysis.
The fi rst issue that the analysis has to solve is the speech
transcription and how to obtain an accurate transcoded text
from the oral form. After having considered several working
hypothesis we have decided to use a “servile transcription” of speech: by recording the narrators’ voice and transferring
it in an electronic format.
At an early stage, we realized that some important elements
of the speech could get lost in this process. This is why we
have decided to reproduce the interruptions and hesitations.
Interruptions have been classifi ed on the basis of their length.
Starting from this consideration a form (enclosed) has been
created in order to catalogue the dreams and other data, such
as age, sex, address, birthday, job, and so on.
Furthermore the form contains information related to the
transcriptor so as to detect the “noise” added by them. The
noise can be partially isolated by noticing the continuity of
some elements.
Obtained data is stored on the computer as a word fi le (.rtf
format) to be analyzed later on. The working process has been
divided into four steps, namely:
1. fi rst step: in this step we collect the data of the patients
that already have a diagnosis (che hanno già una diagnosi?)
2. second step: in this step we analyze the dreams collected
in the previous phase and point out (individuare?) recurrent
lexical structures (ricorrenti?)
3. third step: in this step we collect data from all other
patients in order to analyze them and propose a kind of
diagnosis
4. fourth step: in this step we make a comparison between
the results of the fi rst group of patients and the second
one, and try to create a “vademecum” of the particularities
noticed from a linguistic point of view. We call this
classifi cation “textual diagnosis”, to be compared with
the “medical diagnosis”, in order to verify pendants and
incongruities.
Although our research is at a preliminary stage, the statistical
results on text analysis obtained so far allow us to make a few
considerations. The fi rst noticeable aspect is that differences
between dreams of psychopathologic patients and controls
are observed, which suggests the existence of specifi c features
most likely correlated to the illness. We also observe a scale of
narration complexity progressively decreasing from psychotic
to bipolar patients and to controls. Since the patients recruited
are in a remission phase, we may hypothesize that the variations
observed are expression of the underlying pathology and thus
not due to delusions, hallucinations, hypomania, mania and
depression.
For such an accurate analysis the research group has started
marking the texts of the dreams reports. The marking will allow
the computer-aided analyses on semantics, syntax, rhetorical
organization, metaphorical references and text architecture.
Under the notation of “text architecture” we have included
items such as coherence and cohesion and the anaphoric
chains. The complete, quantitative results will be soon available,
but it is possible to show at least the set of variables for which
the texts will be surveyed, in order to account for the lexical
variety we registered.
The syntactic and semantic opposition of NEW and GIVEN
information is the basis according to which both formal and
content items will be annotated. Therefore, as an example of
the connection between formal and content items, the use of
defi nite or indefi nite articles will be linked to the introduction
of the following new narrative elements:
• a new character is introduced in the plot, be it a human
being or an animal;
• a shift to a character already in the plot;
• a new object appears in the scene;
• a shift to an object already in the plot;
• a shift of location without a verb group expressing the
transfer.
The diffi culty of recognizing any shift of time of the story
without the appropriate time adverb or expression in the
discourse, made it not relevant to register this variation since
it would be necessarily correlated with the correct formal
element.
The non-coherent and often non-cohesive structure of many
patients’ dreams shows to be relevant to determine what
the ratios indicate as a richer lexicon. The consistent, abrupt
introduction of NEW pieces of information, especially when
correlated with the formal features, is likely to be one of the
most signifi cant differences between the control persons and
patients, as well as between persons of the fi rst two large
psychopathologic categories analyzed here, bipolar disorders
and psychotic disorders.
Our research is an ongoing project that aims to amplify samples
and evaluate the possible infl uences of pharmacological
treatments on the oniric characteristics being analyzed.
We have elaborated a measurement system for interruptions
that we called “Scale of Silence”; it provides several special
mark-ups for the interruptions during the speech. The scale
(that is in a testing phase) has three types of tags according
to the length of the interruption (0-2 sec; 2-4 sec; 4 or more).
Special tags are also used for freudian slips and self-corrections
the narrator uses. The Chinese version of JGAAP supports Chinese word
segmentation fi rst then followed by a feature selection process
at word level, as preparation for a later analytic phase. After
getting a set of ordered feature vectors, we then use different
analytical methods to produce authorship judgements.
Unfortunately, the errors introduced by the segmentation
method(s) will almost certainly infl uence the fi nal outcome,
creating a need for testing.
Almost all methods for Chinese word segmentation developed
so far are either structural (Wang et al., 1991) and statisticalbased
(Lua, 1990). A structural algorithm resolves segmentation
ambiguities by examining the structural relationship between
words, while a statistical algorithm usually compares word
frequency and character co-occurrence probability to
detect word boundaries. The diffi culties in this study are the
ambiguity resolution and novel word detection (personal
names, company names, and so on). We use a combination of
Maximum Matching and conditional probabilities to minimize
this error.
Maximum matching (Liu et al., 1994) is one of the most
popular structural segmentation algorithms, the process
from the beginning of the text to the end is called Forward
Maximal Matching (FMM), the other way is called Backward
Maximal Matching (BMM). A large lexicon that contains all the
possible words in Chinese is usually used to fi nd segmentation
candidates for input sentences. Here we need a lexicon that
not only has general words but also contains as many personal
names, company names, and organization names as possible
for detecting new words.
Before we scan the text we apply certain rules to divide the
input sentence into small linguistic blocks, such as separating
the document by English letters, numbers, and punctuation,
giving us small pieces of character strings. The segmentation
then starts from both directions of these small character
strings. The major resource of our segmentation system is
this large lexicon. We compare these linguistic blocks with the
words in the lexicon to fi nd the possible word strings. If a
match is found, one word is segmented successfully. We do this
for both directions, if the result is same then this segmentation
is accomplished. If not, we take the one that has fewer words.
If the number of words is the same, we take the result of
BMM as our result. As an example : Suppose ABCDEFGH is
a character string, and our lexicon contains the entries A, AB,
ABC, but not ABCD. For FMM, we start from the beginning of
the string (A) If A is found in the lexicon, we then look for AB
in the lexicon. If AB is also found, we look for ABC and so on,
till the string is not found. For example, ABCD is not found
in the Lexicon, so we consider ABC as a word, then we start
from character D unti the end of this character string. BMM
is just the opposite direction, starting with H, then GH, then
FGH, and so forth.
Suppose the segmentation we get from FMM is
(a) A \ B \ CD \ EFG \ H
and the segmentation from BMM is
(b) A \ B \ C \ DE \ FG \ H
We will take result (a), since it has fewer
words. But if what we get from BMM is
(c) AB \ C \ DE \ FG \ H
We will take result (c), since the numbers
of words is same in both method.
After the segmentation step we take the advantage of
JGAAP’s features and add different event sets according to
the characteristics of Chinese, then apply statistical analysis
to determine the fi nal results. It is not clear at this writing,
for example, if the larger character set of Chinese will make
character-based methods more effective in Chinese then they
are in other languages written with the Latin alphabet (like
English). It is also not clear whether the segmentation process
will produce the same type of set of useful “function words”
that are so useful in English authorship attribution. The JGAAP
structure (Juola et al, 2006;Juola et al., submitted), however,
will make it easy to test our system using a variety of different
methods and analysis algorithms.
In order to test the performance on Chinese of our software,
we are in the process of constructing a Chinese test corpus.
We will select three popular novelists and ten novels from
each one, eight novels from each author will be used as training
data, the other two will be used as testing data. We will also
test on the blogs which will be selected from internet. The
testing procedure will be the same as with the novels.
This research demonstrates, fi rst, the JGAAP structure can
easily be adapted to the problems of non-Latin scripts and not
English languages, and second, provides somes cues to the best
practices of authorship attribution in Chinese. It can hopefully
be extended to the development of other non-Latin systems
for authorship attribution.
References:
Patrick Juola, (in press). Authorship Attribution. Delft:NOW
Publishing.
Patrick Juola, John Noecker, and Mike Ryan. (submitted).
“JGAAP3.0: Authorship Attribution for the Rest of Us.”
Submitted to DH2008.
Patrick Juola, John Sofko, and Patrick Brennan. (2006). “A
Prototype for Authorship Attribution Studies.” Literary and
Linguistic Computing 21:169-178 Yuan Liu, Qiang Tan, and Kun Xu Shen. (1994). “The Word
Segmentation Rules and Automatic Word Segmentation
Methods for Chinese Information Processing” (in Chinese).
Qing Hua University Press and Guang Xi Science and
Technology Press, page 36.
K. T. Lua. (1990). From Character to Word. An Application
of Information Theory. Computer Processing of Chinese and
Oriental Languages, Vol. 4, No. 4, pages 304--313, March.
Liang-Jyh Wang, Tzusheng Pei, Wei-Chuan Li, and Lih-Ching
R. Huang. (1991). “A Parsing Method for Identifying Words
in Mandarin Chinese Sentences.” In Processings of 12th
International Joint Conference on Artifi cial Intelligence, pages
1018--1023, Darling Harbour, Sydney, Australia, 24-30 August.","txt","2","",""
"916","9","Automatic Link-Detection in Encoded Archival Descriptions","1","In this paper we investigate how currently emerging link
detection methods can help enrich encoded archival
descriptions. We discuss link detection methods in general,
and evaluate the identifi cation of names both within, and
across, archival descriptions. Our initial experiments suggest
that we can automatically detect occurrences of person
names with high accuracy, both within (F-score of 0.9620) and
across (F-score of 1) archival descriptions. This allows us to
create (pseudo) encoded archival context descriptions that
provide novel means of navigation, improving access to the
vast amounts of archival data.
Introduction
Archival fi nding aids are complex multi-level descriptions
of the paper trails of corporations, persons and families.
Currently, fi nding aids are increasingly encoded in XML using
the standard Encoded Archival Descriptions. Archives can
cover hundreds of meters of material, resulting in long and
detailed EAD documents. We use a dataset of 2,886 EAD
documents from the International Institute of Social History
(IISG) and 3,119 documents from the Archives Hub, containing
documents with more than 100,000 words. Navigating in such
archival fi nding aids becomes non-trivial, and it is easy to loose
overview of the hierarchical structure. Hence, this may lead to
the loss of important contextual information for interpreting
the records.
Archival context may be preserved through the use of authority
records capturing information about the record creators
(corporations, persons, or families) and the context of record
creation. By separating the record creator’s descriptions
from the records or resources descriptions themselves, we
can create “links” from all occurrences of the creators to
this context. The resulting descriptions of record creators
can be encoded in XML using the emerging Encoded Archival
Context (EAC) standard. Currently, EAC has only been applied
experimentally. One of the main barriers to adoption is that
it requires substantial effort to adopt EAC. The information
for the creator’s authority record is usually available in some form (for example, EAD descriptions usually have a detailed
fi eld <bioghist> about the archive’s creator). However, linking
such a context description to occurrences of the creator in
the archival descriptions requires more structure than that is
available in legacy data.
Our main aim is to investigate if and how automatic link
detection methods could help improve archival access.
Automatic link detection studies the discovery of relations
between various documents. Such methods have been
employed to detect “missing” links on the Web and recently
in the online encyclopedia Wikipedia. Are link detection
methods suffi ciently effective to be fruitfully applied to archival
descriptions? To answer this question, we will experiment on
the detection of archival creators within and across fi nding aids.
Based on our fi ndings, we will further discuss how detected
links can be used to provide crucial contextual information
for the interpretation of records, and to improve navigation
within and across fi nding aids.
Link Detection Methods
Links generated by humans are abundant on the World Wide
Web, and knowledge repositories like the online encyclopedia
Wikipedia. There are two kinds of links: incoming and outgoing
links. Substrings of text nodes are identifi ed as anchors and
become clickable. Incoming links come from text nodes
of target fi les (destination node) and point to a source fi le
(origin node), while an outgoing link goes from text node in
the source document (origin node) to a target fi le (destination
node). Two assumptions are made: a link from document A to
document B is a recommendation of B by A, and documents
linked to each other are related.
To automatically detect whether two nodes are connected,
it is necessary to search the archives for some string that
both share. Usually it is only one specifi c and extract string. A
general approach to automatic link detection is fi rst to detect
the global similarity between documents. After the relevant
set of documents has been collected, the local similarity can
be detected by comparing text segments with other text
segments in those fi les. In structured documents like archival
fi nding aids, these text segments are often marked up as
logical units, whether it be the title <titleproper>, the wrapper
element <c12> deep down in the fi nding aid, or the element
<persname> that identifi es some personal names. These units
are identifi ed and retrieved in XML Element retrieval. The
identifi cation of relevant anchors is a key problem, as these
are used in the system’s retrieval models to point to (parts of)
related fi nding aids.
Experiment: Name Detection
A specifi c name detection trial with the archive of Joop den
Uyl (1919-1987), former Labor Party prime minister of the
Netherlands, is done as a test to deal with this problem. This
archive consists of 29,184 tokens (with removal of the XML
markup and punctuation), of which 4,979 are unique, and
where a token is a sequence of non-space characters. We
collect a list of the name variants that we expect to encounter:
“J.M. Den Uyl”, “Joop M. Den Uyl”, “Johannes Marten den Uyl”,
“Den Uyl”, etc. We construct a regular expression to fetch
the name variants. The results are depicted in illustration 1,
which shows the local view of the Joop den Uyl archive in our
Retrieving EADs More Effectively (README) system.
Illustration 1: Links detected in EAD
The quality of the name detection trial is evaluated with explicit
feedback, which means manually checking the detected links
for (1) correctness, (2) error, and (3) whether any links were
missing. This was done both within fi nding aids, and across
fi nding aids:
- First, the quality is checked within fi nding aids, by locating
occurrences of creator Joop den Uyl in his archive. For
detecting name occurrences within an archive, our simple
method has a precision of (114/120 =) 0.9500, a recall of
(114/117 =) 0.9744, resulting in an F-score of 0.9620. Some
interesting missing links used name variants where the
prefi x “den” is put behind the last name “Uyl” -- a typical
Dutch practice. Incorrect links mostly are family members
occurring the archive, e.g., “Saskia den Uyl”, “E.J. den Uyl-van
Vessem”, and also “Familie Den Uyl”. Since these names
occur relatively infrequent, few errors are made. The
matching algorithm could easily be refi ned based on these
false positives.
Table 1: Archive “Den Uyl”
Link No link
Name 114 3
No name 6 -
- Second, the same procedure to detect proper names of
Joop den Uyl is applied across fi nding aids with the related
archive of “Partij van de Arbeid Tweede-Kamer Fractie
(1955-1988)” (Dutch MPs from the Labor Party). For
detecting name occurrences across archives, we obtain a
perfect precision, recall, and thus F-score of 1. Table 2: Archive “PvdA”
Link No link
Name 16 0
No name 0 -
Concluding Discussion
In this paper we investigated how currently emerging
link detection methods can help enrich encoded archival
descriptions. We discussed link detection methods in general,
and evaluated the identifi cation of names both within, and
across, archival descriptions. Our initial experiments suggest
that we can automatically detect occurrences of person
names, both within (F-score of 0.9620) and across (F-score
of 1) archival descriptions. This allows us to create (pseudo)
encoded archival context (EAC) descriptions that provide
novel means of navigation and improve access to archival
fi nding aids. The results of our experiments were promising,
and can also be expanded to names of organizations, events,
topics, etc. We expect those to be more diffi cult than personal
name detection.
There are more uses for detecting cross-links in fi nding aids
besides creating extra contextual information. Detecting
missing links is useful for improving the retrieval of separate
fi nding aids, for example, an archival fi nding aid with many
detected incoming links may have a higher relevance. Links can
also offer a search-by-example approach, like given one fi nding
aids, fi nd all related fi nding aids. A step further is to use the
cross-links in the categorization of archival data. Concretely
for historians and other users, who rely on numerous lengthy
archival documents, new insights can be gained by detecting
missing cross-links.
Acknowledgments
This research is supported by the Netherlands Organization
for Scientifi c Research (NWO) grant # 639.072.601.
References
Agosti, M., Crestani, F., and Melucci, M. 1997. On the use
of information retrieval techniques for the automatic
construction of hypertext. Information Processing and
Management 33, 2 (1997), 133-144.
Allan, J. 1997. Building hypertext using information retrieval.
Information Processing and Management 33, 2 (1997), 145-159.
EAC, 2004. Encoded Archival Context. http://www.iath.
virginia.edu/eac/
EAD, 2002. Encoded Archival Description. http://www.loc.
gov/ead/
Fissaha Adafre, S. and De Rijke, M. 2005. Discovering missing
links in Wikipedia. In Proceedings of the 3rd international
Workshop on Link Discovery. LinkKDD ‘05. ACM Press, 90-97.
Huang, W. C., Trotman, A., and Geva, S. 2007. Collaborative
Knowledge Management: Evaluation of Automated Link
Discovery in the Wikipedia. In Proceedings of the SIGIR 2007
Workshop on Focused Retrieval, 2007.
INEX LTW, 2007. INEX Link The Wiki Track, 2007. http://inex.
is.informatik.uni-duisburg.de/2007/linkwiki.html
ISAAR (CFP), 2004. International Standard Archival Authority
Record for Corporate bodies, Persons and Families. International
Council on Archives, Ottawa, second edition, 2004.
ISAD(G), 1999. General International Standard Archival
Description. International Council on Archives, Ottawa, second
edition, 1999.
Jenkins, N., 2007. Can We Link It. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
User:Nickj/Can_We_Link_It","txt","2","",""
"917","9","A Chinese Version of an Authorship Attribution Analysis Program","1","Authorship Attribution (Juola, in press) is a form of text
analysis to determine the author of a given text. Authorship
Attribution in Chinese (AAC) is that task when the text
is written in Chinese. It can be considered as a typical
classifi cation problem, where a set of documents with known
authorship are used for training and the aim is to automatically
determine the corresponding author of an anonymous text.
Beyond simple questions of the identity of individual authors,
the underlying technology may also apply to gender, age, social
class, education and nationality.
JGAAP (Java Graphical Authorship Attribution Program) (Juola
et al., 2006) is a program aimed at automatically determining
a document’s author by using corpus linguistics and statistical
analysis. It performs different types of analysis and gives the
best results to the user while hiding the detailed methods and
techniques involved. It can therefore be used by non-experts.
We extend JGAAP to cover the special issues involved
in Chinese attribution and present the results of some
experiments involving novels and blogs.
Why can’t we just use the existing JGAAP software? Chinese
introduces its own problems, caused by the different structures
of English and Chinese. As with English, Chinese texts are
composed of sentences, sentences are composed of words,
and words are composed of characters. However, the Chinese
character set is approximately 50,000 individually meaningful
characters, compared with fi fty or so meaningless symbols for
English. Furthermore, in Chinese texts words are not delimited
by spaces as they are in English. As with English, the word is the
basic meaningful unit in Chinese, but the meaning of a word
may differ from the meaning of the characters compose this
word.
Analysis at the character level is thus fundamentally different
between the two languages. Studies in English show that analysis
at the word level is likely to be a better way to understand
the style and linguistic features of a document, but it is not
clear whether this will apply to Chinese as well. So before we
can analyze word-level features (for comparison) we need to
segment sentences at word-level not by characters. Therefore
the fi rst step for any Chinese information processing system
is the automatically detection of word boundaries and
segmentation.
The Chinese version of JGAAP supports Chinese word
segmentation fi rst then followed by a feature selection process
at word level, as preparation for a later analytic phase. After
getting a set of ordered feature vectors, we then use different
analytical methods to produce authorship judgements.
Unfortunately, the errors introduced by the segmentation
method(s) will almost certainly infl uence the fi nal outcome,
creating a need for testing.
Almost all methods for Chinese word segmentation developed
so far are either structural (Wang et al., 1991) and statisticalbased
(Lua, 1990). A structural algorithm resolves segmentation
ambiguities by examining the structural relationship between
words, while a statistical algorithm usually compares word
frequency and character co-occurrence probability to
detect word boundaries. The diffi culties in this study are the
ambiguity resolution and novel word detection (personal
names, company names, and so on). We use a combination of
Maximum Matching and conditional probabilities to minimize
this error.
Maximum matching (Liu et al., 1994) is one of the most
popular structural segmentation algorithms, the process
from the beginning of the text to the end is called Forward
Maximal Matching (FMM), the other way is called Backward
Maximal Matching (BMM). A large lexicon that contains all the
possible words in Chinese is usually used to fi nd segmentation
candidates for input sentences. Here we need a lexicon that
not only has general words but also contains as many personal
names, company names, and organization names as possible
for detecting new words.
Before we scan the text we apply certain rules to divide the
input sentence into small linguistic blocks, such as separating
the document by English letters, numbers, and punctuation,
giving us small pieces of character strings. The segmentation
then starts from both directions of these small character
strings. The major resource of our segmentation system is
this large lexicon. We compare these linguistic blocks with the
words in the lexicon to fi nd the possible word strings. If a
match is found, one word is segmented successfully. We do this
for both directions, if the result is same then this segmentation
is accomplished. If not, we take the one that has fewer words.
If the number of words is the same, we take the result of
BMM as our result. As an example : Suppose ABCDEFGH is
a character string, and our lexicon contains the entries A, AB,
ABC, but not ABCD. For FMM, we start from the beginning of
the string (A) If A is found in the lexicon, we then look for AB
in the lexicon. If AB is also found, we look for ABC and so on,
till the string is not found. For example, ABCD is not found
in the Lexicon, so we consider ABC as a word, then we start
from character D unti the end of this character string. BMM
is just the opposite direction, starting with H, then GH, then
FGH, and so forth. Suppose the segmentation we get from FMM is
(a) A \ B \ CD \ EFG \ H
and the segmentation from BMM is
(b) A \ B \ C \ DE \ FG \ H
We will take result (a), since it has fewer
words. But if what we get from BMM is
(c) AB \ C \ DE \ FG \ H
We will take result (c), since the numbers
of words is same in both method.
After the segmentation step we take the advantage of
JGAAP’s features and add different event sets according to
the characteristics of Chinese, then apply statistical analysis
to determine the fi nal results. It is not clear at this writing,
for example, if the larger character set of Chinese will make
character-based methods more effective in Chinese then they
are in other languages written with the Latin alphabet (like
English). It is also not clear whether the segmentation process
will produce the same type of set of useful “function words”
that are so useful in English authorship attribution. The JGAAP
structure (Juola et al, 2006;Juola et al., submitted), however,
will make it easy to test our system using a variety of different
methods and analysis algorithms.
In order to test the performance on Chinese of our software,
we are in the process of constructing a Chinese test corpus.
We will select three popular novelists and ten novels from
each one, eight novels from each author will be used as training
data, the other two will be used as testing data. We will also
test on the blogs which will be selected from internet. The
testing procedure will be the same as with the novels.
This research demonstrates, fi rst, the JGAAP structure can
easily be adapted to the problems of non-Latin scripts and not
English languages, and second, provides somes cues to the best
practices of authorship attribution in Chinese. It can hopefully
be extended to the development of other non-Latin systems
for authorship attribution.
References:
Patrick Juola, (in press). Authorship Attribution. Delft:NOW
Publishing.
Patrick Juola, John Noecker, and Mike Ryan. (submitted).
“JGAAP3.0: Authorship Attribution for the Rest of Us.”
Submitted to DH2008.
Patrick Juola, John Sofko, and Patrick Brennan. (2006). “A
Prototype for Authorship Attribution Studies.” Literary and
Linguistic Computing 21:169-178
Yuan Liu, Qiang Tan, and Kun Xu Shen. (1994). “The Word
Segmentation Rules and Automatic Word Segmentation
Methods for Chinese Information Processing” (in Chinese).
Qing Hua University Press and Guang Xi Science and
Technology Press, page 36.
K. T. Lua. (1990). From Character to Word. An Application
of Information Theory. Computer Processing of Chinese and
Oriental Languages, Vol. 4, No. 4, pages 304--313, March.
Liang-Jyh Wang, Tzusheng Pei, Wei-Chuan Li, and Lih-Ching
R. Huang. (1991). “A Parsing Method for Identifying Words
in Mandarin Chinese Sentences.” In Processings of 12th
International Joint Conference on Artifi cial Intelligence, pages
1018--1023, Darling Harbour, Sydney, Australia, 24-30 August","txt","2","",""
"918","9","The German Hamlets: An Advanced Text Technological Application","2","The highly complex editorial history of Shakespeare’s Hamlet
and its many translations to German forms a interesting
corpus to show some of the major advantages current
texttechnologies. In the following we want to present the
corpus of four English editions an several German translations
of the play we have gathered together and annotated and
crosslinked in different ways.
Although Shakespeare’s Hamlet is obviously not a unique
hypertext, it is an interesting object to test advanced hypertextand
text technologies. There is no original edition of Hamlet,
which was authorized by Shakespeare during his lifetime. We
only have different print editions, which all have a different
status concerning their quality, overall length, content and
story-line. The most important among these are the so called
fi rst folio, the fi rst quattro and the second quattro edition of
Hamlet. During the centuries editors tried to combine these
early editions to the best edition possible. The famous Ardeneditons
as well as the in the internet widespread Moby-editon
are such compositions.
A comparable but a bit more complex situation exists within
in the fi eld of german translations of the play. The earliest
translation is by Christoph Martin Wieland from about
1766. After this at least 18 translations have been published
which are accompanied by countless translations of theatre
directors, which are mostly not documented. The corpus
contains 8 digitalized Translations. 2 further translation are
already scanned but not yet digitalized, because they are
printed in fraktur - a old german typeface - which can not be
recognized by common OCR-programs yet. The remaining 10
Translations are available in print, but not yet digitalized, too.
Of the 8 digitalized translations we chose 4 for further text
technological use.
What makes the corpus so interesting is the fact, that almost
every translator used several of the early english editions
as a basis for a new translation. This leads to a situation in
which almost every german or english edition of Shakespeare’s
Hamlet is a composition of several sources. The relation the
editions have with their sources and with each other form
a wide network, which could be presented in a hypertext
system.
Another interesting aspect of Shakespeare’s Hamlet is the
outstanding position the play has within the western culture
for centuries. Hamlet is the single most researched piece of
literature, has been analyzed from various perspectives and is a
part of western common education. This leads to the request,
that a digital environment should represent the variety of
perspectives on the play. This lead us to a corpus of Hamlet
editions in which each text may exist in multiple forms.
Basis for the XML-annotations are text fi les, which are
transformed to XML using regular expressions. The basic XMLformat
is TEI 4 drama base tag set. TEI 4 is a major open source
concept of the Text Encoding Initiative. The drama base tag set
offers almost all tags needed for a general, formal annotation
of a play. In order to provide an easy to annotate mechanism
we added some attributes to represent the translation- or
origin-relation between lines, paragraphs or speeches within
the editions on the one hand and the sources on the other
hand.
The TEI-annotated documents are used for further annotations
an presentation. The TEI-documents were automatically
enriched with further markup, using an open source autotagger.
This auto-tagger annotates single words, including the
part of speech and the principle form. The TEI-documents are
also the basis for the XHTML-presentation. As the TEIstructure
contains all information necessary for a graphical presentation,
these documents are transformed to XHTML, which is used to
present the corpus. This transformation is made with several
XSLT-Stylesheets. In the same way XSLFO is used to generate
PDF-versions of each edition. or the course of action. Therefore it is useful to provide an
alternative linking mechanism, which does not only focus on
the language and the formal structure, but also on the plot. To
provide this reference the narrative information is annotated
in another layer. This allows to fi nd the same event in different
translations of the play. The narrative annotation layer basically
consists of events, which can be seen as the smallest elements
of the plot.
Obviously, events may start within one line and end several
lines or even speeches later. Since the narrative structure
is overlapping with the TEI, both are stored in separate annotations. Scenes can provide a meaningful unit for basic
parts of the plot. Thus the formal and the narrative annotation
are semantically aligned - in addition to their reference on
identical textual data. This relation can be exploited by creating
links between the concept of a scene and the concept of
specifi c actions. The respective linking mechanism is located
on a meta level: it operates on the schemas themselves
and not on their instances. The references are generated
mechanically on the meta level, linking different perspectives
together. Readers can explore the relations between events
and scenes. The procedure could also be used to create a
recommendation system as e.g. proposed by Macedo et al.
(2003): the annotation integrates the knowledge of experts
on narrative structures in the play Hamlet and provides this
information to the reader. This leads to a multi rooted tree,
each tree represents one level of information, i.e. textual
structure and linguistic, philological or narrative information.
This allows for creating a network of multiple perspectives on
one text being linked to one another. As a result, hypertext is
no longer based on links between nodes, but offers a reference
mechanism between perspectives.
Figure 1: A multi rooted tree above a single textual data
As a fi rst result of these multiple annotations, we got a corpus
that is based on XML-technology and available via the web. As
a second result we developed methods to cope with multiple
annotated documents, which is a task, that has to be performed
more often with the growing popularity of XML-technologies.
Especially the integration of the narration annotation layer has
to bee seen as a example for further parallel annotations. In
detail these methods described above lead to an environment,
which offers different types of user different perspectives on a
single, textual object or a corpus. Some of these benefi ts will
be presented in the following:
1. The common TEI-annotation allows a structural linkingmechanism
between the editions. This allows a user to jump
from the fi rst scene in the second act of one edition to the
same scene in another edition.
2. Alternatively this annotation can be used to present the
user a part of the play in on or more editions of his choice
for direct comparison.
3. The narration annotation layer allows several ways to
explore a single text or compare some texts with each
other. In the fi rst case, the annotation of events and
actions provides a way of comparing different editions esp.
translations.
4. Using SVG - an XML-based format for graphics - the
narrative structure of each translation could be visualized,
ignoring the textual basis. This gives an »overview« of plot
of the current edition.
5. The introduced concept of cross annotation linking allows
us to offer the user automatically generated links from one
annotation to another.
With this set of different linking-concepts we offer users a
new freedom to explore the corpus in a way that fi ts to their
needs. We ensured, that every layer of information offers
a way to access information of another layer in a different
perspective. We assume that this method can be transferred
to any kind of multiple annotation.
References
Macedo, A. A., Truong, K.N. and Camacho-Guerrero, J. A.
(2003). Automatically Sharing Web Experiences through a
Hyperdocument Recommender System. In: Proceedings
of the 14th conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia
(Hypertext03), (Nottingham, UK, August, 26-30, 2003). Online:
http://www.ht03.org/papers/pdfs/6.pdf [Available, Last checked:
6/16/2005]","txt","2","",""
"919","9","Fine Rolls in Print and on the Web: A Reader Study","2","A collaboration between the National Archives in the UK,
the History and Centre for Computing in the Humanities
departments at King’s College London, the Henry III Fine Rolls
project (http://www.frh3.org.uk) has produced both a digital
and a print edition (the latter in collaboration with publisher
Boydell & Brewer) of the primary sources known as the Fine
Rolls. This dual undertaking has raised questions about the
different presentational formats of the two resources and
presented challenges for the historians and digital humanities
researchers involved in the project, and, to a certain extent,
for the publisher too. These challenges, and the adopted
solutions for the two types of published resource present a
novel starting point from which to examine how the artefacts
of digital humanities are used.
This poster will report on the progress to-date of an ongoing
exploratory study that examines the information-seeking
behavior of historians, with the aim of developing a clearer
picture of how research is conducted using sources like the
Calendar of Fine Rolls. As with other digital humanities efforts
(Buchanan, Cunningham, Blandford, Rimmer, & Warwick; 2005),
this study focuses on the ways in which interactions occur
using physical and virtual environments, and in particular on
the ways in which the components of hybrid scholarly editions
are used in combination to answer research questions. A
secondary pragmatic component of the study seeks to adapt
methodologies from the fi elds of information seeking research
and human-computer interaction to the evaluation of digital
humanities and in particular, to the Fine Rolls of Henry III
project resources.
Reading the Fine Rolls of Henry III
The two publication formats of the Fine Rolls of Henry III
are drawn from the same data substrate. Given the nature
of the materials, reading is expected to be the primary
activity performed using both. A stated design goal for the
project is that the two publications will form a rich body of
materials with which to conduct historical research. Our fi rst
research goal is to establish the context for work done using
historical sources like the Fine Rolls: to establish the kinds of
research questions asked, to articulate the methods followed
in answering these questions, and to develop profi les of the
researchers who perform the work.
Given the heterogeneity of the materials and the different focus
of each medium, the question arises whether the materials do
in fact form a single body of work, and how the experience
of using them comprises a continuous experience. It suggests
that working with the texts will of necessity also involve
periods of information seeking: moments encountered while
reading that give rise to questions which the material at hand
cannot answer and the subsequent process embarked upon
in order to answer them. We hypothesize that to fi ll these
information gaps, readers of the Fine Rolls will seek particular
text in the alternative medium to fi nd answers. To answer a
question about a translation found in a printed volume, for
example, we suggest that the researcher will seek the image
of the membrane in the web edition in order to consult the
original language of the text.
Having established the impetus for using the two formats
together, one questions the effectiveness of particular features
of each medium in creating bridges between the formats. One
implicit design goal of the project has been to optimize the
movement between states of reading (within a medium) and
moments of seeking (between media). Our fi nal research goal,
therefore is to discover the ways in which design choices taken
in each facilitate or hinder movement between the website
and the books, thereby enriching or diminishing the utility of
the body of work as a whole.
Methodology
As suggested above, our analytical framework for evaluating
the experience of reading the Fine Rolls of Henry III is drawn
from the fi eld of information seeking behavior research, and in
particular by the conceptual framework developed in Brenda
Dervin’s Sense-Making Theory (Dervin, 1983 as summarized by
Wilson; Wilson, 1999).
Our methodological approach will similarly be guided by data
collection methods established in this fi eld. Structured in three
phases, our study will fi rst identify a representative sample of
scholars from leading institutions who perform research using
sources like the Fine Rolls. In the fi rst phase of data collection,
we intend to use established fi eld and (where necessary) online
questionnaires to establish the kinds of research questions
asked of materials like the Fine Rolls, and to articulate the
methods followed in answering these questions. Given the
hybrid nature of the Fine Rolls edition, we will seek to elicit
comments on the use of secondary, primary and surrogate
(web, microfi lm and microfi che) formats.
A phase of analysis will follow in which we develop profi les of
the researchers who perform this kind of work to identify the
information seeking features that exist within materials related
to a range of different tools, such as indexes, search engines,
front matter materials, printed catalogues and fi nding aids, and
the perceived strengths and weaknesses of doing work with
existing support materials. As the fi nal part of this stage, we
will identify a series of open-ended research questions that can answered using the Fine Rolls materials. These questions
will be formulated to encourage use of a range of formats and
informational features of the components that comprise the
Fine Rolls resource.
Given our focus on a single scholarly edition and our
corresponding pragmatic need to develop an understanding of
the effectiveness and utility of same, the third phase of our work
will utilize established usability testing techniques to evaluate
project resources. Drawing upon the profi les developed in the
fi rst phase of data collection, a sample of representative users
of the Fine Rolls materials will be selected. In a series of guided,
task-based sessions, participants will be asked to answer the
research questions formulated during analysis. Data collection,
expected to include a combination of direct observation and
interview will be used to quantitatively identify the information
features of both editions that are used to answer research
questions. To generate a more qualitative assessment of the
effectiveness of the features, users will be encouraged to
“think-aloud” (Preece, Rogers, & Sharp.; 2002, p. 365) about
the process and their observations will be recorded.
Sample size permitting, sessions are to be held to evaluate use
of the book only, the web materials only, and both web and
book.
Conclusions
With this research, we hope to elicit specifi c information
about design improvements that can be made to support
information seeking activities that span the Fine Rolls digital
and print materials, and to articulate general heuristics that
can be used in the design of other hybrid digital humanities
publications. With our focus on a single scholarly edition, we
also contribute to work begun elsewhere (Buchanan, et. al.;
2005) to explore how established methods for evaluating
the use of digital materials can be adapted and applied to
the work of humanities researchers. Finally, we contribute to
understanding of the evolution of the scholarly edition as a
resource that extends beyond the self-contained print edition,
and of the deepening interdependence between humanities
research activities in digital and traditional environments.
Notes
[1] The fi rst volume was published in September 2007 (Dryburgh et
al. 2007).
[2] Our understanding here will both draw upon and contribute to
the dialog regarding use of electronic sources by humanities scholars
begun elsewhere, see e.g. Bates, Wiberley, Buchanan, et. al.
Bibliography
Bates, M.; Wilde, D. & Siegfried, S. (1995), ‘Research practices
of humanities scholars in an online environment: The Getty
online searching project report no. 3’, Library and Information
Science Research 17(1), 5--40.
Buchanan, G.; Cunningham, S.; Blandford, A.; Rimmer, J. &
Warwick, C. (2005), ‘Information seeking by humanities
scholars’, Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries,
9th European Conference, ECDL, 18--23.
Dervin, B. (1983), ‘An overview of sense-making research:
Concepts, methods, and results to date’, International
Communication Association Annual Meeting, Dallas, TX.
Dryburgh, P. & Hartland, B. eds. Ciula A. and José Miguel Vieira
tech. Eds. (2007) Calendar of the Fine Rolls of the Reign of Henry
III [1216-1248], vol. I: 1216-1224, Woodbridge: Boydell &
Brewer.
Jones, A. ed. (2006) Summit on Digital Tools for the Humanities:
Report on Summit Accomplishments. Charlottesville, VA:
University of Virginia.
Preece, J.; Rogers, Y. & Sharp, H. (2002), Interaction design:
beyond human-computer interaction, Wiley.
Siemens, R.; Toms, E.; Sinclair, S.; Rockwell, G. & Siemens, L.
‘The Humanities Scholar in the Twenty-fi rst Century: How
Research is Done and What Support is Needed.’ ALLC/ACH
2004 Conference Abstracts. Göteborg: Göteborg University,
2004. <http://www.hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop139.
html>
Wiberley, S. & Jones, W. (2000), ‘Time and technology: A
decade-long look at humanists’ use of electronic information
technology’, College & Research Libraries 61(5), 421--431.
Wiberley, S. & Jones, W. (1989), ‘Patterns of information
seeking in the humanities’, College and Research Libraries 50(6),
638--645.
Wilson, T. (1999), ‘Models in information behaviour research’,
Journal of Documentation 55(3), 249--270.","txt","2","",""
"920","9","PhiloMine: An Integrated Environment for Humanities Text Mining","2","PhiloMine [http://philologic.uchicago.edu/philomine/] is a set
of data mining extensions to the PhiloLogic [http://philologic.
uchicago.edu/] full-text search and retrieval engine, providing
middleware between PhiloLogic and a variety of data mining
packages that allows text mining experiments to be run on
documents loaded into a PhiloLogic database. We would
like to present a poster describing and demonstrating how
PhiloMine works.
The text mining process under PhiloMine has three main
components -- coprus selection, feature selection and
algorithm selection. Experimental corpora can be constructed
from the documents in the PhiloLogic database using standard
bibliographic metadata criteria such as date of publication or
author gender, as well as by attributes of sub-document level
objects such as divs and paragraphs. This makes it possible,
for example, to compare poetry line groups in male-authored
texts from 1800 - 1850 with those in female-authored texts
from that period or any other. The PhiloMine user then selects
the features to use for the experiment, choosing some or all
feature sets including surface forms, lemmas, part-of-speech
tags, and bigrams and trigrams of surface forms and lemmas.
Once the corpus and feature sets are selected, the machine
learning algorithm and implementation is chosen. PhiloMine
can talk to a range of freely available data mining packages such
as WEKA, Ken William’s Perl modules, the CLUTO clustering
engine and more. Once the learning process has executed, the
results are redirected back to the browser and formatted to
provide links to PhiloLogic display of the documents involved
and queries for the individual words in each corpus. PhiloMine
provides an environment for the construction, execution
and analysis of text mining experiments by bridging the gap
between the source documents, the data structures that form
the input to the learning process, and the generated models
and classifi cations that are its output.
Corpus Selection
Under PhiloMine, the text mining corpus is created by
selecting documents and sub-document level objects from a
particular PhiloLogic database. PhiloLogic can load documents
in a number of commonly used formats such as TEI, RTF,
DocBook and plain text. From all documents in a particular
PhiloLogic collection, the text mining corpus is selected using
bibliographic metadata to choose particular documents, and
sub-document object selectors to choose objects such as divs
and line groups. The two levels of criteria are merged, so that
the experimenter may easily create, for example, a corpus of
all divs of type “letter” appearing within documents by female
authors published in Paris in the 19th century. For a supervised
mining run, the PhiloMine user must enter at least two sets of
such criteria, and a corpus is created which contains multiple
sub-corpora, one for each of the classes. For an unsupervised
mining run, such as clustering, one corpus is created based on
one set of criteria.
The PhiloMine user is also able to specify the granularity of
text object size which is presented to the learning algorithm,
the scope of the “instance” in machine learning terminology.
Under PhiloMine, an instance may be either an entire
document, a div or a paragraph. A single document consisting
of a thousand paragraphs may be presented to a machine
learner as a thousand distinct text objects, a thousand vectors
of feature data, and in that case the learner will classify or
cluster on the paragraph level. Similarly, even if the user has
chosen to use sub-document level criteria such as div type,
the selected text objects can be combined to reconstitute a
document-level object. Thus the PhiloMine experimenter can
set corpus criteria at the document, div and/or paragraph level
and independently decide which level of text object to use as
instances.
Several fi lters are available to ensure that selected text
objects suit the experimental design. PhiloMine users may set
minimum and maximum feature counts per instance. They may
also balance instances across classes, which is useful to keep
your machine learner honest when dealing with classifi ers
that will exploit differential baseline class frequencies. Finally,
instance class labels may be shuffl ed for a random falsifi cation
run, to make sure that your accuracy is not a result of an overfi
tting classifi er.
Feature Selection
In machine learning generally, features are attributes of an
instance that take on certain values. The text mining process
often involves shredding the documents in the corpus into
a bag-of-words (BOW) representation, wherein each unique
word, or type, is a feature, and the number of tokens, or occurrences of each type in a given document, is the value
of that feature for that document. This data structure can
be envisioned as a matrix, or spreadhsheet, with each row
corresponding to a text object, or instance, and each column
representing a type, or feature, with an extra column for class
label if supervised learning is being undertaken. PhiloMine
generates a BOW matrix for the user-selected corpus which
serves as the input to the machine learner.
Because PhiloLogic creates extensive indices of document
content as part of its loading process, its internal data structures
already contain counts of words for each document in a given
database. PhiloMine extends PhiloLogic so that is available for
divs and paragraphs. In addition to the surface forms of words,
PhiloMine will also generate vectors for lemmas or parts-ofspeech
tags, provided by TreeTagger, and bigrams and trigrams
of surface forms or lemmas. The user may select one or more
of these feature sets for inclusion in a given run.
One practical concern in machine learning is the dimensionality
of the input matrix. Various algorithms scale in different ways,
but in general adding a new instance or feature will increase the
time needed to generate a classifi catory model or clustering
solution, sometimes exponentially so. For this reason, it can
be very helpful to limit a priori the number of features in
the matrix before presenting it to the machine learner, and
PhiloMine provides the capability to fi lter out features based
on a number of criteria. For each featureset, the user may
limit the features to use by the number of instances in which
the feature occurs, eliminating common or uncommon
features. Additionally, include lists and/or exclude lists may be
submitted, and only features on the include list and no features
on the exclude list are retained. Finally, features may be fi ltered
by their value on a per-instance basis, so that all features
that occur more or less times than the user desires may be
removed from a given instance, while remaining present in
other instances.
Algorithm and Implementation
Selection
PhiloMine can wrap data for, and parse results from, a
variety of machine learning implementations. Native Perl
functions currently include Ken William’s naive Bayesian and
decision tree classifi ers, a vector space implementation and a
differential relative rate statistics generator. The WEKA toolkit
provides numerous implementations and currently PhiloMine
works with the information gain, naive Bayes, SMO support
vector machine, multilayer perceptron, and J48 decision tree
WEKA components. PhiloMine also can talk to the compiled
SVMLight support vector machine and CLUTO clustering
engine. Relevant parameters for each function may also be set
on the PhiloMine form.
When the user selects an implementation, the feature vectors
for each instance are converted from PhiloMine’s internal
representation into the format expected by that package,
generally a sparse vector format, such as the sparse ARFF
format used by WEKA. The mining run is initiated either by
forking a command to the system shell or by the appropriate
Perl method call. Results of the run are displayed in the
browser, typically including a list of text objects instances with
classifi cation results from the model and a list of features used
by the classifi er. Each instance is hyperlinked to the PhiloLogic
display for that text object, so that the user can easily view
that document, div or paragraph. Similarly, the user can push a
query to PhiloLogic to search for any word used as a feature,
either in the entire corpus or in any of the classed sub-corpora.
If results show, for instance, that a support vector machine has
heavily weighted the word “power” as indicative of a certain
class of documents, the experimenter can quickly get a report
of all occurrences of “power” in that class of documents, any
other class or all classes.
This ability to easily move between the text mining results
and the context of the source documents is meant to mitigate
some of the alienating effects of text mining, where documents
become anonymous instances and words are reduced to
serialized features. For industrial applications of text mining,
the accuracy of a certain classifi er may be the only criterion
for success, but for the more introspective needs of the digital
humanist, the mining results must be examined and interpreted
to further the understanding of the original texts. PhiloMine
allows researchers to frame experiments in familiar terms
by selecting corpora with standard bibliographic criteria, and
then relate the results of the experiment back to the source
texts in an integrated environment. This allows for rapid
experimental design, execution, refi nement and interpretation,
while retaining the close association with the text that is the
hallmark of humanistic study.","txt","2","",""
"921","9","The Music Information Retrieval Evaluation eXchange (MIREX): Community-Led Formal Evaluations","2","This paper provides a general overview of the infrastructure,
challenges, evaluation results, and future goals of the Music
Information Retrieval Evaluation eXchange (MIREX). MIREX [1]
represents a community-based formal evaluation framework
for the evaluation of algorithms and techniques related to
music information retrieval (MIR), music digital libraries (MDL)
and computational musicology (CM). MIREX is coordinated
and managed by the International Music Information Retrieval
Systems Evaluation Laboratory (IMIRSEL) at the University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. To date, since its inception in
2005, three annual MIREX evaluations have been performed
covering a wide variety of MIR/MDL/CM tasks. The task
defi nitions and evaluation methods for each annual MIREX are
largely determined by community discussion through various
communication channels with dedicated Wikis [4] playing a
special role. Section 2 presents and defi nes the tasks associated
with each of the past three MIREX evaluations.
In many respects, MIREX shares similarities to the Text
Retrieval Conference (TREC) [5] in its overall approach to
handling the evaluation of algorithms designed by the research
community. Both MIREX and TREC are predicated upon the
standardization of data collections; the standardization of the
tasks and queries to be performed on the collections; and the
standardization of evaluation methods used on the results
generated by the tasks/queries [1]. However, associated with
MIREX, there exist a unique set of challenges that cause
MIREX to deviate from many of the methodologies associated
with TREC. Section 3 covers some of these challenges, and
the resultant solutions that comprise the overall framework
and methodology of how MIREX evaluations are executed.
Since MIREX is an ever-evolving entity, Section 4 will present
key advances made between MIREX 2005 and MIREX 2006, as
well as future goals for MIREX 2007 and beyond.
MIREX 2005, 2006, and 2007 tasks
The tasks associated with MIREX 2005, 2006 and 2007 are
shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Task lists for MIREX 2005, 2006, and 2007
(with number of runs evaluated for each) A more detailed description of the tasks, as well as the formal
evaluation results can be found on each year’s associated
Wiki pages [4]. The tasks cover a wide range of techniques
associated with MIR/MDL/CM research, and also vary in
scope. Tasks such as “Audio Onset Detection” (i.e., marking
the exact time locations of all musical events in a piece of
audio) and “Audio Melody Extraction” (i.e., tracking the pitch/
fundamental frequency of the predominant melody in a piece
of music) can be considered low-level tasks, in that they are
primarily concerned with extracting musical descriptors from
a single piece of musical audio. The motivation for evaluating
such low-level tasks is that higher level MIR/MDL/CM systems
such as “Audio Music Similarity and Retrieval” (i.e., retrieving
similar pieces of music in a collection to a specifi ed query
song) or “Audio Cover Song Identifi cation” (i.e., fi nding all
variations of a given musical piece in a collection) can be built
using many of the techniques involved in the low-level audio
description tasks. Table 2 provides a summary of participation in the past three
MIREX evaluations. To date, 300 algorithm runs have been
performed and evaluated.
Table 2. Summary data for MIREX 2005, 2006, and 2007 Challenges and Methodology
Although largely inspired by TREC, MIREX differs signifi cantly
from TREC in that the datasets for each task are not freely
distributed to the participants. One primary reason for the
lack of freely available datasets is the current state of copyright
enforcement of musical intellectual property preventing the
free distribution of many of the collections used in the MIREX
evaluations. In addition, MIREX relies heavily on “donated”
data and ground-truth. For tasks which require extremely
labor-intensive hand-annotation to generate ground-truth —
most notably low-level description tasks such as “Audio Onset
Detection” — there is an overall reluctance of contributors
to make their data and annotations freely available. As a result,
it is nearly impossible to generate a representative dataset
that encompasses all possible varieties, instrumentations,
etc. of music. As such, there exists the potential of “tuning”
or “overfi tting” to a specifi c dataset at the expense of
generalizablity of the algorithm to all varieties and types of
music.
Due to the inability to freely distribute data, MIREX has
adopted a model whereby all the evaluation data are housed in
one central location (at IMIRSEL). Participants in MIREX then
submit their algorithms to IMIRSEL to be run against the data
collections. This model poses a unique set of challenges for the
IMIRSEL team in managing and executing each annual MIREX.
Firstly, data must be gathered and managed from various
sources. For some tasks, differing formats for both the data
and ground truth exist, as well as the potential for corrupted
or incorrectly annotated ground-truth necessitating testing
of the integrity of the data itself. The music collections used
for MIREX tasks have already surpassed one terabyte and are
continuously growing. In addition, many algorithms generate
a large amount of intermediate data in their execution which
must also be managed. In some cases, the intermediate data
are larger in size than the actual music they describe and
represent.
Moreover, IMIRSEL is responsible for supporting a wide
variety of programming languages (e.g., MATLAB, Java, C/C++,
PERL, Python, etc.) across different platforms (e.g., Windows,
*NIX, MacOS, etc.). Despite guidelines dictating fi le input/
output formats, coding conventions, linking methods, error
handling schemes, etc., the largest amount of effort expended
by IMIRSEL is in compiling, debugging, and verifying the output
format and validity of submitted algorithms. Collectively,
submissions to MIREX represent hundreds of hours of CPU
computation time and person-hours in managing, setting up,
and performing their execution.
Advances and Future Goals
One of the most signifi cant advances made after MIREX
2005 was the incorporation of musical similarity evaluation
tasks contingent upon subjective, human evaluation (MIREX
2006 and 2007). The addition of human evaluations of music
similarity systems was born out of a community desire to
refl ect real-world applications and needs, and culminated
in the “Audio Music Similarity and Retrieval” and “Symbolic
Melodic Similarity” tasks. Both similarity tasks involve
retrieving the top-N relevant or “similar” musical pieces in
a collection using a specifi c musical piece as a query. A web
interface with embedded audio players called the Evalutron
6000 was designed to allow evaluators to judge the similarity
of a query “seed” with a retrieved “candidate” on both a broad
scale (i.e., Not Similar, Somewhat Similar, Very Similar) and a
fi ne, continuous, 10-point scale [3].
Another signifi cant advance made manifest in MIREX 2006,
and then repeated for MIREX 2007, was the application of
formal statistical signifi cance testing of returned results. These
tests were applied in order to test whether performance
differences between systems were truly signifi cant. Because
of its non-parametric nature, Friedman’s ANOVA test was
used on a variety of tasks to compare system performances.
In general, these tests have shown that there are clusters of
top performing techniques but these top-ranked techniques
are not performing signifi cantly better than their other topranked
peers.
For future MIREX evaluations, IMIRSEL is presently developing
a web service system that intends to resolve some of the key
challenges associated with the execution of submitted algorithms
by placing many of the responsibilities in the participant’s hands.
The web service, called MIREX DIY, represents a “black box”
architecture, whereby a participant submits their algorithm/
code through the web service, remotely begins its execution,
and receives real-time feedback regarding the execution state
of their algorithm. Execution failures can be monitored by the
participant, and fi xed if necessary. Upon successful execution
and completion of the algorithm, performance results are
returned to the participant. Eventually, such a system would
allow submission and evaluation of algorithms year-round. Feel
free to explore the MIREX DIY demo at http://cluster3.lis.
uiuc.edu:8080/mirexdiydemo. Acknowledgments
MIREX has received considerable fi nancial support from both
the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation and the National Science
Foundation (NSF) under grant numbers NSF IIS-0340597 and
NSF IIS- 0327371.
References
[1] Downie, J. S. 2006. The Music Information Retrieval
Evaluation eXchange (MIREX). D-Lib Magazine, 12, 12
(December 2006: http://www.dlib.org/dlib/december06/
downie/12downie.html.
[2] Downie, J. S., West, K., Ehmann, A., and Vincent, E. 2005.
The 2005 Music Information Retrieval Evaluation eXchange
(MIREX 2005): Preliminary overview. In Proceedings of the 6th
International Conference on Music Information Retireval (ISMIR
2005), Queen Mary, UK, 2005, pp. 320-323.
[3] Gruzd, A. A., Downie, J. S., Jones, M. C., and Lee, J. H. 2007.
Evalutron 6000: Collecting music relevance judgments. ACM
IEEE Joint Conference on Digital Libraries 2007, p. 507.
[4] MIREX Wiki: http://music-ir.org/mirexwiki/.
[5] TREC: http://trec.nist.gov/.","txt","2","",""
"922","9","Online Collaborative Research with REKn and PReE","2","The advent of large-scale primary resources in the humanities
such as EEBO and EEBO-TCP, and similarly large-scale
availability of the full-texts secondary materials through
electronic publication services and amalgamators, suggests
new ways in which the scholar and student are able to interact
with the materials that comprise the focus of their professional
engagement. The Renaissance English Knowledgebase (REKn)
explores one such prospect. REKn attempts to capture and
represent essential materials contributing to an understanding
of those aspects of early modern life which are of interest to the
literary scholar - via a combination of digital representations
of literary and artistic works of the Renaissance plus those of
our own time refl ecting our understanding of earlier works.
REKn contains some 13,000 primary sources at present, plus
secondary materials such as published scholarly articles and
books chapters refl ecting our understanding of these earlier
works (some 100,000). These materials are accessed through
a Professional Reading Environment (PReE), supported by a
database system that facilitates their navigation and dynamic
interaction, also providing access to inquiry-oriented analytical
tools beyond simple search functions. The effect is that of
providing an expert reading environment for those in our fi eld,
one that encourages close, comprehensive reading at the same
time as it provides, conveniently, the building blocks of broadbased
research inquiry. We are currently moving beyond the
stage of proof-of-concept with these projects.
Our current research aim with these projects is to foster
social networking functionality in our professional reading
environment. For DH2008 we propose a poster/demo that
details the current status of both the knowledgebase (REKn)
and the reading environment (PREe) in relation to social
networking, the direction each will take in the future, and a
demonstration of the functional technologies we employ and
our current implementation.
Rather than leveraging the power of an individual computer
to perform complex computation on a personalized data set
- which is the way most academics appear to work (see, for
example, Siemens, et al., 2004), and is an approach exemplified in our community by Bradley (2007) and the TAPoR research
team (TAPoR 2007; Rockwell 2006) - our work complements
that approach by attempting to harness the power of the social
connectivity provided by current Web 2.0 practices to connect
researchers and experts, authors and reviewers, computers
and humans, all with the express goal of bringing a higher
level of discourse, analysis and structure to the documents
brought together in the REKn corpus (for one infl uential
adaptation, slightly outside our domain, see Ellison 2007). We
are considering more than just a simple full-text search as a
starting point for research discovery, even sophisticated forms
of search (as per Schreibman, et al.); rather, we are envisioning
ways existing social technologies can be used in concert with
search processes to facilitate the process of professional
reading (as per Warwick, et al., 2005). A further goal of our
current work is to integrate more readily a generalized subset
of analytical tools, derived from the TAPoR project and others,
so that other large corpora similar to REKn can benefi t from
the computational and user-generated connections among
material facilitated by our system; the beginnings of this system
will be demonstrated as well (as per Elkink, et al., 2007).
References
Bradley, John. “Making a Contribution: Modularity, Integration
and Collaboration Between Tools in Pliny”. Paper presented
at Digital Humanities 2007 June, 2007.
Ellison, Nicole B., Charles Steinfi eld and Cliff Lampe. “The
Benefi ts of Facebook ‘Friends:’ Social Capital and College
Students’ use of Online Social Network Sites.” Journal of
Computer-Mediated Communication 12 (2007): 1143-1168.
Elkink, Michael, Ray Siemens, Karin Armstrong. “Building One
To Thrown Away, Toward The One We’ll Keep: Next Steps
for the Renaissance English Knowledgebase (REKn) and the
Professional Reading Environment (PReE).” Presented at the
Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer
Science. October 2007.
Rockwell, Geoffrey. “TAPoR: Building a Portal for Text
Analysis.” pp. 285-300 in Siemens and Moorman.
Schreibman, S., Sueguen, G., & Roper, J. “Cross-collection
searching: A pandora’s box or the holy grail.” Literary and
Linguistic Computing. In press.
Siemens, Ray, and David Moorman, eds. Mind Technologies:
Humanities Computing and the Canadian Academic Community.
Calgary: U Calgary P, 2006.
Siemens, Ray, Elaine Toms, Stéfan Sinclair, Geoffrey Rockwell,
and Lynne Siemens. “The Humanities Scholar in the Twentyfi
rst Century: How Research is Done and What Support is
Needed.” ALLC/ACH 2004 Conference Abstracts. Göteborg:
Göteborg U, 2004.
TAPoR: Text Analysis Portal for Research. 2007. http://portal.
tapor.ca/.
9. Warwick, C., Blandford, A., Buchanan, G., J. Rimmer, J.
(2005) “User Centred Interactive Search in the Humanities.”
Proceedings of the Joint Conference on Digital Libraries. Denver,
Colorado, June 7-11, 2005. ACM Publications. pp. 279-81.","txt","2","",""
"923","9","A Computerized Corpus of Karelian Dialects: Design and Implementation","2","In my presentation, I intend to cover in detail the main
project I am working on at the moment, namely designing and
implementing the computerized corpus of Karelian language
dialects.
During the decades of scientifi c study of Karelian language,
initiated in mid-19th century by Finnish scholars and largely
expanded by Russian/Soviet linguists later on, a large volume
of material, most remarkably dialectal speech samples, was
amassed. Those data are however to a large extent essentially
inaccessible to research due to lack of representative and
accessible solutions allowing for representation of that rich
material. Therefore in my research project I aim at developing
and building an annotated computerized corpus of Karelian
dialects as well as developing recommendations regarding the
corpus’ further expansion.
During the fi rst stage of implementation a moderately sized
“pilot corpus” is to be built so that different strategies and
tools for annotation could be developed and tested with its
help. The pilot corpus is to be expanded later on by feeding in
other available source materials.
The pilot corpus shall contain dialectal speech samples
belonging to one dialectal group, the Olonets Karelian (Livvi),
mostly because there’s more extant dialectal speech samples
recorded for Olonets Karelian than for other groups, namely
Karelian Proper and Ludik dialects. Also, albeit certainly
endangered due to numerous reasons, Olonets Karelian
yet shows less signs of attrition and interference with
neighbouring languages (Veps, Finnish, and Russian) than the
above mentioned two different dialectal groups.
The representativeness of the pilot corpus is to be achieved,
above all, by proportional inclusion of dialectal speech samples
from all language varieties found in the areal where Karelian
language is spoken. In order to better account for dialectal
variation in case of Karelian language, it appears reasonable to
include into corpus dialectal material from each administrative
division unit (volost), the volume being 100 000 symbols per
one such unit).
It is intended to employ demographic criteria alongside with
geographic ones during material selection. In grouping the
informants in terms of their age, it appears reasonable to
follow the division into “elder” (born in 1910-1920s), “middle”
(born in 1930-1940s) and “younger” (born in 1950-1960s)
groups. As for gender representativeness, equal representation
of male and female informant’s speech in the corpus appears
impossible, at least for elder groups. The informant’s education
level, place of studies and career biography are all to be taken
into consideration as well.
It is necessary also to include the information that the
informant provides about her linguistic competence (which
language she considers her native, how many language and to
which extent she knows and can use) and performance (the
domains where she uses Karelian language, in terms of Joshua
Fishman’s domain theory).
In the beginning of pilot corpus’ implementation it is intended
to use the already published samples of Karelian dialectal
speech, while at later stages other published and specially
transcribed materials are to be added, mostly those now
stored in the archives of the Institute of Language, Literature
and History of Karelian Research Center of Russian Academy
of Sciences (Petrozavodsk, Russia).
Every block of dialectal material included into the corpus is to
be accompanied by metadata, including the following:
- informant data (gender, age, place of birth, duration of stay
in the locality where the record was made, duration and
circumstances of stay away from Karelian language areal,
native language according to informant’s own judgment,
informant’s judgment regarding her mastery of Karelian,
Russian and other languages, language choice habits for
various usage domains)
- data on the situation of speech sample recording
(researcher and informant dialogue, recording of the
informant’s spontaneous monological speech, recording of a
dialogue where two or more informants are participating);
it appears reasonable to develop a taxonomy of situations in
order to encode it later on in corpus
- the theme of the conversation recorded and transcribed;
in this case it also appears reasonable to develop and
enhance an appropriate taxonomy to be employed for data
encoding at a later stage of corpus expansion.
The detailed way of representing the data in the corpus
(“the orthography”) is to follow the universally accepted
Standard Fenno-Ugric Transcription (Suomalais-Ugrilainen
Tarkekirjoitus), although there are certain challenges,
mainly stemming from not so easily encodable diacritic
signs combinations, that require their own solutions to be
developed; implementation details will surely depend on a
chosen technology and/or software platform to be chosen
for use. It should be mentioned though, that the borders of
prosodic phrases normally marked in transcribed speech
samples will be saved in the corpus as well and used later on
for purposes of syntactic annotation. For morphological annotation, a united intra-dialectal
morphological tag set is to be developed; pilot corpus will be
annotated manually, while later stages might be annotated with
the help of existing parsing and tagging software, inasmuch as
it is applicable for our purposes.
Other design and implementation details, now being actively
worked upon, are also to be included into the presentation.","txt","2","",""
"924","9","Digitally Deducing Information about the Early American History with Semantic Web Techniques","2","The Early American Imprints Series are a microfi che collection
of all known existing books, pamphlets and periodical
publications printed in the United States from 1639-1800,
and gives insights in many aspects of life in 17th and 18th
century America, and are based on Charles Evans’ American
Bibliography. Its metadata consist of 36,305 records, which are
elaborately described (title, author, publication date, etc) with
numerous values, and have been compiled by librarians in the
format MARC21, which we encoded in XML.
The Semantic Web for History (SWHi) project at the Digital
Library department of the University Library Groningen has
worked with the MARC21 metadata of this dataset. Our
project aims to integrate, combine, and deduce information
from this dataset to assist general users or historians in
exploring American history by using new technology offered
by the Semantic Web. Concretely, we developed a semantic
search application for historical data, especially from a Digital
Library point of view.
Semantic Web technologies seem ideally suited to improve and
widen the services digital libraries offer to their users. Digital
libraries rely heavily on information retrieval technology. The
Semantic Web might be used to introduce meaningful and
explicit relations between documents, based on their content,
thereby allowing services that introduce forms of semantic
browsing supplementing, or possibly replacing keyword-based
searches. This is also a theme we address in SWHi project. Semantic Web and Information
Retrieval
Digital libraries increase their amount of metadata each
day, but much of these metadata is not used as a fi nding aid.
We have used these metadata to create a Semantic Web
compatible “historical” ontology. Ontologies are the backbone
of the Semantic Web, and also play a pivotal role in the SWHi
application. One of the ideas of the Semantic Web is that
existing resources can be reused. This was also one of the key
ideas of our project.
Our ontology is constructed by using the existing ontology
PROTON as its skeleton, and is enriched with other schemas.
We reuse existing topical taxonomies created by librarians
and other experts. We also extracted topic hierarchies from
the metadata. To describe objects with more semantics and
create relationships between objects, we also enriched the
ontology with the vocabularies Dublin Core and Friend of a
Friend (FOAF). For example, we link instances with time and
space, but also topics and persons. This is useful for discovering
historical social networks, exploring gazetteers, and clustering
instances together by topic for faceted search, etc. We
aligned the library metadata with schemas and vocabularies.
Information is extracted from the metadata to populate the
ontology. All of this is eventually processed and encoded in
XML with RDF/OWL. In addition to the PROTON’s basic
ontology modules, we get 152 new classes from this mapping.
And in total, we get 112,300 ontology instances from the
metadata.
We also combine Information Retrieval technology with
Semantic Web techniques. We use the open-source search
engine SOLR to index ontology instances, parse user input
queries, and eventually retrieve matching ontology instances
from the search results. It supports faceted search and has
been been designed for easy deployment.
During the indexing stage of the data, we apply inference
from the ontology as a propagation for the importance of
the different metadata records and fi elds. Using the ontology,
instances with higher relevance can have higher position in the
order. For example, a person who is known by many people
and created many documents would get a higher score. We
use Sesame for storage and retrieve using the RDF query
language SPARQL.
User Access
On top of our storage and retrieval components, we developed
novel techniques for our semantic search application to
visualize information and offer users to browse for that
information in an interactive manner. We let users search for
information semantically, which means that information is
linked together with certain relations. Results are clustered
together based on such relations which allows faceted search
by categories, see fi gure 1. We provide context to relevant
nuggets of information by enabling users to traverse related
RDF graphs. We visualize interconnected results using network
graphs with the TouchGraph tool.
Illustration 1: Result list for query “saratoga”.
We picked up this idea from the ‘berrypicking’ model: a user
searches, picks a berry (a result), stores it in his basket, view
the relations between the berries in the basket, and the search
iteration continues. The purpose is to fi nd new information
from the collected berries (results).
As we are dealing with historical data, chronological timeline
views are also presented using SIMILE’s Timeline, which lets
users browse for information by time. Besides time, we
also offer users to search by location using Google Maps.
Geographical entities, mostly locations in the US, are aligned
with Google Maps.
In summary, we have four modes of visualization which gives
users multiple views of the results: plain list, faceted search,
timeline, and map. We have found that translating such an
interface to an on-line environment offers interesting new ways
to allow for pattern discovery and serendipitous information
seeking. Adding information visualization tools like interactive
and descriptive maps and time-lines to the electronic fi nding
aid’s interface could further improve its potential to augment
cognition, and hence improve information access.
Conclusions
We presented the Semantic Web for History (SWHi) system,
which deals with historical data in the form of library fi nding
aids. We employed Semantic Web and Information Retrieval
technologies to obtain the goal of improving user access to
historical material. Bibliography
Grigoris Antoniou, Frank van Harmelen. A Semantic Web
Primer. The MIT Press, 2004.
Berners-Lee, T., Hendler, J., and Lassila, O. The semantic web.
A new form of web content that is meaningful to computers
will unleash a revolution of new possibilities. The Scientifi c
American, 2001.
Ismail Fahmi, Junte Zhang, Henk Ellermann, and Gosse Bouma.
“SWHi System Description: A Case Study in Information
Retrieval, Inference, and Visualization in the Semantic Web.”
The Semantic Web: Research and Applications, volume 4519 of
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 769-778. Springer,
2007.
Dieter Fensel, Wolfgang Wahlster, Henry Lieberman, James
Hendler. Spinning the Semantic Web: Bringing the World Wide
Web to Its Full Potential. MIT Press, 2002.
Lucene SOLR. http://lucene.apache.org/solr/
Semantic Web for History (SWHi). http://evans.ub.rug.nl/swhi
SIMILE Timeline. http://simile.mit.edu/timeline/
Junte Zhang, Ismail Fahmi, Henk Ellermann, and Gosse Bouma.
“Mapping Metadata for SWHi: Aligning Schemas with Library
Metadata for a Historical Ontology.” Web Information Systems
Engineering -- WISE 2007 Workshops, volume 4832 of Lecture
Notes in Computer Science, pages 102-114. Springer, 2007.","txt","2","",""
"925","9","TauRo - A search and advanced management system for XML documents","2","With the advent of Web 2.0 we have seen a radical change
in the use of Internet, which is no longer seen as a tool from
which to draw information produced by others, but also
as a means to collaborate and to share ideas and contents
(examples are Wikipedia, YouTube, Flickr, MySpace, LinkedIn,
etc.). It is with this in mind that TauRo1 was designed – a userfriendly
tool with which the user can create, manage, share,
and search digital collections of XML documents via Web. TauRo
is indeed a collaborative system through which the user who
has access to Internet and to a browser can publish and share
their own XML documents in a simple and effi cient manner,
thus creating personal and/or shared thematic collections.
Furthermore, TauRo provides extremely advanced search
mechanisms, thanks to the use of a search engine for XML
documents, TauRo-core – an open source software that offers
implemented search and analysis functions to meet the current
need of the humanity texts encoding.
TauRo-core: the search engine
The success of XML as an online data exchange format on the
one hand, and the sucess of the search engines and Google on
the other, offer a stimulating technological opportunity to use
great quantities of data on standard PCs or on other portable
devices such as smart-phones and PDA. The TauRo-core search
engine is an innovative, modular, and sophisticated software
tool which offers the user compressed storing and efficient
analysis/research of arbitrary patterns in large collections
of XML documents that are available both on a single PC
and distributed among several PCs which are dislocated
in various areas of the network. The fl exibility of TauRocore’s
modular architecture along with the use of advanced
compression techniques for the storing of documents and for
the memorization of indexes, makes it suitable to be used in
the various scenarios illustrated in Figure 1. In particular, the use of the system in centralized modality –
that is, in which both the documents and the engine are located
in the same server – is already operative and suitable tested
via implementation of the system on the Web (TauRo). We are
currently working on the structure of Web services – matching
the distributed mode – in order to supply collection creation,
submission of documents, search, and consultation services.
Experiments have also been run to make it possible to consult
collections via PDA or smart-phone: via a specifi c interface the
user can make a query and consult the documents effi ciently
by using the Nokia Tablet 770.
This way, we can also evaluate the behavior of the software
with reduced computational and storing resources.
Compared to the search engines available on the international
scene, TauRo-core offers added search and analysis functions
to meet the current needs of the humanity texts encoding.
Indeed, these may be marked in such a way as to make their
analysis diffi cult on behalf of the standard search engines
designed for non-structured documents (i.e. Web search
engines), or for highly-structured documents (i.e. database), or
for semi-structured documents (i.e. search engines for XML),
but in which these are no assumptions on the semantics of the
mark-up itself.
TauRo-core, instead, allows the user to index XML texts for
which the opportune tag categories have been defi ned. These
tags are denominated smart-tag2, and they are associated with
specifi c management/search guidelines. In order to appreciate
the fl exibility of the smart-tag concept, we have illustrated the
classifi cation here below:
• jump-tag: the tags of this group indicate a temporary
change in context – as in the case of a tag that indicates
a note – and this way the tag content is distinct from the
actual text and the search takes place while distinguishing
the two semantic planes.
• soft-tag: these tags involve a change of context, if the
starting or ending element of the tag is present within a
character string which is not separated by a space, the string
forms a single word.
• split-tag: the tags to which a meaning similar to the word
separator is assigned, fall within this category. Therefore,
the context does not change and the words are in effect
considered as separate.
Furthermore, TauRo-core offers its own query language,
called TRQL, which is powerful enough to allow the user
to carry out complex text analysis that take into account the
above classifi cation and the relationship between content and
structure of the documents. TRQL operates on document
collections, manages the smart-tag and implements the main
full-text search functions requested in the specifi cs of the
W3C3 for XQuery.
This fl exibility allows TauRo-core to also be used in contexts
that are different from the strictly literary one; for example,
the collection of documents of the public administration,
biological archives, manuals, legislative collections, news, etc.
The literary context however remains the most complex and
thus constitutes, due to its peculiar lack of uniformity, a more
stimulating and meaningful trial.
TauRo: the system on the Web
TauRo is a collaborative system that allows any Web user,
after free registration, to create and share collections of XML
documents, and to exploit the potential of TauRo-core to run
full-text searches for regular expressions, by similarity, and
searches within the XML document structure. These searches
can be run on a single collection at a time or on various
collections simultaneously, independently from their nature.
Aided screenshots, we show here below some characteristics
of the system.
Figure 2 – TauRo home page
The collections
Each registered user can upload on TauRo their own collection
of XML documents. Once uploaded, the collection will be
indexed by TauRo-core and made available to the next search
operations. The user may, at any time, modify their collection
by adding or deleting documents, by moving documents from
one collection to the other, and share documents between
various collections, or modify the status of a collection that
can be: • private: accessible and searchable only by the owner;
• public: searchable by all the users after registering and
modifi able only by the owner;
• invite-only: this collections can be subscribed only after
invitation by one of the collection administrators. However,
the user has the possibility to ask for the invitation.
Figure 3 – Collection edit form.
During the uploading or modifi cation of a collection, the
user can select some parameter settings, such as the smarttag
and page interruption tag specifi cs, for the purpose
of exploiting to the fulltest the search engine’s potential. A
further personalization option offered by TauRo consists in
associating each collection with its own XSL stylesheet4 aimed
at visualizing in a pleasant way the results of the searches run
on them.
The documents
The system provides the user with a group of functions that
can upload, classify, and remove XML documents from the
user’s collections. During the upload, the system will try to
run an automatic acknowledgment of the DTD and of the
entity fi les used in the XML document by comparing the public
name with those previously saved. If the acknowledgment fails,
the user is give the option of entering the information. Every
document can be freely downloaded by anyone or one of the
Creative Commons5 licenses that safeguard the owner from
improper use can be selected.
Figure 4 – In the foreground is the document edit form,
and in the background the list of documents.
Search
TauRo offers two different search modes. The fi rst is designed
to search for words within some documents (basic search),
the second allows the user to also construct structural type
of queries, namely on elements – tags and attributes – of the
mark-up via a graphic interface (advanced search). In both cases
the queries are translated into a syntax that can be interpreted
by TauRo-core and sent to it. The search result is the list
of documents of the collection which verify the query, set
alongside the distribution of the results within the documents
themselves. By selecting a document, the user accesses a list
of contextualized occurrences, namely those entered in a text
fragment which contains them, with the possibility of directly
accessing the text as a whole.
In both cases the search can be exact, by prefi x, suffi x, standard
expression or by difference. The user can specify several words,
and, in this case, they will appear next to the document. A basic
search can also be run on several collections simultaneously Figure 5 – Search results
The search results still consist in a list of collection documents
that verify the query. By selecting a document, the user accesses
the list of occurrences (Figure 5 ) that represents the starting
point for accessing the text.
The project has been designed to allow any user to try and
exploit the potential of the search engine by using their PC,
and without having to install complex software. Thanks to
the potentials of TauRo, indeed any user in any part of the
world may create and manage via Web their own XML text
collection.
Notes
1 http://tauro.signum.sns.it
2 L. Lini, D. Lombardini, M. Paoli, D. Colazzo, C. Sartiani, XTReSy: A Text
Retrieval System for XML Documents. In Augmenting Comprehension:
Digital Tools for the History of Ideas, ed by H. Short, G. Pancaldi, D.
Buzzetti, luglio 2001. Offi ce for Humanities Communication
Publications 2001.
3 http://www.w3.org/TR/xquery-full-text-requirements/ Specifi cs of
the language and interrogation requisits, XQuery.
4 eXtensible Stylesheet Language (XSL), a language for expressing
stylesheets.
5 http://www.creativecommons.it/","txt","2","",""
"926","9","The Orationes Project","2","The Orationes Project is an interdisciplinary initiative intended
to bring an important unpublished manuscript into the scholarly
arena. The manuscript, preserved as Lit. MS E41 in the archive
of Canterbury Cathedral, was assembled by George Lovejoy,
the Headmaster of the King’s School, Canterbury, after the
English Civil War. The texts within it represent one of the
most substantial unpublished sources of English School Drama
from the period. As well as containing a previously unnoticed
adaptation of a pre-war play by a major author (James Shirley),
this large volume, comprising 656 folio pages and running to
some 230,000 words, includes a number of short plays and
dramatized orations written in English, Latin and Greek by the
scholars and staff of the King’s School. Some of these celebrate
the Restoration of Charles II to power or reconstruct the
famous ‘Oak-apple’ adventure by which he escaped his
enemies, during the Civil War, by hiding in an Oak tree. Some
re-enact the Gunpowder Plot, which nearly destroyed Charles
II’s grandfather, James I. And others engage with a wide range
of topical issues, from discussions of religious toleration, or
the teaching of classics and grammar in the Restoration, to a
dramatized dialogue between Ben Jonson and Richard Lovelace
and an alchemical allegory on the politics of state.
In the shorter term, the aim of the project has been to produce
a pilot study. To this end we have begun by transcribing the
main texts from the corpus and will produce a series of critical
studies of them. But due to the extensive size of the manuscript,
in the longer term, this forms part of a planned Digital Orationes
Project shared by the English Department at Oulu University,
the Department of Classical Cultures and Languages at Turku
University, and the Department of Religious Studies within the
University of Kent at Canterbury. With the aid of Graduate
research, these institutions will collaborate in the creation of
a digital archive which will make these exciting Early Modern
texts available (in parallel translation) to a wider audience. The
present poster represents our fi rst collaborative endeavour
within this digital enterprise.
Our aims are the following: a) to digitize this collection,
providing images of the manuscript and transcriptions of the
texts within it. We will also b) provide translations in Modern
English of the full texts in the manuscript; many of the texts
characteristically shift language from Latin (or Greek) in midfl
ow and thus warrant a Modern English translation. We intend c) to interlink the manuscript images with the transcriptions
and translations. Finally, we intend d) to make the corpus
freely available on line for scholarly purposes. The texts will
be marked up in XML and we will follow the TEI Guidelines.
We intend to make this digital archive searchable and hope to
make use of tools for the analysis of multimodal data created
at the Faculty of Engineering, University of Oulu. As part of
the pilot study mentioned above, we will begin by digitising
those texts that have been transcribed. This will give us a good
opportunity to produce a model by which to tackle the rest of
the texts, since we can link the manuscript, the transcription, a
translation and a critical study of the text. It will also give us an
opportunity to explore what kinds of functionality we could
or should include in the manipulation of the texts. We also
intend to make use of the experiences of the Scots project in
the use of the database model to handle the creation process
of the digital text.
We therefore feel that DH2008 would offer us a good
opportunity to discuss the project and its practices with
others who have already carried out similar projects. We will
also examine the best practices available online within related
areas – as witnessed, for instance, by the Emily Dickinson,
Lincoln and Perseus projects (http://www.emilydickinson.org/
; http://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/; http://www.perseus.tufts.
edu/) – in order to fi nesse our search techniques and improve
access routes to our manuscript materials.
Within a Finnish context the Orationes project aims to
respond to Jussi Nuorteva (the director of the National
Archive Service in Finland), who has criticised the Finnish
Universities for their reticence in producing open access
digital databases and archives for the use of other researchers.
Hence, we plan to open up the Digital Orationes Project after
2009 on the same model as the Diplomatarium Fennicum
project – http://193.184.161.234/DF/index.htm – (Nuorteva’s
own), which makes the Finnish medieval sources available for
researchers in a digitized form. In this way our project will
also be forward-looking: helping to position the activities of
Oulu’s English Department and Turku’s Classics Department
more fi rmly within the new domain of scholarship which has
been opened up by digital archiving.","txt","2","",""
"927","9","JGAAP3.0 -- Authorship Attribution for the Rest of Us","2","Authorship Attribution (Juola, in press) can be defi ned
as the inference of the author or her characteristics by
examining documents produced by that person. It is of course
fundamental to the humanities; the more we know about a
person’s writings, the more we know about the person and
vice versa. It is also a very diffi cult task. Recent advances in
corpus linguistics have shown that it is possible to do this task
automatically by computational statistics.
Unfortunately, the statistics necessary for performing this task
can be onerous and mathematically formidable. For example, a
commonly used analysis method, Principle Component Analysis
(PCA), requires the calculation of “the eigenvectors of the
covariance matrix with the largest eigenvalues,” a phrase not
easily distinguishable from Star Trek technobabble. In previous
work (Juola, 2004; Juola et al., 2006) we have proposed a model
and a software system to hide much of the details from the
non-specialists, while specifi cally being modularly adaptable
to incorporate new methods and technical improvements.
This system uses a three-phase framework to canonicize
documents, create an event set, and then apply inferential
statistics to determine the most likely author. Because of the
modular nature of the system, it is relatively easy to add new
components.
We now report (and demonstrate) the recent improvements.
Version 3.0 of the JGAAP (Java Graphical Authorship Attribution
Program) system incorporates over fi fty different methods
with a GUI allowing easy user selection of the appropriate
ones to use. Included are some of the more popular and/or
well-performing methods such as Burrows’ function word
PCA (Burrows, 1989), Burrows’ Delta (2003; Hoover 2004a,
2004b)), Juola’s cross-entropy (2004), and Linear Discriminant
Analysis (Baayen, 2002). The user is also capable of mixing and
matching components to produce new methods of analysis; for
example, applying PCA (following Burrows), but to an entirely
different set of words, such as all the adjectives in a document
as opposed to all the function words. With the current user interface, each of these phases is
independently selectable by the user via a set of tabbed radio
buttons. The user fi rst defi nes the document set of interest,
then selects any necessary canonicization and pre-processing,
such as case neutralization and/or stripping HTML markup
from the documents. The user then selects a particular event
set, such as characters, words, character or word N-grams, the
K most common words/characters in the document, part of
speech tags, or even simple word/sentence lengths. Finally, the
user selects an analysis method such as PCA, LDA, histogram
distance using a variety of metrics, or cross-entropy.
More importantly, the JGAAP framework can hide this
complexity from the user; users can select “standard” analysis
methods (such as “PCA on function words”) from a set of
menus, without needing to concern themselves with the
operational details and parameters. Most importantly of all,
the framework remains modular and easily modifi ed; adding
new modules, event models, and analytic methods can be done
in minutes by Java programmers of only moderate skill. We will
demonstrate this by adding new capacity on the fl y.
Perhaps most importantly, we submit that the software
has achieved a level of functionality and stability suffi cient
to make it useful to interested non-specialists. Like the
Delta spreadsheet (Hoover, 2005), JGAAP provides general
support for authorship attribution. It goes beyond the Delta
spreadsheet in the variety of methods it provides. It has also
been tested (using the University of Madison NMI Build-and-
Test suite) and operates successfully on a very wide range
of platforms. By incorporating many cooperational methods,
it also encourages the use of multiple methods, a technique
(often called “mixture of experts”) that has been shown to
be more accurate than reliance on any single technique (Juola,
2008).
Of course, the software is not complete and we hope to
demonstrate some of its weaknesses as well. The user interface
is not as clear or intuitive as we hope eventually to achieve,
and we invite suggestions and comments for improvement. As
the name suggested, the software is written in Java, and while
Java programs are not as slow as is sometimes believed, the
program is nevertheless not speed-optimized and can take a
long time to perform its analysis. Analysis of large documents
(novels or multiple novels) can exhaust the computer’s
memory. Finally, no authorship attribution program can be
a complete survey of the proposed literature, and we invite
suggestions about additional methods to incorporate.
Despite these weaknesses, we nevertheless feel that the
new version of JGAAP is a useful and reliable tool, that the
community at large can benefi t from its use, and that the
development of this tool can similarly benefi t from community
feedback.
References
Baayen, Harald et al. (2002). “An experiment in authorship
attribution.” Proceedings of JADT 2002.
Burrows, John F. (1989). “`An Ocean where each Kind...’ :
Statistical Analysis and Some Major Determinants of Literary
Style.” Computers and the Humanities, 23:309-21
Burrows, John F. (2002). “Delta : A Measure of Stylistic
Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship.” Literary and
Linguistic Computing 17:267-87
Hoover, David L. (2004a). “Testing Burrows’s Delta.” Literary
and Linguistic Computing, 19:453-75.
Hoover, David L. (2004b). “Delta Prime?” Literary and Linguistic
Computing, 19:477-95.
Hoover, David L. (2005) “The Delta Spreadsheet.” ACH/ALLC
2005 Conference Abstracts. Victoria: University of Victoria
Humanities Computing and Media Centre p. 85-86.
Juola, Patrick. (2004). “On Composership Attribution.” ALLC/
ACH 2004 Conference Abstracts. Gothenburg: University of
Gothenburg.
Juola, Patrick. (2008). “Authorship Attribution : What Mixtureof-
Experts Says We Don’t Yet Know.” Presented at American
Association of Corpus Linguistics 2008.
Juola, Patrick. (in press). Authorship Attribution. Delft:NOW
Publishing.
Juola, Patrick, John Sofko, and Patrick Brennan. (2006). “A
Prototype for Authorship Attribution Studies.” Literary and
Linguistic Computing 21:169-78","txt","2","",""
"928","9","Translation Studies and XML: Biblical Translations in Byzantine Judaism, a Case Study","2","All defi nitions of translation describe this process as involving
two or more texts running in parallel that are considered to
be, in a sense, equivalent to each other. When producing a
translation, a source text is divided into syntactic units and each
of them is then translated. The translation can be either literal,
i.e. it mirrors the structure of the original text very closely, or
free, i.e. it ignores the original structure and translates freely.
Because languages diverge greatly in their syntax, the structure
of a language A can not be fully mapped on a language B, since
the outcome in B may be incomprehensible. Besides, cultures
differ greatly as to the degree of freedom/literalness tolerated
in translation.
In dealing with translations compiled in antiquity and the
Middle Ages, we are in a sense trying to discover how a specifi c
culture understood the source text, the grammar of the source
language and the usability of the translation product.
Even though a number of XML-based projects involving
translated texts have been to date proposed to the attention
of the community,1 a model able to describe the precise
relationship between source and target texts is still required.
Such issues have been dealt with at the Centre for Computing
in the Humanities (King’s College, London) in relation to a
research project involving Biblical translations. The analysis
process resulted in an encoding model that could solve
problems specifi cally linked to this project. Yet the model has
the potential to be generalized and adapted to work in other
translation-based projects.
The Biblical translations are by far the most studied in the
world. The text of the Hebrew Bible used in Hellenistic period
was written down in a purely consonantal script without
vowels, which left a large margin for differing interpretations.
In addition to this, the Hebrew manuscript tradition was far
from being homogenous. As a result, a number of translations
of the Hebrew Bible into Greek emerged, some of them
differing substantially from each other.
Until recently, the assumption was that Jews abandoned
their use of Greek Biblical translations, since these were
adopted by the Church. In particular, they were supposed to
ignore the Septuagint, which was recognized as a canonical
and authoritative text by Eastern Churches. However,
the manuscripts found in Cairo Genizah have shaken this
assumption. During the 20th century, new Biblical translations
made by Jews into Greek during Ottoman and Modern period
were discovered.2
The Greek Bible in Byzantine Judaism (GBBJ) Project3 aims to
gather textual evidence for the use of Greek Bible translations
by Jews in the Middle Ages and to produce a corpus of such
translations. Unfortunately, the majority of GBBJ evidence
consists not of continuous texts, but of anonymous glossaries
or single glosses mentioned by medieval commentators.4 The
functioning of continuous texts at our disposal is also unclear.
Further challenges arise from the peculiarities of the writing
system used by the Byzantine translators. Since approximately
the 7th-8th century AD, Jews stopped using the Greek
alphabet and switched instead back to the Hebrew one. In
order to unambiguously represent the Greek phonetics,
the Hebrew alphabet was often supplied with vowel signs
and special diacritics. Some manuscripts contain neither or
use them inconsistently. In order to decode the writing an
IPA reconstruction is therefore essential. However, Hebrew
writing occasionally results in better refl ecting the current
medieval pronunciation of the Greek language. For what
the linguistic structure is concerned, while in general Greek
Jewish Biblical translations use the grammar and lexicon of
the mainstream Greek, in some cases the translators invent
lexical items and employ unusual forms and constructions,
trying to calque the maximal number of grammatical features
from one language into another. Few of the resulting forms are
diffi cult or even impossible to understand without knowing
the Hebrew source. To trace the features transferred and the
consistency of transferring, the tagging of features is necessary.
Therefore, lemmatization and POS-tagging both of the source
and the target texts constitute an essential component for the
research project.
The two main outcomes of the project will be a printed and a
digital edition; the latter will allow users to query and browse
the corpus displayed in parallel verses from the source and
the target texts. The target will be readable in two alphabets:
Hebrew and transliterated Greek.
In designing the encoding model, we have tried to follow TEI
standards as much as possible, e.g. elements for the description
of metadata, editorial features and transcription of primary
fonts have been devised according to P5 guidelines since the
beginning. Yet for what the textual architecture is concerned,
TEI P5 does not include a model that would fi t the project’s
needs, hence we have chosen to start working on the encoding
model on the basis of a custom made DTD rather than a TEI
compliant schema. As a result, the tailored encoding model is simpler to apply for
the encoders. However, all the elements have been mapped on
TEI P5 for interchange and processing purposes.
The encoding model works on three different layers:
a) Structural layer. In any translation study, at least two
texts need to be paired: the source and the target. The
GBBJ project focuses on the target text, and therefore it
constitutes our main document. This text was described
as consisting of segments, within biblical verses, defi ned
on palaeographical grounds. Since the Greek texts we are
dealing with are written in Hebrew characters, they have
to be transliterated into Greek characters and normalized
within what we called the <lexicalTranscription>. The
translational units are then compared to their presumed
sources (the Masorethic Text, in our case) in <coupledPairs>
and fi nally matched with the translations from other Biblical
traditions (Septuagint and Hexaplaric versions), called
<equivalents>. The latter are further connected to their
respective apparatuses. There is a possibility to compare
between the version of Hebrew lexeme as it appears in the
manuscript and the Masoretic Text or its apparatus.
<GBBJ>
<metadata></metadata>
<text>
<verse MT=”Koh 2:19” LXX=”Koh 2:19”>
<segment type=”translation”>
<transcription language=”Greek”
script=”Hebrew”>
<seg> יִקְׁשֹוניִי </seg>
<IPA>jinoski</IPA>
</transcription>
<lexicalTranscription>
<GreekWord dictionaryForm=”γινώσκω”
id=”Koh2-19_3”>
<verb person=”third”
number=”singular” tense=”present”
voice=”active” mood=”indica
tive”>γινώσκει</verb>
</GreekWord>
</lexicalTranscription>
<coupledPair>
<target><ref intRef=”Koh2-
19_3”/></target>
<source><ref exRef=”MT_
Qoh2-19_3”/></source>
<equivalents>
<LXX exRef=”LXX_Eccl2-19_3”></LXX>
</equivalents>
</coupledPair>
</segment>
</verse>
</text>
</GBBJ>
In order to keep the document as semantically clean and
coherent as possible, we have devised a way of externalising
connected information in several “side” fi les. Each of them
contains a different Biblical text: the source (MT), the
Septuagint and Hexaplaric variants. The respective apparatuses
are encoded in separate documents and connected to the main
GBBJ document through a link in the <equivalents> element
within the <coupledPairs> section. Establishing a relationship
between the GBBJ target text and other Greek translations is
not only important for diachronic linguistic purposes, but also
for the study of textual history of the GBBJ translations.
For these external fi les, we have devised a specifi c but simple
DTD (based on TEI) which allows the parallel connection with
the main text.
b) Linguistic layer. In translation studies it is important
to analyse not only semantic relationship between the
words, but also their morphological correspondence.
Lemmatisation and POS-tagging have therefore
been envisaged for both the GBBJ document (within
<lexicalTranscription>) and the external fi les, connected
via IDs. Each segment in the source text can be paired
both semantically and morphologically with any of its
counterparts, allowing complex queries and the generation
of correspondence tables.
c) Editorial and codicological layer. The GBBJ text derives
directly from a primary source, which means that
information needs to be given on all editorial elements:
expansions of abbreviations, integrations, corrections, etc.
The physical structure of the document was also described
on a very granular level including column breaks, line breaks,
folio breaks, marginal notes, change of hands, spaces and
gaps.
The present case study demonstrates the wide range of possible
applications of an XML framework to translation studies. The
Greek Bible in Byzantine Judaism Project presents a number
of problems that are likely to be encountered in other similar
projects, such as an alphabet not suited to a specifi c language
and the existence of wide comparable corpora of translational
traditions. Although some of the solutions found are specifi c to the research project, the approach and the conceptual
model used here may be reused and adapted within the digital
humanities community.
Notes
1 For example: The Emblem Project Utrecht (http://emblems.let.
uu.nl/index.html, accessed 23/11/07), the English-Norwegian Parallel
Corpus (http://www.hf.uio.no/ilos/forskning/forskningsprosjekter/
enpc/, accessed 23/11/07).
2 For general discussion see Fernández Marcos (1998). Outline of the
problems and suggestions for future research: RASHI 1040-1990.
3 A three year AHRC project based at University of Cambridge
(Faculty of Divinity) and King’s College, London (Centre for
Computing in the Humanities); see project website at http://www.
gbbj.org (accessed 7/3/2008).
4 For glossaries see De Lange (1996); Rueger (1959); Tchernetska,
Olszowy-Schlanger, et al. (2007). For a continuous text see Hesseling,
(1901).
References
Burnard, Lou and Bauman, Syd (2007), TEI P5: Guidelines for
Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, at http://www.teic.
org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/index.html (accessed
23/11/07).
De Lange, N. R. M. (1993). The Jews of Byzantium and the
Greek Bible. Outline of the problems and suggestions for
future research. RASHI 1040-1990. Hommage à Ephraïm E.
Urbach. ed. G. Sed-Rajna. Paris, Éditions du Cerf: 203-10.
ID. ( 1996). Greek Jewish Texts from the Cairo Genizah, Tübingen:
Mohr-Siebeck.
Fernández Marcos, Natalio. (1998). Introducción a las
versiones griegas de la Biblia. Madrid: Consejo Superior de
Investigaciones Científi cas, ch.;
H. P. (1959). “Vier Aquila-Glossen in einem hebraischen
Proverben-Fragment aus der Kairo-Geniza.” Zeitschrift für die
Neutestamentlische Wissenschaft 50: 275-277;
Hesseling, D. S. (1901). “Le livre de Jonas.” Byzantinische
Zeitschrift 10: 208-217.
RASHI 1040-1990. Hommage à Ephraïm E. Urbach. ed. G. Sed-
Rajna. Paris, Éditions du Cerf: 203-10.
Tchernetska, N., Olszowy-Schlanger J., et al. (2007). “An Early
Hebrew-Greek Biblical Glossary from the Cairo Genizah.”
Revue des Études Juives 166(1-2): 91-128.","txt","2","",""
"929","9","Multi-Dimensional Markup: N-way relations as a generalisation over possible relations between annotation layers","2","Text-technological background
Multi-dimensional markup is a topic often discussed. The main
reasonwhy it is researched is the fact that the most important
markup languages today make the implicit assumption that for
a document, only a single hierarchy of markup elements needs
to be represented. Within the fi eld of Digital Humanities,
however, more and more analyses of a text are expressed
by means of annotations, and as a consequence, segments of
a text are marked up by tags relating to different levels of
description. Often, a text is explicitly or implicitly marked up
several times. When using the TEI P5 as an annotation scheme
one might use markup from different TEI modules concurrently
as ‘msdescription’ for manuscript description, ‘textcrit’ for
Text Criticism, and ‘analysis’ for (linguistic) analysis and
interpretation, because the Guidelines state that “TEI schema
may be constructed using any combination of modules” (TEI
P5 Guidelines).
Abstracting away from limitations of specifi c markup
languages, textual regions annotated according to different
levels of descriptions can stand in various relationsships to
each other. Durusau & O’Donnell (2002) list 13 possible
relationsships between two elements A and B used to
concurrently annotate a text span. Their list comprises the
cases ‘No overlap’ (independence), ‘Element A shares end
point with start point of element B or the other way round’,
‘Classic overlap’, ‘Elements share start point’, ‘Elements share
end point’ and ‘Element share both their start points and end
points’. The latter case is known under the label ‘Identity’. The
possible relationships between A and B can also be partitioned
differently, e.g. into Identity, Region A before region B, or the
other way round. Witt (2004) has alternatively grouped the
relations into three ‘meta-relations’ called ‘Identity’, ‘Inclusion’,
and ‘Overlap’. Meta-relations are generalisations over all the
13 basic relations inventorised by Durusau & O’Donnell.
The reason for introducing meta-relations is to reduce the
number of relations to be analysed to those cases that are
most typically needed when querying annotations of multiply
annotated documents. The query tool described in Witt et al. (2005) provides 7 two-way query predicates for the 13
basic relations from Durusau & O’Donnell (where e.g. the
two relations overlap(A,B) and overlap(B,A) are handled by
one query predicate) and specialised predicates for the three
meta-relations.
As argued above, often n-way relationships between elements
from three or more annotation layers need to be queried.
When the detailed accounts of cases of relations between
two elements described above are extended to cases where
three or more layers are analysed, the number of possible
relationships is subject to a combinatorial explosion and
rises into several hundreds and thousands. Only in the case
of identity(A,B), additional 13 cases of three-way relationships
can be distinguished; for all remaining cases of two-way
relationships, considerably more three-way cases need to be
distinguished. It seems impossible to invent names, let alone to
formulate and implement queries for each one of them. Still, for
a user it would be desirable to have a set of query predicates
for n-way relations available, lest (s)he needs to repeatedly
combine queries for two-way relationships, which often can
be done only with the help of a fully-fl edged programming
language.
Application: Analysing n-way relations
in text parsing
One text-technological application where relations between
elements on more than two elements need to be analysed,
is discourse parsing of argumentative texts. In a bottom-up
operating discourse parser such as the one developed for
German research articles in the SemDok project (Lüngen et al.
2006), it is checked successively whether a discourse relation
holds between two known adjacent discourse segments such
that they can be combined to form a larger segment. Often
this depends on the presence of a lexical discourse marker,
such as the adverb ‘lediglich’ (‘only’), in the second segment.
But with ‘lediglich’ as with numerous other markers, there is
the additional condition that it has to occur in the so-called
vorfeld (fi rst topological fi eld of a German sentence according
to the syntax of German, cf. Hinrichs & Kübler 2006), of the fi rst
sentence of the second discourse segment. Thus, a combination
of information from at least three different information levels
(discourse segments, syntax, and discourse markers) needs to
be checked, i.e. whether the following situation holds:
L1: <ds>..........................
...........................</ds>
L2: <s><vorfeld>.................
....</vorfeld>.............</s>
L3: <dm>lediglich</dm>
This situation corresponds to a meta-relation of three-way
inclusion: <ds> from Layer 1 must include a <vorfeld> from
Layer 2, which in turn must include a <dm> from Layer 3.
Querying n-way relations between
elements of multiple annotations
We have identifi ed a set of n-way meta-relations that are typically
needed in text-technological applications for multiply annotated
documents, namely N-way independence, N-way identity,
N-way inclusion, and N-way overlap, (where independence,
identity, and inclusion hold between the elements from all
n layers, and overlap holds between at least one pair among
the n elements). The proposed poster presentation illustrates
further examples from text-technological applications such as
discourse analysis and corpus linguistic studies, where querying
n-way relations between elements is required. It explains
our set of query predicates that have been implemented in
Prolog for n-way meta-relations, and how they are applied to
the examples. Furthermore it presents an evaluation of their
usability and computational performance.
References
Durusau, Patrick and Matthew Brook O’Donnell (2002).
Concurrent Markup for XML Documents. XML Europe 2002.
Hinrichs, Erhard and Sandra Kübler (2006). What Linguists
Always Wanted to Know About German and Did not Know
How to Estimate. In Mickael Suominen, Antti Arppe, Anu
Airola, Orvokki Heinämäki, Matti Miestamo, Urho Määttä,
Jussi Niemi, Kari K. Pitkänen and Kaius Sinnemäki (eds.): A
Man of Measure : Festschrift in Honour of Fred Karlsson on his
60th Birthday. The Linguistic Association of Finland, Special
Supplement to SKY Journal of Linguistics 19. Turku, Finland.
Lüngen, Harald, Henning Lobin, Maja Bärenfänger, Mirco
Hilbert and Csilla Puskas (2006). Text parsing of a complex
genre. In Bob Martens and Milena Dobreva (eds.): Proceedings
of the Conference on Electronic Publishing (ELPUB 2006). Bansko,
Bulgaria.
Witt, Andreas (2004). Multiple hierarchies: New aspects of
an old solution. In Proceedings of Extreme Markup Languages.
Montreal, Canada.
Witt, Andreas, Harald Lüngen, Daniela Goecke and Felix
Sasaki (2005). Unifi cation of XML Documents with
Concurrent Markup. Literary and Linguistic Computing 20(1), S.
103-116. Oxford, UK.","txt","2","",""
"930","9","Bibliotheca Morimundi. Virtual reconstitution of the manuscript library of the abbey of Morimondo","2","Presentation of the plan of search and
its object
The aim of the project Bibliotheca Morimundi is to recompose
in a database of digital images the written heritage that
belonged to the library of the Cistercian abbey of Morimondo
(Milan), dispersed after the suppression of the monastery in
1796. The collection was composed by medieval manuscripts,
renaissance incunabula and diplomas. According to medieval
catalogues and to ex libris about 80 extant manuscripts
(dating from the middle of 12th century to the 15th century),
3 incunabula and hundred of medieval and post-medieval
diplomas belonged to the abbey of Morimondo. Morimondo
manuscripts are generally characterised by a remarkable
thematic range and relevant artistic preciousness: Bibles and
liturgical books decorated with fi ne miniatures, books with
musical notation (among which is the most ancient known
antiphonary of Cistercian order), patristic texts that show an
interest for authors from the Eastern Christianity, and fi nally
juridical, scientifi c and theological codices that are witnesses
of the participation of the Morimondo monastery to the
European renewal of the twelfth and thirteenth century. Some
of the diplomas are of high historical importance, as papal and
imperial documents, and are now conserved at State Archive
of Milan.
Since manuscripts from Morimondo are now conserved in ca.
twenty libraries dislocated all around the world, a comparative
and detailed study of all these sources has not yet been possible:
the digital resource will allow a global study of this collection,
based on the comparison of handwritten texts (manuscripts
and diplomas) produced in the very same scriptorium. On the
basis of these features the Bibliotheca Morimundi project will
be a digital library that differentiates itself from other digital
libraries, which build on an extant collection (see the Sankt
Gallen or Köln projects: http://www.cesg.unifr.ch/it/index.htm;
http://www.ceec.uni-koeln.de/). In the case of Morimondo the
digital library takes the place of the no more extant library.
The virtual recollection of the manuscripts once belonged
to Morimondo abbey in a digital database should allow a
systematic study of the history and the culture developed in
this monastic site, a singular oasis in the Ticino’s valley, at 40 km
from Milan, where religious life and textual production where
cultivated together. Throughout the possibility to compare
these manuscripts, of the majority of which were written in
Morimondo, scholars would have the opportunity to detect
palaeographical, codicological, liturgical and textual features of
the monastic culture in Morimondo.
The realization of the database Bibliotheca Morimundi not only
will reconstitute the ancient unity of the library of the abbey,
but is also intended as an interactive instrument of research,
by providing a wealth of resources including digital images of
the manuscripts, incunabula and diplomas ,texts transcriptions,
indices, and bibliography, organized as an hypertext structure
capable to facilitate the research and to integrate progressing
results and dissemination of the studies (such as printed papers
but also notes made by users).
The Database
The database is accessed as a web site structure in html
language. The consultation of the digitals images, due to
copyright reasons, is allowed – at least in this fi rst phase of the
realization – only off line, on local computer terminals hosted
by the institutions which support the project (Fondazione
Franceschini of Florence and Fondazione Rusca of Como).
Catalogues and textual resources will be published on line.
When a library owner of manuscripts from Morimondo didn’t
allow a digital reproduction a digitized microfi lm is inserted
in the database. The pictures, provided as 8 bit colour JPEG
at the resolution of 300 dpi, are readable in PDF format. The
metadata will be codifi ed in XML language following the MAG
standard, http://www.iccu.sbn.it/genera.jsp?id=267, which
scheme consent to mark either the digital images or the OCR
files of secondary bibliography and other textual resources
(such transcription, notes progressively added by users etc.).
Status of the work
At present about 30 of 78 mss. have been photographed.
The most important collection of Morimondo manuscripts
(summing 18 mss.), owned by the Biblioteca del Seminario
Vescovile di Como, has been fully photographed in digital
colour pictures and constituted the current base of the archive
of digital photos. Others single codices kept in monastic
library (such as Tamié in France or Horsham in England) have
been digitally photographed. Digital images amount, up to now,
at the number of 7000 ca. Others main collections, such as
those kept in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris or in the British Library in London, have been acquired as b/w
microfi lms and converted in digital images with a slide scanner.
In a draft version the database is already consultable at the
library of the Fondazione Rusca of Como, where also the mss.
of the Biblioteca del Seminario are conserved. Some scholars
have already begun their studies by using the data (images and
texts) and metadata (codicological data about the manuscript
source, digital image informations) already inserted in the
database.
Developments of the search
A fundamental direction of development of the «Bibliotheca
Morimundi» project will the multidisciplinary integration
of differentiated scientifi c competences in the study of the
sources included in the database. Already a team of scholars
with academic roles has been contacted or involved in
the project. The integration of digitals images and textual
instruments that will progressively facilitates the study of
the Morimondo primary sources will also constitute a fi eld
of application for developers of computational resources in
the humanities. Another development will be the incentive
toward the interrelation of several type of cultural institutional
needs, such the needs of research and the needs of historical
preservation and divulgation. The project has already made
progress on the basis of such a cooperation between an
institution involved in active scientifi c research (Fondazione
Franceschini – SISMEL, one of the most active institution,
at international level, in the study of the Middle Ages) and a
library (Biblioteca del Seminario vescovile di Como, keeper
of 18 manuscripts from Morimondo). Other conventions for
scientifi c cooperation between institutions are currently in
progress.
Bibliography
Correlated Projects
Codices Electronici Ecclesiae Coloniensis (CEEC)
http://www.ceec.uni-koeln.de/
Codices Electronici Sangallenses (CESG) – Virtual Library
http://www.cesg.unifr.ch/it/index.htm
Digital Image Archive of Medieval Music
http://www.diamm.ac.uk/
Manuscriptorium
http://www.manuscriptorium.com/Site/ENG/default_eng.asp
Monasterium Projekt (MOM)
www.monasterium.net
Papers
Michele Ansani, Edizione digitale di fonti diplomatiche:
esperienze, modelli testuali, priorità, «Reti medievali VII- 2006
/ 2 - luglio-dicembre», http://www.dssg.unifi .it/_RM/rivista/
forum/Ansani.htm
Arianna Ciula, L’applicazione del software SPI ai codici senesi
in Poesía medieval (Historia literaria y transmisión de textos)
cur. Vitalino Valcárcel Martínez - Carlos Pérez González,
Burgos, Fundación Instituto Castellano y Leonés de la Lengua
2005 pp. 483 (Beltenebros 12), pp.?305-25
Emiliano Degl’Innocenti, Il Progetto di digitalizzazione
dei Plutei della Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana di Firenze
«DigItalia». Rivista del digitale nei beni culturali, Roma =
DigItalia 1 (2007), pp. 103-14
Digitalisierte Vergangenheit. Datenbanken und Multimedia
von der Antike bis zur frühen Neuzeit, cur. Christoph Schäfer
- Florian Krüpe, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz 2005 pp. XI-147
tavv. (Philippika. Marburger altertumskundliche Abhandlungen
5)","txt","2","",""
"931","9","Investigating word cooccurrence selection with extracted sub-networks of the Gospels","2","Graph representation and the techniques of graph theory
and network analysis offer very effective ways of detecting
and investigating the intricate patterns of connectivity that
exist within large-scale linguistic knowledge resources. In this
presentation, we apply a graph-clustering technique for data
processing that utilizes a clustering-coeffi cient threshold in
creating sub-networks for the Gospels of the New Testament.
Specially, this study discusses some graph clustering results
from the perspectives of optimal clustering and data sizes
with a view to constructing an optimal semantic network
by employing the hierarchical graph clustering algorithm of
Recurrent Markov Clustering (RMCL). The corpus used in
this study is a Greek version of the Gospels (Nestle-Aland,
1979) for which two semantic networks are created based
on network features. The network structures are investigated
from the perspective of constructing appropriate semantic
networks that capture the relationships between words and
concepts.
In the natural language processing of texts, word pairs are
usually computed by the windowing method (Takayama,
Flournoy, Kaufmann, & Peters, 1998). The windowing method
provides a relatively simple representation of similarity levels
that is suitable for clustering. The technique involves moving
a certain sized window over a text to extract all fi xedsized
word grams (Vechthomova, Roberston, & Jones, 2003).
Word pairings are then made by combining all extracted
words. In the present study, co-occurrence data is computed
with two window sizes that refl ect syntactic and semantic
considerations. The fi rst size (WS1) is set at 1 for the nearest
co-occurrence, while the second size (WS10) is set to 10 to
collect words and no stemming process was taken. Accordingly,
8,361 word occurrences were identifi ed. An adjacency matrix
for the graphs was created from the word co-occurrence
data for a particular range of the texts. Using the clustering
coeffi cient as a threshold, the network was reduced into 18
sub-networks which were created at 0.1 increments of the
clustering coeffi cient value (from 0.1 to 0.9).
In Figure 1, the degree distributions for the two networks for
all occurrence nodes are plotted along log-log coordinates.
The window size of 1 shows the best fi t to a power law
distribution (r=1.7). The average degree value of 15.5 (2%) for
the complete semantic network of 8,361 nodes clearly indicates
that the network exhibits a pattern of sparse connectivity; in
other words, that it possesses the characteristics of a scalefree
network according to Barabasi and Albert (1999). In
contrast, the window size of 10 has a bell-shaped distribution
and its average degree value of 106.4 (13%) indicates that
the network exhibits a much greater level of connectivity
compared to the window size of 1.
Figure.1 Degree distributions
The second network feature is the clustering coeffi cient which
represents the inter-connective strength between neighboring
nodes in a graph. Following Watts and Strogatz (1998), the
clustering coeffi cient of the node (n) can be defi ned as:
(number of links among n’s neighbors)/(N(n)*(N)-1)/2), where
N(n) denotes the set of n’s neighbors. The coeffi cient assumes
values between 0 and 1.
Moreover, Ravasz and Barabasi (2003) advocate a similar notion
of clustering coeffi cient dependence on node degree, based on
a hierarchical model of scaling laws. The results of scaling C(k)
with k for the two networks are presented in Figure 2. As the
two networks conform well to a power law, we can conclude
that they both possess intrinsic hierarchies.
Figure.2 Clustering coeffi cient distributions
The graph clustering method applied in this study is Recurrent
Markov Clustering (RMCL), recently proposed by Jung, Miyake, and Akama (2006), as an improvement to Van Dongen’s (2000)
Markov Clustering (MCL) which is widely recognized as an
effective method for the detection of patterns and clusters
within large and sparsely connected data structures (Dorow,
Widdows, Ling, Eckmann, Sergi & Moses (2005), Steyvers &
Tenenbaum (2005)). The fi rst step in the MCL consists
of sustaining a random walk across a graph. The recurrent
process is essentially achieved by incorporating feedback data
about the states of overlapping clusters prior to the fi nal MCL
output stage. The reverse tracing procedure is a key feature of
RMCL making it possible to generate a virtual adjacency matrix
for non-overlapping clusters based on the convergent state
yielded by the MCL process. The resultant condensed matrix
represents a simpler graph that can highlight the conceptual
structures that underlie similar words.
Figure 3 presents cluster sizes as a function of the clustering
coeffi cient for the two window sizes of 1 and 10. The terms
for the input data (WS1-data, WS10-data) refer to the two
initial adjacency matrices. Focusing on the trend in cluster
sizes for the window size of 10 (WS10), the fact that cluster
sizes remain relatively constant regardless of size of the data
indicates that as the window size increases, clusters are less
dependent on the clustering coeffi cient.
Figure.3 MCL results
In order to optimize the co-occurrence data, we employ
Newman and Girvan’s (2004) notion of modularity, which is
particularly useful in assessing the quality of divisions within
a network. Modularity Q indicates differences in edge
distributions between a graph of meaningful partitions and a
random graph under the same vertices conditions (numbers
and sum of their degrees). Accordingly, Miyake and Joyce
(2007) have proposed the combination of the RMCL clustering
algorithm and this modularity index in order to optimize the
infl ation parameter within the clustering stages of the RMCL
process.
Moreover, to consider the recall rates of nodes, the F measure
is also employed to optimize the selection of the most
appropriate co-occurrence data, because the precision rate, P,
always depends on a trade-off relationship between modularity
Q and the recall rate R.
Figure 4 plots modularity Q and the F measure as a function
of clustering coeffi cients for the two window sizes of 1 and
10. The results indicate that there are no peaks in the plot of
Q values. This fi nding suggests that as the value of r decreases,
the value of Q increases. In the case of WS1, there are
differences in the peaks for the two measures of Q and F, for
while Q peaks at 0.6, the value of F peaks at 0.4. In this study,
we regard the peak in the F measure as a recall rate according
to the size of the data. As the results for WS10 show no peaks
in the Q value, we also take the peak value for F which is 0.7.
In this way, the number of node is about 5,000 for the two
selected sub-networks, which are almost the same size as the
networks.
Figure 4.
In conclusion, two network representations of the Gospels
were created for different window sizes of text, and the
networks were analyzed for the basic features of degree and
clustering coeffi cient distributions in order to investigate the
presence of scale-free patterns of connectivity and hierarchical
structures. This study also reported on the application of
a hierarchical graph clustering technique to sub-networks
created with different clustering-coeffi cient thresholds. In
terms of constructing an optimal semantic network, the
combination of the modularity measurement and the F
measure is demonstrated to be effective in controlling the
sizes of clusters. Bibliography
Barabási, A.L., and R. Albert (1999), Emergence of Scaling in
Random Networks. Science, 86, pp.509-512.
Dorow, B., D. Widdows, K. Ling, J. Eckmann, D. Sergi, and
E. Moses (2005), Using Curvature and Markov Clustering
in Graphs for Lexical Acquisition and Word Sense
Discrimination. MEANING-2005, 2nd Workshop organized by
the MEANING Project, February 3rd-4th 2005, Trento, Italy.
Trento, Italy.
Jung, J., Miyake, M., Akama, H.(2006), Recurrent Markov
Cluster (RMCL) Algorithm for the Refi nement of the
Semantic Network, In Proceedings of the 5th International
Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC2006),
pp.1428-1432.
Nestle-Aland (1987), Novum Testmentum Graece. 26th
edition. Stuttgart: German Bible Society, 1987.
Miyake, M., Joyce, T (2007), Mapping out a Semantic Network
of Japanese Word Associations through a Combination of
Recurrent Markov Clustering and Modularity. In Proceedings
of the 3rd Language & Technology Conference (L&TC’07),
pp.114-118.
Steyvers, M., and J. B. Tenenbaum (2005), The Large-Scale
Structure of Semantic Networks: Statistical Analyses and a
Model of Semantic Growth. Cognitive Science 29.1, pp.41-78.
Takayama, Y., R. Flournoy, S. Kaufmann, and S. Peters.
Information Mapping: Concept-based Information Retrieval
Based on Word Associations. http://www-csli.stanford.edu/
semlab-hold/infomap/theory.html, 1998.
van Dongen, Stijn Marinus (2000), “Graph Clustering by Flow
Simulation”. PhD Thesis. University of Utrecht. http://igiturarchive.
library.uu.nl/dissertations/1895620/inhoud.htm
Vechthomova, O., S. Robertson, and S. Jones (2003), Query
Expansion With Long-Span Collocate. Information Retrieval 6,
pp.251-273.
Watts, D., and S. Strogatz (1998), Collective Dynamics of
‘Small-World’ Networks. Nature 393, pp.440-442.","txt","2","",""
"932","9","Literary Space: A New Integrated Database System for Humanities Research","2","We describe here a basic design of a multi-purpose database
system for Humanities research that we are developing. The
system named “LiterarySpace” provides a new integrated
electronic workbench for carrying out various kinds of
processing acts on textual study: documentation, transcription,
interpretation, representation, publication and so on
(Shillingsburg 2006). In other words, it has a polar range of
possibilities of functions from a private tool to a publishing
medium: image data of any materials such as inscribed stones,
wooden tablets, papyrus rolls, paper codex etc. can be stored
for private and/or for public use, and recorded text data
such as the results of electronically scholarly editing and/or
outcomes of hermeneutic inquiry with/without relation to the
graphics, and then represent all or part of the data archives to
yourself in a stand-alone computer and/or to anyone via the
internet.
The essential architecture of this relational database is simple:
It is constructed from three database fi les: fi le-1, graphic data
fi le = GDF; fi le-2, text data fi le = TDF; fi le-3, control data fi le =
CDF. GDF has two data fi elds in each of its records: the one for
storing image data and the other for its unique serial numbers
the system automatically issues. We named this identifi cation
number IDGraphic. A record in TDF consists of three data
fi elds which keep three kinds of data: 1) text data, 2) its unique
identifi cation integers assigned by the system which we named
IDText, 3) IDGraphic as a relational key to GDF. In terms of
the relation between GDF and TDF, one distinguishing feature
is that one GDF record allows an overlapped link to plural
TDF records; namely the correspondence of records in GDF
to ones in TDF is one-to-many and not vice versa. A CDF
record contains the following two fi elds: 1) IDSet fi eld in
which IDGraphic or IDText is registered as a relational key,
and 2)Index fi eld which keeps numbers that have been input
in order to make the sequence of the records called out by
the IDSet. As for the identifi cation of the type of IDSet, with
just the two alternatives, IDGraphic or IDText, the name of
the CDF serves as a mark. If the fi lename given by the user
contains the word “GDF” or “gdf” , the fi le is interpreted as a
set of records from GDF. Otherwise, it is being from TDF.
The powerfulness of “LiterarySpace” is caused from this
simple structure which corresponds to the theoretical model
we made up based on our clear understanding about space and time in writing (Myojo & Uchiki 2006). Concerning space,
written existence demands two different spaces: physical
space which every written text occupies, and conceptual
space which the text generates in the minds of writers and
readers at the same time (Bolter 1991). On the other hand,
time is time; time is never physical but ever visionary and
such time in a written text can be controlled by the writer
and even the reader. The three database fi les of our system
coincide with these epistemological dimensions: GDF with
the physical space, TDF with the conceptual space, and CDF
with the variable time, or a little more precisely, fi ctional
spaces in which each conducted time goes (Stanzel 1989).
Within the one space of the one “LiterarySpace” there can
exist only one GDF, one TDF, and plural CDF(s). The space of
the single GDF is constituted of image data as non-charactercoded
documentation of extant materials. And the time of
its space is represented by the sequential order indicated
by integers assigned mechanically for each additional record.
Needless to say, the order corresponds to the succession in
which the records are input. The one-time-only character of
the inputting acts in reality is the reason why the integer, i.e.
IDGraphic is unique. So you might call the time generated by
the unique numbers the “real” one. The single TDF is made
up from text data as character-coded documentation of any
writing, that is to say, the products of conceptual work; and the
space has also the single “real” time represented in the order
designated by the IDText integers, which naturally corresponds
to the succession in which the data are put. The philosophical
substance of CDF(s) is, however, different; its space is a metaspace
which consists of data records chosen from GDF or
TDF. As the space is, so to speak, fi ctional, it is possible to be
set in imaginary time. The meta-time can be produced by the
sequence of the Index-numbers issued not by machine but by
the user. Because of the fi ctionality, one can make more than
one sequence if necessary. So, unlike other types of fi eld, the
Index-fi eld can be increased. To be sure, there also exists “real”
time in accordance with the succession of the records input
into the CDF and if no sequence is created, the records would
be represented in the input order.
The fi rst part of our presentation will illustrate this system
design more in detail, explaining signifi cant features including
e.g. the reason of the above mentioned one-to-many
correspondence of GDF to TDF in connection with the
theoretical modelling (McCarty 2005).
In the second part we will demonstrate a prototype of the
system which is built using the database application “FileMaker
Pro” (After the specifi cation of the software has been
completed, its program will be rewritten in Common Lisp).
The current main database in the prototype is Franz Kafka’s
database constituted of information particularly from his
“Oktavhefte”. One of us, Myojo is originally a Kafka researcher
and the primal need of this system arose in the context of
her literary research project (Myojo 2002). Myojo’s study
following her own methodology as a combination between
“Editionswissenschaft” and “critique géntique” has always
demanded a cross-referenced complicated work handling
three editions simultaneously: the practical edition by Max
Brod, the critical edition “Kritische Kafka-Ausgabe”, and the
facsimile edition “Franz Kafka-Ausgabe”. So we should admit
that the fi rst attempt of our modelling was not theoretical
but practical (Myojo 2004). It is, however, because our project
started to grasp the actual needs of the one scholar in the
Humanities that this system has grown up as a real useful
entity. Using the Kafka database as an example, we would like
to demonstrate not only how the system operates but also
how effi ciently the performance assists the investigation for
work in the humanities.
The third part will be dedicated to showing the other feasibilities
of this system. One of the many defi ning characteristics of
this system is that it allows us to contain several databases
at the same time. For instance in addition to Kafka’s database
one can also construct Shakespeare’s as well as the work
of some Japanese authors’ etc. in the same system. Also, a
more signifi cant point is that one can input as much data as
necessary without worrying about grouping or sequences.
Simply put, one can make a record of Kafka’s information just
after inputting that of Shakespeare’s. This unrestrictedness is
enabled by the aforementioned epistemological data structure
because the grouping and the sequence can be controlled
afterwards by means of creating a meta-area, i.e. a CDF.
Presently in our prototype two more databases of Japanese
authors are under construction: Kenji Miyazawa (宮沢賢治)’s
and Soseki Natsume (夏目漱石)’s. The strong merits of this
capability will be presented as an exhibition of research results
in the fi eld of comparative literature (Myojo 2003).
One more important point we have to mention: as we noted
at the beginning of this text, the system serves as a private tool
and/or a publishing medium. The signifciance of this feature
would be recognized well if you imagined the case of dealing
with works protected by copyright. Of course the dual aspects
of privateness and publicness correspond to the original
distinguishing character of the computer itself. From not only
this but the all above points of view it might be suggested that
this system could become a powerful electronic substitute
for a physical notebook. In the last part of the presentation
we would like to discuss the multifaceted possibilities, i.e. the
universality of the system.
Acknowledgments
This work was funded in part by The Japan Society for the
Promotion of Science (JSPS) under Grant-in-Aid for Scientifi c
Research (C) [18529001]. We would also like to thank
Christian Wittern (Kyoto University), Tetsuya Uchiki (Saitama
University) and other members of The Japanese Association
for Scholarly Editing in the Digital Age (JASEDA) for their help
in establishing regular and fruitful discussions.Bibliography
Bolter, David J., Writing Space, Hillsdale (Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates) 1991.
McCarty, Willard, Humanities Computing, Houndmills (Palgrave
McMillan), 2005.
Myojo, Kiyoko, Kafka Revisited, Tokyo (Keio University Press),
2002 [in Japanese].
Myojo, Kiyoko, “Kafka und sein japanischer Zeitgenosse
Kenji”, Saitama University Review 39.2 (2003): 215-225.
Myojo, Kiyoko, “What is the Future of Computer-Assisted
Scholarly Editing?” IPSJ SIG Technical Reports CH-62 (2004):
37-44 [in Japanese].
Myojo, Kiyoko & Tetsuya Uchiki: “A Theoretical Study on
Digital-Archiving of Literary Resources”, IPSJ Symposium
Series 17 (2006): 153-160 [in Japanese].
Shillingsburg, Peter L., From Gutenberg to Google, Cambridge
(Cambridge University Press) 2006.
Stanzel, Franz K., Theorie des Erzählens, Göttingen
(Vandenhoec & Ruprecht), 1989 [1979].","txt","2","",""
"933","9","A Collaboration System for the Philology of the Buddhist Study","2","In the fi eld of the Buddhist study, especially, the philosophy of
the Buddhism, there are many texts which have been passed
down throughout history since around 5th century BCE. In
spite of the long history, philological study started around the
18th century CE and has not yet been considered adequate.
The original texts which were written in India do not remain,
but many manuscripts copied by Buddhist monk scribes
remain in Indic languages such as Sanskrit or Pāli or translated
into Tibetan or classical Chinese. Those translated texts
alone consist of huge number of pages. Some of them have
been published in the scholarly editions, but many texts are
not published, or are not verifi ed as reliable texts. Moreover,
sometimes old Sanskrit manuscripts may be newly discovered
in Nepal, Tibet or others. Under these conditions, even if a
new scholarly edition is published, it may have to be edited
again with the discovery of a newly-found Indian manuscript.
Therefore, in the fi eld, a collaboration system for the sake of
editing of the texts on the Internet would be effective so that
reliable texts could be edited anytime, sentence-by-sentence,
word-by-word, or even letter-by-letter on the basis of those
witnesses. The collaboration system must be able to:
(1) represent and edit the texts and the facsimile images in
a multilingual environment such as Sanskrit, Tibetan and CJK
characters.
(2) store the information of the relationship between each
of the content objects which are included in the each of
the witnesses as text data and facsimile image.
(3) add the physical location of those objects to the
information.
(4) record the name of the contributors of each piece of
information.
It is not diffi cult to represent and edit the texts and the facsimile
images in a multilingual environment by the popularization of
UTF-8. However, regarding CJK characters that are either not
yet in Unicode or belong to the CJK-Extension B area, the
collaboration system adopts a method called “Mojiyaki” to
represent the glyphs of the characters as the image fi les on
Web browsers and a character database called “CHISE” based
on the IDS ( Ideographic Description Sequence ). Tibetan
scripts are included in Unicode and supported in Windows
Vista. But the font of the scripts is not included in the older
versions of Microsoft Windows. In the fi eld, most researchers
use the Tibetan texts on the computers by means of their transliteration into ASCII characters. Thus, according to these
conventions, the system must support at least ASCII characters
for the Tibetan characters. Indic characters are the same as
the Tibetan characters.
The content objects which are included in each of the witnesses
such as the paragraphs, the sentences, the words or the letters
in the text data or the fragments of the facsimile image have
relationships to others in the context of the history of thought
in Buddhism. The collaboration system provides a function
that will describe such information about the relationships
separately from the literal digital copies of the witnesses. The
information at least consists of the location of the content
objects in the witness such as the paragraph, the sentence
or the word and the attributes of the relationship such as
variants, quotations, translations, and so on. Because some
relationships have a kind of a hierarchy, it must be refl ected in
the collaboration system. However, it is important to keep the
fl exibility in the methods of the description of the hierarchy
because the hierarchy is often different in each tradition of the
texts. One more important thing is that copyright problems
might be solved by describing the information separately from
the digital copies of the witnesses.
It is important to describe the physical location of the content
objects by the means of the traditional methods such as page
and line number so that the information of the relationship
can maintain interchangeability with the traditional methods
which refer to their physical location in the witness.
The collaboration system must record the name of the
contributors of the information so that responsibility for the
information can be shown explicitly and users can fi lter the
unnecessary information.
The prototype of a collaboration system which implements
the above functions is already completed as a Web
application using the “Madhyamaka Kārikā” which is a famous
philosophical Buddhist text that has been quoted or referred
in other texts since about the 3rd Century. It refl ects opinions
of some Buddhist researchers. It is working on GNU/Linux
using Apache HTTPD server and PostgreSQL and coded by
PHP and AJAX so that users can do all of the works on their
Web browsers. All of them consist of free software. It can be
demonstrated on the Digital Humanities 2008. Moreover, At
present, I am attempting to describe the relationships by use
of RDF, OWL and the elements defi ned by the TEI. The method
of the description will be also shown at the conference.
Bibliography
Caton, Paul, “Distributed Multivalent Encoding”, Digital
Humanities 2007 Conference Abstracts, pp. 33-34. (2007).
DeRose, Steven, “Overlap: A Review and a Horse”,
Extreme Markup Languages 2004: Proceedings, http://www.
mulberrytech.com/Extreme/Proceedings/html/2004/
DeRose01/EML2004DeRose01.html. (2004).
MORIOKA, Tomohiko, “Character processing based on
character ontology”, IPSJ SIG Technical Report, 2006-CH-072,
pp. 25-32. (2006).
Nagasaki, Kiyonori, “Digital Archives of Indian Buddhist
Philosophy Based on the Relationship between Content
Objects”, IPSJ SIG Technical Report, 2007-CH-75, pp. 31-38.
(2007).
Nagasaki, Kiyonori, Makoto MINEGISHI and Izumi HOSHI,
“Displaying multi-script data on the Web”, Proceedings of the
Glyph and Typesetting Workshop, 21st Century COE Program
“East Asian Center for Informatics in Humanities - Toward an
Overall Inheritance and Development of Kanji Culture - “ Kyoto
University, pp. 44-51. (2004).
Renear, Allen H., “Text Encoding”, A Companion to Digital
Humanities, Blackwell Publishing, 2004, pp. 218-239. (2004).
Steinkellner, Ernst, “Methodological Remarks On The
Constituion Of Sanskrit Texts From The Buddhist Pramāṇa-
Tradition”, Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens, Band
XXXII, pp. 103-129. (1998).","txt","2","",""
"934","9","Information Technology and the Humanities: The Experience of the Irish in Europe Project","2","Irish in Europe Project
As a result of its leadership role within the fi eld of early
modern migration studies, the Irish in Europe Project, founded
in NUI Maynooth in 1997, is now the custodian of a rich and
constantly expanding corpus of biographical data on Irish
migrants in early modern Europe. The most substantial data
sets relate to Irish students in the universities of Paris and
Toulouse in the seventeenth and eighteenth century, Irish
patients in Parisian hospitals in the early eighteenth-century,
Irish students in Leuven University; Irish students in France’s
leading medical faculties, and Irish regiments in eighteenthcentury
France and Spain.
In line with the Project’s mission to make this data accessible
to researchers, teachers and students and to ensure that
the material is rendered responsive to the full range of
users needs, the Irish in Europe Project undertook the
development of an electronic research environment for the
collection, management and querying of biographical data
on Irish migrants in early modern Europe. This was facilitate
by the award of a Government of Ireland Research Project
Grant in the Humanities and Social Sciences in 2006, which
accelerated progress in reaching four target objectives, namely
to encode these databases in extensible Mark up language
(XML), to provide internet based access to the databases, to
establish a Virtual Research Environment (VRE) to facilitate
research and teaching, and lastly, to manage and promote the
adoption of best practice for biographical databases. In this
encoded format, the data is rendered susceptible to a broad
range of queries and manipulations, permitting, for instance,
the automatic generation of graphics, maps, tables etc. This
project will be rolled out in 2007-9. In July-November 2007
important progress was made on the project in the context
of the preparing a database Kiosk for the National Library of
Ireland exhibition ‘Strangers to Citizens: the Irish in Europe,
1600-1800’ which opened in December 2007.
Kiosk Development
The Kiosk is essentially user-friendly software providing access
to research derived from four different biographical studies of
migration in the Early Modern period, i.e. student migration to
France (Brockliss and Ferté, 1987; Brockliss and Ferté, 2004),
student migration to Louvain (Nilis, 2006), military migration
to France (Ó Conaill, 2005) and military migration to Spain
(Morales, 2002; Morales, 2003; Morales, 2007). Data from
the associated databases were provided in Microsoft Excel
format or extracted using custom developed programs, from
Microsoft Word versions and Portable Document Format
(PDF) versions of the research papers. XML data models,
similar to those previously described by Keating et al. (2004)
were used to encode the four data sets. Each dataset contained
information pertinent to the profession under study, and
there was some overlap, particularly related to personal data.
In general, student data were associated with migration from
dioceses whereas military migration data were associated with
counties. Central to the software requirements of this project
was the specifi cation that common software tools should
be used to visualize differing data sets whenever possible
for (i) usability issues and (ii) providing comparative analyses
functionality which has never been available to Early Modern
migration researchers, for example, see Figure 1.
The project team designed and developed two distinct
and fundamental “database inspectors” essential for data
visualization: (i) an interactive vector-based “heat-map” of
Ireland which provides scaled diocese or county density
migration patterns for a variety of inputs selected by the
user, and (ii) an interactive record inspector which provides
key record information based on exact, partial or phonetic
searching of individual surnames and other personal features.
The database inspectors were developed using Macromedia
Flex and have been tested in a variety of modern browsers.
Converted datasets reside on the Irish in Europe web
server (http://www.irishineurope.ie) and are accessed using
optimized searching software implemented as web services.
Database inspectors communicate with the web services
using CGI (outward); the latter return XML which describe
how the maps or record inspectors should be drawn – the
drawing functions are all implemented using Macromedia Flex
and Flash, as shown in Figure 2.
The Kiosk, essentially hosting a virtual exhibition, was
custom developed (using Objective C) within the project
using Internet browser tools provided as part of the XCode
and Safari development suite. The current version provides
accessibility options including user selected zoom and pan,
and an audio soundtrack for each virtual exhibition page. The
complete system is available for operation in Kiosk mode or
can be accessed online. Overall, this project was completed
in 28 person months and required a wide range of software
development and information architecture skills not possessed
by a single individual. We propose to present the lessons
learned from the management of the project and development
process, in addition to those described below. Lessons learned from Collaboration
The collaborative exercise involved in the production of NLI/
Irish in Europe Biographical Databases Kiosk yielded three
critical results:
Firstly, the exercise revealed that the software architecture
of the Kiosk had to refl ect both the nature and form of the
historical data used and the specifi cations of the clients. It
was the practical interaction between the data collectors/
interpreters and the information technology experts that
shaped the architecture of the Kiosk. These functions can not
and ought not be compartmentalized and, in project of this
nature, should not be hermetically sealed off from each other.
Secondly, the solution of technical and software engineering
diffi culties and challenges in the project involved not only
increasingly defi ned specifi cations from the data collectors
and the NLI clients but also critical input from the software
engineering and technical teams. For instance, important
inconsistencies in the raw information came to light thanks to
the interrogations of the software and technical teams, who
had tested the data. This led to a feedback, which permitted
the creation of a practical working relationship between
the humanities team, the software and technical teams and
the clients. It is highly suggestive for the development of
architectures for humanities-software-client-user relations in
the future.
Thirdly, the expansion in the range of functions provided by the
site was driven by the dynamic interface between the software/
technical teams and the information. While it is usual for the
architecture of similar sites to be dictated by purely technical
criteria or costing issues, this project revealed the possibility
for creative input from the technical-raw data interface. It is
rare for technical teams to be afforded this level of access to
the data collection and interpretation/presentation.
References
Brockliss, L.W.B. and Patrick Ferté, P. (1987) Irish clerics
in France in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: a
statistical survey. Proceedings of the Royal Irish academy , 87 C,
pp. 527-72.
Brockliss, L.W.B. and Patrick Ferté, P. (2004). Prosopography
of Irish clerics in the universities of Paris and Toulouse, 1573-
1792. Archivium Hibernicum, lviii, pp. 7-166.
Hernan, E. G. and Morales, O. R. (2007). Essays on the Irish
military presence in early modern Spain, 1580-1818, Eds. Madrid,
Ministerio de Defensa.
Keating, J. G., Clancy, D., O’Connor, T. and Lyons, M. A. (2004)
Problems with databases and the XML solution. Archvium
Hibernicum, lviii, pp. 268-75.
Morales, O. R. (2002) El socorro de Irlanda en 1601, Madrid.
Morales, O. R. (2003) España y la pérdida del Ulster, Madrid.
Morales, O. R. (2007). The Irish military presence in the Spanish
Armies, 1580-1818. Madrid, Ministerio de Defensa.
Nilis, J. (2006). Irish students at Leuven University, 1548-1797’.
Archivium Hibernicum, lx, pp. 1-304.
Ó Conaill, C. (2005) ‘“Ruddy cheeks and strapping thighs”:
an analysis of the ordinary soldiers in the ranks of the Irish
regiments of eighteenth-century France’ in The Irish Sword,
xxiv (2005/5), pp 411-27.
Figure 1: Extract from “Strangers to Citizens”
Kiosk’s Database Landing page
Figure 2: Extract from “Strangers to Citizens” Kiosk’s
Student Migration Comparison page showing two
Database Inspectors (Diocese Density Maps)","txt","2","",""
"935","9","Shakespeare on the tree","2","This work illustrates some computer based tools and
procedures which have been applied to the complete corpus
of Shakespeare’s works in order to create a phylogenetic tree1
of his works and to discriminate between Shakespeare’s and
Fletcher’s authorship in the writing of All is True, which is known
to be the result of a collaboration of both authors.
The general procedure applied to this study was devised in 2001
by a group of University of Rome La Sapienza2 scholars who
asked themselves whether starting from a graphic character
string it was possible to extract from it information such as
the language in which the string itself was written, whether or
not it belonged to a wider context (e.g. it is a part of a literary
work), its author and its fi liation from other texts.
Their method was based on the idea of linguistic entropy as it
has been defi ned by Chaitin-Kolmogorov3 and was applied to
the translations into 55 different languages of a single text: the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Following Kolmogorov’s theories and considering each of
the 55 texts as a mere string of characters they decided to
study the linguistic entropy of each text, that is to say the
relationship between the information contained in a string
of characters and the ultimate compressibility limit of the
string itself. Because said limit, i.e. the complete removal of
all redundancies, is also the ideal limit that a zipping software
should reach, the authors used a compression algorithm to
fi nd out what kind of information could be extracted from a
given text starting from what they could get to know about its
linguistic entropy.
The algorithm they used was an appropriately modifi ed
version of LZ774, which was able to index the length and
position of redundant strings within a text, and also, among
other things, to extrapolate and collect them. Such modifi ed
version of LZ77 was called BCL1, thus named after the initials
of the authors’ names. This algorithm was sided by two more
software programs (FITCH and CONSENSE)5 created by
Joe Felsenstein for inferences about phylogenies and made
available online by the University of Washington. After
processing the texts using both BCL1 and FITCH, Benedetto,
Caglioti and Loreto obtained a graph in which the 55 languages
were grouped in a way that matches to a surprising extent
philological classifi cations of the same languages.
Although the authors had no specifi c interest in literature, at
the end of their paper they expressed the hope that their
method may be applied to a wider range of areas such as DNA
and protein sequences, time sequences and literature.
The most relevant difference between the present case study
and previous stylometric studies is that the latter have only
dealt with the analysis of single words or sentences. More
precisely, the studies which investigated single words especially
focussed on features such as length, occurrence and frequency,
whereas the works that dealt with phrase or sentence analysis
especially studied features such as the avarage number of
words in a sentence, the avarage length of sentences, etc.
These procedures have been followed in many different seminal
studies which gave birth to modern stylometry: Ellegård’s
study about the Junius Letters6, Mosteller’s investigation of the
Federalist Papers7, Marriott’s analysis of the Historia Augusta8, last
but not least Mendenhall’s scrutiny of Shakespeare’s works9.
During the last decades of the last century, some new studies
have been carried out using computer based tools. However,
such studies do not differ from those dating back to 19th
and 18th century, in that they use computers as fast helpers,
instead of bringing about new hypotheses based on specifi c
characteristics and potential of the computer. This is the case,
for example, of Thomas Horton’s10 study about function words
in Shakespeare’s All is True and Two Noble Kinsmen.
On the contrary, the present study doesn’t analyse function
words or a particular class of words, nor does it simply deal
with phrase or sentence analysis. The investigation here is
based on the ratio of equal character strings shared by two or
more texts. Moreover a character string cannot be identifi ed
with a single word or phrase in that it may contain diacritical
signs, punctuation, blanks and even word or phrase chunks.
A few years ago Susan Hockey clearly stated that11, if deeply
investigated, a text must show on some level its author’s
DNA or fi ngerprint. It goes without saying that the greater
the number of DNA sequences common to two biological
entities, the greater their phenotypical resemblance is. As a
consequence it is also very likely that the two entities are in
someway related.
Based on this conviction, which has nowadays become selfevident
both in Biology and Genetics, the present study
analyses shakespearian texts as though they were mere DNA
strings. Then the texts are automatically grouped into families
and placed on a phylogenetic tree, so as to account both for
their evolution and for their deepest similarities.
Results are surprisingly precise and the families thus created
confi rm the groupings which textual critics and phylologists
have agreed on over the last few centuries. Other interesting
similarities have also been brought to light. The algorithms, for
instance, have been perfectly able to recognise and group on a
single branch of the phylogenetic tree Shakespeare’s so called
Roman Plays, which share the same setting, some themes and
a number of characters. The system also grouped together
the Historical plays, works whose similarities have also been
acknowledged by textual and literary criticism. Furthermore
the experiment has pointed out a liguistic similarity between the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet and some of Shakespeare’s
comedies. Although such similarity has never been studied in
depth and certainly deserves further investigation, it would
not come across as unlikely or bizarre to the shakespearian
scholar.
Experiments have also been carried out to test the validity of
the algorithms on shorter texts. In this second phase of the
study, the complete corpus of Shakespeare’s works was split
into 16 KiB text chunks. This time the system was able to
create 37 subsets of chunks, each of which coincided with a
play and appropriately placed each subset on the phylogenetic
tree.
In a fi nal phase of the experiment the effectiveness of the
algorithms on authorship was tested against a corpus of 1200
modern English texts by known authors with positive results
and it was then applied to the play All is True to discriminate
between Shakespere’s and Fletcher’s authorship vis-à-vis single
parts of the play.
Whereas the results achieved during the testing phase were
completely successful (100% of correct attributions) when
dealing with Shakespeare’s All is True they were a little less
satisfactory (about 90%). Two factors may account for this:
on the one hand this may be due to the fl uidity of English
morphology in that period; on the other hand this specifi c text
may have suffered the intervention of other authors as a few
critics have suggested during the last century.
Experiments are still being carried out to refi ne the procedure
and make the algorithms produce better performances.
Notes
1 A phylogenetic tree is a graph used in biology and genetics to
represent the profound relationship (e.g. in the DNA), between two
phenotypically similar entities which belong to the same species or
group.
2 D. Benedetto, E. Caglioti (department of Mathematics), V. Loreto
(Department of Physics)
3 A.N. Kolmogorov, Probl. Inf. Transm. 1, 1(1965) and G.J. Chaitin,
Information Randomness and Incompleteness (WorldScientific,
Singapore, 1990), 2nd ed.
4 LZ77 is a lossless data compression algorithm published in a paper
by Abraham Lempel and Jacob Ziv in 1977.
5 Both programs are based on algorithms used to build phylogenetic
trees and are contained in a software package called PHYLIPS.
6 A. Ellegård, A Statistical Method for determining Autorship: The Junius
Letters 1769-1772, Gothenburg, Gothenburg University, 1962
7 F. Mosteller, D. Wallace, Inference and Disputed Authorship: The
Federalist, Reading (Mass.), Addison-Wesley, 1964
8 I. Marriot, “The Authorship of the Historia Augusta: Two Computer
Studies”, Journal of Roman Studies, 69, pagg. 65-77
9 T. C. Mendenhall, “A Mechanical Solution of a Literary Problem” ,
The Popular Science Monthly, 60, pagg. 97-105
10 The Effectiveness of the Stylometry of Function Words in Discriminating
Between Shakespeare and Fletcher, Edinburgh, Department of Computer
Science, 1987. This text can be found online at: http://www.shu.ac.uk/
emls/iemls/shaksper/fi les/STYLOMET%20FLETCHER.txt
11 Hockey S., Electronic Texts in the Humanities, New York, Oxford
University Press, 2000","txt","2","",""
"936","9","XSLT (2.0) handbook for multiple hierarchies processing","2","In transcribing and encoding texts in XML, it is often (if not
always) the case that structures and features do not nest within
each other but overlap. Paraphrasing a notorious quotation
from Paul Maas on the most unsolvable problem in editing, one
may say that “there is no remedy for multiple hierarchies”1.
Every year a considerable number of new papers and posters
about how to deal with multiple hierarchies and overlapping
structures are presented to conferences, and the new version
of the TEI includes a chapter on similar matters2. And yet, as
the liveliness of debate shows, a convenient, standard and
sharable solution is still to be found.
Any kind of text potentially (and actually) contains multiple
hierarchies, such as verses and syntax, or speeches and verses.
Perhaps the most extreme form of this problem arises when
transcribing a manuscript, assuming that the transcriber wants
to describe both the content and also the physical structure
and characteristics at the same time. Pages, columns and linebreaks
confl ict with paragraphs and other structural and non
structural divisions such as quotation and reported speeches,
as well as deletions, additions, and changes in scribal hand.
At present three different approaches to this problem have
been proposed:
1. non-XML notation (for instance LMNL in Cowan,
Tennison and Piez 2006) to be processed by specifi c tools
which must be developed in-house;
2. pseudo-XML, such as colored XML or concurrent XML;3
3. full XML approaches such as milestones, stand-off
markup4, or fragmentation.
All of these approaches depend on post-processing tools.
Some of these tools have been developed using scripting or
other languages such as perl, Python, or Java, and others use
XSLT-based approaches.
The milestone approach is the one chosen by the TEI, and,
consequently, by us. Nevertheless, milestones introduce
greater levels of complexity when building (X)HTML output
and for this reason they might not be used in practice.
As XSLT is the most common technology used to output XML
encoded texts, at CCH we experimented with different ways
to deal with milestones and have developed a handful of XSLT
techniques (as opposed to tools) that can be easily adapted to
different circumstances.
Clashing of two hierarchies
Let us consider, for example, the TEI P5 empty element
<handShift/> that delimits a change of scribal hand in a
manuscript. Yet problems arise if one needs to visualize both the
paragraphs and the different hands with different formatting.
In case of XHTML visualization, one would almost certainly
want to transform the <handShift> from an empty element
to a container, but this container could well then overlap with
existing block or inline elements such as <p>.
The easiest way to deal with this is to use the “disable-outputescaping”
technique by outputting HTML elements as text; for
instance:
<xsl:template match=”tei:handShift”>
<xsl:text disable-outputescaping=”
yes”>&lt;span style=”color:
red;”&gt;</xsl:text>
</xsl:template>
<xsl:template match=”tei:anchor[@
type=’end-handShift’]”>
<xsl:text disable-outputescaping=”
yes”>&lt;/span&gt;</xsl:text>
</xsl:template>
However, this solution presents the obvious disadvantage that
the output will not be well structured (X)HTML, and although
browsers are often forgiving and therefore may cope with this
in practice, this forgiveness cannot be relied on and so this
process cannot be recommended.
A better option is to transform the area delimited by two
<handShift>s in a container but fragmenting it to avoid
overlapping.
One possible XSLT algorithm to expand and to fragment an
empty element could be:
• Loop on the <handShift>s
• Determine the ancestor <p>
<xsl:variable name=”cur-p”
select=”generate-id(ancestor::p)”/>
• Determine the next <handShift>
<xsl:variable name=”nexths”
select=”generateid(
following::handShift)”/>
• Create a new non-empty element <handShift> • Loop on all nodes after <handShift/>, up to but not
including either the next <handShift/> or the end of the
current <p>. This can be achieved using an XPath expression
similar to the following:
following::*[ancestor::
p[generate-id()=$cur-p]]
[not(preceding::handShift[generateid()=$
next-hs])]
|
following::text()[ancestor::
p[generate-id()=$cur-p]]
[not(preceding::handShift[generateid()=$
next-hs])]
That will return:
<p> … <handShift> … </handShift></p>
<p><handShift> … </handShift> … </p>
This resulting intermediate XML could then be used to
produce XHTML that would fulfi l the visualization required.
However this would involve another XSL transformation and
the intermediate fi le would not be valid against the schema,
unless an ad hoc customized schema is generated for that
purpose.
Nevertheless, thanks to XSLT 2 it is possible to produce a
single process outputting a fi rst transformation into a variable
and then apply other templates on the variable itself using
the mode attribute, thus dividing the process into steps and
avoiding both external non-valid fi les and also modifi cations
to the schema.
This is an example using the mode attribute.
• Declaration of variables
<xsl:variable name=”step1”>
<xsl:call-template name=”one”/>
</xsl:variable>
<xsl:variable name=”step2”>
<xsl:apply-templates
select=”$step1” mode=”step2”/>
</xsl:variable>
• XML to XML transformation (Step 1)
Copying the whole XML text:
<xsl:template match=”*” mode=”step1”>
<xsl:copy>...</xsl:copy>
</xsl:template>
Other templates (as the ones described above) to transform
<handShift/>:
<xsl:template match=”handShift”
mode=”step1”>
[...]
</xsl:template>
Saving the elaborated fi le into the declared variable:
<xsl:template name=”one” mode=”step1”>
<xsl:apply-templates
select=”TEI” mode=”step1”/>
</xsl:template>
• XHTML transformation (Step 2)
<xsl:template match=”/” mode=”step2”>
<html>...</html>
</xsl:template>
Other templates to transform <handShift> and <p> in XHTML
elements:
<xsl:template match=”handShift”
mode=”step2”>
<span class=”hand”>...</span>
</xsl:template>
• Output
<xsl:template match=”/”>
<xsl:copy-of select=”$step2”/>
</xsl:template>
The poster will include a comparison of the performances
of the XSLT 2.0 algorithm with a sequence of XSLT 1.0
transformations.
Clashing of more than two hierarchies
It is not improbable that in complex texts such as manuscripts
more than two hierarchies clash. Consequently, the diffi culties
of visualization in XHTML can become more complex.
During the analysis for a CCH project devoted to the digital
edition of Jane Austen’s manuscripts of fi ctional texts, the
need emerged to mark up lines as block elements in order to
manage them via a CSS stylesheet.
In TEI P5 lines are marked by the <lb/> empty element, and so
it was necessary to transform these into containers. Therefore
at least three hierarchies were clashing: <handShift/>, <lb/>
and <p>.
A good way to handle the confl ict could be looping on text
nodes between milestones. In the following example, all the
text nodes between <handShift>s are expanded into container
elements and then transformed into <span> elements carrying
a class attribute. Moreover all the lines are transformed into
further <span>s using the algorithm mentioned before in
order to manage them as block elements. The following templates show a possible implementation of
this method.
Step 1 XML to XML:
<xsl:template match=”text()
[not(ancestor::teiHeader)]”
mode=”step1”>
<handShift>
<xsl:copy-of select=”preceding::
handShift[1]/@new”/>
<xsl:value-of select=”.”/>
</handShift>
</xsl:template>
Step 2 XML to XHTML:
<xsl:template match=”handShift”>
<span class=”@new”>
<xsl:apply-templates mode=”step2”/>
</span>
</xsl:template>
Such a solution is also applicable with more than two clashing
hierarchies.
Even though this approach can be applied generically, a deep
analysis of the needs for representation and visualization is
required in order to develop more customized features. For
instance, the need to show lines as block elements has caused
other hierarchical clashes that have been resolved using
customized applications of the algorithms explained above.
According to project requirements, in fact, if the apparently
innocuous element <lb/> is used to produce non-empty
elements in the output, any TEI element at a phrasal level is
potentially overlapping and requires a special treatment.
The poster may be seen as providing an XSLT Cookbook for
multiple hierarchies (the XSLT code will be available as just
such a cookbook from the TEI wiki.) In our opinion simple
recipes are better for encoding multiple hierarchies than a tool
is, even a customizable one. The fl exibility and the extensibility
of the TEI encoding schema allows for an almost infi nite
combination of elements, attributes and values according to
the different needs of each text. Since the fi rst release of the
TEI Guidelines, the Digital Humanities community has learnt
to enjoy the fl exibility of SGML/XML based text encoding, but
such advantages come with a price, such as the diffi culty of
creating generic tools able to accommodate the specifi c needs
of every single project.
Furthermore, even assuming that a fi nite combination of
elements, attributes and values could be predicted at input
(considerably limiting the possibilities offered by the TEI
schema), the potential outputs are still infi nite. This is why the
most successful technology for processing text encoded in
XML is either an equally fl exible language – XSLT – or tools
that are based on such a language but that still require a high
degree of customization.
Therefore, sharing methodologies and approaches within
the community, though disappointing for those looking for
out-of-the-box solutions, is perhaps the most fruitful line of
development in the fi eld of multiple hierarchies.
Notes
1 “Gegen Kontamination ist kein Kraut gewachsen”, in Maas 1927.
2 “Non-hierarchical structures” in Burnard and Bauman 2007 at
http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/NH.html.
Something of the kind for SGML was also in TEI P3.
3 See Sperberg McQueen 2007 for an overview.
4 Burnard and Bauman 2008, at http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/teip5-
doc/en/html/SA.html#SASO
References
Lou Burnard and Syd Bauman (2007) TEI P5: Guidelines for
Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, available at http://
www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/index.html
(11/12/07).
Paul Maas (1927), Textkritik, Leipzig.
Alexander Czmiel (2004) XML for Overlapping Structures
(XfOS) using a non XML Data Model, available at http://www.
hum.gu.se/allcach2004/AP/html/prop104.html#en (11/16/07)
John Cowan, Jeni Tennison and Wendell Piez (2006), LMNL
Update. In “Extreme Markup 2006” (slides available at http://
www.idealliance.org/papers/extreme/proceedings/html/2006/
Cowan01/EML2006Cowan01.html or at http://lmnl.net)
(11/16/07)
Patrick Durusau and Matthew Brook O’Donnell (2004)
Tabling the Overlap Discussion, available at http://www.
idealliance.org/papers/extreme/proceedings/html/2004/
Durusau01/EML2004Durusau01.html (11/16/07)
Michael Sperberg McQueen (2007), Representation of
Overlapping Structures. In Proceedings of Extreme Markup
2007 (available at http://www.idealliance.org/papers/
extreme/proceedings/xslfo-pdf/2007/SperbergMcQueen01/
EML2007SperbergMcQueen01.pdf) (15/03/2008)","txt","2","",""
"937","9","The Russian Folk Religious Imagination","2","The “folk” and intellectual views of folk material play a
profound role in Russian cultural history. The German
Romantics argued that the folk conveyed the true essence
of a nation’s identity, a stance adopted in nineteenth century
Russia. Beginning in the late 1930s, the Soviets held up the folk
as heroes who conveyed the ideals of the socialist state. Both
of these conceptions persist until the present day and present
an attitude that differs signifi cantly from most contemporary
civil societies, where the folk are typically viewed as poor,
backward people that need to be enlightened. Throughout
19th- and 20th-centuries, folk culture and “high” culture have
come together in Russia in a way unknown in most European
societies. Thus, it can be argued that in order to understand
Russia, one must study the conception of the “folk” and their
belief systems. Russian religion is no exception in this regard;
to study Russian religious belief without a consideration of the
folk conceptions is to overlook one of the most important
sources for Russian religious ideas.
Russian Orthodoxy has been the source of a great deal of
speculation about the extent of dvoeverie (dual faith). Soviet
scholars argued that the Russian Orthodox religion had a strong
pre-Christian base, which allowed the Soviet government to
assert that religious folk tradition was actually not “religious”
at all and thereby should be preserved despite the atheist
policies of the state. Since the fall of the Soviet Union, scholars
have undertaken the study of folk religion in earnest, but there
is as yet no comprehensive study of the interrelations between
various folk genres in relation to religious belief. Typically
folklorists study either oral literature (e.g., legends and songs),
or folk ritual and iconography. This separation of genres inhibits
a full understanding of the complexity of the complete religious
belief system. Our multimedia web-based critical edition, the
Russian Folk Religious Imagination (RFRI), will feature an
innovative cross-disciplinary approach combining the study of
legends on saints and biblical fi gures, songs and religious rituals,
and folk iconography into a single, comprehensive research
project that will be published in a new digital framework
designed to integrate text and multimedia into a coherent
whole (http://www.rch.uky.edu/RFRI/). We are using the AXE
annotation tool (created by Doug Reside at the Maryland
Institute for Technology in the Humanities: http://www.mith2.
umd.edu/) for encoding commentary on audio, video, images
and textual materials (for an example of video annotation, see
here: http://www.rch.uky.edu/RFRI/AXE-example.html). This
far-reaching project will be of use to specialists in a wide range
of disciplines including historians, folklorists, anthropologists,
linguists, and scholars of literature and of religion, as well as
to amateur historians and to the general public. Our poster
presentation will showcase the achievements of the project
thus far and provide demonstrations of the variety of material
and techniques we are using in the development of this
project.
Despite the Soviet government’s tolerance of scholarly
fi eldwork gathering folk religious traditions, there is a paucity of
in-depth research and publication in this area, due to the offi cial
policy of atheism in the Soviet Union. Folklorists collecting
data on this topic often could not publish their fi ndings, and
the material has languished in archives and private collections.
Even when published editions did exist, they quickly went out
of print, so that specialists elsewhere were also unable to do
extensive research on Russian folk religion. Our edition will
provide unprecedented access for scholars and students of
folklore and of Russia to materials they could not previously
obtain without extensive archival work. Scholars will be able to
read currently inaccessible texts, access audio and video fi les
of song and legend texts and rituals, and consult still images
of folk iconography and rituals. Users will be able to search,
compare, and study in full context the entire range of text,
image, audio and video materials in a way that would not be
possible in a print edition. This approach not only provides a
greater breadth of materials (typically only available in Russian
archives) for both scholars and students, but also brings to the
fore the advantages of using digital resources in the humanities.
In addition, the RFRI project will serve as broad an audience as
possible by providing Russian originals and English translations
of both the original texts and the scholarly commentary and
textual analyses. The project resulting from this expertise will
signifi cantly increase the knowledge of and scholarly interest
in Russian folk belief and religion. A digital multimedia critical
edition, as we have conceived it, will not only make use of the
latest in digital technology, but will also feature a combination
of technologies that is truly cutting-edge. Our methods
and design will be a model for other scholars to follow in
developing fully integrated multimedia research projects using
open-source software and internationally accepted standards.","txt","2","",""
"938","9","Using and Extending FRBR for the Digital Library for the Enlightenment and the Romantic Period - The Spanish Novel (DLERSN)","2","Spanish literature has been largely overlooked in the
development of the canon of European fi ction of the
Enlightenment, and literary criticism has traditionally treated
the eighteenth-century and early nineteenth-century Spanish
novel with indifference, when not with hostility. While
France, England, and Germany have produced print catalogs
of their novelistic production for this period, Spain still lacks
one. Manuals of literature constantly remind us of the void
in Peninsular Spanish literature in this genre, a sentiment
which has become a commonplace in literary scholarship.
Montesinos, one of the better informed scholars in the fi eld,
sees nothing but sterility in the Spanish eighteenth-century
novel of this “lamentable período” (Introducción a una historia de
la novela en España, en el siglo XIX, 40), and Chandler, like many
literary investigators of this period, concludes that literary
efforts were reduced to servile imitations of the masters of a
preceding age (A New History of Spanish Literature, 497). Such
perceptions are changing as the Spanish Enlightenment is now
becoming an important site of critical inquiry with a growing
body of scholarship. Spain produced a national body of fi ction
that was far superior in volume to the few acclaimed fi ctional
accounts and enjoyed great popularity among the general
readership of its day.
Extra-literary factors hindered but also shaped the Spanish
novel between 1700 and 1850. Given the extraordinary
popularity of novels through this period over the whole of
Europe and the fact that Spain closely followed French fashions
after Felipe V became the fi rst king of the Bourbon dynasty, it is
not surprising that Spain translated and adapted foreign novels
to its own geography, customs, and culture. The production of
Spanish novels picked up considerably after 1785, propelled by
the adaptation of European models published in translation. But
the country’s novelistic output suffered from a major set-back:
religious and government censorship, which was preoccupied
with the moral aspect of novel writing. Although translations
of foreign novels were widely read in Spain, the erudite accused
them of contributing to the corruption of the Spanish language.
Further, the novel as a genre disquieted censors and moralists
of the age. At best, the novel was condemned as frivolous
entertainment, devoid of “useful” purpose, to the extent that
Charles IV issued a decree forbidding the publication of novels
in 1799. The decree, however, was not consistently enforced,
but it did affect literary production. Given the dual censorship
– religious and civil – existing in Spain at the time, many novels
remained in manuscript form. Spain’s publishing and reading
practices remained largely anchored in the ancien régime until
the 1830’s, a decade that witnessed social transformations and
innovations in printing technology which dramatically altered
the modes of production and consumption in the literary
marketplace.
The Digital Library for the Enlightenment and the Romantic Period
– The Spanish Novel (DLER-SN), an international collaborative
project of scholars at the University of Kentucky and the
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científi cas in Madrid,
Spain, is creating an online resource center for the study of
the Spanish novel of the Enlightenment that extends into the
Romantic Period (1700-1850). This scholarly collection will
reconstruct the canon for the eighteenth- and nineteenthcentury
novel in Spain and, by joining bibliographic and
literary materials with an extensive critical apparatus, it will
constitute a quality reference work and research tool in the
fi eld of Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Studies. The
overall objective is to foster new research on the signifi cance
of these Spanish novels by providing online open access to a
collection of descriptive bibliographic materials, critical studies,
and searchable full-text editions. The proposed poster will
outline the DLER-SN project and showcase the fi rst portion
of it: the development and implementation of the bibliographic
database that will serve as the backbone for the complete
digital collection.
To organize the DLER-SN Database, we turn to the Functional
Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR), an entityrelationship
model for describing the bibliographic universe,
developed by the International Federation of Library
Associations and Institutions (IFLA). FRBR allows us not only
to describe the individual novelistic works, but also to place
them within the context of the collection (i.e., within their full
eighteenth and nineteenth-century literary context). In this
way it is different from every other bibliographic resource of
the period of which we are aware.
A single novel may exist in one manuscript, written in Spanish;
a second manuscript that is a translation of the Spanish into
French; two separate printed editions of the Spanish; one
printed edition of the French; and several individual copies of
each edition, found in different libraries in the US and Europe. Entity: Work
In the FRBR model, the text of the original novel would be
identifi ed as the work. The FRBR guidelines are clear that the
concept of work is in fact separate from any physical object.
Although in our example the original novel is synonymous
with the Spanish manuscript, it is the story/ideas/text written
in the manuscript and not the manuscript itself that is the
work.
Entity: Expression
The manuscripts, both Spanish and French, are two expressions
of the same work. These expressions have relationships among
each other and with the work. In our example, both expressions
represent the same work, and they also relate to each other:
the French is a translation of the Spanish.
Entity: Manifestation
The editions – the actual print runs – are manifestations of the
expressions on which they are based. In the case of manuscripts,
the manifestation is the manuscript itself.
Entity: Item
The individual copies of the editions, as found in libraries and
private collections, are items which exemplify the manifestations.
Variations may occur from one item to another, even when the
items exemplify the same manifestation, where those variations
are the result of actions external to the intent of the producer
of the manifestation (e.g., marginal notation, damage occurring
after the item was produced, [re]binding performed by a
library, etc.). In the case of manuscripts, the item is the same as
the manifestation (i.e., the item is the manuscript itself).
The application of the FRBR model to the DLER-SN Database
is fairly straightforward, however there are three issues that
are specifi c to the Spanish novel that involve extensions to
the model.
New Work vs. Expression
In the FRBR model there is no clear dividing line between
assigning a modifi ed text as a new work or as an expression of
an existing work. To illustrate this problem, let’s add an English
version of our novel to the mix, since multiple versions of
stories written in different languages are common occurrences
during our period of investigation of the Spanish novel. Our
hypothetical English version clearly tells the same story as
both the Spanish and French expressions, but it is clearly not
a translation of either of them. Perhaps some characters are
left out and others are added, scenes are rearranged, etc. The
English version could be considered a new work or another
expression of the original work depending on the contextual
relationship we wish to emphasize. In order to emphasize
that there is a clear thematic relationship between the English
version and the Spanish and French versions (i.e., it tells much
of the same story), it could be reasonable for us to say that,
in this case and for our purposes, the English version is an
expression of the same work rather than a new work. However,
if in assembling our FRBR-oriented database we were to
choose to call the English version a new work, we would then,
perhaps, wish to experiment with the creation of a more
abstract category above work to illustrate that there is some
relationship (in character archetypes, leitmotifs, etc.) between
the different works.
“Masked” Works and Expressions
In the DLER-SN collection we have identifi ed two types of
“masked” works and expressions.
1. An author claims his product is a translation of another
text, but it is in fact an original product (the author is
claiming an expression of an existing work, but it is actually a
new work) – this is a “masked” work.
2. An author claims his product is an original when it is in
fact a translation of an existing text (the author is claiming a
new work, but it is actually an expression of an existing work)
– this is a “masked” expression. We will need to make decisions about how to identify these
products within our FRBR-based system. It may be most
reasonable to identify such texts as both work and expression
(there is nothing in the guidelines that disallows such multiple
designations); however, if so, we will need to identify them
appropriately as “masked”.
Censorship & Circumvention (Its
Effect on Work, Expression, Manifestation,
and Item)
In some cases censorship will be an issue – i.e., changes
made to texts to satisfy the requirements of the government
and the church can potentially have an effect on any level of
the hierarchy. If this is the case, we will need to determine
a method for identifying these changes and describing them,
perhaps identifying “types” of modifi cations:
• title changes
• prologues and prologue variations
• publication outside Spain
• personal (unoffi cial) reproduction and distribution
We also anticipate that there may have been illegal print runs
made of uncensored texts. If so, we will want to identify these
uncensored runs with a special designation in the system. An
especially interesting case would be a text that appeared in
both censored and uncensored printings.
The database will be an important educational tool as well
because it discloses a body of fi ction severely understudied (and
undertaught) due to lack of documentation and inaccessibility.
The DLER-SN Database will help scholars reassess the need for
modern editions and for new studies of these forgotten texts
which, nonetheless, constituted the canon of popular culture
of their time. It is important to note that only a dozen of these
novels enjoy modern editions. Once completed, our project
will give scholars in multiple disciplines the tools necessary to
begin serious work in this dynamic but underworked fi eld.
Bibliography
Reginald F. Brown. La novela española, 1700-1850 (1953).
Richard E. Chandler and Kessel Schwartz, A New History of
Spanish Literature. Revised Edition. Baton Rouge: Louisiana
State University Press (1991)
José Ignacio Ferreras. Catálogo de novelas y novelistas españoles
del siglo XIX (1979).
Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records Final
Report, IFLA Study Group on the FRBR. UBCIM Publications
– New Series Vol 19. (http://www.ifl a.org/VII/s13/frbr/frbr.
pdf)
Dionisio Hidalgo. Diccionario general de bibliografía española
(1867).
José Montesinos. Introducción a una historia de la novela en
España en el siglo XVIII. Seguida de un esbozo de una bibliografía
española de traducciones de novelas 1800-1850 (1982).
Antonio Palau y Dulcet. Manual del librero hispano-americano
(1923-1927).
Ángel González Palencia. Estudio histórico sobre la censura
gubernativa en España, 1800-1833 (1970, 1934)
Francisco Aguilar Piñal. Bibliografía de autores españoles del siglo
XVIII (1981-1991).","txt","2","",""
"939","9","How to convert paper archives into a digital data base? Problems and solutions in the case of the Morphology Archives of Finnish Dialects","2","The Morphology Archives of Finnish
Dialects
The paper archives referred to are the Morphology Archives of
Finnish Dialects, which contain about 500,000 paper fi le cards
classifi ed and arranged on the basis of almost a thousand
linguistically based catalogue codes. The data the fi le cards
contain are derived from spontaneous dialectal speech by
linguistically trained fi eld-workers. The data has been analysed
and encoded to determine, for example, types of infl ection and
word formation and their use in the sentence, sound changes
in word stems, and particles and their related uses.
The data gathering was accomplished during a 30-year period
(from the 1960s to the 1990s).
The paper archives are located in the Department of Finnish
Language and Literature in the University of Helsinki. There are six
copies of the data in the archives in six differ-ent universities
and research institutions in Finland, Sweden and Norway. The
Morphology Archives of Finnish Dialects are closely related to two
other archives of Finnish dialects, namely the Lexical Archive of
Finnish Dialects (Research Institute for the Languages of Finland)
and Syntax Archives of Finnish Dialects (University of Turku).
The purpose of the Morphology Archives of Finnish Dialects has
been to facilitate research on the rich morphology of Finnish
and to provide researchers with well-organised data on the
dialects of different parishes. The Archives cover all the Finnish
dialects quite well since it consists of 159 parish collections
equally distributed among Finnish dialects. The archive
collections have served as data sources for over 300 printed
publications or theses.
For additional information about the Archives, see www.
helsinki.fi /hum/skl/english/research/ma.htm.
The Digital Morphology Archives of
Finnish Dialects
Plans to digitize the data in the Archives were fi rst made in the
1990s. The digitization project fi nally got the funding in 2001. A
project to create a digital database of Finnish dialects (Digital
Morphology Archives, DMA) was then launched. The project was
funded by the Academy of Finland, and it ended in 2005.
The digitization was not implemented simply by copying
the paper archives, but the objective has been to create an
independent digital archive, which also contains data not
included in the paper archives, in particular to ensure suffi cient
regional representation.
The Digital Morphology Archives currently contain 138,000
clauses in context (around one million words) from 145 parish
dialects of Finnish. So far a total of 497,000 morphological
codes have been added to the dialectal clauses (approx. 4
codes for each clause). In the parish collections, which are
coded thoroughly, each example has been assigned from 5 to
10 codes. This increase in the number of codes will improve
the possibilities of using the DMA for research purposes. The
Digital Morphology Archives are unique in that all the data is
derived from spoken language.
The database was implemented using MySQL, while the search
system is built on HTML. The data are stored in the Finnish
IT Centre for Science (CSC) (http://www.csc.fi /) and has been
accessible in current form via the internet to licensed users
since 2005. Licences are granted to students and researchers
upon request.
An internet search facility developed jointly with the Language
Bank of Finland (CSC) allows quick and straightforward searches
both from the entire material and from individual parishes or
dialect areas. Searches can also be made directly from the
dialect texts. These word and phrase searches can also be
targeted at dialect texts without diacritic marks. Searches can
also be refi ned by limiting them to certain linguistic categories
according to a morphological classifi cation containing 897
codes.
For additional information about the Digital Morphology
Archives, see www.csc.fi /english/research/software/dma
Licence application form:
www.csc.fi /english/customers/university/useraccounts/
languagebank/?searchterm=language%20bank Problems and Solutions
One of the problems encountered during the process has been
that digitizing the data manually is very slow. In fact, the data
in the digital data base still only cover about 5.5% of the paper
archives. Scanning of the paper fi le cards has been proposed as
a solution. The new challenge then would be to fi nd a powerful
enough OCR program, as the paper cards have mostly been
written by hand.
Another problem has been the presentation of Finno-Ugric
phonetic transcription, which includes symbols and diacritics
that are not part of the ISO-Latin-1 character-set. As Unicode
is not yet supported by all programs, characters in the ISOLatin-
1 character set were chosen to replace some of the
Finno-Ugric phonetic symbols.
The second phase of digitization was launched in September
2007, with new funding. By the end of 2009, it is estimated that
at least 250,000 new dialectal clauses with linguistic coding will
have been added to the digital archive.","txt","2","",""
"940","9","A Bibliographic Utility for Digital Humanities Projects","2","Introduction 
Many, if not most, digital humanities projects have a
bibliographical component. For some projects the collection,
annotation and dissemination of bibliographical information
on a specifi c topic is the primary focus. The majority, however,
include bibliography as a resource. Over the years, our group has
worked on several projects that have included a bibliography. In
each case, we were given bibliographical information to include
at the outset, which the scholar working on the project would
edit and amplify over time.
In the past we wrote several one-off bibliographic management
systems, each for a particular project. Each tool was tailored
to and also limited by the needs of its project. Over time we
ended up with several bibliographic components, each slightly
different in the way it was implemented and the way it handled
data formats. We decided to settle upon a general purpose tool,
in order to avoid writing any further single use applications,
which were diffi cult and time consuming to support.
We were primarily interested in a tool that could handle many
forms of bibliographic entity, from conventional scholarly
materials, serials and manuscripts to multimedia and websites.
It had to allow scholars to interact with it easily using a web
interface for single record input and editing, and also be capable
of loading large numbers of prepared records at once. We were
less concerned with output and text-formatting capabilities,
given the ability to produce structured XML output. We
expected to allow the individual projects to query the system
and format the output from the bibliographic tool.
Bibliographical management systems, although tedious to
implement, are a well-understood problem, and we originally
hoped to use a pre-existing tool. Upon surveying the fi eld,
we realized that the available tools were primarily single-user
citation managers, like EndNote, Bibtex, and Zotero. Our users
were compiling and manipulating scholarly bibliographies,
so we wanted something that was familiar to academics.
However, we also wanted the fl exibility and overall standards
compatibility of the library tools. great deal of the diffi culty of bibliographic management
arises out of the complexity of bibliographic references
and the problem of representing them. Many libraries use a
form of MARC to identify the different pieces of information
about a book. MARC records are not ideal for storing and
displaying scholarly bibliography; they aren’t meant to handle
parts of publications, and they don’t differentiate explicitly
among genres of publication. Many personal bibliographical
software applications store their information using the RIS
format, which provides appropriate categories of information
for most bibliographic genres (e.g. book, article, manuscript,
etc.). Hoenicka points out the fl aws in the underlying
representation of RIS, but agrees that it does a good job of
collecting appropriate citation information [Hoenicka2007a,
Hoenicka2007b]. We wanted to be able to use the RIS
categories, but not the RIS structures. We also hoped that we
would be able to store our bibliographic information in XML,
as we felt that it was a more versatile and appropriate format
for loosely structured, repeating, ordered data.
Personal bibliography tools were not appropriate for our
purposes because they were desktop applications, intended
to be used by a single person, and were optimized to produce
print output. At the time we were researching other tools,
RefDB had a very powerful engine, but no interface to speak
of. WIKINDX was not easily confi gurable and was not easy to
embed into other projects. Both RefDB and WIKINDX have
developed features over the last year, but we feel that the
system we developed is different enough in ways that render
it more versatile and easier to integrate into our projects.
Although RefDB is the system that is closest to Biblio, it uses
own SQL-based system for storing information about records,
whereas we were looking for an XML based system. RefDB
also allows the user to modify records in order to handle
new genres of material. However, the modifi cations take place
at the level of the user interface. As discussed below, Biblio
provides full control over the way that records are being
stored in the database.
Based our survey of existing tools and the needs we had
identifi ed for our projects, we decided to implement our own
bibliographic utility. We made sure to have a fl exible internal
representation, and a usable interface for data entry and
editing. We left all but the most basic display up to the project
that would be using the bibliography.
Implementation
Biblio is an XForms- and XQuery- based system for managing
bibliographic records using the MODS XML format. The pages
in the system are served by a combination of Orbeon, an
XForms implementation, and eXist, a native XML database that
supports XQuery. Using a simple interface served by eXist,
the user can create, edit, import, export, and delete MODS
records from a central collection in the database. When the
user chooses to edit a record, they are sent to an Orbeon
XForms page that allows them to modify the record and save
it back to the database.
By basing the backend of our system on XML, we can take
advantage of its unique features. Among the most useful is the
ability to easily validate records at each point changes may
have occurred. Validation begins when a document is fi rst
imported or created, to ensure that no invalid document is
allowed to enter the database. The document is validated
against the standard MODS schema, which allows us to easily
keep our system up to date with changes in the MODS format.
Once a record is in the system, we must ensure that future
editing maintains its integrity. Instead of simply validating upon
saving a document, we use on-the-fl y XForms validation to
inform the user immediately of any mistakes. The notifi cation
is an unobtrusive red exclamation mark that appears next to
the fi eld containing the error.
Although validation helps prevent mistakes, it does little to
protect the user from being exposed to the complexity and
generality of the MODS format. Because the MODS format is
designed to handle any type of bibliographic record, any single
record only needs a small subset of all the available elements.
Fortunately, most records can be categorized into “genres”,
such as “book” or “journal article”. Furthermore, each of these
genres will have several constant elements, such as their title.
To maximize workfl ow effi ciency and easy of use, we have
designed a highly extensible genre system that only exposes
users to the options that are relevant for the genre of the record
they are currently editing. The genre governs what forms the
user sees on the edit page, and hence what elements they are
able to insert into their MODS record. The genre defi nition
can also set default values for elements, and can allow the user
to duplicate certain elements or groups of elements (such as
a <name> element holding an author). When a record is saved
to the database, any unused elements are stripped away.
The genre system is also compatible with MODS records
that are imported from outside the system. We simply allow
the user to choose what genre best describes the imported
record, which allows the system to treat the record as if it
had been created by our system. The user can also select
“Previously Exported” if they are importing a document that
was created by our system, which will cause the appropriate
genre to be automatically selected.
We have designed a simple XML format for creating genre
defi nitions that makes it easy to add, remove, or change
what genres are available for the user. The format allows
the administrator to specify which elements are in a genre,
what type of fi eld should be used (including auto-complete,
selection, and hidden), what the default value of a fi eld should
be, and whether the user should be allowed to duplicate a
fi eld. All of our predefi ned genres also use this format, so it is
easy to tweak the system to fi t the needs of any organization.
Finally, once users have accumulated a large set of records of
various genres, we use the power of XML again to enable the
user to search and sort their records on a wide and extensible range of criteria. The administrator can easily specify new
search and sort criteria for any element in the MODS schema,
using the powerful XPath language.
Results
The bibliographic tool that we built provides an intelligent
fi lter between the academic’s concept of bibliography and
the cataloger’s concept of bibliographic record. We adopted
the fundamental representation of a bibliographic entry, the
MODS structure, from the library community because we
want to use their tools and their modes of access. At the same
time, we don’t expect scholars and their students to interact
directly either with MODS as an XML structure or MODS as
a cataloging system, so we mediate it through a RIS-inspired
set of categories that inform the user interface. The choice of
an XML structure also benefi ts the programmer, as this makes
it very easy to integrate Biblio into an existing web application
or framework. The resulting bibliographic utility has an easily
confi gurable, easy to use data entry front end, and provides
a generic, standards-based, re-confi gurable data store for
providing bibliographic information to digital projects.
Bibliography
[BibTeX] BibTeX. http://www.bibtex.org/
[Endnote] Endnote. http://www.endnote.com
[Hoenicka2007a] Marcus Hoenicka. “Deconstructing RIS
(part I)” (Blog entry). http://www.mhoenicka.de/system-cgi/
blog/index.php?itemid=515. Mar. 12, 2007
[Hoenicka2007b] Marcus Hoenicka. “Deconstructing RIS
(part II)” (Blog entry). http://www.mhoenicka.de/system-cgi/
blog/index.php?itemid=567. Apr. 23, 2007.
[MODS] MODS. http://www.loc.gov/standards/mods/
[Orbeon] Orbeon. http://www.orbeon.com/
[RefDB] RefDB. http://refdb.sourceforge.net
[RIS] RIS. http://www.refman.com/support/risformat_intro.
asp
[Wikindx] WIKINDX. http://wikindx.sourceforge.net
[Zotero] Zotero http://www.zotero.org","txt","2","",""
"941","9","A Digital Chronology of the Fashion, Dress and Behavior from Meiji to early Showa periods(1868-1945) in Japan","2","This paper describes a digital chronology with images of
fashion, dress and behavior (Hereafter called FDB) from 1868
to 1945 in Japan. This period when kimono and western style
of dress contended with each other, was a very important
time for Japanese clothing culture. Nevertheless there have
been few timelines published of high credibility due to a lack
of supporting evidence. This chronology consists of 4000
images and documents related to 8000 events of this period. It
will be available on the Internet in the near future.
How this digital chronology came
about
The National Museum of Ethnology Japan, the project of
making a database of clothing culture in the world, which was
named MCD ( Minpaku Costume Database ) was started in
1984. Now it is available to the public through the museum’s
website under the heading “CostumeDatabase” (http://www.
minpaku.ac.jp).
This database consists of six sub-databases. Of these, fi ve are
reference database and one is an integrated image database
of the clothes and accessories collection of The National
Museum of Ethnology. The number of items is 208,000 in the
database.
To make this Costume Database, many reference data have
been collected and analyzed. A lot of newspaper archives
from 1868 to 1945 were in this collected reference data and
I thought that a digital chronology could be created by using
these archives. The articles and images came from 20 different
newspapers such as The Yomiuri, Asahi, Mainichi, Tokyonichinichi,
Miyako, Kokumin, and Jiji.
The features of this digital chronology
The features of this digital chronology are summarized as
following four points (fi g.1).
1) The events were chosen out of newspaper archives on
the basis of 140 themes. These 140 themes, detailing the
acculturation of FDB for about 80 years after the Meiji Restorationwere set up by analyzing books and papers as
well as newspaper archives. They include “Society’s Opinions
of FDB”, “Views on Health”, “Views on the Body”, “Dress
Reform Problem and the Blending of Japanese and Western
Styles”, “Formal Dress”, “Kimono”,“Makeup and Hairstyle”,
etc., and “Road and Lighting” (Explaining their effect on
FDB). -_The book, Acculturation of fashion culture: behavior
and dress from Meiji to early Showa periods_(Takahashi, pub.
Sangensha 2005) describes the argument for selecting these
140 themes.
2) Sources are described in all respects. As a result the
timeline also functions as an index tool, and most events
have supporting sources attached.
3) The chronology is divided into two columns entitled
“Events” and “Contemporary Conditions”. These remove
ambiguity in the descriptions of FDB from the general
comprehensive timeline. The former, have precise dates
given and therefore function in the same way as thegeneral
timeline. On the other hand, “Contemporary Conditions”
in the latter show clothingculture more generally and
include fads which cannot be connected to exact dates.
4) Alongside the description of each year of “Contemporary
Conditions”, you can see images of “Scenes of
Contemporary Life” “Men”, “Women”, “Children”, and
“Beautiful Women”which are typical of the time.
These images came from the illustrations of newspapers which
had served the same purpose as photographs in the second
half of the 19th century. These pictures were drawn to
illustrate serial novels published in the papers. They portray
the joy, anger, humor and pathos of the people of those days.
They also represented the culture of each class, such as the life
of the empoverished which photographers of those days did
not capture. These illustrations were drawn to help readers
better understand the text. However, if they didn’t accurately
portray something, then eager readers would write to the
newspapers to complain. This led to a high level of accurary
on the part of the artists.
The credibility of these pictures as source is discussed in the
paper Newspaper serial novel illustrations as a source of data of
the Costume Image Database in the middle of the Meiji era. The
Bulletin of Japan Art Documentation Society. (Takahashi,. 2005.
p.1-15).
The system of this digital chronology
Application Capabilities
This system uses Horiuchi Color’s iPallet/Kumu. This
application’s capability is as follows.
1) It has the function which allows the user to smoothly
increase the size of a detailed picture. The user can also
examine fi ne details in the magnifi ed picture with a drugand-
zoom function (Fig.2).
2) It supports Firefox 2 for Japanese on the Windows XP,
Windows Vista, and MacOSX.
3) Users can search by title, year, and keyword.
4) The use of standard plug-ins (ex. Flash) is possible.
Display of Dates in <Contemporary
Conditions>
The dates in grey on the left handside in <contemporary
conditions> are approximate dates only. However, this is not
the best way of representing approximate dates. Is it possible
to visually express the rise and fall of fads? That’s the big
challenge for this system..
Conclusion
This digital chronology concretely shows the changes in FDB
for about 80 years from 1868, and also faithfully details the
clothing culture of those days. It would be helpful in themaking
the movies and stage productions, and thus is much more than
just a scientifi c reference text.
This research is supported by Grants-in- Aid for Scientifi c
Research (C) from the Japan Society for the Promotion of
Science (JSPS) from 2006 to 2008.
Fig.1 Example of display
Fig.2 Example of image data Knight’s Quest: A Video
Game to Explore Gender and
Culture in Chaucer’s England
Mary L. Tripp
mtripp@mail.ucf.edu
University of Central Florida, USA
Thomas Rudy McDaniel
rudy@mail.ucf.edu
University of Central Florida, USA
Natalie Underberg
nunderbe@mail.ucf.edu
University of Central Florida, USA
Karla Kitalong
kitalong@mail.ucf.edu
University of Central Florida, USA
Steve Fiore
sfi ore@ist.ucf.edu
University of Central Florida, USA
A cross-disciplinary team of researchers from the College of
Arts and Humanities (English, Philosophy, and Digital Media)
at the University of Central Florida are working on a virtual
medieval world based on Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. The
objectives are (1) that students experience a realistic virtual
environment, with historical detail (buildings, music, artwork),
and (2) that students view fourteenth century England from
various perspectives, both as a master and the mastered, from
the sacred to the profane. These objectives are accomplished
through a knight’s quest game based on the Wife of Bath’s Tale.
The Wife’s tale emphasizes the battle between men’s perceived
authority and women’s struggles for power. In her tale, a knight
must go on a quest to fi nd out what women most want. The
Wife’s tale leaves a narrative gap in the knight’s quest, which is
where our adaptation of Chaucer’s work is launched.
The knight interacts with Chaucerian characters on his journey-
-he meets everyday people like a cook, a reeve, a miller. In order
to understand the perspectives of master and mastered, sacred
and profane, the knight will dress as a woman to disguise his
identity; enter a cathedral to converse with a priest; disguise
himself as a peasant; and, later disguise as a monk to escape
danger. Other characters are scripted to react differently
to the noble knight when he is in disguise. This fetishism of
clothing is reminiscent of several of Shakespeare’s comedies
and tragedies, notably Merchant of Venice, Midsummer Night’s
Dream, and King Lear. There are also two narrators, the knight
operating from his perspective (male and noble) and the Wife
(female and a widow), interrupting and offering her opinion on
the action of the quest.
The initial phase, a Game Design Document, was completed
in May 2007. A complete dialogue script for the storyline is
scheduled for December 2007, and initial programming and
modifi cation of the project, using the Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion
game engine to create this virtual world have also taken place
through 2007. A paper prototype usability study is complete
during November 2007 and a prototype visualization will be
available by June 2008.
As the Canterbury Tales is traditionally taught at the high
school level (Florida’s curriculum includes this under 12th
grade English Literature), the target audience for this prototype
is 14 to 16 year old players. Eight episodes of gameplay will run
an average player about two hours to complete. This format
has proven suitable for classroom use, where the teacher can
use the game during a computer lab session, with independent
student interaction time, or as a whole-class teacher-directed
activity to be completed over 3 to 4 days. The objective here
is not to teach the plot of Canterbury Tales—this information
is readily available from a number of different sources. Our
primary focus is to immerse the user in Chaucer’s historical
world while educating the user on the historical facts behind
the medieval era. These facts have been diluted over the years
by popular fi ction. An additional mission of this game is to
provide the player a variety of cultural perspectives through
the use of disguise and interaction with members of the Three
Estates of clergy, nobility, and peasantry and the feminine
estates of virgin, wife and widow. This game is not developed
to “teach” students the narrative structure of the Tales. It is
designed with the literary theories of New Historicism and
Cultural Studies as a basis for understanding the Tales as
situated in a particular history and culture.
Current research in the fi elds of human learning and cognitive
science speak to the exceptional ability of computer games to
explore identity, problem solving skills, verbal and non verbal
learning, and the transfer of learned ability from one task to
another (Gee, 2003; Berman & Bruckman, 2001; Cassell, 1998;
Fiore, Metcalf, & McDaniel, 2007; McDaniel, 2006; Jenkins, 2006;
Ryan, 2001a, 2001b; Squire, 2002). In fact, learning games in the
humanities have been used for hundreds of years--Bach’s Well
Tempered Clavier and The Art of the Fugue are his “learning
games,” simple to complex musical exercises that build skill
(Prensky, 2000). Virtual worlds offer a unique and interesting
way in which to observe critical relationships involving race,
gender, identity, community, and history. Such relationships
are clearly within the territory of humanities scholarship, and
we believe video games will excite and motivate students to
understand and engage with these complex topics in a fashion
that is intuitive and exciting for them.
In terms of humanities-specifi c objectives, games can provide
entry points for discussions and refl ections of all types of
cultural and critical issues. The discussion of interactivity and
the semantic quality of narrative and its application to digital
media is an important aspect of computer game development.
Ryan, in her article, “Beyond Myth and Metaphor—The Case
of Narrative in Digital Media” concludes that computer games offer the most suitable interface for digital narrative
is compelling, especially in light of current applications in the
fi eld (2001a).
Serious games can also foster new understanding among their
players. In philosophy of the mind, Gadamer describes a fusion
of horizons as the way humans understand. We, as human
beings, are historical and we each possess a unique horizon.
Each person has his own prejudice, history, and tradition, all
within the context of his language. If we approach knowledge
acquisition from Gadamer’s perspective, serious games are
one of the best ways for students to more fully understand
the humanities. Although Gadamer understands these new
experiences as material interactions with the world, we
propose that new understanding can take place through
interactions with the virtual world as well.
Lorraine Code echoes some of the historical and cultural
defi nitions of hermeneutical understanding that Gadamer
proposes, she fi lters these ideas through the lens of feminism and
her explanation of a mitigated defi nition of cultural relativism.
In her essay “How to Think Globally: Stretching the Limits
of Imagination,” she uses Shrage’s idea that relativism works
mainly with ‘crosscultural comparisons’ to endorse her view
that global understanding happens within a local context (Code,
1998). Our team proposes that serious games allow the player
to construct new perceptions of global understanding from a
variety of social, gendered and cultural perspectives (Berman
& Bruckman, 2001; Squire, 2002). Also, the production of video
games offers an important learning opportunity for students
involved in the multimodal production and representation of
source-specifi c content, narrative, and gameplay experiences.
We believe that this project, the development of a virtual
medieval world of Chaucer, can challenge learners to use
this path toward creating a new kind of knowledge of the
humanities. This new kind of knowledge in the humanities is
not the traditional memorized litany of Western icons, nor
a structure of literary genres and plots, but intensive and
extensive meaningful interaction with the cultural and artistic
achievements of humankind. This project is really what game
based learning can be at its best, meeting the needs of a
changing modern paradigm of understanding and basing its
development in good theoretical research.
Representative Bibliography
Berman, J. & Bruckman, A. (2001). “The Turing Game:
Exploring Identity in an Online Environment.” Convergence,
7(3), 83-102.
Cassell, Justine. (1998). “Storytelling as a Nexus of Change
in the Relationship between Gender and Technology: a
Feminist Approach to Software Design.” From Barbie to Mortal
Kombat: Gender and Computer Games. Cassell and Jenkins, eds.
Cambridge: MIT Press.
Code, L. (1998). “How to Think Globally: Stretching the Limits
of Imagination.” Hypatia, 13(2), 73.
Fiore, S. M., Metcalf, D., & McDaniel, R. (2007). “Theoretical
Foundations of Experiential Learning.” In M. Silberman (Ed.),
The Experiential Learning Handbook (pp. 33-58): John Wiley &
Sons.
Gadamer H. G. (1991). Truth and Method. (2nd revised
edition) (J. Weinsheimer & D. Marshall, Trans.). New York:
Crossroad. (Original work published 1960).
Garris, R., R. Ahlers, et al. (2002). “Games, Motivation, and
Learning: A Research and Practice Model.” Simulation Gaming
33(4), 441-467.
Gee, J. P. (2003). What Video Games Have to Teach Us About
Learning and Literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence Culture. New York: New York
University Press.
McDaniel, R. (2006). Video Games as Text and Technology:
Teaching with Multimodal Narrative. Paper presented at the
9th Annual Conference of the Association for Teachers of
Technical Writing in Chicago, IL. March 22, 2006.
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Game-Based Learning. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Ricci, K. S., Eduardo; Cannon-Bowers, Janis (1996). “Do
Computer-Based Games Facilitate Knowledge Acquisition
and Retention?” Military Psychology 8(4), 295-307.
Ryan, Marie-Laure. (2001a) “Beyond Myth and Metaphor—
The Case of Narrative in Digital Media.” Game Studies 1(1).
26 October 2007. <http://www.gamestudies.org/0101/ryan/>.
Ryan, Marie-Laure. (2001b) Narrative as Virtual Reality:
Immersion and Interactivity in Literature and Electronic Media.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Squire, K. (2002). “Cultural Framing of Computer/Video
Games.” Game Studies, 2(1).
Tripp, M. (2007). Avatar: From Other to Self-Transcendence
and Transformation. Paper presented at the Philosophy Club
of Winter Park, FL, 7 August.
Underberg, N (2006). “From Cinderella to Computer Game:
Traditional Narrative Meets Digital Media in the Classroom.”
Milwaukee, WI: American Folklore Society: 2006.
Unsworth, John. (2006). “Digital Humanities: Beyond
Representation.” Lecture. University of Central Florida.
Orlando, FL. 13 November.","txt","2","",""
"942","9","TEI by Example: Pedagogical Approaches Used in the Construction of Online Digital Humanities Tutorials","2","Over the past 20 years, the TEI (Text Encoding Initiative)
has developed comprehensive guidelines for scholarly text
encoding (TEI, 2007). In order to expand the user base of TEI,
it is important that tutorial materials are made available to
scholars new to textual encoding. However, there is a paucity
of stand-alone teaching materials available which support
beginner’s level learning of TEI. Materials which are available
are not in formats which would enable tutorials to be provided
in blended learning environments (Allan, 2007) such as
classroom settings, for instance, as part of a University course,
or allow individuals to work through graded examples in their
own time: the common way of learning new computational
techniques through self-directed learning.
As a result, there is an urgent need for a suite of TEI tutorials
for the self directed learner. The “TEI by Example” project is
currently developing a range of freely available online tutorials
which will walk individuals through the different stages in
marking up a document in TEI. In addition to this, the tutorials
provide annotated examples of a range of texts, indicating
the editorial choices that are necessary to undertake when
marking up a text in TEI. Linking to real examples from projects
which utilise the TEI reaffi rms the advice given to learners.
The aims and focus of the project were documented in Van
den Branden et al. (2007), whereas the aim of this poster is
to detail the editorial, technological, and pedagogical choices
the authors had to make when constructing the tutorials, to
prepare stand- alone tutorials of use to the Digital Humanities
audience, and beyond.
TEI by Example is effectively an implementation of problem
based learning, an effi cient and useful approach to teaching
skills to individuals in order for them to undertake similar
tasks themselves, successfully. The literature on this is wide
and varied (for seminal literature regarding the effectiveness
of this pedagogic approach see Norman and Schmidt (1992);
Garrison (1997); and Savin-Baden and Wilkie (2006)). There
has been particular consideration as to the effectiveness of
example and problem based learning when learning computer
programming (for example, see Mayer (1981), Mayer (1988),
Kelleher and Pausch (2005)). Additionally, another wide
area of academic research is how to develop online tutorial
materials successfully (Stephenson, 2001; Jochems et al., 2003).
Understanding the nature of online tutorials, and grappling
with the pedagogical issues these technologies offer us, was a
core issue when beginning to implement the TEI by Example
materials.
In order to develop the TEI by Example tutorials, the team
had to understand the technical possibilities and limitations
afforded by the online environment, and decide how best to
integrate these into the tutorial materials. By juxtaposing static
(pages, articles) and dynamic (quizzes, validation) functionality,
the project aims to provide a holistic learning environment
for those new to the TEI. Further linking to other examples
provided by the community extends the remits of the project
into another, alternative viewpoint by which to start learning
the TEI, aside from the TEI guidelines themselves (TEI, 2007).
Additionally, the role of user testing will be explored to feature
feedback and comments from the TEI user community, to aid
in the development of intuitive tutorial materials.
This poster will report on progress, problems, and potential
solutions in developing teaching materials for the TEI,
demonstrate the tutorials developed, and highlight areas in
which the TEI and Digital Humanities communities can aid in
the design, and implementation, of materials for students and
teachers.
References
Allan, Barbara (2007). Blended Learning. Tools for teaching and
training. London: Facet Publishing.
Garrison, D. R. (1997). “Self Directed Learning, Towards a
Comprehensive Model”. Adult Education Quarterly, 48(1): 18-
33.
Jochems, W., van Merrienboer, J. and, Koper, R. (eds.) (2003).
Integrated E-Learning: Implications for Pedagogy, Technology and
Organization (Open & Flexible Learning). London: Routledge
Farmer.
Kelleher, C. and Pausch, R. (2005). “Lowering the Barriers to
Programming: A Taxonomy of Programming Environments
and Languages for Novice Programmers”, ACM Computing
Surveys, June 2005, 37(2): 83-137.
Mayer, R. (1981). “The Psychology of How Novices Learn
Computer Programming” ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR),
13(1): 121 - 141. Mayer, R. (1988). Teaching and Learning Computer Programming:
Multiple Research Perspectives. Hillsdale, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates Inc.
Norman, G. R., and Schmidt, H. G. (1992). “The psychological
basis of problem-based learning: a review of the evidence”.
Acad Med, 67(9): 557-565
Savin-Baden, M. and Wilkie, K. (2006). Problem based learning
online. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Stephenson, J. (ed.) (2001). Teaching and Learning Online:
Pedagogies for New Technologies. Abingdon: Routledge.
TEI (2007). Burnard, L. and Bauman, S. (eds). “TEI P5
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange”
http://www.tei-c.org.uk/P5/Guidelines/index.html
Van den Branden, R., Vanhoutte, E., Terras, M. (2007).
“TEI by Example”. Digital Humanities 2007, University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA, June 2007. http://www.
digitalhumanities.org/dh2007/abstracts/xhtml.xq?id=221","txt","2","",""
"943","9","CLARIN: Common Language Resources and Technology Infrastructure","2","This paper proposes the need for an infrastructure to make
language resources and technology (LRT) available and readily
usable to scholars of all disciplines, in particular the humanities
and social sciences (HSS), and gives an overview of how the
CLARIN project aims to build such an infrastructure. Why we need a research
infrastructure for language resources
Problems of standards for textual representation, interoperability
of tools, and problems with licensing, access and sustainability
have dogged the Humanities since the invention of the digital
computer. Language resources such as text corpora exhibit a
variety of forms of textual representation, metadata, annotation,
and access arrangements. Tools are usually developed for ad
hoc use within a particular project, or for use by one group of
researchers, or for use with only one text or set of data, and
are not developed suffi ciently to be deployed as widely-used
and sustainable services. As a result, a large amount of effort
has been wasted over many years developing applications with
similar functionality. Veterans of ACH and ALLC will know
that the problems which are addressed by this paper are not
new ones. What a persistent and sustainable infrastructure,
as part of the e-Science and Cyberinfrastructure agenda, can
offer is perhaps the fi rst realistic opportunity to address these
problems in a systematic, sustainable and global fashion.
The Summit on Digital Tools in the Humanities in
Charlottesville, Virginia in 2006 estimated that only 6% of
scholars in the Humanities go beyond general purpose
information technologies (email, web browsing, word
processing, spreadsheets and presentation slide software), and suggested that revolutionary change in humanistic research
is possible thanks to computational methods, but that this
revolution has not yet occurred. This is an exciting time in
humanities research, as the introduction of new instruments
makes possible new types of research, but it is clear that new
institutional structures are needed for the potential to be
realised.
CLARIN is committed to boost humanities research in a
multicultural and multilingual Europe, by allowing easy access
and use of language resources and technology to researchers
and scholars across a wide spectrum of domains in the
Humanities and Social Sciences. To reach this goal, CLARIN is
dedicated to establishing an active interaction with the research
communities in the Humanities and Social Sciences (HSS) and
to contribute to overcoming the traditional gap between the
Humanities and the Language Technology communities.
The CLARIN proposal
The proposed CLARIN infrastructure is based on the belief
that the days of pencil-and-paper research are numbered,
even in the humanities. Computer-aided language processing
is already used by a wide variety of sub-disciplines in the
humanities and social sciences, addressing one or more of the
multiple roles language plays, as carrier of cultural content
and knowledge, instrument of communication, component of
identity and object of study. Current methods and objectives
in these disparate fi elds have a lot in common with each other.
However it is evident that to reach the higher levels of analysis
of texts that non-linguist scholars are typically interested in,
such as their semantic and pragmatic dimensions, requires an
effort of a scale that no single scholar could, or indeed, should
afford.
The cost of collecting, digitising and annotating large text or
speech corpora, dictionaries or language descriptions is huge
in terms of time and money, and the creation of tools to
manipulate these language data is very demanding in terms
of skills and expertise, especially if one wants to make them
accessible to professionals who are not experts in linguistics
or language technology. The benefi ts of computer enhanced
language processing become available only when a critical
mass of coordinated effort is invested in building an enabling
infrastructure, which can then provide services in the form
of provision of all the existing tools and resources as well
as training and advice across a wide span of domains. Making
resources and tools easily accessible and usable is the mission
of the CLARIN infrastructure initiative.
The purpose of the infrastructure is to offer persistent services
that are secure and provide easy access to language processing
resources. Our vision is to make available in usable formats
both the resources for processing language and the data to
be processed, in such a way that the tasks can be run over
a distributed network from the user’s desktop. The CLARIN
objective is to make this vision a reality: repositories of data
with standardized descriptions, language processing tools
which can operate on standardized data, with a framework for
th resolution of legal and access issues, and all of this available
on the internet using Grid architecture.
The nature of the project is therefore primarily to turn
existing, fragmented technology and resources into accessible
and stable services that any user can share or customize for
their own applications. This will be a new underpinning for
advanced research in the humanities and social sciences - a
research infrastructure.
Objectives of the current phase
CLARIN is currently in the preparatory phase, which
has the aim of bringing the project to the level of legal,
organisational and fi nancial maturity required to implement
the infrastructure. As the ultimate goal is the construction
and operation of a shared distributed infrastructure to make
language resources and technology available to the humanities
and social sciences research communities at large, an approach
along various dimensions is required in order to pave the way
for implementation. The fi ve main dimensions along which
CLARIN will progress are the following:
• Funding and governance, bringing together the funding
agencies in all participating countries and to work out
a ready to sign draft agreement between them about
governance, fi nancing, construction and operation of the
infrastructure.
• Technical infrastructure, defi ning the novel concept of a
language resources and technology infrastructure, based
on existing and emerging technologies (Grid, web services),
to provide a detailed specifi cation of the infrastructure,
agreement on data and interoperability standards to be
adopted, as well as a validated running prototype based on
these specifi cations.
• Languages and multilinguality, populating the prototype
with a selection of language resources and technologies for
all participating languages, via the adaptation and integration
of existing resources to the CLARIN requirements, and in a
number of cases the creation of specifi c essential resources.
• Legal and ethical issues relating to language resources will
have to be examined and thoroughly understood, and the
necessary legal and administrative agreements proposed to
overcome the barriers to full exploitation of the resources.
• Focus on users, the intended users being the humanities
and social sciences research communities.
This fi nal dimension is in many ways the most important, and
will be explored in the most detail in this paper. In order to
fully exploit the potential of what language technology has to
offer, a number of actions have to be undertaken: (i) an analysis
of current practice in the use of language technology in the humanities will help to ensure that the specifi cations take into
account the needs of the humanities, (ii) the execution of a
number of exemplary humanities projects will help to validate
the prototype and its specifi cations, (iii) the humanities and
social sciences communities have to be made aware of the
potential of the use of language resources and technology to
enable innovation in their research, and (iv) the humanities and
language technology communities have to be brought together
in networks in order to ensure lasting collaborations between
the communities. The objective of this cluster of activities is
to ensure that the infrastructure has been demonstrated to
serve the humanities and social sciences users, and that we
create an informed community which is capable of exploiting
and further developing the infrastructure.
Concluding remarks
CLARIN still has a long way to go, but it offers an exciting
opportunity to exploit the achievements of language and
speech technology over the last decades to the benefi t
of communities that traditionally do not maintain a close
relationship with the latest technologies. In contrast to many
European programmes, the main benefi ciaries of this project
are not expected to be the big ICT-oriented industries or the
bigger language communities in Europe. CLARIN addresses
the whole humanities and social sciences research community,
and it very explicitly addresses all the languages of the EU
and associated states, both majority and minority languages,
including languages spoken and languages studied in the
participating countries.","txt","2","",""
"944","9","Fortune Hunting: Art, Archive, Appropriation","2","Although digital humanities projects have a variety of forms
and emphases, a familiar type is the dataset that is prepared -
encoded, structured, and classifi ed - to allow scholars to engage
with a research question. Such projects base the rational for
their encodings and classifi cation on earlier research, on
disciplinary knowledge from the subject area and on encoding
practice. The choices are then documented so researchers are
aware of the assumptions underlying their dataset. The user
interface that provides access to the data is also designed to
privilege particular audiences and modes of interaction.
Most projects our group undertakes follow this model, and
we are familiar with the process of elucidating the information
necessary in order to implement them. Fortune Hunting,
however, an art project, appropriates the forms of the archive
and the methodologies of literary analysis to express a
personal vision. The artist developed her representations of
the fortune cookie texts without any knowledge of the work
in digital humanities; she took her initial inspiration from the
library catalog and simple desktop databases. As we proceeded
with the web implementation of this art project, we became
increasingly aware of the similarity of the artist’s interactions
to the encoding and classifi cation tasks we used in other
projects, and we drew on that paradigm. As she was introduced
to these methodologies, classifi cations and analytical tools, the
artist also discovered new ways of working with her texts.
Artist’s Statement
The seemingly personalized fortune-cookie fortune is in fact
a mass-produced item distributed to restaurants in batches.
This random delivery system means that the fortune a given
diner receives is mostly a function of chance. Even with this
knowledge, many diners read their fortunes hoping to fi nd
an answer to a pressing question or recognize some part of
themselves. Over a period of years, I methodically saved the fortune-cookie
fortunes I received while dining out. I curated my collection
intuitively, keeping fortunes that presented an “accurate”
description of myself (“you are contemplative and analytical
by nature”), offered a sense of hope (“you will be fortunate in
everything you put your hands to”), or evoked a rueful sense
of misidentifi cation (“you have great physical powers and an
iron constitution”).
I wanted to examine my desire to fi nd structured meaning
in what was really a haphazard or random occurrence. After
some thought, I decided a digital archive that could sort the
fortunes in a systematic way would be the perfect lens through
which to read them. My work with the Brown University
Scholarly Technology Group started with this germ of an idea.
The result is the mini corpus “Fortune Hunting.”
“Fortune Hunting” allows users to create an endlessly evolving
series of narratives that explore both self-defi nition and chance,
the incomplete and transitory nature of being and desired
states of being, and the shifting nature of the personal pronoun
“you.” The anticipation, unexpected surprise (or possibly even
disappointment) users experience as they construct searches
continually enacts the same desiring mechanism (the need to
construct meaning) that is as at the very root of the project.
As I began to work I realized that most fortunes were directed
toward the diner through the use of the word “you.” I sorted
the fortunes into three categories: “subject” you, “object” you
and “without” you. Within these categories, sorts were further
specifi ed by personal pronoun phrases. For example, all the
fortunes that contain “you are” (subject you) can be seen
together. Similarly, all the fortunes that contain “about you”
(object you) can be seen together. A third method of searching
(“without” you) captured all fortunes not containing the word
“you” (example: art is the accomplice of love.)
At the same time, I became aware of the linguistic connections
the search engine could manifest (for example: capturing all
the fortunes that contained the word “love”). As a result, we
created an individual word sort function. Words could be
selected using the “exact word” search (for example: every) or
a “similar word” search (which would yield every, everybody,
everyone, and everything). The word sort function allowed
fortunes to be sorted across multiple “you” categories.
As the database evolved, I became interested in ways that I
could step outside its grammatical and linguistic parameters.
At that point we developed a feature that allowed me to create
“collections” of fortunes centered on my own subjective
interpretations. These collections were divided into three
categories: subjects (collections of fortunes on a particular
topic such as travel, love or luck), portraits (clusters of fortunes
that described types of individuals: writer, paranoid, neurotic
overachiever), and narratives (groups of fortunes that created
short stories: searching for happiness, reconciliations, revenge).
Through analysis and intuition, my collection sorts created
connections (both thematic and linguistic) that would not
necessarily occur using either “you” or keyword searches.
Another important aspect of the database was incorporating
the actual images of the fortunes. From the start, I was drawn
to the ephemeral appearance of the fortunes: messages on
paper scraps marked by stains and creases. With this in mind,
I chose to scan the fortunes and have them appear on screen
as images Instead of creating a strictly text-based interface.
After users have completed their searches, they can view their
results on a “picture page” which displays the images of the
fortune cookie fortunes, or an “archive page” which displays
the metadata attached to each fortune (allowing viewers
another way to trace interconnections between fortunes).
Lastly, viewers can move to a printer friendly page and print
out their results, leaving each visitor with a visual record of
their travels through the database.
“Fortune Hunting” is like going through a trunk in an attic,
sorting through a collection of someone else’s things and
making your own connections and re-readings. Because all the
searches are Boolean “or” searches users can cast a wide net
as they comb the database. “Fortune Hunting” is constantly
evolving, and each visit to the site can involve a different
interpretation of the material. New fortunes and subsequent
subject, portrait and narrative searches continue to be added.
Digital Humanist’s Statement
Fortune Hunting is an art project; the artist was inspired by
her reactions to fortune cookie texts to create a piece that
would engender a similar experience in the viewer. The form
she chose to exhibit her work, even before she began to work
on its digital incarnation, highlighted her efforts to classify and
inter-relate the fortunes. She created a large wall display, on
which the fortunes were listed in columns that represented
categories, with lines linking fortunes from different groups.
Young’s desire to explore the discovery of meaning from
the randomness of the fortunes led her to quantitative tools
and methods that are usually applied to carefully assembled
and encoded archives. The “Fortune Hunting” database and
website embody two competing modes of interaction: on the
one hand, tool based interactions allow users to determine
their own browsing strategy, using searches, keywords and
a visualization, mimicking the artist’s own experience of the
materials. On the other hand, users can view the results of the
artist’s interpretations, a re-organization of the archive out of
which she creates new meaning in the form of narratives and
impressions.
Young developed tagging and classifi cation as a way to interpret
her fortune archive independently of her collaboration with a
digital humanities group, but her use of these linguistic and
analytical tools is essentially a misappropriation. The archive has
been carefully compiled, but is based on personal evaluation,
and oriented to creative ends rather than scholarship. The
classifi cations that are applied to the texts are also subjectively based. The formats and activities resemble conventional
digital humanities research, but for a different purpose - the
pleasurable discovery of meaning in the juxtaposition of
essentially random artifacts. The whole analytical structure Is
at the same time misused and exceedingly productive.
Like Ramsay’s explorations of literary analysis [Ramsay2003],
and the playful distortions of interpretation that we fi nd in
the Ivanhoe Game and Juxta [ARPProjects], this project has a
liberating effect on the digital humanist. Just as Young plays with
the fortune texts in order to understand how they “work,” we
are also playing with the subjective and exploratory application
of our methods. The creative use of these tools allows us to
focus on different parts of the discovery process, and we
derive pleasure from the functioning of the tools themselves.
In its similarity and great difference from conventional digital
humanities projects, “Fortune Hunting” makes us self-conscious
about our own practice.
Bibliography
[ARP] Applied Research in Patacriticism. http://www.
patacriticism.org/
[ARPProjects] Applied Research in Patacriticism. Projects.
http://www.patacriticism.org/projects.html
[FortuneHunting] Fortune Hunting Web Site. http://www.
fortunehunting.org (site publication date: Dec.14, 2007)
[Ramsay2003] Ramsay, Stephen. “Toward an Algorithmic
Criticism,” Literary and Linguistic Computing 18.2 (2003)
[TAPoRTools] Tapor Tools. http://portal.tapor.ca/portal/
coplets/myprojects/taporTools/
[VisualCol] Visual Collocator. http://tada.mcmaster.ca/Main/
TAPoRwareVisualCollocator","txt","2","",""
"945","10","Linking and Querying Ancient Texts: a case study with three epigraphic/ papyrological datasets","1","The OGSA-DAI (Open Grid Service Architecture—
Data Access and Integration, http://www.ogsadai.
org.uk/) project supports the exposure of data resources,
such as relational or XML databases, on to grids. Various interfaces are provided and many database management
systems are supported, with a particular view to
querying, transforming and delivering data in different
ways via a simple toolkit for developing client applications.
OGSA-DAI is designed to be extensible, so users
can provide their own additional functionality.
Colleagues at the Edinburgh Parallel Computing Centre
and the Centre for e-Research at KCL have been funded
to carry out a small case study applying the OGSADAI
platform to three datasets of ancient texts in different
formats. The Heidelberger Gesamtverzeichnis der
griechischen Papyrusurkunden Ägyptens (HGV) is a
collection of metadata (largely bibliographic, geographical,
and dating) for 65000 Greek papyri from Egypt,
stored in a large Filemaker Pro database. The Project
Volterra is a database of legal texts from the Roman
empire, currently in the low tens of thousands but very
much in progress, stored in a series of themed tables in
MS Access. The Inscriptions of Aphrodisias (IAph) is
a corpus of just under 2000 ancient Greek inscriptions
from a single city in Asia Minor, published in TEI XML.
These collections span roughly the same period - the first
five centuries or so of the Roman Empire - and also overlap
in terms of places and people, although their contents
are otherwise quite different. The provision of an integrated
view would thus be fruitful for the researcher. A
particularly challenging issue being investigated is that
of handling different levels of uncertainty in temporal
data: some dates are extremely precise – even to the day
– whereas many others are very vague – perhaps to a
span of 50 or 100 years.
These datasets are all freely available in one form or another,
and the scholars who own the databases are happy
for us to re-use them in this way and publish the results
of our aggregation and federated querying. In an ideal
world, of course, we should not have to seek permission
from the owners at all in order to re-use and re-purpose
their published data. The IAph texts are all published under
a Creative Commons-Attribution licence (CC-BY),
so re-use is not only permitted but encouraged (in fact
Bodard is one of the authors of this dataset, but in any
case we can use these texts for anything we like without
asking or even informing the authors so long as we attribute
the original material to the copyright holders). A
transformation of the HGV data into EpiDoc XML has
likewise been published under CC-BY, although it is
the master database that interests us for this project, and
that is not publicly available in its raw form (although a
HTML version is online and free). There is also a free,
web-available version of the Volterra data (although the
website is down at time of writing), but the database itself
was acquired for this project with the permission of
the editors.
As mentioned above the contents of these three datasets
vary quite widely, but there is sufficient overlap to enable
a certain amount of cross-database searching to be
feasible, at least as a proof of principle. For instance,
although the Volterra database specifically addresses legal
texts, it contains some papyri and thus possibly references
to places that also occur in the HGV metadata.
Likewise, although the Volterra texts do not include any
inscriptions from Aphrodisias, there may be attestations
of persons that appear in both the Volterra and IAph texts
(especially in the late antique period, which is where the
Aphrodisias material is most richly annotated). IAph and
HGV do not directly share any content, but the categories
that are used to organize the texts have a certain overlap,
for example letters, decrees, honours, contracts. As mentioned
above, all three datasets overlap fairly closely in
date, and have similar (but not identical) mechanisms for
recording dates, date-ranges, periods, and uncertain dating.
Cross-corpus search in all of these areas or combinations
of them should test the OGSA-DAI software and
demonstrate the validity and usefulness of this approach.
OGSA-DAI is considered to be a standard for database
integration in Grid environments, which enable virtualisation
and sharing of resources via the Internet, as well
as in a purely web-service environment. Until now, the
OGSA-DAI technology has been used mainly to provide
integrated views of relational databases with different
schemas, and the LaQuAT demonstrator will to begin
with use it in this way with the two database resources,
HGV and Projet Volterra. Subsequently the work will be
extended to integrate the InsAph XML files, providing
an integrated view over the three three structured data
resources. The project will also produce significant enhancements
to the OGSA-DAI software, specifically in
its handling of XML resources, which is currently more
restricted than its features for database integration. OGSA-DAI will then integration of multiple database and XML data resources. The LaQUaT demonstrator will
use a recent extension to OGSA-DAI called OGSADQP,
which is a service-based distributed query processor,
to produce queries across these data resources.
One project output will be thus be an openly available
demonstrator allowing an integrated view over these
three datasets. However, the resources selected are just examples from among numerous others to which the La-QuAT approach could be applied. In the fields of archaeology and classics alone, there are numerous datasets, often small and isolated, that would be of great utility if the information they contained could be integrated. Three points to note about many of these resources are that:
• Formats are very diverse. The databases rarely follow
standardised database schemas, so typically
any two schemas will be different. Moreover, use of
mark-up can vary significantly, particularly in older
resources before much effort had been towards standardisation
(such as EpiDoc), but stylistic variation
may occurs even when standards are applied.
• Resources are not easily available for use; they may
locked away on local or departmental machines, or
“published” on a website in a way that is not particularly
usable by a researcher.
• Even when a resource is available it is often available
only in isolation. Many of these resources may
be regarded as fragments of a larger picture, with
vastly more value if researchers could access this
larger picture rather than just the parts.
• Resources may be owned by different communities
and subject to different rights; the scholars who created
them may be unwilling to accept anything that
affects the integrity of the original resources. Consequently,
any integration initiative must respect this
autonomy and integrity, if it is to be successful.
The ability to link up such diverse data resources, in
a way that respects the original data resources and the
communities responsible for them, is a pressing need
among humanities researchers. The LaQuAT project is
developing a software demonstrator utilising a small set
of resources in a particular discipline; however, the solution
developed will have a lifespan beyond the initial
project and will provide a framework into which other
researchers will be able to attach resources of interest,
thus building up a critical mass of related material whose
utility as a research tool will be significantly greater than
that of the sum of its parts. We see this project as providing
an opportunity to start building a more extensive
e-infrastructure for advanced research in the (digital) humanities.
Once humanities scholars are persuaded of the
feasibility of this approach, there are many other datasets,
in France, Italy, Germany and the US, among others,
which could be exploited in such a way, building up a
critical mass of material that will enable new connections
to be made. The data-silo mentality could be gently
undermined once scholars can see their own construct
as remaining identifiable, while at the same time greatly
enriched. The infrastructure will be sustained initially by
King’s College London and the UK National Grid Service
(NGS), and subsequently as part of the European
infrastructure being developed by the DARIAH project
funded by the EU FP7 programme.","txt","2","","9156"
"946","10","Data and Code for Ancient Geography: shared effort across projects and disciplines","1","Pleiades (http://pleiades.stoa.org) gives scholars, students
and enthusiasts worldwide the ability to use,
create and share historical geographic information about
the Greek and Roman World. Pleiades is a joint project
of three organizations: the Institute for the Study of
the Ancient World (New York University), the Ancient
World Mapping Center (University of North Carolina
at Chapel Hill) and the Stoa Consortium for Electronic
Publication in the Humanities (University of Kentucky).
Our goal is a continuously updated, authoritative digital
gazetteer for the ancient world, supporting the widest
possible range of third-party digital projects and
publications through open, standards-based interfaces.
From its earliest concept days, Pleiades was intended
to be broadly collaborative: employing, modifying and
engendering open-content information and open-source
software to accomplish its mission. This paper reports
on the associated provisions and assesses their reach and
effects within our user community, and beyond.
Pleiades employs a community-oriented, transparent editorial
process that cultivates both contributions and critiques
from the widest possible range of contributors. We
aim to echo in a virtual environment the essential processes,
workflows, resources and modes of interaction
used by scholars to advance understanding of ancient
sites, landscapes and geographic phenomena, but we
also strive to open this environment to the widest possible
range of interested participants. The bar to initial
participation is purposely set low to encourage participation
by scholars, students and enthusiasts alike, regardless
of their degree status, institutional affiliation or skill
level. All that is required is a verifiable email address and
acceptance of a contributor agreement governing issues
of professionalism, mutual respect, intellectual property,
editorial policy, assertion of identity and the open-licensing
of content. Pleiades content combines “pure” data components (e.g.,
geospatial coordinates) with the products of analysis
(e.g., toponymic variants with indicia of completeness,
degree of reconstruction and level of scholarly confidence
therein) and textual argument (e.g., comments and
reviews). In part because of this hybrid constitution—
and the varying definitions of intellectual property and
“database rights” in differing legal jurisdictions—we
have elected not to seek or assert any intellectual property
ownership in the content on behalf of the project and
its supporting institutions. Rather, our contributor agreement
assumes (and contributors must affirm) that any IP
rights inherent in the content remain with the contributors,
who grant to the project (and therefore to its users)
a Creative Commons, Attribution, Share-alike license,
which permits reuse, redistribution and remixing of the
content under clearly defined terms. These terms ensure
the widest possible range of reuse (see below), without
the need for copyright clearance requests and the like,
while guarding against trivial reorganization and restrictive
repackaging of the content that might inhibit such
reuse.
On the software front, Pleiades is entirely open source.
We make use of a number of externally developed components,
and have contributed code to some of them. The
Pleiades team has also created and released (under opensource
licenses) a number of original components. Some
of these are already in use beyond Pleiades, and we have
received contributions of code from third-party developers
for some of these.
• OpenLayers (http://openlayers.org) is the leading
open source web map toolkit. Pleiades has modestly
enhanced its features and employs it to provide contextual
maps in its web application.
• Plone (http://plone.org) is a leading open source
content management system. Pleiades has made
modest improvements to its vocabulary manager
and to its user interface framework, and contributed
these code improvements back to the Plone code
base.
• zgeo.* is a suite of Python software packages including:
zgeo.geographer, zgeo.spatialindex, zgeo.
atom, and zgeo.kml. These packages provide support
for the Pleiades Entities component and enjoy
contributions from programmers employed by The
Open Planning Project and Makina Corpus SA.
Shapely and Rtree are general purpose Python GIS software
that support the zgeo.* packages. Shapely enjoys
contributions from programmers and researchers employed
by Camptocamp SA, the University of California,
and the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric
Administration.
GEOS and SpatialIndex are low-level libraries for geometry
and spatial indexing computing. Users include
the PostGIS project and Autodesk. Pleiades has made
modest contributions to each and helped SpatialIndex
become an openly developed project.
Pleiades’ openness is driven in part by our sustainability
plan and in part by the potential for re-use. Our initial
content encompasses the compilation materials of the
Classical Atlas Project, a 12-year, 200-person international
collaboration that culminated in the publication
of the Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World
(RJA Talbert, ed., Princeton, 2000). It is clear that no
academic center or institution could maintain sufficient
staff over the long-term to curate, maintain, update and
diversify this unique assemblage of geospatial coordinates,
toponymic records, temporal indicia and bibliographic
citations drawn from a wide range of specialist
literatures and primary sources. Consequently, we have
embraced the necessity of pushing out the responsibility
of (and opportunity for) creating and updating this content
to interested parties across the discipline of ancient
studies and beyond. Where these parties are employed,
professional academics, we are gambling—it is true—on
their willingness (and the willingness of their host institutions)
to absorb the redistributory costs of content
creation and maintenance as part and parcel of day-today
research, publication and scholarly communication
in their field. We are conscious that traditional “metrics”
of reward (hiring, tenure, promotion) have not yet been
adjusted to address such multi-institutional, asynchronous
and piece-wise collaboration, and so we view our
effort and our community as pioneers. Consequently, we
endeavor to surface the details of individual contribution
wherever possible: on profile pages, on individual
records, and in the change histories that underly each
such record.
The potential for reuse of Pleiades content is broad, and
we hope to see both unexpected and serendipitous reuse
cases arise from outside the project team. Our early collaborators
are interested in a range of useful applications
that can be foreseen or are already in prototype. One
chief class of use is as an “authority list” for Greek and
Roman geographic names and the locations associated
with them. Both existing and new databases and digital
resources can make use of Pleiades content (and our
stable URLs for discrete elements therein) to refer unambiguously
to the places and spaces mentioned in ancient
texts, the subjects of modern scholarly works, the minting locations of coins, and the findspots of inscriptions,
papyri, and the like. Using Pleiades as a central
geographic authority reduces opportunities for ambiguity
(consider that we know of 19 distinct cities named
Apollonia in antiquity), while setting up the possibility
of cross-project services and data sharing that exploits
the common standard. In addition to the human-readable
HTML interface, Pleiades provides access to its content
in simple, standard formats that can be harvested, or aggregated
dynamically, to produce dynamic maps using
third party tools and services like Google Earth or Yahoo!
Maps. We are also working with other projects to
develop standards-based mechanisms for cross-project
geographic search (e.g., relevant information within
30km of a named place). These same functional components
will make it possible for scholars and students
alike to pull Pleiades content into their own research and
teaching tools and contexts, using them to solve problems,
explore possibilities and produce map visualizations (mash-ups) for further sharing, reuse and publication.","txt","2","","9156"
"947","10","Homer Multitext - Nine Year Update","1","In 2000, Gregory Nagy, in a review of Martin West’s
1998 edition of the Homeric Iliad, contrasted the traditional
critical editions of West and others with the ancient
diorthosis (a word translated, perhaps loosely, as
“edition”) of the Alexandrian scholar Aristarchus: “I
submit that Aristarchus’ ancient edition of the Iliad, if it
had survived in its original format, would in many ways
surpass West’s present edition. It would be a more useful—
and more accurate—way to contemplate the Iliad
in its full multiformity.”
This assertion was the origin of the Homer Multitext, an
effort to bring together a comprehensive record of the
Homeric tradition in a digital library. This paper will describe
the state of this project as it approaches the end
of its first decade; this paper is not a progress report, but
a description of an infrastructure that for both technological
and what we might call semantic integration. In
both its collection of data and its development of tools
and infrastructure, the HMT has focused not on building
a single-purpose application to support a particular
theoretical approach, but on defining a long-term generic
digital library expressly intended to encourage reuse of
its contents, services, and tools.
Homeic scholarship in the 18th and 19th centuries was
firmly based on the texts that survived through a manuscript
tradition, most notably the great Byzantine codices
of the Iliad and its ancient commentaries, the Homeric
scholia. The 20th century saw the increasing recovery
and publication of even older fragments on papyrus, but
otherwise moved from a manuscript-based scholarship
toward the scholarship of the critical edition. So, for example,
the 1870s and 1880s saw the publication by W.
Dindorf and E. Maas of editions of scholia organized
by manuscript, the A and B manuscripts from Venice,
and the T manuscript from London; in 1901 D. Comparetti
edited a photo-facsimile edition of the A manuscript
from Venice (part of an ambitious series of facsimile editions
that was abandoned unfortunately incomplete due
to lack of interest and funding). The 20th century saw the
publication of a critical edition of the Iliad by T.W. Allen
in the 1930s, and another by M. West in the 1990s, as
well as a voluminous edition of the Homeric scholia by
H. Erbse in the 1960s. In the cases of both the poetic text
of the Iliad and the scholiasts’ commentaries, these 20th
Century publications are works of selection and aggregation,
seeking to present a unified text of these ancient
works, representing the best judgement of the editors.
Subsequently, however, scholarly assumptions in many
circles about the nature of the poem and its commentaries
have changed, and the range of questions that scholars
would ask of these texts has expanded. The very existence
of variation in the text has become a matter of
historical interest (rather than a problem to be removed).
The precise relationship between text and commentary,
as expressed on the pages of individual manuscripts,
hold promise to shed light on the tradition that preserved
these texts, the nature of the texts in antiquity, and therefore
their fundamental nature. We have found that the
20th century models of critical text-plus-apparatus is incapable
of answering many of these new questions.
The best scholarly environment for addressing these
questions would be a digital library of facsimiles and
accompanying diplomatic editions. This library should
also be supplemented by other texts of related interest
such as non Homeric texts that include relevant comments
and quotations and other collections of data and
indices. Thus our focus on both collection of data and on
building a scalable, technologically agnostic, infrastructure
for publishing collections of data, images, texts, and
extensions to these types. This infrastructure accomplishes retrieval and linking through abstract citation.
(This work is complemented by, and has been progressing
in collaboration with, the work on Homer in the Papyri,
which is also building a collection of diplomatic
editions, to be supplemented by translations and commentaries,
on papyrus fragments of epic poetry.)
We have presented aspects of this collection and infrastructure
at previous meetings of the Digital Humanities
Conference. This paper will summarize the project’s
goals, but focus on recent developments, specifically
the ongoing publication of the Homeric Scholia, developments
in our network services (specifically the third
version of the Canonical Text Service and the RefIndex
service, both of which now exist as Java Servlets and as
Python applications running in the Google AppEngine),
and our end-user application, a web-based interface to
this library called “Pandect”.
Neel Smith has been compiling editions of the Homeric
scholia according to “new” principles that closely follow
the real evidence for these ancient commentaries. Smith’s
edition acknowledges that each of the Byzantine codices
in effect contains many discrete texts. The Venetus A, for
example, contains a text of Proclus’s Chrestomathy, the
text of the Iliad, summaries of the books of the Iliad, at
least four distinct scholiastic texts (as identified by their
placement in discrete locations on each folio) and later
notes and emendations. By describing these contents as
separate texts, and by using a system of canonical citation
to refer to portions of each text, and by using indices
to associate these texts with the collection of foliosides
that constitutes this manuscript, we can approach
the Venetus A as both a single artifact and as a notional
“library” of texts. By virtue of our FRBR-like citation
format, the CTS-URN, we can make general statements
about passages from any of these texts, while also retraining
the ability to treat each instantiation separately,
as when a scholion appears in almost (but not quite) the
same form on the A manuscript and the T manuscript.
The services that make this possible have been in development
for years and are now ready for use in production.
We have implementations of the Canonical Text
Services protocol—for discovery and retrieval of text by
means of arbitrary citations—in Java as a Servlet, to be
run under Tomcat or Jetty, and as a Python application
that can run in Google’s AppEngine space. Likewise the
RefIndex service, which permits generic access to indices
that allow simple pairings between texts (at any level
from the text-group, or author, level down to the citation
level or a specified substring), objects in a collection
(such as a collection of morphological data, a lexicon, or
a collection of manuscript folios), or images.
These two implementations allow us to offer these services
through local servers, for the greatest flexibility, or
through Google’s service, for global access and greatest
reliability.
Finally, Pandect is our open-source web-based application
for accessing the materials of the HMT. Its main
function is to mediate between the user and the network
services of the HMT, and as such is should be an entirely
generic tool, useful for any other project that implements
the CTS protocol.
By virtue of this citation+service approach to our digital
library, Pandect can discover texts, data, and images; it
can also provide basic navigation and manipulation. It
is not, however, merely a multi-column viewer for text
and images. Each instance of the application is based
on a Scenario, which defines relationships between collections
of texts, collections, and images. The scenario
might know that a collection contains data about manuscript
folios, and that these in turn are related to images
and to xml texts. The user’s experience, then, consists
of navigating a digital library in which each object in
view knows its relationship to all others. Navigation of
one object will percolate across all others. At any given
point, the user’s current view—for example, a Homeric
texts, a scholion, and images of two folios—is preserved,
can be addressed, and can be exported as a simple XML
expression of a directed graph (using the GraphML schema).
Because each of these objects is identified through
canonical citation, these digraphs capture the relationships
among scholarly objects; they can serve not only as
bookmarks to the state of a browser, but as independent
objects of analysis, aggregation, or manipulation.
After nine years of development, we hope to make the
case that the Homer Multitext has not only produced a
large body of valuable data, but also a robust body of
source code that could be broadly useful to the community
of digital humanists. Its approach to primary sources—
favoring diplomatic editions and facsimiles wherever
possible—intends to invite the widest possible scope
for re-use of its data. Its emphasis on simple indexing
rather than complex and specialized internal markup
is based on the assumption that it requires less knowledge
to integrate texts with simple markup and simple,
documented indices, than to disaggregate an elaborately
marked up texts that embeds links to other digital objects.
The HMT’s emphasis on canonical citation insures that
its contents can continue to interrelate with each other,
can be abstracted, and be re-used into the future. And our
emphasis on services defined by documented protocols should allow the HMT to advance in functionality and
reliability, and should allow other projects to draw on the
HMT’s contents through a consistent interface that is independent
of any specific technological implementation.","txt","2","","9156"
"948","10","Topic Maps and MVD for the representations of interpretative variants","1","1. Introduction and aims Signum, in collaboration with the Istituto Nazionale
di Studi sul Rinascimento, gained a remarkable experience
in analysing and processing humanistic texts,
which resulted in the development of a search engine for
XML documents: TauRo-core.
In this research field a demand has emerged for a system
aimed at developing semantic research and aids for the
reading and interpretation of texts.
The fundamental assumptions of our work have been
proven consistent with the research project carried out
by Prof. Dino Buzzetti about the connection between
expression and meaning in texts [BUZ, 2002]. This perspective
prompted us to reach a further objective, i.e.
testing — through an algorithmic approach — the links
which exist between different interpretations of the same
text, in order to create an output format which is analogous
to the rendering of textual variants.
2. The application
Our research focused on the analysis of De gli eroici furori
— a Renaissance Italian text written by Giordano
Bruno in 1585 — and achieved two results:
• the creation of a system for facilitating semantic research
and text reading [BUZ, 2004];
• the creation of a graph of interpretative variants in
MVD format.
2.1. The system for facilitating reading and
semantic search
We accomplished an online system that allows a guided
reading and a semantic search of De gli eroici furori.
This text has been chosen, firstly, because of its philosophical nature, which allows the outlining of complex
and articulated conceptual structures. Moreover, the subdivision
of the text into various dialogues enables the
reader to follow the diachronic development of concepts.
Therefore, De gli eroici furori is the ideal subject for our
case study (as previously shown by Bassi et al. project
[BDEL, 2007]).
In order to realise our prototype, we decided to delineate
three interpretative variants concerning a single conceptual
unity (intellect) in three dialogues: I, 1; I, 4; II, 5
(this selection is aimed at showing the development of
this conceptual unity across the text). A representative
example concerns the relation between love and intellect:
love enlightens intellect (I, 1); intellect is metaphorically
defined as the faculty of sight (I, 4), so it leads to
the vision of the highest good (II, 5), the true object of
love (I, 4).
I, 1 - p. 792: ... l’amore non è cieco in sé, e per sé
non rende ciechi alcuni amanti... l’amore illustra,
chiarisce, apre l’intelletto...
I, 4 - p. 819: ... l’amor eroico per quanto tende al
proprio oggetto ch’è il sommo bene; e l’eroico intelletto
che gionger si studia al proprio oggetto che è il
primo vero o la verità absoluta...
I, 4 - p. 827: ...perché o significa la potenza visiva,
cioè la vista, che è l’intelletto...
II, 5 - p. 956: ...nove ciechi... sentiro aspergere
dell’acqui bramate, aprîro gli occhi e veddero...[la
luce] che sola possea mostrargli l’imagine del sommo
bene... To represent the semantic dimension of De gli eroici furori
topic maps have been chosen, whose features are
similar to those pertaining to the natural process of text
interpretation; in particular, the standard language adopted
to write topic maps is XTM. This system allows a
guided reading by means of a schematic visualisation of
the topic maps relating to the conceptual unity in question.
Semantic search is carried out by the TauRo-core
search engine. When a query is submitted, TauRo-core
searches in Eroici furori text encoded in TEI format and
searches in topic map files encoded in XTM format. The
two results are then conveyed into a single visualisation,
in order to make available to the user textual occurrences
as well as “conceptual constellations” that are related to
the query (Fig. 1).
2.2. The graph of interpretative variants
Many Digital Humanities IT applications focused on
textual variants, leaving aside interpretative variants.
Our aim is to contribute to overcome this discrepancy
by the adoption of a unified format consistent with both
types of variants, i.e. MVD.
This attempt is made possible by the fact that different
interpretations are described through a XTM standard,
which — being a XML language — is itself a text. Consequently,
Desmond-Schmidt’s algorithm can be applied
to represent any textual interpretation as a path spanning
from the first to the last node in an oriented MVD graph. 3. Conclusions
This project is in line with the theoretical view according
to which it is possible to pass, in the digital processing of
humanistic texts, from the expressive to the interpretative
level. It was carried out through the creation of a tool
for semantic search and guided reading, and through the
implementation of an algorithm to create a data structure
that we can visit with an analogous algorithm used for
textual variants (i. e. MVD).
In the future, our purpose is to use the representation of
interpretative variants by MVD graph to redefine the expressive
level of texts, in compliance with the scheme
suggested by Prof. Buzzetti.
4. Bibliography
[BDEL, 2007] S. Bassi, F. Dell’Orletta, D. Esposito,
A. Lenci. Computational linguistics meets philosophy:
a Latent Semantic Analysis of Giordano Bruno’s texts,
RINASCIMENTO XLVI, 2007, pp. 631 - 651.
[BUZ, 2002] D. Buzzetti. Digital Representation and
the Text Model. New Literary History 33(1), 2002, pp.
61 - 88.
[BUZ, 2004] D. Buzzetti, Diacritical Ambiguity and
Markup, in D. Buzzetti, G. Pancaldi, and H. Short (eds.),
Augmenting Comprehension: Digital Tools and the History
of Ideas, London-Oxford, Office for Humanities
Communication, 2004, pp. 175-188
[BM, 2006] D. Buzzetti, J. McGann. Critical Editing in
Table 1. The topic maps of the above-mentioned textual a Digital Horizon, in Electronic Textual Editing, ed. L. Burnard, K. O’Brien O’Keeffe, and J. Unsworth, New
York, The Modern Language Association of America,
2006, pp. 51 - 71.
[BUZ 2009] D. Buzzetti, Digital Editions and Text Processing,
in M. Deegan and K. Sutherland (eds.), Text Editing,
Print, and the Digital World, Aldershot, Ashgate,
2009, p. 45-62.
[MESC, 2005] F. Meschini, Le mappe topiche: come
imparai a non preoccuparmi e ad amare i metadati, Associazione
italiana biblioteche. Bollettino AIB, 2005, n.
1 p. 59 - 72.","txt","2","","9157"
"949","10","Multi-Level Variation","1","The paper is a follow-up to a joint presentation by
Dino Buzzetti and myself at the Digital Humanities
conference in Oulu 2008[1]. There, we applied a case
study of a complex medieval text to generate a general
model towards dynamic editions. It lies in the nature
of such a conference that a 20 minutes presentation is
hardly enough to achieve both: an introduction to a project
whose textual variation is vital in understanding its
content and genesis, and to derive a general view of both
its markup and its structural information. One of the reviewers
commented at that time, already before the conference:
“I also feel far too much is being proposed here
for one twenty-minute talk; either part I or part II would
still be straining the limits of what can fit”. This paper,
proposed for the Digital Humanities conference 2009
will thus concentrate on the case study kundige bok, but
bring in new results from recent research on the text and
its variants. Kundige bok is a 15th century legal text manuscript,
characterised by many revisions where the different layers
of the text usually represent a new stage of the town
law and must thus be treated equally[4].
The digital edition of kundige bok tries to achieve a dynamic
approach, allowing the user to generate views of
the text in the status it had at a certain point in time.
Variation in the case of kundige bok is three-fold:
1. The textual variation, determined by the operations
performed on the text by the medieval
scribes.
2. The sequence of revisions / layers of the text as
a whole respectively the underlying law reflecting
its genesis. This can be quite linear but also
very complex as for instance Peter Robinson
has shown in his work on Chaucer’s Canterbury
Tales.
3. The editor’s or user’s interpretation of this sequence.
Owing to the fact that we often cannot
reveal the actual development of the text due
to our limited knowledge about its production,
this leads to an interpretational variation.
While we can be quite sure about the textual variation itself,
the more we try to group these operations on the text
to revisions and text layers, the more our understanding
of the text becomes inconclusive and uncertain (see figure
1). This is illustrated by an example which is also
used in the following to explain the three kinds of variation
that can be found in kundige bok and can be represented
using graph structures, similar to the works by
e.g. Huitfeldt and Sperberg-McQueen [2] or Schmidt[3]. The example, taken from kundige bok, is a statute about
beer brewery. What we find nowadays looking at the
manuscript, is the sentence “We ock vorschote 100
marck, de darf 3 warve bruwen” with the numbers ‘100’
and ‘3’ struck out and the numbers ‘150’ and ‘2’ written
above the line. This allows four different variants of the
regulations as shown in figure 2 using a graph representation.
Here, I use the vertices as a container for the portions
of the text and the edges to describe the variants.
Each variant (A-D) is thus represented as a path through
the graph.
However, we do not know per se which of these variants
really have existed as town law and in which order. In other words: the grouping of the operations on the text
(e.g. the replacement of ‘100’ by ‘150) to revisions and
the (chronological) ordering is ambiguous. As long as
we have no further information, we must live with three
different possibilities through the genesis of the text,
each of those representing a different grouping of the
operations on the text to revisions and different layering.
Comparable to the example of textual variants, this
kind of interpretational variation can be represented by
a graph structure as well (figure 3). The three paths (a)-
(c) through the graph represent the possible evolutions
of the text. Note, that there is no edge between B and C
since this would be possible only if one of the changes
was reversed. This paper discusses furthermore the question of whether
a graph representation like this and the underlying mathematical
model is indeed suitable to deal with the uncertainty
that forced its creation. Although we do not have
evidence that one of the three paths actually took place,
we might have a clue which makes one or two more
probable than the others. The extension of the directed
graph in to a weighted directed graph could be a way to
deal with this additional information. The weights, put
on the edges can indicate which variation is more likely
than the other and easily be changed should new information
be available (figure 4).
Figure 4: Interpretational variation as weighted graph.
This data can then be used for various purposes: firstly,
to create a dynamic visualisation of the different variants,
e.g. using colours for the probabilities, secondly to
automatically process the data, e.g. ignoring paths with
low probabilities. Finally it might be a good approach,
especially when you have a lot of such cases for which
you can give probabilities individually but not for the
evolution of the text as a whole. Applying weights to
all single variations can then lead to an overall view by
mathematical calculation, e.g. computing the “cheapest”
path through the graph, an algorithm related to the Travelling
Salesman (TSP) problem.
Other examples in kundige bok are, of course, more
complex and this was a major issue in analysing the
text and creating the edition and its user-interface. The
question of uncertainty arises generally in the creation
of genetic editions (and these thoughts are also inspired
by the working group on genetic editions within the TEI
Special Interest Group on Manuscripts[6]), thus, dealing
with the described issues might be a step forward towards
a model for encoding and formalisation of genetic
editions as well
References
[1] D. Buzzetti and M. Rehbein, Towards a Model for
Dynamic Editions, paper given at the Digital Humanities
conference, Oulu 2008.
[2] C. M. Sperberg-McQueen and Claus Huitfeldt,
GODDAG: A Data Structure for Overlapping Hierarchies,
in: DDEP-PODDP 2000, ed. P. King and E.V.
Munson, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 2023 (Berlin:
Springer, 2004), pp. 139-160, online: http://www.
w3.org/People/cmsmcq/2000/poddp2000.html.
[3] http://multiversiondocs.blogspot.com.
[4] M. Rehbein, Reconstructing the Textual Evolution of
a Medieval Manuscript, in: Literary & Linguistic Computing,
forthcoming.
[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traveling_salesman_
problem.
[6] M. Rehbein and J. Tonra, Encoding Genetic Editions
— Two Case Studies, paper given at the TEI Members
Meeting, London 2008.","txt","2","","9157"
"950","10","How to Build a Textual Data Model","1","The purpose of considering a type of representation
of textual variation based on external structured information,
on the one hand, and a type of representation
of external interpretational variants based on an a
textualization of their comprehensive description, on the other, aims at finding proper ways of building an overall
data model for the processing of textual information of
both kinds, the representational (its expression) and the
interpretational (its content) one. For we think that sheer
representation, without processing, leaves a digital (i.e.
processable) edition essentially incomplete.
The basic principle of interconnection between the “image”
or expression of the text [Segre, 1985: 378] and its
meaning or information content can be stated as follows:
“there may be different ways of understanding what is
said and different ways of saying what is meant,” or, to
put it in other words, “the fixity and invariance of the
expression (or the content) respectively entail the indetermination
and variance of the content (or the expression).”
[Buzzetti, 2004: 180] As referred to structural
representations both of the the textual data (in terms of
“syntactic markup structures”) on the one side, and of
the corresponding information content (in terms of “objects,
properties, and relations” of specific semantic domains)
on the other, [Dubin, 2003: 2] the same principle
can be expressed by affirming “that the same markup
can convey different meanings in different contexts,”
and “that markup can communicate the same meaning in
different ways using very different syntax.” [Dubin and
Birnbaum, 2004: 1] Are there means of connecting the
two sides in a systematic way?
In his Kundige bok edition Malte Rehbein has shown
that it is possible to produce a two-tiered representation,
a marked-up transcription of the text and its variants, and
a database, that connects the definition of the several text
layers with further contextual information. Both representations
have an operational character, so that changes
in the the markup modify the database entries, whereas
the database entries produce newly marked-up views of
the text. In their turn, the Signum group at the Scuola
Normale Superiore in Pisa have shown that a topic map
representation of the content of Bruno’s Eroici furori can
be connected with a joint visualization of textual occurrences
and their semantically related notions. A change
in the topic map produces a reorganization of the intratextual
relations, and in reverse a new organization of
textual relations produces a different topic map.
Moreover, both case studies have implemented a comprehensive
representation of the variants, respectively
textual and interpretational, by means of the Multi-
Version Document data structure (MVD) introduced by
Desmond Schmidt. [Schmidt and Colomb, forthcoming]
The MVD data structure is a directed graph with
a start and an end node and each textual layer or interpretational
description is represented by a different path
on the graph. A topic map representation can be serialized
through the XTM standard and treated exactly in
the same way as a textual document. Both the editorial
and the interpretive practice imply a one-to-many relation
between the different textual or interpretational versions
and their comprehensive representation, or “logical
sum” [Thaller, 1993: 64 and Buzzetti, 2002: 77-79],
although in reverse order, as the editor goes to one single
reconstruction from the many witnesses of the text, and
the literary critic from one edition to its many interpretations.
And the MVD data structure seems to provide
a reliable and processable representation of the logical
sum of both textual and interpretational variants.
The two case studies deal with different texts, but by
using the same kind of representation for both textual
and interpretational variants of the same text, we think
of simplifying the task of mutally mapping them onto
each other according to the concept of a dynamic model
that can be elicited from the ambivalence of markup
[cf. Buzzetti, 2004 and Buzzetti, 2009]. As a diacritical
mark, markup is ambiguous and can be seen both as the
value and as the rule of a structuring operation. [Buzzetti
and McGann, 2006: 67-68] By applying this principle to
both the textual and the interpretational representations,
we can be able to use either of them as a set of instructions
to restructure and reorder the other one. A polysemic
textual fragment can be easily used to demonstrate
the working of such a model.
Can the MVD data structure provide a sound and effective
basis for mapping corresponding alternative paths
from the textual variation graph to the interpretational
variation graph and vice versa? The question is open.
But finding a proper data model for a viable computational
solution to this kind of mapping raises a crucial
challenge to any attempt of building a comprehensive
data model for textual information. And we hope that
providing a closer illustration of the problem may assist
in finding a solution.
Biliography
[Buzzetti 2002] D. Buzzetti, Digital Representation and
the Text Model, in « New Literary History » 33:1 (2002),
pp. 61-87.
[Buzzetti 2004] D. Buzzetti, Diacritical Ambiguity and
Markup, in D. Buzzetti, G. Pancaldi, and H. Short (eds.),
Augmenting Comprehension: Digital Tools and the History
of Ideas, London-Oxford, Office for Humanities
Communication, 2004, pp. 175-188.
[Buzzetti, 2009] D. Buzzetti, Digital Editions and Text
Processing, in M. Deegan and K. Sutherland (eds.), Text
Editing, Print, and the Digital World, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2009, pp. 45-62.
[Buzzetti and McGann, 2006] D. Buzzetti and J. Mc-
Gann, Critical Editing in a Digital Horizon, in L. Burnard,
K. O’Brien O’Keeffe, and J. Unsworth (eds.),
Electronic Textual Editing, New York, The Modern Language
Association of America, 2006, pp. 51-71.
[Dubin 2003] D. Dubin, ‘Object mapping for markup
semantics,;’ in B.T. Usdin (ed.), Proceedings of the Extreme
Markup Languages 2003 Conference (Montreal,
Quebec, August 2003) <http://www.idealliance.org/
papers/extreme/proceedings/xslfo-pdf/2003/ Dubin01/
EML2003Dubin01.pdf> (26 October 2008).
[Dubin and Birnbaum: 2004] D. Dubin and D. Birnbaum,
‘Interpretation beyond markup,’ in B.T. Usdin
(ed.), Proceedings of the Extreme Markup Languages
2004 Conference (Montreal, Quebec, August 2004),
<http://www.idealliance.org/papers/extreme/proceedings/
xslfo-pdf/2004/Dubin01/EML2004Dubin01.pdf>
(26 October 2008).
[Schmidt and Colomb, forthcoming] D. Schmidt and
R. Colomb, ‘A Data Structure for Representing Multiversion
Texts Online,’ International Journal of Human-
Computer Studies, forthcoming.
[Segre, 1985] C. Segre, Avviamento all’analisi del testo
letterario, Torino, Einaudi, 1985, p. 378.
[Thaller, 1993] M. Thaller, “Historical Information Science:
Is There Such a Thing? New Comments on an Old
Idea,” in T. Orlandi (ed.), Discipline umanistiche e informatica:
Il problema dell’integrazione, Roma, Accademia
Nazionale dei Lincei, 1993, pp. 51-86.","txt","2","","9157"
"951","10","Experiences of the Previous Generation: the Thomas Middleton Edition","1","I am one of the general editors of a collected edition
of Thomas Middleton’s works, published in 2007—
more than ten years behind schedule. Of course, one of
the most common questions we heard during that period
was: why was it taking so long? (The other common
question was: why don’t you add more features and
more material?) This talk attempts to explain.
Of course, it may just have been too ambitious a schedule
to begin with; most comparable editions have taken
at least as long as ours did. Other people have found the
same task difficult: at least two substantial projects to
produce a collected Middleton were started during the
twentieth century and never finished; the last published
collection appeared in 1885–6. And, as with most largescale
projects, ours would have gone better with more
funding.
But we thought we had reasons to believe it would go
faster than it did. From the start, we did not intend to
pursue historical and bibliographical research as far as
possible: collecting the research of the last few decades
and making it available would have been enough, and
while there is much new work in the edition we did not
try to push as far as possible with every single play. We
collected a large group of editors so that few contributors
were working on more than one or two works. And, with
some exceptions that I’ll mention, this edition did not
intend to be particularly innovative in its digital methodology.
It’s true that it was always going to produce both
print and digital editions, not especially common in the
early 1990s; but when we began our idea of a digital edition
was of something you could feed to a concordance
program, not a full-scale online publication.
I think we did largely succeed in addressing delays deriving
from the traditional research. Any group of more
than seventy collaborators will have some whose lives
obstruct their work in some way, but most were able to
complete their portion on schedule and our other delays
made it possible to get everything else completed. We
were doing less than is common for comparable editions
today, as a comparison with Fotis Jannidis’s talk in this
panel will show: we only prepared and published an edited
text, and didn’t include diplomatic transcriptions of
the witnesses as well, something commonly felt to be
important for digital scholarly editions even in the early
1990s.
We also did offer slightly more digital support for the
work of preparing the edition than is normal for printoriented
editions: I devised a system to allow editors
to prepare their notes using the line numbers of a draft
printing of the text; it then automatically adjusted them
to the right line numbers for the final printing, in which
textual corrections usually made all the line numbers
somewhat different. The normal approach has been for
a staff of student employees to make these adjustments
manually, but we didn’t have such a staff, and in a large
edition it is a large task (our final text has over 60,000
references by line number). The system was a good deal
of work to build, but it had unexpected side effects, since
a system to adjust line numbers in this way is also a system
to check line numbers and lemmata for correctness.
It was perhaps the only really innovative element of our
digital approach.
Because our edition offered only the edited text, we did
not run into the problem of relating it to the sources: so
we largely avoided one of the usual encoding problems.
This is the difficulty arising from the fact that a scholarly
edition has to do more than represent the works included
in an adequate way, possibly covering numerous genres.
It also needs to represent variation in texts in those
genres, something that is challenging with XML, and indeed
is often managed using non-XML systems, such as
version control software. Ideally, the system should be
able to relate the variation to the document structure, but
this is difficult with non-XML approaches.
But if the Middleton edition avoided some difficult problems,
it still faced the software problem. With pre-digital
scholarly editions, one of the biggest costs came from
typesetting; that problem is transferred to software and
its application in the digital era, whether the output is
print or digital. But this isn’t just a shifting of costs. In
a pattern visible in many areas of the digital humanities,
there is a shift: from a process that ends with a static
product, supported by established traditions for distribution
and preservation, to the creation of a machine for
generating what readers see. The digital edition is more
like a customized car than a book, and keeping it running
is a serious problem, as it requires continued attention and vigilance in obtaining replacement parts. Though the Middleton edition is entirely in TEI XML, it
has actually been published only on paper (so far), and
so we might think has avoided the software problem at
the expense of missing out on online publication. But to
preserve the possibility of updated editions and selective
reprints, the machinery that made the printed pages
must be preserved, and it is quite as complicated as a
system for online publication. Perhaps more, because
print makes some demands that online publication does
not raise: fitting as much as possible onto each page, for
example, in our case by printing the text in two columns
and the notes in three. Scholarly editions are recognized
as posing typesetting problems that are often quite complicated;
that doesn’t get easier because software is involved.
Once we’ve built this machinery for a single edition,
could it not then be reused for many? We would get more
of a return from our effort, and there would be more interested
parties to support the infrastructure. In part this
has been done: much of the underlying typesetting work,
to print a text with line numbers and notes keyed to those
line numbers, is done by a layer added on top of Donald
Knuth’s TeX typesetting system that Dominik Wujastyk
and I wrote, EDMAC, and this component has been used
not only by the two of us but by numerous other editions.
We don’t get support from those users, but of course just
being able to list them is a credential we can draw on in
seeking funding, and the possibility of a shared infrastructure
is there.
There are two major problems to be solved in this area,
though. One is the update problem: all software systems
either change or die, and the infrastructure we created
has not been changing. TeX is one of the most stable
systems there is, but even in the TeX world there have
been changes, mostly in font handling, that we haven’t
been keeping up with.
The bigger problem is that of the variety of texts. Even
within the Middleton edition there are many works that
required specialized handling. I don’t just mean ones
where we chose an editorial method different from that
used for the rest of the works: the occasional cases where
we print multiple versions, or the one case of a parallel
text. I mean cases where the work itself required unusual
typesetting because that’s what the work was: one short
theological work that used a six-column parallel layout,
for example, or one place where very long marginal
notes are suddenly necessary (in a passage not even by
Middleton: it’s by Ben Jonson, one of five contributors
to an elaborate pageant). A general framework that can
handle the whole variety observed in texts needs to be
very general indeed; and asking the author to rewrite the
work to make it more tractable is not an option.
We went part of the way towards this goal in EDMAC:
my field is English and Dominik’s is Sanskrit, and we
discovered that we shared almost no basic assumptions
about what an edition is, with the useful result that we
built something very generic. It is only dealing with a
few aspects of scholarly editions, though: the numbering
of lines and the creation of multiple series of notes keyed
to line numbers. Even in this restricted domain there are
practices we did not reproduce: such as one found in the
Monumenta Germaniae Historica series, of numbering
not only the lines of edited text on each page, but also
the lines in the footnotes. (Page images available at the
Monumenta Germaniae Historica digital web site illustrate
the phenomenon.)
In the world of digital curation, the software problem is
familiar, even if more attention has been given to more
fundamental problems about static data formats. (Hunter,
2006, is one work that does address software issues, and
the MLA’s guidelines for scholarly editions also suggest
attention to the problem.) All the more reason, then, why
a shared infrastructure is desirable, rather than one that
is unique to each edition; but the difficulties of creating a
generally-useful system are large, and much more work
is needed to overcome them.
References
Hunter, Jane (2006). Scientific Publication Packages—
A Selective Approach to the Communication and Archival
of Scientific Output, 1. First published 18 November
2006: http://www.ijdc.net/ijdc/article/view/8.
Knuth, Donald (1984). The TeXbook. Reading, Massachusetts:
Addison-Wesley.
Lavagnino, John, and Wujastyk, Dominik (1996).
Critical Edition Typesetting: The EDMAC format for
Plain TeX. San Francisco: TeX Users Group.
Modern Language Association, Guidelines for Editors
of Scholarly Editions, version of 25 September 2007.
http://www.mla.org/resources/documents/rep_scholarly/
cse_guidelines (accessed 14 November 2008).
Monumenta Germaniae Historica digital. http://www.
mgh.de/dmgh/ (accessed 14 November 2008).
Taylor, Gary, and Lavagnino, John, general editors
(2007). Thomas Middleton: The Collected Works and
Thomas Middleton and Early Modern Textual Culture: A
Companion to The Collected Works. Oxford: Clarendon
Press.","txt","2","","9158"
"952","10","Requirements and tools for a modern genetic edition of Goethe's Faust","1","The Goethe–Schiller archive in Weimar, the Goethe-Faust edition and the problems of finding and adapting
tools and making them interoperable; as such it offers
an interesting parable on the beauty of theory and the
pitfalls of reality.
References
TEI Special Interest Group on Manuscripts. http://
www.tei-c.org/wiki/index.php/SIG:MSS (accessed 14
November 2008).
TextGrid. http://www.textgrid.de/ (accessed 14
November 2008).
Vanhoutte, Edward (2006). Prose Fiction and Modern
Manuscripts: Limitations and Possibilities of Text
Encoding for Electronic Editions. In Burnard, Lou,
O’Keefe, Katherine O’Brien, and Unsworth, John (eds),
Electronic Textual Editing. New York: Modern Language
Association, pp. 161–180.
Van Hulle, Dirk (2006). Authorial Translation: Samuel
Beckett’s Stirrings Still / Soubresauts. In Burnard, Lou,
O’Keefe, Katherine O’Brien, and Unsworth, John (eds),
Electronic Textual Editing. New York: Modern Language
Association, pp. 150–160.
Haus in Frankfurt and my group in Darmstadt are
preparing a digital critical edition of Goethe’s drama
Faust; work started at the beginning of 2009. Astonishingly
enough, there is no modern critical edition. Thus
scholars still have to use the edition created 100 years
ago as part of the Weimarer Ausgabe of Goethe’s work,
which makes an understanding of the existing material
and the genetic processes rather difficult. Goethe worked
for fifty years on the drama, and about 1000 manuscript
pages exist, documenting this long genesis; most of these
pages are part of Faust II, which Goethe finished a short
time before his death.
The new edition of Faust will allow access to all manuscripts
as facsimile and as diplomatic transcription. In
this kind of edition the facsimile and transcription should
be presented side by side; moreover, in contrast to the
manner of a number of such editions currently on the
web, the transcription should be closely linked to the
facsimile, first by preserving many aspects of the look
of the facsimile and by being linked bidirectionally to
it on a micro level. It should also be possible to view
the facsimile alone and render transcriptions of verses
as mouse-over activated tooltip; or, vice versa, to view
solely the transcription and additionally view parts of the
facsimile.
A detailed genetic analysis of each document and of the
text will allow viewing the genetic process of a document
and of structural units like verse or scene. The
archival (or document-centric) view of the material is
thus complemented by a conceptual view of the text as a
drama and its units.
These basic requirements determine the architecture
of the markup, which will be mostly layered stand-off
markup to avoid problems with overlapping hierarchies
and to allow easier processing. (On the problems with
the markup of genetic editions, see: Vanhoutte, 2006;
Van Hulle, 2006.) To name some of these layers:
• Linking facsimile and text
This can be done using the facsimile markup in the
TEI P5 guidelines.
• Diplomatic transcription
Features of the manuscripts that must be recorded
include the direction of the text, shift of hand, textual
alterations, gaps, non-textual marks on the page
etc. Some of these features are covered by the TEI
guidelines; some of them, which describe imagelike
qualities of a manuscript and of the writing,
have to be expressed by other means such as SVG.
• Genetic markup
This is an interpretation of the document which
is described by the facsimile and the transcription
under a genetic perspective. At the moment no
markup schema for this type of edition exists, but
there is one under development by a working group
which is part of the TEI Special Interest Group on
Manuscripts. The genetic markup will be split into
different levels: a functional analysis of textual
alterations, sequences and time lines, grouping
changes—like revisions on a page or changes of
conceptual units of the text, a coordinate system
which links together chunks of text which belong
together, a way to add the interpretation which is
the basis for a markup decision, and uncertainty.
One of the problems for an edition like this is the lack of
editors and other tools which are easy for scholars to use
and allow them to concentrate on the editorial work; and
which are robust and integrate easily with other tools.
The project TextGrid, which has reached early beta status
after three years of development, has as its aim the
creation of such an environment for text-centered studies.
If its second work phase is funded, it will offer some
basic tools, but all tools have to be adapted for the Faust
edition to allow editors to enter the different layers of
markup, and new tools will have to be integrated into
the workflow. The special requirements of each digital
edition seem to make it impossible (or at least unaffordable)
to offer a complete solution which allows their creation,
change and enhancement, and publication out of
the box. Therefore some time of an editorial project has
to be spent on setting up a workflow and overcoming the
problems of data conversion between different tools or
merging the outcome of different tools. As the ease of
use of tools has a direct impact on the speed with which
a digital edition is created, a solid knowledge of existing
tools and of the difficulties to adapt them is crucial for
a new project, especially since up to now there have not
been enough reviews of specialized tools in the digital
humanities. (And there is almost no culture of publication
for the concepts and algorithms of specialized tools
for the digital humanities, either.)
The talk will concentrate on the requirements for the","txt","2","","9158"
"953","10","An E-Framework for Scholarly Editions","1","As discussed in our introduction, one impediment
to more scholars creating digital scholarly editions
is the size of the technological hurdles that need to be
overcome. The Digital Humanities Observatory (DHO),
a newly-founded national digital humanities centre located
in Dublin, Ireland, but serving the higher education
sector for the island of Ireland (both North and South),
has begun a process of consultation with its academic
partners and other interested parties (publishers, university
administrators, and scholarly societies) to develop a
framework for digital scholarly editions.
It almost goes without saying, or at least it should, that
not everyone who wishes to edit an edition for electronic
publication necessarily wants to become a digital
humanist. Despite the fact that there is a large and
established community of practice around editing texts
utilizing TEI/XML, there does not yet exist a framework
for digital scholarly editions. The majority of scholarly
editions are still developed as one-off productions with
the content tightly integrated with the software. We also
don’t, as a scholarly editing community, have agreedupon
formats, protocols, and methodologies for digital
scholarly editing and editions. Moreover, many of the
more mature first-generation digital projects creating online
editions from print sources have more in common
with digital library projects—i.e. editions created with
a light editorial hand, minimally encoded and with little
more contextualization than their print counterparts.
The DHO is entering into this endeavour on the back
of several European projects that have begun to explore
creating a framework for digital scholarly editions. Two
of them are especially important for the framing of the
DHO’s project: TextGrid and Interedition:
• TextGrid is a German-based project funded by the
Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung that
has developed a research infrastructure for collaborative
textual processing in the text sciences and
the humanities in general. TextGrid, like the DHO,
is based on grid technology.
• Interedition is a newly-formed COST Action funded
by the European Union. It is a project initiated by
the Huygens Institute (The Netherlands) to enhance
the international digital infrastructure for scholarly
editorial work. In a series of meetings, this project
brings together researchers in the field of literary
research and IT to develop a roadmap for creating
a shared supranational networked infrastructure for
digital scholarly editing and analysis.
Building on the experiences learned from these projects,
the DHO has begun a series of dialogues to help establish
a set of protocols, methodologies, rights management
and technical procedures to create a shared infrastructure
for digital scholarly editions in Ireland.
This paper will report on two of the major activities held
in Spring 2009: a one-day symposium bringing together
academics, publishers, librarians, and technologists; and
a Spring Scholarly Editing School. The Spring School
(to be held in April), will bring together many noted
scholarly editors and theorists of editing (both digital
and print). The week-long school will build on the preliminary
work of the symposium to help establish, on the
one hand, system requirements that the technical staff
of the DHO can implement, and on the other an economic,
social, and cultural framework so that scholars
can receive the training to work in this environment, the
academic credit for their scholarly work, and the peace
of mind in knowing their work will be part of an established infrastructure.
References
Anonymous (2008). Supporting Digital Scholarly Editions:
A Report on the Conference of January 14, 2008.
http://www.virginiafoundation.org/NEH%20Workshop%
20Report%20FINAL-3.pdf (accessed 14 November
2008).
Cummings, James (2007). The Text Encoding Initiative
and the Study of Literature. In Siemens, Ray, and Schreibman,
Susan (eds), A Companion to Digital Literary
Studies. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 451–76.
Digital Humanities Observatory. http://dho.ie (accessed
14 November 2008).
Finneran, Richard J. (ed) (1996). The Literary Text
in the Digital Age. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Press.
Interedition. http://www.interedition.eu/index.php/
Main_Page (accessed 14 November 2008).
McGann, Jerome (2002). Literary Scholarship in the
Digital Future. Chronicle of Higher Education, 13 December:
B7–B9.
Price, Ken (2007). Digital Scholarly Editions. In Siemens,
Ray, and Schreibman, Susan (eds), A Companion
to Digital Literary Studies. Oxford: Blackwell, pp.
434–50.
Schreibman, Susan (2002). Computer-mediated Texts
and Textuality: Theory and Practice. Computers and the
Humanities, 36: 283–93.
TextGrid. http://www.textgrid.de/ (accessed 14 November
2008).","txt","2","","9158"
"954","10","Expressive Processing","1","The forthcoming book Expressive Processing
(MIT Press, 2009) uses its title’s term to point toward
two important issues for humanities scholars.
First, “expressive processing” encompasses the fact that
the internal processes of digital media are designed artifacts,
like buildings, transportation systems, or music
players. As with other designed mechanisms, processes
can be seen in terms of their efficiency, their aesthetics,
their points of failure, or their (lack of) suitability
for particular purposes. Their design can be typical, or
unusual, for their era and context. The parts and their
arrangement may express kinship with, and points
of divergence from, design movements and schools
of thought. They can be progressively redesigned, repurposed, or used as the foundation for new systems
- by their original designers or others - all while
retaining traces and characteristics from prior uses.
Second, unlike many other designed mechanisms, the
processes of digital media operate on, and in terms of,
humanly-meaningful elements and structures. For example,
a natural language processing system (for understanding
or generating human language) expresses a
miniature philosophy of language in its universe of interpretation
or expression. When such a system is incorporated
into a work of digital media - such as an interactive
fiction - its structures and operations are invoked whenever
the work is experienced. This invocation selects,
as it were, a particular constellation from among the
system’s universe of possibilities. In a natural language
generation system, this might be a particular sentence
to be shown to the audience in the system output. From
the output sentence it is not possible to see where the
individual elements (e.g., words, phrases, sentence templates,
or statistical language structures) once resided in
the larger system. It is not possible to see how the movements
of the model universe resulted in this constellation
becoming possible - and becoming more apparent than
other possible ones.","txt","2","","9159"
"955","10","What Counts as Code to Criticize? Interpreting flow control and natural language programming","1","Sites of interpretation in the digital humanities range
from the signifiers at the software interface all the
way down to the electromagnetic phenomenology of
hardware mechanisms. Critical Code Studies situates
interpretation at the site of reading and writing source
code. These human-machine interlanguage exists both
between and prior to the hardware and its interface, often
with many other interpretive sites above (application,
OS, emulator, etc.) and below (assembly, machine code,
etc.). As interlanguage, code carry a variety of philosophical
presumptions, aesthetic overdeterminations,
and historical traces that may benefit from exegesis. But
what counts as code to criticize? This presentation considers
critical interpretation in relation to two cases of
code that differ substantially from the paradigmatic use
of languages such as C/C++ and the attendant assumptions
about the relationships between code, programmer,
compiler, and software. The first case, natural language
programming, emphasizes the expressive power of code
and its accessibility to non-programmers, while it simultaneously
risks obscuring the deep structures that
connect compiled code to software praxis. The second
case, flow control programming, uses visual spatial relationships
rather than text as the top-level paradigm for
specifying software action. Both cases expand our idea
of what aspects of rhetoric and visual culture might be
brough to bear in humanistic code criticism.","txt","2","","9159"
"956","10","Hacktivism and the Humanities: Programming Protest in the Era of the Digital University","1","Despite the dismay of university administrators, who
are often hesitant to recognize computer programming
as a form of campus free speech, students continue
to deploy code to further activist agendas Yet media
reports about hacktivist activities by undergraduates
and graduate students rarely place these computer-coded
expressions of protest in the context of other kinds
of campus activism or critical engagement. Whether
the student is generating electronic boarding passes to
protest Homeland Security policies or data mining for
self-interested Wikipedia edits by corporations and politicians,
the attention goes to the programmer’s identity
as a hacker rather than as a student. Although Siva Vaidhyanathan
and others have issued a manifesto to promulgate
“critical information studies” as an interdisciplinary
field of study that could serve as the logical successor to
the areas of academic inquiry that arose from the protests
of the nineteen-sixties and seventies, which is “needed to
make sense of important phenomena such as copyright
policy, electronic voting, encryption, the state of libraries,
the preservation of ancient cultural traditions, and
markets for cultural production,” advocacy for these issues
in the university setting does not achieve the kind of
visibility that was associated with previous movements
that assembled crowds of individuals for face-to-face
interactions in physical public space to achieve an end
to the Vietnam War, milestones on civil rights issues,
affirmative action, or divestment in South Africa. This
presentation builds upon the models of critical information,
critical code, and software studies to examine the
analytical frameworks that might reinvigorate the program
of the political explication of coding spaces.","txt","2","","9159"
"957","10","Critical Code Studies: The Terrorist Database System","1","In the midst of the cold war, the U.S. Department of Defense
was beginning its efforts to track terrorists using
databases enhanced with scruffy AI. Early prototypes
attempted to model how terrorists shared knowledge in
order to determine how these organizations might take
advantage of associations. While scholars have analyzed
the textual trail of terrorists and counter-terrorism
efforts, examining the code of one of these early models
reveals the ways in which terrorists were conceived
in this time period. This paper uses the methodology
of Critical Code Studies to show what this LISP source
code and design documents say about the cultural moment
in which the military attempted to model geopolitical
insurgencies.","txt","2","","9159"
"958","10","How Cold War Computers Assign Blame: An exploration of why machines think more but not more deeply.","1","Data is inherently dynamic. If the failures of the
past few decades (or human history) prove nothing
else, they underscore the foolishness of only tracking
and making decisions based on only one aspect of
data. Today’s databases still suffer from a rigidity that
handicaps their ability to perform as “expert” systems.
Early prototype databases modeled terrorist social networks
and made inferences about their associations using
relatively straightforward rules and representations.
Inheritance relations of object-oriented programming
have found their way into relational databases, yet our
representation mechanisms and query languages have
note changed substantially in twenty years. While
search and retrieval mechanisms have become more sophisticated,
software programs still do not reflect understanding
of the documents they process. And adapting
them to changing values and attitudes is problematic.
The future promises the opportunity to express preferences
over hard and fast rules and the ability to reprogram
aspects of our code without recoding and recompiling
an entire software system. Until then, our ability
to reason about our data, while more extensive, won’t
be much different in terms of depth and nuance than it
was in the 1980s and will still be bound by the static
nature of the knowledge we store in our programs. Decisions
made on the advice of these expert systems (from
military to medical realms) will most certainly suffer.","txt","2","","9159"
"959","10","Twisty Little Passages Not So a Classic Computer Game Much Alike: Applying the FRBR Model to","1","Humanities scholars have continually confronted
questions regarding the boundaries of the texts that
they study and the complex inter-relationships that can
exist among various editions, translations, and printings
—in short, the versions—of a work. While librarians
have long recognized the distinction between a work
as an intellectual creation and its embodiment within a
particular physical form (and the need to adequately describe
both), the publication of the Functional Requirements
for Bibliographic Records Final Report by the
IFLA Study Group on the Functional Requirements for
Bibliographic Records (FRBR) marked a pronounced
increase in the level of attention that the library community
has devoted to these issues. In the decade since the
Final Report was issued, a tremendous amount of discussion
has occurred regarding FRBR’s interpretation and
its appropriate application within bibliographic systems.
At the same time, there has been almost no cross-communication
between humanities scholars engaged in the
kind of work described above (“textual studies” as it is
called) and library specialists.
As extraordinarily complicated as the relationships between
the various versions of a particular text can be
within the world of traditional manuscripts and print
publications, the move to electronic text, and in particular
highly interactive texts such as interactive fiction and
computer games, has rendered these relationships even
more vexed and difficult to describe adequately. Because
each individual or subsequent encounter with the same
interactive work can generate different output texts, the
adequacy of traditional descriptive models applied by lineeds to be carefully examined.
A fundamental component of any effort to preserve digital
resources is the development of systems to describe
and track the components of a digital work and to relate
works (and their physical embodiments) to each other,
including describing the provenance of manifestations
as a work evolves over time. As a test of existing library
practices, our project has been examining the application
of the FRBR entity-relationship model to computer
games and interactive fiction, including the seminal work
ADVENTURE. This paper will examine the difficulties
encountered by the project in seeking to apply the FRBR
entity relationship model within the realm of computer
games, and our project’s suggestions for “pretty good”
practices for the application of FRBR and traditional
bibliographic descriptive practices to this ever-evolving
electronic genre.
ADVENTURE, aka ADVENT or Colossal Cave, was
first written and programmed by Will Crowther in
1975, and then revised and extended by Don Woods tn
1977. It offered an underground fantasy world inspired
by Crowther’s experience as a caver in Kentucky‚Äôs
Mammoth Cave. ADVENTURE is a not a virtual world
merely in a casual, metaphoric sense, but in explicit formal
terms: the program contains a parser and a worldmodel
that tracks the state of the electronic space, for
example what objects are and are not in a user-avatar’s
possession and where the avatar is in a global environment
(Montfort 2003). While ADVENTURE was originally
played on a teletype machine, it achieved widespread
popularity and recognition when it was released
onto the nascent ARPANET. Its historical and cultural
significance is captured in Richard Powers’s novel Plowing
the Dark (2000) where the author describes a generation
of computer users united by their shared experience
of the Colossal Cave’s iconic virtual landmarks. This
alone would make ADVENTURE an extremely strong
candidate for the preservation work we are funded to
undertake. However, the recent recovery of the original
version of the game from backup tapes at Stanford
University—an event which received widespread notice
around the Web—lends the work fresh interest and appeal
(Jerz 2007).
After Woods published his significant revision to
Crowther’s original source code, numerous additional
development forks complicated ADVENTURE’s composition
history. The game has also been ported and migrated
across nearly every platform and operating system
that is extant. ADVENTURE can be played on an
Apple II and it can be played on the latest Mac OS. It
can be played on Linux systems and Windows. It can be
played on an iPod. Early on Microsoft released its own
proprietary version of the game, adding an extra room to
the underground caverns. Different scoring systems have
evolved, and fans can wrangle endlessly over which is
to be considered canonical. ADVENTURE thus presents
itself as a rich and complex digital object, not only for
its internal workings as a functioning program but as a
cultural artifact that has been continually reimplemented
and reinterpreted by a mature fan community.
FRBR is, at first glance, a promising mechanism for representing
this heritage. It is an entity-relationship model
capable of discriminating among changes to the substance
or “content” of the work, as well as it’s physical
embodiment in particular carrier media. In a traditional
FRBR representation, one might start with the work that
is Hamlet. The different versions of the play that are extant
are the work’s expressions. These expressions are
realized in manifestations, i.e. the folios and quartos
that have survived, as well as the more modern editions
based upon those sources. A discrete artifact that one
holds in hand, for example the copy of the Arden Shakespeare
sitting nearby on my bookshelf, is an item. At the
same time, certain long-standing challenges present even
with more traditional applications of the FRBR model.
For example, there is no formal consensus on how much
of the work has to change before a new expression is declared.
Catalogers (for FRBR is primarily a cataloger’s
tool) are asked to rely upon common sense, community
practice, and other heuristics.
In the case of an electronic object, the complications proliferate
almost exponentially (Renear 2006). At first it
might seem that all versions of ADVENTURE should
be the “Work,” a particular instance of the game (the last
version modified by Don Woods, for instance) should be
the “Expression,” a particular file with a unique MD5
hash should be the “Manifestation,” and an individual
copy of that file (perhaps on a Commodore 64 664 Block
disk) would be the “Item.” But what if the text read by
the reader is exactly the same, but the underlying code
is different? These variants might be simple (a non-compiled
comment added to the Fortran code), peripheral
(such as the ability to recognize “x” as a synonym for
the command “examine”), or very large (a port of the
code from Fortran to BASIC). Should these code level
variants be considered different expressions? To further
complicate matters, what if the Fortran code was exactly
the same but compiled to two different chips? For example,
an IBM mainframe and a Commodore 64 might
both have a Fortran compiler, but the two compilers will
interpret the Fortran to a different set of set instructions.
It might also be the case that two Fortran compilers designed by different compilers will generate slightly
different machine language. Should these compiled executables,
different in their binary structure but based on
the same Fortran, represent different “Manifestations” or
different “Expressions”?
Finally, even two files with exactly the same MD5 signature
participate in a larger software environment at
runtime. The drivers that run the video interface, the
keyboard, the memory, and the disk drives arguably become
part of ADVENTURE when the user is playing the
game. For instance, the experience of playing the game
using the 6507 chip in a Commodore 64 hooked up to
a black and white television may be different than the
experience of playing the game on the same chip in a
Commodore SX64 (the all-in-one machine some felt fit
to call “portable”). Should the software environment on
which the binary is executed be a part of the classification
scheme at all?
We have applied the FRBR model to three different and
specific instances of ADVENTURE: the source and data
files as retrieved on April 27, 2008 at 6:01 pm from Dennis
Jerz’s server (http://jerz.setonhill.edu/if/crowther/),
the DOS Windows executable of these files edited to
compile under GNU g77, a free FORTRAN compiler
(http://www.russotto.net/%7Erussotto/ADVENT/), and
a pirated copy of “Apple Adventure” on a 5 1/4” diskette
in one of the project members’ personal possession. This
work will be presented in the course of the paper, together
with rationale and discussion in the context of the
kind of issues enumerated above. We will also discuss
the significance of this work for the broader digital humanities
community, especially in so far as it represents
the intersection of library and information science, textual
studies, and software forensics.
As more and more libraries and repositories begin the
process of collecting born-digital object, they will invariably
encounter material that transcends the boundaries
of documents, email, and other more or less conventional
forms of electronic records. ADVENTURE, as
both a working computer program and as a virtual world,
as well as an artifact with widespread popular interest,
is a harbinger of the kind of content which increasingly
need to be accessioned, cataloged, and described. FRBR
represents the library community’s best effort to date to
distinguish between different versions and editions of a
work. We believe the work discussed represents an important
test case for FRBR’s applicability to complex
born-digital objects.
References
Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records Final
Report, IFLA (1998): http://www.ifla.org/VII/s13/
frbr/frbr.htm.
Jerz, Dennis (2007). “Somewhere Nearby is Colossal
Cave: Examining Will Crowther’s Original ‘Adventure’
in Code and in Kentucky.” Digital Humanities
Quarterly 1.2: http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/
vol/001/2/000009.html
Montfort, Nick (2003). Twisty Little Passages: An Approach
to Interactive Fiction. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Powers, Richard (2000). Plowing the Dark. Farrar,
Strauss, Giroux.
Renear, Allen. “Is An XML document a FRBR Manifestation
or a FRBR Expression? ‚Äî Both, Because
FRBR Entities are not Types, but Roles.” Proceedings
of Extreme Markup Languages 2006: http://idealliance.
org/papers/extreme/Proceedings/html/2006/Renear01/
EML2 006Renear01.html#tod0e5","txt","2","","9160"
"960","10","The Open Archival Information System Reference Model vs. the BFG 9000: Issues of Context and Representation in Game Software Preservation","1","In February of 1993, the Committee for Film Preservation
and Access submitted a statement to the National
Film Preservation Board of the Library of Congress advocating
the creation of a national policy to preserve the
nation’s motion picture heritage, and arguing that such
a policy would “be incomplete—utterly pointless—unless
there is a guarantee of access to the films that are
being preserved,” (CFPPA, 1993). This argument was
summed up in the title of their statement, a phrase that
has echoed throughout the library preservation world
during discussions of efforts to preserve digital information:
“Preservation Without Access is Pointless.”
While insuring access to preserved material is a necessary
condition of preservation, we believe that efforts to it is not a sufficient condition for their scholarly use.
Scholars require more than simply access to cultural
materials; they require resources for understanding them
as fully as possible, which is a far more difficult goal
to achieve. Games are very complicated technological
artifacts, and as Lowood (2008) notes, they are also incredibly
complicated cultural artifacts. Understanding a
game requires extensive documentation of their technical
nature, of their use, and just as important, of the contexts
for their use.
Issues surrounding the extent and nature of documentation
necessary to preserve digital information have been
extensively studied and debated by a variety of communities
within the past decade. One of the significant results
of these discussions has been the emergence of The
Reference Model for an Open Archival Information System
(OAIS) (CCSDS, 2002) as a foundational standard
for the design and operation of digital archives. OAIS
provides both a functional model for the operation of an
archive as well as an information model describing the
necessary types of information that must be acquired and
maintained to preserve digital objects and their relationships
to one another. While originally crafted to inform
the efforts of space data archives, OAIS has gained acceptance
far beyond its original community and is being
used to assist in the design of preservation repositories
by the international digital library community.
The information model set forth by the OAIS reference
model is predicated on the idea that preserving any
form of digital content will also require the preservation
of a body of additional knowledge necessary to
understand and interpret that digital content. This
additional knowledge takes a variety of forms, but two
are of particular significance to the preservation of
computer games:
Representation Information—formally defined
as “information that maps a data object into more
meaningful concepts,” representation information
is that information which allows a series of zeros
and ones constituting a digital data stream to be
interpreted as meaningful. Representation information
is of two types: structure information, which
maps a bit stream into common data types such as
character data, integers, arrays, etc., and semantic
information, which allows a user to meaningfully
interpret the data. Structure information tells you
that a series of zeros and ones represents a four-digit
integer; semantic information informs you that the
four-digit number represents the date of publication
for a work.
Context Information—defined as “information
that documents the relationships of the content
information to its environment,” context
information includes information documenting the
circumstances in which information being archived
was originally produced. It also documents
relationships that may exist between a particular
piece of content and other content within the
archive or elsewhere. The OAIS reference model
identifies provenance information as a specific
type of context information, but it does not provide
guidance about the nature or extent of the types
of relationships between items in the archive (or
outside it). This information is needed to preserve
digital content that will carry meaning for future
historians and other scholars.
The assumption underlying the requirement to store representation
and context information is that preservation
of digital content must entail preservation of the ability
to fully interpret and understand content in the digital
archive, both at a basic technical level (being able to render
the digital data in a manner a human being can apprehend)
and at a more sophisticated intellectual level (being
able to understand the digital data‚Äôs significance
and relevance).
Archivists face a key question in trying to conform to
the OAIS reference model. What is the nature and extent
of the representation and context information they must
maintain in order to allow users to fully understand the
information being stored? Taken to its logical extreme,
the semantic representation information for a digital version
of Borges’ El Jardín de Senderos que se Bifurcan
should include both a Spanish dictionary and grammar
(and quite possibly bilingual editions of each to insure
that it is possible to decipher Spanish without actually
knowing the language to begin with). For complex data
formats and data sets, the costs of acquiring and preserving
a complete set of representation information could be
extremely high. The OAIS reference model recognizes
this dilemma, and states that the extent of the representation
information maintained by an archive should be
based upon the knowledge possessed by the designated
community that the archive serves. If that community is
fluent in Spanish, there is no need to maintain a Spanish
dictionary and grammar in representation information
set for a Spanish language work.
Now we come to the rub. With respect to context information,
the OAIS reference model provides less guidance.
Its emphasis on the origin of digital information, as
well as on the relationship to other material in the digital
archive, suggests that the concept of context information
as developed by OAIS’s authors is at least somewhat in formed by notions of archival bond and respect des fonds
from archival theory (Gilliland-Swetland, 2000). By
maintaining relationships between archival records that
were originally established by their creators and documented
by their methods of organizing these records, the
archivist traditionally preserves the original context for
each individual record. At its core, the archival profession
assists users in understanding the totality of information
in the archive. This approach works for many
electronic records, or even scientific data sets, but it may
not be appropriate for all digital media and all forms of
digital information.
The Preserving Virtual Worlds project has been investigating
how computer games and interactive fiction
might be preserved in a manner consistent with the
OAIS reference model. The basic notions of representation
information and context information would seem to
be applicable to the preservation of computer games as
digital content. However, our research to date suggests
that OAIS’s assumptions regarding the relationship between
archivists and the community they serve do not
necessarily hold for a digital library of computer games
(and probably for other complex forms of interactive
media or software). The OAIS reference model seems to
assume a relative homogeneity in the user community’s
knowledge base; when this is the case, archival training
is geared toward determining the representation information
necessary for members of that community. With
respect to this model, our investigations suggest that potential
users of a game archive demonstrate a challenging
range of technical knowledge with respect to gaming
technology and use. We have not found a common intellectual
grounding in software design and implementation
or in game design that would allow an archivist
to readily discern an appropriate level of representation
information to record for games.
The same pattern holds for context information. Allowing
users of a game archive to fully understand the context
for a particular game also requires providing them
with much more information than the implicit information
provided by digital records‚Äô archival bond. But
potential users of a game archive come from a variety
of perspectives and with vastly differing research needs
that require different contextualizing information. The
needs of a game researcher investigating the relationships
between game companies and user communities
with respect to issues of game mods and intellectual
property law are very different from the needs of a researcher
investigating the influence of the development
of pixel shading technology on game art, and both require
significant information beyond copies of the games
themselves to support their endeavors. These differing
users bring varying levels of knowledge of game history
and game play to their work which complicate the task of
any archivist attempting to determine the forms and extent
of context information that must be preserved along
with the game itself.
In this paper, we will explore some of the records that
will need to be preserved along with game software to
address the diverse and important research questions that
future historians will pose. If assumptions regarding the
designated community for an archive break down, the
application of OAIS‚Äôs notions of representation information,
context information and provenance information
becomes highly problematic for our efforts to preserve
computer games. Using id Software‚Äôs historically important
game DOOM as an example, this paper will discuss
specific problems that have emerged in applying the
OAIS information model to the archiving of computer
games. We will also discuss ways digital game archivists
might be able to circumvent these problems.
References
Borges, Jorge Luis (1942). El Jardín de Senderos que se
Bifurcan. Buenos Aires: SUR.
Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS)
(2002). Reference Model for an Open Archival
Information System (OAIS). CCSDS 650.0-B-1 Blue
Book. Washington, DC: CCSDS Secretariat: http://public.
ccsds.org/publications/archive/650x0b1.pdf
Gilliland-Swetland, Anne J. (Feb. 2000). Enduring Paradigm,
New Opportunities: The Value of the Archival
Perspective in the Digital Environment. Washington,
DC: Council on Library and Information Resources:
http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub89/pub89.pdf
Lowood, Henry. “Found Technology: Players as Innovators
in the Making of Machinima.” Digital Youth, Innovation,
and the Unexpected. Edited by Tara McPherson.
The John D. and Catherine T.MacArthur Foundation
Series on Digital Media and Learning. Cambridge,
MA: The MIT Press, 2008. 165-196. doi: 10.1162/
dmal.9780262633598.165: http://www.mitpressjournals.
org/doi/pdf/10.1162/dmal.9780262633598.165","txt","2","","9160"
"961","10","Game Change: The Role of Professional and Amateur Cultures in Preserving Virtual Worlds","1","In 2006, Margaret Hedstrom and a team of researchers
at the University of Michigan published the results of
an experiment exploring how users evaluate the authenticity
and usability of computer games and other digital
materials that have been preserved through multiple
methods (Hedstrom 2006). The study found that users
tended to prefer playing emulated and migrated versions
of a popular 1980s-era computer game known as Chuckie
Egg to the original version. Arguing the importance of
the user’s perspective in archival decision-making, the
authors begin and end the paper with a call for further research
into the “needs and preferences” of the user community.
The purpose of our presentation is to develop
this line of inquiry by drawing on our experiences with
the Preserving Virtual Worlds and Game Preservation
projects.1 Where we depart from Hedstrom and her colleagues
is in how we position the user within the preservation
system. While their assumption is that users are
only or primarily consumers of digital information, ours
is that they increasingly play an active role in its preservation.
To frame the issue in archival terms, we see users
taking responsibility for collecting, managing, and creating
long-term access to computer games. Because our
interest lies with the contact zone between hobbyists and
professional archivists, we will enumerate and analyze
how we are currently collaborating with or relying on the
user community to preserve virtual worlds, with an eye
to how these relationships might eventually be codified
within a larger preservation framework.
Web 2.0 provides one obvious context in which to consider
the rise of the amateur archivist. In recent years
much has been made of the allegedly stark contrast
between amateur and professional culture, and those
writing about it tend to structure the conversation in
markedly polemical terms. While proponents of amateur
culture extol the democratization of the means of
production, opponents denounce the decline of subject
expertise, certified credentials, and standards. This paper
attempts to shift the focus and substance of the debate
in two ways: first, by framing amateur and professional
culture in terms of content preservation rather than (or in
addition to) the more customary content creation (userpreserved
media rather than user-generated media). We
will draw our examples from the creative/expressive domains
of computer games, interactive fiction, and 3D virtual
worlds. Second, by demonstrating the interconnectedness
of professional and amateur efforts to preserve
virtual worlds. We propose that digital preservation of
virtual worlds requires cooperation among several different
stakeholders, including users, designers, creators,
and archivists.
A librarian with a book she’s unsure of might turn to
WorldCat for bibliographic information. Where do we
turn for video games? There is no professional resource
that can offer us the same depth and breadth of information
for video games that WorldCat offers for more
standard information resources. Instead, we must turn
to the wealth of web sites maintained by the gaming
community (MobyGames, Home of the Underdogs, and
GameFAQs, to name a few). In the case of the PVW
project, we are indebted to this community for providing
us with fresh perspectives on our preservation practices,
methodologies, and theories. On a purely practical
level, we rely on the resources the community produces
and manages to help us document context information,
as well as prepare descriptive, technical, and administrative
metadata for the digital objects in our case set.
Moby Games, for example, is an online game database
billed as “a historical archive, documentation, and review
project for all electronic games (computer, console,
and arcade)” with two overarching goals in mind: “1.) to
store a diverse array of information about games, who
created them, what their system requirements are, what
their game screens look like . . . all browseable via an
easy-to-use, hyperlinked interface. 2.) to let the public
contribute to each entry in the database, whether it be
with new entries, additional information, simple ratings,
or detailed reviews.” While the screenshots, descriptions,
and game metadata available on the site are all
useful, perhaps most valuable is the information on the
hardware and software platforms necessary to play different
versions of the games we are archiving. One such
game is Robert Pinsky’s Mindwheel, one of five interactive
electronic novels published by Broderbund software
as part of its text adventure series. Initially released for
IBM and Apple, versions of the game were also adapted
for Atari and Commodore systems.
The same caveats that apply to the reliability and accuracy
of user-generated content in other research scenarios
also apply here, and consequently we take pains to
cross-reference many different sources of information.
It should be noted, however, that quite often the most authoritative resources by conventional standards are
authored by individuals who are themselves dependent
on or contribute to the user-generated wikis, databases,
and discussion boards highlighted here. For example,
Wikipedia has been a regular port of call for learning
about--in some cases identifying--the publishers and
rights-holders of various games in our archiving case
set. Pinsky’s Mindwheel is instructive in this regard.
Mindwheel was originally owned and developed by
Synapse Industries (or Synapse Software Corporation)
and published by Broderbund Software, who acquired
the IP rights in c. 1984. The complex corporate history
of Broderbund, whose creative assets have been repeatedly
bought and sold over the past 20 plus years, is well
documented on Wikipedia. The genealogy is as follows:
The Learning Company purchased Broderbund in 1998;
Mattel then purchased the Learning Company in 1999
and sold it to Gores Technology Group in 2000, who in
turn sold the Learning Company’s holdings to Ubisoft
and Riverdeep in 2001. Mindwheel’s corporate chain of
transmission is thus at least six levels deep. Based on the
Wikipedia entry, it appears that the Broderbund assets
and IP rights are now under the control of Riverdeep.
Attempting to verify this, we contacted the Riverdeep
company, who informed us that the program was no longer
available or supported, but that we should consult
Moby Games for more information about the developer.
Likewise, Nick Montfort, Associate Professor of digital
media in the Program in Writing and Humanistic Studies
at MIT, has discussed Mindwheel in several venues,
both in refereed books and conference papers, but also
on the Interactive Fiction Wiki, a participatory media
project to which he contributes (Montfort, Twisty 174-
181; “Condemned”). Montfort reaches the same conclusions
as Wikipedia about who owns the IP rights to the
game, and while he does not footnote the “encyclopedia
that anyone can edit,” it seems likely that he relied on the
extensive network of user-generated game resources that
he avidly promotes, uses, authors, and edits. The process
by which we attempted to acquire information about
the IP rights of Mindwheel thus serves as an object lesson
in the way knowledge circulates across professional
and amateur communities of practice, and the degree to
which these communities loop back on each other.
Moving beyond our personal experiences with the PVW
project, we would observe that from the perspective of
collection development, the professional archivist and
the private archivist often closely resemble each other.
Many collections of videogame materials vary in scope,
focus, and validity. Some are housed in large academic
institutions, within the context of traditional archives;
invested amateurs run others, and these collections are
limited by the time and resources of that individual or
group of individuals. Some of the collections focus on
videogame material; others collect videogame material
as a sub-set of their main institutional goal. Finally, some
of these collections try to provide access to primary materials
while others either provide access to end products
(like video games, manuals, or individual music tracks),
or they collect and organize information about end products.
Many of these collections, whether housed within
institutional settings or in individual server space, are
managed by people who have an intense personal interest
in their success; videogames are their avocation rather
than their vocation, and the videogame collection isn’t
necessarily the main collection’s focus. Due to this lack
of decisive institutional support, even within institutions,
videogame collections as a whole appear haphazard and
fractured as opposed to collections that focus on conventional
subjects, or are composed of traditional materials.
The fact that invested individuals are in charge of these
collections can either be a strength or weakness depending
on your point of view; for example, invested
amateurs have created emulated versions of out-of-print
games—these emulated games might be illegal (in that
they are still intellectual property of some entity—although
“abandonware”), and focus on game play rather
than authentic preservation. Whatever the case, these
individuals’ interest, energy, and devotion are characteristics
that will have a guiding influence on the development
of formal institutional collections. Additionally,
these somewhat ad-hoc collections set the stage for future
development of more formal repositories, and provide
the information professions with a valuable starting
point for future collection development.
References
“Broøderbund.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. October
15, 2008. Retrieved November 12, 2008: http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broderbund
Committee for Film Preservation and Public Access
(1993). Preservation without Access is Pointless: Statement
by The Committee for Film Preservation and Public
Access before The National Film Preservation Board of
the Library of Congress, Los Angeles, California, February
12, 1993. Retrieved March 11, 2009: http://www.loc.
gov/film/pdfs/fcmtefilmprespubaccess.pdf
Hedstrom, M., Lee, C., Olson, J., & Lampe, C. (2006).
“The Old Version Flickers More: Digital Preservation
from the User’s Perspective.” American Archivist, 69(1),
159-187. Retrieved August 4, 2008: http://archivists.
metapress.com/content/1765364485n41800 Montfort, Nick. “Condemned to Reload It.” Nick
Montfort. November 11, 2003. Retrieved November 12,
2008: http://nickm.com/writing/essays/condemned_to_
reload_it.html
Montfort, Nick. Twisty little passages : an approach to
interactive fiction. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2003.
Preserving Virtual Worlds. November 10, 2008.
University of Illinois Urbana-Champagne; University
of Maryland, College Park; Stanford University; and
Rochester Institute of Technology. Retrieved November
13, 2008: http://pvw.illinois.edu/pvw/
“Writing the history of virtual worlds.” BBC. Interview
with Megan Winget. August 15, 2008. Retrieved
November 12, 2008. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/
technology/7561553.stm>
Note
1. On Megan Winget’s Game Preservation Project, see
her interview with the BBC cited in the bibliography.","txt","2","","9160"
"962","10","New World Ordering","3","In April of 2008, LLC published a thorough survey by
Martyn Jessop of many factors contributing to an “inhibition”
of the use of GIS, or Geographical Information
Science, in the digital humanities (Jessop 2008). That
GIS has been slow to penetrate a scholarly population
generally receptive to new practices and technologies
begs a discussion of issues at once historical and methodological,
institutional and pragmatic. It also demands serious
engagement by scholars, programmers, librarians,
and advocates for shared data and transparent, flexible
services. To be effective, this engagement must come at
many levels simultaneously: we must work to build core
infrastructure to support GIS and leverage the strengths
of (primarily government and academic) data providers;
we must carefully analyze past successes as well as failures
in the digital humanities in order to move forward
with more robustly-imagined scholarly projects; and we
must interrogate both a toolset that has evolved to suit
scientific inquiry (that is, positivist models of physical
behavior and dense, detailed, precisely-defined data sets,
generally synchronic) and our own inherited systems for
interpreting the human record within a spatial field, georeferenced
or conceptual. Above all, we must make a
concerted effort at understanding what it is we do, when
we “do GIS.” This panel will provide differing perspectives
on GIS for humanities scholarship, but from within
the coherent narrative of a University of Virginia Library
effort to build modern infrastructure, support innovative and conditions of our community’s strange inhibition.
UVA Library’s Director of Digital Research & Scholarship,
Bethany Nowviskie, will open this discussion, but
in order to place it within a real-world services framework,
Scholars’ Lab GIS Specialist Kelly Johnston and
programmer Adam Soroka will describe our efforts in
building an infrastructure that includes sophisticated
hardware and several layers of software: a datastore for
standards-compliant metadata, vector, and raster information;
a translation layer that provides Open Geospatial
Constortium (OGC) services to GIS applications and
directly to the Web; and an application layer including a
discovery portal and browser-based, interactive mapping
systems that consume OGC web services.
For much of its history, GIS work has been predicated on
a model of powerful independent workstations featuring
complicated monolithic closed-source software, large
locally-stored datasets, and users working in relative isolation
who publish results in traditional media (Lo and
Yeung). Until recently, this has been the model in play at
the University of Virginia Library and at most scholarly
institutions. A new way of working, introduced by the
OGC and gaining increasing traction, utilizes Web services
such as Web Map Service (WMS) and Web Feature
Service (WFS) and creates an environment where processing
occurs server-side, data is stored centrally and
shared, and both processes and results can be published
digitally, in networked media. The UVA Library Scholars’
Lab brought this new way of working to our local
teaching and research community through a GIS spatial
data infrastructure project (colloquially called the “New
World Order”), in continued development since 2008.
Its tools enable new forms of collaboration, new forms
of publishing, and new forms of pedagogy – and they enforce
better internal stewardship of GIS datasets through
standardized metadata.
As is common, the UVA Library geospatial data collection
has grown episodically, in many formats over many
years, in response to user need and data availability. In
2007 we resolved to find a strategic solution to streamline
user access to datasets and improve our ability to respond
to user requests. Johnston will review the criteria
used in our selection process and explain our software
choices. He will address: how this new infrastructure
better supports collaboration among scholars building
spatial datasets across projects and disciplines; how it
undergirds the Library’s efforts in classroom support by
simplifying the contribution and sharing of datasets for
collaborative pedagogical activities; and how we identified
standard metadata as a key to success and embarked on work to improve both the quantity and quality of our
spatial dataset.
To illuminate the advantages of this approach from a
developer’s standpoint, Scholars’ Lab GIS Specialist
Christopher Gist will offer a case study in digital scholarship
using GIS technologies, new and old. In 2005,
UVA Library’s GeoStat Center (now part of the Scholars’
Lab), in cooperation with the Virginia Center for Digital
History, developed a Web-based student collaboration
tool for a history class being taught by Professor Ed Ayers.
The Southern History Database (SHD) aimed to
allow students to pool their research on primary sources
to provide larger datasets than would be possible for individual
students to collect. The process was also meant
to be iterative, so that one class might build on the work
of previous semesters.
The SHD had a large spatial component, which involved
students’ determining the location of events referenced
in their primary sources. These results were then tallied
and presented in thematic map form. Users could
click the map to retrieve results for a given location.
This portion of the project presented some very difficult
technical issues for the development group. Traditional
web mapping applications require specialized server applications
and incurred great expense in licensing and
management. Available open source applications were
limited to static data.
Gist will describe how the development team cobbled together
several applications, including MapServer, using
the scripting language Perl to create a custom map file on
user request. This method is server intensive, difficult
to maintain long-term, and not scalable. If new features
were to be added, existing scripts must be completely
rewritten.
Since that time, many new open source applications
have risen from the OGC movement to standardize spatial
services and applications, and are available through
the Open Source Geospatial Foundation. Since all these
tools use common standards – the same ones on which
we are building our GIS infrastructure at UVA – it has
become easy to develop mapping applications that allow
for the creation, storage, management, delivery and
display of spatial data.
Now instead of large and expensive proprietary spatial
web applications, the paradigm has moved to lighter
tools that can be used together through OGC standards.
This will allow us nimbly to create complex applications
like the SHD in a matter of days instead of weeks
or months. And unlike one-off applications, these new many formats that can be used in Google Earth and other
easily-acquired tools. All these features make spatial
applications for humanities scholarship much more attainable.
But will they help us overcome our essential inhibitions
when it comes to GIS in the digital humanities?
These locate themselves not only, as Jessop reminds us,
in questions about the nature of the tools and our facility
with them, but also in more theoretical and methodological
concerns surrounding the status of image-based
scholarship and our critical stance toward space and
place. Bethany Nowviskie and UVA Scholars’ Lab coordinator
Joe Gilbert continue the discussion with a look
at the exigencies of humanities information and our critical
impulses.
How do we conceive of and create spatial tools that are
neither strictly mimetic nor strictly symbolic? One obstacle
we may encounter is that maps, particularly in
their digital embodiments, primarily seek to represent
real-world spaces and objects. We are therefore limited
by these tools’ seeming inability to engage objects on
multiple semiotic levels. If we can only use spatial tools
to investigate what C.S. Peirce termed “iconic,” or representative,
types of signs, we are artificially restricting
the kinds of interpretive acts with which we can engage
(Peirce). Current GIS tools elide the subjective nature
of both time and space, and thus the possibility of using
such tools as richly signifying spaces in themselves.
Nowviskie will offer a young lady’s 1823 “Book of Penmanship”
from the David Rumsey Historical Map collection
as an example of a sophisticated (if naïve) humanities
GIS—an historical and artistic document that
embeds a brand of subjectivity that the tools and frameworks
we build must be able to accommodate (Henshaw).
This artifact—with its fascinating imaginative
reconstructions, in text and image, of 1820s American
geography—will also be presented, more polemically, as
the physical embodiment of a method that we must take
seriously in digital humanities scholarship if GIS is to
take hold: graphesis, the visual construction of knowledge.
Gilbert will conclude with a look at a spatial signifier
that has become iconic in a completely different sense
– the Google Map marker. Here we encounter another
potential difficulty for spatial analysis in the humanities:
the symbolic language used by prevalent tools is too divorced
(to paraphrase Raymond Carver) from what we
talk about when we talk about the world. Here, the fear
of maps as representations of the real is avoided, but is
also replaced by an empty, literally (or virtually) floating
set of signifiers. Rather than depicting this limited sign
system laid over the rigid lattice of latitude and longitude,
can we re-think Google Earth’s virtual sphere of
photorealism and arbitrary markers through the lens of
Yuri Lotman’s concept of the semiosphere, a “synchronic
semiotic space?” (Lotman). A future avenue for investigation
implicit in this argument would be an understanding
of mapping interfaces in terms of Baudrillard’s
notion of simulacra.
References
Henshaw, Frances A. “Frances A. Henshaw’s Book of
Penmanship Executed at the Middlebury Female Academy.”
April 29, 1823. In the collection of David Rumsey.
Pub list no. 2501.000. http://davidrumsey.com/
Jessop, Martyn. “The Inhibition of Geographic Information
in Digital Humanities Scholarship.” Literary and
Linguistic Computing, vol. 23 n. 1; April 2008.
Lo, C.P. and Yeung, Albert K.W., Concepts and Techniques
of Geographic Information Systems. New Jersey:
Pearson Prentice Hall. 2007.
Lotman, Yuri. Universe of the Mind: A Semiotic Theory
of Culture. Bloomington: Indiana UP. 2001.
Peirce, C.S. Writings of Charles S. Peirce: a chronological
edition. Ed. Fisch, Max H. Bloomington: Indiana
UP. 1982.","txt","2","",""
"963","10","Formulaic Emotion: Reading Victorian Deathbed Scenes from a Distance","1","There is perhaps no other scene as quintessentially
Victorian as the deathbed scene. In one of his
more humorous observations, Garrett Stewart observes:
“Some characters must die in any period of novel writing.
As everyone allows, characters die more often,
more slowly, and more vocally in the Victorian age than
ever before or since” (8). A scene such as the death of
Little Nell in The Old Curiosity Shop, which has now
come to represent over-the-top Victorian sentimentality,
once “sent most of literate England into mourning”
(Kuchich 59).
In deathbed scenes, Victorian authors convey much more
than just an emotional moment that advances the plot.
In the same manner in which Victorian mourning rituals
became formal indicators of the status and worthiness
of a deceased person, authors adopted patterns serving
as markers to the reader about how to feel about the deceased
character. Like mourning practices, such fictionalized
scenes were expected to fit a formula, designed to generate sympathetic feelings in the reader. Deathbed
scenes solicit an affective response by meeting the
readers’ expectations for a “good death” and enveloping
these scenes with a certain bittersweet pathos. The formal
and methodical practices of Victorian mourning thus
manifested in deathbed scenes of the period. In these
deathbed scenes, there is a code within the language that
aims to elicit an affective response in the reader.
In my worki, I use a combination of close and distant
reading lenses to uncover the low-level patterns in vocabulary
that equate to the higher-level formation of
deathbed scenes as a literary topos, a framework within
which authors can utilize certain linguistic and thematic
patterns to manipulate the emotions of readers. I am
building upon Franco Moretti’s conceptions of a “quantitative
approach to literature” (4), which I find productively
compatible with Garrett Stewart’s structuralist interpretation
regarding the “style of the death sentence,”
in which he argues that death scenes use specialized rhetoric
(figures of speech and grammatical devices), which
“can be sorted out if not strictly codified” (7).
I begin by employing WordHoard, a “philological tool”
designed to precipitate “the close reading and scholarly
analysis of deeply tagged texts” (http://wordhoard.northwestern.
edu) to build lexicons of my workset of sixteen
deathbed scenes. These lists form the beginning of the
ways that micro-patterns parallel larger thematic patterns
in the texts. For example, the Victorian ideal of the
“good death” is apparent in the vocabulary: “good,”
“better,” and “great” all appear in the top twenty adjectives.
There is a physical materiality in the list of nouns,
which includes specific parts of the body: the “hand,” the
“face,” the “heart,” and the “eye.” Finally, in both the
list of nouns and the lists of verb, words that reflect an
interest in last looks and words stand out: “word,”
“speak,” “tell,” “look,” “see,” “say,” and “hear.”
Figure A. Words that are Over-Represented in Victorian
Deathbed Scenes Compared to Testbed
The raw count of a word is not always the best measure
of its significance, however, so I also employ Dunning’s
Log Likelihood Ratio to provide a measurement
of which words were over-represented and which were
under-represented in the deathbed scenes compared to
my testbed set of eighty mid-Victorian novels. I thus
was able to obtain a statistical measure of words that are
significant in deathbed scenes. I then input the full list of
significant words into a Wordle wordcloud visualization
(see Fig A).ii By using Dunning’s log likelihood ratio, I
was able to produce visualizations not just of the most
common words, but of the words that are most salient in
deathbed scenes.
The words that are over-represented in deathbed scenes
correspond to the thematic patterns of deathbed scenes
identified above. Words that set the scene are scattered
across the visualization, hinting at descriptions of the
bed, the room, the pillow, the chamber, and even the
hospital. Words corresponding to illness also are prominent,
including “fever,” “sick,” “nurse,” “doctor,” and
“sick-room.” Moreover, the word cloud is a reminder
of how death is a domestic affair. Not only is there an
emphasis on that most domestic of spaces, the bedroom,
but the vocabulary emphasizes intimate relationships—
“mamma,” “papa,” “darling,” and “child.” This latter
word also crosses over into demonstrating a concern
with innocence and diminutiveness, especially when
read with to the related “baby” and “little.” The visualization
also reflects the thematic importance of last
words and touches—the “lips” that “speak,” “whisper,”
or “kiss,” the “last” “farewell,” the final “breath.” Emotions
run high in these scenes, which are filled with
“sob[s],” “tear[s],” and “cry[ing].” The language captured
in the word cloud also appears somewhat elevated,
with the prominent “thou,” the lofty and interestingly
negative “nought,” and the somewhat perplexing presences
of both “madame” and “madam.” Finally, we
again see evidence here in the vocabulary of the deathbed
scene of the idea of a “good death”—the loved ones
are sent to “heaven” having obtained “forgiveness” or
having learned to “forgive.” They have earned “mercy”
and are “happy” in their final moments.
While a close reader may be able to get a sense of which
words are used more often in sentimental scenes, the
Dunning’s Log Likelihood ratio enabled me to discover
information that a scholar would never be able to obtain
without these technologies: that which is absent. What
the word cloud does not include is almost as informative
as what it does. Given the prominence of mourning
in Victorian culture, there is almost no trace of the formal
trappings of mourning in this snapshot of deathbed
scenes. While the words “coffin,” “archdeacon,” and
“grave” appear, the visualization shows that the topos is much more concerned with describing the death than
with detailing the mourning. The authors, it seems, rely
less on the pomp and ritual of ceremony to convey a
sense of the character’s worth. A description of the moment
is sufficient to convey the “good death;” the burial
and the mourning – the public moments in the church
and graveyard – are largely absent. While this seems
to contradict my earlier hypothesis that deathbed scenes
are reflections of Victorian mourning practices, the act
of writing itself creates the public moment of grief otherwise
missing from the narrative. Authors brought the
intimate moment of death to the public eye, effectively
drawing the reader and creating a community of mourners.
It is the relationship between the reader and the
character that serves as proof of the character’s “worth.”
This makes the list and visualization of the words that
are under-represented in deathbed scenes even more
striking (see Fig B). One of the most under-represented
words is “holy,” and it is followed by “church,” “saint,”
“faith,” “believe” and “truth.” It seems the Victorian
deathbed scene is more concerned with relationships,
marked by words such as “forgiveness,” “mercy,” “forgive,”
and “comfort” than with personal convictions and
declarations of faith. The deathbed scene is a moment in
which the dying person connects one final time with living.
As such, there is an emphasis on embodiment in the
over-represented words: “cheek,” “breast,” “hand,” and
“face.” These moments are presented less as “holy” than
they are as deeply, profoundly, human moments.
Figure B. Words that are Under-Represented in Victorian
Deathbed Scenes Compared to Testbed
Besides the surprising lack of emphasis on holiness
and faith, the word cloud reveals and highlights other
words that don’t represent the essence of the Victorian
deathbed scene. Words that have to do with business
and class (“money,” “power,” “business,” “lord,” and
“gentleman”) don’t belong at the deathbed. There’s also
a trend toward generalities, including general groups
of “people”: “person,” “woman,” and “girl.” Even
though “family,” “daughter,” and “father” make the
list of under-represented words, they are more generic
terms when compared to the more familiar “mammas”
and “papas.” Tellingly, words of uncertainty also appear
prominent in the visualization of under-used words in
deathbed scenes, including “suppose,” “perhaps,” and
“doubt.” The deathbed scene, by nature a scene of resolution,
leaves no room for incertitude. Altogether, the
words that are not used, the “negatives,” serve as a sort
of shadow to the “positives,” giving dimension to the
themes and patterns that stood out in the first visualization.
The increased scope, scale and speed of text analysis
take me beyond my preconceived notions about the
texts, revealing trends visible only with the perspective
of distance. Rather than representing the end result
of the experiment, the data from my experiments
inspired more sharply focused readings of the texts. A
visualization like the Wordle image of under- and overrepresented
words should not, and really cannot, stand
as evidence in proving a hypothesis. The visualization
is simply not empirical in nature. In a way, word clouds,
as visual representations of criticism, can be seen as art
useful in representing other modes of art. And, as with
any instance of artistic representation, they remain open
to interpretation. Distant reading can only be a viable
methodology for literary study if it is used in this way:
as a new lens for examining the text and as a means to
inspire interpretations and readings based on the new
perspective.
Notes
iThe project is also one of the “use cases” that drives
development for the MONK Project (http://monkproject.
org).
iiPlease see http://wordle.net
References
Kuchich, John. “Death Worship among Victorians: The
Old Curiosity Shop.” PMLA 95.1 (Jan 1980): 58-72.
Moretti, Franco. Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models
for a Literary Theory. New York: Verso, 2005.
Stewart, Garrett. Death Sentences: Styles of Dying in
Victorian Fiction. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard UP: 1984.
WordHoard. Northwestern University, 2008. <http://
wordhoard.northwestern.edu>.
Wordle. Jonathan Feinberg, dev. <http://www.wordle.
net>.","txt","2","","9161"
"964","10","The Devil and Mother Shipton: Serendipitous Associations and the MONK Project","1","Datamining tools such as Naïve Bayes, which seek to
extract and quantify textual features, do not appear
to support pedagogies, research practices, or facilitate
the pleasures of discovery in the same way humanist researchers
have become used to (Rommel 2004, Harley et
al. 2006). Jean Guy Meunier, Ismail Biskri, and Dominic
Forrest (2005) argue that reading or analyzing text is “a
more complex procedure of heuristics and pattern recognition
strategies. All of which are grounded on complex
dimensions such as linguistic and mundane semantic
structure, inference, pragmatic memory, culture, social
interaction, and knowledge repositories” (124, 126).
They conclude the “text does not necessarily reveal itself
in a first reading, not even in a first analysis” and that
the “computer can play a productive role in the reading
and analysis process; but only if it is well-situated as an
assistant to such cognitive activities” (126). Although in
its current stage, the MONK Workbench may be most
helpful to domain experts who are already familiar with
the social, legal, or literary phenomenon they study, it
can be used to facilitate pattern finding across corpora
large enough to loosen the threads that tie texts together.
My original research question asked if analytics used
within the MONK Workbench could help locate Richard
Head’s biography of Mother Shipton, not within
the fifteenth-century, when he claims it was originally
written, but within the late sixteenth century when it was
published. While reporting on these preliminary findings,
this paper will likewise suggest that, although the
tools can render texts into composite features, they can
also suggest ways in which texts can be meaningfully realigned.
The serendipitous associations created by these
re-alignments support an engagement with texts that is
familiar to research scholars working outside of digital
humanist practices.
Mother Shipton and the Devil
Mother Shipton may have lived in the late 15th to mid
16th centuries (1488-1561?); she emerged into the literary
record in 1641 as an early modern prophetic witch
whose embodied spirituality was made her spiritual
allegiances hard to identify. Her prophecies were ultimately
created or appropriated by authors who tantalizingly
propose that her predictive skill and bodily deformities
illustrated an otherworldly or demonic heritage.
The inclusion of the Gentleman Devil, a sucked witch’s
mark, and animal familiars in Richard Head’s biographies
of Mother Shipton situate these texts alongside the
prophetic norms and evolution of theories of witchcraft
and diabolism written during the seventeenth century. In
hoping to exploit interest in ecstatic prophecy, practical
maleficium, and, most crucially, the Devil’s relationship
to the witch, Head’s biographies conform too closely to
seventeenth-century stylistic elements, ultimately revealing
their fictions. The devil is in the details.
I theorize that the presence of this seducing gentleman
devil could help situate Head’s construction of Mother
Shipton within a context of continental beliefs about
witchcraft emerging in seventeenth-century trial accounts.
In England, the witch’s mark appeared most often
as a scratch, or a prick, then as a teat from which
the witch’s familiar was supposed to drink as reward for
the malefic crimes it committed at the witch’s behest.
References to having sex with the devil became prominent
in England as a reflection of newly imported continental
beliefs about witchcraft. The devil in the shape
of a gentleman, or the “black man,” who asks to suck
from these increasingly sexualized marks, appears after
the sixteenth-century when Head’s biography of Shitpon
was supposedly written. At the beginning of my MONK
research I created a paper dataset with pens and highlighters.
With this research, I found a tract, “The Mystery
of Witchcraft” (1626), which showed the presence
of “carnall knowledge of [the witches] body” earlier than
I’d anticipated. In finding this, I had to rethink when the
idea of demonic sex entered the understanding of English
witchcraft, but also whether coitus was the only demonic
sex act present in the material.
The MONK Workbench combines “texts and tools to enable
literary research through the discovery, exploration,
and visualization of patterns. . . . Each toolset is made up
of individual tools (e.g. a search tool, a browsing tool,
a rating tool, and a visualization), and these tools are
applied to worksets of texts selected by the user from
the MONK datastore” (MONK, Workbench). I rated a
large sample set of fifty-two texts using the Search by
Example tool, and rated them as containing “sex,” “no
sex,” and “some sex” with the devil, and ran a Naïve
Bayes analytical routine, asking for lemma as my feature,
and requesting one hundred “features” (words that
are representative of each class of documents) be returned.
Some interesting results emerged. For example,
the later witchcraft tract, A True and impartial relation of
the informations against three witches, viz., Temperance
Lloyd, Mary Trembles, and Susanna Edwards, who were
indicted, arraigned and convicted at the assizes holden
for the county of Devon, at the castle of Exon, Aug. 14, 1682 was returned as a match for “sex.” Here is a suggestive
excerpt found in the tract:
The said Informant upon his Oath saith, That upon the
17th day of July instant this Informant did hear Susanna
Edwards to confess, that the Devil had carnal knowledge
of her Body; and that he had suckt her in her Breast and
in her Secret parts.
The Workbench analytics returned From Newes from
Scotland, Declaring the Damnable life and death of
Doctor Fian, a notable Sorcerer, who was burned at
Edenbrough in Ianuary last. 1591 as a positive hit for
“sex” with the devil. This excerpt, extracted from a large
enough text chunk to make it difficult to locate by eye,
comments, perhaps unintentionally, on the more pleasurable
kinds of malefic sexuality seen in these encounters:
for as much as by due examination of witchcraft and
witches in Scotland, it hath latelye beene found that the
Deuill dooth generallye marke them with a priuie marke,
by reason the Witches haue confessed themselues, that
the Diuell dooth lick them with his tung in some priuy
part of their bodie, before hee dooth receiue them to
be his seruants, which marke commonly is giuen them
vnder the haire in some part of their bodye, wherby it
may not easily be found out or seene, although they be
searched
Although these texts do not share significant linguistic
features, and the second excerpt is not in fact a story of
English witchcraft, but of Scottish, this represents a very
positive result in terms of finding patterns of malefic sexuality
across a corpus. Although they suggest the necessity
of rethinking how sexuality functions in witchcraft
tracts and as such proves to be a useful to look at familiar
texts, their location within large text chunks would have
obscured them to non-domain experts.
The most provocative results of the sample was a serendipitous
association that contextualized Richard Head’s
construction of Mother Shipton’s diabolical upbringing.
The MONK Workbench provided an opportunity
to “search by example” and find unpredicted associations
in terms of this research stream. The Workbench
analytics rated a text as “sex” with the devil, which I
had not considered, a text about Tannakin Skinker, the
“hog-faced woman” from Holland. Head’s text and the
Skinker text share themes such as implied witchcraft, the
presence of the Devil, and the implication of the Devil’s
presence, the presence of a witch or a witch’s curse, the
use of wealth as a lure, the use of costly clothing as a tool
for seduction, the presence of a castle or a large home,
and, most substantially, hog-faced children. These numerous
alignments are suggestive of the kinds of source
text or framework upon which Head drew an expanded
version of Shipton’s life. Although malefic sex was identified
as a signifier of diabolism, numerous texts rated as
“sex” with the devil by the Workbench analytic process
included prodigious birth as a sign of the Devil’s presence.
Prodigious births, along with witchcraft, comets,
and two-headed chickens, belongs to the same kind of
tabloid, or “enquirer,” genre in early modern England;
Head’s version of Shipton’s life falls firmly within that
genre in a way which makes the devil’s presence in it
make sense outside of witchcraft or prophecy.
Conclusions
In this way, the computational process assisted my reading
process rather than delineated it as Meuneir et al. argue
must happen to make computational analytics more
useful to main stream critical inquiry. Although Head’s
version of Shipton’s life is not a text in the dataset, I
was able to use the MONK Workbench to find a set of
texts within the same genre. That is, I was able to find
comparable texts without a base text against which they
were compared. In addition, while the “predicted features”
were only moderately helpful, patterns began to
emerge that reified and challenged my understanding of
the devil’s evolution in sixteenth-century witchcraft accounts
and therefore my understanding of Mother Shipton’s
location within these texts. Although preliminary
trials with Workbench analytics produced mixed results,
only sometimes predicting that texts contained the elements
I was looking for to help contextualize Richard
Head’s version of Mother Shipton within sixteenth century
ephemera, it suggested connections based on similarities
and patterns I had not predicted. As a result, I
reevaluated my hypothesis regarding demonic sexuality
and its role in the prodigious birth category of early
English ephemeral publications. Ultimately, this experience
facilitated serendipitous literary discoveries based
on unpredictable features, a process of discovery that
makes tools such as those incorporated in the MONK
Workbench more user-friendly to users unfamiliar with
current digital research methods.
Works cited
Anon. A True and impartial relation of the informations
against three witches, viz., Temperance Lloyd, Mary
Trembles, and Susanna Edwards, who were indicted, arraigned
and convicted at the assizes holden for the county
of Devon, at the castle of Exon, Aug. 14, 1682
Anon. The most strange and admirable discouerie of the
three witches of Warboys. London: Printed for Thomas
Man and Iohn Winnington, and are to be solde in Pater
noster Row, at the signe of the Talbot. 1593. Anon. The prophesie of Mother Shipton in the raigne
of King Henry the Eighth. London: Printed for Richard
Lownds, at his Shop adjoyning to Ludgate, 1641.
Anon. The Strange and wonderful history of Mother
Shipton. London: Printed for W.H. and sold by J. Conyers,
1667/1668?
Head, Richard. The life and death of Mother Shipton,
London : Printed for B. Harris 1677.
Harley, Diane, et al. Use and Users of Digital Resources:
A Focus on Undergraduate Education in the Humanities
and Social Sciences (2006) Center for Studies in Higher
Education, University of California, Berkeley. 11-06
Meunier, Jean Guy, Ismail Briski, and Dominic Forest.
“A Model for Computer Analysis and Reading of Text
(CARAT): The SATIM Approach” Text Technology,
Number 2, 2005. 123-151
MONK Project. “Introduction” Monk Workbench. Online.
Rommel, Thomas. “Literary Studies.” A Companion to
Digital Humanities.
SCHREIBMAN, SUSAN, RAY SIEMENS and JOHN
UNSWORTH (eds). Blackwell Publishing, 2004. Blackwell
Reference Online. 22 September 2008 http://www.
blackwellreference.com.login.ezproxy.library.ualberta.
ca/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9781405103213_chunk_
g978140510321311","txt","2","","9161"
"965","10","The Story of One: Developing text mining procedures and visualizations in the MONK project to re-read Gertrude Stein's The Making of Americans","1","Most critiques of The Making of Americas (Paris
1925) by Gertrude Stein contend that the text deconstructs
the role narrative plays in determining identity
by using indeterminacy to challenge readerly subjectivity.
The current perception of Making as a postmodern
text relies on the notion that there is a tension created
by frustrated expectations that result from the text’s progressive
disbandment of story and plot as the narrative
unweaves into seemingly chaotic, meaningless rounds
of repetitive words and phrases. Yet, a new perspective
that is facilitated by digital tools and based on the
highly structured nature of the text suggests that these
instabilities can be resolved by the same seemingly nonsensical,
non-narrative structures. Seeing the manner in
which the structure of the text makes meaning in conversation
with narrative alleviates perceived instabilities in
the discourse. The discourse about identity formation is
engaged—not dissolved in indeterminacy—to the extent
that the reader can read the composition.
One method for reading the composition of the text without
relying on what becomes a non-existent framework
based on plot is to view the progression of words according
to a different framework, a framework that relies
on comparative associations based on word usage.
Using WordHoardi, we compared word usage between
texts and text parts by calculating the log-likelihood ratio,
which describes the size and significance of the difference
between word frequencies in a base text versus
a reference text.ii In this analysis, we measured word
usage in The Making of Americans in comparison to two
different sets of reference texts with more traditional
narrative structures: (a) a set of 19th century novels written
by Jane Austen, Charles Dickens, George Eliot, and
George Meredith;iii (b) between the first and second half
of Making, which it has been argued also represents different
narrative trends (Clement 2008). Visualizing this
information in Wordleiv—a word cloud application (Wattenberg
& Viegas, 2008)—is useful primarily because
it provides a visual overview of word frequencies that
is easy to understand and to publish for reference. The
Wordle application facilitates this kind of analysis by
visualizing the list of words in a cloud that maximizes
the space utilization on a computer screen by sizing the
words by their relative frequencies. The more frequently
a word occurs in a particular text (relative to another
text) the larger the word appears. In the set of visualizations
that accompany this discussion,v each cloud
serves to visualize words that are more or less frequent
in any given comparison (see examples in Fig. 1). What
becomes immediately evident in comparing these visualizations
is the prominence of a particular word that
consistently scores a high value in terms of discrepancy
between Making and the reference texts: one. The word one appears consistently across every cloud
that marks the words that are more common in Making
and less common in the sample of nineteenth century
texts and words that are more common in the second half
rather than the first half of the text. We then compared
the relative frequencies of multiple pronouns, which revealed
that the frequency of one surges by the end of the
text (Fig. 2). What is most interesting about this graph is
that the high frequency of one is the result of the confusion
accomplished by the word’s schizophrenic nature.
Words here are represented according to occurrence, not
to type of occurrence. Thus, the word one—unlike he,
she, I, we, or even you or it—which plays many positions
in the text, in the role of a pronoun or an adjective and in
the subject or object position, surges in frequency.
To better understand how the word one is used in the
text, we created another set of visualizations prepared
using a prototype we developed called PosViz.vi Pos-
Viz allowed us to compare word usage based on parts of
speech in individual chapters from Making to the whole
text. These comparisons allowed us to isolate and analyze
words used more and less frequently throughout the
course of the novel and to measure how and if these patterns
change within the text itself. In these visualizations,
each part of speech for each word is treated as a separate
word instance and each instance is placed according to
its appearance in the text, color-coded according to its
part of speech, and sized according to its overall frequency.
Thus, by using PosViz, the progression of the manner
in which the word one is used in terms of different
parts of speech is documented, allowing us to see that the
use of one appears to change as the text progresses. For
example, a relatively small one appears three times in
the chapter 1 cloud (Fig. 3). This visualization indicates
that the occurrence of the word one has little variance
in terms of how it is used (its part of speech) and occurs
relatively infrequently in occurrences that are localized
to the beginning paragraphs of the chapter.vii By chapter
9, however, one dominates the discourse both in terms of
its frequency and in terms of its multiple uses (Fig. 4).
By identifying the manner in which word usage changes
in correlation to the presence and absence of narrative
both in comparison to other novels and within the text
itself, these comparisons enable a new perspective on the
meaning-making processes of the text’s composition. For
example, these visualizations illustrate the nature of the
word one as it is used to heighten the word’s propensity
for different reading possibilities. This lends to a reading
in which one may represent a singular subject position or
multiple subject positions at once. With this information,
a further argument can be made that the discourse about
identity formation is engaged in this multiplicity, not dissolved
in indeterminacy. Thus, employing composition
in her representation of identity formation in The Making
of Americans becomes the method by which Stein seeks
to represent identity, but if and how the reader is able
to recognize and interpret this endeavor is predicated by
her ability to see it.
This work with The Making of Americans is part of research
and development within the MONK (Metadata
Offer New Knowledge) project, a Mellon-funded collaborative
seeking to develop text mining and visualization
software in order to explore patterns across large-scale
text collections. Stein’s text was a productive text for
analysis during the beginning phases of the MONK project
since its many and complicated repetitions could be
processed and visualized.viii This presentation focuses
on how the process of determining decision criteria for
text mining led to the discovery that various textual features
(n-grams, parts-of-speech, and log-likelihood ratios)
and various visualizations (FeatureLens, Spotfire,
Wordle, and PosViz) ultimately facilitated an iterative
discovery process and a new reading of Gertrude Stein’s
The Making of Americans. Notes
iPlease see http://wordhoard.northwestern.edu/userman/.
iiThis analysis is based on Dunning’s log-likelihood
analysis. Please see http://wordhoard.northwestern.edu/
userman/analysis-comparewords.html#loglike.
iiiThe books used in this study are those available in the
WordHoard application. They are listed at http://terpconnect.
umd.edu/~tclement/less-more.htm. These authors
were chosen because Stein repeatedly compares her text
to their novels. See Stein 1990, p. 506.
ivPlease see http://wordle.net/.
vThese visualizations are pictured in an online appendix
entitled “Visual Comparisons of Gertrude Stein’s The
Making of Americans using WordHoard, Wordle, and
PosViz” at http://terpconnect.umd.edu/~tclement/lessmore.
htm. In these slides, the comparisons have been
visualized with four sets of data for each data set, all of
which are set in comparison to the base text The Making
of Americans and include and exclude ‘common words’
such as articles, conjunctions, and pronouns. The full
list of these ‘stop-words’ is unavailable, but the creator
Jonathan Feinberg has indicated in an email that ‘I have
modified them by hand over time. The English one came
from the Snowball stemmer project’ at http://snowball.
tartarus.org/algorithms/english/stop.txt (personal correspondence).
viCurrently, PosViz does not have a web presence.
viiThe analysis program used to label these uses is part
of the SEASR (Software Environment for the Advancement
of Scholarly Research) analytic routines (http://
seasr.org/). Though imperfect, the system is consistent—
it labels the same behaviors the same way each time.
Thus each occurrence represents the perception of a different
use of the word one. viiiThis work is published in two articles: Don et al., 2007
and Clement, 2008.
References
Clement, T. (2008). “‘A thing not beginning or ending’:
Using Digital Tools to Distant-Read Gertrude Stein’s
The Making of Americans.” Literary and Linguistic
Computing, 23.3: 361-382.
Don, A., Zheleva, E., Gregory, M., Tarkan, S., Auvil,
L., Clement, T., Shneiderman, B., Plaisant, C.
(2007). “Discovering interesting usage patterns in text
collections: integrating text mining with visualization.”
Proceedings of the sixteenth ACM conference on Conference
on information and knowledge management, pp.
213-222.
Stein, G. (1990). “Transatlantic Interview 1946.” In The
Gender of Modernism. Bonnie Kime Scott and Mary
Lynn Broe (eds). Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, pp. 502-516.
Wattenberg, M. and Viegas, F. (2008). “Tag clouds
and the case for vernacular visualization.” Interactions,
15.4: 49-52.
Stein, G. (1995). The Making of Americans: Being a
History of a Family’s Progress. Normal, IL: Dalkey Archive
Press.
Weiss, Sholom M. et al. (2005). Text Mining: Predictive
Methods for Analyzing Unstructured Information. New
York: Springer, pp. 85-86.","txt","2","","9161"
"966","10","The Digital Humanities Observatory: Building a National Collaboratory","3","The Digital Humanities Observatory (DHO) was established
to support digital humanities research in
Ireland, and to manage and coordinate the increasingly
complex e-resources created in the arts and humanities
throughout the island. The DHO, founded in 2008, has
in its first year begun to implement a plan of support focusing
on three main issues: encouraging collaboration;
providing for the management, access, and preservation
of project data; and promulgating shared standards and
technology for project development.
The DHO sits solidly in the family of recent international
initiatives seeking collaboration, sharing, and preservation,
that signal a shift in perspective in the digital humanities
environment from a project based (digital silo)
approach to one in which the scholarly resources we
create are linked, interoperable, reusable, and preserved.
Collectively, we have entered a new phase of human and
technical infrastructure development. An overview of
just a few events from the past few years will serve to
put the establishment of the DHO in perspective.
In April 2007 The National Endowment for the Humanities
sponsored a meeting gathering some 60 representatives from US digital humanities centres and institutes,
and funding agencies that support their work, to discuss
short- and long-term priorities and to encourage collaborative
opportunities. The result of this meeting was
centerNet, “an international network of digital humanities
centers formed for cooperative and collaborative action
that will benefit digital humanities and allied fields
in general and centers as humanities cyberinfrastructure
in particular.”
In February 2008 the Mellon Foundation-backed initiative,
Project Bamboo, began a series of workshops to lay
the groundwork for the building of an international infrastructure
(technical, social, and institutional) to tackle
the question, “How can we advance arts and humanities
research through the development of shared technology
services?” Unlike the NEH-sponsored meeting that led
to the development of centerNet, which drew attendees
solely from established digital humanities centers and
institutes, the Bamboo Project participants are pulled
additionally from humanities departments, IT support,
libraries, and administration from each attending organization.
These groups are not the traditional practitioners
of digital humanities, and Project Bamboo represents a
distinct opening up or “popularization” of the field within
academia. (http://projectbamboo.uchicago.edu/)
At the same time Project Bamboo was launched, the EUfunded
Interedition: An Interoperable Supranational
Infrastructure for Digital Editions (funded as a COST
Action February 2008-April 2012) was launched “to
promote the interoperability of the tools and methodology
… for digital scholarly editing and research.” Interedition
and projects like it have the potential to serve
both established digital humanities practitioners, such
as those represented by centerNet, and those new to the
field, such as participants in Project Bamboo. (http://
www.interedition.eu/)
Slightly later in the year, in September 2008, the Council
on Library and Information Resources published a white
paper, “No Brief Candle: Reconceiving Research Libraries
for the 21st Century,” which sets forth recommendations
for collaboration between and among faculty, librarians,
and IT professionals.
Conceived in 2004 and with the official kick-off meeting
in October 2008, DARIAH (Digital Research Infrastructure
for the Arts and Humanities), a network of fourteen
partners in ten European countries, is working to develop
infrastructure to support the preservation of cultural
heritage in Europe and improve access to research material
for the humanities. Currently in a preparation phase,
the project will begin in 2010. (http://www.dariah.edu/)
Despite the momentum in international collaborative
ventures, only a month prior to the April 2007 meeting,
the UK’s Arts and Humanities Research Council withdrew
funding for the Arts and Humanities Data Service
(AHDS) from March 2008, despite the fact that the 12
year old network of digital humanities centres of expertise
was one of the oldest and most well-respected national
infrastructures in the world (press release: http://
www.ahrc.ac.uk/News/Latest/Pages/AHRCreshapesitsfundingofICTresearch.
aspx).
The withdrawal of funding from the AHDS came just
as researchers in Ireland were in the final phases of conceiving
the DHO. While those writing the grant realized
that they did not want to foster the model prevalent in the
early to mid-1990s of the when digital humanities was
coalescing as a discipline, i.e. the lone scholar model
modified to encompass a small team of postgraduates
and technical staff, frequently employed by a digital
humanities centre. A model moe in keeping with other
international initiatives previously cited was needed:
one that reaches across national boarders to encourage
shared infrastructures, frameworks, and ontologies. Thus
the Digital Humanities Observatory, a national digital
humanities centre based in Dublin, Ireland, was founded
in 2008 as a response to international developments and
to a national need for digital humanities infrastructure
in Ireland.
The Digital Humanities Observatory
The DHO was created as part of a larger national infrastructure
entitled Humanities Servicing Irish Society
(HSIS). HSIS is comprised of five of the six Universities
in the Republic of Ireland (National University of
Ireland, Galway; National University of Ireland, Maynooth;
Trinity College Dublin; University College
Cork; University College Dublin), the two Universities
in the North of Ireland (Queens University, Belfast and
University of Ulster), and several institutions of higher
education in the Republic (College of Art and Design,
Dundalk Institute of Technology, St Patrick’s Teacher
Training College, Royal Irish Academy).
These institutions came together as a result of a funding
call from the Higher Education Authority under
the Programme of Research in Third Level Institutions
(PRTLI). HSIS was awarded €28,000,000 in August
2007 to build a joint national platform for the coordination
and dissemination of humanities research, teaching
and training at an all-island level. This is probably the
single largest award to the humanities in the world to
date. Of that €28,000,000, some €18,000-20,0000 is for
capital funding. A majority of the remainder, however,
is being invested in digital humanities projects, training, and development.
The DHO is the centrepiece of the HSIS collaborative.
It was founded to be a collaborator on national digital
humanities initiatives, a centre of excellence, forward
looking but cognisant of past humanities and digital humanities
practice, and positioned to become a player in
international initiatives.
These extremely ambitious goals are being carried out
against a backdrop of changing expectations in the roles
of digital humanities centres; changing expectations
about the resources we create and the nature and rewards
for those intellectual products; and a realization that their
long-term viability and reusability must be designed for
in the very earliest stages of project conception.
To fulfil these goals, the DHO is developing three distinct
but integrated technical infrastructures. The first of
these is a Portal, which is the public face of the DHO.
Built on the content management system, Drupal, it not
only provides information about the DHO, its activities
and its partners, but features community spaces allowing
the Irish academic community, as well as those interested
in the work produced by that community, to stay
connected.
The second deliverable is a database entitled Digital Research
and Projects in Ireland (DRAPIer). This projects
and methods database (modeled on the UK’s ICT Methods
Database), also implemented in Drupal, provides
a publicly-accessible framework for the discovery of
digital humanities project in Ireland. Administratively,
DRAPIer has equally important functionally. It allows
us to identify projects at risk and to intervene before the
content is lost to the academic community. It provides a
national snapshot of the depth and breath of digital humanities
research in Ireland, funding sources, and methods
utilized.
The third deliverable is an access and preservation repository
based on Fedora. This repository will provide
public access to digital humanities resources created by
the HSIS partners. This infrastructure, currently under
development, is possibly the most ambitious IT deliverable
of the initiative. Some of the resources created
by HSIS partners will reside directly in the DHO’s Fedora
instance, others will be federated in other Fedora
instances maintained by DHO project partners. The interoperability
of these frameworks is based on shared
content modeling within Fedora.
By creating resources in which the underlying data share
some level of interoperability, based on common content
modeling, shared ontologies, named authority lists, and
metadata standards, the DHO expects to provide a level
access to a variety of heterogeneous resources having
both an eye to the future in their long-term preservation,
as well as an eye to the past, in providing access a wealth
of Irish cultural heritage, and well as the research of Irish
scholars, to a wider audience.
Making primary resources of Irish studies, as well as
the research of Irish scholarship more widely available
is particularly important for disciplinary studies areas
typically labeled as ‘minority’. It can be extremely difficult
for postgraduate students outside of Ireland or the
handful of Irish studies centres outside Ireland to obtain
access to the materials they need, further discouraging
research in these areas. Digital publication has the ability
to change this, leveling the playing field between
area studies and more resourced areas such as British or
American Literature.
Our panel will consist of four presentations on the political,
cultural and technical aspects of the foundation and
work of the Digital Humanities Observatory. We envision
this presentation being of value to other countries
and regional areas wishing to implement a similar multiinstitutional
centre. Edmond is on the DHO Consultative
Committee and was one of the authors of the PRTLI
proposal. She will describe the needs behind the DHO
and the thoughts behind its initial foundations. Schreibman
will introduce the DHO as it is today, and describe
its place in the political and cultural landscape of Ireland
and introduce some of the projects that have benefited
from its support. Porter will discuss the development of
the controlled vocabulary that supports DRAPIer and the
standards that support the access and preservation repository.
Day will demonstrate the Portal and DRAPIer, and
will discuss how these deliverables in particular serve
the growing community of digital humanities scholars
in Ireland.
References
Digital Humanities Centers Summit: Notes from the
NEH-hosted summit meeting of digital humanities centers
and funders, April 12-13, 2007<https://apps.lis.uiuc.
edu/wiki/display/DHC/Digital+Humanities+Centers+S
ummit>Accessed 14 November 2008
centerNet <http://www.digitalhumanities.org/centernet/>
Arts and Humanities Data Service (AHDS) <http://
www.ahrc.ac.uk/News/Latest/Pages/AHRCreshapesitsfundingofICTresearch.
aspx> Project Bamboo <http://projectbamboo.uchicago.edu/>
Interedition: An Interoperable Supranational Infrastructure
for Digital Editions <http://www.interedition.eu/>
Council on Library and Information Resources, “No
Brief Candle: Reconceiving Research Libraries for the
21st Century,” August 2008 <http://www.clir.org/pubs/
reports/pub142/contents.html>
Scholarly Communication Institute 6: Humanities Research
Centers. University of Virginia, July 13-15, 2008.
<http://www.uvasci.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/09/
sci-6-report.pdf>
Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities
(DARIAH) <http://www.dariah.eu/>
Digital Humanities Observatory (DHO) <http://www.
dho.ie>
Humanities Serving Irish Society (HSIS) <http://www.
hsis.ie> ICT Methods Database <http://ahds.ac.uk/ictguides/>","txt","2","",""
"967","10","Blogger Grrrrrrrrrls: Feminist Practices, New Media, and Knowledge Production","3","In our read/write world, the Blogosphere creates a variety
of semi-public and public spaces which can be
used for various purposes, be they political, social, commercial,
spiritual, intellectual. All of the presenters on
this panel are active bloggers, engaging the blogosphere
and its audiences for feminist purposes. As Marilee Lindemann
states about her creative nonfiction project, Roxie’s
World (http://roxies-world.blogspot.com), her blogging
creates “a place where I engage seriously with new
modes of writing and critical inquiry and where I translate
into a popular idiom much of what I have learned
in the course of 25 years of reading, teaching, and reflecting
on the politics of sex, gender, and other vectors
of difference in U.S. culture.” Katie King declares that
in using blogs with her classes and to create intellectual
community within and without her university and her
usual cohort, “we use it for notices and directions to various
groups: grad students and faculty in my women’s
studies department, and for my local LGBT book group.
For a political working group on feminism and global
academic restructuring we use it for document collection
and web research resources, and I use blogging to give
professional talks and at conferences, when I share my
research on feminist transdisciplinary practices.” Blogging
can demonstrate and even alter web technologies
like Google maps, and likewise demonstrate cognitive
activities like scaling and scoping. These are all realities. metaphors and models for thinking. Blog spaces are now
conceptual spaces for intellectual multi-connection and
feminist transdisciplinary practice.
Yet as Ellen Moody notes, “Women are the emigrant
minorities of cyberspace.” Indeed, every study from
1985 through to 2003 of the World Wide Web demonstrates
that it is a male construction: it was begun by men
and exploits technologies many women have not been
trained to use or are not comfortable using. A strongly
masculinistic ethos produces and structures many regions
and norms in Net life; much of cyberspace culture
is still controlled and dominated by men, and reflects
and encourages sexual and sheerly competitive aggression,
hostility towards, and debasement of women, and
disparages what’s thought to be female points of view
of social life. The language of the Net, the language of
instructions, commands, and descriptions of computer
behavior tends to be masculinist, and much of it still defines
and looks at the action a user needs to take from the
point of what an engineer or programmer has automatically
caused to happen to the machinery from his angle.
The jargon tends to be that of imagined cowboy and science
fiction adventure violence: bash, kill, abort, master/
slave, booting up. Much is rule- and product-outcome
based. What is generalized in the command word is often
not what the user imagines she is doing (type this in
here), or the user’s aims, but what the trained engineer
thinks he has to done to make his technology respond to
typed commands. Many of the instructional words refer
not to the user’s gesture, but to what is provided by some
remote machine. The type of training someone must go
through to become a computer programmer requires
women to repress ways they have been encouraged to
think and act, to replace picture and concrete thinking
and women’s metaphors with abstractions and metaphor
drawn from a male point of view. Claude Levi-Strauss
associated building through combining pictures with the
savage mind and called it bricolage, a process central to
the way website building has often been seen and experienced.
Lest one think that these descriptions of web
environments are exaggerated, all one needs to do is a
quick archive search on the vituperative, frequently sexist
spewings of the blogger boyz on Daily Kos (www.
dailykos.com/) throughout the primary season of spring
2008. Or, one might review Carolyn Guertin’s presentation
at DH2007, “If I Can’t Dance, I Don’t Want To
Be In Your Digital Revolution,” in which she recounted
and analyzed the “seedy underbelly of the blogosphere
and cyberspace populated by Alpha Dogs, Griefers, and
Trolls. Alpha Dogs are people who will use any form of
abuse to pump themselves up or to ‘win’ a point; Griefers
are people who annoy other people, and Trolls are
people who post hate speech and inflammatory messages
about a person or topic in order to bait other users into
responding.”
So all four panelists are acutely aware of both the great
promise and hope of the blogosphere and of the fact that
it is by no means an Edenic space, or at the very least
there are rapacious as well as facilitating, connective
machines in the new media garden. This panel’s presentations
will not dwell on what Guertin class the “seedy
underbelly” but will propose methodologies and practices
for reflecting on the important questions framing this
panel, questions about how and what kind of knowledge
we are producing in the wired world, how differences are
negotiated and communities are created, and how agencies
are located and distributed. The panel’s focus will
be on diversity not within digital humanities as a field
but within the social and political networks being created
in the blogosphere. One blog featured in the panel,
Roxie’s World, can serve as an example for the kinds of
expressions explored by the panel as a whole. Queer,
feminist, comedic, and utopian, Roxie’s World is written
by a prominent Americanist, feminist, queer theory
scholar in the voice of a 14 ½ year old wire haired fox
terrier with a leaky heart and a laoptop. It is postmodern
in its giddy appropriation and re-contextualization of images,
video, words, and music, in its gleeful movement
back and forth across the boundaries between the animal
and the human, the fictive and the factual, the personal
and the political. It is political in its determination to
“talk back”—to borrow a term from bell hooks—to a
culture of images and talking heads and to dissent from
the authoritarianism of post-9/11 Bush/Cheneyism. It is
classically, literarily “American” in its deployment of an
innocent narrator as the vehicle for critique and satire, a
narrator constantly surprised by the betrayals and disappointments
of the adult humans in charge of the world.
Our critical inquiries are situated at the intersection of
queer/feminist studies of the public sphere (Lauren Berlant,
Michael Warner); an emerging discourse of blog
studies (particularly two recent online collections, Into
the Blogosphere: Rhetoric, Community, and the Culture
of Weblogs from the University of Minnesota and Blogging
Feminism: (Web)sites of Resistance from the Barnard
Center for Research on Women); and, at least in
the case of Roxie’s World, canine cultural studies (Marge
Garber, Donna Haraway, Alice Kuzniar [who gets credit
for the term “Canine Cultural Studies,” by the way].
Our experiments in the blogosphere have afforded us
opportunities to reflect upon what blogs are, what they
do—culturally, politically, literarily—and what they can
teach us about practices of reading, writing, and social
networking in the twenty-first century. On our blogs, we
each engage in gestures of “digital self-fashioning” that we regard with a certain wariness, seeing them not necessarily
as liberatory or equalizing but also as evasions,
erasures, or denials of real and powerful social locations
and differences. All of us in the digital humanities long
ago recognized that new technologies had helped to produce
forms of textuality and ways of reading and writing
that are genuinely new and worth reckoning with, but,
demanding participation, blogging arguably helps clarify
the stakes and the possibilities of a whole new way
of conceptualizing and doing humanistic work in ways
that our other tools do not (or at least not so readily). As
scholars, critics, teachers, and writers of various kinds,
we all have a stake in getting into the game and seeing
what we can do in it and with it. The tools are there. It’s
up to us to find innovative ways to use them, ways that
will reflect our values and commitments and advance our
scholarly and cultural work. It’s important to do so not
just to prove our relevance or to find common ground
with our tech-savvy students, though those are not insignificant
considerations. It’s important because the transition
to post-print culture is advancing by the nanosecond.
As Richard Miller of Rutgers has recently pointed
out, a revolution in human expression is taking place. As
scholars of the culture of human expression, we simply
must develop the skills necessary for interpreting and
understanding emerging forms of textuality, and, as Lindemann
has written, “there is a lot to be said for learning
by doing, which is how I have justified my now lengthy
experiment in digital creativity. In other words, and you
had to know I would come to this, my old dog has taught
me several new tricks, and I am grateful to her for being
both a loyal companion and an extraordinary teacher.”
Guertin, King, Lindemann, and Moody will examine issues
of gender and other identity relations and formations,
the perils and possibilities of enclaves, and the
meanings of new ways and means of writing and reading
to postulate ways in which blogging might be harnessed
to advance knowledge production and forge new humanhuman
and human-machine interactions. Doing so, we
will probe the following in order “to rethink the intricate,
the increasingly intimate, configurations of the human
and the machine” and configurations of human-human
interactions through machine-facilitated interactions:
• The irreducibility of lived practice, embodied and
enacted;
• The value of empirical investigation in the midst of
the relentless valuing of categorical debate;
• The displacement of reason from a position of supremacy
to one among many ways of knowing and
acting;
• The heterogeneous sociomateriality and real-time
contingency of performance;
• New agencies and accountabilities effected through
reconfigured relations of human and machine.
(Lucy Suchman, Human-Machine Reconfigurations
1, xii).
Important also for our considerations are the special issue
of Frontiers devoted to gender, race, and information
technology (http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/fortiers/toc/
fro26.1.html); recent books by feminist thinkers such as
Isabel Zorn, J. McGrath Cohoon and William Aspray, as
well as Suchman; and the recent issue of Vectors devoted
to Difference (Fall 2007; http://www.vectorsjournal.org/
index.php?page=6%7C1).
Working Bibliography
Beetham, Gwendolyn, and Jessica Valenti, eds. “Blogging
Feminism: (Web)sites of Resistance.” The Scholar
and the Feminist Online 5.2 (2007). http://barnard.edu/
sfonline/blogs/index.htm.
Berlant, Lauren. The Female Complaint: The Unfinished
Business of Sentimentality in American Culture.
Durham and London: Duke UP, 2008.
---. The Queen of America Goes to Washington City:
Essays on Sex and Citizenship. Durham and London:
Duke UP, 1997.
Curtin, Tyler. “Promiscuous Fictions.” Into the Blogosphere:
Rhetoric, Community, and Culture of Weblogs.
Eds. Laura J. Gurak, et. al. <http://blog.lib.umn.edu/
blogosphere/promiscuous_fictions.html>.
Doty, Mark. Dog Years: A Memoir. New York: Harper-
Collins, 2007.
Duggan, Lisa. The Twilight of Equality: Neoliberalism,
Cultural Politics, and the Attack on Democracy. Boston:
Beacon, 2004.
Fraser, Nancy. “Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution
to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy.”
Habermas and the Public Sphere. Ed. Craig Calhoun.
Cambridge, MA: MIT P, 1992. 109-42.
Garber, Marjorie. Dog Love. New York: Simon and
Schuster, 1996.
Guertin, Carolyn. “All the Rage: Digital Bodies and
Deadly Play in the Age of the Suicide Bomber.” Anthology
of the Virginia Tech killings. There’s A Gunman on Campus: Tragedy and Terror at Virginia Tech. Ed. Ben
Agger and Timothy W. Luke. 215-228. New York: Rowman
& Littlefield, 2008.
Gurak, Laura J., Smiljana Antonijevic, Laurie Johnson,
Clancy Ratliff, and Jessica Reyman, eds. Into the Blogosphere:
Rhetoric, Community, and Culture of Weblogs.
June 2004. <http://blog.lib.umn.edu/blogosphere/visual_
blogs.html>.
Haraway, Donna. The Companion Species Manifesto:
Dogs, People, and Significant Otherness. Chicago:
Prickly Paradigm Press, 2003.
---. When Species Meet. Minneapolis and London: U of
Minnesota P, 2008.
Hayles, N. Katherine. How We Became Posthuman:
Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics.
Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1999.
---. Writing Machines. Cambridge and London: MIT
P, 2002.
hooks, bell. Talking Back: Thinking Feminist, Thinking
Black. Boston: South End Press, 1989.
King, Katie. “Networked Reenactments: A Thick Description
amid Authorships, Audiences and Agencies in
the Nineties.” Writing Technologies 2.1 (2008) http://
www.ntu.ac.uk/writing_technologies/Current_journal/
King/index.html.
Kirschenbaum, Matthew G. Mechanisms: New Media
and the Forensic Imagination. Cambridge, MA: MIT
P, 2008.
Kuzniar, Alice. Melancholia’s Dog: Reflections on Our Animal Kinship. Animal Kinship. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P,
2006.
Latour, Bruno. We Have Never Been Modern. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard UP, 1993.
Lovink, Geert. “Blogging, the Nihilist Impulse.” Eurozine.
Jan. 2, 2007. http://eurozine.com/articles/2007-
01-02-lovink-en.html.
McGill, Meredith. “Lurking in the Blogosphere of the
1840s: Hotlinks, Sockpuppets, and the History of Reading.”
Common-Place 7.2 (2007). http://common-place.
org/vol-07/no-02/reading/.
Margolis, Jane and Allan Fisher, Unlocking the Clubhouse:
Women in Computing. Cambridge, Massachusetts
and London, England: The MIT Press, 2003.
Osell, Tedra. “Where are the Women?: Pseudonymity
and the Public Sphere, Then and Now.” “Blogging Feminism:
(Web)sites of Resistance.” The Scholar and the
Feminist Online 5.2 (2007). Eds. Gwendolyn Beetham
and Jessica Valenti. http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/
sfonline/blogs/osell_01.htm.
Perlmutter, David D. Blogwars: The New Political Battleground.
New York: Oxford UP, 2008.
Povinelli, Elizabeth A. The Empire of Love: Toward a
Theory of Intimacy, Genealogy, and Carnality. Durham
and London: Duke UP, 2006.
Roberts-Miller, Trish. “Parody Blogging and the Call
of the Real.” Into the Blogosphere: Rhetoric, Community,
and Culture of Weblogs. Eds. Laura J. Gurak, et. al.
http://blog.lib.umn.edu/blogosphere/parody_blogging.
html.
Serfaty, Viviane. The Mirror and the Veil: An Overview
of American Online Diaries and Blogs. Amsterdam and
New York: Rodopi, 2004.
Smith, Martha Nell. “Software of the Highest Order: Revisiting
Editing as Interpretation.” Textual Cultures 2.1
(Spring 2007): 1-15.
Suchman, Lucy A. Human-Machine Reconfigurations:
Plans and Situated Actions. Cambridge: Cambridge UP,
2007.
Sunstein, Cass R. Infotopia: How Many Minds Produce
Knowledge. New York: Oxford UP, 2008.
---. Republic.com 2.0. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2007.
Warner, Michael. Publics","txt","2","",""
"968","10","Supporting the Digital Humanties: putting the jigsaw together","3","This panel session will present various important current
international initiatives which aim to support
and take forward research in the digital humanities. In
particular, it will identify the various problems that these
different initiatives aim to address, compare the different
approaches, and seek to draw out the connections,
synergies and potential areas of overlap and competition
in trying to build a coordinated environment for the next
generation of advanced research.
There is a growing awareness and agreement that the
principal problem facing the digital humanities is the
fragmented nature of the research environment. For example,
numerous tools exist, but are not interoperable
with each other, or with the many datasets that continue
to be prepared according to varying standards and made
available according to various licensing agreements and
access arrangements. This fragmentation and lack of
interoperability has dogged the digital humanities for
many years, and is limiting the impact of digital resources
and tools on mainstream research in the humanities.
Numerous initiatives in the past have attempted to address
some of the individual aspects of the problems: to
provide better tools for analysis, to create resources, to
offer resource discovery services, to set up repositories,
to set up networks of expert centres, to define and promote
standards and good practice, to develop tools to
support collaboration, to offer advisory and support services,
and to harness the new paradigms of 'cyberinfrastructure'
and 'e-Science' for the benefit of the Humanities.
However, it has become clear that a number of more
or less unconnected initiatives in these individual areas
cannot address the overall problem of fragmentation and
lack of coordination.
As the recognition spreads that the number and heterogeneity
of the varying services, tools, and standards that
are holding us back, a new round of initiatives are aimed
overcoming the problem of fragmentation, by promoting
concerted, coordinated, international efforts to build
a sustainable infrastructure to support and sustain effect
research in the digital humanities. At the national level
in several countries, infrastructure is now on the agenda,
either specifically for the Humanities, or in cross-disciplinary
initiatives which now include the Humanities.
In Europe, the European Strategy Forum on Research
Infrastructures now includes the humanities in its roadmap,
and the CLARIN and DARIAH projects are underway
to prepare to construct research infrastructures,
and other regional structures are starting to emerge. At
the international level, CenterNet is now established
as a network and forum for expert centres in the digital
humanities, and Project Bamboo is proposing to build a
new generation of tools to support research, responding
to the real and specific user requirements in the arts and
humanities.
There is now an urgent priority for these initiatives to
communicate, to share ideas and experiences, and to investigate
the possibilities of coordinating their activities.
This panel will address the ways in which some of the
most important current international initiatives are attempting
to address these problems. Each speaker will
be asked to address the following questions:
• What specific problems have you identified, and
how is your initiative seeking to address them?
• What services, if any, do you ultimately aim to provide?
• How might you link with other related initiatives?
• What are the further elements of the jigsaw puzzle
which are needed to create a coordinated and more
complete research infrastructure?","txt","2","",""
"969","10","Digital and Virtual Architecture: a review of two projects","1","During the past four decades digital technologies have
had a major impact on architecture and have completely
revolutionized the way architecture is designed
and visualized. The ability to digitally manipulate architectural
components and to consider all possible configurations
in advance has provided new, alternate means to
design architecture (Bermudez & Klinger, 2003). If we
observe some examples of “digitally designed architecture”,
such as the Hadid nuragic and contemporary art
museum in Cagliari (Zaha Hadid, 2007) and Frank O.
Gehry’s Experience Music Project (O. Gehry, 2000) we
note that these unique architectural designs could be created
only in a computer-mediated environment.
Digital representation has proven to be an excellent tool
for the communication of design ideas (Mohan, 2003).
Instead of symbolic representations, static renderings
and time consuming physical models, technologies such
as photorealistic 3D animation have made it possible to
create convincing renderings and walkthroughs that can
be easily understood by non-specialists (Uddin, 1999).
In addition, a completely new form of computer-based
architecture has recently emerged: Virtual Architecture.
Maher defines Virtual Architecture as an ‘..interactive,
networked spatial environment designed using the metaphor
of physical architecture, from which it inherits
many visual and spatial characteristics’ (Maher et al.,
2000). The main purpose of Virtual Architecture is to
provide an electronic location for people to socialise,
work, and learn in the same way physical architecture
does. Because Virtual Architecture uses the metaphor
of cities, buildings and rooms, it can be designed by architects
and then constructed by computer graphics programmers
(Maher et al., 1999).
In this paper we describe and discuss two architectural
projects that were developed entirely in a computerbased
environment. The first is a 3D animation-based
project whose goal was to design and visualize a visionary
new city. The second project is an example of
Virtual Architecture and its objective was to design and
develop an online virtual world.
2. “Samarkand on the Euxine”: a Digital
Architecture project
The objective of the project was to design and visualize
a new city in the Republic of Turkey near the present site
of Istanbul. The city would serve as a satellite city that
would provide aid in the event of a catastrophic earthquake.
Devastating earthquakes have visited Istanbul
in the past at intervals varying from 300 to 100 years
and the next one is due any moment. The Metropolitan
Municipality of Istanbul is planning for response to the
dreaded event in many ways. One of these is the development
of an entirely new satellite city.
The vision of the city was created at the Envision Center
at Purdue University by a team of graduate and undergraduate
students led by the author and by a faculty in
Purdue Civil Engineering. The team chose to use photorealistic
3D animation technology because of its ability
to represent design in an intuitive, concrete way.
The main advantage of 3D photorealistic animation
over CAD visualizations is ‘representational fidelity’.
Representational fidelity refers to the degree of realism
of the rendered 3-D objects and the degree of realism
provided by temporal changes to these objects. 3D
animation-based visualizations include true-to-life replicas
of buildings, displayed with accurate perspective,
occlusion, photographic-quality materials, lights, and
motion. When making a presentation supplemented with
a photorealistic 3D visualization, architects and designers
can convey their visions clearly to those who need
to understand them in order to make decisions. In this
case, it is hoped that the powerful 3D imagery produced
will convince the decision-makers at the Metropolitan
Municipality of Istanbul to act with the needed alacrity.
The project presented many challenges because of its
complexity, the scale of the area to be visualized (40,000
acres), and the aggressive production timeline. The overall
city plan was developed with the goal of creating a
green city with an advanced cyber infrastructure dedicated
to communications, security, and recycling. The plan
includes a business district, research and government
centers, modern museums, concert halls, theaters, hospitals,
retail centers, exhibition halls, buildings for social
functions, a sports center, and a hotel district. Figure 1
shows a partial 3D map of the city. The design started with a low-detail city plan in the form
of a .dwg AUTOCAD file. The majority of the design
decisions were made directly in the 3D software as sections
of the city were being visualized. The main design
goal was to create a modern city that takes advantage
of state-of-the-art building techniques and, at the same
time, includes architectural elements reminiscent of the
Byzantine and Ottoman Empires. This design theme
is clearly evident in Figure 1 which shows a cluster of
earthquake-resistant buildings arranged in the shape of
the “Selcuk star”, a classical Ottoman symbol.
All buildings were designed, modeled and textured in
MAYA 8.5 software. Global illumination and radiosity
were used to give an accurate depiction of real life lights
and environments; photo realistically rendered human
figures, vehicles and landscape elements were added in
order to accentuate the realistic look of the visualization
and provide a sense of scale. The animation can
be viewed at: http://www.tacc.utexas.edu/~jwozniak/
TG08/13/13.html“
3. The 21st Century World”: a Virtual
Architecture project
The “21st Century World” is a collaborative project between
Purdue University and Educate for tomorrow
(EforT, Hawaii). Its objective is the development of a
3D online virtual city designed to allow students and the
general public to interactively explore nanotechnology
enhanced products of the 21st Century. Users can travel
through the city, enter buildings, manipulate objects, and interact with 3D avatars to learn about nanotechnology.
The virtual city includes buildings with nanoenhanced
materials and self cleaning windows that absorb energy
from sun light. It features cleaner and safer mass transportation,
alternate fuel stations, cars with self-repairing
body-paint scratches, and buildings that grow crops indoors. The futuristic city was designed entirely in 3D STUDIO
MAX 9.0 software by a team of architects and nano-science
experts (figure 2 shows two renderings of the city).
The models were exported from 3D STUDIO MAX as
VRML files and the interactive application is currently
being programmed. Images and fly-trough animation
can be accessed at: http://www2.tech.purdue.edu/cgt/i3/
nanofactor/web%20site/index.htm
4. Discussion
The project described in section 2 demonstrates how
digital technologies such as photorealistic 3D modeling
and animation can benefit architectural visualization
and design. The primary advantage of 3D photorealistic
modeling lies in the ability to visualize design in more
concrete terms. The usefulness of maps and architectural
drawings can be limited, particularly to the non-specialist, whereas a photorealistic virtual model can enable decision
makers and the general public to see the aspects of
a project from every possible angle. ‘As a result, it can
increase the level of feedback and constructive responses
before taking any financial risks.’ (Wilson, 1998). In
our case, clear communication and risk mitigation were
the most compelling drivers of incorporating 3D photorealistic
modeling/animation into the project. Considering
the cost, scale and scope of projects like the one
described in the paper, producing a photorealistic virtual
model is a good investment because it can speed up decision
making processes, streamline approvals, and reduce
costly change orders (Bouchlaghem, 2005).
Moreover, the ability to interactively experiment with
a variety of shapes and forms and see the results being
visualized in real-time time are tremendous benefits of
3D modeling and animation technology. Samarkand on
the Euxine has received very positive feedback from the
officials at the Municipality of Istanbul and has therefore
demonstrated that effective architectural designs can be
created entirely in a computer-mediated environment.
The author agrees with (Bermudez & Klinger, 2003)
who argue that digital thinking is indeed architectural
thinking.
The project described in section 3 is an example of virtual
place that draws on knowledge of architectural design.
Maher argues that most virtual environments are created
by programmers rather than designed by architects and,
as a result, we are in the “era of vernacular virtual architecture”
(Maher et al., 2000). In the development of the
21st Century World, provision of functionality and geometric
description of the space were considered equally
important factors. The objective was not only to create a
highly interactive and functional environment, but also
to design a city based on the principles of good urban
design. In particular we considered the principle of ‘Legibility
and Wayfinding’ to help the users in orientation
and navigation tasks; the principle of ‘Character and
Meaning’ to help the participants recognize and value
the differences between one area and another; and the
principle of ‘Order and Incident’ (e.g., balancing consistency
and variety) to provide the users with an appealing
environment that promotes curiosity and motivates them
to continue to explore (Barnett, 1982) (Larice & Mac-
Donald, 2007). 27 users have evaluated the 21st Century
World so far. Their feedback on usability and appeal has
been extremely positive, thus confirming the importance
of implementing architectural and urban design principles
in the design of virtual places.
References
Barnett, J. (1982). An Introduction to Urban Design.
Harper & Row, New York .
Bermudez, J. & Klinger, K. (editors) (2003). Digital
Technology and Architecture - White Paper. ACADIA
2003. http://www.acadia.org/ACADIA_whitepaper.pdf.
Bouchlaghem, D., Shang, H., Whyte, J., Ganah, A.
(2005). Visualisation in architecture, engineering and
construction (AEC). Automation in Construction, 14,
287– 295.
Frank.O.Gehry’s Experience Music Project. http://www.
arcspace.com/architechts/gehry/emp_n/
Larice, M. & MacDonald, E. (editors) (2007). The Urban
Design Reader. Routledge, New York London.
Maher, M.L., Simoff, S., Gu, N., Lau, K.H. (2000). Designing
Virtual Architecture. Proceedings of CAADRIA
2000, Singapore.
Maher, M.L., Gu, N., Li, F. (1999). Visualisation and
Object Design in Virtual Architecture Proceedings of
CAADRIA 1999, Sydney, Australia.
Nethra Mettuchetty Ram Mohan (2003). Emerging
Technologies in Architectural Visualization – Implementation
Strategies for Practice. MS Thesis - School of Architecture
Mississippi State. http://sun.library.msstate.
edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-04072003-164447/unrestricted/
nethra_thesis.pdf.
Uddin, M. S. (1999). Digital Architecture. McGraw- Hill
Wilson, J.D. (1998). ModelCity Philadelphia Elevates
GIS to the Next Level. Professional Surveyor, 18(2).
Zaha Hadid nuragic and contemporary art museum in
Cagliari, Italy. http://www.arcspace.com/architects/hadid/
cagliari/cagliari.html.","txt","2","",""
"970","10","Patterns in Style Evolution of Poets","1","Quantitative studies of the evolution of style (‘stylochronometry’)
have revealed systematic changes in
the features (syntactic, morphological, lexical, etc.) of
texts of the same author over time (Goldfield, Hoover
2008; Juola 2008; Stamou 2008). These findings stimulate
further research aimed at detection of the individual
and universal markers of style evolution of different authors
and, on the other hand, integral features, ensuring
style contiguity, at establishing factors which influence
style development in different genres and other issues.
The aim of this presentation is to address some of the
above-mentioned problems on the material of verse: to
find out the pattern of the evolution of the style of American
romantic poet H.W. Longfellow and to compare it to
the development of the style of another famous romantic
poet E.A.Poe. Poe’s style evolution was analyzed in our
previous research (Andreev 2008).
Choosing the material for the study we tried to meet the
requirements for the research in stylometry (Rudman
2003). Texts which were selected for our analysis were
of the same genre and comparable in size – iambic lyrics
not exceeding 65 lines. We analyzed the poems which
the authors themselves included into their collections
of works due to which they reflect the authors’ subconscious
stylistic preferences. The possibility of serious
editorial interventions or any other unauthorized alterations
is reduced to the minimum.
In stylochronometric research the feature set, used by
different scholars, varies considerably (Juola 2008;
Stamou 2008). In our study we use 29 characteristics
which were selected as a result of a number of experiments.
They include 10 morphological and 19 syntactic
features. Morphological characteristics reflect the
frequency of different morphological classes of words
(noun, verb, adjective, adverb and pronoun) in the first
and final strong (predominantly stressed) syllabic positions
– ictuses. Most syntactic characteristics are based
on the traditional notions of the members of the sentence
(subject, predicate, object, adverbial modifier) in the first
and the final strong positions in the lines. Other syntactic
parameters are the number of clauses in (a) complex and
(b) compound sentences, inversions (a) complete (inversion
of the subject or predicate) and (b) partial (inversion
of the other members of the sentence), lines divided by
syntactic pauses, enjambements (absence of syntactical
pause between the lines) and lines ending in exclamation
or question marks.
The creative life of Longfellow in our study is divided
into three periods: early, middle and final. In order to determine
the borderlines between the periods biographical
data was used. The first period embraces the years of his
youth (1819 to 1825) till Longfellow started his working
career. During this period Longfellow wrote lyrics which
he later included into his two collections Earlier Poems,
Juvenile Poems. The beginning of the last period is
marked by the Civil War, which according to the majority
of critics became a turning point in the development
of American romanticism. This period is represented by
his collections Flower-de-Luce and Ultima Thule. The
remaining part of Longfellow’s creative career constitutes
the second period (collections Voices of the Night,
Ballads and Other Poems, Poems on Slavery, The Belfry
of Bruges and Other Poems and The Seaside and the
Fireside).
To establish parameters differentiating the texts of the
above-mentioned three periods and to estimate their
discriminant force multivariate discriminant analysis
was used (Warner 2008: 650-701). The results of this
analysis show that there are substantial and systematic
alterations in the style of Longfellow over time. Out of
29 characteristics 15 were found to possess discriminant
force, the most relevant being the number of subordinate
clauses, enjambements, lines divided by syntactic
pauses, inversions and the number of nouns, verbs and
adjectives in the initial strong position in the line. following example is a typical stanza of young Longfellow’s
poems:
When the bright sunset fills,
The silver woods with light, the green slope throws
Its shadows in the hollows of the hills,
And wide the upland glows.
(An April Day)
The second period is characterized by fewer subordinate
clauses, enjambements and inversions. In the initial part
of the line verbs become more frequent. In the final position
of the line the growth of the number of words in the
syntactic function of attribute is observed. Some of these
changes can be illustrated by the following example:
A new Prometheus, chained upon the rock,
Still grasping in his hand the fire of Jove,
It does not hear the cry, nor heed the shock,
But hails the mariner with words of love.
(The Lighthouse)
The third period is marked by further decrease in the
use of subordinate clauses and the growth of the number
of enjambements, partial inversions and lines divided
with syntactic pauses. The number of verbs in the first
stressed position decreases and the number of nouns increases.
Many features of the poet’s style resemble those
of his earliest poems:
The wind blows, and uplifts thy drooping banner,
And round thee throng and run
The rushes, the green yeomen of thy manor,
The outlaws of the sun.
(Flower-de-Luce)
As we see, morphological characteristics of the end of
the line are the most stable. On the contrary, there is a
clearly marked change in the author’s use of morphological
classes of words in the initial strong position: adjectives
in the first period – verbs in the second period
– nouns in the third one. Syntactic features, which make
verse more complex and expressive, such as enjambement,
syntactic pauses in the lines and inversions, are
frequent during the first period, then there is a drop in
their use during the second period and at the end of his
life the author resumes their frequent use.
The comparison of style evolution of such different poets
as Longfellow and Poe reveals not only differences
but, quite unexpectedly, certain similar tendencies, too.
Major differences can be summed up as follows:
• in Poe’s lyrics morphological characteristics of both
initial and final parts of the line change over time –
in Longfellow’s texts the end of the line is stable;
• the increase of verse expressiveness at the level of
syntax for Poe is a constant tendency and in case
of Longfellow the frequency of expressive syntactic
characteristics decreases at the second stage and
rises again in the third period.
Major similarities:
Despite the fact that the poets belonged to different
schools of American romanticism there are similar patterns
in their style development.
• The number of subordinate clauses gradually reduces
over time.
• The evolution of style of both poets was not rectilinear:
certain deviation from the initial syntactic
pattern of verse line is observed during the middle
period of their creative activities and then at the final
stage both authors resume, to a large extent, the use
of the features, typical of their early lyrics.
References
Andreev V. (2008) Variation of Style: Diachronic Aspect.
Digital Humanities 2008. Conference Abstracts: 42-43.
Goldfield J., Hoover D.L. (2008) Homebodies and Gad-
Abouts: A Chronological Stylistic Study of 19th Century
French and English Novelists. Digital Humanities 2008.
Conference Abstracts: 117-120.
Juola P. (2006) Authorship Attribution. Foundations and
Trends in Information Retrieval. Vol. 1, No.3: 233-334.
Rudman J. (2003) Cherry Picking in Nontraditional Authorship
Attribution Studies. Chance, Vol.16, No. 2: 26-
32.
Rybicki J. (2008) Does Size Matter? A Re-examination
of a Time-proven Method. Digital Humanities 2008.
Conference Abstracts: 184.
Stamou C. (2008) Stylochronometry: Stylistic Development,
Sequence of Composition, and Relative Dating.
Literary & Linguistic Computing, 23: 181–199.
Warner R.M. (2008) Applied Statistics. Los Angeles –
London: Sage Publications, 2008.","txt","2","",""
"971","10","An Approach to Treating Videos as Academic Documents","1","As the scope of what constitutes a text expands to
include time-oriented media such as video, it is becoming
increasingly popular to incorporate multimedia
in to the contexts of research and teaching. As audiences
become more discriminating so too have designers and
developers begun to push the limits of technology to accommodate
these new appetites for more media, more
features, more collaboration- more everything. Applications
to collect and disseminate media to an engaged
audience are becoming so sophisticated that we have
entered in to a realm where our technical reach sometimes
outstrips the users’ capacity to imagine its use; a
situation occasionally referred to as an answer without a
question. But we did have a question: how best to take
several hundred videotapes of high-profile guest lecturers
collected over the course of 20 odd years and turn
them into an engaging, easy to use webbased application
that provided users with more than just a talking head?
Our office provides specialized software development
service to, and collaborates in research with, faculty
members in at least a dozen disciplines. Our preference
is to abstract from the immediate task and look
for ways to make our work extensible or transferable to
other projects. What we were looking for was a general
purpose tool to apply to videos to help with what John
Unsworth calls “scholarly primitives”: Discovering, Annotating,
Comparing, Referring, Sampling, Illustrating,
Representing. (Unsworth, 2000)
Our initial objective was to provide simultaneous transcription
and simple valueadded features; ancillary information
in the form of links to other sites and images
germain to the current utterance. We considered existing
technologies for marking up and presenting videos such
as those in use at MIT’s OpenCourseWare <http://ocw.
mit.edu/> and TED <http://www.ted.com>) but they did
not provide anything more sophisticated than metadata
and full text search, let alone provide for multiple channels
of time-related support material. On the other hand,
our users were not interested in highly detailed performance
attributes, such as those described by Saltz (Saltz
2004). We looked at SMIL, but quickly discarded it in
light of the immaturity of existing playback systems. It
did, however, provide us with a model. XML is a heavily
used technology in our shop and we were able to produce
a TEI schema for encoding transcripts based on conventional
semantics of utterances: we specifically used the
Transcriptions of Speech module to encode all information.
Although there was a paucity of existing software that
would provide us with an inclusive playback mechanism
it was not beyond the project’s scope to produce
our own. Indeed, the more we looked at our needs, the
more reasonable it seemed. Our specification ended
up being rather short: XML would provide the natural
structure that such texts demand; multi-modal data
streams would remain separate both in terms of storage
and delivery, allowing us to abstract code such
that we could remove any dependence upon a single
media player; users should also be able to bookmark,
and therefore cite, specific points in the video. Implementation, then, would focus on treating the document
as an academic “paper”, with a feature set that anticipates
the expectations and requirements of a scholarly
user. Each timeline (transcript, events, commentary)
consists of a list of when elements; each when element
identifies timestamps in the video and relates them to
xml elements in the file. The XML files are stored in an
XML data base (eXist), which allows for highly sophisticated
xqueries if necessary. Identifying the elements in
the video stream and marking up the support documents
are done manually with commercial video playback and
XML editors (see figure 1). Our approach is complementary
in many ways to that of the AXE project (Reside,
2007).
A proof-of-concept was constructed using PHP and relying on the QuickTime player, due to its rich javascript
API. As QuickTime announces its play head position the
page determines which utterance in each timeline is current
and displays a quickly digestible block of text to the
viewer for each timeline (see figure 2). Any given utterance can be bookmarked and stored for
later retrieval, providing a pinpoint-accurate citation
which addresses the video itself; a “video quote” if you
will (see figure 2). In addition, when the user hovers over
the bookmark, the text of the utterance appears. The entire
corpus or a specific video are fully searchable, with
results being displayed as direct links in to the video.
The same interface conventions are used for the search
feature. Alternative views of the transcript are also available,
including viewing the entire text on-screen, or
choosing a XHTML or XML (P5 TEI) download. This small proof-of-concept was modified slightly for a
French instructor. She wished to assemble a number of
short videos of French-speaking people from around the
world with two goals: to improve students’ francophone
cultural literacy, and to have a corpus amenable to various
kinds of linguistic research. (Caws, 2007) We continue
to add videos to this collection as we obtain them
from around the world.
Our original task of “rescuing” the hundreds of videotaped
lectures has been scaled up to become a real project,
encouraging us to re-imagine the possibilities and
address the shortcomings of our proof-of-concept application.
We see version 2 including a more refined feature
set, with the codebase moving from PHP to Cocoon in
order to improve the portability and modularity of the
system. Refinements will include an online system for
writing transcriptions and reducing our dependency on
media players by utilizing new features in HTML5. This
functionality can also be used to provide an annotative
channel that is accessible to all users. Storage and “playback”
of annotative snippets can provide a rich layer of
added value without incurring large investments of development
time because it recycles the immensely useful
transcription code; this wiki-like feature has obvious
value in both teaching and research contexts.
Working backward from the concept of the “video
quote” we began to imagine a context in which an entire
corpus of video texts is peer-reviewed and published online.
Not original, unfortunately (http://www.jove.com/,
http://www.vjortho.com/), but the recent emergence of
such journals indicates that we may all be re-thinking
what constitutes an academic journal. We do not envisage
a simple transplant of the format in use by the above
journals. Rather, we will have to extend it to include rich
layers of annotative, transcriptive and ancillary information
which can provide a discoverable and searchable
corpus of texts which can be referenced on a granular
level, thus providing the opportunity to sample, compare
and “mash up” a corpus of video-based documents to
meet either research or instructional goals.
References
Arneil, S (2007) Francotoile, Your Gateway to Francophone
Culture http://francotoile.uvic.ca/search.php (accessed
1 Nov 2008).
Caws, C. and Arneil, S. (2007). FrancoToile: a digital
video library to develop cultural literacy in French. In
C. Montgomerie & J. Seale (Eds.), Proceedings of World
Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia
and Telecommunications 2007 (pp. 1989-1994). Chesapeake,
VA: AACE.
Elkink, M (2006) The Lansdowne Lectures Online,
http://lettuce.tapor.uvic.ca/~taprlans/ (accessed 1 Nov
2008).
Reside, D. (2007). The AXE Tool Suite: Tagging Across
Time and Space http://www.digitalhumanities.org/
dh2007/abstracts/xhtml.xq?id=145 (accessed 1 Nov
2008).
Saltz D Z (2004). Performing Arts. In Susan Schreibman,
Ray Siemens, John Unsworth (eds), A Companion
to Digital Humanities. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004.
http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/view? xml&chunk.id=ss1-2-11&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ss1-2-
11&brand=default (accessed 1 Nov 2008).
Unsworth, J. (2000). Scholarly Primitives: what methods
do humanities researchers have in common, and
how might our tools reflect this?. http://jefferson.village.
virginia.edu/~jmu2m/Kings.5-00/primitives.html (accessed
1 Nov 2008).","txt","2","",""
"972","10","WikiPhiloSofia: Extraction and Visualization of Facts, Relations, and Networks Concerning Philosophers Using Wikipedia","1","Due to its unique structural features and rich usergenerated
content, Wikipedia is being increasingly
recognized as a useful knowledge resource that can be
exploited for various applications. Nevertheless, the
mode of information search and retrieval on Wikipedia
remains that of conventional keyword-based search and
retrieval of a list of articles ranked in terms of keyword
matching. The objective of the ongoing project reported
in this paper is to create a Web-based knowledge portal
using the data extracted from Wikipedia, for the sake of
enabling semantics-based search and exploration. The
methodology is currently applied to the philosophy domain.
Hence the project name: WikiPhiloSofia. In this
paper we present extraction and visualization of the facts,
relations, and networks involving 300 major philosophers
as obtained from Wikipedia and we partially compare
the results against those obtained by using Thomson
Reuters’ Arts & Humanities Citation Index data. Insofar
as the work aims at enabling semantics-based search and
exploration by exploiting the user-generated content, it
embodies the movement toward Web 3.0, i.e., the convergence
of the Social Web (Web 2.0) and the Semantic
Web. Insofar as it emphasizes information visualization
for the sake of enhancing the user’s information seeking
experience at the aesthetic level as well as at the cognitive
level, however, the work also embodies the trend
toward information aesthetics. As such, the WikiPhiloSofia
project serves as a venue of the convergence
of arts, humanities, and computer/information science/
technology, contributing to a paradigm shift toward the
next generation of online search, retrieval, and delivery
of digital information in the humanities.
Introduction
Philosophy (and here we mean Western philosophy),
dating back at least to approximately 600 BC, is one of
the oldest of all academic disciplines and is, in particular, one of the core disciplines in the humanities. Partly
due to its long history, and partly due to the nature of
the discipline itself, the domain of philosophy presents
a rich semantic network involving an extended genealogy
of philosophers and related philosophical concepts,
ideas, and doctrines, which can be explored and examined
from diverse perspectives.
Wikipedia (http://www.wikipedia.org) is an open-access,
collaborative Web encyclopedia project, initiated by
Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001. Wikipedia has
since grown rapidly to become one of the most soughtafter
resources on the Web. Due to its collaborative way
of construction and due to its impressive size and growth
rate, Wikipedia is considered a foremost example of Web
2.0 applications.
The objective of the ongoing project reported here, entitled
WikiPhiloSofia (formerly known as The WikiPhil
Portal), is to extract, analyze, and visualize meaningful
and interesting facts, relations, and connections among
philosophers and philosophical concepts via the automatic
processing of the structural features and semantic
content of Wikipedia. By doing so, we aim at creating a
useful and user-friendly portal for students of philosophy
as well as the general public, thereby contributing to the
cause of digital humanities. The project is still in its early
stage. However, the current paper extends our previous
work on the project (Athenikos and Lin, 2008), especially
by presenting new results and findings. Specifically,
the paper illustrates extracting and visualizing the data
concerning facts, relations, and networks involving 300
philosophers, as extracted from Wikipedia, for semantics-
based search and exploration, and it presents a partial
comparison of the Wikipedia data against those from
Thomson Reuters’ Arts & Humanities Citation Index
(http://thomsonreuters.com/products_services/scientific/
Arts_Humanities_Citation_Index).
Wikipedia Data Extraction
A prototype system for the project was implemented in
Java using the Java servlet technology. First we describe
the materials, methods, and results involving data extraction.
Materials
We only used the English version of Wikipedia. The initial
results we had obtained in the project (Athenikos and
Lin 2008) were based on the data extracted from Wikipedia
pages downloaded on 29 May 2008. The results
we report in this paper are based on the Wikipedia pages
downloaded more recently on 23 December 2008.
Methods
We obtained a chronological list of 300 philosophers (including
influential theologians, writers, scientists, etc.)
from Wikipedia’s “Timeline of Western Philosophers”
page. We extracted information on the hyperlink connections
and academic/biographical facts concerning the
philosophers (as presented in infoboxes and wikitables)
from their individual Wikipedia article pages, and stored
the data in the form of semantic triples (Subject–Predicate–
Object) in a MySQL database. We retrieved the
data needed for visualization by querying the database,
and stored the results as XML files marked up with
GraphML and TreeML.
Results
Table 1 shows the types of information extracted. Table
2 summarizes the basic statistics concerning the dataset.
Table 1. Types of information extracted.
Table 2. Basic statistics on the Wikipedia dataset.
As shown in Table 2, while there exists a high number of
hyperlink connections among the 300 philosopher pages,
there are a few pages that do not contain any out-links to
the other philosopher pages and/or do not receive any inlinks.
Also, only 192 philosopher pages contain infoboxes
that summarize academic/biographical facts, which is
(at least in part) why there are some philosophers that
are shown to have no influenced/influenced-by relations.
Semantic Search Interface
We created a Web portal interface via which the user can
issue queries on the facts, relations, and networks involving
300 philosophers and explore the results displayed using diverse modalities of interactive information visualization
as will be illustrated in the next section. Figure
1 shows the homepage of the WikiPhiloSofia portal
(http://research.cis.drexel.edu:8080/sofia/WPS/). Upon entering the portal, the user will choose to focus
on one philosopher, two philosophers, or all 300 philosophers.
In case a user chooses to focus on one philosopher,
for example, the user is directed to the menu shown
in Figure 2, which contains three fields corresponding to
Subject, Predicate, and Object. The user can select a philosopher
from the first dropdown menu, and then select
a predicate from the second dropdown menu, in order
to retrieve relevant objects. Table 3 summarizes various
query options and result display modalities. Interactive Visualization
The query results are presented via interactive visualization,
implemented by using the Prefuse information visualization
toolkit (http://prefuse.org).
Figure 3 presents a radial graph representing the facts
about Plato, which amounts to visualizing the semantic
network involving the philosopher. Figure 4 shows a
fisheye tree representing extended influences originating
from Plato. The visualization of non-overlapping extended link/influence
relations from/to one philosopher (using a graph
or radial graph), and of strongest link/influence connections
among 300 philosophers, is implemented by using
a novel graph simplification method that we have developed,
called the Strongest Link Paths (SLP) (Athenikos
and Lin, 2008), which substantially simplifies the graph
topology while highlighting the most dominant nodes
and their interconnections. Figure 6 presents a radial graph, simplified via SLP,
which represents extended influences originating from
Thales. This amounts to visualizing the small-world
network (Milgram, 1967) of influence involving Thales.
The figure shows that Thales, the first philosopher on the
chronological list of 300 philosophers, can reach Foucault,
the last one, within 3 degrees of separation (via
Anaximander and Heidegger).
The graphs that result from applying SLP to the hyperlink/
influence connections consist of distinct clusters
separated from one another. Figure 7 shows a close-up of
the largest cluster in the strongest out-link network that
centers on Plato and Aristotle. Figure 8 shows the largest
cluster in the strongest influenced-relation network, centering on Kant. Comparison with AHCI Data
In this section we discuss some of the results of comparing
the Wikipedia dataset against a subset of Thomson
Reuters’ Arts & Humanities Citation Index (AHCI) that
contains 1.26 million records covering the 10-year period
of 1988-1997.
Table 4 lists top 20 philosophers that receive the greatest
number of in-links from among 300 philosophers in the
Wikipedia dataset, those that receive in-links from the
greatest number of philosophers in the Wikipedia dataset,
and those (among the 300 philosophers) that have
the highest citation count in the AHCI dataset.
Interestingly, Aristotle shows up on top for all 3 categories.
While there are certain differences among the 3
lists, the majority of the philosopher names that appear
on the 2 lists involving the Wikipedia dataset include
major figures in the philosophy domain, as does the list
obtained from the AHCI dataset. This shows that the hyperlink data extracted from Wikipedia, which embodies
a huge amount of latent human annotation (Chakrabarti
et al., 1999), provide a fairly good representation of the
central figures in philosophy. In order to prevent a naïve,
simplistic, and literal interpretation of these findings, it
must be mentioned that what we argue is not that these
philosophers are central figures because they have a
large number of hyperlink connections in Wikipedia or
that their relative centrality corresponds to link counts. Table 5 shows a comparison of the list of philosophers
who have bi-directional link connections with Heidegger
in the Wikipedia dataset and the list of philosophers (considering
only those that belong to the 300 philosopher
set) that are most frequently co-cited with Heidegger
within the AHCI dataset. As shown, 13 out of 20 most
co-cited philosophers appear on the list of bi-linked philosophers.
In addition, 3 out of the remaining 7 co-cited
philosophers (Descartes, Wittgenstein, and Augustine)
have hyperlink connections with Heidegger in one direction.
Again, we are not making a naïve argument that
those who are bi-linked or co-cited with Heidegger are
intellectually closer or even similar to him in the order
of bi-link/co-citation counts. It is however interesting
to note the overlap between the two lists. In most cases
shown in the table it is not hard to imagine why a certain
philosopher may be bi-linked and/or co-cited with Heidegger,
even though the reasons vary among the cases. Figure 9 shows a radial graph representing 25 philosophers
most frequently co-cited with Heidegger and with
Dewey, respectively. Those co-cited with Dewey include
Heidegger. Those co-cited with both of them include
Wittgenstein. Related Work and Discussion
Wikipedia has recently become a topic of intense interest
among researchers who recognize its utility as a source
of a vast amount of knowledge that can be exploited for
various applications. What renders Wikipedia a particularly
valuable resource is the fact that it can be mined for
knowledge based on its structural features as well as its
textual content (Zesch et al., 2007). As such, some Semantic
Web (Berners-Lee et al., 2001) researchers have
turned to Wikipedia for clues to mitigating the knowledge
acquisition bottleneck (Krötzsch et al., 2005). In this paper we have demonstrated extracting/visualizing
structured data available in Wikipedia by exploiting its
hyperlinks (cf. Bellomi and Bonato, 2005), category
links (cf. Chernov et al., 2006), and templates (i.e., infoboxes
and wikitables) (cf. Auer and Lehmann, 2007).
The logical extension of the current approach would
be to extend the methodology to derive more extensive
and implicit relations and connections, by exploiting the
textual content of Wikipedia articles and by employing
inference.
Social network analysis (SNA) has been used for some
time in diverse disciplines besides sociology. With the
advent of Web 2.0 (O’Reilly, 2005), characterized by
the emergence of various collaborative authoring, blogging,
bookmarking, tagging, networking, etc. sites that
utilize combined social capital, SNA has become a key
technique for capturing and exploiting data on social
connections and interactions for various applications.
Even though we have not attempted (and do not intend)
to compute various centrality measures used in SNA
(Wasserman and Faust, 1994), we have shown that the
lists of highly-connected philosophers obtained by using
even the simple hyperlink data in general provide a
good representation of the central figures in the philosophy
domain (not in the naïve sense that rankings purely
based on hyperlink statistics correspond to the relative
importance of each philosopher one-to-one). We have
also shown that the networks of philosophers emerging
from the hyperlink and semantic data extracted from
Wikipedia exhibit the characteristic of the small world
(Milgram, 1967) or the six degrees of separation phenomenon.
Insofar as the networks that we consider in this project
are concerned with the connections among philosophers
(and philosophical concepts), indirectly derived from
Wikipedia, and not with the direct connections and interactions
among the editors of the corresponding Wikipedia
articles, the project is related to citation analysis, in particular, author co-citation analysis (ACA) (White,
2003). In this regard, we have presented a partial comparison
of the results based on the Wikipedia data against
those obtained by applying ACA to Thomson Reuters’
AHCI data, using specific examples. While the results
have shown an overall correspondence between the two
datasets, it must be pointed out that the comparison was
limited to 300 philosophers considered. It must again be
emphasized that we do not equate link count or co-citation
count with intellectual closeness or similarity.
Lastly, the WikiPhiloSofia project is prominently a project
about visualization as an effective mode of data/
information/knowledge representation. Information visualization,
via the use of interactive, visual representations
of abstract data, serves to amplify human cognition,
making it possible or easier to recognize the hidden
patterns and structures that might not otherwise be quite
apparent or comprehensible (Card et al., 1997; Tufte,
1990), while enhancing the user’s information search experience
at the aesthetic level as well. We have illustrated
how the results of various user queries can be presented
using diverse modalities of visualization, by effectively
visualizing the facts, relations, and networks that pertain
to the 300 philosophers in the Wikipedia dataset. In particular,
we have applied the Strongest Link Paths (SLP)
method (Athenikos and Lin, 2008), which selects only
the strongest link connections (measured in terms of hyperlink
count or other connection strength measure) in
order to highlight the most significant nodes and links.
Even though SLP is rather simpler than other graph scaling
methods such as pathfinder network (Schvaneveldt,
Durso, and Dearholt, 1989) or main path analysis (Hummon
and Doreian, 1989), we have found that it allows
us to achieve substantial data reduction and to obtain a
meaningful representation of the dominant figures and
their connections within the network of philosophers
even from the simple hyperlink data.
Conclusion
The WikiPhiloSofia project aims at creating a knowledge
portal based on the data extracted from Wikipedia. In
this paper we have illustrated extracting and visualizing
the facts, relations, and networks involving 300 major
philosophers in order to enable semantics-based search
and exploration. The future work will include extending
the approach to include more philosophers, extracting
and visualizing the connections among philosophical
concepts, deriving more extensive and implicit relations
and connections, as well as applying the methodology
to domains other than philosophy for comparison and
evaluation purposes.
References
Athenikos, S.J. and Lin, X. (2008). The WikiPhil Portal:
Visualizing Meaningful Philosophical Connections,
Presented at 2008 Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities
and Computer Science (DHCS 2008), Chicago,
IL, November 2008. Forthcoming in Proceedings of the
Chicago Colloquia on Digital Humanities and Computer
Science.
Auer, S. and Lehmann, J. (2007). What Have Innsbruck
and Leipzig in Common? Extracting Semantics from
Wiki Content, Proceedings of 4th European Semantic
Web Conference (ESWC 2007), Innsbruck, Austria, June
2007. Bellomi, F. and Bonato, R. (2005). Network Analysis
for Wikipedia, Proceedings of the First International
Wikimedia Conference (Wikimania 2005), Frankfurt am
Main, Germany, August 2005.
Berners-Lee, T., Handler, J., and Ossila, O. (2001). The
Semantic Web, Scientific American, 284: 34-43.
Card, S. K., Mackinlay, J. D., and Shneiderman, B.
(eds.). (1997). Readings in Information Visualization:
Using Vision to Think. Morgan Kaufman Publishers, San
Francisco, CA.
Chakrabarti, S., Dom, B. E., Kumar, S. R., Raghavan, P.,
Rajagopalan, S., Tomkins, A. D., Gibson, D., and Kleinberg,
J. (1999). Mining the Web’s Link Structure, Computer,
32(8): 60-67.
Chernov, S., Iofciu, T., Nejdl, W., and Zhou, X. (2006).
Extracting Semantic Relationships between Wikipedia
Categories, Proceedings of the First Workshop on Semantics
Wikis (SemWiki 2006) at the Third European
Semantic Web Conference (ESWC 2006), Budva, Montenegro,
June 2006.
Hummon, N. P. and Doreian, P. (1989). Connectivity in
a Citation Network: The Development of DNA Theory,
Social Networks, 11: 39-63.
Krötzsch, M., Vrandečić, D., and Völkel, M. (2005).
Wikipedia and the Semantic Web – the Missing Links,
Proceedings of the First Wikimedia Conference (Wikimania
2005), Frankfurt am Main, Germany, August
2005.
Milgram, S. (1967). The Small World Problem, Psychology
Today, 1(1): 60–67.
O’Reilly, T. (2005). What Is Web 2.0: Design Patterns
and Business Models for the Next Generation of Software.
http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/
news/2005/09/30/what-is-web-20.html (Last accessed
12 November 2008).
Schvaneveldt, R.W., Durso, F.T., and Dearholt, D.W.
(1989). Network Structures in Proximity Data, The Psychology
of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research
and Theory, vol. 24, G. Bower (ed.), 249-284.
Academic Press, New York.
Tufte, E. R. (1990). Envisioning Information. Graphics
Press, Cheshire, CT.
Wasserman, S. and Faust, K. (1994). Social Network
Analysis. Methods and Applications. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK.
White, H. D. (2003). Pathfinder Networks and author
Cocitation Analysis: A Remapping of Paradigmatic Information
Scientists, Journal of the American Society for
Information Science and Technology, 54(5): 423-434.
Zesch, T., Gurevych, I., and Mühlhäuser, M. (2007). Analyzing
and Accessing Wikipedia as a Lexical Semantic
Resource, Proceedings of the Biannual Conference of
the Society for Computational Linguistics and Language
Technology, Tübingen, Germany, April 2007.","txt","2","",""
"973","10","BiblioMS: A Collaborative, Large-Scale Bibliography Management System","1","The need to create, maintain, and publish a bibliography
has been a recurring theme in the digital
humanities projects we have been involved with over
the past fifteen years. This may be as simple as listing
references for individual digital artifacts or as complex
as maintaining a comprehensive record of all significant
works published about a particular author. Bibliographies
are rarely the main research focus of a project—
from either the humanities or the technical side—and
are therefore frequently relegated to the sidelines. In the
best of scenarios, custom applications are built that support
the bibliography of a particular project. In the worst
(and perhaps more common) scenarios, a scholar creates
a bibliography in Word and the result of the “export to
HTML” function is copied into the appropriate page on
the project’s Web site.
Whether the bibliographic component of a digital humanities
project is a necessary chore or a key scholarly
contribution, for most projects it is a tedious, labor-intensive
effort. The development of one-off bibliography
solutions for individual projects may reduce the effort
required by humanities personnel, but this comes at the
cost of increased developer time—a scarce resource.
While developing a bibliography system from well-defined
initial specifications is straightforward, it is tedious
and time consuming. Furthermore, unless care is taken in
the initial design, the resulting system is not likely to anticipate
future needs of the project making it difficult or
impossible to modify the application to meet new needs
as they arise.
To avoid developing a new bibliographic management
system (BMS) from scratch for each new project we
work on, we are implementing a general-purpose system
that can be tailored to meet project specific needs.
Whereas the development of a BMS tailored to the specific
needs is of a single project is straightforward, the
development of a general-purpose BMS poses interesting
challenges. We have identified four key requirements
based on our experience with the use of bibliographies in
various projects we have been involved with.
First, the BMS must support user-defined genres. While
standard bibliography genres (such as books, journal
articles, electronic resources) are usually adequate for
personal use, editors in charge of large scale bibliography
projects often need to tweak the standard genres in
order to convey unique aspects of their material more
effectively. Special purpose projects may need to record
material not envisioned when the BMS was initially developed.
In addition to defining the content of different
genres of bibliographic entries, a BMS also needs to define
semantic relationships between genres. For example,
a chapter is a part of a book, or a review is a journal
or newspaper article about another work. While these
relationships are expressed in a human readable form in
the entry’s content, it is also necessary to provide formal,
machine-readable representations in order to build
systems that leverage these relationships to support data
entry and browsing.
Second, the BMS must enable multi-faceted organization
and navigation of the collection. This includes standard
features such as full text searching and the ability
to search or browse based on entry fields (a challenging
task if those fields are not known in advance). In addition
to these techniques, editors of large bibliographies often
rely on hierarchical taxonomies and controlled vocabularies
to structure collections. The BMS should provide
tools to assist editors in developing these organizational
strategies. While most projects we are familiar with rely
on a unified categorization scheme developed from a
single, authoritative editorial perspective, we anticipate
the need to organize collections from multiple perspectives.
One example of this is allowing individual users to
add their own tags or to bookmark entries in “folders.”
By allowing these personal organizations to be either
private or public, a BMS can enable external editors to
build on existing work to offer alternative views of the
bibliographic record of a field.
Third, the BMS must facilitate collaborative editing. In
a typical, project-scale bibliography, a single editor or
team of editors is responsible for maintaining the quality
and accuracy of the bibliographic entries. Much of the
day-to-day work of entering data and updating entries,
however, may be performed by assistants, often graduate
students working under the supervision of the editor
(or editorial board). Moreover, the broader academic
community may assist this team of editors and assistant
editors by recommending new items for inclusion in the bibliography and suggesting corrections to existing items. To support this workflow, the BMS needs to provide
a sandbox where users with lower privileges may
edit entries prior to being made publicly available by the
approval of an authorized editor. This also requires the
ability to assign users to different editorial access levels,
to track changes, and to maintain persistent links to the
different published states of a bibliographic record. The
BMS should also include user management features to
allow users to maintain their own profile and to allow
project editors to grant and revoke editorial permissions. Finally, the BMS must allow integrated access with the
project’s existing Web-interfaces. This includes developing
editors’ and readers’ interfaces whose look and feel
match that of the rest of the project’s Web site. Components
of the bibliography should be accessible throughout
the project site. For example, it should be possible
(and relatively easy) to include a reference to a bibliography
entry in the text that appears on the site or in a reference
section for a particular digital artifact. It should
also be possible to integrate bibliography editing tools
with other editorial interfaces. For example, if a nautical
archaeology project is building an interface to allow
project members to add information about a shipwreck,
it should be possible to add references to supporting material
directly from this interface without going to a separate
editor’s interface for the BMS.
Before deciding to develop our own BMS, we first investigated
the many open source and commercial solutions
currently available including BibTeX, Zotero, and End-
Note. Like others (Stout 2008), we quickly concluded
that most of these systems are tailored to the management
of personal collections and inadequate for our purposes.
RefDB provides reference management engine
that might be useful, but would require significant customization
and extension to meet our needs. Given the
amount of work that would be required to extend any of
these existing systems, we decided that developing our
own BMS was the best course of action.
Implementation
To achieve this, we have developed a system called BiblioMS.
Instead of implementing BiblioMS as a standalone
Web application with it own built-in interface,
we have designed it to function as a set of application
modules that can be integrated with existing Web sites
or other applications. This allows us to maintain the distinctive
look-and-feel of the different projects in which
we deploy BiblioMS. For example, Fig. 1 shows screen
captures from two projects in which we have deployed
this system.
The main BiblioMS system consists of the core bibliography
management engine and a set of JavaScript libraries
for accessing this engine. The management engine
implements the storage, modification, revision control,
categorization, and retrieval requirements outlined
above. A Web interface layer provides access to the engine
via an HTTP API (application programming interface).
This architecture is shown in Fig 2. The JavaScript libraries implement an object-oriented
API that allows project developers to interact with the
management engine directly from Web pages without
writing any server side code. In our experience, we have
found that developing user interfaces in HTML and JavaScript
and using server-side technologies (such as PHP
and Java Servlets) only for data management improves the modularity of our tools and makes our applications
easier to maintain and modify.
The BiblioMS engine itself is aware of users (in order
to record who is making changes to entries and to maintain
personal annotations and collections) but does not
provide user authentication and authorization services.
Instead, an authentication layer provides these services
by filtering access to the HTTP interface. The advantage
of this approach is that administrators can configure and
control user access on a feature-by-feature basis by editing
an XML configuration file. In our current projects,
we have used a three level permissions strategy (editors,
assistant editors, and external contributors) but this implementation
allows alternative approaches.
Conclusions
Our work offers two primary contributions. First, based
on our experience with numerous digital humanities
projects, we have described four key requirements for
developing a general-purpose bibliography management
system: user-defined genres, multi-faceted organization
and navigation, collaborative editing, and integrated access.
Second, we have demonstrated our implementation
of a system that meets those requirements. We plan to
build on our current work by using this system as a basis
for studying how large, project-scale bibliographies are
used both by their editors as well as by their readers. We
intend to use the results of these studies to improve finding
aids, streamline editorial workflow, improve quality
control mechanisms, and support user-centric organization
and annotation of the collection.
Acknowledgements
This material is based upon work supported by the National
Science Foundation under Grant No. IIS-0534314.
References
[BibTeX] BibTeX. http://www.bibtex.org/ (13 November
2008)
[EndNote] EndNote. http://www.endnote.com/ (13 November
2008)
[RefDB] RefDB. http://refdb.sourceforge.net/ (13 November
2008)
[Stout 2008] Stout, J., Wulfman, C., and Mylonas, E. A
bibliographic utility for digital humanities projects. In
Proceedings of Digital Humanities 2008, Oulu, Finland,
24-29 June, 2008. Univesity of Oulu.
[Zotero] http://www.zotero.org/ (13 November 2008).","txt","2","",""
"974","10","The LANCHART Search Engine - Making important progress in data and data archiving reuse","1","In this paper, we describe the basic design of a multi
purpose, multi disciplinary database-driven research
tool for spoken language research developed and implemented
by the LANCHART Centre (University of Copenhagen).
The LANCHART Search Engine provides
an open source, highly robust, fast and versatile framework
for the entering of, working with/analyzing, visualizing,
and not least reusing spoken language research
resources.
Secondly, we describe the IS-structures and programs
supporting the search engine, most notably the creation
of import-export filters for a number of widely used transcription
and analysis tools (presently Praat, Transcriber,
CLAN).
Last, to illustrate the concrete usability and versatility of
the resultant e-science tool, we demonstrate by example
some of the many uses this e-science tool has already
been put to use by LANCHART as well as by visiting
scholars.
Background
The LANCHART project (Gregersen 2009, lanchart.
dk) initially created the search engine for contextualized
searching in/mining of a very large spoken language corpora
presently consisting of ~380 sociolinguistic interviews
spanning more than 30 years of same-respondent
recordings. During the course of its development it has
proven itself an obvious candidate to an e-science tool
for other corpora of spoken language under the Danish
CLARIN project (http://english.dkclarin.ku.dk/). As it
stands the corpus encompasses ~7 M transcribed words
and ~39 M linguistic annotations.
The LANCHART search engine is a working research
tool that is supporting more than 15 different thus computer
assisted research efforts ranging from phonetic,
through grammatical to discourse context analyses.
Architecturally this versatility, i.e. reuse of both research
data and the underlying enabling technology, has been achieved by stratifying the basic data model into elements:
• topology or ‘data architecture’
• (analytical) content
• semantic structure(s)
This separation has long been advocated by prominent
new media scientists such as Bolter (2001), Weinberger
(2002), Levy (1998) and has proved rarely opportune in
the case of preparing scientific work on spoken language
corpora for an up to date e-science.
Data Architecture, outputs and the reusable
engine
The data architecture is dictated solely by the structural
elements of spoken language, i.e. it happens in contiguous
time, there may be many simultaneous speakers and
many things (of analytical interest) may happen at once.
These structural characteristics are afforded by designing
the data store around two basic entities:
1. ‘Slice’: a period of time defined by its starting and
stopping time relative to the recordings (recording
may be audiovisual or audio only).
2. ‘Tier’: a set of slices spanning the length of the
sample. Each slice may be annotated, e.g. with the word uttered
or a comment, but only one such annotation may be entered
for any one slice. Simultaneously occurring annotations
are represented by placing a slice with identical
boundaries in a different tier.
Tiers are identified by a unique tier name (Orthography
(AMF) in Fig. 1.) allowing for linking to speaker metadata,
annotation encoding convention, lists of related
tiers etc.
This purposefully devoid-of-meaning data architecture
creates an environment where most needs of researchers
of spoken language are met. They may annotate whatever,
wherever and importantly whenever (i.e. as finely
grained) as they wish.
The search engine on its part has two output formats: a
KWIC concordance of the finds and a .csv file in which
the finds are supplemented with columns containing time
values, the content of aligned intervals in all other tiers
and the speakers’ background information. This is then
used for statistical analyses using programs such as SAS.
Data Semantics and reuse of data
As hinted to above, the semantics, the meaning of the
annotations in any given tier, is entirely decided by the
annotator. The unique name of each tier allows for any
amount of metadata to be linked with the tier, e.g. guides
and explanations of the contents as well as coding conventions
used.
Reuse becomes the simple task of choosing between already
created tiers: which are of analytical interest for
the present purpose? Then create a ‘package’ with only
those tiers present, export this package to one of several
supported formats and get started on one’s own analytical
contribution.
IS structures and computer programs
supporting the search engine
A search engine is not much of a research tool if it isn’t
easy to input data for searches, does not scale or if it is
not well documented, easily customized and written in a
easy to maintain programming language.
With this in mind from the very outset, the LANCHART
Search Engine is developed in open source tools (LAMP,
Java/jsp) with initial support for the CLAN, Praat &
Transcriber spoken language representational formats.
It is also central to note, that the conversion and import
functions were implemented by translating to and from a
‘super-format’ instead of directly between formats. This
allows the researchers freedom to choose whatever tool
suits their situation best and for easy, if not always lossless,
translation between all formats used both currently
and in the future – writing new translators is, if not easy,
then thanks to the architecture surmountable. Ongoing computer assisted analysis /
e-science using the LANCHART Search
Engine
Here, we mention but a few of the LANCHART Centre’s
corpus/e-science research projects (for more see http://
lanchart.hum.ku.dk/reports):
In most detail, we describe the work of Jeffrey Parrot
who has formulated a project investigating socially salient
and theoretically challenging variation in the pronominal
case forms of Danish within the broader context
of research on the morphosyntax of case in Germanic,
to test whether variation in Danish pronominal case is
stable or represents a change in progress. By using the
analytical tiers already present in the corpus as his research
base he can then add his own tiers considering
factors including attested pronouns’ case form, person,
number, conjunct ordering, and structural position as
well as including speakers’ age, sex, geographic location,
profession, and relative literacy. Using the search
engine to locate candidate concordance sections, Jeffrey
may jump start this effort.
Other researchers at the centre have produced works on
the correlation of phonetic and grammatical variables, on
bilingualism, and perhaps most notably, phonetic variation
in real time over recordings spanning more than 30
years (see Gregersen 2009).
The digital infrastructure makes it possible not only to
study the influence of geographical origin, gender and
social class on the use of the linguistic variables in question
and the possible interaction of functional and sociolinguistic
factors but also to analyse possible correlation
between the different linguistic variables and between
linguistic variables and discourse context allowing us
to formulate and test hypotheses about the origin and
spreading of patterns of linguistic changes in late 20th
century Danish.
References
Blanke, Tobias et. al. (2008). e-Science in the Arts and
Humanities – A methodological perspective in Opas-
Hänninen, Lisa Lena (Ed.) et. al.(2008): Digital Humanities
2008. Book of Abstracts.
Bolter, Jay David (2001). Writing Space: Computers,
Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print, Second Edition.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Juel Jensen, Torben (2009): “Generic variation? Developments
in use of generic pronouns in late 20th century
spoken Danish” In Acta Linguistica Hafniensia Vol. 41.
Levy, Pierre (1998). Becoming Virtual: Reality in the
Digital Age. Da Capo Press.
Normann Jørgensen, Jens (2005): “Gender differences in
the development of language choice and patterns in the
Køge Project” in Code-Switching in the Køge Project.
Special issue of the International Journal of Bilingualism
7:4, 2004 (publ. 2005)
Weinberger, David (2002). Small Pieces Loosely Joined:
A Unified Theory of the Web. NY: Perseus Publishing
Gregersen, Frans. Ed.(2009): Acta Linguistica Hafniensia
Vol. 41. Language Change In Real Time. Evidence
from the Danish Laboratory. International Journal Of
Linguistics (The Linguistic Circle of Copenhagen).","txt","2","",""
"975","10","In the Header, but Where?","1","The TEI header is a valuable but sometimes overlooked
part of a TEI document. The header is the
main source of documentation for a TEI encoded electronic
document, and has been created to describe “an
encoded work so that the text itself, its source, its encoding,
and its revisions are all thoroughly documented.”i It
is described as an electronic analogue to the title page of
a printed book, but it is really much more than that. The
header provides a location to place any kind of information
about a text that should not or need not be described
within the body of the text itself—for example, narrative
descriptions of a series of illustrations, or of individual
illustrations; definitions of terms that occur in the text;
demographic information about the people involved in
the creation of the text, its TEI transcription, or mentioned
in the text; even complete descriptions of physical
objects (using the <msDescription> element). All
these can be placed in the header and then linked to passages
in the body of the text using one or more of a variety
of available linking mechanisms. This combination
of digital textual data (stored in <text>) and digital
header metadata (stored in <teiHeader>) provides a
method for description that is generally clear and flexible.
Witness that several other popular XML vocabularies
use an analogous system of separating metadata from
data immediately as the two children of the root node,
with the metadata coming first. (Notably XHTMLii and
DocBookiii follow this pattern.) However, the placement
of certain specific metadata within the header is not always
so clear.
The TEI Guidelines often recommend that users place
a specific piece or kind of metadata in the TEI header,
but sometimes they do not specify into which area of
the header the particular information should be placed.
E.g., the <gap> element “indicates a point where material
has been omitted in a transcription, whether for
editorial reasons described in the TEI header, as part
of sampling practice, or because...”. However, a search
through the chapter on the TEI header does not clearly
suggest where exactly those editorial reasons should
be described (although there is an example of <samplingDecl>
which does explain the use of <gap>
for editorial reasons).
There are some 218 references to the TEI header in the
source of the TEI Guidelines that are neither within the
chapter that directly discusses the TEI header, nor are
within an example, a heading, or the <teiHeader> of
the TEI Guidelines themselves. In how many of these instances
do the Guidelines make clear recommendations?
And when there are no clear guidelines, how do users
decide how to use the header?
In our paper, we will answer the question “in how many
places do the TEI Guidelines recommend placing information
in the TEI header, but do not specify exactly
where?”. Furthermore, we hope to examine each such
occurrence in some more detail, even recommending
where such information be placed for as many occurrences
as possible.
For some such occurrences, we also hope to ask a set of
TEI users where they are placing this information, or, if
they do not happen to need to record this particular type
of metadata, where they would be inclined to place it if
they did.
Finally, based on the research conducted, we hope to be
able to come to some broad conclusions as to how much
of a problem this issue actually represents.
We will first study the Guidelines to find all the instances
where users are told to use the header, but are not told
exactly how. We will then conduct at least informal
conversations with TEI users (both long-term users and
novices), if not use a formal survey instrument, to try to
ascertain how they do (or would be inclined to) act in the
given situations. We will discuss what impact the solutions
users come up with might have on both interchange
and interoperability. We will also attempt to ascertain
how much of a perceived problem this issue really presents
for these users. Our own experience with the TEI, as
users and developers, will also be helpful for this study.
Finally, for as many of the cases for which the TEI
Guidelines do not make a specific recommendation as
possible, we will attempt to provide a suggestion for precisely
where in the TEI header the information should be
placed. We do this with the hope that it will both improve
the interchange the TEI supports, and lower the barrier to
adoption of TEI by new projects.
iBurnard, Lou and Syd Bauman, eds. “The TEI Header”
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange.
2007-11-01. http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5¬doc/html/HD.html (24 Nov 2007).
ii“XHTML” The Extensible HyperText Markup Language
(Second Edition). 2002-08-01. http://www.
w3.org/TR/xhtml1/ (24 Nov 2007).
iiiWalsh, Norm and Leonard Muellner. DocBook, The Definitive
Guide. O’Reilly, 1999. urn:isbn:1-56592-580-7.","txt","2","",""
"976","10","Automatisches Metrisches Markup","1","Gedichte mit metrischen Annotationen zu versehen
ist eine sehr zeitaufwändige Angelegenheit. Für
das Projekt „Freiburger Anthologie - Lyrik und Lied“
habe ich Hunderte von Gedichten manuell metrisiert.1
Aus dieser Arbeit heraus ist die Idee erwachsen, eine
automatisierte Technik zu entwickeln, schriftlich
niedergelegte deutschsprachige Gedichte automatisch
metrisieren zu lassen und sie in ein TEI P5-kompatibles
XML umzuwandeln.2
Nach gut einem Jahr Arbeit kann ich nun ein sehr
passa-bles Ergebnis präsentieren. Deutschsprachige
Gedichte lassen sich zu einem sehr hohen Prozentsatz
automatisch metrisch bestimmen. Je nach der Anzahl
an Fremdwörtern, die ein Gedicht aufweist, schwankt
die Qualität zwischen 90% und 100%. Ein Text ohne
Fremdwörter wird durchweg zu einem Prozentsatz von
99% bis 100% richtig erkannt.3
Um dieses Ergebnis zu erreichen, wird der Text zunächst
automatisch in seinen metrisch relevanten Strukturen
erkannt. Dazu gehört die Erkennung der einzelnen
Strophen, der Verse, der Wörter und der Silben. Für
die Silbensegmentierung haben wir ein eigenes System
entwickelt. Bis dieses ausgereift ist, verwenden wir
in der Entwicklungsumgebung noch eine sehr gut
funktionie-rende, aber noch unveröffentlichte Beta-
Version einer orthographisch basierten Silbentrennung
aus dem Projekt „Segmenti“.4
Nach der Strukturerkennung des Textes werden
sogenannte „prosodische Vorhersagen“ der jeweiligen
im Text vorkommenden Wörter erstellt. Dabei greifen
wir auf eine Vielzahl an definierten Regeln zurück. Das
ges-amte Regel-Set umfasst derzeit 35 Regeln, einige
davon sind Eigenentwicklungen, andere wurden aus
den Erkenntnissen unterschiedlichster germanistischer
Disziplinen übernommen oder abgeleitet. Das Regel-
Set reicht vom „deutschen Initialakzent“ über „offene
Tonsilben“ und die „Penultimaregel“ (die allesamt
für die gesamte deutsche Sprache gelten) bis hin zu
gedichttypischen Erscheinungsformen wie z.B. die
Betonung von einsilbigen Wörtern am Versende.
Grundlegend unterscheiden wir zwischen „prosodischen Vorhersagen“, die für eine Betonung einer Silbe
sprechen – und Vorhersagen, die eine unbetonte Silbe
wahrscheinlich machen.
Alle diese Regeln werden automatisiert angewendet und
für jede Silbe gesammelt. Das Ergebnis sieht dann wie
folgt aus. Ein „x“ steht für die erste Silbe eines Wortes,
die nach dem Regeln des germanischen Initialakzentes
(auch foot form trochaic rule) für eine Betonung der Silbe
spricht. Ein oder mehrere „+“ für die Wahrscheinlichkeit,
dass es sich bei der Silbe um eine betonte Silbe handelt.
Ein „-“ steht für den Verdacht, dass es sich bei der Silbe
um eine unbetonte Silbe handelt. Eine „0“ für eine Silbe,
für die keine Verdachtsmomente vorliegen. Für jede
Silbe wird die Kette der Regeln gespeichert.
Fried | lich be | kämp | fen
Nacht sich und Tag.
Wie das zu dämp | fen,
Wie das zu lö | sen ver | mag!5
Fried =x000000+0000000000000000000000
0++000000000 =x+++
lich =0000000000000000000000000-00000-
0000000000 =--
be =x000000000000000000000000000000000000
00000 =x
kämp =0+00000+00+0000000++0000000000000000
000000 =+++++
fen =00000000000000000000000000-
000000000000000 =-
Im Anschluss daran wird eine Euphonie-Berechnung
durchgeführt, die von der Idee geleitet wird, dass mit
hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit innerhalb eines Verses keine
zwei betonten Silben nebeneinander liegen (Ausnahmen
des Hebungspralls hier außen vor gelassen) – und keine
drei unbetonten Silben aufeinander folgen dürfen.
So wird z.B. das „x“ auf der Silbe „be“ unbetont, da
die benachbarte Silbe „kämp“ durch ihre massiven
Betonungshärte die benachbarte Silbe überschreibt. Die
Euphonie-Berechnung erfolgt ebenfalls vollautomatisch
und ist in einem Algorithmus festgehalten (+ steht für
eine Silbe, die den Verdacht einer Betonung erhält, - für
eine Silbe, die den Verdacht einer Unbetonung erhält). Nach der Euphonie-Berechnung sieht das entsprechende
Schema dann wie folgt aus: Im anschließenden Analogieverfahren wird statistisch
berechnet, wie die noch nicht bestimmten Silben betont
sein könnten. Dabei wird z.B. geprüft, ob eine feste
Anzahl von betonten Silben für jeden Vers vorliegt, die
auch für die anderen Verse angenommen werden kann,
ob über die zuvor erkannte Reimstruktur am Ende des
Verses unbestimmte Silben bestimmt werden können
(da zwei sich reimende Verse im Bereich des Reims
eine identische Betonungsstruktur aufweisen müssen).
Die wichtigeste Analogie-Regel ist jedoch darüber
definiert, dass noch nicht erkannte Silben mit hoher
Wahrscheinlichkeit die gleiche Betonung aufweisen wie
Silben anderer Verse auf der selben Position mit gleicher
Silbenzahl. Am Ende der Analogie-Berechnung werden
die Zeichen + und - (die bislang prosodische Betonung
angezeigt haben) in metrische Zeichen (in der Bedeutung
von Hebungen und Senkungen) umgewandelt. Im besten
Fall liegt dann das komplette metrische Schema der
Strophe vor: Das Ergebnis wird nun mit einer umfangreichen
Datenbank verglichen, in der aufgrund der Standardwerke
zur metrischen Bestimmung deutscher Strophenformen
an die 4500 unterschiedliche Strophenformen
versammelt wurden.6
In etlichen Fällen lässt sich über alle Strophen hinweg
eine gleichbleibende Struktur erkennen, die jedoch an
einzelnen Stellen unterbrochen scheint. In seltenen Fällen
liegt an solchen Stellen eine metrische Fehlinterpretation des Programms zu Grunde, viel häufiger jedoch ist der
Fall, dass der Autor des Textes die allgemeinsprachlich
gültige Prosodie eines Wortes in ein Reibungsverhältnis
zur metrischen Struktur setzt, wie z. B. in dem Wort
„nachlässiger“ im Gedicht „Die Beiden“ von Hugo von
Hofmannsthal. Im Prinzip lassen sich solche Stellen
automatisiert erkennen und „schwebende Betonungen“,
„Emphase“ und prosodisch neutrale oder schwache
Stellen in einem Gedicht nachweisen.
Die vorgestellte Technik ist derzeit noch nicht endgültig
programmiert. Derzeit kann der „metricalizer“7 mit einem
sehr kleinen Regel-Set von zwei Regeln nur „regelmäßig“
metrisierte Gedichte erkennen.8 Das gesamte Regel-Set
liegt derzeit nur in Form von Macros vor, die als Kette in
der Textverarbeitung „Word Perfect“ ausgelöst werden
können. Bis auf die Silbensegmentierung und die
Analogieberechnung ist das System – obwohl nur in einer
Textverarbeitungssoftware – bereits voll automatisiert.
Aus den erzeugten Ergebnissen lässt sich eine TEI P5-
konforme Struktur des Textes erzeugen, in der bis auf
die einzelne Silbe hinab die metrische Struktur annotiert
werden kann.
Mit der aufgezeigten Technik ist es möglich, Gedichte
der letzten vier Jahrhunderte metrisch zu erkennen. Da 
wir nicht auf Wörterbücher zurückgreifen, in denen die Betonungswerte der einzelnen Wörter vordefiniert wird,
ist es zudem möglich, auch Texte zu analysieren, die
nicht der heute gültigen Standard-Orthographie folgen.
Für die Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaft bietet der
Ansatz eine Reihe von interessanten Möglichkeiten, die
von der automatisierten Metrisierung ganzer Korpora
über die Text-to-
Speech-Forschung reichen, woraus
sich entsprechende Forschungs- und Unterrichtsansätze
konstruieren lassen. Im Prinzip ist die angewendete
Technik nämlich nicht nur in der Lage, Gedichte zu
metrisieren, sondern ganz allgemein prosodische
Vorhersagen für jeden gedruckten Text zu erstellen.
Das Fernziel der Unternehmung ist es jedoch, die
automatische metrische Bestimmung von Gedichten
mit der automatisierten Textgenerierung zu verknüpfen,
um den Rechner eines Tages in die Lage zu versetzen,
metrisch vollendete Gedichte selbständig zu produzieren.
Auf der Tagung werde ich kurz die nationalen und
internationalen Vorgängerprojekte benennen, auf die wir
uns beziehen können, die logische Seite des Projektes
vorstellen (vor allem die Regeln der prosodischen
Vorhersage) und auf die theoretischen Möglichkeiten
und Schwachstellen (Fremdworterkennung, Ketten von
einsilbigen Wörtern) eingehen und anhand eines Adhoc-
Beispiels aus dem Publikum den Beweis für die
Funktionalität des Systems erbringen. 1www.lyrik-und-lied.de; www.freiburger-anthologie.de
2Ähnliche Projekte für das Deutsche sind „YASP“
<http://wiki.cl.uni-heidelberg.de/YetAnotherSyntheticPoem>
und das Projekt „ErMaStat“: Dimpel, Friedrich
Michael: Computergestützte textstatistische Untersuchungen
an mittelhochdeutschen Texten. 2004.
3Was „richtig“ in diesem Zusammenhang bedeutet, ist
hier nachzulesen (Fußnote 41): <http://computerphilologie.
tu-darmstadt.de/jg07/bobgehl.html#FN41>
4Enwickelt von Regine Müller: http://www.cross-plus-a.
com/segmenti.htm
5Friedrich Hebbel: Abendlied . zitiert nach <http://
www.lyrik-und-lied.de/ll.pl?kat=typ.show.
poem&ds=2580&id=4082>
6Schlawe, Fritz: Die deutschen Strophenformen. Systematisch-
chronologisches Register zur deutschen Lyrik
1600-1950. 1972. / Frank, Horst Joachim: Handbuch der
deutschen Strophenformen. Tübingen/Basel. 1993.
7Eine Testversion des Programms ist nun online unter:
<http://www.poetron-zone.de/metricalizer/generator.
php>.
8,,Regelmäßige“ Gedichte sind nach unserem Verständnis
Gedichte, die aus einer strophenweise in sich regelmäßigen
Abfolge von betonten und unbetonten Silben
bestehen, die mit dem gleichen Muster pro Vers
beginnen müssen, aber unterschiedliche Endpunkte des
Musters zulassen. Ein Muster ist die kleinste sich wiederholende
Struktur von betonten und unbetonten Silben
innerhalb eines Verses (im Prinzip identisch mit einem
Versfuß).
9Eine detaillierte Beschreibung des Projektes findet sich
nun online unter: <http://computerphilologie.tu-darmstadt.
de/jg07/bobgehl.html>. Der gesamte Regelsatz ist
noch nicht für eine Außendarstellung vorbereitet.","txt","2","",""
"977","10","No Job for Techies: Collaborative Modeling as an intellectual activity of the analyst and scholar in the development of formal representations of scholarly materials.","1","This paper deals presents some thinking about the nature
of the workthat are involved in the development
of digital resources for the humanities; and the participants
in that work. It has become almost a truism among
many in the digital humanities (DH) that digital resource
building is, of necessity, a kind of collaborative activity.
The scholar who is sponsoring the resource brings to the
table the materials that s/he wishes to work with, and
contributes the issues that these materials raise that are
of scholarly importance. However, s/he is not going to
be in the position to grapple his/herself with the myriad
technical matters that arise from using the technology
to represent them. Instead, as this truism goes, s/he
will need technical support to help him/her implement
his/her vision and present it. In this view of things, the
partnership is based on the scholar being responsible for
the content, and the technologist who is given the job of
representing the vision of the scholar. This view of the
resulting partnership is not equal in nature (indeed, the
term ‘techie’, which I hear surprisingly often applied to
the technical person in this kind of partnership, confirms
this), and it is based on the scholar as faculty and the
technician as staff. It is widespread and influences much
of what has been written about the collaboration models
that currently exist. See, for example Zorich 2007-8, or
Michel et al. 2003, in which there is both frequent reference
to “faculty” and “technician”, and where the main
interest in actual intellectual collaboration is not between
the scholar and his technical support, but the different
one which might be developed between academics from
different disciplines (such as between History and a Fine
Arts department, or, interestingly, between a humanities
department and computer science).
The Centre for Computing in the Humanities at King’s
College London (CCH) operates differently. The first
sign of this is that CCH is set up as a full academic department
within the School of Humanities. Thus, it has a combined teaching and research mission not unlike other
academic departments – although in the case of CCH its
research is based around the Digital Humanities rather
than any conventional humanities discipline. Indeed,
CCH has been able to take creative advantage of the UK
academic context which does not divide its staff quite so
clearly into faculty and staff.
Resources developed at CCH are, of course, still meant
to express the scholarly interpretive inputs of their scholarly
partners, but the work to achieve this is carried out
with extended intellectual collaboration between us and
our discipline partners. Resources that emerge from this
process are something like John Unsworth’s Thematic
Research Collections (Unsworth 2000) – objects defined
by Carole L. Palmer as ‘digital aggregations of primary
sources and related materials that support research […]’
(Palmer 2004, p. 348), even if some of them, for example
the several prosopographies in which we have been involved,
cannot be properly described as ‘digital aggregations
of primary sources’.
Another key difference is in how we name, and therefore
consider, our technical staff. We view our key contributors
(both in the context of XML and TEI, or in the context
of database design) not at technicians, but as analysts,
with significant intellectual input to the projects
they work on. The work that emerges from the scholar/
analyst partnership shares something with the kind of
software design process described by the Scandinavian
Design School (see Greenbaum and Kyng 1991 for an
extensive introduction), who are interested in what they
describe as ‘the sociological and anthropological area of
system design’ (Sissen 1998 p. 11). One of the design
strategies they have identified they call Collaborative (or
Participatory) Design.
For the CCH Analyst the work centers on the central task
of modelling the data (largely in the sense of McCarty’s
view of modelling ( McCarty 2004)). In our resourcedevelopment
projects we try to develop a digital representation
of some significant part of the scholar’s intellectual
model by formalising it. By expressing some part
of the interpretative model in sufficiently formal terms,
the computer – and therefore the digital tools that we
develop to present the materials to end users – can better
exploit it to provide an enriched kind of interaction. This
formal model is wrapped up tightly with the resource
objects that the project delivers, and formally represents
some significant aspects of the scholar’s interpretation
of his/her materials. The modelling task is not so much
one of simply applying an existing model (such as, say,
Dublin Core or even TEI or CIDOC, although these are,
of course, often used as building blocks) to materials of
interest to our scholar-partners, but to develop a model
that specifically represents the interpretative framework
that the scholars themselves are developing.
Furthermore, the resulting model does not emerge solely
from the scholar speaking about what is to go into it and
the analyst writing it down. Instead, the model develops
as a bilateral collaborative activity. The scholar, of
course, brings a deep knowledge of the subject, and in
particular an understanding of where the thorny bits lie.
The analyst, in turn, brings an understanding of formal
methods of modelling and combines this with an experience
of dealing with complex humanities material that
has arisen from other projects in which s/he has participated.
S/he also acts to clarify structures (naming, attributes
and relationships) that are essential to the model.
Out of this comes new understanding for both the scholar
and analyst partners. As Finken (1998) says:
Cooperative Design has […] a central and continual discourse
about egalitarity [sic]. This presupposes that users and designers
enter a work setting of mutual learning, where they are equal
partners; the users are said to be skilled experts, the designers are
technological experts. (p 6)
The amount of work, and exchanging of issues and ideas
in both direction shows that the model is a joint intellectual
product. Our partners sometimes tell us that the
resulting model has ideas sufficiently intertwined from
both the partners that it is not possible to separate them.
Since modelling is both an intellectual activity, and a
collaborative one, at CCH we have found it important
to recognise the work of the analyst as am intellectual
activity that should usefully be considered as research
or at least research-like. Therefore, as with scholarly research
output, the analyst’s work also benefits from the
sharing of it with other professionals. As Finken says
about developers:
The practitioners are not unambiguous developers, designers
and/or technological experts; they are scientific designers, which
implies that they make a living by doing research. This means,
that the scientific designers test different methods, techniques
or theoretical hypothesis during a period of time, and then later
write about their experiences. So besides doing system design,
the designers also address a community of researchers, who also
have interests in the scientific side of system design. (Finken
1998, p. 8)
How, then, could the academy foster an environment
where such intellectual activity can occur? First, it
should provide an environment that sustains these kinds
of intellectual partnerships, and where a kind of peer
relationship between the designer and the scholar is
supported and acknowledged. Second, it should recognise that the work of the analyst contains elements of
research in its own right, and that the analyst needs to be
recognised as a researcher in broadly the same way as
the academic is. In other words, the analyst may not be
faculty, but they are not support staff either.
CCH’s role as an academic department within Humanities,
and the role of its staff analysts and developers as,
at least in part, academic individuals has meant that CCH
is particularly well placed to explore some of these issues.
For example, all CCH staff are encouraged to do
research or research-like work that can result in traditional
outputs such as conference papers or articles.
However, both CCH and the School of Humanities at
KCL are still struggling with some the implications of
this. What, exactly, is meant by research for the modelling
analyst? How can research time be found for the
analyst, and what are the appropriate research outputs
for these individuals? How does this work fit into the
teaching mandate for CCH?
My presentation will draw on examples from our experience
to illustrate how the analyst role, even though technical
in orientation, participates in the intellectual and
academic development of digital resources, and how this
technical work can be made more evidently into an intellectual
one with the potential to appear as research. In
this way, the analyst’s contribution shares, in some ways
at least, many of the aspects of the scholarly output of
our projects’ discipline-based partners.
References
Finken, Sisse (1998). Truth Is a Thing of This World:
A Foucaultian Analysis of the Discoursive Construction
and Constitution of Cooperative Design. Available
online through http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/
summary?doi=10.1.1.5.3190. Accessed 7 November
2008.
Greenbaum, Joan and Morten Kyng (eds) (1991). Design
at Work: Cooperative Design of Computer Systems.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Palmer, Carole L. (2004). “Thematic Research Collections”.
In Schreibman, Susan, Ray Siemens and John
Unsworth (eds), A Companion to Digital Humanities.
Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 348-365. Also
online at http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/
(chapter 24). Accessed 7 November 2008.
McCarty, Willard (2004). “Modeling: A Study in Words
and Meanings”. In Schreibman, Susan, Ray Siemens and
John Unsworth (eds), A Companion to Digital Humanities.
Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 254-270.
Also online at http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/
(chapter 19). Accessed 7 November 2008.
Mitchell, William J., Alan S. Inouye and Marjory S. Blumenthal
(eds) (2003). Beyond Productivity: Information
Technology, Innovation, and Creativity. A report for the
National Research Council of the National Academics.
Washington D.C.: The National Academies Press. Pp.
251.
Unsworth, John. (2000). Thematic Research Collections.
Paper presented at the Modern Language Association
Annual Conference, December 28, Washington,
DC. Available online at http://iath.virginia.edu/~jmu2m/
MLA.00/. Accessed 7 November 2008.
Zorich, Diane M. (2007, 2008). A Survey of Digital Humanities
Centers in the United States. Council on Library
and Information Resources. Online at http://www.
uvasci.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/dhc-surveyfinal-
rept-2008_05_22-for-distribution.pdf. Accessed 7
November 2008.","txt","2","",""
"978","10","On-site Scanning of 3D Manuscripts","1","Library collections all over the world contain manuscripts,
scrolls, and other documents that have never
been read because they cannot be opened in a way that
exposes the text without causing physical damage. To
address this problem, the EDUCE project at the University
of Kentucky [2, 3] is experimenting with the use of
Computed Tomography (CT) scanners to read fragile
scrolls that cannot be unrolled and fragile manuscripts
whose content is inaccessible because the pages cannot
be separated.
The basic idea at the heart of the EDUCE project is to use
a high-resolution CT scanner to “see inside” the scroll or
manuscript. Given the raw CT scan data, computers can
compute a 3-dimensional image of the artifact, called a
voxel set. Computation of the voxel set is commonly referred
to as reconstruction. Computers can then be used
to look for structures in the image (e.g., to ﬁ nd where the
rolls of the scroll are in the voxel set). Given the structure
of the document, the computer can focus its search
for traces of ink, discerning ink from parchment. Having
identiﬁed the ink, algorithms can be applied that “virtually
unroll” the document to reveal the hidden text.
The Reconstruction Problem
Although the EDUCE approach involves several computational
steps, by far the most time consuming step
is the reconstruction step. Reconstruction is compute intensive
and can run for hours or days depending on the
size of the data and the speed of the computer. As such,
reconstruction times have the biggest effect on the rate at
which artifacts can be scanned and ingested into a digital
collection. Moreover, it often take several “trial” scans
to ﬁ nd the best settings for the scanner, which means that
reconstruction must occur several times (as part of these
“trials”) before the “real” scan can proceed. Consequently,
reducing reconstruction times is critical to the viability
of the EDUCE approach. Our initial estimates to scan
relatively small objects were on the order of weeks. This
is a major problem, particularly when the artifact can
only be out of storage for a short time.
Current solutions to the reconstruction problem include
(1) low-resolution reconstructions,
(2) partial reconstructions,
and (3) full reconstructions performed on a highperformance
cluster or supercomputer. Unfortunately,
low-resolution scans often fail to identify the tiny ink
particles that make up the text. The second alternative,
high-resolution reconstruction of part of the artifact, can
be done faster than reconstructing the entire artifact, but
it can miss the region containing the text, or can produce
scan settings that are not useful across the entire artifact.
By using large compute clusters, one can harness enough
computer power to perform a high-resolution reconstruction
of the artifact in a relatively short amount of
time. However, it means the (fragile) artifact must be
transported to the location where the large cluster (and
its associated scanner) reside. Unfortunately, this is often
impossible because the artifact is not in a condition
to travel. The alternative is for the cluster (and its scanner)
to travel to the location where the artifact is housed.
Historically, however, compute clusters and scanners
have not been designed to be mobile. Consequently, the
EDUCE project has been exploring ways to make both
the scanner and the compute cluster portable.
Fortunately, recent advances in scanner technology have
produced portable CT scanners whose scanning volume
can hold reasonably large objects (say a book or
scroll). Moreover, these scanners now are capable of the
high-resolution scanning that is needed to discern the
substrate that the layers of the scroll are composed of
(papyrus, vellum, paper, etc) which are very thin, especially
in damaged documents where layers are fused together.
One such example are the portable scanners from
Skyscan [1] which are both small and light enough to be
portable.
However, the ability to perform computationally intense
reconstruction processing on the resulting data without
the aid of a large compute cluster remains a challenge. In
the remainder
of this paper, we focus on the problem of
creating a small-scale, portable computation system that
is capable of performing fast reconstruction.
Portable Reconstruction
One way to address the problem is to utilize remote computational
power by copying the scanned data over the Internet to a remote computer for reconstruction. Given
the massive amounts of data produced by a single scan–
on the order of tens of gigbytes–one would need a very
high-speed network connection for this approach to be
viable. Moreover, “trial” scans only increase the number
of times that the data must be moved to the remote cluster
for processing. The network also becomes a single
point of failure, causing work to halt if there is a network
outage. For these reasons–and because we did not want
to rely on the institutions we were visiting to have a reliable
high-speed internet connection–we turned our attention
to developing a small, portable compute resource
that we could take with us on-site.
Our initial testing of the CT technique were done with
a compute cluster of 64 machines. While this worked
quite well for the immediate task at hand (testing the viability
of the general concept), a cluster of 64 machines
is decidedly not portable. Since portability was a necessary
goal for this project, given that it was not possible
to bring the artifacts to be scanned to us, a new cluster
design was needed.
The recent advent of multi-core CPUs has provided a
signiﬁcant boost in the amount of computing power
available in a single machine. Consequently, we decided
to build our portable cluster out of four multi-core computers,
each with dual quad-core processors, yielding up
to 32 processing cores to apply to the reconstruction task.
We then spent signiﬁcant time modifying and optimizing
the code to run on a multi-core architecture where parallel
memory and disk I/O turned out to be bottlenecks. Although
one could argue that four physical PCs is not particularly
portable, we were able to ship them to the scan
site and set them up quickly with relative ease. Despite
the greatly reduced size (as compared to the original 64
node cluster), the new cluster ordered excellent performance;
performance on par with the orginal cluster.
We were still interested in trying to make our setup even
more portable. We decided to explore the possibility of
utilizing a Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) to increase
the speed of the reconstruction computations. NVidia recently
released a toolkit known as the Compute Uniﬁed
Device Architecture (CUDA) [4] which allows code
written in C or C++ to be ported to run on a GPU. Since
the problem of CT reconstruction is highly data-parallel, and the GPU is optimized for data-parallel computation,
we hypothesized that the GPU could provide speedups
over the same program running on a traditional CPU.
Porting the code to run on the GPU was non-trivial,
largely due to the need to carefully place (and move data
around) in memory. However, the performance speedups
were quite impressive. A single GPU outperformed our
entire cluster of computers (32 processing cores) by a
factor of more than 2 to 1. In other words, a single laptop
computer with a powerful CUDA-capable graphics card
can be used to run our reconstruction code fast enough
for most reconstruction jobs, and a single computer that
contained multiple GPUs could replace large clusters of
machines.
Another advantage of using the GPU for computation
is reduced cost of the computer equipment. A single
machine with a high-end graphics card or a similarly
equipped laptop are both signiﬁcantly cheaper than a
cluster of computers. A single machine is also simpler
from a technical standpoint, a cluster brings with it an
additional communication network and software layers
which are unnecessary for a single machine.
Being able to run a high-resolution CT reconstruction
on a laptop in a reasonable amount of time eliminates the problem of portability for the computational requirements
of CT scanning, and even transporting a single
computer that contained multiple graphics cards for
larger jobs is often feasible. This, coupled with the commercial
availability of CT scanners that are small enough
to be portable, makes this technology quite feasible for
digitally exploring artifacts.
Conclusion
In this paper, we studied the problem of reconstructing
damaged manuscripts and described the reconstruction
problem that must be solved in order to achieve on-site
portable scanning of an artifact. We brieﬂy described
two ways in which the necessary computational power
can be achieved using recent advances in multi-core
architectures and graphics processing units. The performance
of the different solutions considered were reported,
and indicate that a single GPU can be used to order
performance that was previously only available on large
clusters of PCs.
This work supported in part by the National Science
Foundation under Grant No. IIS-0535003.
References
[1] Skyscan. http://www.skyscan.be/home.htm.
[2] Educe: Enhanced Digital Unwrapping for Conservation
and Exploration, 2006-2009. http://www.stoa.org/
educe.
[3] Alicia P. Gregory. Digital Exploration: Unwrapping
the Secrets of Damaged manuscripts, 2004. http://www.
research.uky.edu/odyssey/fall04/seales.html.
[4] NVidia Corporation, 2701 San Tomas Expressway,
Santa Clara, CA. NVIDIA CUDA Compute Uniﬁed Device
Architecture Programming Guide, 2.0 edition.","txt","2","",""
"979","10","Modeling the Lexicon with Ontologies","1","The use of markup languages (typically XML) for
modeling the natural language lexicon is currently
widespread. It allows a standard representation format
that is friendly to the web, interoperable, and leverages
horizontal standards in that all general XML tools can
be used (Simons 2004). This paper makes an argument
for elaborating this practice to use ontologies for modeling
lexicons. These would be commonly serialized in
OWL/XML, but could use the standard XML transformation
capability to use other serializations without any
problem. The Lexical Markup Framework (LMF) is a
popular ISO standard candidate for lexicons and shows
the benefits described above. Since LMF is XML and
transformations can allow one schema to be changed
into another, using ontologies in this context has been
suggested such as using an LMF to OWL transformation
(Francopoulo 2007) to incorporate ontologies into a
service-oriented language infrastructure (Hayashi 2008).
This paper proposes using ontologies in a much more
local way to support development and testing of natural
language lexicons, but at the same time supporting the
goals of interoperability and standards use. The argument
for this novel use of the semantic web technology
is advanced using a scenario from the development of a
computational lexicon of the Navajo language of North
America.
Methods
In the context of a long running project to create a computational
resource for the Navajo lexicon that can be
used for reading and annotating a corpus of Navajo texts,
an XML-based model of the Navajo lexicon was developed.
This lexicon has a native format of an XML schema,
but leverages transformations to customize the format
for any particular use. For example, the web based
applications that display texts from the corpus and allow
access to the lexicon, use a JSON transform since that
is most convenient for web applications. Similarly, the
lexicon can be transformed to OWL for creating an ontology.
The ontology can be used in much the same way
as LMF documents or databases have been used (Beck
2007), but with additional useful properties.
The class structure from the original lexicon model is a template structure with complex morphology that
can be seen as a slot/filler structure were only certain
kinds of affixes can be put into any slot (Young 1992;
Faltz 1998). So the Navajo verb class has an ordered
sequence of properties that correspond to the template
(affix order=outer, distributed plural, inner, object, subject,
classifier, stem). Some of the slot content can be
predicted from context and some must be defined in the
lexicon. For an OWL ontology, this would be the information
in the individual. For example, the individual for
the class verb “cut it out” would be:
(1) individual V2 is Verb and OuterPx=ha, Transitive=
1, Conjugation=S, Classifier=ł, Sid=2, Gloss=”cut
it out”;
These examples use the non-XML serialization from the
Bossam reasoner (Jang 2004) for ease of human reading.
Two other classes are defined for the stem set and the
subject prefixes. A stem set is a set of bound stems that
change shape depending on the verb mode and aspect. A
sample individual stem from the class stem set (StemSet)
is:
(2) individual S3 is StemSet and Sid=2, Root=gizh,
Mode=I, Aspect=cont, Stem=géésh;
The stem in (2) is only for verbs with imperfective mode
and continuative aspect and there would be 5 stems in
the set. The subject prefixes vary widely depending on
the conjugation type and other parameters. A sample individual
from the class subject prefix (SubPxSet) is:
(3) individual Sj2 is SubPxSet and Mode=I,
Conjugation=S, Pnum=3, SubjPx=Ø;
This subject prefix is for the ‘Simple’ conjugation and
the third person. The main point being that many of the
parts of an underlying form for the verb (1) are predictable
and so do not appear in the lexical entry. In order to
supply these predictable parts, the semantic web extension
for ontologies - the Semantic Web Rule Language
(SWRL) is used. This allows rules to apply reasoning to
the individuals in the ontology. For example, since the
distributive plural is only for 3 or more, a simple rule
using unification can add that prefix of ‘da.’ (Pnum=8 is
the person number for the 8th member of a listing of the
conjugation. Navajo has both a 3rd and 4th person, so
the 9th would be the first member after the dual plurals.)
(4) rule Rule1 is if Verb(?v) and Pnum(?x) and [?x>8]
then DistPlPx(?v, da);
This also uses the Bossam rule serialization for ease of
reading, but it can also read the XML serialization of
SWRL. Similarly all the predictable parts of the underlying
verb form are generated. For example, the verb for
“cut it out” in the third person distributive plural is generated
by the rule base:
(5) OuterPx= nav:ha, DistPlPx= nav:da, ObjPx= nav:y,
InnerPx= nav:Ø, SubjPx= nav:Ø, Classifier= nav:ł,
Stem= nav:géésh
The output in (5) shows that each slot in the template has
been correctly filled using the information in the lexical
entry and using rules (nav: is the namespace). The underlying
form for that verb is ha-da-y-Ø-Ø-ł-géésh. This
can in turn be transformed to the surface form using a set
of morphophonemic rules that have been previously developed
for this project. It uses the finite state morphology
tool xfst (Beesley 2003) and produces hadeiłgéésh
which is the distributive third person of the surface form.
This is a command line tool and so the above can be
done with a single unix pipeline. This is an effective tool
for checking lexical entries. For example, a complete
paradigm can be cosnstructed using the lexical ontology
rules to produce the underlying form (left-side of (6))
and xfst to produce the surface form (right-side of (6)) :
(6) Complete imperfective paradigm for: individual P5
is Verb and OuterPx=Ø, Transitive=0, Conjugation=S,
Classifier=Ø, Sid=5, Gloss=”cry”;
1sing: Ø-Ø-Ø-Ø-sh-Ø-cha -> yishcha
2sing: Ø-Ø-Ø-Ø-ni-Ø-cha -> nicha
3sing: Ø-Ø-Ø-Ø-Ø-Ø-cha -> yicha
4sing: Ø-Ø-Ø-Ø-j-Ø-cha -> jicha
1dual: Ø-Ø-Ø-Ø-iid-Ø-cha -> yiicha
2dual: Ø-Ø-Ø-Ø-oh-Ø-cha -> wohcha
1distpl: Ø-Ø-Ø-da-iid-Ø-cha -> deiicha
2distpl:Ø-Ø-Ø -da-oh-Ø-cha -> daohcha
3distpl: Ø-Ø-Ø-da-Ø-cha -> daacha
4distpl: Ø-Ø-Ø-da-j-Ø-cha -> dajicha
Analysis and Conclusions
Using ontologies for modeling the lexicon has benefits
at both the local, lexicographer level and the global level
for searching and interoperation. The approach has particular
benefit for languages with complex morphology.
As seen in this example from the Navajo language, the
process for setting up an underlying form has many parts
that can be modeled in the lexicon using the Semantic
Web technology. Typically, lexical entries would be isolated
for grammatical exposition, but with this approach,
the lexicon becomes an active resource that incorporates
those grammatical facts. Furthermore, the technology is horizontal in nature, meaning that the tools used are not
particular to this application or even this class of applications.
That makes it is easier for everyone to understand
it and share it based on familiarity with the general
technology of the Semantic Web. This helps to avoid the
short ‘half-life’ common to computational lexicography
projects (Maxwell 2008).
More globally, this approach allows the lexical model
to participate in the more common applications of the
Semantic Web such as annotation, search, and linking
resources on the Internet. The resource can also participate
in global semantic relations as with WordNet. For
the Navajo lexicon described here, connecting the model
to other ontologies was made simple. For example, each
class is connected to the GOLD general OWL ontology
for linguistic concepts (Farrar 2003) dynamically over
the Internet using the built-in OWL property owl:sameAs
which links an individual to an individual. Since much
of the terminology in any particular language’s linguistic
literature can be divergent, this helps interoperation
(Chiarcos 2008).
References
Beck, H. (2007). Contextual Archiving with Linguistic
Analysis: An Ontology-Based Approach to Developing a
Linguistic Database. Workshop Proceedings of “Toward
the Interoperability of Language Resources”, July 13-15
at Stanford University in conjunction with the 2007 LSA
Summer Institute, http://linguistlist.org/tilr/proceedings2.
cfm, (accessed 11/11/2008).
Beesley, K. and Karttunen, L. (2003). Finite State Morphology.
Stanford: CSLI Publications.
Chiarcos, C. (2008). An ontology of linguistic annotations.
LDV-Forum, 23 (1) , 1-16, http://www.ldv-forum.
org/?language=en, (accessed 11/11/2008).
Faltz, L. (1998). The Navajo Verb. Albuquerque: University
of New Mexico Press.
Farrar, S. and Langendoen, T. (2003). A Linguistic Ontology
for the Semantic Web. GLOT International 7(3),
97-100, http://www.linguistlist.org/emeld/documents/
GLOT-LinguisticOntology.pdf, (accessed 11/11/2008).
Francopoulo, G. (2007). Strategy for an OWL specification
of LMF. http://www.lexicalmarkupframework.org/
(accessed 11/11/2008).
Hayashi, Y., Declerck, T., Buitelaar, P. and Monachini,
M. (2008). Ontologies for a Global Language Infrastructure.
The First International Conference on Global
Interoperability for Language Resources (ICGL2008),
http://langrid.nict.go.jp/en/publication.html, (accessed
11/11/2008).
Jang, M. and Sohn, J. (2004). Bossam: An Extended
Rule Engine for OWL Inferencing. Antoniou, G. and
Boley, H.(Eds.): RuleML 2004, LNCS 3323, 128–138,
http://bossam.wordpress.com/documentation/, (accessed
11/11/2008).
Simons, G., Lewis, W., Farrar, S., Langendoen, D.,
Fitzsimons, B. & Gonzalez, H. (2004). The Semantics of
Markup: Mapping Legacy Markup Schemas to a Common
Semantics. Proceedings of the XMLNLP Workshop,
Association for Computational Linguistics, Barcelona,
Spain, http://emeld.org/documents/SOMFinal1col.
pdf, (accessed 11/11/2008).
Maxwell, M. and David, A. (2008). Interoperable Grammars.
The First International Conference on Global Interoperability
for Language Resources, Hong Kong, January,
http://icgl.ctl.cityu.edu.hk/, (accessed 11/11/2008).
Young, R. and Morgan, W. (1992). Analytical Lexicon of
Navajo. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.","txt","2","",""
"980","10","Lost in Transcription: Types, Tokens, and Modality in Document Representation","1","It is a commonplace that representation – no matter
how detailed – loses something from the original;
thus adequacy in representation is always contingent.1 A
recently proposed formal model of transcription (Huitfeldt
and Sperberg-McQueen, 2008) describes the criterion
that must be met if we are to say one document is
a transcription of another. Starting from that model this
paper first identifies a particular source of information
loss between exemplar and transcription, then generalizes
from that to a class of losses and suggests what the
model should include to account for that class. Finally,
the paper shows how aspects of the model might be realized
in markup.
In the model an exemplar document E is a physical object
on which is written a sequence of tokens, and there
exists a reading of that sequence in which each token instantiates
a type in a one-to-one relationship. (The model
is agnostic as to the granularity of tokens.) A second document
T is similar to E if and only if there is a reading
of the token sequence in T such that for each token in T:
1. we know which token in E it corresponds to
2. the order of tokens in T matches the order of tokens
in E, and
3. the type instantiated by the token matches the type
instantiated by the corresponding token in E
When the type sequences of T and E match, the documents
are t_similar, which is the model’s formal requirement
for T being a transcription of E. Note that the model
includes no formal concept of information loss between
E -> T other than that implied by a failure of any reading
of T to generate a type sequence that matches the E type
sequence. Figure 1 shows the basic model of transcription
and how it is repeatable: if E and T1 are t_similar,
a transcript T2 can be made of T1 such that E and T2 are
t_similar.
The model defines a document as “an individual object
containing marks” (297). On application of a reading
some, none, or all of the marks may be identified as tokens
insofar as they instantiate types. It is not unusual
for many acts of transcription to begin with considerable
uncertainty as to whether the marks in the document are
tokens at all, but as our interest is in text encoding we
shall assume an E where a competent reading not only
identifies some or all of the marks as tokens but also
recognizes that the token sequence forms a normative
text: that is, a text that conforms to the morpho-syntactic
and orthographic rules of the language from whose writing
system the types are being instantiated. Note that we
cannot assume meaningfulness in the token sequence: a
sentence such as Chomsky’s famous “Green ideas sleep
furiously” still counts as a text.
The model assumes E from the start, but for our purposes
we need to make the genesis of E explicit (even
if only - because necessarily - in an imaginary way).
Figure 2 shows the model extended backwards temporally
to include a moment of instantiation that produces
the E token sequence. We need not go into the question
of whether there can actually be an uninstantiated type
sequence,2 but it is important to include the process of
instantiation of the e_tokens – and what may happen in
it - because there is no necessary identity at the token
level between an e_token and its corresponding t_token.
If we know the e_type sequence and we wish to create
a t_similar document, we can only establish t_similarity
by instantiating each e_type as a t_token in a manner that
preserves the original e_type::e_token relation (subject,
of course, to a suitable reading). In other words, t_similarity
does not depend on T having an identical token
sequence to E.
As noted above, the model deliberately remains agnostic
as to the level at which tokens are distinguished, but we
will follow Huitfeldt and Sperberg-McQueen and start
by considering tokens at the level of the smallest individual
units in a writing system., which for convenience
we will refer to as the grapheme level.3 Assume a document
E that contains the text “How could Henry be here,
when he is supposed to be at his house?” The “H” tokens
in “How” and “Henry” are visibly different from the “h”
tokens of “when”, “he”, “his” and “house”. We assume
that in E the latter four have the kind of accidental differences
common to cursive handwriting or mechanical
printing, but they are obviously intended to be seen as
identical tokens and thus instantiations of the same type.
The “H” is specifically not meant to be seen as identical
to the “h”: the deliberate difference is called for by modern
English orthography. The choice of the token “H” is
rule-governed, just as is the choice of the “?” to punctuate
the end of a question. Majuscule and miniscule ‘h’
may be different glyphs, but they are allographs of the
same grapheme and thus are tokens that instantiate the same type.4
To identify tokens at a higher level, we shall use the notion
of the frame where meaningful units of tokens (either
single or in groups) are made distinct either by a
framing mark or the systematic absence of a mark (in
modern English orthography, the whitespace).5 Consider
the frame-level token “here”. At the grapheme level, the
token “h”, though not the same glyph as either the “h” of
“when”, “he”, “his” and “house” or the “H” of “How”
and “Henry”, is clearly still an allograph of the grapheme
they instantiate and therefore instantiates the same type
as they do. At the frame level, however, we see a difference
that is not the same sort as that between “h” and
“H”. In the process of instantiation a document creator
has made a particular choice about the form of all the
glyphs in “here” that is not orthographically rule-bound
like the choice of “H” in “How”. We understand that the
use of a different typeface at this point is not random: it
is deliberate and has communicative intent, even if we
have to make a more or less informed guess as to its
precise significance.
Does “here” instantiate a different type than “here” (or
“Here”, or “here”, etc.)? The frame-level token is a rulegoverned
grouping of grapheme-level tokens, and thus
the frame-level type is similarly a rule-governed grouping
of grapheme-level types. If “h” instantiates the same
type as “h”, then “here” instantiates the same type as
“here” and according to the model the following would
count as a transcription of the text in E: “How could
Henry be here, when he is supposed to be at his house?”
Yet it is clear that in this transcription we have lost some
information that was deliberately put into the token sequence
of E. We must either account for this information
in the notion of types themselves, or adjust the model to
account for it somewhere else.
For reasons that have already been suggested, I believe
we should resist locating this information at the type
level. The notion that different token forms can map to
one type is a strength of the model, and accords with
our informal sense of what constitutes a transcription (as
opposed to, say, a facsimile). Types are abstractions, but
ones that derive precisely from the existence of variant
forms. Any conception we have of the English alphabetic
letter type ‘h’ has been shaped by the millions of ‘h’
tokens we have encountered. Similarly for the English
morphological unit type ‘here’. It would seem odd to say
that if we encounter the token “here” where in context
we would expect “here”, then “here” must be instantiating
a different type than “here”. If that were so, then
what about “here”, or “here”: would they be two more
different types?
That question points to what I consider the correct way
forward. We would not consider it unusual if in our E text
we saw “here”, or “here” instead of “here”; we would,
I suggest, interpret the communicative intent the same
way in all three cases. Supposing that the use of italics
in “here” signifies emphasis, then we have a textual effect
equivalent to a paralinguistic phenomenon. Just as
emphasis in speech comes in delivery of the word, and
is not part of the morphological unit per se, so the use
of italics (or underlining, or bolding, or majuscules) are
part of the ‘delivery’ – the instantiation – of the type.
As experienced readers we recognize a set of cases where
tokens display something that is in excess of - or deviant
from - the norm: that is non-rule-governed (though
it may be conventional within a community of practice)
and external to the type sequence. Let us call this thing
modality, and let us distinguish three main types. The
first, that we have already mentioned, is presentational
modality. The variant token forms “here”, “here” and
“here” all display presentational modality. The second
kind is accidental modality and this, too, occurs in the
process of instantiation. Examples of accidental modality
would be turned letters, incorrect letters,, misaligned
letters, broken typefaces, words out of sequence, etc.
The third kind is temporal modality, and unlike the other
two this occurs after instantiation of E but before the
reading that generates the type sequence from which the
token sequence in a transcription T will be instantiated.
As the name suggests, this modality involves the effects
of time on the token sequence in E, and includes staining,
foxing, fading, darkening, blurring, etc. Figure 3 shows
the model augmented with the three types of modality.
It should be clear that adding modality does not change
the underlying model. One can choose to ignore the
modal information and strive only for t_similarity. The
idea that the modal information is less important and
therefore ‘loseable’ accords with many peoples’ conceptions
of transcription (and also, to some extent, of editorial
practice and text encoding practice). We began by
noting, however, that representational adequacy is contingent,
and so for the creators and users of a scholarly
digital edition t_similarity might be inadequate. Granting
that it would be impossible to formally specify the
difference between t_similar and identical, it still helps
if the model includes the fact of - and something of the
nature of – that difference. This is especially true when
in many cases the reading has to interpret the modality to
produce the type sequence.
In digital humanities practice, modality lost in transcription
can be supplied by various means including images,
prose descriptions, and the formatting facilities of text editing software. Encoding schemes such as the Text Encoding
Initiative Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding
and Interchange (TEI Consortium, 2008) offer more
abstract and more computationally exploitable ways of
conveying modal information, but only as part of a whole
whose scope is much wider than the particular concerns
of the model. We could imagine, however, an encoding
which in the model’s terms we would locate between the
reading and the T token sequence. This would be a highly
abstract, contentless encoding that would, in effect,
represent a latent token sequence and would record both
type and modality (Figure 4).6 In practice this encoding
would mediate the final instantiation of types-intotokens,
giving the ‘transcriber’ in charge a high degree
of control over how much information was preserved in
the final token sequence.7
Notes 1Extensively commented upon; the following quote from
Stevens and Burg is representative: “[t]ranscription is
akin to translation, for no editor can take a document and
convert it into another form without somehow changing
it.” (1997, 21). See also Shillingsburg (2008, passim) for
an evocation of what is lost.
2Committed nominalists can simply treat the type sequence
part of the model as a useful fiction.
3Certainly at this level the token::type relation closely resembles
that of glyph::grapheme and it is convenient to
use these familiar concepts. However, even in our imagination
the abstract thing can only “show” itself according
to tokens we have encountered, and thus it is hard
to abstract graphemes as we should (see also following
note). It may be that we need a more symbolic solution
to the problem of specifying types.
4The model only works if we think of types as abstractly
as possible, so while the alphabetic letters, punctuation
marks, etc. available to English orthography have been
historically determined and mutable over time, we have
to think of them as members of a set, not as particular
forms. There are 26 members of the subset we call the
Latin alphabet, and I locate graphemes at this level,
where the majuscule / miniscule distinction does not yet
exist.
5I have taken this from DeFrancis (1989: 54), who is following
Wang (1981: 226-228). DeFrancis contrasts English,
where frames usually have more than one grapheme,
with Chinese, where “frames invariably contain
only one grapheme”.
6The encoding shown in Figure 4 is simply a sketch of
what transcription-oriented markup might look like; it is
not meant to be taken as representing a fully worked out
scheme.
7Of course the “final token sequence” can still be a mix
of encoding and PCDATA.
References
DeFrancis, J. (1989) Visible Speech: The Diverse Oneness
of Writing Systems. Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Press.
Huitfeldt, C. and Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. (2008)
What is Transcription? Literary and Linguistic Computing,
23: 295-310.
Shillingsburg, P. (1999) “Negotiating Conflicting Aims
in Scholarly Editing: The Problem of Editorial Intentions.”
In Jansohn, C. ed. Problems of Editing. Pp. 1-8.
Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1999.Stevens, M. E. and Burg, S. B. (1997) Editing Historical
Documents. A Handbook of Practice. American Association
for State and Local History Book Series. Walnut
Creek, CA.: AltaMira Press, 1997.
TEI Consortium, eds. (2008) TEI P5: Guidelines for
Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. P5, Version
1.2.0. October 31st 2008. TEI Consortium. http://www.
tei-c.org/Guidelines/P5/ (November 14th 2008).
Wang, W. S.-Y. (1981) “Language Structure and Optimal
Orthography.” In Ovid J. L. Tzeng and Harry Singer,
eds., Perception of Print. Reading Research in Experimental
Psychology. Pp. 223-236. Hillside, NJ.: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.","txt","2","",""
"981","10","Image as Markup: Adding Semantics to Manuscript Images","1","In their article “Images as the Text: Pictographs and Pictographic
Logic,” Jerome McGann and Johanna Drucker
argue for the semantic significance of the image of text,
using as an example the organization of the text of a
poem by Byron. They conclude:
...a rhetoric of transparency makes it difficult to see beyond
the moves within the text and the image to understand
the metagraphic logic organizing them. In such a
situation, the study of pictographs, which hover at the
borderland of text and image, can be especially useful.
They help us to see that at the next level of abstraction, of
texts and images as information, similar logical mechanisms
are at work. Each instance of text and image is an
incarnation of such a metalogic, but it can be articulated
according to its own rules and principles if it is rendered
explicit. [McGann]
In the publication of manuscript transcriptions, two
modes of presentation are typically recognized: the edition,
in which an editor’s supplements are folded into
the text, and the diplomatic transcription, which attempts
to faithfully reproduce the text on the original support.
With the advent of markup systems like the Text Encoding
Initiative (TEI), it is possible to produce both types
of transcription from the same marked up text. Indeed,
it is possible to go further, and analyze the text in ways
that print transcriptions cannot, and to link transcriptions
(and notes) to images in new ways.
As part of a series of experiments in text and image linking,
beginning in the summer of 2008, the author has
developed a method for generating a Scaleable Vector
Graphics (SVG) representation of the text in an image of
a manuscript. [CaylessSVG] This method employs open
source tools to generate and present the results of the
SVG tracing. Automated analysis of the SVG output of
the process is capable (even using a naïve algorithm) of
detecting lines in the source, and it is not hard to conceive
of ways to detect words and other features in the image.
The output of the tracing is in the form of SVG path
elements, which employ a combination of cubic Bézier
curves [Bézier] and lines to draw shapes. These can be
grouped together (using svg:g elements) to, forexample,
gather the components of a line of text as children of
a single element. The SVG may include a copy of the
original image as background, therefore superimposing
the vector graphic tracings on top of the raster image.
Since SVG is an XML application, this means that the
features it represents are manipulable with Javascript,
offering the possibility of highlighting features, panning
and zooming, adding hyperlinks, etc.
In examining ways one might link between an XML
transcription of the text and an XML overlay of the text,
one quickly runs into problems involving overlapping
hierarchies: paths may include multiple letters or words,
for example, and there may be letters that correspond to
multiple paths. The process of generating the SVG tracing
involves the conversion of the image to a black and
white (1-bit) bitmap, wherein each pixel is either black
or white. This makes it possible for the software to reproduce
the shapes in the original source in vector format,
but it also involves a flattening of the text in the
image into a single space. While it might have been clear
that the stroke of one letter runs over the top of a second
in a color image, that layering is lost in the SVG, and the
two letters are a single shape in the output. This may,
of course, involve the descender of a letter ‘f’ touching
the line below, for example, making line detection more
difficult.
The figure below (derived from a papyrus fragment1)
highlights some of these issues. Notice that the initial
kappa is represented by no less than eight paths,
while part of the downward stroke of the final alpha in κατάξοντα connects to the following word, ἅ.
These features of the traced text mean that marking a
word in the image is inherently difficult. Possible solutions
include modifying the SVG with an editor, so that
the two letters no longer connect, or adding a new element,
perhaps just a line added by an editor, to divide
the two. The former solution involves doing a certain
amount of violence to the image, however, since the two
letters do in fact touch, while the latter introduces a new
issue: the lack of semantics.
The semantics of SVG are almost purely geometric.
It primarily encodes shapes, with additional support
for links, text, embedded images, and animation. This
means there is no inherent way to express the significance
of a grouping or a feature in SVG. If we introduce
the idea of a line that can break paths representing letters
or words, then in order to be able to use this feature to,
for example, point to the whole word κατάξοντα in the
SVG, we would first need a process that could find the
intersection points of the word-dividing line and the path
representing the two alphas, and then split that path into
two derivative paths, each of which would be associated
with a different word. This method would avoid damage
to the actual tracing while allowing the types of reference
that are likely to be useful. The derivative paths
could be placed in the same document and only activated
as needed.
Again, however, there is a need for semantics in the SVG
document. Not only might it be necessary to differentiate
between lines dividing letters and lines dividing
words or lines of text so that a processor knows how to
deal with them and their outputs, but it must also be possible
to distinguish between the derived paths and the
originals, since there is no inherent difference between
one svg:path element and another. They may render in
the same coordinate space, for example, even though
they are in different parts of the document.
Some possibilities for adding semantics to SVG include
embedding metadata (perhaps using RDF) using
the svg:metadata element, or developing a microformat,
perhaps depending on the @class attribute, which is
available on all displayable elements.[Schepers] These
kinds of semantic “hooks” will be absolutely necessary
if linking between the many possible structures in the
transcription and the SVG are to be achieved. Some examples
of the types of functionality that can be enabled
by the technology described here are:
1. linking from notes, such as a description of letter
forms, to actual examples inthe image.
2. The ability to link/zoom to any part of the text in the
image from the transcription.
3. Image search with highlighted results.
4. Marking editorial emendations, such as expanded
abbreviations and other types of editorial addition
or deletion on the image itself.
Put another way, the semantics of the graphical representation
of the text can be made explicit, by means of
embedding and linking information into markup that itself
overlays an image of the text, making for a very rich
presentation and research tool.
Notes
1See http://papyri.info//navigator/full/apis_
michigan_1769
References
Bézier curve - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved
November 14, 2008, from http:// en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/B%C3%A9zier_curve. [Bézier]
Cayless, H. “Linking Page Images to Transcriptions
with SVG.” Presented at Balisage: The Markup Conference,
12 - 15 August 2008. In Proceedings of Balisage:
The Markup Conference (2008). Retrieved November
14, 2008, from http://www.balisage.net/ Proceedings/
html/2008/Cayless01/Balisage2008-Cayless01.html.
Drucker, J., & McGann, J. “Images as the Text: Pictographs
and Pictorgraphic Logic.” Retrieved October
28, 2008, from http://jefferson.village.virginia.
edu/%7Ejjm2f/old/ pictograph.html. [McGann]
Schepers, D. A. “Reinventing Fire >> Blog Archive >>
SVG Text, Semantics, and Accessibility.” November
7th, 2006 at 5:24 am. Retrieved November 13, 2008,
from http://schepers.cc/? p=11. [Schepers]","txt","2","",""
"982","10","On Building a Full-Text Digital Library of Land Deeds of Taiwan","1","In this paper we present a full-text digital library of
Taiwanese land deeds. Land deeds were the only
proof of land activities such as transaction of ownership
and leasing in Taiwan before 1900. They form a major
part of the primary documents at the grassroot level in
pre-1900 Taiwan, and are extremely valuable for studying
the evolution of the Taiwanese society.
Land deeds, on the other hand, are difficult to study because
they are hand-written and hard to read. Furthermore,
they are scattered in many different locations and,
in some cases, in the hands of families and private collectors.
In order to make the land deeds more accessible to researchers
and educators, the Council for Cultural Affairs
of Taiwan embarked on a major effort to organize available
land deeds and typed them as machine readable fulltext.
Based on this collection and collections from other
sources, the National Taiwan University built a full-text
digital library of Taiwanese land deeds. The current size
of the collection is over 23,000 which, according to one
estimation, cover about 50% of all existing land deeds.1
The collection will be expanded to around 30,000 by the
end of the year.
Our digital library is built with the goal of providing an
electronic research environment for historians to conduct
research using land deeds. Thus in addition to providing
full-text search and retrieval, we developed a concept of
regarding the query return as a sub-collection and built
tools to help the user find meaning and relationships
at the collection level. Post-processing presentation,
term frequency analysis and co-occurrence, and relation
graphs are some of the tools described in this paper. We
believe that our digital library will bring Taiwanese historical
research using land deeds to a different horizon.
Land Deeds of Taiwan
Before Taiwan was ceded to Japan by the Chinese Qing
Dynasty after the Sino-Japanese War of 1895, land deeds
were the only proof of ownership and transaction of land
in Taiwan. Land deeds were, thus, a centrally important
primary source for studying the 300 years written
history of pre-1900 Taiwanese society (Wu, Ang, Lee,
Lin, 2004). Even after the modernization of land administration
by the Japanese, many families still kept the
old land deeds either as part of the family heritage or
due to the mistrust of the government. Many, however,
were destroyed or discarded since they lost their original
significance. During the early stage of the Japanese
occupation, the government conducted research on the
old administrative systems and customs and produced
three series of books totalling 40 volumes, many of
which contained transcriptions of land deeds as examples.
During the reform of the land administration, the
Japanese government sent surveyors to systematically
transcribe land deeds so that they can be convert into
modern land administrative records. In the latter endeavor,
about 16,000 were collected. Their transcribed
versions (copied verbatim by hand) are scattered in the
13,855 volumes of the Archives of the Japanese Taiwan
Governor-Generals (Wang 1993). After Taiwan was returned
to Chinese rule in 1945 after the 2nd World War,
some research institutes and researchers recognized the
importance of the land deeds and made efforts to collect
them. The most notable, and largest scale such effort
was conducted between 1976 and 1983 by a team
lead by the historian Wang Shih-Ching who, commissioned
by the Committee for Taiwan Historical Studies,
Association for Asian Studies, U.S.A., collected about
5,600 land deeds and published a six volume catalog
Taiwanese Historical Documents in Private Holdings
(Wang, 1977). The photocopies of the land deeds were
bound into more than 100 volumes. Other notable collections
were kept at the National Taiwan University, the
Institute of Taiwanese History of the Academia Sinica,
the National Taiwan Library, and by various private collectors.
Scores of books containing the images of some
land deeds have appeared in the past ten years. Wang
estimated (1993, pp. 71) that there are 20,000 land deeds
in the hands of private collectors, libraries, museums and
research institutes that were not included in the official
collections. That makes the total number of such land
deeds about 40,000. Our experience in the past ten years
of digitization tells us there should be more, although we
cannot give a reasonable estimation. Land deeds of Taiwan are contracts about various actions
involving lands, such as the commission by the
government to cultivate previously un-owned land, the
division of family properties, the transaction of ownership,
the rental of farming right, the pawning of land, etc.
They were hand written and were usually prepared by a
scrivener. A land deed usually consists of the following
elements:
• The type of the land deed: selling, renting, pawning,
etc.
• the “seller” (or owner) of the land,
• the “buyer” (or lender) of the land,
• the location of the land and its boundaries (usually
marked on all four directions using neighboring
landmarks such as river, road, building, pond, or
even trees),
• the cost: money, maybe accompanied by other
properties such as houses, cows, storage sheds, and
farming tools,
• the names of witnesses and the scrivener, and
• the date. While each land deed may have significance only to its
owner, the collection as a whole provides a fascinating
glimpse into the pre-1900 Taiwanese grassroots society.
Through these land deeds, one can study the development
of a region, or the overall land management, society,
economy, and law of pre-1900 Taiwan. Furthermore,
since many of the deeds were contracts between indigenous
people of Taiwan and the Han immigrants from
China, they also provide clues to the intricate relationship
among the various peoples of Taiwan (Hong, 2002),
the transition of rights to land, and the gradual assimilation
of the indigenous people (in particular the Pinpu 平
埔族群) into the Han society. Our Collections of Land Deeds of Taiwan
In 2003 and 2004, the Council for Cultural Affairs (CCA)
of Taiwan commissioned the National Taichung Library
(NTL) and Professor Lee Wen-Liang of NTU to collect
and digitize (in full text) the hand-written copies of land
deeds from the Archives of the Japanese Taiwan Governor-
Generals. In this project, NTL keyed-in the full text
of 15,899 land deeds from the Archives of the Japanese
Taiwan Governor-Generals. In the meantime, National
Taiwan University (NTU) and Taichung County Cultural
Center (TCCC) also digitized their own collections of
land deeds, most notably the Anli Dashe Archive. Together,
NTL, NTU, and TCCC have collected more than
23,000 land deeds in Taiwan, all incorporated into Taiwan
History Digital Library (THDL), a full-text digital serve as a research environment for researchers in Taiwanese
history and other disciplines. All of the deeds
are available in searchable full text, with metadata and,
in some cases, images.
The building of content is an on-going effort. We project
that the size of our collection will reach 30,000 by the
end of the year.
A Research Environment for Land Deeds
We have incorporated the above-mentioned collections
of Taiwanese land deeds into Taiwan History Digital Library
(THDL) (Chen, Hsiang, Tu, and Wu, 2007), which
is built with the goal of providing an electronic research
environment for historians. Since our primary goal is to
build a digital library to be used by researchers, we spent
a great amount of time interacting with historians and
built tools that they would find useful in their research.
Full-text search is, in our view, the most basic facility.
However, what is more important is how to help the user
analyze the query results once they are retrieved.
We developed a methodology that treats query returns as
a sub-collection, instead of as individual (and independent)
documents. This seems to reflect better the need of
researchers, who usually look for significance emerged
from a set of land deeds. Under this philosophy, we have
built extensive post-query classification facilities, which
classify and present the query results according to attributes
such as year, type of deeds, origin, etc. We also
provide term frequency analysis which, using the 50,000
terms (names and locations, mostly extracted automatically)
appeared in the collection, analyzes relationships
such as geographic locations, co-occurrences, people involved.
The co-occurrence and temporal relationships are further
analyzed in the line chart of temporal distribution facility
provided, which gives a visual representation that
makes observation easier. As mentioned before, each
land deed features a list of attributes. These attributes
can, in principle at least, be extracted from a deed. This
work is quite laborious and is still under way. But we
have developed an XML format that captures the attributes
and, more importantly, makes it easy to build relation
graphs that show the relationship among land deeds.
Our preliminary experiments show that these graphs can
play a significant role in the study of land deeds.
In the following, we present the aforementioned features
in more detail. Historians usually do not look at a single document but,
rather, a group of documents and try to find significance
through their relationship. For example, land deeds
from the same region as a whole may reveal the gradual
change of land ownership from one ethnic group to another
which, obvious, cannot be observed from a single
document. For this purpose, we developed a concept that
regards the query returns as a sub-collection and built
tools to help the user find meaning and relationships
at the collection level. This is done in THDL mainly
through post-processing a query’s returns, presenting
and analyzing them as a whole. Figure 2 is an example of how query results are presented
in THDL. After the query results (the sub-collection)
are returned, THDL classifies the resulting land deeds
according to three predefined dimensions (year, origin,
and type) on the left of the web page, while presenting
summaries of the land deeds themselves on the right.
Each class is followed by the size of the class (Fig. 3).
By representing post-query classification, the historian
can observe the distribution and behavior of the subcollection,
and see if there is anything that contradicts
what the historian predicts. At a first glimpse, the historian
can quickly capture the outline of the sub-collection.
It’s helpful especially when the query results of full-text
search is too large to manage. Furthermore, the postquery
classification can also be used as a faceted search:
simply click on a class will refine the user’s query.
Note that the three dimensions are chosen because they
are important characteristics of land deeds. A different
corpus could define a completely different set of dimensions
to reflect the characteristics of the content. The post-query classification on year reviews the temporal
distribution of a sub-collection. To better visualize
the temporal distribution of a query’s returns, we have
built a tool to draw a line chart for any given query. It is
especially useful when comparing the temporal distributions
of two queries at a same time. For example, when a
historian suspects that there is dependency between two
concepts and wants more analysis, she can simply input
each concept as a query, and then get a line chart (Fig.
4). The line chart of Fig 4. suggests that the two concepts
are quite correlated. We have developed a term extraction method for extracting
noun phrases from old Chinese text (Chang 2006).
In the land deed corpus, we have successfully extracted
40,000 names of people and 7,000 names of locations
from metadata records and from full text (Chang, 2006).
THDL uses the names to provide term frequency analysis
by calculating the numbers of times each name appears
in the sub-collection and representing the result in
tables alongside the full text of resulting land deeds (Fig.
5). The names are listed in descending order according to
their document frequency (DF, the number of documents
in which a name appears). The user can use the tables to
observe the relevance among locations and people in the
sub-collection. Fig. 5 shows the returns of the query “Jin
Guang Cheng” (金廣成), a local reclamation cooperative
in the Guanxi (關西) area. At a closer look at the tables of names (Fig. 6) shows that the people on top
are indeed the major shareholders of Jin Guang Cheng.
Similarly, the locations on top are exactly the locations
where Jin Guang Cheng claimed lands back to 1880s.
However, the person with the highest DF only appears
in 38 documents, while the size of the sub-collection is
61, showing that none of the people appear dominantly
in the sub-collection. On the contrary, the locations with
the highest DF, “Shiliao Zhuang” (十寮庄) and “Zhubei
Er Bao” (竹北二保), appear in 57 and 56 documents accordingly,
showing the lands Jin Quang Cheng claimed
were mostly around the same area. Each land deed should, in principle, include all the attributes
we mentioned earlier in the paper. It is thus desirable
to extract them so that analysis can be done more
easily. We have developed an XML format and have
already extracted and analyzed about 13,000 of these
deeds (with the attributes of such land deed represented
as an XML file). Fig. 7 shows an example of these XML  files. We have also developed a way to show the inter-relationship
of the XML files via a notion of relation graphs.
These graphs have been used to conduct role analysis, which shows how a specific person, family, or cooperative
is involved in the development of a certain region
through time. It is done by unfolding the roles they
played in land deeds. For example, Fig 8. shows the role
analysis of “Lin Benyuan” (林本源), a cooperative that
the well-known Lin family of northern Taiwan set up to
represent the family in land acquisition. We found that
most of the land deeds involving Lin Benyuan in our collection
are sales of lands or certificates of lands from thethe buyer
in all the sales and was the landowners in all the certificates.
This observation matches the general impression
of the Lin family, which has been one of the wealthiest
families in Taiwan since late 19th century till now. The
timeline of the deeds also shows that they focused on
(and systematically) acquiring lands from one geographic
location before moving on to the next.We have also built other facilities to assist research.
THDL allows users to bookmark documents and thus
create their own sub-collections. Moreover, users can
manipulate sub-collections by applying three set operations
– union, intersection, and complement – on subcollections
and save the result as a sub-collection (Tu,
1998). This facility enables the user to adjust a query’s
returns by adding or removing designated documents, or
documents from another sub-collection. THDL automatically
calculates the similarity between documents and
reports to user when there are documents similar to the
present one. The user can check if it’s a duplicate land
deed or a copy. For reading assistance, THDL provides
the facility highlights query terms and user-designated
keywords. This facility can help the user to quickly identify
keywords of interests when reading, and thus can
help quick evaluation of relevance.
Concluding Remarks
In this paper we described the land deed portion of THDL
(Taiwan History Digital Library) that we build with the
goal of providing a research environment with primary
documents in full-text for research in Taiwanese history.
We have developed a concept of regarding query results
as a sub-collection, and have built tools that help users
observe the relationship and collective meaning of a set
of documents. On the aspect of land deeds, we have noticed
that most of the existing research in Taiwan on this
subject had used no more than a few old deeds (often
within a hundred). It would be interesting to see, with
over 20,000 land deeds available in searchable full-text
and with tools to help discovering and analyzing their relationship,
what kind of research issues can emerge and
what kind of observations can be made.
Notes 1This estimation, however, could be significantly lower
than the real number.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the National Taichung
Library for their effort in producing the full text
of many of the land deeds mentioned in this article; the
Council of Cultural Affairs of Taiwan for authorizing
the inclusion of those deeds into our system; the staff of
the Special Collections Division of the National Taiwan
University Library in producing the full text of their collection
and for further checking the typing correctness of
all the deeds; Professors Wu Micha and Lee Wen-Liang
of the Department of History of NTU for their continuing
support; the members of the Lab of Digital Archives
and Automated Reasoning of the Department of Computer
Science of NTU for producing many of the tools
mentioned here; and the staff of the Research Center for
Digital Humanities for their general support.References
Chang, S.P. (2006). A Word-Clip Algorithm for Named
Entity Recognition: by Example of Historical Documents.
Master Thesis. National Taiwan University.
Chen, S.P., Hsiang, J., Tu, H.C., and Wu, M.C. (2007).
On Building a Full-Text Digital Library of Historical
Documents. In: Dion Hoe Lian Goh, Tru Hoang Cao,
Ingeborg SÃ¸lvberg, Edie Rasmussen (Eds.), 10th International
Conference on Asian Digital Libraries (ICADL
2007): Asian Digital Libraries. Looking Back 10 Years
and Forging New Frontiers. Hanoi, Vietnam, December
10-13, 2007. New York: Springer Berlin, pp. 49-60.
Hong, L.W. (2005). A Study of Aboriginal Contractual
Behavior and the Relationship between Aborigines and
Han Immigrants in West-Central Taiwan. Vol. 1. Taiwan:
Taichung County Cultural Center, pp. 5.
Tu, H.C. (1998). Interactive Web IR: Focalization Model,
Effectiveness Measures, and Experiments. Ph. D. Dissertation.
National Taiwan University.
Wu, M.C., Ang K.I., Lee, W.L., and Lin, H.Y. (2004).
A Brief Introduction to the Integrated Collections of
Taiwan-related Historical Records. Taiwan: CCA and
Yuan-Liou Publishing, pp. 101.
Wang, S.C. (1977). Taiwanese Historical Documents in
Private Holdings. Taipei: Huanqiu Publishing.
Wang, S.C. (1993). Introducing Historical Documents of
Taiwan: Government Archives, Old Documents, and Genealogies.
In: Yan-xian Zhang and Mei-rong Chen eds.
Taiwan History and Historical Documents of Taiwan.
Taipei: Zili Evening News Publishing,
Wang, S.C. (2004). Papers of Taiwan Historical Documents,
Volume 1. Taipei: Daw Shiang Publishing, pp.
375-376.","txt","2","",""
"983","10","Predicting new words from newer words: Lexical borrowings in French","1","This study models the integration of new lexical
borrowings into French, a language in which new
lexical borrowings are common. Our goal is to predict
whether or not a new lexical borrowing will “survive”
the onslaught of time and be integrated into French.
In linguistics, most theories of word formation have been
conducted in the generative tradition, such as those taken
by Aronoff (1976), Selkirk (1982), Halle & Marantz
(1993), and Ussishkin (2005). These approaches work
well for new words formed by affixation and address, for
example, how to form the neologism hateable from hate
according to the same rules from which we have love -->
loveable. Yet these theories have not addressed the productivity
of borrowings. Although borrowings may have
internal morphological structure in the donor language,
their adoption in French is not governed by structural
rules as studied in theoretical morphology. The goal of
the present study is to address the non-structural factors
that codetermine whether a borrowing will find its way
into the vocabulary of the recipient language.
Although many words from other languages enjoy
ephemeral use, the borrowings that become entrenched
in the language are a highly constrained subset of the
possible borrowings: new words do not occur indiscriminately.
Several factors may promote entrenchment in
the recipient language’s lexicon.
First, the DONOR LANGUAGE of a borrowing may
play a role in lexical integration. For example, borrowings
from a prestigious language like English could be
more likely to be integrated into the French lexicon than
borrowings from a less prestigious language like Polish.
Second, a borrowing’s FREQUENCY at a given moment
in time could be an influential predictor about the borrowing’s
integration into the language at a later point in time.
Third, a borrowing’s DISPERSION—the number of different
text chunks a word occurs in if a text is divided predictor. The more writers/speakers use a borrowing,
the greater likelihood it has of becoming entrenched in
the language community. Fourth, since shorter borrowings
require less processing effort, we hypothesize that
the LENGTH of the borrowing will be inversely related
to the degree of integration of a borrowing. Fifth, the
SENSE PATTERN (monosemy or polsemy) of aborrowing
in the recipient language may also be at issue. A semantically
rich borrowing might have a greater chance
of surviving than a semantically and contextually highly
restricted, specialized, borrowing. Finally, we consider
as well a cultural context factor, whether or not the borrowing
refers to a culture that typically corresponds to
the language of the borrowing. It is possible that a culturally
unrestricted borrowing, for example, a Russian borrowing
when describing China, could indicate a greater
degree of integration than a restricted cultural context in
which a Russian borrowing describes Russia. This study gathered initial new borrowings from the Le
Monde corpus (Abeillé et al. 2003) from 1989–1992.
We alsoqueried the online archives of Le Figaro for the
borrowings from 1996–2006, taking occurrence in this
second corpus as a proxy for integration into the French
lexicon. Given the frequency, the dispersion, the length,
the donor language of the borrowing, the borrowing’s
sense pattern and its cultural context in Le Monde, we
developed a multiple regression model predicting the
frequency of occurrence of the borrowing in the later
Le Figaro corpus. Our model succeeded in explaining a
high proportion of the variance in the Le Figaro frequencies
(R2 =0.673, with minimal overfitting as evidenced
by bootstrap validation). Table 1 summarizes this model.
Table 1 shows a highly significant main effect for dispersion.
The effect of dispersion is modulated by an interaction
with frequency, indicating the role of frequency is
restricted to words that have a broad dispersion. Comparing
frequency and dispersion, dispersion emerges as
the pre-eminent predictor for integration into the lexicon.
Length, operationalized in terms of number of syllables,
emerged with a negative slope, as expected. The effect
of length depended on the cultural context. In culturally
unrestricted contexts, longer borrowings are less likely
to be integrated into the lexicon. Polysemous borrowings,
borrowings with another sense already existing in
the language, are also more likely to be integrated into
the lexicon than borrowings that do not have another
sense. Finally, the cultural context variable turned out to
modulate the effect of most other predictors (frequency,
length, sense, and donor language).
We have documented a range of factors that codetermine
the acceptance of borrowings in a new language. These
factors may play a role not only for the entrenchment
of borrowings, but also for the entrenchment of regular
morphologically complex neologisms, complementing
the structure-directed investigations of theoretical
morphology. An important direction for future research
is to investigate whether, and if so how, the weights of
the factors documented here are modulated by the internal
structure of complex words (across affixed words,
blends, and acronyms).
Unlike other types of word formation, borrowings allow
us to gauge the degree of interaction between cultures.
The cultural context factor in the present study, for instance,
suggests that borrowings can be used to trace
how concepts from dominant cultures establish themselves
in the language community and spread to those
contexts where subordinate cultures are in focus. This
information is not only of use to linguists, but also to
sociologists and anthropologists.
The methodology outlined in the present study may also
be of use for lexicography, as it makes it possible to predict
which borrowings (and other neologisms) are in the
process of becoming entrenched in the language community,
and therefore merit inclusion in dictionaries. References Abeillé Clément, & F. Toussenel. 2003. Building a
treebank for french. In Treebanks: Building and Using
Parsed Corpora, 165–188. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Aronoff, Mark. 1976. Word Formation in Generative
Grammar. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Halle, M.,& A. Marantz.1993. Distributed morphology
and the pieces of inflection. In The View from Building
20: Essays in Linguistics in Honor of Sylvain Bromberger,
ed. by K. Hale & S. J. Keyser, volume 24 of Current
Studies in Linguistics, 111–176. Cambridge, Mass: MIT
Press.
Selkirk, E. 1982. The Syntax of Words. Cambridge: The
MIT Press.
Ussishkin, A. 2005. A Fixed Prosodic Theory of Nonconcatenative
Templatic Morphology. Natural Language &
Linguistic Theory 23.169–218.","txt","2","",""
"984","10","Complementary critical traditions and Elizabeth Cary's Tragedy of Mariam","1","It has become a critical commonplace that computational
studies have not achieved widespread acceptance
in mainstream literary studies (Corns 1991, Potter
1991, Fortier 1991, McGann 2001, Ramsay 2003, Rommel
2004). It is also the case, however, that practitioners
have tended to be cautious about the sorts of interpretive
claims that can be made on the basis of statistical analysis.
Ramsay (2003) locates the source of the caution in
a from of “dissonance” in the computing community
where empirical studies are seen as providing a kind of
safe haven that would be compromised if the researcher
were to intervene excessively with either the data or the
analysis (168).
The view of computational stylistics as “scientific” and
therefore irrelevant to mainstream literary criticism is
a pervasive one. Scholars who are sympathetic to the
methods involved in attribution and the analysis of style
typically construct the problem of humanities computing
relationship with the wider scholarly community in
terms of a need for computing scholars to rethink their
research such that it is framed in terms of “interesting”
versus “right” (Ramsay 2003 173) or “interactive tool”
versus “quantitative tool” (Sinclair 2003 177) or “disciplined
play” versus “unity and coherence” (Rockwell
2003 213). In constructing the debate in these terms there
is a risk of amplifying whatever differences there may be
between traditional humanities scholars and computing
scholars. The result is that the perceived differences become
further entrenched. It also sidesteps the question of
how and why attribution studies work.
Attitudes to what can be said about a text depend largely
on the account of language that underpins an analysis
(Connors 2006a; Hoover 2007). Cognitive grammar as
developed by Ronald Langacker (1987, 1991) provides
a theory that justifies the counting of function words in a
computational analysis and also provides an interpretive
framework that can explain the use of function words
as a rhetorically motivated choice with semantic implications.
As such it provides a promising theoretical account
for the kinds of computational studies carried out by Burrows (1987a, 1987b, 1992b), Craig (1999a, 2002,
2004), Hoover (2003a, 2003b), Rybicki (2005), and others.
This study explores the use of function words in an analysis
of style of 60 tragedies published between 1580 and
1641, with a particular focus on Elizabeth Cary’s, The
Tragedy of Mariam. The set is comprised of the 12 socalled
“Sidnean” closet tragedies, as well as 48 tragedies
that were written for performance (See Appendix 1).
Of these 5 were performed in private theatres and 41 in
public theatres. It is not known whether the remaining 2
were performed (Harbage & Schoenbaum, 1964). Some
textual preparation was carried out prior to the analysis,
but editing and coding was kept to a minimum. Although
spelling was regulated homographs were not tagged.
Contracted forms throughout the texts were expanded so
that their constituents appeared as separate words.
Tagged texts were then run through a frequency count
using a program developed by the Centre for Literary
and Linguistic Computing (CLLC) at the University of
Newcastle called Intelligent Archive (IA). A list of 241
function words was used (see Appendix 2). This list was
developed on the basis of work by the CLLC. Using IA a
frequency test was run to establish which function words
were most commonly found in each of the plays. The
frequency count for each word in the function word list
was expressed in the IA output as a percentage of the
total dialogue in the relevant play. The data produced by
IA were then transferred to Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences (SPSS), and Excel, for further analysis. On the basis of strong discriminate analysis results an
independent samples t test was carried out to identify a
set of “closet” and “stage” markers (see appendix 3). The test for equality of means and Mann Whitney test. A
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was then carried
out to identify which variables were responsible for most
of the difference between the sets of texts. For the PCA,
the texts were broken into 4000 word segments to ensure
that results could be easily presented. Segments of less
than 4000 words were incorporated into the preceding
segment. This produced 268 segments in total (50 closet
segments and 218 stage play segments). The results of
the PCA are set out in Table 1 and Table 2. One of the most interesting features of Figure 2 is the
way the graph identifies three loosely clustered generic
groupings. These are closet plays to the east, public stage
plays to the west, and private stage plays along with
Mariam in the centre. Marta Straznicky (2004) analyses
Mariam in the context of drama associated with the private
theatres. She notes that writers for the stage actively
incorporated elements of the neo-Senecan tradition associated
with closet tragedy into their plays. While some
writers for the stage adopt various features commonly
found in closet tragedy to a greater extent than their colleagues,
Elizabeth Cary appears to draw on a more theatrical
tradition than her closet contemporaries.
This is an interesting result for Elizabeth Cary’s play because
it supports the insights of more traditional humanities
scholars who have described Mariam as the most
“theatrical” of the Sidnean closet tragedies (Barish 1993;
Findlay, Williams & Hodgson-Wright 1999; Straznicky
2004). The play features sub-plots, stage directions and
action that is played out rather than dealt with through
narrative. Function word analysis supports the view of
Mariam as one of the more theatrical of the closet texts,
and provides additional information about how Mariam
relates to contemporary texts in terms of the selected variables. One of the strongest differences between the plays written
for the stage, and closet plays, is the use of pronouns.
There is evidence of frequent usage of the first and second
person singular pronouns in the stage plays and little
evidence of their use in closet plays. Van Hoek (2007)
has analysed pronouns from the perspective of Langacker’s
cognitive grammar, particularly in relation to the
way they influence the accessibility of concepts and the
viewpoint from which constructions are understood. Van
Hoek’s analysis can usefully explain aspects of closet
tragedy and The Tragedy of Mariam which have caused
readers over time to find the text(s) less engaging than
plays written for the public stage.
In a cognitive analysis, language that features frequent
use of pronouns, particularly anaphoric pronouns, (such
as him in “I’ll go and get him”) assumes a certain common
ground between the speaker and the addressee; they
both understand who or what is being referred to without
“him” being referred to by name. When a full-noun is
used, like a name, there is an implied conceptual distance.
The notion of “conceptual distance” also relates
to how easily accessible a concept is for the discourse
participants.
In her first soliloquy, a speech of seventy-five lines, Mariam
refers to herself by name four times. She asks herself
“then why grieves Mariam Herod’s death to hear?”
(I.i.38) and calls herself “heard-hearted Mariam” (I.i.62).
In most situations it is unusual for a speaker to refer by
name to himself or herself. When Mariam names herself,
she places the conception of “Mariam” on the metaphorical
stage shared between speaker and addressee.
In cognitive linguistic terms, it is as though Mariam is
observing herself from an outside position. It’s a device
that breaks up the normal relationship between speaker
and addressee and has a disorienting effect.
In his analysis of the Senecan tradition in England,
Braden asks “what makes it appropriate for a character
to talk this way?” (1985 66). There could be a number
of reasons for Cary’s characters to engage in this type of
self-referential linguistic behaviour, however it is likely
that the style of speech is rhetorically motivated. Although
the language of the play is somewhat alienating,
it reflects serious philosophical, cultural and political
ambitions. Mariam is explicitly concerned with the individual’s
right to resist tyranny. The form this resistance
takes reflects the influence of neo-Stoic discourses and
Seneca as literary and philosophical model.
For Braden the characteristic feature of Senecan drama
is a kind of “cosmic self-dramatization” (178) that is
represented in the characters by a quest for “a radical,
unpredicated independence” (67). The speech of Cary’s
characters can be linked to this very neo-Senecan idea of
selfhood and the neo-Stoic ideals of control of the self,
especially in the face of unchecked abuse of power. Mariam’s
conquest of self can be traced through the way she
overcomes emotional confusion to become “free, lofty,
fearless and steadfast” (Seneca qtd Straznicky 1994
115). Evidence of this struggle in Mariam can be seen
at multiple levels, including the linguistically at the level
of function words.
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Literary and Linguistic Computing 18.2 (2003): 209-19.
Rommel, Thomas. “Literary Studies.” A Companion to
Digital Humanities. Eds. Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens
and John Unsworth. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004.
Rybicki, Jan. “Burrowing into Translation: Character Idiolects
in Henryk Sienkiewicz’s Trilogy.” Literary and
Linguistic Computing 26.1 (2005): 91-103.
Sinclair, Stefan. “Computer-Assisted Reading: Reconceiving
Text Analysis.” Literary and Linguistic Computing
18.2 (2003): 175-84.
Straznicky, Marta. Privacy, Play Reading, and Women’s
Closet Drama, 1550-1700. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2004.
---. “Profane Stoical Paradoxes: The Tragedy of Mariam
and Sidney Closet Drama.” English Literary Renaissance
24 (1994): 104-34.
van Hoek, Karen. “Pronominal Anaphora.” Oxford
Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics. Eds. Dick Geeraerts
and Hubert Cuyckens. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2007. 890-915.","txt","2","",""
"985","10","The 385+ Million Word Corpus of Contemporary American English (1990-present): A new tool for examining language variation and change","1","The last 15-20 years have seen the introduction of
“mega-corpora” such as the Bank of English and
the British National Corpus, which contain anywhere
from 100-500 million words. Until recently, however,
there have been no large, balanced corpora of American
English. Only a small portion of the Bank of English,
for example, is from the US. The well-known American
National Corpus has not been updated in several years,
it has only 22 million words of text, and it is quite unbalanced
in terms of genre representation (essentially no
fiction, no popular magazines, etc). On the other hand,
there are other large “corpora” of American English
(such as the GigaWord collection of newspaper articles),
but these represent just one genre.
The situation has changed recently, with the recent introduction
of the Corpus of Contemporary American
English (COCA) (www.americancorpus.org), which we
released in Spring 2008. This is the first large, balanced
corpus of American English, and it will permit researchers
to address many questions related to language change
and linguistics variation, which could not have been answered
until this time. The corpus is composed of more
than 385 million words of text in more than 150,000 articles
and books, with at least 20 million words each year
from 1990 to 2008 (and it will be updated from this point
on as well). In each year, the corpus is divided into five
equally-sized genres: spoken (transcripts of unscripted
conversation on 100+ TV and radio programs each year),
fiction (novels, short stories, and movies scripts), popular
magazines (100+ magazines each year), newspapers
(ten newspapers from across the US), and academic
journals (100+ journals each year). The wide range of
genres means that researchers can study in detail variation
between these genres, and the consistency in genres
across time means that researchers can accurately study
linguistic changes. In addition, the corpus is tagged and
lemmatized (using CLAWS, the same tagger that was
used for the British National Corpus), which greatly facilitates
syntax-oriented queries. The entire corpus architecture and interface are designed
to facilitate research into language variation and change.
Users can quickly and easily find the frequency of any
word, phrase, substring (e.g. suffixes), or syntactic construction
in each year since 1990, and in each of the
five major registers. Example might be words such as
carbon-neutral or the quotative like, phrases like perfect
storm or tipping point, suffixes like –gate (Iraqgate or
zippergate), or grammatical constructions like preposition
stranding, zero relative clauses, or the ‘get passive’.
They can also see detailed information on frequency and
distribution of words and constructions in micro-genres,
such as the rise of bling in African-American and entertainment-
related popular magazines.
The corpus also allows users to find the collocates in different
genres and groups of years since 1990, which can
provide valuable insight into semantic change and variation.
For example, they can compare the collocates of
woman or of peace in spoken, fiction, and newspapers
to see how these concepts are viewed and discussed differently
in the two genres. They can also compare collocates
over time, such as the increasingly positive collocates
with geek since the early 1990s, or the increasing
environmental emphasis over time, evidenced by new
collocates with green. Finally, they can easily compare
the collocates of two words to see contrasts in the meaning
or usage of the two terms. Examples might be adjectives
with Democrats vs. Republicans (electable, fun,
open-minded vs. extremist, mean-spirited, and greedy),
or bias in the collocates with women and men (glamorous,
real-life, disadvantaged vs. honorable, self-made,
and wise).
Other features allow for fairly complex semanticallyoriented
searches. Due to the relational database architecture,
we have been able to integrate a thesaurus with
entries for 60,000+ headwords, as well as WordNet,
and users can also create “customized lists” on the fly.
These allow for rather powerful queries, such as “any
form of any synonym related to the verb clean within
five words of any word in the ‘houseItems’ list created
by Jones” (clean the pots, washing some windows, the
floor he mopped) or “any hyponym of emotions within
five words of a word in the ‘familyTerms’ list created by
Smith (Grandpa seemed to be pretty happy, the excited
children, the moms that are most worried). As can be
seen, this goes far beyond most other corpus architectures,
which are often limited to just word, phrase, lemmas,
or parts of speech.
This example of semantically-oriented searches leads us
finally to a brief discussion of the overall challenge of
designing an architecture that achieves the three competing
goals of 1) size 2) speed, and 3) annotation. Achieving
two of three goals is relatively simple, but achieving
all three simultaneously – in the real world – is much
more difficult. For example, there are many search engines
that allow fast retrieval from very large “corpora”
or text archives (e.g. Google or Lucene), but which allow
for little if any annotation (e.g. even basic part of
speech tagging or lemmatization, much less integration
with thesauruses or user-defined lists). Other approaches
provide speed and annotation, but are completely inadequate
in terms of scalability – either in terms of size
and/or speed. There is no limit to the number of proprietary
architectures that have been designed over the past
decade or two, and which might work very well for a
small one million word corpus, but which are utterly unscalable.
A query might take just two or three seconds
for a well-annotated 10 million word corpus, but (assuming
linearity), that same query then takes two minutes or
more for a 350-400 million word corpus.
Our approach – which is based on a (still) proprietary architecture
involving relational databases and a massively-
redundant n-grams schema – is one of just a handful
that adequately allows for size, speed, and annotation.
Even a complicated query– involving part of speech,
lemma, synonyms, customized word lists, and limited
by sub-genres – typically takes just 2-3 seconds to generate
results from the entire 385+ million word corpus.
In addition, ours is the only architecture (as far as we are
aware) that allows for such a wide range of comparisons
– e.g. across sub-corpora, or the collocates of different
words. For example, SketchEngine allows comparisons
between different words, but not by sub-corpus. The IMS
Corpus Workbench (CWB) allows comparisons between
sub-corpora, but not between different words. Ours offers
both of these, full integration with thesauruses and
lexical resources like WordNet, as well as much more.
In summary, the Corpus of Contemporary American
English (COCA) is based on an architecture and interface
that allows for a wide range of queries, and which
does so quickly and easily. In terms of the textual database,
it is both large (385+ million words, and growing)
and well-balanced (in terms of genres and sources).
All of these features serve to create a unique resource
that allows researchers to look at a wide range of questions
dealing with recent changes and current variation
in American English, which would have been difficult or
impossible to investigate before this time.","txt","2","",""
"986","10","The « Bibliothèques Virtuelles Humanistes » (Virtual Humanistic Libraries in Tours): a Collection, or a Corpus?","1","The goal of the Bibliothèques Virtuelles Humanistes
(BVH, or Virtual Humanist Libraries, a digitization
project begun in Tours in 2003, http://www.bvh.univtours.
fr) is to offer two types of digital representations of
a selection of books printed during the Renaissance or of
manuscripts: the image of a copy (its “facsimile”) on the
one hand, and its transcription on the other hand, without
additions besides corrections or variations that are essential
for understanding the text, and TEI encoding. These
two goals necessitate the combined efforts of two communities
whose objectives, methods and formulations
are very different. The difference is further complicated
as the elaboration of a corpus for this period presents additional
difficulties: librarians and book historians work
with “image processing” computer programs, whereas
literature and language specialists use linguistic systems
(Hyperbase, Weblex, Philologic...). Currently, technical
progress has allowed these different approaches to come
together, although they have not yet been combined: libraries
prefer to offer text-only versions of documents,
obtained via OCR or by manual transcription encoded in
order to show a readable text alone or along with its facsimile.
Linguistic corpora and text databases for works
before 1800 are often constituted of modern editions,
which are under copyright and impossible to show next
to “their” facsimiles—which often do not exist, as they
were established from several different reference editions
and do not respect the physical presentation. These
editions have the obvious advantage of easily lending
themselves to searches for data and to detailed encoding.
The goal of libraries of text images is entirely different,
as research is generally done only on metadata
and, at best, on the table of contents which constitutes
a minimal indexation, and sometimes is done through a
quick round of OCR. In light of these two traditions, and
taking into account the reading habits and requests that
recent navigational tools have encouraged, the BVH are
devoted to conducting research on the two-pronged front
of indexing text in image mode, extracting images from
images of the pages, classifying and indexing them, and
acquiring a significant corpus of transcribed texts. But
does the collection of texts constitute a corpus?
2. It is revealing that this proposition of intervention is
on the fence between the two initial themes of the congress
and we defend the name of “corpus” for the imageand-
text combination, although it was imposed upon us,
so as not to frighten financiers and the general public, to
call it a “library”. We will discuss the difficulties that this
grouping engendered, difficulties both theoretical and
technical. The digital libraries as they are comprised at
the CESR would not be a “corpus”, but rather a “collection”
as their only commonality is their period of publication,
from 1470-1650, identified as the “Renaissance”
in the largest sense, including Antique or Medieval texts
edited during that period. Even if the collection includes
broad categories (classics of the Renaissance—sources
of science—legal and political history—philosophy
and theology), a priori each book on any shelf could
fall under one of these categories, all the more as a fifth
category, “particular projects‚“ allows additions to one
or several subcategories (like the “Rabelais” database,
the dictionaries, etc.), the only ones in fact that merit
the name of “corpus”, the rest being composed of standalone
books or curiosities. This is how the members of
the jury of the National Research Agency (ANR) understood
the word “corpus” in France, as it is obvious from
the projects chosen that the notion was relatively vague,
even as they excluded a collection of digitized texts in
image mode alone. In order for there to be a corpus, there
must be text.
3. Going against this analysis, we would defend:
3. 1. The idea that each work chosen corresponds to an
analysis of its form and its content. The researchers who
are charged with this (under the supervision of Toshinori
Uetani, CESR, with the collaboration of Marie-Elisabeth
Boutroue, IRHT) examine its interest from the point of
view of the history of the book and of the directions of
research that obviously reflect the options of researchers
at the Center or their colleagues. They hope to render
the object upon which they are working accessible to the
scientific community, in order to share knowledge, going
against the traditional editorial process that consists of
offering a “definitive” paper edition once the establishment
has finished it. Selection is therefore a tool of anonymous
collaboration and results from a step that is one of
a researcher, using available funds (as it happens, those
of the Région Centre and its partner establishments) that
they enrich in so doing: the library of the Museum of
Sologne, in Romorantin, possesses a copy of the 1580
edition of Montaigne’s Essais: although it is not extraordinarily
rare, this state of the text merited being offered
to the public in order to compare it with that of the BnF’s copy (Gallica).
3. 2. The exploitation of image mode, in particular illustrated
elements, is specific to the digitized collection:
the AGORA program, developed by the computer sciences
laboratory of the University of Tours, allows semiautomatic
extraction of illustrations, graphs, portraits,
typographic material and initials, providing particular
indexed and searchable databases(notably thanks to
Thesaurus Iconclass). These “processed” works assuredly
constitute a corpus which can be subject to precise
searches.
4. As for the texts, the standard is to accept the name of
“corpus” for a database that gathers together transcriptions
of Renaissance texts in French.
4. 1. But what about texts in Latin, Italian, English,
Spanish, etc., that are not excluded a priori? A multilingual
corpus is all the more conceivable as many Renaissance
texts contain large fragments of text in Latin
(the Essais, for example). Even if we initially preferred
texts in French, originals or translations, leaving to researchers
from other linguistic regions the care of developing
their own corpora, the fluidity of TEI encoding
allows the possibility of making a “Renaissance” corpus
that would not be limited to French and would contain
even bilingual or multilingual “alined” corpora. Thanks
to the “TEI Renaissance and modern times” application
(Tours, July 2008), appropriate encoding of different
versions of a text makes a model available that renders
the physical description of a text compatible with its logical
description (Nicole Dufournaud, CESR, Jean-Daniel
Fekete, INRIA). These procedures are taught in a specialized
Master’s program and during workshops open
to students, researchers and librarians.
4. 2. The progress of “Renaissance” OCR (RETRO) also
developed in Tours by Jean-Yves Ramel allows the acquisition
of text from difficult-to-read printed matter, and
it allows correction thanks to form dictionaries compiled
from transcriptions and in different languages. Even if
acquisition in text mode with an accuracy rate of over
97% still represents a considerable cost for these early
printed books (post-correction is always necessary), it
allows incrementation of a collection of texts with highly
varying written forms, processed by an annotation tool
(Analog, developed in Poitiers and at the ENS-LSH by
Marie-Hélène Lay) or a “dissimilation” tool (Thierry
Vincent, Poitiers); these collections in turn facilitate the
acquisition of new texts and allow for linguistic analyses
about the uses found with double-checking the text: in
the context of course, and in the facsimile. It will also be
possible to search the texts for keywords that constitute
the Iconclass thesaurus, offering in this way a selection
of topoi present in the texts, in their tables of contents
(all transcribed) and in the illustrated elements.
5. In this way, the BVH is a “Renaissance” corpus that
is still in the process of being built, a unique but double-
headed corpus, one that is dissymmetric: there are
obviously many more facsimiles than transcribed texts.
Such a corpus is unified by the metadata that harmonize
the catalogue of the work and that of the transcribed text
thanks to appropriate descriptors (TEI headers, Dublin
Core, OAI protocol) and by the search tools that are used
on the plain text, but also thanks to the keywords associated
with images and with texts, always offering as
an anchor the facsimile and the reference to the original
work.","txt","2","",""
"987","10","Co-Reference: A New Method to Solve Old Problems","1","Introduction In this abstract, I will describe co-referencing as a
method for information integration. This method is
based on building blocks that have been available in analogue
as well as digital information systems for a long
time. Co-reference is about connecting such building
blocks in new ways in order to enable additional tools
necessary for creating a functional Semantic Web for
cultural heritage.
The co-reference concept will be explained and related
to other tools for information integration. Some prototype
implementations currently being developed for use
in storing co-reference facts is being described, along
with theoretical work towards the so-called network of
identity. As a conclusion, I describe how we organise our
work in this field as well as our plans for the future.
Definition
An example of a reference is the string “The table by the
window,” referring to a physical object. If another sting
“The beautiful table” is referring to the same physical
object, the two strings are said to co-refer.
A co-reference system will add relations directly between
different references in texts. To do this, an identity
relation has to be used. A possible identity relation for
people could be:
A=B iff A and B are both human beings that have
lived or are living, and the body of A is at any time
located at the same place in the physical room as the
body of person B.
Once such an identity relation is established, the co-reference
definition is simple:
If string x refer to A and string y refer to B, and
A=B, then x and y co-refer.
Recording Co-References
Computer software is developed to detect and disambiguate
names and other referring strings in texts. They
are quick and reliable, but at the cost of a high level of
mistakes; not-detected items as well as false positives.
Even when used on very structured data with additional
information available to help the algorithm, such as a
library catalogue example described in (Bennett 2006),
the success rate in automatic data integration is far from
acceptable: 70% hits with an error rate at almost 1%.
Human beings, on the other hand, are more reliable. But
they are also expensive.
There are two different ways of solving this quality-cost
problem. One could use the computer to create candidate
co-references and let human beings check the results,
possibly as a federated job by amateurs. Or one could
try to find ways to store results of work that people are
already doing as formalised co-reference information.
As many people working in the culture heritage sector
detect co-references as part of their job, we do not need
to hire new people. What we need to do is to create computational
and organisational systems so that they are
able to store the facts they detect in a form usable for a
co-reference system.
Information about the events in which co-references
are asserted should also be stored. We will then be in
a position to differentiate between statements made by
computer programs and statements made by persons, as
well as between different persons. This enables a higher
degree of reproducibility than what is common in many
areas of research made on the basis of cultural heritage.
It also provides an addressee to approach if someone later
suspects that a co-reference assertion may be wrong.
Similar approaches
Work related to co-reference detection is common in research.
One example of tools used in such work today
is thesauri. But instead of connecting the sources to one
another, as one would do in the co-reference approach,
each of the sources are linked to a record in the thesaurus.
From such links to thesauri, co-references may be
detected, but details about the event in which the source
for the co-reference information was recorded is commonly
not available.
Prosopographies are closely related to co-reference
work, but has not traditionally published full sets of coreference
information about the names mentioned in the
sources used. The factoid approach described by Bradley
and Short, on the other hand, will provide information
in a formalised way from propopographical work that is
very close to co-reference data sets as they are described
in this abstract: “A factoid is not a statement of fact about
a person [...] Instead, each one records an assertion by
a source at a particular spot about a person.” (Bradley 2005, p. 8)
The concept of co-reference is used in corpus linguistics
as well, in the sense that co-reference annotation is applied
to text corpora (Day 2008). This is closely connected
to anaphora resolution. One may say that anaphora
resolution is a part of co-reference detection as an anaphor
is just another referring string.
Level 1: Inside the Organisation
Co-reference management should be part of the overall
information strategy in an institution. The curator,
researcher or exhibition professional should be able to
add information to their local system about external resources
co-referring with internal resources.
Tracking down co-references have always been one of
the practical tasks performed by researchers, conservators,
librarians, and others processing information about
real world objects described in texts. The results have
sometimes been published, e.g. in indices or in footnotes.
But most often it has been saved in the scholar’s
head, maybe also in his notes. We should do better. We
should enable the creation of formalised data that may
look like this: The syntax of this example is not important. The information
could e.g. be expressed in RDF. The point is that
it is expressed in a machine readable way.
We are currently implementing a prototype co-reference
system in which specific pieces of information in our
databases can be connected to external resources. The
external resources can be a URL, but can also be a reference
to a specific place in a printed book. This system
will also store information about who is responsible for
asserting the co-reference, when it was done, and optional
comments (Eide 2008). Further development is necessary
to evaluate if this method will be usable in practical
work.
Another implementation is the tagging tool created at
FORTH in Greece as a diploma thesis by Kostas Pyloudis
and Pasxalis Georgopoulos. The tagging tool is
a web based application in which HTML web pages and
photographs on the internet can be co-referenced and annotated
by the user. The operation includes selecting a
part of the document, so that part of an image, e.g. the
head of one person, can be co-referred to a string in a
HTML document, e.g. a name (Melesanakis 2008). This
is an interesting attempt to enable anyone to take part
in building up collections of co-reference information.
Methods used by the Perseus Digital Library in their
information integration work are also similar to the coreference
approach (Babeu 2007).
Level 2: Network of identity
After a while, many co-references have been stored in
many institutions, some of them referring to the same
individuals. All such co-reference collections should be
connected and made available in a cross-institutional
system.
The systems at level 1 described above will be sustainable,
because the organisations gain from using them.
The federated system will be the sum of all the twoway
links from the level 1 systems. A model for such a
system is described in (Meghini 2008). The article also
describes a possible implementation. The system will
be able to answer questions about the entities being coreferred.
If it is connected to information systems storing
information about e.g. events, it will be a very interesting
tool for exploring large data sets based on cultural
heritage information.
Conclusions
To integrate the wider cultural heritage field, it is necessary
to connect persons, places, and objects described
in and owned by museums to references in e.g. digital
versions of printed books. It is not enough to connect
classes of information, particular items will also have
to be connected. Thus, co-reference tools will find their
place among the other tools used in the development of
the Semantic Web.
The CIDOC co-reference working group was established
in 2007. We are currently working on the research
and implementation described above. We are also developing
prototype protocols for exchanging co-reference
information between systems. We hope to set up a small
integrated test system in 2009 in order to show how such
systems may be implemented.
Literature
Babeu, A., Bamman, D., Crane, G., Kummer, R. and
Weaver, G. (2007). “Named Entity Identification and
Cyberinfrastructure.” In: Lecture Notes in Computer Science,
volume 4675.
Bennett, R., Hengel-Dittrich C., O’Neill, E.T. and Tillett B.B. (2006). “USA VIAF (Virtual International Authority
File): Linking Die Deutsche Bibliothek and Library
of Congress Name Authority Files.” 72nd IFLA General
Conference. URL: http://www.ifla.org/IV/ifla72/
papers/123-Bennett-en.pdf (checked 2008-11-14).
Bradley, J. and Short, H. (2005). “Texts into Databases:
The Evolving Field of New-style Prosopography.” P.
3-24 in: Literary and Linguistic Computing.
Day, D., Hitzeman, J., Wick, M., Crouch, K and Poesio,
M (2008). “A Corpus for Cross-Document Co-reference.”
P. 2996-2999 in: Proceedings of the Sixth International
Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC’08).
Eide, Ø. (2008). “The Unit for Digital Documentation
(EDD) system for storing coref information. A short
overview of a system under development.” Paper presented
at the meeting of the CIDOC Co-Reference
Working Group, Athens. URL: http://cidoc.mediahost.
org/co-reference-meetings-2008(en)(E1).xml (checked
2008-11-14)
Meghini, C., Doerr, M. and Spyratos N. (2008). “Managing
co-reference knowledge for data integration.” P.
229-248 in: Proceedings of EJC2008, the 18th European-
Japanese Conference on Information Modelling and
Knowledge Bases.
Melesanakis, V. (2008) “Tagging-Tool.” Paper presented
at the meeting of the CIDOC Co-Reference Working
Group, Athens. URL: http://cidoc.mediahost.org/coreference-
meetings-2008(en)(E1).xml (checked 2008-
11-14).","txt","2","",""
"988","10","Cultural Capital in the Digital Era: Mapping the Success of Thomas Pynchon","1","This paper will present some of my first work on a
larger dissertation project: a new model for cultural
capital in the digital era. In a time of rapidly evolving
ecologies of reading and writing, I argue that the Internet
affords us massive amounts of new data on previously
invisible cultural transactions. New architectures for
reviewing, discussing and sharing books blur the lines
between readers, authors and critics, and these cultural
structures capture thousands of conversations, mental
connections and personal recommendations that previously
went unrecorded. Through a close examination
of the networks of cultural interchange surrounding the
work of Thomas Pynchon, I hope to define a new, statistically
informed conception of cultural capital and different
modes of critical and commercial literary success.
Background
This paper takes as its starting point the idea that cultural
capital can be defined or at least mapped online through
exchanges at the intersection of literature as a field of
art and the business of buying and selling books.1 The
advent of new media is transforming this landscape of
literary production and consumption, making possible
all sorts of new ecologies of reading and writing. At
the same time, many transactions at the heart of digital
cultural capital (i.e. customer reviews, shared libraries,
“also-bought” lists, etc) are now captured in digital amber.
Just as importantly, long-running statistical research
into text-mining and content extraction has made effective
tools available to map out semantic links between
concepts and proper nouns in text archives. By combining
data from digital ecologies and professional critical
book reviews, I will compare the networks of cultural
reception and critique that make for authorial fame. This
combination of research methodologies promises new
insights not only into the vast datasets of internet culture
but also into the often-hidden cultural relationships that
exist between various professional and popular archives,
some of which reach back decades or centuries. There
are exciting possibilities here for tracing the networks of
influence and exchange that make up contemporary literary
success and bringing some empirical rigor to often vague conceptions of cultural capital.
Proposal
As I work on the larger project of outlining a new, digital
cultural capital, I propose a paper that explores some
of these themes in the more limited arena of a particular
contemporary author: Thomas Pynchon. Pynchon’s
pointed refusal to offer a public presence to the standard
engines of publicity and authorial fame (he lives in more
or less total secrecy, allegedly in Manhattan, and no clear
photographs have been taken of him for decades) makes
him an ideal candidate. Perhaps more than any other
major contemporary author, he has relied on particular
forms of cultural capital to earn literary fame, even as he
critiques the social transformations wrought by capitalism
through his work.
This paper will attempt to map the network of Pynchon’s
cultural capital and, through this exercise, make
some larger claims about how cultural capital functions
in the digital era. I will combine a broad reading of the
discourses Pynchon engages in his novels with a study
of the critical and popular reception of his work. If the
statistical analyses I perform here cannot “prove” or
“disprove” that reading, they will still inform it, just as
the reading will inform my interpretations of Pynchon’s
cultural network maps. I see Pynchon as a bridge figure
between the emerging discourses of post-War techno-supremacy,
information theory, the new managerial class,
and American consumerism. According to this position
the allusive density and postmodern genre-bending of
Pynchon’s novels serve in effect to train readers in a
form of interdisciplinary network reading. Dealing with
such disparate and detailed threads of information, we all
become paranoid connection-seekers, bridging different
chasms and structures of knowledge across Pynchon’s
varied literary terrain. One question these results will
necessarily address is to what extent Pynchon readers
are more drawn to participation in his cultural networks
online as compared to readers of other relatively similar
contemporary authors (see methodology, below).
One of the most effectively reclusive authors on the contemporary
scene, Pynchon has succeeded admirably in
allowing public attention to focus solely on his work. I
hypothesize that Pynchon’s difficult, boundary-breaking
books succeed in forging their own ideational networks,
and that their author has both exploited and redefined
contemporary cultural capital. In this way Pynchon places
his readers in exactly the position they have assumed
in new digital ecologies of reading and writing: the role
of critic/operator, of consumer/creator, who grapples
with unstable fictional ontologies from the vantage point
of equally unstable critical ontologies.
Methodology
There is no comprehensive dataset or perfected analytical
tool for exploring cultural capital, so this paper will
construct its argument with several imperfect measures.
The argument will draw primarily on results from a new,
wide-ranging dataset of reviews incorporating “highbrow”
cultural review publications like The New York
Times, academic journals, popular media and customer
reviews from blogs and websites such as Amazon.com.
Using a combination of APIs, Perl scripts and commercial
databases, I am assembling a targeted dataset of
professional and popular reviews and recommendations
from the book review archives of major newspapers,
magazines, and the websites Amazon and LibraryThing,
with more academic, popular and commercial archives
to follow should time permit.2 Using named entity recognition
(NER) and part of speech tagging (PoS), I will
construct social and conceptual network maps based on
this corpus to explore a) how Pynchon was introduced or
integrated into the existing cultural firmament, b) who
reviewed and/or was mentioned in connection with Pynchon
and how these networks evolve, c) what insights
I can draw from resonances and differences in the conceptual
maps drawn from different categories of cultural
reaction (e.g. professional reviews vs. reader reviews).
This analysis will adapt an available open-source NER
and PoS text-mining tool (most likely Carnegie Mellon’s
AutoMap or the University of Massachusetts’ Proximity)
to construct the network maps.
These maps, while hopefully revelatory, will not offer
much in the way of quantitative measurement of social
capital or literary success. To address the problem of
quantifying cultural capital, I will be creating control
groups of books for each Pynchon work discussed. These
groups of 5-10 novels will be selected based on their cultural
proximity to the relevant Pynchon work (a messy
term, I concede): published within a year of the Pynchon
work; written by an author with similar style, interests
and/or who might be reasonably said to compete with
Pynchon; greeted with similar levels of highbrow acclaim,
and greeted (to the extent this can be determined)
with similar levels of commercial success. It is my hope
that the potential liabilities of any particular judgment or
selection will be ameliorated in aggregate, and that the
control groups will still provide a reasonable baseline for
studying how Pynchon’s work has fared over time.
Using these baselines, Pynchon’s work will also be considered
along several more quantitative metrics. I will
trace the historical reception of his work through measures
of annual MLA citations and popular press citations
(the latter will most likely use a small index of publications—newspapers and magazines with consistent
national presence over the past 50 years). Since sales figures
are notoriously difficult to come by, I will attempt
to chart the current popularity and lasting success of
Pynchon’s books by looking at library presence (through
meta-catalogs like Worldcat.org), used books available
for purchase online, and presence on library sharing sites
like LibraryThing. Of course these popularity statistics
will be judged comparatively against their normative
control groups. Finally, I should note that while the control
groups will allow some metrics to be tracked over
time (citations, for example), used book availability, library
presence and some other factors will necessarily be
limited to a snapshot of current conditions.
Conclusion
By exploring contemporary networks of cultural capital
related to the work of Thomas Pynchon, I hope to
develop tools and statistical methodologies that will be
adaptable to other authors in my own project and to other
scholars for their own work. I am aware of limited applications
of social and conceptual network mapping in
literary study, but in extensive searches I have yet to find
an easily adaptable tool that non-technical literary scholars
might use to explore a new corpus. I hope to close
this gap at least partially as I make my own arguments
about the evolving nature of digital cultural capital.
Notes
The notion of cultural capital discussed here is based
most directly on the work of John Guillory in Cultural
Capital: The Problem of Literary Canon Formation, and
through him Pierre Bourdieu. The term is a fraught one
and a full definition is beyond the scope of this paper.
Instead, I hope to lay the groundwork for a new, digital
understanding of cultural networks and influence as they
relate to literary production in the larger capitalist system,
using cultural capital as a bracketed general term.
To briefly explain my choice of websites: Amazon is
an obvious choice because of its active reviewing community
and relatively long-running archive, with over a
decade of reviews available. Publishers Weekly declared
LibraryThing the most popular of the social reading
network sites, and it also encourages an active group of
user-reviewers. A more extensive study will, with luck,
involve other major book-reviewing sites online.
Selected Bibliography
Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A Social Critique of
the Judgment of Taste. Trans. Richard Nice. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1993). The Field of Cultural Production:
Essays on Art and Literature. Ed. Randal Johnson. New
York: Columbia University Press.
English, J. (2005). The Economy of Prestige. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
Guillory, J. (1993). Cultural Capital: The Problem of
Literary Canon Formation. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Moretti, F. (2005). Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstracted
Models for a Literary History. London and New York:
Verso.
Radway, J. (1997). A Feeling for Books: The Book-ofthe-
Month Club, Literary Taste, and Middle-Class Desire.
Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.","txt","2","",""
"989","10","The Hybrid Future of the University Press","1","Numerous arguments have been put forward in recent
years about the causes and effects of the crisis
in scholarly publishing, as have numerous more suggestions
about ways to ameliorate the situation (one
might see, just to name a few, Waters (2004), Alonso
et al (2003), and Greenblatt (2002)), but few of these
accounts seem to get at the heart of what is, admittedly,
a very thorny problem in academic publishing today: an
utterly insupportable business model. This paper, which
forms a small part of a book-length project exploring the
social and institutional changes required to make digital
scholarly publishing a reality, will not argue for ways
of creating supports for the existing system (whether
through subventions, book-buying funds, or other means
of funding production or increasing consumption). And
though it follows the work of authors including Willinsky
(2006), Borgman (2007), and Hall (2008) in arguing
that the future of scholarship must be digital, this
paper will not argue that such a turn to digital publication
can in and of itself rescue scholarly publishing
from its ﬁ nancial crisis. Instead, this paper will argue,
scholarly presses must consider a far more radical shift
in their business models, in which they cease thinking of
themselves as providers of products for sale, and instead
understand the publisher as a provider of services that
facilitate scholars’ interactions with texts, and with one
another through those texts.
Clay Shirky argued as long ago as 1997 that an internet-
based business model focused on the sale of content
was destined to fail. The shift from content to services,
however, might best be understood within the model of
the “hybrid” economy described by Lawrence Lessig
(2008). The hybrid is neither a wholly commercial nor
a wholly gift-based economy, but rather one that creates
value for users by offering services they desire, thereby
encouraging them to contribute their labor to the enterprise.
Lessig explores the models established by several
successful hybrid businesses, including Flickr, Slashdot,
Craigslist, and others, suggesting that contemporary
content providers (like the music industry) who have the
sense that their bottom lines are being undermined by
network-based ﬁ le sharing would do well to consider the
ways that their business models might change in order to
take advantage of peer-to-peer networks rather than attempting
to legislate or sue them out of existence.
The concerns of university presses about the digital future
are slightly different, but these presses nonetheless
might take advantage of these same principles. The relationship,
after all, of authors to the university press is
already based at least in part on the culture of the gift;
few academic authors earn much directly from their published
texts, instead beneﬁtting from the jobs and speaking
engagements that their publications produce. And in
the digital age, as Bob Stein (2008) has explored, presses
will need to think less about selling the content of texts
they publish, and instead focus on the services that they
can provide to authors, in the development of their texts,
and to readers, in providing means of interacting with the
texts, and with one another around the texts.
Implied in this turn from products to services, however,
is a large-scale shift in the relationship of the university
press to its institution, as explored in Brown et al (2007).
Despite the fact that most U.S. based university presses
arose out of the desire of the institution to publicize the
work of its faculty, most presses today operate on a listbased
model, primarily publishing the work of scholars
from other institutions, and focusing on a select number
of ﬁ elds. The result is precisely the untenable business
model faced by presses, which are expected to operate
as businesses rather than service organizations (even
where they are subsidized, if only minimally, by their
institutions). Changing the focus of the press from selling
the products of scholarly research to facilitating the
processes of that research will also require the academic
institutions that house presses to recognize that a press
that functions as a service organization within the university
cannot simultaneously serve as a revenue center.
I will argue that the survival of the university press in the
current economic and technological climate will require
that presses return to their earlier, service relationship to
authors within their own institutions, in order to more
ﬁrmly cement their position within the heart of the university’s
overall mission.
In these two respects — in turning from selling the products
of scholarship to facilitating the networked means
through which scholarship is done, and in shifting its
focus to serving the needs of their institutions, presses
might learn from libraries — and might, as Crow (2009)
argues, beneﬁt from becoming more strongly allied with
libraries, as one serves the needs of the institution by
gathering published material from around the world for
its users, and the other serves those needs by distributing
locally-produced texts to users around the world. As
with libraries, however, this new position of the press
within the university’s overall mission will require that institutions fund their presses as part of their infrastructure,
rather than understanding the press as a revenue
center — and, not incidentally, it will also require that
institutions without presses establish them in order to remain
competitive.
This presentation will thus explore not the new technologies
that will rescue the university press, but rather the
new business model that those technologies will require
the press to develop, arguing that a focus on services
rather than products, and a new relationship to the university’s
core mission, will enable the press, as a nexus
for new modes of scholarly communication, to thrive
into the future.
References
Alonso, C. J., Davidson, C. N., Unsworth, J., & Withey,
L. (2003). Crises and Opportunities: The Futures of
Scholarly Publishing. New York: American Council of
Learned Societies.
Borgman, C. L. (2007). Scholarship in the Digital Age:
Information, Infrastructure, and the Internet. Cambridge,
Mass: MIT Press.
Brown, L., Griffiths, R., & Rascoff, M. (2007). University
Publishing in a Digital Age. Ithaka. First published
23 July 2007, accessed 17 June 2008, http://www.ithaka.
org/strategic-services/university-publishing.
Crow, R. (2009). Campus-Based Publishing Partnerships:
A Guide to Critical Issues. SPARC. First published
January 2009, accessed 8 February 2009, http://
www.arl.org/sparc/partnering/guide/.
Greenblatt, S. (2002). A Special Letter from Stephen
Greenblatt. Modern Languages Association. First published
28 May 2002, accessed 28 February 2009, http://
www.mla.org/scholarly_pub.
Hall, G. (2008). Digitize This Book!: The Politics of New
Media, or Why We Need Open Access Now. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press.
Lessig, L. (2008). Remix: Making Art and Commerce
Thrive in the Hybrid Economy. New York: Penguin.
Shirky, C. (1997). Help, the Price of Information Has
Fallen and It Can’t Get Up. Clay Shirky’s Writings About
the Internet. First published April 1997, accessed 28
February 2009, http://www.shirky.com/writings/information_
price.html.
Stein, B. (2008). A Uniﬁed Field Theory of Publishing
in the Networked Era. if:book. First published 4 September
2008, accessed 1 November 2008, http://www.
futureofthebook.org/blog/archives/2008/09/a_uniﬁed_
ﬁeld_theory_of_publ_1.html.
Waters, L. (2004). Enemies of Promise: Publishing, Perishing,
and the Eclipse of Scholarship. Chicago: Prickly
Paradigm Press.
Willinsky, J. (2006). The Access Principle: the Case for
Open Access to Research and Scholarship. Cambridge,
Mass: MIT Press.","txt","2","",""
"990","10","Dissent and Collaboration","1","Collaboration—literally a shared work—is typically
understood to rest upon a form of agreement: about
shared goals, common projects, standards of practice. As
Aldo de Moor observes, modern-day collaborative practices
tend to emerge from self-forming teams rather than
being organized from above, and as a result this kind of
agreement constitutes an essential foundation on which
to proceed. He goes on to note that the crucial element
to successful digital collaboration has a great deal to do
with the way norms are developed and adjudicated:
The members of virtual professional communities, just
like their peers in more traditional communities, are guided
in their work by social norms. These norms guide both
the operational activities of the network and the specification
processes in which the network is defined. However,
as these networks are egalitarian by nature, the norms cannot
be imposed from above, but are to emerge from the
community as a whole. Thus, the user-driven specification
process needs to be legitimate, in the sense that specification
changes are not only meaningful but also acceptable
to all community members. A specification change is acceptable
if and only if the users for whom the particular
change is relevant have been adequately involved in
the specification process (Aldo de Moor, “Empowering
Communities: A Method for the Legitimate User-Driven
Specification of Network Information Systems”, summary
of PhD thesis, http://www.communitysense.nl/phd/
thes_summeng.html).
Relevant norms in the digital humanities context are
quite wide-ranging: they include social norms, disciplinary
norms, and technical norms. But what I would like
to focus on for purposes of this paper is a specific kind
of case in which disciplinary and technical norms overlap:
the arena of standards for digital representation of
research materials, and in particular the domain of scholarly
markup languages. Text encoding as practiced in the
digital humanities world sits at the juncture of humanities
scholarship—textually nuanced, exploratory, and
introspective—and digital technology, with its emphasis
on formalism and upward scalability. As a result its
norms carry a double weight: they must achieve some
kind of technically actionable uniformity, but they must
also express useful scholarly concepts and differentiations.
Encoding standards such as the Text Encoding Initiative
(TEI, http://www.tei-c.org/) are thus foundationally collaborative
technologies: they presume the need and the
desire to make individual insight widely communicable
in a form that permits its extension, critique, and reuse.
But the mechanisms for achieving this result in practical
terms are complex and require thoughtful balancing of
the requirements, respectively, of the individual and the
community. As de Moor observes in the material quoted
above, legitimate norms arise from a process of community
assent, but how is that assent best managed and expressed?
And in the universe of humanities disciplines,
where “the community” consists of multiple communities
with shifting boundaries, how are norms constituted
in a way that still permits intellectual growth? Even
more importantly, given the critical role that dissent and
debate play within the humanities research context, how
can these be expressed? Can we imagine a role for dissent
within a functioning technical standard, without vitiating
its power to support collaboration?
Over the past 20 years, the research of the TEI and its
user community has been centered on developing mechanisms
that address the problem of norm-setting, in both
the social and the technical sphere, in a way that I will
argue is specifically designed to accommodate dissent in
a way that actively facilitates collaboration. This paper
will critically examine the TEI’s framing motivations
and the specific mechanisms—intellectual, social, and
above all technical—through which they have been realized
during the course of the TEI’s development. In
particular I will consider the practice of schema customization,
through which the TEI manages both the representation
of the TEI language as a standard and the
processes of dissent and expansion through which it is
modified by its users. The central components of the TEI
customization process express, in effect, the relationship
between the individual and the community. The TEI
source or ODD file represents the entire landscape of the
TEI in potential terms, and can be used to generate a
maximally capacious schema that contains all possible
TEI elements and structures. The ODD customization
file represents the world of an individual user or project:
the set of choices and limitations or extensions through
which the individual adapts the TEI schema to local usage.
From these two files, with appropriate processing,
one can generate a schema that expresses the TEI landscape
as viewed through the lens of the individual application.
The ODD customization file, then, expresses
the distance between the individual and the community:
both the agreement the community has established concerning
meaning, and also (perhaps more importantly)
the degree by which the individual dissents from the
standard, while still acknowledging its centrality for the community as a whole.
Dissent is nothing new in the humanities; what is distinctive
about this mechanism is that it formalizes dissent
and allows its vector to be traversed in two directions.
The same path that leads away from the unmodified
TEI standard towards the individual application (from
generality to specificity) can also be followed back to
the center again. This traversal can be effected both by
human beings and by computer processes. Information
concerning what has been changed and why can be
expressed in human-readable form and may serve as a
valuable support in understanding the methodological
choices that underlie a project’s encoding practice. Similarly,
the ODD customization file can serve as the basis
for automated analysis that could, for example, identify
all projects from a large set that use the same set of TEI
modules or remove the same set of elements; generate a
list representing the greatest common set of values for a
given attribute across a group of projects and also identify
the values that are unique to each project; identify
the range of new elements created by each project and
their TEI equivalents. Taken as a whole, the customizable
approach taken by the TEI permits the standard to
function (both socially and technically) as an agreement
at many levels—on the intention to treat data as a sharable
and preservable resource, on the value of shared
data standards, on the descriptive utility of this particular
approach to modelling humanities texts, and on the
impossibility of creating a single descriptive model that
will satisfy all needs.
In an important sense, this customization mechanism encapsulates
the central challenge of collaborative work,
and even of language itself: that of how to balance the
urge toward individual expressiveness with the mandates
of public comprehensibility, the desire for individual
freedom of agency against the need for group action.
This paper will explore several specific examples drawn
from real TEI projects to demonstrate the different kinds
of managed dissent that can be expressed using the customization
mechanism, including the following:
• the use of shared generic structures (<div>, <seg>,
etc.) coupled with customized constraint of attribute
values to express variations on common structures
• the use of “syntactic sugar”: the creation of projectspecific
elements that are explicitly equivalent to
standard TEI elements
• the use of the TEI class system to express how a
project-specific vocabulary fits into the TEI’s structural
model
The important question emerging from these issues is
what this kind of discursive agreement and dissent actually
achieves in the collaborative domain. Several points
should be noted and will be explored in more detail in the
finished paper. First, agreement of course permits communication,
but properly formalized dissent is an equally
important dimension of communication. Language (including
formal encoding language) expresses a view
of the world, and it is essential to be able to disagree
about that view, or to express a different view. But that
disagreement must be explicit rather than covert: otherwise
tag abuse is the result. A second, complementary
question is how we can distinguish between meaningful
dissent (essential points of disciplinary difference) and
meaningless dissent (based on laziness or other social
failures). Are the mechanisms for making this distinction
solely social and human, or are there automatable
mechanisms conceivable as well? Finally, what kinds
of collaboration are possible where formalized dissent
and disagreement, rather than complete agreement, are
the result of using a standard? I will argue that for the
digital humanities community, effective management
of disagreement—rather than simply the production of
agreement—is the most important role a standard like
the TEI can play.","txt","2","",""
"991","10","Science Fiction in the Lives of Scientists and Engineers","1","Introduction
This study explores the influence of science fiction read
in childhood on the career choices and research trajectories
of scientists and engineers. Mosco (2004) argues
that science fiction, as modern-day myths, significantly
impacts how people think about and view the world.
Scholars of science fiction argue that science fiction is
an influential element of contemporary American society
(Disch, 1998; Malmgren, 1991; Stableford, 1987).
Specifically, one interesting facet of this issue is the role
of science fiction in influencing public understanding
of and attitudes toward science (Chaloner, 1998; Claessens,
2004). Indeed, one additional significant societal
implication of science fiction is the impact it can have
in structuring and changing individuals’ lives (Bacon-
Smith, 2000; Jenkins, 1992). Science and literature studies
examine the relationship between technoscience and
science fiction on a conceptual level and thus serve as an
important inspiration for this study (Dery, 1996; Doyle,
1997; Haraway, 2004; Hayles, 1999), but have not undertaken
empirical research to examine the impact of
science fiction on the lives of scientists and engineers.
This focus on the role of science fiction in the lives of
scientists and engineers is part of the larger theme of the
book in the life of the reader, or how literature affects
readers’ everyday lives (Andringa and Scheier, 2004;
Kaestle, 1991; Pawley, 2002; Polhemus and Henkle,
2005; Wiegand, 1998). This study seeks to determine if
and how science fiction affects technoscientific research.
Methods
Data collection included fourteen semi-structured interviews
with scientists and engineers as the NASA Goddard
Space Flight Center. Interviews were conducted
using an oral history approach (Baumgartener and Payr,
1995; Lyons and Taksa, 1982; Radway, 1991; Ritchie,
2003; Sommer and Quinlan, 2002; Thompson, 2000;
Yow, 2005). Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and
analyzed using grounded theory (Strauss and Corbin,
1998). Specifically, the researchers first independently
coded interviews line-by-line to identify specific factors
that influenced the career choices of scientists and engineers.
The researchers then compared their two lists
of factors and used them to build a list of clusters that
encompassed multiple factors.
Results: Factors Influencing the Career
Choices of Scientists and Engineers
This research identified ten predominant clusters of
factors that NASA Goddard scientists and engineers
described as influencing their career choices: the space
program, science fiction, informal education, formal education,
the job market, serendipity, personal attributes,
values, family and friends, and the physical environment.
Each of these clusters was identified in multiple
interviews, and most of the factors within each cluster
were also found in multiple interviews. The complex interconnections
among these diverse factors are depicted
in Figure 1. The space program included factors such as the space
race, from the launch of Sputnik to the first successful
Apollo Moon landing, as well as more recent events such
as the space shuttle program. Science fiction included
both ‘hard’ science fiction by authors such as Asimov,
Clarke, and Heinlein and popular forms of science fiction
such as Star Wars and Star Trek. Informal education
included factors such as museums, kits, and books.
Formal education included factors such as K-12 and
undergraduate science courses. The job market included
factors such as the availability of jobs in different areas
at different times. Serendipity included factors such as
whom the interviewees knew and how one life event led to another. Personal attributes included factors such as
gender, interest in different levels of abstraction, and financial
considerations. Values included factors such as
curiosity and altruism. Family and friends included factors
such as the career choices and influence of parents,
siblings, grandparents, and friends. The physical environment
included factors such as fascination with the
night sky and with nature parks.
Results: Themes for the Influence of
Science Fiction on Technoscience
The findings of this study demonstrate that science fiction
can influence the career choices of scientists and engineers.
Scientists and engineers explained that science
fiction, “kept me interested in science and astronomy;”
“may be a lot of people’s first experience with real science;”
“may keep you inspired;” and “continues to spark
people’s imaginations.” A total of eight major themes for
the influence of science fiction on technoscience were
identified: worldview/perspective, ideas/insights/inventions,
inspiration, initial exposure, shared culture/shared
meaning/socialization, reinforcement, excitement, and
curiosity.
Limitations
As in the case of all interview research, data may be
influenced by self-report bias. Further, inquiry about
childhood influences on professional development are
highly speculative, as it is often not possible to discern
among the many factors that influence decision-making.
Further, with such a small sample, it is not possible to
determine the likelihood of influence by science fiction
and other factors; rather, it is only possible to report on
the self-reported experiences of this small sample of scientists
and engineers.
Future Research Directions
One planned future direction is to conduct a broad survey
to test hypotheses developed as a result of the interviews.
This planned study would include a larger sample
of scientists and engineers from a broader range of organizations
and fields. Another possible future direction
is to develop educational interventions that use science
fiction to interest undergraduate students in science and
engineering, building on earlier work in this area (Berne
and Schummer, 2005; Raham, 2004). This study provides
empirical evidence that science fiction influences
the career choices and research trajectories of scientists
and engineers, and points toward ways to use such educational
programs to increase the size and diversity of
the science and engineering workforce.
Acknowledgements
This material is based upon work supported by the National
Science Foundation under Grant SES-0731819.
The authors would also like to thank the fourteen scientists
and engineers who participated in this study.
References
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Berne, R. W., and Schummer, J. (2005). Teaching Societal
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Mosco, V. (2004). The Digital Sublime: Myth, Power,
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Analyzing Print Culture as Agency and Practice in a Diverse
Modern America. In J. P. Dansky and W. A. Wiegand
(eds), Print Culture in a Diverse America. Urbana,
IL: University of Illinois Press.
Yow, V. R. (2005). Recording Oral History: A Guide for
the Humanities and Social Sciences, Second Edition.
Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.","txt","2","",""
"992","10","Creating a Composite Cultural Heritage Artifact - the Digital Object","1","Advanced digital spectral imaging is now becoming
a key interdisciplinary analytical tool for use in the
examination, assessment and understanding of cultural
heritage preservation and interpretation in the humanities.
This involves the integration of advanced technologies,
work processes and a range of skills from various
fields. This includes experts in materials science and information
technology with social scientists through the
development of methodologies to ensure preservation,
distribution and access to all aspects of cultural heritage.
The critical component of developing this research area
is to develop collaborations between researchers in multiple
disciplines. The Library of Congress is developing
and refining this tool for preservation of significant
cultural heritage artifacts, including the Waldseemüller
1507 World Map, the first and second drafts of the Gettysburg
Address, and the L’Enfant (1791) plan of Washington
D.C. Under the direction of the senior preservation
scientist, Dr. Fenella France, a team of preservation
scientists and imaging specialists developed imaging
and data management capabilities to ensure preservation,
distribution and access to information on these and
other cultural heritage objects. This information proved
critical in supporting collaborations between researchers
in multiple disciplines, enhancing the ability to understand
and mitigate the potential and inevitable loss of
information due to the natural degradation of materials.
Hyperspectral imaging involves the capture of a range
of specific wavelengths in the visible and non-visible
spectrums. To access this wealth of image data, three key
aspects of digital data capture and management must be
addressed:
• The image acquisition process and the required adaptation
for high quality images of large documents
and manuscripts
• Processing of digital images integrated with specific
interpretation for preservation and scholars
• Implementation of effective metadata standards and
data management systems
This paper will primarily address the integration of digital
image acquisition and processing to develop a nondestructive
analytical technique that allows the characterization
of inks, colorants, treatments, substrates,
deterioration, and lost information – all critical elements
for preservation.
Imaging research at the Library of Congress includes the
collection of sequential narrow wavelength bands of images
from the ultraviolet, through the visible spectrum
to the infrared (approximately 300nm – 1100nm). This
hyperspectral imaging collects contiguous wavelengths,
detecting variances in responses from materials in the artifact
at any wavelength or combination of wavelengths.
The team of preservation and imaging scientists working
with a MegaVision 39 Megapixel monochrome camera
and Equipoise LED EurekaLights image the items of
cultural heritage – documents, leaves of manuscripts,
daguerreotypes, in each spectral band. This yields a
large data cube of digital images and metadata for each
artifact. The resulting collected images are digitally
combined with or subtracted from each other to form the
processed image or “digital object” that provides greater
analysis and interpretation of the original real cultural
artifact. These processed images contain a wealth of information,
but it is the significant levels of multidisciplinary
interpretation required to process and analyze the
data collected, that forms the new digital object.
The Library of Congress is building on the past two
decades of characterization of ancient texts and documents
using advanced digital imaging techniques. It is
developing these research methods to advance studies of
other media and cultural heritage items, as well as new
techniques for specific preservation requirements. The
ongoing research and development highlights the utility
of transferring advanced imaging techniques developed
for defense and astronomical studies to the preservation
of significant cultural heritage artifacts. Specific
studies that have led to the current developments in advanced
digital imaging include the Dead Sea Scrolls,
the Khaboris Codex, Archimedes Palimpsest, and the
Oxyrhynchus Papyri. Each of these studies has revealed
some of the issues and challenges involved with applying advanced imaging and processing techniques to researching
cultural heritage documents and artifacts. For
example, complex image processing previously used to
recover images from astronomical telescopes, has been
adapted to reveal what the original woodblock that was
used in the printing of the Waldseemüller map probably
resembled. Integrating an analysis of the techniques
used by a woodcut maker in the 1500s informs understanding
of materials and choices made even though the
original woodcut no longer exists. All of this research
underscores the need to integrate social and material sciences
with the digital object to better understand issues
of technological and other choices in the creation of the
original object. Styles and the delicate detail attained
were compared with copper engraving by researchers in
the 20th century still attempting to understand the innate
technical skills. Layering the information to show later
additions by cartographers and printers adds more to the
complexity and potential utilization of the digital object.
The ability to process this information needed to collect
useful data associated with substrates and media without
physical sampling is critical to the assessment and preservation
of many international items of cultural heritage.
In addition, analysis for transcription and translation of
deteriorated ancient texts requires collaboration between
conservation and scholars for effective translation. These
aspects will be outlined in more detail in the paper.
While advances in image acquisition processes are critical,
it is the post-capture processing that creates the new
digital object of interest in this discussion. This processing
and interpretation of acquired images is integral to
the creation of the information necessary for the preservation,
analysis and assessment of these cultural artifacts
through digital spectral imaging. This digital image processing
has evolved from simply choosing the best spectral
band and collecting images in that band (mono-spectral),
through principle component analysis of specific
wavelength combinations and pseudo-color processing,
to the current advanced algorithmic image processing
utilizing the combination of registered images in various
non-visible and visible spectrum regions.
As noted previously, hyperspectral imaging creates large
volumes of data for processing, analysis and interpretation
and requires understanding of these new digital
objects and the levels of information contained within.
Data and metadata management is imperative to integrating
digital imaging and processing capabilities for
studies of cultural artifacts in the humanities. Creating
the digital object requires effective systems and information
management to ensure that the large amounts of
digital data generated can be readily acquired, stored,
archived, accessed, processed and linked to other data.
The creation of a new “digital object” that combines the
real cultural artifact and the processed digital files and
information has established a new category of cultural
artifact in the humanities. The resulting composite digital
object allows insights into methods of construction,
the impact of society and technology and scholarly information
on how this informs researchers and our understanding
of previous societies. This can be used to
address questions such as:
• Why did artists and artisans develop and employ
those specific techniques that were used to create
the real artifact?
• How were these restricted or informed by available
tools, cultural norms, religious or moral beliefs?
• Did the creator demonstrate a break from tradition
that was only now being revealed through the availability
of advanced spectral information?
Integration of information from the original object and
the digital imaging is a critical component in the organization
and access to the digital object. Developed from
GIS, the concept of “scriptospatial” or ""image-spatial""
tagging of key points on the images is the equivalent
of a global positioning system for documents and objects.
The linkage of information from other scientific
analyses, or scholarly interpretations of revealed details
revealed by the advanced digital image processing is an
important element in the generation of an integrated digital
object that allows the interpretation and assimilation
of a range of data that is at times in different data sets.
The critical breakthrough in the adoption of hyperspectral
digital imaging was the maturity its development
– resolution, integrated conservation safe lighting and
management – to concentrate on and answer these questions,
while also addressing the issues involved for this
technique to become accepted as a true non-invasive
non-destructive analytical tool with no risk to fragile
historic artifacts in the field of cultural conservation.
Hyperspectral imaging has the capacity to reveal information,
data and details not visible or accessible from
the historic artifact itself due to deterioration. This highlights
the necessary integration between materials science,
digital spectral imaging and the social implications
of retrieving lost information. This generation of new
information includes that created from advanced digital
image processing of the large volume of acquired data.
In conclusion, providing useful information to support
conservation research and scholarly studies requires the
effective integration and application of new technologies, work processes and technical skills to the field. The use
of multi- and now hyperspectral imaging as an effective
conservation tool has allowed the development of nondestructive
analytical tools that allow the safe analysis
and examination of texts and documents. This requires
the integrtion of a range of associated activities and processes:
imaging artifacts in a range of spectral bands,
capturing important metadata about the digital records,
storing the digital data and associated metadata, processing
the images and data to yield useful information, and
making the information available for researchers in the
humanities, conservation professionals and the public.
Future accomplishments in the creation of a new digital
object will be dependent on economic development
of integrated image information systems, continued advances
in image technology, and the effective integration
of data access, storage, management and interpretation.
This requires continuing innovation and collaborations
of imaging and preservation scientists, information technology
professionals, conservators and researchers in the
humanities.
References
Casini, A, et al. Image Spectroscopy Mapping Technique
for Noninvasive Analysis of Paintings, Studies in Conservation
44 (1999) 39-48
Easton, R.L. Jr., Knox. K, Christens-Barry, W.A. Multispectral
imaging of the Archimedes palimpsest. In: Proceedings
of 32nd Applied Imagery Pattern Recognition
Workshop (IEEE-AIPR’03) (2003) 111–116
France, F.G. Managing digital image repositories as key
tools in the preservation of cultural objects, Imaging Science
and Technology Conference, Arlington, VA, 2007
France, F.G. and Toth, M.B. Developing cultural heritage
preservation databases based on Dublin Core data
elements, Dublin Core Conference, Manzanillo, Mexico,
October 2006
Grenacher, F. The Woodcut Map: A form-cutter of maps
wanders through Europe in the first quarter of the sixteenth
century, Imago Mundi, Vol 24 (1970) 31-41
Knox, K. “Enhancement of overwritten text in the Archimedes
Palimpsest,’’ in Computer Image Analysis in
the Study of Art, San Jose, California, Proc. SPIE, vol.
6810 (2007)
Knox, K.T. et al., “Image Restoration of Damaged or
Erased Manuscripts”, European Signal Processing Conference,
Lausanne (2008)
Knox, K. and Easton, R.L. Jr.: Recovery of lost writings
on historical manuscripts with ultraviolet illumination.
In: Fifth International Symposium on Multispectral Colour
Science (Part of PICS 2003 Conference), Rochester,
NY (2003) 301–306
Plaza, A, et al., Recent Advances in Techniques for Hyperspectral
Image Processing, Remote Sensing of Environment,
Elsevier Science, July 2007
Reedy, C. L. and Reedy, T. J. Relating visual and technological
style in Tibetan sculpture analysis, World Archaeology
25(3) (1994) 304-320
Toth, M.B. “Management of Digital Archives for Integrated
Web Access to Scientific and Cultural Information”,
Society for Imaging Science and Technology,
Archiving Conference, Arlington, Virginia, May 21-24
(2007)
Toth, M.B., Emery, D. “Encoding Archimedes Work
with TEI to Complete a 10-Year Program”, Text Encoding
Initiative Annual Members Meeting, London (2008)
Walvoord, D, Easton, R. Jr., “Digital Transcription of
the Archimedes Palimpsest”, IEEE Signal Processing
Magazine p. 100-104, July (2008)","txt","2","",""
"993","10","Digital History Across the Curriculum","1","If digital humanities is an isolated ‘enclave’ that remains
largely isolated from humanities disciplines, as
Martha Nell Smith averred at the 2008 Digital Humanities
and the Disciplines conference, perhaps one reason
is that the residents of that enclave have not often tried
to initiate broad curricular reform. Certainly, researchers
who are part of the digital humanities community teach
courses that use the writings of digital humanists, courses
that use the texts and images and audio and video digitized
with funds granted to digital humanists, courses
that use the web sites and databases and software developed
by digital humanists, courses that use the theories
and methods and language of the digital humanities, but
such courses seem to remain the specialized offerings of
specialists. Unlike women’s studies, for instance, which
at the very least increased the number of objects for humanities
inquiry by an order of magnitude, the researchoriented
field of digital humanities has not changed most
humanities syllabi.
This paper will tell the tale of one graduate program’s
programmatic attempt to incorporate the intellectual and
practical insights of the digital humanities throughout its
curriculum. In 2008, the National Historical Publications
and Records Commission awarded a grant to the Archives
and Public History graduate program in the History
department at New York University for the purpose of
creating ‘a model curriculum that fully engages new media’
with ‘a completely integrated and coherent approach
to digital and electronic records issues.’ (Wosh, 2007) To
create this model curriculum, the program hired a Digital
Curriculum Specialist to take on four well-defined tasks:
first, to revise the syllabi for three key courses and to
work closely with faculty and graduate students in those
courses; second, to review the eight other syllabi for
courses in the Archives and Public History program and
suggest changes where needed; third, to arrange at least
four digital history internships at cultural heritage institutions
in the New York area to enable graduate students
to gain significant experience working on digital history
projects; and fourth, to create an entirely new Advanced
New Media course.
The very existence of the Digital History Across the Curriculum
project at NYU might be considered evidence in
support of the claim that the field of digital humanities
has ignored curricular reform, perhaps at its peril, perhaps
thus enclaving itself. As the grant proposal points
out, the NYU Archives and Public History program is
one of only a few archival studies programs based in a
history department rather than in a library and/or information
science department, and this location in the humanities
seems to have hampered the program’s ability
to adapt organically:
Joseph M. Turrini, an archival educator at Auburn University,
correctly observed in a May 2007 AHA Perspectives
article that most history-based archival education programs
have failed to adjust to changing professional expectations,
especially ‘the expansion of specialized archival
courses and the increased technological expectations
of archivists.’ In truth, public historians, history departments,
and humanities-based archival training programs
have largely lagged behind their information science colleagues.
George Mason University offers an M.A. in Applied
History with a new media and technology emphasis
and has emerged as a leader in the field, but few other
institutions have followed along. Most programs offer
isolated ‘new media’ courses at best. Indeed, recent curricular
surveys of the public history field contain virtually
no discussion of technology or digital issues. This appears
particularly puzzling since these studies also document
the fact that employers expect program graduates to possess
precisely the blend of technological, collaborative,
and administrative skills that immersion in digital history
might provide. (Wosh, 2007)
For ‘applied’ humanities fields such as archival studies,
documentary editing, and public history, the need for
digital curricular reform or reinvention is obvious, if not
always easy, placed as they are within humanities departments
that rightly value critical inquiry for its own
sake. It may be the case that digital humanities can only
be transformative in humanities fields with just such an
applied emphasis; even our project confines itself to revising
the curriculum of a single track within a large history
department, rather than the broader curriculum of
the history department itself.
Yet one of the most promising and invigorating characteristics
of digital humanities as a field is that it combines
an emphasis on applied professional skills with the same
deep respect for intellect, ethics, and emotion that animates
the traditional humanities. Will there ever be an
initiative to revise the entire curriculum of a History department,
an English department, a French department,
a Philosophy department to incorporate the issues and insights of the digital humanities? Does such an initiative
seem unlikely, unnecessary, unimaginable? If so,
then perhaps the digital humanities is quite properly segregated
from humanities disciplines, and perhaps we can
continue talking among ourselves.
References
Smith, M. N. (2008). Enclaves: Perils and Possibilities.
Unpublished conference paper. Digital Humanities and
the Disciplines. Rutgers University, New Brunswick,
NJ, October 2008.
Turrini, J. M. (2007). The Historical Profession and Archival
Education. AHA Perspectives, 45(5). http://www.
historians.org/perspectives/issues/2007/0705/0705vie2.
cfm (accessed 14 November 2008).
Wosh, P. J. (2007). Digital History across the Curriculum.
Unpublished grant proposal. New York University:
National Historical Publications and Records Commission.","txt","2","",""
"994","10","Manuscript Annotations in Space and Time","1","Reading a book or manuscript involves four dimensions:
width, length, depth and time, since flipping
the page is a temporal act, with a before and an after. As
scholars and publishers increasingly move towards digital
remediation of literary archives, how do we digitally
render 4D objects in a medium that is missing at least the
third one, and text encoding standards that deprecate the
role of the page in shaping meaning? Walt Whitman’s
annotations written on nineteenth-century books, magazines
and newspapers, provide a special opportunity to
begin to explore this question. A particularly unusual
class of documents that Whitman created has posed difficulties
for electronic rendering. At The Walt Whitman
Archive, where I am a project manager, we call them
“flipbooks,” to denote a text that, while supported on
a single sheet is, in essence, a scrapbook with multiple
leaves glued on top of each other. That is, “flipbooks”
are documents that are annotated and then layered on top
of each other so that one can flip each clipping or page
over. In this presentation I will discuss how the questions of
the third and fourth dimensions of these documents informed
our design of interfaces for encoding, searching,
and browsing digital surrogates of them.
With the help of an NEH grant in the Digital Humanities,
the Whitman Archive created an interface that attempts
to maximize audience and utility while addressing theoretical
issues in the representation of layered documents. We have created a set of software technologies and encoding
practices that allow for the tagging, displaying,
and searching of static documents that mix print, manuscript,
and visual images—documents such as printed
texts or images bearing handwritten annotations. These
technologies include a suggested approach for encoding
coordinates in XML transcriptions so that search
engines can visually display results of user searches for
manuscript words and phrases; web-based software for
linking XML editing programs to an image display to
allow encoders to relate bitmap images to XML text; and
model stylesheets capable of displaying transcriptions
of annotated documents together with digital images of
those documents. We have kept Peter Robinson’s warnings
about the tendency of previous markup interfaces
to be difficult to use—based on his experiences with
his own software, Collate—in mind. For example, the
ARCHway Project features a suite of powerful tools for
relating texts to images and for capturing multiple hierarchies.
Our software suite, following on the example
of the ARCHway Project, is designed to be simple
enough to be used by transcribers with little familiarity
with information encoding and portable enough to work
in multiple computing environments for widely different
kinds of archival projects. Unlike ARCHway, however,
it is web-based, and allows encoders to mark space as a
structural entity.
Creating these interfaces has raised important questions.
What exactly constitutes marginalia, and how
would one render it digitally? To what extent are writing
and reading, both in digital and non-digital media,
spatial acts? Whitman’s marginalia reveals his literary
influences, how he is bound in time to writers that precede
him; but the spatial element is significant as well,
since his texts take root in the fertile marginal medium of
theirs. His practice of pasting such documents together
into unforeseen and reconfigurable combinations, with
deliberately motile hierarchies, brings to mind Hayden
White’s argument that form not only reveals content, but
can be content itself. It also reconfigures, as the work of
Marta Werner on the “radical scatter[er]” Emily Dickinson
suggests, what it means for scholars today to theorize
peripheries. Hence, the theoretical orientations and
practical implications of the archive’s interface are not
bound specifically to Whitman, but apply across literary
studies and digital humanities. In creating a relationship
between encoding practices and interactive design for
search and browsing, we have followed a path suggested
by, among others, Johanna Drucker, who asks if, “rather
than think[ing] about simulating the way a book looks,
we might consider extending the ways a book works as
we shift into digital instruments.”
Building an interface to allow for visualized search returns
of manuscript words in images meant creating a
coordinate system for manuscript tagging that allows
for searches or deformations based on the location of a
word in relative space, not just for specific terms or entities.
But building one that makes possible an approach
to how Whitman’s flipbooks work, in Drucker’s terms,
also meant making alterations to the TEI P5 approach
to XML-based markup, and in particular, to TEI’s insistence
that pages do not constitute intellectual structures.
This presentation will briefly demonstrate our interface
and discuss the logic of its design, focusing on the theoretical
implications and practical potential of an approach
that emphasizes layered spatial relations of text and images.
I will discuss the logic of the “surface and zone”
markup recommended for indicating such relations, and
discuss why we found it unsuited to handling Whitman’s
annotated flipbooks. Briefly, I will outline our practical
response, using a coordinate-tagging system, to such
markup, which allows page space to function as an intellectual
structure. To experiment with recreating the
way temporal flexibility affects intellectual hierarchies
in these documents, I will argue, not only introduces a
new kind of activity, a new domain of interpretation, into
editorial work, but also posits this kind of work as fundamentally
multidimensional.
Bibliography
Bradley, Matthew. “GladCAT: An online catalogue of
the books and reading of William Ewart Gladstone at St
Deiniol’s Library.” St. Deiniols Library Web Site, January
2009. Accessed 1 Mar 2009. <http://www.st-deiniols.
com/cms/goto.asp?id=142>
Dekhtyar, Alex, and Ionut Emil Iacob, “A Framework
for Management of Concurrent XML Markup.” Data and
Knowledge Engineering 52.2 (2005): 185–215.
Drucker, Johanna. “The Virtual Codex from Page Space
to E-space.” Companion to Digital Humanities. Eds.
Ray Siemens, John Unsworth, and Susan Schreibman.
Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 2004. 198-217. <http://www.
digitalhumanities.org/companion/>
Kiernan, Kevin, et al. “The ARCHway Project: Architecture
for Research in Computing for Humanities
through Research, Teaching, and Learning.” Literary
and Linguistic Computing 20, Suppl 1 (2005): 69-88.
McGann, Jerome. “Marking Texts of Many Dimensions.”
Companion to Digital Humanities. Eds. Ray
Siemens, John Unsworth, and Susan Schreibman. Oxford,
UK: Blackwell, 2004. 198-217. <http://www.digitalhumanities.
org/companion/> Paul Dyck and Stuart Williams, “Toward an Electronic
Edition of an Early Modern Assembled Book,” Computing
in the Humanities Working Papers A.44, (July 2008).
Robinson, Peter. “Current issues in making digital editions
of medieval texts—or, do electronic scholarly editions
have a future.” Digital Medievalist 1.1 (Spring
2005). <http://www.digitalmedievalist.org/journal/1.1/
robinson/>
Text Encoding Initiative. P5: Guidelines for Electronic
Text Encoding and Interchange. 2007. <http://www.teic.
org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/>
Werner, Marta L., ed. Emily Dickinson’s Open Folios:
Scenes of Reading, Surfaces of Writing. Ann Arbor: U of
Michigan P, 1995.
_____, ed. Radical Scatters: Emily Dickinson’s Fragments
and Related Texts, 1870-1886. Ann Arbor: U of
Michigan P, 1999. <http://www.hti.umich.edu/d/dickinson/
>
Witt, Andreas, et al. “Unification of XML Documents
with Concurrent Markup.”","txt","2","",""
"995","10","Supporting the Creation of Scholarly Bibliographies by Communities through Social Collaboration","1","Many digital humanities projects maintain online
bibliography digital libraries (BDLs) that support
diverse users in locating a variety of references. The Cervantes
Project (CP) bibliography aims to represent the
best resources about Cervantes published since 1605 and
is drawn from many multilingual sources. The current
CP bibliography gathering and filtering process is carried
out by sets of contributors: the expert editors, the
reviewers, and the authorized international collaborators.
Delays, possibly months, can result from the filtering
process and also from the process of uploading the
new publications into the BDL, which is separate from
the gathering and filtering process. In addition, the ability
to find new entries online is limited. Current bibliographic
search engines show a limited scope of coverage
on literature. There is no single resource that handles the
entire 2.5 million articles that emerge yearly from the
25,000 peer-reviewed journals (Harnad, S. et al., 2008),
so these engines access only a fraction of the literature
(Hull, D. et al., 2008).
We compared various humanities BDL’s main supported
features. Table 1 summarizes the main outcomes. Note that the majority of these BDLs do not take advantage of
the social collaboration of Web 2.0. This paper’s premise is that social collaboration with
the right level of moderation can support and reduce the
costs of creating a scholarly bibliography by benefiting
from the “wisdom of the crowds” (Surowiecki, J., 2004),
while ensuring the accuracy of the bibliography. This
could lead researchers to needed and interesting resources
in better time. We have experimented with this issue
by implementing a set of functionalities built on the drupal
CMS. We have tested them on a group of CP users
from different countries who use a variety of languages
to gather, share, annotate, rank and discover academic
literature (Fig. 1). We report on these initial experiments
in the remainder of this paper.
Personalization
Zotero, Mendeley and Papers are personal reference
management tools. However they do not include social
collaboration features. We implemented a personal facility
named MyCibo (Fig. 2), where users can save or
edit their references, personal pages, and blogs with the
ability to make them private or public. They can import
and export in EndNote tagged, XML, RIS, and BibTeX
formats and manually connect related publications. Social technologies applied to
bibliographies
Social Bookmarking
Most online libraries and bibliographies provide one way
learning, in that they provide services to the users, while
prohibiting users from contributing. This results in a
huge loss of knowledge and almost a freezing of storage
rather than active libraries. The current state of the art is
moving toward two way learning, where the users can
both benefit from the available knowledge and contribute
to it. (Hendry, D.G. et al. 2006b) mentioned an ‘amateur
bibliography’ that is collected by nonprofessionals
and falls short of the standards of a professional bibliography.
Although large amount of references could be
collected in a short span of time, resulting issues such as
redundancy, spam, phantom author names, and phantom
citations are not a good sign of scholarly research (Jacso,
P . 2008).
Unlike some general online reference management software
such as CiteULike and Connotea that are based on
the concept of non-moderated social bookmarking, we
considered the previous issues and the need for an accurate
bibliography. To get this done, light moderating
and authenticating of the users contributions to the CP bibliography is provided, aiming to reach the scholarly
moderated bibliography (Hendry, D.G. et al. 2006a).
Users were given ranks according to their scholarly or
contribution level. For example, well known scholars
got higher ranks so that they could contribute directly
without moderating their contributions. New users’ public
contributions will be entered into a queue waiting
for an approval from a moderator. Users who contribute
with relevant and accurate contributions would mean
that they are most likely experts in their area, and were
given points, which promote their ranking and editing
permissions. We believe this provides accuracy without
losing the benefits of collaboration. Fig. 3 shows how to
process the queued publications and Fig. 4 shows points
gained by an administrator after several entries. Editors
can revert to any previous revision in case there is need
(Fig. 5). We allowed the researchers to share and discover academic
literature without worrying about inaccurate bibliographic
data. They can discover what the warm topics
are in the research field and what is significant to other
researchers by viewing what other researchers read and
tag. Hence, they can know the related researchers with
similar interest that they can network with. Social collaboration
is also important for papers that are not available
electronically for various reasons and may loss their
presence in the research community.
Social Tagging
Del.icio.us and Digg are of the best and fastest growing
social bookmarking sites that use a folksonomy tagging.
However, inaccurate and misleading tags are common
in such open environments, which cannot be accepted
in research communities. This is a classic Web 2.0 problem:
it’s hard to aggregate the wisdom of the crowd without
aggregating their inexperience or madness as well
(Torkington, N. 2006).
We prevent these effects by using social tagging with
light moderation and users privileges upgrading. This
provides us with a better quality tags than we would get
if we just accepted all the beginners’ tags; these users
may want to contribute to the scholarly community initially
but may loss their interest later on. We allowed the
users to create their own tags and reuse the previously
entered tags by them or other users using the AJAX technology,
which allowed us to provide auto-complete tags
in real time.
Social review and comments
There are different types of comments: approving, disapproving,
or just summarizing the resource. We implemented
a feedback environment to build an active online
research community. It provides social reviews and comments
from the users where the authors can interact with
and answer their questions.
Multilanguage Capability
As digital libraries expand their audience and content
scope, there is an increasing need for resources and access
tools to those resources in a variety of languages
(Larson, R.R. et al., 2002). Even for polyglot users, there
is a preference to use maternal language interfaces in order
to accelerate searching and browsing process, preferring
the language of the interface to match the language
of the content as well (Keegan, T . and Cunningham, S.,
2008). Hence, the CP international scope requires the
inclusion of content and system functionalities in multiple
languages. Based on the statements presented, we
provided a translation capability for interface elements (localization) and for content (internationalization). We
analyzed different translation strategies such as using
Web content (Wang, J. et al., 2004), documents in multiple
languages (Nie, J.Y. et al., 1999), and some available
APIs. After testing common searching phrases and
sample texts in our content domain in three different
languages (English, Spanish, and Arabic), we decided
to use the Google AJAX Language API because of its
detection and translation capabilities.
Users can choose the preferred available language at any
moment while using the system. This choice will translate
the interface to that language and would select only
the content with that language. Bibliographic data can be
entered in a language and then translated to a new language
or linked to an existing bibliographic data or publications
in other languages (Fig. 6). Users’ comments
and annotations can be translated to other languages, allowing
users to comment and discuss in their preferred
language (Fig. 7). The testing outcomes showed us acceptable
translation results.
Ranking
Bibliography ranking has been used as a way to give users
a confident Top-N resource from the searching results.
A normal user only reads the first, second, or third
page of results. Citations and references have been used
as a way to rank bibliography resources (Larse, B. et al.,
2002, Larse, B. et al., 2006, Yang, K. et al. 2007). Citation-
based methods deal with complex issues such as biased
or self-citations, hard to detect positive or negative
citations, multiple citations formats difficult to handle by
computer programs, unfair consideration of new papers,
venues not considered. (Yan, Su, et al. 2007) propose a
seed-based measure (considering top-venues and venues’
authors relevance) and the browsing-based measure
(considers user’s behavior) to rank academic venues.
However, the authors-seed needs to be updated frequently
to reconsider new relevant authors. We used a hybrid
approach. We allowed the users with higher ranking to
rate the publications and retrieve the publications that
got a vast amount of approved reviews and comments
since that would mean that they are hot topics. Discussion and Future work
Our initial experimental results indicate that using an
online social collaboration would improve the quality,
quantity and usage of scholarly bibliography. Furthermore,
it would help in building bridges among the international
researchers and facilitate scholarly collaboration.
We intend to automate some portions of the moderating
process and evaluate the reviews and comments (positive
or negative) by identifying and interpreting annotations
patterns and semantic to give some relevance weight to
each source which would help also in the ranking.
Acknowledgements
This material is based upon work supported by the National
Science Foundation under Grant No. IIS-0534314.
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"996","10","LORE: A Compound Object Authoring and Publishing Tool for Literary Scholars","1","This paper presents LORE (Literature Object Re-use
and Exchange), a light-weight tool designed to enable
scholars and teachers of literature to author, edit
and publish OAI-ORE-compliant compound information
objects that encapsulate related digital resources and
bibliographic records. LORE provides a graphical user
interface for creating, labelling and visualizing typed relationships
between individual objects using terms from
a bibliographic ontology based on the IFLA FRBR. After
creating a compound object, users can attach metadata
and publish it to a repository as an RDF graph, where
it can be searched, retrieved, edited and re-used by others.
LORE has been developed in the context of the Australian
Literature Resource project (AustLit) and hence
focuses on compound objects for teaching and research
within the Australian literature studies community.
1. Introduction and Objectives
Within the discipline of literature research and teaching,
the ability to relate disparate digital resources in a
standardized, machine-readable format has the potential
to add significant value to distributed collections of literary
resources. Such compound objects can be used to
track the lineage of derivative works which are based
on a common concept, to relate objects around a common
theme, or to encapsulate related digital resources
for teaching purposes. For example, one might want to
relate the original edition of Follow the Rabbit-Proof
Fence to the illustrated edition, a radio recording and
a digital version of the film – and to retrieve and present
these resources, with their relationships visualized,
regardless of their location. Our objective is to provide
a software tool to enable such encapsulation and subsequent
re-use and visualization, by building on the efforts
of two previous digital library initiatives:
• The IFLA Functional Requirements for Bibliographic
Records (IFLA, 1998) The OAI-Object Reuse and Exchange (OAI, 2008)
FRBR is a recommendation of the International Federation
of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) to
restructure catalogue databases to reflect the conceptual
structure of information resources. It uses an entity-relationship
model of metadata for bibliographic resources
that supports four levels of representation: work, expression,
manifestation and item. It also supports three
groups of entities: products of intellectual or artistic
endeavour (publications); entities responsible for intellectual
or artistic content (a person or organisation); and
entities that serve as subjects of intellectual or artistic
endeavour (concept, object, event, and place).
The Open Archives Initiative Object Reuse and Exchange
(OAI-ORE) is an international collaborative
initiative, focusing on a framework for the exchange of
information about Digital Objects between cooperating
repositories, registries and services. OAI-ORE aims to
support the creation, management and dissemination of
the new forms of composite digital resources being produced
by eResearch and to make the information within
these objects discoverable, machine-readable, interoperable
and reusable. Named Graphs (Jeremy, 2005) are
endorsed by the OAI-ORE initiative as a means of publishing
compound digital objects that clearly states their
logical boundaries (Lagoze et al, 2007). They do this in
a way that is discipline-independent, but that also provides
hooks to include rich semantics, metadata, ontologies
and rules. Our hypothesis is that OAI-ORE Named
Graphs provide the ideal mechanism for representing
literary compound objects that encapsulate the entities
and relationships expressed by the IFLA FRBR.
To test this hypothesis, we are working with the Australian
literature studies community through AustLit. AustLit
is a non-profit collaboration between the National
Library of Australia and twelve Universities. It provides
the peak resource of bibliographic data for scholars undertaking
research into Australian literary heritage and
print culture history. The AustLit data model is also
based on the IFLA FRBR (Kilner, 2005), making it ideal
for evaluating LORE. Hence our core aims are to provide
easy-to-use tools that can be seamlessly integrated
within existing research practices through the AustLit
Web Portal and that enable:
• the publishing of compound objects in open access
repositories so they can be readily shared and reused;
• the easy discovery and re-use of these compound
objects through the attachment of simple metadata;
• the visualization of complex relationships between
literary resources (including the lineage of derived
intellectual products) through intuitive graphical
user interfaces.
2. Related Work
A number of previous efforts have applied OAI-ORE to
specific scientific disciplines to encapsulate experimental
data and results. These include: FORSITE (2008),
eChemistry (Van Noorden, 2008), UIUC (Cole, 2008)
and SCOPE (Cheung et al, 2007). Although CULTOS
(2003) uses RDF to represent multimedia and hypertext
presentations for e-Humanities applications, it does not
combine OAI-ORE and IFLA-FRBR to capture or label
the precise relationships between entities. Also relevant
is an overview of previous implementations and applications
of IFLA FRBR, provided by Babeu (2008). A significant
past focus of e-Humanities tools development
has been on scholarly mark-up and annotation tools to
attach interpretations to individual objects or parts of
objects (e.g., paragraphs within an article). LORE takes
the annotation paradigm a step further, enabling authors
to annotate links between multiple resources with tags
from an ontology.
3. Implementation and User Interface
LORE is implemented as a Mozilla Firefox extension
using AJAX. The LORE tool stores and queries Named
Graphs representing compound objects via web services
on a Sesame 2 or Fedora repository. The types for intraaggregation
relationships as well as metadata terms for
aggregated objects are specified via an OWL ontology,
which is configured at start-up. Through examining all of
the topic types and relationships from the AustLit database,
we developed an OWL ontology which is based on
IFLA FRBR, but extended to support additional relationships
(e.g., between people). LORE’s editing interface displays OAI-ORE resource
maps in a graphical form, as shown in Figure 1, as well
as RDF/XML. In the graphical view, nodes represent
the resources aggregated within the resource map and
arcs represent typed relationships between them. Each
graphical node contains an interactive preview of the
resource that it represents, which can be collapsed to
conserve screen space or resized to display more content.
This allows users to view and interact with aggregated
resources directly from within LORE rather than having
to load them individually in the browser. Clicking on a
node’s identifier loads the resource in the top browser
window.
Metadata about the OAI-ORE resource map, aggregation,
and aggregated resources is displayed and can be added
to or edited via the Properties panel on the bottom righthand-
side. The metadata terms that may be specified are
those from OAI-ORE, Dublin Core (DC, 2008), DCMI
Metadata Terms (DCMI, 2008), selected terms from
FOAF (FOAF, 2007), and, datatype properties from the
domain ontology. Relationship types are indicated by
labels on the arcs, and can be changed by editing the
properties or by selecting from the arc context menu,
which is populated by the object properties from the
domain ontology.
New resources to be added to the resource map are
discovered via the main browser window. Clicking
on the OAI-ORE logo in the status bar toggles the
editor’s visibility, so that the full window can be used
for resource discovery, whilst the resource map being
constructed remains accessible throughout the browsing
session. A resource loaded in the browser can be added
to the resource map via context menus or LORE’s
toolbar. The toolbar provides options for saving and
loading compound objects stored in the RDF repository
specified in the user preferences. Resource maps can also
be discovered and loaded via the Browse/Search panel.
4. Discussion and Conclusions
The AustLit researchers with whom we have been collaborating
have been overwhelmingly enthusiastic about
this work. They particularly liked the interactive node
previews, the direct integration of the editor with the
browser and the ease with which they could customize
the relationship types and metadata supported by the
editor. They would like to see additional arc visualizations
such as line decorators, arrows and colours or line
styles to distinguish relationships, as well as support for
bi-directional relationships. Objects can be added to a compound object in the LORE
editor if they can be loaded in the web browser. However this approach does not handle URIs identifying noninformation
resources well, and issues arise with nonpersistent
URLs and with identifying objects that exist
within institutional repositories using local identifiers.
Because the IFLA FRBR is complex, it may be difficult
for a literary scholar to apply appropriate metadata
terms and relationship types from the ontology to relate
resources. Strategies for addressing this issue could include
adding more semantic checks to the UI to assist
users in applying the ontology terms, or tailoring the
domain ontologies based on community needs and understanding.
The on-going development and evaluation of LORE in
the context of AustLit will provide an essential component
of the cyber-infrastructure requirements of the
Australian literary studies community, as well as literary
scholars globally.
Acknowledgements
Aus-e-Lit is funded by DEST through the National eResearch
Architecture Taskforce (NeAT), part of the National
Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy
(NCRIS).
References
AustLit. (2008). AustLit: The Australian Literature Resource.
http://austlit.edu.au (accessed 11 November
2008).
Babeu, A. (2008). Building a “FRBR-Inspired” Catalog:
The Perseus Digital Library Experience. http://www.
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Cheung, K., Hunter, J., Lashtabeg, A., Drennan, J.
(2007). SCOPE - A Scientific Compound Object Publishing
and Editing System, 3rd International Digital
Curation Conference, Washington DC.
Cole, T.W. (2008). OAI-ORE experiments at the University
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Roll-Out-OR08.pdf (accessed 11 November 2008).
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November 2008).
DC. (2008). Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, Version
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2008).
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FORSITE. (2008). http://foresite.cheshire3.org/ (accessed
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Jeremy, J.C., et al. (2005). Named graphs, provenance
and trust, 14th international conference on World Wide
Web. ACM Press, Chiba, Japan
Kilner, K. (2005). The AustLit Gateway and Scholarly
Bibliography: A Specialist Implementation of the FRBR.
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Van Noorden, R. (2008). Microsoft Ventures into Open
Access Chemistry. Chemistry World. http://www.rsc.
org/chemistryworld/News/2008/January/29010803.asp
(accessed 11 November 2008).","txt","2","",""
"997","10","Gobineau and Tocqueville: The Curious Case of the Medical Metaphor in Corpus Stylistics","1","Corpus stylistics and statistical analysis of keywords
can have a voice in a growing debate about the literary
effect of metaphor between two nineteenth-century
authors who also served as French government officials:
Arthur de Gobineau (1816-1882) and Alexis de Tocqueville
(1805-1859). In his prize-winning biography
on Tocqueville, Hugh Brogan recently highlighted an
aggressive response made 150 years before by the esteemed
literary statesman to his former chief of staff.
Tocqueville, Brogan argues, disagreed “...entirely with
Gobineau’s immoral ideas about human decadence”
(592) and miscegeny, particularly as expressed in the latter’s
L’Essai sur l’inégalité des races humaines, whose
first two volumes Tocqueville had read. In his defense,
Gobineau, at that point a diplomat in France’s Foreign
Service, replied that, “he was no more immoral than a
doctor who tells his patient that his disease is mortal”
(592). Brogan then cites, in his own translation, a key
paragraph from the published correspondence of July 30,
1856, from Tocqueville to Gobineau:
I reply that if the act is not immoral in itself, it can only
produce immoral or pernicious consequences. If my doctor
came to me one morning to say, ‘My dear sir, I have
the honour to announce that you have a mortal illness, and
as it affects your very constitution, I have the advantage
of being able to add that there is absolutely no chance of
saving you in any way,’ I would first be tempted to knock
the fellow down. (592)
To Tocqueville’s follow-up thought that he would then
hide under the blanket or perhaps, like Boccaccio’s characters
during the plague in Florence, indulge his whims
or perhaps prepare himself for the afterlife before the inevitable
occurred, Brogan adds a provocative footnote:
“It might be interesting to know exactly when AT [Alexis
de Tocqueville] read Gobineau’s latest volumes. In
the Foreword to the Ancien Régime he compares himself
to a physician (OC II i 73)” (592).
With so much of Tocqueville’s and Gobineau’s literary
and historical work online in the ARTFL database, corpus
stylistics and statistical analysis may have something
to offer our research on the vocabulary of Tocqueville’s striking reply of July 1856, compared to the wording in
his foreword to L’Ancien régime et la révolution. The
first two volumes of Gobineau’s Essai had been already
been published in the summer of 1853. The first two
occurrences of médecin(s), both in the first two volumes
released, and the fourth, in the last two volumes (1855)
to which Brogan refers as “Gobineau’s latest volumes,”
are simply part of a list of professions. The third, however,
occurs in a discussion of Plato. Gobineau explains
that either because of status attributable to his
birth or because of circumstances, Plato finds himself
in charge. Unfortunately, horrified by Athen’s problems
and hesitant to undertake any mission that might worsen
them, Plato remains powerless to act. “Such people,”
Gobineau opines, “are doctors, not surgeons and, like
Epaminondas and Philopoemen, they cover themselves
in glory without fixing anything” (my translation). And
so it would seem that doctors may be good only for diagnosing
problems, not repairing the damage. Indeed,
Gobineau had written to Tocqueville on March 20, 1856,
“I am no more an assassin than the doctor who says that
the end is near. I’m wrong or I’m right.” All written
in relatively close chronological succession, Gobineau’s
thoughts seem to imply that he is like Plato and like a
doctor, intelligent enough to see the errors of mankind’s
ways, able to speak up to diagnose the ills, but powerless
to solve any of them. How inconvenient! Explaining
away any curative or corrective abilities that doctors may
have is a false premise, perhaps appealing to a minority
of popular complaints, and seems to serve as justification
for the supposedly perceptive Gobineau to throw his
hands in the air. Tocqueville, however, remains hopeful,
despite the ill health that has been plaguing him for
years: “I add that physicians, like the philosophes, are
often wrong in their predictions, and I have seen more
than one man condemned by them carrying himself quite
well later while resenting the doctor who had needlessly
frightened and discouraged him.”
Research on the delivery patterns of letters between
Gobineau and Tocqueville indicates the probability that
enough time existed for Gobineau’s letter of March 20,
1856, sent by diplomatic post from Teheran, to reach
Tocqueville in Paris before the final weeks in May and
the first two weeks in early June when he wrote or revised,
respectively, the foreword to L’Ancien régime
(see Gannett, p. 144). Tocqueville’s work was not published
until June 16, 1856 (see http://classiques.uqac.ca/
classiques/De_tocqueville_alexis/ancien_regime/Ancien_
regime.pdf).
“I therefore admit that in studying our former society in
each of its parts, I have never entirely lost the new one
from sight. I have not only wanted to see to what illness the patient had succumbed, but how he could have
avoided dying. I have done as those doctors who, for
each exhausted organ, try to surprise the laws of life. My
goal has been to paint a picture that would be exact and
that at the same time could be instructive” (my translation).
(“J’avoue donc qu’en étudiant notre ancienne société
dans chacune de ses parties, je n’ai jamais perdu entièrement
de vue la nouvelle. Je n’ai pas seulement voulu
voir à quel mal le malade avait succombé, mais comment
il aurait pu ne pas mourir. J’ai fait comme ces médecins
qui, dans chaque organe éteint, essayent de surprendre
les lois de la vie. Mon but a été de faire un tableau qui
fût strictement exact, et qui, en même temps, pût être instructif.”)
One might wonder whether Tocqueville’s delicate health
and Gobineau’s repugnant preference for partitioned
racial types as a way to stabilize mankind’s existence
might have led to added references to doctors and related
terms. Judging by the data in the ARTFL FRANTEXT
database, the entire exchange described above is,
on the contrary, quite uncommon for these two authors
as individuals. Tocqueville’s use of the combination or
cluster médecin(s)- vie(s)–organe(s) in the foreword
of L’Ancien régime is one of only seven such clusters
within the same sentence over the entire FRANTEXT
database, from the early 1600’s through 1992 in the
2,540 documents searched. And two of these seven were
purely medically oriented.
The z-scores in Figure 1 suggest at least two somewhat
surprising interpretations. First, Tocqueville, rather than
Gobineau, seems to have the more medically oriented
attitude toward politics and civilization. The z-score of
+4.23 in Tocqueville’s correspondence is statistically
significant in its positive rate whereas Gobineau’s rate of
-2.25 is an inverse correlate, significantly negative. Second,
the use of the lemma médecin in Tocqueville’s Ancien
régime, during whose writing he became increasingly
ill with tuberculosis, is also negatively significant.
This fact heightens the value of the cluster doctor(s)-
life/lives-organ(s) (médecin(s)- vie(s)–organe(s)) described
above. Returning to the original observation by
Hugh Brogan, one might suppose that he and perhaps
others who are scholars or otherwise frequent readers
of Tocqueville’s work are likely to be even more impressed
by the physician/doctor metaphor. While the use
of médecin(s) in L’Ancien régime does not attract attention
for repetition compared to the norm of the quarter
century, it certainly does for cognitive and statistical
reasons in Tocqueville’s and Gobineau’s oeuvres . The
bas-relief of the word’s rarity in this work moves the word and its word cluster to the forefront, particularly in
a foreword. Coupled with time and opportunity, it indeed
seems likely that Tocqueville had a rebuttal to Gobineau
on his mind as he penned the avant-propos shortly before
his own father’s death. It is no coincidence that in
the next sentence after the medical metaphor, he writes
of fathers, male virtues (“vertus mâles”), and faith in a
cause as well as in ourselves, “la foi en nous-mêmes et
dans une cause.” References
ARTFL. American and French Research on the Treasury
of the French Language. U. of Chicago.
Brogan, Hugh (2006) Alexis de Tocqueville: A Life.
New Haven: Yale.
Gannett, Robert T., Jr. (2003) Tocqueville Unveiled.
Chicago & London: University of Chicago.
Gobineau, Arthur de (1853) Essai sur l’inégalité des
races humaines, vols. 1 & 2. Paris: Pierre Belfond.
ARTFL database.
---- (1855) Essai sur l’inégalité des races humaines,
vols. 3 & 4. Paris: Pierre Belfond. ARTFL database.
Tocqueville, Alexis de (1959) Oeuvres complètes. Tome
II. L’Ancien régime et la révolution. Originally published
in 1856. Also see: see http://classiques.uqac.ca/
classiques/De_tocqueville_alexis/ancien_regime/Ancien_
regime.pdf.
--- Oeuvres complètes. Tome IX. Correspondance
d’Alexis de Tocqueville et d’Arthur de Gobineau. Introduction
by J.-J. Chevallier. Edited and annotated by
Maurice Degros. Paris: Gallimard. Correspondence
dates from 1843-1859.","txt","2","",""
"998","10","Define Me: A Cognitive and Computational Approach to Critical Digital Identity Representation in Social Networking Applications","1","Invoking a theoretical framework situated at the intersection
of humanistic accounts of social identity
construction, cognition linguistics research, and digital
media technologies, the Advanced Identity Representation
(AIR) Project develops theory and technology
for users to represent complex, dynamic social identities
in digital media such as virtual worlds and social
networking sites. Here, we primarily present DefineMe
– Chimera, a social networking application that uses a
dynamic system of categorization and allows users to
define each other through metaphorical projection. DefineMe
is grounded in an interdisciplinary approach that
articulates the shared socio-cognitive substrates beneath
user representations ranging from user created profiles
on social networking sites to avatars in virtual worlds.
Secondarily, we present Identity Share, a social networking
project developed using the DefineMe database
structure that allows users to define identity categories,
share profiles, and anonymously follow each other’s web
searching paths. The result of the projects is an early articulation
of a spectrum of new user identity representations
with foci upon group membership, utilization/creation
of boundary infrastructures (Bowker & Star 1999;
Lave & Wenger 1991), along with cognitive models of
metonomy, metaphor, and visual imagery. (Hutchins
1996; Lakoff 1987)
1. Introduction
The Advanced Identity Representation (AIR) Project
is the name given to the research endeavor in Fox Harrell’s
Imagination, Computation, and Expression (ICE)
Lab/Studio investigating technology and theory to enable
digital experiences that engage a richer range of social
identity experiences than those found now in social
networking, gaming, and virtual worlds software. We
present DefineMe – Chimera and Identity Share as early
steps toward this end. DefineMe – Chimera is a social
networking application with a novel database system
and a front-end Facebook web application. Users can
label each other using self-defined predicates expressing
their metaphorical similarities to various animals.
These descriptions are used as a basis to construct and
reconfigure categories on-the-fly as the database grows
and to present chimera-like avatar characters to represent
the user as composites of various iconic animal graphics.
Though this project develops a whimsical, metaphorical
model of user representation, the theoretical and technical
underpinnings address issues such as coconstruction
of identity categories between individuals, marginalization
and centrality within identity categories, and the
imaginative nature of identity in race, ethnicity, and gender
critical contexts. As a second step toward enabling a new genre of digital
media identity experiences, we present Identity Share, a
critical web-based application that offers a balance between
allowing users to author profiles with both selfdefined
and normative social categories, at the same
time as allowing users to specify the relative importance
of particular categories. Identity Share allows users to
anonymously give others permission to follow their web
searches, view their wishlists with various websites, and
leave comments on their experiences of “(web)walking
in another’s shoes.” The goal is not to connect users as friends, but rather to allow users to have the uncanny experience
of viewing and sharing aspects of each others’
needs, values, and desires. Together, DefineMe: Chimera
and Identity Share exemplify early prototypes of the direction
that AIR Project systems may take in tackling
social identity phenomena in the future.
2. Theoretical Framework
The AIR Project draws on a hybrid approach to issues
of categorization and classification. Central influential
theories important to the AIR Framework are described
below.
2.1 Cognitive Categorization, Metaphor, and Blending
The AIR approach has some of its roots in grounded in
cognitive science theory (Lakoff 1987) which asserts
that categorization is a matter of both human experience
and imagination. George Lakoff’s work in this area over
two decades ago is well known and influential, yet to
our knowledge it is a thread that has been underdeveloped
with respect to issues of social identity construction
in the critical modes robustly developed in cultural
studies with the humanities, especially this approach has
not been significantly applied to cases of digital identity
representation (an exciting exception being the work
of Otto Santa Ana on metaphorical bias in Brown Tide
Rising (Santa Ana 2002)). Cognitive science research reveals
categories as being (1) based on “the same neural
and cognitive mechanisms that allow us to perceive and
move around” (Lakoff & Johnson 1999), (2) distributed
across members of a social group, external artifacts, and
even time (Hutchins 1996, 2000), and (3) always situated
in particular social and cultural contexts (Lave &
Wenger 1991). Important for the purposes here, Lakoff
describes a conceptual metaphor-based theory of how
imaginative extensions of “prototype effects” result in
several phenomena of social identity categorization that
are useful for the AIR Project (Lakoff 1987). These phenomena
include representatives (prototypes) or “best example”
members of categories, stereotypes that indicate
normal, but often misleading, category expectations, and
more. Conceptual blending theory builds upon Gilles
Fauconnier’s mental spaces theory (Fauconnier 1985),
elaborates insights from metaphor theory (Fauconnier
2006), and attempts to account for a wider range of semantic
phenomena.
2.2 Sociology of Classification Infrastructures
The AIR Project is influenced by accounts of classification
from sociology and science studies. In Sorting
Things Out (Bowker & Star 1999), Geoffrey Bowker
and Susan Leigh Star make the case that classification
systems are necessary for information exchange and
communication. The social challenges regarding classification
systems arise from cases where tension exists
between contexts, for examples, when one’s self-conception
differs from prevalent social stereotypes. Important
tools for bridging between communities are “boundary
objects,” defined by Bowker and Star as objects that “inhabit
several communities and also satisfy the informational
requirements of each.” The AIR Project develops
what Bowker and Star term “boundary infrastructures.”
These are defined as “stable regimes managing multiple
boundary objects, allowing the necessary information
to be accessed by multiple communities.” Also crucial
from Bowker and Star, is the concept of “torque,” the
condition where biographies are “twisted in classification
systems” to arrive at painful lived experiences. One
poignant example Bowker and Star present is the schism
between societal and self-perception and the disruptive
movement between or misapplication of categories, especially
for people labeled as “black” or “colored,” in
apartheid South Africa. The gap between self (or local
community-based) definition of an individual’s place in
a classification system and hegemonically imposed definition
of classifications, and disarming the negative results
often arising from such phenomena, is a central to
the critique performed by the systems highlighted in this
paper. As opposed to computational identity applications
that are based on standard, static classification systems,
the dynamically configurable, imaginatively grounded
AIR Project identity systems are boundary infrastructures
that allow users to customize their user profiles and
preferences for particular communities.
3. The AIR Framework
Based upon the cognitive and infrastructural approach
above, and previous work in imaginative computational
discourse and identity construction (Harrell 2007,
2008a), a brief summary of key aspects of the AIR Project’s
new constructs for implementing and analyzing
computational identity follows.
3.1 Shared Technical
Underpinnings of Identity Applications
A technical infrastructure-oriented means to compare
computational identities is the first pillar the approach
developed in this project. Various computational identity
applications such as social networking sites, avatar creation
systems for virtual worlds, and games are implemented
using a limited and often overlapping set of techniques.
Fig. 2 describes, at a high level, the components
that comprise the majority of widely used computational
identity technologies (Harrell 2008b).
The six components in Fig. 2 that commonly form the
basis for avatar/character/profile construction can enable dynamic and contingent models of social identity in
digital environments as described in (Gee 2003). Understanding
the reciprocities and overlaps between the technical
means by which users stage their identities across
digital media forms can enable more powerful customizability
and cross-community communication facility in
social identity systems. 3.2 Cognitively Grounded Model of Computational
Identity
The cognitively grounded model of computational identity
of the AIR Project is summarized in Fig. 3. It forms
the second pillar of our approach. Our digital identity models serve to critique infrastructures
of social classification that can, unfortunately, often
serve to reify naïve models of identity, and which do no
capture the dynamic, constructive, and enacted identity
phenomena encountered in everyday experience. This
model is an analytical construct used to help to understand
the interplay between underlying infrastructures,
such as the technical underpinning described above, and
the subjective interpretation of digital identities. The
utility of the model is that we can identify where schisms
exist between a technical structure (e.g., a data structure
specifying a player character as a string called a “priest”
and an associated “heal” procedure that allows addition
to an integer called “hit points) and a real world idealized
cognitive model as encoded in a classification infrastructure
such as “occupation description” (e.g., the description
of a priest perhaps as either someone versed in a
metaphysical body of knowledge or as merely the facilitator
of a particular type of institution). We can then construct
new infrastructures, using techniques such as suggested
in the AIR Project, that more closely align these
structures and models in order to construct the hybrid
of computationally afforded identities and real-world
identities that James Gee calls the “projected identity” as
shown in cognitively grounded AIR model (e.g., a player
taking on the role of a priest in a computer role-playing
game and trying to be helpful and supportive to her or
his friends). The key here is that our understanding of
both computational structures and the ways that users interpret
them is based in imaginative cognition processes
such as conceptual categorization and blending.
4. DefineMe – Chimera: A Critical
Identity Construction Social Networking
Application
The first system constructed using the AIR theoretical
framework is a Facebook application entitled DefineMe,
the first version of which is called Chimera. Specifically,
we implement aspects of Lakoff’s metonymic idealized
cognitive models for categorization to allow users to
co-construct their own and others’ avatars as boundary
objects. (Lakoff 1987) The premise behind DefineMe is
to allow users to define each others’ avatars using both
commonplace and abstract metaphors. Users can append
metadata to other peoples’ profiles to drive dynamic
generation of avatar images. The initial content domain
consists of animal metaphors that can be mixed-andmatched
algorithmically. Animal metaphors are potent
entrenched metaphors for human personality. (Turner
1996) (e.g., sneaky weasels or docile sheep), however
this animal metaphor-based version is only an initial experiment.
The model extends to more directly socially
engaged categories such as social scenes, fashions, or
movements.
The DefineMe database is designed to be lightweight,
dynamic, and extensible, while implementing categorical
relationships between members. When comparing
profiles, DefineMe is designed to match lexical items and logical relations directly, or it can compare the structures
of profiles following insights from the analogical structure-
mapping engine (SME) developed by Ken Forbus
et. al. (Forbus 2001; Gentner 1983) The DefineMe – Chimera
application reported on here focuses on creating
metaphorical projections as described above. The DefineMe
database relies on tags to create additional descriptors
for each category or member. For instance, one user
could describe her friend as a ‘lion’ (which would be the
member) because she is ‘strong’ (which is the tag). Another
user could add an additional tag, stating that she is
a ‘lion’ because she is ‘carnivorous.’ These tags can comprise
vertical parent-child links (e.g. a ‘lion’ is-an ‘animal’)
or horizontal implicit links (e.g. in another user’s
profile a ‘lion’ is-an ‘Ethiopian symbol,’ yet the system
may still create a category linked by the concept ‘lion’).
The fact that users define other users has the potential to
both entertain and agitate, regardless it allows for critical
inquiry into the phenomena echoing real-world labeling. Following the work of Eleanor Rosch cited in (Lakoff
1987), the tagging system can also be used to define aspects
of categories themselves. For instance, a ‘robin’
tag can be added to the category, ‘birds,’ to define the
prototype of that category. In this way, members caare not seen as drawbacks of the systems. Each system is
considered to be a culturally situated critical intervention,
rather than a usability oriented productive application. In
bringing to light more nuanced and imaginative identity
phenomena, such as potential ostracism, prejudicial exoticizing
of the other, or unflattering labeling, we hope to
also provide the potential to disempower such phenomena
through dialogic engagement. These systems can
be considered cultural productions, or digital media art
projects, in the sense that they are provocative cultural
interventions situated in an environment increasingly
encroached upon by hegemonically enforced, often corporate,
models of user identity. As such, the systems succeed
only to the degree that they engage users as evocative
systems, inspire critical thought, and are construed
as adequate for capturing personalities using archetypical
avatars or conjure the sensation of experiencing the
web through another’s eyes. Beyond this, however, we
see the systems as prototypes that suggest directions that
could enhance the expressive and empowering potentials
of productive, utilitarian, or commercial systems such
as computer games and popular social networking sites
with features such as self-definition of categories and deployment
of imaginative metaphor. Despite our provocative and critical interventionist
stance, the systems are engineered to mitigate against
abuse, and certainly distress of users is not our goal.
Looking at the two systems consecutively, mitigating
factors designed into the systems are as follows:
DefineMe: Chimera Design Factors
1. Users are only allowed to tag their Facebook
“friends” who have added the application.
2. Users have access to a limited database of animaltypes.
3. Users must “opt-in” in order to receive a generated
avatar.
4. Users can “opt-out” at any time.
5. Users’ database entries can be edited by moderators.
6. Users have access to only a limited format for tagging
each other.
7. Users can delete entries on their profiles that others
have created.
Together, we believe that these factors strongly help to
avoid the system’s potential to be applied in an overly
negative manner. It is a contract between friends to sign
up for potential compliments, teasing, and, we believe,
self and social insight. Ultimately, DefineMe – Chimera
is intended to present users with a controlled experience
of torqued identity. The fractured identity of a monstrous
chimerical representation is then, an accurate reflection
of the limitations of applying modular and discrete classifications
to a real world biography.
Regarding Identity Share, mitigating design factors implemented
include the following:
Identity Share Design Factors
1. Users can create their own self-classifications.
2. Users can select which classifications are important
to them.
3. Users can avoid or utilize normative categories such
as gender or occupation.
4. Users can allow or disallow the system’s tracking of
their web visitation paths at will.
5. Users’ real world identities are kept anonymous. n belong
to multiple groups, but individuals can represent the
prototypical members of groups. In this early version,
each user is seen as a member of each assigned animal
category as well. This membership allows the system to
use an individual as a prototype stand-in for the category.
For instance, rather than just labeling a friend as a lion,
one could state that your friend, Emily, is like your friend
Bobby because she is brave. The system can then take
all of Bobby’s attributes and apply them to Emily’s chimera.
This relatively lightweight structure avoids some
of the pre-defined categorization built into many social
networking infrastructures, and has the potential to explore
some of the more nuanced identity phenomena
mentioned in the theoretical framework above.
5. Identity Share: A Critical Identity
Construction Social Networking
Application
Identity Share, a social networking site for “non-friends,”
and Daniel Upton’s MS thesis project in Digital Media,
is also developed under the umbrella of the AIR project.
The system allows for social networking by providing
users with facilities to construct profiles, follow and
comment upon other users, and perform game-like tasks
that encourage users to consider exploring both like and
different profiles of others. Identity Share offers a novel
means of self-representation based upon open-ended categories
and tags. Standard profile models that typically
include normative categories such as name, age, gender,
location, and race are replaced with a customizable list
that exists as a database, growing as more categories are
added. Database consistency is maintained by giving users
typeahead
functionality when adding custom categories
and by presenting existing categories in order from
most common to least common. The database structure is
based upon the same layout used by DefineMe – Chimera.
Users can select which categories are most important
to them by indicating that they are primary to the user
using checkboxes. By allowing for primary selection
of categories, we consider the system to implementing
centrality phenomena from the cognitive science theory
above, i.e., “the idea that some members of a category
may be ‘better examples’ of that category than others,”
to a users profile. (Lakoff 1987) This means that a user’s
profile, as a collection of categories that define a user,
is no longer viewed as just a set of static characteristics
that are true about this user, but rather as a complex set of
characteristics where some may be “truer” or more definitional
to the user’s self-conception. To take this even
further, in a future implementation Identity Share could
offer a ranking system for each category, thereby not
only providing centrality, but a centrality gradience, “the
idea that members (or sub-categories) which are clearly
within the category boundaries may still be more or less
central.” (Lakoff 1987) This offers a new dynamic to social
network profiling that doesn’t currently exist on the
popular social networking sites.
6. Ethical and Humanistic Implications
When social stakes are low, many people are inclined to
reveal their baser selves. Indeed, in a project such as DefineMe
– Chimera the potential for using the system to
ridicule is quite apparent. Likewise, the ability to anonymously
follow users’ web usage experiences in Identity
Share offers a potential that may seem to verge on the
voyeuristic. Yet, these potentially disempowering uses 6. Users’ perceived affordances to communicate with
one another are highly restricted.
7. Users have full control to delete any of their data in
the system.
These factors were developed over the course of iterative
refinement of the project based on informal user feedback
(mainly via open-ended interviews). The greatest
challenge with the system was to allow for user generated
categories while also pruning sparsely used and
idiosyncratic database elements. A second challenge
regarding anonymity and privacy is addressed by careful
controls such as articulated above, and by providing
quite clear and prominent information on the nature of
the site. Quite contrary to being a site to allow people
to “spy” on others, it is an “opt-in” site oriented toward
users with a desire to share their personal styles, definitions,
and web behaviors with one another. Finally, it
is a system that is proposed as a balance between the
limited and discrete, yet highly modular and structured,
information structures provided by digital media and the
continuous and transient, yet not computationally amenable,
phenomena of identity as shared in the real world.
7. Conclusion
The AIR Project examines the humanistic implications
of emerging technologies by seriously considering the
cultural effects of user identity within current digital
media and the shared sociocognitive
foundations that
ground their construction. Following various accounts
describing the procedural nature of the computational
medium (Manovich 2001; Murray 1997), the AIR Project
looks at the underlying data structures and algorithms
and how they implement cultural identity effects, and
posits a technical framework for more deeply engaging
identity semantics of classification and categorization.
Technologies for implementing socially empowering or
expressively critical and transformative experiences are
necessary to create experiences to engage real identity
social phenomena that lie at the center of so many of our
political debates and rich critical fictions.
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge early assistance from the
undergraduate researcher Richard Shemaka. Additionally,
we thank Carl DiSalvo for significant input on Identity
Share as Daniel Upton’s coadvisor
with Fox Harrell.
References
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Classification and Its Consequences, MIT Press, Cambridge,
MA.
Fauconnier, G. (1985). Mental Spaces: Aspects of Meaning
Construction in Natural Language, MIT Press/Bradford
Books, Cambridge.
---- (2006). ‘Rethinking Metaphor’, in Cambridge Handbook
of Metaphor and Thought, ed. R. Gibbs, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
Forbus, K. D. (2001). ‘Exploring Analogy in the Large’,
in The Analogical Mind: Perspectives from Cognitive
Science, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Gee, J. P. (2003). What Video Games Have To Teach Us
About Learning and Literacy, Palgrave Macmillan, New
York City.
Gentner, D. (1983). ‘Structure-mapping: A theoretical
framework for analogy’, Cognitive Science, vol. 7, no.
2, pp. 155-70.
Harrell, D. F. (2007). Theory and Technology for Computational
Narrative: An Approach to Generative and
Interactive Narrative with Bases in Algebraic Semiotics
and Cognitive Linguistics, Dissertation thesis, University
of California, San Diego.
---- (2008a). ‘Algebra of Identity: Skin of Wind, Skin of
Streams, Skin of Shadows, Skin of Vapor’, in Critical
Digital Studies, eds A. Kroker & M. Kroker, University
of Toronto Press, Toronto.
----(2008b). Digital Metaphors for Phantom Selves:
Computation, Mathematics, and Identity in Speculative
and Fantastic Fiction and Gaming paper presented
to The 29th International Conference on the Fantastic in
the Arts, Orlando, FL.
Hutchins, E. (1996). Cognition in the Wild, MIT Press,
Cambridge, MA.
---- (2000). Distributed Cognition, paper presented to
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral
Sciences, University of California, San Diego.
Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things:
What Categories Reveal about the Mind, University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the
Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Thought, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate
periferal participation, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, U.K.
Manovich, L. (2001). The Language of New Media, MIT
Press, Cambridge, MA.
Murray, J. H. (1997). Hamlet on the Holodeck: The Future
of Narrative in Cyberspace, Free Press, New York.
Santa Ana, O. (2002). Brown Tide Rising: Metaphors of
Latinos in Contemporary American Public Discourse,
University of Texas Press, Austin.
Turner, M. (1996). The Literary Mind: The Origins of","txt","2","",""
"999","10","Text analysis of large corpora using High Throughput Computing","1","The recent initiative of the US NEH on supercomputing
[1] is just one sign that there is a growing interest
in the use of highly parallel processing in the humanities.
This comes as no surprise if one considers that all over
the world, governments and funding bodies are investing
heavily in digitization of cultural heritage and humanities
research resources. At the same time, the 21st century
sciences are demanding an infrastructure to support
their advanced computational needs; the computational
infrastructure to distribute and process the results from
the Large Hadron Collider is just one example. Humanities
researchers have therefore begun to investigate these
infrastructures to find out whether they can be used to
help analyse the extensive, newly available online resources.
We offer an example of such an infrastructure based on
High Throughput Computing (HTC). HTC differs from
High Performance Computing (HPC), in that the latter
relies on hardware specifically designed with performance
in mind, whereas the former typically uses multiple
instances of more standard computers to accomplish
a single computational task. The de facto standard HTC
implementation is the Condor Toolkit, developed by the
University of Wisconsin-Madison (http://www.cs.wisc.
edu/condor). Condor can integrate both dedicated computational
clusters and standard desktop machines into
one computational resource.
We will present the work of the UK HiTHeR project (http://hither.cerch.kcl.ac.uk/), which created a prototype
of such an infrastructure to demonstrate the utility
of HTC methods to textual scholars, and indeed to humanities
researchers in general. It did this by using Condor
to set up a Campus Grid, which may be defined as
environments which utilise existing computational and
data resources within a university or other research institutions.
The project used the resuting infrastructure to
produce a case study based on a high profile digitisation
project in the UK, addressing questions of textual analysis
that would not be feasible without this infrastructure.
At the same time, we will show how the application can
be integrated into the web publication of text-based resources.
After demonstrating the power of HTC for standard text
processing in the digital humanities, the main aim of the
project is to show how digital humanities centres can be
served by implementing their own local research infrastructure,
which they can relatively easily build using
existing resources like standard desktop networks. There
have been many experiments in the digital humanities
using dedicated HPC facilities, less on the application
of these relatively light-weight computational infrastructures.
We demonstrate the feasibility of such infrastructures
and evaluate their utility for the particular task of
textual analysis.
Only with such local infrastructures will it be possible
to fulfil the often expressed demand of textual studies
researchers to be able to experiment with the statistical
methods of textual analysis rather than to be simply confronted
with the results. Faced with the opportunities of
HPC and HTC, these researchers frequently express the
desire to transform the underlying statistical algorithms
‘interactively’ by changing parameters and constraints,
and in this way to follow their particular interests by experimenting
with the outcome of the analysis and thus
gaining better insights into the structures of the text.
If the humanities researcher has go to dedicated supercomputing
centres, such an approach is more difficult to
maintain, as it will depend on the relationship with that
supercomputer centre. HiTHeR has thus two research
goals: (1) to carry out textual analysis in a parallel computing
environment and (2) to investigate new types of
e-Infrastructures for supporting the work of digital humanities
centres.
HiTHeR infrastructure - Case Study
Automatic textual processing is relatively well researched
and can rely on a large range of specialised algorithms
and data structures to process textual data. In
the digital humanities, many of these algorithms have
been tried on complex historical or linguistic collections.
Language modelling, vector space analysis, support
vector machines or LSI are only some of the machine
learning approaches that have attracted growing
interest in the digital humanities. In the HiTHeR project,
we focused on relatively simple processing, which
nevertheless has proven to be highly useful to many humanities
research institutions. A recent study in the ICT
needs of humanities researchers [2] found out that text
analysis tools and services are still generating most interest
among humanities researchers. Among these text
analysis tools, the comparison of 2 or more texts was
seen as the most useful tools. Such tools help with many
textual studies activities from the comparison of different
versions of texts to finding texts about the same topic
in large textual collections. Such comparisons may rely
on stable algorithms but are often costly in terms of the
computational resources needed, as each document in a
collection needs to be compared to all other documents
in the collection. Also, the digital textual resources processed
are often ‘dirty’, containing a high proportion of
transcription errors, because of the problems of digitising
older, irregular print. This leads to further increases
in computational size and complexity, as more advanced
methods are needed to reduce the “noise” from the OCR
processes. Overcoming the complexities of machine
based learning in the humanities, was therefore recognized
quite early as a use case for an advanced computational
infrastructure.
The corpus used for the HiTHeR case study is the Nineteenth
Century Serials Edition (http://www.ucse.ac.uk/),
which contains circa 430,000 articles that originally
appeared in roughly 3,500 issues of six 19th Century
periodicals. Published over a span of 84 years, materials
within the corpus exist in numbered editions, and
include supplements, wrapper materials and visual elements.
Currently, the corpus is explored by means of
a keyword classification, derived by a combination of
manual and automated techniques. A key challenge in
creating a digital system for managing such a corpus is to
develop appropriate and innovative tools that will assist
scholars in finding materials that support their research,
while at the same time stimulating and enabling innovative
approaches to the material. One goal would be to
create a “semantic view” that would allow users of the
resource to find information more intuitively. However,
the advanced automated methods that could help to create
such a semantic view require greater processing power
that is available in standard environments. Prior to the
current case study, we were using a simple document
similarity index to allow journals of similar contents to
be represented next to each other. The program used the
lingpipe (http://alias-i.com/lingpipe/) software to calculate
similarity measures for articles based on frequencies of character n-grams within the corpus. A character
n-gram is any subsequence of n well defined characters.
Initial benchmarks on a stand-alone server allowed us to
conclude that, assuming the test set was representative,
a complete set of comparisons for the corpus would take
more than 1,000 years. Consequently, we ran a sequence
of systematic experiments, carrying out different text
analysis of the selected corpus, to provide benchmarks
for the throughput improvements provided by the grid
environment. The detailed results will be presented in
the presentation.
In the experiments, we have set up an institutional CampusGrid
using Condor at King’s College London on
spare servers and desktops (in use during the day) within
2 departments. No new hardware had to be bought. We
than ran several text mining algorithms on a subset of
the data (the “English Women’s Journal”—which has the
highest OCR quality) which have been adapted locally
so that parts of the code can be run in parallel. This has
reduced the processing time from a few days to a few
hours.
To conclude: One driver of the project is the NCSE corpus,
for which the project addresses a genuine research
need to be able to create new semantic views on textual
resources automatically. But, more widely than this, we
see the project as an opportunity to start building the einfrastructure
required to support humanities research
that has complex (or simply large) computational requirements.
References
[1] National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) Digital
Humanities Initiative (Workshop on Supercomputing
& the Humanities (July 11, 2007), http://www.neh.gov/
whoweare/cio/odhfiles/HHPC.Workshop.07.11.2007.
final.pdf
[2] Toms, Elaine and O’Brien, Heather L.: Understanding
the information and communication technology
needs of the e-humanist, Journal of Documentation, vol
64, 2008.","txt","2","",""
"1000","10","MAPS: Manuscript map Annotation and Presentation System:  Linking formal ontologies with social tagging to (re-)construct relationships between manuscript maps and contextual documents","1","Introduction The proposed paper describes a pilot entitled MAPS
of the Virtual Knowledge Studio for the Humanities
and Social Sciences (VKS) of the Royal Netherlands
Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), the Dutch
National Archives, Leiden University Library and the
Department of Information and Computing Sciences of
Utrecht University intended to disclose manuscript map
collections in the Netherlands and potentially abroad
for individual and institutional research in the humanities.
The research is embedded in the Spatial/GIS lab
of a digital humanities collaboration of institutes of the
Royal Academy, the so-called “Alfa-Lab” that started in
March 2009.
It builds upon research and existing “draw over image”
software, developed within the context of the Paper and
Virtual Cities project, a collaboration between the University
Groningen and the Virtual Knowledge Studio.
MAPS provides a system in which users reconstruct historical
contexts by means of annotations and bottom-up
geo-references, here called “spatial tags” complementary
to the formal ontology based Encoded Archival Description
standard. In a technological sense this implies the
interoperability between (semi-)structured and “fuzzy”
annotations in the form of tagged draw-over-images and
the (semi-)automatic linking of maps with contextual
documents. Besides technical issues, methodological
questions are discussed regarding the role and authority
of annotations and tags of professional and non-professional
humanities researchers in a Web 2.0 environment.
The requirements for use of manuscript maps in humanities
research are mapped by means of observational user
studies of annotation practices and by testing interfaces.
Manuscript Maps
After the Fall of Antwerp (1585), Amsterdam, with famous
map printers/ publishers such as Blaeu, became in the 17th Century a leading cartographical center in the
world. Research of this predominant position in commercial
cartography is relevant for historians of cartography,
for historians of the book and publishing and for
cultural studies, such as art history. However, this emphasis
on printed commercial cartography also blurs the
importance of manuscript maps for research in a much
wider field of individual historians or of cultural heritage,
planning and policy institutions that use historical
maps for technical or administrative purposes. Manuscript
maps are significant not only for their quantity,
the Dutch National Archives alone count approximately
300.000 manuscript maps (including drawings) from
Dutch administrative bodies, but also for their quality
as unique historical sources. (De Vries 1989, Zandvliet
1998, Heuvel 2003 and 2004). Unfortunately, manuscript
maps are less accessible; their proper meaning can
only be understood when they are re-linked to the documents
they originally were intended to illustrate. Due
to 19th and 20th century archival processes many maps
lost their contexts when they were separated from the
documents to which they belonged. Encoded Archival
Description (EAD) and its extension Encoded Archival
Context (EAC), used as standards in many Dutch
archives, libraries and museums (including the Dutch
National Archives), are powerful description and contextualization
formats to encode links between maps and
documents dispersed over cultural heritage institutions.
Although the first experiments (coordinated by the Dutch
National Archives for the Netherlands and with Leiden
University Library as participant) with such formats are
promising and will be fully exploited, this linking process
to reconstruct original contexts and to create new
ones is time-consuming and cannot be done by cultural
heritage institutions on their own. A more productive
way is to involve so many users as possible in the (re)
establishment of these historical relationships by enriching
these manuscript maps with annotations, and to link
these to archival documents as described in inventories.
Annotation
In order to identify maps and to use them for historical
research, it is important to link them to geographical
space. Geo-referencing allows combinations and
overlays of maps with minimum distortion. However,
this process is quite difficult for manuscript maps that
vary so much in scale, precision, color etc. Instead of
complex geo-referencing systems we opt for existing
draw-over-image software, developed within the context
of the Paper and Virtual Cities project, a collaboration
between the University Groningen and the Virtual
Knowledge Studio that allows us to select any object on
the map for annotation in XML. (Heuvel & Koster 2007,
Benavides& Heuvel 2008), On the one hand the map
annotator module will be used by individual experts in a
conventional way to add knowledge through structured
annotations based on professional research. Leiden University
Library is a research library, whose special collections
are used for the greater part by scholars. On the
other hand much more fuzzy and fragmented knowledge
is available from users, who work more incidentally with
maps, e.g. genealogists, local historians and private collectors.
Their input through Web 2.0-techniques may be
of great help to reconstitute the lost context of historical
maps. They provide the required critical mass; 85% of
the visitors to the Dutch National Archives are genealogists.
However, we have to learn from Web 2.0 failures
(Crotty 2008) and avoid mismatches between tools and
the researchers that use them. Therefore analysis of annotation
practices and usability testing of interfaces with
focus groups of researchers in the humanities makes part
of the project. The methods used by E. Heere (2008) for
analyzing the use of a historical GIS interface, will be
extended to the analysis of practices of annotating/tagging
by researchers in a Web 2.0 environment. Another
issue that will be addressed is the authority of annotations
by expert and lay-experts. Hereto we try to build on
existing software (such and GENTECH and HarvANA)
that allow expressing and visualizing the provenance and
levels of authority of certain assertions. (Hunter 2008)
Presentation
Users have an easy access to the archive inventories
described in EAD in order to search and annotate digitized
manuscript maps and related sources. Annotations
of geographical space and time are described in specific
XML vocabularies, such as Geographical Markup Language
and Historical Event Markup Language. After
linking these clusters of knowledge have to be made
available to researchers according to their needs. This is
done in mash-ups maps (Google Maps, using the KML
standard). Because map annotation will be an ongoing
process, the user interface should be integrated in a coherent
system offering not only reference lists (tag lists,
gazetteer and archive inventories), but also the already
tagged documents.
System
MAPS enhances the research infrastructure by building
an annotation infrastructure for user generated research
content in the humanities, by geo-semantic data
integration (in this case maps, annotations and archival
data), and by the presentation in suitable user-interfaces
for researchers in the form of mash-ups. (Ennals 2007)
The geo-semantic data integration between maps, annotations
and archival data will be based on (semi-) automatic
linking, using multi-agent technology, between profiles of (historical) archive creators, typologies of
maps and profiles of individual experts and lay expert
researchers and research groups and cultural heritage,
planning and policy institutions that use historical maps
for technical or administrative purposes. The Dutch researcher Peter Sigmond studies Dutch
habours between 1500-1800 for his PhD research. In
chapter of his dissertation with the title Nederlandse
Zeehavens tussen 1500-1800 he discusses a report and
some designs of an engineer Alberdingh of 1688 for the
creation of dock harbors in several Dutch harbors as
alternative to the marine one in Amsterdam that gradually
silted up and was not accessible anymore for heavy
warships. Sigmond ordered a photograph of a part of a
manuscript map number 4 of one of these designs for
the town of Willemstad in the collection of Leiden University
Library (LU). In our scenario this library points
him to the draw-over-image tools [1] that allows him to
indicate the exact contours of the object on the digital
map in its image repository, that he wants to use for his
illustration. He sends this image with the tag dock to
LU [2]. His PhD also contains a reference to a report
in the Dutch National Archives (NA) that describes the
pro and cons of the various harbor cities for which the
designs were made. He tags this information to the drawover-
image (DOI) and sends it to LU [3]. DOI and tag
are linked to the metadata description of the map 4 in
EAD that has already a link to three others files describing
maps belonging to the same project [4]. Numbering
of the maps also make clear that there are some missing
maps. Since the report refers to the Dutch National
Archives a link is made to sources described with EAD
metadata of this archive, including the DOI and tags [5]
and reconnected with the maps of LU [6]. In a query on
expected archive creator profile, in this case military, the
database shows that there is another design of the same
year for the same project map 5 and another later copy of
it. The image of LU and the metadata of all their relevant
images are combined with those of NA[7] and send with
the photographical order to the user [8]. With this information
the series of designs in Leiden University Library
is completed with one extra drawing from the NA. The
PhD researcher found out that there were extra drawings.
Finally the National Archive found that there were more
drawings belonging to the report in their collection.
References
Benavides J. and Heuvel, C. van den (2008). The function
and accuracy of old Dutch urban designs and maps.
A computer assisted analysis of the extension of Leiden
(1611) in Digital Humanities 2008 Conference, University
of Oulu, Finland June 24-29, 55-56.
Crotty, D. (2008). Why Web 2.0 is failing in biology.
Harbor Protocols Cold Spring http://www.cshblogs.
org/cshprotocols/2008/02/14/why-web-20-is-failing-inbiology/
EAD/EAC. http://www.iath.virginia.edu/eac.
ECAI. http://www.ecai.org/
Ennals, R. and Gay, D. (2007). User-friendly functional
programming for web mashups. In Proceedings of the
2007 ACM SIGPLAN international Conference on Functional
Programming (Freiburg, Germany, October 01 -
03, 2007). ICFP ‘07. ACM, New York, NY, 223-234.
GENTECH: http://www.ngsgenealogy.org/ngsgentech/
projects/Gdm/Gdm.cfm.
Heere, E. (2008). GIS voor historisch landschapsonderzoek:
opzet en gebruik van een historisch GIS voor
prekadastrale kaarten, PhD thesis Utrecht University 27
June 2008.
Heuvel, C. van den (2003) “Atlasticity”, Problems in
defining and the digitizing military manuscript atlases of
the Low Countries. In [ed. I. Warmoes, E. d’Orgeix, C.
van den Heuvel] Atlas Militaires Manuscrits Européens
(XVIe-XVIIIe siècles). Forme, contenu, contexte de réalisation
et vocations, Actes des 4es journées d’ étude du
Musée des Plans-reliefs, Paris (18-19 April 2002) Paris
pp. 11-26.
Heuvel, C. van den (2004). Mapping Mixed Maps. Historical
and future constructions of time and space in urban
cartography. In Le temps 129e congrès des sociétés historiques et scientifiques, Colloque IV Le temps des
cartes. Monde des cartes, Bulletin du Comité français de
cartographie [Numéro special],pp. 23-40.
Heuvel, C. van den, Koster E. (2007). Tussen papieren
en digitale kaarten. De annotatie van een atlas en bijbehorende
kaarten van Woerden. In Aangeraakt. Boeken in
contact met hun lezers. Een bundel opstellen voor Wim
Gerritsen en Paul Hoftijzer, red. Kasper van Ommen,
Arnoud Vrolijk, Geert Warnar, Kleine publicaties van de
Leidse Universiteitsbibliotheek Nr. 75, pp. 150-156.
Hunter, J., Khan, I., and Gerber, A. (2008) HarvANA
-Harvesting Community Tags to Enrich Collection
Metadata. In ACM IEEE Joint Conference on Digital Libraries,
JCDL June 16 - 20, 2008. Pittsburgh.
Vries, D. de [ ed.] (1989). Kaarten met geschiedenis
1550-1800. Een selectie van oude getekende kaarten
van Nederland uit de Collectie Bodel Nijenhuis HES,
Utrecht
Zandvliet, K. (1998). Mapping for Money. Maps, plans
and topographic paintings and their role in Dutch overseas
expansion during the 16th and 17th centuries, Batavian
Lion international, Amsterdam.","txt","2","",""
"1001","10","An Exercise in Non-Ideal Authorship Attribution","1","Much has been written about the appropriate conditions
for non-traditional authorship (e.g., Rudman
1997). Substantial known samples by the possible authors
of a disputed text should be available, they should
be controlled for genre, point of view, etc., and additional
similar texts should be available from other contemporary
authors to show that false positive identifications
are unlikely. Less attention has been paid to authorship
problems compelling enough to demand an attempt in
spite of less-than-ideal conditions. One such case is Maria
Ward’s Female Life Among the Mormons (1855),
one of four widely read books published in 1855-56 that
were largely responsible for the litany of anti-Mormon
literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including
works by Arthur Conan Doyle, Zane Grey, Robert
Louis Stevenson, and Mark Twain. (The first edition
of Female Life sold at least 40,000 copies; within three
years it had been translated into Danish, French, German,
Hungarian, and Swedish (Worldcat).)
Female Life, published as an anonymous autobiographical
account, was early panned and labeled fiction (New
York Times 1855), and there is strong evidence that ‘Maria
Ward,’ who also claims to have ‘edited’ Austin Ward’s
The Husband in Utah (1857) is a pseudonym (the book
was later published as Male Life Among the Mormons; I
refer to it as Male Life below). Confusingly both Ward
books are sometimes categorized as fiction, and Mrs B.
G. Ferris is sometimes listed as a (second) author of Female
Life (Worldcat). Moreover, both Mr and Mrs Ferris
wrote non-fictional anti-Mormon books–his a history of
Utah and Mormonism, Utah and the Mormons (1854),
hers a memoir, The Mormons at Home (1856). Finally,
efforts to confirm Ferris’s authorship of Female Life led
Arrington and Haupt (1968: 253) to conclude that she
did not write it, but that her book may have provided the
basis for Male Life.
A Computational Analysis
The case of Female Life certainly qualifies as a non-ideal
authorship attribution problem. Each of the four authors
of interest apparently wrote only one book. All four
books are framed as nonfiction,
but some extraordinary
errors and the fact that ‘Maria Ward’ and ‘Austin Ward’
are likely pseudonyms suggests that their books are fiction, makes their gender doubtful, and suggests that they
may be two pseudonyms for one person. Additionally,
only the middle third of Mrs Ferris’s book deals with the
Mormons, and the attribution of Female Life to her is
tenuous and unexplained. The most important facts are
these: Given this less-than-ideal scenario, can we shed any light
on the authorship of Female Life? I begin with a group
of large, Mormon-related, first-person fiction and nonfiction
texts. With many candidate authors, any similarities
between Mrs Ferris and Maria Ward will be more significant.
In Fig. 1, only Kane and Stenhouse are represented
by pairs of texts, and Stenhouse’s texts fail to cluster. Yet
‘StenhouseMa’ is an excerpt from Tell it All that supposedly
relates Mary Burton’s story in her own words, so
that this is not a definite error. Adding Mrs Ferris and
Maria Ward (Fig. 2), does not support Ferris’s authorship
of Female Life: the two authors’ texts are widely separated,
but the close clustering of the Wards’ texts suggests
a single author. (In the captions, NP 70% indicates that
no personal pronouns are included and words are eliminated
if a single text accounts for more than 70% of their
occurrences. Pronouns are closely tied to the number and
gender of characters; words that are frequent because of
a single text are typically character names.) Large 1 and 3 Person Mormon and Non-
Mormon Texts
A larger set of texts with more pairs by single authors
allows me to train the method on similar texts, select
the most effective analysis, then insert Ward and Ferris
and re-test–compensating for the lack of primary author
training texts. Consider then 32 large Mormon and
non-Mormon texts (Fig. 3). Eleven of thirteen pairs by
known authors cluster together, capturing known authorship
very effectively, though most contain Mormon
non-Mormon texts. The two failures may not be errors:
Stenhouse’s texts are discussed above, and Bell claims
only to have ‘prepared’ Stephens’s Rebel Cousins. Adding
Maria Ward’s and the Ferrises’s texts (Mrs Ferris’s in
three sections, isolating the Mormon part), produces Fig.
4. The known texts cluster as before, and the Wards form
a tight cluster separate from the Ferrises, whose own
close clustering may suggest collaboration. (A smaller
set of Mormon-related texts with the dialogue deleted to
eliminate any effects of different proportions of dialogue
and narration, produces similar results.) Delta Analysis
Delta analysis is problematic here because of the complexity
of the case, but several analyses with different
configurations of primary and secondary authors never
strongly identify Mrs Ferris as the author of Female Life,
though a few identify her as the author of Male Life when
Maria Ward is not among the primary authors. When either
of the Wards is included among the primary authors,
however, he or she is regularly and strongly identified
as the author of the other Ward’s text. (For discussion of
Delta, see Burrows 2002 and Hoover 2004.)
T-Tests
It seems worthwhile to try another approach using ttests.
Each test assumes that two of our three main authors
(Maria and Austin Ward and Mrs Ferris) are different,
uses t-tests to create a set of words that strongly
differentiate them, and then uses these words to test the
third author with PCA (principal components analysis).
(The method is inspired by Burrows 1992.) This makes
sense, however, only if we know what to expect when
each set of assumptions is false, so I begin with several
sets of three known texts by one, two, or three authors.
In two of three tests involving three texts by one author,
the third text intermingles with one of the two texts distinguished
by the t-tested words. In the third test, however,
the three texts remain quite distinct. Thus, if Mrs
Ferris wrote all three texts and they cluster separately,
no conclusions can be drawn. With three texts by two
authors, t-tests that distinguish two texts by one author
and those that distinguish two texts by two authors produce
very different results. In the former case, all three
texts typically cluster separately (Fig. 5); in the latter, the
two texts by the same author are separate from that of the
third on component one, but not from each other. In two
of the three cases tested, they also mingle on component
two (Fig. 6). T-tests involving two texts by one author
also typically produce far fewer discriminating words
(275) than those involving two authors (677). Finally,
in all tests involving three authors, the three texts remain
quite distinct, whichever authors are assumed to be different.
Once the three scenarios have been explored, we can
compare these results with tests on our authors of interest.
Assuming the two Wards are different and testing
Mrs Ferris as an unknown (narrative only, approximately
27,000 words for each of the Wards and 18,000 for Ferris)
yields Fig. 7. (Tests on the three whole texts produce
similar results.) T-tests involving one author, three authors,
or two authors (when the wrong assumption of difference
is made) can produce similar graphs, though the
small number of discriminating words supports the last
possibility. But Fig. 8. and Fig. 9, with one of the Wards
tested against Ferris and the other Ward as unknown,
produce patterns like that in Fig. 6, patterns consistent
with the results from Delta and the various cluster analyses
above: Mrs Ferris is unlikely to have written either
Female Life or Male Life, and Maria and Austin Ward
seem very likely to be two pseudonyms for the same person
(whose identity remains a mystery). Conclusion
Considering the level of difficulty of this authorship
problem, the results seems quite persuasive. They suggest
that combining several different approaches across
many analyses can help to compensate for the lack of
training texts. Finally, comparing results based on false
and true assumptions in simulations with known authors
to the results of similar tests involving the texts in question
can provide worthwhile results even under conditions
that are far from ideal.
References
Arrington, Leonard J., and Jon Haupt. (1968). Intolerable
Zion: The Image of Mormonism in Nineteenth Century
American Literature, Western Humanities Review,
22: 243-260.
Burrows, John F. (1992). Not Unless You Ask Nicely:
The Interpretative Nexus Between Analysis and Information,
LLC 7: 91-109.
Burrows, John F. (2002a). ‘Delta’: A Measure of Stylistic
Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship, LLC
17: 267-287.
Ferris, Benjamin G. (1854). Utah and the Mormons.
New York: Harper & Brothers.
Ferris, Mrs Benjamin G. (1856). The Mormons at Home.
New York, Dix & Edwards.
Hoover, David L. (2004). Testing Burrows’s Delta, LLC
19: 453-475.
Review of Female Life Among the Mormons. (1855).
The New York Times. July 14: 3.
Rudman, Joseph. (1997). The State of Authorship Attribution
Studies: Some Problems and Solutions, Computers
and the Humanities 31: 351-65.
Ward, Austin N. (1857). The Husband in Utah. Maria
Ward (ed.). New York: Derby & Jackson; republished
as Male Life Among the Mormons, Philadelphia: John E.
Potter and Company, 1863.
Ward, Maria. (1855). Female Life Among the Mormons.
New York: J. C. Derby.
Worldcat. (2001-2008). Dublin, Ohio: OCLC Online
Computer Library Center, Inc. Online.","txt","2","",""
"1002","10","Modes of Composition in Henry James: Dictation, Style, and What Maisie Knew","1","A hundred things hummed at the back of her head,
but two of these were simple enough. Mrs. Beale
was by the way, after all, just her stepmother and
her relative. She was just—and partly for that very
reason—Sir Claude’s greatest intimate (‘ladyintimate’
was Maisie’s term) so that what together
they were on Mrs. Wix’s prescription to give up and
break short off with was for one of them his particular
favourite and for the other her father’s wife.
Henry James, What Maisie Knew (1897)
The difference between the styles of Henry James’s
early and later novels is well-known. No author’s
style is likely to remain constant over a time-span as long
as that between James’s first novel in 1871 and his last
complete novel in 1911, but the change in James’s style
is so extreme that many readers and critics consider the
later novels too obscure and enjoy only the early novels.
Others champion the later novels and consider the early
novels immature. One critic notes that James’s late ‘distortions’
often ‘obliterate the normal elements of connection
and cohesion. When he has undone the usual
ties, his meanings float untethered, grammatically speaking,
like particles in colloidal suspension’ (Short 1946:
73-4). Although most attention has been paid to syntax,
changes in James’s vocabulary are equally interesting,
and the frequencies of the most frequent words alone
very effectively identify when each novel was written
(Hoover 2007).
One often-mentioned reason for the change in James’s
style seems important from a literary perspective and
is especially amenable to and appropriate for computational
investigation: In 1896, while writing What Maisie
Knew, James began dictating because of persistent pain
in his wrist. His most famous typist believed that ‘The
different note [of the later novels] was possibly due more
to the substitution of dictation for pen and ink than to any
profound change of heart’ (Bosanquet 1924: 254). Edel’s
biography of James links the elaborate and convoluted
late sentences with the change in mode of composition
and reports that some of James’s friends claimed to be
able to tell which chapter in Maisie was the first one he
dictated (1969: 176-77). Recent interest in media and
technology, especially at the turn of the twentieth century,
has given new significance to the claim (Cappello
2007; Thurschwell 2001; Seltzer 1992). The fact that it is
mentioned by Marshall McLuhan (McLuhan & Zingrone
1995), and that it appears in Barron’s Notebooks (a study
guide for students) (1986), the online guide to the Dragon
Naturally Speaking dictation-to-text program (Newman
2000), an article on voice recognition in composition
(Honeycutt 2003), Wikipedia (2008), The Ivanhoe
Game (Bethany 2002), and the fiction of Cynthia Ozick
(2008), shows its ubiquity, appeal, and relevance to digital
media and digital humanities.
The fact that James’s later style is generally dated to the
late 1890s, just when he begins dictating, has undoubtedly
encouraged this idea. Despite of the widespread
currency of the belief that dictation significantly affected
James’s style, I know of no attempt to present any
solid evidence for it. Yet there is strong evidence for
the gradual and unidirectional development of James’s
style over his career that casts doubt on any significant
effect of the change to dictation. Consider the extraordinary
pattern of adoption of characteristically late words
and abandonment of characteristically early words over
time shown in Fig. 1. To produce this figure, I created
combined word frequency lists for the seven earliest
and eight latest novels, then selected all words that are
at least three times as frequent in the early novels as in
the late and vice versa. I calculated the percentage of
tokens represented by early and late words in a selection
of novels and novellas throughout James’s career. Note
how regularly the frequency of early words declines and
late words increases. These trends continue through the
middle period and include novels and novellas that had
no part in the creation of the word lists. The later style
is associated more with syntax than with vocabulary, but
the regularity of the vocabulary changes certainly offers
no support for an abrupt shift between the handwritten
novels that precede and the dictated novels that follow
Maisie.
Now let us examine Maisie itself for evidence of a significant
local shift in style caused by the switch to dictation.
Evidence from the most frequent words is shown
in Fig. 2. To produce this figure, I created separate files
for the chapters and analyzed them with cluster analysis;
to make the graph more readable, I labeled the chapters
‘pre’ (preliminary)-‘ten,’ ‘11’-‘20,’ and ‘twenty-1’-
‘thirty-1’. The two main clusters in Fig. 2 do not strongly
reflect the structure of the novel: most early chapters are
in the left cluster and most middle and later ones in the
right cluster, but at least three chapters from each group
appear in each. Among the dozens of novels I have analyzed,
Maisie is unusual in how weakly its narrative structure is reflected in the relationships among the chapters
(plot is not James’s major interest). Analyses based
on the 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, and
990 MFW all fail to suggest any change-point associated
with James’s adoption of dictation. Consider some other statistics by chapter (see Fig.3).
Sentence-length is an obvious choice, given the standard
view of James’s style, and, predictably, it is closely related
to the percentage of narrative. Some variables sharply
increase and decrease, but without any obvious changepoint.
Furthermore, average sentence length trends irregularly
lower throughout the novel, as does the percentage
of narrative, suggesting, unsurprisingly, that James
uses shorter sentences in dialogue, but conflicting with
the idea that dictation caused long, rambling sentences.
As Fig. 4 shows, average word length and the frequency
of long words also trend lower, but there is nothing to
suggest a change caused by dictation. The next two figures show the distribution of punctuation
across the chapters. There are obvious correlations
between some punctuation marks and the percentage
of narrative, and some surprising correlations (why are
there more commas in narrative?). Nothing, however,
suggests any shift caused by a change in the mode of
composition. Finally, Fig. 7 displays vocabulary richness, sentencelength,
and the percentage of short words in James’s
novels over time, and Fig. 8 shows just how regularly
the frequency of frequent words characterizes James’s
chronological development. The patterns shown in these
graphs are difficult to reconcile with any significant stylistic
change caused by James’s adoption of dictation in
1896. (The slightly anomalous position of The Outcry in
Fig. 8 may be related to the fact that it is a novelization
of a play.) In conclusion, the gradual, unidirectional nature of the
changes in James’s style does not provide support for
any radical alteration caused by dictation. As reasonable
as this idea has seemed, and as productive as it has
been for speculation about media, machines, and literary
production, such speculation may have to be revised or
abandoned in the light of new kinds of evidence–evidence
only available by computational examination of
a corpus of James’s work. If further research confirms
these preliminary results, computational stylistics may
have an important contribution to make to literary studies
in this case. References
Barron’s Notebooks. The Turn of the Screw. (1986). Barron’s
Educational Series, Inc. Online. Available: http://
www.pinkmonkey.com/booknotes/barrons/turnscr2.asp.
Accessed 11/6/08.
Bosanquet, Theodora. (1924). Henry James at Work.
London: Hogarth Press.
Cappello, Mary. (2007). Awkward: A Detour. New York:
Bellevue Literary Press.
Wikipedia. (2008). Henry James. Online. Available:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_James.Accessed
11/4/08.
Edel, Leon. (1969). Henry James: The Treacherous
Years, 1895-1901. Philadelphia, Lippincott.
Honeycutt, Lee. (2003). Researching the use of voice
recognition writing software, Computers and Composition
20(1): 77-95.
Hoover, David L. (2007). Corpus Stylistics, Stylometry,
and the Styles of Henry James, Style 41: 174-203.
Bethany [Nowviskie]. (2002). The Ivanhoe Game,
‘The Turn of the Screw.’ Online. Available: http://
speculativecomputing.org/greymatter/ivanhoe/roles/archives/
00000019.htm Accessed 11/4/08.
James, Henry. (1897). What Maisie Knew. New York:
Stone. Online. Available:
http://ia331316.us.archive.org/0/items/whatmaisieknew00jamerich/
whatmaisieknew00jamerich_
djvu.txt McLuhan, Eric, and Frank Zingrone. (1995). Essential
McLuhan. Concord, Ont.: House of Anansi.
Newman, Dan. (2000). The Dragon Naturally Speaking
Guide, 2nd ed. Berkeley: WavesidePublishing. Online.
Available: http://lib.store.yaoo.net/lib/sayican/onlinebook.
html. Accessed 11/6/08.
Ozick, Cynthia. (2008). Dictation: A Quartet. New York:
Houghton Mifflin.
Seltzer, Mark. (1992). Bodies and Machines. New York:
Routledge.
Short, R. W. (1946) The sentence structure of Henry
James, American Literature, 18(2): 71-88.
Thurschwell, Pamela. (2001). Literature, Technology
and Magical Thinking, 1880-1920. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.","txt","2","",""
"1003","10","Co-word Analysis of Research Topics in Digital Humanities","1","Introduction Over the last two decades, digital humanities has become
increasingly popular. Trying to combine computing
with traditional disciplines of arts and humanities,
digital humanities researchers have come from various
fields such as history, philosophy, linguistics, literature,
arts, and archaeology. While the interdisciplinary aspect
of digital humanities is obvious, its disciplinary structure
has not been established yet. In order to identify hot topics
and map the disciplinary structure, we made co-word
analysis based on a group of research papers’ titles.
Related Works
Co-word analysis is a content analysis technique that
uses patterns of co-occurrence of pairs of terms, i.e.,
words or phrases, in a corpus of texts to identify the relationship
between these terms, the extent to which these
themes are central to the whole area, and the degree to
which these themes are internally structured (Qin, 1999).
It does not rely on any a priori definition of research
themes in science. This enables us to follow actors objectively
and detect the structure of science without reducing
them to the extremes of either internalism or externalism
(Callon et al., 1986).
Method and Data
The first step of co-word analysis is to extract keywords
from records in corpus. We chose 516 papers written in
English from two journals and four conference proceedings:
Literary and Linguistic Computing from Year 2005
to 2008, Digital Humanities Quarterly from Year 2007
to 2008, and proceedings of ACH/ALLC 2005, DH 2006,
DH 2007, and DH 2008. Since these papers have no author
keywords, we manually extracted keywords from
their titles and picked out 1231 distinct keywords, which
appeared 2040 times in total. We conducted co-word analysis with two aims. One is
to detect the structure of a research field, and the other
to detect minor but potentially growing areas. To accomplish
these two aims, we selected top 70 keywords
(5.68%) whose frequencies were higher than 4 (see Table
1).
These keywords’ total frequency was 681 (33.38%).
We calculated the association values between any word
pairs with Equivalence Coefficient index (E) which can
be defined as follows:
Eij = C2
ij Ci x Cj
Cij is the number of documents in which the keyword
pair (i and j) appears. Ci and Cj are the occurrence frequencies
of Keywords i and j in the group of the articles
respectively. Eij has a value between 0 and 1. Eij measures
the probability of Keyword i appearing simultaneously
in a document set, indexed by Keyword j, and vice
versa, given the respective collection frequencies of the
two keywords. Therefore, Eij is called “a coefficient of
mutual inclusion” by Turner et al. (1988).
Results
Based on the Equivalence Coefficient indexes, we constructed
a co-occurrence matrix, and then made a multidimensional
analysis.
Fig. 1 Multi-dimensional analysis of keywords
Combining the keywords’ frequencies with the multidimensional
analysis (see Fig. 1), we can see that the
keywords in digital humanities can be divided into three
categories. The keywords that fall under the first category—
the ones without underlines or frames—are directly
related to information technologies, such as digital, TEI,
XML, web, online, visual, and metadata. The hot topics
in this category include visualization, markup, text mining,
annotation, and digital library. The keywords that
fall under the second category, the ones framed, can be
associated with traditional humanities including literary,
linguistics, history, culture, language, poetry, novel,
and speech. With support of the information technologies
mentioned above, many researchers have focused
on medieval and early modern literatures, translation between
literary works in different languages, authorship,
gender, and stylistics. The third category with the keywords
being underlined consists of some general words,
such as knowledge, model, and framework.
Figure 1 shows these three categories all mix together,
with no obvious clusters in them. This means digital
humanities is still a new discipline without any subdisciplines
formed. What should be particularly noticed is
that English and French have been studied more than
other languages. This indicates that digital humanities
research has made uneven progress, depending upon
languages.
A co-word network was drawn with the co-occurrence
matrix (see Fig. 2). We calculated nodes’ degree centralities
in the co-word network with social network analysis
method. Degree centrality means the number of co-occurrence
with other keywords. As Figure 2 shows, all the
keywords can be divided into three levels, according to
their degree centralities.
An interesting phenomenon in Table 1 and Figure 2 is
that the frequencies of “digital humanities” and “humanities
computing” are high, but their degree centralities are low, while most of the others are coessential. A major
reason seems that digital humanities research has been
furthered in recent years. Six fundamental concepts have
been found which may benefit from the dissemination of
technologies related to textual digitalization. Still, digital
humanities is a new discipline, and researchers have
been trying to integrate digital technologies with traditional
arts and humanities. Some recent papers’ titles include
these two keywords and some other low frequency
keywords that may indicate new research directions,
e.g., geographical information system and interactive
games. We could interpret, therefore, these keywords
might work as an indicator for the future research topics
in digital humanities. While not giving the complete picture
of the digital humanities’ discipline structure, Figure
2 is complementary to the “intellectual map” painted by
McCarty W. and Short H. (2002). Conclusions
In this paper, we analyzed the structure of digital humanities
with co-word method. We counted frequencies of
keywords which we picked out from the titles of the selected
journal papers, recently published. Then we made
a multi-dimensional analysis and a network analysis. As
a result, six fundamental concepts are found in digital
humanities, but there are no clear subdisciplines in it yet.
While a widely used method in library and information
science, co-word analysis is still new for digital humanities
researchers. In the future, we will improve this analysis
further more in terms of methodology, developing
an integrated software for its common applications in
digital humanities.
References
Callon, M., Law, J., and Rip, A. (1986). How to study
the force of science. In Callon, M., Law, J., and Rip, A.
(eds.), Mapping the dynamics of science and technology:
Sociology of science in the real world. London: The
Macmillan Press Ltd, pp. 3-15.
McCarty, W. & Short, H. Mapping the field. (2002).
http://www.allc.org/content/pubs/map.html
Qin, H. (1999). Knowledge discovery through co-word
analysis. Library Trends, 48(1):133-159.
Turner, W. A., Chartron, G., Laville, E., and Michelet,
B. (1988). Packaging information for peer review: New
co-word analysis techniques. In Van Raan, A. F. J. (ed.),
Handbook of quantitative studies of science and technology.
Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers, pp. 291-
323.","txt","2","",""
"1004","10","Testing Authorship in the Personal Writing of Joseph Smith Using NSC Classification","1","Overview In a co-authored paper published in Literary and Linguistic
Computing (2008), my co-authors and I employed
both delta and Nearest Shrunken Centroid (NSC)
classification in an authorship analysis of the Book of
Mormon. Our results suggested that several men involved
in the early formation of the Mormon church
were likely contributors to the Book of Mormon. For reasons
detailed below, we were unable to include Mormon
prophet Joseph Smith in our authorship tests. The work
presented here attempts to develop a sizeable Smith corpus
by using a small set of documents in his own handwriting
as a training model for evaluating other documents
attributed to Smith but written in the handwriting
of one of Smith’s 24 different scribes.
For the aforementioned article, we compiled a corpus of
source material from five candidate authors who were
involved in the early LDS church. We had hoped to include
Joseph Smith as a candidate, but in the course of
our research determined that there was not enough reliable
writing by Smith to constitute an ample sample for
testing of his signal in the Book of Mormon. As Smith
biographer Dean Jessee makes clear in the introduction
to Personal Writings of Joseph Smith, Smith’s speeches,
letters, and even journal entries were frequently written
by scribes or written in tandem with one or more of his
collaborators. In another article that appears in the pages
of the “Joseph Smith Papers” online archive (n.d.), Jessee
writes, “only a tiny proportion of Joseph Smith’s
papers were penned by Smith himself.” In many of the
documents Jessee has collected, we see the handwriting
of Smith interwoven with the handwriting of his scribes,
sometimes side by side in the exact same letter, journal
entry, or document.
Mormon history informs us that Smith frequently used
scribes and that he dictated his thoughts to them. Indeed
the entire Book of Mormon is said to be a verbatim transcript
of Smith’s dictation. With regard to documenting
his visions, thoughts, and experiences, Smith’s “philosophy”
writes Jessee, “was that ‘a prophet cannot be
his own scribe.’” That said, on some occasions Smith
did put pen to paper, sometimes alone and sometimes in
tandem with others. Though Jessee has “attributed” the
spirit and content of all of these documents to Smith, the
manuscripts show clear physical evidence of other hands
at work; thus, the question remains as to whether these
scribes were “authoring” or merely “transcribing.”
These manuscripts, though not reliable for use as samples
of determined authorship in our prior research, do
provide fertile ground for another sort of closely related
stylistic inquiry and allow an opportunity to investigate
the question of whether Smith’s various scribes may
have contributed more than simple transcription. For
this new research I utilize the models of known authorship
we developed in our prior work in order to analyze
the personal writings attributed to Smith (but written by
scribes).
The goal of this work is to assess the role (if any) that the
scribes may have had in shaping the linguistic and stylistic
construction of these documents. For example, if
sections written in the hand of Sidney Rigdon are classified
as being similar to the Rigdon signal in our exisiting
model, such as result would suggest that the role Rigdon
played in the dictation process was perhaps more than
mere scribe. Alternatively, if the material not in the hand
of Smith is classified together with material that is in his
hand, then this would be evidence favoring attribution to
Smith and Smith alone.
At the time of this proposal, preliminary results indicate
that at least 20 of the 109 documents penned by Smith’s
scribes are stylistically close to those written in Smith’s
own hand. Furthermore, early results also suggest no
apparent stylistic connection between those scribes for
whom we have known writings and the documents that
they wrote in the role of scribe to Smith. Together, these
findings appear to support the historical Mormon church
perspective of common authorship for both the papers in
Smith’s hand and those in the hands of his many scribes.
Further tests, to be completed before presentation of this
research, are necessary to confirm the veracity of these
preliminary results. Should further study confirm the
preliminary data, then we would have some justification
for attributing a sizeable number of these scribe-written
texts to Smith. Providing additional authentication of
the Smith corpus in this manner would be of great value
to future studies of the Book of Mormon.
Methodology
I begin by segmenting the personal documents attributed
to Smith according to differences in handwriting.
For documents not in Smith’s handwriting, I label them
based on Jessee’s identification of the scribe who took the dictation. From the material in Smith’s own hand, I
expand our current classification model to include a new
“Smith” class (the current model includes signals for
Oliver Cowdery, Sidney Rigdon, and Parley Pratt who
were among Smith’s known scribes).
Through cross-validation (and testing with various tuning
parameters) I determine the most effective number of
features for a new model. In our prior work, NSC had a
cross-validation error rate of just 8.8% when using 110
features; the model accurately classified known samples
91.2% of the time. I anticipate similar results for this
proposed research.
Using the new model, the corpus of personal writings
attributed to Smith, but not in his hand, will be classified
and the results ranked based on the probabilistic output
that NSC provides. The results will provide further evidence
as to the consistency of the linguistic signal across
the corpus and provide a foundation for further research.
References
Brodie, F. (1971). No Man Knows My History; the Life of
Joseph Smith, the Mormon Prophet, New York, Knopf.
Burrows, J. F. (1987). Computation into Criticism: a
Study of Jane Austen’s Novels and an Experiment in
Method. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
Burrows, J. F. (2002). ‘Delta’: a Measure of Stylistic
Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. Literary
and Linguistic Computing, 17, 267-87.
Burrows, J. F. (2003). Questions of Authorship and Beyond.
Computers and the Humanities, 37, 5-32.
Burrows, J. F. (2005). Who Wrote Shamela? Verifying
the Authorship of a Parodic Text. Literary and Linguistic
Computing, 20, 437-450.
Bushman, R. L. (2005). Joseph Smith: Rough Stone
Rolling, New York, Alfred A. Knopf.
Campbell, A. (1831). An Analysis of The Book of Mormon
with an Evaluation of Its Internal and External Evidences,
and a Refutation of Its Pretenses to Divine Authority.
The Millenial Harbinger.
Cowdrey, W. L., Davis, H. A. & Vanick, A. (2005). Who
Really Wrote the Book of Mormon?, St. Louis, MO,
Concordia Pub. House.
Croft, J. D. (1981). Book of Mormon ‘Wordprints’ Reexamined.
Sunstone 6, 15-21.
Hilton, J. L. (1988). On Verifying Wordprint Studies:
Book of Mormon Authorship. Foundation for Ancient
Research and Mormon Studies, Provo, Utah 1988. Holley,
V. (1989). Book of Mormon Authorship: A Closer
Look, UT, Self-published.
Holmes, D. I. (1991a). A Multivariate Technique for Authorship
Attribution and Its Application to the Analysis
of Mormon Scripture and Related Texts. History and
Computing, 3, 12-22.
Holmes, D. I. (1991b). Vocabulary Richness and the
Prophetic Voice. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 6,
259-268.
Holmes, D. I. (1992). A Stylometric Analysis of Mormon
Scripture and Related Texts. Journal of the Royal
Statistical Society, Series A (Statistics in Society), 155,
91-120.
Hoover, D. L. (2002). Frequent Word Sequences
and Statistical Stylistics. Literary and Linguistic Computing,
17, 157-180. Hoover, D. L. (2004a). Delta
Prime? Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19, 477-493.
Hoover, D. L. (2004b). Testing Burrow’s Delta. Literary
and Linguistic Computing, 19, 453-475.
Jessee, Dean C. (ND). “Joseph Smith and His Papers:
An Editorial View.” Joseph Smith Papers Project, http://
josephsmithpapers.org/Essays/Jessee.pdf (accessed
2/25/2009).
Jockers, Matthew L., Daniela M. Witten, Craig S. Criddle.
“Reassessing Authorship in the Book of Mormon
Using Delta and Nearest Shrunken
Centroid Classification.” Literary and Linguistic Computing,
2008; doi: 10.1093/llc/fqn040
Larsen, W. A., Rencher, A. C., Layton, T (1980). Who
Wrote the Book of Mormon? An Analysis of Word-prints.
BYU Studies, 20, 225-51.
Reynolds, N. B. (2005). The Case for Sidney Rigdon as
Author of the Lectures on Faith. Mormon History, 32,
1-41.
Riley, I. W. (1902). The Founder of Mormonism: A Psychological
Study of Joseph Smith, Jr., New York, Dodd,
Mead, and Co.
Smith, J. & Jessee, D. C. (2002). The Personal Writings
of Joseph Smith, Salt Lake City, Brigham Young University Press, Deseret Books.
Tibshirani, R., Trevor Hastie, Balasubramanian Narasimhan
and Gilbert Chu (2003). Class Prediction by
Nearest Shrunken Centroids, with Applications to DNA
Microarrays. Statistical Science, 18, 104-117.
Tibshirani, R., Trevor Hastie, Balasubramanian Narasimhan,
and Gilbert Chu (2002). Diagnosis of multiple
cancer types by shrunken centroids of gene expression.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99,
6567-6572.
Vogel, D. (2004). Joseph Smith: The Making of a Prophet,
Salt Lake City, Signature Books.","txt","2","",""
"1005","10","The Social Text as Digital Gamespace; or, what I learned from playing Spore","1","The meaning of video games is in their playing, in
performance, which involves searching for signs
of intelligence—human and machine-mediated—with
which to collaborate or compete in making meanings.
This happens in textual interpretation of all kinds, but the
process is foregrounded and dramatized in video games
in ways that make them useful models for textual scholarship,
editing, and interpretation, considered in terms
of scholarly content management systems or socially
networked knowledge sites. For example: what I learned
from playing Will Wright’s sim-everything game, Spore,
is the importance of building asynchronous “pollination”
systems that encourage complex improvisation by way
of feedback loops, afford the search for and collaboration
with others (via their creations), the continual re-editing
of shared materials, and preserve, track, and allow
for the analysis of multiple individual edits.","txt","2","",""
"1006","10","Interactive Exploration of Versions across Multiple Documents","1","Introduction The need to compare two or more documents arises in
a variety of situations. Some instances include detection
of plagiarism in academic settings and comparing
versions of computer programs. Extensive research has
been performed on comparing documents based on their
content (Si et al., 1997; Brin et al., 1995) and there also
exist several tools such as windiff to visually compare a
pair of documents. However, little work has been done
on providing an effective visual interface to facilitate the
comparison of more than two documents simultaneously.
The Versioning Machine (Schreibman et al., 2003) is
a web-based interface that provides the facility to view
multiple versions of a document, along with the changes
across versions. Motivated by the Versioning Machine
(VM), we build a tool MultiVersioner that facilitates
viewing multiple versions of multiple documents at
once, and provides the user with a rich set of information
regarding their comparison. The primary user during the
development of MultiVersioner was Tanya Clement, a
doctoral candidate in English at the University of Maryland,
who researches the works of experimental poets.
Related Work
ScentHighlights (Chi et al., 2005) has demonstrated the
effectiveness of using color-coded highlighting to display
the similarities and differences across documents.
There exist literature (Brin et al., 1995) and tools like
CHECK (Si et al., 1997) and MOSS (MOSS) on plagiarism
and source code comparison, which are relevant to
our work. FeatureLens (Don et al., 2007) facilitates pattern
finding in text collections by providing visualizations
of the results of text mining algorithms.
In Tanya Clement’s research, she compares not only versions
of a single poem, but also multiple versions across
several poems. VM can display the versions of just one
document at a time. To open another document, all versions
of the current document have to be closed first. VM
also does not provide any search capabilities.
Description of the Interface
Background
The two-fold goal of MultiVersioner is to provide an
effective overview of the content and size of all documents,
as well as to provide a detailed display, along
with a variety of search capabilities, in accordance with
the Info-Viz Mantra Overview first, zoom and filter, details
on demand (Shneiderman 1996).
MultiVersioner is implemented in Java 6.0 using the
Swing GUI toolkit. It uses the same input format file as
VM, an XML file, containing information about the various
additions and deletions made across all versions of
a document. MultiVersioner contains a built-in parser to
parse these XML files. Loading an XML file opens all
the versions of a poem in separate version panels and
multiple such documents can be loaded simultaneously.
Version panels are displayed in the central part of the
interface with a tool panel located on the right. The name
of the version appears on top of the respective version
panel. The names of all the versions of a particular document
are displayed in the same color in order to group
them together.
Overview
In the overview, words are denoted by equal sized boxes.
Hovering over a box pops up a tooltip containing the entire
sentence, with the current word being displayed in
bold. In the tooltip, words added in the current version
are shown in blue, and words deleted are shown in red.
Clicking on a box brings up a detail window (Figure 1)
containing the entire sentence. The purpose of the detail window is to display a sentence of interest on the
screen, analogous to a post-it note. The detail windows
can be made either opaque or transparent, and can either
be moved around, or aligned together. A line is drawn
between a detail window and its corresponding location
in the version panel, to keep track of its origin. A detail
window could be closed either by right clicking it
and choosing close, or by simply dragging it out of the
screen. Text View
Word boxes are used primarily to obtain an overview of
all the documents. To explore the versions in detail, a
representation displaying the actual sentences, instead of
word boxes, is preferred (Figure 2).
Search
The basic search feature is the word search (Figure 2).
A search bar is provided where the user can type in a
word or a phrase to be searched across all documents.
A search can be made case-sensitive if desired. Alternatively,
a word can be searched by right-clicking an instance
of it. Inspired by ScentHighlights (Chi 2005 et al.,
2005), Search results are color-coded. The instances of
a searched word in all documents are highlighted using
the same color. A search history as well as the facility to
clear search results is available.
A line search feature is available as well. The similarity
of a pair of lines is computed by taking into account the
number and relative positions of the words common to
them. Right-clicking the anchor-box present at the beginning
of a line triggers a line search and lines similar to
the specified line across all documents are highlighted. Word Frequency Table
MultiVersioner computes a frequency table containing
the number of occurrences of each unique word in all
documents and their versions. When comparing different
versions of a document or comparing different documents
that are related, researchers in literature need to
identify unique and common words and sentences. It has
been shown that an approach as simple as a frequency
table listing is powerful in providing insight by letting
users know which words are common across documents
and which ones are unique to a single document (Filippova,
2007). Other features
There are sliders available to control the version panel
height, width and the sizes of the word boxes. MultiVersioner
also has a scroll lock, used when the documents
are long, to synchronize the scrolling of the documents
with each other.
User Feedback and Future Work
The first three authors of the abstract were the developers
(students in an Information Visualization class). The
last three authors used the prototypes several times during
the development and provided suggestions. Examples
are given below.
Users reported that they could not easily distinguish versions
of a single document from versions of other documents.
We achieved this by using the same color for the
titles of all the version panels associated with a the same
document. The ability to search for words across the
documents was greatly appreciated and the color-coded
highlighting of the results was found helpful, but overall they commented that softer colors would be more pleasing.
Users liked the synchronized scrolling between windows.
Still it was difficult to associate the detail window
to its originating location, so some visual linking was
suggested (e.g. drawing a line or matching color highlighting).
Regarding the choice between Text View and
Overview, users stressed that it is preferable to see the
actual words rather than seeing the abstract word boxes.
Still, they acknowledged the benefit of the overview
when dealing with a large number of documents and versions.
The overview was more helpful for a high-level
view and orientation, the text view was more useful for
analysis.
In summary we believe that our prototype illustrates that
it is possible to facilitate visual comparison. We built
on the Versioning Machine by allowing users to compare
multiple documents, each of which consisting of
multiple versions. We also provide the ability to search
for entities such as words and lines across the documents
and versions and analyze their frequency patterns.
MultiVersioner was designed to compare small poems,
and future work needs to address the problem of longer
documents. Utilizing the entire screen space, by dynamically
resizing all open documents to fit the screen, might
be a promising direction. Further information about this
project including a more detailed report, slides, a demo
video and software can be found at https://wiki.cs.umd.
edu/cmsc734_08/index.php?title=MultiVersioner.
References
Brin, S., Davis J., and Garcia-Molina H. (1995). Copy
detection mechanisms for digital documents, Proc. of the
1995 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management
of data, 398-409.
Chi, E. H., Hong, L., Gumbrecht, M., and Card S. K.
(2005). ScentHighlights: highlighting conceptuallyrelated
sentences during reading, Proc. of the 10th International
Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces,
272-274.
Don A., Zheleva, E., Gregory, M., Tarkan, S., Auvil, L.,
Clement, T., Shneiderman, B., and Plaisant, C. (2007).
Discovering interesting usage patterns in text collections:
integrating text mining with visualization, Proc.
of the sixteenth ACM Conference on Information and
Knowledge Management, 213-222.
Filippova, D. (2007). BasketLens: interface for document
visualization and exploration, http://www.cs.umd.
edu/hcil/textvis/basketlens/.
MOSS. http://theory.stanford.edu/~aiken/moss, retrieved
04-10-2008
Schreibman, S., Kumar, A., and McDonald, J. (2003).
“The Versioning Machine.” Literary and Linguistic
Computing, 18(1), 101-107 (http://www.v-machine.org)
Shneiderman, B. (1996). “The Eyes Have It: A Task by
Data Type Taxonomy for Information Visualization.”
IEEE Conference on Visual Languages, 336-343.
Si, A., Leong, H. V., Lau, R. W. H. (1997). CHECK: a
document plagiarism detection system, Proc. of the 1997
ACM symposium on Applied computing, 70-77.","txt","2","",""
"1007","10","Audio-visual Rhetoric and its Methods of Visualization: Introducing visual notation systems for film analysis","1","Abstract In this paper, we use information design of rhetorical
theory in order to investigate the structure of audiovisual
media. From a design research perspective, we are
especially interested in the power of visualization. In this
respect, we compare different methods of film analysis
referring to their representation mode and evaluate them
referring to their ability to visualize the cinematic structure.
Within the realm of film analysis, we ask :
• How can the use of information design enhance the
traditional analysis of film?
• What is the influence of the selected semiotic code
(text, image, or animation) on the interpretation of
the medium and its structure?
To answer these questions, we introduce examples of visual
notation systems that were applied to analyze film
sequences within a project. We discuss their method and
value for the purpose of analysis and reflect on the role
of the different semiotic codes that are applied. Referring
to the traditional method of analysis in the form of
written film protocols, we hypothesize that this method
is attended by a high loss of structural information when
transferring the audio-visual, dynamic code of film into
written text. While film protocols are more appropriate
for content, respectively plot analyses, we state that
static and dynamic visual notations are suitable forms
for making structural and rhetoric phenomena of film
explicit. Visual notations might cause the least loss of
information in the analytical process, and might of high
value for academic film analysis.
Background
Audio-visual rhetoric is a knowledge domain for designers
in theory and practice that was introduced by Gui
Bonsiepe in the 1960ies (Bonsiepe 1961). Its theory and
communication system is valid for all communicative
actions aiming for persuasion. Richard Buchanan described
the whole body of design practice as rhetorical
argumentation (Buchanan 1989) and opened the way
for a rhetorical design theory on a broad basis. In the
following, visual rhetoric was established within the
design education mostly in the US, teaching the analysis
of information design on the basis of rhetorical patterns
(Ehses 1984, 1986, 1988), (Kostelnick 1989, 1998,
2003), (Poggenpohl 1998). These concepts were transferred
to dynamic, audio-visual media by Bonsiepe in the
late 1990ies, and he introduced the term “Audio-visual
Rhetoric” (Bonsiepe 2008). Today, this theory combines
the ancient communication theory and its huge body of
knowledge with New Rhetoric (Joost 2008, 2008a) and
applies this knowledge to the design domain and its visual
approaches.
The Notation System for Film Analysis
Exploring audio-visual patterns of film is an analytical
endeavor that is still in search for a useful method. In
film theory and practice, there are different models to
describe and analyze filmic structures. For film scholars,
the most established method is using a written film
protocol to elaborate on formal aspects as well as on narrative
structures. This method was questioned by many
scholars because of the lack of potential to reflect on the
specific dynamic and audio-visual quality of film (Lehner
1987). Audio-visual rhetoric provides an approach to
overcome this problem by introducing a notation system
for film. In academic context, there are some examples
of visual film protocols (Hahne 1992), (Ramsbott / Sauter
1988). Nevertheless, none of the visual systems has
been established for film analysis in a broader context
and has not yet reflected the progressing nature of film.
A general issue is that there is no interdisciplinary collaboration
between study of film, film production, rhetoric,
and design research to come up with an applicable
system. Bringing together all these competences, one
could design a comprehensive system that could be used
in various contexts – academic as well as applied. In this
context, we discuss the impact of the semiotic code on
the film analysis (Table 1).
Comparison between different notation
systems for analysis
When applying rhetorical knowledge to the analysis of
film, we take the following steps. We raise the hypothesis
that a visual analysis of film conveys a visual knowledge about the rhetorical structure of media. This form
of knowledge can hardly be expressed verbally. Ernst
Gombrich claims what the diagram presents in front of
our eyes can hardly be expressed by words – as a succession
of statements (Gombrich 1984). An example for this
hypothesis is the visualization of the spatial information
on a map. This complex information that is accessible
parallel on one sight can hardly be expressed verbally in
a cognitively efficient process. Based on this hypothesis,
we introduce different notation systems to visualize recurring
patterns in film: a static visual film protocol (Fig.
1), an animated film protocol (Fig. 2), and a written text
protocol. audiovisual
signs into a written text means to change the semiotic
code in a radical way – from image and sound to
text. This process involves a loss of information, particularly
of the audio-visual and dynamic quality of the
sign system. The idea of using a visual protocol as tool
for film analysis is based on the hypothesis that a visual
diagram can be processed cognitively much more efficient
than language (Bonsiepe 2008). This is especially
true for the visual aspects of film and not for re-telling
its storyline. It is not new to say that the tools and methods
that are used for an investigation clearly influence
the research results. This is also true for the method we
suggest in this paper. To set up a visual diagram of film
focuses much more on visual and structural aspects than
on the storyline. The aim is to reduce a loss of information
that occurs when the audio -visual texture of film is
transferred to written film protocol. Therefore, the audiovisual
signs are translated into a visual structure. This
method has additional advantages: the graphic displays
information on one sight so that the recipient can process
the data in parallel. Written text can communicate
information only in a successive way – one word after
the other. In the notation protocol, information about the
whole clip in each of the channels can be visualized at
the same time, allowing a parallel interpretation of data
and of relationships among the various audio -visual elements.
Here, the pattern structure can be easily identified
on the basis of a graphical representation. For example,
repetitions or climax patterns can be singled out quickly
on the basis of their visual form. With this approach,
large amounts of data from audiovisual
media can be efficiently
processed for analytical purposes. In the next
step, we compared the different systems according to
their semiotic code, their mode of information and the
kind of perception they require. Discussion
One finding is that a verbal analysis, on the one hand,
is much more focused on content and storyline of a film
and translates the audio-visual medium into a verbal
narration. It uses the symbol as semiotic code and requires
a successive perception. Its mode of information
is temporal. The visual analysis, on the other hand, is
more focused on the visual structure of film and its recurring
patterns. It uses icon, index, and symbol as semiotic
code and requires a synchronic perception. Therefore, it
displays spatial information. An animated protocol adds
dynamic information about the development of film and
includes the analyzed film itself into the animation. It
also refers to icon, index and symbol in its semiotic code
and requires synchronic as well as successive perception.
Its mode of information is rich and includes spatial,
temporal and acoustic data. Through visual approaches
such as static visual protocols as well as animated ones,
a different kind of knowledge is gained compared to a
mere verbal analysis: a specific kind of visual knowledge.
This study argues in favor of a semiotic autonomy
of visual signs.
Conclusion
The visual film protocol can serve developers of audio
-visual media in various ways. First of all, it is a helpful
tool to analyze and interpret film and understand its
composition. Moreover, the static visual film protocols
make different films structurally comparable. Using the
notation system one gets a visual protocol comparable to
music notations that can be used for reproduction purposes.
This leads to the third point: the notation system
as a software could be used as tool for film design and
planning in addition to the technique of storyboarding,
which is still a standard tool for the production process.
With this visual aid, film makers can compose their texture
beyond sketches of the scene and visual description.
Based on these insights, we suggested the notation system
as a new tool for film analysis for designers as well
as for film scholars.
References
Bonsiepe, G. (1961). Persuasive Communication: Towards
a Visual Rhetoric. In Crosby, T. (Eds.) Uppercase
Nr. 5, London, UK, 19–34.
Bonsiepe, G. (2008). Audiovisualistische Rhetorik in
zeitbasierten Medien: Über die kognitive Relevanz diagrammatischer
Visualisierungen. In: Joost, G., Scheuermann,
A. Design als Rhetorik. Birkhäuser Verlag Basel.
217-232.
Buchanan, R. (1985): Declaration by Design: Rhetoric,
Argument, and Demonstration. In Design Issues, Volume
II, Number 1. 4-23; Reprint in: Margolin, V. (1989)
(Ed.): Design Discourse. History, Theory, Criticism,
Chicago. 91-109.
Gombrich, E. (1984): Representation and Misrepresentation
(Reply to Murray Kreiger) In Critical Inquiry, Volume
11, 2, Chicago. 195-201. Hahne, D. (1992). Komposition und Film: Projekt nach
Motiven aus Camus „Der Abtrünnige“ für Chor, Orchester
und Spielfilm. (Volkwang-Texte III. Bd. 5. Hrsg. v.
Josef Fellsches).
Lehner, C. (1987). Einige zentrale Probleme der
neueren Filmsemiotik. In Bauer, L., Ledig, E., Schaudig,
M. (Eds.) Diskurs film: Strategien der Filmanalyse. Bd.
1 , München, Germany, pp. 59–72.
Joost, G. (2008): Die rhetorische Pattern-Language des
Films. In Joost, G., Scheuermann, A. (Eds.) Design als
Rhetorik, Birkhäuser Verlag Basel, 233 – 249.
Joost, G. (2008a) Film-Sprache. Die audio-visuelle
Rhetorik des Films. Bielefeld. See also:
http://www.geschejoost.org/AVRhetorik/
Ramsbott, W., Sauter, J. (1988). Visualisierung von
Filmstrukturen mit rechnergestützen Mitteln. In: Helmut
Korte, Werner Faulstich (Hrsg.): Filmanalyse interdisziplinär.
(Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und
Linguistik. Hrsg. v. Helmut Kreuzer. Beiheft 15). Göttingen.
pp. 156–165.","txt","2","",""
"1008","10","Conjecture Generation in the Digital Humanities","1","Digital scholarship has been very helpful in the development
of humanities research (Juola, 2008a),
primarily by automating processes such as communication,
text processing, and search and permitting scholars
to concentrate on analysis and explanation. However,
when computers attempt to generate meaning, to perform
analysis themselves, the results are usually less
than satisfactory and don’t actually explain much.
An example of analytic failure can be seen in the reception
of “nontraditional” (i.e. statistical, computer-aided)
authorship attribution. It is now unquestionable that
computers can infer authorship attributes with high accuracy
(see Juola, 2008b), but the accurate inference
processes tend not to inform us about the actual authors
(Craig, 1999). Argamon (2006) has provided a theoretical
analysis of one particular method, but in the unfamiliar
and ``inhuman’’ language of statistics, which again
sheds little light on authorial language and authorial
thought. By contrast, studies of gender differences in
language (e.g., Coates, 2004) offer not only lists of differences,
but explanations in terms of the social environment.
In fact, the interesting part of scholarship is not in
mere observation, but in the refinement and explanation.
This suggests a relatively novel model for computer/human
interaction in scholarship, one in which the computer
is used to identify patterns that are passed to human
experts for validation and explanation. While not widely
used, this model has been successfully applied in mathematics
by the Graffiti program (Fajtlowicz, 1986). This
program generates conjectures (randomly) of the form X
< Y (or similar forms such as X < Y + Z) where X, Y, and
Z are “graph invariants,” simple numeric properties of
graphs such as average number of edges per node, number
of colors necessary to color the graph like a map, average
distance between nodes, number of different paths
between nodes, and so forth. Graffiti then compares this
conjecture against a library of graphs to see if it is true
for all the graphs in the library. Of course, “true for all
the graphs in the library” is not proof of universal truth,
but it provides evidence in support. If the conjecture
is thus supported, Graffiti publishes the conjecture, and
professional mathematicians are invited to prove (or disprove)
it. Since inception, Graffiti has developed and
published more than 1000 conjectures and inspired more
than 100 papers.
This model can easily be applied to the humanities.
Application in the field of text analysis is straightforward;
we need analogues to “graph invariants.” Such
“text invariants” might include the frequency of specific
words, phrases, or structures in particular text types. A
simple conjecture might be that “color adjectives” are
more common than “size adjectives,” or that “verbs of
motion” are more common in male-written novels than
in female-written poetry. Of course, text invariants are
not limited to token frequency analysis; any “property”
that can be assessed via computer analysis would be a
possibility. If one can find a way to determine a text’s
eroticism, degree of animacy, personification, etc., any
of those would be potential features.
In addition to text invariants, we need a framework for
conjectures (in analogy to the X < Y + Z framework described
above). Simple comparisons are likely to find
uninteresting conjectures (prepositions are more common
than proper nouns). A more interesting conjecture
(in the author’s opinion) would be something like
“color adjectives are more common than size adjectives
in women’s writing, but the reverse holds in men’s writing.”
Such a finding would clearly show a relationship,
as yet unexplained, between adjective choice and gender.
If this were true—why? It obviously says something
about gender and culture, but what? Here is where
a traditional humanist could take advantage of the ability
of a computer to read and analyze a huge amount of data
very quickly. In general, conjectures of the form “X > Y
in texts of category A, but Y > X in texts of category B”
(where A and B are non-overlapping categories, ideally
pulled from the document’s metadata) are likely to be of
interest to category A/B specialists, especially if X and
Y are themselves interesting natural properties. Another
framework would be that “X is more common in A-texts
than B-texts,” and it is this framework that we use in our
prototype.
To illustrate this, we have built a simple version of this
conjecture generator (“conjecturator”) using standard
Java technology, much of it drawn from the JGAAP
project (Juola, 2007). The Moby Thesaurus II lists
more than 30,000 different synonym sets: for example,
the word group “raft” (as in “a raft of money”) includes
words/phrases such as “barge,” “boat,” “pile,” “pot,” and
“quite a little.” The word group “take back” includes terms like “abjure,” apologize,” “renege,” “disown,” and
“nullify.” We have also collected eight separate (English)
translations of the Bible ranging from the Authorized
(King James) Version to Revised Standard Version
and the Bible in Basic English. Our program selects one
synonym set and two Bible versions (at random), then
counts every appearance of each word token listed in the
synonym set. Our conjectures are therefore of the form:
“Words in <this category> appear at least 50%
more frequently in <this> Bible translation than in
<that> one.”
Our prototype strips punctuation and case differences,
but does not perform morphological analysis or even
word sense disambiguation. Despite this limitation,
simple word-counting reveals that the word group “take
back” appears approximately twice as often in the RSV
as it does in Young’s Literal Translation. We have similarly
found that the word group “rhythmical” occurs
substantially more often in the KJV than in Darby’s
Translation. We have at this writing no explanation, but
offer them (along with many other findings) to interested
Biblical scholars as a potentially unexplored facet of
the differences among different translations. (A list of
conjectures will be available both electronically and at
the conference—about 40% of conjectures appear to be
valid, a percentage we find surprising.)
Testing these conjectures has been relatively easy (if
time-consuming); We simply attach the program to a
large database (in this case, of Bibles) and allow it to
sample from the database until it has either confirmed or
rejected the hypothesis to its satisfaction. (For example,
there does not appear to be a significant difference in
the word group “unauthorized” between the RSV and the
American Standard Version.) We can extend such a program
even to help solve the “how do you read a million
books” problem, since the program could not only do
the bulk of the initial reading to see if the hypothesis is
true in the first place, but would automatically generate
a reading list for scholars interested in following up on
the conjecture. (At a second per book, a computer could
analyze all million texts and deliver a list of how each
work fared vs. the conjecture in less than two weeks.
By contrast, a human closely reading one book per day
would require 3000 years to read a million books.) Even
our prototype system can examine many more categories
and hypotheses than even the most avid and interested
human reader—in its first 24 hours alone, it found more
than 200 possibly interesting differences between Bible
versions.
As a further extension, we have extended the Conjecturator
to include multiple documents and a more robust
form of statistical analysis. Using a collection of more
than 100 Victorian novels (courtesy of David Hoover,
NYU), we now observe mean word usage within a group
such as bildungsromanen or gothic novels, compute variance
and t-statistics and accept a conjecture if the computed
p-value is sufficiently low (in either direction).
Results of this further experiment will also be presented.
Although our prototype is limited to text analysis, the
possibility of automatic conjecture generation may extend
further. A large and rich database of GIS and/or
census information may be able to support, for example,
conjectures of the form “<Object A> is more common
in <Environment X> than <Environment Y>.”
An example of such a conjecture would be a relationship
previously unimagined between the number of veterinarians
and Methodist churches in coastal counties.
What are the benefits of such a program? This conjecture
generator can deliver a set of (partially) validated
observations about easily observable, superficial properties
of the texts in the library (or points in the database
more generally defined). By construction, all published
conjectures are more or less guaranteed to describe
something true, at least about the library. These partial
truths, to humanists interested in the study of the library,
may represent insights that they have not considered
and a the particular hypothesis under study. Indeed, the
scholars may lack the time to familiarize themselves
with every volume in the library, and may not even be
“digital” enough to understand the computer analysis,
but who may be interested enough to see out the new
material that they now know is there.
At the simplest possible level, 1000 validated conjectures
are 1000 topics for student projects, research papers,
or Ph.D. theses, a partial solution to the “I need to
do a term paper but don’t know what I want to do it on”
question that plagues all supervisors.
More generally, however, this program would also allow
humanists to concentrate their efforts on what is generally
the most interesting and rewarding part of humanities
research; the search for an explanatory theory of human
behavior. By giving scholars a list of statements
that are probably true, they can concentrate their efforts
on producing statements and theories that are genuinely
meaningful.","txt","2","",""
"1009","10","Cross-linguistic Transference of Authorship Attribution, or Why English-Only Prototypes Are Acceptable","1","Authorship Attribution (Juola, 2008) can be defined
as the inference of the author or her characteristics
by examining documents produced by that person. It is
of course fundamental to the humanities; the more we
know about a person’s writings, the more we know about
the person and vice versa. It is also a very difficult task.
Recent advances in corpus linguistics have shown that
it is possible to do this task automatically by computational
statistics.
A key question, however, in any statistical study (not
just of text statistics) is whether the data or methods will
transfer from one domain to another. Statistical analyses
hinge on assumptions which may or may not be met
by different languages, and of course, data which is representative
of one domain is highly unrepresentative of
any other, by definition. A method that performs well in
one area may fail miserably in another. As an example,
a part-of-speech tagger with 96% accuracy on newswire
data may achieve only 50% on chat logs. (Craig Martell,
p.c., 2008)
In light of this finding, cross-problem transferrence can
be a major problem for statistical authorship attribution.
Should we expect an authorship attribution system that
performs well on, say, English, to also perform well on
Dutch, Serbian, or Chinese? Alternatively, is it reasonable
for a scholar of, say, Polish poetry to have confidence
in methods that have been tested to perform well,
but only on English documents? This, of course, is a
major problem, especially with problems of “forensic”
interest where the accuracy rate is one of the major considerations
regarding the evaluation or even admissibility
of evidence.
The JGAAP software framework (Juola et al., 2006)
in conjunction with the Ad-hoc Authorship Attribution
Competition corpus (Juola, 2004) provide us with some
preliminary results. JGAAP (described elsewhere in this
volume) is a modular, Java-based program capable of
performing thousands of different types of authorship attribution
methods on a well-defined corpus. The AAAC
comprises 13 authorship attribution problems in a variety
of languages and genres. This setup makes large-scale
performance comparisons among categories practical.
For example, 8 of the 13 AAAC problems involved English
text (in some form or another), but 5 involved other
languages such as French, Dutch, Latin, or Serbian/Slavonic.
If authorship attribution did not transfer well,
we would expect to see little correlation between the
average performance of a method on English texts and
its performance in other languages, as high-performing
methods would not necessarily remain high-performing
in other environments. Conversely, if we see a high degree
of correlation across languages, this argues for a
high degree of transfer.
As part of some other large-scale technical comparisons
(this volume), we have gathered 281 separate analyses of
the AAAC data using a variety of preprocessors, event
set models, and analytic methods, ranging from simple
lexical statistics or nearest neighbor histogram measures
to complex machine learning models such as support
vector machines on word or character n-grams of
various sizes. In this database, the correlation between
a method’s average performance in English and non-
English was 0.6680, a highly significant (p < 0.0001)
result. More tellingly, the coefficient of determination
(r^2) was 0.4462, meaning that approximately 45% of
the variation in performance of an algorithm across non-
English data could be explained simply by a measure
of its performance on English-only data; variations in
genre, register, or even variations across the broad category
of languages-that-aren’t-English have only a little
more effect in total. (We should add that work is ongoing
and the 281 analyses will undoubtedly be expanded
in the next several months; these numbers are therefore
only preliminary and updated results will be presented.)
Similarly, we can divide the AAAC problems into
“large” problems (those with training samples of more
than 100,000 characters each) and “small” ones. (Of the
8 English problems, 4 were large; of the five non-English
problems, 3 were large.) Across the same 281 analyses,
the correlation between performance on large problems
and small problems was again highly significant
(r=0.6061, r^2 = 0.3674), meaning that almost 37% of
the variation in performance was explained by predicted
performance on other sizes.
This provides strong evidence, then, that good algorithms
for authorship in one domain will also be good
algorithms for authorship in other domains. In particular,
we have hopes that a set of best practices established
by looking at one particular data set will be a set of at least “good” practices in other domains, and can be a
useful starting point in a search for domain-specific best
practices in other, less studied or novel, domains. Unfortunately,
the way that the AAAC data was structured
prevents direct comparisons of accuracy (although it is
hard to imagine ways to establish that two authorship attribution
tasks are “comparably difficult” to enable such
direct comparisons). Of course, at one level, one could
make the argument that a bad algorithm for English
should not be expected miraculously to perform better
when transferred to a language the original designer cannot
speak or read. But it is still encouraging to find that
a good algorithm for English can be expected to perform
well in that same unknown language.
References
Juola, Patrick. (2004). “Ad-Hoc Authorship Attribution
Competition” ALLC/ACH 2004 Conference Abstracts.
Gothenberg: University of Gothenberg.
Juola, Patrick. (2006/8). Authorship Attribution.
Foundations and Trends in Information Retrieval 1:3.
Delft:NOW Publishing.
Juola, Patrick, John Sofko, and Patrick Brennan. (2006).
“A Prototype for Authorship Attribution Studies.” Literary
and Linguistic Computing 21:169-78","txt","2","",""
"1010","10","Appropriate Use Case Modeling for Humanities Documents","1","1 Introduction This paper argues that the most appropriate methodology
to use when modeling
a historical document for
a software environment is one that focuses on modeling
for functionality. This functionality is derived from Use
Case modeling
that should be undertaken in consultation
with the User Group. The Use Cases are an expression
of the ecological model as they embody the use of
the document, by the User, in the software environment.
The encoding mechanism largely practiced within the
humanities computing community is represented by the
TEI (Text Encoding Initiative)[1], which seeks to provide
a set of guidelines for encoding humanities documents.
However, TEI offers no guidance in relation to
creating an encoding of a document that is supportive of
the software environment
that will host it, or the User.
We argue that modeling with recourse to the Logical, the
Physical and the Interaction classes enables not just the
generation of an appropriate encoding scheme, but also
the software to manipulate it. The argument is framed
in relation to the creation of a digital edition of an 18th
century Spanish Account Book manuscript.
2 Why Should Humanities Researchers
Employ Use Case Modeling?
The humanities computing community currently lacks a
formalised framework in relation to how to approach the
task of modeling documents to reside in software
environments.
TEI (Text Encoding Initiative) focuses mainly
on the skill of encoding using TEI, rather than the knowledge
as to how best to encode, which is independent of
any technical language. We would agree with the Kings
College Humanities Computing course designers, who
seeks to promote knowledge
based, rather than skills
based, learning[2]. It is much more diffcult, and more
valuable, to create a good model than it is to encode with
technical validity.
More and more the humanities researcher is involved
in encoding their documents
but remain uninvolved in software design. Unfortunately, this disjoin often results
in clunky systems that are not used by the community.
Bradley argues that ”HC might be more inﬂuential if
it moved its operations closer to traditional scholarly
methods”[3]. In order to ”be in a better position to develop
a model of the role of computers that does more
to support humanities research”[3] the encoder must
consider the logical, physical and interaction classes in
relation to their own domain when creating the Use Case
and dependent encoding model. Modeling how the document
is to be used, right down at the low level technical
encoding, is of paramount importance.
3 Use Case Models
A Use Case acts as a blueprint for the system design and
typically depicts the steps an actor takes while interacting
with the software in order to achieve some meaningful
goal or task, goal being higher level and task being lower
level. These explicit steps are expressed in a formalised
diagram using UML (Uniﬁed Modeling
Language) and
can be used by the software engineer to create a supportive
software environment. This is a higher level of
abstraction. The Use Cases model the ecological system,
which is then used to build a software environment that
encapsulate the functionality required by the researcher.
At a much lower level of abstraction, the researcher who
is involved in encoding their source must create
a model
of the source document that supports, and is part of, the
ecological system model.
The Alcalá Project was originally proposed as a digital
humanities project to mark a humanities collaboration
between the University of Alcalá de Henares (UAH),
Spain, and the National University of Ireland, Maynooth
(NUIM), Ireland.
The source was to be a Spanish eighteenth
century account book recording the monthly expenses
of the Royal Irish College of Saint George the
Martyr. In eight weeks, the source manuscript was chosen,
encoded and made available in a web based, dual
language, searchable and interactive environment. More
importantly,
it was developed to aid the historian in answering
historically pertinent research questions that are
speciﬁcally prompted by the historical object, an account
book. In the remainder of this paper we will refer to this
digital artefact for examples. Please see ﬁ gure 1.
In the digital edition of the Alcalá Account Book manuscript
a transcription and translation are provided for the
manuscript and are presented along with facsimile images
of the original manuscript on a page-by-page basis.
In addition, it is possible to transfer speciﬁc expenses to
a datasheet for accounting operations to be performed
upon them. This functionality was provided as a result of
Use Case analysis. A typical example of the goal a user
might wish to accomplish using the original manuscript
might be, “calculate how much was spent on bread at
the college in 1778”. At a lower level of abstraction, this
Use Case requires six steps be performed by the User. If
the User speaks only English then they must (1) select
the translation as the version to search, (2) enter bread
as the keyword for the search, (3) examine the returned
facsimiles from 1778, (4) select the entries in the account
book pertaining to bread using the checkbox, (5) transfer
the pertinent entries to the datasheet for calculation, and
(6) switch to the datasheet view to read the total. 4 A Model Framework: Logical, Physical
and Interaction Classes
The above Use Case is a good example of how the software
environment should support the User. However,
there is no detail about how the steps should be achieved
by the software, instead everything is from the User’s
point of view. Additional steps must be performed by the
software environment, for instance, the ﬁ rst step now becomes
(1a) Interface presents translation, transcription
and facsimile image of ﬁ rst page (1b) User selects translation
as the version to search (1c) Interface presents
translation on the screen. This poses a problem for the
researcher charged with encoding the document.
The above Use Case requires information from three different
classes: the logical,
the physical and the interaction
classes. The logical class is a model of the content of
the document, e.g. monthly expenses; the physical class
is a model of the document e.g. pages; the interaction
class is a model of how the User interacts with the document
and, by extension, how the User interacts with the
software environment’s representation of that document. The encoding, though only part of the ecological system
model, must support the functionality in the Use Case
and thus must support the three classes: logical, physical
and interaction.
Failure to support the interaction class
will result in the software engineer being unable to fulﬁl
the Use Cases. For instance, in the Alcalá Account Book
encoding scheme each page was labelled with a unique
page identiﬁer, unlike the manuscript where only pages
with text were marked by an archivist. This allowed the
software engineer to return the exact page that a search
requested. Without prior knowledge of the Use Case,
“search for page number 10”, and how the software engineer
would implement that Use Case (the interaction
class), and thus his technical requirements, this could not
have been performed. Thus, the humanities researcher
who encodes must also be aware of the interaction class
and the requirements of the software engineer.
Furthermore, the encoding of the logical model must
also take cognisance of the User’s requirements. A single
document can be researched in many different ways,
for instance a historian may be interested in the social
history captured in the Alcalá Account Book manuscript
or they may be interested only in the prosopographical
information that can be gleaned from it. Choices need
to be made in representing the contents of the document.
In relation to encoding speciﬁcally, tags must be
created to give context to content, and segmentation of
the document must be performed to decide what should
be contextualised. These decisions should all be derived
from the Use Case. While encoding the information the
encoder must always be mindful that the Use Cases can
be fulﬁ
lled. For instance, in the Alcalá Account Book
encoding each of the expenses was labelled separately
and broken down into its description and the sum spent.
This allowed us to manipulate the ﬁ gures separately on
the datasheet so that mathematical operations could be
performed. Without this separation of the sum spent we
would have been unable to contextualise the ﬁ gures as
“money” and thus would have been unable to fulﬁll the
Use Case, “how much was spent on bread in 1778?”.
Furthermore, without recourse to the interaction class
component
of this Use Case, the intuitive interaction offered
by the clickable facsimile would have been foregone.
In this alternative scenario, the ﬁ gures required
by the query are directly manipulated on the facsimile
image. The User can click on those manuscript account
book expenses that they wish to interact with. The expense
items are simultaneously selected on the facsimile,
in the translation
text, and in the transcription text; they
can then be sent to the datasheet for further manipulation.
This simultaneous selection imparts to the User the sense
that all the version are integrated, and are representative
of the original encoding. The interaction becomes more
intuitive, closer to the usability of the original document,
but enhanced. Although it is both possible and necessary
for a researcher skilled in humanities to be the primary
articulator of Use Cases that encompass both the physical
and logical classes, it is more diffcult to articulate
those parts of the Use Case that derive from this interaction
class and a dialogue should be opened here with
a practitioner knowledgeable of Computer Science and
Software Engineering.
5 Limitations of Use Cases
Use Cases have some well documented problems associated
with them [4]. The most pertinent problem is
that Use Cases can only be successfully used when the
modeler has a full understanding of the problem domain,
in this case, some humanities data or object. This limits
their usefulness to cases when it is possible
to fully
understand the humanities data or object in question before
the digitisation takes place. Data is always created
in some context and can thus be understood. This is not
necessarily true for humanities objects, such as novels.
These are less deﬁnable and thus are sometimes digitised
to aid in the investigation
of their meaning. Use Cases are
less useful when the aim of the digitisation is to promote
prima facie discovery or investigation of the humanities
object. To overcome problems associated with requirement
drift it would also be important to combine this
approach with an iterative design process, as opposed
to a sequential.
This would ensure that the Use Cases
could also be updated to reﬂect the most current set of
requirements for the project and help to avoid, ”the biggest
iteration of all, going back to the start”[5]. The Use
Case is just one tool available to the humanities computing
researcher from the arsenal of software engineering
paradigms, for instance Rapid Application Development
[6] and Participatory
Design (where the end Users are
actively involved as consultants in the design of the software
ecological system) would be valuable [7]. Situating
the design and use of Use Cases within these software
engineering paradigms would be even more beneﬁcial to
the humanities computing community.
6 Are Use Cases Redundant?
Use Cases are sometimes considered to be the expression
of the obvious through highly formalised means,
the implication being that the administrative overhead
incurred is not justiﬁed for the beneﬁt that is produced.
It may seem obvious to state that without identifying and
then isolating the required pieces of information
for a
question, you cannot answer that question. However, this
is a very basic, and very valuable, step that is missing
from many digitisation projects. For instance, a digital
repository of “The Chymistry of Isaac Newton” [8] of fers diplomatic transcription, normalised version and
correlated facsimile image for many documents, including
Newton’s most complete laboratory notebook. The
documents are fully keyword searchable. The “ultimate
goal is to provide complete annotations for each manuscript
and comprehensive interactive tools for working
with the texts”[9]. There is no doubt that this is a very
valuable source. However, the encoding does not provide
for the functionality that one would initially expect
of such a collection, nor can this functionality be added
later, without significant recoding. For instance, there is
no support in the encoding for implementing a contextual
search for logical model elements such as “experiment”,
“apparatus”, “chemical”, “method” or “conclusion"". Instead
the element tags are drawn from the prose, figures,
linking, analysis, names/dates, and transcription tag sets
of the TEI. Though already a very rich and rewarding
source, it would benefit greatly from this type of functionality.
Furthermore, once the Use Cases were elicited
and described, the additional work involved in encoding
this type of functionality would have been minimal. It
may seem obvious to software engineering
experts that
to build a system one ﬁ rst has to deﬁne precisely what
the requirements of that system are, but this is not the
widespread practice within humanities computing.
7 Conclusion
Use Cases do not, of themselves, provide automatic
quality and clarity of a digital
artefact, or of the encoding
built upon it. They function as a tool to aid the improvement
of the ecological software environment so that the
main requirements
of the User can be satisﬁed. The creation
and implementation of the Use Case still requires
skill and knowledge, and still depends completely on the
writer of the Use Case, the software engineer and the
encoder. However, this level of knowledge would be demonstrably
more valuable to humanities researchers than
the text-encoding skills currently being promulgated. In
relation to ascertainig the appropriate level of abstraction
McCarty posed the question, “For us in the digital
humanities, when and how does it matter that we know
directly what’s in the cellar?”[10] . We contend, “that
from the outset (when it matters) researchers should
know how, at least at a detailed pattern level, what they
want to do, now and in the future (how it matters).” [11]
This detailed pattern level is exempliﬁ
ed by the knowledge
of how to create Use Cases. The researcher who
wishes to operate at a lower level of abstraction and actually
encode the humanities document must ﬁ rst have
this high-level knowledge. In order to create an encoding
scheme based around a document they should, in addition,
have knowledge of the logical, physical and interaction
classes. Only then can they appropriately
apply
that knowledge at the skill-level in an encoding. Both the
problem domain (humanities research) and the software
engineering pattern required to create appropriate Use
Cases are very demanding of the researchers involved.
Both areas demand high levels of expertise and understanding.
Consequently, it is unusual to ﬁ nd this level
of specialisation in one person. The solution is not to
promote the assimilation of software engineering skills
within humanities disciplines, but rather to promote the
dialogue between the experts at a suitable design and abstraction
level—that of the Use Case.
References
1. http://www..tei-c.org/ : Tei: P5 guidelines. Text Encoding
Initiative. Available Online. Accessed 10 March,
2009.
2. Jessop, M.: Teaching, learning and research in ﬁ nal
year humanities computing student projects. Literary
and Linguistic Computing 20 (2005) 295–311
3. Bradley, J.: What you (fore)see is what you get:
Thinking about usage paradigms for computer assisted
text analysis. Text Technology 14 (2005) 1–18
4. Firesmith, D.G.: Use case modeling guidelines. Technology
of Object-Oriented Languages, International
Conference on (1999) 184
5. Dominick, P.G.: Tools and Tactics of Design. Wiley
& Sons (2000)
6. Martin, J.: Rapid Application Development. New
York: Macmillan (1991)
7. http://www.cpsr.org/issues/pd/ : Participatory design.
Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility. Available
Online. (2008) Accessed 10 March, 2009.
8. http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/collections/newton:
Newton, Issac. “Newton's Most Complete Laboratory
Notebook”. The Chymistry of Isaac Newton. Ed. Newman,
W.R. 11 February 2006. Available online. Accessed
10 March, 2009.
9. http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/collections/newton : The
Chymistry of Isaac Newton. Ed. Newman, W.R. 11 February
2006. Available online. Accessed 10 March, 2009.
10. McCarty, W.: Signs of times present and future.
Available Online. Humanist Discussion Group Vol. 22,
No. 218 (2008) Accessed 10 March, 2009.
11. Keating, J.: Signs of times present and future. Available
Online. Humanist Discussion
Group Vol. 22, No.
219 (2008) Accessed 10 March, 2009.","txt","2","",""
"1011","10","Delivering a Humanities Computing Module at Undergraduate Level: A Case Study","1","1 Introduction In September 2008 we commenced delivery of a Humanities
Computing module at undergraduate level to
twenty seven students of the National University of Ireland,
Maynooth (NUIM). The module was offered by the
Computer Science Department and operated and delivered
by An Foras Feasa and was designed and delivered,
pedagogically, as an authentic learning experience [1].
This paper gives an overview of the aims of the module,
the curriculum, the module assignment
and student
support, assessment, and the process for evaluating the
module. We also provide details on the continuous assessment
project based on the creation of a repository
holding a collection of digitised 19th and 20th century
religious pamphlets.
2 Humanities Computing Module
A key aim of the module is to foster in the students some
understanding of humanities problems, to recognise how
and when a solution could be found using
Computer Science
Software Engineering (CSSE) methods, and ﬁ nally,
how to apply CSSE methodologies and technologies
to create solutions. Having researched
the King’s College
London (KCL) Humanities Computing ﬁ nal year
project [2] offered by the Centre for Computing in the
Humanities (CCH), we decided that an emphasis should
be placed on the general application of CSSE principles
rather than speciﬁc tools, which can date quickly. Figure
1 provides the for the module description as it appeared
in the NUIM’s Book of Modules.
The module was delivered over 12 two-hour lectures,
supplemented by 12 two-hour labs. The student was expected
to perform and additional 32 hours of independent
study. The lectures provided the theoretical framework
for, and overview of the issues associated with,
humanities computing. The labs were considered to be
of paramount importance and a strong emphasis was
placed on the delivery of a digital artefact by the end of
the semester.
The module has two primary learning objectives: ﬁ rstly,
the students would know how to design and create a digital
artefact to solve a humanities problem, and, secondly,
they would hold informed opinions as to why speciﬁc
technologies and methodologies were chosen. In this
way one can see that the methodologies of the two main
disciplines (Humanities and CSSE) were used as the
framework for the students’ evaluation and critique.
3 Module Assignment and Student Support
We applied a pedagogical approach known as authentic
learning in the design of the module; this approach “allows
students to explore, discuss, and meaningfully construct
concepts and relationships in contexts that involve
real-world problems and projects that are relevant to the
learner” [1]. The continuous assessment assignment was
chosen because it represented a typical real-world, humanities
researcher, problem. The form of the continuous
assessment assignment would mean that the students
would have to engage, in a real-world sense, with the
assigned problem.
The continuous assessment assignment was based upon
creating a digital artefact
derived from 19th and 20th
century pamphlets produced by the Catholic Church in
Ireland. The assignment was to be completed within the
laboratory and independent study times. Each two-hour
lab session was presided over by a demonstrator who
was available to answer queries in relation to the work.
While the lecturers would provide guidance, instruction
and information in relation to the practical project, it
was also expected that the students would use outside
resources
to research and implement their system. The
assignment was formalised as in Figure 2.
It was also decided that the course assignment would
be conducted by teams of students. Team work is often
required in industry thus this learning experience,
beneﬁcial in itself, would aid the team-members in their
career. Team work is also a necessity in most software
engineering projects as they generally require diverse
and wide-ranging expertise unlikely to be found in one
individual. Each team had at least one student whose
home discipline was Computer Science and Software
Engineering (CSSE). It was considered important to provide the students
with an understanding of the technology most used by
the Humanities Computing community, therefore, TEI
(Text Encoding Initiative) was selected as the encoding
language rather than XML (Extensible Mark-up
Language). However, of the time spent in lectures on
encoding, roughly half of that was devoted to XML in
order to provide both context for TEI and a basic working
knowledge of encoding. The students were expected
to evaluate the use of TEI as the encoding language in
their project presentation and in their written assessment.
The humanities contextualisation derived from the need
to understand the problem
domain of the User. Early
lectures provided an overview of the course content,
expectations
of the students, examination system, etc. The
remainder of the lectures covered the module content as
described above. The authentic learning experience was
supported in the lectures by inviting the post-doctoral
fellow as a guest speaker. This allowed for the framing
of the humanities problem (mining 19th and 20th century
pamphlets for icons and related text) for the students.
The course team believed that the students would
be motivated to create the digital artefact knowing that
its value would be evidenced in the real-world; the students
would “be able to realize that their achievements
stretched beyond the walls of the classroom” [3].
4 Assessment
The balance between doing and evaluating was reﬂected
in the marking scheme of the module; 50% of the marks
were available for continuous assessment deriving from
the lab-supervised production of the digital artefact. The
remaining 50% came from a written examination at the
end of the semester.
The written examination was open book and consisted
of three questions. The students chose two to complete.
Each question had three sections: the first section
required basic knowledge of some topic in humanities
computing, the second section required the implementation
of a solution to a given problem within that topic,
and the third section required evaluation and critique
of the chosen technology and methodology. In order
to pass the assessment a student had to display at least
an understanding of the topic and some form of critical
thinking or solution generation.
The authentic learning approach taken in the design of
the module equates to the KCL ﬁ nal year project model
in many respects. However, the evaluation of the finished
digital product only formed part of the team presentation,
which accounted for 5% of the overall marks, or
10% of the continuous assessment marks. It was during
this presentation that students also had the opportunity to
display the internalisation of the issues surrounding humanities
computing and their acquisition
of the associated
language register. This assessment was particularly
suited to evaluating how successful the authentic learning
approach had been.
However, the authentic learning approach also dictated
that the assessment should be based on real-world concerns.
In computer science, the delivery of a functional
digital product, before the deadline and to an acceptable
standard is the fundamental requirement. While KCL
stresses that the project can still be a success even if the
technological aspect was a failure, we stressed that the
technological fulﬁllment of criteria was of critical importance.
Failure to deliver a digital artefact, for any
reason and no matter how well evaluated, would have
resulted in failure in the continuous assessment, thereby
making it diffcult for the students to pass the module.
The evaluation of the humanities issues and related technologies
was to be mainly expressed in the written examination,
which equated to 50% of the marks. In this
way we sought to balance the module, just as KCL balanced
their ﬁ nal project.
5 Evaluation
Evaluation of the module, which will be available in advance
of the DH2009 conference,
will be undertaken in
two ways. Firstly, a post-doctoral research fellow will
actually use the repository. Their opinion on how successful
the repository is in fulﬁlling their needs will be
highly valued. The students’ understanding of the humanities
and computer science issues discussed during
the lectures will also be displayed in their written examinations.
We are optimistic about their success in relation
to the creation of the repository as already we have seen
evidence
of external research and the use of previously
unfamiliar software tools to create considered Project
Plans and Use Cases. Secondly, a detailed survey of the
students will be undertaken where the students will be
asked to critique the module.
6 Conclusion
Designing the module using an authentic learning approach
has provided the students with the opportunity
to learn very important life skills in relation to team
work, deadlines, scarcity of resources and independent
research. This has been balanced by providing the students
with a theoretical and methodological framework
so that an understanding of the problems in the humanities
domain that can beneﬁt from computing has been
fostered. It is hoped that this module
will help, within the university, to foster a greater understanding of, and
appreciation for, humanities computing.
References
1. Suzanne M. Donovan, John D. Bransford, J.W. Pellegrino,
ed.: How People Learn: Bridging Research
and Practice. National Academy Press, Washington DC
(1999)
2. Jessop, M.: Teaching, learning and research in ﬁ nal
year humanities computing student projects. Literary
and Linguistic Computing 20 (2005) 295–311
3. Mims, C.: Authentic learning: A practical introduction
& guide for implementation. Meridian 6 (2003) 1–3
C2260 HUMANITIES COMPUTING 1
24 Lecture hours, 24 Laboratory hours, 32 Tutorial and
Independent Study hours. Lectures, Tutorials and Laboratories
will be delivered by An Foras Feasa staff.
ECTS Credits: 5.0
Learning Outcomes: To understand and become familiar with
technology for the humanities. To examine how computing tools
and techniques may be integrated into humanities and what the
effects of this integration might be. Students will learn how to use
technology to inform new humanities research as well as how it
may be used to support existing research patterns;
possibilities created by the application of technology to
humanities research can be explored and exploited. Students will
learn how to apply a wide variety of computing and software
engineering techniques in four distinct areas: text processing,
image processing, software engineering and digital
humanities. How to assess whether computing can be usefully
applied in particular circumstances, and what results may be
expected.
Content: Fundamentals of the Digital Humanities: humanities
research, electronic communications and publishing, text analysis,
numerical and graphical analysis and presentation. Introduction to
web-based databases. Analysing text: electronic tools to analyse
written and transcribed text. What can be learned about a text
from using simple analytical techniques? Using graphical analysis
to find and understand patterns in data. Creating and using graphs
and charts to summarise, visualise and analyse data. The nature of
images and how to convert them to digital form: from manuscript,
through image capture and XML, to online database. Digital
images; commonly used
operations and techniques for image enhancement. Digitisation
and the creation of online digital resources. Introduction to TEI
(Text Encoding Initiative), XML (Extensible Markup Language)
and associated tools. Assessment: Total Marks: 100%. Two-hour
written examination at the end of Semester 1, not less than 50%.
Continuous Assessment up to 50%
CS260: HUMANITIES COMPUTING 1
Laboratory Project
John Keating, Aja Teehan, An Foras Feasa
You are required, as part of a four or five person team, to build
an on-line repository of 18th and 19th century pamphlets. The
repository will include both image and fulltext encoding of the
pamphlet. The text encoding standard used will be TEI (Text Encoding
Initiative), a comprehensive text encoding methodology.
You will be provided with a collection of preservation-quality images
for several related pamphlets. These provided images must
be encoded using TEI. Furthermore, each team is expected to use
the imaging facilities in An Foras Feasa’s laboratory to capture at
least two additional pamphlets (approximately 2 hrs. of imaging
per team).
The team is expected to produce an on-line user interface
to access the digital images and associated text. The team
should implement interaction facilities for at least two Use
Cases (for example, “search the repository for occurrences
of keywords”, or “implement linkages between pamphlets”).
Full-text and image TEI encoding (35%)
Project will be graded on 5 deliverables:
1. Production of the on-line repository, including User Interface
(35%)
2. The team’s preservation-quality image collection (5%)
3. Project presentation by the team (15 minutes) (10%)
4. Full project documentation (15%)
Key dates for deliverables:
• Project plan submitted by 10th October (formative assessment)
• Use Cases diagrams/documentation submitted by the 24th
October (formative assessment)
• Encodings submitted by 14th of November (formative assessment)
• Project presentation on the 15th and 16th of December
(summative assessment)
• Project documentation submitted by 19th of December","txt","2","",""
"1012","10","MIHS Text Mining Historical Sources using Factoid","1","This paper provides an overview of methods used in
bespoke software, MIHS (Mining Interactive Historical
Sources), currently under development. This paper
considers associational culture and the development
of Irish nationalism through the anthropological idea of
Othering [1] and how customised software aids knowledge
construction and historical research.
A brief overview of the historical question reveals that
the concept of the Other is a changing manifestation of
socio-economic and political conditions. It constructs
group identity by labeling and categorising the core
group but more importantly those outside it. Irish identity
and nationalism, for example, during the eighteenth
century is immersed in ideas of Othering, as political and
social expressions, such as the Penal Laws1, demonstrate
how one group, Protestants, ascribe negative attributes
to label and deﬁne the Other group, Catholics, as second
class citizens. This historical research uses customised
software that aids knowledge construction by providing
an interface and central environment to digitise,
store and share sources. The software provides an application
to create
and extract information by developing
factoids, deﬁned as the connection of “different kinds of
structured information” [2], from primary and secondary
sources. These factoids are dynamically generated
by the system in response to researcher-deﬁned queries.
They are composed of factlets and additional XML encoded
source information; factlets themselves are observations
on sources, chosen and manually encoded by the
researcher. The environment also uses data mining, or
knowledge mining [3], techniques to generate organised
clusters of factoids, called data clusters.
MIHS provides a user friendly interface for historians to
create and generate an information environment driven
by their research question. It creates a database containing
relevant information about sources so, for example,
a bibliography and footnotes can be produced. However,
the database is “an intermediate act, not a ﬁ nal one” [2].
The software supports the user in the generation of factoids,
the research-driven encodings of researcher-relevant
information, derived from uploaded images of primary
and secondary sources. It therefore allows the user
to reﬁne and deﬁne information of interest and value in
order to solve, or inform, the research question. The generation
of factoids encapsulates the researchers’ thinking
and demonstrates links and relationships between sources
and theory based on the research question.
2 Historical Research using Factoids
Bradley and Short discuss the use of factoids in relation
to prosopography as a means to provide material for future
research and assert that “a collection of factoids does
not record a ‘scholarly overview’ of a person [event] that
a scholar has derived from the sources s/he has read” [2].
In this context the factoids represent
pure information
and are not driven or shaped by any research question or
agenda. Projects such as The Prospography of the Byzantine
Empire, described by Bradley and Short, provide
a vast array of information searchable by, amongst others,
factoid type and source type, and are invaluable to
anyone interested in this ﬁ eld of study. The use of factoids
ensures information is presented in a structured,
relation-based fashion. It provides interaction between
different sources and enhances scholarly research. However,
Bradley and Short argue that “one of the diffculties
with a factoid approach is to establish what kind of ‘factoids’
should be collected from the source” [2]. With this
approach, those creating the prosopography database
must predict what future users may or may not require.
In contrast, MIHS is research driven – factoids are produced
in the context of the research question. The software
is not only a digital research tool but forms an integral
part of the methodology as the software creates
factoids based on a “scholarly overview” [2] and scholarly
interpretation. The source is encoded using XML
(see Figure 1,2,3), though an abstraction of XML is presented
to the user where element names and attributes
are deﬁned. This ensures the user controls the schema
and subsequent representations of the source within the
software (tags and categories previously used will be
highlighted to ensure continuity) and the actual “task of
categorising, grouping and ordering” [2] sources opens
a conversation between the user, the sources and the research
question.
<factlet id = “SS0012-F0001” title = “Contesting
Ireland”>
<category> Penal Laws </category>
<category>Catholic identity</category>
<text>
The laws helped fashion an
<key> identity for Catholics</key> who in fact had developed differences
among themselves over the centuries of
<key>colonialism</key> ...
</text>
<source id = “SS0012” imageid=”SS00012.
jpg” x=”200” y=”197”>
</factlet>
<source id = “SS0012” type = “secondary”
imageid = “SS00012.jpg”
<title>
Contesting Ireland, Irish voices
against English in the 18th century
</title>
<author> Thomas McLoughlin </author>
<date> 1999 </date>
<publisher> Four Courts Press Ltd. </
publisher>
<location> Dublin </location>
<isbn> 1851824480 </isbn>
</source>
<factoid id = Penal Laws>
<factlet id = SS0012-F0001/>
<factlet id = PS0001-F0002/>
<text date = 09.09.08>
The <link> Penal Laws </link> were used to
alienate a whole people; yet by doing this
the <link> Protestant elite</link> ensured
that <link>Irish Catholics</link> formed
and solidify an identity rooted in the exclusive
nature of the laws.
</text>
<text date = 15.09.08>
Associative groups such as the
<link>Catholic Committee</link> develop
and articulate the Catholic voice through
protest against these laws. Instead of
disabling the Catholic majority the laws
provide an important target of organised
protest.
</text>
<text date = 25.09.08>
(Shows the contradictions of
the <link>Age of Enlighten
ment</link>
</text>
</factoid>
Factoids are produced through user and source interaction
and the utilisation of the software. To create factoids
the user must ﬁ rst deﬁne numerous factlets from a
source. Each factlet inherits core information from the
original source such as location, date, author, etc. Factlets
from different sources that are related by subject or
category, for instance, then merge to create a factoid.
The user will extract information from encoded sources
whilst preserving the integrity of the information through
easy access to the original source image, thus maintaining
source context. Metadata, providing original source
information, is available for each factlet contained in a
factoid (and indeed factoids presented in data clusters)
and is expressed using the Dublin Core Metadata standard.
A typical use, for example is as follows “How do the
Penal Laws categorise Catholics as the Other in Irish society?”
To answer this question, pamphlets, periodicals,
newspapers and other text based sources are used. Figure
4 demonstrates
the interaction between source material
and the creation of factoids. This example is constructed
from a small dataset. As the number of sources increase
the beneﬁt of this type of data organisation becomes
more obvious. The factoid in Figure 4 represents sources
which are concerned with the Penal Laws. In a larger
dataset, this factoid can be reﬁned or deﬁned by using
relational operators and set relations, creating factoids
speciﬁc to the user.
Another project that has yielded a database system for
prosopography, the COEL database, states a fundamental
approach requires that “the data must always be protected
against contamination by the interpretation” [4].
This type of approach may be required when presenting
historical sources and information
for general consumption
but in MIHS, user interpretations are paramount.
MIHS presents users arguments and reﬂects his/her line
of thought through the construction of factoids. The ability
to return to original sources ensures context remains
and leaves a forum open for historical debate. The production of factoids is followed by the use of data
mining techniques to generate data clusters. This approach
will help with the complexities and magnitude
of large data sets and the presentation of large quantities
of factoids. 3 Text mining using factoids in MIHS
Data mining methodologies are commonly used within
retail, marketing and ﬁ nancial industries. They are used
to derive patterns, associations and correlations
from
small to large datasets, utilising database architecture
such as data warehousing, which result in the extraction
of data knowledge [3]. Data mining adds value to raw
data. Yet apart from its advantages in terms of statistics,
data mining techniques can be used for text documents
– text mining. Like data mining, it derives patterns and
relations from texts and can be used “as partof-
speech
tagging, word sense disambiguation and bilingual dictionary
creation” [5]. It can also be used to create synopsis
of text by (excluding -the, of, is etc.) calculating
frequently used words.
MIHS will use text mining to provide graphical models
of data where factoids are represented as nodes on a tree.
By using text mining we can extrapolate extra information
either from the original text and/or related factoids.
Text mining techniques enable the software to carry out
text analysis on source material. For instance, the researcher
can input milestones like the 1798 Rebellion,
and, through language comparison and analysis, interpret
changes in society. This may allow the researcher
to move towards answering questions such as “After
the failure of the 1798 Rebellion is there evidence of a
change in attitude towards Irish Catholics?” This technique
often yields interesting results because “even if a
word only appears once or twice it can be signiﬁcant if
it does not appear at all in the [text] used for comparison”
[6]. By mining factoids related to the Penal Laws
and specifying dates such as 1798 – which has important
consequences for both Irish Protestants and Catholics –
the changing socio dynamics emerge through text comparisons,
highlighting changes in descriptions and attitudes
towards and within the different religious groups.
4 Conclusion
The ultimate aim of the software is to create an on-line
community of historians, research and sources, supporting
individual and collaborative projects. It will facilitate
access to sources, facts and factoids related to research
projects, which can be viewed as separate entities or part
of scholarly interpretation. MIHS will provide a generic
information platform for historians, moving away from
software designed for speciﬁc research projects, to create
a platform for historical debate where users can share
sources, factoids and, of course, ideas. MIHS will allow
for the construction of database architectures without the
complexities often inherent in the creation of historical
databases.
The process of managing the vast array of sources required
for historical research can be a mammoth task,
both in terms of handling the large volumes of data and
the subsequent interpretation of sources. MIHS, through
the creation of factoids and use of text mining, provides
the means to store and organise sources collected. By
allowing for self organisation of data, recommendations
for data mining, references to related data and manuscripts,
the creation of factlets and factoids, among others,
MIHS will serve as an important tool in creating
well-read and well-informed historical projects.
Notes
1The Penal Laws were a series of anti-Catholic laws
passed in Ireland during the seventeenth and eighteenth
century.
References
1. McGrane, B.: Beyond Antropology, Society and the
Other. Columbia University Press (1989)
2. Bradley, J., Short, H.: Texts into databases: The evolving
ﬁ eld of new-style prosopography.
Literary and linguistic
computing 20 (2005) 3–24
3. C.R. Rao, E.W., Solka, J., eds.: Handbook of statistics
24, Data mining and data visualiztion. Elservier (2005)
4. Keats-Rohan, K.: Historical text archives and prosopography:
the coel database system. History and Computing
10 (1998) 57–72
5. Hearst, M.A.: Untangling text data mining. http://people.
ischool.berkeley.edu/ hearst/papers/ac199/ac199-
tdm.html
6. Welling, G.: Can computers help us read history better?
computerised text-analysis of four editions of the
outline of american history. History and Computing 13
(2) (2004) 151–160","txt","2","",""
"1013","10","Paraphrase Learning in Two Phases For Steganographic Communication","1","Introduction
Given an original sentence, that conveys a specific meaning,
paraphrasing means expressing the same meaning
using a different set of words or a different syntactic
structure. Paraphrasing has been used extensively for
educational purposes in language learning, as well as in
several NLP tasks like text summarization (Brockett and
Dolan, 2005), question answering (Duclaye et al., 2003)
and natural language generation. Recently it has found
yet another use in steganography.
Regarding paraphrase identification and generation, previous
approaches have utilized supervised (Kozareva
and Montoyo, 2006) or unsupervised (Barzilay and Lee,
2003) machine learning tech-niques, finite state automata
(Pang et al., 2003), syntactic dependency rules (Meral
et al., 2007), statistical machine translation techniques
(Quirk et al., 2004). In the present proposal, paraphrases of Modern Greek
free text are learned in two phases. Henceforth, the term
“paraphrasing” will stand for shallow syntactic transformations,
i.e. swaps of consecutive phrasal chunks. Modern
Greek is quite suitable for shallow paraphrasing, due
to the permissible freedom in the ordering of the phrases
in a sentence.
The paraphrase learning process is based on resource
economy: the desire to utilize as minimal linguistic resources
as possible, enabling thereby the methodology
to be easily applicable to other morphologically rich languages
like Modern Greek.
The paraphrased text may then be used for hiding secret
information. Steganographic security will depend on the
correctness and the naturalness of the paraphrases. Figure
1 shows the architecture of the paraphrase learning
process.
Phase 1: The paraphrasing rules
The text corpus used in the experiments is the ILSP/
ELEFTHEROTYPIA corpus (Hatzigeorgiu et al., 2000).
It consists of 5244 sentences; it is balanced and manually
annotated with morphological information. Further
(phrase structure) information is obtained automatically
by the chunker described in detail in (Stamatatos et al.,
2000). During chunking, noun (NP), verb (VP), prepositional
(PP), adverbial phrases (ADP) and conjunctions
(CON) are detected via multi-pass parsing. The chunker
exploits minimal linguistic resources. Phrases are nonoverlapping.
A set of nine empirical bidirectional rules is first applied
to the input sentences in order to change their phrase ordering.
The complete set of rules is described in detail
in table 1. Unlike the syntactic tools presented in (Meral
et al., 2007), that may be applied only once to a given
sentence, each of the rules described here may be applied
multiple times (i.e. in multiple positions) to a sentence.
Furthermore, more than one rules may be applied to a
sentence simultaneously. For every sentence all the possible combinations of rule
applications are formed. This is the initial pool of paraphrases
and in the given corpus its size may vary from
zero (the sentence does not allow for any paraphrasing)
to 80 paraphrases.
Figure 2 shows the distribution of the number of sentences
depending on the sentence length (i.e. the number
of chunks forming the sentence). Figure 3 shows the distribution of the number of sentences depending on the
initial paraphrase pool size. Almost 80% of the sentences
have at least one paraphrase, an impressive number, given
that more than 24% of the input sentences consist of
five or less chunks.
Phase 2: Paraphrase learning
Due to the use of the paraphrased sentences in steganography,
correctness in syntax as well as naturalness is
of great significance. Steganographic security depends
largely on paraphrasing accuracy. Therefore the produced
paraphrases are further filtered using supervised
learning.
The positions of possible phrase swaps in the input sentences
are identified, according to the nine paraphrasing
rules. A learning vector is created for each original input
sentence and each swap position. The features forming
the vector encode morphological and syntactic information
for the phrase right before the swap position, as
well as two phrases to the left and two phrases to the
right. Thereby, context information is taken into account.
Each phrase is represented through a set of six features,
shown in table 2. The morph feature denotes whether a
noun phrase contains a definite or indefinite article and
its grammatical case. The num feature is the number of
tokens that constitute the phrase. A total of 5 x 6 features constitute the feature vector,
plus the binary target class: valid (yes) / not valid (no)
paraphrase. Native speakers have manually annotated
519 instances with the correct class label. 26.4% of them
are classified as incorrect paraphrases.
The following table shows the prediction results for various
stand-alone classification algorithms: decision trees
(unpruned C4.5 tree), k-NN instance-based learning
(k=5), support vector machines (first degree polynomial
kernel function, sequential minimal optimization algorithm
for training the classifier). Accuracy is the number
of correctly classified instances divided by the total
number of instances. Experiments were performed using
10-fold cross validation. The majority of the incorrectly classified instances are
negative (not valid) instances, probably due to their rare
occurrence in the data, compared to the positive instances.
Support vector machines deal better with predicting
negative labels, and reach an f-score of 64.1% for the
rare class.
To improve classification accuracy even further, bagging
and boosting have also been experimented with. The
C4.5 unpruned classifier was used as a base learner for
bagging (the optimal bag size was 50% of the training set
and 10 iterations were performed) and boosting (Ada-Boost, again 10 iterations were performed). Bagging
leads to the best f-score for the negative class: 65.3%.
The positively labeled paraphrases from the previous
phase constitute one part of the final pool of paraphrases.
This part consists of paraphrases that have been produced
by single phrase swaps, and not by combinations
of swaps. The other part (due to the fact that the learning
process does not allow for a paraphrase to be formed by
combinations of phrase swaps) is formed by those paraphrases
derived from phase 1 that are combinations of
two or more correct phrase swaps (the positively labeled
individual phrase swaps defined by phase 2, i.e. the first
part of the final pool)
Application to steganography
Steganography is the art of embedding hidden information
in unremarkable cover media in a way that does not
arouse an eavesdropper’s suspicion to the existence of
hidden content underneath the surface message (Provos
and Honeyman, 2003; Atallah et al., 2000; Topkara et
al., 2005).
Once the final pool of paraphrases is formed for every
sentence in the input (cover) text, the steganographic
process starts. A secret message, i.e. a sequence of bits,
is to be hidden underneath the cover text.
First, each rule is marked with one bit value, depending
on its condition. By condition we mean the right or the
left-hand side of the rule (right or left-hand side of the
arrow in Table 1). For example, for Rule 1 a bit value “0”
could mean the left hand side of the rule, and then a bit
value “1’ would indicate its right-hand side. In the case
of symmetrical rules (Rules 3 and 4), the condition may
be determined by considering as NP1 the noun phrase
which starts with a letter closer to the beginning of the
alphabet that NP2. This rule marking results from a prior
understanding between the communicating parties.
The embedding process is then completed in two stages.
In a first stage, for every sentence, a paraphrase is selected
from its pool. The selection may be performed
in a round-robin fashion (i.e. to choose the paraphrase
of each rule one at a time), or based on a secret (e.g. a
symmetric cryptographic key) shared between the two
communicating parties. In case the size of the pool is
zero, the sentence remains unchanged, and it is not used
for information embedding. If, however, the pool size is
greater than zero, a selection is possible and the sentence
is useful for information embedding. In the second stage,
depending on the condition of the selected rule, a secret
bit is embedded as follows: if the bit to be hidden is the
same as the condition of the rule, the rule is not applied
and the sentence remains unchanged, otherwise it is applied
and the sentence is paraphrased. For example, a
subject-verb sequence in the input sentence would mean
a condition “0” for Rule 1. If the bit to be hidden is also
“0”, Rule 1 is not applied and the sentence is transmitted
as it is. If the hidden bit were “1”, the rule is applied and
the sequence in the transmitted sentence now reads verbsubject,
instead of subject-verb.
On the other end, the extractor receives the final text.
Having at his disposal the same rule set, (s)he is able to
identify the rules that may be applied to each sentence.
Sharing the same secret key used in the embedding process,
(s)he is able to select the same rule used in the
insertion process. For example, reading a subject-verb
sequence, and knowing that this sequence indicates a bit
value “0” for the condition of Rule 1, (s)he decides on
“0” to be the first secret bit. Reading a verb-subject sequence
would have meant a condition value “1” and (s)
he would have decided on “1” to be the first secret bit.
Steganographic Capacity
To obtain a feeling of steganographic capacity, assuming
an average word size of 6 bytes/word, and given that our
corpus consists of 166.000 words, the corpus size equals
roughly 1 Million bytes. Steganographic capacity (the
available bandwidth) may be evaluated as follows: Using
the current implementation which allows for the embedding
of one bit per paraphraseable sentence, 4142 secret
bits may be embedded in the corpus. In other words,
1 bit may be embedded every 2000 bits of cover medium
size. This bandwidth may increase by exploiting the possibility
of embedding more than one bits per sentence,
by applying simultaneously more than one rules to the
same sentence, or the same rule more than once, which
is permitted by our rule set. Paraphrasing evaluation
A set of experiments have been performed to test the
naturalness and the correctness of the final text. Table
5 presents statistical information regarding rule applicability.
The frequency column represents the applicability
for each rule (the number of times each rule is applicable
in the corpus sentences) divided by the sum of the applicability
values of all the rules. As can be seen, subjectverb
displacement (rule 1) and adverb displacement (rule
5) constitute together around 70% of rule applications.
The 519 instances of paraphrases were checked for
grammaticality and naturalness by two native language
experts. Table 6 shows the effect of the output sentences
on the language experts. The first error rate indicates the
percentage of rule applications that have forced the experts
to make modifications in order for the paraphrases
to become linguistically correct and natural within the
initial pool. Modifications entail swaps in the ordering of
the chunks. The second error rate is the same percentage
for the final pool. Inter-expert agreement exceeded 94%.
Conclusion
The application of shallow paraphrasing rules to Modern
Greek sentences for steganographic purposes has been
presented. The low paraphrasing level, as well as the
absence of any kind of external linguistic resources, enables
the easy portability of the methodology to other inflectional
languages that are poor in resources. The large
average size of paraphrase pools, makes it non-trivial for
an unauthorized party to detect the correct paraphrase.
An interesting future direction of the current approach
would be to take further advantage of the pool size in
order to increase the steganographic capacity of the input
text. References
Atallah, M., C. McDonough, V. Raskin, and S. Nirenburg.
2000. Natural Language Processing for Information
Assurance and Security: An Overview and Implementations.
Proceedings of the Workshop on New
Security Paradigms: 51-65.
Barzilay, R., and L. Lee. 2003. Learning to Paraphrase:
An Unsupervised Approach Using Multiple-Sequence
Alignment. Proceedings of the Human Language Technology-
NAACL Conference: 16-23. Edmonton.
Brockett, C., and W. B. Dolan. 2005. Support Vector
Machines for Paraphrase Identification and Corpus Construction.
Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop
on Paraphrasing (IWP). Korea.
Duclaye, F., F. Yvon, and O. Collin. 2003. Learning Paraphrases
to Improve a Question-Answering System. In
Proceedings of the 10th Conference of EACL Workshop
Natural Language Processing for Question-Answering.
Budapest, Hungary.
Hatzigeorgiu, N., M. Gavrilidou, S. Piperidis, G. Carayannis,
A. Papakostopoulou, A. Spiliotopoulou, A. Vacalopoulou,
P. Labropoulou, E. Mantzari, H. Papageorgiou,
and I. Demiros. 2000. Design and Implementation
of the online ILSP Greek Corpus. Proceedings of the 2nd
International Conference on Language Resources and
Evaluation: 1737-1742. Athens.
Kozareva, Z., and A. Montoyo. 2006. Paraphrase Identification
on the Basis of Supervised Machine Learning
Techniques. Proceedings of FinTAL, Lecture Notes in
Artificial Intelligence, vol. 4139: 524-533. Springer Verlag,
Berlin.
Meral, H. M., E. Sevinc, E. Unkar, B. Sankur, A. S. Ozsoy,
and T. Gungor. 2007. Syntactic Tools for Text Watermarking.
Proceedings of the SPIE International Conference
on Security, Steganography, and Watermarking
of Multimedia Contents IX. Edited by Delp, Edward J.,
III; Wong, Ping Wah.
Pang, B., K. Knight, and D. Marcu. 2003. Syntax-based
Alignment of Multiple Translations: Extracting Paraphrases
and Generating New Sentences. Proceedings of
the Human-Language Technology Conference (NAACL-
HLT). Edmonton, Canada.
Provos, N., and P. Honeyman. 2003. Hide and Seek: An
Introduction to Steganography. IEEE Security and Privacy:
32-44.
Quirk, C., C. Brockett, and W. B. Dolan. 2004. Monolingual Machine Translation for Paraphrase Generation.
Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methods
in Natural Language Processing:142-149. Barcelona,
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Stamatatos, E., N. Fakotakis and G. Kokkinakis. 2000.
A practical chunker for unrestricted text. Proceedings of
the Conference on Natural Language Processing: 139-
150. Patras, Greece.
Topkara, M., C. M. Taskiran, and E. Delp. 2005. Natural
Language Watermarking. Proceedings of the SPIE International
Conference on Security, Steganography, and
Watermarking of Multimedia Contents. San Jose.","txt","2","",""
"1014","10","Toward Automated Stylistic Transformation of Natural Language Text","1","Style is an integral part of natural language in written,
spoken or machine generated forms. Humans have
been dealing with style in language since the beginnings
of language itself. Almost everyone who is capable of
reading and writing, or even just hearing and speaking,
routinely identifies and employs different variations of
language in daily life. We easily recognize distinct styles
of language and can produce our own in multiple variations
depending on the context. Computers, however, are
not yet capable of anything that sophisticated.
Automatic processing of text styles poses two interrelated
challenges: classification and transformation. There
have been some recent advances in corpus classification,
automatic clustering and authorship attribution of
text using a variety of features and techniques [1][9][19]
[20][21][24][34]. Integral to each approach is a feature
set to be extracted (such as n-grams or vocabulary set),
and a learning algorithm (such as neural nets or Bayesian
methods), to analyze and label the corpora. Project
JGAAP [17] has gone one step further and tried to combine
and modularize a variety of different classification
methods in a standard library.
In contrast to classification; very little research work
is available on style transformation. We, can, however
study some conceptually adjacent research areas such
as natural language generation (NLG) [13][23][26][30],
computational linguistics [10], literary studies, stylistics
[2][3][6][7][11][28][33], writing assistants [14][15] and
machine translation (MT) [8]. In fact, our problem could
be likened to statistical machine translation (SMT), except
that instead of translating from one language to
another, we aim to transform between two styles of the
same language. But unlike SMT problems, we do not
have the luxury of large pre-existing associative databases
such as dictionaries.
Having studies various views and controversies on the concepts of style and stylistics within humanities and
linguistics fields, we settle on a definition of style, “as
option” and a conscious choice, provided by Walpole
[33]. We aim to study natural language styles by building
an intelligent, modular and user-friendly system which
is capable of making use of a variety of algorithms and
methods in order to classify and transform pieces of
written text. In this paper we discuss some background
work and definitions, and then we present the overall
designs for a classification/transformation system. We
demonstrate the concept by showing a detectable stylistic
shift in a sample piece of text relative to a profiled
corpus representing the target style.
Foundational Assumptions
We make a number of simple assumptions which some
others have also made in relevant literature. The most basic
one is that style can be captured (in a relative sense)
using an unbounded set of style markers that can be detected.
This assumption allows us to build digital profiles
of text around the presence and properties of style markers.
A measurable reading of these markers also helps
guide style transformation algorithms. We observe that
automated rewriting of some parts of the text using some
rule-driven rewrite algorithms, can change the statistical
style signature of the text and objectively bring it closer
to or take further away from a given target corpus signature.
To take a trivial example, we imagine a body of text
written in modern English and we wish to transform it to
Shakespearian (early modern) English. One step among
many that would have to be taken would be to transform
all modern pronouns to their equivalent early modern
ones, such as “you” to “thou”, and “your” to “thine”.
This transformation generates a new text which is statistically
speaking, closer to the early modern target. Deriving
the statistical distance is essentially the same thing as
classifying the source text.
Thus, AI system, given text manipulation rules (what we
call operators and transforms) and sets of styles to be detected
(made up of style makers) should be able to plan a
series of operations to manipulate a source text such that
it would become as close as practical to a target corpus
profile.
Applications
Style classification and transformation have numerous
applications in information retrieval (IR), natural
language processing (NLP), human computer interaction
(HCI), and interactive entertainment. Robust style
classification can lead to an entirely new dimension in
searching. Not only are new search parameters such as
style markers and related tolerance levels possible, but
search systems could adopt style searching based on
example of an input text. Style comparison techniques
could provide for more robust and descriptive plagiarism
detection and digital forensics. Individuals, too, can
use style transformation software to obfuscate and alter
their own style of writing for online privacy reasons. In
HCI, richer and more customizable user help interfaces
are possible. Texts for such interfaces could gradually
adapt to a particular user’s style and facilitate easier understanding.
NLG systems such as [13][14][23][26][30]
already incorporate some level of style (a high level in
case of psychology based [26]) in their generation work,
but could enhance their stylistic variability with text-totext
style transformations. In MT [8], automatic style
processing could lead to better and more precise translations.
Writers and satirists could use style processing
to help compose language in deliberate and memorable
styles. In interactive entertainment [5], authoring tools
for generating game narratives and non-player character
(NPC) dialogue could be made much richer, more diverse
and more nuanced without significantly increasing
a human composer’s burden.
Overview of the Style Recognition and
Transformation System The design for our system consists of three major components
as shown in Fig. 1. For classification, the system
can store marker statistics for all analyzed corpora and it
can find closest matches among those for a given source
text. For transformation, first the target corpus, typically
made of many documents and the source text are both
analyzed in terms of the presence of all or a subset of
style markers. The system then performs a comparison
between the source and target styles, calculates a stylistic
distance. The Evaluator decides whether the comparison
has yielded a match within pre-defined fuzzy boundaries.
If not, the system chooses a transform consisting of
one or more operators to apply to the source text in order
to do modifications. Once the modifications are done,
another comparison is made and if the styles are thought to be still too far apart, more transforms are chosen and
applied until the system gets as closest possible to the
source style, or if no more transforms are applicable in
which case the latest version of the source becomes a
“best effort” result of the transformation.
Classification-Transformation Loop
Two databases denoted by cylinders in Fig. 1 symbolize
the initial inputs into the system. The ideal situation is if
the system already possesses all possible linguistic style
markers, and all possible transforms. However, no such
comprehensive list exists nor are we likely to construct
it. We can begin with a carefully chosen superset of style
markers taken from the text classification literature that
we have examined but we will surely have to expand it.
Similarly, a number of algorithmic text paraphrasing and
reformulation rules exist that we can utilize as an initial
set of operators. Rather than trying to come up with a
huge comprehensive database of markers and transformers,
we propose to evolve the list organically as needed
during the system development. This is done by a workflow
process we call the Classification-Transformation
(CT) loop (fig. 2). classes: Shakespeare as target and New York Times as
source. Initially, the classification problem could be very
simple, only relying on the presence of the aforementioned
early modern pronouns. In the first pass, a New
York Times source text will be classified as too distinct
from the Shakespeare corpus based on the pronoun test.
After running a transformation that converts the modern
pronouns to their early modern equivalents, the system
now will classify the New York Times text as Shakespearian.
However, we know by human inspection that
the source text is far from Shakespearian. This prompts
an investigation leading to identification of more distinguishing
features of the Shakespearian text that can
be extracted and evaluated in the classification process.
In essence an expert detected failure is a failure of style
specification and it can prompt us to find better markers.
This example was trivial because we would never
begin with such a limited set of style markers for classification.
We envision at least dozens if not hundreds
of markers that we can begin with as the initial set. But
the problem is essentially the same. Even with hundreds
of markers, the system at some point could misclassify
a piece of text that is clearly not (yet) of the target style.
At this point, it may not be so easy to come up with additional
markers yet we know that such markers must
exist or else we would not be detecting a misclassification.
Going through the CT loop is an organic way to
verify the validity of the transformation process and to
prompt investigations of ever-more sophisticated markers
and transformers. The added advantage here is that
each marker and transformer is now available for future
transformation exercises. Thus we are strengthening the
system as a whole rather than fine-tuning a specific instance
of style to style transformation.
Evaluation
A measure of automatic statistical evaluation is already
built in to the system at its core. For previous papers,
we showed a declining statistical distance curve between
detected styles of the source text and target corpora signifying
a move in the desired direction. But the nature
of this project demands expert human qualitative evaluation
at several levels. First, we must verify the correctness
and applicability of individual operators. If necessary,
we can add additional constraints or evaluations
to maximize correctness of the operators. We will have
to aim for the broadest possible scope for the operators,
while at the same time preserving the grammatical correctness
state of the transformed text. Second, post application
of operators, we must verify the correctness/coherence
of the entire document as whole. Most operators
will operate at the sentence level. However, unforeseen
cumulative effects are likely. Thus we plan on periodic
corpus transformation samples to be evaluated by human
experts. We believe for every mismatch, we can add
one or more markers to act as discriminators between
the misclassified text and the target style. Over time, we
can track diminishing levels of corrections conducted by human evaluators.
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"1015","10","Language and Image: T3 = Text, Tags, and Trust","1","In this paper, we present on a new project, “T3: Text,
Tags, and Trust to Improve Image Access for Museums
and Libraries”, the goal of which is to improve
access to digital image collections in museums and libraries
for art historians, museum professionals, and the
general public. T3 combines text mining, social tagging,
and trust inferencing to enrich metadata and personalize
retrieval. We report on an experiment in which users tag a selected set of controversial images; with these tags,
similarity profiles are created for subjects to build an initial
trust network based on agreement or disagreement.
By processing related text through the CLiMB toolkit,
we have a third source of evidence for evaluating the
role of trust and for assessing the relationship between
tags and text terms. We will present collection criteria,
including image selection, text identification and choice,
and interface choices for data collection and analysis.
The fundamental and driving research issue in this project
concerns the relationship between the language of
image description and an image itself. The University
of Maryland’s Institute for Advanced Computer Studies
and College of Information Studies, the Indianapolis
Museum of Art, and fourteen other museums have
joined to conduct research on new methods to improve
user access to digital image collections in museums and
libraries. Studies on image searching indicate that current
subject description and cataloging practices in museums,
libraries and other art historical collections are
inadequate for many end user needs. Trant, et al. 2007,
as part of the steve.museum project, report that search
behaviors for users of the Guggenheim collection do not
match the descriptive practices of museum personnel.
This disconnect results in unsatisfactory and unsuccessful
image access for users. Similarly, in Klavans et al.
2008, observations of image cataloging practices in academic
visual resource centers reveal that typical records
include less than eight subject terms per image with
many records containing no subject terms at all. Social
tagging is a way to obtain richer, more varied, and more
user-oriented subject terms. However, social tagging
brings with it the problem of authority and trust: Whose
authority is a given user prepared to accept? Whose tags
does she want to trust to retrieve relevant images? (Trant
and Wyman 2006, Axelrod, Golbeck and Shneiderman
2005).
T3 is a collaborative, cross-disciplinary project comprised
of academic researchers, digital librarians, and
museum professionals. We explore the application of
techniques from computational linguistics and social
tagging to the creation of linkages between the formal
academic language of museums and the vernacular language
of social tagging. We use text mining algorithms,
taxonomies, and lexical resources to identify suggested
terms and aid users in tagging images and then retrieving
images based on tags assigned from many different
perspectives. We use the trust a user places in particular
metadata sources, e.g. other users or other sources, to
infer a weighted set of results for their searches. Consideration
of these weights in ranking algorithms—along
with term relationships from lexical resources—has the
potential to produce high-quality, focused, personalized
retrieval of works from image collections.
The T3 integrated system builds on three prior research
prototypes:
1. CLiMB (Text Mining for Terms): Applies computational
linguistic techniques to mine texts associated
with images for terms which are then disambiguated,
mapped to standard ontologies such as the
AAT, and reviewed by museum and library staff for
enriching image catalog records with high-quality
subject metadata.
2. Steve.museum (Tagging): Uses on social tagging of
images for generating metadata and engaging museum
audiences. The current project uses steve tools
and methods to explore the roles and usefulness of
non-expert enthusiasts in enhancing existing documentation.
3. FilmTrust (Trust Inferencing): Incorporates trust
networks to assign trust values. By gathering input
on users’ preferred sources, including other users, a
trust network automatically assigns values, sourced
from both text mining and tagging, based on user
perspectives. T3 will explore the process of extending
trust of other users’ opinions (i.e., “this user
likes the same works I like”) to generate values for
image descriptions.
This project addresses fundamental research questions in
the area of digital image access. Armed with answers
to basic research issues, we are able to design environments
for improved image access and improved user
experience. Research issues include examination of hypothesis
to:
• Improve the user experience in finding works of art
and interacting with works of art and collections.
• Improve the understanding the relationship between
language and visual art, including the use of facets
and other knowledge structures to elicit useful tags
and assist users in searching
• Examine the relationships, associations, and linkages
between terms from different sources, specifically
from users, text-mining, and cataloging.
• Study when and how an understanding of sources
impacts the value of terms to users and museums,
and personalizes the user experience. Our hypothesis is that through disambiguation and trust
information, we can filter out excess terms and rank acceptable
terms. This provides users with the capability to
adjust their preferred threshold for precision over recall,
or the reverse. Specifically, disambiguating terms using
a faceted thesaurus provides users with the ability to narrow
or expand their searches based on clearly defined
concepts. For the trust component, we gather input from
users on which sources (people or text) they trust to help
us judge how much trust and authority to give to the tags/
terms originating from these sources. The trust and authority
“ratings” for tags will be used to filter them and/
or order the way they are presented. This helps users by
showing them the most trusted and authoritative terms
first, thus facilitating the user’s perusal of query results.
Dynamic personalization of these filters helps the user
by producing trusted, focused results for queries.
Our initial experiments will explore how users
judge trust in this context. Our subjects will tag a series
of images and then will rate how much they trust
a source (people or text) based on the tags/terms it
applied to the same images. Using this data, we will
analyze how similarity in tags/terms relates to trust values
and if there are particular types of words that have a
stronger influence on trust (e.g. emotion words vs. color
words). These insights will provide the basis for an initial
implementation of our prototype that personalizes
search results based on trust. The tagging interface for
this experiment is shown in Figure One: lyzing
and processing terms which serve multiple user
communities and allow us to:
• Develop and test new methodologies that group authoritative
terms and social tags based on conceptual
and semantic relationships
• Test trust-based personalization of results for different
user groups
• Research the potential of these new technologies for
engaging museum audiences and their impact on the
evolving professional landscape of image access
T3 is funded as a National Leadership Grant by the U.S.
Institute for Museum and Library Services. The project is
led by Dr. Judith Klavans of the University of Maryland,
Robert Stein of the Indianapolis Museum of Art, and
Susan Chun, Independent Cultural Heritage Consultant.
Dr. Jennifer Golbeck, Assistant Professor in the College
of Information Studies at the University of Maryland, is
co-PI leads the trust component of the research, and Dr.
Dagobert Soergel, Professor in the College of Information
Studies at the University of Maryland, leads ontology
and knowledge representation aspect of T3. The
museum working group is providing users, catalogers,
content, and feedback to aid in the research.
Selected References
Axelrod, Adam, Jennifer Golbeck, and Ben Shneiderman
(2005), Generating and Querying Semantic Web
Environments for Photo Libraries Technical Report,
University of Maryland, Department of Computer Science,
http://drum.umd.edu.
Trant, Jennifer, David Bearman, and Susan Chun (2007)
The eye of the beholder: steve.museum and social tagging
of museum collections, in Proceedings of the International
Cultural Heritage Informatics Meeting
(ICHIM07), J. Trant and D. Bearman (eds). Toronto:
Archives & Museum Informatics. 2007. http://www.archimuse.
com/ichim07/papers/trant/trant.html.
Klavans, Judith L, Carolyn Sheffield, Eileen Abels,
Jimmy Lin, Rebecca Passonneau, Tandeep Sidhu, and
Dagobert Soergel (2009) Computational Linguistics for
Metadata Building (CLiMB): Using Text Mining for the
Automatic Identification, Categorization, and Disambiguation
of Subject Terms for Image Metadata. Journal
of Multimedia Tools and Applications, Special issue
on Metadata Mining for Image Understanding (MMIU)
42(1):115-138. Elsevier: Paris.
Trant, Jennifer and Bruce Wyman (2006). Investigating
social tagging and folksonomy in art museums with
steve.museum. Paper presented at the World Wide Web
2006: Tagging Workshop. http://www.archimuse.com/
research/www2006-tagging-steve.pdf.","txt","2","",""
"1016","10","Mining texts for image terms: the CLiMB project","1","The CLiMB (Computational Linguistics for Metadata
Building) project addresses the existing gap in subject
metadata for images, particularly for the domains
of art history, architecture, and landscape architecture.
Within each of these domains, image collections are
increasingly available online yet subject access points
for these images remain minimal. In an observational
study with six image catalogers, we found that typically
1 – 8 subject terms are assigned, and that many legacy
records lack subject entries altogether. Studies on end
users’ image searching indicate that this level of subject
description is often insufficient. In a study of the imagesearching
behaviors of faculty and graduate students in
American history, Choi and Rasmussen 2003 found that
92% of the 38 participants in their study considered the
textual information associated with the images in the Library
of Congress’ American Memory Collection to be
inadequate. The number of subject descriptors assigned
to an image in this collection is comparable to what we
found in the exploratory CLiMB studies. Furthermore,
these searchers submitted more subject-oriented queries
than known-artist and title queries. Similar results demonstrating
the importance of subject retrieval have been
reported in other studies, including Keister, Collins, and
Chen 1994.
Under the hypothesis that searchers do not find images
they seek partly due to inadequate subject description in
metadata fields, the CLiMB project was initiated to address
this subject metadata gap by applying automatic
and semi-automatic techniques to the identification,
extraction, and thesaural linking of subject terms. The
CLiMB Toolkit processes text associated with an image
through natural language processing (NLP), categorization
using machine learning (ML), and disambiguation
techniques to identify, filter, and normalize high-quality
subject descriptors. Like Pastra et al. 2003 we use NLP
techniques and domain-specific ontologies, although our
focus is on associated texts such as art historical surveys
or curatorial essays rather than captions; unlike generic
image search, such as in Google, we analyze beyond
keywords and we use text which is specifically and
clearly related to an image. For this project, we use the
standard Cataloging Cultural Objects (CCO) definition
of subject metadata1 as including terms which provide
“an identification, description, or interpretation of what
is depicted in and by a work or image.”
In order to understand the cataloging process and to inform
our system design, we conducted studies on the
image cataloging workflow and the process of subject
term assignment. Our goal was to collect data on the
humanities-driven process as a whole to be able to incorporate
our results into an existing workflow and thus assist
a portion of the workflow with automatic techniques.
An additional purpose of studying the cataloging process
was to permit the development of system functionality,
i.e., the implementation of rules or the use of statistical
methods to identify high-quality subject descriptors in
scholarly texts. As part of the CLiMB evaluation, we
have established a series of test collections in the fields
of art history, architecture, and landscape architecture.
These three domains were selected in part because of the
existing overlap in domain-specific vocabulary. Testing
with distinct but related domains enables us to test
for disambiguation issues which arise in the context of
specialized vocabularies. For example, the Getty Art &
Architecture Thesaurus (AAT) provides many senses of
the term panel which apply to either the fine arts, architecture,
or both, depending on context. In the context of
fine arts, panel may refer to a small painting on wood
whereas in the context of architecture, panel may refer
to a distinct section of a wall, within a border or frame.
Figure 1 shows the CLiMB architecture which produces
subject term recommendations that can be used into the
image cataloging workflow observed in visual resource
centers: CLiMB combines new and pre-existing technologies
in a flexible, client-side architecture which has been
implemented in a downloadable toolkit and which can
be tailored to the user’s needs. In addition to matching
segments of texts to referenced images, we are developing
methods to categorize spans of text (e.g., sentences
or paragraphs) as to their semantic function relative to
the image. For example, a sentence might describe an
artist’s life events (e.g. “during his childhood”, “while
on her trip to Italy”, “at the death of his father”) or the
style of the work (“impressionism”). A set of seven
categories – Image Content, Interpretation, Implementation,
Historical Context, Biographical Information,
Significance, and Comparison – has been initially proposed
through textual analysis of art survey texts. These
categories have been tested through a series of labeling
experiments. Full details are available in Passonneau et
al. 2008. The output of this categorization will be incorporated
in future versions of the Toolkit, and will be used
as part of the disambiguation component.
An important contribution of the CLiMB project is the
development of a disambiguation component, enabling
the system to move beyond standard keyword-based indexing
by associating words and terms that have multiple
meanings which correspond to different descriptors with
the correct meaning in context. The ability to select one
sense from many is referred to as lexical disambiguation.
Results of our ongoing studies on sense disambiguation
using hierarchically structured faceted thesauri and lexical
resources, such as the Art and Architecture Thesaurus
and WordNet, will be presented. We have experimented
with the use of WordNet, with different levels of the facets
of the AAT, and with different degrees of filtering for
modifiers in noun phrases. We also have results on setting
weights for each of these factors to determine the
most accurate disambiguation techniques.
One of the most vexing problems in word sense disambiguation
is the fact that often several senses could be
considered correct within a given context. Therefore,
evaluation can be a challenge since there may be no
clear-cut right or wrong. The need for fuzzy evaluation
will be discussed in our presentation, with a demonstration
of different ways to measure precision and recall
against a “moving target” baseline.
Figure 2 shows the CLiMB interface in its current state
as of Fall 2008; as we use the results of our experimental
research, this interface may change as of the time of presentation
of the paper. Note in Figure Two that the collection under review is
found in the left panel, the image is in the center, the
analyzed text is shown to the cataloger, with the searchable
Getty thesaural resources (AAT, Thesaurus of Geographical
Names (TGN ) and Union List of Artist Names
(ULAN)) in the right panel. The cataloger can select
subject terms, and when possible, normalize according
to the Getty unique identifier. All interface panes are
flexible, and can be hidden or enlarged, as required by
the user. Cataloger subject term selections can be exported
in a range of formats (see Export button in upper
left hand corner of Figure 2) for incorporation into an
existing catalog record.
To sum, in this paper we will present:
• The problem of subject term access in image retrieval
• The CLiMB system, which utilizes computational
linguistics and machine learning to improve basic
keyword search through:
• Semantic categorization of text segments
• Disambiguation User evaluation studies and findings
Selected References
Chen, H. (2001) An Analysis of Image Retrieval Tasks in
the Field of Art History. Information Processing & Management,
Vol. 37: 701-720.
Choi, Y. and E. Rasmussen (2003) Searching for Images:
The Analysis of Users’ Queries for Image Retrieval in
American History. Journal of the American Society for
Information Science and Technology, Vol. 54: 498-511.
Collins, K. (1998) Providing Subject Access to Images:
A Study of User Queries. The American Archivist, Vol.
61: 36-55.
Keister, L.H. (1994) User Types and Queries: Impact
on Image Access Systems. In: Fidel, R., T.B. Hahn, E.
Rasmussen, P. J. Smith (eds.): Challenges in Indexing
Electronic Text and Images. Learned Information for
the American Society of Information Science, Medford:
7-22.
Klavans, Judith L, Carolyn Sheffield, Eileen Abels,
Jimmy Lin, Rebecca Passonneau, Tandeep Sidhu, and
Dagobert Soergel (2009) Computational Linguistics for
Metadata Building (CLiMB): Using Text Mining for the
Automatic Identification, Categorization, and Disambiguation
of Subject Terms for Image Metadata. Journal
of Multimedia Tools and Applications, Special issue on
Metadata Mining for Image Understanding (MMIU)
42(1):115-138. Elsevier: Paris.
Passonneau, R., T. Yano, T. Lippincott, J. Klavans (2008)
Functional Semantic Categories for Art History Text:
Human Labeling and Preliminary Machine Learning. 3rd
International Conference on Computer Vision Theory
and Applications, Workshop on Metadata Mining for
Image Understanding: 13-22.
Pastra, K., H. Saggion, Y. Wilks, (2003) Intelligent Indexing
of Crime-Scene Photographs. In: IEEE Intelligent
Systems: Special Issue on Advances in Natural Language
and Processing, Vol. 18, Iss. 1: 55-61.
Notes 1http://vraweb.org/ccoweb/cco/parttwo_chapter6.html.","txt","2","",""
"1017","10","Library Collaboration with Large Digital Humanities Projects","1","At DH2007 a special session on “finishing” large humanities
research projects (now forthcoming as a
cluster in DHQ) suggested, in part, that particular stages
of such projects might be completed, but that continuing
institutional support was important for the longterm
sustainability of the projects and their products. At
DH2008 a special session was devoted to “Aspects of
Sustainability in Digital Humanities,” in which technical,
organizational, and scholarly dimensions were discussed
with reference to a museum project, along with
metadata and the issue of portability in other settings.
In this paper, we would like to continue the theme of
sustainability. We will discuss issues of institutional
support for a large digital humanities project, and then
propose collaboration with the university library as the
only realistic option for long-term sustainability in our
environment. We believe that our experience is typical
of the situation for other projects, large and small, that
many digital humanities faculty now face at their institutions,
and therefore that our experience is also typical of
the demands that will be placed on libraries to sustain
faculty digital research for the long-term.
As for many digital projects, the Linguistic Atlas Project
(LAP) began with computing resources located within
the research office itself, first personal computers and
later servers. When the university created a research
computing service (as an addition to the institution’s
administrative and instructional services), LAP was one
of the first clients--the editor of LAP was even asked
to help design the service. However, over the course
of several years the funding structure for the research
computing service changed from an essentially institutional
budget with additions from externally funded research,
to a fee-based service much more dependent on
research with annual external funding. This meant that
humanities projects like LAP, while not excluded from
the research computing service, either needed to find
consistent external funding or hope for sufferance from
the paying customers. Neither of these options appeared the long term, and, citing budget pressures, the university
administration declined to guarantee funding for gaps
in the external funding that LAP has regularly solicited
and received. LAP reacquired a server for its research office
and 20 Tb of storage space for its large and growing
multimedia archive.
Enter the University Librarian. During discussions
about institutional support for LAP, whose paper and
audio tape records are stored in a library special collections
facility, the University Librarian suggested that the
library was expanding its multimedia collections (e.g.,
our institution hosts the Peabody awards, and so has an
important interest in archiving TV materials), and even
the large multimedia collections of LAP could be incorporated
there. Unlike the research computing service, the
mission of the library includes archiving and dissemination,
now increasingly of digital materials as well as traditional
paper. We are now developing cooperation not
just for a multimedia archive, but also for dissemination
of LAP products and information through library means
in the context of continuing scholarly activity.
The terms of our cooperation can be discussed under just
the headings of the DH2008 sustainability session:
—Technology. Two issues dominate here, long-term
storage and security. It had been planned that LAP materials
would be stored on spinning disk in the research
computing service storage array. However, the library
holds its multimedia collections on LTO-4 tape. The
latter is much more cost effective; however, tape storage
requires periodic refresh of the medium (which the
library will carry out indefinitely as part of its archival
mission), and limits the speed of access to the materials.
LAP and the library intend to disseminate the project’s
multimedia (audio, and later image) products, but the
speed of online access is not required for all materials.
We will discuss what can be disseminated online and by
other means and the terms of such dissemination, as well
as the balance between spinning disk and tape in a setting
like ours.
Security is an issue for the online presence of LAP at the
library. The project has had a heavily interactive Web
presence including GIS for over a decade, first on servers
in the research office and later at the research computing
service. However, the library has not provided interactive
Web access of this kind before. We will discuss
integration of LAP programming into the library server
system, including reversal of the previous practice of
heavy server-side scripting to place more emphasis on
client-side processing.
—Organization. LAP and the library will use metadata
standards developed for library and linguistic collections,
but the question of standards is not trivial because
metadata practices for libraries and linguists have not developed
in parallel owing to different goals of the practices.
We will discuss the resolution of these differences.
We will also discuss the organization of the partnership
of the library and the LAP. Just as for the research
computing service, there are real costs associated with
continuing services provided to LAP by the library.
However, the difference in the mission of the research
computing service as compared to the library makes a
difference in how such costs might be borne over the
long term. Periodic infusions of external funding can assist
the library to accomplish its goals, but the improved
match with LAP as an archival and information resource
makes it more reasonable to provide continuing support
for the project without annual external funding.
—Scholarship. LAP cannot just be given over to the
library in its entirety because it remains very active in
scholarly work. As long as LAP continues to conduct
new research, it can cooperate with the library to keep
its Web presence up to date including both links and
programming for interactivity. The LAP archives can
be extended with new material, but also with new versions
of old materials (such as digital images of paper
records). We will discuss how new work and additional
aspects of older materials can continue to round out LAP
collections in the library, as an active partnership instead
of a static archive.
We believe that cooperation at our institution between
the library and a large digital humanities project should
not be a singular occurrence. Some digital humanities
projects have always been associated with and supported
by the university library, and many libraries, including
ours, have been active with their own digital initiatives.
However, a great many more digital humanities projects
began as separate faculty initiatives, and many libraries
are now interested in developing their digital archives
and activities. If independent projects are to be sustained
beyond their initial development, they will require the
sort of new partnership that we discuss. Libraries, too,
can enhance their digital activities through cooperation
with faculty digital humanities projects as information
resources. We hope our partnership can provide a model.","txt","2","",""
"1018","10","Babylon: Displacement and Recreation of Calderón's Life is a Dream","1","With the emergence of digital texts and the movement
to digitize existing texts, a complementary
push to develop digital means of textual analysis continues
to surface. New digital analysis tools can draw
on large databases of texts or apply multiple analysis
methods to a single text in minutes. Thus, digital textual
analysis potentially provides the opportunity to examine
large amounts of texts in scant time (Moretti, 2007),
while offering visualization potentials that exceed that of
texts. For example, these tools can create graphs of word
occurrences, map those occurrences according to concordance,
or remove all occurrences of a word to show
its frequency in a text.
Described by Rockwell (2003) as exploring “the question
of the relationship between how we represent texts,
how we see them, and our theories of textuality,” textual
analysis generally seeks to identify patterns within
the text, such as concordance or unity (Rockwell, 2003),
meaning (Samuels & McGann, 1999), truth (Brooks,
1947), or rhetorical strategy (Bazerman & Prior, 2004).
Yet, another implication of digital textual analysis is that
it involves the re-creation of a text. This provides an opportunity
for us to develop a heightened understanding
of what is the role of readers and writers as co-creators of
literature, and establishes the theoretical basis necessary
to link textual analysis with translation. As its Latin root
translatio (to transfer, to carry, to bring across, to displace)
suggests, translation’s basic function is to move
meanings from one context to another; consequently,
translation can denote concepts such as paraphrase,
decoding, interpretation, communication, and even recreation.
Borges’ theory of translation, as illustrated in his famous
works “Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote” and
“The Translators of the One Thousand and One Nights,”
opens up a world of limitless possibilities by elevating
translation from an act of reproduction to one of re-creation.
In the fictional short story Pierre Menard, Borges
highlights the importance of the context, the reader and
the translator as co-creators of meaning, ushering a new
theory of literary criticism and translation that trivializes
the preoccupation with notions such as faithfulness, authorship
and originality. He supports this theory in his
essay on the translators of the Arabian Nights, by making
the translator’s infidelities into what is most important
and valued. As a result, he demonstrates that literary
translations can produce diverse representations of the
foreign text and culture, which ultimately enrich both
languages and texts through the act of remaking.
Utilizing Borges’ theory as the conceptual backbone, this
project blends traditional and digital methods of textual
analysis to create visualizations (tag clouds, word trees,
influential word maps) that serve as entry points for
analysis. With the goal in mind of investigating translation
theory, the paper studies the effects of man-made,
machine-made translations, and digital text-analyses of
a passage from Spanish Golden Age drama. This approach
provides a greater understanding of how Spanish
source editions (Cruickshank, and Williamsen), manmade
translations (Racz, FitzGerald, and MacCarthy),
and machine-made translations (Babylon software) versions
of a soliloquy from Calderón’s play “La vida es
sueño,” compare and contrast to one another. To re-create
both source and man-made translation texts the Babylon
translation software tool was applied, first to convert
them from Spanish into English, or English into Spanish,
and then to translate those versions back into the original
language, Spanish or English. After completing the
first level operation of running the source text repeatedly
and recursively through the Babylon translation software
application, which utilizes a statistical approach to automatic
language translation and natural language processing,
the second level operation was set in motion.
This level involved decomposing all online texts (source
editions, man-made translations, machine-made translations)
into their constituent elements and patterns with
the aid of text-analysis and statistical visualization tools.
In order to compare and contrast all versions amongst
themselves and with each other, various text-analysis
tools, namely TagCrowd, TAPoR, ManyEyes and Crawdad
were utilized to visualize word patterns, themes,
and word frequencies along with their importance. It is
significant to note that the tools trended toward certain
forms of interpretation, and that these trends affected the
types of analysis possible, but, more importantly, they
could also be re-purposed for alternative approaches.
The two tools that were found to be the most useful for
the comparison of different versions, as well as for their
application to Spanish texts, were ManyEyes and Crawdad.
ManyEyes was employed to generate tag clouds
and word trees. While tag clouds were used to visualize
word frequencies with number of occurrences in their
context, which is useful in comparing word usage patterns; word trees were particularly helpful in visualizing
individual words, phrases and punctuation concordances
show within their respective context in order to
reveal recurrent themes. Crawdad, on the other hand,
was employed to visualize a network of the most influential
words and their interconnections, along with their
frequency of co-occurrence. The tool also provided influence
scores, which served as indicators of high coherence
and focus in the text.
The overall intent of the project is not to determine which
version is more faithful to the “original,” but rather to
explore how these creative “infidelities” and re-creations
enrich both languages and cultures. Through translation
and digital textual analysis we can illuminate the challenges
and possibilities presented by the transformation/
displacement of seemingly discrete national, cultural and
literary territorialities. For example, of particular interest
in the research results is the appearance of deviations
in minor themes, which demonstrate that, although, main
themes predictably correlate closely across versions,
subordinate themes follow less predictable patterns. By
studying these variations we can explore how each recreation
reflects the intersection between languages, as
well as the existence of latent possibilities of diverse
meaning contained within the source text. The result
is the development of a networked fidelity framework,
which rejects the traditional faithful/unfaithful binary
that has predominated in translation studies.
The project corroborates the impossibility of a word for
word translation and even edition, and further supports
the acceptance of multiple versions as all simultaneously
genuine and divergent, while highlighting the difficulty
and futility of placing versions in a hierarchy. Additionally,
since all translations must be equally encompassed
as “unfaithful,” they can also be judged as “faithful,”
highlighting the fact that translation is an act of subjective
interpretation and re-creation. Consequently, translation
(be it machine or man-made) shares similarities
not only with text-analysis, but also with deformance,
and the profound subjectivity from which critical insight
emerges. This posits that translations not only have the
power to share the work with a wider culture, but also to
enrich both languages and texts through the act of remaking.
This, in turn, establishes the possibility of equating
translation to a creative process that results in unique
text, eliminating the hierarchical divide that exists between
author and translator, and original and translation,
as envisioned by Borges’ theory of translation.
Furthermore, the project shows that digital visualization
tools for “distant” reading and traditional methods of
close reading do inform and complement each other to
expand our understanding of all texts, including those
in translation. However, do to their dependence on each
other they do require flexibility in order to switch back
and forth between both modes of interpretation. Lastly,
there are many possible ramifications of this research
project. For example, the use of machine-assisted translation
for the analysis (and interpretation) of translations,
not just for the actual generation of translated
texts, as well as an alternative way to explore how meaning
is constructed and re-constructed in literature.
Works Cited
Babylon: Translation at a single click. 1997-2007. Babylon
Ltd. 13 Feb. 2008. <http://www.babylon.com/>.
Bazerman, Charles and P. Prior What Writing Does and
How it Does it. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence
Earlbaum Associates, 2004.
Borges, Jorge Luis. “Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote.”
Ficciones. English Trans. Buenos Aires: Editorial
Sur, 1944. 88-95.
- - - . “The Translators of the One Thousand and One
Nights.” Trans. Esther Allen. The Translation Studies
Reader. Ed. Lawrence Venuti. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge,
2004. 94-108.
Brooks, Cleanth The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the
Structure of Poetry. Orlando, Florida: Harcourt Brace &
Company, 1947.
McCarty, Willard, Humanities Computing New York:
Palgrave MacMillan, 2005.
Moretti, Franco. Graphs Maps Trees: Abstract Models
for a Literary History. London: Verso, 2007.
Samuels, Lisa Jerome McGann. “Deformance and Interpretation.”
New Literary History, 30.1 (1999): 25-56.
Rockwell, G. “What is Text Analysis, Really?”","txt","2","",""
"1019","10","A framework for multilayered boundary detection: initial results from the Clementine Vulgate","1","We present a framework for general boundary detection notation
to create “hypothesis-ﬁles” that capture a single
testable theory for a classiﬁer to attempt to learn. This
notation is capable of ﬁ ne-grained divisions, down to the
level of individual words. It can also incorporate multiple
primary sources and languages.
Features
The simplest feature set we consider are lemma frequencies.
These perform superbly,
as they train against topical
lemmas. To prevent arbitrary over-training, such as
using proper names as features, we only retain words
recognized by a general-purpose Latin dictionary. Still,
overtraining to the narrative remains a concern, and for
that reason we do not focus on this feature set. A reasonable
approach may be to only use non-topical function
words, which were found to perform well in a study by
Garcia[4].
The second feature set is part-of-speech frequencies.
Latin words all begin as noun, verb or adjective, and
through inﬂection take on diverse parts of speech. Since
it is somewhat arbitrary how we distinguish parts of
speech and inﬂected forms here, we have begun with
the extremes of the fundamental types and the fullyinﬂected
forms.
The third feature set is inﬂectional frequencies. Collatinus
[10] is capable of lemmatising latin words and
preserving the inﬂectional information that is stripped
off. We ﬁ nd 634 different inﬂection types throughout
the Vulgate. Unlike in most languages, an isolated word
in Latin can show an unambigious syntactic role via
inﬂection. Therefore, this feature set includes syntactic
labels, which proved useful for Hirst et al[6] when extracted
as bigrams. We have not attempted this yet, as the
inﬂectional analysis needs to be improved ﬁ rst. This is
an important issue that we will discuss in-depth.
Applications
For the proof-of-concept, our targets for machine learning
are relatively undisputed
divisions of the text. For
example, we consider language (immediately prior to
the Vulgate), literary style, and original author. Dividing
the text according
to these features, the boundaries usually
fall between books. There are exceptions to this, for
example a passage in Esther known to have been written
separately, but for the purposes of our initial experiments
we divided the text into sets of books. The results
conﬁrm the framework’s ability to detect stylistic boundaries,
and careful examination of its “misclassiﬁcations”
sometimes reveal subtle textual affinities.
Friedman[3] has presented a ﬁ ne-grained theory of the
composition of the Torah, and we intend to encode this
in our hypothesis. Space and time permitting,
we will
present the results of several variations of the theory as
applied to the Hebrew Masoretic text of the Torah.
References
[1] Gregory R. Crane. Perseus, 2008. http://www.perseus.
tufts.edu/.
[2] William G. Dever. What did the biblical writers
know, and when did they know it? Eerdmans Pub., Cambridge,
UK, 2001.
[3] Richard Elliott Friedman. The Bible with Sources Revealed.
HarperCollins, New York, NY, 2003.
[4] Antonio Miranda Garcia and Javier Calle Martin.
Function words in authorship
attribution studies. Literary
and Linguistic Computing, 22(1), 2007.
[5] Neil Graham, Graeme Hirst, and Bhaskara Marthi.
Segmenting documents by stylistic character. Natural
Language Engineering, 11(4):397–415, 2005.
[6] Graeme Hirst and Ol’ga Feiguina. Bigrams of syntactic
labels for authorship
discrimination of short texts.
Literary and Linguistic Computing, 22(4):405–417,
2007.
[7] Reinhard G. Kratz and John Bowden. The Composition
of the Narrative Books of the Old Testament.
Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, Göttingen, Germany,
2005.
[8] Edward Loper and Steven Bird. Nltk: the natural language
toolkit. In Proceedings of the ACL-02 Workshop
on Effective tools and methodologies
for teaching natural
language processing and computational linguistics,
pages 63–70, Morristown, NJ, USA, 2002. Association
for Computational Linguistics.
[9] Bruce M. Metzger and Roland E. Murphy.
The New Oxford Annotated Bible. Oxford University
Press, New York, NY, 1994.
[10] Yves Ouvrard. Collatinus, 2005. http://www.collatinus.
org/.
[11] W.E. Plater and H.J. White. A grammar of the Vulgate,
being an introduction
to the study of the latinity of
the Vulgate Bible. Oxford at Clarendon Press, 2nd edition
edition, 1926.
[12] J. Platt. Machines using sequential minimal optimization. In B. Schoelkopf,
C. Burges, and A. Smola, editors, Advances in Kernel
Methods -Support Vector Learning. MIT Press, 1998.
[13] Joseph Rudman. Non-traditional authorship attribution
studies in the historia
augusta: Some caveats. Literary
and Linguistic Computing, 13(3), 1998.
[14] M. Seutter, O. Seibert, and C.H.A. Koster. Agﬂ: Affix
grammars over a ﬁ nite lattice, 2005. http://www.agﬂ.
cs.ru.nl/.
[15] Ian H. Witten and Eibe Frank. Data Mining: Practical
machine learning
tools and techniques. Morgan
Kaufmann, San Francisco, 2nd edition edition, 2005.
in texts with complex compositional histories.
The framework is designed for end-to-end testing of
hypotheses via linguistic feature extraction and machine
learning. We describe initial results on the Vulgate Bible
utilizing the inﬂectional richness of the Latin language
and several well-known facets of its composition. These
results indicate that the framework is an effective testbed
for theories in source criticism, and we propose further
work that would extend its functionality to more texts
and facets.
Texts with a history as rich as the Bible present a unique
opportunity to study the interaction of compositional
features. Scholarship ranges from consensus
on fundamental
points, to competing theories in source criticism
and translation. Moreover, passages in the Bible have
been grouped by style (poetic, historical, legal), function
(apocalyptic, prophetic), traditional author (Moses,
Joshua) historical time period (Torah, Lamentations) and
so forth. It is less clear what, if any, practical linguistic
differences these groupings represent, and how they
have interacted over time. We consider several widelyaccepted
scholarly beliefs in choosing the targets for our
preliminary machine-learning experiments.
Data
We perform proof-of-concept experiments on the Clementine
Vulgate, the official
canon of the Catholic Church
from 1592 to 1979, because of the relative uniformity
and well-documented history of the text. The Vulgate
is composed entirely in Latin, a highly-inﬂectional liturgical
language of the Catholic Church and medieval
scholarship. Its regular, rich morphology makes it very
amenable to computational linguistics, although as a liturgical
language it receives little attention in practical
contexts. Every non-function word is distinguished by a
suffix which indicates grammatical qualities like gender,
number, tense, voice, etc. as well as syntactic role. Most
words belong to one of a small number of classes for
which these endings are completely deterministic: for
example, nouns belong to one of ﬁ ve declensions, while
verbs belong to one of four conjugations. Strict agreement
between parts of speech makes word-order almost
irrelevant, semantically. The text itself was composed
circa 400 A.D. by Jerome, from Greek, Hebrew, Latin
and Aramaic sources, and is accompanied by his commentary
on his translation methodology.
Non-traditional literary studies
Before presenting the framework, we address some
common pitfalls that arise when applying computational
methods to an ancient text, and how we attempt to avoid
them. Rudman[13] gives an overview of inherent problems
in such studies:
of these,we are particularly concerned
here with addressing the following: knowledge
of the disciplines that make up the ﬁ eld and incomplete
selection of style markers.
To avoid the errors of the interloper, we keep languageand
domain-speciﬁc choices distinct from our general
framework. Our principles are simply a) the text of the
Bible can in principle be divided along many historical
dimensions, b) linguistic features may remain that indicates
these divisions, c) machine learning, based on
these features, will be more successful at learning valid
than invalid divisions. These, we feel, are unbiased general
assumptions that lay the groundwork for collaboration
with domain experts.
The pitfalls in feature selection (“style markers”) include
limited feature sets and unfounded generalisations about
feature relevance (i.e. “style as a monolithic concept”).
We are very conscious of this, and in fact an initial motivation
for the study was to investigate the heterogeneous
usage of “style” in a text that demonstrates so many. We
throw a wide net in feature extraction, and present our
reasoning for subsequent modiﬁcations to this set.
Finally, Rudman[13] argues that non-traditional (i.e.
computational) studies should only follow extensive traditional
studies. This criterion is certainly met here: in
fact, our results so far are entirely based and evaluated
upon hypotheses developed over the past two centuries
of Biblical criticism, and concludes with an in-depth application
to a dominant theory in the ﬁ eld.
Framework
We will present our framework in detail: the major
points are that it is written in the Python programming
language, uses TEI-derived document encodings, and
uses the WEKA toolkit for machine learning. Primary
concerns are generality and modularity: speciﬁcally, the
feature extraction methods are simple APIs that can eas","txt","2","",""
"1020","10","Chasing the Ghosts of Ibsen: A computational stylistic analysis of drama in translation","1","1 Introduction Research into the stylistic properties of translations is
an issue which has received some attention in computational
stylistics. Previous work by Rybicki (2006)
on the distinguishing of character idiolects in the work of
Polish author Henryk Sienkiewicz and two corresponding
English translations using Burrow’s Delta method
concluded that idiolectal differences could be observed
in the source texts and this variation was preserved to a
large degree in both translations. This study also found
that the two translations were also highly distinguishable
from one another.
Burrows (2002) examined English translations of Juvenal
also using the Delta method, results of this work suggest
that some translators are more adept at concealing
their own style when translating the works of another
author whereas other authors tend to imprint their own
style to a greater extent on the work they translate.
Our work examines the writing of a single author, Norwegian
playwright Henrik
Ibsen, and these writings
translated into both German and English from Norwegian,
in an attempt to investigate the preservation of
characterization, deﬁned here as the distinctiveness of
textual contributions of characters.
2 Background
Many studies in computational stylistics have focused on
tasks which are related to those of authorship attribution
but are not concerned with the notion of attributing
authorship
to texts of unknown provenance. A related area
of study is the idea of pastiche, an intended imitation of
an author’s style in the same language, which contrasts
with translation as an intended imitation of an authors
style but in a different language. Somers and Tweedie
(2003) conducted experiments involving pastiche, the
author in question was Lewis Carroll and the pastiche was a modern children’s fable written by Gilbert Adair
called Alice
through the Needle’s Eye in which the author
attempted to imitate the style of Carroll in such works
as Through the Looking Glass and Alice’s Adventures
in Wonderland. Various techniques used in authorship
attribution were used in the task, including methods of
lexical richness, principal component analysis, the cusum
technique1, and others. Some methods distinguished
the pastiche from the original and some did not. Somers
and Tweedie (2003) conclude as follows: If a pastiche
is indistinguishable from the original by an authorship
attribution method, can it be said that the pastiche is in
fact a perfect imitation of the original,
or is it the case
ﬂawed? In the case of translation which is of relevance to
our current work, the question can be formulated in a different
way: If a translation
is highly similar stylistically
to other works by the same translator, is the translation
a faithful one?
This current study builds on previous work detecting
character voices in the poetry of Irish poet Brendan Kennelly
by Vogel and Brisset (2007) and a study on characterization
in playwrights by Vogel and Lynch (2008).
These studies were concerned with the language used by
authors in the creation of character. The tools used in this
study were used in these previous studies.
3 Experimental Setup
For these experiments, three works by Henrik Ibsen were
used, A Doll’s House (1879) Ghosts (1881), and The
Master Builder (1892)2 . The electronic versions of these
plays were obtained from Ibsen.net3 and Project Gutenberg.
The contributions
of each character are extracted
using PlayParser4 . All stage instructions are discarded in
this step, leaving only the remaining character dialogue.
The method decomposes all texts associated with a category
(here, persona or play) into chunks of equal size.
Pairwise similarity metrics are computed for all chunks.
The metric is just the average chi-square computation of
the difference in distribution
between pairs of ﬁ les for
each token appearing in either ﬁ le. Different sorts of tokenization
capture different linguistic features for which
one might consider distributions within and across text
categories. If the pairwise similarity scores are rank ordered,
then one can exploit the intuitions that a homogeneous
category
will have a smaller rank-sum than a
heterogeneous one, and that arbitrary samples from a
homogeneous category should be more like the rest of
that category
than alternative categories. The method
also provides a way to measure degree of homogeneity,
the number of samples who are more like the rest of
the category can be measured against a baseline creating
by random sampling. See Vogel and Lynch (2008) for a
more detailed account of the method.
4 Experiments
4.1 First Experiment
The ﬁ rst experiment seeks to compare character homogeneity
over different languages.
The second experiment
compares two different translations of the same
play in order to quantify similarity between parallel
translations. Table 1 shows the plays and their respective
translators. As mentioned, the ﬁ rst 10k of text per
character was examined and this was split into 5 sections.
Thus, the criteria for inclusion in the study
was that the character should contain at least 10k of
text and 11 characters were examined, as detailed in
Table 2. Only the version of Ghosts translated by Archer
is used in the ﬁ rst experiment. The results named
in the next section have statistical signiﬁcance. The results for the ﬁ rst experiment showed that character
homogeneity varies to some extent over the translations,
the character idiolects are not necessarily preserved to
the same degree as the originals. When letter frequencies
are measured,
the Norwegian original language characters
prove to be more homogeneous than the translations,
examples include the character of Engstrand who is homogeneous
in English and Norwegian but not German,
however, one character whose language remains distinct
across all of the translations is Nora, the heroine
from A
Doll’s House and one of the typical strong female characters
found in Ibsen’s drama.5 However, when the play
is taken as the category, we ﬁ nd that the chunks of personas
from each play are more similar to the personas from
the same play than from different plays, and this is consistent
across languages. So while within character homogeneity
is not always preserved, the homogeneity of
the plays remains relatively consistent across languages.
5 The Second Experiment
The second experiment sought to examine whether two translations of the same original text into the same language
are distinguishable by translator as in the work
by Rybicki which delineated the work by each, while
observing the preservation
of idiolect in each. The experimental
setup was similar to the ﬁ rst experiment with
the character contributions separated and split into ﬁ ve
ﬁles each. This time, however, the characters from the
two translations of Ghosts by William Archer and Robert
Farquharson Sharp were compared with each other.
Our ﬁ ndings were that the characters from Archer’s translation
were more homogeneous in general than those of
Sharp’s translation. Of the characters which were not
homogeneous, the text segments were more similar to
the segments of the same character by the corresponding
author than any other writings by the same author.
Sharp’s characters tended to be more similar to the corresponding
Archer character more often than vice versa.
This suggests that both authors have managed to perform
faithful translations which are not highly inﬂuenced by
their own writing style. It also suggests that Sharp may
have used Ibsen’s translation as a reference when crafting
his own.
Character Play
Engstrand Ghosts
Pastor Manders Ghosts
Oswald Ghosts
Mrs Alving Ghosts
Helmer A Dolls House
Krogstad A Dolls House
MrsLinde A Dolls House
Nora A Dolls House
Aline The Master Builder
Hilde The Master Builder
Solness The Master Builder
Table 2: Characters and their plays
This result contrasts with Rybicki (2006) who found that
the two translations
of Sienkiewicz separated cleanly
from one another with a preservation of individual character
idiolects. However, Rybicki makes clear that the
two English translations were done almost one hundred
years apart with the second translator taking speciﬁc
steps to bring the language of Sienkiewicz into the 20th
century. Also, we are aware that results between the
studies of two different authors are not directly comparable
and do not seek to draw deﬁnite parallels, merely to
reﬂect on related work in the same sphere.6
6 Conclusion
In this research, character idiolects in translation have
been examined. Future work will involve using different
metrics for comparison along with comparing different
selections of text from the characters considered, along
with the comparisons
of translations of different authors
by the same translator.
Notes
1See Farringdon (1996) for a detailed explanation of the
origins of this technique, including detailed examples of
the method’s use in a legal setting.
2For the English versions of the plays, the print versions
are collected in Ibsen, Archer, Aveling, Archer, and Archer
(1890), Sharp’s translations can be found in Sharp
(1911), the collected works of Ibsen in German are to
be found in Ibsen (1898) and the Norwegian collected
works are found in Ibsen and Bull (1957)
3http://www.ibsen.net, last veriﬁed March 12, 2009, contains
comprehensive information about Ibsen’s life and
work together with links to his plays in the original form
and in translation.
4A Java based tool designed for this purpose, Lynch and
Vogel (2007), describes the creation and benchmarking
of this particular program.
5Hedda Gabler being the other one who springs to mind,
further studies may incorporate a wider range of plays
and characters.
6It is not fully clear from any forewords to the e-texts
when exactly the translations themselves
were ﬁ rst published,
however it does state that the ﬁ rst performance in
English was in 1890, using Archers translation, Sharp’s
translations were ﬁ rst published in 1911, according to
http://www.leicestersecularsociety.org.uk/library_shelf.
htm, last veriﬁed March 12, 2009
References
Burrows, J. (2002). The Englishing of Juvenal: Computational
Stylistics and Translated Texts. Style, 36 (4),
677–699.
Farringdon, J. (1996). Analysing for Authorship: A guide
to the Cusum technique. University of Wales Press.
Ibsen, H. (1898). Henrik Ibsens sämtliche Werke in
deutscher Sprache. S. Fischer.
Ibsen, H., Archer, W., Aveling, E., Archer, F., & Archer, C. (1890). Ibsen’s Prose Dramas. W. Scott.
Ibsen, H. & Bull, F. (1957). Samlede verker: hundreårsutgave.
Gyldendal.
Lynch, G. & Vogel, C. (2007). Automatic Character Assignation.
In Proceedings of AI-2007 Twenty-seventh
SGAI International Conference on Innovative Techniques
and Applications of Artiﬁcial Intelligence, pp.
335–348.
Rybicki, J. (2006). Burrowing into Translation: Character
Idiolects in Henryk Sienkiewicz’s Trilogy and its
Two English Translations. Literary and Linguistic
Computing,
21 (1), 91–103.
Sharp, R. (1911). Henrik Ibsen, Ghosts and Two Other
Plays. J.M Dent.
Somers, H. & Tweedie, F. (2003). Authorship Attribution
and Pastiche. Computers
and the Humanities, 37
(4), 407–429.
Vogel, C. & Brisset, S. (2007). Hearing Voices in the
Poetry of Brendan Kennelly. Belgian Journal of English
Language & Literature, 1–16.
Vogel, C. & Lynch, G. (2008). Computational Stylometry:
Who’s in a Play?. In Verbal and Nonverbal Features
of Human-Human and Human-Machine Interaction., pp.
189–194. Springer.","txt","2","",""
"1021","10","A Tool Suite for Automated TEI Encoding","1","Abstract The importance, benefits, and utility of encoding documents
using markup guidelines such as TEI have
long been recognized. However, the learning curve
associated with using TEI has thus far inhibited widespread
use. In this paper, we describe a tool suite that
we have developed to facilitate adoption via the support
for TEI in the ubiquitous Microsoft Word system. We
discuss the motivation for such a tool suite and provide
an overview of the primary capabilities.
Introduction
The Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) was established to
provide a uniform set of guidelines for marking up a
wide variety of text-based documents (Ide et al., 1995).
The difficulties of learning TEI are formidable. The intended
users of TEI are humanists, librarians and others
who are interested in the long-term archival value
of literary works. In contrast, the eXtensible Markup
Language (XML), the framework upon which TEI is defined,
was developed primarily by technologists as a way
to encode data, documents, and other information into
forms that are easily readable by computers. Clearly,
the needs, backgrounds, and training of these two disparate
communities do not directly coincide. Given the
challenges inherent in learning XML and the encoding
standards defined by the TEI, adoption of the TEI for
encoding literature has been limited. Not only that, once
project designers have learned it, they do not have the
programming and/or scripting knowledge that they need
in order to transform documents from TEI into the wide
variety of possible uses for encoded documents, be they
metadata files for export to libraries, repositories, and
online search engines, or full-text documents in web
pages and electronic books. This further reduces the current
adoption of TEI while presenting an ever-ominous future where adoption of the standards will be made
mandatory.
With these issues in mind, the goals of our research are
two-fold. First, we are interested in developing a methodology
for encoding literature that focuses on the enduser
experience. By “enduser,” we do not mean the users
of archives nor readers of digitized texts. Rather, we
mean the enduser of the tool suite, the faculty member
using it to encode documents. Much of the encoding
community (especially in regards to the TEI) has focused
on the developer’s experience in that the encoding
of documents is biased towards convenience of writing
and constructing post-processing tools that can parse and
manipulate documents after they have been encoded. In
contrast, we are interested in developing tools -in an environment
and style familiar to the end-user audience:
professors, researchers, and students in the Humanities.
Second, we are interested in facilitating a wide breadth
of end-user tasks. In addition to the encoding task, endusers
are interested in transforming documents into
many different forms, extracting meta-data, and forming
queries to find interesting characteristics found in literature.
Unfortunately, these tasks are not easy to learn and
have to date required detailed programming knowledge.
In this paper, we describe tools that we are developing as
add-ons to Microsoft Word to support the encoding task.
As such, we realize many benefits. First, an overwhelming
majority of users in the target community already
use Word; as a result the learning curve associated with
learning and using TEI may be reduced. Instead of having
to learn a new program as well as TEI, the target user
community will only have to learn new capabilities of
Word. Second, the framework on which the tools are
built is based on a platform (Microsoft Office) that is
guaranteed to have some longevity. Thus end-users can
be assured that the software will enjoy long-term support.
Third, the programming model associated with
Microsoft Word is as powerful as any other modern programming
language. Thus software developed for the
platform is only limited by what is possible in programming.
Background and Related Work
Encoding
SUNY University Press now requires authors not only
to scan but also to run OCR on facsimile editions that
SUNY has promised to publish. SUNY provides but one
example of a general trend: publishers will be requiring
authors to perform many of the operations that publishers
were formerly responsible for, including perhaps
XML encoding. Moreover, in one of the newer publishing
models, the digital, print-on-demand model, Rice
University Press will publish monographs submitted to
NINES, the Networked Infrastructure for Nineteenth-
Century Electronic Scholarship – a peer-reviewing organization
for digital publications and an advocate for the
use of the TEI guideline.
TEI has, since its inception in 1987, attempted to develop
a set of elements (tags) adequate for describing every
document that humanists, linguists, and librarians could
imagine wishing to save for posterity. The first foray
into trying to make TEI user-friendly involved developing
TEI Lite and a system for teaching TEI. While TEI
Lite provides a more limited tag set, one must still use an
XML editor in order to use it – and, we would argue, it is
not limited enough; it is still a set of elements designed
for every imaginable kind of document.
Related Work
The TEI website maintains a list of many different tools
that support the use of TEI markup (TEI Tools, 2008).
In addition, there are numerous XML editors available
on the market, the most popular being XMetal, HTML
Kit, Altova XMLSpy, and oXygen. oXygen has been recommended
by the TEI Consortium and is routinely used
in TEI workshops. Recently, the oXygen company released
another, easier version of its editing system called
“oXygen Author” but still based on a direct XML manipulation
model. While the tools are numerous, they
are by-and-large focused on the editing of documents at
the atomic level (e.g., tag-by-tag). The tools offer a lot
of flexibility but require a great deal of knowledge about
the encoding schemas. In addition, they do not preserve
the original document formatting.
The Ajax XML Encoder (AXE) is a web-based tool that
utilizes Ajax to support multi-user encoding of XML
documents (Reside et al., 2008). The tool provides an
interface that is accessible using a standard web browser
to modify and manipulate XML documents. The tool
also supports encoding of binary documents such as images
and audio. As an alternative to the aforementioned
XML editors, AXE facilitates collaboration between
several users in an environment that is meant to be more
accessible to common users.
Approach
Philosophy
Our tools have been built as an add-on for the 2007 edition
of Microsoft Word which allows for XML editing
and validation according to a W3 schema provided by
the enduser. Thus, by giving users access to TEI tags
in Word, we familiarize people with the notation and
correct their uses via on-the-fly validation, thus teaching
endusers about TEI while making those tags even more comfortable to use. By narrowing and correcting
people’s tag-choices and creating software designed to
accomplish very specific general tasks, we give endusers
a general understanding of TEI. We believe that they
will be encouraged by this gentle learning curve to learn
more about TEI. However, they can also simply pass
their documents onto professional archivalists and TEI
experts who can then perform deeper levels of coding
and more advanced manipulations. In particular, we
are seeking to achieve an 80/20 balance in the encoding
of documents. That is, our goal is to support automatic
encoding of 80% of a document while leaving the
remaining (and more interesting) 20% of the encoding
to an expert coder. The TEI Consortium has made the
deliberate decision to ask scholars to learn a complex
but rewarding coding system. Our tools provide the first
step up into that system, and allow authors throughout
the academy – not just experts in digital humanities – to
contribute to developing the digital archive. Capabilities and Example
Our tool suite when viewed without visible tags looks
like an ordinary Microsoft Word document. Figure 1 depicts
part of a typical view that a user would encounter
if using our system. The TEI Mark-Up tab reveals the
supported tasks for encoding a poetry document. The
user can choose to edit the document in a normal Word
mode, or by selecting the “Schema Structure” button and
checking the “Show XML tags in the document” checkbox,
can reveal the TEI XML tags. The editor allows the
user to browse the XML elements contained in the document
and presents a list of a tags that can be inserted in
the current context in a fashion similar to a view found
in oXygen, as depicted on the right hand side of the figurThe
real power of our approach is in the “Mark-Up”
functions. For instance, in this version of the tool, if an
entire block of text representing a stanza in a poem is
highlighted, clicking on the “Mark Stanza” button will
automatically tag the section with an enclosing “lg” tag,
mark it with an attribute of “type = stanza”, and encode
every line in the stanza with either an “l” tag (in the case
where there is text), or an “lb” tag (in the case of empty
lines). By targeting these common “high payoff” encoding
tasks, we are able to quickly encode a large majority
of a document, thus freeing the encoder to focus attention
on more interesting encoding tasks.
A number of functions are currently supported by our
toolset including saving the marked up Word document
into a raw TEI encoded XML file as well as the ability to
apply the use of XSLT transformations on the encoded
Word document. At the moment, we have add-ons that
support mark-up of prose, poetry, and epistolary literary
forms.
Our primary evaluation of this tool suite has come
through applying the tool to real encoding tasks. We
have used the technique to encode a large number of
documents in a short period of time. Specifically, in a recent
three-week period, we used the tool suite to encode
an archive that contained hundreds of letters. By the
time we demonstrate the tool at DH2009, we will have
and so be able to present feedback from the students who
used the tool as a way into understanding TEI markup.
Conclusions and Future Investigations
When compared with other XML editing tools, our Word
add-ons offer similar capabilities; Word out of the box
can be used as a fully functional XML editor, and our
tool suite makes it into a fully functional TEI editor.
While Word is of course proprietary, it is the word-processing
program most often used by the target audience
on both PCs and Macs. The tools will currently work
only in the PC version of Word 2007. The supported
programming model in Word (Visual Basic for Applications
and C#.NET, etc.) provides a powerful suite of
capabilities that enable construction of a wide variety of
functions that support the encoding task. While Word
does not support synchronous real-time collaboration on
documents, it does support asynchronous collaboration
through the “track changes” view. While programmers
might want to use configuration management systems
such as CVS and subversion, digital humanists who are
comfortable with web forms and wiki or document management
systems use tools such as Google docs. The
endusers whom we target would find learning to edit in
a wiki page an onerous distraction from the encoding
task at hand. Furthermore, using a programmer-oriented
configuration management system would pose enormous
challenges beyond just learning to encode using TEI.
Most of these users will already be familiar, however,
with the reviewing and commenting tools in Word. As a result, our tool suite will allow multiple collaborators
among traditional digital humanists to contribute to the
encoding of a single document in a manner that allows
them to track what changes were made and by whom.
Our future investigations include developing tools within
Word that facilitate development of XSLT transformations
as well as development of a general approach for
automatically generating different encoding templates
that support a wide variety of literary forms.
In tracking feedback from users, we will be interested in
looking at whether and when they begin to consult the
TEI P5 guidelines for more detailed tagging information,
whether or when they switch from our Word Macros program
to an XML editor such as oXygen, and whether or
when they pass their documents onto experts for completion
(that is, at what stage of coding). We already know
that working directly with XML is the best way to learn
it, but our product does not promise the shortest path.
Rather, because the Word Macros making the learning
curve for TEI most gentle at first, and steeper only later,
if the enduser chooses to go on, we hope that the product
gets people who need to encode documents and create
digital archives the wherewithal to use TEI at all.
References
Ide, N. and Véronis, J. (1995). Text Encoding Initiative:
Background and Context. Springer-Verlag.
Reside, D. and Lord, G. (2008). AJAX XML Encoder. Online
available at http://mith.umd.edu/mithresearch?id=19
(accessed November 8, 2008).
TEI Tools Page, (2008). TEI: Text Encoding Initiative.
On-line available at http://www.tei-c.org/wiki/index.
php/Category:Tools (accessed November 8, 2008).","txt","2","",""
"1022","10","Accessibility, Usability and the New Face of NINES","1","NINES stands for a Networked Infrastructure for
Nineteenth-century Electronic Scholarship, a
scholarly organization in British and American nineteenth-
century studies devoted to forging links between
the material archive of the nineteenth century and the
digital research environment of the twenty-first. In practice,
these efforts have centered on building a portal that
enables faceted searches of digital scholarly resources
that we have peer-reviewed. This web portal also allows
users to collect object and build exhibits online.
When NINES first launched its search interface in 2006,
the institutional challenges of aggregating scholarly
projects online were only the beginning. The NINES
search and collect interface, powered by a Collecting
and Exhibiting tool called Collex, was a new thing, relatively
speaking. Users were (and still are) very familiar
with the idea of search engines: Yahoo and Google have
long played a central role in any internet experience. But
faceted browsers, or tools that allow the user to continually
refine the categories of their search in order to pinpoint
resources from large pools of data, were in their
infancy. The most efficient of these were just beginning
to be implemented in the commercial sector: Amazon.
com is perhaps the best example of this. But the NINES
team needed to adapt the power and flexibility of a faceted
browser for scholarly research (rather than online
shopping) and design it in a way that communicated the
organization’s reputability as a peer reviewer and a forward-
looking software developer for humanities scholars.
See the result below.
A left-hand sidebar doubled as a user tag cloud and a
list of collected resources, while the central portion of
the interface was dedicated to searching and browsing. Searches in a faceted browser can become quite elaborate,
so an area was needed to keep track of the constraints
added by the user. The resources aggregated
within NINES also needed ample screen real estate, as
did the various genre designations of the objects for a
different kind of browsing. Search results were listed below
this frame, and were often “below the fold,” requiring
scrolling. The NINES interface was a difficult thing to build, and,
overall, it was a successful endeavor. Scholarly interest
in NINES grew, and the number of digital objects leapt
from roughly 70,000 to a whopping 300,000. Yet we
found ourselves with very little feedback about the usability
of this application. Were the targeted users (scholars
and students of nineteenth-century studies) comfortable
with NINES? Were they making use of the many
features Collex provided? The development team decided
to schedule a formal usability study to get answers.
As with any study of this kind, many of those answers
were surprising. Five helpful participants in the NINES
Summer workshop at Miami University demonstrated
the strengths – and weaknesses – of the Collex interface. As can be seen in this screenshot demonstrating the
eye movement during one of the usability sessions, the
user’s focus is scattered at any given moment. The tag
cloud at the left was an attractive feature, but its presence
alongside search results put it in direct competition with
them. Users frequently jumped back and forth from the
tag cloud to the summary of the search results and the
constraints. But once they found objects, users did not
think of creating an account to collect those objects until
they were prompted to do so by the test, and even then,
creating a free account gave them pause. Although each
person commented favorably on the variety and amount
of information integrated into NINES, every single person
tested said that the interface was a mystery – this
after having spent a full 20 minutes using it.
After some consideration of the results, we decided that
the fundamental structure of Collex was sound: its features
were compelling and the searching capabilities attractive.
In a way, Collex was too powerful, to the extent
that it was intimidating. Everything about our interface,
from the Home page to the Collex engine, had been conceived
in scholarly and theoretical terms, and demanded
a similar dedication from the user. And while NINES has
always sought to appeal to the growing community dedicated
to the mission of excellence in digital scholarship,
we never intended to limit our users exclusively to its
membership. We wanted Collex to be a friendly environment:
a place where both scholars and their students
go to conduct research in the nineteenth-century studies
online. As we began to sketch out the Collex redesign, our primary
goal was to break up the Collex interface into its
component features, giving each one its own important
area of the site. In many ways, our task was much simpler
than the one that faced the original designers of Collex –
in the intervening years, the number of faceted browsers
had multiplied considerably leading to the emergence of
web conventions for their styling and organization. Our
‘market research’ was directed to what worked and what
didn’t among the giants of internet commerce: Amazon’s
browser was the most intuitive, but Ebay’s method of displaying
search constraints was more informative. And, it must be remembered, a scholar is not always looking
for that one perfect object, as is the online shopper, but
rather a collection of objects that fit ever more specific
requirements. Collex needed to allow users to tunnel into
our data quickly and efficiently, all the while reminding
them of the numerous other materials available.
The new NINES home page was designed to communicate
two things: first, that this is a scholarly organization,
and second, that searching is an integral part of the
site. Making use of the familiar Google search blank,
we hoped to eliminate our site’s high bounce rate (the
number of visitors who leave almost immediately after
arriving) and invite those with merely casual interest to
stick around and explore.
The tag cloud – one of the most forward-looking and
dynamic parts of the NINES interface – was given its
own page, with plenty of room for browsing the interests
of NINES users. ool tips and help text were added (“What are tags?”)
whenever the use of features was subtle or required specialized
knowledge of social media software. And finally,
a space was reserved for a blog, so that users could
appreciate NINES as an active and ever-growing institution,
rather than a static website or finding aid.
But as these refinements were implemented, we kept
running into a logical disconnect between the kinds
of operations one could do in NINES. Searching and
browsing are available to any and everyone who visits
the site, and are easily found in the main navigation tabs.
However, what makes NINES unique is that is also a
scholarly workspace: after setting up an account, you are
able to collect objects, tag them, and re-mix them into
a essay or “Exhibit” of your own. NINES is first and
foremost conceived as a community for scholars, a place
where one can simultaneously contribute to and benefit
from an ongoing discourse on nineteenth-century studies.
Unfortunately, even with the new design, this aspect
of our mission was still not clear.
Taking a cue from Facebook, Flickr and other social media
sites, the NINES team conceived the “My 9s” page,
each user’s private homepage within NINES.
On this page, all your authoring, editing and collecting
efforts are centralized: as a user you have control over
how much of your personal information is shared with
other users while your tags, saved searches and recently
collected items are easily accessed. Exhibits, which had
previously been a mysterious and intimidating option
are now offered as a logical outcome of all your work
within NINES – why not share some of that hard work
with your peers? By enlarging the (pre-existing) social
networking attributes of NINES, we were able to fully
demonstrate the power and utility of Collex, all the while
making the many operations possible within it appear
more manageable and enticing. Going forward, we hope to incorporate other social networking
protocols to encourage the growth of a community
of NINES scholars. The “My 9s” page is an initial
step in this direction, and we are also planning a NINES
Facebook application, which will allow us to leverage an
existing social network to form our own. Because of the
way NINES is structured, we are only as strong as the
community that we are able to build. Part of this process
involves peer-review and aggregation via RDF metadata;
our summer workshops for new projects are another
important activity in this regard. But our web interface
and software tools are central to the ways that NINES
will gather scholars together. Through a combination
of usability studies, development meetings, discussions
with scholars in the field, and pure trial-and-error, we
have come to recognize the importance of re-tooling, an
ongoing process that is constantly engaged with the social
and technical ecology of the web.","txt","2","",""
"1023","10","Visualization and Landscape in the Digital Humanities","1","What does “landscape” mean for digital humanities?
In the fields of traditional literary and cultural
studies, representations of real and imagined
landscapes have routinely been scrutinized as windows
into particular cultural moments, spaces in which complex
relationships between humans in their natural and
constructed environments are worked out and assigned
social, political, and cultural meaning. Digital humanities
have developed a rather different sense of the term,
however. Maps of the publication and circulation of
printed texts, spatial visualizations of historical urban
plans, three-dimensional reconstructions of archeological
sites: all these and more have now attained the status
of “landscapes” in the digital humanities, for they situate
texts and cultural artifacts in space and time. Yet even as
such technology-driven approaches continually reshape
the “humanities research landscape” (to use the term in a
different sense) they also raise new questions about the
kinds of intellectual activities they promote, testing what
Martyn Jessop has recently called the “dynamic process”
of creating knowledge (Edmond 2005; Jessop 2008).
This paper explores the changing significance of “landscape”
as a keyword in the humanities, one whose relevance
is amplified dramatically by the turn toward
technologies of visualization and the development of
theoretical and methodological frameworks for integrating
such technologies into more conventional forms of
textual scholarship. Using as a test case a small set of
eighteenth-century Anglophone texts that theorize landscape
aesthetics and deploy tropes of real and imagined
landscapes to reflect on contemporary cultural relations
across the Atlantic, I argue that methods for representing
some of their salient features in visual rather than textual
forms suggest new ways of understanding cultural exchange
in a historical moment characterized by intense
anxieties about the temporal and spatial distances separating
England from its North American colonies during
the “British diaspora” (Tennenhouse 2007). This claim,
and the specific visual representations that support it,
forms the basis for considering how models of textuallymediated
cultural authority were themselves constructed
at the nexus of space and time represented by landscape
aesthetics. This latter claim extends what might initially
seem to be a straightforward literary and historical argument
to the present moment in digital humanities. Examining
these cultural constructions through the lens of
digital visualizations affords insight into the present-day
relationship between scholars’ interpretive acts and the
cultural weight we grant such activities when they happen
in and through digital media.
In 1690, a short tract titled The Geometry of Landskips
and Paintings Made Familiar and Easie, published in
London, noted the artifice involved in landscape representation:
“The Geometry of Painting is rather Optick
or Perspective, than real…A Landskip is therefore a
rather neat contraction or Epitome of things visible than
a real view of them.” Though somewhat cryptic, the
anonymous pamphleteer’s opening remarks expose the
carefully crafted fiction that landscape paintings represent
real places as they actually are; to the contrary, he
insists, landscapes are deliberately compressed expressions
of an idealized, imaginary world—the world as we
would like to see it. In this regard, the pamphlet’s frank
admission of the ideal landscape’s constructedness confirms
the common view among literary scholars and cultural
historians that textual and visual landscapes have
historically naturalized ideologies of power and authority
within the contours of real and imagined geographic
space (Barrell 1972, 1980; Bermingham 1986; Williams
1973).
Yet the pamphlet’s titular promise to make landscape
“Familiar and Easie” resonates also with this paper’s
examination of the present-day digital humanities “landscape,”
and particularly the role of visualization in advancing
both close and “distant” reading practices. With
calls in some quarters for “a new object of study…in
which the reality of the text undergoes a process of deliberate
reduction and abstraction,” and with the increasing
conviction that text visualizations furnish that object,
the question of graphical and visual literacy has become
all the more pressing (Moretti 2000). As Jessop notes,
“Humanists… have little in the way of visual literacy,”
an observation which leads him to conclude that collaboration
between digital humanities projects and artists is
necessary in recognition of the fact that “aesthetics are
deeply embedded in the effective use of the medium of
digital visualization” (Jessop 2008). That visual literacy
is no more “familiar” or “easy” for many now than it was
at the end of the seventeenth century suggests that the
historical evolution and function of landscape has much
to teach us about the current promises and pitfalls of humanities
visualization.
It is on this point that my paper’s examination of visualizing
patterns of reference in a small set of eighteenthcentury
Anglo-American texts advocates the usefulness of thinking in broader terms about “the digital” as
a landscape in its own right—a landscape that exposes
rather than conceals its own constructedness and, in so
doing, reveals new modes of legitimating and authorizing
the scholarly activities to which it belongs. In other
words, by regarding visualizations as composing another
kind of landscape it becomes possible to ask how
digital humanities, in the process of collecting, shaping,
and presenting textual data, themselves participate in
what amounts to a regime of aesthetic judgment. Like
the landscape aesthetics of the eighteenth century, the
interpretive lexicon authorized by digital visualization
raises new questions about scholarly authority, models
of judgment, standards of evidence—indeed, questions
not only of how we read and interpret texts but also who
is authorized to read them in particular ways. The idea
of landscape has historically been deeply involved in
negotiating the transmission of cultural authority. Its renewed
formal significance for scholars grappling with
the relationship between quantitative textual or spatial
data and the “fuzziness” of highly subjective interpretive
practices (to mention but one scenario) in which, once
again, authority is stake, is therefore highly germane to
the methodologies that inform scholarly practice at the
intersection of digital and non-digital humanistic inquiry.
References
Anonymous. (1690). The Geometry of Landskips and
Paintings Made Familiar and Easie. London: Richard
Baldwin.
Barrell, J. (1980). The Dark Side of the Landscape: The
Rural Poor in English Painting, 1730-1840. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Barrell, J. (1972). The Idea of Landscape and the Sense
of Place, 1730-1840: An Approach to the Poetry of John-
Clare. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bermingham, A. (1986). Landscape and Ideology: The
English Rustic Tradition, 1740-1860. Berkeley: University
of California Press.
Edmond, J. (2005). The Role of the Professional Intermediary
in Expanding the Humanities Computing Base.
Literary and Linguistic Computing, 20: 367-380.
Jessop, M. (2008). Digital Visualization as a Scholarly
Activity. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23: 281-
293.
Moretti, F. (2000). Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models
for a Literary Theory. New York: Verso.
Tennenhouse, L. (2007). The Importance of Feeling
English: American Literature and the British Diaspora,
1750-1850. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Williams, R. (1973). The Country and the City. New
York: Oxford University Press.","txt","2","",""
"1024","10","Modernist Magazines Project","1","The critic Michael Levenson warned that “A coarsely
understood modernism is at once an historical
scandal and a contemporary disability”. The Modernist
Magazine Project aims to refine and enhance the record
through the production of a scholarly resource and
comprehensive critical and cultural history of modernist
magazines in the period 1880-1945. So-called ‘little
magazines’ were small, independent publishing ventures
committed to new and experimental work. Literally
hundreds of such magazines flourished in this period,
providing an indispensable forum for modernist innovation
and debate. They helped sustain small artistic communities,
strengthened the resolve of small iconoclastic
groups, keen to change the world, and gave many major
modernists their first opportunities in print. Many of
these magazines existed only for a few issues and then
collapsed; but almost all of them contained work of outstanding
originality and future significance.
The project aims to document and analyse the role of
both fugitive and more established magazines and to
consider their contribution to the construction of modernism
in Britain, Europe and North America. It will result
in a 3 volume Critical and Cultural History of Modernist
Magazines, an Anthology and an online resource,
comprising an index of magazines, bibliographical and
biographical data, selected contents and web links.
What this paper wants to focus on is the design and actual
implementation of the online resource together with
all the critical and technical thinking involved in defining
every step of workflow.
The first part involved thinking about the proper formats
and standards which would best suit the project needs
and at the same time would be able to be conformant
with the current best practices and the widely advocated
interoperability and preservation issues. Therefore a natural
choice has been the adoption of Library of Congress
standards related to the implementation of both general
descriptive metadata and specific solutions for the domain
of digital libraries. In particular the standards involved
are MODS1, METS2, MADS3, having also a look
at PREMIS4.
All these standards at the same time provide for and
prefer an XML serialization, which, given the almost
ubiquitous support of this syntax by the current web
frameworks, allows for many different possibilities in
choosing the underlying technology. The final choice
consisted in the eXist XML Native Database5. Being
under open-source development for several years, this
database has been constantly growing in features, performance
and user base, becoming not only a mere data
storage layer, but, thanks to the integration with Apache
Cocoon6 which allowed for the possibility of creating
processing pipelines composed by XQuery and XSLT,
an actual and complete web framework.
A particular focus will be dedicated to the strategies
implemented for converting from non structured data
to MODS metadata, so to facilitate the work of the developer,
since the data collecting has been made by an
expert in modernism, but with few skills in metadata
management. A key point has been the preparation of
Excel forms, which allowed for the gathering of semistructured
data and the subsequent development of a
conversion program based on Apache POI7 and JDOM8
API for the direct creation of MODS compliant metadata.
In particular the difference between the tabular
structure of Excel and the nested tree structure of XML
required the implementation of some particular algorithmic
strategies.
What will be discussed next is the use of MADS for recording
the different name versions and pseudonyms, the
creation of a MODS extension, compatible with METS,
for recording the information about the digital images of
the magazines pages, and the subsequent display of these
images using the YUI framework9.
The last part of the presentation will be about a proofof-
concept integration between the Modernist Magazines
Project and the thematic-related Modernist Journal
Project, based on the use Web 2.0 techniques, in particular
Ajax and REST Web Services10.
Notes
1Metadata Object Description Standard <http://www.
loc.gov/standards/mods/>.
2Metadata Encoding & Transmission Standard <http://
www.loc.gov/standards/mets/>.
3Metadata Authority Description Schema <http://www.
loc.gov/standards/mads/>.
4Preservation Metadata Maintenance Activity <http://
www.loc.gov/standards/premis/>. 5eXist <http://exist-db.org/>.
6Cocoon <http://cocoon.apache.org/>.
7<http://poi.apache.org/>.
8<www.jdom.org/>.
9The Yahoo! User Interface Library <http://developer.
yahoo.com/yui/>.
10Costello, Roger L. Building Web Services the REST
Way. <http://www.xfront.com/REST-Web-Services.
html>","txt","2","",""
"1025","10","Should an electronic edition walk, swim or shake its tail feathers?","1","The scholarly activity of creating a critical edition of a
literary work is an extremely complex process, composed
of many steps, each involving different features
and therefore requiring different skills. For instance
Wilhelm Ott described eight different steps, each one
corresponding to a particular software module in the Tu-
STEP system, starting with the collection of witnesses
and ending with the edition publication, passing through
intermediate phases such as collation, constitution of
copy-text, compilation of apparatuses and indexes creation
(Ott, 1992) .
But it would be very naïve to suppose that the current
paradigmatic and epistemological shift from print
to electronic medium in producing scholarly editions
would be without consequences for textual editing as recently
pointed out by Peter Shillingsburg (Shillingsburg,
2006). Whereas the printed publication is the last and final
step in Ott’s workflow, in the digital world this same
phase is no longer a dead end, allowing for further, and
potentially endless processing.
The actual crux is the analysis, definition and understanding
of these consequences, which, to be as possible
comprehensive and effective as possible should be carried
out both on an intellectual and a practical level. The
more tangible effects are focused at the two extremes of
the scholarly process, which from being the most mechanical
steps now acquire a new dimension and importance:
on the one hand the transcription of the textual
artefacts, which at present is a structural and semantic
encoding, and, on the other, the dissemination modalities,
which address how the edition is initially assembled
and subsequently published. While much theoretical
discussion has focused on text encoding, the same
is not true, with some notable exceptions, for the other
extreme: the actual creation of the edition.
An implicit complexity seems to be inseparable from
any thinking or talking about electronic scholarly editions.
It’s not by chance therefore that Susan Hockey
in Electronic Texts in the Humanities wrote that “Much
confusion seems to surround the topic of electronic editions” (Hockey, 2000). This is due to the fact that the
digital edition is a dynamic and mutable object in itself:
its nature as an electronic text which, like spoken language,
allows it to be processed in a reflexive way, and
therefore being augmented with new features and uses.
But there is more than this. The extreme complexity of
critical digital editions is generated by an aspect almost
always neglected but at the same time quite fundamental:
the multidimensionality of this strange animal, commonly
known as ‘electronic edition’. Both Jerome Mc-
Gann (McGann, 2004) and Claus Huitfeldt (Huitfeldt,
1994) underline how the object ‘text’ has more than one
dimension: why can the same principle not be applied to
the environment which contains, preserves and allows
the interactions with this object?
A first method of describing this complexity can be found
in ‘A framework for information system architecture’ by
J. A. Zachman (Zachman, 1987) where the author theorizes
a possible formal structure for investigating the architecture
of information systems. This structure is an
interpretational matrix where the different perspectives,
tied to the different user roles of the system, are joined
by the different descriptions of the information system,
each one referring to a particular model: functional, informational,
technological, etc. The primacy conclusion
is that an information system is represented by a whole
set of architectural representations, each one with a particular
nature, and communication between these different
levels is a key issue. Scholarly editions can be considered
as a specialized subset of information systems,
if not very refined ‘knowledge systems’ at all, the main
difference being that they respond to specific needs of
humanities research and not to generic business needs.
Therefore Zachman’s proposal can also be applied to
good effects in this particular field.
A further step in trying to formalize digital editions is
by means of specialized frameworks expressly created
for the digital library world. Even though electronic editions
and digital libraries are two different paradigms,
like men in Shakespeare’s Tempest they share the stuff
that ‘dreams are made on’. The two frameworks are the
5S (Gonçalves et al., 2004) and DELOS (Candela et al.,
2007). The 5S model is based on set theory and linear algebra,
and using five primitive concepts (Stream, Structures,
Scenarios, Spaces and Societies) it builds upon
these a series of definition, thus being able to define what
a digital library is without ambiguity. On the other hand
the DELOS approach shares many similarities with the
CIDOC-CRM ontology (Crofts et al., 2007), being based
on an object-relationship model. With the help of these
two models, I will analyze the differences between digital
libraries and electronic editions.
Starting from an empirical analysis of concrete cases,
some basic principles will be presented using a polarity
approach. An actual limitation in an edition will be
used as the starting point to develop an opposite principle
which will be used to overcome it. These principles
are the following: incompatibility vs. semantic umbrella/
glue; sonic screwdriver vs. lego-block; blob vs. crystal
snow; incompleteness vs. extensibility.
Finally the relationship between the latest innovations in
electronic (web) publishing and scholarly editions will
be examined. Using the “swimming” metaphor, Charles
Michael Sperberg-McQueen pointed out the main difference
between printed and electronic editions: while
the former are embedded with some kind of implicit
knowledge, the latter can contain the same knowledge
expressed in formal languages, being moreover endowed
with some active features (Sperberg-McQueen,
2002). This same difference between facts on one side
and features on the other can be mapped to the current
paradigms of Semantic Web and Web 2.0. An electronic
edition is therefore an ideal place of interaction between
these two different aspects of the WorldWideWeb, which
are usually considered in opposition to each other.
References
Candela, L., D. Castelli, N. Ferro, Y. Ioannidis, G. Koutrika,
C. Meghini, P. Pagano, S. Ross, D. Soergel, M.
Agosti, M. Dobreva, V. Katifori, and H. Schuldt (2007).
The DELOS Digital Library Reference Model. Foundations
for Digital Libraries Version 0.98. DELOS Network
of Excellence on Digital Libraries.
Crofts, N., M. Doerr, T. Gill, S. Stead, M. Stiff (eds)
(2007) Definition of the CIDOC Conceptual Reference
Model: Version 4.2.2. ICOM - International Council of
Musesum.
Gonçalves, M. A., Fox, E. A., Watson, L. T., & Kipp,
N. A. (2004). Streams, Structures, Spaces, Scenarios,
Societies (5S): A Formal Model for Digital Libraries,
ACM Transactions on Information Systems (TOIS), 22
(2): 270-312.
Hockey S. (2000). Electronic Texts in the Humanities:
Principles and Practice. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Huitfeldt C. (1994). Multi-dimensional texts in a onedimensional
medium, Computers and the Humanities,
Vol. 28, No. 4-5: 235-241
McGann J. (2004). Marking Texts of Many Dimensions.
In S. Schreibman, R. Siemens, J. Unsworth (eds.), A Companion to Digital Humanities, Oxford: Blackwell,
pp. 198-217
Shillingsburg, P. (2006) From Gutenberg to Google:
Electronic Representations of Literary Texts, Cambridge
University Press
Ott, W. (1992). Computers and Textual Editing, In Butler
C. S. (ed.), Computers and Written Texts. Oxford: Blackwell,
1992. 205-226.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. (2002). How to Teach Your
Edition How to Swim <http://www.w3.org/People/cmsmcq/
2002/cep97/swimming.xml>
Zachman, J. A (1987). A framework for information
systems architecture, IBM Systems Journal, 26 (3): 276-
292.","txt","2","",""
"1026","10","Literature, ""The Literary,"" and the Dataworld","1","This paper addresses a recurrent (perhaps constitutive)
concern in electronic literature: as technical
practices and affordances change, how should we distinguish
between what is and is not literature? Liberalminded
critics like N. Katherine Hayles and Alan Liu
have proposed a category called “the literary,” a kind of
cosmic cloud orbiting the stellar core of traditional literature.
Some demur from this view, defending formal
distinctions between literary and non-literary production
(John Cayley), consonant with a neo-formalist movement
in art and design (Ellen Lupton).
I trace this tension to a central dynamic of interactive
media: the shift from CONTENT to DATA, which arises
from radical change in the technical substrate of writing,
where computation replaces inscription. Our technologies
of writing and related sign-exchange no longer operate
by containment in static, material structures, but
now flow as impulses through processors and networks.
The consequences of this shift are far from trivial or incidental.
Containment yields to circulation, publishing
and broadcasting to Web services. Where CONTENT
was, we now find DATA, meaning that which is given,
always in multiple dimensions:
• given IN to a system of encoding;
• given OUT through a system of communication;
• given UP to processing and transformation;
• given BACK as riff, recursion, and feedback.
Until fairly recently, the full impact of this change has
been elusive, even in purportedly forward-looking circles.
Generally speaking, electronic literature has engaged
my sense of data in only limited ways. The early
phase of electronic literature largely featured translation
of lyric or narrative content-objects into data -- as in all
my work to date. True, constructs like interactive fictions
or procedural poems convert words into digital information,
and evoke a text according to logical processes;
but with the crucial exception of MUDs and MOOs,
first-generation works generally do not involve multiple
participants, or allow the core code to change with use. Considering that constantly connected, high-speed digital
networks have only been widely available for about a
decade, these limits are not surprising.
With the arrival of such affordances around the turn
of the century, digital culture has crossed a watershed.
However much bemoaned by scholars, Wikipedia and its
cousins have vastly increased the amount of not-entirely-
erroneous information ready to hand. In the creative
sphere, electronic writers and net artists have begun to
exploit the content-data shift in more socially complex
ways. Work by Jim Carpenter, Noah Wardrip-Fruin,
Mark Marino, Jason Nelson, Kate Armstrong, and others
has opened electronic poetry and prose to RSS feeds,
Googlemaps, Twitter, FaceBook, and a range of other
social information tools. These experiments complicate
demarcations between writing and performance. Notably,
they also generate the anxieties about literature and
“the literary” that are the main subject of this paper.
As a long-time member of electronic literature’s Golden
Age team, my sympathies are divided. I like the new
voices and believe deeply in the direction of their art, but
at the same time I respect those who are more skeptically
inclined. Like Cayley, I have my own investments in
stable and salient expression, and would probably place
certain limits on the social life of information. Like Lupton,
I believe the explosion of creative energy enabled
by emerging technologies should be shaped by sound
understanding of formal principles.
So, as the sons of middle children will, I call for accommodation.
However much we deal in data, the idea of
content seems ineradicable. So in the rapidly evolving
space of electronic media, literature and “the literary”
must find ways to get along. While the sentiment alone
is not worth much, I also offer some practical suggestions:
1. Anyone concerned about electronic literature (or indeed,
digital culture more generally) must embrace
green technology -- taking this adjective not in its
popular, environmentalist sense, but in its other register
of novelty or neoteny. Obedient to the Law of
Mo(o)re, we should never expect our tools, or our
scope of work, to attain the long-term stability of
print culture, at least not in present generations. We
paint in the rain.
2. Accordingly, we need to shape an aesthetic that embraces
both that which is remembered and resonant,
and that which is evanescent or transient. As Thomas
Pynchon’s heretical ex-Puritan ancestor argued,
salvation is impossible unless some are passed over.
Some child is always left behind. From which it follows
that oblivion or preterition is an inverse grace.
The stars cannot shine without those clouds of dust.
3. We need better ways to transfer understanding and
technique: occasions for radicals of the dataworld to
earn recognition from those of us still consecrated to
content. Likewise, we could use forums in certain
old hands interested in crossing the watershed might
learn new approaches from those who have come
after and gone ahead.
The Electronic Literature Organization and its international
peers have all taken important steps toward these
goals, and I will end by looking at a few of these developments.","txt","2","",""
"1027","10","Cosine Distance Nearest- Neighbor Classification for Authorship Attribution","1","There is a signiﬁcant overhead cost when using techniques
like support vector machines on large data
sets. It would certainly be convenient to be able to use
a less involved technique, but this often comes with a
cost of less desirable performance. This results in a trade
between time and memory restraints and prediction
accuracy.
It seems that a sophisticated technique like support
vector machines must surely outperform
a simple
nearest neighbor classiﬁcation. Fortunately, some recent
results suggest that in fact a simple nearest neighbor
classiﬁcation using the normalized dot product (the socalled
‘cosine distance’) as a ‘distance’
performs comparably
to radial basis function support vector machines for
the task of authorship attribution.
In some cases, this cosine
distance classiﬁcation actually outperforms SVMs.
Whether or not a space is linearly separable can have
important consequences on performing classiﬁcation
within that space. An n-dimensional space containing
two classes of points is said to be linearly separable
if
there exists an n-1 dimensional hyper-plane which separates
the classes. A linearly separable space has the advantage
that simpler classiﬁcation will work for classifying
points within that space. A simple distance metric
may be sufﬁcient to distinguish between two classes in a
linearly separable space, while a more complex method
like support vector machines or a neural network is necessary
to capture nonlinear class boundaries. The primary
advantage of linear separability is that is allows
us to develop classiﬁcation algorithms that are less computationally
intensive. That is, instead of taking hours
or even days to model the class boundaries, we can use
simple algorithms which will achieve comparable results
in only a few minutes. Linear classiﬁers tend to scale
considerably better than their more complex counterparts.
This is especially important when working with
very large corpora, where training a support vector machine
could take several days, while evaluating the cosine
distance between documents in the corpus may take
less than an hour.
We intend to present recent results in the ﬁ eld of authorship
attribution suggesting that the normalized
dot
product nearest neighbor classiﬁcation method is is comparable
to radial basis function support vector machine
classiﬁcation methods. For this experiment, we made use
of the Java Graphical Authorship Attribution Program
(JGAAP-www.jgaap.com), a freely available Java program
for performing authorship attribution created by
Patrick Juola of Duquesne University. This modular program
breaks the task of authorship attribution into three
subtasks, described as ‘Canonicization’, ‘Event Generation’
and ‘Statistical Analysis’. During the Canonicization
step, documents are standardized and various preprocessing
steps can occur. For this experiment, we have
used a variety of combinations of three preprocessing
steps: ‘Strip Punctuation’, ‘Unify Case’ and ‘Normalize
Whitespace’. Although the choice of canonicizers had
some effect on the overall performance of the statistical
analysis methods, the choice of preprocessors did not
signiﬁcantly
affect the results. For the feature sets, we
used characters, character bigrams, word lengths, word
bigrams and words. We performed the experiments both
with the full feature sets and with only the 50 most common
features. For the statistical methods, as previously
discussed, we used both radial-basis function SVMs and
the normalized dot product scoring for nearest neighbor
classiﬁcation. We made use of the libSVM package for
our SVMs.
In order to test this experiment on real world data, we
have used the Ad-hoc Authorship Attribution Competition
(AAAC) corpus. The AAAC was an experiment
in authorship attribution held as part of the 2004 Joint
International Conference of the Association for Literary
and Linguistic Computing and the Association for
Computers and the Humanities. The AAAC corpus
provides texts from a wide variety of different genres,
languages and document lengths, assuring that the results
would be useful for a wide variety
of applications.
The AAAC corpus consists of 98 unknown documents,
distributed across 13 different problems (labeled A-M).
An analysis method’s AAAC score is calculated as the
sum of the percent accuracy
for each problem. Hence, a
AAAC score of 1300% represents 100% accuracy on all
problems. This score was designed to weight both small
problems (those with only one or two unknown documents)
and large problems equally. Because this score is
not always sufﬁciently descriptive on its own, we have
also included an overall accuracy rate in our experiment.
That is, we calculate both the AAAC scoring and the total
percentage of unknown documents which were assigned the correct authorship labels. These two scores provide a
fair assessment of how the technique performed both on
a per-problem and per-document basis.
In those cases where all events were included, the cosine
distance classiﬁcation actually outperformed
radial basis
function SVMs, while performing only slight worse on
the most common event sets. This leads us to the conclusion
that although much of the information necessary
for authorship attribution is contained within the 50 most
common events, it is the less common events that actually
result in a sort of empirically linearly separably
clustering of the data points. That is, when presented
only with the 50 most common events as a feature space,
we require a more complex classiﬁer to model the class
boundaries between different authors. However, as we
increase the number of dimensions of this space by adding
the less-frequently used features, it becomes possible
to model these boundaries with only simple linear
classiﬁ
ers. Hence there is some important information
contained even within the rarely occurring events in the
feature set.
The ﬁ nding that the normalized dot product performs
comparatively to support vector machines is important
because it is very simple and computationally tractable
even in high-dimensional spaces. It is much quicker to
calculate the dot product between two vectors than it is
to train a support vector machine. Using a normalized
dot product scoring nearest neighbor algorithm will
allow very large data sets to be processed
much more
quickly and does not seem to cause a signiﬁcant loss of
accuracy. Hence, we propose that for some applications,
the normalized dot product scoring may be an acceptable
substitute for using a support vector machine.","txt","2","",""
"1028","10","Mashing Texts: Supporting collections level text analysis","1","Introduction At the 2005 Summit on Digital Tools in the Humanities
the need for tools for the Exploration of Resources
[1] was identified as one of four opportunities
for humanities computing tools. As a critical mass of
evidence useful to humanities research becomes available
on the web, researchers need tools for gathering
the resources they need to ask questions, assembling
and editing the evidence into study collections, and then
analyzing those collections. This paper will discuss the
Mashing Texts project [2] that has followed a persona
usability design process to develop stories and a prototype
for how a collections analysis tool might work to
support humanities research. In particular, we will:
1. Demonstrate the JiTR (Just-in-Time Research) prototype
and how it can be used to assemble a collection,
edit items, and analyze them
2. Discuss the persona design process and the stories
we generated to describe potential use of such a tool.
In particular we will outline two different communities
of users that ran through the design process.
3. Discuss the technical and service implications of
such a tool which has to integrate with digital colcollections,
digital archives, and text analysis systems. We believe the humanities computing community can
make the case for such an environment and that we can
outline models for integration so that such a tool can
interoperate with the content archives and text analysis
tools available.
JiTR Demonstration
The JiTR (Just-in-Time Research) prototype is the first
pass at realizing the Mashing Texts project. The simple
story about JiTR is that it lets you manage collections of
digital items and run tools that either gather items, clean
them or analyze them. In JiTR you can create collections,
add items to collections (manually or with spiders/
scrapers), edit the items (automatically or manually) and
then pass a collection as a single “text” to a text analysis
tool elsewhere. We will demonstrate a rapid research
cycle of gathering, editing and analyzing a collection.
Mashing Texts embraces principles of Internet mashups
in conceptualizing a recombinant environment whereby
the resultant product is more valuable than the sum of its
parts. JiTR is designed so that other tools can be plugged
into it like search engines and spiders to generate text
collections on demand from within the environment. As
part of the project’s emphasis on malleability of data,
JiTR allows those collections to be organized by various
tags and labels. The final part of the demonstration will
show some of the analysis tools that JiTR offers.
Persona-Scenario Methodology
JiTR is just a working prototype designed to test a design
hypothesis about a type of tool that we think is needed.
The research in this project has been the extensive design
process. If the end purpose is user functionality,
why not prototype around stories about users and what
they could do? This is the idea behind the personas and
scenarios design process, a usability design process that
we have used on other projects like the TAPoR portal.
Personas are imagined possible users that “act as standins
for real users” [3]. Personas are examples of people
who would potential like to use the system. They are
created to stimulate thinking about people, rather than
exclusively concepts. Once realistic user personas are
created, usages scenarios are described, which consider
ways users could possibly employ the final product. Scenarios
move into specifics, detailing the steps that the
user would follow in working with the system. Eventually,
the various scenarios are prioritized into primary
and secondary uses so you know what types of tasks the
product needs to support. You can also use the scenarios
to audit the prototype.
In this project we started with two constituencies that
we came to call DEEP (Distributed Electronic Editing
Platform) and BROAD (which does not yet stand for
anything) .
• DEEP personas would use JiTR to collaboratively
edit a rich born-digital collection like Orlando. To
this end we worked with the Orlando team to check
that the personas, scenarios, and tasks we described
were true to their experience.
• BROAD personas would use JiTR to rapidly gather
evidence from the web to study contemporary issues.
We imagined various users who want to use
the web as their text and therefore want to gather
subsets of web documents into study collections.
For example, a linguist might want to gather web
pages where real users use a language pattern.
Our hypothesis is that both these very different constituencies
actually need the same sort of tool and we wanted
to see if we could design something that would serve
both, another form of mashing, if you will.
This paper will outline the steps of this design process as
we believe it is particularly suited to humanities computing.
We will end by presenting the priority personas and
what these imagined people want to do.
Technical and Political Implications
It is one thing to prototype and test an idea for another
tool; it is another to develop a production tool that others
can use. We are particularly conscious that a tool like
JiTR needs to work within the ecology of tools available.
To that end we had a parallel process in the project to
identify the other tools, frameworks, and standards that
JiTR needs to work with so as to develop viable architectural
specification for the development of a production
version. This involved identifying the points of articulation
between JiTR and other tools. An obvious example
is how JiTR should work with repository systems life
Fedora. While our prototype has its own MySQL database,
a production version should not manage the repository
of texts in a collection. Instead it should have the
ability to push and pull texts from a repository, whether
it be Fedora or another system. Likewise JiTR should not
include any tools, but should have a plug-in architecture
for tools from spiders to text mining tools. Our prototype
has tools built in, but a production system would have an
interface for managing processes.
As with any development project the design process is
partly about deciding what you aren’t going to do. We
believe that a missing layer needed between repository
tools and text analysis tools is a collaborative research collections management environment. At the end of the
paper we will present the designs of how we think a
full system could support the research work flow of our
two user constituencies. How would an editor develop
a workflow for the editing of electronic texts in JiTR?
How would a researcher interested in the discourse on
the web about high performance computing gather documents,
clean them and analyze them?
Notes
[1] Summit on Digital Tools for the Humanities, http://
www.iath.virginia.edu/dtsummit/
[2] Mashing Texts is supported by a Social Science and
Humanities Research Council of Canada Research and
Development Initiative grant. The project is openly documented
at http://tada.mcmaster.ca/Main/MashTexts
[3] Calabria, Tina. “An introduction to personas and how
to create them”, http://www.steptwo.com.au/papers/
kmc_personas/","txt","2","",""
"1029","10","Laying the conceptual foundations for data integration in the humanities","1","The purpose of this paper is to promote the discussion
on what are the key dimensions of humanities’
scholarship, and how they can be best represented by
means of formal languages in the context of the Semantic
Web. Quite often, available formalizations of knowledge
domains and practices in the humanities have been
inspired by previous work on more rigorous scientific
domains. As a result, we believe that the models thus created
tend to oversimplify, if not totally misunderstand,
the complexity and peculiarity of the work of humanities’
scholars. In this paper, we want to highlight a number
of characteristics that need to be taken into account
when modeling humanities’ data. We argue that only by
keeping in mind such requirements we will be able to lay
out solid foundations for facilitating non-trivial information
integration in humanities domains. We are currently
testing these ideas in our department by reflecting upon
anumber of preexisting digital humanities projects. The
final paper will give a more extensive description of this
evaluation.
Introduction
In recent years we have seen a proliferation of research
and commercial projects aiming at the dissemination of
a large number of structured or semi-structured data.
On the academic side, for example, enterprises such as
the Semantic Web (Berners-Lee et al., 2001) have long
attempted to support the creation of a vast-scale layer
of machine-processable data, which should work as
an ‘extension’ of the traditional web. Less academic examples
are instead Freebase (Freebase, 2007), a web application
aiming at becoming an “open, shared database
of the world’s knowledge” which can be freely edited by
registered users, and the DBpedia (Auer et al., 2007), a
community effort to extract structured information from
Wikipedia and make it available on the web by means of
a public API1.
In this paper, we associate these developments in web technologies with the term ‘semantic web’ (SW), as they
all share the intent to encode formally (with varying degrees
of complexity) aspects of the meaning of the resources
or artifacts they refer to.
It is worth asking then, why should we as digital humanists
be adopting a semantic web approach? A primary advantage
of having structured data exposed on the web is
the possibility to integrate and reuse them in novel ways.
For example, we can imagine a scenario where data
coming from an archeological project about Tutankhamun
are being accessed by other archeologists interested
in pottery produced in Egypt in the same period. Pushing
it a little further, we could also think of a research group
in sociology of science examining the same data, looking
for anomalous patterns in the archeologists’ daily
data-collection practices.
From an examination of the most recent literature, it is
easy to conclude that semantic web technologies have already
been tested in a variety of domains. These include
both hard science domains, such as physics (Friedland
and Allen, 2004), biology (Bechhofer et al., 2006), mathematics
(Habel and Magnan, 2007), but also humanities’
disciplines such as history of art (Hildebrand et al.,
2006), literature (Nowviskie, 2005), music (Schraefel et
al., 2005).
However, this spectrum of experimentations leads us to a
further consideration. Since scientific domains are highly
structured they can more easily be mapped into formal
conceptual schemas, so as to be used in SW applications
-e.g., a gene ontology, or an ontology of hardware components.
This is not the case for all humanities domains,
especially where scholars give high value to processes
like the expression of subjective interpretations and the
debate on the subject in question, rather than aiming to
search for objective schemas or universal taxonomies. In
other words, the task of modeling knowledge domains
in the humanities through formal languages (so as to allow
computability and data integration) presents various
challenges which are still to be tackled by existing research
on the semantic web front.2
For example, it is our view that systems such as /facet
(Hildebrand et al., 2006) or CultureSampo (Eero
Hyvönen et al., 2007), although providing advanced interfaces
for exploring humanities’ data, do not investigate
enough the type of semantic ‘services’ humanities’
scholars often engage with in their research practices. In
fact, very often such systems make use of very ‘shallow’
semantic models (e.g., a ‘person’ who created a ‘work’
which belongs-to a ‘style’), thus oversimplifying the actual
discourse that makes a statement valuable within a
humanities discipline. As a consequence, data thus structured
can hardly be of use to the humanities scholar in
her research and activities.
If data sharing and integration in the humanities is recognized
to be worth pursuing, it is therefore necessary to
build some solid foundations for a truly useful semantic
web framework in the humanities. The first activity that
will help us in this respect is a thorough consideration of
the typical entities and practices emerging in humanities’
research. Accordingly, in section 3 we outline a number
of key requirements humanities’ semantic models should
support. In the following section we spend some words
on the approach that drivesour usage of ontologies for
data integration.
Ontology: a beauty or a beast?
A central notion in the semantic web and in the world of
data integration is that one of ontology. The widely used
definition by Gruber (Gruber, 1993) describes it as “an
explicit specification of a conceptualization”. Being a
conceptualization an ontology is therefore a stylized representation
of the world; secondly, since it is expressed
in a formal language, an ontology can be defined unambiguously.
As a consequence, ontologies are well suited
representation languages for describing data and sharing
information; their employment is also endorsed by the
W3C (W3C, 2004).
Besides this quite conventional view of what an ontology
is, the debate is ongoing about the status of an ontology
with respect to the world it represents. For example,
some authors such as Smith (Smith, 2003) hold a
realist position, while others such as the aforementioned
Gruber (Gruber, 2003) support a more pragmatic view.
Such positions affect inevitably the way ontologies are
developed and used. For example, in the first case (realist)
the implicit assumption is that the ontology should
approximate to a ‘true’ reality; as a consequence, multiple
ontologies about the same subject should ultimately
converge in their modeling choices. On the contrary, the
second class of ontology-design approaches (pragmatist)
seean ontology essentially as an engineering artifact:
thus, it does not hold any absolute value about the
reality it depicts, but it provides a practical solution to
the ‘problems’ it was designed to tackle (i.e. it is a mean
to an end).
Although in the SW world both approaches have many
followers, the context in which digital humanities practitioners
and researchers operate, in our opinion, is much
closer to the pragmatic approach. Indeed, the humanities
are often perceived as the place where all the voices
—provided they are respectful of certain argumentative conventions—can be heard, and where all the assumptions
can be questioned. Therefore, ontologies for the
humanities must support diversity and variety of viewpoints;
thus they cannot adhere to an underlying model
which neglects multiplicity in favor of a monolithic vision
of the world.
Following Gruber (Gruber, 2003), we therefore intend
to promote the concept of an ontology as the agreement
reached by multiple parties (e.g., programmers, scientists,
collaborators, librarians) with the aim of accomplishing
some objectives (e.g., data exchange between
applications, communication between people, integration
of disparate representations). Using a metaphor, ontologies
are contracts, they are the currency used to perform
some valuable operations. Thus, their importance is
ultimately related not to their truth or beauty, but to the
ease they bring to the collaboration among people3. To
use a less ‘commercial’ metaphor an ontology is a compromise
or a point of contact between specific and possibly
divergent models. The issue is therefore not only
to identify commonalities between projects, for instance,
but also to agree that the compromises so found won’t
diminish the value of the underlying idiosyncratic models,
the specificity of any single project or interpretation.
We believe that in the humanities this agreement is not
necessarily reachable once for all or hoped for, because it
may imply the negation of the interpretative efforts that
make a work or a project unique and the negation of the
evolutionary nature of scholarship. However, we also
think that the possibility to make two incommensurable
categorical systems communicate could be a challenge
worth pursuing.
Defining humanities’ research
As mentioned above, at a general level it is useful to
characterize humanities scholarship by highlighting the
points of contrast with the hard sciences. Humanities
scholars are traditionally engaged with the expression of
interpretative statements and the elaboration of debates
on a disparate range of sources of knowledge, rather than
with the seeking of firm objective schemas or universal
taxonomies. One of the authors analyzed more specifically
the characteristics of a humanities domain (Pasin
et al., 2007)—philosophy—and identified those key elements
that define its scholarship and make it hard to
model. Some of these elements are outlined below:
1. historical events, that is, events which are inherently
time-dependent (e.g., the publication of a book,
or an author’s subscription to a viewpoint);
2. generic uncertainty, that is the frequency of statements
about facts which cannot be located exactly
in the time and space dimensions (e.g., the birth of
Heraclitus);
3. information objects, i.e. texts in a semiotic sense
and especially language-based information objects
(e.g. a book), as they are the traditionally preferred
medium philosophical contents are expressed with;
4. interpretation events, intended as the process of
attributing an abstract content to an information object
(e.g., when we say that “Aristotle’s fourth book
of the Metaphysics states an ontological principle”);
5. coexistence of contradictory information, which is
a direct consequence of 4 (e.g., when people claim
different or opposing views on the same proposition);
6. viewpoints, and other non-material entities (“philosophical
ideas”), for they are the objects philosophers
are usually engaged with by studying and expressing
them.
Although philosophy has often been defined as the queen
of the sciences, these reflections on its nature as discipline
may not stand true for thehumanities as a whole.
In order to highlight all the dimensions that make the
modeling of humanities domains such a unique task, we
surely need a thorough investigation of other humanities’
domains too. Furthermore, for space reasons we
have deliberately not mentioned other works in the digital
humanities, such as (Jones, 2006) and (Eide, 2008),
where the issues tackled are remarkably similar to ours,
although the approach is not necessarily ontology-oriented.
We intend to elaborate more on these topics in the
final version of the paper.
Conclusions
In this extended abstract we addressed a number of problems
emerging from the employment of semantic web
technologies in humanities domains. In particular, we
focused on the notion of ontologies for data-integration,
highlighting the great challenges these technologies will
bring especially to the digital humanities’ practitioner.
To this aim we also provided some examples from our
previous research in the philosophical domain. In the
final paper we will expand this research also by drawing
from the results of a detailed analysis of the various
projects ongoing in our department. It is our hope
that this research will stimulate further discussions and
the formulation of a preliminary but comprehensive research
agenda. References
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Data. 6th International Semantic Web Conference
(ISWC 2007) (2007).
Bechhofer, S., Stevens, R. D. & Lord, P. W. Gohse:
Ontology Driven Linking of Biology Resources. Web
Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World
Wide Web 4, (2006).
Berners-Lee, T., Hendler, J. & Lassila, O. The Semantic
Web. Scientific American (2001).
Eero Hyv√∂nen et al., CultureSampo-Finnish Culture on
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Eide, √ò. The Exhibition Problem. A Real-Life Example
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Friedland, N. S. & Allen, P. G. Project Halo: Towards a
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Nowviskie, B. COLLEX: semantic collections & exhibits
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Pasin, M., Motta, E. & Zdrahal, Z. Capturing Knowledge
About Philosophy. Knowledge Capture (KCAP) (2007).
Schraefel, m. c. et al. The Mspace Classical Music Explorer:
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People. V MUSICNETWORK OPEN WORKSHOP: Integration
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Notes
1Application Programming Interface, that is, an access
point by which such data can be retrieved or manipulated
programmatically.
2It has to be noted that some of these challenges have
been faced in previous efforts (preceding the advent of
the web) of formalizations in the humanities: good examples
are the creation of domain-specific thesauri and
taxonomies, or the classification systems in library studies.
3Note that we are focusing on the conceptual implications
here rather than on thechallenges of an ontology
implementation by using specific computer languages.","txt","2","",""
"1030","10","The Limit of Representation","1","In the proposed paper, I reflect on the theoretical implications
and methodology of diplomatic digital
editions which have arisen out of a three-year AHRCfunded
project devoted to Jane Austen’s holographic fictional
manuscripts. The title of the paper is deliberately
ambiguous in order to mark the dual nature of a topic
that applies to both transcription and publication.
For transcription the TEI Guidelines offer a large variety
of elements to transcribe and describe primary source
documents at almost any level of granularity and detail:
“to all intents and purposes”, Driscoll remarks, “there is
no limit to the information one can add to a text – apart,
that is, from the limits of the imagination” (2006:261).
But the availability of an element does not imply the necessity
of using it—and this is a crucial point, as we will
see1.
For publication, Tanselle notes, “the editor’s goal is to
reproduce in print as many of the characteristics of the
document as he can” (1978: 51). Although this may be
valid for print, it is of little help in a digital environment,
where you can represent much more2. This can be positive,
e.g. to avoid most of what Michael Hunter calls the
“confusion of brackets”3, but it leaves open the question
of where to stop – a question only made more complicated
by the extensibility of the TEI.
Driscoll states that:
In the determination of how much information should be
included [in the transcription of a manuscript], the decisions
facing the producer of an electronic transcription are
essentially the same as those facing the producer of any
transcription (2006:257-8).
However, even if the decisions are of the same kind in
both media, they may have quite different resolutions for
a digital edition, as the new medium allows the transcription
and output of many more features, as I just noted.4
Nevertheless when designing a digital transcription a
scholar needs to define her/his own boundaries:
An electronic edition is like an iceberg, with far more
data potentially available than is actually visible on the
screen, and this is at the same time a great opportunity and
a temptation to overdo things. When so many possibilities
exist, there is a danger of technological considerations of
what can be done taking priority over intellectual considerations
of what is actually desirable or necessary in any
particular case. (Hunter 2007:71).
But when does stopping imply a loss of information and
when is it simply wise? More to the point, what is the
information that needs to be represented and which is
desirable but not essential? Can this essential information
be feasibly encoded in the transcription? And can
it be conveniently represented in the visual output?
And again, if the edition includes a digital image of the
source, should the limits change or is the diplomatic edition
altogether worthless5?
The answers to most of the previous questions depend
on the research goals and the editor better judgement in
interpreting which feature contained in a source is relevant,
and which is merely ornamental: as Claus Huitfeldt
demonstrates, in fact, there is not such a thing as
an objective diplomatic transcription (2006:194-6).
Nevertheless those involved with print have been able
to produce guidelines and lively discussions, while their
counterparts in the digital medium seem more or less to
be avoiding the topic6.
According to Tanselle, essential features that need to
be retained in a diplomatic transcription of modern holographic
documents are: punctuation, spelling, letter
shape (long s, i-j, u-v, for instance), capitalization, abbreviations,
authorial errors, deleted readings, added texts
(maintaining or marking their positioning). In a digital
framework we can do more than that, for instance we can
measure dimensions of gaps, distinguish a wider range
of letter shapes, reproduce the colour of the ink, the temporal
sequence of the revisions, etc. On the other side
Hunter does not hide his uneasiness toward typefacsimile
editions, stating that: “the aim is to produce an edition
which does justice to the content of the manuscript, paying
attention to its actual appearance but not fetishising
this”, adding, though, that as markup languages allow
the editor “to have his or her cake and eat it”, it is possible
to push the representation forward and, for instance,
“if the editor sees a value in preserving the abbreviated
forms […] they are welcome to do so” remarking though
that “I would not bother” (2007:85, 80).
The XML markup language, especially when used according
to the TEI Guidelines, allows editors to encode
features that could serve for different displays of the text.
Thus from the same text we can easily produce diplomatic,
semi-diplomatic, reading and edited texts. We
can have our cake and eat it. But encoding for multiple
outputs is sometimes not very easy; compromises may
be required. In the transcription of Jane Austen manuscripts we see, for instance, interlinear insertions being
placed in positions that do not correspond to logical insertion
points: in this case we had to chose which aspect
to privilege, the semantic of the text or the appearance
of the source document, the former being relevant to the
production of a reading edition and the latter for the diplomatic
edition.
It is clear that there are limits to the representation of
documents, and those limits are both conceptual and
pragmatic. Once the document has been transcribed, a
certain level of distance between the physical object and
the transcribed object is inevitable. Hunter again:
different handwritings and letter forms, but also ink blots,
different methods of striking through words, or exact details
of layout, for which only a pictorial facsimile suffices.
The chief thing which a type-facsimile can do is to distinguish
words in pen or pencil, or in different hands, but
even this might be better achieved by a commentary on a
photographic or digital reproduction (Hunter 2007:75).7
In fact, no transcription, however accurate, will ever be
able to represent entirely the source document. Some
characteristics of the manuscripts are irremediably lost
by transcribing it, e.g. the variable shape and spacing of
handwritten glyphs versus the constant shape of digital
fonts. As Hans Walter Gabler says, “clearly the diplomatic
transcription is already a distinct abstraction from
the document” (2007:204). On the other hand, the more
details we add to our transcription and the more accurate
it is, the greater the density of the markup, with consequent
loss of readability and loss of editorial control over
the text. Even if stand-off markup can help to address
this problem, the “cost” of the markup remains relevant.
This paper will use the experience of the Jane Austen
Project to address the following questions from a theoretical
and pragmatic point of view:
• What cannot be represented in a transcription?
• What can be represented but at too high a price (i.e.
requiring too high a level of encoding) to be feasible?
• What should not be represented?
• Which features can be encoded but cannot be reproduced
with existing digital publication standards
(i.e. HTML/CSS)?
• To which display should a given feature belong?
The paper will open up discussion on essential aspects
of editing texts in a digital environment by attempting to
define a minimal shared protocol in digital transcription
of documents. The author hopes that many other contributions
will follow.
References
Driscoll, Mattew J. “Levels of Transcription”. In Electronic
Textual Editing. L. Burnard, K. O’Brien O’Keeffe
and J. Unsworth (eds). New York, 2006, pp. 254-61.
Gabler, Hans Walter. “The Primacy of the Document in
Editing”. Ecdotica 4 (2007), 197-207.
Hunter, Michael. Editing Early Modern Texts: an introduction
to principles and practice. New York, 2007.
Huitfeldt, Claus. “Philosophy Case Study”. In Electronic
Textual Editing. L. Burnard, K. O’Brien O’Keeffe and J.
Unsworth (eds). New York, 2006, pp. 181-96
Kiernan, Kevin. “Digital Facsimile in Editing”. L. Burnard,
K. O’Brien O’Keeffe and J. Unsworth (eds). New
York, 2006, 262-8.
Robinson, Peter. “Where we are with Electronic Scholarly
Editions, and where we want to be”. Computerphilologie
4 (2002); available at http://computerphilologie.
tu-darmstadt.de/jg03/robinson.html.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. Michael. “Text in Electronic
Age: Textual Study and Text Encoding, with Examples
from Medieval Texts”. Literary Linguistic Computing 6
(1991), 34-46.
Tanselle, G. Thomas. “The Editing of Historical Documents.”
Studies in Bibliography 31 (1978): 1-56.
Notes
1Sperberg-McQueen 1991:36: “When I observe […] that
X and Y must be tagged (or taggable), I mean not that
everyone should be required to tag X and Y, but that any
general-purpose markup scheme must provide tags to
enable researchers to tag X and Y when they wish so”.
2And indeed Robinson 2002 remarks his frustration toward
digital editions that do not present “material in a
manner significantly different from that which could
have been managed in print”.
3For instance, speaking of square brackets, he says:
“these have been used for almost diametrically opposite
purposes – to indicate deletions in the original; to denote
text lost through mutilations; or to denote editorial supply.” See Hunter 2007:118-20
4See, for instance the so-called “ultra diplomatic transcription”
which integrates facsimile images and transcription,
used by the HyperNietsche Project; an example
of which is to be found in Gabler 2007:205 at http://
www.hypernietzsche.org/demo/bksailehwgabler-33.
5“The image-based scholarly edition subsumes the purpose
of a diplomatic edition and removed the fruitless
frustration of trying to preserve the exact layout, illumination,
and physical appearance of a manuscript in
printed form. ”(Kiernan 2006:266)
6But see Huitfeldt 2006:190.
7See also Sperberg-McQueen 1991:34: “What computer
process are representations of data. […] Representations
are inevitably partial, never disinterested”.","txt","2","",""
"1031","10","The Atlas of Early Printing: Digital History and Book History","1","The history of the book is an interdisciplinary field of
inquiry that has been emerging for the last decades.
Scholars of the history of the book use the development
of books and reading to study larger historical ideas. In
the digital realm, the digitization of books has received
a great deal of attention, including funding and media
coverage, as facsimiles of physical books are created for
the digital environment. The application of digital tools
to the broader study of the history of the book, however,
has been much slower to catch on. This presentation will
introduce the Atlas of Early Printing, a digital project
utilizing tools such as GIS data, Flash-driven interactivity,
and 3D computer graphics visualization to transform
how information about the invention and spread of printing
during the fifteenth century is presented. Rather than
a consideration of the digital book, the Atlas of Early
Printing represents new directions in the digital book
history.
The background of the project will be outlined by an
overview of the historical moment the Atlas is designed
to represent. The printing press was developed by Johannes
Gutenberg during the mid-fifteenth century in
Mainz, Germany. Following the production of his famous
Bible during the years 1450-1455, printing slowly
began to spread throughout Europe as the secrets of the
trade were handed down to apprentice and journeymen
printers who set off to establish businesses. By the beginning
of the sixteenth century, printing was a well-established
and widely accepted trade, with presses operating
in hundreds of European towns and a brisk trade in
books increasing in volume every year.
The spread of printing has been depicted in several
maps, the most well-known being those in Lucien Febvre
and Henri-Jean Martin’s L’apparition du livre. In
these views, the arrival of printing in towns across the
continent is arranged by decade, showing the broad trend
of movement but lacking the detail necessary for more
sophisticated interpretation. In addition, the maps lack
any contextual information. For an event as revolutionary
as the invention and adoption of printing, this context
is crucial to an understanding of the forces at work:
what elements in society supported printing and ensured and markets? How did these complicated factors work
together to produce the intellectual environment for
printed books to flourish?
The Atlas of Early Printing offers an interactive map that
not only animates the spread of printing year-by-year,
but includes layers that place printing within a historical
and cultural context, such as the locations of paper
mills, universities, market towns, and trade routes. All
of these layers can be controlled by users, allowing them
to view as much or as little information as they choose.
The site relies on Flash to display the information online,
drawing from a series of XML files containing the
data. Changes to the site can be made instantaneously by
changing the data in the XML files, leading to a flexible
and scalable site that does not require extensive database
maintenance. New layers can be added by creating a new
XML file, without disturbing the information already
present.
The presentation will examine these technical aspects of
the map before shifting focus to another primary feature
of the site: a 3D computer graphics model of an early
printing press (http://atlas.lib.uiowa.edu/press-animation.
html). The model was created in Maya and can be
rendered in any number of views and animations. The
technical process of creating a printed page from metal
type inked and pressed on a wooden structure is essentially
foreign to many students and even scholars of history.
While physical replicas can be viewed at several
museums and libraries around the world, few people
have the opportunity to experience their operation in person.
The digital model brings this esoteric history to life
in a manner that enables a user to see a press in action.
Because the press is modeled in Maya, individual pieces
can be modified. Any reconstruction of an early printing
press is conjecture, so the flexibility of the 3D model
allows for changes and variations. Future plans include
detailed close-up views and, ultimately, a model that a
user can manipulate in real time online.
This presentation will also describe the site’s development
process. The primary goal for the project was to
create an intuitive, easy-to-use, yet in-depth resource
with widely available software in a compressed period
of time. The Atlas of Early Printing was created over the
course of a year from initial discussion and funding to
the uploading of version 1.0. The collaborative effort between
different university units that had seldom worked
together previously, which enabled this schedule, will be
discussed.
Finally, the possibilities for future expansion and development
will be considered in light of the potential that
digital mapping holds for a broader range of book history
topics. By applying digital humanities tools and techniques
to the databases and image resources representing
historical books, new ways of capturing and depicting
the history of books as objects can be achieved. The Atlas
of Early Printing is an initial step toward projects
that will analyze bibliographic data and combine it with
geographic information systems, to provide methods for
researching and teaching the history of the book.","txt","2","",""
"1032","10","Embedded Text Analysis","1","John Unsworth, in writing about the rhetorical model
in the humanities, asserts that “we believe that by paying
attention to an object of interest, we can explore it,
find new dimensions within it, notice things about it that
have never been noticed before, and increase its value.”
[1] One way that digital humanists pay attention to texts
is to assemble them into groups and analyze them. In
the last few years, the digital humanities have increasingly
benefited from the ability to perform analytical operations
on individual texts and, less frequently, on text
corpora. Efforts such as TaPOR, HyperPo, Nora Project,
WordHoard, TokenX, and others have made it possible,
with varying degrees of success, to process texts and output
a wide assortment of data about them. The MONK
Project has worked to combine full-text archives so that
the once-exclusively offline activity of performing sophisticated
algorithmic analyses on large text corpora
can be performed, in a web browser, for large sets of
documents.
Outside of the digital humanities realm, some commercial
sites are beginning to offer access to limited text
data. In 2006, the New York Times, using technology
developed by Answers.com, quietly implemented the JavaScript
“double-click dictionary” feature, where users
could double-click any word in an online article and a
new window would pop up with dictionary and thesaurus
information [2]. While this may not serve as a traditional
example of text analysis per se, it moves closer to
new dimensions of noticing.
These efforts, both within digital humanities and without,
have gone a long way toward making text analysis
techniques accessible to a somewhat wider audience.
But, as the maintainers of most of these projects would
probably acknowledge, this task is made more difficult
by the complexities associated with, and diversity of, the
analytical techniques desired. Developers in this area
have traditionally employed a specialized vocabulary,
designed interfaces that are anything but general, and
placed a high premium on information density in their
representations. This ideal is not always in accord with
the design of an interface intended for reading a text.
In fact, there are significant problems associated with
presenting text analysis to users. In one example, the interface
I developed for TokenX suffers from the same
shortcomings that many web-based text analysis applications
have: (1) it is insufficiently intuitive, (2) users
have to read the menu/link options because there is no
universally acknowledged visual language of text analysis,
(3) there are often too many steps involved in getting
from where you are to where you wish to be, and (4) the
user must summon a new page, or parts thereof, to see
the results of a given text analysis operation. [3]
There is a clear need for nearby points of entry to text analytical
results—ones that are conveniently embedded in
the document the user is reading. I use the term “nearby”
in contrast to “convenient” to emphasize the collocation
of texts and textual data. It is not sufficient that data be
a few clicks and scrolls away from where you are when
you are reading. The data must be where you can see it
at the point you decide you want it. An example of such
a point of entry that is sufficiently proximal might be the
browser tooltip. A conventional use of a tooltip involves
an information-bearing mouseover effect that appears on
request and disappears when the mouse moves away. To
a similar end, I propose the creation of a text analysis
interface that may seem radical. Such an interface would
require no configuration, avoid rarefied terms and procedures,
and stand in an immediate relationship to the reading
field of the text under investigation. It would be located
where the user is reading at a given moment. From
the perspective of the user, the analysis would be located
in the document, or corpus, itself. No longer would it be
necessary to travel to a different online site to generate
text data about either the text that the user is reading or
the corpus it occupies.
Embedded text analysis would, for the sake of broad
interoperability and access, function in a wide variety
of modern browsers and would afford users access to
quantitative data about individual documents and, where
appropriate, the corpus of texts related to the present
document. Unlike other text analysis tools, an embedded
text analysis interface will not sever the connection between
the reading text and the data, but will foreground
it. For reasons presumably similar to those underlying
the embedding of the electric washing machine into the
average home in the 20th century, embedded text analysis
will emphasize the convenience of the user. From the
perspective of the user, embedded text analysis features
should seem clear and obvious.
Technical challenges abound, ranging from how best to
embed complex data results in ways that are easily understood
and do not interfere with reading to identifying
in advance the analytical procedures that a user might
want to invoke. Such procedures would probably include
lemma information, part of speech, word n-grams, character n-grams, lemma n-grams, word and character
counts, keyword and n-gram in context visualizations,
word distribution, term frequency–inverse document
frequency (TF-IDF) data, sentence lengths, and more.
An approach to data visualization using embedded text
analysis techniques is innovative, both in terms of development
and deployment, and anticipates future needs for
emerging methods of looking at large sets of text data.
As more humanities content is digitized and made available—
the entire Text Creation Partnership collection of
texts will be freely available in 2015—there will be more
demand for tools to perform increasingly sophisticated
analyses. The historic manner of representing text data
as a static graphic element, rooted in print publishing and
its once-necessary reliance upon static representations of
data, will yield to a growing need for dynamic user-directed
visualizations embedded precisely where they are
needed: inside the reading field itself.
References:
1. Unsworth, J. (2006) “Digital Humanities Beyond
Representation,” University of Central
Florida, Orlando, FL November 13, 2006.
http://www3.isrl.uiuc.edu/~unsworth/UCF/
2. Answers Corporation (2006) “NYTimes.com
Integrates Answers.com Reference Content.”
3. TokenX was designed, at the University of Nebraska-
Lincoln’s Center for Digital Research in the Humanities,
to provide an easy-to-use web-based interface for text
analysis and visualization that supports both XML and
TEI texts.","txt","2","",""
"1033","10","The Ghost in the Manuscript: Hyperspectral Text Recovery and Segmentation","1","The condition of medieval manuscripts ranges from
those that are fully legible to those which can only
be read in part, and their legibility is determined by
the manner in which they were preserved and treated
throughout the ages. In some cases deterioration is due
to processes such as fading or staining; in others, the
text may have been interfered with in some way. For
instance, in the Irish context, the oldest surviving manuscript
written entirely in Irish, Leabhar na hUidhre (12th
century) was subject to part-erasure and rewriting by a
scribe who was active at some point between the 12th
and the 14th centuries. The Yellow Book of Lecan (circa
1400) was overwritten in part by an antiquarian scholar
active in the 18th century, while the use of chemical
agents to enhance readings by scholars working in the
19th century has had a long-term detrimental effect on a
number of other manuscripts. Two central research questions
of interest to all scholars, therefore, are:
• To what extent is text recovery in key medieval texts
possible using current technologies, e.g. palimpsest,
fading, deliberate removal?
• To what is it possible to establish irrefutable scientific
evidence for interpretation of questioned documents,
e.g., identify the different hands (inks)?
In this paper, we illustrate how to provide answers to
these questions using modern scientific techniques and
emerging forensic technology, i.e. hyperspectral imaging
[1] and associated image processing techniques [2].
The acquisition of a hyperspectral scanner by An Foras Feasa (AFF), a Forensic XP-4010, has presented an
opportunity to subject damaged or illegible texts to a
modern scientific re-examination. The scanner has the
potential to read various different layers of a manuscript
in a manner not possible to the human eye and to analyse
elements of its composition. As such it presents the
possibility of retrieving text that has been lost through
fading, staining, overwriting or other forms of erasure.
In addition, it offers the prospect of distinguishing different
ink-types, and furnishing us with details of the
manuscript’s composition, all of which are refinements,
which can be used to answer questions about date and
provenance. This process marks a new departure for
the study of manuscripts and may provide answer many
long-standing questions posed by palaeographers and by
scholars in a variety of disciplines. Furthermore, through
text retrieval, it holds out the prospect of adding considerably
to the existing corpus of texts and to providing
very many new research opportunities for coming generations
of scholars. In this introductory paper on hyperspectral
imaging we concentrate on two key processes:
text recovery and text segmentation.
Methodology
The investigative and analytic methods described here
are based on a novel and highly specialised technique
called Hyperspectral Imaging. Hyperspectral imaging
is a non-destructive optical technique that measures reflectance
(fraction of light reflected) characteristics of
a document with high spatial and spectral resolution.
An hyperspectral imaging device records a sequence
of digital images of the selected manuscript area (with
maximum dimensions 50 mm x 50 mm) illuminated
with monochromatic light from a tuneable light source
from 350 nm (near-UV) through the entire visible range
and up to 2400 nm (infrared). The value of each image
pixel in the recorded image sequence represents an accurate
measurement of the reflectance curve for a tiny,
13 micron square, area on the document. Analysis of all
spectral curves, essentially a cube of information, provides
information about the physical characteristics of
questioned manuscripts.
Hyperspectral imaging, together with modern twodimensional
spectrum software and three-dimensional
image and visualisation software, provides modern
researchers working in the field of historic documents
analysis with opportunities for forensic examination that
were heretofore unavailable. Methodologically, there are
two main fields of applications of this technique: (i) the
extraction of relevant historic, diplomatic and palaeographic
information from documents and (ii) the investigation
of the impact of environmental conditions on document
condition and of degradation effects on writing
materials and substrates. In particular, reflectance curves
found in different sections of the manuscripts can be
compared with each other in order to determine whether
different types of inks had been used during text composition
or to identify modifications that occurred during
the manuscripts’ history. Light spectroscopy analyses
may also be conducted to aid recovery and segmentation.
Fluorescence occurs when an object emits a high
wavelength (low energy light) following illumination by
a shorter wavelength (higher energy light) due to molecular
absorption of part of the incident light. Furthermore,
the spectral curves may be compared with those in
international databases containing typical ink spectra to
determine and date the kind of ink or pigment used. The
image cube recorded using the technique may be used to
enhance the visibility of hidden material such as palimpsest
or erased text.
This methodology for manuscript analysis is of significant
interest to archivists. For example, The National
Archive of the Netherlands in The Hague recently commissioned
the development of a dedicated hyperspectral
imaging instrument specifically designed to analyze
archival documents and to monitor their aging process
during storage and exhibitions. Furthermore, at the 16th
ICA (International Congress on Archives) Congress in
Kuala Lumpur from 21–27 July 2008, two special sessions
were devoted to the application of hyperspectral
imaging for historic document analysis and its use in
providing quantitative, objective criteria for balancing
the competing interests of document preservation and
presentation. This proposal is therefore informed by current
international research and best practice in document
analysis and textual imaging.
Example: Text Recovery of hidden text
Figure 1(a) shows a 16C book cover that has become
degraded with time and contains mould in places. The
interior cover’s structure, shown in Figure 1(b) consists
of an underlying text which has been pasted over with
a clean blank faced sheet of paper. Using fluorescence
spectroscopy, i.e, light induced fluorescence in the pages
it is possible to reveal the underlying text as shown in
Figure 1(c) and 1(d). Here, we will describe the underlying
fluorescence and reflectance spectroscopy principles
and techniques used to reveal hidden text of this nature,
and in several other examples. A complete description of
the techniques used for this particular recovery is given
in another paper in this conference session.
Example: Text Segmentation of three
different inks
The general objectives of cursive text segmentation include tasks such as word spotting, text/image alignment,
authentication and extraction of specific fields [3]. An
important step associate with all of these tasks document
segmentation into text lines. In general, this is diffcult
due of the low quality and the complexity of these documents,
and automatic text line segmentation is an open
research field. In general, sophisticated image processing
of single-image documents is the norm [3].Here we
describe recent approach to the segmentation problem,
which we refer to as hyperspectral segmentation; the
technique is based on the separation and segmentation
of differing inks by recording and analysing the reflectance
properties of different inks. This technique is particularly
useful for the segmentation of texts that have
been edited by various authors over a long time period.
It is also possible to date the editions by comparing the
segments with known dates, or using repositories containing
hyperspectral properties of different materials
(e.g. inks, paper, etc.). Figure 2, below, shows the results
of the technique when used to segment some text with
two later annotations (giving three primary additions or
segments). Three different inks are used, although the
all appear similar in visible light, as shown in Figure
2(a). Figure 2(b) shows the reflectance curves for the
two annotations and how it is possible, using appropriate
image processing to colour-code the different inks.
Figure 2(c)demonstrates how it is possible to foreground
the original text, and Figure 2(d) demonstrates that is is
possible to isolate, or segment, the annotations. A complete
description of the potential for these hyperspectral
segmentation techniques for dating and segmenting the
Göttingen kundige bok 2 is given in another paper in this
conference session.
Conclusion
The recovery of illegible or deleted text, the analysis and
dating of ink-types, and the minute analyses of scribal
hands, segmentation of cursive test, are activities in
palaeographic and manuscript studies, and their subsequent
textual encoding. This abstract describes how hyperspectral
imaging can be used to perform quality text
recovery, segmentation and dating of historical documents.
Our paper will provide a complete overview of
the acquisition (reflectance spectroscopy, fluorescence)
, computational and segmentation techniques used for
(i) a 16C pastedown cover, and (ii) a three-ink example
typical of that found in Göttingen kundige bok 2.
References
1. Chang, C.I.: Hyperspectral Imaging: Techniques for
Spectral Detection and Classification. Kluwer Academic,
New York, N. Y. (2003) . 2. Chang, C.I.: Hyperspectral Imaging: Signal Processing
Algorithm Design and Anal¬¨ysis. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, N. Y. (2007)
3. Likforman-Sulem, L., Zahour, A., Taconet, B.: Text
line segmentation of historical documents: a survey. International
Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition
9(2-4) (April 2006) 123–138.","txt","2","",""
"1034","10","The Electronic Broadway Project","1","Many of those whose profession or study is now
in the field of musical theater recount a similar
childhood memory of listening to a library copy of a
cast album while following along with a printed libretto.
Although this is an awkward and incomplete way
of experiencing the historical works of musical theater,
it still is the only way many fans of the genre not lucky
enough to live close to New York can read the text of
new Broadway musicals. Commercially released filmed
versions of stage shows are relatively rare and do not allow
for the careful close reading of the texts students of
other forms of drama take for granted. The Electronic
Broadway Project, based at the Maryland Institute for
Technology in the Humanities (MITH) and funded by an
NEH digital humanities startup grant, seeks to provide
a better way of accessing the important texts of musical
theater for the next generation of fans, scholars, and artists
who may even now be pausing their MP3 player and
rereading a particularly moving lyric.
In this paper, I will describe the technical, legal, and
scholarly challenges the project team faced and overcame
as we strove to create an electronic edition of the
new Broadway musical Glory Days. Glory Days was, in
many ways, an ideal first title for our series as it poses
many difficult research questions with implications that
extend beyond musical theater studies alone. Like so
many new literary works, Glory Days was mostly written
using digital tools (word processors, digital music
recorders, etc) and so the primary sources are, in many
cases, preserved as bits on magnetic media rather than as
ink on paper. The creators kept meticulous archives of
the various versions of their script during rehearsals, and
so the work of the critical editor lies in organizing and
collating electronic, rather than manuscript drafts (a process
which will become increasingly common in the future
of editing and textual criticism). The creative team
also preserved their instant message and email discussions,
thereby creating a record of the creative process
theater historians of earlier periods would envy.
Further, the collaborative nature of musical theater creates
a situation in which many different parties hold
copyrights for the component elements, each of whom
must be convinced to allow access to their work for educational purposes. This is a difficult problem, and one
perhaps best solved by clear precedents that shift the cultural
atmosphere from one of paralyzing fear of piracy to
an understanding that open access to the texts of musical
theater can promote interest in licensed productions of
their works. The copyright holders of Glory Days have
generously given us permission to produce a free and
publicly accessible edition of their work, an act that, we
hope, will set such a precedent.
Of course, the biggest technical challenge in producing
an electronic edition of a musical is finding an intuitive
way to represent and link the various languages (musical,
verbal, and terpsichorean) the form uses to communicate.
The web-based interface the project team
designed will allow the user to have complete control
over the amount of information available on the screen
at all times. Any number of windows containing various
objects from the digital collection can be opened (or
closed) as the user requires. Clicking on a lyric or a bar
of music will start the associated recording playing from
exactly that point in the song. Notes in the text will link
to critical commentary, images of artifacts in the archive
related to a particular line, or variants in other versions.
Actors will be able to choose to display only the lines
and cue lines for a particular character in order to learn
their lines. Musicians, in future versions if not in this
prototype, will be able to play along with a digital orchestra
that includes every part but their own.
Although our edition of Glory Days will focus on the text
and music of the work, we will also consider the difficult
problem of representing the visual elements of the piece
and design our interface with this sort of extensibility in
mind. How, for instance, does one present a scholarly
edition of a dance number? Is there an inexpensive way
to digitally capture and render motion in order to create
an accurate transcription of dance in the same way that
text and staves now encode spoken words and music?
Because musicals tend to privilege spectacle and are often
developed with the limitations and possibilities of a
particular theater in mind, the performance space itself
should be considered a part of the piece, but how does
one highlight this spatial component of a work in an edition
(electronic or otherwise)? How should the performance
of music and dance best be linked to their coded
representation on scores and choreographers notes? In
this paper I will explore such questions and describe the
project teams best plans for answering them in phase two
of our project.","txt","2","",""
"1035","10","The Shakespeare Quartos Archive and TEI-P5","1","The Shakespeare Quartos Archive will make available
every extant copy of the quartos printed prior
to 1641, starting with Hamlet. We will further provide
transcripts, marked in TEI P5, of each of the copies and
a state of the art web-based interface that will permit users
to view any number of quartos at once and create
their own exhibits and annotations based on items they
locate in the collection. In this paper I will discuss the
challenges of using TEI P5 for a dynamic, interactive
image-based edition.
We decided to use TEI for the Shakespeare Quartos Archive
(henceforth called SQA) for the predictable reasons—
the advancement of a the common standard with
the concomitant potential for interoperability of the data
with a variety of interfaces and the promise of data persistence
across systems over time. We hoped that the
page-image features of the P5 standard (e.g. facsimile,
surface, and zones tags) would make up for what was
sorely lacking in earlier iterations of the standard. We
were, as anyone who has worked extensively with the
standard might predict, disappointed but not despairing.
I do not regret the decision to use TEI P5 for the archive.
There are, after all, few reasonable alternatives at present.
However, it is clear that TEI has not yet sufficiently
evolved the ability to encode data in images with even
the flexibility of the early versions of HTML. In this paper
I will discuss three functions in particular that proved
unnecessarily difficult to implement: processing structurally
coded XML for display in a page-centric interface,
identifying regions within images, and integrating
user-generated annotations into the data model of TEI.
My first complaint is more of a quibble than a real problem,
but it is one I know many share. The current zone
tag allows only for rectangular regions. Lou Bernard
and others on the various TEI listservs have argued that
this is all that is really necessary and that other XML
schemas, like SVG, can be imported to handle anything
else. I appreciate the desire for simplicity in the schema,
but I question whether providing for a very limited shape
(the rectangle) and then forcing users to import entirely
new schemas to achieve the sort of functionality allowable
even by HTML is really all that simple. I would disagree with, but could respect, a decision to leave shape
descriptions out of TEI altogether; such a decision, at
least, would be consistent with the stated goal of simplicity.
But, surely, if the standard is going to natively
support one and only one sort of shape, a set of three
or more coordinate-pairs defining a polygon is a better
choice. Of course, for curves and circles this might also
be insufficient, but it is at least possible to approximate a
circle with a series of points. I do not know how to make
a circle with a square.
Additionally, as in so many projects, the problem of
overlapping hierarchies has plagued the encoding and
processing of the Shakespeare Quartos Archive. SQA
presents the user with a desktop-like environment of
draggable, resizable panels that can display, for a given
page in a quarto, either a digital image or a textual transcript.
The user, through the use of navigational buttons,
can advance forward through the quarto, reading the
page images or the transcripts in order. Such an interface
is relatively common in image-based editions, but
seems needlessly complicated to produce in TEI where
pages, in order to solve problems of overlapping hierarchies,
are usually represented as empty milestones. This
is a familiar problem in TEI encoding, of course, and has
proven so bothersome as to be the subject of a special
interest group of the organization. Various attempts at
solving this problem through segmented tags or concurrent
hierarchies of various sorts are still being discussed,
but the use of an empty milestone tag for page breaks is,
while not a universally accepted solution, probably the
most common one.
Milestones for page breaks make a great deal of sense
when the page division is perceived by the audience as a
vestigial interruption in the data stream, useful only for
those interested in the physical properties of the analog
format represented by the digital surrogate. However, in
the case of an image-based edition, the page is in many
ways the central unit of data organization. In order to return
all of the relevant XML for a current page, and then
transform this XML into HTML, it is necessary to suppress
the text not between these breaks while preserving
the structure of the XML document tree. This can be a
resource intensive and time-consuming process which is
not natively supported by XSL most DOM processors.
Ultimately, we wrote a script to strip out all of the text
nodes not located between the desired page breaks, find
the lowest common ancestor of both page breaks, then
transform this ancestor node into HTML using an XSL
transformation. This process took far too long to be acceptable
for the dynamic web environment we required,
and so we finally resorted to preprocessing the XML
into a series of HTML pages to be loaded as needed via
AJAX calls.
Further, in the Shakespeare Quartos interface, we will
allow users to add their own “tags” to regions of text
or image. While this data will ultimately be stored in a
database, it seems logical that the user-generated annotations
should also be represented in TEI. Unfortunately,
even the new P5 guidelines remain solidly rooted in the
pre-web 2.0 world. The user/reader of a TEI document
is allowed to passively absorb the text, but is not allowed
to comment on it (at least in the same language
as the text being described). Of course, some of this is
built into the relatively static nature of XML on the web.
XML files tend to be static; databases are what are modified.
Still, without a standard way of representing annotations
of TEI across systems, we are consigned to the
same sorts of idiosyncratic, interface-specific solutions
that TEI theoretically claims to overcome.
Of course, user annotations are not an easy thing to encode.
My earlier problems with page breaks seem positively
simple when compared with the conflicting hierarchies
that necessarily ensue when we allow users to
generate tags. Both problems force us to look hard at
the solutions suggested by the members of our community
concerned with overlap, and think very hard about
the possibility of completely restructuring the language
standards to account for our very non-hierarchical data
sets. My personal preference is for standoff markup. In
this method, the content is separated from the XML tree.
The tags point to positions, labeled either through milestones
in the content or through identifying the start and
end offset of the range of characters that are described
by a particular tag. The usual objection to this method is
the very real problem that a single addition or deletion of
a character in the text area will break the entire system.
To solve this, I recommend that the TEI community
develop a TEI-compiler that turns “normal” XML into
standoff markup. A TEI editor can write the mark up
the text in the usual way, and then, as part of the validation/
publication process, compile the XML. Any change
to the document requires recompilation, of course, but
I believe the slight slowing of the revision process may
actually encourage archiving and preservation of earlier
drafts. This, in turn, will make the citation of our online
work an easier matter. Too often fellow scholars are
forced to cite versions of our digital work that no longer
exists because a quick update and “Save” obliterated the
object of their reference. In the SQA, we will represent
user annotations in structured XML that identifies the
author of the comment along with whatever biographical
information he or she chooses to provide, and then
include a link to the file, offset, and length that is the subject of the note. This is only possible, because any
published version of XML will persist even if the XML
is later updated. If transcripts and XML were modified
without cost or record, a user who annotates our texts
could never be sure that her XML is pointing to the text
she means to comment on.
The revisions to the TEI standards in the P5 update represent
an important step in the right direction, but I believe
they are no where near as expansive as they should
have been to bring TEI into the 2.0 web that now serves
as the primary distribution mechanism for our work. In
the course of developing the SQA, we have been forced
to cobble together non-standard methodologies to work
with our TEI-compliant XML. It is my hope that we can
design the next iteration of TEI with an eye towards true
standardization.","txt","2","",""
"1036","10","Burying Dead Projects: Depositing the Globalization Compendium","1","Introduction How do you end a project? Usually in our conferences
we talk about imagining projects, starting
them, getting funding, gaining respect, managing them
and their research outcomes – but how often do we think
about their ends, how we close them down and leave our
digits behind for others. In this paper we propose to discuss
the ends of a particular digital project, the SSHRC
funded Globalization and Autonomy online Compendium.
In the paper we will do the following:
1. Provide background to the project.
2. Demonstrate the major digital outcome of the project,
the Globalization Compendium.
3. Discuss the problem of ending and how the project
has been deposited.
4. And conclude by talking about the challenges of
closing projects gracefully.
Project Background
The Globalization and Autonomy Online Compendium
was one of two major coordinated outcomes of the Globalization
and Autonomy project. The other outcome
was a 10 volume academic book series being published
by UBC Press. The project was supported by an MCRI
grant of $2.5 million from the Social Sciences and Humanities
Research Council that was awarded in 2002. [1]
The project was led by William Coleman at McMaster
University, and involved over forty co-investigators in
twelve universities across Canada and another twenty
academic contributors around the world, not to mention
the graduate students funded and staff. Unlike
some projects, the digital component was woven in
from the beginning. It was written in, budgeted, and reviewed.
This included a review of the online Compendium by UBC press as part of the review of the book
series. We also promised that the online component
would be deposited and budgeted for that process. [2]
The core research objective of the project was “To investigate
the relationship between globalization and the
processes of securing and building autonomy.” The project
was intended and administered to understand globalization
in a collaborative and interdisciplinary way that
avoided the often political and economic focus of globalization
research. Hence the “autonomy” in the title - to
explore globalization and resistance to globalization.
Demonstration
We will demonstrate the following aspects of the Online
Compendium in order to illustrate some of the challenges
faced when depositing it:
• Home page: we will discuss the scope of the Compendium
• Connection to Volumes: we will discuss how the
Compendium and print volumes are connected
• Types of documents: we will show the different
types of documents included and how they are
linked. There are articles, position papers, summaries,
glossary articles and a bibliographic database
• Articles: we will show how the design of the dynamically
generated site allows different views to
be generated from the raw XML to PDF
• Bibliographic database: we will discuss the issues
around maintaining a central bibliographic database
that is changed as papers are submitted and encoded
Digital humanists can probably imagine how we built
this, but we need to review the structure of the project
to understand what it is that we want to bury and
the challenges inherent in the deposit process. Most
of the content in the Compendium was written by participants
and submitted as MS Word files for editing.
We decided early not to force contributors to learn our
XML scheme, a scheme which was developed through
a consultation process based on the TEI guidelines. The
editor and assistants carried out the encoding which
also allowed us to add consistent links, especially for
glossary articles of which there are over 200. We also
used a custom search and replace batch tool to update
the links regularly as we got more glossary entries.
The TEI XML files were parsed, verified, and processed
when uploaded through the administrative interface.
Metadata was extracted for the databases to generate
tables of content dynamically and the files were indexed
for searching. Bibliographic entries were the one form of
content entered directly through a web interface. At an
early stage, we identified the challenge of synchronizing
a single bibliographic database for the project with
all the bibliographies in the individual position papers,
articles and glossary entries as they were submitted. As
documents were submitted, the vagaries of individual
authorial preferences, not unexpectedly, led to slightly
different information for the same reference. We needed
a way to normalize the bibliographies. What we constructed
may seem Byzantine at first, but through application
you will see how it makes sense.
1. When an editor encodes the bibliography of an article
she doesn’t do it in the XML file. She enters any
new records into the online database and checks any
entries that already exist against the existing record.
2. If there is a discrepancy she follows it up and corrects
the database entry if needed.
3. Once an entry is checked in the database she generates
a stub tag with a key that corresponds to the
database record. That is put into the XML file for the
article rather than a full record.
4. When the XML version of the article is uploaded
to the Compendium the system replaces the stubs
with a full TEI <bibl> entry from the database.
Thus each article has a full bibliography marked up
in XML at the end should we deposit the articles
independently of the bibliographic database. The
Compendium project team felt this was important
because they didn’t want their writings dependent
on other data for completeness.
5. In the uploading we also keep online all the XML
files with just the stubs. This allows us to periodically
rerun the process that adds the full bibliography
and replaces the full XML files thereby eliminating
any inconsistencies that might occur as we correct
entries over time. In effect we regenerate the content
on a regular basis.
The Compendium itself in order to be experienced therefore
is a system with the following components:
• XML files of the content
• A MySQL bibliographic database
• A metadata database of the content for generating pages and for searching
• A full text index for searching the text
• The code that handles the dynamic generation of the
site, the searching, linking and the XSL transforms.
• Some HTML pages, and CSS stylesheets
• And various images that are embedded in pages.
Depositing What?
The XML files are not the site, and therein lies the problem
of burying the whole Compendium. The experience
of the Compendium is not only in the individual
articles, or even in the bibliographic data – it is in the
interaction between these mediated by the code and in
the user experience. The glossary is a prime example
– the meaning is not just in the text of entries, but in
the searchable whole and web linking articles to others.
At the start we thought it would be trivial to deposit the
Compendium. We promised that we would encode the
content following TEI guidelines and then deposit it at
the Oxford Text Archives and other similar digital archives,
but of course, the XML is not the Compendium.
The Compendium is a work of its own that is more than
the sum of the XML files. How do we deposit a system?
Why do we make such a big deal about ending the
project and what exactly is the problem? The simple
answer is that the funding body requires projects to
deposit their research data. To quote from the SSHRC
Research Data Archiving Policy, “All research data collected
with the use of SSHRC funds must be preserved
and made available for use by others within a reasonable
period of time.” If you accept the research funds you
are obligated to do so, even though in a survey SSHRC
conducted as part of the National Research Data Archive
Consultation they discovered that very few had.
Another answer is that this is what we should do. Projects
should be designed from the beginning to die gracefully
leaving as a legacy the research data developed in
a form usable in the future. That is what scholarly encoding
following best practice guidelines like the TEI
is about – encoding your data so that others can understand
the decisions and be able to reuse it. We are
fooling ourselves if we think projects will survive over
time as living, well maintained projects. Ask yourself
how many projects you have buried without a service.
SSHRC provides some of the reasons for archival deposit:
Sharing data strengthens our collective capacity to meet
academic standards of openness by providing opportunities
to further analyze, replicate, verify and refine research
findings. Such opportunities enhance progress within
fields of research as well as support the expansion of inter-
disciplinary research. In addition, greater availability
of research data will contribute to improved training for
graduate and undergraduate students, and, through the
secondary analysis of existing data, make possible significant
economies of scale. Finally, researchers whose work
is publicly funded have a special obligation to openness
and accountability. [3]
They don’t say it explicitly, but one reason to deposit is
that our research itself is of its time and grist for the mill
of future researchers who may want to study us. Funders
expects us to be open so that others can study the research
process once we are dead, buried and history – a
rather sobering prospect, but one of the features of an
emerging philosophy of open research that advocates
for exposing the research process rather than hiding the
mess behind authoritative results.
Depositing the Compendium
The challenge then is determining what exactly are we
to deposit and where? We conducted an environmental
scan to attempt to identify best practices and ascertain
what others have been doing to address this digital project
archival challenge. Our research and recommendations
were compiled and made available publicly on
the TADA (Text Analysis Developers Association)
wiki. [2] We should however warn that like all wikis
this is a working document that was written during the
process and has numerous dead ends or rough notes.
We identified the following separate types of knowledge
that we might try to deposit:
• Content – this is the obvious one – the original
research articles encoded in XML and other documents
created by the project.
• Code – also obvious, but difficult. Why do it? Because
in the code lies the interactivity and interface.
This includes the XSLT code that generates the interface.
The point, however, is that only with the
code could one recreate the site as a dynamic site.
• Process – this is even less obvious, but the Compendium
is the result of various research, programming
and editorial processes, many of which are
documented in instructions to authors and coders
and other administrative documents, including
documentation around the deposit process itself like
the wiki mentioned. The process whereby we handle synchronizing bibliographic entries is a case in
point – it made a difference to the content and isn’t
apparent in the final XML files which hide the process.
These materials document the Compendium as
a collaborative writing project.
• The Interactive Experience – ultimately, for reasons
that will be clear below, we also document
and deposit information about the experience of
the Compendium as an interactive work so that a
future user could imagine what it was like to use
the Compendium online. We chose to document this
with a narrative with screen shots of typical use of
the Compendium.
The Solution
So what was the recommended solution?
1. First, we decided to deposit these four components
separately – content, code, process, and experience,
each in the best format we can find. This is easy for
the content, we designed it from the start in XML
which is, to a certain extent, self-documenting, but
in the case of code it is less clear.
2. All the materials are output to a flat-file format, by
which I mean that things like the bibliographic database
will be output to XML. The code is commented
so that it could be compiled and documentation
generated in HTML or XML in an industry standard
fashion, although we must note, these standards
are for documentation, not preservation. The point
is that the documentation will be embedded in the
code and could be extracted to produce documentation
assuming that future computer scientists recognize
how to extract documentation.
3. We are also creating “READ-ME” documents describing
the environment and arrangement needed
to run the code. We realize this means we are not
depositing a working system that someone could
download, install, and run to recreate the Compendium.
The databases are not being stored in their
native format, they will have to be regenerated and
we are not creating a compressed file of the whole
site. Instead we are trying to deposit something that
could be used to reliably recreate the current Compendium.
The reason for this is simple, over the
long term the chances that someone can recreate the
hardware and software platform on which an installation
could work will approach zero. Therefore, we
are better off providing something that can be understood
and reprogrammed, if needed, than something
that can’t be install anyway. A further reason
is, as noted above, that the purpose of depositing is
not only so people can recreate the original site, but
also so they can study the Compendium and reuse it
in unanticipated ways.
4. I should add that we also not trying to deposit something
in a form that the interactivity could be maintained.
There are models for preserving interactive
objects so that they can be easily run on emulators.
The most obvious is to move all the interactivity
into XSL or other XML standards for interactive
processing like SMIL. The reason we are not going
that route is that it is too expensive, probably won’t
capture all of the interactivity, and we have little
confidence in any of the candidate standards. Does
anyone remember HyTime? It was supposed to do
for hypermedia what the TEI did for texts. Instead
we are depositing a description with screen shots
of the experience of using the Compendium so that
someone who also had the code and content could at
the very least understand the experience, and if they
chose to reimplement our code they could recreate
the experience.
5. Third, we will deposit the materials in multiple
forms including a printout on archival grade paper,
multiple copies of archival grade CDs or DVDs, and
direct data deposit to online depositories.
6. Fourth, we will deposit the materials at multiple
depositories from the McMaster University Library
to the National Library of Canada which is in the
process of implementing the National Data Archive
Consultation reports.
We believe that by depositing in multiple forms, in multiple
locations, and with rich documentation of the process
and experience we will have buried the Compendium
in suitable open casket, ready for reanimation or
reuse. Let the worms loose. [4]
Conclusion
This brings us back to graceful ends. There are other
ends to the Compendium than its deposit. One end, that
is not in the scope of this paper, but may be of interest
is managing the review of the Compendium so that
those of us who worked on the digital design, but are not
published in the book series are recognized. When the
project negotiated with publishers for the print volumes,
one reason we selected UBC Press was that they agreed
to conduct a peer review of the Compendium along with
the print series. We often talk about how digital work
isn’t reviewed, which causes trouble in the academy, but
in this case the Compendium was reviewed and, in effect, accepted for publication as a companion to the print
series. We therefore have an obligation to the Press to
deposit the Compendium, an unanticipated side-effect.
The end of a project is not the death of the research. It
is tempting to try to extend the life of a project beyond
its initial funding as online materials can be so easily
updated and added to. We suspect many projects don’t
deposit their work because there is always more to be
done and the possibility of another grant. The result can
be a long and drawn out death where nothing is saved because
any day the project could be brought back to life.
We have found it strangely liberating to run a process of
deposit and believe it can actually release the research to
imagine new projects. What is missing is stories about
how you can reasonably deposit a project even if you
intend to continue the research. We will conclude by
briefly describing how the Compendium is the seed for
a Global Globalization Research Dialogue project that is
proposing to build a social network of researchers that
includes researchers in countries affected by globalization,
but excluded from research circles. Burying the
Compendium allows us to imagine a new project with
a life of its own.
Notes
[1] See www.globalautonomy.ca for the Globalization
Compendium and details about the project.
[2] This deposit process is openly documented
at Archiving the Compendium, http://tada.
mcma s t e r. c a / v i ew/Ma i n / P r o b l emOv e r v i ew
[3] See the SSHRC Research Data Archiving Policy at
http://www.sshrc.ca/web/apply/policies/edata_e.asp
[4] It should be noted that at the time of writing this proposal
we have not completed the process, but anticipate
that the final deposit will take place assuming our partners
like the National Library have suitable depositories
in place in time. We note, however, that when you search
for depositories, there are precious few in operation. The
Oxford Text Archive, for example, seems to no longer
take submissions.","txt","2","",""
"1037","10","T-REX: a Text Analysis Research Evaluation eXchange","1","A common complaint about tool development in the
digital humanities is that scholars appear to be reinventing
the concordance over and over. The concern
is that there is no coherent venue where tools, methods,
and algorithms are compared, improved and documented.
One model that has been discussed, and to
some extent pursued, is the development of formalized
mechanisms for the peer review of tools [1]. Competitions
and exchanges are another way of advancing the
field. In the spring of 2008, the Text Analysis Developers’
Alliance (TADA) organized a digital humanities
tools competition called T-REX [2] to assist the digital
humanities community in its efforts to make meaningful
technological and scholarly advancements. Based on our
T-REX experience and that of MIREX, we will present
the case that competitions and exchanges can provide an
engaging alternative to peer review for methodological
advancement. The paper will:
1. Discuss the first competition run in 2008 and highlight
some of the recognized contributions that are
being presented separately as a poster collection.
2. Discuss similar competitions and exchanges, especially
the Music Information Retrieval Evaluation
eXchange (MIREX) and how they work to build a
community of developers who advance a field.
3. Present the evolution of the next T-REX 2 competition
and describe the process whereby the community
can build a shared agenda for development.
The 2008 TADA Research Evaluation
eXchange (T-REX)
The first T-REX was designed to evolve into a model like MIREX (Music Information Retrieval Evaluation
eXchange) [3] and TREC (text retrieval domain) [4],
see below. The first T-REX was therefore designed to
seed the community with starting ideas for competition,
evaluation and exchange so that a community could
form. The response to T-REX was positive and among
the many submissions received, judges selected winners
from the following categories:
• Best New Web-based Tool
• Best New Idea for a Web-based Tool
• Best New Idea for Improving a Current Web-Based
Tool
• Best New Idea for Improving the Interface of the
TAPoR Portal
• Best Experiment of Text Analysis Using High Performance
Computing
The categories were deliberately chosen to cover not
only working tools, but also ideas, designs and preliminary
experiments. A primary objective of T-REX is to
encourage the involvement and collaboration of programmers,
designers, and users. We wanted to get ideas
for tools and extensions to tools as much as get tools
submissions in order to involve a broad base. This approach
also recognized the importance of prototyping
ideas over the deliver of finished production tools.
In total we had 11 submissions from individuals and teams.
The proposals were read and judged by a panel of three
judges and the adjudication panel chose to recognize seven
of the submissions as contributing to the imagination
of the field. A poster session is being organized in parallel
with this paper to show the seven recognized projects.
T-REX had a number of initial sponsors including the
TAPoR project [5], SHARCNET [6], IMIRSEL [7], Open
Sky Solutions [8] and the Digital Humanities Quarterly
[9]. These sponsors have different reasons for participating,
but all were interested in the long-term evolution
of the competition. For example, SHARCNET, a high
performance computing consortium in Southern Ontario
is supportive of the competition because it is a way for
the consortium to reach out to the humanities and they
hope to be able to support competition activities specifically
on high performance computing applications in the
humanities. Likewise we hope to find a way to work with
DHQ to circulate recognized ideas and competition-exchange
documentation.
About MIREX (Music Information
Retrieval Evaluation eXchange)
T-REX is modeling itself on MIREX [10], which was
first run in 2005. MIREX 2005 comprised 10 different
“challenges” (or “tasks” in the MIREX nomenclature)
and evaluated 86 individual algorithm submissions. MIREX
2008 represented the fourth iteration of the event
and evaluated 168 individual submissions divided over
18 different tasks. The two keys to the apparent success
of MIREX have been 1) its bottom-up involvement of the
broad MIR research community; and, 2) its integration
into the annual “life-cycle” of MIR research publication.
Each Winter, a new MIREX wiki is made available
where interested researchers post task proposals. Subcommunities
of interest coalesce around many of these
proposals (some also “wither on the vine”). The successful
sub-communities engage in very lively debate about
the nature of the proposed tasks. It is in these debates
about task definitions that concepts are clarified and
much of the real progress in MIR research can be seen
to be made manifest. By late Spring, the task definitions
have matured to include the creation of the common datasets,
the evaluation metrics to be used, and the input/
output formats for engaging the datasets. In the Summer,
those mature proposals that have a minimum of
three different participants are declared to part of MIREX.
Participants then submit their algorithms to the
IMIRSEL team at UIUC which are then run over July
and August. To reinforce the “exchange” notion that
underpins MIREX, each submitted algorithm must be
accompanied by an extended abstract that describes the
algorithm. By early Fall, the results of the task runs are
returned to the participants who must then update their
abstracts and have them posted on the MIREX wiki [11].
This timing is not arbitrary as it is designed to coincide
with the annual meeting of the International Conference
on Music Information Retrieval (ISMIR, the premiere
conference in MIR). MIREX has a special and very important
relationship with ISMIR. It is now established
practice that MIREX be given a dedicated half-day of
the conference schedule. This half-day includes a MIREX
plenary meeting that brings participants and general
community members together. It also includes a
poster session devoted exclusively to the presentation of
MIREX-evaluated algorithms. Participation in the MIREX
poster session is the “cost of entry” and is mandatory.
It is the combination of community debate and
clarification, evaluation of results, posting of algorithm
abstracts, plenary discussions and the poster-based interactions
that make MIREX so effective in driving the
growth and success of the MIR research agenda.
MIREX is a good model for T-REX because it is based in a arts computing community similar to that which has
a stake in text analysis. MIREX has a formula that recognizes
the needs of participants while also providing a
framework for review and outreach to the larger community.
How T-REX will evolve and continue
T-REX is evolving from a competition to a “evaluation
exchange” along the lines of MIREX. Competitions do
not allow the community to negotiate the challenges of
interest and then work towards them. Competitions do
not really encourage the comparing and contrasting of
algorithms. Instead competitions risk rewarding and promoting
a small number of teams with the resources to
create significant tools. For this reason we propose that
the next round of T-REX will be structured more as a CE
with the following sequence of events:
1. Developing the next round of challenges. The participants
from the previous round (2008) and new
interested parties participate in a round of discussions
aimed at developing a consensus about specific
text analysis challenges for the next exchange.
2. Developing the training and text materials. The
competition/exchange administrators have to develop
training and test materials for the new challenges.
3. Invitations to the challenge. Invitations and contest
materials have to be circulated.
4. Submissions gathered and tested. The submissions
have to be gathered and tested against the
original challenges.
5. Documentation of results. The results of the tests
have to be documented in a way that advances our
knowledge. And then it starts all over.
What is new in the next round is the first two steps of
developing a community that chooses the challenges
rather than the T-REX team choosing them. By inviting
participation in the development of the challenge
categories the activity becomes more of an exchange
of ideas about what should be done and what can be
done. The experience of MIREX has guided us on this.
A major issue with competitions and exchanges is their
administration. On top of significant administrative
work, they need non-trivial technical resources and expertise.
The Ad-hoc Authorship Attribution Competition
run by Patrik Juola in 2003-4 is good example of the
amount of effort that needs to be expended [11]. Juola
put ~500-700 person hours into developing training and
test materials and running his competition. Likewise MIREX
devotes several thousand person-hours to develop
training and test materials each year. Further Juola and
MIREX have to run the submitted tools against the test
materials and document the results in a way that helps
all involved. The tools submitted, despite the most stringent
criteria, never run just “out of the box.” Solutions to
these issues are being developed which include automated
web service resources and novel community-based
work distribution models.
Conclusions
Why run competitions or exchanges? The short answer
is threefold:
1. It provides tangible evidence of what has been and
therefore can be accomplished (i.e., helps overcome
the “reinventing the concordance” problem)
2. It creates a community of inquiry that can focus on
advancing the field together
3. It formally recognizes work done to advance the
field and documents it
In other words competition-exchanges can serve to recognize
work that is hard to recognize through traditional
peer review mechanisms, especially design work that
is not delivered in a production tool. Tool development
would seem to be one of those fields where peer review
is unlikely to work, partly because of the significant cost
of reviewing code. A competition-exchange reduces the
cost because it focuses each round on the algorithms and
code for a particular and defined focus and involves the
community in setting the focus. A competition-exchanges
works more like a juried art exhibit with an annual
theme where review happens communally. In effect a
competition-exchange becomes a community of peers
that manage review over time.
This paper will conclude with a call for participation in
T-REX 2.
Notes
[1] http://tada.mcmaster.ca/view/Main/PeerReviewCluster
[2] http://tada.mcmaster.ca/trex/
[3] http://www.music-ir.org/mirex/2009/index.php/
Main_Page [4] http://trec.nist.gov/
[5] http://portal.tapor.ca
[6] http://www.sharcnet.ca/
[7] http://www.music-ir.org/evaluation/
[8] http://openskysolutions.ca/
[9] http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq
[10] http://www.music-ir.org/mirexwiki
[11] http://www.music-ir.org/mirex/2008/index.php/MIREX2008_
Results
[12] http://www.mathcs.duq.edu/~juola/authorship_contest.
html","txt","2","",""
"1038","10","Ubiquitous Text Analysis","1","Introduction One of the problems facing e-text content publishers
and text analysis tool developers is how to connect
the appropriate tools with content. Early usability studies
around the TAPoR portal [1] suggest that having users
think first of the tool and then of the text is to forcibly reverse
the normal order of thought. Users do not think of
tools to which they bring texts, but instead like to look at
texts and call operations on what they see. Accordingly,
in this paper we will do three things:
1. We will present the usability case for privileging
texts over tools and presenting tools on the side, so
to speak.
2. We will review various interface models developed
by the TAPoR project and others for embedding
tools into content interfaces.
3. We will review the challenges of connecting tools
reliably to content, especially connecting tools to
large digital library collections. In this context we
will discuss technical and open source solutions to
the connection issues.
The Usability Case
Humanists are used to looking at documents; they are
not used to treating documents as tokens for processing
by tools. Interfaces for text analysis like that prototyped
in the Eye-ConTact project [2] that present a visual programming
environment where processes are connected
into a “pipe and flow” diagram are too abstract for most
humanists. The TAPoR (Text Analysis Portal for Research) workbench model is arguably less abstract, but
users work by selecting from a list of favorite texts and
a list of favorite tools that they run the texts through, a
process that effectively hides the texts. Usability interviews
conducted by Wendy Duff at the University of Toronto
Faculty of Information to help improve the portal
interface [1] led us to add an “Analyze This” view that
presents the text in one frame with appropriate tools in a
separate frame on the same screen. This solution, however,
is only useful where a user has gone to the trouble
to set up an account and define texts to study. We believe
that another promising strategy is to embed tools into
environments that already have texts, where there is a
lot of content already published dynamically and a tool
panel can be added to enhance reading.
Demonstration of Interface Models
TAPoR has been working with a number of projects to
provide embedded tools. One source of inspiration and
background research are the reading tools provided in
the Open Journal System of the Public Knowledge project
[3, 4]. At this point in the presentation we will demonstrate
the following:
1. The Toolbar in the Globalization and Autonomy
Compendium <http://www.globalautonomy.ca/>.
This was our first experiment with an embedded tool
bar. The code is a long span of JavaScript, CSS and
HTML that is placed in the stream that generates all
text pages from research summaries to position papers.
The tool bar appears discretely at the bottom of
the right hand navigation bar and is collapsible. This
is documented so others can use it, but unfortunately
the code tends to conflict with other CSS and JavaScript
so it has only been used on a few projects.
2. Digital Humanities Quarterly. For each tool in the
TAPoR portal and likewise for each tool from TAPoRware
(<http://taporware.mcmaster.ca>) we provide
example code to allow people to easily drop a
tool panel or drop-down menu that can call a tool.
This is the model that DHQ adopted and a dropdown
appears at the top of each article that transfers
the user to the appropriate TAPoRware page with
the appropriate URL inserted. Unfortunately the
code is still complex and difficult to implement.
3. FlashTAT. In order to avoid the problem of lots of
conflicting code we have been developing a You-
Tube-inspired Flash application called FlashTAT
(for Flash Text Analysis Tool) that can be embedded
with one <object> tag and which, because the interface
is handled by the Flash application, does not
conflict with existing CSS and JavaScript. This tool
also has the virtue that it can link directly to results,
in this case a list of high frequency words, so the
user can see those results and play with them rather
than having to invoke a tool to see anything. We believe
this is one of the more promising approaches
to providing content providers with an easy way to
embed tool interface, though we haven’t tested it
extensively.
4. Digital Texts 2.0. Another and more mature approach
is to experiment with emerging social plugin
architectures. We are convinced that in the long
run, especially for student and faculty portals (not
to mention scholarly publishing portals) we need to
have social tools that users can choose from and include
in their personal study space. Stéfan Sinclair
and Johnny Rodgers have developed with a Face-
Book plug-in called Digital Texts 2.0 which gives
users a social bibliography in FaceBook accounts.
The Challenge of Connecting Tools to
Content
The challenge of such embedded tool projects is magnified
if the tools are placed in large content collections.
Even in our smaller experiments we have had to think
about reliability and scale. Some of the challenges we
are currently addressing include:
Content producers will not embed tools if they are not
reliable and if they won’t scale. Typically, research tool
projects are not funded to run a large-scale service. One
solution is to give content producers a path from experimental
use, where the tool runs off our tool server, up to
giving them the code and helping them set up and run
their own tool server so that they can guarantee reliability,
or at least respond when the tools don’t work. One
disadvantage of handing off the code is that it makes
updating the tools difficult; another is that we can’t centrally
gather usage statistics.
Embedded tools, especially opaque ones that use Flash,
are difficult to customize to the design of the site they are
embedded in. A programmer comfortable with CSS and
HTML can adapt the look of tool bars like the one produced
for the Globalization Compendium. We have provided
some parameters to FlashTAT that allow its size
and colour scheme to be customized using a special CSS
file, but that undoes the advantage of a strategy where
one <object> tag gets you a tool bar.
Social plug-in models are not mature. The FaceBook
architecture is proprietary and FaceBook is not really a
content portal. Should Google’s OpenSocial be widely adopted by providers of portal frameworks then it is possible
that social tool developers could develop to one
Application Programming Interface (API) and be available
in multiple portals and social applications.
Differentiating content and tools can be important for
scholarly work, especially for quoting results and citing
resources. Although we generally want to embed tools as
seamlessly as possible into content, it is also important
to make clear the distinction between the two as users
might want to integrate them differently into their research.
The tool itself, when embedded, potentially becomes
part of the content and could confuse other tools.
The most difficult challenge ahead, however, is in overcoming
the differences between the digital library culture
that mounts and maintains online text collections
and the culture of text analysis tool development that
is more of a research craft. We need to find venues for
discussing what content providers want and connecting
them with research developers in the community.
In conclusion, we will demonstrate an experimental essay,
“Now Analyze That” [5] which presents a different
embedded tool paradigm where tools are woven right
into the prose of an essay, allowing users to recapitulate
analysis that led to claims in the essay. Such a model
connects not to content providers so much as to research
authors [6] and the model presents deeper challenges to
tool developers.
Notes
1. Cherry, J., & Duff, W. “Studying the usability of TAPoR,
A Text Analysis Portal for Research.” Faculty of
Information Studies, University of Toronto, Research
Day, March 10, 2006.
2. See Rockwell, Geoffrey and John Bradley. “Eye-Con-
Tact: Towards a New Design for Text-Analysis Tools.”
CHWP A.4, publ. February 1998. <http://www.chass.
utoronto.ca/epc/chwp/rockwell/>
3. Open Journal System, Public Knowledge Project.
<http://pkp.sfu.ca/?q=ojs>
4. Siemens, Ray et al. “A Study of Professional Reading
Tools for Computing Humanists.” A report at <http://
etcl-dev.uvic.ca/public/pkp_report/> that has been submitted
to DHQ for publication.
5. Rockwell, Geoffrey and Stéfan Sinclair. “Now Analyze
That”. <tada.mcmaster.ca/Main/NowAnalyzeThat>
6. Smith, Jeff. “Penelope: A Practical Creative Tool for
Integrating Authorship, Annotation, Analysis and the
Management of Ideas.” Paper presented at the Canadian
Symposium on Text Analysis (CaSTA) Conference:
New Directions in Text Analysis. A Joint Humanities
Computing, Computer Science Conference at University
of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, October 16-18, 2008.
Links
TAPoRware: <taporware.mcmaster.ca>
TAPoR Portal: <portal.tapor.ca>
Digital Texts 2.0: <tada.mcmaster.ca/Main/DigitalTexts2>
FlashTAT: <tada.mcmaster.ca/Main/FlashTAT>
Globalization and Autonomy Compendium: <www.globalautonomy.
ca/>
OpenSocial: <code.google.com/apis/opensocial/>
Ubiquity <wiki.mozilla.org/Labs/Ubiquity>","txt","2","",""
"1039","10","Gen Y Teaching Gen Y","1","In the August issue of Adbusters Magazine, Douglas
Haddow claims that the new, twenty-first century
counterculture is the unfortunate hipster. Haddow
claims, in no uncertain terms, that Gen Y is so unoriginal,
narcissistic, and media obsessed, that we fail
to even create a suitable counterculture. We are, in effect,
doomed to the digital world that spawned us and
doomed to the insignificance of a “metrical mass” where
our unconscious is infinitely plastic and subject to the
environmental forces that surround us (Borch-Jacobsen,
1982). The Adbusters article struck a chord, not because
my students brought me both digital and hard copies of
the magazine during the first week of class, but because
I realized that Haddow was not just talking about my
students—he was talking about me. My course, “English
391: Reading Counterculture: 1950-present”1 is based
on the interdisciplinary MATX PhD program and has
a diverse student body ranging from the School of the
Arts to English. All of the students are juniors or seniors,
making them between twenty and twenty-three years of
age. I am twenty-six. We are Gen Y, and we are getting
slammed—our meticulously mismatched outfits and all.
This research attempts to answer questions that arose,
and continue to arise, as I teach media and culture literature
courses. How do I teach my own generation media
and culture? How do I utilize technology in the classroom
that is meaningful? And, how do I keep their attention—
and my attention for three hours each week, and
up to six more with homework and reading assignments?
The first question skews the subsequent questions dramatically.
Appealing to Gen Y and bringing relevant
technology into the arts and humanities is, fortunately,
a well-researched problem. David Buckingham’s Media
Education: Literacy, Learning, and Contemporary Culture
(2003) identifies and explains strategies for incorporating
and teaching media in the classroom in order
to promote new sites of learning—a democratic educational
approach made popular in the seventies and continued
today. Joe Lockard and Mark Pengrum’s (Ed.)
Brave New Classrooms: Democratic Education and the
Internet (2007), delve into tactics concerning dynamic
teaching on the web. The editors also incorporate the
pros and cons of digital education—namely the lack of
corporeal awareness that is often subscribed to web users.
2 Tara McPherson, another editor of an inspiring collection
of articles, culls a wide variety of educational/
generational topics, such as current notions of temporality
and the increasingly blurry divide between citizenship
and consumption in Digital Youth, Innovation, and the
Unexpected (2007). These publications, and the countless
others not listed here, show the growing interest and
relevant scholarship in the digital humanities and Gen Y.
They are, for the most part, positive and forward thinking
books and articles that attempt to utilize the unique
skill sets of their students while transforming everyday
technology into teaching tools. Yet, none of them specifically
address the issue of the first digital generation
becoming university instructors and professors. The topdown,
rush to know the latest-digital-tools-in-order-toappeal-
to-a-newtype-
of-student is slowly being pushed
aside as a new generation of instructors appear on the
scene.
As many of the aforementioned scholars note, I realized
that incorporating technology into the humanities classroom
was a tricky task, as was sharing my generational
status with my students. My two biggest challenges came
with utilizing technology in a way that appealed to my
students (knowing the technology that was being “used”
on me as a student), and teaching in a way that recognized,
instead of ignored, our Gen Y status.3 In short,
the students and I had to be in it together—all in—or
the entire course would collapse. And, I had to establish
this “all in” concept early. After airing our mutual hatred
of discussion boards, the tedium of being forced to respond
to posts, and a host of other unfortunately typical
uses of technology in the classroom, the students began
keeping personal blogs. They had to post at least once a
week (Saturday at midnight) and, initially, they had to
utilize just about everything the blog had to offer in order
to build a comfort level with embedding video, creating
links, and working in a hypertextual fashion.
A common misconception permeates many “top down”
views of Gen Y: we are all technically savvy. I can say
with certainty, this is not true. The simpler the technology,
the better, the more aesthetically pleasing the technology,
the better, the more personal the technology, the
better. I can also say that nothing irritates students more
than to feel as though they are the guinea pigs in a technology
experiment where the instructor is conveniently
separate—viewing from above. So, I blogged, I linked,
I embedded, and I read each link, watched each video,
and listened to each song on their twenty-four blogs. The
technology extended our conference style class discussions
throughout the week, but the technology was not
enough—and it never is. We critically assessed our Gen
Y status as a perspective and a coda to the vibrant counterculture
movements that preceded us. Instead of being
bogged down by an often pejorative and inaccurate label, we interrogated our actions, views, and aesthetic choices.
The result was a class that used simple and accessible
technology in moderation, utilized various forms of media
in the classroom to spur discussion (video, sound,
etc.) and accepted, instead of ignored, our unique similarities
as the “plugged in” generation. (I think, secretly,
we each sought to prove Douglas Haddow wrong.)
The purpose of this research, as noted above, is to investigate
the benefits and restrictions that generation on
generation teaching has on both classroom dynamic and
the uses of technology in the classroom. I believe that a
shared generational status, although a fleeting moment
in time, can provide new and interesting perspectives on
teaching pedagogy in the humanities.
Works Cited
Borch-Jacobsen, Mikkel (1982). The Freudian Subject.
Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Buckingham, David (2003). Media Education: Literacy,
Learning, and Contemporary Culture. Cambridge: Polity
Press.
Lockhard, Joe and Mark Pengrum, Ed. (2007). Brave
New Classrooms: Democratic Education and the Internet.
New York: Peter Lang Publishing.
Hayles, N. Katherine (2005). My Mother was a Computer.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
McPherson, Tara, Ed. (2007). Digital Youth: Innovation
and the Unexpected. Cambridge: MIT Press.
White, Michele (2006). The Body and the Screen: Theories
of Internet Spectatorship. Cambridge, MIT Press.
Notes
1This course has a companion course “Reading Twentieth
Century Popular Culture” that I also teach.
2Michele White and N. Katherine Hayles discuss these
themes in their books The Body and the Screen and My
Mother was a Computer, respectively.
3Unlike technical course in digital design or generally
straightforward courses in composition and rhetoric,
counterculture required a certain street credibility (for
lack of a better word).","txt","2","",""
"1040","10","Towards an Interpretation Support System For Reading Ancient Documents","1","Constructing readings of damaged and abraded ancient
documents is a difficult, complex, and timeconsuming
task, often involving reference to a variety
of linguistic and archaeological data sets, and the integration
of previous knowledge of similar documentary
material. Due to the involved and lengthy reading process,
it is often difficult to record and recall how the final
interpretation of the document was reached, and which
competing hypotheses were presented, adopted, or discarded
in the process of reading. This paper discusses the
development of an Interpretation Support System (ISS),
which aims to provide a system, which can aid the dayto-
day reading of ancient documents, and in future other
damaged documents, by keeping track of how these are
interpreted and read. Such a system will facilitate the
process of transcribing texts by providing a framework
in which experts can record, track, and trace their progress
when interpreting documentary material. Furthermore,
it will allow continuity between working sessions,
and the complete documentation of the reading process
that has hitherto been implicit in published editions.
Introduction
The process of reading ancient documents is traditionally
undertaken by an expert such as an epigrapher,
palaeographer or papyrologist. The expert uses accumulated knowledge combined with external resources
to piece together an interpretation of each ancient document.
Such interpretation is often prolonged, and it can
be difficult for experts to maintain a record of the interpretations
made whilst undertaking their reading (Youtie
1963). This is important when disputing interpretations
and sharing hypotheses with other experts, or pausing
the reading of an ancient text and hoping to continue the
same thought process at a later time.
The Image, Text, Interpretation: e-Science, Technology
and Documents project (also known as eSAD: e-Science
and Ancient Documents, http://esad.classics.ox.ac.uk),
aims to use computing technologies to aid experts in
reading ancient documents. The project is developing an
Interpretation Support System (ISS) that can support the
day-to-day reading and interpretation of ancient documents.
This involves advanced IT tools that can aid the
interpretation of damaged texts such as the stylus tablets
from Vindolanda (http://vindolanda.csad.ox.ac.uk) and
image processing algorithms to analyse detailed digital
images of the documents (Tarte et al. 2008).
Background
Although Classics as a subject has made much use of
information technology (see Crane 2008 for an overview),
the use of IT to aid in the actual reading process
of ancient documents is in its infancy. Terras (2006)
developed a prototype system which demonstrated that
it was possible to propagate plausible and useful interpretations
of ancient texts, in a realistic timeframe. This
used linguistic and palaeographic datasets to provide the
“knowledge base” which could inform a decision making
system to aid experts in reading texts.
Decision Support Systems (DSS) have previously been
developed in the Department of Engineering Science at
the University of Oxford to aid multi-disciplinary teams
working with cancer patients in making decisions about
their treatment (Austin et al. 2008). This system is based
on a set of rules and allows experts to analyse and interpret
digital images while recording decisions made
about diagnosis and treatment, and suggesting possible
next action steps.
Building the Interpretation Support System
The research presented here, though inspired by the
above-mentioned medical application, shifts the focus
from a Decision Support System to an Interpretation
Support System (ISS). In contrast with medical practitioners,
experts transcribing ancient documents do not
make decisions based on evidence but instead create interpretations
of the texts based on their perception. The
ISS relies upon the idea that an interpretation is made
up of a network of minor perceptions (percepts) ranging
from low level percepts such as “these three line fragments
are an incised stroke” to higher level percepts
such as “these five letters can make up the word ‘legio’”.
We want to make this otherwise implicit network of percepts
explicit in a human-readable format through a web
browser based application. To build an explicit network
of percepts leading to an interpretation, we define an elementary
percept as a region of an image that contains
what is perceived to be a grapheme. The image can then
be divided into cells where each cell is expected to contain
what is perceived as a character or a space. This division
of the image constitutes a tessellation. A single
document might be tessellated in various ways and each
of the tessellations might yield either an interpretation
or a dead-end, but in both cases, the explicit network of
percepts will document this.
The making of the tessellation, which in itself is an interpretive
process, marks the boundary between lower and
higher level percepts. The lower level percepts are based
on physical identification of the features of the document
(through the application of image analysis methods to
detect features such as strokes); the higher level percepts
(words, groups of words) work more towards gradually
adding meaning to the transcription in progress. Ultimately,
an interpretation can then be represented as a
network of substantiated percepts, which will be made
explicit through an ontology. Here an ontology is defined
as a model of the concepts found in a text such as the
concept of a word that contains several characters.
The ontology aims to make the rationale behind the network
of percepts visible and thus expose both: (a) some
of the cognitive processes involved in damaged texts interpretation;
and (b) a set of arguments supporting the
tentative interpretation. The system will use the ontology
as a framework to assist the expert through the different
levels of percepts ultimately yielding a final transcription.
The transcription is a part of the overall edition of
which there may be several and it will be formatted in
EpiDoc style XML (http://epidoc.sourceforge.net/) allowing
further interaction with other documents.
Building the Knowledge Sets
Much of the knowledge base that serves as justification
for the commitment to a given percept during the interpretation
process will come from the experts. However,
letter frequency, word-and character-lists from documents
such as the Vindolanda ink tablets will provide
an invaluable source of information which can be used
to generate the statistical likelihood of patterns in language and writing which may appear on the texts. We
have taken a new approach to the XML encoding of the
Vindolanda ink tablets based on contextual encoding
(Hippisley 2005). The Vindolanda ink tablets have been
encoded with EpiDoc standard XML to a very detailed
granularity. The contextual encoding which is then imposed
on the documents consists on encoding words,
person names, geographical place names, calendar references
and abbreviations. For example any instance of the
word pulli (=’chickens’) in a document will be encoded
<w lemma=”pullus” n=”1”>pulli</w>. This encoding
provides us with the information that the word pulli has
the lemma pullus under which we can index this instance
of the word and that this is the first instance of this lemma
in the document. This information has been used to
generate word frequency lists and is extremely useful as
a part of a knowledge base to build the ISS on. Further
knowledge bases will be generated from the marked up
dataset, to provide uncertainty and character frequency
lists. Additionally, further work will be undertaken with
the experts to generate lists of common percepts and
interpretation making processes. By encoding these in
XML, the knowledge sets for the system will be in place.
Conclusion
The construction of an Interpretation Support System
for ancient texts, although ambitious, will provide a
useful tool for those experts who work on developing
interpretations of damaged documents by facilitating
and recording the evolving interpretation process. Additionally,
by making explicit the percepts which trigger
such transcriptions of ancient documents, we will further
our knowledge of the reasoning process undertaken by
experts in propagating readings of ancient documents.
Furthermore, the successful development of an image
and language based Interpretation Support System will
provide a set of tools which can be adopted and adapted
by other domains which rely on detailed analysis and interpretation
of image based material.
References
Austin, M., Kelly, M., Brady M. (2008), “The benefits
of an ontological patient model in clinical decision-support”.
In Fox, D. and Gomes, C. P. (eds), AAAI, pages
1774–1775. AAAI Press.
Crane, G. (2008) “Classics and the Computer: An End
of the History”. In Schreibman, S., Siemens, R., and
Unsworth, J. (eds). A Companion to Digital Humanities.
Blackwell Companions to Literature and Culture. Blackwell.
http://www.digitalhumanities org/companion/vie
w?docId=blackwell/9781405103213/9781405103213.
xml &chunk.id=ss1-2-4&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ss1-2-
4&brand=default
Hippisley, D. (2005) “Encoding the Vindolanda tablets:
an investigation in contextual encoding using XML and
the EpiDoc standards.” MA Dissertation submitted for
the MA in Electronic Communication and Publishing,
School of Library, Archive and Information Studies,
UCL.
Tarte, S. M., Brady, J. M., Roued Olsen, H., Terras, M.,
Bowman, A. K. (2008), “Image Acquisition and Analysis
to Enhance the Legibility of Ancient Texts”. UK e-Science
Programme All Hands Meeting 2008 (AHM2008),
Edinburgh, September 2008.
Terras, M. (2006).”Image to Interpretation: Intelligent
Systems to Aid Historians in the Reading of the Vindolanda
Texts”. Oxford Studies in Ancient Documents. Oxford
University Press.
Youtie, H. C. (1963): “The Papyrologist: Artificer of
Fact”. GRBS 4 (1963), p. 19-32.","txt","2","",""
"1041","10","Design as a Hermeneutic Process: Thinking Through Making from Book History to Critical Design","1","In what ways can the process of designing be used
simultaneously for creating an artifact and as a process
of critical interpretation? Can new forms of digital
objects, such as interface components and visualization
tools, contain arguments that advance knowledge
about the world? This paper addresses those questions,
first by exploring theoretical affinities shared by recent
design and book history scholarship, and then by connecting
those theories to the emerging practice of peerreviewing
digital objects in scholarly contexts. The
paper concludes by suggesting that new forms of scholarly
creation, especially those emerging from the digital
humanities, need to be understood within the epistemic
contexts that design and book history have concurrently
been modelling in recent years.
One longstanding tradition of design is to understand
it as an invisible handmaiden to content, where form
follows function, and the typography in a book, for example,
becomes transparent to the reader (Bringhurst
2005). Good design in this school of thought is design
that goes unnoticed. An alternative tradition treats design
as creative expression, where the hand of the designer is
evident and we see a style that can be associated with
the person responsible (Rand 1985). A related variation,
sometimes referred to as “critical design,” treats design
as a rejection of the first tradition, resulting in typography
that is intentionally difficult to read, and chairs that
no one can sit in (Dunne 2005). All three of these approaches
to design have their place, and we would argue
that each of them can legitimately be understood as a
form of interpretation. However, we would also propose
that there is another distinct possibility, where one of the
goals of the designer has been deliberately to carry out
an interpretive act while in the course of producing an
artifact. As Lev Manovich has publicly phrased it (2007)
“a prototype is a theory.” One of the functions of the artifact
then becomes to communicate that interpretation,
and to make it productively contestable.
Manovich’s assertion has a close counterpart in Bernard
Cerquiglini’s claim for textual scholarship that “every
edition is a theory” (1999, p. 79). The symmetry of these
two statements extends to much of design and book history
as cognate but often separate fields. Yet design has
become a preoccupation in book history since the 1980s,
especially following D.F. McKenzie’s influential work
on the sociology of texts (McKenzie 1999; McGann
1991), which emphasizes both the centrality of physical
design and manufacture, and the importance of collaboration
between multiple agents in the construction
of meaning in books and other textual artifacts. This
attention to the design of objects as “expressive form”
(McKenzie 1999, p. 9) is poised to extend into the study
of digital objects, including electronic literature and
video games. Although McKenzie suggested a natural
extension of bibliography’s analytical and interpretive
methods to texts in all media, including film, sound recording,
and electronic text, the digital object presents
challenges to hermeneutic assumptions carried forward
from the print-based bibliography of the past century.
Anthony Dunne describes the interdisciplinary challenge
well when he asks “How can we discover analogue
complexity in digital phenomena without abandoning
the rich culture of the physical, or superimposing the
known and comfortable onto the new and alien?” (2005,
p. 17). In contrast to digital text production and software
design, we have a fairly well-defined understanding of
the traditional roles of non-authorial agents in print and
manuscript book production, such as scribes, binders,
typographers, compositors, correctors, and illustrators.
“The sociology of texts” names an interpretive orientation
which embraces these agents’ contributions to the
traditionally authorial process of meaning-making. In
essence, then, book history has embraced design as a
hermeneutic process, but has done so using a print-based
vocabulary inherited from bibliography. The challenge
now is to understand the kinds of agency that produce
meaning in digital objects, and to appreciate the critical
potential of digital objects in terms limited neither to
print culture nor to the human-factors utilitarianism of
industrial design (Dunne, 1999, p. 21-42).
By understanding how fields like book history take the
design decisions embedded in physical artifacts as interpretive
objects, we can begin to see digital humanists’
creation of new digital artifacts as interpretive acts. We
believe that the theoretical questions and convergences
described above are strongly relevant to the emerging
area of peer-review, evaluation, and authorship status
of digital objects. Just as the boundary between digital
documents and software applications has become less between traditional scholarly monographs and digital
objects such as the “interactive media submissions”
solicited by Digital Humanities Quarterly. By recognizing
that digital objects – such as interfaces, games,
tools, electronic literature, and text visualizations – may
contain arguments subjectable to peer-review, digital humanities
scholars are assuming a perspective very similar
to that of book historians who study the sociology of
texts. In this sense, the concept of design has developed
beyond pure utilitarianism or creative expressiveness to
take on a status equal to critical inquiry, albeit with a
more complicated relation to materiality and authorship.
If we take seriously the suggestion that a digital object
can embody an argument, then it should be possible to
apply to digital objects some of the standard criteria for
reviewing arguments. For Booth et al. (2008), the three
key components of a good thesis topic is that it is contestable,
defensible, and substantive. To be contestable,
the thesis must be trying to convince people of a position
that not everyone already believes. To be defensible, it
must be possible, given the right kind of argument or
evidence, that members of a reasonable audience could
be convinced to change their minds. To be substantive,
the argument must be worth the time and effort it takes
for the writer to make it and the reader to engage with it.
For a prototype, we propose that contestability might
reasonably consist of the inclusion somewhere in the interface
of either an old affordance, previously seen in
other interfaces, but now done in a new way, or else a
new affordance – one not previously seen. Defensibility
might equate to user studies of performance or preference.
For old affordances handled in a new way, the
studies could be comparative. For new affordances,
comparison is not really possible, but there are strategies
that can be adopted, such as looking at what we have
elsewhere called “affordance strength” (Paredes-Olea et
al. 2008, Ruecker 2006). Whether or not a prototype idea
is substantive is somewhat harder to determine. This is,
however, equally true for conventional scholarship.
The question of authorship is another factor to consider
in the adoption of peer review of digital objects. Unlike
research results in the sciences, arts research is still frequently
published by a single author. However, in the
case of digital objects, it is rare for a single person to be
responsible for the entire process of conceptualization,
design, development, and testing (Sinclair et al. 2003).
At what point is a contribution significant enough to
warrant the digital equivalent of authorship? Who should
be first author – the person who had the original idea, or
the person who did the bulk of the design, or the person
who did the programming? These are questions which,
if asked within a book-history context, would resonate
with Roger Stoddard’s often-quoted assertion that “authors
do not write books. Books are not written at all.
They are manufactured by scribes and others artisans, by
mechanics and other engineers, and by printing presses
and other machines” (1987, p. 4; emphasis in original).
Peer review of digital objects thus involves digital humanities
in a kind of sociology of texts with respect to
the re-evaluation of authorship, while also encountering
new aspects of digital design such as fragmentariness,
modularity, and interoperability.
Ideas about design thus enter the digital humanities from
a number of directions, each bringing certain disciplinary
predispositions with them. The goal of this paper is
a synthesis of design and book history perspectives on
the ethos of “thinking through making,” which informs
much digital humanities research and pedagogy generally.
The digital humanities must not lose sight of the
design of artifacts as a critical act, one that may reflect
insights into materials and advance an argument about
that artifact’s role in the world. Design thus provides
a lynchpin for theoretical questions that unite different
fields.
References
Booth, Wayne G., Gregory G. Colomb, Joseph M.
Williams. (2008). The Craft of Research. 3rd Edition.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Bringhurst, R. (2005). The Elements of Typographic
Style. 3rd ed. Vancouver: Hartley & Marks.
Cerquiglini, B. (1999). In Praise of the Variant: A Critical
History of Philology. Trans Betsy Wing. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press.
Dunne, A. (2005). Hertzian Tales: Electronic Products,
Aesthetic Experience, and Critical Design. 2nd ed. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press.
Manovich, Lev. (2007). Q&A session at the Digital Humanities
(DH) 2007 conference. University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign.
McGann, J.J. (1991). The Textual Condition. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press.
McKenzie. D.F. (1999). Bibliography and the Sociology
of Texts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Paredes-Olea, Mariana, Stan Ruecker, Carlos Fiorentino,
and Fraser Forbes. (2008). “Using an Affordance Strength Approach to Study the Possible Redeployment
of Designs for Decision Support Visualization.” Paper
presented at the 9th Advances in Qualitative Methods
Conference 2008. Banff, Canada. October 8-11, 2008.
Rand, Paul. (1985). Paul Rand: A Designer’s Art. New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Ruecker, Stan. (2006). “Proposing an Affordance
Strength Model to Study New Interface Tools.” Paper
presented at the Digital Humanities 2006 conference, at
the Sorbonne, Paris, France. July 5-9, 2006.
Stoddard, R. (1987). Morphology and the Book from an
American Perspective, Printing History, 9: 4.
Sinclair, Stéfan, John Bradley, Stephen Ramsay,
Geoffrey Rockwell, Ray Siemens & Jean-Claude
Guédon. (2003). “Peer Review of Humanities Computing
Software.” Panel at The Association for Computers
and the Humanities / The Association for Literary and
Linguistic Computing (ALLC/ACH): The 2003 Joint International
Conference. Athens, Georgia. May 29-June
2, 2008. Draft articles online at http://tada.mcmaster.ca/
Main/PeerReviewCluster","txt","2","",""
"1042","10","PCA, Delta, JGAAP and Polish Poetry of the 16th and the 17th Centuries: Who Wrote the Dirty Stuff?","1","Towards the end of the 16th century – at a time when
theological disputes between Protestants and Catholics
degenerated into open and, often, bloody conflicts –
Polish literature saw a curious phenomenon termed “the
age of manuscripts:” for fear of religious repression from
either side, authors preferred not to publish their works
in print; instead, they left them in handwritten form. The
texts then circulated in a variety of copies. Sooner or
later, confusion had to set in: different manuscripts preserved
to this day ascribe individual poems to different
authors or simply list the texts as anonymous.
Thus, in the present state of knowledge on “the age of
manuscripts,” we are dealing not only with a number of
literary texts deprived of their authors, but also with a
number of poets to whom not even a single poem can
be reliably attributed. The history of literary studies on
Polish Renaissance and Baroque poetry and the resulting
scholarly editions show that the canon of almost
every single poet has been changing considerably from
scholar to scholar; some poems have been “reliably” attributed
to several poets at a time. Present-day literature
of the subject even contains authors brought to life by the
scholars themselves, as is the case with the “Anonymous
Protestant” and the numerous attempts at combining him
with various poets of the late 16th century.
Quite by chance, the fate of the Anonymous Protestant
attribution case is associated with another and much
more crucial attribution problem. It so happens that the
same manuscript (National Library in Warsaw, Ms. BOZ
1049) contains, several dozen pages further, a collection
of thirty-one poems signed with the name of Mikołaj Sęp
Szarzyński, one of Poland’s most eminent poets, the author
of dark metaphysical poems. Little is known of his
life: he died young in 1581 and the rest is hypotheses.
His entire attributed output amounts to little more than Szarzyński, this would indeed constitute a priceless addition.
The problem is that the thirty poems are all very
vividly erotic, and, as such, do not fit the established if
only hypothetical image of the existentialist sufferer.
In fact, Szarzyński’s heritage abounds in unsolved issues.
His only known collection of poems was printed
20 years after his death; the manuscript containing the
problematic texts dates back to when he was still alive;
but, since no confirmed Szarzyński manuscript is known,
forensic handwriting evidence is unavailable. What is
more, interspersed with the erotic poems are six nonerotic
ones of undoubted Szarzyński authorship and in
his well-known mannerist style; also, they appear in the
printed posthumous volume.
Those who adhere to the view that Szarzyński indeed
penned the erotica point out that the heady mixture of
the sacred and the profane was characteristic of John
Donne and the other English Metaphysicals, undoubtedly
Szarzyński’s mirror-images in both poetic tone
and significance for their respective national literatures.
Other researchers invented a spiritual breakthrough for
Szarzyński: after a period of light-hearted erotica, he was
supposed to decide to foreswear, in his own words, “the
world’s enticing vanities” and to radically change his
poetic diction. Their adversaries maintain that writing
in two different poetic languages. The erotic poems are
visibly written in Renaissance mode, while Szarzyński’s
proven works (including the six found among the erotica
in the manuscript) bear significant traces of a later
mannerist paradigm. In this view, such a shift would be
hardly probabile for an artist who died so young: at this
rate, Szarzyński would have had to become a consummate
master while still in his early teens.
The dispute on the uncertain erotic poems has not abated
since the discovery of the manuscript in 1891 and has
involved many of the most eminent scholars in the field;
and yet the above-mentioned historical and literary arguments
have not been enough to settle the matter. Attributions
based on rudimentary statistics of parts of
speech, enjambments and word order (Wyderka 2002)
or chi-square tests of word frequency (Fleischer 1988)
have given equally ambiguous results. Also, since the
difficulty in this case naturally stems from the small size
of the samples at our disposal (the erotic poems themselves
only amount to some 2700 words), it was interesting
to see if more advanced statistical methods could
help solve this most eminent and fundamental problem
in authorship attribution in Polish literature.
Although no other candidates had ever been proposed,
our analysis included a number of authors active at the
time, such as Mikołaj Rej, Jan Kochanowski, Łukasz
Górnicki, Kasper Twardowski, Hieronim Morsztyn, Szymon
Szymonowic, Szymon Zimorowic, in full awareness
of the fact that these are but theoretical possibilities.
With the same caveat, we included the anonymous
author of Tymatas, a single poem of the same period, on
the off-chance that he might be the mysterious author of
the erotic poems.
The material for this study, then, consisted of samples by
the above-mentioned major Polish writers of the broadly-
understood turn of the 16th and the 17th centuries, at
least two per author; the sample sizes were kept as close
as possible to that of the suspect collection of erotic poems.
Both sets have been subjected to testing by three different
tools: Multivariate Analysis (including Cluster Analysis,
Factor Analysis and Multidimensional Scaling), Burrows’s
Delta (including Hoover’s and Argamon’s significant
modifications such as DeltaOz, resulting in the
powerful set of Delta spreadsheets, Hoover 2004, 2004a,
2007, 2007a, Argamon, 2008), and the recent black box
software, JGAAP 3.3.1 (Juola et al., 2006, 2008), still
in demo version. For the first two tools, various combinations
of ‘culling,’ wordlist lengths and primary and
secondary test groups have been used; in the third, which
presents a variety of ‘events’ and statistical method combinations,
those deemed the most reliable by the makers
of JGAAP were used (Juola, pers. comm.).
In the first stage of the project, the three methods were
evaluated for their reliability with this particular material
and for the best possible parameters and versions of the
procedures. Multivariate graphs at various levels of most
frequent words (from 200 to 1000) usually grouped individual
authors correctly, placing together not only two
samples from single longer texts, but, just as successfully,
very different writings by the same authors. Usually
the one notable exception was Twardowski, whose
data points seem to reflect the numerous turbulences and
moral and emotional breakthroughs the poet underwent
in his tempestuous life. Results for Delta (and especially
DeltaOz, which proved of the highest reliability here)
were even more satisfactory, identifying correct authors
in the known authors’ group with a reliability of 13 out of
15 (ca. 87%) at 250 most frequent words. JGAAP 3.3.1
fared even a little better at 21/24 (87,5%) correct attributions,
achieved with two options: Kolmogorov-Smirnov
Distance and Manhattan Distance.
Having established a reasonable reliability of the three
methods used (and a good consistency between their results),
they were then applied to attribute the collection of erotic poems in question, using the same parameters
that had produced the best results in the test runs.
In multivariate graphs, both MDS and FA refused to place
the data point for the erotic poems anywhere close to
any of the Szarzyński samples. Various other candidates
came closer – usually different ones at different parameters,
Twardowski being the only one to do so with any
consistency, but only when his one volume of erotica,
Lekcje kupidynowe (“The Lessons of Cupid”) was used
in the primary sample; in this case, an unusual amount of
culling (at 40%) was needed to overcome the lexical and/
or generic bias. The same effect was observed in linkage
distances in Cluster Analysis. In DeltaOz, Szarzyński
was never ranked better than third as a candidate, Kochanowski,
Twardowski and Zimorowic usually being
presented as less unlikely. JGAAP behaved in much the
same way: not one set of the reliable parameters identified
Szarzyński as the most plausible author.
The conclusion that stems from this analysis is very serious.
It seems that while no candidate has been found,
with any consistency, as the most probable culprit, the
almost-accepted solution to what is the most significant
attribution riddle in Polish literature – that Szarzyński
is the one who wrote the collection of erotic poems – is
put to reasonable doubt by the very consistent results of
stylometric investigation presented here. This is further
compounded by the fact that while three or four writers
are shown to be more probable than Szarzyński by our
analysis, they are much less so basing on historical and
biographical data (including fellow erotica-writer Twardowski).
It seems that – unless new texts are found – the
room of Polish 16th/17th-century poetry must remain as
untidy as it has been; that not all poems found there can
be neatly pigeon-holed to the few authors of the era we
now know by name.
References
Argamon, S. (2008). ‘Interpreting Burrows’s Delta:
Geometric and Probabilistic Foundations,’ Literary and
Linguistic Computing 23(2): 131-147.
Burrows, J. F. (2002a). ‘”Delta”: A Measure of Stylistic
Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship,’ Literary
and Linguistic Computing 17: 267-287.
Fleischer, M. (1988). Frequenzlisten zur Lyrik von
Mikolaj Sep Szarzynski, Jan Jurkowski und Szymon Szymonowic
und das Problem der statistischen Autorschaftsananyse,
Munchen: Sagner.
Hoover, D. L. (2004) ‘Testing Burrows’s Delta,’ Literary
and Linguistic Computing 19: 453-475.
Hoover, D. L. (2004a) ‘Delta Prime?’ Literary and Linguistic
Computing 19: 477-495.
Wyderka B. (2002). Przedziwny wszędzie. O stylu
Mikołaja Sępa Szarzyńskiego na tle tendencji stylistycznych
poezji polskiego renesansu, Opole: Wydawnictwo
Uniwersytetu Opolskiego.
Juola, P., Noecker, J., Ryan, M., and Zhao, M. (2008).
‘JGAAP3.0 -- Authorship Attribution for the Rest of Us,’
poster, Oulu: Digital Humanities 2008.
Juola, P., Sofko, J. and Brennan, P. (2006). ‘A Prototype
for Authorship Attribution Studies,’ Literary and
Linguistic Computing 21:169-178.","txt","2","",""
"1043","10","Translation and Delta Revisited: When We Read Translations, Is It the Author or the Translator that We Really Read?","1","One of the first success stories of Burrows’s Delta,
that of the ‘Englishing of Juvenal,’ strongly points
out that some translators, such as Johnson, translate
other people’s writing as if they were writing their own
work, while others, such as Dryden, are ‘able to conceal
their hand’ (Burrows 2002, 2002a). Previous stylometric
studies of patterns in multivariate diagrams of correlation
matrices derived from relative frequencies of most
frequent words in character idiolects (Burrows 1987) in
a number of originals and translations (Rybicki 2006,
2006a, 2007, 2008) have shown that while some stylometric
tools can show the difference between translator
and translator, the relationship between such patterns
between original and translation is at best unclear – as
unclear, one could say, as is the relationship between the
lists of most-frequent-words in two (or more) languages,
where one-on-one correspondences are rare if not nonexistent.
In the first-mentioned pioneering study, Burrows compared
translations by a variety of authors to their own
writing – a very natural material for translations of poetry,
itself very much the domain of poets. But translations
of prose are usually done by men and women who
often are not novelists in their own right; while there is
a reasonable guarantee that a Dryden or a Miłosz translation,
however ‘unfaithful’ or ‘free’, can still be good
poetry, can one really trust that a novel translated into
another language by someone who has never invented
a plot line of his/her own can be at least remotely connected
to the original in terms of such trifling features
as… literary style? Or, in other words, whose style is it
that we see in the translation: some foreign version of the
original author’s, or simply that of the much less talented
translator? For, obviously, Kurt Vonnegut’s requirement
for a perfect translator (‘that he or she be a more gifted
writer than I am, and in at least two languages, one of
them mine,’ Vonnegut, 1991) is rarely met, and probably
never in translations of prose. In fact, traditional (i.e.
non-computer- and/or non-statistically-assisted) translation
studies speak of ‘inherent intersubjective processes,’
which result in an ‘unpredictability of the target style’
(Wilss, 1996).
The above also signifies that any study venturing into
these uncharted waters is deprived of exactly the ideal
comparative material Burrows could use in his ‘Juvenal;’
and that the best one can count on are other translations
by the same translator, or other translations of the same
author by other translators; if in luck, one can sometimes
use different translations of the same novel. In this context,
the main question of the title boils down to whether
different works of an author translated by the same
translator are going to be stylometrically more similar to
each other than to translations by that translator of other
authors; and whether translations of one author by many
translators are going to resemble each other rather than
translations of other individual authors by these translators.
Two discrete material sets have been used in this study.
The first is a collection of 21 Polish translations of English-
language fiction by Rybicki, made between 1991
and the present, with two authors appearing more than
once: John le Carré (5 different novels) and Douglas
Coupland (3). The second consists of 10 Polish translations
of Jane Austen’s novels by 4 different translators,
produced between 1956 and 2006, and compared to 5
other translations by the same translators (at least 1 by
each). Both sets have been subjected to testing by three different
tools: Principal Component Analysis, Burrows’s
Delta (including Hoover’s and Argamon’s significant
modifications such as DeltaOz, resulting in the powerful
set of Delta spreadsheets, Hoover 2004, 2004a, 2007,
2007a, Argamon, 2008), and the recent black box software,
JGAAP 3.3 (Juola et al., 2006, 2008), still in demo
version. For the first two tools, various combinations of
‘culling,’ wordlist lengths and primary and secondary
test groups have been used; in the third, which presents a variety of ‘events’ and statistical method combinations,
those deemed the most reliable by the makers of JGAAP
were used.
In the first set, all three methods clearly highlighted a
great similarity of the five Rybicki translations of le Carré.
Multivariate Analysis graphs (Cluster Analysis, Factor
Analysis and Multidimensional Scaling) always contained
a visible (yet not exclusive) cluster of this author
(as exemplified in Fig. 1). A huge majority of various
combinations of wordlist size, pronoun deletion, culling
percentage, primary and secondary text selection, and
Delta variety, correctly identified translations of le Carré
from among all other Rybicki translations (the infrequent
yet rule-proving exception being that of Barris, whose
Confessions of a Dangerous Mind can be seen as a parody
of the spy thriller genre, and who twice preceded le
Carré, himself ranked second, as the most likely author
of the original). In contrast, the three Coupland books
exhibited much less stylistic consistency – a possible
consequence of the significant time that had elapsed between
the three translations. On the other hand, given the
choice of only le Carré and Coupland as primary authors,
Delta invariably identified all of their translated novels
correctly and refused to mistake them for any of the secondary
authors – and that at a very wide range of mostfrequent-
word lists. A very similar pattern emerged from
some of the more robust statistical procedures available
in JGAAP (word analyses with Kolmogorov-Smirnov
Distance and Manhattan Distance).
Fig. 2 Multidimensional Scaling Analysis of translations of
Austen (uppercase initials) and of other original writers by
the same translators (lowercase)
In the second set, multivariate graphs contained a visible
cluster of all translations of Austen novels by all
four translators, while their other translations hovered
away from the cluster in other parts of the graph (Fig. 2).
This was even more obvious in Delta analyses, where all
Austen novels in Polish, irrespective of their translators,
were almost always correctly identified as Austen novels
(in 9 out of 9 cases at various combinations of parameters,
Table 1). Conversely, standard Delta and DeltaOz
never exceeded a 5/11 correctness ratio when asked to
tell translator from translator (Table 2). Faced with an
Austen text by translator A, JGAAP almost invariably
chose a translation of any Austen novel by translator A or
B, rather than a translation of another author by translator
A, as the more similar of the two. The conclusions from this study are twofold. First, the
results – reliable, because they were obtained using three
tools using a variety of statistical calculations (traditional
multivariate analysis, state-of-the-art Delta, and the
emerging JGAAP black box with its various distances)
– are an interesting addition to Burrows’s study of the Juvenal
translations. The fact that translations of prose tend
to ‘disguise’ the individual styles of the translators and
seem to create individual styles of the original authors
in a foreign language – styles common to a number of
different translators even more consistently than translations
of poetry – can be a consequence of the greater
formal complexities of poetic translation, which usually
calls for the task to be done by literary creators in their
own right – exactly such as the translators studied by
Burrows. Secondly, and perhaps more importantly, the
fact that ‘unpredictable target style’ is in fact predictably
similar between translations of the same original author
done by many people – as measured on the basis of freeliminate individual word-types characteristic for the vocabulary
of individual novels and translators) – suggests
possible and previously unsuspected affinities between
original and translation at very ‘mechanical’ levels of
the text. Indeed, since many of these words – especially
those at higher frequencies – carry grammatical rather
than lexical meaning, there is hope on the horizon that
one day computational stylistics and cognitive linguistics
(and particularly cognitive translation studies) might
be two sides, experimental and theoretical, respectively,
of the same phenomenon – as has already been suggested
by Connors (2006, 2008).
References
Argamon, S. (2008). ‘Interpreting Burrows’s Delta:
Geometric and Probabilistic Foundations,’ Literary and
Linguistic Computing 23(2): 131-147.
Burrows, J. F. (1987). Computation into Criticism:
A Study of Jane Austen’s Novels and an Experiment in
Method, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Burrows, J. F. (2002). ‘The Englishing of Juvenal:
Computational Stylistics and Translated Texts,’ Style 36:
677-99.
Burrows, J. F. (2002a). ‘”Delta”: A Measure of Stylistic
Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship,’ Literary
and Linguistic Computing 17: 267-287.
Connors, L. (2006). ‘An Unregulated Woman: A Computational
Stylistic Analysis of Elizabeth Cary’s The
Tragedy of Mariam, The Faire Queene of Jewry,’ Literary
and Linguistic Computing 21(Supplementary Issue):
55-66.
Connors, L. (2006). ‘Function Word Analysis and
Questions of Interpretation in Early Modern Tragedy,’
Oulu: Digital Humanities 2008.
Hoover, D. L. (2004) ‘Testing Burrows’s Delta,’ Literary
and Linguistic Computing 19: 453-475.
Hoover, D. L. (2004a) ‘Delta Prime?’ Literary and Linguistic
Computing 19: 477-495
Hoover, D. L. (2007). ‘Corpus Stylistics, Stylometry,
and the Styles of Henry James,’ Style 41(2): 174-203.
Hoover, D. L. (2007a). ‘Quantitative Analysis and Literary
Studies,’ A Companion to Digital Literary Studies,
Oxford: Blackwell, 517-33.
Rybicki, J. (2000). A Computer-Assisted Comparative
Analysis of Henryk Sienkiewicz’s Trilogy and its Two
English Translations. PhD thesis, Kraków: Akademia
Pedagogiczna.
Rybicki, J. (2006). ‘Burrowing into Translation: Character
Idiolects in Henryk Sienkiewicz’s Trilogy and its
Two English Translations,’ Literary and Linguistic Computing
21(1): 91-103.
Rybicki, J. (2006a). ‘Can I Write like John le Carré?’
Paris: Digital Humanities 2006.
Rybicki, J. (2007). ‘Twelve Hamlets: A Stylometric
Analysis of Major Characters’ Idiolects in Three English
Versions and Nine Translations,’ Urbana-Champaign:
Digital Humanities 2007.
Rybicki, J. (2008). ‘Does Size Matter? A Re-evaluation
of a Time-proven Method,’ Oulu: Digital Humanities
2008.
Vonnegut, K. (1991). Fates Worse than Death, New
York: Berkley Trade, 181.
Wilss, W. (1996). Knowledge and Skills in Translator
Behaviour, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 34-5.
Juola, P., Noecker, J., Ryan, M., and Zhao, M. (2008).
‘JGAAP3.0 -- Authorship Attribution for the Rest of Us,’
poster, Oulu: Digital Humanities 2008.
Juola, P., Sofko, J. and Brennan, P. (2006). ‘A Prototype
for Authorship Attribution Studies,’ Literary and
Linguistic Computing 21:169-178.","txt","2","",""
"1044","10","Collective Culture and Visualization of Spatiotemporal Information","1","Introduction Archiving with digital technology is indispensable
for historical cultural heritage items, but we also
have to apply this technology for culture that remains
difficult to form and store. This paper will argue three
important aspects of archiving regional culture, its representation,
sharing, and analysis. Then, in order to deal
with these aspects, we will introduce the environment
KACHINA-CUBE (KC) which we are developing and
evaluate findings of its application. We will start with
elaborating its design concept, then architecture and application,
referring to its related works.
Design Concept
In order to design KC as a tool for archiving regional
culture, we see the following three aspects important,
thus take them into consideration.
Fig. 1 Three levels of cultural representation
Representation Aspect
Developing Valsiner’s concept of culture (Valsiner,
2007), we argue that cultural representations appear in
three levels; personal, collective, and public (See Fig. 1).
The first, personal culture consists of personal memory
and knowledge. The second level of collective culture
can be considered collection of personal cultures. The
third level of public culture is public information, publicly
recognized and found in textbooks and dictionaries.
Public culture is well preserved. Because of complexity
and ambiguity of personal and collective cultures, however,
researchers are still struggling with how to preserve
these two, which should be understood by putting them
in their socio-cultural contexts. Taking a socio-cultural
approach, Wertsch (1998) advocates to treat narratives
as artifacts, the key to represent culture.
Sharing Aspect
W3C puts tremendous efforts to create standardized
frameworks for Web, and researchers in digital humanities
regard semantic web technology as one of the key
research fields. This kind of technology gives us various
chances to share data for other use. We believe archived
cultural data should be standardized to fit in this framework,
which allows users to access data and utilize them
in various platforms.
Analytical Aspect
To research history and culture in a specific region, oral
history plays an important role to make us understand
them. Collection of oral history in a specific area reveals
what kind of life experience people had and/or have in
the area, their similarities and differences.
Valsinar and Sato (2006) propose the concept of Trajectory
Equifinality Model (TEM) as a framework to
analyze personal experience which suggests diverse and
possible trajectories based on three concepts: Bifurcation
Point (BFP), Obligatory Passage Point (OPP), and
Equifinality Point (EFP). BFP is a point of each person’s
behavior branching or forking into new types of behavior
by his or her choice. OPP means, literally, Obligatory
Passage Point which most of the people have to go
through because of their own logic, institutions, and customs.
EFP is defined as the final state that individuals
equally reach from different initial conditions. Focusing
on OPP and EFP to investigates cultural recognition that
people in a particular region share, this paper describes
the KC system that assists users to seek through multiple
narratives and identify OPP/EFP in construction of the
regional culture.
Architecture
Giving consideration into these three aspects, we have
been developing KC system. As for the representation
aspect, we accept Wertsch’s propose and design the software
to hold data of spatiotemporal information.
We decided to design KC in three dimensions, two dimensions
for geographical information and another one for temporal information. In this virtual 3D space
(CUBE model) (see Fig. 2), users can post formal and
informal story fragments. Among them, we call formal
ones history fragments, and informal fragments story
ones. KC also supports researchers to make linkages
among fragments in periodical or logical order. We call a
set of cultural fragments storyline.
As for the sharing aspect, we apply RDF/OWL to define
our data. Its extensive and flexible definition is suitable
for our system and motivates other researchers to access
our data (Bray, 2001). We defined the data format as follows:
Fig. 2 Image of CUBE model
1. History fragment class: Objective information in
textbook or dictionary
2. Story fragment class: Subjective information such
as oral history
3. Storyline class: Aggregate of historical and story
fragments based on a specific context
4. Geography class: Geographical information of the
historical and story fragments
5. Temporal class: Time when the incidents told in
historical and story fragments occurred
Finally, the analytical aspect, KC implements the function
of OPP/EFP detector. OPP/EFP detector searches
fragments occurred in similar places or time. Using
OPP/EFP detector makes it possible to learn spatiotemporal
possibilities. This is the implementation of Sato’s
concept, and to understand a region in meta level, this
feature can be a strong analytical tool.
Application
As a test case, we applied the data of movie culture in
Kyoto Rakusai Area, a.k.a. Japan’s Hollywood, to our
system. We used oral history data collected by Tomita
and Itakura (2001). Each story that has spatial and/or
temporal information is stored to the system. Currently
we have oral history data from three storytellers who had
involved in movie industries in the area from 1910’s to
1930’s. In terms of the representation aspect, the story
fragments were well mapped on the 3D space, with their
spatiotemporal information. Using our storyline representation
visualizes connections among independent
fragments. As for the sharing aspect, we are still working
on definition of the data, hoping that this feature will
be available soon. As for the analytical aspect, OPP/EFP
detector displays different storytellers’ worlds with possible
alternatives experiences (see Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 Display of OPP/EFP detector
Conclusions
In this paper, we argue importance of not only archiving
collective culture but also standardized semantic Web as
a socio-cultural analytical tool which allows researchers
to access data and utilize them in various platforms.
Based on this argument, we developed KC, applying it
to actual research. As a result, our system demonstrates a
lot of potentials for research in various fields, which we
have to prove by developing further this software with
applications, as well as examining it in more case studies
of collective culture.
There are well-known research projects and Web systems
to deal with spatiotemporal information. For example,
the TimeMap Project in the University of Sydney
develops Web GIS that can visualize chronological data
and animate historical maps (Johnson, 2004). The SIMILE
Project in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
develops the TimeLine system that can organize text and
pictorial data in chronological order. Our KACHINA
CUBE is significantly different from these previous Web
systems in the following two points:
1. Adoption of CUBE model (3D viewer that combined
map with timeline); and 2. Implementation of user interface suitable to contain
narratives and oral histories
With KC, therefore, we hope to contribute to further
development of regional archive system and digital humanities
in general.
References
Bray, T. (2001). What is RDF?. http://www.xml.com/
pub/a/2001/01/24/rdf.html (accessed on 14 November,
2008).
Tomita, M. and Itakura, F. (2001). Voices from Kyoto:
Interview with ITO Asako – An aspect of Japanese film
history. Art Research. 1(1): 127-138.
Valsiner, J. (2007). PERSONAL CULTURE AND
CONDUCT OF VALUE, Journal of Social, Evolutionary,
and Cultural Psychology. 1(2): 59-65.
Valsiner, J. and Sato, T. (2006).Historically Structured
Sampling (HSS): How can psychology’s methodology
become tuned in to the reality of the historical nature of
cultural psychology? In Straub, J. Et.al. (eds.) Pursuit of
meaning. Advances in cultural and cross-cultural psychology.
Bielefeld: Transcript Verlag, pp.215-251.
Wertsch, J. V. (1998). Mind As Action. NewYork: Oxford
University Press.
Johnson, I. (2004). Putting Time on the Map: Using
TimeMap for Map Animation and Web Delivery, Geo-
Informatics.
SIMILE TimeLine. http://simile.mit.edu/timeline/ (accessed
on 14 March, 2009).","txt","2","",""
"1045","10","The Apex of Hipster XML GeekDOM: TEI-Encoded Dylan""1: Understanding and Reaching a Community of Practice (A Case Study)","1","Introduction As the Digital Humanities/Humanities Computing
community continues to develop more digital resources
and accompanying tools, it is facing new challenges
in regards to creating awareness and gaining acceptance
of these among potential users. In particular,
research projects must develop ways to disseminate information
about the resources and tools to ensure that
they are used and, at the same time, work to understand
the community of practice which uses their resources.
Viral techniques and other internet analytical tools present
one option to achieve those objectives.
Context
As evidenced by the growing number of conferences,
publications, and digital resources and tools themselves,
Digital Humanities/Humanities Computing has been
successful in their efforts to create useful resources and
tools. As the field moves forward, in addition to responding
to new technological challenges, community
members must address new ones, often beyond their
typical skills, capabilities and methodologies. One issue
faced by many projects is the need to actively create
awareness of these digital resources and understand their community of practice.
Among their recommendations, the LAIRAH project
team outlined that the ideal digital humanities project
has a clear understanding of their users and their needs
as well as actively disseminates information about itself
within the discipline and the community as a whole
(Warwick, Terras, Hunginton, Pappa, & Galina, 2006)
This is further reinforced by a recent report focusing on
sustainability and revenue models for online resources.
The authors discuss the importance of knowing one’s users
and their behaviours in regards to online resources.
They go on further to highlight the importance of specific
activities to create awareness and usage of these resources
(Guthrie, Griffiths, & Maron, 2008). At a more
practical level, Cohen and Rosenzweig (2005) devote an
entire chapter in their book on digital history to the topic
of building an audience for a digital resource. Various
associations within this community are also exploring
ways to increase the awareness of their activities while
developing their membership base.
One tool often used by business to promote their products
and services is viral marketing or electronic word
of mouth. Unlike traditional techniques, viral marketing
campaigns draw upon people’s social networks and
relies on individuals to forward on messages to others
within their email lists (Dobele, Toleman, & Beverland,
2005; Smith, Coyle, Lightfoot, & Scott, 2007). For
many organizations, drawing upon these individuals can
also help build the products and services provide by the
organizations, as Mozilla and Intuit have found (Cook,
2008; Freedman, 2007) . While this form of marketing
is often used by companies to extend their reach with
their customers and find new ones, it can be a useful tool
for other types of organizations to define their present
and potential communities of practice. But how best can
the Digital Humanities community use this tool to its advantage?
Methodology/Steps
To determine the effectiveness of this tool and accompanying
internet analytical tools within this community,
a viral experiment was designed to showcase TEI and
novel ways that it can be used to encode different kinds
of text. At the heart of the experiment was a Bob Dylan
song and its associated video, which incorporated text.
The encoded text was overlaid the video and posted to
youtube and a blog with links to the TEI website. At the
same time, baseline line data over a four month period
was gathered to understand the current community of
practice with TEI. Data on hits to the TEI website and
video website were collected to determine the number of
hits to each site, IP addresses, timing of hits and dispersion
of hits.
Preliminary Findings
At the time of writing this proposal, final data analysis
of benchmark and viral experience is being completed.
The final report will outline TEI’s community of practice
and provide recommendations for other organizations
exploring similar issues.
Preliminary data analysis of benchmark data suggests
that TEI’s community of practice is larger than anticipated.
While TEI’s 82 member organizations compromise
the core of this community, an additional 6,000 users
visit the website and many download information about
the guidelines. Of this group, about 130 members make
up 80% of the visits. A surprising portion of this group
is from non-English speaking countries.
In terms of the viral experience, the youtube video was
viewed over 4000 times and was briefly the top-watched
video in Canada. A significant portion of individuals
then clicked through to the TEI website for further information.
Interestingly, several blogs also picked up the
video and directed their readers onto the video and TEI.
The benefits to the Digital Humanities community will
be several. First, the paper outlines a means by which
digital resources projects can identify and understand
their community of practice and create awareness of
digital resources and tools. Second, it supports recommendations
made by others which advocate the need for
specific actions to reach digital resource users.
References
Cohen, D. J., & Rosenzweig, R. (2005). Digital History:
A Guide to Gathering, Preserving, and Presenting the
Past on the Web. Available from http://www.chnm.gmu.
edu/digitalhistory/audience/index.php.
Cook, S. (2008). The Contribution Revolution: Letting
Volunteers Build Your Business. Harvard Business Review,
86(10), 60-69.
Dobele, A., Toleman, D., & Beverland, M. (2005). Controlled
infection! Spreading the brand message through
viral marketing. Business Horizons, 48(2), 143-149.
Freedman, D. H. (2007). Mitchell Baker and the Firefox
Paradox. Inc. Retrieved from http://www.inc.com/magazine/
20070201/features-firefox.html.
Guthrie, K., Griffiths, R., & Maron, N. (2008). Sustainability
and Revenue Models for Online Academic Resources: An Ithaka Report. New York, New York: Ithaka.
Smith, T., Coyle, J. R., Lightfoot, E., & Scott, A. (2007).
Reconsidering Models of Influence: The Relationship
between Consumer Social Networks and Word-of-
Mouth Effectiveness. Journal of Advertising Research,
47(4), 387-397.
Warwick, C., Terras, M., Hunginton, P., Pappa, N., &
Galina, I. (2006). The LAIRAH Project: Log Analysis of
Digital Resources in the Arts and Humanities, Final Report
to the Arts and Humanities Research Council. London,
UK: University College London.
[1]Title thanks to the blog thesecretmirror.com","txt","2","",""
"1046","10","Animating the Knowledge Radio","1","Most text analysis tools either pre-index texts or
work on smaller corpora in order to give users an
interactive environment where they can ask questions of
texts. High Performance Computing facilities provide
the opportunity to develop analytical tools that process
large amounts of data in real time and that lets us animate
analysis. This paper presents a hypothesis about
how animated analysis can take advantage of HPC facilities
to provide useful information to the user, especially
when the results of an analytical process are complex
visualizations. In this paper we will do three things:
• Discuss the outcomes of the April 2008 workshop
on the Digital Humanities and High Performance
Computing at McMaster University. In particular
we will draw attention to the opportunities for digital
humanists to develop a high resolution visualization
agenda.
• Demonstrate the Big See model for large-scale text
visualization and discuss animated visualizations.
• Describe a preliminary model for a streaming
Knowledge Radio.
1. Outcomes of the Digital Humanities and
HPC Workshop
In April 2008 SHARCNET, an HPC consortium in
Southern Ontario, hosted a workshop on bridging the
gap between digital humanities research and HPC facilities.
The workshop brought together digital humanities
researchers and HPC researchers from the SHARCNET
participating universities to discuss the challenges and
identify the opportunities for collaboration. The mission
of the workshop was to ask and begin answering the following
questions:
• What are the opportunities for the use of HPC facilities
for humanities research? • What examples are there of good practices and research
innovation?
• What are the barriers to humanists using HPC facilities
like SHARCNET and how can they be overcome?
• What concrete steps can SHARCNET (and by extension
other HPC facilities) take to reach out to
computing humanists and to then support their research?
In the spirit of open research the notes, action items, and
report at available online (See https://www.sharcnet.ca/
dh-hpc/index.php/Main_Page). Some of the key initiatives
that were recommended to SHARCNET were:
• Humanists need introductory documentation about
HPC and its uses in the humanities. John Bonnet,
working with Geoffrey Rockwell and Kyle Kuchmey
prepared an introduction to High Performance
Computing in the Arts and Humanities with some
examples. (See http://www.sharcnet.ca/Documents/
HHPC/hpcdh.html)
• For humanists to take advantage of HPC facilities
we need training opportunities, access to fellowships
that place us into HPC facilities, and opportunities
to prototype ideas with HPC folk (what we
call charettes).
• The Digital Humanities and other disciplines that
use HPC facilities should collaborate around information
visualization. The arts and humanities have
much to offer in the way of visual ideas and traditions
of interpreting the visual. Humanists likewise
can make good use of visualization facilities that are
developed by HPC facilities.
One of the key opportunities identified were in largescale
and/or high resolution visualization. How would
we represent evidence in the humanities if the size of
the display, the resolution of the display and the speed of
processing were not an issue? And that is the subject of
this paper - experiments in developing a model for largescale
representation.
2. The Big See and Animated Visualization
The Big See is an experiment in high-performance text
visualization. The project has developed a prototype
of how a text or corpus of texts could be represented if
processing and the resolution of the display were not an
issue. Most text visualizations, like word clouds and distribution
graphs, are designed for the personal computer
screen. In the Big See we anticipate wall displays with
3 dimensional display capabilities and the processing
to manipulate large amounts of data like all the content
words of a corpus in real time. The Big See proposes one
visual idea of what such a high performance visualization
would look like as it is generated and once it is manipulable.
To be clear, the current version of TBS does
not need to run on an HPC system, it can run on a PC,
but it models visual ideas for anticipated wall display
systems. The question we asked ourselves was:
How could we represent a text or corpus if we had high
resolution, wall-sized displays and processing was not an
issue?
The idea was to take a 2-dimensional visualization that
was based loosely on the successful Weighted Centroid
model that has been beautifully implemented by TextArc,
and to add a third dimension to it and real time
manipulation. The Big See in its default setting shows a
pipe of the 20 most frequently used words, each of which
is a line stretching the length of the pipe with markers
where that word occurs. The pipe of lines can be turned
in three dimensions so that it can be treated as a revolving
barrel of distribution graphs. In the center of the pipe
you have the text itself that recedes off into the distance
much like the opening text of the Star Wars movies.
Clicking on an instance of a word on the pipe advances
the text to the appropriate point. The Big See is currently
implemented as a PC application that has controls for the
various parameters, though the source was written to be
run on an HPC system.
Animated Visualization. One of the unanticipated outcomes
of the project was that we found the live generation
of the visualization compelling in and of itself. It
has the virtue that it makes the final visualization understandable
as you can see how, as the text is processed
(and marches off into the horizon), the high frequency
vocabulary changes. It also has the virtue that is animates
a computer reading of the text in a linear fashion
(starting with the first word and updating the visualization
word by word. Users can infer things about the vocabulary
of the text as it proceeds, though we have to be
careful not to confuse the computer reading (and animating)
a text with human reading, which is not necessarily
so linear. This leads us to hypothesize that the animation
of analytical processes can bear useful information for
users of text analysis tools if properly paced and if they
can represent the process. An animation can stand in for
a pragmatic demonstration of what the computer is doing
in its black box - “it reads in a word and adds it to
the line for that work moving the line towards the 12:00
noon spot on the centroid if the frequency surpasses that of another word.” Animations have, along with interactivity,
the prima facie capability to bring processes alive
giving users an intuitive understanding of what the final
visualization represents. Obviously, they also have the
ability to mislead the user, which suggests a fruitful avenue
for further research. What are the best practices in
information animation?
3. The Knowledge Radio
The Knowledge Radio is an extension of work done on
the Big See, but adds the following aspects:
• Instead of working with a large, static corpus, what
if we were to work with a large, open-ended or dynamic
corpus where new input would modify the visualization
as it was being processed (what Ben Fry
calls organic information visualization)?
• What might be the most useful types of information
to display to users for a dynamically analyzed diachronic
corpus?
An example use-case for the Knowlege Radio is a
blogger who wants to examine how a specific concept
evolves over time on the web. The blogger would provide
a search term or semantic field to a tool that would
begin querying a search engine by successive date ranges
and provide visual information on aggregate data as
it was crawling results. The blogger could fine-tune the
parameters of the visualization and scrub along a timeline
to replay certain moments, or to fast-forward to the
current point of analysis. The visualization might resemble
something like the “code_swarm” project, which
represents commit activity by individuals in several
open-source project (http://vis.cs.ucdavis.edu/ ~ogawa/
codeswarm/).
From a tool implementation perspective an interesting
challenge is to process a corpus as a stream rather than
as a static object, especially in ways that would permit
the user to playback segments, to compare segments, to
modify parameters for visualizing segments, and to summon
previously processed text for closer reading. This
requires a well planned model for maintaining and updating
aggregate data (as new text is processed) but also
for storing relevant data from previously processed text.
This portion of the presentation will focus on describing
the theoretical aspects and design principles of the
Knowlege Radio but will also briefly demonstrate the
state of the current Knowlege Radio prototype.
4. Links
Fry, Ben, “Organic Information Visualization” <benfry.
com/organic/>
Ogawa, Michael, “code_swarm” <vis.cs.ucdavis.
edu/~ogawa/codeswarm/>
Paley, Bradford, “TextArc” <www.textarc.org/>
Rockwell, Geoffrey et al. “The Big See” <tada.mcmaster.
ca/view/Main/BigSee>
SHARCNET: <www.sharcnet.ca/>","txt","2","",""
"1047","10","""Going to the Show"": Spatial and Temporal History of Moviegoing in North Carolina","1","A scholarly digital publication “Going to the Show”
grew out of Prof. Robert C. Allen’s use of UNC Library
archival materials in teaching and writing about the
history of film exhibition and moviegoing. It is a result
of close collaboration between Prof. Allen, James Logan
Godfrey Distinguished Professor of American Studies,
History, and Communication Studies at the University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and Documenting the
American South (DocSouth)—a digital library laboratory
that creates, develops, and maintains online digital
collections regarding the history of the American South
drawn primarily from the outstanding archival holdings
of the UNC library. “Going to the Show” documents and
illuminates the experience of movies and moviegoing
in North Carolina between the introduction of projected
motion pictures (1896) and the end of the silent film era
(1930). It is a historiographic experiment on several
levels, in which collaborators endeavor to use digital
technologies in a variety of innovative ways to collect,
organize, and display data and materials that illuminate
the historical experience of cinema.
As theatrical moviegoing becomes a thing more remembered
than experienced, Allen argues that one of the
most striking features of the experience of cinema for a
hundred years was its sociality. For a century following
the demonstration of Edison’s Vitascope projector at
Koster and Bial’s Music Hall in New York on April 23,
1896, the experience of cinema in America and, indeed,
around the world, involved a distinctive (though highly
variable) social practice: groups of people converging
upon particular places to experience together something
understood to be cinema. The project team selected and
published online numerous city directories, local newspapers
ads and clippings, several hundred picture postcards
and photographs that assisted with telling the story
in a fuller or more holistic manner (see Figure 1.) However, recent work in cultural geography has helped
us to look at the history of cinema as the history of the
experience of cinema and to look at cinema as a set of
practices occurring in space (see Doreen Massey). Like
space, the experience of cinema is relational, heterogeneous,
and open-ended. In that, collaborators turned to
another valuable resource of information–Sanborn Fire
Insurance Maps. Between 1867 and 1977 the Sanborn
Map Company of Pelham, New York, produced largescale
(usually 50 feet to the inch) color maps of commercial
and industrial districts of some 12,000 towns and cities
in North America to assist fire insurance companies
in setting rates and terms. Each set of maps represented
each built structure in those districts, its use, dimensions,
height, building material, and other relevant features
(fire alarms, water mains and hydrants, for example).
Looking through thousands of map pages over the years,
thinking about how they represent the experience of moviegoing and about how the maps might be represented
in “Going to the Show,” Allen started rethinking not
only the sociality but also the spatiality of the experience
of cinema more generally. For most white people living
in towns or cities of any size in N.C. and those living
in the countryside around these towns and cities in the
first three decades of cinema history, going to the movies
was a part of the experience of the spaces of downtown
social, cultural, commercial and consumer life. Understanding
what went on inside the theater requires understanding
what went outside.
What the Sanborn maps enable us to see—in ways that
other representations of the social experience of moviegoing
do not—is that the space of the experience of cinema
in towns and cities across North Carolina, and possibly
in many other places as well, was not bounded by
the places in which movies were shown. The maps show
clearly that the emergence of movie culture in North
Carolina is inextricably linked to the rise and development
of urban central business districts (see Figure 2.)
We will represent the Sanborn maps in “Going to the
Show” in a way that they were never intended to be: with
individual map pages digitally stitched together so that
they form a composite overview of a town’s central business
district. In 45 communities, moviegoing is mapped
onto Sanborn Fire Insurance Maps (1896-1922), showing
how moviegoing became an important part of the experience
of everyday life in the growing cities and towns
of early 20th century North Carolina. These map pages
have been digitally “stitched” together and geo-referenced
to display the entire “downtown” of representative
communities across the state. The evolution of successive
map sets produced from 1896 to 1922 illustrates
how these towns and cities grew and changed at a time
of rapid urbanization and industrialization. Displaying
the maps in Google Earth vividly illustrates a century of
continuity and change.
The decision process for which tools to use in order to
bring this picture to life, has been a balance between
experimental technology and usability. “Going to the
Show” is using kml layers upon Google Maps and
Google Earth to place the Sanborn maps within context.
Google’s open-source map API is used for zooming and
hotspot addition. There is also a MySQL (soon to be
PostGRES) database to manage the metadata about the
contextual items which have been collected in order to
paint the entire picture of moviegoing. As a result, users
can search for movie exhibition sites, locations, managers,
and racial policy across the first thirty-five years
of moviegoing in more than 200 N.C. communities.
Adobe PhotoShop is used for stitching together digital
Sanborn Map images and basic manipulation of documentary
content images, as necessary (sharpening, resizing,
and more). The software Global Mapper is used for
geo-referencing Sanborn maps. It converts, edits, prints,
tracks GPS, and allows utilization of GIS functionality
in datasets. References
Richard Maltby, Melvyn Stokes, and Robert C. Allen,
eds., Going to the Movies: Hollywood and the Social
Experience of Cinema (Exeter: Univ. of Exeter Press,
2007)
Doreen Massey, For Space (London: Sage, 2005)
Anne Kelly Knowles, Placing History: How Maps,
Spatial Data, and GIS Are Changing Historical
Scholarship (California: ESRI Press, 2008)
Suzy Beemer, Richard Marciano, Todd Presner, Seeing
Urban Spaces Anew at the University of California
(CTWatch Quarterly, May 2007, vol. 3, number 2, http://
www.ctwatch.org/quarterly/articles/2007/05/seeing-urban-
spaces-anew/1/)","txt","2","",""
"1048","10","What is Transcription? (Part 2)","1","In earlier work, Huitfeldt and Sperberg-McQueen have
sketched out a series of formal models of transcription,
characterized by gradually increasing complexity
and descriptive power, but not, in the end, by a satisfactory
explication of transcription [Huitfeldt/Sperberg-
McQueen 2008].
The essential proposition of these models may be called
the Reading Identity Hypothesis: namely, that in simple
cases the relation between a transcription and its exemplar
is that each can be read as containing (a sequence of
tokens which map to) the same sequence of types. When
types and tokens are identified at the character level, for
example, a document containing marks which can be
read as tokens representing the sequence of characters
Come, sit thee downe upon this flowry bed,
can be regarded as a transcription of another document
just in case that document, too, contains marks which
can similarly be read, as tokens of those types, in that order.
The addition of various meta-characters in transcription
(e.g. explicit marking of line breaks in the exemplar)
is modeled by allowing readings to be selective, ignoring
some marks in the document being read. Some common
variation in transcription practice is modeled by postulating
different token/type mappings with different type
inventories: the example just given, for example, will
count as a transcription of one line in Shakespeare's First
Folio only if long and short s are treated as the same
grapheme and if u and v are normalized. When long
and short s are not mapped to the same grapheme, and
u and v are distinguished based on their letter form and
not on current usage, then a transcription will contain a
sequence of tokens readable as: Come, ſit thee downe vpon this flowry bed,
Prominent among the shortcomings of the reading-identity
hypothesis as formulated in [Huitfeldt/Sperberg-Mc-
Queen 2008] is the explicit assumption that a document,
and its transcription, consist essentially of a sequence of
characters (or more generally of tokens).
In this paper, we will assume that a document identifies
not just a sequence of typed tokens, but a structure consisting
of typed relations (such as containment or dominance)
between sequences or sets of typed objects (such
as paragraphs or section headings). The relation between
documents can then be modeled as a relation between
such structures, allowing transcriptions to agree or disagree
not only on character sequences, but also on document
structure, and on assignments of types to document
objects and their relations.[1]
Based on these assumptions we will propose a formal
model of document structure which is able to capture basic
notions underlying conventional markup formalisms
such as the tree structures of XML, the concurrent trees
of XCONCUR [Hilbert et al. 2005], the sequence-plusranges
model of LMNL [Tennison/Piez 2002], and the
directed acyclic graphs of Goddag structures [Sperberg-
McQueen/Huitfeldt 2000]. The formalism we develop is
not intended and should not be understood as an alternative
to any of these, only as a way of trying to reduce
them to a common denominator in terms of which it is
possible to determine that two transcriptions do or do not
agree on particular aspects of the exemplar.
We believe the model can be used to explain, at an appropriate
level of abstraction, how it is possible that
representations using different markup formalisms and
their associated vocabularies can agree or disagree on
the transcription of a given exemplar.
For example, in most current practice, the line given
above as an example is likely to be embedded in a document
structure showing that it occurs within a particular
play, act, scene, and speech: for example
<play>
...
<act>
...
<scene>
<speech>
<speaker>Tita.</speaker>
<l>Come, sit thee downe vpon this
flowry bed,</l>
...
</speech>
...
</scene>
...
</act>
...
</play>
or, using a different XML vocabulary (TEI),
<text>
...
<body>
...
<div type=""act"" n=""IV"">
<head>Actus Quartus</head>
<div type=""scene"" n=""i"">
<sp who=""Titania"">
<speaker>Tita.</speaker>
<l>Come, &longs;it thee downe &v;pon
this flowry bed,</l>
...
</sp>
...
</div>
..
</div>
...
</body>
...
</text>
In older electronic texts the transcription is likely to
use a different markup language entirely (here COCOA
markup):
<T Midsummer Night's Dream>
<A 4> ...
<S 1>
<C Titania>
Come, *sit thee downe vpon this flowry bed,
...
These three transcriptions identify, by means of their
markup, textual structures which are substantially similar,
but different in details. All three, for example, can
be read as indicating that the line in question is part of
the first scene of the fourth act, and that it is spoken by
Titania, but they differ in details (act 4 or Act IV or Actus
Quartus? “Tita.” or “Titania”? or both?)
One challenge for a formal model of transcription is to
distinguish essential differences among these transcriptions,
which represent disagreements about the text of
the exemplar (and thus disagreements among the transcribers)
on the one hand, from inessential differences
(or in some cases essential differences which happen not
to relate to questions of transcription per se) which follow
from the different markup languages used, or from
the choice of textual features to mark up, on the other
hand.
The main body of the paper is the definition of the formal model, followed by an extended example showing the
transcription of a short document in several markup languages
and the representation or analysis of these transcriptions
in the abstract model of transcription.
The formal model associates to each transcription a set
of statements (or assertions) about the transcribed exemplar.
The statements may be expressed in any convenient
notation, e.g. some form of first-order logic. Since different
transcription practices and contexts may consider
widely different sets of textual features as relevant, the
exact predicates allowed in the statements can vary from
one transcription to another.
Essentially, the statements corresponding to a transcription
are obtained as follows. First a set of basic facts
about the exemplar is derived in a straightforward manner
directly from the encoding of the transcription. Then,
the closure of that set under inference is taken. The inference
rules will vary with the specific transcription practice,
conventions, and context in which the transcription
was performed, and can also include special rules for
“translating” statements from one combination of transcription
practice/conventions/context to another.
If two transcriptions agree in every detail (regardless of
how they are coded), the sets of inferences derived from
them will be equal. Intuitively, if one set is a subset of
the other, this indicates that the transcriptions do not disagree,
but that one of them is more detailed or thorough
than the other.
If neither set is a subset of the other, then we have to
look at the (closure under inference of the) union of the
sets. If the union is consistent (i.e., does not allow inferring
both a statement and its negation), the transcriptions
still do not disagree, but each include aspects of the exemplar
that the other does not. However if the union is
inconsistent, then we can conclude that the transcriptions
disagree, and even say on what particular point(s) they
disagree.
Note that the construction of the set of basic facts from
the encoding of the transcription is not a simple mapping
from generic IDs (or, in general, markup configurations)
to predicate names. Thus, for instance, different generic
IDs could map to the same predicate name. Some markup
may also be ignored, and even entire elements, like
elements that are not part of the transcription as such (for
example, the TEI header[2]). More complex methods of
constructing the set of basic facts are also possible.
Apart from its intrinsic interest, a formal model of transcription
is of use in efforts to support a formal description
of the meaning of various constructs in well known
markup schemes, in which the meaning of certain elements
is inextricably linked to the fact that they can contain,
or be used in, transcriptions of existing documents.
We hope to conclude with some observations about the
applicability of our model in the formal description of
markup vocabularies.
References
DeRose, Steven J., David G. Durand, Elli Mylonas, and
Allen H. Renear. 1990. “What is Text, Really?” Journal
of Computing in Higher Education 1.2: 3-26.
Hilbert, Mirco, Oliver Schonefeld, and Andreas Witt.
2005. “Making CONCUR work.” In Proceedings of
Extreme Markup Languages 2005. On the Web at
<URL:http://www.idealliance.org/papers/extreme/proceedings/
html/2005/Witt01/EML2005Witt01.xml>
Huitfeldt, Claus, and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen. 2008.
“What is transcription?” L&LC 23.3 (2008): 295-310.
Available on the Web at <URL:http://llc.oxfordjournals.
org/cgi/reprint/fqn013?ijkey=97G3O9T2QOGozEm&k
eytype=ref>
Power, Richard, Donia Scott, and Nadjet Bouayad-Agha.
2003. “Document structure”. Computational Linguistics
29.2: 211-260.
Renear, Allen, David Durand, and Elli Mylonas. 1996.
“Refining our Notion of What Text Really Is: The Problem
of Overlapping Hierarchies”. In Research in Humanities
Computing ed. Nancy Ide and Susan Hockey.
Oxford: OUP, 1996.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and Claus Huitfeldt.
2000.“GODDAG: A Data Structure for Overlapping Hierarchies”
paper given at Digital Documents: Systems
and Principles. 8th International Conference on Digital
Documents and Electronic Publishing, DDEP 2000,
5th International Workshop on the Principles of Digital
Document Processing, PODDP 2000, Munich, Germany,
September 13-15, 2000. Published in DDEP-PODDP
2000, ed. P. King and E.V. Munson. Lecture Notes in
Computer Science 2023. Berlin: Springer, 2004, pp.
139-160. Available on the Web at <URL:http://www.
w3.org/People/cmsmcq/2000/poddp2000.html>
Tennison, Jeni, and Wendell Piez. 2002.“The layered
markup and annotation language (LMNL)”Late-breaking
talk given at Extreme Markup Languages 2002 (not
in proceedings). Slides on the Web at <URL:http://www.
idealliance.org/papers/extreme/proceedings/authorpkg/
2002/Tennison02/EML2002Tennison02.zip> [1] This assumption in some ways resembles the celebrated
assertion, widely known as the OHCO hypothesis,
that “text is an ordered hierarchy of content objects”
[DeRose et al. 1990] but differs from it in some ways.
We are speaking about documents (physical objects) not
texts (abstract objects); we say that documents identify
certain abstract structures not that they are constituted by
those structures; our assumption does not imply that the
abstractions involved are “content objects”, nor that they
are hierarchically structured, nor that they are ordered.
Our assumption does however share with the OHCO
hypothesis the idea that documents have structure more
complex than a simple sequence of types or tokens. See
also the retraction of the hierarchical part of the OHCO
hypothesis by several of its authors [Renear et al. 1996]
and the linguistically motivated analysis of document
structure in [Power / Scott / Bouayad-Agha 2003].
[2] Elements such as the TEI header may however be
very helpful in determining the practice/conventions/
context of the transcription.","txt","2","",""
"1049","10","Our Americas Archives Partnership: Charting New Cultural Geographies","1","Over the last decade, Hemispheric American Studies
has been an emerging interdisciplinary field,
spawning new conferences, graduate programs, professional
seminars, journals, essay collections, and even a
scholarly association. As Caroline Levander (co-PI of
the Our Americas Partnership) and Robert Levine explain,
Hemispheric American Studies aims “to chart new
literary and cultural geographies by decentering the U.S.
nation and excavating the intricate and complex politics,
histories, and discourses of spatial encounter that occur
throughout the hemisphere but tend to be obscured in
U.S. nation-based inquiries” (Levander & Levine 2008,
p.5). Such an approach means being attentive to shifting
borders, migrations, cultural interactions—movement
rather than fixity.
Scholars practicing a hemispheric approach to American
Studies face challenges that include research materials
being scattered in many repositories, lack of institutional
support and intellectual community at their home institutions,
and linguistic barriers. The Our America Archive
Partnership (OAAP, http://oaap.rice.edu/) is beginning
to address these limitations by building a distributed
online collection of research materials as well as technologies
for federating multiple repositories, creating
geographical and temporal visualizations, and enabling
researchers to tag and collect digital objects. Funded by
a $1 million grant from the Institute for Museum and
Library Services (IMLS), OAAP brings together Rice
University’s Fondren Library, Rice’s Humanities Research
Center, the University of Maryland’s Institute for
Technology and the Humanities (MITH), and Mexico’s
Instituto Mora, with more partners expected. Included
in the OAAP project are evaluation of scholarly needs;
digitization of texts; development of an open federated
archive; and design and implementation of technologies
that support inquiry, discovery and collaboration.
The Archive
With its transnational scope, Hemispheric American
Studies requires access to research materials distributed
around the world, with collections that transcend nation
state boundaries and facilitate comparativist studies
of the Americas. The web-based OAAP provides such access, with tools that enable scholars to search for resources,
collect and organize them, visualize them using
temporal and geospatial interfaces, and collaborate with
peers. OAAP brings together an existing collection of
TEI-encoded texts, the University of Maryland’s Early
Americas Digital Archive (EADA, which covers literature
of the Americas from 1492-1820), with two new collections
being digitized, Rice’s America’s Collection and
Instituto Mora’s collection (North and Latin American
government documents, manuscripts, books, and other
material from 1811-1920). The combined collections
span the five hundred year period that witnessed the
making of colonial and modern cultures in the Americas.
Because of its range, the federated archive promises to
reinvigorate the study of American literary and cultural
history by suggesting unexpected juxtapositions, different
models of periodization, and new avenues of crosscultural
influence.1
User Studies and Needs Analysis.
The OAAP team is working actively with the Hemispheric
American Studies scholarly community in assessing
needs, building the collection and tools, and
developing an infrastructure for collaboration. Caroline
Levander, a leading researcher in Hemispheric American
Studies, is a co-PI, and Rice’s Humanities Research
Center, which Levander directs, contributes most of the
scholarly activities for the project. The advisory board
includes well-respected scholars, librarians, and digital
humanists. Levander has taught an NEH Summer Seminar
on the topic of hemispheric American literature and
a National Humanities Center Dupont seminar on the
globalization of American literary studies. Participants
were surveyed about their existing use of digital resources
as well as about the OAAP and will be consulted as
OAAP continues to evolve. We also collaborated with
the Council on Library and Information Resources to
convene a meeting of five scholars and one academic
technologist to envision OAAP’s future.
From these surveys and discussions several principles
have emerged:
• Access is paramount.
Seminar survey respondents ranked better search
tools and better access to research materials as top
priorities. Researchers emphasized the importance
of having access to a variety of materials from
around the world, from government documents to
manuscript materials to audio recordings. These resources
must be easy to discover through full-text
search as well as rich metadata.
• OAAP should tackle barriers of language and discipline
How can scholars get beyond the limitations of their
own conceptual schemas and their own languages?
One scholar envisioned a search tool that would
work like a friendly archivist, identifying materials
you didn’t know existed. Scholars emphasized the
need for a multilingual search interface, so that a
researcher could enter keywords in Spanish and pull
up relevant results in English.
• Scholars want an environment that facilitates collaboration,
acknowledges contributors, and enables
them to quickly evaluate the reliability of resources.
Fundamentally scholars saw OAAP as opening a
new approach to scholarship, one that is not constrained
to close readings of a few key texts but able
to encompass broad spatial, political, and social
contexts. For instance, a group of scholars could
team up on a study of the Spanish-American War,
some focusing on visual or literary culture, some on
demography. One survey respondent suggested that
OAAP “develop [a] place for scholars to ask one
another questions about materials with which they
are less familiar, i.e. provide space for collaborative
interactions/project.”
Text Encoding Approach
Texts from OAAP’s collections are marked up in TEI to
facilitate scholarly analysis and long-term preservation.
Since scholars seem to value access over all else, some
have suggested that it would be sufficient to offer PDFs
of the books. With TEI marked-up texts, however, scholars
can search within or across texts, use analytical tools
such as TAPOR, and easily copy out passages into their
notes. Moreover, TEI supports the creation of multiple
forms of output from a single TEI text, such as an original
and a regularized version of a manuscript or a version
optimized for mobile devices.
After consultation with scholars, OAAP decided to focus
on marking up basic structures in the body of the text,
just as EADA did with its TEI texts. Our aim is to support
access and analysis, not to create critical editions.
For manuscripts, we are also encoding features such as
deletions, additions, and corrections, as well as the structure
of letters such as openers and closers.
Given the significance of geography to OAAP, we considered
using automated or manual methods to add place
markup. While this could enable geospatial searching
or the generation of maps showing places described in a as the distinctions between places in which a narrator is
physically present vs. imagined spaces (like “home”).
We needed a streamlined approach that would minimize
labor costs in working with the 25,000 pages of digitized
text. Furthermore, to encourage other institutions to add
their collections to the federation, we want to keep the
requirements for participating in OAAP minimal. We
must, therefore, pursue a balanced approach that embraces
standards (to facilitate consistency and longevity)
and is flexible enough to accommodate a diversity of archives
with a range of goals and capabilities.
Federation Model and User Interface
In addition to providing access to key research materials,
OAAP hopes to facilitate collaboration among an international
community of scholars. Despite challenges,
including the humanities’ reluctance to reward collaborative
work, scholars in this vital community have expressed
excitement about working together on research
projects in the collaborative space provided by the OAAP.
The project is facilitating collaboration through a social
tagging interface and federation of distributed repositories,
as well as by working actively with scholars on the
OAAP’s development. To enable the federation of distributed
repositories, OAAP is implementing a harvester
that collects objects from repositories meeting minimal
standards and stores them for the purposes of searching
and display. OAAP is adopting a data exchange standard
based upon OAI’s Static Repository XML model (http://
www.openarchives.org/OAI/2.0/guidelines-static-repository.
htm). Through OAAP’s interface, researchers will
be able to search, browse, tag, and collect objects from
distributed collections. Researchers will tag objects to
create a set of keywords that others can use, thus expanding
the metadata beyond the Library of Congress Subject
Headings added by metadata librarians and OAAP keywords
provided by participating scholars. OAAP will
also implement faceted browsing, allowing researchers
to filter searches by, for instance, “political constitution”
and “1800-1850.” Since notions of time and space are
crucial to OAAP, it will provide both geospatial and temporal
interfaces, enabling researchers to view resources
on an interactive map or timeline.
Conclusion
By providing open access to core research materials,
federating archives, and developing tools for analysis
and collaboration, OAAP hopes to realize what Cathy
Davidson calls Humanities 2.0: “Hybridity, exchange,
flow, and cultural transaction are all explored
more responsibly
and adventurously when the resources of
many nations, in many languages, have been digitized,
made interoperable,
and offered for research by scholars
around the world, each of whom brings a local store of
knowledge and experience to the theoretical, interpretive
enterprise” (Davidson 2008).
References
Davidson, C.N., 2008. Humanities 2.0: Promise,
Perils, Predictions. PMLA, 123(3), 707-717. Available
at: http://www.mlajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1632/
pmla.2008.123.3.707 [Accessed October 5, 2008].
Levander, C.F. & Levine, R.S., 2008. Introduction.
Hemispheric American studies, New Brunswick, N.J.:
Rutgers University Press, pp. 1-17.
1See Our Americas Archive Partnership Narrative,
http://oaap.rice.edu/documentation.html","txt","2","",""
"1050","10","Sentiment Analysis of Fictional Characters Based on Entity Profiles","1","Introduction There has been an increasing interest in applying automatic
text analysis techniques to various text classification
problems in literature and the social sciences.
Examples of such tasks include determining biases in
political coverage, or analyzing mood in literature. Earlier
techniques were based on simplistic corpus analysis
techniques such as counting word frequencies and
co-occurrences. The access to robust machine learning
technology and tools has enabled more sophisticated text
mining techniques to be developed. Yu (Yu, 2008) discusses
the use of text classification methods in the literary
domain. His study compared the performance of two
popular algorithms, naïve Bayes and support vector machines
(SVMs) in two literary text classification tasks.
While this trend represents progress in automatic text
mining, it still reflects a reliance on primitive features
such as the bag-of-words model. In such models, text is
represented as a vector of weighted words; word order
is disregarded and only frequency information is used.
Such techniques are inherently limited in the granularity
of the analysis they can perform, typically limited to
the document level. For more fine-grained tasks such as
sentiment analysis with respect to people, characters or
topics, a more sophisticated model of relevant context is
required.
This work discusses the use of entity profiles to represent
the context in which to make judgments regarding an entity,
where an entity can represent an individual or an organization,
or other salient entity types. An entity profile
reflects a consolidation of all important information pertaining
to an entity within a document. For a person (or a
character in a novel), the entity profile would include all
mentions of the individual, including co-referential mentions,
as well as relationships and events involving the
person. The representation of such information is typically
highly structured such as spouse_of(Maria
Bertram, Mr. Rushworth) with a link to the text
snippet or sentence from which the relationship or event
was extracted. An entity profile, when compiled from a
collection of documents, or a lengthy novel is rich information
that provides the required context in which to
compare two individuals, classify human behaviour, etc.
Automatically extracting entity profiles (and associated
text snippets) is a challenging task in information extraction;
the next section describes a system which has been
designed for this purpose. The rest of the paper describes
the use of entity profiles as the context in which automatic
sentiment analysis (Chesley et al, 2006) of fictional
characters can be computed. The example is from Jane
Austen’s Mansfield Park.
Semantex: An Information Extraction
Engine
Semantex (Srihari 2008) is a domain independent, intermediate
level information extraction (IE) engine. The
linguistic processor modules support different levels
of natural language processing, including orthography,
morphology, syntax, co-reference resolution, semantics,
and discourse. The categories of information objects created
by Semantex are (i) Named Entities (NE): proper
names of persons, organizations, product, location etc.,
(ii) Correlated Entity (CE) relationships: capture local
relationships between entities within sentence boundaries.
The results are consolidated into EPs based on coreference
and alias support, (iii) Entity Profiles (EP):
Entity Profiles are complex rich information objects that
collect entity-centric information—in particular, all the
individual mentions of an entity in a document and any
CE relationships the entity is involved in, (iv) Subject-
Verb-Object (SVO) triples: SVO triples decoded by Semantex
are logical, rather than syntactic: surface variations
such as active voice vs. passive voice are decoded
into the same underlying logical relationships, (v) General
Events (GE): verb-centric information objects representing
`who did what to whom when and where'. These
five types of information objects capture key content of
the processed text. For this project, the most relevant objects
are CEs, EPs, and SVOs.
Sentiment Analysis based on Context
provided by Entity Profiles
We use the set of text snippets (or sentences) from an entity
profile as the context in which features for sentiment
analysis are computed. Sentiment analysis is performed in two phases: (i) the first phase, training, focuses on
compiling a lexicon of subjective words and phrases
along with their polarities (positive/negative) and an associated
weight. (ii) in the second phase, sentiment association,
a text document collection is processed and
sentiment assigned to entity profiles of interest.
For sentiment analysis, a lexicon of subjective words/
phrases (those with positive or negative polarity associated
with them) is first compiled through (i) expansion
from adjectives in WordNet using synonyms based on
positive and negative seed adjectives and (ii) use of a
search engine to find words that appear “near” a known
positive/negative adjective. To associate sentiment with
an entity, we accumulate polarity weights (using a sliding
window) from the sentences within the entity profile;
thresholding results in a final positive, negative or neutral
polarity for the entity in question.
Sentiment Analysis applied to Jane Austen’s
Mansfield Park
In this section, sentiment analysis has been applied to
characters in Mansfield Park by Jane Austen. Specifically,
it has been applied to the entity profile for the character
Mary Crawford at different times in the novel. This is
the process that was employed.
1. The text of Mansfield Park , originally consisting
of 159,500 words was split into four parts at chapter
breaks with some consideration to the progress
of the plot. These breaks were chosen to track the
transformation of the character Mary Crawford
from first meeting through the revelation of some
flaws in the character.
2. Each of the four sections was processed by Semantex;
entity profiles were generated for all the characters,
including Mary Crawford. This resulted in four
entity profiles for Mary Crawford at different stages
in the plot.
3. Sentiment analysis was computed for each of the
entity profiles: the goal was to correlate the output
of automatic sentiment analysis with the transformation
in the character over time.
The sentiment analysis output based on two entity profiles
for Mary Crawford generated at different stages
(parts one and three) is shown in the table below. Part
three reflects the duration of time just before and after
Maria’s elopement with Henry Crawford, Mary’s
brother. Mary’s reaction to this event exposes flaws in
her nature, and contributes to a reader’s judgment of her
character as negative. In each case, a subset of the subjective
words that contribute to the overall polarity (positive
or negative) are shown, along with snippets of text
(based on entity profile) in which those words appeared.
These text snippets are a subset of the sentences which
contribute to the entity profile for Mary Crawford. The
entire profile is not shown for space considerations. It
should be noted that snippets from the entity profile are
not necessarily contiguous.
Our system has judged the first profile to be positive, but
the second one to be neutral rather than negative. This
could be partly due to an aggregation of sentiment that
is performed over the entire section. There is considerable
effort that remains in improving the accuracy of
automated sentiment analysis of fictional characters. For
example, words such as “ashamed” and “embarrassed”
are not necessarily associated with negative sentiment
depending on the context. Another problem is proper association
of the sentiment with the character in question.
We continue to work on these issues.
Co-referential Mentions: Mary, Mary Crawford, Miss
Crawford, she, herself, his sister This paper has described an experiment in which automatic
sentiment analysis is used to illustrate either the
change in a character, or the perception of the character
by other characters over the progression of a story. Entity
profiles provide rich context in which to attempt other
tasks, such as measuring the similarity of characters,
both within a novel, as well as across novels. Standard
document similarity measures may be used to accomplish
this.
The challenge to making this technique more robust is
the accuracy of coreference, including anaphora resolution.
Mistakes in this module can cause irrelevant sentences
to be pulled into the entity profile, thus rendering
the analysis inaccurate. Efforts are underway to improve
this accuracy. Sentiment analysis can also be improved
by fine tuning the association of subjective words with
the correct character. Nevertheless, this is a more sophisticated
method of performing text analysis with respect
to analyzing human behaviour.
References
R. K. Srihari, W. Li, C. Niu and T. Cornell (2008) ""InfoXtract:
A Customizable
Intermediate Level Information Extraction Engine,""
Journal of Natural Language Engineering, Cambridge
U. Press, 14(1), 2008, pp.33-69.
P. Chesley, B. Vincent, L. Xu, and R. K. Srihari (2006)
""Using Verbs and Adjectives to Automatically Classify
Blog Sentiment”, Proc. AAAI-2006 Spring Symposium
on Computational Approaches to Analyzing Weblogs,
Stanford University, CA March 2006, AAAI Press, TR
SS-06-03, pp.27-29.
Bei Yu (2008) An evaluation of text classification methods
for literary study, Linguist Computing 23: 327-343.","txt","2","",""
"1051","10","Computer-Aided Palaeography, Present and Future","1","The field of digital palaeography has received increasing
attention in recent years (Ciula 2005; Bulacu and
Schomaker 2007; Stokes 2007/8; Rehbein et al. forthcoming).
However, this subdiscipline
is not generally
accepted by the wider humanities community, and indeed
some have argued that handwriting is inherently
unquantifiable and cannot be analysed by digital means
(Costamagna et al. 1995–96). This paper therefore asks
what problems might be amenable to digital analysis and
why existing methods have not been widely accepted,
and then introduces new software designed to address
these issues.
Present Issues in ‘Traditional’
Palaeography
One of the principle difficulties in palaeography is subjectivity,
since palaeographers often express qualitative
opinions rather than objective arguments and this can
lead to an ‘authoritarian discipline’ which depends on
‘the authority of the author and the faith of the reader’
(Derolez 2003). Attempts to make the field more scientific
began well before the use of computers, including
an attempt to measure hundreds of letters by hand
(Gilissen 1973), but these were laborious and problematic
and the approach was largely forgotten. Others have
drawn on forensic document analysis, since forensic
document analysts have had to demonstrate the efficacy
and objectivity of their methods in court and are therefore
far ahead of palaeographers in this respect (Srihari
et al. 2002; Davis 2007). Nevertheless, the differences
between modern and medieval handwriting are significant.
Amongst other things, medieval scribes were (usually)
highly trained and can show very little variety from
one scribe to the next, unlike modern writers; forensic
analysts can generally collect a large corpus of known
handwriting whereas palaeographers often have few or
no known examples; and palaeographers cannot verify
their results with the certainty that forensic analysts can
often achieve.
In addition to these problems, palaeographical study
has also been hampered by the lack of an established
terminology, and this makes commmunicating arguments
very difficult indeed. The Comité international de
paléographie latine (CIPL) was founded in 1953 partly
for this reason but, despite sixteen international meetings
to date, it is nowhere near producing an accepted solution
(but see Muzerelle 2003). However, the problem
is receiving more attention with the increasing use of
databases and online catalogues. Attempts to computerise
existing catalogues have revealed inconsistencies in
earlier sources, and the absence of accepted terminology
has made digital resources difficult to search and almost
impossible to interconnect.
Another issue is the volume of data to be analysed. Palaeographers
have tended to consider small corpora of
scribal hands, but these are not necessarily representative
of wider practices, and any conclusions based on
such samples are necessarily limited. Larger corpora are
beyond traditional methods, however, since they can include
hundreds of scribal hands with potentially thousands
or tens of thousands of features (Stokes 2007/8).
Digital methods can help, as databases and data-mining
can both be used to manage large quantities of material.
Similarly, if catalogues and other online resources followed
standards in describing handwriting then data can
be pooled from many different projects. However, as
noted above, such standards do not yet exist.
Present Issues in ‘Digital’ Palaeography
These difficulties can all be addressed to some extent by
digital methods, and new studies in ‘digital palaeography’
are going some way towards doing that (Ciula 2005;
Bulacu and Schomaker 2007; Stokes 2007/8). However,
promising as these seem, they have received almost no
acceptance and relatively little interest from ‘traditional’
palaeographers. This is partly because the technology is
not yet mature, and perhaps also because the attempts to
date have generally involved small projects without the
sustained funding or larger interdisciplinary groups that
digital humanities often require (Pierazzo 2008). However,
neither of these seems to be a complete explanation,
and another problem may be one of understanding
and engagement. Even if procedures are communicated
clearly using recognised terminology, scholars still require
a good understanding of many complex fields to
fully appreciate and engage with the material, including
post-graduate level probability theory, digital signal processing,
computer graphics, and more, all skills which
cannot be expected from palaeographers. This means
that they cannot engage meaningfully with the results
of digital methods and that we have replaced the human
authority with a digital one.
Another difficulty is that all results should be reproducible
or at least verifiable if any claim to objectivity is
made. However, this is rarely done in practice. For example, most techniques for enhancing images require a
great deal of ad hoc human intervention which cannot
be accurately documented using most existing tools.
Many scholars in the humanities use Adobe Photoshop
for enhancing images (Craig-McFeely and Lock 2006),
but Photoshop provides no easy way of recording actions
such as colour-selection, nor is it always clear exactly
how the proprietary algorithms work. Photoshop is undoubtedly
useful and should not be discarded lightly, but
the methods and tools must allow full documentation
and reproducibility.
The lack of standard terminology for handwriting not
only makes communication between scholars difficult,
but it also makes databases of script all but impossible.
Some less conventional approaches have been tried,
such as the Manchester ‘C11’ database (Rumble 2005;
Scragg et al. 2005), but this particular classification and
interface is very opaque and subjective, so that neither
search criteria nor result-sets are intelligible to users. Alternatives
such as descriptive rather than visual criteria
for searches have also been attempted (Stokes 2007/8),
but these still depend on users understanding a specific
and ad hoc vocabulary and so are difficult to search and
are nearly impossible to integrate with other resources.
Some Future Directions
Perhaps the easiest problem to solve is that of documentation
and reproducibility, since software can be designed
to record all operations performed and then save this
as a MIX/METS file or other standard format (Stokes,
forthcoming). A Photoshop plugin could achieve this but
would be subject to Adobe’s licensing and the restricted
availability of their Software Development Kit. Instead,
basic software for image enhancement can be developed
relatively easily, for example with the Java Advanced
Imaging library (JAI), and any purpose-built software to
quantify scribal hands can (and should) reveal its algorithms
and log every detail of what it does.
Regarding understanding and scholarly engagement, it
is unreasonable to expect palaeographers to understand
the detailed mathematics of image-processing and datamining,
but the techniques are promising and should not
be discarded lightly. One possibility is therefore to find
ways of presenting the results of this software in ways
that are intelligible to palaeographers: if the results can
be understood then they are more likely to be accepted.
This problem is complex, though, as data-mining often
produces results which are not intelligible and cannot
necessarily be articulated in an intelligible way.
The Framework for Image Analysis
To test some of these principles, the author of the present
paper has developed new modular and extendible
software in Java for the analysis of scribal hands. Users
can load images of handwriting and then run processes
to generate metrics for scribal hands, where each
process implements one or more algorithms to extract
features from images of handwriting and records both
the process and the result. A module is also provided to
enhance images before processing, and this can be run as
a stand-alone application to help recover text from damaged
manuscripts (Stokes, forthcoming). The system can
compare metrics generated by different processes and
thereby measure distances between samples of writing,
and both metrics and distances can be exported for further
study. The processes are implemented as plugins so
that users can choose different combinations of processes
for different situations and can also implement their
own algorithms and exchange these to allow others to
test their methods and reproduce their results. This allows
people to compare different techniques in a common
framework, producing libraries of scribal hands and
plugins as a common and documented basis for palaeographical
study.
Fig. 1: Framework for Image Analysis
A system like this should alleviate some of the problems
discussed above. All analysis using the framework is
documented and reproducible, assuming that the images
are freely accessible and that the plugins conform to the
principles outlined above. The results provide objective
evidence, the validity and interpretation of which can then
be debated. The metrics and processes may or may not be
meaningful to scholars in the humanities, depending on the
plugins, but at least they are open to scrutiny by those who
can and wish to do so. Indeed, it is an important question
how the results of complex algorithms can best be presented
to scholars in the humanities, and it may well be that the
plugins should allow both ‘computer-
friendly’ and ‘human-friendly’ output, with the latter including graphical
or even interactive displays. Much work is still required
here, but the system described is designed for precisely
this sort of experimentation and thereby, one hopes, provides
a useful environment in which the work can be
done.
Fig. 2: The Image Enhancement module.
Manuscript page is Cambridge, Corpus Christi College
144, 32r. Reproduced by permission of the Master and
Fellows, Corpus Christi College Cambridge
References
Bulacu, M., and Schomaker, L. (2007). Automatic
Handwriting Identification on Medieval Documents.
Proc. of 14th Int. Conf. on Image Analysis and Processing
(ICIAP 2007), pp. 279–284. <http://www.ai.rug.
nl/~bulacu/iciap2007-bulacu-schomaker.pdf>
Ciula, A. (2005). Digital Palaeography: Using the Digital
Representation of Medieval Script to Support Palaeographic
Analysis. Digital Medievalist 1. <http://www.
digitalmedievalist.org/journal/1.1/ciula/>
Costamagna, G., et al. (1995 and 1996). Commentare
Bischoff. Scrittura e Civiltà 19: 325–48 and 20:401–7.
Craig-McFeely, J., and Lock, A. (2006). Digital Image
Archive of Medieval Music: Digital Restoration Workbook.
Oxford: Oxford Select Specialist Catalogue Publications.
<http://www.methodsnetwork.ac.uk/redist/pdf/
workbook1.pdf>
Davis, T. (2007). The practice of Handwriting Identification.
The Library (7th Series) 8: 251–76.
Derolez, A. (2003). The Palaeography of Gothic Manuscript
Books. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gilissen, L. (1973). L’expertise des écritures médiévales.
Ghent: Éditions scientiﬁques E. Story-Scientia.
Muzerelle, D. (2003). Vocabulaire codicologique.
<http://vocabulaire.irht.cnrs.fr/vocab.htm>
Pierazzo, E. (2008). Editorial Teamwork in a Digital
Environment: The Edition of the Correspondence of
Giacomo Puccini. Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie 10.
<http://computerphilologie.tu-darmstadt.de/jg08/pierazzo.
html>
Rumble, A. R. (2005). Palaeography, Scribal
Identiﬁcation and the Study of Manuscript Characteristics.
Care and Conservation of Manuscripts: Proceedings
of the 8th International Seminar, edited by G. Fellows-
Jensen and P. Springborg. Copenhagen: Museum
Tusculanum Press, pp. 217–28.
Scragg, D. G., et al. (2005). ManCASS C11 Database
Project. <http://www.arts.manchester.ac.uk/mancass/
C11database/>
Srihari, S. N., et al. (2002). Individuality of Handwriting.
Journal of Forensic Science 47: 1–17.
Stokes, P. A. (2007/8). Palaeography and Image-Processing:
Some Solutions and Problems. Digital Medievalist
3. <http://www.digitalmedievalist.org/journal/3/
stokes/>
Stokes, P. A. (forthcoming). Recovering Anglo-Saxon
Erasures: Some Questions, Tools and Techniques. Palimpsests
and the Literary Imagination of Medieval England,
edited by R. Chai-Elsholz et al. New York: Palgrave.
Rehbein, M., et al., eds. (forthcoming). Kodikologie
und Paläographie im Digitalen Zeitalter—Codicology
and Palaeography in the Digital Age. Norderstedt:
Books on Demand.
All URLs last accessed 12 March 2009.","txt","2","",""
"1052","10","""Terminal Hopscotch"": Navigating Networked Space in Talan Memmott's Lexia to Perplexia","1","If the reader is patient enough to make it to the final
episodes of Lexia to Perplexia, digital artist Talan
Memmott’s beautifully intricate piece of electronic literature,
at some point she will encounter a particularly
puzzling image. Richly layered with images of computer
code, checkerboard backdrops, cryptic prose, and a
stick figure drawn in chalk, this snapshot will nevertheless
lack the full frenzy of motion of the actual work, a
palimpsest-like environment that threatens to spin out of
control. The reader will participate in its wild oscillation
by moving her mouse around the screen in an effort to
find a gateway or portal to the next segment. By this time
she will (probably) have learned that this type of active
searching is the only way to proceed through the text.
For her efforts, she will not be rewarded with a new section,
a sense of closure, nor formal dénouement; rather,
her participation here will involve playing what Memmott
has referred to as “terminal hopscotch,” a looping
sequence of animations that unfold ad infinitum, or at
least until the reader will choose to withdraw.
Created for the trAce Online Writing Community’s annual
Conference in 2000, Lexia to Perplexia is comprised
of four sections divided into a series of thicklylayered
web pages, each of which leads to further layers
before linking to a new page. The text is a mixture of
DHTML and Javascript, which, when strung together,
forms a fragmented narrative that is visually complemented
by empty grids, snippets of code, and cluttered
signs of death and mourning. Like many examples of
electronic literature or digital poetry, Lexia to Perplexia
emerges from a variety of artistic traditions: it is a visual
poem, a linguistic experiment, and a piece of executable
code all in one. It is a technological collage performed
on a computer screen, filled with references to various
media forms while settling exclusively on none.
Yet there are many things that Lexia to Perplexia is not.
It is not a linear narrative, yet through a sustained interaction
with the piece, an abstract sort of “story” emerges.
It does not contain a set series of causal sequences, yet
any path through this image-laden text is causally dependent
upon the decisions the user makes in response to its
interface. It is not a story in which a single “main character”
functions as a center of narration, yet the piece is
suggestive of a subjective amalgam, a stitched-together
entity that has joined itself to a network. Nor does the
piece fit entirely within the tradition of the avant-garde
in the visual arts—even as its operative and interactive
features express an unusual sort of seeing, a “networked
perspective,” that resonates with Marcel Duchamp’s attempts
to deter the “retinal shudder” that results from
traditional manners of representation (qtd. in Ades 70).
In her detailed analysis of the work in Writing Machines,
N. Katherine Hayles discusses the manner in which
Memmott creates an anonymous protagonist resigned to
a divided and encoded existence that the computer interface
and distributed network have made inevitable.
Her convincing argument is that in Lexia to Perplexia
“human subjectivity is depicted as intimately entwined
with computer technologies,” and that such an entwinement
is achieved through Memmott’s use of “idiosyncratic
language, a revisioning of classical myths, and a
set of coded images that invite the reader to understand
herself not as a preexisting self with secure boundaries
but as a permeable membrane through which information
flows” (50). Hayles’ analysis not only addresses
the unique character of Memmott’s project, it does so in
such a way as to shed light upon digital art as a whole,
providing ample evidence to support the one of the theses
that underpins Writing Machines: the increasing need
for media-specific analysis.
Yet far from exhausting what can be gleaned from Lexia
to Perplexia, Hayles’ clear and thorough exegesis creates
a new mode of approach. If, for example, it is crucial to
apply a media-specific analysis to works such as Lexia to
Perplexia, then the task remains to consider more fully
one of its most important medial features: the organization
of spatial elements on the level of the interface. In
this paper I depart from earlier modes of interpretation
that focus primarily on linguistic elements (see, for example,
work by Hayles, Dreher, and Raley) by considering
the way Memmott complicates traditional notions of
identity in Lexia to Perplexia through a unique arrangement
of spatial elements that form a networked reading
environment and suggest a distributed subjectivity. Such
an arrangement creates an anxious landscape that offers
no place for repose, one that, at least initially, makes a
refugee of the reader as she “hopscotches” through the
text. Additionally, I propose that Lexia to Perplexia’s
distinct spatial organization results in a form of storytelling
that both challenges and conforms to traditional
narrative structure—and that these spatial elements, dependent
as they are upon the medium of the computer and the technology of the distributed network, engender
new ways of navigating textual space that demand new
literacies to fully experience them.","txt","2","",""
"1053","10","More about gentleman in Dickens","1","Introduction The aim of this paper is to present a corpus-stylistic
study of the collocation of gentleman in Dickens.
The word gentleman is among the most frequent ‘content’
words in Dickens. In fact, as Fig. 1 shows, gentleman
appears more frequently in Dickens than in any other
author examined, and thus is a key word in Dickens in
the sense that it ‘appear[s] in a text or a part of a text with
a frequency greater than chance occurrence alone would
suggest’ (Henry and Rooseberry, 2001: 110).
Fig. 1 Normalised frequency of gentleman per million
words
Building on my pilot study of the collocation of gentleman
in Dickens and Smollett (Tabata, 2008), this study
expands the scope of analysis by comparing Dickens
texts with a larger reference
corpus covering major eighteenth-
and nineteenth-century authors as well as by
combining quantitative techniques with qualitative interpretation
of statistical ﬁ ndings. The corpus, upon which
the present study is based, is made up of three components:
1) 24 Dickens text sets (4,835,158 words), 2) a
set of 23 eighteenth-century texts (4,163,353 words: Defoe,
Fielding, Goldsmith, Richardson, Smollett, Sterne,
and Swift), and 3) a set of 31 nineteenth-century texts
(5,118,346 words: Austen, the Brontë sisters, Collins,
George Eliot, Gaskell, Thackeray, and Trollope). The total
of running words amount to 14,116,857. One might
ﬁnd that female authors
outnumber male authors in the
nineteenth-century set. However, the female set is not
so overpopulated as to imbalance the population of the
subcorpus. The total of the tokens by male authors accounts
for as high as 45 % of the running words due to
comparatively thick volumes produced by male authors. A few methodological issues
To investigate Dickens’ stylistic features associated with
the use of gentleman, it will be appropriate
to analyze
the word in collocation, rather than in isolation since semantics
of a word is extended to the surrounding words,
or co-text (Firth, 1957; Sinclair, 1991; Stubbs, 2001).
The ﬁ rst issue to be discussed is a collocational span.
Although there is not a total agreement between
linguists
regarding an optimal range of collocational span, a generally
accepted practice is to examine collocation in a
span of four words to the each side of the node (Jones
and Sinclair, 1974). This is based on the ﬁ nding that it
will become increasingly diffcult to ﬁ nd meaningful collocational
pattens beyond a span of four words (Sinclair
et al., 2004), as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 Graph showing average node predictions over span
positions 1–10*
* From Sinclair (1969) as reprinted in Sinclair et al.
(2004)
Next comes the issue of how to measure collocational
strength between words. If we use raw frequency (or
normalised frequency) counts, the predominance of
function words such as the, a, and, of, etc. (as evident
in Table 1) would overcrowd subtler, more meaningful
patterns. My proposed solution is to use a statistical
measure. Among a number of techniques for ﬁ ltering out
unimportant neighbouring words, a Mutual Information
(MI) score measures collocational strength, by a logarithmic
compression of the frequency of collocates. It
therefore is likely to spotlight semantic relationships
rather than syntactic relationships between the node and
its collocates. Mutual information score for the collocation
of the word x and the word y (I(x,y)) is obtained from
the formula (1).
I(x,y) = log2
f(x,y) × N
f(x) × f(y)
The third issue is how we set a threshold for variables.
Church and Hanks (1990: 24) state that the association
ratio becomes unstable when the counts are very small
(for example, when fx.y ≤ 5). My tentative proposal is
to base analysis upon collocates occurring 10 times or
more, and with MI scores higher than 3.0, drawing on
Church and Hanks’ account that “pairs with I(x,y) > 3 tend
to be interesting” (24). Table 2 list 100 strongest collocates
with f(x,y) ≥ 10. A close look at Table 2, however,
reveals that there are a few proper nouns that occur only
in a particular text (Brass’s, Greystock, and Oliver). As
a results of eliminating twelve such proper nouns from
the candidates for variables, 378 collocates of gentleman
were found quliﬁed as variables. The initial number of
texts in the corpus was 78, but one text, Smollett’s The
History and Adventures of an Atom (1769) did not meet
the requirements and, therefore, was eliminated from the
data set.
The sheer volume of data to be analysed is daunting: a
collocational strength matrix for 378 collocates across
77 texts (77 rows by 378 columns). Since it would be
extremely diffcult for a human eye to detect meaningful
patterns from the data of such dimensions, correspondence
analysis is employed to visualize complex
interrelationships among gentleman’s collocates, interrelationships
among texts, and the association patterns
between the gentleman’s collocates and texts in multidimensional
spaces.
Table 1 100 most common collocates of gentleman
Various multivariate analyses of texts have been successful in elucidating linguistic variation
over time, variation
across registers, variation across oceans, to say nothing
of linguistic
differences between authors (Brainerd,
1980; Burrows, 1987 & 1996; Biber and Finegan,
1992;
Craig, 1999a, b, & c; Hoover, 2003a, b, & c; Rudman,
2005). My earlier attempts
used correspondence analysis
to accommodate low frequency variables (words) in proﬁling
authorial/chronological/cross-register variations
in Dickens and Smollett (Tabata, 2005; 2007a/b; 2008).
Given the fact that most collocates of content words tend
to be low in frequency, my methodology based on correspondence
analysis would usefully be applied to a macroscopic
analysis of collocation of gentleman.
Table 2 100 strongest collocates of gentleman based on
MI-score
Results
Fig. 3 visualises interrelationships among 77 texts. Data
points (texts) closer to each other in the diagram tend to
have similar collocates in common. The greater the distance
between texts, the less they have in common. Fig.
4 indicates interrelationships among 378 collocates. The
proportion accounted for by Dimensions 1 and 2 is only
4.21 % and 3.03 %, respectively, of the total variance in
the data, indicating the relationships among the matrix of
77 rows by 378 columns are extremely complex.
Fig. 3 provides an interesting overview of similarity or
contrast between texts: the horizontal axis, the strongest
variance in the data set, differentiates Dickens versus the
eighteenth-and nineteenth-century authors. One seeming
anomaly as far as Dickens texts are concerned is the
position of 1851_CHE, A Child’s History of England
(1851), which ﬁ nds itself between the eighteenth and the
nineteenth century text groups. This history book written
for children is considerably different in style from
other Dickensian works. Therefore it is not unexpected
for this piece to be found least Dickensian as indicated
by the vertical axis, a phenomenon in keeping with previous
multivariate studies based on other linguistic variables,
such as –ly adverbs (Tabata, 2005: 231) and partof-
speech distribution (Tabata, 2002: 173). In addition,
early Dickens texts are found in the lower half of the
Dickens cluster, again in consistent with my other works
(Tabata, 2008; 2009a; 2009b).
Fig. 3 Correspondence Analysis of the collocates of
gentleman (378 collocates across 77 texts)
Fig. 4 A galaxy of gentleman’s collocates: Word-map of
378 collocates
The vertical axis, furthermore, shows the eighteenthcentury
texts to wards the bottom and the nineteenth centhe two sets are not in two distinct clusters. Fig. 4 corresponds
to Fig. 3 and thus tells us what words tend to cooccur
with gentleman in Dickens, in the eighteenth- and
nineteenth-century texts.
Concordance
A close examination of Fig. 4 leads to an awareness that
gentleman in Dickens are characterised
by (uncommon)
adjectives while, in the eighteenth-century texts, verbs
(of past tense) are prominent collocates. The nineteenthcentury
texts do not display a particular pattern apart
from words related to family or position. I would rather
interpret this result as suggesting the nineteenth-century
texts are negatively characterised both against the Dickens
set and the eighteenth-century set.
Fig. 5 Concordance: egotistical
Fig. 6 Concordance: censorious
A close study of gentleman in collocation with such
Dickensian adjectives, egotistical, censorious,
throwingoff
makes us realize Dicken’s ironical use of gentleman.
Moreover, these concordance lines make us realize that
in Dickens more than one modiﬁers are likely to precede
gentleman. In fact, Fig. 8 illustrates Dickens’s tendency
to use multiple adjectives. The increase in the proportion
which Dickens instances occupy in ‘the multi-adjective
gentleman’ from ‘a | an ADJ ADJ gentleman’, as well as
gentleman in total indicates that Dickens uses ‘the ADJ
ADJ gentleman’ formula as character appellations, instead
of simply referring to a character as a gentleman.
Fig. 7 Concordance: throwing-off
Fig. 8 Proportion of instances accounted for by Dickens
Fig. 9 Concordance: the X X gentleman
Fig. 10 Concordance: gentleman of X X
Conclusion
What has emerged from this survey can be summarised
as follows:
1. The most powerful solution obtained from multivariate
analysis can be interpreted as demonstrating
that Dickens has distinctive style in collocation of
the word gentleman.
2. Dickens is more likely to use adjectives in collocation
with gentleman than the control set. Adjectives
with higher MI scores often strike oxymoronic humour
when collocating with gentleman in Dickens
texts.
3. In Dickens, modiﬁer-collocates (adjectives) tend to occur in succession (juxtaposition or concatenation)
typically in early works. They are often employed as
character appellation (variations of character-name) with a negative semantic prosody.
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Tabata, T. (2002) ‘Investigating Stylistic Variation in
Dickens through Correspondence Analysis of Word-
Class Distribution’, in T. Saito, J. Nakamura and S.
Yamasaki (eds.) English Corpus Linguistics
in Japan.
Amsterdam: Rodopi. 165–182.
Tabata, T. (2004) ‘Differentiation of Idiolects in Fictional
Discourse: A Stylo-Statistical Approach to Dickens’s
Artistry’, in R. Hiltunen and S. Watanabe (eds.)
Approaches to Style and Discourse in English. Osaka:
Osaka University Press. 79–106.
Tabata, T. (2005) ‘Proﬁling stylistic variations in Dickens
and Smollett through correspondence analysis of
low frequency words’, ACH/ALLC 2005 Conference Abstracts,
Humanities Computing and Media Centre, University
of Victoria, Canada, 229–232.
Tabata, T. (2008) Gentleman in Dickens: A multivariate
stylometric approach to its collocation, Digital Humanities
2008, Book of Abstracts, The 20th Joint International
Conference of the Association for Literary and Linguistic
Computing and the Association for Computers
and the Humanities, University of Oulu, Finland, June
24–June 29, 2008, 199–202.
Tabata, T. (2009a) ‘“Wickedly, Falsely, Traitorously,
and otherwise Evil-adverbiously, Revealing” the Author’s
Style: Correspondence Analysis of –ly adverbs
in Dickens and Smollett’, Stylistic Studies of Literature:
In Honour of Professor Hiroyuki Ito. Bern: Peter Lang.
113–134.Tabata, T. (2009b) ‘“The Cunningest, Rummest, Superlativest
Old Fox”: A multivariate approach to superlatives
in Dickens and Smollett’, English Philology and
Corpus Studies: A Festschrift in Honor of Professor Mitsunori
Imai. Tokyo: Eihosha. 225–240.
Watanabe, S. (2009) ‘Gentleman in Oliver Twist: A Linguistic
Approach to Literature’, English Philology
and
Corpus Studies: A Festschrift in Honor of Professor Mitsunori
Imai. Tokyo: Eihosha. 273–286.","txt","2","",""
"1054","10","Digital Curiosities: Resource Creation via Amateur Digitisation","1","Digitisation, “the conversion of an analog signal or
code into a digital signal or code” (Lee 2002, 3) is
now commonplace in most memory institutions, as digital
representations of cultural and historical documents,
artefacts, and images are created and delivered to users,
generally online. The exponential growth in digitisation
projects towards the close of the 20th Century, along with
the establishment of guides to good practice and technical
guidelines, has meant that “Countless millions of
pounds, dollars, francs and marks [have been] ploughed
into digital projects that have involved the conversion
of library, museum and archive collections” (Lee 2002,
160). Much of the early academic debates regarding
the purpose, merit, and scope of digitisation are now resolved
as institutions create high quality resources for
the general user and academic researcher alike (Hughes
2002, Deegan and Tanner 2002). As a result
Digitisation is not a per-se research issue but is part of a
wider context related to the information society and the
effective use of the digital content by cultural institutions
(Minerva 2003, xxiii).
However, an area seldom considered in academic literature
is the creation of digital resources by amateurs.
Although hitherto ignored by information professionals,
recent developments in Web 2.0 technologies means that
museums, libraries and archives are now re-considering
their relationship with users and the general public, both
in the use of digital collections and how users can contribute
to an increasingly rich digital resource environment.
This paper assesses the scope of online resources
created outside institutional boundaries by keen individuals
who wish to participate in digitising our cultural
heritage, providing an overview and conceptualising the
potential contribution that can be made by amateur digitisation.
Context
The rise of online “museums” created by amateur enthusiasts,
generally containing digital images of holdings
and artefacts, is a seldom considered but growing phenomenon. Amateur online collections have appropriated
a variety of technologies, from static HTML, to the hosting
opportunities afforded by online, new media, social
networking sites such as www.flickr.com. In addition,
with memory institutions appropriating Web 2.0 technologies
themselves – such as tagging, and encouraging
user feedback and involvement – amateur enthusiasts are
now being encouraged to contribute to the online presence
of established institutions. Online “museum” material
resulting from amateur digitisation projects can provide
a rich source of primary resources for both scholars
and the general public, and although this has been all
but ignored until recently by the Library, Archive, Cultural
Heritage, and Arts and Humanities communities,
its democratising nature is worthy of further consideration.
“On and on it goes – acres of the cyberworld full
of ephemera. What else is out there?” (Gorman, 2003,
p. 11).
It is acknowledged that “cyberspace is littered with the
productions of ignorant, semi-literate, and/or crazed individuals”,
(Gorman 2003, p. 14) and in many cases,
these online collections function as 21st Century cabinets
of curiosities. They can be viewed as amusing, eccentric,
or even worrying obsessions with a particular
type of ephemera which the rest of the world has chosen
to leave undocumented, providing a “an individual, a
“netizen” …[with the] means of expression for anyone
with minimal technical skills but abundant passion and
dedication” (Harden 1998). The Guardian newspaper described
the Museum of Online Museums (http://coudal.
com/moom/) thus: “The internet has brought advancements,
but nowhere has it been more successful than in
the field of meaningless rubbish. Here, vast swathes of
tat are housed in one handy place for easy navigation”
(2007, 31). Just because the creator describes their collection
as a museum does not mean to say it functions as
we expect of a memory institution, whatever that may
be.
However, the content of these online sources ranges
from the amusing, to serious attempts at providing information
resources to both scholarly and amateur researchers
which are just not available anywhere else,
being useful even if they lack the institutional backing
and guidance of their official online counterparts. These
“museums” can vary from the ramshackle and quirky to
the glossy and guidelines-compliant documentation of
ephemera which established institutions are either not
interested, able, or willing to catalogue, digitise, and
provide online: “one librarian’s ephemeron is another’s
invaluable cultural resource” (Gorman 2003, p. 14).
The Museum of Online Museums maintains a registry
of such creations, including Devil’s Rope: The Barbed
Wire Museum (http://www.barbwiremuseum.com/index.
htm), the Museum of Menstruation and Women’s
Health (www.mum.org), and Total Rewind, “the virtual
museum of vintage vcrs” (http://www.totalrewind.org/):
all award winning, and featuring exhaustive documentation
and digitised source material not available anywhere
else. Additionally, many amateur digitisers are creating
“pools” of digitised objects utilising image-hosting sites
such as www.flickr.com as a platform, creating exhaustive
documentation of, say, vintage dressmaking patterns
(http://www.flickr.com/groups/vintagepatterns/pool/), or
book cover artwork of cheap paperbacks from the mid
twentieth century (http://www.flickr.com/groups/paperbacks/
pool/).
Memory institutions themselves are beginning to experiment
with Web 2.0 environments, asking the general
public to interact with their digitised material through
social tagging, bookmarking, and commenting (http://
www.steve.museum/). A forward-thinking project at
Oxford University, the First World War Digital Poetry
Archive (http://www.oucs.ox.ac.uk/ww1lit/), has taken
this one step further by successfully asking the general
public to come forward with their ephemera to include in
the archive. Harnessing the energy, passion and interest
of amateur digitisation is of clear interest to the cultural
and heritage sector. What do we know about both the
creators and users of amateur digitisation projects? What
can we learn from this?
There has never been an over-arching academic consideration
of amateur digitisation projects. This paper
surveys the hitherto ignored phenomenon of virtual
and online museums and digitised ephemera created by
amateur enthusiasts, to ascertain the motivation, scope,
implementation, perception, and usefulness of such activity.
Is this predominantly meaningless “tat”, or are
virtual collections created by amateurs used, useful, and
worthy of further consideration? By what criteria can we
judge whether an amateur digitisation project is successful?
How can memory institutions harness the energy
and time devoted in creating these online resources?
Methodology
First, the literature on digitisation was reviewed to ascertain
whether amateur contributions had been studied.
Second, a hundred stand alone, self-confessed “virtual
museums” were reviewed to indicate the coverage,
scope, and purpose of their collections. Likewise, groups
and pools on flickr were reviewed. Memory institutions
currently encouraging user interaction via Web 2.0 technologies
were surveyed to ascertain the extent of user
involvement. Third, ten creators of amateur websites
were interviewed to gain their insight regarding purpose, coverage and use of their material. Finally, a survey was
carried out with Arts and Humanities academics, to ask
if they had every used, referenced, depended on, or even
come across useful online digitised material provided
beyond institutional boundaries.
Findings
The study will report fully in Spring 2009, but preliminary
findings indicate that successful standalone virtual
amateur museums – those providing novel detailed
content unavailable elsewhere – tend to focus around a
particular niche subject such as histories of specific technologies,
or socially taboo interests. Another popular
area is the digitisation of family history and genealogical
material. Those utilising image hosting facilities, such
as flickr, unsurprisingly tend to focus on image based
material to facilitate discussion of the history of graphic
design and illustration.
The digitisation is carried out as a not-for-profit hobby:
the interaction with other enthusiasts and viewers afforded
by using Internet technologies gives a sense of camaraderie
and often encourages rigorous debate between
enthusiasts keen on properly documenting their chosen
topic. This enthusiasm is carried over to established
memory institutions which offer amateurs the means to
contribute via web 2.0 technologies.
There has been very little investigation or understanding
of how these amateur digitised collections are used. Creators
are generally aware of usage statistics, and most
can provide examples where specific, detailed queries
from interested researchers have been answered through
their collections. Academic researchers are happy to turn
to these collections when they provide information not
available elsewhere.
Conclusion
Enthusiastic digitisation by amateurs, a phenomenon
previously ignored by information professionals, is providing
a rich source of online cultural heritage content
which often documents areas not covered via traditional
institutions. The energy and zeal displayed by amateur
digitisers is worthy of further consideration, as amateur
collections often complement existing collections, providing
an alternative free discussion space for enthusiasts.
Web 2.0 technologies present great potential in linking
the amateur with the institution, extending the reach
and scope of digitised cultural heritage.
References
Deegan, M. and Tanner, S. (2002), Digital Futures:
Strategies for the Information Age. Digital Futures Series
(London, Library Association Publishing).
Gorman, M. (2003), “Cataloguing in an Electronic Age”,
in Intner, S. S., Tseng, S. C., Larsgaard, M. L. (eds.)
(2003), Electronic Cataloguing: AACR2 and Metadata
for Serials and Monographs, (Binghamton, The Haworth
Press), 5- 17.
Guardian (2007), “Web Watch”, The Guardian, Guide
Magazine, October 20 2007, 31.
Harden, M. (1998). “Web Graphics: Art on the Net”.
Museums and the Web Conference 1998, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada, April 22-25, 1998. http://www.archimuse.
com/mw98/papers/harden/harden_paper.html
Hughes, L. (2004), Digitizing collections: strategic issues
for the information manager (London: Facet Publishing).
Lee, S. (2002), Digital Imaging, a Practical Handbook
(London, Facet Publishing).
Minerva (2003), “Summary of Progress”. Coordinating
digitisation in Europe. Progress report of the National
Representatives Group, European Commission, The
Information Society Directorate-General, <http://www.
minervaeurope.org/publications/globalreport/globalrep2002.
htm>.","txt","2","",""
"1055","10","Interactive Visual Analysis of Personal Names in Japanese Historical Diary","1","Alejandro Toledo
Ritsumeikan University
alex@ice.ci.ritsumei.ac.jp
Ruck Thawonmas
Ritsumeikan University
ruck@ci.ritsumei.ac.jp
Akira Maeda
Ritsumeikan University
amaeda@media.ritsumei.ac.jp
Fuminori Kimura
Ritsumeikan University
fkimura@is.ritsumei.ac.jp
Historical diaries provide information about and
facilitate understanding of daily life during their
periods. The historical diary of an aristocrat not only
contains historic facts but might also help us disclose
them. In this paper, we present an interactive web-based
system for visualizing aristocrat names mentioned in a
historical Japanese diary called “Hyohanki” written by
an aristocrat during the late Heian era (1132-1184). In
our web-based system, the stacked graph is utilized to
dynamically analyze the time-series of those aristocrat
names. We have found that trends in the name occurrence
and co-occurrence visualized by the system correlate
well with historic facts regarding the rise and fall
of power of as well as the confrontation among the corresponding
aristocrats.
1. Introduction
A diary is a daily record of events that have happened
over the course of a day. Diaries written long time ago
or historical diaries provide information about daily life
during their periods. They can be also utilized to facilitate
understanding of the life and times of mentioned
individuals in those days. Historical diaries written by
aristocrats not only contain historic facts but might also
help us disclose such facts.
Information visualization techniques have been successfully
applied to historical artifacts. Typical applications
include Picasso’s artworks and documents (Audenaert et
al., 2008; Meneses et al., 2008), 17th-century Portuguese
shipbuilding treatises (Furuta et al., 2007), and Vertot’s
Roman Revolutions (Jensen, 2006). In this paper, we apply
information visualization to a historical diary called
“Hyohanki (or Heihanki)” which is a diary written by a
Japanese aristocrat, Taira no Nobunori, during the late
Heian era (1132-1184).
Hyohanki is a relevant resource for the research of Japanese
culture of that time period. Although some part
of Hyohanki has been deteriorated and missing, all remaining
pages are digitized into the text format (Fig. 1),
awaiting for digital humanities research activities. An
example of such digital humanities research is Cross-
Age and Cross-Cultural Information Retrieval discussed
in (Maeda and Kimura, 2008).
In this paper, we present an interactive web-based system1
for visualizing aristocrat names mentioned in Hyohanki.
In our system, the stacked graph (Wattenberg,
2005) is utilized to dynamically analyze the time-series
of those aristocrat names. This kind of dynamic analysis
helps the viewer to track trends in the name occurrence
and co-occurrence and thus facilitates revealing of historic
facts behind them. 2. Methodology
2.1 Data
Our system is based on entries derived from the Hyohanki
Diary. Such entries, contained in a delimited text
file, are expressed by a tabular representation consisting
of three attributes: (i) year, (ii) aristocrat name for which
the family name is placed before the given name, and
(iii) a numerical value indicating the number of occurrences
of that name in that year. This data was extracted
from “Personal Names Index” of Hyohanki, which was
manually created by experts in Japanese history.
2.2 Visualization
The method used to visualize the data is straightforward: given a set of aristocrat-names time series, a set
of stacked graphs is produced, as shown in Fig. 2. The
x axis corresponds to year and the y axis to occurrence
ratio, in percentage, for all names currently in view. Each
stripe represents a name, and the width of the stripe is
proportional to the ratio of that name mentioned in a given
year. The stripes are colored blue, and the brightness
of each stripe varies according to the number of occurrences,
so that the most mentioned names for the whole
period are darkest and stand out the most.
Fig. 2 Screenshot of our Hyohanki’s aristocrat-names
visualization system, where the English names of those
discussed in the paper were manually superimposed under
the corresponding Japanese names
Our visualization approach can be seen as an evolved
version of timeline representations (Jensen, 2006). The
main difference between these two approaches is that
timeline representations are suitable to highlight the
temporal evolution of events, while stacked graph representations
help users in discovering trends in data. In
a typical timeline presentation, time is arranged along
one dimension and a number of markers, representing
events, are placed appropriately along the time dimension.
On the other hand, stacked graph representations
often create an environment being representative of the
data set in question. This environment helps users in
discovering trends in data by creating depictions of data
values that can make data analysis faster.
2.3 Interaction
When the system starts, the viewer sees a set of stripes
representing all names with the number of occurrences
above 50. Additional filtering of this data is achieved
using two interaction controls. With the first one, filtering
by names, the viewer may type in letters, forming a
prefix; our system will then visualize data on only those
names beginning with that prefix. This system reacts directly
with each keystroke. Thereby, it is not necessary
for the viewer to press return or to click a submit button.
In addition, the system moves smoothly between visualization
states. So when a letter is typed, an animated
transition helps preserve the visualization context.
With the second interaction control, filtering by number
of occurrences, the viewer can change the data currently
in use from the default. As shown in Fig. 2, there are seven
buttons, each one allowing the change using the number
of occurrences above 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300 and
350 respectively. The idea behind this interaction control
is that we can restrict the view to certain data of interest,
according to their number of occurrences, resulting in
concise views of the data.
3. Results and Discussions
Fig. 2 shows the stacked graph of the aristocrat names
with the number of occurrences above 50. One prominent
stripe can be observed, i.e., that of Fujiwara no
Tadamichi (藤原忠通), who was the eldest son of the
Japanese regent Fujiwara no Tadazane (藤原忠実). It
should be noted that in 1156 the Hogen Rebellion took
place between the defeating side of Emperor Go-Shirakawa,
sided by Fujiwara no Tadamichi, and the defeated
side of retired Emperor Sutoku, sided by Fujiwara
no Yorinaga who is the younger brother of Fujiwara no
Tadazane.
Fig. 3 Stack graphs of names beginning with Fujiwara
(藤原), where the English names of those discussed
in the paper were manually superimposed under the
corresponding Japanese names
Fig. 3 shows the stacked graph of the aristocrats with
family name Fujiwara (藤原), a powerful regent family
dominating the Japanese politics of Heian period,
and with the number of occurrences above 100. It can
be seen that the stripe of Fujiwara no Yorinaga (藤原
頼長) has high co-occurrence with that of Fujiwara no
Tadamichi until the former was defeated by the latter in
the aforementioned rebellion. It is also interesting to see
that the stripe of their father Fujiwara no Tadazane also
conforms to this trend. It should be noted that the y-axis
is always the total percentage. This is because we are
interested in the relative transition of the influence of a
particular family or a person, and for that purpose, the total percentage is better than the relative percentage.
In addition, in Fig. 3, Fujiwara no Motozane (藤原基
実) has high occurrence before 1166, but his occurrence
decreases after 1166. On the other hand, Fujiwara no
Motofusa (藤原基房) has low occurrence before 1166,
but has high occurrence after 1166. These also conform
to the following historical fact. In 1166, a regime change
occurred. Before 1166, Emperor Nijo group was in power.
However, Emperor Nijo, the eldest son of the aforementioned
Emperor Go-Shirakawa, died in 1165, and
Fujiwara no Motozane who was the leader of the emperor
Nijo group also died in 1166. Their death triggered
the emperor Nijo group to lose their political power. After
their death, Emperor Go-shirakawa regained political
power. Ultimately, Fujiwara no Motofusa was appointed
as the leader of the regime.
4. Conclusions and future work
We have successfully applied the stacked graph to visualization
of aristocrat names in the Hyohanki diary. Two
interaction controls are provided, i.e., filtering by names
and filtering by number of occurrences. They allow the
viewer to search names by prefix and to narrow the target
names, respectively. Interesting trends have been found
that correlate well with the corresponding historic facts.
As our future work, we plan to use data mining techniques
to the diary in order to obtain structural representations
other than the tabular one used in the current
work. In the current version of our system, tabulated data
are visualized by means of a time-line that tells us trends
of aristocrats names mentioned in the diary. We believe
that using data mining techniques will allow us to find
new useful information, such as place names, building
names, and street names, that eventually leads to different
graphical representations.
Notes
1http://www.ice.ci.ritsumei.ac.jp/~ruck/IV/Hyohanki.
html
References
Audenaert, N., Lucchese, G., Sherrick, G., and Furuta,
R. (2008). CritSpace: Using Spatial Hypertext to
Model Visually Complex Documents. Book of abstracts
for the DH2008 conference, Oulu, Finland, pp. 50-53.
Furuta, R., Castro, F., and Monroy, C. (2007). Ancient
Technical Manuscripts: the Case of 17th-century Portuguese
Shipbuilding Treatises. Book of abstracts for the
DH2007 conference, University of Illinois, USA, pp.
67-69.
Jensen, M. (2006). Semantic Timeline Tools for History
and Criticism. Book of abstracts for the DH2006 conference,
Sorbonne, Paris, pp. 67-69.
Maeda, A. and Kimura, F. (2008). An Approach to
Cross-Age and Cross-Cultural Information Access for
Digital Humanities. Digital Resources for the Humanities
and Arts 2008 Conference (DRHA08), Cambridge,
U.K., Sep.
Meneses, L., Furuta, R., Mallen, E. (2008). Exploring
the Biography and Artworks of Picasso with Interactive
Calendars and Timelines. Book of abstracts for the
DH2008 conference, Oulu, Finland, pp. 160-163.
Wattenberg, M. (2005). Baby names, visualization, and
social data analysis. Proceeding of IEEE Symposium on
Information Visualization 2005 (InfoVis2005), pp. 1–7.","txt","2","",""
"1056","10","Integrating Images and Text with Common Data and Metadata Standards in the Archimedes Palimpsest","1","This paper by the Archimedes Palimpsest program
and data managers will discuss the issues, challenges
and decisions related to the integration of all images
and transcriptions of the Archimedes Palimpsest in
digital form. This will include discussion of the management
of image and transcription data, adoption of metadata
and text encoding standards and schemas, and challenges
faced in integrating these data during this 10-year
long program and use in follow-on efforts.
This paper will address the integration of scientific and
scholarly data through the application of best practices
in standardized metadata to images and XML transcriptions,
and challenges encountered in applying the various
imaging, identification and encoding standards. This
will include discussion of the following:
1. The effective implementation of broadly accepted
metadata models and data architectures;
2. Integration of integrated data standards, including
Dublin Core and Text Encoding Initiative; and
3. Embedding metadata elements within the data itself
for effective preservation and archiving, as well as
spatial linkage of data elements.
On 22 October, 1998, the Archimedes Palimpsest was
sold at auction for $2.0 million to an anonymous buyer.
A multidisciplinary team of conservators, imaging scientists,
scholars, and information technology professionals
disbound, conserved, digitally imaged, analyzed
and transcribed the 184 parchment pages for continued
study. The program applied advanced spectral imaging
to study the Archimedes and other significant medieval
manuscripts from the 10th century that were copied over
by 13th-century prayer book text. On October 29, 2008,
the approximately 1 Terabyte of Archimedes Palimpsest
integrated image and transcription data were released
to the public for free use. Integrating the ancient Greek
transcriptions of Archimedes’ mathematical texts with
digital images and hosting them on the Web for a broad
set of global users posed a complex set of information
sharing challenges.
The Archimedes Palimpsest Digital Product required
the integration of imaging, scholarly and data products.
The product incorporates registered images for each leaf
linked spatially to diplomatic transcriptions that scholars
initially created in various nonstandard formats, with
associated standardized metadata. Imaging scientists included
Dr. Roger Easton Jr. from the Rochester Institute
of Technology, Dr. Keith Knox from Boeing Corporation,
and Dr. Bill Christens-Barry from Equipoise Imaging,
and a camera provided by Stokes Imaging, supported
by John R. Stokes. The imaging effort built on imaging
of the Dead Sea Scrolls by a team from RIT and the British
National Gallery Vasari Project, while the transcription
encoding effort built on the work of the Homer Multitext
Project by the Center for Hellenic Studies. With
over 4,000 digital images in 12 spectral bands and 140
pages of transcriptions of the original writings in Greek
of Archimedes and Hyperides, standardized metadata
was critical to 1) access to and integration of images for
digital processing and enhancement, 2) management of
transcriptions from those images, and 3) linkage of the
images with the transcriptions.
This effort produced images and transcriptions of the
only copies of Archimedes treatises The Method and
Stomachion; the only copy in Greek of On Floating
Bodies; and copies of the Equilibrium of Planes, Spiral
Lines, The Measurement of the Circle, and Sphere
and Cylinder. It also discovered ten pages of text by the
fourth century B.C. Attic Greek orator Hyperides; six folios
from a still unidentified Neo-Platonic philosophical
text that may be commentaries on Aristotle; four folios
from a liturgical book; and twelve pages from two other
books, the text of which has yet to be deciphered. These
texts are being studied by scholars from a range of colleges
and universities, including Oxford, Cambridge,
Stanford, and Eötvös Loránd (Budapest) Universities.
These scholars bring not only the knowledge and ability
to read the sometimes almost illegible ancient Greek
text and diagrams, but also significant knowledge of the
science, mathematics, law and philosophy discussed in
the texts. Capturing this data from a range of scholars
and rendering it in a common, standardized digital format
required establishment of a program specification
for transcribed text.
Beginning in 2001, the Archimedes Palimpsest program adopted established metadata standards to ensure key
parameters were recorded during technical collection
for use in subsequent processing and studies, including
Dublin Core and Text Encoding Initiative guidelines.
These standards have been further refined and adapted
to address the needs of scholars, imaging scientists, conservation
and preservation professionals, and information
and data managers. Working with the scholars, the
program developed a Transcription Integration Plan for
the Archimedes Palimpsest Program that incorporated
the Unicode, Dublin Core and Text Encoding Initiative
Standards and Guidelines, which proved essential to the
integration of the transcribed information. The selection
of broadly accepted and up-to-date international consensus
standards is an effort to ensure currency, increase the
likelihood of long-term data viability, and provide for
ample documentation to describe the bit structure of all
archive components, from the core data to the supporting
files. The program also developed a system architecture
that was documented with archival, metadata and integration
plans and implemented after extensive review
and modifications.
The construction of the data set addresses the special
problem of building an archive for today and the distant
future. A guiding principle of the archive is the integration
of data and metadata components, following principles
described in the Consultative Committee for Space
Data Systems (CCSDS) Reference Model for an Open
Archival Information System (OAIS). Each image bears
embedded identifying, spatial, scientific, format, and
content metadata in its header. Each directory contains
all images for a given folio side, accompanying XMP
metadata files, checksum data, and spatially mapped TEI
XML transcriptions for the Archimedes and Hyperides
texts. Each image file or folio directory forms a selfcontained
unit of data and preservation information. The
directory as a whole provides files that guide users to
the data and document the data set and the technologies
comprised in it. A simple, documented archive structure
supports the discoverability and accessibility of the data.
The archive, the transcriptions, and supporting metadata
are designed to support the core image data using
broadly accepted standards. The key to the processing
and presentation of the Archimedes image data is
the registration of all the images of a single folio side
to one another. These relationships are documented in
and exploited by the supporting files and metadata. The
project-developed Archimedes Palimpsest Metadata
Standard (APMS) provides a metadata structure specifically
geared to relating all images of a folio side in
a single multi- or hyper-spectral data “cube.” It relates
the components of this cube to the imaged object, the
conditions and systems used in its imaging, the standards
and techniques used to generate the digital file, and finally
the standards used to document this components.
Each image has embedded in it its own metadata and so
may stand alone or be related to any or all of the other
members of the same cube. The standard is based on the
Dublin Core metadata elements and Federal Geographic
Data Committee’s (FGDC) Content Standard for Digital
Geospatial Metadata. The included transcriptions, written
in compliance with TEI release P5, support the images
and serve as a kind of metadata. For the majority, 142
of 180 folio sides, each is provided with a transcription.
In those transcriptions, each line is mapped to a rectangular
region of the related images. The TEI <facsimile>
element and its children are used for this purpose.
These digital transcriptions provide a machine-readable
tool that document the content of the images. The spatial
mapping allows easy mapping from transcription to image
and vice versa.
The use of standardized data sets allows the hosting and
integration of image and textual data, as well as data
from other cultural works, across a range of services providers,
libraries and cultural and educational institutions,
and the separate development of graphical user interfaces
(GUIs) by users as needed. Inclusion of standards
as part of the data set will help ensure the data will be
readily searchable, available and accessible for studies
in decades to come.
Additional information on this program is available at
the Archimedes Palimpsest website
References
Dublin Core Metadata Initiative, Dublin Core Metadata
Element Set, Version 1.1., 14 Jan., 2008.","txt","2","",""
"1057","10","Platform Models for Scholarly Journal Publishing: A Survey and Case Study","1","The past six years have seen a proliferation of online
scholarly journals. The number of new publications
added to the Directory of Open Access Journals
(DOAJ), for example, has gone from a trickle of twenty-
six new journals in 2002 to a torrent of five hundred
ninety-eight new titles indexed in the first nine months of
2008. 1 This proliferation has led to publications focusing
on more specialized topics, and publishing in nations
and languages traditionally underserved by Western-focused
academic publishers. Despite the wide variety of
emerging content, however, the technical infrastructures
behind these publications remains relatively uniform.
Constrained by current platform options and multimedia
literacy on the part of publishers, many journals still operate
akin to their print-based predecessors. By offering
electronic text-driven arguments, online journals may
challenge conventional models of delivering scholarly
content, but do little to augment the emerging shape of
digital scholarship. In short, a downloadable PDF is not
that different than a scanned photocopy.
This paper examines technologies behind current openaccess
journals, and it evaluates how journal content,
preservation, information architecture, and the review
process influence and are influenced by available publishing
frameworks. To do this, I survey platforms used
currently in open-access scholarly publishing. I then focus
on a particular journal, Southern Spaces, and its transition
from hardcoded HTML to a publishing/content
management system. Through this discussion, I intend
to address several questions, including: Can journals impact/
build scholarly communities? Can they shape and
enhance a participatory culture on the scholarly level?
Are existing models of peer-review unnecessarily limited
by restrictive platforms? Is the text-based model
of scholarly communication good enough for today’s
scholar?
The paper’s survey portion examines existing models
used in electronic publishing from XML schemas (like
NCBI’s Journal Publishing Tag Set) to the many opensource
platforms developed at digital scholarship centers
and research libraries, including Open Journal Systems
(OJS) and Digital Publishing System (DPubS). The
Public Knowledge Project’s OJS platform facilitates the
development of open-access scholarship by not only offering
an infrastructure for the online presentation of articles,
but also providing a management system for peerreview
and general editorial workflow. A local install,
ease of configuration, and submission management tools
allow users to develop a technical infrastructure relatively
quickly and with little need for system administrator
support in the maintenance phase. The relatively uniform
look of OJS journals, however, suggests little capability
for extensive customization. Cornell and Penn State’s
DPubS software offers more opportunities for customization
through its modular architecture, as well as the
potential for interoperability with Fedora and DSpace
repositories. In addition, like OJS, DPubS 2.1 offers
a service for peer-review management.2 While DPubS
robust design allows for more unique journal instances,
however, it also requires significantly more back-end
management and support than OJS. This makes DPubS
useful on an institutional level in a library, but the steep
learning curve and technical requirements may hinder
adoption among university faculty. Other systems developed
in Europe—Hyperjournal, SOPS, the ePublishing
Toolkit—seek to provide personal archives, workflow
support, publishing networks, and cross-referencing
tools, but have not yet been adopted by more than a
handful of scholarly publishers.
In addition to offering a survey of platform-based publishing
options, this paper examines open-source blog
publishing tools and content management systems developed
for commercial purposes that are also used by
electronic scholarly publishers. Flow, a media studies
journal, and the CodeForLib Journal, for example, uses
the popular blogging platform, WordPress.3 Museum
Anthropology Review used WordPress in 2007 before
switching to OJS in 2008. The journal’s editors still
maintain the WordPress site as supplementary weblog to
MAR.4 While implemented less commonly, the content
management system, Joomla, provides the platform for
Boston College Law School’s Intellectual Property and
Technology Forum.5 These cases address why publishers
chose and sometimes abandoned non-academic platforms,
and they offer insight into the possibilities and
drawbacks in modifying commercial-based open-source
tools.
This comparative survey illustrates the varied strengths
and weaknesses of particular publishing platforms, as
well as examines their influence on the final product: the
published scholarship. I then turn to Southern Spaces
(www.southernspaces.org), an open-access, interdisciplinary
journal housed in Emory University’s Woodruff
Library. My experience as an editor, media coordinator and the Managing Editor has shown me how technological
decisions influence the daily operations of journal
publishing, as well as the final shape of scholarly content.
This year, in particular, marks a major transition
for the journal. Southern Spaces will undergo a substantial
redesign in the coming months, transitioning from
HTML pages created in Dreamweaver to a Drupal 6
platform integrated with a Fedora repository.
To determine the new information architecture for
Southern Spaces, I conducted two surveys: one to board
members and peer reviewers, the other to junior and independent
scholars new to Southern Spaces. Based on
user feedback as well as an internal we conceived a new
workflow process, navigation structures, pedagogical
tools, as well as several opportunities for community development
within the site. The redesign, I anticipate, will
allow Southern Spaces authors and staff to develop multimedia
publications that incorporate links, video, audio,
and Flash features. In addition, the process will develop
interactive features that not only allow for reader feedback,
but also provide a better infrastructure for citing
and collecting Southern Spaces articles. These directions
extend from Southern Spaces’s goals, which are likely
similar to many open-access journals: offer a research
tool, expand the visitor community, sustain and preserve
digital content, streamline the pre-publication process,
develop a learning environment for interdisciplinary
scholars as well as scholars new to digital scholarship.
Choosing a publishing platform not only dramatically
influences published content, but also has the potential
to change the landscape of online scholarly communication.
Who edits, reviews, publishes and hosts a journal
influences technological decisions, but these decisions
also dramatically impact what can and cannot be
displayed as vetted scholarship, as well as the limits of
scholarly participation in a journal’s (or a discipline’s)
wider community. In this rapidly expanding landscape
of online scholarship, technological change and the decisions
behind this change aren’t always apparent. Yet, in
order to understand how digital publishing is changing,
it is key to look beyond the number of online journals to
the variety of online publishing options and their impact
beyond the computer screen.
References
Borgman, C. (2007). Scholarship in the Digital Age: Information,
Infrastructure, and the Internet. Cambridge,
MA: The MIT Press.
Brown, A. (2002). XSD Schemas in Book and Journal
Publishing. XML Europe. http://www.idealliance.org/
papers/xmle02/dx_xmle02/papers/03-01-02/03-01-02.
html (accessed 11 November 2008).
Sparc Europe (2008). Open Access Journals: Overview.
http://www.sparceurope.org/resources/hot-topics/
open-journals (accessed 11 November 2008).
Solomon D. (2008). Developing Open Access Journals:
A Practical Guide. Oxford: Chandos Press.
Willinsky, J. (2005). Open Journal Systems: An Example
of Open Source Software for Journal Management
and Publishing. Library Hi-Tech 23: 504-519.
Notes
1Gavin Baker (2008). Growth of DOAJ: Steady 2003-
2007, Major Spike in 2008. A Journal of Insignificant Inquiry.
October 17, 2008. This study is somewhat limited
as the DOAJ offers only two pieces of chonodata: date
journal was started and date journal was added to the
DOAJ. This study indicates when journals were added
to the DOAJ, but not necessarily when became open access.
2This build was launched in June 2007, and it remains
the most recent version as of November 2008. Documentation
for 2.1 was last update in March 2008.
3The CodeforLib Journal (http://journal.code4lib.org/)
currently uses WordPress 2.6.3. Flow uses 2.5 (for their
second redesign, Flow used a WordPress skin called The
Morning After, which gave the publication a magazine
style; they currently use the MimboPro template, also
designed for magazine style sites.) In late 2008, a DOAJ
Export Plugin was developed for WordPress, allowing
publishers of OA journals to provide article-level data
to the DOAJ, thereby opening articles up to discovery
through DOAJ’s interface.
4The Museum Anthropology Weblog’s “About” page
explains: “While, during its first year (2007) the journal
itself was published on this site, the journal is now
published using Open Journal Systems by the Indiana
University Bloomington Libraries.” http://museumanthropology.
net/about/ (accessed 10 November 2008).
5Paul Ham (2006). Using Joomla for an Online Law
Journal. Intellectual Property and Technology Forum.
Boston College Law School. Boston, MA. July 9, 2006.
http://bciptf.org/blog/2006/07/09/using-joomla-foran-
online-law-journal/. (accessed 9 November 2008).
Several comments discuss other publishing platforms,
including citing OJS.","txt","2","",""
"1058","10","Patrick Kavanagh's Poetic Wordscapes: GIS, Literature and Ireland, 1922-1949","1","Somebody is moving across the headlands
Talking to himself
A grey thinker.
The Seed and the Soil (1938)
a road, a mile of kingdom. I am king
Of banks and stones and every blooming thing.
Inniskeen Road: July Evening’ (1935)
This paper presents the use of Geographical Information
Systems (GIS) as a means to digitally explore
authorial, literary and historical environments from a
multi-sensory perspective. The production of Patrick
Kavanagh’s Poetic Wordscapes has involved the digitization
and literary mapping of historical 1902 Ordnance
Survey maps of Inniskeen parish in County Monaghan,
Ireland, and the townlands of Mucker and Shancoduff.
This regional landscape captured in the writings of Irish
poet-farmer Patrick Kavanagh (1904-1967) comprised
an imaginative hinterland which he observed, inspired
many of his works:
A gap in a hedge, a smooth rock surfacing a narrow lane,
a view of a woody meadow, the stream at the junction of
four small fields –these are as much as a man can fully
experience. As I wander slowly along the over-hanging
hedge that separates my fields from the fields of John
Woods my past life comes vividly alive in my imagination.
Those wonderful days in a world that was only a
couple of townlands and yet was eternal. 1
The GIS visualizations and interactive mappings which
comprise Patrick Kavanagh’s Poetic Wordscapes work
are the fruit of an interdisciplinary collaboration between
the Digital Humanities, Historical Cartography
and Geography and Irish Literary Studies. Humanist
geographers have observed that ‘literature is the product
of perception, or, more simply, is perception,’2 and
long maintained a ‘view of literature as a valuable storehouse
of vivid depictions of landscapes and life.’3 Correspondingly
‘Robert Frost’s New England, Gauguin’s
Tahiti, Hemingway’s Spain [. . . ] are imaginary places in
the original sense of the verb “to image.”’4 Kavanagh’s
literary landscape of Monaghan was both imagistic and
strongly rooted in a farmer’s physical relationship with
the land itself. As the humanistic geographer Yi-Fu Tuan
informs us:
the entry of nature is no mere metaphor. Muscles and
scars bear witness to the physical intimacy of the contact.
The farmer’s topophilia is compounded of this physical
intimacy, or the material dependence and the fact that the
land is a repository of memory and sustains hope.5
Landscape depictions in Kavanagh’s poetry and prose of
the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s deeply reflects such a topographical
sensibility. In later life Kavanagh observed:
‘To know fully even one field or one lane is a lifetime’s
experience. In the world of poetic experience it is depth
that counts, not width.’6 The vivid images of place in
Kavanagh’s canon originate from the early memories he
possessed of his birth place in the townland of Mucker.
One established, they circle outward to encompass the
fields of Shancoduff and wider drumlin landscapes beyond,
like ripples extending outward upon a pond of poetic
imagination. Kavanagh’s prose style is particularly
suited to GIS visualization and mapping as it inherits the
‘Gaelic bardic tradition of dinnsheanchas (knowledge
of the lore of places)7 and accordingly reflects an intimate
‘geography based on seanchas, in which there is no
clear distinction between the general principles of topography
or direction-finding and the intimate knowledge of
particular places.’8 The base maps utilized in this project
are based upon 1902 revisions of surveys conducted by
the British Ordnance Survey, which first mapped the island
of Ireland between 1824 and 1842 and produced
baseline six inch to one mile maps (1:10,560) charting
the locations of structures, townlands, fields, roads,
streams, as well as Anglicizing Gaelic place names.
Whilst topographically accurate, the first ordnance survey
in the nineteenth century was a political project of
empire and its intent was to create a scale of appraisal,
which would establish the basis for Griffith’s Valuation
of land and property. The 1902 revision maps digitized
to visualize the landscapes depicted in Kavanagh’s prose
are linked to the basic topographical divisions of the
1901 and 1911 censuses: county; district electoral division;
townland or street. Original household returns,
signed by heads of households, provide a window on
the social-economic features of the landscape through
three statistical returns, dealing with religious denominations,
classification of buildings, and out-offices and
farm-steadings. Such an approach has been utilized by
Woods and Shelton (1997) in their investigation of the
geographical patterns of mortality rates in nineteenth
century England and Wales.9 The mapping revisions
published in 1902 and joined with databases containing data from the 1901 and 1911 censuses are commensurate
and reflective of boundaries and topographical features
described by Kavanagh’s account of the social landscape
in the first two and half decades of the twentieth century.
Utilizing overlayering techniques, these attributes
in a GIS system have been geo-coded to features such as
boundary lines and structural points, to reconstruct the
historical dimensions of particular periods and locations
upon the visualized landscape. Digitized maps for Kavanagh’s
Wordscapes were ‘rubbersheeted’ and draped
over a digital terrain model (DEM) created from contemporary
geological survey satellite images of the region.
Such an approach in digital mapping recreates the poet’s
visual perspective and movements over a rural drumlin
landscape. Selections from Kavanagh’s poetry and prose
have been geocoded in real-time, through GPS technology
in text and audio from point to point of inspiration
and provide a 3D model, which recreates his poetic performance
through space, as he farmed his fields, walked
the winding roads of his townland, and participated in
the day-to-day life of his Parish of Inniskeen. A similar
technique allowed Harris (200) to employ moving imagery
to research the loci of ‘sacred space’ associated with
ancient native American burial grounds in Moundsville,
West Virginia.10 The digital interactive maps comprising
Kavanagh’s Wordscape are but one element of an online
literary geography which explores the intrinsic relationship
between Irish literature and place during the first
half of the twentieth century, and are currently being employed
in an ongoing digital humanities project, entitled
A Digital Literary Atlas of Ireland, 1922-1949 to visualize
the historic, imaginative and literary landscapes of a
selections of Irish authors, by integrating their performances
as writers in time and space, with the narratological
maps provided by their texts. Though many web
based portals in the digital humanities consist of online
databases, directories, or repositories of scanned text,
this project’s nexus between Irish Studies and Historical
GIS is thematically different and methodologically a
strong one,11 because GIS’s ability to visualize and store
attribute, spatial and temporal information, allows the
integration of visual, textual and numerical data related
to Irish Studies within a spatial frame of reference. This
project provides a means for users to visualize the unique
relationship between writers, their works and the influence
of place, history and culture upon Ireland’s literary
production in the early twentieth century. The project
question being posed, presented and facilitated by GIS is
to undercover through the aegis of writers, their locales
and their works the heterogeneous nature of Irish identity
and its relation to place during the early twentieth
century. As Irish poet and Nobel prize winner Seamus
Heaney has observed:
The usual assumption, when we speak of writers and
place, is that the writer stands in some directly expressive
or interpretative relationship to the milieu. He or she
becomes a voice of the spirit of the region. The writing is
infused with the atmosphere, physical and emotional, or a
certain landscape or seascape, and while the writer’s immediate
purpose may not have any direct bearing upon the
regional or national background, the background is sensed
as a distinctive element in the work.12
Each selected writer’s regional landscape offers a window
into the plurality of Irish culture, whether or not this
was reflected politically during the period in question.
The underlying aim of the project is to provide a re-examination
of disciplinary conventions and orthodoxies,
provoke research questions and foster public and academic
discourse.
Notes
1Patrick Kavanagh, Patrick Kavanagh: Man and Poet,
(ed.) Peter Kavanagh, (Maine: National Poetry Foundation,
University of Maine at Orono, 1986) p. 15
2Douglas C. Pocock, Humanistic Geography and Literature:
Essays on the Experience of Place, (New Jersey:
Barnes & Noble Books, 1981) p. 15.
3D. W. Meinig, ‘Geography as an art’, Trans. Inst. Br.
Geogr. N.S. (1983) 316.
4Marwyn S. Samuels, ‘The Biography of Landscape:
cause and Culpability’, D.W. Meinig, (Ed.) The Interpretation
of Ordinary Landscapes (NY/Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1979) p. 70.
5Y.F. Tuan, Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception,
Attitudes, and Values, (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-
Hall, 1974) p. 97.
6Patrick Kavanagh, Patrick Kavanagh, 15.
7Declan Kiberd, Inventing Ireland, (London: Vintage,
1997) p. 107.
8Charles Bowen, ‘A Historical Inventory of the Dindshenchas,’
in Studia Celtica 10/11, (1975/76) p. 115.
9R. Woods and N. Shelton, An Atlas of Victorian Mortality
(Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1997)
10T. M. Harris, ‘Moving GIS: exploring movement in
prehistoric cultural landscapes using GIS’ in G.R. Lock
(ed.) Beyond the Map: Archaeology and Spatial Technologies.
(Oxford: IOS Press, 2000) pp. 116-23. 11An increased spatial emphasis is a recent development
in the field of Irish Studies and conversely, historians
and other researchers in the humanities have begun to incorporate
the visual and analytical technology provided
by GIS in their studies. In regards to Irish Studies, Patrick
Duffy’s Exploring the History and Heritage of Irish
Landscapes (Four Courts Press: 2007) surveys in part
how literary and artistic representations of the environment
can provide insights into ‘imagined worlds of the
past.’ Tim Robinson’s Connemara: Listening to the Wind
(Penguin Ireland: 2006) explores environmental, cultural
and historical dimensions of this Atlantic county by
conducting a series of hermeneutic readings of natural
and human history within the context of contemplative
fieldwork. Andrew Kincaid’s Postcolonial Dublin: Imperial
Legacies and the Built Environment (University
of Minnesota Press: 2006) investigates the relationship
between ideology and material culture in the development
of twentieth century Irish social and political identity,
and Liam Kennedy, Paul S. Ell, E.M. Crawford
and L.A. Clarkson’s Mapping The Great Irish Famine:
A Survey of the Famine Decades (Dublin Four Courts
Press: 1999) incorporates Historical GIS to analyze and
visualize various social landscapes of Ireland during
the Famine years of the nineteenth century. The latter
title is emblematic of the emerging field of Historical
GIS which incorporates the study of history and culture
within a spatial perspective. Major research projects in
this growing field are illustrated by online portals such
as the The Salem Witch Trials Archive and The Valley
of the Shadow Project hosted by the University of Virginia’s
Center for Digital History, The China Historical
GIS hosted by the Center for Geographic Analysis
at Harvard University, The Historical Atlas of Canada
Online Learning Project hosted by the Department of
Geography at the University of Toronto, and the Great
Britain Historical GIS hosted by the Department of Geography
at Portsmouth University. These projects serve
as interactive online portals, which can be accessed by
interested scholars, educators and the general public.
12Seamus Heaney, the Place of Writing (Atlanta, Georgia:
Scholars Press, 1989) pgs. 20-21.","txt","2","",""
"1059","10","Googling Google Books: Integrated use of Fragmentary Information Display in Google Book Preview of Electronic Books","1","Introduction
In previous articles and panels, the authors of this paper
have argued that human/textual interaction is an essential
missing aspect of the electronic book reading experience.
In order to fulfill the needs of the bibliophile, for
whom the touch, feel, portability, and engagement with
the paper book is part of the pleasure of reading, the electronic
book needs to be a tactile, multiplatform device
(Ruecker & Uszkalo 2007, 2008). Our investigation led
us to look at the user interface of current single platform
electronic reading technologies such Sony PRS 505
and Kindle and the more multifaceted iLiad v2 reader/
writer. We argued that e-paper makes these devices more
user-friendly and offers the potential for a lower environmental
footprint then paper books (de Grancy 2008),
but noted that their lack of positive form, function, and
feel when coupled with their proprietary software and
the cost of e-books remained major stumbling blocks to
the overall adoption of electronic reading devices (Sottong
2008, Milliot 2008a, 2008b). We concluded that the
numerous multifunction platforms used for electronic
reading, such as computer screens, phones, and iPods
will keep a single-function electronic book reader as a
specialty item.
In this phase, we turn our attention to a fuller consideration
of one of those platforms: Google Books. Since
Google Books has digitized and displays copyright material,
it provides the user with incomplete views of the
text. Our research question asks how does the underlying
structure of Google Books’ display of snippets, incomplete chapters, and limited views of text affect how the
digitally efficacious student navigates through these documents
and how does it affect her reading and research
experience, comprehension, and synthesis of material?
The academic library’s widespread adoption of digital
resources has created the need to reconsider how students
are conducting research. Undertaking universitylevel
research assignments has always been a frustrating
skill to acquire for new students. Current critical consensus
suggests the necessity of teaching specific independent
research strategies to university students to help
them navigate and synthesize the massive amount of resources
available to them (Holz et al., 2008, Femster &
Gray 2008, Polack-Wahl & Anewalt 2006). In ebrary’s
Global Student E-book Survey, released June 2008, students
ranked e-books equivalent with their print counterparts
as “trustworthy” and acknowledged their use in
research assignments. Research using electronic documents
provides the opportunity to negotiate broad spans
of text; Lui (2005) argues that “screen-based reading
behavior is characterized by more time spent on browsing
and scanning, keyword spotting, one-time reading,
non-linear reading, and reading more selectively, while
less time is spent on in-depth reading, and concentrated
reading.” In terms of conducting academic research,
students can sift through information and collect numerous
snippets of information. Many students are already
used to engaging with multiple internet applications
like audio and video streams, instant messaging, and
file sharing to access information inside and outside the
educational setting (McGreal & Elliot 2004). Likewise,
they use functions like Twitter, texting, FaceBook, RSS
feeds, keyword searches and indices to find and absorb
small fragments of information in meaningful ways. The
challenge emerges in synthesizing these snippets of information
outside of their original context. However
skilled the student might be in amassing information, the
information they gather using Google Books often lacks
context within the larger work. The student must synthesize
the snippets into their own linear arguments without
having read or followed the complete arguments in the
texts they are mining for quotes. Eshet-Alakali argues
that to create “original academic work with the aid of
digital techniques for text reproduction, requires scholars
to master a special type of literacy” (98). They call
this reproduction literacy, which is “the ability to create
a meaningful, authentic, and creative work or interpretation,
by integrating existing independent pieces of information,”
which is a learned skill (98).
Although researchers have yet to see empirical evidence
that students can translate reproduction literacy into successful
academic argumentation, the students perceive
they can. As such, the movement towards using Google
Books’ limited previews to quickly search specific ideas
across texts not otherwise on hand appears to be a logical
extension of existing information finding practices, acting
as a center point between authoritative text and quick
nonlinear thinking and research strategies. Students are
trained to see books as an authoritative source, and they
translate the affordance of the printed book in terms of
St. Amant’s relationships or properties of relationships
and perceived properties into their interaction with
Google Books as part of a continued, trusted relationship
(1998). In terms of internet efficacy (Eastin & LaRose,
2000), and the positive affordances of online learning
(Anderson 2004), the dynamic and fragmentary interaction
provided by Google Books’ platform seems familiar
and would not be seen as detrimental to this group of
users. However, users may consider just how much their
textual interaction is being controlled and delineated by
Google Books and how those limitations affect knowledge
gathering and comprehension.
The Canadian Association of Research Libraries Copyright
Committee argued in their recent survey, “Task
Group on E-Books” that there “is a danger that research
libraries are adding e-books to their collections using
agreements that significantly reduce users’ rights” including
textual access and reproduction. Issues of copyright
are what create different experiences for readers –
providing whole texts or stripping access down to sound
bites. According to Google Book Search help, for books
which are under copyright, and are not part of their partner
programs, users are only able to see “basic information
about the book, similar to a card catalog, and, in
some cases, a few “snippets” of “sentences of [their]
search terms in context.” These keyword results allow
students to feel critical engagement with texts, providing
a singular index across an otherwise flat and non-transferable
platform. In this way information is displayed in
vastly different amounts, dependant on copyright. On
some occasions lines of text appear as little scraps of
digital paper, or “snippets”; on other occasions, previews
allow readers to view a certain number of pages, or read
a random sequence of pages at a time, often missing a
few pages in between.
Google Books essentially operates under a shroud of secrecy,
despite partnerships with numerous universities
such Cornell and Columbia, providing no practical information
about its underlying code. Despite this, there
a few things we can assume about its digital creation
process based on common digitization techniques. It is
likely that, as part of the Google Books digitization process,
two things are created: the scanned image, which
is displayed to the user, and an XML-encoded text file generated by an OCR (Optical Code Recognition) application,
which is not seen. This XML-encoded text file
contains all of the words in the document, but also stores
positional information for each word (where each word
appears physically on the page, including its height and
width). When users search in Google Books, they are
not searching the scanned image, but rather, are searching
the XML-encoded text file. Google Books then combines
the scanned image with the positional information
in the XML-encoded text file, and fakes the text highlighting
by drawing a transparent yellow box over the
word in the scanned image.
Textual engagement in Google Books is therefore radically
altered when the display truncates and limits the
amount of text a reader can access. The text is at the
same time both dynamic and static, neither simply file
nor page, and the reader is neither simply a researcher
nor a casual reader. Text display and reader interaction
remain in flux, dependent on how the text is being displayed
and how much the reader can view and search.
The reader might find her experience as constructed in
small glimpses, large text chunks, or whole chapters,
but cannot know how the text will be displayed until she
loads it. Likewise, she cannot know when a blank page
will remove part of the text and if subsequent pages will
appear. However, the successful keyword hit across an
otherwise blanked out book is seen to represent a successful,
albeit fragmentary and miniaturized, search.
Conclusions
Digitally savvy university students have begun to use
Google Books as a research tool. Although this platform
provides fragmentary keyword searches and limited
previews of text blocks, which radically alter the
user’s reading experience, anecdotal evidence suggests
students who are sufficiently familiar with short text display
communication feel they get enough information
from the limited preview to use these texts as sources
for research. Although Google Books’ textual display
has the potential to radically unsettle the reading experience
it appears as sufficient for entry-level engagement
with students who still see these displays as offering the
authority of the book and the ease of use of the electronic
text. More investigation of the way in which the Google
Books’ display facilitates research interactions among
university students is needed.
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“Research methods in computing: what are they, and
how should we teach them?” ACM SIGCSE Bulletin.
38:4 (2006)
Lui, Ziming “Reading behavior in the digital environment:
Changes in reading behavior over the past ten
years” Journal of Documentation. 61:6 (2005). 700 –
712
McGreal, R., & Elliott, M. “Technologies of online
learning (elearning).” Theory and Practice of Online
Learning. T. Anderson & F. Elloumi (Eds.). Athabasca,
AB: Athabasca University. 115 – 136.
Milliot, Jim. “Report Finds Growing Acceptance of Digital
Books.” Publishers Weekly. February 18, 2008a.
Milliot, Jim. “Sony Adopts EPUB Standard for Reader.”
Publishers Weekly. July 24, 2008b.
Owen, Victoria et al. “E-Books in Research Libraries:
Issues of Access and Use” Online. Accessed November 11, 2008. <http://www.carl-abrc.ca/projects/copyright/
pdf/CARL%20E-Book%20Report-e.doc>
Polack-Wahl, Jennfier A., Karen Anewalt. “Learning
strategies and undergraduate research” SIGCSE ‘06:
Proceedings of the 37th SIGCSE technical symposium
on Computer science education. March 2006, 209-213.
Ruecker, Stan, Kirsten C. Uszkalo. “Binding the Eletronic
Book: Design Features for Bibliophiles”. Visible Language.
2007.
St. Amant, Robert. “Planning and user interface affordances”
Proceedings of the 4th International conference
on Intelligent user interfaces. Los Angeles, California,
United States, 1998. 135 – 142.
Sottong, Steven. “The Ellusive E-Book.” American Libraries.
May 2008, 44-50.","txt","2","",""
"1060","10","Medieval Scribes in Parts of Speech Comparing the vocabulary of different copies of the same text","1","Introduction Van Dalen-Oskam and van Zundert (2007) applied
the lexical richness measures Yule’s K and Burrows’s
Delta in an authorship attribution study on the
Middle Dutch Romance of Walewein, which we know
was written by two authors. The researchers used a
walking window to find where the second author took
over from the first author. The change of authors could
be seen in the graphs for Delta for three strata of highfrequency
words (1-50, 51-100, 101-150); it showed the
best in frequency stratum 101-150. In the highest frequency
stratum, however, the break between the two
scribes responsible for the manuscript of the text (this
break occurred much earlier in the text than the author
break) was even clearer.
Following up on this research, the researchers looked
into the distribution of parts of speech in the abovementioned
frequency strata (van Dalen-Oskam & van
Zundert 2008). When they examined the strata, starting
with the highest frequency words (1-50) and going on
to frequency stratum 101-150, they found an increasing
percentage for the categories ‘noun’ and ‘verb’, and a
decreasing percentage for ‘pronoun’ and ‘preposition’.
This may imply that in the area in which this text showed
the clearest difference between scribes (i.e. frequencies
1-50), part of the uniqueness of these scribes lies in their
idiosyncratic use (as to frequencies) of pronouns and
prepositions. In the area in which Walewein showed the
clearest difference between authors (frequencies 101-
150), part of the uniqueness of the authors lies in their
idiosyncratic frequencies of nouns and verbs. In other
words: the scribes seem to differ especially in the frequencies
of function words, whereas the authors seem
to differ especially in the frequencies of content words.
Research questions
Authorship attribution for medieval texts before the age
of printing is hampered by several practical problems.
First, we often do not know a text’s author. However,
even when the author is known, almost always his or remain
are copies of the text, or copies of copies of copies,
which are usually difficult to position in a trustworthy
family tree (stemma) of the manuscripts. Thus, we do
not have the text of the original author, but only texts
resulting from manual copying by scribes – persons who
made a copy of a text for their own use or for the use of
others (who may or may not have paid for these copies
and perhaps had special wishes for their copies). We
know that scribes made mistakes, and that they changed
spellings and wording according to what they thought
fit for their audience. And we know that they sometimes
reworked the text or parts thereof. In most cases, however,
the original text is clearly recognizable. But when a
text shows very many changes, scholars start describing
these copies as adaptations, and consider them a new text
rather than a copy, and see the scribe not as a copyist but
as an author in his or her own right. Thus, the question
is: how many changes are needed to call a text not a copy
but a new text? All in all, the extent of the influence a
scribe had on the text he or she copied has been insufficiently
studied.
The Walewein results led to new research questions.
The first was whether we could confirm the findings in a
larger set of texts. If scribes do indeed differ as regards
how frequently they use certain parts of speech, from the
attribution point of view we could ask whether it may be
possible to distinguish scribes from each other. From a
literary and philological point of view, we may expect a
clearer answer to the question in what ways scribes differed
from authors (if they did differ, that is). And from
a methodological standpoint, we would want to know
which measures yield the best results.
Corpus and method
Not many Middle Dutch texts are available in a substantial
number of copies. We chose a work by the Flemish
author Jacob van Maerlant: the Rijmbijbel (‘Rhyming
Bible’), which is a translation/adaptation of the
Medieval Latin Historia scholastica written by Petrus
Comestor. Van Maerlant finished this work in 1271, and
many fragments and fifteen manuscripts (though not all
containing all parts of the text) are handed down to us,
dating from ca. 1285 to the end of the fifteenth century.
One of these manuscripts is available in a good edition;
it is also digitally available lemmatized and tagged for
parts of speech. Transcriptions of the other manuscripts
had to be made for this research. Because of the length
of the texts (almost 35,000 lines), we had to work with
samples. We chose 5 samples of 200-240 lines from different
parts of the text, and transcribed the parallel texts
(if available) from all 15 manuscripts, lemmatized the
samples and tagged them for parts of speech. The manuscripts
are indicated by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G,
H, I, J, K, L, M, N and O. We approached the samples
as ‘bags of words’ and decided to compare these bags of
words as regards vocabulary (number of unique types
and tokens) and frequencies of parts of speech. We differentiated
between ten parts of speech:
00 noun (content word)
02 proper name (content word)
10 adjective
20 main verb (content word)
21 copula / auxiliary verb
30 numeral
4* pronouns
40 personal pronoun
41 demonstrative pronoun
42 relative pronoun
43 interrogative pronoun
44 indefinite pronoun
45 possessive pronoun
50 adverb
70 preposition
8* conjunction
80 coordinating conjunction
81 subordinating conjunction
82 comparative conjunction
For each part of speech, in each sample we measured the
absolute frequency, the relative frequency, the average
of the fifteen samples, the standard deviation, the z-score
and the ranking of the manuscript in comparison with the
other fourteen manuscripts.
Example
To give an impression of the material, the second line
of the ‘Judith’ episode in all fifteen manuscripts is presented
below. Judith was ‘van liue wijf van herten man’
(‘as to her body (a) woman, as to her heart (a) man’):
A Van liue wijf van herten man
B van liue wijf van herten man
C Van liue wijf van herten man.
D Van liue wijf van herte man
E van liue wijf van herten man
F Van liue wijf van herten man
G Van liue wijf. van herten man...
H Van lyue een wijf van herte een man I Wijf van liue van herten man
J Van liue wijf van herten man
K Van liue wijf van herten man
L Van liue wijf van herten man
M Van liue wijf van herte man
N Van liue wijf van herten man
O van liue wijf van herten man
Manuscript H has two indefinite pronouns, something
that none of the other manuscripts has. Manuscript I has
a different order in the first noun phrase. The differences
in manuscript H will have an influence on word counts
and the frequencies of parts of speech, while the difference
in manuscript I will not show up in these counts.
The differences among the manuscripts for this line are
small. Many other lines show more, and more complex
differences.
Fig. 1
Results
Reading through all fifteen Judith episodes, we find that
two of the manuscripts show remarkable differences
compared to the other thirteen. These manuscripts are
also the odd ones out in the statistical results. Figure 1
presents the results for the nouns (excluding names). The
horizontal axis is the mean of the frequency of nouns in
all fifteen Judith episodes. The vertical axis gives the zscores:
the higher a manuscript is located on the graph,
the more significant the deviation from the mean. Everything
above z-score 1 may be statistically significant.
Manuscript I clearly deviates from all the others as to the
frequency of nouns. Other parts of speech yield different
results (cf. figure 2).
Fig. 2
In the mean of all codes in figure 3, only E and I are
above z-score 1. All other manuscripts are below this
line. They do, however, show some variation, and from
the point of view of the scholar, this variation is interesting.
An evaluation of all results for the different parts of
speech shows that adjectives differ the most and nouns
differ the least. Only manuscript I shows a significant
deviation in the frequency of the nouns. Other parts of
speech that often differ are pronouns, adverbs and – to
a lesser degree – auxiliary verbs/copula. Names, main
verbs and conjunctions show more differentiation than
the nouns excluding names, but not much. These results
seem to confirm that in copying a text, scribes could
indeed ‘manoeuvre’ in the area of function words (adverbs,
adjectives, etc.), but may have been kept in check
as to content words (nouns, names, main verbs). The
only manuscript that deviates wildly in the frequency of is immediately clear to the researcher that, at least in the
episode about Judith, it is a very free adaptation of the
text. In this episode, the scribe clearly has to be seen as
an author.
Fig. 3
Our paper will present a comparison with the other samples
from the same text. This comparison will show that
it is unlikely that we will be able to distinguish scribes
with this method – although, as stated, we can clearly
spot an ‘author’ between the scribes. We hope to apply
some other measures to the corpus, for example typetoken
ratio, Yule’s K and Burrows’s Delta.
Conclusions
The analysis and comparison of the vocabulary of copies
of the same text seems to be a promising way to gain
more insight into the range of freedoms that scribes were
allowed. Of course, both more tests and a much larger
corpus are needed. A comparison with other languages
would also be interesting. The results of this empirical
approach will promote, for example, the development of
new tools or the fine-tuning of existing tools for scribal
measurements (e.g. Spencer & Howe 2001, 2002).
References
Karina van Dalen-Oskam & Joris van Zundert (2007).
‘Delta for Middle Dutch: Author and copyist distinction
in “Walewein”’. In: Literary and Linguistic Computing
22, pp. 345-362.
Karina van Dalen-Oskam and Joris van Zundert (2008).
‘The Quest for Uniqueness: Author and Copyist Distinction
in Middle Dutch Arthurian Romances based
on Computer-assisted Lexicon Analysis’. In: Marijke
Mooijaart and Marijke van der Wal (eds.) Yesterday’s
words: contemporary, current and future lexicography.
[Proceedings of the Third International Conference on
Historical Lexicography and Lexicology (ICHLL), 21-
23 June 2006, Leiden]. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars
Publishing, 2008, pp. 292-304.
Matthew Spencer and Christopher J. Howe (2001). ‘Estimating
distances between manuscripts based on copying
errors’. In: Literary and Linguistic Computing 16,
pp. 467-484
Matthew Spencer and Christopher J. Howe (2002).
‘How accurate were scribes? A mathematical model’. In:
Literary and Linguistic Computing 17, pp. 311-322","txt","2","",""
"1061","10","Choreographing the Data: performing the ARTeFACT project TAKE 2","1","Argument Although one might question the value of collecting
and preserving artefacts for all elements surrounding
a dance, the preservation of dance as a digitised
performance text can become a basis for research that
address the issues of describing and analyzing the performance
event, while it also enables creativity which in
turn further supports research.
Premise
At DH 2008 Susan L. Wiesner and Jama Coartney presented
their work on the ARTeFACT project, and posited
the previous argument, which resulted in a suggestion
(challenge?) to create a work based on the data. As ARTeFACT
is a multi-layered, iterative, project involving
the contributions of many, the suggested choreography
had already been planned as a project step. It is the
continued work on this project in both the capture and
preservation of movement-driven data (generated from
one dance work) and subsequent choreography based on
that data that is the focus of this suggested panel/performance.
Method
As noted in 2008, the ARTeFACT Project Alpha included
teams of students asked to design and build an orthotic
device that, when worn, causes the wearer to emulate
the challenges of walking with a physical disability. In
lieu of a final exam, the students produced a performance
during which members of each group wore their devices
and moved through the space according to ‘choreography’
set by their peers. Two cameras preserved the performance
itself.
Inspired by the concept of the devices, a choreographer
used the collection of artefacts from the engineering
students’ course-work to develop a dance work, For
Natalie, which became ARTeFACT Project Beta. In addition
to her study of the digital artefacts generated by
the engineering class students, the choreographer used
the devices themselves (actually wearing them to choreograph).
This forced her to work within the limitations
of the devices, inhibiting her level of abstraction, thus
causing her to choose movement similar to those of the
students, especially in the case of the Ricketts device.
Using Rudolph Laban’s Effort/Shapei concepts, she also
analysed her choreography to create a more cohesive
movement vocabulary. Her work was preserved through
still photographs, two static and mobile video cameras,
and motion capture devices (wiimotes). These wiimotes
were placed on the dancers’ bodies, and data signals
were captured using an interactive authoring program,
Max MSP/Jitter. The resultant data, 57,326 samples with
229,304 descriptive elements, was exported as plain text
and can be viewed in a custom playback engine or any
application that reads plain text files. From the data, a third work, For Always, is being choreographed
(completion date December 2008) using
Laban’s Eukinetics (Effort/Shape) theories. The same
preservation techniques will be used against this work in
order to find the traces between movement (through established
methods of movement analysis such as Laban
and Adshead’s qualitative approaches) and quantitative
analysis of the data samples including the relative placement
of the capture devices.
Conclusion
The panel/performance proposed herein considers the
processes of iterative choreography and the inclusion of
digital technologies into the choreographic process, the
performance event, and the preservation of both. It will
also discuss the possibilities generated by technologies
themselves (towards methods of controlled vocabularies
based on movement and/or automated, feature-based
tagging). The discussion will culminate in a multi-media
dance performance, and an ‘after-performance’ workshop
and Q/A. Thus it is requested that the panel/performance
be scheduled for at least 90-minute slot. The panel
includes: Jama Coartney, Head of the Digital Media
Lab at UVA (originator of the project, who will speak to
the technologies and data comparisons); Rommie Stalnaker,
Project Beta choreographer (to present her choreographic
processes and movement analysis), and Susan
L. Wiesner, Project Gamma choreographer (to offer
a theoretical analysis of the traces and her choreographic
processes).
Sample Bibliography
Adshead-Lansdale, J. (ed.) 1999, Dancing Texts: intertextuality
and interpretation. London: Dance Books.
Dell, Cecily 1977, A Primer for Movement Description:
Using Effort-Shape and Supplementary Concepts. New
York: Dance Notation Bureau Press.
Goellner, E. W. & Murphy, J. S. 1995, Bodies of the Text.
New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Kholief, M., Maly, K. & Shen, S. 2003, ‘Event-Based
Retrieval from a Digital Library containing Medical
Streams’ in Proceedings of the 2003 Joint Conference
on Digital Libraries (Online) Available at
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/login.jsp?url=/
iel5/8569/27127/01204867.pdf
Naugle, L. 2001,‘Reinterpreting Choreography: Motion
Capture Data as Historical Information’ in Society of
Dance History Scholars Proceedings 2001 24th Conference,
Birmingham: SDHS.
New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, Jerome
Robbins Dance Division 2005, Report from Working
Group 4 Dance Documentation Needs Analysis
Meeting 2.
Note
iEffort is “how the body concentrates its exertion” (Dell
1977, 10). The elements of Effort are: “direct and indirect,
light and strong, quick and sustained, free and
bound” (Ibid.). Shape is “how the body forms itself in
space” (Dell 1977, 42). Its elements are: “spreading and
enclosing, rising and sinking, growing and shrinking, advancing
and retreating”, as well as movement that goes
“sideward out and sideward across, upward and downward,
growing and shrinking, forward and backward”.
Laban’s explanation of Shape not only describes movements
within the body (the personal Kinesphere), but
can also be used to describe movement that traverses the
stage space (pathways).","txt","2","",""
"1062","10","Corpus Analysis and Literary History","1","The problem of periodization has long occupied literary
studies. Our ability to distinguish the cultural
and aesthetic production of one era from that of another
is a basic assumption of our historicizing critical method.
Moreover, there exists a broad consensus concerning
the general arc of literary history and its major moments.
As a practical matter, however, we often find such periods
to be both less mutually distinct and less internally
uniform than we have been lead to believe. When, for
instance, does modernism begin and end? And what, exactly,
do Proust, Joyce, Woolf, and Hemingway have in
common, to say nothing of mass-market detective and
shopgirl fiction from the same era?
Such uncertainty is neither insurmountable nor even especially
problematic, but it does emphasize the centrality
and the limitations of both close reading and theorization
as the working methods of literary study. Because we
can read only a finite (and quite small) number of texts,
the specific texts that we do manage to read will have a
disproportionate influence on our understanding of the
larger field of cultural production we understand them
to represent. Theorization is then frequently dedicated
to working back out or up from this restricted corpus
of widely read material to the larger set social and economic
arrangements that must have been in place so that
work of just such a type could have been produced.
There’s nothing wrong with this approach, but it would
be useful to have relative measures of the extent to which
the periods and associated genres we now commonly
identify in literary history apply to the full field of literary
production over the last several centuries. That is,
we would like to be able to answer questions about the
coherence of literary periods and genres, their internal
variation, their distinction from one another, the sharpness
of the breaks between them, and the mechanics of
the transitions between them, and we would like to be
able to do all this with reference not just to a restricted
corpus or canon, but to the broadest possible survey of
texts. We would also like to know whether or not there
exist discernibly coherent periods, genres, or geographic
regions that we have not yet identified, or if our current
historical/geographic/generic boundaries are the best
possible ones.
The work presented in this paper describes the early
steps and initial results of a long-term project designed
to address these issues. Building on insights and tools
pioneered in corpus linguistics (see especially the work
of Mark Davies at BYU), but aiming squarely at questions
of literary history and theory, this work begins with
the construction of a significant corpus of public-domain
literary texts spanning the sixteenth to twentieth centuries
from the Gutenberg archive. Gutenberg, of course,
is not a typical scholarly resource, but it has the advantage
of being large and unencumbered by intellectual
property restrictions; one of the intermediate products of
the work presented here is an evaluation of its relative
merits and suitability in comparison to the smaller but
fully curated Wright American fiction and Chadwyck-
Healy nineteenth-century fiction collections from the
MONK Project. The paper describes the techniques used
to construct and to characterize this corpus, as well as
the quantitative results of this analysis. It is thus the first
full, computationally assisted description and evaluation
of the Gutenberg English-language fiction holdings as a
resource for digital literary studies.
The paper also advances a set of conclusions based on
these results and in dialogue with existing theoretical
work on literary-cultural periodization. There is reason
to believe that the comparatively brief periods of rapid
change between more stable literary eras should be
marked by increased incidence of allegorical and tropological
language use (this fact of course superimposed
on long-term baseline changes in, for example, metaphor
generally). Although it is as yet difficult to measure such
features directly (but see interestingly related attempts
such as Pasanek and Sculley, “Mining millions of metaphors,”
LLC 23 [2008]: 345-60; Bei Yu’s 2006 dissertation
on literary text mining; and Matthew Jockers and
Franco Moretti’s as-yet unpublished work on automatic
genre classification), the present analysis suggests that
texts drawn from such transitional periods are relatively
poor in adjectives and adverbs, a fact that may correspond
to their increased reliance on tropes (the expressive
ability of which is diminished by increased specificity).
By examining the historical variations of such
features, we may begin to reshape our understanding of
periodization and its mechanisms.","txt","2","",""
"1063","10","Digital Lives: how people create, manipulate and store their personal digital archives","1","The personal archives of scholars and other eminent
people have long been kept in repositories such as
the British Library, and include correspondence, notebooks,
drafts of published papers, photographs etc.
Needless to say, in recent years these collections have
become ever more ‘digital’, as individuals are capturing
and storing increasing amounts of digital information
about or for themselves, including documents, portfolios
of work, digital images, blogs, personal web pages
and audio and video recordings (Summers & John 2001;
Beagrie, 2005; John, 2005; Thomas & Martin, 2006).
Not only the media and formats but also the contents of
works created by individuals are changing. For example
in the history of science, laboratory and field notebooks
are changing drastically as research councils move towards
supporting more standardised forms of recording
e-science. We need to understand and address these issues
now if future historians, biographers and curators
are to be able to make sense of life in the early twentyfirst
century. There is a real danger otherwise that we
will lose whole swathes of personal, family and cultural
memory.
Personal information collections and management have
been the focus of attention of researchers for many years,
particularly in the field of Human-Computer Interaction
(for an early example, see Malone, 1983). However, the
rapid rise in digital applications and storage capacity has
both stimulated interest in this field (see, e.g. Kaye et. al,
2006, Jones, 2007; Bruce et al, 2004) and also opened
up a new research area within it directed at personal digital
archives, a term used here to refer to these informal,
diverse, and expanding memory collections created or
acquired and accumulated and maintained by individuals
and belonging to them, rather than to their institution or
other place of work. It is the focus of a major study ‘Digital
Lives’, which will be the subject of the presentation.
Digital Lives research project
The Digital Lives research project is being led by the
British Library and funded by the UK’s Arts and Humanities
Research Council, focusing on such collections and
their relationship with research repositories. It brings
together expert curators and practitioners in digital preservation,
digital manuscripts, literary collections, webarchiving,
history of science, and oral history from the
British Library with researchers in the School of Library,
Archive and Information Studies at University College
London and The Centre for Information Technology
and Law at the University of Bristol. The project aims
to explore how individuals manage their personal digital
archives, in order to inform curators and archivists
who will be entrusted with the personal collections of
eminent people that will be left to them in future. We are
seeking to clarify our understanding of an enormously
complex and changing environment, engage with major
issues, and evaluate radical new practices and tools that
could assist curators in the future.
The initial phase of the project is complete, and will
form the backdrop to the presentation. For this, we used
in-depth interviews to explore the views, practices and
experiences of a number of eminent individuals in the
fields of politics, the arts and the sciences, plus an equal
number of young or mid-career professional practitioners
whose works and personal archives may be of interest
to future scholars. Questions covered the history
of the interviewee’s experience with computers and ICT,
training undertaken, manipulating files, backing up and
transfer, collaborative work, extent and nature of any
digital archive and the motivation behind decisions to
keep or discard documents. Attitudes and perceptions of
digital artifacts generally were also elicited.
This phase of the research (the preliminary findings of
which have been reported by Williams et al, 2008) elicited
a fascinating variety of experiences, behaviours and
approaches, ranging from the poet who ignores word
processing, electing instead to write all his drafts by
hand, only committing the very final copy to a computer,
to the geologist who forwards emails to himself so that
the subject line can be changed, to the politician who
has not digitised his audio diary but has it catalogued
and cross-referenced online. Overall, the breadth of disciplines,
backgrounds, ages and experiences of the individuals
interviewed gave such contrasting and varied
accounts that it is almost impossible to generalise findings. One thing is already very clear, however. The rise
of Web 2.0 and document/data sharing and distribution
over the internet has lead to large parts of individuals’
digital assets (photographs, blog entries, even email archives)
being hosted by servers geographically remote
and with no guarantee of permanence by the service provider
– creating immense problems for future curation
and access. The amount of poorly named and inconsistently
stored draft documents – sometimes with a ‘final’
version being lost in the digital ocean of one’s ‘C:’ Drive
will be another challenge.
Two surveys were undertaken, both online, developed
from the issues raised and responses given in the qualitative
phase of the research. One was to the general public,
and the other to a sample of academics from both the
humanities and sciences. We wished to explore differences
in the online behaviours of different demographic
and other groupings. It may be, for example, that scientists
behave quite differently, in terms of their creation
and management of their digital assets from humanities
scholars; or that novice computer users operate in a fundamentally
different way from experts. Initial analysis
suggests, for example, that back-up and retrieval behaviour
is different between genders. The presentation will
integrate qualitative and quantitative findings from rigorous
and sophisticated statistical analyses facilitated by
SPSS software (quantitative) and from HyperResearch,
(qualitative). This will provide an initial though deep
and comprehensive examination of digital information
behaviour.
Conclusion
It need only be said in conclusion, as the presentation
will present findings from work presently in progress,
that the way different people and groupings perceive,
manipulate and store digital media has wide ranging implications
for creative or scholarly activity, for the design
and functionality of future software applications, and for
the capture and care of personal digital archives by repositories
and their future access by humanities scholars
and others. The presentation should be of wide appeal to
a ‘digital humanities’ audience.
References
Beagrie, N (2005), “Plenty of room at the bottom? Personal
digital libraries and collections”, D-Lib Magazine,
11(6) http://www.dlib.org/june05/beagrie.html
Bruce, H, Jones, W Dumais, S (2004) “Information behaviour
that keeps found things found” Information Research,
10(1) paper 207 Available online: http://informationr.
net/ir/10-1/paper207.html (accessed 12.10.08)
John, J L (2005) Because topics often fade: letters, essays,
notes, digital manuscripts and other unpublished
works pp399-422 in Narrow Roads of Gene Land Volume
3 Last Words, edited by M Ridley Oxford: Oxford
University Press
Jones, W (2007) Personal information management In B
Cronin (Ed.), Annual review of information science and
technology Medford, NJ: Information Today pp453-504
Kaye, J, with J Vetis, A Avery, A Dafoe S David, L Onaga,
I Rosero, T Pinch (2006) To have and to hold: exploring
the personal archive CHI Proceedings, Personal
Information Management, April 22-27 2006 Montreal,
2006
Malone, T W (1983) how do people organize their desks?
Implications for the design of office information systems
ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems 1(1)
pp99-112
Summers, A & John, J L (2001) The W D Hamilton Archive
at the British Library Ethology, Ecology & Evolution
13, pp373-384
Thomas, S, & Martin, J (2006) Using the papers of contemporary
British politicians as a testbed for the preservation
of digital personal archives Journal of the Society
of Archivists, 27(1) pp29-56
Williams P, Dean K, Rowlands I, John JL (2008) Digital
Lives: report of interviews with the creators of personal
digital collections Ariadne 55 http://www.ariadne.
ac.uk/issue55/williams-et-al/ (posted 25.04.08; accessed
13.11.08)","txt","2","",""
"1064","10","Library as Agent of [Re]Contextualization","1","Rapid production, dissemination and consumption of
knowledge made possible in our digital culture is
often accompanied by atomization of information. Once
digitized, bits of information can easily be presented
in a de-contextualized manner. This is both good and
bad: any given datum lends itself more explicitly to being
used in different, perhaps unexpected contexts; but
without an originating context that is at least as widely
known as the datum itself, it is difficult to find in the first
place.
In his Everything is Miscellaneous: The Power of the
New Digital Disorder (2007), David Weinberger has
presented three orders – levels – of ordering. First order
he likened to arranging books on a shelf, working
with the objects themselves. Second order is creating a
card catalog for the books – making objects to represent
other objects, where each representative object refers to
one and only one primary object (but the reverse doesn’t
hold: a book can have several catalog cards, filed by different
criteria).
Third order does not presume an object to exist in only
one place at a time. “The problems with the first two orders
of order go back to the fact that they arrange atoms,”
Weinberger writes. “But now we have bits. [...] The third
order removes the limitations we’ve assumed were inevitable
in how we organize information.”
This breakdown of “degrees of separation” between the
things being ordered and the entities that order them is
hardly new. In the 13th century, Bonaventure presented
three possible “positions of thought”: extra se (the
mind views an outside object), intra se (a reflectio, or
a ‘thought about [an achieved] thought’) and supra se
(where we examine the principles behind our own classification
and organization of observed knowledge). [Itinerarium
1, 4 and Reductio 10-12] Bonaventure merely
systematized the tripartite structure of theology (sensible,
symbolic and speculative) that he had inherited from
such philosophers and theologians as Plotinus, Augustine,
and pseudo-Dionysius.
The compelling common aspect of the third order of order,
the supra se position of thought and the Absolute
Idea, is recombination, re-iteration, a multiple contextualization
of knowledge. Libraries have traditionally
dwelt in the second order of order. At Boston University
we have been playing with the notion of a library serving
as a locus for third-order processes. This paper is a speculative
discussion; we are re-conceiving library spaces
as workshop-oriented, and collection development as
a third-order activity based on the mash-up principle.
We imagine the library as responsible for three spaces
– physical, virtual and programmatic. This refashioned,
multifaceted institution is an entity that not only enables
research but engenders and even generates new knowledge
by way of a new physical and conceptual structure.
Programmatic Space
Faculty members have expressed the desire for community
in many places and contexts. What exactly do they
mean, and is this something to which the library can respond?
How do we create a physical community space
for faculty in a large institution? How do we get people
to engage with us and each other online?
Both the physical and the virtual spaces of the library,
discussed below, are necessarily informed by a programmatic
space – the conceptual framework within which
we implement the plan to refashion the library. This includes
both articulating goals (library as a space where
new knowledge is generated) and experimenting with
tools that may help us achieve those goals (user tagging
for online catalog items). By imagining an environment
that encourages direct interaction, and then suggesting
starting discussion topics, we employ conversation theory
(knowledge is created, and meanings agreed upon,
in conversation) to refashion the library as a place that
enables process as well as content.
Definitions and classifications have historically been
created by field experts, who generally work within
disciplinary boundaries, using disciplinary methods.
Collaborative knowledge-gathering technologies allow
definitions and structures to emerge from the materials
themselves, potentially without regard to their prior
classification(s). This emergent knowledge, created
within programmatic space, informs the way in which
reconceptualizing the virtual space will translate into
transforming the library’s physical space. Physical / Virtual Space
We put practical considerations such as funding aside for
the moment: before proposing a capital renovation project
to the university, we must have a clear idea of what
we are trying to accomplish.
Most library users associate the library’s physical space
with silent study. With clever layout planning — perhaps
re-shuffling stacks to de-emphasize them and minimize
sound movement — a library can accommodate multiple
spaces for quiet group discussion in addition to carrels.
Round tables are provided, with computers and largescreen
monitors for collaborative viewing and discussion
of online resources. The library becomes a constant
low-grade workshop space that makes both physical and
virtual materials equitably available.
We are currently creating two topical online resources,
which follow from our relatively new understanding
of the library itself as a pedagogical tool. Our History
of Missiology site [1] aims to present an extensive and
unique collection of letters, journals, biographies, travel
descriptions, and books written by and about protestant
missionaries. These materials will be of use both to theologians
and to social scientists, as they constitute the earliest
anthropological records of several cultures.
We are also gathering resources about the Personalism
school of thought, which flourished at BU in the early
20th century. It has played an important role in the development
of philosophical theology, but its implications
are far-reaching in their interdisciplinarity. Personalism
has not been adequately studied, and connections between
it and later philosophical thought have not been
explicitly drawn. By providing primary materials and
tools for discussion, we again hope to facilitate emergent
knowledge.
Collection Development and Cataloging
Approaching collection development as a third-order activity,
we consider the number of books on shelves one,
but not the sole, determining factor of the strength of
a collection. Programmatic restructuring of the library’s
physical and virtual spaces is aimed at gathering interdisciplinary
groups, which in turn will ideally participate
in collection development along with library staff. As
knowledge can be built up, mapped, by free (informed)
association, so library collections can be developed in a
similar way.
Thus, a series of meetings dedicated to the revival of
Personalism may attract theologians, philosophers, historians
and sociologists. Each scholar will bring knowledge
of different relevant resources to the table, and in
the course of discussion draw out a coherent and comprehensive
body of knowledge that the community believes
to be essential to its work. This is new in that we
aim to gather people in the library, both as a physical
space and as a concept within the larger structure of a
research institution, in a purposeful and sustained way.
Through this process we would create a more participatory
and connected relationship both between researchers
across their disciplinary boundaries, and between the
library and their respective research programs.
In the past few decades, with the advent of electronic
cataloging, libraries have been slowly moving towards
the third order of order. For the most part libraries still
catalog physical objects; it is only very recently that we
have been able to begin digitizing those objects, and have
had to face the existence of born-digital artifacts also in
need of cataloging. Momentum is difficult to influence:
even with digital objects, libraries fall into patterns of
cataloging typical of physical artifacts. Developing referral
systems, social tagging, etc. will be required for an
accurate representation of these complex and structurally
novel entities.
Moving Forward: Assessment and
Implementation
In order for the project of refashioning the research process
to succeed, a crucial component is an outreach coordinator
who is also a scholar in the field. This would be
a person who rallies the researcher troops and continually
spurs conversation. Without such a constant external
stimulus, and with so many other demands on their time
and attention, researchers are less likely to participate in
– or initiate – discussion.
This sort of rallying can and should be institutionalized.
With a dedicated driving force behind them, brown-bag
seminars, lecture/presentation series and discussion lists
can be a thriving ground for exploring ideas. Such efforts
have so far been led by dedicated individuals (for
example, Willard McCarty in his stewardship of the
Humanist discussion list) and often at digital humanities
centers (the MITH Digital Dialogues, the Computers
in the Humanities Users Group at Brown, the Seminar
in Humanities Computing at the Centre for Computing
in the Humanities in King’s College London, and many
others). The library as an institution is well positioned
to join in as a venue for scholarly communication, given
adequate staffing and support.
How to actually accomplish all of these things? We will
present the challenges we have faced thus far, and our
approach to overcoming those challenges during the current academic year, by addressing several recommendations
from the final report of the ACLS Commission on
Cyberinfrastructure, released in 2006.
[1] http://digilib.bu.edu/mission/","txt","2","",""
"1065","10","The Artificial Intelligence (AI) Hermeneutic Network: Toward an Approach to Analysis and Design of Intentional Systems","1","‘I felt that I should be able to get the computer to sound
good more or less on its own, so that someone listening
to it says, “Who is that playing?” But if you get “What’s
that?” instead, you have to go back to the drawing board.’
(Lewis, 2000)
Abstract Digital information technologies are increasingly
being adopted in the humanities as both research
tools and supports for new forms of cultural expression.
Some of these digital technologies, in particular artificial
intelligence (AI) programs, exhibit complex behaviors
usually seen as the territory of intentional human phenomena,
such as creativity, planning and learning. This
paper identifies a prototypical subset of these programs,
which we name intentional systems, and argues that their
seemingly intentional behaviors are not the sole effect of
underlying algorithmic complexity and knowledge engineering
practices from computer science. In contrast, we
argue (paralleling the field of software studies) that intentional
systems, and digital systems at large, need to be
analyzed as a contemporary form of historically, culturally,
socially, and technically situated texts. Perception
of system intentionality arises from a network of continuous
meaning exchange between system authors’ narration
and users’ interpretation processes embedded in a
broader social context. The central contribution of this
paper is a new interdisciplinary analytical framework
called the AI hermeneutic network that is informed by
traditions of hermeneutic analysis, actor-network theory,
cognitive semantics theory, and philosophy of mind. To
illustrate the design implication of the AI hermeneutic
network, we present our recent work Memory, Reverie
Machine, an expressive intentional system that generates
interactive narratives rich with daydreaming sequences.
Intentional Systems
Trombonist and composer George Lewis’s above description of his interactive musical system Voyager exemplifies
a growing number of digital systems, such as
the autonomous painting program AARON (Cohen 2002)
and recent computational narrative works (Harrell 2006;
Mateas & Stern 2002; PŽrez y PŽrez & Aliseda 2006),
that utilize AI techniques in pursuit of cultural expression.
Decades after heated debates about the feasibility
of AI, the question of whether computers may one day
possess human-level intelligence no longer spurs society’s
fear and curiosity. Instead, systems are designed to
encourage users to make sense of them as intentional and
independent entities. Compared to instrumental, production-
oriented programs such as the PhotoShop, these
systems display intentional behaviors related to human
mental phenomena such as planning, learning, narrating,
and creating, as if their actions were about something in
the world (Searle 1983) rather than mere execution of
algorithmic rules. Lewis, for instance, insists that Voyager
‘not [be] treated as a musical instrument, but as an
independent improviser.’ He deliberately designed the
system to display independent behaviors arising from
its own internal processes that even its designer cannot
fully anticipate. The improvisational dialogue between
Voyager and the musicians, Lewis emphasizes, is ‘bi-directional
transfer of intentionality through sound.’ computational
complexity, 2) process opacity, 3) human-like
coherent behaviors, and 4) execution of authorial intention.
The term encompasses not only AI systems but also
AI-like systems that exist either outside of computer science
communities or are not described by their authors
as AI systems for ideological or other reasons. Critical
analysis and design of intentional systems, like information
technologies at large in the digital humanities, calls
for the recognition of these systems as important forms
of cultural production, beyond their traditionally instrumentalized,
productivity oriented roles.
Intentional Systems as Texts
Although generally used to describe written forms of discourse,
the term text as the object of literary theory and
modern hermeneutics is not confined to only linguistic
forms. In his essay on the literary text, German philosopher
Manfred Frank (Frank 1989) criticizes the notion
that meanings that authors encode within texts can be
objectively retrieved without distortion by readers given
appropriate methods of interpretation (Hirsch 1967). Instead,
Frank proposes a complex communication process
in which both author and reader actively create, shape,
and reconstruct meanings. This echoes the even broader
notion of dialogic meaning posited by the Russian philosopher
and critic Mikhail Bakhtin in which language
is understood as dynamic, contextual, intertextual, and
relational (Holquist 1990). Acknowledging the textuality
of intentional systems opens up understanding of system
intentionality to a range of socially situated methods.
Intentional systems are not simply the result of clever
algorithmic and data structural innovations. The AI
practitioner and theorist Philip Agre cogently points out
that the ‘the purpose of AI is to build computer systems
whose operation can be narrated using intentional vocabulary.’
(Agre 1997) Michael Mateas, co-developer of Façade,
further deconstructs the codes invoked in AI practice
by computation, and definitions of system progress)
and the co-existing ‘code machine’ (including physical
processes, computational processes, and complex causal
flow), in order to pin down the long-neglected social and
discursive aspect of AI systems (Mateas 2002). In addition
to considering actual computer programs, analysis
of intentional systems should not omit the authors’
publications, presentations, and interpersonal communication
about the system. Such narrative outputs situate
the system in AI research communities and frame users’
interpretation, and therefore must be considered as part
of the intentional system.
The AI Hermeneutic Network
The central contribution of this paper is the AI hermeneutic
network model, enabled by theorizing intentional
systems as texts. The interdisciplinary framework analyzes
system intentionality as a result of a hermeneutic
communication process that involves both authors’ narrations
and users’ interpretations through interaction
with both actual systems and authors’ narrative output.
In addition, this paper recognizes that intentional systems
exist in broader social contexts that involve more
than just authors and users. Animate and inanimate actors,
called ‘actants’ in actor-network theory (Callon
1986; Latour 1996), participate in the network through
multi-directional communication. Government and military
funding, for instance, often plays a prominent role in
determining direction and validity of different approaches
of AI research.
Historically, hermeneutic studies developed interpretative
theories and methods in order to recover the meanings
of sacred texts intended by the (divine) author(s).
Modern hermeneutics, influenced by Schleiermacher,
recognizes that everything calls for the work of interpretation
and broadens itself to the philosophical interrogation
of interpretation (Virkler 1981). This paper
highlights discursive ‘elasticity’ of the AI key words,
such as planning (Agre 1997). He observes that these
key terminologies are simultaneously precise (formal)
and vague (vernacular), which allows AI practitioners
to seamlessly integrate their everyday experience as embodied
intentional being in the algorithmic research, and
to narrate computation with popularly accessible vernacular vocabulary.
One relatively unexplored aspect of this continuous negotiation
of values and meanings between both human
and computational actors (Latour 1996) is users’ readings
and interpretations of intentionality from systems
that are clearly inanimate. For example, human coperformers
and their audiences’ interpretations of Voyager’s
behaviors as intentional are central to construe the
systems’ status as an independent performer in its own
right, as intended by its designer. Frank argues that ‘[i]
n the understanding of its readers the text … acquires a
meaning which exceeds the memory of its origin.’(Frank
1989) Any analysis of system intentionality then is not
adequate without considering participation of users and
audiences.
This paper emphasizes the discursive strategy and semantic
interpretation from a cognitive linguistics perspective.
Conceptual blending theory (Fauconnier 2001;
Fauconnier & Turner 2002; Turner 1996) offers a cognitive
foundation for understanding system intentionality
as actively (re)constructed by users via integrating concepts
of intentionality based on encounters with animate
agents, and conceptualization of algorithmic operation
of inanimate computer systems. Thus, users compress
the behavior of unfamiliar computational systems to human
scale by constructing conceptual blends of systems
with human-like intentionality, through semantic hooks
that facilitate such blends in the various discourses surrounding
the systems.
Conclusion: Design Implications of the AI
Hermeneutic Network
The novel framework of the hermeneutic network suggests
new design approaches for intentional systems in
digital humanities. Our current interactive narrative work
Memory, Reverie Machine generates stories in which the
main character varies dynamically along a scale between
a user-controlled avatar with low intentionality and an
autonomous non-player character with high intentionality.
By algorithmically controlling the semantic hooks
for interpreting system behavior as intentional in the narrative
discourse (Zhu & Harrell 2008), the authors turn
system intentionality into a scalable expressive dimension
in interactive storytelling (Harrell & Zhu 2009).
In conclusion, this paper proposes a new interdisciplinary
framework to analyze intentional systems as social
and cultural productions, as opposed to construing them
as the domain of purely technical practices. It underlines
authors’ narrative and users’ interpretative strategies, in a
socially situated network of meaning exchange. Finally,
through our own computational work we suggest new
design implications for intentional systems, such as the
scale of intentionality (Zhu & Harrell 2008) that potentially
can add new forms of expressivity to intentional
systems in digital humanities.
References
Agre, P. E. (1997). ‘Toward a Critical Technical Practice:
Lessons Learned in Trying to Reform AI’, in Social
Science, Technical Systems, and Cooperative Work:
Beyond the Great Divide, eds G. C. Bowker, S. L. Star,
W. Turner, L. Gasser & G. Bowker, Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, pp. 131-58.
Callon, M. (1986). ‘Some Elements of a Sociology of
Translation: Domestication of the Scallops and the Fishermen
of St Brieuc Bay’, in Power, Action and Belief: A
New Sociology of Knowledge, ed. J. Law, Routledge &
Kegan Paul, London.
Cohen, H. (2002). ‘A Self-Defining Game for One
Player: On the Nature of Creativity and the Possibility
of Creative Computer Programs’, Leonardo, vol. 35, no.
1, pp. 59-64.
Fauconnier, G. (2001). ‘Conceptual Blending and Analogy’,
in The Analogical Mind: Perspectives from Cognitive
Science, eds D. Gentner, K. J. Holyoak & B. N.
Kokino, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Frank, M. (1989). The Subject and the Text: Essays on
literary theory and philosophy, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
Harrell, D. F. (2006). Walking Blues Changes Undersea:
Imaginative Narrative in Interactive Poetry Generation
with the GRIOT System, paper presented to AAAI
2006 Workshop in Computational Aesthetics: Artificial
Intelligence Approaches to Happiness and Beauty, Boston,
MA, AAAI Press.
Hirsch, E. D. (1967). Validity in Interpretation Yale
University Press, New Haven and London.
Holquist, M. (1990). Dialogism: Bakhtin and His
World, 2 edn.
Latour, B. (1996). Aramis, or the Love of Technology,
Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Mateas, M. (2002). Interactive Drama, Art, and Artificial
Intelligence, Carnegie Mellon University.
Searle, J. (1983). Intentionality: An Essay in the Philosophy of Mind, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Turner, M. (1996). The Literary Mind: The Origins of
Thought and Language, Oxford UP, New York; Oxford.
Virkler, H. A. (1981). Hermeneutics: Principles and
Processes of Biblical Interpretation, Baker Book House,
Grand Rapids, MI.
Fauconnier, G. & Turner, M. (2002). The Way We
Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden
Complexities, Basic Books.
Harrell, D. F. & Zhu, J. (2009). Agency Play: Dimensions
of Agency for Interactive Narrative Design, paper
presented to to appear in the Proceeding of AAAI Spring
2009 Symposium on Interactive Narrative Technologies
II.
Mateas, M. & Stern, A. (2002). ‘A Behavior Language
for Story-Based Believable Agents’, IEEE Intelligent
Systems, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 39-47.
Pérez y Pérez, R. & Aliseda, A. (2006). The Role of
Abduction in Automatic Storytelling, paper presented to
Proceedings of the AAAI workshop in Computational
Aesthetics: AI Approaches to Beauty & Happiness, Boston,
MA, AAAI Press, pp. 53-60.
Zhu, J. & Harrell, D. F. (2008). Daydreaming with Intention:
Scalable Blending-Based Imagining and Agency
in Generative Interactive Narrative, paper presented to
AAAI 2008 Spring Symposium on Creative Intelligent
Systems, Stanford, CA, AAAI Press, pp. 156-62.","txt","2","",""
"1066","10","SEASR integrates with Zotero to Provide Analytical Environment for Mashing up Other Analytical Tools","2","This paper describes a development effort to link two
humanities cyberscholarship infrastructure projects
supported by The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. We
have created an extension to Zotero [1] that acts as a
bridge between the data stored by Zotero, and the suite
of analytic tools provided by SEASR [2]. This extension
provides users with the ability to apply a variety of data
analysis algorithms to their Zotero constructed collections,
and visualize the results directly in the browser.
This is accomplished by directly accessing the data model
provided by Zotero, and converting that data model
into RDF, which allows the ability to exploit the analytical
capabilities of SEASR.
The SEASR environment provides a framework to integrate
data, analytics, and tool constructs, so that data
from one component can be passed to another. One of the
unique capabilities of SEASR is the facility to provide a
tool for mashups. That is, the ability to allow users to
combine tools in efficient and effective ways. This paper
describes the coupling of two relevant environments for
humanist, Zotero and SEASR - Zotero’s data asset creation
with the analytical capabilities of SEASR. Through
the use of Zotero’s plugin environment, we can execute
the analysis capabilities of the SEASR environment.
The following sections provide a description of the two
major pieces of this effort—Zotero and SEASR. Also
provided is a description of the major functions performed
by the combination of the two. These include:
data gathering, data analytics, and data visualization. We
end with a summary of the integration of the two efforts
and a view to our future work.
1. Background
1.1 Zotero
Zotero was selected because of its popularity with scholars
to record, catalog and find resources collected from
the Internet. Zotero was developed at the Center for History
and New Media, George Mason University, and is
a tool aimed at facilitating a user’s research process by
providing mechanisms for collecting, managing, and citing
internet resources. Zotero functions as an extension
of the popular open-source browser, Firefox, which allows
it to provide its services in the same environment
where the research is usually performed. One of the key
features provided by Zotero is the ability to automatically
extract metadata from online resources as part of
the resource collection process, and store it conveniently
on the user’s computer, allowing for offline retrieval of
this data on demand. Zotero also provides advanced tagging
and searching functionality, allowing the user to organize,
find, and visualize the collected resources.
Zotero includes a powerful metadata editor, allowing the
user to make additions/corrections to the automatically
extracted information. Users can add new fields, attach
screenshots and documents, create notes, and even create
relationships between the various resources collected.
Overall, with such a vast and diverse amount of information,
a mechanism for finding patterns or interesting
relationship between these resources would go a step
further in helping researchers discover and extract more
information from their collections. Enter SEASR.
1.2 SEASR
(Software Environment for the
Advancement of Scholarly Research)
SEASR analytics enhances scholars’ use of digital materials
by helping them uncover hidden information and
connections, supporting the study of assets from small
patterns drawn from a single text or chunk of text to
broader entity categories and relations across a million
words or a million books. SEASR is designed to enable
digital humanities scholars to rapidly design, build, and share software applications that support research and
collaboration.
The SEASR team developed Meandre [3], which is the
machinery for assembling and executing data flows—
software applications consisting of software components
that process data (such as by accessing a data store,
transforming the data from that store and analyzing or
visualizing the transformed results).
SEASR is extensible allowing for new analytics to be
added, such as support for linguistic analysis for different
time periods or languages, to readjusting entire
steps in the work process so that researchers can validate
results from their queries. Components can be created
from other programming projects. The SEASR environment
is data driven and includes a workbench to orchestrate
the flow of data through the different components.
All SEASR analytics are enabled as web service calls.
SEASR also provides publishing capabilities for flows
and components, enabling users to assemble a repository
of components for reuse and sharing. This allows users
to leverage other research and development efforts by
querying and integrating component descriptions that
have been published previously at other shareable repository
locations.
2. Data Gathering
Zotero’s data model is very flexible, allowing the user
to add new fields, create notes, attach documents and
screenshots, and establish relationships between resources.
At a minimum, Zotero adds the following information
for each resource that is added: title of the
resource, originating URL, and the dates when the resource
was created, modified, and accessed. For many
major research and library sites Zotero can automatically
extract the full reference information, which includes authorship
data, abstracts, page references, locations, etc.
This provides a wealth of information that can then be
submitted for analysis to SEASR.
Once the data are converted into RDF (a process which
is transparent to the user), it can be sent for processing, at
user’s request, to any of a number of available data analysis
algorithms. When such a data processing request
is received, the extension establishes a communication
channel with the web service associated with the processing
flow, through which the RDF data are submitted.
After processing completes, the results are retrieved via
the same communication channel and displayed in a new
browser window. Depending on the complexity of the
type of processing requested, there may be a significant
delay until the results are retrieved.
Figure 1. Plugin for Zotero that requests SEASR analytics.
The extension provides a flexible mechanism through
which the user can specify which data processing flows
they want to have access to, by configuring a list of SEASR
servers where these flows are hosted. This way, the
user can include any number of Zotero-compatible data
processing flows hosted by 3rd party organizations.
3. Data Analytics
The SEASR team has been integrating a variety of tools
as well as developing our own analytics. Currently we
have integrated natural language processing tools (NLP)
and current research algorithms from our data mining
collaborators as well as transformation components to
allow for data movement between the different components.
We have enabled some very simple and straightforward
requests, like word counts, information regarding part of
speech, and entity extraction capabilities. We also have
additional machine learning approaches that can be leveraged,
like clustering, frequent pattern analysis, predictive
modeling, graph mining, and sequence analysis. We
have currently integrated D2K (Data to Knowledge) [4]
and T2K (Text to Knowledge) analysis, OpenNLP [5],
and GATE (General Architecture for Text Engineering)
[6]. This means that from your Zotero collection, you
can ask for a social network analysis based on authors
and other metadata. You can ask for a tag cloud of all
your notes. You can ask for a tag cloud of a particular
work or collection. You can cluster the documents from
your collection. You can track a character or set of terms
throughout a book or collection. You can look at extracted
entities like locations on a Google map [7]. You
can look at extracted entities like date on a timeline like
Simile [8]. You can build a social network of the people
mentioned in your collection.
4. Data Visualization
As with the data analysis, a number of visualization tools
exist, so we have been working to integrate with these
tools rather than redeveloping. We have incorporated
visualizations from D2K as applets such as frequent pattern analysis as well as several of the predictive modeling
visualizations. We have also leveraged code to create
a tag cloud [9]. We are providing link-node charts and
stacked bar charts via flare [10]. The collage of example
visualizations below is meant to provide an idea of the
visual metaphors being used.
5. Future Work
We continue developing analysis and visualization capabilities
that can be leveraged by Zotero. As part of our
Pathways to SEASR Workshops, we are demonstrating
this tool integration and are establishing collaborations
with workshop teams. These teams are exploring specific
use cases to demonstrate scholarly research that can
be easily added to this plugin environment. We are looking
to improve the interaction between the plugin and the
SEASR framework and its ability to provide users with
visual interfaces for customizing the execution of flows.
Figure 2. Collage of visual metaphors available with
SEASR analytics.
6. Summary
In summary, we have created a tool that facilitates the
communication of Zotero collections data with SEASR
for further study and research. We have linked SEASR,
a strong and flexible tool that can add research capabilities
to these text assets. SEASR allows for the use of
its existing analysis and visualization tools, and more,
it allows for the integration of other tools through a
mashup process. The result of this effort is a synergy—a
strengthening of both Zotero and SEASR—as useable
tools for cyberscholarship.
7. Acknowledgement
The SEASR project is funded by The Andrew W. Mellon
Foundation.
8. References
1. Zotero, http://www.zotero.org
2. SEASR, http://seasr.org
3. Llorà, Ács B, Auvil LS, Capitanu B, Welge ME,
Goldberg DE (2008) Meandre: Semantic-Driven Data-
Intensive Flows in the Clouds, in Proceedings of IEEE
Fourth International Conference on eScience, 238-245,
IEEE Press.
4. D2K, http://alg.ncsa.uiuc.edu/do/tools/d2k
5. OpenNLP, http://opennlp.sourceforge.net/
6. H. Cunningham, D. Maynard, K. Bontcheva, V.
Tablan. GATE: A Framework and Graphical Development
Environment for Robust NLP Tools and Applications.
Proceedings of the 40th Anniversary Meeting of
the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL’02).
Philadelphia, July 2002.
7. Google Maps API, shttp://code.google.com/apis/
maps/
8. Simile Timeline, http://www.simile-widgets.org/timeline/
9. Tag Cloud, http://emumarketing.uoregon.edu/
paul/2008/09/28/the-new-tag-cloud/
10. Flare, http://flare.prefuse.org/","txt","2","",""
"1067","10","Automatic Standardization of Spelling for Historical Text Mining","2","Introduction The use of textual data in humanities research is significantly
aided by automated techniques such as
key word analysis, collocations and corpus annotation
(e.g. part-of-speech). If a text corpus contains a large
amount of spelling variation, there is a considerable
impact on the accuracy of these automatic techniques.
For example, studies in respect to Early Modern English
(EModE) corpora - the focus of the study detailed in this
paper - have documented the adverse effects of spelling
variation on key word analysis (Baron et al., 2009), partof-
speech tagging (Rayson et al., 2007) and semantic
analysis (Archer et al., 2003).
The problem of spelling variation in corpora needs to
be addressed in order for more accurate and meaningful
results to be achieved in fields where historical source
texts are required. Researchers can side-step the issue
by using modernized versions of corpora, of course, but
these are not always available. Another potential solution
is to manually standardize the spellings; this includes
reading through texts, spotting any non-standard
spellings and deciding upon a modern equivalent, resulting
in the production of a new version of the text with
spelling variants replaced. However, a manual standardizing
approach is likely to be unworkable when working
with some of the larger corpora or online databases that
are now available.
This paper details the current version of the VARiant Detector
(VARD 2) tool, which can be used in various ways
to standardize spelling variation in corpora. In particular,
the tool can be used to (partially) standardize spellings
automatically, with no restriction on the number of
words to be processed. Here, we focus on the ways in
which the tool can be trained from manually standardized
corpora samples, particularly the letter replacement
component of the tool, and evaluate the improvement
that this makes to the performance of VARD 2.
Early Modern English Spelling Variation
The EModE period is of particular interest in historical
text mining studies; book production increased sharply
during the period, largely due to the introduction of the
printing press (1476) and increasing literacy levels (Görlach,
1991: 6). As such, the EModE period is the earliest
period of the English Language from which a reasonably
large corpus can be constructed and studied in detail.
Spelling variation was a major feature of EModE texts,
the extent of which we have recently quantified in Baron
et al. (2009). It is common to find words spelt in a number
of different forms in the same text or even on the
same page. This was not seen as problematic, however,
as there was no notion of the importance for a single
spelling for each word; for example, letters would be
added or removed to ease line justification. Table 1 below
shows some typical spelling variants found in EModE
texts, whilst Vallins and Scragg (1965) and Culpeper
and Archer (forthcoming) describe the spelling variation
trends in more detail. We have shown the effect of this spelling variation on
textual analysis techniques in previous and forthcoming
papers: key word analysis (Baron et al, 2009), part-ofspeech
tagging (Rayson et al., 2007) and semantic tagging
(Archer et al., 2003). All of the studies showed that
spelling variation causes considerable problems to the
accuracy and meaningfulness of results, and that dealing
with spelling variation (even partially) can achieve
substantial improvements in annotation accuracy.1 The
production of standardized or modernized versions of historical corpora therefore allows for more accurate automated text mining techniques to be applied to the
corpora.2
VARD 2 and DICER
Our solution to the spelling variation problem described
in the previous section has been the development of the
VARD 2 tool,3 a piece of software designed to assist researchers
in standardizing historical corpora (specifically
EModE texts) both manually and automatically. VARD
2 uses a manually created list of variant – replacements
mappings as well as employing methods from modern
spell checking software; such as phonetic matching, letter
replacement heuristics and Edit Distance. An earlier
version of the VARD 2 software is described in more
detail and evaluated in Rayson et al (2008). The current
version can cater for user-created letter replacement
rules, which will be used by the tool to find potential
variant replacements. In addition, XML provision has
been improved, processing speed increased, and a new
word reference list4 added. Screenshots of the latest version,
VARD 2.2, are shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2.
Fig. 1 Screenshot of VARD 2.2 showing the interactive
mode which allows the user to manually standardize texts
and train the tool on samples of a corpus
One way in which VARD 2 can be used is to automatically
standardize the spelling variation in an entire corpus.
For EModE texts, this can be done immediately, with
no training. However, for better results and to use the
tool with other varieties of English, the user can train the
software on a particular corpus by using the interactive
version to manually process samples from the corpus.
The tool will improve its ability to deal with a corpus
based on decisions made by the user in the interactive
version. It does this by learning which of its methods are
most successful in finding the correct replacement for
variants and adjusting its method weights accordingly
(these are used when ranking potential replacements).
The tool will also edit its dictionary and its list of specific
variant replacements based on changes made by the user.
A new development to allow for further training of
VARD 2 on a corpus is a tool named DICER (Discover
and Investigation of Character Edit Rules). DICER can
search XML output from VARD 2 for variant – replacement
mappings or be provided with a list of such mappings.
Each mapping is analyzed and a set of character
edit rules are produced which can transform the spelling
variant into its modern equivalent. The details of
these character edit rules are then collated into a database,
which can be viewed through a set of web pages.5
The main table produced by the analysis, shown in Fig.
3, displays details of the individual character edit rules
along with various frequencies. By clicking on individual
rules, further information is available such as which
characters typically occur before and after the rule occurs;
this is shown for the rule ‘Delete e’ in Fig. 4. Any
frequency in the tables can be clicked to view a list of occurrences
producing that frequency. The data produced
in the DICER analysis is vast and thus cannot be detailed
in full here. By using DICER to analyze manually standardized samples
of a corpus, a list of common character edit rules can
be viewed. These character edit rules can then be added
to VARD 2 and the tool will be better equipped to make
judgments on the correct replacement for variants found
whilst automatically standardizing the corpus.
In order to test VARD 2 and DICER’s training ability
a 5,000-word sample of Shakespeare’s First Folio6 was
manually standardized in the interactive-mode of VARD
2 as training data, the entire corpus was then automatically
standardized. Using this small amount of training
data (6% of the entire corpus) increased the proportion
of spelling variants replaced7 from 70.33% to 73.75%.
The automatic standardization (after training) resulted
in 10,601 unique variant replacements. 70.35% of these
replacements could be achieved through VARD 2’s original
set of character edit rules alone. DICER analysis
was then produced on the manually standardized Shakespeare
sample; this is shown in Fig. 3. VARD 2’s rule list
was augmented with additional rules from the DICER
analysis: any rule occurring 10 or more times was added,
if not already present. Using this new rule list 77.66% of
the 10,601 unique replacements could now be found, an
increase of 7.31%.
The results are extremely promising, and increasing the
size of the manually standardized sample should improve
these figures even further. DICER can also be used
to provide probabilities dictating how likely a character
edit rule should be applied in a certain position with
specified surrounding characters. Modifying VARD to
use these probabilities could see even greater improvements
in performance.
Calculating the precision of VARD 2’s methods is difficult
without a manually checked standardized corpus
of decent size. We have recently acquired such a corpus
and present the results of using this corpus to train and
evaluate VARD 2’s methods in Baron and Rayson (forthcoming).
Conclusion
This paper has described the problems that variant
spellings cause for historical text mining, particularly
for automated methods in historical corpus linguistics,
such as part-of-speech tagging and key words analysis.
In previous and forthcoming work, we have quantified
the errors or differences that result from the application
of untrained tools and techniques on historical data that
has not been standardized. Our proposed solution is the
VARD tool, which offers the potential to standardize
spelling in historical texts automatically and with high
accuracy. We have described recent improvements to
VARD 2, such as the inclusion of a much larger modern
dictionary that enables better detection of historical variants
and matching with modern forms.
VARD 2 has been developed to deal with spelling variation
in EModE texts; the tool can be used with its default
settings to achieve partial standardization automatically.
However, with some training, we have shown that
VARD 2’s performance is enhanced. Further training
could allow the tool to be used with other varieties of
non-standard English (e.g. SMS corpora and weblogs).
In the future, we will evaluate the extent to which variation
that can only be detected contextually (e.g. ‘then’
for ‘than’ and ‘bee’ instead of ‘be’) contributes to the
problem. Dealing with this problem requires more advanced
techniques, e.g. POS tagging, to be used in the
detection phase.
Notes
1Of course, spelling variants themselves are important
linguistic features and thus worthy of study: as such,
although our focus relates to how we might deal with
spelling variation within historical data as a means of
enabling the (more) effective use of automated analytical
techniques, we advocate that any solution to this problem
should always retain the original spelling. VARD 2
does so using an xml tag to note a replacement with the
original spelling stored as an attribute of the tag.
2It should be noted that the accuracy of annotation is
likely to be affected by additional factors, including
differences in the grammar of the EmodE period when
compared to present-day English (see Kytö and Voutilainen,
1995) and the possibility of a semantic shift in
words from EModE to present-day English (see, for example,
Knapp, 2000). 3The tool is available to download online, with a user
guide also provided. The software is free to use for
academic purposes from http://www.comp.lancs.
ac.uk/~barona/vard2/
4Derived from the Spell Checking Oriented Word List
(SCOWL). See http://wordlist.sourceforge.net/scowlreadme
5Available at http://juilland.comp.lancs.ac.uk/dicer/
6Available from the Oxford Text Archive: http://ota.
ahds.ac.uk
7Variants here are words which VARD 2 deems to be
variants, i.e. words which are not in its modern lexicon.
It should be noted that words will be incorrectly marked
as variants (particularly proper names) and some variants
will be incorrectly marked as modern words (particularly
read-word errors, such as ‘bee’ for ‘be’ and ‘doe’
for ‘do’).
References
Archer, D., McEnery, T., Rayson, P. and Hardie, A.
(2003). Developing an automated semantic analysis system
for Early Modern English. In Archer, D, Rayson, P.,
Wilson, A. and McEnery, T. (eds), Proceedings of the
Corpus Linguistics 2003 conference. UCREL technical
paper number 16. UCREL, Lancaster University, pp. 22
- 31.
Baron, A. and Rayson, P. (forthcoming). Automatic
standardization of texts with spelling variation, how
much training data do you need? To appear in Corpus
Linguistics 2009.
Baron, A., Rayson, P. and Archer, D. (2009). Word frequency
and key word statistics in historical corpus linguistics.
In Ahrens, R. and Antor, H. (eds.) Anglistik. International
Journal of English Studies, 20 (1), pp. 41-67.
Culpeper, J. and Archer, D. (forthcoming). The History
of English Spelling. In Culpeper, J., Katamba, F.,
Kerswill, P., Wodak, R. and McEnery, T. (eds), English
Language and Linguistics. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke,
UK.
Görlach, M. (1991). Introduction to Early Modern English,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Knapp, P. A. (2000). Time-Bound Words: Semantic and
Social Economies from Chaucer’s England to Shakespeare’s.
Anthony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire,
UK.
Kytö, M. and Voutilainen, A. (1995). Applying the
Constraint Grammar Parser of English to the Helsinki
Corpus. ICAME Journal 19, pp. 23-48.
Rayson, P., Archer, D., Baron, A., Culpeper, J. and
Smith, N. (2007). Tagging the Bard: Evaluating the accuracy
of a modern POS tagger on Early Modern English
corpora. In proceedings of Corpus Linguistics 2007,
July 27-30, University of Birmingham, UK.
Rayson, P., Archer, D., Baron, A. and Smith, N.
(2008). Travelling Through Time with Corpus Annotation
Software. In Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B. (ed)
Corpus Linguistics, Computer Tools, and Applications
– State of the Art. Palc 2007. Peter Lang, Frankfurt am
Main.
Vallins, G. H., and Scragg, D. G. (1965). Spelling. André
Deutsch.","txt","2","",""
"1068","10","Generalizing the International Children's Digital Library","2","The International Children’s Digital Library is a
website of exemplary free children’s books from
around the world (www.childrenslibrary.org). Since
we launched the website in 2002, we have recently embarked
on an effort to generalize what we have learned,
creating a version (to be made open source when it is
finalized) that is suitable for more general content and
a more traditional adult audience. We also have been
exploring mobile deployment – providing access to the
ICDL’s picture books with an interface that displays
readable text in context on Apple’s iPhone. Together,
these efforts demonstrate how we can learn from one
successful project to expand into other areas of content
and platform, and in this paper we attempt to summarize
the core lessons learned that can be applied elsewhere.
Introduction
The International Children’s Digital Library (ICDL) is
an established electronic archive, providing children and
their adults easy access to thousands of children’s books
in almost 50 languages which can be read online for free.
Over the six years since we deployed the ICDL, we have
learned a lot about what it takes to make a usable digital
library (Bederson 2008). Motivated by a need of the
Boston Public Library and the Knowledge Commons
(formerly the Open Content Alliance) to offer a highly
usable range of interfaces for the millions of books they
are scanning, and by the recognition that people are accessing
more and more books on mobile devices, we decided
to start branching out, and applying those lessons
to other content domains, audiences, and platforms.
Content
The books in the ICDL are all digitized versions of traditionally
printed paper books which are selected for children
ages 3-13. Almost half are picture books. Due to the
narrow range of content, we have been able to manually
catalog the books in the library with a fixed ontology of
just under 300 categories in a hierarchical structure (i.e.,
Appearance->Format->Picture Books). We use a combination
of traditional categories (such as “Short Story”)
and more customized categories that we developed in the
course of working with children (such as “Book cover
color” and whether the books are “Happy” or “Sad”).
In order to design the ICDL interface to support a broader
set of content, we had to rethink how we categorized
the books and presented those categories. A few hundred
categories do not offer a fine enough distinction for
millions of books (Baker 1996). In fact, the standard
MARC records of the Library of Congress use many
thousands of categories. The traditional solution is remove
the focus on categories, and to make textual search
the primary mechanism for searching for books in large
collections. However, this gives up the power of categorization,
especially when the person has some particular
attributes they want to specify, or if, for example, a
teacher wants to specify a set of categories that might be
useful for their students to use for more focused searching.
Another scaling problem with our original design is
that we used manually created icons for each category.
This was a lot of work for a few hundred categories, but
impossible when there are many more.
We came up with a new solution (Figure 1) that lets the
user choose which categories are displayed in the primary
search window and integrates keyword search, the
search results, and a preview of the book. A tightly coupled
advanced search (not shown) adds several features,
including a more hierarchical display of categories,
counts of how many books are in each category, explicit
search fields for title & author, and more. Audience
Our aim of supporting adult users and not just children
also gave us some flexibility in designing this prototype.
Our research with children has led us to understand the
importance of using large objects to click on the screen,
fewer abstractions in the interface and a generally simpler
visual display (Hutchinson 2003). The interface we
created thus correspondingly uses more text, smaller hit
targets, and a visually denser display.
Platforms
In the same spirit of trying to make books available to
more people, we designed a version of ICDL for the Apple
iPhone platform. This platform is unusual because
while small, it has a relatively high resolution display
and powerful graphics that enable smooth animated transitions.
We built an application that gives offline access
to four picture books. It uses the “ClearText” technology
that ICDL developed for making text legible on small
displays (Quinn et al. 2008) and smooth animated transitions
that make it easier to understand where you are in
the interface and book as the reader navigates a complex
information space on a very small display.
Concluding Thoughts
As the trends of increasing technological capabilities
and broad increases in access continue to occur, we must
refine and innovate the way we deliver access to books.
It is crucial that people have an unfettered ability to find
what they are looking for, and to deeply engage with the
content of books once they have found it. The efforts described
here show two approaches to achieving this goal.
The lessons from the web interface include the importance
of building an all-in-one interface with varying
levels of search complexity along with search results
and book previews all integrated into a single screen. A
related lesson is that you can’t ignore issues of scale in
your design, and that one important approach is to couple
a very good and simple initial experience with the
possibility of significant end-user customization.
The lessons from the iPhone interface are that you must
re-think what you are offering for this tiny and mobile
package. You cannot and should not do everything that
you offer on your full website. It was a tough call for
us, but we completely eliminated search! The other issue
is that while difficult, you must balance engagement
and usability. We tried to use interesting animations to
keep the experience playful while not getting in the way
of reading – and we also spent a lot of time creating an
interface that supports the core mission of the application
– which is clear and legible text for easy reading. As
the application is just being released now, time will tell
whether we were successful with these goals.
References
Baker, S. (1996). “A Decade’s Worth of Research on
Browsing Fiction Collections.”
In Kenneth Shearer (Ed), Guiding the reader to the next book. New York, NY: Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc.
45-72.
Bederson, B.B. (2008) “Experience the International
Children’s Digital Library”, Interactions Magazine,
ACM Press, 50-54.
Hutchinson, Hillary Brown (2003). Children’s Interface
Design for Hierarchical Search and Browse. In proceedings
of ACM SIGCAPH Computers and the Physically
Handicapped. 75: 11-12
Quinn, A., Hu, C., Arisaka, T., & Bederson, B.B.
(2008) Readability of Scanned Books in Digital Libraries,
in proceedings of ACM CHI (CHI 2008), ACM
Press, 705-714.","txt","2","",""
"1069","10","Snake's Nest: Untangling the Relationships between Classic Maya States","2","The political organisation of the Classic Maya world
has generated almost as much conflict and contention
among scholars as it did amongst the ancient Maya
themselves. As Prudence Rice [2004] has amply demonstrated,
prevailing theories have swung from a homogeneous
empire to a fractious patchwork of independent
statelets existing in precarious balance and most conceivable
organisational models between. This article
discusses the the problems in trying to untangle the complex
inter-state relations of the Classic period and the development
of a software tool to support further research
in this area.
The ancient Maya have a complex historiographical
relationship with the modern world. Without wheeled
transport or metal tools they developed an intricate and
sophisticated culture that after its disintegration around
900AD vanished almost completely back into the forests:
until the middle of the nineteenth century hardly anyone
in the western world knew much more than the wild tales
of shining cities buried in the jungle and the search for
El Dorado. The ancient Maya came to popular attention
at the height of the age of reason, as archaeology was
evolving from an aristocratic pastime into a science. In
an age that equated civilisation with literacy, the Classic
Maya were all but mute. Early explorers were sure their
monuments recorded written information but the script
remained largely undeciphered. An understanding of the
calendrical system allowed early historians to develop a
broad chronology but in the absence of any meaningful
testimony from the Maya themselves, imagination was
employed to fill the blanks.
Many of these gaps were filled by forcing the Maya to
conform to the social and political templates provided
by better understood ancient cultures, with limited success.
The emphasis on dates in the epigraphic record fuelled
an optimistically utopian vision of a pacifist people
living in splendid isolation under the rule of benevolent
astronomer priests obsessed with the cycles of time. Its
most famous advocate Eric Thompson [Drew 1999] acknowledged
evidence of conflict but dismissed it as little
more than minor border disputes or contested inheritancevents might have been recorded for rarity value.
Breakthroughs in decipherment made the utopian ideal
increasingly untenable. The emerging epigraphic record
presented a tangled, often bloody history of warrior rulers,
holy lords recording their achievements in birth, alliance,
conquest and death in a medium designed to awe
their subjects and cow their enemies. Recent research
[Martin & Grube 2000] has identified glyphs for hierarchical
relationships amongst rulers suggesting a web
of coalition and patronage, covering vast distances, that
may represent anything from an ephemeral expression
of dominance to a long-term relationship such as that attested
to between Tikal and Palenque.
The richest and most widely reproduced diagrammatic
representation of this political structure comes from
Simon Martin [Martin & Grube 2000, p21]. It demonstrates
that, for much of the Classic period, the rivalry
between the polities of Calakmul and Tikal formed the
nexus around which the wider political system revolved.
Known in Classical times as Kaan – the Snake Kingdom
– Calakmul was a giant by the standards of the ancient
world, boasting an urban population estimated by
population density analysis to be around 90,000 with a
suburban rural population of over 2.5 million under its
immediate authority [Braswell et al in Demarest, Rice &
Rice 2004]. It is the most frequently referenced site on
monuments throughout the region and has been labelled
a ‘super state’ or, rather more emotively, a superpower
[Coe 1967; Martin & Grube 2000 inter alia]. Unlike other
powerful states such as Tikal and Palenque, the quality
of local stone at Calakmul has meant that many inscriptions
are now fragmentary or illegible: the majority of
what is known about Calakmul’s political machinations
comes from other sites. The prevailing impression, coloured
perhaps by Western conceptions of the snake’s
character, is of an acquisitive and aggressive evil empire,
overcome by the dogged resistance of Tikal and her
allies.
There is no doubting this interpretation could be accurate:
epigraphic evidence and the Martin diagram clearly
show Calakmul was politically and militarily active
throughout the Maya world. The Martin diagram may,
however, be contributing to an impression of continuous
interference over the entire span of the Classic period
that cannot be supported by the fluid nature of political
relations in the Maya world demonstrated elsewhere. In
a social system where power and prestige are directly influenced
by the strength and even charisma of the ruling
lord, many inter-state relationships would come and go
in a handful of years.
The strength of the Martin diagram is its ability to summarise
a wealth of detail about the relationships between
the largest Maya polities. In many ways, it resembles the
network map of the London Underground, with the same
advantages and attendant weaknesses. While it distinguishes
types of association, for example conflict from
diplomacy, and gives some indication of the frequency of
those links, it is unable to demonstrate their duration or
the evidence. A conflict link, for example, may represent
a single act of aggression like a religiously sanctioned
Star War or sporadic low-intensity warfare over an extended
period. In cases such as the relationship between
Calakmul and Yaxchilan which shows both conflict and
marriage alliance, it is impossible to distinguish which
came first or indeed whether they were related at all: the
marriage attested to between Bird Jaguar of Yaxchilan
and Lady Evening Star of Calakmul [Drew 1999] could
have been arranged to cement peace or the two events
could be generations apart.
The very short period between 680 and 685 AD provides
a good example of the complexity the Martin diagram
is poorly equipped to show. Those five years saw a dramatic
shift in the fortunes of many of the major powers
across the Maya world: Calakmul, Palenque and Dos Pilas
all lost rulers who had been in power for over forty
years, notably long reigns even by modern standards;
in contrast Tikal and Naranjo were both emerging from
periods of weakness and internal division. Piecing together
the direct effects of these changes on individual
polities has proved difficult enough but recognising the
effects on the wider political landscape is almost impossible
with a diagrammatic model that cannot distinguish
change over time.
The aim of this research is to produce a new interaction
mapping tool capable of overcoming some of these
weaknesses in the Martin diagram. The Dynamite (Dynamic
Maya Information Tool) software is designed to produce a rich, updateable model of political interactions
that can be extended and customised to support the
needs of individual researchers. In its standard format,
it provides an enhanced version of the Martin diagram,
allowing users to filter the data on a range of different
criteria, including regionally and temporally. It can also
support more specialised filtering to show interactions
and source evidence by type: employing the full range of
filters it would be possible to examine nothing but Calakmul’s
military conquests for the period 580 to 620 AD,
derived solely from epigraphic sources.
Dynamite uses a model of loose data connectivity based
on XML structured data to provide maximum flexibility
and extensibility. Beyond compatible data typing, it
makes no assumptions about the relationship between
objects: all existing filters are provided through stored
queries. This allows researchers to be flexible and innovative
in how they use and expand the source data while
the XML format supports the easy sharing of results and
helps Dynamite move towards a structure of plug-andplay
data.
The suite of Dynamite support tools allows researchers
with even minimal computing experience to examine,
update and extend the stored data as well as create new
queries to run against that data. There are also shortcuts
for experienced developers providing more direct access.
It is hoped that the Dynamite software will contribute
positively to the next generation of research tools for
exploring the growing body of archaeological and epigraphic
data on the relationships between Maya polities
of the Classic period.
Bibliography
Aoyama, K [2005] Classic Maya Warfare and Weapons:
Spear, Dart and Arrow Points of Aguateca and Copan;
Ancient Mesoamerica 16
Boot, E [2002] The Life and Times of Balah Chan Kawil
of Mutal According to Dos Pilas Heiroglyphic Stairway
2; MesoWeb
Coe, M [1967] The Maya 7th Edition 2005; Thames and
Hudson
Coe, M [1992] Breaking the Maya Code 2nd Edition
1999; Thames and Hudson
Demarest, A, Rice & Rice (eds.) [2004] The Terminal
Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition and
Transformation; University Press of Colorado
Drew, D [1999] The Lost Chronicles of the Maya Kings;
Orion Books
Johnston, K [2001] Broken Fingers: Classic Maya
scribe capture and polity Consolidation; Antiquity Volume
75
Kistler, A [2004] The Search for Five-Flower Mountain:
Re-evaluating the Cancuen Panel; MesoWeb Online Articles
Martin, S [2005] Of Snakes and Bats: Shifting Identities
at Calakmul; PARI Online Publications
Martin, S and Grube, N [2000] Chronicle of the Maya
Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient
Maya Revised Edition 2008; Thames and Hudson
Rice, P [2004] Maya Political Science: Time, Astronomy
and Cosmos University of Texas Press
Stuart, D [2004] The Paw Stone: The Place Name of
Piedras Negras, Guatemala PARI Online Publications","txt","2","",""
"1070","10","Clustering the Short Stories of Edgar Allan Poe Using Word Groups and Formal Concept Analysis","2","The proposed poster will summarize recent work on
finding clusters of Edgar Allan Poe’s short stories.
These are defined by high rates of word usage for five
word collections, each of which is defined by a similar
meaning. For example, one of them focuses on death
and has terms such as corpse, dead and die. By choosing
word groups pertinent to the types of stories that Poe
wrote, the resulting clusters make more intuitive sense
than other clustering algorithms that are common in information
retrieval.
Humans enjoy dividing texts into similar clusters. For
example, the literary critic Daniel Hoffman discusses
Poe’s stories in thematic groups (Hoffman, 1990). For
instance, vendors such as Amazon.com create clusters
that consist of recommendations made to users, which
are based on past purchases. Consequently, there is
value in creating a clustering algorithm that can explain
how the grouped texts are similar in terms that a human
can appreciate.
Unfortunately, the most popular techniques in information
retrieval for computing text similarity produce
results that lack appeal to human sensibilities. For example,
the vector space model (Section 2.1 of Grossman
and Frieder, 2004) reduces a text to a table of (usually
weighted) word counts where each column represents a
text and each row represents a word. Each column can
be thought of as a vector, so the geometric idea of angles
between texts can be introduced, where smaller angles
correspond to higher similarity. This geometric point of
view is powerful because it is well understood by mathematicians,
and it already has been applied to studying
information. For example, this is the focus of the book
Geometry and Meaning (Widdows, 2002). However, the
dimensions of these vectors can be quite high (in the tens
of thousands), which makes the results hard to reconcile
with human intuition.
The technique used in this poster builds on the vector
space model as follows. Instead of including all the
words that Edgar Allan Poe uses in his short stories
(about 20,000 total), these are analyzed to find a few
clusters, each defined by a shared meaning, which are
built by using a thesaurus. Note that this removes function
words such as the, of, and, a and to, which primarily
serve grammatical roles and are less interesting to a human
reader. Five groups are used in this poster, which
are based on the following themes: death, body, spiritual,
horror, and family. For example, the top ten most
frequent death words in Poe are death, corpse, dead,
murder, died, die, deceased, dying, fatal, and deadly.
Anyone familiar with his short stories would not be surprised
by these word groups. For example, many of his
stories are about people who die (for instance, “Morella,”
“Eleonora,” and “The Oval Portrait”) or are killed
(for instance, “The Black Cat,” “The Murders in the Rue
Morgue,” and “The Tell-Tale Heart”).
Since word frequencies are a function of text length,
Poe’s story lengths must be taken into account. This can
be done with word rates, that is, the proportion of a word
in a text. Unfortunately, these can also depend on text
length (see discussion in Chapter 1 of Baayen, 2002), so
stories are grouped by length, which are then analyzed
separately. Three groups are used in this poster: 2000 to
3000, 3001 to 4200, and 4201 to 6000.
For each of these three ranges, matrices are constructed
where each row represents a word group, each column
represents a Poe short story, and the entries are word
group rates. Although the vector space model could be
used in this situation, the alternative method of formal
concepts is used because it is more interpretable. Formal
concept analysis (FCA) is a technique to create a
double lattice of concepts given a list of objects and another
one of attributes. It is a central tool in concept data
analysis (Carpineto and Romano, 2004) and is used to
organize information in a way more similar to humans.
For this application, the objects are Poe’s short stories,
and the attributes are a story having a word group rate
above the median.
A formal concept consists of a set of objects and a set
of attributes, where each object shares all the attributes,
and each attribute is shared by all the objects. This set
of objects is a cluster, which is describable by its shared
attributes. Applied to Poe’s short stories, each cluster
is determined by its use of the five word groups defined
above. Since a list of death words is both straightforward
to compute and is evocative for a human reader,
such story clusters have intuitive appeal. Moreover,
there are several algorithms published that efficiently
find all the formal concepts. For this project Ganter’s
algorithm is used (Ganter, 1984). Here is a specific example. There are thirteen Poe stories
that are between 2000 and 3000 words long. We use the
five attributes defined above, one for each word group.
A story has one of these if its word group rate is above
the median rate for all thirteen stories. For example,
the median death word rate is 1.22 words per thousand
(wpt). The six stories with higher rates have the attribute
death, the other seven do not. For body words, the median
is 5.44 wpt, so the six stories above this threshold
have the body attribute. The same computation is done
for the remaining three word groups.
Figure 1. Formal concept lattice for Edgar Allan Poe
stories with lengths between 2000 and 3000 words.
Formal concepts always form two lattices, called a Galois
lattice. One focuses on the stories, and the other focuses
on attributes. Both of these are ordered by subsets, and
these are related: as the number of attributes increases,
the number of objects decreases, and vice versa. In this
application, nineteen formal concepts are found, which
are given in Fig. 1. We consider one here, which consists
of the Poe stories “The Tell-Tale Heart,” “The Masque of
the Red Death,” and “Morella,” and the attributes death,
body, and horror. Although the plots of these stories differ,
there are similarities apparent to a human. First, all
three stories are about death. In “The Tell-Tale Heart”
the narrator tells how he kills his roommate. The red
death is a pestilence, and in “Morella” the narrator tells
of his wife’s obsession with death and rebirth. Second,
all three stories discuss the body. The first one features
an evil eye and a beating heart, while the red of the second
one refers to blood. Morella dies giving birth, and
her daughter grows to be just like her mother physically,
which is described in the story. Finally, it is no surprise
that stories about death that include bodily descriptions
would have many words related to horror.
The tools of FCA and Galois lattices used in this poster
are flexible. It is this author’s belief that additional applications
will be found, both for other literature and for
other types of texts.
References
Baayen, R. H. (2002). Word Frequency Distributions.
New York: Springer.
Carpineto, C. and Romano, G. (2004). Concept Data
Analysis: Theory and Applications. Chichester: Wiley.
Ganter, B. (1984). Two basic algorithms in concept
analysis. Technical Report FB4 – Preprint No. 831, TU
Darmstadt, Germany.
Grossman, D. A. and Frieder, O. (2004). Information
Retrieval: Algorithms and Heuristics, 2nd Edition. Dordrecht:
Springer.
Hoffman, D. (1990). Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe.
New York: Marlowe & Co.
Widdows, D. (2004). Geometry and Meaning. Palo
Alto: Center for the Study of Language and Information.","txt","2","",""
"1071","10","""Song(s) of Myself"": Flexing Leaves of Grass","2","In his monograph Radiant Textuality, Jerome Mc-
Gann reflects on the first decade of work on the Rossetti
Archive at the Institute for Advanced Technology
in the Humanities and regrets their “failure to consider
interface in a serious way….when we worked out the
archive’s original design, we deliberately chose to focus
on the logical structure and to set aside any thought
about the Interface for delivering the archive to its users.
We made this decision in order to avoid committing
ourselves to a delivery mechanism.”1 Accordingly, the
site’s design editor, Bethany Nowviskie, predicts that
the interface will “always have something of a tackedon
quality.”2 Such an outcome, Matthew Kirschenbaum
argues, is consistent with the standard workflow of Digital
Humanities projects: “Too often put together as the
final phase of a project under a tight deadline and an
even tighter budget, the interface becomes the first and
in most respects the exclusive experience of the project
for its end users.”3 This assessment suggests that future
editors and directors should consider making interface
design a preliminary stage in the process of constructing
electronic editions and archives.
In 2004, Professor John Rumrich and myself, then a
graduate student at the University of Texas at Austin
(UT-Austin), decided to reshuffle the priorities of the
Digital Humanities in two ways: by considering interface
design before text encoding and by privileging
pedagogical applications over scholarly ones. Noting
that most electronic editions and archives have either
deliberately or unreflectively adopted the standard windows-
based interface design of non-literary Web sites,
we resolved to make our digital classroom edition of
John Milton’s Paradise Lost (hereafter, PL) resemble a
book lying open on a table. This approach, we hoped,
would increase readability for students and appeal to
bibliophile instructors. But we refused to rely solely on
visual usability—we wanted to integrate an audio track
of the poem with our electronic text. To this end, we
recruited several colleagues at UT-Austin to make a recording
of one of the epic’s twelve books. From 2005
to 2007, with the support of a UT-Austin Liberal Arts
Instructional Technology Services (LAITS) grant, we
developed a prototype “audiotext,” which we demoed at
the 2007 Digital Humanities conference (DH07). In our
abstract, we offered the following rationale for the edition’s
synthesis of audio and text:
Whether students run through excerpts from PL in a sophomore
survey or pore over the entire epic in an upper-division
course, they famously find Milton’s poetry difficult
to follow. Instructors usually assume that this difficulty
owes to its unfamiliar ideas and Milton’s intimidating erudition—
and surely these are part of the problem. But we
have found that when students hear an instructor declaim
passages from PL as they follow along in their textbooks,
the thrust of the lines suddenly becomes plainer. Recent
research on multimedia learning indicates that distinct,
additive cognitive pathways mediate the aural and visual
reception of language (Mayer 2001). Reading and listening
to the same text demonstrably improves understanding
and recall.4
The prototype uses Adobe Flash technology to synchronize
the audio playback with a karaoke-style highlight
that moves over each line as it is spoken. Since the conference,
two more books have been added to the project
Web site at http://www.laits.utextas.edu/miltonpl. The
PL audiotexts are used by several instructors each semester
in a range of British literature courses at UT-Austin.
Student survey data and instructor comments have
been overwhelmingly positive.
In 2007, Professors Coleman Hutchison and Michael
Winship, Americanists intrigued by the interface concept,
applied for and received an LAITS grant to create
an audiotext of Walt Whitman’s “Song of Myself,”
arguably the best-known long-form poem in American
literature. The rationale they stated in their grant proposal
was not overcoming a syntactical barrier to comprehension
so much as countering the problem that
Whitman’s long, idiosyncratic lines and extensive use of
poetic catalogs can *look* like prose. Hearing as well
as seeing the text, Hutchison and Winship argued, should
help students gain an understanding of the aural register
of the poem and thereby become receptive to the concatenation
of Whitman’s aural and visual effects. The
editors also proposed that six different readers would
each voice the entire poem, whereas in the PL audiotexts
each character in the poem is voiced by a different
reader. The project would thus highlight an understudied
aspect of the poem: despite its title, “Song of Myself”
is a polyvocal poem, one in which distinct personae
and voices compete. Furthermore, by offering a menu
of six audio tracks from which a user can select at any
time, changing tracks without interruption, the new interface
would call attention to the subjective nature of
such vocalization factors as accent, pronunciation, and emphasis. This “remixability” addresses an issue raised
by otherwise enthusiastic listeners/observers at DH07
and elsewhere concerning the PL prototype. Although
Professor Rumrich and I considered our audio track to
be no more “accurate” a rendering of Milton’s lines than
the visual representations we included in the illustration
section, we overlooked the possibility that a single audio
recording would give the impression that we were claiming
to have realized Milton’s auditory intentions, just as
a single critically edited text strikes some textual critics
as more autocratic than an archive of versions.
Hutchison and Winship hired me, now a postdoctoral
fellow at Georgia Tech, as the project’s technical editor.
The project manager, Emily Cicchini, hired Scott Herrick,
a systems analyst for the Division of Instructional
Innovation and Assessment at UT-Austin, as lead developer.
Herrick had experience constructing a streaming
flash architecture for the Aswaat Arabiyya project (http://
www.laits.utexas.edu/aswaat/). In order to minimize the
time necessary to load six audio tracks, we decided to
stream the audio tracks from a Flash Server instead of
embedding the audio in the Flash movie, as had been
done in the PL prototype. Herrick and I were aware that
the choice of Flash as the core technology might prove a
liability for the project’s long term sustainability as well
as its adaptability to other contexts and purposes, but we
had developed a familiarity with the platform and were
not confident that we could achieve the desired animation
and synchronization effects using open-source alternatives.
Although the Flash Player is a free download,
it is proprietary to Adobe, whose standard Integrated
Development Environment (IDE) for Flash is a closed,
commercial product. Adobe released the specifications
for its playable Flash formats (SWF and FLV) in 2006, a
move that some believe was intended to discourage the
development of a free and open-source alternative while
increasing the number of third party applications capable
of generating SWF files.
Lately, Adobe has been promoting Flex Builder, an alternative
Flash IDE built on the open source Eclipse
platform yet itself proprietary. The new IDE resembles
a Java development suite and combines pre-built application
components with MXML, an XML-based markup
language, and ActionScript 3.0, an object-oriented
scripting language. Flex Builder is designed to appeal
to programmers and designers of Rich Internet Applications
who were never comfortable with the animation
and movie metaphors of the timeline-based standard
Flash IDE. Noting that Adobe is currently offering Flex
Builder for free to educators, Herrick suggested that we
build the “Song of Myself” audiotext in that environment.
To minimize the constraints of Flash, we separated
all of our content from the interface. The audio
tracks stream from the server as needed, while the text
is imported into the interface from a TEI (Text Encoding
Initiative) XML file at runtime. Suloni Robertson, an
LAITS graphic designer and artist, executed the background
image, which resembles an opened copy of the
original edition of Leaves of Grass, published in 1855.
The poem that would later be titled “Song of Myself”
opens this volume, and the beta of our audiotext version
is now available at http://www.laits.utexas.edu/leavesofgrass.
In addition to the audio controls, the application
includes a zoom function and an options panel with a
search engine and selection tools. In the next phase of
the project, we will add explanatory notes and an animated
page-turn effect. Ultimately, we plan to include a
full transcript, critical apparatus, and facsimile images of
the entire book. At that point, the audiotext will become
a full-fledged scholarly edition without compromising
its pedagogical utility or its innovative interface design.
The editors of the Walt Whitman Archive have generously
allowed us to use their transcript from a copy of
the 1855 edition (http://www.whitmanarchive.org/published/
LG/1855/whole.html) as the basis for our electronic
text. Professor Hutchison has had conversations
with these editors about adapting the audiotext concept
to create a more robust front-end option for the archive’s
resources. To this end, we are exploring the possibility
of using an open-source alternative to the Flex IDE to
create a set of audiotext templates that could be used by
other projects.
Notes
1Jerome McGann, Radiant Textuality: Literature after
the World Wide Web (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 141.
2Bethany Nowviskie, “Interfacing the Rossetti Hypermedia
Archive,” (paper, Humanities and Technology Association
Conference, Charlottesville, VA, October 2000),
http://www.iath.virginia.edu/~bpn2f/1866/dgrinterface.
html.
3 Matthew G. Kirschenbaum, “‘So the Colors Cover the
Wires’: Interface, Aesthetics, and Usability,” A Companion
to Digital Humanities, ed. Susan Schreibman, Ray
Siemens, John Unsworth (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004),
525.
4Olin R. Bjork and John P. Rumrich, “The Paradise Lost
Flash Audiotext” (poster, ACH/LCC Digital Humanities
conference, Champaign-Urbana, IL, June 2-8, 2007),
http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dh2007abstracts/xhtml.
xq?id=216.","txt","2","",""
"1072","10","Can Pliny be one of the muses? How Pliny could support scholarly writing","2","In Bradley 2008a the software Pliny (Pliny 2007) is
described as a tool to support traditional scholarship,
which, in turn, is assumed to be based on the reading
of primary and secondary texts and the eventual writing
of new secondary texts that describe an interpretation
that has emerged in the scholar’s mind as s/he worked
with his/her materials (p. 266). In that paper I described
mechanisms – there called affordances – that Pliny provides
to support personal annotation and the use of personal
annotation to support the development of an interpretation.
Fig. 1 (taken from my presentation at the DH2008 conference:
Bradley 2008b) shows, in a way somewhat different
from that shown in Bradley 2008a, where Pliny
is meant to fit in the three-stage processed described in
Bradley 2008a.
Fig. 1: Pliny and a scholar’s personal space
Perhaps this figure makes it more evident that Pliny fits
between two borders that separate public and personal
space: one that takes non-personal materials as inspiration
in (on the left) and a second one (on the right) that
puts personal materials out into the public domain again
in the form of a book or article. In past work on Pliny
I have focused primarily on the boundary on the left in
Fig. 1 and on how the computer might support the development
of a personal interpretation (in the middle). For
this poster I’d like to extend some thinking, and promote
some thinking by others, about the boundary between
the public and personal space that is shown on the right
– output from Pliny rather than input into it.
Section 6 of Bradley 2008a described the beginnings
of a kind of strategy for how to use Pliny’s interpretation
development affordances to support the writing of
a traditional presentation. It also touches on the way
that Pliny can export its formal model of the materials
it holds about an interpretation into a computer-ontological-
kind of format – currently Topic Maps (Biezunski et
al., 2002). There is certainly interesting further work to
do to explore the potential of the formal output of Pliny
materials to represent scholarly thinking in, say, XML,
but this is not the focus of this poster. Instead, I would
like to focus on strategies that could be built into Pliny to
assist its user in the transformation of materials that s/he
has put into Pliny into a traditional prose text.
The task of putting ones thoughts into the linear order of
a text that is understandable to others is quite evidently
a difficult one, and although a 2D Pliny-like representation
of the things one wishes to discuss is helpful, it
seems, by providing a holistic personal overview of your
materials that could be used to guide writing, the task
of taking this overview and transforming it into prose
is still difficult. There seem to be two issues: one is
captured by the seeming difficulty of fully representing a
2D hierarchical Pliny reference space as a 1D (temporal)
hierarchical object that is, superficially at least, the basis
of scholarly writing. The second relates to what happens
to personal materials such as the kind of notes one
makes in Pliny – insights perhaps – when they become
public objects. Catherine Marshall (Marshall 1998, pp.
40-42, and again in Marshall and Brush 2004) categories
personal annotation, for example, as different from public
annotation – more informal, more terse, likely often
even enigmatic to the outside reader – and it is in this
difference that perhaps the challenge of transforming a
collection of these things into prose meant to be read by
others also resides.
There is, of course, a substantial amount of work that
theorises about the act of writing and reading. I confess
that I am not in a position to fully take all of this in,
although among my readings in this area I have found
the work of George Landow (see, for example, Landow
1997), to be as close as anything else I have read that
tries to blend theoretical and practical in ways that provide
useful pragmatic clues about the process. My aim
with Pliny is primarily practical rather than theoretical,
although I would wish, where possible, to do work here
that would be informed by whatever practical insights
can be drawn from the theorising that has been done
about scholarly writing. An alternate, and definitely
more practical stream of thinking comes from computer
science in the work of Marshall, Frank Shipman and others
on software like VIKI and VITE and with social sciences theorists in their thinking about tools to support
qualitative analysis (see Shipman et al 1995, and Hsieh
and Shipman 2000 for a computer science perspective
and Pandit 1996 for an overview of that from the social
sciences). In between, perhaps, is the work of Linda
Flower, who in Flower 1988 recognises the rhetorical element
in the act of transforming ideas into prose. Much
of Flower’s article is based around the transformation of
what she calls the “writer’s web of purpose” (pg 532-
534): a verbal image that seems compatible to the graphoriented
model for ideas that Pliny supports.
Work in Pliny so far in this area has been influenced
mostly by some of Marshall and Shipman’s work and
has centered on recognising the challenges inherent in
taking a 2-D Pliny representation of an interpretation
and expressing it satisfactorily in the seeming essentially
1-D temporal context of scholarly writing. The Pliny
user can, of course, create an object specifically to represent
a piece s/he is writing, assemble issues of interest
and play around with them to find a set of relationships
between them that work best, and then use the resulting
2-D space to think about a 1-D ordering that will guide
her/his writing. Pliny can currently look for and exploit
in a rudimentary way such visual structures that the user
has created to guess how the space might be best mapped
into one dimension, and work is now underway to enhance
Pliny’s ability in this area through applying some
of the facilities described in writings about VIKI. Some
work has been done as well to assist the user in managing
the mix of public and private objects in his/her Pliny
connection so that ones aimed at the public are exported
to be taken up in the writing of an article.
The questions to be asked, then, are (a) what are the intellectual
challenges to taking a holistic 2D model of an
interpretation of the kind one can build in Pliny and turning
it into a text, and can Pliny assist this in ways better
than it does now, and (b) what issues arise in the transformation
of private materials such as one accumulated
in Pliny into a public text, and can Pliny help there more
than it does now. I’d be delighted to hear ideas from
conference attendees.
References
Biezunski, M., Newcomb, S., and Pepper, S. (ed.)
(2002). ISO/IEC 13250 Topic Maps (2nd edn). International
Organization for Standardization. Online at
http://www.1.y12.doe.gov/capabilities/sgml/sc34/document/
0322_files/iso13250-2nd-ed-v2.pdf (accessed 7
Novemberr 2008).
Bradley, John (2008a). Thinking about Interpretation:
Pliny and Scholarship in the Humanities. In Literary and
Linguistic Computing Vol. 23 No, 3, 2008, pp. 263-79.
doi: 10.1093/llc/fqn021. Online at http://llc.oxfordjournals.
org/cgi/reprint/fqn021?ijkey=3UzJDubDB0FRQcR
&keytype=ref . (accessed 7 November 2008).
Bradley, John (2008b), “Playing together: modular
tools and Pliny”. Peer reviewed paper given in the Digital
Humanities 2008 conference, University of Oulu,
Oulu, Finland, 28 June 2008. A draft version of this is
online at http://pliny.cch.kcl.ac.uk/docs/oulu-paper.html.
Accessed 7 November 2008.
Flower, Linda (1988). “The Construction of Purpose in
Writing and Reading”. In College English, Vol. 50. No.
5 9Sept. 1988). pp. 528-550.
Hsieh, Hao-wei and Frank M. Shipman III (2000).
“Vite: A Visual Interface Supporting the Direct Manipulation
of Structured Data Using Two-Way Mappings”.
In Procedings of the IUI Conference, New Orleans. pp.
141-48.
Landow, George P. (1997). Hypertext 2.0: Being a Revised,
Expanded Edition of Hypertext: the Convergence
of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology. Baltimore,
MD: John Hopkins University Press.
Marshall, Catherine C. (1998). “Towards an ecology
of hypertext annotation”. In Proceedings of HyperText
98. New York: ACM. pp. 40-9.
Marshall, Catherine C. and A.J. Bernheim Brush.
(2005). “Exploring the Relationship between Personal
and Public Annotations”. In Proceedings for the JCDL
’04 conference. New York: ACM.
Pandit, Naresh R. (1996). “The Creation of Theory: A
Recent Application of the Grounded Theory Method”.
In The Qualitative Report, Volume 2, Number 4, December,
1996. Online at http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/
QR2-4/pandit.html.
Pliny 2007. Pliny project homepage. Online at http://
pliny.cch.kcl.ac.uk/index.html
Shipman, Frank M., Catherine C. Marshall, and
Thomas P. Moran (1995). “Finding and Using Implicit
Structure in Human-Organized Spatial Layouts of Information”.
In Proceedings of CHI 95, Denver, Colorado,
May 7- 11, 1995, pp. 346-353","txt","2","",""
"1073","10","The Harvester of Iconclass Metadata: a web service for subject classification and subject retrieval in cultural heritage information systems","2","Summary The importance of controlled vocabularies for the
cataloguing of literary and visual sources by museums,
libraries, and archives can hardly be exaggerated.
Important organizations like the Library of Congress,
the Getty Foundation, and OCLC have been promoting
standardization by making thesauri and classification
systems available online. However, complying to such
a standard often means transferring descriptors from the
online vocabulary system to another application, thereby
isolating them from their context. While this is annoying
during the production phase, it is fatal at retrieval time,
because an end user should have access to the context
of a descriptor while querying a catalogue. This poster
demonstrates a web service for Iconclass, a multilingual
subject classification
system for cultural content that is
used from Finland to Italy and from Germany to the US,
which solves this problem. The service makes the Iconclass
system available as an ‘add on’ to database
management
systems and online electronic catalogues. The
Iconclass metadata harvester uses OAI-PMH to gather
Iconclass codes, supporting special retrieval browsers
within local websites, while creating a single access
point for thematic searches across multiple online databases.
1 The authority paradox
When using an online classification, a thesaurus or some
other form of controlled vocabulary for cataloguing, we
are sooner or later confronted by what could be labelled
the authority paradox. The core of this paradox is that
using a terminology authority in essence means selecting
specific terms from the authority system and copying
them to records of a local catalogue. However, the
instruments
that are available to cataloguers to select the
most appropriate descriptors from the authority system,
are not automatically available to the end user of a catalogue.
By definition vocabularies like classifications or thesauri
—or, perhaps more fashionably, ontologies—are systems
with a structure. This structure may be more or less
complex, but at the very least there will be some basic inner
organization. An example of such an organizational
structure is that of the broader and narrower terms of
a hierarchy. Simple hierarchical subordination is only
one of various techniques to help a user find descriptors.
Keywords may be added to help the user find the
most appropriate concept; cross references may connect
related concepts; redirects may point from non-preferred
to preferred terms; scope notes explain the intention of a
term, while links connect concepts across the languages
of a multilingual system... these are just a few examples
of additional,
often quite sophisticated instruments to
help one make the most of the authority system. No matter
how simple or complex the structure of the authority
system is, its default use will often be limited to the
transfer of the standardized term for an artist, a placename,
a profession, or an iconographical feature from
the system to the catalogue. It would obviously cause
an enormous amount of redundancy if one were also to
copy all of the parent terms in a hierarchy, let alone if
one were to transfer all the terms to which a chosen descriptor
may be related—if that were at all possible.
Based on the simple fact that it copies its descriptors
from ‘authority system X, Y or Z’, a catalogue may claim
to be compliant with that authority. However, this procedure of transferring terms, isolating
them from the structure
that embeds them, clashes with the purpose of complying
with an authority system. Or, at the very least, the
resulting catalogue will fail to offer to its end users the
features that turn authority systems into actual ‘systems’.
2 SKOS version of Iconclass as an external
thesaurus add on
How the web service of Iconclass—in a SKOS version
—functions as an add on may be efficiently demonstrated
with the help of the preceding illustration, a screenshot
of the Imdas database management
system which
offers Iconclass as an external thesaurus to its users.
Using a simple i-Frame and a local style sheet, Iconclass
is shown—here in its German form—as a tree of concepts
inside the Imdas application. Any browse action
refreshes the content of the tree by triggering a request
for updated information to the Iconclass server.
3 Restoring the link for retrieval: the
Harvester for Iconclass Metadata (HIM)
The previous illustration suggests how terms may be
transferred from the external authority system to the local
database at production time. It also suggests that the
transfer of the alphanumeric notation
that accompanies
every concept and assigns it a unique place in the hierarchy,
suffices to link a database record to a concept and its
complete context in the vocabulary system. It does not
illustrate
how the link between the individual terms that
are copied to the application database and the Iconclass
system is restored at retrieval time.
Before we look at how the Harvester for Iconclass Metadata
(HIM) service restores this link, we should list some
rather obvious assumptions:
A. The catalogue is available on the internet or at least
on an intranet that is linked to the internet.
B. All items in the catalogue are identifiable with the
help of some unique property, e.g. an inventory
number.
C. This unique property can be used to retrieve an item
from the catalogue.
Needless to say that the assumption about the Iconclass
system is that this is a web service, permanently
available
on the internet. It may be consulted by human cataloguers,
but it is also available for information exchange
between computers.
Back to the question of how to restore the link between
the copied terms in an application database and the Iconclass
system’s server. Actually, the answer is quite simple.
Although it is theoretically possible to enrich a catalogue
by absorbing major parts—or even the whole—of
the Iconclass system,
by far the easier strategy is to reverse
the procedure, limit the information stored in the
local database to Iconclass notations and then enrich the
Iconclass system with information about the catalogue.
What makes it so easy to export information about a
catalogue that uses Iconclass for its subject access, is
the simple fact that Iconclass is a classification system.
Therefore, every concept in the system, with all of its
links to other concepts and its translations, corresponds
to a single code, or ‘notation’. Like barcodes or ISBNnumbers
these notations are thus very concise containers
of information.
These concise containers can easily be
harvested using the Open Archives Initiative’s Protocol
for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH) or customized
variants thereof.
Although the Iconclass codes and the unique identifier
of the object (e.g. a catalogue item) to which they have
been assigned can be supplemented with other types of
metadata, the Iconclass codes and the identifier are the
most essential requirements for the harvesting service to
work.
The illustration above summarizes in a single picture the
essential elements of the service. What you see there is
the first row of a thumbnail gallery incorporated in the
French Emblems website at Glasgow University (http://
www.emblems.arts.gla.ac.uk/french/search.php). Above
the thumbnails you see the concept “song-birds: crow
25F32(CROW)” highlighted. Its broader terms are listed
above it. Below it, its narrower terms that were actually
used for this catalogue are also listed. Whenever a concept is clicked, the corresponding Iconclass notation is
sent to the central Iconclass server. The server then returns
the object identifiers to the local database. These
identifiers are subsequently used to retrieve the corresponding
objects from the local database. In the small
box at the top simple and complex keywords searches
may be entered in the various languages of Iconclass, i.e.
English, German, Italian, or French (partial translations
exist in Finnish and Dutch).
By providing Iconclass through a web service, all users
have access to the same, i.e. the present version of the
system. Editorial changes are instantly available. If a local
database merely stores codes, its users have access to
the various languages of the system, and the full context
of every concept—an efficient way to overcome the authority
paradox.
The aggregator website www.arkyves.org—a single access
to over 150,000 objects indexed with Iconclass—
will be shown as part of the poster, in addition to the
Iconclass web service.
Iconclass computing:
Arkyves
W.G. Plein 124
1054 SG Amsterdam
The Netherlands
tel +31 20 616 1039
e-mail: info@arkyves.org
website: http://www.arkyves.org
Iconclass content:
Rijksbureau Kunsthistorische Documentatie
PO Box 90418
2509 LK The Hague
The Netherlands
tel +31 70 33 39 777
fax +31 70 33 37 789
e-mail: iconclass@rkd.nl
website: http://www.rkd.nl
Appendix—reaction to reviewers’ comments
Review 1: A somewhat outdated description of the basic
idea of the Harvester of Iconclass Metadata can be found
at: http://mnemosyne.org/IIHIM/overview.rst.html
Although some details and names have changed, the
underlying principle is unchanged: classification codes
and a unique identifier for the item to which the codes
(desciptors) have been assigned are harvested and stored
in a central database. The codes are parsed and interpreted.
All of its implicit properties (textual definitions and
their translations, keywords, hierarchical links, cross references,
etcetera) are then extracted from the Iconclass
datafile and linked to the code. All search and browse
actions at the client’s website are then compared with
the information stored in the central database and results
are sent back to the client’s system. This procedure is
necessary for two reasons: A) technically Iconclass is a
complex system and it would be very expensive—and
redundant—to create search and browse software for
each client system; and B) for a single catalogue item
many descriptors (sometimes dozens of codes) may be
used simultaneously. The textual information and other
properties implicit in all codes that were assigned to a
single item have to be made available to the end user
simultaneously. The way to manage this efficiently is by
storing all information in a central database.
Due to special features that were designed prior to the
digital age, Iconclass is technically more complex than
most classifications, so if the software works for Iconclass—
which it does—it can in all likelihood cope with
other classification systems as well. The add-on is a proprietary
tool, but it is made available for free to any institution
which is prepared to share (part of) its (meta)data.
Review 2: Since there is only one online version of the
vocabulary all changes are made centrally. Most changes
will be additions of more specific concepts, so they
won’t affect existing documents. At most older documents
will not take full advantage of increasing specificity
in later versions of Iconclass, unless they re-edit certain
descriptions. Existing concepts have almost never
been withdrawn or given new meaning in the 35 years of
Iconclass’ usage history.
There is no room here to expand on the idiosyncracies
of Iconclass as a classification, but their presence is well
documented in earlier literature (in particular in special
issues of Visual Resources). The complexity of the
code structure sets Iconclass rather apart as a classification.
However, there are some parallels with biomedical
searching techniques (Collexis, fingerprinting, Knowlets,
WikiProfessional) that may be worth investigating.
It goes without saying that, financially, these tools are in
a very different league...
The ambition of HIM is not to be innovative per se, but
to offer a cost-effective solution to a problem—“how to
make the most of the use of Iconclass”—that would otherwise
require expensive software and the reinvention of
the wheel for every collection using the system. In the
world of the Humanities that in itself may be seen as an
innovation.","txt","2","",""
"1074","10","Modelling the Prosopography of the Royal Portuguese Court in the Sixteenth Century","2","The poster will describe the digital component of the
research project developed in the course of my PhD in
Digital Humanities at King’s College London.
The project features a prosopographical study of the high
officials of the Royal Court during the reign of John III,
king of Portugal (1521-1557). The poster will demonstrate
how a relational model was used for that purpose:
the research aims at identifying a particular group of
people, detecting their socio-economic characteristics,
and uncovering their patterns of behaviour in the context
of early modern court politics.
Despite being a small country, in the sixteenth century
Portugal possessed a large royal court. I am interested
in the human configuration of this structure; who are
the men who govern the kingdom and surround the
king? This question can be addressed through an analysis
of their offices and of their social and economical
background. A further analysis of the nature of the relationship
between these actors and their (collective or
individual) relationship with the king will also provide
insights on the nature of influence and the negotiation of
power in royal courts during the Renaissance.
The ultimate aim of the project is to publish an online
version of the database, which will make it available to
other researchers as well as the general public. However,
this poster will describe my research rather than focus on
the implementation of that database.
The use of relational databases for prosopographical
purposes has been a recurrent practice in historical research
since the 1980s. At the Centre for Computing
in the Humanities there are several projects devoted to
prosopography. Both the Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon
England (PASE) and the Prosopography of the Byzantine
World (PBW) have now become leading resources
in the academic world and exemplars in this practice.
Having emerged from the specific needs and constraints
required by historians, the databases have now evolved
in order to allow new avenues of enquiry that go beyond
the initial aims of the researchers. Both projects have become
became laboratories for the relational modelling of
historical sources. This led to the development to what
Bradley and Short called a ‘highly structured approach
to historical data’, or ‘new-style prosopography’ (Bradley
and Short 2005).
One of the major challenges of this project was to test,
adapt and revise the relational model used in PASE and
in PBW.
A prosopographical database is essentially comprised
of three elements: sources containing ‘factoids’ about
persons. These elements should provide a guide to the
modelling stage. The poster will focus on specific issues:
1. How to incorporate different types of sources? The
research will include published sources, original
(manuscript) archival material and edited manuscripts.
The sources are of a wide range, mainly
literary and administrative. This diversity challenges,
for instance, notions of authorship. Who is
the author of a royal letter: the king, the person who
drafted the letter, or all the officials who authorized
and signed the document?
2. How to deal with ‘factoids’ involving several actors/
agents? In the relational databases developed at
King’s College London, a factoid is an ‘assertion by
a source about one or more persons’ (Bradley and
Short 2001). The database revises the solution adopted
in PASE and PBW, where an ‘event’, although
being a ‘factoid’, was effectively separated from the
‘factoid’ table. The model presented here reconfigures
these tables and adopts a different approach.
The solution was to introduce an intermediary table
called ‘PersonInFactoid’, which combines ‘factoids’
and persons, associated with an authority table that
specifies the role played by each person in a given
‘factoid’.
3. How to organize the different types of ‘factoids’?
This is done by the use of authority lists that in fact
can ‘manage’ the ‘factoids’. The database retains the
authority tables used in PASE while simplifying and
at the same time tightening their structure.
4. Finally, can it be possible to design a database that
allows users to search for things not envisaged when
doing the initial research? In fact, either the developer
or the future users might want to access further
data. Although the diverse types of factoids reflect
the specific research questions of the project they
do not compromise the assertions conveyed by the
sources – these are kept in the factoid table. The process of analysis and database design produced
a ‘lighter’ and modified version of the PASE database
structure. The poster will show the different tables created
and their relationships, highlighting the problems
and constraints of modelling the sources to the digital
model. The input process will be done using a sourcedriven
approach, that is, the information in the database
will be information found in the corpora of sources used.
References
Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England (PASE): http://
www.pase.ac.uk (accessed 14 November 2008).
Prosopography of the Byzantine World (PBW): http://
www.pbw.kcl.ac.uk (accessed 14 November 2008).
Bradley, J. and Short H. (2001). Using Format Structures
to create complex relationships: the prosopography
of the Byzantine Empire – a case study, http://www. cch.
kcl.ac.uk/legacy/staff/jdb/papers/pbe-leeds/body.html,
accessed 14 November 2008.
Bradley, J. and Short H. (2005). Texts into Databases:
The Evolving Field of New-style Prosopography, Literary
and Linguist Computing 20: 3-24.","txt","2","",""
"1075","10","Inventing the Future of AI for Games: Lessons from EMPath","2","The space of Narrativity has had the benefit of being
explored for centuries. Technology, however, introduces
a new factor to pioneer by expanding the possibilities
of both the experiencing and the telling of a story.
Advancements of AI provide a multitude of techniques
for the process of authoring and the actual authoring of
stories in games. This process, however, is not so straight
forward, and has proved to be extremely challenging in
practice. Narratives in games, although sharing similar
narrative qualities of its medium predecessors, deliver
a highly interactive experience, making games a matter
of new media and new analysis. The purpose of this talk
is to demonstrate and give an idea of what the contrast
is between the theories and models created in academia
and the practice of industry in using technology to express
compelling and believable experiences.
Introduction
With emphasis on the advancements of believability in
areas of sound and scene, the advancements in the believability
or complexity toward intelligent interactions
within commercial video games are comparably lacking.
Certain games aim to leave the story up to the user’s
imagination, while others reduce user agency to create
an artistically inspired story, and still, others are focused
on procedurally creating a story that has both high user
agency and dramatic significance. Arguments that support
story games demonstrating high levels of intelligence
claim that with the incorporation of Drama Managing,
Multi-Agent Systems, Reactive Planning, and
other sub-areas of AI will come a new frontier in experiencing
and telling stories reducing traditional conflicts
(Mateas 2001). On the other hand, game developers in
industry are resistant against these ideas due to the complications
that come along with adding such methods.
Efforts in commercial games have been more successful
in making the most out of scripted stories, maximizing
from sound and scene, and sacrificing certain qualities
in order to strengthen others. In addition to surveying
the areas that are currently researched in academia and
discussing games developed through research, there will
be a demonstration of the EMPath project. EMPath is a
prototype sized, adventure game that utilizes the Declarative Optimization-Based Drama Manager (DODM).
This prototype game, developed at UC Santa Cruz, is a
real-time playable game that uses the DODM architecture
and has been tested on over 100 users. The purpose
of this demo is to exhibit a novel AI-based approach to
interactive storytelling, as well as provide a concrete example
of the challenges in the design process. Figure 1
is a screen shot of the dungeon map in the original EMPath
game (Sullivan 2009).
Figure 1. The 5x5 map world of EMPath.
Drama Management
A drama manager (DM) monitors an interactive experience,
such as a computer game, and intervenes to shape
the global experience so that it satisfies the author’s expressive
goals without decreasing a player’s interactive
agency. Most research work on drama management has
proposed AI architectures and provided abstract evaluations
of their effectiveness. A smaller body of work has
evaluated the effect of drama management on player experience,
but little attention has been paid to evaluating
the authorial leverage provided by a drama management
architecture: determining, for a given DM architecture,
the additional non-linear story complexity a DM affords
over traditional scripting methods. This poster will propose
three criteria for evaluating the authorial leverage
of a DM: 1) the script-and-trigger complexity of the DM
story policy, 2) the degree of policy change given changes
to story elements, and 3) the average story branching
factor for DM policies vs. script-and-trigger policies
for stories of equivalent quality. Figure 2 illustrates the
decision-tree representation approach in evaluating authorial
leverage. For preliminary studies in evaluating
complexity of the drama manager, thousands of partial
stories were generated and used to train and test decision
trees using the J48 algorithm implemented in Weka, a
machine-learning software package.1 Partial stories (the
independent variable) are represented by a set of boolean
flags indicating whether each plot point and DM action
has happened thus far in this story, and, for each pair of
plot points a and b, whether a preceded b if both happened
(Chen 2009).
Figure 2. Zoomed-in view of a decision tree that has
learned from the DM.
Lessons from EMPath
Gains for creating a more intelligently interactive story
need to be proven through subject testing and other types
of evaluation. In particular, there are two metrics that
need to be established: one to show overall improved
experience, and one to show the lightening of authorial
burden. These approaches are demonstrated in previous
experiments with EMPath; however, the prototype
games that are feasible for research have difficulty demonstrating
significant results due to the scale of these
smaller games. Other challenges that arise from implementing
and evaluating AI systems are as follows (Chen
2009):
• Authoring: Incorporating an AI system creates the
burden of domain understanding, forcing an author
to break traditional habits in authoring.
• Evaluation Measures: Story qualities must be
mathematically represented in order to show improvement
or to encourage better interactions.
• Player Modeling: AI systems often depend on
predicting and anticipating user actions and motivations.
The system would need to model human
tendencies mathematically.
• Simulation: Experiments designed to run offline,
according to the system’s user model are needed
to provide authorial leverage and sanity checks for
story evaluation comparisons.
• User Testing: Users need to notice a difference in
their overall experience when using the AI system
versus not using the AI system. Experiments need to be carefully designed to show improvement in the
user data.
• Game Design: The game must be designed to be
able to demonstrate such differences. In general,
games that are created for research purposes are often
not expansive or large enough to show significant
results.
• Trail Blazing: Finally, a great challenge in creating
AI systems is that evaluation measures and user
study approaches have not been rigorously tested
for these purposes
Dimensions of Narrativity & Interactivity
Taking another look at Narratology, establishing a more
complete understanding of narrative may help ameliorate
some of the challenges in designing and testing AI
systems. If there is a better understanding of the objectives
that an AI system is aiming toward, then the space
of story that it creates may be more easily evaluated. For
instance, reducing the space of possible stories by fixing
the ontological variations in an interactive story space
reduces the variety of experiences, but results in a more
focused output. With a fixed and linear diegetic universe,
both the author’s artistic vision is maintained and, as a
result, the dramatic significance of the vision. Research
can begin by finding ways of delegating types of discourse
actions and performing them on a fixed set of plot
points contingent on the actions of the user in trying to
optimize user agency under those conditions.
Figure 3. Adaptations of Ryan’s 8 narrative dimensions.
By establishing narratives as a relationship among scalar
properties, Marie-Laure Ryan’s dimensions of narrativity
gives a solid means to compare and analyze interactive
narratives (Ryan 2006). For Ryan, her dimensions
are more to establish conditions for the mark of the narrative.
For the purpose of the discussion, a variation of
Ryan’s dimensions will be used analyze the experiential
variations that result from interactivity in narratives.
Figure 3 visually illustrates the analogous dimensions.
The new adaptation, instead of being a model for narratives,
will serve as a model for interactive experiences.
The four dimensions are: temporal (an axis to situate
time), event space (an axis for delineating the occurrences
in a story space), foci (the experiential views from
intelligent existents or perspective), and discourse (an
axis for determining the means of how a story is told).
For further explanation of the relationship between these
dimensions, it helps to “fix” or ignore one or more of the
dimensions.
Conclusion
Overall, this presentation will deliver a broad understanding
of the ways in which AI can integrate with
interactive stories and create a diversity of experiences
and outcomes. In contrast to commercial games, the process
of interactive storytelling provides insights into the
endeavors of universities and research institutions pioneering
the area through advancements in AI. Additionally,
there will be a live demo of the EMPath project in
conjunction to a discussion of the difficulties and challenges
in the counter-intuitive design process of a story
that utilizes concurrent technologies of AI. Ultimately,
this demo will be a case study towards gaining a deeper
understanding of the challenges to be faced before what
is possible in storytelling can be made practical through
the intersections of the arts, sciences, industry, and academia.
Notes
1http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/ml/weka/
References
Chen, Nelson, Mateas (2009). Evaluating the Authorial
Leverage of Drama Management. AAAI Spring Symposium,
Interactive Narrative II.
Chen, Sullivan, Nelson, Wardrip-Fruin, Mateas (2009).
Intelligent Interactive-Stories: Theory versus Practice.
Game Developers Conference, San Francisco, CA.
Mateas (2001), A preliminary poetics for interactive
drama and games. Digital Creativity, vol 12, number 3.
Ryan (2006). Narrative, Media, and Modes: Avatars of
Story. University of Minnesota Press.
Sullivan, Chen, Mateas (2009). Abstraction to Reality:
Integrating drama management into a playable game
experience. AAAI Spring Symposium, Interactive Narrative II.","txt","2","",""
"1076","10","Fine Rolls in Print and on the Web: Progress on a Reader Study","2","This poster will report on progress made in the Reader
Study related to the use of the Henry III Fine Rolls
project resources. A poster on the research framework
and phase one of the study was presented at the Digital
Humanities conference in 2008. Since then (June 2008),
the authors have continued work on later phases of the
study, completing the document analyses, defining a
research profile out of the sample data, and evaluating,
developing and revising the methodological framework.
This poster will report and comment on these findings.
Project Summary
The Henry III Fine Rolls (http://www.frh2.org.uk) is a
collaborative project funded by the Arts and Humanities
Research Council (UK) between the National Archives
in the UK, the History and Centre for Computing in
the Humanities departments at King’s College London,
the Department of History and American Studies at
Canterbury Christ Church University. At the core of the
project is the study of the medieval primary sources
known as the Fine Rolls. Dating back to the 1170s, these
documents written in Latin on membranes of parchment
were issued by the royal Chancery to record agreements
made with the king to pay a certain sum of money for
specific benefits. Those that witness writs for the whole
reign of Henry III (1216-1272) were never published
properly and in their entirety before the Henry III Fine
Rolls project took the initiative to do so.
The outcome of the project, currently in its second phase,
is both a resource website and a set of printed volumes1
containing the calendared edition (an English summary
of the Latin records) of the Fine Rolls. Reader Study
This dual editorial effort has raised questions about
presentational formats pertinent to the two media and
presented challenges for the historians as well as the
digital humanities researchers involved in the project
and the publisher. The process of negotiating and
envisaging different ‘material’ solutions for the two
types of published resources presented the authors
with an opportunity to examine this parallel production
process and to inquire about the social processes that
influence the ways in which scholarship is embedded in
published outputs, both in print and digital form.
Therefore, the reader study was conceived to:
• Reflect on the material actualisations of the Fine
Rolls hybrid edition;2
• Evaluate the use of this hybrid edition to tackle old
and new research questions;
• Establish the effectiveness of particular features of
each medium in creating bridges between the print
and web resources;
• Articulate general heuristics that can be used in the
design of other hybrid digital humanities projects.
As summarised below, the poster presented in 2008
developed a framework for this exploratory study using
established data collection methods from information
seeking research, in particular those developed for the
report Scholarly Work in the Humanities and the Evolving
Information Environment (Brockman, Neumann, Palmer
& Tidline, 2001).
This methodological approach is qualitative, striving not
to achieve statistical significance but rather to develop a
nuanced picture of the work performed by scholars using
this and like material. The decision to use qualitative
methods has forced the authors to limit the number of
participants to a small group, collecting information by
email and face-to-face interviews and through content
analysis of research material. The participant sample
throughout draws from members of the Fine Rolls
research team who have written materials using the
edition, but also on a small sample of researchers from
the wider scholarly community who perform text-based
archival research with documentary primary sources that
date back to the late Middle Ages.
Analysis of the materiality of the fine rolls edition
in 2008 was coupled with an initial examination of
distributed questionnaires and document analysis of
material written by study participants on the use of this
or similar editions. Emerging trends from this exercise
suggested that scholars do posses a high familiarity
with primary sources through continuous direct access.
In addition, the authors found that participants tend to
cite a core set of sources over and over again. These
key sources mainly consist of facsimiles, editions or
reference works that give access to a substantial corpus
of primary sources in various forms.
This poster will report more specifically on how
scholars from this community perceive and overcome
obstacles related to access or use of materials in
performing research, and share general attitudes about
what constitutes a successful research process (Dervin,
1992; 1998). In addition, it will identify and report on
information patterns for the community, defining the
types and formats of sources that are used, including
insights into use of access resources (Brockman et
al., 2001; Palmer, 2005). Findings from this phase
will confirm whether or not the research process of
participants conforms to Palmer’s mode of access for
humanities scholars (2005).
In addition, this poster will isolate the bridging tactics
(Wilson, 1999) employed by scholars when moving
between digital and print materials, in order to more
fully develop a lexicon of connective structures for
hybrid editions. Finally, a preliminary testing plan for
evaluating the design of the Fine Rolls will be presented.
Bibliography
Brockman, W., L. Neumann, C. L. Palmer, T. J. Tidline.
(2001) Scholarly Work in the Humanities and the Evolving
Information Environment. Digital Library Federation
Council on Library and Information Resources, December
2001, Council on Library and Information Resources.
Ciula, A. and Lopez T. “Reflecting on a Dual Publication:
Henry III Fine Rolls Print and Web”. Literary and
Linguistic Computing (forthcoming).
Dervin, B. (1992) “From the mind’s eye of the user: the
sense-making qualitative-quantitative methodology”.
In Glazier, J.D. and Powell, R.R. (eds.) Qualitative Research
in Information Management.Libraries Unlimited,
1992. pp. 61-84. Pre-print accessed 14 November, 2008
at: http://www.ideals.uiuc.edu/html/2142/2281/Dervin1992a.
htm.
Dervin, B. (1998) “Sense-making theory and practice:
an overview of user interests in knowledge seeking and
use”. Journal of Knowledge Management. Vol. 2 No. 2,
December 1998. pp. 36-46. Dryburgh, P., Hartland, B. eds., Ciula, A., Vieira J. M.
tech. eds. (2007) Calendar of the Fine Rolls of the Reign
of Henry III preserved in The National Archives. Volume
1: 1216–1224. Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer.
Dryburgh, P., Hartland, B. eds., Ciula, A., Vieira J. M.
tech. eds. (2008) Calendar of the Fine Rolls of the Reign
of Henry III preserved in The National Archives. Volume
II: 1224–1234. Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer.
Finkelstein, D. and McCleery, A. (2002) The book history
reader. London: Routledge.
Palmer, C. L. (2004) “Thematic Research Collections”.
In Schreibman, S., R. Siemens and J. Unsworth (eds.) A
Companion to Digital Humanities. Blackwell Companions
to Literature and Culture. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004.
pp. 349-365.
Palmer, C. L. (2005) “Scholarly work and the shaping of
digital access”. Journal of the American Society for Information
Science and Technology Vol. 56 No 11, 2005.
pp. 1140-53.
Wilson, T. (1999) Models in information behaviour research.
Journal of Documentation Vol. 55 No 3, 1999.
pp. 249-270.
Notes
1The first two volumes (Dryburgh et al., 2007; 2008)
have already been printed in collaboration with the publisher
Boydell & Brewer, and a third is under production:
another five volumes will be published to complete the
edition.
2That is, extant both in a physical and virtual environment.
For a fuller treatment of this, see Ciula and Lopez
(forthcoming).","txt","2","",""
"1077","10","Digital Tools from the Center for History and New Media: Present and Future","2","The need to “develop and maintain open standards
and robust tools” was one of eight key recommendations
in Our Cultural Commonwealth: The Report of the
American Council of Learned Societies Commission on
Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities and Social Sciences.
It has become increasingly apparent that if digital
humanists are to have the right tools for their work,
they will have to build some of them themselves. Indeed,
many humanities scholars and social scientists have already
built valuable digital tools over the years, including
software and systems for text processing, markup,
visualization, metadata generation, cataloging, GIS, and
a number of other humanities-related tasks.
In the past seven years, the Center for History and New
Media at George Mason University has expanded its focus
from creating web resources for educational, scholarly,
and general audiences to include several major
open source software projects. Making this transition
has involved a considerable challenges, but also some
significant opportunities. In this panel the directors and
developers of these digital tools will speak about the
challenges of creating software for scholarship, research,
web publishing, and course management; discuss where
their tools are today and how others can get involved in
their production; and talk about future plans and trends.
Three projects will be highlighted:
Zotero
For research management, CHNM has created Zotero
(http://zotero.org), an easy-to-use yet powerful research sources
(citations, full texts, web pages, images, and other
objects), and share the results of their research in a variety
of ways. An extension to the popular open-source
web browser Firefox, Zotero includes the best parts of
older reference manager software (like EndNote)—the
ability to store author, title, and publication fields and
to export that information as formatted references—and
the best parts of modern software and web applications
(like iTunes and del.icio.us), such as the ability to interact,
tag, and search in advanced ways. Zotero integrates
tightly with online resources; it can sense when users
are viewing a book, article, or other object on the web,
and—on many major research and library sites—find
and automatically save the full reference information for
the item in the correct fields. Since it lives in the web
browser, it can effortlessly transmit information to, and
receive information from, other web services and applications;
since it runs on one’s personal computer, it can
also communicate with software running there (such as
Microsoft Word). And it can be used offline as well (e.g.,
on a plane, in an archive without WiFi).
Zotero has surpassed the milestone of over a million users
and more than a hundred colleges and universities
now actively recommend Zotero to their students, faculty,
and staff. The Zotero project has received recognition
in PC Magazine’s “Best Free Software” issue. Through
the open source community, Zotero has been translated
into 40 languages, ranging from Arabic to Vietnamese.
Omeka
For web publishing, CHNM has created Omeka (http://
omeka.org), a free and open source collections based
web-based publishing platform for scholars, librarians,
archivists, museum professionals, educators, and cultural
enthusiasts. CHNM’s new open source platform for
publishing collections and exhibitions online hit a major
milestone with the release of the 0.10 Beta release. Designed
for cultural institutions, enthusiasts, and educators,
Omeka is easy to install and modify and facilitates
community-building around collections and exhibits. It
is designed with non-IT specialists in mind, allowing
users to focus on content rather than programming. Its
“five-minute setup” makes launching an online exhibition
as easy as launching a blog. Omeka is designed with
non-IT specialists in mind, allowing users to focus on
content and interpretation rather than programming. It
brings Web 2.0 technologies and approaches to academic
and cultural websites to foster user interaction and participation.
It makes top-shelf design easy with a simple
and flexible template system. Its robust open-source developer
and user communities underwrite Omeka’s stability
and sustainability. Until now, scholars and cultural
heritage professionals looking to publish collectionsbased
research and online exhibitions required either extensive
technical skills or considerable funding for outside
vendors. By making standards based, serious online
publishing easy, Omeka puts the power and reach of the
web in the hands of academics and cultural professionals
themselves.
ScholarPress
As educators increasingly use blogs in their classrooms,
CHNM has explored ways to provide open-source tools
for educational blogging. Currently an unfunded, staffgenerated
project, ScholarPress (http://scholarpress.net)
is a development hub for educational and scholarly plugins
for the WordPress blogging platform. ScholarPress
currently offers two plugins: Courseware, which enables
teachers to manage a class with a WordPress blog
with a schedule, bibliography, assignments, and other
course information, and WPBook, which works with
the Facebook Development platform to create an (addable
by users within the site) using a Wordpress blog.
Thus, someone using both Courseware and WPBook can
create a WordPress blog, add a course schedule, reading
list, assignments, and annoucements, and share that
information with students through the blog and through
a Facebook application that students add. ScholarPress
plans future plugins for grading, research, bibliography
management, and is working to make plugins compatible
with multi-user versions of WordPress, so services
like Edublogs can add the plugins and make them available
to educations using their services.
“Digital Tools from the Center for History and New Media:
Present and Future” will provide audience members
with an introduction to each of these tools, the challenges
involved in building each, the similarities and
differences in building tools for different purposes and
audiences, and some lessons learned in making the transition
from web development to software development.
The format for the session will feature short, 15 minute
presentations by four key members of the CHNM
tool development team. CHNM director Dan Cohen will
discuss Zotero, Managing director Tom Scheinfeldt and
Omeka Developer Dave Lester will discuss Omeka, and
Creative Lead Jeremy Boggs will discuss ScholarPress.
These short project-focused presentation will be followed
by a 15 panel discussion among the presenters in
which they will discuss the similarities and differences
between the three projects and some of the more general
aspects of software development. The balance of the remaining
time will be left to audience questions and answers.
All four participants live in the Washington D.C.
area and will be available during the week of DH09.","txt","2","",""
"1078","10","Access versus Ownership: Navigating the Tension between Mass Digitization of Archival Materials and Intellectual Property Rights","2","The advent of digital technologies has presented archivists
with opportunities to provide unprecedented,
and, increasingly, expected, online access to collections
to their patrons. Some archival repositories are
now exploring, and in some cases, such as the Archives
of American Art Collections Online and the Library of
Congress’s American Memory Project, engaging in,
the mass digitization and Web presentation of their collections,
which allows patrons to perform much of the
same research from their homes or offices at any time
of day, for which they would traditionally have had to
travel great distances and been subject to limited hours
of operation.1
In 2007 the Carolina Digital Library and Archives
(CDLA) and the Southern Historical Collection (SHC)
began work on a pilot project to explore the most effective
methods of mass digitization and gather data on which a
full-scale program could be founded. A 2-year, $300,000
grant from the Watson-Brown Foundation of Thomson,
GA funded the project. The correspondence series of the
Thomas E. Watson Papers, housed in the SHC, was chosen
as the subject of the pilot project. Thomas E. Watson, of Thomson, Ga., was a prominent Populist politician,
author, and lawyer, and his correspondence series consists
of 8 linear feet of letters and related material written
by Watson and his family, friends, and political and business
colleagues. The date range of the correspondence
series is 1873-1986, with the bulk of the letters dating
between the 1880s and 1920s.
One of the challenges facing this project is navigating
between providing comprehensive online access while
at the same time respecting the intellectual property
rights of any copyright holders who may be represented
in the collection. Unpublished manuscript materials,
such as those found in the Thomas E. Watson Papers,
are protected by copyright for 70 years plus the life of
the author. For us, that means that any letters written by
a correspondent who died prior to 1939 (2009 being the
projected publication date for our digital collection) are
fair game under general copyright rules. However, any
letters written by a correspondent who died after 1939
are potentially still in copyright.
So, if we were not to claim any exemptions to copyright
statutes, and we wanted to publish the entire correspondence
series on the Web under a strict interpretation of
copyright law, we would need to identify all of the authors
of the letters in the series, determine the date of
their deaths, locate their descendants if their death dates
were after 1939, contact those descendants, and request
and then obtain permission to use their deceased family
members’ letters.
Even though we suspected this effort had little chance of
success, we determined that because our project is not
only about digitizing the Thomas E. Watson Papers, but
also serves as a pilot for a much larger effort aimed at
digitizing the entire SHC, we would attempt to do intense
copyright research on the materials in the series to
investigate thoroughly this aspect of digitizing archival
materials. Prior to beginning copyright research, we had
already gathered basic metadata (correspondent and recipient
names, places from which letters were written,
and dates, for example) from all of the 8400+ documents.
It took us approximately 91 hours to go through
the 8 linear feet of materials in the correspondence series
to compile this data. From the information we gathered,
we were able to condense and regularize the correspondent
list down to approximately 3300 names.
Using a variety of sources, including Wikipedia, the
Social Security Death Index, Ancestry.com, and print
references, we attempted to positively identify the 3300
names. What resulted was a list of 3280 confirmed and
questionable identifications, and 24 unknowns that were
simply impossible to identify. We were able to locate
birth or death dates for 1709 of the identified correspondents,
while for 1571 no dates were available via the
consulted sources. Of the correspondents for whom we
located dates, 1101 died after 1939, while 608 died during
or before 1939.
Of the positively identified individuals who died after
1939, we found that just over 50 had dedicated manuscript
collections (or materials in the manuscript collections
of other individuals) deposited in repositories.
In these cases, we contacted the repositories, asking for
their latest acquisition information, in the hopes that it
might lead us to descendents of the correspondents from
whom we could request permission to digitize their relative’s
materials. In most cases, no information was available,
and when it was, it tended to be outdated, often
well over 20 years old. We were able to obtain current,
dependable contact information for the descendents of
only two of the more prominent correspondents – Upton
Sinclair and Hamlin Garland, both of whom are wellknown
writers with established literary estates.
The fact that it was so difficult to obtain contact information
for the descendents of people who are prominent
enough to have dedicated manuscript collections indicates
that locating the descendents of the bulk of the correspondents
would be daunting and in most cases impossible.
Extrapolating from our experience with the Watson correspondence,
we believe that an effort on the scale anticipated
in digitizing the entire SHC would be stymied by
trying to do in-depth exploration of copyright status and
attempting to obtain permission to digitize unpublished
archival materials that are under copyright. If we hope to
make mass digitization an integrated part of processing
archival materials, it is simply untenable for us to consider
doing this type of research to determine and obtain
copyright.
This does not mean that we should avoid digitizing materials
which may still be in copyright, but it does mean
that we need to find a different way to approach copyright
law to accommodate our needs.
Relying on Fair Use
While copyright law was intended to protect creative expression,
it was at the same time not intended to be an
impediment to further creative expression. Because of
that, there are limitations to exclusive rights and remedies
in sections 107 to 122 of the Copyright Act that
allow for the use of copyrighted materials under some
circumstances. As the current copyright law was written in 1976, however, its authors did not anticipate the ways
in which digital technologies would change the potential
uses of copyrighted materials, and we must interpret
these limitations and remedies to determine which might
best apply to the mass digitization of archival materials.
A close examination of the possible limitations and remedies
available to us in the law as it stands indicated that
the most reasonable option for us is to use the fair use
provision. Section 107 of the Copyright Act – Limitations
on Exclusive Rights: Fair Use, states that ‘use by
reproduction in copies or phonorecords or by any other
means specified by that section, for purposes such as
criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship,
or research, is not an infringement of copyright.’2
The Supreme Court, in its ruling in favor of the defendant
in Stuart v Abend, stated that: ‘fair use … permits
courts to avoid rigid application of the copyright statute
when, on occasion, it would stifle the very creativity
which that law is designed to foster.’3
Weighing our project against the four fair use factors4
and taking into account the existing case law (of which
very little applies to archives and special collections) we
have developed an argument which we feel allows us
to legally publish our digitized manuscript collections
online. Unfortunately, the only way to know with certainty
that a use is considered a fair one is to have it
resolved in a federal court. The thought of such a court
battle constitutes a worst-case scenario for us, but given
the precedents already set by the courts, we are unlikely
to become involved in such a situation.
Given these circumstances, it is reasonable for us to continue
to serve our patrons in the most effective ways possible
by accepting this risk and forging ahead with mass
digitization. In order to maintain the level of service
researchers are increasingly coming to expect, it is imperative
that archives and special collections forge ahead
with mass digitization without fear of recrimination.
References
Copyright Act of 1976, 17 U.S.C. § 107
Erway, R., and Schaffner, J. (2007). Shifting Gears: Gearing
Up to Get Into the Flow. Report produced by OCLC
Programs and Research. Published online at: http://www.
oclc.org/programs/publications/reports/2007-02.pdf
Stuart v Abend, 495 U.S. 207, 236 (1990)
Notes
1Ricky Erway and Jennifer Schaffner’s paper, “Shifting
Gears: Gearing Up to Get Into the Flow,” discusses the
changing expectations of archival user communities, as
well as the changing role of the archivist in the face of
developing digital technology.
2Copyright Act of 1976, 17 U.S.C. § 107. Limitations on
exclusive rights: Fair use
3Stuart v Abend, 495 U.S. 207, 236 (1990)
4They are, in brief: 1. the purpose and character of the
use, including whether such use is of commercial nature
or is for nonprofit educational purposes; 2. the nature of
the work itself [whether it is a factual or creative work];
3. the amount and substantiality of the portion used in
relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; 4. the effect
of the use upon the potential market for or value of the
copyrighted work.","txt","2","",""
"1079","10","Implementing Greek Morphology","2","In this poster we discuss the nuts and bolts of our implementation
of Greek morphology in a five-million
word corpus, that of the Perseus Greek texts. Many disparate
elements, and the efforts of many different people
have come together in this project. Dik & Whaling
(2008) describe how initial data was gathered from multiple
sources; the current paper describes what went into
the final product:
Disambiguated Greek texts: Early Greek
Epic and the New Testament
The two sources of data from which we were going to
bootstrap our project came with their own specific features:
The two disambiguated corpora used different
data specifications, which had to be compared and made
uniform, and brought up to the standard that we wanted.
However, it did bring us two large swaths of data
of 350K words in total with which to seed our part-ofspeech
analyser, TreeTagger.
Morphological analysis from the Perseus
project
The training data alone were not going to be adequate
to produce a full lexicon for TreeTagger. We decided to
supplement it with the output from Perseus’s Morpheus
tool (Crane 1991) of all possible parses for the full corpus.
This greatly enhanced TreeTagger’s accuracy on
rare words not encountered in the training data, but also
generated many redundancies and inconsistencies which
made it hard for TreeTagger to build a proper decision
tree. It was a continuing dilemma to those involved in
the project whether we should allow more correct input
to eventually weed out the many incorrect parses, or to
remove incorrect parses from the input directly. Some effort
was made to remove incorrect input: A 28 MB lexicon
was reduced to less than 23 MB, but this represented
only a portion of problematic entries.
TreeTagger
TreeTagger (Schmid 1995) is the proprietary software
we used to assign part-of-speech tags (in effect, a full
morphological disambiguation in a ten-slot morphological
code plus a lemma). We trained TreeTagger in the
first instance on the basis of the New Testament data,
and added 40,000 words total in representative 1000
word samples from the rest of the corpus. New sets of
samples were prepared with TreeTagger disambiguation,
for which we used earlier disambiguated samples, plus
our initial New Testament samples, as input.
Disambiguation (internal)
On the basis of earlier work on Czech and other languages,
we decided that 40,000 words would be an adequate
sample. This disregarded the fact that most research in
natural language processing is actually done on more
homogeneous texts than our samples of Greek literature,
such as Reuters news items. Clearly, a more homogeneous
input makes for higher accuracy within the source
corpus, but we had no such luxury. An early indication
was the high accuracy rate achieved by TreeTagger when
trained and tested on Homeric Greek, which is a highly
homogeneous, formulaic, subset of our texts. Perhaps
the Homeric corpus is in fact the best parallel to Reuters
and similar corpora in modern languages - at least the
accuracy was comparable.
In more practical terms, undergraduate students of Greek
were hired to ‘pick the right parse’ from among possible
parses identified by TreeTagger. The disambiguation interface
allowed the students to signal alternative parses
or lemmas if none of the TreeTagger choices was accurate.
Next, in an ‘admin’ layer, items about which there
were disagreements among the students or about which
comments were entered, were highlighted for review, so
that the principal investigator could review these items
especially, prior to feeding fully disambiguated texts
back to TreeTagger.
Implementation
The centerpiece of our implementation is a SQLite database
backend, containing the tokens and parses for the
full corpus. It connects the three major components of
the system:
• The original Perseus XML files, in which the tokens
have been given unique ids as follows, keeping intact
all previous markup:
<w id=”276565”>ὦ</w>
<w id=”276566”>ἄνδρες</w>
<w id=”276567”>Ἀθηναῖοι</w TreeTagger, which accepts token sequences from
the database and outputs parses and probability
weights, which are stored in their own table.
• PhiloLogic, which serves as a highly efficient search
and retrieval front end, by indexing the augmented
XML files as well as the contents of the linked
SQLite tables. PhiloLogic’s highly optimized index
architecture allows near-instantaneous results
on complex inquiries such as ‘any infinitive forms
within 25 words of (dative singulars of) lemma X
and string Y’, which would be a challenge for typical
relational database systems.
For a concrete example, in a standard PhiloLogic search
box, entering ‘lemma:μῆνις’ will produce this word from
the first line of the Iliad, as will a search for ‘pos:*fa*’,
as will a search for the original string, ‘μῆνιν’. Criteria
can be combined as well, so that ‘lemma:μῆνις;pos:*fa*’
produces only feminine accusative forms of the particular
lemma μῆνις.
We continue to explore the possibility of natural language
searching as a substitute or alternative to this
highly technical way of querying the corpus, and will
demonstrate our progress on this front at the conference.
The goal is to make it possible for users to type ‘feminine
accusative’ as opposed to ‘pos:*fa*’, which will remain
daunting to all but the most determined.
Conclusion
We are happy to have disambiguated a large corpus,
making available for the first time a large, representative
corpus of Classical Greek for morphological searching
in addition to searching by string and by lemma — integrated
into the existing reading and browsing environment
for the texts. However, we are now also prepared
to start crowd-sourcing the long tail of incorrect parses.
Besides looking up the statistically most probable parse
according to TreeTagger and other possible parses, users
can ‘vote’ to correct TreeTagger’s chosen parses. Once
these votes have been inspected and accepted into the
main database, future updates to the corpus will reflect
both these local corrections and, over the full extent of
the corpus, a more accurate TreeTagger. It is our hope
that with the assistance of our users we will approach
higher and higher levels of accuracy, making this tool
ever more useful to scholars of Classical Greek.
References:
Crane, Gregory (1991). Generating and parsing classical
Greek. In Literary and Linguistic Computing, 6(4):
243-245, 1991.
Dik, Helma and Richard Whaling (2008) - Bootstrapping
Greek Morphology. Digital Humanities 2008.
Schmid, Helmut (1995) - Improvements in part-ofspeech
tagging with an application to German. In Proceedings
of the ACL SIGDAT-Workshop. http://www.
ims.uni-stuttgart.de/ftp/pub/corpora/tree-tagger2.pdf
Website URL: http://perseus.uchicago.edu","txt","2","",""
"1080","10","Synergies: An Overview and Progress Report","2","This poster will offer an overview of the CFI-funded
project Synergies: The Canadian Information Network
for Research in the Social Sciences and Humanities,
and offer a progress report on the developments that
took place in the first year of its four-year funding cycle,
to be accompanied by a live demonstration of the alpha
version of the web-based search interface.
Synergies is a four-year project intended to be a national
distributed platform with a wide range of tools to support
the creation, distribution, access and archiving of
digital objects such as journal articles. It will enable the
distribution and use of social sciences and humanities
research, as well as to create a resource and platform for
pure and applied research. In short, Synergies will be a
research tool and a dissemination tool that will greatly
enhance the potential and impact of Social Sciences and
Humanities scholarship.
Canadian social sciences and humanities research published
in Canadian journals and elsewhere, especially
in English, is largely confined to print. The dynamics
of print mean that this research is machine-opaque and
hence invisible on the internet, where many students
and scholars begin and sometimes end their background
research. In bringing Canadian social sciences and humanities
research to the internet, Synergies will not
only bring that research into the mainstream of worldwide
research discourse but also it will legitimize online
publication in social sciences and humanities. The acceptance
of this medium will open the manner in which
knowledge can be represented. On one plane, researchers
will be able to take advantage of an enriched media
palette—color, image, sound, moving images, multimedia.
On a second plane, researchers will be able to take
advantage of interactivity. And on a third plane, those
who query existing research will be able to broaden their
vision by means of navigational interfaces, multilingual
interrogation and automatic translation, metadata and
intelligent search engines, and textual analysis. On still
another plane scholars will be able to expand new areas
of knowledge such as bibliometrics and technometrics,
new media analysis, scholarly communicational analysis
and publishing studies. This poster will introduce the
main goals of the Synergies project and the impact it will
have on the production and dissemination of Canadian
research.
Scholarly research and communication are undergoing
an evolutionary transformation. Research environments,
scholarly communication, knowledge sharing and services
are moving to the digital and becoming networkoriented.
This evolution raises many new questions
about models of knowledge sharing. Emerging research
environments, data providers, publishers, and libraries
will need to develop and deploy a wide variety of new
resource models to address these new realities. These resource
models will lower the barriers to access and exploitation
of research and information resources, serve
the needs of individuals and both general and specialized
communities, and integrate new models of publication,
annotation, communication and knowledge sharing.
Synergies will provide a needed infrastructure for the
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council
(SSHRC) to follow through its in-principle commitment
to open access and facilitate its implementation by extending
the current venues and means for online publishing
in Canada. With Synergies in place the funding
of journals based on dissemination effectiveness rather
than sales levels will become both feasible for journals
and possible as an evaluative criterion for SSHRC funding.
The Canadian Federation for the Humanities and
Social Sciences, with a membership of over 30,000, has
also recently adopted a position in favor of open access
and indicate the role that Synergies can play.
Alongside a new web interface and tools for accessing
information produced in Canada (with the alpha version
to be demonstrated alongside the poster), Synergies will
be a digital publishing platform for scholarly publications,
with its first goal being to offer digital publishing
services prepared to international standards with the
lowest cost possible for the editorial production side.
This project will thus work as a sustainable, open, epublication
infrastructure for the academy.
In sum, this poster will contain an overview of the project,
and progress reports on its five regional components.
Synergies is the result of a collaboration among five core
universities which have been working together for several
years. With each partner bringing its own expertise
to the initiative, a genuine collaboration resulted in an
infrastructure which was conceived from the start as
truly scalable and extendable. Each regional node will
integrate the input of current and future regional partners
in the development of Synergies, thus continuing to extend
its pan-Canadian dimension. For instance, the PKP
project will be introduced within the broader context of scholarly communications. The Ontario region will be
presented as a case study, with particular emphasis on
project integration with Scholars Portal, a digital library.
(The other three regions will also be included in this
progress report to the Digital Humanities community.)","txt","2","",""
"1081","10","Fostering Cultural Literacies through Digital Scholarship: The Yaddo Archive Project and Yaddocast as Multimodal Humanities Projects","2","Yaddo and the Yaddo Archive Founded in 1900 by the financier and philanthropist
Spencer Trask and his wife Katrina, Yaddo is an artists’
community located on a 400-acre estate in Saratoga
Springs, New York. Its mission is to nurture the creative
process by providing an opportunity for artists to work
without interruption in a supportive environment. Since
its first official season in 1926, the artists’ retreat has
hosted more than 5,500 artists, writers, composers and
other creatie workers including legendary figures such
as Milton Avery, James Baldwin, Leonard Berstein,
Truman Capote, Aaron Copland, Philip Guston, Patricia
Highsmith, Langston Hughes, Ted Hughes, Alfred Kazin,
Ulysses Kay, Jacob Lawrence, Carson McCullers,
Sylvia Plath, Katherine Ane Porter, Mario Puzo, Clyfford
Still, and Virgil Thomson.
In 1999, in celebration of the community’s centennial,
Yaddo and the New York Public Library entered into
a unique partnership to ensure that Yaddo’s archive—
more than 550 boxes of rare letters, journals, guest applications,
photographs, artworks, sound recordings, and
other ephemera—would be preserved for posterity and
available to scholars and the public. The Yaddo Records,
now housed in the NYPL’s Manuscript and Archives Division,
constitute a unique resource for scholars in the
humanities and of organizational development in that
they include intimate letters between Yaddo’s director
and many of 20th century’s most distinguished artists
and nearly complete records of the organization’s operations
from 1900 to the present. In addition, Yaddo
has kept detailed records of the arrivals and departures
of its guests for nearly every year of operations, making
charting the organization’s contribution in building social relationships more viable than would otherwise be
expected.
Multimodal Humanities and Yaddo:
Making American Culture Exhibition
When Yaddo opened as an artist retreat in 1926, the New
York Times hailed it as “a new and unique experiment,
which has no parallel in the world of arts.” That statement
is still true today. Yaddo has not shed its experimental
roots, and as part of its ongoing outreach efforts,
it has dynamically begun to embrace 21st century technologies
and techniques. And while the experience of
the artists at Yaddo might not have dramatically changed
in decades, the cultural outreach of Yaddo has been enchanced
by digital scholarship projects in the multimodal
humanities. David Theo Goldberg and Tara McPherson
have advanced the concept of the “multimodal humanities.”
As McPherson states, the multimodal humanities
“bring together databases, scholarly tools, networked
writing and peer-to-peer commentary while also leveraging
the potential of the visual and aural media that so
dominate contemporary life.” In the case of Yaddo, that
media archive can encompass textual, visual, gestural,
and aural works spanning the fields of literature, painting,
composing, choreography, sculpture, film, video and
mixed media.
As part of efforts to foster culture literacy around the
opening of a new exhibition on the history of Yaddo at
the New York Public Library in October 2008, the Yaddo
Archive Project (a database project) and Yaddocast (an
enhanced podcast series) were both created. In each
project, database logics, participatory architectures, and
interpretive spaces coalesce to tackle the complex question
of Yaddo’s impact on American culture. While there
were different technical and production issues raised by
these two projects, this paper will focus on the design of
these projects as part of a larger epistemological question
around how digital projects in the multimodal humanities
mode can further our understanding of cultural
literacies.
The Yaddo Archive Project
The Yaddo Archive Project (YAP) was not planned as
the typical “exhibition website” that simply repurposes
exhibition content with online presence. Rather, YAP
aimed to use digital technologies to map key information
in the Yaddo archive, from other records retained in
Yaddo, and from secondary sources (artists’ biographies,
leters, and journals) to explore how Yaddo, as an artists’
community, created cultural capital by fostering social
capital.
The planned key components of YAP are an interactive
online platform that 1) charts the network of relationships
that made Yaddo a formidable force in 20th century
American arts and letters, 2) map the relationships
that were forged during Yaddo visits that later impacted
American arts and letters, 3) charts art works (primarily
published books, as those are most readily identified by
date and accessed via online catalogs such as the Library
of Congress and Worldcat) made before, during, and after
Yaddo visits with an eye toward demonstrating effects
of a Yaddo residency or residencies on subsequent
artistic productivity, and 4) an access-protected entry
point where scholars and archivists familiar with Yaddo
and its artists can contribute new information on the relationships
between members of this community (see Fig.
1 and Fig. 2).
Fig. 1. Yaddo archive Project wireframe, 2 degrees of
relationship.
Fig. 2. Yaddo Archives Project: Visit overlaps and
relationships in table and timeline format
Yaddocast
In addition to the Yaddo Archive Project, the exhibition
also led to the creation of another digital humanities
project entitled Yaddocast. Yaddocast is an enhanced
podcast series on Yaddo artists. Yaddocast was created
to tell the stories behind Yaddo’s artist guests and their
creative processes. Each episode of Yaddocast was produced as a scholarly investigation into creative activity
associated with Yaddo, and the project’s utilization of a
popular form of web-based media will be addressed as
part of its pedagogical aim toward fostering cultural literacy.
Fostering Cultural Literacies through
Yaddo-related Digital Scholarship
Multimodal humanities projects can be designed to take
advantage of the complex database logics and immense
bodies of knowledge related to the history of Yaddo.
The cultural impact of Yaddo far exceeds the 5,500 artists
who have been guests in Saratoga Springs. Artists
associated with Yaddo produce cultural works that influence
other cultural producers, and members of the Yaddo
interact with one another in novel and surprising ways.
YAP, for example, utilizes the latest techniques to make
those connections and relationships manifest. Rather
than publishing one scholar’s take on artistic cross-pollination
at Yaddo, YAP is a dynamic hypermedia system
that can be reconfigured based on different searches and
metadata criteria. Moreover, YAP is a read-write database,
where knowledgeable users or Yaddo artists can
add further relevant information.
Second, Yaddo requires a rich media approach to represent
its range of cultural artefacts. Since Yaddo is not a
doctrinaire artist colony, it supports all different kinds of
artworks, aesthetic techniques and artistic styles. Yaddo’s
creative output and the richness of its archives are
uniquely positioned to show a broad view of American
culture since 1926. But that broad purview also requires
innovative approaches to representing a variety of media
types and forms in digital scholarship. This paper
will address some of the techniques used in these two
projects.
Third, YAP and Yaddocast engage in a hermeneutics of
creativity activity. The relationship between information,
form and aesthetics all matter in these multimodal
humanities projects. Rather than just being bits of cultural
data, the process behind the creative output and the
relationships among Yaddo artists are important vectors
of meaning, and part of the process of cultural literacy
is not just an examination of the end products (books,
films, dances, etc) but a more thorough understanding
of the usually hidden aspects of the creative process.
The artistic legacy of Yaddo’s guests spans almost every
art field, and allows for a richness of content that is unmatched
by even large museums. But unlike normal museum
collections, Yaddo’s archives are tied to a specific
space of creative endeavor. That linkage is useful from
a multimodal humanities development perspective since
it allows for a new set of recombinant cultural possibilities
relating to how Yaddo operates as a social network
of artists.
Taken as a whole, the digital humanities projects related
to Yaddo begin to suggest that, within the digital humanities,
there are opportunities for fostering cultural literacies
through collaborating with larger publics around
web-based forms of scholarship that utilize architectures
of participation.
References
Bordieu, P. (2002). “The Forms of Capital,” in The Sociology
of Economic Life, Mark S. Granovetter and Richard
Swedberg, eds. Cambridge, MA: Westview Press,
pp. 96-111.
DeCarlo, D. (2004). Extreme Project Management. New
York: Wiley-Jossey.
Lin, N. (2001). “A Network Theory of Social Capital,”
in Social Capital: Theory and Research, Nan Lin, Karen
S. Cook, and Ronald S. Burt, eds. New Brunswick, NJ:
Transaction Publishers.
McGee, Micki, ed. (2008). Yaddo: Making American
Culture. Columbia University Press.
McPherson, T. quoted in Spiro, L. (2008). “Doing Digital
Scholarship.” http://digitalscholarship.wordpress.
com/2008/08/11/doing-digital-scholarship-presentationat-
digital-humanities-2008/ (Accessed 14 November
2008)
O’Reilly, T. (2004). “The Architecture of Participation.”
http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/articles/architecture_
of_participation.html (Accessed 14 November
2008)
Unsworth, J. (2007). “Scholarly Primitives: what methods
do humanities researchers have in common, and
how mght our tools reflect this?” http://jefferson.village.
virginia.edu/~jmu2m/Kings.5-00/primitives.html (Accessed
14 November 2008)","txt","2","",""
"1082","10","Ask Not What Your Text Can do For You. Ask What You Can do For Your Text (a Dictionary's perspective)","2","This paper’s title, a modified version of President
Kennedy’s well known quote, in a metaphorical
sense suggests shifting the role texts play in a collection.
This shift is based on the growing number of available
tools that can be used to enhance textual analysis. We
are investigating the effect of tools as generators of what
can be done with the texts. We are not advocating a conceptual
change in the role and nature of the texts from
the literary or textual studies perspective. Rather we suggest
a pragmatic role change. In doing so, we believe
that new hypothesis about the content of the texts can be
posited, or at least their use can be augmented.
Our motivation is based on our experience in the creation
and use of a multilingual glossary of nautical terms
for the Nautical Archaeology Digital Library (Monroy
et al, 2006). In this context, we have seen two major
benefits from the glossary that affect both the scholarly
practices and the collection. First, it has enabled collaboration
among scholars and researchers geographically
scattered. Second, how it has broadened the possibilities
in the use and understanding of the textual materials—
shipbuilding treatises in our case.
2. Dictionaries
Dictionaries have been used extensively in numerous
digital humanities initiatives. The Perseus Project
(Crane 2002) provides a good example of incorporating
dictionaries in a classics collection. The idea behind a
dictionary is very simple: an alphabetical list of words
with definitions. Yet it has great potential and usefulness
when used simultaneously with the contents of a digital
collection. Dictionaries also come in various flavors—
bilingual or multilingual, thesaurus, specialized, illustrated,
and encyclopedic—to name a few. With the use
of information technology and the Internet, it has been
possible to expand not only their use, but also the way
they are created and edited.
Searching for a term in the on-line dictionary of the Real
Academia de la Lengua Española (RAE, 2008), for example,
presents users with occurrences of that term in all
the digitized dictionaries where it has ever been edited;
see Fig. 1. Because all editions of the printed version of
the dictionary have been digitized, it is possible to visualize
the evolution of the definitions of a given term. Although
this electronic version of the dictionary in itself
is a great resource, one can imagine what could be accomplished
if used in combination with a corpus of texts.
Fig. 1 A screen shot of the on-line RAE dictionary
depicting occurrences of a term in the collection of
digitized dictionaries, on the right is the image of a given
occurrence
Arachne (Foertsch 2006) is an electronic repository
(database) of the German Institute for Archaeology.
Because archaeological objects are scattered across the
world, Arachne provides multilingual access and thesaurus.
The Getty Thesaurus of Geographical Names (Baca
2004) is another good example of an external tool that
can be incorporated into existing textual materials, enhancing
searching and browsing.
The LEO on-line dictionary (LEO, 2008) was originally
launched as a German-English dictionary in 1995.
At present it includes German translations into French,
Spanish, Chinese, and Italian. Since its beginning, two
of the most remarkable accomplishments have been the integration of a larger and linguistic diverse editorial
team. And the creation of new environments for searching,
using, and learning. For instance, the current version
allows users to join groups and work together to learn
the language; it also enables teachers to organize lessons,
see Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 A screen shot of a bilingual dictionary—LEO—
depicting translations and definitions
3. Motivation
Although the use of tools for textual analysis is not a
new concept in digital humanities, their emergence is reshaping
not only the use of textual materials, but also the
mere notion of the texts themselves. Impacting in the end
how scholarly practices are conducted.
Traditionally, textual scholars can be seen as “consumers”
of the texts. They analyze, compare, and study their
contents, how they relate to each other, and their historical
and cultural contexts to name a few. Rockwell (2003)
commenting on a well known discussion about two approaches
to texts: as a hierarchical objects advanced by
Renear, and as a performance proposed by McGann,
states:
If we are to take McGann’s public performance of a reading
as an analogue for what we wish to achieve with these
tools, we have to think not only about how we represent
the text but also about the performance of analysis and the
tools that are used to perform this analysis with a computer.
In this paper, following Rockwell’s statement, we describe
a change in the role of textual scholars, from consumers
(users of the texts) into producers (augmenting
the texts) with the use of tools. Our observations are
based on the function external tools can play in augmenting
the use of the texts; how they can be used; and what
can be learned. Therefore, our goal is neither to propose
a right approach, nor to compare approaches.
We take this approach for two reasons. First, at a recent
textual studies conference (CASTA, 2008) a participant
asked one of the presenters regarding the numerous tools
available to text scholars: “But don’t you think that quite
often the problem with ‘tools,’ is precisely that there are
too many of them; and we don’t know what to do?” This
is an interesting question because—although coming
from a literary scholar with strong background and expertise
in using technology for textual studies—it shows
the marked prominence of the role texts play in digital
humanities, or at least in how humanists perceive their
role.
The second reason is based in our experience working in
the creation of a multilingual glossary of nautical terms.
The glossary has allowed the incorporation of a new
layer to the original transcriptions. For example it would
be possible to search for a given term in one language
and retrieve occurrences in the transcriptions in multiple
languages. Also categories associated to the terms can be
used for retrieving occurrences in various contexts.
Used in the context of the Willa Cather Archive (The
Willa Cather Archive, 2008), Evince—a non-invasive
text analysis tool that mediates the integration of analytical
data with the text—shows how a tool can enhance
the textual materials. What is interesting in this case, is
the fact that the tool is being used to augment the study
of the texts, hence improving what can be learned from
them. Discussing the use of Evince, (Jewell et al., 2008)
state:
We posit that integration of analytical data with the reading
text will create new possibilities for interpretation informed
by textual data, as it will eliminate the need to
enter a specialized environment.
4. Our Collection of Shipbuilding Treatises
Shipbuilding treatises are ancient technical texts, both
printed or manuscript, that describe the conception and
construction of ships, establish the required types and
properties of the wood and building materials utilized,
and sometimes describe the steps to be followed in their
construction. Given their characteristics, these texts can
be properly considered as ancient technical manuals.
Our collection was started with three Portuguese treatises
obtained with permission from the Portuguese Academia
de Marinha and National Library. At present our
collection has grown to eleven copies; and includes materials in Portuguese, French, Italian, and Dutch, spanning
a period from the late 16th to the early 18th centuries.
Additionally, an English book is already digitized and
ready to be added.
In terms of naval and seafaring dissemination, shipbuilding
treatises are priceless sources for scholars working in
ship reconstruction and studying the evolution of shipbuilding
techniques. Moreover, the development of underwater
archaeology in the last 50 years propitiated the
growth of the archaeological data corpus, which can now
be tested against the textual evidence pertaining to the
conception and construction of these complex machines.
Nautical Archaeology students, on the other hand, study
ship treatises as part of their curriculum. Finally, for the
general public they are a great source of historical and
cultural contexts in which seafaring flourished.
5. The Tool—A Multilingual Glossary of
Nautical Terms
The need for the creation of our glossary goes back to
an English illustrated glossary included as appendix in
an underwater archaeology book (Steffy, 1994). Tied to
one language and a printed medium, the glossary’s limitations
were evident. But the most pressing reason was
the various languages in which the texts in our collection
were written. Further, the glossary is essential because
nautical archaeology is a highly specialized domain
where technical terms need to be explained in order to
understand their meaning and context.
Fig. 3 A partial display of the NADL glossary depicting
our model to represent a multilingual dictionary of
nautical terms
Our model uses term as the atomic element. Each term in
turn has an associated matrix where columns correspond
to roles and rows to properties. Because we are working
on a multilingual glossary, we decided to use properties
to map languages, while roles map synonyms and spellings
respectively, see Fig 3. Each cell at the intersection
of role and language can contain zero, one, or more values
separated by the symbol |. This implies that each cell
can be represented as a vector of values.
Our approach allows scalability and flexibility. For example,
we had to add a new language—Venetian—since
it was not originally considered, and was requested by
one of the scholars. Adding the new language was a
straightforward process. Similarly, adding new roles entails
the addition of more columns. In both cases both
the architecture and the interface scale easily. From the
implementation standpoint, we use a relational database
for storing terms, synonyms, spellings, and definitions in
multiple languages.
Using Lucene—an open source full-text retrieval software
(The Apache Lucene Project, 2008)—we are parsing
texts and automatically creating links to the glossary.
Fig.4 depicts a screen shot of the treatises interface
showing the image on the left, and the transcription on
the right, with linked terms underlined in blue. Although
this process might seem a simple one, implementing it
turned out more complicated than expected. The two
main reasons were multiple-word entries and the limitations
on Lucene’s stemmer to handle 17th-century Portuguese.
Fig. 4 The treatises interface depicting linked terms in the
transcriptions
6. Conclusion
Our Web-based interface has enabled scholars to work
remotely in editing the glossary, expanding its contents
and attracting other scholars. This collaboration goes beyond
merely the editing of materials remotely. It has allowed
us to obtain materials from other libraries and also
to engage the special collections library at Texas A&M
in the acquisition of original materials.
Profiting from the rich illustrations nautical treatises provide
and the numerous ship models in our collection, we
want, in the near future, to create multilingual illustrated dictionaries, linking them to the texts. As stated earlier,
our goal is not to redefine the role of texts in the humanities.
But as our experience with the introduction of the
multilingual glossary in NADL indicates, tools are shifting
the way texts are perceived.
7. Acknowledgements
This material is based upon work supported by the National
Science Foundation under Grant No. IIS-0534314.
8. References
Baca, M. (2004). Fear of Authority? Authority Control
and Thesaurus Building for Art and Material. Cataloguing
& Classification Quaretly Vol. 38, No. 3/4, pp. 143-
151.
Crane, G. (2002). Cultural Heritage Digital Libraries:
Needs and Components. In ECDL 2002, LNCS 2458,
pp. 626-637, 2001. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2002.
Foertsch, R. (2006). ARACHNE - Datenbank und kulturelle
Archive des Forschungsarchivs fuer Antike Plastik
Koeln und des Deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts.
http://arachne.uni-koeln.de/ (accessed 12 October 2008).
Jewell, A., Zilig, B., and Ramsay, S. (2008). Can Text
Analysis Be Part of the Reading Field?: The Vision of
Evince. CaSTA 2008, New Directions in Text Analysis.
http://ocs.usask.ca/ocs/index.php/casta/casta08/paper/
view/25 (accessed 2 November 2008).
Monroy, C., Parks, N., Furuta, R., and Castro, F.
(2006). The Nautical Archaeology Digital Library, 10th
European Conference on Research and Advanced Technology
for Digital Libraries ECDL, Alicante, Spain,
September 2006. In Gonzalo et al. (Eds.) - LNCS 4172
:544-547, Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2006.
Monroy, C., Furuta, R., and Castro F. (2007). A Multilingual
Approach to Technical Manuscripts: 16th and
17th-century Portuguese Shipbuilding Treatises. ACMIEEE
Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, Vancouver,
British Columbia, Canada, June 2007.
Rockwell, G. (2003), What is Text Analysis, Really? Literary
and Linguistic Computing 18(2):209-219, 2003.
Steffy, D. (1994). Wooden Ship Building and the Interpretation
of Shipwrecks. Texas A&M University Press,
College Station, Texas (1994).
Diccionario de la Real Academia de la Lengua Española,
http://www.rae.es/rae.html (accessed 28 October
2008).
CASTA 2008 New Direction in Text Analysis, http://
ocs.usask.ca/ocs/index.php/casta/casta08/index/ (accessed
17 October 2008).
The Apache Lucene Project, http://lucene.apaches.org/
(accessed 10 October 2008).
The LEO dictionary, http://dict.leo.og/ende?lang=en
(accessed 30 October 2008).
The Willa Cather Archive, University of Nebraska Lincoln
http://cather.unl.edu (accessed 1 November 2008)","txt","2","",""
"1083","10","Visualizing Archival Collections with ArchivesZ","2","Archival records and manuscripts are usually arranged
to retain their original order when transferred
into the care of archivists or manuscript curators.
A side effect of grouping records by record creator and
retaining the creator’s original organization is that materials
are described at the group level—not at the item
level. The ramifications for archive searchability are dramatic:
Imagine a library where, instead of being grouped
together by subject, books were shelved alphabetically
by author—and interspersed with each author’s notes,
drafts, expense records, and personal memorabilia. This
basic difference between libraries and archives is key to
understanding why subject-based access to archival resources
is both challenging to achieve and very useful
when available.
With this in mind, we have developed ArchivesZ, an information
visualization tool for archival collections. It
enables users to visualize and explore aggregated information
relating to the total linear feet, inclusive years
and subject terms for archival collections extracted from
EAD encoded finding aids.
Chris Anderson of Wired described the power of the
“long tail” in his Wired article of the same name. He discussed
that the future belonged not to the bestsellers, but
rather to “the millions of niche markets at the shallow
end of the bit-stream.”1 There has been much discussion
of the long tail with regard to library resources2, but it is
interesting note that archival materials are virtually all
long tail. The nature of archival collections is such that
many of those with the greatest desire to access the materials
have very narrow and specific interests. It is quite
rare that the documents in a single archival collection
will be popular, in the sense of a bestselling book. Frequently
it is a challenge for humanities scholars wishing
to use archival materials to figure out how to approach
the search process. Use of a visualization tool designed
to support the examination of aggregated information
about archival collections could support a more serendipitous
process of exploration of materials and the discovery
of new avenues of research.
Even the most experienced historian or humanities scholar
has struggled with the challenge of locating relevant
primary sources. Archival record groups and manuscript
collections present unique challenges to researchers. For
example, a standard search result list shows only the title
and short description for each record group or collection.
This list fails to convey the quantity of materials or
diversity of subjects covered by the combination of collections
returned by the search. A visualization tool that
supports examination of cross-collection and cross-institution
aggregated data about archival collections could:
• Encourage the browsing and exploration of locally
available cultural heritage resources,
• Improve understanding of existing collections,
• Permit easy identification of locations with a rich
combination of collections applicable to a particular
research project, and
• Increase interest in both the humanities and primary
materials.
Encoded Archival Description (EAD) is the international
de facto standard for encoding archival finding aids in
an XML format. Finding aids include information about
who created the records, when they were created, why
they were created, what topics the records relate to, and
the size of the collection. The archival community has
spent much of the past decade encoding existing finding
aids using the EAD standard. Up to this point the major
selling point of EAD has been as a tool for simplifying
the process of publishing finding aids online. While work
has been done to create tools to facilitate the encoding
of finding aids, the next step is to take advantage of the
structured data now available in EAD encoded finding
aids. This machine readable data can support the creation
of innovative software programs intended to extract, organize,
facilitate discovery of and aggregate information
about archival resources.
Tools for visualizing archival collections support the
needs of three distinct user groups.
• Archivists and manuscript curators can use such a
tool to improve their understanding and validate the
metadata of the collections at various institutions including
their own.
• Literary researchers, historians and humanities
scholars can use this type of tool to permit easy identification of institutions with archival collections
fitting the criteria of their research.
• Finally, this type of tool can enable exploration of
locally held cultural heritage materials by students
and promote use of primary sources. In contrast to
researchers who frequently have very specific interests
before they examine the collections held by an
institution, students in the university setting who are
interested in humanities topics are likely not aware
of the primary sources available. A tool of this type
might encourage the browsing and open ended exploration
of locally available cultural heritage resources,
and increase interest in both the humanities
and primary materials.
Built in spring of 2007, the first version of ArchivesZ
is a prototype for just such a tool. Designed to support
search, exploration and visualization of archival record
groups and manuscript collections, ArchivesZ addresses
a major challenge facing humanities scholars - the need
to understand the scope and quantity of available archival
records and manuscripts.
Fig. 1 Screenshot of ArchivesZ Prototype (video
demonstration online at archivesz.org)
To support organic exploration of subject terms associated
with collections, ArchivesZ leverages a unique
dual sided histogram (see right half of Figure 1). The
ArchivesZ prototype combines this dual sided histogram
with a more traditional histogram displaying year data to
permit tightly coupled, multi-dimensional browsing of
subject and time period metadata. By representing the
distribution of subjects and time periods using the metric
of total aggregate linear feet, ArchivesZ permits users
to get a better sense of total available research materials
than they would by viewing a standard search result list.
The subject term visualization interface may also support
a deeper understanding of the relationships among
subject terms through the lens of the currently selected
set of collections.
Further development of ArchivesZ has been supported
by a National Endowment for the Humanities Digital
Humanities Startup Grant. In this Poster / Demo, we will
present the newest version of ArchivesZ in use over a
large set of finding aids provided by a wide range of partner
archives. Our demo will show the newest version of
he tool and we will discuss how this lays the foundation
for the future creation of a public tool for visualizing archival
collections.
Notes
1C. Anderson. The long tail. Wired, 12(10), 2004.
2 L. Dempsey. Libraries and the long tail: Some thoughts
about libraries in a network age. D-Lib Magazine, 12(4),
April 2006.","txt","2","",""
"1084","10","Active Animation: An Approach to Interactive and Generative Animation for User-Interface Design and Expression","2","Abstract The traditional view of animation is a medium-specific
perspective: animation is a sequence of images
on film. In contrast, we employ a wider, interdisciplinary
theoretical lens, based on a phenomenological perspective
of animation. We describe animation as the experience
of artifacts imbued with apparent “animacy,”
or “liveliness,” and identify a range of media artifacts
where an account of animacy is key to understanding
and designing their functionality. These artifacts range
from computer interface mechanisms such as bouncing
and stretching icons to interactive cartoons that may be
used for informational, entertainment, or socio-critical
purposes. We introduce the term “active animation” to
describe this range of artifacts. Insights from textual
analyses in the humanities-based field of animation studies
can enable analysis and design of active animation,
and likewise animation studies can be informed by insights
regarding agency in artificial intelligence research,
theories of embodied cognition and conceptual blending
from cognitive science, and psychological approaches to
movement and perception. To exemplify the technical
design potential of our approach, we present a cognitive
semantics-based interactive and generative multimedia
system that we have implemented called the Generative
Visual Renku system as a case study active animation.
The upshot is that our interdisciplinary animacy-oriented
perspective highlights how gesture and movement allow
interactive and generative digital artifacts to convey
non-verbal meaning to users.
1. Introduction
Animacy lies at the heart of many media artifacts imbued
with an illusion of life. Puppets and avatars, examples
of traditional and digital user manipulated characters,
become lively under the control and enactment of performers.
Animatronic robots utilize mechanical means
to produce the appearance of gesturing and perceiving
viewers. Cartoons, manifested through sequences of pictures,
can walk like real human figures. Although these
artifacts differ from each other in terms of material form,
control mechanism, and technology, all of them are animated
in a literal sense. The animation of these artifacts
hinges upon lively motion as the primary phenomenon
of illusion of life.
Meanwhile, the term animation is often narrowly seen
as referring to a particular medium, namely a type of
film. Indeed, the celebrated filmmaker Norman McLaren
describes animation as the “art of movements that are
drawn.” (Wells, 1998) Although his quote seemingly
privileges motion over medium, the material condition
of imagery as drawings is still presumed. In contrast,
we call attention to views that deemphasize medium
and emphasize liveliness. The animation theorist Alan
Cholodenko attempts to generalize the notion of animation
as sorts of technology geared toward “endowing
with life” and “endowing with motion.” (Cholodenko,
2007) In parallel, many digitally mediated environments
such as computer interfaces, websites, and handheld devices
have become lively, reactive, semi-autonomous,
and graphical. They often construct meaning through
perceived movement and embodied interaction. We call
digital images engaged in such meaning-making processes
“active animation.” Given the ubiquity of such
multimedia computing phenomena that are often overlooked
as animation, there is need for theory to comprehend
how such artifacts convey non-linguistic meaning
via animacy and to formulate theoretically-grounded approaches
for designing lively multimedia artifacts. This
paper articulates this need and presents a new approach
to addressing it, including a new form of active animation
that we have developed.
2. Theoretical Framework
Our approach to the analysis and design of active animation
arises from an intersection of multiple disciplines.
Animation and image studies provide us a critical vocabulary
for identifying the phenomenon of liveliness
as definitional for our area of inquiry. (Arnheim, 1974;
Metz, 1974; Mitchell, 1986) For thinkers such as Ludwig
Wittgenstein and W.J.T. Mitchell, the term “image” is
not limited to material images (e.g. screen images) or optical
images, but also means perceptual images (through
motor-sensory functions, including the kinaesthetic) or
even mental images. It follows that the idea of animation
should also extend to considering moving images
on the basis of sensory perception and embodied cognition.
Cognitive semantics research provides accounts
of embodied meaning construction and generation of
imaginative meaning through metaphorical projection Lakoff & Johnson, 2003; Turner, 1996) Psychological
and phenomenological approaches to human-computer
interaction are also relevant departure points for investigating
the role of interactivity in the perception of liveliness.
(Norman, 1988; Shneiderman, 2003)
3. Active Animation: Examples and
Analyses
Toward analyzing and designing instances of active
animation we introduce two levels of signification: the
reactive and the metaphorical. At the reactive level, users
make meaning out of liveliness of artifacts through a
motor-sensory loop feedback between users and systems
– i.e. users perform actions via an interface and perceive
their animated effects in the system. Examples include
user-interface mechanisms such as the many shrinking,
stretching, and bouncing icons in the Macintosh OS X
environment and interactive animated comics such as
found at www.hoogerbrugge.com.
Fig. 1 The “genie” effect in Macintosh OS where windows
dynamically stretch and shrink
Such works imbue media elements such as windows and
icons with a sense of liveliness formerly unknown in
user interfaces. Motion is used to focalize user attention,
add spectacle to basic operation, and to allow embodied
user action such as clicking to play a role in realizing the
meaning of animated content. (Arnheim, 1974; Lakoff &
Johnson, 1999) Basic image schemata (skeletal patterns
of motor-sensory perception) play crucial roles in user
understanding of such works. (Lakoff & Johnson, 2003)
For example, the “dock” area of the Macintosh graphical
user interface becomes a container for windows, paralleling
the container image schema articulated in (Lakoff
& Johnson, 2003).
At the metaphorical level, users construct imaginative
motion metaphors through the interaction between embodied
gestures and multimedia feedback. The idea can
be demonstrated by the water-level interface designed
for the mobile phone N702iS and the electronic advertising
viral campaign www.comeclean.com.
Fig. 3 A mobile phone interface where battery level is
indicated via the illusion of a water-filled container
The water-level interface in Fig. 3 comprises a conceptual
metaphor in which a container filled with water is
integrated with a standard interface element depicting
battery-level. This metaphor exploits the liveliness of
animated water to present functional information in a
lively and playful manner. The website Comeclean.com
invokes standard interface mechanisms such as dataentry
and mouse-clicking to arrive at a metaphorical
projection in which users can wash away the wrongdoings.
The site is, in fact, an advertisement for cleaning
supplies, yet the metaphorical mapping from washing
one’s hands using particular cleaning supplies to washing
away confessions of sin is enabled by the active animation
interface.
4. A New Form of Active Animation:
Generative Visual Renku
As an example of multimedia system design based on
our approach to active animation briefly we present an
expressive project that we have developed called Generative Visual Renku. (Harrell & Chow, 2008) A polymorphic
poem is a generative digital artwork that is
constructed differently upon each instantiation, but can
be meaningfully constrained according to aspects such
as theme, metaphor, affect, and discourse structure. Our
Generative Visual Renku project presents a work of active
animation as a new form of concrete polymorphic
poetry inspired by Japanese renku poetry, iconicity of
Chinese character forms, and generative models from
contemporary art.
In the Generative Visual Renku project interactive iconic
illustrations are conjoined by a cognitive science based
computer program called GRIOT into a fanciful topography.
GRIOT, which is a system for composing generative
and interactive narrative and poetic works, is used to
semantically constrain generated animated output both
visually and conceptually.
Fig. 5 A Generative Visual Renku screenshot: Users co-create
animated maps by clicking visual icons, the system responsively
selects subsequent images according to semantic constraints
Conclusions and Implications
Today many multimedia computing systems show spectacular
animated images that react to user actions with
animated feedback. These artifacts manifest the notion
of animation in a new horizon beyond the cinematic. The
examples of active animation above illustrate this manifestation
in both functional interface design such as the
lively windows of Mac OS X and mobile phone waterlevel
interfaces and in expressive works such as found
at Hoogerbrugge.com or in our own generative visual
renku. These works all evoke senses of liveliness, not
only with perceptual movements, but also through generative
multimodal feedback loops. They bring life to the
computer, it can now feel more intimate to users through
perceived emotion and even intelligence.
Active animation “enlivens” the computer by concealing
its complexity with a “skin” like the shells of animatronic
robots. Careful understanding of how users
interpret active animation allows designers to “stage”
and “veil” technology in order to create spectacles, suspense,
surprise, and intuitive non-verbal meanings for
users. This approach also brings concern for humanistic
interpretation back to the center of analysis and design
of multimedia artifacts. The integration of computational
and cognitive research results with approaches from animation
studies provides a new orientation for designing
technologies that are more in line with our everyday,
non-verbal, affective acts of communication and understanding.
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of the creative eye. Berkeley: University of California
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Cholodenko, A. (2007). Speculations on the Animatic
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Metz, C. (1974). Film language : a semiotics of the cinema.
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Norman, D. A. (1988). The Psychology of Everyday
Things. New York: Basic Books Inc.
Shneiderman, B. (2003 [1983]). Direct Manipulation: A
Step beyond Programming Languages. In
N. Wardrip-Fruin & N. Montfort (Eds.), The new media
reader (pp. 486-498). Cambridge,
Mass. ; London: MIT Press. Turner, M. (1996). The literary
mind. New York: Oxford University Press. Wells,
P. (1998). Understanding animation. London ; New
York: Routledge.","txt","2","",""
"1085","10","I Am a Black Scholar: A Digital Repository of Scholarship from within the Black Diaspora","2","Introducing The Black Scholars Index™ (Green 2008; Booker 2007; Hall-Green, 2000; Scott
1995). Over the years, the desire to provide analytical
commentary, share knowledge, and provide advice as a
result of lived experiences has been prominent themes
within the Black intellectual community, especially
within the United States. Harold Cruz (1967) provided
a historical analysis of what he deemed the challenges
of black leadership in his book, The Crisis of the Negro
Intellectual. In it, he chronicled the major decisions and
actions of prominent Black literary, artistic, and political
leaders. This book provided an astounding glimpse into
Black life similarly to the renowned books of W. E. B.
DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk (1903) and Carter G.
Woodson, The Mis-education of the Negro (1933). Nikki
Giovanni, a prominent Black literary scholar, dedicated
two chapters in her book, Racism 101 (1994), for advice
to African-American students enrolled in college (or
soon to be); and in 2003, Anna Green and LeKita Scott
published Journey to the PhD: How to Navigate the Process
as African Americans, a collection of seventeen essay
describing the challenges of twenty doctoral student
from institution around the United States.
These books are often recommended to members of the
Black community and beyond, especially those contemplating
higher education, as representations of past accomplishments
and challenges from which to gain invaluable
lessons. While they are valuable resources, they
are not as widely accessible as resources made available
on the internet and they do not contain information over
extended periods of time. The Black Scholars Index™
provides this and more. Not only will this historical website
serve as a repository of research and analytical accounts
of knowledge production, it will be an ongoing
spotlight of the lived experiences of Black Scholars and
offer invaluable advice throughout the life of the project.
With it, future scholars of all races will have access
to resourceful information, authentic experiences and
perspectives, visual representations of research trends,
and various other tools and features that will help understand
the educational and intellectual activities of Black
Scholars.
However, gains from The Black Scholar Index™ existence
stretch beyond these benefits. Aside from the
project’s goals and the above component descriptions,
the informative advantages and implications of BSI are
tremendous and research has been underway since its inception
in February 2008. Two months after launching
BSI with only word of mouth marketing, approximately
200 Black Scholars were indexed and initial demographic
statistics were measured. Measurements from this
snapshot are displayed below:
• Female -66%
• Male -34%.
• In a relationship -22%
• Married -27%
• Single -48%
• Parents – 33%
• iHnatevree sptsu b-4li3sh%e d papers about their work or similar
• Members of fraternities and sororities -21%
• Attended an HBCU for undergraduate degree -49%
• Top BS Degree obtained = BS Biology
• Attended an HBCU for Masters degree -19%
• Top Masters Degree obtained = MS Public Health
• Attended an HBCU for Doctoral degree -3%
• eTnocpe P hD Degree obtained = PhD in Computer Sci-
• Current faculty (tenured and non-tenured) -16%
• Currently doctoral students – 37%
• More than 1/2 work in a field related to their PhD
• 77% expressed interest in serving as BSI mentors
The results of this preliminary snapshot were extremely
revealing: the majority of Black scholars indexed studied
health and science, a small number were employed
in faculty positions, a large majority were interested in
mentoring students interested in pursuing advanced degrees,
and although approximately half attended Historically
Black Colleges and/or Universities (HBCUs) while
in undergraduate school, attendance at HBCUs diminishes
significantly as higher degrees were sought. Most
of the Black scholars indexed to date reside within the
United States and the BSI website displays a geospatial
map of their employment locations. Although these
measurements do not reflect the total number of African-
Americans with doctoral degrees, it provides a glimpse
of demographic information and illustrates the potential
for the amount of information that can be garnered
overtime. This information along with more qualitative
analysis of the experiences, perspectives, and motivations
of those indexed via future website polls, surveys,
and other forms of interaction will be beneficial to future
educational programs, mentoring organizations, and recruitment
efforts by a variety of organizations and institutions.
Conclusion and Future Work
Development of The Black Scholars Index™ is ongoing.
Design revisions, expansion of content, and the design
and implementation of the many tools including those
described above are all underway. One of the intended
analysis tools examines the collaboration and co-authorship
of research projects and papers. Another tool provides
an interface for data entry of well-known African
American scholars who have lived over the past century.
Further analysis of the all the data collected will help
fulfill the mission of the project and provide a concise
representation of the scholarly accomplishments of the
Black Diaspora.
References
Booker, K. C. (2007). Perception of classroom belongingness
among African American college students. College
Student Journal. 3 (41), 178-186
Du Bois, W. E. B (1903). The Souls of Black Folk, Republished
(1995) 100th Anniversary Edition, Penguin
Group
Giovanni, N. (1994). Racism 101. Quill, NY
Green, A. (2008). A Dream Deferred: The experience of
an African American student in a doctoral program in
science. Education Spring 2008, Vol. 128 Issue 3, p339-
348
Green, A., Scott, L. (2003). Journey to the PhD: How to
Navigate the Process as African Americans, Stylus, VA
Hall-Greene, D. (2000). A Qualitative Study on African
American and Caribbean Black Males’ Experience in a
College of Aeronautical Science. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Virginia Tech.
Scott, D. W. (1995). Conditions related to the Academic
Performance of African American Students at Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, Virginia Tech.
Woodon, C. G. (1993) The Mis-education of the Negro,
Republished (1992), UBUS Communications Systems
‘I am a Black Scholar’ is the slogan for the digital humanities
project named The Black Scholars Index™ (BSI)
sponsored by Uplift, Inc. Uplift, Inc. is a 501c3 (tax exempt)
nonprofit organization, founded by Leshell Hatley,
a doctoral student in the College of Information Studies
at the University of Maryland. Its mission is to support
underrepresented groups and to research and develop
technology-based programs, products, and services to
encourage and produce lifelong learners, leaders, and resilient
communities. With this in mind, the organization
and its founder constructed The Black Scholars Index™
(BSI) as an online venue to highlight, record, analyze,
and illustrate the scholarly achievements and intellectual
movements within the Black Diaspora, descendents of
Africans who have settled throughout the world as a result
of the Atlantic slave trade. In keeping with current
uses of Internet technology, BSI will host features such
as: an extensive directory of Black Scholars; Talented
Tenth, BSI’s online Journal for Black Scholars; the BSI
Digital Repository, a database of dissertations, research
papers, and other work produced by Black scholars;
online collaboration tools; a network for mentoring potential
students of higher education; pod/webcasts, and
a host of Web 2.0 data visualization elements. These
tools and features will provide analytical measurements,
share insightful perspectives, and enhance the historical
account of the knowledge production and of the many
societal contributions by Black Scholars.
Investigating The Black Scholars Index™
While many researchers have previously attempted to
gather information about the perspectives, experiences,
motivations, and challenges of Black students in higher
education, few, if any, have done so on large scales, from
around the world, nor collected works and experiences
of these scholars after they have been working in their
fields. In the form of books and articles, some Black
students have given personal accounts of their stories at
Predominately White Institutions (PWIs) or within fields
of study where Black students are underrepresented
as attempts to share their experiences and offer advice","txt","2","",""
"1086","10","Digital Editions for Corpus Linguistics: Encoding Abbreviations in TEI XML Mark-up","2","This poster will present the Digital Editions for Corpus
Linguistics (DECL) system for encoding manuscript
abbreviations in TEI-conformant XML. First, I
will briefly describe the DECL project, its presenting its
aims and editorial policies. Secondly, I will go through
the problems resulting from the silent expansion of abbreviations,
an approach some digital editions derive
from traditional editing. And finally, I will describe the
possibilities of TEI P5 for encoding them, as well as the
DECL application of the guidelines, and what benefits
they have for the type of historically oriented, corpus
searchable editions we are compiling. The examples
will come from a digital edition of Trinity College Cambridge
MS O.1.77, a pocket-sized late medieval medical
handbook in Middle English and Latin, which I am editing
for my PhD thesis.
Digital Editions for Corpus Linguistics
DECL is a project, based at the Research Unit for Variation,
Contacts and Change (VARIENG) at the University
of Helsinki, which aims at developing online editions
that combine the accurate description of historical documents
with the flexibility of search tools developed for
linguistic computing. It was formed by three postgraduate
students at VARIENG in 2007, who shared a dissatisfaction
with extant tools and resources, and aimed
to develop a more versatile and user-friendly model for
digitised manuscripts of historical texts. The tools and
framework are designed to meet the needs of small scale
research projects and individual scholars. They are based
on and compatible with version P5 of the TEI guidelines.
On the level of editorial principles, DECL editions adopt
the opinion of Lass (2004) that digital editions should
preserve the text as faithfully as possible, convey it in as
flexible form as possible, and ensure that any editorial
intervention remains visible and reversible, formulating
it into three central principles of Transparency, Flexibility
and Expandability. DECL editions aim to offer the
user diplomatic transcriptions of the manuscripts into
which linguistic, palaeographic and codicological features
will be encoded. Additional layers of contextual, codicological and linguistic annotation can be added to
the editions using standoff XML tagging.
Background
One of the most ubiquitous problems encountered in editing
medieval manuscripts, is how to represent the numerous
abbreviations in them. There is no established
standard for encoding these abbreviations in digital format,
and many digital editions still follow the practice
inherited from traditional book editions of expanding
them, either silently or in italics. From the point of view
of historical linguistics this is somewhat problematic, especially
in the light of some recent discussion over what
is required of an edition or corpus in order to constitute
reliable data (cf. i.a. Bailey 2004; Curzan and Palmer
2006; Dollinger 2004; Grund 2006). Most vocal in his
criticism of existing practices has been Lass (2004),
who demands that in order to serve as valid data for the
historiography of language, a digital edition or a corpus
should not contain any editorial intervention that results
in substituting the scribal text with a modern equivalent.
Expanding abbreviations substitutes a symbol used by
the scribe with a modern reading of it, which may, in
the vast majority of cases, be obvious, and supported
by research, but, by definition, also contains an element
of editorial interpretation. In some cases this may have
an impact on the data. For example, the irregularity of
spelling of Middle English may result the editor to make
decisions over which combination of letters a particular
abbreviation stands for in text in which the abbreviated
word may appear in several spelling variants.
TEI
The TEI P5 module for encoding glyphs and non-standard
characters offers a few alternative ways of annotating
them. The abbreviations may be annotated by <g>
tag, indicating that they are glyphs, in which case they
are defined by the gaiji module in the TEI header. Or the
<am> and <ex> tags can be used to indicate the abbreviated
sign and its editorial expansion. In these cases, the
<choice> element may also be used to indicate that
some of the elements are alternatives to each other. Or
the whole word may simply be annotated as <abbr> to
show that it contains abbreviations. The editor may also
use the <expan> tag, indicating items which have been
expanded without recording the abbreviation symbol.
The DECL guidelines uses an application of this that
marks both the symbol, and its content, but does not require
multiple elements inside a single word, as they can
cause internal difficulties with stand-off tagging. We use
the <abbr> element to mark that a word contains an
abbreviation, the <g> element to tag the content of each
abbreviation, and give the abbreviation symbol used for
it as its attribute.
<abbr>su<g ref=”#crossed-p”>per
</g></abbr>
The expanded part of the abbreviation, which is in fact
editors reconstruction and in some cases may up for debate
gets enclosed in the <g> tags, and thus also marked
as editorial - which is in accordance with the DECL
principle of transparency.
Aims and Benefits
The XML code can be dynamically processed via XSLT
transformation scripts to create documents which display
either the abbreviations or expanded words according
to the needs of the user, and DECL editions will also
offer the user a customisable online interface, capable of
displaying both. In addition to visual presentation and
browsing, the interface will also offer corpus search and
analysis functions, which can be extended to searches
on the specified elements or attributes. Following the
principles of open source and open access, they users of
DECL editions will have full access to the code and may
download and alter it, meaning that it is possible to alter
the editorial decisions if the user is not satisfied with
them.
In the poster I will give an illustrated presentation of how
the process of encoding abbreviations progresses from
manuscript images, via TEI XML code to its various
forms of presentation.
References
Bailey, Richard W. (2004). The need for good texts:
The case of Henry Machyn’s
Day Book, 1550–1563, Studies in the history of the English
language II: Unfolding conversations (Topics in
English Linguistics 45): 217–228.
Curzan, Anne and Palmer, Chris C. (2006). The importance
of historical corpora, reliability, and reading,
Corpus-based Studies of Diachronic English: 17–34.
DECL (Digital Editions for Corpus Linguistics).
<http://www.helsinki.fi/varieng/domains/DECL.html>.
Dollinger, Stefan. (2004). ‘Philological computing’ vs.
‘philological outsourcing’ and the compilation of historical
corpora: A Late Modern English test case, Vienna English Working Papers (VIEWS), 13(2): 3–23.
Grund, Peter. (2006). Manuscripts as sources for linguistic
research: A methodological case study based on
the Mirror of Lights, Journal of English Linguistics, 34:
105–125.
Lass, Roger. (2004). ‘Ut custodiant litteras: Editions,
Corpora and Witnesshood’, in: Marina Dossena and
Roger Lass (eds.) Methods and Data in English Historical
Dialectology (Linguistic Insights 16): 21–48.
TEI (Text Encoding Initiative). <http:/www.tei-c.org>.
VARIENG (Research Unit for Variation, Contacts
and Change in English). <http://www.helsinki.fi/
varieng/>","txt","2","",""
"1087","10","JGAAP 4.0 - A Revised Authorship Attribution Tool","2","Authorship Attribution (Juola, 2006) can be defined
as the inference of the author or her characteristics
by examining documents produced by that person. For
some time, we have been working on a system (JGAAP
— Java Graphical Authorship Attribution Program) to
use advanced statistics to perform this task while not demanding
a high degree of expertise from the user (Juola,
et al., 2008). With the recent release of JGAAP 3.2 and
the near-term planned release of JGAAP 4.0, we are finally
confident that we have a production quality system
for general-purpose use.
We now report (and demonstrate) these recent improvements.
JGAAP now incorporates nearly 20 different analytic
methods (including eight different distance-based
nearest-neighbor algorithms), more than 20 different
event sets and models ranging from character- and wordbased
N-grams to reaction times, and several different
preprocessors incorporating a wide variety of different
document types including remote (Web-accessible) files
and text extraction from different formats. We estimate
that JGAAP is capable of performing more than 20,000
different types of analysis for authorship attribution or
similar text classification tasks, with more being added
as development continues.
Other improvements include:
• GUI improvements to enhance user-friendliness
• Enhanced graphical output capabilities Full report generation capacity for scholarly inspection
of the results
• Creation of a command-line interface
• Automatic batch processing capacity for large-scale
comparative testing
• Incorporation of the AAAC (Juola, 2004) test corpus
into the demo for comparative testing purposes
• Dynamic loading of new methods to encourage new
development
We are finally able to perform large-scale comparative
analyses of different processing methods. We include
here a short list of some JGAAP-related findings (published,
submitted, or in preparation) :
• Introduction of a small number of character errors
(as exemplified by modern OCR systems) does not
substantially reduce accuracy with most methods.
• Symmetric (“commutative”) distance-based methods
tend to outperform asymmetric ones.
• Linear classifiers such as LDA tend to outperform
nonlinear classifiers despite the apparent oversimplicity
of the underlying model
• Character-based methods tend to outperform wordbased
ones for authorship attribution in Chinese
• Both cosine distance (normalized dot product) and
simple event-based Kullback-Leibler divergence
tend to be the best-performing methods for distancebased
nearest-neighbor methods.
• The seminal word list of Mosteller and Wallace does
not generally perform well for texts other than the
Federalist Papers
Some of our findings have been submitted under separate
cover to this conference, but we hope to present a summary
of major results that have been achieved by June
2009 along with a demonstration of the newest version
of the program. We also hope to provide examples of
the sort of analysis that have been performed by JGAAP
(and invite cooperation from interested researchers for
further study).
Finally, we hope to demonstrate some example ad-hoc
analyses during the session; it should be possible, for example,
to demonstrate that “document length” or “words
that are palindromes” do not perform well as Event/feature
sets in less than ten minutes. While this is perhaps
not interesting (no sensible person has proposed palindromes
for authorship attribution), this clearly illustrates
the ease-of-use and of result generation.","txt","2","",""
"1088","10","The Prioress and the Jew: Mining the Symbolic System through Lexical Genre Analysis of Modernizations","2","My research uses quantitative analysis and reception tion of Lipscomb’s text was very positive which shows
that his changes create a text that is more congruent with
the aesthetics of contemporary readers. In comparison
to Wordsworth and Anderson, Lipscomb’s text was a
watered-down Chaucer which Lipscomb “pruned of indelicacies.”
HyperPo, as a text analysis tool, is an effective way of
creating and organizing lexical data. The addition of raw
counts, relative weights, and Z-scores gives the critic a
variety of measurements for their data. Working between
Middle English and Modern English creates problems.
Anderson’s nonstandard spelling causes inaccurate word
counts where some words (moder/modre/mother) are
counted separately and other words are counted together
(“sone” meaning both “son” and “soon”). Critics must
be careful if filtering common words that they do not
remove words which might affect their data.
My research suggests that Wordsworth’s modernization
was a fairly accurate translation of Chaucer, but this is
also the reason it was a failure. Contemporary readers
saw Chaucer and Middle English as barbaric and crude.
Lipscomb’s version, on the other hand, softened the language
and delivered a less vitriolic modernization. Lipscomb
worked within the framework of Dryden’s Fables
Ancient and Modern, published in 1700, which drastically
changed lines, added material, changed rhyme
schemes, and censored what he considered indecent.
Dryden’s modernizations were very popular and fit more
closely into the horizon of expectations of the time. The
social function of the legenda form, if distant in Chaucer’s
time, was no longer apparent to the 19th century
reader. In turn, changes within the symbolic system
between Christians and Jews render the Prioress’s character
opaque to modern readers. Her anti-Semitism is
troubling because it confronts us in the aftermath of a
long history of Jewish persecution which culminated in
the recent history of the holocaust.
Bibliography
Anderson, Robert, ed. (1795). The Prioress’s Tale. The
Works of the British Poets. London.
Benson, Larry, ed. (1987). The Riverside Chaucer. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin.
Graver, Bruce. (1998). Translations of Chaucer and Virgil.
Ithaca: Cornell UP.
Hallissy, Margaret. (1995). A Companion to Chaucer’s
Canterbury Tales. Westport: Greenwood.
Hoover, David L. (2008). Quantitative Analysis and Literary
Studies. A Companion to Digital Literary Studies,
ed. Susan Schreibman and Ray Siemens. Oxford: Blackwell.
HyperPo. (2008). Text Analysis Portal For Research.
http://portal.tapor.ca/portal/portal (accessed 20 October
2008).
Jauss, Hans Robert. (1982). Trans. Timothy Bahti. Toward
an Aesthetic of Reception. Minneapolis: U of Minn
P, 1982.
Lipscomb, William, ed. (1795). The Prioress’s Tale.
The Canterbury Tales, complete in a Modern Version.
Oxford.
Tomasch, Sylvia. (2000). Postcolonial Chaucer and the
Virtual Jew. The Postcolonial Middle Ages. Ed. Jeffrey
Jerome Cohen. New York: Palgrave, pp. 243-260.
Tyrwhitt, Thomas, ed. (1795). The Canterbury tales of
Chaucer.
Wilsbacher, Greg. (2005).Lumiansky’s Paradox: Ethics,
Aesthetics and Chaucer’s ‘Prioress’s Tale.’ College
Literature. Vol. 32, Iss. 4: 1-29.
Wordsworth, William. (1947). The Prioress’ Tale.
Wordsworth’s Poetical Works. Ed. E. Selincourt. London:
Oxford UP.
Wu, Duncan. (1993). Wordsworth’s Reading 1770-
1799. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
theory in order to understand how early 19th century
readers viewed and received the work of Chaucer.
Using the HyperPo tool from the Text Analysis Portal
(TAPoR), my analysis suggests that modernizations of
“The Prioress’s Tale” were more critically successful in
the 19th century when they adulterated the original form
of the tale beyond the threshold of the distinctiveness
ratio (Hoover, 2008). I attribute this genre shift to a
change in the symbolic systems between Christians and
Jews which denigrated the legenda form in the 19th century.
The historic adulteration of the legenda form along
with the disappearance of its ‘loci in life’ illuminates
both how and why current analysis has focused heavily
upon the anti-Semitism of the tale while also coming to
an impasse of critical scholarship.
Criticism of the anti-Semitic nature of the tale has tended
to diverge and stagnate into what critic Lawrence Besserman
calls ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ readings. Hard readings view
both the tale and Chaucer as anti-Semitic, as was typical
of 14th century England. Soft readings focus upon
Chaucer’s satire of the prioress, as well as adducing ambivalent
historical evidence of the relationship between
Jews and Christians, in an attempt to redeem Chaucer,
the ‘Father of English.’ My research shifts this dualism
by suggesting that contemporaries of Chaucer saw the
construction of the Jew, or virtual Jew as posited in the
work of Sylvia Tomasch, as a purely symbolic construct
inherent within the form and social function of the legenda.
My analysis of the degradation of the legenda is
framed by the reception theory of Hans Robert Jauss.
Jauss’s theory, elucidated in Toward an Aesthetic of Reception,
diachronically links literary studies and literary
history by tracing the historical shift of genres through
changes to readers’ ‘horizon of expectations.’ According
to Jauss, texts propagate through their ability to conform
to and disturb the expectations of their readers. When
texts are well-received, they exhibit congruency with the
history and sociology of their audience. The reception of
deviations from the horizon of expectations signals the
historical and social approval or denigration of a text’s
ability to represent the norms and realities of its readers.
The structure of genre then is more than mere literary
fashion. The diachronic change of genre reception
reflects instabilities in the specific social and historical
norms and realities of readers at the time. Stable genres
reflect social and historical systems that are well-established.
Changing genres reflect periods of social and
historical change.
Within the 14th century context of ‘The Canterbury
Tales,’ the legenda of ‘The Prioress’s Tale’ is a ‘culinary
art’ (Unterhaltungskunst) because it demands no horizontal
change of expectations (Jauss, 1982). The legenda
represents an older form of art designed for what
Margaret Hallisy calls ‘simple believers.’ The characters
function as simple allegories of weakness, holiness,
and evil. The social function of the legenda is to show
how the holy but weak may paradoxically triumph over a
powerful evil with the help of God. The strength of this
simple allegorical form in subsequent modernizations
of the tale can be tracked through text analysis software
such as HyperPo.
The form of the legenda is reliant upon clear designations
of good, evil, and weakness. The saint must always be
portrayed as both good and weak. The villain is purely
evil with no sense of redemption. I have used HyperPo
to examine a lexical field centered about these terms in
Robert Lipscomb’s 1795 edition, William Wordsworth’s
1820 edition, and Robert Anderson’s Middle English
version in The Works of the British Poets. I have chosen
Anderson because he is the likely source for both writers.
My data from HyperPo suggests that Wordsworth’s text
is a fairly good modernization. He retains the rhyme
royal form, uses similar syntax, and foregoes translation
where he feels the modern word does not capture the essence
of the original Middle English. The lexical field
of the legenda is a strong match with Anderon (92% raw
match), but shows some weakening. Concerning reception,
reviews of Wordsworth’s text in 1820 either panned
or ignored the modernization. This seems to suggest a
disconnect between the function of the legenda form and
Wordsworth’s 19th century audience.
Lipscomb’s text is not a close modernization. Analysis
shows that the lexical field of the legenda is debased to
the point that the text only weakly resembles the form
(62% raw match). This match is below the Distinctiveness
Ratio of .67 which David L. Hoover advocates as
warranting attention (2008). It might be said that Lipscomb’s
text has ceased to be a legenda at all. Recep","txt","2","",""
"1089","10","An Approach to Information Access and Knowledge Discovery from Historical Documents","2","1. Introduction Recently, libraries, governments and major internet
providers, are forming consortiums to preserve historical
documents stored in libraries. (e.g. Google Book
Search, Open Content Alliance, World Digital Library,
Hathi Trust, etc.). It means that more and more old text
contents will be accessible on the internet in the near future.
Obviously, huge amount of knowledge in old documents
is as important as recent born-digital documents
typically available on the web, because old documents
are the collection of wisdom from B.C. Thus, it might
be useful to be able to access such old documents. Moreover,
it is very useful to discover hidden knowledge and
wisdom written in these old documents.
In order to realize this purpose, it is necessary to retrieve
important information from old documents. However,
it is not always easy to retrieve old documents, mainly
due to the substantial change in language and culture
over time. Therefore, we need a method to access old
documents written in ancient language using a query
in modern language. We call this method “Cross-Age
Information Retrieval”. Moreover, we should consider
the cultural difference over time, even for the same language.
For this, we need a method of “Cross-Cultural
Information Retrieval”.
Most of the research on information retrieval and information
access focus on documents written in modern
language, but we believe that knowledge and wisdom
written in old documents provide rich and valuable information
which are not available in modern language
documents, especially in web contents.
We propose a “Cross-Age Information Retrieval” method
in order to tackle these problems. It aims to discover
hidden knowledge and wisdom written in old documents.
2. Related Work
Much research on Cross-Language Information Retrieval
has been conducted in the last 10 years, with the background
of the rapid growth of the web around the world
since the middle of 1990’s. Various approaches, including
query translation, document translation, and the use
of intermediate language has been studied, and for certain
language pairs (e.g. between European languages),
adequate retrieval effectiveness has been achieved.
On the contrary, there is very little research on information
retrieval method for historical documents, and most
of which are based on simple keyword matching. Recently,
some approaches have been proposed to access
historical documents, and it could be regarded as a kind
of Cross-Age Information Retrieval (Gerlach et al. 2007;
Khaltarkhuu et al. 2006). Our goal is to establish a more
effective and sophisticated retrieval method that considers
not only language difference over time, but also cultural
difference between languages and ages.
3. The Proposed Method
We adopt dictionary-based query translation approach,
since it is proven to be the most effective method for
Cross-Language Information Retrieval. In order for dictionary-
based methods to be effective, we need to use
precise and comprehensive dictionaries for both modern
language and ancient language. From these two dictionaries,
we try to discover relationships between entries in
those dictionaries, and to “translate” the query terms in
modern language into equivalent terms in ancient language.
For this translation process, we propose the following
method (Fig. 1):
Fig. 1 Overview of the proposed method for Cross-Age
Information Retrieval.
1. For each entry in the modern dictionary, we look
for an equivalent entry in archaic word dictionary
by calculating the similarities between the definition
of the modern word and all the definitions of the
archaic words. For this process, we can use standard
text similarity measure based on vector space model and tf-idf term weighting scheme.
2. Then, we take the most similar definition in archaic
word dictionary, and that entry (headword) is regarded
as an equivalent of the modern word.
3. If more than one equivalent entry exists, we disambiguate
the translation candidates using the term
association measure such as mutual information, to
find the most equivalent archaic word for the modern
language word.
4. Document Collections
Currently, it is not very easy to obtain historical documents
in text format. However, some digital libraries
(e.g. Google Book Search, Open Content Alliance, etc.)
are ready to provide their collection of historical documents
in text format for research purposes. Moreover,
there are numerous existing old documents available
online. In Japan, there is a volunteer-based effort called
“Aozora Bunko” to digitize and to make accessible over
7,000 copyright-expired classic literatures online. Also,
many universities and institutions have already been
providing collections of old documents in text format.
We can use these huge collections of old documents for
our proposed method.
For now, we are focusing on a Japanese historical document
called “Hyohanki”, which was written in late Heian
era (12th century) in Japan. It is a valuable resource
for the research of Japanese culture of that time period.
An example of its original copy is shown in Fig. 2. Although
some part of it has been deteriorated and missing,
all of the existing pages are digitized into text format.
The existing pages consist of 2,488 diary entries.
Fig. 2 Example of the original copy of a historical
Japanese document “Hyohanki”.
5. Language Resources
As described in Section 3, we need dictionaries in order
to translate modern language query into archaic term(s).
In the case of “Hyohanki”, we can use some existing
electronic dictionaries available in CD-ROM. For Japanese
modern language, we use “Kojien”, one of the most
famous and comprehensive Japanese language dictionaries.
For ancient language, we use “Kokugo-Daijiten”,
which covers not only modern words but also archaic
words.
6. Preliminary Experiment
We conducted a preliminary experiment to test the precision
of “Cross-Age retrieval” by our proposed method.
In this experiment, we used diary entries of “Hyohanki”
as the ancient Japanese document collection, and prepared
3 modern Japanese queries, “戦争 (war)”, “法要
(Buddhist service)”, and “裸足 (bare foot)”. Since each
query has an equivalent archaic term in different wording,
no relevant documents can be retrieved if we use
these modern term queries. Note that, we consider one
diary entry as one document.
Table 1 shows the original modern Japanese query, ancient
Japanese term(s) translated by the proposed method,
and the precision of retrieval using the translated
term(s). For the queries “法要 (Buddhist service)” and
“裸足 (bare foot)”, the proposed method worked quite
well and chieved almost 100% precision (the ratio of
relevant documents in retrieved documents). However,
the query “戦争 (war)” resulted in very poor precision
(27%). The reason for it is that the proposed method returned
two translation candidates (i.e. “戦” and “軍”) for
this query. If we take only “戦” as the translated query,
we could achieve 100% precision, but if we take only “
軍”, we could obtain only 3.6% precision. It is because
the archaic term “軍” has not only a meaning “war”, but
also other meanings like “general (officer)” and “army”.
The query “死亡 (death)” also resulted in very poor precision
(15%) and the reason for it is that the translation
“没” has several meanings, “death”, “deprivation” and
“sunset”. These results suggest that we could improve
the precision if we incorporate a suitable disambiguation
method for the translated archaic terms. For that purpose,
we could apply existing disambiguation methods
used in Cross-Language Information Retrieval, such as
mutual information, etc. 7. Conclusion
In this paper, we proposed a novel information retrieval
technique called “Cross-Age Information Retrieval”,
which can be used to access old documents written in
ancient language using a query in modern language. We
conducted a preliminary experiment to test the precision
of cross-age retrieval by our proposed method. The experimental
results showed that our proposed method is
potentially useful for cross-age retrieval. Although our
proposed technique is still in an early stage, we believe
that we can achieve adequate retrieval effectiveness by
incorporating techniques used for Cross-Language Information
Retrieval.
Our goal is not only to realize cross-age retrieval, but
also to extend this technique to more advanced text mining
applications in order to discover hidden knowledge
and wisdom from large amount of premodern documents
which are now available in digital form.
Our future work includes resolving ambiguity of translated
archaic terms, large-scale experiments in other
languages such as English, consideration of cultural difference
over time, and thus extending our technique to
realize cross-age, cross-cultural, and cross-language information
access.
References
Gerlach, A. E. and Fuhr, N. (2007). Retrieval in text collections
with historic spelling using linguistic and spelling
variants. In Proceedings of the 7th ACM/IEEE Joint
Conference on Digital Libraries (JCDL 2007), pp. 333-
341, 2007.
Khaltarkhuu, G. and Maeda, A. (2006). Retrieval Technique
with the Modern Mongolian Query on Traditional
Mongolian Text. In Proceedings of the 9th International
Conference on Asian Digital Libraries (ICADL2006),
pp. 478-481, 2006.","txt","2","",""
"1090","10","Modulating Style (and Expectations): An Experiment with Narrative Voice in Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury","2","Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury provides an interesting
test bed for stylistic analysis of narrative
and authorial voice. Readers of the text understand that
the work contains at least four different “voices,” and
if we include the Appendix that Faulkner wrote after
the book’s initial publication, then we have five distinct
voices, namely those of Benjy, Quentin, Jason, the
Omniscient narrator of the fourth section, and then the
somewhat mysterious voice of the Appendix that some
have called Faulkner’s own voice. As part of Dr. Matthew
Jockers’s humanities computing seminar at Stanford
this fall, the authors of this proposal conceived of
an experiment to investigate narrative voice and utilize
authorship attribution techniques to explore the extent
to which Faulkner is able to “create” distinct narrative
styles within The Sound and the Fury.
Starting with a traditional reading of Faulkner’s novel,
our group employed the traditional tools of literary analysis
as a sort of “control.” We explored the differing
styles content, and structure of the five separate narrative
voices in The Sound and the Fury. We paid close attention
to the stylistic changes, and we hypothesized about
what qualities separate the different sections. We put all of these observations into an aggregated document; a traditional
“reading” of style in Faulkner’s text.
We then began a phase of speculation based upon our understanding
of the sort of stylistic data that can be generated
by a computer algorithm. We speculated about how
or if these qualities identified in our traditional reading
might be detectable via computer-based text analysis.
We then drew up a series of hypotheses and predictions
about what sort of differences might be made evident by
a quantitative, computer analysis of the text.
Despite the significant shifts in style detected by readers,
our first prediction was that in terms of the most common
words, Faulkner’s narrative would be fairly consistent.
Our prediction was informed by current studies in authorship
attribution, which suggest that, with frequently
occurring words at least, differences between authors are
greater than difference between works by the same author.
With The Sound and the Fury, we had a particularly
compelling test case since Faulkner worked very hard
to create unique narrative perspectives, even changing
between first and third person.
Our second prediction involved the very noticeable
changes a reader detects when moving from section
to section. These changes constitute a sort of “narrative
dissonance” that repeatedly “jars” the reader as he
moves between sections. We speculated that these effects
would be difficult for a computer to detect.
We formulated these and other predictions/hypotheses
into a secondary document, and then began the more
practical work of developing the tools necessary to test
our hypotheses. This work involved leveraging existing
tools such as Patrick Joula’s JGAAP and also creating
new tools. Most challenging has been our effort to create
a “dissonance” detector, a tool which at the time of
this writing is showing great promise but still under active
development.
The paper we propose here represents a sort of experiment
in which we are both the subjects and the investigators.
While we are overtly exploring narrative voice
in Faulkner we are simultaneously investigating the
role that a computer-based methodology might play in
a conventional study of literature. On this point we are
inspired by Steve Ramsay’s observation that texts are
“seldom . . .transformed algorithmically as a means of
gaining entry to the deliberately and self-consciously
subjective act of critical interpretation.” In our final
analysis, we transform our text into a new sort of literary
artifact, a statistical matrix that allows us to work in a
reverse order—starting with objective, quantified facts
and moving to subjective interpretations of those data.
Ultimately, we compare our objective and subjective
methods and their respective conclusions to determine to
not only explore the formal aspects of an author’s narrative
style, but to imagine what weight quantified data can
bring to the traditional literary enterprise.","txt","2","",""
"1091","10","Les techniques informatiques au service des connaissances musicales de la renaissance","2","Le travail présenté dans cet article est la concrétisation
d’une collaboration interdisciplinaire entre le
groupe « Lexique Musical de la Renaissance (LMR) » et
l’équipe « Langages Logiques Informatique et Cognition
(LaLIC) » visant à construire un outil pour un nouveau
savoir musical. Comme nous l’avions présenté à Digital
Humanities 2007, l’objet du projet est le développement
de cet outil qui s’appuie sur une base de données
relationnelle et une interface web multilingue (français,
anglais, espagnol et portugais). On y présente le langage
musical depuis la naissance de la théorisation musicale
en langue vernaculaire jusqu’au seuil de la formation du
langage tonal. Aujourd’hui opérationnel (http://www.
pm.paris4.sorbonne.fr/LMR/), cet outil propose :
• un lexique musical de la renaissance,
• un dictionnaire du langage musical,
• un ensemble de traités musicaux en langue espagnole.
Lexique musical de la renaissance
Le lexique musical de la renaissance (LMR) est un lexique
multilingue, cumulatif. Chaque terme regroupe, en
chaque langue mais dans la succession alphabétique intégrale,
toutes les citations réunies par les collaborateurs.
La constitution de ce lexique exige dans un premier
temps un travail de lecture musicologique et linguistique
des traités et une sélection des citations les plus pertinentes
en rapport avec l’acte de la production et la pensée
musicales. Dans un deuxième temps, le travail de saisie
dans la base de données est réalisé grâce aux interfaces
de saisie mises à disposition. Pour chaque traité, les citations
sélectionnées et les termes du lexique qui y sont
attachées sont saisies.
Actuellement, ce lexique, constitué à partir de l’étude
de plus de 80 traités en espagnol (73) et en français (8),
comprend près de 5500 citations (4223 en espagnol et
1258 en français) et plus de 5100 termes (3822 en espagnol
et 1327 en français).
Dictionnaire du langage musical
Le dictionnaire du langage musical, issu de la réflexion
musicologique et linguistique, comprend un répertoire
raisonné et sélectif de citations pertinentes des différents
langues techniques musicales vernaculaires. La
sélection, dans la langue considérée, est opérée par un
regroupement de citations sous des champs sémantiques
ou acceptions qui donnent lieu à des définitions. Le
nombre de champs sémantiques est une conséquence du
contenu signifiant des citations elles-mêmes. Le dictionnaire
se présente d’une part sous une forme unilingue
où chaque langue est traitée indépendamment, d’autre
part sous une forme multilingue où, sous des termes ou
entrées multilingues des citations sont regroupées sous
une même acception. Les termes/entrées multilingues ne
résultent pas d’une traduction directe ou littérale mais du
signifiant même des citations.
Traités musicaux en langue espagnole
(TME)
Le TME est une base de données qui regroupe un corpus
de textes musicaux de la Renaissance écrits en langue espagnole.
Il vient ainsi compléter des projets semblables
proposés par le TML, le LmL, le SMI et CANTO. Le
TME vient compléter le corpus saisi dans le LMR en
offrant aux chercheurs des citations contextualisées dans
les sources primaires, manuscrites ou imprimées. Il permet
d’enrichir les définitions lexicographiques à travers
une pensée musicale plus large et d’intégrer les citations
du LMR dans leur contexte d’origine. Chaque citation
du LMR est, en effet, reli√©e, par un simple « clic » au
traité en texte intégral dont elle est issue. Trois traités
sont disponibles, les autres sont en cours de saisie.
Mise en oeuvre informatique
Les techniques informatiques utilisées pour mettre en
place cet outil, tant pour la zone de saisie (accès sécurisé)
que pour la zone de consultation (accès libre), sont
celles utilisées pour développer des applications disponibles
en ligne : APACHE, PHP, JavaScript, MySQL,
XML, XSLT et CSS.
La base de données relationnelle, implémentée avec
MySQL, est l’élément principal du projet, où sont capitalisées toutes les données musicologiques et linguistiques
provenant des traités. Elle est organisée en deux
parties, d’un coté une base intermédiaire où sont enregistrées
toutes les données saisies, de l’autre, la base de
données définitive où les données intermédiaires sont
transférées après validation. La base définitive est organisée
en plusieurs tables liées afin de faciliter l’accès aux
informations, par exemple, la table « tblauteur » regroupe
les informations sur les auteurs des traités, la table «
tblsource » comprend les informations bibliographiques
des traités, les termes du lexique sont enregistrés dans la
table « tblentree » ...
Deux types d’interfaces ont été développées : les interfaces
pour la saisie des données et celles pour la consultation.
Ces interfaces sont développées en PHP et JavaScript
afin d’offrir une compatibilité multi-plateforme.
Les interfaces de saisies (par exemple la figure 1), dont
l’accès est sécurisé par mot de passe, sont constituées de
formulaire permettant aux chercheurs de saisir aisément
leur travail, sans avoir à accéder directement à la base de
données. Ces formulaires ont été élaborés afin de suivre
au plus près la réflexion musicologique et linguistique.
Figure 1. Premier formulaire de saisie pour un nouveau
traité
La consultation des données est en accès libre, l’interface
est multilingue : français, anglais, espagnol et portugais.
Elle donne accès au LMR (figure 2), au dictionnaire et
au TME (figure 3).
Le TME est réalisé en utilisant XML, XSLT et CSS. La
standardisation des traités au format XML et l’utilisation
des feuilles de styles XSLT et CSS permettent d’avoir
une homogénéité dans la présentation et de lier le LMR
au TME. En effet, lors de la consultation du LMR, un
simple « clic » sur l’icône situé après la citation, affiche
le texte du traité dans lequel la citation est surlignée
comme dans l’exemple de la figure 4.
Figure 2. Interface (en français) de consultation du LMR
Figure 3. Interface (en espagnol) d’accès au TME
Figure 4. Extrait du traité de G. Baena
Références récentes
Journée d’études « Musique ancienne en Sorbonne »,
2 juin 2006, Maison de la Recherche, Sorbonne, Paris.
Présentation par Florence Le Priol et Louis Jambou des
Problmatiques et enjeux du « Lexique Musical de la Renaissance
» (LMR)
Digital Humanities 2007, University of Illinois, Urbana-
Champaign, 4-7 juin 2007, Louis Jambou et Florence Le
Priol, « Un outil pour un nouveau savoir musical », p
98-100
XI Settimana di alti studi rinascimentali, Invisibili
Fili, Musica, Lessicograpfia, Editoria e tecnologiedell’informazione tra XVIe XXI secolo, Università degli
Studi di Ferrara, 28-30 May 2009
Du lexique au dictionnaire musicologique :
• Aspects Théoriques (Louis Jambou)
• Aspects informatiques (Florence Le Priol)","txt","2","",""
"1092","10","AfricaMap Release I, Beta An Infrastructure for Collaboration","2","In November of 2008 the Phase I release (beta) version
of AfricaMap was made available to the Harvard community
and the public. The application can be accessed
at http://africamap.harvard.edu.
AfricaMap sets out to address the problem of data availability
for Africa. Much public data exists, but it is so
difficult to discover, let alone obtain that many research
projects on Africa spend much of their budget gathering
data. Most people in Africa have an even harder time accessing
mapping of their own territories. When researchers
do gather data it is often once again lost because there
is no place to store it where it can be found.
The AfricaMap project represents a framework for organizing
Africa data which can also be applied to other
parts of the world. At its core is a digital base map of the
continent, viewable dynamically at a range of scales, and
composed of the best cartographic mapping available.
Behind the scenes a gazetteer starting with over 1 million
place names provides rapid navigation to specific
locations on a vast landscape. As more detailed mapping
becomes available it will be added to the system.
There is no limit in terms of hardware or software to the
amount of data that can be added to the system.
AfricaMap is not be tied to a certain discipline but is interested
in storing or referencing data from all disciplines.
AfricaMap will encourage collaboration. Researchers
will be able to define geographic areas of research so
that others can find out about their work. The system
employs a Services Oriented Architecture (SOA), which
means that all the data that the system displays does not
have to be stored on AfricaMap’s servers. The data that
is stored on the AfricaMap servers is made available to other applications as map services
The idea for AfricaMap was developed under a Provost
Funds for Innovative Technology funded project that is
now being overseen jointly by Suzanne Blier and faculty
and staff at the Harvard Center for Geographic Analysis
(Peter Bol, Wendy Guan, Ben Lewis). It has the dual aim
of supporting Harvard research that involves GIS work
on the continent and of making data created in the course
of research available to others.
AfricaMap System Characteristics:
Web-based – The system takes advantage of the latest
techniques for making large amounts of data and mapping
discoverable and usable through a standard web
browser.
Public access to holdings – Core holdings will be put
in the public domain or licensed using a Creative Commons
type license wherever possible. This means that
researchers anywhere in the world will be able to download
and use these original materials without major restriction.
Encourage replication – One reason Africa data is hard
to find is that the data which exists is not yet well replicated.
By contrast the base map for the United States
(the Digital Raster Graphics files) area easy to find and
exist on hundreds of servers.
Base mapping – Historic base maps for Africa are developed
by scanning, cropping, and georeferencing
maps from the Harvard Map Collection and elsewhere.
Maps are digitized at a range of scales and for a range of
time periods.
Dynamic gazetteer – The gazetteer together with the
base map form the core of the AfricaMap system. These
two datasets support one another over time, allowing the
gazetteer to grow and improve, which will make it easier
to find places on the base map.
Collaborative approach – Some tools to support collaboration
between researchers are provided. In the first
version a permalink feature will allow any view of the
system to be captured in a URL which can be shared. In
the next phase user created maps and map markup tools
are anticipated. Researchers will be able to download
base mapping and other datasets.
Multiple scales – The system will support research at a
variety of scales from sites or cities to country or continent-
wide projects.
Multiple media types – The system will support access
to many types of media in addition to spatial data, including
photos, maps, text, video, audio, and KML for
Google Earth display.
Long term data access – Once maps are scanned, digitized,
georeferenced it should not be necessary for anyone
in the world to repeat that work. Making digital
materials available over time is not easy because technology
changes. Techniques will be used to ensure long
term access to public domain digital materials wherever
possible.
Improves over time – While the Harvard Map Library
has large Africa holdings, it does not always have all
maps for a given series, and there may be important series
which it does not have. The goal is to fill in holes
in the collection over time by sharing with other libraries
and collections. Users will be able to submit data to
Harvard using an online form.
Usability – Ease of use is of primary importance. It must
be easy and quick for non-technical people to find the
information they need. Researchers are the end users of
this system and will be consulted frequently to guide the
design of the user interface.
Text-based search of contents – Google-type text search
against the contents of the entire system is possible with
results displayed on the map.
Interdisciplinary approach –- The system will bring together
mapped data (and facilitate the mapping of data)
from a wide range of disciplines including archaeology,
public health, history, linguistics, literature, zoology,
natural resources to name a few.
Global approach – The goal is to create a technical
framework to support research on Africa which could
also be applied to other parts of the world. It is hope
that aspects of AfricaMap will be useful for organizations
based in Africa whether it is the underlying data,
data hosting services, map services, or the AfricaMap
software.
Scalable – The data in the system will be cached as it is
used. This approach greatly increases performance and
reduces server load, making the system far more scalable
than a traditional web-GIS.
Services oriented architecture (SOA) – The system will
support access by other web and desktop systems and
will in turn be able to access and display the maps on AfricaMap
directly via web services. This means that other systems will not have to download the data to access it
within their applications.
Cross Platform – AfricaMap can serve data services to
other types of GIS platforms including ArcMap desktop
and ArcGIS Server. In addition, AfricaMap can display
data served up from other platforms. Data formats
used will be open specification ones such as GeoTIFF,
JPG2000, KML, and Shape.
Open Source – The software that runs AfricaMap is
Open Source and available for users and organizations
inside and outside Harvard to obtain and build upon.","txt","2","",""
"1093","10","Forging the Future: New Tools for Variable Media Art Preservation","2","While the number of tools for making and distributing
culture has exploded in the last half-century, it
is hard to find a tool for preserving inherently ephemeral
media, such as performances, installations, and digital
artifacts that have been created using digital, biological,
performative and other variable media. The increased
use by artists of multi-media, digital and internet media
raises questions about conventional strategies by
which society preserves, cares for, and redisplays these
cultural artifacts. While the most obvious vulnerability
of new media art is rapid technological obsolescence,
the study of its other aspects that defy traditional conservation—including
hybrid, contextual, or ‘live’ qualities—has
provoked an investigation into new strategies
for ephemeral media art preservation. While we can preserve
something of new media art, it will inevitably be
changed. Forging the Future, a consortium of museums
and cultural heritage organizations, aims to fill the gap
with a free, practical toolset designed to rescue variable
media works from oblivion by understanding possible
alterations, distilling which matter most to the artist, and
planning accordingly.
The Forging the Future tools are based on research into
innovative preservation standards and strategies by its
members as part of the Variable Media Network (VMN)
and Archiving the Avant-Garde working group. These
include the Franklin Furnace Database, which catalogs
past versions of a work and variable media artworks and events contained in small to midsize collections; the Digital
Assets Management Database, which manages digital
metadata that is directly relational to all the tools; the
Variable Media Questionnaire (VMQ), which contains
data and metadata necessary to migrate, re-create, and
preserve cataloged variable media objects: What is the
work in its original incarnation? What could the work be
in later incarnations? Beta versions of these tools are in
use by institutions ranging from major museums such as
the Whitney Museum of American Art to small alternative
spaces such as New Langton Arts.
Scheduled for a public release in Spring 2009, the Forging
the Future toolset will include features that help the
separate tools interconnect with each other and with potential
databases in museums, libraries, and archives. In
addition to the Franklin Furnace database and the third
generation VMQ web service, these include the VocabWiki,
a multi-institutional effort to define key terms
applicable to new media and variable media artifacts;
Media Art Notation System (MANS), an XML specification,
based on MPEG-21 for translating data and
relationships among tools; and the Forging the Future
Metadata Registry, which enables users to track the same
creator or work across different collections.
This poster presents the Forging the Future interconnected
tool set, and focuses specifically on the VMQ and
its integration with MANS, complimented by the VocabWiki
and the Metadata Registry. The VMQ is an instrument
for determining creators’ intent as to how their
work should be categorized, seen, and (if at all) recreated
in the future; it records opinions which may vary based
on the work, the artist, the interviewer and date, about
how to preserve variable media. MANS metadata is derived
from the VMQ interview(s) which separates logical
information from physical hardware. It is a metadata
framework that accommodates description of physical
and digital assets at the same level. Rinehart uses the
metaphor of a musical score, as a form of declarative
and conceptual notation of music, and likens Media Art
to musical compositions that are able to maintain their
original integrity while being realized by different instruments
or in different arrangements, over evolving
time periods. Ippolito’s VMQ is a very complex method
for focusing an artist’s attention on those aspects of the
work which need to be most enduring. The VMQ and
MANs were designed to serve the needs of documentation,
recreation and preservation of variable media.
A crosswalk of the MANS notation system or ontology
to ten library, art, and preservation metadata standards
(METS, PREMIS, EAD, FRBR, PBCore, etc.) verified
the need for a domain specific schema for structural
and administrative metadata. This poster demonstrates
how the heart of the process, the VMQ, collects essential
preservation information that MANS supports in a
unique, infinitely extensible structure. MANS is derived
as an interpretation of the MPEG-21 standard, primarily;
the Digital Item Declaration Language (DIDL) a type
of XML that allows for greater, more granular descriptions
of multi-component digital objects. The intent is
for MANS to act as a backbone to the artwork by being
specifically suggestive though not overly prescriptive of
how best to delineate and then, later, reinterpret an artwork,
and thereby address long-term preservation strategies
for variable media art such as storage, emulation,
migration, reinterpretation.
References
Bekaert, K., Hochstenbach, P. and Van de Sempel, H.
Using MPEG-21 DIDL to Represent Complex Digital
Objects in the Los Alamos National Laboratory Digital
Library. V.9, No.11, November 2003, D-Lib Magazine
http://www.dlib.org/dlib/november03/bekaert/11bekart.
html
Forging the Future Alliance. http://forging-the-future.
net/
Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records,
Final Report. IFLA Study Group on the Functional Requirements
for Bibliographic Records. http://www.ifla.
org/VII/s13/frbr/frbr.pdf
Introduction to Metadata Pathways to Digital Information,
Metadata Standards Crosswalks. Version 2.1, 2008.
http://www.getty.edu/research/conduction_research/
standards/intrometadata/crosswalks.pdf
Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard: Primer
and Reference Manual, Version 1.6 September 2007.
http://www.loc.gov/standards/mets/METS%20Documentation%20final%20070930%msw.pdf
MPEG-21 Digital Item Declaration WD V2.0 http://xml.
coverpages.org/MPEG21-WG-11-N3971-200103.pdf
PREMIS Data Dictionary for Preservation Metadata,
Version 2.0. http://www.loc.gov/standards/premis/index.html
Ippolito, Jon. Death by Wall Label. http://vectors.usc.
edu/thoughtmesh/publish/11.php
Rinehart, Richard. 20XX. A System of Formal Notation
for Scoring Works of Digital and Variable Media Art.
University of California, Berkeley User Guide to PBCore, Public Broadcasting Metadata
Dictionary. Version 1.1. http://www.pbcore.org/PBCore/UserGuide.html.
Variable Media Network. http://www.variablemedia.net/","txt","2","",""
"1094","10","Geography of Impertinence: Using Historical Maps to Explore a Spanish Treatise on Piracy","2","In recent volumes of Literary and Linguistic Computing,
Martyn Jessop has considered digital visualization as a
scholarly practice (2008b), and argued, in particular, for
the expanded use of geographical information in digital
humanities scholarship (2008a). These approaches hold
much promise for literary and cultural studies, where attention
has recently been given to such topics as “prose
cartographies” (Padrón, 2004), the “cartographic imagination”
(Smith, 2008), and a broad spectrum of other
intersections between cultural production and physical
space (both real and imagined), and especially within
contexts of migration, conquest and colonialism (Arias,
2002; Brückner, 2007; Michelet, 2006). With A Geography
of Impertinence, I hope to contribute to these discussions,
raising questions about the visualization of geographical
material in a seventeenth-century Spanish text,
relationships between textual data and historical maps,
and the potential for employing place names as a mechanism
to facilitate cross-textual readings.
This project has grown out of my doctoral dissertation
(currently in progress), an edition of Piratas y contrabandistas
de ambas Indias (Pirates and Smugglers of the
East and West Indies) by Spanish navigator and privateer
Francisco de Seyxas y Lovera (1650-c.1705). A Geography
of Impertinence responds to three central problems I
face in the editing of this text.
The second question driving A Geography of Impertinence
is the relationship between Seyxas’ text and a
1630 atlas by the Portuguese cartographer João Teixeira
Albernas. In Piratas y contrabandistas, Seyxas discusses
this book, which he possessed for several years before
presenting it to Charles II and the Council of Indies. The
maps themselves contain Seyxas’ handwritten additions
and annotations, and include a rendering by Seyxas himself,
disputing Teixeira’s portrayal of Tierra del Fuego
and the Straits of Magellan. Seyxas even inscribes himself
in this geography, designating his own chain of islands:
the “Islas de Seyxas.” While these images could
be used as illustrations, their close relationship to the text – a relationship that is, in a sense, reciprocal – suggest
that a “one-way” navigation from text to map is unnecessarily
limiting. Jessop describes a visualization as being
a “parallel (rather than subordinate) rhetorical device”
(2008b, 283); certainly Teixeira’s maps can serve this
function in relation to Piratas y contrabandistas. Indeed,
the interaction between map and text is a compelling
question on its own, apart from all geographical considerations.

Lastly, I seek to understand Seyxas’ book within a larger
corpus of printed works dealing with issues of exploration
and imperial competition. Just as Piratas y contrabandistas
is tied to Teixeira’s maps, it contains references
to over 70 Spanish, English, Dutch and French
books, mostly historiographical treatises and expeditionary
journals. These include documents produced in
the travels of individuals like Jacob Le Maire, Joris van
Speilbergen, Bartholomew Sharp and John Narborough,
as well as two volumes on nautical matters by Seyxas
himself, printed in 1688 and 1690. These represent, of
course, only a fraction of the enormous output of such
books in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. While
the intertexual bonds between these works go far beyond
a common geography, place names provide a useful
mechanism for exploring their differing geographical visions.
For instance, the ability to navigate between these
writings on the basis of toponyms may help us evaluate
the role national or cultural bias plays in the imagination
of place.
My presentation will demonstrate a prototype application
which seeks to address the concerns outlined here.
Built around a collection of place names, this application
has much in common with a digital gazetteer, and thus
draws upon work done by such projects, including the
Alexandria Digital Library Gazetteer. The instances of
a given place can be either textual or cartographic, and
exploration of the collection can begin either at the index
or within the texts or maps themselves. The model
allows for the inclusion of a scholarly apparatus, as recommended
by Jessop (2008b, 291) and as encouraged by
the principles for documentation discussed in the London
Charter for the Computer-Based Visualization of
Cultural Heritage (8-9). This apparatus is implemented
using an object-oriented approach, enabling the sharing
of editorial material across textual and cartographic
objects, and facilitating different levels of granularity in
annotation, depending on the context of a given place
instance. The model permits multiple names for a given
place, and allows for annotation in multiple languages. I
offer as test cases some of the most problematic places
mentioned by Seyxas, and include in my textual corpus
a sampling of passages by authors cited in Piratas y contrabandistas.
References
Alexandria Digital Library Project. (1999-). Gazetteer
Development. Available from: http://www.alexandria.
ucsb.edu/gazetteer (accessed 12 March 2009).
Arias, S. & Meléndez, M., eds. (2002). Mapping Colonial
Spanish America: Places and Commonplaces of
Identity, Culture, and Experience, Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell
University Press.
Brückner, M and Hsu, H., eds. (2007). American Literary
Geographies: Spatial Practice and Cultural Production,
1500-1900, Newark: University of Delaware Press.
Jessop, M. (2008a). The Inhibition of Geographical Information
in Digital Humanities Scholarship. Literary
and Linguistic Computing, 23(1), 39-50.
Jessop, M. (2008b). Digital Visualization as a Scholarly
Activity. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(3), 281-
293.
The London Charter (2009). London Charter for the
Computer-Based Visualization of Cultural Heritage
(Draft 2.1). Available from: http://www.londoncharter.
org (accessed 12 March 2009).
Michelet, F. (2006). Creation, Migration, and Conquest:
Imaginary Geography and Sense of Space in Old
English Literature, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Padrón, R. (2004). The Spacious Word: Cartography,
Literature, and Empire in Early Modern Spain, Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Smith, D.K. (2008). The Cartographic Imagination in
Early Modern England: Re-writing the World in Marlowe,
Spenser, Raleigh and Marvell, Aldershot, UK:
Ashgate.","txt","2","",""
"1095","10","Capturing the Social Networks of the Gospels through a Graph Clustering","2","The creation of social network representation is a
promising application of large-scale linguistic resources
as a means of capturing the patterns of social
relationships that exist among the individuals. In recent
years, several notable studies have produced a number
of social networks of the Bible and a variety of its graph
representations for gaining insights into the interactions
between the characters (Chris Harrison 2007, ESV Blog,
2007). Graph representation is an effective way of detecting
and investigating the intricate patterns of connectively
within large-scale corpora. A number of studies
have applied graph theory and network analysis methods
to mapping out the complex networks of word associations
within linguistic resources (Dorow, Widdows,
Ling, Eckmann, Danilo, and Moses, 2005; Steyvers and
Tanenbaum 2005; Gfeller, Chappelier, and De Los Rios,
2005). In terms of the biblical texts, I have successfully
applied a graph clustering technique to data processing
that utilizes a clustering-coefficient threshold in creating
sub-networks for the Gospels of the New Testament
(Miyake, 2008). This paper reports on the application of
a soft graph clustering method to four social networks
of the Gospels constructed based on the co-occurrences
of the people and places. Specifically, I propose a soft
graph clustering technique as a method of detecting the
community structures within the social networks of the
Gospels. The principle objectives of this study are to
investigate the interaction between the characters in the
stories.
The corpus used in the present study is the Greek version
of the Gospels (Nestle-Aland, 1979) and the data
mainly consists of names and places. A set of nouns such
as son, father, prophet are including as well, that are regarded
as important in representing the characteristics
and the roles of people in the stories. In creating four
social networks from the books of Mark, Matthew, Luke
and John, co-occurrence data is computed for pairs of
words that appear in the same verse (sentence) and the
words remain morphological forms that make is possible
to analyze the relationships between words such as “who
says whom”.
Table 1 presents the number of co-occurrence words
represented as nodes for each Gospel network and its
basic statistical measure such as degree average values,
the average shortest path and the average of clustering
coefficient that are clues for examining the structural
characteristics. Degree refers to the number of words
that are connected to a given word and its average value
shows its connectedness of nodes within a network.
These degree average values for each Gospel indicate
that these social networks have patterns of sparse connectivity.
The clustering coefficient is known as the index
for investigating probabilities that an acquaintance
of an acquaintance is also an acquaintance of yours, in
other words, as an index of the inter-connective strength
between neighboring nodes in a graph. Following Watts
and Strogatz (1998), the clustering coefficient of the
node (n) can be defined as: (number of links among n’s
neighbors)/(N(n)*(N)-1)/2), where N(n) denotes the set
of n’s neighbors. The coefficient assumes values between
0 and 1. In the social network study, the clustering
coefficient can be utilized as a measure of role ambiguity
or community hubs that have numerous links. The four
average clustering coefficients for the total nodes are all
quite high values of 0.5 or more, indicating strong connectedness
between nodes, which is a characteristic of
small-world networks. In order to discern the relationships among the words
within the social network, this study applies a soft clustering
method combining the hard clustering of Markov
Clustering (MCL) and the index of clustering coefficients.
MCL is the bottom-up classification methods that
allow us to detect the patterns and clusters within large
and sparsely connected data structures. Within the MCL
process, a graph is partitioned into hard clusters. However,
one particular problem with applying MCL to linguistic
resources is that the hard clustering approach is not
appropriate for words that have multiple meanings, more
specifically for the individuals who are involved in multiple
communities in the context of social networks. In
order to overcome this problem, that hard clustering of MCL is applied to the network removed the bottleneck
nodes which are identified as the hubs by taking the clustering
coefficient as a threshold. In this study, the only
nodes with the clustering coefficient of more than 0.2
were selected. After the MCL process, the resultant crisp
clusters are expanded with neighboring nodes to produce
overlapping clusters that include in the hub nodes.
Figure 1 plots the numbers of the MCL cluster sizes for
each network, which illustrate the transitions occurring
in downsizing the networks generated from graph clustering.
Taking the result of Mt for an example, the MCL
resulted in 44 hard clusters, with an average of ?? cluster
components (SD=??). Comparing between clusters
across the four social networks illustrates the different
roles associated with characters in the Gospels, such as
Jesus as the son of God in Mark and Jesus as Savior in
Luke.
1
10
100
1000
Node MCL
Mt
Mk
Lk
Joh
Figure 1
In order to compare between clusters across the four
social networks, the Jaccard coefficient is appropriate
index for measuring similarity between clusters, which
can be computed based on the number of elements in
the intersection set divided by the number of elements in
the union set. The table 2 presents the results of average
Jaccard coefficient value among four Gospels, indicating
that the similarities among first three Gospels such as
Matthew, Mark, and Luke are higher than those for John.
The first three Gospels have been referred to as the Synoptic
Gospels, because a high similarity has been recognized
among them. Table 3 presents a set of clusters with
the highest similarity for the Synoptic Gospels, which
can easily refer to a phrase beginning with “Render onto
Ceasar”. Figure 2 is a sample of the sub-networks focusing
on the word of Peter and its neighboring nodes. As
the neighboring structures for the node of Peter are different
among four networks, such a graph representation
makes it possible to examine structural similarities and
differences among social networks. In summary, this paper has reported on the application
of a soft clustering method combining the clustering coefficient
and Markov Clustering. Especially, the graph
clustering technique offered an effective way of controlling
over the hub nodes that are linked to numerous other
nodes. Examining social networks is useful in exploring
the interactions between characters and the features that
underlie word groups within the Gospels. In pursuing the
precise communities the characters are involved in and
the series of action and events in stories, the research is
working to make the dataset more sophisticated, such as
the treatment ambiguous names and personal pronouns.
References
S. van Dongen. (2000). Graph Clustering by Flow Simulation,
PhD thesis, University of Utrecht. B. Dorow, D. Widdows, K. Ling, J. Eckmann, D. Sergi,  and E. Moses. (2005). Using Curvature and Markov
Clustering in Graphs for Lexical Acquisition and Word
Sense Discrimination, Proceeding of 2nd Workshop organized
by MEANING Project (MEANING-2005).
M. Steyvers, and J. B. Tenenbaum. (2005). The LargeScale
Structure of Semantic Networks: Statistical Analyses
and a Model of Semantic Growth, Cognitive Science,
29 (1): pp.41-78.
Gfeller, D., Chappelier, J.-C., and De Los Rios, P..
(2005). Synonym Dictionary Improvement through
Markov Clustering and Clustering Stability, International
Symposium on Applied Stochastic Models and Data
Analysis, pp. 106-113.
Maki Miyake (2008). Investigating word co-occurrence
selection with extracted sub-networks of the Gospels
Employing Clustering Coefficients, Digital Humanities
2008, pp.258-260.
ESV Blog. (2007). Mapping New Testament Social
Networks, <http://www.esv.org/blog/2007/01/mapping.
nt.social.networks>
Chris Harrison. (2007). Visualizing the Bible, <http://
www.chrisharrison.net/projects/bibleviz/index.html>","txt","2","",""
"1096","10","Aspects of the Interoperability in the Digital Humanities A Case Study in Buddhist Studies","2","1. Introduction
I
n considering cases of interoperability in the Digital
Humanities, it might be useful to focus on an example
from Buddhist Studies for three reasons: The first is usage
of the multilingual Buddhist canons that were written
in Pali, Sanskrit and translated into Chinese, Tibetan,
and so on before the 10th century. Thus, a system had to
be established that allowed one to deal with resources
that are composed not only by various families of written
characters but also various languages. The second is that
they are significant as resources in history, linguistics,
and other academic fields because they include not only
Buddhist ideas but also information related to the ancient
world of which Buddhism was a part. Thus, interoperability
in this field is needed in order to synthesize such
related fields. The third reason to focus on this case study
is that digitization projects in the field Buddhist Studies
are in progress worldwide, having both academic and
proselytizing purposes. Moreover, many projects house
sub-projects within: for example, one’s aim might be to
merely retrieve information on a local computer; or, on
the other hand, one might want to publish critical editions
of digitized canonical texts on the Web. Discussion
of this need for interoperability has already begun in
the organization known as the Electronic Buddhist Text
Initiative [EBTI]. We will discuss some aspects of that
through our case study that follows.
2. A Case Study: SAT and the DDB
In this chapter, we will discuss the interoperability between
two different projects in which we are engaged:
the DDB (Digital Dictionary of Buddhism, http://www.
buddhism-dict.net/ddb/ ) and the SAT (SAT Daizōkyō
Text Database Committee, http://21dzk.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/
SAT/ ). The DDB is a web-serviced lexicon that includes
over 45,000 entries. The SAT project has digitized a
scholarly edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon, consisting of approximately 150 million Chinese characters
in eighty-five volumes. It was compiled and edited by
Japanese scholars in the Taishō Era and has been treated
as de facto standard text in the field of Buddhist study
since then.
2.1. The DDB: The Digital Dictionary of
Buddhism
The DDB was developed for the study of Buddhist texts
written in classical Chinese and other East Asian languages
that include Chinese character-based terminology.
This project was initiated in 1986 by Charles Muller,
a specialist in East Asian Buddhism. In 1995, with the
advent of the Internet, Muller converted his data set into
HTML format, and placed it on the Web. During this period
from 1996-2000, the storage format of the dictionaries
was changed to SGML, and then to XML. In 2001,
with the help of humanities computing guru Michael
Beddow, the dictionaries were reset on the web in XML
format with a search engine, and this structure remains
in place down to the present day. The DDB features Buddhist
terms, texts, schools, temples, and persons. Entries
range in scope from short glossary type, to full-length
encyclopedic articles. Now supported by more than sixty
collaborators with specialist's expertise in a wide range
of areas in Buddhist studies, the expansion rate of the
DDB has been exponential in recent years.
A special dimension of the DDB is its usage of XML
attributes to accredit contributors for their work at the
level of entry sub-areas (XML ""nodes"") rather than only
at the level of full entries, as seen in standard printed
works. Furthermore, the relatively accessible XML tag
structure (based loosely on the TEI model) has made it
possible to integrate and interlink the DDB with other
lexicons (such as EDict), and external text databases,
such as the SAT text database.
2.2. SAT: The SAT Daizōkyō Text Database
Committee
SAT is managed by the SAT Daizōkyō Text Database
Committee (directed at present by Masahiro Shimoda).
The database depends on an XML-like legacy scheme
which was designed in 1998 and superficially represents
the pages of the edition. The textual corpus was digitized
and corrected mainly by about 200 young Buddhist
scholars during a period of about ten years. While descriptive
markup has not yet been fully implemented, the
locations of passages in the source texts, such as page,
paragraph and line were precisely recorded so that the
traditional methodology of the Buddhist study could be
referred to transparently. It has been posted on the Web
since April 2008.
2.3. The Interoperation between the DDB
and the SAT
When the SAT Web service was started, it provided some
interoperation with other related projects. The most important
service provided is the search function for the
entries of the DDB. The function adopts AJAX so that
users can retrieve items transparently on their Web
browsers. If users select a portion of the text with their
mouse devices, they can view all terms in the text contained
in the DDB. The service is convenient for those
who have interest in the text—especially beginners in
Buddhist studies. In addition, the SAT Web service distributes
some APIs. One of them is reference service
based on the physical location. It provides a function to
clip an arbitrary part of the texts by means of specifying
the location or the range in a certain URI. The DDB and
some other Web services adopt this API. The important
merit of this interoperation is not only the usability, but
also the management structure that allows each longterm
project to be sustained independently. It is so difficult
to manage a big digital project that sometimes it
may be disrupted, crash or even disappear. Although we
may wish to increase our services, they often become
unwieldy, even ending up in abandonment of the project.
Enhancing Web services in order to support researchers,
the interoperation with the other projects will also be a
workable alternative in the field of Buddhist studies.
3. Other Examples of Interoperation
SAT interoperates with some other projects such as
CHISE and INBUDS. CHISE is an ontology mainly
focusing on Chinese characters distributed under GNU
GPL. SAT adopted CHISE to serve as a thesaurus of Chinese
characters in order to support its retrieval system.
INBUDS is a bibliographical database for the study of
Indian philosophy and Buddhism. It is maintained by
the Japanese Association of Indian and Buddhist Studies
and includes 60,000 records that have been collected for
twenty years. SAT implemented the interoperation with
the INBUDS so that users could refer to the related academic
resources. Some of the resources in the INBUDS
are distributed as digital data.
4. Some Problems in Interoperability
As discussed previously, in the field of the Buddhist
studies, interoperability is quite efficient in some ways.
On the other hand, all-too-common problems of interoperability
are also found in the field. One of the important
issues is that of organizational sustainability. If one
side of the organization stops distribution of their own
resources, the interoperation would end. However, it
can be argued from another perspective that this is actually an advantage, because it allows ready awareness
of systematic changes, allowing managers to adapt as
necessary, for example, when one needs to salvage distributed
data. Indeed, SAT has recently begun to support
INBUDS because, after establishing the interoperation,
it became clear that the programmers of INBUDS had
been facing some problems with managing their data for
some time. Therein, especially, in the case of a personal
project, it is more secure to establish interoperation.
5. Conclusion
Just as “the fourth generation collections” in the field
of the Western classics, digitizing projects for Buddhist
studies are gradually shifting their own styles to the next
generation which puts emphasis on interoperability. Interoperability
not only exposes the problems inherent in
the activities of the digitization of Buddhist studies, but
also shows the ways to solve those problems. The same
model will eventually hold true for the Humanities in
general.
References
Muller, A. Charles. (2008). EBTI After 15 and CBETA
after 10 Years: Joint International Conference on Digital
Buddhist Studies, Chair's Report.
http://buddhism-dict.net/ebti/ebti2008report.html
(accessed 12 November 2008).
Muller, A. Charles. (2008). The Digital Dictionary of
Buddhism [DDB]: Present Status and Future Developments,
The Ninth Annual Symposium for Scholars
Resident in Japan, March 2008. http://www.acmuller.
net/articles/ddb-nichibunken-200803.html (accessed 12
November 2008).
Crane, G. (2008). Fourth Generation Collections: TEI,
FRBR, and Canonical Text Services, TEI Member’s
Meeting 2008, Nov 2008. http://www.cch.kcl.ac.uk/
cocoon/tei2008/programme/abstracts/abstract-160.html
(accessed 12 November 2008).
Rehm, G. and Witt, A. (2008). Aspects of Sustainability
in Digital Humanities, Digital Humanities 2008 , June
2008: 21-29.
Nagasaki, K. and Shimoda, M. (2008). Outline of the
Activities of the SAT Project, Joint International Conference
on Digital Buddhist Studies, at Dharma Drum
Buddhist College, February 2008: 22-23.
Nagasaki, K. (2008). A Collaboration System for the
Philology of the Buddhist Study”, Digital Humanities
2008: 262-263.
MORIOKA, T. (2006). Character processing based on
character ontology, IPSJ Technical Report, 2006-CH-
072: 25-32.
Eide, Ø., Ore, C. and Holmen, J. (2008). Sustainability
in Cultural Heritage Management, Digital Humanities
2008 : 22-23.","txt","2","",""
"1097","10","The Soweto '76 Archive: Virtual Heritage, Human Rights & Social Justice in the New South Africa","2","The Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities
(MITH) and the Hector Pieterson Memorial
& Museum (HPMM) propose a transatlantic digital
collaboration to create the Cultural Heritage Platform,
an extensible web interface and toolset for the detailed
study and conservation of historic resources. We further
propose an extensive technical training and support program
for curators and staff at Constitution Hill, Johannesburg;
The District Six Museum, Cape Town; Red
Location, Port Elizabeth; and Kliptown, Johannesburg,
enabling them to populate the digital archive with content
from their collections. This joint effort would create
a core “digital cultural heritage trail” that could be further
extended to other related South African museums
and that would allow students, teachers, and the general
public from anywhere in the world to explore digital
recreations of some of the most important places in the
struggle against Apartheid. This paper will focus on the
development of a digital archive, Soweto ’76, currently
being built at the Maryland Institute for Technology in
the Humanities (MITH) at the University of Maryland
in collaboration with the Hector Pieterson Memorial &
Museum.
The Soweto ’76 project began in early 2006 as a collaboration
between the Maryland Institute for Technology in
the Humanities (MITH) and the Hector Pieterson Memorial
& Museum (HPMM), Johannesburg, South Africa.
The initial scope of the project included the digitization
and preservation of the archival collections of the Museum
with the intention of providing on-line access to its
holdings for broad public use. Due to a lack of available
resources for their care and preservation, these holdings
were considered endangered, and the MITH project team
began the process of digitizing them in 2006. By early
2007 the team determined that the material in the archive
could be best presented in an interactive 3D virtual environment
with social networking functionality. Such an
environment would stimulate critical historical thinking
by raising questions about the nature and construction of
historical narratives in newly developing democracies.
In addition, the online archive would make the materials
in it broadly available to scholars interested in doing
research on the history of Soweto and the student
movement against Apartheid. Currently Soweto ’76 is
completing the digitization of its holdings including
oral history interviews, video interviews, historic photographs,
commemorative memorabilia, maps, and other
material artifacts. A collection of over 200 South African
newspaper articles from the period 1976-1980 have also
been digitized and transcribed as part of the archive. The
project staff has recently started the process of “tagging”
(that is, describing) text, image, video, and audio files
from already digitized collections.
As MITH developed the Soweto ’76 interface, they
worked, according to the best principles of software design,
to make their work as generalizable and as reusable
as possible. It soon became apparent that the interface
might be used for other archives to create a larger cultural
heritage platform for historic sites. This large, multiinstitutional
archive has become the goal of the project
we are now proposing.
The link between human rights and the preservation of
cultural heritage resources is often misunderstood. Forgetting
our histories is politically problematic for many
reasons, primarily because it denies the potential for
building broader cultures of democracy. Nations must
apologize and/or offer compensation for historical injustices
if there is to be a process of healing and remembrance.
If we are truly seeking social justice, we must
remember these historical injustices and recognize how
they continue to shape identities even today. It is therefore
essential to understand cultural heritage resources
as a part of peoples’ efforts to maintain and construct
their own identity. Historic sites are critical elements in
the struggle for equality and democracy, and new technologies
can be used to increase access to the information
kept in these important spaces.
In addition to providing access to archival materials extant
in collections such as those of HPMM, our database
interface will allow users to explore historically accurate
recreations of heritage spaces in South Africa, and
to access digital artifacts related to each particular space/
place. This focus on place is important because so much
of the critical urban fabric of places such as Soweto, District
Six, or Red Location was erased during the Apartheid
era. Under the post-apartheid Mandela and Mbeki
governments there has been an assumed connection
between urban redevelopment and heritage programs,
particularly if they promote foreign tourism. As some
scholars have argued, “political transformations can create
new urban political identities, but the politics of tourism
can give cash value to the memorializing of select  pasts.” Over a decade of democracy has brought massive
reforms and advances across the heritage industry, but
there remains a lack of understanding regarding the cultural
significance of Black heritage resources in South
Africa’s still isolated townships. Unfortunately, much of
the physically extant heritage does not easily lend itself
to the traditional standards of what is considered “architecturally
significant” or “visually impressive.” Much of
the history of the anti-apartheid movement took place in
the townships amongst what many heritage professionals
would consider to be “the mundane” and ordinary
structures and environments of the poor. Therefore, it is
necessary to develop a different set of criteria and strategies
for documenting and preserving these important
sites.
Once the Soweto interface is complete, other cultural
heritage institutions in South Africa concerned with
human rights and social justice can be added easily to
the digital heritage trail, as long as they conform to our
metadata standards. Each additional institution thus will
not only make its own content visible to the world, but
will also enrich the collectively searchable content of the
archive as a whole, which will always be greater than the
sum of its constituent parts. In this way we hope to create
a “Digital Heritage Trail” that connects the cultural
institutions in South Africa together in virtual space.
Of course, creating the XML files that comprise each
digital object can be demanding work, especially for
those whose technical skills are not highly developed.
For this reason, we will also provide access to the Ajax
XML Encoder (AXE), developed in 2007-2008 at MITH
(originally for the Soweto ‘76 project) with funding from
a National Endowment for the Humanities Digital Startup
grant. This tool allows non-technical users to describe
or “tag” text, image, video, and audio files using an intuitive
Web-based interface. Graduate students working on
the Soweto project have already successfully used the
tool, and a public beta version is planned for the end of
the summer of 2008. Because our interface will be open
source and our metadata standards will be readily available,
they will be adaptable for the collections of other
cultural heritage institutions in South Africa and around
the world.
Institutional Partners
Hector Pieterson Museum & Memorial (HPMM), Johannesburg,
South Africa Maryland Institute for Technology
in the Humanities (MITH), College Park, MD,
USA Africana Studies Program, Hamilton College, Clinton,
New York, USA
Project Partners
Dr. Angel David Nieves, Soweto ’76 Project Director
Mr. Ali Khangela Hlongwane, Chief Curator & Museum
Director HPMM
Dr. Doug Reside, MITH Assistant Director
Mr. Greg P. Lord, MITH Web Designer & Software
Engineer
Mr. Arik Lubkin, Graduate Student, UM-CP","txt","2","",""
"1098","10","Close Only Counts in Horseshoes and... Authorship Attribution?","2","How much of an effect do transcription errors in a
text document have on the ability to do useful statistical
analysis on that document? In order to perform
authorship attribution, it is often necessary to first have
a digital copy of the documents in question. The task
of authorship attribution is to assign an authorship tag
to a document of unknown origin based on statistical
analysis of the text and comparison with documents of
known authorship. This is often automated by means of
a computer, which necessitates the existence of digital
copies of all the works to be analyzed. The success rates
of optical character recognition (OCR) systems make
them an attractive choice for the creation of these digital
copies. The various documents can be scanned into a
computer and converted automatically to text. Rice et al.
documented OCR per-character accuracy rates of greater
than 90% for nearly all commercial OCR systems
tested, most of which scored in a range of 95-98% accuracy
(1996). More recent commercial claims by OCR
companies suggest that accuracy rates are above 98%.
However, is a 5% or even 2% error rate acceptable when
creating a statistical authorship model? Is it necessary to
proofread each scanned document by hand before performing
authorship attribution, or is the error rate small
enough that it is unlikely to affect the overall result?
We intend to present new results showing that it is not
necessary to proofread scanned documents before using
them to perform statistical authorship attribution. In fact,
these results suggest that no signifi­cant performance
degradation occurs when analyzing documents with percharacter
error rates of less than 15%. As this is well below
the published averages for OCR systems, there is
little need to worry about the few errors which will be
introduced during the automated image-to-text conversion.
Accuracy of study materials is of course crucial for
an ideal authorship attribution study. As Rudman (1997)
put it, “most non-traditional authorship attribution researchers
do not understand what constitutes a valid
study.” In 2002, he wrote, “do not include any dubitanda
—a certain and stylistically pure Defoe sample must be
established—all decisions must err on the side of exclusion.
If there can be no certain Defoe touchstone, there
can be no ... authorship attribution studies on his canon,
and no wide ranging stylistic studies.” Ideally, we would
have access to the original manuscripts to make sure that
what we have is the pure work --but in the real world,
we may not have such access. We argue, in contradiction
to Rudman, that by assessing the likely contribution of
types of error—such as errors introduced by bad OCR
technology—we can determine whether such errors are
likely to shake our confidence in our results. If we can
give 10:1 odds that a given paper was likely written by
Defoe, we will still be confident if we learn that our odds
might be as low as 9.8 or 9.9:1.
For this experiment, we made use of the Java Graphical
Authorship Attribution Program (JGAAP www.
jgaap.com), a freely available Java program for performing
authorship attribution created by Patrick Juola
of Duquesne University. This modular program breaks
the task of authorship attribution into three subtasks,
described as ’Canonicization’, ’Event Generation’ and
’Statistical Analysis’. During the Canonicization step,
documents are standardized and various preprocessing
steps can occur. For this experiment, we created a Canonicization
method which randomly changed a percentage
of the characters in each document, simulating the
per-character error of an OCR system. We also converted
all characters to lower case during this step. We generated
a feature set of ’Words’, which JGAAP defines as
any string of characters separated by whitespace. Finally,
we used a normalized dot product as a nearest neighbor
algorithm to assign authorship tags to unknown documents.
Noecker and Juola (personal correspondence)
have suggested that this normalized dot product scoring. which they refer to as the ’Cosine Distance’, outperforms
many more complicated techniques and is especially
well suited to the feature set we chose.
In order to test this experiment on real world data, we
have used the Ad-hoc Authorship Attribution Competition
(AAAC) corpus. The AAAC was an experiment
in authorship attribution held as part of the 2004 Joint
International Conference of the Association for Literary
and Linguistic Computing and the Association for
Computers and the Humanities. The AAAC corpus
provides texts from a wide variety of different genres,
languages and document lengths, assuring that the results
would be useful for a wide variety of applications.
The AAAC corpus consists of 98 unknown documents,
distributed across 13 different problems (labeled A-M).
An analysis method’s AAAC score is calculated as the
sum of the percent accuracy for each problem. Hence, a
AAAC score of 1300% represents 100% accuracy on all
problems. This score was designed to weight both small
problems (those with only one or two unknown documents)
and large problems equally. Because this score is
not always sufficiently descriptive on its own, we have
also included an overall accuracy rate in our experiment.
That is, we calculate both the AAAC scoring and the total
percentage of unknown documents which were assigned
the correct authorship labels. These two scores provide a
fair assessment of how the technique performed both on
a per-problem and per-document basis.
The experiment itself consisted of fifty-two iterations
of the authorship attribution process over the entire
AAAC corpus. The presented results will be an average
of the effect of random transcription errors from 1% to
100% of the characters in each document. As previously
noted, we calculated both the AAAC score and overall
percentage correct over some 5,096 experiments (98 experiments
per iteration). These overall results suggested
that there was essentially no decrease in performance on
either the AAAC score or the overall percentage for error
rates of 1% to 2%, which many commercial OCR
systems claim to achieve. Even for more skeptical error
rates of 5%, the overall percentage correct decreased
by about 1%, and the AAAC score by only about 20.
This trend continues until roughly a 15% error rate, after
which the performance drops off rather considerably.
Still, as Rice et al. have reported, all major OCR systems
are capable of error rates considerably lower than
15%, which strongly suggests that there is little reason to
spend additional time proofreading scanned documents
before performing authorship attribution.","txt","2","",""
"1099","10","Graceful Degradation: Managing Digital Projects in Times of Transition and Decline","2","Past panel discussions at Digital Humanities conferences
(including one on the question of “finished”
work and another on innovative management techniques)
have offered anecdotal evidence about factors
contributing to the success of digital projects.1
 Our
journals and conference programs brim with accounts of
work in progress, generally presented at the height of its
success. The exigencies of grant funding and conference
or publication submissions tend to make the record more
sanguine about our projects than, perhaps, their full lifecycle
would merit. This poster takes a deliberative look
at that darker side of project management with which we
are all too familiar – the experience of projects that have
entered states of transition or even decline. We will open
and describe a research methodology for a broad survey
of the digital humanities community related to project
management – specifically on how we think about our
projects and behave toward them when they face times
of transition and decline, and what we see as the causes
and outcomes of those times.
Decline is an especially pressing issue for the digital
humanities because of the tendency of our projects to
be open ended. Traditional, long-term scholarly projects
(even the small subset which, like the majority of
digital projects, are collaborative in some way) are generally
projected to end with the publication of a monograph
or scholarly edition – something solid to sit on the
shelves, regardless of whether the project itself endures
past a publication point. Digital humanities projects are
more likely to have output such as databases or websites,
objects that beg a sustainability plan and require longterm
curation even if they are not continually updated.2
They are also more collaborative than most scholarly
projects and therefore more dependent on the continuing
energy and goodwill of various institutional and intellectual
partners. One could argue that digital projects are,
by nature, in a continual state of transition or decline.3
What happens with the funding runs out, and the original
project staff has moved on or been replaced? What happens when intellectual property rests with a collaborator
or an institution that does not wish to continue the work?
If projects are particularly vulnerable in transitional
phases, how can we anticipate and ameliorate the effects
of these times? Does the valuation of projects against
conventional measures of scholarly success (teaching,
research, service) or within traditional disciplinary
boundaries impact their continuity or conclusion? Is
there actually something qualitatively different about
digital projects versus “traditional” scholarly undertakings?
Are there new models for scholarly output that
match more satisfactorily to the real-world outcomes and
trajectories of digital projects? Do certain kinds of early
planning make projects more likely to weather changes?
What brands of institutional support are most helpful to
projects that are meeting their natural or unnatural ends?
Survey questions address the following issues:
•  basic questions of project funding (its duration and
dependability) and the role of local, institutional
support;
•  the early definition of the project and its potential
for “mission creep;”
•  the definition of short-term vs. long-term goals for
the project and to what extent the project met them;
•  the relation of the project to inquiry in traditional
disciplines, to pedagogy, to published research, and
to tenure and professional advancement;
•  staff retainment and continuity;
•  matters of intellectual property and open source;
•  the use of tools or techniques for project management;
•  explicit risk management in project design and the
“sustainability” both of the product of the work and
of its production process;
•  and whether the views of survey participants regarding
digital scholarship have evolved over time in
response to transitional experiences with their own
projects or to larger changes in academic culture.
The “Graceful Degradation” survey has been constructed
under advisement of experts in qualitative data analysis
at the University of Virginia. It will be conducted online
and in paper format over the course of several months
beginning in the summer of 2009. The authors of the
survey are well positioned to solicit responses from both
North American and European projects and will endeavor
to reach out more broadly – both geographically and
to communities of practice (including digital history,
computer music, and electronic publishing) that have
been somewhat underrepresented at past digital humanities
gatherings.
At Digital Humanities ’09 in Maryland, we will solicit
responses from conference attendees and present our
methodology in poster format. We anticipate that this
survey will help us to determine fruitful lines for future
inquiry, including projects deserving of careful case
study presentation. We hope to identify and share some
best practices in the design and management of projects
that weather transitional periods well. We would also
deem this poster presentation a success if it broke the
taboo on conversation about those digital humanities efforts
that – for reasons we will be prepared to describe
– have failed to degrade with a measure of grace.
Notes
1
“Innovations in Interdisciplinary Research Project
Management,” Ramsay et.al., Digital Humanities 2008
(Oulu, Finland) and “Done: ‘Finished’ Projects in the
Digital Humanities,” Kirschenbaum et.al., Digital Humanities
2007 (Urbana-Champaign, Illinois).
2
Daniel Pitti, “Designing Sustainable Projects and Publications,”
in A Companion to Digital Humanities, ed.
Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens, John Unsworth. Oxford:
Blackwell, 2004. http://digitalhumanities.org/companion/
(accessed 13 November 2008).
3
Diane Zorich, “A Survey of Digital Humanities Centers
in the United States.” CLIR Reports, November 2008.
http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub143/contents.html
(accessed 13 November 2008).","txt","2","",""
"1100","10","Markup Schemes for Manga and Digital Reformatting Systems","2","1 Introduction
I
n this paper, we will present two schemes, one for
encoding Manga and one for the collation of graphic
resources, both of which are used in reformatting systems.
The schemes and reformatting systems will provide
multiple merits for carving out a new research field
for digital humanities.
2 New Field Opened Up by Manga
Manga, or a graphic novel originating in Japan is gradually
becoming known as new reading art, or a kind of literature
even outside of Japan. Manga contains multiple
graphic units on a surface unit(like a page) and sometimes
texts are written in the background, which we call
depicted letters. Each frame, which is a unit of an image,
is sometimes related to another frame using a caption.
And, each balloon can be dominated by multiple frames
and possibly other balloons. It means that we have to
prepare a scheme to handle graphic units with structures
which are not the same as the text structure. To digitize
Manga in markup languages requires more fine encoding
schemes for the relationship between image and text data
rather than those for simply illustrated texts, like referring
directly a corresponding image file. Manga could
be a new target for encoding in markup languages, and
a good test bed for checking adaptability of reference
schemes like TEI[1].
Manga has graphic expressions which help us envisage
situations the story represents, which means that translations
of Manga will not be so different from language
to language, compared to translations of other types
of literature like novels. Then, we can expect that the
multi-lingual corpora based on Manga will be semantically
more stable. The corpora would be good resources
of analysis for natural language processing especially for
machine translations.
Manga has the potential also for good corpora of onomatopoeia,
or ways to imitate phenomena with letters,
which can be regarded as a type of mimicry using phonetic
values of letters/characters. Onomatopoeia have
been neglected as academic research targets for a long
time since its presence in linguistics or semiotics has
been denied. However, in our view, onomatopoeia is
a full-fledged domain of linguistics as well as nouns,
sentences, and discourse units, or at least should be a
domain for lexical items in multi-lingual dictionaries.
Manga will provide a good resource for making corpora
of onomatopoeia.
List 1
List 2
3 Schemes for Text and Images of Manga
As a preliminary experiment, we had encoded two titles
of Manga, Nodame Cantabile and Crayon Shinchan, following
the scheme of a drama module for performance
text in TEI P5, and confirmed that the scheme can also be
used as a base scheme for Manga. This could mean that
Manga can be treated as a kind of “continuities” which
are used as scripts in film productions, sometimes called
storyboards. However, we also confirmed that we should
revise the scheme to describe the connections between
frames, balloons, and texts. For example, it is impossible
to encode all of the correlation of abstract units and images,
like a section and multiple page images, in a text
data structure,
4 Reformatting Systems
The Library of Congress in the US started a reformatting
program, whose aim is mainly the preservation of the appearance
of physical books or documents[11]. We plan to make reformatting systems, but the objective is different
from L.C.’s. Our system will be designed for converting
physical forms into digital forms, and then back to physical
formats like: books to scrolls, scrolls to books, books
to books, and so on. The idea comes from discovery and
observation as follows. The extant Ouma Jirushis, the
early color-printed publications in Japan, are all in scroll
formats, except for one in Tsurumi University, which is
in a set of folios in which holes for binding remain. All
the materials contain the number of leaves and volumes,
printed in the center of each folio. It would mean that
the Ouma Jirushi was originally binded in or printed for
a book form, but later was re-formed into a scroll format.
This kind of shift in formats can now be observed in
printed music. Players sometimes reform a sheet or book
of music to a long sheet or scroll of music for making
easy to follow notes without turning over any pages or
sheets. For narratives which contain time-sensitive content,
scrolls would be more suitable than books. A format
style would not have developed from being a primitive
one to being an advanced one in history. Digitally reformatting
systems will provide opportunities to verify the
propositions and re-examine which formats are the most
suitable for the content that existing materials have.
Figure 2
5 Reformatting Manga from Recto First to
Verso First Reading Style
According to a news story in the Yomiuri Shimbun[13],
French translation version of Pink, which is a title of
Japanese Manga, was published with two formats; one
for reading from left to right pages, which is an ordinary
way to Western culture, and one for reading from right to
left pages, which is an authentic Manga style. The latter
is easy to make a translated version, however the sales
have not been good as compared to the former. This kind
of trials has also been carried out in US[12]. Making a
verso first reading style version costs publishers much
time and money for re-fabrication. For example, let’s
compare an original format in Fig.1 to a recto-first format
in Fig.2.
Since there is no change in images, the directions of
frames and balloons are the same on both formats. However,
the directions of language reading is different from
them. Then, editors have tried to make recto-first formats
into verso-first formats for English versions. Fig.3 is a
verso-first format with two ways of changing: translational
and reflectional symmetry movements. The first
row in Fig.3 is a mirror image of originals. Each frame
on the second row in Fig.3 is results of translational symmetry
movement. Then, on the first row a balloon direction
is the same as a frame direction, but is not on the
second row. On the other hand, information pictured in
frames is kept on the second row instead. Which way is
adopted in editing translation versions depends on editors’
expertise. The aim of our system is to support the
re-formatting processes.
Fig.1 and Fig.2
6 Collation of Image Units
In order to make the reformatting system, first of all,
we have to lay down a scheme for collation of graphic
resources. The results from the scheme will be used as
data for analysis to find out heuristic rules for automatic
frame relocation, then for instructions in converting systems.
Making a scheme for collation of graphic units will
be a new challenging target. Now we are experimenting with descriptions to find ideal schemes for collation of
graphic units.
Fig.1 and Fig.3
Sample Code
For example, encapsulating balloon information into
frames in image structures looks to make easy to specify
types of movements in reformatting. However, it is still a
problem in order to make adequate results to what extent
we should encode instructions about image movements
in collation data on the assumption that image processors
can adjust fluctuating location information encoded in
XML data.
7 Conclusion
Now we are making markup texts of several titles of
Manga following the TEI scheme as much as we can,
and seeking a reference scheme for collation of image
unites in comparing a Japanese version with the two different
formats of English translation versions. We are
planning to alter the TEI scheme to match our requirements
especially making useful collation data for reformatting
systems.
8 References
[1]L.Burnard and S.Bauman eds. (2007) The TEI
Guidelines P5, TEI
[2]K.Ohya and S.Tutiya (1999) “Links between link
elements in compound data units” in Japanese, IPSJ SIG
Technical Report Vol.99. No.48., IPSJ
[3]K.Ohya (2006) “Markup problems: Syntactical analysis
and steps to their resolution” in Japanese, TEI Day
in Kyoto 2006 Report, Kyoto University
[4]K.Ohya (2008) “Management of links between link
elements to represent correlation on link structures” in
Japanese, IPSJ SIG Technical Report Vol.2008. No.100.,
IPSJ
[5]K.Yasuko et al. (2006) Witchblade Takeru Vol.1 in
Japanese, Akita Shoten
[6]K.Yasuko et al. (2007) Witchblade Takeru Manga
Vol.1, Bandai Entertainment.
[7]K.Yasuko et al. (2008) Witchblade Takeru Manga
Vol.1, Top Cow Productions
[8]Y.Usui (1992) Kureyon Shinchan Vol.1 in Japanese,
Futabashya
[9]Y.Usui (2002) Crayon Shinchan Vol.1, Comicsone
[10]Y.Usui (2008) Crayon Shinchan Vol.1, DC Comics
[11]The Library of Congress (2006) “Preservation
Digital Reformatting Program”, The Library of
Congress(USA)
[12](2006-11-21) “’Witchblade’ Manga in Two Formats”, ICv2.com
[13](2007-04-03), ”Page order makes an impact on
sales” in Japanese, Yomiuri Shimbun","txt","2","",""
"1101","10","Text and Pictures in Japanese Historical Documents","2","Majoring in Japanese History, I have been conducting
research with its focus on handwriting in historical
documents. Through searching for documents
with the same handwriting from a great number of historical
documents, I collate documents written by the
same person, analyzing them with questions of not only
what is written, but also why this specific person wrote
this specific document, and why this particular text is
included in this specific textual body.
Since comparisons and analyses of handwritings reveal
what text-only analyses cannot, history and palaeography
have been arguing importance of the study of this
kind. Despite this argument, however, we have only seen
insufficient progress in the study of handwriting.Amajor
reason for this derives from the fact that researchers have
not been facilitated with a suitable environment to help
them conduct ever repeating tasks of not only searching
the same letters and characters in enormous amounts of
texts of enormous amounts of documents, but also comparing
them. This paper proposes a computer system to
facilitate such an environment for historians and its possible
applications for pictorial materials. Please note that
what I am aiming for here is not automatic identification
of handwriting by computer. Rather, the computer is to
help researchers’identification by organizing, searching,
and displaying data.
In order to identify somebody’s handwriting, first I
have to search letters and characters that appear both
in a ‘standard’ document written by that person and a
document to be compared with. Since this is a fairly exhaustive
research to look for all comparable letters and
characters, I use computers to sort out and organize information
about what kind of letters are located in what
place in which document, and based on this, I have been
doing research on methods to search and display characters
or strings of characters.
There are two kinds of information about where a character
is located in a document. One is logical information,
expressing information about the location by using
terms such as page, line, and column. You can find examples
of this kind in book indexes and the computer’s
full text search. The other is to point out the location  visually. This is as if someone brings a book with him,
opening the page, and pointing out to you exactly the
place you are searching.
In the system I propose here, I separate characters in the
text from each other, putting them into relational database
in which each character is treated as one record.
For each character, I assign these two kinds of locus
information. One is its location in the logical structure
of the text—what number in terms of the page, the line,
and the column; and the other is the physical location as
expressed in the coordinates on the digital image. This
kind of assignment, manually conducted, results in not
only reconstructing text by assembling such characters,
but also specifying the location of a character in a digital
image of the document. When character data and image
data are linked through coordinates, we can create
a character catalogue by cutting characters out of document
images. We can also search for a character or combination
of those and highlight them in the digital image,
as if someone brings a book with him, opening the page,
and pointing out to you the exact character you want as
Fig. 1 shows.
I belong to the Japanese Culture Research Group a part
of Global COE (Center of Excellence) program Digital
Humanities Center for Japanese Arts and Cultures, Ritsumeikan
University, and the Group puts focus more on
ukiyo-e and other visual material than on textual ones
such as archival documents. For this reason, I am now
working on to systematize information on ‘what image
is where in what material’ in digitalized images that the
same university’s Art Research Center has been ever accumulating.
This system works like putting tags with
some notes on pictures, but by using computerized tags
rather than paper ones. So, what is the point of using the
computer here?
First of all, among the many merits of this procedure,
we can create other contents, based on every piece of information
about what is where. For instance, if we place
a mark on the publisher’s seal in an ukiyo-e print and
input its data, we can not only search for and display it
in the database, but also make a program that creates a
list of the publisher’s seals by cutting out the image parts
with the publisher’s seals and generate it in PDF or other
formats upon creating a layout that links the data inputs.
Secondly, using the computerized tags means that we
can show data on what is where in what material by using
URLs. Imagine the situation, in which one researcher
may want to inform another researcher of a part of a
picture in the collection of the Art Research Center archives.
He might attach the whole image or only a part of
it to his mail with detailed explanation. Instead of such
toils, when utilizing the data on the web, he would only
need to create the data on ‘what is where in what material’
and send the URL. The receiver would then access
the URL from his browser and inspect the picture with a
tag attached to it and read the notes.
Untill now computers have mainly been used in the humanities
as a means to create databases. Starting with
catalogues, now we can examine both full texts and images
of textual materials. While the catalogues and full
texts, and the catalogues and images, are respectively
linked, we have seen little progress in the linkage between
the full texts (or, in the case of pictorial materials,
data on various elements of the picture) and the images.
Since this system makes this possible and people can use
it personally, researchers can organize their research materials
of full texts and images which they have collected
by linking them. Besides such personal use, this system
can be developed to be a system for multiple users. I
believe that by systematizing data on ‘what is where in
what material,’ we can suggest further possibilities of
applying computers for the humanities, and that makes
significant contribution to not only study of handwriting,
history and paleography but also the humanities in
general.","txt","2","",""
"1102","10","Text-Image Linking Environment (TILE)","2","Introduction
To create the next generation of the technical infrastructure
supporting image-based editions and electronic
archives of humanities content, we are developing
a new web-based image markup tool, the Text-Image
Linking Environment (TILE), through a collaboration of
the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities,
Indiana University Bloomington, the Royal Irish
Academy, the University of Oregon, and Harvard’s
Center for Hellenic Studies. Despite the proliferation of
image-based editions and archives, the linking of images
and textual information remains a slow and frustrating
process for editors and curators. TILE, built on the existing
code of the AXE image tagger, will dramatically
increase the ease and efficiency of this work.  TILE will
be interoperable with other popular tools (including both
the Image Markup Tool and the Edition Production and
Presentation Technology suite) and capable of producing
TEI-compliant XML for linking image to text. We
will also put the image linking features of the newest
version of the Text Encoding Standard (TEI P5) through
its first rigorous, “real world” test, and, at the close of the
project, expect to provide the TEI with a list of suggestions
for improving the standard to make it more robust
and effective. TILE will be developed and thoroughly
tested with the assistance of our project partners, who
represent some of today’s most exciting image-based
editions projects, in order to create a tool generated by
the community, for the community, with the expectation
that, unlike so many other tools, it will be used by the
community.
History of Images in the Digital Environment
Texts, from the earliest classical inscriptions to most
twentieth-century correspondence, were originally inscribed
on such physical objects as stones, papyrus
scrolls, codex manuscripts, printed books, and handwritten
and typewritten letters. As editors transfer a
text from its original inscription, some of this context
is necessarily obscured. Further, editors must often
make potentially questionable decisions as they interpret
the unclear or damaged text on the original artifact.
A good editor will, of course, highlight such interventions
in textual notes, but such notes, usually in
small type and inconveniently separated from the main
text, often go unread. The inclusion of page facsimiles
can make the editorial process more transparent,
but in print editions the reproduction of multiple, high
quality images is often prohibitively expensive. Digital
facsimile editions, on the other hand, may be distributed
far less expensively, and so many editors are
now choosing to publish their facsimile editions online.
The growth of the Internet as a public space in the
early 1990s led to the first generation of widely-accessible
scholarly electronic archives, and even at this
early stage many projects integrated images into their
work in significant ways.  The Valley of the Shadow
(1993), provided images for some of letters in the collection
(in relatively low resolution), and the Rossetti,
Dickinson, and William Blake Archives brought together
encoded texts and images or parallel viewing
and study.1
 The relationship between image and texts
in these archives is quite simple: for example, the page
image of the source of the edited text in the Valley of
the Shadow or the Rossetti Archive may be opened in
a separate window, but the links go no deeper than the
page level. One cannot, for instance, link from a word
in the edited text to its location in the image or click
an interesting area in the image to read an annotation.
At the same time that these relatively open-ended online
archives were under development, other scholars were
taking advantage of digital technologies to build selfcontained
scholarly editions. Some of the earliest efforts
include the Wife of Bath’s Prologue on CDROM (Chaucer
1996), the Electronic Beowulf (Kiernan 1999), and
the Piers Plowman Electronic Archive, Vol. 1, (Langland
2000). As with the online archives, these early editions
were limited in how closely they linked image and text.
The Electronic Beowulf did provide some annotations
linked to areas on the manuscript folio image, but there
are few of these as the coordinates for each had to be
added to the HTML “by hand.”
As the community of scholars developing image-based
projects has grown in the past decade, tools have been
created that are actively used for project development.
As of November 14, 2008, the project investigators know
of no fewer than ten tools or collections of tools that allow users to edit or display images within the context of
textual projects or editions. These range from those that
simply display an image alongside a text, to very robust
software suites which support the development of complete
image-based projects with substantial functionality
beyond simple text-to-image mapping.
The simplest tools enable the viewing of images alongside
text transcription, either for editing or for display.
Juxta, developed through Networked Infrastructure for
Nineteenth-century Electronic Scholarship (NINES)
<http://www.nines.org/tools/juxta.html> provides a
window for viewing image files (if provided) alongside
transcriptions, which could be very useful for an editor
checking readings or adding annotations, but does not
provide any method for connecting the image with the
text beyond the page level. Similar is the Versioning Machine,
developed by Susan Schreibman at the University
of Maryland Libraries (http://v-machine.org/): a display
tool for comparing encoded texts that also enables page
images to be linked to the text at the page level. These
tools are both useful, but for those scholars who seek to
include more fine-grained linking in their projects they
are not suitable.
There are also tools that support the linking of image to
transcription or annotation. The Edition Production and
Presentation Technology (EPPT), developed by Kevin
Kiernan at the University of Kentucky under the aegis of
the Electronic Boethius and ARCHway projects (http://
www.eppt.org/eppt/) is a set of tools that have been developed
in and run through the Eclipse software development
platform. One of the main functions of the tool is
to link transcription to an image of text, although it provides
much more robust functionality. The Image Markup
Tool (IMT), under development by Martin Holmes at
the University of Victoria, BC, is the first tool to output
complete and valid TEI P5 XML. The IMT enables a
user to place a series of annotations on an image, resulting
in a file that validates against the regular (unmodified)
TEI P5 schema, and then enables the user to create
HTML for the display of those annotations online. The
IMT is very simple and easy to use, and is in many ways
a model of the type of tool that we will be developing in
this project - it does one thing, and it does it very well.
Unfortunately, the IMT runs only on Windows machines
and cannot be easily ported into new web-based projects.
TILE will interoperate with the constrained IMT
TEI format.
There have also been some efforts to build tools to automate
the creation of links between transcribed text and
image of that text. Hugh Cayless at UNC-Chapel Hill
has recently developed a system for automating im-text
linking, a process he presented at the Text Encoding Initiative
Member’s Meeting, November 2008,2
 and Reside
has also developed the Word Linking tool, originally developed
for the Shakespeare Quartos project.
The Ajax XML Encoder (AXE), also developed by Reside,
allows users with limited technical knowledge to
add metadata to text, image, video, and audio files.  Users
can collaboratively tag a text in TEI, associate XML
with time stamps in video or audio files, and mark off
regions of an image to be linked to external metadata.
At present the web-based image tagger allows users to
select regions in an image and store the coordinates of
this region in a database, but it does not provide tools to
make use of this data once it is stored. The text tagger
allows a user to specify a relaxNG schema and then tag
a text using this schema, but it requires users to enter
coordinates for image links by hand (it does not, at present,
interface easily with the image tagger). The tools
in AXE were always intended to be interoperable and
to have the functionality described in this narrative, and
this current collaboration allows us to move the suite to
the next stage of its development.
The Tool
TILE will be based primarily on the Ajax XML Encoder
(AXE). Through TILE, we will extend the functionality
of AXE to allow the following:
•  Semi-automated creation of links between transcriptions
and images of the materials from which
the transcriptions were made. Using a form of optical
character recognition, our software will recognize
words in a page image and link them to a preexisting
textual transcription. These links can then
be checked, and if need be adjusted, by a human.
•  Annotation of any area of an image selected by the
user with a controlled vocabulary (for example, the
tool can be adjusted to allow only the annotations
“damaged” or “illegible”).
•  Application of editorial annotations to any area of
an image.
•  Support linking for non-horizontal, non-rectangular
areas of source images.
•  Creation of links between different, non-contiguous
areas of primary source images. For example:
•  captions and illustrations;
•  illustrations and textual descriptions; •  analogous texts across different manuscripts
We are especially concerned with making our tool available
for integration into many different types of project
environments, and we will therefore work to make the
system requirements for TILE as minimal and as generic
as possible.
Notes
1
Valley of the Shadow: Two Communities in the American
Civil War, Virginia Center for Digital History, University
of Virginia (http://valley.vcdh.virginia.edu/); The
Complete Writings and Pictures of Dante Gabriel Rossetti,
A Hypermedia Archive, edited by Jerome J. McGann,
University of Virginia (http://www.rossettiarchive.org/);
Dickinson Electronic Archives, edited by Martha Nell
Smith, Online. Institute for Advanced Technology in the
Humanities (IATH), University of Virginia (http://www.
emilydickinson.org/); The William Blake Archive. Ed.
Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi.
(http://www.blakearchive.org/).
2
Hugh Cayless, “Experiments in Automated Linking of
TEI Transcripts to Manuscript Images,” presented at the
Text Encoding Initiative Member’s Meeting, November
2008. http://www.cch.kcl.ac.uk/cocoon/tei2008/programme/abstracts/abstract-166.html
References
Carlquist, J. 2004. “Medieval Manuscripts, Hypertext
and Reading. Visions of Digital Editions. Literary &
Linguistic Computing 19.1,105-118.
Chaucer, G. 1996. Wife of Bath’s Prologue on CDROM.
Edited by P. Robinson. Cambridge University Press.
Holmes, M. 2007. Image Markup Tool v. 1.7. [http://
www.tapor.uvic.ca/~mholmes/image_markup/] Accessed
2008-11-13.
Kiernan, K.. 2005. “Digital Facsimiles in Editing: Some
Guidelines for Editors of Image-based Scholarly Editions.”
Electronic Textual Editing. Ed. Lou Burnard, ,
Katherine O’Brien O’Keeffe and John Unsworth. New
York: Modern Language Association, 2005. [preprint at
http://www.tei-c.org/About/Archive_new/ETE/Preview/
kiernan.xml]
Kiernan, K. 1999. The Electronic Beowulf. University of
Michigan Press.
Kirschenbaum, M. G. 2002. Editor’s Introduction: Image-based
Humanities Computing. Computers and the
Humanities 36.1, 3-6.
Langland, W. 2000. Piers Plowman Electronic Archive,
Vol. 1. Edited by R. Adams. University of Michigan Press.
TEI Consortium, eds. 2007. “Digital Facsimiles.” Guidelines
for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. [Last
modifieddate:2008-07-04].[http://www.tei-c.org/release/
doc/tei-p5- doc/en/html/PH.html] Accessed 2008-07-25.","txt","2","",""
"1103","10","Authorship Attribution, The Large and Small Effect Sizes of Divergence as Classification","2","A common method of performing authorship attribution
(or text classification in general) involves
embedding the documents in a high-dimensional feature
space and calculating similarity judgments in the
form of numeric “distances” between them. Using (for
example) a k-nearest neighbor algorithm, an unknown
document can be assigned to the “closest” (in similarity
or distance) group of reference documents. However, the
word “distance” is ill-defined and can be implemented
conceptually in many different ways. We examine the
implications of one broad category of “distances”.
This notion of distance can be generalized to dissimilarity
judgements without previous embedding in a space.
An example of this is the Kullback-Leibler Divergence
which calculates an information-theoretic dissimilarity
measure, effect size, between two event streams where
the events are not necessarily independent and thus cannot
be directly tabulated as simple histograms. This kind
of “distance” can easily be incorporated into a text classification
system.
To a topologist, a “distance” is a numeric function D(x,y)
between two points or objects, such that
•  D(x,y) is always nonnegative, and always positive
if x != y
•  D(x,y) = D(y,x)
•  D(x,y) + D(y,z) >= D(x,z)
However, there are many useful distance-like measures
(technically known as “divergences”) that do not have
all these properties. In particular, divergences such as
the Kullback-Leibler divergence and vocabulary overlap
are not the same when measured from different basis.
So, assume that you have two documents A and B and
want to find the divergence between them. The methods
would be to find the divergence of B from A, D(A, B) or
to find the divergence of A from B D(B,A). These two
ways of applying the same divergence will give you different
results.
The two results being different is important because it
implies that there is different information captured by
each one. This has been shown to be true for some divergence
measures (Juola Ryan, 2008) but upon reviewing
those previous results, it seems there is rarely a case
where information spread across both divergences i.e.
the information gained from one is better then an average
of the two. The problem then becomes that we do not
know which one will contain more information. Because
of this we have come up with criteria for selecting one
over the other. The criteria devised are simple; we will
either use the max of the two methods, or the min of the
two methods.
To test this, we are in the process of applying several divergence
functions to a standardized corpus [the AAAC
corpus (Juola, 2004)] of authorship attribution problems
using the JGAAP framework (Juola et al, this conference).
We will compare each run normally, backwards,
then both taking the max and min.
Preliminary results using the Kullback-Leibler Divergence
and the LZW Distance indicate that using the max
of the two divergences will on some problems increase
accuracy by up to four-fold. We plan to continue this
work using other divergences; if this finding continues
to hold, we consider this to be an important step to eliminating
some of the “ad-hoc-ness” of the current state
of authorship attribution, as we will be able to provide
some steps to analyzing not merely what methods perform
best, but what extensions of these methods can be
used to improve their performance.","txt","2","",""
"1104","10","ArchInSite: Augmented (Reality) Architecture","2","Fig. 1 Diagram of ArchInSite operation.
ArchInSite is an augmented reality application that
combines three-dimensional modelling, video compositing
and a global positioning system into a handheld
device. This system allows a user to move through the
landscape, while using a mobile device to view virtual
models accurately placed in space. ArchInSite is unique
in its combination of a hand held device with GPS and
video compositing. This system can be useful for visualizing
architectural designs, sculpture and augmented
environments directly on real site, while simultaneously
interacting with and making design decisions within
the virtual environment. Further, ArchInSite offers the
possibility of creating a virtual world woven into real
space, both as a means of displaying architectural information
and exploring design alternatives within the
existing conditions. At the conceptual level, privileging
the perspectival view challenges the conventional place
of orthographic projections as the media of architectural
design.
Architectural Background
While the vast majority of the architectural community
is concerned with scaled, planometric drawings that
represented spaces from a God’s eye view, we are interested
in exploring a technology that would allow us to
visualize buildings in a real-time, interactive first-person
perspective. Our reasoning is simple enough—if one
experiences the world in a first-person perspective, why
not design buildings in a first-person perspective?  It appears
to us that too often architects are referencing nonexperiential
spatial concepts, such as a geometrical relationship
between adjacent rooms that is only evident in
plan, instead of the direct experiential nature of inhabiting
a building.  We consider first-person perspectives of
a building to be indubitable knowledge for architectural
experience. Likewise, we consider an overall, spatial
plan of a building to be comparable to the philosopher
Edmund Husserl’s description of a belief.   Therefore,
a progression through a building, in which one is able
to take in several first-person perspectives (indubitable
knowledge), allows one to begin making some basic
assumptions (beliefs) about the overall spatial plan of
the building. So, while the experience of a building
progresses from first-person perspectives to an overall,
spatial plan, the standard practice for designing a building
progresses in reverse, from planometric drawing to
perspective. We see this problem as an opportunity to
create a device that would provide the kinds of real-time,
perspectival visualizations necessary to design in a firstperson
perspective.
It is our contention that the analysis of these first-person
perspectives, not as our own perspectives, but as an ideal,
archetypal perspective, should be the driving force of
an architectural design. Like Husserl, we believe that a
further consideration of things in and of themselves can
provide a foundation for more conceptual and abstract
thoughts.
Background/ Related Work
It is possible to trace the concept of computer generated
reality to Ivan Sutherland’s pioneering work with head
mounted displays and his idea of a window into a virtual
world (Sutherland). Much of this early work focused on
the creation of a world separate from our ‘normal’world,
which became known as virtual reality. The term ‘augmented
reality’ was first introduced by two Boeing engineers (Caudell), who created the Wire Bundle Assembly
Project, which combined a heads-up, see-through, headmounted
display that registered computer produced diagrams
superimposed on real world objects using half
silvered mirrors and position tracking. Steven Feiner’s
work on ‘A Touring Machine’ (Feiner) combined bulky
GPS equipment with optical overlay heads-up display
to geo-spatially register and display text information
about campus building interactively. Ongoing work by
Behzadam and Kamat (Behzadam) at the University of
Michigan is using video compositing and GPS data to
feed a head mounted video display for possible use in
construction.
Research Issues and Implementation
Augmenting the sensible world with additional information
is, on it’s face, a simple and reasonable goal. Because
we never just look without intention, the ability to
enrich the visual context with information makes possible
new forms of understanding and interaction.
Augmented reality has raised important ideas about
both hardware and software. The hardware issues have
largely revolved around issues of display and registration
(by contrast, generating 3d models and placing them
on still photographic backgrounds is well understood).
Display choices are largely focused on heads-up display
technologies, with choices between see-through displays
and video compositing. Registration of the model image
with the real world is a difficult and on-going problem,
requiring specialized equipment (head tracking accelerometers)
and limited environments (position tracking).
While these efforts continue to show promise, their current
state is still largely fragile and more suitable to research
labs than to wide spread use.
We have developed a prototype for a system that incorporates
three-dimensional modelling, GPS tracking, an
internal camera and video compositing to produce a device
that creates a hybrid condition between the virtual
and real worlds. The current implementation consists of
a Sony UX micro pc running Maya modelling software,
a GPS data parser and video capture software. The system
utilizes a MEL script that enables the built in camera
and the data streamed from the GPS to reorient the model
in virtual space based upon the position of the user. A
system such as this is feasible for virtually all camera/
GPS enabled phones (currently estimated at 400 million
units/year worldwide); this makes their use potentially
ubiquitous.
Results
We have successfully tested the use of ArchInSite for
viewing of proposed architectural models in the landscape.
The system is readily understood and embraced
by users, and while the registration problems endemic
with head mounted systems do not completely disappear,
separating the view port from direct attachment
to users (by substituting hand held display for heads-up
display) provides much more flexibility for the users to
comprehend the registration of the virtual and the real.
We began with preselected models that were placed at
specific points in the landscape; we then implemented
(using Maya’s default modelling tool set) the ability to
make changes to the model while concurrently viewing
virtual architecture integrated into its site.
Fig. 3 Screenshots showing change of user position
and corresponding change in model and composited
background.
We have three major findings.
1. The system that we have implemented utilizes easily obtainable handheld devices rather than headsup
displays, and side steps the difficulty of solving
registration problems. Our users have found this
handheld device approach to be a convincing window
that they can connect directly and viscerally to
the context.
2. We believe that ArchInSite can prove valuable as a
design tool for architects and designers. The ability
to see work with a model on site is useful because it
gives you a richer and more fulsome understanding
of the context than is possible when pursued through
a distance by sketches, renderings and/or drawings.
Coupling this visual understanding with the ability
to alter the computerized model allows the designer
to sensitively recalibrate and redesign the model in
the actual setting.
3. We think that significant opportunity exists to construe
a virtual world that is threaded inside the real
world and supplements it in interesting ways. Architecture
was often used as a classical rhetorical
device for memorizing facts and telling stories and
we see the potential for its re-emergence threaded
through the real world.
Further Work
We are currently developing a new modelling and compositing
implementation that will use custom software
rather than off-the-shelf applications that often have high
levels of system overhead. Our further goal is to move
this application, or a variation of it, over to a more compact
and ubiquitous device, such as the iPhone, a device
that currently contains the hardware necessary to drive
the software.
We will also be teaching an architectural studio course
that will use ArchInSite as the primary means of design,
seeking to challenge the hegemony of the orthographic.
References
Behzadan A.H., and Kamat V.R. (2005), Visualization
of Construction Graphics in Outdoor Augmented
Reality, Proceedings of the 2005 Winter Simulation
Conference, Orlando, FL
Caudell, Thomas P., and Mizell, David W. (1992). Augmented
Reality: An Application of heads-Up Display
Technology to Manual Manufacturing Processes, 1968
Fall Joint Computer Conference, AFIPS Conference
Proceeding 33, 757-764 (1992).
S. Feiner et al., “A Touring Machine: Prototyping 3D
Mobile Augmented Reality Systems for Exploring the
Urban Environment,” Proc. 1st Int”l Symp. Wearable
Computers (ISWC “97), IEEE CS Press, Los
Alamitos, Calif., 1997, pp. 74-81.
Sutherland, Ivan E. (1968). A Head Mounted Three Dimensional
Display, 1968 Fall Joint Computer Conference,
AFIPS Conference Proceeding 33, 757-764 (1968).","txt","2","",""
"1105","10","An Image-Based Document Reader with Editing Functions for Education and Research on Digital Humanities.","2","This paper focuses on an electronic document reader
we have developed, a new method of lecture using
this reader, and some possible examples of its utility for
research on digital humanities.
Introduction
Recently, more and more documents have been stored
in digital archives. Electronic documents have many advantages,
e.g., high performance when searching text,
instantaneous document transmission, and negating the
need for archive space of the corresponding physical
documents. Because of this, we can read thousands of
digitized books anywhere with our notebook PCs.
Despite these benefits, however, it is often said that most
people find it difficult to remember the contents of digital
documents when reading them on a computer display,
compared with reading the physical paper document. We
can propose several reasons for this. Firstly, any physical
movements which indirectly assist our recollection, such
as eye-movement or page turning, are not experienced
when reading digital documents. Secondly, making
notes or memos or marking on the electronic document
is usually not possible, and even if it is, we cannot do it
as easily as on paper.
Some reports say that taking memos or highlighting
parts of documents improves our understanding and remembering.
Since such activity requires proactive decisions
on selecting contexts, these actions activate our
brain much more than silent reading. Of course, these
markings and memos help us recollect our thoughts during
a later reading of the document.
To overcome these shortcomings, we have developed a
document reader that enables us to freely mark digitized
documents. The reader we have developed has several
marking functions, such as, highlighting areas of text, inserting
bookmark stamps, and adding memos to the text.
One of the most unique features of our reader is to realize
these mark-up functions with usability almost equal
to that of paper media. This point is important because
such an easy-to-use text reader has not prevailed yet.
Our reader stores mark-up data in a file separate to the
original document. As the mark-up data is written in a
simple text-numeric format, it can be easily used by a lot
of software applications, such as spreadsheets, statistics
analysis or image processing packages.
In this paper, we will start with an explanation of our
reader’s functions and then introduce two applications
using it: a new method of lecturing using the reader, and
examples of using mark-up data for the study of digital
humanities.
Functions Of Our Reader
We now introduce editing functions equipped in our
document-reader. An example text containing mark-up
highlights, stamps, and memos written on the text is
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: A sample document with markings
Highlights:
We can highlight text just by click-and-dragging the
mouse along the text. Any other operations like opening
menus or clicking icons are not required. Dragging
from left-to-right highlights the text in red, while, dragging
from right-to-left highlights in blue. You may think
that highlighting in blue is a little bit difficult due to the
right-to-left movement, but in exchange for this inconvenience,
you do not have to choose a separate color to
use. That is, blue is naturally used for short key words or
important contexts.
Stamps:
If you push the space key, a stamp appears on the text.
The stamp has two faces: “?” and “!”. The intended purpose
of the stamp mark “?” is to mark hard-to-understand
concepts, or points that need to be followed up later. The
“!” mark is used for “interesting” or essential points of
concepts.
Stamps also act as bookmarks. If you push the “<” or
“>” key, the reader jumps to the previous or next stamp,
respectively. If there is no following stamp in the current
document, the reader jumps to the next bookmark in the following document.
Text memos:
You can add notes or memos anywhere in the document.
Push the “Tab” key to enter text-input mode. Characters
you type on your keyboard will appear at the position
of the mouse cursor. To exit input mode, push the “Tab”
key again. Unlike the other editing applications, our
reader does not show any text-input-box which spoils
the look and feel of writing on the paper.
User’s mark-up data file format:
A user’s mark-up data is stored in an associated file. An
example of a user’s mark-up data is shown in Figure 2.
You can see that it is quite a simple form of text-numeric
data. The number in the top line indicates the position
of the cursor when closing the document on the previous
reading. Each of the following lines describes the
marker type and the coordinates of the surrounding rectangle.
In the case of a text-memo, the user’s text is added
as a character string after the coordinate values. These
data are used not only for displaying mark-ups, but for
other various purposes, such as taking mark-up statistics,
extracting highlighted-regions from the document, and
comparing comments written by different reviewers. We
will now show some examples below.
Figure 2: Mark-up data of Figure 1
Use During Lectures
Thanks to the improvement of our computer literacy and
network technology, computer-assisted education, (so
called e-learning), has become more and more popular.
Our university has several computer rooms, but they are
mainly used for learning computer software or programming.
So, we have been developing a new style of lecturing
using our reader to make the most use of computer
rooms for the classes of humanities. The arrangement of
a typical class is as follows.
First, the students read the lecture notes for the next class
with our reader, highlighting or putting stamps on phrases
they cannot understand clearly.
Next, the teacher receives student mark-up data via the
network prior to the lecture. The lecturer checks the student
reports with a summarized view (shown in Figure
3), and then, he examines which areas of the lecture students
are having a hard time understanding. As a result,
the teacher can modify his lecture so that it is more suitable
and understandable for the students.
There are several other benefits for the students, too;
1) They can understand lessons more deeply by paying
attention to areas they could not clearly understand. 2)
Their sense of participation is promoted because their
mark-up results directly affect the lecture content or explanation.

These major benefits are achieved by relatively simple
editing actions by the students. According to a class
evaluation taken at the end of the semester, most of our
students approved of this style of lecture. By investigating
the mark-up data gathered from them, we can extract
difficult-to-understand keywords and sections of
the lecture. In the near future, it may be possible to find
relations between their marking style and their learning
results.
Figure 3: Summarized views of student marks.
Using For The Study Of Digital Humanities
A particular feature that paper media have is that we can
easily write on them, however, the reality is that, it is
usually prohibited to write on research materials. By using
our reader, we are completely free from such restrictions.
This is one of the benefits of our writable reader
used as a researching tool.
In addition, by displaying marks or comments written
by more than one researcher on the same document, we
can clearly recognize which points should be focused on,
and what the differences are between their ideas. This
function is also useful for referee reading or proofreading
performed by several reviewers.
Finally, since each piece of mark-up data indicates its position
in the material, it is easy to extract marked regions
from the original material. After gathering these regions,
they can be shown as listings or KWIC (keyword in context)
forms. We can also use the marked region as a template
for searching over the document. In this way, this
reader can be used as a front-end to researching tools.
Conclusions
In this paper, we have confirmed the utility values of our
digital document reader for understanding computerized
documents and its usefulness in education. As mentioned above, our reader can be used in several ways for the
research of digital humanities. Especially, by handling
materials such as image documents, our reader is suitable
for handwritten documents and those with a large
number of figures.
You can download our text reader from our website. We
would like you to try it and give us feedback. Please feel
free to stop by our poster session, as we are going to
demonstrate it and introduce new methods for research
on digital humanities.
URL: http://www.img.is.ritsumei.ac.jp/~h-seki/beeReader/
","txt","2","",""
"1106","10","New Digital Tools at the William Blake Archive","2","I
n this talk, I plan to discuss and demonstrate my recent
work at the William Blake Archive—namely, my
development of a virtual lightbox application. I will discuss
this work in the context of our editorial rationale,
software roadmap (including our user interface redesign,
currently scheduled for completion in early 2009), and
our past approaches to digital tool development.
The user interface of the Blake Archive currently relies
on Java-based tools developed at the Institute for Advanced
Technology in the Humanities (IATH), University
of Virginia, in the mid-1990s. These applets, ImageSizer
and Inote, allow users to view some of Blake’s
work at true size and to read the Archive editors’ image
descriptions. They have proven useful and durable, but
we have long sought to incorporate their functionality
into a more powerful tool: a virtual lightbox application
that provides users with image manipulation capabilities,
features for object annotation, and the ability to collect
and compare Blake’s work across genres, media, and
time periods.
As technical editor of the Blake Archive, I have spent
the past several months developing this software, and the
Archive has successfully deployed it on our testing site.
My poster will discuss the ways in which this software
greatly expands the functionality of the Blake Archive
in particular, and, in general, the ways in which it can
be adapted to any digital project concerned with imaging
in various contexts, with a special emphasis on arthistorical
and manuscript studies.
In terms of the Blake Archive, The primary goal of the
lightbox is to give serious Blake scholars an indispensible
tool for comparative analysis. By allowing users
to collect different plates from different copies of an illuminated
book (for example) and view them all at true
size, the lightbox provides a fundamental tool of arthistorical
analysis that has hitherto been absent from the
Blake Archive (as well as from similar projects, such as
the Rossetti Archive). In addition, its annotation features
allow users to explore image descriptions and editorial
commentary; they also enable users to search currently
loaded images by keyword, motif, or other markup characteristics. Furthermore, its backward-compatibility with SGML
Inote annotations permits a smooth transition between
previous annotation/description schemes and the new,
XML-enabled Lightbox environment.
In more general terms, I will discuss the architecture of
the Blake Archive lightbox, emphasizing its open-source
(MIT/X11) licensing and simple API. Its design, which
is intended to be both straightforward and flexible, allows
it to be incorporated into any web-based digital
project with ease. Its simple, XML-based image annotation
format is adaptable to a wide range of image markup
needs. Finally, its installation procedure—which relies
on simple JavaScript functions—will ensure that it is
easy to integrate into other projects.
In addition to discussing the features and development
of the lightbox, I will explain how it fits into the editorial
rationale of the Blake Archive. As editors Morris Eaves,
Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi have pointed out,
the priority that we grant to the media, methods, and
histories of artistic production has dictated a feature of
the Archive that influences virtually every aspect of it.
It is utterly fundamental: we emphasize the physical object—the
plate, page, or canvas—over the logical textual
unit—the poem or other work abstracted from its physical
medium. This emphasis coincides with our archival
as well as with our editorial objectives. (Eaves, Essick,
and Viscomi, “Principles”).
This art-historical emphasis on the physical object, rather
than exclusively on the literary text, is continued in
the lightbox. It not only allows users to focus on the
physical objects themselves, rather than editorial apparatus,
but also complements both our editorial principles
of diplomatic transcription and our archival principles of
size fidelity and comparative analysis.
In conclusion, I plan to discuss my development of the
lightbox application; to explain how the application fits
into both the Blake Archive site redesign and, in theory,
answers the needs of other projects; and to argue that, as
a tool, it is both an important part of our user experience
and a manifestation of the editorial principles that have
guided the entire history of the William Blake Archive.
Works Cited
Eaves, Morris, Robert Essick, and Joseph Viscomi.
“Editorial Principles: Methodology and Standards in the
Blake Archive.” The William Blake Archive. April 15,
2005 <http://www.blakearchive.org/blake/public/about/
principles/index.html>
-----. “Technical Summary of the William Blake Archive.”
The William Blake Archive. 16 June 2008 <http://
www.blakearchive.org/blake/public/about/tech/index.
html>","txt","2","",""
"1107","10","TADA Research Evaluation Exchange: Winning 2008 Submissions","2","Winners: Dave Beavan, Susan Brown, J.
Stephen Downie, Carlos Fiorentino, Patrick
Juola, Shelly Lukon, Peter Organisciak,
Geoffrey Rockwell, Susan Schreibman,
Kirsten Uszkalo
I
n the spring of 2008 the Text Analysis Developers’
Alliance organized a digital humanities tools competition
called T-REX, modelled on similar competitions
such as MIREX (music information retrieval) and TREC
(text retrieval competition), (cf. Downie 2006). The
community response to T-REX was very positive and
among the many submissions received, judges selected
winners from the following categories:
•  Best New Web-based Tool
•  Best New Idea for a Web-based Tool
•  Best New Idea for Improving a Current Web-Based
Tool
•  Best New Idea for Improving the Interface of the
TAPoR Portal
•  Best Experiment of Text Analysis Using High Performance
Computing
The categories above deliberately cover not only working
tools, but also ideas, designs and preliminary experiments;
a primary objective of T-REX is to encourage
the involvement and collaboration of programmers, designers,
and users. More information on the categories,
the judges, and other aspects of T-REX are available at
http://tada.mcmaster.ca/trex/.
The organizers and winning participants of T-REX would
like to propose a cluster of posters that showcase various
aspects of the research done. In particular, we will
prepare seven “half” posters presenting relevant aspects
from each of the winning T-REX submissions. In addition,
an eighth “half poster” will provide an overview of
the inaugural TREX competition, lessons learned, and
new initiatives for the second round. Below are brief descriptions
of each of the seven project posters.
Susan Brown et al.,
Degrees of Connection Tool (New Tool)
This linkage tracing tool allows users working on a large
collection of documents to explore the linkages within
the collection based on the semantic tags it contains. Our
prototype based on the Orlando textbase traces links between
people mentioned in different XML documents
based on co-occurrences of a small set of key tags that
occur across many documents: personal names, organization
names, places, and titles. This exploits the tagging
to get at connections between people that may not be
made by direct linkages between documents, but rather
by the co-occurrence of tags within two documents, or
a pathway from document x to document y by way of
document z in which different tags common to x and y
occur in z. It is a way of getting at implicit but nevertheless
potentially important linkages, and while it emerges
in this case from an interest in literary history, the tool
could be useful to other fields ranging from journalism
to creative writing, sociology or psychology. It provides
a new way of exploring the large digital collections researchers
are increasingly using. The poster will 1) outline
the principles on which the prototype is based, 2) list
key features for a fully-developed, generalized version,
3) explain our application of graph theory to the tagged
text, and 4) outline the design challenges that emerged in
the development of the prototype. A live demo will allow
attendees to test the prototype.
David Beavan,
Collocate Cloud (Idea for Existing Tool
Improvement)
Clouds of information e.g. keywords, tags or words, are
a very useful way to aggregate and present vast quantities
of data. These clouds have gone on to be used in
many web 2.0 sites. As such they are becoming a well
known and understood visualisation by many users.
TAPoRware currently provides a Word Cloud visualisation,
which shows the frequency of words in a document.
Scholars often wish to go further, to see how a particular
word is used, by examining which words co-occur near
their search word. TAPoRware already has this Collocation
tool, showing the results in tabular form.
The Collocate Cloud would merge the collocation output
and the cloud visualisation technology. It will show the
collocates of a particular search word in cloud format.
The alphabetical ordering of the Collocate Cloud would
allow the user to find or discount a word quickly. Frequencies and collocational strength are shown by size
and brightness, letting these terms stand out visually.
Carlos Fiorentino,
The Magic Circle (Idea for New Tool)
The Magic Circle is an information glyph that allows
scholars to visually summarize combinations of the lexical
information included in text collections (typically frequency
data about words, lemmas, and parts of speech)
and the bibliographic information attached to these texts.
The glyph consists of a set of rings organized outwards
from the centre and divided in wedges or sections. The
lexical data determine the size of the centre, which also
shows a word, a lemma, or a part of speech, and the total
number of search results for that word, lemma, or part
of speech within a specified work or set of works. The
bibliographic data is related to authors specified by the
user, and the rings allow the user to analyze how the
search results are distributed in different collections as
well as in different periods of time. The color sets of the
rings follow patterns of associations with variations in
hue, tone and saturation. A comparative scale helps the
user to understand the volume of information found in
context with the whole volume of information present in
the collections.
Alejandro Giacometti et al.,
Ripper Browser (New Tool)
The Ripper Browser is a prototype for rich-prospect
browsing of text collections. Rich-prospect browsing
interfaces are designed to aid research tasks such as exploration
and synthesis by providing both a meaningful
representation of each item in a collection and tools to
manipulate their visual organization (Ruecker 2003). The
Ripper browser offers an environment for exploration
and interaction with digital text documents. The system
creates tiles that contain faceted information about each
document. The tiles can be manipulated with a series of
controls to reveal or hide details, organize them according
to a particular hierarchy, or select a specific group.
By adapting the size of the tiles, the Ripper browser allows
researchers to visualize the complete collection and
the precise information they need about each document
in view at all times. The Ripper browser was developed
in web-native technologies: HTML, JavaScript, and uses
the jQuery library. It is configured to use text collections
provided by the MONK Project. The Ripper browser is
part of an ongoing effort to understand the potential of
rich-prospect browsing and improve on our strategies for
designing rich-prospect tools. It has allowed us to experiment
further with meaningful representation, increased
our understanding of the importance of sequences, and
provided insight into new possibilities for organization
in visualizations.
Patrick Juola & Shelly Lukon,
Back-of-the-Book Index Generation
(Experiment in HPC)
This is actually a work-in-progress; as we have detailed
elsewhere (Juola, 2005, ACH/ALLC; Lukon and Juola,
2006, DH2006), we are working on a program to apply
standard ML techniques, including latent semantic analysis,
to the problem of back-ofthe-book index generation.
LSA implicitly uses huge document-by-term matrices
to determine which words appear in similar contexts
and are therefore good candidates for grouping under a
single index term.
The sheer size of this matrix makes it difficult to work
without HPC; one of the tools we are using is the 200+
node Beowulf cluster available at Duquesne University
Computer Science Department. We analyze the document
to be indexed (which can in theory be arbitrarily
large but in practice will be about novel-sized) to select
candidate words (mostly nouns, via POS tagging) for indexing,
then use LSA to identify potential relationships
among those words.
Peter Organisciak,
Bookmarklet for Immediate Text Analysis
(Improving TAPoR)
This idea is of an online interface for the generation of
TAPoR bookmarklets on demand.
Bookmarklets are browser bookmarks that run javascript
code. They provide value to text analysis tools in two
way: ease and ubiquity. They allow one-click connection
of content to tool and, more importantly, allow it to be
run on whatever content the user is at.
One problem of bookmarklets is that they are static,
which means that customization of the query is limited.
One solution would be to call up an interface every time
the bookmarklet is called. Doing so, however, is an impediment
to the core concept of ease. Rather, through an
interface for creating customized bookmarklets, a user
can create single-purpose bookmarklet buttons that do
the same command every time, immediately and directly.
Kirsten C. Uszkalo,
Throwing Bones (Idea for New Tool)
The Throwing Bones interface operates as a means to
discover meaningful relationships within a corpus of
texts. These relationships will appear as a series of piles,
which the user can zoom into and out of, shuffle through and examine closer for more comprehensive, annotated
information. For example, in the case of a corpus of early
modern witchcraft trials, a user might want to see the relationship
between animal familiars and accusers. After
shuffling, the top item in a pile would show the number
of familiars, while the cards beneath show the number of
accusers, illustrating a connection between the imagination
of accusers and the presence of familiars in trials
and texts. The piles could also be based on geographic,
temporal, textual, or relationship proximity. The concept
behind Throwing Bones is that the interface will not only
offer the pleasure of play, but also erudite and serendipitous
textual analysis.","txt","2","",""
"1108","10","Bringing Southern Oral Stories Online","2","I
n recent years, oral histories have become an alternative
medium for interrogating the past and have assumed
a prominent place in historical inquiry. They
offer unique perspectives from individuals who have
witnessed history in the making and often yield unparalleled
insight into the lives and times that they record.
Long constrained by the media used to record them,
oral histories are increasingly the target of digitization
initiatives that seek to preserve these voices and make
them heard by disparate audiences. “Oral histories of the
American South” (http://docsouth.unc.edu/sohp/) is just
such an initiative.
From its beginnings as a pilot project in 2004, this endeavor,
funded by the Institute of Museum and Library
Services, grew rapidly and attracted attention.
Documenting the American South, a digital publishing
program at the Carolina Digital Library and Archives
(CDLA), worked in close cooperation with a number
of departments at the University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill – the UNC Library, Southern Oral Histories
program (SOHP), and School of Education – and applied
new technologies, open standards and some of the tested
practices highlighted in other DocSouth collections. Far
from being simply a collection of digitized documents,
these oral histories undergo rigorous analysis by subject
specialists. The practice of applying such scholarship
has added considerable value to other recently published
collections and has brought together the perspectives of
historians and the first-hand experiences of witnesses to
history. Finally, it is an experimental project to build an interface to simultaneously display audio and transcripts
from interviews.
The project will be complete by the time of the conference
in June 2009 and we are proposing to present a
poster on the work we have done, highlighting the challenges
and joy experienced by the Project team of librarians,
humanists, technologists, and – not to forget – users
who participated in several usability testings and studies.
The process of creating digital documents of these oral
histories is indeed a challenge. From the beginning—the
process of selection is a daunting prospect unto itself. It
is the task of historians from the SOHP to select 500+
representative interviews from a collection that now
numbers well over 4,000. This includes careful attention
to privacy and copyright issues. Only interviews free of
restriction are considered for inclusion in the project collection.
Cassette tapes and typescripts are the raw materials from
which these interviews are remade into digital objects.
Audio engineers at the Southern Folklife Collection,
using the best available hardware, software, and their
own considerable expertise, produce digital audio files
in both WAV (preservation) and MP3 (access) formats.
These audio data are of the highest possible quality, and
comply with international standards and best practices
for the creation and preservation of digital audio content.
The typescripts are all encoded in TEI P4 (with the plan
of conversion to P5), conforming to level 4. But the story
doesn’t end here…
Once created, these newly digitized interviews are subjected
to intense historical analysis by subject specialists
in the Southern Oral History Program (SOHP). With the
guidance of scholarly advisors, specialists, mainly PhD
History students, read through the transcript, write abstracts,
create descriptive titles, and select particularly
powerful segments. Their decisions are based on a number
of criteria, from intrigue to major historical relevance
and from uniqueness to conformation of commonality.
Once these segments are chosen, the PhD students then
assign keywords (category/subcategory combinations)
to each of these segments, and a given segment will usually
have multiple keywords. The keywords are then given
a rank, depending on their relevance to the segment.
A given segment might have 3 keywords, all of varying
degree if importance or relevance to the segment itself.
Assigning these keywords and then prioritizing them
is what makes our soon-to-be released new advanced
search so effective. A user can type in a keyword and immediately
retrieve the interviews that are most relevant
due to our efforts to assign and then prioritize these keywords.
Finally, PhD students write short descriptions for
the selected segments and provide the historical context
to the interviews.
Once complete, these interviews return to DocSouth,
where they are prepared for publication. DocSouth staff
collect various existing metadata from a number of
sources to create rich records for each interview, enhancing
the XML transcripts and adding the interviews to the
MySQL database. These metadata are subsequently used
by library catalogers to generate MARC records to further
enhance retrieval. A trained specialist listens to the
interviews and inserts timestamps into the files based on
the selections made by the SOHP. These text timestamps
become points of entry into the audio—clicking on them
plays back the audio for that segment.
The interviews are displayed as flat HTML files, generated
in advance from the TEI source files using XSLT.
We have implemented a cutting-edge advanced search
interface that is constructed with Python/Django forms
and templates. The form framework provides hooks for
robust input validation, while the templates separate the
content from the display for us, so non-tech-savvy designers
can help craft an elegant search interface. The
search index is built on Solr, a lucene-based search engine
which allows for fast, flexible searching on full-text
or fielded queries. Database access is in many places facilitated
by a robust Object Relational Mapper written
in Python called SQLAlchemy. This allows queries to
the DB to occur seamlessly, without having to rely on
cumbersome, fragile SQL queries.
The success of bringing these valuable documents out
of archives and into the eyes and ears of the public
come from the efforts of its many participants, including
librarians, historians, and education specialists. The
project team members and the various institutions and
interests they represent work together to produce digitized
oral history interviews that are the result of the
application of technology solutions, adherence to standards,
scholarship, and exceptional technical expertise.
All of these efforts bring additional value to oral history
interviews that are moving and insightful stories of an
American South in the process of profound and irrevocable
transformation.
References
http://www.tei-c.org/wiki/index.php/TEI_in_Libraries:_
Guidelines_for_Best_Practices
http://www.djangoproject.com/
http://www.sqlalchemy.org/ http://lucene.apache.org/solr","txt","2","",""
"1109","10","A Historical GIS Analysis of the Landscape Compositions: A Case Study of Folding Screens ""Rakuchu-Rakugai-zu""","2","Introduction
Recently, the use of Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) to analyze historical space has attracted interests;
this approach is known as Historical GIS (HGIS)
a subdiscipline in Digital Humanities (William and
Thomas, 2004). In this paper, I propose a new methodology
to analyze compositions of landscape in paintings
with GIS, which I apply for analyzing Japanese screen
paintings known as rakuchu-rakugai-zu (洛中洛外図),
created between the 16th and 18th centuries. Rakuchurakugai-zu
provides contemporary bird’s-eye views of
the city and environs of Kyoto, Japan’s capital at the
time. The paintings capture man-made structures such
as residences and palaces of prominent samurai and
court nobles, temples and shrines; natural features such
as hills and rivers; and festivals and other human activities.
Nearly all of these works consist of a pair of folding
screens of six panels each. At present, over 100 such sets
are known to have survived.
Because the scenes of Kyoto painted on these screens
provide historical information not found in written
texts, they have attracted interests of scholars in various
fields. Particularly noteworthy among these studies are
the following three results of detailed analyses of space
on rakuchu-rakugai-zu screens. Takeda (1966) classifies
these screens into three types, according to their
era of creation and drawing method. (i) The ‘standard’
type, commonly known as the ‘first-generation,’ depicts
scenes from the late 16th century, mainly views of urban
districts of both Shimogyo, i.e., the southern half of
the town, and Kamigyo, i.e., the northern half of the
town, with the surrounding hills as a backdrop. (ii) The
‘variant’ type offers close-up depictions of specific subjects
or districts. (iii) The ‘developed’ type, commonly
known as the ‘second-generation,’ depicts scenes from
the 17th century, particularly of Nijo Castle and downtown
Kyoto, with hills in the background. Takeda argues
that the changes in drawing method reflect a shift from
seasonal nature paintings employing elements of the ‘famous
views’ painting tradition to genre paintings reflecting
trends of the times. The knowledge obtained from the previous research
concerning changes in the subject matter and geographic
range of rakuchu-rakugai-zu is essential to our understanding
of the screen compositions. However, such previous
research has not shed light on how actual views
of Kyoto were transferred to the restricted dimensions
of the screen surface, nor on how real geographic data
were manipulated in the process of making that transfer.
This is because the past analyses have relied solely on
the simple mapping of landmarks. To analyze the compositional
methods employed to paint these scenes, not
enough is simply mapping landmarks; we must also determine
which landmarks and districts were distorted,
and how. In this paper, I propose a new approach, HGIS,
which offers an analytic methodology utilizing GIS to
measure distortions in the landscape depicted on the
screen. This methodology visualizes distortions in the
drawn space by linking the positions of landmarks as
they appear on the screen painting and on survey maps,
and transforming the configuration of the screen accordingly.
Combining the results obtained by this method
with those of previous research should provide us with
more detailed and precise understanding of the drawn
space on these screens.
Methodology
The methodology I introduce here uses GIS spatial analysis
functions to scan the screen surface onto a survey
coordinate grid based on the relative positions of landmarks
in the screen painting. The analytical procedures
go as follows (Fig. 1):
1. Derive coordinate values for landmarks, both on the
screen and on a survey coordinate grid;
2. Generate a link table from these two point-data sets;
3. Use projective transformation and rubber sheeting
techniques to project the screen surface onto the survey
coordinate grid; and
4. Project the areas of the rubber sheet-derived polygons
onto the screen.
This process gives visual representation to differences
between actual space and the space drawn on the screen.
Results show that screens painted in the 17th century and
later distorted actual space more than screens painted in
the 16th century, indicating a decrease in adherence to
perspective-like conventions. This trend toward greater
distortion suggests a shift in landscape drawing methods
away from realism. Increasing deformation may be
attributed to changes in political regime as well as an
expansion of the public’s geographic awareness. I see
significant advantages of using GIS in understanding
Drawn Area and Regularity in Drawing, which I will explain
in detail here.
Drawn Area
Using GIS visualizes a drawn area exactly, which means
we could know which landmarks are included or not
in the painting. Depending upon the area included, we
could know how much of forced inclusion, meaning
spatial distortion, occurs. In the first-generation screens,
for example, the projective transformation-derived polygons
and rubber sheeting-derived polygons are similar in
shape. The second-generation screens, however, reveal a
pronounced tendency to forcibly incorporate landmarks
to the north and south of the city, even though this results
in various expedient changes in the drawn area of the left
screen and a progressive narrowing of the background
scenery in the right screen. Finally, the variant-type
screens may be explainable as the ones with their focus
on specific districts, for which the forced inclusion of
landmarks as employed in the second-generation screens
proved insufficient. This proves distortion progresses
over time.
Regularity in Drawing
Using GIS makes it possible for me to analyze regularity
in drawing, i.e., the locations of spatial abbreviations and
exaggerations on the screens. First-generation screens
exhibit orderly increases in area value, suggesting that
specific conventions similar to the rules of perspective
were followed to achieve the precise geographic positioning
of landmarks. The result is a realistic rendering
of geographic space. In contrast, second-generation and
variant-type screens exhibit numerous instances of distorted
space, and area value increases variously from
locale to locale. This suggests that valued less was the
actual positional relationships of landmarks in the drawing
of these scenes. This means that GIS clearly shows
that in terms of their rendering of real-space positional
relationships the first-generation screens are superior to
these later ones.
Conclusions
Until now, there has been little research applying GIS
to analyze landscape drawing methods. This case study
shows, however, such an analysis is feasible when applied
to paintings covering a wide area of the city scape,
such as rakuchu-rakugai-zu screens. The analytical
methodology presented in this study involves not merely
mapping landmarks that appear on the screens, but also
projecting a “virtual screen” onto a survey map. I was
able to implement this process for the first time by using
the ‘adjust,’ ‘area calculation,’ and ‘table join’ functions of GIS analysis. The results obtained with this methodology
offer insights from a geographic point of view into
the approaches taken to space drawing and landmark positioning
in these works.
Analyzing landscape drawing methods, conventional
art history mentions that from the 17th century on, the
depiction of politically significant landmarks became a
norm and took priority over the accurate rendering of
geographic locations. That is, landmarks took on the aspect
of symbols, which the creators of the screens increasingly
incorporated, paying less attention to their
positional relationships.
In short, it turned out that my case study of rakuchurakugai-zu
screens of the 16th and 17th centuries supports
this point of conventional art history not from a
subjective but an objective point of view as using GIS
can visualize drawn area and regularity in drawing exactly,
measured in quantity (Fig. 2). While this overview
has provided a sense of general trends over time, I hope
to follow up this study with more detailed analyses of
individual screens in the context of the sociopolitical environments
in which they were created.
Acknowledgements
This research was conducted with assistance from the
Japan Society for the Promotion of Science and the Ministry
of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology,
Global COE Program, “Digital Humanities Center
for Japanese Arts and Cultures”, Ritsumeikan University.
References
Takeda, T. 武田恒夫 (1966). Rakuchu-rakugaizu
to sono tenkai 洛中洛外図とその展開. In Kyoto
kokuritsu hakubutsukan ed: Rakuchu-rakugai-zu 洛中
洛外図, kadokawa shoten 角川書店, 1966, pp.17-32.
William, G. and Thomas, III (2004). Computing and the
Historical Imagination. In Schreibman, A., Siemens, R.,
Siemens, R. G. and Unsworth, J. (eds), A Companion
to Digital Humanities, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing,
pp.56-68.
Figure 1. Procedures Figure 2. From Realism to Deformation","txt","2","",""
"1110","10","Towards an Online Edition of the Slovenian Biographical Lexicon","2","1. Introduction
The paper presents the project of digitization of the
Slovenian Biographical Lexicon (SBL). We first
describe the up-conversion of the source OCR text to a
richly structured XML, encoded according to the Text
Encoding Initiative Guidelines TEI P5 (TEI, 2008), using
the module on biographical and prosopographical
data. Next, some more challenging aspects of the conversion
process are discussed, in particular the extraction
of meta-data, the expansion of abbreviations into their
fully inflected forms, the diachronic nature of the text,
and the effects of some language technology tools developed
for the Slovenian language on the efficiency of the
information retrieval for Slovenian texts.
2. The SBL
The Slovenian Biographical Lexicon summarizes the
lives and work of notable figures from Slovenia’s cultural
history. It gives a picture of Slovenia’s cultural life,
from its beginnings up to the contemporary time by including
those who participated in its cultural development,
were of Slovenian nationality or born in Slovenia,
and were active in the homeland or abroad, as well as
persons of foreign origin who with their work among the
Slovenians influenced the Slovenian cultural life. It comprises
15 volumes plus index, with over 3,000 pages or
16 mio characters, and covers 5,031 biographical entries
or, as some of the entries are family names, over 5,100
persons. Its publication spanned almost 70 years (1925-
1991). SBL aims to cover not only a person’s biography
but also to give information about the important literature
depicting their life and work or to direct a user to the
whereabouts of their unpublished work, photographs,
letters etc. The data in the SBL articles were always
checked against the primary material source. As such,
the SBL is a reliable reference for any relevant scientific
research in the fields of humanities, social sciences and
the history of natural sciences. In order to widen the availability of SBL, the Slovenian
Academy of Sciences and Arts (SASA)1
 and the Scientific
Research Centre of the SASA (SRC SASA)2
 is undertaking
the digitization of the SBL in order to make it
freely available on-line, also enabling the kind of information
retrieval not allowed by the nature of printed text.
3. Up-conversion and TEI P5 encoding
The SBL was first scanned and the text OCRed. The
OCR was then semi-manually corrected for errors and
then via a series of automatic steps converted into a rich
TEI encoding. The first step, via the OpenOffice texteditor
and associated XSLT TEI stylesheet,3
 converted
the source text into a basic TEI structure (Erjavec and
Ogrin, 2005). Since some metadata were already available
in the form of an Access database, this was exported
into the XML format, following the TEI P5 module on
biographical and prosopographical data. Then additional
metadata, such as the information for the <floruit> element
defining the exact period for more than one occupation
for a particular person in the entry, are added into
the metadata structure manually. From here, metadata
are added to the entries, and, in a related process, the text
of the entries is further annotated.
Figure 1: TEI-XML document excerpt with the
<listPerson> structure
3. 1. The TEI structure
The encoding scheme of the SBL follows the TEI P5
Guidelines, in particular the module on biographical
and prosopographical data. P5 introduces elements for
a structured biographic entry, for which the information
contained in the text is extracted and encoded separately
using the <person> element, which contains information
on the name(s), sex, nationality, faith, dates of birth
and death, facts about residence, occupation, important
life events, etc. In addition to the text, each entry of the
lexicon thus also contains metadata, useful for searching
and organising the SBL.
3. 2. Extracting metadata
Since some metadata not strictly connected with the person,
who is the topic of the entry, such as other named
persons in the entry articles, have been manually extracted
from the SBL text, we are exploring the possibilities
of automatic encoding to speed up the encoding
process. Partially, this can be done on the basis of existing
indexes of the SBL and via external resources, such
as gazetteers. These, coupled with the power of regular
expressions in Perl, can extract the relevant terms, such
as dates, with a fairly high accuracy. A more principled
solution would be to implement a general Named Entity
Recognition (NER) system for Slovenian, which would
recognize and categorise persons and places names,
dates and other numeric expressions. Such a system does
not yet exist for Slovenian, and we are exploring the possibility
of writing NER rules for one of the widely used
human language technology toolsets, such as GATE4
 or
NooJ5
 (Bekavac, 2002).
3. 3. Abbreviations
SBL is written in encyclopaedic style, which means
dense language and many abbreviations. There are
several types of abbreviations: a) bibliographic abbreviations
(e.g. RDHV for Razprave Znanstvenega društva
za humanistične vede); b) abbreviations to denote the
authors of SBL articles (e.g. Rš for Fran Ramovš); c)
abbreviations to refer to a biographical entry within an
article (e.g. A. for Abraham); d) abbreviations for certain
geographic names (e.g. Lj. for Ljubljana or Clvc
for Celovec); e) general abbreviations (e.g. the names of
months).
While the use of abbreviations was appropriate for the
printed books, it will only impair readability and make
searching more difficult in the digital edition. The abbreviations
are therefore expanded into their full forms and
encoded with the TEI <choice>, <abbr> and <expan>
elements. The basic resource for the expansion
are lists of bibliographic abbreviations and abbreviations
denoting authors of particular articles from the printed
edition, and an additional abbreviation lexicon, semiautomatically
compiled from the SBL.
A problem that occurs in the expansion of abbreviations
stems from the fact that the Slovenian language, like all
Slavic languages, is a highly inflective language. This means abbreviations have to be expanded into their appropriate
full forms in the correct inflection, which depends
on the context of the abbreviation. So, for example,
“Rojen v Lj.” (Born in Ljubljana), should be expanded
to “Rojen v Ljubljani”, with “Ljubljana” in the locative
case. This problem is dealt with by automatic morphosyntactic
tagging of the text, and then, on the basis of the
tag assigned to an abbreviation, generating the appropriate
inflected form of the lemma. This work uses tagging
and lemmatisation models automatically obtained from
annotated corpora and morphological lexicons, which
have the advantage of generalising to out-of-vocabulary
words (Erjavec and Džeroski, 2004).
3. 4. Language change
Another challenge regarding the language of SBL is due
to its long publication period of almost 70 years. In this
period the language, particularly its lexical aspects, has
changed significantly. Changes affect particularly geographic
names (e.g. Curih instead of Zürich) and terms
denoting occupations and activities, from spelling variants
to complete substitution of words. These changes
will have to be taken into account to ensure adequate
information retrieval. The plan is to add normalised
(contemporary) forms to the forms in the text, by encoding
them with the appropriate <choice>, <reg> and
<orig> elements. The annotation will be automatic, but
based on a lexicon of variants, semi-automatically compiled
from the SBL. This lexicon, in itself an interesting
diachronic language resource, is being built on the basis
of a textual analysis of SBL, taking into account external
language resources, such as dictionaries and gazetteers,
e.g. of old and new names of places.
4. Access
The SBL is to be made freely accessible for full-text and
structured searching. We are exploring the possibility
of using the open source Apache Solr6
 search platform
based on the Lucene Java search library, which enables
such kinds of queries, accepts TEI / XML documents and
enables different plugins and extra features, such as the
lemmatization tool for Slovenian. No research has been
done yet, however, on its effects upon the efficiency of
the information retrieval for the Slovenian language.
References
Bekavac, Božo: Strojno obilježavanje hrvatskih tekstova
– stanje i perspektive. (Computer annotation of
Croatian texts – current state and perspectives) Suvremena
lingvistika. 53-54 (2002), p. 173-182.
Cankar, Izidor et al. (eds) (1925-1991): Slovenski biografski
leksikon. Ljubljana: Slovenska akademija znanosti
in umetnosti.
Erjavec, Tomaž and Džeroski, Sašo (2004): Machine
Learning of Morphosyntactic Structure: Lemmatising
Unknown Slovene Words. Applied Artificial Intelligence
18 (1), p. 17-40.
Erjavec, Tomaž and Ogrin, Matija (2005): Digitalisation
of Literary Heritage Using Open Standards. In: Paul
Cunningham, Miriam Cunningham (eds.). Innovation
and knowledge economy: issues, applications, case studies,
(Information and communication technologies and
the knowledge economy). Amsterdam [etc.]: IOS Press,
2005, p. 999-1006.
TEI Consortium, eds. (2008) TEI P5: Guidelines for
Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. TEI Consortium.
http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/P5/.
Notes
1
http://www.sazu.si/
2
http://www.zrc-sazu.si/
3
http://www.tei-c.org/wiki/index.php/TEI_OpenOffice_
Package
4
http://gate.ac.uk/
5
http://www.nooj4nlp.net/
6
http://lucene.apache.org/solr/","txt","2","",""
"1111","10","From the Local to the Global Sphere: Prospects of Digital Humanities for Japanese Arts and Cultures","2","This poster discusses each of the research activities,
issues, and prospects on Digital Humanities for
Japanese arts and cultures at “the Digital Humanities
Center for Japanese Arts and Cultures” of Ritsumeikan
University. By doing so, we would like to suggest new
directions in Digital Humanities, still fairly a new interdisciplinary
research field, as well as contributions Digital
Humanities could make to the humanities in general,
and more specifically for the studies of Japanese arts and
cultures. As we do conduct these research activities as
a five-year Global COE (Center of Excellent) Program
that the Art Research Center (ARC) at Ritsumeikan University
has launched with the support from the Ministry
of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
(MEXT) since 2007.
Our program of “the Digital Humanities Center for Japanese
Arts and Cultures” is to further a study of the humanities
based on Digital Humanities, taking Japanese
art and culture as its subject, as centered on the historic
city of Kyoto. For this purpose, we intend to make full
use of the most advanced information technologies, such
as digital archives, visualization, media technologies,
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Web 2.0.
By using such information technologies, we at the Center
systematically organize information on Japanese art
and culture, which will be open to the public and useful
in a wide variety of contexts. The Center also serves as
a global portal for the study of Japanese art and culture,
aiming not only to create a new system of cultural exchanges
among talented researchers within and out of
Japan, but also to make the results of research available
throughout the world. That means that we see the historic
city of Kyoto as both a base for promoting scholarship
on Japanese art and culture around the world, and a
global hub for education and research.
Our digital archives are meant to bring together information
on Japanese art and culture, both tangible and intangible,
which are left unorganized all over the world. The
archives of such cultural properties use information management
technology to combine different types of data:
text, pictures, sound, moving images and the motion of
the human body. This combination of different types of
date, covering both tangible and intangible cultural properties,
gives us a great advantage over the conventional
text-centered research. Furthermore, by systematically
linking to databases on other systems, we can revolutionize
the amount and quality of material available for
research, leading to great improvements in the quality of
research and to a new perspective on humanities studies.
For example, GIS technology will lead to further advances
in the visibility and amount of data relating to
the time and space content of various aspects of arts,
culture and urban landscapes. Using the bi-directional
format network environment of Web 2.0, we will create
a portal that makes information more open, cooperative
and usable. The resulting research will be compiled and
distributed on-line. We will also promote research into
analytical methods and archiving technology related to
the exquisite cultural properties that characterize the historic
cultural city of Kyoto.
We like to start this poster with a brief introduction of
the program and its missions. After that, each of the following
five research topics will be presented, discussing
where their research interests lie in Japanese arts and
cultures, and what their methodologies and challenges
are in terms of digital humanities.
1. “Digital Archives for Japanese Woodblock Prints:
Their Global Linkage”
2. “Virtual Kyoto: Integration of Digital Contents of
Japanese Arts and Cultures on 4D-GIS with a Time
Dimension” 3. “Digitization and Analysis of Traditional Dance
Body Movement by using Motion Capture Technology”

4. “3D Modeling and Visualization of Japanese Traditional
Arts and Cultural Assets”
5. “Collaborative Web Technologies for Japanese Arts
and Cultures”
Also we will address issues and prospects we share at
the Center, including the current situation and tendencies
of the Humanities in Japan—urgent issues we have to
tackle with our activities at the Center.
Some of the presumable issues to be addressed may include
the following:
1. Humanities scholars in Japan, who tend to work
domestically within their academic societies, shall
partake in a global academic environment, including
a Web-based one.
2. While humanities scholars tend to see the Web and
information technology as mere tools, they also
have to realize that using these tools may give rise
to new perspectives and paradigms.
3. Japanese Humanities researchers should realize that
the Internet is now advancing into the age of Web
2.0, meaning that the environment of the Web is becoming
ever more crucial for humanities research.
This pattern of research is common in Europe and
the United States, and as a high-level institute for
research and education we need to work in a similar
way, in order to ensure the future development of
research.
4. Not only Humanities scholars who are handling Japanese
language but also other East Asian languages
have been experiencing some difficulties in encoding
texts or sharing textual resources on the Web.
This is because an international standard of character
encoding, Unicode, has limitations to represent
characters in those languages.
We hope to contribute to the further discussion on Digital
Humanities from the perspective of a non-Western
country.
Websites:
http://www.arc.ritsumei.ac.jp/lib/GCOE/guideline_e.
html
http://www.geo.lt.ritsumei.ac.jp/uv4w/frame_e.jsp","txt","2","",""
"1112","10","Restoring 3D Digital Woodcut Shape for Reproducing Ancient Book","2","1. Introduction
Cultural heritage is important for studying history, and
some studies have been carried out to preserve it as
digital data. Hanpon are ancient woodcut-printed books,
all of which are regarded as important cultural heritage
in Japan. (see Figure 1 for woodcut and hanpon). The
woodcut looks black as its surface is covered with ink.
A lot of studies about hanpon and woodcut have been
done. However, there is little study to connect these two
studies using digital techniques. The main contribution
of our study is developing digital techniques for studying
hanpon history using Woodcut information.
Fig. 1 Woodcut and hanpon.
There are some versions of hanpon whose true published
time is not clear. As the paper or woodcut have
shrunken over time, it is possible to guess which version is published early and which is late. Recently, some
woodcuts were found, and we hope to know the original
size of hanpon printed by these woodcuts. If we could
do so, we can know which version of hanpon is printed
by the founded woodcuts. Warped in shape, however,
they cannot be utilized to print hanpon directly. To solve
this problem, we propose techniques to restore woodcut
shapes in a digital way so that we can reproduce ancient
hanpon. As traditional method, a printer put some water
on the back of Woodcut and the Woodcut shape can
be restored near a plane. But the size of the Woodcut
restored using the traditional method is different to the
original one. To solve this problem, a digital technique
for restoring the shape of digital Woodcut is proposed.
Then we can produce original ancient hanpon.
Basically, our system is a virtual printing system. Okada1
proposes a system for sculpturing and printing in a virtual
world. Focusing on virtually sculpturing 3D objects,
his system can print Japanese drawings if one paints
some colors on the virtual surface of a carved object.
Yet, the system uses a carved plane for virtual printing
and cannot be utilized in the case of measured woodcut
digital data, as real woodcuts are distorted a little. For
virtual printing on the distorted surface of woodcut,2 uses
a small plane to fit to a distorted woodcut surface and
make a virtual printing. However, this method ignores
changes in woodcut size. To acquire a hanpon the same
as the ancient one, it is necessary to restore woodcut
shapes.
Fig. 2 Aligned 3D digital Woodcut model
For restoring woodcut shapes, we can learn a lot from
some research concerned with wood drying.3
 Finite element
method (FEM), for example, is utilized to simulate
moist translation and shape variation. This study in the
wood research field mainly focuses on how to decrease
shape distortion that occurs during the drying process.
As wood is an orthotropic material, we propose an algorithm
for determining orthotropic direction to restore
woodcut shapes.
The following is the procedure to restore the woodcut
shape for reproducing the ancient book of hanpon. First,
using commercial software developed from the algorithm4
, we measure 3D of the woodcut, whose data are
to be aligned to make the 3D digital woodcut. After the
woodcut shape is restored, we can print out virtual hanpon.

2. Measuring and aligning 3D Woodcut
point cloud data
The non-contact 3D-Measurement machine VIVID910
is utilized to measure woodcut point clouds. When measuring
the woodcut, it is necessary to take bump patterns
on the woodcut surface as precisely as possible. Because
the measurement machine cannot measure all the surface
of the object at once, we need to generate object shape
models by using measured point clouds from multiple
viewpoints. Commercial software is utilized to align
cloud data. At first, the rough corresponding point is
defined on different cloud data. Then, the software can
value the globe errors of the total aligned point clouds
and adjust the position and direction of these point
clouds. At the end, the point clouds are aligned in one
3D digital woodcut model. Figure 2 show the aligned result.
Different colors show different parts of the woodcut
cloud point data.
3. Constructing wood board model
As the woodcut surface is very delicate, the computing
cost will be considerable if one uses this delicate model.
A rough mesh model is constructed to restore the woodcut
shape. As the woodcut is made from a piece of wood
board, if the wood board shape is restored, so will be
the woodcut shape. Hence, the rough model is the wood
board. This wood board model will is a box after its
shape is restored.
To construct the wood board model, we utilize the woodcut
section. In the Figure 3, the bottom line is the woodcut
model section, and the top line is the constructed
wood board model section. The top line is the connection
line between local highest points of woodcut model
sections. Some woodcut sections are utilized to construct
the total wood board model. The distance between these
sections is the same as the woodcut's thickness. After all sections are processed with this method, we can obtain
the wood board for restoring.
Fig. 3 Constructing the wood board model from Woodcut
section
4. Restoring the wood board model
As mentioned above, wood is an orthotropic material.
The wood study needs to consider the three main axes
of the wood. Figure 4 shows a tree trunk form in a coordinate
system with the three standard directions: the
trunk axis or fiber direction L, the radial direction R that
passes through the tree’s core, and the tangent direction
T along the annual ring. When wood dries and shrinks,
shrinkage in the tangential, radial, and fiber directions
occurs in a ratio of 10:5:0.5. With this reason, the wood
board distorts.
While the surface of woodcut is black, on the woodcut
end, we can find some exposed parts, including the annual
ring pattern. From this annual ring, the tree’s core can
be understood as the annual ring is nearly a concentric
cylinder. From the position of the tree’s core, the wood
three standard directions can be determined all over the
wood board.
Fig. 4 Wood three axis.
The woodcut is made of wild cherry tree or boxwood.
Shrinkage of this type of the wood is about 0.31% on
the tangent direction T , and 0.17% on the radial direction
R. Since the shrinkage on fiber direction L is very
small, its change L is ignorable. If the moisture content
is lower than 30%, the wood starts distorting, in Japan,
after the moisture content is 15%, the moisture content
stops changing, and the shape stops distorting. As Figure
5 shows, point A is one point in the wood board. ε is the
vector to show plastic strain on the point A. T is tangent
direction and R is radial direction. The plastic strain can
be shown as the following equation:
ε = εT
 − εR =(ST
 × T − SR × R) × ΔW (1)
where, ST is shrinkage on direction T and SR is shrinkage
on direction R. ΔW is moisture content variation and is
1%. Using this equation, the plastic strain ε can be computed.
The restoring process is repeated until the wood
board surface gets closer to a plane or the total moisture
content reaches 30%. This is the restored wood board.
As the connection between the woodcut point cloud and
wood board mesh is known, it is easy to obtain a restored
woodcut point cloud from the restored wood board. As
the local highest point is on a plane after shape restored,
the virtual hanpon can be printed easily by using the
height information of the restored woodcut. If the height
is higher than 0.3mm under the highest point, it is the
part for printing. The printed result is shown in Figure 6.
Fig. 5 Plastic Strain.
5. Results
The final rendering result is carried out on a computer
with the GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) and can render
the hanpon on real time. The graph card is NVIDIA
GeForce 6800 GS.
Since the Japanese paper became old and was not as
white as it was printed out, brown color captured from
old Japanese paper is added into the virtual printing result.
The virtual printing result and the Japanese fiber model are utilized to render based on the fiber reflection
model.5 Figure 6 shows the final rendering results. The
left image shows the hanpon appearance with white
color after it was printed out about 200 years ago. The
right one shows the result after hanpon color variation.
Using the technique proposed, the ancient hanpon is represented
in the virtual world.
As the woodcut shape is restored, the size of printed
hanpon is the same as the original hanpon when it was
printed hundreds years ago. Comparing the size of hanpon
and virtual printed result using proposed method,
the published history of hanpon can be understood well.
This information is very important for history research.
Fig. 6 Rendering result of hanpon.
6. Conclusion and discussion
This paper proposes the techniques to restore woodcut
shapes and reproduce ancient hanpon. The bump pattern
of woodcut surface is very minute, and the color of
woodcut is black. To restore the woodcut shape, therefore,
the FEM method is utilized. This method can obtain
fine printing results even woodcut is distorted. To
our knowledge, it is first time to try to study hanpon history
using virtual Woodcut printing method.
Some work, however, needs to be done in the future.
Right now, using 3D scanner cannot capture the woodcutfs
details. Thus, we need to develop techniques to improve
original 3D data precision. One idea is to use the
high resolution camera to take high resolution photos in
a different lighting environment. Using image processing
technique makes the printed areas possible to be
extracted. Then, using the proposed techniques in this
paper to calibrate the hanpon size, we can obtain delicate
printed results. We also hope to develop a Virtual Reality
system in which the user can watch the cultural heritage
and touch its surface at the same time. This Virtual Reality
system is not only a new type digital museum, but
also is entrainment system such as game as well.
References
1) M.Okada, S.Mizuno and J.Toriwaki: Virtual Sculpting
and Virtual Wood block Printing by Model-Driven
Scheme, the Journal of the Society for Art and Science,
Vol.1, No.2, pp.74–84 (2002).
2) Yin, X., Eto, T., Akama, R., Nagai, K. and Tanaka,
H.T.: Digital Woodcut Measurement and Ancient Hanpon
Rendering, Proceedings of 2008 ASIA GRAPH,
Vol.2, No.1, pp.31–36 (2008).
3) Carlsson, P. and Esping, B.: Optimization of the wood
drying process, Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization,
Vol.14, No.4, pp.232–241 (1997).
4) Soucy, M. and Laurendeau, D.: A General Surface Approach
to the Integration of a Set of Range Views, IEEE
Trans. Pattern Anal, Vol.17, No.4, pp.344–358 (1995).
5) Yin, X., Cai, K., Takeda, Y., Akama, R. and T.Tanaka,
H.: Measurement of Reflection Properties in Ancient
Japanese Drawing Ukiyo-e, Proceedings of 8th Asian
Conference on Computer Vision (ACCV 2007), Part I,
LNCS 4843, pp.779–788 (2007).","txt","2","",""
"1113","11","Born Digital: The 21st Century Archive in Practice and Theory","3","As more people rely on computer technologies
to conduct their personal and professional lives,
born-digital materials such as emails, Word
manuscripts with tracked changes, blog entries,
text messages, and tweets will constitute the
archives of the future. Archival repositories
at places like Stanford University, Emory
University, and The University of Texas
at Austin have been receiving born-digital
materials for over 20 years but have only
recently begun working actively to preserve
these items in their original digital formats.
As part of this work, archivists have begun
to look to other fields, such as computer
forensics and law enforcement, for equipment
and methodologies to use in the acquisition
and preservation of born-digital materials. The
application of forensics technology to born-
digital content in archives and the development
of tools to facilitate access to these materials
hold great promise for humanities scholarship
and teaching.
This session brings together digital archivists,
librarians, and curators to discuss some of
the forensic techniques and equipment being
used to preserve born-digital archival materials
at the Stanford University Libraries, the
researcher interfaces Emory University has
developed to provide access to Salman Rushdie’s
computers, and the broader implications of
these developments for the concept of “archives”
in a variety of disciplines, including information
science, literary studies, history, and cultural
studies.
Michael Olson, Digital Collections Project
Manager for Stanford University Libraries,
will begin the session with a discussion
of the applicability of forensics software
to the acquisition and description of born-
digital archival materials at Stanford. Erika
Farr, Director of Born-Digital Initiatives at
Emory’s Woodruff Library, will discuss the
researcher interfaces developed for use with
Salman Rushdie’s computers and the results
of user studies currently underway to explore
the potential effects of analog-digital hybrid
materials on research methodologies and
scholarly communication. Gabriela Redwine,
Archivist and Electronic Records/Metadata
Specialist at the Harry Ransom Center, will
consider the computer as an archival object that
challenges both archival and scholarly notions
of what an archives is and can be, as well as the
functions it may serve.
The panel will be chaired by Gabriela Redwine,
of the Harry Ransom Center, The University
of Texas at Austin. Matthew Kirschenbaum,
Associate Director of the Maryland Institute
for Technology in the Humanities (MITH), will
serve as respondent.
Computer Forensics in the
Archive: An Analysis of
Software Tools for Born
Digital Collections
Michael Olson
mgolson@stanford.edu
Stanford University Libraries / Academic
Information Resources Stanford University
Stanford University Libraries hold an increasing
amount of digital archival material. This
principally comprises magnetic and optical
disks and tapes containing digital files produced","txt","2","",""
"1114","11","Building the Humanities Lab: Scholarly Practices in Virtual Research","3","1. Subject
Our Cultural Commonwealth
, a report of
the American Council of Learned Societies'
Commission on Cyber Infrastructure for
Humanities and Social Sciences, (ACLS 2006)
mentioned the relative ""conservative culture
of scholarship"" in the humanities and social
sciences (as compared to the natural sciences)
as one of the explanations why researchers in
these knowledge domains might be hesitant
in using the web and other digital resources
for their research.
1
Before pointing to these
researchers however, we may want to question
first of all the infrastructures and tools offered
to those researchers. Tools and services will
only be taken up if they truly
serve
researchers
in their daily work. Infrastructures and tools
offered to humanities scholars should support
concepts and approaches specific to scholarly
practices in humanities research, and, to
that end, the ACLS commission advocates
“working in new ways” by “tools that facilitate
collaboration; an infrastructure for authorship
that supports remixing, re-contextualization,
and commentary—in sum, tools that turn access
into
insight and interpretation
. [emphasis in
original]” (ACLS, p. 16).
Recently we have seen an increase of
virtual laboratories, which use virtual research
environments (VREs) to facilitate collaboration
among researchers and to promote innovative
use of tools and sources in humanities
research.
2
3
Therefore, although traditionally
operating as sites of knowledge production in
the natural sciences, laboratories have started
to develop into loci of scholarly practice in
the humanities too. This shift has also been
reflected in funding agencies’ support to online
laboratory settings; their (re-) allocation of
financial resources is fed by expectations that
more researchers will become involved in digital
and computational humanities, and that the use
of information and communication technologies
(ICTs) in humanities research will lead to new
research questions, methodologies, and ways of
collaborating. However, it is not evident that
the lab analogy can be transmigrated seamlessly
from a science field into the humanities.
Thus far, there has been little critical reflection
on such lab initiatives, although the use of
VREs in the humanities certainly requires and
merits scholars’ attention. Now that a number
of such large scale initiatives have developed,
there is an opportunity to reflect on what
these VREs have achieved and to evaluate
their strengths and weaknesses for humanities
research, as well as to explore ways in which
they should further develop. Therefore this

2
panel addresses theoretical, epistemological,
hermeneutical and strategic questions emerging
from the use of VREs in digital and
computational humanities in general, and in
humanities research of text and image in
particular. It brings together representatives of
scholarly institutions developing virtual labs,
infrastructures, and tools to advance the study
of text and image in humanities research. The
panel focuses on humanities labs promoting
new scholarly practices in VREs, and within
this broader framework it concentrates on the
following specific themes:
-
the benefits, challenges and obstacles of
research practices emerging from humanities
research in virtual research environments.
-
the specificities of generating, analyzing and
sharing linguistic and visual data in online
laboratory settings.
-
the advantages and barriers of scholarly
collaboration across disciplinary and
geographic spans.
-
the main features of institutional and funding
policies needed for further development of
digital humanities labs.
-
technical models potentially driving future
development of local initiatives.
2. Organization of the panel
The research and development team of AlfaLab
4
—a digital humanities initiative of the Royal
Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
(KNAW)— is the initiator and organizer of
this panel. Panel members include humanities
researchers from KNAW; Digital Research
and Scholarship and Scholarly Communication
Institute at the University of Virginia Library;
5
POLIS and Virtual Center on the Spatial
Humanities;
6
TextGRID;
7
DARIAH;
8
and the
Text Analysis Portal for Research (TAPoR).
9
The panelists are engaged in the study and
development of six different humanities labs
dealing with text and image analyses, which
grants this panel a unique opportunity to
comparatively explore various strategies in
building and using humanities labs, and
to reflect on both theoretical and practical
concerns of that process. In addition, the panel
will critically evaluate —from the researchers'
perspective— the focal themes listed above, and
it will address actions that might be taken to
improve the use of VREs in humanities research.
The panel session will be organized in the
following way:
-
The panel chair will introduce the main
topic, discussion questions, and the panelists;
duration: 3 minutes;
-
Each of the panelists will give a short
presentation (6 minutes), followed by
questions from the audience (4 minutes);
duration: 60 minutes;
-
The themes and questions raised in the
presentations will be further discussed in an
open forum between the panelists and the
audience; duration: 25 minutes;
-
The panel chair will briefly reflect on future
plans, provide contact information, and close
the panel.
Panelists:
-
Dr. Tobias Blanke, King's College London
discussing DARIAH
-
Dr. David Bodenhamer, Director Polis Center
discussing the Virtual Center on the Spatial
Humanities
-
Prof. Dr. Fotis Janidis: University of
Wuerzburg (Germany) discussing TextGRID
-
Dr. Bethany Nowviskie, Director Digital
Research and Scholarship and Associate
Director Scholarly Communication Institute
at the University of Virginia Library -
discussing NINES
-
Dr. Geoffrey Rockwell, University of Alberta
TAPoR
-
Joris van Zundert (MA): Department of
Software R&D at the Huygens Institute, Royal
Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences -
project leader AlfaLab, discussing AlfaLab
3. Moderators:
-
Dr. Charles van den Heuvel (panel chair)
-
Dr. Smiljana Antonijevic Virtual Knowledge
Studio (Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts
and Sciences)","txt","2","",""
"1115","11","Coalition of Humanities and Arts Infrastructures and Networks - CHAIN","3","A panel will discuss areas of cooperation and
practical work between the various initiatives
engaged in building e-infrastructure to support
the next generation digital research in the
Humanities.
Following from a panel session at DH2009,
in October 2009 representatives of numerous
important associations, networks and projects
met and resolved to form
CHAIN
– the Coalition
of Humanities and Arts Infrastructures and
Networks. The initial 'CHAIN Gang' comprised:
-
arts-humanities.net
-
ADHO - Association of Digital Humanities
Organisations
-
CLARIN
-
centerNet
-
DARIAH
-
NoC - Network of Expert Centres in Great
Britain and Ireland
-
Project Bamboo
-
TextGrid
The representatives of these various initiatives
identified the current fragmented environment
where researchers operate in separate areas with
often mutually incompatible technologies as a
barrier to fully exploiting the transformative
role that these technologies can potentially
play.
CHAIN
recognised that their current and
planned activities were interdependent and
complementary and resolved that they should be
oriented towards working together to overcome
barriers, and to create a shared environment
where technology services can interoperate and
be sustained, thus enabling new forms of
research in the Humanities.
CHAIN
will act as a forum for areas of shared
interest to its participants, including:
-
advocacy for an improved digital research
infrastructure for the Humanities;
-
development of sustainable business models;
-
promotion of technical interoperability of
resources, tools and services;
-
promotion of good practice and relevant
technical standards;
-
development of a shared service
infrastructure;
-
coordinating approaches to legal and ethical
issues;
-
interactions with other relevant computing
infrastructure initiatives;
-
widening the geographical scope of our
coalition.
CHAIN
will promote an open culture where
experiences, including successes and failures,
can be shared and discussed, in order to support
and promote the use of digital technologies in
research in the Humanities.
This session will feature panellists from the
CHAIN
gang, who will introduce the practical
measures that they are engaged in to build a
coherent, interoperable and maximally effective

2
services to support research in the Humanities,
and will address the following questions:
-
What are the main barriers to progress?
-
What are the most exciting opportunities?","txt","2","",""
"1116","11","Computational approaches to textual variation in medieval literature","3","Before the age of printing, texts were copied
manually only. This was done by scribes –
persons who made a copy of a text for their own
use or for the use of others. Often, the original
is no longer available. All that remain are copies
of the text, or copies of copies of copies. We
know that scribes made mistakes, and that they
changed spellings and wording according to
what they thought fit for their audience. And we
know that they sometimes reworked the text or
parts thereof.
Up till now, these insecurities may have made
medieval texts less interesting to work on for
digital humanists. However, the complex world
of medieval textual copying is a very challenging
topic in its own right. Recently, some scholars
have tried to develop and apply digital methods
and techniques to gain insight in manual text
transmission. In this session, they will explain
which specific research questions led to their
approach, and why traditional methods did
not suffice. Then they will describe the digital
approach they developed, how they gathered
their data, and present the first results. They
will sketch the next steps for their research
and reflect on which larger questions may come
closer to an answer, and which other areas
of digital humanities will benefit from this
research.
The first paper (by Jacob Thaisen) will focus
on how the variability of spelling characteristic
of Middle English makes probabilistic models
a powerful tool for distinguishing scribes
and exemplars. The second paper (by Karina
van Dalen-Oskam) goes into vocabulary and
frequencies of parts of speech, as a means
to get insight in the influence scribes exerted
on the texts they copied. The third paper (by
Mike Kestemont) aims at erasing or minimizing
textual differences in order to assess stability
and the persistence of authorial features of
manually copied medieval texts.
Probabilistic Modeling
of Middle English Scribal
Orthographies
Jacob Thaisen
thaisen@ifa.amu.edu.pl
Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland
With the Norman Conquest of 1066
written English ceased to be employed for
administrative and other official purposes, and
the normative spelling conventions established
for the West Saxon variety of Old English
fell into disuse. When the language eventually
regained these crucial domains around three
centuries later, a norm for how to spell English
no longer existed. The only models available to
scribes were the practices of other languages
known to them or, increasingly as English
strengthened its position, the conventions
adopted in the exemplars from which they
copied. As a result of the interaction of all
these factors, Middle English—the English of the
period from the Battle of Hastings to Caxton's
introduction of printing from movable type in
1476—is characterized by considerable variation
in spelling, even within the output of a single
individual. There is nothing at all unusual
about one and the same scribe of this period
representing one and the same word in more
than one way, including very frequent words
such as the definite article and conjunctions.
Moreover, scribes could use the variability to
their advantage in carrying out the copying task,

2
for example, to adjust the length of lines or speed
up the copying process.
The variability of Middle English orthography
means it would be misguided to assume
that two texts penned by a single scribe
necessarily follow, or should follow, identical
spelling conventions. They are much more
likely to exhibit variation within bounds.
Any stylometric attribution of Middle English
texts to a single scribe or of portions of
a text in a single scribal hand to different
exemplars on the basis of spelling must take
this nature of the evidence into account. The
probabilistic methods known from statistically-
based machine translation, spell-checking,
optical character recognition, and other natural
language processing applications are specifically
designed to recognize patterns in ""messy"" data
and generalize on the basis of them. It is
the purpose of this paper to demonstrate that
this property of these methods makes them
adequate stylometric discriminators of unique
orthographies.
The methodologies developed in connection
with the preparation of
A Linguistic Atlas of
Late Medieval English
(McIntosh, Samuels,
et al. 1986) separate unique orthographies by
manual and predominantly qualitative means;
if quantitative data are collected at all,
they are subjected only to simple statistical
tests. Since texts differ lexically, they are
not readily comparable in all respects. The
Atlas
solution is to generate comparability by
restricting the investigation to the subset of
the respective lexicons of the various texts
they may reasonably be expected to share,
such as function words. Spelling forms for
these words are collected from samples of
the texts by selective questionnaire and any
pattern present in their distribution detected by
visual inspection. The forms are further often
analyzed by reference to known dialect markers.
The latter translates as the researcher relating
the forms to phonological and morphological
variables, although there is recognition in
the dialectological literature that geographic
significance too may characterize other levels of
language.
However, it is now practically feasible to
estimate the full orthography of which a given
text is a sample by building probabilistic models.
The reason is that recent years have witnessed
an increase in the amount of diplomatically
transcribed manuscript materials available in
digital form, which makes it possible to abandon
the qualitative focus. Scholars are already
subjecting the lexical variation present in
similar materials to sophisticated computer-
assisted quantitative analysis (Robinson 1997,
van Dalen-Oskam and van Zundert 2007). Their
studies point the way forward.
The building blocks of Middle English
orthographies are not individual letters but
sequences of letters of varying length which,
further, combine with one another in specific
ways, with phonograms, morphograms, and
logograms existing side by side. Every Middle
English orthography has a slightly different set
of building blocks, making
n
-gram models a
good type of probabilistic model for capturing
the distinct properties of each. Such a model
is simply an exhaustive listing of grams (letters
and letter sequences), each with its own
probability and weight.
""Perplexity"" expresses how well a given model
is able to account for the grams found in a text
other than the one from which the model itself
is derived. That is, a model – itself a list of
grams – is compared with a list of the grams
found in another text and the measure simply
expresses the level of agreement between the
two lists. However, to find out whether the two
texts are instances of the same orthography, a
better model is a model not of the text from
which it is derived but of the orthography which
that text is a sample of. This is because the lexis
of the text means the probabilities of the grams
are not those they have in the orthography. This
skew can be reduced by generalizing the model.
""Smoothing"" refers to the act of (automatically)
introducing weights to achieve the best possible
generalization.
Chen and Goodman (1998) carry out a
systematic investigation of how a range of
smoothing techniques perform relative to one
another on a variety of corpus sizes in terms of
the ability to account for test data. Their data
come from present-day English and their basic
unit is the word rather than, as here, the letter.
They find the technique developed by Witten
and Bell (1991) consistently to generalize the
least effectively, and that developed by Kneser
and Ney (1995), and later modified by Chen
and Goodman (1998), consistently to do so the","txt","2","",""
"1117","11","Digital Literacy for the Dumbest Generation - Digital Humanities Programs 2010","3","Marc Baeurlein argues that undergraduates
now and undergraduates to come soon are
“the least curious and intellectual generation
in national history.”
1
Dubbing them “the
dumbest generation” and “mentally agile”
but “culturally ignorant,” Bauerlein decrees
that The Web hasn’t made them better
writers and readers, sharper interpreters and
more discerning critics, more knowledgeable
citizens and tasteful consumers” (Bauerlein,
The Dumbest Generation
110). The crux of
this attack on digital culture lies in the link
that Bauerlein and others (“Reading at Risk”
xii) make between paper and digital texts:
“the relationship,” Bauerlein explains, “between
screens and books isn’t benign” (“Online
Literacy is a Lesser Kind”). Like Bauerlein and
the authors of the NEA report, Sven Birkerts
maintains that book readers learn more because
the book is a system that “evolved over centuries
in ways that map our collective endeavor
to understand and express our world
” and
that “the electronic book, on the other hand,
represents—and furthers—a circuitry of instant
access” (“Resisting the Kindle”). In contrast to
this perspective, scholars and educators in the
digital humanities have spent decades working
with digital texts and arguing that advanced
knowledge production is the primary function
of using computational methodologies in the
humanities (Busa 1980, 89; Smedt 2002, 90;
McCarty 2005, 13).
The three papers in this panel will give
an overview on university programs teaching
digital humanities in the US, the UK
and Germany. The first paper will treat
undergraduate programs, the second graduate
programs and the third will describe in
depth one PhD program. Like others before
us (McCarty, Orlandi, Terras, Unsworth,
“The Humanities Computing Curriculum”), we
are especially interested in comparing these
programs, because this allows us to consider a
common understanding of the essential aspects
of the work in digital humanities. On the
other hand we are interested in analyzing the
differences and to explore as much as possible
the reasons for them. So an analytic charter of
the curricula is complemented by a closer look
at the institutional affiliations of the programs
and the people mainly responsible for them.
Undergraduate programs, for example, have to
manage the challenge to offer an introduction
not only into 
digital
humanities but into the
humanities in general while graduate programs
have to determine what kind of knowledge
they demand from the students entering them.
Although our overall perspective on these
programs is similar, not only the personality of
the three authors but also the specific problems
of the different forms of programs motivate
quite different papers. Thinking about the work
that scholars do in the digital humanities from
the perspective of the work we need to do to
produce culturally literate and critically savvy—
that is, 
intelligent
— students is essential.
Notes
1.
Please see 
www.dumbestgeneration.com/home.html
.
An Undergraduate
Perspective
Clement, Tanya
tclement@umd.edu","txt","2","",""
"1118","11","Networks of Stories, Structures and Digital Humanities","3","In March 2004, Slashdot, the online news
aggregator 'for nerds', cited a web page
featuring animated network visualizations
of the relationships between characters in
Shakespeare’s plays.
1
The Shakespeare site
began getting hits at a rate of 250,000 hits
per hour. Programmer Paul Mutton created the
diagrams by feeding Shakespeare’s plays into
an IRC (Internet Relay Chat) bot designed to
visualize social networks. The Slashdot story
promised that the diagrams would allow users to
“see Shakespeare in an entirely new light”.
2
Social network analysis, the mapping of
relationships as networks, has truly provided
new insights in the social and life sciences with
increasing participation from mathematicians
and computer scientists. The idea that there are
laws that govern networks--such as the notion
that everyone is at most six steps away from any
other person on earth, and that networks evolve
in predictable ways--has led to remarkable
discoveries in fields from sociology to biology.
These insights furthered publications such as
Six Degrees (by sociologist Duncan Watts)
3
presenting these discoveries (and the science
behind them) to a more general audience. In
addition, online communities such as Facebook,
Twitter, MySpace, etc., have demonstrated the
utility and power of network theory in our daily
lives.
With popular awareness of these tools and
techniques, combined with the promise of
new insights into ever-increasing amounts of
data, network analysis has significant appeal
to digital humanities scholars. However, these
investigations call for tools and software to
gather and clean large amounts of data,
even when the researcher opts for analyzing
only a tiny fraction of these vast data sets.
Moreover, to interpret these datasets, a good
understanding of network analysis, as well
as other visualization means is necessary.
Overcoming the hurdle of handling complicated
technological tools and acquisition of the
necessary expertise in network theory both
demand investment on the side of researchers,
a risky investment that only a handful of
humanities scholars are willing to make.
4
Typically, researchers familiar with the tools
perform these analyses, posing the questions
and interpreting the results. In this session,
we will first provide a brief overview of social
network analysis and related tools. Then, we
will focus on three examples of how we,
as humanities scholars, have made use of
network analysis tools and techniques in our
research, both to illustrate the potential of
these approaches, and to discuss some common
problems and their possible solutions.
The names and affiliation of confirmed authors
are as follows:
-
Zoe Borovsky, Academic Technology Services
and the Center for Digital Humanities,
University of California, Los Angeles
-
Wouter de Nooy, Amsterdam School
of Communication Research (ASCoR),
University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
-
Loet Leydesdorff, Amsterdam School
of Communication Research (ASCoR),
University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
-
Andrea Scharnhorst, Virtual Knowledge
Studio of the Netherlands Royal Academy of
Arts and Sciences, The Netherlands
-
Almila Akdag Salah, Virtual Knowledge
Studio of the Netherlands Royal Academy of
Arts and Sciences, The Netherlands
Notes
1.
http://www.jibble.org/shakespeare/

2
2.
http://tech.slashdot.org/story/04/03/11/01512
56/Tracking-Social-Networking-In-Shakespeare-
Plays?art_pos=24
Mutton also presented his work at a
conference on Information Visualization in 2004. See
http:/
/www.cs.kent.ac.uk/pubs/2004/1931/content.pdf
3.
Watts, D.J. (2003). Six Degrees: The Science of a Connected
Age 1st ed., W. W. Norton & Company
4.
Social network analysis is a more popular tool among social
scientist then humanities scholars. A search at Web of Science
for the search term returns around 150 hits for social sciences,
whereas if the search is refined to arts and humanities only, it
has less than 30 results.
Dickens' Double Narrative:
Network Analysis of Bleak
House
Zoe Borovsky
zoe@ats.ucla.edu
Academic Technology Services and the
Center for Digital Humanities, University of
California, Los Angeles
My presentation extends Masahiro Hori’s
collocational analysis of Dickens’ style (2004)
1
using network content analysis tools. Because
DH2010 will be held in London, and since
Hori devotes a chapter in his book to Dickens’
novel,
Bleak House
, I will focus the presentation
on this novel. My goals are three-fold: First,
I will show how network analysis provides
additional insights and metrics for studying the
collocational patterns in texts. Secondly, I will
demonstrate how this analysis provides new
insights into the gender issues in Dickens’ novel.
Finally, I will extend my analysis to the field of
Digital Humanities and reflect on how it, too,
can be read as a “double-narrative” with a deep
structure similar to the one Dickens depicts in
Bleak House
.
Network Analysis has been applied to
many different types of systems: sociological,
biological, ecological, as well as the Internet. In
addition, human language has been examined
for evidence of network behavior—the laws
that have been shown to govern other complex
systems. Beginning with the 2001 publication
of “The Small World of Human Language”.
2
I
will present a brief overview of scholarship on
network analysis to provide some background.
Typically, humanities scholars have used
network analysis to model networks described
in texts (e.g. the characters in Shakespeare’s
plays).
3
However, the main purpose of this paper
is to demonstrate the implications of these more
theoretical studies upon text analysis.
Having provided the context for my analysis,
I will show how Wordij,
4
a suite of network
content analysis tools designed to analyze
unstructured texts, can be used to extend Hori’s
analysis of the collocates
5
of the two narrators
in Dickens’ text. Against the prevailing view
that the first-person narrative of the central
female character, Esther, is plain and boring,
Hori compares the unusual collocates of both
narrators. His careful analysis reveals that
Esther’s narrative is “linguistically experimental
and satisfactorily creative” (Hori 2004, p.
206). My analysis builds upon Hori’s and
illustrates that through the course of the novel,
the narrative of the anonymous third-person
narrator becomes “tainted” with collocates that
have led scholars to judge Esther’s narrative as
overly sentimental and boring.
Because Wordij allows us to analyze texts as a
network, with links created between collocates,
we can use it to calculate the distance between
concepts that are connected through other links.
Using the network diagrams produced from
collocates of both these narrative sections, I
will demonstrate how this type of “semantic
map” can be used to compare the distance
between words. As examples, I compare the
distance between the words “man” and “woman”
in each narrator’s section. Opticomm (one of
the programs in Wordij) measures the distance
between nodes (the words) by counting the
number of links between words and calculating
the distance or path and the average pair
frequency.
For example, one of the shortest paths from
the word “man” to “woman” in Esther’s text
takes the following route: man
→
said
→
woman.
Opticomm calculates the “distance” using the
frequency of the pairs. The pair “man
→
said”
occurs 27 times (1/27 = .0370), and the pair
“said
→
woman” occurs 19 times (1/19 =.0526).
The sum of the distances equals .0897. The
average pair frequency of the path is low: 23. A
higher frequency path takes advantage of more
frequently used pairs. One of the “hubs” (a
word that has many connections) in Esther’s","txt","2","",""
"1119","11","Scanning Between the Lines: The Search for the Semantic Story","3","The panel will present three projects which
are exploring the use of metadata to describe
the narrative content of media. Computer-
assisted textual analysis is now a well
known and important facet of scholarly
investigation (Potter, 1991; Burrows, 2004;
Yang, 2005) however it relies heavily on
statistical approaches in which the computer
uses character matching to identify reoccurring
strings. Although pattern recognition for image
and audio search is growing more sophisticated
(Downie, 2009), the techniques for annotation
of multimedia are subject to the same
limitations as those for text in that they cannot
go beyond the shape or the waveform into
the meaning that those artifacts of expression
represent.
This limitation has been addressed in a
number of different ways, for example through
traditional categorisation and with the use of
keywords for theme and motif annotation. New
techniques using natural language processing
software such as GATE (Auvil, 2007), and IBM's
LanguageWare (1641 Depositions Project -
htt
p://www.tcd.ie/history/1641/
) have taken this
further allowing a deeper level of meaning to be
inferred from the text through basic entity and
relationship recognition. The use of ontologies
to support this annotation opens the way for
more precise search, retrieval and analysis using
the techniques developed in conjunction with
semantic and linked web architecture.
The three papers being presented in this panel
will address the application of these techniques
to both textual and audio-visual media and
consider annotation not just of the documents
themselves but of the ideas contained within
them, how this information might be presented
to the user to best effect.
The first paper in this panel by Dr Michael
O. Jewell, Goldsmiths College, University of
London, focuses on the annotation of narrative
in scripts and screenplays. This paper presents
the combination of TEI and RDF annotations
as a methodology for opening the encoded
data up for inference-enhanced exploration and
augmentation through linked-data resources.
The second paper from Paul Rissen, BBC, and
Dr K Faith Lawrence, Royal Irish Academy,
presents work being done at the BBC in
the annotation of the narratives within their
audio/visual archives. This paper discusses the
initiatives within the BBC to make their content
more accessible and to allow more personal
interaction with the material. Through the use
of ontology, the events contained the media
object are exposed to exploration, analysis and
visualisation.
The final paper by Paolo Battino, Royal Irish
Academy, continues the visualisation theme to
discuss how narrative annotations might be
presented to assist in analysis of texts. Using
the example of folktales, this paper considers
the graphical representation of plotlines and
the possible issues and challenges inherent
for visualisation in moving from syntactic to
semantic description.
References
Auvil, L., Grois, E., Lloràname, X., Pape,
G., Goren, V., Sanders, B., Acs, B.,
McGrath, R. E.
(2007). 'A Flexible System
for Text Analysis with Semantic Networks'.
Proceedings of Digital Humanities 2007
.

2
Burrows, J.
(2004). 'Textual Analysis'.
A Companion to Digital Humanities.
Schriebman, S., Siemens, R., Unsworth, J.
(eds.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Downie, J. S., Byrd, D., Crawford, T.
(2009). 'Ten Years Of Ismir: Reflections
On Challenges And Opportunities'.
10th
International Society for Music Information
Retrieval Conference
.
Potter, R. G.
(1991). 'Statistical Analysis of
Literature: A Retrospective on Computers and
the Humanities, 1966–1990'.
Computers and
the Humanities.
25.6
: 401-429.
Yang, H-C., Lee. H-C.
(2005). 'Automatic
Category Theme Identification and Hierarchy
Generation for Chinese Text Categorization'.
Journal of Intelligent Information Systems.
1
.
Semantic Screenplays:
Preparing TEI for Linked
Data
Jewell, Michael O.
m.jewell@gold.ac.uk
Goldsmiths College, University of London
Scripts, whether for radio plays, theatre,
or film, are a rich source of data. As
well as cast information and dialogue, they
may include performance directions, locations,
camera motions, sound effects, captions, or
entrances and exits. The TEI Performance Texts
module (
http://www.tei-c.org/P5
) provides a
means to encode this information into an
existing screenplay, together with more specific
textual information such as metrical details.
Meanwhile, Linked Data has become a major
component of the Semantic Web. This is a set
of best practices for publishing and connecting
structured data on the Web, which has led to
the creation of a global data space containing
billions of assertions, known as the Web of Data
(Bizer et al, 2009). Some of the most prominent
datasets in this space include DBpedia, with
more than 100 million assertions relating to
(amongst others) people, places, and films;
LMDB (Linked Movie Database), with over three
million filmic assertions; and LinkedGeoData,
which has almost two billion geographical
assertions.
In this paper, we propose a means to support
Linked Data in TEI, thus benefitting from the
wealth of information available on top of that
which is provided by TEI. We describe the
augmentation of TEI documents with RDFa
(Resource Description Format in Attributes)
to complement the annotated content with
URIs and class information, and thence the
transformation of this document into triples
using our open source tei2onto conversion tool.
Finally, we provide some case studies that make
use of the resultant triples, and show how
their compliance with the OntoMedia ontologies
(Lawrence et al, 2006) allows for powerful
research possibilities.
1. Annoting TEI
1.1. Cast Lists
The first, and simplest, step to adding RDFa
attributes to a TEI document begins with the
cast list. Listing 1 shows a simple example
of a castItem element for the role of Jeffrey
Beaumont in Blue Velvet, portrayed by Kyle
MacLachlan. The about attribute specifies the
object to which the element relates: the actor
element refers to the DBPedia entry for Kyle
MacLachlan, while the role refers to an object
residing within the Blue Velvet namespace,
created specifically for this screenplay. The
property
attribute defines the predicate that
relates the content of the element to the object
- in this case, it is the name of the actor
or character. When processed by
tei2onto
,
actors are specified as
Being
objects, which are
subclasses of the Friend of a Friend (FOAF)
ontology’s Agent class (
http://www.foaf-projec
t.org/
), and roles as Character objects.
The conversion script then analyses
sp
elements
for who attributes. These refer to the
xml:id
attributes in the role elements, and thus it is
possible to determine the cast present in a
scene and the entity speaking a line. The former
may be found via the involves predicates of the
event, while the latter is represented with the
has-subject-entity
predicate. An OntoMedia
Social event is created for each element, with the
precedes
and
follows
attributes describing","txt","2","",""
"1120","11","Standards, Specifications, and Paradigms for Customized Video Playback","3","Culture is fully inundated with video--from the
ubiquitous DVD and succeeding optical media
formats, to locally stored digital bits passed
between DVRs and video iPods, to over a billion
Internet-streamed videos a day. Unfortunately,
while those involved in humanities education
and research know how widespread video usage
is and are attempting to integrate such a rich
medium into what they do, they are more often
than not struggling, fighting against the medium
and associated baggage rather than using video
for their own purposes.
For all of the ways in which video differs
from other forms of media, perhaps the most
challenging obstacle to effectively utilizing video
assets as objects of teaching and research is
their inflexibility. Because of the complexity of
video technologies and the pressure of external
interests, video is an incredibly closed medium,
especially when compared to text, image, or even
audio. In many ways video resists fundamental
activities of digital humanities inquiry such
as metadata, structural, and segment analysis
and annotation. What's more, video also is,
technologically speaking, a linear medium; it
is (as much as if not more than other media)
architected to proceed continuously from point
A to point B, serving up bits in order and
only responding to very limited, legacy interface
controls. Even the ""interactivity"" touted by
content holders (such as DVD ""extras"") is a
rigid, linear interactivity, designed to keep the
control of playback under the stewardship and
limited scope of the video producer rather
than the needs of the learner, the desires of
the scholar, or the tastes of the consumer. To
encourage collaborative, resuable approaches to
video (while avoiding legal pitfalls or isolationist
tendencies that come with an extracted clip
approach), we need to incorporate a more
thorough, flexible, and widespread method of
customized
video playback.
The papers in this panel will focus on data-
driven customized video playback (CVP), from
theory and methodology to real-world use cases
that are evolving and practical implementations
that are both already in use as well as
under development to meet the needs of the
Humanities today. The first presentation will
make the case for the fundamental groundwork
for video asset analysis and eventual customized
video playback, the Multimedia Content
Description Interface (also known as MPEG-7).
This XML standard for describing (both globally
and in timecode-associated ways) video assets
offers a markup solution that is complementary
to common video encoding containers (such
as MPEG-2 and MPEG-4), and, as XML,
can be easily coupled with other relevant
data and metadata standards as well. The
second paper will present an argument for
ways to take these video asset descriptions
and use them to enable both people and
technology to better facilitate customized video
playback using a videoclip playlist specification
(serializable as plain text, as XML, as JSON,
or as any other data exchange format). With
the segment descriptions of a thorough video
asset description, a videoclip playlist can then
define custom playback operations. The final
presentation will demonstrate several use cases
of customized video playback, along with
working models for achieving the type of
interactivity we desire with the technologies we
have today, including demonstration of a CVP
system in use at several university campuses.
The panel as a whole will seek to argue
a unified justification and methodology of
customized video playback, and invite future
collaboration from the Digital Humanities
community who can, if they desire, push these
ideas further towards making our proposed
standards, specifications, and paradigms as
widespread, useful, and effective as possible.

2
Finding the Best in
Approaches to Video Asset
Description
McDonald, Jarom Lyle
jarom_mcdonald@byu.edu
Brigham Young University, USA
From Google's Web Services to Wikipedia's
DBPedia project to the underlying architecture
of modern digital libraries, our notion of how
to make data more semantic is moving (slowly
but persistently) towards ideal principles that
the W3C lays out for what is commonly called
""the Semantic Web."" This is even true for the
subject of my study, video data, albeit with much
less of a semantically-inflected critical mass.
There are a few solid, innovative investigations
(such as the BBC's video portal and the many
incarnations of the Joost video platform) that
are or have been working to bring technologies
such as metadata, RDF/RDFa, and SPARQL
to the storage and dissemination of video
(especially online video); but there is still a
lot of work that needs to be done in order to
make today's video assets truly useful in a way
that Tim Berners-Lee would approve, a world
""in which information is given well-defined
meaning, better enabling computers and people
to work in cooperation"" (Scientific American).
While the Semantic Web includes a large
number of topics too broad to cover in this
proposal, I will focus on one particular aspect
of semantic markup that does apply to video
data. It is vital to underscore the unique nature
of video as an object of
perception
--that is,
video is meant to be played for a viewer with
the linear, temporal nature in the forefront of
experiencing the video. Thus to describe the data
of a video asset, as a whole, in a useful way
would necessarily require a structured analysis
of more than just the metadata
about
the video
that you might be able to achieve with Dublin
Core, IEEE-LOM, or RDF; the most significant
need is a system that can connect such semantic
vocabularies to a thorough, analytic description
of the video content itself in as close an
approximation to the playback act as might
be reasonably able to achieve--in other words,
a workable time-coded markup language. This
isn't to say that a video must be necessarily
viewed chronologically; rather, given that video
exists as bits served from time point A to time
point B, it must be described that way in order
to make use of the data encoded there. If a video
asset has the right description of its segmented,
time-coded parts (of which, naturally, there may
be many versions based on who is doing the
markup or who is using the materials), it will
eventually allow for more than just watching the
video; a segmentation model of video markup
is essential for enabling a system of interactive,
customized video playback.
Several options for such a language to use are
available and have been somewhat explored
both commercially and academically, but none
are completely satisfactory. Naturally, given
the success of the Text Encoding Initiative, it
makes sense to consider its ability to function
as a time-coded video markup system. In fact,
Reside (2007) and Arneil and Newton (2009)
have presented just such an idea at recent
Digital Humanities conferences. The flexibility
and thoroughness of the TEI makes it an
attractive option; however, while the speech
transcription models can potentially provide
time-coded descriptions of spoken elements
of a video (and even be retrofitted to other
elements of video content), because the TEI is
a text-encoding framework, it lacks a temporal
segmentation scheme designed specifically for
existing models of video encoding and playback
(for example, referring to multiple video or
audio tracks, multiplexing metadata with the
binary streams, etc.). Most projects exploring
video markup descriptions also mention the
W3C's Synchronized Multimedia Integration
Language (SMIL). Since version 3.0, SMIL
integrates a temporal segmentation model
with one for spatial fragmentation, allowing
semantic relationships both within and between
video elements. What's more, SMIL is a W3C
recommendation, offering the potential for
tighter integration with web delivered video
as it continues to mature. Several commercial
endeavors (including the streaming platform
Hulu) have incorporated SMIL into their
playback process, allowing for a sophisticated
combination of video annotation (for example,
Hulu uses it for their advertisements and
upcoming social viewing features) and search/
retrieval (combining the time-coded markup","txt","2","",""
"1121","11","The Origins and Current State of Digitization of Humanities in Japan","3","Digital Humanities in Japan has been in
progress since an early period. Recently,
due to the spread and the development
of advanced digital environments, individual
humanities researchers are coming to use digital
materials in various forms, and according to the
continually growing needs of users, cooperation
and organization between projects has steadily
increased. However, there is some extent to
which the large framework known Humanities
Computing in Japan has lagged behind in
its efforts to develop cooperation with similar
projects overseas. Therefore, this panel aims to
take a step in the right direction by introducing
the origins and current state of Humanities
Computing in Japan on digitization by featuring
the reflections of the representatives of the
projects and organizations that have worked in
this area from a relatively early time.
Humanities digitization projects in Japan, being
developed by various research centers and
research organizations, have already garnered
over 3.5 billion yen in the form of known large-
scale grants which were funded by Japanese
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science
and Technology. This does not include the
numerous small grants that have been received
for various digitization projects by individual
researchers and small groups and budgets which
were assigned by each organization itself which
was promoting such projects. In order to provide
a venue for the presentation and publication of
the results of these funded projects, a number
of groups and associations engaged in this work
were established. One of the more prominent
is Special Interest Group for Computers and
Humanities (SIG-CH), which was established
in 1989 under the auspices of the Information
Processing Society of Japan which is the largest
society of informatics in Japan. SIG-CH has
served as the major organ for communication
among researchers interested in these projects.
Kōzaburō Hachimura,
Ritsumeikan University,
representing SIG-CH
The meetings of SIG-CH have been held on
a regular basis, about four times a year since
1989. At each meeting approximately 8 research
papers are presented, with the proceedings
being been published as the “IPSJ SIG Notes”
series. Up to the present, we have held 84
meetings, which have included a total of 720
paper presentations. The group consists of over
200 researchers belonging to the academic
organizations of informatics or humanities.
Here, processing, analysis or mining of texts,
images, digital archiving of texts, bibliographies
or other digitized materials, and especially 3-
D motion capture, etc. are the major themes.
The technique, tools or study results in
which they are applied etc. are presented.
In recent years, study results that use GIS
have been increasing in number. The various
Humanities fields in Japan are represented
by literature, linguistics, history, archeology,

2
museum studies, anthropology, dance studies,
and Buddhist Studies, etc. In earlier periods,
system-oriented thought was dominant, but
recently, presentations tend to be characterized
by an increase in content orientation, as well as
on local and international cooperation between
projects.
Toshinobu Ogiso,
representing the National
Institute for Japanese
Language and Linguistics
NINJAL)
NINJAL, established in 1948, has created
various Japanese corpora. One example is
the ""
Taiyō
Corpus,"" which is the first major
Humanities database in Japan created using
XML. It is a tag-structure rendition of the
19-20th century magazine
Taiyō
, in which tags
created for the purpose of linguistic research
applied to about 14.5 million text characters.
Taiyō
was a typical magazine in Japan during
the period of its publication from 1895 to
1925, and thus is an invaluable resource for
understanding the foundations of the modern
Japanese language which were formed during
that period.
Also underway at this institute is the
KOTONOHA plan, which seeks to integrate
various corpora (including the
Taiyō
corpus).
One part of this effort is the presently-underway
project of the 'Balanced Contemporary Corpus
of Written Japanese' (BCCWJ), containing
100 million words. In addition to this, the
construction of a corpus is planned aimed
at compiling premodern data. This project
must especially address the peculiarities of
written Japanese, which does not include
spaces between words, and includes Chinese
characters,
hiragana
, and
katakana
, making it
very difficult to indicate word information with
pauses between phrases, parts of speech, etc.
Mitsuru Aida, representing
the National Institute for
Japanese Literature (NIJL)
NIJL was established in 1972, making one of the
earliest efforts to digitize Japanese literature.
Researchers there have worked at converting the
research information into database format, and
in its inclusion of words, text descriptions, and
literary indexes, has become Japan's prototype
textual research database. In the early 1990's,
NIJL defined an original standard for tagging
Japanese literatures based on SGML, and upon
this built a large full-text database. It has played
a major role as the mechanism for a general
database of the human culture research.
Koichi Yasuoka, Kyoto
University, Institute for
Humanities Research
(Jinbunken)
In 1980 the Jinbunken began the digitization
of the
Ming Dynasty Civil Examination Index
.
The following year, the institute initiated the
digitization of the
Index of Shanwen Liyi
and
Catalog for the Study of East Asian
Documents
. Moreover, the Institute has held
an Annual Workshop for Oriental Studies
Computing (ORICOM) every year in 1990.
The research conducted here for the past
20 years extends to many areas, including
multilingual text processing, character-code
issues, digital catalogs, and GIS. Most notably,
the Jinbunken has been actively engaged in
critique and development of Japanese
kanji
character sets, dealing with issues concerning
the relationship between ancient characters, JIS
X 0213, Unicode and so forth.
Ryo Akama, representing
the Ritsumeikan University
Art Research Center (ARC)
The extensive works of ARC have their origins
in the digitization of the
kabuki
material that
Prof. Akama initiated in the Waseda University
Theater Museum in 1988. This approach led","txt","2","",""
"1122","11","Understanding the 'Capacity' of the Digital Humanities: The Canadian Experience, Generalised","3","Michael Eberle-Sinatra, “Understanding
Academic Capacity: A Charge from our
Funding Agency”
-
Lynne Siemens, “Developing Academic
Capacity in Digital Humanities: Thoughts
from the Canadian Community and Beyond”
-
Ray Siemens, “DH Training Capacity:
Established Curriculum, Institutes, Camps,
and Beyond”
-
Stéfan Sinclair, “Building from the Ground
up: Training Digital Humanities Scholars as
Developers”
-
Susan Brown, “Hidden Capacity (in DH-
impacted disciplines)”
-
Meagan Timney, “Transitions: Emerging in
the Field”
-
Geoffrey Rockwell, “Cyberinfrastructure for
Research in the Humanities: Expectations
and Capacity”
Panel Description: In a recent report from
Council of Canadian Academies,
The State of
Science & Technology in Canada
(2006, p.
24;
http://www.scienceadvice.ca/documents/C
omplete%20Report.pdf
) humanities computing
was identified as an “emerging field” with
“significant strength,” alongside several other
science-oriented “transdisciplinary fields ...
for which future prospects are seen to be
more significant than currently established
strength.” Concomitant discussions with our
chief research funding agency, the Social Science
and Humanities Research Council of Canada
(SSHRC), yielded a need to understand, better,
the ‘capacity’ of this community in Canada and
beyond, in part to gauge the potential future
impact of our interdiscipline which, itself, has
been generously supported for a decade with
dedicated programs such as SSHRC’s Image,
Text, Sound Technology program and research
infrastructural programs such as the Canadian
Foundation for Innovation (CFI). Manifest in
a report commissioned by SSHRC, our panel
discusses the results of and reactions to the
activity of attempting to understand our field’s
capacity, both within the national context
that spawned the study and the borderless
environment occupied by the field.
The panel consists of several very short
presentations, followed by discussion.
Michael
Eberle-Sinatra
’s presentation will discuss
specific aspects of the report itself, among
them the field’s history of interrelationship with
supporting programs, societies, and initiatives;
how the field presents itself to, and intersects
with, the larger humanities community; the
field’s notable successes, notable contributions,
and chief projects; and what is anticipated
to be needed next to enable excellent and
timely research across the humanities, from
the perspective of the field – all through the
lens of the fields enabling possibilities via
methods, tools and cyberinfrastructure.
Lynne
Siemens
will juxtapose the growing acceptance
of digital humanities research and teaching
methods, technologies and resources with a
series of challenges that still face scholars,

2
especially new scholars, in developing their
work in the field, via the results of a recent
survey of digitally-impacted faculty, staff and
students in the Humanities and Social Sciences
(which yield a focus on funding, infrastructure
and leadership).
Ray Siemens
discusses the
crucial role of training, broadly construed,
a point which will be picked up on and
carried much further by
Stéfan Sinclair
, who
acknowledges that the training of humanists
with advanced programming skills is essential
to the digital humanities’ recognition of tool
conception and development as first class
scholarly activities, to the process of building
as a way of exploring and understanding,
touching also on important issues of peer-review
and professional recognition for innovative
work in tool-building.
Meagan Timney
,
a postdoctoral fellow in digital humanities,
discusses several issues specifically confronting
emerging scholars in the field of digital
humanities and
Susan Brown
will posit, from
the position of someone at a university that
has no formal digital humanities programs or
even dedicated courses in the calendar, that
there is considerable untapped capacity for
digital humanities training in the Canadian, and
other, higher education systems – highlighting
the fact that there are many people with
significant training or research experience in
the digital humanities area teaching across
the humanities where their work has as a
matter of course included the impact of
digital textuality but they would not identify
with our field by its name, the result of
underfunding of the traditional disciplines and
lack of institutional resources to create new
programs or organise existing offerings in new,
pertinent configurations.
Geoffrey Rockwell
will close by asking ""what is infrastructure in
the humanities?"" – presenting a model for the
research computing infrastructure we should
expect from our universities and suggesting
the capacity at Canadian universities to meet
this need as well as the politics of positioning
computing as infrastructure.","txt","2","",""
"1123","11","Wargames in a Digital Age","3","Wargaming is an applied tradition of interactive
modeling and simulation dating back to the
early 19th century or, if one counts more abstract
martial pastimes like Chess and Go, all the
way to antiquity. Why a panel about games
(tabletop as well as computer) that spotlight war
—surely the most inhumane of organized human
endeavor—at a digital humanities conference?
First, we assume that wargaming as both
a descriptive or predictive tool as well as
a recreational pastime transcends specific
technologies of implementation. For example,
when a tabletop wargamer moves troops across
the battlefield to attack an enemy, they are
enacting a specific procedure that is defined
against a larger complex of procedures and
systems which collectively aspire to represent
historical reality within a range of probable
(or possible) outcomes. The abstraction of
combat, movement, supply, morale, and other
basic military considerations into algorithmic
process or a numerically expressed spectrum of
outcomes—randomized by die rolls within the
parameters of a situation—makes the genre a
rich source for anyone interested in the formal
and procedural representation of dynamic, often
ambiguous, literally contested experience.
Second, we are concerned finally not with
wargames for their own sake, but as exemplars
of simulation as a mode of knowledge
representation. As a genre, wargames offer some
of the most complex and nuanced simulations
in any medium. A typical tabletop game might
have many dozens of pages of rules, defining
procedures and interactions for hundreds or
even thousands of discrete components (unit
tokens) across as much as twenty square feet
of map space. This places them at the formal
and physical extremes of ludic complexity.
Almost from the outset of the personal computer
revolution, meanwhile, wargames (as distinct
from games with superficial militaristic themes)
became a major software genre. Popular
tabletop wargames were rapidly translated to
the screen by companies such as SSI, with crude
artificial intelligence crafting opposing moves.
Other games dispensed with the conventions
of their manual predecessors and (much like
flight simulators) sought to recreate an intense
real-time first-person experience. Harpoon
(1989) placed a generation of early armchair
enthusiasts in the Combat Information Center of
a modern naval frigate, with countless variables
in weapon and detection systems to master.
We believe that the digital humanities, which
have already embraced certain traditions of
modeling, might have something to learn
from an exploration of this particular genre
of simulation, which has proved influential
in both professional military and political
settings as well as the realm of popular
hobby and recreation. (We also find it
suggestive that several long-time members of
the digital humanities community were “teenage
grognards,” suggesting that the games were of
a piece with other elements of a particular
generational path to computing.)
Kriegsspiel as Tool for
Thought
Matthew Kirschenbaum
mgk@umd.edu
University of Maryland
Kriegsspiel of course is German for (literally)
“war game.” In 1824, the Prussian staff officer
Georg von Reisswitz formally introduced the
game (versions of which had been kicking
around in his family for years) to his
fellow officers. “This is not a game! This
is training for war!” one general is said to
have exclaimed (Perla 26). It was quickly
adopted, and became the foundation for
the German institutionalization of wargaming

2
which persisted through World War II. The
von Reisswitz Kriegsspiel was played by laying
wooden or metal blocks across maps to
mark troop dispositions (Figure 1). Games
were conducted on actual topographical maps,
often terrain anticipated as the site of future
operations (for example, the 1914 Schlieffen
plan was subject to extensive rehearsal as a
Kriegsspiel). By the middle of the 19th century
the “game” had evolved two major variants,
so-called “rigid” and “free” Kriegsspiel. The
latter attempted to replace the elaborate rules
and calculations with a human umpire making
decisions about combat, intelligence, and other
outcomes on the battlefield.
In this paper, we take the twin traditions of rigid
and free Kriegsspiel as our point of departure
for thinking about simulation gaming in terms
of what Howard Rheingold, in the context
of computing, once called “tools for thought.”
Indeed, the fork in Kriegsspiel’s development
history anticipates much about both manual
and computer simulation design. Dungeons and
Dragons, the progenitor of all tabletop role-
playing systems, grew from a set of medieval
wargaming rules called Chainmail. The original
developers (Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson)
added the magic and monsters, but they also
replaced much of the game’s rules apparatus
with an umpire dubbed “dungeon master”
whose job it was to adjudicate the outcomes
of various actions, sometimes with the help of
tables and dice, but just as often “freestyle,”
relying on judgment and instinct. Wargaming
itself has largely remained divided along the
same fault between rigid and free systems, with
the former attracting hobbyists who buy pre-
packaged games (several thousand have been
published) to try their hand at Gettysburg
or Waterloo and the latter the domain of
professional consultants who stage elaborate
role playing exercises of the sort originally
conducted at thinktanks like RAND but are
today as likely to assist a board in planning a
corporate merger as a military staff in planning
a mission.
As the above suggests, wargames are also
both predictive and retrospective in orientation.
On the one hand, hobbyist games are often
marketed promising insight into the past,
tempting a player into believing that with
sufficient study and canniness he or she
might out-general Napoleon and rewrite history
(Dunnigan). In this sense, wargames align
with certain strains of academic counter-factual
history (Ferguson, et al.). Yet Kriegsspiel was
attractive to professional planners precisely
because of its predictive value: an accurate
formal model of some battlefield dilemma would
presumably allow commanders to rehearse their
tactics and continually alter the parameters
of the situation to arrive at solutions to the
military problem. Often, in fact these dual
orientations were pursued in tandem, with a
historical outcome from a game serving as the
control case for subsequent prediction: if a game
can restage Midway according to the trajectory
of actual events, then in principle outcomes
from its hypothetical situations might be equally
trusted.
There is yet another way of thinking about
wargames though, one that does not assume
naïve faith in their capacity as either predictors
or descriptors of real-world phenomena. One
great virtue of tabletop games is that, by
their nature, their rules systems are absolutely
transparent. Everything the players need to
play the game must be in the box, and the
quantitative model underpinning the game
system is thereby materially exposed for
inspection and analysis. Many gamers collect
and compare dozens of different games on the
same subject to see how different designers
have chosen to model and interpret events. The
hobby is filled with vigorous discussions about
designers’ intents, as well as house rules and
variants, because part of what comes packaged
with the game is the game system. (Indeed, the
term “game designer” originated at SPI, one
of the hobby’s premier wargame publishers.)
As one wargame enthusiast shrewdly observes,
“What wins a wargame is but a dim
reflection of what wins a battle, or a war.
Sometimes, what wins a wargame doesn’t reflect
reality at all” (Thompson). In this view, the
game engine is a procedural instrument for
producing an outcome whose value lies in its
potential for provoking counter-factual analysis.
A wargame--either manual or computer--may
permit Napoleon to win at Waterloo: the salient
question is not whether the game was “right”
but in the questions it exposes about whether
Napoleon really could have done so (and if
so, how). This viewpoint actually comports
with that of professional wargame facilitators,","txt","2","",""
"1124","11","A corpus approach to cultural keywords: a critical corpus-based analysis of ideology in the Blair years (1998-2007) through print news reporting","1","This paper will report on a corpus-based study
of the cultural keywords (in the Raymond
Williams’ sense) via the analysis of key-words
(in the corpus/statistical sense) of newspaper
reporting in the years since Labour came to
power. The project demonstrates that certain
lexemes (or lexical strings) gain currency in
relatively short historical periods and may take
on political importance.
This project assesses the ideological landscape
during the years of the New Labour project by
extracting the cultural keywords of the time, and
demonstrating their evolving meanings in the
commentary provided by the print media.
The project takes inspiration from Raymond
Williams’ book ([1975] 1983)
Keywords
which
attempted to sum up the ideology of the post-
war years. Williams chose a set of words which
he thought had taken on particular meanings
in that period, and wrote an informed but
ultimately anecdotal commentary on each one.
Like Williams, we begin with a hypothesis
that some words (such as, for example,
radicalisation
,
choice
) have both increased in
usage and polarised in their meaning since 1998.
Unlike Williams, this project pursues a rigorous
approach to the discovery of
which
words
characterise the period under investigation,
using two corpora of newspaper data and
computer tools. This enables us to make a
comprehensive investigation and an objective
assessment, including use and meaning, of the
cultural keywords of the Blair years
The project is primarily corpus-based, but with
a strong qualitative focus, using an approach
to studying textually-constructed meanings
of words and other linguistic items which
recognises both their place in a relatively stable
system of language, and their capacity to take on
additional meaning in specific contexts of time
and place.
1. Background
Our project links the corpus linguistic notion
of key-words to earlier work into the ‘emergent
meaning’ of individual lexical items (see Jeffries
2003, 2006 and 2007).
Jeffries (2003) investigated the meaning of
water, in the context of the Yorkshire water crisis
of 1995. Jeffries (2006) investigated the speech
act of apology, in particular news commentators’
view of Blair’s putative apology for the Iraq
war. Jeffries (2007) was a much more extensive
consideration of the way in which the female
body was constructed by women’s magazines
in 2004. This larger study developed a system
of describing textual meaning which draws on
Hallidayan approaches to systems of linguistic
form and meaning applying his combined
semantic and syntactic view of textual meaning
to other functions such as the construction of
opposites.
The current project was designed in the spirit
of Critical Discourse Analysis, in particular the
work of Fairclough whose work on ideology
in language, and specifically the language of
New Labour (Fairclough 2000) influences the
approach taken here. However, the methods
used in this project are closer to corpus stylistics
in that they are text-analytic and at least in some
of the stages, computer-assisted and corpus-
driven. Work already carried out in this area (see
for example McIntyre and Walker 2010) showed
that corpus approaches and tools, in particular
Wmatrix, can successfully be applied to textual
analysis. Baker and McEnery (2005) and Baker
and Gabrielatos (2008) are also influential on
this project because this work has paralleled
Jeffries’ work in looking at sets of texts from a
particular time period to demonstrate political
ideologies in news texts.

2
The project also reflects renewed interest in
cultural keywords in the Williams sense, with
a recent special issue of Critical Quarterly
(2007) devoted to the subject, and Durant’s
(2006) related article which suggests that
“[...] the development of electronic search
capabilities applied to large corpora of language
use [...] encourages renewed attention to
cultural keywords.” (Durant 2006). This project
effectively takes up that suggestion.
2. Research questions
1.
What are the key-words for the years 1998–
2007, as evidenced in the British press and
can they be identified as cultural keywords?
2.
Have they developed meanings specific to
this period and have these meanings evolved
within the period?
3. Methodology
The project focuses on news texts from 1998
to the end of 2007. A corpus of comparable
data from three national daily newspapers (The
Guardian, The Independent, and The Times)
was assembled from a large, on-line newspaper
database. This database represents a very rich
and potentially overwhelming amount of data
(100s of millions of words). However, our
project had very limited timescales and we
found it necessary to carefully control the
amount of data that we collected. This was
because: (i) downloading selected articles from
the database is largely a manual and fairly time
consuming process; and (ii) in its raw form each
downloaded article contained structured extra-
textual details (headers containing titles, dates
and so forth), random intra-textual information
(such as journalist’s email addresses) and
corruptions. This extra text and corrupted
data had to be removed from and amended
in each of the downloaded files: a laborious
process which consumed a lot of project time.
We also found that the corpus tools we
used for data manipulation struggled when
presented with files of more than one million
words. Consequently, we took a structured
sampling approach, choosing a week from
the politically ‘busy’ month of September
(party conferences), and collected selected
news-related items from these weeks. The
resulting corpus was approximately 2.3 million
words, which we anticipated would be sufficient
to answer our research questions. A comparison
corpus was built along similar lines using
newspaper data from the five year period prior
to 1997 (the Major years).
The corpus was automatically analysed, in the
first instance, using Wmatrix (Rayson 2008),
which is a relatively new corpus tool that can
calculate keyness (using Log-likelihood) at the
word level (key-words), at the grammatical
level (key-POS), and the semantic level (key-
concepts). The present study uses just the key-
word output.
To address the qualitative aspect of the
research questions, this investigation included
the following considerations:
-
Do the collocations of the key-word
demonstrate particular nuances of meaning?
-
How does the semantico-syntactic behaviour
of the key-word demonstrate meaning specific
to the context?
-
Does the key-word enter into any
unconventional lexical relations (e.g. of
opposition)?
-
Is the key-word associated with any modal or
negated text worlds?
4. Results
The key-words, generated from the comparison
of our corpora, that we consider to be the
important cultural keywords from the Blair
years are as follows:
No.
Keyword
Associated key-words
1
Terror
Terrorism, terrorist(s), attacks, atrocities,
threat
2
Global
Globalisation, world, international
3
Spin
spun
4
Reform
progressive, radical, modernise(d) / er(s) /
ation
5
Choice
6
Respect
Items in the ‘keyword’ column are the main
items used in our investigation and the terms
that we consider to be culturally significant.
The items in the third column are key-words
resulting from our corpus comparison which
are related to individual (cultural) keywords
and which, we hypothesise, form a network of

3
meaning. These are still to be fully investigated
and we do not report on them in this paper.
For each keyword we provide a more detailed
quantitative commentary using concordance
and collocation data. Our major findings,
though rigorous and replicable, are qualitative,
and provide the basis of both detailed linguistic
commentaries on each key-word and could
also provide the foundation for more general
popular essays not dissimilar to those provided
by Williams, but with more clarity about their
provenance. There will not be time to discuss all
our findings, but our paper will report on some
of the quantitative data and focus qualitatively
on ‘spin’.
References
Adamson, S., Durant, A
(2007).
Critical
Quarterly.
49,1
.
Baker, P., McEnery, A.
(2005). 'A corpus-
based approach to discourses of refugees and
asylum seekers in UN and newspaper texts'.
Language and Politics.
4:2
: 197-226(30).
Baker, P., Gabrielatos, C.
(2008). 'Fleeing,
sneaking, flooding: a corpus analysis of
discursive constructions of refugees and asylum
seekers in the UK Press 1996-2005'.
Journal of
English Linguistics.
Forthcoming.
Durant, A.
(2006). 'Raymond Williams’s
Keywords: Investigating Meanings ‘‘offered,
felt for, tested, confirmed, asserted, qualified,
changed’’'.
Critical Quarterly.
48:1
: 1–26.
Fairclough, N.
(2000).
New Labour, New
Language.
London: Routledge.
Jeffries, Lesley
(2003). 'Not a drop to
drink: Emerging meanings in local newspaper
reporting of the 1995 water crisis in Yorkshire'.
Text - Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of
Discourse.
23 (4)
: 513-538.
Jeffries, Lesley
(2006). 'Journalistic
Constructions of Blair's 'Apology' for the
Intelligence Leading to the Iraq War'.
Language
in the Media: Representations, Identities,
Ideologies. Advances in Sociolinguistics.
London: Continuum.
Jeffries, Lesley
(2007).
Textual Construction
of the Female Body A Critical Discourse
Approach.
Basingstoke.
McIntyre, D., Walker, B.
(2010). '‘How can
corpora be used to explore the language of
poetry and drama?’'.
The Routledge Handbook
of Corpus Linguistics.
McCarthy, M., O’Keefe,
A. (eds.). Abingdon: Routledge.
Rayson, P.
(2008).
Wmatrix: a web-based
corpus processing environment,
Computing
Department, Lancaster University
http://www.c
omp.lancs.ac.uk/ucrel/wmatrix/
.
Williams, R.
(1983).
Keywords (2nd Ed.).
London: Fontana.","txt","2","",""
"1125","11","A Data Model for Digital Musicology and its Current State - The Music Encoding Initiative","1","During the last 10 years, XML has gained
general acceptance as a data model in the
Digital Humanities. Actually, it even leveraged
the success of digital projects in the humanities.
Meanwhile TEI is the unchallenged standard for
all projects in the fields of literature studies,
epigraphy, linguistics, history sciences and so
on. Many thoughts were invested to bring TEI
and other related formats like EpiDoc to a level
that suffices general scholarly needs.
At first sight, things went differently in the
field of music encoding. Around the year 2000
a couple of XML-based encoding schemes for
music notation emerged, and within just a
few years MusicXML became the best-known
and most widespread music encoding format.
It was intended to serve as an interchange
format between different music applications,
and even today it is virtually indispensable for
this very important task. At the same time,
this orientation of MusicXML requires a certain
""simplicity"" that facilitates implementations in
various applications.
The Music Encoding Initiative (MEI) went a
different way. Not aiming at application support
in the first place, an encoding model for
scholarly
purposes was developed over years.
Strongly influenced by the concepts of the
TEI, Perry Roland as initiator of the format
tried to transfer these concepts to the field
of music encoding. For large parts, this is
quite easy: music notation is a kind of text,
and many unspecific modules of TEI can be
reused for music encoding with only small
changes. But then again, music notation itself
offers a much higher complexity than other
texts. It is multi-dimensional not only because
of its layout of multiple vertically aligned
staves, but also because of its simultaneity of
harmonic and melodic progression. In music
notation, the text itself consists of overlapping
hierarchies and therefore demands a quite
sophisticated data model. Most often, it is
virtually impossible to preserve all possible
meanings (or better: interpretations) of a
musical text with reasonable effort. The reason
is that the written text is only a part of the
complete information. Every notation serves a
certain purpose, and each composer or copyist
uses only as many symbols as he needs to be
explicit to his contemporaries. Besides this, the
""rules"" of music notation changed significantly
over time, even though these developments
often seem to be very subtle.
All this leads to the problem that there is no
absolutely fixed terminology in music notation.
Some phenomena are still not completely
understood or even defined, such as the problem
of dots, strokes and hooks in scores from the
classical period. The lack of a complete and
well-defined terminology even for restricted
repertoires makes the encoding of music
notation on a scholarly level highly demanding,
and, at the same time, the implementation and
usage of such an encoding scheme is anything
but trivial.
The Music Encoding Initiative has chosen this
way, and currently it stands on an important
turning point: In a one-year project funded
by the NEH and DFG the original model was
revised and has proven to meet all essential
scholarly requirements for such a format. In
the next years, it needs to be disseminated
in the fields of musicology, music information
retrieval, music philology and digital humanities
in general. A first step in this direction is the
TEI's Special Interest Group on music encoding,
whose members were actively involved in the
recent developments on MEI, and who seek to
find ways to bring MEI and TEI closer together.
Due to the complexity of music notation
– and thus music notation encoding too –
application support for MEI is crucial to
ensure its dissemination: Almost no traditional
musicologist would be willing to work with
a XML-editor like Oxygen. There are several
projects currently working on such applications
for MEI: The DiMusEd-Project, situated in
Tübingen (Germany), uses SVG to render
encodings of multiple sources of music notated
with medieval neumes. Although this repertoire

2
uses a limited set of symbols, this project already
shows the benefits of a dynamic rendering from
an encoding instead of engraved scores. The
Edirom project, (Detmold, Germany) aims to
establish workflows for digital scholarly editions
of music. In the application for preparing
such editions it is already using MEI to store
all structural information about the musical
text as well as the containing documents.
For moving from basically facsimile-based
editions to completely digital editions it is
planned to offer complete encodings of all
relevant sources including the rendering-
facilities already demonstrated by the DiMusEd-
project. In order to achieve this goal Edirom
closely collaborates with the most ambitious
of all ongoing MEI-related projects: TextGrid.
A sub-project of this major German initiative,
which is also located in Detmold, seeks to
develop a limited scorewriter for MEI offering
a graphical user interface for musicologists. In
this case „limited“ means that the project neither
intends to support MEI completely nor tries to
keep up with the engraving quality of already
existing scorewriters: the unambiguity of the
output is more important than its beauty.
All these German projects collaborate closely
with the ongoing efforts in the US to further
improve the format itself and to provide
interchange to other relevant formats such
as Humdrum and MusicXML. Depending on
further funding by NEH and DFG respectively
it is intended to provide reasonable collections
of MEI encodings to facilitate further usage of
the format. Although MEI will not find the wide
acceptance MusicXML already has, all these
components will help to disseminate MEI in
the academic world, to promote interchange of
high-quality data and to explore new methods
for digital representations of written music.
The talk will provide a short introduction to the
current state of MEI – both the format itself and
the projects and applications already working on
and with it.","txt","2","",""
"1126","11","A Day in the Life of Digital Humanities","1","On March 18th, 2009 over 90 people
participated in a collaborative documentation
project called
A Day in the Life of Digital
Humanities
. The participants blogged what they
did that day in the spirit of digital humanities
as a form of autoethnography that could help
answer the question, ""just what do we do?""
In this paper we will:
-
Discuss the conception, design and delivery of
the project,
-
Discuss the intellectual property paradigm
that we adopted to make this project one
that produces open documentation for use by
other projects,
-
Reflect on the lessons learned about such
social research projects and theorize the
exercise, and
-
Discuss the second Day of DH project that,
building on the strengths of the first, will be
run March 18th, 2010.
1. From Conception to Delivery
The original idea for the project was to develop a
communal response to questions asking exactly
what it is that we do in the digital humanities.
In 2006, ""The State of Science & Technology
in Canada"" from the Council of Canadian
Academies reported humanities computing as
an emerging field of strength in Canada. Since
then, there have been requests in various
forms for an explanation of what the previously
unnoticed field was.
1
The form of the response was inspired by a
lecture by Edward L. Ayers (currently now
President of the University of Richmond) that
we had heard about, titled ""What Does a
Professor Do All Day, Anyway?"" Ayers was an
early computing historian whose ""The Valley of
the Shadow"" project was one of the two founding
IATH projects. In that lecture, he reflected on
how people, including his own young son, know
little about what a professor does. As he put it,
""In the eyes of most folks, a professor either
portentously and pompously lectures people
from his narrow shaft of specialized knowledge,
or is a bookworm – nose stuck in a dusty volume,
oblivious to the world.""
2
The situation is even worse in the digital
humanities, where not only do people not
know what we do as academics, they also
don't know what ""humanities computing"" or
the ""digital humanities"" are. It's not even
clear if practitioners agree with each other
on these basic matters. Ayers's approach to
answering this question was the simplest and
most cohesive: simply to describe each part
of his day, task by task. A Day in the Life of
Digital Humanities scales this approach up to a
participatory project. We hoped to address the
questions about the nature of digital humanities
academic work by reflecting as a community.
The Day of DH (as we call it) was thus
conceived to provide one form of response to the
definition of the field: not through speculation,
but through observation. In this context we
will also briefly demonstrate the WordPress

2
setup and the wiki that was used to coordinate
materials.
3
2. Intellectual Property Paradigm:
Collaborative Publishing
As for all projects with human participants in
Canadian academia, we first had to apply for
ethics review. We presented the project not
simply as a study of what the participants are
doing, but as a collaborative publication. The
paradigm therefore was that we were organizing
a collective documentation project where the
results would be a form of publication that
would be returned to the community for further
study. Some participants went so far as to run
visualization tools on the RSS feed of all the
entries as they were being posted, thus returning
a feed of the posts live to participants, which
allowed study to happen as the day proceeded.
One of the problems we encountered was
cleaning up the data after the day. The cleaning
up of the data involved four broad steps:
1.
To comply with ethics, we had to go through
and edit (with the participants) the images
posted to make sure the images conformed to
the ethics regimen we agreed to.
2.
We read and indexed the posts with a uniform
set of terms, helping draw out semantic
relevance in the data.
4
3.
We converted the XML output from the native
WordPress format to a more tractable form.
Irrelevant fields were removed and content
was unescaped, requiring additional editing
toward well-formedness. The final cleaned
dataset is being review by project participants
with notable experience with markup.
4.
Finally, we proofed the entire dataset also
deleted empty comments. However, in order
to preserve the authenticity of the posts, we
did not change the prose of the participants.
3. Crowdsourcing in the Digital
Humanities
The Day in the Life of Digital Humanities
is a modest example of a collaborative
""crowdsourcing"" project. It is not the first such
project in the humanities. For instance, Suda On
Line is an excellent example of how a ""crowd""
can participate in a larger project.
5
Reflecting on
the level of participation in the Day of DH, we
believe that some of the strategies we adopted to
encourage participation were successful:
-
A participant's required contribution was
limited to only one day of posting. We
hypothesize that if small, flexible tasks
contribute to broad participation.
-
We did not assume people would participate.
Instead we invited people personally, creating
a personal connection before issuing an
open call for participation. We believe that
the personal human contact makes a real
difference in explaining to people why they
would want to participate.
-
The project was structured as a collaborative
publication so that participants could get
credit for their work and use the results in
their own experiments. We tried to make the
idea simple to grasp, which is why we chose
the ""Day in the Life of"" title. The title gives the
prospective participant an idea of the level of
participation and the results.
-
A steady but light feed of updates was
maintained through a discussion list. We sent
about an e-mail a week to keep in touch as the
day approached.
-
Human contact and communication are
essential at all levels - participants are, after
all, volunteering their effort to make the
project work. For that reason we had a
number of people assigned to answer different
types of questions quickly, and we spent
some time developing online materials to help
explain the project and connect people.
-
The technology used by participants was
reasonably familiar and worked.
4. Reflections and Theory
What then have we learned about the digital
humanities from the project? To some extent
the project speaks for itself. The project doesn't
provide a short answer to questions about what
we do. Instead it provides a wealth of detail
and reflections. Nonetheless we do have some
conclusions based on readings of the entries:
-
Many who do computing in the humanities
feel isolated and welcome venues for
participating in larger concerns. This project","txt","2","",""
"1127","11","A New Digital Method for a New Literary Problem: A Proposed Methodology for Briding the ""Generalist"" - ""Specialist"" Divide in the Study of World Literature","1","This paper is situated within the debate between
“specialist” and “generalist” methods of analysis
in the study of world literature. It is argued
that a systemic linguistic discourse analysis
of appropriately encoded text passages can
provide a methodology which can be utilised
to interrogate the national and international
demarcations of comparative literary analysis.
A case study consisting of a textual analysis
of the dialogical relationship between patient
and therapist in a “factional”, i.e. works of
fiction, which draw upon historical fact. Irish
and English novel is provided. The benefits of
the results yielded to current understandings
of national literature and definitions of world
literature are discussed.
In 1827, the German poet, Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe, declared to his young disciple Johann
Peter Eckermann that “National literature is
now a rather unmeaning term; the epoch of
world literature is at hand, and everyone must
strive to hasten its approach” (Eckermann, cited
in [Damrosch, 2003b, p. 1]). History informs
us however that Goethe was premature in
his heralding of a new age of “postnational”
literature, as up until recently all literatures
tended to have been studied along national
lines [Dimock, 2006, pp. 2-5]. Yet in more
recent decades, nations and, by extension,
“national” literatures have become increasingly
under threat in their sovereignty over all
elements of human life due to the homogenising
and heterogenising effects of globalisation.
Globalisation is defined by Malcolm Waters
as being “a social process in which the
constraints of geography on social and cultural
arrangements recede and in which people
become increasingly aware that they are
receding” [Waters, 1995, p. 3]. It is not
surprising therefore, that in an age where
national boundaries, both physical and mental,
are become increasingly insignificant and
blurred, we find a renewed interest in Goethe’s
concept of
Weltliteratur
.
As with all things new, the emerging
discipline of world literature has evoked
fear and reservations among literary scholars.
According to David Damrosch, the possibility
of recognizing the ongoing, vital presence of
the national within the life of world literature
poses enormous problems for the study of world
literature [Damrosch, 2003a, p. 514]. Thus the
field tends to be divided into “specialists”, those
who are concerned with national literatures,
and “generalists”, those who are interested in
studying global patterns. But instead of this
either/or method, Damrosch maintains that
what is need is a method that can mediate
between broad and often reductive overviews
and intensive, but often atomistic close readings
[p. 519]. As Franco Moretti argues, “we must
find a way to combine the individual who reads
a single work with great collective efforts and
vision” [Sutherland, 2006, Monday 9 January,
2006]. This paper argues that a combination
of Systemic Functional Linguistics and Digital
Humanities offers one way whereby this may be
achieved.
The complexities involved in the interpreting
of “literary language” for electronic media
have perhaps posited the greatest deterrent for
literary scholars in embracing digital humanities
to date. The pioneering work of scholars such as
Willard McCarty and Jerome McGann (among

2
others) unfortunately remain the exception
among their peers in the field of literary studies.
The majority within the discipline retain the
fear that computer based analysis of texts can
only reveal “broad sweeping patterns” within
literary works. Interestingly, this fear echoes the
reservations that are held about the theoretical
methods deployed by “generalists” in the study
of world literature. Contrary to both these
fears, this paper will argue that computer-based
literary research can be utilized to provide both a
means of analysis for the specificities of national
literatures, while also serving as a tool for
carrying out comparative textual analysis at an
international scale. We wish to present to the
following methodology to the community.
1. Case Study: The Patient-
Therapist Relationship in
Literature
This project will consist of an analysis of
a passage of dialogue between patient and
therapist in Sebastian Barry’s
The Secret
Scripture
(2008) and Pat Barker’s
Regeneration
(1995). For the purpose of this study, we have
chosen a novel by an Irish writer and an English
writer respectively. Given that this methodology
is in its infancy, it is presumed best to begin
with two texts written in the same language
and which originate from countries of similar
cultural systems.
The Secret Scripture
is set in
present day Ireland but the narrative is made up
of a double narrative; the personal recollections
of Roseanne Clear, who was incarcerated in
a mental institution during the mid twentieth
century, and the account by the psychiatrist, Dr.
Greene, of his own investigation into Roseanne’s
admittance into the hospital.
Regeneration
is
based on the real-life experiences of British army
officers being treated for shell shock during
World War I at Craiglockhart War Hospital in
Edinburgh. Its narrative relays the treatment
of soldiers suffering mental break down. It is
shaped predominately around the discussions
which the psychiatrist, Dr. Rivers, has with a
number of patients within the asylum in which
he works. Both novels are centered around
events which have caused psychological distress
to the individual characters, but which have also
caused what is known as ‘cultural trauma’
1
to the
nations in which they are set.
2. Methodology
Our method of analysis is based on Systemic
functional linguistics (SFL) which is a model
of grammar that was developed by Michael
Halliday in the 1960s [Halliday, 1976, Halliday,
2004]. It is part of a broad social semiotic
approach to language called systemic linguistics.
The term
systemic
refers to the view of language
as “a network of systems, or interrelated
sets of options for making meaning”. The
term
functional
indicates that the approach
is concerned with meaning, as opposed to
formal grammar, which focuses on word
classes such as nouns and verbs, typically
without reference beyond the individual clause.
Systemic-Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a
theory of language centred around the notion
of language function. SFL places the function
of language as central (what language does,
and how it does it), in preference to more
structural approaches, which place the elements
of language and their combinations as central.
Specifically, it begins with a social context,
and looks at how language both acts upon,
and is constrained by, this social context. In
the model, and methodology, particular aspects
of a given social context (such as the topics
discussed, the language users and the medium
of communication) define the meanings likely
to be expressed and the language likely to be
used to express those meanings. Since language
is viewed as semiotic potential, the description
of language is a description of choice. Systemic
linguists examine the choices language users can
make in a given setting to realise a particular
linguistic product (the available choices depend
on aspects of the context in which the language is
being used). By examining the different choices
for the discourse between characters in similar
social contexts in different texts, we believe that
it may be possible to identify, or describe, the
features associated with national literatures that
address the problem described here.
Our approach is essentially a discourse analysis
rather than textual analysis, although it relies
on encoded text for comparative analysis.
Specifically, we draw on existing SFL models
of sociolinguistic and cognitive approaches to
doctor-patient discourse [Todd and Fisher,
1993, Togher, 2001]. These models (i) analyse
the patterns of talk that are produced by the","txt","2","",""
"1128","11","A Tale of Two Cities: Implications of the Similarities and Differences in Collaborative Approaches within the Digital Libraries and Digital Humanities Communities","1","Besides drawing on content experts, librarians,
archivists, developers, programmers, managers,
and others, many emerging digital projects also
pull in disciplinary expertise from areas that do
not typically work in team environments. To
be effective, these teams must find processes
– some of which are counter to natural
individually-oriented work habits – that support
the larger goals and group-oriented work of
these digital projects. This paper will explore
the similarities and differences in approaches
within and between members of the Digital
Libraries (DL) and Digital Humanities (DH)
communities by formally documenting the
nature of collaboration in these teams. The
objective is to identify exemplary work patterns
and larger models of research collaboration that
have the potential to strengthen this positive
aspect of these communities even further, while
exploring the key differences between them
which may limit digital project teams’ efforts.
Our work is therefore designed to enable those
who work in such teams to recognise factors that
tend to predispose them to success, and perhaps
more importantly, to avoid those that may lead
to problematic interactions, and thus make the
project less successful than it might otherwise
have been.
1. Context
Traditionally, research contributions in the
humanities field have been felt to be, and
documented to be, predominantly solo efforts
by academics involving little direct collaboration
with others, a model reinforced through doctoral
studies and beyond (See, for example, Cuneo
2003; Newell and Swan 2000). However,
DL and DH communities are exceptions to
this. Given that the nature of digital projects
involves computers and a variety of skills
and expertise, collaborations in these fields
involve individuals within their institutions
and with others nationally and internationally.
Such collaboration typically must coordinate
efforts between academics, undergraduate
and graduate students, research assistants,
computer programmers and developers,
librarians, and other individuals as well as
financial and other resources. Further, as more
digital projects explore issues of long term
sustainability, academics and librarians are
likely to enter into more collaborations to ensure
this objective (Kretzschmar Jr. and Potter
2009).
Given this context, some research has been done
on the DL and DH (See, for example Liu and
Smith 2007; Ruecker and Radzikowska 2008;
Siemens 2009) communities as separate entities
(See, for example Johnson 2009; Liu, Tseng
and Huang 2005; Johnson 2005; Siemens et
al. 2009b), but little has been done on the
interaction between these two communities
when in collaboration. Tensions can exist in
academic research teams when the members
represent different disciplines and approaches
to team work (Birnbaum 1979; Fennel and
Sandefur 1983; Hara et al. 2003). Collaborations
can be further complicated when some team
members have more experience and training
in collaboration than other members, a case
which may exist with digital projects involving
librarians and archivists, who tend to have more
experience, and academics, who have tend to
have less. Ultimately, too little is known about

2
how these teams involving DL and DH members
collaborate and the types of support needed to
ensure project success.
2. Methods
This paper is part of a larger project
examining research teams within the DH and
DL communities, led by a team based in
Canada and England (For more details, see
Siemens et al. 2009a; Siemens et al. 2009b).
It draws upon results from interviews and
two surveys of the communities exploring
the individuals’ experiences in digital project
teams. The findings include a description of the
communities’ work patterns and relationships
and the identification of supports and research
preparation required to sustain research teams
(as per Marshall and Rossman 1999; McCracken
1988). A total of seven individuals were
interviewed and another 69 responded to the
two surveys.
3. Preliminary Findings
At the time of writing this proposal, final
data analysis of the surveys and interviews is
being completed. However, some preliminary
comparisons between the two communities can
be reported.
As a starting point, similarities exist among DL
and DH projects. First, digital projects are being
accomplished within teams, albeit relatively
small ones, as defined by budget and number of
individuals involved. Both communities report
that the scale and scope of digital projects
require individuals with a variety of skills and
expertise. Further, these collaborations tend
to operate without formal documentation that
outline roles, responsibilities, decision making
methods, and conflict resolution mechanisms.
The survey and interview respondents from
both communities report similar benefits
and challenges within their collaborations.
Finally, these teams rely heavily on email
and face-to-face interaction for their project
communications.
Some interesting differences between DL- and
DH-based teams exist and may influence
a digital project team’s effectiveness. First,
the DL respondents seem to have a greater
reliance on email as opposed to face-to-
face communications and tend to rate the
relative effectiveness of email higher than the
DH respondents. Several explanations may be
offered for this. According to survey results, DL
teams appear more likely to be located within
the same institution, which means that casual
interpersonal interaction may be more likely to
occur between team members than with groups
that are geographically dispersed, as many
DH teams are. For dispersed teams, meetings
need to be more deliberately planned, which
may mean a higher consciousness about the
importance of this kind of interaction and the
necessity to build this into project plans. Also,
given that many of the DL teams are within the
same organization, team members may be more
familiar with each other in advance of a project
start, meaning that more communication can be
done by email. Less time may need to be spent in
formal meetings developing work processes as is
the case with those teams whose members may
not have worked together on previous projects.
Second, a greater percentage of respondents
(42%) within the DH community indicated
that they “enjoyed collaboration” than the
DL respondents (18%). Comprising of more
academics, the DH community tends to
undertake more solitary work, and therefore
collaboration may be seen as a welcomed change
and may be a deliberate choice that they have
made to undertake this type of work. In contrast,
team work is more the norm for librarians
and archivists, and thus they may feel it is
an expected part of their jobs, rather than
a choice and welcomed activity. As a result,
members of these two communities approach
collaboration from two fundamentally different
positions, which must be understood from the
outset of a digital project in order to reduce
challenges and ensure success.
Further, differences in roles and perceived
status may complicate collaboration. Often,
tensions may exist between service
departments, such as libraries and computer
support, and the researcher, who is perceived
to have higher status (Warwick 2004). These
differences in perceived status can complicate
work process as those with lower status may
have difficultly directing those with perceived
higher status (Hagstrom 1964; Ramsay 2008;
Newell and Swan 2000).
The benefits to the DL and DH communities
will be several. First, the study contributes to","txt","2","",""
"1129","11","Any more Bids?: Automatic Processing and Segmentation of Auction Catalogs","1","This paper details work that has been conducted
through a collaborative project between JSTOR,
the Frick Collection and the Metropolitan
Museum of Art. This work, funded by
the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, was to
understand how auction catalogs can be best
preserved for the long term and made most
easily accessible for scholarly use. Auction
catalogs are vital for provenance research as
well as for the study of art markets and the
history of collecting. Initially a set of 1604
auction catalogs, over 100,000 catalog pages,
was digitised – these catalogs date from the 18
th
through the early 20
th
century.
An auction catalog is a structured set of records
describing items or lots offered for sale at an
auction. The lots are grouped into sections –
such as works by a particular artist, each of the
sections are then grouped into a particular sale –
this is the actual event that happened in the sale
room, and then these sales are grouped together
in the auction catalog. The auction catalog
document also generally includes handwritten
marginalia added to record other details about
the actual transaction such as the sale price and
the buyer.
A repository was constructed – this holds and
provides access to page images, optical character
recognition (OCR) text and database records
from the digitised auction catalogs. In addition a
website was created that provides public access
to the catalogs and automatically generated
links to other collections. This site offers the
ability to search and browse the collection and
allows users to add their own content to the site.
When searching a user may only be interested in
a single item within a larger catalog, therefore,
to facilitate searching the logical structure of
the catalog needs to be determined in order to
segment the catalog into items. The catalogs
are extremely variable in structure, format and
language, and there are no standard rules that
can divide the catalog into the lots, sections and
sales. Therefore, machine-learning techniques
are used to generate the segmentation rules
from a number of catalogs that have been
marked up by hand. These rules are then applied
to classify and segment the remaining catalogs.
The focus of this paper is the research
and creation of a system to automatically
process digitised auction catalog documents,
with the aim to automatically segment and
label entities within and create a logical
structure for each document. The catalogs
processed are in an XML format produced
from physical documents via an OCR process.
The segmentation and assignment of entity
types will facilitate, deep searching, browsing,
annotation and manipulation activities over the
collection. The ability to automatically label
previously unseen documents will enable the
production of other large scale collections where
the hand labelling of the collection content is
highly expensive or unfeasible.
The catalog, sale, section, lot model requires
that the content of the document be distributed
between these entities, which are themselves
distributed over the pages of the document.
Each line of text is assigned to a single entity,
whole entities may be contained within other
entities (a logical hierarchy), and a parent
entity may generate content both before and
after its child entities in the text sequence.
This hierarchical organisation differentiates
the problem of automatically labelling auction
catalog document content from other semantic
labelling tasks such as Part of Speech labelling
(Lafferty et al., 2001) or Named Entity
Recognition (McCallum and Li, 2003). In these
tasks the classes or states can be thought of
as siblings in the text sequence, rather than
as having hierarchical relationships. Hence, the
digitisation of auction catalog documents may
require a different set of procedures to that

2
applied to, for example, the digitisation of
Magazine collections (Yacoub et al., 2005) or
scholarly articles (Lawrence et al., 1999).
Although a particular document model is
assumed throughout this work, the theory
and tools detailed can be applied to arbitrary
document models that incorporate hierarchical
organisation of entities.
Techniques that are successfully applied
to other Natural Language Processing and
document digitisation tasks may be applied
to this problem. Specifically, we have
developed task appropriate feature extraction
and normalisation procedures to produce
parameterisations of catalog document content
suitable for use with statistical modelling
techniques. The statistical modelling technique
applied to these features, Conditional Random
Fields (CRFs) (Sutton and McCallum, 2007),
models the dependence structure between
the different states (which relate to the
logical entities in the document) graphically.
A diagrammatic representation of the auction
catalogue document model is given in figure 1a
and an example of a model topology that might
be derived from it is given in figure 1b. It should
be noted that CRFs are discriminative models,
rather than generative models like HMMs, a
property that may be advantageous when such
models are applied to NLP tasks (Lafferty et al.,
2001).
(a) Document data
(b) FST transition grammar
Figure 1: Document model for an auction catalog and a
Simple Finite State Transducer topology derived from it
Figure 2: FST transition grammar extended to
incorporate start and continue states for each entity type
The application of such techniques to
hierarchically structured documents requires
the logical structure of a document to be
recoverable from a simple sequence of state
labels. The basic transition grammar shown in
figure 1b is not appropriate for this task as it
is impossible to differentiate concurrent lines
of a single entity from concurrent lines from
two entities of the same type and relationships","txt","2","",""
"1130","11","Authorship Discontinuities of El Ingenioso Hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha as detected by Mixture-of- Experts","1","In the literary world, authorship of great novels
is like writing a great piece of music; while
there may never be a perfect way to determine
if someone wrote a particular work or not,
equations and algorithms have been developed
in information theory and statistics to help
those trying to discover the true authorship of
contested written works. Because no method is
perfect, using a set of methods on the same
works can be used to give high probabilities
of authorship. The JGAAP system houses
a collection of methods such as Histogram
Distance and Manhattan Distance and event sets
such as word bigrams and character trigrams
to allow users to perform multiple tests on
contested works to see if the supposed author is
actually the author by comparing samples from
both the contested author and other possible
authors.
We apply this framework and show a notable
discontinuity in the authorial style of the novel
El Ingenioso Hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha
,
better known as
Don Quijote
(or
Don Quixote
).
1. Background
While there have been skeptics and scholars
alike that have doubted Miguel de Cervantes
Saavadre's true authorship of the entirety of
Don Quijote
, no one had tested whether or not
Cervantes was in fact the true author of the
whole of
Don Quijote
. The purpose of using
the JGAAP system was to either give merit to
or disprove this theory. By comparing to other
authors who wrote works at about the same time
Don Quijote
was written, the JGAAP system
would test to see if the text that Cervantes
supposedly wrote was closer to the first volume
of
Don Quijote
or closer to other authors of the
same time period. If a definitive break could
be established between where the program
attributed Cervantes as the author and where
it did not, that would suggest either a major
style shift or the presence of another author
different from Cervantes, while no break at all
would suggest that Cervantes was in fact the true
author of the second volume of
Don Quijote
,
assuming that he was also the author of the first
volume.
2. Methods and Materials
For this authorship attribution, the program
JGAAP 4.0 was downloaded from
http://w
ww.jgaap.com
, developed by Patrick Juola at
Duquesne University. The
Don Quijote
text
used was acquired from Project Gutenburg
at
http://www.projectgutenburg.org
. The full
text of Don Quijote was then stripped of the
introductions and separated into chapters by
volume. The first volume was then set as
the basis for Miguel de Cervantes' original
authorship. Every third chapter, starting with
chapter three, was used as the base case for
Cervantes' work. Two other authors used for
comparison, Fransisco de Quevedo and Mateo
Alemán, were also used. Quevedo's,
Historia
de la vida del Buscón, llamado Don Pablos,
ejemplo de vagamundos y espejo de tacaños
and Alemán's Guzmán del Alfarache
were
also taken from Project Gutenburg and broken
into roughly the same number of chapter-
type sections as the number of chapters used
for Cervantes'
Don Quijote
. In order to make
sure that Cervantes' was actually the author
of volume one of
Don Quijote
, every chapter
not used in the base case was compared to the
base chapters, Quevedo's work, and Alemán's
work. Each test used JGAAP's Normalize
Whitespace, Strip Punctuation, and Unify Case
canonicizers on all of the documents. Five
event sets - Word, WordBiGram, WordTriGram,
WordTetraGram, and Word Length - were
all paired with nine analysis methods -
Camberra Distance, Cosine Distance, RN Cross
Entropy, Histogram Distance, Kullback Leibler
Divergence, Levenshtein Distance, Manhattan
Distance, KS Distance, and Naive Bayes

2
Classifier, for a total of 45 unique event set-
analysis methods. Once the first volume of
Cervantes' work was confirmed to be uniformly
Cervantes', volume two of
Don Quijote
was
tested in the same manner as the first volume in
order to provide an accurate analysis.
We apply a mixture-of-experts approach to the
evaluation of authorship. Each different method
is treated as a single ""expert"" in different aspects
of authorial style, and permitted to vote on
who (among the candidates) is the author of
any specific fragment. If all 45 test ""experts""
vote on Cervantes, we consider this to be strong
evidence supporting his authorship, while if only
5 or so of the 45 consider Cervantes to be
the most likely author, we consider this to be
evidence
against
.
3. Results
As a result of the analysis on the second volume
of
Don Quijote
, the JGAAP program indicated
that starting at chapter 6 Cervantes was not
the author. Out of the 45 tests run on each
chapter, the chapters in the first volume had
a mean of 37.54 occurrences of Cervantes as
the author with a standard deviation of .852.
The first five chapters of the second volume had
a mean of 36.50 occurrences of Cervantes as
the author with a standard deviation of 1.517.
Chapters 6-74 of the second volume, however,
had a mean of 4.90 occurrences of Cervantes
as the author with a standard deviation of
1.436. This radical shift in authorship means
either Cervantes completely shifted his writing
technique or he did not write the latter 69
chapters of the second volume of
Don Quijote
.
4. Discussion
While there are people who are skeptic about
the authorship of
Don Quijote
, nothing up until
now has given those claims any grounds other
than speculations based on inconsistencies
in the text. Although this analysis does not
guarantee that Cervantes did not write the last
69 chapters of the second volume, it does make
the probability of that claim much greater. This,
in part, is due to the fact that none of the
tests in JGAAP has been tested enough to show
that it will work for all documents. As further
analysis of the methods continues, the results
of the tests used in this authorship attribution
will most likely validate these results. As tests
and methods prove to not work, the analysis
will be redone with these tests omitted from the
analysis giving a more accurate result.","txt","2","",""
"1131","11","Building Dynamic Image Collections from Internet","1","People often want to collect and utilize free,
publicly available images on a given subject.
Image sharing systems such as Flickr store
billions of user-contributed images. While
such systems are designed to encourage user
contributions and sharing, they are not well-
organized collections on any given subject.
We propose an approach that systematically
harvest images from Internet and organize the
images into an evolving faceted classification.
We implemented a prototype to continuously
harvest the most popular images on Flickr
related to African American history, and
organize them into an evolving faceted
classification collaboratively maintained by
users. The same approach can be applied
to other digital humanities resources on the
Internet. The talk will elaborate the details of
technical design and prototype implementation,
and discuss evaluation results.
2. Introduction
Flickr hosted over 4 billion images as of
October 2009 and is growing by about 4
million pictures a day. Facebook hosted 15
billion photos and Imageshack hosted 20 billion
images as of April 2009. Other photo sharing
sites such as Picasa, Multiply and PhotoBucket
also host billions of images [Schonfeld, 2009].
In contrast, organized public domain image
collections are relatively scarce [Wikipedia:
'Public domain image resources']. The largest
public domain image repository, Wikimedia
Commons, reached 5 million images as of
September 2009.
It would greatly benefit the humanities
community if images in those image sharing
sites can be organized and utilized. We propose
an approach that systematically searches and
harvests images (actually the link to the
image and metadata, but not image itself)
from image sharing sites, and organizes the
images into a multi-faceted classification. The
data harvesting is performed on a continual
basis, and the classification evolves over time.
Besides automated programs, the approach
utilizes collaborative human efforts to improve
the quality of collection. We implemented a
prototype that builds a dynamic image collection
on African American History from the most
popular images on this subject on Flickr.com.
Our fundamental belief is that a large, diverse
group of people (students, teachers, etc.) can
do better than a small team of librarians or
editors in constructing a multimedia collection
at virtually no cost.
Note that not all the images on those sharing
sites are copyright-free or have a creative
commons license. However, most of the sites
allow other websites to directly link to their
images if the images are marked as public access
by their contributors, and if credits are properly
given. Our approach displays images through
embedded image URLs but does not download
the images from their original sources.
3. Related Work
Many are trying to utilize the images in fast-
growing photo sharing and social networking
sites. For example Getty Images, the leader in
stock photography, hires image editors to select
most popular Flickr images and obtain copyright
from individual contributors, then sells the
images for $5 per image (
http://www.gettyim
ages.com/
). Computer-graphics researchers at
the University of Washington have utilized Web
images to digitally reconstruct buildings in 3-
D. For example, based on 150,000 publicly
accessible Flickr pictures of Rome, the program
automatically re-created the Colosseum, Trevi
Fountain, and the outside and inside of St.
Peter's Basilica, among other Roman icons.
The technique can be used to make virtual-
reality experiences for tourism, auto-build cities

2
for video games and movies, or help digitally
preserve and study historic cities that are being
destroyed by human-caused or environmental
factors [Jaggard 2009].
Researchers have argued for building an
academic Flickr, or an academic photo sharing
site in general: a net-based service that would
enable faculty and researchers to post and
share images with scholarly value, either with
the general community, or pursuant to any
associated rights, to restricted-use populations
[P. Brantley's blog]. For example, a group at
Lewis & Clark College in Portland is in the
process of developing an educational collection
of contemporary ceramics images using the
photo sharing site Flickr [McWilliams 2008].
Our project attempts to build free, well-
organized topical images collections from the
images contributed by Internet users, to support
education or research objectives. While most
photo sharing systems support keyword-based
search utilizing user-contributed metadata,
none of them support browsable hierarchies
that allow users to explore a given subject
in depth. Using librarians or images editors
to manually construct a topical collection is
cost prohibitive, and unfeasible if the collection
needs to keep up with rapidly growing data
sources. Our collection-construction approach
combines the collaborative concepts of wiki
and social tagging systems with automated
classification techniques. Our system allows
users to collaboratively build a classification
schema with multi-faceted categories, and to
classify documents into this schema. Utilizing
users’ manual efforts as training data, the
system’s automated techniques build a faceted
classification that evolves with the growing
collection, the expanding user base, and the
shifting user interests.
4. Architecture and Prototype
Implementation
Our collection construction approach is
summarized in Figure 1. The system first
collects images (links and metadata such as
tags) on a given topic using keyword search,
utilizing the APIs (Application Programming
Interface) provided by image sharing sites or
search engines. For the initial collection, a
group of experts or administrators create the
initial classification schema and classify a set
of images into the initial schema. Utilizing
experts’ classifications as training data, and also
Wordnet and Wikipedia as knowledge bases,
the system employs automated techniques
(heuristic matching rules and support vector
machine-based classifiers) to classify images
into the classification schema. In a wiki fashion,
users of the image collection can modify
and improve the classification schema, and
manually classify items into the schema. Users
can also assign additional tag or annotations to
image objects. Utilizing the additional metadata
from users’ tagging and annotation efforts and
by analyzing users’ classification/usage history,
the system refines both the classification schema
and the item-category associations. The system
continues to collect and classify images to stay
up-to-date with external image sources.
Figure 1. Systematic approach of constructing
a topical collection using Internet images.
We built a prototype to construct an image
collection on African American History from
Flickr. By querying “African American History”
in the search field, we extracted metadata
for all the images in the result pages: title,
url, description, tags, and the contributor. The
initial collection contained about 11,000 Flickr
images on African American History. Over 3
months the collection has grown to contain
about 13,000 images. During the conference we
will elaborate the details of technical design,
prototype implementation, and the evaluation
results. Figure 2 shows the browsing and
classification interfaces of our prototype.","txt","2","",""
"1132","11","Capturing Visitor Experiences for Study and Preservation","1","The Courtauld Gallery occupies a unique
position in central London as a university art
museum and key facilitator for collaborative
opportunities between research academics and
curatorial practitioners. Given the context of
the gallery as an institution housed within a
building not purpose-built for the function of
exhibition, the ways in which the gallery space
acts as a directive on visitors’ viewing patterns
is of particular interest. This paper introduces
a methodology of documenting and visualizing
those patterns.
The research is approached from the perspective
of a performance specialist (Guy), investigating
the curated gallery as a place for performance
and the visitors’ role within such exhibition
spaces. This has led to the generation
of questions vital to new methodological
approaches for exploring data only existent in
the form of events, and to future processes of
gallery operation and evaluation.
This paper focuses on the empirical aspects of
this work, reporting on a project to create digital
objects, displayable in Virtual World platforms
such as Google Earth, from the experience
of visitors to the Courtauld Gallery, London.
The digital objects consist of visualisations in
virtual space and time of visitor experiences,
documented in KML, and represented using the
Google Earth platform.
1. Studying Visitor Experiences
To date, the evaluation of exhibitions has
largely been based on attendance numbers,
with very little attention given to actual
visitor behaviours within gallery environments.
Traditionally, where visitor behaviours have
been observed, methods for achieving this
have been based on pen and paper recording
using methods such as those developed by
Space Syntax (Space Syntax, 2010). Capturing
this data in digital form will allow a more
thorough and formal analysis of the ‘success’ of
exhibitions by permitting the replay in both time
and virtual space of visitors’ behaviours and
their interaction with staff, other visitors, and
gallery exhibition materials. More specifically,
we are concerned with:
-
patterns of movement within gallery spaces
-
specific pathways constructed by individual
visitors through the museum
-
duration of engagement with individual
exhibits
-
actions and interactions of gallery visitors
This information makes possible an analysis
of how visitors explore exhibitions that is
not preconceived but observed. Anonymous
representations of visitor behaviours can
be offered back to the gallery prompting
curatorial assumptions to be validated or, where
appropriate, reconsidered in light of evidential
data about real patterns of visitor behaviour.
This, in turn, can have important implications
for maximizing public engagement within
exhibition contexts and ensuring efficiency
of interaction between staff and visitors, as
well as other aspects of social and economic
exchange. Using geovisualization techniques
to generate the interactive maps based on
individual experience raises questions about
how possible it is to produce and manage the
documentation of human behaviour.
2. Technological and
Methodological Issues
Ideally, visitors would be totally oblivious to
the data capture process or at least, such
technological means as are necessary for
capture would be non-intrusive. The demands
of the research problem require high fidelity of

2
location, orientation, and behaviour making the
technological issues more complex than simply
determining approximate location. Borriello et
al. (2005) report that GPS systems do not work
reliably inside buildings, wi-fi systems require
calibration and achieve accuracy of only about
3 metres, and others require infrastructure
installation. This is rarely possible in protected
buildings such as the Courtauld, especially
on a temporary basis. Consequently, the
method described below was developed (related
approaches will be discussed in presentation).
A pilot study was carried out prior to the main
observation period in the Courtauld’s Frank
Auerbach exhibition (Courtauld Gallery, 2009).
3. Data Capture Method
The method used is predominantly based
on field observation in two forms. These
approaches are influenced by the observation
methods used by Space Syntax, a company with
an established history of evidence-based design
and evaluation for buildings and urban spaces.
Space Syntax observations are undertaken using
pen and paper.
The first method involves a human observer
tracking the movement pattern of visitors
around parts of the gallery in order to observe
particularized routes specific to individual
visitors. This is facilitated by the use of Tablet
PCs and custom-developed software which
displays an editable floor plan of the gallery,
divided into map tiles based on the gallery
rooms. In the case of the Courtauld, the map
tiles are 610x365 pixels. The actual room size
in the pilot is approximately 1290.5cm x 772cm
= 12.9x7.7m. By moving the digital pen around
the image the pathway of an individual can
be recorded on the map and the movement
documented with an x,y pixel reference and a
timestamp. Duration and location are recorded
both when the visitor is moving and stationary.
Additional coding concerning, for example,
the activity undertaken at any given moment,
such looking at a map or signage or taking a
photograph, can also be coded against points on
each pathway.
The second method involves participants being
asked to complete an exit questionnaire
detailing their familiarity with the specific
gallery and exhibits as well as more general
experience of exhibition environments. This
information is cross-referenced to the trace of
each visitor’s pathways.
A screenshot from the software can be seen
in Figure 1, showing a gallery floorplan with a
partial trace. Figure 2 shows the simple comma
separated values (CSV) data produced by the
trace activity in realtime (the fields being
X
,
Y
,
timestamp
,
visitor activity
, and
map file used
).
The system defaults to tracking movement as
the pen is drawn across the screen, however, the
observer can simply switch the “mode” of the
current point by selecting one of the buttons to
the right. Where data about interaction with an
exhibit is necessary, the point of the observee’s
interest can be noted by simply pointing at
it on the diagram after selecting either “Sign”
or “Exhibit” as the object of interest. The
final system was developed in Borland Turbo
Delphi with early prototyping undertaken in
Processing.
For the Courtauld case study, the maps are
scaled such that 1 pixel is approximately 2cm2
of real gallery space. The maps are converted
from architectural plans and the location and
size of furniture in the gallery included from
measurement in the galleries themselves. Visitor
location is recorded as a relative pixel position
from the top left corner of the image. After
capture this data can be transformed to generate
real visitor positions in the room for subsequent
visualisation.
Figure 1: Screenshot from Data Capture Application","txt","2","",""
"1133","11","Challenges of Linking Digital Heritage Scientific Data with Scholarly Research: From Navigation to Politics","1","The Library of Congress has expanded its
digital spectral imaging research of humanities
artefacts that reflect the history of the United
States, with the development of advanced
imaging techniques that provide data for
the studies of manuscripts that span the
centuries: Portolan Charts – from 1320-1633,
Jefferson’s handwritten draft of the Declaration
of Independence from 1776, and Herblock’s
political cartoons from 1929-2001. Using
standardized digital imaging techniques, the
Library of Congress Preservation Directorate is
providing preservation scientists, conservators
and humanities scholars with access to
digital information on historic and fragile
documents with conservation-safe, non-
destructive technologies. This provides data for
greater understanding of the original object,
including revealing creation techniques, and
identifying the origin of the substrate (paper,
parchment) and media. The Library plans to
host this data in standardized format for access
as part of a broader preservation database of
scientific reference materials of naturally-aged
substrate, media (inks, colorants and pigments),
treatment effects, environmental data and other
document production and creation information.
These recent advances in technology and
digital access have paved the way for the
improved utilization and interpretation of
scientific analyses to contribute to scholarly
interpretations of heritage materials.
1. Integration of Imaging and Data
Management for Discovery
The Library of Congress has implemented digital
spectral imaging of the following objects to
collect preservation data, scholarly information
and a cross-section of data on cultural heritage
old and new:
-
Portolan Navigational Charts:
1
Imaging is
being used to non-destructively characterize a
range of pigments, details of compass points,
creation techniques and tools, and potential
palimpsest information.
-
The handwritten draft of the Declaration
of Independence:
2
Hyperspectral imaging
revealed layers of changes and different inks,
and offered new insights into the original
Jefferson text that was crossed out and
overwritten.
-
Herblock Political Cartoons:
3
A selection of
the large original drawings were spectrally
imaged to assess the condition of light
sensitive inks, also revealing details of the
drawings not previously discovered.
The application of digital hyperspectral imaging
and associated non-destructive technical
analyses to key cultural objects at the
Library of Congress required the integration
of complementary data to address a wide
range of preservation and scholarly challenges.
The advanced imaging data is incorporated
into ongoing humanities studies of objects,
generating digitally linked data sets in
standardized format for Internet access. The
non-destructive imaging capabilities allow
researchers to characterize pigments and media
on the artefact, retrieve hidden and lost
text, and illuminate production methods of a
range of cultural objects. Characterization of a
range of materials has been enhanced through
the development of a standardized spectral
reference sample set, virtually eliminating
the need for any sampling. Integration of
the data from these technological advances
with information from other preservation
studies, allows greater scholarly access to
the information available from fragile historic
documents on parchment and paper.
Application of non-destructive imaging
techniques allows the equivalent of optical","txt","2","",""
"1134","11","Character Encoding and Digital Humanities in 2010 - An Insider's View","1","The world of character encoding in 2010
has changed significantly since TEI began
in 1987, thanks to the development and
adoption of Unicode (/ISO/IEC 10646) as the
international character encoding standard for
the electronic transmission of text. In December
2008, Unicode overtook all other encodings on
the Web, surpassing ASCII and the Western
European encodings (Davis 2009). As a result,
Unicode’s position seems to be increasingly
well-established, at least on the Web, and TEI
was prescient to advocate its use.
Over 100,000 characters are now defined
with Unicode 5.2, including significant Latin
additions for medievalists, a core set of Egyptian
hieroglyphs, and characters for over 75 scripts.
As such, Unicode presents a vast array of
character choices for the digital humanist, so
many that it can be difficult to figure out which
character – if any – is the appropriate one to
use. When working on a digital version of a Latin
text that contains Roman numerals, should text
encoder use U+2160 ROMAN NUMERAL ONE
or U+0049 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I? Should
one use the duplicate ASCII characters that are
located at U+FF01ff. (and why were they ever
approved)? These types of questions can create
confusion for text encoders.
The process of approving new characters by the
Unicode Technical Committee and the relevant
ISO committee is intended to be open, meaning
that scholars, representatives of companies and
national bodies, and other individuals may make
proposals and, to a certain extent, participate in
the process. Yet which characters get approved
– and which don’t – can still be baffling. On the
TEI-list, one member wrote on 1 August 2009:
""What is and isn't represented in unicode is
largely a haphazard mishmash of bias, accident
and brute-force normalisation. Unicode would
be dreadful, if it weren't for the fact that all the
alternatives are much worse.""
This paper addresses the question of which
characters get approved and which don’t, by
examining the forces at work behind the scenes,
issues about which digital humanists may not
be aware. This talk, by a member of the two
standards committees on coded character sets,
is meant to give greater insight into character
encoding today, so that the character encoding
standard doesn’t seem like a confusing set
of decisions handed down from a faceless
group of non-scholars. Specific examples of the
issues will be given and the talk will end with
suggestions so that digital humanists, armed
with such information, will feel more confident
in putting forward proposals for needed, eligible
characters.
The Unicode Technical Committee (UTC) is
one of the two standards committees that
must approve all new characters. Since it is
composed primarily of industry representatives,
technical discussion often predominates at
meetings, including the question of whether
given characters (or scripts) can be supported
in current font technology and in software. For
the academic, the question of whether a given
character (or script) can be implemented in
current fonts/software is not one commonly
considered, and wouldn’t necessarily be known,
unless they attended the UTC meetings in
person. Also, the acceptance of characters can be
based on current Unicode policy or precedence
of earlier encoding decisions, which again is
often not known to outsiders. How to handle
historical ligatures, for example, has been
discussed and debated within UTC meetings,
but since the public minutes of the UTC do not
include the discussion surrounding a character
proposal, it may appear that the UTC is blind
to scholars’ concerns, which is frequently not
the case. In order to have a good chance at
getting a proposal approved in the UTC, it is
hence important for scholars to work with a
current member of the UTC who can trouble-
shoot proposals and act as an advocate in
the meetings, as well as explain concerns of
the committee and the reasoning behind their
decisions.
The ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2 Working Group 2, a
working group on coded character sets, is the
second group that must approve characters.

2
This group is composed of national standards
body representatives. Unlike the UTC, the
WG2 is not primarily technical in nature,
as it is a forum where national standards
bodies can weigh in on character encoding
decisions. This group is more of a “United
Nations” of character encoding, with politics
playing a role. Discussion can, for example,
involve the names of characters and scripts,
which can vary by language and country, thus
causing disagreement among member bodies.
Like the other International Organization for
Standardization groups, decisions are primarily
done by consensus (International Organization
for Standardization, ""My ISO Job: Guidance
for delegates and experts"", 2009). This means
that within WG2, disagreements amongst
members can stall a particular character or
script proposal from being approved. For
example, a proposal for an early script used in
Hungary is currently held up in WG2, primarily
because there is disagreement between the
representatives from Austria (and Ireland)
and the representative from Hungary over
the name. To the scholar, accommodating
national standards body positions when making
encoding decisions may seem like unnecessary
interference from the political realm. Still,
diplomatic concerns need to be taken into
account in order for consensus to be reached
so proposals can be approved. Again, having
the support of one’s national body is a key
to successfully getting a character proposal
approved.
Since WG2 is a volunteer standards organization
within ISO, it relies on its members
to review proposals carefully, and submit
feedback. Unfortunately, many scholars don’t
participate in ISO, partly because it involves
understanding the international standard
development process, as well as a long-term
commitment – the entire approval process
can take at least two years. Another factor
that may explain the lack of regular academic
involvement is that scholars participating
in standards work typically do not receive
professional credit. Because there is not
much expert involvement in WG2 to review
documents (perhaps even fewer experts than
in the UTC), errors can creep in. For
many of the big historic East Asian script
proposals, for example, only a small handful
of people are reviewing the documents, which
is worrisome. The recently addition of CJK
characters (“Extension C”), which has 4,149
characters, could have benefited from more
scholarly review. Clearly there remains a critical
need for specialists to become involved in the
ISO Working Group 2, so as to prevent the
inclusion of errors in future versions of the
character encoding standard.
Besides the activity within each separate
standards group, there are developments
affecting both standards groups that may
not be known to digital humanists, but
which influence character encoding. New rules
have recently been proposed within ISO, for
example, which will slow the pace at which
new characters and scripts are approved by
ISO and published in
The Unicode Standard
(ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2 meeting, 2009). The new
rules will severely impact new character
requests. Another example of activity affecting
digital projects, particularly those using East
Asian characters, was the announcement in
October 2009 by the Japanese National
Body that it has withdrawn its request
for 2,621 rare ideographs (“gaiji” characters)
(Japan [National Body], “Follow-up on N3530
(Compatibility Ideographs for Government
Use)”, 2009), instead opting to register
them in the Ideographic Variation Database,
a Unicode Consortium-hosted registry of
variation sequences that contain unified
ideographs (Unicode Consortium, ""Ideographic
Variation Databse"", 2009). The use of variation
selectors is a different approach than that
advocated in the TEI P5 for “gaiji” characters
(TEI P5 Guidelines: ""5. Representation of
Non-standard Characters and Glyphs""), but is
one that should be mentioned in future
TEI
Guidelines
as an alternative.
1
In order to keep
apprised of developments within the standards
groups, a liaison between TEI and the Unicode
Consortium (and/or ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2) would
be advisable, as the activities of Unicode (/ISO)
can influence TEI recommendations.
In sum, the process of character encoding is
one that ultimately involves people making
decisions. Being aware of the interests and
backgrounds of each standard group and their
members can help explain what appears to
be a spotty set of characters in Unicode.
Keeping up-to-date on developments within the
committees can also provide insight into why","txt","2","",""
"1135","11","Codifica digitale e semiotica della cultura: un esperimento","1","1. Inquadramento teorico
L'incontro fra semiotica e teoria della
rappresentazione del testo digitale è stato più
volte annunciato (Andersen, 1997; Piez, 2007),
ma fino ad oggi non si è mai concretizzato
in analisi e proposte concrete. È tempo di
riprendere in mano la questione e in questo
contributo lo faremo partendo da alcuni
presupposti teorici per poi illustrare un caso di
studio: la traduzione inglese-italiano e poi la
codifica XML di una ballata folk irlandese. Come
vedremo nell'esempio la pratica delle traduzione
interlinguistica e quella della rappresentazione
digitale presentano vari punti in comune.
La codifica, al pari della traduzione, è un
atto interpretativo (vedi schema sotto). Se
tradurre interlinguisticamente significa dare
forma alla realtà attraverso una lingua
naturale che è, nelle parole di Lotman,
un 'sistema modellizzante primario' (Lotman,
1970), codificare è un'attività analoga, che
coinvolge un altro sistema di segni. Nel caso
da noi preso in esame allora il linguaggio di
markup può essere considerato un 'sistema
modellizzante secondario' (cf. Fiormonte, 2008:
294-295). L'XML, metalinguaggio descrittivo e
dichiarativo, si affranca quindi dalla tradizionale
concezione semiotica che relega il medium
di comunicazione a un ruolo marginale, per
diventare anch'esso strumento produttore di
senso. Il documento digitale infatti, e ancora
di più un insieme strutturato di documenti
digitali – biblioteca, mediateca, ecc. –, si inscrive
nel dominio delle auto-descrizioni di una
cultura: 'La differenza essenziale tra l'evoluzione
culturale e l'evoluzione naturale sta nel
ruolo attivo delle autodescrizioni, nell'influenza
esercitata sull'oggetto dalle rappresentazioni
dello stesso' (Lotman and Uspenskij, 2006: 152).
Ciò vuol dire, nel nostro caso, che il documento
digitale svolge un doppio ruolo di testimone
attivo: sia come 'documento' (che può incarnarsi
in diversi formati (PDF, HTML, ecc.) sia in
quanto 'rappresentazione' (cf. Buzzetti, 2006:
55). Ci sembra chiaro quali siano le influenze
di una siffatta procedura, giacché la codifica
digitale è un tipo di auto-descrizione che è in
grado di 'definire' la natura di un documento nel
momento in cui lo 'descrive'.
Riassumendo dunque la codifica digitale
di un documento può essere considerata
un
knowledge-shaping process
costituito da
quattro dimensioni interagenti:
-
Trascrizione
; processo di selezione 'relying
on conventions and reflecting theoretical
goals and definitions' (Duranti, 2006: 302);
-
Traduzione
; processo di appropriazione e
adattamento al sistema semiotico di arrivo
(Lotman, 1985: 113-129);
-
Interpretazione
; processo ermeneutico di
creazione di nuova conoscenza attraverso
strumenti di esplicitazione formale (Orlandi,
1990: 26-27);
-
Modellizzazione
; qui il termine può essere
inteso in una duplice accezione: a) in
senso semiotico-culturale come processo di
costruzione di
device
meta culturali (Lotman
and Uspenskij 2006); b) come processo
di costruzione di un modello euristico
del documento, operazione preliminare a
qualsiasi trattamento informatico (Gigliozzi,
1997).
Nessuno di questi livelli può essere considerato
a sé e l'ordine di questa lista risponde solo a una
comodità espositiva.
2. Traduzione e codifica come
processi culturali
Lingue e testi interagiscono all'interno di
quel delicato processo generatore di senso
che è la traduzione e che nella prospettiva
indicata da Lotman consideriamo come concetto
di 'confine', luogo di trasmissione e di
trasformazione della memoria. Come scrive
Lotman, l'attività culturale consiste nel 'tradurre
un certo settore della realtà in una delle lingue

2
della cultura, trasformarlo in un testo, cioè in
una informazione codificata in un certo modo,
introdurre questa informazione nella memoria
collettiva' (Lotman, 1970; trad. it. 1975, 25-35).
Partendo da tali premesse, abbiamo sviluppato
l' analisi in due prospettive convergenti.
La prima ci ha portato a elaborare
una traduzione interlinguistica dall'inglese
all'italiano di una ballata folk irlandese
sull'Easter Rising (cfr. frammento in Tabella 1),
la rivolta del 1916 contro il dominio britannico.
Al livello macro-strutturale dei rapporti fra i
due sistemi-lingua, abbiamo optato per una
traduzione
source oriented
, che conservasse
le differenze culturali, senza quindi incorrere
in distorsioni. Sottoscriviamo l'idea di Jurj
Lotman e Peter Torop (Lotman, 1984; trad.
it. 1985; Torop, 1995) sulla traduzione come
appropriazione di una cultura altra, come
processo di arricchimento, di integrazione,
piuttosto che di assorbimento livellante. Al
livello micro-strutturale dell'analisi semiotica
del prototesto abbiamo applicato le nozioni della
semiotica culturale, in particolare i concetti
di 'semiosfera' e 'confine', mettendo in luce
le dinamiche conflittuali che possono scaturire
quando due culture entrano in concorrenza per
affermare ciascuna il proprio sistema di senso.
La semiosfera irlandese (vedi Fig. 1; tag 'sem-
irl') e quella britannica (Fig. 1; tag 'sem-brit')
sono cerchi dalla cui intersezione scaturisce la
sfera semiotica della guerra Anglo-Irlandese,
delimitata dalle figure di confine che sono i
protagonisti della
ballad
, ossia i rivoluzionari
che combatterono per l'indipendenza.
Ritornello tratto dalla
versione originale della ballad
Freedom's Sons
Versione tradotta
I Figli della
Libertà
They were the men with a
vision, the men with a cause
The men who defied their
oppress's laws The men who
traded their chains for guns
Born into slav'ry, they were
Freedom's Sons
Erano uomini con un sogno,
uomini con un motivo per
combattere Uomini che
sfidarono le leggi dei loro
oppressori Uomini che
barattarono le loro catene con
le pistole Nati schiavi, erano i
Figli della Libertà
Tabella 1. Frammento della ballata
Easter Rising con relativa traduzione.
Il secondo passaggio è consistito nella
traduzione metalinguistica, ovvero la codifica
della ballata usando lo schema XML-TEI
(Burnard and Sperberg-McQueen 1995). A
monte del lavoro del filologo digitale stanno
le scelte pragmatiche circa gli elementi testuali
da marcare, e il linguaggio di markup obbliga
a esplicitare tali scelte, motivandole. In virtù
di tali analogie, per indicare il processo di
digitalizzazione, possiamo adoperare l'etichetta
di
traduzione di secondo livello
. Al posto della
codifica delle fasi di stesura, con tanto di analisi
critica alle modifiche operate dall'autore della
canzone, si è optato per una codifica della
canzone che marcasse le nostre interpretazioni
del testo. Abbiamo così adattato la DTD
della TEI inserendo all' interno dei tag che
descrivono la struttura sintattica un valore che
rimanda alla funzione narrativa dell'occorrenza
e alla semiosfera cui essa appartiene. Per
esempio nella Fig. 1., rigo 15, 'ana= fig-
enf sem-irl sem-rising ref-prot', riferito a
the
men
, dichiara la natura retorico-enfatica dell'
occorrenza e la sua funzione narrativa di
protagonista della diegesi. Inoltre, il valore 'sem-
irl' rimanda alla semiosfera di appartenenza
irlandese, mentre 'sem-rising' sta ad indicare
che i rivoluzionari sono i promotori della lotta (la
terza sfera di senso) e al contempo agiscono da
traduttori sul confine poroso delle due macro-
sfere intersecanti. Per converso, al rigo 17,
troviamo il riferimento agli
oppressors
, antieroi
e protagonisti della semiosfera britannica. In
conclusione dunque si modifica il ruolo del
codificatore: da traduttore delle scelte autoriali
nell'ambito del processo di scrittura, a co-
artefice del testo, poiché nella codifica immette
la sua personale interpretazione del brano.
Figura 1
È questa solo una prima ipotesi, utile
nel caso in cui di un oggetto di studio
si intendano offrire tante codifiche quante
sono le prospettive di analisi adoperate,
le figure di specialisti coinvolte, ecc. A
una digitalizzazione del processo compositivo
tradizionalmente diacronica, verrebbe quindi
accostata una resa metalinguistica delle sue","txt","2","",""
"1136","11","Contexts, Narratives, and Interactive Visual Analysis of Names in the Japanese Hyohanki Diary","1","Visualization tools for the discipline of history
are being used increasingly. Historians can
explore their efficacy as both educational
instruments and platforms for displaying
research findings. In order to obtain patterns
of significance, historian’s work involves
manipulating, memorizing, and analyzing
substantial quantities of information from the
series of documents at their disposal. In
so doing, a central purpose emerges: the
construction of a narrative that best fits into the
representation of the past.
Visualization tools have proved to be effective
for facilitating users’ analytical tasks (Heer et al.,
2008; Heer et al., 2009; Weizhong and Chen,
2007, James and Cook, 2005). Moreover, they
have proved to be fruitful in the context of the
digital humanities (Bonnet, 2004; Dalen-Oskam
and Zundert, 2004). Recently, we proposed
a visualization system for analyzing aristocrat
names in a Japanese historical diary called
Hyohanki (Toledo et al., 2009). In our system,
the stacked graph is utilized to analyze the time
series of those names. Stacked graphs, stacking
time series on top of each other, are a useful
method to time series visualization, resulting
in a visual summation of time series values
that provides an aggregate view stratified by
individual series. Projects such as NameVoyager
(Wattenberg et al., 2005) and sense.us (Heer
et al., 2009) used animated stacked graphs to
explore demographic data.
In this paper, to preserve contexts through
the stacked graph usage, we propose an
extension of our previous work. Our system
provides two functionalities: an interaction
control for saving, querying, and deleting
views, as well as a dynamic repository of
views representing the context of the stacked
graph usage. Keeping useful contexts facilitates
coherent narratives (Bonnet, 2004). To support
historians’ efforts in keeping contexts through
interactive visual analysis of time series, both
functionalities aim at recording how users
receive units of information appropriated to
construct narratives.
To analyze the end-user perception of our
system, we conducted a heuristic evaluation
(Nielsen, 1992) with a domain expert who
explored the data using the tool. This heuristic
evaluation was a form of user study in which
the expert reviewed the system to suggest
advantages and disadvantages against the new
functionalities. This approach helps to further
elucidate the requirements and how the system
meets experts’ needs. The results provide useful
guidance for highlighting known historical facts
as well as hints to unknown historical facts.
1. Methodology
Our visualization system is based on a time
series set containing the quantitative analysis
of name occurrences in the Hyohanki diary.
The set contains 121 time series in a timescale
spanning from 1132 to 1171. Some parts of
the diary suffer from missing data; for that
reason, that period includes only the years 1132,
1139, 1149, 1152-1158 and 1166-1171. Likewise,
the data has been normalized in order to
measure the percentage relative value of the
number of occurrences of a given name, in
a given year, with the total percentage of
that year. Additionally, using the Euclidean
distance metric, we calculated the trends'
similarity between time series. For each name,
we recorded their five most similar trends.
The method used to visualize the data is
straightforward. Given a set of aristocrat names’
time series, a stacked graph is produced (Fig.
1a). The x axis corresponds to year and the y
axis to the occurrence ratio — in percentage, as","txt","2","",""
"1137","11","Crossing the Boundary: Exploring the Educational Potential of Social Networking Sites","1","To date, the scholarship on social networking
sites (SNSs) such as Facebook and MySpace has
focused largely on areas other than pedagogy,
with Boyd and Ellison (2007) observing
that so far, most SNS research has centred
on “impression management and friendship
performance, networks and network structure,
online/offline connections, and privacy issues”.
Some work has been done on the effect of
instructor presence on Facebook (Hewitt and
Forte, 2006; Mazer et al., 2007; Szwelnik,
2008), the creation of MySpace pages in terms
of the acquisition of new forms of digital literacy
(Perkel, 2008), and some of the difficulties
and benefits of SNSs for university students
(Thelwall, 2008). Aside from this, however,
there is little scholarship on the educational
uses and potential of SNSs at university level.
As Szwelnik (2008) comments, ‘Facebook has
attracted a lot of attention from media and
business but not yet a lot of attention from
educational researchers’.
It is perhaps not surprising that it is the
social aspects of these sites that have attracted
the most critical attention, given that their
central purpose is understood to be the
management and navigation of (often pre-
existing) relationships, rather than a means
by which to share interests, complete tasks,
or simply communicate with others (Boyd
and Ellison, 2007; OFCOM, 2008). However,
given that the social dimension of education
is a fundamental to learning, it is worth
exploring how SNSs may be used to pedagogical
advantage. This is particularly the case given
the large proportion of university students that
access the sites: Ellison et al. (2007) found
that 94% of the undergraduate population at
Michigan State University were members, while
a 2007 Ipsos Mori poll found that 95% of British
undergraduates are regular users (Shepherd,
2008). SNSs, it would seem, are a resource
not yet being used to their full potential for
university teaching.
This paper reports on the findings of a
research project designed to address the under-
utilisation of SNSs at university level and the
corresponding gap in the literature. Undertaken
with students in the School of Languages,
Linguistics and Film at Queen Mary, University
of London, it investigates the educational
potential of Facebook for facilitating informal
learning with students on their year abroad,
particularly in the domain of intercultural
awareness and communication. Events held in
previous years demonstrated the usefulness of
bringing language students together in face-
to-face contexts to reflect on their own and
others’ diverse experiences of the year abroad.
This project set up an online space on an
SNS to facilitate this kind of learning through
a peer mentoring framework, and to allow
discussions of this sort to occur regularly during
the students’ time abroad, rather than after it
was over.
Undergraduate students in their second and
final year of a language course were surveyed
about their attitude towards the year abroad,
their use of technology and SNSs, and, following
Ellison et al. (2007), their affective investment
in SNSs. Two different populations were
surveyed: second year students organising their
year abroad for the following year, and final
year students who had returned from their year
abroad. The results were used to develop focus
group protocols to gauge students’ receptivity
to the idea of using Facebook to carry out
course-related discussions, to judge the extent to
which Facebook was a hospitable environment
for peer mentoring to occur, and to determine
which Facebook applications would best assist
with educational objectives. Students were also
asked about which aspects of the year abroad
they were already using Facebook to engage
with, and which elements of their time away
could be ameliorated through provision of a
virtual meeting place for discussion. Several
peer mentors were then chosen from the cohort
who had already completed a year abroad,
and these students were trained in online
moderating and mentoring. A Facebook group
was set up for the student mentors to use, and

2
this was observed over a period of three months.
Following this, four methods of evaluation
were used to measure the effectiveness of the
Facebook group: a) an online survey for third-
year students currently on their year abroad;
b) informal discussions with academic staff
in modern languages; c) interviews with the
peer mentors held at a computer; and d) close
analysis and corpus analysis of the text of the
online discussions.
Paul and Brier (2001) and Cummings et
al. (2006) have explored how students of
university age use Facebook and other internet
technologies to alleviate the “friendsickness”
brought about by moving away from one’s
friends. This project aimed to capitalise on
the powerful ability of SNSs to address this
relational need by drawing students into
online conversations and collaborations that
not only helped them to sustain relationships
but also to use those relationships to learn
from one another. However, existing research
points to a strong resistance from university
students to academics occupying “their” space
on an SNS, something Szwelnik terms “crossing
the boundary” (2008). Hewitt and Forte
(2003) observe that identity management is
a significant concern for SNS users when
the roles they occupy cross perceived social
boundaries and bring organizational power
relationships into visibility, citing one student’s
fears that Facebook could “unfairly skew
a professor's perception of a student in a
student environment”. Given that both social
boundaries and uneven power relationships
both come into play in the context of teacher-
led discussions around course-related material,
the project sought to find a way to build a
learning community without infringing on a
space perceived not to belong to academic
staff, and to shift the discursive content from
social to educational without forcing students
to “cross the boundary”. In working with
peer mentors, the project aimed not only to
avoid these boundary-crossing problems but
also to work intentionality into the fabric of
the Facebook group. As Woods and Ebersole
(2003) observe, transforming textual exchanges
into a learning community with a positive
social dynamic requires intentional decisions
in the realm of both verbal and nonverbal
communication, so student mentors needed to
be made acquainted with the learning objectives
for the educational context, and carefully trained
in techniques of e-moderation to overcome
the challenges a mediated environment can
pose to productive discussions. This approach
also had the advantage of being, to an extent,
futureproofed: students were more likely than
academic staff to know which technologies are
most popular with their peers, and once a
framework for online mentoring is established,
this could be moved in future years to different
sites or applications as students’ usage patterns
change. A further advantage of this model is that
it equips the student mentors with the digital
literacy and communication skills to operate
in the kinds of virtual environments that, as
knowledge workers, they are likely to inhabit in
their careers.
In summarising the results of this study, this
paper will report on the benefits of using an
SNS to support informal learning in the context
of students on a year abroad, and set out
approaches that universities can take to promote
learning more generally through the use of
SNSs. It uses tools from the Internet Community
Text Analyzer (
http://textanalytics.net/
) to
visualise the networks that developed between
students on the site, and to identify productive
models of SNS-mediated student mentoring
behaviour.
References
Boyd, D. M., Ellison, N. B.
(2007). 'Social Network Sites: Definition,
History, and Scholarship'.
Journal of
Computer-Mediated Communication.
13(1)
:
210-230.
http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol13/issu
e1/boyd.ellison.html
(accessed 19 September
2008).
Cummings, J., Lee, J., Kraut, R.
(2006).
'Communication Technology and Friendship
During the Transition from High School to
college'.
Computers, Phones, and the Internet:
Domesticating Information Technology.
Kraut,
R. E., Brynin, M., Kiesler, S. (eds.). New York:
Oxford University Press, pp. pp. 265-278.
Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C.,
Lampe, C.
(2007). 'The Benefits of
Facebook ""Friends:"" Social Capital and
College Students' Use of Online Social","txt","2","",""
"1138","11","Deeper Delta Across Genres and Languages: Do We Really Need the Most Frequent Words?","1","In 2007, John Burrows identified three regions
in word frequency lists of corpora in authorship
attribution and stylometry. The first of these
regions consists of the most frequent words,
for which his Delta has become the best-known
method of study. This is evidenced by a varied
body of research with interesting modifications
of the method (e.g. Argamon 2008; Hoover
2004, 2004a). At the other end of the frequency
list, Iota deals with the lowest-frequency words,
while ""the large area between the extremes of
ubiquity and rarity"" (Burrows, 2007) is now
the target of many studies employing Zeta (e.g.
Craig, Kinney, 2009; Hoover, 2007).
Due to the popularity of the three methods
it was only a matter of time before Delta
(and, to a lesser extent, Zeta and Iota) were
applied to texts in languages other than Modern
English: Middle Dutch (Dalen-Oskam, Zundert,
2007), Old English (Garcìa, Martìn 2007) and
Polish (Eder, Rybicki 2009). Delta has also been
used in translation-oriented papers, including
Burrowsís own work on Juvenal (Burrows,
2002) and Rybicki's attempts at translator
attribution (2009).
It has been generally - and mainly empirically
- assumed that the use of methods relying on
the most frequent words in a corpus should
work just as well in other languages as it did
in English; this question was approached in
any detail only very recently (Juola, 2009). We
could not fail to observe that its success rates
in Polish, although still high, fell somewhat
short of its guessing rate in English (Rybicki
2009a). Also, the already-quoted study by
Rybicki (2009) seemed to suggest that, in a
corpus of translated literary texts, Delta was
much better at recognising the author of the
original than the translator. This justified a
more in-depth look at the workings of Burrowsís
method both in its ""original"" English and in a
variety of other languages.
1. Methods
In this study, a single major modification has
been applied to the usual Delta process. Each
analysis was made for the top 50-5000 most
frequent words in the corpus - but then the 50
most frequent words would be omitted and the
next 50-5000 words taken for analysis; then
the first 100 most frequent words would be
omitted, and so on. This was done with a single R
script written by Eder; the script produced word
frequency tables, calculated Delta and produced
""heatmap"" graphs of Delta's success rate for each
of the frequency list intervals, showing the best
combinations of initial word position in wordlist
and size of window, including variations of
pronoun deletion and culling parameters. Thus,
in the resulting heatmap graphs, the horizontal
axis presents the size of each wordlist used
for one set of Delta calculations; the vertical
axis shows how many of the most frequent
words were omitted. Each of the runs of the
script produced an average of ca. 3000 Delta
iterations.
2. Material
The project included the following corpora (used
separately); each contained a similar number of
texts to be attributed.","txt","2","",""
"1139","11","Detection of Citations and Textual Reuse on Ancient Greek Texts and its Applications in the Classical Studies: eAQUA Project","1","""Users of this or any edition are warned that
the textual variants presented by citations from
Plato in later literature have not yet been as fully
investigated as is desirable"". This shortcoming,
characterized by Kenneth Dover (Dover, 1980)
is still existent and is unlikely to be corrected
quickly by traditional research techniques.
Textual reuse plays an important role in
Classical Studies research. Similar to modern
publications, classical authors used the texts of
others as sources for their own work. In ancient
texts, however, a less stronger form of word by
word citation can be observed. Additionally, the
complexity of ancient resources disallows fully
manual research.
From a bird's eye view there are different
points of view to the problem of textual reuse
implying different research interests (Büchler
and Geßner, 2009):
-
A
Computer Science
perspective focuses on
algorithms (
technical view
): Which algorithm
is better than others? The scope of this
research is wide ranging and also relates
to plagiarism detection in modern texts like
theses at universities (Potthast et al., 2009).
-
A
Historian
is interested in more complex
correlations (
macro view
). For this kind of
work a dedicated user interface is necessary to
figure out relations between e.g. chapters of a
book and their citation usage on a timeline.
-
The research interests of a
Classical
Philologist
focus on the textual differences
between the original text and its variants
in citations (
micro view
). These varying
requirements necessitate designing different
user interfaces for these three kinds of
researchers.
Within the eAQUA project we are investigating
the reception of Plato as a case study of textual
reuse in ancient Greek texts. Our research is
carried out in two steps. On the
technical level
,
we firstly extract word by word citations. This
is achieved by combining syntactical ngram
overlappings (Hose, 2009 and Büchler, 2008)
and significant terms for several of Plato's
works. In the second step the constraints on
syntactic word order are relaxed. This is done
by combining text mining and information
retrieval techniques. A graph based approach
is then introduced that can deal with free
word order citations. The key concept is not
syntactically based, but focuses on the semantic
level to extract the relevant
core information
of a used citation. Then the information is
represented as a formal graph that is similar to
the
Lexical Chaining
approach (Waltinger et al.
2008) that is often used for text summarisation
(Yu et al. 2007). On the one hand syntactical
and semantic approaches are only used to select
reuse candidates with a small set of uncommon
matching words within a citation. On the
other hand, a complete pairwise comparison
of all of the nearly 5.5 million sentences in
the TLG corpus would require approximately
1000 years due to the squared complexity of
O(n
2
) that was used for example to compare
the Dead Sea Scrolls with the Hebrew Bible
(Hose, 2009). For this reason, an intelligent
pre-clustering of relevant reuse candidates is
needed. Such a divide and conquer strategy
reduces the complexity dramatically. Whilst the

2
second step only increases the degree of free
word order, in the third step the algorithm is
expanded by similarly used words like
go
and
walk
. Those candidates are computed by similar
cooccurrence profiles. The three levels briefly
described above are only one dimension of reuse
exploration. Other relevant dimensions that will
be discussed are the
degree of preprocessing
as
well as the
visualisation
of textual reuse in terms
of citations.
In the field of preprocessing the main focus
lies on
tokenisation
(more active tokenisation
is needed with ancient texts than on modern
languages),
normalisation
(reducing all words
internally to a lower-case representation
without diacritics) and
lemmatisation
(reducing
all words internally to a word's base form).
This dimension can speed up the algorithm and
also improves the results for strongly inflected
languages like Ancient Greek.
Leaving the technical point of view of computer
scientists, the research of Classicists includes
both an application of a
macro view
for
Historians as well as one for the
micro
view
of Classical Philologists. The visualisation
dimension of textual reuse is important since
text mining approaches typically generate a
huge amount of data that can't be explored
manually. This is shown in Fig. 1. Whilst the
light grey area marks Neoplatonism (about 5.
AC) the grey ranges highlight Middle Platonism
(about 2. AC). Taking Plato's
Timaeus
, one
can clearly identify that both phases of Plato's
reception (see Fig. 1 – top) are based on different
""chapters"" of
Timaeus
(bottom).
Fig. 1. Macro view: Screen of an interactive visualisation
for citation usage. Citation distribution by Stephanus
pages of Plato's Timaeus. The highest peak of the first
picture is strongly correlated with the citation usage of
the pages 27 to 42 of the second picture: Neo Platonism.
As Fig. 1 is of stronger interest for Historians,
there is also a requirement for a visualisation
for researchers from the field of Classical Greek
Philology. As shown in Fig. 2, a visualisation
highlighting the differences in citation usage is
necessary. This is especially important if longer
citations are investigated.
Fig. 2. Micro view: Highlighted differences of citations
(green, orange) in relation to original text of Plato (blue).
Top: The orange word highlights the same word but
including a language evolution of about 10 centuries.
Bottom: An included word (orange) in the citation is shown.
Additionally, it will be demonstrated how to
detect different editions of the same original
text. Such completely unsupervised approaches
are important to investigate the scientific
landscape of text digitisation. Furthermore, the
relation to modern plagiarism detection will
be given as well as the importance of building
modern representative corpora since especially
web corpora typically contain several duplicates
of the same text.","txt","2","",""
"1140","11","Developing a Collaborative Online Environment for History - the Experience of British History Online","1","This paper will discuss the potential impact
upon historical research of British History
Online's annotation tool. British History Online
(BHO) (
www.british-history.ac.uk
) is a digital
library containing some of the core printed
primary and secondary sources for the medieval
and modern history of the British Isles. Created
by the Institute of Historical Research (IHR),
which is part of the University of London's
School of Advanced Study, BHO is a rigorous
academic resource used by researchers at
postgraduate level and above. The IHR is
centrally placed within academic history in the
UK, and as such it is highly regarded within the
profession.
Two years ago, as part of an Arts and
Humanities Research Council (AHRC) grant,
BHO undertook to provide an annotation tool
alongside the digitisation of some 500 key
historical sources for early modern history:
the Calendars of State Papers. These calendars
summarise the manuscript heritage of the
working of the state in the early modern period.
Essential research tools though these calendars
are, they were mainly compiled in the Victorian
period, and are known to be inadequate and
erroneous in some cases. Furthermore, changes
in perspective on history and subsequent
research means that the calendars are badly
in need of updating: papers which modern
editors would think worthy of close attention
are sometimes treated very cursorily. BHO's
annotation tool encourages the community
of scholars to update, enlarge upon, and
correct the calendars, and even to supply fuller
transcriptions of documents.
At the planning stage of the tool's development
the team looked at other online tools for user
commenting, ranging from scholarly collections
such as the Digital Image Archive of Medieval
Music to non-academic sites such as the blog-
style Diary of Samuel Pepys. This paper will
describe the reasons why we decided that
an annotation tool was preferable to a wiki,
the design process for the tool, and BHO's
subsequent attempts to engage the academic
community in online collaborative work: now
that the AHRC project has finished (but the
annotation tool remains active) DH 2010 will be
a good time to assess the successes and failures
this aspect of the project and the lessons that
might be applicable to other digital resources
for historians. The IHR is now involved in a
collaborative project, Connected Histories, and
the lessons of BHO's annotation tool will have
a direct bearing on how the front end for
Connected Histories is designed.
The paper will also touch upon the issues
of moderation of academic work, the role of
citation within web 2.0, and the constraints
we imposed on annotators in this regard,
intellectual copyright and the RAE, and
the broader question of how humanities
research culture might change as web-based
collaboration becomes the norm.
The IHR is currently addressing the question
of how the research community within
history might be mobilised to work together
online, in more general ways, with European
collaboration, semantic web research tools, and
VREs. The paper will conclude by briefly placing
these in the context of work already done on the
annotation tool.
References
Blaney, J. and Winters, J.
. 'The British
History Online digital library: a model for
sustainability?'.
Bulletin of the Belgian Royal
Historical Commission
.
MacGregor, J., et al.
(2009). 'Revolutionary
reading, evolutionary toolmaking:
(Re)development of scholarly reading and
annotation tools in response to an ever-
changing scholarly climate, Implementing
New Knowledge Environments'. University of
Victoria, October 2009.
http://bit.ly/c5LV4R
.
Connected Histories.
www.connectedhistories.
org
(accessed 25-03-2010).

2
Diary of Samuel Pepys.
www.pepysdiary.com
(accessed 25-03-2010).
Digital Image Archive of Medieval Music.
www.
diamm.ac.uk
(accessed 25-03-2010).
Diigo.
http://www.diigo.com/
(accessed
26-03-2010).
Horizon Project.
http://www.nmc.org/horizon
(accessed 25-03-2010).
Zotero.
http://www.zotero.org/
(accessed
26-03-2010).","txt","2","",""
"1141","11","Digital Humanities Internships: Creating a Model iSchool-Digital Humanities Center Partnership","1","Creative partnership between computer science
and the humanities – what we now call
""digital humanities"" – is the cornerstone of
the digital revolution. Cathy Davidson writes
(2008) that ""perhaps we need to see technology
and the humanities not as a binary but as
two sides of a necessarily interdependent,
conjoined, and mutually constitutive set of
intellectual, educational, social, political, and
economic practices."" Significant educational
challenges exist, however, in creating a cadre
of professionals who understand the intellectual
context of digital humanities research and who
are also capable of building the supporting
infrastructure of digital collections, tools, and
services (de Smedt 2002). The American
Council of Learned Societies' groundbreaking
report –
Our Cultural Commonwealth: Report
of the Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for
the Humanities and Social Sciences
– focuses
attention on the need to ""cultivate leadership
in support of cyberinfrastructure from within
the humanities and social sciences, encourage
digital scholarship, develop and maintain open
standards and robust tools, and create extensive
and reusable digital collections"" (ACLS 2006, p.
4).
An international network of digital humanities
centers creates and develops access to the
digital documents, images, languages, sound,
and film that constitute the human record
and facilitate its understanding. In a quite
separate but potentially symbiotic movement,
graduate schools of information in the
United States and elsewhere are producing
technologically sophisticated professionals with
deep backgrounds in and commitments to
the humanities. Schools of Information, or
""iSchools"" have emerged from a two-decade
long era of consolidation and reform, during
which traditional schools of library science
struggled with irrelevancy, diminished scale,
and a fundamental societal transformation in
the use of new and emerging technologies
(Sawyer 2008). In North America, twenty-
four iSchools have formed a caucus (
http:
//www.ischools.org/
) to advance a common
agenda regarding the future of information
studies. John Unsworth (2007) notes that digital
humanities centers can establish new working
relationships between humanities faculty and
iSchool programs. iSchool faculty ""are about
half from other disciplines, and humanities
computing is very much about information
organization, ontologies, taxonomies, schema,
preservation, interface design, and other issues
that are studied and taught in [iSchool]
programs. The [iSchool] connection also would
help to activate the NEH/IMLS connection, as
well as the NSF cyberinfrastructure connection.""
While the move to develop digital humanities
centers has demonstrated great successes, it has
also meant the development of a number of
unique but remote archives that are in danger of
being lost. Universities in this digital age need to
produce research and graduates that transcend
traditional barriers and ways of working. The
most influential origins of change wrought by

2
information technology might well emerge from
the humanities and information sciences, which
consider most deeply the heritage and future
of the human experience. The progress of this
interdisciplinary field, however, requires new
models of collaboration among the information
sciences and the humanities disciplines. In
this context it is worth noting that all of
the iSchools involved in the digital humanities
internship program (described below) have
well established archives programs, from which
they recruit graduate students to send to the
participating DH Centers.
This paper for DH2010 presents a new model
partnership initiative to help build curricular
and scholarly institutional infrastructures that
leverage the existing and emerging capabilities
of iSchools and digital humanities centers.
With generous three-year support from the
U.S. Institute of Museum and Library Services
(IMLS), three iSchools and three digital
humanities centers are placing graduate student
interns for extended summer work experiences
in digital humanities centers. The collaborators
include the iSchools at the University of
Maryland, the University of Texas and the
University of Michigan; and the DH Centers
at the University of Maryland (Maryland
Institute for Technology in the Humanities),
the University of Nebraska (Center for Digital
Research in the Humanities), and Michigan
State University (MATRIX). The partners
are also developing a collaborative research
program that draws on complementary areas of
expertise and interest in the digital humanities
and information studies. The project is in its
second year, preparing to place a second set
of interns in summer 2010, with a total of 18
internships offered over the duration of the
project.
The DH2010 paper contextualizes the model
internship program within the broader
academic framework of the mission and
activities of iSchools, including the humanities-
oriented profiles of students, a curriculum that
meaningfully combines--in holistic fashion--
computational, legal, informational, cultural,
social, and managerial content; and faculty
research that crosses the two cultures of the
humanities and sciences.
1. Student Profiles
The DH2010 paper presents a demographic
analysis of the students enrolled at the
three collaborating iSchools, demonstrating the
affinity (and enriching the alliance) between
iSchools and DH Centers. A majority of
students enter into iSchool programs with
undergraduate and/or graduate degrees in the
arts and humanities, frequently outnumbering
their more science-oriented peers by statistically
significant margins. At Maryland's iSchool,
for example, approximately 62 percent of
current masters students (or 212 out of 343)
obtained undergraduate degrees in English,
History, Art History, Religion, Classics, and
Philosophy. At Texas, well over half of the
students have solid humanities backgrounds in
literature, the arts, and especially in history;
and show an impressive understanding of
the values, styles, and methods of humanities
researchers. At Michigan the humanities subject
expertise of fully one-third of entering graduate
students is integrated into a broader framework
that incorporates techniques for systematically
creating, managing, preserving and otherwise
enhancing the value of cultural heritage
information.
2. iSchool Curriculum
The DH2010 paper exposes how iSchools have
implemented curricula of relevance to digital
humanities centers, particularly in the area of
cyberinfrastructure. At Michigan, for example,
a suite of technology/systems-oriented courses
teach students how to build and evaluate
dynamic complex websites and databases;
undertake preservation reformatting of books,
graphical, and audiovisual resources; produce
EAD finding aids and other access tools; and
create and maintain online communities. At
Maryland, students are exposed to the legal
issues in managing information and the corpus
of documents – such as donor agreements –
that codify them. Copyright, privacy, freedom
of information, and other topics pertinent to
archives and digital libraries are also covered.
At Texas, a series of courses in digitization for
preservation and access is paired with courses
in digital libraries and a sequence developing
digital archiving practices to provide students
with a range of skills and knowledge pertinent to","txt","2","",""
"1142","11","Digital Libraries of Scholarly Editions","1","Digital libraries are a key technology for hosting
large-scale collections of electronic literature.
Since the first digital library (DL) systems
in the early 1990s, the sophistication of DL
software has continually developed. Today,
systems such as DSpace and Greenstone are
in use by institutions both large and small,
providing thousands of collections of online
material. However, there are limitations even to
“state-of-the-art” DLs when considering digital
humanities.
Contemporaneously with the growth of DL
technology, digital scholarly editions of
significant texts and archival material have
emerged. In contrast to digital libraries, where
there are a number of readily available generic
software systems, critical editions are largely
reliant on bespoke systems, which emphasise
internal connections between multiple versions.
Whilst useful editions are online, and are
increasingly used in scholarly endeavour, digital
scholarly editions suffer from “siloing”: each
work becoming an island in the ocean of the web.
Like ‘physical’ libraries, digital libraries provide
consistent support for discovering, reading
and conserving documents in large collections.
For scholarly editions, these features present
a potential solution to “siloing”. Without
trusted digital repositories, preservation and
maintenance are endemic problems, and
providing consistent experiences and unified
workspaces across many sites (i.e. individual
texts) is proving highly challenging. However,
current DL systems lack critical features: they
have too simple a model of documents, and lack
scholarly apparatus.
Digital library systems can readily contain
electronic forms of “traditional” critical editions
in static forms where each work is a
separate and indivisible document. However,
search facilities cannot then reliably distinguish
between commentary and the primary content.
Using XML formats such as TEI can permit
this distinction to be made, but only with
extensive configuration. Furthermore, the
reading experience in such a DL is likely to
fall far below scholars’ requirements of digital
editions.
European initiatives, such as DARIAH, focus
on facilitating access to existing scholarly
editions, with longer-term aims of fostering
standards and interoperability of data. This
approach presumes that each existing site (and
hence, typically, edition) remains autonomous,
and remains a discrete entity, which is then
aggregated through a centralised service. It
also admits the absence of standardised, highly
functional storage and publication systems.
Furthermore, this approach has been attempted
in “federated” DLs, with only limited success.
In federated DLs, unless every member uses the
same software configured in the same manner,
the appearance of each library differs and –
worse – preservation remains in the hands of
individual sites, and cross-site services (e.g.
search) can only operate at a very rudimentary
level.
There have been projects to develop generic
scholarly edition software, but success has
been limited. Shillingsburg [Buchanan 2006]
highlights a number of such systems up to the
mid-2000s. Few of these initiatives engaged
with computer science, and the software systems
have proved hard to maintain.
Digital library systems provide a potential route
for providing collections of digital scholarly
editions. However, they are not yet an answer.
When a digital edition supports discussion
between scholars, grounded on and linked
to the text, the standard DL infrastructure
requires extensive modification. Data structures
are required to capture and store scholarly
discourse, relate each item of discourse in
detail to part of a complex document structure,
and provide this through a seamless and
consistent user interface. Multiple structures
and complex document relationships fit uneasily
within current DL software [Buchanan
et al.

2
2007,Rimmer
et al.
2008]. For instance, most
DL software requires or assumes that any
collection of documents is homogenous in terms
of the interior structure of each document. This
simply cannot be true of a collection including
– say – diaries, journals, letters and novels.
We need software that provides DL collection
support with the ability to provide for complex
document structure.
1. Current Work
The goal of our research is to develop software
that transcends the current limitations of DL
systems in supporting digital scholarly editions
for the humanities. Our intention is that in
turn organisations and publishers who seek
to provide series of critical material can build
upon software that is scalable, systematically
engineered and sustainable. This software will
also support the necessary complexity of critical
editions and possess a rich apparatus to support
contemporary digital practices, not simply
digitised forms of practice from the print era.
Whilst no single system is likely to provide all
the requirements of all possible circumstances,
our aim is to create software that can provide
the technical core of any collection of critical
editions, with a minimum of effort. Adapting the
system for a specific need may require extensive
work, but only for more unusual circumstances.
This would bring us to a point comparable to the
support that current DLs give for simpler texts
and scholarly practices. For users of scholarly
editions – i.e. the research community – the
presence of a common infrastructure and the
increased ease of working across sites will very
likely increase research activity across multiple
‘editions’.
2. Context and Motivation
This project has identified Wales as presenting
an interesting case study. It is a distinct
cultural entity with an abundance of valuable
written cultural material and a sizable scholarly
community researching the cultural life and
output of the nation. Reflecting the bilingual
linguistic identity of the nation, there are
extensive archives and printed matter in
national, university, local government and
private hands in both Welsh and English (as
well as other languages). Wales suffers from
a poor physical infrastructure, and this has
motivated the provision of digital access to
cultural material, from the early days of the
National Library of Wales’s digitisation projects
(e.g. ‘Campaign’ 1999) to the present.
While the National Library of Wales has done
outstanding pioneering work in digitisation of
its collections and remains an asset in our
selection of Wales as a ‘case study’, their remit
does not extend to the interpretation of their
collections. Despite considerable demand from
scholars in Wales and beyond for digital critical
editions of Welsh material (in both languages)
no one project has access to the technical
expertise to create software that embodies the
requirements of the scholarly community. The
motivation of our project is to build a common
infrastructure that both enables each project
to produce high-quality scholarly work, and
provides for consistent access and preservation
of that work.
3. Understanding User Needs
To undertake this work requires not only
technical expertise, but also a systematic study
of the requirements of scholarly practice in
the digital age. To date, we have reviewed the
existing literature, and gained an initial set of
requirements from a retrospective analysis of
data from the recent User Centred Interactive
Search (UCIS) project at University College
London [Rimmer
et al.
2008].
The UCIS project revealed that many technical
difficulties emerged when configuring DL
systems, even with relatively simple digital
humanities material. Humanists do not
necessarily search for material that directly
corresponds to the “book” or “document” level
of a particular library. Items may be sought
that constitute part of a single document
(e.g. a poem in a collection of poetry),
and conversely larger works may be realised
in several separate “documents”. Search and
browse facilities typically work only at one
level, typically consonant with either a book
or article. However, collections are frequently
heterogeneous and multi-layered. In the case
of critical editions, the complexity of document
structure and users’ tasks is even greater.
A second problem is that humanists often
require different variants of one work. Though
library infrastructures can relate these together,","txt","2","",""
"1143","11","Digital Mediation of Modernist Literary Texts and their Documents","1","This paper will demonstrate an advanced
work in progress, the digitised manuscript and
transcription of Samuel Beckett’s novel
Watt
(composed in 1941-45 and first published in
1953). Discussion of the project will centre
upon the digital resources buttressing the
presentation of manuscript material and a range
of related analytic features, and will outline
some of the more significant ways in which
specifically digital treatment of the material
opens up new lines of literary and textual
analysis. Indeed, some foundational concepts
of textuality come into sharp focus by virtue
of digital treatment of textual materials. Some
of these concerns will be illustrated by way of
examples taken from the
Watt
project, and by a
fuller view of the complex relationship between
text and manuscript arising from the project.
1. SBDMP and the Digitised
Edition of the
Watt
Notebooks
The digital and scholarly resources required to
produce a digitised literary transcription are not
trivial. Two related questions must frame any
such project: what scholarly need is being met by
the production of such an edition? What specific
innovations are made available by virtue of its
digital delivery?
The digital transcription of Beckett’s
Watt
is an
instalment of a larger international project –
the Samuel Beckett Digital Manuscript Project
– which aims to have all of Beckett’s literary
manuscripts transcribed and represented in
digital form. This initiative responds to a
profound deepening of scholarly interest in
modernist manuscripts as potential sources of
literary hermeneutic attention, and in concert
with this focal shift, a renewed interest in
theories of textuality and textual criticism.
The specific (and heightened) relevance to
this particular text in Beckett’s oeuvre is
immediately apparent on viewing the complex
series of heavily revised and illustrated
notebooks that constitute the manuscript
of
Watt
. The primary materials do not
lend themselves easily to conventional print
publication, and indeed several dominant
textual features would be lost or deeply
submerged within any codex structure. For
example, the relationships between dispersed
narrative episodes and fragments within the
manuscripts cannot be represented adequately
in the linear structure of the codex, nor the
complex patterns of transmitted, dispersed and
submerged material between the manuscript
and the published editions of
Watt
.
Of all of Beckett’s major texts,
Watt
has
received the least critical attention, despite
significant scholarly curiosity regarding the
deep ambiguity of the published narrative and
the baroque nature of its manuscript archive.
1
One reason for this oversight pertains directly to
the digitised manuscript project: the materials
extend to nearly a thousand pages of autograph
manuscript in Beckett’s notoriously difficult
hand. Few scholars have read any of the primary
materials, and only a very few have read
them completely. The well-known hermeneutic
difficulties presented by the published narrative
are thus in no way adequately understood in
relation to the primary materials, because they
themselves constitute a kind of
terra nullius
. By
representing and transcribing the manuscript
archive of this pivotal text in digital form, such
relations between the archive and publication
can begin to proceed in an informed way,
and more adequate editorial and hermeneutic
strategies can be brought to bear on this most
inscrutable of Beckett’s texts.
The difficulties of reading Beckett’s manuscript
and text are, in part, aesthetic. The manuscript
was composed during the Second World War,
when its author was displaced in the south
of France, at a time when reflections upon
the efficacy of literary expression were most
acute. In addition, the fragments, riddles,
and non sequiturs in the published novel
(first published in 1953) strongly imply a
process of archivisation of fuller manuscript
material, or more accurately, providing keys
by which to unlock abundant manuscript
contents. By providing coherent and searchable

2
access to such a large and complex document,
the digitised manuscript project provides the
grounds for extensive investigation into hitherto
inscrutable textual features in the published
text, and provides space for reflection on variant
narrative structures and the evolution of literary
works more generally.
2. Digital Technology and
Editorial Practice
The presence of digital technology in
scholarship has become increasingly prominent
in recent years. Digital aides to scholarship
(online library catalogues, concordances, etc.)
provide extensions to existing scholarly tools
and practices, facilitating certain kinds of
scholarship. Primary sources can be identified
by means of web-based archive catalogues, and
online digital representations of manuscripts
allow scholars to conduct particular kinds of
work at geographical distance. Whilst access
to the physical document may be desirable or
even critical in the final event, several stages
of a research project can be accomplished
prior to such access. Digital extensions of
traditional analogue research tools are perfectly
commonplace in most disciplines, and (in
theory) are not particularly difficult to integrate
into a disciplinary mentality.
Recent innovative approaches to scholarly
editing tend to imply or assert the relevance of
a wider array of documentary sources: genetic
editions seek to incorporate all manuscript
material and published versions of a text,
as well as a rationale of any stemmatic
relationship between them, in an attempt to
provide a ""total"" text; social text methods seek
to integrate erstwhile secondary documents
and materials into the very conceptual fabric
of a text, as constituent parts of a text’s
identity. These more aggregative models of
text identity, and more specifically the texts
to which they pertain, are clearly conducive
to presentation as digital scholarly editions.
Conversely, digital modes of representing
literary texts can bring questions of a text’s
identity into sharp focus. For example, the
representation of multiple textual witnesses in
collation software such as Juxta
2
or Versioning
Machine
3
alters rather profoundly the reader’s
apprehension of the textual matter at hand.
The text is digitally mediated and may be
represented by transposed digital reproductions
and transcriptions suitably marked up for digital
display. But this mediation can go to the very
heart of what is considered to be the text.
Digital scholarly editions can do two things that
seem fundamentally new: firstly, a potentially
large corpus of material can be represented in
one space, and manipulated in ways simply not
possible in the world of physical manuscripts
and codex editions: a basic premise of the
digitised manuscript of
Watt
. Secondly, digital
collations allow for manipulations of the text
material that are visually straightforward and
intuitively intelligible, whilst bearing profound
implications for the text’s identity and the
authority of textual evidence. The digital
manuscript of
Watt
deploys an interface
powered by the Apache Tomcat servlet
container, which represents files marked up
in XML, in a streamlined version of the TEI5
protocols. A high-resolution digital image of
the manuscript page appears alongside the
marked-up transcription and attendant tools
for analysing the transcribed document. In
the case of this particular project, the use of
Juxta collation software is not a straightforward
choice, given that the manuscripts accord very
closely to the published text in many places
but diverge almost absolutely in many others.
The relationship between text and archive is by
no means self-evident, or even chronologically
linear, witnessed by the density of cryptic
allusions and riddles in the published narrative:
many of these may only be understood
following a close reading of the more expansive
manuscripts episodes from which they are
sedimented.
The application of the Juxta software to such
an editorial project as the digital variorum
edition of Ezra Pound’s
Cantos
offers an
instructive counterpoint, providing a view of the
way in which a well-developed and intuitively
graspable digital aid offers new opportunities
for new documentary and analytic research.
These two examples provide one aspect by
which to view the question of digital tools for
literary research: does each project in the field of
digital humanities require custom digital tools,
or are there ways to engineer convergences
that continue to provide each project with
the specific resources it needs? This remains
an open question, inspiring in equal parts an","txt","2","",""
"1144","11","Digital Resources for Art-Historical Research: Critical Approach","1","Esta comunicación parte de una convicción: la
necesidad de empezar a construir un discurso
crítico y autoconsciente que reflexione sobre la
incidencia que el medio digital, la tecnología
informática y los entornos web interactivos
están teniendo en los procesos de investigación
del hecho artístico.
Después de casi dos décadas utilizando Internet
y la Web, cualquier cosa que se pueda decir
sobre cómo el medio digital ha facilitado y
optimizado estos procesos de investigación y
la adquisición de información puede sonar
a obviedad. Efectivamente: el acceso a la
información a través de recursos digitales
es rápida; muy rápida. Es ubicua: podemos
conseguir información desde cualquier lugar
y en cualquier momento. Es global: podemos
buscar información en cualquier parte del
mundo, y encontrarla - siempre y cuando haya
sido previamente digitalizada -. Es más flexible:
el investigador-usuario puede seleccionar qué
tipo de información obtener, cuándo y de
qué modo. Y lo que constituye uno de los
aspectos más interesantes: la información
recuperada en el medio digital es visualmente
más significativa debido a la versatilidad de la
interfaz gráfica, el soporte multimediático y el
lenguaje hipermedia. Pensemos en un ejemplo
tan simple como la posibilidad de visualizar
paralelamente dos textos o dos imágenes.
La investigación a través del medio digital es
más fácil, más significante y proporciona más
posibilidades al especialista para profundizar
en sus investigaciones. Asimismo, el uso de
recursos digitales transforma las prácticas
investigadoras y condiciona determinadas
modalidades de estudio. Sin embargo, en el
campo de la Historia del Arte todo esto lo
sabemos de manera inmediata e intuitiva, pues
todavía no hemos empezado a desarrollar un
discurso crítico que reflexione sobre el modo
como lo digital está incidiendo en nuestra área
de conocimiento.
Hay que tener en cuenta que el uso
de recursos digitales no es neutro, sino
que conlleva - implícita o explícitamente,
consciente o inconscientemente - determinadas
conceptualizaciones sobre el objeto de estudio,
y propende a determinados modos de
aproximación y análisis. De hecho, el uso de
recursos digitales se mueve en una especie de
ambivalencia entre la utilidad incuestionable y
las recategorizaciones implícitas. No olvidemos
que toda página web o plataforma digital es un
discurso, y como tal implica una determinada
conceptualización del hecho, fenómeno o idea
sobre el que se construye dicho discurso.
Un ejemplo simple y clarificador nos lo
proporciona el empleo de imágenes en formato
gigapíxeles, que se han popularizado sobre todo
a partir de diversas iniciativas llevadas a cabo
entre instituciones culturales y Google Earth.
La posibilidad de visualizar con detalle nunca
antes imaginable determinadas secciones de
una imagen pictórica constituye una inestimable
ayuda para analizar con rigurosidad elementos
y componentes que hasta ahora habían
sido marginales. Asimismo, la posibilidad de
seccionar una imagen para analizar una o varias
de sus partes favorece con mucho la tarea del
historiador del arte, buena parte de la cual
consiste en examinar imágenes artísticas. Ahora
bien, esta posibilidad de análisis también está
favoreciendo una aproximación a la imagen
artística basada en el fragmento y en el detalle,
mientras que la aprehensión de la imagen
como totalidad unitaria tiende a perderse.
Hay que tener en cuenta que en el medio
digital, la imagen como entidad autónoma no
existe de la misma manera que existe en el
medio analógico. En el medio digital, lo que
tenemos es una masa de píxeles que nosotros
podemos manipular a nuestro antojo: cortando,
disgregando, remezclando, interviniendo..., o en
función de las posibilidades que nos permita el
software y la capacidad de la interficie gráfica.
Además, el valor de cualificación de una imagen
digital reside, precisamente, en su capacidad de
disección, intervención y ampliación. Eso es lo
que busca un usuario que trabaja con imágenes
digitales.
En un escrito de 2005, W. Vaughan indicaba
que la reproducción completa de un objeto en

2
la pantalla del ordenador únicamente esquema
nemotécnico, una especie de guía para el
espectador en su búsqueda del detalle (Vaughan,
2005: 6). Si observamos, por ejemplo, el
modo como Google Earth Prado nos muestra
sus imágenes en alta resolución, parece que
Vaughan da en el clavo en sus apreciaciones [v.
fig. 1].
Fig.1: Imagen de Google Earth Prado
Podríamos pensar que el historiador del arte
dispone de los elementos críticos suficientes
para posicionarse ante estas imágenes como
lo que son: instrumentos llevar a cabo la
investigación histórico-artística. Sin embargo,
¿qué sucede con el público no experto? Si
atendemos a una de las funcionalidades que ha
incorporado Flickr: la posibilidad de fragmentar
las fotografías y comentarlas trozo a trozo,
parece que estamos ante la constatación de
que el medio digital está promocionando un
acercamiento fragmentario a la imagen artística
[fig. 2].
Fig. 2: Captura de pantalla de Flickr
Otro ejemplo interesante lo constituyen los
catálogos y las bases de datos, uno de los
recursos digitales más utilizados en el campo
de la Historia del Arte como instrumento de
información, y uno de los más desarrollados.
Sin poner en cuestión la utilidad de estos
bancos y catálogos, no debemos perder de
vista que la imagen que proyectan es la de
una sucesión de registros en los que el objeto
artístico «aparece» solo, por más que aquél
incluya algún campo para la descripción crítica
del objeto. Es lógico que las bases de datos
funcionen así, puesto que uno de sus objetivos es
organizar las informaciones en compartimentos
estructurados. Sin embargo, esta imagen de
objetos aislados unos detrás de otros no se
corresponde en absoluto con la aproximación
contextualista y culturalizadora que desde hace
décadas prima como modelo interpretativo de
los hechos artísticos. Esto no quiere decir
que las bases de datos y los catálogos sean
inoperantes; todo lo contrario, constituyen
eficientes herramientas de información. Pero si
el medio digital está copado mayoritariamente
por estas herramientas, y la cultura tecnológica
del historiador del arte - muchas veces precaria
o inexistente - no le impulsa a indagar en
otro tipo de recursos, la visión de los hechos
artísticos que estaremos legando al futuro será
fundamentalmente una visión aislacionista y
descontextualizada.
La ausencia de una reflexión consciente sobre
las especificidades del medio digital también
ha supuesto que, hasta la fecha, estemos
infrautilizando, por no decir mal-utilizando,
los recursos digitales. Muchas de estas
potencialidades están todavía sin explorar. En
numerosas ocasiones, lo que encontramos son
transposiciones electrónicas de nuestro mundo
analógico. Así, no es difícil encontrar páginas
web en las que se contenidos enciclopédicos con
los mismos mecanismos de lectura - lineal y
discursiva - que en una edición impresa, que el
modo de lectura en Internet está basado en el
relato hipertextual y en el lenguaje hipermedia.
[fig. 3].","txt","2","",""
"1145","11","Digitizing the Act of Papyrological Interpretation: Negotiating Spurious Exactitude and Genuine Uncertainty","1","1. Digitization is a sampling
process
The act of papyrological interpretation is
a continuous thought process that unravels
non-linearly (Youtie, 1963; Terras, 2006).
Throughout this sense-making process, ancient
and scarcely legible documents progress from
the status of pure physical objects to that of
meaningful historical artefacts. Within the e-
Science and Ancient Documents project,
1
we
aim to make explicit some of the implicit
mechanisms that contribute to the development
of hypotheses of interpretation by designing and
implementing a web-based software offering
digital support for the hermeneutic task. This
tool aims to record the intermediary hypotheses
of interpretation, thus keeping track of the
rationale and allowing easier and better revision
when required. The model we have adopted
(Roued Olsen et al., 2009) is that of a
network of percepts, where a percept is defined
as a minor interpretation that stems from
perception and cognition (Tarte, 2010). An
understanding of expert knowledge and of
how it is mobilised is required to identify the
crucial steps that allow us to reconstruct a
rationale. The level of the granularity at which
we choose to provide support also is essential
to the usability of the software. Further, each
percept, each intermediary interpretation, each
piece of evidence used either to support or to
invalidate a claim is potentially mutable. The
implementation of an Interpretation Support
System (ISS) taking these considerations into
account poses the question of how to digitize
or record a thought process; it is an epitome
of the ‘continuous-to-discrete’ (or ‘analogue-to-
digital’) problem. In the theoretical and life
sciences, measurement devices are developed to
sample the signals of interest. Then, based on
the discrete sampled signal, on an underlying
model of the behaviour of the signal, and on
more general knowledge of signal processing
and information theory (e.g. the Nyquist-
Shannon sampling theorem), the continuous
signal can be reconstructed with minimal
deviation from the original signal. Similarly, the
ambition of our ISS is, based on an appropriate
model of the papyrological hermeneutic task,
to allow the user to capture the information
necessary to the reconstruction of the rationale
that yielded a given interpretation. Two
difficulties in sampling the interpretive thought
process are: (1) to take advantage and to beware
of the sense of scientific rigour that digitization
conveys; and (2) to allow the digital expression
of uncertainty and mutability of percepts.
In this paper, we explain how, while attempting
to digitize the papyrological interpretation act,
we strive to avoid spurious exactitude and
accommodate genuine uncertainty.
2. Choosing what to digitize and
how
The papyrological model of reading developed
by Terras (Terras, 2006) identified ten levels
of reading, corresponding to ten levels of
granularity at which an interpretation in
progress is discussed. Tools stemming from
web-based technology (Bowman et al., 2010),
image processing (Tarte et al., 2009) and
artificial intelligence can help support the
digitization of the hermeneutic task (see fig. 1).
To illustrate how we negotiate between spurious
exactitude and genuine uncertainty, we focus
here on two specific stages of the digitization
of the papyrological interpretation process: how
artefact digitization is being performed; and
how, by identifying the mechanisms that trigger
the jumps between the ten levels of reading,
we propose to address the representation of
uncertainty.

2
Figure 1: Model of the act of interpretation detailing the
various levels of reading based on (Terras, 2006) and
the tools involved in the implementation of our ISS.
2.1. Digitizing the text-bearing
artefact
The problem of spurious exactitude is most
prevalent at the stage where the text-bearing
artefact is digitized. For stylus tablets, for
example, high-resolution pictures are not
enough. The materiality of the artefact needs
to be taken into account in a similar way
as the experts exploit it in the real-world.
The guiding principle we choose to follow
in this context is mimesis. Indeed, when the
papyrologists have physical access to such an
incised tablet, in order to see better the incised
text, they lay the tablet flat on their hand,
lift it at eye level and expose it to raking
light while applying pitch-and-yaw motions to
it. This signal enhancement strategy exploits
the shadow-stereo principle by which stronger
and more mobile shadows and highlights occur
at the incisions than they do on the bare
wood; the text is thereby accentuated. Digitally
imitating this process, we capture series of
images of incised tablets with varying light
positions (Brady et al., 2005), allowing users
to reproduce digitally the visual phenomenon
they naturally exploit in the real-world. Note
that, similarly to signal measurement devices,
we adopt a digitization process that is already
part of the interpretation process. And the
intention behind artefact digitization, as well
as the intention behind signal measurement,
is always an implicitly set variable that affects
downstream results.
2.2. Digitizing the thought process
When attempting to capture the milestones of
the thought process that builds an interpretation
of an ancient or damaged text, we need to
capture the uncertainty of the intermediary
percepts and their mutability. A numerical
approach to uncertainty such as bayesian
networks could have been adopted, but
such a quantification of uncertainty usually
presupposes that problems are complete, i.e.
that all the alternatives to a given situation
are known (Parsons & Hunter, 1998). Instead,
we have decided to turn to argumentation
theory (Parsons & Hunter, 1998) and theory
of justification (Haack, 1993), and combine
them to provide a formal, yet invisible,
epistemological framework that will allow us
to point out inconsistencies without forbidding
them. Indeed, inconsistencies in an unravelling
interpretation naturally occur and can be rooted
either in the implicit expectations of the user or
in the validity of the actual claims (see Tarte,
2010 for an account of an inconsistency due
to an implicit assumption and its resolution).
The balance to be found here (Shipman III &
Marshall, 1999) is between on the one hand the
usefulness of a formal system as a backbone
to support reasoning under uncertainty and
make implicit mechanisms explicit, and on
the other the excess of formalism and explicit
formulation that can become a hindrance by
creating for the user an overhead disruptive
to the interpretation process. Here again, our
design choice is based on the observation of the
experts at work. We allow both palaeographical
and philological approaches in combination,
through the possibility of tracing the letters
and of handling the text as a crossword
puzzle (Roued-Cunliffe, 2010); these are both
approaches that we have identified as the main
strategies experts develop when interpreting
documents (Tarte, 2010). The expression of
uncertainty is then made inherent to the
mode of interaction with the artefact, and the
transposition of the real-world tasks of drawing
and crossword puzzle solving allows us to keep
the interface intuitive while, in the background,
more formal mechanisms can run routines such
as consistency checks and consultation and
constitution of knowledge bases. In her doctoral
work, Roued-Cunliffe (Roued-Cunliffe, 2010) is
currently concentrating on the crossword puzzle
approach and combining it to consultation of
knowledge bases through web-services.","txt","2","",""
"1146","11","Does Size Matter? Authorship Attribution, Small Samples, Big Problem","1","The aim of this study is to find a minimal
size of text samples for authorship attribution
that would provide stable results independent
of random noise. A few controlled tests for
different sample lengths, languages and genres
are discussed and compared. Although I focus
on Delta methodology, the results are valid for
many other multidimensional methods relying
on word frequencies and ""nearest neighbor""
classifications.
In the field of stylometry, and especially
in authorship attribution, the reliability of
the obtained results becomes even more
essential than the results themselves: failed
attribution is much better than false attribution
(cf. Love, 2002). However, while dozens of
outstanding papers deal with increasing the
effectiveness of current stylometric methods,
the problem of their reliability remains
somehow underestimated. Especially, the
simple yet fundamental question of the shortest
acceptable sample length for reliable attribution
has not been discussed convincingly.
In many attribution studies based on
short samples, despite their well-established
hypotheses, convincing choice of style-markers,
advanced statistics applied and brilliant results
presented, one cannot avoid a very simple
yet uneasy question: whether those impressive
results could be obtained
by chance
, or at
least positively affected by
randomness
? This
question can be also formulated in a different
way: if a cross-checking experiment with
numerous short samples were available, would
the results be just as satisfying?
1. Hypothesis
It is commonly known that word frequencies in
a corpus are random variables; the same can be
said about any written authorial text, like a novel
or poem. Being a probabilistic phenomenon,
word frequency strongly depends on the size
of the population (i.e. the size of the text used
in the study). Now, if the observed frequency
of a single word exhibits too much variation
for establishing an index of vocabulary richness
resistant to sample length (cf. Tweedie and
Baayen, 1998), a multidimensional approach –
based on several probabilistic word frequencies
– should be even more questionable.
On theoretical grounds, we can intuitively
assume that the smallest acceptable sample
length would be hundreds rather than dozens of
words. Next, we can expect that, in a series of
controlled authorship experiments with longer
and longer samples tested, the probability of
attribution success would at first increase very
quickly, indicating a strong correlation with the
current text size; but then, above a certain value,
further increase of input sample size would not
affect the effectiveness of the attribution. In any
attempt to find this critical point in terms of
statistical investigation, one should be aware,
however, that this point might depend – to some
extent – on the language, genre, or even the text
analyzed.
2. Experiment I: Words
A few corpora of known authorship were
prepared for different languages and genres:
for English, Polish, German, Hungarian, and
French novels, for English epic poetry, Latin
poetry (Ancient and Modern), Latin prose
(non-fiction), and for Ancient Greek epic
poetry; each contained a similar number of
texts to be attributed. The research procedure
was as follows. For each text in a given
corpus, 500 randomly chosen single words were
concatenated into a new sample. These new
samples were analyzed using the classical Delta
method as developed by Burrows (2002); the
percentage of attributive success was regarded
as a measure of effectiveness of the current
sample length. The same steps of excerpting new
samples from the original texts, followed by the
stage of ""guessing"" the correct authors, were
repeated for the length of 600, 700, 800, ...,
20000 words per sample.
The results for a corpus of 63 English novels
are shown on Fig. 1. The observed scores

2
(black points on the graph; grey points will be
discussed below) clearly indicate the existence
of a trend (solid line): the curve, climbing up
very quickly, tends to stabilize at a certain point,
which indicates the minimal sample size for the
best attributing rate. It becomes quite obvious
that samples shorter than 5000 words provide a
poor ""guessing"", because they can be immensely
affected by random noise. Below the size of
3000 words, the obtained results are simply
disastrous. Other analyzed corpora showed that
the critical point of attributive success could
be found between 5000 and 10000 words per
sample (and there was no significant difference
between inflected and non-inflected languages).
Better scores were obtained for the two poetic
corpora: English and Latin (3500 words per
sample were enough for good results), and,
surprisingly, the corpus of Latin prose (its
minimal effective sample size was of some 2500
words; cf. Fig. 2, black points).
3. Experiment II: Passages
The way of preparing samples by extracting
a mass of single words from the original
texts seems to be an obvious solution for the
problem of statistical representativeness. In
most attribution studies, however, shorter or
longer
passages
of disputed works are usually
analyzed (either randomly chosen from the
entire text, or simply truncated to the desired
size). The purpose of the current experiment
was to test the attribution effectiveness of this
typical sampling. The whole procedure was
repeated step by step as in the previous test,
but now, instead of collecting individual words,
sequences of 500 words (then 600, 700, ...,
20000) were excerpted randomly from the
original texts.
Three main observations could be made here:
1. For each corpus analyzed, the effectiveness of
such samples (excerpted passages) was
always
worse than the scores described in the former
experiment, relying on the ""bag-of-words"" type
of sample (cf. Fig. 1 and 2, grey points). 2.
The more inflected the language, the smaller
the difference in correct attribution between
both types of samples, the ""passages"" and the
""words"": the greatest in the English novels
(cf. Fig. 1, grey points vs. black), the smallest
in the Hungarian corpus. 3. For ""passages"",
the dispersion of the observed scores was
always
wider than for ""words"", indicating
the possible significance of the influence of
random noise. This effect might be due to
the obvious differences in word distribution
between narrative and dialogue parts in novels
(cf. Hoover, 2001); however, the same effect was
equally strong for poetry (Latin and English)
and non-literary prose (Latin).
4. Experiment III: Chunks
At times we encounter an attribution problem
where extant works by a disputed author
are doubtless too short for being analyzed
in separate samples. The question is, then,
if a concatenated
collection
of short poems,
epigrams, sonnets, etc. in one sample (cf.
Eder and Rybicki, 2009) would reach the
effectiveness comparable to that presented
above? And, if concatenated samples are
suitable for attribution tests, do we need to
worry about the size of the original texts
constituting the joint sample?
The third experiment, then, was designed as
follows. In 12 iterations, several word-chunks
were randomly selected from each text into
8192-word samples: 4096 bi-grams, 2048 tetra-
grams, 1024 chunks of 8 words in length, 512
of 16 words, and so on, up to 2 chunks of
4096 words. Thus, all the samples in question
were 8192 words long. The obtained results were
very similar for all the languages and genres
tested. As shown in Fig. 3 (for the corpus of
Polish novels), the effectiveness of ""guessing""
depends to some extent on the word-chunk size
used. Although the attributive scores are slightly
worse for long chunks within a sample (4096
words or so) than for bi-grams, 4-word chunks
etc., every chunk size could be acceptable to
constitute a concatenated sample.
However, although this seems to be an
optimistic result, we should remember that this
test would not be feasible on really short poems.
Epigrams, sonnets etc. are often masterpieces
of concise language, with a domination of verbs
over adjectives and so on, and with a strong
tendency to compression of content. For that
reason, further investigation is needed here.
5. Conclusions
The scores presented in this study, as obtained
with classical Delta procedure, would be slightly","txt","2","",""
"1147","11","e-Vocative Cases: Digitality and Direct Address","1","Electronic literature poses several exciting
challenges and questions to literary scholars:
How do we balance our interpretations of
digitally born works against the specific modes
of production that make such works possible?
How do our conceptions of authorial intent
shift in relation to works that solicit active
participation from their readers? How do we
account for readers’ participation in such works,
as well as the way their experiences shape
and re-shape the text? In this paper I offer
one strategy of interpretation that cuts across
some of these questions: tracing the path of
direct address in works that are digitally born, a
technique that both emerges and departs from
conventional literary practice.
When I visit a certain website, I am greeted in
a peculiar fashion: an animated avatar with a
human form speaks to me, blinks at me, and
follows my mouse movements on the screen
with her eyes while I read. On another site, a
string of text hails me and addresses me by
name, purporting to welcome me to all the
treasures contained within its digital domains.
As startling as these salutations initially seemed
and as commonplace as they have become, I
remain intrigued by their overt and shameless
invocation of the reader — in this case, me.
Strictly speaking, this mode of address should
not be possible, at least not according to the
familiar conventions of literary tradition. In
Anatomy of Criticism
, Northrop Frye states the
matter unequivocally: “Criticism can talk, and
all the arts are dumb...there is a most important
sense in which poems are as silent as statues.
Poetry is a disinterested use of words: it does
not address a reader directly” (4). While the
examples of address above are decidedly not the
poetical specimens Frye has in mind, his stance
nevertheless serves as a firm response to a larger
problem, one that has endured since the time
of Socrates and persists to this day, a problem
that can be crudely summarized in the following
terms: there has always been something of a gap
between the written word and its reception.
Each time I see my own name staring back at me,
however, I question whether the gap between
text and reader has been in some way bridged,
or at least contracted. Each time the avatar
speaks to me, I am unable to locate myself in
relation to the text no matter which paradigm I
might use to explicate our relationship. Within
a spectrum bounded at one end by the New
Critical emphasis on textual autonomy and at
the other by the “virtual” text that emerges
necessarily as a correspondence between author
and audience in reader-response theory, I do not
know where I stand. With the announcement
of my own name, I am aware that I have been
identified, and therefore can no longer even
maintain the convenient illusion of being, as
a reader, either ideal or implied. I have been
specified. The “text,” such as it is, has called me
out.
The spectrum I have identified here is, of course,
absurdly streamlined and unequally weighted.
The New Critics exclude the reader’s thoughts as
a given principle, while reader-response theory
alone has perhaps generated more ways of
labeling its reading audience than the sum
of other critical interventions combined — in
addition to offering a strong and convincing
counterpoint to Cleanth Brooks’ ideal reader,
Wolfgang Iser’s implied reader is only one star
in a constellation of terms that includes the
mock reader, the actual reader, the fictionalized
reader, the hypothetical reader, the narrative
reader, the ideal narrative reader, and the
“real” reader, not to mention Stanley Fish’s
interpretive reading communities (Brooks, 24;
Iser,
The Implied Reader
, xii; Rabinowitz,
125-128; Fish, 219).
In all of these models of reception, the impulse
to name the reader, to re-assert her importance
in the construction of textual meaning, still
participates in the tacit agreement that this
reader, whoever she may be, is never fully
concretized by the written text. How could she
be? Rather, a “virtual” text emerges as a sort
of ghostly correspondence between the two,
one that is nigh on impossible to trace. In
the words of Iser, “It’s difficult to describe
this interaction...because...of course, the two
partners in the communication process, namely,

2
the text and the reader, are far easier to analyze
than is the event that takes place between
them” (“Interaction Between Text and Reader,”
107).
The hypothesis that I would like to test in
this essay is that works of electronic literature
push the issue of responsibility and specificity
into uncharted readerly terrain. What if, in
certain examples of electronic literature, direct
address online were specific to you, the reading
reader, and not an implied reader? Put more
specifically, pressed even further, what if direct
address online were to make traceable the
ghostly correspondence between reader and text
that Iser outlines? This is not as far-fetched as it
seems. As we shall see, the reader’s participation
in some examples of electronic literature is
required for textual constitution in ways that
are fundamentally different from even the most
successful and extreme examples of non-linear
narrative practices found in print. In the case
of electronic literature, direct address functions
to bring the text into being, by signaling the
reader and requiring a
response
of her. Even
more remarkable, this response has the ability
to become a part of the initial text, such that the
text that emerges is literally constituted through
the feedback that exists between the reader’s
actions and the author’s words.
While many claims about interactivity and
customization have been made about electronic
literature, there has not yet been a sustained
attempt to consider the more specific mode of
address that occurs in such works in relation
to overtly literary practice. In the space that
follows I attempt to remedy this by considering
instances both subtle and overt that occur in
select works of electronic literature — including
Dan Waber and Jason Pimble’s “I, You, We,”
Mary Flanagan’s [theHouse], and Emily Short’s
“Galatea” — that signal, cue, or otherwise
point outside themselves to the reader as she
progresses through the text. If the use of
the vocative in conventional literary texts has
the ability to point not only to characters
within their narrative confines, but to an entire
social, political and cultural discourse that
lies tantalizingly close, yet perhaps ultimately
outside the textual boundaries, I explore
whether modes of address in online works allow
us to exceed these boundaries altogether.
References
Brooks, Cleanth
(2004). 'The Formalist
Critics'.
Literary Theory: an Anthology.
Julie
Rivkin, Michael Ryan (eds.). Malden, MA:
Blackwell.
Fish, Stanley
(2004). 'Interpretive
Communities'.
Literary Theory: an Anthology.
Julie Rivkin, Michael Ryan (eds.). Malden, MA:
Blackwell.
Frye, Northrop
(1957).
Anatomy of Criticism.
Princeton: Princeton UP.
Iser, Wolfgang
(1980). 'Interaction Between
Text and Reader'.
The Reader in the Text:
Essays on Audience and Interpretation.
Suleiman, Crosman (eds.). Princeton: Princeton
UP.
Rabinowitz, Peter J.
(Autumn, 1977). 'Truth
in Fiction: A Reexamination of Audiences'.
Critical Inquiry.
4:1
: 121-141.","txt","2","",""
"1148","11","Entropy and Divergence in a Modern Fiction Corpus","1","The application of statistical methods to
style is now well accepted in author
attribution. It has found less favour in broader
stylistic description. Louis Milic’s pioneering
quantitative work from the 1960s on the style
of Jonathan Swift was vigorously contested by
Stanley Fish, an attack which may well have had
the effect of curbing enthusiasm for this kind
of work. The other important exemplar is John
Burrows’ book on Jane Austen from 1987. I am
not aware of any subsequent books of this kind.
In the proposed paper I aim to demonstrate the
usefulness of two measures from Information
Theory in the broad comparative analysis of text.
One is entropy, which calculates the greatest
possible compression of the information
provided by a set of items considered as
members of distinct classes (Rosso, Craig and
Moscato). A large entropy value indicates that
the items fall into a large number of classes,
and thus must be represented by listing the
counts of a large number of these classes. In
an ecosystem, this would correspond to the
presence of a large number of species each
with relatively few members. The maximum
entropy value occurs where each item represents
a distinct class. Minimum entropy occurs where
all items belong to a single class. In terms of
language, word tokens are the items and word
types the classes. A high-entropy text contains a
large number of word types, many with a single
token. A good example would be a technical
manual for a complex machine which specifies
numerous distinct small parts. A low-entropy
text contains few word types, each with many
occurrences, such as a legal document where
terms are repeated in each clause to avoid
ambiguity. Entropy is a measure of a sparse
and diverse distribution versus a dense and
concentrated one.
A second information-theory quantity which can
serve for generalising about a set of texts is
Jensen-Shannon Divergence (JSD). This gives a
value to each set of items for the distance from
a reference point, generally the mean for the
whole grouping. This distance is calculated as
the sum of divergences between the specimen
and the mean for each of the classes represented
in the set (Rosso, Craig and Moscato). In
language terms the divergence value of a given
text is the sum of the differences between the
counts for the text for each word type used in
a corpus and the corpus mean count for that
word type. Some texts use language in a way that
closely corresponds to the norm of a larger set,
others use some words more heavily, and others
more lightly, than the run of a comparable
corpus. JSD is a measure of normality in this
specialised sense.
There are important caveats for interpreting
these two measures of the properties of a text.
Both are sensitive to text length, if for different
reasons. Given a finite number of word types
available to a given user of a given language,
as a text sample grows, more of the pool is
exhausted, and there is a greater tendency to
recur to already-used word types. Thus in a
novel the word tokens of a single sentence
may well be all different word types, and have
maximum entropy, but this is unlikely to be true
of a paragraph, and still less so of a chapter.
In the case of divergence from a mean, the law
of averages means that for longer texts local
idiosyncrasies tend to be balanced out by a
larger body of less unusual writing and indeed
by contrasting idiosyncrasies.
It is also important to rule out the idea that
entropy and divergence values relate directly to
quality. Entropy is related to a simpler measure,
type-token ratio, sometimes called ‘vocabulary
richness’. Yet ‘richness’ could scarcely be applied
to a fighter plane manual, to revert to the
example used above. One might associate
divergence from the mean with originality or
creativity, but it could just as well be the result
of incompetence.
It is interesting that researchers have found
genre to be a problem both with entropy
work and with studies of intertextual distance
when they are directed at authorship problems
(Hoover, Labbé and Labbé). From a different
point of view, this sensitivity to genre is part of

2
what makes the methods valuable for a more
general assessment of the style of texts.
The corpus for the study in the paper consists
of 377 fiction texts, being the first 25,000 words
of all the texts with 25,000 words or more
in the British National Corpus ‘Imaginative
Fiction’ section. This amounts to 15,421,915
words in all. The texts are predominantly prose
fiction published in the United Kingdom in the
1990s, taken from a wide variety of sources,
short stories as well as novels, intended for
young and young adult audiences as well as
for a general readership. The usefulness of JSD
results depend on the validity of the point
of reference chosen. In the present study the
mean of this large collection of texts of very
varied authorship and genre, within the larger
text type ‘imaginative fiction’, should be a good
approximation of the mean for contemporary
fiction in general.
At the time of writing this proposal work on this
corpus with these methods is at an early stage,
but there are some preliminary findings. The
first is that entropy and divergence are positively
correlated in this corpus. As density decreases
and a wider range of word types are used for
the same extent of text, samples diverge more
from the mean. The individual exceptions to
these broad tendencies are instructive and some
individual examples will be discussed.
It is also possible to see at this early stage
that within the universe of prose fiction these
two quantities align with more impressionist
views of style. High entropy fiction texts follow
a traditional ‘high style’. Their progression
is linear, continuing to move on to new
vocabulary, while low entropy texts retrace their
steps and return to already used words. High
entropy texts are demanding of the reader and
dense in information. They constantly move
to new mental territories; they are taxing and
impressive. Low entropy texts are reassuring
and familiar. They are implicit in their
signification, assuming common knowledge,
while high-entropy texts specify and create
contexts for themselves. High-entropy texts
contain more description and narrative, while
low-entropy texts contain more dialogue.
The challenge for computational approaches to
style is to use the power of statistics working
on the abundant data available from texts
to reveal tendencies which are important, yet
would otherwise be invisible, or remain in the
realm of the impressionistic. The argument of
the proposed paper is that the entropy and
divergence of words provide two useful ways of
understanding fundamental properties of texts.
Entropy and divergence are soundly based in
statistical theory and informative on two fronts.
They open the way to density and normality as
fundamental ways of thinking about style; and
they serve to place particular texts in relation
to sets of comparison texts and thus to map
them in a conceptual space. Short stories and
novels may be virtual worlds, intensely personal
meditations, and human dramas of love and
conflict, but they are also sets of vocabulary
items used with a given frequency, and it is
surprising how much an analysis of that base
level of their existence can reveal about them.
References
British National Corpus, version 2
(2001).
BNC World.
Distributed by Oxford University
Computing Services on behalf of the BNC
Consortium.
Burrows, J. F.
(1987).
Computation into
Criticism: A Study of Jane Austen and an
Experiment in Method.
Oxford: Clarendon.
Fish, Stanley
(1980). 'What Is Stylistics and
Why Are They Saying Such Terrible Things
About It?'.
Is There a Text in This Class?.
Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, pp.
68-96.
Hoover, David
(2003). 'Another Perspective
on Vocabulary Richness'.
Computers and the
+E37Humanities.
37
: 151-78.
Labbé, Cyril, Labbé, Dominique
(2006).
'A Tool for Literary Studies: Intertextual
Distance And Tree Classification'.
Literary and
Linguistic Computing.
21.3
: 311-26.
Milic, Louis T.
(1967).
A Quantitative
Approach to the Style of Jonathan Swift.
Mouton: The Hague.
Rosso, Osvaldo, Craig, Hugh, Moscato,
Pablo
(2009). 'Shakespeare and Other English
Renaissance Authors as Characterized by","txt","2","",""
"1149","11","Finding Stories in the Archive through Paragraph Alignment","1","We present research showing the possibility
of finding stories in a digital text archive
through computational methods. Referring to
the concept of ""archival bond"", we define
stories as formed by documents that relate to
a target activity. We developed a method called
paragraph alignment
to find such documents
and an interactive visualization to discover
connected stories in context with provenance.
Our method was applied to the challenges
presented by the digital archive of a
multinational philanthropic organization who
awarded grants to cultural, scientific, and social
welfare activities (1985-2005). Over fifteen
years, the staff members deposited their work
documents in individual directories on a shared
server without following any record-keeping
rule. These documents reflect the organization's
activities in the areas of Science and Education,
Art and Humanities, and Social Welfare. They
also reflect the staff members' records creation
practices, afforded by the cut and paste function
of the word processor and the possibility
to collaborate through the network. These
digital aggregations are sometimes perceived as
chaotic, defined as ROT (redundant, outdated
and trivial,) and deemed disposable (Henry,
2003; AIIM, 2009; Public Records Office,
2000). Yet they are ubiquitous in the networked
servers of many organizations, so our goal was to
find a method to make sense of the text records
within.
1. Archival Bond
A fundamental concept in archival theory,
known as archival bond, describes the
relationships between documents in an archive
as essential properties of the documents
(Duranti, 1997). While all the documents in a
collection are bonded through the collection's
structure (McNeil, 2000), there are stronger
relationships between sub-groups of documents
that belong to the same function and/or activity.
In the case of disorganized electronic text
archives in which the structure is nonexistent or
loose, we suggest that the relationships among
documents be defined based on their content
referring to a target activity. By finding trails of
documents that narrate stories about activities
in context with provenance, we aim to establish
order, identify structure, and learn about the
archive's creators.
2. Paragraph Alignment (PA)
We observed that in our archive, similar
paragraphs about an activity are repeated across
short - memos and press releases - and long
documents - annual reports and board meeting
minutes. As a group, these documents tell
the story of an activity. We also observed
that in many documents the same personal
names, places, and institutions are mentioned
in relation to different activities, and that
documents that use similar terms may not
be associated with the same activity. The
traditional cosine similarity method measures
global similarity between documents. Given
the characteristics noted in this archive, we
considered that calculating global similarity was
not efficient to identify all the documents about
a target activity. Instead, we draw from local
alignment, a method used in bioinformatics
to evaluate local similarity between sequences
(Gusfield, 1997).
While biological sequences evolve throughout
time owing to constant mutation events,
the parts of the sequences that directly
participate in cellular activities remain relatively
stable. Therefore, global similarity between two
sequences is often less important than the
local similarity, which is defined by the highest
similarity between any two substrings from
two sequences. Efficient methods for computing
sequence similarities often follow a framework

2
in which sequences are broken into n-gram for
similarity computations and then assembled to
derive an overall similarity (Wu et al., 1990).
Here we adapt a similar approach that we
call paragraph alignment to determine archival
bond between documents.
Our method contrasts with previous work on
document segmentation (Hearst, 1994). Rather
than measuring inter-paragraph similarity
within one document to identify subtopic
structure, our approach focuses on comparing
the similarity between document segments
to identify topics across a collection. Hence
the primary goal of document segmentation
is to minimize the variation of length
between documents for subsequent similarity
comparison.
3. Methodology
Figure 1 shows the workflow of our approach.
Figure 1
Each document in a set is broken into one
or more ordered segments based on the
paragraphs in the document. If the length of
a segment (including spaces) is less than a
pre-defined minimum number of characters
threshold (MNCT), the segment is merged with
the following segment. We used MNCT of
1000, 750, and 500 characters. For each set
of document segments we create a matrix of
TFIDF weighted term frequencies after stop-
words removal (McCallum, 1996), and then
calculate the cosine similarity between every
other segment (Salton, 1988). We then process
the resultant matrix to derive similarity scores
between document pairs, which are defined
as the maximum similarity score between
their segments. For evaluation, we compare
the results of the different MNCT with those
obtained by calculating cosine similarity as
a measure of global similarity between the
documents.
We tested the method in a set of 714 documents
from the year 1997 with eight authors. Date and
authorship were preserved in the documents'
file name. The evaluation was based on assessing
seven document test-groups. A team member
familiar with the archive selected five query
documents, each corresponding to a different
activity (test-groups 1, 2, 4, 5, 6) and two
containing summaries of various activities (test-
groups 3 and 7). For each query document, the
team member also identified a set of related
documents. For each test-group, both the cosine
similarity and the paragraph alignment methods
returned a list of documents ranked from
more similar to less similar. The team member
checked the results against the content of the
corresponding document labeling the ranked
document as a ""true positive"" if it was related
to the query document; otherwise the document
was labeled as ""false positive"". Results were
checked until the last true positive was found.
4. Results
Table1
The results show that the PA method with a
MNCT of 750 characters returned better results
five out of seven times (test-groups 1, 2, 4, 5, 6
and 7). For test-group 7, the best results were
obtained with a MNCT of 500 characters. In this
case the query document contained summaries
of five different projects accomplished during
1997, each mentioned in other documents in
the set. This suggests that although related
documents in the set may not share similar
global word distributions, they share similar
word distributions in some of their segments.
While the efficiency of the different MNCT
depends on the particular word distribution
of the documents that are being compared, in
general, the smaller the MNCT used the higher
the documents with less global similarity are
ranked by the PA method. The PA method","txt","2","",""
"1150","11","From Codework to Working Code: A Programmer's Approach to Digital Literacy","1","What does it mean to be digitally literate?
Obviously it entails a basic familiarity with
commonly used technologies, so that one
may navigate the technological life world that
has permeated nearly every aspect of the
human one. One aspect of this knowledge
is the recognition of computer languages,
communications protocols, syntactic forms,
passages of program code, and command
line arguments, even when they have been
taken out of their operational context for
use as literary and rhetorical devices. In
addition to the infiltration of the abbreviated
language of email and text messaging into
mainstream print media, it is now also
commonplace to encounter programming
keywords, symbols, operators, indentation,
and pagination entwined with natural,
non-technical, mother tongue expressions.
Codework
is the term associated with the
literary and rhetorical practice of mixing human
and computer languages (Hayles, 2004; Raley,
2002; Cramer, 2008). Types of codework
span from intentionally arranged constructions
intended for human consumption that do
not execute on any real computer system, to
valid expressions in bona fide programming
languages that are meaningful to both human
and machine readers. Examples of the former
include the work of Mez (Mary-Anne Breeze)
and Talon Memmott, of the latter, the work of
John Cayley and Grahan Harwood (Raley, 2002;
Fuller, 2008). Rita Raley notes, however, that
of the popular electronic literature of the early
twenty first century, there is “less code per se
than the language of code.” In addition to its
infusion for literary effect, program source code
may be cited in scholarly texts like conventional
citations to explain a point in an argument.
Although it is more common to encounter screen
shots of user interfaces, examples of working
source code appear on occasion in humanities
scholarship. This study will briefly consider why
working code has been largely shunned in most
academic discourse, and then identify the types
and uses of bone fide code that do appear, or are
beginning to appear, in humanities scholarship.
Its goal is to suggest ways in which working
code – understood both as code that
works
,
and as the practice of
working
code – plays
a crucial role in facilitating digital literacy
among social critics and humanities scholars,
and demonstrate through a number of examples
how this effect may be achieved.
The first argument in favor of studying computer
code in the context of humanities scholarship
can be drawn from N. Katherine Hayles'
methodological tool of Media-Specific Analysis
(MSA). Probing the differences between
electronic and print media when considering
the same term, such as hypertext, requires
comprehension of the precise vocabulary of
the electronic technologies involved. A second,
more obvious argument comes from the growing
disciplines of Software Studies and Critical Code
Studies. If critical analysis of software systems
is to reveal implicit social and cultural features,
reading and writing program code must be
a basic requirement of the discipline (Fuller,
2008; Mateas, 2005; Wardrip-Fruin, 2009). As
the media theorist Friedrich Kittler points out,
the very concept of what code is has undergone
radical transformations from its early use by
Roman emperors as cipher to a generic tag for
the languages of machines and technological
systems in general; “technology puts code into
the practice of realities, that is to say: it
encodes the world” (Kittler, 2008). Or, following
the title of Lev Manovich's new, downloadable
book, software takes command. Yet both
Kittler and Manovich express ambivalence
towards actually examining program code in
scholarly work. A third argument, which will
form the focus of this study, is reached by
considering the phenomenon of
technological
concretization within computer systems and
individual software applications. According
to Andrew Feenberg, this term, articulated
by Gilbert Simondon, describes the way
“technology evolves through such elegant
condensations aimed at achieving functional
compatibilities” by designing products so
that each part serves multiple purposes","txt","2","",""
"1151","11","From Text to Image to Analysis: Visualization of Chinese Buddhist Canon","1","This presentation is based on software interface
development by a team at the University
of California, Berkeley. The database which
was used for this technology is the digital
version of the Korean Buddhist canon written
in Chinese characters. The tool shown was
built with the help of a two year grant of
support (2007-2009) from the National Science
Foundation. International collaboration has
included the Institute of Tripitaka Koreana in
Seoul who provided scanned images of rubbings
taken from the original printing blocks at Hae-in
Monastery. The software metadata is based on
the previous publication
The Korean Buddhist
Canon: A Descriptive Catalogue
(Lancaster,
1979).
1
A digital version of this catalogue was
made by Charles Muller of Tokyo University
who has made it freely available on the internet
(Muller, 2004).
2
The project has been a part of
the Electronic Cultural Atlas Initiative (ECAI)
and received support from that group’s
Atlas of
Chinese Religions
research funded by the Luce
Foundation. This atlas is being constructed in
collaboration with the GIS Center at Academia
Sinica in Taiwan and will provide references to
the place names associated with the production
of the translations and compilations included
in the canon. Continued research on developing
the software is being done in cooperation
with the School of Creative Media and the
Department of Chinese Translations Linguistics
at City University of Hong Kong. It is important
to understand that no project of this kind could
possibly be undertaken without these multiple
and widespread collaborations.
In the example being described in this
presentation, we use the software to focus on
the digital version of the 13
th
century Korean
printing block edition of the Buddhist canon
(Lancaster, 1996).
3
The canon, represented
on blocks, contains more than 52 million
characters/glyphs carved onto 166,000 surfaces
each producing a page of text when printed. The
number of lines, containing up to 14 glyphs,
on the plates number over three million. The
entire set of the canon is divided into 1,514
different texts representing dated translations
and compilations made over a period of seven
centuries. The size of the data, the temporal span
of its composition, and the history of acquisition
in Korea of the hundreds of texts from China,
provide us with a reasonable challenge for the
interface design.
The previous approach to the study of this
canon was the traditional analytical one of
close reading of specific examples of texts
followed by a search through a defined corpus
for additional examples. When confronted with
166,000 pages, such activity had to be limited.
As a result, analysis was made without having a
full picture of the use of target words throughout
the entire collection of texts. That is to say, our
scholarship was often determined and limited
by externalities such as availability, access, and
size of written material. In order to overcome
these problems, scholars tended to seek for a
reduced body of material that was deemed to be
important by the weight of academic precedent.
In the current digital age, however, the
limits on “what can be considered” in the
Korean Buddhist canon have been significantly
removed. We can consider all of the texts,
all of the words, and all of the metadata
in every search. Consequently, the practices
of traditional scholarship for the canon have
begun to falter. When the entire canon had
been digitized in the last decade of the 20
th
century, the process of search and retrieval
of target words and phrases was transformed.
Nonetheless, problems remain for Buddhist
scholars using this digital version. In many
cases, the menu which appears after a search
of a term can contain thousands of references.
The references presented as a display of each
line where the word occurs can still occupy long
hours of time to analyze and put into some form
of presentation.
We are in need of new ways to display
search results that will allow scholars to
quickly perceive such things as the patterns
of occurrences, examples of clustering, view
of target words with adjacent companion
words, graphic models of profiles of sequence,","txt","2","",""
"1152","11","GIS, Texts and Images: New approaches to landscape appreciation in the Lake District","1","The use of GIS in historical research, Historical
GIS, is now a well established part of the
discipline of history. The field has evolved to
an extent where it can be shown to have made
a significant impact in delivering high-quality
research in books and peer reviewed journals
including the
British Medical Journal
,
Annals
of the Association of American Geographers
,
the
American Historical Review
,
Journal of
Economic History
, and the
Agricultural History
Review
. Most of these studies are, however,
largely concerned with quantitative, social
science-based approaches to historical research.
This paper explores how approaches based on
other sources such as texts and images can
be used to allow GIS to be applied across the
disciplines of the humanities. Early research is
already suggesting that it can and indeed a new
field, spatial humanities, is increasingly being
recognised. This paper will explore one example
of this approach focusing on how we can use
GIS techniques to integrate historical texts and
modern 'born-digital' photographs to gain a
better understanding of landscape appreciation
in the Lake District.
The paper starts by looking at two early tours
of the Lake District, Thomas Gray's proto-
Picturesque tour of 1769 and Samuel Taylor
Coleridge's 'circumcursion' of 1802. We are
currently working to extend this to include
a subset of William Wordsworth's work. This
project extracted place-names from these texts
and matched then to a gazetteer to turn
them into GIS form. The advantage of this
approach is that once the GIS database has
been created the spatial information in the texts
can be mapped, re-mapped, queried, integrated
with other material, and manipulated in a
wide range of ways. The project produced a
range of maps including: simple dot-maps of
places mentioned, density smoothed maps that
use techniques pioneered in epidemiology and
crime mapping to summarise complex point
patterns, and maps of emotional response to
the landscape. Some of these were of the
individual texts, some compared and contrasted
the different texts. Other forms of analysis
integrated data from other sources such as a
Digital Elevation Model of the Lake District, and
contemporary population densities. From these
we were able to show that Gray followed the
main valleys of the Lake District and stayed in
towns overnight. He rarely travelled to heights
of more than a few hundred feet although the
higher peaks, those of over 2,500 feet, attract
considerable attention in his writing. Coleridge,
by contrast, avoided the populous parts of the
Lake District, staying in the Western Fells and
climbing Sca Fell, the highest mountain in
England, among other things. While his ascend
(and hair-raising descent) of Sca Fell is well
known, what is more interesting is that much
of his account is also concerned with time
spent in low places, similar to Gray, and also
that he names places of all heights, especially
those between 1,000 and 2,000 feet which
Gray almost completely ignores. The two tours
barely overlap, the only place where they do
significantly is Keswick, where Coleridge lived
and Gray spent several nights, and the road over
Dunmail Raise between Grasmere and Keswick
although neither account has much to say about
this part of their journey.
This approach takes us into what F. Moretti
(2005) has termed 'distant reading,' a
methodology that stresses summarising large
bodies of text rather than focusing on a few
texts in detail. We also wanted to explore
whether GIS could help with more traditional
approaches to reading. To this end we created a
KML version of the GIS implemented in Google
Earth. This placed a text on the bottom half
of the screen with a Google Earth map on
the top-half. Super-imposed on the map were
the locations mentioned in the texts, which
can be switched on and off in various ways,
and a contemporary map showing the Lakes in
1815. This allows the reader to read the text
while following the locations named using either
Google Earth's modern arial photographs or the
historical map as a backdrop. This therefore
enriches the experience of close reading of
the text by visualising and contextualising the

2
places mentioned. Given the numbers of places
mentioned by both authors even someone highly
familiar with the Lake District is unlikely to be
able to accurately locate all of these mentally.
An alternative approach that this framework
provides is for the user to click on a location
and ask ""what have the different writers said
about this place?"" To enrich this further we allow
users to link from the site to the photographic
website Flickr. Flickr allows people to upload
and share their digital photographs. Users can
tag these with metadata such as 'landscape'
or 'mountain' and can also add 'geo-tags' a
latitude and longitude that give the photo a
location. Using these allows us to link from our
texts to allow the user to see what people have
photographed nearby.
The initial idea behind linking to Flickr was
simply to demonstrate what the different areas
of the Lake District looked like to an audience
who might be unfamiliar with it, and thus
to assist the in-depth reading. It became
apparent however that there are pronounced
geographies within Flickr – some areas are
extensive photographed and some ignored,
while the different tags that people place on
their images also have pronounced geographies.
As Wordsworth is claimed to have extensively
influenced the way people today view the
landscape, particularly in the Lakes, which poses
the question ""is there are relationship between
the geographies of Wordsworth's writing and the
geographies of Flickr."" Using the Flickr API we
were able to extract the number of photographs
geo-tagged to locations in cells of approximately
1km square across the whole of England. This
could be done for all photos or those with
specific tags such as 'mountain(s)' or 'tree(s).'
Mapping all photographs produces some
interesting geographies, in particular, most
photos seem to be taken in the urban centres or
the main valleys. Minor roads such as that over
the passes of Wrynose and Hardknott, also seem
to encourage photography. It may be therefore
that modern visitors to the Lake District, at
least as represented by people who upload geo-
tagged photographs to Flickr, follow a tour
that is more like the Picturesque tours of Gray
than the Romantic experiences of Coleridge or
Wordsworth. In this way we are able to return to
distant reading and to integrate two apparently
incompatible sources: historical writings and
modern digital photographs.
This paper thus demonstrates the potential
of using geo-spatial approaches to integrate
disparate and apparently incompatible sources.
In it we have integrated historical texts,
historical maps, modern environmental
information giving information on the
topography, statistical data from the census
giving population densities, and born digital
images from Flickr. By bringing them together
we have been able to shed new light on a
specific topic, landscape appreciation in the
Lake District. The implications, however, are
far broader. The amount of geo-referenced data
available from multiple sources is increasing
exponentially. This can be expected to continue
particularly given the growth of user-generated
content and the availability of techniques to
automatically geo-reference texts. The challenge
is to use these sources in innovative ways to
shed new insights into research questions in the
humanities. If this can be done successfully it
will lead to a re-awakening of the importance of
geography to the humanities.","txt","2","",""
"1153","11","How Do You Visualize a Million Links?","1","In the past quarter century, established methods
of literary history have been severely contested.
On the one hand, syncretic, single-author
histories have become problematic as a result
of a combination of the expanded literary canon
and a range of theoretical challenges. On the
other, a demand for historicized overviews that
reflect the radical recent reshaping in all fields
of literary study has produced large numbers
of both collectively written histories and
encyclopedias or companions. Literary history
thus tends towards compilations in which
specialists treat their particular fields, at the cost
of integration or of coherence. Meanwhile, the
primary materials are increasingly available in
digital form, and literary historical scholarship
itself is increasingly produced digitally, whether
as versions of established forms such as
journal articles, or in resources that invoke the
potential for new kinds of analysis. Major digital
initiatives over the past decades have focused
almost exclusively on digital resource creation:
the increasingly pressing question is how to use
this expanding body of materials to its fullest
potential.
In this project, we investigate how literary
historical analysis can be extended using various
forms of visualization, using the experimental
Orlando Project as our test bed.
Orlando:
Women's Writing in the British Isles from
the Beginnings to the Present
is recognized
as the most extensive and detailed resource
in its field and as a model for innovative
scholarly resources. Composed of 1,200 critical
biographies plus contextual and bibliographical
materials, it is extensively encoded using
an interpretive Extensible Markup Language
(XML) tagset with more than 250 tags for
everything from cultural influences, to relations
with publishers, or use of genre or dialect.
The content and the markup together provide
a unique representation of a complex set of
interrelations of people, texts, and contexts.
These interrelations and their development
through time are at the heart of literary inquiry,
and having those relations embedded in the
markup, and hence processable by computer,
offers the opportunity to develop new forms
of inquiry into, and representations of, literary
history. Such new opportunities of scale are
often invoked using Greg Crane’s seminal
question, “What can you do with a million
books?” (2006).
We need to be able to ask big, complex questions
while remaining grounded in particularities,
and we need new ways of representing
answers to those questions. This requires new
tools for scholarly research that can access,
investigate, and present new aspects of the
human story and history. In this context, we
contend that the scholarly interface requires
not only experimentation but also careful
assessment to see what works to make digital
materials of real value to humanities scholars.
As argued by Ramsay (2003), Unsworth
(2006), and others, using computers to do
literary research can contribute to hermeneutic
or interpretive inquiry. Digital humanities
research has inherited from computational
science a leaning towards systematic knowledge
representation. This has proved serviceable in

2
some humanities activities, such as editing, but
digital methods have far more to offer the
humanities than this. As Drucker and Nowviskie
have argued, “The computational processes that
serve speculative inquiry must be dynamic
and constitutive in their operation, not merely
procedural and mechanistic” (431).
The
Orlando
encoding system, devised for
digital rather than print textuality, facilitates
collaboratively-authored research structured
according to consistent principles. The encoding
creates a degree of cross-referencing and textual
inter-relation impossible with print scholarship
—not simply hyperlinking but relating separate
sections of scholarly text in ways unforeseen
even by the authors of the sections. It
represents a new approach to the integration
of scholarly discourse, one which allows
the integrating components to operate in
conjunction with, rather than in opposition
to, historical specificity and detail (Brown et
al. 2006c). However, the search-and-retrieval
model of the current interface for
Orlando
,
while user-friendly in that it resembles first-
generation online research tools, cannot exploit
this encoding to the fullest. Search interfaces
only find what the user asks for, whereas
visualization enables exploration and discovery
of patterns and relationships that one might not
be able to search for.
For instance, the current interface permits
users to search for authors by the number
of children they had, and thus to explore
the relationship between literary production
and reproduction. The quantity of material in
Orlando
makes it difficult to see overall patterns
amongst the results. Recent experiments with
the Mandala browser have demonstrated that
visualization permits one to see both interesting
anomalies (e.g. in lives which have demanded
the use both of the childlessness tag and
the children tag), and larger patterns, such
as the non-correlation between high literary
productivity and childlessness or small family
size (Brown et al. 2008). These preliminary
investigations confirm Moretti’s argument
(2005) that visual representations enable kinds
of literary historical inquiry that are not
supported by conventional search interfaces.
Orlando
has the added advantage of making it
possible to dive back into the source material to
see the specifics from which the representation
is produced.
In addition to the Mandala experiments, we
have also been working on a set of designs for
visually summarizing relationships in a manner
that allows interactive exploration (e.g. Fig.
1). Building on the large body of previous
literature in network visualization (e.g. Barabási
2002; Watts 2003; Christakis and Fowler
2009), we are experimenting with new visual
representations for networks of people.
Fig. 1: One of several concepts for summarizing relationships
among authors in Orlando. Here the authors on the path
of connection are shown as coloured circles, where size is
frequency and a unique colour is assigned to each author.
Interviews and observations of users at a
recent hackfest provided some excellent insights
into the sorts of interfaces that are likely to
appeal to users wanting to explore embedded
relationships in a body of texts in an open-
tended way. While point-to-point visualization
was considered to have some value, more
excitement was generated by open-ended
interface sketches, such as a visualization that
resembles a cityscape, even when these were
much less representational than conventional
interfaces for the humanities.
At the same time, Brown and Bauer have been
working on a visualization tool that illustrates
the challenges facing the project of representing
all of
Orlando
’s semantically interrelated data
through a graphical representation based on
nodes and edges. It highlights the difficulty of
providing prospect when dealing with a large
and complexly structured data set, since the
full set of relationships even of a moderate
subset of the 1200 writers becomes unreadable,
with over 16 million edges in the graph. We","txt","2","",""
"1154","11","""It's Volatile"": Standards- Based Research & Research-Based Standards Development","1","You even have
my field guide. It's you I love.
I have believed so long
in the magic of names and poems
I hadn't thought them bodiless
at all. Tall Buttercup. Wild Vetch.
""Often I am permitted to return
to a meadow."" It all seemed real to me
last week. Words. You are the body
of my world, root and flower, the
brightness and surprise of birds.
I miss you, love. Tell Leif
you're the names of things.
—Robert Hass, “Letter”
It's volatile because anciently painted
with wings in this manner whence came
this character
☿
for mercury.
— Sir Isaac Newton, “Praxis,”
Babson Collection (Burndy Library Collection)
MS. 420, Huntington Library
Digital humanities scholarship often integrates
humanities scholarship (literary studies,
historical studies, and so on) with technological
research and development. Some of this
technological work takes the form of standards
development. The most noteworthy example
of such standards development in the digital
humanities community is the Text Encoding
Initiative (TEI). The TEI provides Guidelines
for encoding texts for scholarly and general
use. The TEI is pervasive in digital humanities
and digital library contexts. It is a de facto
standard developed and evolved over the past
twenty some years through the efforts of a
number of dedicated scholars, librarians, and
technologists, and with input from the larger
community of TEI users.
Another standard of significance to the
digital humanities community is Unicode. Our
paper presents a case-study of a successful
effort to have included in the Unicode
standard dozens of characters required by the
Chymistry of Isaac Newton
, an ongoing digital
humanities project to digitize and edit, study
and analyze the alchemical works of Isaac
Newton and to develop various scholarly tools
around the collection. Unicode has become
the universal character encoding standard.
Unicode is nothing more, as it is certainly
nothing less, than a massive mapping of
characters to numbers, a mapping that seeks
to accommodate all the world’s languages
and writing systems, including symbols of all
sorts—mathematical symbols and operators,
astronomical and astrological symbols, Zapf
Dingbats, and many more. Operating systems,
and the applications built upon them—
databases, word processors and text editors,
browsers, graphics software, and games—
depend on such mappings, or encodings, to
reliably reference, store, input, output, and
display textual data. The Unicode Consortium’s
“What is Unicode” page
http://unicode.org/s
tandard/WhatIsUnicode.html
accurately reports
the standard’s significance: ""Unicode is required
by modern standards such as XML, Java,
ECMAScript (JavaScript), LDAP, CORBA 3.0,
WML, etc., and is the official way to implement
ISO/IEC 10646. It is supported in many
operating systems, all modern browsers, and
many other products. The emergence of the
Unicode Standard, and the availability of tools
supporting it, are among the most significant
recent global software technology trends.""
In spite of Unicode’s impressive
comprehensiveness, it does not include every
character ever used. It does not at present,
for instance, include many of the alchemical
symbols found in Isaac Newton’s alchemical
writings. Unicode provides a “private use area,”
a series of reserved
code points
(the numbers
assigned to characters) for projects and products
to use “privately” for mapping to characters
not represented in Unicode. A project like the
Chymistry of Isaac Newton
can make use of
this private use area to map to characters that
are not already described in the standard. A
pitfall of the Private Use Area is that it is
meant to be used privately; it is not suitable
for easily interchangeable or interoperable data.

2
One project’s implementation of the Private
Use Area could conflict with another project’s.
And fonts would not typically include characters
for Private Use Area code points, since by
their nature these codepoints are not assigned
permanently to any one character but are
perpetually open for
private
assignment, not as
part of the public standard.
So when a project stumbles upon a rich
collection of important characters and symbols
that are relevant and useful beyond the
interior confines of one’s own project, one can
make a significant scholarly contribution by
documenting and describing these characters
and proposing them for inclusion in the
Unicode encoding standard. The alchemical
symbols so common in Isaac Newton’s chymical
manuscripts, are common also throughout
manuscript and print alchemical literature. The
graphically and semantically rich symbols also
have potential utility in design, computer art,
and even gaming applications. Even the few
symbols that are potentially unique to Newton
are worthy of consideration in the Unicode
standard, given Newton’s stature as one of the
giants of science and the vast wealth of scientific,
historical, biographical, and popular literature
related to Newton.
Figure 1. Basil Valentine. “A Table of Chymicall &
Philosophicall Charecters with their signs.”
The Last
Will and Testament of Basil Valentine
, 1671. These
and other symbols are commonly found in Newton.
The process by which one moves a Unicode
proposal through the development, review,
and approval process is formal and rigorous.
It is very rewarding in fostering a better
understanding of one’s source material and in
pointing the way to undiscovered or avoided
basic research questions. To encode and identify
characters and symbols, one must name the
things, and naming is indeed a very difficult
and powerful task, a task often challenged and
enriched by puzzling ambiguity and obscurity.
The process is very rewarding also because
it is very much peer-reviewed. Our proposal
greatly benefited from an iterative review and
excellent advice, challenging questions, and
constructive criticism from a number of very
smart, helpful, interested experts serving on the
Unicode Technical Committee (UTC).","txt","2","",""
"1155","11","Joanna Baillie's  Witchcraft : from Hypermedia Edition to Resonant Responses","1","This paper will report on the first year of a
3-year grant funded by the
Fonds québecois
de la recherche sur la société et la culture
led by playwright Patrick Leroux (overseeing
the creative component) and Michael Eberle-
Sinatra (overseeing the academic component).
The specific nature of this group project
is nestled in the promising dialogue to
be established between Romantic literature
scholars, a theatre practitioner, and a scholar
preoccupied with the pedagogy of Romantic
drama using hypermedia as a template and an
engaging interface.
When artists teach, they never quite relinquish
their initial creative impulse. Historical works,
while being taught for their intrinsic value
and larger pertinence within a literary context,
nevertheless solicit a resonant response.
Classroom exercises in both academic and
creative courses suggest that many students
engage in a similar empathic manner when
allowed to prod, question, and interact actively
with a studied text.
The “creative” component of this research-
creation project with strong pedagogical intent
is precisely linked to an artistic response to
the source text, Joanna Baillie’s
Witchcraft
.
In addition to the edited text, its scholarly
annotations and commentary, and the filmed
Finborough production of the play, we will
create workshop situations with actors and
students in which the play will be explored
in rehearsal prompting us to investigate other
manners of staging the work and illustrating,
through filmed documentation, the
process of
reading a text for performance
. Short video
presentations of key creative and interpretive
issues will be edited for inclusion in the
hypermedia presentation. The actual process,
whether filmed or not, will allow the actors and
creative faculty to fully immerse themselves in
Baillie’s world and work in order to fuel their
resonant responses to them.
This second creative component, the
resonant
response
, will take the form of short theatrical
pieces conceived for film. The nuance is essential
as the pieces will not be short cinematic
films but rather short-filmed theatrical pieces.
The emphasis on speech, dramatic action, and
relationship to a defined theatrical space will
differentiate these pieces from more intimate,
image-based cinematic pieces. The resonant
responses could be as short as two minutes
or as long as ten minutes, in order to fully
explore very precise formal issues (a character’s
speech, the subtext in a given dialogue, what
we couldn’t stage during the 19
th
Century but
feel we could now). These creative pieces will be
developed with Theatre, Creative Writing, and
English literature students and faculty.
Existing TEI guidelines for scholarly encoding
do not account for the unique relationship
between a play script and performance practice
and history. Scholarly encoding typically views
the structures of texts in relation to the protocols
that guide how readers interpret documents.
But dramatic scripts require different kinds of
reading and, thus, different kinds of encoding.
Performance-informed inquiry into play texts
depends on a reader’s ability to think about the
range of possibilities—both historically distant
and contemporary—for theatricalization of a
line of dialogue, a bit of physical action, or a
visual space.
Additional historical materials on the theatre
and culture of Baillie’s era will be provided by
team members. For our hypermedia resource
to organize multi-media materials in ways that
will help students in literature classes to use
the hypermedia edition of the play, we will
need to develop innovative customizations of
TEI encoding guidelines. Discovering how best
to support a student reader’s work with a
historically unfamiliar dramatic work provides
an important test case for existing guidelines for
XML encoding of drama.

2
This project will take an innovative approach
in several senses. It will use hypermedia to try
to solve a classroom problem created by plays
with little performance history or connection
to familiar theatrical styles. It will also test
the limitations of the TEI scholarly encoding
guidelines by exploring how, in the case of
play scripts, building hypermedia resources
requires creative, user-oriented strategies of
encoding. The research-creation program will
illustrate how contemporary artists can engage
with historical works, while shedding light onto
the theatrical creative process. Finally, our
Resonant Response to Joanna Baillie’s Drama
will combine scholarly research on Romantic
drama, practice-driven analysis, the creation of
new work, and hypermedia expertise.
This particular research-creation program is
singular and innovative in its combination of
academic close reading, dramaturgical analysis,
dramatic writing and theatrical performance,
filmed theatre, and a resolutely pedagogical
preoccupation with a full and thorough
exploration of the possibilities of hypermedia
edition.
In addition to creating a prototype hypermedia
edition, the project seeks to find out:
-
what value performance annotations can add
to a teacher’s work with students on a seldom-
performed play;
-
how the Text Encoding Initiative’s (TEI)
scholarly encoding guidelines can best be
customized to design hypermedia play
editions;
-
how the process of collaboration among
faculty and students in humanities and
communications disciplines can enrich
understanding of technology’s interaction
with interpretation.","txt","2","",""
"1156","11","LAP, LICHEN, and DASS - Experiences combining data and tools","1","The Linguistic Atlas team at the University of
Georgia (LAP) and the LICHEN research team
at the University of Oulu have been investigating
the application of advances in information
engineering to humanities scholarship, in
particular methods for managing and mining
large-scale linguistic databases. Our aim has
been to bring together the linguistic and
technological expertise from Oulu and Georgia
in order to develop practical solutions for
common problems. In this paper we will show
the results of this cooperation--including the
Digital Archive of Southern Speech (DASS),
the pilot product for LAP-LICHEN released in
2009--and discuss our experiences and lessons
learned.
The LAP audio archive, amounting to 7000
hours of interviews, is an unparalleled resource
for study not only of the common language
of the US but for its culture more generally,
stories of daily life in America. Study of LAP
interviews so far has taken advantage only of
small bits of transcribed data extracted from
the full interview. The large, untranscribed bulk
of LAP interviews consists of the speakers’
accounts of their lives and their families, their
occupations and their diversions, their houses
and their land. Along with direct questioning
and conversational passages, in a quarter of the
thousands of audio files so far processed these
stories take the form of narratives of at least
one minute of continuous speech. To preserve
and to make this audio archive available puts
the people back into what has seemed to
some scholars to be a dry academic exercise
of collecting words. The LAP team has always
appreciated the personal, individual nature of
each interview, as well as the way that the
interviews can represent American culture; with
DASS, we can now share that appreciation
much more broadly with both the academic
community and with the public.
DASS is a collection of 64 interviews from
the Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States (LAGS)
selected by LAGS Director Lee Pederson. Four
interviews come from each of the sixteen
regional LAGS sectors. Within each sector there
is one speaker from each Atlas Type: folk (largely
uneducated and insular), common (moderate
education and experience), cultivated (higher
education and/or participation in high culture).
One African American speaker was selected
from each sector, and folk, common, and
cultivated African American speakers are
distributed across the sectors. Speakers cover
a wide range of ages and social circumstances.
Over 400 hours of audio files are provided both
as large uncompressed .wav files (useful for
acoustic phonetic processing) and as thousands
of small .mp3 files for general listening.
Files are indexed according to subject matter
and speaker, according to a set list of 40
topics. Metadata and finding aids for particular
topics and kinds of speakers are provided,
including search tools and a GIS function.
Together the DASS data and the LICHEN tools
comprise about 200 GB of data, provided on
a portable USB drive. The interviews were
digitized and processed by the LAP team at
the University of Georgia with assistance from
a grant from the National Endowment for
the Humanities (PW-50007, “Digitization of
Atlas Audio Recordings”, with Opas-Hänninen
as partner). The first phase of the LICHEN
project was lead jointly by Opas-Hänninen and
Seppänen and funded by a grant from the
Emil Aaltonen Foundation (2006-2008, with
Kretzschmar as an international collaborator).
The University of Oulu and the University of
Georgia drew up legal agreements regarding
copyrights and the distribution of the software
with the data. The DASS/LICHEN package is
distributed by the LAP.

2
DASS is only the beginning, however. The
research team at the University of Oulu has
developed LICHEN as an electronic framework,
i.e. a type of toolbox, which handles multimodal
data. The toolbox has been developed using
two sets of data as testbeds, namely the
Oulu Archive of Minority Languages in the
North containing samples from the Kven,
Meänkieli, Veps and Karelian languages, as
well as DASS. Some of the data from minority
languages exists as video, which the toolbox
handles along with audio and text. We are
now working on a transcription tool, so that
audio and video materials can be provided
with textual representations aligned with the
sound and video. Finally, we are rebuilding
LICHEN as a Web-enabled framework, so that
users can access our language and cultural
materials remotely in line with the movement
for the creation of public corpora (see, e.g.,
Kretzschmar, Anderson, Beal, Corrigan, Opas-
Hänninen, and Plichta 2006; Kretzschmar,
Childs, and Dollinger 2009).
LAP-LICHEN cooperation began in 2004, when
Kretzschmar, Opas-Hänninen, Anderson, Beal,
and Corrigan met in Newcastle, to follow up
on conversations about public corpora begun
earlier. The group found that there were
common problems, standards, best practices
for the corpora managed by those attending,
and agreed to prepare a presentation at ICAME
in 2005 to highlight the possibility for shared
methods and joint actions (later published as the
2006 programmatic article). The LAP-LICHEN
collaboration bloomed as a result. Grants were
obtained for cooperation: the LICHEN model
was included in a large NEH proposal for
archival digital audio processing for LAP, and
conversely LAP was adopted as the large-
scale test for the enhancement of LICHEN
at Oulu. An operational version of LICHEN
that might be used for LAP was available and
demonstrated at DH2007 (Urbana). Further
development occurred in conjunction with
DH2008 (Oulu), leading to testing of LICHEN
on LAP materials in Georgia in Fall 2008.
As a result of these steps, the collaborators
rewrote the specifications for what the program
needed to do in February 2009, as substantial
bodies of archivally-processed LAP sound files
became available for LICHEN development and
testing. The collaborators decided that the key
requirements for the specification arose from
not only the characteristics of the data (e.g.
the structure consisting of interviews, reels and
clips with metadata and multimedia on each
level) and the desired uses of the framework
(e.g. search, browse, and view possible audio
selections on a map with GIS), but also from the
fact that both tools development and the final
stages of data preparation were taking place
simultaneously. The data had to be available as
flat files usable through any regular file browser,
and the sheer scale of the data ruled out the
possibility of creating duplicate files inside the
program structure as originally designed. The
software needed to make use of the existing files
and file structure, and so the task of combining
the data and the tools became an exercise in
conforming tools to data with as little effect
on the data itself as possible. To this end,
the collaborators developed two methods for
bringing in the data and its associated metadata:
1) a general-purpose parser that could traverse
file and folder structures and evaluate regular
expression patterns to parse metadata from the
file and folder names, and 2) a mechanism for
re-formatting standard spreadsheet documents
into XML documents for use by the tools. The
existence of the tools affected the preparation
of the data in two ways: 1) some incorrectly
named files and folders had to be renamed to
conform to the agreed format, and 2) all text
files had to be converted from the Microsoft
Word format into a plain text format for viewing
from within the developed tools. Both changes
were also beneficial to the data collection
itself, improving consistency within the data
and file support across different platforms. In
turn, the developed tools provide access into
the database through browsing of the data by
natural entities such as interviews, topics and
geographic location (as opposed to just files and
folders) and queries leveraging the full potential
of all the metadata fields.
The DASS product was launched in April 2009
at the SECOL conference (New Orleans), and
public distribution began in the summer of
2009 after resolution of the legal issues of
the collaboration with university authorities
at Georgia and Oulu. Even given the close
collaboration between developers, arriving at
legal language that suited the university
authorities proved to be quite difficult: the
Georgia lawyers thought they could be more
laissez-faire because the product was unlikely","txt","2","",""
"1157","11","Letters, Ideas and Information Technology: Using digital corpora of letters to disclose the circulation of knowledge in the 17th century","1","1. Circulation of Knowledge and
Letters
The scientific revolution of the 17
th
century was
driven by countless discoveries in Europe and
overseas in the observatory, in the library, in the
workshop and in society at large. There was a
dramatic increase in the amount of information,
giving rise to new knowledge, theories and
world images. But how were new elements of
knowledge picked up, processed, disseminated
and – ultimately – accepted in broad circles
of the educated community? A consortium of
universities, research institutes and cultural
heritage institutions has started a project called
CKCC
1
to meet this research question, building
a multidisciplinary collaboratory to analyze
a machine-readable and growing corpus of
letters of scholars who lived in the 17th-century
Dutch Republic. Until the publication of the
first scientific journals in the 1660s, letters
were by far the most direct and important
means of communication between intellectuals.
Therefore the 17th-century Republic of Letters
offers an ideal case for exploring the answers to
this question.
Researchers want to uncover patterns in letters
that are indicative for the circulation of
knowledge, patterns that reveal the emergence
of complex, collective phenomena in modern
science. However, they face some fundamental
problems with finding such patterns in letters.
One cannot know in advance the nature of these
patterns, and only few categorical hypotheses
can be tested by simply data mining the letters.
Purported patterns cannot be tested against the
letters, because the heterogeneous information
on which these patterns are based cannot be
gleaned from the texts, but need considerable
interpretation and contextualization.
Here is a short list of the problems: (i) the
letters are not uniformly available; (ii) the 17
th
century language varieties are not standardised
and pose a challenge for language technology;
(iii) much interpretation is needed to resolve
references to people, places, dates, ideas and
instruments; interpretations are complicated by
the heterogeneity of annotations; (iv) it is not
clear how to set up visualisations of patterns that
are really informative to the historian of science.
These four types of problems will be used to
report on the methodology of the project and on
its results so far.
2. Information technology as a
humanities’ observatory
2.1. Availability of the Letters
CKCC limits itself to the ca. 20,000 letters
written by scholars that were active in the
Netherlands: René Descartes, Hugo Grotius,
Constantijn Huygens, Christiaan Huygens,
Caspar Barlaeus, Jan Swammerdam and
Anthony van Leeuwenhoek. Modern editions of
these correspondences—already published or in
an advanced state of production by members of
CKCC—form the basis of the digitised texts. The
letters, once converted to a minimal TEI format,
will then be made available through e-Laborate,
2
a web-based philological annotation tool that
will be transformed into a collaboratory for the
history of science and the humanities in general.
It serves three purposes: (a) providing scholarly
access to the letters; (b) allowing researchers
to enrich existing datasets and annotate the
letters; (c) using the letters and the input of

2
researchers to visualise patterns meaningful for
the circulation of knowledge.
2.2. Use of other datasets
We will incorporate a particular database
of (meta)data, the
Catalogus Epistularum
Neerlandaricum
(CEN), or the Catalogue of
letters in Dutch repositories. It is a relatively
old database, already available via Telnet in the
early 1990s, before the world wide web came
into being.
CEN is an exhaustive database of letters in the
collections of five Dutch university libraries,
the Royal Library, and four other important
libraries. It contains more than 265,000
descriptions of approximately 1,000,000 letters,
dating from 1600 until the present day (of which
ca. 100,000 from the 17
th
century). It supplies
the following metadata: sender, recipient, place
of sending, year, language, repository and shelf
mark.
The format in which this database will be made
available to the project is to be negotiated with
the owner, OCLC.
3
Usage of this database will enable us to make
assertions about the fraction of the selected
letters with respect to the total body of letters.
Moreover, it allows us to increase the density
of the networks we are interested in, leading to
unprecedented research opportunities.
2.3. Language technology
In order to find meaningful patterns in social
networks of scholars and in circulation of
knowledge language technology is needed. For
this, CKCC is cooperating with CLARIN.
4
The mission of CLARIN is to make
language technology interoperable and to
make linguistic resources accessible on a
European infrastructure, so that all the arts
and humanities can make use of it. The
Netherlands pillar of CLARIN, CLARIN-NL,
5
has already obtained funding for constructing
such infrastructure, and has issued a call
for proposals for adding existing resources to
this infrastructure and writing demonstrator
services. Aided by expertise provided by
CLARIN members, in particular by the
University of Lancaster,
6
CKCC is developing
such a demonstrator. A proposal to this
end has been accepted by CLARIN-NL. The
demonstrator, comprising the correspondences
of Grotius, Const. Huygens and Descartes (ca.
15,000 letters in all), is planned to be completed
by October 2010. It will perform a time-
sensitive keyword extraction, which can be
visualised by means of a dynamic word cloud.
As the source languages are 17
th
century Dutch,
French and Latin, one needs at least spelling
normalisation and harmonisation of keywords
across languages.
2.4. Interpretation and Enrichment
References to people, places and times are often
implicit and can only be retrieved by studying
contextual material or by using secondary
sources. Named Entity Recognisers are helpful,
but it is not possible to rely on technology alone.
In order to get an accurate picture in sufficient
resolution, interplay between manual work and
automatic tools is needed. The collaboratory
based on e-Laborate gives researchers the
opportunity to collect their interpretations of
the texts, compare them to others and to
annotate them with their insights. Over time,
the results of this hand/mind work might
be automatically gathered and incorporated in
enriched transcriptions of the texts.
2.5. Visualisation
By offering meaningful visualizations of the
data, the CKCC will enable humanities
researchers in a wider context to use the
tools and the results yielded. Not only the
relationships between corresponding authors
will be made visible in time and space, but
CKCC also aims at visualizing the dynamics
of knowledge production by focusing on the
emergence of themes in scholarly debates
and social networks of 17
th
century natural
philosophers.
The dynamic word clouds based on keyword
extraction is just a first step. CKCC will
subsequently explore several approaches of
gathering and visualising meaningful patterns,
which are deliberately different in nature. The
first approach (a) is a sophistication of keyword
extraction, and the second one (b) is based on
associations in text. Both methods can be used
to evaluate the results of each other.","txt","2","",""
"1158","11","Litmap: Networked Narratives","1","This paper examines the spatiality of three
contemporary literary narratives using a digital
humanities approach. By this I mean a few
things: firstly, I regard spatiality as a complex
and dynamic historical dimension on par
with temporality, and not just as a static,
passive container in which events independently
transpire. Secondly, I am interested in
examining not only space and place as
represented in texts, but also the spatiality of
the texts themselves, i.e., the materiality of
language. Thirdly, I have built the
Litmap
digital
mapping platform (
http://barbarahui.net/lit
map
) for the purpose of visualizing space and
place in/of texts, which I use in conjunction with
traditional close reading methods in order to
carry out my scholarship.
The definition of spatiality I employ follows
from arguments made by spatial theorists
including Henri Lefebvre, David Harvey, Doreen
Massey, Edward Said and Edward Soja, who
push for an understanding of space and
place as socio-historically produced rather than
somehow existing
a priori
. I argue further
that networked spatiality is a prevalent trope,
organizing principle, and way of understanding
the world in contemporary texts. I show how
this presents itself in the narratives I examine
(in quite a different way in all three) and
is a particularly useful, even crucial inroad
into understanding them. My assertion is that
the three texts at hand can be characterized
as displaying three kinds of topographical
networks:
-
In W.G. Sebald’s
Rings of Saturn
(1997),
geographical places are connected to each
other via a historical network of events, and
the nodes of the network are primarily man-
made architectural structures.
-
In Emine Sevgi Özdamar’s
Seltsame Sterne
starren zur Erde
(2008), geographical places
are connected to one another via the
transnational migrations of people, and the
nodes of the network are these moving
embodied subjects themselves.
-
In Steven Hall’s
Raw Shark Texts
(2007),
language, thought, and memory are material
and have spatial dimensions. Places are
connected to each other via these material
traces, and the nodes of the network, which
are constituted by human subjects and their
linguistic traces, are ephemeral and unstable,
with “un-space” figuring as an otherworldly
yet very real dimension in the narrative’s
spatial imaginary. In addition, the text of Raw
Shark Texts itself is figured as a material body
of language and textual image, with patterned
connections running throughout the book.
Both the core observations listed above and
the sub-arguments presented in the thesis
were arrived at via a combination of
Litmap
-
based and traditional print-based research
methodologies. The current
Litmap
interface
displays a map image of the Earth, with place
names and corresponding information from
each text keyed to that location’s coordinates
on the map. In the case of
Rings of Saturn
,
this allows for a fairly complex mapping since
the nodes of the network in that narrative
correspond to unambiguous geographical place
names and locations. In the case of Özdamar’s
and Hall’s texts, however, this becomes
increasingly challenging as space and place
become more subjective and fluid, requiring new
and creative ways of visualizing data. The use
of digital media to map literature is thus useful
both for revealing what it can and can’t do, and
I argue it is important to recognize both the
strengths and constraints of the medium as we
continue exploring this new area of research.
Moving forward, I plan to develop and extend
the
Litmap
platform both in order to better
address the crucial issues of how to visualize
ambiguous data, and also to improve upon the
existing functionality for searching, filtering,
and browsing. The database underlying the
current system is flexible and extensible enough
to accommodate information from far more
narratives, and I intend to enable users to upload
other books for teaching and research. Once
a large corpora of texts is uploaded, this will
open up the ability to search across time and
space and do other macro analyses of literature.
Perhaps most of all, however, I look forward to

2
making
Litmap
a truly collaborative project. My
hope is to assemble a team of colleagues who
will be invested in working together on creative
technical and design solutions for the platform.
References
Hall, Steven
(2007).
The Raw Shark Texts.
New York: Canongate.
Özdamar, Emine Sevgi
(2008).
Seltsame
Sterne starren zur Erde: Wedding - Pankow
1976/77 2003.
Köln: Kiepenhauer & Witsch.
Sebald, W.G.
(1998).
The Rings of Saturn: An
English Pilgrimage.
Hulse, Michael (ed.). New
York: New Directions Books.","txt","2","",""
"1159","11","Mandoku - An Incubator for Premodern Chinese Texts - or How to Get the Text We Want: An Inquiry into the Ideal Workflow","1","Premodern Chinese texts pose problems that
are difficult to accommodate with the current
TEI text model, which bases the main hierarchy
of a text on its structural content, rather than
on a hierarchy that models the pages, lines
and character positions. For the TEI, this is a
sensible decision and has led to the abolishment
of elements like <page> and <line> in the
latest release of the Guidelines. For premodern
Chinese texts however, especially texts that
are transmitted as manuscripts or woodblock
printings and have not yet seen a modern
edition printed with movable type (let alone
as, more recently, computerized typesetting),
establishing the structural hierarchy of the text
content is, together with the even more daunting
question of establishing the proper characters
of the text (on which see below), an important
part of the research question that motivates the
digitization of the text. Requiring an answer
to this question before a proper electronic text
can be created makes this intractable in the
digital medium and glosses over an important
leap of faith in the creation of a TEI encoded
text. In this paper, I will try to trace some
of the implications and propose an approach
that allows different models of the text for
different stages in the encoding process, thus
closer modeling the process of the creation of an
electronic text.
To arrive at a text properly encoded according
to the TEI Guidelines is not a straightforward
process, but in the setup described here requires
a detour through at least three stages:
-
Draft input of the text without any further
markings;
-
An incubator phase, in which the text is dealt
with as a series of pages (or scrolls), lines and
characters;
-
The mature text, based on the structural
model of a TEI <text>, which is available for
further refinement;
Of these steps, the second one is at the center
of attention in this paper, which will include the
discussion of the following three aspects:
1.
A text model according to these requirements;
2.
Mandoku, an application that allows
manipulating the text;
3.
A transform that specifies how a text
conforming to this specification can be turned
into a TEI encoded text.
1. Different Models for the Same
Text
The structural, content based hierarchy of the
text has to be established as part of the research
process. For this reason, the text at this stage
uses the only hierarchy available, that is the
one that is based on how the text is physically
recorded on the writing surface in the edition
used. During the process of working with the
text, milestone-like elements are inserted at
the starting points of elements of interest,
using the incubator as described in the next
section. Headings are numbered according to
their nesting depth as in a HTML document;
this forms the base for their transformation into
regular TEI nested <div>s followed by <head>
elements.
2. The Incubator: Mandoku
The tool used to manipulate a premodern
Chinese text in the incubator phase has been
called Mandoku. It makes it possible to display
a digital facsimile of one or more editions and
a transcribed text of these editions side by side
on the same screen. From there, the texts can be
proofread, compared and annotated. A special
feature is the possibility to associate characters
of the transcription with images cut from the
text and a database of character properties
and variants, which can be maintained while
operating on the text. Interactive commands
exist also to assist in identifying and record
structural and semantic features of the texts.

2
One of the major obstacles to digitization of
premodern Chinese texts is the use of character
forms that are much more ideosyncratic than
today's standard forms. Since in most cases
they cannot be represented, they are exchanged
during input for the standard forms. This is a
potentially hazardous and error-prone process
at best, and completely distorts the text in
worse cases. To improve on this situation and
to make the substitution process itself available
to analysis, Mandoku uses the position of a
character in a text as the main means of
addressing, allowing the character encoding to
become part of the modelling process, thus
making it available to study and analysis, which
in turn should make the process of encoding
more tractable even for premodern texts. The
current model is still experimental, but initial
results have been encouraging.
Mandoku is work in progress and is developed as
part of the Daozang jiyao project at the Institute
for Research in Humanities, Kyoto University by
Christian Wittern. In this paper, an emphasis
will be placed on the different models of a
text that are underlying the different stages of
preparation of a text and the friction, but also
benefits, that arise out of such a situation. The
following is a screenshot of the main interface,
displaying a facsimile and a transcribed version
of the same text side by side.
Fig. 1.
Mandoku in action
3. Transform to TEI <text>
Finally, as a proof of concept, a XSLT script has
been developed that performs an algorithmic
transformation from the text in the intermediate
format to a text as it has to appear as content of
the TEI <text> element.
This produces a new version of the text with an
inverted hierarchy: The primary hierarchy now
is the content hierarchy, whereas the hierarchy
of the text bearing medium is demoted to a
secondary one, represented by milestones. None
of these hierarchies is a priori superior to
the other, but in the context of the Daozang
jiyao project the purpose of preparing the texts
is to make it available for a study of the
collection, so the emphasis during the later
stages in the life of the text will lie on the
content hierarchy. The problem of overlapping
hierarchies, which is such a scratching itch for
many text projects, poses itself thus in a slightly
different incarnation: The different hierarchies
occur in two different stages of preparation of
the text, which require different viewpoints, but
not simultaneous presentation, which makes it
easier to accommodate the two in our workflow.
The preparation of a TEI encoded
representation of the texts is however not the
ultimate goal of the project. The next phase
requires analytical interaction with the text for
which again the TEI representation might not
be the ideal format to work with, so there
might be a number of different, purpose-specific
derivative formats generated from the TEI texts.
They will maintain the required information to
refer additional information back to the master
files kept in TEI, and to be able to participate
in the ongoing evolving of the master text, to
which transcriptions of more witnesses will be
added, but will otherwise also contain additional
commentary, translation and other information
that will not belong to the original file. The
details of this part of the system are under
consideration now and will be the topic for
another presentation.
4. Conclusions
The current TEI text model does not allow
the direct description of the document as it
appears on a text bearing surface without
also establishing a content hierarchy. For this
reason, a temporary encoding strategy had to
be developed, which is TEI conformant to the
letter, but not to the spirit of the TEI Guidelines
by wrapping all of the text content in one giant
<p> (or possibly <ab>) element. Only after the
structural hierarchy has been established is it
possible to make a transformation to a truly
conformant and satisfying TEI document. The
slight feeling of uneasiness that this workaround
causes might go away once the new <document>
element proposed by the TEI working group","txt","2","",""
"1160","11","Mapping the World of an Ancient Greek Historian: The HESTIA Project","1","HESTIA (the Herodotus Encoded Space-
Text-Imaging Archive
) is an interdisciplinary
project, sponsored by the AHRC and involving
the collaboration of academics from Classics,
Geography and Archaeological Computing, that
aims to enrich contemporary discussions of
space by developing an innovative methodology
to the study of an ancient narrative, Herodotus’
Histories
. Using the latest ICT, it investigates
the ways in which space is represented in the
Histories
, and develops visual tools to capture
the ‘deep’ topological structures of the text,
extending beyond the usual two-dimensional
Cartesian maps of the ancient world. In addition
to exploring the network culture that Herodotus
represents, one of its stated outcomes is to
introduce Herodotus’ world to new audiences
via the internet. This paper will set out in
more detail that methodology, paying particular
attention to the decisions that we have made
and the problems that we have encountered,
in the hope that our project can contribute not
only to offering a more complex picture of space
in Herodotus but also to establishing a basis
for future digital projects across the humanities
which deal with large text-based corpora.
For the purposes of a twenty minute
presentation, we address three key areas of
interest:
1.
To provide the background to the data capture
and digital mark-up of the
Histories
. Our
project differs from many by utilizing a
digital resource already in the public domain:
the text of Herodotus freely available from
Perseus (
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hop
per/
). Though the capture of the digital text
from Perseus (version P4) gave our project
a welcome initial boost, a number of issues
have had to be overcome including procedural
conversion, which involves handing back a P5
text to Perseus.
2.
To sketch out the the type, structure and
categorization of our spatial database. A
PostgreSQL database was chosen because
its PostGIS extension provides excellent
functionality for spatial data and is widely
supported by other applications: one key
principle of HESTIA has been to use open
source software in order to maximize its
potential dissemination and reusability of its
data. By storing information about references,
locations and the text in the database, it
has been possible to provide it to both a
Desktop GIS system and Webmapping server
simultaneously (see figure 1).
3.
To present a sample set of results of the
maps that we have been able to generate
using the geo-referenced database. While
sections 1 and 2 will be of particular concern
to anyone wishing to understand how one
may interrogate spatial data using the digital
resources available, this last stage holds the
greatest interest for the non ICT expert since
it demonstrates the use to which data in
this form can be employed: hence the main
focus of this paper will be on explaining the
five kinds of map that we have been able to
generate:
i.
Geographical Information System (GIS)
maps
. The most basic maps that are
generated simply represent a ‘flat’ image of
the spatial data: that is to say, they mark
all the places that Herodotus mentions over
the course of his work with a single point,
thereby providing a snapshot of the huge
scope of his enquiry. In this way one is
able to gain an overview of the places
mentioned in Herodotus and divide them
according to three different kinds of spatial
category: settlement, territory and physical
feature (see figure 2). A variation on this

2
basic model depicts places according to the
number of times they are mentioned (see
figure 3).
ii.
GoogleEarth
. In order to start
experimenting with public dissemination it
was decided to expose the PostGIS data as
KML: a mark-up format that can be read by
a variety of mapping applications including
GoogleEarth. With this ‘Herodotus Earth’
application, users will be able to construct
‘mashups’ of visual and textual data. So,
for example, since all places are linked to
entries in the database, when one clicks
on a particular location in GoogleEarth, it
will be possible to bring up a dialog box
containing Herodotus’ text (in both English
and Greek) for that particular location for
every occasion when it is mentioned in the
narrative (see figure 4).
iii.
TimeMap
. Whilst it is possible to visualise
narrative change using graphs, and static
differences using GIS, it is more difficult
to visualize spatial changes throughout
the narrative; GIS does not have useful
functionality in this regard except for
the ability to turn layers on and off, a
process which becomes impractical beyond
book level. The most likely candidate to
provide this kind of functionality is an Open
Source JavaScript project called TimeMap,
developed by Nick Rabinowitz, which draws
on several other technologies in order
to allow data plotted on GoogleMaps to
appear and disappear as a timeline is
moved. In collaboration with the project’s
IT consultant Leif Isaksen, Nick Rabinowitz
has adapted his schema in order to
represent the book structure of Herodotus’
narrative in a similar way (see figure 5).
iv.
Database-generated network maps
. Since
the GIS maps outlined in i. have little to say
per se regarding Herodotus’ organization of
space, a key next step has been to explore
rapidly-generated networks based on the
simple co-presence of terms within sections
of the text. The purpose of producing
networks of this kind is to start exploring
the connections that Herodotus himself
makes between places, seeing how strongly
the narrative is bound to geographical
regions, and flagging up potential links
between particular locations (see figure
6). Figure 7 illustrates one such simple
network, that for “territories” across the
entire
Histories
. It shows a series of links
connecting Greece to other areas within the
Mediterranean world: but the territory that
has the strongest connections in this basic
network culture is Egypt. While surprising,
it does make sense on reflection, since for
a better part of one book Herodotus uses
Egypt as the touchstone against which other
cultures, including Persia and his own,
Greece, are compared. It is as a tool of
comparison, then, that Egypt appears to be
the centre of Herodotus’ network picture of
the Mediterranean. Figure 8 complements
this picture by presenting the networks
of physical features, which envelop the
comparison between Greece and Egypt.
v.
Manual network maps
. The automated
maps outlined in iv. rely on ‘counting’ the
number of times two or more places are
connected to each other: they have little
to say about the kind of connection being
drawn. We end our presentation, then, with
a brief comparison to text-based qualitative
analysis, which attempts to categorize
relationships according to fundamental
geographical concepts of movement or
transformation, based on the close reading
of one book (5). Our different approaches
are intended to complement, challenge
and inform each other with a view also
to suggest ways by which the automated
process may be extended, such as by
adopting text-mining procedures.
In sum, this paper aims to meet three outcomes:
1.
To outline a methodology for dealing with
digital data that may be transferred, adapted
and improved upon in other fields of digital
humanities.
2.
To demonstrate the value of digital projects
within the humanities for helping to achieve
‘impact’ by bringing the world of a fifth-
century BC Greek historian into everyone’s
home.
3.
To show the potential for the digital
manipulation of data in posing new kinds of
research questions.","txt","2","",""
"1161","11","Modes of Seeing: Case Studies on the Use of Digitized Photographic Archives","1","Digital humanities scholarship has expanded
beyond its deep foundations in text analysis
to find new meaning and knowledge through
the creative reuse of historical photographs and
other visual resources. Visual studies scholars in
the humanities who wish to work primarily in
the digital domain face a fundamental dilemma
in the choice either to create “purpose-built”
thematic collections tailored to specific studies
(Palmer, 2008) or to make use of collections
digitized for general purposes by an archives, a
library, or other cultural heritage organization.
“General-purpose” digital library collections
are simultaneously mechanisms for delivering
digital surrogates of archival holdings and new
archival collections in their own right that
reflect the decisions that digital curators make
throughout the digitization process (Ross, 2007;
Conway, 2008). The research issues associated
with the actual use in humanities contexts of
these large-scale general-purpose collections of
digital images are profound and as yet largely
unexplored (Saracevic, 2004). Concluding an
important study establishing a typology of use in
image retrieval, Graham (2004, p. 324) observes
that “these
uses
do not tell us what was actually
done with the images once they had been found.”
This paper reports on a multi-case study of the
use of general purpose digitized photographic
archives. The paper’s title is a play on
John Berger’s somewhat forgotten pre-digital
argument in
Ways of Seeing
that reproductions
transform art (including of photographs and
other graphical materials) into information,
and in doing so expose original material
objects to new uses not imagined by either
the artist or, especially, the museums and
archives that collect these artifacts. “It is not
a question of reproduction failing to reproduce
certain aspects of an image faithfully; it is a
question of reproduction making it possible,
even inevitable, that an image will be used
for many different purposes and that the
reproduced image, unlike the original work, can
lend itself to them all” (Berger, 1972, p. 24).
In suggesting that the post-modern critique has
outlived its usefulness in the arena of visual
studies, Mitchell calls for moving beyond Walter
Benjamin’s skepticism of the reproduction by
embracing digital image surrogacy as superior.
“In a world where the very idea of the unique
original seems a merely nominal or legal
fiction, the copy has every chance of being
an improvement or enhancement of whatever
counts as the original” (Mitchell, 2003, p. 487).
Efforts to extract evidence and meaning from
the digitized photographic image extend well
beyond the disciplines of art and art history
to encompass history, a range of other social
sciences, and increasingly the humanities.
Humanists with a propensity toward visual
studies run the gamut from skepticism to
enthusiasm about the processes that digitally
transform the material properties of original
photographs and camera negatives. Koltun
(1999, p. 124) claims that a digitized photograph
“leaves behind another originating document
whose disposal or retention can inspire
other archival debates focused around original
attributes and meanings not ‘translated’ into,
even distorted by, the new medium.” Sassoon
(2004, p. 199) largely sees diminished meaning
(“an ephemeral ghost”) through digitization,
whereas Cameron (2007, p. 67) projects archival
properties onto the “historical digital object”
that are distinctive and original. Skeptics and
enthusiasts on both sides of this argument stake
their claims with little regard for the actual uses
of digitized historical photographs.
This paper exposes varying perspectives on
“modes of seeing” by synthesizing case studies
of seven deeply experienced researchers both
within and outside the academy, ranging from
scholars to serious avocational users to people
whose livelihood depends on finding and
using high quality representations of historical
photographs. The group of study participants is
broadly (but not statistically) representative of
the variety of sophisticated humanities-oriented
uses to which general purpose collections
are put. The participants in the seven case
studies vary widely in terms of demographic

2
characteristics. Three are female; four are male.
Their ages range from 30 to 67. The participants
work and live east of the Mississippi River
in five separate communities. Each case study
revolves around a specific tangible product that
was in some stage of completeness at the time
of the interviews. The form of the products
ranged from books and a dissertation, a complex
and dynamic website, to a database for a
membership organization. For their projects,
participants made use of digitized photographs
delivered from either the Library of Congress’s
American Memory collection or the online
catalog of the Prints and Photographs Division.
Each of the five collections consulted is discrete
within its particular delivery system. The Civil
War Photographs collection is available through
interfaces to both the American Memory and the
PPD databases. A 1872 Turkestan photographic
album and photographs from the National Child
Labor Committee are available in digital form
only through the online catalog. Portions of the
extensive Farm Security Administration/Office
of War Information collection are distributed
through the American Memory interface, but
the entire digitized collection is fully available
only through the online catalog. Finally, the
Bain photograph collection, including a sizable
sub-collection on American baseball, is fully
available digitally through the online catalog
and selectively through the American Memory
interface.
The paper frames the findings on the
use of digitized photographs in digital
humanities scholarship within new theoretical
perspectives on visual literacy (Elkins, 2008)
and remediation (Bolter and Grusin, 1996),
and the practical aspects of imaging for
humanities scholarship (Deegan and Tanner,
2002). The case studies are constructed using an
innovative multi-method qualitative approach
that encompasses archival research in photo
archives combined with a two-stage qualitative
investigation. Stage one gathers background
information and an assessment of expertise
from interview subjects. Stage two consists
of in-depth, semi-structured, in-situ interviews
and observations. A three-part “thinking out
loud” protocol extracts extensive commentary
on the nature of individual and community
expertise, on macro decision making strategies
for creating the research product, and the
character of micro-decisions on the choice and
use of individual photographs. The descriptive
evidence of “modes of seeing” is derived from
a “grounded theory” analysis of interview
transcripts.
Using extracted quotations and extensive
visual examples, the paper presents an
original typological model on the ways that
perspectives of users on visual content, archival
properties, and technical characteristics of
digitized photographic archives combine to
produce distinctive, but often intersecting
“modes of seeing.” One mode, “Discovering,”
takes maximum advantage of the visual detail
discernable in high-resolution digital copies of
camera negatives to find and contextualize new
knowledge. A second mode, “Storytelling,” has
a point of departure in the emotion evoked by
wholly composed photographic images, seeking
hidden narratives surrounding the subjects of
the images, much in the way that textual
archives yield their stories through the power of
provenance. A third mode, “Landscaping,” finds
meaning through the geospatial and temporal
contexts of the images and the circumstances
of their existence, sometimes providing a portal
on technologically mediated power relations.
All three modes carry either a “materialist” or
“anti-materialist” stance that circumscribes the
intimacy of original source and digital surrogate.
The two stances have much to say about trust,
integrity, and the archival nature of digital
collections for humanities scholarship.
The findings have at least three important
implications for the use of general purpose
collections of digitized photographs in a
digital humanities context. First, the study
demonstrates the relationship between the
technical characteristics of digitally transformed
photographs and the construction of visual
narrative. Second, the study exposes how
hidden archival properties embedded in the
transformed archival photographic record
create the context of use for scholars who
privilege digital surrogacy over the material
nature of original sources. Third, the study’s
model of “modes of seeing” diversifies our
understanding of how humanists interpret the
visual order on, beneath, and beyond the visual
plane of the photographic object.
Funding
This work was supported by the U. S.
National Science Foundation [IIS-0733279].","txt","2","",""
"1162","11","Naming the unnamed, speaking the unspoken, depicting the undepicted: The Australian Women's Register story","1","Ensuring evidence of women’s experiences and
contributions to our world are kept for the public
record and adequately represented in memory
institutions has been a key challenge for many
inside and outside of the academy over the last
half century. This material is vital in order to
continue the work of retrieving women’s history
from ‘the shrouds of silence and obscurity’ and
‘fill in the blank half of a huge canvas’.
1
Over the past decade, the Australian Women’s
Archives Project (AWAP) has been developing
the Australian Women's Register (
http://ww
w.womenaustralia.info/
) as a central part of
its strategy to encourage the preservation of
women’s archival heritage and to make it more
accessible to researchers. The Register is a
specialist central access point to information
about Australian women and their achievements
and the multifarious resources in which varying
aspects of their lives are documented. It provides
a gateway to archival and published material
relating to women held in Australian cultural
institutions as well as in private hands. A series
of small and large grants have contributed
to the development of the content of the
Register and the technology in which it is
captured, managed and made available to as
wide an audience as possible via the Web. The
National Foundation for Australian Women,
2
the community organisation behind the AWAP,
plays a significant role in securing project
funding, along with driving innovation in its
coverage and content.
The latest of these grants, an Australian
Research Council Linkage Infrastructure
Equipment and Facilities Grant (ARC LIEF)
awarded in 2008, allowed the exploration of
the Register as part of a federated information
architecture to support historical scholarship
in digital and networked environments. It
involved the investigation of community based
methods for populating the Register, as well
as enabling the harvesting of its content into
emerging national discovery services. With the
National Library of Australia (NLA) as a key
industry partner, a mechanism for harvesting
Encoded Archival Context (EAC)
3
records from
the Register was established for incorporation
into their exciting new
Trove
discovery service,
4
using the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for
Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH).
5
The federated information architecture which
such harvesting services make possible is aimed
at increasing the productivity of all those
associated with the creation, management and
use of source material for historical research. As
well as fostering the development of complicit
systems, it is also about allowing a rich
multiplicity and variety of voices to contribute
their knowledge to resource discovery systems.
It involves scholars' direct participation in
resource description frameworks allowing their
extensive, intimate and fine grained knowledge
of sources and their relationships to areas of
study to become part of networked information
infrastructure. It also aims to provide a
mechanism by which the flow of information
about resources in and out of cultural
institutions is improved, allowing researchers
to discover, explore and make connections
between materials held in disparate locations
efficiently and effectively, and in turn to feed
that knowledge back into the network.
As a pioneering e-Research initiative, the
story of AWAP and the
Australian Women’s
Register (AWR)
offers much insight into the
establishment, evolution and sustainability of
advanced scholarly information infrastructure
to facilitate information intensive collaborative
research in the humanities.
6
It is illustrative
of how digital and networking technologies
change the roles and relationships of scholars,

2
information professionals, universities and the
wider community in order to build greater
capabilities, connectedness, robustness and
resilience into historical/archival/humanities
information systems. Above all it asserts the
value of scholarly principles, re-visioned, re-
imagined and re-distributed for the digital and
networked age, and it places women’s history
firmly in the mainstream rather than being
consigned to the margins. What began ten years
ago as a small, community initiative aimed
at securing the uncertain future of women’s
archival records has developed into a project
of national significance. The fact that it is
a feminist project is entirely relevant to the
story as well, given the distributed and partial
nature of women’s archival collections and the
historical circumstances of their production.
This paper will outline and review the
development of the
Australian Women’s
Register
, by discussing the problem of female
under-representation in the archival record,
explaining the implications of this for historical
researchers and describing how the AWR works
to harness information about existing records
while it creates a new ‘community’ archive in
cyberspace. There will be an emphasis on how it
has and has not been able to address emerging
requirements for e-Humanities infrastructure
as articulated in reports such as
Our Cultural
Commonwealth
; however, the focus will be on
explaining how the successful development of
any e-Humanities infrastructure is shaped by
the strength of the collaboration between users
and developers.
7
It will discuss the content
and technological developments undertaken as
part of the ARC LIEF project, and reflect on
the readiness of various stakeholders of the
Register to take advantage of these capabilities
and participate in the design and development
of future ones.
Notes
1.
The title of this paper owes much to the wonderful words
of Australia’s first female Governor General, Quentin Bryce,
when re-launching the
Australian Women’s Register
on the
13 October 2009. In her speech she highlighted the words
of Adrienne Rich, American poet and feminist, ‘Whatever
is unnamed, undepicted in images, whatever is omitted
from biography, censored in collections of letters, whatever
is misnamed as something else, made difficult-to-come-by,
whatever is buried in the memory by the collapse of meaning
under an inadequate or lying language – this will become,
not merely unspoken, but unspeakable.’ See
http://www.g
g.gov.au/governorgeneral/speech.php?id=625
. The
wordes in quotes come from the same source.
2.
Information about the aims of the National Foundation for
Australian Women can be found at
http://www.nfaw.org/
.
3.
Encoded Archival Context – Corporate bodies, Persons, and
Families (EAC-CPF) is a metadata standard for the description
of individuals, families and corporate bodies which create,
preserve, use, are responsible for, or are otherwise associated
with records. Its purpose is to standardize the encoding of
descriptions of agents and their relationships to resources and
to one another, to enable the sharing, discovery and display of
this information. See
http://eac.staatsbibliothek-be
rlin.de/
4.
Trove
is the National Library of Australia’s new discovery
service, providing a single point of access to resources held
in Australia’s memory institutions and incorporating rich
contextual metadata from a variety of sources. See
http://t
rove.nla.gov.au/
.
5.
OAI Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH) is a
lightweight harvesting protocol for sharing metadata between
services developed by the Open Archives Initiative. It defines a
mechanism for harvesting metadata records from repositories
based on the open standards HTTP (Hypertext Transport
Protocol) and XML (Extensible Markup Language) in support
of new patterns for scholarly communication. See
http://ww
w.openarchives.org/pmh/
.
6.
Christine Borgman,
Scholarship in the Digital Age:
Information, Infrastructure and the Internet
, MIT Press,
Cambridge Massachusetts, 2007.
7.
American Council of Learned Societies,
Our Cultural
Commonwealth: The Final Report of the American Council
of Learned Societies Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for
the Humanities & Social Sciences
, 13 December 2006, 43
pp,
http://www.acls.org/cyberinfrastructure/Our
CulturalCommonwealth.pdf
.","txt","2","",""
"1163","11","No Representation Without Taxonomies: Specifying Senses of Key Terms in Digital Humanities","1","Digital humanities practitioners typically deal
with polysemous terms by specifying the
intended sense of a term in accompanying
documentation (when it is one of the set of terms
in a schema) or by giving a localized qualification
(when the term is being used in a scholarly
article). Granted, practitioners do interrogate
their use of ubiquitous terms: 'theory,' 'model,'
and 'text,' for example, have all been critically
examined.
1
These discussions, however, have
not visibly affected the prevailing ad hoc,
localized approach to sense disambiguation.
In ordinary language use multiple senses are the
norm: we might hope for greater precision in an
academic field, but cannot assume it. ""After all,""
writes Allen Renear apropos of conflicting views
on the essential characteristics of textuality,
""there is not even a univocal sense of 'text' within
literary studies: Barthes's 'text' can hardly be
Tanselle's 'text'"" (""Out"" Note 1 124). The more
finely senses are distinguished, though, the
greater the need for documentation to point to,
the greater the amount of documentation there
must be, and the greater the requirement that
digital resources make all the necessary pointers
available.
There is a case, then, for relieving the
polysemous burden carried by terms like 'text'.
This could be done either by shifting some
senses onto different terms or by adding an
agreed upon set of clearly defined qualifiers
to the original term. One example of different
terms being available is the FRBR Group One
entity types (IFLA Study Group 3.2). It may
not have been the
intention
of the IFLA Study
Group to provide alternatives for 'text', but
unquestionably each Group 1 entity type -
work, expression, manifestation, and item -
corresponds to an existing sense of 'text' and can
therefore be used in place of it. However, while
these types do capture some broad distinctions,
the set is very small.
More ambitious is the taxonomy of texts
proposed by Shillingsburg as part of his
overall concept of a 'script act.'
2
Here the
semantic burden is shifted to a qualifying
phrase and 'text' has the constant sense of
a sign sequence (in material or immaterial
state), whose existence is established by at
least one material instantiation, and which is
intended as a unitary communication (whether
actually finished or not). Extrapolating from
this, we can say that--in relation to this
taxonomy--'textuality' is the exhibiting of such
properties, and 'text' as a general phenomenon
(that is, as a mass noun rather than a count
noun) is some quantity of that which exhibits
'textuality'.
These definitions are ours and not
Shillingsburg's, but derive from his definitions
and are consistent with the principles upon
which his taxonomy is based. Furthermore,
they accord with common senses of those
terms. We emphasize this both because it
has methodological implications and because it
helps us rethink a notion of 'text' that is well-
known in the digital humanities community and
to see its proper relation to the senses just
described.
The quote from Renear given earlier
comes from his discussion of ""theory about
the nature of text"" coming out of the
electronic text processing and text encoding
localities (""Out"" 107). The view Renear
himself espouses--""Pluralism""--developed as a
refinement of the earlier view--""Platonism""--
associated with the assertions made by de Rose
et al in the paper ""What is Text, Really?""
This line of thinking has presented itself as
definitional
, offering a sense to associate with
'text.' Also, by emphasizing its origins in work
on automated document processing, it presents
this sense of 'text' as
fundamental
: that is,
a more universal sense of 'text' than any
sense coming from the traditional humanities
localities, because it is as applicable to tax forms,
memos, and technical manuals as to novels,
plays, and poems. The third thing to note is that

2
this approach has used 'text' in both mass noun
and count noun senses interchangeably, and so
whatever is said about one applies equally to
the other. In the Pluralist view, what defines
text is the presence of one or more structures
of content objects. We believe this view actually
has the opposite effect of what it originally
intended because, despite its avowedly universal
scope, it actually imposes a greater restriction
on what qualifies as a text than Shillingsburg's
taxonomy does. Shillingsburg's categories have
the form QualifyingLabel+'text', where 'text'
has the sense of a sign sequence as described
earlier. The sentence ""Call me Ishmael."" clearly
counts as 'text' in Shillingsburg's sense, and
equally clearly does not count as 'text' in the
Pluralist sense - unless we dilute the sense of the
phrase 'content object' until it includes standard
linguistic structural units such as the clause, in
which case the Pluralist sense simply becomes
the same as Shillingsburg's sense.
What that line of thinking about text, texts, and
textuality that runs from ""What is Text, Really?""
through ""Out of Praxis"" actually describes is a
property that many--indeed most--texts exhibit,
but that is not an
essential
property of a text.
In a footnote to the discussion in ""Out of
Praxis"" Renear acknowledges that the various
meanings 'text' has in the various disciplinary
localities do share a common ground, namely
that ""they all are efforts to understand textual
communication."" But he continues ""I think that
taxonomies of sense are best deferred until after
we have a better understanding of actual theory
and practice"" (124). We think the conceptual
help afforded by the clarity of Shillingsburg's
distinctions shows the opposite is true: having
taxonomies in place first betters our theoretical
understanding.
That last statement brings out the 'chicken and
egg' nature of this problem with terminology,
as many scholars would doubtless argue that
specifying a taxonomy like Shillingsburg's
presupposes
one's holding to a particular theory
of text/textuality. Debating that, however,
would in turn be helped by having a taxonomy of
'theory' available, because what that term means
in digital humanities is itself hotly contested.
As helpful as we believe Shillingsburg's
taxonomy to be, it only clarifies a few items
of the ""essential vocabulary,"" and while we
think his overall 'script act' framework a good
place to start, it needs adding to--for example,
in the area that Shillingsburg calls ""reception
performance"" (
Resisting
77-80). Though he
emphasizes his debt to McGann he doesn't
attempt a taxonomy of the bibliographic codes
that McGann considers such an important
feature of production texts (
Textual
passim).
Nor does he really say what happens to the
notion of illocutionary point when we move from
speech act to script act.
3
This is work still to be
done.
References
Caton, Paul
(2003). 'Theory in Text Encoding'.
ACH/ALLC Annual Conference.
University of
Georgia, Athens, Georgia, May 2003.
Caton, Paul
(2004).
Text Encoding, Theory,
and English: A Critical Relation.
Dissertation.
Providence, RI: Brown University.
DeRose, Steven J., et al.
(1990). 'What is
Text, Really?'.
Journal of Computing in Higher
Education.
2
: 3-26.
Eggert, Paul
(2005). 'Text-Encoding, Theories
of the Text, and the Work-Site'.
Literary and
Linguistic Computing.
4
: 425-435.
IFLA Study Group on the Functional
Requirements for Bibliographic Records
(2009).
Functional Requirements for
Bibliographic Records: Final Report.
International Federation of Library Associations
and Institutions, Amended and corrected
version.
McCarty, Willard
(2009).
Humanities
Computing.
Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave
Macmillan.
McGann, Jerome
(1988).
Social Values
and Poetic Acts: The Historical Judgment of
Literary Work.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press.
McGann, Jerome
(1991).
The Textual
Condition.
Princeton Studies in Culture/Power/
History. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
University Press
Renear, Allen
(1997). 'Out of Praxis:
Three (Meta)Theories of Textuality'.
Electronic
Text: Investigations in Method and Theory.","txt","2","",""
"1164","11","Non-traditional Prosodic Features for Automated Phrase-Break Prediction Brierley, Claire","1","The goal of automatic phrase break prediction
is to emulate human performance in
terms of naturalness and intelligibility when
assigning prosodic-syntactic boundaries to
input text. Techniques can be deterministic
or probabilistic; in either case, the problem
is treated as a classification task and outputs
from the model are evaluated against 'gold
standard' phrase break annotations in the
reference dataset or corpus. These annotations
may represent intentions (of the speaker or
writer) or perceptions (of the listener or reader)
about alternating chunks and boundaries in the
speech stream or in text, where the chunking
bears some relationship to syntactic phrase
structure but is thought to be simpler, shallower
and flatter.
In this paper, we begin by reviewing
methodologies and feature sets used in phrase
break prediction. For example, a tried and
tested
rule-based
method is to employ some
form of 'chink-chunk' algorithm (Liberman and
Church, 1992) which inserts a boundary after
punctuation and whenever the input string
matches the sequence: open-class or content
word (chunk) immediately followed by closed-
class or function word (chink), based on the
principle that chinks initiate new prosodic
phrases.
We discuss the limitations of using traditional
features in the form of syntactic and text-based
cues as boundary correlates, with illustrative
experimental predictions from a shallow parser
and evidence from the corpus. We then discuss
the limitations of evaluating any phrase break
model against a ""gold standard"" which itself only
represents one phrasing variant for an utterance
or text.
There is an emerging trend of leveraging
real-world knowledge to improve performance
in machine learning, including speech and
language applications. Nevertheless, we have
diagnosed a deficiency of
a priori
knowledge
of
prosody
in the feature sets used for the
phrase break prediction task. In contrast, a
competent human reader is able to project
holistic linguistic insights, including projected
prosody, onto text and to treat them as part
of the input (Fodor, 2002). In this respect,
multiple prosodic annotation tiers in the Aix-
MARSEC corpus (Auran
et al.
, 2004) have
been revelatory, since they capture the prosody
implicit in text and currently absent in learning
paradigms for phrase break models.
Insights such as: (i) the
transferability
of
the chinks and chunks rule; plus (ii) the
possibility of encoding a variety of prosodic
phenomena (including rhythm and beats) in
categorical labels (
cf.
the Aix-MARSEC corpus);
plus (iii) an appreciation of prosodic variance
gleaned from corpus evidence of alternative
parsing and phrasing strategies, have informed
the creation of ProPOSEL (Brierley and
Atwell, 2008a; 2008b), a domain-independent
prosodic annotation tool.
ProPOSEL is a
pro
sody and
p
art-
o
f-
s
peech
E
nglish
l
exicon of 104,049 entry groups, which
merges information from several widely-used
lexical resources for corpus-based research
in speech synthesis and speech recognition.
Its record structure supplements word-form
entries with syntactic annotations from four
rival POS-tagging schemes, mapped to fields
for: default open and closed-class word
categories; syllable counts; two different
phonetic transcription schemes; and lexical
stress patterns, namely abstract representations
of rhythmic structure (as in
201
for
disappear
,
with secondary stress on the first syllable and
primary stress on the final syllable).
We then contend that native English speakers
may use certain sound patterns as
linguistic
signs
for phrase breaks, having observed these
same patterns at rhythmic junctures in poetry.
We also contend that such signs can be
extracted from canonical forms in the lexicon
and presented as input features for the phrase

2
break classifier in the same way that real-
world knowledge of syntax is represented in
POS tags; and that like content-function word
status or punctuation, such features are domain-
independent and can be projected onto
any
corpus. One such sound pattern is the subset of
complex vowels, which we define as the eight
diphthongs, plus the triphthongs, of Received
Pronunciation (Roach, 2000: 21-24).
Finally, we test the correlation between pre-
boundary lexical items bearing complex vowels
and gold-standard phrase break annotations on
different kinds of speech via the chi-squared
statistic, to determine whether the perceived
association is statistically significant or not.
Our findings indicate that this correlation is
extremely statistically significant: it is present
in contemporary, formal, British English speech
(Brierley and Atwell, 2009) and seventeenth
century English verse (Brierley and Atwell,
2010a); and it holds for spontaneous as well as
read speech, and for multiple speakers (Brierley
and Atwell, 2010b). We hypothesise that while
complex vowels seem to constitute phrase break
signifiers
in English, this may translate to a
subset of the vowel system in other languages.
References
Auran, C., Bouzon, C. and Hirst, D.
(2004). 'The Aix-MARSEC Project: an Evolutive
Database of Spoken British English'.
Proc.
Speech Prosody.
2004, pp. 561-564.
Brierley, C. and Atwell, E.
(2008a).
'ProPOSEL: A Prosody and POS English Lexicon
for Language Engineering'.
Proc. 6th Language
Resources and Evaluation Conference.
LREC,
2008.
Brierley, C. and Atwell, E.
(2008b). 'A
Human-oriented Prosody and PoS English
Lexicon for Machine Learning and NLP'.
In Proc. 22nd International Conference on
Computational Linguistics.
Coling, 2008.
Brierley, C. and Atwell, E.
(2009).
'Exploring Complex Vowels as Phrase Break
Correlates in a Corpus of English Speech with
ProPOSEL, a Prosody and PoS English Lexicon'.
Proc. INTERSPEECH'09
.
Brierley, C. and Atwell, E.
(2010a). 'Holy
Smoke: Vocalic Precursors of Phrase Breaks in
Milton’s Paradise Lost'.
Literary and Linguistic
Computing.
25(2)
.
Brierley, C. and Atwell, E.
(2010b).
'Complex Vowels as Phrase Break Correlates
in a Multi-Speaker Corpus of Spontaneous
English Speech'.
Proc. Speech Prosody, 2010
(Forthcoming).
Fodor, J. D.
(2002). 'Psycholinguistics Cannot
Escape Prosody'.
Proc. Speech Prosody.
2002,
pp. 83-90.
Liberman, M. Y. and Church, K. W.
(1992).
'Text Analysis and Word Pronunciation in
Text-to-Speech Synthesis'.
Advances in Speech
Signal Processing.
Furui, S. and Sondhi, M. M.
(ed.). New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc..
Roach, P.
(2000).
Phonetics and Phonology:
A Practical Course.
Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 3rd Edition.","txt","2","",""
"1165","11","Objective Detection of Plautus' Rules by Computer Support","1","The metre of the Roman comic poet Plautus
(flourished ca. 200 B.C.) still leaves one
mystified. Although the scientific work of the
19th and early 20th century has established a
number of important rules and licences, the
exact range of these laws and licences remains
a matter of debate. Taking into account these
many open questions it is not surprising that
metrical studies (as well as the important
editions) of Plautus still display a huge amount
of discrepancy in their handling of Plautine
metre. The specific problem consists of the large
number of transmitted verses in the Plautine
corpus and the great complexity and diversity of
competing explanations of remarkable metrical
phenomena.
Therefore, until now the results of scholarship
often fail to convince, since they are based either
on a limited textual basis or deal with a specific
metrical phenomenon from the perspective of a
single law or licence without taking into account
competing explanations.
This paper will cover a wide range of previous
research from both Classics (Lotman 2000)
and literature (Garzonio, 2006) to several
techniques in the field of Computer Science
(Heyer et al., 2008 and Volk, 2007). Metric
analyses can be already be computed on
German poems with only a small set of rules
(Bobenhausen, 2009). Results imply, however,
that foreign words are especially difficult to
handle. In contrast to this, ancient texts pose
a different problem as lots of variations of
an original often exist. For this reason metric
analysis can be divided into three different tasks:
-
Task 1
: Dealing with different
variations
and variations of variations (Andreev, 2009
and Rehbein, 2009). Within this paper, a
primary version of a verse is defined by
researchers from Classics. Differences of
variants in relation to the primary version
are highlighted as described in (Büchler et
al., 2009
1
and Rehbein, 2009). The variance
caused by transmissions of several authors
is also important to consider, however, when
working with fuzziness. Consequently a set
of possible metric analysis annotations are
suggested rather than just one result.
-
Task 2
:
Applying a metric rule-set
to a
text corpus (Bobenhausen, 2009 and Fusi
2008). Within this research - similar to part
of speech tagging (Heyer et al., 2003) – a set
of rules is applied to text. However, only the
most probable metric candidate is selected. In
contrast to that research (Bobenhausen, 2009
and Fusi, 2008), the approach in this paper
scores several possible metric analyses.
-
Task 3
:
Training of a metric ruleset
based on manually annotated data from
researchers. Typically, a fixed set of rules is
taken as presumed, however, new rules need
to be added manually. This paper thus also
focuses on the computation of new rules. The
importance of this step is motivated by the
Theory of Selective Perception. Based on this,
new and uncommon rules are determined
by a computer model that is both objective
and independent rather than selective like a
human being.
In the field of natural language processing
the task of tagging text is quite similar to

2
part of speech tagging (POS). Typically, for
such a tagger a Hidden Markov Model (Heyer
et al., 2008) is trained and is traversed by
dedicated algorithms like the Viterbi algorithm
(Heyer et al., 2008). However, the already
mentioned fuzziness of text variants makes
both the training and traversing steps difficult.
Furthermore, in the training step it is necessary
to observe data on a larger window than the
typical memory of 2 or 3. This would increase
the complexity drastically during the trainings
phase. Within the applying phase the Viterbi
algorithm is typically used (Heyer et al., 2003).
This algorithm reduces all paths locally except
the most probable one. In metric analysis
however this assumption is quite critical since
due to syllable fusion an senarius is not required
to have 12 but can also consist of 17 or 18
syllables.
Motivated by the aforementioned problems of
existing approaches this paper describes a three
step approach. In a first step possible syllables
are computed. This is simply done by using
training data. In contrast to German poems
(Bobenhausen, 2009) the approach is aware
of possible fusions of syllables. In the second
step all possible combinations are computed
instantly removing candidates that do not
fulfil the metric requirements. The training
itself is done by distance-based co-occurrences
(Büchler, 2008) on metric tags. In the last
step metric candidates are scored based on
both the training data as well as the variance
of the alternatively transmitted variances. All
relevant candidates are selected by researchers
of Classics. The remaining metric analysis
is represented in a dedicated visualisation
highlighting the differences of several variants
to the primary version (Büchler, 2009 and
Rehbein, 2009).
As an outcome of this paper several results will
be shown. Besides the difference visualisation
both results and experiences in training and
application of a metric model will be provided.
Both the expected results and the developed
software, which can be easily adapted to other
ancient poets, will give an original input to the
research community and motivate and enable
further investigations in the same spirit.
References
Andreev, V. S.
(2009). 'Patterns in Style
Evolution of Poets'.
Digital Humanities 2009.
Pp. 52-53.
Bobenhausen, K.
(2009). 'Automatisches
Metrisches Markup'.
Digital Humanities 2009.
Pp. 69-72).
Büchler, M.
(2008).
Elemente einer
Forensischen Linguistik
Working report.
Büchler, M., Geßner, A.
(2009).
'Unsupervised Detection and Visualisation of
Textual Reuse on Ancient Greek Texts'.
2009
Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and
Computer Science.
Chicago, Nov. 2009.
Fortson, B. W.
(2008). 'IV, Language and
Rhythm in Plautus'.
Synchronic and Diachronic
Studies.
Berlin / New York.
Fusi, D.
(2009).
An Expert System for
the Classical Languages: Metrical Analysis
Components.
http://www.fusisoft.it/Doc/Act
aVenezia.pdf
http://www.fusisoft.it/Chiron/
Metrics/Default.aspx
(accessed Nov. 10th
2009).
Garzonio, S.
(2006). 'Italian and Russian
Verse: Two Cultures and Two Mentalities'.
Studi
Slavistici.
III
: 187-198.
Heyer, G., Quasthoff, U., Wittig, T.
(2008).
Text Mining: Wissensrohstoff Text – Konzepte,
Algorithmen, Ergebnisse. 2nd edition.
W3L-
Verlag.
Lotman, M.-K.
(2009). 'Word-ends and
Metrical Boundaries in Ancient Iambic Trimeter
of Comedy'.
Studia Humaniora Tartuensa.
1
:
1-16.
http://www.ut.ee/klassik/sht/2000/lotm
an1.pdf
(accessed Nov., 10th 2009).
Questa, C.
(2007).
La metrica di Plauto e di
Terenzio.
Urbino.
Rehbein, M.
(2009). 'Multi-Level Variation'.
Digital Humanities Conference Abstracts.
2009
2009, pp. 11-12.
Volk, A.
(2007). 'Rhythmic Similarity based on
Inner Metric Analysis'.
Utrecht Summer School
Multimedia Retrieval.
Utrecht, Aug. 2007.","txt","2","",""
"1166","11","Open vs. Closed: Changing the Culture of Peer Review","1","Despite our differing research methodologies,
subjects, and motives, the one thing scholars
across the disciplines and around the world
might agree upon is the significance of peer
review. Peer review may be the sine qua
non of academic work; we use it in almost
everything we do, including grant and fellowship
applications, hiring and promotion processes,
and, of course, in vetting scholarly work for
publication. We all operate under the agreement
that peer review is a good thing, by and large,
both a means of helping scholars improve their
work and a system for filtering that work for the
benefit of other scholars.
However, as I argue in
Planned Obsolescence
,
the means by which we conduct peer review
demand careful reconsideration and revision as
academic publishing moves increasingly online.
Clay Shirky has argued that the structures of the
internet demand a “publish, then filter” process,
encouraging the open communication of
all
of
the results of scholarly investigation, followed
by a process that filters those results for quality
(Shirky 2008). I explore the reasons such a
transformation is desirable at length in
Planned
Obsolescence
, primarily that it makes little
sense to replicate a mode of review designed
for print’s economics of scarcity within the
internet’s economics of abundance (see Jensen
2007); if what is scarce in the age of the network
is not the means of production but the time and
attention available for consumption, the best use
of peer review would be to help researchers find
the right text, of the right authority, at the right
time.
A born-digital system of review would work with
rather than against the strengths and values
of the network by privileging the open over
the closed, and by understanding the results
of peer review as a form of metadata enabling
scholars to find and engage with research in
their fields. How to build and implement such
a system, however, remains in question: how
do we devise a networked review system that is
open, honest, and thorough, that draws the best
from the “wisdom of the crowds” (Surowiecki
2004; Anderson 2006) while upholding the
standards that review is meant to serve?
Several examples of online review processes
already exist; within humanities journal
publishing, the most significant may be that
of
electronic book review
; articles submitted
there are posted in a password-protected review
space, where registered users of the site can read
them, leave glosses, and recommend acceptance
or rejection. However, though the editors use my
term “peer-to-peer review” in describing their
system, it falls a bit short of the truly open
system I imagine; the review system is still kept
behind the scenes, and while the reviews are
crowd-sourced, the reviewers producing them
aren’t asked to take responsibility for their
opinions by expressing and defending them in
public. This aspect of peer-to-peer review is key;
just as the quality of the algorithm determines
the quality of a computational filtering system,
the quality of the reviewers will determine the
quality of a human filtering system. Online peer
review must made open and public not just as
a means of increasing communication but as
a means of increasing reviewer accountability,
providing for the ongoing review not just of texts
but of reviewers.
In order to experiment with the possibilities for
an open review system, and with the consent of
NYU Press and my editor, Eric Zinner, I placed
the entirety of
Planned Obsolescence
online in
late September 2009. The text was published in
CommentPress, a WordPress plugin developed
by the Institute for the Future of the Book, which
enables the discussion of texts at a range of levels
of granularity, from the paragraph to the page
to the document as a whole. At the same time,
NYU Press sent the project out for traditional
peer review.
Such experiments have been conducted before;
in 2008, Noah Wardrip-Fruin published a
draft of
Expressive Processing
through
Grand
Text Auto
, while MIT Press sent it to outside
readers. Noah, however, wasn’t seeking to create
a head-to-head contest between closed and
open review; he was motivated by the desire
for feedback from a community he trusted
(see Wardrip-Fruin 2009b). My motives were

2
a bit more complex; I wanted that same
community-based feedback, but I also wanted
to test open review against more traditional
reviews, to gauge differences in the kind and
quality of responses produced within an online
system, and to project the kinds of changes to
CommentPress that might help transform the
plugin into a viable mechanism for peer-to-peer
review.
In slightly less than six months,
Planned
Obsolescence
received 205 comments from 39
different readers (not counting my own 78
responses). These comments are by and large
excellent, and have been extremely helpful in
thinking about the revision of the manuscript.
Most of the comments, however, are
locally oriented; CommentPress’s paragraph-
level commenting strategy encourages a close
attention to the particulars of a text rather than a
more holistic discussion. This focus on the text’s
details in the comments wasn’t unexpected; we
anticipated that the traditional reviews, being
written after the entire manuscript had been
read, would tend to focus a bit more on the
big picture than would comments made in
medias res. This assumption did largely bear
out; the offline reviewers tended more toward an
assessment of the overall argument.
Our first tentative conclusion, then, was
that a functional open review system would
require clearer ways for online reviewers
to leave broader comments. An update to
the CommentPress plugin, released a couple
of months into our experiment, helped
provide that functionality by highlighting the
“community blog” section of the site, which in
theory would allow members of a community of
readers to engage one another in discussion of
their reviews and of the project as a whole. In
actual practice, however, that engagement did
not occur, though it remains unclear whether
this is due to the blog’s belated introduction or
some other issue.
Additionally, however, Zinner asked the offline
reviewers whether they would be willing
to participate in our process, allowing us
to post their reviews for discussion and
response; one, Lisa Spiro, agreed. Spiro’s
willingness to participate, and the generosity
of her review, revealed the importance of
the social commitments involved in the peer
review process. Those scholars who have long
undertaken the often thankless work of peer
review have largely done so out of a commitment
to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
But fostering participation in online discussion
requires not just intellectual interest on the
part of individuals but also a solid, committed
social network. Reviewers participating in an
open process must have a stake in that process
beyond that of the disinterested reader; they
must understand the text and its author to be
part of a community in which they are invested
and to which they are accountable.
Beginning in March 2010, MediaCommons
will conduct another open review experiment,
publishing a small group of papers being
considered for a special issue of
Shakespeare
Quarterly
. Through this experiment, we hope
to explore a number of variables: the relative
weights of commitment to subject matter
and commitment to digital methodologies in
determining participation in open review, the
level of engagement in the review of article-
length (as opposed to book-length) texts online,
and the structures of participation in the review
of work by multiple authors in one venue.
Both experiments involve the review of
comparatively traditional forms of scholarship,
the book and the journal article, which we
have opted to begin with for two reasons: first,
that transforming the processes of reviewing
these forms of scholarship presents the broadest
potential impact on academic publishing as
it exists today, and second, that it confines
the question under consideration to
mode
of
review, rather than expanding into
criteria
for
review. That last is extremely important; many,
if not most, scholars working in new forms of
multimodal scholarship have encountered the
sense that the academy in general does not
know how to review such work. We hope to
experiment in the future with models for review
of new forms of scholarship.
This paper will, in the end, argue that a truly
effective peer-to-peer review system will need
to place its emphasis not just on developing
the technological network but on developing
the social network; it must be focused around
clusters of scholars who are already in dialogue
with one another. It must also be accompanied
by a shift in values that encourages scholars to
understand the business of reviewing as being
a commitment not just to the advancement","txt","2","",""
"1167","11","Pointless Babble or Enabled Backchannel: Conference Use of Twitter by Digital Humanists","1","Microblogging, a variant of a blogging which
allows users to quickly post short updates
to websites such as twitter.com, has recently
emerged as a dominant form of information
interchange and interaction for academic
communities. To date, few studies have
been undertaken to make explicit how such
technologies are used by and can benefit
scholars. This paper considers the use of
Twitter as a digital backchannel by the Digital
Humanities community, taking as its focus
postings to Twitter during three different
international 2009 conferences. This paper
poses the following question: does the use of
a Twitter enabled backchannel enhance the
conference experience, collaboration and the co-
construction of knowledge, or is it a disruptive,
disparaging and a inconsequential tool full of
‘pointless babble’?
Microblogging, with special emphasis on
Twitter.com,
1
the most well known
microblogging service, is increasingly used
as a means of extending commentary
and discussion during academic conferences.
This digital “backchannel” communication
(non-verbal, real-time, communication which
does not interrupt a presenter or event,
Ynge 1970) is becoming more prevalent at
academic conferences, in educational use, and
in organizational settings. Frameworks for
understanding the role and use of digital
backchannel communication, such as that
provided by Twitter, in enabling a participatory
conference culture are therefore required.
Formal conference presentations still mainly
occur in a traditional setting; a divided
space with a ‘front’ area for the speaker
and a larger ‘back’ area for the audience.
Implying a single focus of attention. There is a
growing body of literature describing problems
with a traditional conference setting; lack of
feedback, nervousness about asking questions
and a single speaker paradigm (Anderson et
al 2003, Reinhardt et al 2009). The use
of a digital backchannel such as Twitter,
positioned in contrast with the formal or
official conference programme, can address
this, providing an irregular, or unofficial means
of communication (McCarthy & Boyd, 2005).
Backchannel benefits include being able to ask
questions, or provide resources and references,
changing the dynamics of the room from
a one to many transmission to a many to
many interaction, without disrupting the main
channel communication. Negatives include a
cause of distraction, disrespectful content and
creating cliques amongst participants (Jacobs
& Mcfarlane 2005, McCarthy and Boyd 2005).
Nevertheless research consistently shows the
digital backchannel as a valuable way for
active participation (Kelly 2009) and that it is
highly appropriate for use in learning based
environments (Reinhardt et al. 2009). Recently
microblogging has been adopted by conferences
such as DH2009 to act as a backchannel as
it allows for the ‘spontaneous co-construction
of digital artefacts’ (Costa et al 2008). Such
communication usually involves note taking,
sharing resources and individuals real time
reactions to events.
This paper presents a study that analyses
the use of Twitter as a backchannel for
academic conferences, focusing on the Digital
Humanities community in three different
physical conference settings held from June to
September 2009. During three key conferences
in the academic field (Digital Humanities 2009,

2
That Camp 2009 and Digital Resources in the
Arts and Humanities 2009), unofficial Twitter
backchannels were established using conference
specific hashtags (#dh09, #thatcamp and
#drha09, #drha20091
2
) to enable visible
commentary and discussion. The resulting
corpus of individual “tweets” provides a rich
dataset, allowing analysis of the use of Twitter in
an academic setting, and specifically presenting
how the Digital Humanities community has
embraced this microblogging tool.
1. Method
Data from the three conferences was collected
by archiving tweets which used the four distinct
conference hashtags. (These hashtags were used
prior to and after the conferences, and have
been reused by other conferences, therefore the
corpus was limited to tweets posted during the
span of each conference). This provided a data
set of 4574 tweets from 326 distinct Twitter
users, resulting in a corpus of 77308 tokens,
which were analysed using various quantitative
and qualitative methods which allowed us to
understand and categorize the resulting corpus
effectively.
Quantitative measures were used such as
identifying prominent tweeters, analysing the
frequency of conversations between users
and the frequency of reposting messages
(“retweeting”), and the differing use of Twitter
at the three separate events. Text analysis tools
were also used to interrogate the corpus.
Tweets were then categorized qualitatively using
open coded content analysis where each post
was read and categorized, determining the
apparent intention of each twitter post. It
was necessary to develop our own categories:
although Java et al (2007) present a brief
taxonomy of Twitter user intentions (daily
chatter, conversations, sharing information and
reporting news) they are based on general
Twitter use and were too imprecise for our
needs. Ebner (2008) discovered four major
categories in his study of the use of Twitter
during the keynote presentation at the Ed-
Media 2008 conference, but this is a small study
limited to 54 posts made by ten distinct users,
whereas the DH conferences involved a much
larger user population. Through our analysis,
Tweets were divided into seven categories:
comments on presentations; sharing resources;
discussions and conversations; jotting down
notes; establishing an online presence; and
asking organizational questions. Tweets which
were highly ambiguous were placed in an
Unknown category.
2. Findings
Conference hashtagged Twitter activity does
not constitute a single distributed conversation
but, rather multiple monologues and a few
intermittent, loosely joined dialogues between
users. The majority of the activity was original
tweeting (93%): only 6.7% were re-tweets (RT)
of others’ ideas or comments. The real time
interchange and speed of review of shared ideas
appears to create a context of users offering
ideas and summaries and not spreading the
ideas of others verbatim. 45% of the tweets
during the conference proceedings included
direct references to others’ Twitter IDs, using
the ‘@’ sign, as the source of a quote,
object of a reply or debate. This implies a
form of collaborative writing activity, driving
a conference community of practice (Wenger
1998) who are involved in shared meaning
making and the co-construction of knowledge
(McNely 2009). However, the content of
the tweets indicate that the discussion was
between a few Twitter users rather than mass
collaboration and was not necessarily focused on
conference content.
Jacob and Mcfarlane (2005) discuss
polarization in digital backchannels,
highlighting a conflict between an inclusive
and participatory conference culture and a
fragmentation of conference participants into
cliques only intermittently engaged with the
main presentations. This, in some instances
seems to be the case during the Digital
Humanities conferences, suggesting that newer
members of the discipline or newer uses to
Twitter may be excluded from the discussion.
This also raises the question about official and
unofficial backchannels. When communication
is digitally mediated, backchannels may not
be obvious. That is, even if participants know
who else is participating in an interaction,
this doesn’t guarantee (as it does in the
front channel) that it is an accessible
backchannel. Therefore by its nature an
unofficial backchannel does not enable active","txt","2","",""
"1168","11","Quelques réflexions sur l'effet propédeutique des catalogues des collections des musées en ligne","1","Pour la discipline de l’histoire de l’art,
l’environnement du Web a pu sembler propice
à un rééquilibrage ou à de nouvelles alliances
entre institutions patrimoniales et académiques,
ne serait-ce que pour instaurer «un nouveau
partage de l’image» (Welger-Barboza, 2006).
L’accessibilité croissante de corpus d’images
et de sources (Greenhalgh, 2004) est restée
majoritairement le fait des musées. Et l’on
peut considérer que – à l’exception notable des
antiquisants et des médiévistes, équipes souvent
pluridisciplinaires – les enseignants-chercheurs
en histoire de l’art sont encore faiblement à
l’initiative de corpus d’étude outillés (
Archives
)
répondant aux démarches et méthodes propres
à l’histoire de l’art (CLIR Seminar Report 1988).
L’implication des musées en ligne depuis
15 ans jusqu’au Web 2.0 a donné lieu à
une littérature abondante.
1
Mais l’attention
portée aux publics par les protagonistes inclut
rarement les historiens de l’art, c’est-à-dire
la visée de l’exploitation scientifique de ces
productions, tandis qu’il est fait peu de cas
des catalogues des collections, en tant que tels.
Pourtant, l’offre en ligne des musées mérite
d’être prise en considération du point de vue
de l’histoire de l’art, émanant de l’un de ses
deux corps (
Haxthausen
, 2002). Dans cette
perspective, nous voulons montrer comment les
musées prennent une part non négligeable au
développement des
Digital Humanities
et plus
particulièrement, au titre de la mise en ligne des
catalogues de leurs collections.
Au croisement des missions professionnelles,
scientifiques, éducatives du musée et de son
immersion dans l’évolution de l’environnement
sociotechnique du web, la présentation des
collections des musées en ligne s’inscrit dans
le prolongement d’un outil stratégique de la
discipline, le catalogue. En tant que tel, il
est tout à la fois l’héritier de l’histoire du
catalogue imprimé dont le geste initial revient
au Catalogue Crozat (Recht,1996), des tables
d’inventaires des collections et de l’intelligence
mécanicienne du «montrer-s’orienter-classer»
dont Patricia Falguières situe la source dans
les Chambres des merveilles (Falguières, 2003;
1996). Informatisés, les corpus instrumentés
que sont devenus les catalogues explorent des
relations nouvelles entre les textes et les images,
entre l’œuvre singulière et l’ensemble formé par
la collection. Grâce à leur accessibilité en ligne,
ces catalogues, directement issus de l’activité
des conservateurs, exposent le socle commun
aux «deux histoires de l’art»; en même temps,
ils font partie intégrante de l’offre éducative du
musée à l’adresse de publics indéterminés.
A partir de nos recherches actuelles sur les
bases des collections des musées en ligne, nous
étudions plus particulièrement les choix opérés
pour l’indexation ainsi que les approches des
œuvres par l’image. La problématique générale
tend à identifier et caractériser, à partir de la
pluralité des propositions, les rapports établis
entre, d’une part, les opérateurs de navigation
au sein des corpus et, d’autre part, l’offre d’un
espace d’examen des objets individués.
1. Entre décrire et voir,
l’ajustement du point de vue
A ce stade, nous envisageons que ces deux
composantes essentielles, à savoir: l’indexation,
plus particulièrement l’indexation sujets, et les
outils de visualisation-manipulation de l’image
– d’ailleurs également caractéristiques des
corpus d’étude outillés (
Archives
) – participent
ensemble à la mise en œuvre de points de vue
sur les œuvres et la collection. Cette question
du point de vue, prise dans sa polysémie, unit
les deux familles d’outils mentionnés ci-dessus.
L’indexation, outre l’identification, désigne,
oriente la recherche et constitue un dispositif
de médiation entre l’autorité de l’institution
et les utilisateurs de la base de données.
L’instauration d’un espace virtuel d’étude des
objets sélectionnés les dégage du référent du
catalogue imprimé; l’image est ainsi disponible

2
au traitement et livrée à une série de gestes de la
part des utilisateurs.
La communication illustrera une étape du
travail en cours par deux exemples: le
système d’indexation adopté par
Tate Online
et les instruments de vision rapprochée et de
comparaison du LACMA (
Los Angeles County
Museum of Art
). Ces deux propositions, outre
leurs qualités intrinsèques, sont exemplaires
dans la mesure où elles offrent une
représentation plausible et plus achevée
que d’autres
2
des fondamentaux revendiqués
unanimement par la discipline, à savoir la
description et l’examen visuel des œuvres.
Les descripteurs de
Tate Online
(Glossary
3
) sont
issus pour une grande part de l’ICONCLASS,
vocabulaire contrôlé à l’usage des professionnels
auquel des catégories thématiques ont été
ajoutées. Ainsi, le lexique de la
Tate Online
satisfait à l’exercice académique de description,
dans la mesure où les catégories retenues et
leurs ramifications s’appliquent à déterminer
le rattachement aux courants artistiques, à
identifier les sources et l’iconographie tandis
qu’une forme d’interprétation prend appui
sur des «concepts, sentiments, idées». En
renfort, les thèmes (nature, occupations, loisirs,
etc.) établissent un pont entre des approches
interprétatives spécialisées et non spécialisées.
Cet appareil discursif permet la lecture et
la situation de chaque œuvre au sein de la
collection; en outre, choix original, il s’actualise
en s’exposant lors de l’affichage de chaque
œuvre. Enfin, des rebonds sont proposés à
l’utilisateur, grâce au croisement de termes
placés à des degrés différents d’arborescence
dans chaque catégorie. La formule laisse du jeu
à l’utilisateur pour circuler au sein du cadre
construit par le musée qui propose une lecture
informée et savante partie prenante d’une
propédeutique de l’histoire, du point de vue
du musée. Un véritable complexe composé des
descripteurs, de l’exposition de leur architecture
et des rebonds de classification soutient la
stratégie de médiation du musée.
Le «Viewer» du LACMA présente, d’une autre
façon, un cas de figure intéressant. Dégagées du
catalogue, les œuvres sélectionnées s’inscrivent
dans un espace dédié à la visualisation.
Elles se prêtent à la possibilité d’une vision
exceptionnellement rapprochée grâce à la
numérisation de bonne résolution d’une partie
de la collection (malgré des inégalités de
traitement). Le point de vue sur l’objet
s’est autonomisé des catégories pré-établies
pour se donner libre cours. Si le LACMA
n’est pas le seul à proposer des visions
rapprochées d’un degré important, il présente
l’intérêt original de combiner le zoom à un
comparateur d’images, dressant ainsi le cadre
virtuel d’une table lumineuse. Ici, le dispositif
invite à un exercice propédeutique: l’approche
méthodique de l’examen visuel et comparatif.
Incontestable quant à sa pertinence dans
la pratique disciplinaire, cette représentation
suscite néanmoins l’interrogation à un double
titre.
Hypostasiée, l’approche visuelle ne réduit-elle
pas l’ensemble des méthodes, documentaires
notamment, dans lesquelles elle s’inscrit pour
faire sens, y compris dans une perspective
«attributionniste» ? En second lieu, la
popularisation de la posture de l’examen
visuel – auquel le LACMA contribue –
laisse dans l’ombre la diversité des emplois
de la vision rapprochée dans l’étude des
œuvres, grâce à l’imagerie numérique, selon
des conditions variables: vision des détails ?
Vision de l’invisible à l’œil nu ? Ainsi
de la relation ambivalente entre l’œuvre
et le document : vision rapprochée du
document ? Vision rapprochée de l’œuvre par
le document, dans la lignée de l’imagerie
scientifique ? En ce sens, n’avons-nous pas
affaire à une représentation mimétique de gestes
emblématiques de l’historien de l’art dans son
cabinet d’étude ?
Ainsi, les musées contribuent d’une façon
décisive à la prégnance progressive des
Digital Humanities
dans la représentation et
l’éducation de l’histoire de l’art à l’adresse d’un
large public. Les catalogues des œuvres en ligne
proposent des figures plurielles où se manifeste
l’abandon du référent imprimé au profit de
jeux dynamiques où s’affirme l’autonomie des
dimensions discursives et visuelles. Celles-
ci sont porteuses d’enrichissements et de
contradictions. D’autres approches, portées par
des collections, des corpus formés et informés
dans le cadre de l’université - notamment
des collections individuelles ou collectives –
peuvent bénéficier de ces propositions dont le
musée est prolixe; de ce point de vue, on peut","txt","2","",""
"1169","11","Queste del Saint Graal: Textometry Platform on the Service of a Scholarly Edition","1","In this poster/demo we will present an online
scholarly edition of
La queste del saint Graal
(
The Quest for the Holy Grail
) based on a
manuscript of Lyons public library (Lyon, BM,
P.A. 77) and built in the Textometry platform
(TXM). The particularity of this edition is that
it combines rich paleographic and philological
data (including digital photographs, various
layers of transcription, translation in modern
French and editorial notes) with advanced
linguistic search and analysis tools provided by
textometric software.
Despite some damage (torn miniature in the
beginning, missing folios in the end), Lyons
manuscript is considered to be one of the best
witnesses of the
Queste del saint Graal
, a
13
th
century French novel, part of the famous
""Arthurian"" prose cycle. A well-known edition
by Albert Pauphilet based on this manuscript
was first published in 1923 and has been
regularly reprinted ever since. However, this
edition cannot be used as a trustworthy source
of linguistic data, as it contains multiple
corrections, and the readings of the primary
source are not always accessible.
In the late 1990s Christiane Marchello-Nizia
started working on a new edition, which was
supposed to be closer to the witness, explicitly
correcting only doubtless scribal errors and
equipped with multiple tools to assist the reader
in understanding the text and to explore various
features of its language. This work was to a
large extent inspired by the experience of the
Charrette
Project (Pignatelli & Robinson 2002).
The first prototype of the edition was published
on the web in 2002, and a completely new
version was released in 2009. The edition is still
under construction but its main components are
already in place and can be accessed on the Web
through an early TXM prototype.
These are the following:
-
Old French text (108 000 words);
-
digital facsimile of the manuscript (418 text
columns);
-
modern French translation;
-
scholarly introduction;
-
tools for textometric analysis.
The Old French text is established according
to rigorous editorial principles stated in the
Introduction. A particular feature of the edition
is the respect of scribal punctuation. It is
encoded according to the XML-TEI standard
with special attention to linguistic data. All
words are explicitly tagged and annotated
for part of speech using the Cattex2009
tagset (Prévost&al, to be published). The text
can be displayed and searched in several
presentation forms: a ""traditional"" view (
vue
courante
), close to the norms of French critical
editions (Vielliard & Guyotjeannin 2001),
a ""diplomatic"" view respecting linguistically
significant graphical features of the manuscript
(such as the absence of ""phonetic"" distinction
between
u
and
v
), and a ""facsimile"" view
where all noticeable graphical distinctions of the
primary source are represented. For instance,
medieval abbreviations are tacitly expanded in
the traditional view, they are expanded but
typographically highlighted (using italics) in the
diplomatic view and they are represented by
abbreviation marks in the facsimile view. The
concept of three different views of the source text
is based on the multi-level transcription model
of the Medieval Nordic Text Archive (Haugen
2004). MUFI character codes (Haugen 2009)
are used for ""special"" medieval characters in the
facsimile view (such as abbreviation marks or
letter variants). A MUFI compliant font (such as
Andron Scriptor Web) needs to be installed on
the system to display these characters correctly.
The three views of the Old French text, the
translation and the photographs can be browsed

2
individually or side-by-side in two columns. The
‘diplomatic’ and ‘facsimile’ views, as well as the
translation, are only available for a few folios at
present but they will be progressively edited for
the whole text.
The innovative aspect of this new edition
consists first of all in the integration of
textometric research tools. Those tools assist
the reader by offering qualitative services
like full text search engine to build KWIC
concordances and browse the text through
them, and quantitative services like comparing
statistically the occurrences of different
linguistic phenomena in various parts of the
text or analyzing statistically their collocational
attraction inside various contexts, such as
sentences.
One can open the textometric panel by clicking
on the
Outils
(‘tools’) button in the bottom of
the window. The platform makes it possible
to search for linguistic data (words, parts of
words, parts of speech, phrases, etc.) in any
presentation form using the powerful CQP query
language (IMS Open Corpus Workbench) and
to display KWIC concordances of the search
matches with customizable context size and sort
options. Concordances are displayed in a new
tab next to the search form. The corresponding
page (or column) of the edition is displayed upon
a click on a line corresponding to an occurrence
in the concordance. The words matching the
query are then highlighted (see the figure
below).
Figure 1
In the future, all the main textometric tools
will be interfaced in the edition. These
include specificity, collocates, lexicograms,
etc. The source XML-TEI files of the
Old French text and its modern French
translation will be downloadable under
a Creative Commons license (Attribution-
Noncommercial-Share Alike) as soon as the
edition is stable. The editorial and online
textometric research platform is distributed
with an open source license (GPL v3) and can be
used for publishing on the web various texts with
XML-TEI encoding. The platform can handle
any number of texts, up to several hundred
million words in total.
The poster will display the editorial principles
and several screenshots of the edition.
Interactive work with the edition can be
performed at a demo session.
References
Haugen, Odd E.
(2004). 'Parallel Views:
Multi-level Encoding of Medieval Nordic
Primary Sources'.
Literary and Linguistic
Computing.
19.1
: 73-91.
Haugen, Odd E., ed.
(2009).
MUFI character
recommendation. Characters in the official
Unicode Standard and in the Private Use Area
for Medieval texts written in the Latin alphabet.
Part 1: Alphabetical order. Version 3.0.
Bergen:
Medieval Unicode Font Initiative.
Pauphilet, Albert.
(1923).
La Queste del
Saint Graal. Roman du XIII
e
siècle.
Paris:
Champion.
Pignatelli, Cinzia and Molly Robinson,
eds.
(2002).
Chrétien de Troyes : Le chevalier
de la Charette (Lancelot) : le ""Projet Charette""
et le renouvellement de la critique philologique
des textes, Œuvres et critique, 27.1.
Tübingen:
Gunter Narr Verlag.
Prévost, Sophie, Céline Guillot, Alexei
Lavrentiev and Serge Heiden
(To be
published).
Jeu d’étiquettes CATTEX2009.
Lyon: Équipe de la BFM.
http://ccfm.ens-lsh.
fr
.
Vielliard, Françoise and Olivier
Guyotjeannin
(2001).
Conseils pour l'édition
des textes médiévaux, Fascicule I, Conseils
généraux.
Paris: CTHS, Ecole nationale des
chartes.
Andron Scriptor font page.
http://www.mufi.in
fo/fonts/#Andron
.
Charrette Project.
http://lancelot.baylor.ed
u
.","txt","2","",""
"1170","11","""Quivering Web of Living Thought"": Mapping the Conceptual Networks of Swinburne's  Songs of the Springtides","1","Our paper will discuss conceptual networks
present in Victorian poet Algernon Charles
Swinburne's mid-career collection
Songs of the
Springtides
(1880) and how those networks may
be represented in TEI P5 XML markup and
graphic visualizations driven by the encoded
text.
Swinburne’s work is full of familiar signposts
and nodes, such as his trademark binary
oppositions and pairings: pain/pleasure, life/
death, love/hate, hope/fear, sleep/death. An
incredibly learned poet with an extensive
range of form and allusion, Swinburne’s poems
are packed with often obscure references to
the Bible, classical mythology, and Arthurian
legend. He wrote a number of political
poems addressing contemporary events. He
wrote parodies of other contemporary poets,
including Tennyson, Browning, and Rossetti.
And as Jerome McGann has noted, “No
English poet has composed more elegies
than Swinburne” (McGann 293). These binary
oppositions; the many biblical, mythical
and legendary references; the historical and
contemporary figures who are eulogized in the
elegies and praised in the many tributes and
dedications; the pervasive symbols of song and
the sea: these elements of Swinburne’s verse
all serve as familiar, easily identifiable nodes
of information, laden with meaning acquired
through strategic repetition and structural
integration into the intellectual networks of
Swinburne’s work. We will examine these nodes,
structures and architectonic forms in one of
Swinburne’s most artfully crafted and carefully
designed collections,
Songs of the Springtides
.
The mid-career
Songs of the Springtides
is a
particularly interesting volume in the context of
inter- and intra-textual networks. For
Songs of
the Springtides
, Swinburne originally planned
“a little volume containing three poems upwards
of 500 lines each in length, all of them in a sense
sea-studies” (Swinburne
Uncollected Letters
2:181). The three poems are: “Thalassius,” “On
the Cliffs,” and “The Garden of Cymodoce.” To
this “triad of sea-studies” Swinburne added the
“Birthday Ode” to Victor Hugo. Unannounced
but also present in the volume are three short
poems: the fifteen-line “Dedication” to Edward
John Trelawny, Swinburne’s “old sea king” and
a friend of Shelley’s (Swinburne
Uncollected
Letters
2:181); an untitled sonnet, with the
first line “Between two seas the sea-bird’s
wing makes halt;” and another sonnet, buried
in the notes to the ode for Hugo, “On the
proposed desecration of Westminster Abbey
by the creation of a monument to the son of
Napoleon III.”
This small volume is an artful example of a
deliberately fashioned and architected whole
connected by complex discourse networks of
key concepts that operate within, across, and
beyond the individual poems. Familiarity with
the poems of
Songs of the Springtides
reveals a
few key concepts, figures, or images of particular
import and penetration: Swinburne's pantheon
of literary heroes; song and music; the natural
world, especially the sea; the poet; the text.
In many cases occurrences of these concepts
may be identified algorithmically. However, one
cannot rely on string pattern matching to find
all words and phrases related to a particular
concept. In the case of
song
, for instance,
automated processes may be used to identify
the many clear and obvious occurrences of
this concept, phrases including words such as
song
,
songs
,
sing
,
singer
,
music
, etc. However,
the poems also contain phrases such as the
following: “lutes and lyres of milder and
mightier strings,” which is obviously related
to music, but less susceptible to automated
identification. A combination of automated and
manual markup then has been used to identify","txt","2","",""
"1171","11","Re-linking a Dictionary Universe or the Meta- dictionary Ten Years Later","1","More than ten years ago what was called a meta-
dictionary was proposed as a central part of
the framework for a dictionary laboratory at the
University of Oslo (Ore 2001). The framework
has since functioned as a pivot in the combined
lexical database, text corpus and manuscript
editing system for
Norsk Ordbok
(Norwegian
Dictionary).
Norsk Ordbok
is published in
twelve volumes (to be completed in 2014) and
provides a scholarly and exhaustive account of
the vocabulary of Norwegian dialects and the
written language Nynorsk, one of the two official
written forms of Norwegian.
The architecture of the dictionary framework
described in this paper was based upon both
explicit and implicit assumptions - and some
of the latter were not only not consciously
considered in the construction phase, they have
also led to features or lacks of features in the
system where we now see the need for change.
In this paper we look at problems related to links
between the meta-dictionary and the sources
and show how some of the problems are solved.
1. The meta-dictionary?
In the 1990s a huge amount of lexicographical
source material (dictionaries, slip archives and
texts) was made electronically available by a
national digitization project. By then
Norsk
Ordbok
had produced three volumes out of
twelve. Being a project started in 1930 the future
of the project was highly uncertain. Thus the
original motivation behind the meta-dictionary
was to create a common web based interface
to the background material by inter-linking the
material to a common headword list as a meager
substitute for the edited dictionary. A similar
approach has later been taken by the Dictionary
of Old Norse Prose in Denmark (ONP).
Fortunately, the
Norsk Ordbok
project was
refunded and revitalized in 2001. It was decided
that the new project should be completely
digital. As a result a new version of the meta-
dictionary was designed.
An entry in the meta-dictionary can be seen
as a folder containing (pointers to) possibly
commented samples of word usage and word
descriptions taken from the linked databases
etc. Each entry is labeled by normalized
headword(s), word class information and
the actual orthographical standard used.
The working lexicographers view the meta-
dictionary as an easy access to systematized
source material. The chief editors use it as tool
for headword selection and in dimensioning the
printed dictionary. The database used in the
Cobuild project for lemma selection from the
corpus, is an early example of such a database
(Sinclair 1987).
The
Norsk Ordbok
is a historically oriented
dictionary covering the period 1600 to the
present. The time span and the focus on dialects
make the background material heterogeneous.
The oldest sources are glossaries compiled in
the 17
th
/18
th
centuries, mainly the results of
work done by vicars collecting information
about their parishioners' language on request
from the government in Copenhagen. For the
description of the word inventory of the current
dialects surveys and especially local dictionaries
form valuable sources. The meta-dictionary
constitutes a bidirectional network. Thus the
historical or dialectal dictionary linked to the
system can be used as an entry point to the entire
set of information.
2. Building a dictionary net
The traditional systematic overviews of the use
of words in context have been alphabetically
ordered paper slips with each word in a small
context and the source information. The slip
collections have gradually been replaced by
text corpora. In the
Norsk Ordbok
project the
slip collections are digitized and linked to the
meta-dictionary, and a new annotating tool
for singular language observations has been
developed. A standard TEI-encoded text corpus
spanning the period 1850 to present is gradually

2
constructed. The results from corpus queries can
be stored and linked to the meta-dictionary.
The old and the local dictionaries and glossaries
constitute an important source for historical and
dialectal word usage respectively. Traditionally
such dictionaries and glossaries have been
transcribed to paper slips and stored in the slip
collection. In the new system the dictionaries
could have been included in the corpus.
This may be done with the newer dialect
dictionaries. The old dictionaries are written
in Danish or Latin and would have introduced
a lot of linguistic noise in the corpus. As
these dictionaries are important documents in
themselves it was decided to treat them as
individual works documenting the language
view of their time.
The modern dialect dictionaries are given
an XML-encoding according to TEI’s printed
dictionary format. The 17
th
/18
th
centuries'
dictionaries are represented by printed,
annotated text editions of the original
manuscripts. These editions have been
transcribed and given a TEI markup reflecting
their structure, generally not compatible with
TEI’s printed dictionary format. Due to their
systematic character, <div>-elements can be
used to organize the text into chunks describing
words and thematic sets of words. The
“headwords” are clearly identifiable and are
marked as <w>-elements. The loose structure
implies that there may be more than one
“headword” in each text chunk. The TEI-texts
are stored as blobs in a relational database.
The TEI-texts are chopped up according to
the entries (dictionaries) and the text chunks
(glossaries) and stored together with the
headwords (slightly normalized) in a separate
table structure.
In the early version of the system, the linking
between these sources and the meta-dictionary
were on the <entry> level for the local and on the
<div> level for the old dictionaries. There was no
information about the keyword in the selected
dictionary that was used to create a link. In
some cases when a <w>-element was removed
an invalid link from the meta-dictionary to the
external text sets was left. Today the link is
annotated with the actual headword and the
person responsible for the link.
The process is automatic with a manual check:
a daily job runs through registered dictionaries
and looks for keywords in a special metadata
field in the database. If the word is found but
there is no existing link between the meta-
dictionary and this text unit, a link is created,
and the record in the meta-dictionary is marked
as changed and will be forwarded to an editor for
approval. If the word is not found in the meta-
dictionary, a new entry is created and linked
with the text unit, and this will be sent to the
editor for approval (see also Fournier 2001 and
Gärner 2008 for interlinking of dictionaries).
3. The meta-dictionary and other
dictionary nets
What constitutes a word is an unresolved
linguistic question. A traditional monolingual
dictionary is a word form oriented index to
a set of concepts and meetings where each
entry is indexed by a headword and contains a
possible meaning hierarchy with samples. Word
forms denoting related concepts are connected
by cross references. The Wordnet approach is to
focus on the concepts and collect the word forms
denoting the same concepts in sets of synonyms
(synsets). The synsets can then be organized
according to a predefined ontology such as in
the Global Wordnet Grid (Vossen 2009). The
two ways of organizing word information is fully
compatible. A word net can be converted to
a traditional dictionary and a well organized
dictionary rich on semantic references can be
converted into a Wordnet.
The current meta-dictionary was pragmatically
designed 8 year ago. It has in itself become a
valuable lexicographical documentation system.
The source material spans both in time and
space. Due to the practical purpose, that is,
editing a traditional dictionary, the word forms
are linked mostly etymologically. Thus an entry
covers many concepts as does an entry in
a traditional dictionary. However, the meta-
dictionary also groups how different scholars
have described the meaning of a word from 1600
to the present. The resources comprise the old
digitized paper slip collections, the dictionaries
and glossaries and stored results from querying
the corpus. They all represent collections of
systematized language documentation in their
own right and premises. The entries in the
Norsk Ordbok
are in fact just yet another","txt","2","",""
"1172","11","Reading Darwin Between the Lines: A Computer- Assisted Analysis of the Concept of Evolution in  The Origin of Species","1","Whereas Darwin is nowadays considered the
founder of the modern theory of evolution,
he wasn't the first to use this word in a
biological context: indeed, the word ""evolution""
already had two distinct biological uses at the
time the
Origin of Species
was first published
(Bowler, 2003; Huxley, 1897): ""initially, to
refer to the particular embryological theory of
preformationism; and later, to characterize the
general belief that species have descended from
one another over time"" (Richards, 1998: 4).
Deriving from the Latin
evolutio
, which refers
to the scroll-like act of unfolding or unrolling,
the word «evolution» was first used in biology to
refer to the development of the embryo, mainly
through the formulation, promulgation, and
justification of preformationist and epigenetical
theories. Embryological evolution would receive
its fullest, most modern experimental and
theoretical account in the works of Karl
Ernst von Baer: characterizing embryological
development as a gradual differentiation
process leading from homogeneous matter to
the production of heterogeneity and complexity
of structure, von Baer would usually use the
word
Entwickelung
to refer to this dynamic
phenomenon, often followed by the Latin
evolutio
in parentheses. The ground-breaking
importance of von Baer’s work, as well
as its diffusion in the scientific community
through numerous translations, commentaries,
and appropriations, significantly contributed to
consecrate the embryological use of the word
""evolution"".
As for the use of the word evolution to
describe specific development, its emergence
is closely tied to Lamarckism: even though
Lamarck never used the word ‘evolution’ himself
to refer to the transformation of species
over time and generations, his commentators,
detractors, readers and followers often did
however, thus contributing to the semantic
alteration of the term. Indeed, ""by the 1830s,
the word ""evolution"" had shifted 180 degrees
from its original employment and was used
to refer indifferently to both embryological
and species progression"" (Richards, 1992: 15):
Étienne Renaud Serres used the expression
théorie des evolutions
in his 1827 article
Théories des formations organiques
to refer
both ""to the recapitulational
métamorphoses
of
organic parts in the individual and the parallel
changes one sees in moving (intellectually)
from one family of animals to another and
from one class to another"" (Richards, 1992:
69); von Baer, in rejecting the possibility
of transmutation and the popular idea that
embryological development recapitulates the
progression of the species, used the word
«evolution» to refer to both processes; in
England, naturalists such as Charles Lyell,
Joseph Henry Green, Robert Grant and Richard
Owen also used the word ""evolution"" to both
comment and reject Lamarckism (Bowler, 2003;
Richards, 1993).
While this dual usage of the word and its most
common synonyms at the time (transformation,
development, transmutation...) has been
confirmed in the works of the most important
biologists and naturalists of the first half of the
19
th
century, little is known about Darwin’s own
stance on this matter: did he or not use the word
‘evolution’ or any other word to refer both to
embryological and specific development? This
question, however crucial it may appear, proves
very difficult to answer: while the
Origin of
Species
is generally considered as the birth
document of the theory of evolution, studies on
and around this book often overlook the fact
that the word itself is rarely used by Darwin, the

2
sole and slight exception being the sixth and last
edition (1872) of the work.
1
st
Edition (1)
evolved
: XV (490)
2
nd
Edition (1)
evolved
: XV (490)
3
rd
Edition (1)
evolved
: XV (525)
4
th
Edition (1)
evolved
: XV (577)
5
th
Edition (2)
evolved
: XV (573), XV (579)
6
th
Edition (14)
evolution
: (VII:201(2), 202), VIII (215),
X (282), XV (424 (3))
evolve
: VII (191)
evolved
: VII (191, 202(2)), XV (425, 429)
Occurrences of ""evolution"", ""evolve"",
and ""evolved"" in the Origin of Species
This lexical scarcity doesn’t necessarily mean
however that the concept of evolution isn’t
present elsewhere in the text, where the words
‘evolution’, ‘evolved’, and ‘evolve’ don’t appear.
According to distributional semantics theory,
meaning can be more easily stated as a property
of word combinations than of words
per se
: in
every sentence and paragraph, each word brings
its own constraints to the whole, reduces the sets
of possible words that could fit with it, therefore
increasing the total information conveyed and
structuring the semantic dimension of each
word thus combined. In short, this theory
holds that ""similarities and patternings among
the co-occurrence likelihoods of various words
correlate with similarities and patternings in
their types of meaning"" (Harris, 1991: 341). In
this sense, if concepts are thought of as networks
of such meaning-bearing word combinations,
then, conceptual structures can determine
the semantic dimension of a text without
being properly lexicalized; in other words,
such considerations, while emphasizing the
distinction between the semantic associations
of specific concepts and their embodiment
in natural language, also seem to imply the
possibility of ""reading between the lines"", that
is, of identifying and analyzing concepts on the
sole basis of their relations with other words
and concepts and independently of any proper
designation.
In view of this, the fact that the word ""evolution""
itself is rarely found in the sixth edition of
the
Origin of Species
doesn't necessarily imply
that the lexical and inferential network it
refers to and that constitutes its conceptual
dimension isn’t present elsewhere in the text
and can't be studied in its stead. In this sense,
taking into account word combinations similar
to those where the word 'evolution' occurs
instead of focusing solely on the latter might
be the most reliable way to determine whether
or not Darwin’s concept of evolution in the
Origin of Species
refers to both embryological
and specific development, like most biological
theories of the same period. However, dealing
with word combinations manually might prove
difficult, if not impossible. In light of this, a
new computer-assisted conceptual analysis tool
has been developed by the LANCI laboratory,
one which aims to ""read Darwin between the
lines"", that is to identify where the author
""conceptually"" refers to evolution, regardless of
the presence or the absence of the word itself.
Theoretically speaking, this new approach is
based on two fundamental assumptions: 1) The
inferential nature and dimension of a concept
are linguistically expressed in a differentiated,
contextualized and regularized manner; 2) these
regularities and patterns can be identified or
distinguished using algorithmic, iterative and
automatic clustering methods. Concretely, the
algorithm aims at ""digging deeper into data""
by means of an iterative clustering process.
Following an initial clustering of the analyzed
corpus (in this case, the 974 paragraphs of
the sixth edition of the
Origin of Species
),
the iterative concordance clustering process
starts by retrieving the most characteristic
word of each cluster containing the word(s)
to be analyzed, that is, the word that has
the higest TF.IDF rating (Term Frequency –
Inverted Document Frequency) for each of
these clusters. Then, the concordance of each
of these characteristic words is extracted from
the corpus, and the same process of clustering,
cluster selection, TF.IDF rating and ranking,
word selection and concordance extraction is
performed on each of those new concordances,
until no new characteristic word is found or
no more clusters containing the word(s) to be
analyzed are found.
1. Concordance
extraction:
For each cluster containing the word(s) to
be analyzed, extract the concordance of the
highest-TF.IDF-ranked word.
2. Concordance
clustering:
For each previously unselected word, proceed
to the clustering of its concordance.
3. Iteration:
Return to step 1, unless 1) no new highest-
TF.IDF-ranked word is found, or 2) no
clusters containing the word(s) to be analyzed
are found.
Iterative Concordance Clustering Algorithm","txt","2","",""
"1173","11","Reimagining the Dictionary, or Why Lexicography Needs Digital Humanities","1","The promise of eLexicography stems not only
from the transformation of the production
medium, but also from the technological
feasibility of representing linguistic complexity.
Even though modern lexicography is
unimaginable without computer technology
(Hockey, 2000a; Knowles, 1989; Meijs, 1992),
the sheer use of computers in producing
a dictionary or delivering it electronically
does not automatically transform a dictionary
from ""a simple artefact"" to a ""more complex
lexical architecture,"" to use Sinclair's (2000)
formulations.
Calling dictionaries “simple artefacts” is itself a
rhetorical oversimplification: there is certainly
nothing simple about a dictionary — whether we
look at it as a material object, cultural product
or a model of language. Yet the overall structure
of dictionaries as extended word lists has not
changed in centuries (Hausmann et al., 1989;
Fontenelle, 2008; Atkins and Rundell, 2008).
Admittedly, a great deal of factual information
is packed into a prototypical lexicographic
entry, but a defined term often remains
in isolation and insufficiently connected or
embedded into the language system as a whole.
This is what Miller refers to as the “woeful
incompleteness” (Miller at al.) of a traditional
dictionary entry, and what Shvedova sees as
its “paradoxical nature” — dictionary entries
tend to be “lexicocentric” while language itself is
“class-centric” (Шведова, 1988).
Furthermore, the advances in digital
humanities, textual studies and postmodern
literary theory do not seem to have had a
profound effect on the way we theorize or
produce dictionaries. Surely, many important
lexicographic projects have been digitalized
and gone online; web-portals increasingly
offer cumulative searches across different
dictionaries; and eLexicography is a thriving
field (Lemberg et al., 2001; Hockey, 2000a; de
Schryver; Hass, 2005; Nielsen, 2009; Rundell,
2009; Hass, 2005), yet dictionaries — often
commercial enterprises which are guided by
predominantly economic concerns — remain by
far and large discrete objects: no more and no
less than digitalized versions of stable, print
editions. We still consult dictionaries by going to
a particular web site. Dictionaries do not come
to us.
The time is ripe to ask — both in theoretical
and practical terms — a new set of questions:
how has the electronic text changed our notion
of what a dictionary is (and ought to be); how
have the methods of digital humanities and the
advances made in digital libraries altered our
idea of what a dictionary can (and should) do?
And, finally, where do we go from here?
The dictionary is a kind of text. In print
culture, the dictionary, like every other text,
had its material and semantic dimension. The
semantic dimension was represented on its
visible surface, whereas its depth was in the
mind of the reader, or what Eco refers to as
the ""encyclopedia of the reader."" (Eco et al.,
1992; Eco, 1979). Yet if we — as we should
— start thinking of the dictionary as a kind of
electronic text, the way Kathrine Hayles and
others have done for electronic literature, we
will have no choice but to strip the dictionary
of its finality and its ""object-ness"" and see in it,
instead, only one possible manifestation of the
database in which it is stored (Hayles, 2003;
Hayles, 2006; Folsom, 2007). A digital text
can be not only edited, transformed, cut and
pasted — as part of our computational textual
kinetics — but is always part of other activities:
search, downloading, surfing. In other words,
an electronic text is unimaginable without its
context (Aarseth, 1997; DeRose et al., 1990;
Hockey, 2000b).
The dictionary, then, should be seen as a
kind of semantic potential that can be realized
through its use. But in order to truly fulfill
this potential, the dictionary needs to be
embedded in the digital flow of our textual
production and reception. That is why we
cannot think of dictionaries any more without
thinking about digital libraries and the status

2
which electronic texts have in them (Andrews
and Law, 2004; Candela et al., 2007; Kruk
and McDaniel, 2009; Maness, 2006; Miller,
2005; Novotny, 2006). To be truly useful
for any kind of textual studies, the digital
library must ""explode"" the text (by providing
full-content searchability, concordances and
indexes, metadata, hyperlinks, critical markup
etc.) instead of ""freezing"" it as an image,
which, albeit digital, is computationally neither
intelligible nor modifiable as text. In smart
digital libraries, a text should not only be an
object but a service; not a static entity but an
interactive method (Tasovac, forthcoming). The
text should be computationally exploitable so
that it can be sampled and used, not simply
reproduced in its entirety. This kind of atomic
approach to textuality poses a host of challenges
(legal, ethical, technical and intellectual, to
name just a few), but it opens up the possibility
of creative engagement with the digital text
in literary studies (text mining, statistical text
comparison, data visualization, hypertextual
systems etc.).
The consequence of this ""explosive"" nature of
the electronic text is of paramount importance
for eLexcicography and the reformulation of
the dictionary not as an object, but a service.
We should start thinking of and building
dictionaries as fully embeddable modules in
digital libraries, or, to put it differently, build
digital libraries which integrate dictionaries as
part of their fundamental infrastructure and
allow an ever-expandable process of associating
words in an electronic text with an equally
changeable record in a textual database. The
changeability of the dictionary entry will, in
turn, defer
ad infinitum
the notion of a
particular dictionary edition — other than
as temporary snapshot of the database. The
dictionary as an evolving process will be in a
permanent beta state.
The future of electronic dictionaries
undoubtedly lies in their detachability from
physical media (CD, DVD, desktop applications)
and static locations (web portals). If we think of
the dictionary as a service with an API
1
that can
be called from any Web page, we can actually
start thinking about any (electronic) text as a
direct entry point to the dictionary. If every word
in a digital library is a link to a particular entry
in the dictionary, electronic textuality as such
becomes an extension of lexicography: the text
begins to contain the dictionary in the same way
that the dictionary contains the text.
The Center for Digital Humanities (Belgrade,
Serbia) is putting these theoretical
considerations into practice while working on
its flagship
Transpoetika Project
(Tasovac,
2009).
Transpoetika
(see Figure 1) is
a collaborative, class-centric, bilingualized
Serbian-English learner‘s dictionary based on
the architecturally complex, machine-readable
semantic network of the Princeton Wordnet
(Fellbaum, 1998; Vossen, 1998; Stamou et
al., 2002; Tufis et al., 2004). It is part of
a scalable, web-based, digital framework for
editing and publishing annotated, fully-glossed
study editions of literary works in the Serbian
language, primarily aimed and students of
Serbian as a second or inherited language.
Transpoetika
has been designed to be deployed
as a web service and therefore linked from
and applied to a variety of textual sources
online. Portions of the project, such as the
Serbian Morpho-Syntactic Database (SMS)
already function as a web service internally
and will also be made public and free once
the sufficient funding for the project has been
secured.
Transpoetika
can also interact with
other web services: by using Flickr as a source
of illustrations, and Twitter as a source of
""live quotes"" in the entries, the
Transpoetika
Dictionary explores the role of serendipity in a
lexicographic text.
The overarching goal of the Belgrade Center
for Digital Humanities (CDHN) is to produce
a pluggable, service-based, meta-lexicographic
platform for the Serbian language, which
will interact with various Web-based digital
libraries, and contain not only our own
bilingualized Serbian Wordnet, but also
historical Serbian dictionaries that the CDHN
is digitalizing, such as, for instance, the
classic Serbian-German-Latin Dictionary by
Vuk Stefanović-Karadžić (1818 and 1852). The
platform could, in theory, be extended to
include and consolidate a number of other, more
specialized, lexicons. This is, in any case, the
general direction we would like to take.
I would like to conclude with a
hysteron-
proter+E43on
, which, in Samuel Johnson's
Dictionary of the English language was defined","txt","2","",""
"1174","11","Semantic Cartography: Using RDF/OWL to Build Adaptable Tools for Text Exploration","1","Texts encoded using the Text Encoding
Initiative Guidelines (TEI) are ideally suited
to close examination using a variety of digital
methodologies and tools. However, because
the TEI is a broad set of guidelines rather
than a single schema, and because encoding
practices and standards vary widely between
collections, programmatic interchange among
projects can be difficult. Software that operates
effectively across TEI collections requires a
mechanism for normalizing data - a mechanism
that, ideally, preserves the essence of the
source encoding. Brown University’s Center
for Digital Scholarship will address this
issue as one part of a project, funded by
a National Endowment for the Humanities
Digital Humanities Start-Up Grant, to develop
tools for analyzing TEI-encoded texts using
the SEASR environment (National Center for
Supercomputing Applications).
SEASR is a scholarly software framework
that allows developers to create small
software modules that perform discrete, often
quite simple, analytical processing of data.
These modules can be chained together and
rearranged to create complex and nuanced
analyses. Both the individual modules (or
components, in SEASR’s parlance) and the
chains (or flows) running within a SEASR
server environment can be made available
as web services, providing for a seamless
link between text collections and the many
visualizations, analysis tools, and APIs available
on the web. For literary scholars using TEI,
this approach offers innumerable possibilities
for harnessing the semantic richness encoded
in the digital text, provided that there is a
technological mechanism for negotiating the
variety of encoding standards and practices
typical of TEI–based projects.
The central thrust of Brown’s effort is to develop
a set of SEASR components that exploit the
semantic detail available in TEI-encoded texts.
These components will allow users to submit
texts to a SEASR service and get back a result
derived from the analytical flow that they have
constructed. Results could include a data set
describing morphosyntactic features of a text,
a visualization of personal relationships or
geographic references, a simple breakdown of
textual features as they change over time within
a specific genre, etc. SEASR flows can also
be used to transform parts of TEI documents
into more generic formats in order to use
data from digital texts with web APIs, such
as Google Maps. Because these components
deal with semantic concepts rather than raw,
predictable data, they require a mechanism
to map concepts to their representations in
the encoded texts. Furthermore, in order for
these modules to be applicable to a variety
of research collections, they must be able to
adapt to different manifestations of semantically
similar information. Users need the freedom to
tell the software about the ways in which data
with semantic meaning, such as relationships or
sentiment, are encoded in their texts. To do this,
we will build a semantic map – a document that
describes a number of relationships between 1)
software (in this case, SEASR components), 2)
ontologies, and 3) encoded texts (see Figure 1).

2
Figure 1
The semantic map is modeled on the approaches
of previous projects working with semantically
rich TEI collections, most notably the work
of the Henry III Fine Rolls Project, based
at King’s College London. The creators of
that project developed a method for using
RDF/OWL to model the complex interpersonal
and spatial relationships represented in their
TEI documents (Vieira and Ciula). They use
semantic-web ontologies, such as CIDOC-CRM
and SKOS, to define relationships between
TEI nodes. Vieira and Ciula offer examples in
which TEI nodes that describe individuals are
related to other nodes that describe professions,
using the CIDOC-CRM ontology to codify the
relationship. (Vieira and Ciula, 5) This approach
serves well as a model for mapping some of
the more nebulous concepts of interest to the
SEASR components to the variable encoding of
those concepts in TEI.
The links between the encoded texts and
the SEASR components are forged using
two techniques that exploit the Linked Data
concepts around which SEASR - and many other
emerging software tools - are designed (Berners-
Lee). The first is a RDF/OWL dictionary that
defines the ontology of the semantic concepts
at work in the TEI component suite. RDF/OWL
allows us to make assertions about the concepts
associated with any resource identified by a URI
(Uniform Resource Identifier). Within SEASR,
any component or flow is addressable via a
URI, making it the potential subject of a RDF/
OWL expression. For example, a component
that extracts personal name references from a
text can be defined in an RDF/OWL expression
as having an association with the concept of a
personal name, as defined by any number of
ontologies. The second part of the semantic map
is an editable configuration document that uses
the XPointer syntax to identify the fragments of
a particular TEI collection that correspond to
the semantic definitions expressed in the RDF/
OWL dictionary. In this example, collections
that encode names in several different ways can
specify, via XPointer, the expected locations of
relevant data. When the SEASR server begins
an analysis, data is retrieved from the TEI
collection using the parameters defined in the
semantic map, and is then passed along to other
components for further analysis and output.
In addition to the semantic map and the set of
related analytical components, the planned TEI
suite for SEASR includes components to ease
the retrieval and validation of locally defined
data as they are pulled into analytical flows. One
such component examines which of the TEI-
specific components in a flow have definitions in
the RDF/OWL dictionary. The result is passed
to another component, which uses Schematron
to verify that the locations and relationships
expressed in the semantic map are indeed
present in the data being received for analysis.
A successful response signals SEASR to proceed
with the analysis, while an unsuccessful one
returns information to the user about which
parts of the text failed to validate.
Our approach is different from that of other
projects, such as the MONK Project, which
have also wrestled with the inevitable variability
in encoded collections (MONK Project). For
MONK, this issue was especially prominent as
the goal of the project was to build tools that
could combine data from diverse collections
and analyze them as if they were a uniform
corpus. This meant handling not only TEI of
various flavors, but other types of XML and
SGML documents as well. To solve this problem,
MONK investigators developed TEI Analytics, a
generalized subset of TEI P5 features designed
""to exploit common denominators in these
texts while at the same time adding new
markup for data structures useful in common
analytical tasks"" (Pytlik-Zillig, 2009). TEI-A","txt","2","",""
"1175","11","Teasing Out Authorship and Style with T-tests and Zeta","1","Most computational stylistics methods were
developed for authorship attribution, but many
have also been applied to the study of style.
Investigating Wilkie Collin's
Blind Love
(1890),
left unfinished at his death and completed
by Walter Besant from a long synopsis and
notes provided by Collins, requires both
authorship attribution and stylistics. External
evidence indicates that Besant took over after
chapter 48 (Collins 2003), which provides
an opportunity to test whether Besant was
successful in matching Collins's style and to
investigate the styles of Collins and Besant. This
divided novel also facilitates the comparison
of two computational methods: the T-test and
Burrows's Zeta.
The t-test is a well-studied method for
determining the probability of a difference
between two groups arising by chance (a classic
use in authorship and stylistics is Burrows
1992.) Here I use t-tests to identify words used
very differently by Collins and Besant. After
showing that those word frequencies accurately
identify the change of authorship, I examine
the words themselves for stylistically interesting
characteristics.
I created a combined word frequency list for
four novels by Besant and three by Collins, then
deleted words occurring only once or twice,
personal pronouns (too closely related to the
number and gender of characters), all words
with more than 90% of their occurrences in
one text (almost exclusively proper names),
and words limited to one author (required
for t-testing). I divided the novels into 167
4,000-word sections, and performed t-tests for
the remaining 6,600 words (using a Minitab
macro). I cleaned up the results and sorted them
on the p value in Excel (with another macro),
and retained only the 1719 words with p < .05,
about 1,000 for Collins and 700 for Besant
(see
https://files.nyu.edu/dh3/public/Clus
terAnalysis-PCA-T-testingInMinitab.html
for
detailed instructions and the macros).
I tested these words on six new texts for each
author, a novel and five stories for Besant
and six novels for Collins. Beginning with the
500 most distinctive words for each author,
I deleted a few words that were absent from
these texts and used the remaining 993 words
to perform a cluster analysis (Fig. 1). (To keep
the graph readable, I divided the novels into
10,000- word sections, retaining only half the
sections.) Obviously, these marker words are
quite characteristic of the authors.
Fig. 1.
Besant versus Collins: Cluster Analysis
When sections of
Blind Love
are tested along
with the texts above, the authorship change
after chapter forty-eight is starkly apparent (Fig.
2). This graph is based on the sums of the
frequencies of the 500 most distinctive words
for each author in each section. (The texts are
divided into 1,000-word sections; only a few
sections of the novels are shown; the frequencies

2
of Collins's marker words are multiplied by -1
for clarity.) Although Besant was working from
extensive notes, his style is distinctly different.
Had we not known which was Besant's first
chapter, these t-tested marker words would have
easily located it.
Fig. 2.
Besant, Collins, Blind Love: T-tested Marker Words
Because the styles of Collins and Besant are
so distinct, these marker words should also
characterize them. Consider the twenty most
distinctive words for each author:
Besant:
upon
,
all
,
but
,
then
,
and
,
not
,
or
,
very
,
so
,
because
,
great
,
thing
,
things
,
much
,
every
,
there
,
man
,
everything
,
is
,
well
Collins:
answered
,
to
,
had
,
Mrs
,
on
,
asked
,
in
,
Miss
,
mind
,
suggested
,
person
,
resumed
,
excuse
,
left
,
at
,
reminded
,
creature
,
inquired
,
reply
,
when
Obviously, more of Besant's words are
high frequency function words, and many
Collins words are related to speech
presentation (
answered
,
asked
,
inquired
,
resumed
,
suggested
,
reply
, and
reminded
). The
presence of
added
,
begged
,
declared
,
exclaimed
,
explained
,
expressed
,
muttered
,
rejoined
, and
said
as likely speech markers among the
other Collins marker words, but only
gasped
,
groaned
,
murmured
,
replied
, and
stammered
for Besant, suggests they have different ways of
presenting speech.
Sorting all of each author's marker words
alphabetically immediately reveals word
families that each author favors, as
thing
,
things
, and
everything
among the twenty
most distinctive Besant words already suggests
(
anything
and
nothing
are also Besant
markers). His
every
and
everything
are joined
by
everybody
and
everywhere
;
anything
by
any
and
anywhere
;
nothing
and
not
by
never
,
no
,
nobody
,
none
, and
nor
; and
much
by
more
,
moreover
,
most
, and
mostly
among
his markers. Collins's
answered
is joined by
answer
,
answering
, and
unanswerable
; and
five of his twenty words are joined by two others:
ask
,
asked
,
asks
;
inquired
,
inquiries
,
inquiry
;
leave
,
leaving
,
left
;
person
,
personally
,
persons
;
suggest
,
suggested
,
suggestion
.
About 600 of the 1,700 distinctive words form
groups favored by one author, but only about
175 form split groups, many of which fall
into intriguing patterns. Collins uses more
contractions, so
didn't
,
doesn't
, and
don't
are
Collins words, but
did
and
does
are Besant
words, and similarly for
must
,
need
,
should
,
and
would
and their negative contractions.
The singular and possessive forms of
brother
,
friend
,
sister
, and
son
are Collins's words and
the plural forms are Besant's; the singular
vs. plural pattern continues almost without
exception in split noun groups. Verbs in
-ing
are Collins words and 3rd singular present
forms Besant's. Finally, all nineteen cardinal
number marker words are Besant's, including
the numbers
one
to
ten
(note that Besant's
preferred plural nouns often follow numbers).
This extraordinary patterning may not seem
particularly surprising, but, so far as I know, it
has never been noticed before, and cries out for
investigation.
Two problems with t-testing are its privileging
of relatively uninteresting high-frequency words
and its inability to cope with words absent from
one author. John Burrows's Zeta addresses both
of these problems (Burrows 2006). (The specific
form used here was developed by Hugh Craig
(Craig and Kinney, 2009); for an automated
spreadsheet and instructions for performing","txt","2","",""
"1176","11","TEI P5 as a Text Encoding Standard for Multilevel Corpus Annotation","1","The need for text encoding standards
for language resources (LRs) is widely
acknowledged: within the International
Standards Organization (ISO) Technical
Committee 37 / Subcommittee 4 (TC 37 / SC
4), work in this area has been going on since
the early 2000s, and working groups devoted to
this issue have been set up in two current pan-
European projects, CLARIN (
http://www.clari
n.eu/
) and FLaReNet (
http://www.flarenet.e
u/
). It is obvious that standards are necessary
for the interoperability of tools and for the
facilitation of data exchange between projects,
but they are also needed within projects,
especially where multiple partners and multiple
levels of linguistic data are involved.
One such project is the National Corpus of Polish
(Pol.
Narodowy Korpus Języka Polskiego
;
NKJP;
http://nkjp.pl/
; Przepiórkowski
et al.
2008, 2009) involving 4 Polish institutions
and carried out in 2008–2010. The project
aims at the creation of a 1-billion-word
automatically annotated corpus of Polish, with a
1-million-word subcorpus annotated manually.
The following levels of linguistic annotation are
distinguished in the project: 1) segmentation
into sentences, 2) segmentation into fine-
grained word-level tokens, 3) morphosyntactic
analysis, 4) coarse-grained syntactic words (e.g.,
analytical forms, constructions involving bound
words, etc.), 5) named entities, 6) syntactic
groups, 7) word senses (for a limited number of
ambiguous lexemes).
Any standards adopted for these levels
should allow for stand-off annotation, as is
now common practice and as is virtually
indispensable in the case of many levels
of annotation, possibly involving conflicting
hierarchies.
Two additional, non-linguistic levels of
annotation required for each document are text
structure (e.g., division into chapters, sections
and paragraphs, appropriate marking of front
matter, etc.) and metadata. The standard
adopted for these levels should be sufficiently
flexible to allow for representing diverse types
of texts, including books, articles, blogs and
transcripts of spoken data.
NKJP is committed to following current
standards and best practices in corpus
development and text encoding. However,
because of the current proliferation of official,
de facto
and purported standards, it is far
from clear what standards a new corpus project
should adopt. The aim of this paper is to attempt
to answer this question.
1. Standards and best practices
The three text encoding standards and best
practices listed in a recent CLARIN short guide
(CLARIN:STE, 2009)
1
are: standards developed
within ISO TC 37 SC 4, the Text Encoding
Initiative (TEI; Burnard and Bauman 2008)
guidelines and the XML version of the Corpus
Encoding Standard (XCES; Ide
et al.
2000).
Apart from these, there are other
de facto
standards and best practices, e.g., TIGER-XML
(Mengel and Lezius, 2000) for the encoding
of syntactic information, or the more general
PAULA (Dipper, 2005) encoding schema used in
various projects in Germany.
1.1. XCES
The original version of XCES inherits
from TEI an exhaustive approach to
metadata representation. It makes specific
recommendations for the representation of
morphosyntactic information and for the
alignment of parallel corpora. In early the
2000s, it was probably the most popular corpus
encoding standard.
Currently, the claim of XCES to being such
a standard is much weaker. A new — more
abstract — version of XCES was introduced
around 2003, where concrete morphosyntactic
schema was replaced by a general feature

2
structure mechanism, different from the
ISO Feature Structure Representation (FSR)
standard (ISO 24610-1). In our view, this is
a step back, as adopting a more abstract
representation requires more work on the part
of corpus developers. Moreover, XCES has no
specific recommendations for other levels of
linguistic knowledge, and no mechanisms for
representing discontinuity and alternatives, all
of which need to be represented in NKJP. Taking
also into account the lack of documentation
and the potential confusion concerning its
versioning,
2
XCES turns out to be unsuitable for
the purposes of NKJP.
1.2. ISO TC37 SC 4
There is a family of ISO standards developed by
ISO TC 37 SC 4 for modelling and representing
different types of linguistic information. The two
published standards concern the representation
of feature structures (ISO 24610-1) and the
encoding of dictionaries (ISO 24613). Other
proposed standards are at varying levels of
maturity and abstractness. While eventually
these standards may reach stability and
specificity required by practical applications,
this is currently not the case.
3
1.3. TIGER-XML and PAULA
TIGER-XML and a schema which may
be consider as its generalisation, PAULA,
are specific, relatively well-documented and
widely employed best practices for describing
linguistic objects occurring in texts (so-called
""markables"") and relations between them (in the
case of TIGER-XML, the constituency relation).
They do not contain specifications for metadata
or structural annotation.
2. TEI P5
For metadata and structural annotation levels
there is no real alternative to TEI. Moreover, TEI
P5 implements the FSR standard ISO 24610-1,
which can be used for the representation of
any linguistic content, along the lines of XCES
(although the feature structure representations
used in XCES do not comply with this standard),
PAULA and the proposed ISO standard,
Linguistic Annotation Framework (ISO 24612).
TEI P5 is stable, has rich documentation and an
active user base, and for these reasons alone it
should be preferred to XCES and (the current
versions of) the ISO standards. Moreover, any
TIGER-XML and PAULA annotation may be
expressed in TEI in an isomorphic way, thanks
to the linking mechanisms of TEI P5.
However, TEI is a very rich toolbox, proposing
multitudinous mechanisms for representing
multifarious aspects of text encoding, and this
richness, as well as the sheer size of TEI P5
documentation (1350–1400 pages), are often
perceived by corpus developers as prohibitive.
For this reason, within NKJP, a specific set
of recommendations for particular levels of
annotation has been developed, aiming at
achieving a maximal compatibility (understood
as the easiness to translate between formats)
with other proposed and
de facto
standards.
For example, TEI P5 offers, among others,
the following ways to represent syntactic
constituency:
-
XML tree, built with elements such as
<s>(entence), <phr>(ase), <cl>(ause) and
<w>(ord), may directly mirror constituency
tree;
-
all information, including constituency, may
be encoded as a feature structure (Witt
et al.
,
2009);
-
each syntactic group is a <seg>(ment) of
type group, containing a feature structure
description and <ptr> pointers to other
constituents, defined in the same file (for non-
terminal syntactic groups) or in a stand-off
way elsewhere (for terminal words).
While the first of these representations is the
most direct, and the second most general, it is
the third representation that directly mirrors
TIGER-XML, PAULA and SynAF, and for this
reason, it has been adopted in NKJP.
References
Bel, N., Beskow, J., Boves, L., Budin,
G., Calzolari, N., Choukri, K., Hinrichs,
E., Krauwer, S., Lemnitzer, L., Piperidis,
S., Przepiórkowski, A., Romary, L.,
Schiel, F., Schmidt, H., Uszkoreit, H.,
and Wittenburg, P.
(2009).
Standardisation
action plan for Clarin. State: Proposal to
CLARIN Community
.","txt","2","",""
"1177","11","The Diary of a Public Man: A Case Study in Traditional and Non-Traditional Authorship Attribution","1","In 1879 the
North American Review
published
in four separate monthly installments excerpts
from ""The Diary of a Public Man"" in which
the name of the diarist was withheld. It was,
or purported to be, a diary kept during the
""secession winter"" of 1860-61. It appeared to
offer verbatim accounts of behind-the-scenes
discussions at the very highest levels during the
greatest crisis the US had ever faced. Interest in
this real or purported diary was considerable.
The diarist had access to a wide spectrum of key
officials, from the South as well as the North,
gave a number of striking anecdotes about
Abraham Lincoln, and provided an important
account of events at Washington during the
critical days just before the Civil War.
A detailed study of the Diary was conducted
by Frank Anderson in 1948 in his book
The Mystery of ""A Public Man""
. Anderson
argues that the Diary is part genuine and
part fictitious with two of the three striking
Lincoln incidents appearing to be inventions,
along with other so-called ""interviews"" with
prominent figures. He believes that, as a core,
there is a genuine diary kept by Samuel Ward
(1814-1884) at Washington during that winter,
and that it is possible that the editor of
North
American Review
, Allen Thorndike Rice, may
have assisted in the process of embellishment.
William Hurlbert (1827-1895), he argues, may
also be involved, since the style of the Diary
has a good deal of Hurlbert's pungency. Others
have suggested that the diarist might be Henry
Adams (1838-1918), who enjoyed close access
to William Henry Seward who became Lincoln's
Secretary of State and was a central figure in the
Diary. Certainly the fact that, over a century after
its publication, the authorship has remained
undetermined is proof that the work of all those
who may have shared in its preparation and
publication was cleverly done.
1. Traditional Attribution
This paper argues that the diarist was not
Samuel Ward; it was, instead, William Hurlbert.
The preponderance of the evidence also suggests
that the Diary may well be a legitimate historical
document.
The diarist was not simply an observer but
very much a participant-observer. One key
circumstance would have impeded Ward. At
the precise time the Diary was being penned,
he was busily engaged in writing a memoir of
his experiences in the California gold fields in
1851-52. His recollections were published in a
New York weekly, starting on January 22
nd
1861,
and concluding abruptly on April 23
rd
1861. A
great deal of internal evidence suggests that
the Diary and the Gold Rush memoir could
not have been written by the same person,
even allowing for their radically different subject
matter. Ward's sentences sometimes meander
in a Baroque manner, he often alliterates,
peppers his narrative with Spanish and French
expressions, and has a habit of encasing unusual
words or phrases within quotation marks. By
contrast the Diary is fast paced and immediate,
with a style running towards active verbs
accompanied by adverbs of a certain type.
In William Hurlbert, however, we find a
newspaper writer whose style had sweep and
dash. At the very moment when the biggest
story he had ever witnessed burst to attention,
he had no job, but nonetheless, had access to
a remarkably wide range of prominent people.
The Southern-born Hurlbert also had more
basis than Ward to have developed close ties
with leading Southerners. A comparison of the
Diary with things known to have been written
by Hurlbert yields some demonstrable parallels,
not least in the number of signature words
used in the Diary. Some specific features of
the Diary also point to Hurlbert rather than
Ward, for example twice the diarist mentions
Josiah Quincy (1772-1864), the retired President
of Harvard, who had been an important
influence in Hurlbert's young life. There are

2
circumstances, too, that suggest why Lincoln
might initially have encountered Hurlbert and
why he might have welcomed a repeat visit.
Concerning its legitimacy, in a number of
crucial particulars the Diary conveys an on-
the-spot immediacy that would have been
almost impossible to recreate even months
after the fact, let alone years; for example
the unfolding story of Lincoln's secret and
circuitous trip to Washington in late February
and the diarist's delayed realization that Seward
warned Lincoln to undertake it. The diarist
expresses repeated concerns about the potential
economic effects of secession, concerns which
were quickly subordinated once the war started.
The diarist also demonstrates an excellent ear
in his accounts of his interviews with others,
in particular their personal mannerisms. In all
its particulars, the Diary synchronizes perfectly
with the way events unfolded at that time.
2. Non-Traditional Attribution
For testing and validating the stylometric
techniques involved in this phase of the
study, preliminary textual samples were taken
from prominent diarists of that era, George
Templeton Strong, Gideon Welles, and Salmon
Chase. Analysis of the top 50 frequently
occurring function words using what is now
known as the ""Burrows"" approach involving
principal components analysis and cluster
analysis showed clear discrimination between
writers and internal consistency within writers.
Textual samples were then taken from three
candidate authors of the Diary, namely Samuel
Ward, Henry Adams and James Harvey, with
the ""Burrows"" approach once again indicating
remarkable internal consistency and clear
between–writer discrimination.
Four textual samples each of approximately
3,000 words, representing in total about 2/5
of the work, were taken at various places
throughout the Diary, being sufficiently spaced
to enable a valid check to be made on
internal consistency. The Diary samples showed
excellent internal consistency, suggesting single
authorship which would refute Anderson's ""cut
and paste"" theory. They appeared to be quite
distinct from the samples of the writings of
Adams, Harvey and Ward.
Focus then moved to the two main
contenders for authorship, Ward and Hurlbert.
Carefully controlling for genre in the selection
of the textual samples from Hurlbert
and Ward, subsequent multivariate analyses
on high-frequency function words showed
discrimination between these two writers, along
with internal consistency. For the attributional
stage of the research discriminant analysis
was employed. The samples from the Diary,
Hurlbert and Ward were divided into smaller
sizes in order that as many high-frequency
function words as possible could be used
without violating the assumptions underlying
the technique. All 12 Diary samples were placed
into the Hurlbert group.
Finally, the ""Delta"" technique, proposed by
Burrows and refined by Hoover, was employed
using the 100 most frequently occurring words
in the pooled corpus and on four potential
authors of the Diary: Ward, Adams, Harvey and
Hurlbert. The closest ""match"" to the Diary using
Delta and its variants was indeed Hurlbert.
3. Conclusion
The non-traditional stylometric analysis has
supplied objective evidence that supports
traditional scholarship regarding the problem
of the authorship of the Diary. The likelihood
that the entire document was written by one
person is very strong. William Hurlbert has been
pinpointed, to the exclusion of all others, as the
Diary's author. Much of the Diary could never
have been concocted after the fact; the chances
are that the entire document is authentic.
References
Anderson, F.M.
(1948).
The Mystery of ""A
Public Man""; A Historical Detective Story.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Burrows, J.F.
(1992). 'Not Unless You Ask
Nicely: The Interpretative Nexus Between
Analysis and Information'.
Literary and
Linguistic Computing.
7
: 91-109.
Burrows, J.F.
(2002). 'Delta: a Measure
of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to
Likely Authorship'.
Literary and Linguistic
Computing.
17
: 267-287.","txt","2","",""
"1178","11","The ecology of longevity: the relevance of evolutionary theory for digital preservation","1","Software and data can be considered as digital
organisms that function in a ""digital ecosystem""
of computers. The concept of ecology has been
borrowed from biology by other disciplines
for explaining or describing a variety of
phenomena. In some cases ecology and other
concepts from evolutionary theory are only used
as metaphors; in other cases attempts have been
made to apply an adapted version of the theory
to the evolution of non-biological phenomena.
We think it makes sense to borrow the
notions from evolutionary theory in thinking
about digital longevity. In this paper we will
explore the potential of Darwin's theory as an
explanatory framework for digital survival.
The construction of a theoretical foundation
serves to answer questions of why some criteria
or characteristics will guarantee the ""survival""
of digital objects better than other ones.
Taking an evolutionary view will also make
clear that there is no such thing as digital
permanence for eternity: some objects only have
better
chances
to survive than other ones. In
computing technology, there is a struggle of
survival of the fittest going on. In this struggle,
new technologies arise as modifications or
adaptations of earlier technologies and the
older ones die out when newer technologies
are stronger or better suited for their tasks.
The digital objects that are already in existence
have to be adapted to the new technological
surroundings, otherwise they become extinct.
Spencer originally coined the phrase ""survival of
the fittest"" in 1864, drawing parallels between
his ideas of economics and Darwin's theory of
evolution, which is driven by ""natural selection"".
With respect to digital objects, it is people who
are actively or passively involved in making the
selections, thus deciding which digital objects
survive and which do not.
As electronic digital data can only be understood
using computers and software to ""translate""
them into visible or audible form, the media
and data formats that are specific for hard-
and software change according to the same
evolutionary principles. If we accept this
view, we can start to ask ourselves: which
characteristics (comparable to the ""genetic
properties"" of living organisms) may influence
the chances of digital survival of data? This is
however not unproblematic, as it is typically
with hindsight that we see which (traits
in) a biological species have survived and
how the evolutionary process took place. The
explanatory power of evolution theory is a
posteriori, not a priori. It may therefore be
difficult to predict which traits are good for
survival.
We will explore the possible use of the
concept of evolvability, which is usually
defined as the ability of a population of
organisms to generate genetic diversity, hence
giving a measure of an organism's ability to
evolve. Maybe there is a parallel here with
respect to digital objects. For instance, if we
look at several formats for Microsoft Word
(.doc, .rtf, .html, .xml (2003), .ooxml) then we
see an increase in usability/interchangeability,
and hence probably: evolvability.
We can break down the survival problem to
questions concerning:
-
The physical attributes of the media (tape,
disk, etc.)
-
The media format (density, size, etc.)
-
The data content (integrity of the bits and
bytes)
-
The data format (the structure of the bits and
bytes)
-
The metadata content (the substantial
description of the data)

2
-
The metadata format (the format in which the
metadata is described)
-
The interlinking (the degree to which data is
linked both internally and externally); a web
of interlinked information is an ecosystem of
its own.
We will demonstrate how digital preservation
strategies such as technology preservation,
software emulation, and data migration fit in
an overarching evolutionary framework. The
ecological approach also shows that it makes no
sense to try to express the time horizon for the
preservation of digital objects as a specific or
indefinite period of time, but that we can better
think in terms of ""chances of survival"".
The evolutionary framework can be used to
argue why certain attributes and formats are
more likely to survive than others. Also,
analogous to natural selection, we will make
clear that there is no single ""best"" strategy
for survival of digital data. Some factors
simply increase the chances of digital longevity,
whereas other factors reduce these chances.
Good factors for longevity may be bad for other
desired characteristics. For example: stripping
executable information from data improves its
longevity, but hinders its functionality. It may
also be so that some factors are intensely
ambiguous for longevity. We may now think that
""wrapping"" text in WordPerfect in the 1990s
was (with hindsight) not so good for survival,
and that packaging it in Microsoft Word seems
acceptable. This is probably related to the
status (or market dominance) of the software
packages. Similarly, packaging data in SGML
in 1990 might have been not so good, while
packaging it in XML in 2009 seems excellent. In
the end, the environment determines what was
good and what was bad for longevity.
So, when the whole ""technological ecosystem""
changes, what was well adapted before the
change may appear to be ill suited in the
next technological phase. Digital preservation
strategies can use the principle of digital
selection in order to maximize the adaptation
of digital objects to their environment, thus
increasing their chances of digital longevity.
Whether it makes sense to apply evolution
theory to digital curation can be studied by
looking at a number of parallels in other
scientific domains. We will deal briefly with
attempts to use Darwin's ideas in the social
sciences and in technology. In the social sciences
the idea of a ""social ecology"" was already applied
and empirically tested in the 1920s by, among
others, Robert Park and Ernest Burgess of the
""Chicago School"" of urban ecology. With respect
to man-created systems it is probably better
to use the ideas on evolution by Lamarck.
Lamarckism is the idea that an organism can
pass on characteristics that it acquired during
its lifetime to its offspring (also known as
heritability of acquired characteristics or soft
inheritance).
Several researchers have proposed that
Lamarckian evolution may be accurately applied
to cultural evolution. Human culture can
be looked upon as an ecological niche-like
phenomenon, where the effects of cultural
niche construction are transmissible from one
generation to the next. Ecological notions
on the evolution of software, in which ideas
and characteristics of programming languages
compete with each other, have been formulated
in information science. Inheritance is an
important concept with an evolutionary basis.
The development of open source software has
also been described as evolving in a Lamarckian
fashion. Ensuring free access and enabling
modification at each stage in the process means
that the evolution of software occurs in the fast
Lamarckian mode: each favourable acquired
characteristic of others' work can be directly
inherited.
Kauffman and Dennett point out the parallels
between biological evolution and technological
evolution. They distinguish two stages: (i)
explosion of the number of greatly different
designs when there are still many unoccupied
niches; (ii) microevolution where the existing
designs are optimised for competition in
existing niches.
It is also useful to compare the selection and
survival of digital information with that of
analogue information. In both cases there is
""information selection"" and evolution. What
makes the digital world so different from the
analogue world?
Next we will treat a few examples of the
evolution of computing technologies, software,
file formats and data sets, which will illustrate
how well evolutionary theory is suited for","txt","2","",""
"1179","11","The Graceful Degradation Survey: Managing Digital Humanities Projects Through Times of Transition and Decline","1","Transition and decline are pressing issues
for scholars in the digital humanities, as our
projects tend to be both collaborative and
open-ended. Project staff relocate, reestablish
themselves in new areas, or retire, even as
funding and institutional support comes and
goes. How are projects to be designed so that
they can be maintained, or maintain themselves,
through periods of change? How might projects
be designed in a way that takes periods of
transition and possible decline into account
from the very start?
These are some of the issues we sought to
explore in undertaking ""Graceful Degradation:
Managing Digital Projects in Times of Transition
and Decline,"" a wide-ranging survey of the
digital humanities community, in the summer
of 2009. Our intent was to investigate how the
community currently deals with these problems
and, using our survey data – which also included
some demographic information and measures of
perceived levels of support and impact of various
kinds of change – to make recommendations
on how we, as a community, might improve the
current approach.
This presentation will provide a detailed
look at the outcomes of the ""Graceful
Degradation"" survey, and propose some initial
recommendations. (Full recommendations will
be published in a separate article.)
The survey was designed in consultation with
statistical analysis staff at the Scholars' Lab,
University of Virginia Library and unveiled
at Digital Humanities 2009 in College Park,
Maryland and at Digital Resources for the
Humanities and Arts (DRHA 2009) in Belfast,
Northern Ireland. It was conducted online
between July and September 2009. There
were 102 completed surveys, representing 114
discrete projects. Some of our findings are
presented below.
The vast majority (76%) of Graceful
Degradation respondents come from ""large
universities with a research emphasis,""
but teaching colleges, cultural heritage
institutions, and commercial ventures were also
represented. Most respondents have worked
in project management or digital research
and development efforts in the humanities for
2-10 years, but 35% of respondents have been
engaged in this activity for more than a decade.
Respondents were asked to rate perceived
levels of support for the digital humanities
at their home institutions, including (as
separate queries) general support, support
for collaborative activities, local funding
and cost-share opportunities, support by
higher administration, department-level or local
support, and support for project management
and grant-writing.
64% of respondents had experienced the decline
of a project or had weathered a period of difficult
transition. 29% of respondents indicated a sense
that digital humanities projects are more likely
to decline or suffer these difficult transitions at
their institutions than at others.
Participants were asked to respond in detail
regarding their experiences with a particular
project that suffered decline or a difficult
transition. The following percentages apply
to the primary or to the single project
which survey participants addressed. 37% of
respondents identified themselves as project
lead or principal investigator (PI) for the
project they discussed in depth. 29% of
respondents self-identified as project managers,
and other respondents fell into categories such
as ""dedicated, project-specific support staff,""
""support staff on loan from other units,""
""graduate or undergraduate research staff,""
""post-docs or faculty collaborators.""
38% of projects discussed fell into the category
of ""content creation, digitization, and archive-
building,"" but other categories (including

2
software development, online community-
building activities, online journals and
other publications, and creation of support
infrastructure for digital scholarship) were also
represented. Predominant disciplines and time
periods addressed were literary and textual
studies and digital history, from the modern or
early modern era. More projects (31% and 24%
respectively) identified an academic department
and a library or museum as their primary
institutional home, with 23% primarily housed
in a digital humanities center.
Of projects that had experienced decline or
difficult transition, most were identified as
still ""ongoing and active"" (51%), with 26%
abandoned or dormant, and 15% and 8% either
complete or ""just getting started,"" respectively.
Participants were asked about funding sources
for these projects (generally via institutional
support or ""external public funding"") and
understood length of funding or support.
Projects treated were generally funded for 2-3
years, with no possibility of renewal, but often
(in 21% of cases) the length of funding or support
was ""unclear."" That said, 75% of respondents
considered their project's funding to be ""reliable
and clear in scope.""
Most respondents undertook the treated project
with clear plans for supporting it beyond an
initial funding period, but most projects also
ultimately ""differed in scope or definition from
early plans."" In 68% of cases, participants
had identified both short-term and long-term
goals for their projects, but conscious use of
""specific project management techniques or
tools"" and ""risk management strategies"" was a
rarity. Anecdotal responses treated the impact of
varying levels of planning or lack of planning on
digital projects.
The majority of projects (55%) experienced
no negative impact due to staff overturn
whatsoever. For projects that did, we asked
participants to rate the negative impact of
overturn of six different categories of staff
members and collaborators. Survey participants
also rated the broad impact of their projects
in a dozen areas, such as ""scholarly inquiry
in a particular field,"" ""my own pedagogical
practice,"" and ""the professional advancement of
my collaborators.""
Participants were additionally given the
opportunity to respond to several prose
prompts, and to add more contextual
information to many of the questions for
which we had devised statistical measures.
They summarized the reasons for the project
decline or difficult transitions they experienced,
and offered formulae for their successes.
Some respondents identified nuanced issues
with intellectual property and open source as
contributing factors. We plan to summarize
these rich responses and reveal the results of
qualitative data analysis at the conference.
67% of respondents indicated that their personal
views and practices have evolved as a result of
experiencing a period of difficult transition or
the decline of digital humanities project, but in
only 32% of cases did they feel that the views or
practices of their local institutions or the larger
academic community have evolved in response
to such experiences like these.
67% of respondents also indicated that they had
experienced what they would consider a ""phase
of successful transition"" in their digital projects,
and offered anecdotal advice as to what made
that possible.
At , we will summarize
and offer some visualizations and analysis
of these findings and others, and we will
address the extensive qualitative data that
were collected from participants in free-form
text responses. (Several participants granted us
permission to quote their responses directly.
We will anonymize and summarize responses
from others.) We will also draw conclusions
about avenues for future research and – more
importantly – identify areas for future action
on the part of institutions supporting digital
humanities projects and professional societies
representing the digital humanities community.
References
Matthew Kirschenbaum et al
. 'Done:
'Finished' Projects in the Digital Humanities'.
Digital Humanities.
Urbana-Champaign,
Illinois, 2007.
Daniel Pitti
(2004). 'Designing Sustainable
Projects and Publications'.
A Companion
to Digital Humanities.
Susan Schreibman,","txt","2","",""
"1180","11","The Modern Art Iraq Archive (MAIA): Web tools for Documenting, Sharing and Enriching Iraqi Artistic Expressions","1","
1
The Modern Art Iraq
Archive (MAIA): Web tools
for Documenting, Sharing
and Enriching Iraqi Artistic
Expressions
Kansa, Sarah Whitcher
skansa@alexandriaarchive.org
The Alexandria Archive Institute
Shabout, Nada
Nada.Shabout@unt.edu
The University of North Texas
Al-Bahloly, Saleem
saleemha@berkeley.edu
University of California, Berkeley
1. Overview
The Modern Art Iraq Archive (MAIA) project is
a participatory content-management system to
share, trace and enable community enrichment
of the modern art heritage of Iraq. The focus of
the project is thousands of works of art, many
of them now lost, from the Iraqi Museum of
Modern Art in Baghdad. MAIA is unique in that
it not only documents the lost artworks, but also
provides tools for community enhancement of
those works, allowing contribution of stories,
knowledge and documentation to the system, as
well as syndication of the content elsewhere on
the web.
For the past eight months, participants in this
project have been building a comprehensive
virtual archive of the works in the Museum's
various galleries, including a database of
images and information about the objects
(artist name, title, date, dimensions, subject
matter, medium, condition, current location,
related works, etc). These significant national
treasures are displayed in an open format
that invites participation from users worldwide,
including the Iraqi national and expatriate
communities, and users will be encouraged to
help identify and understand individual pieces.
The MAIA system, which integrates two extant
content management systems, Open Context
and Omeka, will provide a valuable research tool
for scholars, students, as well as the general
public, but most importantly for Iraqis: these
works of art form an important expression of the
Iraqi national experience.
2. Project History
The Iraqi Museum of Modern Art, formerly
the Saddam Center for the Arts (Markaz
Saddam lil Funun), was established in
1986 as Iraq's museum of modern and
contemporary art. During the invasion of
Baghdad in April 2003, the structure was
severely damaged by fire and looters. Without
security and protection from the occupying
powers after the collapse of the Baath regime,
its collections of approximately 8,000 modern
and contemporary Iraqi paintings, sculptures,
drawings and photography, dating from late
19th century until April 2003, were entirely
looted. Prof. Nada Shabout's research based on
sources inside of Iraq indicated that while some
works were smuggled outside of the country,
most works were still on the market for sale in
Baghdad. At an early stage after the invasion,
about 1,300 works were found at the National
Gallery's basement. They have since been are
stored at a facility administered by the Ministry
of Culture, without restoration, authentication
or archiving.
While the fate of the collection is tragic enough,
what exasperated the situation further is that
the Museum's inventory and documentation
disappeared with the works as well, meaning
that missing works cannot be traced or
repatriated. Nada Shabout has spent the last
three years collecting and digitizing all available
information about the lost works through
meetings with artists, gallery owners, and art
educators. In this time, she has found that the
situation is dire, with improper documentation
and accessioning procedures, scant publication
and recording in catalogs, and a lack of inventory
for the two decades before the invasion. In the
end, the richest available information is in fact in
the recollections of individual people; hence, the
imperative to develop ways for people to share
their knowledge of these works.
3. Approach
The MAIA prototype integrates two existing,
open source, content delivery systems, Omeka

2
and Open Context. Omeka (
http://omeka.
org/
) is an open source, collections-based
publishing platform that allows individuals and
organizations to share collections, structure
content into exhibits and write essays. It offers
customizable themes and a suite of easy-to-
install add-ons for customizing site appearance
and functionality. Omeka brings Web 2.0
technologies and approaches to academic and
cultural websites to foster user interaction
and participation, while making design easy
with a simple and flexible templating system.
Robust open-source developer and user
communities underwrite Omeka's stability and
sustainability.
1
Open Context (
http://www.opencontext.org
) is
a web-based, open access data publication
system that supports enhanced sharing of
museum collections and field research data
by enabling researchers and cultural heritage
collections managers to publish their primary
field data, notes and media (images, maps,
drawings, videos) on the web. It is free and
uses open source software built on common
open source technologies (Apache-Solr, MySQL,
PHP, and Dojo Ajax) widely accessible
and supported by a vast global developer
community. Open Context uses Apache-Solr
to power a ""faceted browse"" tool, which
allows for much more informed navigation and
understanding of collections than the ""type and
hope"" approach of simple key-word searches.
This component also delivers web-services,
enabling a feed-based approach to syndicating
content and integrating collections distributed
across the web. These web-services represent
a powerful, scalable, and elegantly simple
way to facilitate aggregation across multiple
collections.
MAIA's approach integrates features of these
two systems to maximize the collection's
reach, discoverability and creative reuse.
Omeka offers a user-friendly platform for
building, customizing and organizing the
MAIA collection, as well as allowing options
for contributions and comments from the
community. However, search functionality
is limited and Omeka content is largely
confined within each Omeka instance, despite
its support of OAI/PMH and some feed
capabilities. Finally, while Omeka offers
stable URLs for every item, Omeka users
need to make additional arrangements for
archiving their collections. Open Context
complements Omeka's capabilities with a
faceted browse ""plugin,"" offering powerful
web-service capabilities that enable distributed
search and syndication of content. These
capabilities make Open Context a more
powerful platform for supporting aggregation
and mashups. Open Context's faceted browse
tool provides a much more informed overview
of a collection, showing fields associated with
content even for custom metadata, allowing
exploration beyond simple searches. The Open
Context plug in will also greatly expand Omeka's
feed capabilities, allowing users to draw custom
feeds tailored to their specific interests (such as
a particular artist, time period and/or region).
Any Omeka site implementing the Open Context
faceted browse plug-in will be indexed by Open
Context, opening up Omeka content to dynamic
searching across multiple collections. Finally,
Omeka collections using the Open Context
plug-in will benefit from accessioning by the
California Digital Library. Thus, Omeka's user-
friendly collections management and publishing
functions are joined with Open Context's
powerful web services to increase the reach and
potential for reuse of MAIA content.
Taking advantage of the flexibility in content-
management and sharing provided by the
integration of these two powerful, open source
systems, the MAIA platform is available for free
on the web and offers the following additional
features:
-
Localization
: All static content in the system
is translated into Arabic. Participatory tagging
and commentary features are also available in
multiple languages.
-
Community input
: A tagging system allows
users to comment on any item in the database,
thus enriching the content and helping build a
memory of the lost works. Users can also link
to external content related to the works.
-
Citation
: Easy citation retrieval makes MAIA
a useful research tool. Unique citations are
generated for every single item in the system,
and Omeka expresses bibliographic metadata
in a format that the popular Zotero citation
management tool can recognize.
-
Copyright Pragmatism
: The creators of
many of the works included in the website","txt","2","",""
"1181","11","The Open Annotation Collaboration: A Data Model to Support Sharing and Interoperability of Scholarly Annotations","1","
1
The Open Annotation
Collaboration: A Data
Model to Support Sharing
and Interoperability of
Scholarly Annotations
Hunter, Jane
j.hunter@uq.edu.au
University of Queensland
Cole, Tim
t-cole3@illinois.edu
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
Sanderson, Robert
azaroth42@gmail.com
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Van de Sompel, Herbert
hvdsomp@gmail.com
Los Alamos National Laboratory
This paper presents the outcomes to date
of the annotation interoperability component
of the Open Annotation Collaboration (OAC)
Project.
1
The OAC project is a collaboration
between the University of Illinois, the
University of Queensland, Los Alamos National
Laboratory Research Library, the George Mason
University and the University of Maryland.
OAC has received funding from the Andrew
W. Mellon Foundation to develop a data
model and framework to enable the sharing
and interoperability of scholarly annotations
across annotation clients, collections, media
types, applications and architectures. The OAC
approach is based on the assumption that
clients publish annotations on the Web and
that the target, content and the annotation
itself are all URI-addressable Web resources.
By basing the OAC model on Semantic Web
and Linked Data practices, we hope to provide
the optimum approach for the publishing,
sharing and interoperability of annotations
and annotation applications. In this paper,
we describe the principles and components of
the OAC data model, together with a number
of scholarly use cases that demonstrate and
evaluate the capabilities of the model in different
scenarios.
1. Introduction and Objectives
Annotating
is both a core and pervasive
practice for humanities scholarship. It is used
to organize, create and share knowledge.
Individual scholars use it when reading, as
an aid to memory, to add commentary, and
to classify documents. It can facilitate shared
editing, scholarly collaboration, and pedagogy.
Although there exists a plethora of annotation
clients for humanities scholars to use (Hunter
2009) - many of these tools are designed
for specific collection types, user requirements,
disciplinary application or individual, desktop
use. Scholars are also confronted with having to
learn different annotation clients for different
content repositories, have no easy way to
integrate annotations made on different systems
or created by colleagues using other tools, and
are often limited to simplistic and constrained
models of annotations. For example, many
existing tools only support the simplistic model
in which the annotation content comprises a
brief unformatted piece of text. Many tools
conflate the storage of the annotations and the
target being annotated.
Frameworks for annotation reference are
inconsistent, not coordinated, and frequently
idiosyncratic, and the constituent elements
of annotations are not exposed to the Web
as discrete addressable resources, making
annotations difficult to discover and re-use.
The lack of robust interoperable tools for
annotating across heterogeneous repositories
of digital content and difficulties sharing or
migrating annotation records between users and
clients – are hindering the exploitation of digital
resources by humanities scholars. Hence the
goals of the Open Annotations Collaboration
(OAC) are:
-
To facilitate the emergence of a
Web and Resource-centric interoperable
annotation environment that allows
leveraging annotations across the boundaries
of annotation clients, annotation servers, and
content collections. To this end, annotation
interoperability specification consisting of an
Annotation Data Model will be developed.
-
To demonstrate through implementations
an interoperable annotation environment
enabled by the interoperability specifications
in settings characterized by a variety

2
of annotation client/server environments,
content collections, and scholarly use cases.
-
To seed widespread adoption by deploying
robust, production-quality applications
conformant with the interoperable annotation
environment in ubiquitous and specialized
services and tools used by scholars (e.g.,
JSTOR, Zotero, and MONK).
In the remainder of this paper we describe
related efforts that have informed the
development of our Annotation Data Model.
We then describe the data model itself that
lays a foundation for follow-on work involving
demonstrations and reference implementations
that exploit real-world repositories such
as
JSTOR, Flickr Commons
, and
MONK
and leverage existing scholarly annotation
applications such Zotero, Pliny and Co-Annotea.
2. Related Work
Despite the vast body of work regarding
annotation practice, annotation models, and
annotation systems, little attention has been
paid to interoperable annotation environments.
The few efforts in this realm to date comprise:
-
RDF-based Annotea developed by Kahan and
Koivunen (Kahan et al., 2001);
-
Agosti’s “A Formal Model of Annotations of
Digital Content” (Agosti and Ferro, 2007);
-
SANE Scholarly Annotation Exchange;
-
OATS (The Open Annotation and Tagging
System (Bateman et al., ""OATS: The Open
Annotation and Tagging System"")).
An analysis of these existing models reveals
that on the whole, they have not been designed
as Web-centric and resource-centric, or that
they have modeling shortcomings that prevent
any existing resource from being the content
or target of an annotation and from giving an
annotation independent status as a resource
itself. Further requirements that we have
identified that these approaches fail to fully
support include:
-
Resources of any media type can be
Annotation Content or Targets;
-
Annotation Targets or Content are frequently
segments of Web resources;
-
The Content of a single annotation may apply
to multiple Targets or multiple annotation
Contents may apply to a single Target;
-
Annotations can themselves be the Target of
further Annotations.
3. The OAC Data Model
By exploiting the Web- and Resource-
centric approach to modelling annotations,
we leverage existing standards and facilitate
the interoperability of annotation applications.
In the OAC model, an Annotation is an
Event initiated at a date/time by an author
(human or software agent). Other entities
involved in the event are the Content of
the Annotation (aka Source) and the Target
of the Annotation. The model assumes that
the core entities (Annotation, Content and
Target) are independent Web resources that are
URI-addressable. This approach simplifies and
decouples implementation from the repository.
An essential aspect of an annotation is the
(implicit or explicit) expression of “annotates”
relationship between the Content and the
Target. The model allows for Content and Target
of any media type and the Annotation, Content,
and Target can all have different authorship.
In situations where the annotation Content or
Target is a segment or fragment of a resource
(e.g., region of an image), we will draw on the
work of the W3C Media Fragments Working
Group to specify the fragment address. Figure
1 illustrates the alpha version of the OAC data
model.
Fig. 1. The Alpha OAC Data Model","txt","2","",""
"1182","11","The Social Lives of Books: Mapping the Ideational Networks of Toni Morrison","1","
1
The Social Lives of Books:
Mapping the Ideational
Networks of Toni Morrison
Finn, Edward
edfinn@stanford.edu
Department of English, Stanford University,
USA
1. Overview
This paper is a case study that is part
of a larger Ph.D. dissertation project: an
exploration of the networks of references
and ideas that make up the social lives of
books online. In a time of rapidly evolving
ecologies of reading and writing, I argue
that the Internet affords us massive amounts
of new data on previously invisible cultural
transactions. New architectures for reviewing,
discussing and sharing books blur the lines
separating readers, authors and critics, and
these cultural structures capture thousands
of conversations, mental connections and
personal recommendations that previously went
unrecorded. I call these webs of references,
allusions and recommendations ideational
networks. Using Toni Morrison’s career as a
model, I will closely examine the ideational
networks surrounding her work using the
methodologies of social network analysis in
order to define a new, statistically informed
conception of cultural capital in the digital era.
2. Background
My project is founded on the argument that
as literary production evolves, new kinds
of reading communities and collaborative
cultural entities are emerging. Many of these
communities are ephemeral and quite often they
are fostered by commercial interests seeking
to capitalize on their cultural production.
Nevertheless, a handful of websites like Amazon
continue to dominate the marketplace for
books and attract millions of customer reviews,
ratings and purchase decisions, and the literary
ecologies of these book reviews have become
valuable research resources. The ideational
networks I explore are made up of first books,
authors, characters and other literary entities
(these are the nodes), and second the references
linking them together as collocations in book
reviews, suggestions from recommendation
engines, and other architectures of connection.
Advancing from my first case study, Thomas
Pynchon, to Morrison’s ideational networks, I
have discovered the utility of social network
analysis methodologies to better analyze graphs
of these literary references. With new data and
new tools, I hope to trace the networks of
influence and exchange that have contributed
to making Toni Morrison arguably the most
critically acclaimed and popularly successful
author in the United States.
3. Proposal
This paper will present my research on the
ideational networks surrounding the works of
Toni Morrison. Morrison makes an excellent
subject for this kind of study for a number of
reasons. As a Nobel laureate and widely read
popular author, she has attracted millions of
devotees. In her writing she often draws on
the African American literary tradition of the
talking book, and throughout her career she has
explored the ontological power of narrative to
create and destroy worlds. It is not surprising,
then, that as an author she is deeply committed
to expanding the act of reading not only to
include millions of people, especially women,
who never considered themselves readers
before, but also to changing its definition to
include conversation, community, and a kind
of collaborative reflection. This element of
Morrison’s authorial appeal is best exemplified
by her long-running association with Oprah’s
Book Club, an enterprise that has had a huge
impact on the U.S. publishing industry and on
conceptions of reading as a social act.
My presentation will explore the communities
of readership that have emerged around
Morrison’s work and consider the literary
company in which her readers and reviewers
perceive her. Focusing on a limited set of
professional book reviews, reader reviews and
recommendations from a dataset of print
media, Amazon and LibraryThing, I will map
out connections that reviewers and consumers
have made between Morrison’s works and
other literary figures and texts (see Figure
1). I believe these connections will delineate

2
Morrison’s position as an extremely popular
author who nevertheless challenges her readers
to grapple with unflinching, emotionally raw
narratives. Her books have introduced millions
to deeply troubled corners of American history,
combining a modernist style with diverse
literary traditions in a way that is both acutely
culturally specific and universally compelling. I
hypothesize that these factors have driven her
remarkable ability to create togetherness and
communities of readership even as she traces
out the wounds and scars of division, inequality
and bias latent in American culture. I also hope
to contrast her ideational networks with those of
Thomas Pynchon, who has pursued a radically
different literary approach through his aversion
to publicity and his recondite fiction.
Figure 1: Sample image from work in progress of a Morisson
ideational network based on Amazon's recommendation engine.
Here the nodes are books connected together by Amazon's
""Customers who bought this also bought"" feature, centered
on Morisson's novels in the middle. Arrows indicate direction
(i.e. Twain's
Huckleberry Finn
is recommended from O'Brien's
The Things They Carried
, but not vice versa). Note both the
range of texts and the cultural vectors present, with syllabus
classics like Salinger, Steinbeck, Miller and Howthorne moving
down from the center, canonical Native American writers at
the top left, etc. Visualization based on Prefuse Java Toolkit.
4. Methodology
This argument will draw on results from several
specific datasets of ideational networks.
I have collected professional book reviews
from a set of major U.S. newspapers
and magazines that consistently reviewed
Morrison’s publications. These will be analyzed
along with customer reviews from Amazon’s
product pages for Morrison’s works, which
have been accumulating reviews since 1996.
Employing the MorphAdorner project’s Named
Entity Recognition tool, I am assembling a
dictionary of proper nouns that reviewers use
as literary references in discussing Morrison’s
work. Tagging those references in the reviews,
I will then explore collocations of references to
construct network graphs of the books, authors
and other literary entities that reviewers link
together.
I have also assembled a database of book
recommendations using Amazon’s “Customers
who bought this also bought” engine and
LibraryThing’s recommendation engine. These
links provide a valuable counterpoint to those
works that reviewers choose to mention,
since these recommendations are generated by
indirect user actions (i.e. when a user buys,
reviews or catalogs multiple texts and thereby
creates a statistical association among them).
Recommendation engines attempt to mimic
or track the sale and ownership of cultural
products, creating a feedback loop of cultural
consumer desire, while review analysis explores
a more abstract realm of ideational exchange.
Using methodologies of social network analysis,
I will identify those works and authors with the
most prestige (i.e. the books most frequently
recommended) and centrality (i.e. the author
who is best-connected to other authors) in these
networks and consider the role of Morrison’s
texts as centers of ideational networks and,
potentially, as bridges between different genre
or category groupings. I also hope to explore the
role of clustering effects in these networks to
see if they are based on predictable factors like
genre.
Depending on the speed of my progress with
the objectives above and the cooperation of
Oprah’s Book Club, I also hope to explore the
networks of discussion and dialog that have
emerged around Morrison’s long collaboration
with Oprah Winfrey, which has inspired millions
of people to take up or return to reading as
a leisure activity in adult life. I hope to apply
similar methodologies of literary reference to
see how Book Club participants contextualized
Morrison.
5. Conclusion
As I continue to refine my understanding
of ideational networks and improve the
methodologies necessary to study them, I
am beginning to develop techniques that can","txt","2","",""
"1183","11","The Specimen Case and the Garden: Preserving Complex Digital Objects, Sustaining Digital Projects","1","
1
The Specimen Case and
the Garden: Preserving
Complex Digital Objects,
Sustaining Digital Projects
Schlosser, Melanie
schlosser.40@osu.edu
University Libraries, The Ohio State University
Ulman, H. Lewis
ulman.1@osu.edu
Department of English, The Ohio State
University
In a recent article entitled ""Innkeeper at
the Roach Motel"", Dorothea Salo worries
that focusing exclusively on preservation when
designing institutional repositories leads to
a situation in which documents are placed
into repositories but never come out (Salo
2009). In this conceit, a ""live"" project gets
placed in a repository and ""dies"" from lack
of use. However, when attempting to preserve
distributed, dynamic electronic textual editions,
a somewhat different metaphor is needed.
Like items in a specimen case, ""live"" digital
projects must be ""killed"" before they are
added to a conventional institutional repository
such as DSpace. In such applications, they
must be removed from the dynamic ecology
of their production environments (the garden
of our title) and frozen in a snapshot form
that is substantially different in appearance
and functionality. In our presentation, we
will outline our own efforts to construct a
preservation and sustainability plan for a multi-
format, distributed, dynamic electronic textual
edition that involves both the creation of a
preservation ""specimen"" and the careful tending
of the edition in the ""garden"". We will also share
the general tools and workflows developed by
the project that can help others tackle the same
challenges.
Due to their innovative nature and the
environments in which they are created, Digital
Humanities projects are often dynamic and
distributed. In other words, they often exist
in multiple parts maintained on distributed
hardware (which itself is supported by multiple
organizations), and are often compiled for
viewing on the fly in response to readers'
actions. The typical preservation strategy of
frequent offsite backups is inadequate for these
projects. The user or manager must to be
able to find the backups (including all of the
constituent parts of a complex project, wherever
they reside) and recognize what they are; the
backups must be in usable condition; and their
contents need to be understandable to the
people who want to use them. Moreover, if
backup files are to be used in any way similar
to their original use, the files must be (1)
compatible with current hardware and software,
(2) translated into formats that are compatible
with current hardware and software, or (3) used
on reconstructed or emulated hardware and
software that match the environment in which
the project was originally developed.
Digital Humanities projects created by faculty
often have the added vulnerability of relying
on the creator's university computing accounts.
Absent special accommodations, these accounts
usually expire on a set schedule once the
individual has moved on, taking with them
information that often exists nowhere else.
1. Cultures of Preservation
In short, digital materials require a culture
of description, preservation, and access every
bit as robust as the practices and institutions
that allow us to preserve manuscript and
print materials. The devil of preservation —
whether of print, digital, or other material
artifacts — lies in the details of production, use,
description, storage, conservation, and access.
This holds true whether we are talking about
acidic paper disintegrating on library shelves,
digital files in obsolete formats, or media
spread across computer systems whose links
to one another have been broken. Preservation
is further complicated by the distinction
between preserving physical artifacts (books,
manuscripts, floppy disks, flash drives) and
preserving the information contained on those
media in a useful format.
""The Specimen Case and the Garden: Preserving
Complex Digital Objects, Sustaining Digital
Projects"" focuses on the preservation challenges
posed by complex digital humanities projects,
which present unique challenges to libraries

2
and repositories charged with accessioning,
describing, and preserving the scholarly record.
Our work, funded by the U. S. National
Endowment for the Humanities, takes a two-
pronged approach to the problem, developing
technologies for preserving digital
objects
—
and the relationships among them — that
constitute complex projects, and establishing
institutional structures for sustaining digital
humanities
projects
after their creators are no
longer actively involved in their development
and maintenance. Over the course of more
than a year, we have interviewed faculty
involved in digital humanities projects, library
professionals, and information technology
professionals; assessed the need for new
practices adapted to digital preservation at our
institution; and documented the resources and
workflows currently available for, or adaptable
to, long-term preservation of digital objects. We
have also begun to develop tools, institutional
structures, and workflows for describing and
archiving complex digital objects, as well
as sustaining distributed digital production
environments.
2. Preservation and Sustainability
Tools and Workflows
Our presentation will outline the problems
associated with preserving and sustaining
complex digital projects, review the data
we collected during our interviews, literature
review, and environment scan, and share the
tools that we have developed, including the
following:
-
a lifecycle map of complex digital projects that
represents development and preservation
milestones as interactions among scholars,
library professionals, and IT professionals;
-
a visual content manifest for complex digital
projects that represents assets, the hardware
on which those assets rely, and entities that
enable the collaborative work of developing
and preserving digital humanities projects;
-
a Metadata Encoding and Transmission
Standard (METS) profile for creating archival
packages of complex digital projects;
-
a visual representation of the roles of
the scholars, library professionals, and IT
professionals on our campus in the long-term
preservation of digital humanities projects;
-
a proposal for a Digital Humanities Network
that could sustain selected distributed digital
projects, without requiring that they sacrifice
functionality for centralization.
Some of these tools and workflows will be easier
to adapt to different projects, institutions, and
cultural settings than others: for example, any
library system should be able to adapt the METS
profile to their needs, while our proposed Digital
Humanities Network will serve mostly as a
heuristic. Indeed, we hope to initiate a fruitful
conversation about how to build cultures of
preservation for complex digital projects among
scholars, librarians, and IT professionals in a
variety of institutional settings.
References
Blue Ribbon Task Force on Sustainable
Digital Preservation and Access
(2008).
'Sustaining the Digital Investment: Issues and
Challenges of Economically Sustainable Digital
Preservation'.
http://www.citeulike.org/user/
AlisonBabeu/article/3801593
.
Cundiff, M. V.
(2004). 'An Introduction to the
Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard
(METS)'.
Library Hi Tech.
22.1
: 52-64.
Dobreva, M.
(2009).
Digitisation of
Special Collections: Mapping, Assessment,
Prioritisation, Final Report.
University of
Strathclyde: Centre for Digital Library Research
(CDLR).
Knight, G.
(2009).
SHERPA Digital
Preservation 2: Developing Services for
Archiving and Preservation in a Distributed
Environment, Final Report.
London: JISC;
Centre for e-Research, King's College London.
The Library of Congress
(2009). .
http://ww
w.loc.gov/standards/mets/mets-home.html
Maron, N. L., Smith, K. K., and Loy, M.
(2009).
Sustaining Digital Resources: An on-
the-Ground View of Projects Today.
London:
JISC: Ithaka Case Studies in Sustainability.
Rieger, O. Y., and Kehoe, B.
(DATE).
'Enduring Access to Digitized Books:","txt","2","",""
"1184","11","The State of Non- Traditional Authorship Attribution Studies - 2010: Some Problems and Solutions","1","1
The State of Non-
Traditional Authorship
Attribution Studies –
2010: Some Problems and
Solutions
Rudman, Joseph
jr20@heps.phys.cmu.edu
Carnegie Mellon University, USA
In 1997, at the ACH-ALLC'97 conference
at Queen's University, there was a session
presented by R. Harald Baayen, David I.
Holmes, Joe Rudman, and Fiona J. Tweedie,
""The State of Authorship Attribution Studies: (1)
The History and the Scope; (2) The Problems
– Towards Credibility and Validity."" Thirteen
years have passed and well over 600 studies and
papers dealing with non-traditional authorship
attribution have been promulgated since that
session.
This paper looks back at that session, a
subsequent article published by Rudman in
Computers and the Humanities
, ""The State of
Authorship Attribution Studies: Some Problems
and Solutions,"" and the more than 600 new
publications. There are still major problems
in the “science” on non-traditional authorship
attribution. This paper goes on to assess the
present state of the field – its successes, failures,
and prospects.
1. Successes
It has been an exciting thirteen years with many
advances. Each of the following (not a complete
list) will be discussed:
1.
Arguably, the most significant development in
the field is the large contingent of computer
scientists that have brought their perspectives
to the table – led by Shlomo Argamon, Moshe
Kopple, and a host of others.
2.
The Dimacs Working Group on Developing
Community.
3.
Sir Brian Vickers' London Authorship Forum.
4.
John Burrows' Busa Award.
5.
Forensic Linguistics.
6.
Successful studies such as Foster's
Primary
Colors
work.
7.
The continuing advances of practitioners such
as John Burrows, David Hoover, Matthew
Jockers, David Holmes, and others.
8.
John Nerbonne's reissue of Mosteller and
Wallace's
Applied Bayesian and Classical
Inference: The Case of ""The Federalist
Papers.""
9.
Patrick Juola's ""Ad Hoc Authorship
Attribution Competition."" and his NSF funded
JGAAP project.
10.
The PAN Workshops. Uncovering Plagiarism,
Authorship, and Social Software Misuse.
2. Acceptance
Contrary to what many practitioners of the non-
traditional proclaim, there is not wide-spread
acceptance of the field.
There have been many high profile problems
with the concomitant negative publicity, e.g.:
1.
Foster's misattribution of
A Funerall Elegie
2.
Foster's misattribution of the Jon Benét
ransom note
3.
Burrows' attribution then de-attribution of “A
Vision”
4.
The continuing bashing of Morton's CUSUM
Burrows' shift is something that every
good scientist should do – search for
errors or improvements in their experimental
methodology and self correct.
3. Failures and Shortcomings
After thirteen years of increasing activity, there
is still no consensus as to correct methodology
or technique. Most authorship studies are still
governed by expediency, e.g.:
-
The texts are not the correct ones but they
were available
-
The controls are not complete but it would
have taken too long to obtain the correct ones
The “umbrella” problem remains – most non-
traditional authorship practitioners do not
understand what constitutes a valid study.

2
Problems in the following areas will be
explicated and solutions proposed:
-
Knowledge of the Field (i.e. the Bibliography)
– The fact that there have been so many
authorship studies is good -- the fact that
they have been published in over 90 different
journals makes a complete literature search
time consuming and difficult which is not
good. To make things even more difficult,
add to this the more than 14 books, 22
chapters in books, the 80 conference papers,
the 10 reports, 22 dissertations, 9 newspaper
articles, the 10 on-line self published papers,
4 encyclopedia entries.
-
Reproducibility – verification
-
The Experimental Plan
-
The Primary Data – This is a major problem
that is almost universally side-stepped.
-
Style markers – Function words, n-grams, etc.
-
Cross Validation – necessary but not sufficient
-
The Control Groups – Genre, gender, time
frame, etc.
-
The Statistics – A range of techniques will be
discussed – e.g. Neural Nets, SVM's, Sequence
Kernals, Nave Bayes
-
The Presentation – visualization
4. Conclusion
In conclusion, there is a discussion of our role as
gatekeepers:
-
Rudman's caution that attribution studies
on the
Historia Augusta
are an exercise in
futility.
-
Hoover and Argamon's modification and
clarification of Burrows' Delta.
-
Rudman's “Ripost” of Burrows' “History of
Ophelia.”
-
Should we oppose patents such as Chaski's?
-
The Daubert triangle.
References
Argamon, Shlomo, et al.
(2003). 'Gender,
Genre, and Writing Style in Formal Written
Texts'.
Text.
23.3
: 321-346.
Baayen, Harald, Hans van Halteren,
Anneke Neijt, and Fiona Tweedie.
(2002).
'An Experiment in Authorship Attribution'.
JADT 2002:6es Journées Internationales
d'Analyse Statistique des Données Textuelles
.
Brennan, Michael, and Rachel
Greenstadt
.
Practical Attacks Against
Authorship Attribution Techniques.
http://ww
w.cs.drexel.edu/greenie/brennan-paper.pdf
(accessed July 14, 2009).
Burrows, John
(2007). 'Sarah and Henry
Fielding and the Authorship of The History of
Ophelia: A Computational Analysis'.
Script &
Print.
30.2
: 69-92.
Chung, Cindy, and James PenneBaker
(2007). 'The Psychological Functions of
Function Words'.
Social Communication.
K.
Fiedler (ed.). New York: Psychology Press, pp.
343-359.
Feiguina, Ol'ga, and Graeme Hirst
(2007).
'Authorship Attribution for Small Texts: Literary
and Forensic Experiments'.
Proceedings of
SIGIR '07 Workshop on Plagiarism Analysis,
Authorship Identification, and Near-Duplicate
Detection.
Amsterdam.
Foster, Donald W.
(February 26, 1996).
Primary Culprit: An Analysis of a Novel of
Politics.
New York, pp. 50-57.
Khosmood, Foaad, and Robert Levinson
(2006). 'Toward Unification of Source
Attribution Processes and Techniques'.
Proceedings of the Fifth International
Conference on Machine Learning and
Cybernetics.
Dalian, pp. 4551-4556.
Love, Harold
(2002).
Attributing Authorship:
An Introduction.
Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Niederkorn, William S.
(20 June 2002).
The
New York Times, B1, B5
.
Ramyaa, Congzhou, and Khaled Rasheed
(2004). 'Using Machine Learning Techniques
for Stylometry'.
International Conference on
Machine Learning (MLMTA'2004).
Las Vegas.
Rudman, Joseph
(2007). 'Sarah and Henry
Fielding and the Authorship of ""The History
of Ophelia"": A Ripost'.
Script & Print.
31.3
:
147-163.","txt","2","",""
"1185","11","The TEI's Extramural Journal Project: Exploring New Digital Environments and Defining a New Genre in Academic Publishing","1","
1
The TEI's Extramural
Journal Project: Exploring
New Digital Environments
and Defining a New Genre
in Academic Publishing
Schlitz, Stephanie A.
sschlitz@bloomu.edu
Bloomsburg University
The Text Encoding Initiative’s (TEI) Extramural
Journal (EJ) project was conceived early in
2009 when the conveners of the TEI Education
Special Interest Group (SIG) proposed, as a
matter of urgency, the development of an online
publishing suite to address the shortage of TEI
educational resources.
1
Following approval by
the TEI Board and Council and the receipt of a
small SIG grant in support of the project, TEI-
EJ advanced into development.
Because TEI-EJ is being researched and
developed in an era where “print is no
longer the exclusive or the normative
medium in which knowledge is produced
and/or disseminated” (“A Digital Humanities
Manifesto”) and where electronic publication
is increasingly common (see Waltham; Maron
and Smith; Willett), it is crucial to point out
that typologically, TEI-EJ is positioned outside
of two disparate points on the web publishing
continuum, media-driven journals which are
designed primarily for the publication of media-
driven content (e.g.
Vectors Journal
<
http:/
/www.vectorsjournal.org/
>,
Southern Spaces
<
http://www.southernspaces.org/
>; also see
Toton and Martin) and text-driven journals
which are designed to reproduce the print
journal model in a web publication (e.g.
Journal of Writing Research
<
http://www.jow
r.org
>,
International Journal of Teaching and
Learning in Higher Education
<
http://www.is
etl.org/ijtlhe/
>).
Although TEI-EJ’s ‘journal’ designation is
suggestive of a single aim, from the outset,
project objectives have been defined as both
experimental and extramural, and TEI-EJ has
been envisaged not only as a publishing venue
but also as a community-driven online forum
that offers members of the TEI, whether
novice or expert, as well as the broader DH
community new educational insights into the
TEI. Significantly, the steps being taken to
achieve these objectives contribute to a newly
emerging body of scholarship which explores
the development of new digital environments
and which defines a new genre in academic
publishing.
The first stage of the project has been the
development of TEI-EJ as a born digital,
open access, peer reviewed scholarly journal
where communicative modes are bidirectional
rather than exclusively unidirectional, articles
are media-driven (including video, audio, and
image) as well as text-driven, and where the
aims of publication extend beyond print journal
mimesis to include education and community
building.
Given the hybrid nature of the project’s goals
(publishing and learning community; see Dal
Fiore, Koku and Wellman) and the novel design
for implementation, TEI-EJ’s site infrastructure
(see
Fig. 1
) was designed to be extensible,
capable of managing text articles (e.g. TEI-
XML as well as formats such as .txt and .doc
which are converted to TEI-XML), multimedia
articles (e.g. video, audio, image), moderated
responses to articles, and community-driven
communications (e.g. forum and blog) (see
Fig. 2
). This is achieved through Drupal,
2
a
customizable, open source content management
system, which facilitates the social media as well
as the publishing and educational aspects of the
project.
3
Fig. 1.
Schlitz TEI-EJ project planning 'mindmap'

2
Fig. 2.
Screenshot of TEI-EJ website
This paper will introduce the TEI-EJ project,
describing the
why
and
how
of the key
theoretical, technological and editorial decisions
that drove development as we advanced
from theory into practice. In doing so, it
aims to establish the project as a new
model for academic publishing which is
designed to harness emerging technologies,
to leverage the fact that “Open access is
changing the public and scholarly presence of
the research article” (Willinsky), to promote
learning objectives beside dissemination of
scholarship, and to elevate the role of reader/
end-user to the position of chief stakeholder.
References
A Digital Humanities Manifesto.
15 Dec. 2008
23 July 2009
http://dev.cdh.ucla.edu/digital
humanities/2008/12/15/digital-humanities-m
anifesto/
.
Dal Fiore, Filippo
(2007). 'Communities
Versus Networks: The Implications on
Innovation and Social Change'.
American
Behavioral Scientist.
(50)7
: 857-866.
Koku, Emmanuel F., Wellman, Barry
(2002). 'Scholarly Networks as Learning
Communities: The Case of TechNet'.
Designing
Virtual Communities in the Service of Learning.
Sasha Barab, Rob Kling (eds.). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Maron, Nancy L., Kirby Smith, K.
(2009). 'Current Models of Digital Scholarly
Communication: Results of an Investigation
Conducted by Ithaka Strategic Services for the
Association of Research Libraries'.
The Journal
of Electronic Publishing.
12(1)
.
http://quod.l
ib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text- idx?c=jep;vie
w=text;rgn=main;idno=3336451.0012.105
.
TEI: Text Encoding Initiative.
http://www.tei-
c.org/index.xml
(accessed 7 July 2009).
Terras, Melissa, Van den Branden, Ron,
Vanhoutte, Edward
(2009). 'Teaching TEI:
The Need for TEI by Example'.
Literary and
Linguistic Computing.
24(3)
: 297-306.
Toton, Sarah, Martin, Stacey
(2009).
'Teaching and Learning from the U.S. South
in Global Contexts: A Case Study of Southern
Spaces and Southcomb'.
Digital Humanities
Quarterly.
3(2)
.
http://digitalhumanities.o
rg/dhq/vol/3/2/000047.html
.
Waltham, Mary
(12 Oct. 2009). 'The Future of
Scholarly Journals Publishing'.
http://www.nha
lliance.org/bm~doc/hssreport.pdf
.
Willett, Perry
(2004).
Electronic Texts:
Audiences and Purposes.
'A Companion
to Digital Humanities'. Schreibman, Susan ,
Siemens, Ray , Unsworth, John (eds.). Oxford:
Blackwell.
http://digitalhumanities.org/comp
anion/
.
Willinsky, J.
(25 Sept. 2009). '9 Flavors
of Open Access'.
E-MEDICINE.
49
(3)
.
http://cssp.us/pdf/9%20Flavors%20of%20
Open%20Access.pdf
.
Notes
1.
Two of the notable TEI teaching resources which are
available include the Women Writers Project’s NEH-
funded series of “Advanced Seminars on Scholarly Text
Encoding” (see <
http://www.wwp.brown.edu/encoding
/seminars/neh_advanced.html
>) and TEI by Example
(see <
http://www.kantl.be/ctb/project/2006/tei-
ex.htm
> and Terras et al.).
2.
For a good, comparative discussion of content management
systems, see “Comparing Open Source Content Management
Systems: WordPress, Joomla, Drupal, and Plone,” available at
<
http://idealware.org/comparing_os_cms/
>. TEI-
XML content is being handled by the Drupal XML Content
module, and the journal’s publishing workflow is being handled
by the Drupal E- Journal module.
3.
A preview of the publishing website and a fully functional mock
journal issue are being presented at the TEI Members’ Meeting
in November 2009.","txt","2","",""
"1186","11","Thinking Archivally: Search and Metadata as Building Blocks for a New Digital Historiography","1","
1
Thinking Archivally: Search
and Metadata as Building
Blocks for a New Digital
Historiography
Sternfeld, Joshua
jsternfeld@neh.gov
National Endowment for the Humanities, USA
""Records are no longer fixed, but dynamic. The
record is no longer a passive object, a 'record'
of evidence, but an active agent playing an on-
going role in lives of individuals, organizations,
and society.""
1
Advances in digital representation and
preservation have ushered in new perspectives
for defining the record. Terry Cook, speaking
on behalf of a growing cohort interested
in reshaping the disciplinary boundaries of
archival studies, argues that records no longer
possess the aura of absolute authority that
they once held. Practitioners and theorists
working within a postmodernist framework
have broken open the once sacred bond between
the historical craft and the archive, in the
process challenging notions of evidence, truth,
and narrative.
One of the great beneficiaries and active
participants of this re-evaluation of the
archive and the record, of course, is digital
history. Digital tools, from Omeka to ArcGIS,
have empowered a growing community of
professional and amateur historians, museums,
and libraries to provide unprecedented access to
collections of primary materials and historical
data. Such tools also demonstrate the ease with
which archival and historical practices have
come into contact with one another, thereby
disrupting conventional understanding of the
record in both fields.
In this paper, I will address the cross-
disciplinary relationship between history and
archival theory as one component in the
broader development of a much-needed digital
historiography.
2
I will argue that principles
of archival theory and historiography together
may guide the evaluation of digital and new
media historical representations, especially with
regards to the contextualization of historical
evidence. Whether considering an online
archive, database, or GIS visualization, the
aggregation of large data sets necessitates
proper archival management of the data.
Besides enhancing the long-term sustainability
and preservation of the representation –
itself a worthy and often overlooked objective
–, the application of archival standards to
data collection, organization, and presentation
influences the type and quality of conclusions
users may generate. Within this complex
association among history, archival theory,
and digital technology this paper will examine
two interrelated ""building blocks"" – search
and metadata – that work hand-in-hand to
form the foundation for a sound digital
historical representation. How a user queries
a representation, even one that is non-textual,
governs the quality of historical knowledge at
the user's disposal, whereas a representation's
content metadata governs the conclusions the
user may draw with that knowledge.
1. A Call for Digital Historiography
New techniques to query, sort, catalogue, and
visualize historical data have brought renewed
interest to understanding the past on every
scale, from the personal to the global. As
scholars and teachers, we have encouraged
digital exploration, whether in gathering local
data with the support of a historical society
or archive, or repurposing historical materials
through museum installations, websites,
documentaries, and multimedia mashups.
Despite promising possibilities in historical
computing, the emergence of digital history
has also created a distinct fissure in the
wider field of history. Practicing digital history
challenges methodological preconceptions.
Conducting search queries across vast digital
collections seems antithetical to visiting
an archive. Similarly, navigating through
a three-dimensional environment enhances
interactivity and engagement with the historical
representation, and in the process confronts, or
at times abandons altogether, the core activities
of reading and writing historical texts. In short,
history in the digital age has upended notions
of representation, context, inquiry, narrative,
linearity, temporal and spatial orientation, and
experience.
3

2
This undeniable shift in the landscape demands
that we harness the potential of digital history
while not altogether abandoning established
theoretical and methodological practices. A
rush to embrace new digital modes of doing
history, unfortunately, has overwhelmed a
parallel critical examination of changes to
these fundamentals. The same techniques and
technologies that are laudably tearing down
institutional barriers, challenging entrenched
theories, and introducing new voices and
democratic perspectives, can also advance
specious information and theories; distort or
obscure the historical record; or worse –
eliminate it altogether. The role of the historian,
therefore, has shifted from that of exclusive
authority to the equally critical role of mediator
of historical knowledge. If active participation
and exploration have become the benchmarks
of digital historical representations, then the
(digital) historian must ensure that the manner
of user participation is conducted equitably and
responsibly insofar as the knowledge produced
through the representation is predicated upon
rigorous logic and concentrated historical data.
What principles should a new digital
historiography advocate and why is its
cultivation imperative? A working digital
historiography will enable critical engagement
with digital and new media representations, a
challenging endeavor considering the spectrum
of possible forms that a representation may
take. We may justifiably question whether an
online collection, for example, shares traits
with a GIS-based visualization. While each
representational genre warrants a unique set
of evaluative criteria, commonalities across
formats and historical content do exist and
warrant further attention. We may begin with
the notion that all representations possess some
form of a user interface. Interrogating the user
interface can lead one to assess the transparency
with which the representation has selected
and organized its content. We may also ask
whether its formal design complements and
provides sufficient access to the content. With
a scholarly text, answers to such questions
are readily apparent by poring over indicators
such as footnotes, bibliography, and the table
of contents. Many digital representations,
however, collate information within multi-
dimensional, non-linear structures, thereby
subverting or eliminating such identifiable cues.
As Edward Ayers remarks, ""We cannot judge a
Web site by its cover – or its heft, its publisher's
imprint, or the blurbs it wears.""
4
2. The Building Blocks of Digital
Historiography: Search and
Metadata
In developing a set of evaluative criteria,
we must consider the association between
a representation's form and content, which
together comprise the representation's overall
historical argument. While there are numerous
components worthy of consideration, two in
particular – search and metadata – determine
to a large extent how a representation
organizes its historical information. Without
a robust search engine the user cannot
access historical data; similarly, without quality
metadata, a strong search engine is rendered
ineffective. While this may seem self-evident,
the integration of search and metadata in a
representation runs much deeper; it affects,
and is affected by, nearly every aspect of
the representation, including its interface,
aesthetic, design, structure, and functionality.
Search and metadata together govern the
transformative process by which historical
information becomes historical evidence.
This paper will use examples of current digital
collections and visualizations to illustrate how
search and metadata contributes to the overall
value of the representation. I will argue that an
assessment of these two building blocks, when
considered from both an historical and archival
perspective, can shed light on the argument
put forth by the representation. In the case of
an online collection, for example, the creator
must weigh the benefits of generating metadata
according to standardized thesauri, scholarly
input, or folksonomy. These very different
approaches, if applied to the same archival
collection, would not only influence the type of
audience that may use the archive, but also steer
users towards divergent search results, which
could ultimately determine how the content is
recombined.
5
A reconstruction of an historic building,
meanwhile, invites a ""search"" process of a
different sort. Searching occurs while the user
navigates through the environment. Is the user
invited to discover new sightlines or gauge","txt","2","",""
"1187","11","Towards a Computational Narration of Inner World","1","
1
Towards a Computational
Narration of Inner World
Zhu, Jichen
jzh@mail.ucf.edu
Department of Digital Media, University of
Central Florida
Narrative, as it evolves with technological
developments, constantly reinvents itself in
order to better capture new social orders
and individual experiences. As an emerging
cultural expression, however, most computer-
generated narrative works are still restricted
to an action-based, goal-driven aesthetics,
leaving little space for characters’ inner world.
This paper proposes to expand the range of
computer-generated narrative by addressing
this imbalance between the “physical” and
the “internal.” It presents our approach
for algorithmically narrating characters’ inner
world by leveraging the synergy between
modernist stream of consciousness literature
and contemporary research in artificial
intelligence and cognitive science. The
Riu
system, a text-based computational narrative
system inspired by Woolf’s novel
Mrs.
Dalloway
, is provided as a case study towards
this new direction.
1. Computer-Generated Narrative
Contemporary forms of narrative have evolved
rapidly as digital technologies continue to be
integrated in modern society. New conventions
at the levels of both content and discourse
have been established to reflect the constantly
changing relationship between human and
technology. For instance, popular science
fictions of the 1980s (e.g.,
The Terminator
)
embodied the prevailing cyborg discourse
and confusions of human identity within the
Cold War context (Edwards, 1996). Similarly,
hypertext fictions in the 1990s instantiated
the postmodernist mentality of its time by
turning everything – writer, reader, and society
– into fragments (Johnson-Eilola, 1997). In
this regard, the emerging form of
computer-
generated narrative
,
1
that is, stories produced
by computer algorithms, may offer an important
cultural expression to portray our increasingly
technology-dependent modern life.
Compared to other forms of electronic literature
(e.g., hypertext fictions), the strict technological
requirements for computer-generated narrative
have confined its development largely to
the computer science community, particularly
artificial intelligence (AI). Over the past
decades, serious attempts have been made
to integrate narratology theory into existing
AI framework for story generation (Bringsjord
& Ferrucci, 2000; Cavazza & Pizzi, 2006;
Mateas, 2002; Meehan, 1976). Despite the
considerable progress the community has made,
the expressive power of computer-generated
narrative is still limited compared to its non-
digital antecedents. In particular, this paper
is concerned with the prominent goal-driven,
problem-solving aesthetics that dominate many
story generation systems. A salient example is
the
Tale-Spin
system (Meehan, 1976), which
generates stories in the spirit of: Joe Bear was
hungry; Joe couldn’t reach his food because of
certain obstacles; Joe resolved the issues; Joe
got his food.
It is true that recent narrative systems have
evolved in numerous aspects since then.
Nevertheless, this ultra-rational, ""behaviorist""
narrative style, afforded by Meehan’s now-
widely-adopted planning-based framework, has
remained and been taken for granted by
many practitioners. As we become more aware
of digital media’s capability of constructing
subjective mental imagery and evoking users’
imagination and awareness (Harrell, 2009),
it is crucial to revisit some of these early
assumptions of computer-generated narrative
and critically understand the expressive
affordances as well as restrictions of the
computational techniques that we use.
This paper proposes to expand the spectrum
of computer-generated narratives by focusing
on the richness of characters’ inner world,
hidden behind the external world of actions.
This approach aligns with modernist writers’
concerns of depicting ""hidden life at its
source"" (Woolf, 1957 [1925]). Notice this
is not a strong AI attempt to model
human (semi-)consciousness. Instead, the
goal is to explore new ways of conveying
human subjectivity and life stories by
algorithmically generating
narratives
that are

2
reminiscent of similar phenomena. Informed
by modernist literary techniques (particularly
Virginia Woolf’s work), cognitive science
discoveries and AI, this paper proposes a
new approach for generating inner narratives
and presents initial results from our on-going
narrative project
Riu
.
2. Synergy of the Old and New
As argued elsewhere (Zhu & Harrell,
2010 (forthcoming)), the overlooked synergy
between stream of consciousness literature,
artificial intelligence (AI), and cognitive science
provides valuable insights to generating stories
about characters’ inner world. In their
respective historical contexts, both stream of
consciousness literature and AI challenged
the domination of behaviorism by turning
internally
to the human psyche. Rejecting
the literary representation of characters as
the ""external man"", modernist writers such
as Virginia Woolf and James Joyce invented
techniques to depict the moment-by-moment
psychic existence and functioning of the
""internal man"" (Humphrey, 1954). Similarly, AI
broke away from the behaviorism-dominated
scientific community in the 1950s and
legitimated human mental constructs, such as
knowledge and reasoning, as crucial subjects of
scientific inquiries.
The differences between AI and modernist
literature further dissolve when we take account
of recent cognitive science theory, a sister field
of AI. Stream of consciousness literature’s key
concern with pre-speech level of consciousness,
minimally mediated by rationality and language,
is echoed by new discoveries in cognitive
linguistics. Recent research (Fauconnier &
Turner, 2002) has confirmed that the vast
cognitive resources of ""backstage cognition"" are
called up unconsciously when we engage in any
language activity.
3. Generating Inner Narratives
Generating narratives about characters’ inner
world requires innovation at the story content,
discourse and algorithmic levels. The techniques
in stream of consciousness literature offer
invaluable insights into literary representations
of inner life, such as Woolf’s loosely structured
plot, the ""caves"" of characters’ past (Woolf,
1957 [1925]), and various modes of interior
monologues (Cohn, 1978).
The insights from planning-generated
stories illustrate the impact of underlying
computational techniques. Substantial changes
at the algorithmic level therefore are needed
to incorporate the new content and aesthetic
requirements. As we have argued (Zhu
& Ontañón, 2010), computational analogy,
influenced by related cognitive science studies,
is one of the promising directions towards
our goal. Its emphasis on similarities and
associations between different constructs is
particularly useful to establish connections
between external events and inner thoughts
(e.g., the action of ""buying flowers"" and flower-
related memories). Computational analogy may
also be used to depict ""the train of thoughts""
by connecting a sequence of related events, one
after another.
4. Case Study:
Riu
Our generative narrative project Riu is an on-
going attempt to computationally generated
stories about characters’ inner world. Inspired
by Woolf’s novel
Mrs. Dalloway
(Woolf, 2002
(1925)), this project harnesses computational
analogy at different levels of story generation for
various narrative effects (Zhu & Ontañón, 2010).
Similar to our earlier conceptual-blending-
based (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002) project
Memory, Reverie Machine
(Zhu & Harrell,
2010 (forthcoming)),
Riu
is explicitly geared
towards algorithmically narrating characters’
inner world, through the depiction of characters’
unrolling thoughts and subjective variations of
such thoughts based on user interaction. An
excerpt of system output at the current stage of
development can be found in Fig 1.
Figure 1. Sample output of
Riu
(including user input)
Rather than ordering events in ways that lead
to a desired goal, as in many planning-based
systems,
Riu
adopts the computational analogy
algorithm of structural mapping (Falkenhainer,
Forbus & Gentner, 1989; Gentner, 1983) to","txt","2","",""
"1188","11","Towards Hermeneutic Markup: An architectural","1","
1
Towards Hermeneutic
Markup: An architectural
outline
Piez, Wendell
wapiez@mulberrytech.com
Mulberry Technologies, Inc., USA
By ""
hermeneutic
"" markup I mean markup that
is deliberately interpretive. It is not limited
to describing aspects or features of a text
that can be formally defined and objectively
verified. Instead, it is devoted to recording
a scholar's or analyst's observations and
conjectures in an open-ended way. As markup,
it is capable of automated and semi-automated
processing, so that it can be processed at scale
and transformed into different representations.
By means of a markup regimen perhaps
peculiar to itself, a text would be exposed
to further processing such as text analysis,
visualization or rendition. Texts subjected
to consistent interpretive methodologies, or
different interpretive methodologies applied to
the same text, can be compared. Rather than
being devoted primarily to supporting data
interchange and reuse – although these benefits
would not be excluded – hermeneutic markup is
focused on the presentation and explication of
the interpretation it expresses.
Hermeneutic markup in its full form does not yet
exist. XML, and especially TEI XML, provides a
foundation for this work. But due to limitations
both in currently dominant approaches to XML,
and in XML itself, a number of important
desiderata remain before truly sophisticated
means can be made available for scholars to
exploit the full potentials of markup for literary
study, as implied, for example, by ideas such as
Steven Ramsay's Algorithmic Criticism or what
I described in 2001 (following Rockwell and
Bradley) as ""
exploratory markup
"" (Piez 2001.
See also especially Buzzetti, 2002 and McGann,
2004).
Prototype user interfaces designed to enable one
or another kind of
ad hoc
textual annotation
or markup have been developed, for the most
part independently of one another (several are
cited.). This shows that the idea of hermeneutic
markup, or something like it, is not new; but
none of these have yet made the breakthrough.
An important reason is that hermeneutic
markup in its full sense will not be possible on
the basis simply of a standard tag set or capable
user interface, because it will mean not just that
we can describe a data set using markup (we
can already do that), but that we can actively
develop, for a
particular
text or family of texts,
an appropriate, and possibly highly customized,
means and methodology for doing so.
A demonstration of a prototype markup
application helps to show the potentials
and challenges, in a very rudimentary form
[screenshots appear in Figure 1.] This graphical
and interactive rendering of markup in the
source files presents an interpretation of
the grammatical/rhetorical structure (sentences
and phrases) as well as verse structure (lines
and stanzas) in the text. Unfortunately, while
the encoding for the sonnets here is not
inordinately difficult – ""
milestones
"" are used, in
a conventional manner, to denote the presence
of structures that overlap the primary structure
of the encoded document – the code that
renders it (not included in the package) incurs
significant extra overhead to run, because
XML technologies are ill-fitted to manage the
kind of information we are interested in here,
namely the overlapping of these structures that
characterizes the sonnet form. XML doesn't
do overlap. As long as a sentence or phrase
overlaps a line – a very common occurrence
and important poetic device – the normative
XML data model, a ""
tree
"", cannot capture both
together. In order to do processing like what
happens here, one or another workaround has to
be resorted to. So while XML is being used here,
it is a clumsy means to this end.

2
Figure 1: Screenshots of three sonnets with rendition of
overlapping (verse and sentence/phrase) structures. The
interface (implemented in W3C-standard SVG) is dynamic and
responds to user input to highlight overlapping ranges of text.
But overlap is only part of the problem. Consider
Alfred Lord Tennyson's
Now Sleeps the Crimson
Petal, Now the White
. This too is a sonnet,
after a fashion, although it does not have a
conventional sonnet's octave/sestet structure.
Since this application does not work with a
schema, this is not a problem here. Yet as texts
or collections grow in scale and complexity,
having a schema is essential to enforcing
consistency and helping to ensure that like
things are marked up alike. A framework for
this application must not only find a way to
work around the overlap; it must also deploy a
schema (or at any rate some sort of validation
technology) flexible enough – at least if this
instance is to be valid to it – that such outliers
from regular form are permissible, even while
attention is drawn to them (see Birnbaum 1997).
Currently, XML developers generally (setting
aside the problem of overlap) do not consider
this to be problematic in itself; indeed, part of
the fun and interest of markup is in devising and
applying a schema that fits the data, however
strange and interesting it may be. What is
not so fun is to have to repeat this process
endlessly, being caught in a cycle of amending
and adjusting a schema constantly (and sooner
or later, scripts and stylesheets) in order to
account for newly discovered anomalies. Sooner
or later, when exhaustion sets in or the limits
of technical knowhow are reached, one ends
up either faking it with tags meant for other
purposes (thereby diluting markup semantics in
order to
pretend
to represent the data), or just
giving up.
Extending a schema is found to be a problem
not only because validating and processing
any model more complex than a single
hierarchy is a headache even for technical
experts, but also, more generally, because
current practices assume a top-down schema
development process. Despite XML's support
for processing markup even without a schema,
both XML tools and dominant development
methodologies assume that schema design and
development occurs prior to the markup and
processing of actual texts. This priority is both
temporal and logical, reflecting a conception
of the schema as a declaration of constraints
over a set of instances (a “type”), appropriate
to publishing systems built to work with
hundreds or thousands of documents, with
a requirement for backwards compatibility
(documents encoded earlier cannot be revised
easily or at all) and limited flexibility to adapt to
new and interesting discoveries. The centrality
of the schema within this kind of system inhibits,
when it does not altogether frustrate, the flexible
development of a markup practice that is
sensitive, primarily, to a text under study, and

3
this conception of a schema's authority works
poorly when considering a single text
sui generis
– the starting point for hermeneutic markup.
In hermeneutic markup, a schema should be,
first and last, an apparatus and a support, not a
Procrustean bed.
All these problems together indicate the outline
of a general solution:
-
A data model supporting arbitrary overlap.
-
Interfaces, including a markup syntax, that
facilitate the creation, editing and analysis of
texts using this data model, with the capability
of defining
ad hoc
elements and properties
(attributes) on the fly.
-
A transformation technology supporting (in
addition to data transformations) analytical
tools applicable to the markup as such (not
just the raw text), with the capability of
managing elements and their properties in
sets, locating them, listing them by type,
sorting, visualizing and comparing them.
-
Schema-inferencing capabilities for
describing the structural relations within
either an entire marked-up corpus, or within
identifiable segments, sections or profiles of
it.
-
In connection this, a schema technology that
supports partial and modular validation.
A system with all these features would support
an iterative and ""
agile
"" approach to markup
development. We would start by tagging. (In a
radical version of this approach we might start
by tagging for presentation, perhaps using just
a lightweight HTML or TEI variant for our first
cut.) Then we introduce a provisional schema
or schemas capable of validating the tagging
we have used. This requires assessing which
cases of overlap in the text are essential to our
document analysis, and which are incidental
and subject to normalization within hierarchies.
Having refined the schema, we return to the
tagged text, to consider both how its tagging falls
short (with respect to whatever requirements we
have for either data description or processing),
and how it may be enhanced, better structured
and regularized. During this process we also
begin to develop and deploy applications of
the markup. We then revise, refactor and
extend both tagging and schema, applying data
transformations as needed, in order to better
address the triple goals of adequate description,
processing, and economy of design.
Such a system would not only be an
interesting and potentially ground-breaking
approach to collaborative literary study; it
would also be a platform for learning about
markup technologies, an increasingly important
topic in itself. Moreover, hermeneutic markup
represents an opportunity to capitalize on
investments already made, as texts encoded in
well-understood formats like TEI are readily
adaptable for this kind of work.
Many of these capabilities have already
been demonstrated or sketched in different
applications or proposals for applications,
including W3C XML Schema (partial
validation); James Clark's Trang (schema
inferencing for XML); LMNL/CREOLE
(overlap, structured annotations, validation
of overlap); JITTs (XML ""
profiles
"" of
concurrent overlapping structures); and
TexMECS (overlap, ""
virtual
"" and discontinuous
elements).
The presentation will conclude with a
demonstration of various outputs from the
data sources used in the demo, which provide
building blocks towards the kind of system
sketched here. A range-analysis transformation
can show which types of structures in a
markup instance overlap with other structures,
and conversely which structures nest cleanly.
Complementary to this, an ""
XML induction
processor
"" is capable of deriving well-formed
XML representations of texts marked up with
overlapping structures – from which, in turn,
XML schemas can be derived.

4
Figure 2: A workflow diagram showing the architecture of
present (XML-based) markup systems. Both schema and
processing logic are considered to be static; modifying them is
an activity extraneous to document markup and production.
Figure 3: An architecture capable of supporting hermeneutic
markup would account directly for document analysis and for
the design of schema, queries and processing. While in fact this
is often done even today, one has to work against the current
tool set to do it, questioning its assumptions regarding the
purposes, roles and relations of source text, markup and schema.
A final version of this paper, with the
demonstrations, is available at
http://piez.org
/wendell/papers/dh2010/index.html
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Encoding Guidelines, and the Trouble with

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.
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.
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(2001). 'Beyond the Descriptive
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rg/wendell/papers/beyonddistinction.pdf
.
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(2008). 'Algorithmic
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Susan Schreibman and Ray Siemens
(ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
http://www.digitalhu
manities.org/companionDLS/
.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. Michael
(1991).
'Text in the electronic age: Textual study and text
encoding, with examples from medieval texts'.
Literary & linguistic computing.
6(1)
: 34-46.","txt","2","",""
"1189","11","Two representations of the semantics of TEI Lite","1","
1
Two representations of the
semantics of TEI Lite
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M.
cmsmcq@blackmesatech.com
Black Mesa Technologies LLC, USA
Marcoux, Yves
yves.marcoux@umontreal.ca
Université de Montréal, Canada
Huitfeldt, Claus
Claus.Huitfeldt@uib.no
Department of Philosophy, University of
Bergen
Markup languages based on SGML and
XML provide reasonably fine control over
the syntax of markup used in documents.
Schema languages (DTDs, Relax NG, XSD, etc.)
provide mature, well understood mechanisms
for specifying markup syntax which support
validation, syntax-directed editing, and in some
cases query optimization. We possess a much
poorer set of tools for specifying the
meaning
of the markup in a vocabulary, and virtually
no tools which could systematically exploit any
semantic specification. Some observers claim,
indeed, that XML and SGML are “just syntax”,
and that SGML/XML markup has no systematic
semantics at all. Drawing on earlier work
(Marcoux et al., 2009), this paper presents
two alternative and complementary approaches
to the formal representation of the semantics
of TEI Lite:
Intertextual semantics
(IS) and
Formal tag-set descriptions
(FTSD).
RDF and Topic Maps may appear to address
this problem (they are after all specifications for
expressing “semantic relations,” and they both
have XML transfer syntaxes), but in reality their
focus is on generic semantics — propositions
about the real world — and not the semantics of
markup languages.
In practice, the semantics of markup is
most of the time specified only through
human-readable documentation. Most existing
colloquial markup languages are documented
in prose, sometimes systematically and in
detail, sometimes very sketchily. Often, written
documentation is supplemented or replaced
in practice by executable code: users will
understand a given vocabulary (e.g., HTML,
RSS, or the Atom syndication format) in terms
of the behavior of software which supports or
uses that vocabulary; the documentation for
Docbook elevates this almost to a principle,
consistently speaking not of the meaning of
particular constructs, but of the “processing
expectations” licensed by those constructs.
Yet a formal description of the semantics of a
markup language can bring several benefits. One
of them is the ability to develop provably correct
mappings (conversions, translations) from one
markup language to another. A second one is
the possibility of automatically deriving facts
from documents, and feeding them into various
inferencing or reasoning systems. A third one
is the possibility of automatically computing
the semantics of part or whole of a document
and presenting it to humans in an appropriate
form to make the meaning of the document (or
passage) precise and explicit.
There have been a few proposals for formal
approaches to the specification of markup
semantics. Two of them are
Intertextual
Semantic Specifications
, and
Formal Tagset
Descriptions
.
Intertextual semantics (IS) (Marcoux, 2006;
Marcoux & Rizkallah, 2009) is a proposal to
describe the meaning of markup constructs
in natural language, by supplying an IS
specification (ISS), which consists in a pre-text
(or text-before) and a post-text (or text-after)
for each element type in the vocabulary. When
the vocabulary is used correctly, the contents
of each element combine with the pre- and
post-text to form a coherent natural-language
text representing, to the desired level of detail,
the information conveyed by the document.
Although based on natural language, IS differs
from the usual prose-documentation approach
by the fact that the meaning of a construct
is dynamically assembled and can be read
sequentially, without the need to go back and
forth between the documentation and the actual
document.
Formal tag-set descriptions (FTSD) (Sperberg-
McQueen et al., 2000) (Sperberg-McQueen &
Miller, 2004) attempt to capture the meaning
of markup constructs by means of “skeleton
sentences”: expressions in an arbitrary notation

2
into which values from the document are
inserted at locations indicated by blanks. FTSDs
can, like ISSs, formulate the skeleton sentences
in natural language prose. In that case, the main
difference between FTSD and ISS is that an
IS specification for an element is equivalent
to a skeleton sentence with a single blank, to
be filled in with the content of the element.
In the general case, skeleton sentences in an
FTSD can have multiple blanks, to be filled in
with data selected from arbitrary locations in
the document (Marcoux et al., 2009). It is more
usual, however, for FTSDs to formulate their
skeleton sentences in some logic notation: e.g.,
first-order predicate calculus or some subset of
it.
Three other approaches, though not directly
aimed at specifying markup semantics, use
RDF to express document structure or
some
document semantics, and could probably be
adapted or extended to serve as markup
semantics specification formalisms. They are
RDF Textual Encoding Framework
(RDFTef)
(Tummarello et al., 2005) (Tummarello et al.,
2006), EARMARK (
Extreme Annotational RDF
Markup
) (Di Iorio et al., 2009), and GRDDL
(
Gleaning Resource Descriptions from Dialects
of Languages
) (Connolly, 2007).
RDFTef and EARMARK both use RDF to
represent complex text encoding. One of their
key features is the ability to deal with non-
hierarchical, overlapping structures. GRDDL
is a method for trying to make parts of the
meaning of documents explicit by means of
an XSLT translation which transforms the
document in question into a set of RDF
triples. GRDDL is typically thought of as a
method of extracting meaning from the markup
and/or content in a particular document or
set of documents, rather than as a method
of specifying the meaning of a vocabulary;
it is often deployed for HTML documents,
where the information of most immediate
concern is not the semantics of the HTML
vocabulary in general, but the implications of
the particular conventions used in a single
document. However, there is no reason in
principle that GRDDL could not be used to
specify the meaning of a markup vocabulary
apart from any additional conventions adopted
in the use of that vocabulary by a given project
or in a given document.
If proposals for formal semantics of markup are
scarce, their application to colloquial markup
vocabularies are even scarcer. Most examples
found in the literature are toy examples. A
larger-scale implementation of RDFTef for a
subset of the TEI has been realized by Kepler
(Kepler, 2005). However, as far as we know,
no complete formal semantics has ever been
defined for a real-life and commonly used
colloquial vocabulary. This paper reports on
experiments in applying ISSs and FTSDs to
an existing and widely-used colloquial markup
vocabulary: TEI Lite.
Developing an ISS and an FTSD in parallel for
the same vocabulary is interesting for at least
two reasons. First, it is an opportunity to verify
the intuition expressed in Marcoux et al., 2009
that working out ISSs and FTSDs involves much
the same type of intellectual effort. Second, it
can give insight into the relative merits and
challenges of natural-language vs logic-based
approaches to semantics specification.
The full paper will focus on the technical and
substantive challenges encountered along the
way and will describe the solutions adopted.
An example of a challenge is the fact that TEI
Lite documents can be either autonomous or
transcriptions of existing exemplars. Both cases
are treated with the same markup vocabulary,
but ultimately, the meaning of the markup is
quite different: in one case, it licences inferences
about the marked-up document itself, while
in the other, it licences inferences about the
exemplar. The work reported in Sperberg-
McQueen et al., 2009 on the formal nature
of transcription is useful here to decide how
to represent statements about the exemplar,
when it exists. However, the problems of
determining whether any particular document is
a transcription or not, and of putting that fact
into action in the generation of the semantics
remain. One possible solution is to consider as
external knowledge the fact that the document is
a transcription. In the FTSD case, that external
knowledge would be represented as a formal
statement that could then trigger inferences
about an exemplar. In the ISS case, it would
show up as a preamble in the pre-text of
the document element. Another solution is
to consider the transcription and autonomous
cases as two different application contexts
of the vocabulary, and define two different","txt","2","",""
"1190","11","Unfolding History with the Help of the GIS Technology: a Scholar-Librarian Quest for Creating Digital Collections","1","
1
Unfolding History with the
Help of the GIS Technology:
a Scholar-Librarian
Quest for Creating Digital
Collections
Smith, Natasha
nsmith@email.unc.edu
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Allen, Robert
rallen@email.unc.edu
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Whisnant, Anne
anne_whisnant@unc.edu
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Eckhardt, Kevin
kevineck@email.unc.edu
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Moore, Elise
elimoore@email.unc.edu
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Carolina Digital Library and Archives (CDLA)
and Documenting the American South
(DocSouth) are a digital library laboratory
that creates, develops, and maintains online
collections regarding the history of the American
South with materials drawn primarily from
the outstanding archival holdings of the UNC
library. In this presentation, we plan to
demonstrate how the close partnership between
UNC librarians and faculty forges its path
in the frontier of digital humanities. Our
experience clearly demonstrates that digital
historical scholarship cannot be done on the
old model of the scholar laboring alone, “the
solitary scholar who churns out articles and
books behind the closed door of his office” (see
Kenneth Price, 2008). By bringing together
faculty and librarians’ expertise, collaborators
endeavor to use digital technologies in a variety
of innovative ways to collect, organize, and
display data and materials that illuminate
the temporal and spatial unfolding of historic
events. Recent experimental work with GIS
helps us to better understand how the use of
digital technologies changes the way we do
research in humanities and how it facilitates
learning in the classroom. Indeed, “GIS, in
combination with other branches of scholarship,
has the potential to provide a more integrated
understanding of history” (see Ian N. Gregory,
2003).
At the same time, the wide array of issues
(digitizing and geo-referencing of Sanborn and
other historic maps, use of JavaScript mapping
APIs, such as Google Maps and the open-source
Open Layers, for zooming and hotspot addition,
layering and geo-tagging scholarly content) will
be presented based on several completed and in
progress digital history collections built in close
collaboration of UNC librarians working with
UNC scholars.
1. “Going to the Show” (
www.docsouth.unc.e
du/gtts/
) is the first digital archive devoted
to the early experience of cinema across
an entire state. In a research project, Prof.
Allen collaborated with digital publishing
experts and special collections librarians
at UNC to create an online, interactive
digital collection of maps, photos, postcards,
newspaper clippings, architectural drawings,
city directories and historical commentary that
illuminate and reconstruct cultural and social
life during the first three decades of the
20
th
century in North Carolina. Supported
by a grant from the N.C. State Library and
a National Endowment for the Humanities
Digital Humanities Fellowship, “Going to the
Show” (GttS) developed the innovative system
for layering content on electronically stitched
and geo-referenced Sanborn Fire Insurance
Maps. Especially in its highly detailed case
study of early moviegoing in Wilmington, N.C.,
GttS demonstrates the extraordinary potential
for illuminating community history through
the interaction of documentary material and
Sanborn maps (see Figure 1).

2
Figure 1. Google Maps AP1 used to present 1915
SAnborn map with layered historic materials
to document the moviegoing in North Carolina.
2. Building on the digital history project “Going
to the Show”, the project team decided to
expand the reach of their expertise by creating
a web-based toolkit that will allow libraries,
schools, museums, local history societies, and
other community organizations to preserve,
document, interpret, display, and share the
history of their downtowns. Called “
Main
Street, Carolina: Recovering the History of
Downtown Across North Carolina
,” the toolkit
will provide users with a flexible, user-
friendly digital platform on which they can
add a wide variety of “local” data: historical
and contemporary photographs, postcards,
newspaper ads and articles, architectural
drawings, historical commentary, family papers,
and excerpts from oral history interviews—all
keyed to and layered on top of digitized Sanborn
Fire Insurance Maps. The toolkit will consist of
a PHP-based web application and a JavaScript
API. The web application will be compact in
size, resource-light, and easy to install on the
local organization’s own web server or that of a
third-party web-hosting service. It will provide
administrative tools for configuring the site,
creating place markers, creating simple web
pages for content, and customizing the look
and feel (see Figure 2). These place markers
can then be associated with images, stories, or
other content, providing a visual link between
the content and related physical locations.
The map interface is the focal point of the
software and will allow users to explore content
associated with specific geographic locations by
interacting with place markers, or ""push-pins,""
overlaid on top of historic maps. Clicking on a
place marker's icon will display an information
bubble which can contain text, images, and
links to additional content. The user will be
able to view and effortlessly pan across entire
downtowns as a seamless integration of multiple
high-resolution map pages; zoom from a bird-
eye view to the smallest cartographic feature;
compare successive map iterations showing the
same building, block, or neighborhood; and
overlay any of these views with contemporary
satellite and map images at the same scale.
The JavaScript API will allow users to include
digitized maps created for other CDLA projects
as layers in their own websites or mash-ups
which use the Google Maps or Open Layers
mapping APIs. For example, a user could
embed an historic map in a blog post or add
a Sanborn Map as a layer to their existing
website which uses Google Maps to show the
location of homes that are listed on the
National
Register of Historical Places
. MSC is funded
by a private funding and an NEH Start-up
Grant. Development for this project began in
October 2009. We plan to release the toolkit and
pilot projects developed in collaboration with
external partners in summer 2010, prior to the
start of the conference.
Figure 2. “
Main Street, Carolina: Recovering the
History of Downtown Across North Carolina
” tool kit.
Administrative form for entering historical documents.
3. “Driving through Time: The Digital Blue
Ridge Parkway in North Carolina” will present
an innovative visually and spatially based
model for illustrating North Carolina’s key
role in creating the Parkway, representing
the twentieth-century history of a seventeen-
county section of the North Carolina mountains,
and for understanding crucial elements of
the development of the American National
Park system. The project will feature historic

3
maps, photographs, postcards, government
documents, oral history interviews, and
newspaper clippings. Each historic document
will be assigned geographic coordinates so that
it can be viewed on a map, enabling users to
visualize and analyze the impact of the Blue
Ridge Parkway on the people and landscape
in western North Carolina over both space
and time (See Figure 3). Primary sources will
be drawn from the collections of the UNC-
Chapel Hill University Library, the Blue Ridge
Parkway Headquarters, and the North Carolina
State Archives. These materials are especially
significant in that they document one of North
Carolina’s most popular tourist attractions, but
also in the way that they help illuminate the
way that the Blue Ridge Parkway transformed
the communities through which it passed. In
addition to the digitized primary sources, the
project will include scholarly analyses of aspects
of the development of the Blue Ridge Parkway.
A geospatial format is uniquely appropriate for
considering the history of the Parkway and
its region. As a narrow park corridor pushed
through a long-populated southern Appalachian
landscape, the Parkway rearranged spaces,
repurposed lands, reorganized travel routes,
and opened and closed economic opportunities
through control of road routing, access, and use.
The social conflicts it engendered, therefore,
frequently entailed spatial components – should
the road go here, or there; should it take
more or less land; should this or that
property be favored with direct Parkway access
(or not)? Understanding these aspects of
Parkway history without reference to spatial
relationships on the land is challenging, as the
project’s scholarly adviser, Dr. Anne Mitchell
Whisnant, recognized when publishing her
2006 book,
Super-Scenic Motorway: A Blue
Ridge Parkway History
(UNC Press). Her
experience, both in writing the book and
in delivering numerous public presentations
since its appearance, is that narrative alone
cannot provide the public with the tools
to comprehend past controversies or present
land protection challenges. Using digital and
geospatial technologies to open a new window
on the history of the Parkway and its region
is especially timely considering the approach
of the Parkway’s 75th anniversary in 2010 and
the National Park Service’s 100th anniversary in
2016.
The collaboration between the library and Dr.
Whisnant has been enhanced by Whisnant’s
engagement in related field of “public history,”
which is history practiced outside the walls
of academia, with and for public audiences.
Based in academia but designed for public
benefit, “Driving through Time” has offered
an exceptional opportunity for involving
undergraduate and graduate students in Dr.
Whisnant’s Introduction to Public History class
in its creation. As a scholarly project being
built through the expertise of a large team
(as nearly all public history undertakings are),
“Driving through Time” has been an ideal
space for students to gain hands-on experience
in doing public history collaboratively, in
real-time, with their instructor. Students are
doing original primary source research in
the university’s special collections, identifying
materials for inclusion in the online exhibit,
developing their own historical narratives,
working with new tools such as wikis and
databases, and contributing to the creation
of metadata. Because the instructor has not
predetermined the final outcome, furthermore,
students are being given ownership over both
their process and their final products and
practicing navigating the unexpected twists,
turns, delights, and disappointments that
historical research always entails.
Figure 3. ""Driving throug Time: The Digital
Blue Ridge Parkway in North Carolina""

4
References
Knowles, Anne Kelly
(2008).
Placing
History: How Maps, Spatial Data, and GIS Are
Changing Historical Scholarship.
Redlands,
Calif.: ESRI Press.
Whisnant, Anne Mitchell
(2006).
Super-
Scenic Motorway: A Blue Ridge Parkway
History.
UNC Press.
Gregory, Ian N.
(2003).
A place in History:
A Guide to Using GIS in Historical Research.
2
nd
Edition
http://www.ccsr.ac.uk/methods/pu
blications/ig-gis.pdf
.
Price, Kenneth
(2008). 'Electronic Scholarly
Editions'.
A Companion to Digital Literary
Studies.
Schreibman, Susan, Siemens, Ray
(eds.). Oxford: Blackwell.","txt","2","",""
"1191","11","Using ODD for Multi-purpose TEI Documentation","1","The philosophy of ""literate
programming"" (Knuth 1984), on which the
TEI ODD is founded, proposes that code and
documentation be written and maintained as
a single integrated resource, from which both
working programs and readable documentation
can be generated. As currently designed, the
TEI ODD system supports these goals, and
there exist several good examples of extended
project documentation written using the ODD
customization file (see (Trolard 2009), (Burnard
and Sperberg-McQueen 2006), (Burnard et al.
2010) and also the TEI Guidelines themselves).
However, at present these examples only
assume and demonstrate the ability to generate
two types of documentation: a prose narrative
and a set of reference documentation. As
text encoding projects develop and mature
they generate a variety of documentation that
may include training tutorials and reference
documentation, public documentation of
editorial and encoding practices, documentation
of their TEI customization, and internal
documentation of the encoding decisions
that have resulted in their current encoding
rationale. Many of these other forms of output
(such as training tutorials) have not been tried in
practice and the current ODD processor, Roma,
does not explicitly support them. In this paper
we explore the possibility of generating more
complex and varied forms of documentation
using the TEI ODD customization file.
As background for this discussion we should
begin by describing the nature and role of this
customization file. Underlying any TEI-encoded
document is a schema defining the terms of its
validity, and underlying that schema is a further
specification: the ODD customization file, which
is the source file from which the schema is
generated (documented in detail in chapters 22
and 23 of the TEI Guidelines (TEI 2007)). The
ODD file serves several important functions:
1.
To express the specific choices that are being
made with respect to the TEI system as a
whole: which TEI modules are to be included
in the generated schema, which elements
and attributes from these modules are to
be included or omitted, changes to content
models, etc.
2.
To document those choices: for instance,
to explain the meaning of controlled
vocabularies for attribute values, or to express
the rationale for applying an element only in
specific contexts or with a slightly broader or
narrower significance than described in the
Guidelines.
3.
To permit the generation (using these two
kinds of information) not only of a custom TEI
schema but also of custom documentation.
This custom documentation includes a re-
expression of the TEI reference documentation:
that is, the second volume of the printed
TEI Guidelines, the portion containing separate
entries for each element, attribute, class, and
macro. This custom reference documentation
includes only references to elements, attributes,
and classes that are actually present in the
custom schema, and includes as part of these
entries some of the additional documentation
expressed as part of point 2 above (e.g. glosses
of specific attribute values, etc.).
The goal of the TEI customization mechanism
as a whole, then, is two-fold. First, it aims
to make TEI schemas self-documenting, by
encapsulating all of the choices made in a
separate document (the customization ODD
file) that can be stored, maintained, exchanged.
And second, to a certain extent the mechanism
is intended to permit
encoding systems
to
be self-documenting, in the sense that the
documentation of the encoding practice can
be bundled together with the raw materials
for creating and maintaining the custom
schema. This is true in a very straightforward
manner to the extent that information about
encoding practice can be directly associated
with specific schema modifications. But more

2
complex documentation is also possible: since
the ODD file is a TEI document, one can also
include more detailed documentation that is not
directly associated with a schema modification,
simply by adding prose to that TEI document.
When the ODD file is processed, the resulting
documentation will include that additional
prose. This more detailed approach is currently
uncommon, but this is primarily because the
Roma web interface does not currently support
the authoring of such documentation; users
need to author the ODD directly in order
to create more complex documentation forms.
Examples of this more detailed approach
include the TEI in Libraries best practices
documentation (Hawkins and Bauman 2009),
and also the documentation for TEI Lite
(Burnard and Sperberg-McQueen 2006).
With this in mind, however, it is tempting
to extend this process even a step further:
to use the ODD file as a way of writing
documentation of other sorts that are even
less closely attached (in their methods of
organization) to the schema specifications.
For example, for many purposes a project
may need to maintain both reference-style
documentation for each element or encoding
concept, and also tutorial-style documentation
whose emphasis is on leading the reader through
a pedagogically structured narrative. Encoders
learning to transcribe manuscript diaries might
need to learn first the specific set of structural
elements that will be used to encode the overall
structure of the document (<div>, <opener>,
<dateLine>, etc.) and then the set of elements
having to do with transcriptional difficulties
(<gap>, <unclear>, <add>, <del>). At the same
time, in other areas of the project it might
be essential to have documentation of the
underlying rationale for the encoding approach,
or a high-level narrative with links to specific
entries. More importantly, different tutorials
or forms of documentation might need to
use particular portions of the specification in
different orders: the tutorial format might take
specific sets of elements and treat them as
groups, while a more comprehensive narrative
documentation might treat the same encoding
concepts in alphabetical order, or by conceptual
grouping, or by TEI module (to take just a few
examples).
To support the generation of multiple
documentation narratives from a single ODD
requires two changes to the way the ODD is
written. First, additional prose (from which the
various narratives will be generated) will need
to be included in the ODD, and the ODD itself
may need to be organized somewhat differently
to accommodate this prose. Second, and more
challengingly, some mechanism is required by
which the different narrative orderings can
be expressed in the ODD and then processed
to produce the various appropriate forms of
output. These different forms of documentation
could of course be maintained separately (as
is currently the case) but the value of the
ODD system lies in its philosophy (expressed
somewhat obscurely in the word ""ODD"", or
""one document does-it-all"") of having a single
document that expresses and documents all
aspects of a TEI encoding scheme. Rather
than creating separate prose documentation
for these additional forms, there is clear value
in being able to generate multiple forms of
documentation serving different purposes, from
a single ODD.
We are not aware of any examples of this latter
type, but the utility of this approach is clear
and the ODD language – because it is part of
the TEI and thus can use the full expressive
resources of the TEI language as a whole –
contains the features necessary to support it. In
this paper we present an initial implementation
in which we construct a set of tutorials on
specific encoding topics in areas where the WWP
has customized the TEI (for instance verse, title
pages, and notes), using the ODD mechanism.
The approach we explore entails encoding
the components of the various narratives
using standard TEI prose and documentation
elements, and constituting each individual
narrative using stand-off markup to identify
and assemble the pieces in the appropriate
order for the documentary form in question. We
present the proposed ODD encoding for these
tutorials, using the Women Writers Project
internal documentation as a testbed. We also
present prototype stylesheets that will generate
multiple documentation narratives from the
single ODD source.","txt","2","",""
"1192","11","Using the Universal Similarity Metric to Map Correspondences between Witnesses","1","
1
Using the Universal
Similarity Metric to Map
Correspondences between
Witnesses
Holmes, Martin
mholmes@uvic.ca
University of Victoria
Thomas Sonnet de Courval's satirical work,
the
Satyre Menippée du mariage
, was initially
published in 1608. In 1609, an expanded version
appeared, with the addition of a second satire,
the
Timethélie, ou Censure des Femmes
. In 1621,
the first satire appeared in a new edition titled
Satyre sur les Traverses du Mariage
, then in
the following year, Sonnet de Courval published
his
Œvres Satyriques
. The
Œvres
includes
12 satires, with the final six consisting of
fragmented, re-organized and re-edited versions
of the
Satyre Menippée
and the
Timethélie
.
A new edition of the 1609 text was published
in 1623, edited by the publisher and probably
without Courval's consent. In 1627, two more
editions of the Œvres
Satyriques
appeared.
(Coste 340-341).
The
Mariage sous L'ancien Régime
project
has already digitized the 1609 text and most
of the 1621, and will be working on other
editions in the future. Our objective is to produce
a genetic edition of those parts of Courval's
work which bear on marriage; in particular, we
would like to map the process by which the
original two satires (
Menippée
and
Timethélie
)
were re-constituted as six satires in the
Œvres
Satyriques
. Since the texts are lengthy (the
1609 text runs to nearly 3,000 lines), we have
begun to investigate ways to automate this
mapping to some degree, and in particular,
methods of measuring similarity between two
pieces of text. In particular, we needed to find a
way to detect corresponding lines between two
witnesses, even when those lines might have
been both relocated and altered.
The Universal Similarity Metric is a method
of measuring the similarity of two sets
of data based on Kolmogorov complexity.
It is described in Vitanyi (2005) as ""so
general that it works in every domain:
music, text, literature, programs, genomes,
executables, natural language determination,
equally and simultaneously"" (1). A practical
implementation of this metric can be achieved
using data compression, according to the
following formula, where x and y are the two
pieces of data being compared:
NCD(x,y) = C(xy) - min(C(x), C(y))
___________________
max(C(x), C(y))
(Vitanyi 2)
NCD is ""Normalized Compression Distance"", an
expression of the similarity of x and y; C(x)
and C(y) are the respective lengths of the two
compressed inputs; and C(xy) is the length of
the compressed concatenation of x and y. The
resulting NCD is a value between 0 and 1, where
proximity to zero indicates greater similarity.
This metric has been widely used in the sciences;
for instance, Krasnogor and Pelta (2004)
describes its use to measure the similarity of
protein structures, and Li et al. (2004) apply it
to evolutionary trees and to building language
trees based on text corpora. Its universality
and simplicity suggested that it might be the
ideal tool to discover correspondences between
lines and line-groups at different points in two
of Courval's texts. To test it, I have created
a prototype application using Borland Delphi.
These are some example values generated with
the prototype (Figure 1):
Text 1
Text 2
NCD Score
These two lines are
absolutely identical.
These two lines are
absolutely identical.
0,0000000
The vndiscouered
country, at whose
sight
The vndiscouered
Countrey, from
whose Borne
0,3673469
To be, or not to be, I
there's the point,
To be, or not to be,
that is the Question:
0,4545455
To Die, to sleepe, is
that all? I all:
Whether 'tis Nobler
in the minde to
suffer
0,7234043
これは日本語です。
To sleepe, perchance
to Dreame; I, there's
the rub,
0,8392857
Figure 1: Example comparisons showing NCD raw
score using Borland's Pascal ZLib library (zlib 1.2.3).
(Shakespearean lines taken from Quarto 1 and Folio
1,
Internet Shakespeare Editions
transcriptions.)
Scores below 0.5 appear to be strongly indicative
of similarity, while those over 0.6 usually signify

2
disparity; it is actually quite difficult to generate
any score above 0.84, as shown by the final
example, in which there are no points of
similarity at all.
The prototype application takes two XML files
as input, and performs the following steps:
1.
Identifies the target elements to be compared
(this is currently hard-coded, but would
ideally be based on user-specified XPath).
2.
Adds @id attributes to any of those elements
which don't yet have them.
3.
Extracts the text of all the target elements, and
normalizes it in a variety of ways (specified by
the user).
4.
Compares each single text item with each
other text item, and generates a comparison
score for it.
5.
(Optional) Runs an additional contextualizing
algorithm which modifies the original scores
based on the scores of surrounding elements
in the document (see below).
6.
Sorts the matches in ascending order of
similarity score (best matches first).
7.
Presents each of these matches to the user for
categorization as one of:
-
Corresponding (equivalent) items
-
Not corresponding, but an interesting
relationship
-
No relationship at all
8.
Saves an XML file containing the scores for all
matches, along with any categorization values
chosen by the user.
9.
Saves copies of the input files with the added
@id attributes, and also a CSV version of the
score data for use in a spreadsheet program.
This correspondence data can be used to provide
a component of a critical apparatus attached to
a witness, linking it to corresponding lines in
other witnesses.
Step 5 is an attempt to detect correspondences
between lines in situations where a line has
changed significantly, or perhaps even been
replaced completely, but the lines around it still
match closely. Normally, where lines differ, a
high score will be generated; if the user chooses
only to examine the lower scores in the search
for correspondences, the link between these two
lines may not be detected. The contextualizing
algorithm massages the score of each match
such that it is affected by the score of the
lines around it; if the preceding and following
lines have low scores, the score of the line is
lowered so that it too may be detected more
easily as ""corresponding"", even though it has
been substantially changed. The contextualizing
algorithm can be run many times if required,
massaging the scores each time. We are still
investigating the outcomes and value of this
process.
These screenshots (Figures 2 and 3) show the
prototype in use.
Figure 2:
The main window of the prototype, showing the
two input texts, and the Pre-comparison processing settings.
Figure 3:
Reviewing matches between lines based on score.
This application is in many ways similar to the
TEI-Comparator project created as part of the
Holinshed Project. This is described in some

3
detail in Cummings (2009). When writing our
Mariage
prototype at the beginning of 2009, I
was unaware of the TEI-Comparator project; in
addressing similar problems, we have arrived at
remarkably similar solutions, especially in terms
of process. The comparison algorithm used by
TEI-Comparator, which is called Shingle Cloud,
was developed by Arno Mittelbach, and uses
a completely different process of comparison
based on n-grams. Documentation for TEI-
Comparator will be available soon; when it
appears, I am looking forward to running tests
to compare results between Shingle Cloud and
the Universal Similarity Metric, and I will report
the results in this paper.
The prototype application will probably now
be ported to C++, to create a cross-platform
application, and I also intend to create a
standalone Java library that can be called
from the command line or from another Java
application; perhaps it might be integrated into
TEI-Comparator as an alternative comparison
metric.
References
Coste, Joël
(2008). 'Un regard médical sur
la société française à l'époque d'Henri IV et de
Marie de Médicis'.
XVIIe siècle.
239
: 339-61.
Cummings, James
(4 September 2009).
""TEI-Comparator."" Blog posting on In my
<element/>.
http://blogs.oucs.ox.ac.uk/jame
sc/2009/09/04/tei-comparator/
.
Krasnogor, N. and D. A. Pelta
(2004). 'Measuring the similarity of protein
structures by means of the universal
similarity metric'.
Bioinformatics.
20(7)
:
1015-1021.
http://bioinformatics.oxfordjour
nals.org/cgi/reprint/20/7/1015.pdf
.
Li, Ming, Xin Chen, Xin Li, Bin Ma, and
Paul Vitanyi
(2004). 'The Similarity Metric'.
IEEE Transactions on Information Theory.
50(12)
: 3250-3264.
Vitanyi, Paul
(2005). 'Universal Similarity'.
Proc. ITW2005 - IEEE ITSOC Information
Theory Workshop 2005 on Coding and
Complexity.
Rotorua, New Zealand, 29th Aug.
- 1st Sept., 2005.
http://www.cwi.nl/~paulv/pa
pers/itw05.pdf
.","txt","2","",""
"1193","11","Using Wikipedia to Enable Entity Retrieval and Visualization Concerning the Intellectual/Cultural Heritage","1","
1
Using Wikipedia to Enable
Entity Retrieval and
Visualization Concerning
the Intellectual/Cultural
Heritage
Athenikos, Sofia J.
sofia.j.athenikos@acm.org
Drexel University, Philadelphia, USA
At the 2009 Digital Humanities conference
I presented my paper on the
WikiPhiloSofia (
http://research.cis.drexel.e
du:8080/sofia/WPS/
) project (Athenikos and
Lin, 2009), which was concerned with
extraction and visualization of facts, relations,
and networks concerning philosophers using
Wikipedia (
http://www.wikipedia.org/
) as the
data source. In this proposal, I present
a related, extended project in progress,
entitled PanAnthropon, which incorporates the
problems of retrieving entities in response to
a query and retrieving entities related to a
given entity and which extends the scope of
application to domains other than philosophy.
1. Background
Traditional information retrieval is concerned
with retrieving documents that are potentially
relevant to a user’s query. The relevance of a
document to a given query is usually measured
by lexico-syntactic matching between the terms
in the query and those in the document (title).
Familiar Web search engines, such as Google
and Yahoo, for example, return a ranked list
of Web pages that contain all or some of
the keywords in the query entered by a user.
The Semantic Web (Berners-Lee et al., 2001)
initiative aims at transforming the Web of pages
(documents) into the Web of entities (things
in the broadest sense) (cf. OKKAM project (
h
ttp://www.okkam.org/
) (Bouquet et al., 2007)).
Information retrieval on the Semantic Web is
no longer a matter of retrieving documents
via semantics-unaware keyword matching but
a matter of retrieving entities that satisfy the
semantic constraints imposed by the query, i.e.
those that are of specific semantic type and that
satisfy the given semantic conditions. Wikipedia
has become an important semantic knowledge
resource (cf. Zesch et al., 2007) thanks to its
unique set of semi-structured semantic features
and the huge amount of content covering a wide
range of topics. What renders Wikipedia more
interesting is the fact that it can be considered as
a self-contained web of entities. Each Wikipedia
article is concerned with one entity, and the
given entity is connected to other entities via
explicit semantic relations as in infoboxes and
wikitables or via implicit semantic relations as in
hyperlinks.
2. Motivation
Through the WikiPhiloSofia project I
demonstrated extracting, retrieving, and
visualizing specific facets of information, not
documents, concerning entities of a selected
type, namely, philosophers, by exploiting the
hyperlinks, categories, infoboxes, and wikitables
contained in Wikipedia articles. The interface
that I created enables the users to select a focus
of query in the form of an entity (philosopher)
or a pair of entities (philosophers) and then to
retrieve entities that satisfy specified conditions
with respect to the given entity or pair of
entities. However, the project did not consider
the problems of retrieving entities as answers
to queries, semantically typing entities, or
retrieving related entities by type and condition.
The proposed PanAnthropon project takes up
the aforementioned problems left out of the
WikiPhiloSofia project. The dual objective is
to enable retrieval of entities that directly
answer a given semantics-based query and
to enable retrieval of related entities by
semantic type, subtype (role), and relation,
by using information extracted/integrated from
Wikipedia. The project applies the approach to
the entities concerning the intellectual/cultural
heritage – people, works, concepts, etc. The Web
portal interface thereby constructed will allow
the users to retrieve entities that directly answer
their queries as well as to explore people, works,
concepts, etc.
in relation to
other people, works,
concepts, etc.
3. Conceptualization
In the proposed project, “entities” are conceived
of as things of all kinds that have certain

2
properties (or attributes). The “type” of an
entity is considered as a generic kind (or class
or category) into which the given entity is
classified, e.g., person, work, etc. In general,
the type of an entity is fixed and exclusive in
the sense that an entity that belongs to one
type does not or cannot belong to other types.
The “subtype” of an entity refers to a subclass
or subcategory into which the entity can be
classified, under a given type. The subtype of
an entity is fluid and non-exclusive in the sense
that an entity may belong to more than one
subtype (under a given type). This is especially
so in the case of person-type entities, and thus
a subtype may better be understood as a “role”
in this case. In general, there are multiple
subtypes under a given type, and the former
can be further classified into still more specific
subtypes. A type or subtype of an entity can be
considered as a special kind of property. A “fact”
concerning an entity refers to a tuple consisting
of <entity, attribute, value, [context]>, which
adds the optional “context” element to the
<subject, predicate, object> triple model. An
entity can have “relations” to other entities,
given its properties. The kinds of properties
and relations that are relevant or of interest
concerning an entity, except certain basic facts,
depend on the domain at issue. An entity
may belong to multiple domains, but not every
subtype, property, or relation is relevant or
equally important in one domain as in another
domain. The project therefore intends to build
a portal consisting of sub-portals representing
different domains.
4. Methodology
4.1. Data Extraction and Processing
The pre-processing stage of the project (for
each domain) concerns: (1) compiling a seed
list of entities of interest by extracting names
from various lists and categories in Wikipedia,
(2) downloading Wikipedia article pages for
each entry on the list, and (3) inspecting
typical attributes and (types/subtypes of) values
contained in infoboxes, wikitables, etc. The
main processing stage concerns extracting
information on an entity and related entities
from each Wikipedia page. The semantic type/
subtypes of a given entity are extracted and/
or assigned. Semi-structured templates and
portions of the article are processed so as to
extract attribute–value (or predicate–object or
relation–entity) pairs. The related entities are
matched to the entities on the seed entity list.
Additional Wikipedia pages are downloaded
for entities not matched on the list, and
the information on those entities is extracted.
The (optional) post-processing stage concerns
converting the data stored in a MySQL database
to XML files and RDF triples, thereby creating
a semantic data repository that can be linked
to other resources involved in the Linked Data
(
http://linkeddata.org/
) initiative in the latter
case.
4.2. Semantic Search Interface
The semantic search interface created will
support three types of query and retrieval. The
first type of query/retrieval concerns retrieval of
entities that correspond to queries the expected
answers of which are entities. The second type
of query/retrieval concerns retrieval of entities
related to an entity, according to type/subtypes
and specified properties/values. The third type
of query/retrieval concerns retrieval of facts
concerning an entity. The interface will also
incorporate some of the visualization features
available in the WikiPhiloSofia portal interface.
5. Current Application
The film domain has been chosen as the
initial proof-of-concept domain of application.
In my presentation I will demonstrate the entity
retrieval functionalities with 1.5+ million (and
growing) facts about 11370 films, 69545 persons,
74545 film roles, 253 places, 6033 dates, etc.
6. Related Work
The task of retrieving entities in response to
user queries using the information in Wikipedia
has since 2007 been the focus of the INEX
(Initiative for the Evaluation of XML Retrieval)
XML Entity Ranking (XER) Track (de Vries
et al., 2008; Demartini et al., 2009). Unlike
in the INEX XER Track, the proposed project
addresses the task by extracting information
from the HTML Wikipedia files and building
a knowledge base based on it. The task of
constructing a knowledge base by extracting
information from templates in Wikipedia such
as infoboxes has been attempted in large

3
scale by, e.g., Auer and Lehmann (2007)
and Suchanek et al. (2007). There is also
the DBpedia (
http://dbpedia.org/
) knowledge
base, which contains the information extracted
from Wikipedia. The proposed project, however,
utilizes the information in the main content
of Wikipedia articles, as well as templates, to
enable and enhance entity retrieval. It will also
provide a more flexible working search interface
for both general and entity-specific queries.
7. Conclusion
The PanAnthropon project utilizes Wikipedia
as a semantic knowledge source for entity
retrieval and applies the approach to materials
concerning the intellectual/cultural heritage.
The semantic search interface created will allow
the users to retrieve entities that directly answer
their queries as well as to explore various
semantic facets concerning those entities. As
such, it will provide a useful resource for digital
humanities.
References
Athenikos, S.J., Lin, X.
(2009).
'WikiPhiloSofia: Extraction and Visualization
of Facts, Relations, and Networks Concerning
Philosophers Using Wikipedia'.
Conference
Abstracts of Digital Humanities 2009.
Pp.
56-62.
Auer, S., Lehmann, J.
(2007). 'What Have
Innsbruck and Leipzig in Common? Extracting
Semantics from Wiki Content'.
Proceedings
of 4th European Semantic Web Conference
(ESWC 2007).
Innsbruck, Austria, June 2007.
Berners-Lee, T., Hendler, J., Lassila,
O.
(2001). 'The Semantic Web'.
Scientific
American.
5 (May 2001)
.
Bouquet, P., Stoermer, H., Giacomuzzi,
D.
(2007). 'OKKAM: Enabling a Web of
Entities'.
Proceedings of the 16th International
World Wide Web Conference (WWW 2007).
Banff, Alberta, Canada, 8-12 May 2007.
Demartini, G., de Vries, A.P., Iofciu, T.,
Zhu, J.
(2009).
Overview of the INEX 2008
Entity Ranking Track, INEX 2008.
LNCS.
Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, Berlin. V. 5631, pp.
243-252.
de Vries, A.P., Vercoustre, A.-M., Thom,
J.A., Craswell, N., Lalmas, M.
(2008).
Overview of the INEX 2007 Entity Ranking
Track, INEX 2007.
LNCS. Heidelberg:
Springer-Verlag, Berlin. V. 4862, pp. 245-251.
Suchanek, F.M., Kasneci, G., Weikum, G.
(2007). 'YAGO: A Core of Semantic Knowledge
Unifying WordNet and Wikipedia'.
Proceedings
of the 16th International World Wide Web
Conference (WWW 2007).
Banff, Alberta,
Canada, pp. 697-706.
Zesch, T., Gurevych, I., Mühlhäuser, M.
(2007). 'Analyzing and Accessing Wikipedia
as a Lexical Semantic Resource'.
Proceedings
of the Biannual Conference of the Society
for Computational Linguistics and Language
Technology.
Tübingen, Germany, April 2007.","txt","2","",""
"1194","11","Visualization and Analysis of Visiting Styles in 3D Virtual Museums","1","
1
Visualization and Analysis
of Visiting Styles in 3D
Virtual Museums
Sookhanaphibarn, Kingkarn
kingkarn@ice.ci.ritsumei.ac.jp
Intelligent Computer Entertainment
Laboratory Global COE Program in Digital
Humanities for Japanese Arts and Cultures
Ritsumeikan University
Thawonmas, Ruck
ruck@ci.ritsumei.ac.jp
Intelligent Computer Entertainment
Laboratory Global COE Program in Digital
Humanities for Japanese Arts and Cultures
Ritsumeikan University
A virtual museum is a cyberspace in persistent
virtual worlds, such as Second Life, for
displaying digitalized heritage documents.
Urban et. al. (2007) reported that over 150
sites in Second Life (SL) were developed
for education and museum activities. Virtual
museums in SL offer visitors opportunities to
engage in opening art exhibitions, discuss with
specialists, and enjoy exploring collections of the
wide range of artifacts. Those artifacts displayed
in the virtual museums vary from 3D documents
of the world heritages to fictional creations
(Rothfarb, R. and Doherty, P., 2007).
This paper aims at visualization and analysis
of visitor behaviors in 3D virtual museums.
Without loss of generality, we focused on a
museum in Second Life, named Ritsumeikan
Digital Archive Pavilion (RDAP) as shown in
Figures 1-2. The museum was used in this paper
for developing a prototype of our visualization
and analysis tool. Efficient visualization of the
user movement is very useful for analyzing his/
her behaviors, in an implicit manner, in order to
extract the disclosed information of individuals
in the cyberspace.
Applications of the proposed visualization
method include the following:
1.
The curators can design the exhibit space
based on the majority of visitors as illustrated
in Section 3.
2.
The storytelling of an individual visitor can
be expressed as a sequence of screenshots
capturing the most favored exhibits (as
described in Fujita, H. et al., 2008).
3.
A guide system can be applied so as to achieve
a satisfactory museum tour as introduced by
Sookhanaphibarn and Thawonmas.
Figure 1. Kimono exhibition in Ritsumeikan
Digital Archive Pavilion (RDAP)
Figure 2. Floor plan of RDAP with the locations of
19 Kimono objects denoted by a small solid square
1. Visualization and analysis of
visiting patterns
To validate our visualization approach, 36
avatars’ movements in RDAP were synthesized
for obtaining four visiting styles. These styles,
based on the metaphor of animal behavior,
are ant, fish, grasshopper, and butterfly styles
as follows (Veron, E. & Levasseur, M., 1983;
Chittaro, L., 2004):

6
References
Urban, R., Twidale, M.B. and Marty,
P.F.
(2007). 'Second Life for Museums
and Archeological Modeling'.
Digital
Humanities 2007, Conference Abstracts
Book.
http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dh2
007/abstracts/xhtml.xq?id=254
(accessed 15
Nov 2009).
Rothfarb, R. and Doherty, P.
(2007).
'Creating Museum Content and Community
in Second Life'.
Museums and the Web
2007: Proceedings.
J. Trant and D.
Bearman (ed.). Toronto: Archives & Museum
Informatics.
http://www.archimuse.com/mw2007
/papers/rothfarb/rothfarb.html
(accessed 3
August 2009).
Fujita, H. and Arikawa, M.
(2008).
'Animation of Mapped Photo Collections for
Storytelling'.
IEICE Trans. INF & SYST.
Vol.
E91-D, No. 6
: 1681-1692.
Sookhanaphibarn, K. and Thawonmas,
R.
(2009). 'A Movement Data Analysis and
Synthesis Tool for Museum Visitors’ Behaviors'.
Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Subseries
of Information Systems and Applications, incl.
Internet/Web, and HCI.
Vol. 5879
: 144-154.
Veron, E. & Levasseur, M
(1983).
Ethnographie de l'exposition. L'espace, le
corps et le sens.
Paris: Bibliothque publique
d'Information. Centre Georges Pompidou.
Chittaro, L. and Leronutti, L.
(2004).
'A Visual Tool for Tracing Users’ Behavior
in Virtual Environments'.
Proceedings of the
Working Conference on Advanced Visual
Interfaces, AVI’04 ACM.
Pp. 40-47.","txt","2","",""
"1195","11","Works, Documents, Texts and Related Resources for Everyone","1","
1
Works, Documents, Texts
and Related Resources for
Everyone
Robinson, Peter
p.m.robinson@bham.ac.uk
Institute for Textual Scholarship, University of
Birmingham
Meschini, Federico
fmeschini@dmu.ac.uk
Centre for Textual Studies, De Montfort
University
A common trope in discussions of scholarly
editions in digital form is to praise, on the one
hand, the extraordinary potential of electronic
editions while, on the other hand, regretting that
so few actual electronic editions come anywhere
near realizing this potential (Robinson 2005).
The potential is well-known: an explicit hyper-
textual structure, publication in a distributed
network environment, escape from the storage
limit of the printed medium and possession of
multiple layout possibilities (such as normalized
and diplomatic transcriptions juxtaposed to
facsimile images).
The difficulties are also well-known: among
them, the need for a formal, comprehensive
and efficient encoding scheme to underpin
scholarly editions in electronic form. The
Text Encoding Initiative Guidelines provided
a crucial element, by supplying namings,
specifications and structure for key components
of electronic editions: thus the specialized
lower-level elements for manuscript description
and critical apparatus, along with higher-level
elements such as msDescription and facsimile.
However, the TEI does not address two areas,
crucial for the full encoding of scholarly editions
in electronic form:
1.
The naming of components of the editions:
thus, of the works edited and their parts; the
source manuscripts or print documents and
their parts which carry the texts of the work
edited;
2.
The relationships between the components:
thus, between the documents, the texts they
carry, and the works which those texts
instance.
This paper reports on a scheme prepared by
the authors, designed to provide a solution
to the problems proposed in both areas.
The provision of a shared epistemological
framework for handling works, texts and
text sources (cf. Buzetti 2009) will also
facilitate the shift from stand alone publishing
frameworks to shared distributed on-line
environments, enabled by powerful and flexible
underlying infrastructures,
1
generally named
Virtual Research Environments (Fraser 2005,
Dunn et al. 2008).
This framework will advance interoperability,
long a problem area in electronic texts.
Interoperability has been defined by IEEE
as “The ability of two or more systems or
components to exchange information and to use
the information that has been exchanged”.
2
A
recent briefing paper by Gradmann identifies
four different levels of interoperability, one built
on the top of the other. From the bottom these
levels are technical/basic, syntactic, functional
and semantic. While technologies such as TCP/
IP, HTTP and XML already provide sound basis
for interoperability at the lower levels, much
work is still to be done at the top levels. The
semantic frame for interoperability offered by
this scheme speaks to this need.
Semantic issues in networked publication
systems are advanced by the work done in the
last years on the ‘Semantic Web’ (Berners-Lee
et al. 2001), which has recently evolved into
the Linked Data initiative (Berners-Lee 2006).
The Semantic Web seems to have survived its
own hype, having finally entered the plateau of
productivity phase, as happened for XML some
years ago. The ontological level of the Semantic
Web stack, represented by the OWL language,
has presented a steep learning curve, due partly
to its roots in Description Logic and First-Order
Logic (Gruber 1993), but also presents at the
same time the greatest potential.
The relationship between textual scholarship
in its electronic dimension and ontologies
has not hitherto been much apparent, as
textual scholars using digital methods have
focussed rather on the related, but separated
field of Library and Information Science
(Vickery 1997). However, ontologies have much

2
to offer the textual editing enterprise. Both
‘recensio’ and the construction of a stemmatic
graph are implicit formalizations that would
benefit from the adoption of an explicit
modelling. Moreover, both Sperberg-McQueen
and Peter Shillingsburg implicitly hints at the
potentialities of an ontological approach in
scholarly editions, the former when writing
about the “infinite set of facts related to the
work being edited” (Sperberg-McQueen 2002)
and the latter about “electronic knowledge
sites” (Shillingsburg 2006).
In the world of digital humanities and electronic
editions proficient uses of ontologies have
already appeared, such as the Discovery
3
and
the Nines
4
projects, also leveraging existing
standards from related sectors such as IFLA’s
FRBR
5
(Mimno 2005) or the cultural heritage
oriented CIDOC-CRM
6
(Ore et al. 2009).
Substantial work is now being done on
implementing an actual interchange and
interoperability framework for electronic
editions, and arbitrary portions of them, of
the kind, in (for example) the COST Action
Interedition.
7
A first proposal by Peter Robinson
(Robinson 2009) was based on the Kahn/
Wilensky Architecture (Kahn et al. 1995),
8
having therefore a naming authority together
with a series of key/value pairs identifying
portions of an electronic text, which therefore
could be exchanged over the net thanks to
a protocol such as the one established by
the OAI-PMH standard.
9
This addressed the
first need stated above, for agreed conventions
on naming. The second need, for formal
expression of relationships, is addressed by
the adoption of the Linked Data paradigm.
While keeping the use of the Kahn/Wilensky
Architecture for the labelling system, and
using a URN-like syntax compatible with
the Semantic Web requirements, an ontology
representing the entities involved together with
their relationships has been developed.
The main entities of this ontology are:
-
‘Work’: Canterbury Tales, and ‘WorkPart’, the
first line of the Canterbury Tales;
-
‘Document’, the Hengwrt or the Ellesmere
manuscripts, and ‘DocumentPart’, a page,
folio or quire, which might carry an instance
of the ‘Work’
-
‘Text’: a single instance of a work, or work
part, in a document or document part. Thus:
the
text
of the
work
'The Canterbury Tales'
as it appears in the
document
, the Hengwrt
manuscript;
The three-fold distinction between ‘Work’,
‘Document and ‘Text’ reflects the fundamental
scholarly distinction between the ‘Work’,
independent of its realization in any object;
the ‘Document’ which might carry an instance
of the ‘Work’; and the ‘Text’: the instance of
the work in the document. Digital resources
such as ‘Image’ or ‘Transcript’ are related to
‘Text’ and ‘Document’ and their parts, using
relationship such a ‘hasImage’, ‘isTranscriptOf’,
or ‘transcribedFrom’. Basic properties such as
“isPartOf” or other properties from existing
vocabularies, such as Dublin Core,
10
have also
been used, so to guarantee compatibility with
other schemes in the best possible way. The
resulting RDF can be stored in a triplestore and
made available on the web, so to allow further
uses from third parties without the need to
establish exclusive protocol verbs.
This paper will present the methodological
thinking behind the development of this
ontology for the interchange of electronic
editions of literary texts, starting from the first
proposal until the more recent developments.
The ontology will be contextualized with the
existing related standards, particularly FRBR,
CIDOC-CRM and the recent OAI-ORE
11
(a
gross-grained vocabulary for the reuse and
exchange of digital objects developed by
the Open Access Initiative) and with the
similar initiative of the Canonical Text Service
Protocol (CTS),
12
which recently also added
an ontological dimension to its basic syntax
(Romanello et al. 2009).
References
Berners-Lee, T., Hendler, J., Lassila, O.
(2001). 'The Semantic Web'.
The Scientific
American.
May 2001
: 34–43.
Berners-Lee, T.
(July 2006).
Linked
Data.
http://www.w3.org/DesignIssues/Linked
Data.html
.
Buzzetti, D.
(2009). 'Digital Editions and Text
Processing'.
Text Editing, Print and the Digital

3
World.
Deegan, M., Sutherland, K. (eds.).
Ashgate, pp. 45-61.
Dunn, S., Blanke, T.
(2008). 'Next Steps for
E-Science, the Textual Humanities and Vres'.
D-
Lib Magazine.
1/2
.
http://www.dlib.org/dlib
/january08/dunn/01dunn.html
.
Fraser, M.
(2005). 'Virtual Research
Environments: Overview and Activity'.
Ariadne.
44
.
http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue44/fraser
/
.
Gradmann, S.
.
INTEROPERABILITY. A key
concept for large scale, persistent digital
libraries.
www.digitalpreservationeurope.eu/p
ublications/briefs/interoperability.pdf
.
Gruber, T.R.
(1993). 'A translation approach
to portable ontology specifications'.
Knowledge
Acquisition.
5
: 199–220.
Kahn, R., Wilensky R.
(May 1995).
A
Framework for Distributed Digital Object
Services.
http://WWW.CNRI.Reston.VA.US/home/
cstr/arch/k-w.html
.
Mimno, D., Crane G., Jones, A.
(2005).
'Hierarchical Catalog Records: Implementing a
Frbr Catalog'.
D-Lib Magazine.
10
.
http://www.
dlib.org/dlib/october05/crane/10crane.html
.
Ore, C., Eide, Ø.
(2009). 'TEI and cultural
heritage ontologies: Exchange of information?'.
Literary and Linguistic Computing.
2
:
161-172.
http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/c
ontent/abstract/24/2/161
.
Robinson, P.
(2005). 'Current Issues in
Making Digital Editions of Medieval Texts—
or, Do Electronic Scholarly Editions Have a
Future?'.
Digital Medievalist.
.
http://www.digi
talmedievalist.org/journal/1.1/robinson/
.
Robinson, P.
(2009). 'Electronic Editions for
Everyone'.
Text and Genre in Reconstruction.
McCarty. W. (ed.). Cambridge: Open Book
Publishing, pp. 183-201.
Romanello, M., Berti, M., Boschetti,
F., Babeu A., Crane G.
(2009).
Rethinking Critical Editions of Fragmentary
Texts by Ontologies.
Milano, Italy:
Elpub.
http://conferences.aepic.it/index.ph
p/elpub/elpub2009/paper/view/158
.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M.
(2002).
How to Teach Your Edition How to
Swim.
http://www.w3.org/People/cmsmcq/2002
/cep97/swimming.xml
.
Shillingsburg, P.
(2006).
From Gutenberg to
Google: Electronic Representations of Literary
Texts.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Vickery, B. C.
(1997). 'Ontologies'.
Journal of
Information Science.
4
: 277-286.
http://jis.s
agepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/23/4/277
.
Notes
1.
Such as the European initiative DARIAH <
http://www.dar
iah.eu/
>
2.
<
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoperabilit
y
>
3.
<
http://www.discovery-project.eu/
>
4.
<http://www.nines.org/>
5.
<http://www.ifla.org/en/publications/function
al-requirements-for-bibliographic-records>
6.
<http://cidoc.ics.forth.gr/>
7.
<http://www.interedition.eu/>
8.
Which constitutes also the basis for the Handle system
<http
://www.handle.net/>
9.
<http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/openarchives
protocol.html>
10.
<http://dublincore.org/>
11.
<http://www.openarchives.org/ore/>
12.
<http://chs75.chs.harvard.edu/projects/diginc
/techpub/cts>","txt","2","",""
"1196","11","WW1 and WW2 on a Specialist E-forum. Applying Corpus Tools to the Study of Evaluative Language","1","
1
WW1 and WW2 on a
Specialist E-forum.
Applying Corpus Tools to
the Study of Evaluative
Language
Sokół, Małgorzata
msokol@autograph.pl
Szczecin University, Poland
The 70th anniversary of WW2 generated a
new discussions about Poles’ attitudes to
the country’s important historical events. The
general aim of my present study is to investigate
how contemporary Poles’ attitudes to the
two world wars are expressed in electronic
discourse, using the example of a specialist
Internet forum. The research data comes from
an active Polish forum devoted to the history
of the two world wars:
Your Forum About
the World Wars
retrieved from
www.dws.org.
pl
. The quantitative-qualitative analysis of the
compiled corpus is conducted by means of the
UAM Corpus Tool, a multiple-level environment
for annotation and analysis of text corpora (
htt
p://www.wagsoft.com/CorpusTool/
).
The forum under study provides a challenging
research context for the study of evaluative
language in the electronic medium by means
of corpus tools. The forum gathers both
professionals and amateurs interested in an
academic debate on the issues related to their
interests in the history of the two world wars.
Interaction on the forum follows the rules
of scholarly exchange, where careful use of
language and factual expression are encouraged,
whereas emotionality is rather disfavoured.
This makes textual realizations of evaluation
less overt: thus, how attitudinal language is
transmitted through the text can be studied
effectively by means of corpus tools.
The theoretical basis of my study is a functional
approach to the analysis of evaluative language,
where evaluation encompasses both attitudinal
and affective aspects of language use (e.g.
Hunston and Thompson, 1999). For the corpus-
based study of evaluative language, I adopt
Martin and White’s Appraisal Framework
(Martin and White, 2005), selecting their
systems of Attitude and Engagement. More
specifically, I analyse linguistic realisations of
affect (within the system of Attitude) and
modality and evidentiality (within the system
of Engagement) as elements of interactional
aspects of language use. In this way I aim
to investigate evaluation as 1) expression of
both individual and communal value systems
of language users, and 2) expression of the
speaker-audience relations (especially with the
focus on the rhetorical effects of evaluation
and its role in the social construction of
knowledge). With the present study I also hope
to contribute to the previous research that shows
how text analyses within the framework of
systemic-functional linguistics can profit from
the use of corpus-linguistic methods (Bednarek,
2008; Thompson and Hunston, 2006), at the
same time attempting to investigate how the
combination of SFL and CL works for the Polish
language.
The preliminary results of the study in progress
prove the presence of evaluative language
across the corpus, with the prevalence of
engagement over attitude. This demonstrates
that the members of the forum under study
are primarily involved in objective and to-the-
point discussions on the issues related to their
interests. Evaluative language is mainly used
as a persuasive tool to enhance the power of
knowledge claims, and to manage interpersonal
relations. As regards the general attitudes of
the forum members, the study proves that
they are actively engaged in constructing and
preserving the collective memory of the two
world wars. The wars are discussed with
professional commitment and without overly
sentimental pathos, which makes the forum and
history of the two world wars attractive also for
young people.
The application of the UAM Corpus Tool in
the analyses of evaluative language proves
advantageous first of all thanks to the tool’s
possibility of multi-level annotation and cross-
classification of features. These features allow
me to study the distribution of evaluative
language relative to the sub-generic status of
postings (i.e. whether a posting is identified as a
voice in a discussion, initiation of a discussion,
request, query, etc.). In addition, the tool allows
to manage the problem of evaluation “hidden”

2
behind stretches of discourse, as well as to
analyse the distribution patterns of evaluative
lexis. Finally, as the UAM Corpus Tool allows
annotation of both text and images, it can be
used for the analysis of multimodal genres, an
example of which is an e-forum. The UAM
Corpus Tool can be useful and flexible in
corpus-based analyses of evaluative language,
however its application invariably demonstrates
the importance of human choice in working with
corpora in discourse analysis (cf. also Baker,
2006).
References
Baker, P.
(2006).
Using Corpora in Discourse
Analysis.
London - New York: Continuum.
Bednarek, M.
(2008).
Emotion Talk Across
Corpora.
Houndmills - New York: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Hunston, S., Thompson, G. (eds.)
(1999).
Evaluation in Text. Authorial Stance and
the Construction of Discourse.
Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Martin, J. R., White, P. R. R.
(2005).
The
Language of Evaluation. Appraisal in English.
Houndmills - New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Thompson, G., Hunston, S. (eds.)
(2006).
System and Corpus. Exploring Connections.
London: Equinox.","txt","2","",""
"1197","11","Xiakou: A Case Study in Digital Ethnography","1","
1
Xiakou: A Case Study in
Digital Ethnography
Flower, John
FlowerJ@sidwell.edu
Sidwell School, Washington, D.C
Leonard, Pamela
pamleonard@hughes.net
Independent Scholar
Martin, Worthy
wnm@cs.virginia.edu
Institute for Advanced Technology in the
Humanities, University of Virginia
This story begins in a small Sichuan village over
fifteen years ago as a historian (John Flower)
and an anthropologist (Pamela Leonard) began
their study of the cultural landscape of a
contemporary Chinese village. The story evolves
as they strive to pioneer
digital ethnography
and later, in collaboration with The Institute
for Advanced Technology in the Humanities
(IATH), build interactive presentation of
focused, long-term fieldwork research results
in the form of an online monograph, media
archive, and information repository, entitled
Moral Landscape in a Sichuan Mountain
Village: A Digital Ethnography of Place
.
The original and ongoing field study explores the
histories, beliefs, livelihoods, and local identities
in Xiakou Village, located in the mountains
of Ya'an County, in western Sichuan Province
of the People's Republic of China. The goal
of the project is to understand Xiakou Village
as an evolving
cultural landscape
, defined as
the interwoven field of physical environment,
historical memory, and moral agency, in which
particular places gather a people’s sense of
themselves and serve as sources of belonging
and identity. This understanding attempts to
establish a basis to consider questions such as:
What does it mean to belong in a place? How
do people understand who they are in terms
of where they live? What is the relationship
between history and place? How do memory
and landscape inform the ways in which people
define their communities?
The ethnography uses the new possibilities of
digital technology to create interleaving essays,
primary source multimedia artifacts, and GIS
maps. The purpose of this digital form is
to render more transparent the relationship
between source and interpretation, to open
up non-linear narrative paths through the
ethnography, and therefore to more vividly
reveal the interconnections among different
dimensions of village life that are the core
content of the project. Indeed, we revisit
the village study model to highlight the
overlapping fields of interaction that link the
village to broader regional, national, and even
transnational identities.
Another fundamental aim of the project is to
reframe modern Chinese history away from
the big narrative of the nation and toward
local stories of the grassroots. How do the
villagers of Xiakou understand their history?
What memories and meanings from the past
still animate their place, and how are they
remembered and explained?
Moral Landscape in a Sichuan Mountain
Village
is multidisciplinary, using the
perspectives of history, anthropology,
economics, folklore, and religion to try to
understand the interconnected facets of life
expressed in the village landscape. The common
thread running through the ethnography is the
idea that the landscape holds moral values.
When people in Xiakou talked about place and
history they were talking about what was good
and bad, right and wrong.
We understand digital ethnography to be an
online interactive monograph with integrated
archive and database. This digital format
of the ethnography evokes an understanding
of place through interactive essays that
localize the broad trends of China's modern
history in the lived experiences of Xiakou's
villagers. The interactive essays are the project’s
main narrative tissue, interconnected by a
searchable archive of digital artifacts. These
artifacts consist of multimedia information—
photographs, scanned documents, audio and
video recordings, GIS maps—contextualized
in a thick setting of related metadata, and
shared across essays. The project’s digital
format is essential for realizing the rich
potential of the ethnographic and historical
content of the research: a central database

2
and interconnected xml content enable the
transparency, connectivity, and interactivity
that comprise the key innovative characteristics
of this form of narrative. Transparency means
that the ethnography will reveal not simply
""what we know"" but also ""how we know it,"" by
providing the reader access to primary source
materials in the database. The architecture
of the interactive interface will also use
the database to encourage connections across
thematic categories, making it possible for the
reader to explore alternatives to a set, linear
narrative.
2. Ways of belonging: new village
studies and mapping the cultural
landscape
What is a village in China? A wide range
of scholarship has addressed this central
question, from the perspectives of regional
systems analysis (Skinner 1964) to cultural
landscape studies (Knapp 1992, Feuchtwang
1997). Our approach tries to give priority to
villagers' conscious representations, analyses,
and understandings of their relationship to
""their place"". The resulting geographical scope
goes beyond the village itself to encompass the
communities along the North Road and, under
some conditions, extends to include the broader
eight county Ya’an region.
In
Moral Landscape in a Sichuan Mountain
Village
we advocate a return to the ethnographic
tradition of village studies, but using new
tools of the digital humanities that emphasize
the ways in which place is not simply a
fixed and unchanging location, but rather a
nexus of evolving relationships and historical
connections to other places. Thus, one of
our goals is to highlight the multiple,
overlapping fields of interaction that link the
village to broader regional, national, and even
transnational identities.
We see our project as complementary to the
much larger and comprehensive initiatives
that aim to create complete datasets, such as
the China historical GIS project (Bol 2006).
In contrast, our project does not attempt
to be comprehensive, but rather celebrates
the particularity of place. We hope that our
qualitative interpretation of landscape will
provide the kind of unique local portrait of place
from which comprehensive projects can create a
more vivid broad tableau of China as whole.
3. Beyond Revolution: an
inductive approach to local
history
Another fundamental goal of our project’s
landscape approach is to reframe modern
Chinese history away from the master narrative
of the nation and toward local stories of
the grassroots (Duara, Prazniak). How do the
villagers of Xiakou understand their history?
What memories and meanings from the past
still animate their place, and how are they
remembered and explained? How does that local
understanding of history reiterate or differ from
historical narratives based on the nation-state,
China, as subject? While there are excellent
village-based histories (e.g. Chan, Madsen,
Unger 1992; Selden, Friedman, Pickowicz 1991)
that focus on the local impact of national events,
particularly the Chinese revolution, in
Moral
Landscape in a Sichuan Mountain Village
we try to adopt a more localized, inductive
approach. The historical scope of our project
thus largely corresponds to the way villagers
mark the turning points in their past, based on
their personal experiences in local places and
marking events that fall within their horizon of
memory.
Methodologically, we understand that the essays
and artifacts represent
our synthesis
of a
dialogue with local villagers and with local
historical source-materials on the topic of social
and environmental change. In confronting the
subjective reality of fieldwork and analysis,
anthropologists have emphasized the need to
be transparent in presenting the politics of
the research encounter. We believe digital
technology allows us to go further in meeting
this aim.
4. History, environment, and
agency in the moral landscape
In trying to understand the significance of the
environmental changes that have taken place
in this valley, we frame issues of environment
and economic development within local cultural
practices and historical knowledge. How do local
people draw on their historical understanding
of place in adapting to economic development

3
policies introduced from outside? How do those
development policies in turn influence their
livelihoods, and change their understanding of
the landscape?
5. Structure, content, and logic of
the digital ethnography
The structure of the ethnography’s online
monograph comprises eight chapters: History,
Landscape, Belief, Folklife, Authority, Work,
Gazetteer, and Biography. Chapters are not
airtight divisions, but rather groupings that
highlight the dominant themes of the essays
within them. There are three main types
of content within this chapter structure:
essays, interactive maps
, and
artifacts
. Essays
are the basic interpretive building blocks of
the ethnography and are accessed through
the chapters. The interactive maps under
the Gazetteer chapter will offer spatial
representations of sites in the cultural
landscape, dynamically presented through GIS
layers, sorted by kind and historical period.
Both the maps and essays are illustrated and
documented by ""artifacts"", i.e., foci of evidence
that link to multimedia content—photographs,
video and audio recordings, image maps,
diagrams, supplemental texts, primary source
documents, and field notes. The artifact frames
this multimedia content within supplementary
metadata and highlights thematic overlaps and
interconnections within the ethnography.
The essay/artifact structure allows us
to experiment with different approaches
to conceptualizing and presenting the
ethnographic research. These artifact-centered
essays are intentional inversions of the more
familiar text-driven narrative presentation, and
they point the way to readers who want to engage
the ethnography more interactively. To enable
that level of engagement, our goal is to code
each artifact and each essay subsection with
selections from a finite set of keywords, making
the whole site fully searchable through the site’s
integrated information structures.
6. Proposed Presentation
We will discuss the information structures
in which the base materials are created and
maintained. Then we discuss the interactive
interface through which those materials are
accessed by scholars and the general public.
Finally, we will justify our claim that
these techniques embody the methodologies
expressed above.","txt","2","",""
"1198","11","A Bilingual Digital Edition of Trinity College Cambridge MS O.1.77.","2","
1
A Bilingual Digital
Edition of Trinity College
Cambridge MS O.1.77.
Honkapohja, Alpo
alpo.honkapohja@helsinki.fi
University of Helsinki
The poster will present my work-in-progress
PhD project of a 15
th
-century bilingual medical
manuscript, containing Latin and Middle
English. The edition is designed with the needs
of historical linguistics in mind, and will have
some corpus functionalities. My long term
aim is to use it as a pilot study of sorts in
contrastive investigation of Latin and Middle
English medical writing.
1. Background
Medieval medical writing for a long period
of time received fairly little attention. For
instance, Robbins described it, in 1970, as a
“Yukon territory crying out for exploration”.
In the 1990s and 2000s, the situation has
changed, and the field is becoming filled with
tiny flags stating the claims of various research
projects and individual scholars. There are now
large electronic corpora such as the
Middle
English Medical Texts
(MEMT), published
2005, and
A Corpus of Middle English Scientific
Prose
, currently being compiled in collaboration
between the University of Malaga and Hunter
Library in Glasgow.
These resources do, however, have one inherent
bias. They focus on Middle English material,
which gives a distorted view of the linguistic
situation in England in the late Middle Ages.
England, after the Norman conquest, was a
trilingual society in which educated members
of the society were likely to have at least
some degree of literacy in Latin, Anglo-Norman
French as well as English. This shows, for
instance, in the fact that manuscripts containing
texts in more than one language outnumber
monolingual ones. (cf. Voigts 1989). Moreover,
marginal comments also suggest they had
a readership competent in more than one
language.
My PhD project is intended as the first
genuinely bilingual online resource of medical
manuscripts in late Medieval England, and will
hopefully pave the way for similar resources
in the future. It is designed for both historical
linguists and historians, but paying special
attention to the needs of linguistics.
2. Trinity College Cambridge, MS
O.1.77.
Trinity MS O.1.77. is a pocket-sized (75 x
100 mm) medical handbook, located in Trinity
College Cambridge. It contains 10 to 18 texts on
medicine, astrology and alchemy. It is usually
treated as a sibling MS of the so-called Sloane-
group of Middle English manuscripts, which is
a group of late Latin, English and French MSS
originating from London or Westminster in the
late Middle English period (cf. e.g. Voigts 1990).
James assigns MS Trinity O.1.77 an exact date
1460, based on astrological markings in the final
flyleaf (1902), although it may not be entirely
accurate. (see Honkapohja 2010, forthcoming)
Roughly 4/5 of the manuscript is in Latin and
1/5 in English, that is, out of slightly less
than 30,000 words, c. 24,000 words are Latin
and 5,500 in English. There does not appear
to be a clear-cut division between prestigious
Latin texts and more popular English ones.
Latin, however, is used almost exclusively for
metatextual functions such as incipits and
explicits. Nearly all marginal comments in the
manuscript are in Latin.
3. The digital edition
The digital edition which I am preparing will
be designed in such a way that it will function
as reliable data for historical linguistics. This
involves encoding a sufficient amount of detail
on linguistic variants without normalising,
modernising, or emending the data, and keeping
all editorial interference transparent (see e.g.
Kytö, M., Grund P. and Walker T. 2007 or Lass
2004)
On the technical side, I am using TEI P5 –
conformant XML tagging built on stand-off
architecture. Things included in the base-level
annotation are a graphemic transcription of
the text (cf. e.g. Fenton & Duggan 2006),
select manuscript features such as layout, and

2
information about the manuscript and hand.
Each word will also be tagged with a normalised
form, useful for linguistic research, and an ID
which allows the addition of additional tagging
by means of stand-off annotation – including,
for instance, POS tagging, semantic annotation
or lemmatisation.
The edition will have an online user interface,
which will allow the user to select the level of
detail he or she wishes. It will be possible to
use it with either normalised text or diplomatic
transcription. It will be released under a Creative
Commons license. The user will have full
access to the XML-code, including all levels of
annotation, and will be allowed to download and
modify it for non-commercial purposes.
4. DECL
The development of the edition will take place
in collaboration between the Digital Editions for
Corpus Linguistics (DECL) project based at the
University of Helsinki.
The DECL project was started by three post-
graduate students in 2007. It aims to create
a framework for producing online editions
of historical manuscripts suitable for both
corpus linguistic and historical research. DECL
editions use a more strictly defined subset of
the TEI-guidelines and are designed especially
to meet the needs of corpus linguistics. The
framework consists of encoding guidelines
compliant with TEI XML P5. The aims of the
project are presented in more detail in our article
(Honkapohja, Kaislaniemi & Marttila 2009).
5. Digital Edition of O.1.77 as
a resource for the study of
bilingualism
My PhD project has both short and long term
goals related to the study of multilingualism.
The short term aim is to design the edition
in a way that is of maximum use for scholars
working with medical texts and especially
multilingualism. I am especially putting a lot
of effort into interoperability and making the
encoding as flexible as possible.
Hypothetical research questions for the edition
will include, for instance:
-
Spelling variation.
Using the edition will enable
getting information on spelling variation in
English and Latin, in order to see whether
the accepted general view that Latin was more
regular is supported by quantitative data.
-
The use of brevigraphs and contracted forms.
Manuscript abbreviations are an extremely
common feature in the Latin texts of
the manuscript. They are also applied in
the Middle English sections, but with less
frequency. The edition will make it possible
to obtain exact statistical information on
which manuscript abbreviations carry into the
vernacular, and with how much variation and
frequency.
-
Syntactic complexity:
Do sentences in Latin
contain a greater number of sub clauses
and other signs of syntactic complexity than
Middle English ones?
-
Textual Functions:
The use of English
and Latin in various text types, recipes,
metatextual passages (in which Latin very
much dominates). The type of structural
and background information which is being
annotated in the edition will enable the user to
perform the searches on different level textual
passages, including marginal comments and
metatextual passages.
After the completion of the PhD project,
the edition will be expanded with other
related multilingual medical and alchemical
manuscripts in the Sloane group, which will
increase the usefulness of the database, by
allowing, for instance, comparative study of the
same text in different manuscripts. I am also
planning to make use of the available corpora on
Middle English medical writing for comparisons
to Middle English.
References
A Corpus of Middle English Scientific
Prose.
http://hunter.filosofia.uma.es/manus
cripts
(accessed 13 March 2010).
Fenton, E. G., Duggan, H. N.
(2006).
'Effective Methods of Producing Machine-
readable Text from Manuscript and Print
Sources'.
Electronic Textual Editing.
Burnard,
L., O’Brien O’Keeffe, K., Unsworth, J. (eds.).
New York: MLA.","txt","2","",""
"1199","11","A Digital Archive of Buddhist Temple Gazetteers","2","
1
A Digital Archive of
Buddhist Temple
Gazetteers
Bingenheimer, Marcus
m.bingenheimer@gmail.com
Dharma Drum Buddhist College
Hung, Jen-jou
Dharma Drum Buddhist College
Temple gazetteers are a subset of the Chinese
genre of gazetteers (difang zhi
地方志
). Chinese
gazetteers, or local histories, are composite texts
containing descriptions, bibliographies, poems
and other material pertaining to the history
of a location or region. The temple gazetteers
produced since the 16th century are important
for the study of Chinese Buddhist history. They
are especially relevant for the last three hundred
years, but contain much older material on the
history of Buddhist sites.
The archive is currently being constructed at the
Dharma Drum Buddhist College, Taiwan, and
for the first time opens up a large amount of this
material for the study of Buddhism, which so far
has been available only with great difficulty. The
project website is at:
http://buddhistinformati
cs.ddbc.edu.tw/fosizhi/
.
The poster briefly introduces the content and
then focusses on the technical realization
of the ""Digital Archive of Buddhist Temple
Gazetteers"".
Though mainly conceived as an online image
database, the project includes 12 large gazetteers
as full-text. These are marked up in TEI for
names and dates and connected to the Buddhist
Authority Database Project (
http://authorit
y.ddbc.edu.tw
), to serve information to the
interface. The project is an example for the
growing trend to present full text next to digital
facsimiles and the poster will show one way this
can be done.
As of autumn 2009, the image database consists
of more than 100,000 archival-quality images
in TIFF format. The images were scanned in 8-
bit greyscale at a resolution of 400dpi. From the
digital master we produce watermarked JPEG
files for use in the interface, and these are made
freely available under a Creative Commons
license. The quality of the JPEG files is sufficient
to read and research the material.
The main limitation on the facsimile value of
these images is that they are scans of copies of
the original prints or manuscripts and therefore
cannot achieve the same verisimilitude as
facsimiles taken directly from the originals. This
deficit is mitigated by the fact that the material
itself is unproblematic. Mostly text, it consists
of black and white woodblock prints or brush
writing. Due to the large character-size and
the high image resolution the actual facsimile
quality is high in the “Excellent Readability”
range of the Quality Index (QI) benchmark
for printed text (Kenney & Chapman 1995).
Eventually, 237 gazetteers will be digitized and
made available in the image database.
The gazetteer project includes various kinds of
meta-data. We use MIX (Meta-data for still
Images in XML) to record technical information
about the image files, and meta-data for the TEI
full-text files is kept in the teiHeader section
of each file. While the MIX data is mainly
generated automatically, the TEI meta-data is
created as part of the mark-up process.
There are two other important datasets. First
is the bibliographic data, which contains
important information about the location of
the temples, the relationship between the
two printed collections, the edition history
and chapter order of individual gazetteers,
and additional bibliographic information on
gazetteers collected from other sources. All
this is kept in TEI files to allow for seamless
integration with the other textual data.
Second, we have collected semantic data
pertaining to each image file, i.e. each page.
This data includes the image filename and the
page number from the printed edition, which
is required for the interface, especially for the
majority of gazetteers which have not been
digitized as full-text. This semantic image meta-
data also records the first three characters on
each page and, importantly, all title headings
that appear on the page. This results in a
database of all title headings, which in turn
allows for shallow searches across the whole
archive.

2
Although for production purposes it was useful
to create distinct meta-data sources for the
project, for archival purposes we integrate all of
these different resources in METS wrappers.
The interface is based on the the ExtJS
JavaScript library (
http://extjs.com/
). ExtJS
was chosen because it is one of the more
advanced JS libraries available. It provides
many vital interface functions ‘out-of-the-box’
and is used in for a number of other projects
at the Library and Information Center. The full-
texts are kept in a native XML database called
eXist (
http://www.exist-db.org/
), which stores
and retrieves the TEI source files.
The interface is geared to enable convenient
reading of the gazetteers online. The design is
based on the assumption that digital archives
will increasingly want to present electronic text
in conjunction with and alongside electronic
facsimiles of the original source. Among the
challenges we solved here was how to have
images and text move in unison. Another
problem we faced was how to give the user an
idea about where she was in the structure of
the text, and it was decided to offer a detailed
navigation panel, which contains detailed titles
of every section to address this need. Finally,
for better and more convenient accessibility of
the image files we have included a magnifier to
aid reading. A sophisticated search function lets
users choose to search for strings in the fulltext,
metadata or both, over the whole archive or one
single gazetteer.
References
Bingenheimer, Marcus
(forthcoming).
'Bibliographical notes on Buddhist temple
gazetteers and some remarks on their use for the
study of Chinese Buddhist history'.
Oslo Studies
in Language
.
Brook, Timothy
(2002).
Geographical
Sources of Ming-Qing History.
Michigan
monographs in Chinese Studies. Ann Arbor:
Univ. of Michigan, Center for Chinese Studies V.
58.
Eberhard, Wolfram
(1964).
Temple Building
Activities in Medieval and Modern China.
Monumenta Serica. V. 23, pp. 264-318.
Zhongguo Fosi Shizhi Huikan
(1980-1985).
中國佛寺史志彙刊
.
Compiled by Du Jiexiang
杜
潔祥
(ed.). Taipei 110 vols.
Zhongguo fosizhi congkan
(2006).
中
国佛寺志叢刊
.
Compiled by Zhang Zhi
张智
(ed.). Hangzhou: Guangling shushe
广陵书社
.
130 vols.","txt","2","",""
"1200","11","A New Spatial Analysis of the Early Chesapeake Architecture","2","
1
A New Spatial Analysis
of the Early Chesapeake
Architecture
Graham, Wayne
wayne.graham@virginia.edu
University of Virginia
Practitioners of the ""new social history,"" which
came to prominence beginning in the 1960s
and 70s, utilized digital tools and data-driven
methodologies to glean an understanding of
people who left little documentary record of
their daily lives. Perhaps most enduring of
these techniques has been the utilization of
quantitative methods to describe communities
and to build better arguments about the daily
lives of historical subjects. The focus for these
historians is not only the high points thought
worthy of record in diaries, newspapers, or
court papers, but also how quotidian interaction
and daily chores – such as cooking, cleaning,
or plowing – were accomplished and how
their patterns differed across regions. While
quantitative techniques have yielded a rich
analysis of the past, temporal, social, and
geographic dimensions of historical data often
diverge and can be muddled in the choices
scholars make about how best to tell their story
given time and resource considerations, as well
as how to argue the larger points of a particular
person's, event's, or object's societal influence.
In our recent work at the Scholars' Lab at
the University of Virginia Library (where we
support geospatial technology in the humanities
and social sciences and have recently played
host to an NEH-funded Institute for Enabling
Geospatial Scholarship and a Mellon Scholarly
Communication Institute on spatial tools
and methods), we have been advocating the
idea that incorporating geographic information
systems into projects can yield interesting new
interpretative apparatus for scholarship. This is
neither a new concept, or an especially easy path
to take. Martyn Jessop has detailed the obstacles
to incorporation of geospatial information in
humanities research in the pages of Literary
and Linguistic Computing.
1
However, to test the
approaches we advocate to others, I decided
to revisit a project that I undertook a few
years ago with several prominent historians and
archaeologists of the architectural development
of the Colonial Chesapeake.
2
While the data
resulting from their work is the basis of two
important essays on Chesapeake architecture,
and additionally served as the framework for
an NEH grant investigating the development
of slave quarters in Virginia, it has languished
and few outside the project team actually know
of the data’s existence.
3
I considered this a
perfect example of an important project to
rethink by adding a more defined geographic
dimension to its analytical approach. Could the
application of GIS technologies further test our
long-held beliefs about the development of the
Chesapeake?
In their seminal essay on ""impermanent""
Chesapeake architecture, Cary Carson, Norman
Barka, William Kelso, Gary Wheeler Stone,
and Dell Upton first attempted systematically
to synthesize and analyze data extracted from
several investigations into early Chesapeake
architecture.
4
This article was squarely focused
on the structures settlers built between first
shelters and more durable buildings. Despite
the genius of their work, the Carson team
was limited in that archaeological work in the
Chesapeake region was then still young, and the
data from a scant two dozen sites supported
their analysis.
In the nearly three decades since this piece was
published, more than ten times that number
of sites has been identified and excavated.
However, this boom in investigation of the
Colonial Chesapeake resulted not in masses
of usable data for broad-scale analysis, but in
the explosion of a so-called ""gray literature""—
reports produced for project clients and funding
organizations, but circulated only in limited
numbers. Often, after their initial compilation,
these reports have languished in state or
institutional archives and little systematic work
has been done to organize, or even make
available, this often tangled mass of data. As
a result, the accumulation of archaeological
data has far outpaced its published analysis.
Further complicating matters are embargoes
placed upon research reports (usually meant
to help protect against artifact theft) that even
further distance access to raw facts on these
early sites from the hands of researchers.

2
In conjunction with celebrations marking
the 400
th
anniversary of the founding of
the Jamestown settlement, a new team
(consisting of Willie Graham, Carter Hudgins,
Carl Lounsbury, Fraser Neiman, James
Whittenburg, and myself) looked to the
more recent archaeology.
5
Having collected
references to archaeological sites mentioned
in articles, research reports, conference
proceedings, and in personal interviews,
Willie Graham of the Colonial Williamsburg
Foundation amassed an index of known
sites dated before ca. 1720 in the Colonial
Chesapeake. From this index, our research team
designed a data model that provided a crucial
new dimension into this particular facet of
history by combining solid statistics pertaining
to material culture with an appreciation for the
historical discourse in this area of study. Dubbed
the Database of Early Chesapeake Architecture
(DECA), we took a quantitative approach to this
expanded set of archaeological and architectural
data making it possible for the first time to
accurately date significant shifts in the cultural
repertoires of Chesapeake colonists and link
them in convincing – and testable – ways
to the unique ecological, economic, and social
conditions to which they were a response.
Through the use of solid data modeling
techniques, information from hundreds of new
archaeological and architectural investigations
provided a fresh opportunity to analyze the
emergence of regional building practices and
chart the dynamics of social interaction in the
tobacco colonies through the arrangement of
planters’ houses and outhouses, as well as in the
types of goods the colonists possessed and food
they consumed.
When the database was initially designed,
it was composed of a handful of simple
tables detailing building and phase dates,
dimensions, floor plan types, chimney types,
and foundation characteristics and documented
using the unified modeling language (UML). As
the project progressed, the database structure
evolved to include owner information and
documentary references, resulting in a complex
implementation of relational tables. However,
the only documentation of place was in the
recording of a town or county in which the site
was located.
My current work reimagines the original DECA
project to include not only its core statistical
information, but also well-defined geographic
locations allowing scholars to ask new questions
of the data and visualize them in new and
compelling ways. Through the addition of well-
constructed geospatial information, and the
application of tools and methods, we are refining
a more striking analysis of the Chesapeake data
for the use of our faculty collaborators in the
Scholars' Lab. A new presentation, not only
of traditional statistical outputs (distribution
curves, ANOVA tables, etc.), but of distribution
patterns in architectural and archaeological
details manifested across time and across
the landscape of the Chesapeake, affords
researchers even more insight into regional
differentiation in building patterns, and more
striking opportunities to display and engage
their data. This presentation will describe the
spatial tools and methods we advocate in the
Scholars' Lab including the use of the PostGIS
data store, Ruby on Rails (with the GeoKit
gem), and OpenLayers, outline their application
to the Chesapeake dataset, and offer some
observations on lessons (both methodological
and substantive) learned in my revisiting of this
digital humanities project through the lens of
geospatial analysis.
Notes
1.
Martyn Jessop, “The Inhibition of Geographical Information
in Digital Humanities Scholarship,” Lit Linguist Computing
(November 20, 2007): fqm041.
2.
Willie Graham, Carter L. Hudgins, Carl R. Lounsbury, Fraser
D. Neiman and James P. Whittenburg, “Adaptation and
Innovation: Archaeological and Architectural Perspectives on
the Seventeenth-Century Chesapeake,” The William and Mary
Quarterly 64, no. 3 (July 2007),
http://www.historycooperative.org/jo
urnals/wm/64.3/graham.html.
3.
See Doug Sanford (University of Mary Washington) and Dennis
Pogue (Mount Vernon), ""Measuring the Social, Spatial, and
Temporal Dimensions of Virginia Slave Housing,"" National
Endowment for the Humanities, 2009 and Cary Carson et
al., “New World, Real World: Improvising English Culture
in Seventeenth-Century Virginia,” Journal of Souther History
LXXIV (February 2008).
4.
Cary Carson et al., “Impermanent Architecture in Southern
American Colonies,” in
Material Life in America
, 1600-1860
(Boston: Northern University Press, 1988), 113-158.
5.
The data that the ""Adaptation and Innovation: Archaeological
and Architectural Perspectives on the Seventeenth-Century
Chesapeake"" and “New World, Real World: Improvising
English Culture in Seventeenth-Century Virginia,” articles
were based on is available for browsing at
http://deca.sw
em.wm.edu.","txt","2","",""
"1201","11","A Platform for Cultural Information Visualization Using Schematic Expressions of Cube","2","
1
A Platform for Cultural
Information Visualization
Using Schematic
Expressions of Cube
Saito, Shinya
saitos@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp
Postdoctoral Fellow, Digital Humanities Center
for Japanese Arts and Cultures Ritsumeikan
University, Kyoto, Japan
Ohno, Shin
shinohno@gmail.com
Research Assistant, Digital Humanities Center
for Japanese Arts and Cultures Ritsumeikan
University, Kyoto, Japan
Inaba, Mitsuyuki
inabam@sps.ritsumei.ac.jp
Digital Humanities Center for Japanese Arts
and Cultures Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto,
Japan
In recent years, people have tended to be
overwhelmed by a vast amount of information
in various contexts. Therefore, arguments about
""Information Visualization"" as a method to
make information easy to comprehend are more
than understandable.
This paper will argue the method of visualization
of vast amount of information using 3-D viewer,
and we will introduce an environment called
KACHINA CUBE (KC) that can visualize various
information using a “cube”. We have introduced
KC in DH2009 (Saito, Inaba and Ohno, 2009).
Then, we limited the use of KC to geographic
information. But now, KC can adopt not only
geographic information but also various events.
In this paper, we introduce KC’s new design and
function.
1. Design Concept of KC
1.1. Visualization Design
The most important thing in this research is
to develop a Web system to integrate a large
quantity of fragmentary information and to
construct a method for visualizing a ""scheme of
things"". For this purpose, we need to place all
fragmentary information in the same context.
Moreover, we have to come up with a way to put
various information in a cube.
We decided to design KC in three dimensions,
two dimensions for geographical information
and another one for temporal information
(see Fig. 1). In this virtual 3D space (CUBE
model), users can post formal and informal
story fragments and can spin the cube (see Fig.
2). Among them, we call formal ones history
fragments, and informal fragments story ones.
KC also supports researchers to make linkages
among fragments in periodical or logical order.
We call a set of cultural fragments a storyline.
We are developing KC’s search-engine for the
most appropriate word. A fragment highlighted
means that it includes the search term.
Moreover, if there is more than one appropriate
fragment, a line is drawn among those
fragments. This function helps to find a hidden
context or story among fragmented information.
When words are searched and some words have
a logical conjunction, multiple lines are drawn,
as well as color-coded, based on the number
of matched words. This search function thus
makes visible the degree of connection among
fragments.
Fig 1. Application of CUBE Model for geographic information

2
Fig 2. Rotation of cube
1.2. Sharing Design
W3C puts tremendous efforts to create
standardized frameworks for Web, and
researchers in digital humanities regard
semantic web technology as one of the key
research fields. This kind of technology gives
us various chances to share data for other use.
We believe archived cultural data should be
standardized to fit in this framework, which
allows users to access data and utilize them in
various platforms.
We apply RDF/OWL to define our data. Its
extensive and flexible definition is suitable for
our system and motivates other researchers to
access our data (Bray, 2001).
1.
History fragment class: Objective information
in textbook or dictionary
2.
Story fragment class: Subjective information
such as oral history
3.
Storyline class: Aggregate of historical and
story fragments based on a specific context
4.
Geography class: Geographical information of
the historical and story fragments
5.
Temporal class: Time when the incidents told
in historical and story fragments occurred
1.3. Conceptual map Design
KC can adopt not only geographic information
but also various events. In order to handle
non-geographical information, KC supports
conceptual maps. Moreover, the way in which a
conceptual map is made should be considered.
A conceptual map is a figure which expresses
a development of story or event. We decided
to apply the Trajectory Equifinality Model
(TEM) to the process of making conceptual
map. TEM is a theory to capture a certain
phenomenon from view point of “time” and
“process” (Valsinar and Sato 2006).
Moreover, KC is a web-based application that
is built on the client-server architecture. In this
system, client side application is implemented
using ActionScript. On the other hand, server
side application is developed by using PHP
(PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor). KC adopts
MySQL as a relational database management
system.
Fig 3. Conceptual map of a muder case
Below is an example of making a conceptual
map using TEM. Fig.3 is a conceptual map
to visualize a process of investigation and
trial of a certain actual murder case. This
conceptual map expresses both the process
of the murder case itself and its trial. The
map’s 12 columns represent development of this
murder case; and 3 rows, the statements in the
court of the defendant and prosecution. The
defendant's statements are set on the top, while
that of prosecution on the bottom. Moreover,
statements that are pertinent to neither the top
nor the bottom are set in the middle.
Fig.4 shows a result of this visualization with KC.
This system is suitable to grasp the perspective
on complicated cases which include multiple
statements, stories, or contexts.","txt","2","",""
"1202","11","An Approach to Ancient-to- modern and Cross-script Information Access for Traditional Mongolian Historical Collections","2","
1
An Approach to Ancient-to-
modern and Cross-script
Information Access for
Traditional Mongolian
Historical Collections
Batjargal, Biligsaikhan
biligsaikhan@gmail.com
Graduate School of Science and Engineering,
Ritsumeikan University, Japan
Khaltarkhuu, Garmaabazar
garmaabazar@gmail.com
Mongolia-Japan Center for Human Resources
Development, Mongolia
Kimura, Fuminori
fkimura@is.ritsumei.ac.jp
College of Information Science and
Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, Japan
Maeda, Akira
amaeda@is.ritsumei.ac.jp
College of Information Science and
Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, Japan
The main purpose of this research is to develop
a system to keep over 800-year-old historical
records written in traditional Mongolian script
for future use, to digitize all existing records and
to make those valuable data available for public
viewing and screening. There are over 50,000
registered manuscripts and historical records
written in traditional Mongolian script stored in
the National Library of Mongolia. About 21,100
of them are handwritten documents. There
are many more manuscripts and books stored
in libraries of other countries such as China,
Russia and Germany. Despite the importance
of keeping 800-year-old historical materials in
good condition, the Mongolian environment
for material storage is not satisfactory to keep
historical records for a long period of time
(Tungalag, 2005). We believe that the most
efficient and effective way to keep and protect
old materials of historical importance while
making them publicly available is to digitize
historical records and create a digital library.
Mongolia introduced a new writing system
(Cyrillic) in 1941. This was a radical change
and alienated the traditional Mongolian script.
The spelling of words and suffixes in traditional
Mongolian script differs from spellings in
modern Mongolian (Cyrillic). This is due to
traditional Mongolian script preserving a more
ancient language while modern Mongolian
reflects pronunciation differences in modern
dialects. Spellings used in traditional Mongolian
script reflect the Mongolian language spoken
in the days of Genghis Khan but also contain
elements of the ancient Mongolian language
spoken before that era. Thus traditional
Mongolian has a different grammar and
a distinct dialect from modern Mongolian.
At present, people use dictionaries with
transcribing suffixes to overcome differences.
Recently ancient historical documents in
traditional Mongolian script are being digitized
and made publicly available, thanks to advances
in innovative information technologies, and the
popularity of the Internet. In Windows Vista,
and later versions, especially in Windows 7, text-
display support for traditional Mongolian script
and the input locale is enabled. The Uniscribe
driver was updated to support OpenType
advanced typographic functionality of complex
text layouts such as traditional Mongolian
script. Traditional Mongolian script is written
vertically from top to bottom in columns
advancing from left to right.
However, retrieval of the required information
in modern Mongolian from traditional
Mongolian script documents is not a simple
task, due to substantial changes in Mongolian
language over time. We want to offer an
information retrieval method that considers
language difference over time. Our goal in this
research is to develop a retrieval system where
a user can access cross-period and cross-script
databases with a query input in a modern
language.
1. Related Research
Much research has been conducted in the last
decade on Cross-language information retrieval
(CLIR) – a technique to retrieve documents
in one language through a query in another
language. On the contrary, little research has
been completed regarding information retrieval
techniques for historical documents. Still less,
almost none of the breakthroughs in research

2
on information retrieval and information access
have aimed at retrieving information in
the native language from an ancient, cross-
period and/or cross-script foreign language
documents. Almost none of the CLIR systems
has integrated either modern (Cyrillic) or
traditional (ancient) Mongolian language due to
its research backwardness.
Few approaches (Ernst-Gerlach et al., 2007;
Garmaabazar et al., 2008; Kimura et al.,
2009) that could be considered a cross-period
information retrieval have been proposed.
Little research has been completed regarding
information retrieval techniques for historical
documents. Ernst-Gerlach et al. (2007)
developed a retrieval method that considers the
spelling differences and variations over time.
They focused on modern and archaic German.
Kimura et al. (2009) proposed a retrieval
method that considers not only language
differences over time, but also cultural and age
differences in the same language. They focused
on retrieval techniques for modern and archaic
Japanese. Khaltarkhuu et al. (2008) proposed a
retrieval technique that considers cross-period
differences in dialect, script and writing systems
of the same language. They focused on modern
and traditional Mongolian.
2. System Architecture
We propose a simple model to cope with cross-
period and cross-script queries. The proposed
model is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1
In the first stage, the query in a modern language
will be translated into a query in an ancient form.
Consequently, a query in the ancient language
is submitted as a retrieval query for digital
collections. The proposed model is expected to
perform cross-period information retrieval and
a user will be able to access ancient historical
databases with a query input in a modern
language. We will adopt a dictionary-based
query translation approach.
3. Implementation of the
Proposed System
Although it is not easy to develop such a retrieval
system, we will utilize existing approaches
(Garmaabazar et al., 2008; Kimura et al.,
2009) to realize the proposed approach. A
prototype called the Traditional Mongolian
Script Digital Library
1
(TMSDL) (Garmaabazar
et al., 2008), which could be considered a cross-
period information retrieval system, has been
developed. The retrieval method of the TMSDL
considers cross-period differences in writing
system of the ancient and modern Mongolian
languages.
However, retrieval techniques of the TMSDL
have not considered irregular words which
have different meanings but are written and
pronounced exactly the same in modern
Mongolian and have different forms in
traditional Mongolian. Also, word sense
disambiguation has not been considered. Thus,
we enhanced the TMSDL by integrating
a dictionary-based cross-period information
retrieval approach. We utilized the developing
online version of the Tsevel's concise Mongolian
dictionary
2
(Tsevel, 1966) under the Creative
Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share
Alike 3.0 Unported license.
The Altan Tobchi (year 1604, 164pp) –
A chronological book of ancient Mongolian
Kings, Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire
(the largest contiguous empire in history) is
shown in Figure 2, with modern Mongolian
input interface in the new version of TMSDL
(TMSDLv2). A database of such historical
records in the TMSDLv2 with English or modern
Mongolian query input will help someone
conducting research in the history of the High
Middle Ages, accessing materials written in
an ancient language (traditional Mongolian) in
order to understand 13
th
-14
th
century history of
Asia.","txt","2","",""
"1203","11","An Inter-Disciplinary Approach to Web Programming: A Collaboration Between the University Archives and the Department of Computer Science","2","
1
An Inter-Disciplinary
Approach to Web
Programming: A
Collaboration Between the
University Archives and the
Department of Computer
Science
Janet Marie Bunde
bunde@nyu.edu
New York University, USA
Deena Engel
deena@cs.nyu.edu
New York University, USA
Computing in the Humanities, an
undergraduate course at New York University,
represents a unique collaboration between
the Computer Science Department and the
University Archives. The final assignment
required students to select, digitize, and
contextualize materials from the Archives’
collections in an interactive website. The design
and implementation of the course incorporates
four current and important trends in both
disciplines. First, the professor and archivist
worked closely together before and during
the course, integrating the archival research
component into the core mission of the course.
Second, the students’ projects provided both
increased subject access and dynamic Web
content to the repository and meaningful work
to the students. Third, this course produced
students who “bridge” the needs of humanists
with the capabilities of technology. Fourth, this
course illustrated the growing importance of
web programming in undergraduate computer
science education.
1. Trend 1: Archives and archivists
in the undergraduate classroom
Archiving journals and conference
presentations have increasingly focused on
the experiences of archivists at educational
institutions who seek to integrate archival
resources into the undergraduate curriculum.
Notably absent from this literature, however, is
any mention of collaboration between archivists
and professors in computer science or related
departments.
Before the course began, the professor,
undergraduate librarian, and University
archivists discussed the structure of the course.
The librarian and assistant University archivist
co-lectured for one class session. The students
who elected to work in the University Archives
for their final projects were also required to meet
with the assistant archivist before embarking
on their research. These meetings ensured that
students would have sufficient resources at the
Archives to conduct their primary (visual) and
secondary (textual) research. Students from the
class were also required to digitize photographs,
documents, and audio materials as part of the
assignment.
At the end of the semester many students
who had used the University Archives for
their project turned in their assignments for
publication on the University Archives website.
In doing so, the difference between a class
project and a project published on the Internet
under the authority of the University Archives
became clear.
2. Trend 2: Projects increase
access to archival materials and
provide meaningful work for
students
The projects produced by students in this
course reflected the students’ interests in the
University Archives’ collections—interests that
do not necessarily coincide with the digitization
and processing priorities of Archives staff.
Archives staff can use this information to
determine what researchers might look for
in our collections and use this information
to influence future digitization and processing
priorities. Additionally, by digitizing materials
from across collections centered on a particular
theme, the students actually increased access for
other users.
By allowing students to curate their own
mini-collections, the repository opened up
new opportunities to interpret these materials.
This interpretation represents an instance of
what Tom Nesmith describes as the “new
description...a much more thorough contextual

2
mapping of pathways through the masses
of records [that] add[s] evidential value to
the records” (Nesmith, 2007). By juxtaposing
student projects with finding aids prepared
by the Archives, a viewer of the University
Archives website can compare the students’
interpretations and the context of the records
that were digitized. This contextualization is
essential to understand these projects and
the records they feature rather than provide
additional “background noise of the World Wide
Web” (Eamon, 2006). Future collaborations
might include students working with the
Archives-generated XML itself to discover
new methods of embedding information, or
modifying the schema or stylesheets to include
different information.
3. Trend 3: Nexus between
computer science and archives
The course introduced new users to
the repository and creates new areas of
collaboration between archivists and faculty.
Students enrolled in the course learned
rudimentary archival research skills and, most
importantly, were introduced to the same issues
archivists wrestle with on a daily basis when
providing materials to users.
Many articles written in the past decade mention
how online digital collections and delivery of
finding aids online have become rote rather
than exceptional for most repositories. Yet at
the same time there have been few overtures
by archivists to bridge this digital divide at
the undergraduate or even at the graduate
level. In her 2005 survey of archival job
postings, Michelle Riggs found that employers
increasingly require knowledge of EAD and the
markup languages HTML, XML, and SGML.
She urges archival education programs and
library science programs to offer instruction that
matches employer demand (Riggs, 2005).
By introducing students with programming
skills to research in an archive, this course also
sought to create students who understand and
can combine the capabilities of technology with
the needs of a researcher. Corinne Jörgensen
laments that the professionals who create
access systems for digital resources, and those
who access those resources, do not speak to
each other or reference each other’s research
(Jörgensen, 1999).
4. Trend 4: Emerging importance
of web programming in
undergraduate computer science
education
The Computer Science Department
undergraduate program at New York University
offers both a Computer Science major and
minor as well as a minor in Web Programming
and Applications. The department encourages
faculty to create courses in web programming to
meet the needs of students in both the CS major
and minor programs.
Web programming has been increasing in
importance in university Computer Science
Education. “Despite its reputation in some
circles, web programming is conceptually deep;
it gives a simple way to learn event-driven
programming, to become conversant in many
languages, learn the client-server paradigm,
interact with databases, and more” (Stepp,
2009). Students with only one semester of
studies in implementing websites and one
semester of a high-level programming language
such as Java or Python can build complex and
interactive websites. We can thus reach students
across a variety of disciplines, as this project
offers a rich opportunity for inter-disciplinary
studies. Both early CS majors and CS minors
have an opportunity to focus on the content
of the sites as well as the technology and
programming required to build them.
Programming and technology requirements for
this project included:
1.
XML and XSLT (using text editors without
a WYSIWYG interface) for the collection
catalogues
2.
PHP and JavaScript as well as advanced
XHTML and CSS for the user interface
3.
Original podcasts and work with appropriate
multi-media objects related to the collections
At the University of Houston, Clear Lake, faculty
used the following goals to design programming
assignments for web programming coursework
(Yue, 2004):","txt","2","",""
"1204","11","An Open Source Toolkit for Flexible Browsing of Historical Maps on the Web","2","
1
An Open Source Toolkit
for Flexible Browsing of
Historical Maps on the Web
Ohno, Shin
ohnoshin@gmail.com
Ritsumeikan University
Saito, Shinya
Ritsumeikan University
Inaba, Mitsuyuki
Ritsumeikan University
Map browsing on the web is now commonly
used, and most people have used map services
such as Goole Maps, Google Earth, and Yahoo!
Maps. These services also provide developer
API, which makes it easy to integrate map
services into the website. Map browsing in
practical use is covered with those services, but
displaying historical maps as exhibits is not,
which requires different approaches.
We, three members of Web Technology
Research Group of the Digital Humanities
Center of Japanese Arts and Cultures,
Ritsumeikan University have developed an
image viewer, which can handle zooming,
panning, and rotating. Although there exist
many similar toolkits, none has all three features
with JavaScript written. Furthermore, we would
like to share it as open source library.
This paper starts with elucidating Japanese
historical maps, their unique features and needs.
After that, it discusses our image viewer, its
design and implementation to meet their needs.
1. Purpose
Since Japanese historical maps do not have
concepts of geo-coding usually and are
distorted, it is difficult to integrate them with
map services such as Google Maps.
Using Keyhole Markup Language (KML) makes
it possible to integrate these maps with
Google Earth. There is some research on
historical maps on Google Earth (Zeile et al.
2007Nishimura et al. 2007). Although those
tools are highly functional for defining 3D
geographical information on the web, the user
interface is not easy to use for traditional
humanities scholars who are normally not
familiar with KML language. Moreover, setting
the image in Google Earth is not always
their priority. Therefore, when it is necessary
to exhibit original, hand-drawn maps on the
web, one has to take different approaches to
integrating these images into the web.
Because of these issues, image viewers are
usually used to implement historical maps for
exhibition. These viewers enable users to zoom
images, and to see their details if they are
provided in high quality. Moreover, today’s high
technology for user interface allows us to use
such viewers with regular web browsers.
Since most of these viewers are not open
source based applications, however, no room
exists for us to extend and add more features.
Even though they are provided as open source,
most of them depend on a Flash plug-in, and
there is no implementation with JavaScript.
Because JavaScript is lightweight and easy to
be integrated into websites, we have decided to
implement this map viewer with JavaScript, and
open it to the public as an open source product,
and we believe there should be alternative
options for us as open source based toolkits for
these needs.
2. Design
Figure 1: Sample of Japanese historical map

2
In this section, we discuss what kinds of features
are required for historical map viewers, and
compare them with related software.
When displaying Japanese historical maps as
image exhibits on the Web, we encounter
difficulties in handling angles. With no clear
concept of top or bottom in these maps, names
of places are labeled from many directions. This
is related to the fact that people in those days
put rather a large map on the table or the floor
to read it. Because of this particular feature of
the historical maps, as opposed to maps today,
browsing tools for these historical maps should
provide a way of viewing them from multiple
angles. Therefore, we decided to design our
tool to support flexible browsing rather than
geographical accuracy.
What we found out about other image viewers
is that many can support zooming and panning,
but not rotating. Most of them also depend on a
Flash plug-in, and there are no implementations
with JavaScript. There are comparisons of
similar software for viewer of maps or images.
-
Google Maps/Google Earth
Since their
beginning, these services with web browsers
have become more commonly used, and more
people have become used to them, which
in turn has changed the way we access
geographical resources. However, historical
maps do not have accurate longitude and
latitude, and even using KML to integrate
them into Google Earth, the images are
distorted and we need to change the purpose
to display them. Plus, KML is rather
complicated to maneuver it very well.
API
Free
Rotat-
able
Zoom-
able
Image
Cutting
Open
source
Google
Maps
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Google
Image
Cutter
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Google
Earth
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Open
Zoom
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Open
Layers
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Ojikit
Image
Viewer
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
-
GMap Image Cutter by LCUGMap Image Cutter
by LCU
: To use Google Maps image viewer,
LCU developed GMap Image Cutter tool to
cut a large image into many small pieces.
With this Cutter provided, users can integrate
images to their own website with the same
Google Maps user interface.
-
OpenZoom
: OpenZoom is a free and open
source toolkit for delivering high-resolution
images and zoomable user interfaces. Like
GMap Image Cutter, it can cut a large image
into many small file-size images. With this
software, users can download an appropriate
file size to their local computer, which works
to prevent network traffic from congesting
in cases in which the image is too large to
download. This is SWF based, and requires a
Flash Plugin.
-
OpenLayers
: OpenLayers is a free and open
source library for handling geographical
information written in JavaScript. Since
OpenLayers implements both WMS(Web
Map Service) and Web Feature Service, users
can integrate many different maps service
to their own website. It has zooming and
panning features for browsing maps on the
web.
-
Ojikit ImageViewer
Ojikit Image Viewer is the
toolkit we have developed. It has zooming,
panning, rotating features, as well as an open
source license. While it does not have the
function to cut a large image into smaller
files, improvement of broadband allows us
to transfer files without so much reduction.
Moreover, one file is easier to store and
manage than many files.
3. Implementation
Giving consideration to what historical maps
viewers need to be, we have developed an
open source toolkit. This toolkit is written in
JavaScript, and it has lightweight features and
an open source license. Written in JavaScript,
Mozilla and Safari based browser uses SVG,
and the Internet Explorer uses VML to handle
vector images. To develop this library seamlessly
in different browsers, this library depends on
jQuery and Raphael.js.
4. Application
We have applied this tool to Japanese historical
maps as our Center has a large number of","txt","2","",""
"1205","11","Citation Rhetoric Examined","2","
1
Citation Rhetoric Examined
Dobson, Teresa M.
teresa.dobson@ubc.ca
University of British Columbia, Canada
Eberle-Sinatra, Michael
michael.eberle.sinatra@umontreal.ca
Université de Montréal, Canada
Ruecker, Stan
sruecker@ualberta.ca
University of Alberta, Canada
Lucky, Shannon
lucky.shannon14@gmail.com
University of Alberta, Canada
INKE Research Group
inke.project@gmail.com
INKE Project
In his influential monograph
The Rhetoric of
Citation Systems
, Connors (1999) elaborates
on the principle that scholars working with
different forms of citation find themselves
thinking differently, since the citation format
has natural consequences in the way it interacts
with the material in the practice of the writer.
For example, the popular MLA and APA formats
differ radically in the way they handle footnotes.
MLA allows writers to include both substantive
and citation footnotes, and gives them the
choice to include citations at the foot of the
page, at the back of the book, or inline. Many
journals employing APA, on the other hand,
discourage use of substantive footnotes and
require that citations be inline. The content of
in-text parenthetical citations is also different:
MLA requires writers to include a page number
for citations, while APA allows writers to refer
broadly to a source by author name and year.
Connor argues that the APA’s emphasis on
the year encourages both the writer and the
reader to be conscious of how recent the
source material is, and that a prejudice tends
to emerge against older publications, which
helps to strengthen the supercessionist form
of thinking across the disciplines where the
APA format is popular. In addition, the lack
of substantive footnoting in the APA tends to
discourage digressions into related but essential
content by both writers and readers.
In this project, we examine how citation style
may modify the reading experience through a
preliminary study with graduate students in the
humanities and social sciences. In the first half
of the study, we asked five graduate students
to read an article that contains a number
of substantive footnotes (Booth’s “Witchcraft,
flight and the early modern English stage”),
and had them prepare an alternative version
in which they were required to incorporate
all footnotes into the text. These two versions
correspond roughly to the practice in MLA
and APA citation. We note, for instance, that
MLA does not require substantive footnoting,
and APA does allow for substantive footnotes;
however, in practice footnotes are more widely
accepted by journals employing MLA style,
while APA journals often discourage or disallow
footnotes. The goal of the exercise was to
look at the differences in handling the two
conditions and the effects of those differences
on production and reception of academic
content. We recorded the details of this
process employing Morae usability software
and interviewed participants post-task about
their process. The study participants found this
to be a challenging and at times frustrating
exercise. Many remarked that the information
in the discursive footnotes was extraneous to
the main thesis of the article and that there
could be no satisfactory way of integrating that
information into the text. Some participants
included the footnoted material verbatim
parenthetically in-text. Others omitted the
footnotes altogether. Generally, participants felt
that a paratextual space for discursive content
(footnotes) is important, although in the case
of this article the footnotes may have contained
more extraneous material than would be
desirable. Participants found converting in-text
parenthetical references more straightforward.
A prejudice against the inclusion of the year
of publication in text in accordance with APA
guidelines emerged: participants noted that
the year of publication is less important to
understanding the relevance of cited sources
than other descriptive information such as
title. The respondents did not believe either
citation system was better equipped to help
readers located referenced sources, but they did
indicate that discursive footnotes provide an
important venue for valued parallel discussions
and related but non-essential information, and

2
that discouraging the use of discursive footnotes
impoverishes academic writing.
Subsequently, we gave the same article to
twenty-six undergraduate students: half of
the participants read the original, MLA,
version of the article; the other half read
an APA version of the same article in
which footnotes were integrated into the
text. Post-reading, participants answered a
comprehension question and nine recall
questions. Citation style did not appear to
affect either comprehension or recall. A
significant trend, however, emerged: discursive
information, whether it was located in the
footnotes in the original MLA version or
integrated into the text in the converted APA
version, was far less likely to be recalled
by participants. More than two thirds of
participants did not answer questions based on
discursive information correctly, regardless of
whether that information was contained in a
footnote (as in the original MLA version) or
integrated into the text (as in the prepared
APA version). This finding appears to temper
Connor’s thesis about the effects of citation
formats on reading.
This project is an initiative of a major
collaborative research initiative in the digital
humanities, Implementing New Knowledge
Environments (INKE), that aims to foster
understanding of the significance of digital
and analog books and their role in humanities
scholarship. It is also part of a larger
study of citation rhetoric as exemplified
in
Synergies: Canada’s Social Sciences and
Humanities Research Infrastructure
, a not-
for-profit platform for the publication and
dissemination of research results in the social
sciences and humanities published in Canada.
Results of this citation rhetoric research project
will benefit analysis of citation statistics in large-
scale web search interfaces such as
Synergies
.
It will also contribute to further research on
automated semantic searches in bibliographies
and works cited, such as those covered in the
first year of the INKE project (e.g. Ruecker et al.
2009).
References
Booth, Roy
(2007).
Witchcraft, flight and the
early modern English stage.
Early Modern
Literary Studies.
Connors, Robert J.
(1999).
The Rhetoric
of Citation Systems.
NY: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates (Taylor & Francis Group).
Ruecker, Stan, Rockwell, Geoffrey,
Radzikowska, Milena, Sinclair, Stéfan,
Vandendorpe, Christian, Siemens, Ray,
Dobson, Teresa, Doll, Lindsay, Bieber,
Mark, Eberle-Sinatra, Michael, NKE
Group
. 'Drilling for Papers in INKE'.
INKE 2009: Research Foundations for
Understanding Books and Reading in the
Digital Age.
23-24 October 2009.","txt","2","",""
"1206","11","Creative Engagement with Creative Works: a New Paradigm for Collaboration","2","
1
Creative Engagement with
Creative Works: a New
Paradigm for Collaboration
Jones, Steven E.
sjones1@luc.edu
Loyola University Center for Textual Studies
and Digital Humanities
Shillingsburg, Peter
Loyola University Center for Textual Studies
and Digital Humanities
Thiruvathukal, George K.
Loyola University Center for Textual Studies
and Digital Humanities
Funded in part by a Digital Start-up Grant
from the National Endowment for the
Humanities,
Creative Engagement with
Creative Works
is a project to build a new
online environment (e-Carrel) and integrated
tools with the aim of improving understanding
of creative processes across various humanities
disciplines and genres. Studies of the production
and reception of literary, historical, musical, and
philosophical works are all built on primary
materials that are textual in the broad sense--
documentary, material objects: manuscripts,
newspapers, periodicals, pamphlets, books, and
images. But current solutions to digitizing
and providing access to these materials are
structurally flawed and lead away from the
often-stated goal of extensive collaboration.
Digital transcriptions relying on XML or other
inline markup can often prevent or limit
collaboration on the files themselves, can
(paradoxically) threaten a project’s integrity,
and can lead to early maintenance problems and
the ultimate abandonment of projects beyond
the lifetimes of their initial creators.
We propose using standoff markup instead,
indexing these files to inviolate core files, thus
affecting the way humanities disciplines interact
with primary materials--moving away from
proprietary, look-but-don't-touch window-case
projects toward secure and enduring projects
that are open to ongoing annotation and re-
markup, and which thus encourage widely
collaborative knowledge sites.
Electronic projects that restrict their
construction and enhancement to a select few
persons as a way to protect the intellectual
integrity of their resources inadvertently
introduce a significant threat to the durability
of text files, whose hard-won accuracy is
the result of expert attention. The creators’
anxiety to protect the results of their time-
consuming and labor-intensive in-line-tagging
leads to a proprietary attitude that’s detrimental
to scholarly collaboration, because everyone
knows that the text files are vulnerable to
inadvertent change every time they are reopened
for further tagging. Protective restriction also
restricts truly collaborative work, the life of
digital humanities projects in the world.
These restrictions can be loosened or eliminated
by a fundamentally different approach to
collaboration, durability, and maintenance,
pioneered in scientific fields following principles
of:
-
modular component structure,
-
connectivity,
-
extensibility,
-
distribution and aggregation systems,
-
stand-off enhancement mechanisms, and
-
methods for identifying and crediting
researchers with their individual
contributions to composite research projects.
These trends in software development allow
for decentralized alterations. But even free/
open source (FOSS) software projects are not
without problems. The past was dominated
largely by projects where the code was kept
under tight wraps, using version control systems
such as CVS (Concurrent Versions System) and
Subversion. Only a handful of FOSS projects
succeed with this model, notably the Firefox
project, but many FOSS projects are already
migrating to more distributed approaches (the
Python language, the Linux kernel, etc.). Much
like archives, software development projects
in the FOSS community tend to self-organize
and establish their own governance. While they
make their code available (as required by the
FOSS licensing schemes) they also tend to fall
into disuse, making it hard for new developers to
come along and take the project to new levels.

2
Distributed version control systems record a
project's entire history and state, which can be
copied freely, allowing derived works to take
place. When a copy is made, however, the entire
history is kept intact, allowing new contributors
to either make their own changes or to push their
changes back to the original maintainer. The
push/pull model is so sophisticated that anyone
who makes changes can get recognition for their
work, because their specific changes to the code
are encoded in the derived history.
Our Creative Engagement with Creative Works
and e-Carrel environment incorporates these
principles and adds the functions of stand-
off files for markup and annotation, along
with a dynamic authentication mechanism.
Experimentation has shown the considerable
promise of such functionality. (See the Just
InTime Markup system rototyped at the
University of New South Wales at ADFA
by our Senior Consultant, Paul Eggert and
his team working on Australian literature;
and see Desmond Schmidt’s MVD or Multi
Version Document system, the architecture and
some code of which we are incorporating).
These are the building blocks of our project’s
coherent vision for archiving creative works
for creative collaboration, preservation, and
dynamic interactive access, realized in the form
of tools and programming frameworks.
We establish an image file and a base text
for each significant version of a work. Text
data for all versions are compressed in a
composite, inviolable CorTex file, which anchors
all stand-off contributions. Each participant's
contribution is credited and protected from
work by other contributors. Endusers choose
a historical text (or other object) plus
desired types of enhancements from a
menu dynamically aggregated from distributed
sources. The e-Carrel processes and presents
perspectives of texts and enhancements for
viewing, printing, or export in commonly used
formats. Individual projects using the system
can vet and certify parts of a project. And--most
important--this system allows for the storage,
retrieval, and coordination of different, even
conflicting editorial or critical approaches to the
same literary work. In this way, it opens the
horizon of any given project’s ongoing reception.
By giving scholars and students a vested
interest in a growing integrated collaborative
project, CECW ensures preservation and
access to textual research projects and their
superstructure of critical analysis at the same
time that it promotes collaboration beyond
the project initiators' participation and goals.
Project viability follows community ownership
and becomes a widely distributed responsibility.
The system ensures long-term maintenance
and growth through collective ownership,
distributed storage, and the principle of
LOCKSS (Lots of copies keep stuff safe).
Our strong definition of LOCKSS, which
distributes multiple accurate copies, and in an
ongoing process verifies them by way of the
persistent CorText data and checksum system, is
significantly different from the ""soft"" version of
LOCKSS that just sends ""copies"" into the world
in whatever state and trusts to the hive mind for
endurance and integrity.
CECW makes use of RDF capabilities and is
XML aware but is by design markup agnostic.
It allows for the importation of materials from
other systems and prepares perspectives of the
E-Carrel materials for export in various forms
compatible with other systems (such as PDF and
in-line coded XML).
This poster session will provide demos of
portions of the software in development, in
particular, the standoff markup tool used
within the E-Carrel environment. A case-study
CoreText will be loaded for the purposes of
demonstration.
References
Eggert, Paul
(2009). 'The Book, the e-Text,
and the Worksite'.
Text Editing, Print and the
Digital World.
Ashgate.
Loyola University Center for Textual Studies
and Digital Humanities.
http://www.ctsdh.luc
.edu/
.
Schmidt, Desmond
(2009). 'A Data Structure
for Representing Multi-Version Texts Online'.
Int. J. Human-Computer Studies.
67
: 497-514.
Shillingsburg, Peter
(2006).
From
Gutenberg to Google.
Cambridge: Cambridge
UP.","txt","2","",""
"1207","11","Critical Editing of Music in the Digital Medium: an Experiment in MEI","2","
1
Critical Editing of Music
in the Digital Medium: an
Experiment in MEI
Viglianti, Raffaele
raffaele.viglianti@kcl.ac.uk
King's College London
Critical editions of music have not received
the level of attention that research in Digital
Humanities has given to textual criticism,
which already has an established scholarly
production of written contributions and digital
publications. Digital representations in literary
criticism are used for analytical purposes as well
as for accommodating critical editions in the
digital medium, which offers a high degree of
interactivity and opens toward experimentation
with new formats of publication. Nonetheless,
there has been little debate about music editing
in the new medium and only a few digital
publications have been developed.
Several aspects of digital textual criticism can
find an application on music documents because
similar issues exist in the representation of
primary sources and editorial intervention. In
fact, since the early stages of music scholarship,
musicologists looked at the editorial practices
of classical philologists while working towards
a definition of their own scientific finalities
(Grier, 1996). The study of documentary sources
transmitting a written work (manuscript or
printed) is the main correlation between
music and textual criticism. For instance,
the discrepancy identified by Tanselle (1989)
between text and the artefacts that transmit it, is
a condition that applies to music notation as well
as literature; however, literature is ‘a one-stage
and music a two-stage art’ (Goodman, 1976:114;
also discussed by Feder, 1987). A musical work,
in fact, does not exist only as written notation
but also requires performance to reach its final
receiver. For this reason, understanding the
complexity of the music work-concept and its
associated cultural practices is central to the
digital representation of music critical editions.
Even though the recent research in digital
textual scholarship provides a rich paradigm
for the emergent field of digital editing of
music, there is the need for more research
on digital representation and publication of
detailed notation data.
The work conducted for a postgraduate
dissertation (MA) at King’s College London
attempted to discuss some of these issues.
This poster presents the results of the
dissertation’s case study: a digital edition
of Claude Debussy’s Syrinx (La Flûte de
Pan) for flute solo. The XML-based model
represents notation, variant readings and
editorial intervention; additionally, several
different views are extracted and rendered for
presentation with vector images.
1. An experiment with MEI:
Syrinx (La Flûte de Pan)
by
Claude Debussy
Syrinx (La Flûte de Pan)
by Claude Debussy
(1862 – 1918) is a short piece for flute solo
originally composed as theatrical interlude for
the play
Psyché
(1913) by Gabriel Mourey under
the title
La Flûte de Pan
. Despite Debussy
showing little interest in the publication of
the piece, the first performer, Louis Fleury,
contributed to the reception of the piece as
independent from Mourey’s play. The piece
maintains a relevant role in the solo flute
repertoire. Two principal sources have been
used for the digital edition: the first edition
published posthumously by Jobert in 1927
under the new title
Syrinx
and a recently
discovered manuscript in a private collection in
Brussels dated 1913 (MSB), which constituted
the base text.
For the creation of a digital model for the
new edition, the use of a combination of
TEI and MusicXML was initially considered;
1
however, MusicXML does not match TEI’s
flexibility when encoding primary sources
and variant readings. MusicXML, in fact,
is primarily designed ‘to be sufficient, not
optimal’ (Good, 2001); therefore, it represents
normalised common western music notation to
facilitate interchange and does not allow the
flexibility in the granularity that is required
when representing the editor’s interpretation
and understanding.
The Music Encoding Initiative (MEI) provided
an alternative choice.
2
This XML format is

2
modelled on TEI and attempts to follow the
same principles. In particular it specifically
focuses on formalising interpretation through
declarative knowledge and claims to be
independent from rendering software while
also addressing processing matters (Roland,
2002).
3
Moreover, it includes a module for
the representation of variant readings and
transcription of primary sources; therefore
a combination with TEI did not seem
to be necessary. The MEI format is still
in development; however, the University of
Paderborn (Germany) and the University of
Virginia (USA) recently received a grant to take
MEI out of its beta phase and produce public
guidelines, which should be completed by the
end of July 2010.
4
2. The encoding model
The poster will show how the MEI model
represents some editorial aspects common with
textual editing (i.e. bibliographical metadata,
correction and regularisation) and editorial
issues related to the nature of the music
notation (i.e. apparatus, rhythmic constraints,
performative instructions). In particular it will
show:
1.
The header
: similarly to TEI, MEI
provides a “header” (<meihead>) that allows
documenting information about the digital
file and its sources. Notably, the elements
in the description of the manuscript source
MSB attempt to emulate the much more
detailed encoding model offered by the TEI
manuscript description module. The header
also documents the encoding criteria for
notation.
<measure>
<staff>
<layer>
//- Notes
<note>, <beam>, <tuplet>, etc.
...
</layer>
//- Phrase marks
<slur>
...
//- Dynamics, tempo markings and
directions positioned above the staff
<dir>, <dynam>, <breath>, etc.
...
//- Dynamics, tempo markings and
directions positioned below the
staff
<dir>, <dynam>, <breath>,
etc.
...
</staff>
</measure>
Example 1: Encoding criteria for notation
2.
Variant readings
: The MEI file represents
this edition’s base text (MSB) and adds
additional information every time a difference
in the other sources occurs. If the sources
agree, it is expressed silently. This criterion
is identified by the TEI guidelines as ‘internal
parallel segmentation’.
5
Example 2 shows
alternative notations encoded with <app>
and <rdg>; the attribute type specifies which
reading has been selected for the edition.
It is worth explaining the basic mechanisms
behind the element <slur>, since they are also
common to other elements. The attribute staff
defines to which staff the phrase mark belongs
to; place defines whether the slur has to be
rendered above or below the staff; tstamp
identifies the beat in which the slur starts and
dur the beat in which the slur ends.
<measure id=""m28"" n=""28"">
...
<app>
<rdg source=""MSB"">
<slur staff=""1"" tstamp=""2"" dur=""4""
place=""above""/>
</rdg>
<rdg source=""FEJ"" type=""ed"">
<slur staff=""1"" tstamp=""2""
dur=""2.875"" place=""above""/>
<slur staff=""1"" tstamp=""3""
dur=""3.75"" place=""above""/>
</rdg>
</app>
...
</measure>
Example 2: Alternative phrase marks
in bar 28 from source MSB and FEJ.
3.
Editorial conjecture and intervention
:
change of hand, additions, corrections and
supplied notation have been encoded with
elements equivalent to the ones employed by
the TEI.
4.
Problematic cases
: bar 22 in MSB presents an
incongruent rhythm and a missing barline to
separate it from bar 23. The encoding used an
empty-element version of <beam> to encode
the differences in beaming resulting from the
different rhythms and a <gap> element for the
missing barlines.","txt","2","",""
"1208","11","Cultures of Knowledge: An Intellectual Geography of the Seventeenth-Century Republic Letters","2","
1
Cultures of Knowledge: An
Intellectual Geography of
the Seventeenth-Century
Republic Letters
Brown, James
james.brown@history.ox.ac.uk
University of Oxford, UK
Hotson, Howard
University of Oxford, UK
Jefferies, Neil
University of Oxford, UK
This combined poster and software
demonstration will introduce ‘Cultures of
Knowledge: An Intellectual Geography of
the Seventeenth-Century Republic Letters’,
launched in January 2009, and based in
the Humanities Division of the University of
Oxford with funding from the Andrew W.
Mellon Foundation. Comprising a diverse group
of academics and technical experts from the
Faculties of History, English, Theology, and
Bodleian Libraries, as well as from partner
institutions in Britain and east-central Europe,
the Project is seeking to reconstruct the
correspondence networks that were central to
the revolutionary intellectual developments of
the seventeenth century. One group is working
to catalogue, edit, and preserve the rich archives
of scientific correspondence deposited in the
Bodleian Library. Another is working with
colleagues in Sheffield, Prague, Cracow, and
Budapest to enhance and link letter collections
elsewhere. Finally, a third group, based in
the Systems and e-Research Service (SERS)
of Bodleian Libraries, is developing a digital
system capable of organising metadata on these
materials into an online union catalogue of
intellectual correspondence. It is this central
feature of our collaboration that we wish to share
at DH2010.
While meticulously edited and annotated
hard copy editions of finite corpora
remain indispensable, the intellectual and
methodological imperatives for looking
beyond traditional modes of publication are
overwhelming in the context of the Republic of
Letters. No correspondence is an island unto
itself. On the contrary, every single letter links
at least two different correspondence networks:
that of its sender, and that of its recipient. Many
seventeenth-century letters passed through
multiple hands, either because they were written
by or addressed to more than one person,
because they passed through intermediaries,
or because they were (re)circulated through
broader circles of friends and associates after
receipt. Moreover, the provision of increasingly
frequent, fast, and inexpensive postal services
– what has been described as the early modern
European ‘media revolution’ – meant that these
systems of connections extended over enormous
distances. Traditional editions of letters to and
from single eminent individuals fail to capture
the multilateral, spatially-dispersed character of
early modern epistolary cultures, and additional
tools are needed in mapping the broader
networks which surrounded these canonical
figures (networks which are becoming central
to research in the history of science and related
fields).
To this end, capitalizing on the unprecedented
opportunities created by ‘digital revolution’ of
recent decades, we are proposing to create
the nucleus of a web-mounted union catalogue
of seventeenth-century correspondence which,
for the first time, will provide scholars with
a means of navigating the vast, uncharted
sea of correspondence that surrounded
the comparatively well-surveyed islands of
seventeenth-century intellectuals. In its first
phase, it will combine three large datasets
generated by the Project or already hosted by the
Bodleian Library, namely: a digitized version of
the existing Bodleian catalogue of seventeenth-
century manuscript correspondence (c.26,000
letters); digital calendars of six discrete
correspondences generated by our individual
research projects (cataloguing the letters
of John Aubrey, Jan Amos Comenius,
Samuel Hartlib, Edward Lhwyd, Martin
Lister, and John Wallis [c.10,000 letters]);
and metadata from the seventeenth-century
correspondence already included in the
Electronic Enlightenment (c.7,000 letters).
1
This will result in an integrated database of
over 40,000 letters which will provide both a
platform for our own future efforts in the field
and, it is hoped, a critical mass of material

2
necessary to attract further contributions from
elsewhere.
The poster will outline the technological
as well as the conceptual underpinnings of
this enterprise. We will describe the system
architecture of the union catalogue, the
Digital Asset Management System (DAMS), an
innovative platform developed to support digital
library projects within the University of Oxford.
The DAMS, based on Fedora software, provides
a robust and flexible mechanism for the storage
of digital objects within an RDF/semantic
web framework. Predicated upon adaptability,
scalability, interoperability, and long-term
preservation, the system is particularly suitable
for our purposes. It allows content to be
openly accessible to, and available for reuse by,
a geographically dispersed scholarly network;
will enable us to share data with electronic
repositories elsewhere (and vice versa); and will
ensure that the union catalogue will remain
accessible to international research long beyond
the lifecycle of our original grant. We will
also describe the metadata standards by which
individual correspondences will be styled as
Fedora objects within the system, the RDF
ontologies by which they will be related, and the
software for web-based record editing, as well
as data collection and import, which has been
developed especially for the Project. During
the poster session itself we will provide a live
demonstration of a pilot implementation of
the union catalogue. This will showcase its
key features (full-text faceted search engine;
predefined browsable views; links to select
transcriptions and digital images; look-and-
feel), as well as the interface for online editing
that will allow individual records to be amended,
and new records added, by a widely distributed
community of academic contributors.
Key Contacts
Professor Howard Hotson (Project Director):
howard.hotson@st-annes.ox.ac.uk
Neil Jefferies (R&D Manager, SERS):
neil.jefferies@sers.ox.ac.uk
Ben O’Steen (DAMS Architect, SERS):
benjamin.osteen@sers.ox.ac.uk
Sue Burgess (Project Systems Developer, SERS):
sushila.burgess@sers.ox.ac.uk
Dr James Brown (Project Coordinator):
james.brown@history.ox.ac.uk
Further Information
http://www.culturesofknowledge.org
More bibliography at
http://www.history.ox.a
c.uk/cofk/bibliographies
References
Awre, Chris, Swan, Alma
. 'Linking
Repositories: Scoping the Development of
Cross-Institutional User-Oriented Services'.
OCLC Systems & Services: International
Digital Library Perspectives.
23 (2007)
: 372–
81.
Berkvens-Stevelinck, Christiane, Bots,
Hans, Haeseler, Jens (eds.)
(2005).
Les grands intermédiaires culturels de la
République des Lettres: Etudes de réseaux de
correspondances du XVIe au XVIIIe siècles.
Paris.
Muchembled, David, Bethencourt,
Francisco, Egmond, Florike (eds.)
(2007).
'Cultural Exchanges in Early Modern Europe'.
Correspondence and Cultural Exchange in
Europe, 1400–1700.
Cambridge. 3 vols.
Bots, Hans, Waquet, Françoise (eds.)
(1994).
Commercium litterarium, 1600–1750.
La communication dans la République des
lettres/Forms of Communication in the
Republic of Letters.
Amsterdam.
Davies, John, Fensel, Dieter, van
Harmelen, Frank
(2003).
Towards the
Semantic Web: Ontology-Driven Knowledge
Management.
Hoboken, NJ.
Duraspace.
http://duraspace.org/index.php
.
Grafton, Anthony
(2009).
Worlds Made by
Words: Scholarship and Community in the
Modern West.
Cambridge, MA.
Jaumann, Herbert (ed.)
(2001).
Die
europäische Gelehrtenrepublik im Zeitalter des
Konfessionalismus.
Wiesbaden.
Nichols, Stepphen
. 'Time to Change our
Thinking: Dismantling the Silo Model of Digital
Scholarship'.
Ariadne.
http://www.ariadne.ac.
uk/issue58/Nichols/
.","txt","2","",""
"1209","11","Delivering virtual reality: a proposal for facilitating pedagogical use of three- dimensional computer models of historic urban environments","2","
1
Delivering virtual reality:
a proposal for facilitating
pedagogical use of three-
dimensional computer
models of historic urban
environments
Lisa M. Snyder
lms@ucla.edu
UCLA’s Academic Technology Services/
Institute for Digital Research and Education
and the Urban Simulation Team at UCLA
University of California, Los Angeles
Scott Friedman
friedman@ucla.edu
UCLA’s Academic Technology Services/
Institute for Digital Research and Education
and the Urban Simulation Team at UCLA
University of California, Los Angeles
Examination of the built environment is a
fundamental line of humanistic inquiry that
shapes our understanding of diverse cultures. It
is impossible to consider the ancient Egyptians
without immediately thinking of the pyramids
or the vast religious complexes of the Nile
river valley. The medieval pilgrimages and
the modern disciplines that study them –
history, literature, religion, musicology, and
art – are inextricably tied to the monumental
Romanesque cathedrals that blanket Europe.
This link between humanities scholarship and
the built environment is unquestionable, with an
inexhaustible number of examples that illustrate
how architecture and urban design reveal the
aspirations and priorities of cultures across the
ages.
The humanistic promise of virtual reality
environments created to academically rigorous
standards is that they would allow scholars
the opportunity to explore reconstructed
buildings and urban spaces, recreate the
experience of citizens from other eras, gain
insights into the material culture of past
civilizations, and engage formal and informal
learners in ways never before possible. Within
these virtual spaces, students could navigate
through reconstructions of historic urban
environments and engage with one another to
build knowledge through constructivist learning
exercises. Beyond pedagogy, this new form of
academic expression would engender new forms
of scholarship and publication.
Seemingly, the promise of the technology
is within reach. Scores of researchers
across the globe are hard at work on
a significant – and growing – body
of academically generated three-dimensional
content. Architects and archaeologists
have embraced three-dimensional computer
modeling to visualize un-built structures,
1
reconstruct cities of the past,
2
and explore
research questions specific to a single site or
structure.
3
Yet, even given all that promise
and hype, two-dimensional drawings and static
images still dominate the research, study, and
teaching methods of architectural and urban
form. The problem is that only a very small
selection of digital work has been made available
to scholars, students, and the general public.
In part, this is because of a dearth of options
for easily sharing three-dimensional content.
Available on-line social-networking virtual
worlds such as Second Life and Stanford’s
Sirikata, while brilliant for avatar interactions
and communication, are not suited to the
study of highly detailed environments. The
platforms for most online virtual worlds do not
support the ability to import or export content,
thereby limiting the scope and functionality
of the exploration to a single platform. The
strength of available online mapping programs
like Google Earth and Microsoft Research Maps
is in their ability to let users interact with rich
geographical content on a global scale, not their
replication of the physical world and first person
navigation. While Google actively encourages
users to create three-dimensional content with
its free modeling package (Sketch Up), there are
extreme limitations to using Google Earth for
the study of the built environment. Navigation
is geared towards bird’s-eye examination of
schematic forms, and the models that can be
loaded in Google Earth are, by necessity, very
low resolution. When the goal is to illustrate the
schematic massing of a city, these limitations
are acceptable, but not when the goal is to
understand the experience of moving through a
detailed world. A secondary problem is that the

2
computer models, by themselves, are essentially
raw data, lacking contextual material, subject
expert commentary, and textual analysis that
could make them engaging and effective tools for
teaching and learning.
The recent explosion of interest in online worlds,
mapping software, and three-dimensional
games is reinforcing both consumer interest in
three-dimensional worlds and the pressing need
for software to interrogate three-dimensional
content created to rigorous academic standards.
While there are many different types of software
and online opportunities for interacting with
three-dimensional computer models, nothing
currently available addresses the unique
requirements of humanities scholars and
students. What is needed is a concerted effort
to move these research projects successfully
from the research lab to mainstream scholarship
and pedagogy across the disciplines.
This
presentation will discuss efforts at UCLA
by Drs. Lisa M. Snyder and Scott
Friedman to leverage existing and new
modeling work for broad pedagogical use
by creating a real-time software interface
and content repository to provide a
mechanism for exploring highly detailed
three-dimensional models in educational
settings.
The first phase of the project, currently
underway, is the creation of generalized
and extensible run-time software that
will allow real-time exploration of highly
detailed, three-dimensional computer models
in both formal and informal educational
settings.
This run-time software will
address the greatest challenge for
building knowledge through use of
three-dimensional computer models by
providing scholars and educators the
mechanism to explore, annotate, craft
narratives, and build arguments within
the three-dimensional space
– in essence,
facilitating the creation of virtual learning
environments that can be broadly disseminated
to educators and learners across grade levels
and humanities disciplines. This software will
also allow the raw computer models to be
used as the basis for constructivist learning
activities, so that students can actively engage
with the content to build knowledge by creating
a personalized virtual learning environment.
This effort will provide an innovative way for
scholars, students, and the general public alike
to interrogate academically generated three-
dimensional content. Scholars will be able to
expand their own knowledge through interactive
exploration of the modeled environment, and,
using the proposed authoring tools, develop
their own arguments and class presentations
within the virtual space. By capitalizing on
student interest in three-dimensional content
as evidenced by the popularity of online worlds
and mapping programs, this new software will
expose students to academically vetted content,
encourage them to develop critical thinking
skills about the historic reconstruction process,
and provide an alternative to the traditional
classroom methods for examining the built
environment. Lifelong learners will also be able
to access the content and build their own
knowledge about past cultures. The availability
of the proposed software will also create
opportunities to leverage existing modeling
projects by providing a mechanism for sharing
content, and encourage new work that can take
advantage of the new run-time software.
The educational promise of digital computer
environments has yet to be realized, largely
because past efforts have focused on the short-
term constructivist benefits of the process for
the academic development team. As a result, a
great deal of content has been developed but
is unavailable for general use. The proposed
repository and administrative front end that
constitutes the second phase of the project
will facilitate submission of this scholar-created
content,
4
allow the aggregation of multi-media
support material, and provide incentives for
contributors to share their data. In addition
to providing them access to the open source
software, this administrative front end would
ensure that content contributors are given
proper credit for their work, and provide them a
mechanism to control how they distribute their
content and charge for their work.
5
1. Background
UCLA has a long history with three-dimensional
computer modeling and on the development
of real-time software for exploration of virtual
environments. Given this long history, work
on various fronts has been building to the
development of this run-time software and

3
content repository since 1996. The idea for
an educational repository for real-time content
was promoted in Snyder’s 2003 dissertation
and was based on discussions with Dr.
Scott Friedman (UCLA Academic Technologies
Services) in the preceding years. Work on
computer reconstructions of historic urban
environments has been conducted through the
Urban Simulation Team at UCLA since 1996 and
through the Experiential Technologies Center
(the successor lab to the CVRLab) since 1997.
6
2. The authors
Dr. Lisa M. Snyder has been a member of
the Urban Simulation Team since 1996. She
is also the associate director for outreach
and operations for the UCLA Experiential
Technologies Center which operates under
UCLA’s Academic Technology Services and the
Institute for Digital Research and Education.
Her research is focused on the educational use
of interactive computer environments. Through
the UST, she developed the real-time simulation
models of the Herodian and Umayyad Temple
Mount site now installed at the Davidson Center
in Jerusalem (see Figures 8-19) and is currently
working on the computer reconstruction of the
World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893 (see
Figures 1-7).
Dr. Scott Friedman is a computer scientist
with UCLA’s Academic Technology Services
and, since 1994, has been the principal
developer of the Urban Simulation Team’s
software systems. Friedman participated in
the NSF funded Virtual World Data Server
project. His role in that project focused
on integrating an Urban Simulator client
into that system to support multiple users
and very large data sets. He specializes
in multimedia systems, interfaces for three-
dimensional environments, and distributed
computing. His 2003 dissertation focused on
“The Pixelcluster: Real-time visualization using
a cluster of commodity workstations.”
3. Funding
This work is being supported by UCLA’s
Academic Technology Services/Institute for
Digital Research and Education and the
National Endowment for the Humanities.

4
Figures 1-5. Screen snapshots taken from the real-time
visual simulation model of the Herodian Temple Mount
developed jointly by the Urban Simulation Team at UCLA
and the Israel Antiquities Authority. From top to bottom:
the Temple Mount; the north/south Roman road and
Robinson’s Arch; on the platform; in the Royal Stoa; a
view of the Second Temple from within the Royal Stoa.
References
The Experiential Technologies Center
(2005-2010).
The Experiential Technologies
Center, University of California, Los Angeles.
http://www.etc.ucla.edu/
(accessed 12 March
2010).
Friedman, S.
(2004). The Pixelcluster: Real-
time visualization using a cluster of commodity
workstations. Dissertation University of
California, Los Angeles.
Koller, D., Frischer, B., Humphreys, G.
(2009). 'Research challenges for digital archives
of 3D cultural heritage models'.
Journal of
Computing and Cultural Heritage.
2(3):
article 7
.
http://portal.acm.org/citation.
cfm?id=1658346.1658347
(accessed 12 March
2010: via ACM Portal, UCLA).
Snyder, L.
(2003). The design and
use of experiential instructional technology
for the teaching of architectural history
in American undergraduate architecture
programs. University of California, Los Angeles,
Dissertation.
The Urban Simulation Team at UCLA
(1997-2010).
The Urban Simulation Team,
University of California, Los Angeles.
http://w
ww.ust.ucla.edu/ustweb/ust.html
(accessed 12
March 2010).
Notes
1.
Pre-visualization modeling and rendering is now commonplace
at both the professional level and in architecture schools.
2.
Computer modeling has been embraced by the Computer
Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology (CAA)
community, with a broad range of projects that showcase
computer modeling.
3.
Research questions within the modeling environment might
include viewshed analysis, reconstruction alternatives, and
placement of statuary.
4.
This type of content repository has precedent in the ‘Great
Buildings’ series created in the mid-1990s. It was also a central
element of Snyder’s doctoral dissertation, and the proposal of
Koller et al. to archive computer models of cultural heritage
sites.
5.
This is an important feature in that it would allow content
providers the opportunity to generate a revenue stream to
support ongoing development and help to make large-scale
modeling projects self-sustaining.
6.
Models constructed through the UCLA Experiential
Technologies Center include the NEH-funded model of
Karnak, John Dagenais’ reconstruction model of the
Romanesque Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Diane
Favro’s work on ancient Rome, new student work underway
in Egypt under the direction of Willeke Wendrich (including
models of Fayuum and Saqqara). Work through the Urban
Simulation Team includes the Snyder’s model of the World’s
Columbian Exposition of 1893 and reconstructions of the
Temple Mount in Jerusalem in both the first and eighth
centuries.","txt","2","",""
"1210","11","Digital Forensics, Textual Criticism, and the Born Digital Musical","2","
1
Digital Forensics, Textual
Criticism, and the Born
Digital Musical
Doug Reside
dougreside@gmail.com
Maryland Institute for Technology in the
Humanities, University of Maryland, USA
When Jonathan Larson, author of the hit
Broadway musical
RENT
, died in 1996 just
before his work opened off-Broadway, he left
behind about 180 floppy disks containing,
among other things, drafts of the musical
composed over a period of about six years. These
disks, which were donated to the Library of
Congress and are now held there, represent one
of the earliest examples of a ""hybrid archive"" - a
collection of both paper and inextricably digital
artifacts. Along with a series of timestamped
Microsoft Word 5.1 documents, the disks also
preserve early and transitional versions of the
music in MIDI and MOTU Performer format
that could not easily be transferred to a
more traditional medium without significant
loss. In this poster I show some of what I
found on these disks, what it reveals about
the creative processes that shaped
RENT
, and,
more generally, how the lessons learned in my
experience might be applied by others working
with hybrid archives.
The earliest file on the Library of Congress
disks relating to
RENT
is a version of the
music for the title song timestamped 1:37 p.m.
on December 21, 1989 and created with the
musical editing program Performer (now called
Digital Performer). Accessing this file was not
an easy matter. I had planned to create an
image of the disks using the ""dd"" disk imaging
command built into most versions of Linux, but,
unfortunately, the disks were formatted in the
800K HFS disk format and could not be natively
read by a ""modern"" floppy drive. I therefore used
a live CD install of Ubuntu 5.02 running on a
Powerbook G3 to create the image. Of course, if
I had not had access to this Powerbook, things
would have been slightly more complicated. I
could, perhaps, have brought a desktop with a
third party floppy controller card (such as the
Catweasel PCI card manufactured by Individual
Computers), but getting such a bulky machine to
the Library of Congress and through the airport
level security would have been difficult. The
Powerbook was an indispensible tool and well
worth an eBay purchase for those doing similar
work. Once the disk image was created I made
a second working copy, mounted it on Mac OS
X (the current version of the operating system
still supports disk images in legacy formats) and
used a modern version of Digital Performer to
open the file.
Note, however, that this digital file is not
the earliest draft of
RENT
in the Library of
Congress collection. There is a paper copy of the
script that was probably written in mid-1989 by
Larson's collaborator Billy Aronson. The draft
is an 11 page, typescript that appears to have
been produced on Aronson's letter-quality NEC
printer. The draft is labeled ""pre-lyric"" and, true
to this label, contains no songs but does include
some relatively lyrical language (especially by
Mimi who has lines like: ""I embroider sunsets
onto pillowcases. Well, now you know...""). The
second draft in the collection, again paper
and probably produced by the same typewriter
used to produce the pre-lyric draft is labeled
""Boheme"" and dated 9/22/89. It assigns sole
responsibility for the book and lyrics to Billy
Aronson and the music to Larson and was, again,
likely typed by Aronson. Most of the songs in this
draft did not make it to the final version of the
show, however the draft does contain versions of
the songs ""Rent"" and ""I Should Tell You"" and, in
more or less the form it is now known, ""Santa
Fe"" (indeed, the program notes for
RENT
always
credit Aronson for his work on these songs).
Although the broad details of the narrative that
begins to emerge from this archive are well
known (Billy Aronson and Jonathan Larson
decided to collaborate on the musical, Larson
initially only as composer, and together wrote
three songs before going their separate ways),
the digital and paper artifacts together fill out
the story with precise and fascinating detail. For
instance, although Larson probably received a
script from Aronson by September (based on
the date on the first script in the collection)
and by November at latest (interleaved into the
second draft is a letter from Aronson to Larson
dated 12/1 which Aronson begins with the words
""Here's the new last chorus for SANTA FE that

2
you asked for""), Larson did not commit any
work on the show to disk until December 21.
The letter from Aronson indicates that Larson
was probably working on the show before then,
but likely recording his work, if at all, to analog
media (perhaps, as he certainly did in other
cases, to a cassette tape). However, in order to
transcribe the music to digital format Larson
required technology he did not have at home.
Another Word Document on the disks dated
1/31/90 and named ""STUDIO COSTS"" appears
to have been a kind of invoice to Aronson. It lists
three studio visits, one for 6 hours on December
21 to create ""Music Trax for SANTA FE &
RENT,"" one for 4.5 hours on January 16 to create
""Music Trax for I SHOULD TELL YOU"" and one
for 7.5 hours on January 30 to ""Record Vocals
for ALL SONGS"" and to create ""Mix Trax for ALL
SONGS."" That Larson sought out a digital studio
so early in the creative process (and was willing
to pay about $300 per session at a time when
his primary source of income was part-time
work at a diner) suggests how important Larson
saw digital technology for his creative process.
To truly understand
RENT
, then, the scholar
must understand the digital technologies and
processes used to create it. The textual critic
of
RENT
and other born digital musicals must
therefore be skilled in recovering, reading, and
analyzing digital artifacts - the processes I hope
to demonstrate in this introduction to my work
with
RENT
.","txt","2","",""
"1211","11","Digitizing Ephemera and Parsing an 1862 European Itinerary","2","
1
Digitizing Ephemera and
Parsing an 1862 European
Itinerary
Tomasek, Kathryn
ktomasek@wheatonma.edu
Wheaton College, Norton, Massachusetts
Stickney, Zephorene L.
zstickne@wheatonma.edu
Wheaton College, Norton, Massachusetts
This interactive digital poster demonstrates the
advantages of digital publication over print for a
particular kind of socio-historical project. It uses
as an example three incomplete sets of sources:
a travel journal, herbaria, and ephemera from
an 1862 tour of England and Europe that was
undertaken by Wheaton College founder Eliza
Baylies Wheaton, her husband Laban Morey
Wheaton, and his cousin David Emory Holman.
Linking TEI-compliant XML text with images
of these sources, our poster/demo offers an
approximation of the experiences that led to the
collection of the items. Our interactive digital
poster also includes links with historical maps
of England, Wales, France, Italy, Switzerland,
the Rhine Valley, and Belgium. Clicking on
a location brings up relevant sections of the
interpretive historical essay as well as images
of relevant pages of the travel journal, herbaria,
and ephemera. An interactive timeline offers an
alternate method of accessing the data.
During the 1862 journey, Eliza Baylies Wheaton
kept receipts for her housekeeping transactions
in London, and she compiled a travel journal
and herbaria, thus leaving for the historian
multiple genres of accounts of her interests
and experiences — financial, descriptive, and
botanical. The resulting narratives convey the
texture of daily life for a nineteenth-century
traveler and reflect the wide-ranging interests
of a woman who cherished her husband
and friends, loved art and gardens, practiced
devout Christianity, painstakingly recorded the
engineering details of the new tunnel under the
Thames that connected London to Greenwich,
and pursued every opportunity to visit sites
associated with Napoleon Bonaparte. Such
narratives are conveyed less than optimally in
traditional print publications, at least partly
because cost considerations would prohibit
inclusion of full-color plates for presenting
such an obscure collection. These texts and
collections have been digitized as part of the
Wheaton College Digital History Project.
Digital presentation allows interactive viewing
of the document images that we suggest might
approximate the series of experiences that led
to collection of the ephemera and specimens
for the herbaria alongside the recording of the
travel journal. Further, including links to images
of the primary sources introduces a kind of
transparency that is missing from traditional
print methods for presenting results of historical
research. Digital presentation enhances the
historian’s ability to recreate a past that
all too often remains obscure — a set of
events from daily life that includes not only
the experiences of well-to-do tourists who
created and collected the items in archival
collections but also the boardinghouse keepers,
laundresses, and shopkeepers with whom they
interacted. Digitally presented history can be
social history at its best.
1. Financial Records
Beyond its local interest for friends and
alumni of Wheaton College, the project has
larger historical value in its attention to the
1862 journey in the context of changing
economic conditions in Great Britain, Europe,
and the United States in the mid-nineteenth
century. The group of travelers who created
the archive presented in this poster/demo
combined business with tourism while in
London, as the two men shared interest in the
production of straw hats. Holman took with him
on the journey a prototype that demonstrated
his innovation for machines used to shape the
crowns of hats, and he established residency in
London to begin the process of registering a
patent for his machine. A patent drawing has
been found at the British Library. While Holman
continued to board in London, Eliza Baylies
Wheaton and her husband toured in the south
and west of England and in the south of Wales,
and they traveled in Europe for two and a half
weeks in July 1862.
The journey also represented a transitional
moment in the economic experiences of a well-

2
to-do white woman from the United States. The
poster/demo thus builds on and contributes to
the growing historical literature about Anglo-
American women and their economic lives in
North America in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries. Like many articles and monographs,
this portion of the project focuses on the records
left by an individual, digging down into the
archival record to explore the financial details of
a moment in one woman’s life and explicate their
larger historical significance.
The ephemera that the Wheatons collected
included such seemingly mundane materials as
laundry lists, boarding accounts, and receipts
from restaurants and hotels. Such materials
resemble the household accounts that Eliza
B. Wheaton was accustomed to keeping at
home, and they demonstrate her continued
responsibility for economic interactions with
women workers while she and her husband
and their traveling companion were away
from home. Examining her household accounts
alongside the social narrative she created in the
travel journal demonstrates parallels between
the pleasant tasks of sociability and the more
quotidian concerns of housekeeping, whether
Wheaton was at home or away. The herbaria add
still another dimension, augmenting comments
in the travel journal on such engineering feats
as the Thames tunnel with botanical specimens
identified according to the historical or cultural
sites where they were collected to offer a view of
the traveler as scientific collector, of both facts
and specimens.
Since Eliza B. Wheaton was widowed three
years after she and her husband returned to
their home in Massachusetts, the financial
records from the European journey document a
significant moment in her economic life. They
supplement a large number of cashbooks and
other financial documents that she accumulated
over the next forty years. Collected during
a transitional period after she had begun to
learn the details of her husband’s business
affairs, the 1862 receipts suggest the kinds
of financial responsibilities to which Wheaton
was accustomed during her marriage and the
preparation that keeping household accounts
gave her for handling her investments and
managing her wealth after her husband’s death.
The travel journal and herbaria combine with
other ephemera to document the interests that
she shared with her beloved husband and the
pleasures of their European adventure. The
richness of this documentary collection and its
multiple genres make digital publication the
most appropriate method of dissemination.
2. Itineraries
In our exploration of the documents and
ephemera that survive from the 1862 journey,
we spent considerable time focused on our
travelers’ itineraries and how we know them,
paying special attention to what the materials in
the collection do and do not tell us. Eliza Baylies
Wheaton’s travel journal is incomplete and is
only one of many items in the collection that
document the Wheatons’ European summer.
We have used the collection’s ephemera — which
include trade cards, lists, and notes, in addition
to the receipts, herbaria, and boarding accounts
— to fill in gaps in the account of the journeys
contained in the travel journal. Our poster/
demo includes images of these documents and
their XML coded transcriptions.
The travel journal stopped after a description
of a journey to Windsor on May 29, 1862,
and then picked up again in mid-July when
the Wheatons crossed the English Channel to
the Continent. Eliza Baylies Wheaton’s herbaria
show us that during June, she and her husband
traveled around southern England with London
as their base. The herbaria have posed particular
challenges for scanning, transcription, coding,
and interpretation. Although none of the pages
are dated, they reveal the couple’s itineraries
outside London and act as a nineteenth-century
version of a photo album. The herbaria also raise
questions about the sites the Wheatons actually
visited; Italy was a particular puzzle.
The Wheaton Family Papers includes a copy of
Samuel Rogers’s
Italy: A Poem
, an example of
popular culture in the United States connected
to European tourism in the mid-nineteenth
century. The book’s presence in the collection
suggests that Eliza Baylies Wheaton understood
the importance of Italy as the focus of European
tourism since the beginnings of the Grand
Tour. Yet other than the herbaria, there are
no documents from the journey to suggest
our travelers’ presence in Italy. Whilst the
herbaria once led us to believe that the
Wheatons visited Florence, Rome and Pompeii,

3
our parsing of their itinerary through surviving
hotel receipts precluded the possibility of their
having had time to visit Italy during this
trip. Perhaps most significantly as we sought
to understand our travelers’ motivations and
actions, we considered the political instability
of Italy in 1862, noting that Garibaldi’s army
marched on Rome in July and August. Herbaria
pages regarding Rome include pasted-in images,
apparently cut from a set of small photographs,
probably because the Wheatons did not actually
see these sites.
Our reading of the laundry lists and boarding
house receipts combines with our parsing of
the European itinerary to tell particular stories
about the Wheatons’ travels in England and
Europe in the spring and summer of 1862. Our
being able to display images and transcriptions
of the primary documents alongside our
interpretations gives audiences the opportunity
to weigh our analysis and comment upon it in
ways that are quite foreign to the usual methods
of presenting historical analysis.
References
Bendixen, Alfred, Hamera, Judith (eds.)
(2009).
Cambridge Companion to American
Travel Writing.
New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Boydston, Jeanne
(1990).
Home and Work:
Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor
in the Early Republic.
New York: Oxford
University Press.
Buzard, James
(1993).
The Beaten Track:
European Tourism, Literature, and the Ways to
Culture, 1800-1918.
Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Cohen, Daniel J., Rosenzweig, Roy
(2006).
Digital History: A Guide to Gathering,
Preserving, and Presenting the Past on the Web.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
De la Peña, Carolyn, Vaidhyanathan, Siva
(eds.)
(2006). 'Special Issue: Rewiring the
""Nation"": The Place of Technology in American
Studies'.
American Quarterly.
58/3
: 555-985.
Dublin, Thomas
(1994).
Transforming
Women’s Work: New England Lives in the
Industrial Revolution.
Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
University Press.
Earhart, Amy
. 'Mapping Concord: Google
Maps and the 19th-Century Concord
Digital Archive'.
dhq: digital humanities
quarterly.
http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/
vol/3/3/000057/000057.html
.
Elliott, Tom, and Sean Gillies
. 'Digital
Geography and Classics'.
dhq: digital
humanities quarterly.
http://digitalhumaniti
es.org/dhq/vol/3/1/000031/000031.html
.
Gamber, Wendy
(1997).
The Female
Economy: The Millinery and Dressmaking
Trades, 1860-1930.
Urbana, Illinois: University
of Illinois Press.
Gamber, Wendy
(2007).
The Boardinghouse
in Nineteenth-Century America.
Baltimore: The
Johns Hopkins University Press.
Ginzberg, Lori D.
(1990).
Women and the
Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and
Class in the 19
th
-Century United States.
New
Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.
Hartigan-O’Connor, Ellen
(2005). 'Abigail’s
Accounts: Economy and Affection in the Early
Republic'.
Journal of Women’s History.
17/3
:
35-58.
Helmreich, Paul C.
(2002).
Wheaton College,
1834-1957: A Massachusetts Family Affair.
New York: Cornwall Books.
Jensen, Joan
(1986).
Loosening the Bonds:
Mid-Atlantic Farm Women, 1750-1850.
New
Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.
Kelley, Mary
(2006).
Learning to Stand
and Speak: Women, Education, and Public
Life in America’s Republic.
Chapel Hill, N.C.:
University of North Carolina Press.
Kelly, Catherine
(1999).
In the New England
Fashion: Reshaping Women’s Lives in the
Nineteenth Century.
Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
University Press.
Knowles, Anne Kelly, ed.
(2002).
Past
Time, Past Place: GIS for History.
Redlands,
California: ESRI Press.
Knowles, Anne Kelly, ed.
(2008).
Placing
History: How Maps, Spatial Data, and GIS Are

4
Changing Historical Scholarship.
Redlands,
California: ESRI Press.
Luton Public Museum
(1933).
The Romance
of the Straw Hat, Being a History of the
Industry and a Guide to the Collections.
Luton:
Luton Public Museum.
Matson, Cathy
(2006). 'Women’s Economies
in North America before 1820: Special Forum
Introduction'.
Early American Studies.
4/2
:
271-290.
Millar, Marla R.
(2006).
The Needle’s Eye:
Women and Work in the Age of Revolution.
Amherst, Mass.: University of Massachusetts
Press.
Nash, Margaret
(2005).
Women’s Education
in the United States, 1780-1840.
New York:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Nead, Lynda
(2000).
Victorian Babylon:
People, Streets, and Images in Nineteenth-
Century London.
New Haven, Conn.: Yale
University Press.
Paine, Harriet E.
(1907).
The Life of Eliza
Baylies Wheaton: A Chapter in the History of
the Higher Education of Women.
Cambridge:
Riverside.
Rogers, Samuel
(1842).
Italy: A Poem.
London: Edward Moxon.
Schreibman, Susan, Ray Siemens, and
John Unsworth, eds.
(2004).
Companion to
Digital Humanities.
Oxford: Blackwell.
Schriber, Mary Suzanne
(1997).
Writing
Home: American Women Abroad, 1830-1920.
Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
Stansell, Christine
(1982).
City of Women:
Sex and Class in New York, 1789-1860.
New
York: Knopf.
Thomas, William G., and Edward L.
Ayers
(2003). 'The Differences Slavery
Made: A Close Analysis of Two American
Communities'.
American Historical Review.
108/5
: 1299-1307.
http://www2.vcdh.virginia
.edu/AHR/
.
Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher
(1990).
A Midwife’s
Tale: The Life of Martha Ballard, Based on Her
Diary.
New York: Vintage.
Wulf, Karin
(2000).
Not All Wives: Women
of Colonial Philadelphia.
Ithaca, New York:
Cornell University Press.","txt","2","",""
"1212","11","Dingler-Online - The Digitized ""Polytechnisches Journal"" on Goobi Digitization Suite","2","1
Dingler-Online – The
Digitized ""Polytechnisches
Journal"" on Goobi
Digitization Suite
Hug, Marius
marius.hug@culture.hu-berlin.de
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
Kassung, Christian
CKassung@culture.hu-berlin.de
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
Meyer, Sebastian
sebastian.meyer@slub-dresden.de
SLUB-Dresden
This project located at Humboldt-Universität
zu Berlin sets out to digitize Dingler’s
""Polytechnical Journal"" (""Polytechnisches
Journal""), 1820-1931. Aside from the
digitization of the journal’s images, we encode
the OCRed text according to the Text Encoding
Initiative Guidelines TEI-P5. Our online edition
of Dingler’s journal will be freely available
on a state-of-the-art system called Goobi
Digitization Suite, which is a new production
and presentation solution funded by the DFG
(German Research Foundation).
1. Dingler's Journal
In 1820 the German chemist and industrialist
J. G. Dingler started publishing the
""Polytechnisches Journal"". This journal was to
include a personal but representative selection
of a broad variety of articles. Originally most of
these articles had been published in magazines
all over Europe and, though most of them
originated from the UK, there were also
specimens from France, Italy, and Russia.
The ""Polytechnisches Journal"" was published
over a period of 111 years. Thus, the journal
became an extremely important source for
the history of 19th century knowledge, as it
is an account of period that included the
industrialization, the progress of transport
and communication, and the differentiation
of various technologies. For instance, the
journal covers the discovery of electro-
magnetism by Hans Christian Oersted (1820)
and the theory of relativity by Albert Einstein
(1905/1915). It contains articles on steam
engines and locomotives, as well as bicycles and
automobiles.
Synchronic and diachronic transfer of
knowledge and technique
Articles published in Dingler’s journal give
us an example of the emergence of culture
in a technical context. In the process of
industrialization, new technical achievements
profoundly affected everyday life. It is in the
interplay of science and knowledge that the
journal evolves its epistemic significance. The
""Polytechnisches Journal"" is unique and highly
relevant for very different research fields which
focus on the cultural history as it emerged
from Europe’s technical transformations. It is
significant not only for people engaged in the
history of science but for anyone interested in
the cultural heritage of Europe.
2. Dingler-Online – The encoding
Linking
Since Dingler annotated his editorial work very
thorougly, we find all necessary metadata on
each article contained within the journal. He
even went one step further: Dingler cross-
referenced other source material on issues
inherent to each article. Therefore ""linking"" is
one of the main tasks for enriching the text.
Doing this consistently from the very beginning
of our project we are aiming at a network of
digitized knowledge for that period covering
the whole of Europe. Any digitized magazine
of a somehow technical background of the 19th
century will be interesting to be linked to.
Indexing
As is true for any non-digitally published
magazine, researching the contents of journals is
a time consuming task. Right from the beginning
Dingler knew he would have to give assistance
to those accessing his material, so he compiled
an index once a year. In 1843 the first so-
called ""Real-Index"" was published, a third-hand
work which covered the first 78 volumes of the
journal. All in all there are four of these ""Real-
Indexes"".
Based on these two different kinds of indexes
as well as our index-related TEI-encoding, we
will be able to provide a deeply granulated and

2
dynamically generated index. It will consist of
a register of persons (differentiated according
to their role, i.e. author, translator, originator
etc.), objects, and, among others, those journals,
which were the source of the published articles.
The articles – our key component
Dingler’s journal comes in 360 volumes, each
including 4 to 6 issues. The key components
of our edition are the 50 to 170 articles in
each volume. Even at this very basic level, we
distinguish between two types of articles, since
there are in fact a couple of articles published for
the first time in the ""Polytechnisches Journal""
in addition to the reprinted articles. We extract
all these articles from the volume and provide
access to downloadable PDF-versions as well as
different formats of established bibliographical
meta-data. In the long-run we aim at providing
access to PDFs generated dynamically via XSL-
FO.
Text and images
The editors of the journal strictly adhered to
the medial conditions of their time. In 1820
Dingler started using Gothic typescript for text,
and copper engravings for the imprints. In later
issues (starting in the 1870s) we find Antiqua
letters and floating images integrated within the
text.
Our aim is a re-interpretation of the relationship
between text and images. Dingler completed
each volume with technical drawings and
visualizations on additional plates. Hence, up
to 40 figures on a plate are encoded according
to their specific coordinates using the Image
Markup Tool developed by the University of
Victoria. Via hyperlink we are able to provide
access to a zoomable view of each figure.
This approach has two immediate advantages:
Firstly, it enables parallel reading of text and
image and therefore adopts the original layout,
in which plates were attached to the back of
each volume as foldouts. Secondly, we can
provide a new kind of readability. For economic
reasons the plates were densely packed with
images. Highlighting them per mouseover will
be much more convenient, allowing to inspect
them in more detail and thus enabling a wider
integration of the text and images.
Since right from the beginning Dingler insisted
on very detailed and thus expensive lithographs
rather than wood engravings, we have made it
our task not to veer from the standard set by
Dingler at this point.
3. Dingler-Online II – The
appearance
Not only since we are facing the challenging
task of digitizing Gothic type in more than
220 volumes of the ""Polytechnisches Journal"",
we find ourselves in good company with two
rather impressive German digitization projects:
Grimms ""Deutsches Wörterbuch"" and Krünitz’s
""Oeconomische Encyclopädie"". Both made use
of double-keying and therefore sent their books/
images to Asia where the text digitization took
place. Afterwards so-called TUSTEP-routines
were employed in order to match the two
different text versions.
In the following we will take a closer look at
different aspects, which will take our project
one step further than the aforementioned
approaches.
3.1. Goobi Digitization Suite
With the so called Goobi Digitization Suite
– a software solution funded by the
DFG and developed by the SLUB-Dresden
(Sächsische Landesbibliothek – Staats- und
Universitätsbibliothek) and the SUB-Göttingen
(Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitäts-
bibliothek) – we will be using a completely new
technology on the market.
The Goobi Suite consists of two parts:
Goobi.Production
and
Goobi.Presentation
.
Goobi.Production
is a web-based tool for
managing a digitization workflow using Java
technology. Among other features, it comes
with a very flexible metadata editor, an user-
based permission system, and visually enhanced
statistics.
Since at the beginning of our project the
Goobi Suite wasn’t available yet, we found an
experienced service provider for text digitization
and (semi-)automatic encoding: the Editura
GmbH. Their OCR produces very good results
even for Gothic type, given that the images are
scanned at 600 dpi.
Editura encodes the OCRed text and already
enriches it according to the TEI-P5 guidelines.
This step includes 'tagging' the structure and

3
special attributes of the text to an encoding level
between 3 and 4. Thus the digitization of the text
includes more than a basic structural encoding
and we can concentrate on a more scientific
encoding approach going beyond other projects
comparable in extent.
Apart from XML-files in TEI-encoding and
images encoded using the Image Markup Tool
our service provider delivers elaborate METS-
files which are necessary for a presentation
of the edition in the so called DFG-viewer,
as well as in
Goobi.Presentation
, which we
use as part two of the Goobi Digitization
Suite. This is a full-featured web presentation
layer for digital material and is based on the
TYPO3 CMS Framework, which can hold a
regular website, too. Hence,
Goobi.Presentation
integrates perfectly into any page inside the
CMS.
The whole software suite is considered open
source and freely available to everyone. As can
be seen in our project,
Goobi.Presentation
can
be used independently from
Goobi.Production
.
This modularity of Goobi is ensured by the
consequent usage of the international standards
METS, MODS and TEI.
3.2. Customizing Goobi
The more data there is to present, the
less important any unstructured information
becomes. This is why encoding and a directed
access to data, via searching or browsing,
becomes more and more important.
Goobi.Presentation
makes it possible to
customize the search engine. Naturally one will
be able to search any term anywhere in the
text. In addition, it is possible to limit the
search results referring to different issues. For
instance: if someone is looking for all articles on
patent applications on steam engines published
in the magazine in the 1840s, they will just have
to search for ""steam engine"", then restrict their
search to ""text type"" patent application, and
""time"" 1840s.
4. Conclusion
Dingler-Online is an enriched digitization that is
neither simply image-based nor massproduced.
It is a user-friendly platform which inspires
a broad use not restricted to historians of
technology or, come to that, researchers, but is
open to the interested public in general.
References
Das Deutsche Wörterbuch von Jacob und
Wilhelm Grimm auf CD-ROM und im
Internet.
http://germazope.uni-trier.de/Proj
ects/DWB/
.
Dingler-Online | Das digitalisierte Polytech-
nische Journal.
http://www.polytechnischesjo
urnal.de/
.
Editura GmbH.
http://www.editura.de/
.
Fischer, F.
(2007). 'Dinglers Polytechnisches
Journal bis zum Tode seines Begründers
(1820-1855)'.
Archiv für Geschichte des
Buchwesens.
15
: 1027-1142.
Goobi – DigitalLibraryModules.
http://www.go
obi.org
.
Oeconomische Encyclopädie online.
http://www
.kruenitz1.uni-trier.de/
.","txt","2","",""
"1213","11","Diple, modular methodology and tools for heterogeneous TEI corpora","2","
1
Diple, modular
methodology and tools for
heterogeneous TEI corpora
Glorieux, Frédéric
frederic.glorieux@enc.sorbonne.fr
École nationale des chartes
Canteaut, Olivier
olivier.canteaut@enc.sorbonne.fr
École nationale des chartes
Jolivet, Vincent
vincent.jolivet@enc.sorbonne.fr
École nationale des chartes
The
École nationale des chartes
publishes
a variety of electronic corpora,
1
focused
on historical sources (medieval, but also,
modern and contemporary). A dictionary,
2
a
collection of acts,
3
or a manuscript
4
are very
different types of documents, each requiring
different structures and interfaces. A narrative
manuscript needs a table of contents, a
dictionary, fast access to headwords, and
acts, the ability to sort by dates. Each
editorial project should allow customization, but
efficient development requires that the tools
and corpora are as normalized as possible.
New needs emerge, such as natural language
processing research, requiring large corpora
with normalized metadata sets and word
tagging. For several months we have been
working on a platform to address these needs:
Diple
is a collection of tools to organize
modular production, publication, and searching
of electronic corpora.
1. Modular schemas
The TEI guidelines (500 XML elements,
1500 pages of documentation) allow endless
variations in encoding, even for identical
objects. For example,
italic
in our corpora
has been encoded with different combinations
of <(hi|emph) rend=""(italique|italic|ital.|i|
itlaic|...)"">. After several years of development,
with different encoders, each electronic edition
becomes an independent software, with its own
encoding, mistakes, workarounds, with also
different technologies for publication or fulltext
searching.
Diple
starts with housekeeping. First, for all
our tagged texts, we wrote a precise
document
type definition
(in Relax-NG syntax) in order to
define three main and shared schemas :
-
file metadatas (<teiHeader>)
-
general text (blocks and inlines)
-
structure for a specific type of text (ex: acts
and charters, dictionaries)
The normalization of the corpora is a more
sustainable investment than new software.
These shared schemas are extremely helpful
for normalizing and validating XML instances,
and therefore allow us to take advantage of
earlier TEI editions. Of course, the
Diple
TEI
schema is modular, allowing customization for
each editorial project.
5
An editor can then
focus on the specificities of each edition. Are
named entities sufficiently tagged to generate
automatic indexes? Are the sentences chunked,
the words lemmatized?
Moreover, this work of normalization of our
XML corpora is a small price to pay to factorize
our code, for instance to create a standard
XSLT engine: the screen transformation of a
new corpus conforming to those schemas is
done by this engine, increasing our publication
productivity. In the end, the XSLT of a specific
edition is short, focusing on the very specific
aspects of the corpus (its custom schema)
related to a research project, the main part of the
publication job being done by the
Diple
XSLT
engine. The same logic applied for presentation
CSS.
2. Shared interface components,
documents driven
A publication system usually allows templating
and plugins. A good software architecture
should be conceived in this way, but scholarly
editions don't function like a CMS. Templating
systems are usually designed to effect easy
change of colours, to deliver the same
feature under different designs. In a scholarly
collection, books could share a cover, but follow
very different structures. Rather than constrain
all corpora to a single template, the
Diple
system provides different components, allowing

2
an electronic corpus editor to compose the
interface best suited to his text. Headers or
footers are easy to share, but beyond that,
one project might require a fulltext search box,
another a database query, another a sidebar
table of contents. Design snippets or plugins are
conceived of as portal bricks, easy to compose in
a server page (PHP), and are kept as simple and
light as possible. If a local variable, function or
object could have a general interest, it should be
shared.
3. Text engines for research,
retrieving and concordances
Navigation, tables and indexes, should answer
most of the user's needs; but a search box is also
an important navigation tool.
Diple
ensures a
canonical electronic publication, with persistent
addresses, so that different text engines can
be plugged around the edition. Corpora may
require different approaches. A collection of
items, like a dictionary or cartularies, needs
at first a retrieving engine to get an item
conveniently, by a keyword in full-text, but
also dates, headwords and other metadatas.
There are also texts for which no divisions
are relevant; a concordance report is much
more informative, displaying all occurrences in
context. Different tools offer different views,
documented XML allows us to generate what an
engine likes. We have successfully used MySQL
full-text indexes
6
for navigation interfaces,
PhiloLogic
7
for concordances, Lucene
8
is very
efficient to retrieve items, and we learned to
use IMS Corpus Workbench (CWB)
9
for future
lemmatized corpora. But sometimes we also
simply use mixed scripts (shell, XSLT, SAX...)
to run a specific experiment on a word or a
semantic field.
4. Conclusion
Diple
grows and adapts with each new corpus,
rapidly incorporating other corpora, an idea
worth generalizing. All our code will soon be
released under a free software license. Anyone
can download, read, and try
Diple
. We don’t
claim it will work for all your TEI documents, but
if they conform to the schemas, you will quickly
get nice results on the screen.
References
Bourgain, Pascale, Vieillard, Françoise
(coord.)
(2002).
Conseils pour l'édition des
textes médiévaux.
Fascicule III. Textes
littéraires. Paris: Éd. du CTHS, École des
chartes.
Guyotjeannin, Olivier, Vieillard,
Françoise (coord.)
(2001).
Conseils pour
l'édition des textes médiévaux.
'Conseils
généraux'. Paris: Éd. du CTHS, École des
chartes.
Olivier Guyotjeannin (coord.)
(2001).
Conseils pour l'édition des textes médiévaux.
'Actes et documents d'archives'. Paris: Éd. du
CTHS, École des chartes.
McCandless, Michael, Hatcher, Erik,
Gospodnetić, Otis
(2010).
Lucene in action.
Manning Publications Co., 2e ed..
http://www.m
anning.com/hatcher3/
.
TEI Consortium (ed.)
.
TEI P5:
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and
Interchange.
http://www.tei-c.org/release/d
oc/tei-p5-doc/fr/html/REF-ELEMENTS.html
.
Wooldridge, Russon
(1997).
Les Débuts de
la lexicographie française.
Toronto: EDICTA2e
éd..
http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~wulfric/e
dicta/wooldridge/
.
Notes
1.
http://elec.enc.sorbonne.fr/
2.
http://ducange.enc.sorbonne.fr/
3.
http://elec.enc.sorbonne.fr/cartulaires/
4.
http://elec.enc.sorbonne.fr/sanctoral/
5.
For example,
http://elec.enc.sorbonne.fr/cartula
iresIdF/src/schema.htm
6.
http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.0/en/fullte
xt-search.html
7.
http://philologic.uchicago.edu/
8.
http://lucene.apache.org/java/
9.
http://www.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/projekte/Corp
usWorkbench/","txt","2","",""
"1214","11","Discursive Metadata and Controlled Vocabularies","2","
1
Discursive Metadata and
Controlled Vocabularies
Mylonas, Elli
elli_mylonas@brown.edu
Brown University, USA
Wendts, Heidi
heidi_wendt@brown.edu
Brown University, USA
Bodel, John
john_bodel@brown.edu
Brown University, USA
While formulating an Epidoc compliant
template for the encoding of ancient
inscriptions, it became apparent that it
was necessary to accommodate discursive
information about various characteristics of
an inscription as metadata in the header
of a document, and to specify the same
characteristics using a controlled vocabulary,
to facilitate searching, sorting and indexing.
The msDesc features of the TEI guidelines do
not actually allow this type of encoding to
occur in several crucial places. However, it is
possible to achieve both goals by repurposing,
and perhaps straining the usage of some TEI
features. We will describe the problem and our
solution in more detail, in order to document
one project’s solution to a common problem, but
also to suggest that the TEI Guidelines might be
modified to allow this as a more normal use.
Epidoc, a TEI P5 schema that has been
developed for epigraphical and papyrological
materials is widely used for encoding classical
and other western inscriptions. Historically,
there have been two parallel and converging
ways to encode this type of documentary
evidence. The first treats the transcription of
the text together with descriptive information
about the support, context, decoration and
history as content, the way it might be if it
were published in a book, and enclosing it
all within the <text> element. In this type of
encoding the TEI header information is brief,
serving to document the source publication,
and not the inscription. The primary example
of this type of encoding is InsAph, which
originated as the digital version of a print
volume, and represented the publication of
record for its inscriptions. The second approach
treats the text of an inscription as content,
and places contextual information such as the
description of the surface the inscription was
written on, its date, format and origin as
structured metadata in the TEI header. US
Epigraphy, which originated as an aggregation
of inscriptions, most of which had already been
published, is an example of this approach.
These approaches have different advantages:
the first results in a more readable and more
nuanced description of the inscription. The
second, in which the placement of information
is more predictable and controlled, allows better
processing, searching and indexing.
The US Epigraphy project records Graeco-
Roman inscriptions that are known to be in
United States collections so that they may be
located and studied or used in teaching. As
such, the metadata that allows the inscription
to be searched and sorted by its characteristics
is of paramount importance. The project is
developing its corpus using an iterative process,
by which inscriptions are first recorded as an
ID number with bibliographic citations, then
metadata and images are added. Transcription
and more detailed descriptions, a necessarily
slower process requiring more epigraphical
expertise, are added as a third step. This
progression ensures that the corpus is as
complete as possible, and that information is
added in a sequence that provides as much
information as possible about as large a number
of inscriptions as possible.
US Epigraphy, following the TEI P5 version
of the Epidoc schema and encoding practices,
relies heavily on the TEI header and uses the
<msDesc> component of the header to record
metadata about an inscription.
In <msDesc> there are elements to indicate
the genre to which the inscription text
belongs (<msItem class=”xx”>), the type of
support on which it is inscribed (<objectDesc
form=”xx”>) and the material of which it is
made (<supportDesc material=”xx”>). These
three elements are used to indicate parallel types
of information, but unfortunately, they don’t
exhibit parallel behaviors.
<msItem> has an attribute to indicate text
genre and it can accommodate more discursive

2
detail in a child <p>. The attribute, @class,
is a specialized attribute of type “data.code”
that allows the msItem to point to a controlled
vocabulary of text genres. This is handled
through a complex mechanism as follows: the
text genres are listed using a <taxonomy>
element in <profileDesc>. <textClass>, also part
of <profileDesc> then points to a genre in the
taxonomy, and msItem/@class in turn, points to
<textClass>. This is complicated, but it allows a
controlled, and less precise value to co-exist with
a more nuanced but less processable description
of the text genre. Also, crucially, it maintains the
controlled list of genres in the document, and
not in the schema.
Conversely, <objectDesc> and <supportDesc>
have specialized attributes @form and
@material whose values belong to the class
“data.enumerated,” forcing their values to be
maintained in the schema. This is undesirable,
as it means that an encoder, or a content
specialist would have to modify the schema
in order to change a controlled vocabulary.
Changing the values in an enumerated attribute
also means that it will no longer be possible
to validate different epigraphical projects with
the same schema, even though their document
structures are fundamentally the same.
The ideal solution is to be able to maintain
taxonomies within the document, and refer
to values within them using an attribute
such as @ana, whose value belongs to
class “data.pointer.” <taxonomy> provides
a powerful and appropriate classification
structure, but in the guidelines it is defined
as containing only information on text genres,
and forming part of the <msItem><textClass>
construct. @ana can point to interpretive
elements such as <interp> and <fs>, but not
<category>, which is the constituent part of
<taxonomy>.
Currently, it is possible to create several
taxonomies, and to access them using the
xi.include mechanism, so that all files and
all encoders are using the same controlled
vocabularies at all times, and updates are
immediate. It is also possible to point to
elements in the taxonomies from <objectDesc>
and <supportDesc> using an @ana attribute,
since @ana is globally available, and points to
a valid URI. However, although this validates,
it isn’t semantically correct according to the
TEI guidelines. A more satisfying solution is
to redefine specialized attributes like @support
and @material to behave like @ana, and be able
to point to controlled vocabularies such a those
contained within <taxonomy>.
It is important, when encoding highly structured
but also potentially idiosyncratic materials,
like inscriptions or papyri, to be able to
use both controlled and full-text descriptions.
This should be enabled by the markup, but
should also be encouraged as good encoding
practice. It is also expedient and easier to avoid
errors for encoders and programmers to have
parallel structures describing similar types of
information.
As corpora like US Epigraphy, InsAph, DDDP
and similar collections become more concerned
with how they will be mined and processed,
and are no longer content with creating digital
facsimiles to facilitate access, this type of
information management is becoming more
important. This poster has focused on a few
elements and their accompanying attributes.
They are not the only places where this problem
arises, however. The solution that is presented
here is by no means an ideal one. Indeed, it
is only permissible insofar as it results in valid
TEI documents. There are several other possible
approaches. The best solution will be one that
results in a set of best practices that can be re-
used in other, similar situations.
References
Epidoc.
http://epidoc.sourceforge.net/
(accessed 11/2/2009).
InsAph.
http://www.insaph.kcl.ac.uk/index.h
tml
(accessed 11/2/2009).
TEI Guidelines.
http://www.tei-c.org/release
/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/index-toc.html
(accessed 11/2/2009).
(11/2/2009).
US Epigraphy.
http://usepigrap
hy.brown.edu
.","txt","2","",""
"1215","11","Distant Reading and Mapping Genre Space via Conjecture-based Distance Measures","2","
1
Distant Reading and
Mapping Genre Space via
Conjecture-based Distance
Measures
Juola, Patrick
juola@mathcs.duq.edu
Duquesne University
One of the key problems facing digital
humanities today is the increasing number
and size of digital repositories and the relative
lack of tools for studying them. A collection
of a million books (Crane, 2006) is no more
useful than a collection of ten thousand if
you can't read more than a hundred of them
in a realistic timeframe. Scholars like Moretti
(2005) have proposed a new analysis method,
termed ""distant reading,"" to enable computer-
aided large-scale analysis of such collections.
In previous work (Juola and Bernola, 2009),
we have proposed using a conjecture generator
(Conjecturator, see also
http://www.twitter.c
om/conjecturator
) as another computer-aided
analysis method.
Underlying the Conjecturator is the idea that the
the computer can be deployed to autonomously
generate ""facts"" about a given text repository.
Like its predecessor and inspiration
Graffiti
(Fajtlowicz, 1988), the conjecturator generates
template-based ""conjectures"" that might or
might not be true about the repository and
the texts in it. A sample conjecture might be
something like:
-
The concept of ""archivist"" appears more in
mid-Victorian novels than in psychological
realism novels or, more obviously,
-
The concept of ""femininity"" appears more in
feminist novels than in novels with gothic
elements.
(Who would have thought, eh?)
As discussed in (Juola and Bernola, 2009), these
simple conjectures can be easily and quickly
tested to refute or confirm their validity. This
enables the computer to quickly generate a pile
of isolated ""facts"" about the text repository,
but does not provide a useful framework for
interpretation, explanation, or understanding
(which still requires human expertise).
However, this ""pile of facts"" can provide useful
source material for distant reading. In this
paper, we demonstrate one way to extend
this conjecture-based analysis to a large-scale
""distant reading"" and visualization of genre
differences. Repeated generation of conjectures
will create a large catalogue of potential
differences between any particular category
pair, some true/supported, and some false. The
number of ""true"" differences, or alternatively,
the percentage of true differences, can be viewed
as a distance between the categories, a distance
measuring the degree of difference between
the concepts commonly written about in those
genres. If, for instance, ""epistolary novels"" differ
in 26 significant ways from ""tragic novels"", but
only in one significant way from ""fiction of
manners,"" we can consider ""epistolary novels"" to
be a closer genre in terms of expressed concepts
to ""fiction of manners"" than to ""tragic novels.""
This high-order analysis gives us a large-scale
conceptual grouping of genre categories.
To aid in the study of such differences, we
compile the differences into a matrix and
apply multidimensional scaling (MDS) (Cox
and Cox, 2001). This statistical technique
takes a high-dimensional data set defined by
interpoint distances and embeds/rescales it to
fit a smaller number of dimensions (in this
case, two) while minimizing distortion. The
resulting two-dimensional coordinates can be
plotted to give a visual ""map"" of the space of
genres. We demonstrate this technique using
an enlarged set of 136 novels representing 36
genres (including time period and authorial
attributes as ""genres"") and approximately
10,000 validated conjectures (culled from
approximately 85,000 conjectures in total).
The resulting images clearly indicate that
this method is a new and viable way of
performing large-scale distant reading. As can
be seen in Figure 1, the resulting ""map""
passes many obvious tests for rationality; for
for example, mid-Victorian novels represent
an intermediate stage between early and late
Victorian novels; similarly, ""male authored
novels"" in general are an intermediate between
""American male authored novels"" and ""English
male authored novels,"" reflected exactly what
intuition suggests. We leave it to genre

2
specialists to examine the map in detail and to
see whether actual genres equally reflect our
intuitions. It is easy and relatively efficient to
apply and almost entirely document-agnostic; it
can be applied as easily to journal articles (and
map the space of scholarship) or to newspaper
corpora (perhaps mapping the space of editorial
policies and politics) as to novel genres.
Figure 1
References
Cox, T.F., Cox, M.A.A.
(2001).
Multidimensional Scaling.
Chapman and Hall.
Crane, Gregory
(2006). 'What Do You Do
With a Million Books?'.
D-Lib Magazine.
12(3)
.
Fajtlowicz, Siemion
(1988). 'On conjectures
of Graffiti'.
Discrete Mathematics.
72
.
Juola, Patrick
(2009). 'Mapping Genre
Space via Random Conjectures'.
Presented at
DHCS-2009, IIT.
Chicago, IL.
Juola, Patrick, Bernola, Ashley
(2009).
'Conjecture Generation in the Digital
Humanities'.
Proc. DH-2009.
2009.
Moretti, Franco
(2005).
Graphs, Maps,
Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History.
Verso.","txt","2","",""
"1216","11","Evidence of Intertextuality: Investigating Paul the Deacon's  Angustae Vitae","2","1
Evidence of Intertextuality:
Investigating Paul the
Deacon’s
Angustae Vitae
Forstall, C. W.
forstall@buffalo.edu
Department of Classics, State University of
New York at Buffalo
Jacobson, S.L.
slj25@buffalo.edu
Department of Classics, State University of
New York at Buffalo
Scheirer, W. J
wjs3@vast.uccs.edu
Department of Computer Science, University of
Colorado at Colorado Springs
The study of intertextuality, the shaping of
a text’s meaning by other texts, remains a
laborious process for the literary critic. Kristeva
(Kristeva, 1986) suggests that ""Any text is
constructed as a mosaic of quotations; any
text is the absorption and transformation of
another.& The nature of these mosaics is widely
varied, from direct quotations representing
a simple and overt intertextuality, to more
complex transformations that are intentionally
or subconsciously absorbed into a text. The
burden placed upon the literary critic to verify
suspected instances of intertextuality is great.
The critic must reference a large corpus of
possible contributing works, and thus must
often be familiar with more texts than was the
author whom they are studying. Since, in many
cases, the problem is one of pattern recognition,
it is a good candidate for automated assistance
by computers.
In this work, currently in progress, we
propose the use of machine learning and
related statistical methods to improve the
process by which intertextuality is studied.
Specifically, we are working with instances
where an author has knowledge of particular
texts, and reflects this in discrete passages
within their own work. These intertexts may
comprise fragmentary quotations, paraphrases,
or even stylistic similarity. A passage may
be reminiscent of a particular author, or of
a particular literary group. We have defined
three different classes of style markers to
verify intertexts: phonetic, metric, and dictional.
To evaluate the proposed style markers and
classification methods, we have chosen an
intriguing case study: Paul the Deacon’s 8th
century poem
Angustae Vitae
(Paul the Deacon,
1881), which we suggest has a strong connection
to first-century Neoteric poetry.
Our earlier work in authorship and stylistic
analysis (Forstall and Scheirer, 2009) has
considered the importance of phonetic style
markers, with the observation that sound
plays a fundamental role in an author’s
style, particularly for poets. To capture sound
information, we have developed a feature that
we call a
functional n-gram
, whereby the
power of the Zipfian distribution is realized by
selecting the n-grams that occur most frequently
as features, while preserving their relative
probabilities as the actual feature element. By
using more primitive, sound-oriented features,
namely, character- and phoneme-level n-grams,
we are able to build accurate classifiers with
the functional n-gram approach. We have used
two different classification algorithms with
functional n-grams, yielding very promising
results. The first method, a traditional SVM
learning approach based on the work of
Diederich et al. (Diederich et al., 2003),
distinguished authors of Latin poetry with
98.75% accuracy. The second method, a PCA
clustering approach (Holmes et al., 2001),
showed distinct stylistic separation between the
Homeric poems. In light of our previous work,
we know that phonetics is an important tool
for verifying intertexts, for the same reason it
was important for poetics — repetitive sound
distinguishes style.
Following this idea of repetitive sound further,
we use meter as an additional style marker.
For strict meters, it is straightforward to
identify their type by analyzing the weights
of the syllables in a line. In practice, the
nuance of particular poets, or groups of poets,
creates unique variations in meter, giving us
a discriminating feature. By including meter
as another dimension in the feature vector of
the SVM learning for the functional n-grams
described above, we enhance the discriminatory
power of the resulting classifiers. It remains
an open question in our work whether meter

2
alone is powerful enough to achieve the same
classification results for individual authors as
the functional n-gram. Its utility for group
classification is more apparent.
Pulling back from sound, we have also developed
a style analysis for diction that is somewhat
the opposite of the functional n-gram approach.
Considering the Zipfian distribution once again,
we turn to elements that occur with lower
probabilities. The power of functional n-grams
relies on the amount of information carried
by the elements at the left side of the Zipfian
distribution (assuming the
x
axis is organized
from most frequent to least frequent). For
this new style marker, we desire something
that is the opposite of functional—features that
occur infrequently, but not necessarily
hapax
legomena
.
Thus, we fix a desired probability range for
words that occur infrequently, and look for n-
gram sequences composed of only those words
in a particular passage, ignoring all others:
(P
low
< Pr(word
1
) < P
high
) ... (P
low
< Pr(word
2
) <
P
high
) ... (P
low
< Pr(word
n
) < P
high
) (1)
where n ≥ 3. The probability of the resulting n-
gram is compared to pre-computed probabilities
of the same n-gram (should it exist) for specific
authors, or literary groups. This type of style
marker is very well suited to our case study,
where certain word sequences are common to
a particular group (the Latin Neoterics), but
uncommon or non-existent in the work of other
groups.
With our style markers in hand, we turn to our
case study. In
Angustae Vitae
, Paul the Deacon
opposes poetic inspiration and production in
the classical world with the writing of poetry
in the Christian monastic context. Although
he posits the classical and monastic worlds
as opposites, the use of Catullan diction and
models of poetic exchange recalls the paradigm
of the Neoteric, proto-elegiac lover, his beloved,
and his poetological concerns. This model is
recontextualized to reflect monastic love and
poetic exchange. The source of inspiration
remains the same — love — but there is a new
beloved and a new Muse. While he avoids saying
he directly imitates his classical predecessors,
Paul the Deacon’s poetry is peppered with
classical intertexts. Not all of these intertexts are
purposeful allusions. However, it is clear that he
was at least well-versed in the poetry of Horace,
Virgil, and Ovid. Thus, it becomes our task to
verify the portions of the poem believed to be
inspired by Catullus.
Further study of the Catullan manuscript
tradition and Paul the Deacon’s life would be
necessary to prove his knowledge of Catullus
conclusively. This work will proceed from the
a priori
conclusion that Paul the Deacon had
read Catullus. This conclusion is based on the
abundance of intertexts and the crucial role
they play in coloring Paul the Deacon’s poetry.
We can gain a sense of these intertexts we are
examining by looking at a particular instance.
As the poem opens, the Muses, who have
found the cloistered life not of their liking,
have abandoned the narrator. More precisely,
the Muses are fleeing the fellowship of the
cloistered life,
angustae vitae fugiunt consortia
Musae
. Thus, there is an opposition: the
consortia angustae vitae versus the Musae
— the fellowship of monastic life versus the
classical relationship of the poet and Muses.
This opposition continues in lines 2 — 3. The
Muses do not wish to live in the fenced-in
gardens of monasteries, but rather they desire
to play in rosy meadows,
claustrorum septis nec
habitare volunt, / per rosulenta magis cupiunt
sed ludere prata
. Here,
septa
, the cultivated,
enclosed garden of a monastery, is contrasted
with the
rosulenta prata
, a wild, open meadow.
These opening lines may reference Eclogue
1 of Vergil, but reading them with Catullus
provides a richer understanding of the themes
of the poem. Indeed, what the Muses desire
in
Angustae Vitae
are cornerstones of Catullan
diction. Lines 2 — 3 recall the opening lines
of Catullus 2. The Muses desire to play in
fields (
cupiunt sed ludere prata
) and to tend to
(
colunt
) their delights (
delicias
), just as Catullus’
girlfriend is accustomed to play (
ludere solet
)
with her own pet/delight (
deliciae
). The classical
Muses are compared with the poet’s beloved.
These are the Muses of elegiac love.
Ludere
,
furthermore, is a by-word in Catullus for the
production of poetry.
By taking into consideration all such intertext
candidates in
Angustae Vitae
, we will show
that machine classification is able to produce
statistically strong validation results. We

3
present our study of the three style markers
in this context, highlighting strengths and
weaknesses. We hope that this case study will
serve as a first step towards a more sophisticated
and efficient analysis of intertextuality in
general. Moreover, this work raises important
linguistic questions on the nature of conscious
and subconscious influence in style, which is an
area we intend to explore in further work.
References
Diederich, J., Kindermann, J., Leopold,
E. and Paass G.
(2003). 'Authorship
Attribution with Support Vector Machines'.
Applied Intelligence.
19(1-2)
: 109-123.
Forstall, C.W. and Scheirer, W.J.
(2009).
'Features from Frequency: Authorship and
Stylistic Analysis Using Repetitive Sound'.
Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and
Computer Science.
Chicago.
Holmes, D., Robertson, M., and Paez,
R.
(2001). 'Stephen Crane and the New York
Tribune: A Case Study in Traditional and Non-
traditional Authorship Attribution'.
Computers
and the Humanities.
35(3)
: 315—331.
Kristeva, J.
(1986). 'Word, Dialogue and
Novel'.
The Kristeva Reader.
Moi, T. (ed.). New
York: Columbia University Press, pp. 34—61.
Paul the Deacon
(1881). 'Carmina'.
Monumenta Germaniae Hisotica, Poeta Latini
Aevi Carolini Vol 1.
Diemmler, E. (ed.). Berlin.","txt","2","",""
"1217","11","Extracting domain knowledge from tables of contents","2","
1
Extracting domain
knowledge from tables of
contents
Harald Lüngen
luengen@uni-giessen.de
Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen
Henning Lobin
henning.lobin@germanistik.uni-giessen.de
Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen
1. Introduction
Knowledge in textual form is always presented
as visually and hierarchically structured units
of text, which is particularly true in the case of
academic texts. One research hypothesis of the
ongoing project
Knowledge ordering in texts—
text structure and structure visualisations as
sources of natural ontologies
1
is that the textual
structure of academic texts effectively mirrors
essential parts of the knowledge structure
that is built up in the text. The structuring
of a modern dissertation thesis (e.g. in the
form of an automatically generated table of
contents -
tocs
), for example, represents a
compromise between requirements of the text
type and the methodological and conceptual
structure of its subject-matter. The aim of the
project is to examine how visual-hierarchical
structuring systems are constructed, how
knowledge structures are encoded in them, and
how they can be exploited to automatically
derive ontological knowledge for navigation,
archiving, or search tasks. The idea to extract
domain concepts and semantic relations mainly
from the structural and linguistic information
gathered from tables of contents represents a
novel approach to ontology learning.
2. Data and annotations
In the present phase, we examine German
academic text books, in later phases,
dissertations, research articles and historical
scientific texts will also be taken into account.
A corpus of digital versions of 32 text books
from 12 different academic disciplines has been
compiled,
2
the textual content and an XML
document structure markup was subsequently
extracted (e.g. using the Adobe Pro software).
Using a series of XSLT style sheets, the initial
XML was converted to XML encoding of
the document structure according to the TEI
P5 guidelines. At the same time, the texts
were annotated with morphological analyses
and phrase chunking markup using the Tree
Tagger and Chunker software from Stuttgart
University
3
and converted to a suitable XML
representation, and also with dependency-
syntactic analysis using the Machinese Syntax
Parser by Connexor Oy,
4
resulting in XML
markup as well. Further linguistic annotation
levels (such as domain terms and lexical-
semantic relations) will be added and combined
in XStandoff documents representing multi-
layer annotations that can be queried using XML
standards and tools as described in Stührenberg
& Jettka (2009).
Presently, all available annotation layers are
stored in an eXist native XML database
5
and
are queried using the Oxygen XML editor
6
as a
database client.
The corpus infrastructure is used to explore
the document applying the method of toc
fragment analysis as described in the following
section, and to implement functions for concept
extraction and semantic relation analysis.
2.1. Analysis of toc fragments
Our method of analysing toc fragments consists
of the following steps:
1.
Identification of a toc fragment
2.
Representation of the fragment meaning as a
MultiNet
3.
Identification of the configuration of elements
on different structural levels that induce the
fragment meaning
4.
Hypothesis about the generalisation of a toc
fragment, a structuring schema
5.
Corpus research to verify the generalisation
hypothesis
[booktitle] Einführung Pädagogik
[5.] Ausgewählte Subdisziplinen und
Fachrichtungen
[5.1.] Literatur
[5.2.] Erlebnispädagogik
[5.2.1.] Begrifflichkeit
[5.2.1.1.] Erlebnis als prioritäre Kategorie

2
[5.2.2.] Historie
[5.2.3.] Theoretische Fundierungen und
Menschenbilder
[5.2.4.] Ziele und Funktionen der
Erlebnispädagogik
[5.2.4.1.] Ziele
[5.2.4.2.] Subjektbezogene Funktionen und
mögliche Wirkungsweisen
[5.2.4.3.] Gesellschaftliche Funktionen
[5.2.5.] Merkmale und Modelle der
Erlebnispädagogik
[5.2.6.] Beispiele erlebnispädagogischer
Angebote
[5.2.6.1.] Outward Bound-Konzeption
[5.2.6.2.] Outdoor Management Development
[5.2.7.] Kritikpunkte
[5.2.8.] Einführungsliteratur (zum
Weiterlesen)
[5.3.] Erwachsenenbildung
[5.3.1.] Begriffsklärung
[5.3.2.] Geschichtliche Entwicklung
[5.3.3.] Struktur und Funktionsperspektiven in
der Erwachsenenbildung
[5.3.4.] Theoretische Orientierungen der
Erwachsenenbildung
[5.3.5.] Forschungsfelder
[5.3.6.] Einführungsliteratur (zum
Weiterlesen)
[5.4.] Gesundheitspädagogik
Figure 1: Section from the table of
contents of Raithel et al. (2007)
Consider the section of the generated table
of contents of the text book
Einführung
Pädagogik
by Raithel et al. (2007) shown
in Figure 1. By choosing the heading 5.
Ausgewählte Subdisziplinen und Fachbereiche
and its immediately superordinated heading
(in this case the title of the book) as well
as its immediately subordinated headings, we
arrive at the toc fragment (or “window”) shown
in Figure 2. In the toc fragment, four terms
from the domain are contained,
Pädagogik
,
Erlebnispädagogik
,
Erwachsenenbildung
,
and
Gesundheitspädagogik
.
7
The terms
identification component must distinguish such
expressions denoting domain-specific concepts
from relational nouns commonly found in
academic and scientific discourse (such as
Einführung
,
Subdisziplin
and
Fachrichtung
)
and from terms denoting text-type structural
categories of academic texts such as
Literatur
).
We employ the semantic network approach
Multilayered Extended Semantic Networks
(acronym: MultiNets) by Helbig (2006) to
represent the domain concepts and semantic
relations between them
[booktitle] Einführung in die Pädagogik
[5.] Ausgewählte Subdisziplinen und
Fachrichtungen
[5.1.] Literatur
[5.2.] Erlebnispädagogik
[5.3.] Erwachsenenbildung
[5.4.] Gesundheitspädagogik
Figure 2: Toc fragment
expressed in a toc fragment. The MultiNet
approach is a fully-fledged semantic theory and
provides a rich and consistent inventory of
semantic entity types, features, relations and
functions, and has been previously employed
in the syntactic-semantic analysis components
of QA systems (Hartrumpf 2005). Using the
graphical MWR editor for designing MultiNets,
8
we represent the semantics of the above toc
fragment as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: MultiNet analysis of toc fragment
In the semantic network in Figure
3, the concepts
a3_erlebnispädagogik.1.1
,
a3_erwachsenenbildung.1.1
, and
a3_gesundheitspädagogik.1.1
are related to
a3_pädagogik.1.1
by the SUBS relation
denoting subordination of (abstract) situations;
a3_pädagogik.1.1
is in turn related to
fach.1.2
and
a3_disziplin.1.1
by the SUB
relation denoting the subordination of
concepts representing objects.
9
Furthermore,
the semantic decompositions of the three
compounds are analysed using the relations

3
MCONT (mental or informational content),
BENF (beneficiary) and METH (method), and
the relation between the concept
c2
representing
the textbook as such and
a3_pädagogik.1.1
is
specified as MCONT, the relation between
c2
and its authors as ORIG (mental of
informational origin, cf. Helbig 2006).
On account of this analysis, the following
hypothesis is formed:
Given a potential structuring schema, consisting
of an initial expression N, and an expression
N-1 related to N by a
heading_of
relation on
the document structure level, and an expression
N+1 to which N is related by the
heading_of
relation on the document structure level (cf.
Figure 4), if
N-1
N
N+1
Figure 4: Toc Schema
Figure 5: MultiNet Schema
-
N contains the lexeme Subdisziplin or a
synonym on the lexical level
-
and N-1 contains the domain concept A
-
and N+1 contains the domain concept B,
then, by multiple application, construct a
MultiNet-Schema as represented by the graph in
Figure 5.
<result doc=""schruender-
lenzen_schriftspracherwerb_2007"" docID=""i72"">
<head level=""n-1"">9. Schwierigkeiten des
Schriftspracherwerbs rechtzeitig erkennen und
gezielt helfen</head>
<head level=""n"">9.2 Zentrale
Wahrnehmungsbereiche und ihr Risikopotential</
head>
<head level=""n+1"">9.2.1 Visuelle
Wahrnehmung</head>
<head level=""n+1"">9.2.2 Auditive
Wahrnehmung</head>
</result>
<result
doc=""brosius_kommunikationsforschung_2008""
docID=""i137"">
<head level=""n-1"">8. Kapitel:
Inhaltsanalyse I: Grundlagen</head>
<head level=""n"">8.4 Anwendungsgebiete und
typische Fragestellungen</head>
<head level=""n+1"">8.4.1 Inhaltsanalysen auf
dem Feld der politischen Kommunikation</head>
<head level=""n+1"">8.4.2 Inhaltsanalysen in
der Gewaltforschung</head>
<head level=""n+1"">8.4.3 Inhaltsanalysen in
der Minderheitenforschung</head>
</result>
<result doc=""raithel_paedagogik_2007""
docID=""i180"">
<head level=""n-1"">BOOKTITLE: Einführung
Pädagogik</head>
<head level=""n"">D Ausgewählte
Subdisziplinen und Fachrichtungen</head>
<head level=""n+1""> Literatur</head>
<head level=""n+1"">Erlebnispädagogik</head>
<head level=""n+1"">Erwachsenenbildung</
head>
...
Figure 6: Query Result Document
The Hypothesis is verified by formulating the
potential structuring schema as a query to the
corpus using the XQuery query language. The
query result document then contains a set of
toc fragments that can now be inspected as
to whether their semantics conform to the
hypothesis or not, leading to a small statistic
about the validity of the hypothesis. Sometimes
the inspection may also lead to a modification of
the original query. In the first result fragment in
Figure 6, for instance, the superordinate concept
Wahrnehmung
is not contained in N-1, but as
the compound modifier of
Bereich
(a synonym
of
Subdisziplin
).
10
In this example it becomes clear that analyses
on the morphological and lexical-semantic level
interact with the analyses of the structuring
information in that both levels provide
conditions or constraints when building the
semantic analysis of a toc fragment. Our corpus
infrastructure is designed such that information
from multiple linguistic and structural levels can
be taken into account.
2.2. Conclusion
We presently inventorise sets of complex
conditions connecting a structuring schema
with a MultiNet Schema as
constructions
in
the sense of Construction Grammar (CxG).
Construction Grammar (Kay 1995, Östman &
Fried 2004) is a theory of grammar which is
not based on phrase structure rules operating
on lexical elements, but as combinations of
constructions in which form schemata are

4
associated with meaning schemata and is
therefore appropriate for the description task at
hand. The inventory of constructions will then
be employed in ontology learning, particularly
for the task of automatically extracting domain
concepts and semantic relations between them.
Constructions describing document structuring
schemata as described above play a role
similar to the lexico-syntactic “Hearst Patterns”
described in Hearst (1992), which have been
employed for extracting semantic relations from
running text.
References
Brosius, Hans-Bernd, Koschel,
Friederike, Haas, Alexander
(2008).
Soziologie. Methoden der empirischen
Kommunikationsforschung. 4. Aufl.
Wiesbaden.
Glöckner, Ingo, Hartrumpf, Sven,
Helbig, Hermann, Leveling, Johannes,
Osswald, Rainer
(2007). 'Automatic semantic
analysis for NLP applications'.
Zeitschrift für
Sprachwissenschaft.
Jg. 26, H. 2
: 241–266.
Hartrumpf, Sven
(2005). 'University of
Hagen at QA@CLEF 2005: Extending
knowledge and deepening linguistic processing
for question answering.'.
Results of the CLEF
2005 Cross-Language System Evaluation
Campaign, Working Notes for the CLEF
2005 Workshop.
Peters, Carol (ed.). Vienna:
Centromedia.
Hearst, Matti A.
(1992). 'Automatic
acquisition of hyponyms from large text
corpora'.
Proceedings of the 14th International
Conference on Computational Linguistics
.
Helbig, Hermann
(2006).
Knowledge
Representation and the Semantics of Natural
Language.
Cognitive Technologies. Heidelberg:
Springer
Kay, Paul
(1995). 'Construction Grammar'.
Handbook of Pragmatics Manual.
Verschueren, Jef, Östman, Jan-Ola, Blommaert,
Jan (eds.). Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp.
171–177.
Östman, Jan-Ola, Fried, Mirjam (eds.)
(2004).
Construction Grammars: Cognitive
grounding and theoretical extensions.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Raithel, Jürgen, Dollinger, Bernd,
Hörmann, Georg
(2007).
Einführung in die
Pädagogik. Begriff - Strömungen - Klassiker
- Fachrichtungen. 2. Aufl..
VS Verlag für
Sozialwissenschaften. Wiesbaden: Springer
Schmid, Helmut
(1994). 'Probabilistic Part-
of-Speech Tagging using Decision Trees'.
Proceedings of the International Conference
on New Methods in Language Processing.
Manchester, UK.
Schründer-Lenzen, Agi
(2007).
Schriftspracherwerb. Bausteine professio-
nellen Handlungswissens. 2. Aufl.
VS Verlag für
Sozialwissenschaften. Wiesbaden: Springer
Stührenberg, Maik, Jettka, Daniel
(2009).
'A tookit for multi-dimensional markup: the
development of SGF to XStandoff'.
Proceedings
of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2009.
Balisage Series on Markup Technologies. 3 vols.
Tapanainen, Pasi, Järvinen, Timo
(1997). 'A non-projective dependency parser'.
Proceedings of the fifth conference on Applied
natural language processing.
Washington D.C.
Notes
1.
funded within the framework of LOEWE, the excellence
initiative of the state of Hesse, as part of the
LOEWE-
Schwerpunkt Kulturtechniken und ihre Medialisierung
,
cf.
http://www.zmi.uni-giessen.de/projekte/proj
ekt-36.html
.
2.
We would like to thank the publishers
Facultas
,
Haupt
,
Narr/
Francke/Attempto
,
Springer
,
UTB
,
Vandenhoek & Ruprecht
,
and
Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft
for kindly making
available digital versions of textbooks for us.
3.
http://www.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/projekte/corp
lex/TreeTagger/
4.
http://www.connexor.eu/
5.
http://exist-db.org/
6.
http://www.oxygenxml.com/
7.
We consider terms to be linguistic expressions that refer to
domain concepts.
8.
which was kindly made available for us by Professor Helbig’s
group in Hagen.
9.
An
a3_
prefix in a concept name indicates that the concept
was not found in the required reading in the semantic lexicon
HagenLex (Glöckner et al. 2007) which is consulted by the
MWR tool.
10.
Other titles from our corpus cited in Figure 6 are Brosius
(2008), and Schründer-Lenzen (2008).","txt","2","",""
"1218","11","Generation of Emotional Dance Motion for Virtual Dance Collaboration System","2","
1
Generation of Emotional
Dance Motion for Virtual
Dance Collaboration
System
Seiya, Tsuruta
seiya@img.is.ritsumei.ac.jp
Graduate School of Science and Engineering,
Ritsumeikan University, Japan
Woong, Choi
Global Innovation Research Organization,
Ritsumeikan University, Shiga, Japan
Kozaburo, Hachimura
Department of Media Technology, College
of Information Science and Engineering,
Ritsumeikan University, Shiga, Japan
Measurement of body motion using motion
capture systems has become widespread in
the fields of entertainment, medical care, and
biomechanics research.
In our laboratory, we are undertaking research
on the application of digital archiving and
information technology to dancing [Hachimura,
2006]. For example, quantitative analysis
of traditional dance motion [Yoshimura et
al., 2006] and 3D character animations of
traditional performing arts using virtual reality
[Furukawa et al., 2006]. Recently, we have
measured many kinds of dance motion, not
only Japanese traditional dances, but also
contemporary street dances.
Dance collaboration system is one of the typical
collaboration systems based on body motion.
In our laboratory, we are developing a Virtual
Dance Collaboration System [Tsuruta et al.,
2007]. Live dancer’s motion is captured by
optical motion capture system, and the dance
collaboration system recognizes it in real-time.
A virtual dancer responds to the live dancer’s
motion. The live dancer performs a dance to the
music, and a virtual dancer reacts with a dance
by using the motion data stored in a motion
database. It is desirable to generate a virtual
dancer’s motion according to the live dancer’s
emotion or music emotion.
In this paper, we describe a method to
generate emotional dance motions by modifying
a standard dance motion which is stored in a
database.
1. Overview of the Virtual Dance
Collaboration System
A configuration of the system is shown in
Figure 1. Our proposed system provides users
with collaboration with virtual dancers through
dancing. The collaboration system consists
of an optical real-time motion capture and
an immersive virtual environment system. An
optical motion capture system is able to
measure body motion precisely and in real-time.
Immersive virtual environment provides users
stereoscopic display and feeling of immersion.
The system has three sections: “Motion
processing section”, “Music processing section”
and “Graphics processing section”.
In the “Motion processing section”, the system
recognizes a live dancer’s motion in real-
time, and determines a virtual dancer’s reactive
motion. In the “Music processing section”,
the system extracts emotional information
from music in real time. In the “Graphics
processing section”, the system regenerates
a virtual dancer’s motion by using extracted
emotional information from music, and the
system displays 3DCG character animation by
using immersive virtual environment.
Fig. 1. Configuration of Virtual Dance Collaboration System
2. Generation of Emotional Dance
Motion
For our system, it is necessary to generate
a virtual dancer’s emotional motion in real-
time. We developed a system named Emotional
Motion Editor (EME).

2
Table 1 - Motion features appeared on each human emotion
Table II - Parameters used for modifying motion data
(
α
: coefficient
β
:bias)
2.1. Emotional Motion Editor
The EME generates emotional dance motions by
modifying the original motion data by changing
the speed of motion or altering the joint angles
interactively. To generate an emotional motion,
a function of changing the size of motion is
implemented within the EME.
To generate virtual dancer’s emotional motions
in real-time, we need a simple method which
can calculate with few order. For this purpose,
we employ a method altering the interior angle
of two connecting body segments as shown in
Figure 2.
Fig. 2. Altering the joint angle
Q
i
and
Q′
i
is an original vector and a vector
after rotating respectively. Where
θ
i
is an
original angle, and
θ'
i
is an after rotating angle
respectively. The rotation matrix is calculated by
using equation (1).
Where
R
N
(
θ'
i
− θ
i
) matrix for rotation about
vector
N
.
N
is a normal vector represented by
equation (2). Where × means outer product.
Change the size of the motion is indicated by
equation (3).
Fig. 3. Screen shot of Emotional Motion Editor
Constant
α
and
β
are coefficient for
amplification and bias respectively. Where
θ′
i
is
amplified angle,
θ
i
is average of angles in sliding
window at frame
i
as shown in equation (4).
k
is
a half of the size of the sliding window.
A screen shot of the EME is displayed in
Figure 3. A character model on the left shows
an original dance motion. A model on the
right shows generated emotional motion after
modification.
̅

3
2.2. Relation between Emotion and
Body Motion
We examine the correlation between emotion
and body motion in dancing by interviewing
the dancer. We employ 5 kinds of emotions
(Neutral, Passionate, Cheerful, Calm, Dark).
“Neutral” is a standard motion. Motion features
appeared on each human emotional motion are
shown in Table I. We then obtained parameters
empirically with a dancer. Parameters used
for generating emotional motions are shown
in Table II. Figure 4(a) shows an example of
motion modification. A thin line in Figure 4(b)
shows an original graph of angle variation of
the right knee. The thick line shows a modified
graph. In this case,
α
and
β
was given 3.0 and
-25.0 respectively.
3. Experiments
We generate 4 kinds of emotional motions by
using EME according to Table II.
To evaluate generated emotional motions, we
conducted 2 types of assessment experiment by
using questionnaire survey.
3.1. Method of Experiment
Experiment 1
Experiment 1 is a comparison between neutral
standard motion and artificially generated
emotional motions.
Experiment 2
Experiment 2 is a comparison between motion-
captured emotional motions and artificially
generated emotional motions.
For the experiment, we used 9 kinds of motions
as the following:
-
4 Emotional motions (performed by dancer)
-
1 Standard motion (performed by dancer)
-
4 Artificial emotional motions (generated by
EME)
3.2. Result of Experiments
The results of Experiment 1 are shown in Figure
5. This figure shows score averages, standard
deviations and significant differences by the
t-test. Black circles show standard motions,
triangles show generated artificial emotional
motions. As shown in Figure 5, all kinds of
scores except ""Calm"" are higher than standard
motion. We found that the respondents receive
an impression of each emotion through artificial
emotional motion.
Figure 6 indicates the results of Experiment 2.
White circles show motion-captured emotional
motions, and triangles show generated artificial
emotional motions by using EME. As a
result of the t-test, there is no significant
difference. We found that respondents received
similar impressions of emotional motions from
generated artificial emotional motions. We
verified that our EME system is effective in
generating emotional motions.
Fig. 5. Experimental result 1
Fig. 6. Experiment result 2

4
4. Conclusion and future works
In this paper, we described a method to generate
emotional dance motions by modifying the
standard dance motion.
To generate emotional motions, we developed
the Emotional Motion Editor. We conducted two
experiments to evaluate generated emotional
motions. As a result, we confirmed that EME can
generate emotional motions by altering motion
speed and joint angles.
As future work, implementation of the motion
processing section and the motion modification
function is necessary in the Virtual Dance
Collaboration System.
Acknowledgements
This research has been partially supported by
the Global COE Program “Digital Humanities
Center for Japanese Arts and Cultures”,
the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research No.
(B)16300035, all from the Ministry of
Education, Science, Sports and Culture. We
would like to give heartfelt thanks to Prof.
Y. Endo, Ritsumeikan Univ. whose comments
and suggestions were of inestimable value for
our research. We would also like to thank Ms.
Gotan and Mr. Morioka who support many
experiments.
References
Furukawa, K.et al.
(2006). CG Restoration
of Historical Noh Stage and its use for
Edutainment.
Proc. VSMM06.
Pp. 358-367.
Hachimura, K.
(2006). 'Digital Archiving
of Dancing'.
Review of the National
Center for Digitization (Online Journal).
51-66.
http://www.ncd.matf.bg.ac.yu/casopis
/08/english.html
(accessed 12 March 2010).
Tsuruta, S. et al.
(2007). 'Real-Time
Recognition of Body Motion for Virtual Dance
Collaboration System'.
Proceedings of 17th
International Conference on Artificial Reality
and Telexistence (ICAT 2007).
2007, pp. 23-30.
Yoshimura, M. et al.
(2006). 'Analysis of
Japanese Dance Movements Using Motion
Capture System'.
Systems and Computers in
Japan.
No.1
: 71-82, Translated from Densi
Joho Tsushin Gakkai Ronbunshi, Vol. J87-D- II,
No.3.","txt","2","",""
"1219","11","Historical Interpretation through Multiple Markup: The Case of Horatio Nelson Taft's Diary, 1861-62","2","
1
Historical Interpretation
through Multiple Markup:
The Case of Horatio Nelson
Taft's Diary, 1861-62
Garfinkel, Susan
sgarfinkel@loc.gov
Library of Congress, Washington DC, USA
Heckscher, Jurretta Jordan
jhec@loc.gov
Library of Congress, Washington DC, USA
1. Background
Now fifteen years old, the still-growing
American Memory Web site at the Library
of Congress (
http://memory.loc.gov/
) offers
more than 130 separate and diverse multi-
media collections — comprising more than a
million digitized library items — to a vast
base of virtual patrons across the Internet. Yet
despite radical changes in the ways that people
have come to use the World Wide Web, the
fundamental conception of American Memory
and its collections remains much as envisaged
fifteen years ago. What happens next to such
established but largely static digital resources?
Aside from implementing obvious upgrades
such as higher-resolution image scans, cleaned-
up OCR, fleshed-out metadata, or faceted search
capabilities, how might cultural repositories
more fundamentally enhance their existing
online content? Can we fully (re)imagine a
second iteration, a next generation, for already
digitized historical materials?
Our demonstration project works to consider
this question for a single American Memory
collection, purposely setting aside issues
of scale or interoperability in favor of
exploring effective and compelling ways to
convey to users the particular character of
specific historical resources. Starting with
the unpublished manuscript diary of Horatio
Nelson Taft (1861-62), already digitized
(as textual transcription with page images)
at
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/tafthtml/taf
thome.html
, we have chosen to explore the
implications of creating several alternate and
explicitly interpretive frameworks by applying
multiple XML markup to this bounded but
compellingly dense and historically significant
text.
American Memory patrons bring unusually
diverse research needs to the same body
of historical materials: typical users include
everyone from elementary school students
and hobbyists to lawyers, librarians, college
professors and members of Congress. Our
project’s concerns stem from this diversity
as well as from our own role as scholars
of American culture working with historical
materials in a library setting. Traditional
library practice treats sources as analytically
separate from their interpretation, even while
the most basic interventions of librarianship
are fundamentally interpretive. Historians, by
contrast, well recognize their own work with
sources as interpretive, but still tend to view
textual sources as fully fixed in meaning.
Textual analysis is an underdeveloped tool
in American historical study, and history
as a discipline has lagged behind literature
in imagining computing as a threshold for
innovative research. Historians’ traditional use
of computing has trended quantitative rather
than qualitative, while recent innovations
emphasize creating tools to assist the mechanics
of research or scholarly interaction rather
than transforming them. Explorations of how
computing might fundamentally change the
practices of history or the outcomes of historical
interpretation are still needed.
Against this background the Taft Diary project
takes on several related goals: (1) to visibly
demonstrate a historical text’s accessibility to
multiple simultaneous interrogations enacted
through digital scholarship; (2) to more fully
explore the multidimensionality of a significant
historical text; (3) to introduce the methods and
questions of digital humanists more centrally
into a library context (making them better
known to library practitioners and more widely
available to diverse library audiences); and (4)
to meld the questions and methods of historians
with the advances in digital textual scholarship
arising among literary scholars. With our project
we hope to establish a model for text-based
scholarship — literary and ethnographic as well
as historical — that foregrounds the individual
user’s interpretative needs while also conveying

2
that interpretation to the broad variety of the
diary's potential users.
2. The artifact and its text
The Horatio Nelson Taft Diary commands wide
historical interest. When it was introduced
to the public on the Library’s Web site in
2001, it offered the first new information
about the events of Abraham Lincoln’s death
to come to light in half a century. In fact the
diary emerges from the confluence of multiple
transformative historical developments: not
only the American Civil War and Lincoln’s
presidency, but profound long-term changes
including the rise of the American middle
class; the nation’s industrial, technological, and
consumer revolutions; the decisive expansion in
the size and influence of the federal government;
and the maturation of Washington, DC, as
a complex urban community of national and
international importance.
An exceptional historical record on many levels,
the Taft Diary is also unusually well suited to an
experiment in simultaneous multidimensional
interpretive markup. Its contents are rich in
the overlap of ordinary life and significant
events, people, and places, thereby appealing
both to specialized historians and to a broad
general audience. Its limited size offers definite
boundaries to the range, though not the depth,
of interpretive markup. Moreover, the formulaic
pattern underlying most of its daily entries
invites ready comparison while ensuring an
organizing degree of structural regularity.
Taft’s three-volume manuscript diary consists
of daily entries from January 1, 1861, through
April 11, 1862 (the end of vol. 1), and less
frequent entries through May 30, 1865. The
current phase of our project deals only with vol.
1, which contains in total 466 entries. Because
Taft used a printed blank diary book for vol. 1,
each 1861 entry is eleven handwritten lines long,
or typically ninety to one hundred words (fig. 1).
(The volume’s 1862 entries, written into pages
intended for back matter, vary more in length.)
Beyond the consistency of the entries’ length,
certain content elements recur so frequently as
to be almost formulaic: information about the
weather, illnesses within and beyond the family
circle, political and military news about the Civil
War, and the people and locations that populate
Taft’s daily life.
Figure 1: Taft Diary vol. 1, entries for Sept.
19-21, 1861; transcription of Sept. 20 entry
3. Implementation
In selecting markup schemas, we considered
and discarded a number of interpretive
typologies, including Library of Congress
Subject Headings (LCSH) (
http://www.loc.gov
/aba/cataloging/subject/
) and the Library of
Congress Classification Outline (
http://www.l
oc.gov/catdir/cpso/lcco/
), because they turn
out to lack a consistent level of granularity
across cultural and historical domains. Seeking
to demonstrate applicability and variety, for
phase one we selected three schemas for their
breadth as well as depth, their flexibility, and
their inherent relevance to the content of our
text:
1.
TEI,
http://www.tei-c.org/
2.
Outline of Cultural Materials (OCM),
http://
www.yale.edu/hraf/outline.htm
3.
Scholar-defined “webs of significance” such
as:
i.
Taft’s recurring concerns
a.
weather
b.
places

3
c.
illness
ii.
networks
a.
of social relationships
b.
how news is conveyed
These three schemas together provide for
theoretical and well as methodological diversity,
representing a variety of approaches to the
analysis of historical texts. TEI is a widely used
standard for the representation of texts in digital
form, with well-developed editorial standards
and an established community of users. The
OCM is anthropological, deriving from attempts
to develop comprehensive categorizations of
human cultural phenomena. Scholar-defined
“webs of significance” follow from our own close
readings of the text. In the future we anticipate
exploring additional markup typologie based in
the Thesaurus for Graphic Materials (
http:/
/www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/tgm/
), GIS,
and data visualizations, so as to demonstrate the
diversity and versatility of interpretation that
simultaneous multiple markup can sustain.
Our baseline text for markup is the transcription
of Taft’s vol. 1, which was originally provided in
SGML mapped to the American Memory DTD.
Our own markup reverses normalizations in
transcription in favor of a diplomatic version,
and strips out the older SGML tags.
Implementation raises methodological and
technical challenges. In our process we must
move from theoretical issues to the development
of standards for each tag category, exploring
the dilemmas that intensive and self-created
markup entails: for example, whether phrases
or sentences should be the unit of markup with
OCM tags (fig. 2). Resolving such questions
requires us to confront the practical challenges
of creating markup conventions originally based
in theory rather than established practice.
Theoretical language about multiplicity is
inspiring — and even starts to get at the truth
of lived experience — but in practice we must
also make sound choices about how to complete
the markup with reasonable consistency so that
others may use and rely on it. Further, do we
mark the same text multiple times, or invest
ourselves in some version of a standoff markup
(see the XStandoff toolkit, for example)? How do
we best present multiple interpretive options to
our audience? At this level, the Taft Diary project
is still a work in progress.
Figure 2: Text of Taft Diary vol. 1, Sept. 20 entry
showing conceptual phrase-level OCM markup
4. Conclusion
We anticipate that simultaneous multiple
markup will render the text dynamic, surfacing
its performative and ritualized aspects; and that
it will invite new attention to its literary and
linguistic aspects. Markup can also foreground
key aspects of worldview of which the writer
himself was unaware. In these and other
ways, simultaneous multiple markup becomes
a new instrument of historical interpretation,
reimagining analysis beyond the realm of
narrative prose.
While our technical questions are not yet fully
answered, and the project itself is ongoing, we
seek to share important methodological and
theoretical questions, and our conclusions so
far, with our colleagues in digital humanities.
References
Cohen, Daniel J., Rosenzweig, Roy
(2006).
Digital History: A Guide to Gathering,
Preserving, and Presenting the Past on the Web.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
http://chnm.gmu.edu/digitalhistory/
.

4
Geertz, Clifford
(1973). 'Thick Description'.
The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays.
New York: Basic Books, pp. 3-30.
McGann, Jerome
(2004). 'Marking Texts of
Many Dimensions'.
A Companion to Digital
Humanities.
Schreibman, Susan, Siemens, Ray,
Unsworth, John (eds.). Oxford: Blackwell, pp.
198-217.
http://www.digitalhumanities.org/c
ompanion/
.
Milligan, Frank D.
(2007). 'A City in Crisis:
The Wartime Diaries of Horatio Nelson Taft'.
President Lincoln’s Cottage.
entry of August
1
, blog.
http://lincolncottage.wordpress.com/
2007/08/01/a-city-in-crisis-the-wartime-di
aries-of-horation-nelson-taft/
.
Sellers, John
(February 2002). 'Washington
in Crisis, 1861-1865: Library Acquires the Diary
of Horatio Nelson Taft'.
Library of Congress
Information.
Bulletin 61, no. 2
.
http://www.
loc.gov/loc/lcib/0202/cw-diarist.html
.
Stührenberg, Maik, Jettka, Daniel
(2009).
'A Toolkit for Multi-Dimensional Markup: The
Development of SGF to XStandoff'.
Proceedings
of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2009.
Balisage Series on Markup Technologies. 3
vols.
http://www.balisage.net/Proceedings/vo
l3/html/Stuhrenberg01/BalisageVol3-Stuhren
berg01.html
.","txt","2","",""
"1220","11","Inventing the Map: from 19th-century Pedagogical Practice to 21st-century Geospatial Scholarship","2","
1
""Inventing the Map:"" from
19th-century Pedagogical
Practice to 21st-century
Geospatial Scholarship
Nowviskie, Bethany
bethany@virginia.edu
Scholars' Lab, University of Virginia Library
In 1823, at a small school in western
Vermont, Frances Alsop Henshaw, the 14-
year-old daughter of a prosperous merchant,
produced a remarkable cartographic and textual
artifact. Henshaw’s ""Book of Penmanship
Executed at the Middlebury Female Academy""
is a slim volume, later bound in marble boards,
containing – in addition to the expected,
set copy-texts of a practice-book – a series
of hand-drawn, delicately-colored maps of
our nineteen United States, each one paired
with an edited, geometrically-designed and
embellished prose passage selected from the
geography books available to a schoolgirl in
the new American republic.
1
Henshaw’s maps
and texts alike are interpretive re-presentations
of this body of contemporaneous geodetic and
descriptive literature. Formally, many of the
textual passages that accompany her maps are
designed within a framework of aesthetically-
inflected cardinal coordinates, representing
(either conceptually or in their spatial contours)
the states they describe, and positioning political
and natural boundaries in cartographically
appropriate margins of the page [see Figures 1
and 2].
As a work of juvenilia, Henshaw’s ""Book
of Penmanship"" is no less remarkable in
its artistic and imaginative accomplishment
for being exemplary of larger trends in the
geographic education of nineteenth-century
Americans. A sampler in codex form, the book
constitutes a set of interrelated pedagogical
and personal exercises in geospatial and textual
graphesis, or subjective knowledge-production
through the creation of images and texts-as-
image. Drawing exercises of this sort were
developed by noted American educator Emma
Willard, founder of Henshaw’s Vermont school
and author of several geography textbooks.
In a period when reading and recitation of
geodetic texts were presumed the best aids to
spatial memory, Emma Willard believed that
students should learn through the personal
creation and analysis of drawings – even, or
perhaps especially, of drawings that embed
subjectivity and aesthetic choice. (""In history,""
wrote Willard, with characteristic confidence,
""I have invented the map."")
2
My presentation
argues that attention to the processes and
products of Willard’s pedagogy can be as
fruitful for modern scholars, who grapple with
the integration of geospatial technologies into
the interpretive humanities, as geographers
and literary historians demonstrate them to
have been for meaning-making among an
increasingly spatially-literate populace in the
early years of the American republic (See
Brückner, 2006; Schulten, 2007).
Work and interest in the geospatial humanities
is growing – at a variety of scales, and
with a variety of institutional inflections – in
libraries, academic departments, and digital
centers around the world. Despite the richness
of this activity, scholars press up against a well-
documented series of obstacles, pragmatic and
conceptual, in their use of spatial tools, datasets,
and methods.
3
In the ongoing interchange of
the digital humanities, could new methods and
self-consciously literary and ludic perspectives
permit us, with Emma Willard, to
invent the
map?
An examination of spatial decision-making
and of the interplay among text, image,
and geographical source material in the
Henshaw book may suggest relations among her
enterprise and some ambitions held by modern
humanities scholars for geospatial technology.
These relations hinge on an openness to
graphesis and iterative design as a legitimate
method in digital scholarship. I will also
argue that a fresh, steady look at cartographic
and geospatial technologies for the digital
humanities should not be taken alone in the
context of spatially-oriented disciplines (such
as anthropology, area studies, archaeology,
and environmental history) that have more
traditionally made use of these tools and
datasets and have, to greater and lesser extents,
made peace with their present limitations – a set
of assumptions that underlie and circumscribe
the analytical and expressive power of geospatial

2
information systems (GIS). Instead, I want to
extend our examination of GIS technologies and
the administrative, pedagogical, and scholarly
publishing systems that support them
into
the realm of interpretive literary and textual
studies
– and imagine them at a variety of scales:
from support for a complex mapping of print-
culture production and distribution networks
through space and time; to the visualization
of subjective spatial expression in historical
and literary documents; to an examination of
the spatial and typographical features of a
single page, or class of page designs. What
potential might geographical tools and methods
have for illuminating the spatial, semantic,
and intertextual features of books as well as
landscapes? Can we imagine a next generation
of these tools in support of visual and aesthetic
methodologies for very traditional (and, in some
cases, only marginally
geos
patial) humanities
interpretation?
If our aim is to promote, among colleagues in
fields like literary studies and digital history,
a new and timely engagement with geospatial
visualization as
interpretive practice
(timely
both in terms of the burgeoning development
and use of what have been called ""vernacular""
or crowd-sourced spatial datasets and interfaces
outside of the academy, and in the context of
a growing interest in a return to pragmatic,
methodological training in graduate education
within it),
4
we must ask the following question:
what is required of our shared tools, methods,
and pedagogical practices to allow us to make as
meaningful a visual intervention in our current
scene as Emma Willard did in hers?
The deficiencies of existing geospatial
applications and the social and academic
systems that support and promote their
use have been adequately surveyed. Martyn
Jessop provides a thorough summary in
the pages of
LLC
, when he identifies four
factors contributing to a strange ""inhibition""
of the use of geospatial information among
digital humanists, a community not generally
daunted by the need to learn new software
tools, metadata standards, and data curation
practices (Jessop, M., 2008). The ""first and
most fundamental"" of these inhibiting factors
""concerns the use of data visualization and
images
per se
in the discourse-based research
methodology of the humanities"" (42). That most
humanities disciplines only make superficial
use of images and image-based methodologies
suggests an opportunity, if not a need, to
interrogate our habitual interpretive practices
and the ways in which graduate education
perpetuates a longstanding marginalization
of the visual – particularly infelicitous in
light of the opportunities for production and
analysis afforded by new media. Other factors
involve: the suitability of current geospatial
software packages to the treatment of issues
like subjectivity and emotion, temporality as
experienced and expressed in the documentary
record, or interpretive inflection in the
humanities; and those specific qualities of
humanities information unsuited to tools that
have been designed for synchronic analysis
of incredibly dense datasets (rather than for
sparse, temporally-inflected data) and with a
scientific eye toward filtering out – rather
than celebrating and analyzing – uncertainties
or ambiguities. Finally, Jessop treats broader
issues of scholarly communication: issues in
funding, producing, evaluating, and distributing
innovative geospatial scholarship in disciplines
whose structures evolved in response to
different conditions and expectations. With
Jessop, I will suggest that, ""although we usually
think of GIS as a positivist tool its greatest
contribution to the humanities... may be not as
an analytical or information presentation tool
but as a reflexive one,"" allowing us not only
to engage with the ""highly experiential"" and
qualitative features of our datasets, but also to
reflect on how we construct our disciplines (46).
Frances Henshaw’s ""Book of Penmanship"" –
a sophisticated, if naïve, 1820s pen-and-ink
GIS – serves here as an example of both
an illuminative process for, and a potential
exemplar product of, a potential hermeneutic
involvement on the part of scholars with textual
surrogates and geospatial interfaces. We lack
digital tools expressly crafted to promote the
kind of ludic, iterative, graphical engagement
with book design and geographical expression
that is everywhere evident in the Henshaw
cartifact. But the components of these tools are
all around us. It is less a technical than an
institutional and intellectual problem to identify
the small pieces – and practices – that must be
loosely joined in order for humanities scholars
to move forward in the arena of geographic
and textual graphesis, or knowledge-making

3
through graphical expression (Drucker, 2001;
2009).
Is there a methodological approach that
presents itself as a way to crack open
analytically – or perhaps just allow us to
r
eplicate
and
play
in digital environments
with – the easy brand of spatial and literary
intertextuality evinced in Henshaw’s schoolgirl
exercise? I will look at a several classes of
tools and digital humanities practices as a
way of getting at this question, including: the
iterative, interpretive, and structured sketching
prototyped in Temporal Modelling (Drucker,
J.D. and Nowviskie, B., 2004) and Neatline;
5
data-mining for geography in massive text
corpora through tools like MONK and TAPoR,
and what the Google Books research repositories
and efforts like HATHItrust must enable in
their APIs to contribute to this field;
6
textual
and graphical collation interfaces predicated
on visualization rather than – or as much
as – on structured markup, such as Juxta
and Sappheos;
7
mobile, GPS-powered tools and
toys; and powerful, analytical GIS applications
like the ESRI products, not at all designed for
textual studies, but ready nonetheless for some
dedicated gate-crashing.
Fig. 1:
Connecticut, one of 19 maps in Frances Henshaw’s
""Book of Penmanship Executed at the Middlebury Female
Academy,"" 29 April 1823. Library of David Rumsey.
Fig. 2:
Descriptive and positional text
accompanying the Connecticut map; Frances
Henshaw, 1823. Library of David Rumsey..
References
Brückner, Martin.
(2006).
The Geographic
Revolution in Early America: Maps, Literacy,
and National Identity.
University of North
Carolina Press.
Drucker, Johanna
(2009).
SpecLab: Digital
Aesthetics and Projects in Speculative
Computing.
MIT Press.
Drucker, J.D. and Nowviskie, B.
(2004).
'Speculative Computing: Temporal Modelling'.
A Companion to Digital Humanities.
Susan
Schreibman and Ray Siemens (ed.). Oxford:
Blackwell, pp. 431-447.
Drucker, Johanna
(2001). 'Digital
Ontologies: The Ideality of Form in/and
Code Storage—or— Can Graphesis Challenge
Mathesis?'.
Leonardo.
34:2
.
Jessop, Martyn
(2008). 'The Inhibition
of Geospatial Information in the Digital
Humanities'.
Literary and Linguistic
Computing.
23:1
.
Ramsay, Stephen
(2005). 'In Praise of
Pattern'.
TEXT Technology: the journal of

4
computer text processing.
Volume 14,
Number 2
.
Schulten, Susan
(2007). 'Emma Willard and
the graphic foundations of American history'.
Journal of Historical Geography.
33
: 542-564.
Notes
1.
Accession #2501 in the Rumsey collection:
http://davidru
msey.com/
2.
Emma Willard to ""Miss Foster,"" 5 November 1848. Reprinted
in Lord’s Life of Emma Willard. New York: 1873; page 228.
3.
See the executive summary and report of the 7th annual
Scholarly Communication Institute, Charlottesville, VA, 2009.
SCI 7 focused on ""Spatial Technologies and the Humanities:""
h
ttp://uvasci.org/
and
http://uvasci.digress.it/
4.
“Vernacular” is perhaps a poor term to address commercial,
cloud-based, and “neo-geo” tools and interfaces based on
mobile technologies, GPS, virtual globes, and Web-based slippy
maps. See Scholarly Communication Institute 7 report on
“vernacular” technologies & reports from SCI 6 and 7 on
methodological training:
http://uvasci.org/
5.
Neatline is a tool for the creation of interlinked timelines and
maps as interpretive expressions of the literary or historical
content of archival collections, currently under development by
the Scholars’ Lab at the University of Virginia with generous
funding by the NEH:
http://neatline.org/
6.
In this area of activity, see Stephen Ramsay (2005) on
""computational analysis in literary studies as a quest for
interpretations inspired by pattern,"" which can move the
""hermeneutical justification of the activity away from the
denotative realm of science and toward the more broadly
rhetorical and exegetical practices of the humanities.""
7.
See
http://juxtasoftware.org
and
http://sapheos.
org/","txt","2","",""
"1221","11","Knowledge and Conservation - Creating the Digital Library of New Hispanic Thought","2","
1
Knowledge and
Conservation - Creating
the Digital Library of New
Hispanic Thought
Priani, Ernesto
epriani@gmail.com
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México -
UNAM, Mexico
Galina, Isabel
igalina@unam.mx
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México -
UNAM, Mexico
Martínez, Alí
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México -
UNAM, Mexico
Chávez, Guillermo
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México -
UNAM, Mexico
This paper presents the Digital Library of
New Hispanic Thought (Biblioteca Digital del
Pensamiento Novohispano). In Mexico, during
the seventeenth century, two comets were
observed, leading to the publication of various
texts on the meaning of this astrological
phenomenon (Trabulse 1994a). During this
period relatively few books were published
due to high costs, the required approval
of the Inquisition for publication and the
lack of potential buyers. This proliferation of
publications on the subject can be viewed as an
indication of the importance of these events for
the Catholic Church, the colonial government
and the intellectuals of the period (Trabulse
1994b). The Heavens were, in Spanish colonial
Mexico, a scientific, religious, social, political
and ideological battleground (Moreno 1998).
To this date most digitization projects for
New Hispanic publications, namely Google
Books and Biblioteca Virtual Cervantes,
have focused primarily on access and
preservation and although useful, do not
constitute digital scholarly editions. The original
aim of this project was to provide the
basis for a critical digital edition through
collaborative commentary of digital diplomatic
transcriptions. The process however, in
particular during the migration of our tailor
made DTD to using TEI, also served as a
research tool which enabled us to develop
a conceptual framework to formulate further
research on these texts.
This is the first project from our university to use
XML and TEI.
1. From single publication to
digital library
The original aim of the project was to make
available in digital format the first book by Fray
Diego Rodríguez, published in 1652. However,
this idea was quickly superseded as we realized
that, taking into consideration the relatively
large number of books on comets and astrology
published in this period, it was more desirable
to present all texts as a corpus. We therefore
decided to focus on the common theme of
astrology/astronomy with the main objective
of not only gathering and creating a corpora
and providing access but also developing and
publishing a digital critical edition with tools to
aid scholars in their research. The outcome is the
publication of all known texts of the period, eight
in total.
1
With the exception of one, none of these
texts has ever been reedited.
Up to now, due to the fact that the ideas
contained within these texts were no longer
of any scientific value, the text itself has
not been considered particularly important.
Moreover, of the few studies that exist on these
publications, the tendency is to view them as
general testimonies rather than concentrating
on the texts themselves (Cf. Navarro, 1959
and Cullen, 1984). This new edition of the
texts in digital format gave us the opportunity
to examine the text in detail and reconsider
previous interpretations.
2. Textual processing
2.1. Digitization of texts
The eight texts were transcribed into plain
text digital format and diplomatic transcriptions
were produced. The only text that had been
reedited previously had been updated for
spelling and grammar as well as correcting
original errors, in order to make it more

2
readable for a modern, non-academic audience
(Cf. Navarro 1959 and Cullen 1984). Other
editions had been facsimiles (Trabulse 2001).
As the BDPN is aimed mainly at specialists
and we wished to both preserve the texts as
faithfully as possible and to provide analytical
tools, diplomatic transcriptions were considered
the most adequate.
2.2. Creating digital texts - DTD
The texts were then marked up in XML. We
wished to approach the text with no preexisting
theory or structure –and as a part of pedagogical
approach to the use of XML as a research tool-,
allowing the text to speak for itself. In order to
do this we set about producing categories as the
text was analysed. These categories were then
converted into tags which eventually formed the
DTD for the XML mark up. The objective of this
was that the analysis of the text for creating the
DTD was in itself a critical analysis. Once our
own DTD had been developed, we then began
the process to migrate to TEI. In order to do
so we sorted through our categories and found
equivalents. This process helped us define a new
conceptual framework for studying the texts.
3. Digital Library Tools
The main objectives of the BDPN web interface
2
were two fold: to present the marked up XML
texts as a new digital edition and to offer
tools to continue to carry out analytical work.
Currently the system allows the user to view
the published texts and consult them through
indexes which are automatically generated from
the XML tags (see Fig.1). An advanced search
function allows the user to search specifically in
over one hundred tags (see Fig.2)
Fig. 1 Index search interface
Fig. 2 Specific tag search interface
Additionally the system includes expert
commentary on the text (see Fig.3). Specialists
in the subject may obtain a username and
password that allows them to comment on
the texts and these appear as part of the
critical edition. This provides the framework for
future national and international collaboration
on these particular texts. The project is not
conceived as a closed edition and it will
hopefully continue to be expanded to permit
new enquiries of research to be developed.
Fig. 3 Screenshot of expert commentary
4. Discussion and Conclusions
4.1. DTD categories to TEI
The original DTD was used to identify all
possible elements that could be of interest to the
study; from classical mythology and Christian
metaphysics to geographic and geospatial
indicators. Almost one hundred categories were
identified. Once the text was marked up using
our DTD we then migrated to TEI Lite. In
order to do so we needed to find equivalents
for our elements. This migration process obliged
us to refine our categories and interestingly
to simplify our analytic framework. As we
started using common TEI tags such as date,
place, name, with the type attribute, we realized
that we could eliminate many of our tailor

3
made categories as they were redundant or too
specific.
This process helped us to identify the
truly relevant categories for these texts.
For example, source (citation, commentary,
authors), geographical and geospatial terms,
diseases associated with comets and old Spanish
terms. Significantly, the migration to TEI
allowed us to identify all the comets mentioned
in the corpus using the element attribution
date. Now that we have identified the thematic
structure of theses texts using these categories,
we now know that we wish to focus our
research on astrological themes used, diseases
commonly associated with comets, geographical
areas affected by astrological predictions and the
type of Spanish used in the period.
4.2. Documentation and technical
development
A key issue in the development of this project
was to produce enough documentation so that
this can survive as an open ended project,
allowing new texts to be incorporated when
and if they are discovered. It is known many
Humanities projects do not develop adequate
documentation that allows text files to be reused
(Warwick, et al. 2009).
Our experience shows that creating adequate
documentation is extremely difficult. One of the
main problems was the frequent changes in the
tags. As the text was analysed and marked up,
this tended to produce new requirements. It
proved difficult to maintain the documentation
up to date in order to describe and explain
all the considerations and changes. This is a
very time consuming process. It is difficult to
anticipate these changes and to contemplate
them adequately in the project timeline.
5. Conclusion and future work
The work done thus far has initially helped us to
view all these texts as a network. This had not
been done previously. Additionally in order to
develop the tags we approached the texts with
no preconceived structure and this has allowed
completely new concepts to emerge from the
texts. The move to TEI helped us to identify with
precision the framework with which to approach
further research into the text and produce a new
reading of this corpus.
In the future we hope to incorporate the
facsimiles as images and mark them up so that
specific parts of the image can be associated with
the textual transcription.
We also hope to generate international interest
in these documents that up to now have
been hidden in specialized libraries, mainly in
Mexico. There is currently little critical digital
content in Spanish in general and of this period
in particular. We aim ultimately to generate
new research on the subject and we believe
that this tool can contribute to the study of
New Hispanic thought. Additionally we aim to
generate research and publications that also
reflect on the experience of producing pre-
modern electronic textual editions.
6. Annex 1- Digitized works
Escobar Salemerón y Castro, José de
(1681).
Discurso Cometológico y relación del
nuevo cometa.
México: Viuda de Bernardo
Calderón.
Evelino, Gaspar Juan
(1682).
Especulación
astrologica y physica de la naturaleza de los
cometas, y juizio del que este año de 1682 se ve
por todo el mundo.
México: Viuda de Bernardo
Calderón.
Kino, Eusebio Francisco
(1681).
Exposicion
astronomica de el cometa.
México: Francisco
Rodríguez Luprecio.
López Bonilla, Gabriel
(1675).
Discurso y
relación Cometographica.
México: Viuda de
Bernardo Calderón.
Rodríguez, Diego
(1652).
Discurso
etheorologico del nuevo cometa visto en aqueste
hemisferio mexicano y generalmente en todo el
mundo.
México: Viuda de Bernardo Calderón.
Rodríguez, Diego
. Modo de calcular
qualquier eclipse de Sol y Luna según las tablas
arriba puestas del mobimiento de Sol y Luna
segun Tychon. Manuscrito inédito.
Rodríguez, Diego
. Tratado General de
Reloxes de Sol. Manuscrito inédito.
Ruiz, Juan
(1653).
Discurso hecho sobre la
significación de impresiones meteorológicas
que se vieron el año pasado de 1652.
México:
imprenta de Juan Ruiz.

4
Sigüenza y Góngora, Carlos de
(1690).
Libra astronómica y philosophica.
México:
Viuda de Bernardo Calderón.
References
Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora
(1984).
Seis
obras.
Cullen Bryant, William (ed.). Caracas:
Biblioteca Ayacucho.
Moreno Corral, Arturo
(1998).
Historia de
la astronomía en México.
Mexico: FCE.
Trabulse, Elías
(1994a).
Historia de la ciencia
en México.
México: FCE.
Trabulse, Elías
(1994b).
Los orígenes de
la ciencia moderna en México. 1630-1680.
México: FCE.
Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora
(2001).
Libra
astronómica y philosophica.
Trabulse, Elías
(ed.). México: Sociedad Mexicana de Bibliófilos.
Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora
(1959).
Libra
astronómica y philosophica.
Navarro, Bernave
(ed.). México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma
de México.
Warwick, C., Galina, I., Rimmer, J.,
Terras, M., Blandford, A., Gow, J.,
Buchanan, G.
(2009). 'Documentation and
the users of digital resources in the humanities'.
Journal of Documentation.
65(1)
: 33-57.
Notes
1.
See References.
2.
Biblioteca Digital del Pensamiento Novohispano (
www.dbpn.
unam.mx
)","txt","2","",""
"1222","11","Literary Theory and Theatre Practice: A Comparative Study of Watching the Script and the Simulated Environment for Theatre","2","
1
Literary Theory and
Theatre Practice: A
Comparative Study of
Watching the Script and the
Simulated Environment for
Theatre
Roberts-Smith, Jennifer
j33rober@uwaterloo.ca
University of Waterloo, Canada
Dobson, Teresa M.
teresa.dobson@ubc.ca
University of British Columbia, Canada
Gabriele, Sandra
sandrag@yorku.ca
York University, Canada
Ruecker, Stan
sruecker@ualberta.ca
University of Alberta, Canada
Sinclair, Stéfan
sgs@mcmaster.ca
McMaster University, Canada
Bouchard, Matt
matt.bouchard@gmail.com
University of Alberta, Canada
DeSouza-Coelho, Shawn
shawnathanddc@hotmail.com
University of Waterloo, Canada
Kong, Annemarie
aakong@yorku.ca
University of York, Canada
Lam, David
david.the.monkey@gmail.com
University of Waterloo, Canada
Rodriguez, Omar
omar.rodrigueza@gmail.com
University of Alberta, Canada
Taylor, Karen
katay164@interchange.ubc.ca
University of British Columbia, Canada
This paper describes the results of our recent
work on a 3D prototype called the Simulated
Environment for Theatre (SET), which we
undertook based on a growing realization that
our earlier 2D prototype, called Watching the
Script, reified some fundamental biases that
would render it less useful for stage directors
than we had originally hoped. Having produced
the two prototypes, our next step is to carry out
a user study to compare their usefulness. We
intend to present the results of this user study,
combined with a discussion of the meaning of
the two designs.
The design of Watching the Script features three
different perspectives on the text of a play: a
microtext column that gives an overview of the
length of sections, combined with coloured lines
to indicate each character; a reading pane; and
a dynamic playback on a stylized stage, where
characters move around and their speeches
scroll out underneath them.
While it has a certain naive charm, the
Watching the Script prototype has several
fundamental features that make it less than
optimal for theatre directors. First is the degree
of stylization of the stage, which is restricted to
a single shape and does not readily lend itself
to customization, either through changing the
basic stage design or through applying details in
the form of a set. Related to this stylization is the
overhead perspective, which makes it difficult to
imagine the actual lines of sight of people sitting
in the audience.
Next is the association between movement and
speech. Watching the Script is driven by the
XML of the play, which means that character
movements are attached to speeches. However,
in actual practice, characters are not restricted
to moving only when they speak. This emphasis
on the speech as the fundamental unit of the
play is reinforced through the central role of
text in the interface, with each speech occurring
simultaneously in three different places. We
argue elsewhere (Gabriele et al. 2009) that
both of these features make sense from the
perspective of English literature, where the
central object of study is the text. However, in
the staging of a play, we recognize that the text,
while still important, is a less central concern.
Directors take the text of a play as a starting
point, routinely cutting lines, removing entire
scenes or characters, and so on.

2
Next is the association between movement and
speech. Watching the Script is driven by the
XML of the play, which means that character
movements are attached to speeches. However,
in actual practice, characters are not restricted
to moving only when they speak. This emphasis
on the speech as the fundamental unit of the
play is reinforced through the central role of
text in the interface, with each speech occurring
simultaneously in three different places. We
argue elsewhere (Gabriele et al. 2009) that
both of these features make sense from the
perspective of English literature, where the
central object of study is the text. However, in
the staging of a play, we recognize that the text,
while still important, is a less central concern.
Directors take the text of a play as a starting
point, routinely cutting lines, removing entire
scenes or characters, and so on. In the Simulated
Environment for Theatre, we reconceived the
design to better support the affordances that
are central to the task of the Director. For
example, the character movements are now
associated with a timeline rather than with the
speeches, so that the character movement and
the speeches are both attached to the proposed
line of action on stage rather than to the text.
We have also introduced the ability to judge
the line of sight from any point in the audience
by developing the system to load 3D scale
models of actual stages and sets. Using the Unity
game engine as the programming environment,
we inherited the standard game controls for
camera movement, so that quite sophisticated
variations in perspective are possible. The
user can, for instance, switch between cameras
situated at different locations, making it possible
to quickly see the stage from several angles.
It is also possible to switch from the audience
perspective to the perspective of any of the
actors.
Our user study will be carried out early in 2010.
We will ask six directors working in industry to
try out the two interfaces and provide comments
through a thinkaloud protocol. We will also
obtain screen captures of these individuals
working with the two different systems. Finally,
considering pedagogical applications of these
interfaces, we will work with a small group
of graduate students in theatre education who
will consider the affordances of the prototypes
for teaching and learning about disciplinary
theory and practice. We expect this process to
provide additional insights into the choices of
functionality for SET, as well as the features
of Watching the Script that might be worth
adapting for inclusion in the new system.
References
Roberts-Smith, Jennifer, Gabriele,
Sandra, Ruecker, Stan, Sinclair,
Stéfan, Bouchard, Matt, DeSouza-
Coelho, Shawn, Kong, Annemarie, Lam,
David, Rodriguez, Omar
(2009). 'The Text
and the Line of Action: Re-conceiving Watching
the Script'.
Proceedings of the INKE 2009:
Research Foundations for Understanding
Books and Reading in the Digital Age.
Victoria,
BC, 23-24 October 2009.","txt","2","",""
"1223","11","LogiLogi: The Quest for Critical Mass","2","
1
LogiLogi: The Quest for
Critical Mass
Wiersma, Wybo
mail@wybowiersma.net
King's College London
In this abstract, and more so in the poster-
presentation, we will report on the process
of, and the problems involved in, gaining a
critical mass of users for an interactive hypertext
application for the Digital Humanities. The aim
of any DH application ultimately is to be used,
but for collaborative ones, the contributions and
interactions of existing users are often what
make it worthwhile for new visitors. Gaining an
initial critical mass of users for such applications
is notoriously hard, but especially important if
they are ever to be used at all.
First we briefly introduce LogiLogi, the system
on which we are going to try to get a community
started. Next our strategy for gaining users,
some possible improvements, and attempts so
far, are explained. Here we will also discuss the
kinds of users we target, and the possible size of
the application's critical mass. We finish with an
overview of the usage-data that our poster will
report on.
1. System
LogiLogi is a Web 2.0 application that tries
to find an informal middle-road between good
conversations and journal-papers by providing
a form of quick, informal publication, peer-
review, and annotation of short philosophical
texts. It is intended for all those ideas that one
cannot turn into a full-sized paper, but that one
deems too interesting to leave to the winds.
It does not make use of forum-threads (avoiding
their many problems), but of tags and links that
can also be attached to phrases by people other
than the text's original author. It also features
a rating-system modelled after journal-based
review. Well-rated texts earn authors more
voting-power, and thus a measure of standing,
within their peer group (of which there are
multiple).
LogiLogi is Free Software, and has been under
development for 3 years, during which about
30 volunteers have done 8 man-years of work
(worth $500.000). A public beta is already
online and fully functional at
www.LogiLogi.org.
2. Strategy
Things that have been done so far to gain
users are, first of all, making sure that LogiLogi
works properly. LogiLogi has been extensively
tested and improved at the LIRMM lab of the
University of Montpellier this September. And
it was used there by about 30 active users for
internal discussions until the end of October.
Secondly, some seed-content has been added
(about 100 philosophical texts, some of which
are part of larger essays). And finally, since
October, it has been made easy for users to track
new replies, annotations, and votes for their
documents, both through a personalized RSS
feed, and e-mail alerts. These things have made
LogiLogi practically usable for the first time.
2.1. Target Audience
LogiLogi has not yet been advertised widely,
and changing this is one of the first things we
will do next. LogiLogi aims for a wide audience
of scholars, students, and people interested
in philosophy, but to set the right tone, we
first aim for people with academic credentials
(students and scholars). Among them, most
success is expected with students, both because
of their limited access to other publishing
channels, and their greater average computer-
literacy. Possible places to reach them are
forums, newsgroups, and (limited) advertising
via Google Adwords.
2.2. Process
Then, as part of user-driven, agile development,
feedback will be collected from users on
possible improvements: both ongoing, from
users on the web, and from a small group
of philosophers/students in a usability test.
Some of these improvements will then be
implemented, after which we plan to repeat the
process, with another round of usability testing
and improvements.

2
2.3. Improvements
A possible improvement so far identified is
simplifying the application, for example by
(temporarily) limiting the number of voting-
communities (peergroups) to one. This would
have the additional advantage of reducing the
number of users that are needed to reach critical
mass, because votes are no longer limited to,
and divided between groups. While it is hard
to determine what the critical mass of LogiLogi
would be, from what we saw in the LIRMM
case, it most likely lies between 30 to 60 active
users per peergroup (or for the whole site, if
there is only one peergroup). To examine this
further, a small literature study of the notion of
critical mass, and of the factors influencing its
size (especially for hypertext based applications,
close to the humanities) will also be undertaken.
Another place for improvement is the editing
and annotation process: its responsiveness,
especially, could be improved. LogiLogi
currently requires people to open a new page
when they want to insert annotations or links,
while it would be a lot easier if this could be
done while reading the text, at least for simple
annotations. And finally, a demo-video will be
created, which quickly explains what LogiLogi
is, and how it can be used.
2.4. Report
In our poster we will present LogiLogi, explain
the notion of critical mass, and report on
developments in the number of users. In
addition, the strategies and improvements
we applied, and their practical, and causal
relationships will be explained, where possible.
Also, we will not just be reporting the number of
registered users, or unique visitors, but also on
the number of documents, annotations, replies,
and votes given over the time-period from
December 2009 until June 2010. Thus a detailed
view will be given of the process of gaining
critical mass.
3. Conclusion
Whether we succeed or not in gaining a
critical mass for LogiLogi, there will be
meaningful results from this experiment, as
it not only involves presenting, or further
improving an already quite usable interactive
Digital Humanities application, but foremostly
trying to give it a critical mass of users, and
exploring this process, producing insights and
a valuable case-study (of success or failure)
for future Digital Humanities projects to learn
from: projects which will, most likely, be more
interactive than their predecessors, and thus
will sooner or later face the same challenge of
gaining a critical mass of users.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Lars Buitinck, Maarten
Geraedts, Allan van Hulst, Auke Klazema,
Bart Leusink, Miguel Lezama, Charl Linssen,
Jan Mikac, Steffen Michels, Roel 3 van
Rijswijk, Bruno Sarlo, Thierry Stamper, Artyom
Syazantsev, Rens van Summeren, Pieter van
der Vlis, Jordy Voesten, Ilona Wilmont, Andrew
Wolters and Feng Zhu for their contributions
to the development of LogiLogi over the years.
Among them we want to especially thank Bruno,
Charl, Miguel, and Steffen, without whom
LogiLogi would not have been what it is today.
We would also like to thank the Philosophy
Department of the University of Groningen for
the initial small grant that got LogiLogi started,
and the University of Nijmegen which twice
provided a group of Computer and Information
Science students to work on LogiLogi for credits
as part of their GIPHouse program. In addition
we are grateful to the OFSET (Organization
for Free Software in Education and Teaching)
foundation for supporting us with a small grant.
We would also like to thank the audiences of
our presentations at the FOSDEM (Free and
Open source Software Developers' European
Meeting) of 2007 and 2009 in Brussels, the
TDOSE (Technical Dutch Open Source Event)
of 2007 in Eindhoven, the Netherlands, the
ECAP (European conference on Computing
and Philosophy) conferences of 2008 and
2009 in Montpellier and Barcelona, the Digital
Humanities 2008 conference in Oulu, Finland,
the RMLL (Rencontres Mondiales du Logiciel
Libre) of 2008 in Mont-de-Marssan, France,
the FKFT (Free Knowledge, Free Technology
Conference) of 2008 in Barcelona, and the
Philosophers Rally of 2009 in Enschede, the
Netherlands, for their questions and insightful
comments.

3
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4
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Philosophy Beyond the Book.
http://www.logil
ogi.org/pub/beyond/paper.pdf
.","txt","2","",""
"1224","11","Museums of the virtual future","2","
1
Museums of the virtual
future
Marie-Madeleine Martinet
marie-madeleine.martinet@paris-sorbonne.fr
Department of English, Université Paris IV-
Sorbonne, France
Liliane Gallet-Blanchard
liliane.gallet-blanchard@paris-sorbonne.fr
Department of International Business and
Languages, Université Paris IV-Sorbonne,
France
The poster will argue that a retrospective
museum-like exhibition of digital media leads
to further developments in the field of
‘visualisation’: the study of the past offers
new opportunities to emerging technologies.
The poster is based on an exhibition entitled
‘Is the virtual real?’ which took place at
the University of Paris-Sorbonne in October
2009, organized by the Research Centre CATI
(Cultures Anglophones et Technologies de l’
Information
http://www.cati.paris-sorbonne.
fr
), and on the work in progress of the digital
preservation of the exhibition.
It will be supported by computer
demonstrations showing 1) the time-perspective
issues in a retrospect on the history of Virtual
Reality: examples of the variety of the original
documents 2) the interaction between different
areas of expertise in IT related to visualisation,
and between history and IT practice, during the
exhibition 3) the preservation of the exhibition
on digital records as a source of new projects.
1. A museum display on the
history of virtual reality: from
simulation to image
1.1. From the past to the present:
bringing precursors together
A retrospect in a museum of science will have
to show that present-day IT applications are a
convergence of many technologies of the past,
eventually leading to simulation.
The first micro of the 1970s, the Micral N
(1973) was made for a laboratory in agronomy
studying evaporation phenomena. Still earlier,
an analogue machine dating back to the
1960s, the EAI 580 (1963), before the digital
age, was used to calculate possible options
and variations for industrial processes such
as crane counterweights and plane landing
without visibility; it was later used in research
laboratories. The idea of ‘simulation’ existed
long before it converged with digital technology,
which in early days lacked the necessary
computing power, and took over only when
its computing speed made it appropriate for
simulation. Image or simulation technologies
were first distinct from computing, and a
retrospect has to show the separate strands.
1.2. From the future to the past: VR
and interactivity
The present computing power gives a new
approach to history, by allowing us to
‘experiment’ with the past. A hypothesis on the
construction of the Egyptian pyramid can be
tested with a CAD programme by an architect –
a version of a present-day approach to industrial
history where the expertise of professionals is
required to assess the plausibility of hypotheses
concerning industrial processes of the past.
VR programmes meant to reconstruct the
architecture of past centuries – Italian
Renaissance buildings or the Georgian city
of Bath – use the same CAD tools as those
employed nowadays in architects’ practices to
plan for future buildings. A case in point is the
Renaissance theatre which was published as a
woodcut in a 16th century book, then, thanks to
present-day architectural software, became a 3D
virtual model, which in turn served as a plan to
build a real wooden model; passing from 2D to
3D enables the viewer to visualize the gradual
distortion of the stage set as the spectators sit
farther from the seat of honour.
The experimental approach also concerns the
public, who can navigate interactively. Examples
of games exemplify the exchange between
entertainment and professional simulation,
such as flight simulators which may be used
for both; and game engines may be used for
architectural or historical simulations.

2
1.3. Visualisation between image and
IT
3D technology, interpretation and
practice
Technical practice gives a better understanding
of an art. The visitors in the exhibition
could experiment the creation of 3D graphics
themselves on a computer at their disposal:
practice on present-day software enables the
visitors to visualize the interaction between
geometry, technology and aesthetics that have
made the history of VR – and of architecture.
They experience a new view of art history,
starting from cylinders and half-spheres to
produce an image of Classical rotundas with
circular colonnades and domes.
Various modes of presentation contextualize
this combination of VR programmes running
on machines, both professional finished projects
and visitors’ experiments: they need to be
supported by explanatory panels on the history
and practice of CAD and VR, placing it in
a historical context – 3D modelling dating
back to Renaissance perspective. The panels
also have to explain the main notions of
3D graphics: the creation of primitive forms
associating geometry and art, the use of textures,
lighting and perspective through the ‘camera
eye’, and eventually animation. They show how
the basic techniques of geometrical coordinates
experimented by the visitors underlie, after
much elaboration, the artistic finished products
of VR that they can admire in the exhibition.
Virtual worlds such as Second Life, where
the computing power and network capabilities
required can be used for artistic purposes
such as a live jazz performance broadcast
internationally, also exemplify the interactive
possibilities of VR.
Digital image aesthetics and the
historical perspective
Films on the history of VR are shown, and here
again media technology has to be harnessed
so as to suggest the historical perspective,
based on the practices of digital visualisation
aesthetics; this involves cooperation between
historians of IT and digital media technicians.
Documentaries dating back to the early 1990
differ in pixel definition from cutting-edge
trailers of new programmes, yet they have to
appear on the same screen; videos on VR
in medicine and videos on architecture are
focused differently. The resulting films have to
show both the similarity in techniques and the
differences in purpose between documentaries
in these various areas. A solution is to present
the early films in a smaller format which makes
pixelisation less visible, and surround them with
a frame to recover the format of the larger films;
the frame effect will in addition give them an
old-fashioned air which will suggest the time
perspective.
The museology of IT
The layout of the exhibition is meant to relate the
various IT programmes presented. An option
was to take advantage of the exhibition space
– in our case, a linear two-nave 15th century
building, in which a circuit was organized
so as to trace the history of VR from its
beginning to present-day supercomputers. The

3
lighting is also of great importance, implying
cooperation between the electricians specialised
in museology and the historians of IT who are
responsible for the exhibits, who need to learn
to understand one another’s requirements so
that the exhibition space is equipped and lit in
order to throw into relief working machinery
(not static objects as in other exhibitions).
Preservation for the future: augmented
reality
An exhibition on simulation takes advantage
of IT technologies, and in return it gives new
options for developing these technologies.
VR about VR
Records of the exhibition will be preserved
as ‘augmented reality’, a project which will
maintain a permanent record of the exhibition.
The architectural setting of the exhibition is
suited to VR, so that the result will be the
history of VR within a VR model. A narrative
structure will have to be combined with a
virtual spatial environment. The project is thus
a contribution to theories on the structure of
digital information.
Records for preservation
While the exhibition was on, records were
made: photos, films of the lectures, which
will be integrated with the documents shown,
originally in several formats. The recording of
the exhibition in progress for future VR use was
part of the sessions themselves.
Visualisation thus combines aesthetic and
technical issues at several levels. The poster with
give images for each point; the several types
of computer programmes presented with it will
allow the conference delegates to experiment on
demos of work in progress as well as see views of
the exhibits at different scales.
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(accessed 20
March 2010).","txt","2","",""
"1225","11","National Digital Library of Finland: Putting the Resources of Culture, Science and Teaching at Everyone's Fingertips","2","
1
National Digital Library
of Finland: Putting the
Resources of Culture,
Science and Teaching at
Everyone's Fingertips
Kautonen, Heli
heli.kautonen@finlit.fi
Finnish Literature Society, SKS, Finland
Sainio, Tapani
tapani.sainio@fmp.fi
The National Digital Library project, Finland
Vakkari, Mikael
mikael.vakkari@nba.fi
The National Board of Antiquities, Finland
1. Aims of the Project
The National Digital Library is one of
the research, innovation, and creativity
environments developed under the strategic
policies of the Ministry of Education of
Finland. It implements national culture and
science policies by increasing the availability
of the digital resources of libraries, archives
and museums, by developing their long-term
preservation, by establishing an important
research infrastructure, and by strengthening
virtual learning environments.
The National Digital Library project is also the
Finnish response to the joint objectives of the
European Union Member States on digitisation
of cultural materials and scientific information,
and their electronic availability and long-term
preservation. The National Digital Library will
serve as the Finnish aggregator for Europeana.
The project has four main goals:
-
to build one national access point, a public
interface, to digital resources of libraries,
archives and museums (operational in 2011)
-
to digitise and make available the most
essential collections of Finnish cultural
heritage organisations through the public
interface
-
to create sustainable solution for long-
term preservation of digital cultural material
(finalised plan in 2010)
-
to boost national competence in the
area of digitisation, online availability and
accessibility and long-term preservation.
Figure 1
A total of 35 organisations participate in
the project: ministries, national institutions in
charge of recording and preserving cultural
heritage, scientific and public libraries, archives,
museums, universities, research institutes,
academic associations, and representatives from
other key interest groups.
The formation of consensus and a new
enthusiasm for co-operation between sectors
has been the key issue in an undertaking
of this magnitude. On project level this has
been achieved by cross-sectoral expert groups,
using shared tools for project management,
interaction and development, and learning from
each others' practices. The central funding from
the ministry has been the corner stone of
this national project. The common standards
defined during the project, operational public
interface, and projected implementation of the
long-term preservation solution should ensure
the continuation of the co-operation within the
Finnish memory organisation sector after the
project is completed.
2. Functional principle of the
Public Interface
The born-digital and digitised resources on
cultural heritage, research, and teaching in
Finland will be accessible to end-users through
a single interface of integrated services and

2
resources called the Public Interface. The Public
Interface will be the primary access point to the
resources held by libraries, museums, archives
and other information suppliers in Finland. The
national view (e.g. the national instance of the
Public Interface) will be supplemented with,
for example, customised sectoral or institutional
views.
The operational principle is to continue
cataloguing data and keep the digital objects
in the back-end systems. Metadata will be
automatically harvested to the Public Interface
and normalised and indexed for easy and
fast retrieval. Harvesting and services will
be integrated to the Public Interface through
standardised interfaces and access to the digital
objects will be provided by persistent links.
The systems architecture of the public interface
separates the user interface from the back-end
systems of organisations. This will facilitate
customer oriented services development since
more resources can be focused on user interface,
services development, and integration.
The end-users' needs and expectations have
played a major role during the project.
Information retrieval systems currently in use
are often challenging to use, and some of
them require user training before information
retrieval is possible. Much of the development
work is based on experience gained from
research on systems currently in production.
The aim is to use the gained experience
to develop a comprehensive and multifaceted
service with high usability and fast information
retrieval functionality available 24/7 anywhere.
The system provides functionality for the end
user to personalise the user interface to suit his/
her needs.
3. Resources and Metadata
Contents of the Public Interface will be digitised
or born-digital objects (images, texts, sound
files, video clips, e-publications), reference
data on physical objects (e.g. artefacts, books,
works of art, geographical locations), or other
reference data stored in databases.
The Public Interface will provide unrestricted
material for all users. It will also provide
restricted access materials subject to user
authentication, such as licensed materials (e.g.
e-journals), archive materials with restricted
viewing and use, legal deposit copies, and other
materials subject to copyright.
Since there are several content providers from
various sectors, the metadata available will
be very heterogenous. This metadata will
be harvested from several different back-end
systems to a centralised index of the Public
Interface. The metadata will be normalised to
a common internal format. This means that
the Public Interface will accept any type of
metadata, as long as the providing organisations
have implemented standardised interfaces for
harvesting.
4. Users and Usability
One of the major challenges of the project
is usability. The success of the service
depends greatly on its ability to meet the
user expectations, which have been outlined
in the requirement specifications. Usability
considerations focus mostly on the user
interface and its functionalities, which should
expose the digital content and services
within the system and enhance their value.
Furthermore, with effective user studies it will
also be possible to identify potential future
stakeholders and their needs.
The project has assigned a considerable amount
of resources to user studies and usability design.
The Usability Plan, which was realised in
autumn 2009, includes five sections:
1.
Usability principles
; By following the
discourse on the field of HCI as well as the
accomplishments of comparable projects, the
usability principles for the National Digital
Library will be established.
2.
Pre-design evaluation
; Primary target
groups, their roles as service users, and
expectations will be described in detail.
Particularly, users with vague information
needs will be examined. Central use cases and
projected information retrieval scenarios will
be modelled. The service concept will also be
tested among selected target groups.
3.
Usability evaluation
; Formal usability
evaluations will be conducted: one during the
piloting phase of the system, and another once
the system has been deployed. All evaluations

3
will comprise of a usability analysis and
testing of the user interfaces.
4.
Tracking and evaluating actual use
; In order
to provide systematic data for analysing the
actual use, usage logs will be collected and
recurrent user studies conducted. On-line
communities of National Digital Library users
will be traced, monitored, or founded.
5.
User interface design
; The project will
employ a professional usability engineer
for realisation of approved usability design
principles, who will participate in all above
mentioned usability design phases.
The results of these phases will guide the design
and implementation of the Public Interface.
In addition, they will have some influence
on digitisation practices within organisations
providing material to the portal.
5. Future Perspectives
Currently the project is preparing for the pilot
phase of the Public Interface which will start
after the procurement of the Public Interface
software. After the pilot is complete, the Public
Interface is expected to be fully implemented
and go live on 2011. Plans pertaining to long-
term preservation will be completed in the
Summer 2010. It is, however, up to the next
Finnish Government to set guidelines for its
implementation and future funding.
During 2011 the NDL will transform from
a project to a more sustainable organisation
continuing the present work with the entire
library, museum and archive sector as an
essential part of the ongoing development of the
national digital infrastructure.
For more information on the National Digital
Library and the outcomes, news and other
deliverables of the project, see:
http://www.kdk
2011.fi/en
.","txt","2","",""
"1226","11","Original, Translation, Inflation. Are All Translations Longer than Their Originals?","2","
1
Original, Translation,
Inflation. Are All
Translations Longer than
Their Originals?
Rybicki, Jan
jkrybicki@gmail.com
Pedagogical University, Krakow, Poland
It is a truth almost universally acknowledged,
at least among translator service providers, that
some languages take fewer words to express
the same thing than some other languages, to
the extent that translator remuneration is often
calculated accordingly. To further paraphrase
Jane Austen and John Burrows: this truth is so
well fixed in the minds of the general translating
community that the scant reports pointing to
the contrary – or, at least, to a possibility
that this effect might be exactly contrary to
expectations – are either ignored or appear in
the wrong journals (Rybicki, 2006). While this
problem is not entirely ignored by traditional
translation studies, it is usually dealt with as an
aside in publications where this discipline meets
corpus linguistics to define and study translator
style (Baker, 1993, 1996, 2000), or applied to
no more than two languages, very few texts
and, more often than not, small sample sizes
(Englund Dimitrova, 1994, 2003, Pápai, 2004),
or oriented to point out differences between two
translations rather than original and translation
(Rybicki, 2009). Theoretical considerations are
just as unsatisfactory. Differences in the level
of inflection of the two languages are usually
seen as the reason for the differences in length
between the native and the foreign version of
the same text; the rare exception, i.e. a more
or less positive statement on the subject, has
been made by George Steiner: “translations are
inflationary” (Steiner, 1978) in a discussion of
explicitation, one of the so-called translation
universals (Baker, 1993, 1996). Still, while
explicitation is a mechanism that certainly does
involve using more text in the target language
to denote less text in the original, it is not clear
whether Steiner had any specific textual unit in
mind that would undergo inflation – as opposed
to another possibility, the inflation of meaning.
Indeed, it is even less clear whether mere
difference in the number of words – the first
and reflexive approach most stylometrists would
take – between a novel in one language and
another novel, the former's translation, is at
all of any scholarly interest; it is quite possible
that what matters more is the increase (or
decrease) in the number and/or the length
of, say, sentences. Even then, however, the
differences could be a simple consequence of
the divergent linguistic systems and the whole
problem should be left at that.
It is almost a tradition that, faced with
such theoretical quandaries, members of our
community turn to empirical practicalities, to
experiment – and this is exactly what this paper
does. Using a series of fairly extensive bilingual
corpora or, simply speaking, combinations of
original and translation (and, in some cases,
another, and yet another translation of the same
text) in a variety of source and target languages,
the study compares the sizes, establishes
their patterns and their statistical significance
(with z-scores). The corpora in question
include: English translations of Polish novels
by Henryk Sienkiewicz; Polish translations of
American, English, French, German and Italian
prose (including the interesting sub-corpora
of translations of Tolkien and of translations
by the author of this paper); French and
Polish translations of Shakespeare; Polish and
English translation of Latin prose, Portuguese
translations of English prose.
The results do not paint a uniform picture.
While expected general trends can be observed
in size variation between pairs of languages,
the discrepancies in “inflation rate” between
certain rival translations into the same language
at times hide any stable “language-to-language”
effect. This effect has been hypothetically
ascribed at first to differences between inflected
(agglutinative) and analytic languages. While
this would be difficult to prove, at the
same time – barring such extreme cases of
translator logorhea as W.S. Kuniczak's famously
overflowing translation of Henryk Sienkiewicz's
historical romances, where the translation-to-
original ratio reaches the vertiginous heights of
170%, the record value in the entire project –
some correlation has been observed not so much
between the general degree of inflection of a
given language as between standardized type-

2
token ratios in each of the studied individual-
language corpora. Thus, although it would be
too much to say that STTR is a good measure
of a language's inflection, the general trend in
STTR ranges observed in each of the corpora
used in this study corresponds fairly well
to the
inverted
order of languages exhibiting
difference between original and translation (see
Figure below): translations into English tend
to be longer than their Polish originals; Polish
translations are shorter than original English
novels; most translations of Latin prose tend
to be longer than the originals, and so forth.
With an important caveat: it only takes an
overambitious, overzealous or pathologically
lazy translator, or an unscrupulous publisher, to
alter this pleasant image beyond recognition.
Standardized Type-Token Ratio (Box & Whisker) and Original-
to-Translation Ratio (Scatterplot) in Selected Prose Corpora
References
Baker, M.
(1993). 'Corpus linguistics
and translation studies: Implications and
applications'.
Text and Technology: In honour
of John Sinclair.
Baker, M., Francis, G.,
Tognini-Bonelli, E. (eds.). Amsterdam: John
Benjamins, pp. 17-45.
Baker, M.
(1996). 'Corpus-based translation
studies: The challenges that lie ahead'.
Terminology, LSP and Translation: Studies in
language engineering, in honour of Juan C.
Sager.
Somers, H. (ed.). Amsterdam: John
Benjamins, pp. 175-186.
Baker, M.
(2000). 'Towards a methodology for
investigating the style of a literary translator'.
Target.
12
: 241-266.
Pápai, V.
(2004). 'Explicitation – A universal
of translated text?'.
Translation Universals.
Do they exist?.
Mauranen, Kujamäki (eds.).
Amsterdam – Philadelphia: John Benjamins,
pp. 143-164.
Englund Dimitrova B.
(1994).
Statistical
Analysis of Translations (On the basis of
translations from and to Bulgarian, Russian
and Swedish).
Scandinavian Working Papers on
Bilingualism. V. 9, pp. 87-103.
Englund Dimitrova B.
(2003). 'Explicitation
in Russian-Swedish translation: sociolinguistic
and pragmatic aspects'.
Swedish Contributions
to the Thirteenth International Congress
of Slavists, Ljubljana, 15-21 August 2003.
Englund Dimitrova B., Pereswetoff-Morath, A.
(eds.). Lund: Lund University, pp. 21-31.
Rybicki, J.
(2006). 'Burrowing into
Translation: Character Idiolects in Henryk
Sienkiewicz's Trilogy and its Two English
Translations'.
Literary and Linguistic
Computing.
21(1)
: 91-103.
Rybicki, J.
(2009). 'Liczenie krasnoludków.
Trochę inaczej o polskich przekładach trylogii
Tolkiena'.
Po co ludziom krasnoludki?.
Warszawa, 2009.
Steiner, G.
(1978).
After Babel. Aspects of
Language and Translation.
Oxford: Oxford
University Press V. 253, reprinted, 1992.","txt","2","",""
"1227","11","Preparing the DARIAH e- Infrastructure","2","
1
Preparing the DARIAH e-
Infrastructure
Blanke, Tobias
tobias.blanke@kcl.ac.uk
King's College London
Haswell, Eric Andrew
eah@hum.ku.dk
Nordisk Forskningsinstitut, University of
Copenhagen,
With this poster, we would like to lay out
our vision for DARIAH and first steps towards
its realization. DARIAH (Digital Research
Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities;
http://www.dariah.eu
) is a European project
funded under the ESFRI programme (
http
://cordis.europa.eu/esfri/
), which aims to
conceptualise and afterwards build a virtual
bridge between different humanities and arts
resources across Europe. DARIAH is currently
in its preparatory phase, which will design the
infrastructure and build a sound business and
governmental model. From 2011, DARIAH will
begin its construction phase.
DARIAH starts off with the observation
that just like astronomers require a virtual
observatory to study the stars and other distant
objects in the galaxy, researchers in the arts
and humanities need a digital infrastructure
to bring together and collaboratively work
with dispersed scholarly resources (e.g. digital
content, services, methodologies). DARIAH will
be such an infrastructure with a European
dimension. Its aim is to bring together various
national infrastructures, such as the UK’s arts
and humanities e-Science initiative projects (
h
ttp://www.ahessc.ac.uk/
) and the German e-
Humanities infrastructure TextGrid (
http://
/www.textgrid.de
). DARIAH has also helped
to found the Coalition of Humanities and
Arts Infrastructures and Networks (CHAIN),
an international group of arts and humanities
infrastructure initiatives.
DARIAH will be an infrastructure to promote,
support, and advance research in the digital
humanities. Digital humanities is a long-
established research field, with its origins in
the Forties of the last century. Over the
past 60 years it has progressed and a large
variety of digital humanities centres and related
organizations have developed. However, we do
not perceive the digital humanities to be a
closed field of existing centres but rather an
open and developing research environment.
Everybody interested in using digital means
for arts and humanities research is part of
the DARIAH community of practice. In this
view, the DARIAH infrastructure would be a
connected network of people, information, tools
and methodologies for investigating, exploring
and supporting work across the broad spectrum
of the digital humanities.
The DARIAH network will be designed to
be as decentralised as possible, empowering
individual contributors (e.g. individual
researchers; national centers; specialised,
thematic centers) to work with and within the
DARIAH community and shape its features
as to their needs. Each contribution of each
contributor builds DARIAH, linked together in
DARIAH's architecture of participation. At the
same time, however, collaboration across the
borders of individual centers requires the usage
of common technologies e.g. for authentication
or federation of archive contents.
DARIAH is about the
(re-)use
of digital
research resources by anybody and anywhere.
By providing data for anybody’s use, it is
an e-Research environment. With regard to
standards to foster interoperability of content
and compatibility of tools, DARIAH will not
prescribe but encourage. Researchers do not
have to
support interoperability and openness,
but they
may want
to support and benefit
from opportunities such as collaboration and
re-usability facilitated by interoperability and
openness. DARIAH provides community-driven
recommendations and fosters interoperability
and collaboration through incentives. This
approach means less central control over what
DARIAH contains and provides.
When DARIAH is operational after the
construction phase, technical products by
DARIAH will be manifold:
-
technological services and tutorials that help
existing humanities data archives to link their
systems into the DARIAH network
-
a package of software and consultancy/
training, which supports emerging data

2
centres in establishing their own technology
environment quickly
-
an interoperability layer that will connect data
centres
-
means of linking into DARIAH for those
countries / disciplines that do not yet have e-
Humanities infrastructure and cannot afford
it in the near future
-
best practices and guidelines for individual
researchers that foster data interoperability
and preservation across the DARIAH network
We imagine DARIAH therefore to be not one
large infrastructure but more a means of linking
up people, services and data for research in
arts and humanities. Most likely, DARIAH
will not be one technical solution but many,
according to community needs and willingness
to collaborate. And it is in this context that
engaging with the active and vibrant community
of international digital humanists is high on
DARIAH's list of priorities. DARIAH is engaged
in important, in-depth work in modelling
research needs and behaviours, the results of
which will inform the further development of
DARIAH.
We think that the definition in the DuraSpace
midterm report on what is a repository also
fits DARIAH: “trusted intermediary that makes
content (...) usable with a menu of added-value
services”. Of course DARIAH will not be one
large repository, but otherwise the idea of a
trusted intermediary fits well.
DARIAH will make an important contribution
towards e-humanities, providing additional
services to analyse, annotate and share arts
and humanities research activities. DARIAH
will stimulate and provide expertise on all
aspects of e-humanities, from best practices for
digitisation to metadata standards and advice on
analysis methods and systems.","txt","2","",""
"1228","11","Propp Revisited: Integration of Linguistic Markup into Structured Content Descriptors of Tales","2","
1
Propp Revisited:
Integration of Linguistic
Markup into Structured
Content Descriptors of
Tales
Lendvai, Piroska
piroska@nytud.hu
Research Institute for Linguistics, Hungarian
Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
Declerck, Thierry
declerck@dfki.de
Language Technology Lab, DFKI GmbH,
Saarbrücken, Germany
Darányi, Sándor
Sandor.Daranyi@hb.se
Swedish School of Library and Information
Science, University College Boras/Göteborg
University, Sweden
Malec, Scott
malec@andrew.cmu.edu
Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Metadata that serve as semantic markup, such
as conceptual categories that describe the
macrostructure of a plot in terms of actors
and their mutual relationships, actions, and
their ingredients annotated in folk narratives,
are important additional resources of digital
humanities research. Traditionally originating
in structural analysis, in fairy tales they are
called functions (Propp, 1968), whereas in
myths – mythemes (Lévi-Strauss, 1955); a
related, overarching type of content metadata is
a folklore motif (Uther, 2004; Jason, 2000).
In his influential study, Propp treated a corpus
of tales in Afanas'ev's collection (Afanas'ev,
1945), establishing basic recurrent units of the
plot ('functions'), such as
Villainy, Liquidation
of misfortune, Reward,
or
Test of Hero
,
and the combinations and sequences of
elements employed to arrange them into
moves.
1
His aim was to describe the DNA-
like structure of the magic tale sub-genre as
a novel way to provide comparisons. As a
start along the way to developing a story
grammar, the Proppian model is relatively
straightforward to formalize for computational
semantic annotation, analysis, and generation
of fairy tales. Our study describes an effort
towards creating a comprehensive XML markup
of fairy tales following Propp's functions, by
an approach that integrates functional text
annotation with grammatical markup in order to
be used across text types, genres and languages.
The Proppian fairy tale Markup Language
(PftML) (Malec, 2001) is an annotation scheme
that enables narrative function segmentation,
based on hierarchically ordered textual content
objects. We propose to extend PftML so
that the scheme would additionally rely on
linguistic information for the segmentation
of texts into Proppian functions. Textual
variation is an important phenomenon in
folklore, it is thus beneficial to explicitly
represent linguistic elements in computational
resources that draw on this genre; current
international initiatives also actively promote
and aim to technically facilitate such integrated
and standardized linguistic resources. We
describe why and how explicit representation of
grammatical phenomena in literary models can
provide interdisciplinary benefits for the digital
humanities research community.
In two related fields of activities, we address
the above as part of our ongoing activities in
the CLARIN
2
and AMICUS
3
projects. CLARIN
aims to contribute to humanities research by
creating and recommending effective workflows
using natural language processing tools and
digital resources in scenarios where text-based
research is conducted by humanities or social
sciences scholars. AMICUS is interested in motif
identification, in order to gain insight into
higher-order correlations of functions and other
content units in texts from the cultural heritage
and scientific discourse domains. We expect
significant synergies from their interaction with
the PftML prototype.
1. Proppian fairy tale Markup
Language (PftML)
Creating PftML was based on the insight that
Propp's functions – organized in tables to
categorize his observations – were analogous
to metadata, and as such renderable by
hierarchically arranged elements in eXtensible
Markup Language (XML) documents. A tale

2
consists of one or more moves and on a
lower level of functions which are modeled as
elements. Function elements themselves have
XML attributes that allow for the efficient
extraction of data from the text using XQuery
from within a native XML database. The
embedded structure of Proppian functions as
represented by PftML markup is illustrated in
Fig. 1 by an annotated excerpt from the English
translation of the Russian fairy tale
The Swan-
Geese
.
Note that Proppian functions are applied
to relatively long, semantically coarse-grained
textual chunks, i.e. sentences, but linguistic
elements that convey a function actually
encompass a shorter sequence of words; e.g.
contrary to the markup in the example, both
Command
and
Execution
only pertain to
linguistic units smaller than full sentences.
<Corpus>
<Folktale Title=""The Swan-Geese"" AT=""480""
NewAfanasievEditionNumber=""113""
ProppConformity=""Yes"">
<Move>
<Preparation>
<InitialSituation> Once upon a time a man
and a woman lived with their daughter and small
son. </InitialSituation>
<CommandExecution>
<Command subtype=""Interdiction"">
""Dearest daughter,"" said the mother, ""we are
going to work. Look after your brother! Don't
go out of the yard, be a good girl, and we'll
buy you a handkerchief."" </Command>
<Execution subtype=""Violated""> The
father and mother went off to work, and the
daughter soon enough forgot what they had told
her. She put her little brother on the grass
under a window and ran into the yard, where she
played and got completely carried away having
fun.</Execution>
</CommandExecution>
</Preparation>
<Villainy subtype=""Kidnapping""> In swooped the
swan-geese, snatched up the little boy, and
flew away with him. </Villainy>
<ConsentToCounteraction> When the girl came
back inside, her brother was missing! ""Oh
no!"" she cried. She dashed here and there, but
there was no sign of him. She called for him,
cried, and wailed how angry mother and father
would be, but her brother did not answer. </
ConsentToCounteraction>
2. Integration of PftML with
linguistic annotation
We propose to combine PftML with a stand-
off, multi-layered linguistic markup scheme
to ensure modularity and reusability of
linguistic information associated with textual
elements, supporting interoperability of fairy
tales annotation in different languages and
versions. As seen in Fig. 1, PftML is interleaving
the Proppian annotation with the text. This in-
line annotation strategy has some drawbacks:
a text can hardly be annotated in fine-grained
manner without losing readability, or with
information originating from different sources
e.g. indicating different views on narrative
functions.
Stand-off annotation strategy, following
the standardization initiatives for language
resources conducted within ISO,
4
stores
annotation separately from the original text,
linking these by referencing mechanisms.
We adopt the ISO multi-layered annotation
strategy, representing linguistic information
on the following levels: segmentation of the
text in tokens; morpho-syntactic properties
of the tokens; phrasal constituencies;
grammatical dependencies; semantic relations
(e.g. temporal, co-referential), cf. (Ide and
Romary, 2006).
We illustrate how the linguistic annotation
layers can be combined with the PftML
annotation in one stand-off annotation file,
showing here only the morphosyntactic and
constituency annotation, as they are applied
to the first five tokens of the sub-sentence
annotated with the 'Violated Execution' function
in Fig. 1. In the morphosyntactic annotation, the
value of the
TokenID
of the 12th word is pointing
to the original data (e.g.,
daughter
is the 12th
token in the text).
5
<wordForms>
<W ID=""w11"" POS=""ART"" LEMMA=""the"" MORPH=""Sg""
tokenID=""t11"">the</W>
<W ID=""w12"" POS=""NN"" LEMMA=""daughter""
MORPH=""Sg"" tokenID=""t12"">daughter</W>
<W ID=""w13"" POS=""ADV"" LEMMA=""soon""
tokenID=""t13"">soon</W>
<W ID=""w14"" POS=""ADV"" LEMMA=""enough""
tokenID=""t14"">enough</W>
<W ID=""w15"" POS=""VVFIN"" LEMMA=""forget""
MORPH=""Past"" tokenID=""t15"">forgot</W>
...
</wordForms>
In the constituency annotation level displayed
below, words are grouped into syntactic
constituents (e.g. the nominal phrase
the
daughter
). The span of constituents is marked
by the value of the features
from
and
to
, which

3
are pointing to the previous morpho-syntactic
annotation layer.
<phrases>
<phrase id=""p4"" from=""w11"" to=""w12""
type=""NP"">the daughter</phrase>
<phrase id=""p5"" from=""w13"" to=""w14""
type=""ADVP"">soon enough</phrase>
<phrase id=""p6"" from=""w15"" to=""w15""
type=""VG"">forgot</phrase>
<phrase id=""p7"" from=""w16"" to=""w20""
type=""REL_COMP"">what they had told her
</phrase> ...
</phrases>
PftML and (for example) word-level annotation
can be combined in one stand-off XML element,
where each specific PftML annotation receives a
span of textual segments associated with it:
<Execution subtype=""Violated"" id=""e1""
inv_id=""Command1"" from=""w11"" to=""w21""> </
Execution>
The values
w11
and
w21
are used for defining a
region of the text for which the Propp function
holds;
Command1
refers to the
Interdiction
function label used earlier in the text.
6
3. Benefits for humanities
research
The integrated annotation scheme enables
narrative segmentation enhanced by additional
information about the linguistic entities
that constitute a given function. A folklore
researcher might be interested in which
natural language expressions correspond to
which narrative function: in the <
Execution
subtype=""Violated""
> example,
forgot
can be an
indicator of this function. In fact, it is also
relevant to signal that
forgot
is a verb, and
to reduce the strings
forgets, forgot, forgotten
to one lemma (i.e. base form), so that all
morphological forms are retrieved when any of
these variants is queried.
Navigating through the different types of IDs
included in the multilayered annotation, a
researcher can obtain statistics over linguistic
properties of fairy tales. For example, the
grammatical subject of a function can be
extracted, e.g. to see which characters
participate in commands and their violation.
Note that if – according to the current scheme –
the narrative function boundaries are imprecise,
the <
Execution subtype=""Violated""
> function
in our example sentence would incorrectly
contain two grammatical – and three semantic
– subjects (
father and mother
, and
daughter
).
Linguistic information will enable detecting
functions that refer to each other, as syntax and
semantics of sentence pairs in such relations
mirror – at least partly – each other, e.g.
Don't
go out of the yard
and
ran onto the street
.
Detecting cross-reference in turn contributes to
identifying a function's core elements, which is
a crucial step in understanding the linguistic
vehicles by which motifs operate and the degree
of variation and optionality they allow.
4. Concluding remarks
Since the content descriptors in PftML might
pertain to textual material on the supra-
or subsentential level, there is a need to
investigate the mechanisms underlying the
assignment of a function to a span of
words. We propose to tackle this issue
based on linguistic analysis, hypothesizing that
boundaries of certain linguistic objects overlap
with boundaries of Proppian functions. A direct
consequence of more precise segmentation of
functions is that linguistic characterization,
retrieval, and further computational processing
of texts from the folktale genre will improve, and
facilitate detecting higher-level, domain-specific
cognitive phenomena. It would also become
feasible to detect from corpus evidence if
there exist additional functions beyond Propp's
scheme.
Integration along the above lines with
ontological resources of fairy tales is described
in a separate study by us (Lendvai et al., 2010).
We expect from our strategy – applied to tales
in different versions in different languages –
to lead to the generation of a multilingual
ontology of folktale content descriptors, which
would be extending the efforts of the MONNET
project,
7
originally focussing on financial and
governmental issues. In future work we plan
to address embedding our annotation work
into the TEI framework,
8
and extend the ISO
strategy on using well-defined data categories
for linguistic annotation labels
9
to those of
functions corresponding to PftML labels, to
facilitate porting our approach to other literary
genres.

4
References
Afanas'ev, A.
(1945).
Russian fairy tales.
New
York: Pantheon Books.
Ide, N. and Romary, L.
. 'Representing
linguistic corpora and their annotations'.
Proc.
of LREC.
2006.
Jason, H.
(2000).
Motif, type and genre.
A manual for compilation of indices and a
bibliography of indices and indexing.
Helsinki:
Academia Scientiarum Fennica.
Lendvai, P., Declerck, T., Darányi, S.,
Gervás, P., Hervás, R., Malec, S., and
Peinado, F.
. 'Integration of linguistic markup
into semantic models of folk narratives: The
fairy tale use case'.
In Proc. of LREC.
2010.
Lévi-Strauss, C.
(1955). 'The structural study
of myth'.
Journal of American Folklore.
68
:
428–444.
Malec, S. A.
. 'Proppian structural analysis and
XML modeling'.
In Proc. of CLiP.
2001.
Propp, V. J.
(1968).
Morphology of the
folktale.
Austin: University of Texas Press.
Uther, H. J.
(2004).
The types of international
folktales: a classification and bibliography.
Based on the system of Antti Aarne and Stith
Thompson.
Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum
Fennica.
Notes
1.
The full list of functions is available at
http://clover.sla
vic.pitt.edu/sam/propp/praxis/features.html
2.
http://www.clarin.eu
3.
http://ilk.uvt.nl/amicus
4.
http://www.tc37sc4.org
5.
Note that the original string is normally not present in these
layers but is displayed in annotation examples for readability's
sake.
6.
We started to implement this work within the D-SPIN
project (see
http://www.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de/dspi
n
), which is the German complementary project to CLARIN.
7.
Multilingual ONtologies for NETworked Knowledge,
see
http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/ict/languagetec
hnologies/project-monnet_en.html
8.
http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml
9.
see
http://www.isocat.org/","txt","2","",""
"1229","11","Psycholinguistically Plausible Events and Authorship Attribution","2","1
Psycholinguistically
Plausible Events and
Authorship Attribution
Juola, Patrick
juola@mathcs.duq.edu
Duquesne University
Authorship attribution (Juola, 2008) is an
important emerging subdiscipline of digital
scholarship, but it suffers from a lack of
connection to other areas and disciplines,
which in turn strongly limits both applicability
and uptake. It is now unquestionable that
computers can infer authorship attributes with
high accuracy, but the accurate inference
processes tend not to inform us about the
actual authors (Craig, 1999). Among the best
methods, for example, are the analysis of
the most frequent function words such as
prepositions (e.g., Binongo, 2003), but knowing
that a particular person uses the word ""above""
a lot tells us little about that person. Argamon
(2006) has provided a theoretical analysis of
one particular method, but in the unfamiliar
and ""inhuman"" language of statistics, which
again sheds little light on authorial language and
authorial thought. By contrast, studies of gender
differences in language (e.g., Coates, 2004) offer
not only lists of differences, but explanations in
terms of the social environment.
This is in marked contrast to some of the early
(pre-computer) work in authorship analysis,
which attemped to infer authorship on the basis
of personality traits or psychological attributes.
For example, one of the oft-suggested measures
is vocabulary size, which we can easily associate
with both high intelligence (a personal trait)
as well as high education (a background trait).
This idea can be attributed both to Simpson
(1949) and Yule (1944) as well as to Talentire
(1976) [which admittedly is not pre-computer].
Similarly, average word length has been often
proposed [going back to De Morgan (1851)] but
never successful.
Why? Why the apparent disconnect between the
useful measures (such as preposition count) and
meaningful measures like vocabulary richness?
And in particular, why does this disconnect
persist when we can find both linguistic patterns
that predict personality (Argamon et al, 2005;
Nowson and Oberlander, 2007) and well as
medically useful linguistic diagnostics (Brown
et al, 2005). We suggest two possibilities; first,
that the meaningful measures proposed may
not be sufficiently fine-grained, and second,
that the statistical measures performed lose too
much information. As an example of the first,
consider that very few words, even in high-level
educated writing, exceed eight letters, meaning
that ""word length"" is an extremely coarse-
grained discretization of language. Similarly, the
standard method of calculating ""averages"" (or
even means and variances) reduces the entire
data set for a given author to two numbers. Many
authors have suggested (and recent findings
tend to support) that multivariate analysis
methods should work better for authorship
attribution.
In this paper, we explore a set of multivariate
analyses of well-established psycholinguistic
variables. The English Lexicon Project (Balota
et al, 2007) provides standardized behavioral
data for a set of approximately 40,000 words,
including average time for lexical decision tasks
(seeing a string of characters on the screen
and determining whether or not they form
a word), and naming time (seeing a set of
letters on the screen and naming the word they
form). These are widely regarded as measures
of the cognitive load involved in processing that
particular word, i.e. a measure of the mental
""difficulty"" of that word. Following similar
logic to De Morgan and Yule, we assume that
some people (smarter people?) will be more
comfortable using ""difficult"" words, and that
difficulty is more appropriately measured via
behavioral data than via either frequency or
length.
However, rather than focusing purely on
average difficulty, we apply more complex
multivariate statistics to the data distribution,
for example, by calculating the Kolmogorov-
Smirnoff distances between the distributions,
a distance that can be substantial even in
instances where the means and variances
of the data sets are identical. The JGAAP
software package (Juola, 2009) provides many
different combinations of analysis methods
and preprocessing, allowing us to provide a
fairly comprehensive discussion of the accuracy

2
and usefulness of these measurements in
comparison with control techniques such as
simple lexical statistics.","txt","2","",""
"1230","11","Putting Edmonton on the (Google) Map","2","
1
Putting Edmonton on the
(Google) Map
Zwicker, Heather
hzwicker@ualberta.ca
University of Alberta, Canada
Engel, Maureen
mengel@ualberta.ca
University of Alberta, Canada
In this poster/demo, we will describe and
analyze the experience of teaching English
486, “Producing the City.” An experimental
course co-taught between Dr Heather Zwicker,
Associate Professor of English, and Dr Maureen
Engel, E-Learning Manager for the Faculty of
Arts at the University of Alberta, English 486
is a hands-on, theoretically grounded capstone
course in multimedia installations that takes
the city of Edmonton, Canada as inspiration
and object. Based on principles of collaboration
and student-centered learning, the course takes
the city as its primary text. Grounded in
short Edmonton narratives and a range of
urban theory, the course listened to the city,
looked at the city, moved through the city, and
explored the meanings of home. The sensory
experiences of sound, sight, and movement were
translated through student projects using digital
photography, simple mapping, soundscapes,
and video. Each of these assignments served as
a scaffolding exercise to prepare students for
the final collaborative project: a KML-authored
installation designed for Google Earth.
This course did not take GIS as its object of
study; rather, it took the city as its object
and asked students to use various multimedia
tools to express their critical and creative
engagement with that city and its narratives.
Various assignments asked the students to
demonstrate and explore their learning through
digital tools, not to engage with and analyse
the potential of the tools themselves. We
asked them to learn new ways of expressing
their ideas, and to discover the affordances of
digital technologies to their critical apparatus.
The course raised multiple questions about
discipline, pedagogy, theory, and technology.
Our presentation offers a critical commentary
on our successes and shortcomings, and
demonstrates the importance - and surprising
payoffs - of doing this sort of work with
undergraduate students in the traditionally low-
tech field of English literature.
Our poster presentation / demo will have three
components. The first is an overview of the
course, describing its intellectual aims and
technical models. We explore some concepts
that are often taken for granted: what is a map,
how does it organize information, how does the
concept of ""space"" translate into ""place""? We
overview digitally mapped urban literature in
sites like Imagining Toronto, City of Memory
(New York), Hitotoki (Tokyo, Shanghai, Paris,
Sofia), Concrete Dialogues (Perth Australia),
and Artangel (London), as well as acoustic
ecology sites like the London Sound Survey,
the Montreal and New York Sound Maps, as
well as the Open Street Map project. Sites like
these open up both the concept of mapping and
the conventions of narrative in interesting ways,
playing with the synchronicity of the traditional
map and the linearity of conventional narrative.
And yet for reasons to do with Edmonton's
scarce representations and relative youth, such
models could not be translated wholesale into
our course.
The second section of our poster presentation
turns to the pedagogical implications of team-
teaching digital media under the aegis of
the English Department. Working with digital
media requires both instructors and students to
shift their expectations. Whereas the pedagogy
we're familiar with frequently measures student
learning by verbal articulation, whether oral
or written, we instructors had to learn to put
""discovery learning"" to work in classrooms by
letting students explore on their own, to a
certain extent. The biggest challenge for the
students in English 486 was not the technology
per se, but rather the nature of the assignments.
Instead of sole-authored papers, for instance,
students had to learn to work collaboratively
on sustained projects over the course of the
semester. The course also demanded unfamiliar
ways of reading and writing, in addition to
mastering the specific digital tools. Students
had to figure out which rhetorical techniques
are transferable and adaptable to the digital
realm, and which are not. They had to exercise
critical skills on the visual culture ubiquitous to

2
their personal, if not their academic, experience.
Our presentation pays particular attention to
the ways in which the students surprised and
surpassed our expectations, and the key lessons
both they and we learned from the shift in genre
from the research essay to the digital story/
argument. Key to this aspect of our presentation
will be demos of actual student projects.
Part three will offer a critical analysis of
the digital tools we used for representing
Edmonton. In particular, we evaluate Google
Maps and Google Earth as a technical platform
for this kind of pedagogical work. Publicly
available and free of charge, Google Maps
and Google Earth have much to recommend
them; they present a low barrier to entry,
both financially and technologically. At the level
of politics, relying on Google for fundamental
courseware is problematic – asking our students
to expose their work to a massive commercial
enterprise based in a foreign country was a
difficult decision to make. At the level of
pedagogy, any digital application will present
students with specific narrative constraints –
Google Earth can only
do
what Google Earth
can do, and would that be sufficient for
the task we set for our students? We will
assess the extent to which these tools are
enabling or limiting, particularly to students
crossing genres from traditional academic
prose. The hypercities tool (
www.hypercitie
s.com
) was evolving in beta as the course
progressed, and though it ultimately would have
served our pedagogical goals more satisfyingly,
reliability and practicality carried the day. That
Google’s ubiquity and stability were significant
determinants in our pedagogical practice is
instructive, if disheartening.
Looking back, the course demanded much of
both its instructors and its students. The quality
of the work the students produced, however, and
the extent of their learning proved that using
digital tools pushed students to go farther than
conventional tools could have.
References
Abrams, Janet, Hall, Peter (eds.)
(2005).
Else/Where: Mapping New Cartographies
of Networks and Territories.
Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press.
Artangel.
http://nighthaunts.org.uk
.
Benjamin, Walter
(1978). 'A Berlin
Chronicle'.
Reflections: Essays, Aphorisms,
Autobiographical Writings.
Demetz, Peter,
Jephcatt, Edmund (eds.). New York: Schocken
Books, pp. 3-58.
Best of Open Street Map.
http://bestofosm.or
g
.
Debord, Guy
(1981).
Theory of the Derive.
htt
p://www.bopsecrets.org/SI/2.derive.htm
.
de Certeau, Michel
(1984). 'Walking in the
City'.
The Practice of Everyday Life.
Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press, pp. 91-110.
City of Edmonton
(2004).
Naming
Edmonton from Ada to Zoie.
Edmonton:
University of Alberta Press.
City of Edmonton maps.
http://maps.edmonton
.ca
.
City of Memory.
www.cityofmemory.org
.
Concrete Dialogues.
http://dialogues.concret
e.org.au
.
Edmonton Geological Society
(1993).
Edmonton Beneath our Feet: A Guide to the
Geology of the Edmonton Region.
Edmonton:
Edmonton Geological Society.
Edmonton Police Service crime map.
http://cr
imemapping.edmontonpolice.ca
.
Edmonton Stories.
www.edmontonstories.ca
.
Goyette, Linda
(2004).
Edmonton in Our
Own Words.
Edmonton: University of Alberta
Press.
Gregory, Ian, Ell, Paul
(2006).
Historical
GIS: Technologies, Methodologies and
Scholarship.
Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Harmon, Katherine
(2003).
You Are
Here: Personal Geographies and Other Maps
of the Imagination.
Princeton: Princeton
Architectural Press.
Healthy City.
http://healthycity.org
.
Hitotoki.
http://hitotoki.org
.
Horton, Marc, Sass, Bill
(2003).
Voice of
a City: The Edmonton Journal’s First Century

3
1903 to 2003 .
Collum, Peter (ed.). Edmonton:
Edmonton Journal Group.
Hillier, Amy, Knowles, Anne Kelly (eds.)
(2008).
Placing History: How Maps, Spatial
Data and GIS are Changing Historical
Scholarship.
Redlands, CA: ESRI Press, CD-
ROM.
Hypercities.
http://hypercities.com
.
Imagining Toronto.
http://imaginingtoronto.
com
.
Knowles, Anne Kelly (ed.)
(2002).
Past
Time, Past Place: GIS for History.
Redlands,
CA: ESRI Press.
Lippard, Lucy
(1997). 'Sweet Home and Being
in Place'.
The Lure of the Local: Senses of Place
in a Multicentered Society.
New York: New
Press, pp. 22-38.
London Sound Survey.
www.soundsurvey.org.u
k
.
Montreal Sound Map.
http://cessa.music.con
cordia.ca/soundmap/en
.
Moretti, Franco
(2005).
Graphs Maps Trees:
Abstract Models for Literary History.
New
York: Verso.
New York Sound Map.
http://fm.hunter.cuny.
edu/nysae/nysoundmap/soundseeker.html
.
Open Street Map project.
http://bestofosm.or
g/
.
San Francisco biomapping project.
http://bio
mapping.net/
.
Sindon, Diana Stuart (ed.)
(2007).
Understanding Place: GIS and Mapping Across
the Curriculum.
Redlands, CA: ESRI Press.
Solnit, Rebecca
(2001). 'The Solitary Stroller
and the City'.
Wanderlust: A History of
Walking.
New York: Penguin, pp. 171-195.
Thompson, Nato, Independent Curators
International
(2008).
Experimental
Geography: Radical Approachs to Landscape,
Cartography, and Urbanism.
New York:
Melville House.
Turchi, Peter
(2007).
Maps of the
Imagination: The Writer as Cartographer.
San
Antonio, TX: Trinity University Press.
Urban Sketchers.
www.urbansketchers.com
.
VozMob.
http://vozmob.net/en
.
Walk Score.
www.walkscore.com
.","txt","2","",""
"1231","11","Software Demonstration, ""Emergent Time"" timeline tool","2","1
Software Demonstration,
“Emergent Time” timeline
tool
York, Christopher
cyork@mit.edu
HyperStudio, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
Trettien, Whitney
HyperStudio, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
Emergent Time is a prototype collaboration tool
for humanists and social scientists working with
timelines—narrative arrangements of events.
In Emergent Time, timelines are owned by
particular users, and represent the user's
interpretive reading of a series of events.
While an individual timeline “belongs” to a
user, many of the events it interprets may be
shared by other users and interpreted differently
in their timelines. Users construct timelines
individually, using a single form to build on
events others created before them, or to create
new events from scratch. The application thus
balances personal expression and argument
(in the form of individual timelines) with
collaboration and shared work (in the form of
raw events).
Throughout the prototype, clicking on an event
in a timeline will show how other users have
interpreted that particular incident. Thus, one
can read horizontally to follow the argument of
a given timeline, or depth-wise to jump between
different timelines that interpret the same event
from different perspectives.
1. Overview timelines
The prototype's salient feature is a set of
overview timelines, built by analyzing the
network of links between timelines and events
within the community. These links indicate
the most important events for a given topic.
For example, a search for “John F Kennedy”
might show the most highly-cited events in
his life: birth, election, and assassination.
To accomplish this, the prototype uses a
proprietary implementation of Page & Brin's
PageRank algorithm. Events that are linked to in
many timelines are likely to be important to the
community, and receive a high rank; conversely,
timelines that interpret many important events
receive a boost in rank. Emergent Time uses
these ranks to indicate which event entries are
regarded as most authoritative by the general
populace of users, and displays them when given
a matching topic.
2. Collaboration strategy
In Emergent Time only the author of a given
event can revise it, but the community at
large can add source critique comments and
propose alternate versions of the event. The
design intention was to spark general discussion
about whether a given event's description is
well-supported by the primary sources cited.
Because many versions of a given event may
exist, this encourages users to link to the
version that is factually best-supported in their
own timelines, while passing over those with
poor evidentiary support or badly-formulated
descriptions. Hence, using an event in one's
own timeline constitutes both a signal of
interest in the historical incident and a vote
of confidence in the event author's scholarship.
The collaboration workflow thus serves as a
macrocosm of the scholarly publication process,
allowing authors and readers to evaluate the
evidence in support of a given interpretation,
and to “vote with their feet” by citing it rather
than another in their own work.
As a result the overview timelines will come
to reflect not only which events are most
important for the interpretive community, but
also which versions of a particular event
are most authoritative. This allows overview
timelines to present the most influential event
entries for a given topic, and to accommodate
shifts in communal knowledge as new evidence
is found and new interpretations of a given
incident become normative.
3. In contrast to other tools
This collaborative strategy is intended to
capture established conventions for historical
analysis and source critique, and use the
resulting citation networks to construct
overview timelines that accurately reflect
the community's current normative views.

2
By distributing small bits of knowledge
among many event entries, promoting general
discussion of the veracity of each, and then
allowing users to “vote” for a given version of
the facts by including the event in their timeline,
it addresses shortcomings in other collaborative
digital humanities approaches:
-
Open-revision wiki
. An open wiki implements
what might be called “last man standing”
collaboration. The last person to edit an article
has license to revise and amend all the others'
work, potentially reshaping it to his own ends.
Of course, wiki history allows others to revise
it back, but this encourages “squatting,” or
continually monitoring an article in order to
control its contents.
-
Moderated wiki
. Some wikis establish an
editorial bureaucracy to address these issues.
However, this in effect defers interpretation to
an appointed “expert,” much after the fashion
of a traditional encyclopedia (with the proviso
that the general public can submit material for
editorial consideration).
-
Voting systems
. Finally, simple voting
systems that ask users to “rate this article”
suffer from known problems with blind
polling. Anonymity encourages arbitrary
voting; users might vote multiple times or use
incomparable rankings; and the population of
elective voters is self-selecting. By contrast,
Emergent Time's collaboration model is
designed to circumvent such problems, since
users “vote with their feet” by citing one
formulation of an event rather than another
in their timelines, and no one user can
dominate interpretation by being the last to
revise. While this model is relatively new to
digital collaboration tools, it is quite similar to
traditional humanities footnote and endnote
citations. It clearly marks authorship and
source material for a given interpretation,
encourages communal discussion of the
adequacy of an author's evidence, and
holds authors accountable for their votes by
embedding the citations within their work.
Even with a sparse demo data set, it is clear
that the Emergent Time prototype achieves
a successful balance between individual work
(seen when viewing a particular timeline) and
community connections (via the interpretation
comparison popup, and the related timelines
and related users links). It encourages users
to focus on developing their own ideas, while
still suggesting points of contact with the wide
community — for example, in the event editor,
which shows possible base events as the user
enters information. The opening page's list of
recent community activity is well-suited to draw
users into other work and give a sense of
liveliness. Most importantly, even for small data
sets, it's clear that the overview timelines do
actually reflect the community's current notion
of the “most important” events.","txt","2","",""
"1232","11","Structured and Unstructured: Extracting Information from Classics Scholarly Texts","2","
1
Structured and
Unstructured: Extracting
Information from Classics
Scholarly Texts
Romanello, Matteo
matteo.romanello@kcl.ac.uk
King's College London
The poster presents an ongoing PhD research
project that applies Digital Humanities to
Classics. The project is focussed on the
extraction of information from modern
scholarly texts (i.e. “secondary sources”),
namely all the modern publications about
ancient works written in Greek or Latin (being
our so-called “primary sources”). The project
addresses both the problem of extracting
information fom scholarly texts in an automatic
and scalable way, and that of providing users
(i.e. scholars) with advanced and meaningful
entry points to information rather than just
search engine-like functionalities over an
electronic corpus of texts.
1. Background
A currently ongoing project such as the Million
Book Library drew considerable attention to the
characteristic features of the next generation of
digital libraries and to the consequences of a
change of scale on the practice and the results
of the research itself (Crane 2006). This is a big
chance for Humanities and Classics particularly
given the extended “shelf-life” of humanities
relative to scientific publication. However, once
those secondary sources are digitized this does
not mean that information contained within
them will be immediately accessible. Issues that
we need to address concern the accuracy of
our electronic resources, such as encoding of
Greek text, inaccurate OCR transcription due
to low image quality, problem of missing pages
(Boschetti 2009), as well as the scalability of
ways to provide access to information, given
that we cannot afford to correct manually every
scanned page.
2. Motivations
Secondary sources are without any doubt
intrinsically valuable for Classicists, as they
shape the scholarly discourse of the discipline.
Printed citations and references – and even
mentions of names or geographical places –
can be considered as being already a form of
hypertext as they virtually create links between
texts. However in the currently available digital
libraries – except for the Perseus Digital Library
1
– primary and secondary sources are scarcely
interconnected, despite the fact that one of the
main advantages of digital libraries is the way in
which they represent the hypertextual nature of
text collections.
In particular, Classics scholars are interested
in named entity mentions inside texts, as is
reflected by the widespread use of different
kinds of indexes and concordances in this
field that basically organize in a systematic
manner references to text passages when a
given entity is mentioned. Translating the
problem into computational terms, we are
faced with the task of automatic entity
extraction from a corpus of unstructured texts to
develop a discipline-specific system of semantic
information retrieval.
3. Related Work
In addition to all the unstructured information
being made available on the web, several
projects in the Humanities have produced
over the last decade an increasing amount of
structured information that was then stored in a
wide range of data formats (i.e. databases, XML
fles, etc.). The approach we undertake is to reuse
information contained within those structured
data sources as training data for a supervised
system that extracts semantic information fom
an unstructured corpus of texts. A likely
approach is suggested for instance by a research
recently conducted by IBM to investigate the
automatic creation of links between structured
data sources (i.e. database containing product
information) and unstructured texts (i.e. emails
of complaint about products) (Bhide et al.
2008). More generally, the problem implied
by our approach of determining when two bits
of information refer to the same entity has
been thoroughly explored in the AI (Artifcial
Intelligence) field (Li et al. 2005).

2
4. Method
The very first phase of the project is devoted to
the task of building our corpus of unstructured
texts. So far we considered two corpora of
texts: the papers contained in the open archive
Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics
2
(Josiah Ober et al. 2007) and the articles
published by the journal Lexis
3
available online
under an open access policy. Although the texts
are already available in electronic format, some
pre-processing is needed – particularly for the
sequences of Greek text contained – before we
can start extracting information.
In the second phase we integrate different
structured data sources into a single knowledge
base. As far as this task is concerned, it
is possible to observe at least two main
categories of lack of interoperability. The first
category consists of cases where entities that
are similar from an ontological perspective
(e.g. a geographical place name) are encoded
using different data structures (i.e. the same
place name could be encoded using elements
belonging to diferent XML dialects). The
second category covers cases where chunks
of information common to more than one
collection are described with different degrees
of depth and precision. For instance, the
name “Alexandria” inside an inscription is just
marked up as a place name where instead
a collection of geographical data offers many
details for the city of Alexandria such as
coordinates, orthographical variants of the
name, denomination in diferent languages etc.
For this purpose we mean to apply high level
ontologies to aggregate information related to
the same entity but spread over diferent data
sources. Among the most suitable ontology
vocabularies are worth to be mentioned FOAF,
4
CIDOC CRM,
5
FRBRoo
6
and YAGO.
7
At a further stage we are taking into account how
to automatically extract information from the
corpus. We are mainly interested in extracting:
1) named entities; 2) bibliographic references;
3) canonical references, namely references to
ancient texts expressed in a concise form and
characterized by a logical reference scheme (e.g.
based on references to books or lines of a work
instead of page numbers).
The very first step in named entities processing
is the recognition and identification of named
entities within texts. Once identified the
named entities should be classified and then
disambiguated on the basis of the context.
This task will be accomplished through the
comparison of semantic spaces using methods
and algorithms developed in the field of
Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) (Rubenstein
& Goodenough 1965; Sahlgren 2006). In
particular the semantic spaces of all the contexts
where a given named entity appear will be
compared with each other in order to determine
which resources are really referring to the same
entity.
For the information extraction task we use
mainly tools based on machine learning
methods, such as Conditional Random Fields
(CRF) or Support Vector Machine (SVM). Some
of them are already available as open source
sofware and just need to be trained to work
with our data, while others are being specifcally
developed such as a Canonical Reference
Extractor (Romanello et al. 2009). Information
contained in the knowledge base is meant to
be used as training material for those sofware
components.
5. Further Work
This ongoing project is expected to prove a
scalable approach to extract entity references
from unstructured corpora of texts, such as
OCRed materials. In addition to this, it will
prove how to reuse several data sources of
structured information to train text mining
components and it will show to what extent
those data sources can be made interoperable
with each other. Finally we plan to evaluate with
some experts how effective such an information
retrieval system is in helping Classicists with
their research.
Acknowledgement
This research project is supported by an AHRC
(Arts and Humanities Research Council) award.
References
Bhide, M. et al.
(2008). 'Enhanced Business
Intelligence using EROCS'.
Data Engineering,
2008. ICDE 2008. IEEE 24th International

3
Conference on Data Engineering, 2008.
Pp.
1616-1619.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/4
492792/4497384/04497635.pdf?tp=&arnumber=4
497635&isnumber=4497384
.
Boschetti, F.
(2009) (2009). 'Improving
OCR Accuracy for Classical Critical Editions'.
Proceedings of the 13th European Conference
on Research and Advanced Technology for
Digital Libraries (ECDL 2009).
Springer.
Crane, G.
(2006). 'What Do You Do
with a Million Books?'.
D-Lib Magazine.
12(3)
.
http://www.dlib.org/dlib/march06/cra
ne/03crane.html
(accessed March 19, 2009).
Josiah Ober et al.
(2007). 'Toward Open
Access in Ancient Studies: The Princeton-
Stanford Working Papers in Classics'.
http://ww
w.atypon- link.com/ASCS/doi/abs/10.2972/hes
p.76.1.229
(accessed July 15, 2009).
Li, X., Morie, P., Roth, D.
(2005). 'Semantic
integration in text: from ambiguous names to
identifiable entities'.
AI Mag.
26(1)
: 45-58.
htt
p://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm? id=1090494
(accessed March 12, 2010).
Romanello, M., Boschetti, F., Crane, G.
(2009). 'Citations in the digital library of
classics: extracting canonical references by
using conditional random fields'.
NLPIR4DL
'09: Proceedings of the 2009 Workshop on
Text and Citation Analysis for Scholarly Digital
Libraries.
Morristown, NJ, USAAssociation for
Computational Linguistics, pp. 80–87.
Notes
1.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/
2.
http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/
3.
http://lexisonline.eu/
4.
http://www.foaf-project.org/
5.
http://cidoc.ics.forth.gr/
6.
http://cidoc.ics.forth.gr/frbr_inro.html
7.
http://www.mpi-inf.mpg.de/yago-naga/yago/","txt","2","",""
"1233","11","Supporting User Search for Discovering Collections of Interest","2","
1
Supporting User Search for
Discovering Collections of
Interest
Buchanan, George
g.r.buchanan@gmail.com
School of Informatics, City University, London
Dodd, Helen
cshelen@swansea.ac.uk
Future Interaction Technology Group, Swansea
University, Swansea
Humanities researchers often draw their
information from a diverse set of sources, which
are unlikely to be found in one digital library or
other collection. Whilst a considerable volume
of technical work has been undertaken to unify
a number of digital libraries into one whole -
“federated” or “distributed” digital libraries - the
real-world adoption of this technique is riddled
with conceptual problems and organisational
practicalities. In consequence, there is little
likelihood of there arising one “super-gateway”
to which an active researcher in the humanities
can turn for the whole of their information
seeking. Indeed, even in the sciences, this
idealised situation is relatively rare. As a result, a
humanities researcher will often need to identify
a number of different collections that serve their
regular information needs well [Buchanan
et
al.
2005]. Each of these collections would be
likely to provide useful literature relevant to
their field of study. However, constructing this
list is problematic. At present a user can only
generate such a list of ‘good’ collections from
months and years of incidental discovery and
recommendation.
In the past, this need has been addressed
in a number of different ways. The Humbul
humanities hub - later part of Intute - was
started as a human-maintained list of online
resources for the humanities and arts. It
relied upon hand-crafted entries created by
researchers (often postgraduate students) that
described each collection and suggested its
potential uses. One positive advantage of this
method is that it develops a single list of many
collections, and is open-ended. However, there
are problems that emerge when a user tries to
find collections within the hub. This approach
necessarily requires the creator of an entry to
double-guess the likely tasks of another user
and a substantial cumulative effort over many
years. It is resource expensive in terms of
creation, difficult to maintain, and an entry is
very unlikely to be able to cover all likely uses
in exactly the terms that another researcher
may use. Whilst a positive benefit is that the
system provides a ‘human readable’ overview
of each site, if a user provides a search to
the system, it will only use the relatively small
amount of material entered by the researcher
who entered the site onto the system. Compared
to the information available within a single
library, a brief descriptive entry is prone to
have insufficient information, and may overlook
the searcher’s interest altogether, or provide
a disproportionate representation - greater or
lesser - of the volume of material relevant to
their work.
In contrast, highly technical approaches have
been undertaken to create a central, canonical
resource through “metasearch” techniques:
where a central service endeavours to offer a
synthetic unification of a number of DL systems
[Thomas and Hawking 2009]. In these methods,
the user provides a sample query that is then
automatically sent to every individual digital
library. The metasearch engine combines the
results from the separate libraries into one
whole, and returns the unified set of results to
the user.
One limitation to the metasearch approach
is that the list of libraries or search engines
supported is usually fixed. Metasearch on
the web often relies on “reverse-engineering”
the HTML output from each single search
facility that the metasearch system uses. This
requires extensive maintenance work, and lists
of available collections are thus often fixed.
Another concern with this approach is that
from a conceptual view, it is vulnerable to
poor understanding or even utter ignorance of
the operation of each constituent DL. Different
DLs may interpret the same search in radically
different ways. Another issue is that as these
services normally send a search to each of
their constituent DLs for each search given by
a user, and this means a substantial overload
of search activity for each constituent DL.
Practically, this is clearly ineffective and costly in

2
terms of computation and, ultimately, hardware
resources.
One method proposed to minimise such waste
is to provide a “database selection” algorithm
that pre-selects only the better DLs to search,
and these are then queried by the metasearch
system automatically [Thomas and Hawking
2009, French
et al.
1999]. The metasearch
system then combines the result sets from each
chosen DL and provides a single ranked list
of matching documents. However, the same
problems with general metasearch return: how
results are combined into one remains an issue,
and users are known to be poor at reconstructing
the best sources (i.e. the sites with the largest
volume of relevant material) from such lists.
In our research, we do not attempt to
circumvent the conceptual problems of unifying
search result lists from different libraries with
varying matching algorithms and heterogenous
vocabularies. Rather, we aim to embrace the
diversity of information sources, and suggest
to a user the libraries that are more likely
to contain good-quality information for a
given query. In this regard, our approach is
similar to meta-search. However, there are key
differences in our method: first, we provide
the user with a list of likely “best” DLs, rather
than individual documents; second, we do not
attempt any merging of result lists or other
conceptually fraught manipulation of retrieved
material; thirdly, use DL technologies such
as the OAI protocol for metadata harvesting
(OAI-PMH) to provide an open-ended list of
target collections [Van de Sompel
et al.
2004],
in contrast with the fixed list limitation that
is commonplace in metasearch; fourthly, we
are reconsidering the best matching algorithms
from a user-centred perspective, rather than
from currently commonplace information-
retrieval based metrics that may poorly match
a user’s requirements when their aim is to
discover rich, large-scale sources of information
on a particular topic.
Our current research has probed this fourth
and final issue. What we have uncovered is
that many of the current database selection
algorithms privilege two sorts of collections:
first, large collections; second, collections in
which a sought-for term is rare. There are
good reasons why this is appropriate, from a
technical information-retrieval point of view.
For example, a term that provides strong
discrimination within a given collection is likely
to produce a clear, consistent list of matching
documents. However, from the perspective
of a humanities researcher investigating a
new topic, and who is seeking libraries with
good coverage of the topic, these extant IR
measures seem a poor match against their
requirements. A digital library that contains a
high proportion of documents with the sought-
for topic is arguably very likely to be of long-
term value to them. However, this pattern is
exactly the opposite to that desired by the
existing database selection algorithms, where a
strongly distinctive term - i.e. one that matches
only a few documents - is ideal. Similarly,
absolute size is not necessarily a criterion.
Often, a small but specialised high-quality
collection is of critical value in orienting the
humanist in a new domain. Furthermore, our
own previous research suggests that humanities
researchers do not trust computer-based models
of relevance: they prefer computer systems
to err slightly on the side of deferring such
decisions to the user.
In assessing the current state-of-the-art, we
have developed an experimental apparatus
that permits the testing of several algorithms
in parallel. Conceptual, idealised scenarios
can be test-run, and then the same tests
applied to sets of collections gathered by the
researcher to retest the same scenario on real
data. This permits us to assess any algorithm
against nominal and real data, and against a
number of alternatives. This test environment
has already demonstrated that many current
database selection algorithms perform very
poorly against the ideal criteria for the task that
we seek to support, and that even the best are far
from optimal. The bias towards large collections
outlined above has been reiterated in practice,
and we have also uncovered the problem that the
numerical ratings produced by good algorithms
follow unhelpful patterns.
One frequent problem is that subtly different
scores for different collections against a
particular search can be produced from
profoundly different underlying coverage of
search terms in the collections. This underlying
problem is manifested in different ways.
Common oddities include relatively high scores
being given when only one term is matched

3
(albeit many times) and ‘normalisation’ of
scores meaning that very different matches
between collection and query result in
marginally different final scores. This second
problem means that common methods for
deciding on a list of ‘best’ matches do not work,
and it is difficult to decide the criteria to use to
interpret a score into a final recommendation.
A considerable body of further work is required.
Whilst we are confident, from the current
literature, that our current results are, for
idealised scenarios, closer to what is required,
the problem that we seek to answer is as
yet poorly understood. We need to investigate
further not only the technology, but also the
human context in which it will operate, and
through this develop a more sophisticated and
accurate model of what humanities researchers
would ideally require as the output of our
system.
References
Buchanan, George, Cunningham, Sally
Jo, Blandford, Ann, Rimmer, Jon,
Warwick, Claire
(2005). 'Information
Seeking by Humanities Scholars'.
9th European
Conference on Research and Advanced
Technology for Digital Libraries (ECDL 2005).
Vienna (Austria), September 18-23, 2005, pp.
218-229.
Thomas, Paul, Hawking, David
(2009).
'Server selection methods in personal
metasearch: a comparative empirical study'.
Information Retrieval.
5
: 581-604.
French, James C., Powell, Alison L.,
Callan, Jamie, Viles, Charles L., Emmitt,
Travis, Prey, Kevin J., Mou, You Y.
(1999). 'Comparing the performance of database
selection algorithms'.
Proceedings of the 22nd
Annual international ACM SIGIR Conference
on Research and Development in information
Retrieval (SIGIR '99).
Berkeley, California,
United States, August 15-19, 1999. New York,
NY: ACM, pp. 238-245.
Van de Sompel, Herbert, Nelson,
Michael L., Lagoze, Carl, Warner,
Simeon
(2004). 'Resource Harvesting within
the OAI-PMH Framework'.
D-Lib Magazine.
12
.
http://www.dlib.org/dlib/december04/van
desompel/12vandesompel.html
.","txt","2","",""
"1234","11","Text Encoding and Ontology - Enlarging an Ontology by Semi- Automatic Generated Instances","2","1
Text Encoding and
Ontology – Enlarging
an Ontology by Semi-
Automatic Generated
Instances
Amélie Zöllner-Weber
amelie.zoellnerweber@gmail.com
University of Bergen, Norway
In this contribution, we present an application
that supports users when working with
ontologies in literary studies. Thereby, semi-
automatic suggestions for including information
in an ontology are generated. This application
is meant for users, who are familiar with
annotation and markup and are interested in
topic of literary studies.
When reading literature we can identify literary
phenomena but we cannot prove them directly
in the text. Our ability is to puzzle sentences
together so that they form a meaning. But
this process happens in our mind not in texts.
However, these interpretations are individual
and can differ from reader to reader since
they are influenced by our cultural and social
background. It is therefore a challenge to create
a model of these interpretations to be able to
have a more general and formal description, e.g.
of a character.
In computer philology, one can detect several
applications when modeling texts: 1) by using
mark up languages like XML (meta) information
can be marked in texts (e.g. Jannidis et al.
2006, Meister 2003), 2) one can model theories
in literary studies that try to represent mental
representations (Jannidis 2004, Schneider
2000). However, text structures and mental
representations can differ from each other so
that we are not able to model them in the same
way.
In Zöllner-Weber 2007, mental representations
have been modelled by an ontology. It tried
to regard a character as a complex cognitive
entity in the reader’s mind. Here, the description
of literary characters has been realised as
an ontology. For manipulating this ontology,
users have to extract information manually
about characters from literary texts and add
them to the ontology. This process might
be time-consuming, and users who are not
familiar with the structure of an ontology
might need even more time to become familiar
with the application. We want to solve this
problem by combining text encoding and the
ontology. Therefore, an annotation system has
been developed, which takes the mark up
from the text and generates semi-automatically
suggestions of instances be included into the
ontology.
1. Methods
For the description of literary characters,
an ontology that models characters by their
mental representations was used (Zöllner-
Weber 2006). Briefly, an ontology is a hierarchy
of classes. In addition, the classes contain
instances that represent individuals. Properties,
which contain additional information, are
attached to the individuals (Noy et al. 2001).
By using this kind of structure, information
is described formally. We chose an ontology
because its structure corresponds to the mostly
hierarchical structures of proposed theories
to describe or analyse literary characters
(Jannidis 2004, Lotman 1977). Several theories
of literary characters are combined to create
a base of a formal description using an
OWL ontology (Grigoris and Harmelen 2003,
Jannidis 2004, Nieragden 1995). The frame
of mental representations is presented by the
main classes of the ontology, e.g. inner and
outer features, actions on other characters and
objects. The sub classes contain characteristics
of special characters (special features or groups
of characters). We decided to include single
pieces of information gained from literary
texts into instances of the ontology. In
addition, so-called instances of the classes
represent individual and explicit objects of
the domain of literary characters. Here, direct
information about a character given in a text
is assigned to an instance. Properties contain
additional information, e.g. type of narrator,
author, annotation information or reference
to literature. Together with the information
of the class hierarchy, instances and their
properties, a single mental representation of
a character is modelled (cf. Figure 1). In this

2
approach, individual description, the pre-step of
interpretation, is focused. The main description
categories secure a general classification so that
it is also possible to compare two different
interpretations of one character, which might be
spread over different categories of the ontology.
In order to fill the aforementioned ontology of
literary characters in a more automated fashion
an encoding scheme has been developed. For
the annotation, we selected tags of the TEI-DTD
(Text Encoding Initiative 2003,
http://www.te
i-c.org/
), which were developed for marking
interpretation sections in texts. Thereby, the
encoding scheme had to be exploited and
rearranged so that it is usable for literary
studies. This means that the usage of elements
was enlarged. By using this special markup,
a user can directly add interpretive pieces of
information about a literary character to a text.
Here, the annotation scheme is based on four
main categories,
description
,
statement
,
action
,
and
speech
, which classify pieces of information.
All descriptions about a character that are stated
by a narrator are subsumed under
description
.
The category
statement
depicts commentaries of
a character about another character. To mark
non-verbal and verbal actions of a character,
the categories
action
and
speech
should be
used. In addition, a user should add e.g.
information about the type of narrator, the name
of a character and depending on the chosen
category additional information to complete the
annotation. After the process of annotation, a
user sends the marked texts via a web form to a
server where the annotations are evaluated by an
in-house developed programming algorithm (cf.
Fig 1). The pre-sorting of encoded information
about a character is based on the four categories,
which match the main classes of the ontology.
If further encoded information is given by
the markup, the algorithm tries to generate
a further sub-classification. Figure 1 depicts
an example of this process. After successful
processing, a user is presented with a list
for all processed annotations that probably
form instances. Additionally, for all of these
suggestions a class assignment is also given.
Figure 1
In addition, we present surrounding classes
by showing an extracted list of classes of the
ontology so that a user is able to inspect the
environment of the new instance and its class.
Whether a class that should include a new
instance does not exist yet, a user can also add
a new class. Afterwards, (s)he can include the
instance in the new class.
2. Results
The application has been tested by using
an extract of the novel “Melmoth the
Wanderer” (1820), written by Charles Robert
Maturin. We encoded the text with the
mentioned TEI-DTD and afterwards, by using
the programming algorithm, we obtained
suggestions for new instances. In figure 2, the
process of generating an instance from a text
passage is shown as an example. For the main
character Melmoth 72 instances were generated
and assigned to the ontology.
Figure 2

3
3. Conclusion
In this contribution, a system has been
presented that includes information into an
ontology, which is generated from markup. We
tested this application by using an ontology for
literary characters. In comparison to the manual
manipulation of the ontology, the application
comprises a semi-automatic generation of
ontology instances and supports the user when
assigning this information about a character to
classes of the ontology. In addition, it is not
only possible to add information about a single
character to the ontology, but the application
can simultaneously process annotations of
several characters. Thereby, time and work can
be saved, as the whole text can be annotated
at once and will then be transferred to the
ontology. There is no need to go back and
forth between text and ontology as for the pure
manual insertion of character information into
an ontology.
Ontologies and their applications are often
linked to logical reasoning. However,
incorporating such techniques into the present
application might be difficult, especially for
untrained users, as shown elsewhere (Zöllner-
Weber 2009).
References
Grigoris, A., Harmelen, F. V.
(2003).
'Web ontology Language: OWL'.
Handbook on
Ontologies.
Staab, S., Studer, R. (eds.). Berlin:
Springer, pp. 67-92.
Jannidis, F.
(2004).
Figur und Person -
Beitrag zur historischen Narratologie.
Berlin:
Gruyter.
Jannidis, F., Lauer, G., Rapp, A.
(2006) (2006). 'Hohe Romane und blaue
Bibliotheken. Zum Forschungsprogramm
einer computergestützten Buch- und
Narratologiegeschichte des Romans in
Deutschland (1500-1900)'.
Literatur und
Literaturwissenschaft auf dem Weg zu den
neuen Medien.
Lucas, M. G., Loop, J., Stolz, M.
(eds.). Bern.
Lotman, J. M.
(1977).
The Structure of the
Artistic Text.
Michigan: University of Michigan
Press.
Meister, J. C.
(2003).
Computing Action.
A Narratological Approach.
Berlin/New York:
Gruyter.
Noy, N. F., McGuinness, D. L.
(2001).
'Ontology Development 101: A Guide to
Creating Your First ontology'. Stanford
Knowledge Systems Laboratory Technical
Report KSL-01-05 and Stanford Medical
Informatics Technical Report SMI-2001-0880.
Schneider, R.
(2000).
Grundriß zur
kognitiven Theorie der Figurenrezeption
am Beispiel des viktorianischen Romans..
Tübingen: Stauffenburg.
Zöllner-Weber, A.
(2006). 'Formale
Repräsentation und Beschreibung von
literarischen Figuren'.
Jahrbuch für
Computerphilologie.
7
: 187–203.
Zöllner-Weber, A.
(2007). 'Noctua literaria -
A System for a Formal Description of Literary
Characters'.
Data Structures for Linguistic
Resources and Applications.
Rehm, G., Witt,
A., Lemnitzer, L. (eds.). Tübingen: Narr, pp.
113-121.
Zöllner-Weber, A.
(2009). 'Ontologies and
Logic Reasoning as Tools in Humanities?'.
Digital Humanities Quarterly.
3(4)
.","txt","2","",""
"1235","11","Text-Image linking of Japanese historical documents: Sharing and exchanging data by using text-embedded image file","2","
1
Text-Image linking of
Japanese historical
documents: Sharing and
exchanging data by using
text-embedded image file
Okamoto, Takaaki
04c0004@sch.otani.ac.jp
Digital Humanities Center for Japanese Arts
and Cultures, Ritsumeikan University
This paper will demonstrate the effectiveness
of the linkage between textual data and image
data in the field of medieval Japanese history
where the research primarily uses text-based
documents instead of photocopies and digital
images.
1. Using Computers and Data for
Historical Studies
The current state of the field of Japanese
history requires that researchers (1) view
more historical documents than in the
past, (2) fully utilize the various types of
information contained in these documents
such as the form of a character, handwriting,
type of paper etc., and (3) collaborate
with others on inter-disciplinary projects
instead of pursuing isolated projects in a
single field. It is not possible to realize
these goals through the individual efforts
of researchers. A well-established digital
environment becomes necessary. The most
important and fundamental research tasks for
a historian include: (1) looking up certain texts:
what documents include these and where in
the documents they can be found, and (2)
examining the target documents. Given the
nature of such research work, the utilization
of computers is not as advanced as it should
be. Without a fully computerized environment
to enable easy access, the groundwork of
identifying and reviewing documents would take
considerable time and effort, and thus impede
the advancement of research. If images and
texts of documents are digitally connected, by
searching keywords or sentences, the system
will display the target texts directly as a part
of the image, and users would also be able call
up lists of entire images by inputting single
characters
2. Semantic information and
visual information of Historical
Documents
In the field of history, most commonly circulated
materials are published in traditional printed
media such as reprints of texts. Historical
documents that have not been reprinted are
used only when they are significant for specific
research projects. For historical studies, much
of the emphasis is on the interpretation and
analysis of primary texts, and reprints of
primary material, in plain text form, are often
used for such purposes.
Inevitably, certain information such as the
original handwriting will be lost in the process
of transforming the original into plain text.
In addition, handwritten material published
during the pre-modern period used numerous
variants of Chinese characters (
異体字
) different
from modern publishing standards. Many of the
variations of old characters are not represented
by computerized fonts and thus are often lost
in the conversion into text files. Kunten (
訓
点
), the punctuation marks to read Chinese
text (Chinese classics, sutras translated to
Chinese, etc.) in Japanese pronunciation and
grammatical order, are represented by special
symbols. For research using this type of
document, simple text files are not enough. The
primary material needs to be converted into
image files.
In other words, historical documents contain
semantic information that can be converted
into text files as well as visual information that
cannot be represented in text files.
3. Possibilities of Visual
information
To use handwriting data as an example,
historical documents often do not indicate
the author’s name. Even in cases when a
signature is included, it can often be the
person who authorized the document and not
necessarily the actual penman. For this reason
handwriting becomes an important piece of
information to determine the composer of

2
the document. Graphology analysis can reveal
answers to the following questions: (1) who
manually composed this document, (2) why
did this person write this document, and (3)
what other documents have possibly been
written by the same person? In conjunction
with content analysis (interpretation), these
additional aspects can further advance historical
and diplomatic research. Introducing imagery
analysis to research that has been centered
on textual analysis will no doubt lead to new
developments.
4. Computer Environment for
Handling Historical Documents
Although researchers have long recognized
the importance of visual information, limited
research has been done in these directions.
One main reason for this is the lack of a well-
developed digital environment, which has made
such work highly labor intensive.
In order to make searching digitized images
just as convenient as searching digitized text,
images need to be organized based on the
questions of “what character is contained in
what part of which document.” It will also be
necessary to provide easy to understand results
that will highlight searching characters or text
within the image. To enable such functions, text
data needs to be correlated with image data
through coordinates by each character. In other
words, three types of input are needed to set
up this coordinate system: (1) Which document
text does this image correspond to? (2) What
characters or words are included in the text? (3)
Where in the image are the search words? Two
of these inputs, the image data and the text data,
are already in common use. If every individual
character of the text can be linked to the image
through a coordinate system, it will enable text
searches within the image of a document.
5. Text-image Management Tool
and File Sharing/Exchange via
Portable Devices
Researchers need to build an easily accessible
digital environment with the documents and
images of the documents and would thus find
it useful to have a tool that could indicate the
position in the original documents for a given
text of interest. We are currently developing a
tool that processes image files of text documents
in this way (Fig. 1). Using this tool, a researcher,
by clicking on any character in the image, can
create information about the character such as
its position within the image. As shown in figure
2, the data created for each character including
ID (automatically generated GUID), position in
the text, coordinates, dimensions and so on are
made into a simple text file that can be managed
by external software applications like Excel.
Figure 1
Figure 2
The program can generate reduced images
for viewing in a browser and an HTML file
containing information of the positions of the
characters. When users search for a string of
characters, a Javascript function will highlight
the search results on the generated HTML file
for display (Fig. 3).

3
Figure 3
The process of connecting these two sets
of information cannot be automated and is
dependent on manual input, which will inflict
certain costs. Moreover, since the productivity of
data processing by individuals is limited, group
collaboration is essential. For the sake of simpler
file sharing, this software thus creates one single
file in TIFF format that combines the image data
and the text data files. This enables the sharing
of text data and image files through the exchange
of just one file, an image file embedded with
text data through a portable device. Moreover,
on the receivers’ end, it will be possible for
all the image files of the individual characters
and the HTML files needed for searching text
strings to be generated from the one text-data
embedded image file, eventually making all of
these exchanges unnecessary.
6. Publishing on the Web
Although owners of the documents are often
unwilling to publish the images of their
documents on the Web, it is still necessary
to develop a network friendly environment for
those documents to be published. Such an
environment consists of web servers, databases,
and web applications that connect them. Since
the system needs to be user-friendly for the
researcher, there is a tool for importing image
files with embedded textual data as mentioned
previously by a simple drag-and-drop function.
Once the file is dragged and dropped into the
tool, it will generate the following: (1) an image
for display on the Web (2) coordinate axes for
this image (3) partitioning of the image for
zooming and update temporary text/index data
in the database server. Then the image file and
textual data will be ready for publication on the
web.
7. Conclusion
This method uses data collected and
compiled by individual researchers on their
personal computers. Data sharing is done
through external portable devices. Data
sharing via external portable devices may
cause delays in distributing the data,
prevent other collaborators from referring
to updated information, and ultimately
cause inconsistencies in data references. The
inconvenience of external portable devices may
lead to situations where the data are not updated
at all on the computers of other collaborators.
To avoid these situations it is important to take
advantage of the online environment. However,
sometimes owners do not want researchers to
put images of their historical documents in the
environment. This paper demonstrates how to
deal with such situations.","txt","2","",""
"1236","11","The Craig Zeta Spreadsheet","2","
1
The Craig Zeta Spreadsheet
Hoover, David L.
david.hoover@nyu.edu
New York University, USA
Zeta, a new measure of textual difference
introduced by John F. Burrows, can be used
effectively in authorship attribution and stylistic
studies to locate an author's characteristic
vocabulary–""marker"" words that one author
uses consistently, but another author or authors
use much less frequently or not at all
(Burrows 2005, 2006; Hoover 2007a, 2007b,
2008). Zeta analysis excludes the extremely
common words that have traditionally been
the focus and concentrates on the middle
of the word frequency spectrum. Beginning
in 2008, I developed an Excel spreadsheet
implementation of Zeta and its related measure
Iota (which focuses on words that are relatively
rare in one author, but extremely rare or
absent from others), available on my Excel
Text-Analysis Pages. Recently, however, Craig
has developed an alternative version of Zeta
that simultaneously creates sets of marker
words and anti-marker words and has applied
it impressively to Shakespeare authorship
problems (Craig and Kinney, 2009; Hoover,
forthcoming). Although Craig's Zeta focuses on
the same part of the word frequency spectrum
as Zeta, its calculation and results are quite
different. Because it seems poised to become
an important tool for computational stylistics,
I have created and will demonstrate the Craig
Zeta Excel spreadsheet that automates its
calculation.
Craig's Zeta is a powerful but simple method
of measuring differences among authors. It
begins with two sets of texts divided into
about equal-sized sections, then compares how
many sections for each author contain each
word, ignoring the frequencies of the words
and concentrating on their consistency of
appearance. The most natural comparison is
between two authors, but it can be used to
study any contrast. My demo version contrasts
thirteen female and thirteen male American
poets born between 1911 and 1943 (about 8,000
words of poetry by each, divided into two
sections).
The heart of the method is that it combines the
ratio of the sections by one author in which each
word occurs with the ratio of the sections by
the other author from which it absent into a
single measure of distinctiveness for each word.
Zeta scores theoretically range from two (for a
word found in every section by one author and
absent from every section by the other), to zero
(for a word found in no sections by one author
and in all sections by the other). Sorting the
words on this composite score produces two lists
of words, one favored by the first author and
avoided by the second, the other favored by the
second author and avoided by the first.
The snippet from the spreadsheet in Fig. 1
(shown before the macro operates) will clarify
the calculation. In E7 and E8, the user enters
labels (automatically copied into columns A
and G and Row 9) for the two groups to be
compared. The data to be analyzed is in columns
H through CA, rows 11ff, with most columns
minimized so the various categories are visible.
The combined word frequency list for the two
groups is in column G, with the raw frequencies
for each word in each section in columns H-
CA. The calculation is performed in columns A-
E. Column D sums the sections of poetry by
women that contain the word, and column E
sums the sections of poetry by men that do
not contain the word. The most frequent words
typically occur in all sections, but note that
me
,
the 30
th
most frequent word, is absent from
one of the men's sections. Column B calculates
the ratio of women's sections containing the
word to the total number of women's sections;
column C calculates the ratio of men's sections
not containing the word to the total number
men's sections. Column A sums columns B and
C to produce the Zeta scores. Columns H-CA
of row 1 show the number of different words
(word types) in each section, and below them,
the percentage of types that are marker words
for women or men (these are not meaningful
until the macro has operated). In cells F2-F3
the user can set the number of marker words
for each group at different levels for sections of
different sizes and can see three sets of results at
once in H-CA.

2
Figure 1
An Excel macro automates the calculation
of Zeta. Word frequency lists for the texts
to be analyzed are entered into five sub-
sheets (not shown). One contains the sections
of the primary group and one contains the
sections of the secondary group. Two more sub-
sheets contain any independent sections by the
primary and secondary groups (these can be
used to test the method's success on known
texts). Finally, there is a sub-sheet for the texts
to be tested. The macro clears out old data,
enters formulas into columns H-CA, rows 2-7,
copies the texts out of the sub-sheets into the
main sheet, shrinks the columns, and enters
ranks for the words in column F. It then sorts
the words on their Zeta scores in column A,
descending, so that the words most distinctively
used by women appear at the top and those most
distinctively used by men are at the bottom. It
selects the 1000 most distinctive men's words
and resorts them in reverse order, with the
most distinctive at the top of their section.
The sheet can handle 15,000 words, but the
sample above analyzes 14,000 words (calculated
in cell B2), so rows 11-1010 will contain the
1000 most distinctive women's words and rows
13,011-14,010 the 1000 most distinctive men's
words.
Figure 2 shows the data after the macro runs.
Here
mother's
, found in 13 of 26 sections by
women and absent from 24 of 26 sections by
men, is the most distinctive women's word in
this comparison. The most distinctive men's
word,
cross
, is found in just 3 of 26 sections
by women, but is absent from only 10 of 26
sections by men. The most distinctive words
for each group are found in columns CB and
CC in descending order of distinctiveness. The
figures in rows 2-7 of columns H-CA show how
these distinctive words are distributed in each
section. For example, H2-H3 shows that almost
15% of the words Derricote uses in this section
are among the 500 most distinctive women's
words, but only about 5% are among the 500
most distinctive men'swords. For Ammons (1),
in AH2-AH3, the first section by a man, the
proportions are roughly reversed.
Figure 2
Columns BH-CA contain the same information
for the test sections, 25 sections of poetry by
seven female and seven male poets whose work
had no part in the creation of the word list on
which the analysis is based. Finally, the macro
creates a scatter graph of the analysis with
section names as labels (Fig. 3). The vertical axis
records the proportion of types in each text that
are marker words for men and the horizontal
axis does the same for marker words for women.
As Fig. 3 shows, twenty of the twenty-five
new sections of poetry (80%) trend toward the
group that matches their gender. The fact that
these same words produce a similar, though
slightly less accurate, result for seven male and
seven female contemporary novelists is further
evidence that the method is capturing some kind
of genuine difference. This is a strong result,
especially given the relatively small samples
and the wide diversity that characterizes 20th
century American poetry. The little chart that
follows Fig. 3 shows some of the clusters of
related words that occur in the women's and
men's marker words, and hints at the kinds of
analysis that Craig's Zeta makes possible.
Figure 3

3
Cluster
500 Women's
Markers
500 Men's Markers
Family
mother's, father's,
mother, father,
children, ancestral,
aunt, baby, birth,
child, child's, cousins,
daughters, family,
generations, uncles
Religion
altar
,
nuns
, and
praying
faith, heaven, hell,
prayers, souls, spirit,
Christ, gods, myth,
paradise, religion,
spirits, temple
Houses/
Furniture
danced
song, dancing, sing,
dance, sang, dancer,
music, singer, singing,
sings
Personal
Pronouns
he'll, I'd, mine,
ourselves, she'd, she's,
they'd, you'd, you're,
yourself
References
Burrows, J. F.
(2006). 'All the Way Through:
Testing for Authorship in Different Frequency
Strata'.
LLC.
22
: 27-47.
Burrows, J. F.
(2005). 'Who wrote Shamela?
Verifying the Authorship of a Parodic Text'.
LLC.
20
: 437-450.
Craig, H., and Kinney, A., eds.
(2009).
Shakespeare, Computers, and the Mystery of
Authorship.
Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Hoover, D.
(2007a). 'Corpus Stylistics,
Stylometry, and the Styles of Henry James'.
Style.
41
: 174-203.
Hoover, D.
(2007b). 'Quantitative Analysis
and Literary Studies'.
A Companion to Digital
Literary Studies.
Susan Schreibman, Ray
Siemens (eds.). Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 517-33.
Hoover, D.
(2008). 'Searching for Style
in Modern American Poetry'.
Directions in
Empirical Literary Studies: Essays in Honor of
Willie van Peer.
Sonia Zyngier, et. al. (eds.).
Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 211-27.
Hoover, D.
(2009). 'The Excel Text-Analysis
Pages'.
https://files.nyu.edu/dh3/public/The
%20Excel%20Text-Analysis%20Pages.html
.
Hoover, D.
(2010: forthcoming). 'Authorial
Style'.","txt","2","",""
"1237","11","The Dickens Lexicon and its Practical Use for Linguistic Research","2","
1
The Dickens Lexicon and its
Practical Use for Linguistic
Research
Hori, Masahiro
hori@kumagaku.ac.jp
Kumamoto Gakuen University
Imahayashi, Osamu
imahaya@hiroshima-u.ac.jp
Hiroshima University
Tabata, Tomoji
tabata@lang.osaka-u.ac.jp
Osaka University
Nishio, Miyuki
nishio@hiro.kindai.ac.jp
Kinki University
It was not until the beginning of World War
II that Dr. Tadao Yamamoto first established
a plan for the compilation of the
Dickens
Lexicon
in his mind; the earliest plan of which
was suggested in
Studies in English Literature
(Vol. XIII, No. 3, 1943). As the war situation
turned progressively worse, the completion of
the Lexicon was left to future efforts. He decided,
however, to make an ""Introduction"" to it in
the early spring of 1944, and in the same
year presented it as a doctoral thesis to the
University of Tokyo under the title of
Growth
and System of the Language of Dickens: An
Introduction to A Dickens Lexicon
, for which
he obtained the degree of Doctor of Literature
from the University in 1946. The dissertation
was first published in 1950 by Kansai University
Press through the generous efforts of the late
Professor Jiichi Hattori at Kansai University,
and with financial support from the English
Philological Society of Kansai University. In
1953 he was awarded the Japan Academy Prize
for this book. The second edition and ""An index
to Tadao Yamamoto’s
Growth and system of
the Language of Dickens
: With supplementary
notes & corrections"" were published separately
by the same press in 1952. The third revised
edition was published by Keisuisha Publishing
Company in 2003.
In 1948 Dr. Yamamoto organised the first
joint research for the compilation of
A
Dickens Lexicon
, which was granted a
Government Subsidy for Scientific Research by
the Department of Education for 1948. The
members of the joint research mainly consisted
of his pupils in Hiroshima University of
Literature and Science. The members chose one
of Dickens’ works and collected the materials for
the
Lexicon
. The participants and their selected
works are as follows:
Tadao Yamamoto
Oliver Twist
Michio Masui
Bleak House
Chiaki Higashida
A Tale of Two Cities
Tamotsu Kurose
Christmas Books
Hiroshige Yoshida
Nicholas Nickleby
Masami Tanabe
Old Curiosity Shop
After he moved to Osaka Women’s University
in 1952, Yamamoto organised the second joint
research for the compilation of the
Dickens
Lexicon
; the members of which included Michio
Masui, Chiaki Higashida, Tamotsu Kurose,
Haruo Kouzu, Yasuo Yoshida, Tadahisa Goto,
Jun Matsumoto, Tamotsu Matsunami, Hideo
Hirooka, and Michio Kawai. The joint research
was granted a Subsidy for Government Scientific
Research by the Department of Education for
1952. The process and result of it were reported
in
Anglica
(1954: 438-9) as follows:
As a preliminary work for the compilation of
the
Dickens Lexicon
we aimed at establishing
the working principles of selecting materials
for our research. For this purpose each of the
members chose one of Dickens’ writings from
which necessary materials should be extracted.
It was desired that each participant should at
the outset prepare explanatory notes to the
work chosen and as the next step offer slips of
quotations under separate items with comments
if necessary.
Sketches by Boz
(B)
Matsunami
Pickwick Papers
(P)
Matsumoto
Christmas Carol
(Carol)
Kurose
Martin Chuzzlewit
(MC)
Masui
Cricket on the Hearth
(Cricket)
Goto
Dombey and Son
(DS)
Higashida
David Copperfield
(DC)
Yoshida
A Tale of Two Cities
(TC)
Imagawa
Great Expectations
(GE)
Ishino
Separately the present writer has prepared a
collection of detailed notes to
Oliver Twist
(OT),

2
with which materials chosen out of the above
works are to be collated.
Slips collected amount to 6504, from which 2915
have been sifted and adopted for the present
research. They may be roughly classified as
follows:
01.
Names and subjects
472
02.
Word-forms
152
03.
Slang and dialects
388
04.
Quotations and allusions
256
05.
Expressions coming from some definite
situations or surroundings
337
06.
Phrasal expressions
200
07.
Exclamations, asseverations, swearing, &c.
174
08.
Intensive expressions
88
09.
Precise and energetic expressions
73
10.
Those with bodily names
31
11.
Miscellaneous
519
12.
Words and phrases particularly collated
with the notes to Oliver Twist
225
Sum total
2915
In Yamamoto’s conclusion, he commented on
the limitations and difficulties of this joint
research as follows:
""... as a joint work ours for this time has
remained at the very tentative stage. It has
taught us that the desideratum is a perfect team-
work with sufficient preparation and training
that cost us an enormous amount of time
and labour. With all our efforts, however, we
must admit that we continually suffer from
the considerable limitation of our knowledge,
and under the present conditions there are
insurmountable difficulties in having access to
each and every requisite source of information.
It would indeed be a consummation devoutly to
be wished if we could come directly in touch,
not exclusively through the narrow channel of
written sources now at our disposal, with all
things that have conspired to create Dickens and
his language."" (451)
The research team was, however, broken up,
and a new downsized one was organised.
Its members were Chiaki Higashida, Yasuo
Yoshida, Jun Matsumoto, and Shigekiyo
Kawahara. The result was published in
Dickens
no Buntai
(
Dickens’ Style
in English) from
Nan’un-do in 1960, but this joint research did
not bear fruit either. From that time Yamamoto
began to collect the materials for the
Dickens
Lexicon
once again from
Pickwick Papers
all by
himself, but unfortunately on the 28th of July in
1991, he died without seeing it accomplished.
This poster session is an interim report on
the
Dickens Lexicon
project, which was newly
organized in 1998 by a research group of twenty
scholars whose ultimate aim has been to compile
the
Dickens Lexicon
from approximately 60,000
cards, which Dr. Tadao Yamamoto (1904-91)
elaborately drew up and left to us. The Dickens
Lexicon is expected to be released as the
""Dickens Lexicon Online"" on an Internet website
with a multifunctional search engine, in the
near future. This poster session provides an
introduction to the
Dickens Lexicon
project,
including its practical use for research.
The
Dickens Lexicon
is designed as a web-
based reference resource. Users will be able to
search and retrieve lexical data (an idiom, its
word class, definition, source, and quotation),
stored in the original card database of
approximately 60,000 indexed entries without
installing extra software (apart from a web
browser) on their computers. The lexicon will
also be implemented with a multifunctional
information retrieval system. In addition to
the indexed entries, the lexicon will make it
possible to retrieve frequency information on
lexical items (from single words to phrases,
including multi-word units) drawing upon the
full corpus of Dickens’ texts and an additional
set of major 18th and 19th century fictional
texts. A range of functions such as concordance
display, sort capability, and distribution chart
will be available in a user-friendly interface.
Therefore, a close scrutiny of idioms appearing
in the Dickens Lexicon with a multifunctional
information retrieval system will not only make
us aware of the ways idioms provided an
important characteristic in Dickens’ usage of
English, compared with those in other major
18th and 19th century fictional texts, but will
also provide insights into the characteristic
structure of idiomaticity in the English language
as well.
References
Yamamoto, Tadao
(1950 [2003]).
Growth
and System of the Language of Dickens: An
Introduction to A Dickens Lexicon.
Hiroshina,
Japan: Keisuisha.","txt","2","",""
"1238","11","The Digital Ark: From Taxonomy to Ontology in 17th-century Collections of Curiosities","2","
1
The Digital Ark: From
Taxonomy to Ontology in
17th-century Collections of
Curiosities
Brent Nelson
brent.nelson@usask.ca
University of Saskatchewan
When the famous seventeenth-century gardener
John Tradescant named his home, with its
collection of rarities and curiosities, “the Ark,”
he was expressing his desire to compile
a microcosm of a wide world of variety
beyond common experience. Such collections
represented the sum of early modern European
experience of the world at a time of rapid
scientific and geographical expansion and
reflected fundamental epistemological shifts
in attitudes toward curiosity, wonder, and
credulity on the cusp of the modern age.
The rapidly expanding world of exploration,
colonization, and commerce in the seventeenth
century proliferated with strange and bizarre
creatures and artifacts that challenged the
traditional limits of knowledge. To meet the
need for a complete and accessible record of
early modern collections, 'The Digital ""Ark""' will
accumulate a database of artifacts and natural
specimens as represented by documentary
records of early modern collections (inventories,
diaries, correspondence, etc.), contemporary
drawings and engravings, as well as digital
images and curatorial records of extant
remnants of these collections. It will be an
extensive record of all known collections of
rarities and curiosities in England and Scotland
from 1580-1700 for which documentary
evidence survives, comprising up to 10,000
specimens and artifacts. This information, both
textual and visual, will be delivered in an
open-access Web-based virtual museum that
will collect and display artifacts and natural
specimens drawing from a fully searchable
database that will record and classify these items
and their descriptions in some two dozen fields
of information.
This poster will briefly introduce the project and
then focus on the challenges this data poses for
a computational process that involves naming
data types and defining relationships between
them. The principle challenge comes from two
unique aspects of the project:
1.
The need to accommodate in the
user interface a wide range of source
genres in a rationalized and consistent
form, while representing the distinct
epistemological modes of these diverse forms
of representation;
2.
The need to respect and reflect the way the
data was viewed and understood in this age of
transition between humanistic and empirical
ways of knowing as we interpret the data set
and design a database structure to encode,
store, and represent this data in all of its
complex relationships.
The poster will have four sections:
1.
An introduction providing a brief paragraph
on the cultural background illustrated with a
bulleted set of statistics and a 17th-century
engraving of a typical cabinet of curiosities.
2.
A chart depicting the diverse data types
that provide the content of the digital ark,
including: letters; travel accounts; diaries,
inventories and catalogues; discursive prose;
poetry; contemporary engravings; drawings
and paintings; modern photographs of extant
objects; and secondary scholarly sources)
along with the characteristics of these genres
that complicates the process of defining data
structures. Page facsimiles will illustrate these
data types.
3.
A chart depicting the differences between a
taxonomic and an ontological view of data.
In brief, the taxonomic approach involves
entry into a new body of data and the
naming and categorizing process that occurs
as one interprets and makes sense of this
new data, while the ontological approach
involves fixing categories and properties in a
determined order of being. The seventeenth
century represented a significant shift from
ontology, where the nature of existence
was received and commonly understood by
all, to an age of taxonomy, where the
new and strange demanded an open-ended
reconsideration of the world of existence and
a continual configuration of knowledge. In the
computer age, we are experiencing a similar
tension in the desire to explore and discover

2
relationships between data, while at the
same time thinking of data representation in
terms of ontologies. This chart will represent
this tension both in the context of the
epistemology of the early modern collections
and the context of computer processes that
might be employed to represent them.
4.
The conclusion will outline two steps that will
be taken to address these needs:
i.
The use of qualitative tagging as a means to
interrogating the source documents to find
what is there, before determining the tag set
that will inform the final data structure, that
is, to infer a taxonomy rather than simply
impose an assumed ontology.
ii.
The use of a combination of the TEI
structure to represent text-based sources
with modified object-based ontologies to
represent the objects as depicted in these
textual sources and also as depicted
in graphical sources, both contemporary
engravings and drawings, and modern
photographs of extant objects.
Acknowledgments
This project is funded by the Social Sciences and
Humanities Council of Canada.
References
Bradley, John
(2005). 'Documents and
Data: Modelling Materials for Humanities
Research in XML and Relational Databases'.
Literary and Linguistic Computing: Journal
of the Association for Literary and Linguistic
Computing.
20.1
: 133-51.
Corns, Thomas N.
(2000). 'The Early Modern
Search Engine: Indices, Title Pages, Marginalia
and Contents'. 'The Renaissance Computer:
Knowledge Technology in the First Age of Print'.
Neil Rhodes, Jonathan Sawday (eds.). London,
England: Routledge.
Daston, Lorraine
(2007).
Objectivity.
Peter
Galison (ed.). New York: Zone Books.
Daston, Lorraine
(1989). 'The Museum:
Its Classical Etymology and Renaissance
Genealogy'.
Journal of the History of
Collections.
1.1
: 59-78.
Gilbert, Neal Ward
(1960).
Renaissance
Concepts of Method.
New York: Columbia
University Press.
Grindle, Nick
(2005). ''No Other Sign Or Note
than the very Order’: Francis Willughby, John
Ray and the Importance of Collecting Pictures'.
Journal of the History of Collections.
17
: 15-22.
Harmon, Margaret
(1975).
Stretching Man’s
Mind: A History of Data Processing.
New York:
Mason/Charter.
Leith, Philip
(1991). 'Postmedieval
Information Processing and Contemporary
Computer Science'.
Media, Consciousness, and
Culture: Explorations of Walter Ong’s Thought.
Bruce E. Gronbeck, Thomas J. Farrell, Paul
A. Soukup (eds.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Publications, pp. 160-176.
Liu, Yin, Jeff Smith
(2008). 'A Relational
Database Model for Text Encoding'.
Rept.
Digital Studies/Le champ numérique.
0.11
.
MacGregor, Arthur
(c2007).
Curiosity and
Enlightenment: Collectors and Collections from
the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century.
New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Marcus, Leah
(2000). 'The Silence of
the Archive and the Noise of Cyberspace'.
The Renaissance Computer: Knowledge
Technology in the First Age of Print.
Neil
Rhodes, Jonathan Sawday (eds.). London,
England: Routledge, pp. 18-28.
Obrst, Leo, Howard Liu
(c2003).
'Knowledge Representation, Ontological
Engineering, and Topic Maps'.
XML Topic
Maps: Creating and using Topic Maps for the
Web.
Sam Hunting (ed.). Boston: Addison-
Wesley, pp. 103-149.
Sowa, John F.
(2000).
Knowledge
Representation: Logical, Philosophical, and
Computational Foundations.
Pacific Grove:
Brooks/Caole.
Stafford, Barbara Maria
(1996).
Good
Looking: Essays on the Virtue of Images.
Cambridge, Ma.: MIT Press.","txt","2","",""
"1239","11","The Importance of Pedagogy: Towards a Companion to Teaching Digital Humanities","2","
1
The Importance of
Pedagogy: Towards a
Companion to Teaching
Digital Humanities
Hirsch, Brett D.
brett.hirsch@gmail.com
University of Western Australia
Timney, Meagan
mbtimney.etcl@gmail.com
University of Victoria
The need to “encourage digital scholarship”
was one of eight key recommendations in
Our Cultural Commonwealth: The Report of
the American Council of Learned Societies
Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for the
Humanities and Social Sciences
(Unsworth et
al). As the report suggested, “if more than a
few are to pioneer new digital pathways, more
formal venues and opportunities for training
and encouragement are needed” (34). In other
words, human infrastructure is as crucial as
cyberinfrastructure for the future of scholarship
in the humanities and social sciences. While
the Commission’s recommendation pertains
to the training of faculty and early career
researchers, we argue that the need extends
to graduate and undergraduate students.
Despite the importance of pedagogy to the
development and long-term sustainability of
digital humanities, as yet very little critical
literature has been published. Both the
Companion to Digital Humanities
(2004) and
the
Companion to Digital Literary Studies
(2007), seminal reference works in their own
right, focus primarily on the theories, principles,
and research practices associated with digital
humanities, and not pedagogical issues. There is
much work to be done.
This poster presentation will begin by
contextualizing the need for a critical
discussion of pedagogical issues associated
with digital humanities. This discussion will
be framed by a brief survey of existing
undergraduate and graduate programs and
courses in digital humanities (or with a
digital humanities component), drawing on
the “institutional models” outlined by McCarty
and Kirschenbaum (2003). The growth in
the number of undergraduate and graduate
programs and courses offered reflects both an
increasing desire on the part of students to learn
about sorts of “transferable skills” and “applied
computing” that digital humanities offers
(Jessop 2005), and the desire of practitioners
to consolidate and validate their research and
methods. We propose a volume,
Teaching
Digital Humanities: Principles, Practices, and
Politics
, to capitalize on the growing prominence
of digital humanities within university curricula
and infrastructure, as well as in the broader
professional community.
We plan to structure the volume according
to the four critical questions educators should
consider as emphasized recently by Mary
Bruenig, namely:
-
What knowledge is of most worth?
-
By what means shall we determine what we
teach?
-
In what ways shall we teach it?
-
Toward what purpose?
In addition to these questions, we are mindful of
Henry A. Giroux’s argument that “to invoke the
importance of pedagogy is to raise questions not
simply about how students learn but also about
how educators (in the broad sense of the term)
construct the ideological and political positions
from which they speak” (45). Consequently, we
will encourage submissions to the volume that
address these wider concerns.
References
Breunig, Mary
(2006). 'Radical Pedagogy as
Praxis'. Radical Pedagogy.
http://radicalpeda
gogy.icaap.org/content/issue8_1/breunig.ht
ml
.
Giroux, Henry A.
(1994). 'Rethinking
the Boundaries of Educational Discourse:
Modernism, Postmodernism, and Feminism'.
Margins in the Classroom: Teaching
Literature.
Myrsiades, Kostas, Myrsiades,
Linda S. (eds.). Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press, pp. 1-51.

2
Schreibman, Susan, Siemens, Ray,
Unsworth, John (eds.)
(2004).
A
Companion to Digital Humanities.
Malden:
Blackwell.
Jessop, Martyn
(2005). 'Teaching, Learning
and Research in Final Year Humanities
Computing Student Projects'.
Literary and
Linguistic Computing.
20.3 (2005)
: 295-311.
McCarty, Willard, Kirschenbaum ,
Matthew
(2003). 'Institutional Models
for Humanities Computing'.
Literary and
Linguistic Computing.
18.4 (2003)
: 465-89.
Unsworth et al.
(2006).
Our Cultural
Commonwealth: The Report of the American
Council of Learned Societies Commission on
Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities and
Social Sciences.
New York: American Council of
Learned Societies.","txt","2","",""
"1240","11","The MLCD Overlap Corpus (MOC)","2","For some time, theorists and practitioners
of descriptive markup have been aware that
the strict hierarchical organization of elements
provided by SGML and XML represents a
potentially problematic abstraction. The nesting
structures of SGML and XML capture an
important property of real texts and represent
a successful combination of expressive power
and tractability. But not all textual phenomena
appear in properly nested form, and for more
than twenty years students of markup have been
exploring methods of recording overlapping
(non-hierarchical) structures. Useful surveys
include (Barnard et al. 1995), (DeRose 2004),
and (Witt et al. 2005).
Some approaches to the overlap problem take
the form of non-SGML, non-XML syntaxes and
non-tree-like data structures. One example is
offered by the TexMecs syntax and Goddag
data structures proposed by the project Markup
Languages for Complex Documents (MLCD)
based at the University of Bergen. Another is
the Layered Markup and Annotation Language
(LMNL). A third is the so-called multi-colored
trees defined by (Jagadish et al. 2004).
Other approaches exploit the optional
concurrent markup
feature of SGML (Sperberg-
McQueen and Huitfeldt 1998), or apply it, with
suitable modifications, to XML (Hilbert et al.
2005).
But by far the largest number of published
approaches to problems of overlapping markup
involve the use of SGML and XML themselves
to record the information. They exploit the
semantic openness of SGML and XML to
supply non-hierarchical interpretation of what
are often thought to be inescapably hierarchical
notations.
The SGML/XML-based approaches to overlap
fall, roughly, into three groups: milestones,
fragmentation-and-reconstitution, and stand-
off annotation. Milestones (described as early as
(Barnard et al. 1988), and used in (Sperberg-
McQueen and Burnard 1990) and later versions
of the TEI
Guidelines
) use empty elements to
mark the boundaries of regions which cannot
be marked simply as elements because they
overlap the boundaries of other elements. More
recently, approaches to milestone markup have
been generalized in the Trojan Horse and CLIX
markup idioms (DeRose 2004).
Fragmentation is the technique of dividing
a logical unit which overlaps other units
into several smaller units, which do not; the
consuming application can then re-aggregate
the fragments.
Stand-off annotation addresses the overlap
problem by removing the markup from the main
data stream of the document, at the same time
adding pointers back into the base data. Many
language corpora use forms of stand-off markup
(e.g. (Carletta et al. 2005), (Witt et al. 2005),
(Stührenberg and Goecke 2008)).
For all the variety of methods and proposals
for handling overlap, there is remarkably
little consensus on the best approach. Even
systematic comparisons are scarce, although
several of the surveys provide at least a broad
categorization of methods. Partly this reflects
a pragmatic issue (many methods used in
production systems are devised for use by
specific projects, which do not wish to engage in
a systematic comparison of interest to markup
theorists, but to get on with their discipline-
specific work); partly it reflects a difficulty in
comparing different schemes point to point,
owing to the scattered and informal nature of the
documentation.
And finally, despite the work of the last
twenty years we still have only an incomplete
understanding of the different structural and
semantic forms of overlapping structure, and
the implications for markup practice of
different forms of overlap. The pervasive but
unsystematic overlap of verse and dramatic

2
structure in verse drama, or of formal and
physical structure in any printed book, seems
to present one kind of phenomenon. The
occasional but richly significant overlap of
structures characteristic of enjambement in
verse may appear, on the other hand, to be of a
different kind. Is it?
The MLCD Overlap Corpus (MOC) is intended
to make it easier to compare different methods
of handling overlap, not just on theoretical
or abstract grounds, but in terms of concrete
examples from real and constructed texts. The
essential idea of the corpus is to make available
a single body of material, ranging from compact
examples to full texts of novel or five-act-play
length, tagged for the same information, using a
variety of overlap notations.
Consider the following simple example (from
(Hilbert et al. 2005)) of a discourse situation in
which the utterance structure overlaps with the
syntactic structure:
Peter
: Hey, Paul! Would you give me
Paul
: the hammer?
(Hilbert et al. 2005) give the following
representation of this example in the notation
now known as XConcur (then MLX).
<!DOCTYPE (1)div SYSTEM ""tei/dtd/teispok2.dtd"">
<!DOCTYPE (2)text SYSTEM ""tei/dtd/teiana2.dtd"">
<(1)div type=""dialog"" org=""uniform"">
<(2)text>
<(1)u who=""Peter"">
<(2)s>Hey Paul!</(2)s>
<(2)s>Would you give me
</(1)u>
<(1)u who=""Paul"">
the hammer?</(2)s>
</(1)u>
</(2)text>
</(1)div>
Using the CONCUR feature of SGML, a very
similar representation can be given (elided here
for space reasons). It might be represented in
TexMecs this way:
<div type=""dialog"" org=""uniform"">
<u who=""Peter"">
<s>Hey Paul!</s>
<s sID=""s2""/>Would you give me
</u>
<u who=""Paul"">
the hammer?<s eID=""s2"">
</u>
</div>
The goal of MOC is to make examples available
in a broad variety of notations, as well as those
just given:
-
various forms of TEI markup, using different
TEI mechanisms (
next
and
prev
attributes,
the
part
attribute, virtual elements, stand-off
markup using feature structures, etc.)
-
TexMecs (Huitfeldt and Sperberg-McQueen
2003)
-
XStandoff (Stührenberg and Jettka 2009)
-
Multix (Chatti et al., 2007)
-
Sekimo General Format (SGF) (Stührenberg
and Goecke 2008)
-
Nite (Carletta et al. 2005)
-
Earmark (Di Iorio et al. 2009)
There will be three sets of data:
-
twenty or more 'toy' examples like the one
just given, typically just a few lines in length.
Most of the toy examples will be drawn from
existing literature on overlap; almost all of
them will be constructed texts, though some
will be very short extracts from literary or
other natural texts.
-
ten or more 'short' examples, typically
corresponding to a few pages of printed
material, mostly extracts from natural texts.
-
five or more 'long' examples, full-length
natural texts. We will draw these partly from
an existing collection of literary texts used as a
test bed for full-text software and partly from
existing language corpora.
The toy examples will be tagged manually in the
various notations selected. The short examples
will be tagged using semi-automated processes
(i.e. partly by hand and partly automatically),
and checked carefully for correctness. The long
examples will be tagged using mostly automated
processes, and checked carefully for correctness.
Since the purpose of MOC is to illuminate
problems connected with overlap and with
existing proposals for handling it, there will
be no attempt to make the selection of
texts representative of any particular natural
language community. The relevant population is
not a particular set of natural-language users,
but the set of people who work with natural-
language texts for various purposes. In such a

3
small corpus, we cannot and do not hope for
statistical representativeness, but only for an
illuminating variety of examples. Accordingly,
we will seek to include examples illustrative of
problems encountered in:
-
literary and lexicological study
-
metrical study
-
language corpora (discourse analysis, syntax,
prosody, ...)
-
change markup and multi-versioned texts
-
historical-critical editions
-
analytic bibliography
-
historical annotation
Apart from simply illustrating the ways in
which different notations represent the same
information, MOC should provide sample test
data useful for a variety of tasks and studies:
-
development of automatic translation among
notations (the existing samples of the target
notation serve as comparison points for the
results achieved by the automatic translator)
-
development of software intended to handle
any of the notations represented
-
construction of domain-appropriate queries
against the various notations (does notation
N1 make it easier to construct suitable queries
than notation N2?)
-
comparative measures of markup complexity
-
analysis of different kinds and forms
of overlap: do structural patterns vary
with different kinds of markup? Do the
domain-specific implications of overlap (and
thus the domain-oriented requirements for
manipulating the data) vary?
-
development of tools for automatic extraction
of formalized representations of the meaning
of markup
Performance comparisons are notably missing
from this list; MOC will be too small to
provide performance measurements relevant to
searches across typical modern collections in the
gigabyte size range. (On the other hand, the long
samples may be useful for at least preliminary
performance comparisons and preparation for
more large-scale testing.)
At the time this abstract is prepared, the first
version of MOC is expected to be partially
completed before the DH 2010 conference; the
presentation will include an account of the work
to date, problems encountered, and a forecast
of the work remaining before completion of the
corpus.
Follow-on work includes experimentation with
existing full-text indexing and query systems
to test the different characteristics of different
markup styles on query formulation and
retrieval time; we also expect to work
on automated translations among various
notations.
References
Barnard, D., Hayter, R., Karababa, M.,
Logan, G. and McFadden, J.
(1988). 'SGML
Markup for Literary Texts'.
SGML Markup for
Literary Texts.
22
: 265-276.
Barnard, D., Burnard, L., Gaspart, J.
P., Price, L. A., Sperberg-McQueen, C.
M. and Varile, G. B.
(1995). 'Hierarchical
encoding of text: Technical problems and SGML
solutions'.
Computers and the Humanities.
29
:
211-231.
Carletta, J., Evert, S., Heid, U. and
Kilgour, J.
(2005). 'The NITE XML Toolkit:
data model and query'.
Language Resources
and Evaluation.
39(4)
: 313-334.
doi:10.1007/
s10579-006-9001-9
.
Chatti, N., Kaouk, S., Calabretto, S. and
Pinon, J. M.
(2007). 'MultiX: an XML-
based formalism to encode multi-structured
documents'.
Proceedings of Extreme Markup
Languages 2007.
Montréal (Canada), Aug.
2007.
http://conferences.idealliance.org/ex
treme/html/2007/Chatti01/EML2007Chatti01.h
tml
.
DeRose, S. J.
(2004). 'Markup overlap: A
review and a horse'.
Proceedings of Extreme
Markup Languages 2004.
Montréal (Canada),
Aug. 2004.
http://conferences.idealliance.o
rg/extreme/html/2004/DeRose01/EML2004DeRos
e01.html
.
Di Iorio, A., Peroni, S. and Vitali,
F.
(2009). 'Towards markup support for

4
full GODDAGs and beyond: the EARMARK
approach'.
Proceedings of Balisage: The
Markup Conference 2009.
Montréal (Canada),
August 11-14, 2009.
http://www.balisage.net/P
roceedings/vol3/html/Peroni01/BalisageVol3
-Peroni01.html
doi:10.4242/BalisageVol3.Per
oni01
.
Hilbert, M., Schonefeld, O. and
Witt, A.
(2005). 'Making CONCUR work'.
Proceedings of Extreme Markup Languages
2005.
http://conferences.idealliance.org/ex
treme/html/2005/Witt01/EML2005Witt01.xml
.
Huitfeldt, C. and Sperberg-McQueen,
C. M.
(2003).
TexMECS: An
experimental markup meta-language for
complex documents.
University of
Bergen.
http://decentius.aksis.uib.no/mlcd/
2003/Papers/texmecs.html
.
Jagadish, H.V., Lakshmanan, L. V. S.,
Scannapieco, M., Srivastava, D. and
Wiwatwattana, N.
(2004). 'Colorful XML:
one hierarchy isn't enough'.
Proceedings of the
2004 ACM SIGMOD international conference
on Management of data.
Paris (France), pp.
251-262.
http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1007568
.1007598
.
Sperberg-McQueen, C.M. and Huitfeldt,
C.
(1998). 'Concurrent Document Hierarchies
in MECS and SGML'.
Literary and Linguistic
Computing.
14
: 29-42.
Stührenberg, M. and Jettka, D.
(2009).
'A toolkit for multi-dimensional markup: The
development of SGF to XStandoff'.
Proceedings
of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2009.
Montréal (Canada), August 11-14, 2009.
http://
www.balisage.net/Proceedings/vol3/html/Stu
hrenberg01/BalisageVol3-Stuhrenberg01.htm
l
doi:10.4242/BalisageVol3.Stuhrenberg01
.
Stührenberg, M. and Goecke, D.
(2008).
'SGF — An integrated model for multiple
annotations and its application in a linguistic
domain'.
Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup
Conference 2008.
Montréal (Canada), August
12-15, 2008.
http://www.balisage.net/Proceed
ings/vol1/html/Stuehrenberg01/BalisageVol1
-Stuehrenberg01.html
doi:10.4242/BalisageVo
l1.Stuehrenberg01
.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. and Burnard,
L.
(1990).
Guidelines for the Encoding and
Interchange of Machine-Readable Texts (TEI
P1).
Chicago, Oxford: Text Encoding Initiative.
Witt, A., Lüngen, H., Sasaki, F. and
Goecke, D.
(2005). 'Unification of XML
Documents with Concurrent Markup'.
Literary
and Linguistic Computing.
20(1)
: 103-116.","txt","2","",""
"1241","11","The Person Data Repository","2","The Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences
and Humanities
(Berlin-Brandenburgische
Akademie der Wissenschaften, BBAW) is the
largest non-university research institution in
the region. TELOTA (
The Electronic Life of the
Academy
), an initiative for academically applied
information technology, was launched here in
2002. The initiative supports the academy's
projects by developing IT solutions for research
work and digital publications.
The project “Construction of a repository for
biographical data on historical persons of
the 19
th
century” – short form:
Person Data
Repository
– enhances the existing approaches
to data integration and electronically supported
research in biographies. It investigates
connecting and presenting heterogeneous
information on persons of the “long nineteenth
century” (1789–1914). The project's aim is
to provide a de-central software system for
research institutions, universities, archives,
and libraries that allows combined access on
biographic information from different data
pools.
The project is subdivided into three major
fields: 1) conceptual design of an adequate data
model, which embraces different methods and
perspectives; 2) data exchange with national
and international cooperation partners; and 3)
development of a software solution based on an
evaluated framework. The project is funded by
the DFG (
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
,
German Research Foundation). The work began
in July 2009 with three academic staff members
and three student assistants, and will continue
for two years.
1. Data Modelling
To structure heterogeneous biographical data,
the project pursues a novel approach, which
was already presented in a talk at the workshop
“Personendateien – Elektronisches Publizieren”
in September 2009 in Leipzig (see link below).
The approach does not define a person as single
data record, but rather as compilation of all
statements concerning that person. Thus, it
is possible to display complementing as well
as contradicting statements in parallel, which
meets one of the basic challenges of biographic
research.
In the above lecture by Niels-Oliver Walkowski,
he notes: “Biographic research, understood as
the creation of identifying narrations, performs
semantic constructions, which were caused by
a human, but which are not identical to it.
The consequences are concurring narrations,
polysemy and contingency, which are not an
expression of lacking knowledge, but are due to
the conditions of biographic research.”
In order to satisfy different research approaches
and perspectives, the smallest entity of the
Person Data Repository is not a person, but a
single statement on a person, which is named
“aspect” in the data model. An aspect bundles
references to persons, places, dates and sources.
By proper queries it will be possible to create
further narrations, whose first dimension is
not necessarily a person, but possibly also a
time span or a certain location. Those attained
insights can enhance the knowledge on persons
in turn.
Additionally, all aspects are connected to
the corresponding source and to current
identification systems respectively, like the
LCCN or the German PND. Thus, scientific
transparency and compatibility with existing
and future systems is guaranteed.
2. Cooperation
As the Person Data Repository acquires data
from partners, focusing on data organisation
rather than conducting its own research,
cooperation is an essential part of the project.
The mission statement is guided by the Berlin
Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the
Sciences and Humanities, which has also been
signed by the
Berlin Brandenburg Academy of
Sciences and Humanities
, and which promotes
the exchange of scientific knowledge through
digital media as well as transparency of sources
and authors.

2
Initially, several projects of the BBAW were
invited to share their data on the Person
Data Repository. Amongst them are the
Marx-
Engels-Gesamtausgabe
(MEGA, Complete
works by Marx and Engels), the
Alexander-von-
Humboldt-Forschungsstelle
, the
Protokolle des
Preußischen Staatsministeriums
(Protocols
of the Prussian Ministry of State), the
Berliner Klassik
(Classical Berlin) and the
Altmitgliederverzeichnis
(Index of Former
Academy Members). Thus, an inventory of
several thousand persons is already available;
partnerships with further BBAW projects are
planned in order to reach about 200,000
entries.
Parallel to this, partnerships with external
institutions are being formed. These
cooperations will range from sharing
unstructured data to data exchange with existing
repositories. Contacts with edition projects,
image databases and repository databases have
already been formed and will be developed
during the project's course. A basis for
exchange and publication of the gathered
person information should be delivered by Open
Access oriented agreements, whereas individual
arrangements can be made as well.
As it is intended to provide not only the
Person Data Repository's contents, but also its
infrastructure, it is also of interest for projects
whose historical scope is focused outside the
19th century. In this case, it is possible set-
up an infrastructure of the same type with
freely configurable contents, as it were a sister
repository.
3. Development
During the preliminaries for the technical
realisation of the Person Data Repository, a
list of established software packets has been
created. An evaluation shows which of these
packets will constitute the core component of
the repository. As the software is provided
also to other institutions, key elements of the
evaluation are documentation, configurability,
scalability, expandability and availability of
interfaces.
A software which has already been utilized by
BBAW projects for gathering person data is
the “Archiv-Editor” (Archive Editor), which had
been developed by the TELOTA initiative (see
link below). This editor will play a central part
as an editing tool in the Person Data Repository,
and will be developed further according to the
project's demands.
Along with the work on the repository and
archive software, also the conversion of data
is a part of the development field. Manual
and automated methods will be utilized in the
process. The atomization in single aspects is
conducted in three steps: syntax analysis, index
based structuring, and manual correction. The
first data pool to convert was the person index
of the Protocols of the Prussian Ministry of
State, a completed project which provides an
excellent starting basis, containing over 22,000
person entries. As the second major source
for data on persons of the 19
th
century, the
exhaustive indexes of the Complete Works of
Marx and Engels have been chosen. Further
projects at the academy, like the Alexander-
von-Humboldt-Forschungsstelle and Classical
Berlin, have placed their data pools at the
disposal of Person Data Repository.
4. Perspectives
As the project aims at cooperation to a great
extent, it is our wish to communicate with
interested parties from all disciplines, in order to
build up partnerships between our institutions.
Also, we look forward to questions, remarks,
proposals, and to exchanging theoretical and
technical approaches. A cooperative workshop
for partners and interested parties is planned for
autumn 2010.
Die
Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der
Wissenschaften
(BBAW) ist die größte
außeruniversitäre Forschungseinrichtung der
Region. Im Jahr 2002 wurde hier TELOTA
(
The Electronic Life Of The Academy
),
eine Initiative für akademisch angewandte
Informationstechnologie, ins Leben gerufen.
Diese unterstützt die Akademievorhaben
mit der Entwicklung informationstechnischer
Lösungen für Forschungsarbeit und digitale
Publikation.
Mit dem DFG-Projekt „Aufbau eines
Repositoriums für biografische Daten
historischer Personen des 19. Jahrhunderts“ –
kurz:
Personendaten-Repositorium
– werden

3
bisherige Ansätze der Datenvernetzung und
elektronischen Biografik weiterentwickelt. Es
erforscht anhand von Personeninformationen
des „langen 19. Jahrhunderts“ (1789–
1914), wie sich heterogene Datenbestände
miteinander verbinden und präsentieren lassen.
Ziel des Projektes ist die Bereitstellung
eines dezentralen Softwaresystems, welches
Lehr- und Forschungseinrichtungen, Archiven
und Bibliotheken ermöglicht, biographische
Informationen aus verschiedenen Beständen
über einen gemeinsamen Zugang zu nutzen.
Das Projekt untergliedert sich in drei Teile: 1)
Der Entwurf eines geeigneten Datenmodells,
welches unterschiedlichen Perspektiven und
Forschungsmethoden gerecht wird, 2) der
Datenaustausch mit Kooperationspartnern im
In- und Ausland, und 3) die Entwicklung
einer Software-Lösung auf der Basis eines zu
evaluierenden Framework. Das Projekt wurde
von TELOTA bei der DFG beantragt und ist
für die Laufzeit von zwei Jahren bewilligt
worden. Im Juli 2009 wurde die Arbeit mit
drei wissenschaftlichen Mitarbeitern und drei
studentischen Hilfskräften aufgenommen.
1. Datenmodellierung
Zur Strukturierung heterogener biographischer
Daten verfolgt das Projekt einen neuartigen
Ansatz, der bereits in einem Vortrag auf dem
Workshop „Personendateien – Elektronisches
Publizieren“ im September 2009 in Leipzig
vorgestellt wurde (siehe Link unten). Eine
Person wird darin nicht als einzelner Datensatz
definiert, sondern vielmehr als die Menge aller
Aussagen, die zu ihr getroffen werden. Damit
ist es möglich, sowohl sich ergänzende als auch
sich widersprechende Aussagen nebeneinander
abzubilden, was grundlegenden Problemen
biografischen Arbeitens Rechnung trägt.
In dem erwähnten Vortrag von Niels-
Oliver Walkowski hieß es: „Biografisches
Arbeiten verstanden als Erzeugung
von identifizierenden Narrationen vollzieht
semantische Konstruktionsleistungen, zu denen
ein Mensch den Anlass gab, der aber nicht
mit ihm zusammenfällt. Eine Folge sind
konkurrierende Narrationen, Polysemie und
Kontingenz, die nicht Ausdruck mangelnder
Kenntnis, sondern den Voraussetzungen
biografischen Arbeitens an sich geschuldet
sind.“
Gerade also, um verschiedenen
Forschungsansätzen und Perspektiven gerecht
zu werden, ist die kleinste Dateneinheit
des Personendaten-Repositoriums nicht eine
Person, sondern eine einzelne Aussage zu einer
Person, die in dem Datenmodell „Aspekt“
genannt wird. Ein Aspekt bündelt Bezüge zu
Personen, Orten, Daten und einer Quelle.
Dadurch wird es möglich sein, durch eine
entsprechende Abfrage weitere Narrationen
zu erzeugen, bei denen nicht unbedingt eine
einzelne Person, sondern auch ein Zeitraum
oder ein Ort die erste Dimension bilden könnte.
Daraus gewonnene Erkenntnisse erweitern
wiederum das Personenwissen.
Zudem werden die Aspekte einerseits
mit den jeweiligen Quellen, andererseits
mit geläufigen Identifikationssystemen, etwa
mit PND und LCCN, verknüpft. Dadurch
bleibt die wissenschaftliche Transparenz und
die Kompatibilität mit bestehenden und
zukünftigen Systemen gewährleistet.
2. Kooperationen
Da das Personendaten-Repositorium die Daten
über seine Partner bezieht und sich selbst
auf die Organisation der Daten konzentriert,
anstatt eigene Datenbestände zu erarbeiten,
ist Zusammenarbeit ein essenzieller Bestandteil
des Projektes. Von richtungweisender
Bedeutung sind dabei die Ziele der
Berlin
Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge
in the Sciences and Humanities
, die auch
von der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie
der Wissenschaften unterzeichnet wurde und
welche den wissenschaftlichen Austausch durch
digitale Technik unter Gewährleistung von
Quellen- und Autorentransparenz befördert.
Zunächst wurden einige Vorhaben der
Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften dazu eingeladen, ihre
Daten auf der zukünftigen Repositorien-
Plattform verfügbar und verknüpfbar zu
machen. Darunter fallen die
Marx-
Engels-Gesamtausgabe
, die
Alexander-von-
Humboldt-Forschungsstelle
, die
Protokolle
des Preußischen Staatsministeriums
sowie
das Altmitgliederverzeichnis aus dem
Akademiearchiv. Damit liegen bereits Daten zu

4
mehreren zehntausend Personen vor; weitere
Kooperationen mit Akademievorhaben sind in
Vorbereitung, um ca. 200.000 Einträge zu
erreichen.
Parallel dazu werden externe Institutionen als
Partner herangezogen. Die
Kooperationsmöglichkeiten reichen von der
Übernahme unstrukturierter Datenbestände
bis hin zum Austausch mit anderen
Repositorien. So sind bereits Kontakte mit
mehreren Editionsprojekten, Bilddatenbanken
und Verbund-Datenbanken geknüpft worden,
die im weiteren Verlauf des Projektes zu
vertiefen sind. Die Grundlage für Austausch
und Veröffentlichung der Personendaten schafft
im besten Falle eine Vereinbarung im Sinne
des
Open Access
, wobei auch individuell davon
abweichende Verabredungen getroffen werden
können.
Da beabsichtigt ist, nicht nur die Daten, sondern
auch die Infrastruktur des Personendaten-
Repositoriums zur Verfügung zu stellen,
ist das Projekt auch für solche Vorhaben
interessant, deren historischer Rahmen das
19. Jahrhundert nicht berührt. In diesem
Fall kann eine Abmachung über die
Einrichtung einer gleichartigen Infrastruktur
mit selbst bestimmbaren Inhalten, also eine
Art „Schwester-Repositorium“, geschlossen
werden.
3. Entwicklung
Im Rahmen der Vorbereitungen für die
praktische Umsetzung des Personendaten-
Repositoriums wurde eine Liste etablierter
Software-Pakete erstellt. Eine Evaluation zeigt,
welches die Kernkomponente der Datenhaltung
des PDR bildet. Da die Software auch
anderen Projekten zur Verfügung steht,
gehören Dokumentation, Konfigurierbarkeit,
Skalierbarkeit, Erweiterbarkeit und
Schnittstellen zu den wesentlichen
Anforderungen der Evaluation.
Als bereits längerfristig genutzte Software
zur Erfassung von Personendaten existiert
innerhalb der BBAW der von der TELOTA-
Initiative entwickelte Archiv-Editor (Link s.
u.). Dieser wird im Rahmen des PDR
eine zentrale Rolle als Werkzeug für die
Eingabe von Personendaten spielen und wird
entsprechend der veränderten Anforderungen
weiterentwickelt.
Neben der Arbeit an der Repositorien-
und Archivsoftware fällt auch die
Konvertierung von Datenbeständen in
den Entwicklungsbereich. Dabei werden
sowohl manuelle als auch automatische
Verfahren eingesetzt. Die Zerlegung der
Biogramme in Einzelaspekte erfolgt zunächst
anhand einer einfachen Syntaxanalyse,
wird dann über Abkürzungs-, Orts- und
Personenverzeichnisse tiefstrukturiert und zum
Abschluss manuell korrigiert. Begonnen wurde
mit dem Personenregister der
Protokolle des
Preußischen Staatsministeriums
, welche sich
als abgeschlossenes Projekt und mit über
22.000 Kurzbiogrammen als hervorragende
Ausgangsbasis anbot. Als zweite Quelle
für Personendaten des 19. Jahrhunderts
wurden die umfangreichen Register der
Marx-
Engels-Gesamtausgabe
ausgewählt. Weitere
Akademienvorhaben, etwa die
Alexander-von-
Humboldt-Forschungsstelle
, haben ihre Daten
ebenfalls bereits zur Verfügung gestellt.
4. Ausblick
Da unser Projekt in großem Maße auf
Kooperationen setzt, ist es unser Wunsch,
mit interessierten Projekten aus allen
denkbaren Fachgebieten ins Gespräch zu
kommen und Partnerschaften zu schließen.
Ebenso freuen wir uns auf Fragen,
Hinweise und Anregungen sowie auf den
Austausch von theoretischen und technischen
Lösungsansätzen. Ein Workshop, zu dem
sowohl ähnliche Projekte, Kooperationspartner
und interessiertes Fachpublikum eingeladen
werden, ist für Herbst 2010 geplant.
Further information
-
Website of the Person Data Repository
pdr.b
baw.de
-
The TELOTA Initiative of the BBAW
www.bba
w.de/telota
-
The ""Archiv-Editor"" (Introduction and
Download)
http://www.bbaw.de/telota/proj
ekte/personendatenbank-1/archiv-editor
-
""Personendateien"" Workshop in Leipzig
www.
saw-leipzig.de/aktuelles/personendateien

5
Events
Workshop: Personen - Daten - Repositorien
(Persons - Data - Repositories)
, 27
th
– 29
th
September 2010 Berlin-Brandenburg Academy
of Sciences and Humanities:
pdr.bbaw.de/works
hop
.
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6
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r=down&search=presse& epoche=22
.","txt","2","",""
"1242","11","Towards Digital Built Environment Studies: An Interface Design for the Study of Medieval Delhi","2","Computing technologies such as CADD, GIS
or databases, are generally developed with the
aims of the producers of the built environment
(architects, engineers, urban planners etc.)
in mind. These existing technologies tend
to be adapted uncomfortably for pedagogical
and research purposes. The field of built
environment studies, which here refers to
scholarly fields like architectural history and
urban history and not practical fields like
architecture, is just beginning to consider
how computing technologies can be designed
and employed for analytical and scholarly
ends. What would software designed by
practitioners of built environment studies with
their aims in mind look like? Engaging with
this problem is not only an opportunity
to imagine a new practical tool but also
to critically inquire into the aims of built
environment studies and the assumptions
embedded into existing built environment
computing technologies. This paper presents the
Medieval Delhi Humanities Computing
Research Collective
’s proposal for an
interface design concept that is the culmination
of their attempts to analyse both their
own research questions, processes and the
suitability of existing technological strategies
from the perspective of architectural and urban
historians.
1. The Medieval Delhi Humanities
Computing Research Collective
The Collective is a Canadian-led international
team of historians and art and architectural
historians from leading research institutions
in Canada, the United Kingdom, India, and
Japan with expertise in Medieval Delhi and
humanities computing initiatives. Formed in
2008, the Collective is a result of the Medieval
Delhi Humanities Computing Initiative funded
by UBC Martha Piper Research Grant (Jan.
2008 to Sept. 2009). The Collective first
met as a group in a workshop and planning
session on April 2-3, 2009 in Victoria,
established institutional linkages, data sharing
agreements, and a common data repository,
and is working together to attract additional
funding. The Collective is currently completing
its work on conceptualizing researcher oriented
technologies and strategies for architectural and
urban historical research of Medieval Delhi.
2. Imagining Data Collages
Researchers interested in studying the built
environment in a systematic way typically
need to reconcile diverse forms of data –
spatial, textual, and visual – and increasingly
computing technologies are vital not only
for storing and retrieving this information
but for analyzing it as well. To be able to
research built environments effectively then,
a researcher-oriented digital interface and
infrastructure becomes increasingly necessary.
Not only does one need to need to build
an array of databases of historical texts in
multiple languages, chronologically organized
photographs, maps and satellite data and other
forms of information, but one needs to figure out
simple productive ways to connect and interface
with these various databases, integrate them
with large-scale databases and design overlaying
analytical tools that truly facilitate historical
inquiry and collective scholarship. If planning
officials, architects, tourism industries and
others increasingly develop and use computing
technologies with their goals in mind why
should not the built environment scholarly
community?
The Collective’s approach treats architectural
sites and urban form as a collection of visual
and textual representations of varying precision
across time and space each with their own
interpretable contexts. For example, a site is not
viewed as entirely knowable in its moment of
creation but as something that evolves in form
and memory and can be known only through
its various representations whether they be the
textual account of a 12th C court historian,
the textual and pictorial accounts of a 19th C

2
British traveller, the textual and photographic
records of a 20th C Japanese archaeological
team, the oral and videographic account of
an Indian tourist from Mumbai, or a 21st
century satellite image. These representations
amount to a collage of data hence the term
Data Collage. While this approach is familiar to
researchers of architectural and urban history
it is generally not incorporated into existing
technology strategies which tend to favour
virtual reconstructions or presume the stability
of knowledge and a uniform level of precision
for spatial and chronological information.
This representational approach has important
implications for how data should be structured
and engaged with.
Instead of attempting to recreate a historic
architectural site or region as virtual reality,
Data Collages treat an architectural site or
region as a collection of intersecting and
conflicting representations. Ideally, a Data
Collage will allow researchers of an historic site
to access all relevant three-dimensional digital
models, photographs, paintings and historical
textual descriptions in original and translated
texts and be able to see how these various
representations are interrelated chronologically
and spatially and where they conflict.
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3
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New York: Routledge.

4
Page, J.A., Hasan. Zafar
(1916).
Monuments
of Delhi.
Delhi: ASI, reprint 2004.
Soja, Edward
(1989).
Postmodern
Geographies.
London: Verso.
Soja, Edward
(2003). 'Writing the City
Spatially'.
City: analysis of urban trends,
culture, theory, policy, action.
3
: 269-281.
Sokhi, B. S.
(1992). 'Spotting historical
monuments and sites: Mapping of historical
monuments and sites of Delhi using SPOT
satellite image'.
Journal of the Indian Society of
Remote Sensing.
2-3
: 65-71.
Properties inscribed on the World Heritage
List.
http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties
/in
.
Verma, Richi
(2008). 'City's unprotected
monuments dying a slow death'.
The Times of India.
9 Jun
2008
.
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/C
ities/Delhi/Citys_unprotected_monuments_dy
ing_a_slow_death/rssarticleshow/3112362.cm
s
.
Welch, Anthony
(1996). 'Gardens that
Babur Did Not Like: Landscape, Water, and
Architecture for the Sultans of Delhi'.
Mughal
Gardens: Sources, Places, Representations,
and Prospects.
Wescoat, J. L., Wolschke-
Bulmahn, J. (eds.). Washington DC: Dumbarton
Oaks Research Library, Harvard University, pp.
59-93.
Welch, Anthony
(1984). 'Qur'an and Tomb,
the religious epigraphs of two early Sultanate
tombs in Delhi'.
Indian Epigraphy, its Bearing
on Art History.
Asher, F., Gai, S. (eds.).
Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pp.
247-257.
Welch, Anthony, Keshani, Hussein, Bain,
Alexandra
(2002). 'Epigraphs, Scripture, and
Architecture'.
Muqarnas, an Annual on the
Visual Culture of the Islamic World, The Aga
Khan Program at Harvard and M.I.T.
XIX
:
12-43.
Welch, Anthony
(1997). 'The Shrine of the
Holy Footprint in Delhi'.
Muqarnas, an Annual
on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World,
The Aga Khan Program at Harvard and M.I.T.
XIV
: 166-178.
Welch, Anthony
(1996). 'A Medieval Muslim
Center of Learning in India: the Hauz Khas
Madrasa in Delhi'.
Muqarnas, an Annual on the
Visual Culture of the Islamic World, The Aga
Khan Program at Harvard and M.I.T.
XIII
:
165-190.
Welch, Anthony
(1993). 'Architectural
Patronage and the Past: The Tughluq Sultans
of Delhi'.
Muqarnas, an Annual on the Visual
Culture of the Islamic World, The Aga Khan
Program at Harvard and M.I.T.
X
: 311-322.
Welch, Anthony
(1985). 'Hydraulic
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Environmental Design, Journal of the Islamic
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:
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Welch, Anthony, Crane, Howard
(1984).
'The Tughluqs: Master Builders of the Delhi
Sultanate'.
Muqarnas, an Annual on the Visual
Culture of the Islamic World, The Aga Khan
Program at Harvard and M.I.T.
I
: 123-166.
Welch, Anthony
(2005). 'The Qutb Minar'.
Encyclopedia of Medieval Islamic Civilization.
London: Routledge.
Welch, Anthony
(1997). 'Tughlukids:
Architecture'.
Encyclopaedia of Islam.
Leiden:
E.J. Brill.
Yamamoto, T., Ara, M. and Tsukinowa,
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Indo Shiseki
Chōsa Dan hen.
3 vols.","txt","2","",""
"1243","11","""You don't have to be famous for your life to be history"": The Dusenbery Journal and img2xml","2","This poster presentation will describe a project
currently underway under the auspices of
the Documenting the American South digital
publishing program. It has been funded by
grants from the US National Endowment for
the Humanities (Digital Humanities Start-Up
Grants program) and UNC Chapel Hill. The
project is centered around the journal of a
19th century student at UNC named James
Dusenbery and aims to use innovative web-
based technology to present the journal and
to create modules of supplementary material
around it to provide insight into Dusenbery's
world.
1. Background
The journal that forms the basis of our project
was written by James Lawrence Dusenbery
(1821-86) during the 1841-42 academic year.
Dusenbery, the son of Lydia Davis (1797-1857)
and planter Henry Rounsaville Dusenbery
(1794-1852) of Lexington, North Carolina,
entered the University of North Carolina (UNC)
in 1839. Sometime before graduating, he began
copying out poems and lyrics to popular songs
that he admired, and in July 1841 he began
“Records of My Senior Year at the University
of North Carolina,” a series of 44 weekly
entries describing his activities as a University
student. He graduated in 1842, received his MD
from the University of Pennsylvania's Medical
Department in 1845, and returned to Lexington
to practice medicine. During the Civil War, he
served with the Fourteenth Battalion, Rowan
County Home Guard. Though he survived the
conflict, three brothers, two brothers-in-law,
and a niece died during the war years. After the
war Dusenbery resumed his medical practice in
Lexington and served as a UNC trustee from
1874 until 1877. He died on 24 February 1886
and was buried in the Lexington City Cemetery.
He never married.
Dusenbery's journal, the centerpiece of this
new digital collection, provides multiple
opportunities to extend his text by creating
a multimedia scholarly apparatus that, when
combined with an array of interpretive essays,
will illuminate the academic, social, political,
economic, and religious forces that shaped his
world. Though Dusenbery was not “famous”
in the ways that our culture assigns such
prominence, like many students today he
enjoyed his senior year in college. He
appreciated his friends; enjoyed sports, music,
and dance; and despite an active social life,
completed his studies successfully and spent
his life as a physician in Lexington, North
Carolina. The journal is a valuable source of
information for those interested in antebellum
culture, antebellum literary life, and the day-to-
day events that ordinarily fall through the cracks
of history. Edward L. Ayers, southern historian
and one of the pioneers of digital libraries,
points out that new forms of digitization and
spatial display enable scholars and students
alike to “see things that are invisible otherwise”.
1
The Dusenbery Journal's multimedia apparatus
will allow users to both see and hear a slice of
American history. All of the materials included
on the site will be accompanied by scholarly
annotations, biographies, and essays that will
provide an analytical framework for the project
and forge connections between the disparate
materials (and disciplines) represented. When it
is completed, The Dusenbery Journal will be a
fully realized, searchable, multimedia, scholarly
edition consisting of manuscript materials,
images, songs, artifacts, maps, newspaper
clippings, court and judicial documents, and
important related resources pulled together
from a variety of repositories, especially the
University Library's special collections; the
North Carolina State Archives; North Carolina
public libraries; and the private collection of a
family descendant, Colonel William B. Hankins,
Jr. The scholarly apparatus for Dusenbery's
journal will be accessible to users by means
of links within the edited text and through

2
various indexes for personal names, places,
publications, images, topics, events, dates,
organizations, genres, and authors.
2. Technology
Digital images of the pages of the journal have
been captured, and the text has been marked up
in TEI P5 XML. The handwritten text has been
traced and output in a Scaleable Vector Graphics
(SVG) format. SVG is itself an XML format,
which means structures (i.e. lines, words, and
letters) in the image can be linked to lines and
notes in the transcribed text. Open Source web
mapping software (OpenLayers) is being used to
provide zoomable overlays of the SVG and raster
image for each page. The result is an interface
in which each line of text in the transcription is
linked to a line of written text on the page image.
The page image and transcription are displayed
side-by-side, and OpenLayers provides zoom
and pan features for the image.
The img2xml system models tracings of
manuscript text as Shapes: the SVG paths
and bounding boxes; Regions: bounded spaces
containing text; and Structures: the overlap of
one or more shapes with a Region. Structures
can be mapped to elements in a transcription or
to annotations.
Since SVG is an XML-based format, it can be
manipulated in a web browser using standard
Javascript techniques. The final project is
available at
http://docsouth.unc.edu/dusenber
y.
The digital environment has the power to
contextualize and fully document this ordinary
life, proving, as Nell Sigmon put it, “You
don't have to be famous for your life to be
history”.
2
In that, we fully realize one of the most
distinguishing features of electronic editions -
“their capaciousness: scholars are no longer
limited by what they can fit on a page or
afford to produce within the economics of print
publishing”.
3
References
Burnard, Lou, Bauman, Syb (eds.)
(November 8, 2009).
TEI P5: Guidelines for
Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange.
ver.
1.5.0.
http://www.teic.org/release/doc/tei-p
5-doc/en/html/index.html
.
Cayless, Hugh
(2008). 'Experiments
in Automated Linking of TEI
Transcripts to Manuscript Images'.
TEI
Member's Meeting.
London, November
2008.
http://www.cch.kcl.ac.uk/cocoon/tei20
08/programme/abstracts/abstract-166.html
.
Cayless, Hugh
(2009). 'Image as Markup:
Adding Semantics to Manuscript Images'.
DH
2009.
University of Maryland, USA, 22-25 June
2009.
http://www.mith2.umd.edu/dh09/wp-cont
ent/uploads/dh09_conferencepreceedings_fin
al.pdf
.
Notes
1.
The Chronicle of Higher Education, 10 November 2006: 33
2.
Jacqueline Dowd Hall, interview with Nell Putnam Sigmon,
13 December 1979 (H-143), Southern Oral History Program
Collection #4007, Southern Historical Collection, University of
North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
3.
Price, Kenneth (2008). ""Electronic Scholarly Editions,"" in A
Companion to Digital Literary Studies, ed. Susan Schreibman
and Ray Siemens. Oxford: Blackwell, 2008.","txt","2","",""
"1244","11","To Hold Up a Mirror: Preservation and Interpretation of Performance in a Digital Age","8","It is commonplace to separate the methods of preservation of our cultural heritage from scholarly
interpretation. Preservation is often described in more technical terms, while scholarship is deemed an
intellectual engagement removed from the the technicalities of electronic capture and persistence. This
presentation challenges that distinction, and rather explores the dynamic, causal relationship between
preserving a performance event and its subsequent interpretation.
The scholar's reception and elucidation of performance can be traced back at least to Aristarchus and
his collation and annotation of the various written records of recitations of Homer's epic poetry that
had accumulated by the second century B.C.E. More recently, the digitization of the Bayeux Tapestry
illuminates the interplay between the translation, from one medium to another, and preservation of a
fundamentally important object of human expression and its determining influence on how that object
may be interpreted and received subsequent to its digitization.
Today, performance often entails rich, multimedia elements that pose considerable difficulties for
preserving the event and making it accessible over time. As importantly, the methods of capture can limit
but also allow new and exciting opportunities for scholarly exegesis, including the capture of various
stages and components of the creative process, illuminating the context and history of the performance
'event'.
What does it mean to preserve our cultural record digitally? What new methods of interpretation may
arise in response to a digital record of an otherwise fleeting and ephemeral event? What new means
of publication will be needed to communicate adequately the various 'readings' of a digitally preserved
performance?","txt","2","",""
"1245","11","Humanities Computing in an Age of Social Change","8","Humanities computing in the United States can be considered to have started a few years before 1964,
when IBM sponsored what it designated as a Literary Data Processing Conference. While most of the
participants in that early conference, despite their often-expressed interest in the concept of nonlinear
visualization of texts, were clearly oriented toward the goal of producing a printed book, two generations
after that founding conference, we can recognize that the value of their work lies in their having begun to
establish humanities computing as a valid occupation of scholars. There was, nevertheless, a need for a
common ground on which to record and exchange our ideas of where this new mode of scholarship was
leading us; hence the print journal Computers and the Humanities.
Not evident to that handful of pioneers in 1964 was the amazing growth of computer applications
throughout society that were made possible by the technological advances of the next half-century.
Humanities computing has advanced as far as it has almost exclusively because of the revolution on the
technological side. Because of the computer revolution, the world we inhabit is no more like the one
known to previous generations than that of the twentieth century resembled any of its predecessors.
The drastic changes in our world in the almost half-century since 1964 makes clear that we can no more
predict the changes to come than those pioneers did in their own time. Computer-based communication,
in particular and especially in its printed form, is being violently altered by the new technology. The
openness of the Internet and the Web being a manifestation of a democratic spirit, the burgeoning role
of computers in education, including humanities education, can only continue to disrupt the traditional
structure of academe.
The long-term consequences of the increasing cost of a postsecondary education and the increasing
availability of resources that exceed those of any university would seem to drive toward the replacement
of the bricks-and-mortar university by a totally online facility. That paradigm shift requires the
aggregation in a central online location of information about the growing resources of the digital
humanities. The generation that will prevail in the middle of the twenty-first century, wired to computers
for all their needs, social as well as intellectual, will look beyond our current concepts of humanities.
How well we prepare for that world, what foundation we construct to emphasize the positive potentials
of whatever technology will have evolved, will be the measure of how much we have learned from our
humanistic concern for our own history","txt","2","",""
"1246","11","Present, Not Voting: Digital Humanities in the Panopticon","8","The field of Digital Humanities continues to change and evolve rapidly, as we utilise, appropriate, and
develop internet, communication, and computational technologies. In this plenary, a specific focus will
be placed on one individual project – The Transcribe Bentham project at UCL (http://www.ucl.ac.u
k/transcribe-bentham/) – as a viewpoint through which to witness the changing demands and needs
placed on those working within the Digital Humanities.
Transcribe Bentham is a one year, Arts and Humanities Research Council funded project, housed
under the auspices of the Bentham Project at UCL (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Bentham-Project/). The
Bentham Project aims to produce new editions of the scholarship of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832).
Bentham was a political radical. An English jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer, he became
a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law, and influenced the development of welfarism.
He is well known for his advocacy of utilitarianism and animal rights, but is perhaps most famous for his
work on the “panopticon”: a type of prison in which wardens can observe (-opticon) all (pan-) prisoners
without the incarcerated being able to tell whether or not they are being watched. This concept has
influenced prison reform, philosophy, literature, and social media since.
Bentham and UCL have a close relationship. Whilst it is untrue that he founded UCL, he did influence
those who did, and as the first English University to open its doors to all, regardless of race, creed or
political belief (provided they could afford the fees) UCL went a long way to fulfilling Bentham's vision
of how Universities should operate. He took a great interest in the new institution, and UCL now hosts
Bentham's 60,000 pages of handwritten manuscripts arranged in 174 boxes. His “auto-icon” famously
sits in the main cloisters: Bentham's preserved skeleton, dressed in his own clothes, surmounted by a
wax head, as per his will and testament. An apocryphal story has it that Bentham's “auto-icon” is wheeled
yearly into UCL Senate meetings, where he is noted in the minutes as being “present, not voting”.
Twelve volumes of Bentham's correspondence have so far been published by the Bentham Project, plus
various collections of his work on jurisprudence and legal matters (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Bentham-P
roject/Publications/index.htm). However, there is much more work to be done to make his writings
more accessible, and to provide transcripts of the materials therein. Although a previous grant from
the AHRC in 2003-6 has allowed for the completion of a catalogue of the manuscripts held within UCL
(http://www.benthampapers.ucl.ac.uk/), and transcriptions have been completed of some 10,000
folios, there are many hours of work that need to be invested in reading, transcribing, labelling, and
making accessible the works of this interdisciplinary historical figure if they are to be analysed, consulted,
and utilised by scholars across the various disciplines interested in Bentham's writings.
Crowdsourcing – the harnessing of online activity to aid in large scale projects that require human
cognition – is becoming of interest to those in the library, museum and cultural heritage industry, as
institutions seek ways to publically engage their online communities, as well as aid in creating useful and
usable digital resources. As one of the first cultural and heritage projects to apply crowdsourcing to a nontrivial
task, UCL's Bentham Project has recently set up the ""Transcribe Bentham"" initiative; an ambitious,
open source, participatory online environment which is being developed to aid in transcribing 10,000
folios of Bentham’s handwritten documents. To be launched in July 2010, this experimental project will
aim to engage with individuals such as school children, amateur historians, and other interested parties,
who can provide time to help us read Bentham’s manuscripts. The integration of user communities will
be key to the success of the project, and an additional project remit is to monitor the success of trying
to engage the wider community with such documentary material: will we get high quality, trustworthy
transcriptions as a result of this work? Will people be interested in volunteering their time and effort to read the (poor) handwriting of a great philosopher? What technical and pragmatic difficulties will we
run into? How can we monitor success in a crowdsourced environment?
In addition to introducing the project, this plenary will use the Bentham Project, and the Transcribe
Bentham open participatory initiative, as a panopticon through which to view the changing nature of
Digital Humanities scholarship, and the role of the Digital Humanities scholar, alluding to other related
work in the field, and concerns which have emerged in the development and discussion of the project
aims. How do issues such as digital identity, scholarly and community engagement, professionalization
and employment issues, funding, short scale projects, and large scale digitisation affect the role of the
digital humanist? How can we successfully embrace ever changing internet technologies, and trends such
as crowdsourcing, to further our research in cultural heritage and computational methods? How can we
measure the impact of our endeavours in the online environment, and how can we persuade others of
the value of our work? What can we do better – as a discipline – to make sure our voice is heard in the
academy, so that the role, remit, and focus of Digital Humanities can be treated as a bona fide academic
endeavour? What can we do better – as individuals – to further the cause of Digital Humanities as a
discipline, as well as fostering our own scholarly development?
By looking at specific issues that have arisen in the Transcribe Bentham project, this plenary aims to
provide an honest and open overview of pressing concerns and opportunities for both the project, and
Digital Humanities as a discipline, in the current information and academic environments.
Melissa Terras and Transcribe Bentham can be followed on twitter at #TranscriBentham and
#melissaterras respectively. The complete transcript of this plenary will be made available shortly after
delivery on Melissa Terras’ blog: http://melissaterras.blogspot.com/, and viewable thereafter in
the blog archive for July 2010.","txt","2","",""
"1247","12","Re-Imagining Scholarship in the Digital Age","8","Re-Imagining Scholarship in the Digital Age
Gaffield, Chad,
________________________________________
Abstract
Quite unexpectedly and often in surprising ways, Digital Humanities have been playing a central role in the larger re-imagining of scholarship in the early 21st century. This re-imagining is transforming teaching, research and, indeed, all aspects of academic life. Moreover, the established boundaries between, and relationships among, scholarly activities on campus and in the larger society are falling flat or being re-configured through networks, clusters and dynamic forms of engagement. The result is exhilarating and un-nerving, inspiring and challenging, energizing and exhausting, if judged by public debate on campus and beyond about the changing post-secondary landscape. But if we focus on the emergence and current trajectory of Digital Humanities, we can perceive with cautious optimism the ways in which a re-imagined scholarship is beginning to enhance learning, to help interpret the past and present, and to contribute to meaningful life in the 21st century.
Bio
Gaffield is Professor of History at the University of Ottawa and currently on leave while he serves as President of the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada. Founding Director of the Institute of Canadian Studies, Gaffield has been since the 1970s at the forefront of computer-based analyses of long-term social change. He has played a leading role in, and produced award-winning publications from, database projects such as the Canadian Social History Project, the Vancouver Island Project, the Lower Manhattan Project, and the Canadian Families Project; as President of the Humanities and Social Sciences Federation of Canada, he also championed the Data Liberation Initiative.
Among his many notable accomplishments, the prize is awarded to Gaffield for his role as Principal Investigator for the Canadian Century Research Infrastructure project (CCRI; www.ccri.uottawa.ca). CCRI has created a foundation for the study of social, economic, cultural, and political change at a national level, beginning with digital reconstruction of censuses that sit at the core of a pan-national research database consisting of pertinent contextual data drawn from newspapers, parliamentary proceedings, legislative records and beyond.","txt","2","",""
"1248","12","Culturomics: Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books","8","Culturomics: Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books
Lieberman-Aiden, Erez,
Michel, Jean-Baptiste,
________________________________________
Abstract
We constructed a corpus of digitized texts containing about 4% of all books ever printed. Analysis of this corpus enables us to investigate cultural trends quantitatively. We survey the vast terrain of ‘culturomics,’ focusing on linguistic and cultural phenomena that were reflected in the English language between 1800 and 2000. We show how this approach can provide insights about fields as diverse as lexicography, the evolution of grammar, collective memory, the adoption of technology, the pursuit of fame, censorship, and historical epidemiology. Culturomics extends the boundaries of rigorous quantitative inquiry to a wide array of new phenomena spanning the social sciences and the humanities.
Bios
Erez Lieberman Aiden is a fellow at the Harvard Society of Fellows and Visiting Faculty at Google. His research spans many disciplines and has won numerous awards, including recognition for one of the top 20 ""Biotech Breakthroughs that will Change Medicine"", by Popular Mechanics; the Lemelson-MIT prize for the best student inventor at MIT; the American Physical Society's Award for the Best Doctoral Dissertation in Biological Physics; and membership in Technology Review's 2009 TR35, recognizing the top 35 innovators under 35. His last three papers - two with JB Michel - have all appeared on the cover of Nature and Science.
Jean-Baptiste Michel is FQEB Fellow at Harvard and Visiting Faculty at Google. With Erez Lieberman Aiden, he founded the Cultural Observatory at Harvard, where their team develops quantitative approaches to the humanities and social sciences. Jean-Baptiste is an Engineer of Ecole Polytechnique, and received an MS in Applied Math and a PhD in Systems Biology from Harvard.","txt","2","",""
"1249","12","Reading Historical Maps Digitally: How Spatial Technologies Can Enable Close, Distant and Dynamic Interpretations","8","Reading Historical Maps Digitally: How Spatial Technologies Can Enable Close, Distant and Dynamic Interpretations
Rumsey, David,
Abstract
Maps are dense, complex information systems arranged spatially. While they share similarities with other visual artifacts, their uniqueness as spatially arranged visual information both allows for and demands special digital approaches to understand and reuse their content. Georeferencing, vectorization, virtual reality, image databases, and GIS-related tools all work to unite our eyes, minds, and computers in new ways that can make historical maps more valuable and accessible to humanists concerned with place and space over time. Rumsey will explore the tools and techniques that have implications for the ways digital humanists approach visual information.

Bio
David Rumsey is a renowned collector of historical maps, a digital librarian, an online publisher, builder, and philanthropist. His collection of more than 150,000 maps is one of the largest private map collections in the United States, and he recently announced his intention to donate it to the Stanford University Libraries. With his growing online collection of more than 26,000 maps, available to all in high resolution and with expert cataloging, Rumsey is one of the most visible and important modern distributors of historical treasures for the common good, a pioneer Internet philanthropist, and a public Internet intellectual. Visit the David Rumsey Map Collection online at http://www.davidrumsey.com/. With his bold experiments in the use of GIS with historical maps, his innovative use of virtual worlds for purveyance of serious scholarly materials, and his outspoken and concrete actions toward the building of a real public digital library, David Rumsey is a rare and exemplary figure of antiquarian in the digital world, and entrepreneur in the academy.","txt","2","",""
"1250","12","The UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology: Lessons Learned","1","The UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology: Lessons Learned
Wendrich, Willeke, UCLA, wendrich@humnet.ucla.edu
The UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology (UEE) is a digitally born online publication which provides users with several interfaces to access and reproduce content. Supported by several grants from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the UEE is a highly mediated, peer reviewed information resource on Egyptian history, art, archaeology, geography and language, in which authors selected by an editorial committee are commissioned to write substantial articles with thorough bibliographies and web links. Articles will be regularly updated and previous versions of the text and other assets will remain available throughout the lifetime of the resource, which in principle is built for digital eternity. This time scale may prove not to be of the same longevity as the preservation of ancient Egyptian cultural heritage, but is nevertheless fitting the mindset of scholars who routinely deal with objects of 4000 years old.

The UEE is an English language resource, while all head words or entry titles are translated also in Arabic, French and German. The English abstracts are also translated in Arabic and a standard feature of each article. The content of the UEE is available in two forms: the Open Version makes use of eScholarschip, the online publication platform of the University of California. Articles are presented in alphabetic order of the titles, and can be downloaded as PDF (http://escholarship.org/uc/nelc_uee). The UEE Full Version provides a much more sophisticated platform, where users can access information through a wide range of searches, either based on the underlying subject structure, article links, metadata, or through an interactive time-map, which provides access to articles, images and 3D VR reconstructions which refer to the same area, the same time period or both. The granularity of the time map encompasses regions (using either modern or ancient subdivisions), ancient sites, or particular features of the latter, such as a specific gate way, or altar. At present the Full Version is not yet publicly online, but will be moved from development to production in the near future. Information on the URL will be provided on the UEE project development website at http://uee.ucla.edu.

The presentation will focus on the many lessons learned while developing the project, including the workflow of all the tasks which are literally performed “behind the screen”. Since this is an international project with editors in the United States, Canada, France, Belgium, Great Britain, and Egypt, with authors as well as peer reviewers from all over the world, the project relies on a large number of disparate web services, which are partly for free, partly subscription based. The commissioning phase is tracked through a number of online spread sheets through Google Docs. Authors receive an invitation by email, which provides them with the scope of the entry, a document with clear indications of what should (not) be included, in order to avoid duplication with related articles. Once an article has been submitted, the peer review platform provided by eScholarship, is used, which enables tracking and automated prodding for authors and peer reviewers. Since many of the authors are non-native speakers of English, the UEE offers a substantive copy-editing service, which streamlines the terminology, spelling and links of the articles. The project coordination, which involves communication on the progress of the extensive mark-up in TEI which is the next phase of bringing an article to online publication, makes use of the commercial project management software BaseCamp (http://37signals.com/).

An important point of discussion is the digital and financial sustainability and the different solutions the UEE has proposed to enable the project to expand and be constantly renewed, which is perhaps the greatest asset of an online resource. The history of the venerable printed predecessor of the UEE, the Lexikon der Ägyptologie (published from , shows that bibliographies are outdated in five years after publication, while Egyptological scholarship begins to be outdated in approximately 20 years. Authors are therefore asked to provide twice an update of their article, and after that potentially a new entry will be created, because the development of the discipline is not only reflected in article content, but also in the structure of the resource, the selection of entry titles, and the emphasis on particular sub fields. The strict version control has, therefore, an added benefit: over the course of time the UEE will become effectively a history of Egyptological thought and methodology.

This requires, however, that the digital content remains available, and that the editorial process will keep on running, two very demanding conditions. As for digital stability: all assets of the UEE are housed in the UCLA Digital Library, and are accessed from a front-end server which is at present housed at UCLA’s Academic Technology Services. This agreement does not necessarily guarantee digital preservation, because the libraries, at the forefront of digital repository preservation as they are, are also faced with the enormous costs and practical problems of digital preservation. The awareness of the problem is, however, a considerable part of the solution. The financial sustainability is an enormous conundrum. Users have come to expect free, high quality content, academics celebrate the virtue of open access, and yet to build a high quality resource comes with very real costs that need to be covered. The presentation will outline some of the avenues explored to ensure that the UEE will have a long prosperous life.","txt","2","",""
"1251","12","A Trip Around the World: Balancing Geographical Diversity in Academic Research Teams","1","A Trip Around the World: Balancing Geographical Diversity in Academic Research Teams
Siemens, Lynne, School of Public Administration, University of Victoria, siemensl@uvic.ca
Burr, Elisabeth, Institute of Romance Studies, University of Leipzig, elisabeth.burr@uni-leipzig.de
Cunningham, Richard, Acadia Digital Culture Observatory, Acadia University, richard.cunningham@acadiau.ca
Duff, Wendy, Faculty of Information, University of Toronto, wendy.duff@utoronto.ca
Forest, Dominic, École de bibliothéconomie et des sciences de l'information, Université de Montréal, dominic.forest@umontreal.ca
Warwick, Claire, UCL Centre for Digital Humanities, Department of Information Studies, University College London, c.warwick@ucl.ac.uk
Introduction
Interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary projects are becoming an important part of academic life. Research questions are becoming more complex and sophisticated, requiring a team approach to address (Newell et al., 2000, Hara et al., 2003). At the same time, funding agencies are also encouraging these types of projects through their granting programs. One result of this increased level of research collaboration is that teams have members located at other institutions, whether nationally or internationally. Digital Humanities as a community is becoming increasingly international in focus. For example, the Digging into Data Challenge was jointly sponsored by Canada’s Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC), the British Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) and the American National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) and National Science Foundation (NSF) and required each research team to have membership from at least two of the participating countries (Office of Digital Humanities, 2010). Further, the Digital Humanities Summer Institute at the University of Victoria has had participants from every continent, except the Antarctic. Finally, the Text Encoding Initiative Consortium has members and users from around the world, with a growing number of projects based in Asia (Siemens, 2008c). These collaborations are possible given the advances in computers and telecommunications. The recruitment of the right person is no longer limited by geography (Cramton et al., 2005).

However, these types of teams encounter the general challenges associated with collaborative work, but also with more specific ones relating to the geographical distribution of members. Despite this increasing use of research teams, protocols to prepare individual researchers to work as part of a team, particularly within those groups which cross language, culture, and country lines, are not widely developed. Our work is designed to identify effective work patterns and intra-team relationships and describe the support and research preparation that is required to develop international research collaborations. The results will enable those who work in such teams to recognize those factors that tend to predispose them to success, and perhaps more importantly, to avoid those that may lead to problematic interactions, and thus make the project less successful than it might have otherwise been.

Context
While there is a growing knowledge base of the benefits and challenges inherent in academic research teams (See, for example: Bracken et al., 2006, Choi et al., 2007, Fiore, 2008, Kraut et al., 1987), little knowledge exists about the ways in which teams with memberships across universities and disciplines work together (Garland et al., 2006), much less about teams with members from multiple country, culture and language groups (Setlock et al., 2004, Shore et al., 2005).

At a practical level, geography presents relatively simple challenges. As time zones increase, the flexibility in scheduling meetings decreases while the cost of face-to-face interactions increases. Technology may not always be capable of overcoming these challenges. Distance between team members limits the amount of interaction needed for creativity and innovation (Cummings et al., 2005, Lawrence, 2006). Further, some technologies and software may not be available in some countries due to infrastructure gaps or government policy (for example, the Great Firewall of China).

At a more complex level, differences in culture and language may impact on various aspects of team work such as structure, management, communication, conflict expression and resolution, decision making, and appropriate team behaviour and may be further complicated by professional and academic cultural differences (Dafoulas, 2002, Setlock et al., 2004, Shachaf et al., 2007, Fry et al., 2007, Lee-Kelley et al., 2008, Dekker et al., 2008). At a very basic level, teams must decide a working language, a decision that may be political in nature (Butler, 1998, Deepwell et al., 2009, Bournois et al., 1998). And even with a common language, members may find that they must still translate terms. For example, institutions in different countries define a research assistant (RA) in a variety of ways. In Canada, an RA is generally a graduate student who works on a research project on a part-time basis while in the United Kingdom, an RA is a post-doctoral fellow who is on a full-time contract for a specified period of time. As a result, confusion can occur among team members when they use common terms in different ways.

Research suggests several factors that may minimize the impact of the above challenges. First, education and training may mitigate the impact of cultural differences because team members may share professional norms. University education is fairly similar across countries (Dafoulas, 2002, Lee-Kelley et al., 2008, Nason et al., 1998). Teams may also find it beneficial to spend time in members’ cultures to create understanding of differences and similarities (Nason et al., 1998, Bagshaw et al., 2007). Finally, teams may also consider creating a cultural profile, both by country and professional/discipline culture (Dafoulas, 2002, Zakaria et al., 2008). This profile can be combined with team norms to express understandings of time, deadlines, language, communication channels, conflict resolution mechanisms, and other issues (Saunders et al., 2004). However, more research is needed to understand the supports and research preparation that is needed to ensure effective collaborations in teams with memberships from many countries, cultures, and language groups.

Methodology
This paper is part of a larger project examining research teams with multi-country, culture and language representation, led by a team based in Canada, United Kingdom and Germany (For more details, see Siemens, 2010). The larger study uses a combination of data collection methods including an ethnomethodological approach with diary/log studies of research teams in the midst of their collaboration (Garfinkel, 1984) and semi-structured interviews with individuals who have experiences in the types of teams under investigation (Marshall et al., 1999). This paper will report on the findings from the interviews.

Digital Humanities community will serve as an exemplar case study population given the community’s international focus and collaborative networks. To achieve their objectives, and because of the variety of skills and expertise that these projects require, DH researchers must work collaboratively both within their institutions and with others nationally and internationally and often across disciplines. Team members include humanities, social science and computer science scholars, undergraduate and graduate students, research assistants, computer programmers and developers, librarians, and others. At present, several research projects involving national and international teams with funding ranging from thousands to millions of dollars are already in place with others in development. In addition, several DH research centres have faculty and research staff drawn from several countries, creating a mix of languages and cultures.

This research project builds on earlier work on DH research teams presented at previous digital humanities conferences (Siemens, 2008a, Siemens, 2008b, Siemens et al., 2009a, Siemens et al., 2010).

Preliminary Findings
At the time of writing this proposal, interviews are being conducted and data analysis completed.

The benefits to the Digital Humanities community will be several. First, the study contributes to an explicit description of the community’s work patterns and relationships, particularly as the Digital Humanities community continues to become international in focus (Alliance of Digital Humanities Organizations, 2010, Tei-C, 2010). This research demonstrates that much of digital humanities research is accomplished within interdisciplinary research teams, which are developing tools and processes to facilitate this collaboration. One particular issue highlighted in this research relates to challenges experienced within teams with members from various countries and cultures (Siemens et al., 2009b). Second, it is designed to enable those who work in such teams to recognise factors that tend to predispose them to success, and perhaps more importantly, to avoid those that may lead to problematic interactions, and thus make the project less successful than it might otherwise have been.

References:
Alliance of Digital Humanities Organizations (2010). About., accessed September 26, 2010 (link)

Bagshaw, D., Lepp, M. & Zorn, C. R. 2007 “International Research Collaboration: Building Teams and Managing Conflicts., ” Conflict Resolution Quarterly, Vol 24, No 4 433-446

Bournois, F. & Chevalier, F. 1998 “Doing research with foreign colleagues: a project-life cycle approach., ” Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol 13, No 3/4 206-213

Bracken, L. J. & Oughton, E. A. 2006 “'What do you mean?' The importance of language in developing interdisciplinary research., ” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, Vol 31, No 3 371-382

Butler, M. C. 1998 “An integrating perspective on interdisciplinary, cross-cultural research., ” Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol 13, No 3/4 199-205

Choi, B. C. K. & Pak, A. W. P. 2007 “Multidisciplinarity, interdisciplinarity, and transdisciplinarity in health research, services, education and policy: 2. Promotors, barriers, and strategies of enhancement., ” Clinical & Investigative Medicine, Vol 30, No E224-E232

Cramton, C. D. & Webber, S. S. 2005 “Relationships among Geographic Dispersion, Team Processes, and Effectiveness in Software Development Work Teams., ” Journal of Business Research, Vol 58, No 6 758-765

Cummings, J. N. & Kiesler, S. 2005 “Collaborative Research Across Disciplinary and Organizational Boundaries., ” Social Studies of Science, Vol 35, No 5 703-722

Dafoulas, G. 2002 “Investigating Cultural Differences in Virtual Software Teams., ” Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries, Vol 7, No 1-14

Deepwell, F. & King, V. 2009 “E-Research Collaboration, Conflict and Compromise., ” Handbook of Research on Electronic Collaboration and Organizational Synergy, Salmons, J. & Wilson, L. IGI Global Hershey, Pennsylvania

Dekker, D. M., Rutte, C. G. & Van Den Berg, P. T. 2008 “Cultural differences in the perception of critical interaction behaviors in global virtual teams., ” International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Vol 32, No 5 441-452

Fiore, S. M. 2008 “Interdisciplinarity as Teamwork: How the Science of Teams can Inform Team Science., ” Small Group Research, Vol 39, No 3 251-277

Fry, J. & Talja, S. 2007 “The intellectual and social organization of academic fields and the shaping of digital resources., ” Journal of Information Science, Vol 33, No 2 115-133

Garfinkel, H. 1984 Studies in Ethnomethodology, Polity Press/Blackwell Publishing Malden, MA

Garland, D. R., O'connor, M. K., Wolfer, T. A., et al. 2006 “Team-based Research: Notes from the Field., ” Qualitative Social Work, Vol 5, No 1 93-109

Hara, N., Solomon, P., Kim, S.-L., et al. 2003 “An Emerging View of Scientific Collaboration: Scientists' Perspectives on Collaboration and Factors that Impact Collaboration., ” Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, Vol 54, No 10 952-965

Kraut, R. E., Galegher, J. & Egido, C. 1987 “Relationships and Tasks in Scientific Research Collaboration., ” Human-Computer Interaction, Vol 3, No 1 31-58

Lawrence, K. A. 2006 “Walking the Tightrope: The Balancing Acts of a Large e-Research Project., ” Computer Supported Cooperative Work: The Journal of Collaborative Computing, Vol 15, No 4 385-411

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Marshall, C. & Rossman, G. B. 1999 Designing Qualitative Research, SAGE Publications Thousand Oaks, CA

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Newell, S. & Swan, J. 2000 “Trust and Inter-organizational Networking., ” Human Relations, Vol 53, No 10 1287-1328

Office of Digital Humanities 2010 Digging into Data Challenge., accessed September 26 2010 (link)

Saunders, C., Van Slyke, C. & Vogel, D. R. 2004 “My time or yours? Managing time visions in global virtual teams., ” Academy of Management Executive, Vol 18, No 1 19-31

Setlock, L. D., Fussell, S. R. & Neuwirth, C. 2004 “Taking it out of context: collaborating within and across cultures in face-to-face settings and via instant messaging., ” Proceedings of the 2004 ACM conference on Computer supported cooperative work, Chicago, IL,

Shachaf, P. & Hara, N. 2007 “Behavioral complexity theory of media selection: a proposed theory for global virtual teams., ” Journal of Information Science, Vol 33, No 1 63-75

Shore, B. & Cross, B. J. 2005 “Exploring the role of national culture in the management of large-scale international science projects., ” International Journal of Project Management, Vol 23, No 1 55-64

Siemens, L. 2008 “The Balance between On-line and In-person Interactions: Methods for the Development of Digital Humanities Collaboration., ” SDH-SEMI 2008, Vancouver, BC,

Siemens, L. 2008 “""It’s a team if you use ‘reply all’”: An Exploration of Research Teams in Digital Humanities Environments., ” Digital Humanities 2008, Oulu, Finland,

Siemens, L. 2008 “Understanding the TEI-C Community: A Study in Breadth and Depth, Toward Membership and Recruitment., ” TEI Annual Conference, London, UK,

Siemens, L. 2010 “Understanding Academic Research Teams: Implications of Multi-Country, Multi-Language, and Multi-Culture Team Membership., ” European Summer School, Leipzig, Germany,

Siemens, L., Cunningham, R., Duff, W., et al. 2009 ““More minds are brought to bear on a problem”: Methods of Interaction and Collaboration within Digital Humanities Research Teams., ” Society for Digital Humanities/Société pour l'étude des médias interactifs, Ottawa, Ontario,

Siemens, L., Cunningham, R., Duff, W., et al. 2010 “A Tale of Two Cities: Implications of the Similarities and Differences in Collaborative Approaches within the Digital Libraries and Digital Humanities Communities., ” Digital Humanities 2010, London, UK,

Siemens, L., Duff, W., Warwick, C., et al. 2009 ““It challenges members to think of their work through another kind of specialist's eyes”: Exploration of the Benefits and Challenges of Diversity in Digital Project Teams. Thriving on Diversity - Information Opportunities in a Pluralistic World, ” ASIS&T 2009 Annual Meeting, Vancouver, British Columbia,

Tei-C 2010 Current TEI Members., accessed October 12, 2010 (link)

Zakaria, N., Amelinckx, A. & Wilemon, D. 2008 “Navigating Across Culture and Distance: Understanding the Determinants of Global Virtual Team Performance., ” Work Group Learning: Understanding, Improving & Assessing How Groups Learn in Organizations, Sessa, V. I. & London, M. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates New York, NY","txt","2","",""
"1252","12","Automatic Extraction of Hidden Keywords by Producing ""Homophily"" within Semantic Networks","1","Automatic Extraction of Hidden Keywords by Producing “Homophily” within Semantic Networks
Akama, Hiroyuki, akama@dp.hum.titech.ac.jp Tokyo Institute of Technology,
Miyake, Maki, mmiyake@lang.osaka-u.ac.jp University of Osaka,
Jung, Jaeyoung, catherina.rosset@gmail.com Tokyo Institute of Technology,
A complex network is usually conceived of in the form of a graph consisting of nodes representing individual, or atomic, entities and edges linking them according to information about semantic attributes or some weighting value. This intellectual intuition can be applied to the world of language where a sign makes sense through the concurrent presence of other signs (Saussure, 1916). In particular, the semantic aspect of a document, as a group of more or less coherent sentences, depends on co-occurrence information about the words being bound together to form topics. When a content-bearing word is found within a neighborhood of other words, one may assume that they produce a constellation of meaning (Schütze, 1997; Takayama, 1999). Conceptual interrelatedness can be represented in a graph form called a semantic network. Similarly, in the field of digital humanities, the graph-based approach to document analysis is becoming a major research trend (Miyake, 2009).

In semantic networks, graph coefficients are useful for examining the features of language data, such as a document or corpus, from the perspective of meaning. Hubs with the highest degree values can be regarded as being as key words (excluding functional words), that are highly involved in producing the document context. In normal cases, the bias of degree distributions to follow a power law (or, more concretely, Zipf’s law) has been handled by the concept of scale-free (Barabási et al., 1999) for complex networks. However, one graph index that researchers are increasingly paying close attention to is the concept of ‘intrinsic weights’ that are not distributed to edges but to vertices (Caldarelli et al., 2002; Boguñá et al., 2003; Masuda et al, 2004). The emergence of this weighting within some network settings certainly leads a situation where vertex degree generates a phenomena known as the ‘Rich Club’ (Zhou et al, 2004; Colizza et al., 2006), consisting of hubs with high intrinsic weights. However Masuda et al. (2006) have revealed a contrastive kind of subgraph area, which they figuratively refer to as a ‘VIP Club’, where vertices with similar weighting values are exclusively connected to form a confined circle of privileged elites. This “homophily” tendency (Axelrod, 1997; Barrat et al., 2004; Centola et al.2007) makes the average shortest path length significantly longer, so that the innermost graph area becomes harder to access, forming a preserve for the so-called ‘masterminds’ (Masuda et al., 2006).

These elite entities may be, in some sense, regarded as ‘hidden keywords’ within complex networks, where all the words are interconnected—at dense intervals—from a paradigmatic perspective (Jacobson, 1963). These mastermind words are unquestionably of moderately high frequency or degree, but they are tightly related to one another by ‘homophilous’ ties to form very important but discreet lexical patterns. The term homophilous here means a significantly high value of ‘degree correlation’ (Boguñá et al, 2003; Boccaletti et al., 2006), which serves as a marker for the VIP-Club phenomenon (See Figure I). These mastermind words, which are relatively difficult to retrieve during comprehension within the reading process, sometimes play a crucial role in producing well-calculated subliminal effects or hinting at authors’ obsessions with their long-cherished themes.

Be that as it may, the Incremental Advancing Window (IAW), a windowing method (Burges, 1998; Lemaire et al., 2005) that Akama et al (2008) have proposed in order to extract word association patterns from a whole document, clearly satisfies the requirements for creating a homophilous semantic network from lexical co-occurrence information. From such a graph, it is possible to extract hidden keywords with moderate frequencies as members of the clusters regarded as being VIP-Clubs. In this method, the window proceeds step by step through an entire document (after the removal of noise words) to collect all word pairs appearing at least once inside the frame. The list of all pair instances thus obtained with their frequencies makes it possible to generate a semantic network. However, two parameters are set to some specific values to adjust for recall and precision in the data gathering: namely, the window size (diameter) is changed from 1 to m and the threshold for word pair frequency (theta; θ) is changed from 1 to n (m and n are both natural numbers larger than 1). For example, if the theta value is 3, word pairs appearing less than 3 times in the window are ignored. Precisely, this means that, no matter how frequently a word appears in a text, keywords are rejected from the list of vertices for the semantic network representing the text, if the instances of paired words are extremely rare with recorded frequencies lower than θ. This is why a graph derived by IAW exhibits the homophily tendency, if we consider degree itself to be an intrinsic weighting for a vertex.

For instance, let us cite a study conducted by Akama et al (2008) which applied IAW to Saint-Exupéry’s novel ""Le petit prince"" (original French version). The sample consisted of 1,312 content-bearing words remaining after a stop list was applied. If window size (diameter) is at the smallest level and threshold is similarly maximally strict, then the words extracted by IAW are numerically low, but they form tightly cohesive aggregates, suggesting that the precision rate, P, and the recall rate, R, are always in a trade-off relationship. A severe windowing condition with a threshold value set to 6 allowed us to recall the 38 most important words from the standpoint of co-occurrence patterns, but some of them were not included in the list of the 38 most frequent words. These hidden keywords, or mastermind words, were «apprivoiser», «boa», «cent un», «consigne», «fermé», «manger», «monde», «posséder», «ramoner», «région», «unique», and «volcan», which could all be characterized as homophilous in terms of degree similarity.

In contrast, words that were among the top words but excluded from the most severe IAW computational conditions were «aimer», «ami», «baobab», «connaître», «croire», «dessin», «jour», «nuit», «grande personne», «rose», «sérieux», and «venir», which are all ordinary keywords sharing the feature of heterophily in terms of degree-frequency—a tendency to be linked, or even collocated, with many different words (Figure II). In the smallest semantic network containing both groups of words (window size = 7, threshold for pair frequency = 6), the average shortest path lengths from all dangling nodes representing peripheral words to the vertices of these 12 masterminds (the first group) and to those of the purely general keywords (the second group) were 4.172 and 3.747, respectively, representing a highly significant difference according to a conducted t test (Figure III).

This result reveals much about the characteristic traits of mastermind words, which when coupled with graph clustering, permits us to understand how they shape communities that deserve the label of VIP-Clubs. To prove this, Markov Clustering (MCL) was applied to the smallest semantic network with IAW parameters of window size = 1 and threshold for pair frequency = 6 (thus screening out many weak co-occurrence patterns and focusing on the most frequent instances of bi-gram). MCL proposed by Van Dongen (2001) is well known as a scalable unsupervised cluster algorithm for graphs that decomposes a whole graph into small coherent groups by simulating the probability movements of a random walker across the graph. It is assumed that when MCL is applied to semantic networks, it yields clusters of words that share certain similarities in meaning or that appear to be related to common concepts (Dorow et al., 2005; Jung et al, 2007). As a matter of fact, the present clustering results produced some clusters which consist almost exclusively of homophilous masterminds, such as {monde, unique}, {boa, fermé, serpent}, and {éteindre, volcan, ramoner}. These clusters suggest a series of subtopics that are not so dominating within the novel, but that convey a persistent and deep resonance to the readers.

As described, a text, when treated in the form of a graph, exhibits some hidden keywords that can be enumerated as mastermind entities through the analysis of a homophilous semantic network. Furthermore, if a graph clustering method, such as MCL, is applied to the network, the vertices with such features are categorized into sub-topic clusters, known as VIP-Clubs. Despite the moderate degrees (frequencies) of these vertices (words), they are inconspicuously combined to create lexical patterns which, although they are minor, or subsidiary, in nature, are yet effective.



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Figure I : A homophilous graph (left) and a heterophilous graph (right) : an agglomeration of ‘VIP-Club’ is recognizable in the homophilous graph, while homogeneity underlies the heterophilous graph. Both networks with the same number of nodes (50) and the same connectivity (38.5%) are produced by respectively applying different pruning functions--which consist of trimming edges with probabilities varying according to the weight correlation--to an identical random graph whose distribution of ‘intrinsic weights’ follows the degree distribution of the equal-sized BA model (scale-free graph). The two pruning functions are



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where abslogdiff stands for the absolute value of the logarithmically-transformed difference of ‘intrinsic weights’ between any two vertices.


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Figure II: Subgraph (extracted from the semantic network made under the condition of window size = 7, threshold for pair frequency = 6) around the homophilous words (masterminds: blue) and the heterophilous words (purely general keywords: red). The size of a vertex corresponds to the degree.



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Figure III : The average shortest path lengths from the words with degrees 1, 2 and 3 respectively to the homophilous words (masterminds) and to the heterophilous words (purely general keywords)

References:
Akama, H., MiyakeM., Jung, H. 2008 “A New Evaluation Method for Graph Clustering of Semantic Networks Built from Lexical Co-occurrence Information, ” Post-Conference Journal Paper of the 18th International Congress of Linguistics (CDROM),

Axelrod, R. 1997 “The Dissemination of Culture: A Model with Local Convergence and Global Polarization, ” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2 41 203-226

Barabási, A.-L.Albert, R. 1999 “Emergence of scaling in random net-works., ” Science, 286 509-512

Barrat, A.Barthelemy M.Pastor-Satorras, R.Vespignani, A. 2004 “The architecture of complex weigthed networks., ” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., 101 11 3747-3752

Boccaletti, S.Latora, V. Moreno, Y.Chavez, M.Hwang D.-U. 2006 “Complex networks: Structure and dynamics, ” Physics Reports, 424 4-5 175-308

Boguñá, M.Pastor-Satorras, R.Vespignani A. Jan 20, 2003 “Epidemic spreading in complex networks with degree correlations, ” cond-mat.stat-mech, 10

Burgess, C.Livesay, K.Lund, K. 1998 “Explorations in context space: words sentences and discourse., ” Discourse Process, 25 211-257

Caldarelli, G.Capocci, A.De Los Rios, P.Munoz, M.-A. 2002 “Scale-free networks from varying vertex intrinsic fitness, ” Physical Review Letters, 89 258702

Centola D, González-Avella J.-C.Eguíluz V.-M.San Miguel, M. 2007 “Homophily, Cultural Drift, and the Co-Evolution of Cultural Groups., ” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 51 6 905-929

Colizza, V., Flammini, A.Serrano, M.-A., and Vespignani, A. 2006 “Detecting rich-club ordering in complex networks, ” Nature Physics, 2 110-115

Dorow, B.Widdows, D.Ling, K.Eckmann, J.-P.Sergi, D.Moses, E. 2005 “Using Curvature and Markov Clustering in Graphs for Lexi-cal Acquisition and Word Sense Discrimination., ” MEANING-2005, 2nd Workshop or-ganized by the MEANING Project, February 3rd-4th, 2005.

Jakobson, R. 1963 Linguistique et théorie de la communication: Essais de linguistique Générale., Les Éditions de Minuit Paris

Jung, J.Akama, H. 2008 “Employing Latent Adjacency for Appropriate Clustering of Semantic Networks, ” New Trends in Psychometrics, Universal Academy Press Tokyo 131-140

Lemaire, B.Denhière,G. 2004 “Incremental Construction of an associated Network from a Corpus., ” Proceedings of the 26th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 825-830

Masuda, N.Miwa, H.Konno, N. 2004 “Analysis of scale-free networks based on a threshold graph with intrinsic vertex weights, ” Phys. Rev. E, 70 036124

Masuda, N.Konno, N. 2006 “VIP-club phenomenon: Emergence of elites and masterminds in social networks, ” Social Networks, Volume 28, Issue 4 297-309

Miyake, M. 2008 “Investigating word co-occurrence selection with extracted sub-networks of the Gospels Employing Clustering Coefficients, ” Digital Humanities, VENUE, 2008 258-260

Saint-Exupéry, A. de. 1971 Le Petit Prince, Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.

Saussure, F. de. 1916 Cours de linguistique générale, Payot

Schütze H.Pederson, J.-O. 1997 “A coocurrence-based thesaurus and two applications to information retrieval, ” Information Processing & management, 33(3) 307-318

Takayama Y. et al. 1999 “Information Retrieval Based on Domain-Specific Word Associations, ” Proceedings of PACLING '99, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, June 1999

Van Dongen, S. 2000 Graph Clustering by Flow Simulation, University of Utrecht PhD thesis Amsterdam

Zhou, S.Mondragon, R.J. 2004 “The rich-club phenomenon in the Internet topology, ” IEEE Communications Letters, 8 180-182","txt","2","",""
"1253","12","The Tutor's Story: A Case Study of Mixed Authorship","1","The Tutor's Story: A Case Study of Mixed Authorship
Hoover, David L., New York University, david.hoover@nyu.edu
The Victorian novelist and Christian Socialist Charles Kingsley (1819-1875) is now known mainly for his children’s book, Waterbabies (Kingsley 1863), though he also wrote political and historical novels. Long after his death, his daughter, Mary St. Leger Kingsley Harrison (1852- 1931), discovered an unfinished and unexpected novel manuscript entitled “The Tutor’s Story” among his papers. Mrs. St. Leger Harrison, writing under the name Lucas Malet, was herself one of the most famous novelists at the turn of the twentieth century, one who explored daring themes like incestuous desire, lesbianism, sadism, and prostitution (Schaffer 1996:109). Malet finished her father’s novel and published it in 1916 (Kingsley and Malet 1916).

In her preface, Malet describes the state, size, and nature of the manuscript, and this description gives a fairly solid basis for assigning at least parts of the novel to the two authors. She tells us that the beginning of the manuscript, and so presumably also the novel, was “fairly consecutive,” so that we can expect the early chapters to be Kingsley's. But she also tells us that there were other “chapters and skeletons of chapters” from much later in the story, without further indicating where these occur in the novel. Finally, she reports that the plot was unresolved, and that she doubled the size of the text in completing it (Kingsley and Malet 1916: vi). This suggests that the late chapters of the novel are probably mostly by Malet. This complex and difficult scenario provides a good opportunity for testing the effectiveness and limitations of some old and some new methods of authorship attribution, including t-tests, Burrows's Delta (Burrows 2002, 2003; Hoover 2004a, 2004b), and Craig's version of Burrows's Zeta (Craig and Kinney 2009; Hoover 2010).

As is so often true in the real world, some aspects of this authorship problem are not exactly what one would want. Some of Kingsley’s novels are as much social commentary as fiction, dealing with issues like the plight of the rural poor, poor sanitation, child labor, and the exploitation of workers. Others are historical novels, set in Anglo-Saxon times, during the reign of Elizabeth I, and fifth-century Alexandria. Two others are children’s books. Given this varied output, it is difficult to assemble sufficient similar Kingsley texts for testing. Furthermore, Malet tells us that she has tried to match her style to that of her father, and contemporary reviews of the novel comment that the book sounds just like Kingsley (Book Review Digest 1917). Finally, while most of Kingsley’s fiction is third-person, this is a first-person novel. Malet’s fiction is less varied, but it is also mostly third-person.

In spite of these difficulties, initial PCA, Cluster Analysis, and Delta tests on a group of novels by Kingsley and Malet all very successfully distinguish the two authors. Delta results remain quite accurate even for short sections, typically about 90% accurate for Kingsley, and often 100% accurate for Malet, even on large numbers of 500-word sections. Because we can expect some relatively short passages by each writer interspersed with passages by the other, it seems reasonable to test the entire novel divided into sections of 524 words (the novel divides almost exactly into sections of this size). In order to identify changes of authorship in such brief passages, the novel is tested with rolling segments of 524 words. The first section comprises the first 524 words; the next section comprises the 524 words that begin at word number 132, the next the 524 words that begin at word number 263, the next the 524 words that begin at word number 394, and so on through the rest of the novel. Rolling segments have been put to good use in several authorship attribution and stylistics studies; see Craig (1999), Burrows (2010), and van Dalen-Oskam and van Zundert (2007).

I am testing the rolling sections of the novel in three ways. The first uses a list of 2873 marker words that t-tests identify as being used significantly differently by the two authors (p < .05). The percentage of the word types (really individual spellings) in each section that belong to each author’s set of marker words is graphed in Fig. 1. The upper set of lines show the percentages of Kingsley marker words and the lower set the percentages of Malet marker words. For example, in the first sections of Chapter 1, about 33% of the types are Kingsley marker words and about 18% are Malet marker words. The separation of the two sets is nicely distinct for the first three chapters, all of which, as expected, are attributed to Kingsley. The beginning of Chapter 4 seems to contain some of Malet’s writing, and about the first two-thirds of Chapter 6 is attributed to Malet.



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The t-test results for chapters 4-6 are repeated in a slightly different form in Fig. 2 (upper two lines; 20% has been added to the percentages for the t-test marker words to create a separation between the two sets of lines), along with results from Craig Zeta tests on the same sections (lower two lines). Rather than showing a separate line for each starting point, as in Fig.1, all the testing points for each set of marker words in Fig. 2 are joined by a single line. The graph for Craig Zeta shows the percentage of types in each section that are among the 500 most distinctively used Kingsley and Malet marker words. The smaller percentages for Zeta than for the t-tests reflect the fact that only 1000 marker words are used here, compared to the 2873 ttested marker words. Nevertheless, it is easy to see that Craig Zeta and t-tests give similar results and agree generally on the attribution of various parts of the chapters. Delta tests on similar-sized sections usually agree with these results as well. Many



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Many of the chapters of the novel seem to be largely by one or the other author, but others seem thoroughly mixed. These results fall in line with what Malet’s preface leads us to expect, and overall they seem fairly persuasive. A recent discovery makes them both more compelling and somewhat frustrating. After I had completed the testing described above, the problem seemed fascinating enough to deserve further research, and I began by trying to find out whether Kinglsey’s manuscript might still exist. Although I was not able to find any record of the manuscript, I came across a record of a copy of the novel in the Princeton Rare Books collection with Malet’s penciled notes about which parts of the novel were written by Kingsley and which she wrote herself. For some chapters, her notes are quite precise, and they indicate that the attributions in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 are essentially correct. For other chapters, she notes only that they are “mostly my father.” Most frustrating of all is the fact that all markings cease after chapter 28 (of 41). The fact that the tests described above disagree with her notes for only 5-7 chapters suggest that, even texts involving mixed, joint, or collaborative authorship can be usefully investigated using these methods.

References:
“Kingsley, Charles. Tutor's Story., ” Book Review Digest, 1917 Volume 12 H.W. Wilson Company White Plains, NY Online: Google Books

Burrows, J. 2002 “‘Delta’: a measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship., ” LLC, 17 267-287

Burrows, J. 2003 “Questions of authorship: attribution and beyond., ” CHUM, 37 5-32

Burrows, J. 2010 “Never say always again: reflections on the numbers game, ” Text and Genre in Reconstruction. Effects of Digitalization on Ideas, Behaviours, Products and Institutions, W. McCarty Open Books Cambridge

Craig, H., and Kinney, A. (eds.) 2009 Shakespeare, Computers, and the Mystery of Authorship, Cambridge University Press Cambridge

Craig, H. 1999 “Jonsonian chronology and the styles of A Tale of a Tub., ” Re-Presenting Ben Jonson: Text, History, Performance, M. Butler Macmillan Houndmills 210–32

Hoover, D. 2010 “Authorial style, ” Language and Style: Essays in Honour of Mick Short, D. McIntyre and B.Busse Palgrave

Hoover, D. 2004 “Delta prime?, ” LLC, 19(4) 477-495

Hoover, D. 2004 “Testing Burrows’s Delta., ” LLC, 19(4) 453-475

Kingsley, C. 1863 The Waterbabies: a Fairytale for a Land-baby, Macmillan London

Kingsley, C. and Malet, L. 1916 The Tutor’s Story, Smith Elder London

Schaffer, T. 1996 “Some chapter of some other story: Henry James, Lucas Malet, and the real past of The Sense of the Past., ” The Henry James Review, 17.2 109-128

van Dalen-Oskam, K, J. van Zundert 2007 “Delta for Middle Dutch—author and copyist distinction in Walewein., ” LLC, Vol. 22, No. 3","txt","2","",""
"1254","12","The Time Machine: Capturing Worlds across Time in Texts","1","The Time Machine: Capturing Worlds across Time in Texts
Juuso, Ilkka, University of Oulu, Finland, ilkka.juuso@ee.oulu.fi
Opas-Hänninen, Lisa Lena, University of Oulu, Finland, lisa.lena.opas-hanninen@oulu.fi
Johnson, Anthony, University of Oulu, Finland, anthony.johnson@oulu.fi
Seppänen, Tapio, University of Oulu, Finland, tapio.seppanen@oulu.fi
Introduction
This paper describes a number of ways in which a temporally-sensitive electronic dictionary resource, the Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary (2 vols; Oxford, 2009 [=HTOED]), may be employed in the automatic dating of words and entire texts. We investigate how the text captures time: most expressly, how the residue of the present (or the different ‘presents’ of language history) have managed to become trapped in the linguistic matrix of a narrative so that we sense, for instance, the difference between a period being represented and the narrator’s temporal positionality, or even the gap between an author and his or her narrative stance. Through computer-assisted means we analyze the impact of later historical and linguistic events on the reporting of earlier events. To this end, we have developed an automatic system for retrieving dating information and a colour-coded browsing interface for searching and viewing the time-coded text, calling it the ‘Time Machine’.

Novels capture worlds, but however disparate the materials that may go into them, something of the space-time in which they have been written remains as a residue. This, in part, is a function of language itself: the instabilities, changes and, above all, affordances at any one moment of that linguistic mesh that Lotman (1990) might have called the semiosphere. In part, too, it is a function of what, within Cultural Imagology, might more concretely be called the texture of the iconosphere (Johnson 2005, 2006): the distinctiveness given to the world at any particular moment by the concatenation of signifying objects present within it. This is why it is an attractive idea to apply a tool such as a time-coded dictionary to novels written at time t purporting to convey events taking place at a time t-x. Within this frame of thought, the case of the historical novel is a particularly pronounced one. By definition, the genre tries to capture something of the iconosphere of a world that has passed us by (even though its semiosphere may remain that of a contemporary reader). And even in cases where the linguistic texture of the semiosphere is deliberately archaized – or localized by the use of dialect forms – the residue of the present remains. As a test case, we examine Diana Gabaldon’s Cross Stitch (1991): a text which flaunts traditional temporal typologies by figuring a protagonist who crosses from the iconosphere of the mid-twentieth century to that of the seventeenth century and becomes trapped there: perceiving the past in a lexis and syntax which palpably belong to a different age.

Time has previously been explored within documents in several ways. Some work has concentrated on identifying expressions of time within text in an attempt to build models of the succession of events. This has been particularly fruitful in the case of, for example, medical discharge records and road accident reports, where the sequence of events is of great importance (Hirschman 1981, Kayser and Nouioua 2009). Other work has used a training set of time-associated words and a Naïve Bayes Classifier to detect temporal concepts in blogs (Noro et al. 2006). While this work is promising in analyzing writings about daily life in a compact time frame, it seems ill-equipped for investigating iconospheres that deal with spans constituting years or even decades. Thus a tool that can retrieve time-related information from the HTOED automatically offers a very promising way forward for the literary and linguistic scholar.

Methodology
Using the ‘Time Machine’, we map out the iconospheric precision with which Gabaldon represents different characters in her fiction (not to mention the humour generated by the gradual blending of their discourses as the novel progresses). But beyond this, by linking our tool with the powerful additional resources which the HTOED has now opened up for those studying the ‘external’, ‘mental’ and ‘social’ worlds of the novel from a historical and etymological perspective, the project hopes to facilitate the achievement of a more nuanced understanding of the interrelationship between ‘real’ and ‘fictional’ time in the historical novel than has been possible before.

In order to better study iconospheres, we sought to develop a tool that would automatically look up dating information and definitions for words, processing entire texts at a time, thereby removing the need for manual queries using a dictionary. Furthermore, we wanted the tool, on the one hand, to enable users to specify time periods of interest for closer inspection while, on the other hand, it left them free to browse the material through diverse visualization schemes in order to discover trends or new time periods of interest.

At present the tool is a prototype, running inside a web browser, in order to enable rapid experimentation with new visualization schemes using CSS. We use a local SQL database to store the HTOED data. Texts can be uploaded via a browser interface and are processed in any user-defined units tagged in the text, e.g. page by page or speaker by speaker, or in the text as a whole. The tool reads both XML and plain text. To finish verifying that the visualization schemes we have chosen are useful, we wish to bring the tool to the digital humanities community, in addition to the poetics and linguistics community (Johnson et al. 2010). Following this, we intend to develop the final tool in Java for inclusion within the LICHEN toolbox.

Results
What the HTOED is able to offer to the ‘Time Machine’ is the ability to isolate different experiential modes within particular iconospheres at the same time as it reveals the range of etymological meanings open to the reader at any given moment. (This, of course, is an invaluable aid for critics who wish to avoid anachronism in their own readings.) In our preliminary development of the ‘Time Machine’ we concentrated on its capacity for isolating different lexical categories within a given iconosphere and indicating the etymological choices available for particular readings. At the top of the screen, the Source section allows the user to choose either an entire text or some part of it (see Figure 1 below: a case in which the speaker Jamie has been chosen). In the Filter section, the user can choose to narrow the search down to one particular word, or to all words that were in use at a particular time (choosing either first use date, last use date or both). To produce the present screen we started by choosing all the words that entered the language after 1742, in other words after the time period in which Jamie speaks. The Colour-coded text section then highlighted all those words which entered the language after the given date, as did our Wordlist section.

Our initial investigation found that the tool is able to pick out swathes of temporal incongruities from this playful text or, further, search out instances relating more specifically to the ‘external’, ‘mental’ and ‘social’ worlds of the novel. It spots moments when the eighteenth-century clansman Jamie seems prescient (mentioning ‘aesthetics’ for instance, or re-circulating the word ‘sadist’, which has been bandied to him by his twentieth-century wife). It detects instabilities not only in the iconosphere of the 1700s – which Gabaldon has carefully researched – but also in the representation of mid-twentieth-century England (which she appears to have taken more for granted).

However, despite the manifest advantage of using even this approach to the ‘Time Machine’ to spot faultlines and incongruities within the fictional world of a novel, some teething-troubles remained: the most significant being that, unlike human readers, the prototype cannot, of course, intuit the ‘correct’ lexical choice from the range of possible meanings thrown up by a search. Accordingly, we have tweaked the search and display capability of the ‘Time Machine’ so that it can also narrow its lexical catchment area by trawling parts of speech (such as substantives) in which cultural and temporal change exhibit their highest visibility. Figure 1 demonstrates how, using these restrictions, the prototype is able to flag up the way in which Gabaldon has inadvertently endowed Jamie’s lexicon with three words stereotypically associated with Scottishness (‘Sassenach, shinty, sporran’) which were not, in fact, recorded until some time after the period in which Jamie is meant to be speaking.

In sum, our study indicates that automated access to chronological information, such as the date of first use for any given word, and full etymologies has promising applications in literary and historical research that has until now relied mostly on intuition and laborious manual methods to combine dating information and texts. And beyond this, with some adaptation, it is also clear that the ‘Time Machine’ could be of significance within areas such as forensic linguistics, collocation studies, and the study of micro-linguistic change over time in large corpora.

Figure 1

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References:
Gabaldon, D. Cross Stitch, Arrow Books Ltd. 1991

Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford: OUP 2009

Hirschman, L. 1981 “Retrieving time information from natural-language texts, ” Proceedings of the 3rd Annual ACM Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval,

Johnson, Anthony W. “Notes Towards a New Imagology, ” European English Messenger, 2005 14 1 50-58

Johnson, Anthony W. “New Methodologies: Imagology, Language and English Philology, ” Linguistic Topics and Language Teaching, 2006 Oulu University Press 7-27 Antilla, H. Gear, J. Heikkinen, A. Sallinen, Riitta

Johnson, Anthony W. Opas-Hänninen, L.L. Juuso, I. “Stitches in Time and Switches in Text: Diana Gabaldon and the Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary, ” Paper presented at PALA2010, 2010

Kayser, D. Nouioua, F. “From the textual description of an accident to its causes, ” Journal of Artificial Intelligence, 2009 173 12-13

Lotman, Yuri M. Ann Shukman Universe of the Mind: A Semiotic Theory of Culture, 1990 173 12-13

Noro, T. Inui, T. Takamura, H. Okumura, M. 2006 “Time period identification of events in text, ” Proceedings of the 21st international Conference on Computational Linguistics and the 44th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Sydney, Australia, July 17 - 18, 2006). Association for Computational Linguistics, (link)","txt","2","",""
"1255","12","An Introduction to XForms for Digital Humanists: How XForms Can Help Your Project","15","An Introduction to XForms for Digital Humanists: How XForms Can Help Your Project
Sperberg-McQueen, Michael, Black Mesa Technologies LLC, United States of America, cmsmcq@acm.org
This tutorial will introduce participants to XForms, viewed as a technology for building customized editors for XML documents.

Originally developed as a replacement for conventional HTML forms, XForms is designed to work well in the Web browser, allowing forms to be specified using the familiar facilities of XHTML and CSS. XForms is based on the model/view/controller architecture, and because the model being operated upon consists of a set of XML documents, XForms provides a convenient basis for developing custom tools for working with XML documents. With XForms, it becomes feasible for projects to develop vocabulary- and task-specific editors for use within the project. For suitably chosen tasks, specialized tools of this kind can require less training and provide better task support than full XML editors; it is thus easier to allow domain experts to examine and modify XML encoding, and routine tasks can be performed more quickly and reliably.

Any project making systematic use of XML will involve a number of tasks requiring systematic changes to XML documents, which may be more easily handled using XForms than with other techniques. For example:

The samples in the language corpus have been divided into sentences using a probabilistic recognizer for sentence boundaries; we need to check to make sure that all the boundaries proposed by the software are in fact real sentence boundaries, and that no sentence boundaries have been missed.
The text has been processed by a named-entity recognition engine and phrases have been marked up as personal names, clan names, place names, names of organizations, and other names, but the process by which this has happened is not fully trusted; we would like a specialist in the period and genre to check that the distinctions among place names, clan names, and personal names have been drawn correctly.
Each of the seven hundred short documents in the project must be checked for conformance to the project's new rules for hyperlinks, and problems need to be flagged (not fixed, just flagged for later re-work).
In a software development project, we have developed a set of XML-encoded test cases which the software should be able to handle. We have now realized that each test case needs to include metadata of a kind not originally foreseen. It needs to be added manually (or perhaps we can write a program that will get most of it right, but need a manual check to catch errors, in cases where manual fixing is cheaper than making the automatic process do the right thing).
We are converting a few thousand MARC records into TEI headers. The conversion program tries to strip off the trailing punctuation added in the MARC record (additional full stops, semi-colons, colons, etc., depending on the internal structure of the MARC fields), but in a few cases out of every thousand fields, the algorithm is not quite right. The program writes out the TEI header with its best guess at the correct content of the element, but it also writes out the original trailing punctuation, in a specially marked processing instruction. We wish for some reasonably alert human being to go through the material and say, for each field, whether to accept the program's proposal or to restore the original punctuation. In a very small number of cases, neither the program's best guess nor the original punctuation is correct, and the reviewer must specify some third form of the data.
In each of these cases, a full-scale general-purpose XML editor can be used but has a number of drawbacks. The user performing the task must be trained in the full editor, and once the document is open in a general-purpose editor there are no limits to what changes can be made, or in cases of inattention or confusion, no limits to the damage that can be infliced on the document. It would be preferable to perform such specialized XML modification tasks in what are sometimes called ""padded cell"" editors, which provide simple limited interfaces for performing specific tasks. In a padded cell editor for sentence-boundary correction, for example, the user should be able to open a document, delete sentence boundaries (joining adjacent s elements), insert them (splitting s elements), save the document, and quit. An editor which provides ONLY those operations will be a lot easier to learn than a general purpose editor, and allows a careless or hapless user to do much less harm. Special-purpose editors can also incorporate knowledge of the underlying markup language and its usage in a particular project more effectively than is possible for general-purpose editors.

It has rarely been feasible, however, to use conventional programming tools to build special-purpose editors for individual XML vocabularies, let alone such specialized tasks: using standard libraries, such editors would run to thousands or tens of thousands of lines of Java or Objective C.

XForms (and some related technologies) change the equation.

XForms is built around the model / view / controller idiom, in which the model is a set of XML documents, the view is specified using XHTML and the XForms widget set, and the controller takes the form of declarative rules linking widgets to elements and attributes in the markup. That is to say: XForms can be regarded as a technology for building padded-cell editors; it has great potential for extensive application in any project making systematic use of XML.

The tutorial will comprise four blocks of material, of about 45 minutes each.

Introduction
origin and design goals of XForms
the XForms model/view/controller processing model
XForms and padded-cell editors
Atomic values
the standard XForms widgets
datatypes and type awareness
auto-calculation
validation in the client
selective display of information
dynamic labels
multi-lingual interfaces
More complex interfaces
tabbed interfaces for multi-part forms
repetitions
XForms and mixed content
Conclusion
extensions of and alternatives to XForms
issues in the deployment of XForms","txt","2","",""
"1256","12","Detecting and Characterizing National Style in the 19th Century Novel","1","Detecting and Characterizing National Style in the 19th Century Novel
Jockers, Matthew, Stanford University, mjockers@stanford.edu
In Representative Irish Tales, Yeats identified two basic categories of Irish fiction characterized by what he called “two different accents, the accent of the gentry and the less polished accent of the peasantry” (Yeats 1979). Writing of this distinction, John Cronin notes in The Anglo-Irish Novel how “Maria Edgeworth and William Carleton fit obviously enough the two extremes Yeats has defined but a middle-class figure like Gerald Griffin belongs a little uneasily somewhere in between” (Cronin 1980). Other critics including Thomas MacDonagh (MacDonagh 1916), Thomas Flannagan (Flanagan 1959), and most recently Charles Fanning (Fanning 2000) have all focused attention on the specific use of language in Irish narrative and the extent to which linguistic style and choice of theme and form reflects, or does not, the unique position of these Irish and Anglo-Irish writers in a country where the use of English was to evolve in a rather dramatic fashion.

Though Mark Hawthorne has written that the “Irish were not accustomed to the English language and were unaware of its subtleties and detonations” (Hawthorne 1975), Charles Fanning has argued that the Irish in fact became masters of the English language and employed a mode of “linguistic subversion” that allowed them to comment upon and even satirize the British who all the while seem to miss the point that the joke is on them (Fanning 2000). Cronin argues along similar lines to Fanning when he writes that the. . . idiomatic unease in their novels is not caused by any lack of ability on their part in the writing of a standard English idiom. It derives, rather, from the tangled situation in which they find themselves as novelists, directing their efforts towards an English-speaking public but trying to give that public a creative insight into a linguistically piebald area . . . they turned their very difficulties in regard to idiom to constructive account by confronting head-on the blending of the two idioms and two cultures. . . they turn this linguistic ragout to splendid account, making use in the process of English, Irish, and Anglo-Irish” (Cronin 1980).

The subject of this research paper, then, is the matter of exactly how 19th century Irish novelists uniquely employ style, setting, and theme. The critics seem to agree that something specific is going on in terms of language, form, and setting, and yet none gets to the heart of the matter, to the details of the prose and to the specific uses of language. Leveraging the tools and techniques from the authorship attribution and computational text analysis literature—specifically natural language processing, machine learning, and topic modeling—this paper compares and contrasts both linguistic style and narrative theme in a corpus of over 500 British and Irish novels from the 19th century. The results of this work show the precise extent to which Irish prose is stylistically different from English prose, and I identify and explore those linguistic and thematic features that mark the Irish novel as distinctly different from the British.

Specifically, my research examines style through an analysis of sentence and word level features. The results show, among other things, that Irish writers tend toward expressions that are both longer and more indeterminate than their British counterparts. Favoring the long sentence and greater use of the comma, the Irish write in comparatively complex, flowing sentences that favor (as measured by relative frequency) words denoting indeterminacy, words such as “most,” “some,” “may,” and “yet.” British writers, on the other hand, show a preference for shorter, more determinate sentences featuring words such as “know, never, no, nothing, must, not, only, all, should, last, first, and great.” This result tends to confirm anecdotal observations made by scholars, including (Cronin 1980) who suggest that though the Irish may have sought to imitate and appeal to the stylistic preferences of a British dominated industry, they ultimately invented their own style of prose, which captured both the rhythms of the local language and the anxieties of a country struggling with its position vis-à-vis the colonizing presence of the British.

In addition to probing and comparing the stylistic habits of the two nations, this work further analyzes the prose at the level of theme and argues that there is an important link to be made between style and theme in Irish prose. To harvest latent themes, I employed the unsupervised topic modeling tools of the UMASS machine learning toolkit (McCallum 2002). A run of the model, which sought to identify the 25 most prominent topics in the corpus, resulted in one particular topic appearing with greater frequency in the Irish novels of the corpus. This topic, which was labeled as “the big house theme,” is composed of words clearly relating to tenant-landlord relations and the familial issues that are so often explored by Irish writers attempting to characterize these troubled relationships. The big house theme was found to be the most prominent topic in 35% of the Irish novels analyzed in this corpus, and it is present to a lesser degree in many of the others.

My analysis concludes by tracing the links between distinctly Irish themes and the elements of Irish style identified in the first part of the research. From the macroanalytic data derived at the corpus level, I present a chronological charting of Fanning’s notion of linguistic subversion, and then I move to the micro level and offer a closer reading of several exemplary passages from works in the chronology. I discuss how linguistic subversion is inherent to the tradition of the ""Irish Bull” and offer a brief discussion of Richard and Maria Edgeworth’s 1835 essay on the subject in which they write with some humor that: “English is not the mother tongue of the natives of Ireland; to them it is a foreign language, and consequently, it is scarcely within the limits of probability, that they should avoid making blunders both in speaking and writing . . . Indeed, so perfectly persuaded are Englishmen of the truth of this proposition, that the moment an unfortunate Hibernian opens his lips they expect a bull, and listen with that well known look of sober contempt and smug self satisfaction, which sufficiently testifies their sense of safety and superiority.” (Edgeworth 1835)

As early as Castle Rackrent (1800), Edgeworth had demonstrated her own command of linguistic subversion and an acute awareness of how to form her narrative and bend language to provide not simply a distinctly Irish novel but a seminal novel within the larger novelistic tradition. My work provides quantitative evidence of how, where, and why Irish style is different from British.

References:
Cronin, J. 1980 The Anglo-Irish Novel, Barnes & Noble Books Totowa, N.J

Edgeworth, M. 1835 Tales and Novels, Harper & brothers New York

Fanning, C. 2000The Irish Voice in America : 250 Years of Irish-American Fiction., Lexington, KY University Press of Kentucky

Flanagan, T. 1959 The Irish Novelists, 1800-1850, New York Columbia University Press.

Hawthorne, M. D. 1975 John and Michael Banim (The ""O'hara Brothers"") : A Study in the Early Development of the Anglo-Irish Novel, Romantic Reassessment., Institut für Englische Sprache und Literatur, Universität Salzburg Salzburg

Macdonagh, T. 1916 Literature in Ireland: Studies Irish and Anglo-Irish, T. F. Unwin. London

Andrew Kachites McCallum 2002 ""Mallet: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit."", (link)

Yeats, W. B. 1979 Representative Irish Tales, Humanities Press Atlantic Highlands, N.J.","txt","2","",""
"1257","12","Discovering Land Transaction Relations from Land Deeds of Taiwan","1","Discovering Land Transaction Relations from Land Deeds of Taiwan
Chen, Shih-Pei, Department of Computer Science, National Taiwan University, gail@turing.csie.ntu.edu.tw
Huang, Yu-Ming, Department of Computer Science, National Taiwan University, ming@turing.csie.ntu.edu.tw
Ho, Hou-Ieong, Department of Computer Science, National Taiwan University, brent@turing.csie.ntu.edu.tw
Chen, Ping-Yen, Department of Computer Science, National Taiwan University, champiyen@turing.csie.ntu.edu.tw
Hsiang, Jieh, Department of Computer Science, National Taiwan University; Research Center for Digital Humanities, National Taiwan University, jhsiang@ntu.edu.tw
Abstract
Land deeds were the only proof of ownership in pre-1900 Taiwan. They are indispensable for the studies of Taiwan’s social, anthropological, and economic evolution. We have built a full-text digital library that contains more than 30,000 land deeds. The deeds in our collection range over 250 years and are collected from over 100 sources. The unprecedented volume and diversity of the sources provide an exciting source of primary documents for historians. But they also pose an interesting challenge: how to tell if two land deeds are related.

In this paper we describe an approach to discover one of the most important relations: successive transactions involving the same property. Our method enabled us to construct over 3,300 such transaction pairs. We also introduce a notion of land transitivity graph to capture the transitivity embedded in these transactions. We discovered 2,219 such graphs, the largest of which includes 103 deeds. Some of these graphs involve land behavior that had never been studied before.

Introduction
Until the turn of the 20th century, hand-written land deeds were the only proof of transaction of lands in Taiwan. Such a deed may involve activities such as selling/buying, lending of land to smaller farmers, dividing the land among children or shareholders, and cultivation permits. The deeds usually follow, depending on their types, a typical but not standard format, and are drown up in ad hoc manner. Indeed, even the name of the location may be written in a local convention unfamiliar to the outsiders.

While each land deed may have significance only to its owner, a large collection of them provides a fascinating glimpse into the pre-modern Taiwanese grassroots society. Historians have studied them to investigate the economic activities, community development, and the relationship among the various ethnic groups (Chen, 1997; Ka, 2001; Shih, 2001; Hong, 2005).

In the past few years we have built a full-text digital library of primary historical documents of Taiwan called THDL (Taiwan History Digital Library). Among its corpuses is a collection of over 30,000 land deeds, spanning from 1666 to the first decade of the 20th century, and collected from over 100 sources of origin (Hsiang, Chen, Tu, 2009). This collection is unprecedented in terms of volume, time span, geographic distribution, and variety. While THDL presents an exciting source of primary materials for historians, it also poses a challenge: how to find the relationship between two land deeds, or, how to find all the land deeds involving the same piece of land. Although it was customary to hand down earlier deeds to the new owner during the transaction of land, most of these links were broken when the Japanese, during their colonial rule of Taiwan between 1895 and 1945, modernized the land management system (Li, 2004). That is because the officials only recorded the last deed as the proof of ownership but ignored the previous ones. Consequently many of the older deeds were either destroyed or (later) sold as collector’s items because they had lost their original value.

In this paper we present a semi-automated method to discover the transaction relations among land deeds. We shall focus on two important relations: successive transaction pairs and allotment agreements. We further connect the transitive activities on the same piece of land into a concept called land transitivity graph, which captures the history of the land over time. The largest such graph that we found has led to a discovery of a new type of land use that had never been observed before.

Discovering Land Transaction Relations
We start by describing the two relations among land deeds that our method tries to capture.

Successive transaction pairs: A piece of land could be sold from A to B, then from B to C. In this case there should be two land deeds recording the two transactions. We call them a successive transaction pair. Note that the situation could be rather complicated. For instance it could have been B’s son who sold it to C. If B divided the land among his descendents, the first selling transaction and the ensuing allotment agreement (see below) also form a successive transaction pair.

Allotment agreements: An allotment agreement is a deed that records how a land is divided among the owner’s descendants or among the shareholders. In both cases the usual practice is to first divide the land into several parts, then to have each participant drawing from the lot. Once the decision is agreed upon, an agreement is written, and several copies are made and given to each person involved. In the case of division among shareholders, the allotment agreements should be preceded by a cultivation permit, a permission from the government to allow a group of people to cultivate the land. In this case, the cultivation permit and the ensuing allotment agreement also form a successive transaction pair.

Fig. 1 The process for discovering land transaction relations

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To tackle this problem of finding successive transaction pairs, we developed a 3-step semi-automatic process (Fig. 1). We first used text processing technology to extract features of each land deed from its metadata and full text. Such features include the transaction type, the general location of the land and the four reaches (boundaries identifying the land via some obscure way such as “bordering Lee’s house on the south,” “a large camphor tree on the west,” etc), the names of the people involved in the transaction and their roles (seller, buyer, scrivener), description of the source of the land (how and when the current owner obtained it), the size, the price, and the amount of taxes paid (Lu, 2008; Huang, 2009). Fig. 2 is an example of a typical land deed. We designed an XML format to hold this information (Fig. 3). Second, we defined rules to identify deeds that may be related. Fig. 4 shows the rules we used for identifying the successive transaction pairs. We then wrote a program to compare every pair of land deeds in THDL to see if any pair satisfied the rules. Finally, we give all the pairs produced to human expert to verify.

Fig. 2 An example of a typical land deed of Taiwan

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Fig. 3 The features of a “selling” type of land deed, stored in XML

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We further remark that a criterion that allows certain degree of fuzziness was used when performing matching. This is because the names used in different deeds may sometimes be slightly different even if they are the same place or person (Huang, 2009).

Fig. 4 The rules for identifying successive transaction pairs

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The precision rate of the algorithm for successive transaction pairs is 63.9% and that for allotment agreements is 94.4%. We have found 2,409 successive transaction pairs and 878 sets of allotment agreements among the 30,820 land deeds in THDL (Table 1).

Table 1 The result of reconstructing land transaction relations among the land deeds in THDL

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Among the former, 358 are cross-generation (A sold to B, and B’s descendent sold to C). Some of the pairs/sets are from different sources (the “cross sources” column in Table 1), and are quite impossible to find manually. Some others are from the same source but are not adjacent to each other in their original order. These are also difficult to identify by hand.
Land Transitivity Graphs
When further examining the transaction pairs, an interesting transitive phenomenon emerged. There may be a deed of A selling a piece of land to B, and some years later B divided the land among his sons, then one of them, C, rented it to D to farm. Such transitive activities on the same piece of land could last for decades. By connecting all these transactions into a graph, it may capture the evolution of a property over time.

This is exactly what we did. We call these graphs land transitivity graphs. Using the relations we discovered early, we came up with 2,219 such graphs. The result is listed in Table 2.

Table 2 The land transitivity graphs constructed among the land deeds in THDL

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Fig. 5, the third largest graph, contains 36 deeds, dating from 1850 to 1910. The head of the family, Liao Jiafu (廖佳福), was among the shareholders who received a cultivation permit from the Qing government, and obtained this piece of land through allotment in 1850 (the first deed).

Fig. 5 The 3rd large graph, containing 36 deeds

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Liao farmed the land for 50 years and divided it among his descendents in 1901 (the second deed). The rest of the deeds described the various activities such as further divisions or selling in the next 10 years. By 1906, only 2 of the 8 divided pieces of land remained in the Liao family.
Fig. 6 The largest graph, containing 103 deeds

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Fig. 6 is the largest land transitivity graph with 103 deeds. Tu, a historian, studied this graph and discovered that the deeds involved demonstrated a unique case of land use that had never been studied before (Tu, 2010). It is unlikely for human to notice this possibility without the computer-generated transitivity graph.

To help historians take advantage of these graphs, we developed an integrated environment to analyze the information embedded in each graph (Fig. 7). In addition to the graph itself and its zoomable navigation facility, we also added tag cloud, chronological distribution, and a location map.

Fig. 7 The integration environment for land transitivity graphs

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Concluding Remarks
Land deed research has been an important topic among historians of pre-1900 Taiwan. In this paper, we presented a method to discover the transaction relations among the 30,820 land deeds in THDL, the largest existing full-text database of land deeds. Our method discovered 2,049 successive transaction pairs and 878 sets of allotment agreements. They, in turn, are transformed into 2,219 land transitivity graphs, each of which describes the transaction evolution of a piece of land. One such graph has already led to the discovery of a unique pattern of land development that had not been studied before (Tu, 2010). We feel that our work demonstrates how IT tools can be used to help historians conduct research that could not be done otherwise.

References:
Chen, C. K. 1997 Taiwan’s aboriginal proprietary rights in the Ch’ing period: Bureaucracy, Han tenants and the transformation of property rights of the Anli Tribe, 1700-1895, Academia Sinica Taipei

Hong, L.W. 2005 A study of aboriginal contractual behavior and the relationship between aborigines and Han immigrants in west-central Taiwan, 1 Taichung County Cultural Center

Hsiang, J., Chen, S. P., Tu, H. C. 2009 “On building a full-text digital library of land deeds of Taiwan, ” Digital Humanities 2009 Conference, Maryland, June 22-25, 2009 85-90

Huang, Y. M. 2009 On reconstructing relationships among Taiwanese land deeds. Master thesis, National Taiwan University Taipei, Taiwan

Ka, C. M. 2001 The aborigine landlord: Ethnic politics and aborigine land rights in Qing Taiwan, Academia Sinica Taipei

Li, W. L. 2004 “Land deeds and land administrative documents—Interpreting the Archives of the Japanese Taiwan Governor-Generals, ” Taiwanese History Research, 11 (2) 221-240

Lu, C. C. 2008 Automated Classification of Taiwanese Land Deeds. Master thesis, Taiwan University Taipei, Taiwan

Shih, T. F. 2001 Local society in Qing Taiwan, Cultural Affairs Bureau Hsinchu

Tu, F. E. 2010 “Environmental Change, Land development and Dispute over Property Rights in southern Taiwan (1890-1920), ” The Sixth Conference of Taiwan Colonial Government Archives, Taiwan Historica,","txt","2","",""
"1258","12","Discovering Citation Relations among the Imperial Court Documents of Qing China","2","Discovering Citation Relations among the Imperial Court Documents of Qing China
Chen, Shih-Pei, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University, gail@turing.csie.ntu.edu.tw
Ho, Hou-Ieong, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University, brent@turing.csie.ntu.edu.tw
Tu, Hsieh-Chang, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University, champiyen@turing.csie.ntu.edu.tw
Hsiang, Jieh, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University; Research Center for Digital Humanities, National Taiwan University, jhsiang@ntu.edu.tw
1. Motivation and Introduction
The dynasties of imperial China had always had sophisticated governing systems to run the vast empire (Chien, 1952). While many of these dynasties left large quantities of imperial court documents, the last dynasty, Qing (1644-1911), produced the largest volume. These documents have been a major source of primary research material for studying Qing era China since they provided the most direct and first-hand details of how national affairs were handled. Among them, two of the most important kinds are Imperial Edicts (from the emperors to his officials) and Memorials (reports from officials to the emperor). The number of Memorials increased significantly after Emperor Kang-xi (康熙 – reigned from 1662 to 1723) allowed senior local officials to report to him directly (Chuang, 1979). The ability for the emperors to obtain first-hand information directly from local officials was among the major reasons why the Qing imperial courts did not suffer as much interference from people surrounding the emperors, such as eunuchs and family members of the empress dowagers, as in the previous Ming Dynasty.

Qing Dynasty had a systematic way to archive official documents. However, although most of the archives were organized chronologically, the court documents involved in a specific event might span several months and were often kept in different archives. For instance, if the emperor received a Memorial reporting a rebellion in some province, he might decide to issue an Imperial Edict to give instructions to relevant officials. The Memorial, depending on its character, might be kept (or had copies made) in the Archives of the Imperial Palace (宮中檔), Archives of the Grand Council (軍機處檔案), or the Grand Secretariat Archives (內閣大庫). The Edict might have records in the Imperial Decrees Archives (上諭檔), Archives of the Diary-Keepers (月摺檔, 起居注), or the Archives of the Imperial Palace (宮中檔), or the Grand Secretariat Archives mentioned above. Worse yet, these archives are now kept at different locations, notably the National Palace Museum (National Palace Museum, 2001), the Institute of History and Philology of Academia Sinica (Institute of History and Philology of Academia Sinica, 2001), both in Taipei, and the First Historical Archives of China (FHAC, 1995), in Beijing. Although digitization effort at the former two institutions made these archives easier to access than before, it remains a cumbersome task to collect documents covering the same event and rebuild their original linkage.

In this paper, we present an approach to restore an important relation: the citation links among the imperial court documents. To be more precise, a Memorial from an official often quotes earlier Imperial Edicts as the directive for the activities that he is reporting. On the other hand, an Imperial Edict may also cite earlier Memorials as the reason for issuing the decree. In an important historical event such as the Taiping Rebellion, there may be hundreds of Imperial Edicts and Memorials that form a complex web of successive citations. We call such a graph an IE-M diagram. Figure 1 is an illustration.

Fig. 1 An IE-M Diagram

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2. Discovering IE-M Diagrams
To discover a citation relation we need to first detect whether a document has cited previous documents. This problem is similar to plagiarism detection (or copy detection), which is to detect whether a part of a document is copied from other materials without acknowledging the source (Shivakumar and Garcia-Molina, 1995; Si, Leong and Lau, 1997; Timothy and Justin, 2003). However, unlike plagiarism detection for which an exhaustive comparison among documents might be necessary, in our case there are often specific phrases occurred around quotations, which we call syntactic anchors. In the case of a Memorial citing an Imperial Edict, the former usually contains an anchor that starts with adhering to the Imperial Edict (奉上諭) and ends with By the Emperor Himself. That is all (欽此). The text in between are quoted verbatim from the Edict (although usually not in its entirety) (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 In a memorial, the sentences in between the syntactic anchors are text quoted verbatim from the source edict.

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The anchors involved in an Imperial Edict citing a Memorial may have a number of varieties. The quotations may also be done in a more casual manner, since the emperors did not feel obliged to quote carefully. After identifying the anchor and the quoted text, our method extracts a segment of the latter (called signature) and applies a text-matching algorithm to see if it appears in any document in the database. A document of the right type that contains the signature is called a candidate.
We remark that because the quoted text may not be very precise, a certain degree of fuzziness is incorporated in our algorithm so that minor differences can be tolerated. A detailed algorithm is listed in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 The text-matching algorithm used for Memorials citing Imperial Edicts.

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The comparison produces a list of document, signature, candidate tuples. We then use metadata to filter unlikely tuples, and present the findings to historians for manually validation to ensure accuracy. The overall process of our approach is shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 The overall process of our approach.

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3. Experiments and Findings
We applied this method to the “Collection of Taiwan-related Court Documents from the Ming and Qing Dynasties” corpus in THDL, the Taiwan History Digital Library (Chen, Hsiang, Tu, and Wu, 2007; Research Center for Digital Humanities, 2009). This corpus contains 37,831 imperial court documents of mostly Qing era that are related to Taiwan. The documents, mainly Imperial Edicts and Memorials, were selected from 235 different sources, including the archives mentioned earlier in this paper. They were chosen by historians, typed as full text, punctuated, proof-read, and were supplemented with metadata records (Wu, 2004; Chiu, 2006).

Using the method described above, we discovered 5,403 pairs of citation relations from these documents, among which 3,947 pairs are Memorials citing Edicts, and 1,456 pairs are Edicts citing Memorials. By taking the transitivity on the discovered citation pairs, we produced 1,258 IE-M diagrams (see Table 1), the largest of which involves 152 documents.

Table 2 The main content of the IE-M diagrams sized over 50. All of them are about major events in the Taiwanese history.

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Fig. 3 is an example of such a diagram, in which the blocks at the top and bottom are Imperial Edicts while the middle three are Memorials. The arrows between the blocks indicate citations.
After examining the diagrams, we found that all of the larger ones (size over 50) are about major events in Taiwanese history (see Table 2).

Table 1 A summary on the sizes of the 1,258 IE-M diagrams produced by our method.

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Tracing through the citations shows the process of how the Qing Imperial Court dealt with crises occurred in Taiwan, a far-flung island of the vast empire. For example, the largest IE-M diagram illustrated how Emperor Qianlong (乾隆) handled the Lin Shuangwen (林爽文) Rebellion, the largest civil unrest in Taiwan during the Qing reign. The diagram vividly reflected how the rebellion, first dismissing as a minor local disturbance, developed into an island-wide revolt. (The rebels even overran a prefectural seat and had another under siege for more than six months). It also showed how the local officials, failed at suppressing the revolt, pointed fingers at each other or reported false victories. Qianlong finally realized the severity of the situation and sent Fukangan (福康安), one of his most trusted generals, to put down the rebellion. (Qianlong himself considered the pacification of Lin Shuangwen Rebellion one of his “Top Ten Military Achievements”.)
4. Concluding Remarks
In this paper we described an approach to discover citation relations among Imperial Edicts and Memorials of the Qing Dynasty. The transitivity closures of the relations are captured in a concept of IE-M diagram, which reveals how a historical event developed through the correspondences between the Qing imperial court and the local governments. Our method demonstrates how to use information technology to explore and identify important relations among historical documents that would be hard to find otherwise. We applied this method to THDL, Taiwan Historical Digital Library, and found 1,258 such diagrams. We should remark, however, our method can be applied to other and larger corpuses provided that the full text of the documents are available. We are currently working with historians to explore other significant relations to which our method can be applied.

Fig. 5 An example of IE-M diagram.

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References:
Chen, S.P., Hsiang, J., Tu, H.C. & Wu, M.C. 2007 “On Building a Full-Text Digital Library of Historical Documents, ” Asian Digital Libraries. Looking Back 10 Years and Forging New Frontiers, Lecture Notes in Computer Science no. 4822, Goh, D.H.L., ed. Springer Berlin, New York 49-60

Chien, M. 1952 Chung-kuo li tai cheng chih te shih, Hong Kong

Chiu, W.J. 2006 “The Digital Project of Taiwan-Related Archives in Ming and Qing Dynasty, ” The Library Yearbook of ROC 2006, National Central Library Taipei

Chuang, J.F. 1979 Qing dai shi liao lun shu, National Place Museum Taipei

The First Historical Archives of China (FHAC) 1995 Guangxu chao zhu pi zou zh, Zhonghua shu ju Beijing

National Palace Museum The Archives of the Grand Secretariat in Academia Sinica , 10 March 2011 (link)

Research Center for Digital Humanities of National Taiwan University Taiwan History Digital Library, 10 March 2011 (link)

Shivakumar, N. and Garcia-Molina, H. 1995 “SCAM: A Copy Detection Mechanism for Digital Documents, ” The 2nd International Conference in Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries., Austin, Texas, 1995

Si, A., Leong, H.V. and Lau, R.W.H. 1997 “CHECK: a document plagiarism detection system, ” Proceedings of the 1997 ACM symposium on Applied computing, San Jose, California, 1997

Timothy, C. H. and Justin, Z. 2003 “Methods for identifying versioned and plagiarized documents. , ” Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 54(3) 203-215.

Wu, M.C. 2004 Taiwan shi liao ji cheng ti yao, Council for Cultural Affairs Taipei","txt","2","",""
"1259","12","The Digital Dictionary of Buddhism: A Collaborative XML-Based Reference Work that has become a Field Standard: Technology and Sustainable Management Strategies","1","The Digital Dictionary of Buddhism: A Collaborative XML-Based Reference Work that has become a Field Standard: Technology and Sustainable Management Strategies
Muller, Charles. A., acmuller@jj.em-net.ne.jp Center for Evolving Humanities, University of Tokyo,
The Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (DDB) (http://buddhism-dict.net/ddb/subscribing_libraries.html), now on the Web for more than 15 years, has come to be regarded as a primary reference work for the field of Buddhist Studies. Containing over 54,000 entries, it is subscribed to by more than 38 university libraries (http://www.buddhism-dict.net/ddb/subscribing_libraries.html). It is supported by the contributions of over 70 specialists, many of these recognized leaders in the field. It can perhaps be described as example of the type of web resource hoped for by Jaron Lanier in his book You Are Not A Gadget, or something similar to the sort of thing envisioned by Joseph Raben in his Busa lecture at the DH2010, in the sense of being the fruit of the collaborative efforts of a community of scholars that has reached a degree of status and sustainability such that it has been able to grow and thrive—despite having little funding or the support of a major organization or team of programmers—in the age where such resources are so readily eclipsed by the combination of Wikipedia and Google. The field of Buddhist Studies has its own reliable, scholarly-edited, fully documented and responsible online reference work that has developed a center of gravity sufficient for it to continue to grow as the resource that specialists turn to without hesitation, and to which they may contribute knowing that they will be clearly accredited, and that what they write will not be deleted or changed in the following moment by, for example, a junior high school student.

With the DDB having a history almost equal in length to that of the WWWeb as we know it (it went online in 1995), there is a wide range of issues that can be discussed beyond its present technical structure. Of great importance are the management strategies that have allowed its continued progress through the long series of changes the Web has witnessed during this first epoch of the Internet. How, exactly, can a project that is based on the continual development of quantity and quality of reference data can continue to grow to the extent of becoming the de facto primary field reference work after exhausting the first couple initial grants, without either becoming a fully “pay-for” resource (perhaps being bought out by a commercial enterprise of some sort), or being supported by some private organization — an alternative fraught with the danger of forcing the resource to co-opt its principles and its objectivity?

I began the compilation of the DDB and its companion CJKV-English Dictionary (CJKV-E) in 1986, originally simply envisioning the eventual publication of the usual printed work. In 1994, however, the Web made its appearance, and the potential advantages of trying to develop a reference work online in a collaborative manner were immediately apparent. So in the middle of 1995, I converted my WordPerfect word-processor files to HTML, and placed the dictionary on the web. To my great elation, I was soon contacted by a few good scholars with similar interests, who were willing to offer both content and technical advice.

During its first few years on the web, the DDB was maintained in a simple, hard-linked HTML format. With the help of Christian Wittern, this source was converted to SGML, and then XML. A major turning point in the history of the project came in January 2001, when Michael Beddow offered to help with Web implementation, and for the first time, the raw XML data was searched and presented to users through a combination of Perl and XML/XSLT technology. At that time, building a search engine that could deal with mixed Western/CJK text in UTF-8 encoding was a not at all a simple matter, so Michael's search engine was a bit of a novel creation—and was able to serve its purpose with only minor tweaks up through most of 2010, for almost a full decade.

When Michael Beddow's search engine was set up in 2001, usage of the DDB increased dramatically. Yet despite our repeated pleas for user contributions, except for a very small number of “enlightened” individuals who somehow naturally grasped the meaning of this strange new thing called “web collaboration,” it became apparent that there were very, very few people willing, on their own, to take five or ten minutes to write up and send us even a couple of terms from their own research work. This lack of interest on the part of users in making contributions was extremely disappointing. Thus, while our password security system was originally set up to ward off hacking attempts, we decided to experiment with using this apparatus to institute a two-tiered system of access. In the first level, any user could access the data a limited number of times in a 24-hour period, logging in as guest. In the second level, contributors were granted unlimited access. We started off setting the guest limit at fifty, but leaving it at this amount for a few weeks we received neither complaints nor contributions. We then began to gradually drop the number down to forty, thirty, and then twenty searches in a day. At twenty, there was still nary a complaint made nor contribution to be seen. But when we hit the number of ten, everything changed. We were first bombarded with indignant complaints, but holding the line, and at the same time lowering the minimum required level of contribution to the equivalent of one A4 page for two years of access, eventually these complaints began to turn into contributions. This was a watershed moment for the project, because we found that once people contributed one time, most of them continued to do so, whether voluntarily, or by continued prompting through this same arrangement.

At the time of my first public presentation of the DDB at a meeting of the Electronic Buddhist Text Initiative (EBTI http://buddhism-dict.net/ebti/) in 1996, the DDB contained approximately 3,200 entries. That number is now over 54,000, with a present average growth rate of 4,000 terms per year. The continued growth in popularity of the DDB, especially as a reference work for graduate and undergraduate courses in Buddhist Studies in North America and Europe generated one more access problem that needed resolution—that of how to allow for the use of the DDB in the case where an instructor wanted to use the dictionary for an university course. To deal with these kinds of situations, we decided to begin to offer subscriptions to university library networks for a modest fee. This policy brought about an unforeseen benefit, in that we could now provide a list of reputable institutions that had deemed the DDB to be an academic reference of high standards. It also generated a small but steady income, which allowed us to pay for hardware and software, and a couple of part-time workers to do input and editing. Finally, in order to encourage contribution from qualified scholars, great effort was expended toward letting members of the field know of the contributions being made by their colleagues. Thus on the dictionary's web site itself, as well as on associated news and mail lists, information regarding new contributions is energetically distributed.

This presentation will start off with a short demonstration of the most advanced functions of the DDB, to be followed by a brief overview of its technical framework (P5- influenced XML, delivered through XSL and Perl). We will then outline the above-introduced key factors of the management of the DDB that we believe have most directly contributed to its great success.

References:
Lanier, Jaron 2010 You Are Not A Gadget, Alfred A. Knopf New York

Muller, A. Charles 2009 “The Digital Dictionary of Buddhism [DDB]: Present Status and Future Developments., ” Scholars of Buddhism in Japan: Buddhist Studies in the 21st Century, International Research Center for Japanese Studies Kyoto 87–100

Muller, A. Charles, and Michael Beddow 2002 “Moving into XML Functionality: The Combined Digital Dictionaries of Buddhism and East Asian Literary Terms, ” Journal of Digital Information: Special Issue on Chinese Collections in the Digital Library, Volume 3, issue 2 (link)

Raben, Joseph 2010 “Humanities Computing in an Age of Social Change, ” DH2010, July 8, 2010 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1260","12","Is There Anybody out There? Discovering New DH Practitioners in other Countries","1","Is There Anybody out There? Discovering New DH Practitioners in other Countries
Galina, Isabel , Instituto de Investigaciones Bibliograficas, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mexico, igalina@unam.mx
Priani, Ernesto, Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mexico, epriani@gmail.com
Introduction
Digital Humanities (DH) has been described as an 'emerging' field for some time now but many (Borgman 2009; Friedlander 2009; Presner 2009) agree that this is a crucial moment for the discipline. The DH community now has established research methods, scholarly conferences and journals (Borgman 2009), DH centres and labs (Svensson 2010; van den Heuvel et al. 2010) and MA studies (Clement 2010). However, it could be argued that an important area for further development is the true internalization of the DH community. Up to now much of the discussion has centered on DH projects in a handful of mainly English speaking countries (Terras 2006). In order to consolidate as a discipline, an important challenge for the DH community is to extend its international reach and incorporate work from a broader range of academic institutions and languages.

One of the main issues of course, is attempting to integrate with groups of scholars that have not necessarily identified themselves yet as a community or do not even know that DH exists. Our project has four main objectives:

raise awareness about DH
identify key scholars and projects
investigate key local issues in the development of DH projects
consolidate a community and find ways of linking with the international DH community
The aim of this paper is to present our initial experience with two workshops as a methodological approach to investigating DH work in an unknown landscape and present a preliminary report on the DH situation in Mexico in particular.
To our knowledge this type of work has not been done before, in particular for Latin America. The fact that there has been little participation of Latin American scholars does not necessarily imply that no DH work is being done in this region but could be rather a lack of connection with the DH community. Japan for example, reports that despite having a long tradition in DH projects, one problem has been cooperating with similar projects overseas (Muller 2010).

Methodology
It is well documented that finding digital humanities resources (Dunning 2006; Pappa et al. 2006, Warwick et al 2006) and DH tools (Juola 2008) can be a difficult task and charting an unknown territory poses further challenges. We decided that workshops would allow us to both raise awareness of DH as well as serving as exploratory method to identify key scholars, projects and local issues. Additionally time and financial constraints were a major factor. At a later date we hope to use more quantitative methods such as a national survey.

Two workshops were carried out at the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM). As there is no record of DH activity in Mexico it was difficult to define where to start and so we relied heavily on personal experience and contacts to produce a list of possible participants. We contacted everybody we knew who had experience working on a DH project and asked them in turn to invite other participants in order to generate a snowball effect. The invitation included a very broad definition of DH projects. The workshops generated a large amount of interest and were well attended.

In order to provide a framework for the discussion we identified seven key topics from the literature:

organizational context including institutional recognition and support (Siemens et al. 2010; Warwick 2008b)
planning and development intellectual
property and copyright (Rehm 2007); human resources and training (Warwick 2009)
dissemination and use (Warwick 2008a)
completion and sustainability (Brown et al. 2009; Kretzschmar 2009; Sewell 2009)
digital humanist career (Siemens et al. 2010).
These topics were addressed as a series of questions which participants answered reflecting on their particular experience and the projects they had worked on.

Results and Discussion
The first workshop had fifteen participants and the second twelve. Table 1 shows a breakdown of participants by subject. Examples of the types of DH projects carried out by the participants were digital collections and libraries (modern short novels and poetry, XIX century manuscripts marked in TEI), linguistics (text mining, corpus building, corpus of Mexican Spanish), digital images (research in pre Hispanic mural paintings, visualization archeological sites) and Anthropology (sound files for linguistics research indigenous languages). Almost all participants were project leaders, with the exception of two programmers, one MA publishing student and one graphic designer.

Table 1
                 
Subject         Participants workshop 1         Participants workshop 2 
Anthropology         1         0 
Architecture         0         1 
Art History and Aesthetics         3         3 
Bibliography and Book Studies         2         3 
Engineering Linguistics         1         0 
History         1         1 
Philology and Literature         3         3 
Philosophy         4         1 
Of the people attending only a few were aware of the field of DH. Some had links with international projects (such as Biblioteca Virtual Cervantes) but in general most work was local and individual. Participants were pleased to discover ""that there are other people like me"".

Almost all projects are personal and not institutional initiatives. Several scholars remarked that university authorities had a vague idea of the importance of registering and managing digital materials but that this institutional support in practice lacked coherent policies or structures for them to have any real impact. None of the projects for example, had any specific physical location assigned and many had to improvise working spaces in order to cope with human resources and equipment.

A few people remarked however that working marginally was actually a good thing. ""Being ignored can also be an advantage. Being independent and invisible to the institution allows you to be dynamic and creative"".

Surprisingly, funding was not a problem for any of the projects. Most scholars applied and received funding from government or the UNAM. However, quantities were not particularly large (around 15,000 US dollars) and no project had permanent institutional funding. Participants did not mention a lack of access to computational technologies which had been suggested as a possible problem for DH projects in developing countries (Terras 2006).

Projects were rarely documented with the exception of Linguistics. This is similar to other DH projects worldwide (Warwick 2009). Due to one to three year funding periods many felt that they were in a race against time to complete and documentation was left out.

Finding, training and retaining human resources are also key issues. All participants agreed that it is difficult to find human resources with the necessary skills and training was required. Additionally participants themselves went through a steep learning process whilst developing their project and found little learning support. In terms of training in Mexico there are no DH centres or courses. However, a couple of MA DH related classes are in development. Sharing information and pooling resources was considered fundamental towards developing the field. Participants noted the urgent need to compile best practice and guidelines as there seemed to be duplication of efforts and no communication.

Long term sustainability of resources is a major issue. For example, many scholars had purchased their own server to host the project as there are no university guidelines for hosting projects. However, it is not clear what will happen once the servers have to be replaced, or if the researcher left the university. In other cases, projects were hosted at the Computing Services department but usually as a personal rather than a formal collaboration. Others have hosted their projects on external servers, sometimes even at their own personal expense. As one participant remarked ""when does a project become a university service and therefore somebody else's responsibility?"" This is a common issue for DH (Brown et al. 2009; Kretzschmar 2009; Sewell 2009). We detected a notable absence of the library community whose skills are essential to these issues. Participants were aware of preservation but had not addressed the issue at all.

Another major issue was evaluation and recognition of DH work. Many felt that their work, although funded, was later not taken into account for evaluation purposes. However, it was also noted that it is difficult for evaluation committees who have no experience or knowledge about these types of projects to assess them. Many had worked individually with their departmental boards but it was agreed that providing tools, acting as a consultative body and lobbying collectively would be a more effective approach.

Conclusions
Results from the workshop indicate that forming a DH community is possible as we found sufficient projects, scholars and interest to sustain a working group. All participants were enthusiastic about forming part of a local DH group. Workshops were by invitation only but have since resulted in other DH scholars coming forward and wanting to participate. Initial results indicate that issues and challenges regarding DH projects are similar to other countries and collaboration would be possible and fruitful. However, with some issues such as university and governmental recognition and support, guidelines and best practices and community awareness there appears to be a significant lag behind other countries. One main difference is the almost complete absence of the library community and this issue should be addressed. Main challenges are now: to discover and register more research and projects; develop best practices and guidelines in Spanish; incorporate the library community, build a directory of DH scholars; expand the group and develop mechanisms to increase national and international collaboration. In the next few months we will continue to work on more specific actions and report on them in due course.

References:
Borgman, C. 2009 “The Digital Future is Now: A Call to Action for the Humanities, ” DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3(4) (link)

Brown, S. et al. 2009 “Published Yet Never Done: The Tensions Between Projection and Completion in Digital Humanities Research, ” DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3(2) (link)

Clement, T., Jannidis, F. & McCarty, Willard 2010 “Digital Literacy for the Dumbest Generation - Digital Humanities Programs, ” DH 2010 Conference Abstracts, King's College London, 2010 31-39 (link)

Dunning, A. DATE “The Tasks of the AHDS: Ten Years On, ” Adriadne, 48 (link)

Friedlander, A. 2008 “Asking Research Questions and Building a Research Agenda for Digital Scholarship, ” Working Together or Apart: Promoting the Next Generation of Digital Scholarship, Report of a Workshop Cosponsored by the Council on Library and Information Resources and The National Endowment for the Humanities, Council on Library and Information Resources Washington, D.C. 1-15 (link)

Juola, P. 2008 “Killer Applications in Digital Humanities, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(1) 73 -83

Kretzschmar, W.A. 2009 “Large Scale Humanities Computing Projects: Snakes Eating Tails, or Every End if a New Beginning?, ” DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3(2) (link)

Muller, C. et al. 2010 “The Origins and Current State of Digitization of Humanities in Japan, ” DH 2010 Conference Abstracts, King's College London, 2010 (link)

Presner, T. & Johanson, C. 2009 The Promise of Digital Humanities. A White�paper., UCLA

Rehm, G. et al. 2007 “Digital Text Resources for the Humanities - Legal Issues, ” Digital Humanities 2007 Conference Abstracts, Urbana Champaign, 2007 (link)

Sewell, D. 2009 “It's For Sale, So It Must Be Finished: Digital Projects in the Scholarly Publishing World, ” DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3(2) (link)

Svensson, P. 2010 “The Landscape of Digital Humanities, ” DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly, 4(1) (link)

Terras, M. 2006 “Disciplined: Using Educational Studies to Analyse 'Humanities Computing', ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 21 229 - 246

van den Huevel, C. et al. 2010 “Building the Humanities Lab: Scholarly Practice in Virtual Research Environments, ” DH 2010 Conference Abstracts, King's College London, 2010 (link)

Warwick, C. et al. 2009 “Documentation and the users of digital resources in the humanities, ” Journal of Documentation, 65(1) 33-57 (link)

Warwick, C. et al. 2008a “If You Build It Will They Come? The LAIRAH Study: Quantifying the Use of Online Resources in the Arts and Humanities through Statistical Analysis of User Log Data., ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(1) 85 -102

Warwick, C. et al. 2008b “The master builders: LAIRAH research on good practice in the construction of digital humanities projects, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(3) 383 -396","txt","2","",""
"1261","12","Image Markup Tool 2.0","1","Image Markup Tool 2.0
Holmes, Martin, Humanities Computing Media Centre, University of Victoria, mholmes@uvic.ca
Timney, Meagan, Electronic Textual Cultures Laboratory, University of Victoria, mbtimney@uvic.ca
This paper discusses the re-development of The Image Markup Tool in two parts: (1) as a crossplatform desktop application and (2) as a web-based, html5 standard, client-side browser application. Currently, a few text-based tools allow for markup of documents (most often) in XML/TEI. They range from legacy software such as the Analytical System Tools and SGML/XML Integration Applications (Anastasia)(ITSEE, University of Birmingham; http://www.sd-editions.com/anastasia/index.html) and Editing Digital Interactive Texts in an Online Network (EDITION),http://www.sd-editions.com/EDITION/ to more recent projects such as eLaborate,Huygens Instituut KNAW (a research institute for text edition and textual scholarship of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences); http://www.e-laborate.nl/en/ TextGrid,http://www.textgrid.de/ and TEXTvre.http://textvre.cerch.kcl.ac.uk/ TextGrid uses a collaborative document markup interface, as well as a project and user management system to facilitate the markup of texts. TEXTvre, which will be modeled on TextGrid, has been described as a “a working exemplar VRE for textual scholarship.” While each of these tools offers specific methods of text-based editing, The Image Markup Tool is image-based, allowing for the markup of encoded digital images of remediated textual objects.

We are building on the current iteration of The Image Markup Tool (v1), developed by Martin Holmes at the University of Victoria. Version 1 of the Image Markup Tool was first written in 2006, and has gone through several versions. It was originally conceived as part of the project Le mariage sous L'Ancien Régime,http://mariage.uvic.ca/ where it was used to mark up engravings (Carlin, Haswell and Holmes 2006; Carlin and Holmes 2008). Early versions of the tool used SVG code embedded into a TEI file to delineate areas of interest on an image, but the current version makes use of the Facsimile module recently added to the TEI schema, which enables the use of native TEI elements to define rectangular “zones” on “surfaces” (often pages) which are part of a facsimile.

However, version 1 of the Image Markup Tool suffers from a number of serious limitations, most of which were apparent from its inception. Firstly, it allows only rectangular areas (hereafter “zones”) to be specified on images. This was in line with the original specification of the Facsimile module in TEI, in which <zone> elements were similarly constrained, but users have been demanding the ability to specify polygonal shapes ever since the first release, and recent modifications to the TEI schema now allow the use of polygonal <zone> elements. Secondly, IMT version 1 can handle only one image per file. This was sufficient for its original projected use as part of the Mariage project, which focused on individual engravings, but makes the tool inadequate for serious facsimile work; most documents have multiple surfaces or pages. Thirdly, the program can handle only a one-to-one relationship between a single <zone> on a <surface>, and a single <div> in the <body> of the document. This is inadequate. It is a common requirement to link, for instance, a single block of text on an image to an original transcription, a modernized version of the transcription, and an editorial note or interpretation. Similarly, a single <div> (or in fact any other element) in the body of a text might conceivably be linked to more than one <zone>; multiple views of a particular surface or page might be provided in the facsimile, each with an equivalent <zone>. Finally, IMT version 1 was written as a Windows application using Borland Delphi. It will run on Linux using Wine, but there is no simple way to run it on a Macintosh computer.

Nevertheless, IMT version 1 has a number of strengths. As a compiled desktop application, using a very sophisticated open-source graphics library (Graphics32), it can to do high-quality resampling of images on-the-fly, enabling effective and rapid zooming of high-resolution images. Most file operations are very fast, and the interface itself is simple and relatively easy to use. For Windows and Linux users, it is easy to download and install.

The desktop version of IMT 2 is being written using Nokia's QT Creator tools. This will enable us to compile the application for Windows, Mac and Linux. Our intention is to build on the strengths of version 1 -- in particular, the speed and efficiency of graphics handling and file i/o, and the user-friendliness and simplicity of the interface -- while adding three important improvements:

Handling of an unlimited number of images.
Many-to-many linking between <zone>s and any elements with @xml:id attributes in the <text> section of the file.
Support for polygonal zones.
These screenshots of early development pilots show how we envisage the user interface.



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The first shows the main window, with multiple folios (pages) listed down the left side. Clicking on a folio shows the corresponding image, and the polygonal zones defined on that image (in red). The selected zone has draggable circular nodes at all of its corners. The context menu for the selected zone is displayed, showing that the zone is linked to three different elements in the <text>.



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The second screenshot shows the corresponding dialog box, where the user can select an element in the <text> of the TEI file for linking to a zone. Three views of the file are available: the first is a read-only syntax-highlighted text view, the second consists of a list of all the @xml:id attributes in the file, along with a text box which can be used to filter them, and the third is an “outline” or tree view of the file. The user could use any of these to find and select an element to be linked to a zone. In addition, the user will be able to edit any element in the <text> of the TEI file directly, to add transcription, markup, @xml:id attributes, etc. We do not envisage that the majority of XML editing will be done in the Image Markup Tool itself; rather, the base transcription would be done using an XML editor such as oXygen, and the file brought into the IMT for the definition and linking of images and zones. However, it will be important to allow direct editing of the XML code so that corrections and changes can be made without moving the file back into an XML editor.

The web platform of the Image Markup Tool fills a gap in current collaborative editing models, and will provide a lightweight “edit-anywhere” version of the desktop application. The web-platform will be built for a large population of needs, but our first user-case study will be the Editing Modernism in Canada Project (EMiC).http://editingmodernism.ca Rather than following past practices of transcribing texts and marking up transcriptions in the creation of electronic texts, EMiC and its partners will pioneer image-based editing, semantic markup, analysis, and visualization of texts in a field of emergent practices in digital-humanities scholarship. Instead of producing reading environments based on linear-discursive transcriptions of texts, EMiC will produce in collaboration with its partners techniques and technologies for encoding and interpreting the complex relations among large collections of visual and audial objects in non-linear reading environments.

Our rationale for a web-based browser application includes facilitating RESTful architecture and interoperability with other systems via API (including, for example, Scripto,http://www.scripto.org developed at the Centre for History for New Media at George Mason University). The IMT web-platform will allow a user to load images and XML documents into a browser window (either locally or via URL). The drawing and linking of the polygonal <zone>s now supported in the TEI schema are made possible with the HTML5 <canvas> element. As in the desktop application, it is assumed that the user will perform most TEI markup with an XML editor (such as oXygen), but the application will also support lightweight XML editing. The most powerful feature of the web-based application will be the potential to feed linked XML documents and images directly into a collection-builder such as Omekahttp://www.omeka.org to facilitate scholarly edition building and electronic publishing via a suite of tools.

References:
Carlin, Claire, Eric Haswell and Martin Holmes 2006 “Problems with Marriage: Annotating Seventeenth-century French Engravings with TEI and SVG, ” Digital Humanities 2006 Conference, July 2006 (link) (link)

Carlin, Claire and Martin Holmes 2008 “Domestic strife in early modern Europe: images and texts in a virtual anthology, ” Digital Humanities 2008, 26 June 2008 (link)

Timney, Meagan and Dean Irvine Forthcoming: 2011 “A New Build: Digital Tools for Archives, Commons, and Collaboration., ” Archival Narratives for Canada: [Re] Telling Stories in a Changing Landscape, Kathleen Garay and Christl Verduyn Fernwood Publishing","txt","2","",""
"1262","12","Lurking in Museums: In Support of Passive Participation","1","Lurking in Museums: In Support of Passive Participation
Smith Bautista, Susana , University of Southern California, susanesm@usc.edu
Lurking is a term that has gained popularity with the advent of online communities. Museums are no exception to this renewed interest in community building, both online and onsite. The Internet has helped museums to better serve their communities, connecting physical events and exhibitions with online services, information, and activities. The greater museum community is compartmentalized into different groups, including educators, scholars, teenagers, families and more, but their dues-paying members are perhaps the closest to what is more commonly known as affinity spaces (James Gee) or knowledge-sharing communities of practice (CoP). Many of the membership groups organize events at the museum, raise funds for the museum, socialize regularly, and even have online profiles, blogs, or pages on social media sites. The term lurking has arisen because online communities have high expectations for their members to participate and contribute, in particular with online games and chat forums. The web usability expert Jakob Nielsen (2006) proposed the well-known 90-9-1 rule of user participation in online communities, which states that 90% of users are lurkers, 9% of users contribute from time to time, and 1% of users account for most contributions. The more passive acts of being present (virtually or physically), listening, watching, and reading – that is, lurking – are considered negative when contrasted to the more dynamic acts of writing, contributing information, performing tasks, or discourse that are all viewed as essential to the formation and maintenance of community. Even the spectatorial can be considered negatively, as in voyeurism that is often perceived as leading to perverse and criminal acts.

Analogous to the conventional concept of community is the idea of a social network as a system of individual nodes that are all related, first proposed by J. A. Barnes in the early 1950s. The concept of the network society has been best developed by Manuel Castells (2000, p. 12) who states that, “The ability of an actor in the network – be it a company, individual, government, or other organization – to participate in the network is determined by the degree to which the node can contribute to the goals of the network… This leads to a binary process of inclusion and exclusion from the network. The people at the bottom are those who, with nothing to offer the network, are excluded.” Similar to lurking but more related to economics is the free rider problem, as it can be argued that every community – regardless of its size or nature – offers a public good and is based upon some type of exchange system.

Art museums are spaces that have traditionally encouraged lurking, as visitors are invited to leisurely appreciate works of art in a reverent environment that prioritizes observation, contemplation, learning, and personal interpretation. There are some exceptions, however, such as with participatory art practices that gained prominence in the early 1960s and continue to be exhibited in museums today, dependent on visitors’ active participation for their realization. Museums have entered the digital age just as have other traditional socio-cultural institutions, and consequently they are incorporating new technologies for the purposes of facilitating exhibition, interpretation, education, and participation. The modern museum presumes that visitors – especially younger ones (digital natives) – expect a more interactive museum experience that allows them to actively participate and even share their opinions within a community that is becoming perceptibly less hierarchical and authoritarian. New technologies offer tremendous possibilities for all visitors to engage more deeply with art, but they can also distract from the passive acts of contemplation and observation if they demand too much physical interaction. Nevertheless, art museums remain a trusted and respected place in which to observe, think, feel, and learn. This paper will assert that lurking is a necessary and useful part of community engagement and learning in the digital age, and that art museums are a valuable and unique space for such activity. Some specific technologies used by art museums today will be discussed in the context of whether they promote a more active or passive experience. A critical distinction must also be made, however, between the terms interaction and participation, the latter of which is more open-ended than the former.

In writing about participatory culture and the digital age, many scholars such as Henry Jenkins and Mikuzo Ito discuss the importance of participation amongst youth while also stressing the importance of other skills, characteristics, and stages of learning that could easily be construed as lurking. We understand from Richard Bartle’s (1996) taxonomy, D.T. Schaller et al.’s (2007) four learning preferences, and Ito et al.’s (2008) three genres, that there are many ways to engage in activities, including both play and learning. The more active forms include creating, producing, sharing, contributing, playing, and commenting. These forms of participation are the most visible to the community and as such, are most prized in that they serve as an example for other members to emulate. More passive forms include listening, reading, watching, and browsing, as well as the introspective acts of thinking, reflecting, evaluating, and forming opinions. When these passive acts are shared with other individuals, discourse arises (physical or virtual), which can then be considered a more active and public form of participation. Different personalities also emerge within groups, and more active contributors will try to lead others less inclined to participate. Jenkins et al. (2008, p. 7) assert that, “In such a world [participatory culture], many will only dabble, some will dig deeper, and still others will master the skills that are most valued within the community.” This paper will show that all types of participation are essential to the development and maintenance of communities. The formation of knowledge and learning is a linear process that begins with more introspective and often individual acts, which in many instances then become public when thoughts, creations, and knowledge are shared with others. If thoughts are not shared and knowledge remains private, then the learning process merely continues with the individual.

The negative implications of lurking arise mostly from within the communities themselves. What cultural communities tend to forget, however, is that lurkers play an important role; they provide an audience, they carefully observe community norms and practices, and they contemplate and interpret that which they observe to perhaps share later with others. Performers do not want to perform without an audience, writers do not want to write books that nobody reads, and museums cannot open without visitors. Certainly, artists have a personal drive to create that does not require an audience or even a client, but even the most dedicated artist desires feedback, validation, or public acknowledgment. Physical spaces and organizations have long measured success in quantitative terms of the number of seats filled, visitors through the front door, or books or tickets sold. Online spaces are no different; the success of websites are most commonly measured by the number of clicks, page views, or downloads, rather than the more interactive number of comments, links, or uploads. As Web 2.0 features become more common on websites, these interactive metrics will surely begin to matter more. Still the number of people “passively” watching, reading, and listening are a strong measure of success, as well as a strong incentive for creators, organizations, and funders alike.

Museums need to protect the act of lurking. Any expectation of active participation, interaction, and sharing may inhibit lurkers from eventually participating, for lurkers need not be defined as having rigid characteristics but rather as representing merely one stage in the long process of learning and civic engagement. In its recent report Museums & Society 2034: Trends and Potential Futures, the American Association of Museums (2008, p. 19) states that, “While technological progress has brought much value to society, one byproduct of these emergent structural shifts in communication technologies is almost certainly going to be a world with fewer and fewer places where the public can find respite and retreat.” Through their expertly researched and curated exhibitions and related public programming, museums are best able to teach their visitors and members how to observe, how to critically think, and how to develop opinions in order to more effectively act on them if so desired. They can also teach the value of being an audience within a socially networked environment, which is the first step to recognizing the importance of community and public goods. This paper will discuss how museums might continue to encourage lurking in synergy with new digital technologies, and likewise how youth can become empowered to not only act, but also to observe and contemplate. As Jenkins et al. surmise (2008, p. 39), “…knowing how to act within the distributed knowledge system is more important than learning content. Because content is something that can be ‘held’ by technologies such as databases, websites, wikis, and so forth, the curricular focus is on learning how to generate, evaluate, interpret, and deploy data.” Those who lurk in museums (online or physically) are not evading their role; they do have a very important role within their community and within the process of acquiring, forming and sharing knowledge, and even more so in the participatory culture of the digital age.","txt","2","",""
"1263","12","Modes of Composition in Three Authors","1","Modes of Composition in Three Authors
Hoover, David L., New York University, david.hoover@nyu.edu
I have already argued against the widely held belief that Henry James's switch from handwriting to dictation caused a radical change in his style (Hoover 2009). However, the wider question of how mode of composition affects literary style remains open, and James might be the exception rather than the rule. I report here on some preliminary studies for a more comprehensive examination of writers who changed their mode of composition either temporarily or permanently. The three authors examined here, Thomas Hardy, Joseph Conrad, and Walter Scott, present clear cases of changes from handwriting to dictation (and back), ones in which the details of composition are well known, and in which the changes in mode of composition take place within a single text.

The case of Thomas Hardy is slightly problematic because he was not always truthful about his wife's role in the production of his books, and in some cases burned some MS pages in her hand. For A Laodicean, one of his less important novels, however, the facts seem fairly clear. After sending the first three (of thirteen) installments of the serial version to the printer, Hardy fell ill, suffering from some kind of bladder inflamation. He struggled through the fourth installment, but his doctor then gave him the choice of lying with his feet higher than his head or an operation. Choosing the former required him to dictate much of the novel, though he was able to correct proofs. He eventually became “less and less dependent on dictation, writing the final sections of the manuscript in his own hand.” He mentions writing parts of installment twelve in a letter (Milgate 2006: 204), and this suggests he also wrote part thirteen.

To test for any dramatic effect of the switch to dictation, I divided the novel into four parts, the handwritten installmens1-4, the dictated 5-11, and the partially or wholly handwritten 12 and 13, and further divided these installments into sections of about 9,000 words. As can be seen in Fig. 1, the sections of the novel strongly tend to group together chronologically, though the beginning, 1-4 HW (1), is somewhat unusual, as often happens with the beginnings of novels, and 5-11 D (5) is also an outlier. At first, Fig. 1 seems to support a distinction between handwritten and dictated parts, but the presence of the largely handwritten installments 12 and 13 among the dictated parts suggests that narrative structure is a more potent force than mode of composition. Further work will be necessary to test other characteristics of the text, but the analysis shown in Fig. 1, along with many others based on shorter sections, does not suggest that Hardy's mode of composition radically affected his style.

Fig. 1–Handwriting and Dictation in A Laodicean

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Joseph Conrad presents a more complex problem. Several of his texts were partly dictated, including three I will examine here, the novellas The End of the Tether and The Shadow-Line, and novel The Rescue. Conrad dictated the second serial installment of “The End of the Tether” to Ford Maddox Ford under time pressure after part of the manuscript was accidentally burnt. I have separated the beginning and the burnt installment from the rest of the story, and have analyzed the parts in sections of about 2,600 words. As Fig. 2 shows, the first two sections of the dictated (burnt) installment cluster with the handwritten beginning of the story, while the last section clusters with the handwritten rest of the story. The narrative structure is again quite clear here, but there is nothing to suggest that dictation altered Conrad's style.

Fig. 2–Handwriting and Dictation in “The End of the Tether”

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About one-fourth of The Shadow Line, beginning a little more than half-way through the novella, were dictated. Conrad himself ponders the possible effect of mode of composition, suggesting that “it will be curious for critics to compare my dictated to my written manner of expressing myself” (Conrad 1983: 543) . As with The End of the Tether, however, there is little evidence of any affect of dictation on the style of the novel, as Fig. 3 shows. Analyses based on different numbers of words vary somewhat, but the separate cluster containing the first four sections of the novel is very stable, and all analyses group the fifth handwritten section of the beginning of the novel with the dictated sections that immediately follow it. Again, narrative structure trumps any effect of the change in mode of composition.

Fig. 3–Handwriting and Dictation in The Shadow-Line

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The composition of The Rescue is unusual in that Conrad first worked on this novel from 1896 to 1898, but did not finish it until 1918-1919. The early part was handwritten, while the end was dictated. Although Conrad suggests that the novel might prove interesting as a case of style evolution, readers have found the style “homogeneous” (Karl 1979: 816). Here I divided the novel into dictated and handwritten parts, and cut them into sections of about 5,000 words for analysis. As Fig. 4 shows, the first two dictated parts cluster with the handwritten parts, and the 7th handwritten section clusters with the dictated parts. This pattern is extremely stable in analyses based on the 990-600 MFW, and all analyses show a mixing of sections produced by the two modes. Further tests based on other textual features will be needed to make the case more strongly, but, for Conrad, as for James and Hardy, the mode of composition has no obvious effect on style.

Fig. 4–Handwriting and Dictation in The Rescue

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Turning to Walter Scott, we find a different scenario. About a third of the way through his career, Scott was writing very rapidly in an attempt to pay off an enormous debt. While writing The Bride of Lammermoor in 1818-19, he suffered from increasingly severe stomach pains (probably from gall-stone disease) that prevented him from writing, and finished the novel by dictation, though it is not entirely clear exactly where the dictation begins. The final extant MS leaf corresponds to Chapter 26 (of 33), but it ends with a catch word and has corrections for later leaves on the reverse (Milgate 1987: 170). We can be sure, however, that much, and probably most, of the last seven chapters were dictated. I have divided the novel into the part corresponding to the MS and the rest, and have divided both parts into sections of about 5,000 words. The important peculiarities of the pattern shown in Fig. 5 remain constant over many analyses. The first part of the novel for which no MS exists clusters (loosely) with the final two chapters of MS (though also with handwritten sections 6-12), but the handwritten sections 13-17 cluster with the handwritten beginning of the novel and the other three sections for which no MS exists. This peculiar pattern needs further study, but it does not support a difference between Scott's dictated and handwritten styles.

Fig. 5–Dictation and Handwriting in The Bride of Lammermoor

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Because of continuing stomach pain, Scott also dictated about half of Ivanhoe, but finished the novel by hand after he began to recover. I have divided the novel into handwritten and dictated sections of about 9,000 words. The analysis in Fig. 6 shows that here, as before, there is no evidence of a significant shift in style when Scott's mode of composition changed. The last dictated section clusters with the following MS sections, while the next to last MS section, MS (9), clusters with the dictated sections. When fewer words are analyzed MS (9) shifts to the MS cluster, but Dict. (9) then also moves into the MS cluster. The most reasonable interpretation of this behavior is that the last dictated sections are similar to the adjacent MS sections, and that the important factor is again narrative structure rather than mode of composition.

Fig. 6–Handwriting and Dictation in Ivanhoe

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More analysis of other cases, especially those involving typewriting and word-processing, where some evidence for significant effects exists from composition studies, will be needed before any strong generalizations are possible. Yet the evidence from James and the three authors examined here strongly suggests that mode of composition has remarkably little effect on authorial style.The tempting conclusion that the authors' revisions may have erased any effects of the changes in mode of composition has some support from the heavy revisions of James and Conrad, but Hardy was apparently not a heavy reviser, and Scott famously revised very little.

References:
Conrad, J. 1983 The Collected Letters of Joseph Conrad, 5 F. Karl L. Davies Cambridge Univ. Press Cambridge

Hoover, D. 2009 “Modes of Composition in Henry James: Dictation, Style, and What Maisie Knew, ” Digital Humanities 2009, University of Maryland, June 22-25, 2009

Karl, F. 1979 Joseph Conrad: The Three Lives, a Biography, Farrar, Straus and Giroux New York

Millgate, Jane 1987 Walter Scott: The Making of the Novelist, Univ. of Toronto Press Toronto","txt","2","",""
"1264","12","A Data Model for Visualising Textuality - The Würzburg Saint Matthew","1","A Data Model for Visualising Textuality – The Würzburg Saint Matthew
Rehbein, Malte, Würzburg University, malte.rehbein@uni-wuerzburg.de
Abstract
This short paper presents the ongoing work and the considerations behind the project “Visualising Textuality – New Interfaces to Historical Texts”.

The project, supported by the EU FP7 Marie Curie Scheme, aims at implementing a “knowledge environment” (Siemens et al) to explore and understand better early medieval textual practices and pre-scholastic Christian scholarship. The project starts from a manuscript from the University Library of Würzburg (M.p.th.f.61), dated back to the second half of the 8th century AD and most likely of Irish provenance. This is a parchment manuscript with 34 leaves containing a text of Matthew’s gospel along with extensive interlinear glossing and 30 cedulae (parchment slips) containing commentary material bound between the pages (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1: Excerpt from M.p.th.f.61 with comments on parchment slips.

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It is also an intriguing object of historical studies: its numerous glosses (interlinear and marginal) as well as commentaries (on parchment slips) allow insight into practices of compilation and use of this manuscript (cf. Fig. 1). However, it poses many challenges to editors and researchers: different layers of writing (strata) have been identified; the arrangement (mise-en-page) of glosses and commentaries in relation to the Gospel text and to each other conveys important information but is not easy to follow; the “intertexts” cross the logical segments of the text and the physical boundaries and dimensions of the document pages; the texts themselves, especially the commentaries, have their own history of transmission; and they recite, vary from and refer to other commentaries such as Eusebius, Jerome or Isidor, who also refer to other commentaries and biblical texts etc. Cahill summarizes that the Würzburg Matthew is “a complicated jumble and not a tidy bundle” and requires further research (2002:25). His statement applies to all levels of investigation: the physical (document), the logical (texts and contexts) and the level of space and time (cf. Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Model illustration of the complex network of relations based on the Würzburg glosses (not complete).

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It is the aim of this research project to find adequate means for representing such a complicated network of information, for visualising these relations and for allowing the researcher to navigate through this data in form of a “knowledge environment”. The fact that this all is a “complicated jumble” has to be seriously taken into consideration. The data that is outlined here consists of numerous combinations – of semantic relations, chronological dependencies, spatial transmissions, topological information – each of which may carry an important detail for research. What serves for the first time for an in-depth and comprehensive research, has its risk in getting lost in information. Thus, it seems to be crucial for the scholar to focus his or her attention up on what (s)he is interested in. Support for this needs to be provided by the knowledge environment.

The project is in the first year of its three years implementation plan. At the time of the DH conference (June 2011), most of the textual work on the manuscript shall be completed, so that preliminary considerations about the setup of the envisaged knowledge environment and what is more important about the underlying data model will be discussed and presented. This data model is an abstraction of document, text and context and encompasses entities of different types (such as segments of texts, zones in a document, time, space, scribes, sources, metadata) and relations among them (such as “origins from”, “uses”, “was written by”) as well the interface to external data (such as the Patrologia latina database) to link to text variants and contexts.

References:
Bischoff, B. “Wendepunkte in der Geschichte der lateinischen Exegese im Frühmittelalter, ” Sacris erudiri 6 1954 189-281

Cahill, M. “The Würzburg Matthew: Status Quaestionis, ” Peritia 16 2002 1-25

Card, S. J. MacKinlay B. Shneiderman. Readings in information visualization: Using vision to think, 1999

Chen, C. Information Visualization: Beyond the Horizon, 2007

Dahlström, M. The Compleat Edition Text editing, print and the digital world, 27–44

Eggert, P. “Text-encoding, Theories of the Text, and the Work-Site, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 20.4 2005 425-35

Flanders, J. “The Productive Unease of 21st-century Digital Scholarship, ” Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3.3 2009

Gabler, H. “The Primacy of the Document in Editing, ” Ecdotica, 4 2007 197-207

Gervers, M. “New Methods for the Analysis of Digitized Medieval Latin Charters, ” Historisches Forum, 10 2007 482-500

Gippert, J. The Old Irish ""Würzburg"" Glosses, 2002 (link)

Gwynn, A. “The Continuity of the Irish Tradition at Wurzburg, ” Herbipolis jubilans, 1952 57-81

Kelly, J. “The Würzburg Saint Matthew, ” Würzburger Diözesangeschichtsblätter, 55 1993 5-12

Köberlin, K. Eine Würzburger Evangelienhandschrift, 1891

Ó Cróinín, D. “Mo-Sinnu Moccu Min and the Computus of Bangor, ” Peritia, 1 1982 281-95

Rehbein, M. “Komplexe Textkritik in dynamischer Darstellung: Ein Modell für digitale Texteditionen, ” HSR, 24.1 1999 113-44

Robinson, P. “The Ends of Editing, ” Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3.3 2009

Schepss, Georg. Die ältesten Evangelienhandschriften der Würzburger Universitätsbibliothek, 1887

Shillingsburg, P. From Gutenberg to Google: Electronic representations of literary texts, 2006

Siemens, R. et al. “Toward a Conceptual and Theoretical Foundation for New Research on Books and Knowledge Environments, ” Digital Studies, 1.2 2009

Stokes, W. “The Old-Irish glosses at Würzburg and Carlsruhe, ” London: Philological Soc, , 1887.

Sutherland, K. “Being Critical: Paper-based Editing and the Digital Environment, ” Text editing, print and the digital world, 13–25

Teeuwen, M. “The Impossible Task of Editing a Ninth-Century Commentary: The Case of Martianus Capella, ” Variants, 6

Thurneysen R. “Das Alter der Würzburger Glossen, ” Zeitschrift für Celtische Philologie, 3.1 1901 47-54

Tufte, E. Envisioning information, 2008","txt","2","",""
"1265","12","Names in Novels: an Experiment in Computational Stylistics","1","Names in Novels: an Experiment in Computational Stylistics
van Dalen-Oskam, Karina, Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands - KNAW, The Hague, karina.van.dalen@huygensinstituut.knaw.nl
________________________________________
Introduction
The growing amount of digital texts and tools is slowly but definitely changing the way literary scholars design their research. This paper will describe the effects for one research topic: ‘literary onomastics’, the study of the usage and functions of names in literary texts. Research in literary onomastics usually is qualitative in nature and focuses on 'significant' names in literary texts. No quantitative or comparative studies have been published yet. Several researchers, however, have pointed out that names can only be called significant if they are studied in the context of all the names - the so-called 'onymic landscape' - in a text, oeuvre, genre etc. (e.g. Sobanski 1998). This question is comparative by nature and implies the wish for a more quantitative, computer-assisted approach.
Research questions
As to name usage, first we have to find out what is normal. We want to know how many name forms usually occur in a novel, and how many of these are personal names, place names, and other names. As to name functions, a useful disctinction is between plot internal and plot external names. Plot internal names refer to characters, places or other entitities which only ´exist´ in the fiction of the story. Plot external names refer to persons, places or other entities which are known to exist or to have existed in the real world. Most place names are plot external, referring to real countries, cities, streets, etc. and thus have a reality enhancing function. In fantasy novels, however, place names are usually fictional and thus plot internal, enhancing the unreality, the fantasy of the story. Plot external personal names seem to function as characterizations of the fictional characters, describing e.g. their political or cultural preferences.
It is expected that different authors, genres, time periods or even languages apply these different types and functions in different ways, showing different trends which we want to discover in what we like to call comparative literary onomastics (Van Dalen-Oskam 2005, 2006). The ultimate aim of the research is to develop a method to compare the name usage and functions on as large a scale as possible, explicitly also across languages. So what is needed to do that?
Method and corpus
The amount of names in a text can be expressed in the percentage of the total amount of tokens in the text. For that, we need digital texts of fair to good quality. To tag all the names, we need named entity recognition and classification (NERC) tools. Different forms of the same name (e.g. Patrick and Patrick's) need to be grouped by a lemma (PATRICK in this case). Different name forms for the same person or place need to get the same identification (e.g. the name Alfred and the name Issendorf both belong to the character identified as ALFRED ISSENDORF). To find out whether we can compare the resulting percentages across languages, we focused on a corpus of modern Dutch and English novels and their translations into the other language. We found we have to include two other levels of aggregation: mentions and name tokens. Mentions are occurrences of a name irrespective of the number of tokens used. So several name tokens can be used in one mention. This distinction is necessary because different languages have different tokenization rules. The Dutch personal name Gerrit-Jan, e.g., with a hyphen and therefore counted as one token, is translated in English as Gerrit Jan, resulting in two tokens. Our corpus consists of 22 Dutch and 22 English novels, added with the translation into the other language of ten in each group.
Theory and practice
Comparative research can only be done when many scholars collaborate. We will have to make sure that all those scholars encode their texts in the same way, considering the same tokens as names. This may sound easy, but it is not. Even name theorists have different definitions of what a name is (Van Langendonck 2007). Guidelines had to be set. We decided to limit the tagging to the 'prototypical' names, so those names that are considered names by readers in general. Something is a name if it refers to a unique person, place, or object. So we excluded currencies, days of the week, months, etc. For cases leading to discussion we defined additional rules.
We found that not many modern novels are digitally available yet. Furthermore, NERC tools proved to be not good enough yet and are using partly different categories than our research needs (Sekine and Ranchod 2009). This meant much more manual work than we expected. The tagging and the statistics are now done by means of several perl scripts written by André van Dalen and an ingenious Excelsheet with macros designed by David Hoover. These tools can be seen as a prototype for the webservices we need for this type of comparative stylistic research.
Results (selection)
In Figure 1, the percentage of name tokens in a set of novels is shown. The selection of novels in this graph consist of sixteen novels of which fifteen are Dutch and one is (American-)English (Of the Farm), added with the English translation of one of the Dutch novels (The Twin, translation of Boven is het stil).
Fig. 1
 
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The graph gives as a first impression that we can expect around 2-3 percent of the tokens in a novel to be names. For this small selection, it is noteworthy that the four novels with the highest percentages (around 5 percent) are all books for children or young adults. Furthermore, the English novels do not show up in extreme positions compared to the other ones.
Figure 2 gives more insight in the role of plot internal versus plot external names in the same set of novels. The novels are presented in the same order as in Fig. 1. We can see that the four books for children/young adults are still exeptional in the percentage of plot internal names. We also find that three of them have a rather small amount of plot external name tokens.
Fig. 2
 
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The paper will present the case of names in Gerbrand Bakker’s novel Boven is het stil / The Twin. Dutch readers have the impression that the novel does not contain many names, while readers of the English translation have the opposite impression and point out that especially geographical names abound. The comparative computational approach shows that both reader groups are correct and wrong at the same time. The novel has around 2% of name tokens, which is at the lower end of what seems to be normal. But in the amount of different names (lemmas), geographical names (place names) do have a special role when we look at the ratio between personal names and place names (Figure 3). The trend here is that a novel contains more different personal names than place names. In only two cases (Boven is het stil and its translation The Twin, and Fenrir) a novel has more different place names. This suggests that place names have an extra stylistic function in these two novels. It will be shown in which ways place names function in the Bakker novel and how this analysis enriches the understanding of the novel and of the stylistic possibilities of place names for an author.
Fig. 3
 
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We could only show a small part of all interesting observations to be made about the usage of names in a corpus of modern Dutch and English novels. But these first results make us anxious for more, in the expectation that this approach may lead to an acceptable method for a.o. across language comparison of stylistic elements.
Conclusion
We conclude that the preliminary results are sufficiently interesting to go into the stylistic analysis of name usage and functions in novels more deeply. Names also seem promising stylistic elements for a comparison across languages. The currently available tools which could be expected to be helpful for this type of research, proved to be insufficient. We therefore plan to develop a set of interrelated webservices which will assist the scholar in the recognition, categorization, further tagging, and statistical analysis of names in novels.
References:
Sekine, S. and Ranchod, E. 2009 Named Entities. Recognition, classification and use, John Benjamins Amsterdam/Philadelphia
Sobanski, I. 1998 “The Onymic Landscape of G.K. Chesterton’s Detective Stories, ” Proceedings of the XIXth International Congress of Onomastic Sciences, Aberdeen , 1996 373-378
Van Dalen-Oskam, K. 2005 “Vergleichende literarische Onomastik, ” Namenforschung morgen: Ideen, Perspektiven, Visionen, Brendler, A. und S. Brendler Baar Hamburg 183-191 (link)
Van Dalen-Oskam, K. 2006 “Mapping the Onymic Landscape, ” Il nome nel testo. Rivista internazionale di onomastica letteraria VIII; Atti del XXII Congresso Internatzionale di Scienze Onomastiche, Pisa, 28 agosto – 4 settembre 2005 93-103
Van Langendonck, W. 2007 Theory and typology of proper names, Mouton de Gruyter Berlin / New York","txt","2","",""
"1266","12","The Colonial Despatches of Vancouver Island and British Columbia: a Digital Edition of a Large-Scale Document Collection","2","The Colonial Despatches of Vancouver Island and British Columbia: a Digital Edition of a Large-Scale Document Collection
Holmes, Martin, University of Victoria, mholmes@uvic.ca
Shortreed-Webb, Kim, University of Victoria, ksw@uvic.ca
The modern Canadian province of British Columbia has been inhabited for at least 12,000 years, but its colonial history begins with the visits of Spanish explorers, in the 18th century, followed by voyages by Cook and Vancouver in the 1770s and 1790s. They were followed by other explorers, and by the Hudon's Bay Company, which established trading posts in the region, and became the de facto agents of British colonization until the formal establishment of the colony of Vancouver Island in 1849, and later the British Columbia colony in 1858. The corpus of historical texts in our collection The Colonial Despatches of Vancouver Island and British Columbia ( (link) ) currently comprises over 7,000 documents, and covers the years between 1846, when negotiations began between the Colonial Office and the Hudson's Bay Company over the future of the territory, and 1871, when the young colony of British Columbia became a province in the Canadian federation.

Our documents have a somewhat troubled history. During the 1980s and 90s, a team led by James Hendrickson transcribed this huge collection into Waterloo Script, to produce a 28-volume print edition, which failed to find a publisher because of its scale. After Dr. Hendrickson retired, the markup files were largely forgotten, until they were rediscovered on an aging server which was scheduled to be shut down. At Digital Humanities 2008, we described how we retrieved the data and converted the Waterloo Script to TEI P5 (Holmes & Newton 2008).

Since then, the project has given birth to a full-scale digital edition. In addition to the original transcriptions, we now have over 18,000 page-images, with more being added every week; these are being linked into the transcriptions at every page-break. We have also generated several hundred biographies of people mentioned in the despatches, along with short articles on nearly 200 places/locations and 100 ships which feature in the correspondence. In addition, we have acquired digital versions of more than 200 contemporary maps, many of which form part of the correspondence, and we will be adding many more in the coming months.

The documents themselves present significant difficulties for transcribers.

A simple despatch

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This very short example shows some of the core features, and demonstrates the typical processes through which a despatch from Vancouver Island to London would go. Each despatch received in London would be logged in and assigned a number, then the Colonial Office staff would annotate it with a series of minutes recording their deliberations regarding the appropriate responses; often, letters would be written to other departments in the bureacracy requesting guidance or information, and finally a reply would be drafted (Hendrickson 2008 describes this process in detail). At the end of the year, the despatches would be bound into one or more volumes for storage. The peripheral correspondence, including enclosures and attachments with the original despatch, are often bound up with the despatch itself, and the most significant have also been transcribed as part of our collection.

In our web application, we have attempted to reproduce all the pertinent features of the original text in a form which makes them more accessible to the reader, while providing easy access to our database of information on people, places, and ships:

A digitized despatch

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The correspondence itself is rarely less than entertaining, and frequently exciting; it describes the difficulties encountered by a small, distant and relatively unsupported outpost of empire, struggling to deal with internal conflict, often-hostile First Nations groups, lawlessness, smuggling, and a somewhat threatening American population to the south. There are murders, shipwrecks, gold strikes and adventures of all kinds. However, the collection presents particular difficulties for readers, especially non-experts, arising out of the length of time required for a despatch to make its way between London and Victoria. Between the transmission of a despatch and the receipt of a response addressing its issues and questions, six months might elapse, and during that time, dozens or even hundreds more despatches would be sent. As a result, there is no apparent meaningful sequence in which to read the documents, as one might read an exchange of letters between two correspondents living closer to each other. A good search engine helps, of course, but we have also tried to provide other methods for users to navigate through the collection, through our markup of people, places and vessels. Each instance of one of these items in the text is linked to its ""biography"", and the biography can retrieve links to every mention of that person, place or ship anywhere in the correspondence, so it becomes possible to find paths through the documents based on these elements. We are also marking up some of the contemporary maps in the collection, using the Image Markup Tool, and integrating them with the place database, so that it is possible to jump from the mention of a place inside a document to a ""biography"" of the place, and thence to the specific location of that place on any contemporary maps on which it appears, as well as Google Maps.

The entire collection (including the maps) is marked up in TEI P5 XML, and the web application is constructed using Apache Cocoon and the eXist XML database. Our poster presentation will deal with our approaches to markup, the web application architecture, and how we have attempted to overcome some of the challenges inherent in the scale and complexity of the collection.

References:
Hendrickson, James E. 2008 “The Colonial Office in 1858, ” The Despatches of British Columbia, (link)

Holmes, M. and Newton, G. 2008 “Rescuing old data: Case studies, tools and techniques, ” Digital Humanities 2008, 127-131 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1267","12","Toward a Digital Research Environment for Buddhist Studies","2","Toward a Digital Research Environment for Buddhist Studies
Nagasaki, Kiyonori , International Institute for Digital Humanities, nagasaki@dhii.jp
Tomabechi, Toru, International Institute for Digital Humanities, tomabechi@dhii.jp
Shimoda, Masahiro, University of Tokyo, shimoda@l.u-tokyo.ac.jp
In recent times, digital resources have taken on steadily greater importance in the field of Buddhist studies, with increasing numbers of digitized versions of Buddhist canonical texts, representation of material culture, and other objects of research becoming available on Web. However, despite the basic availability of such resources, most of them are not set up in an optimal way for usage by researchers; nor are they for the most part integrated with each other. For example, there does not yet exist a system that can operate with equal efficacy with philological data related to Sanskrit, Chinese, Tibetan language materials. Therefore, a comprehensive and concrete framework is needed. Although a method of text description is fairly well established in the form of TEI P5, neither the interfaces, nor the methods of presentation of results for digitized works are as yet satisfactory for the scholars of Buddhism. In this paper, we will present our approach to the establishment of requirements for various kinds of materials used in Buddhist studies and make some suggestions for the implementation of more functional interfaces as a Web research environment for such scholars.

At first, it must be noted that it is very difficult to define adequate requirements for the full range of the scholars of Buddhism, who come from a broad array of language training and methodological approaches. Thus, this paper will focus primarily on the fulfillment of the requirements for the scholars who are dealing with authentic scholarly digitized texts. In the field of Buddhist studies, where texts have been translated across a number of languages in different regions at various points in history, we have no recourse but to deal with several versions of a text, including transmitted, diffused, and translated variations at the same time (Fig.1).

(Fig. 1. An Example: “ मूलमध्यमककारिका (Madhyamakakārikā)"" and some of the related texts)

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As discussed by Steinkellner (1988), it is often difficult to ""recover"" the original form of any given text, as they have been changed variously in their long tradition. In many cases, all that has come down to us is a translation that was preserved in the Chinese tradition since the 2nd century or in the Tibetan tradition since the 8th century. It is quite often the case that various witnesses are extant in both traditions. In such cases, various diplomatic texts in various languages must be compared in various units such as at the level of text, chapter, fascicle, sentence, word, syllable, or even character. Therefore, it is necessary for textual scholars to prepare an environment that delivers integrated views of a given text views. On the other hand, it is important to understand the background thought and beliefs reflected in each stage of the textual development—not only in Sanskrit and Pāli which are the closest to the original form—but also in Tibetan, Chinese. In this case, each annotation must be recorded in the context of its diffusion into other texts. In addition, modern translations of each text should be pointed to from such texts. Therefore, it is crucial for Buddhist textual studies to provide such information within a system of intertextual relationships. (See Fig. 1)
In order to realize such relationship in digitized resources, it is necessary to provide the data in a punctuation-neutral manner. This is because separation of words or sentences is not always obvious; punctuating text itself amounts to an independent and original scholarly contribution, especially in the cases of Sanskrit and classical Chinese manuscripts. Therefore, the basic concepts are:

being based on a unit that is not restricted to the legacy media.
inheritance of the legacy studies on the paper media.
DB providers prepare the space for the sharing of data units.
the users act as recipients of the units and some of them act as distributors of the units.
DB providers develop and distribute their own Web API so that users can make arbitrary links to access each others' data.
The above are realized as a collaborative research environment on the Web.
In addition, in order to preserve compatibility with past research results, all units should be identifiable in legacy media through traditional referencing methods such as T0001,01,0001a01 which means Taishō Daizōkyō, vol.1, page 1, register a (among a, b, and c), line 1. Then, they should be located by URI by implementation of Web API so that the other persons or applications can freely refer to arbitrary units through Web.

In order to realize such concepts, a collaborative editing system needs to be developed. Initially, users should be registered according to their own roles such as visitor, editor, or administrative editor. The role of the editor is that of inputting and checking of the data; the role of administrative editor is checking of the data and the determination of the distribution of the data. Both editor and administrative editor should be able to efficiently select arbitrary units with an easy method such as mouse click or drag on the text body without any restriction posed by the textual structure. Then they can append any necessary information to the units and link selected units to other ones (Fig. 2).

(Fig. 2. The procedures of inputting relationship data on an environment)

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In the final step, the administrative editor should check and determine whether each unit is ready for release. The role of visitor is only to browse the workspace to observe the progress of the work. On the other hand, anonymous users can browse only released data. They can efficiently view various information with various methods such as mouse click or drag on the text body and select (or ignore) any data on the basis of various properties such as their sources, contributors, and so on. In order to realize such a function on Web, AJAX will be fully utilized.
Finally, we will explain the Web Database function. The Web Database stores only relational data that includes one or two locations in the original materials, its annotation or relationship information, contributor's name, data composition and other related information. The writing rule of the location allows the user to use the information even without digitized textual material. However, if the material is originally in digitized form, the data must refer to a logical location such as the URI. Users don't need to be aware of separation between the database and the materials presented to them because to the viewer of the materials, they seem to be seamlessly integrated with the database. By this kind of method, it will be easier to integrate the other materials which are released on other Web sites into the environment. The database can provide arbitrary data according to the user's preference through Web API, as well as retrieve and show the data provided by other DBs. From here, the data can be published under various formats such as RDF. However, in principle, this kind of system would not be able to avoid the problem of overlap if there is an intent to publish its data fully including the original materials. So we are trying to do so according to TEI P5 by using a kind of stand-off markup.

(Fig. 3. The procedures of browsing the relational data on an environment)

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Although we have just begun to develop this approach, it has already been tested by some scholars and we have seen positive results. Actually, these early testers say that it is very useful for them because their accessibility and permissions are limited and explicitly shown. However, some enhancements have been suggested, which mainly concern the function of browsing. We will work on this until the time of DH2011, when we will able to present a much more matured system.

References:
Burnard, L. Bauman, S. 2007 P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, (link)

Caton, P. 2007 “Distributed Multivalent Encoding, ” Digital Humanities 2007, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 2-8 June, 2007 33-34

DeRose, S. 2004 “Overlap: A Review and a Horse, ” Extreme Markup Languages 2004, Montreal, 2-6 Aug., 2004 (link)

Lavagnino, J. 2009 “Access, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 24 (1) 63-76

Nagasaki, K. 2008 “A Collaboration System for the Philology of the Buddhist Study , ” Digital Humanities 2008, Oulu, Finland, 25-29 June, 2008 262-263

Rehm, G. Witt, A. 2008 “Aspects of Sustainability in Digital Humanities , ” Digital Humanities 2008, Oulu, Finland, 25-29 June, 2008 21-29

Renear, A. H. 2004 “Text Encoding, ” A Companion to Digital Humanities, Schreibman, S. Siemens, R. Unsworth, J. Blackwell Oxford 218-239

Steinkellner, E. 1988 “Methodological Remarks On The Constitution Of Sanskrit Texts From The Buddhist Pramāṇa-Tradition, ” Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens, Band XXXII, 103-129","txt","2","",""
"1268","12","Virtual Cities/Digital Histories","3","Virtual Cities/Digital Histories

Allen, Robert C., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, rallen@email.unc.edu
Smith, Natasha, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, nsmith@email.unc.edu
Lach, Pamella, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, plach@email.unc.edu
Marciano, Richard, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, richard_marciano@unc.edu
Speed, Chris, Edinburgh College of Art, c.speed@eca.ac.uk
Presner, Todd, UCLA, presner@humnet.ucla.edu
Ethington, Philip, Univ. of Southern California, philipje@usc.edu
Shepard, David, UCLA, shepard.david@gmail.com
Hou, Chien-Yi, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, United States of America, chienyi@unc.edu
Johanson, Christopher, UCLA, cjohanson@gmail.com

Going to the Show and Main Street, Carolina
Robert C. Allen, Natasha Smith, Pamella Lach; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

(link)

(link)

Going to the Show documents and illuminates the experience of movies and moviegoing in North Carolina from the introduction of projected motion pictures (1896) to the end of the silent film era (circa 1930). Through its innovative use of more than 1000 digitally stitched and georeferenced Sanborn® Fire Insurance maps of forty-five towns and cities between 1896 and 1922, the project situates early moviegoing within the experience of urban life in the state's big cities and small towns. Supporting its documentation of more than 1300 movie venues across 200 communities is a searchable archive of thousands of contemporaneous artifacts: newspaper ads and articles, photographs, postcards, city directories, and 150 original architectural drawings.

Main Street, Carolina (in development) is a digital history toolkit designed to allow cultural heritage organizations in North Carolina to preserve, document, and share the history of their downtowns by creating and managing digital content and displaying it on interactive historic maps.

Hypercities
Philip J. Ethington, Univ. of Southern California; Todd Presner, Christopher Johanson, David Shepard, UCLA

(link)

Built on the idea that every past is a place, HyperCities is a digital research and educational platform for exploring, learning about, and interacting with the layered histories of city and global spaces. Developed though collaboration between UCLA and USC, the fundamental idea behind HyperCities is that all stories take place somewhere and sometime; they become meaningful when they interact and intersect with other stories. Using Google Maps and Google Earth, HyperCities essentially allows users to go back in time to create and explore the historical layers of city spaces in an interactive, hypermedia environment. A HyperCity is a real city overlaid with a rich array of geo-temporal information, ranging from urban cartographies and media representations to family genealogies and the stories of the people and diverse communities who live and lived there.

T-RACES
Richard Marciano, Chien-Yi Hou; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

(link)

T-RACES (Testbed for the Redlining Archives of California's Exclusionary Spaces) presents Residential Security Maps created by the Home Owners Loan Corp in the 1930s for eight cities in California along with supporting documentation. These maps categorized specific areas in cities according to four color-coded categories based on racial, ethnic and economic characteristics of residents and potential home buyers. These so-called “redlining” maps were used by local financial institutions to make home mortgage decisions and had a significant impact on the fate of urban neighborhoods for decades. The site allows users to view the maps, query a wide range of supporting data, and download KML files for use with Google Earth.

Walking Through Time and Tales of Things
Chris Speed, Edinburgh College of Art

(link)

(link)

Walking Through Time is a smart phone web application that allows architectural historians, conservationists and tourists to download historical maps of Edinburgh when standing in a specific location and to annotate them. They can walk through real space whilst following a map from 200 years ago (for example) and tag and attach links to the map that offer historical and contextual information.

Tales of Things is part of a research project called TOTeM that will explore social memory in the emerging culture of the Internet of Things. Researchers from across the UK have provided this site as a platform for users to add stories to their own treasured objects and to connect to other people who share similar experiences. This will enable future generations to have a greater understanding of the object’s past and offers a new way of preserving social history. Content will depend on real people’s stories, which can be geo-located through an on-line map of the world where participants can track their object even if they have passed it on. The object will also be able to update previous owners on its progress through a live Twitter feed which will be unique to each object entered into the system.","txt","2","",""
"1269","12","Evaluating Digital Scholarship: A Case Study in the Field of Literature","1","Evaluating Digital Scholarship: A Case Study in the Field of Literature
Schreibman, Susan, susan.schreibman@gmail.com Digital Humanities Observatory,
Mandell, Laura, laura.mandell@gmail.com
Olsen, Stephen, SOlsen@mla.org
Evaluating and receiving credit for digital scholarship within traditional disciplinary areas in the humanities has been a concern much discussed, not only within the digital humanities community, but at think tanks on the future of scholarly publishing, within institutions, at professional associations in the various disciplines of the humanities, and in journal and newspaper articles.For just a small sampling of recent postings and articles see Scott Jaschik, ‘Tenure in a Digital Era’. Inside Higher Education (26 May 2010); ‘Evaluating Digital Scholarship, Promotion & Tenure Cases’, Office of the Dean, University of Virginia, (link) ; ‘Guidelines for Evaluating Work with Digital Media in the Modern Languages’, Modern Language Association, (link) ; Julia Flanders, ‘The Productive Unease of 21st-century Digital Scholarship’. Digital Humanities Quarterly (Summer 2009); Jeanne Glaubitz Cross, ‘Reviewing Digital Scholarship: The Need for Discipline-Based Peer Review’. Journal of Web Librarianship (December 2008); Joan F. Cheverie, et al, ‘Digital Scholarship in the University Tenure and Promotion Process: A Report on the Sixth Scholarly Communication Symposium at Georgetown University Library’ Journal of Scholarly Publishing (April 2009) 219-230.

Over the past few years The Modern Language Association has taken the lead in encouraging the recognition of digital scholarship in promotion and tenure cases. Its 2006 Report of the MLA Task Force on Evaluating Scholarship for Tenure and Promotion ( (link) ) offered unequivocal support of digital scholarship. Among its recommendations are the following:

The profession as a whole should develop a more capacious conception of scholarship by rethinking the dominance of the monograph, promoting the scholarly essay, establishing multiple pathways to tenure, and using scholarly portfolios . . . .[and] departments and institutions should recognize the legitimacy of scholarship produced in new media, whether by individuals or in collaboration, and create procedures for evaluating these forms of scholarship.Report of the MLA Task Force on Evaluating Scholarship for Tenure and Promotion. (link)
This report and others (see ""Our Cultural Commonwealth: The report of the American Council of Learned Societies Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities and Social Sciences"" etc.) make it clear that the Humanities must broaden traditional definitions of scholarship and reconceptualize its methods of evaluation. But it still falls to us in the digital humanities to articulate the scholarly content and value of our work and to propose explicit procedures for effectively evaluating it.

In 2008 the MLA’s Committee on Information Technology released an Evaluation WikiThe Evaluation of Digital Work. (link) (based on the work of Geoffrey Rockwell who served as a member of the Committee from 2005-08) that provides a framework for departments to evaluate this new scholarship. As a result of this work, the authors of this paper led a workshop in evaluating digital work for tenure and promotion at the 2009 MLA convention in Philadelphia. The workshop was designed to provide both a framework from within which digital scholarship could be evaluated, as well as a forum for the authors to evaluate just how difficult it was for non-specialists to come to terms this new work. With this in mind, several themes were addressed in the workshop design:

The impediments involved in evaluating digital scholarship, particularly in terms of interdisciplinarity, authority, and use of standards;
Issues of disciplinarity: digital scholarship does not fit comfortably into the what is currently valued in the profession;
The absence of expertise at the departmental level in evaluating digital scholarship handicaps both the evaluators and the candidates;
The intellectual stakes of such work;
The value and credit accorded to interdisciplinary, multi-institutional, collaborative work.
In the field of literary studies the gold standard for tenure and promotion is the publication of the monograph. Editorial scholarship -- textual criticism, book history, scholarly editing, the sociology and bibliography of texts --particularly in North America, has been consistently devalued since the rise of literary theory. That the digital is conducive to the kinds of projects that have been denigrated by the academy (certainly since new literary criticism), including pedagogy, public humanities, and the creation of scholarly editions, has made the argument for including this work in tenure and promotion cases all the more difficult. These aforementioned themes and questions were meant to engage the group in questioning such values.

The workshop was structured around case studies based on the experiences of individuals in the field. In some instances the case studies were anonymized (as several of the workshop leaders created studies based on their own scholarship), others were not (as when it was clear who the author was from the online scholarship under discussion).

Attendees were seated at tables of eight and for each of three rounds had two case studies to choose from. The first round of case studies were what might term fairly traditional digital scholarly editions. This type of digital scholarship was chosen because it most resembled analogue scholarship. Nevertheless, when we opened the conversation up for discussion, the opening remark by a Departmental Chair questioned that the edition under discussion should be counted towards scholarship at all, as in her opinion, the creation of scholarly editions fit squarely into the category of service. This became a recurring theme of the individuals who did not understand the theoretical and technical imperatives behind the scholarship consistently categorized the work as service. It became clear that the production of editions, whether distributed in analogue or digital form, were not viewed as scholarship on par with critical theory.

Moreover, when the authors of case studies explained the theoretical methodology implicit in their research in terms of the technologies used, non-technical participants consistently complained that the authors were engaging in techno-speak jargon. Participants also complained that the work was undertheorized: however, when it was pointed out that theories common to digital scholarship (for example, the limitations of particular metadata schemes, issues arising from the hierarchical nature of XML, or the impediments to using a standard such as TEI for genetic editing) were evoked and challenged, these participants felt that it was not sufficient to rely on theoretical perspectives not normative to the discipline of literature (i.e. coding was not satisfactory as a basis for the field).

Subsequent case studies teased out issues of the implications of, in effect, outsourcing the evaluation of scholarship to (scholarly) presses and journals, the vast majority of which have not developed an economic model for publishing digital scholarship. Discussions circled around alternative models of validating digital scholarship, focusing on the work, for example, of NINES. Indeed, the success of the NINES model was so apparent in these discussions that NINES has committed its next two Summer Institutes (generously funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities) to evaluating digital scholarship.

Although the writing is on the wall that our field must change to encompass new scholarship and new scholarly forms as engendered by the new technologies, the impediments to evaluating this scholarship by non-specialists are paramount. The digital archive may have been the first form to challenge the primacy of print scholarship, but new forms of scholarship are emerging that will even more radically challenge the status quo.

It is clear from the research carried out by the authors in the preparation and delivery of this workshop, the creation of the CIT Guidelines, and the development of the NINES Summer Institutes, that it is imperative for the Digital Humanities community to take a more proactive role in supporting departments as they are increasingly called upon to evaluate digital scholarship. This burden cannot continue to be borne solely by each individual candidate, as is currently the norm. The overriding question for these activities must be how do we provide a framework so that evaluators can evaluate the research within the technological context within which the scholarship is undertaken.

The discussion of the case studies by the participating department chairs, senior faculty members, and junior faculty members revealed to us some of the specific difficulties departments and institutions have in recognizing scholarly activity in some of its new digital forms:

The evolving definitions of scholarship in language and literature over the past 50 years (Eagelton Terry Eagelton. ""The Functions of Criticism,"" How To Read a Poem (Malden, MA: Basil Blackwell 2007), 1-24.), in particular the conflict between criticism and philology as the dominant mode of scholarship;
The discounting of scholarly activities like textual editing and translation, and the mislabeling of much digital scholarship as serviceConnie Moon Sehat and Erika Farr. ‘The Future of Digital Scholarship: Preparation, Training, Curricula Report of a colloquium on education in digital scholarship’. (2009). (link) (McGann,McGann, Jerome. “A Note on the Current State of Humanities Scholarship.” Critical Inquiry 30/2. (link) GablerGabler, Hans Walter. ""Theorizing the Digital Scholarly Edition."" Literature Compass 7/2 (2010) 43-56.);
The ongoing crisis in scholarly book publishing (Waters,Lidnsay Waters. “A Modest Proposal for Preventing the Books of the Members of the MLA from Being a Burden to Their Authors, Publishers, or Audiences.” PMLA 115 (2000): 315–17. Guillory,Guillory, John. ""Evaluating Scholarship in the Humanities: Principles and Procedures."" ADE Bulletin 137 (Spring 2005), pp. 18–33. GreenblattGreenblatt, Stephen. “A Special Letter.” 28 May 2002. 1 Nov. 2010 (link) )
Our paper will summarize what happened at the workshop, in response to which we will present action items to be undertaken by organizations such as MLA and ACH.","txt","2","",""
"1270","12","An Ontological View of Canonical Citations","1","An Ontological View of Canonical Citations
Romanello, Matteo, Kings College London, matteo.romanello@kcl.ac.uk
Pasin, Michele, Kings College London, michele.pasin@kcl.ac.uk
Canonical citations are references to Classical (i.e. Greek and Latin) texts that are expressed by scholars by means of an abridged canonical format (Romanello 2008; Romanello 2007). They fulfil the function of providing an abstract reference scheme for texts (somehow similar to the function of geographical coordinates to express references to places) since they allow us to express references to them no matter what particular text edition we are actually looking at. For example, the reference to the twelfth book of Homer's Iliad expressed as “Hom. Il. XII 1” can be resolved to the text of the same passage as established in various critical editions of that work, where “XII” and “1” are the “coordinates” that allow us to locate that precise text passage within all critical editions of Homer's Iliad.

Historically, canonical references are the result of an effort – whose origins can be traced back to the Renaissance (Martin 2003; Berra 2011) – made by the scholarly community as a whole to provide a precise, stable and shared way to refer to Classical texts. Since the early stages of Humanities Computing and Digital Humanities (Bolter 1993; Crane 1987; McCarty 2005), canonical references were regarded as the ideal candidate on which to experiment the potentialities of hypertext: indeed they can be seen as hyperlinks in potentia pointing a text from within another. More recently (Crane et al. 2009) they were considered as a discipline-specific kind of named entities that Classics scholars should be provided with tools to search for within their texts.

J.D. Bolter describes classical philology as “the art of explicating an ancient text by exploring its relationships to other specific texts and to the corpus of ancient literature as a whole”. In such a discipline the act of referring to texts – that J. Unsworth has listed among the “scholarly primitives” (Unsworth 2000) – becomes even more crucial than in other disciplines since texts are the very research objects of classical philology and references to them play a key role in constructing argumentations.As N. Smith (2009) has already pointed out, canonical citations reflect an ontological view of texts in this specific domain and specifically how classicists perceive ancient texts as objects. In this paper we present the Humanities Citation Ontology (HuCit) (link) , an ontology that aims at characterising the semantics of citations as they are normally conceived and used in humanistic disciplines. We claim that the specification of such an ontology is worthwhile for at least the following reasons:

it allows us to disentangle from an ontological point of view the complex relationships between, for instance, a canonical reference found in a journal paper and the manuscripts and editions of the text that we can access via that reference;
it allows us to define types of references and alternative representations of the same reference: this is an important step towards tools that allow automatic formatting of such references according to various styles (as it happens already for modern bibliographic references with Zotero);
it provides us with a way to access the meaning of canonical references beyond their surface appearance, which might vary substantially as in the case of “Hom. Od. I 1” and “α 1”, two canonical references to the same passage but conforming to different citation styles.From an initial analysis of the relevant literature we concluded that none of the existing ontologies actually model the deep meaning of canonical references. An interesting attempt to formalise citations by means of an ontology is CITO (Shotton 2010) which however looks exclusively at modern bibliographic references and focuses in particular on citation types. As it was observed already (Smith 2009; Mimno et al. 2005), the distinction made by FRBR (Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records) between a work, its expressions and its manifestations can be adapted to represent texts in the Classics domain as well. In this paper we propose an initial implementation of a canonical reference ontology based on FRBRoo which is the result of a process aimed at harmonising FRBR with the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (CIDOC-CRM) (Doerr & LeBoeuf 2007).
A key aspect we have to face is to determine at which ontological level of the cited object a canonical reference is pointing to. A citation such as “Hom. Od. I 1” is it referring to the abstract notion of Odyssey (i.e. a work in the FRBR model) or to a particular version (e.g. edition, translation, etc.) of that work (i.e. a FRBR expression)? It might help to observe that this reference can be solved by a human reader for example into the text of that passage in French translation: therefore it is not being specified at the expression level. The textual coordinates of the citation, namely “first line of the first book”, expressed by the string “I 1” clearly refer to a logical citation scheme that applies already to the abstract notion of Odyssey (i.e. a FRBR work). Thus we can say that a canonical citation follows a given citation scheme that characterises a particular literary text and might differ from one to another. That citation scheme is a conceptual object and is the result of the work of scholars to guarantee the ability of citing literary texts.

To illustrate the notion of logical citation scheme as opposed to a physical one let us examine a single case, that is the Athenaeus' Deipnosophistae. Scholars cite this work by means of canonical references that follow a logical citation scheme derived from a physical one (e.g. “Ath. Deipn. XV 694 e-f”). The textual coordinates “694 e-f” refer to the pagination of the edition of the text by Isaac Casaubon dated 1598, and specifically to sections “e” to “f” of page 694 of that edition. At first it seems a physical citation scheme. But since all editions after Casaubon's provide the readers with marginal numbers referring to that pagination it became a logical citation scheme: indeed 694 does not refer anymore to a physical page within more recent editions such as Olson's.

Canonical citations have both form and content. Different citations might differ by form but they can still have the same content. The content of a citation is the abstract reference of which that citation is an expression. For example, a citation to the first line of Homer's Iliad can be written in several ways according to different citation styles. Nevertheless “Hom. Il. I 1”, “Α 1” and “Homer, Iliad 1.1” are different expressions of the same canonical reference to Homer's Iliad (cited by book and then by line). Given all these reasons, we propose to introduce - among the others - the classes Citation, Reference and Citation_Style to the ""E28 Conceptual Object"" branch of CIDOC-CRM (we will discuss the details of this approach at the conference, also in the light of most recent activities to harmonise CIDOC and FRBR). Further work is then required in order to extend this conceptual model so that it can support more complex reasoning tasks, such as translation mechanisms among different citation schemes, or the automated extraction of citations from non structured materials.

To sum up, in this paper we describe the implementation of an ontology to model canonical references that builds upon the solid conceptual models already defined by CIDOC-CRM and FRBRoo. In the framework of a Classics cyberinfrastructure (Crane et al. 2009), such an ontology is meant to support the interoperability of tools that are being currently developed to extract (Romanello et al. 2009), retrieve (Smith 2009) and solve (Ruddy & Rebillard 2009) canonical references.

References:
Berra, A. 2011 “Manier le thésaurus grec., ” Les main de l'intellect. Lieux de savoir., C. Jacob Albin Michel Paris

Bolter, J.D. 1993 “Hypertext and the Classical Commentary., ” Accessing antiquity : the computerization of classical studies, University of Arizona Press Tucson 157-171

Crane, G. 1987 “From the old to the new: intergrating hypertext into traditional scholarship., ” Proceedings of the ACM conference on Hypertext, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States, 51-55 February 2, 2009 (link)

Crane, G., Seales, B. & Terras, M. 2009 “Cyberinfrastructure for Classical Philology., ” Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3(1) July 19, 2010 (link)

Doerr, M. & LeBoeuf, P. 2007 “Modelling Intellectual Processes: The FRBR - CRM Harmonization., ” Digital Libraries: Research and Development. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, C. Thanos, F. Borri, & L. Candela, eds. D. Springer Berlin / Heidelberg 114-123 (link)

Martin, H. 2003 “Du livre a la lecture., ” Des Alexandries II. Les métamorphoses du lecteur, C. Jacob Bibliothèque nationale de France 35-45 October 26, 2010 (link)

McCarty, W. 2005 Humanities Computing, Palgrave Macmillan

Mimno, D., Crane, G. & Jones, A. 2005 “Hierarchical Catalog Records, ” D-Lib Magazine, 11(10) July 22, 2010 (link)

Romanello, M. 2008 “A semantic linking framework to provide critical value-added services for Ejournals on classics., ” ELPUB2008. Open Scholarship: Authority, Community, and Sustainability in the Age of Web 2.0 - Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Electronic Publishing, S. Mornati & L. Chan, eds. Toronto, Canada, 25-27 June 2008 401-414 August 11, 2008 (link)

Romanello, M. 2007 “A Semantic Linking System for Canonical References to Electronic Corpora., ” International Conference on Electronic Corpora of Ancient Languages : proceedings of the international conference, P. Zemanek Prague, November 16-17, 2007 107–120 (link)

Romanello, M., Boschetti, F. & Crane, G. 2009 “Citations in the Digital Library of Classics: Extracting Canonical References by Using Conditional Random Fields., ” Proceedings of the 2009 Workshop on Text and Citation Analysis for Scholarly Digital Libraries, Association for Computational Linguistics Suntec City, Singapore 80–87 (link)

Ruddy, D. & Rebillard, E. 2009 “Text Linking in the Humanities: Citing Canonical Works Using OpenURL., ” September 11, 2009 (link)

Shotton, D. 2010 “CiTO, the Citation Typing Ontology., ” Journal of Biomedical Semantics, 1(Suppl 1) S6 October 25, 2010 (link)

Smith, N. 2009 “Citation in Classical Studies., ” Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3(1) March 15, 2009 (link)

Unsworth, J. 2000 “Scholarly Primitives: what methods do humanities researchers have in common, and how might our tools reflect this?, ” (link)","txt","2","",""
"1271","12","Building a Tool for the Analysis of Translations: The Case of Epistemic Modality in Edgar Allan Poe's Stories","2","Building a Tool for the Analysis of Translations: The Case of Epistemic Modality in Edgar Allan Poe’s Stories
Zupan, Simon, University of Maribor, Slovenia, simon.zupan@uni-mb.si
Juuso, Ilkka, University of Oulu, Finland, ilkka.juuso@ee.oulu.fi
Opas-Hänninen, Lisa Lena, University of Oulu, Finland, lisa.lena.opas-hanninen@oulu.fi
This paper investigates epistemic modality in Edgar Allan Poe’s Gothic stories and their translations into Slovenian and Finnish. To facilitate this we have built a tool that allows the researcher to align the translations, search for the instances of epistemic stance and compare the original text with the translations. From the point of view of translation studies, epistemic modality is interesting in the context of Gothic stories, because it helps to create the mood of the story and any major shifts in the translation may cause a loss of the essence of the Gothic. On the other hand, the tool we have built is applicable to any investigation into a text and its translations and will, we hope, significantly aid those working in the field.

Epistemic modality has traditionally been regarded as the “manner in which the meaning of a clause is qualified so as to reflect the speaker’s judgement of the likelihood of the proposition it expresses being true” (Quirk et. al. 1992: 219). In other words, it shows the position that speakers adopt with respect to the truth value of what they are saying (hence it is also referred to as epistemic stance). As Halliday (Halliday and Matthiesen 2004) has pointed out, speakers can adopt two extreme positions; they either qualify their proposition as true (e.g. “Translation scholars are in need of efficient electronic text-analysis tools.”) or, alternatively, as not true (“Translation scholars are not in need of efficient electronic text-analysis tools.”). These two positions are referred to as positive and negative polarity, respectively. More importantly, speakers can also adopt various positions in between the two poles. They can thus claim something to be “more” true (“Translation scholars are definitely in need of efficient text-analysis tools.”) or “less” true (“Translation scholars are probably not in need of efficient text-analysis tools.”). It is precisely these intermediate positions that are strictly referred to as epistemic modality because they indicate the speaker’s (apparent) inability to ascertain the truth of the proposition they are making and consequently qualify it as polar.

This has important implications for the Gothic stories, in particular from the point of view of their translation into other languages. As Simpson (2004) has pointed out, authors of Gothic stories often employ epistemic modality to add uncertainty to them. These narratives thus abound in expressions such as “possibly”, “perhaps”, “undoubtedly”, “it might have been”, “I believe” and the like, which all indicate the protagonists’ (apparent) inability to be able to tell what was behind a particular event or experience. In turn, this makes that same event or experience appear mysterious. It also lays ground for evoking in the reader the prototypical Gothic effects such as that of discomfort, uncanniness or eeriness. Consequently, these linguistic features of the original text need to be preserved in the translation. As our preliminary research has shown, however, this is not always the case. Comparison of one of the Slovenian translations with the original has shown that the translator failed to preserve epistemic modality in some of the examples by turning them into polar sentences. As a result, those passages in the target text lost some of their potential to evoke the same Gothic effects as their corresponding passages in the original.

In order to further investigate the extent of this phenomenon, we analyse several of Edgar Allan Poe’s stories. These include The Fall of the House of Usher, Berenice, The Masque of the Red Death, Metzengerstein, and Ligeia, all of which can be seen as Gothic stories or stories with Gothic elements.

To facilitate the comparison of the source text and the target text(s), we have built ParallelTexts, a tool that allows the researcher to view two or three texts simultaneously in a synchronized manner. It makes use of XML markup, using pages and paragraphs, or other user-defined elements, for the purposes of synchronization of texts. There is support for marking up additions, deletions and other shifts in the text. The user interface shows a table-like view of the texts and allows for simultaneous scrolling of the texts. Figure 1 below shows the basic principle of the use interface, where the text in red on the left-hand side is highlighted to indicate that it is not found in the text on the right-hand side, ie the comparison version or the target text. Equally, the text in green on the right-hand side indicates that this text has been added into the target text and has no equivalent in the original text.

Fig. 1 A first version of ParallelTexts, with some basic instructions for using it

Full Size Image

With appropriate input data, ParallelTexts allows us to examine various aspects of both the original text and its translation(s). First, it helps us identify most instances of epistemic modality in the original text and allows easy access to their corresponding sentences in the translation(s). Second, the tool allows us to statistically examine the texts and determine various quantitative features, among them the number of occurrences of epistemic modality and their distribution in both the original and the translation. Finally, the quantitative data collected with ParallelTexts will also allow us to qualitatively examine individual instances of epistemic modality in both texts and determine the cumulative effect of epistemic modality translation shifts on the translation as a whole. We also expect that the tool will prove to be useful for other similar translation studies text analyses. We believe that with some modification and appropriate input data, ParallelTexts could be used to compare any type of linguistic features in the original text and its translation. We wish to demonstrate the tool at DH2011 and all feedback and suggestions for further improvement of the tool will be most welcome.

References:
Halliday, M.A.K. and Matthiessen 2004 An Introduction to Functional Grammar, Arnold London

Poe, E. A. 1982 The Complete Tales and Poems of Edgar Allan Poe, Penguin Books London

Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. N., and Svartvik, J. 1992 A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, Longman London and New York

Simpson, P. 2004 Stylistics: a resource book for students, Routledge London and New York","txt","2","",""
"1272","12","The Object of Platform Studies: Relational Materialities and the Social Platform (the case of the Nintendo Wii)","1","The Object of Platform Studies: Relational Materialities and the Social Platform (the case of the Nintendo Wii)
Jones, Steven E., Center for Textual Studies and Digital Humanities, Loyola University Chicago, s3jones1@gmail.com (link)
Thiruvathukal, George K., Center for Textual Studies and Digital Humanities, Loyola University Chicago, thiruvathukal@gmail.com
Racing the Beam: The Atari Video Computer System, by Ian Bogost and Nick Montfort, inaugurated the Platform Studies series at MIT Press in 2009. We’ve coauthored a new book in the series (currently under contract and final review, MIT Press), Codename: Revolution: the Nintendo Wii Video Game Console. Platform studies is a quintessentially Digital-Humanities approach, since it’s explicitly focused on the interrelationship of computing and cultural expression. According to the series preface, the goal of platform studies is “to consider the lowest level of computing systems and to understand how these systems relate to culture and creativity.” In practice, this involves paying close attention to specific hardware and software interactions--to the vertical relationships between a platform’s multilayered materialities (Hayles; Kirschenbaum), from transistors to code to cultural reception. Any given act of platform-studies analysis may focus for example on the relationship between the chipset and the OS, or between the graphics processor and display parameters or game developers’ designs. In computing terms, platform is an abstraction (Bogost and Montfort), a pragmatic frame placed around whatever hardware-and-software configuration is required in order to build or run certain specific applications (including creative works). The object of platform studies is thus a shifting series of possibility spaces, any number of dynamic thresholds between discrete levels of a system. As with the “text” in recent textual studies (McKenzie; McGann), the “platform” in platform studies is actually observed in action, as one or more transactional events, defined in the act of observation or performance. In this sense, platform studies examines the ways in which material conditions of computing systems determine (by constraining and affording) the experience of creative or expressive works.

Although there are now competing systems coming on to the market from Microsoft (Kinect) and Sony (Move), Nintendo’s Wii (2006) was the first major video game console to be based on motion control, to make use of what Jesper Juul has called a mimetic interface to capture player movements in physical space and represent those movements in the game world. This paper will explain and demonstrate in precise terms how that’s made possible through the use of a relatively off-the-shelf multichannel system of infrared (IR) and Bluetooth communications, along with data collected dynamically by the Analog Devices ADXL330 triple-axis accelerometer, a MEMS (Micro Electronic Mechanical Systems) device, a chip inside the wand-like Wii Remote--a tiny machine, with moving parts that measures motion along X, Y, and Z axes in relation to gravity. In this paper we’ll show how this piece of hardware with accompanying code is used to design new software for the Wii, and we’ll illustrate some of the specific constraints and affordances of the accelerometer by tracing the particular case study of third-party software developer Ubisoft’s Samurai-Western FPS games, Red Steel I and II. The two games in this franchise mark points on a brief timeline, starting with the release of the first realistic action adventure game in 2006, as an exclusive title for the original Wii platform, followed by its relative critical failure, and then, four years later, the subsequent introduction of a “reboot” sequel, with completely revamped, cel-shaded, manga-style aesthetics, and all-new swordplay mechanics. This second game was timed to coincide with Nintendo’s release of the controller add-on, Wii MotionPlus, a second MEMS device that plugs into the base of the Wii Remote and contains a “tuning-fork” gyroscope (the Invensense IDG-600), and thus adds more measurable dimensions to the system, giving the controller pseudo-global sensitivity and something closer to 1:1 mapping of player motions with in-game events. (This retrofit solution has now been superseded with the release of a new Wii Remote that ships with integrated versions of the two MEMS devices combined in one controller.)

That timeline, from 2006-2010, clearly marked a learning curve for Ubisoft’s developers (including moving to the LyN 3D game engine, designed for the Wii, to make the second game), and the radical changes they made over the intervening four years serve as a vivid example of creative works being shaped in response to (and anticipation of) the constraints and affordances of a specific platform. The story of the two Red Steels highlights an important fact--that a video game console is in effect a platform for production, transmission, publishing, and player reception, all in one system. In this way, a game platform--even at the lowest level--is an inherently social phenomenon, determined by developer as well as consumer and player expectations. Drawing from textual studies’ idea of the social text, we’ll argue that the “social platform” that is the object of platform studies is “social” in a particular sense: it’s based on the relational materialities that both constrain and afford the production, transmission, and reception of creative works, the whole process that links hardware and software design to the player and the wider culture. This paper will illustrate this larger theoretical point by explaining one chain of concrete materialities on multiple levels in the case of Red Steel for the Wii--from tiny MEMS devices to in-game graphics, programming to marketing, transistors to cultural contexts.

References:
Bogost, Ian and Nick Montfort 2009 Racing the Beam: The Atari Video Computer System., MIT Press Cambridge, MA

Hayles, N. Katherine 2008 Electronic Literature: New Horizons for the Literary, University of Notre Dame Notre Dame, IN

Jones, Steven E. and George K. Thiruvathukal Forthcoming, 2012 Codename: Revolution: The Nintendo Wii Video Game Console, MIT Press Cambridge, MA

Kirschenbaum, Matthew G. 2008 Mechanisms: New Media and the Forensic Imagination, MIT Press Cambridge, MA

McGann, Jerome J. 1985 Textual Criticism and Literary Interpretation, University of Chicago Press Chicago

McKenzie, D. F. 1986 Bibliography and the Sociology of Texts. The Panizzi Lectures, 1985., The British Library London","txt","2","",""
"1273","12","The ""#alt-ac"" Track: Digital Humanists off the Straight and Narrow Path to Tenure","3","The ""#alt-ac"" Track: Digital Humanists off the Straight and Narrow Path to Tenure

Nowviskie, Bethany, University of Virginia, bethany@virginia.edu
Flanders, Julia, Brown University, julia_flanders@brown.edu
Clement, Tanya, University of Maryland, College Park, tclement@umd.edu
Reside, Douglas, New York Public Library, dougreside@gmail.com
Porter, Dorothy (Dot), University of Indiana, dot.porter@gmail.com
Rochester, Eric, University of Virginia, err8n@virginia.edu

Participants and Presentations
Dr. Bethany Nowviskie (moderator): ""DH in the #alt-academy Project: Editing Alternate Academic Careers for Humanities Scholars""

Director, Digital Research & Scholarship (Scholars' Lab, UVa Library); Associate Director, Mellon Scholarly Communication Institute, University of Virginia

Dr. Julia Flanders: ""Accounting for Time and Labor in the Knowledge Work of the Digital Humanities""

Director, Women Writers Project; Associate Director for Textbase Development, Scholarly Technology Group, Brown University

Dr. Tanya Clement: ""Off the Tracks: Laying New Lines for Digital Humanities Scholars (Results of an NEH Workshop)""

Associate Director, Digital Cultures and Creativity, Honors College; Research Associate, Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities (MITH), University of Maryland, College Park

Dr. Doug Reside: ""Of Ant-Lions and Scholar-Programmers: DH Centers as Ideal Habitat?""

Digital Curator for the Performing Arts, New York Public Library

Dot Porter, MLIS: ""Credential-Creep in the Digital Humanities Job Market""

Associate Director for Digital Library Content & Services, Indiana University

Dr. Eric Rochester

Senior Developer, Digital Research & Scholarship (Scholars' Lab, UVa Library), University of Virginia

Panel Abstract
This is a panel session proposed by six established non-tenure-track practitioners and scholars of the digital humanities. Several of us are among the contributors to a forthcoming open-access essay collection on the place of ""alternative academics"" within the academy. Our goal is to open a discussion of issues from that collection, and from a related NEH-funded workshop on career paths in DH centers, that are relevant to the lives of digital humanists working outside the professoriate.

The ""#alt-ac"" project, to be published in 2011 (online, for comment and extension) by NYU's MediaCommons, features contributions by and for scholars with deep training and experience in the humanities, who are working or seeking employment — off the tenure track — within universities and colleges, or in allied knowledge and cultural heritage institutions such as museums, libraries, academic presses, historical societies, and governmental humanities organizations. For reasons ranging from the professional, intellectual, or institutional to the deeply personal, an increasing number of these people identify themselves as members of the digital humanities community.

The work of academic and cultural heritage institutions has long been enriched and enabled by humanities scholars, developers, and administrators like us. Regardless of institutional status, digital humanists maintain sophisticated research, publication, and production profiles and bring methodological and theoretical training to bear on problem-sets of great importance to traditional humanities disciplines and to the scholars who operate within them. However, class divisions between faculty and staff in higher education are profound, and the suspicion or (worse) condescension with which so- called 'failed academics' are sometimes met can be disheartening. Working, as we are often perceived to do, on the margins of C. P. Snow's ""two cultures"" (or, less polemically, at the interstices of libraries or DH centers and academic departments) digital humanities practitioners are sometimes placed well outside more easily-classified and socially-supported areas of the academic enterprise.

For all that, non-tenure-track digital humanists love their work. Many people navigating ill-defined alternative academic career paths speak compellingly about the satisfaction of making teams (and systems, and programs) work, of solving problems and personally making or enabling breakthroughs in research and scholarship in their disciplines, and of contributing to and experiencing the life of the mind in ways they did not imagine when they entered graduate school. Essays in our #alt-ac collection range from personal narratives, positioned within certain academic disciplines and institutions, to staged dialogues on opportunities and pitfalls off the tenure track, to reflective and data-driven essays on the state of academic digital humanities and the (problematic? disruptive? salutary?) position of ""alternative academics"" within it. A few contributors also illustrate retrograde career paths or offer critiques of the #alt-ac concept. Conversations stemming from the MediaCommons project have sparked a number of other collaborations, such as MITH's ""Off the Tracks,"" an NEH workshop on institutional practices in ""laying new lines for digital humanities scholars"" — preliminary recommendations from which will be presented here.

The six speakers on our proposed panel will offer 7-minute summaries of their research or make position statements based on their published essays, before opening discussion amongst themselves and with the DH conference audience.

Briefly, the panelists include:

Dr. Bethany Nowviskie of the University of Virginia, who will also moderate the discussion. Nowviskie, who speaks and writes frequently on alternative academic careers in the digital humanities, is the editor of the forthcoming MediaCommons collection. She will frame this panel's discussion with an overview of concepts relevant to the digital humanities that have emerged in all contributed essays and dialogues and will reflect on some issues crucial to DH — such as intellectual freedom and policies related to open source and intellectual property — that were note foregrounded as clearly in the collection as one might expect.

Dr. Julia Flanders of Brown University. Flanders will speak to issues raised by her dissertation on the politics of labor in the digital humanities and her #alt-ac essay, ""You work at Brown — What do you Teach?,"" which examines the pragmatic and psychological effects of divergent practices in accounting for time and labor in knowledge work. How do we think of — and reward — time and effort differently when laborers on very similar projects may alternately be classified as adjunct, tenured, or tenure-track faculty, salaried staff, hourly wage employees, student apprentices and fellowship winners, and post-docs or research staff? What are the implications for our institutions and our digital humanities workforce?

Dr. Tanya Clement of the University of Maryland, College Park. Clement will describe the genesis, process, and outcomes of a two-day NEH workshop held at MITH, the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities, in January of 2011. ""Off the Tracks: Laying New Lines for Digital Humanties Scholars"" will examine best practices across a number of differently-constituted digital humanities labs and centers, with the goal of articulating reasonable career trajectories and professional development opportunities for hybrid academics and scholar-programmers — employees who are not well served by a normative division between ""research"" usually associated with faculty positions and ""service"" usually associated with staff roles.

Dr. Doug Reside of the New York Public Library. Reside, formerly a ""scholar-programmer"" at MITH, is Clement's partner in the NEH workshop. His presentation will be informed by that experience and their collaborative drafting of a white paper based on the workshop, but he will also speak to the themes of his #alt-ac essay, ""Of Ant-Lions and Scholar-Programmers."" Here, he argues that — of several imperfect options for satisfying the two (unified but sometimes contradictory) natures of the digital humanities software developer, a well-defined position in a digital humanities center holds the most promise.

Dot Porter, MLIS of the University of Indiana. As a distinguished member of the DH community and the only panelist not holding a doctorate in the humanities, Porter will speak to the issue of ""credential creep"" in the digital humanities job market. Her #alt-ac essay, co-authored with Amanda Gailey of the University of Nebraska, likens the frequency with which DH jobs are now advertised as requiring a doctorate to the conditions described in William James's 1903 essay, The PhD Octopus. Gailey and Porter examine increasingly stringent job pre-requisites and what they term the ""creeping Ivy"" of elitism in the context of traditional spirits of entrepreneurship and egalitarianism in the digital humanities. Porter will conclude by offering clear recommendations to DH hiring committees.

Dr. Eric Rochester of the University of Virginia. After getting a PhD in English from the University of Georgia, Rochester worked as a computational linguist and programmer for a number of technology firms. He joined the Scholars' Lab at the University of Virginia Library as senior software developer in 2011. His presentation, “There and Back Again,” will discuss transitioning between industry and academia, and how to manage and ease that process for both the individual and the institution.

All six speakers have enthusiastically committed to attend and present at DH in Stanford. We recognize that the presence of ""alternative"" academic career paths is long-established in the digital humanities — if in generally ad-hoc ways — and will not argue that our roles and observations are fundamentally new. However, we feel strongly that this conference — with its focus on the ""big tent"" of the digital humanities, and occurring at a time when humanities graduate students are faced with the worst tenure-track job market in memory — is the right moment for a sustained and critical discussion of the opportunities and challenges of DH career-seekers off the straight and narrow path to tenure.

References:
James, W. 1903 “The Ph.D. Octopus, ” Harvard Monthly, 36 1-9

Nowviskie, Bethany 2011 #alt-academy: Alternative Academic Careers for Humanities Scholars, MediaCommons: a digital scholarly network (link)

Off the Tracks: Laying New Lines for Digital Humanities Scholars, 19-20 January 2011 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1274","12","CloudPad - A Cloud-based Documentation and Archiving Tool for Mixed Reality Artworks","1","CloudPad – A Cloud-based Documentation and Archiving Tool for Mixed Reality Artworks
Giannachi, Gabriella, Centre for Intermedia, University of Exeter, g.giannachi@exeter.ac.uk
Lowood, Henry, Stanford Libraries, Stanford University, lowood@stanford.edu
Rowland, Duncan, Mixed Reality Lab, University of Nottingham, dar@cs.nott.ac.uk
Benford, Steve, Mixed Reality Lab, University of Nottingham, sdb@cs.nott.ac.uk
Price, Dominic, Mixed Reality Lab, University of Nottingham, djp@cs.nott.ac.uk
This paper reflects on the process of designing and building a documentation and archiving tool named CloudPad on the basis of its first evaluation at Stanford Libraries and the San Francisco Art Institute in September 2010. The paper explores the value of CloudPad and its ability to document individual users’ replay of an artwork within the context of performance documentation and new media archiving, speculating on its possible use within a number of curatorial, educational and creative contexts that are relevant to digital humanities.

The CloudPad was developed in 2010 by a team in Horizon RCUK-funded digital economy research and involved staff in performance studies and computer science from the Universities of Exeter and Nottingham, with partners from Stanford Libraries, the Ludwig Boltzman Institute Media.Art.Research, The San Francisco Art Institute, British Library, Blast Theory, and the University of Sheffield. The work developed out of the team’s intention to research novel theoretical and practical approaches for the documentation and archiving of mixed reality performances and artworks that span both digital and physical entities (Benford and Giannachi 2011), allowing users to engage with the materials creatively over time and from different locations. The project benefitted from previous research conducted by members of the team through the AHRC-funded Presence project (2004-9), which used second life and a wiki to document practices spanning from performance art, to video art and new media, including work in virtual reality CAVE, and the EPSRC-funded Creator project (2008-9) which used an e-science tool, the digital replay system, to generate synchronised annotations about a mixed reality performance (DRS). The project also benefitted from the findings of the e-dance project (2007- 9), which was jointly funded by AHRC, JISC and EPSRC, and conducted by colleagues from the Universities of Bedfordshire, Leeds, Manchester and Open University. This adopted access grid technologies for developing new approaches to choreographic composition, involving the use of the Memetic toolkit for recording, replaying and annotating sessions in access grid. Finally, the project was developed in dialogue with artworks such as Lynn Hershman Leeson’s RAW/WAR feminist film archives (2010), sosolimited’s interactive archival performances, and current thinking in new media documentation (e.g. Costello 2005, Depocas et al 2003, Jones and Muller 2008 and Dekker 2011, among others).

Technically the CloudPad was designed as a customisable web-based platform aiming to facilitate the synchronised playback and mash-up of cloud-based media entities such as video or audio files, as well as webpages and photographic materials, together with layers of user annotations. It took a novel approach to the archiving and replay of pervasive media experiences by making use of Web 2.0 technologies (DiNucci 1999) rather than grid technologies. CloudPad users were empowered to view the repository as a living document in which they could leave their own impression of an experience (both of the original event recordings as well as any thematic connections or annotations provided by other visitors and subject experts). Previous interactive systems designed for the replay of events for analysis lack this level of emergent reflection (see Brundell 2008), treating the corpus of recorded material as essentially immutable. To enable this, the CloudPad made use of internet-based storage, which means that media from a wide variety of different sources could be included in a presentation (for example YouTube videos can be included and synchronised with images from Flickr). This was accomplished by the use of HTML5 (see w3.org), an emerging web standard that enables collaborative interactive applications to be developed which run inside a web browser (Murray 2005).

As an initial form of content to assess the operation of the CloudPad we utilised a ‘bespoke’ documentation of Blast Theory’s Rider Spoke that was recorded by our team when the work occurred at the ars electronica festival in Linz in 2009. Rider Spoke is a location-based game for cyclists developed by Blast Theory in collaboration with Mixed Reality Laboratory at the University of Nottingham as part of the European research project IPerG. The work encouraged participants to cycle around a city in order to record personal memories and make statements about their past, present and future that were associated with particular locations (see figure 1).

Blast Theory, Rider Spoke. Participant listening to recordings. Copyright Blast Theory.

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To collect a documentation that addressed the complexity of this work, we developed a hybrid approach. This included the collection of documentations pertaining to the artists and technologists’ descriptions of the works (in terms of original aims, interim analyses and final evaluations), as well as documentations of the user experience (see Jones and Muller 2008 and Depocas et al 2003), the latter recorded from a variety of points of view (e.g. first person, third person) and through a number of technologies (e.g., video, GPS, Wi-Fi) and perspectives (see figures 2, 3 and 4).
Linz documentation. Participant captured via first person point of view.

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Linz documentation. Participant captured via third person point of view.

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Linz documentation. Participants journey through the city captured on googlemaps.

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The overall analytical approach was interdisciplinary, thus including different and potentially even contrasting accounts of the event (see Chamberlain et al 2010). These accounts were presented through a number of historic, canonic and participant ‘trajectories’ (see figure 5).
Matt Adams’ annotation about a participant linking first and third person perspectives in a canonic trajectory.

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By historic trajectories we defined a historic event, i.e. a participant’s experience as documented in a video; by canonic trajectories we defined an expert user’s set of annotations through these materials; and by participant trajectories we defined the CloudPad user’s own annotations (Giannachi et al 2010). This architecture does not privilege a single viewpoint and encourages creative use of both the historic materials and their canonic annotations. Arguably, every replay, producing participant trajectories, re-constitutes the work.
The CloudPad evaluation showed that users did not only envisage adopting the CloudPad for purposes of documentation and archiving, but also wanted to use it curatorially, to present work to others and engage users in annotating materials, for example in an online exhibition, academically, to write ‘visual essays’, and creatively, to make artwork. We have seen that the CloudPad offers scholars, artists and students the possibility to document, archive, curate and create synchronised variable media mash-ups from existing digital resources. These mash-ups, which show how users have engaged with the original documentation stored on CloudPad, build an invaluable resource for those who may be interested in how a core documentation or archive is navigated and interpreted over time. In other words, the CloudPad is not only a documentation and archiving tool, it also documents and archives itself, generating contextual footprints or traces and possibly even re-enactments of every replay of the original materials. This paper reflects on the advances generated by this particular functionality in terms of performance documentation, preservation, and re-enactment.

Acknowledgements
We gracefully acknowledge the RCUK funded Horizon digital economy research and the AHRC funded Riders Have Spoken project. We would like to thank Blast Theory and staff at the Ludwig Boltzman Institute Media.Art.Research, Katja Kwastek, Dieter Daniels and Ingrid Spoerl in particular, who facilitated the documentation of Rider Spoke in Linz, and our participants and volunteers who gave their time to make this documentation possible. We would also like to thank the staff and students at the San Francisco Art Institute, Stanford Libraries and St Jose State University for providing crucial feedback that informed the writing of this paper.

References:
Benford, S. and Giannachi, G. 2011 Performing Mixed Reality, the MIT Press Cambridge, Mass.

Brundell, P., Tennent, P., Greenhalgh, C., Knight, D., Crabtree, A., O’Malley, C., Ainsworth, S., Clarke, D., Carter, R. and Adolphs, S. 2008 “Digital Replay System (DRS) - a tool for interaction analysis, ” Proceedings of the 2008 International Conference on Learning Sciences, Utrecht: ICSL, June 23-24, 2008

Chamberlain, A., Rowland, D., Foster, J., Giannachi, G. 2010 “Riders Have Spoken: Replaying and Archiving Pervasive Performances, ” Leonardo Transactions, 43.1 90-1

Costello, B., Muller, L., Amitani, S., and Edmonds, E. 2005 “Understanding the Experience of Interactive Art: Iamascope in beta_space, ” ACM 2005, vol. 123 49-56

Dekker, Cosetta Saba, Julia Noordegraaf, Barbara Le Maître and Vinzenz Hediger (eds.) forthcoming 2011 Preserving and Exhibiting Media Art: Challenges and Perspectives, University Press Amsterdam

Depocas, A., Ippolito, J., Jones, C. 2003 Permanence through Change: The Variable Media Approach, Guggenheim Museum Publications New York

DiNucci, D. 1999 History Fragmented Future Recovered, October 2010 (link)

Giannachi, G., Rowland, D., Benford, S., Price, D. 2010 “The Documentation and Archiving of Mixed Media Experiences: the Case of Rider Spoke, ” Digital Futures, Nottingham, 11-12 October 2010

Horizon, October 2010 (link)

IPerG, October 2010 (link)

Jones, J. and Muller, L. 2008 “Between Real and Ideal: Documenting Media Art, ” Leonardo, 41.4 418-41

Murray, G. 2005 Asynchronous JavaScript Technology and XML (Ajax) With the Java Platform, October 2010 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1275","12","Enhancing Museum Narratives: Tales of Things and UCL's Grant Museum","2","Enhancing Museum Narratives: Tales of Things and UCL’s Grant Museum
Ross, Claire, University College London, claire.ross@ucl.ac.uk
Hudson Smith, A., University College London, a.hudson-smith@ucl.ac.uk
Terras, Melissa, University College London, m.terras@ucl.ac.uk
Warwick, Claire, University College London, c.warwick@ucl.ac.uk
Carnall, Mark, University College London, mark.carnall@ucl.ac.uk
Emergent mobile technologies offer museum professionals new ways of engaging visitors with their collections. Museums are powerful learning environments and mobile technology can enable visitors to experience the narratives in museum objects and galleries and integrate them with their own personal reflections and interpretations. UCL’s QRator project is exploring how handheld mobile devices and interactive digital labels can create new models for public engagement, personal meaning making and the construction of narrative opportunities inside museum spaces.

The QRator project is located within the emerging technical and cultural phenomenon known as ‘The Internet of Things’: the technical and cultural shift that is anticipated as society moves to a ubiquitous form of computing in which every device is ‘on’, and connected in some way to the Internet. The project is based around technology developed at the Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, UCL and is an extension of the ‘Tales of Things’ project which has developed a ‘method for cataloguing physical objects online which could make museums and galleries a more interactive experience’ (Giles, 2010) via means of QR tags.

The project aims to genuinely empower members of the public within the Grant Museum by allowing them to become the ‘Curators’. The project develops a custom UCL Museums iPhone, iPad and Android application which will be available free of charge from the iTunes store and Android market place.Small printed  QR codes  for museum objects will be created, linked to an online database allowing the public to view ‘curated’ information and most notably to send back their own interpretation and views via their own mobile phone. Unique in the UCL technology is the ability to ‘write’ back to the QR codes. This allows member of the pubic to type in their thoughts and interpretation of the object and click ‘send’.  Similar in nature to sending a text message, the system will enable the Grant Museum to become a true forum for academic-public debate, using low cost, readily available technology, enabling the public to collaborate and discuss object interpretation with museum curators and academic researchers.  Visitors narratives subsequently become part of the museum objects history and ultimately the display itself via the interactive label system to allow the display of comments and information directly next to the artifacts.

QRator provides the opportunity to move the discussion of objects from the museum label onto users’ mobile phones, allowing the creation of a sustainable, world leading model for two-way public interaction in museum spaces. UCL's Grant Museum of Zoology houses one of the country's oldest and most important natural history collections. The Grant museum has a strong history as a teaching collection but also functions as a key gateway for the public to engage with academic issues in innovative ways.

Museums have undergone a fundamental shift from being primarily a presenter of objects to being a site for experiences, which offer visitors opportunities for individual meaning making and narrative creation. Many visitors expect or want to engage with a subject, physically as well as personally (Adams et al 2004; Falk and Dierking 2000). Visitors see interactive technology as an important stimulus for learning and engagement (Falk et al 2002; Black 2005), empowering users to construct their own narratives in response to museum exhibits. Beyond expected content synthesis, these immersive activities can stimulate learning. Engaged within this immersive environment, museum objects become rich sources of innovation and personal growth (Fisher and Twiss-Garrity 2007). When visitors experience a museum which actively encourages individual narrative construction, their activity is directed not towards the acquisition or receipt of the information being communicated by the museum, but rather towards the construction of a very personal interpretation of museum objects and collections. The unpredictability of multiple narrative forms created by the use of mobile devices and interactive labels introduces new considerations to the process by which museums convey object and collection interpretation and opens up museums to become a more engaging experience.

The participation in collaborative narrative creation centred around museum objects can provoke creative, independent analysis, promoting a personal connection with museum exhibition subject matter that is unparalleled in more traditional and passive approaches (Silverman 1995; Roberts 1997; Hooper-Greenhill 2000; Fisher and Twiss-Garrity 2007). This research aims to stress the necessity in actively engaging visitors in the creation of their own interpretations of museum collections. This poster presents the development of the QRator project so far, highlights the user centred development activities, its opportunities, challenges and provides an insight into how utilising mobile technology can enhance visitor meaning making and narrative construction.

References:
Adams, M., Luke, J. and Moussouri, T. (2004), Interactivity: Moving Beyond Terminology. Curator: The Museum Journal, 47: 155–170

Black, G. 2005 The Engaging museum: Developing museums for visitor involvement,

Falk, J. H. Dierking, L. D. 2000 Learning from the Museum: Visitor Experiences and Making Meaning,

  Falk, J. H. Cohen Jones, M. Dierking, L. D. Heimlich, J. Scott, C. Rennie, L. 2002 “A multi-institutional study of exhibition interactives in science centers and museums, ” Unpublished evaluation report. Annapolis, MD: Institute for Learning Innovation,

Fisher, M. Twiss-Garrity., B.A. 2007 “Remixing Exhibits: Constructing Participatory Narratives With On-Line Tools To Augment Museum Experiences, ” Trant, J., Bearman, D. (eds). Museums and the Web 2007: Proceedings. Toronto: Archives and Museum Informatics, (link) 19th October 2010

Giles, J. 17th April 2010 “Barcodes help objects tell their stories, ” New Scientist,

Hooper-Greenhill, E. 2000 “Museums and the interpretation of visual culture, ” Museum Meanings Series,

Roberts, L.C. 1997 From Knowledge to Narrative: Educators and the Changing Museum.,

Silverman, L. H. 1995 “Visitor meaning making in museums for a new age, ” Curator, 38(3) 161-169","txt","2","",""
"1276","12","Modelling a Web Based Editing Environment for Critical Editions","2","Modelling a Web Based Editing Environment for Critical Editions
Litta Modignani Picozzi, Eleonora, Department of Digital Humanities, King’s College London, eleonora.litta@kcl.ac.uk
Noël, Geoffroy, Department of Digital Humanities, King’s College London, geoffroy.noel@kcl.ac.uk
Pierazzo, Elena, Department of Digital Humanities, King’s College London, elena.pierazzo@kcl.ac.uk
Critical editions can be complex objects to digitise both in the output/publication process and in the production.

In most cases, for the output, there is the need to manage facsimiles, a main text (with lots of diacritics, deletions, suppressions, supplied text), an apparatus (with a very dense, conventional notation), footnotes (with cross references and bibliographic references), and conventional markings for page breaks from previous editions and/or manuscripts, in the form of other digitised text or images.

On the production side we have witnesses of the text, forming the direct tradition, in some cases followed by re-elaborations, contemporary or later translations, quotations that form the indirect tradition. This picture is usually completed by previous critical editions, commentaries, and a possibly large set of secondary references from other texts, dictionaries, biographies and prosopographical data.

The present paper will outline an attempt made at the Department for Digital Humanities, King’s College LondonFormerly Centre for Computing in the Humanities. The name has been changed in spring 2011. to produce a model for new editions and translations of all English legal codes, edicts, and treatises produced up to the time of Magna Carta, 1215.

This particular project, called Early English LawsEarly English Laws is currently in the early development stage and the first release of the resource can be found at http://www.earlyenglishlaws.ac.uk, where a list of texts to be encoded has been made available. Funding for the project will be available only for an initial period of three years, during which an interface for the functioning of the whole repository will need to be made available together with a full image database and a number of recently published and new editions. Completion is expected to take ten years, during which several scholars from around the world will volunteer to edit a list of available laws and input their work directly into a web-based interface. This should ideally allow for a minimal amount of reworking by one or two people volunteering to review submissions., presents a situation which is even more complex with respect to what has been outlined above. This is because of two characteristics typical of legal texts:

All the witnesses of a tradition were effective binding laws in a specific place and time, including the mistakes added in the production of the manuscript copy.
Laws were constantly re-elaborated to become new laws and each of these stages of elaboration represents a fully effective law.
This means that the legal text is regularly transmitted in a number of versions, witnesses of both the direct and the indirect tradition.

As a result, each law can be represented as a universe of texts and images that relate to each other: this universe can be exemplified in the figure below, a diagrammatic representation of the so-called Treaty of Edward and Guthrum and its relations, one of which includes an Old English translation which has its own universe of relations (see figure 1)

Figure 1

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The development of the project presents a series of problems, for which a series of solutions are being tested and implemented. The Early English Laws project represents a case study of a more general issue, namely how to model critical edition from a conceptual point of view.

The main concern until now has been the need to create a conceptual model for the editions in order to identify the best structure to support the variety of content offered by the project. The difficulty here lies in trying to apply the philological terminology and needs to the level of conceptual discrimination required by the normalisation process involved in the design of a relational database schema that can be able to connect related law codes. For instance the term 'text' is extremely ambiguous as it actually implicitly conveys different concepts such as a work, an edition, a version, a transcription or a translation (Carlyle, 2006).

Failing to identify and address this issue would inevitably lead to a poor organisation of data. This, in turn, would confuse the editorial work and also generate inconsistencies, which will cause problems when developing the editorial environment and web site.

The solution to this problem is identifying each component of the text/image universe as entities, their properties and interrelationships can help to disambiguate concepts through the systematic analysis of the sample material. Borrowing elements from the FRBR model is also proving to be very useful in our attempt to discover and separate off hidden conceptual layers in our first version of the data model. The Entity-Relationship representation of the overall data model and the formal and careful definition of problematic concepts provides a shared vocabulary which helps the members of the project team to communicate with precision about the subject domain, whether they are from a programming or indeed from a solely humanistic background (Pierazzo, 2010). Moreover this conceptual data model serves as a basis for the transformation into a database schema, which will support the entire set of resources.

Given the variety of content involved in this project, this transformation into a database will be challenging as well. Indeed, the information captured by this project can be divided in two categories depending the format of its representation (see figure 2).

Figure 2

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The entities identified during the modelling process, their properties and the relationships among those entities. These are ideally stored in a relational database. The relational database is also very advantageous for the storage, editing, indexing and referencing of authority lists.
All the information found in the text of the manuscript transcriptions or the peripheral textual information such as the critical apparatus, the introduction text for the manuscript, the comments. The best format for this type of information is XML with conformance to the TEI guidelines.
The main challenge here is how can we harmoniously combine the two very different types of information within the same database management system, especially when we consider how deeply interrelated they are (e.g. an inline reference from one text to another or to an authority list will consist in inserting a primary key of relational tuples within an attribute of a TEI element).

To solve this, we are intending to exploit the XML-oriented facilities offered by recent relational database management systems to keep all the information centralised and linked up despite being hybrid in nature. Substantial custom development to the editing framework (possibly Django) is also expected in order to allow the user interface to acknowledge and seamlessly integrate the two types of data.

References:
TEI Consortium TEI P5:, Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, 1.7.0 (link)

Carlyle, Allyson 2006 “Understanding FRBR as a conceptual model: FRBR and the bibliographic universe, ” Library Resources & Technical Services, 50 (4) 264-273

Danskin, Alan & Chapman, Ann 2003 “Bibliographic records in the computer age, ” Library & Information Update, 2 (9) 42-43

1903–1916 “Peace of Edward and Guthrum, ” Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen, Liebermann, Felix 128–134

Pierazzo, Elena 2010 “Editorial Teamwork in a Digital Environment, ” Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie, 10 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1277","12","Improving the AAC-FACKEL, a Scholarly Digital Edition of the Satirical Journal ""Die Fackel""","2","Improving the AAC-FACKEL, a Scholarly Digital Edition of the Satirical Journal ""Die Fackel""
Biber, Hanno, Institute for Corpus Linguistics and Text Technology, Austrian Academy of Sciences,Vienna, Austria, hanno.biber@oeaw.ac.at
In the following a presentation of the latest developments to improve an existing scholarly digital edition will be given. The scholarly edition in question is the AAC-FACKEL, the digital edition of the historical literary journal ""Die Fackel"". The presentation will be devided into three parts representing three consistent steps in the development. First, the general principles and the specific edition and design considerations concerning the online publication of the AAC-FACKEL will be presented. Second, the particular questions of editing and exploring this important and interesting source of literary history of the German language by means of a sophisticated research tool will be addressed. Third, a plan and the considerations for improvement of this successful and widely used online edition, which is based upon the principles of corpus research and text technology, will be presented. The digital edition of the historical literary journal ""Die Fackel"" (""The Torch"") has been developed in a collaboration of researchers, programmers and designers within the framework of the AAC-Austrian Academy Corpus which is operated by the Institute for Corpus Linguistics and Text Technology at the Austrian Academy of Sciences in Vienna. ""Die Fackel"" was originally published and almost entirely written by the satirist and language critic Karl Kraus in Vienna from 1899 until 1936. The AAC-FACKEL is online since January 2007 and offers free online access to its 37 volumes, 415 issues, 922 numbers, comprising more than 22.500 pages and 6 million tokens. The digital edition contains a fully searchable database of the journal with various indexes, search tools and navigation aids in an innovative and functional graphic design interface, where all pages of the original are available as digital texts and as facsimile images, which is one important principle of the AAC’s resources and publication initiatives. The work of Karl Kraus can be regarded as one of the most important contributions to world literature. It is a source for the history of the time, for its language and its moral transgressions. Karl Kraus covers in his typical and idiosyncratic style in thousands of texts the themes of journalism and war, of politics and corruption, of literature and lying. The interface provides the scholar with a complex research environment to read, study and access the texts from various entry points. The journal comprises a great variety of essays, notes, commentaries, aphorisms, poems and other forms. The scholarly digital edition allows new ways of philological research and analysis. The presentation of this resource, where the question of how a valuable historical text source is made visible and alive in a digital media environment is addressed, gives insights into the features of the edition, where the potential of lexicographic word searches within the various texts of the edition as well as basic and more advanced elements of the corpus research approach followed by the AAC is demonstrated. The research tool offers access to this resource by means of a multifunctional interface. The interface has five individual frames synchronized within one single window. The frames can be opened and closed as required. The 'Paratext' section situated within the first frame provides additional information about the background of the edition and scholarly essays about the journal. The 'Search|Index' section gives access to a variety of indexes, databases and full-text search mechanisms. The results of these queries and lists are displayed in the adjacent 'Results' section. A sophisticated 'Contents' section has been developed in order to show the reader the whole range of the journal ready to be explored and give access to the whole run of issues and all of the contents of the journal in chronological order. The 'text' section has a complex and powerful navigational bar at the top so that the reader can easily navigate and read within the journal either in text-mode or in image-mode from page to page, from text to text (soon to be implemented), from issue to issue, and with the help of hyperlinks. The text can be searched in the following four modes: in full text search mode, by means of a list of word forms and of an inverted list of word forms. The functionality of the indexes and the technical specifications of the edition are described in the 'Paratext' section on the technical details. The following indexes are in preparation: an index of titles including all texts of the entire journal; an index of errors that were corrected by Karl Kraus in ""Die Fackel""; an index of errors that were not corrected by Karl Kraus but found and provided with suggested readings by the editors; an index of variants of Fackel issues, including the later editions, all confiscated issues and censored passages as well as the various regional editions of ""Die Fackel""; an index of inserts including all regular inserts that are considered as part of the text of ""Die Fackel"" together with other inserts, which were added on occasion, as well as additions; an index of illustrations; an index of special issues; and an index of extra editions, including separately reprinted articles from ""Die Fackel""; finally, an extensive and complete index of names mentioned in ""Die Fackel"", together with philologically sampled additional data, is in preparation and will consist of personal names, based upon the material collected by Franz Ögg, but corrected and largely extended, as well as indexes of fictitious names, institutions, periodicals, and works of literature, works of art and so on. The contents list of this edition is based on the original text titles given by Karl Kraus in ""Die Fackel"" and in the separate contents pages of the quarterly volumes of the journal, which were collected by the editors of the AAC-FACKEL. The corpus based research possibilities offered by this digital edition and its underlying principles will be dealt with in this presentation. The corpus research unit at the Institute for Corpus Linguistics and Text Technology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences is concerned with establishing and exploring large electronic text corpora and with conducting scholarly research in the field of corpora and digital editions. Among the sources collected by the AAC, which systematically covers various domains, genres and types, are more than 500 million running words of newspapers, literary journals, novels, dramas, poems, advertisements, essays on various subjects, travel literature, cookbooks, pamphlets, political speeches as well as a variety of scientific, legal, and religious texts, to name just a few forms. The specific principles of the digital editions are determined by the conviction that the methods of corpus research lead to valuable resources for scholars. The AAC has developed model editions to meet these aims, which provide well structured and well designed access to the sources, and will continue to do so by improving existing editions, thereby contributing to the development of digital resources for research into language and literature.","txt","2","",""
"1278","12","Browsing Highly Interconnected Humanities Databases Through Multi-Result Faceted Browsers","1","Browsing Highly Interconnected Humanities Databases Through Multi-Result Faceted Browsers
Pasin, Michele, Department of Digital Humanities, Kingʼs College, London, UK, michele.pasin@kcl.ac.uk
Faceted browsing is a recent paradigm in search interfaces that allows users with little familiarity of a subject domain to quickly explore the contents of databases or other structured data sources. The underlying principle of this approach can be traced back to the work of Indian librarian S.R. Ranganathan, who, in contrast with traditional top-down, taxonomical approaches to subject classification, in 1933 developed a method for organizing subjects in a bottom-up and non-hierarchical fashion. According to this model, a classification system can be created by combining together subject descriptors chosen from a number of non-exclusive and non-hierarchical facets – e.g., in the context of classifying books, these can be genre, date or author. This method supports the generation of a flexible system that better represents the multitude of perspectives we could use to represent knowledge (Broughton, 2004).

As a result of the adoption of these ideas in computer science, researchers have been creating search interfaces that allow the exploration of digital resources through the manipulation of filters describing important features of a subject domain (Broughton 2002). A well-known pioneer in this area is Marti Hearst with her work on the Flamenco faceted browser (Hearst, 2002), followed by a number of similar approaches that, in general, aimed at creating more compelling and easy-to-use user interfaces (Hearst, 2008) (Capra, 2007) or at providing software packages that can work with different types of data sources; these may vary from manually editable JSON files (Huynh, 2007) to databases (Stuckenschmidt, 2004) and RDF triplestores (Oren, 2006). A number of projects have also proven the usefulness of this type of interfaces to the aim of facilitating the navigation of large repositories of humanities data, such as artwork images (Hildebrand, 2006), music resources (Bretherton, 2009) or multi-genre collections (McGann, 2007).

The success of faceted interfaces can be related to the fact that they implement a schema-less approach to classification, that is to say, they make available to the user a number of co-existing search dimensions that can be simultaneously used to browse and preview the contents of a digital repository. Many are the proven advantages of such an approach (Perugini, 2010): first, users are never asked to 'guess' the right search terms, as it happens in classic keyword search interfaces; second, inconclusive searches are prevented; third, non-experts can easily 'get a feeling' for the significance and meaning of the data available just by looking at the available facets, thus increasing their understanding of the domain. In conclusion, this type of interfaces simplify enormously the exploration of a digital repository, and, using the words of Nowivskie, they make it easy to “explore lateral relationships” to the point that they open “possibilities for algorithmic serendipity in research” (Nowivskie, 2007).

An important feature that most of the existing faceted browsers have in common is that the different facets available equally concur to the selection of a single result-type. For example, by manipulating variables such as the color and the making of cars, we can navigate a data-space of available cars; by choosing filters representing information about genres, publishers and years of publication we can easily narrow down a result list of books; or, in the context of a prosopographical database, by accumulating descriptors about people's forenames, surnames, or gender we would be able to refine our search for the individuals mentioned in the database.

In our work, we intended to push the boundaries of this approach by creating a faceted browsing engine that, given the same set of selectable facets, can be used to search for ‘ontologically distant’ entity types. For example, in the context of a prosopographical database, by manipulating the same group of filtering options, we aimed at letting users search not just for people, but also for factoids and sources (cf. Figure 1). In doing so, we assumed that rich and highly interconnected humanities databases call for more powerful search mechanisms; such mechanisms should be capable of revealing the intricacies of a subject domain to the casual learner, and, at the same time, of providing a higher level of 'algorithmic serendipity' to the academic scholar. In other words, we aimed at making more visible the large number of search pathways a highly structured database can make possible - as opposed to hiding this complexity by providing a unique entry point to the wealth of data available. This means that, as shown in fig. 1, by using facets typical of the 'people' result-type (such as surname or gender) we would like to be able to search for 'sources' or 'factoids'. Or, by choosing facets typical of the 'sources' result-type (such as document category or language) we may want to filter results when searching for 'people'.

With this vision in mind we created DJFacetThe software is open source and freely available online at the url (link) , a faceted browsing engine that lets users create powerful, multi-result search interfaces. DJFacet is written in Python and is based on Django, a popular web application framework (link) that facilitates the development of database-driven websites by providing functionalities that speed up the creation of repetitive tasks. In particular, one key component of this framework is the Object-Relational Mapper (ORM), that is, a set of functions that provide programmers with a level of abstraction between the database and the application language; as a result, it is possible to invoke complex database queries without having to write any SQL code. This makes the whole application easier to manage and more portable across different database engines.

By building on the functionalities of Django ORM, DJFacet provides a customizable and easy-to-use environment for creating database-driven faceted search applications. The underlying idea of DJFacet is that since a data-structure had already been designed and fine-tuned when the database was created, that same structure could be used to define the search dimensions of the faceted browser with little extra work required. An instance of DJFacet can run just by creating an initialization file in which we define which are the available facets and what 'behaviour' they have with respect to the database schema. The software then calculates automatically all the remaining query-paths needed to show the results in the various searches.

At the time of writing, we tested DJFacet's approach with two humanities databases. The Paradox Of Medieval Scotland project (link) (POMS) investigates how a recognizably modern Scottish identity was formed during the period 1093-1286. Drawing on over 6000 contemporary charters, it provides biographical information about all known people in Scotland during that period. In this context we built a search interface that features 29 facets, organized into 5 groups (cf. figure 2). The result types are 3 (people, factoids and sources).

The Early Modern London Theatres (link) (EMLoT) project provides its users with a major encyclopedic resource on the early London stage, as well as a comprehensive historiographical survey of the field. EMLoT identifies, records and assesses transcriptions from primary-source materials relating to the early London stage, as found in secondary-source print and manuscript documents. In this case the faceted search interface contains 24 facets, organized into 5 groups. The result types are 7 (transcription records, primary sources, secondary sources, events, people, troupes, venues).

By using DJFacet it was possible to allow the formulation of queries that might not be immediately obvious to the user. For example, in POMS it became trivial to search for Charters mentioning transaction events in which 'beneficiaries' of name 'William' acquire something on the day of the 'Feast of St Patrick '. Also, the search interface provided users with more chances of coming across interesting connections in the available materials. This was made possible by the fact that the facets used in the search are ontologically distant from the respective result-types.

However, despite the fact that this approach proved to be, from the logical and computational point of view, completely feasible, it also opened up a number of research questions from the point of view of the meaning of these multifaceted searches across different results types. In other words, we realized that often the accumulation of filters ontologically distant from each other could be hardly translated by the end user into real-world questions; analogously, the opposite may happen, in so far as simple type of searches may be impeded by the highly structured architecture of a faceted browser.

In order to provide some answers to this issue and lay the ground for a more scientific discussion of the problem we are currently carrying out a user evaluation study with humanities scholars. The purpose of the experiment is to discover the degree to which humanities scholars can make sense of the search mechanisms provided by our faceted browser, and, indirectly, of the complex data structures often necessary for representing humanities subjects. We will report on these findings at the conference, together with a deeper analysis of the implications of using multi-result faceted browsers in the context of complex humanities datasets.

The facets allowing 'entry' to a prosopographical database.

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Screenshot of the faceted browser for the POMS database.

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References:
Bretherton et al. 2009 “Integrating musicology's heterogeneous data sources for better exploration., ” 10th International Society for Music Information Retrieval Conference, 2009

Broughton 2004 Essential classification, Facet Publishing London

Broughton 2002 “Faceted classification as a basis for knowledge organization in a digital environment: the bliss bibliographic classification as a model for vocabulary management and the creation of multidimensional knowledge structures, ” The New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia, vol. 7 (1) 67-102

Capra et al. 2007 “Effects of structure and interaction style on distinct search tasks, ” Proceedings of the 7th ACM/IEEE-CS joint conference on Digital libraries, 2007 442-451

Hearst 2008 “UIs for Faceted Navigation: Recent Advances and Remaining Open Problems, ” HCIR08 Second Workshop on Human-Computer Interaction and Information Retrieval, 2008

Hearst et al. 2002 “Finding the flow in web site search, ” Communications of the ACM, Special Issue: The consumer side of search, vol. 45 (9)

Hildebrand et al. 2006 “/facet: A Browser for Heterogeneous Semantic Web Repositories, ” ISWC’06: Proceedings of the International Semantic Web Conference, 2006 272-285

Huynh et al. 2007 “Exhibit: lightweight structured data publishing, ” WWW '07: Proceedings of the international conference on World Wide Web, 2007 737-746

Oren et al. 2006 “Extending Faceted Navigation for RDF Data, ” ISWC’06: Proceedings of the International Semantic Web Conference, 2006 559-572

McGann and Nowviskie 2005 NINES: a federated model for integrating digital scholarhip. White paper,

Nowviskie 2007 COLLEX: semantic collections & exhibits for the remixable web. White paper,

Perugini 2010 “Supporting multiple paths to objects in information hierarchies: Faceted classification, faceted search, and symbolic links, ” Information Processing & Management, vol. 46 (1) 22-43

Stuckenschmidt et al. 2004 “A topic-based browser for large online resources, ” Engineering Knowledge in the Age of the SemanticWeb, LNCS, vol. 433-448 433-448 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1279","12","The Wellcome Arabic Manuscripts Project","2","The Wellcome Arabic Manuscripts Project
Brey, Gerhard, Centre for Computing in the Humanities, King's College London, UK, gerhard.brey@kcl.ac.uk
This poster and software demonstration will present the Wellcome Arabic Manuscripts project. The aim of this project was to create a freely available online catalogue of ca. 500 mainly medical manuscripts written in Arabic that are preserved in the Wellcome Library (London, UK). Apart from the actual manuscript catalogue the outcomes of this project that are of particular relevance to the Digital Humanities are:

a TEI/ENRICH based XML schema adapted to meet the requirements of cataloguing Arabic manuscripts and in particular to accommodate detailed codicological and textual descriptions
an open source, web-based, customizable cataloguing tool
an online research tool that gives users free access to a wealth of metadata and digitized page images of the manuscripts in this collection
high-quality digital images of each manuscript page linked to rich descriptive metadata.
The project was partly funded by the Wellcome Trust and partly by a grant from the UK's JISC Islamic Studies Programme [Henshaw, 2009]. It is a collaboration between three institutions:

Wellcome Library, London, UKhttp://library.wellcome.ac.uk/
Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Alexandria, Egypthttp://bibalex.org/
King's College London, London, UKhttp://www.kcl.ac.uk/cch/
The Wellcome Library provided the cataloguing expertise and methodology, the digital images, and overall project management, while the web based tools were developed and are hosted by the Bibliotheca Alexandria. King's College London (Centre for Computing in the Humanities) managed the technical requirements specifications for the cataloguing tool, and adapted the TEI/ENRICH XML modelhttp://library.wellcome.ac.uk/arabicproject.html.

The cataloguing methodology and the approach to this project was guided by Wellcome's tripartite approach to cataloguing Oriental manuscripts. This approach suggests that a manuscript should be considered as a product of craftsmen, authors and readers and therefore its production, intellectual content and subsequent use. The description of a manuscript is carried out having these three aspects in mind, viewing the manuscript:

as a museum object (palaeography, codicology)
as an intellectual creation (texts)
under historical user aspect (provenance, owners, editors, etc.)
As a reflection of this approach the manuscripts were catalogued in much more detail than a typical library manuscript catalogue, particularly in the areas of the materiality of the manuscript and the description of the textual content. In practical terms this approach -- together with the newly created tool described below -- allowed the cataloguing tasks to be allocated according to competence and practicality. The detailed codicological description, best done on the actual physical object, was carried out by conservators at the Wellcome Library, whereas the detailed description of the textual content (down to the transcription of chapter headings) was undertaken by cataloguers at the Bibliotheca Alexandrina.

A key objective of the project was that the encoding model should follow established standards to ensure interoperability of the manuscript catalogue and to make it extendable and as flexible as possible. A model based on TEIhttp://www.tei-c.org/ and the format used by ENRICHhttp://enrich.manuscriptorium.com/ (a European manuscript cataloguing project) was chosen [Pierazzo, 2010]. The basic TEI/ENRICH model had to be adapted and customized to accommodate the needs of the tripartite approach. It had to be ensured, for example, that the model is compatible with standards such as Ligatushttp://www.ligatus.org.uk/, an emerging standard for the detailed description of book binding features. Other extensions to the model were needed to enable the description of the very detailed physical features from a conservator's point of view, such as flaps, endbands, or covers. From a more palaeographical perspective various features relating to the scribe had to be added, for example an element to describe the Mistara, an impression on the paper achieved by applying a kind of stamp that indicated the lines a scribe would then write on. Other important palaeographical features that had to be represented were the coefficients calculated by using the ""Pace"" method, a system devised by Nikolaj Serikoff [Serikoff, 2001] to measure certain features of an Arabic script, such as angles of letters, or the ratio of connected and unconnected letters on a line. These features taken together are quite unique for a scribe or scribal school and help to situate a manuscript chronologically and geographically. In order to adequately represent the intellectual content of the manuscript, further adaptations were made. In order to fully represent compound Muslim names, for example, fields for their constituent parts (e. g. patronymic, honorific) were introduced. Additional incipit-like elements were also needed to hold those formulaic passages at the beginning of Arabic manuscript texts (the Basmallah, or Tahmid that superficially look like invocations, but that also tell about the subject area of the text to follow, or the origin of the author.

In addition to the cataloguing effort by the cataloguers at the Bibliotheca Alexandrina, all of the technical development was undertaken by the Egyptian partners. The two outcomes of this substantial development effort are the web based cataloguing tool for data input and administration by Wellcome and Bibliotheca Alexandrina cataloguers and the online research tool that enables scholars and the wider public access to the rich material via browsing and searching.

The web-based tool was designed to allow the cataloguing of manuscripts into valid TEI XML files without prior specialist XML knowledge. This was achieved via the development of a Schema driven editor (SDXE) together with a ""configuration grammar"", the XML Skeleton Annotations (XSA) [Aboulnaga, 2010].

The XSA system automatically builds JSF (JavaServer Faces) based XML editors. These editors in turn produce schema compliant XML files that follow a certain XML skeleton. To enable users to author such XML files, the system generates web forms with fields for each data holding XML element in the skeleton. It does this by reading an XML Skeleton Annotations file (XSA.xml) that contains definitions for each location in the XML skeleton including a label, a help text, authority lists, user access rights, and various other information used by the system to generate the web forms. The XSA system uses the Schema Driven XML Editor to generate schema compliant XML files. The steps necessary to generate a website using XSA are as follows:

authoring of an XSA.xml configuration file
optional creation of facelet templates for look and feel
creation of a blank XML record template
The central component of the cataloguing tool is the XSA configuration file. By changing this file it is possible to adapt the cataloguing tool for any other similar manuscript cataloguing tasks.

The web based research tool, i.e. the online manuscript catalogue is directed towards both specialist and non-specialist use. This means that it has to provide functionalities that address scholarly users, palaeographers, conservators, but also a wider audience whose specialist fields lie in other areas. The research tool therefore offers entry points into the repository via multiple levels and access routes, such as browsing (alphabetic or faceted) or searching (simple or advanced) for a wide ranging set of criteria. The advanced browsing and searching mechanisms take into account features peculiar to manuscripts in Arabic, for example search by stem or search by root, differentiated again by normalized character forms or defective (i. e. dotless) character forms.

During the poster session we will give a live demonstration of the web based cataloguing tool and the online research tool. This will showcase the key features of both applications and highlight the problems that were encountered and how they were overcome

Contributors to the Project
Wellcome Library
Dr. Richard Aspin
Dr. Christy Henshaw
Dr. Nikolaj Serikoff
Bibliotheca Alexandrina
Prof. Magdy Nagi
Dr. Noha Adly
Younos Aboulnaga
King's College London
Simon Tanner
Dr. Elena Pierazzo
Gerhard Brey
References:
Aboulnaga, Y. 2010 “XSA - XSD to configurable JSF UI, ” software package, (link) documentation wiki, (link) October 2010

Henshaw, C. 2009 “JISC funding for the Wellcome Arabic Manuscript Cataloguing Project, ” Wellcome Library Blog, 14 August 2009 (link) October 2010

Pierazzo, E. 2010 “On the Arabic ENRICH schema, ” Wellcome Library Blog, 27 August 2010 (link) October 2010

Serikoff, N. 2001 “Image and Letter: ""Pace"" in Arabic Script (a Thumbnail Index as a Tool for a Catalogue of Arabic Manuscripts. Principles and Criteria for its Construction), ” Manuscripta Orientalia, 7 56-66","txt","2","",""
"1280","12","Stylometry with R","2","Stylometry with R
Eder, Maciej, Pedagogical University of Kraków, Poland, maciejeder@gmail.com
Rybicki, Jan, Pedagogical University of Kraków, Poland, jkrybicki@gmail.com
Stylometric studies, in all their variety of material and method, share two common features: the electronic texts they study have to be coaxed somehow to yield numbers, and the numbers themselves have to be processed with statistical software. Sometimes, the two actions are two independent parts of a given study. To give the simplest example, one piece of software is used solely to compile word frequency lists; then, one of the many commercial statistics packages takes over to extract meaning from this mass of words, draw graphs etc.

This approach works if standard statistical procedures are applied to the data. For multivariate word-frequency-based authorship attribution, for instance, once free AntConc produces word lists with frequencies, expensive (yet often university-licensed) SAS, SPSS or Statistica can be used to produce relative frequencies and correlation matrices thereof, and one of their many modules can in turn produce Principal Components (PCA), Cluster (CA), or Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) analyses. This is already a very comfortable situation when compared to what Burrows had to rely on in his seminal work on Jane Austen’s style (Burrows 1987).

Yet, as stylometrists have begun to produce statistical methods of their own – to name but a few, Burrows’s Delta, Zeta and Iota (Burrows 2002, 2006) and their modifications by other scholars (Argamon 2008, Craig and Kinney 2009, Hoover 2004a, 2004b) – commercial software, despite its wide array of accessible methods, becomes something of a straitjacket. This is why a number of dedicated stylometric solutions have appeared, targeting the specific analyses frequently used in this community.

Hoover’s Delta, Zeta and Iota Excel spreadsheets are a pioneering and excellent example of this approach (Hoover 2004b). Constantly developed since at least 2004 (when one of the authors of this presentation received a CD-ROM with an early version), they have at least two major assets: they do exactly what the stylometrist wants (with several optional procedures) and they only require spreadsheet software that has become (for better or worse) the standard on most computers in the world today. This has been especially helpful for uses in specialist workshops and classrooms; the student only needs additional (and, often, free) software to produce word frequency lists and he/she is ready to go. Yet Excel imposes one limitation: it is overkill in terms of memory usage, which results in the slowness of its processing. Also, the two-stage nature of the process (a separate piece of software prepares word lists that can be later automatically imported into the spreadsheet) might be something of a problem simply because it would take an experienced Visual Basic programmer to make Excel compile the word lists themselves.

In this respect, Juola’s JGAAP can directly import texts in a variety of formats and perform a whole variety of authorship attribution tasks with an imposing variety of methods, statistical approaches and material on which they are based (Juola et al. 2006, 2008). These can be further expanded by experienced programmers in Java.

Java is also the language of another software solution which takes possibly an even broader approach. Craig’s Intelligent Archive (in its many flavours), apart from performing certain stylometric tasks, is also a corpus organizer; once the initial work of registering texts is done, it allows a versatile combination of individual texts and groups of texts (Craig and Kinney, 2010).

A new trend in producing stylometric tools is associated with R, a GNU project, a language and environment for statistical computing and graphics (www.r-project.org) in the image of its commercial counterpart, S. While it came into its version 1.0 in 2000, it has been used for analyses on language only recently. Its strongest promoters in this community include authors of corpus-linguistics-oriented books on the usage of R, Baayen (2008) and Gries (2009). R has already been used in authorship attribution research by Jockers et al. (2008, 2010).

The scripts presented in this poster have begun with the first author’s participation in an R workshop taught by Gries at University of Leipzig’s 1st European Summer School “Culture and Technology.” Very soon, a series of R scripts appeared, targeted at a variety of experiments with Delta and other distance measures. Very soon, too, it became evident that R is capable of processing texts and statistics in a fraction of the time needed by other tools. Also, R scripts can be relied on for doing the whole work themselves, from manipulating texts (typically, to produce word lists) all the way to graphing the results (and that in a great variety).

These capabilities were put tu use in the study of Delta’s dependence on studied texts’ sizes (Eder 2010), and on the behaviour of Delta at a variety of intervals in the word frequency rank lists in a variety of languages (Rybicki and Eder 2011). The R environment permitted us to cover huge statistics at unprecedented rates (often thousands of Delta iterations per hour in corpora of a hundred full-size novels). It also permitted us to use other statistical methods, such as PCA, CA or MDS, or those rarely used so far in this field – such as bootstrap consensus trees based on a study of Papuan languages by Dunn et al. (2005, quoted in Baayen 2008: 143-47). What is more, the entire analysis – from loading texts to final results in numeric and graphic form – can be accomplished with a single script. Our Delta script, for instance, did all the work: it processed electronic texts to create a list of all the words used in all texts studied, with their frequencies in the individual texts; normalized the frequencies with z-scores (if applicable); selected words from stated frequency ranges for analysis; performed additional procedures that (usually) improve attribution, such as Hoover’s automatic deletion of personal pronouns and culling (automatic removal of words too characteristic for individual texts); compared the results for individual texts; performed a variety of multivariate analyses; presented the similarities/distances obtained in tree diagrams; finally, produced the above-mentioned consensus tree – a new graph that combined many tree diagrams for a variety of parameter values (Fig. 1). It was our aim to develop a general platform for multi-iteration attribution tests; for instance, an alternate script produced heatmaps to show the degree of Delta’s success in attribution at various intervals of the word frequency ranking list (Fig. 2).

Figure 1. An example of a consensus tree diagram generated by R

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Figure 2. An example of a heatmap generated by R, showing the percentage of successful Delta authorship attributions at combinations of word list length and initial word rank in frequency lists

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Figure 3. The GUI for the R script used to generate the diagram in Fig. 1

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What is more, despite the fact that the R environment might daunt (digital) humanists with its initially steep learning curve, it soon became evident that ready-made tools can be developed to make the full power of R accessible even to inexperienced users with its capability of working with Tcl/Tk graphic user interfaces (Fig. 3) prepared by the second author for two seminar groups of his MA students, who were asked to make the switch to R from the more traditional software, with success: one of these groups has already successfully defended their completed theses on authorship attribution and stylistic variety in a good number of corpora.

References:
Argamon, S. 2008 “Interpreting Burrows’s Delta: Geometric and Probabilistic Foundations, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(2) 131-47

Baayen, H. R. 2008 Analyzing Linguistic Data: A Practical Introduction to Statistics using R, Cambridge University Press Cambridge

Burrows, J. F. 1987 Computation into Criticism: a Study of Jane Austen’s Novels and an Experiment in Method, Oxford Clarendon Press

Burrows, J. F. 2002 “‘Delta’: A Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 17(3) 267-87

Burrows, J. F. 2006 “All the Way Through: Testing for Authorship in Different Frequency Strata, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 22(1) 27-48

Shakespeare, Computers, and the Mystery of Authorship, Craig, H. Kinney, A. F. 2009 Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Craig, H. Whipp, R. 2010 “Old spellings, new methods: automated procedures for indeterminate linguistic data, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 25(1) 37-52

Dunn, M. Terrill, A. Reesink, G. Foley, R. A. Levinson, S.C. 2005 “Structural Phylogenetics and the Reconstruction of Ancient Language History, ” Science, 309 2072-75

Eder. M. 2010 “Does Size Matter? Authorship Attribution, Small Samples, Big Problem, ” Digital Humanities 2010: Conference Abstracts, King’s College London, 7-10 July 2010 132-34

Gries, S. Th. 2009 Statistics for Linguistics with R: A Practical Introduction, Mouton de Gruyter Berlin New York

Hoover, D. L. 2004a “Testing Burrows’s Delta, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19(4) 453-75

Hoover, D. L. 2004b “Delta Prime?, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19(4) 477-95

Jockers, M. L. Witten, D. M. Criddle, C. S. 2008 “Reassessing Authorship in the ‘Book of Mormon’ Using Delta and Nearest Shrunken Centroid Classification, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(4) 465-91

Jockers, M. L. Witten, D. M. 2010 “A Comparative Study of Machine Learning Methods for Authorship Attribution, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 25(2) 215-23

Juola, P. Noecker, J. Ryan, M. Zhao, M. 2008 “JGAAP3.0 – Authorship Attribution for the Rest of Us, ” Digital Humanities 2008: Book of Abstracts, University of Oulu, 25-29 June 2008 250-51

Juola, P. Sofko, J. Brennan, P. 2006 “A Prototype for Authorship Attribution Studies, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 21(2) 169-78

Rybicki, J. Eder, M. 2011 “Deeper Delta Across Genres and Languages: Do We Really Need the Most Frequent Words?, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 26 (forthcoming)","txt","2","",""
"1281","12","Topic Modeling Historical Sources: Analyzing the Diary of Martha Ballard","1","Topic Modeling Historical Sources: Analyzing the Diary of Martha Ballard
Blevins, Cameron, Stanford University, cblevins@stanford.edu
In 1991, historian Laurel Ulrich’s A Midwife’s Tale swept a little-known 18th-century midwife named Martha Ballard into the national historical consciousness. Ulrich’s work centered on the analysis of nearly 10,000 diary entries penned by Ballard between 1785 and 1812, leading to an exploration of issues such as shifting family structures, the professionalization of obstetrics, and debtor patterns in a rural economy (Ulrich 1991). My research examines the same diary, but instead of a traditional close reading of the source, I use topic modeling to mine a digitized transcription, iterating through hundreds of thousands of words in order to search for textual patterns.

One of the fundamental challenges to applying text processing techniques to historical sources is one of data quality. Older, hand-written documents are often difficult to transcribe into a digital format, while the shorthand style of diary writing is often filled with abbreviations and misspellings. For instance, Ballard employs a vocabulary peppered with variations: the word “daughter” is spelled fourteen different ways: “daught,” “dagt,” “dat,” etc. One way to overcome this challenge is to use topic modeling, a method of computational linguistics that attempts to group words together based on their appearance in the text.

My short paper session focuses on an analysis of a historical source using topic modeling (Blei and Lafferty 2009). As a form of linguistic analysis, topic modeling has been employed over the past several years to examine large-scale, multi-author textual databases, including historical newspapers (Block 2006), journal articles (Gerrish et al. 2010, Hall et. al. 2008), and social network data (Ramage et al. 2010). My application of topic modeling differs from many of these investigations by focusing on multiple, short texts by a single author: in this case, Ballard’s diary entries.

I employed the machine learning toolkit MALLET (McCallum 2002) in order to topic model each of Ballard’s entries as separate pieces of text. MALLET, identified thirty topics, which I then labeled for clarity. The following sample topics were some of the most coherent (my own labels in bold and uppercase):

Topics
           
Topic Label         Topic Words 
MIDWIFERY         birth deld safe morn receivd calld left cleverly pm labour fine reward arivd infant expected recd shee born patient 
CHURCH         meeting attended afternoon reverend worship foren mr famely performd vers attend public supper st service lecture discoarst administred supt DEATH: day yesterday informd morn years death ye hear expired expird weak dead las past heard days drowned departed evinn 
GARDENING         gardin sett worked clear beens corn warm planted matters cucumbers gatherd potatoes plants ou sowd door squash wed seeds 
SHOPPING         lb made brot bot tea butter sugar carried oz chees pork candles wheat store pr beef spirit churnd flower 
ILLNESS         unwell mr sick gave dr rainy easier care head neighbor feet relief made throat poorly takeing medisin ts stomach 
Although topic modeling was useful for overcoming some of the challenges of spelling variations, its real value lies in its ability to quantitatively measure the relative thematic content of each piece of text. In the case of Ballard’s diary, MALLET assumes that each diary entry is compromised of some combination of thirty topics. An entry in which Ballard attended a sermon and purchased supplies from the general store might contain, for instance, scores of 50% for the CHURCH topic, 25% for the SHOPPING topic, and minimal or zero scores for the remaining twenty-eight topics. Associated temporal metadata (day, month, year, day of the week) allowed me to chart the behavior of certain topics over time.

As a simple barometer of its effectiveness, I used one of the generated topics that I labeled COLD WEATHER, which included words such as cold, windy, chilly, snowy, and air. Aggregating its entry scores by month shows exactly what one would expect over the course of a year ( Figure 1).

Figure 1

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This approach also can chart patterns over the course of the diary, which covers the final twenty-seven years of Ballard’s life. Two topics tended to involve words related to HOUSEWORK. Aggregated by year, they demonstrate a steady increase in the frequency with which Ballard writes about daily chores ( Figure 2).

Figure 2

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Both topics moved in tandem and steadily increased as she grew older (excepting a curious divergence in the last several years of the diary). This is somewhat counter-intuitive, as one would assume the household responsibilities for an aging grandmother with a large family would decrease over time. Yet this pattern bolsters the argument made by Ulrich in A Midwife’s Tale, in which she points out that the first half of the diary was “written when her family’s productive power was at its height.” (Ulrich 1991, pp. 285) As her children married and moved into different households, and her own husband experienced mounting legal and financial troubles, her daily burdens around the house increased. Topic modeling quantifies and visualizes this pattern, one not immediately visible to a human reader.

Topic modeling allows for patterns to crystallize that are imperceptible to a human reader. One topic was particularly intriguing, and included the words: feel husband unwel warm feeble felt god great fatagud fatagued thro life time year dear rose famely bu good

These were words that seem to cover EMOTION and spiritual reflection – an abstract topic that is difficult enough for a human reader to describe. Yet the computer did a remarkable job in identifying a cohesive group of words. The topic follows a fascinating trajectory in Ballard’s diary ( Figure 3).

Figure 3

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Not only did Ballard write about this topic more as she grew older, but there was a dramatic leap from 1803 to 1804-1805. This corresponds quite well to the period of intense family travail: Her husband was imprisoned for debt and her son was indicted by a grand jury for fraud, causing a cascade effect in Martha’s own life. Topic modeling not only reveals the trajectory of tangible themes (housework, births, gardening, etc.), but also begins to quantify and visualize abstract themes by charting Ballard’s emotional state of being.

My short paper session focuses on the results of my existing work on topic modeling Ballard’s diary while outlining some of the future paths this research could take. In particular, I am interested in pairing trends in topics with trends in Ballard’s social network. What topics correlate with what kinds of people? Are women or men described alongside particular themes? In what broad context do ministers, doctors, neighbors, or family members appear? In conjunction with traditional research and analysis, topic modeling presents a valuable methodology for examining historical sources.

References:
Blei. D. Lafferty, J. 2009 “Topic Models, ” Text Mining: Classification, Clustering, and Applications., Srivastava, A. and Sahami, M. (ed.) Champan & Hall Boca Raton pp. 71-94

Block, Sharon 2006 “Doing More with Digitization: An Introduction to Topic Modeling of Early American Sources, ” Common-Place, 6.2 (link)

Gerrish, S. Llewellyn, C. 2010 “JSTOR Discipline Browser, ” JSTOR, (link)

Hall, D. Jurafsky, D. Manning, C. 2008 “Studying the History of Ideas Using Topic Models, ” Proceedings of Empirical Methods of Natural Language Processing., (link)

McCallum, Andrew 2002 MALLET: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit, (link)

Ramage, D. Dumais, S. Liebling, D. 2010 ““Characterizing Microblogs with Topic Models.”, ” International Conference on Weblogs and Social Media., (link)

Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher 1991 A Midwife’s Tale: The Life of Martha Ballard and Her Diary, 1785-1812., Vintage New York","txt","2","",""
"1282","12","Integrating Digital Humanities Projects into the Undergraduate Curriculum","15","Integrating Digital Humanities Projects into the Undergraduate Curriculum
Tomasek, Kathryn, Wheaton College, ktomasek@wheatonma.edu
Davis, Rebecca Frost, National Institute for Technology in Liberal Education, rdavis@nitle.org
Digital methods of analysis exert growing influence on the practice of many disciplines in the humanities and social sciences, yet students majoring in non-science disciplines often have little exposure to computational thinking. Although digital scholarship has become more pervasive among humanists, we have yet to recognize fully the value that collaboration with undergraduates can bring to projects in this field.

The aim of this workshop is to invite digital humanists to work together in considering how to integrate digital scholarship into undergraduate or general introductory level graduate courses.  Potential motivations include:

advancing digital humanities within the academy, especially at the undergraduate level,
linking scholarship and teaching to move forward a faculty member’s own project,
engaging students in humanities research through technology,
developing digital literacy to help students function well as citizens in the twenty-first century.
This workshop will present strategies for effectively integrating digital projects into undergraduate courses. By examining cases of assignments linked to digital projects, participants will consider how to make room for such assignments in a syllabus, how to tie digital projects to a course’s learning outcomes, and how to scaffold both technological and content learning to allow students to make positive contributions to a project external to the course. Participants will leave with a set of pedagogical strategies for thinking about digital projects, preliminary plans for assignments for their own courses, and suggestions for how to find collaborative partners in library and technology services for such projects on their home campuses.

Part One: Rebecca Frost Davis will present an overview of ways that digital humanities projects have been integrated into the curriculum, contextualized through the pedagogical approach of problem-based learning and the principles of liberal education.  Participants will look at a variety of examples, including the Homer Multitext Project, SmartChoices, and the NINES Collex.

Part Two: Kathryn Tomasek will present a case study from the Wheaton College Digital History Project.  A transcription and encoding assignment, this module can be dropped into multiple courses.  It includes scaffolded assignments; a teaching collaboration that involves a faculty member, a technologist, and an archivist; and multiple opportunities for students to create and use new historical data whilst contributing to larger digital history projects.

Part Three:  Participants will brainstorm and workshop assignments for their own courses in breakout groups.  Discussion will center on three areas, practical questions about how to integrate assignments into a course, how to pace and scaffold work on digital projects, and questions about collaborative pedagogy.  The workshop will conclude with discussion of individual assignment ideas from the small groups.

Presenters
The organizers bring to the workshop fifteen years’ combined experience in integrating technology projects into the undergraduate curriculum.   Rebecca Frost Davis, Program Officer for the Humanities at the National Institute for Technology in Liberal Education (NITLE), has been teaching faculty development workshops on the effective pedagogical application of technology since 2002.  Currently, she heads NITLE’s initiative in digital humanities and researches the growth of the field at small liberal arts colleges.  Kathryn Tomasek, Associate Professor of History at Wheaton College in Massachusetts, has been using the Text Encoding Initiative in her courses since fall 2004.  She is Co-Director of the Wheaton College Digital History Project, a long-term digitization project that has employed students as summer research assistants and now includes a transcription and markup module that Tomasek uses in multiple courses for advanced-level History majors.  Davis and Tomasek will offer the workshop described here as a Bootcamp at THATCamp LAC, June 4-5, 2011, at St. Norbert College in De Pere, Wisconsin.

References:
Blackwell, C. Martin, T. R. 2009 “Technology, collaboration, and undergraduate research, ” Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3(1) 14 March 2011 (link)

Cavanagh, S. 2010 “Bringing our brains to the humanities: increasing the value of our classes while supporting our futures, ” Pedagogy, 10(1) 131-142 (link) 14 March 14, 2011","txt","2","",""
"1283","12","The Wheaton College Digital History Project: Digital Humanities and Undergraduate Research","2","The Wheaton College Digital History Project: Digital Humanities and Undergraduate Research
Tomasek, Kathryn, Wheaton College, ktomasek@wheatonma.edu
Digital History
Can undergraduates contribute meaningfully to a long-term digital history project? What role can transcription and markup play in the undergraduate history curriculum? How can collaborations among instructor, archivist, and technologist contribute to undergraduate research? What is the role of collaborations with other small liberal arts colleges and with large research universities?

All too often, students majoring in non-science disciplines have little exposure to computational thinking and working with computer code.  At the same time, digital methods of analysis exert growing influence on the practice of many disciplines in the humanities and social sciences.  The Wheaton College Digital History Project seeks to bridge this gap using tools from Digital Humanities.

The Wheaton College Digital History Project
Since fall 2004, undergraduates in History courses at Wheaton College have been transcribing and marking up nineteenth-century documents from the Wheaton College Archives and Special Collections for digital publication. The opportunity to begin this work arose when a confluence of events combined new interest in and experience with the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) at Wheaton College and the acquisition of the pocket diaries of Eliza Baylies Wheaton. Beginning in January 2004, Wheaton College collaborated with Mount Holyoke College to host a two-part conference that explored uses of TEI in teaching and research at liberal arts colleges. The conference included instruction in TEI from Julia Flanders and Syd Bauman of the Women Writers Project at Brown University.

Our first effort at incorporating TEI into a course occurred in fall 2004. Students in an introductory course on women's history, U.S. Women to 1869, learned about the economic uncertainties in the lives of unmarried white women when they transcribed and marked up the journal of Maria E. Wood, the daughter of a Maine Baptist minister. Each student was assigned to transcribe a set of pages from the journal, and then groups of students marked up the entire journal using themes from the course: family, work, religion, death and mourning. At the end of the course, the students expressed a sense of having gotten to know Wood and having understood the past better than they ever had before.

In subsequent semesters and summers, students have collaborated with members of the faculty and staff to create digital editions of the diaries of Eliza B. Wheaton. The three students who worked together in summer 2005 became a community of enthusiastic historians. As they transcribed the travel journal and pocket diaries of Eliza Baylies Wheaton, they used their spare time to explore the town of Norton, especially its cemeteries, where they looked for the birth and death dates of people mentioned in the documents. During subsequent summers, student workers continued to transcribe and mark related documents.

In spring 2009, the project took a new turn, as students in the research methods course for History majors began to transcribe and mark up pages from the daybook that Laban Morey Wheaton kept between 1828 and 1859. This book records financial transactions that reflect some of the range of Wheaton’s business interests during these forty years, including agricultural pursuits and rentals for land and houses as well as tax collections, fees for legal services, and the operation of a general store in Norton, Massachusetts.

Undergraduate Research
Teaching Module
Students examine Laban Morey Wheaton’s daybook alongside his account ledger and cashbooks that date from the same period to get a fuller idea of the financial context for the daybook transactions. Each student transcribes a two-page spread using a Google spreadsheet to facilitate keeping track of the tabular data. The academic technology liaison converts these documents into XML files that students open in oXygen and mark up using the guidelines of the TEI. Students code the transactions for personal names, commodities, amounts purchased, amounts charged, and mode of payment—cash or credit.

In another class meeting, the academic technology liaison demonstrates visualization tools to show students examples of ways to display results of querying the files. Students write short History Engine episodes based on the transaction of their choice, in preparation for writing papers based on the data they have transcribed, coded, and queried.

Collaborations: Archiving, Pedagogy and Research
Since Wheaton College is a liberal arts college that prioritizes teaching and learning, including students in the process of scholarly research makes sense, as does promoting a collaborative pedagogy in which members of the faculty and staff come together to deploy their complementary expertise in leading students through the process of research and writing. The College Archivist and Curator of Special Collections identifies the documents to be transcribed in collaboration with the instructor, who uses her scholarly expertise to identify secondary sources that will help the students contextualize and interpret their findings. The archivist guides students to sources that help establish the local context for the documents. The Technology Liaison for Humanities instructs students in markup and querying data. He also performs backstage transformations that make the data available in appropriate forms for students to mark up, query, and manipulate.

Students contribute more than their labor since they bring to the documents a perspective distinct from those of the archivist, instructor, and technologist. Their very unfamiliarity with the historical context allows them to bring to the project questions that enable new insights into the implications of the data that they help create. Whilst we do not expect them to contribute to the digital humanities at the same level as graduate students, we do value their participation, and we hope to prepare them for advanced study in the field.

Next Steps: Transcribe Wheaton
Since we have developed a workflow and are comfortable with using this assignment as a teaching module, we are piloting targeted crowd-sourcing to speed transcription. Students continue to transcribe, mark up, query, and write about transactions from the daybook in courses.

Transcribe Wheaton, modeled on the Transcribe Bentham project at University College London, will provide a portal and tools to allow students and friends of Wheaton College to participate in digitization of financial documents from the Wheaton Family Papers either as part of their coursework or as a volunteer contribution to the ongoing work of the Wheaton College Digital History Project. We hope that faculty members in courses in Anthropology, Computer Science, Economics, and other fields will use the teaching module to employ transcription and markup in their courses. We also hope that graduates of the college will assist in the project, and we expect to be able to open transcription beyond the college by 2012.

The Long Term
When we began transcribing the pocket diaries of Eliza Baylies Wheaton, we chose TEI because we appreciated the flexibility of XML and we liked the idea of performing transcription once and being able to manipulate the data thereafter. That initial decision has affected the choices we made as we began transcribing the financial records, which are much more abundant in the Wheaton Family Papers collection than are diaries and letters. Such records are in fact abundant in many archives, yet they are underutilized by historians, in part because of their inaccessibility. We hope that our project will contribute to the development of standards for TEI markup of tabular records, thus encouraging similar projects that will increase the accessibility of historical financial records and other tabular data.

Since our project combines archival, pedagogical, and scholarly purposes, we find ourselves negotiating constantly among them. The collaborative nature of our project and the multiple varieties of expertise and interest brought to it by each member of the team necessitate ongoing consultations among the archivist, instructor, and technologists. Like many projects in digital humanities, ours requires a certain amount of comfort with technology from the archivist and instructor, combined with an equivalent amount of comfort with the humanities from the technologists.

Because ours is a small liberal arts college, we rely on collaborations with other institutions to support our project. Our technologists, for example, have spent 2010 collaborating with colleagues from other liberal arts colleges as well as from Brown University and the University of Virginia as they plan a presentation tool for TEI documents produced at small colleges. And members of our project team have taken additional courses with Julia Flanders and Syd Bauman as we continue to hone our TEI skills.

Our poster/demo features our project website: http://wheatoncollege.edu/dhp/. Whilst the website currently serves as a brochure for the project, we hope to include additional features by the time of the conference, including links to student writing about individual transactions from the daybook, as well as a portal for transcribers.

We share our project as an example of a long-term project in digital history that includes undergraduates as significant partners in the digitization and interpretation of a hidden collection that offers insight into the relationship between capitalist accumulation and women's education in the nineteenth-century United States.","txt","2","",""
"1284","12","The Story of TILE: Making Modular & Reusable Tools","2","The Story of TILE: Making Modular & Reusable Tools
Porter, Dorothy (Dot), Indiana University, United States of America, dot.porter@gmail.com
Reside, Douglas, University of Maryland, United States of America, dougreside@gmail.com
Walsh, John A., Indiana University, United States of America, jawalsh@indiana.edu
The Text Image Linking Environment (TILE) is a collaborative project between the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities (MITH), the Digital Library Program at Indiana University, and the School of Library and Information Science at Indiana University Bloomington. Since May 2009, the TILE project team has been developing through NEH Research & Development funding a web-based, modular, image markup tool for both semi-automated linking between encoded text and image of text, and image annotation. The software will be complete and ready for release in June 2011.

Concept of TILE
TILE was designed to change the way that people think about digital humanities tools. Many tools created for humanists are built within the context of a single project, focusing either on a single set of materials or on materials from a single time period, and this limits their ability to be adapted for use by other projects. The TILE project – not just the software, but the project itself – was designed to cut across subjects and materials. Because it is simple, with focused functionality, TILE will be usable by a wide variety of scholars from different areas and working with a variety of materials – illustrations and photographs as well as images of text. To help ensure this, we brought together several collaborators from different projects with different needs to provide advice and testing for our work: The Swinburne Project and Chymstry of Isaac Newton at Indiana University-Bloomington, the Homer Multitext Project at Harvard’s Center for Hellenic Studies, and the Mapas Project at the University of Oregon. In addition, we were very fortunate during the life of the project to have volunteers test the software on their own materials, or to provide materials for us for testing. We also received feedback from user testing performed at the Department of Information Studies, University College London, and the School of Library and Information Science, Indiana University Bloomington.

Functionality of TILE
The basic functionality of TILE is to create links between images and text that relates to that image – either annotations or transcriptions. We have paid particular attention to linking between image of text and transcription of text. These links may be made manually, but the project also includes an algorithm, written in JavaScript, for recognizing text within an image and automatically associating the coordinates with a Unicode transcription. Additionally, the tool can import and export transcriptions and links from and to a variety of metadata formats (TEI, METS, OWL) and will provide an API for developers to write mappings for additional formats. Of course, this functionality is immediately useful to a relatively limited set of editors of digital materials, but we have made modularity and extensibility primary goals of the project, and in our demonstration we hope to be able to show new recognition algorithms to, for instance, identify printer watermarks or panels in a graphic novel.

Many members of the TILE development team are also members of the Open Annotation Collaboration (OAC), and have therefore attempted to develop TILE’s annotation features to be OAC compliant. Like OAC, TILE assumes that the text and the images to be linked may exist at separate and completely unconnected servers. When a user starts the TILE tool for the first time, she is prompted to supply a URI to a TILE compliant JSON file [pictured in figure A].

FIGURE A: Opening screen of TILE tool

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TILE’s JSON is simple and thoroughly documented, and we provide several translators to map common existing metadata formats to the format. We have already created a PHP script that will generate TILE JSON from a TEI P5 document and are currently working to do the same for the METS files used in the Indiana University’s METS navigator tool. We hope to have other translators to show in our demonstration, particularly one that will import TEI/XML conformant with the University of Victoria’s Image Markup Tool.

Additionally, TILE provides a modular exporting tool that allows users to run the work they’ve done in TILE through an external translator and then download the result to the client computer. For example, a user may import a set of images and transcripts from a METS file at the Library of Congress, use TILE to link images and text, and then export the result as a TEI file. The TEI file may then be reimported to TILE at a later data to further edit or convert the file.

At the poster session at DH2011, we will demonstrate the final functionality of TILE and to display a poster and provide handouts that describe the thinking behind TILE, how it is intended to be used, and details on how TILE is built and functions.

References:
Chymstry of Isaac Newton, (link)

Homer Multitext Project, (link)

Image Markup Tool, (link)

Mapas Project, (link)

METS Navigator, (link)

Open Annotation Collaboration, (link)

Swinburne Project, (link)

Text Image Linking Environment, (link)","txt","2","",""
"1285","12","Knowledge and Reasoning: Connecting Scientific Data and Cultural Heritage","1","Knowledge and Reasoning: Connecting Scientific Data and Cultural Heritage
France, Fenella G., Library of Congress, United States of America, frfr@loc.gov
Toth, Michael B., R.B. Toth Associates, mbt.rbtoth@gmail.com
Uncovering and detecting patterns of information in library and museum collection items requires the integration of scholarly and scientific data analyses. Research into the materials substrate (paper, parchment, etc) and media (ink, pigment, colorant) that comprise the historic object inform the scholar as to the provenance of a particular document. This may be through characterization and identification of the media and substrate on which the information is contained, or watermark identification that can effectively date the document to a specific time period. The challenge of linking disparate materials characterization and identification databases and scientific analyses is a critical research issue requiring the development of a knowledge representation (KR) to facilitate interpretation that enables this humanities research. With cultural heritage objects, the KR must maintain linkage between the original document that contains a wealth of knowledge stored contextually, and digital surrogates that represent the document. These links will be explored in reference to cultural treasures of South America, where the integration of scientific analyses and historic scholarly information led to the generation of knowledge that enriched the contextual interpretation of the original object. Scientific analyses of textile treasures from Llullaillaco provided an understanding of their use and purpose, while environmental information of Pre-classic Mayan structures in the Mirador Basin allowed an assessment of preservation requirements. Investigations of maps with specific links to South America yielded information on the source of pigments and geographical location of their original creation.

Historic documents and cultural heritage objects do not generally lend themselves to ease of context analysis, since documentation about the creation of the document is not readily available. Discovery of data with more detail about the context and circumstances that surround the creation of the artifact allows researchers to visualize information previously not detected. This visualization is achieved in Library of Congress studies through advanced spectral imaging techniques that incorporates data from both visible and non-visible regions of the spectrum to create an integrated “digital cultural object” (DCO). The additional contextual information is not apparent in conventional digitization techniques for these objects, so the integration of the spectral data assists in mining the layers of data stored within the objects. In this way the DCO provides a range of information that allows a shift from the use of interpretive virtual heritage applications that focus on the artistic rather than the investigative and inferential, towards the development of interdisciplinary scientific data analyses as part of cultural heritage humanities scholarly studies. In this way, cultural heritage, science and technology are intertwined, advancing the capacity to mine and analyze historic data from multiple viewpoints. Interaction and interpretation of these additional dimensions allow the description of new relationships between constituent elements, connecting patterns and mining the data for trends, and correlating formerly disparate components. For example, the new identification of pigments in an object that come from a different geographical location, can then suggests trade routes and exchange of materials and artistic techniques. The UNESCO Charter on the Preservation of Digital Heritage has recognized the importance of digital versions of cultural materials, referring to digital heritage as “resources of information and creative expression” being “increasingly produced, distributed, accessed and maintained in digital form.”

The composite of images of the maps and textiles that forms the new DCO is related to, but distinct from the originals. This digital object is not a surrogate for the original, but provides new knowledge through the integration of scientific analysis of these cultural heritage objects within libraries, museums and archives. The range of data this new digital object contains enhances interaction between a range of professions, allowing multidisciplinary collaboration for integration of preservation, sociological and cultural information. Digitally generated and accessed data for these maps and textiles balances the opposing goals of libraries and museums and optimizes preservation of the original objects, while increasing access to information from the original. Hyperspectral imaging allows the DCO to create a new interpretation of the original object, as apparent from the 3-dimensional reconstruction of the original woodcut of the Waldseemüller 1507 world. Since these original manufacturing materials no longer exist, the DCO allows the representation of this new scientific knowledge to link with geography and map curatorial knowledge of the era, and assist a greater understanding of the printing techniques and possible location of where these materials originated. This was the first time America was referred to as America, on any map, printed or manuscript, with a unique perspective of South America.

Figure 1. LHS: Section of Printed Sheet of South America, RHS: 3D Rendering of Woodcut

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Image capture and processing of these and other objects is important for the interpretation of cultural heritage by allowing layers of data to be analyzed and linked. This offers an archeological examination of the information strata, the materials, inter-connections between the materials used, discovered text and information, and the relative associations between the components of the artifact. The creation of an image data-cube deconstructs layers of data into discrete components, while conversely also integrating and utilizing the application of scientific methods to the recognition of areas of interest within the artifact. The explanations generated from these processes expand the associations and extracted knowledge of the original cultural heritage objects.

There is dynamic interaction between re-examination of the original or source materials and the DCO, with raw and processed data that can enhance obscured and specific features. Inter-connections and relationships between the source and the generated interpretations based upon analysis of generated data are an iterative process. The process of interpretation relies upon the use of implicit assumptions, inferences or internal filtering. For both scientific and scholarly researchers, these processes are often based upon prior knowledge and experience. Additional filtering for scientific analyses are introduced by reference databases that match known reference materials with “pixel” samples taken from the spectral images to non-invasively characterize materials. These categorizations are objective in nature and reduce the potential error sometimes introduced by subjective assumptions. However, the essential element that should not be overlooked in this iterative process is the power of strong collaborations between a range of disciplines. In 1999 on Llullaillaco's summit, an Argentine-Peruvian expedition co-directed by Johan Reinhard and Argentine archaeologist Constanza Ceruti found the perfectly preserved bodies of three Inca children, sacrificed approximately 500 years earlier. These were accompanied by a range of textiles, figurines and other ceremonial sacrificial materials. A close collaboration between the American Museum of Natural History, preservation scientists, engineers from Argentina and the USA, conservators and curators was critical to ensuring the preservation of these unique materials. The interweaving of the assessment of current condition of the cultural artifacts such as strength and chemical degradation to aid their preservation, with scholarly analysis of the unique patterns of construction enabled the knowledge of both to be linked so as to create a rare collaboration of the forensic type recovery of the history of these materials. This is the highest Inca burial so far discovered and the world's highest archaeological sit. There was intense pressure for exhibition of the materials so close collaboration between all parties to gain as much scientific and cultural information about the origins of the materials and the mummies was a unique component in ensuring their longevity while on exhibit. This sharing of data aided the control of exhibit conditions in South America and long-term management of the materials to allow further studies.

The critical component in the generation of knowledge in these studies is recognizing the importance of skilled people and work processes that efficiently add value and meaning. In order to analyze the original source material, high resolution spectral imaging creates the DCO, and data processing and further scientific analyses revolve around the interactions of the people involved – preservation scientist, curator, scholar and technology specialist. This iterative process is reliant not only upon the effective use of technology to assimilate process and disseminate the information with standardized processing, metadata and data management, but also the quality of the collaborative interaction between professionals from different fields.

While the relationship between the original and the DCO is provided through metadata that maintains the spatial links between the scientific data, the original material, and the new knowledge generated from these linkages, the integration of diverse opinions and perspectives is an integral component of this new knowledge generation. Standardization of file formats and structures across these different fields provides a method of ensuring continued access and integration to the information, by maintaining and creating effective associations while generating new knowledge. The above examples illustrate the requirement for this standardization of both scientific and scholarly files, to enable true international collaboration and sharing of resources between countries and disciplines. These protocols can support effective data exchange with conventions that provide a local structure for a scientific data network. This sustains diversity in scientific research and scholarly studies. This requirement for a structural framework for cultural heritage institutions allows both user access and functional usability of information to support research.

Effective visualization of these data connections is essential for further associations, with access to both spatial and temporal data for the maps, textiles and other objects directly linked back to the original source material through the DCO. Visualization tools and interfaces offer potential for open dialogue between multidisciplinary fields and ease of navigation through layers of data, since knowledge generation is reliant on the cohesive interaction and collaboration between science and humanities researchers. The knowledge representation and underlying interpretation system needs to be appropriate for the application and the types of analyses that are needed for integrating and expanding cultural heritage research. The development of XML-based knowledge representation languages and standards include the Resource Description Framework (RDF). A major benefit of RDF is the ability to utilize the features that facilitate the merging of data, even if the underlying schemas differ. The further advantage for this heritage science application is the capacity to support the evolution of schemas over time, allowing both structured and semi-structured data to be combined and shared across different areas within the application. The large volumes of digital data generated require a repository that can cope with a diverse range of object types, as is true for with collections of data used for scientific analyses. Data files from these objects include images, spectra, reports, and other extant files, requiring additional metadata mechanisms to accommodate a range of data, while retaining access and associations. An RDF model offers greater flexibility and opportunity for integration across various disciplines, since it is designed to accommodate multiple ontologies with a structured approach. The model or ontology being exploited within this structure allows us to coordinate a wide range of data and file types with extensive metadata and multiple data formats. For example, metadata from the scientific instrument is included so the measurement could be reproduced, and in addition the data can be imported in multiple formats – as spectra for visual representation and as a .csv standardized sharable data file.

Figure 2. Visual Representation of Layers of Digital Object Data

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Scriptospatial mapping of the textiles and maps involves an accurate coordinate system that links scientific and scholarly analyses to the DCO, and allows inferences to be drawn to generate new knowledge. This approach to viewing the DCO in relation to multiple dimensions applies an essentially archeological methodology toward uncovering and interconnecting information strata of cultural heritage artifacts. Utilizing an object-oriented approach in conjunction with the data layer allows the mapping of spatial and temporal data with increasing complexity. Examining and explaining the physical, spectral and chemical properties of the maps and textiles permit the humanities scholar to link these scientific analyses to the social aspects of how they were created. These links therefore create meaningful scientific outcomes of the content: When obscured or faded text can be retrieved; inks and pigments characterized and traced to specific geographical locations; analysis of the intensity of handwriting imparts understanding of the author’s original intent; and the provenance and source of paper is gleaned through the capture and analysis of the watermark in the paper.

A continued focus on collaboration between people, data and processes is a major factor in promoting access and integration of scientific and humanities research, emphasizing the importance of linking the original artifact with digital tools and techniques for visualizing and disseminating new knowledge in the arts and humanities. Concentrating on generating new knowledge from content derived from these maps, textiles and other objects enhances the importance of the DCO. This allows improved access, interpretation and preservation of fragile items of significant cultural heritage. However the extracted information is only as important as the strength of the collaborative partnerships set up to create a constant iterative loop for access to and interpretation of new scholarly and scientific information. This requires a strong and committed association between previously disparate fields to incorporate and share the generation of new knowledge by mining additional data and forging new advances in humanities research. These related but previously disparate disciplines comprise humanities scholars, scientists, researchers, technology and data management specialists to form an open yet interconnected digital exchange of humanities research.

References:
Cameron, F, and Kenderdine, S. (eds) 2007 Theorizing Digital Cultural Heritage: A critical discourse, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press Massachusetts, USA

Emery, D, France, F. G., and Toth, M. B. 2009 “Management of Spectral Imaging Archives for Scientific Preservation Studies, ” Archiving 2009, Society for Imaging Science and Technology, Arlington, VA, May 4-7 137-141

Esteva, M., Trelogan, J., Rabinowitz, A., Walling, D. and Pipkin, S. 2010 “From the Site to Long-term Preservation: A Reflexive system to Manage and Archive Digital Archeological Data, ” Archiving 2010, Society for Imaging Science and Technology, The Hague, June 1-4

France, F.G. 2010 “Spectral Imaging and Non-Invasive Characterization of Manuscripts, ” Eikonopoiia: Symposium on Digital Imaging of Ancient Textual Heritage, Helsinki, Finland, October 28-29, 2010 51-64

France, F.G., Christens-Barry, W., Toth, M.B., Boydston, K. 2010 “Advanced Image Analysis for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage, ” 22nd Annual IS&T/SPIE Symposium on Electronic Imaging, San Jose, January 2010

France, F. G., Emery, D., and Toth, M.B. 2010 “The Convergence of Information Technology, Data and Management in a Library Imaging Program, ” Library Quarterly special edition: Digital Convergence: Libraries, Archives, and Museums in the Information Age,

France, F.G., Roussakis, V., Lissa, P., Xamena, M, Santillán, P, Capero de Larrán, M., Doña, G and Ammirati, G. 2005 “Textile Treasures of Llullaillaco, ” North American Textile Conservation Conference, Mexico City, November 2005 25-30

Museum of High Altitude Archaeology (MAAM), Salta, (link)

Schreibman, S. and Hanlon, A.M. 2010 “Determining Value for Digital Humanities Tools: Report on a Survey of Tool Developers, ” Digital Humanities Quarterly, 4 (2)

Svensson, P. 2010 “The Landscape of Digital Humanities, ” Digital Humanities Quarterly, 4 (1)

UNESCO Charter on the Preservation of Digital Heritage, (link)","txt","2","",""
"1286","12","Virtual Touch. Towards an Interdisciplinary Research Agenda for the Arts and Humanities","2","Virtual Touch. Towards an Interdisciplinary Research Agenda for the Arts and Humanities
Bentkowska-Kafel, Anna, Centre for Computing in the Humanities, King’s College, London, UK, anna.bentkowska@kcl.ac.uk
Giachritsis, Christos, SyMoN lab, University of Birmingham, UK, c.giachritsis@bham.ac.uk
Prytherch, David, User-lab, Birmingham Institute of Art and Design, Birmingham City University, UK, david.prytherch@bcu.ac.uk
The term 'haptics' encompasses two areas of study: human and machine haptics. The first relates to the study of the perception of the world through the sense of touch. It includes proprioception (one’s awareness of one’s own body position in space) as well as cutaneous information (one’s awareness of skin deformations). Machine haptics relates to the design and development of devices that simulate the haptic properties of physical objects. In principle, they are incorporated in virtual environments and allow users to experience tactile properties of virtual objects such as size, shape, weight, compliance and texture.

Virtual Artefact. A Different Approach
The virtual artefact has firmly established itself as a research tool within several disciplines of the Arts and Humanities. Many art and material culture historians and professionals rely on digital records and visualisations of artefacts in their research, teaching and practice. We have witnessed, from the 1990s onwards, how the virtual artefact has increasingly become photo-realistic and interactive, and how it continues to evolve. The virtual artefact can now be part of a complex, collaborative research environment. With the enhanced technical specifications comes the interest in exploring the research potential of virtual artefacts further. We are here concerned with enhanced simulation of the real experience of physical objects through the application of haptic interfaces, or virtual touch technologies. We believe that the addition of virtual touch would also contribute to greater usability of the existing, often neglected electronic resources and libraries of 3D artefacts.

Research into the use of haptic interfaces–that is devices engaging the sense of touch in virtual environments–in the Arts and Humanities is in its infancy. Although virtual simulation of physical touch has resulted in important advances in other disciplines–such as medicine, neuro-science, telemanipulation control systems and product design–the potential of such applications to humanities scholarship has not yet been explored. Very few researchers in the Arts and Humanities have had an opportunity to experience haptic devices first hand and to develop a critical understanding of such systems and the perceptual processes involved. There have been some important and promising developments in the area of heritage science, such as the Haptic Museum in the US, being the work of Margaret McLaughlin et al. (2000) at the University of Southern California, Annenberg and the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History; the Museum of Pure Form (Bergamasco et al., 2005) and ‘Touching the Untouchable: Increasing Access to Archaeological Artefacts by Virtual Handling’ in the UK, supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council and Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council.

The authors are investigating certain fundamental questions:

Is virtual touch likely to enhance the ways in which we carry out and communicate research in those areas of the Arts and Humanities that employ 3D visualisations of material culture?
How much do we learn about artefacts by touching them?
Would simulating this experience through a haptic interface enhance virtual fieldwork?
Who can possibly benefit from this experience and how?
If ‘seeing with vision that feels, feeling with fingers that see’ (Goethe, 1788) is possible, to what extent can this experience be mediated by a haptic system?
To Touch or not to Touch?
A notice ‘DO NOT TOUCH’ is familiar in many museums and heritage sites and the reasons why this measure is necessary are commonly understood. Most museum managers and curators embrace the notion that touching object collections are important. However, many of the most tactually alluring artefacts present conservation problems that are difficult to overcome. Yet, the existence of ‘DO NOT TOUCH’ simply demonstrates the visitor’s compelling ‘NEED TO TOUCH’ the artefact. This need originates from the fact that the sense of touch can provide us with haptic-specific information about an object such as absolute size, material compliance, texture, temperature and weight, which cannot be reliably obtained through the audio-visual senses. Therefore, a solution which would allow visitors, curators and researchers in Arts & Humanities to experience these tactile properties without compromising the integrity of the artefact is likely to be very welcome and highly valuable.

The latest haptic technologies can provide a way forward which satisfies both the visitors’ and researcher’s desire to handle and the museums’ necessity to conserve collections for future generations. An early 'proof of concept' pilot study was conducted with randomly arriving museum visitors, which looked at the potential for the substitution of real object handling with touching virtual 3D replicas via a low resolution, low cost, commercially available haptic interface (PhanTom Omni) coupled with a stereoscopic (3D) visual display (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 'Feeling' a virtual replica of an object from the Potteries Museum, Stoke-on-Trent, UK, using the portable haptic system based on a PhanTom Omni, SenseGraphics 3D Mobile Immersive Workbench. Photo: D. Prytherch

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The visitor feedback offered interesting insights into the potential of the haptic display of virtual objects to enhance the experience of museum visitors by allowing them to interact with virtual artefacts through touch. An informal trial with a blind member of museum staff demonstrated that he was able to identify the shape of the object and gain some insight into the surface carving and texture of the object, despite the real artefact being untouchable. The same portable haptic system was used in the classroom when teaching a masters module in Digital Arts and Culture and received valuable feedback from the students (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 Haptics in the classroom. A postgraduate course in Digital Arts and Culture, Centre for Computing in the Humanities, King's College London, UK, 24 November 2010. Photo: A. Bentkowska-Kafel. Insert: Laser scanning of the Bride (Potteries Museum, Stoke-on-Trent, UK) to create a virtual 3D replica. Photo: D. Prytherch.

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Archaeologists, art historians, restorers, palaeographers and other specialists who examine artefacts through touch to assess and authenticate their material, execution and other tactile qualities, might also be interested in haptic access to material ex situ when direct access is not possible. The capacity of human haptic perception–the ability to perceive the world through the sense of touch–to differentiate qualities of material, is incredibly rich and we learn much about the form and composition of an artefact from our sensitivity to thermal conduction and fine surface textural qualities through touch. Current commercial haptic devices do not make effective use of tactile (or cutaneous) cues, that is the physical properties of objects which are perceived through skin mechanoreceptors. Technologies that do operate at this level are either experimental, lab-based systems or, if commercially available, are extremely expensive, as well as being complex to setup and maintain. Certain limitations inherent in the whole concept of virtual representations of objects, notably weight and balance, which are dependant not on the virtual object itself, but on the properties of the specific device with which we feel it, need to be resolved.

The virtual artefact has opened up unprecedented possibilities for new research into the material culture of the past. Digital technology supporting visualisation of heritage is becoming ever more sophisticated and many projects of this kind seek to better the accompanying scholarly apparatus. The publication of the London Charter for the Computer-based Visualisation of Cultural Heritage (version 2.1, February 2009), is a step in this direction. Some scholars working in this area claim that their visualisations of ancient sites re-create the real human experience of ‘being there’. Some believe that digital visualisation itself may ‘include sight, hearing, and potentially in the future, smell, taste, and touch’ (Mudge, 2011). The lack of tactile experience is one of the significant issues inherent to digital visualisation of heritage. In addition, our limited knowledge of the real-life processes that we are trying to simulate through the use of digital media is always a challenge. We need to better understand the perceived discrepancies between the real object and its virtual record.

'Feeling with a Seeing Hand' (Goethe, 1788)
In the process of gaining knowledge about the real world, vision allows us to explore the environment instantly and provides us with information about object properties such as 3D shape, colour, texture, condition, relative size, relative distance as well as events such as motion or changes of all these visual properties. Even when looking close-up is possible our knowledge is still incomplete. This is because vision alone does not allow us to perceive important physical properties of materials such as weight, centre of mass, temperature, surface roughness, hardness and actual size. In order to perceive these properties we need to engage touch. Touch allows us to perceive the properties which are essential for effective interaction with the physical world. By exploring an object through touch, we can form a better understanding of its purpose and use, and develop insights to inform us about its past users. For example, it is not possible to appreciate the physical endurance of an ancient warrior just by viewing a shield he might have used. For this, it is necessary to engage touch: lift and carry it.

Although still relatively primitive (comparing to advances in visual displays), current haptic interfaces (HI) allow a range of haptic and tactile interaction with virtual objects, from the exploration with one or multiple fingers with one or two hands (Giachritsis et al., 2009; Giachritsis et al., 2010; Monroy et al., 2008) (Fig. 3) to more immersive experience involving movements from arm joints.

Fig. 3 Bimanual manipulation of a virtual object using precision grip with the haptic interface device Master Finger 2.

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Haptic applications vary from simple touch of the virtual object to real-life probes used as medical or artistic tools for working on object surface. The extensive industrial and academic research in advancing HI shows the impact of these technologies on the way people learn, train, work and entertain themselves in virtual environments. Despite their limitations, HI technologies already offer significant advantages to users of virtual environments by allowing them a more realistic interaction with virtual objects.
Recent advances in recording art objects, made possible by such technologies as photogrammetry, touch probing and 3D structured light or colour laser scanning, have augmented the already considerable body of virtual artefacts, created primarily through Virtual Reality (VRML) modelling, with records of unprecedented accuracy. The E-Curator project carried out by the University College London Museum Collections and partners, used 3D colour scans of various artefacts captured with an Arius scanner, to develop a traceable, grid-based dissemination and visualisation system. This system enables museum curators and conservators to identify and assess objects remotely in a collaborative, networked environment. The addition of haptic interfaces engaging the sense of touch seems an obvious future development. The question is which particular aspects of human touch these devices should simulate so that they could be useful to heritage professionals?

Towards a Research Agenda for the Arts and Humanities
If the promise of more intuitive and multisensory computing–than the one with which we are familiar today–is real, we should investigate how these future developments in information technologies may affect our own disciplines. We argue for the need to explore the potential benefit of haptic interaction as an addition to audio-visual experiences of virtual artefacts. How much do we learn about artefacts by touching them? Would simulating this experience through a haptic interface enhance virtual fieldwork? Who can possibly benefit from this experience and how? If Goethe's (1788) ‘seeing with vision that feels, feeling with fingers that see’ is possible, to what extent can this experience be mediated by a haptic system? We will not be certain of the answers, nor have influence over the future of multisensory computing, unless we explore whether current developments and wide-ranging research meets our varied expectations.

The authors propose a research agenda in this area is made from the four positions: 1) digital scholarship of material culture; 2) the contribution of human vision and touch in the perception and appreciation of real and virtual environments; 3) haptic interface design and applications, and 4) haptic access to 3D records of art objects within networked collaborative environments.

The authors seek to investigate the level of interest of those engaged in historical and cultural studies in researching the potential benefits of adding virtual touch to virtual artefacts for the advancement of cultural heritage scholarship and education. Expressions of such interest and comments are welcome.

References:
Brewster, S.A. 2005 “The Impact of Haptic ‘Touching’ Technology on Cultural Applications, ” Digital Applications for Cultural Heritage Institutions, Hemsley, J., Cappellini, V., and Stanke, G. Ashgate Aldershot 273-284

E-Curator Project, University College London, 14 March 2011 (link)

Frisoli, A., Jansson, G., Bergamasco, M. and Loscos, C. 2005 “Evaluation of the Museum of Pure Form Displays Used for Exploration of Works of Art at Museums, ” Proc. World Haptics Conference 2005, Pisa, 18-20 March 2005 (link)

Giachritsis, C., Barrio, J., Ferre, M., Wing, A., and Ortego, J. 2009 “Evaluation of Weight Perception During Unimanual and Bimanual Manipulation of Virtual Objects, ” Third Joint Eurohaptics Conference and Symposium on Haptic Interfaces for Virtual Environment and Teleoperator Systems, Salt Lake City, UT, 18-20 March 2009

Giachritsis, C.D., Garcia-Robledo, P. Jr., Barrio, J., Wing, A.M. and Ferre, M. 2010 “Unimanual, Bimanual and Bilateral Weight Perception of Virtual Objects in the Master Finger 2 Environment, ” 19th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication, Principe di Piemonte - Viareggio, Italy, 12-15 September 2010

Goethe, J.W. von 1988 Roman Elegies, VII [1788], Routledge London

London Charter for the Computer-based Visualisation of Cultural Heritage, 14 March 2011 (link)

McLAUGHLIN, M., L., Sukhatme, G., Shahabi, C., Medioni, G. and Jaskowiak, J. 2000 “The Haptic Museum, ” Proc. EVA Conference on Electronic Imaging and the Visual Arts, Florence, 2000

Mudge, M. forthcoming “Transparency for Empirical Data, ” Paradata and Transparency in Heritage Visualisation, A. Bentkowska-Kafel et al. eds Ashgate Aldershot (link)

Monroy, M., Oyarzabal, M., Ferre, M., Campos, A. and Barrio, J. 2008 “MasterFinger: Multi-finger Haptic Interface for Collaborative Environments, ” Proceedings of Eurohaptics ’08, Madrid, 10-13 June 2008 411-419

Prytherch, D. and Jefsioutine, M. 2007 “Touching Ghosts: Haptic technologies in museums, ” The Power of Touch: Handling Objects in Museum and Heritage Contexts, Pye, E. Left Coast Press Walnut Creek, CA 223-40

Touching the Untouchable: Increasing Access to Archaeological Artefacts by Virtual Handling, 14 March 2011 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1287","12","Between Close and Distant: Historical Editing Methods at Intermediate Scale","2","Between Close and Distant: Historical Editing Methods at Intermediate Scale
Knox, Douglas W., Newberry Library, knoxdw@gmail.com
Between mass digitization of millions of images and texts and intensive scholarly work on close digital representation, in the humanities there are many collections of texts at intermediate scales that require their own strategies for management, editing, and analysis. The Text Encoding Initiative grew out of scholarly needs in working with digital texts that were encoded manually with considerable editorial care. In recent years it has become possible to begin to address the challenge of working with digital resources at scales that had been difficult to imagine previously—a challenge captured in Gregory Crane's memorable question, ""What Do You Do with a Million Books?"" (Crane, 2006).

More recently Crane seemed to reply to his own question with the demand, ""Give us editors!,"" recognizing the need for new kinds of editing and scholarship that will combine the strengths of digital methods and domain-appropriate human judgment (Crane 2010). Between markup of single texts and mass digitization of millions of books, increasing attention is called for at intermediate scale. The present project is a case study of one modest example of this sort of work.

At the scale of tens of thousands of texts, manual editing methods are impractical or not cost-effective, yet there is often still considerable value in structured markup to support management, discovery, and scholarly use beyond what uncorrected OCR or plain text can support. While this is not in itself a novel observation, thinking about interpretive issues and scale in relation to digital editing has in general been much more developed with respect to literary texts than it has been for nonliterary historical sources.

The poster will outline some of editing questions and processes that can arise in applying digital methods to a large aggregation of related historical documents, drawing on examples from the Chicago Foreign Language Press Survey, an NEH-funded project of the Newberry Library that is creating an electronic publication and database using relatively simple TEI structures to represent a collection of thousands of newspaper articles prepared in the 1930s. The original Press Survey was a project of the U.S. Works Progress Administration in the 1930s that selected, translated into English, edited, and organized articles published in Chicago from 1861 to 1938 in newspapers in twenty-two linguistic and ethnic groups. The project produced 120,000 half-sheets of typescript, recording what we now know are more than 48,000 articles.

The present-day Press Survey project worked with a vendor to produce a set of simple TEI transcription files from images digitized from microfilm by the library at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The body of each article has been transcribed into paragraphs and occasionally tables, without further markup below that level. Considerable effort, however, went into making sure the files accurately capture the structure of information that constitute metadata for each article: ethnic group, primary and secondary subject code classifications, source, date, and title. At the publication end of the process, web developers populate a database with metadata drawn from edited TEI files and create a searchable, browseable interface for the collection.

Between the vendor's XML and the web presentation is an essential set of editing tasks. Many editing steps, beginning with XML validation, apply to single documents, and scale up through simple repetition, preferably automated repetition with manual exception handling as required. Often this is a matter of imagining what might have gone wrong, and then devising tests for it. Are any items, pages, or essential data structures missing? Are there paragraphs that are suspiciously short? Are there any duplicate values one would not expect, whether identifiers, file name references, or page numbers? Is there data integrity in expected relations between file names and internal identifiers? Is there the sequential continuity we would expect in any numbering or other patterns where the sequence of the original material implies some kind of consistency or order in metadata fields?

Some of the most interesting editing tasks, however, are those that relate to the collection as a whole, and require an iterative exploratory process. The 1930s editors of the Press Survey thought carefully about their choices and methods in organizing a large body of material. They invented their own hierarchical subject code scheme, and the linear arrangement of the typescript indicates how they prioritized ethnic groups and primary subject codes over date of publication and secondary subject terms. They faced inevitable limitations in trying to managing a textual database of tens of thousands of records with nothing more than paper, procedural guidelines, and human attention. For seventy years, in the absence of a digital representation of the editorial model of the WPA editors, it was impossible to get a full picture of the choices they made. Now, with digital methods, we can better enjoy the benefit of their work and yet also see the limitations of their methods, even according to their own intentions, better than they themselves were able to.

While scholars have made good use of typescript, microfilm, and digital images, until the Press Survey was modeled as a database of articles its aggregate characteristics were obscure. No index recorded the range and distribution of values in important metadata fields, including dates and the names of newspapers and other sources. Creating a digital representation now requires simultaneous analysis and editorial decision-making. How often did the original editors depart from their own advertised controlled vocabularies? What simple errors should now be corrected, what normalization of data would best serve the current digital project? Do the data structures chosen in anticipation of full-scale digitization fit what we can now know about the documents in the aggregate? With an eye to both central tendencies and odd but perhaps telling exceptions, how can editing choices mediate a digital collection for efficient use while also preserving some necessary kinds of transparent resistance to user expectations, features that may be essential to its character as a complex historical primary source?

The poster will be organized around these kinds of questions and tasks, with a series of illustrative case studies drawn from Foreign Language Press Survey documents and data.

Generalizing from this case, the primary point is that intermediate scale matters in its own right. If a collection is interesting as such, it will likely require more than the repeated application of the kind of editing applied to individual texts, and it may also require decision-making beyond the methods and standards designed to provide access to aggregations at much larger scale. We must be able to see both the forest and the trees.

References:
Crane, G. 2010 “Give us editors! Re-inventing the edition and re-thinking the humanities, ” Connexions, May 14, 2010 March 9, 2011 (link)

Crane, G. 2006 “What Do You Do with a Million Books?, ” D-Lib Magazine,, 12 3 March 9, 2011 (link)

TEI Consortium 2007 TEI P5, Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, TEI Consortium March 9, 2011 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1288","12","Documenting Horizons of Interpretation in Philosophy","1","Documenting Horizons of Interpretation in Philosophy
Saisó, Ernesto Priani, History of Philosophy and Humanities Computing, Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, epriani@gmail.com
Farfán, Leticia Flores, History of Philosophy, Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, floresfarfanleticia@gmail.com
Zavala, Daniel, Independent software developer, siedrix@gmail.com
Choreño, Rafael Gómez, History of Philosophy, Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, rafaelangelg@yahoo.com
Priego, Ernesto, Department of Information Studies, University College London, efpriego@gmail.com
Abstract
URL of the project: (link)

This poster presentation will describe a project currently underway at the Faculty of Filosofía y Letras, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM). It has been funded by a grant from the Programa de Apoyo a Proyectos para la Innovación y Mejoramiento de la Enseñanza (PAPIME), a university endowment program for innovation in education. It is a collaborative documentation project of the individual and collective processes of research and writing of a group of 25 researchers, working on papers about the contemporary strategies of appropriation of the antiquity and aims to use innovative web-based technology to document different data of the research/writing process and to create a visualization model to use the data for educative and didactical purposes.

Background, Assumptions and Needs
In May 2010 a group of professors and researchers teaching at the Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, UNAM, gathered to start a project following Barbara Cassin’s proposal from the conference Les Stratégies contemporaines d'appropriation de l'Antiquité. The objective is to create a seminar and produce papers on the subject of the contemporary strategies of appropriation of the antiquity, for a series of publications to be used as a teaching material in a variety of courses in Contemporary and Classical philosophy at the faculty.

The main assumption of the project is that we cannot have access to the classic antiquity without mediation or heritage (Gadamer 2005). Reading and studying Classical philosophy implies the act of taking a position in a horizon of interpretation from which the object of research is built, the problems around it are articulated and the center of attention is decided.

Project’s seminar and papers will discuss those strategies in contemporary authors from France and Germany, who study the antiquity and point out the horizon of interpretation from which they approach the ancient texts. The findings will be used to teach the conceptions of contemporary authors and their ideas of Classical philosophy, as an example of Nietzsche’s thesis that there are not facts but interpretations (1998), and to explain technically to students the process that produces an interpretation.

The idea to use a web-based technology for a collaborative documentation project came afterwards, once all these ideas about the project were settled. A paradox emerged from the project approach: in order to describe those horizons of interpretation of all the researchers, both as individuals and as a group, needed to create their own horizon of interpretation. Can we document that process? With that documentation, can we answer the question “from which horizon are they writing?” And can we use the documentation for teaching?

As opposed to traditional research in philosophy, which analyzes finished works to set the horizon of interpretation; we want to produce a record of an ongoing work to show how the horizon is created and how it changes with the influence of new readings or the interaction with other researchers. These goals lead us to two main problems:

What kind of data do we need to collect to have an idea of the horizon of interpretation?
How to collect data in an open and dynamic way that allows us to follow the process of research and its changes during a period of time?
We focus on the two main activities in academic literacy: reading and writing. The kinds of data we want to obtain are the reading annotations as an evidence of reading and the variants of the progressive writingCheryl Geisler (1994). Academic Literacy and he Nature of Expertise: Reading, Writing, and Knowing in Academic Philosophy, Laurence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. New Jersey, 1994 pp. 15 ss. Also, it will be relevant for us to keep a record of the methodology adopted by the individual researchers as a single data or as a succession of variants.

All these data must be obtained while researchers are working on the project and until they finish their papers. It is vital to have not only a record of individual activity but also of the collective work of the professors.

Blogging, Annotating, Writing
Our project is an application of collaborative ""crowdsourcing"" (Albors 2008), following previous experiences in Digital Humanities. For instance, we have in mind the success of “A Day in the Life of Digital Humanities”, using blogging and wiki for collaborative documentation of daily activities of digital humanistsDay in the Life of the Digital Humanities project is at http://tapor.ualberta.ca/taporwiki/index.php/Day_in_the_Life_of_the_Digital_Humanities_2010. It consists of each one of our 25 researchers writing their own blog in which they document their daily research activities, as well as commentating on other blog entries during a year. This mechanism will allow us to have the seminar virtually and to trace collective work around independent participation. However, additionally we need to collect annotations and methodological assumptions. In order to do so we have already developed a web application for these specifics needs:

Capturing and Highlighting Quotes:
With our web application researchers can upload book passages and highlight some paragraphs in it, to document and share its readings. Every passage will be able to be marked by different researchers and the web application allows comparisons between these marks. Highlighting different parts of a same text shows individual decision and collective assumptions.

During the process of the project, all the mark up will be made as a reference to a place on the passage and they will be part of a rendering system in Javascript. This makes the marks live outside the text. Once the project is finished, the marks will be exported to TEI to preserve the documents and marks that will be part of the text. Nevertheless, during this process each contributor can mark Dates, Names, Terms and Quotes as done with TEI Lite in order to also produce a strong markup of the text to use it didactically for students, for example, by linking those marks to complementary information about the persons named, the terms used, etc. Passages entries and highlights can be commented by other participants and can be linked to blog entries.

Explain and Update Methodology
Researchers can explain their methodology and are able to update their methodological assumptions anytime they decide to change the study methodology or the study subject in our web application, simply by filling the methodology box in their profile. At the end of the project we will be able to compare the evolution of the research in a timeline, mixed with their blog post and annotation, having an insightful way to analyze the initial work and their finished paper.

Individual and Collective
Highlighting quotations and comments on blog and quotation entries are ways to have evidence of individual decisions and collective assumptions. We extend this view to the creation of metadata. As it is used in many commercial and academic projects, researchers can create metadata or use those that had been created by others, for sources excerpts and blogs. Metadata are central to finding links between autonomous and collective work. The final ontology can help us to understand how strong the collective or the individual view has been. We are still working on the metadata creation rules.

The Didactic Aim
As an educational project, the last objective is to use the documentation to help students to understand how we study the classical antiquity from a horizon of interpretation. As a tool for education, it allows students to:

Follow individual researcher’s work in real time during the activity of the project.
Compare quotes and highlights being used by different researchers.
Follow the entries (blogging, passages, highlighting, methodology) on a modern or classical author.
Have extra information about modern or classical authors (reference, biography, bibliography)
Workflow


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Authors


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Sources Excerpts


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References:
Albors, José et al. 2008 “New learning network paradigms: Communities of objectives, crowdsourcing, wikis and open source, ” International Journal of Information Management, 28 3 194-202

Burnard, Lou C. M. Sperberg-McQueen 2006 TEI Lite: Encoding for Interchange: an introduction to the TEI — Revised for TEI P5 release, (link)

Gadamer, Hans-Georg 2005 Verdad y Método I [Traducción de A. Agud y R. de Agapito], Sígueme Salamanca

Howe, Jeff 2006 “The Rise of Crowdsourcing, ” Wired, June 2006 (link)

Nietzsche, Friedrich 1998 Sobre verdad y mentira en sentido extramoral, seguido de La voluntad de ilusión de Nietzsche de Hans Vaihinger [Traducción de Luis M. Valdés y Teresa Orduña], Tecnos Barcelona","txt","2","",""
"1289","12","Interactive Layout Analysis, Content Extraction and Transcription of Historical Printed Books using Agora and Retro","2","Interactive Layout Analysis, Content Extraction and Transcription of Historical Printed Books using Agora and Retro
Ramel, Jean-Yves, Lab d'Informatique, Ecole Polytechnique de l’Université de Tours, ramel@univ-tours.fr
Sidère, Nicholas, Lab. d'Informatique, Ecole Polytechnique de l’Université de Tours, nicolas.sidere@univ-tours.fr
High level analyses of document images are mainly based on the output of a page segmentation process. For example, the extracted text regions can be the input to an OCR system to retrieve the ASCII characters printed on the pages. The spatial relationships between segmented blocks along with other features can be used in logical page organization analysis to group the extracted components appropriately and recover the correct reading order. Many techniques for page segmentation have been proposed in the literature but most of them are based on the assumption that an input document image consists of a set of rectangular blocks. Furthermore, the classification step is generally domain specific and uses static rules to automatically determine, for each block, the coherent label selected from a predefined list (title, paragraph, graphic, table,...). These limitations appear too restrictive with respect to some noisy and distorted documents and new approaches need to be developed.

In this context, we present a work achieved in collaboration with the “Centre d’Etude Superieur de la Renaissance” of Tours (CESR / http://www.cesr.univ-tours.fr). The CESR is a training and research centre which receives students and researchers who wish to work on various domains of the Renaissance using a rich library of historical books. The CESR wants to create a Humanistic Virtual Library; however, until now, only bitmap versions of several books that have been scanned or photographed are accessible. The initial objective of the CESR was to obtain an ASCII version of the text contained in the pages of these historical books. The centre first tried to use the commercial OCR software to index their books but they quickly realized that, applied to historical documents, this procedure would had been vowed to failure. So, the CESR asked our Pattern Recognition and Image Analysis research team to help them to define a new system adapted to their needs. They have appreciated our efforts as our collaboration will lead to a system able to bring a better description and indexation of the content of their books and would also make the search and the reading of these precious historical books easier.

The poster will first describe the new hybrid method we have developed for the extraction of layout information and of specific elements like graphical parts or ornaments based on the construction of two representations of the contents of the images. A mapping of the shapes and a mapping of the background are computed. By exploiting this information, our algorithm produces and sends back a list of blocks constituting a first segmentation result. Then, this initial representation of the image is used during a more sophisticated analysis. Having an aim of genericity, the architecture of the system that we carried out authorizes an interactive installation of scenarios for analysis of the image contents. Scenarios work on the initial representation provided by the first step of the segmentation. According to its needs (localization of the ornamental letters, the notes at margins, titles,…) and using user-friendly interfaces, the user (not expert in image processing) builds scenarios allowing to label, to merge, to remove the blocks contained in the intermediate representation. One can thus locates the desired entities without taking care of the other areas of the image. The elaborated scenarios can then be stored, modified and applied to various sets of images during batch processing. The results obtained with this method are very interesting; the adjustment of the necessary parameters is straightfoward and not sensitive to variations. The originality of our approach lies in the opportunity which we offer to the users to be able to build, in an interactive way, scenarios of incremental analysis. We propose to call this new method “user-driven analysis” in opposition to data-driven or model-driven methods. The goal is, on the basis of the initial segmentation, to be able to make the representation of the images evolve in a progressive way to lead to the finest possible characterization of its contents according to the user objectives and to the type of images to be analyzed. The CESR has processed several complete books using AGORA prototype and their own scenarios of block classification. Thus, the CESR has increased the number of books offered to the users in its Virtual Library (see http://www.bvh.univ-tours.fr). Even if the system produced some errors, the processing and time saved as compared to manual processing is considerable (for exemple, the manual indexation of the page layout of an historical book of 300 pages last approximately two days instead of only two hours when using Agora), this providing to the specialists of historical books, a useful tool which they had never imagine (see Figure 1).

Concerning text transcription, the originality of our work relies upon the analysis and exploitation of pattern redundancy in documents to allow efficient and quick transcription of books as well as identification of typographic materials. This pattern redundancy is mainly obtained via clustering methods. Like this, the traditional OCR problem could be reformulated into a text transcription one. A text, be it ancient or not, is made up of sequences of symbols. The scanning process produces pictures where symbols are represented as thumbnails of patterns (a pattern could be a single character, a part of a character or a set of joined characters), which may be more or less distinct. Without prior knowledge about the meaning of these symbols, the application of a clustering approach assigns thumbnails of a similar shape to the same cluster. As an example, one cluster containing thumbnails of the lowercase letter “a,” another one the uppercase letter “A,” yet another one the letter “b” in a specific font, and so on. Once the clustering is done, a user could assign a label to each cluster using a other Graphics User Interface (software called RETRO). These labels are then automatically assigned to each pattern, thus achieving the text transcription of the whole book. In this way, if 90% of patterns are detected as redundant, only one character in ten will be labeled by the user in order to transcribe the book. This part of the work is still in progress and is corresponding to a Google Digital Award obtained by our team in December 2010.

Figure 1 : A view of the proposed processing framework with Agora and Retro

Full Size Image","txt","2","",""
"1290","12","The Effect of Cheating on Player Engagement in Video Games","2","The Effect of Cheating on Player Engagement in Video Games
Keenan, Andy, Humanities Computing, University of Alberta, andrewtkeenan@gmail.com
Introduction
Creating an engaging video game requires the appropriate balance between challenge and reward for players. This balance is known as “difficulty”. Currently, difficulty is created, designed, and managed by video game developers. Difficulty is controlled by fundamental design decisions. For example, in Super Mario Brothers (NES 1986), Mario has a specific number of lives. When Mario loses those lives by making mistakes, the game is over. The difficulty of Super Mario Brothers is progressing through the levels without losing lives. The game balances the challenge of limited lives with the reward of completion. If Super Mario Brothers failed to find the right difficulty, the game would be either too frustrating or too easy. Finding the appropriate level of difficulty for the largest number of players is an important design decision made by video game developers.

The purpose of this project is to explore player-controlled approaches to difficulty in video games. This project repositions the existing power relationship between player and developer, where the developer decides the difficulty. Based on my previous research, I will be analyzing how cheating allows players to manipulate difficulty and change the relationship between player and developer. Cheating enables players to alter game difficulty, enabling players to find their own balance between challenge and reward. This project will provide design recommendations for the video game industry to re-imagine the relationship between video game player and video game developer, empowering the player to determine the rules of their game play experience.

Context
Johan Huizinga argues that play creates a space apart from normal life. He referred to this space as the magic circle. While in play, players are subject to a special set of rules. Play is dependent on these rules. Participating in play requires all players to enter into the magic circle and abide by its rules. The stability of the game depends on its rules: “[if] the rules are transgressed the whole play-world collapses. The game is over” (Huizinga 1950, p3). Huizinga’s magic circle requires a second examination in regards to video games. Allowing players to manipulate the rules alters the power relationship between developers and players, which could enable players to create more engaging experiences.

Several academic studies have attempted to determine what makes games engaging. Cognitive research in video games suggests that game developers must adjust cognitive difficulty requiring players to change their cognitive model to succeed. This will keep players engaged by challenging their cognitive process (Graham, Zheng & Gonzalez 2006). Other studies found that players require realistic worlds, intuitive controls, character customization, exploration, and unpredictability (Wood, Griffiths, Chappell & Davies 2004). A player-feedback study suggests that a combination of different intensities of challenge, combining “hard fun” (complex strategy, difficult challenges, and powerful enemies) and “easy fun” (exploration, simple puzzles, and novel experience) creates an ideal experience (Lazarro 2004). Yet another study argues for the importance of goal-oriented play with few negative consequences (Provenzo 1991). More abstractly, play must be internally motivated, simultaneously transcend and reflect reality, focus on the process over the result, and provide safe yet unpredictable experience (Stagnitti 2004). There is a gap in the current literature exploring the impact of cheating on engagement.

Thesis
This presentation explores the relationship between cheating and engagement in video games. Recent innovations in video game design allow players to manipulate game difficulty through time manipulation, an activity once considered cheating. These time manipulation games serve as a case-study to examine cheating and the effect on player engagement. Manipulating time allows players to control difficulty and find an iterative balance between challenge and reward. Players can also create emergent game play types by deciding what constitutes a meaningful “beat” of play.

Methodology
Using a mixed methods approach, I combined a heuristic inquiry of games that allow time manipulation with Foucauldian discourse analysis. I examined the practice of time manipulation in several console video games including Forza Motorsport 3 (Microsoft 2009); Braid (Microsoft 2008); Skate (Electronic Arts 2007), Skate 2 (Electronic Arts 2009); World of Goo (2D Boy 2008); Prince of Persia: Sands of Time (Ubisoft 2003); Demon’s Souls (Sony 2009); and Madden 09 (Electronic Arts 2008). Heuristic inquiry is a qualitative research approach concerned directly with human knowing and self-inquiry. This method “is aimed at discovering the nature and meaning of an experience” (Hiles 2008, p389). This is a departure from mainstream research “in that it explicitly acknowledges the involvement of the researcher to the extent that the lived experience of the researcher becomes the main focus of the research” (ibid). Based on my experiences with these games, I conducted a Foucauldian discourse analysis focusing on player engagement and player empowerment. I analyzed how activities once considered cheating altered the player’s relationship to the game.

Conclusion
I discovered that player-determined difficulty effected by level of engagement with the games. By controlling the game’s difficulty through its interface, the level of engagement was increased. Manipulating time allows players to learn iteratively and manage their level of challenge in the game experience. As an interface feature, manipulating time encouraged the “flow” state: Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s theory of optimal experience. Csikszentmihalyi’s Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience (1990) describes flow as being completely involved in an activity. Reducing frustration and allowing players to control their experience by rewinding time creates this flow state in video games.

References:
2008 Braid, Number None: Microsoft

Csikszentmihalyi, M. 1990 Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience, Harper and Row New York

2009 Demon’s Souls, Atlus: Sony

2009 Forza Motorsport 3, Turn 9: Microsoft

Foucault, Michel 1972 The Archaeology of Knowledge and the Discourse on Language. (A. Sheridan, Trans.), Pantheon New York

Graham, J., Zheng, L., and Gonzalez, C. 2006 “A Cognitive Approach to Game Usability and Design: Mental Model Development in Novice Real-Time Strategy Gamers, ” CyberPsychology & Behaviour, Volume 9, Issue 3 361-366

Hiles, David 2008 “Heuristic Inquiry, ” The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods, Lisa Given Sage Los Angeles 389-392

Huizinga, Johan 1950 Homo ludens: A study of the play element in culture, Beacon Press Boston

Lazzaro, N. 2004 Why We Play Games: Four Keys to More Emotion Without Story. Player Experience Research and Design for Mass Market Interactive Entertainment, XEODesign Inc.. Oakland, CA

2008 Madden 09, EA Tiburon: Electronic Arts

2003 Prince of Persia: Sands of Time, Ubisoft Montreal: Ubisoft

Provenzo, E. F. 1991 Video kids: Making sense of Nintendo, Harvard University Press Cambridge, MA

2007 Skate, EA Black Box: Electronic Arts

1986 Super Mario Brothers, Nintendo: Nintendo Entertainment

Stagnitti, K. 2004 “Understanding play: The implications for play assessment, ” Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, Volume 51, Issue 1 3-12

Wood, R., Griffiths, M., Chappell, D., and Davies, M. 2004 “The Structural Characteristics of Video Games: A Psycho-Structural Analysis, ” CyberPsychology & Behaviour, Volume 7, Issue 1 1-10

2008 World of Goo, 2D Boy: 2D Boy","txt","2","",""
"1291","12","Pleiades: an un-GIS for Ancient Geography","2","Pleiades: an un-GIS for Ancient Geography
Elliott, Tom, Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, New York University, tom.elliott@nyu.edu
Gillies, Sean, Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, New York University, sean.gillies@gmail.com
Pleiades (http://pleiades.stoa.org) is an open-access digital gazetteer for ancient history. It has recently been described in an important report from the Council on Library Information Resources as a “prominent digital project ... within the realm of classical geography.” (Babeau 2010) It provides stable Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs) and helpful Atom, HTML, JSON, and KML representations for tens of thousands (and growing) of geographic entities. It invites scholars, students, and enthusiasts worldwide freely to use, create, and share historical-geographic information related to these entities via its web application. Built on the Classical Atlas Project (1988-2000), which produced the Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, Pleiades is co-organized by the Institute for the Study of the Ancient World (NYU) and the Ancient World Mapping Center (UNC Chapel Hill). With fresh funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities (2010-2013), Pleiades is solving problems in information design, making more data accessible, and increasing interoperability with other web-based resources treating the geographical, textual, visual and physical culture of antiquity. Our poster, to be accompanied by hands-on software demonstrations, will highlight new and ongoing collaborations and summarize the findings since the publication of our paper in Digital Humanities Quarterly in early 2009 (Elliott and Gillies 2009) and Elliott’s general presentation of the project at DH2009 which we believe are of significant interest to digital humanities practitioners and scholars across sub-disciplines.

The poster will foreground a unique aspect of the Pleiades effort: its “un-GIS” approach to historical geography. Where conventional Geographic Information System (GIS) data models privilege geometry – requiring a point, line or polygon with which to associate such “attribute data” as toponyms, time periods and the like – Pleiades embraces the inevitable sparseness, ambiguity, and contingency of historical knowledge. Pleiades models historical geography as a graph of relationships between conceptual places/spaces, names, locations, and time periods rather than as layered views of tables containing measured locations with associated descriptive data fields. We find that our approach opens up a range of flexible capabilities not afforded by a traditional GIS approach, including:

Identification and representation of geographic features that have no known locations, or that can be located only vaguely, roughly, or in relationship to each other
Representation of the connectedness of features
Change of location or properties of a feature over time
Aggregation of temporally varying features into conceptual places or spaces that reflect ancient practice or modern scholarly method
Stable identifiers for features, places and names that can be addressed directly by other web applications and cited reliably by students and scholars
The features listed above don’t come for free. They bring extra complexity, and this additional complexity might be considered a weakness of the un-GIS approach (or not, as we’d like discuss with poster session attendees):

Vocabularies for describing vague or rough locations are immature
Algorithms for reasoning on vague or rough locations are immature or proprietary
Relative locations need closure at some level if analysis is to be permitted, and there is uncertainty about where to stop
Vocabularies for describing connectedness are immature
Time adds both technical and social complexity; event-based conceptual models (like that proposed by Mostern and Johnson (2008) embracing the inseparability of time and space may be required
Pleiades’ web-oriented approach – especially its emphasis on stable URIs and multiple standard formats for content serialization – opens up a wide range of interoperability options. Current collaborations in this domain will be highlighted, including:

Ancient World Image Bank: http://www.nyu.edu/awib/
Digital Atlas of Roman and Medieval Civilization: http://darmc.harvard.edu/
Google Ancient Places: http://www.ecs.soton.ac.uk/about/news/332
Epigraphische Datenbank Heidelberg: http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/institute/sonst/adw/edh/
The Inscriptions of Roman Cyrenaica: http://ircyr.kcl.ac.uk/
Open Encyclopedia of Classical Sites: cf. in http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2010/07/our-commitment-to-digital-humanities.html
Nomisma.org: http://nomisma.org/
Papyri.info: http://papyri.info
The Portable Antiquities Scheme: http://finds.org.uk/
PELAGIOS: http://pelagios-project.blogspot.com/
At a moment when interest in Humanities GIS is growing (Rumsey 2009), this poster is especially germane. Critical engagement with the methodological and theoretical facilities and inadequacies of GIS is essential if we are fully to integrate spatial approaches into the humanist’s toolkit and evaluate the products of their use in research, teaching and outreach. The perspective of the Pleiades team is firmly rooted in practice, arising from extended, hands-on work with a large, complex collection of historical information that exemplifies many of the challenges and opportunities humanists face daily, as well as hard-earned experience in conventional GIS projects. We believe that our critique of conventional GIS, and the alternative approach that has arisen from it, can inform the design of other humanities projects and provoke further innovation. Moreover, as the realization of the Pleiades model has been predicated upon an embrace of web-based interoperability and “crowd-sourced” content curation, this poster speaks directly to the DH2010 conference theme of “big-tent digital humanities.”

References:
Babeau, A. 2010 Rome Wasn’t Digitized in a Day: Building a Cyberinfrastructure for Digital Classicists, (link)

Elliott, T. and Gillies, S. 2009 “Digital Geography and the Classics, ” Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3 (link)

Mostern, R. and Johnson, I. 2008 “From named place to naming event: creating gazetteers for history, ” International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 22 1091-1108

Rumsey, A. S. 2009 Summary and Report of the UVA Scholarly Communications Institute 7: Spatial Technology and the Humanities, June 28-30 2009, (link)","txt","2","",""
"1292","12","Integrating Digital Papyrology","3","Integrating Digital Papyrology

Baumann, Ryan, University of Kentucky, Lexington, rfbaumann@gmail.com
Bodard, Gabriel, King's College, London, gabriel.bodard@KCL.AC.UK
Cayless, Hugh, New York University, hugh.cayless@nyu.edu
Sosin, Joshua, Duke University, joshua.sosin@DUKE.EDU
Viglianti, Raffaele, King's College, London, raffaele.viglianti@KCL.AC.UK

Integrating Digital Papyrology
(IDP) is a series of projects funded by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. It represents the integration of three longstanding digital papyrology efforts: the Duke Databank of Documentary Papyri (DDbDP), the Heidelberger Gesamtverzeichnis der griechischen Papyrusurkunden Ägyptens (HGV), and the Advanced Papyrological Information System (APIS), and the migration to a single format, the EpiDoc recommendations for the application of TEI XML to ancient documentary texts. (link) ; see also Cayless (2009)
This panel aims first to present an historical overview of the transformation of the DDbDP from a digital index of print scholarship to a community-managed resource for peer-reviewed scholarly control of core disciplinary assets, and then to suggest some ways in which we hope that the new suite of tools that we have been building around the data may help to transform scholarship in this important domain.

The DDbDP began in 1983 as a collaboration between Duke University and David R. Packard. Greek and Latin were encoded in Beta Code and searchable on CD using custom software. In 1996/7 the DDbDP migrated its authoritative version to the web-based Perseus Project, encoded in Beta Code and TEI SGML. In 2004/5 the DDbDP and HGV began mapping their theretofore discrete but complementary sets of text and descriptive metadata, while Duke obtained a planning grant from the Mellon Foundation. Papyrologists, IT specialists, librarians and university administrators came together to map out a sustainable future for the DDbDP. The way forward was clear: open source, standards-based development, greater collaboration, increased vesting of data-control in the user community, and greater interoperability with other projects.

With clear objectives and generous support from the Mellon Foundation, Duke launched IDP1 (2007/8). Its goals were to migrate the DDbDP from SGML to EpiDoc XML, and from Betacode Greek to Unicode Greek; to merge DDbDP texts and HGV metadata and translations into a single stream; to map these texts to corresponding APIS records, including images; to enhance the Papyrological Navigator (PN—see http://papyri.info) to enable search of the newly merged data. The fruits of these efforts were released under open access provisions in October 2008 (all content under CC BY and software under GNU GPL). In October 2008 the team began work on IDP2, again with support from Mellon. At the same time, APIS, under a grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities, began work on enhancing the PN, and the two projects joined forces. The results of IDP2 are (1) improved usability of the PN search interface on the merged and mapped data from the DDbDP, HGV and APIS, (2) facilitated third-party use of the data and tools, and (3) a version controlled, transparent and fully audited, multi-author, web-based, real-time, tagless editing environment (SoSOL), which—in tandem with a new editorial infrastructure—will allow the entire community of papyrologists to take control of the process of populating these communal assets. The discipline is now on the cusp of having the the entire life-cycle of the papyrological discipline represented online in a transparent, open, peer-reviewed and community-driven environment.

References:
Cayless, Hugh 2009 “Epigraphy in 2017, ” Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3.1 (link)

Lessons from the conversion of the Duke Databank of Documentary Papyri from legacy formats into EpiDoc TEI XML

Bodard, Gabriel, King's College London, gabriel.bodard@kcl.ac.uk


Sosin, Joshua, Duke University, joshua.sosin@duke.edu


Viglianti, Raffaele, King's College London, raffaele.viglianti@kcl.ac.uk

When the DDbDP began in 1983 at Duke University, Oates (1993)Greek and Latin were encoded in Beta Code (an ASCII representation of text in different scripts and of various sigla and structural features, also used by the TLG,Nicholas (1999)that combines language encoding and some semantic markup features) and searchable on CD-ROM via a dedicated platform provided by the Packard Humanities Institute. These texts were entered manually by students at Duke, following a data entry manual, and using published editions of papyrological texts as the basis. When the DDbDP migrated from the CD-ROMs to the Web-based Perseus Project, the texts were machine-translated to a format mixing Beta Code and TEI P3 SGML (and the resultant hybrid encoding formed the basis of an updated data entry manual). Sosin (2010).

The first stage of the Mellon-funded Integrating Digital Papyrology project (2007-2008) involved the conversion of the DDbDP from largely regular and sometimes consistent format, but highly varied contents, into Unicode and EpiDoc XML. At this point the hybrid encoding scheme was a mixture of Beta Code (varying slightly over thirteen years of evolution and multiple generations of graduate students), machine-tagged TEI SGML (and hand-entered since the Perseus conversion). This basic consistency, compromised but not destroyed by this technical history of the project, is further complicated by the wide variety of papyrological material, including editions published over a century by editors with differing standards of editorial detail, and even occasionally inconsistent uses of conventions. These variations were somewhat, but not entirely, flattened by data entry practice.

Due to the size of the dataset, some 55,000 records, the conversion of these texts into both Unicode character encoding and EpiDoc-conformant TEI XML structural and semantic features had to be almost entirely automated, with only a small amount of human intervention for difficult or unique cases. This first round of conversion work was carried out by a team at the Centre for Computing in the Humanities at King’s College London. The tools to convert from the complex, legacy formats to the more sustainable, open standard TEI XML were open source and based on ongoing work in the EpiDoc community.

The CCH team built the data conversion as a four-step pipeline: (1) the SGML was turned into validating XML, and entities resolved, using a tool based on OSX; OSX, OpenJade Distribution, available: (link) .(2) the Beta Code representation of Greek and Coptic characters and certain symbols was converted to Unicode using Transcoder; Hugh Cayless, Transcoder, available: (link) .(3) a new set of regular expressions was added to CHETC, Hugh Cayless, Chapel Hill Electronic Text Converter, available: (link) .a regular expression-based conversion tool to convert much of the structural Beta Code to XML; (4) XSLT was applied to transform the XML produced by steps 1 and 3 into validating EpiDoc. In order to write these steps simultaneously, and iteratively to improve the tools, the process was pipelined so that the master copy of the texts remained the Beta Code/SGML hybrid, which continued to be manually improved. Only at the end of the process, when the output validated to the EpiDoc DTD, would the transformation be complete, and hand-fixes begin to be performed on this new version of the DDbDP.

In the second phase of the project, work on the DDbDP focussed on ongoing hand-fixes to the now canonical XML to improve the consistency of the text. This became ever more essential as the SoSOL tool (see Baumann, below) requires very consistent, valid EpiDoc. The EpiDoc recommendations were also updated to TEI P5 in this phase, and both Duke texts and HGV metadata encoded in this new format. The third phase (awaiting funding decision) will work to make the metadata translation into EpiDoc stable, rather than a pipelined crosswalk as it is currently.

Among the important lessons we learned from the DDbDP translation from the hybrid format to standarized TEI XML are the following technical points (all of value not only to our ongoing work with HGV metadata, but potentially to others contemplating large-scale up-coding from legacy formats):

Beta Code was a well-designed encoding scheme for Ancient Greek script, but even so there were issues that needed to be resolved. Where Unicode has two characters for medial and terminal Greek sigma (σ and ς), Beta considers these to be unambiguous by position and so uses ‘S’ to encode both. For a converter that had to parse mixed-content XML, relying on position proved unreliable. Similarly, Unicode now has separate ranges for Greek and Coptic alphabets, but Beta only distinguishes between the scripts in the case of the six characters that are unique to Coptic. In the Classics world there are also tools in wide use that expect Beta Code input (for example the Morpheus morphological parser), which is no doubt part of the reason why this legacy format is in use so long after the general adoption of Unicode.
Because of the complexity of even what seemed to be the simplest task, above, the integrity of the processing pipeline was especially important, since changes at every stage could otherwise turn out to be irreversible. At one stage, before the end of the project, we decided to abandon the first step of the conversion process and consider the validating XML version to be the master copy. It was only after several rounds of hand-fixes and global corrections had been made to this new master copy, that we noticed an error in the first step of the conversion process, which lost an important distinction in some thousands of cases. It was possible, but difficult, to go back and diff the new version against the SGML in this case, but the issue remains that moving from a legacy master text to an automated improvement of same requires careful checking.
Possibly the most interesting challenge in this conversion process was the hybrid data format that combined Beta Code sigla, SGML tags and entities to encode structural and semantic information about the papyrological editions. Translating these multiple encoding schemes to valid EpiDoc XML was not as simple as writing transformations for each of the levels, since a span of lost or restored text (represented by Beta Code brackets) and an abbreviation (represented by SGML tags) might overlap, leading to ill-formed XML. (In fact, it is probably because of this thorny problem of overlapping spans that the Beta Code was never fully translated to SGML in the initial conversion). The problem was ultimately solved by a combination of fine-tuned Regex, XSLT and some hand-correction.
The interaction of regular expressions and XSLT in the translation of the markup was also an important lesson. It was obvious from the start that Regexes were suited to replacing textual sigla with XML, and XSLT to transforming SGML/XML tags into other XML, but the relationship between these two processes was both complex and interesting. In some cases it was simpler to replace sigla with well-formed but invalid XML tags, and then fix those to good EpiDoc with XSLT; in other cases a combination of hand-fixing and one-off regular expressions were used to regularize inconsistencies to a single, consistent error, which the two stages of the markup translation process could then fix in one pass. The choice of which stage of the process to fix any given issue proved to be worth careful planning. (By the same token, it was important to decide when the scale of a problem meant hand-fixing was more efficient than a dynamic solution in the pipeline.)
Another important lesson was that sometimes the markup in the papyrological editions was ambiguous in a way that spanned two different semantic distinctions in the EpiDoc guidelines (for example, corrections and regularizations used the same encoding in the DDbDP, but are represented by choice/sic/corr and choice/orig/reg respectively in TEI). Given the scale of the project it was impossible to disambiguate the many thousands of instances of these, and markup was devised to preserve this lack of granularity.
Although 55,000 texts is not huge by database standards, for a corpus of ancient texts in XML, processed using XSLT it was larger than we had dealt with before. The tools that had been adequate for dealing with smaller numbers of text (individual Java calls to the Saxon processor; Subversion for version control) led to processes and commits that took up to 24 hours at a time on the scale of this project. The solutions were relatively straightforward: pipelining multiple texts to Saxon through one Java call saved 95% of the processing time; migrating to Git from Subversion improved commit speed manyfold. Such optimizations are clearly essential at large scales.
The management of a distributed project (including members from five institutions based in Alabama, Heidelberg, Kentucky, London, New York, and North Carolina) offered additional lessons. Project communication is handled via several channels: there is a project mailing list for asynchronous conversations, we hold weekly conversations in Skype between representatives from each location, there is an always-on chatroom on IRC that project members use for daily conversations, and we have impromptu Skype calls when voice communication is needed. In addition, we have held several week-long, all-hands meetings during which planning and intensive collaborative work is done. Project communication and coordination does not follow the management hierarchies of the member institutions, and this flat organization greatly improves efficiency and implementation speed.
References:
Nicholasm, Nick et al. 1999-2000 The TLG Beta Code Manual,, (link)

Oates, John 1993 “The Duke Databank of Documentary Papyri, ” Accessing Antiquity: The Computerization of Classical Studies, Jon Solomon Arizona 62-72

Sosin, Joshua 2010 “Digital Papyrology, ” Congress of the International Association of Papyrologists, Geneva, 19 August 2010 (link)

The Papyrological Navigator: Project Integration with RDF

Cayless, Hugh, hugh.cayless@nyu.edu New York University,

One of the major difficulties encountered during IDP1 was the problem of aggregating related content. The main purpose of the Papyrological Navigator (PN) is to present a merged, searchable view of the DDbDP, HGV, and APIS datasets. IDP1 attempted to produce an aggregated dataset, where related DDbDP and HGV records were merged into a single EpiDoc XML document. The mapping processes whereby this was accomplished were flawed, however, and resulted in both spurious and missing relationships. In addition, combining documents from projects with different update schedules and sometimes different interpretations of what constitutes a document was problematic. For IDP2, it was clear that the mapping process would have to be re-imagined. The new process, described in this paper, uses a combination of semantic web technology and standard tools to produce a merged collection.

IDP draws on datasets from the DDbDP, HGV, APIS, and Trismegistos See (link) . The varied origins of these projects meant that different decisions were made in each about how to record information about source documents. For example, if several pieces of papyrus contain text that are part of the same

document,
then DDbDP will tend to transcribe the whole, marking the separate sheets of papyrus with <div> elements. HGV on the other hand, tends to treat each piece as an entity, each with its own record. APIS, since it is essentially a unified export of the catalogs of museums and libraries with papyrus holdings, treats the document the way the host collection does. While APIS is organized according to the source collection, DDbDP and HGV use the publication history of the papyrus as an organizing principle. HGV has the idea of a
principal edition,
i.e. the best published version of the papyrus. DDbDP is similarly based on a single published edition, though HGV and DDbDP may not agree on what is the principal edition. When a better publication comes out for an existing document, DDbDP replaces the existing document with the new version, leaves a
stub
record with a pointer to the new version in place of the old, and the new edition points back at the old one. HGV, similarly, sometimes retires identifiers. But these updates are not always efficiently propagated across projects, so references may become stale over time.
DDbDP identifiers are constructed from short-form citations of the document edition on which the transcription was based, so, for example bgu;1;2 is the identifier for the 2nd item in the first volume in the BGU (

Aegyptische Urkunden aus den Königlichen (later Staatlichen) Museen zu Berlin, Griechische Urkunden

) series. Trismegistos assigns numeric identifiers to individual documents (e.g. 1234), and HGV bases its identifiers on these. When HGV data is finer-grained than TM, it will append alphabetic characters to the TM id (e.g. 1234a, 1234b, etc.). APIS bases its identifiers on the collection name plus a number, e.g. berkeley.apis.15.
DDbDP and HGV began the process of reconciling their collections in 2004, so where there are correspondences, the documents include the id numbers of related records in their document headers. For example, http://papyri.info/ddbdp/p.oxy;4;744/source encodes identifiers both for itself and for the related HGV record in its publicationStmt:



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Likewise, (link) , the related HGV record, contains the DDbDP identifier in its header:



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In this (simple) case, the relationships are easy to establish, and can be represented in RDF (using N3 syntax) thus: <http://papyri.info/ddbdp/p.oxy;4;744/source> <http://purl.org/dc/terms/relation> <http://papyri.info/hgv/20442/source> <http://papyri.info/hgv/20442/source> <http://purl.org/dc/terms/relation> <http://papyri.info/ddbdp/p.oxy;4;744/source> That is, the resource http://papyri.info/ddbdp/p.oxy;4;744/source has a
relation
(which is a term drawn from the Dublin Core Metadata Initiative Terms DCMI Metadata Terms, available: (link) .list) http://papyri.info/hgv/20442/source, and the latter has a reciprocal relationship to the former.
The question of aggregation becomes much more complicated when APIS enters the equation. Because of its origin as a union catalog (the data for which was contributed by a variety of insitutions), the quality of APIS’s information is more uneven. The method used by the first version of the PN to establish relationships with DDbDP, namely looking for matching citations, produced results that were sometimes inaccurate. For IDP2, we looked for pieces of information that could be extracted (like the <idno>s in DDbDP and HGV) and represented as RDF triples. HGV contains URLs for images of papyri and ostraka when they are available, and when these are hosted at Columbia (the original home of APIS), they contain the same APIS id as the APIS documents do. In addition, APIS records sometimes include references to the relevant DDbDP document in their bibliography: <bibl type=""ddbdp"">P.Oxy.:4:744</bibl> This does not use the DDbDP identifier scheme, but it can be converted to the DDbDP identifier, p.oxy;4;744 easily enough. APIS contains some spurious references of this type (to collections that don’t exist, for example), but all that is needed to check their validity is to check for the existence of a corresponding DDbDP file.

In addition to the collections mentioned above, there are also HGV translations, which use the same numbering scheme as the HGV metadata, and APIS images, which are represented by a static RDF file mapping image names to APIS ids. A representation of the incomplete graph that can be constructed by extracting these relations from the source documents looks something like:



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So there are locations in an IDP EpiDoc document (and in associated artifacts) where we can check for reference information, and from these we can build a (partial) graph of relationships between documents in the three collections. The database import method is simple. A program crawls each directory in our repository containing EpiDoc documents, runs each through an XSLT transformation which converts it to RDF XML, and inserts that RDF into a Mulgara# triple store. Once the relations have been converted to RDF, we can do some simple inferencing to

fill out
the rest of the incomplete relation graph. In practice, this means running SPARQL queries that produce results like
A is related to B, because B is related to A
and
A is related to C, because A is related to B and B is related to C,
and then inserting the results of those queries back into the triple store. The resulting graph looks more like:


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Besides relation data, we can also extract hierarchical and bibliographical information from the collection. Because DDbDP’s identifiers are hierarchical and carry meaning, they can be decomposed and used to identify not just the items, but their containers, the volumes and series in which they were published. APIS ids can be decomposed to collection and item. HGV and TM ids are opaque, but HGV’s principal edition bibliographic record can be used to construct a hierarchy for that collection. HGV’s bibliography also points to the primary source for its record.

The APIS, DDbDP, and HGV collections are hosted in the Papyrological Navigator, while TM has its own website. This means that we are able to mint URLs using the APIS, DDbDB, and HGV identifiers, so http://papyri.info/ddbdp/bgu;1;2/source represents the EpiDoc XML document that transcribes BGU 1 2, http://papyri.info/ddbdp/bgu;1;2 retrieves an HTML document that aggregates the DDbDP transcription with metadata from HGV #8961 and links out to TM #8961, http://papyri.info/ddbdp/bgu;1;2/rdf is shorthand for an RDF query that pulls together a subgraph of triples with http://papyri.info/ddbdp/bgu;1;2/source as the subject, and so on.

The primary internal uses of the RDF triple store in papyri.info are as the driver for generating and indexing the site, and as a means for SoSOL (see Ryan Baumann’s paper) to reference valid identifiers. The method for generating the site uses the triple store to load, first, all of the identifiers associated with DDbDP using the hierarchical relations, then all of the HGV ids not linked to a DDbDP identifier, then all of the unrelated APIS identifiers. The collections are then transformed to HTML, and the files corresponding to file identifiers (along with any related EpiDoc documents) are transformed both to HTML and to Solr add documents, which are then ingested into the search engine. In this fashion, we create the entire papyri.info site, with correctly aggregated data, using a few basic tools.

Developments slated for the near future include using the triple store as a container for relations to external projects. An effort was made during the summer of 2010 to link HGV place names to Pleiades and Trismegistos Places URLs, and once the data has been processed, it will be loaded into our triple store and used as the basis for linking to data at these sites. We hope, for example, to be able to display maps drawn from Pleiades, as well as linking to the site. Another planned use for the triple store is to have it handle the normalization and display of bibliography for papyri.info.

The method outlined above for extracting data from source documents, storing it as RDF triples, and then using inferencing to fill out gaps in the graph has potential applications well beyond papyri.info. For example, it could be used to manage relationships between EAD finding aids and digitized archives, or to merge data from other overlapping collections. Any data management situation where joins between discrete but related objects as desired, and where it is possible to extract a partial relationship graph from the sources could profit from using semantic web tools in this fashion.

The Son of Suda Online: Collaborative editing and workflow tool

Baumann, Ryan, rfbaumann@gmail.com University of Kentucky,

The Son of Suda On Line We regard SoSOL as the intellectual heir of the Suda Online project, available: (link) .(SoSOL) is one of the main components of the Integrating Digital Papyrology project (IDP), aiming to provide a repurposable web-based editor for the digital resources in the DDbDP and HGV. SoSOL integrates a number of technologies to provide a truly next-generation online editing environment. Using JRuby JRuby, available: (link) .with the Rails Ruby on Rails, available: (link) .web framework, it is able to take advantage of Rails’s wide support in the web development community, as well as Java’s excellent XML libraries and support. This includes the use of XSugar XSugar provides a means of converting between equivalent XML and non-XML vocabularies. See XSugar, available: (link) .to define an alternate, lightweight syntax for EpiDoc XML markup, called Leiden+. Because XSugar uses a single grammar to define both syntaxes in a reversible and bidirectional manner, this is ideal for reducing side effects of transforming text in our version-controlled system. SoSOL uses the Git Git, available: (link) .distributed version control system as its versioning backend, allowing it to use the powerful branching and merging strategies it provides, and enabling fully-auditable version control. SoSOL also provides for editorial control of changes to the main data repository, enabling the democracy of allowing anyone to change anything they choose while preserving the academic integrity of canonical published data. This talk will provide a demonstration of these features of SoSOL as implemented for IDP2, as well as a discussion of its repurposable design for applicability to other projects and the ongoing documentation work being done to increase usability and adoption in the wider community.

Next-Generation Version Control
Many online editing environments, such as MediaWiki, use an SQL database as the sole mechanism for storing revisions. This can lead to a number of problems, such as scaling (most SQL servers are not performance optimized for large text fields) and distribution of data (see for example the database downloads of the English Wikipedia, which have been notoriously problematic for obtaining the full revision history). Most importantly, they typically impose a centralized, linear, single-branch version history. Because Git is a distributed version control system, it does not impose any centralized workflow. As a result, branching and merging have been given high priority in its development, allowing for much more concurrent editing activity while minimizing the difficulty of merging changes. SoSOL’s use of Git is to have one

canonical
Git repository for public, approved data and to which commits are restricted. Users and boards each get their own Git repositories which act as forks of the canonical repository. This allows them to freely make changes to their repository while preserving the version history as needed when these changes are merged back into the canonical repository. These repositories can also be easily mirrored, downloaded, and worked with offline and outside of SoSOL due to the distributed nature of Git. See Baumann (2011).This enables a true democracy of data, wherein institutions still retain control and approval of the data which they put their names on, but any individual may easily obtain the full dataset and revision history to edit, contribute to, and republish under the terms of license.
Alternative Syntax for XML Editing
While XML encoding has many advantages, users inexperienced with its use may find its syntax difficult or verbose. It is still desirable to harness the expertise of these users in other areas and ease their ability to add content to the system, while retaining the semantically explicit nature of XML markup. To do this, we have used XSugar to allow the definition of a

tagless
syntax for EpiDoc XML, which resembles that of the traditional printed Leiden conventions for epigraphic and papyrological texts where possible. Structures which are semantically ambiguous or undefined in Leiden but available in EpiDoc (e.g. markup of numbers and their corresponding value) have been given additional text markup, referred to comprehensively as Leiden+. XSugar enables the definition of this syntax in a single, bidirectional grammar file which defines all components of both Leiden+ and EpiDoc XML as correspondences, which can be statically checked for reversibility and validity. This provides much more rigorous guarantees of these properties than alternatives such as using separate XSLT stylesheets for each direction of the transform, as well as encoding the relation between the components of each syntax in a single location.
As an example, we might have the following XML fragment:



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Corresponding to the typical Leiden print transcription:


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While transforming the XML to Leiden+ through our XSugar grammar yields:


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As you can see, things such as the Greek letter

κ
on line four being the number
20
are implicit in print, but explicit in both EpiDoc and Leiden+. The user can work on either the Leiden+ or XML representation of the text, and we store only the XML representation in our data repository (that is, the Leiden+ representation is only an intermediate form used for editing and is transformed back to XML when saved). A traditional Leiden
print preview
is possible by applying the standard EpiDoc XSLT stylesheets to this XML. In theory, this particular XSugar grammar could be re-used by other EpiDoc projects wishing to enable the same kind of alternative markup.
Repurposable Design
Due to institutional requirements, the DDbDP and HGV datasets needed separate editorial control and publishing mechanisms. In addition, their control over different types of content necessitated different editing mechanisms for each component. These requirements informed the design of how SoSOL interacts with data under its control and how this design is repurposable for use in other projects. The two high-level abstractions of data made by SoSOL are

publications
and
identifiers
. Identifiers are unique strings which can be mapped to a specific file path in the repository, while publications are arbitrary aggregations of identifiers. By defining an identifier superclass which defines common functionality for interacting with the data repository, we can then subclass this to provide functionality specific to a given category of data. The SoSOL implementation for IDP2, for example, provides identifier subclasses for DDbDP transcriptions, HGV metadata, and HGV translations. Editorial boards consequently have editorial control for only certain subclasses of identifiers. Publications in turn allow representation and aggregation of the complex many-to-many relationships these components can have (for example, a document with two sides that may have one transcription and two metadata components). Packaging these related elements together both allows the user to switch between them and editorial boards to check related data which they may not have editorial control over but still require to make informed decisions about validity and approval. SoSOL can thus be integrated into other systems by implementing the identifier subclasses necessary for the given dataset as well as coherent means for aggregating these components into publications. One can imagine the simplest implementation as being an identifier whose name is the file path, which just presents the plaintext contents of the file for editing, and which has no relationships with other identifiers so that each publication is a single identifier.
Conclusions
Though SoSOL is still under development, early reception and feedback at training workshops conducted to introduce users to the system has been good. Thousands of texts have been created, edited, or corrected, and submitted through the editorial boards for voting, peer review, and publication. In addition to being publicly viewable through the Papyrological Navigator, these changes are regularly mirrored to a public copy of the Git data repository available on GitHub, where anyone may view and download the complete revision history (see previous footnote). Under IDP3, the currently-active final phase of the IDP project, user experience studies are being conducted and feedback from this process will be incorporated into the system.

In addition to the possible reuse of the system itself, we hope the more genera","txt","2","",""
"1293","12","Alma Cardell Curtin and Jeremiah Curtin: the Translator's Wife's Stylistic Fingerprint","1","Alma Cardell Curtin and Jeremiah Curtin: the Translator’s Wife's Stylistic Fingerprint
Rybicki, Jan, Pedagogical University of Kraków, Poland, jkrybicki@gmail.com
The Problem
Poland’s first literary Nobel Prize winner, Henryk Sienkiewicz (1846-1916), owed his great if short-lived fame to the very numerous if very mediocre translations by Jeremiah Curtin (1835-1906), diplomat, ethnographer, polyglot. Born in a Catholic Irish family in Wisconsin, he graduated from Harvard and was posted as a secretary to the American mission in St. Petersburg, Russia; his fluency in Russian made him a popular figure among the local aristocracy. Paradoxically, it might have contributed to his conflict with Ambassador Clay and precipitated the end of his diplomatic career (1869). Curtin switched to two professions he continued till the end of his life: that of the ethnographer (employed, for a time, by the Smithsonian Institution) and of the literary translator. In 1872, he met and promptly married Alma Cardell (1847-1938), who soon abandoned her post as a teacher in a Soldiers’ Orphans’ Home (for which her studies at the Barre Academy had made her more than qualified) to become her husband’s secretary, amanuensis and editor; until her peripatetic husband’s death, her life was to be led in hotels and boarding houses around the globe – especially after the Curtins stroke gold with Sienkiewicz’s international bestseller Quo vadis (1896). Alma devoted much work to virtually all publications signed by Jeremiah: his translations of Sienkiewicz and of other Polish authors (Orzeszkowa, Prus and Potocki); his translations from the Russian (Gogol, Zagoskin’s and Alexy K. Tolstoy); and his ethnographic studies on myths of Native Americans, Ireland and Slavic peoples. She also published and edited three books on Mongols after her husband’s death.

Yet the story of Sienkiewicz’s translator is most extensively told in Memoirs of Jeremiah Curtin (1940), published after the death of Alma Cardell Curtin. Although written in first-person narrative, they have been since proven to be the work of the wife. Michael Jacek Miko? has shown that Curtin’s alleged memoirs are in fact a compilation of “somewhat edited"" fragments of Alma’s diaries and letters to her family (Miko? 1990). The same diaries (and not the Memoirs) show the extent of Alma’s contribution to Jeremiah’s translations: after a whole day of taking her husband’s dictation, he would go to sleep while she would copy and correct the day’s work (Miko? 1994). And although she knew no Polish and, at most, but a little Russian, it is not implausible to suspect that some traces of the translator’s wife’s hand might have been left on Sienkiewicz’s fiction in English. In the most radical hypothesis by Cheryl L. Collins, Alma, “held hostage by Jeremiah’s almost pathological restlessness,"" could have been “his full partner"" in his literary work (Collins 2008).

This presents a nice authorship attribution problem. All that could have been done in this respect with traditional methods has been done by Miko?; the rest is the attributor’s nightmare, as all work published under Curtin’s name has been preserved in manuscripts in Alma’s hand alone. And while traces of the style of the Memoirs could perhaps be found in Alma’s editions of Jeremiah’s ethnographic works, it is highly uncertain if similar traces can at all be found in his translations.

The Method
All hope there is lies in non-traditional methods of authorship attribution, developed at least since the seminal Inference and Disputed Authorship: the Federalist (Mosteller, Wallace 1964) and proven to be helpful in plagiarism detection (although Alma’s is plagiarism a rebours). This study applies Cluster Analysis to normalized word frequencies in texts; as shown by (to name but a few) Burrows (1987, 2002), Hoover (2004, 2004a) or Daren-Oskam (2007), this is one of the most precise methods of “stylistic dactyloscopy."" A script by Maciej Eder, written for the R statistical environment, converts the electronic texts to produce complete most-frequent-word (MFW) frequency lists, calculates their z-scores in each text according to the Burrows Delta procedure (Burrows 2002); selects words for analysis from various frequency ranges; performs additional procedures for better accuracy (Hoover’s culling and pronoun deletion); compares the results for individual texts; produces Cluster Analysis tree diagrams that show the distances between the texts; and, finally, combines the tree diagrams made for various parameters (number of words, degree of culling) in a bootstrap consensus tree (Dunn et al. 2005, quoted in Baayen 2008: 143-147).

The analysis included all original works by Curtin (12 extensive studies) and a great majority of his translations (21 novels or long novellas).

Figure 1. shows the patterns of similarity and difference of word frequencies in all texts studied. The bootstrap consensus tree neatly divides Curtin’s oeuvre into two discrete groups: the upper branches are his translations while his Memoirs and his ethnography lie below. Yet the Memoirs are placed away from his ethnographic studies; also, what has been proven by Miko? to be Alma’s work, lies close to two of Jeremiah’s books on the Mongols, published by Alma after his death.

Figure 1. Consensus tree for all texts

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The length of the word list used in this study (all the way to the 5000th most frequent word in the corpus) can raise doubts as to the validity, in this context, of the term stylistic similarity: after all, words so far down the frequency-ordered word list are often quite meaningful and might reflect differences of content as well as of style. Any chance of finding traces of the translator’s wife’s hand in the translations as well as in the Memoirs has to rely on somewhat shorter lists (tentatively, from 10 to 150) from the top of the frequency-ordered most-frequent-word list; dominated as it is by functions words and aided by a 100% culling rate (which limits the analysis to words that appear in all texts studied) and personal pronoun deletion, it might help purge any impact of the texts’ content to try to bring, say, a book on Irish myths and a translation of Sienkiewicz’s historical romance, to a common stylistic, or perhaps simply lexical, denominator.

The new result is presented in Figure 2. The texts attributed to Mrs Curtin either by Miko? or by Figure 1. are still immediate neighbours; more interestingly, the Memoirs (and the two “Mongol"" works) now grow on the same branch with two translations: Lillian Morris and For Bread.

Figure 2. Consensus tree for short most-frequent-word lists and a 100% culling

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Conclusions
So far, attempts at finding stylistic traces of the translator or the editor have been only partially successful. Word-frequency-based stylometric methods have shown that they are better at attributing the author of the original than the translator (Rybicki 2009, 2010; Rybicki, Eder 2010), or that Henry James’s switch from writing to dictation left no stylistic trace (Hoover 2010).

This time, however, it is possible that the translator’s wife has left her mark. First, Miko?’s attribution of the Memoirs of Jeremiah Curtin is visible in the consensus tree diagrams; second, the diagrams seem to validate the suspicions of Mrs Curtin’s significant contribution to The Mongols: A History and The Mongols in Russia.

Even more importantly, the most frequent words in two of the Sienkiewicz translations seem to exhibit a greater affinity to the Memoirs. It is hardly a coincidence that the two short stories depart from Sienkiewicz’s usual male- and Poland-dominated writing. Indeed, Lillian Morris and For Bread are two of Sienkiewicz’s so-called “American stories"" (written during or immediately after his stay in America, 1876-1879) and both feature a strong female protagonist. If it ever made sense for Curtin to give his wife a somewhat freer hand at shaping the final version of the English version of this or that Sienkiewicz text, it would have been on the occasion of these two stories. After all, during the work on Lillian Morris and For Bread in the Irish summer of 1893, Jeremiah was busy, struggling with several other projects at the same time: he was collecting material for one of his Irish mythologies, translating a couple of other short works Sienkiewicz, and writing a lengthy “Translator’s Preface’ to the Polish writer’s another historical romance, Pan Michael.

References:
Baayen, R.H. 2008 Analyzing Linguistic Data. A Practical Introduction to Statistics using R, Cambridge

Burrows, J.F. 1987 Computation into Criticism: a Study of Jane Austen’s Novels and an Experiment in Method, Oxford

Burrows, J.F. 2002 “Delta: A Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 17 267-287

Collins, C.L. 2008 “Behind the Curtin, ” Milwaukee Magazine, 1. April

Curtin, J. 1940 Memoirs of Jeremiah Curtin, Madison

Dalen-Oskam, K. van Zundert, J. van 2007 “Delta for Middle Dutch—Author and Copyist Distinction in Walewein, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 22 345-362

Dunn, M. Terrill, A. Reesink, G. Foley, R.A. Levinson, S.C. 2005 “Structural Phylogenetics and the Reconstruction of Ancient Language History, ” Science, 309 2072-2075

Hoover, D.L. 2004 “Testing Burrows's Delta, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19 453-475

Hoover, D.L. 2004a “Delta Prime?, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19 477-495

Hoover, D.L. 2010 “Modes of Composition in Henry James: Dictation, Style, and What Maisie Knew, ” Proceedings of the Digital Humanities 2009 conference, College Park, MD,

Miko, M.J. 1990 “Alma Cardell Curtin, the Woman behind Jeremiah Curtin, ” Milwaukee History, 13 53-68

Miko, M.J. 1994 W pogoni za Sienkiewiczem, Warszawa

Mosteller, F. Wallace, D.L. 1964 Inference and Disputed Authorship: The Federalist, Reading

Rybicki, J. 2009 “Liczenie krasnoludków. Troch? inaczej o polskich przek?adach trylogii Tolkiena, ” Ludzie i krasnoludki – powinowactwa z wyboru? Conference proceedings, Warszawa,

Rybicki, J. 2009 “Translation and Delta Revisited: When We Read Translations, Is It the Author or the Translator that We Really Read?, ” Proceedings of the Digital Humanities 2009 conference, College Park, MD,

Rybicki, J. Eder, M. 2011 “Deeper Delta Across Genres and Languages: Do We Really Need the Most Frequent Words?, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 26 (forthcoming)","txt","2","",""
"1294","12","Automatic Extraction of Catalog Data from Genizah Fragments' Images","1","Automatic Extraction of Catalog Data from Genizah Fragments’ Images
Shweka, Roni, The Friedberg Genizah Project, Israel; Tel Aviv University, Israel, rshweka@genizah.org
Choueka, Yaacov, The Friedberg Genizah Project, Israel; Tel Aviv University, Israel, ychoueka@genizah.org
Wolf, Lior, The Friedberg Genizah Project, Israel; Tel Aviv University, Israel, liorwolf@gmail.com
Dershowitz, Nachum, The Friedberg Genizah Project, Israel; Tel Aviv University, Israel, nachumd@post.tau.ac.il
Zeldin, Masha, The Friedberg Genizah Project, Israel; Tel Aviv University, Israel, mzeldin@genizah.org
The Cairo Genizah is a collection of about 250,000 manuscript-fragments of mainly Jewish texts discovered in the late 19th century. Most of the fragments were written between the 10th and the 14th centuries. Today, the fragments are spread out in libraries and private collections worldwide. The Friedberg Genizah Project (www.genizah.org) is in the midst of a multi-year process of digitally photographing all of the extant fragments. As of March 2011, the virtual library of the project holds over 250,000 digital images, and 200,000 additional images are expected to be integrated over the next few years. Unfortunately, this huge collection is far from being entirely cataloged, despite the ongoing effort to document and catalog all extant fragments. Moreover, the existing catalogs differ greatly in the amount and type of the data they present. Many of them record briefly the content of the fragment, without any information regarding its physical attributes.

We present a system for collecting all catalog data that can be extracted automatically from the fragment’s image, mainly: the exact dimensions of the fragment; number of columns; number of lines; size of the margins; the fragment’s physical status (torn vertically, horizontally, missing corners); and several additional features. Our system differentiates between bifolios and single pages, and in the first case collects the above data for each page separately. Besides the above attributes, which are expected to be found in every modern catalog, the system extracts some finer data that may be relevant to paleographic studies, such as density of lines (line height, inter-line space) and density of characters (number of characters in a fixed unit of length).

In addition to the detailed physical description of a single fragment, the huge database generated by the system serves for supporting identification of “join” candidates in the Cairo Genizah. A join is a set of manuscript-fragments that originate from the same original codex, but are scattered today under different shelfmarks, possibly in several different libraries. In a previous work, we described a system for the automatic identification of joins by ascertaining the degree of handwriting similarity between pairs of fragments. By querying the database and applying some basic rules for a good match, taking into account the completeness or incompleteness of the fragments, we can significantly improve on the quality of the results obtained by just analyzing the handwriting similarity.

Another aspect introduced in this paper is the proper conditions for taking digital images of manuscripts that are necessary for achieving this kind of results. We argue that, today, the function of such digital imaging is not only conservation and accessibility, but these images should be considered as potential inputs to image-processing algorithms and processes, and the computer should be therefore taken into account as one of the “clients” of the images. Hence, appropriate conditions should be considered in advance when digitizing manuscripts. Among these conditions we mention the following:

Choosing the optimal background for foreground-background separation. The background color should contrast, not only with the color of the fragment material, (vellum or paper), which is some hue of light brown, but also with the color of the ink, usually dark brown or black. Otherwise, text will be erroneously recognized as part of the background, and characters will be interpreted as holes in the fragment. The common practice in some libraries to digitize manuscripts on white, brown or black background should be considered therefore as an imperfect one, because these colors do not contrast well with the manuscript and the ink colors. Our study shows that the best contrast for these colors is provided by a blue background. Indeed, when we started digitizing the huge Genizah collection at the Cambridge University Library, we used blue as the standard background color for all images and the same practice was followed in the digitization of the British Library Genizah collection. Note that since with such contrasting colors the computer can very effectively differentiate between the fragment and its background, it is possible to automatically change the color background to any color desired by the user.
Avoiding the use of clips, weight bags, notes, etc. Every significant element in the image should be easily identified and recognized by the computer, and the best segmentation is achieved by color separation. On the other hand, when there is a need for use of extra elements with no significance to appear, such as elements to hold the fragment or keep it flat, we recommend that they be of the same color as that of the background. Notes (such as shelfmark numbers) should be of a fixed size and shape, with some apparent icon on them, so as to enable the software to identify them easily.
Use of a ruler in the image. Placing a ruler in the image enables the software to automatically determine the exact dpi of the image, and thus assess the various measures in some recognized unit, such as cms or inches. This practice is crucial especially when different images are taken with different lenses or when the camera is not fixed in the same position throughout the entire process. The ruler should be distinctive from the fragment; hence a wooden brown ruler or a see-through plastic one will not make a good choice.
Unfortunately, when such aspects are neglected, the application of computerized methods as described above and harvesting their results become unnecessarily difficult, and the quality of obtained results is adversely affected.
References:
Lerner, HG & Jerchower, S 2006 “The Penn/Cambridge Genizah fragment project: issues in description, access, and reunification, ” Cataloging & Classification Quarterly, 42 1 21-39

Reif, SC 2000 A Jewish archive from Old Cairo: the history of Cambridge University's Genizah collection, Curzon Press Richmond

Stinson, T 2009 “Codicological Descriptions in the Digital Age, ” Codicology and Palaeography in the Digital Age - Kodikologie und Paläographie im Digitalen Zeitalter, M Rehbein, P Sahle & T Schaßan (eds.) Schriftenreihe des Instituts für Dokumentologie und Editorik BoD, Norderstedt 2 35-51

TEI Consortium 2011 “Manuscript Description, ” TEI P5: Guidelines for electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, Version 1.9.1, 15 March 2011 (link)

The Friedberg Genizah Project, (link)

Wolf, L, Littman, R, German, T, Mayer, N, Dershowitz, N, Shweka, R & Choueka, Y 2011 “Automatically identifying join candidates in the Cairo Genizah, ” International Journal of Computer Vision, (link)","txt","2","",""
"1295","12","The Text-Image-Link-Editor: A tool for Linking Facsimiles & Transcriptions and Image Annotations","1","The Text-Image-Link-Editor: A tool for Linking Facsimiles & Transcriptions and Image Annotations
Al-Hajj, Yahya Ahmed Ali, Worms University of Applied Sciences, Germany, alhajj@fh-worms.de
Küster, Marc Wilhelm, Worms University of Applied Sciences, Germany, kuester@fh-worms.de
Introduction
TextGrid’s Text-Image-Link-Editor (TBLE “stands for for Text-Bild-Link-Editor, German for Text-Image-Link-Editor”) is used to link segments of text with sections on the corresponding image. A typical application is linking of scans of facsimiles with their transcriptions, though these texts can also be created during the linking process, which allows e.g. also for image annotations. The information on the linking between manuscript fragments and the corresponding transcription is itself stored in TEI. TextGrid is as a virtual research environment (VRE) for the humanities disciplines dealing with texts in a wide sense (philologies, epigraphy, linguistics, musicology, art history etc.). The joint research project TextGrid is part of the D-Grid initiative, and is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) for the period starting June 1, 2009 to May 31, 2012 (reference number: 01UG0901A).

TextGrid consists of two principal building blocks, the grid-based backend TextGridRep that hosts both infrastructure services and the repository layer for access to research data and longterm archiving, and the user-facing TextGridLab. The TextGrid Laboratory (TextGridLab), a single point of entry to the virtual research environment, will provide integrated access to both new and existing tools and services via a user friendly software [TG]. TBLE is a key component of the TextGridLab that has been under continuous development since 2008 and is by now in practical use.

State of the Art
The integration of manuscript scans with their transcription and indeed the critical edition itself is a desideratum of modern editions: “While some people continue to think of electronic texts as exclusive of images, the fact is that digital images of manuscripts are electronic texts, as well. The most compelling scholarly editions of the future will make full use of markup schemes such as XML [...], but not without extensive integration of images” [Kiernan2006]. In this context TextGrid is not the only project that recognized the need for an tool to facilitate this linking of image sections with transcriptions. The Edition Production & Presentation Technology's (EPPT's) [EPPT] tool box for integrating images and text operates in much the same solution space. [Parker2009] proposes the development of a web-based Text-Image Linking Environment (TILE), and for much the same reasons as the TBLE, namely to facilitate “the linking of images and textual information [which] remains a slow and frustrating process for editors and curators”. [TILE] is currently under development.For the current status of the project cf. also its homepage (link) Consulted 2011-03-14 Unlike the Eclipse-based TBLE, TILE is Ajax-based, extending the Ajax XML Encoder.

Similar in objective to TBLE and developed in much the same timeframe is Tapor’s / the University of Victoria’s Image Markup Tool [Holmes2010]. Both independently decided to use formats based on TEI P5 to store linking information, though at this stage unfortunately not the same. Unlike TBLE, the Image Markup Tool is a desktop program only for the MS Windows platform and cannot be integrated into the TextGridLab.

[Cayless2008] reports on experiments to partially automate the linking between manuscripts and their transcriptions. TBLE plans to integrate similar functionality using OCR technology (cf. below).

As required in [Huitfeld2010], TBLE allows, in Peirce’s terminology, multiple “types” to be associated with one “token”, or in other words to associate one section in a manuscript with multiple, possibly contradictory interpretations / transcriptions. Image sections can overlap, so that divergent segmentations are possible.

As an aside, this type of linking is very different from the research field of automated image analysis and image annotation which attempts to automatically establish key metadata for an image, e.g. by identifying the objects or persons shown on a photo.

Functionality
The following use case is a typical example for working with the TBLE: A scholar wants to publish manuscripts as collection of images, which offer a digital representation of the original work, but also wants to publish his take on its correct transcription in view of establishing a critical edition. The solution is to write the content of these hand written documents as text in a human/machine readable format e.g. XML and this text can be divided into logical related segments for example: verses, lines and then these text segments can be easily linked with the corresponding sections on the images using the TBLE.

The TBLE can be used for:

Linking Existing Texts and Digitized Manuscripts
Text and image are opened, then the corresponding components (text segment and selected image section) are marked by pairs and the linkage is confirmed. The results can be saved as a new file (local or in the TextGridRepository), which contains the linking information (image coordinates, text segment identifiers, URIs of the used text and image files). Sections can be rectangles or arbitrary polygons.

The content of the new created file represents the saved information as a TEI document with an embedded [SVG] section (see section 4 “The TEI-Model” for more details). Once a file is saved, double clicking it reloads used images, texts and links to continue editing. Changing or adding new links as well as modifying the linked text is possible at any time.

Instead of starting out with an existing transcription and linking it with the image data, the scholar can also decide to start from scratch with an empty text file. The new text segments can be inserted stepwise or at once.

Any number of different and possibly conflicting transcriptions and segmentations can be linked against one set of digitized manuscripts.

Annotation of Image Sections and Existing Links
The Text-Image-Link-Editor offers many other useful features, that help annotating specific links or image sections. For example:

It's possible to build logical groups of links (e.g. verses, comments, etc.) using the layers-tool.
A text-direction (e.g. left-to-right & top-to-bottom) can be assigned to the links.
The TEI-Model
The output file of the Text-Image-Link-Editor follows the TEI model with embedded svg description elements. The following is a list, which crudely describes the structure of the TEI document:

<teiHeader> this element could be used to save the metadata of the document.
<facsimile> in this element is the svg element embedded, which keeps the topographic descriptions of images and links.
<body> in the body element are the link groups, that contain the link elements. These link elements represent the relationship between the image sections and the corresponding text segments. The relationship between images and texts and links is represented in the following figure:
The TEI output file of the Text-Image-Link-Editor to describe the relationship between images and texts and links [Maynooth2010]

Full Size Image

Structure and Components
The Text-image-Link-Editor is a part of the TextGridLab and is implemented as a group of Eclipse plugins following the [MVC] patternThe Model-View-Controller (MVC) pattern separates the modeling of the domain, the presentation, and the actions based on user input into three separate classes.

This tool consists of a Toolkit and two views in addition to the XML Editor and the generic Navigator:

Image View: shows the images and enables you to select individual image sections to be linked.
Thumb View: is used for navigation. It displays a reduced version of the entire image and the active image detail (which is enlarged in the Image View) which can easily be moved and zoomed.
Toolkit: provides different functions for working on the Image View.
XML Editor: allows you to open or create texts as well as to select individual text elements.
TBLE in action

Full Size Image

Further Enhancement
TBLE is already actively used in a number of projects, but continues to be enhanced, taking into account new user requirements coming up in the field. In particular, we plan to implement a new feature in the Text-Image-Link-Editor to enable an automated segmentation of facsimiles using the [OCRopus] OCR-system, which offers a possibility to partially automate the linkage process.OCRopus (tm) is a state-of-the-art document analysis and OCR system, featuring pluggable layout analysis, pluggable character recognition, statistical natural language modeling, and multi-lingual capabilities. http://code.google.com/p/ocropus/ . Consulted 2011-03-14

References:
Cayless, Hugh 2008 “Experiments in Automated Linking of TEI Transcripts to Manuscript Images, ” TEI Members Meeting, 2008 (link)

Kiernan, Kevin et al. Edition Production & Presentation Technology (EPPT), 2011-03-12 (link)

Holmes, Martin The UvC Image Markup Tool Project. Project homepage, 2010-10-31 (link)

Huitfeldt, Claus; Yves Marcoux and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen 2010 “Extension of the type/token distinction to document structure, ” Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2010, Balisage Series on Markup Technologies 5 doi:10.4242/BalisageVol5.Huitfeldt01.

[Kiernan2006] Kiernan, Kevin 2006 “Electronic Textual Editing: Digital Facsimiles in Editing, ” Electronic Textual Editing, Burnard, Lou; O'Brien O'Keeffe, Katherine and Unsworth, John (Eds) MLA 2011-03-14 (link)

[Maynooth2010] Maynooth - Michael Leuk, Dr. Simon Rettelbach 2010 Cost Workshop,

[Parker2009] Porter, Dorothy Carr; Reside, Duke andWalsh, John 2009 “Text-Image Linking Environment (TILE), ” Digital Humanities, 2009, 2009 p. 388ff

[SVG] W3C, Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG), 2011-03-14 (link)

[TEI] The Text Encoding Initiative, 2011-03-14 (link)

[TG] About TextGrid, 2011-03-14 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1296","12","gMan: Creating General-Purpose Virtual Environments for (Digital) Archival Research","1","gMan: Creating General-Purpose Virtual Environments for (Digital) Archival Research
Blanke, Tobias, Centre for e-Research, King’s College London, tobias.blanke@kcl.ac.uk
Connor, Richard, University of Strathclyde, richard.connor@cis.strath.ac.uk
Hedges, Mark, Centre for e-Research, King’s College London, mark.hedges@kcl.ac.uk
Kristel, Conny, Netherlands Institute for War Documentation (NIOD), c.kristel@niod.knaw.nl
Priddy, Mike, Centre for e-Research, King’s College London, priddy@mac.com
Simenoni, Fabio, University of Strathclyde, fabio.simeoni@cis.strath.ac.uk
This paper will present a critical analysis of our attempts to build Virtual Research Environments (VREs) for everyday Humanities research tasks using digital archives. Numerous specialised VREs have been developed for addressing particular tasks in various humanities disciplines. The Silchester VREs addressed data integration in archaeological excavations, the SDM VRE developed services for sharing and annotating manuscripts, while TEXTvre is concerned with TEI-based resource creation. Building on these experiences, gMan addressed the issue of moving beyond support for specific, focused tasks, and instead building services to enable more general-purpose humanities research activities, such as integrating and organising the heterogeneous and often unstructured digital resources, and support for ‘active reading’ processesBrockman et al. 2001. Scholarly work in the humanities and the evolving information environment. Washington, DC. through advanced discovery facilities. Such services regularly top the list of humanities user requirementsBenardou et al. 2009. Understanding the Information Requirements of Arts and Humanities Scholarship. International Journal of Digital Curation.. This paper describes work to this end, firstly by the DARIAH project, and subsequently consolidated by the gMan project, funded by JISC’s VRE Rapid Innovation programme.

These experiments were based on use cases identified by the earlier LaQuAT (Linking and Querying Ancient Texts) projectJackson et al. 2009. Building bridges between islands of data—an investigation into distributed data management in the humanities. Proceedings of the Fifth IEEE International Conference on e-Science. Washington, DC., which investigated how to integrate scattered, heterogeneous and autonomous data resources relating to ancient texts, mainly databases but also XML corpora. LaQuAT attempted to solve these issues by offering an integration framework based on the OGSA-DAI grid middleware, which provided an integrated interface to the various data resources that followed a relational database model. However, this approach had certain limitations for our purposes, as such models are optimised for dealing with datacentric resources - that is, resources consisting primarily of structured data such as numbers, dates or very short text fields - rather than text-centric resources containing significant quantities of unstructured text. The approach worked well where the structural context of the information was clear and the query aimed at exact matches. More commonly, however, humanities researchers work with text-centric resources, perhaps enhanced with XML mark-up to capture document structure and additional metadataNentwich, M. 2003. Cyberscience. research in the age of the internet. Vienna., and they look for resources for further investigation based on looser criteria of relevance, e.g. by searching for all Roman legal texts in one resource containing information on punishments that are also mentioned in papyri from another resource.

These conclusions were further elaborated in the use cases that were developed from them, which are the main drivers for the work described here. Complementing this is a body of methodological investigation concerning scholars and their use of sources, particularly their use of data and archives. Before describing our current work, we will survey briefly these investigations.

The difference in scholarly practices between the sciences and the mainstream humanities is highlighted in a studyPalmer et al. 2009. Scholarly information practices in the online environment. that investigated the types of information sources used in different humanities disciplines, based on results from the US Research Libraries Group reports. Structured data is relatively little used, except in some areas of historical research, and data as it is traditionally understood in the sciences, e.g. the results of measurements, even less so. It is true that the study is partly outdated, and that data in the traditional sense is increasingly important in the humanities, particularly in linguistics and archaeology where scientific techniques have been widely adopted. Nevertheless, it is clear that in general humanities research relies not on measurements as a source of authority, but rather on the provenance of sources and peer-assessment, and that what data repositories are for the sciences, archives are for the humanitiesDuff et al. 2004 Historians’ use of archival sources: Promises and pitfalls of the digital age. The Public Historian.. Archival records are primary sources about the past and may take many forms, including government papers, financial documents, photographs, sound recordings, etc. All this information is unstructured in nature.

Thus, our work is driven partly by the requirements fromDuff et al. 2004 Historians’ use of archival sources: Promises and pitfalls of the digital age. The Public Historian., interpreted so as to relate to methods of research in archives. Retrieval is to happen in real time, and traditional finding aids are to be complemented by more sophisticated retrieval mechanisms, including the ability to create relevance indexes on unstructured resources, as well as the ability to combine resources in new ways. In particular, we aimed to implement the personal copy of a finding aid that is often quoted as an important prerequisite for specialised research in archives.

Our work investigated how (digital) archival content can be delivered to humanities researchers more effectively, independently of the location and implementation of that content, and with special facilities provided for customising the retrieval, management and manipulation of the content. We investigated how the UK and European research infrastructure (RI) can be exploited to support data-driven, collaborative research in the humanities by using the gCube environmentCandela et al. 2009. On-demand Virtual Research Environments and the Changing Roles of Librarians. Library Hi Tech., which was developed by the EU-funded D4Science project. gCube allows virtual research communities to deploy VREs on demand by making use of the shared resources of the European RI, and provides services that match closely the sort of information organisation and retrieval activities that we identified as being typical in humanities research.

D4Science provides an easy way of scavenging online data resources. It has a consistent mechanism to import data for rich user interaction within the deployed VREs. Its data resource staging framework, based on a well-defined workflow of data analysis, data modelling and data generation, is one of the key innovations of D4Science. The analysis and modelling phases define how data collections are loaded into gCube compound objects using its simple but powerful data model. In the data generation phase, descriptive metadata and provenance information are added.

Using the gCube data staging framework, the following datasets were brought together in our experiments:

The Heidelberger Gesamtverzeichnis (HGV) der griechischen Papyrusurkunden Aegyptens, a collection of metadata records for 65,000 Greek papyri from Egypt.
Projet Volterra, a database of Roman legal texts, currently in the low tens of thousands but very much in progress, stored in a series of themed tables in Microsoft Access.
The Inscriptions of Aphrodisias, a corpus of about 2,000 ancient Greek
These datasets were the same as those used in the LaQuAT project and thus and allow a critical comparison of results. They overlap in terms of time, places and people – specifically looking at the first five centuries or so of the Roman Empire – although their contents are otherwise quite different. The provision of an environment for working with this data in an integrated form would be highly fruitful for the researcher.

The presentation will describe the use cases that we used for evaluating gCube. Our approach was to break down the scenarios identified in interviews at KCL and within DARIAH into a number of common, atomic actions. Specific instances of these actions can be combined to model a variety of ""real"" research scenarios, for example the ability to assemble heterogeneous resources (or parts of resources) into a virtual collection, to share this virtual collection within a specific community and to search across a virtual collection, where specific search parameters (such as the importance of specific locations) can be set according to preference. Specific communities also require specific search services such as geo-referenced and date-range searches. Finally, the researcher wants to share links between research objects and annotations (including related documents publications) in her community.

In our experiments, we confirmed that most of these use cases could be supported by the features already provided by the core D4Science systems. For the Digital Humanities 2011 presentation, we will address our subsequent activities: the analysis that we carried out to identify gaps in the existing service provision; some results that demonstrate a clear distinction between the viewpoints of humanities and science research, in respect of such features as image search; our move to develop gMan as a production service for humanities researchers; and the recently-funded European Holocaust Research Infrastructure project, which aims to integrate Holocaust research material from archives across Europe. The main aim of the project will be to make accessible existing Holocaust research collections but the second priority will be to deploy virtual research environments to make use of these resources. D4Science services were seen to support initial requirements well.

References:","txt","2","",""
"1297","12","Historic Interpretation, Preservation, and Augmented Reality in Falmouth Jamaica","1","Historic Interpretation, Preservation, and Augmented Reality in Falmouth Jamaica
Graham, Wayne, University of Virginia, wayne.graham@virginia.edu
Nowviskie, Bethany, University of Virginia, bethany@virginia.edu
Despite the ground-breaking work of graphics visionaries like Alan SutherlandAlan Sutherland built the first graphics program named “Sketchpad” as part of his PhD. work in 1963. Sketchpad allowed users to draw geometric shapes and create copies of them. This work was not only important in the realm of computer aided design (it is viewed as the grandfather of modern CAD software), but also in its organization of the code in objects, which is the basis for modern object oriented design. and Ed CatmullBeyond his current role as CTO of Pixar, Catmull is perhaps one of the most important people in the world of computer graphics, discovering methods to apply images to geometries, smoothing lines drawn on computer screens, among many others. He was also a student of Sutherland... in the 1960s and 1970s, which unlocked computer screens as interactive tools, hardware portability issues have constrained computer interaction to a two-dimensional space which often simulates the real world. However, the considerable market growth of sophisticated mobile devices over the last several years has begun to push the boundaries of interaction in virtual environments. Instead of experiencing a simulated environment sitting at a computer, users are shifting to experiencing physical environments with a computing device capable of enriching their subjectie experience of the space. The success of augmented reality systems like BionicEye, RobotVision, TATAugmented ID, and Layar provides glimpses at how this technology might be leveraged by cultural heritage institutions, individual academics, and even local, municpal officials, to provide opportunities for students and the general public to interact with space and place in new and exciting ways.

The University of Virginia’s Department of Architectural History holds its training-oriented field school, under the direction of Professor Louis Nelson, in the city of Falmouth Jamaica each year. Falmouth is a fruitful city for study because of its unique history, which makes it the best preserved example of Georgian architecture in the Caribbean. Founded in 1769, the city was originally designed as the main northern port for the island’s thriving sugar trade. Tied closely to the infamous “Triangle-trade”, the slave-based sugar economy allowed the city to grow until the emancipation of slaves in the British Empire in 1840. After 1840, the town saw a significant decline and experienced very little construction over the next 170 years, preserving its architecture and urban design as an early nineteenth-century time capsule.

In 2009, the Jamaican government approved development of a cruise ship terminal in Falmouth. Its first ships are scheduled for docking in the summer of 2011. The predicted influx of tourism to the town will be an economic boon to residents, but will also bring significant changes to the architectural identity of the town. The 11-acre port is of such size that, while ships are docked, they will tower over the Trewlany Parish Church of St. Peter, the tallest building in the town. New dining and recreation facilities will be constructed around the terminal, and a simplified interpretation of early nineteenth-century life will be constructed for the enjoyment of tourists. This will result a better standard of living for most residents of the town, but will mean the loss of an historical laboratory for architecture. As businesses sprout up, residents will be pushed away from areas around the terminal and century-old houses will be torn down and replaced with store-fronts.

Realizing that the introduction of the cruise terminal to the city will forever alter the architectural identity of the town, the UVa Architectural History Field School recently shifted its focus from deep analysis of a handful of buildings in a single summer, to a more general effort to survey the status of the buildings of the entire city. This survey includes measured sketches, colorcoding of a given structure’s overall condition, images of the structure as it stands today, and information on when the building was constructed, construction material, and other items of interest to architectural historians. These findings were then submitted to UVa Library’s Special Collections for long-term archiving.

Sensing a real opportunity to provide access to this important work, the Scholars’ Lab partnered with Louis Nelson, chair of the Architectural History department, to investigate ways to make this nearly decade’s worth of research available to a wider audience. We identified three groups of users for the content: academics interested in the underlying data of the city, government officials who need to plan city restoration efforts, and tourists interested in finding out more about the town they will visit. The Scholars’ Lab was particularly interested in interface design decisions that would serve each of these communities well.

In order to provide different mechanisms of access for three distinct user groups, we employed several open-source tools to create a solution that would expose this valuble architectural and historical data to a large and varied audience. Leveraging our own expertise in open-source Geographic Information Systems infrastructureIn 2009 and 2010, the Scholars’ Lab hosted an NEH-funded “Institute for Enabling Geospatial Scholarship:” (link) . At DH 2009, several members of the Scholars’ Lab presented a panel discussion (“New World Orderings”) on GIS, including a description of our open source , web services-based Geospatial Data Portal: (link) . And at DH 2010, Scholars’ Lab director Bethany Nowviskie presented a poster on possibilities for spatial humanities, “Inventing the Map.” with the flexibility of the Omeka collections and exhibits framework, the Scholars’ Lab has constructed several different ways in which these different audiences may interact with library-curated spatial data.

In order to allow city planners access to the underlying data, maps originally drawn in AutoCad were converted to a GIS format and loaded on to a web-accessible server. Web services were created to allow high-end users of GIS software access to the information with proprietary tools like ArcGIS. We then utilized those same web services to create map interactions within Omeka using the open source mapping library OpenLayers. Images and metadata (along with the full architectural survey report) were uploaded to Omeka and a custom VRA Core metadata standard was created to allow more appropriate description of the architectural elements in the collection. Long-form academic essays are also in the process of being written for approximately 30 of the most important structures in the city. These will be presented along with maps highlighting where important structures are located, to allow visual methods for browsing the collections to function in tandem with scholarly interventions to highlight specific structures of interest. Importantly, this approach also allows us to expose underlying geographic information as web services, allowing other scholars to reuse the information.

While the site boasts other advanced features, including a faceted Solr-based search, we also wanted to explore methods for exposing the same data in new ways to the different target groups for the project. With the growth of web-enabled smart devices, we plan to try two experiments at the Vernacular Architecture Forum’s Annual Meeting, in June 2011 in Falmouth, Jamaica. The first will place QR codes at selected structures around the town to allow individuals with web-enabled phones to access all of the information about the structure presented on the Scholars’ Lab website. We are also building a Layar-based augmented reality browser for the city which will allow individuals with smart phones (iPhones and Android-based devices) to install a simple application that will overlay information about buildings on a viewport, accessed simply by pointing their phones at the building.

This is an ongoing project, with field experiments and user feedback scheduled to be conducted before the Digital Humanities 2011 conference. We hope to model a technical approach to providing access to library-curated information for multiple audiences, using different technological approaches and techniques to frame the data not only in terms of scholarly use, but for tourism and cultural heritage appreciation, and for the more practical employment of the data by city planners to optimize restoration efforts. We also hope that these tools will help raise awareness about the fragility of the town to tourists, and can act as a way to expose UVa students’ and scholars’ research in multiple formats to those interested in underlying historical and spatial data, and the multimedia and embodied arguments which have been crafted using new tools and methods.","txt","2","",""
"1298","12","Omeka in the Classroom: The Challenges of Teaching Material Culture in a Digital World","1","Omeka in the Classroom: The Challenges of Teaching Material Culture in a Digital World
Marsh, Allison, University of South Carolina, allisonmarsh@yahoo.com
For presenters and attendees at DH2011, there is no need to sing the praises of the digital world. We are the early adopters, the converted, the evangelists. But our colleagues across the humanities are not yet entirely convinced, and of more concern to me, neither are the students. I direct the museum studies track of the masters in public history at the University of South Carolina, one of the oldest public history programs in the country. It is a nationally competitive program, and our graduates have an impressive placement record: the Smithsonian; the National Park Service; federal, state, and local government. And yet, since I joined the faculty three years ago, I have been shocked that the students – the so-called digital natives – have little interest in the digital world as part of their professional training. They may communicate with each other using Facebook, share photos on Flickr, or post to their personal blogs, but when it comes to coursework they expect, and sometimes demand, a traditional graduate seminar where we read and discuss books. More than one student has balked at my assignments, whining, “I don’t need to learn how to program. I just want to be a regular historian.” Unyielding in my persistence, I argue back that it is no longer an option. Wikis, blogs, and tweeting are everyday realities for museum professionals. At the very minimum, all curators and collections managers need to have a basic understanding of database architecture in order to structure their object databases and construct useful queries. More importantly, two decades of digitization has created new questions for curators of three-dimensional objects: What does material culture look like on the web? How do you curate it? How does the public interact with virtual objects? What is the relationship between virtual and physical museum artifacts?

Each fall I teach HIST 787: Material Culture Studies, the foundational graduate seminar for the museums track in our masters program. On the first day of class, I ask the students to bring in five objects that describe either themselves or their research interests. I tell them to choose wisely, as they will be using those objects every week for the entire semester, but otherwise I give no guidance to object selection. The objects serve multiple purposes throughout the semester, but most importantly they are part of a larger project to create an object database that represents the changing attitudes towards material culture in the digital age. Each year the students must create an online exhibit drawing from the objects in the database, the objects of both their classmates as well as the students of previous years. Clearly each year the number of objects in the database increases, and the distance from the early contributors becomes greater. I am in Year 3 of what I anticipate to be a decade long study, and this short paper presentation is designed to give preliminary results. Because this course is part of a two-year masters degree, this is the first year where the students do not have direct access to the owners of objects from previous classes.

I have chosen Omeka as the platform for this assignment. Although I am well aware of the limitations, as well as the potential, of the open source software, Omeka has a low barrier for entry. Omeka was developed by George Mason University’s Center for History and New Media with non-IT specialists in mind. CHNM’s goal was (and continues to be) to provide museum and library professionals with a tool that allows them to concentrate on content and interpretation without worrying about programming. I am concerned that by using a black box application my students don’t fully understand the implications of engaging with the virtual world. However, that is one of the compromises I have made in order to encourage budding historians to get their toes wet in the digital arena.

For their final assignment, students must create records for each of their objects, which includes uploading images, entering Dublin Core metadata, tagging objects with key words, and writing short descriptions. The students then must curate their own exhibit, either by using one of the theme templates provided by CHNM or by creating their own. The open source software allows students who are more skilled or interested in web design to create more elaborate exhibits.

So far the results of the online exhibits have been mostly disastrous. As a whole, the exhibits are terrible (available at (link) ). They have clunky navigation, lack any elegance in design, and often are just plain boring. In many ways, the exhibits are proof of my distrust of black box software for developing online exhibits and are an indicator that anyone who wants to engage seriously in the virtual world needs significantly more training (either formally or informally) than a few hours of online tutorials can provide. More generously, these online exhibits are often the first experience students have in curating, and so one of the assignment’s goals is for students to gain skills in developing effective narrative techniques (useful in both physical and digital curation). In assessing their work, it is important to be mindful of the learning process; remember that they are professionals in training, and they should not be judged on their first attempt but rather on the progress they achieve by the time they graduate.

However, as a pedagogical device, the assignment has been tremendously successful. By working through the process of creating an online exhibit, the students naturally confront the many epistemic questions relating to the use of physical objects in a virtual environment. Students immediately recognize the diverse challenges of working in the digital format, from the pedestrian, such as how to search for items when a previous user failed to enter appropriate metadata, to the substantial, such as questioning the ethics of using an object as a metonym in an exhibit that is antithetical to the physical object’s authenticity. My goal for the assignment is not for students to become master web designers, but for them to engage in the questions confronting digital curation.

Although I could talk at length about the implications of this ongoing assignment, this short paper will focus on the joint challenges of curating digital resources and the role of digital humanities in the academic curricula – how are universities training the next generation of museum professionals who will have to confront digital curation. My presentation will be a snap shot of a longitudinal study that is currently in progress. I will briefly describe the assignment, its goals, and the unexpected lessons learned thus far. I hope to reach fellow members of the academy to discuss effective teaching techniques while at the same time seeking feedback from museum professionals as to what skills they believe graduating students should have. How do professors balance the need to provide theoretical training in how to read and interpret material culture while fostering the development of technical skills in an ever-changing digital landscape?","txt","2","",""
"1299","12","Do Birds of a Feather Really Flock Together, or How to Choose Test Samples for Authorship Attribution","1","Do Birds of a Feather Really Flock Together, or How to Choose Test Samples for Authorship Attribution
Eder, Maciej, Pedagogical University of Kraków, Poland, maciejeder@gmail.com
Rybicki, Jan, Pedagogical University of Kraków, Poland, jkrybicki@gmail.com
In the house of non-traditional authorship attribution are many mansions, or methods, based on statistical analysis of authorial style. They all compare text samples of disputed or unknown authorship to texts written by known authors, or “candidates”. The degree of similarity or dissimilarity between samples allows informed guesses on the possible authorship of a given text. The so-called machine-learning methods are supposed to be among the most effective; they include Support Vector Machines, Nearest Shrunken Centroid classification, Burrows’ Delta and so on (for a comparison of their effectiveness cf. Jockers and Witten 2010).

The general feature of the methods in question is a two-step supervised analysis. In the first step, the traceable differences between samples constitute a set of rules, or a classifier, for discriminating authorial “uniqueness” in style. The second step is of predictive nature – using the trained classifier, one can assign other text samples to the authorial classes established by the classifier; any disputed or anonymous sample will be assigned to one of the classes as well.

The procedure described above relies on a pre-processed corpus of samples. Namely, the clue is to divide all the available text samples into two groups: primary (training) set and secondary (test) set. The first set, being a collection of texts written by known authors (“candidates”), serves as a sub-corpus for finding the best classifier, while the second set is a pool of texts of known authors, anonymous samples, disputed ones and so on. The better the classifier, the more samples from the test set are attributed correctly and the more reliable the attribution of the disputed samples.

Such procedures have been successful in social and medical studies; no wonder, then, that it soon made its way into authorship attribution. Yet, contrary to the former applications where the researcher usually enjoys a high number of test samples (e.g. patients), authorship attribution has to struggle with a limited number of samples available to train a convincing classifier. This makes the classifier sensitive to statistical error. What is more, the generally-accepted division of data studied into a training set and a test set further limits the texts that can be attributed.

This sensitivity of machine-learning classifiers to the choice of samples in the training set has already been observed (Jockers and Witten 2010: 220). Intuition suggests composing the training set from the most typical texts (whatever “typical” means) by the authors studied (thus, for Goethe, Werther rather than Farbenlehre). In practice, this can be quite complicated: in a small corpus, to change a single training set sample for another can upset the delicate mesh of interrelationships between all other texts. This potentially heavy impact on the effectiveness of attribution tests has not been lost on Hoover: “As a reminder of how much depends upon the initial choice of primary and secondary texts, consider what happens if the same 59 texts are analyzed again, but with different choices for primary and secondary texts [...]. If the analyses that are the most successful with the initial set are repeated, Delta successfully attributes only 16 of the 25 texts by members of the primary set” (Hoover 2004a: 461).

Last but not least, any manual selection of texts to both sets must be highly arbitrary. To further quote Hoover: “The primary novels for this test are intentionally chosen so as to produce poor results, but one might often be faced with an analysis in which there is no known basis upon which to choose the primary and secondary texts, and nothing prevents an unfortunate set of texts like this from occurring by chance” (Hoover 2004a: 461-62).

Machine-learning methods routinely try to estimate the potential error due to incorrect choice of the training set samples. This cross-validation consist in a few random changes to the composition of both sets, followed by a comparison of the classifier’s success, ten-folded cross-validation being the standard solution (Tibshirani et al. 2003: 107; Baayen 2008: 162; Jockers and Witten 2009: 219). The question arises whether ten trials are sufficient for a classifier which, based on but a few samples, can be unstable.

Assuming that the training set contains 10 samples by 10 authors, and the test set another 10 samples by these authors, there are 210 = 1024 possible combinations of members of the training set. For a corpus of 60 novels by 20 authors, this number becomes so large that testing all possible permutations of both sets is unrealistic. Instead, the impact of the composition of the training set on attribution success can be assessed basing on several hundred random permutations; this can be done with a variety of bootstrap procedures (Good 2006).

To test this problem, we have selected several corpora of similar size and similar number of authors studied (with the obvious caveat that any comparison between different languages can never be fully objective). For each of these corpora, we have performed 500 controlled attribution experiments, each with a random selection of the training and the test sets. We have compared the number of correct authors guessed, with the hypothesis that the more resistant a corpus is to changes in the choice of the two sets, the more stable the results.

All tests featured the simplest, the most intuitive and the most frequently used of machine-learning attribution methods: Burrows’s Delta (Burrows 2002; Hoover 2004b). Delta was run for 100 MFWs, then for 200 and then, at increments of 100, all the way to 2000 MFWs. This was performed at five different culling settings (0-100% incrementing by 20), giving a total of 1000 results, and a mean of these was recorded. The above procedure was then repeated for 500 random permutations of the texts in the training set. The density function was estimated for the final results thus obtained.

It can be assumed that the distribution of these 500 final results should be Gaussian rather than anything else. The peak of the curve would indicate the real effectiveness of the method, while its tails – the impact of random factors. A thin and tall peak would thus imply stable results, i.e. those resistant to changes in the primary set.

The analysis of the results begins with the corpus of 63 English novels by 17 authors. As expected, the density of the 500 bootstrap results follows a (skewed) bell curve (Figure 1). At the same time, its gentler left slope suggests that, depending on the choice of the training set, the percentage of correct attributions can vary, with bad luck, to below 90%.

Figure 1. Density (vertical axis) of attributive success percentage rates (horizontal axis) in the English novel corpus

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It is quite natural that the stability of the results might also depend on the number of authors and/or texts analyzed. The same Figure shows that, with fewer authors, a higher number of texts has no significant impact on the stability of the results at any permutation of both sets (the dashed line), as already observed by Hoover and Hess (2009: 474). With more authors (i.e. when guessing becomes more difficult), the curve widens and a perfect match is even less frequent.

And this is still good accuracy and a fairly predictable model. However, it has to be remembered that Delta has been shown to be somewhat less perfect in other languages (Rybicki and Eder 2011).

Figure 2. Density of attributive success rates in the French novel corpus

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Figure 3. Density of attributive success rates in the German novel corpus

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Figure 4. Density of attributive success rates in the Italian novel corpus

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Figure 5. Density of attributive success rates in the Polish novel corpus

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Indeed, the discrepancies in Figures 2-5 seem to question the validity of attribution tests based on arbitrary choice of training sets. Although peaks for some combinations of numbers of texts and authors may be at acceptable levels, the left slopes of the curves tend towards dangerously low values; and the wide tails of the curves show that a high success rate outliers might be a stroke of luck rather than a consequence of the method, the data and the statistical assumptions – the most ominous memento appearing here from the inexplicable dispersion in the corpus of 39 Polish novels by 8 authors (Figure 5, grey solid line). Therefore, the ideal authorship attribution situation is not only that of many texts by many authors; it is equally important to assess the validity of the training set with a very high number of trials. This seems to be the only way to escape the quandary of arbitrarily naming each author’s “typical” text.

References:
Burrows, J. F. 2002 “‘Delta’: A Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 17(3) 267-87

Good, P. 2006 Resampling Methods, Birkhäuser Boston, Basel, Berlin

Hoover, D. L. 2004a “Testing Burrows’s Delta, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19(4) 453-75

Hoover, D. L. 2004b “Delta Prime?, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19(4) 477-95

Hoover, D. L. Hess, S. 2009 “An Exercise in Non-ideal Authorship Attribution: The Mysterious Maria Ward, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 24(4) 467-89

Jockers, M. L. Witten, D. M. Criddle, C. S. 2008 “Reassessing Authorship in the ‘Book of Mormon’ Using Delta and Nearest Shrunken Centroid Classification, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(4) 465-91

Jockers, M. L. Witten, D. M. 2010 “A Comparative Study of Machine Learning Methods for Authorship Attribution, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 25(2) 215-23

Rybicki, J. Eder, M. 2011 “Deeper Delta Across Genres and Languages: Do We Really Need the Most Frequent Words?, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 26 (forthcoming)

Tibshirani, R. Hastie, T. Narashimhan, B. Chu, G. 2003 “Class Prediction by Nearest Shrunken Centroids, with Applications to DNA Microarrays, ” Statistical Science, 18 104-17","txt","2","",""
"1300","12","Adapting EATS for Crowdsourcing: Register Medicorum Medii Aevi","2","Adapting EATS for Crowdsourcing: Register Medicorum Medii Aevi
Viglianti, Raffaele, King's College London, United Kingdom, raffaele.viglianti@kcl.ac.uk
The Register Medicorum Medii Aevi (RMMA) is an active pilot project at King's College London that seeks to lay the foundations for an interdisciplinary online register of doctors in the middle ages. It is common for similar kinds of historical online resources to prepare a database out of a large collection of scholarly findings. RMMA, instead, aims to create a growing database which is populated over time by various scholars and students to make their findings accessible on the web. In order to pursue this task, the prototype for this pilot must allow data insertion from a wider group than the project partners alone; therefore several crowdsourcing principles are applied and extensive user testing is being undertaken. This poster will show solutions to the main challenges encountered in the design of the database and in adapting EATS, a Django application for authority records, for wider online use.

Overview
Researchers from different areas of medieval studies are likely to encounter information in primary sources about medici, the physicians of the time. Information about medici and their practices was recorded in a variety of documents; they would often travel across cultures, which can serve as indication of their high value. This has produced many sources from different cultures and in different languages. Because different areas of study often gravitate around geographical, cultural and linguistic divisions, it is challenging to investigate the movements of people and knowledge across these barriers. RMMA explores how digital publication can help in exchanging reliable information between researchers in such areas and currently involves experts on Anglo-Saxon, Arabic, Armenian, Greek, Jewish, Latin materials that provide information about doctors, and medical knowledge in the medieval period.

To address this issue, the project is developing a web application that will allow to (1) insert information about medici from primary and secondary sources; (2) handle different opinions about the same individuals; and (3) connect to prosopographical projects that deal with a similar historical time-frame and with historical geographical resources. RMMA is looking in particular at prosopographical projects developed at the Centre for Computing in the Humanities at King’s College London, including the Prosopography of the Byzantine Empire and Prosopography of the Byzantine World <http://www.pbw.kcl.ac.uk/>. For historical locations, we are working towards integrating a query system to Pleiades when entering new locations <http://pleiades.stoa.org/>.

Technologies Involved
The application is built using Django,http://www.djangoproject.com/ a Python open source web application framework aimed at simplifying development through a reusable set of common libraries and components. Developers can code their own application to be re-used within other Django frameworks, which is a factor that contributes towards the web framework's success. EATS (Entity Authority Tool Set) is a Django application developed by Jamie Norrish at the New Zealand Electronic Text Centre (NZETC) and ""is now used to manage the 30,000+ entities represented in the NZETC online collection of significant New Zealand and Pacific Island texts"" (Norrish 2007). The application targets issues usually faced by libraries, such as ambiguous identifiers based on names and titles. By improving on traditional authority systems where one identifier groups different entries describing the same entity, EATS allows the linking together of different collections and authorities, introduces user management and provides greater scope for disambiguation. RMMA found that EATS's approach could greatly contribute to the objectives of the project's web application, specifically in handling information about the same entities coming from multiple sources.

Most EATS top-level components have been adapted for RMMA's purposes: Entities are database tables that must be associated to one or more Authorities. Authorities may then make Property Assertions that associate Entities to specific default or user-defined properties. In RMMA, Entities are medici, patients, employers, locations, institutions, etc., while Authorities are the contributors of the data, such as authors of narrative secondary sources or contributors inserting information anew from a primary source (note that in this case the authority remains the contributor and not the primary source; in theory, different contributors can enter different information from the same primary source, intentionally leaving room for debate). Property Assertions in RMMA reflect statements such as: Authority contributor states that Entity medicus has name name, or similar. Finally, users of the system are able to insert data for one or more authorities, which is particularly useful if one user is entering information from a number of secondary sources. When users enter data discovered by themselves, however, they are acting like authorities. Even in this case, for the purpose of the system, the dichotomy between user and authority must be maintained: the scholar will insert data as a certain user controlling the authority that represents him or herself.

Fig 1. This graph shows the role of users in controlling authorities and different authorities declaring statements (property assertions) about the same entity.

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Adapting EATS Interface for a Wider Audience
The default EATS interface for data entry is designed for completeness and may require some training for the inexperienced users. After all, this interface is likely to be used by personnel for populating the database and most of the design effort is better spent on the querying interface that end users will see. In the case of RMMA the project is vastly adapting the interface, as data entry will be an essential part of the end user experience. The project has been looking at other initiatives in the Digital Humanities and Digital Library fields that are adopting crowdsourcing for collecting data.See in particular: Transcribe Bentham, a crowsourcing project hosted at the Centre for Digital Humanities, University College London <http://www.ucl.ac.uk/transcribe-bentham>; the image collection of the Victoria & Albert Museum <http://collections.vam.ac.uk/crowdsourcing>; and other projects discussed in Holley 2010. Crowdsourcing consists of outsourcing specific tasks to be performed by volunteers via a web application. The term is a neologism coined in 2006 in an article on Wired, in which the author claims that the current pervasiveness of technology has reduced the gap between professionals and amateurs. Rose Holley (2010) argues that crowdsourcing could be of great value for Digital Libraries, especially for accomplishing goals that would require a large number of staff, time and resources. In order to attract contributions from volunteers it is necessary to follow certain principles when designing the web application that they will use. Holley outlines some ""tips for crowdsourcing"" out of her personal experience and by analysing successful projects.

RMMA is not strictly a crowdsourcing project, as submissions will be reviewed by a board before being published. The reason for this is twofold: on one hand it is desirable to control what gets into the database, though successful crowdsourcing initiatives usually found volunteers good at policing each other and keeping away malicious users; on the other hand, RMMA attempts to promote the use of the database as a publishing environment for scholars. The presence of a board, therefore, offers a model closer to peer-reviewed publishing, which is not a novel approach, as some academic projects have already been experimenting along similar lines.An exemplary project is Suda on Line: Byzantine Lexicography (SOL) <http://www.stoa.org/sol>, which involves more than a hundred scholars for the translation and editing of the Suda, a 10th century CE Byzantine encyclopedia. The large size of Suda (30,000+ entries) has encouraged the involvement of a large number of collaborators to work online. Submissions to the database are made immediately available to the public, but SOL implements a colour code that differentiate just submitted entries and entries that have been reviewed and approved by a the editors overtime. This mixed system simplifies submission whilst allowing a control of the quality of the publication.

Despite these plans, which move RMMA away from the definition of crowdsourcing, many of the principles outlined by Holley are of great importance. Specifically, she suggests having a clear and ambitious goal, acknowledging contributors, reporting on the progress of the resource and making the application easy, reliable, quick and intuitive. Current efforts focus on improving the application by simplifying the interface and making clear paths for data entry depending on the nature of information that the users intend to store. To insure that the interface design is effective, several stages of user testing are planned.As recommended by many studies on User Centred Design, after Norman 1988. RMMA is organising a number of workshops in Europe and in the United States as part of the pilot project. This is intended to reach the desired audience and at the same time have the user test the resource and collect feedback during the following few weeks.

The Future
RMMA hopes to use its web application to involve middle ages medical researchers from different fields separated by specific geographical and linguistic studies. The database aims to be both a growing collection compiled by interested participants and a reliable publication of information about relevant individuals from the middle age worlds. It is therefore necessary to include crowdsourcing principles in the design of the web application to achieve the proposed goals. While not a stated aim of the project, the possibility of tracing of the movement across cultures of individuals conveying and acquiring medical knowledge would be a desirable and likely outcome of far-reaching historical interest.

References:
Finkel, R. et al. 2007 The Suda On Line, 31 November 2010 (link)

Holley, R. 2010 “Crowdsourcing: How and Why Should Libraries Do It?, ” D-Lib Magazine, 16 3/4

Norman, Donald A. 1988 The design of everyday things, MIT Press Cambridge (MA, USA)

Norrish, J. 2007 “EATS: an Entity Authority Tool Set, ” Australia New Zealand Digital Encyclopedias Group Meeting, Sydney, Australia, 7-8 December

Norrish, J. and Stevenson, A. 2008 “Topic Maps and Entity Authority Records: an Effective Cyber Infrastructure for Digital Humanities, ” Digital Humanities 2008, Oulu Finland, 25-29 June

Terras, M. 2010 “Crowdsourcing Cultural Heritage: UCL’s Transcribe Bentham Project, ” Seeing Is Believing: New Technologies For Cultural Heritage, International Society for Knowledge Organization. University College London, London, 9 June 2010","txt","2","",""
"1301","12","Approaching the Coasts of Utopia: Visualization Strategies for Mapping Early Modern Paratexts","1","Approaching the Coasts of Utopia: Visualization Strategies for Mapping Early Modern Paratexts
Galey, Alan, University of Toronto, Canada, alan.galey@utoronto.ca
Introduction
No one reads or writes a book alone. Proof may be found in the paratextual letters and other prefatory material that often accompanies a book into the world to meet its readers. This is especially true of early modern books, whose prefatory letters stand as a threshold where the book’s material and symbolic production come together—sometimes as a well-executed plan (ex.: the 1518 editions of More’s Utopia), and sometimes as a collision of intentions (ex.: the 1590 edition of Spenser’s Faerie Queene, or the 1623 Shakespeare First Folio). However, print-based methods of representing paratextual networks—especially in their temporal dimension, across multiple editions and translations—tend to emphasize the published book as product, at the expense of the book as a process. This paper takes the textual tradition of Thomas More’s Utopia, with its unfolding process of paratextual change between editions, as a test case for the design of an open-source interface component to help digital editors visualize networks of paratexts in early modern books.

The study of paratexts has been reinvigorated in recent years, crossing national and period boundaries in the tradition of Gerard Genette’s Paratexts, but more recently drawing energy from intersections between book history and digital humanities as interdisciplinary fields. Building on ongoing research on the digital modelling and visualization of paratexts and similar materials (Fekete & Dufournaud, 2000; Monella, 2008; Johnson), this paper argues that creating a digital visualization component for mapping has two benefits: first that a well-designed digital visualization can represent the structured fluidity and temporality of publication as a process that unfolds in time; and second, that the process of creating such a visualization affords a reciprocal opportunity to interrogate the digital tools and systems we use to represent the past.

This paper develops its argument in four sections:

Research context: archive and interface in digital textual studies
Utopia as a modelling challenge
Visualization strategies
Conclusion: visualization prototypes as essays
The small-scale project outlined in this paper is part of a larger project titled Archive and Interface in Digital Textual Studies: From Cultural History to Critical Design, funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. This project is premised on two linked arguments. The first is that we need to understand how the figure of the archive operates in the cultural imagination, and how perceptions of digital archives are partly coded in advance by historical fears and desires about the continuity of knowledge. The second premise is that we need to develop traditions of digital interface design native to the humanities, and which reflect the humanities’ uniquely valuable understanding of the cultural histories and material complexities of texts (Kirschenbaum, 2004; Drucker, 2011). The Archive and Interface project therefore seeks to bridge between textual studies and the design of digital interface tools in the humanities. It does so first by investigating the cultural history of the humanities archive through case studies such as Utopia, and second by building an online library of interface components designed to be part of that cultural history.

The interface library will focus on critical design strategies in four key areas: textual variation (when sources diverge in significant ways); paratexts (documents such as prefatory letters, often published with literary works in complex configurations); materiality (the relation of physical documents to digital versions); and performance (the relation of written texts to reading or enactment in physical spaces). This project’s interface library focuses on putting humanities-designed interface components in the hands of electronic editors, and disseminating the methods by which those components may be created and modified by the larger community of computing humanists (the open-source model).

Granting that large-scale editing systems like Anastasia and Edition Production & Presentation Technology have their place in the digital humanities, this paper will argue that small-scale and (relatively) rapidly prototyped interface components, built by individuals or small groups with inexpensive tools, can reflect the critical, experimental nature of humanities design in ways that large projects cannot. Such experimental capacity and structural flexibility is necessary in digital humanities projects if they are to learn from challenging materials like Utopia, and not simply take their representability for granted.

Utopia as a Modelling Challenge
The specific nature of Utopia’s challenge to a digital editor is that Utopia’s publication, as a collaborative project between early modern humanists, thematizes the very ideals and anxieties about the dissemination of knowledge that digital humanists have inherited. The book form—and by extension, the emergent network of humanist print culture—is not merely a delivery system for Utopia, but also one of its chief objects of scrutiny. In particular, Utopia simultaneously embodies and critiques the early modern archive with unusual perspicacity. This paper’s analysis follows Warren Wooden and John Wall by approaching Utopia “not as an object of knowledge but as an occasion for an act of perception, an instrument for ‘seeing’ designed to call attention to what is involved in perception” (1985, p. 233). In this light, Utopia itself serves as a kind of visualization of the early modern humanist archive of texts.

We know from correspondence that More began writing Utopia with what is now the second book. From a reader’s perspective, the text was written in reverse, with book 1 (written second) placed before book 2 (written first), and various prefatory materials (written last) accumulating before book 1. These prefatory materials—the letters, verses, diagrams, and maps that constitute the paratext of Utopia—increase and vary across the four editions published from 1516 to 1518, and change even more radically in subsequent early modern and modern editions.

It is common for modern editions to completely remove or reconfigure Utopia’s carefully constructed paratexts (Allen, 1963). Yet, paradoxically, there may be no single ideal configuration of paratexts, making the interpretation of Utopia as a material text especially reliant on representational methods and tools (Jardine, 1993; Leslie, 1998; Vallée, 2004; Kinney, 2005). Those tools have tended to take printed form, culminating in Terence Cave’s printed guide to Utopia’s paratextual tradition. However, Utopia can be taken as an early experiment itself in humanist print culture, no less than the digital experiments we discuss at digital humanities conferences, which makes Utopia anything but passive material for representation and editing.

Visualization Strategies
Given Utopia’s playful, experimental nature, this paper argues for the need for a visualization strategy based not on static representation, as in traditional forms of data visualization that represents the results of analysis, but based rather on the idea of modelling. Unlike a static representation, a digital model embodies the process-friendly dynamism we expect of digital visualizations, but also a certain “rough-and-ready” form and heuristic flexibility (McCarty, 2004). These latter qualities we associate not with commercial software but with the community-designed code libraries found at SourceForge and similar places, which serve as the dissemination model for the Archive and Interface project’s visualization components. (On humanities approaches to visualization, see Drucker, 2010, and other articles in the same special issue of Poetess Archive Journal on “Visualizing the Archive.”)

The design methodology for the interface library will be consistent with Ajax web applications, a type of architecture that distributes processing between a server and a user’s web browser, and which integrates well with XML databases and object-oriented design. HTML 5’s new capabilities on the client side permit animation and time-based interactivity to be incorporated into interfaces in ways that used to be exclusive to Flash. This paper will include a brief demonstration of a browser-based interface component that uses animation to model paratextual change over time. The prototype presented here will rely on the encoding structures proposed by Monella (2008), but will approach the topic from the browser and interface side instead of drawing conclusions about the encoding.

Conclusion: Visualization Prototypes as Essays
The two strategies proposed above, modelling and browser-based design, will serve to illustrate the paper’s broader conclusion that a digital humanities project organized around many small interface prototypes may yield more publishable components, respond more quickly to critical discourse about the material, and involve less risk than a single, large interface project. The nature of paratexts calls for an interpretive approach to digital representation, especially with material as complex as More’s Utopia. This paper concludes that the humanistic critical tradition, embodied by Utopia as a collaborative project in publishing technologies of its own time, calls digital humanists to think of their visualizations and interface prototypes not just as finished tools, which emphasize utility, but also as essays that put forward arguments and serve as pretexts for debate—like Utopia itself.

References:
Allen, P. R. Utopia and European humanism: The function of the prefatory letters and verses, Studies in the Renaissance, 10: 91–107. 1963

Anastasia 31 October 2010 (link)

Cave, T. Thomas More's Utopia in Early Modern Europe: Paratexts and Contexts. Manchester Manchester University Press 2008

Drucker, J. “Humanities approaches to interface theory, ” Culture Machine, 2011 12 1–20

Drucker, J. “Graphesis, ” Poetess Archive Journal, 2010 2.1 1–50

Edition Production & Presentation Technology. (link) accessed 31 October 2010

Fekete, J.-D., and N. Dufournaud. 2000 Compus: Visualization and analysis of structured documents for understanding social life in the 16th century Proceedings of the Fifth ACM Conference on Digital Libraries 47-55

Genette, G. 1997 Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation, trans. J.E. Lewin. Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Jardine, L. 1993 Erasmus, Man of Letters: The Construction of Charisma in Print Princeton, NJ Princeton University Press

Johnson, J.P. Pale Tour (link) [accessed 31 October 2010]

Kinney, A.F. 2005 Utopia's first readers. In Challenging Humanism: Essays in Honor of Dominic Baker-Smith T. Honselaars and A.F. Kinney Newark, NJ University of Delaware Press 23-53

Kirschenbaum, M.G. 2004 ""So the colors cover the wires"": Interface, aesthetics, and usability. A Companion to Digital Humanities S. Schreibman, R.G. Siemens, and J. Unsworth. Oxford Blackwell 523-42

Leslie, M. 1998 Renaissance Utopias and the Problem of History. Ithaca, NY Cornell University Press

McCarty, W. 2004 Modeling: A study in words and meanings. A Companion to Digital Humanities S. Schreibman, R.G. Siemens, and J. Unsworth Oxford Blackwell 254-70

Monella, P. 2008 Towards a digital model to edit the different paratextuality levels within a Textual Tradition Digital Medievalist 4 (link) accessed 31 October 2010

Vallée, J.-F. 2004 Printed voices and written friendships in More's Utopia Printed Voices: The Renaissance Culture of Dialogue D. Heitsch and J.-F. Vallée Toronto University of Toronto Press 42-62

Wooden, W.W., and J.N. Wall, Jr. 1985 Thomas More and the painter's eye: Visual perspective and artistic purpose in More's Utopia Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 15 231-63","txt","2","",""
"1302","12","When WordHoard Met Pliny: Breaking Down of Interaction Silos Between Applications","2","When WordHoard Met Pliny: Breaking Down of Interaction Silos Between Applications
Bradley, John, Center for Computing in the Humanities, King's College London, United Kingdom, john.bradley@kcl.ac.uk
Hill, Timothy, Center for Computing in the Humanities, King's College London, United Kingdom, timothy.hill@kcl.ac.uk
One of the current issues within the Digital Humanities community is the wish to break down “silos” between different applications, usually based on the observation that it is difficult to bring two separately developed applications together even on kinds of data that they might ideally actually share. Scholarly annotation and notetaking has not been often been thought of as a kind of “anti-siloing” activity, however, they do involve the juxtaposition of materials and ideas from a broad range of different sources. In this context normal web pages and digital applications act a bit like silos – working against the ability, similar to what conventional notetaking provides, to juxtapose materials from different places, and making it difficult for a computer user to preserve those juxtapositions that are interesting.

In an attempt to recognise the central role of annotation and notetaking in scholarship, there has been recent activity in the Digital Humanities (DH) community to incorporate Web 2.0-like annotation services within a number of web resources. We think this is, in fact, the wrong way to go, and it is our contention that annotation, in fact, requires a significantly different approach.

We can see the problem with this “adding an annotation service” approach if we consider annotation on paper (see figure 1). When the book reader writes on the page he combines on that piece of paper two rather different applications that then must co-exist: the print media represented by the printed word and his/her annotation shown by the handwritten note. The owner, the technology and purpose of these two co-existing texts – the annotation and the print material – are quite different. Furthermore, whereas the printed text represents an endpoint in the “publishing application” that put it there, the hand-written annotation represents the beginning of an act of interpretation that is likely to continue into the future. In some senses, then, a printed page with an annotation on it represents a nexus between these two quite different applications: the presentation of the print, and the support for the annotation made by the individual reader. The oddness, then, of the annotation-as-a-resource service in a web resource is brought into clearer focus when we realise that if handwritten annotation on a printed page worked in the way that an annotation service on a website would operate , it would need to be a service of the book’s publisher – something that would seem very peculiar, and, indeed perhaps strikingly inappropriate.

a printed page as the nexus between applications

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Pliny (Pliny 2009), as initially installed supports annotation for web pages, images and PDF documents. In each of these cases separate mini-applications (one for each data type) supports, simultaneously, mechanisms to display the object (web page, image or PDF) and to support annotation of these objects. Annotation items, although appearing on the web or PDF page display are also objects that work in the larger Pliny context as objects in their own right. Thus, like the printed book, the Pliny screen becomes the nexus between the “display application” of the web or PDF page and the separate-but-linked “annotation/notetaking application”. Furthermore, the Eclipse platform (Eclipse 2010) on which Pliny operates already supports the dynamic addition of new applications into an existing installation. Pliny could thus be relatively straightforwardly extended to add support for annotation on other media such as video or audio, and here again the integration between these media and Pliny notes would be similar to that provided in base Pliny.

The purpose of this poster, however, moves on to a next step in the process beyond the support of other digital media. Pliny is already equipped to support annotation of relatively fixed objects such as PDF documents or digital movies. The digital world, however, is not in fact restricted to the presentation of relatively fixed media objects but extends to supporting user interaction with dynamic applications which are less comfortably considered documents and more likely to be thought of as tools. Thus, even in the confines of the WWW with its strong document focus, DH work often explores how to stretch this document-focus in the browser to deliver a tool to the user instead. Indeed, work as diverse as TaPOR (2008) and PASE Domesday (2010) illustrate this straining at the constraints that are imposed by the document orientation.

As a part of Pliny’s so-called “second agenda” (see Bradley 2007 and 2008), we have also been interested in exploring the boundary between document and application/tool in the context of annotation, and we are doing this work from within the Eclipse plugin framework where application/tool building is, in fact, an entirely natural thing. Furthermore, unlike other application building frameworks, such as Java Swing, the plugin framework supports the kind of intimate interaction and co-existence that annotation requires. In this way, Pliny’s use of Eclipse’s plugin framework allows us to think of how to support note-taking not only against fixed digital media, but also against the dynamic results generated by digital tools.

Figure 2 shows the idea in a stylised form. Here we see the Pliny application (shown here in green) co-existing with other applications. Two of them (Pliny’s integrated Web browser, and Pliny’s PDF annotator) are shown here as orange boxes presenting their particular digital media objects: a page in a web browser (at the top), and two PDF documents. The annotations to these objects are represented here as the little yellow boxes which, simultaneously, would actually be visually integrated with their web or PDF pages, but are also owned by Pliny. The Pliny user can also use these annotations in the Pliny application as sources for ideas that inspire him/her to construct new concepts in his/her interpretation of these materials. Pliny can represent these new concepts too, and they are represented in the green Pliny application box as dark green boxes. Thus, a Pliny item can appear both as an annotation on its media and also simultaneously as a note participating in concepts that belong to an interpretation that Pliny’s user is developing.

Annotation as a kind of ""glue"" between applications

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The “2nd agenda” part of Pliny’s environment is shown by the bottom two boxes placed on both sides of the green Pliny box. Here, the objects being annotated don’t come from Pliny’s initial built-in applications supporting Web pages and PDF files, but from two applications that have been added: a Google maps annotation tool, and an implementation of WordHoard (WordHoard 2010) which represents a more dynamic application than the other ones do. The user has attached annotations to displays created by both these applications, and these annotations, which represent observations the user has made while s/he uses these tools, are Pliny objects (like those attached to the PDF pages) and can therefore also participate in the work done by the user within Pliny. Just like notes attached to PDF pages or web pages, notes attached to displays by Google maps or Wordhoard can also contribute materials to the user’s growing interpretation.

We chose to use the funds provided by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation’s MATC 2008 award to Pliny (which hereby we acknowledge with thanks!) as a way to fund a serious exploring of this idea. With the cooperation of Martin Mueller and others at Northwestern University we have been exploring what their WordHoard tool (WordHoard 2010) would be like if it was presented in an intimately linkable environment where Pliny operates rather than as a conventional Java application in which it was originally conceived. You can see a result of this kind of interaction through our WordHoard prototype in figure 3. Not only is a note about the word “shamest” displayed attached to its occurrence in Shakespeare’s Comedy of Errors, but there is also a reference to a WWW site that has nothing to do with WordHoard, but that also contains the play’s text (with the word spelled differently).

WordHoard and Pliny operating as integrated applications

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In conjunction with the work on WordHoard, we are also extending Pliny's code to exploit Eclipse’s ability to allow the user to install a new plugin dynamically from remote online repositories. When dynamic installation has been added in Pliny. a user will be able to start with only basic Pliny, but at some point when they need it be able to add into their environment, say, our WordHoard application. We expect it will in the end be no more complex to do this in Pliny than it is to, say, add Zotero to Firefox. At our poster session the visitor will be able to see the Wordhoard integration with Pliny and with other independently built tools that can interoperate in the Pliny environment. We will illustrate what the experience is for the user to experience this kind of integrated environment. For the development community we hope to speak about the coding work that this represents and what lessons can be learned from our experience.

References:
Bradley, John 2007 “""Pliny: Making a contribution; Modularity, Integration and Collaboration between Tools in Pliny."" Peer reviewed poster., ” Digital Humanities Conference 2007, Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois., 2007 (link)

Bradley, John 2008 “""Playing together: modular tools and Pliny."" Draft of paper., ” Digital Humanities 2008, (University of Oulu, Finland, June 2008 (link)

Eclipse homepage, 2010 (link)

PASE Domesday, 2010 (link)

Pliny: A Note Manager, 2009 (link)

Text Analysis Portal for Research: TAPoR, 2008 (link)

WordHoard: An application for the close reading and scholarly analysis of deeply tagged texts, 2010 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1303","12","UCLDH: Big Tent Digital Humanities in Practice","2","UCLDH: Big Tent Digital Humanities in Practice
Warwick, Claire, King's College London, United Kingdom, c.warwick@ucl.ac.uk
Mahony, Simon, UCL Centre for Digital Humanities, United Kingdom, s.mahony@ucl.ac.uk
Nyhan, Julianne, UCL Centre for Digital Humanities, United Kingdom, j.nyhan@ucl.ac.uk
Ross, Claire, UCL Centre for Digital Humanities, United Kingdom, claire.ross@ucl.ac.uk
Terras, Melissa, UCL Centre for Digital Humanities, United Kingdom, m.terras@ucl.ac.uk
Tiedau, Ulrich, UCL Centre for Digital Humanities, United Kingdom, u.tiedau@ucl.ac.uk
Welsh, Anne, UCL Centre for Digital Humanities, United Kingdom, a.welsh@ucl.ac.uk
There has been a great deal of concern recently about questions of how we should define Digital Humanities. John Unsworth (2010) in his plenary lecture at DHSI asked how we might define the boundaries of our discipline. UCL’s own Melissa Terras, (2010) in her widely reported plenary at DH2010, warned us that we must not only understand our discipline ourselves, but be able to communicate it succinctly to others. Others, including one of the authors of this proposal, tend to the view of ‘more hack less yack’. (Meloni, 2010) Yet questions remain, and the theme of DH2011 clearly prompts us toward such considerations. As a result we present a proposal below for a poster about the establishment of the new UCL Centre for Digital Humanities, (UCLDH) (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh/) one of whose founding principles is that of inclusivity, interdisciplinary and the broadest sense of definition, in which we demonstrate ways in which the big tent attitude to digital humanities is put into practice. Our tent includes not only other disciplines within academia, but also libraries, museums, archives, cultural heritage practice and commercial information providers. In the following proposal we discuss how this has come about and justify our belief in broadly defined Digital Humanities (DH).

UCLDH does not think of itself as a DH centre in the conventional form, where anyone working on DH must come and work in one central facility. Instead, it is built on a hypertextual metaphor: it is the hub of a network, bringing together work being done in different departments and research centres within UCL and beyond. This is one of the reasons for our inclusive philosophy. We do not believe it is for us to tell people whether they are doing DH, as we conceive of it. If they would like to become part of our network, then we welcome their involvement, since we believe that exciting new research can be created from synergies in such a network, and by unexpected collaborations between disciplines. To this end we run various different networking events such as Digital Excursions. These visits to different parts of UCL and other cultural heritage institutions such as the British Library allow participants to find out about research and digital facilities they might never previously have been aware of, and to meet and talk to others whom they might never have come across. Connections created by these meetings may take DH forward in ways we cannot predict, let alone define.

UCL has unique assets as a basis for Digital Humanities research in the form of Museums and Collections and Library Special Collections, and digital art work being produced at the Slade School of Art. We are also fortunate that our location in central London means that we are close to many of the world’s greatest Libraries, Museums and galleries. As a result one of the main directions in which UCLDH has sought to extend the definition of what DH might be is in working with cultural heritage and memory institutions. For example we are working with the British Museum, the Museum of London, the Victoria and Albert Museum on a project that will help us better to understand the needs and behaviours of users of digital museum objects. We have doctoral students undertaking research at various institutions, including: the British Library, to look at the use of their mass digitisation projects; The London Metropolitan Archive, where image processing will be used to try and decipher the Grand Parchment which is too damaged and deteriorated to read; The Science Museum, where the use of 3D scans of museum objects will be evaluated by the general public; and the British Museum, where work will be done on curatorial documentation of 3D scans to investigate standards and protocols for 3D capture of artefacts.

UCL has world leading research in both humanities, computer science and engineering, and we believe that as a result it is vital to engage all parts of the university’s research base equally in the DH endeavour. We aim to create new knowledge both in computer science and engineering and in the humanities, as part of the same research projects. We think of computer scientists as equal research partners in our work. Computing is not conceived of as existing to provide a service to facilitate humanities research. Thus DH research takes place in the Department of Computer Science as often as in the faculty of Arts and Humanities. One project led by one of UCLDH’s associate directors, aims to develop algorithms to reconstruct the Minoan wall paintings of ancient Thera. This will lead to advances in computational methods, but it also aims to redefine the existing conservation and assembly process, helping archaeologists to create reconstructions of the frescoes, and to study them in ways that would previously have been impossible.

We also believe in engaging with the users of digital resources, whether they are in academia, cultural heritage, or the broader interested public. This is the biggest possible tent that we might pitch for DH. We are highly engaged with social media in our own work, as evidenced by the UCLDH blog, and out Twitter presence (#UCLDH). However, beyond this, several of our research projects involve social networking or crowd sourcing, and aim to engage the public well beyond academia with their heritage. Transcribe Bentham (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/transcribe-bentham/) allows users to access digital copies of Jeremy Betham’s original letters, to learn about the intricacies of transcribing primary sources, and then to contribute transcribed text back to the digital collection. The QRator project will use QR codes to allow museum visitors to contribute their interpretation of objects to digital interactive labels using a smart phone app. This means that crowd sourced understanding of museum objects can complement the once monolithic curatorial interpretation of what visitors ought to be seeing.

Stretching the tent even more widely, UCLDH has also caught the imagination of the wider DH and cultural heritage community internationally with its successful discussion group. Decoding Digital Humanities (DDH) This is an informal discussion group about DH established and organised by research students and staff from UCLDH. It meets monthly and is attended by students, researchers and cultural heritage practitioners from London and the south of England as well as those from UCL. It also has five new international chapters: two in Australia, and in the USA, Belgium and Portugal.

Our definition of the big, interdisciplinary tent also includes teaching and learning. Our new Masters (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh/courses/mamsc) will be a highly innovative interdisciplinary programme: the first in the world to have a dual designation of MA and MSc, reflecting once again our sense of the dual balance of our field. Its diverse choice of options from a wide range of disciplines responds to the complex nature of DH, including modules from engineering, computer science, geography, archaeology, anthropology, architectural studies, psychology and information studies as well as pure humanities. It also reflects the needs of the students, the skills required for a new generation of scholars as well as those wishing to pursue a career outside academia. We will also release a substantial amount of the core materials as open access digital learning objects as part of the JISC Open Educational Resources programme: further evidence of a commitment to openness and broad public engagement in teaching as well as research.

The guiding principles of our approach to DH are predicated on welcoming the sense of a field that is growing and in flux. We do not want to put up fences, and create definitions of arcane knowledge which initiates must possess to be part of our exclusive club. We wish to open wide the doors of this amazingly diverse discipline to any and all of those who would like to take part. We believe that DH should create new knowledge in both parts of the equation, of digital technologies and humanities scholarship. We believe that DH should embrace memory institutions and cultural heritage. We believe that DH should involve those who use digital resources, allowing them to contribute their ideas and content to resources, as well as being consulted about their design. But ultimately, to be true to our principles, we believe that is it not our task to define DH at UCLDH. In the spirit of social media, we propose that the definition of the field should be allowed to develop organically, taking into account the views and input of those who participate in it, within and beyond the academy. Our view of DH is crowd sourced, inclusive and ever growing: big tent Digital Humanities in practice.

References:
Meloni, J 2010 “Reporting from ‘Academic Summer Camp’: the Digital Humanities Summer Institute. ProfHacker, June 10, 2010, ” (link)

Terras, M. 2010 “DH2010 Plenary: Present, Not Voting: Digital Humanities in the Panopticon Digital Humanities, 2010, Kings College London, ” (link)

Unsworth, J. 2010 “The State of Digital Humanities, Digital Humanities Summer Institute, University of Victoria, Canada, June 2010, ” (link)","txt","2","",""
"1304","12","Religo: A Relationship System","1","Religo: A Relationship System
Rodríguez, Nuria, University of Málaga (Spain), nro@uma.es
Isolani, Alida, Scuola Normale Superiore (Italy), isolani@signum.sns.it
Lombardini, Dianella, Scuola Normale Superiore (Italy), dianella@signum.sns.it
Marotta, Daniele, Scuola Normale Superiore (Italy), marotta@signum.sns.it
Introduction
Over the years, digital libraries and textual archives have collected, described, and classified texts and multimedia objects. These kinds of repositories are effective in compiling, describing, and disseminating the cultural heritage such as the artistic and literary expressions. Also, many of them, following the developments of Computational Linguistics, have incorporated tools for textual analysis as part of their end-user services. Nevertheless, these systems are weak in terms of relationships. Of course, they are configured in such way that it is possible to relate the digital objects compiled; thus, for instance, it is easy to retrieve a set of visual artefacts sharing the same subject matter. However, these relationships are based on the traditional criteria of classification and description (metadata and keywords), without any intention of exploring the nature or specific characteristics of the relationships that the Art History discipline’s phenomena maintain among them.

We should not overlook the intrinsic relationship that exists among texts, concepts – or ideas –, words and visual artefacts in the construction of art-historical knowledge (Mitchell, 1994). As Heffernan (2006) argues for the case of words and images, this relationship should not taken as a simple reproduction of art works by a set of words, but rather the conjunction of visual artefacts and words generates new knowledge. This is one of the reasons for which we can contend that these relationships deserve to be treated as a research object in themselves.

Therefore, our intention is to explore the potential relationships that could be established among these entities: texts, concepts, words, and visual artefacts with the aim of investigating how these relationships are able to produce new significant knowledge or are able to open new understandings.

Religo
Religo is a system that enables the construction of interpretations based on relationships. According to the researcher’s needs and the art historian’s research habits and procedures, the question of text and image induces us to design a system to establish relations between various kinds of objects (texts, images, videos, etc.), to provide new possibilities for analysis and research, which are offered only partly by the state of the art.

Currently, in the most significant projectsImage Markup Tool (link) . Pinakes (link) . VLMA (link) . EPPT (link) . Flickr (link) . TextGrid (link) . Talia (link) . working on texts and images – although with interesting and useful features – some limitations can be found in terms of:

functionalities: only tagging or object manipulation;
usability: complex and without a user-friendly interface;
purpose: oriented to social participation (this feature often does not reach the entire scholarly community).
Taking into account this state of the art, Religo does not reduce the relationship to the concept of pure tagging or to the idea of simple connection between entities, but treats it as basic element for interpretation and analysis, making itself the subject of research in order to create new knowledge.

Religo relates the domain entities creating two logical levels: the expression one, consisting of digital objects on which the interpretation can be developed; and the semantic one, consisting of digital concepts (the relationships between digital objects and the predications on themselves) that allow the interpretation to be built (Buzzetti, 2004)This theoretical model has been used by Signum to develop a system for facilitating semantic research and text reading in Text and Semantics (link) ..

This means that, when a digital concept is the subject of interpretation, it is placed on the expression level, becoming a digital object itself.

An example is the Michelangelo’s masterpiece The Last Judgement, analysed and interpreted by the Spanish author Francisco Pacheco in his 17th treatise The Art of Painting (1649). In this case, The Last Judgement would be the digital object, and the interpretation given by Pacheco, the digital concept. However, insofar as the Pacheco’s interpretation is also subject of interpretation and analysis by the modern historiography, it in turn becomes a digital object.

The entities of the domain can be submitted to a number of general operations (such as selection of parts, links, free tagging or metadata encoding, etc.) and others more specific according to their particular features (specific operations on texts and image).

In every operation the centrality of the relationship is clear: from its creation, made easily by a simple drag and drop of selected portions of objects, up to reach the composition of documents as result of the different entities relationship that themselves constitute the new knowledge of the study process.

A more evident utility of this new use of relationships can be seen in the search and navigation functions, for example to improve the search capability because it ensures a higher degree of precision and recallPrecision can be seen as a measure of exactness or fidelity, whereas recall is a measure of completeness..

As an example, searching for the word emblema, Religo returns both entities containing emblema as textual occurrence (W) and those where emblema does not appear (NW) but which are related to W (Figure 1). Thus, the relationship gives relevance and importance to the entity NW, which otherwise, from a purely textual standpoint, would go unnoticed or simply would not exist.

Figure 1C. Ripa, Iconologia, overo Descrittione dell’Imagini universali […], Roma 1593, p. 96. G. Vasari, Ragionamenti di Giorgio Vasari pittore ed architetto aretino […], Firenze 1832-38, p. 1404.

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Relationship also affects the display of the entities: that is, in addition to the classical view as list, Religo provides a view as graph, creating a network between the various domain entities which on one hand allows the reconstruction of interpretive reading by simply moving the focus between digital objects, on the other hand enables a contextualized vision of every digital object. These features, typically used during the work process, are also useful in order to share and exploit the research results.

As a more concrete example, let us consider the following domain:

The Art of Painting by Pacheco discusses Michelangelo and his works, including The Last Judgement. It also treats other painters such as Velázquez or Tiziano, other works such as The Final Judgement painted by Pacheco himself, the portrait of King Phillip II painted byTiziano, and other artists such as Dolce, Paleotti, Lomazzo, or Céspedes.

Religo allows relationships to be created between these objects:

[Pacheco] author of [The Art of Painting]

[Michelangelo] painter of [The Last Judgment]

[The Last Judgement by Michelangelo], [The Last Judgement by Pacheco] described in [The Art of Painting]

[Phillip II by Tiziano] mentioned in [The Art of Painting]Notice the difference between describe, which implies a detailed explanation of the painting; and mention, which only means that the painting has been cited.

[The Last Judgement of Michelangelo] influences on [The Last Judgement of Pacheco]

[The Last Judgement of Michelangelo] used as example by [Dolce, Pacheco, Lomazzo, Céspedes]

[Dolce, Paleotti, Lomazzo, Céspedes] cited in [The Art of Painting]

[The Last Judgement of Michelangelo] illustrates concepts of [deviations of decoro, terribilità, movements and affetti]

[The Last Judgement of Michelangelo] described with terms [artificioso, espantoso, terrible, horribilidad, feroz]

These relationships themselves become new entities of the domain, forming an interconnected network and producing the following new knowledge level:

[Lomazzo] [Céspedes] cited by [Pacheco] to define the concept of [painting]

At this level, we can see how the result specifies the connection among the different theorists cited by Pacheco and the concepts that he defines in The Art of Painting until creating another richer level:

[The Last Judgement] used as example by [Pacheco, Dolce] to illustrate idea of [deviations of decoro]

[The Last Judgement of Michelangelo] used as example by [Pacheco, Lomazzo] to illustrate the idea of [movements and affetti]

[The Last Judgement of Michelangelo] used as example by [Pacheco, Céspedes] to illustrate the idea of [terribilità]

What we can deduce from this result is that, from the second half of 16th century, The Last Judgement by Michelangelo plays the role of universal reference to illustrate or exemplify a wide range of aspects concerning the visual arts, being used by each author in a different way. The Art of Painting, as an encyclopaedic treatise, brings together many of these interpretations, which Pacheco unifies into a single point of view.

The most interesting results arise when we use a complete repository of works, images, and texts. For example, if we consider a repository of Spanish 17th treatises, as ATENEA Project (link) , we might find the following types of relationships:

[The Last Judgement of Michelangelo] described by [Pacheco, 1649] and [Carducho, 1634] only mentioned by [Martínez, ca. 1675]

[The Last Judgement of Michelangelo] described by [Pacheco] and [Carducho] with coinciding terms [confusión, temor, horribilidad, terrible].

Conclusions and Future Developments
As an initial task, Religo is provided with all the typical features to operate on texts and images in terms of combination of interacting tools for example to describe and catalogue visual artefacts, to analyse images, to manipulate images, or to annotate images (whole or partly).

Together with the standalone version, an online should be allowed in order to ensure content sharing and social tagging in expert contexts of usage.

Moreover, the system would be generalized for use in other different domains and would have the capacity to handle other types of entities such as audio and video.

References:
Buzzetti, D. 2004 “Diacritical Ambiguity and Markup, ” Augmenting Comprehension: Digital Tools and the History of Ideas, D. Buzzetti, G. Pancaldi, and H. Short (eds.) Office for Humanities Communication London-Oxford

Heffernan, J. 2006 Cultivating picturacy: visual art and verbal interventions, Baylor University Press Waco, TX

Mitchell, W.J.T. 1994 Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal and Visual Representation, Chicago University Press Chicago","txt","2","",""
"1305","12","Semantically Rich Tools for Text Exploration: TEI and SEASR","2","Semantically Rich Tools for Text Exploration: TEI and SEASR
Ashton, Andrew Thomas, Brown University Library, Andrew_Ashton@brown.edu
Much of the existing work of researchers using the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) guidelines has been made available on the web via processes such as XSLT transformations, which are intended to reproduce a work as an enhanced digital surrogate using HTML, PDF, or another publication format. Recent innovations in scholarly software design offer opportunities to exploit the semantic depth of TEI collections by creating new tools for textual analysis; tools that are designed not specifically for digital publication, but for creating mash-ups, data sets, and expressions of semantic data intended for machine-readability, rather than online readership. To explore these opportunities, the Brown University Library’s Center for Digital Scholarship (STG) and the Brown University Women Writers Project (WWP) - with the support of the National Endowment for the Humanities’ Digital Humanities Start-Up Grant program - are developing a prototype suite of software tools to explore TEI encoded texts in the Software Environment for the Advancement of Scholarly Research (SEASR). A demonstration of these tools, information about their availability, and a discussion about their usefulness to digital humanities projects, offers an opportunity to examine this approach to exploring digital texts.

Exploring Data Through Experimentation and Play
SEASR is a software environment for creating and sharing text and data mining tools. Textual analyses and visualizations created in SEASR can be shared on the web and adapted by other scholars to support their own research. The characteristic of SEASR that permits such exploration and interchange is its modular approach to software architecture. Modularity – the ability to share and reuse discrete pieces of software within a broader framework – enables relatively simple software tools to be combined to produce results that were previously the domain of complex and often proprietary software. Within the SEASR environment, analysis is modeled as a “flow”: a pipeline, or a series of “components” arranged to produce a specific analysis (see figure 1). Each component in a flow is a small piece of software that ingests and processes data, then passes it to the next component in the flow. Each component performs a single function, but through their recombination and sequencing SEASR enables innumerable potential analyses. Once a flow of components is constructed, it can be made publicly available as a web service and reused on other data. The SEASR framework permits components and flows to be integrated into the publication interface of a digital project (as a way of working with project data), or to be used as part of an independent web-based workbench through which a scholar could examine data drawn from multiple projects. In addition, scholars wishing to demonstrate a new analysis or method can create interactive web applications to make their work accessible and reproducible. And because flows can be flexibly combined and altered, they permit much greater latitude in scholarly inquiry, instead of channeling text analysis into predetermined sequences.

Designing a SEASR ""flow""

Figure. Designing a SEASR ""flow""

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Working with TEI
TEI’s markup logic makes the semantic information encoded in a text tractable for the purposes of extraction, analysis, and reuse. When used in tandem with other data mining and visualization tools available in the SEASR environment (e.g., MONK, Simile, OpenNLP), these TEI components for SEASR offer new venues for exploring questions germane to literary and textual scholars.

As an example, a research scenario involving the WWP texts might include examining the language of specific genres and structures, possibly in relation to other information axes (e.g. time, geography). For example, how does the language of lyric poetry change during the course of the long 18th century? How do women situate themselves as authors (in dedications, letters to the reader, and acknowledgements)? To what extent do women make use of cultural referents from European history in situating their work, and how does this change over time? In pursuing these questions a researcher might use SEASR (either within a project interface such as Women Writers Online, or within a separate workbench application) to:

Extract and separate a collection of texts by genre. In addition to offering text-level genre information (based on a basic differentiation between prose, verse, and drama, which MONK also exploits), like many TEI projects the WWP marks genre-specific structures within the text such as poems, dramatic speeches, letters, recipes, essays). SEASR modules can thus identify and extract single genres of interest (all lyric poetry, for instance) or divide the entire corpus by genre (verse, drama, prose, etc.) at a specified level of granularity.
Extract specific pieces of text (quotes, verse stanzas, dedications) for downstream analysis.
Distill from the selected texts or text pieces the personal names, and separate these by type (references to historical figures, mythological figures, biblical figures; place names; etc.)
Sort a subset of data chronologically.
Pass the data through a component that adds morphosyntactic information to each word.
Generate a visualization such as a stacked area chart for each genre that analyzes changes in the association of certain adjectives with personal names, differentiated by gender.
Conclusion
The primary outcome of this exploration is a set of SEASR components designed to extract and process many commonly encoded semantic features using the TEI P5 Guidelines. This poster session will include a demonstration of the TEI tools for SEASR, as well as a discussion of the challenges of developing broadly applicable scholarly software tools such as these. Specifically, it will examine the difficulties and opportunities in designing software to work within a broad and diverse community of practice, such as the TEI community. The software, along with a set of sample analyses, will be available for download in a publicly available repository. In addition, a white paper, including an analysis of likely use-cases for these tools, will be available at the conclusion of the grant.","txt","2","",""
"1306","12","The Tesserae Project: Intertextual Analysis of Latin Poetry","2","The Tesserae Project: Intertextual Analysis of Latin Poetry
Coffee, Neil, University at Buffalo, SUNY, ncoffee@buffalo.edu
Koenig, J.-P., University at Buffalo, SUNY, jpkoenig@buffalo.edu
Poornim, Shakthi, University at Buffalo, SUNY, poornima@buffalo.edu
Forstall, Christopher, University at Buffalo, SUNY, forstall@buffalo.edu
Ossewaarde, Roelant, University at Buffalo, SUNY, rao3@buffalo.edu
Jacobson, Sarah, University at Buffalo, SUNY,
The Tesserae Project has created a freely available web tool for analyzing text reuse (intertextuality) that automatically identifies matching two-word phrases (bigrams) in Latin poets using one of two search algorithms. Comparison with the results of traditional scholarship demonstrates the efficacy, current limitations, and potential of this approach. Automatic bigram matching by morphological form and dictionary headword detects a significant number of parallels identified by traditional methods. Results so far do not fully replicate traditional scholarship, but the incorporation of further feature sets holds the potential of approaching this standard. Bigram detection produces more systematic results, permits large-scale intertextual study, and identifies less conspicuous parallels.

Computational Approaches to Intertextuality
The reuse of elements from other texts has been understood as a fundamental part of textual signification from ancient Alexandria to modern times. Traditional methods of identifying specific parallels have relied upon the scrutiny and memory of scholars (Hinds 1998, Edmunds 2001). Researchers have recently begun to employ computational means to facilitate and standardize intertextual study, as well as to open new perspectives. Two major lines of approach are phrase (n-gram) matching (e.g. Cummings 2009) and comparison of element length (Holmes 2010). In the field of classical Greek and Latin literature, the Perseus Project has identified five computationally tractable features, including bigram matches, for assessing the similarity of phrases in different texts and has offered a method for cross-linguistic phrase matching (Bamman and Crane 2008, Bamman and Crane forthcoming). A program developed by the eAQUA project locates explicit quotations in the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae corpus of Greek texts (Büchler, Geßner et al. 2010).

Tesserae Search
The goals of the Tesserae Project are to create a website that facilitates intertextual search of classical Latin texts (http://tesserae.caset.buffalo.edu) and to make computational methods and results accessible to traditional scholars. The Tesserae group chose bigram matching as the method most similar to the standard philological search for parallel phrases.

The tool finds similar phrases by matching two words in one text with two words in another. Users can choose two of 26 prepared texts for comparison using one of two search methods. Version 1 matches two identical words from each text, in any order, with no more than four words between them. Version 2 matches words anywhere in an individual sentence by dictionary headword using the Archimedes Project Morphology Service (http://archimedes.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/arch/archimedes.new.html), and employs an experimental ranking system to help the assessment of their potential significance. In both versions, the most common words are by default excluded to eliminate potentially insignificant matches. Users can modify search settings with an advanced tab.

Version 1 Test
A Version 1 test compared book 1 of Lucan’s 1st century CE epic Civil War with the whole of the 1st century BCE epic Aeneid by Vergil. The resulting 160 parallels were ranked for significance by traditional philological analysis on a 5 (most significant) to 1 (error) scale. The ranked parallels were compared to those collated from a standard commentary on Lucan’s Civil War (Viansino 1995). Tesserae discovered 87 results judged significant (types 5-3) as compared with 81 of Viansino. Tesserae and Viansino shared only 14 results in common. Tesserae returned results distributed more evenly through Civil War book 1 than Viansino, whose parallels clustered at the beginning and end of the book.

Version 2 Test
Version 2 eliminates errors from Version 1, matches by dictionary headword rather than exact form to account for inflection, and takes whole sentences rather than word windows as the unit of comparison. A Version 2 test again compared Civil War book 1 to the whole Aeneid, and the results were measured against the parallels given by all major Lucan commentators (Heitland and Haskins 1887, Thompson and Bruère 1968, Viansino 1995, Roche 2009). The expanded search parameters of Version 2 returned significantly more results than did Version 1: 2,994 vs. 160. Version 2 produced numbers of types 5 and 4 comparable to Version 1, but considerably more type 3s, as in the following table, where the results of commentators have been collated and graded on the same scale for comparison.

Conclusions
Tesserae fulfills part of its purpose by quickly generating a convenient list of possible intertextual parallels for inspection. The combined tests further demonstrate that Version 1 and Version 2 deliver comparable numbers of the types of parallels scholars have traditionally valued, close morphological similarities of non-frequent words. These results are illustrated in the following chart.

           
Type 5         Type 4         Type 3         Total Significant 
Version 1         19         27         41         87 
Version 2         26         43         262         331 
Viansino 1995         30         17         34         81 
Roche 2009         85         67         170         322 
All commentators*         96         81         195         372 
Parallels between Civil War 1 and Aeneid Found by Tesserae. Versions 1 and 2 Compared with Commentators
       
type 5: strong verbal similarity with meaningfully analogous context 
type 4: moderate verbal similarity with meaningfully analogous context 
type 3: verbal similarity without substantially analogous context 
*All commentators: Heitland and Haskins 1887, Thompson and Bruère 1968, and Viansino 1995, Roche 2009. This counts the total number of unique parallels found, so the same parallel found by different commentators is counted only once. 
Although Tesserae found meaningful parallels, it did not discover the majority of those found by the commentators. Most undetected matches had features that Tesserae does not currently recognize, including similarity of location, meaning, meter, and sound. The results that Tesserae did find, however, appeared in patterns resembling those found by commentators. For example, the commentators found fewer highly significant reference types in the second half of Civil War 1 (type 5, 63 vs. 33 in the second half; type 4, 41 vs. 40), and the combined Tesserae results show a similar, though steeper, decline (type 5, 29 vs. 8; type 4, 30 vs. 27). Tesserae thus supports the cumulative suggestion of the commentators that Lucan establishes substantially more highly significant parallels to the Aeneid in the first half of Civil War book 1 than in the second.

Conversely, Tesserae detects more type 3 references in the first half of the poem than the second, whereas the commentators find the opposite (Tesserae: 158 vs. 122; Commentators: 89 vs. 106). One possible explanation for this difference is that commentators overlook less significant parallels when there are more significant parallels in the same vicinity. On this interpretation, the larger number of significant parallels in the first half of the Civil War led to a correspondingly reduced detection of less significant parallels by commentators, whereas Tesserae detected all types more consistently. Tesserae search thus serves as a complement to and check on traditional analysis in this and other respects, as when in several instances Tesserae returned more links to a given phrase than were noted by commentators.

For longer texts, the proportion of insignificant to significant parallels presented is currently too high for Version 2 to be fully useful, as substantial time is required to sort and analyze the results. Future work will involve developing a system that replicates the manual scoring used for testing to more easily identify different types of parallels. Other planned improvements include the addition of new search parameters and texts, the addition of Greek and other languages, user uploaded texts, and the ability to perform a secondary search for found phrases across a corpus.

References:
Bamman, D. and G. Crane 2008 “The Logic and Discovery of Textual Allusion., ” Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage Data (LaTeCH 2008), Marrakesh,

Bamman, D. and G. Crane Discovering Multilingual Text Reuse in Literary Texts [forthcoming],

Büchler, M., A. Geßner, et al. 2010 “Unsupervised Detection and Visualization of Textual Reuse on Ancient Greek Texts, ” Proceedings of the Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science 1,

Cummings, James 4 September 2009 “TEI-Comparator, ” In my <element/>., (link)

Edmunds, L. 2001 Intertextuality and the Reading of Roman Poetry, Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press

Heitland, W. E. and C. E. Haskins 1887 M. Annaei Lucani Pharsalia, London G. Bell

Hinds, S. 1998 Allusion and Intertext: Dynamics of Appropriation in Roman Poetry., Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Holmes, M. 2010 “Using the Universal Similarity Metric to Map Correspondences between Witnesses., ” Digital Humanities 2010 Abstracts, (link)

Roche, P., Ed. 2009 Lucan: De bello civili. Book 1, Oxford Oxford University Press

Thompson, L. and R. T. Bruère 1968 “Lucan’s Use of Vergilian Reminiscence, ” Classical Philology, 63 1-21

Trillini, R. H. and S. Quassdorf 2010 “A ‘Key to All Quotations’?: A Corpus-based Parameter Model of Intertextuality., ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 25 269-86

Viansino, G. 1995 Marco Annaeo Lucano: La Guerra Civile (Farsaglia) libri I-V., Milan Arnoldo Mondadori","txt","2","",""
"1307","12","Medical Case Studies on Renaissance Melancholy: Online Publication Project","1","Medical Case Studies on Renaissance Melancholy: Online Publication Project
Suciu, Radu, Université Paris-Diderot France , risuciu@gmail.com
This paper presents the intermediary results of our ongoing research project at the Université Paris-Diderot as part of a post-doctoral bursary awarded by the Mayor of Paris’s Research in Paris 2010 program. The project aims at combining traditional research methods (research, annotation and publication of early modern texts and documents) with open source tools and standards (Omeka, Zotero, TEI), with the goal of publishing an online encyclopedia of case studies on medicine and melancholy in the late Renaissance.

Historical Background
The principal research question asked is: how did the Renaissance physician position himself in relation to his patient, and how does he attempt to document his ‘clinical’ experiences in writing? The case histories of those suffering from melancholy are instrumental in understanding this issue: tormented by various hallucinations and deliria, the melancholy see what is not there and live in a world of strange delusion, variously believing that they have no head, or are made of brick, or of butter, and so forth. The patient who famously believed his body to have been transformed into butter feared even approaching the oven (an awkward situation since his line of work was in baking bread), while yet another was convinced he was missing one leg, bitten off by an imaginary crocodile. Cases such as these are at the heart of our research: we have examined not only early modern medical documents, but also many important collections of commonplace books in our search for case studies, patient descriptions, medical observations, and so-called ‘curative epistles’.

Online Publication of the Research Materials
Rather than a traditional publication in print, the results are being progressively published online with the aid of a number of open source tools. The principal aims of this paper are to present the various preparatory research stages, the choices made in implementing the digital methods and tools, and finally to reflect on the evolution of the project in the years to come.

Methods and Tools: TEI Transcription, Omeka, Zotero Integration
This project uses the TEI recommendations for the transcription and the encoding of early modern medical texts. The TEI has been demonstrated to be the most comprehensive way of transcribing rich, complex texts by a number of major projects See for example the ongoing Transcribe Bentham: A Participatory Initiative. Available at: http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/Transcribe_Bentham [Accessed October 4, 2010].. TEI documents are then stored in an online database that uses and adapts the open source CMS Omeka Omeka is a project of the Center for History and New Media, George Mason University. Available at: http://omeka.org/about/ [Accessed March 10, 2011]., now a standard tool for the creation of online repositories of documents and virtual exhibitions. We shall present the way in which we have used and adapted Omeka’s plugins and themes. We shall also discuss the metadata structuring choices we have made. Since this is handled directly by Omeka, it facilitates the creation of an OAI repository, which can be made directly accessible to data-harvesters See the forthcoming ‘Isidore’ developed by the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS): ISIDORE - Accès aux données et services numériques de SHS. Available at: http://www.rechercheisidore.fr/ [Accessed March 10, 2011]. and eases integration with research management applications such as Zotero.

Conclusion: Putting the University Database on Virtual Exhibition
The textual documents transcribed and added via the Omeka database are to be accompanied by critical annotations, literary transpositions or references and by a collection of images or an index of commonplaces. The website, unlike a scholarly publication, will be more easily accessible and reach a wider audience, while the database, making use of Web 2.0 technologies, will function as a virtual exhibition, an online ‘cabinet of curiosities’, allowing readers to interact with, comment on and contribute to the published materials. With this in mind, the ultimate aim of this digital humanities project is to generate a broader interest in early modern research and history by focusing on melancholy, a subject that has never ceased to influence and inform disciplines from medicine to literature.

References:
Blair, Ann 2010 Too Much to Know: Managing Scholarly Information before the Modern Age, Yale University Press New Haven

Bugei, Nyaosi 2010 “Voltaire’s Correspondences. Utilizing Visualization in the Mapping the Republic of Letters Project, ” Spatial History Lab, September 2010 (link)

Burnard, Lou Sperberg-McQueen, M. 2006 TEI Lite: Encoding for Interchange: an introduction to the TEI, (link)

Cohen, Daniel Rosenzweig, Roy 2005 Digital History: A Guide to Gathering, Preserving, and Presenting the Past on the Web, University of Pennsylvania Press Philadelphia (link)

Dacos, Marin 2010 Read-write book: le livre inscriptible, Cléo Marseille

Dandrey, Patrick 2005 Anthologie de l’humeur noire. Écrits sur la mélancolie d'Hippocrate à l'Encyclopédie , Le Promeneur Paris

Ferrand, Jacques 1990 A Treatise on Lovesickness (1623), Beecher, Donald A. Ciavolella, Massimo Syracuse University Press Syracuse

Findlen, Paula 1994 Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy, University of California Press Berkeley

Grafton, Anthony 2008 Codex in Crisis, Crumpled Press New York

Kucsma, Jason Reiss, Kevin Sidman, Angela “Using Omeka to Build Digital Collections: The METRO Case Study, ” D-Lib Magazine, 2010 16 3/4 (link)

Schreibman, Susan Siemens, Ray Unsworth, John 2004 A Companion to Digital Humanities, Blackwell Oxford (link) March 10, 2011","txt","2","",""
"1308","12","An Analysis of Recurrences in Harold Pinter's Plays Using CATMA Concordancing Software","2","An Analysis of Recurrences in Harold Pinter’s Plays Using CATMA Concordancing Software
Onic, Tomaz, Department of English and American Studies, University of Maribor, Slovenia, tomaz.onic@uni-mb.si
Recurrence is a crucial feature contributing to a recognizable style of dramatic characters in the plays by contemporary British playwright Harold Pinter. His characters sometimes repeat whole phrases or sentences, sometimes with slight changes, which almost always indicate a change in the speaker’s intention. The repeated passage either follows its first appearance closely, or can be delayed for a few lines – or sometimes pages. In general, the most noticeable recurrences for the audience are those consisting of multiple repetitions, containing unusual words or phrases attracting our attention, or consisting of closely repeated passages.

Beaugrande and Dressler (1988, 54) define recurrence as a direct repetition of a textual element which has appeared earlier in the text. They do not call it repetition because, according to Beaugrande (1991, 18), only seldom is the repetition of part of text a real repetition. Such absolute recurrence, as he calls it, would have to carry exactly the same meaning potential of the repeated phrase as did its first appearance. In most cases, that does not happen, as it is usually the very intention of the speaker that causes the recurrence: “Saying the same thing over again normally carries a context-sensitive message, such as approval, insistence, anxiety, doubt, surprise, or irony. /…/ thus, recurrence is typically an instance of ‘incremental recursion’, where the repeated event adds to the value of the original” (Beaugrande 1991,18).

A less strict variation of recurrence is partial recurrence, defined by Beaugrande and Dressler (1988, 54-55) as the re-appearance of a certain word in the form of a different part of speech. As such, it is similar to polyptoton, a figure of speech that is often defined as repetition of the same word in various inflected forms. In a later article, Beaugrande (1991) defines it as the repetition of a word cluster that does not repeat as a whole; not even all the elements need to repeat. It suffices that some elements of the original sentence repeat in the same or a sufficiently similar form.

Some partial recurrences (which can also originate in language system functions) are random; others appear as a result of the writer’s or speaker’s intention. Pinter’s characters can be classified into a combined category, since their speech – together with recurrences – is carefully designed in order to sound random.

The role of recurrence in Pinter’s dramatic texts represents an important translation issue. It is vital that this stylistic feature be preserved in the target language as faithfully as possible, since it is not only an important decorative device but represents one of the key Pinter’s stylistic trademarks. Unfortunately, however, the existing research results have shown that this stylistic element is often disregarded in translation. It often comes second to meaning or other similar language elements, but usually its loss can be attributed to the translator’s lack of awareness of the importance of recurrence.

A substantial potential danger of omitting recurrence from translation is the fact that this is not a feature that disturbs the audience with its absence. For this reason, it may seem a harmless translation shift; however, it is, in fact, damaging to the audience’s perception of Pinter’s style, which is skewed owing to the absence of such an important stylistic element.

Having been involved in Pinter Studies for about ten years, I have conducted several research activities concerning recurrence in Pinter’s plays – into originals as well as translations – manually. Therefore, the natural next step was to perform selected parts of this body of analysis again using digital methods and thus confirm and broaden – possibly also correct – the existing results.

The first step in the project was to digitize and mark up the original texts and their Slovene translations. These texts were then uploaded into the new CATMA (Computer-Aided Textual Markup and Analysis) concordancing program. Since CATMA allows for searching not only by word or phrase, but also by “grade of similarity”, it is expected that this will be useful in attempting to identify those phrases which are not exact repetitions, but which are similar enough to be construed as a type of repetition in the reader’s mind. This will also lend more weight to any confirmation of the existing idea that recurrences often are not preserved in translation. Figure 1 shows how CATMA allows searching with “grade of similarity” for phrases close to “like a”; when the results are shown on the screen, you can then select an item or not depending on whether it is similar enough to possible be what you are looking for. In this case you would definitely not select the first two examples, ie detail and Special. Since the similarity percentage requested here is only 60%, it is understandable that such items will be deemed as similar; should you raise the measure to 80%, they, and other items like them, will not be included in the results.

Fig. 1 Screen shot of the similarity function in CATMA

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Hopefully, the results obtained through this research will strengthen the awareness of how important it is to consider this element in translation, and potentially contribute to a higher quality of the translation theory and practice in the Slovene cultural space of translated foreign language literature.

I feel that participating at the DH2011 would offer a good opportunity to discuss this undertaking and its practical implementation with other participants who have experience with similar projects, particularly in the field of drama which has its own specifics.

References:
Beaugrande, R. de 1991 “Coincidence in Translation: Glory and Misery Again, ” Target, 3 1 17-53

Beaugrande, R. de in W. U. Dressler 1988 Introduction to Text Linguistics, Harlow Longman

CATMA, University of Hamburg, Germany (link)

Pinter, H. 1977 Complete Works: Two, New York Grove","txt","2","",""
"1309","12","Comparing the Similarities and Differences between Two Translations","1","Comparing the Similarities and Differences between Two Translations
Lucic, Ana, Graduate School of Library and Information Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, alucic2@illinois.edu
Blake, Catherine, Graduate School of Library and Information Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, clblake@illinois.edu
Abstract
Burton Pike described Rainer Marie Rilke’s style in Rilke’s only prose novel, The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge, as “… arresting, haunting, and beautiful, but it is not smooth. His style is explicit, direct, almost laconic, and it has an edge.” (2008, p. xvii) Pike argues that this “edge” was not sufficiently emphasized in previous English language translations and he thus wrote a new translation. The goal of this research is to explore the degree to which automated text analysis tools can capture the different styles used by Burton Pike and Stephen Mitchell in their respective translations. We are particularly interested in what kinds of similarities and differences can be captured between two renderings of Rilke’s novel and in the implications of these findings on the reviews, reader reception, and critical analysis of the original work in two translations.

Method
Two candidate analysis tools were used to identify similarities and differences between the Pike and Mitchell translations of Rilke’s novel The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge. The first approach used a syntactic representation of the texts which was generated using the Stanford Lexical parser ( (link) ). Before running the parser, each translation was tokenized into sentences using the Natural Language Toolkit tokenizer ( (link) ). The generated lexical dependencies, which capture grammatical relations between words in a sentence, were then uploaded to the oracle database for subsequent analysis.

The second approach used a statistical approach–principal component analysis–to compare the manifestations of the novel. Our experiment reflects McKenna et al.’s study (1999) of similarities and differences between Samuel Beckett’s French and English translation of Molloy. Three matrixes were produced comprising the 99 most common words in each of Pike and Mitchell’s translation and the original text. The rows of the matrix reflect 8 text blocks of 7,500 words. Principal component analysis, which measures the variance of 99 most frequent words in the 8 blocks, was then applied to each matrix and the top eigenvectors produced were mapped into a two dimensional space for visual analysis.

Results
Dependency grammar analysis

Table 1 provides the summary statistics of grammatical relations which showed the largest difference captured in the parser for each translation. Although the two translations show a remarkable degree of similarity in the frequency and type of grammatical relations they employ, the dependencies revealed several differences between the two renderings. The main areas of difference were found in the use of negation modifiers, prepositional modifiers, object of preposition, parataxis, and in the word choices for adjectival and adverbial modifiers.

The dependency grammar results show that Pike used many more negation modifiers than Mitchell, which is confirmed by word frequency analysis. Pike uses the non-contracted verb, which places more emphasis on negation and thus also stays closer to the original text whereas Mitchell rarely uses a non-contracted verb form. The word “not” is not the only word in Pike’s translation which indicates a negation that is used with higher frequency. Pike uses “no” with higher frequency than Mitchell, and also “nothing,” “never,” and “none.”

The frequencies of prepositional modifier and object of preposition relations in two texts indicate a difference in how the prepositions are used in the text. This result shows a higher overall frequency of prepositions in Mitchell’s translation (Table 1). The sentence level analysis of two texts, however, revealed that Pike is more likely to repeat and thus emphasize the same preposition throughout the sentence whereas Mitchell is more likely to leave out the preposition rather than repeat it. This finding suggests that in addition to the overall difference in the frequency of prepositions captured through the parser, there are indicators that the use of prepositions, their placement and distribution throughout the sentence, show differences in two texts.

The comparison of two translations revealed a higher frequency of sentences that use a semicolon to separate sub-clauses in Mitchell’s translation (parataxis). Mitchell frequently arranges independent sentences using semicolons and colons, and in this way follows closely the original text, while Pike occasionally intersperses “but” and “and” in place of semicolons and colons. This finding is supported by the frequency of conjunction “but” in two translations which is found at higher frequency in Pike’s translation, 559, than in Mitchell’s, 506. This difference in sentence structure may provide the “edge” which Pike claims was missing in previous translations.

An examination of the unique adverbs and adjectives used in each translation revealed that although Mitchell and Pike may use similar grammatical relations in their respective renderings, their word choices are frequently different. This suggests that a semantic rather than the syntactic analysis may reveal additional differences.

PCA analysis

Figure 1 shows the score plots of the translations and suggests that the distribution of frequent terms is very similar between the two translations. However, the grouping of the 7th block with 4th, 5th, and 6th rather than with 8th block, in Mitchell’s translation, calls for a closer analysis of the 7th block of the novel and its comparison with the 7th block in Rilke’s original text and Pike’s translation. The last part of the novel, which corresponds to the 8th block of text, is visibly different in style and tone from the rest of the novel and this difference is indicated by the location of the 8th block in the far right corner of the plot in each version.

Conclusion
Our results thus far suggest that syntactic grammatical relations reveal differences between the two translations that are not captured when using a bag-of-word approach (word frequencies of function words and 1,000 most frequent words). In contrast, the PCA analysis using matrices of frequent terms in the 8 blocks of text suggests that only small differences exist between the translations, with the exception of the 7th block of text, which warrants further investigation.

The similarity captured between translations using the PCA analysis brings to mind Jan Rybicki’s article “Burrowing into Translation: Character Idiolects in Henryk Sienkiewicz’s Trilogy and its Two English Translations” in which Rybicki analyzes the distinctiveness of character idiolects in Henryk Sienkiewicz’s trilogy and concludes that: “… the patterns of difference and similarity are almost mysteriously preserved in the translations—so well that the above-mentioned linguistic differences might be the sole reason for the small differences between the original and the translation. In the greater picture, characters differ one from another in the translations just as they do in the original.” (Rybicki, 2006, p.102)

The differences between two translations that were established will help create the linkages between these findings and the reader reception, reviews, and critical analysis of two translations. We also hope that they will help trace the contours along which the creation of the new variant and new literary rendering begins to emerge and the differences that speak directly to the explicit, direct, and laconic style of Pike’s translation.

We plan to extend this work to include M. D. Herter Norton’s translation (1949) of The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge and to investigate how well this method generalizes to different translations of different genres.

Table 1 - Dependency distributions with the largest difference between the Pike and Mitchell translations of The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge by Rainer Maria Rilke

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Figure 1 - Score plots

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References:
de Marneffe, M. & Manning, D. C. 2008 Stanford typed dependencies manual., 30 October 2010 (link)

Lucic, A. 2010 “Measuring Similarities and Differences between Two Translations., ” Research Showcase 2010 at the Graduate School of Library and Information Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, 2010

McKenna, W., Burrows, J., Antonia, A. 1999 “Beckett’s Trilogy: Computational Stylistics and the Nature of Translation., ” RISSH, 35 151-71

Rilke, R.M. 2000 Die Aufzeichnungen des Malte Laurids Brigge. [Plain Text UTF-8], 30 October 2010 (link)

Rilke, R.M. 1949 The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge (Translated by M. D. H. Norton)., W.W. Norton & Company New York

Rilke, R.M. 1982 The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge (Translated by S. Mitchell)., Random House New York

Rilke, R.M. 2008 The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge (Translated by B. Pike)., Dalkey Archive Press Champaign

Rybicki, J. 2006 “Burrowing into translation: Character Idiolects in Henryk Sienkiewicz’s Trilogy and its Two English Translations., ” Literary & Linguistic Computing, 21(1) 477-495","txt","2","",""
"1310","12","Supporting Scientific Discoveries to Answer Art Authorship Related Questions Across Diverse Disciplines and Geographically Distributed Resources","1","Supporting Scientific Discoveries to Answer Art Authorship Related Questions Across Diverse Disciplines and Geographically Distributed Resources
Bajcsy, Peter, National Center for Supercomputing Applications, pbajcsy@ncsa.uiuc.edu
Kooper, Rob, National Center for Supercomputing Applications, kooper@ncsa.uiuc.edu
Marini, Luigi, National Center for Supercomputing Applications, lmarini@ncsa.uiuc.edu
Shaw, Tenzing, National Center for Supercomputing Applications, twshaw3@ncsa.uiuc.edu
Hedeman, Anne D., University of Illinois, ahedeman@illinois.edu
Markley, Robert, University of Illinois, rmarkley@illinois.edu
Simeone, Michael, University of Illinois, mpsimeon@illinois.edu
Hansen, Natalie, University of Illinois, nhansen2@illinois.edu
Appleford, Simon, University of Illinois, sapplefo@illinois.edu
Rehberger, Dean, MATRIX: The Center for Humane Arts, Letters, and Social Sciences Online, Michigan State University, dean.rehberger@matrix.msu.edu
Richardson, Justine, MATRIX: The Center for Humane Arts, Letters, and Social Sciences Online, Michigan State University, justine.richardson@matrix.msu.edu
Geimer, Matthew, MATRIX: The Center for Humane Arts, Letters, and Social Sciences Online, Michigan State University, matt.geimer@matrix.msu.edu
Cohen, Steve M., MATRIX: The Center for Humane Arts, Letters, and Social Sciences Online, Michigan State University, steve.cohen@matrix.msu.edu
Ainsworth, Peter, University of Sheffield, p.f.ainsworth@sheffield.ac.uk
Meredith, Michael, University of Sheffield, M.Meredith@sheffield.ac.uk
Guiliano, Jennifer, University of South Carolina, jenguiliano@gmail.com
Overview
In the past, humanities scholars have primarily used text-based computational approaches to engage questions of authorship. In the area of visual arts, computational analysis of authorship is a growing field, but it is one that features diverse questions and requires complex algorithms, significant computational resources and a wide variety of experts from diverse disciplines to combine the results of visual inspections with computer generated results. Furthermore, when approaching the broad field of authorship-related questions in visual works, the variety of digital images representing cultural artifacts poses a formidable challenge on the robustness and accuracy of computer algorithms. The motivation of our work is to explore technologies that facilitate enquiry about authorship in visual art work and to address the challenges related to algorithm development, computational scalability of algorithms, distributed software development and data sharing, efficient communication tools across diverse disciplines, and robustness and general utility of algorithmic development when applied to a spectrum of authorship questions from historical images. In other words, we wanted to develop specific methods for new image-based research as well as build and model for future work in image processing and humanities research. We approached these challenges by selecting image subsets from the collections of 15th-century manuscripts, 17th and 18th-century maps, and 19th through 21st-century quilts that often have corporate and anonymous authors working in community groups, guilds, artisan shops, and scriptoriums, and report technologies designed to support authorship discoveries in these collections. Crucially, the questions our algorithms and experts address are concerned with using authorship as a trope for analysis and generating new data, not just verifying the heritage or identity of a given artifact.

Methodology
The research being presented as part of this paper submission is derived from the Digging into Data to Answer Authorship Related Questions Grant awarded as part of the Digging into Data Challenge Competition (www.diggingintodata.org). An international, multi-disciplinary team of researchers from the University of Illinois (US), the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (US), Michigan State University (US), and the University of Sheffield (UK), the DID team works to formulate and address the problem of finding salient characteristics of artists from two-dimensional (2D) images of historical artifacts. Given a set of 2D images of historical artifacts with known authors, our project teams aim to discover what salient characteristics make an artist different from others, and then to enable statistical learning about individual and collective authorship. The objective of this effort is to learn what is unique about the style of each artist, and to provide the results at a much higher level of confidence than previously has been feasible by exploring a large search space in the semantic gap of image understanding. Team members are geographically distributed and have very different backgrounds and expertise. While the discoveries require involvements and interactions of experts in computer science and in humanities, we had to design a methodology for communicating, coordinating web design and public relationship interfaces, large size data sharing, collaborative software development, software sharing and testing, and hardware sharing. We approached this spectrum of collaborative project challenges by (a) establishing communication and coordination channels (ooVoo videoconference, mailing lists, legal point of contacts regarding licenses and intellectual properties), (b) designing and deploying a content repository called Medici, (c) designing and documenting a library of content based file comparisons with standard application programming interfaces (API) for software development called Versus, (d) deploying software source control and bug tracking systems accessible to all team members (SVN and JIRA), (e) designing web-based workflow systems that could give access to hardware resources at any site for execution of algorithms called Cyberintegrator, and (f) providing additional tools and user interfaces for humanity scholars to view large size images and contribute to the interpretation of the computer generated results.

Technical Approach and Initial Results
Emphasizing the aspects of data-sharing, collaborative software development, distributed hardware resources, and interactions of experts from diverse domains in the Digging into Data project, we designed, developed and deployed technologies supporting a wide spectrum of team activities. The data, software and hardware sharing technologies include the Medici Content Management Repository (see Fig. 1),

Figure 1: User interface to the Medici management repository for data sharing, annotations and visualization of large size images.

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the Im2Learn library of basic image processing and visualization algorithms that can be applied to various image analyses (see Fig. 2),
Figure 2: An example of a segmentation algorithm in Im2Learn library that was applied to historical map analyses (top) and manuscript illustration analyses (bottom).

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the Versus library for content-based image comparison (see Fig.3),
Figure 3: Initial user interface to Versus in order to support image comparison based analyses.

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and the Cyberintegrator workflow for managing computations on distributed computational resources. The Medici Content Repository System is a web and desktop-enabled content management system that allows users to upload, collate, annotate, and run analytics on a variety of files types allowing for portable and open representation of data with extensible analytical tools. The analytical capabilities come from the Im2learn library that provides a plug-and-play interface for adding new algorithms and tools. Due to the fact that the authorship questions are frequently based on a comparison operation, we have designed additional API called Versus which allows everyone to contribute with comparison methods. Once the algorithms for image analyses and comparisons have been developed, they can be integrated into workflows (a sequence of algorithmic operations to reach the analytical goal) in Cyberintegrator workflow environment. Cyberintegrator is a user friendly editor to several middleware software components that:
enable users to easily include tools and data sets into a software/data unifying environment
annotate data, tools and workflows with metadata
visualize data and metadata
share data and tools using local and remote context repository
execute step-by-step workflows during scientific explorations
gather provenance information about tool executions and data creations.
In order to support visual explorations of large size images and contribute to the interpretation of the computer generated results by humanists and computer scientists, we have also integrated Microsoft Live Lab’s Seadragon library to build image pyramids and support fast zoom in and out operations.
Summary
Our paper addressed each logistical and computational facet of a distributed, international collaboration. Based on our initial effort, all team members have responded positively to the technologies introduced and also helped in defining requirements for executing such complex projects involving collaborative humanities research. Based on our current observations, the web technologies for data, software and hardware sharing provided the foundation blocks for addressing the authorship discovery challenges. We have also concluded that the open nature of joint software development is necessary for overcoming intellectual property right and other legal hurdles.

Acknowledgment
We would like to acknowledge the NSF ITS 09-10562 EAGER grant and the NSF/NEH/JISC Digging into Data (NSF grant ID: 1039385).","txt","2","",""
"1311","12","Tasks vs. Roles: A Center Perspective on Data Curation Needs in the Humanities","1","Tasks vs. Roles: A Center Perspective on Data Curation Needs in the Humanities
Muñoz, Trevor, Center for Informatics Research in Science and Scholarship, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA, munoz14@illinois.edu
Varvel, Virgil, Center for Informatics Research in Science and Scholarship, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA, vvarvel@illinois.edu
Renear, Allen H., Center for Informatics Research in Science and Scholarship, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA, renear@illinois.edu
Trainor, Kevin, Center for Informatics Research in Science and Scholarship, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA, trainor1@illinois.edu
Dolan, Molly, West Virginia University, USA, molly.dolan@mail.wvu.edu
Abstract
To support the development of curricular content for the Data Curation Education Program (DCEP) at the Graduate School of Library and Information Science (GSLIS), University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, a needs analysis case study focusing on digital humanities centers was carried out in late 2010. Collectively the results paint an interesting picture of the perception of humanities data curation needs by directors and key staff. Several results were contrary to what we anticipated; for instance, there was only modest agreement on critical areas of expertise needed to sustain meaningful access to digital humanities scholarship over time. Most importantly, there was one result that, if confirmed, could have a substantial impact on the design of data curation education programs. In the humanities, center directors and managers appear to resist the notion that a particular staff role, that of data curator, is specifically needed, preferring instead to develop distributed expertise and responsibilities as part of existing staff roles, calling on institutional resources as needed. This suggests, among other things, that the standing recommendation to place data curation professionals “upstream” in projects may need to be re-envisioned in this context.

Introduction
Data curation has been described as “the active and ongoing management of data throughout its entire lifecycle of interest and usefulness to scholarship” (Cragin et al., 2007). Curation activities enable data discovery and retrieval, maintain quality, add value, and provide for re-use over time. Originally conceptualized as an e-Science problem precipitated by large amounts of data in digital formats, data curation is an emerging problem for the humanities as well, as both data and analytical practices become increasingly digital (Renear et al., 2009; Crane, Babeu, & Bamman, 2007).

GSLIS received a grant from the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS) to extend the existing data curation specialization within the school's ALA-accredited master's program to include humanities data as well as science data (Renear et al., 2009). Among the activities carried out under the grant was a study of data management and curation practices in the digital humanities. The study was designed and directed by social science researchers from the Center for Informatics Research in Science and Scholarship (CIRSS). The main goals were to assess the levels and types of data curation expertise needed by researchers actively engaged in digital humanities projects and to better understand the potential roles that information professionals trained to meet the unique challenges of working with humanities data in digital formats might fulfill.

Methods
To develop a rich picture of data curation practices in the humanities, we employed a case study method, taking digital humanities centers as our case. We chose to focus on established digital humanities centers in preference to libraries, repositories, or individual research teams or scholars for a number of reasons. First, many significant early projects were likely to be located at or affiliated with centers—meaning these centers have experience handling data over longer time scales (Daigle, 2005). Second, centers bring together faculty and staff, and we believe this makes them sites where the most sophisticated curation practices are likely to be found (Zorich, 2008).

We interviewed directors and upper-level staff members at 14 digital humanities centers located in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe, and Australia with one interview per site. High profile, established centers were chosen that were available and willing to participate in the research. Most centers chosen were located at large research universities but the size of the centers ranged from several staff members to large units. Our intuition was that researchers working at the level of a single project might see data curation as something inextricably tied to their specific job and thus not be able to envision it as a stand-alone function; therefore, upper-level staff with responsibilities for hiring and coordination between projects were chosen in order to elicit views of the curator position from that overarching perspective. Participants were asked about a range of topics related to data management including formats and standards, data storage, security and redundancy, staff roles and background, and significant unsolved problems.

Study participants completed a pre-interview worksheet and their responses were used to guide and focus semi-structured interviews. The pre-interview worksheet also included a series of questions asking participants to rank various categories of skills on a Likert scale ranging from “very important” to “not important at all” for curating humanities data. From the ranked list of skills we were able to develop an overview of researchers' views of data curation in the context of multi-project digital humanities centers. From the interviews, we were able to capture more in-depth information such as complex discussions of tradeoffs and rationales that could not be adequately represented in a simple survey. We are therefore able to report both quantitative and qualitative results from our case study.

Results
Variability and Convergence of Skills
When asked to rank the importance of various areas of expertise needed for a data management professional to be effective working with humanities data, participants revealed an unexpectedly high degree of variability in their answers.

From among a list of 30 kinds of expertise provided in the pre-interview worksheet, at least one study participant gave each category of knowledge the highest score, indicating it was “very important.” While we can rank order the areas of expertise according to an average score, the differences between rankings are not statistically significant by Chi-squared analysis. However, we observe that a handful of skills were both highly ranked on average and showed higher positive skew: every respondent ranked expertise in areas such as interoperability, markup, database design, and metadata as being of moderate importance or higher. Project management also had a high rank order. One surprising result among our findings was the strong emphasis on skills related to teaching and training. This may be due to staff at digital humanities centers being tasked as consultants to scholarly projects or it may simply be due to the expectation within the community that skills will be developed through peer-to-peer training in the course of carrying out job duties. Overall, our results coupled with interview data could not identify a consensus as to the most relevant areas of expertise needed by staff engaged in humanities data curation.

Organizational and Management Trends
Our interviews reveal a picture of current practice in which the work of data management and curation at digital humanities centers is parceled out among multiple staff members at multiple levels in the organizational hierarchy. Important data curation tasks may be left for scholars or managers of projects to decide individually, or they may be handled by staff, who work on multiple projects for a center, or they may be outsourced to other campus units above the level of the center.

The staff who did have responsibility for data management and curation at the centers we studied were often either those with programming, systems administration, or other IT training, or were people who had received advanced training in a humanities discipline and had taught themselves technical skills.

In keeping with the emphasis on interoperability noted in our quantitative results and also perhaps in response to a changing funding environment and newly available services, we observed a trend in which efforts were being made to move data management expertise from the staff member who had developed it in the course of his or her duties to a center-wide or perhaps institution-wide level where it would be a part of documentation and institutional memory rather than personal memory.

However, our interviews with managers also suggest that even though data management and curation is beginning to be elevated to a higher position in organizations, there is skepticism about the potential role for a data curator at digital humanities centers. Participants in our study were interested in adding skills relevant to data curation to their organizations but rather than doing so in the form of a dedicated position for an information professional, they appeared to be looking for staff with computing or disciplinary skills who also had some training in data curation.

This finding is consistent with another trend we observed. Just as digital humanities centers are already using outside groups such as campus IT or vendors for certain aspects of data management, we noted an increasing orientation to and interest in working with campus-wide services such as institutional repositories to curate humanities data.

Discussion
Since effective curation, management, and preservation of data in digital formats involves intervention at every stage of the data lifecycle from creation onwards, it has been a common belief in the data curation community that information professionals trained in curation will need to work “upstream” in scientific labs and digital humanities centers (Swan & Brown, 2008). The current resistance of directors of humanities data centers to such dedicated data curation staff must be taken seriously as it undoubtedly reflects relevant experience and judgment, and their sense of the sorts of arrangements that are likely to succeed. However, our case study in combination with prior work on the role of information work in scientific research suggests that models of provisioning data curation expertise may need to be more nuanced.

As the humanities become increasingly “data-rich,” information science research on data management in the natural sciences becomes increasingly relevant (Choudhury & Stinson, 2007; Renear, Muñoz, & Trainor, 2010). For example, intensive case studies in neuroscience suggest that information services for researchers are likely to be most effective at project stages when information work is most routine or when it is highly speculative, as is often the case with new interdisciplinary research questions or in emerging collaborations (Palmer, 2006; Palmer, Cragin, & Hogan 2007). In the humanities we have also seen that conceptions of what constitutes information or support work and what constitutes professional work within disciplines change in response to the introduction of digital methodologies (Flanders, 2005; Bradley, 2008; McCarty, 2009). While the distribution of curation activities may not follow the same types of (re)arrangements we are seeing in the sciences, we still believe that some data curation work will be most effective upstream and integrated into scholars' research endeavors, such as at decision points about project planning and re-use value.

As digital curation practices evolve, libraries and institutional repositories will likely take on a larger role in curating humanities data in the future. The results of our study can serve as a useful point of comparison for future work in this area. In addition to having someone who owns data curation problems and manages solutions on a research-center-level, institutions may explore both how to provide services from a central organization (such as the university library) and also, ways to increase the formal, in-service training available to researchers in the digital humanities.

Acknowledgments
This work was funded by a grant from the Institute of Museum and Library Services (RE-05-08-0062-08). We have benefited from the expertise of Melissa Cragin, Carole Palmer, and other staff from the Center for Informatics Research in Science and Scholarship in designing and carrying out this research.

References:
Bradley, J. 2008 “What the Developer Saw: An Outsider’s View of Annotation, Interpretation and Scholarship, ” Digital Studies / Le champ numérique, 1(1) (link)

Choudhury, G.S., & Stinson, T. 2007 “The virtual observatory and the Roman de la rose: Unexpected relationships and the collaborative imperative, ” Academic Commons, (link)

Cragin, M. H., Heidorn, P. B., Palmer, C. L., & Smith, L. C. 2007 “An Educational Program on Data Curation, ” American Library Association Conference, Science and Technology Section, Washington, D.C., June 25, 2007 (link)

Cragin, M. H., Palmer, C. L., Varvel, V., Collie, A., & Dolan, M. 2009 “Analyzing Data Curation Job Descriptions, ” 5th International Digital Curation Conference, London, U.K., December 2-4, 2009 (link)

Crane, G., Babeu, A. & Bamman, D. 2007 “eScience and the Humanities, ” International Journal on Digital Libraries, 7 117-122

Daigle, B. J. 2005 “How Do We Sustain Digital Scholarship?, ” Free Culture and the Digital Library Symposium Proceedings, Martin Halbert Metascholar Initiative, Atlanta, GA, October 14, 2005

Flanders, J. 2005 “Detailism, Digital Texts, and the Problem of Pedantry, ” Text Technology, 14(2) 41-70

McCarty, W. 2009 “Literary enquiry and experimental method: What has happened? What might?, ” Storia della Scienza e Linguistica Computazionale: Sconfinamenti Possibili, Liborio Dibattista Francoangeli Milan 32-54

Nowviskie, B., & Porter, D. 2010 “The Graceful Degradation Survey: Managing Digital Humanities Projects Through Times of Transition and Decline, ” Digital Humanities, London, U.K., July 7-10, 2010 (link)

Palmer, C. L. 2006 “Weak Information Work and ‘Doable’ Problems in Interdisciplinary Science, ” Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 43(1) 1-16

Palmer, C. L., Cragin, M. H., & Hogan, T. P. 2007 “Weak information work in scientific discovery, ” Information Processing and Management, 43 808-820

Palmer, C. L., Renear, A. H., & Cragin, M. H. 2008 “Purposeful Curation: Research and Education for a Future with Working Data, ” 4th International Digital Curation Conference, Edinburgh, Scotland, December 1-3, 2008 (link)

Renear, A. H., Dolan, M., Trainor, K., & Muñoz, T. 2010 “Extending an LIS Data Curation Curriculum to the Humanities: Selected Activities and Observations, ” iSchools Conference, Champaign-Urbana, IL, February 3-6, 2010 (link)

Renear, A. H., Muñoz, T., & Trainor, K. 2010 “Data Curation Education for the Humanities: Principles & Challenges, ” 5th Annual Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, November 21-22, 2010 (link)

Renear, A. H., Teffeau, L. C., Hswe, P., Dolan, M., Palmer, C. L., Cragin, M. H., & Unsworth, J. 2009 “Extending an LIS Data Curation Curriculum to Include Humanities Data, ” DigCCurr Conference, Chapel Hill, N.C., April 1-3, 2009 (link)

Smith, A. 2003 New-Model Scholarship: How Will It Survive?, Council on Library and Information Resources Washington, D.C. (link)

Swan, A. & Brown, S. 2008 The Skills, Role and Career Structure of Data Scientists and Curators: An Assessment of Current Practice and Future Needs, JISC (link)

Zorich, D. 2008 A Survey of Digital Humanities Centers in the United States, Council on Library and Information Resources Washington, D.C. (link)","txt","2","",""
"1312","12","CLAROS-Collaborating on Delivering the Future of the Past","2","CLAROS—Collaborating on Delivering the Future of the Past
Rahtz, Sebastian, University of Oxford Computing Services, sebastian.rahtz@oucs.ox.ac.uk
Dutton, Alexander, University of Oxford Computing Services, alexander.dutton@oucs.ox.ac.uk
Kurtz, Donna, Beazley Archive, University of Oxford, donna.kurtz@beazley.ox.ac.uk
Klyne, Graham, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, graham.klyne@zoology.ox.ac.uk
Zisserman, Andrew, Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, andrew.zisserman@eng.ox.ac.uk
Arandjelović, Relja, Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, relja.arandjelovic@chch.ox.ac.uk
CLAROS (Classical Art Research Online Services) is a technology and data collaboration between classical art and archaeology research projects, museums and semantic web researchers. Documenting objects from the museums of the world, CLAROS aims to engage with the public across the widest possible spectrum. It builds on the success of the Beazley Archive which has provided programmes for the public as well as the scholar and an illustrated linked dictionary for more than fifteen years. CLAROS (http://www.clarosnet.org/) is based at the University of Oxford, with partners in the UK, France, Germany, Switzerland and Greece. The portfolio includes an aggregating RDF database, web discovery interfaces for different types of audience, visual search using image analysis of shapes and images, semantic information extraction from digitized text, place and name gazetteers, and investigation of avatars for resource discovery. CLAROS aims to be an effective and powerful partner in the realm of semantic web and linked data about the past.

Data Modelling
The CLAROS aggregating data cache pulls information from its partners, limiting itself to those interchange components which can be mapped to the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (CRM) ontology, with a few extensions relating to dates and geolocations. The majority of records so far use CRM concepts E22_Man-Made_Object, E53_Place, E52_Time-Span and E21_Person. The data contributions, using XML RDF as the ingest form, include the Beazley Archive (pottery and gems) and the Lexicon of Greek Personal Names (onomastic data)http://www.lgpn.ox.ac.uk/ at the University of Oxford, the Arachne Sculpture Archive, the Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae in Paris and Basel, and the German Archaeological Institute, producing an RDF triple store of over 20 million assertions. The federating and subsidiarity principle of CLAROS is that it acts simply as a resource discovery system, with search results linking back to the host database for more information, preserving the IPR and intellectual integrity of each partner. A SPARQL interface and RESTful APIs are provided for expert use, but CLAROS itself provides an exemplar query and visualisation interface (the Explorer) with an emphasis on textual search, timeline display and mapping of results. It is expected that the user will start with broad search terms, receive back information from a wide variety of sources, and then gradually refine and explore the results, perhaps ending in unexpected places.



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Metamorphoses
One of the research subprojects of CLAROS is Metamorphoses, whose aim is to establish a working co-reference system for name, place and date information in classical art and archaeology and ancient history projects at Oxford. This will provide geo-naming and geo-locating services to both CLAROS partners in their normal research, and to the CLAROS Explorer in performing searches. One output is an aggregating Ancient Place Server with web services to answer queries about locations of places, names of places, and types of places within a chosen area. We work on a social model of places as objects which come into existence as a result of naming by one or more groups of people at a particular time. We expect places to have multiple names, to have different geographical limits over time, and to have relationships with other places.

Visual Search
A novel aspect of CLAROS is that visual queries can be used to access and search the archives that are linked to within CLAROS. Suppose, for example, that a novice takes a photograph of a Greek vase in a museum on their iPhone, or finds an image of a Greek vase on the web, that they would like to know more about. This image can be use as a visual query to retrieve that vase from the archive, in much the same way as the text phrase “Greek vase” can be used as a query in Google to retrieve web pages which contain that phrase. The method is illustrated in Figure 1: the image is uploaded to a web server, and the server returns the matches in the archive together with meta-information – for instance identifying the type of the vase, its date, its material, its decorations etc.



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Figure 1: Identifying a vase from a web photo: an image of a vase is uploaded from a web link (top), and is matched to one in the Beazley vase collection (middle) in real time (a search through over 100,000 images). This identifies the type of vase, its material, date and decorations from the meta-information (bottom) associated with this data in the Beazley archive.
Figure 2 gives another example, this time for a visual search of the Arachne classical sculpture archive.


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Figure 2: Identifying a sculpture from a web photo: an image of a sculpture is uploaded from a web link (top), and is matched to one in the Arachne sculpture collection. In turn, this provides links to other images of the sculpture in the collection and also to associated meta-information (bottom).
That this visual search is possible, and indeed can be carried out with results being returned immediately, is due to recent methods developed in the computer vision community on visually searching for objects in large scale image datasets (see [1] for details).

References:
J. Philbin, O. Chum, M. Isard, J. Sivic, and A. Zisserman 2007 “Object Retrieval with Large Vocabularies and Fast Spatial Matching, ” IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition,","txt","2","",""
"1313","12","Interedition: Principles, Practice and Products of an Open Collaborative Development Model for Digital Scholarly Editions","1","Interedition: Principles, Practice and Products of an Open Collaborative Development Model for Digital Scholarly Editions
van Zundert, Joris , joris.van.zundert@huygensinstituut.knaw.nl Huygens ING - Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences,
Middell, Gregor, gregor.middell@uni-wuerzburg.de Universität Würzburg, Lehrstuhl für Computerphilologie,
Van Hulle, Dirk , dirk.vanhulle@ua.ac.be University of Antwerp, Centre for Manuscript Genetics,
Andrews, Tara L., tara.andrews@arts.kuleuven.be Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, dept. of Greek Studies,
Haentjens Dekker, Ronald , ronald.dekker@huygensinstituut.knaw.nl Huygens ING - Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences,
Neyt, Vincent, vincent.neyt@ua.ac.be University of Antwerp, Centre for Manuscript Genetics,
Short Paper Abstract
In October 2006 a small group of developers of tools for digital textual scholarship, gathered under the leadership of the Huygens ING, concluded that there was an urgent need for a more collaborative approach to digital tool development in the humanities. Several problems plagued the field: high duplication of effort, a shortage of quality software development, poor exchange of development and methodological knowledge, institutionalized development, and consequent problems of non-sustainability and obsolescence. In 2008 this initiative became a formal European funded project, COST Action IS0704 'Interedition'. Since then, Interedition has been improving cooperation and fostering interoperability in tool development for digital textual scholarship. Van Zundert, J. et al.: Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) for the implementation of a European Concerted Research Action designated as COST Action IS0704: An interoperable supranational infrastructure for digital editions (Interedition). Brussels, Belgium, 2007. http://snipurl.com/1dl4v1, accessed 30 October 2010. This paper will reflect on the first results that have emerged meanwhile.

We have identified four significant obstacles to the widespread use of digital tools by humanities scholars. First, applicability of tools to humanities research is often lacking: in many cases the tools are not tools researchers need. Second, development capacity within the humanities is extremely limited compared to scientific fields. Third, the sustainability of these tools, in terms of their ongoing support and maintenance requirements, is historically very low. Finally and perhaps most critically, tool and infrastructure availability and development is highly institutionalized: scholars outside large research projects or institutions often find themselves unable to take advantage of the development work that might otherwise benefit them substantially.

The researchers and developers in the Interedition project have come up with an approach to the problems of applicability, availability, and sustainability that revolves around the concept of ‘microservices’. A microservice is, ideally, a very small application whose functionality is available over the Web by means of a lightweight protocol (e.g. REST). Microservices can be used programmatically in conjunction with other such services, in multiplicative combinations, to answer the individual need of any research project. Microservices share a set of deceptively simple principles: they are cheap and fast to develop; cheaper and easy to maintain; address very specific needs (that are shared between many researchers); implement simple protocols that are easier to reuse and exchange; can be combined to create larger workflows useful to the individual scholar. This idea is not new: already service-based architectures such as SEASR/MEANDRE, and commercial services such as Yahoo! Pipes, feature a ‘modular’ model, and such architectures are increasingly considered to be the best approach for software development within humanities research.Küster, M. W., Ludwig, C., and Aschenbrenner, A.: 'TextGrid as a digital ecosystem', IEEE DEST 2007, 21.-23. Cairns, Australia, 2007. SEARS/MEANDRE: http://seasr.org/meandre/documentation/architecture, accessed 30 October 2010; http://seasr.org, accessed 30 October 2010. Yahoo! Pipes: http://pipes.yahoo.com, accessed 30 October 2010. However, given the variety of contexts and environments in humanities research, it is critical that tools not be tied to a single unifying infrastructure, which is a drawback of systems such as SEASR or Yahoo! Pipes. If we are to make maximally efficient use of humanities development capacity, any scholar or developer should be able to contribute his or her work to other projects with a minimum of effort; this means that we cannot insist upon a standardized infrastructure, platform, computing language, or even data format. Moreover, there is no guarantee that any such single infrastructure will be indefinitely available; the infrastructure thus becomes a single point of failure.

Over the past two years, Interedition has been putting its theory to the test by exploring effective development methods for tools for text criticism and literary analysis, using the very limited resources available through the COST framework. The result is a open-source development ‘collective’ cooperating in ‘bootcamps’. Cooperation does not require everyone to have the same research goal, nor need they agree on the 'right' way to approach textual scholarship. The resulting tools are furthermore not tied to or centralized in any single institution. The combined efforts of the participants become a collection of microservices, varying widely in implementation language, platform, hosting provision, etc., according to the resources and expertise available to the individual participant. The only technical requirements placed on any microservice are that it be web-accessible to other services using a REST-like protocol, and that information on its input requirements and output results be available via an HTTP GET request.http://gregor.middell.net/collatex/api/collate, accessed 30 October 2010 Thus, even with a wide variety of implementation practice, small microservices can be built up to perform tasks in a larger workflow for ‘real’ and varied research purposes.

Current ‘live’ microservices are open source, which is crucial both to the proposed model of cooperation for research and development, to intellectual and scientific transparency, and to sustainability. Many of them are hosted on free cloud computing infrastructures (e.g. Google App Engine or Herokuhttp://code.google.com/appengine/, accessed 30 October 2010; http://heroku.com/, accessed 30 October 2010.) for increased availability and reliability.

As a proof of principle Interedition chose to implement as a microservice architecture a tool commonly wanted for textual scholarship—collation of text witnesses—and worked to design a set of web-based services that could improve upon existing technologies. Designing collation software for textual editors that would substantially improve upon existing tools like the NINES project’s JUXTAJuxta. Collation software for scholars: http://www.juxtasoftware.org/, accessed 31 October 2010. and Peter Robinson’s COLLATERobinson, P.: ‘Collate: A Program for Interactive Collation of Large Textual Traditions’, in N. Ide and S. Hockey (eds.), Research in Humanities Computing. Oxford, 1994, pp. 32–45. has been a significant challenge, and one that has allowed the team to thoroughly test their development model and architectural approach with an important problem which, if solved, would immediately benefit a broad community of scholars. The result is CollateXhttp://collatex.sourceforge.net, accessed 30 October 2010, developed as a technical and methodological successor to COLLATE, which reached the end of its supported life around 2007. We will describe CollateX’s decentralized development within the Open Source community and how ‘bootcamps‘ brought together an international team of developers and domain experts for requirements analysis, coordination of development efforts and collaborative work on the code base. We will also explain how Interedition’s design principles were implemented by splitting the collation process into functional tasks, each of which can be implemented with a variety of small and well-defined software services; these services are then loosely coupled to produce “the simplest solution that could possibly work” for the different use cases to be addressed. Three clearly separate functional tasks—input tokenization, the alignment itself, and analysis or visualization of the results—were identified and implemented as microservices.

This ‘microservice model’, as exemplified by CollateX, has another important advantage: it fits well with current directions of thought on the form and function of future digital scholarly editions. Rather than simple and static online republication of books, it is likely that future editions will be dynamic open-ended research environmentsBoot, P. and Van Zundert, J.: “The Digital Edition 2.0 and The Digital Library: Services, not resources.” In: Knoche, M., Mittler, E. et al. (eds): Bibliothek und Wissenschaft. Wiesbaden, Germany. (Forthcoming); Robinson, P.: http://computerphilologie.uni-muenchen.de/jg03/robinson.html, accessed 30 October 2010. composed of smaller scholarly components from many different sources. It is an ultimate goal of Interedition to leverage this microservice architecture to facilitate such ‘distributed editions’.

Poster Abstract
This poster presentation will demonstrate in detail the technical aspects of Interedition’s ‘microservices model’ for interoperability. The poster will serve as the technical annex to the short paper on Interedition and its development principles, and will describe in detail the working of the various components that make up CollateX, Interedition’s foremost proof-of-concept implementation. At the poster presentation CollateX will be running on a laptop to demonstrate its capabilities.

We will also showcase some digital humanities projects that are benefiting already from Interedition’s approach to tool building. Examples include TILE and T-PENN, both of which focus on the common task of transcribing images of text and aligning this transcription with the associated regions in the image. When their commonalities are examined, a similar set of core services might be deduced and a robust set of modular services designed to improve upon the advances these tools have already made. We will take a more in depth look at the Beckett Digital Manuscript Project on which the Centre for Manuscript Genetics (University of Antwerp) is collaborating with the Huygens ING. This project raises the question within the framework of Interedition of how the architecture of a digital archive containing modern manuscripts can be designed in such a way that users can autonomously collate textual units of their choice with the help of Interedition’s collation web service and thus decide for themselves how this digital architecture functions – as an archive, as a genetic dossier, or as an edition.

As a consequence of developments in digital scholarly editing, the strict boundary between digital archives and electronic editions is becoming increasingly permeable, resulting in a continuum rather than a dichotomy. Usually, archives are distinguished from editions because the latter offer a critical apparatus. Of all the interoperable tools developed within the Interedition framework, the collation module has the special merit that it can enable any user to transform a digital archive into an electronic edition.

From the vantage point of editorial theory, this development has interesting consequences regarding the scholarly editor’s role, whose focus may shift from the collation to a more interpretive function. In this way, the integration of a collation tool may be consequential in terms of bridging the gap between genetic criticism and textual scholarship. From the perspective of editorial practice, the application of CollateX is still at an experimental stage, but it already shows that the modular approach used by Interedition has the potential to be useful both to the specialized field of digital scholarly editing and to a more general audience.

References:
Atkins, D. et al Revolutionizing Science and Engineering Through Cyberinfrastructure: Report of the National Science Foundation Blue-Ribbon Advisory Panel on Cyberinfrastructure 2003 NSF

Cohen, D. et al. Tools for Data-Driven Scholarship: Past, Present, Future. A Report on the Workshop 22-24 October, 2008, Turf Valley Resort, Ellicott City, Maryland March 2009 (link)

European Union Riding the wave. How Europe can gain from the rising tide of scientific data. Final Report of the High Level Expert Group on Scientific data. A submission to the European Commision 2010 Italy

Robinson, P. “Electronic Editions for Everyone, ” Text and Genre in Reconstruction. Effects of Digitalization on Ideas, Behaviours, Products and Institutions, Willard McCarty 2010 Cambridge, UK OpenBook Publishers","txt","2","",""
"1314","12","Development of Digital Projects as Learning Strategies. The Desingcrea/Diseñoteca Project","1","Development of Digital Projects as Learning Strategies. The Desingcrea/Diseñoteca Project
Rodríguez, Nuria, University of Malaga (Spain), nro@uma.es
In the last Digital Humanities conference in London (July 2010), several of those present expressed the need for educational strategies based on digital projects. The reasons can be summarised as follows: firstly, given the difficult sustainability of these types of projects, the help of students in their development could be a key factor in their upholding. Secondly, participating in real digital projects could help these students gain an array of essential competences in the digital society in which they will develop their professional work.

Bearing this in mind, the aim of this paper is to present a case of educational innovation, financed by the University of Malaga since 2006, which I believe can respond to the concerns expressed in London.

The Desingcrea/Diseñoteca Project
The Desingcrea/Diseñoteca project was originally created to redefine the practical aspect of certain subjects within the degree of Technical Industrial Design Engineering given in the Polytechnic Institute of the University of Malaga.

Specifically, our aim was to develop collective learning strategies that could lead to significant and relevant training, involving the student in the development of his/her own knowledge. In order to do this we decided that the new possibilities of virtual interaction brought about by the Information and Communication Technologies, as proposed in the Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) theory, social participation web environments (2.0), combined with the educational principles of Pedagogic Constructivism (Mitchel Rescnick, 1996) and Conectivism (G. Siemens, 2006), offered the perfect framework on which to base this project.

Taking an objective based educational model as a starting point, we decided that all these strategies revolved around a common objective: the development of an industrial design database, which we called Diseñoteca, which in turn would be integrated into a web portal also dedicated to industrial design (Desingcrea). The idea was that Desingcrea/Diseñoteca would be developed progressively through the collective work of students, who would be responsible for the preparation of its material and content, through tasks incorporated into the teaching programme of certain subjects of the degree. Once developed, the Desingcrea/Diseñoteca system would work as an online resource available to all students, who could use it as a tool for consultation, study and debate.

Desingcrea/Diseñoteca: Design and Structure
Desingcrea/Diseñotca is a web application developed specifically by computer engineers from the University of Malaga for this project1. Updates carried out on the system aimed to transform an informational system, based on the «database» philosophy, into a learning community, based on the «social network» or «2.0» theory, bringing together users interested in industrial design, amongst them our students, who were responsible for its dynamization.

Desingcrea/Diseñoteca focuses on the industrial design, therefore the entire information published on this website is around this subject matter. As well as informative sections, created by the students, such as directories, bibliographical indexes, etc., the Desingcrea portal has resources common to web 2.0, such as the publication of news and articles as blogs, the possibility for users to evaluate the contents, RSS, tag clouds and the capacity to link these contents to other existing resources on the Network (text, images, web pages, etc.). It is therefore possible to create a real, open and global network about industrial design, which students use as a personalised learning environment. [Fig. 1 and 2].

Fig. 1. Desingcrea website. 1 <designcrea.uma.es>

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Fig. 2. Blogs written by students at Desingcrea website.

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The Diseñoteca database, which is integrated into the Desingcrea website, is also being developed through the collective work of students. Industrial design objects are registered in a structured manner within Diseñoteca. It is made up of data records in which participants describe and classify the design objects according to a protocol of standards and metadata. [Fig. 3]

Fig. 3. Diseñoteca’ s record. Simple display showing the assessment given by students.

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In order to create this data register, the principal source used was The Categories for the Description of works of Art (CDWA), of the Getty Research Institute (1998), which was updated in the work Cataloging Cultural Objects (Baca, 2006), of American Library Association Editions. The result is a more specific example of this standard that we call Categories for the description of industrial design objects (CDOID), and that will be the object of a future publication.

The system offers students the possibility to discuss the records of their classmates, contributing data and information that enrich the description of the object. Besides, in this way the collective participation in the creation of contents and the exchange of ideas is increased.

Likewise, students can assess these records using tools common to the repositories of the social web. This assessment will act as a co-evaluation, complementing the final grade given by the teacher. [Fig. 3].

Management and monitoring of students. Each teacher is assigned a specific number of students to monitor. A series of features have been installed on the system so that students are monitored in the most complete way possible. In this way it is possible for the teacher to see the records that have been created and edited by any student and consult his/her record history, seeing the different actions and tasks that have been carried out. This way the system not only shows us the amount of time that the student has been connected to the Internet, but also the tasks that he/she has actually carried out and therefore if the student has really been working. [Fig. 4].

Fig. 4. Display for the teacher profile with the report of the student´s work and actions.

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Finally, given that one of the aims of Desingcrea/Diseñoteca, as mentioned, is to work as an information and meeting website for all those interested in industrial design, a validation tool has been incorporated into the system as a means to guarantee the quality of the process. That is, information introduced into Desingcrea/Diseñoteca is not made public to users until it has been corrected and validated by the teacher in charge.

What does Desingcrea/Diseñoteca Bring to the Learning of Students?
According to results obtained since this project began in 2006, I list the following aspects which could be applied to any similar, digital based projects.

The students have become familiar with work concepts and systems common to the design and execution of digital projects, offering them an invaluable preparation in facing this type of project in the future. For example, they have become familiar with the use of metadata, and have become aware of the need for their systematic and coherent use, an idea that is not always sufficiently adopted amongst humanities specialists.
With regards to the pedagogic use of 2.0 tools, the potential of blog type applications to encourage critical thinking should be underlined. News and articles published by students, as contents on the Desingcrea portal, can be discussed and assessed by their own classmates, favouring the exchange of ideas and encouraging debate amongst them.
The possibility of linking information published on Desingcrea/Diseñoteca with other news, portals and sites on the Network, helps students to familiarise themselves with the idea of the Network as a global data repository where knowledge is produced through the significant connection of information nodes.
While creating Designcrea/Diseñoteca, a collaborative project based on the contributions of participants on an open system which, at the same time, is incorporated globally into the Network from which it is also fuelled, students are encouraged to integrate themselves into the so called open and shared knowledge culture. This culture is associated to the thinking behind 2.0 and defines the new paradigm of knowledge that, based on the concepts of both Rheingold’s Smart Mobs (2000) and Lévy’s Collective intelligence (1994, 1998), is shaping our contemporary society (UNESCO, 2005).
During the paper, these ideas will be developed in more detail and other significant results will be presented.

References:
Baca M. 2006Cataloging Cultural Objects: A Guide to Describing Works and Their Images, Chicago: American Library Association Editions

Cabero Almenara, J. 2007Diseño y producción de TIC para la formación: nuevas tecnologías de la información y la comunicación, . BarcelonaUOC

Fisher, D. L. and KHINE, M. S. 2006Contemporary approaches to research on learning environments: worldviews, New Jersey World Scientific

Lévy, P. 1994L'intelligence collective. Pour une anthropologie du cyberespace, París La Découverte

Lévy, P. 1998L’intelligence collective, une nouvelle utopie de la communication?, Available at: (link)

Litwin, E. 2005Tecnologías educativas en tiempos de Internet, Buenos Aires, Madrid: Amorrortu

Mitchel Resnick, Y. K. 1996Constructionism in practice: designing, thinking, and learning in a digital world, Mahwah (New Jersey)LEA

Rheingold, H. 2002Smart Mobs. The Next Social Revolution, CambridgePerseus Publishing

Seely Brown, J. 2002 “Growing Up Digital: How the Web Changes Work, Education, and the Ways People Learn, ” Change, 10-20

Siemans, G. 2006Knowing Knowledge, Available at (link)

UNESCO 2005Hacia las sociedades del conocimiento, , Ediciones UNESCO","txt","2","",""
"1315","12","The Interface of the Collection","3","The Interface of the Collection

Rockwell, Geoffrey, University of Alberta, geoffrey.rockwell@ualberta.ca
Ruecker, Stan, University of Alberta, sruecker@ualberta.ca
Ilovan, Mihaela, University of Alberta, ilovan@ualberta.ca
Sondheim, Daniel, University of Alberta, sondheim@ualberta.ca
Radzikowska, Milena, Mount Royal University, mradzikowska@gmail.com
Organisciak, Peter, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, organis2@illinois.edu
Brown, Susan, University of Guelph, sbrown@uoguelph.ca

Introduction

Rockwell, Geoffrey, University of Alberta, geoffrey.rockwell@ualberta.ca


Ruecker, Stan, University of Alberta, sruecker@ualberta.ca


Ilovan, Mihaela, University of Alberta, ilovan@ualberta.ca

“just as interface cannot – finally – be decoupled from functionality, neither can aesthetics be decoupled from interface.” (Kirschenbaum 2004, IV.34)

What is the interface to a collection? How has the interface to scholarly collections or corpora changed from print to the web? What interfaces are possible? As the scale of information that we have access to grows exponentially we are increasingly dealing with collections of documents rather than documents as individuals. These collections, whether they are craft collections of TEI documents like the Globalization Compendium ( (link) ) or industrial collections like Google Books ( (link) ), are the way we see through to human artifacts and the way we manage them. Collections and the ways they are put together impose interfaces on the individual artifacts in order to collect them. For this reason we are organizing a panel that pays attention to the collected interface and its evolution. While the interface to the collection would seem unimportant compared to the interface for reading the artifact itself, in this epoch of digital excess we believe that it is the corpus interface that is the way into the excess and it is the corpus interface that structures the readers perceptions of the scope and purposes of any collection.

The apparently obvious distinction between data and interface is troubled in various ways, most often from the user perspective, where details of the underlying architecture are not visible, so that the interface becomes, for all practical purposes, the data. From the perspective of the developer, on the other hand, the issue is one of layers of interface, not necessarily in the graphical user sense, but rather between different forms of representation of the data and code. For certain kinds of information graphics, theorists like Ben Schneiderman point out that one particularly effective design strategy involves “direct manipulation”, where the data is treated by the user as a kind of interactive widget (Shneiderman, Williamson & Ahlberg 1992). In this case, as in our final presentation in this panel, the question becomes one of how many layers of interface/data can be usefully superimposed to create not just a communicative environment, but also one where arguments can be formulated and considered.

In this panel, members of the Interface Design team of the Implementing New Knowledge Environments (INKE) project will discuss the manner in which collection interfaces are influenced by the structure of the materials included, by the history of traditions for representing collections, and by the intended use/needs of the users. We will review both print and digital interfaces in an effort to understand the way in which interacting with textual and non-textual content has changed and evolved.

As Clay Shirky points out, the problem of information overload makes us feel good as it explains why we aren’t getting anything done. It is also a standard starter for explaining the need for new information technologies. In Plato’s Phaedrus Socrates tells the story of the invention of writing (274c – 275b) which is developed ostensibly to help our memories and therefore make us wiser. Vannevar Bush in “As We May Think” likewise uses the problem of overload to introduce his ideas about new technologies like the hypertext workstation the Memex (1945, p.102). Clay Shirky, after acknowledging how overused this trope of overload is by technology writers, goes on to use it again to argue that the problem is actually “filter failure” (2008). In this panel we too are reusing this trope of overload and overabundance to practice what Matthew Kirschenbaum calls for in “’So the Colors Cover the Wires’: Interface, Aesthetics, and Usability.” Kirschenbaum argues that computers are “venues for representation” (emphasis in the original) and therefore we need to study the aesthetics of their interfaces, though the aesthetics can’t be detached from functionality (2004, IV.34)

This panel will, in sum, start with a general introduction of the problem, then look at the collected interface through five short interventions that either reflect back on the evolution of interface or look forward showing experimental interfaces as to what could be.

References:
The Citation from Print to the Web

Sondheim, Daniel, University of Alberta, sondheim@ualberta.ca

What holds the collection together? One of the most important interface features for scholars is the lowly citation. The citation, whether in print or hypertextually instantiated on the web, is one of the interface features that weaves together citations through associations. In this panel presentation, we will survey the design of the citation as it has evolved from print to the web by presenting a draft topology of five citation design patterns:

Absence of citation is a (non)pattern of missing citation that reminds us of the historical construction of citation and its importance to scholarship. We will compare instances of missing references in print to their online equivalents that suggest a collaborative future for citation. Perhaps all we need to connect to a reference is a search string for Google.

Juxtaposition is a pattern of citation design where the citation is placed in the flow of the text, as in inline citation. The connective value of the citation comes from what it is juxtaposed with on the page. We will expand on inline citation to look at other spatial arrangements of information, both on the page and the screen.

The Canonical citation is a pattern that points to an ontologically general idea of a work. We will show how canonical citation has been instantiated online such that the user can interact with multiple editions of the referenced.

The Footnote is a pattern of citation design that creates a relationship between source text and cited text in a visual space. The citation is moved to the foot, but it can be moved aside in other ways especially online.

The citation of Other Media is a pattern in which the object of citation is of a different type than the citation itself. We are seeing citations within digital video and computer games. How are we to understand the adaptation of citation expectations to other media?

To conclude, we will show that current interfaces for navigating collections bear similarities to particular forms of citation, but that navigation is beginning to evolve beyond its print patterns.

References:
The Paper Drill

Ruecker, Stan, University of Alberta, sruecker@ualberta.ca

In this panel presentation, we consider the question of how the principles of rich- prospect browsing can be used to extend the design of a database-reporting tool for journals in the humanities. While the previous presentation surveys existing interfaces, this one presents a new experimental interface, The Paper Drill, designed to navigate collections of articles through citations.

Figure 1: Paper Drill prototype

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Figure 2: Paper Drill prototype

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In the first year of INKE, we began to explore the possible affordances of a tool to support scholars in following citation trails through collections of academic articles (Ruecker et al. 2009). Our approach was to prototype a tool called The Paper Drill, where the user could choose a seed article, then obtain a report about the most frequently cited authors or articles. In year two, we are continuing development of the Paper Drill, but have added the concept of showcase browsing, where the home page of the tool provides heatmaps of the most frequently cited articles, arranged according to date range and journal category. The purpose of this overview is to add information that is not otherwise available in the display until after a report has been generated. We have also been experimenting with data sources, since the system becomes more effective (and the showcase visualization a more complex challenge) as the metadata in humanities journals improves. We will demonstrate The Paper Drill working on a journal article collection.

References:
Diachronic View on Digital Collections Interfaces

Ilovan, Mihaela, University of Alberta, ilovan@ualberta.ca

This presentation looks at the interface design of three successful and important digital collections: Project Gutenberg (http://www.gutenberg.org/), Perseus Digital Library (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/) and the Victorian Web (http://www.victorianweb.org/index.html). Each of these projects has existed for over 10 years and gone through multiple interface designs, sometimes across technologies, which makes them ideal subjects for a diachronic analysis of the evolution of interfaces to digital collections. Studying interface evolution over time helps us understand:

The relationship between the nature of the functionalities provided and interface design;
The perceived or real differences between different types of projects from open source projects like Project Gutenberg to scholarly editorial projects like the Rossetti Archive;
The pace of adopting and integrating new technologies and design perspectives; and
The amount and nature of the influence exerted by user-demands over design-decisions.
The methodology of the study includes, but is not limited to, a review of the existing literature about the history, architecture and design of the three collections, an environmental scan of all available versions of interfaces employed, and, where possible, interviews with people involved in the projects.

We will conclude our presentation by acknowledging the role played by interface design in the success of these collections and by assessing the value of the diachronic approach adopted in our study for interface analyses.

References:
The Corpus from Print to the Web

Rockwell, Geoffrey, University of Alberta, geoffrey.rockwell@ualberta.ca

In this presentation, we will examine the design and evolution of corpus interfaces by comparing features from two epochs of information design, the epoch of print and that of the web. In order to survey this variety of design we will present a draft topology of corpus design patterns. Patterns that we have identified include legal, religious, literary and archaeological corpora.

Notable print corpora include the 6th century Corpus Juris Civilis, a collection of Roman laws that had as a notable effect the disappearance of the original writings on which it is based. In effect the collection replaces the individuals from history. Another significant example is The Royal Imperial Coinage, a print catalogue of Roman coins equipped with a variety of complex and innovative search and access interfaces.

We will then show the creative ways in which corpus interfaces have been adapted to the online environment, along with the attendant novel methods of access and navigation that are then offered. For instance, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, begun in print in 1853 and now being maintained and developed on the web, illustrates the effects of web remediation on searching and layout for traditional corpora. The Pyramid Texts Online recreates the original physical structure of the corpus, offering an inventive map-based navigational interface leading to translations and photographs of original texts.

To conclude, this paper will reflect back on the development of the corpus from print to web, and will show how interface features within particular patterns have matured in the move to the web.

References:
Structured Surfaces for JiTR

Radzikowska, Milena, Mount Royal University, mradzikowska@gmail.com


Ruecker, Stan, University of Alberta, sruecker@ualberta.ca


Brown, Susan, University of Guelph, sbrown@uoguelph.ca


Organisciak, Peter, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, organis2@illinois.edu,

In this last presentation, we describe the usefulness of a structured surface in the design of human-computer interfaces to collections, and propose as an experimental design idea user-generated structured surfaces that can be controlled in an interactive manner. These surfaces are interfaces that structure items in a collection in different ways. A structured surface is a cognitive interface artifact that provides a layer of meaning that supports the data imposed upon it.

Figure 3: Nightingale’s Rose Interface

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We experimented with a mashup of content provided by JiTR (Rockwell et al. 2009, Rockwell 2008) and a structured surface inspired by Florence Nightingale’s rose diagram. The surface is composed of wedges representing months and a series of segments representing cause of death. That’s where the original information graphic ends, but we propose adding an additional layer of information. In this case, dots representing medicine shipments. Alternatively, the dots could represent the individual deaths of soldiers from Shropshire or number of ambulances with flat tires. In the context of JiTR, depending on your metadata, the wedges might represent genre, the segments authorship, and the dots are individual people who were at last year’s DH conference. We should mention that the structured surface could be one of a number of preexisting visualizations. Our intention is to experiment with Stanford’s excellent collection at Protovis.com (Heer et al. 2010). We feel that the third layer of information represented by the dots or pins provides an exciting opportunity for people assembling dynamic collections to feed into the text analysis tools available through JiTR.

References:
Bush, V 1945 “As We May Think, ” Atlantic Monthly, 176 101-08 July 1945

Heer, J Bostock, M Ogievetsky, V 2010 “A Tour through the Visualization Zoo, ” Queue, 8 5 pp.20-30

Kirschenbaum, M 2004 “So the Colors Cover the Wires: Interface, Aesthetics, and Usability, ” Schreibman, S R. SiemensJ Unsworth A Companion to Digital Humanities, Oxford Blackwell 2004 1 November, 2010 (link)

Hamilton, E Cairns, H 1961 The Collected Dialogues of Plato including the Letters, Princeton Princeton University Press

Rockwell, G Stan R Organisciak, P Sinclair, S 2009 “Ubiquitous text analysis, ” Digital Humanities 2009 conference, University of Maryland

Rockwell, G 2008 “Just In Time Research (JiTR): Supporting Experimental Text Analysis., ” Paper presented at CaSTA 2008, New Directions in Text Analysis, conference. University of Saskatchewan Saskatchewan

Ruecker, S Rockwell, S Radzikowska, M Sinclair, S Vandendorpe, C Siemens, R Dobson, T Doll, L Bieber, M Eberle-Sinatra, M Lucky, S The INKE Group 2009 “Drilling for Papers in INKE, ” Proceedings of the INKE 2009: Research Foundations for Understanding Books and Reading in the Digital Age,

Shneiderman, B Williamson, C Ahlberg, C 1992 “Dynamic queries, ” Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems - CHI '92, the SIGCHI conference, Monterey, California 669-670 (link)

Shirky, C 2008 “It's Not Information Overload. It's Filter Failure, ” Web 2.0 Expo NY, viewed 1 November 2010 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1316","12","When to Ask for Help: Evaluating Projects for Crowdsourcing","1","When to Ask for Help: Evaluating Projects for Crowdsourcing
Organisciak, Peter, University of Illinois, United States of America, organis2@illinois.edu
A growing online phenomenon is that of crowdsourcing, where groups of disparate people, connected through technology, contribute to a common product. It refers to the collaborative possibilities of a communications medium as flexible and as populated as the Internet. If many hands make light work, crowdsourcing websites show how light the work can be, breaking tasks into hundreds of pieces for hundreds of hands. Building from the growing body of research in the area including the author’s work on crowd motivations, this paper outlines the necessary steps and considerations in enriching projects through crowdsourcing.

Though not new, crowdsourcing as it exists online has been enabled by emerging technologies. It has grown out of increasingly efficient – and affordable – forms of communication. Since such collaboration has expanded so quickly, there have been few investigations into the design of crowdsourcing. At the same time, the most successful projects have emerged in an organic nature that many deliberate attempts have failed to replicate, suggesting the need for more investigation in the area. Jeff Howe, who first defined the term and popularized the trend, has explained that “we know crowdsourcing exists because we've observed it in the wild. However, it's proven difficult to breed in captivity” (2008).

The gaps in knowledge of online crowds are quickly being filled however, allowing projects to move away from reliance on serendipity. This presentation derives from recently completed thesis work on the motivations of crowds within crowdsourcing (Organisciak 2010). While it will reflect that study’s findings on how, its primary focus is on the equally important questions of why and when in light of those findings. For which tasks is crowdsourcing an appealing option and what resources should be present for a project to adequately motivate the users? A bottom-up classification of crowdsourcing categories is proposed, followed by a checklist of needs that an institution must consider before attempting their own crowdsourcing.

In this study, a sample of 300 crowdsourcing sites was examined and classified. Synthesizing these classifications resulted in a proposed list of eleven non-exclusive categories for crowdsourcing, six describing method and five describing structure. Methods include encoding, creation, idea exchange, skills aggregation, knowledge aggregation, and opinion aggregation. Additionally, there are financial, platform, gaming, group empowerment, and ludic structures observed within these systems. Derived from existing systems, these categories and their variants offer unique design patterns and best practice cases that can assist in assessing the types of tasks at which they excel.

Appropriateness of the task is just one facet of running a crowdsourcing project. The other consideration is whether a project offers a return that potential participants would find rewarding. In addressing this, a content analysis was used to identify site design mechanics related to user experience in thirteen cases spanning the breadth of the identified categories. These mechanics were then discussed in a series of user interviews to determine what users truly care about. In this study, a collection of primary and secondary motivators are proposed as foundational considerations in running a project. The primary motivators seen in the user interviews were interest in the topic, ease of entry and of participation, altruism and meaningful contribution, sincerity, and appeal to knowledge. A final one, financial incentive, is perhaps the most blunt. Secondary motivators include indicators of progress and reputation (i.e. “cred”), utility, fun, system feedback, social networking, and fixed windows (i.e. well-groomed quality).

An understanding of the nature of crowdsourcing holds notable benefits to scholarship in the humanities and social sciences. Most significantly, this is because it allows large-scale insights into the qualitative and the abstract, those areas inextricably linked to the limits of manpower, unable to be delegated to computing power. “What is the sentiment of this sentence”, is the type of question a crowdsourcing site may ask (Mechanical Turk, May 2nd 2010), if not always as directly.  Since much work in the arts cannot easily be quantified, logistics and resources often limit humanities research to a balance between breadth and depth; crowdsourcing offers an escape from this issue.

Consider one task that is often seen in existing crowdsourcing sites: crowd-encoded classification. Classification tasks are dependent on the person-hours available, because person-hours are the only dependable way to approach these tasks. Whether directly or incidentally, online crowds can effectively encode or classify content. Though the reliability of the end product is often far below that of a professional encoder, large-scale crowd projects can often account for this through multiple independent classifications, measuring consistency and reliability through agreement.  Galaxy Zoo, an effort from Oxford to classify galaxies, found crowdsourced data to be within 10% agreement with the same data classified professionally (Lintott et al. 2009). The high quality of work is especially notable because the experiment and its follow-ups received their 60 millionth classification in April 2010.

Flickr Commons, an initiative to put photo archives on a photo-sharing community, is a similar project that – by way of community-based research, information and tagging – has enriched the metadata of hundreds of Library of Congress photographs in the United States of America (Springer, et al. 2008). Another pilot project involving public tagging, by the National Library of Australia, concluded that “tagging is a good thing, users want it, and it adds more information to data. It costs little to nothing and is relatively easy to implement; therefore, more libraries and archives should just implement it across their entire collections” (Holley 2010). The National Library of Australia followed through on this recommendation.

Such projects are often greeted with suspicion in professional or scholarly communities. The National Library of Australia report notes that ""institutions who have not implemented user tagging generally perceive many potential problems that institutions who have implemented user tagging do not report"" (Clayton et al. 2008 qtd. in Holley 2010). The Library of Congress report similarly notes many concerns that critics provided, such as: “Would fan mail, false memories, fake facts, and uncivil discourse obscure knowledge? … Would the Library lose control of its collections? Would library catalogs and catalogers become obsolete?...Would history be dumbed-down? Would photographs be disrespected or exploited?” (Springer et al. 2008). In both cases, the reports state that the concerns, within the respective project’s experiences, have not manifested.

Encoding is a notable use of crowdsourcing in academia, but not the only one. Some projects, such as the Suda On Line, benefit from collected contributions of expertise and knowledge. Suda On Line is a project to translate a Byzantine encyclopedia, Suda, into English for the first time. It has been steadily progressing since 1998, producing a comprehensive resource while staying at a manageable participation scale (Mahoney 2009). In other cases, crowdsourcing allows public and volunteer projects to compete with the scale and quality of commercial projects, as has been seen in OpenStreetMap, Project Gutenberg, and many open source projects.

As crowdsourcing continues to be tested – and if it continues to be successful – in public institutions, understanding how to undertake such projects will become more important. The benefits are being stated, and the scale and openness on which public institutions operate makes them a compatible beneficiary of crowdsourcing activities. Users appear especially altruistic toward public projects, emphasizing in this study their preference for meaningful engagement with institutional workings over symbolic outreach.

The study informing this work is large, and my hope is to provide a digestible account of its results. The reason for this goal is straightforward: there is still much work to be done in understanding the mechanics of crowdsourcing, but the potential is great. I hope that the sharing of this foundational work will encourage others to explore further.

Acknowledgements
This study owes a great debt to Lisa M Given, my thesis advisor, as well as additional committee members Geoffrey Rockwell and Stan Ruecker.

References:
Holly, Rosé “Tagging Full Text Searchable Articles: An Overview of Social Tagging Activity in Historic Australian Newspapers August 2008 — August 2009, ” D-Lib, 12(1/2) 2010 (link) January 31, 2010

Howe, Jeff Crowdsourcing 2008

Lintott, Chris, et al “Galaxy Zoo : Morphologies derived from visual inspection of galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, ” arXiv, 0804.4483 2010 (link)

Organisciak, Piotr Why bother? Examining the motivations of users in large-scale crowd-powered online initiatives, 2010 (link)

Springer, Michelle, et. al. For the Common Good: The Library of Congress Flickr Pilot Project, 2008

Mahoney, Anne “Tachypaedia Byzantina: The Suda On Line as Collaborative Encyclopedia, ” Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3.1 2009","txt","2","",""
"1317","12","Possible Worlds: Authorial Markup and Digital Scholarship","1","Possible Worlds: Authorial Markup and Digital Scholarship
Wernimont, Jacqueline, Scripps College, jwernimo@ScrippsCollege.edu
Flanders, Julia, Women Writers Project, Brown University, United States of America, Julia_Flanders@brown.edu
Alan Liu’s “Imagining the New Media Encounter” (2008) calls for “a poiesis of digital literary studies” through which we can renegotiate the relationships between new and old media as productive encounters rather than as something other than “conversion” encounters. Liu helps us open up a critical space in which to rethink how the problematic notion of “conversion,” with its implications of oppositional media, complete transformation, and religious fervor, shape our understandings of related pairs: writing and encoding, mimesis and creation, imagination and simulation. We suggest that our understanding of text markup is closely implicated in our reimagination of writing, and that the modes of modeling suggested by possible worlds scholars may destabilize our understanding of mimesis and its role in both literary composition and text markup. In short, we propose considering markup as a “world-constructing” (Doložel 1997) form of discourse.

Our starting point of reference is the long-standing conceptual tension within the markup (and especially the TEI) community between two models of markup. The first is rooted in mimesis and surrogacy: the domain of transcriptional and editorial markup. The second is more concerned with meaning creation and the domain of annotation, interpretation, authoring. These two models have different textual commitments and establish different relationships between text, markup, reader, and encoder. In the first, the encoder uses markup to transact a connection between a text and a reader; it is understood that the markup is non-transparent, but its role is to communicate about the text and about its own role as transmission medium, so that the reader can (to the greatest extent possible) apprehend some truth of the text. The primary commitment, the goal of the exercise, is for the reader to have access to the text (that is, to some textual artifact that pre-existed the markup relationship). Some form of this approach is extremely common in current applications of the TEI Guidelines: for thematic research collections, scholarly editions, linguistic corpora, oral histories, digital archives, and the like.

The second model, though much less common in practice, is of great importance theoretically as a counterpoise to the first, and its importance has been shadowed forth by a number of key interventions during recent years. Theorists like Renear (2000) and McGann (2004) in very different ways have suggested that the performative and illocutionary qualities of markup bear close scrutiny. Sperberg-McQueen and Huitfeldt (2000) explored how markup represents meaning (and by extension, suggest a shift of emphasis onto markup itself as a meaning-bearing system, apart from the text it marks). Flanders (2006) and Flanders and Fiormonte (2007) have turned attention to the rhetoric of authorial markup and to its significance for scholarly communication, thinking of markup as a discourse that is situated at the boundary of production and reproduction. In this more “authorial” model, the encoder uses markup to transact a connection between herself and a reader that concerns a text. The role of markup is to instantiate, to bring into communicative reality, the encoder’s ideas and beliefs about a textual ecology that is oriented towards a particular textual artifact but is not limited to representing that artifact. Rather, the markup may represent a much broader context of interpretation, related information, and argumentation for which the text itself is only the catalyst or point of inspiration. The most common examples in the present day include annotation, “interpretive” markup such as the association of themes and keywords with spans of text (e.g. using the TEI @ana and interp mechanism), and the creation of new documents such as articles using an XML markup language as an authoring system. But these examples do not really give us a field within which to consider what —in a radical sense—we might mean by “authorial markup”, or to pursue the full critical pressure of McGann’s challenge to the markup world: “No autopoietic process or form can be simulated under the horizon of a structural model like SGML” (McGann 2004, 201-2).

The way these questions are framed within the digital humanities—as an opposition between mimetic representation and presentation on the one hand, and generative or creative authorship and interpretation on the other—has a correlate in literary history. As Doležel argues (1997), possible world texts, with their “world-constructing” features, contrast with the strongly mimetic and material world truth claims of “world-imaging” texts. We suggest that an exploration of a “possible worlds” ontology of non-mimetic discursive modes may offer a critical vocabulary for thinking about the relationship of authorial markup to other encoding models. It can also help us describe how authorial markup might leverage the formal tools of a structural model in order to enact a generative or poetic mode of markup.

We focus in particular on the authoring, interpretation, and markup of texts from the early modern period that concern themselves with precisely this domain. While Gottfried Leibniz nominally inaugurated discussion of possible worlds (in Essays on the Goodness of God, the Freedom of Man and the Origin of Evil, 1710), early modern writers from Thomas More and Sir Philip Sidney to René Descartes and Margaret Cavendish were concerned with the ability of the written word or number to, as Descartes put it, write about that “which does not actually exist…but is capable of so doing” (Descartes, Writing, 332). Such propositional discourse refers less to a verifiable “real” than to a set of possibilities without a fixed ontological status. Instead, as Ruth Ronen suggests, “their state of being is confined to what meaning-units of the text reveal” (Ronen 1994, 98-9). The early modern romance in particular (of which Cavendish is a major exemplar) is the single prose genre most invested in explicit exploration of the mimetic/poetic distinction and in which narrative structures themselves enact the generative logic of world-construction. Cavendish herself argues in her 1667 A New World Called the Blazing World, that her “romancicall” tale offers readers a model by which “they may create worlds of their own, and govern themselves as they please"" (Cavendish 225). Her model of romantic poiesis draws on a poetic tradition exemplified by Sidney’s Defense of Poesie (1579), which refutes directly the critique that poiesis is a form of feigning, by suggesting an epistemological and ethical role for generative authoring.

When we turn from Cavendish’s own authoring process to our own use of markup as a means of representing and interpreting her text—and of creating a new work of scholarship of which we are the authors—these arguments have a double impact. Within the world of an encoded text, the “meaning-units” include (for our purposes, most significantly) the markup itself. The markup itself becomes a world-generating mode of knowing that must carry several registers of meaning arising from different kinds of scholarly agency. There are also important questions which we will address in the full paper about how we can anchor and access the domain of meaning such a world establishes.

Following Saul Kripke’s assertion that “possible worlds are stipulated, not discovered by telescopes,” we see in both Cavendish’s authoring and our reading and encoding of her text a series of generative or poetic “stipulations” that carry both epistemological and ethical implications (cited in Doložel 1998, 787). We stipulate that a given structure can be characterized as a poem, or that a new paragraph begins in this place. Because there is such agreement (e.g. on disciplinary grounds) about how we read and name literary structures, this stipulation reads like a statement of fact, but if we consider more unfamiliar genres (or genre-resistant texts, like the confounding recursive narratives of Mary Wroth’s Urania or entries in commonplace books), the contentiousness of the assertion becomes more apparent. Possible worlds theory elaborates on what such stipulations accomplish, and on the terms in which we can understand the truth-value of what is created thereby. In the full version of this paper, we will consider how schemas may operate as another way of modeling the possible worlds of texts and genres, and also how possible worlds theory may help us envision more radically authorial forms of markup that may push our ideas of text encoding as scholarly communication into new terrain.

References:
Cavendish, Margaret, Duchess of Newcastle Observations on Experimental Philosophy. To Which is Added, The Description of a New World, Called the Blazing-World, 1666

Descartes, René Method, Optics, Geometry, and Meteorology, 1637 Paul J. Olscamp 2001

The philosophical writings of Descartes, Volume 3, John Cottingham Robert Stoothoff Dugald Murdoch Anthony Kenny 1991

Doležel, Lubomir Heterocosmica: Fiction and Possible Worlds, 1997

Doležel, Lubomir “Possible Worlds of Fiction and History, ” New Literary History, 29.4 1998 785-809

Flanders, Julia “The Rhetoric of Performative Markup, ” DH2006, July 2006

Flanders, Julia Domenico Fiormonte “Markup and the Digital Paratext, ” DH2007, June 2007

McGann, Jerome “Marking Texts of Many Dimensions, ” A Companion to Digital Humanities, Susan Schreibman Ray Siemens John Unsworth 2004 198-217

Poovey, Mary Genres of the Credit Economy, 2008

Renear, Allen “The Descriptive/Procedural Distinction is Flawed, ” Markup Languages: Theory and Practice, 2.4 2001 411-420

Ronan, Ruth Possible Worlds in Literary Theory, 1994","txt","2","",""
"1318","12","Modeling Event-Based Historical Narratives: A Conversation Between Digital Humanists, Information Scientists and Computer Scientists","3","Modeling Event-Based Historical Narratives: A Conversation Between Digital Humanists, Information Scientists and Computer Scientists

Meeks, Elijah, Stanford University, emeeks@stanford.edu
Mostern, Ruth , University of California, Merced, rmostern@ucmerced.edu
Grossner, Karl, University of California, Santa Barbara, karlg@geog.ucsb.edu
Shaw, Ryan, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, ryanshaw@unc.edu
Jain, Ramesh, University of California, Irvine, jain@ics.uci.edu
Kantabutra, Vitit, Idaho State University, vkantabu@coe.isu.edu

As digital humanities scholars increase the technological sophistication of their methodologies and tool use to represent historical change, their work becomes more theoretically complex from an information and computer science perspective. While much DH scholarship can be performed using off-the-shelf tools and simple data models, attempts to model highly nuanced historical knowledge, especially in event-based representation, requires a greater theoretical investment. This panel will present humanities scholars whose work focuses on using graph and semi-graph data models that track historical change as events in different parts of the digital scholarly media ecosystem—from the theoretical layout of the data and the representation of historical fact to the creation and population of a data structure to the analysis, representation and interaction with the product—in a dialectic with computer scientists and information scientists who have grappled with the problems of designing robust models and implementing performant technology in this domain. Through analysis of the digital scholarly media process from theory to creation to review, we hope to reveal sophisticated practical and theoretical solutions for representing, creating and reviewing historical knowledge.

The panel will be chaired by Elijah Meeks and allow for a short presentation by each of the discussants on the topics described below. This will be followed by a roundtable-style discussion with media examples from each discussant's work cued up so that, if the conversation focuses on one of these works, it can then be demonstrated and examined in detail. The guiding themes of the panel are theoretical challenges of event-based historical models, practical issues in creating sophisticated digital scholarly media using such models, and methods to review the models and the media created from them.

The panel presents a continuum of scholars from the humanities through information science to computer science, with Elijah Meeks (Digital Humanities Specialist, Stanford University) and Ruth Mostern (Associate Professor of History, University of California, Merced) representing the traditional humanities scholars. Elijah Meeks will speak about his work transitioning the Mapping the Republic of Letters database into a pure graph model and the challenges and benefits that this representation of historical knowledge presents in contrast to traditional relational databases as well as the suitability of graph data for event modeling. Ruth Mostern will focus on the role of event modeling in her current Yellow River research, tracking the linkages between historical environmental change and socio-political change, with an emphasis on the temporal and spatial reconciliation of differing scales and emphases of data, specifically comparing historical data collected for environmental science and traditional textual sources for tracking political and social change over time and space.

Karl Grossner (Geography, University of California, Santa Barbara) and Ryan Shaw (Assistant Professor of Information and Library Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) are both information scientists whose work has focused on issues critical to historical narrative modeling: ontologies and periodization. Ryan Shaw will speak to the complexities of event representation, focusing on periods and events as not only existing in the past, but also produced by discourse about the past, and the need for an approach to representation in which we can move back and forth between treating periods and events as, on the one hand, shared intersubjective points of reference and, on the other, unique perspectives on the past articulated through narrative techniques. Karl Grossner will discuss his work developing a spatial history ontology in which historical processes are modeled as theories of event relations, as well as its implementation in a PostgreSQL spatial database able to support mapping, analytical applications and representations of narrative.

Finally, Ramesh Jain (University of California, Irvine) and Vitit Kantabutra (Idaho State University) will discuss the practical issues of implementing such theoretical constructs in software. Vitit Kantabutra will spend some time explaining his work with Jack Owens fleshing out the Intentionally Linked Entity model, which is a generalized graph data model with a wide range of applications, and is especially suitable for the representation of historical and spatiotemporal events. Ramesh Jain will engage with the processing of event-based data semantically, both through typical searches and by exploring the emergent attributes of the database as an object itself.

By presenting a continuum of academic specialties that are unified in their focus on sophisticated digital representation of historical knowledge, we feel this panel will provide useful practical and theoretical value to the Digital Humanities community. We also hope to add to the growing discussion of how to judge the quality of the media produced in these endeavors, not only from the perspective of humanist scholars but from scholars in the field of information science and computer science.","txt","2","",""
"1319","12","Literary Practice and the Digital Humanities, Redux: Data as/and Poetry","3","Literary Practice and the Digital Humanities, Redux: Data as/and Poetry

Raley, Rita, Associate Professor of English, University of California, Santa Barbara, raley@english.ucsb.edu
Baldwin, Sandy, Associate Professor of English and Director of the Center for Literary Computing, West Virginia University, clc@mail.wvu.edu
Montfort, Nick, Associate Professor of Digital Media, MIT, nickm@nickm.com
Wardrip-Fruin, Noah, Associate Professor of Computer Science, University of California, Santa Cruz , nwf@soe.ucsc.edu
Cayley, John , Visiting Professor of Literary Arts, Brown University, cayley@shadoof.net

This panel brings together four of the central theorist-practitioners in the field of what is commonly called electronic literature for a discussion of the question of data as/and poetry. Drawing on a range of aesthetic and discursive traditions – from sublimity to communication theory – panelists will consider the structural and operational logics of writing in programmable and networked media. As a foundation for more general theoretical inquiry, they will engage specific compositional practices ranging from Perl poetry generators to writing with and against Google search algorithms. In broad terms, then, the panel will contribute to the conversation about the role and function of literary aesthetics and practices in the digital humanities. It is in sympathy with the “material turn” in the digital humanities toward the platform and the mechanism, but it seeks more fully to understand the relations between material form and aesthetic effects (and affects).

Sandy Baldwin considers the problem of data and poetry in terms of what might be called the unaccountable or “wayward.” He argues that such waywardness is historically and formally tied to poetry, situating data in the discourse of the sublime and in relation to a tradition of the metaphoric and the figural. As poetic discourse, the wayward or unaccountable is a problematic enunciative tactic, the rhetorical “lighting up” of detritus into significance and readability. Various “codework” practices can be seen as pursuing such tactics as uttering data and enunciating the author’s name through the data midden. Nick Montfort discusses some of the textures of data and code, and the complexity of these two categories, in Montfort’s ppg256 (Perl Poetry Generator in 256 Characters) series. Even in the acrostic method of Jackson Mac Low, the set of “data” consists of two different sorts of data, source text and seed text, that are used differently. In the ppg256 series, the only textual “data” is in quoted strings embedded in the code. Despite these complexities, making the distinction between code and data is important to understanding how ppg256 generators work and is important to the poetics underlying these programs. Noah Wardrip-Fruin’s presentation traces one particular birth narrative of an operational logic, that of the n-gram as a literary logic. It connects mathematicians such as Claude Shannon and Andrei Markov, the contributors to popular personal computer publications such as Byte Magazine and Scientific American, as well as figures such as Hugh Kenner and Charles O. Hartman. Finally, in contrast, the independent development of literary n-gram techniques by artists such as John Cayley is used to ask whether such logics are as different from collision detection (and others representing the physical world) as they may seem. John Cayley’s remarks will be directed to those tools, instruments and services that now give us close-to-no-cost access to indexed, mapped, statistically modeled, data-driven views of the largest corpus of language practice on the planet. He will do this with reference to three ongoing projects: ‘writing to be found,’ which explores techniques for generating aesthetic linguistic forms with=against services like Google; The Readers Project (with Daniel C. Howe), which might be thought of as ‘writing through visualizing reading’; and The Natural Language Liberation Front, which engages, agonistically, with the institutions and institutional consequences of all these new relations of literary production.","txt","2","",""
"1320","12","Opening the Gates: A New Model for Edition Production in a Time of Collaboration","1","Opening the Gates: A New Model for Edition Production in a Time of Collaboration
Timney, Meagan, Electronic Textual Cultures Laboratory University of Victoria, mbtimney.etcl@gmail.com
Leitch, Cara, Electronic Textual Cultures Laboratory University of Victoria, cmleitch@gmail.com
Siemens, Ray, Electronic Textual Cultures Laboratory University of Victoria, siemens@uvic.ca
In the very early days of the world wide web, but well into a period in which our community understand the positive and transformative impact that computational technique has had on scholarly editing, Fortier reminded us that literary studies is and always has been focused on the study of texts regardless of interpretive theoretical predisposition. In digital literary studies, that textual focus manifests in a number of theories about the nature of the text in general and the electronic scholarly edition in particular, and has developed such that a basic typology of electronic scholarly editions is relatively straightforward to construct via the approach taken in handling textual materials. Well into what is often called the age of Web 2.0, it is worth noting that prominent types of electronic scholarly editions were largely developed before the ubiquity of the world wide web that we now enjoy and do not accurately reflect its current academic engagement. Indeed, given that we have now entered a new phase in the social formation of the web, we can no longer ignore the influence of new networks and connections on the scholarly digital edition. Our understanding of the electronic scholarly edition requires reconsideration in light of the collaborative potential of current and emerging digital technologies; put another way, we need to extend our typology in light of new models of edition production that embrace social networking and its commensurate toolkit. We propose that, while the digital medium is most certainly a productive space in which to analyse editions (as proposed by Hans Walter Gabler), the social incarnation of the digital edition allows us to refocus our systematic analysis of texts, thus furthering the reconfiguration of the hierarchy for reading both texts and editions.

This working paper offers a new understanding of the historical underpinnings of the scholarly and digital editions, and envisions the possibilities of the scholarly social edition. It is generally accepted that there are several basic models for electronic editions of a scholarly nature, each put forward before the advent of the world wide web -- each demonstrating disparity within and among approaches in handling the text that lies at their centre. Using Unsworth’s scholarly primitives as a model for describing the set of activities common to humanities scholars, we have developed a functional definition for the strategies employed by expert readers: Analysis, Synthesis, Communication, and Dissemination. New methods of engagement are both social in nature and reflect the interrelated nature of these strategies: analysis and synthesis grow from communication that, in turn, affects dissemination, and so forth. Based on recent research concerning the reading strategies of expert or professional readers, and the current state of digital humanities scholarship, the next step in the development of the scholarly edition is one that reflects the importance of collaboration, incorporates contributions by its readers, and where the editor acts as a facilitator for user involvement rather than enjoying an unassailable final word. Our model of the social edition points to new methods of engagement in digital literary studies. The social edition embraces the collective (but without losing sight of the individual) and accepts that no edition is ever truly complete.

Despite Stephen Nichols’s call to ‘dismantle the silo model of digital scholarship,’ many digital editions, like print editions, continue to exist as self-contained units that do not encourage interaction with other resources. Instead we would argue that the social edition grows from Greg Crane‘s exhortation: ‘[w]e need to shift from lone editorials and monumental editions to editors as … editors, who coordinate contributions from many sources and oversee living editions.’ The movement toward social edition production has already begun, with projects such as EEBO interactions, ‘a social networking resource for Early English Books Online’ ( (link) ) and George Mason University’s ‘Crowdsourcing Documentary Transcription: an Open Source Tool,’ ( (link) ) which is described as ‘an open source tool that would allow scholars to contribute document transcriptions and research notes to digital archival projects, using the Papers of the War Department as a test case.’ These projects, among others, point to a growing need in the scholarly community to expand our knowledge communities using the social technologies at our disposal. With the understanding that we cannot prophesize the exact nature of the social edition at this current juncture, we do, however, wish to reiterate the importance of seeing the scholarly text as a process, and the initial, primary editor as a facilitator, rather than progenitor, of knowledge creation.

References:
Avram, G. 2006 “At the Crossroads of Knowledge Management and Social Software, ” The Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management, 4.1 pp. 1-10

Bouman, Wim et al. 2008 “The Realm of Sociality: Notes on the Design of Social Software, ” Sprouts, (link) 30 April 2010

Boyd, Stowe. 2006 “Are You Ready for Social Software?, ” /message, 30 April 2010

Bryant, Todd. 2006 “Social Software in Academia, ” Educause Quarterly, 61-64

Crane, Greg. 2010 “Give us editors! Re-inventing the edition and re-thinking the humanities, ” “The Shape of Things to Come, ” Charlottesville, VA, , March 2010. (link) 30 April 2010

Elia, Gianluca and Angelo Corallo. 2009 “A Knowledge Strategy Oriented Framework for Classifying Knowledge Management Tools, ” Miltiadis D. Lytras, Robert Tennyson Patricia Ordonez de Pablos Knowledge Networks: The Social Software Perspective, Hershey, PA Information Science Reference 1-16

Faulhaber, Charles B. 1991 “Textual Criticism in the 21st Century, ” . Romance Philology, 45 123-48

Fitzpatrick, Kathleen. 2007 “CommentPress: New (Social) Structures for New (Networked) Texts, ” Journal of Electronic Publishing, 10 3 (link) (accessed 21 April 2010).

Fortier, P. A. 1991 “Theory, Methods and Applications: Some Examples in French Literature, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 6 192–6

Gabler, Hans Walter. 2010 ““Theorizing the Digital Scholarly Edition.”, ” Literature Compass, 7 2 43-56

Golder, Scott and Bernardo A. Huberman. 2006 “Usage Patterns of Collaborative Tagging Systems, ” Journal of Information Science, 32 2 198-208 (link) 30 April 2010

Hipp, Mason. 2008 “35+ Social Media Tools that Make Life Easier, ” Freelance Folder, (link) 30 April 2010

Hoadley, Christopher M. and Peter G. Kilner. 2005 “Using Technology to Transform Communities of Practice into Knowledge-Building Communities, ” SIGGROUP Bulletin, 25 1 31-40. [ (link) ] 30 April 2010

Burnard, Lou Katherine O’Brien O’Keeffe John Unsworth 2006 Electronic Textual Editing, New York MLA

Dahlström, Mats. 2004 “How Reproductive is a Scholarly Edition?, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19 1 17-33

Inman, James A. Cheryle Reed and Peter Sands 2004 Electronic Collaboration in the Humanities, . Mahwah, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum

Irvine, Dean. (2006). ““Editing Archives / Archiving Editions“, ” Journal of Canadian Studies, 40 2 183-211

Lancashire, D. Ian 1989 “Working with Texts, ” . Paper delivered at the IBM Academic Computing Conference, Anaheim,

Manovich, Lev. 2001 The Language of New Media, . Cambridge MIT Press

McGann, Jerome. 2004 ““Marking Texts of Many Dimensions.“, ” In Susan Schreibman Ray Siemens, and John UnsworthCompanion to Digital Humanities, OxfordBlackwell 198-217.

McGann, Jerome. 2002 “Visible and Invisible Books: Hermetic Images in n-Dimensional Space, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 17 2 61-75

McGann, Jerome. 2001 Radiant Textuality: Literature after the World Wide Web, . New YorkPalgrave Macmillan

Ore, Epson S. 2004 “Monkey Business, or What is an Edition?, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19 1 35-44

O’Reilly, Tim. 2005 “What is Web 2.0?, ” (link) 4 May 2010

O’Reilly, Tim and John Battelle. 2009 “Web Squared: Web 2.0 Five Years On, ” Web Summit, San Francisco, CA, (link) May 10 2010

Robinson, Peter, and Hans Walter Gabler, (eds). 2000 “Introduction. Making Texts for the Next Century, ” . [A special issue of] Literary and Linguistic Computing, 15.1.

Robinson, Peter. 2000 “The One Text and the Many Texts, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 15 5

Schreibman, Susan Ray Siemens, and John Unsworth. 2004 “The Digital Humanities and Humanities Computing: An Introduction, ” Schreibman, Susan Ray Siemens John Unsworth A Companion to Digital Humanities, . Oxford Blackwell

Shillingsburg, Peter L. 2006 From Gutenberg to Google: Electronic Representations of Literary Texts, Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Shillingsburg, Peter L. 1998 Resisting Texts: Authority and Submission in Constructions of Meaning, Ann Arbor, MI University of Michigan Press

Shillingsburg, Peter L. 1986 Scholarly Editing in the Computer Age, . Athens University of Georgia Press

Siemens, Ray Cara Leitch 2009 “It May Change my Understanding of the Field, ” Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3 4 (link) 15 April 2010

Siemens, Ray and Christian Vandendorpe. 2006 “Introduction: Canadian Humanities Computing and Emerging Mind Technologies, ” Ray Siemens David Moorman Mind Technologies: Humanities Computing and the Canadian Academic Community, Calgary Calgary University Press xi-xviii

Siemens, Ray 2005 “Text Analysis and the ‘Dynamic’ Edition? A Working Paper, Briefly Articulating Some Concerns with an Algorithmic Approach to the Electronic Scholarly Edition, ” CHWP, A.37/65 (link) 12 May 2010

Siemens, Ray 2002 “Shakespearean Apparatus? Explicit Textual Structures and the Implicit Navigation of Accumulated Knowledge, ” Text: An Interdisciplinary Annual of Textual Studies 14, . Ann Arbor University of Michigan Press

Siemens, Ray 2001 “Unediting and Non-Editions. The Theory (and Politics) of Editing, ” Anglia, 119 3 423-455

Siemens, Ray, et. al. “Underpinnings of the Social Edition? A Narrative, 2004-9, for the Renaissance English Knowledgebase (REKn) and Professional Reading Environment (PReE) Projects, ” Jerome McGann Online Humanities Scholarship: The Shape of Things to Come, Rice UPforthcoming

Tanselle, G.T. 1995 “The Varieties of Scholarly Editing, ” D.C. Greetham Scholarly Editing, . New York MLA 9-32

Terras, Melissa. 2009 “Crowdsourcing Manuscript Material, ” (link) 2 March 2010

Unsworth, John. 2000 “Scholarly Primitives: What Methods do Humanities Researchers have in Common, and How Might our Tools Reflect this?, ” (link) 30 june 2009

Wenger, Etienne. 2006 “Communities of Practice, ” (link) 29 Apr. 2010","txt","2","",""
"1321","12","Roots of Performatology: From Uber-Marionette to Embodied Performative Agent","2","Roots of Performatology: From Uber-Marionette to Embodied Performative Agent
Maraffi, Christopher, University of California, Santa Cruz, topherm@soe.ucsc.edu
This poster presents humanities research the author completed in Digital Arts and New Media that has led to the development of a novel high-level Performatology approach to designing embodied agents in Computer Science. Agent research for interactive narrative and games have incorporated some performative dramatic theory (Mateas, 2004; Seif El-Nasr, 2004; Tannenbaum, 2008; Perlin, 1996), but being primarily influenced by literary approaches (Laurel, 1991; Murray, 1998; Austin, 1962; Searle, 1969), the focus has been towards developing a Neo-Aristotelian Poetics approach to interactive drama. Some agent work has been done on modeling improvisational performers from Theatre Arts (Magerko, 2010), but their micro-agent designs did not incorporate embodied gesture. Although additional research has been done on modeling the gesture of professional speakers for enhancing the personality of embodied conversational agents (Neff, 2008), little work has been done to procedurally model professional performers from the arts to enhance the gestural quality of embodied agents.

By and large, the emphasis for previous interactive narrative research has been to provide story authoring tools rather than tools for embodied performers to represent their craft in computational media. Avatars, Non-Player Characters (NPCs), and Intelligent Virtual Agents (IVAs), all tend to be designed to function primarily as embodied conversational agents, with gestural performance being supportive to speech acts that drive the narrative forward. Thus, interactive drama in games is in stark contrast to how drama developed in both classical live theatre and moving pictures, where gestural performance historically preceded speech acts, and where physical drama and visual spectacle dominated textual narrative.

When cinema started, the camera was the entry point for professional performers to migrate out of the proscenium and into the screen mediums of film and animation. Actors effectively digitized their embodied 3D gesture into animated 2D representations that translated their already developed fictive personas into the plastic time and space of analog media, where the characters could repeat the original performances indefinitely, even after the death of the performers. Multiple takes, editing, and visual effects allowed them to iteratively improve their linear performances for audiences. The dramatic personas or icons created by media stars of the last century arguably eclipse the narrative elements in any single story, and indicate a development path for embodied performative agents in New Media today.

From Uber-Marionette to Avatar Theatre: Imagining the Ideal Performer
Interactive drama has the potential to extend the actor’s craft further than all previous acting mediums, but due to a technological divide, actors have been prevented from playing on the new stage. The current absence of performing artists in computational media, as well as the potential solution to the problem in a procedural performer, was anticipated by theater practitioner Edward Gordon Craig at the turn of the last century. An influential British theorist working out of Florence, Craig self-published his controversial theatre reformation opinions in a periodical called The Mask (1907-1929). He advocated the rise of the Director-Designer as a visionary artist in charge of all aspects of production, over both the author and players, and in this role he faced character believability problems that caused him to question the viability of the actor as an artistic medium. Craig particularly struggled with the unpredictable personalities of live actors in his productions, which he attributed to a fundamental problem of belief in the theatre. He conceptualized the perfect actor as one who had a single-minded belief in the idea of the character, in the ideal Platonic sense, which would in turn make the audience believe in the characterization enough to have an emotional response (Craig, 1963).

A former actor himself, Craig’s views on acting as a belief problem was influenced by Neo-classical ritual acting techniques from masked theatre and puppetry. These art forms also moved him towards symbolic gesture, along with contemporary influences such as the stylized movement of actor Henry Irving and dancer Isadora Duncan, as well as the anti-realism of the Symbolists (Ayat-Confino, 1987). His innovative productions were larger than life spectacles of moving lights and set pieces, which he intended as a new type of immersive Kinetic Stage. Since he was working against realism or naturalism, but still wanted to create a believable experience for the spectator, designing a consistent theatrical experience was critical to him. But the one thing Craig couldn’t control was the live actors in his productions, who he claimed did not have the disciplined belief required to reliably portray his desired characterizations. So in 1907 he published his infamous essay The Actor and The Uber-Marionette, where he proposed a technological solution to his acting problem, and proclaimed that for the artistic future of the theatre, all live actors should be replaced by autonomous puppets (Craig, 1907).

In his essay, Craig compared acting to other art forms, and found it came up short. His main complaint was against the live actor as a performing medium. When playing in front of an audience, Craig claimed that actors allowed their personality or mind to get in the way of their characterization. Through either nervousness or ego, they would tend to frequently act out of character, breaking the believability of their portrayal for the audience. Painters and musicians, as visionary artists, could abstract and refine their art forms with complete control. Actors, who often relied on their own personality to carry a role, in Craig’s opinion, did not qualify as artists. His ingenious solution was to remove the actor entirely from playing in front of a live audience. He proposed, for the good of the theatre, that actors had to be banned from the stage and replaced with an autonomous puppet he called the Uber-Marionette. Craig already used techniques from masked theatre and puppetry to insert a performing object between the actor and audience, which was known to create a distancing effect for the performer. The Uber-Marionette concept was an extension of these techniques intended to entirely remove the actor in form and personality, leaving only a refined version of their gesture as an embodied performative representation.

Craig’s argument may be sound, but his purposely provocative delivery didn’t receive a positive response from the theatre community, especially from actors. So there is some theater, to champion the inclusion of live performers in the field of computational media today. Clearly ahead of his time, and highly perfomative in writing The Mask (Taxidou, 1998), he was often misunderstood by his contemporaries who either took his words at face value, or assumed he was writing in metaphors.The argument can be made that Craig was actually proposing a vision of the ideal actor intended for a future performance medium not yet invented. He said as much in his Uber-Marionette essay when he wrote, “If you can find in Nature a new material, one which has never yet been used by man to give form to his thoughts, then you can say that you are on the high road towards creating a new art. For you have found that by which you can create it. It only remains for you to begin. The Theatre, as I see it, has yet to find that material.” (Craig, 1907). Though technologically impossible in his lifetime, Craig never gave up trying to realize his concept, nor did he ever admit that it was impossible to build. Though highly criticized by his contemporaries, he showed an unshakeable belief that it would be invented someday by discovering a new control mechanism, “What the wires of the Uber-Marionette shall be, what shall guide him, who can say?” (Craig, 1963).

Although Craig’s banishment of the actor has inadvertently been realized in computational media, the author contends that his vision of the perfect actor as an Uber-Marionette can also be realized by modeling the behavior of embodied agents on the gesture of live professional performers. If the essence of good acting is semiotic gestural technique, or a vector of poses and movements that convey a symbolic attitude of the intended persona, then the ideal acting medium is one that can iteratively refine a trained performer’s gesture to a singular clear purpose in real-time for a live audience. Craig’s imagined “wires” are procedural character algorithms trained on motion capture data, and his desired new “material” for Theatre is the virtual stage of games and interactive drama. The author’s MFA thesis and accompanying Avatar Theatre performances were intended to translate Craig’s vision to a New Media context, and to informally assess contemporary audience reaction to seeing a live performer interacting with a 3D character in a shared performance space (See Figure 1; Maraffi, 2010).

Figure 1

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Audience feedback suggested that, in the context of a live dramatic performance, believable interaction and expressive appeal can possibly solve Computer Science problems for embodied agents, such as passing a gestural Turing Test and offsetting the Uncanny Valley Effect. For instance, there were performances when audience members believed that a remote performer was controlling the Avatar character, as well as a positive general audience response to comedic interaction that countered any strangeness from seeing the avatar mimicking the performer’s natural movement.
From Avatar Theatre to Performatology: Getting the Performer In the Game
So how does the above MFA research apply to games and interactive drama? It is the proof-of-concept for developing a Performatology approach to designing embodied performative agents at UCSC’s Computational Cinematics Studio. Using this approach the author has designed a novel performer modeling agent architecture, IMPRSONA, which uses machine learning and motion capture to build a performer profile from a knowledge base of procedural gesture prototypes (see Figure 2; Maraffi, 2011).

Figure 2

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We are mapping a performative ontology from Performance Theory (Barba, 2005; Schechner, 2002; Aston, 1991), and from the author’s experience as a performance artist and technical animator, to simulate the apprentice training process used by professional performers when learning and practicing their craft through mimicry and improvisation. The author’s hypothesis is that the performer’s technique, developed over many years of disciplined training, results in a semiotic quality of gesture that is integral to portraying believable, expressive, and appealing fictive characters.
Puppetry and animation over the last century have shown that abstracting principles from live performers can simulate the illusion of life in moving images (Thomas, 1981), as seen in Disney’s Mickey, Henson’s Kermit, and many other iconic characters, creating personas that persist in linear time-based media. These icons indicate that the key to solving embodied agent believability problems may be discovered in simulating the performer’s gestural quality. Embodied agents in games have the potential to become interactive New Media icons if we can represent the performer’s craft as procedural algorithms. Our embodied agent architecture is intended as a performative component in a broader Nara-Performa-Ludic system design (see Figure 3), and is the first step in a formal Performatology study of real and simulated embodied performers interacting together in a shared performance space. Our goal is to get the professional performer in the game, and get the actor back on the stage of interactive drama.

Figure 3

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Acknowledgements: The author would like to thank his current Computer Science PhD advisors: Arnav Jhala (UCSC Computational Cinematics Studio) and Noah Wardrip-Fruin (UCSC Expressive Intelligence Studio). Also, a very special thanks to his Digital Arts and New Media MFA Thesis Committee: Kathy Foley (UCSC Theater Arts), Michael Mateas (UCSC Expressive Intelligence Studio), and Ted Warburton (UCSC Theater Arts). Additional thanks to his UCSC Theater Arts faculty advisors for the 2010 DANM Performative Technologies Group: Jim Bierman, David Cuthbert, and Kimberly Jannarone.

References:
Aston, Elaine and Savona, G. 1991 Theatre as Sign System: A Semiotics of Text and Performance, New York Routledge

Austin, John 1962 How to Do Things With Words, . MassachusettsCambridge

Ayat-Confino, Irene 1987 Beyond the Mask: Gordon Craig, Movement, and the Actor, . Southern Illinois Univ. Press

Barba, Eugenio Savarese, N. 2005 A Dictionary of Theatre Anthropology: The Secret Art of the Performer, New York Routledge

Craig, Edward Gordon 1907 On the Actor and The Uber-Marionette, The Mask, (Self-Published Periodical Florence)

Craig, Edward Gordon 1963 The Theatre Advancing, Benjamin Blom, Inc. New York, NY

Laurel, Brenda 1991 Computers as Theatre, New York, NYAddison-Weseley

Magerko, B Fiesler, C, et al. 2010 ““Bottoms Up: Improvisational Mico-Agents”, ” 3rd Workshop on Intelligent Narrative Technologies, , FDG (INT3 2010)

Maraffi, Christopher 2010 Avatar Theatre MFA Thesis Performances, (Video Documentation) UCSC Digital Arts and New Media Program (link)

Maraffi, Christopher Jhala, A. 2011 Computational Cinematics Studio Performatology Project: IMPRSONA Performative Agent Architecture, UCSC Computer Science Program (link)

Mateas, Michael 2004 ““A Preliminary Poetics for Interactive Drama and Games”, ” First Person, Wardrip-Fruin and Harrigan, eds.Cambridge, MassachusettsThe MIT Press

Murray, Janet 1998 Hamlet on the Holodeck: The Future of Narrative in Cyberspace, Massachusetts The MIT Press

Neff, M Kipp, M, et al. 2008 “Gesture modeling and animation based on a probabilistic re-creation of speaker style, ” ACM Transactions on Graphics, 27

Perlin, Ken Goldberg, A. 1996 ““Improv: A System for Scripting Interactive Actors in Virtual Worlds”, ” Proceedings of the 23rd annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, New Orleans

Schechner, Richard 2002 Performance Studies: An Introduction, New York Routledge

Searle, John 1969 Speech Acts, New YorkCambridge University Press

Seif El-Nasr, Magy. 2004 “A user-centric adaptive story architecture: borrowing from acting theories, ” ACE '04 Proceedings of the 2004 ACM SIGCHI International Conference on Advances in computer entertainment technology,

Tanenbaum, J. Tanenbaum 2008 ““Improvisation and Performance as Models for Interacting with Stories”, ” ICIDS '08 Proceedings of the 1st Joint International Conference on Interactive Digital Storytelling: Interactive Storytelling, (2008 ICIDS)

Taxidou, Olga 1998 The Mask: A Periodical Performance by Edward Gordon Craig, University of Edinburgh UK

Thomas, Frank Johnston, O. 1981 Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life, New YorkDisney Editions","txt","2","",""
"1322","12","Pedagogy & Play: Revising Learning through Digital Humanities","2","Pedagogy & Play: Revising Learning through Digital Humanities
Harris, Katherine D. , Department of English, San Jose State University, katherine.harris@sjsu.edu
In Digital Humanities circles, we often talk about collaboration between disciplines, among scholars, and with technologists. While progress in the field is nurtured certainly by this type of research, what of our students? How are we shepherding Digital Humanities to those undergraduates who could most benefit from exposure to collaborative tools or humanities computing strategies? Happily, HASTAC has been addressing pedagogy, most specifically with Cathy Davidson's post ""Research is Teaching"" ( (link) ) and the wildly successful forum ""Teaching with Technology and Curiosity"" ( (link) ). As is evident from the Digital Humanities Zotero group (http://www.zotero.org/groups/30) there are some relevant, engaging courses being taught in and around Digital Humanities. But, how can Digital Humanities engage with, even alter, traditional pedagogy?

Collaboration, shared knowledge, open access, extra-disciplinarity. These are the major tenets of Digital Humanities. However, what is missing in this list is something required of all digital projects: play. Roger Caillois qualifies this type of unstructured activity as “an occasion of pure waste: waste of time, energy, ingenuity, skill” (Man, Play and Games 2001; 6). This lack of structure, leads to exploration, discovery, and production of knowledge in ways that were only imagined twenty years ago. Typically though we don't allow our students this sense of play in their traditional studies. Especially in literary studies, we supply students with the end-product but don't expose them to the theories and the methodologies always. We separate those kinds of issues into other courses (e.g., Introduction to Literary Criticism or Introduction to Research Methods). When faculty bring a particular perspective, for example textual studies or feminist theory, to a classroom setting, the methods for exploring and discovering aren't exposed to students. Instead, we're offering them the one big major tool, close reading, for their arsenal.

Students then live with some anxiety that there's one way to read a text and, more often, ask ""how does the professor want me to read this?"" It becomes a guessing “game” instead of an exploration and discovery of the literature. In the final essay, we expect students to offer a discovery, a research paper, or an analysis. But, if we haven't exposed them to the methodology and the theory, how can they adequately achieve a true exploration of the literature? In this way, the course becomes a game with an outcome, consequences, and rigid rules. Using Digital Humanities strategies, I want to instill a sense, even if it's artificial, that literary studies are a “free and voluntary activity, a source of joy and amusement” as Caillois defines “play” (6).

With this poster, I will explore invigorating an undergraduate education with a sense of play by specifically incorporating the major tenets of Digital Humanities and Caillois' typology of play:

Free: in which playing is not obligatory; if it were, it would at once lose its attractive and joyous quality as diversion;
Separate: circumscribed within limits of space and time, defined and fixed in advance;
Uncertain: the course of which cannot be determined, nor the result attained beforehand, and some latitude for innovations being left to the player's initiative;
Unproductive: creating neither goods, nor wealth, nor new elements of any kind; and, except for the exchange of property among the players, ending in a situation identical to that prevailing at the beginning of the game;
Governed by rules: under conventions that suspend ordinary laws, and for the moment establish new legislation, which alone counts;
Make-believe: accompanied by a special awareness of a second reality or of a free unreality, as against real life. (9-10)
Before being able to articulate this type of change in undergraduate curriculum, I had to understand it myself. I attended ThatCamp Bay Area in October 2010 to gain some understanding, and, well, to feel uncomfortable. I wanted to immerse myself in areas that were not so familiar to me, sessions where I couldn’t be an authority. The invigorating aspect to the two days’ of sessions was that no matter how hard I tried to avoid familiar topics, I found myself reflecting on the intersection between my work and all of the cool, interesting work being discussed. Steve Ramsay ( (link) ) was right; I was prepared to be the dumbest person in the room, and that prepared me for being inspired by the cross/multi/extradisciplinary work that so many people came together to discuss.

Big questions plagued me during and after sessions, even at the bootcamps. But, these weren’t questions of despair; rather they were invigorating because they required that I think about pedagogy and curriculum in a different fashion, but they were there nonetheless: How can this apply in the classroom? How can I teach my students some of this technology without sacrificing content? Is this the content then in a Digital Humanities course? What kind of Humanistic inquiry comes from integrating tools with literary studies? How can I educate my colleagues about Digital Humanities using geo-referencing as an example? How can GIS impact my work on history of the book. But mostly I just wanted to play with all of the toys in order to explore what kind of Humanistic inquiry is possible. I wanted to see what happened when a major corpus of work was available; what questions could I come up with, because I don’t have any to start with. Perhaps if I had a chance to play, though, I could find something.

In one session, Linguist Adita Muralidharan lead the group through algorithms that could parse n-grams in large datasets. The question came up: How do you know what questions to ask of such large amounts of data? For instance, Franco Moretti and Matthew Jockers' use of massive quantities of 19th-century novels to collate developments in the genre ( (link) ). While neither project can search for metaphor, irony, and humor, I can only guess what kinds of extrapolations could come out of just fooling around with the data, searches and results. But, I wouldn't know unless I got my hands on the tools and the dataset. Can I be allowed to do research when I don't know what the question will be, let alone the answers? Playfulness, see?

And this is the crux of the entire weekend – playfulness and imagination is perhaps something that academics and scholars have moved away from, something that is stolen from us as we move into full time positions. And we've done this to our students in a way.

Over the last two years, I have begun focusing my teaching on incorporating digital tools into my undergraduate classroom. This is often a nuanced decision made in heavy consultation with an Instructional Designer. Now, I teach three kinds of courses that interact at some level with digital tools, Digital Humanities and the typology of play:

TechnoRomanticism ( (link) ): We create our own digital edition of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein. Along the way, we create a collaborative timeline using MIT's SIMILE & Timeline script ( (link) ). We don't even begin to create a website until some of the preliminary assignments are done -- assignments that look at the construction of this novel, both linguistically and bibliographically. Every 2 weeks, we held a workshop on some digital assignment and acquired 1 new skill, not even necessarily a new tool, but a skill. Even those not accustomed to posting to forums and blogs got something out of it.
Digital Humanities: The Death of Print Culture? ( (link) ) I'm teaching this one right now, and we're theorizing all facets of Digital Humanities while at the same time critiquing the tools for our thinking and dissemination. We're in Week 11, and now they're really seeing the benefits and pitfalls of Digital Humanities. We will also explore multi-modal arguments, i.e., the video essay.
And a third type of course, one in which content and Digital Humanities are intertwined -- the British Literature survey course 1800-Present: (link)
For this course, we're not practicing any Digital Humanities, but we are looking at Digital Literature in the continuum of the survey, which is difficult considering we're still figuring out what that means. This is a lower-division English major's requirement, which means students typically haven't had the requisite course on how to evaluate literature in various genres.

All three of these courses offer students a sense of play. The most Digital Humanities-focused course, the Honors Digital Literature course that I'm teaching right now, even demands the play defined above, that unstructured, imaginative playing that happens with tag or hide n'go seek. In fact, when we started the section on e-literature, I provided no rules for close reading; my literature majors hated that and still are admonishing me for not supplying them with the tools. This is where English/literary studies have done them wrong (and me for that matter). We train our students with a set of distinct rules, even asking some of them to master those rules. And, then and only then, do we allow them to break those rules. But, what if we never tell them the rules to begin with? What if we ask them to play first, explore, discover and then we provide them with a set of rules? I'm talking about reversing the curriculum to privilege bottom-up pedagogy.

Though much of this long paper is based in anecdotes about students enrolled in a large, public university, I believe it provides evidence of the potential for altering traditional pedagogy using the very thing that Digital Humanities encapsulates: play.","txt","2","",""
"1323","12","Trailblazing through Forests of Resources in Linguistics","1","Trailblazing through Forests of Resources in Linguistics
Barkey, Reinhild, Department of Linguistics, University of Tübingen, rbarkey@sfs.uni-tuebingen.de
Hinrichs, Erhard, Department of Linguistics, University of Tübingen, erhard.hinrichs@uni-tuebingen.de
Hoppermann, Christina, Department of Linguistics, University of Tübingen, christina.hoppermann@uni-tuebingen.de
Trippel, Thorsten, Department of Linguistics, University of Tübingen, thorsten.trippel@uni-tuebingen.de
Zinn, Claus, Department of Linguistics, University of Tübingen, claus.zinn@uni-tuebingen.de
Introduction
Linguistics is facing the challenge of many other sciences as it continues to grow into increasingly complex subfields, each with its own separate or overarching branches. While linguists are certainly aware of the overall structure of the research field, they cannot follow all developments other than those of their subfields. It is thus important to help specialists but also newcomers alike to bushwhack through evolved or unknown territory of linguistic data.

A considerable amount of research data in linguistics is described with metadata. While studies described and published in archived journals and conference proceedings receive a quite homogeneous set of metadata tags — e.g., author, title, publisher —, this does not hold for the empirical data and analyses that underlie such studies. Moreover, lexicons, grammars, experimental data, and other types of resources come in different forms; and to make things worse, their description in terms of metadata is also not uniform, if existing at all.

These problems are well-known and there are now a number of international initiatives — e.g., CLARIN, FlareNet, MetaNet, DARIAH — to build infrastructures for managing linguistic resources. The NaLiDa project, funded by the German Research Foundation, aims at facilitating the management and access to linguistic resources originating from German research institutions. In cooperation with the German SFB 833 research center, we are developing a combination of faceted and full-text search to give integrated access through heterogeneous metadata sets. Our approach is supported by a central registry for metadata field descriptors, and a component repository for structured groups of data categories as larger building blocks.

State of Affairs
An increasing number of research institutions in linguistics is systematically archiving research data and making such data publicly available. Users can access such archives via institution-specific websites or purpose-built software where resources can be searched and, in part, downloaded. Some institutions provide access to their archives via OAI-PMH so that the archives’ public content can be harvested and fed into the metadata services of data centers in the community.

The metadata provided by the various institutions differ not only in quantity and quality but also in the format of description, as Fig. 1 illustrates. Typically, a research organization designs a metadata schema that it deems to serve best its institutional setting and the number and types of resources it hosts. Different organizations will likely yield various schemas with their own structure and terminology for the schemas’ nodes. Such semantic heterogeneity may be complemented by syntactic heterogeneity as formats may vary (e.g., ASCII, relational database format, XML). An organization’s resources can thus be seen as a forest of trees of the same kind, whereas a tree — i.e., a description of one resource — may have deformations at the leafs as the result of not adhering to the schema. Moreover, trees will look rather naked when resources are described sparsely.

Figure 1: Metadata heterogeneity

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Conceptual Setting
While we expect research organizations to continue managing their research data in their respective ways, we ask them (i) to make their data public in a well-defined XML format to obtain syntactic uniformity, and (ii) to reformulate their schemas to adhere to CMDI (Component MetaData Infrastructure), see (Broeder et al. 2010), a component-based metadata model that makes use of predefined metadata components and the ISOcat data category registry (International Organization of Standardization 2009). The organizations’ archive managers have the opportunity to redefine existing parts of their schema, but they can also choose to keep existing structures and terminologies. In this case the respective metadata descriptors need to be associated with their corresponding semantic points of references in ISOcat, being addressable via unique persistent identifiers. Moreover, archive managers can add new data categories to ISOcat’s private space for immediate availability, and initiate a standardization process to pave the way for their wider use.

Technological Setting
Metadata Storage
The storage of resource descriptions has to cope with a multitude of schemas the descriptions adhere to. The use of a relational database would require a mapping of all schemas to a single one, which is all but trivial. Instead, with CouchDB [ (link) ], a no-SQL database is being used that stores arbitrarily structured documents rather than records of some fixed form. The translation between the XML-based CMDI-format into CouchDB’s native JSON format is structure-and information-preserving.

Faceted Search
Facets serve to blaze the trail. Faceted search enables a user to find specific trees, i.e., resource descriptions, in the various forests by specifying (some of) their common properties. A facet partitions the search space where descriptions, i.e., CouchDB documents, in the same cluster share the same facet value. The selection of multiple facets corresponds to an intersection of clusters identifying resources that have all selected facet values. Faceted search also supplies a user with information about the number of documents in each cluster or intersections thereof — the “mileage” of following a trail. In the presently available data the following unconditional facets are adequate for the various schemas describing linguistic resources: “organization”, “modality”, “language”, “country”, “resourceType”, and “origin”. Facet values may stem from open or controlled vocabularies; controlled vocabulary facets have a stronger tendency to partition the search space into larger units, whereas open vocabularies induce larger search space fragmentations.

Once faceted search has focused on a subset of resources, conditional facets allow the introduction of additional context-specific navigational user aids. When users select the facet “resourceType” with value “tool”, for instance, they restrict the search space to just encompass metadata that describes language-processing tools. Here, the conditional facet “toolType” is introduced that partitions the remaining search space according to the type of tool, e.g., language parser, spell checker. Moreover, conditional facets help lowering the complexity of computing search space clusters and their intersections.

Mapping Facets to Nodes of the Various Schemas
Metadata schemas vary in structure and terminology. Different names for nodes or leafs may be used to elicit the same meaning, and identical names may be used for semantically different concepts. This makes the mapping of facets to nodes of the various tree types (cf. Fig. 2) rather difficult, and usually requires some intricate knowledge of the metadata forests to be processed. When schemas make use of the aforementioned data category registry ISOcat, such ambiguities can be resolved automatically as names are linked to registry entries.

Figure 2: Mapping facets to the individual parts of the resource trees

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Each facet corresponds to an elementary CouchDB view into the database of resource documents. These views serve as a starting point for the generation of complex views that correspond to the various possible navigational paths using facet selection, thus implementing the faceted browser back-end. Elementary views and complex views are generated automatically from a facet specification file, an enriched textual encoding of the table in Fig. 2.

Full-text Search Support
Data sets may have resources that are hard to find using faceted search alone. This is true for resources with sparse metadata, or with descriptors that can rarely be mapped to facets. We are therefore using CouchDB’s port to Lucene to perform full-text search across all resources or search spaces restricted by prior faceted search.

Front-end
Fig. 3 depicts a screenshot of the NaLiDa faceted browser; it shows a search state where users selected three facets (“country”, “modality”, “resourceType”) and where the system displays an overview of the remaining search space in terms of the facets, the number of resources available for each of their values, and access to all documents selected so far.

Figure 3: The NaLiDa Faceted Browser

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Related Work and Conclusion
Faceted search is gaining popularity as users can explore large data sets without an intricate understanding of metadata fields or schemas; they obtain an immediate overview of the search space and guidance how to conquer it. A faceted search access to language resources has been implemened by the last author [ (link) ] using Flamenco (Hearst 2006). Our new approach has four main advantages: CouchDB also stores the metadata documents (with varying schemas) and thus also serves as permanent storage; the use of conditional facets contributes to usability as only relevant facets are shown, guiding users’ navigation; index generation accommodates for incremental updates on the metadata sets, supporting regular harvesting without recomputing all indices and views anew; and the faceted browser’s back-end is generated automatically from a facet specification and can be configured easily for other datasets.

References:
Broeder, D Kemps-Snijders, M Van Uytvanck, D Windhouwer, M Withers, P. Wittenburg, P Zinn, C 2010 “A Data Category Registry-and Component-based Metadata Framework, ” Proceedings of the 7th conference on International Language Resources and Evaluation, 19-21 May 2010, European Language Resources Association (CD-ROM)

International Organization of Standardization 2009 Terminology and other language and content resources - Specification of data categories and management of a Data Category Registry for language resources, (ISO-12860-2009) Geneva (link)

Hearst, M 2006 “Design Recommendations for Hierarchical Faceted Search Interfaces, ” ACM SIGIR Workshop on Faceted Search,","txt","2","",""
"1324","12","A Labanotation Editing Tool for Description and Reproduction of Stylized Traditional Dance Body Motion","2","A Labanotation Editing Tool for Description and Reproduction of Stylized Traditional Dance Body Motion
Choensawat, Worawat, School of Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University , gr0011es@ed.ritsumei.ac.jp
Takahashi, Sachie, School of Letters, Ritsumeikan University , nr013082@ed.ritsumei.ac.jp,
Nakamura, Minako, Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences, Ochanomizu University , nakamuraminako@gmail.com
Hachimura, Kozaburo, School of Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University , hachimura@media.ritsumei.ac.jp
Introduction
A stylized traditional dance has uniqueness in itself which reflects history, culture, emotion expression, etc. When recording and representing this traditional dance body motions, it is important to have capabilities for handling these very characteristic body movements, which can probably be handled with the full-set of Labanotation (Hutchinson, 1997). However, notation score becomes extremely complicated, and we will not be able to comprehend what is that movement.

We are facing a problem how to realize a method of describing detailed features and nuance of artistic, traditional dance movements while suppressing the complexity in notation score.

Several graphics applications has been developed for preparing Labanotation scores (Brown and Smoliar, 1976; Fox, 2000) and generating body movement (Calvert, 2007; Coyle et al. 2005; Coyle et al. 2002; Wilke et al. 2005). However none of them solved the abovementioned problem yet.

We have been working on a system named LabanEditor (Kojima et al. 2002; Nakamura and Hachimura, 2006). It includes functionalities of both inputting/editing Labanotation score and displaying character animation so that beginners who are not familiar with Labanotation can study about its description by a trial-and-error approach.

In this paper, we aim at description and reproduction of the body motion of stylized traditional dances by using fundamental elements of Labanotation while keeping the quality of body movement of CG character animation. We propose and implement a dynamic template technique enabling users to notate stylized traditional dances and reproducing it in 3D CG animation from a Labanotation score.

Labanotation
Labanotation is a graphical notation system for recording human body movements. Figure 1 (a) is an example of Labanotation scores corresponding to dance motion. A Labanotation score is drawn in a form of vertical staff where each column corresponds to a body part. Figure 1 (b) shows the basic arrangement of columns in the staff. The horizontal dimension of the staff represents the parts of the body, and the vertical dimension represents time.

Figure 1. Labanotation scores; (a) Example of Labanotation scores and (b) Columns of Labanotation representing body parts.

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LabanEditor
LabanEditor (Kojima et al. 2002) is an interactive graphical editor for editing Labanotation scores and displaying the 3D CG character animation associated with scores.

We added the new features to LabanEditor as follow:

Dynamic template technique enabling users to notate movements and reproducing it in 3D CG animation using fundamental description of Labnotation.
Motion control module for manipulate the motion expression among key-frames in order to make the animation more natural.
User Interface
With LabanEditor, users are able to input and edit the score and then display the CG animation immediately, which makes possible to interactively confirm the movements. Users can zoom in/out and change the viewpoint of the 3D scene on all three axes.

While replaying the Labanotation score, users can observe the animation as well as the red horizontal line cursor, moving upward corresponding to the animation progresses, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. CG animation display window.

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Generating the CG Animation
Labanotation scores can be represented as a simple format called LND (Kojima et al. 2002), which uses alphanumeric characters to represent basic symbols. To create 3D character animation, we have to convert LND into animation data. The format of LND representation is shown in Figure 3. The lines that begin with “#” indicate the fundamental parameters of Labanotation. The movement of a body part is specified by the line followed by a command “direction”, which corresponds to the Labanotation direction symbols.

Figure 3. Example of LND.

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LND describes a pose just like key-frame body postures for animation, so that we can produce motion of the body part by simply applying interpolation between start and end key-frame poses. A key-frame pose of a body part at a timing corresponding to an end of the symbol is defined by a Labanotation symbol.

Our system converts direction symbols into animation key-frames by using a template file for a mapping between the symbol and its corresponding pose of the body part.

The template file describes the relationship between a direction symbol at the particular column and the rotation and the translation of the corresponding joint. Figure 4 shows a notation and description in a template file, and the resulting pose.

Figure 4. Relationship between user input symbols and a template file; (a) User input symbol, (b) Part of a template file, and (c) Snapshot of the CG animation corresponding to the template in (b).

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Dynamic Template Technique
Due to the rough resolution of fundamental elements of Labanotation, similar but distinct poses are sometimes defined with the same symbol in a Labanotation score.

To solve this problem, we invented the method of dynamic templates in order to represent very specific movements using the fundamental subset of Labanotation symbols only. With the dynamic template technique, we can represent these characteristic motions by changing the template files dynamically during a display process, while using very fundamental symbols.

Figure 5 (a) shows the interface of editing template file. Users can activate the editing window by double clicking on a Labanotation symbol. For example, suppose the symbol in the Labanotation score, indicated by a red color in Figure 5 (a), was selected by a user, then, the user can directly edit the joint angles on an editable template panel as shown in Figure 5(a).

Alternatively, the graphically editable template, which is activated by clicking the „Animate‟ button in Figure 5 (a), enables the user to edit the template by adjusting the slide bars and observe the resulting pose as shown in Figure 5 (b).

Figure 5. Interface for editing a template; (a) Template editing panel and (b) Graphical template editing panel.

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The information of template files is inserted into a LND file corresponding to the start time as shown in Figure 6. The command “#include” determines the template file used at a particular timing. As a result, in this case, the Labanotation score shown in Figure 5(a) will be interpreted as the LND file shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Example of LND file using dynamic templates.

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During the animation process, the Labanotation symbols, in format of LND, are mapped to the key-frame pose indicated by the current template.

Motion Expression Control
The motion expression control module controls the animation of character model from one key-frame to the next key-frame. We implemented a module for controlling the motion by applying a non-linear interpolation, cubic Bezier curve, in order to create natural movement.

EQUATION (1)

Where f(t) is an interpolated position or joint angle at time t and a normalized time scaled from 0.0 to 1.0, respectively. P0(0,0) and P3(1,1) is the start and end points, respectively, while P1 and P2 are the control points which can be moved freely as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Motion expression controller user interface.

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Figure 8 shows two snapshots of the CG animation corresponding to the motion expression graphs on the left.

Figure 8. CG animation snapshots corresponding to the motion expression graphs.

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Use of LabanEditor for Noh Plays
Noh is the most famous and characteristic Japanese traditional performing arts in the stylized form of a musical dance-drama that has been performed since the 14th century. There are about 240 plays in the repertoire from five Noh schools (Ortolani, 1995).

Noh body movement is Japanese highly stylized and is not the same as ordinary human movement. Therefore, the direction symbols used in Labanotation must be interpreted differently when we handle Noh plays and generate body motion from it. This has been realized by preparing motion template files which are editable to represent specific motions in that particular performance.

Snapshots of Noh motion are shown in Figure 9. Figure 9 (a) and (b) show the reproduced animation of Noh body motion from Labanotation score using the Noh templates and standard templates, respectively.

Figure 9. CG character animation of Noh Kata (Shitai) (a) CG character animation corresponding to the Labanotation score on the left using Noh (Shitai) template (b) CG character animation corresponding to the Labanotation score on the left using standard template.

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Conclusions
In this paper we proposed an approach of description and reproduction of stylized traditional dances such as Noh plays with Labanotation. A new version of LabanEditor, LabanEditor3, successfully describes and reproduces Noh motions by using the dynamic template method.

We have obtained a major achievement. Our approach shows that we can describe and reproduce Noh plays with the fundamental description of Labanotation, with a limited number of symbols by using the dynamic template method.

References:
Hutchinson, A 1977 “Labanotation, ” Theatre Arts Books

Brown, M. D. Smoliar, S.W. 1976 “A Graphics Editor for Labanotation, ” Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Conference on Computer Graphics, Interactive Techniques and Image Processing, ACM Computer Graphics, 10 (2) 60-65

Fox, I 2000 “Documentation Technology for the 21st Century, ” World Dance 2000 Academic Conference, Papers and Abstracts, 137–142

Calvert, T 2007 “Animating Dance, ” Proceedings of Graphics Interface, 1-2

Calvert, T Wilke , L Ryman, R and Fox, I 2005 “Applications of Computers to Dance, ” IEEE Computer Graphics Application, 25 2 6-12

Coyle, M Maranan, D and Calvert, T 2002 “A Tool for Translating Dance Notation to Animation, ” Proceedings of Western Computer Graphics Symposium,

Wilke, L Calvert, T Ryman, R & Fox, I 2005 “From dance notation to human animation, The LabanDancer Project, Motion Capture and Retrieval, ” Computer Animation and Virtual Worlds, 16 3-4 201-211

Kojima, K Hachimura, K & Nakamura, M 2002 “LabanEditor: Graphical Editor for Dance Notation, ” Proceedings of IEEE 2002 International, Workshop on Robot and Human Interactive Communication, 59-64

Nakamura, M and Hachimura, K 2006 “An XML Representation of Labanotation, LabanXML, and Its Implementation on the Notation Editor LabanEditor2, ” . Review of the National Center for Digitization (Online Journal), 9 47-51

Ortolani, B 1995 The Japanese Theatre: From Shamanistic Ritual to Contemporary Pluralism, Princeton University Press","txt","2","",""
"1325","12","Knowing and Doing: Understanding the Digital Humanities Curriculum","1","Knowing and Doing: Understanding the Digital Humanities Curriculum
Spiro, Lisa, Rice University, lisamspiro@gmail.com
As the digital humanities have become more visible, attracting attention both from publications such as the Chronicle of Higher Education and from universities eager to develop emerging areas of research and teaching, commentators have been debating what qualifies as digital humanities and whether the community is sufficiently inclusive. In part, as Geoffrey Rockwell suggests, this debate reflects digital humanities’ failure to provide multiple paths to entry. In the past, many entered the digital humanities by apprenticing with established practitioners, but such opportunities are not available to all (Rockwell 2010). New educational programs such as the MA in Digital Humanities at University College London and the proposed MA in Knowledge and Networks at Duke are being put forward to address these needs, joining established programs at Kings College London, University of Alberta, and other universities. As educational opportunities expand, the digital humanities (DH) community should examine how digital humanists are being trained (Hirsch & Timney 2010). Based on this knowledge, the community can create a more coordinated (though still flexible) approach to the DH curriculum that reflects its own commitment to openness, collaboration, interdisciplinarity and experimentation. Education is fundamental both to how the community comprehends itself and how it brings in new members. As Melissa Terras observes, curriculum “can be seen to define the field in the way the publication record cannot,” serving as a “hidden history” that reveals what knowledge experts believe to be crucial and how that knowledge is transmitted (Terras 2005, p.1). By examining digital humanities education, we can participate in a concrete conversation about how to make the field both more inclusive and more targeted toward the core knowledge and skills that digital humanists need.

In order to understand how the digital humanities are taught at universities today, I will look at both curriculum and courses.I am in the process of collecting and synthesizing information related to this research, particularly through my Zotero group, “Digital Humanities Education” (http://www.zotero.org/groups/digital_humanities_education), and posts on my blog, “Digital Scholarship in the Humanities” (http://digitalscholarship.wordpress.com/). I am also working on a related project for Brett Hirsch’s collection Teaching Digital Humanities: Principles, Practices, and Politics proposing an open certificate for digital humanities. First, to get a broader perspective on the digital humanities curriculum, I will examine degree requirements and curriculum plans for digital humanities undergraduate, masters, and Ph.D. programs. How are digital humanities degree programs structured? What courses are deemed necessary, and how are they sequenced? To what extent are projects and/or internships required? How do explicitly digital humanities programs compare to more traditional programs that include a digital humanities component? How are collaboration and interdisciplinarity inculcated? Case studies of several programs will be offered to elucidate different approaches.

I am also analyzing a collection of over 200 DH syllabiAll of these syllabi were found through web searches. Almost all are from universities in the United States, Canada and the UK. The earliest syllabus is from the late 1990s, but the bulk are from the late 2000s. for both graduate and undergraduate courses. These syllabi represent a variety of approaches to digital humanities, such as media studies, text encoding, programming, and information visualization, and come from a range of departments, including history, English, digital humanities, library and information science, and computer science. I am examining:

What do these syllabi say about how knowledge in the digital humanities is categorized and conceptualized?
What are the course goals? How is learning assessed?
How do these classes balance theory and practice?
To what extent do the courses reflect “digital pedagogy,” the thoughtful use of technology to foster learning?
To what extent are blogging, Twitter, or other forms of networked communication part of the course?
What are the most frequently assigned readings? Is a DH “canon” emerging?
What are some typical—and atypical—assignments? To what extent are projects required? How are projects structured and evaluated?
How does the course reflect the practices and norms of its departmental home? For example, how do courses on digital history compare to those on digital literary studies or digital media studies?
How is humanistic as well as technical knowledge woven into the course? What scholarly values do these courses promote?
I plan to use a combination of manual and automated methods to analyze the syllabi corpus. I am tagging the syllabi using a set of custom keywords so that I can sort them easily and see emerging patterns. I am also compiling a linked bibliography of readings assigned in DH courses. In addition, I will experiment with methods such as topic modeling and word frequency analysis to categorize the syllabi and extract key concepts.

Although my research is still underway, my initial analysis of a subset of approximately 50 syllabi suggests that:

Digital humanities courses tend to use readings that are freely available online, such as A Companion to Digital Humanities and Digital History: A Guide to Gathering, Preserving, and Presenting the Past on the Web, as well as blog posts by authors such as Dan Cohen and Bill Turkel. Given its apparent interest in up-to-date, openly accessible information, the community would benefit from openly sharing educational resources such as syllabi, assignments, exercises, and tutorials.
While many digital humanities courses do focus on text, as Melissa Terras noted in 2006 (Terras 2006), they have expanded to include topics such as geospatial scholarship, multimedia design, and information visualization.
Many courses require students to create scholarly digital projects, whether as individuals or in teams.
In a sense, this research updates Melissa Terras’ 2005 study of the curriculum in humanities computing, charting how the field has changed in the last five years. I am returning to Terras’ question about whether the digital humanities curriculum reflects the field’s research agenda and whether DH has emerged as an “ academic subject,” capable of standing on its own (Terras 2005). I also hope my research helps to inform the digital humanities curriculum going forward. While the digital humanities curriculum should be nimble enough to keep up with the pace of technological change, diverse enough to encompass the variety of approaches to “big tent” digital humanities, and flexible enough to reflect the strengths of particular institutions, the community can benefit from greater coordination and sharing of educational resources to save labor, spread ideas, and provide greater coherence across programs. Of course, my analysis will focus on the characteristics of current DH education programs rather than on emerging areas of skill development, but I hope to document innovative educational approaches as well as points of consensus. Developing a DH curriculum may make it easier for departments (and individuals) to understand what they need to do to beef up their digital humanities portfolio and how they can specialize in particular areas of knowledge. Although my study will not define such a curriculum (which should be worked out by the community rather than an individual), I hope that it will illustrate trends and gaps in digital humanities education.

References:
Hirsch, B. D. Timney, M 2010 “The Importance of Pedagogy: Towards a Companion to Teaching Digital Humanities., ” Digital Humanities 2010, London, July 7-10, 2010 303

Rockwell, G. DATE “Inclusion In The Digital Humanities, ” philosophi.ca, June 22, 2010 (link)

Terras, M. 2005 “Disciplined: Using Curriculum Studies to Define 'Humanities Computing', ” ACH/ALLC 2005, Victoria, BC, Canada, June 15 - June 18, 2005 (link)

Terras, M. DATE “Disciplined: Using Educational Studies to Analyse 'Humanities Computing', ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 21(2) 229-246 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1326","12","Visualization of Visitor Circulation in Arts and Cultural Exhibition","2","Visualization of Visitor Circulation in Arts and Cultural Exhibition
Sookhanaphibarn, Kingkarn, Intelligent Computer Entertainment Laboratory, Global COE Program in Digital Humanities for Japanese Arts and Cultures, Ritsumeikan University, kingkarn@ice.ci.ritsumei.ac.jp
Thawonmas, Ruck, Intelligent Computer Entertainment Laboratory, Global COE Program in Digital Humanities for Japanese Arts and Cultures, Ritsumeikan University, ruck@ci.ritsumei.ac.jp
Rinaldo, Frank, Intelligent Computer Entertainment Laboratory, Global COE Program in Digital Humanities for Japanese Arts and Cultures, Ritsumeikan University, rinaldo@is.ritsumei.ac.jp
Introduction
The topic of visitor circulation in museums and art galleries has been considered as an important factor in all aspects of the museum experience (Bigood, 2006; Guy et al. 2010; Kaynar et al. 2009) Circulation describes how visitors explore a set of exhibits in a particular space by observing what pathways the visitors take. A visualization of visitor circulation can confirm whether visitors circulate the way the designers intended. The visualization can assist the designers to arrange a predefined pathway so that visitors will not miss key exhibits. The well-designed circulation system can also increase the great number of return visitors.

Sookhanaphibarn and Thawonmas (2009) proposed the local and global visualizations aims at presentation and analysis of visitor behaviors in 3D virtual museums. The visitor path is displayed with a spectrum of colors in the form of connecting segments from red to violet. The color of a particular segment indicates the passage of time. The drawback of these visualizations is that they were strictly overlaid on the layout map. To deal with the varying layouts commonly found in a museum with many exhibition rooms, visualizations with an independent layout is an alternative assistant tool for the visual analytics of circulation patterns.

In this paper, we proposed a new visualization tool to represent a visitor path and his/her time spent residing near the closest item. We encode a time interval residing in an item boundary into a color-shaded line segment. Color shade is used as an indicator of the proximity to the nearest item. The length of a segment is in proportion to the total time spent in the layout. The time segment is placed in the row corresponding to its item boundary. A path of visited items is illustrated by connecting the time segments with vertical lines.

With the proposed visualization, we can easily find the trend of visitor circulation which strictly follows the pathway designed by a curator. The trend is represented by the white line, called “Forward”, running from the most left above to the most right bottom corners as shown in Figure 1. There are the other trends, which are called “Backward”, “Bell” and “Inverted bell”, possibly influenced by the visitor characteristics and/or preferences. The similar trends of visitor circulation will be explained later in detail.

Figure 1: Four trends of circulation: (a) Forward, (b) Backward, (c) Bell, and (d) Inverted bell.

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Layout-dependent visualization
Most visualization techniques using traditional two dimensional maps represent visitor trajectories and their corresponding visit time directly over spatial layouts. In this paper, we call layout-dependent visualization as any visualization technique using the spatial layout of a target area as its graphical background in visualization. With the layout-dependent visualization, a circulation pattern is not easily extracted by a user who is not familiar with the target layout map.

The layout-dependent visualization approach burdens users with a cost of requiring them to recognize the layout of items and routes by themselves. Some additional symbols indicating the position and boundary of items as well as arrowheads indicating representative routes must be placed in layout-dependent visualization. However, these symbols and arrowheads conceal visitor traces from users.

Design Decision
This paper considers the use of a layout-independent display for visual analysis of the path and residing time of the movement data in circulation, named “PARTY”. PARTY is an abbreviation of Path And Residing Time display. Taking for example a museum in a 3D virtual world, the circulation behaviors of visitors moving through museum of interest are influenced by the items on which the visitors focus their attention.

Designers of a musuem space require serveral types of information when examining the circulation behavior of visitors. These include (1) residing locations, regions, or item boundaries, (2) visit time intervals near an item, (3) paths of visited regions, (4) global information showing multiple visitors residing in a region, and (5) degrees of their interest. All of these information types are derived from two data sources: (a) a log file of visitors’ positions including x-y coordinates and time and (b) the map of a museum or a floor plan, where the location of items or the position of rooms is provided at least.

The design of PARTY aims to represent three dimensional entities, i.e. a time unit, a visited item, and a visitor. The horizontal and vertical axes of PARTY represent time and items which visitor moves through their boundaries. A stack of visitor stripes is put inside an item block (row). As shown in Figure 2, there are five items of interest and three visitors. The stack of three visitor stripes places inside each item row. The order of three visitor stripes is consistent thorough five item rows. Therefore, an PARTY entity represents a visitor v who stays near item X at time t.

Figure 2: A structural design of PARTY.

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We arrange the visitor stripes in every stack in the same order and rank them by the similarity among their present circulation patterns. Then, we use the hierarchical clustering technique for finding the similarity of all pairs of visitor paths. To handle hundreds of visitors, the representative of each group of visitors can be used rather than a single visitor. The representative is derived from the generalized median defined as the visitor path having the nearest distances to all.

Besides a path of nearest items versus time, the proximity distance to the nearest item can be displayed in PARTY as a degree of visitor’s interest to each exhibit item. A displaying color is computed using the observation distance and range based on the location of all items. For example, given the visitor trace as shown in Figure 3, Figure 4 represents a visitor trace as our observation-based time series. The visualization in Figure 4 consists of the horizontal axis corresponding to the visit time, the vertical axis indicating an item belonging to the observation range at a particular time, and the color showing the observation distance. This visualization is produced by using the observation distance and range in the application of a 3D virtual museum.

Figure 3: A representation of a visitor trace tracked in a 3D virtual museum.

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Figure 4: Transformation of a single trace (Fig 3.) to PARTY representing the path of visited items (y-axis) and his/her interest to items by using color shades from brightness to darkness (highest to lowest degrees).

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Results and Implications
This section presents an application of PARTY analyzing the avatars’ trajectories and finding trends of circulation behaviors in the 3D virtual museum, named RDAP. RDAP, owned by the Global Center of Excellenct in Digital Humanities Center for Japanese Arts and Cultures, of Ritsumeikan University, was created in Second Life. An objective of RDAP is to disseminate Japanese costumes, Kimonos, preserved them in a digital achieving system. We synthesize the visitor trajectories based on the metaphor of four animals as mentioned in (Sookhanaphibarn and Thawonmas, 2009). The total number of synthesized trajectories is 36 where each visiting style has nine trajectories.

Similar Trends of Circulation Patterns
After applying the PARTY approach, visitor trajectories are transformed into time series data. Discovering similar trends of circulation patterns is achieved by a traditional dynamic time warping followed by the hierarchical clustering. Then, generalized median of each resulting cluster is calculated. Figure 1 shows four trends of circulation patterns including:

a) Forward circulation: this trend illustrates that visitors prefer to turn right at entrance and move following the curators-guided path from the the fist to the last items.
b) Backward circulation: the direction of this circulation is backward from the forward one, i.e. turn left at the beginning.
c) Bell-shape circulation: visitors in this trend prefer to start and end their visit with the same item, and they turn right at entrance.
d) Inverted bell-shape circulation: This trend pattern is similar to the bell circulation but they turn left at entrance.
The other view of PARTY displays a stack of representative stripes of which the width denotes the size of their categories. The bell-shape circulation has the largest number of visitors followed by the backward, forward, and inverted bell-shape circulations, respectively.

References:
Bitgood, S 2006 “An Analysis of Visitor Circulation: Movement Patterns and the General Value Principle, ” Curator: The Museum Journal, 49: 463–475 (link)

Guy, G. Dunn, S. Gold, N. 2010 “Capturing Visitor Experiences for Study and Preservation, ” Digital Humanities 2010, Conference Abstracts Book, 2 160-16

Kaynar, I.R. Psarra, S. Wineman J. 2009 “Experiencing museum gallery layouts through local and global visibility properties in morphology: an inquiry on the YCBA, the MoMA and the HMA, ” Proc. 7th International Space Syntax Symposium, Stockholm, Sweden, June 2009 pp. 1-16

Sookhanaphibarn, K. Thawonmas, R. 2010 “Visualization and Analysis of Visiting Styles in 3D Virtual Museums, ” Digital Humanities 2010, Conference Abstracts Book, 239-243","txt","2","",""
"1327","12","Mashing up the Map: Film Geography and Digital Cartography in a Cultural Atlas of Australia","2","Mashing up the Map: Film Geography and Digital Cartography in a Cultural Atlas of Australia
Stadler, Jane, University of Queensland, j.stadler@uq.edu.au
This poster presents research from the online movie map component of a new digital resource: A Cultural Atlas of Australia is a collaborative, interdisciplinary digital humanities research project that uses interactive cartography and spatial theory to map Australian narrative fiction across three media forms. Building on the growing interest in digital cartography and spatial theory in the humanities, this initiative investigates the cultural and historical significance of location and landscape by presenting a national survey of narrative space spanning Australian novels, films and plays. The broader project involves Dr Peta Mitchell from literary geography and Dr Stephen Carleton from theatre studies in an investigation of the mediation, remediation and geovisualisation of locations and landscapes in cinematic, literary, and theatrical narratives.

There has been a recent surge of popular and critical interest in linking online mapping with cinema. This manifests most obviously in a rash of “movie maps” and online spatial resources such as Robert Allen’s Going to the Show, which digitally maps a history of moviegoing in North Carolina ( (link) )Allen, Robert C. “Getting to Going to the Show,” New Review of Film and Television Studies 8, no. 3 (2010): 264–276. ; the National Film and Sound Archive’s film-location map on the Australian Screen Online site ( (link) ); and Sébastien Caquard’s work on cinematic cartography in the Canadian Cinematographic Territories Atlas ( (link) ), which traces the history of animated maps and virtual globes such as Google Earth through cinema, examines the technological interface connecting cinema and cartography, and maps the locations of cinemas across CanadaSee Sébastien Caquard, “Foreshadowing Contemporary Digital Cartography: A Historical Review of Cinematic Maps in Films,” The Cartographic Journal 46, no. 1 (2009): 46–55.. While many such projects focus on mapping film production and distribution locations, I seek to focus attention on developments in movie mapping from since 1980s and situate such work in relation to cinematic cartography and the complex interplay of narrative settings and shooting locations in Australian cinema.

Over the past decade, interactive online mapping—what D. R. Fraser Taylor has called “cybercartography”D. R. Fraser Taylor, Cybercartography: Theory and Practice (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2006)—has become a particularly salient issue within cartography, geography, and humanities research.See, for instance, William Cartwright, Michael P. Peterson, and Georg Gartner, eds, Multimedia Cartography (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1999); Mark Monmonier, “Cartography: The Multidisciplinary Pluralism of Cartographic Art, Geospatial Technology, and Empirical Scholarship,” Progress in Human Geography 31, no. 3 (2007): 371–79; and Jeremy W. Crampton, “Maps 2.0: Map Mashups and the New Spatial Media,"" in Mapping: A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2010), 25–38. Since Google released its Google Maps API in 2005, the Google Maps code has been freely accessible as long as the resulting map “mashup” remains nonproprietary and in the public domain. According to William Buckingham and Samuel Dennis, the development of open source mapping tools, such as Google Maps, has generated much interest in the use of maps for “understanding ‘non-mapped’ phenomena (e.g., qualitative data or localized community information and knowledge).”William R. Buckingham and Samuel F. Dennis, Jr., “Cartographies of Participation: How the Changing Nature of Cartography has Opened Community and Cartographer Collaboration,” Cartographic Perspectives 64 (2009): 55.

Recent technological developments in digital cartography make it possible to visualise and to map the ways in which spatial storytelling produces and translates space across different media. This poster presents geovisualisation—in the form of an interactive online map—as a means by which to map representations of iconic landscapes and sites within Australian cinema. The Cultural Atlas of Australia uses an interdisciplinary method incorporating cultural geography and textual analysis to interpret, situate, and contextualise the representation of location. The project remediates that information in the form of an online, interactive map that has the potential to suggest new ways of thinking about location and landscape and break down traditional typologies of Australian space. This digital humanities research advances on traditional cartographic explorations and representations of space, making it possible to visualise new perspectives on, intersections between, and layerings of geographic and textual information. This aims to enable the identification of regional tropes, patterns and gaps in spatial representations that may not have previously been evident in research that focused on isolated case studies of individual texts, whether literary, cinematic or theatrical.

As a research tool, the finished map will be searchable (by medium, location, theme, author, and text) and will enable users to generate and export their own maps with information they require. These functions have the capacity to reveal how cultural meanings accrue on the landscape, and how our relationship with, and understanding of, the natural and cultural environment changes over time. The possibilities for incorporating participants’ photographs, videos, and textual accounts of Australian places via mobile social computing technologies opens up still more opportunities for the representation of multiple perspectives.

Geovisualisation has the potential to pose new questions for spatial analysis and to encourage broader public engagement in cultural geography. However, as a form of remediation, it does carry its own representational problems. As Barbara Piatti et al have noted, the geography of fiction is an imprecise one.Barbara Piatti, et al., “Mapping Literature: Towards a Geography of Fiction,” in Cartography and Art, ed. William Cartwright, Georg Gartner, and Antje Lehn (Berlin: Springer, 2009): 182. Piatti is speaking about mapping literary fiction, but the point can be made for all forms of narrative fiction. The representation of space and place can never simply be mimetic, but always, to a greater or lesser degree, creates an imaginative geography that may correspond to what Piatti calls the “geospace” (or map space)Ibid. directly, obiquely, or not at all. Bringing film space into the analytical frame carries its own set of complexities and ambiguities because film requires attention to the relationship between narrative locations and shooting locations. Beyond the question of impreciseness, the process of re-presenting narrative locations is a process of imagining and re-imagining geography that, by its very nature, is also political.

This project demonstrates that films are more than representations, more than containers for narrative symbolism and ideological views and values, and this extends to any geovisualisation strategy that seeks to map those texts. Such texts are also generative—productive of meanings, social relationships and subject positions. Tom Conley argues in Cartographic Cinema that cinematic images “produce space through the act of perception”;Tom Conley, Cartographic Cinema (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007), 20. similarly, film stages and imaginatively invokes space in ways that subsequently inflect the meanings readers associate with actual places. Where film geography and cinematic cartography enable analysis of locational information in narrative fiction informed by insights from geography as well as cinema and cultural studies, it also builds from the premise that such texts intervene in the cultural field and alter the perceptual, ideological, political and practical orientation of readers and audiences in relation to the physical environment.","txt","2","",""
"1328","12","The Cultural Impact of New Media on American Literary Writing: Refining a Conceptual Framework","1","The Cultural Impact of New Media on American Literary Writing: Refining a Conceptual Framework
Paling, Stephen, School of Library and Information Studies, University of Wisconsin-Madison, paling@wisc.edu
Introduction
This paper describes a survey study Data gathering is under way at the time of this writing. The data gathering will be complete by the time of the conference. that is part of an ongoing effort (Paling & Martin, 2009; Paling, 2008; Paling & Nilan, 2006) to extend Social Informatics(Kling, 1999) to the study of literature and art. This series of studies has focused on the emergence of new forms of literary expression offered by information technology, and whether and how those possibilities are finding a place alongside traditional forms of expression in American literary writing. The study is meant to be complementary to more discursive, hermeneutic views of literary work. Discursive discussion of literary work provides rich descriptions of work by selected authors. In contrast, a survey enables us to look at the actions of literary community members in the aggregate. This study is based, in part, on the idea that various forms of inquiry into emerging literary practices, taken together, will provide a more complete picture than any one form of inquiry alone can provide. Different approaches to inquiry need not be seen as oppositional.

The Previous Studies
The previous studies in this series (Paling and Martin, 2009; Paling, 2008; Paling & Nilan, 2006) developed, and found support for, a conceptual framework made up of four key values that typify American literary writing:

Positive Regard for Symbolic Capital.
Negative Regard for Immediate Financial Gain.
Positive Regard for Autonomy.
Positive Regard for Avant-garde-ism.
Positive regard was operationalized as responses that indicated admiration or desire for particular qualities, e.g., a desire to read an author's work based on previous work by that author. Similarly, avant-garde was operationalized as valuation of particular characteristics, e.g., a preference for literary work that is fresh or innovative, or electronic work that has characteristics that cannot be produced in print form.

The previous studies examined the ways in which literary authors could use information technology to change those key values. They posited, and found support for, the idea of Intensifying Use of Technology, which has three characteristics:

Recognition of new forms of support for a value.
Incomplete rejection of traditional forms of support for the value.
Placement of greater emphasis on the newer forms of support.
For example, a fiction writer could use a hypermedia editor to produce non-linear, electronic fiction (recognition). She might prefer this newer form of fiction (greater emphasis on newer form of support), but also continue to write more traditional work (incomplete rejection).

The original study in the series (Paling & Nilan, 2006) involved interviews with a purposive sample for heterogeneity (n=36) of editors of American little magazines. That study used primarily qualitative methods. The second study (Paling, 2008) involved the same sampling method (n=22), but focused on American literary authors. Paling (2008) used both qualitative data as well as quantitative data derived from Likert scales. The third study in the series (Paling & Martin, 2009) was a pilot survey with a random sample (n=84), and that study led directly to the development of the current study. The original studies all showed the presence of intensifying use of technology, but differed in terms of how common that phenomenon seems to be. Because two of the three samples were non-random, and all three were relatively small, a larger, random sample will lead to firmer conclusions about the research questions.

The Current Study
The current study concentrated on two research questions:

RQ1: Do members of the American literary community show support for Positive Regard for Avant-garde-ism?
RQ2: Do the actions of members of the American literary community reflect Intensifying Use of Technology with regard to Positive Regard for Avant-garde-ism?
Positive Regard for Avant-garde-ism was selected from the four key values that make up the conceptual framework because it is the most relevant to the use of information technology. It is directly relevant, for example, to how much participants value the use of information technology to produce innovative writing that cannot be done in print. However, the other key values play an important role in establishing the context within which a value such as Positive Regard for Avant-garde-ism comes into play, and they were retained as an important part of this study.

The current study represents a clear methodological progression along the line of research begun in the earlier studies. A total of 900 invitations for participation were sent out. The names were selected randomly from a sampling frame built based on publicly available lists from The Association of Writers and Writing Programs and the Modern Language Association, as well as print directories such the Council of Literary Magazines and Small Presses' Literary Press and Magazine Directory. This yielded a sample of exactly 400 participants. All of the potential participants live, work, or study in America, or work for a publisher whose primary presence is in America. An international sample would be desirable in the future, but was beyond the scope and funding level of this study.

The respondents were asked to complete a mail survey composed of brief yes/no or checklist questions, as well as questions that included Likert-type numeric scales. The questions were refined versions from the interviews in the earlier studies in the series. Data, and respondent comments, from the earlier studies uncovered minor problems with question wording, scaling, etc. Because of that, the data from this study cannot be combined with data from the earlier studies. Conclusions from the current study, though, should be given greater weight than conclusions from the earlier studies because of the larger, random sample and the refined questions.

Reconciling the Studies
Much of the apparent difference between the previous studies seems to have resulted from the different sampling methods used in the studies in this series. The first two studies (Paling, 2008; Paling & Nilan, 2006), as mentioned earlier, used purposive sampling for heterogeneity. In other words, an effort was made to seek out editors and authors who were actively involved in producing literature with a substantial electronic component. The strength of purposive sampling is that it allows this kind of effort to closely examine different segments of a community such as people who participate in American literary writing. The weakness of such sampling, though, is that it is very difficult to create a purposive sample that reflects not just the presence of particular phenomena, but also an accurate sampling of how widespread the phenomenon is.

The pilot survey (Paling & Martin, 2009) did find limited demonstration of Intensifying Use of Technology. One respondent showed unambiguous evidence of Intensifying Use of Technology. A number of other respondents (8) demonstrated somewhat similar, but less pronounced, patterns of Intensifying Use of Technology. This would suggest that somewhere around 10% of the American literary community demonstrates Intensifying Use of Technology, although the conceptualization of that phenomenon may need to be altered to reflect the opinions of community members who place strong positive value on technological innovation in literature, but who do not actually place greater emphasis on such forms of literature.

Taken together, the previous studies suggest that we need to modify, but not reject, the concept of Intensifying use of Technology. Intensifying Use of Technology is a real phenomenon, but is not, to date, widespread in American literary writing. More importantly, the American literary establishment demonstrates very limited levels of the phenomenon. This conclusion is very similar to the conclusion reached by Rettberg (2009). Rettberg argued that electronic literature constitutes a literary avant-garde, but an avant-garde that is not part of any institutionalized mainstream. However, Rettberg's work represents the analysis of an individual directly involved in those efforts, and did not involve structured data gathering to address the actions of literary community members in the aggregate. The current study takes the contrasting approach, gathering data from respondents across the literary community to begin developing a larger picture of how information technology is influencing contemporary American literary writing. The size and type of the sample used in this study should help resolve any ambiguities raised in the previous studies.

References:
Kling, R 1999. “What is Social Informatics and why does it matter?, ” D-Lib, , vol. 5, no. 1. Retrieved September 12, 2006. Available from (link) [Accessed November 15, 2009].

Paling, S & Nilan, M 2006. ““Technology, values, and genre change: the case of little magazines”, ” , Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, , vol. 57, no. 7, pp. 862-872.

Paling, S 2008. ““Technology, genres, and value change: literary authors and aesthetic use of information technology”, ” , Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, , vol. 59, no. 8, pp. 1238-1251.

Paling, S & Martin, C 2009. ““Toward a theory of technological transformation in artistic genres”, ” , paper presented at the American Society for Information Science and Technology Annual Meeting, Social Informatics Symposium, , Vancouver, BC.

Rettberg, S 2009. ““Communitizing electronic literature”, ” , Digital Humanities Quarterly, , vol. 3, no. 1. Available from (link) [Accessed November 15, 2009].","txt","2","",""
"1329","12","A System for Referencing Personal Names through Iconography and Sharing an Authoritative Information Source for Personal Names by API","2","A System for Referencing Personal Names through Iconography and Sharing an Authoritative Information Source for Personal Names by API
Togiya, Norio, University of Tokyo, togiya.norio@iii.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Kawashima, Takanori, Tokyo Institute of Technology, t_kawa@valdes.titech.ac.jp
Abstract
In this research, we constructed an ontology-based name authority file using a topic map, and then, using API and other Web services, we looked into using this with navigational systems .The name authority file was created and provided through API services. By using this service, it is possible for developing navigation and analyzing tool of Digital Cultural Heritages to have a comprehensive name list of historic personal names and artists. These API are used for Digital Cultural Heritages of digitized anthropological material, old photographs.

Introduction
While there have heretofore been various forms of Digital Cultural Heritage, even for digitized and stored materials it has been typical to select materials through a list or by alphabetical search. However, in situations such as for historical documents, it is preferable to be able to select materials by searching for documents that deal with related individuals, social organizations, historical events or periods. In particular, a proper noun should be controlled as authority file.

For this reason, in this study, an ontology-based name authority file —which defines the relationship between people, organizations and places—was created. And the information was stored in standardized ontology language. We adopted Topic Maps for constructing name authority file and API system providing it for digital cultural heritage.

There are some examples of ontology-based name authority file using Topic Map. The unique features of this study is visualizing ontology-based name authority file using Topic Map and providing it with API. In this paper, we will describe in detail.

Definition of Ontology
An important goal of this archive is to select and view each material through an understanding of the various materials and the relationship between the characteristics related to them. To achieve this, we decided to use ontology relating the various items in this project:

Defining concepts, characteristics, and meanings of various items
Aiming at systematizing various concepts and items in the world
Aiming at generality, which makes materials reusable, and shared knowledge
Describing items with rules and in a language based on certain regulations
In Greek, ontology originally means existence and has been frequently used in philosophy. However, with the development of the study of artificial intelligence and knowledge engineering since the late 20th century, it began to be used as a term referring to a semantic systematization method for various items in the world in order to facilitate its understanding by machines. Meanwhile, when the Semantic Web was proposed by Tim Berners-Lee as a more effective method to connect fragments of information on the Web through the spread of the Internet in the late 1990s, ontology was used as a term to refer to the methodology used to describe content created on the Web with more regulated rules and language.

Various types of ontologies have been developed through the course of time, such as ―Upper ontology aiming at the systematization of various items in the world based on philosophical discussions, Domain ontology developed to express the edifice of knowledge in a specific domain (mainly for industrial use), and Web ontology developed to systematize information and knowledge on the Web.

“Upper ontology and Domain ontology are provided to construct concepts 1), 3), and 4) aiming at 2) defined above. Web ontology initially had the practical purpose to develop item 4) in order to define the relationship between information items on creating contents using method 1) to achieve item 3), which can be seen in the combination of the Dublin Core and RDF technologies. The ontology of CIDOC CRM –used to describe the metadata of cultural resources–seems to belong to this type. Recent advances made in Web ontology aim at the semantic systematization of content on the Web, which was its initial objective. In this context, it may be said that it has advanced in the area of item 2) by replacing the world with the Web. However, how the system of the concepts on the Web and that of the things in the real world are unified as the former is a reflection on the latter remains to be seen.

This study systematizes item 2) for historical information with method 1) in anticipation of the union of these in the future and aims at item 3) by using item 4), which can be unified with Web ontology, etc. in the future. As for now, we are mainly focusing on implementing items 1) and 2). In particular, we designed name authority file based on the above mentioned definition on ontology.

Constructing Ontology Using Topic Map
Introduction about Topic Map
We adopted topic map to constructing above mentioned ontology-based name authority file. Topic maps that represent ontology use the ISO/IEC JTC1 SC34 established ISO standard, which is still being revised, but as of April 2009 some parts have not yet received JIS standardization. Topic maps are a technique for classifying, organizing and making easily visible information and knowledge, and play a role similar to the index of a book for displaying information in space. It is possible to model and process the relations between subjects in the problematic areas, relations between information resources, such as Topics, Association and Occurrence with a computer.

In order to identify and discern the subjects, topic maps have a mechanism known as PSI (Published Subject Identifier). PSI, as a subject identifier, allocates and publicizes a unique IRI (Internationalized Resource Identifier) to each subject. Placed above the indicated address of the IRI, and serving as a descriptive information resource is the Published Subject Indicator, or PSD (Published Subject Descriptor), which allows the understanding of what the subject represents. For this project, as PSI was used, subjects were not given their own name or alias; rather they could be identified and discerned by their IRI.

Creation of Topic Map
Information relating to the photographer, scholar and noble family was collected to use navigation and analyzing for old photograph. Especially for information that needs to be shared, information necessary for multiple people is gathered. Information gathered in this manner is described in the creation of topic maps.

Information gathered by multiple people is shown in table 1 under the entries of ""name,"" ""reading,"" ""nationality,"" ""occupation,"" ""birth and death,"" ""biography,"" ""hometown,"" ""place of residence,"" ""attached organization / group"" and ""title."" These items are candidates for topics when creating the topic map. After completion of the topic map, navigation will become possible based on these subjects.

The three elements of which Topic maps are composed are mainly used to express a variety of subjects (topics), express relations between topics (Associations), and to link information resources related to topics (Occurrences).

These structures are adapted as shown in Table 1. The names, various related items, and reciprocal relations of items regarding the ontology at first can be thought of as topics for topic maps. Also, for name sources, each ""person"" and ""place"" and the relation among people (Associations) is adapted. Furthermore, as links to specific information resources, ""birth and death,"" ""biography,"" ""related URL/URI"" etc., correspond to appearance (Occurrences).

In addition, it is possible to classify information stored for these (Topics), (Associations) and (Occurrences). For the first topic (Topics) various ""forms"" were established; Topic Types, which represents the topic ""form,"" for (Associations), defining the relation type are Association Types and Association Role Types, and for (Occurrence), Occurrence Types expresses the type of appearance.

The specific items of these ""forms"" can be expressed, for Topic Types, ""Country,"" ""Person,"" ""place name,"" ""organization/group,"" and ""occupation"" etc.

Furthermore, Association Types are established showing various relations such as ""friendship relation,"" ""marital relation,"" ""student/teacher relation,"" ""workplace relation"", and ""filial relation,"" Association Role Types express the role of each topic that produces relations, such as ""significant role,"" ""brother (sister) role,"" ""wife role,"" ""child role,"" and ""pupil role,"" etc.

Next, Occurrence Types are established, ""reading of name,"" ""reading of surname,"" ""name in roman alphabet,"" ""surname in roman alphabet,"" ""personal relationship,"" ""relationship period,"" ""birthplace,"" ""source,"" ""role,"" etc. Based on these items information is structured.

Personal topics such as parent-child relation, fraternal relation, matrimonial relation, friendship association etc. are expressed through the lines leading into and out of the personal topics.

After creating the topic map, based on these forms queries and navigation are possible, and compared to semantic processing more meaningful searches can be conducted.

Table 1. Major Components of the Topic Map
                 
Categories of personal name authority information          Correspondence in Topic Map  
Name          Topic Name  
ID          SubjectID  
Related URL/URI          External occurrence  
Dates of birth and death          Internal occurrence  
Brief biography          Internal occurrence  
Place of birth (multiple responses possible)          Linked by association to other topics  
Place of residence (multiple responses possible)          Linked by association to other topics  
Relationship (multiple responses possible)          Association  
An Overview of Iconographic Analysis Using Authoritative Information.
In this study, as shown in Fig. 1, an ontology-based name authority file was constructed, and that information was distributed through API. For name authority file, focusing on photographers, scholars and noble family, roughly 3000 names were entered into a DB system. This authoritative personal name information was mainly made from standardized reference materials used in museums, libraries and archives, and created from element sets which allowed the sharing of information in this study, and API was added to the database to enable external searching. In addition, as an external system a picture annotator was created using this API.

Figure. 1. Mutual Relationships among Topics

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In this study, a simple API was designed to make personal information taken from a reference DB searchable. By using this API, it is possible to use even personal name information controlled by an external system.

There were four Parameters that could be used (personal name, birth year and year of death, family, personal ID) to search, and the eight types of data that could be obtained from search were (personal name, personal ID, birth year or year of death, family, biography, related individuals and their relations, and source). It was possible to identify even people and families that had a unique ID, as well as individuals who shared the same name. Furthermore, by using the controlling ID, semantic interchange with an independent external system could be made possible.

The goal of the current design is not to have all fields of the DB searchable by semantic search, but to provide those fields thought to be frequently utilized by external applications simply. If a higher order search is desired, it can be performed from the editing UI of the authoritative information DB. The XML-RPC was used for the API protocol.

Designing Name Autholity File for Navigation and Analysing Image
In the last section, we constructed an ontology-based name authority file using a topic map. It is possible to use these to confirm interpersonal relationships and relationships between people and organizations while looking at a graph. In this research, we constructed a name authority file concerning scholar, photographers, etc. with a topic map. Fig 1 is a graph showing these people’s interpersonal relationships and their relationships. This chart mainly shows the relationships between the parties in relation to the anthropology materials. In this way, it is possible to use a personal name information authority using topic maps for navigation systems.

Figure. 2. Relationship among photographers

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Fig 2 is a graph showing relationships of photographers. Also, as shown in Fig 3, it is possible to show detailed information regarding these personal names, etc. by clicking on the personal name icons.
Figure. 3. Name Authority File

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Furthermore, it is possible to assign annotations to the materials, as well as to assign personal name information which has been regulated by the topic maps. It is also possible to provide information to the annotations using the regulated personal name information. With this, it is possible to search through material annotation information from the personal name information that has been regulated by the topic maps.

It is possible to combine this topic mapped personal name information with the digital cultural heritage main body, but it is also possible to put it to use through API. By using API, it is possible to use this information for navigation and annotation with other digital cultural heritages. This makes it possible to regulate the information and analyze the materials using information which defines the relationships.

Results and Issues
As seen above, ontology-based name authority file utilizing topic map and API for Digital Cultural Heritage was explained through application. In this study, ontology-based name authority file was constructed. By using topic maps, related people, can be clarified, and materials can be viewed. And API accelerated utilization of name authority file

In addition, by allocating URI to personal topics, personal identification can be performed by URI, not just by name, and by using the merge feature it is possible to share data from other topic maps. Also, by publishing with PSI information can be shared by other RDF and topic maps. For IRI, which kinds of character strings are appropriate is a matter for future consideration.

Concerning visualization, as demonstrated in fig. 2, visualization of relationships is possible. However, this causes problems such as the difficulty in recognizing relations that appear between more than three topics to arise. This problem also occurs with other viewers, and further study is necessary.

It is also necessary to consider whether and how to share the topic map created for this project with other projects and databases. As mentioned earlier, as each topic is given a universal URI, it is necessary to consider how it is necessary to link to other topic maps.

Furthermore, for this project, previously created information was converted into a topic map, but in the future it will be necessary to design a system to handle increased topics for Digital Cultural Heritage. Along with the need to store more materials, a system to increase information is necessary.

References:
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to give special thanks to Motomu Naito (Knowledge Synergy Inc), Hirotada Kobayashi (Cooba Corp).

(link)

Kivelä, A. Lyytinen, O. “Case study: publishing large collection of artworks using Topic Maps, ” Topic Maps Users Conference, Oslo, 2007

Norio TOGIYA Akira BABA “Constructing Integrated Digital Archive Using Ontology and User Community, ” Archives & Museum Informatics, ICHIM07 International Cultural Heritage Informatics Meeting Proceeding, (link) 2007

Riichiro Mizoguchi “Ontology Engineering Environments, ” Handbook on Ontologies, pp. 275-298 2004 Springer

(link)

Nicolas Guarino “Some organizing principles for a unified top-level ontology, ” Working Notes of AAAI Spring Symposium on Ontological Engineering, , Stanford, 1997","txt","2","",""
"1330","12","New Models of Digital Materialities","3","New Models of Digital Materialities

Blanchette, Jean-François , Information Studies, UCLA, blanchette@gseis.ucla.edu
Drucker, Johanna, Information Studies, UCLA, drucker@gseis.ucla.edu
Kirschenbaum, Matthew, Department of English; Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities, University of Maryland, mgk@umd.edu

One persistent myth of the digital age is that it differs fundamentally from all previous information epochs because in digital form information has finally achieved the long-standing historical aspiration to unburden itself from the shackles of matter. As a mere collection of 0s and 1s, digital information is imagined to be independent of the particular media on which it is stored—hard drive, optical disk, etc.—and the particular signal carrier which encode bits, whether magnetic polarities, voltage intensities, or pulses of light. Digital information also achieves a separation of content and form that could only be partially realized with analog carriers. This fantasy has implications for the ways we think about design, preservation, storage, use, and every other aspect of digital media. What can the digital humanities learn from and contribute to an engagement with the many aspects of the materialities of information?

The authors of these three papers undertake a common questioning of this purported independence from matter, a concept that has two distinct and important consequences: (a) the idea that digital information can be reproduced and distributed at negligible cost and high speed, and thus, is immune to the economics and logistics of analog media; (b) and that it can be accessed, used, or reproduced without the noise, corruption, and degradation that necessarily results from the handling of material carriers of information. Thus the concept of digital information as immaterial is fundamental to the ability of the digital to upend the analog world, and the foundation of a belief that any media that can be digitized or produced digitally will eventually succumb to the logics of digital information and its circulation through electronic networks—an argument powerfully encapsulated by Negroponte’s slogan, “from atom to bits.”

Such widespread assumptions have obscured the specific material constraints that obtain in digital environments. Only recently that the issue has emerged as a legitimate concern for scholarly enquiry—engaging concepts of materiality from literary, visual, media, and cultural studies and bringing them to bear on the analysis of digital environments. The papers in this session take up some of these issues by reading the machines, the specific properties of digital media from surface screen to deeper structures, as a demonstration of the ways the materiality of digital media can be engaged. The purpose of this work is to inform some of the basic tasks of digital humanists – the interpretation of digital media artifacts, the skills sets necessary to interrogate these artifacts, but also, our responsibility for the preservation and use of these objects as part of our cultural legacy.

“Infrastructural Thinking” as Core Computing Skill

Blanchette, Jean-François , Information Studies, UCLA, blanchette@gseis.ucla.edu

It is often suggested that all digital humanists would benefit from learning programming. Through the acquisition of this core skill, they would engage with the practice that defines computing and directly experience its possibilities and constraints. Beyond mere mastery of a language, programming would expose them to formal methods for abstracting and modeling concepts and real-world phenomena. The current wave of interest in a “computational thinking” pedagogical paradigm mirrors this argument: computer science is primarily about modeling and abstraction of phenomena in ways amenable to algorithmic processing.

In this paper, I argue that programming, or its more complex formulation, “computational thinking,” provides only a partial picture of computing, and correspondingly, only a partial skill set. A fuller picture requires engagement with the material foundations of computing. I use “material” here in a very literal sense, to point to the physicality of bits (their encoding as magnetic polarities, voltages, etc) and the material constraints of the devices that process, store, and transport them. While the material dimension of computing constantly informs the practices of the computing professions, this dimension is also repressed, in the context of a general discourse that has emphasized the abstract dimension of the digital over its material substrate. Yet, this materiality, perhaps unexpectedly, holds the key to analyzing the shape and evolution of the computing infrastructure. And while digital humanists may well benefit from engaging in “computational thinking,” I will argue the computing infrastructure implicitly performs much of that thinking, before a single line of application code is written.

While programming deals with creating applications that provide service to users, infrastructure software provides services to applications, by mediating their access to computing resources, the physical devices that provide processing power, storage, and networking. Infrastructure software is most commonly encountered in the form of operating systems, but is also embedded in hardware (the firmware in a hard drive) or in specialized computers (e.g., web servers, or routers). Whatever its specific form, the role of infrastructure software is to provide a series of transformations whereby the signals that encode bits on some physical media (fiber optic, magnetic drive, electrical wires) become accessible for symbolic manipulation by applications. Infrastructure software must be able to accommodate growth in size and traffic, technical evolution and decay, diversity of implementations, integration of new services to answer unanticipated needs, and emergent behaviors, among other things. It must provide programmers with stable interfaces to system resources in the face of continuously evolving computing hardware—processors, storage devices, networking technologies, etc.

The computing industry manages to accomplish this feat through the design strategy of modularity, whereby a module’s implementation can be designed and revised without knowledge of other modules’ implementation. Modularity performs this magic by decoupling functional specification from implementation: operating systems, for example, enable applications to open, write to, and delete files, without any knowledge of the specific storage devices on which these files reside. This decoupling provides the required freedom and flexibility for the management, coordination, and evolution of complex technical systems. However, in abstracting from specific implementations of physical resources, such decoupling necessarily involves efficiency trade-offs. The TCP/IP protocols for example provide abstractions of networks that favor resilience (the network can survive nuclear attacks) over quality of service (the network provides no minimum delays for delivery of packets). Applications sensitive to such delays (e.g., IP telephony or streaming media) must thus overcome the infrastructural bias of the protocols to secure the quality of service they require.

An important point is that efficiency trade-offs (or biases) embedded in a given modular organization become entrenched through their institutionalization in a variety of domains: standards, material infrastructure (e.g., routers), and social practices (e.g. technical training) may all provide for the endurance of particular sets of abstraction. This entrenchment is further enabled by the economies of scale such institutionalization affords. An immediate consequence is that the computing infrastructure, like all other infrastructures, is fundamentally conservative in character. Yet, it is also constantly under pressure from the need to integrate changes in the material basis of computing: multi-core, cloud-based, and mobile computing are three emerging material changes that will register at almost every level of the infrastructure.

Computing, it turns out, is material through and through. But this materiality is diffuse, parceled out and distributed throughout the entire computing ecosystem. It is always in subtle flux, structured by the persistence of modular decomposition, yet pressured to evolve as new materials, requiring new tradeoffs emerge. This paper thus argues that, in a very literal and fundamental sense, materiality is a key entry point for reading infrastructural change, for identifying opportunities for innovation that leverage such change, and for acquiring a deep understanding of the possibilities and constraints of computing. This understanding is not particularly provided by exposure to programming languages. Rather, it requires familiarity with the conflicts and compromises of standardization, with the principles of modularity and layering, and with a material history of computing that largely remains to be written.

Performative Materiality and Interpretative Interface

Drucker, Johanna, Information Studies, UCLA, drucker@gseis.ucla.edu

Approaches to interface design have come mainly from the HCI community, with an emphasis on maximum efficiency in the user-centered experience. Since the days of Douglas Engelbart and Ivan Sutherland’s experiments with head sets, pedals, mice, and screens, in work that led to the development of the Graphical User Interface, the dominant paradigm in the human-machine relationship has come from an engineering sensibility. Leading practitioners in that field, from Stuart Card, Ben Shneiderman, and others, have defined basic principles for design methodology and display that are premised on a mechanistic analysis of user’s abilities to process information effectively. This approach, taken from flight simulators and applied to the vast numbers of tasks for searching navigating, buying, and communicating online, is grounded in a user-as-consumer model. Criticisms from inside that community, such as the work of Jesse James Garrett (showing the confusion between information and task based approaches) or Aaron Marcus’s group (analyzing cultural differences and their connection to interface functionality) have provided useful insights and shifted design principles to be more nuanced. But the basic model of the user-centered approach to interface design remains in place. And it has been adopted by humanists, particularly when the resources to do so are available.

If we bring the legacy of critical theory to bear on this model, however, we see that the same critique leveled by post-structuralists against New Criticism is pertinent here. The “text” of an interface is not a thing, stable and self-evident, whose meaning can be fixed through a detailed reading of its elements. An interface is a site of provocation for reading, and, in the same manner as a film, literary work, or any other “text” (fashion magazine, instruction manual), it is a space for interpretation involved an individual subject, not a generic user. In critical parlance, both an enunciating and enunciated subject – the speaking and the spoken subject – are aspects of textual production. (Text here is meant broadly.) This concept of performativity, articulated by John Austin in How to do things with Words, has echoes within the field of anthropology, gender studies, and cultural studies. By situating texts and speakers within pragmatic circumstances of use, ritual, exchange, and communities of practice, performativity stripped away any foundation for thinking meaning was inherent in a text or work. Performativity offered a sharp rebuke to notions of agency (individuals) and autonomy (of texts).

How can we, that is, the community of digital humanists, take these critical insights from literary, cultural, and gender studies into our current practice? If the object is merely to demonstrate that one may read an interface with the same techniques we used to read Young Mr. Lincoln or to follow Laura Mulvey’s arguments into a new realm of semiotic analysis, a rather tedious and predictable path would like ahead. This might have some value in the undergraduate classroom, as the unpacking of ideological subtexts fascinates the young. But for those of us concerned with the design of environments for digital humanities and its research agendas, the questions that arise from this critical encounter are quite different. Can we conceive of models of interface that are genuine instruments for research? That are not merely queries within pre-set data that search and sort according to an immutable agenda? How can we imagine an interface that allows content modeling, intellectual argument, rhetorical engagement? In such an approach, the formal, graphical materiality of the interface might register the performative dimensions as well as support them. Such approaches would be distinct from those in the HCI community in terms of their fundamental values. In place of transparency and clarity, they would foreground ambiguity and uncertainty, unresolvable multiplicities in place of singularities and certainties. Sustained interpretative engagement, not efficient completion of tasks, would be the desired outcome.

This is not an argument in favor of bad design. Nor is it a perverse justification for the ways in which under-resourced projects create confusion, as if that were a value for humanists. Quite the contrary. The challenge of creating an interface in which the performative character of interpretation can be supported and registered builds on demonstrable principles: multiple points of view, correlatable displays, aggregated data, social mediation and networking as a feature of scholarly work, and some of the old, but still charming, qualities of games like Nomic, with their emerging rule sets.

My argument is that the humanities embody a set of values and approaches to knowledge as interpretation that cannot be supported by a mechanistic approach to design. This is not just a semantic exercise, but a point of departure for implementation. The concept of performative materiality has a double meaning here. In the first sense, materiality is understood to produce meaning as a performance, just as any other “text” is constituted through a reading. That notion is fundamental to humanistic approaches to interpretation as situated, partial, non-repeatable. In the second sense, performative materiality suggests an approach to design in which use registers in the substrate and structure so that the content model and its expressions evolve. The “structure of knowledge” becomes a “scheme of knowing” that inscribes use as well as provoking it. The idea of a user-consumer is replaced by a maker-producer, a performer, whose performance changes the game. This takes us back to some of the earlier theory of games, to the work of Brenda Laurel and others, whose theoretical training brought notions of subjectivity and performance into the study of online environments.

This paper does not claim to have a toolset of design solutions, since by definition, that would put us right back into the HCI model. Instead, it is an attempt to lay out some basic ideas on which to imagine a performative approach to materiality and the design of an interpretative interface. Such an interface supports acts of interpretation (does not merely return selected results from a pre-existing data set) and also is changed by acts of interpretation, it evolves. Performative materality and interpretative interface are co-dependent and emergent.

Checksums: Digital Materiality in the Archive

Kirschenbaum, Matthew, Department of English; Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities, University of Maryland, mgk@umd.edu

The general conversation about “materiality” in digital media has been ongoing for quite some time (notably Markley 1997; Hayles 2002). A number of new foci, models, and constructions have also recently been introduced into the conversation around the term. These include Kirschenbaum’s “formal materiality” and accompanying work on digital forensics (2008), the “media archeology” paradigm emerging out of several key European writers following in the wake of Friedrich Kittler (Parikka 2007, Ernst 2005), and the platform studies approach developed and encouraged by Montfort and Bogost (2009). At the same time, in the archival community, practitioners are finding themselves confronted with the materiality of born-digital objects in palpable and often increasingly time-sensitive real-world ways: as more and more collections begin to process and receive digital storage media as elements in the acquisition of personal “papers” from writers, politicians, and other public figures, those charged with their long-term care are implementing their own working models of materiality as they make decisions about what to save, what to index, and what to provide access to. (Given the venue for this year’s conference, it’s worth noting that Stanford University Libraries has been a pioneer in this area, with such efforts as the Self-Archiving Legacy Toolkit (SALT), the AIMS project on Born-Digital Collections and New Models for Inter-Institutional Model for Stewardship, and their participation in the Preserving Virtual Worlds project.) This paper will therefore seek to evaluate recent developments in the theoretical conversation about digital materiality in the specific context of applied practice in the archival community. However, it will not assume that born-digital archival content can function only as a test-bed for the various theoretical models; instead, it will also look at how the decisions being made in archival settings have the potential to inform critical and theoretical discourse.

The paper follows a case-study approach. Thus, it will consider media archeology, which one definition glosses as “histories of suppressed, neglected, and forgotten media [. . .] ones that do not point selectively and teleologically to the present cultural situation and currently dominant media as their 'perfection’” (Huhtamo 2010) in light of the Deena Larsen Collection at the University of Maryland. Larsen, who is traditionally associated with the Eastgate stable of hypertext authors through work such as Marble Springs (1993) and Samplers (1997) has deposited a large and heterogeneous array of hardware, software, storage media (some eight hundred 3½-inch diskettes), notebooks, manuscripts, correspondence, and ephemera at the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities. This material includes a number of items related to her best-known work, Marble Springs (1993), written in Hypercard and published the same year, it turns out, as a much more famous work of digital storycraft, Cyan’s Myst, also authored in Hypercard. The Maryland collection includes the original text, with annotations, as a manuscript in a notebook, various electronic drafts and early implementations, installed copies of the work (which allows the user to add marginal notes, thus creating the capacity to render every copy unique), and most unusually, a shower curtain which contains laminated screenshots of different nodes (lexia) pasted up and linked together with colored string to diagram the affective relations between the different elements of the text. How can media archeology, which, following Foucault’s venerable formulations, seeks to tease out “hitherto unnoticed continuities and ruptures” (Huhtamo 2010) inform curatorial practice around this work? Among other things, this paper will argue for a network-oriented model of access, whereby a user of the collection, through metadata packaging, is encouraged to access and evaluate items in relation to one another rather than in isolation, as atomized treasures sprung from a Hollinger box (or its digital equivalent, a FEDORA record).

Similarly, the platform studies approach advocated by Montfort and Bogost will be evaluated in relation to a second recent project from MITH, a site devoted to vintage computing which uses a considered metadata and modeling approach to computing hardware, whereby individual components of the vintage machines are documented, contextualized within their relation to the system as a whole, and expressed using Dublin Core. While not “platform studies” in its own right, the extent to which formalized representations of vintage computing systems can serve as the basis for further work in that vein is important, since there are currently few precedents for cataloging actual artifacts of computer history, and in particular considering specific components as individualized entities rather than as generic classes of mass-produced material. The paper will therefore ask what kind of documentation and metadata a scholar interested in the affordances and individuality of a particular computing system would need in order to use a cataloged instance as the basis for critical work in the platform studies model.

Finally, the paper will consider Kirschenbaum’s interwoven strands of formal and forensic materiality in relation to an event which post-dated his 2008 book, the recovery, reconstitution, and successful emulation of the original software program for William Gibson’s famously self-effacing poem “Agrippa” (Kirschenbaum, et al. 2009). Emulation in particular allows us to usefully consider the armature of “formal materiality,” since emulation functions precisely to naturalize or operationalize one baseline computing system as the virtual host for a working instantiation of another. Yet emulation is also an uncanny event, a kind of literalization of the age-old conceit of the “ghost in the machine” as a contemporary operating system becomes the proxy for one long (un)dead. “Agrippa” itself, with its themes of memory, media, and loss is an apt vehicle for a meditation on formal materiality and the limits of absolute emulation, especially since there is one overridingly obvious fact about any virtual implementation or emulation of “Agrippa”: unlike the original, which, famously, was a one-off “run” encrypted with a military-grade one-way key, here one can spawn “images” of the original disk at will and pass them through the emulator time and again. Emulation, the paper concludes, is finally chimerical as is, perhaps, the notion of formal materiality itself: virtualization will always be interrupted by the individuality of original events.

One last word: the paper has a broader agenda beyond putting theory through its paces, using archival content as a “checksum” for critical debate. Digital humanities itself, as a community, has much to offer to ongoing efforts in the archives world, yet thus far there has been a curious gulf between the two, with only a handful of individuals serving as ambassadors between the two communities. If digital humanities can offer a forum in which the artifacts and objects of contemporary cultural heritage, many of which will be born-digital rather than digitized, can serve as the basis for critical and technical inquiry then it will be well positioned to take part in the increasingly urgent societal conversation around the future of our digital and material present.","txt","2","",""
"1331","12","A Collaborative Linguistic Research Interface for the 1641 Depositions","2","A Collaborative Linguistic Research Interface for the 1641 Depositions
O’Regan, Deirdre, School of Language and Literature, University of Aberdeen, King’s College, UK, deirdre.oregan@gmail.com
Sweetnam, Mark, School of Language and Literature, University of Aberdeen, King’s College, UK, sweetnammark@gmail.com
Fennell, Barbara, School of Language and Literature, University of Aberdeen, King’s College, UK, b.a.fennell@abdn.ac.uk
Lawless, Seamus, Knowledge and Data Engineering Group, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland, seamus.lawless@scss.tcd.ie
This poster presents an account of the development of a collaborative research environment for the socio-historical linguistic exploration of a unique seventeenth-century resource of Irish national importance and international significance. It is also an account of the process - from inception to application - of a highly interdisciplinary, unique collaboration between academia and industry, which is part of an evolving set of DH projects.

The '1641 Depositions' in Trinity College Dublin comprise some 8,000 personal statements, in which mainly Protestant men and women of all classes told of their experiences following the outbreak of the 1641 Rebellion in Ireland by the Catholic Irish. Collected by government-appointed commissioners, the witness testimony runs to approximately 20,000 pages, and constitutes the chief evidence for the sharply contested allegation that the rebellion began with a general massacre of Protestant settlers. As a result, this material has been central to protracted and bitter historical dispute.

This body of material, unparalleled elsewhere in Early Modern Europe, provides a unique source of information for the causes and events surrounding the 1641 Rebellion and for the social, economic, cultural, religious, political and linguistic history of seventeenth-century Ireland, England and Scotland. In addition, the depositions vividly document various colonial and 'civilizing' processes, including the spread of Protestantism in one of the remotest regions of the Stuart kingdoms and the introduction of lowland agricultural and commercial practices, together with the native response to these developments.

Following the recent completion of a three year process of digitizing, transcribing and annotating the 1641 Depositions, the resulting Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) encoded corpus has become available for digital enhancement and analysis. The Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) of the United Kingdom has funded the next generation of research on this corpus under the auspices of their ‘Digital Equipment and Database Enhancement for Impact’ programme. ‘Language and Linguistic Evidence in the 1641 Depositions’ is a multi-disciplinary Digital Humanities project designed to create an interactive computer environment in which scholars interested in historical linguistics, corpus analysis and forensic linguistics / discourse analysis can work together with historians, Early Modern prose scholars and other specialists to interrogate these valuable resources, exploiting new methods of personalization, visualization and collaboration.

The 1641 Collaborative Linguistic Research and Learning Environment (CLRLE) has been developed using Omeka, an open-source digital archival collections management system that has become a popular tool in the Digital Humanities for archiving, publishing and managing access to primary source materials such as documents, images, transcriptions and other multimedia resources (see http://omeka.org/). Omeka is an ideal tool for exploring the concept of a collaborative research interface, since it doubles as a content management system and offers myriad possibilities for personalization and collaboration amongst users.

The resulting web-based portal houses fully searchable records of the 1641 Depositions as ‘Items’ in various ‘Collections’, as is typical in Omeka-powered applications. Privileged users of the interface can collaboratively manage the archive and its content, editing Collections and Item metadata (e.g. deposition transcriptions, dates and deponent and commissioner names), annotating and tagging Items and contributing specialist content to public web pages on the site.

A central part of this project has been knowledge exchange with IBM’s LanguageWare Research and Development Team. LanguageWare (http://www.alphaworks.ibm.com/tech/lrw) is IBM’s natural language processing software and is part of the Unstructured Information Management Architecture (UIMA) framework (http://uima.apache.org/). Researchers have addressed the challenge of applying this software (designed for contemporary language analysis) to the highly problematic “dirty data” of the 1641 corpus, with its propensity to variable spellings, morphologic instability and syntactic complexity. This has allowed the identification of important processes of linguistic change and has enabled linguists to trace the development of English in this unique Early Modern corpus. This involved the integration of a suite of software creating a domain-specific UIMA pipeline which offered a level of accuracy comparable to that achieved by manual annotators (Sweetnam and Fennell, 2010). A crucial element of CLRLE will be the integration and exploitation of the results of this analysis.

A particularly valuable feature of the Omeka-powered CLRLE is the provision of an interactive Exhibit Builder tool enabling users to create personalized ‘Exhibits’ of their research outcomes. These Exhibits draw together a highly extensible collection of reusable research objects, including transcribed depositions and associated metadata, dynamic visualizations, the outputs of statistical linguistic analyses and GIS displays. These Exhibits facilitate a high level of research cooperation and dissemination, and also have considerable pedagogical and outreach applications.

This poster charts the successful completion of a multi-disciplinary collaboration involving the adaptation and modification of new and evolving open source technologies for humanities research, significant knowledge exchange between industry and academia, and the interaction of a range of private and public institutions including the University of Aberdeen, Trinity College Dublin, Lancaster University, IBM LanguageWare and the Irish Digital Humanities Observatory (http://dho.ie/). The outcomes of this project offer valuable lessons for future undertakings in the Digital Humanities. CLRLE is an exemplar of the potential for the impact of modern technology and new methodologies on our understanding of historical resources and underlying processes and their continuing contemporary relevance.

References:
Sweetnam, Mark Fennell, Barbara 2010 “Natural Language Processing and Early Modern Dirty Data, ” Proceedings of the Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities,

1641 Depositions Project, Trinity College Dublin (link) 15 Mar 2011

TEI Consortium, (ed.) TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, (link) 30 Aug 2010

Omeka. Version 1.2.1, Center for History and New Media (CHNM), George Mason University (link) 30 Aug 2010","txt","2","",""
"1332","12","Paper Two: Plot as Network: Quantifying the Evolution of Dramatic Style","1","Networks, Literature, Culture

Moretti, Franco, Stanford University, moretti@stanford.edu
Finn, Ed, Stanford University, edfinn@stanford.edu
Lewis, Rhiannon, Stanford University, rmlewis@stanford.edu
Frank, Zephyr, Stanford University, zfrank@stanford.edu

Overview: Our panel proposal, and the three individual papers, present work in progress at the Stanford Literary Lab, a work space opened in the Fall of 2010 where faculty and students conduct research of a digital and quantitative nature. Ideally, we try to generate critical “experiments” that mix archival exploration and hypothesis testing, and extend over a period of one-two years; all of them collaborative, and developing through regular group meetings that evaluate results and plan the work to come.

Reading, Writing and Reputation: Literary Networks in Contemporary American Fiction

Finn, Ed, Stanford University, edfinn@stanford.edu

Overview
Long-established models of literary production are changing dramatically as the digital era continues to blur, and at times erase, the divisions between authors, critics and readers. Millions of cultural consumers are now empowered to participate in previously closed literary conversations and to express forms of mass distinction through their purchases and reviews. My project argues that these traces of popular reading choices constitute a fresh perspective on elusive audience reactions to literature, one that reveals distinct networks of conversation that are transforming previously well-understood relationships between writers and their readers, between the art of fiction and the market for books (Radway). Employing network analysis methodologies and ‘distant reading’ of book reviews, recommendations and other digital traces of cultural distinction (Moretti), my research develops new models for studying literary culture in America today. In this paper I consider the reception of three mid-career writers, David Foster Wallace, Junot Díaz and Colson Whitehead, asking how they have redefined authorial expectations and literary identity through their work.

Background
My project is founded on the argument that as literary production evolves, new kinds of reading communities and collaborative cultural entities are emerging. Many of these communities are ephemeral and quite often they are fostered by commercial interests seeking to capitalize on their cultural production. Nevertheless, a handful of websites like Amazon continue to dominate the marketplace for books and attract millions of customer reviews, ratings and purchase decisions, and the literary ecologies of these book reviews have become valuable research resources. The ideational networks I explore are made up of books, authors, characters and other literary entities (these are the nodes), along with the references linking them together as collocations in book reviews, suggestions from recommendation engines, and other structures of connection. As my project has moved from Thomas Pynchon and Toni Morrison to the younger generation represented by Wallace, Díaz and Whitehead, I have improved my data-gathering and network analysis methodologies. With new data and better tools, I hope to determine how the game of authorial fame is changing in an increasingly reflexive, networked literary landscape.

Proposal
This paper will present my research on three younger writers who have broken new ground in literary constructions of identity in a shifting landscape of reception. Wallace, Díaz and Whitehead, all members of “Generation X,” are writers who have captured national attention through particularities of self-presentation and novelistic style.

I argue that these authors signal a sea change in literary reputation. Authors as well as publishers are now interacting with active communities of readers who conduct complex cultural conversations independent of traditional arbiters of taste. As the barriers separating readers from ordained critics crumble online, younger authors are increasingly engaging with audiences that are both collaborative and vocal. Tracing the half-spun career arcs of Wallace, Díaz and Whitehead, this paper articulates a new model of contemporary literary culture: a reading society that demands increasing authorial reflexivity to mirror the collaborative, iterative nature of digital literary conversations.

Each author makes a distinct form of literary identity central to his work. David Foster Wallace defined a deeply introspective and reflexive narrative voice, pioneering a style so individual that he ultimately felt it had become clichéd and struggled to escape it in his final years of writing. In his breakout novel The Brief, Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao, Junot Díaz has tackled the challenges of his hybrid Dominican/American identity by creating a new argot of Spanglish phrases, pop cultural references and an ingenious deployment of footnotes to both buttress and undermine normative American understandings of Latin American history and culture. Finally, Colson Whitehead has similarly inverted expectations for African American authors, accomplishing the seemingly impossible feat of writing in the traditions of both Toni Morrison and Thomas Pynchon. As a group, these writers have little in common except their age, positions of cultural prestige and their talents as re-inventors of literary identity. This makes them excellent subjects for a study of contemporary literary reception and the collective construction of literary identities.

Methodology
The project draws on two primary datasets: first, a corpus of professional and consumer book reviews collected from nationally prestigious reviewing newspapers and magazines along with consumer reviews from Amazon dating back to 1996; second, networks of recommendations based on consumer purchases and book ownership drawn from the websites Amazon and LibraryThing. Comparing these different literary networks allows me to make broader arguments about contemporary authorial fame and the changing role of the everyday reader in literary conversations.

For the first dataset, consumer and professional book reviews, I have employed the MorphAdorner project’s Named Entity Recognition tool to create a dictionary of literary proper nouns (authors, titles, character names, etc). This dictionary was used to identify collocations on a paragraph level throughout these reviews, making nouns into nodes and collocations into links. This approach allows me to empirically identify and visualize those authors and texts frequently mentioned in the same review contexts. The resulting noun networks reveal not only the distinctions between everyday readers and more traditional arbiters of literary taste but the ways in which popular authors are increasingly carrying on multiple independent and complex literary conversations.

The second dataset combines book recommendations provided by Amazon’s “Customers who bought this also bought” engine and LibraryThing’s recommendation engine. In this case books form the nodes and recommendations the links connecting them. Employing network analysis to identify patterns of prestige and clustering in these recommendation networks has allowed me to trace the diverse functions of genre and authorial identity in ordering literary texts and to identify the basic rules of contemporary market canonicity.

Conclusion
As I have moved this project through its first two case studies, with Pynchon and Morrison, I have refined a hybrid methodology that explores literary and cultural context through a limited empirical lens, considering particular digital and textual networks of reference and evaluation. This iteration of the process takes on three authors with very different styles to ask how a younger literary generation is working together with newly empowered readers to construct new kinds of multiply mediated, widely collaborative forms of cultural identity. By studying these writers mid-career, I hope to trace both the evolution of contemporary authorial fame and its relationship to wider systems of social distinction in a rapidly evolving digital landscape.

References:
Bourdieu, P. 1993 The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature., Randal Johnson New York Columbia University Press

English, J. 2005 The Economy of Prestige, Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press

Guillory, J. 1993 Cultural Capital: The Problem of Literary Canon Formation, Chicago University of Chicago Press

Moretti, F. 2005 Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstracted Models for a Literary History, London and New York Verso

MorphAdorner. Northwestern University 2009 (link)

Radway, J. 1997 A Feeling for Books: The Book-of-the-Month Club, Literary Taste, and Middle-Class Desire, Chapel Hill University of North Carolina Press

yEd Graph Editor yWorks GmbH 2010 (link)

Paper Two: Plot as Network: Quantifying the Evolution of Dramatic Style

Lewis, Rhiannon, Stanford University, rmlewis@stanford.edu

In the last decade or so, quantitative evidence has become part of literary study in a variety of ways – from the material realities of book history [library holdings, or translation flows], to the linguistic macro-patterns that have renewed the study of attribution, genre differentiation, and stylistics. Plot, however, has proved much more difficult to quantify. This paper looks for a possible solution in network theory, whose concepts re-define plot as a system where characters are the vertices, and their interactions the edges of a narrative network. Focusing, for now, on dramatic literature, such ""network narratology"" brings to light the striking discontinuities between the structure of ancient and Renaissance tragedy, and suggests a reconceptualization of literary characters in terms of their ""connectedness"" and their position within the network.

This paper grew out of Franco Moretti’s network analysis of three Shakespeare plays: Hamlet, Macbeth, and King Lear. Preliminary work for the project included php-extraction of speaker-receiver data from MIT’s xml-encoded Shakespeare corpus. The program R was then used to generate network analyses. A team of Stanford graduate students hand-corrected receiver attributions to a level of 100% accuracy. The paper’s methodological component discusses the difficulties of automated recipient attribution in dramatic texts, and touches on issues of “quantifying” performance literature, including plays lacking an authoritative text. The idea of (performance) time turned into space is grounded in narrative theory: specifically, Alex Woloch’s concept of a character-system made of many character-spaces (The One vs. the Many). In addition to modeling “plot as network” based in dialogue, I also utilize stage directions to map networks as shared “space.” Here, space includes more ambiguous character presence such as disguised identity and plays-within-plays, as well as the auditory presence of eavesdropping. Thus, overlapping networks of character position -- both physical and verbal -- model multiple dimensions of plot through form and performance.

The paper draws on extant and original corpora of over 70 plays, from classical through Renaissance drama. They include Shakespeare’s complete dramatic works, as well as select plays by Marlowe, Jonson, and Webster. The classical plays are drawn from Project Perseus’ database. Evaluating our script’s performance across literary periods has revealed that classical dramatic dialogue follows a linear progression more frequently than dialogue in Renaissance drama. In other words, the script always assumes that Speaker A will address Speaker B who addresses Speaker C, etc, and therefore inaccurately assigns the receiver when Speaker B responds back to Speaker A. Here, methodology illuminates dramatic structure. The linear model of “progressive” dialogue correctly attributes a higher percentage of utterances (and words) in Greek than Shakespearean tragedy. Dialogue in ancient plays more strictly observes a recursive model that occurs less frequently within Shakespeare’s more populated scenes. The script correctly identifies more receiver tags in plays with smaller casts (i.e., classical drama) and scenes with two interlocutors, such as Iago and Roderigo in Othello I.i. When there are more than two interlocutors, the script misattributes a response to a previous speaker as an address to the following speaker. However, accuracy is usually measured at the unit of the utterance, or speech-tag. When measuring accuracy by words, Act I of Othello presents a different case. Word-based accuracy is consistently lower than utterance-based accuracy in the Greek plays and in Hamlet, but in Othello, the reverse is true. Thus, inaccurately attributed speeches—those given in response to a preceding speech--are longer in Hamlet and the Greek plays than in the opening act of Othello. It follows that in Othello, characters tend to say more when they address the next character who speaks. If there's more chain-like dialogic progress in Act I of Othello than in all of Hamlet, this corroborates scene-based thematics that characterize Othello: its beginning in medias res and the transmission of news through increasingly public scenes (from “a street” (I.i) to “another street” (I.ii) to “a council-chamber” (I.iii)). In the second section of this paper I explore such network patterns diachronically: at levels of scene, act and play, and in comparative context.

This formal figuration of dialogue’s progress supplements the paper’s central findings: weighted network visuals, at levels of the play entire, act and scene. At the most macroscopic level, we observe “synchronic” patterns and discontinuities: for example, larger scenes, with more characters and therefore usually a more “public” nature occur near the beginning and the ending of Hamlet, Lear, and Othello. Networks create a hierarchy of centrality among characters. This model inevitably calls into question the binaries with which we usually think about characters: protagonist vs. minor characters, or ""round"" vs. ""flat"": nothing here supports these dichotomies, and, in fact, the hierarchical re-conceptualization of characters is another promising research area opened by network theory.

The third section focuses not on character as determined by location in narrative structure, but by semantic analysis of dialogue, using word frequency and semantic field analysis. For example, relativized word frequency lists reveal that “Cassio” is among the top ten most frequent words that Brabantio, the Duke, Lodovico and Montano speak, before any other character’s name, including “Othello,” “Desdemona,” or “Iago.” This semantic analysis detects the linguistic virulence of Iago’s revenge scheme, “promoting” Cassio’s name in the constructed adultery plot. Semantic analysis and weighted word networks also reveal that antagonists’ confrontations are consistently verbose in Greek tragedy, while Shakespearean antagonists may never exchange a word. In this paper, I consider dramatic plot as a function of network connections--coded as relations between speaker and addressee—through both historical and generic developments.

References:
Albert-László Barabási, Linked, Penguin NY 2003

Mark Granovetter, “The Strength of Weak Ties, ” American Journal of Sociology, May 1973

R. Alberich J. Miro-Julia F. Rosselló “Marvel Universe looks almost like a real network, ” (link)

M. E. J. Newman “Finding community structure in networks using the eigenvectors of matrices, ” Physical Review E 74, 036104 2006

M. E. J. Newman “The Structure and Function of Complex Networks, ” SIAM Review, 2003

Mark Newman Albert-László Barabási Duncan J. Watts The Structure and Dynamics of Networks, Princeton UP 2006

Mark Steyvers Joshua Tenenbaum “The Large-Scale Structure of Semantic Networks: Statistical Analyses and a Model of Semantic Growth, ” Cognitive Science, 29 2005

James Stiller Daniel Nettle Robin I.M. Dunbar “The small world of Shakespeare's plays, ” Human Nature, vol. 14, no. 4 2003

Social Connections and Space in Nineteenth-Century Rio de Janeiro

Frank, Zephyr, Stanford University, zfrank@stanford.edu

This paper explores the theme of social connections in the novels of Machado de Assis, José de Alencar, and Aluísio Azevedo against a background of empirical research on historical social networks in the space of the city of Rio de Janeiro. It argues that a better understanding of the meaning and configuration of social networks in history can be obtained through creative use of literary sources. In this, the paper builds upon the work of Antonio Candido, Roberto Schwarz, and Raymundo Faoro—all of whom emphasized the historical and sociological richness in the works of the novelists under consideration. By emphasizing the physical space of the city, its street networks and modes of transport, and the existence of overlapping social networks therein, the paper connects sociologically inflected literary criticism to social history through the use of new digital methods of analysis and visualization.

The body of the paper is divided into two parts. The first part analyzes networks within the novels and the novelistic space of the city. The second part, building on the network typologies and spaces discovered in the analysis of the novels, explores social networks and the space of the city through the analysis of historical documents such as lists of club members or occupational groupings. The paper then concludes with an appraisal of the way literary networks and spaces can inform better historical questions put to more traditional historical documents.

In terms of digital humanities methods, the paper explores the use of computational techniques and programs such as GIS (ArcGIS and related software) and Gephi, a network analysis tool. Part of the novelty of the approach considered in this paper is the degree to which it combines analysis across these platforms—that is, network space (Gephi) and geographical space (ArcGIS) taken together. Because it is difficult to describe the approach taken in the paper in words alone, two examples of the kinds of visualization generated for the paper are shown to the right.

Epitaph of a Small Winner

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Machado de Assis’s novel (1881) is told in the first person by a voluble narrator. Connections to the central character (red node) shoot off in multiple directions as the book zig-zags through his life (which can be read, loosely, as a Bildungsroman of Brazil personified in the character of Brás Cubas). The structure of the novel thereby reflects the author’s critique of the capricious and fragmented world of Rio de Janeiro. Still, in the midst of all this fragmentation, certain characters and places emerge as brokers and spaces of social connections.
Sonhos d’Ouro

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José de Alencar’s novel (1872) is told in a traditional third-person style. The central character (red node) is surrounded by characters of similar importance (measured by network centrality). There are relatively few network clusters and far fewer characters and complications than in the case of Machado’s novel. The plot of Alencar’s novel seeks to resolve the tension between newly minted capitalist wealth and values of thrift and honor embodied in the protagonist.


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The second part of the paper explores what happens when we place historical individuals in the context of social networks and the spaces of the city. Using information gleaned from the analysis of networks in novels, including the role of “brokers” and “spaces of interaction,” part two looks for evidence of similar patterns of social connections and spaces in the historical record.

As in the example provided in the diagram above, it is possible to reconstruct the shape of social networks in nineteenth-century Rio de Janeiro through the collection of data concerning club and organization membership and the analysis of large datasets with tools such as Gephi and Pajek (used above). There is a clear pecking order in the organizations of the civic fauna in Rio. Just a few leaders are required, for example, to tie together 90 percent of the civic fauna in first- or second-degree connections. The same emphasis on hierarchy and gatekeeping with respect to social connections appears in the analysis of the novels discussed with respect to the first part of the paper.","txt","2","",""
"1333","12","Charlotte's Web: Encoding the Literary History of the Sentimental Novel","1","Charlotte’s Web: Encoding the Literary History of the Sentimental Novel
Melson, John, Women Writers Project, Brown University, John_Melson@brown.edu
Funchion, John, University of Miami, jfunchion@mail.as.miami.edu
Ever since the cultural turn in literary studies, literary scholarship has focused on examining the cultural work performed by texts. Indeed, one of the enduring theoretical innovations of the 1980s was the reconceptualization of literary value according to the concept of cultural work—the idea that texts should be evaluated not by the innate aesthetic or formal qualities they manifested, but according to their “designs upon their audience” and their ability “to make people think and act in a particular way” (Tompkins 1985). As a result, previously overlooked or marginalized texts have often been deemed suitable for study in the ensuing years based largely the on degree to which they are said to perform particular kinds of cultural work. In one familiar example from the arena of nineteenth-century American literature, scholars have come to see a stereotypically sentimental novel like Uncle Tom’s Cabin as a canonical work primarily because its complex entanglements with the politics of the antebellum United States allow it to be read— to cite Tompkins once more—as part of a “monumental effort to reorganize culture.” But while this approach has become an important characteristic of much literary scholarship, the question of how to measure a given text’s capacity to perform cultural work remains vague and often myopically focused on the synchronic significance of the work in question at a specific point in time.

In this paper we investigate the matter of cultural work from the vantage point offered by current scholarship in the digital humanities. We do so with an eye toward developing a model of literary history that draws on uniquely digital methods for structuring and formalizing intertextual relationships, and that make it possible to chart the cultural and formal significance of literary works across space and time. Specifically, we use Susanna Rowson’s late eighteenth-century sentimental novel Charlotte Temple as a case study in how digital literary history can evaluate the meaning and formal significance of a text diachronically. Often cited as one of the earliest American bestsellers, Rowson’s work was reprinted hundreds of times during the nineteenth century and was referenced repeatedly in an extensive body of writing, ranging from reviews and advertisements to melodramatic stage adaptations and ostensibly factual regional histories of the United States. Tracking the novel’s extended nineteenth-century afterlife through this complex network of external references, we demonstrate how the application of detailed interpretive markup to the multiple documents that reference Charlotte Temple (instead of the novel that would, more conventionally, be thought of as the “primary” text) enacts a theory of literary history in which concepts of cultural work may best be observed as phenomena that develop over time.

While the idea of interpretive markup is not new, it is most often used either as a means of recording a layer of scholarly annotation on some particular document or classifying portions of a document according to some external taxonomy. Both uses are supported, for instance, by the current version of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) Guidelines, which provides examples of specific methods for encoding “semantic or syntactic interpretation” using a set of standard TEI XML elements and attributes. In practice, though, discussions of interpretive markup in digital humanities projects often revolve around questions of readability and the appropriateness of stand-off versus inline markup (e.g. does excessive interpretive markup pose problems for human readability of encoded text? [Campbell 2002]), or issues of preservation, curation, and reliability (e.g. what challenges for encoding textual information accurately and reliably are created by allowing extensive interpretive markup? [Berrie et al. 2006]). Although such questions are important in certain contexts, our project treats them as less important than the question of how interpretive markup may be enlisted as a surface for scholarly analysis—that is, how interpretive structures can themselves be classified and interpreted.

Our project adapts several of the interpretive structures provided in TEI XML to represent the connection between specific formal properties in Charlotte Temple and external evidence of the novel’s broader cultural influence, as attested by external references to it. We record basic metadata about each external reference (author, title, date and location of publication, etc.) while also indicating which specific features of the novel the reference comments on, as well as the nature of that commentary. The result is a set of XML-encoded documents classified according to the interpretive work they do: a record, as it were, of how nineteenth-century readers interpreted and responded to the novel’s formal properties. At the same time, a secondary layer of interpretive markup further formalizes the relationships we identify across this primary layer of interpretation. Taken together, both layers provide substantial material for further abstraction: for instance, the automated generation of topic maps that represent a variety of cultural knowledge structures. The result is a web of connections in the form of citations, references, allusions, parodies, and comments spanning the nineteenth century, whose formalized structures constitute the interpretive tissue of digital literary history. The ability to map and visualize these structures, we argue, offers significantly new possibilities for observing cultural work as a phenomenon that evolves over time, and whose connection to particular texts is most productively understood as operating at the nexus of close reading and “distant reading” strategies.

Our work constitutes an initial small-scale experiment, but it has relevance for larger questions of scale, purpose, and method in both the digital humanities and conventional modes of literary scholarship. In particular, it suggests that although digital scholarship offers a potential reconceptualization of literary history, practices of literary history also pose interesting challenges for work in the digital humanities. In recent years, projects in the digital humanities have increasingly responded to the question of scale by refining methods for aggregating, classifying, and analyzing enormous bodies of textual material—in other words, by treating text as a mass of data that can yield meaningful responses to statistical analysis of its language. Whether offering answers to now-familiar questions about scale itself— “What do you do with a million books?”—or taking up Franco Moretti’s challenge to peer into the “cellars of culture” represented by the tens of thousands of unread and unknown novels published in the nineteenth century, text mining and other forms of “computational humanities” have been increasingly held up as a means of “checking the generalizations of literary history”(Crane 2006; Parry 2010; Pasanek and Sculley 2008). At the same time, long-running digital humanities projects with deep investments in scholarly text encoding have tended to approach literary history from the opposite direction, emphasizing how “craft encoding,” for instance, employs editorial methodologies and modes of textual scholarship that participate in “making literary history” in the digital medium (Flanders 2009; Dimock 2007). While neither approach directly contradicts the other—indeed, in practice they often coexist harmoniously—they inflect the concept of literary history in crucially different ways. The former often treats the machine-processable language of texts as a primary axis along which historical change in writing manifests itself: intertextual relationships are revealed in changing patterns of linguistic borrowing, with the emphasis on facilitating the “comparability of texts” (Mueller 2008). The latter, while still valuing intertextual comparison, tends to prioritize the documentary and contextual over the linguistic—for instance recording textual variation across editions of the same text, or formalizing through encoding “rich environmental contextualizations” for the study of particular texts (Folsom 2007). Our project borrows from both strategies, and in doing so seeks to demonstrate in practice a method by which digital literary history negotiates this apparent bifurcation.

References:
Berrie, Phill et al. 2006 “Electronic Textual Editing: Authenticating Electronic Editions, ” Electronic Textual Editing, Burnard, O’Keefe, and UnsworthNew York: MLA (link) .

Crane, Gregory2006 “What Do You Do with a Million Books?, ” D­Lib Magazine, 12 (3)[ (link) ]

Dimock, Wai Chee2007 “Introduction: Genres as Fields of Knowledge, ” PMLA, 122 (5)1377-88

Flanders, Julia2009Seminars in Scholarly Text Encoding with TEI. Paper presented at the 2009 TEI annual conference, , Ann Arbor, Michigan. (link)

Folsom, Ed 2007 “Database as Genre: The Epic Transformation of Archives, ” PMLA, 122 (5) 1571-9.

Mueller, Martin2008 “TEI-Analytics and the MONK Project, ” Paper presented at the 2008 TEI annual conference, , London, UK. (link)

Parry, Marc28 May 2010 “The Humanities Go Google, ” The Chronicle of Higher Education, . [ (link) ]

Pasanek, B. and D. Sculley2008 “Mining Millions of Metaphors, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, , 23 (3): 345-60.

Text Encoding Initiative. P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, (link)

Tompkins, Jane1985 Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction, 1790-­1860, New York: Oxford University Press

Wilkens, Matthew2009 “Corpus Analysis and Literary History, ” Paper presented at Digital Humanities 2009, , College Park, MD.","txt","2","",""
"1334","12","Natural Language Processing Tools for the Digital Humanities","15","Natural Language Processing Tools for the Digital Humanities
Manning, Christopher, Stanford University, manning@stanford.edu
Large and ever-increasing amounts of text are now available digitally from many sources. Beyond raw text, there are also increasing troves of text annotated with various kinds of metadata and analysis. This data provides new opportunities in the humanities to do different kinds of analyses and at different scales, some of which blur the boundaries between the traditional analytical and critical methods of the humanities versus empirical and quantitative approaches common in the social sciences. Since texts are central to the humanities, a key opportunity is in “text mining” – making use of computers for analyzing texts, and it is here that there is much opportunity for the use of tools from Natural Language Processing. The last two decades have also seen the field of Natural Language Processing refocused on being able to process and analyze the huge amounts of available digital speech and text, partly through the use of new probabilistic and machine learning methods. This has led to the development of many robust methods and tools for text processing, many of which are within reach of the ambitious practitioner, and often are available for free as open source software.

This tutorial will survey what you can do with digital texts, starting from word counts and working up through deeper forms of analysis including collocations, named entities, parts of speech, constituency and dependency parses, detecting relations, events, and semantic roles, coreference resolution, and clustering and classification for various purposes, including theme, genre and sentiment analysis. It will provide a high-level not-too-technical presentation of what these tools do and how, and provide concrete information on what kinds of tools are available, how they are used, what options are available, examples of their use, and some idea of their reliability, limitations, and whether they can be customized. The emphasis will be at the level of what techniques exist and what you can and can’t do with them. The hope is to empower participants in envisioning how these tools might be employed in humanities research.

The rough plan of the tutorial is as follows. The plan spends a bit more time on the things that people are most likely to be able to take away and use (such as, parts of speech, NER, and parsing).

Introduction, digital text corpora, markup, metadata, and search. Issues of spelling, tokenization and morphology (30 mins)
Counting words, counting n-grams, collocations (20 mins)
Part-of-speech tagging and named entity recognition (40 mins)
Parsing: constituency and dependencies and their applications (30 mins)
Briefer survey of methods finding more semantics: relations, events, semantic roles, and coreference resolution (20 mins)
Clustering and classification: applications including authorship attribution, topic models, word sense disambiguation, and sentiment analysis (30 mins)
Wrap up (10 mins)","txt","2","",""
"1335","12","Content Patterns in Digital Humanities: a Framework for Sustainability and Reuse of Digital Resources","1","Content Patterns in Digital Humanities: a Framework for Sustainability and Reuse of Digital Resources
Anderson, Sheila , King’s College London, sheila.anderson@kcl.ac.uk
Hedges, Mark , King’s College London, mark.hedges@kcl.ac.uk
Research in the arts and humanities has created much digital material that represents a significant investment, both of funding and of intellectual effort. In the UK at least, given the current lack of national infrastructure for sustaining this material, these resources are typically hosted in their home institutions using a variety of approaches and technologies.

This incurs a number of risks. At the most basic level, without ongoing maintenance a resource ceases to be usable at all as the technologies in which it was implemented become obsolete and unsupported. Even if hosting institutions apply preservation techniques to ensure continued accessibility of resources, this does not enable collections to make full use of technological advances that might greatly enhance their utility for and impact on research. Access to legacy resources may be limited to a simple download or browser access in a website. In neither case does this facilitate advanced research services, such as mashups or data/text mining, that will become increasingly common in future digital research.

The impact of humanities research may still be felt many years after the original research was undertaken – the information produced has a long lifespan in intellectual terms. Sustainability does not just mean keeping the data alive, but enabling the exploitation of advances both in technology – making the data accessible in new ways – and in humanities research – forging connections between resources that lead to new discoveries and broader impact.

Digital resources often exist in “silos”, lacking interoperability. Individual projects typically address focused topics, and may implement digital resources in idiosyncratic ways and to address their immediate needs. This results in a multitude of resources that are scattered and disparate in nature, yet related intellectually, resources that, linked up, would form a whole much more useful for research than the sum of the parts, much as fragments of a map, when combined, allow navigation from one place to another. Ultimately, the vision here is of a virtual and distributed “web of knowledge”.

The digital resources in the humanities may be characterised by their diversity and complexity. Collections involve multiple media and standards. The material may be highly complex, with many structural and semantic relationships both internal and contextual; the interpretation of an object (e.g. an inscription) may depend on its relationships to other resources (e.g. other inscriptions/texts, surveys, concordances).

One approach to this would be to develop enhancements to individual resources; however, to be truly sustainable we should avoid such ad hoc solutions. The primary question asked by our project is thus – how can we develop a generic framework for digital resources in the arts and humanities that addresses the above issues for a broad range of collections, and that is not a closed system but can be extended to support other digital material and (possibly unanticipated) future tools, technologies and research methods?

We are attempting to answer this question in the CMES (Content Models for Enhancement and Sustainability) project, which is funded by the UK Arts and Humanities Research Council as part of its DEDEFI (Digital Equipment and Database Enhancement for Impact) programme. We are developing a framework using the Fedora digital repository software for sustaining and enhancing particular groups of digital resources produced by earlier digital humanities. We are addressing two groups of collections, each typical of a wide range of humanities research activities:

Digital texts, which may comprise complex networks of diverse information: images, markedup text, geospatial data, translations, standoff annotations/markup, and potentially extensive links to external resources. We are addressing two groups of resources managed at KCL: the Stormont Papers, and the Inscriptions of Aphrodisias. These contrasting examples – one modern and dealing with large, complete volumes, one ancient and dealing with small, fragmentary texts –facilitate development and testing of generic models. They also provide scope for demonstrating the utility of our framework for (i) developing new material (e.g. Stormont parliamentary papers and Inscriptions of Roman Tripolitania/Cyrenaica), and (ii) forging links with external digital material (e.g. Westminster Hansards and Pleiades).
Multimedia performing arts collections, specifically the following resources managed at KCL: Scottish Traditions of Dance, which contains text, images, video, interviews, audio and databases, Adolphe Appia, which contains images, 3D virtual reality models, and audio from the King’s Sound Archive.
Fedora is particularly good for modelling complex material and links between objects. Representations of digital objects within Fedora are formalised as “content models” (henceforth, CMs), which may be regarded as “data types” for digital objects. We will review the selected collection groups and develop a set of CMs that support them by providing consistent, standardised and interoperable (yet flexible) patterns for representing these collection types. We will need to go beyond Fedora’s relatively simple CM formalisation to produce these “Content Patterns” (henceforth, CPs) for complex collections, e.g. by using the Enhanced CM framework developed by SULD, which allows the specification of relationships and ontologies, and the definition of collection templates.

We analysed the resources along with subject specialists in digital text and performing arts resources. Note that, given the variation in how legacy collections have been implemented, the CPs may be idealisations that do not directly match the collections, which may require a degree of reworking to make them fit. We will not be overprescriptive here – diversity arises naturally from the research material – but a degree of common practice would be beneficial for the creation and reuse of the material. Moreover, our CPs will provide foundations that can be extended easily to support diverse community practices.

Each of the target collections had its own custom web interface, driven by quite different underlying data models. We are developing consistent delivery/publishing mechanisms for the different collection groups that are driven by the underlying CPs. This has the benefit that these mechanisms are available for any collection that conforms to the CP, leading to more consistent and interoperable interfaces for resources of similar type.

However, this will not necessarily lead to homogeneity. Our approach enables the structure of collections to be represented with fine granularity, and interfaces are correspondingly modular. This facilitates the creation of more integrated web views across different collections, but it also allows content to be exposed as machinereadable feeds that can be used to provide addedvalue services, e.g. aggregating content, automated processing (e.g. text mining), mashups etc. The creators (or curators) of a resource will no longer be the arbiters of how information should be delivered and used. The resources produced by research are not just ends in themselves – they provide source material for subsequent research – and to maximise impact they should be made available in ways that allow scholars unrelated to the original editors to make transformative use of them, rather than just via a website. We are thus providing a framework whereby users (perhaps domain experts) can develop and integrate their own tools to process resources.

The project is thus not only enhancing particular collections, but producing a framework that is extensible in several ways:

The generic CPs and associated tools provide templates for simplifying creation of new collections of similar form (e.g. digital texts), and guarantee certain functionality that conformant collections would inherit from the template.
The set of content patterns is itself extensible, following the same methodology, to other collection types.
The framework can be extended with new tools as technologies change (tools/services can be linked to CPs and inherited by collections that follow the pattern).
The project thus builds on existing efforts and provides a foundation for a broader and longerterm programme for sustaining and enhancing digital humanities research. Developing this framework to support resources based around digital texts and performing arts will cover a significant amount of ground, and provide a springboard for future extensions. It will also ensure sustainability by integrating these initiatives into repository and curation infrastructures at KCL, and will allow a growing corpus of digital material to be integrated into this infrastructure.","txt","2","",""
"1336","12","Enroller: A Grid-based Research Platform for English and Scots Language","1","Enroller: A Grid-based Research Platform for English and Scots Language
Anderson, Jean, University of Glasgow, Jean.Anderson@glasgow.ac.uk
Alexander, Marc, University of Glasgow, Marc.Alexander@glasgow.ac.uk
Green, Johanna, University of Glasgow, Johanna.Green@glasgow.ac.uk
Sarwar, Muhammad, National e-Science Centre, UK, Muhammad.Sarwar@glasgow.ac.uk
Sinnott, Richard, University of Melbourne, rsinnott@unimelb.edu.au
Summary
This paper describes a collaboration between eScientists and humanists; specifically Grid scientists and language and literature scholars, working together to create a repository of data sets and tools, combining our most advanced knowledge in all areas.

Language and literature scholars make use of variety of language resources to conduct their research. Such resources include dictionaries, thesauri, corpora, images, audio and video collections. At present most of these resources are distributed, non-interoperable and license protected. As a result researchers typically conduct their research through direct access to independent data sets using multiple browser windows and multiple authorisations. This approach results in non-scalable and less productive research, and often leads to incomplete and/or non-verifiable results.

The JISC funded project, Enhancing Repositories for Language and Literature Researchers (Enroller) is addressing these issues through development of a targeted eResearch environment. This paper presents the current state of progress and outlines how secure access to distributed data resources with targeted analysis and collaboration tools is supported. In the full paper we will also describe how Enroller is exploiting high performance computing infrastructures such as the UK National Grid Service and ScotGrid, and discuss a problematic issue that has arisen through the differing working practices of humanists and scientists.Consider a typical language and literature scenario where a researcher wants to search for a word such as ""bonny"" in the dictionary to find its meaning; in a thesaurus to look up the concepts and categories it is found in and in a corpus to find the documents containing it. The user may also want to see the concordances and word frequency of the word in each found document. In undertaking this process, they might want to save the different results; share them with others and possibly perform a comparison between many different resultant data sets. This scenario becomes more challenging when multiple dictionaries, thesauri and text corpora need to be cross-searched simultaneously, for example when the researcher wants to lookup the word ""bonny"" in the Oxford English Dictionary, in the Scottish National Dictionary, and in the Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue. The researcher may also want to search for the word in the Historical Thesaurus of English to look up synonyms and related concepts and categories and then search for all of the matching concepts in further corpus resources.

Researchers will want to use the standard text analysis tools: e.g. concordances, word frequencies, collocation clouds. They may well wish to save and download the results for further analysis or use targeted tools to investigate, e.g. variant spellings of the word 'bonny'. The problem is further exacerbated if the researcher decides to search for multiple, possibly hundreds, of words at once and do all of the mentioned tasks at once. Most of the language and literature data environments do not permit scholars to do any of these activities, instead researchers are left with individual level data sets, coded differently (e.g. with different metadata and data formatting), accessible through individual web-based resources with individual access codes and methods.

The challenge for the project is to maintain the data integrity of its collaborators and the security of access-limited data, while facilitating research across and between each dataset for the benefit of researchers in multiple fields. Enroller provides an interactive research infrastructure that provides seamless, secure access to all of the different language and literature data sets in a user-oriented environment. Furthermore, since many of the searching and analysis efforts can be computationally intensive – especially when bulk searching or building of indexes is required - we provide secure access to high performance computing infrastructures such as the UK e-Science National Grid Service (http://www.ngs.ac.uk) and ScotGrid (http://www.scotgrid.ac.uk). In this project, language and literature researchers, including an associated network of international scholars, are now able to access large amounts of language and literature data and analysis services from a single, easy-to-use portal. Enroller is currently working with the following data sets:

The EPSRC and AHRC funded Scottish Corpus of Text and Speech is a collection of text and audio files covering a period from 1945 to the present. The SCOTS corpus is available in TEI-compliant XML. (http://www.scottishcorpus.ac.uk)
The AHRC funded Corpus of Modern Scottish Writing offers a collection of texts and manuscript images from the period 1700 to 1945. (http://www.scottishcorpus.ac.uk/cmsw/)
The AHRC funded Newcastle Electronic Corpus of Tyneside English provides a corpus of dialect speech from Tyneside in Northeast England. The NECTE corpus is encoded in TEI-compliant XML. (http://www.ncl.ac.uk/necte)
The Dictionary of the Scots Language encompasses two major Scottish language dictionaries: the Scottish National Dictionary and the Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue. DSL data is available in XML format. (http://www.dsl.ac.uk/dsl)
The Historical Thesaurus of English contains more than 750,000 words from Old English to the present in 250,000 categories. HTE was published in print form by Oxford University Press in 2009 and is a new and significant development for historical language studies. (http://libra.englang.arts.gla.ac.uk/historicalthesaurus/)
The Oxford English Dictionary is a commercial resource published by Oxford University Press and is the authority on English language vocabulary. It is accessible through our search interface by API. (http://www.oed.com)
The inclusion of other data sets is underway, e.g. we have incorporated Hansard, early C19th to late C20th, and are negotiating for the 1755 Dictionary of Samuel Johnson. Many scholars have no platform or assistance to put texts online and make them accessible to others, far less can they make them interoperable with other relevant data sets. Enroller provides a place where users can deposit their own texts. Texts are wrapped in a basic, TEI minimal XML envelope and indexed. The user can choose whether a text is available to all or private. Once deposited a text can be searched from the portal with the other data sets.

The project has data at its heart, but it is also exploiting state of the art high-performance computing and security solutions. In particular the project is employing a Virtual Organisation Membership Service (VOMS)-based solution in accessing the NGS where pooled Enroller accounts are used by researchers accessing these resources through a targeted project portal. This includes use and exploitation of the Workload Management System (WMS) to provide resource broking based job scheduling across all of the NGS nodes. This job scheduling is targeted currently to supporting large-scale searching based upon the Google MapReduce application.

The full paper will describe the Enroller project in more detail and outline the capabilities that are supported and our experiences so far in implementing this infrastructure. This includes a description of how the portal has been made accessible through the UK Access Management Federation; the easy to use search system and the reasons for its human-computer interface choices; the advanced Grid-based information retrieval system, capable of executing linguistic workflows, taking advantage of HPC facilities such as NGS and ScotGrid; how the system supports large-scale data indexes for fast searching; support for tools for linguistic analysis, including concordance, collocation and word frequency analysis; support for seamless secure access to licensed data; support for data deposition and automated indexing services; documented analysis of our user experiences in using of the infrastructure provided thus far. We will outline the plans for future adoption by the wider research community and end with our reflections on this eScience/humanities collaboration.

References:
J. Watt .O. Sinnott T. Doherty J. Jiang 2008 “Portal-based Access to Advanced Security Infrastructures, ” UK e-Science All Hands Meeting , Edinburgh, September 2008 17

M.S. Sarwar R.O. Sinnott 2010 “Towards a Virtual Research Environment for Language and Literature Researchers, ” IEEE e-Science 2010 , Brisbane, Australia, December 2010 8

Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) API, 15/03/2011 (link)

The Internet2 Shibboleth framework , 15/03/2011 (link)

Enroller, 15/03/2011 (link)

Oxford English Dictionary , 15/03/2011 (link)

Scotish Language Dictionaries , 15/03/2011 (link)

The Scottish Corpus of Texts and Speech, 15/03/2011 (link)

Newcastle Electronic Corpus of Tyneside English, 15/03/2011 (link)

The Historial Thesaurus of English , 15/03/2011 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1337","12","Distributed Access to Oral History collections: Fitting Access Technology to the Needs of Collection Owners and Researchers","2","Distributed Access to Oral History collections: Fitting Access Technology to the Needs of Collection Owners and Researchers
Ordelman, Roeland J.F., University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands , Netherlands Institutefor Sound and Vision, Hilversum, The Netherlands , ordelman@ewi.utwente.nl
Introduction
In contrast with the large amounts of potential interesting research material in digital multimedia repositories, the opportunities to unveil the gems therein are still very limited. The Oral History project ‘Verteld Verleden’ (Dutch literal translation of Oral History) that is currently running in The Netherlands, focuses on improving access to spoken testimonies in collections, spread over many Dutch cultural heritage institutions, by deploying modern technology both concerning infrastructure and access. Key objective in the project is mapping the various specific requirements of collection owners and researchers regarding both publishing and access by means of current state-of-the-art technology. In order to demonstrate the potential, Verteld Verleden develops an Oral History portal that provides access to distributed collections. At the same time, practical step-by-step plans are provided to get to work with modern access technologies. In this way, a solid starting point for sustained access to Oral History collections can be established.

Technology and Daily Practice
The Verteld Verleden project builds upon years of academic research on access technology for spoken word archives

Goldman, J.Renals, S. Bird, S. de Jong, F. M. G. Federico, M., Fleischhauer, C. Kornbluh, M. Lamel, L. Oard, D. W., Stewart, C.Wright, R. 2005 “Accessing the spoken word, ” Int. Journal on Digital Libraries, 5(4)287–298

F.M.G. de Jong D.W. Oard W.F.L. Heeren R.J.F. Ordelman. “Access to recorded interviews: A research agenda, ” ACM Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage (JOCCH), 1(1)3-292008

R.J.F. Ordelman W.F.L. HeerenM.A.H. HuijbregtsF.M.G. de Jong D. Hiemstra. “Towards Affordable Disclosure of Spoken Heritage Archives, ” Journal of Digital Information, M.A. Larson, K. Fernie and J. Oomen (eds)10(6)17-332009

deploying among others automatic speech recognition, text-to-speech synchronization and fragment-level search. This research resulted in a number of demonstration applications in close cooperation with cultural heritage institutes
Radio Oranje Demonstrator (alignment of historical speeches): (link)

Searching interviews bombarding of Rotterdam: (link)

Access to interviews with survivors of World War II concentration camp Buchenwald: (link)

. Although these demonstrations have been very well received both by the public and involved institutes, it was observed that there is still a gap between academic, ‘technology-driven’ pilots and the daily practice of Dutch cultural heritage institutions and researchers. One important observation was that Oral History collections are managed in many different ways: from very adequate to not at all. There are a few ‘forerunners’ that do already make use of various professional infrastructures and technologies for disclosure and access but the larger part of the collection owners, in spite of acknowledging the virtues of modern access technologies, often do not have the knowledge or means to really start using these. In practice, access to Oral History collections in general is very limited and publically accessible overviews on available collections are missing. On the other hand, we see that collection owners and researchers have very specific requirements with regard to management, disclosure and access, and have very detailed knowledge of their collections and their contexts.
Knowledge Transfer
In order to be able to catch up with the advantages of the digital networked society, cultural heritage institutes need practical handles that are specifically geared towards their specific use cases. The Verteld Verleden project follows this practical approach by mapping the available solutions and best practices in The Netherlands on a diversity of relevant topics ranging from digitization of audio-visual data, format conversion, online access to collections, and (semi)automatic metadata generation, and linking collections to other information sources, to dealing with privacy/copyright issues. On an academic level, special attention is addressed towards transfer of knowledge and awareness on methodology and theory of Oral History research, and the design of Oral History research in combination with modern technology.

Showcase
To showcase how these best-practices and solutions could work out in practice the project builds an embeddable Oral History portal that enables access to distributed oral history collections. The general approach is that collections owners are urged to comply with interoperability standards on the dissemination of metadata and content. By adopting these standards, content owners allow aggregators to channel content into local portals (e.g., Verteld Verleden) or even international portals such as the Europeana portal

Europeana portal: (link)

. The Verteld Verleden portal serves here as a so called thematic portal.
Verteld Verleden promotes OAI-PMH, the Protocol for Metadata Harvesting and stimulates content owners to have their content available using a streaming media protocol to enable play-out of search results. The Verteld Verleden portal harvests metadata from associated institutes and provides centralized search for searching and browsing the collections that are linked up. As the portal’s user interface can also be embedded in the local websites, content owners can be provided with search functionality for their own content.

State-of-the-art
The portal is equipped with state-of-the-art search technology and a flexible user interface that allows the project to adapt it easily to the requirements of researchers and content owners that are expected to advance during the project as a result of discussions at workshops and local expert sessions. An important requirement of researchers is evidently to have sophisticated means to access and analyse available Oral History collections. To a large extent however, access to collections is rather limited due to the lack of appropriate fragment-level semantic descriptions. Metadata is often only sparsely available, forcing scholars to play an A/V item in full in order to decide if, and if so, which parts of the material are of interest for their research. Moreover, exploring possible correlations and connections both within and across large data collections requires an additional layer on top of the metadata for the interlinking of multimedia content sources and/or collection fragments. Ultimately, also dedicated technology for browsing, accessing, analysing and comparing sources effectively during the various phases of research (exploration, analysis, publication, verification) are a prerequisite for the innovation of the methodological framework of humanities researchers and for the formulation of new questions and the renewal of research agendas. In order to successfully exploit these technologies for the purpose of humanities research, their development must strongly be steered by the demands and requisites of the researchers and their research paradigms.

Speech Recognition
A special role in the project is assigned to the use of speech recognition technology. Speech recognition can play an important role in the process of making Oral History content better accessible, either directly via the conversion of speech to text or indirectly using available textual transcripts and a technology derived from speech recognition often referred to as forced-alignment. Verteld Verleden offers associated content owners the use of a speech recognition service supported by the Dutch CATCHPlus program

OAI-PMH: (link)

, that aims to valorise scientific research results to usable tools and services for the Entire Dutch heritage sector.
Deploying speech recognition brings up an additional challenge with regard to metadata models and harvesting standards: it encompasses the need to incorporate time-labelled into the metadata model. Approaches are currently investigated in close collaboration with CLARIN-NL, a project on Common Language Resources and Technology Infrastructure

CLARIN-NL: (link)

References:
Verteld Verleden homepage: , (link)

CATCHPlus program, (link)","txt","2","",""
"1338","12","The Ethics of Virtual Cultural Representation","2","The Ethics of Virtual Cultural Representation
Szabo, Victoria, Duke University, ves4@duke.edu
Spatial/temporal platforms for visualizing humanities data offer scholars new ways of representing the people, places, and material objects they study within a larger cultural context. These environments can be used to illuminate the lives of individual people, groups and objects over time, present archival materials in geographical or topological context, model theories of structural change over time, and annotate lived experience of the physical world in realtime. While digital maps, virtual worlds, and location-based mobile applications differ in how they represent information, each has attributes that both lend them authority and power, and potentially provoke ethical challenges. This project attempts to articulate some of those features in order to develop guidelines for ethical rich media map and virtual world construction in the humanities.

As digital humanities scholars we sometimes adopt tools created for purposes different from our own. It is our responsibility to understand the rhetorical effects of the communications strategies we adopt for our teaching and research. In the case of spatial/temporal platforms like Google Earth, the built-in assumptions about content-presentation rely on consistently abstracted information. Because humanities “data” is often heterogeneous, ambiguous, incomplete, qualitative and partial, it does not always fit well with a “vector” platform that demands specificity. The temptation to assign a point, a line, a path, a region, or a date can be powerful when assembling an archive. At the same time, the “bitmap” aspects of a rich media environment, both the panoptic stitched imagery of satellite views and street views, and the user-generated annotations, naturalize and potentially humanize they system’s affect, lending it further power as a tool for spatial-temporal representation.

To combat these totalizing tendencies, we can understand our assemblages as database driven, hypermediated historical narratives, whose organizing principles of space and time offer a thru-line for our content. Doing so requires that we show the seams, make the construction produces visible in the final product, and allow the user to deconstruct, or drill-down in our creations. The separation of presentation and data that is a mainstay for coders is difficult to maintain in this context, but is a useful guide when thinking about display possibilities. The goal is to reveal the ways in which a map or virtual-world based presentation is a coherent, but not exclusive, narrative built up out of and illustrated by the materials at hand. Ideally the presentation layer can be added onto and changed based on new information, additional data, or other perspectives.

This approach to spatial/temporal project creation has implications for how we construct, share, and annotate digital map and virtual world based project, which will be elaborated here through three examples. Each project includes both quantitative and qualitative “data” sources, georeferenced content, and a focus on a specific historical or cultural group. While none of these projects are specifically ethnographic or documentary in focus, each raises ethical challenges for the digital media author representing a populated environment. Example Projects:

1. Multimedia Mapping: Muhuru Bay, Kenya, was undertaken by a team of faculty, postdocs, students, and community leaders. This complex project involved the ISIS Program, Duke Global Health researchers, DukeEngage, a summer enrichment program for undergraduates, and the WISER Foundation, an NGO. Some of the issues that arose here were around the use of demographic and survey data reflecting the local population, testimonials by local children on their lived experience as female students in the community, the exposure of selected aspects of the local infrastructure, including a latrine quality survey as part of a publicly accessible rich media map. This project also involved the creation of what were literally the first contemporary maps of the region showing location and sub- location boundaries of the various provinces and villages in Muhuru Bay, and well as a research study on local children’s perspectives on mapping as part of study of the social geographies of AIDS and HIV.

2. “The Walltown Neighborhood History Project,” is a community mapping project, involved seventh and eighth grade students in a summer camp-based experience which involved overlaying historical census data information and fire insurance maps onto a contemporary Google map of their community. This project was intended to promote technology literacy among the students, to provide a chance for local community members to learn more about their neighborhood’s history and contribute their own content, and for Duke researchers to leverage an archive of historical “Digital Durham” materials in a highly accessible, public fashion. Challenges here include the public presentation of historical data in a public, georeferenced context, the presentation of historically racialized demographic language to be read in the non-scholarly context of a Google map, the production of a local and collective identity for the Walltown residents via expressive and quantitative (GIS) data, and the potential exposure of individuals on the public web, even granting their informed consent.

3. The “Virtual Haiti Project,” is part of a Humanities Lab focused on Haiti and supported by Duke’s Franklin Humanities Institute. Students in a class called “Representing Haiti” are asking the question of what it means to create a “Haiti Island” in Second Life, and what it is and is not appropriate to model there. We need to understand how a geo-referenced constructed environment exceeds the bounds of our intentionality, which in this case is to create a Kreyòl language learning space and virtual front end to a library of Haiti-related, downloadable resources alongside a set of coordinated maps related to visualizing the Haitian diaspora. Perhaps more fruitful than direct mirror-world strategies in-world be non-representational strategies such as psychogeographies, associative place-based meditations, and imaginative transformations or reconstructions. Yet why not also a Port-au-Prince StreetView?","txt","2","",""
"1339","12","gabmap - A Web Application for Measuring and Visualizing Distances Between Language Varieties","15","gabmap – A Web Application for Measuring and Visualizing Distances Between Language Varieties
Nerbonne, John, University of Groningen, j.nerbonne@rug.n
Gooskens, Charlotte, University of Groningen, c.s.gooskens@rug.nl
Kleiweg, Peter, University of Groningen, p.c.j.kleiweg@rug.nl
Leinonen, Therese, University of Groningen, t.leinonen@rug.nl
Wieling, Martijn, University of Groningen, wieling@gmail.com
We frequently ask in linguistics, especially in dialectology and comparative linguistics, how similar linguistic varieties are to one another, effectively asking how similar linguistic culture is from one site to another. We operationalize the question more specifically by asking e.g. how similar the vocabulary of one variety is to another, or more interestingly how similar the pronunciations of a set of varieties are, sampled via the pronunciations of the same set of at least 30 words at a range of sites. Since there may be thousands of words and hundreds of sites, the questions must be addressed computationally. The techniques embodied in the web application have been used in dozens of scholarly papers on dialectology (see references).

At the University of Groningen the gabmap application has been developed that is capable of measuring differences in linguistic samples, including in particular sets of phonetic (or phonemic) transcriptions, to project present the results graphically onto maps. Gabmap is a graphical user interface that implements not only the comparison of vocabulary or other categorical data (essentially as percentage overlap or percentage difference) but also that of pronunciations via edit distance. Because the software is implemented as a web application users are not required to download it nor to keep it up to date by following releases. It is fairly user friendly and easily accessible and therefore enables experimentation with different techniques popular among linguists from various fields, especially dialectology and variationist linguistics.

During the workshop we will give some theoretical background about dialectometry followed by a tutorial where the theory is put into practice with exercises showing how to use the web-application. We have given similar courses in dialectology previously, for example during the Linguistic Society of America Linguistics Institute in 2005 at MIT and to the special meeting of the Forum Sprachvariation of the Internationale Gesellschaft füt deutsche Dialektologie in Erlangen in Oct. 2010 (www.sprachwissenschaft.uni-erlangen.de/tagung/programm.shtml). The workshop proposed here will be like the second in that it will include hands-on sessions.

The workshop will be structured as follows:

Introduction to dialectometry
Data entry: uploading dialect data, creating and uploading maps
Data inspection: data distribution and error detection
Measuring linguistic distances
Graphical presentations of linguistic distances: dialect maps
Statistical analyses: multidimensional scaling and clustering
Data mining, identifying influential individual variables (words, pronunciation variants)
We have named the gabmap collaborators as co-authors of the tutorial, but only Nerbonne and maximally one other will offer the tutorial. We can accommodate up to 20 participants.

We add a note to potential participants from non-linguistic fields. In theory one might ask the same questions of non-linguistic culture that we ask of linguistic culture, namely to what degree is e.g. the material culture of one settlement similar to that of another. We suspect that one might attack the non-linguistic question using techniques similar to the ones we will demonstrate during this tutorial, i.e. one might gather question as, but the point is purely theoretical so far, although we would welcome the chance to examine the question in a data-intensive way. If such studies are carried out, we suspect that at least the mapping facilities we demonstrate in this tutorial will be useful.

References:
Alewijnse, B., Nerbonne, J., van der Veen, L. & Manni, F. 2007 “A Computational Analysis of Gabon Varieties, ”

Proceedings of the RANLP Workshop on Computational Phonology. In P. Osenova et al. (eds.), 3–12 Borovetz,

Gooskens, C. & Heeringa, W. 2004 “Perceptive evaluation of Levenshtein dialect distance measurements using Norwegian dialect data, ” Language Variation and Change, 16 3 189–207

Heeringa, W. 2004 Measuring dialect pronunciation differences using Levenshtein distance. Ph.D. thesis, University of Groningen,

Kessler, B. 1995 “Computational dialectology in Irish Gaelic, ” In Proceedings of the 7th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 60–67 Dublin EACL

Leinonen, Therese 2008 “Factor Analysis of Vowel Pronunciation in Swedish Dialects, ” International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing, 2(1-2) 189-204

Nerbonne, J. 2009 “Data-driven dialectology, ” Language and Linguistics Compass, 3(1) 175–198

Nerbonne, J. & Siedle, C. 2005 “Dialektklassifikation auf der Grundlage Aggregierter Ausspracheunterschiede, ” Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 72(2) 129–147

Prokic, J., Nerbonne, J., Zhobov, V., Osenova, P., Simov, K., Zastrow, T. & Hinrichs, E. 2009 “The Computational Analysis of Bulgarian Dialect Pronunciation, ” Serdica Journal of Computing, 3(3) 269–298

Spruit, M. 2006 “Measuring syntactic variation in Dutch dialects, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, special issue on Progress in Dialectometry: Toward Explanation [Nerbonne, J., Kretzschmar, W. (eds)], 21(4) 493–506

Yang, C. & Castro, A. 2008 “Representing Tone in Levenshtein Distance, ” International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing, 2(1-2) 205–219","txt","2","",""
"1340","12","Extending the Life of the Broadside Ballad: The English Broadside Ballad Archive from Microfilm to Color Photography","2","Extending the Life of the Broadside Ballad: The English Broadside Ballad Archive from Microfilm to Color Photography
Becker, Charlotte, University of California, Santa Barbara, becker.charlotte@gmail.com
Meyer, Shannon, University of California, Santa Barbara, meyer.shannon@gmail.com
The English Broadside Ballad Archive (EBBA) is a digital archive housed in the English Department of the University of California, Santa Barbara (http://ebba.english.ucsb.edu), under the direction of Professor Patricia Fumerton, and with funding from three NEH Reference Materials Grants (2006-8, 2008-10, and 2010-12). English broadside ballads were mass printed from the sixteenth through the ninenteenth century; in their “heyday” of the seventeenth century, they were multimedia productions that included woodcut images, a poem, and the title of a popular tune, to which the poem could be sung. The goal of the EBBA project is to recreate for users the lively interaction with these multimedia artifacts that approximates how early modern people might have encountered them at the height of their popularity. The EBBA archive is especially important because the surviving artifacts are extremely fragile and in most cases inaccessible to scholars, let alone the general public. The EBBA website provides facsimile images of the broadsides as they would have appeared when printed, transcriptions of the poem, facsimile transcriptions displaying the poem in the context of the original broadside but rendered in modern type, and audio recordings of the ballads being sung. Thanks to color images of ballad collections that EBBA has acquired during the past year, the EBBA team has begun to add another layer to the archive: now, in addition to reflecting the early modern experience with the ballads, EBBA can display the ballads as they appear in collections today.

We propose a multimedia poster presentation demonstrating the long-standing features of EBBA, and highlighting our recent acquisition of color images of the Roxburghe ballad collection through a contract with the British Library. At the British Library, the albums that comprise the Roxburghe collection are not made available to the public or even to most scholars because of their fragile condition; however, the texts in the collection remain highly important to scholars because they offer particular insight into early modern popular culture and demonstrate developments in print culture over the three centuries during which the collected ballads were printed and circulated. EBBA’s acquisition, manipulation, and mounting of the Roxburghe color images is exciting and challenging from both the user and developer points of view, and will be the focus of our presentation.

For scholarly users of the site, these photographs are important because they show the results of the collection process. In the case of the Roxburghe collection, this process often involved cutting broadsheets in half and pasting the halves into albums, with the two sides of the ballad either on facing pages or one side above the other on a single page. Sometimes ballads were pasted sideways into the album, uncut and folded at the edges to fit inside the closed album. EBBA has previously, for the collection of Pepys ballads, offered microfilm-based black and white images (called “ballad facsimiles” on our site) to simulate the appearance of the original whole broadside. But adding color images and “album facsimiles,” as in the case of the Roxburghe collection, helps EBBA give users a better sense of the long life and changing cultural contexts of broadside ballads. One aspect of this long life is the handwritten emendations made by collectors and overzealous antiquarians. Whether commentary or additions that assist in reading the ballad, these emendations are an essential part of understanding the reception and use of the artifacts over time. EBBA’s text transcription rules are geared toward providing a searchable, readable text of each ballad as it was originally printed, yet the EBBA team wanted to ensure that the prolific and often illuminating handwriting in the Roxburghe collection could be accessed by users. The color images capture the physical object in great detail, rendering the handwriting entirely visible and accessible to scholars wishing to read it; thus, users can now see this important feature of the Roxburge ballads for themselves.

As our presentation will show, these color images have been a unique opportunity for the EBBA team to think about our responsibility to present these artifacts in a way that balances scholarly utility, visual fidelity, and the EBBA site’s technical capability. The British Library’s “Turning the Pages” software and Virtual Books webpage is a well-known example of the kind of virtual access to textual artifacts that we aim to provide; however, the nature of the Roxburghe albums makes such a presentation particularly challenging. We are dealing with albums where the ballads were arranged in unpredictable ways when collected, where page discoloration makes aesthetic uniformity difficult to achieve, and where parts of the ballads are often obscured or distorted by folding or insertion in the albums’ gutter. In addition to finding ways to account for these visual aberrations, the EBBA team spent a great deal of time deliberating over optimal file size for image delivery and attempting to find the most advantageous balance between server speed and image detail. These practices and decisions are crucial ones as EBBA continues to acquire color images of other ballads, including the Euing collection from the University of Glasgow, and the Britwell ballads from the Huntington Library.

Given the irregular and sometimes haphazard nature of ballad collection, decisions such as these will continue to face the EBBA team as the project moves forward with these and hopefully other extant collections in the future. We are excited to share EBBA’s progress, as well as our dynamic process of decision making, as we continue to make early modern broadside ballads available to the public.","txt","2","",""
"1341","12","Digital Collections at Duke University Libraries","2","Digital Collections at Duke University Libraries
Aery, Sean , sean.aery@duke.edu Duke University,
Sexton, Will, will.sexton@duke.edu Duke University,
The digitization of primary sources for humanities research marks one of the important ways that the emergence of a digital culture has transformed libraries, special collections, and other cultural heritage organizations. The last fifteen years have seen a wide range of initiatives among both small and large organizations to expose unique artifacts, including manuscripts, still photographs, film, audio and print. The practice of digitizing primary sources has come to be known in the vernacular of the library profession as “digital collections.”

Staff at Duke University Libraries have collaborated during the last part of 2010 on re-imagining, re-engineering and re-implementing the web application by which the library provides discovery and access for its digital collections. Our work plan targets January of 2011 as a release date for the remade interface. As part of an outreach effort to the research and education communities that comprise the target audience for this application, we propose a poster and demo presentation at Digital Humanities ‘11.

For the development team at Duke, the project has presented an opportunity to think in depth about the landscape in which we publish our digital collections. The application that we seek to replace went live in January 2008, after an in-house development process that was expedited to head off the decommissioning of hardware. Since that time, we have considered how a more measured development process might enable us to upgrade the user experience.

We went through a lengthy process of gathering feedback from users and stakeholders of the existing digital collections site. We analyzed other libraries’ digital collections efforts, content-focused sites like Flickr and Youtube, and retail sites like Netflix, Amazon and Zappos. We also gave considerable thought to the ways that open API’s, social networking and concepts such as linked data transform the ways that students, instructors and researchers experience online resources.

Project manager Sean Aery has written extensively about the project and included many screenshots of the new page design on the library’s Digital Collections Blog. His postings outline the research-heavy approach that we took in developing the interface design. In addition, we have worked to incorporate linked data concepts into the underlying representation of collections metadata. One of the objectives for this project is to develop an open API for the collections, to foster the development of applications by interested users. Presenting the framework to digital humanities scholars will prove invaluable in meeting this last objective. [See the http://library.duke.edu/blogs/digital-collections/category/website-redesign/].

One of the key decisions in our process was the choice to decouple the digital collections interface from other elements of our digital collections infrastructure. The application is a standalone framework developed in the Django platform, with Solr to provide the faceted searching functionality, and a mechanism for synchronizing data from other components. The decoupling of this application from tools for developing and managing content allows the development team to work in short, iterative cycles, free from dependencies on other aspects of the program’s technology infrastructure.

A significant selection of advertising-related materials from one of Duke’s collection centers, the John W. Hartman Center for Sales, Advertising and Marketing History.
Important documentary photography collections such as the Sidney D. Gamble Photographs of early-twentieth-century China.
Many rare books not available in other venues.
Finally, and critically, all of these processes, decisions and source code updates have come in the service of a great body of important and compelling content for humanities researchers. Much of the material is housed in Duke’s Rare Book, Manuscript and Special Collections Library, one of the world’s leading libraries of its kind. Digitized collections include:

Duke has a very active Digital Production Center, and we plan to publish a wide variety of new and compelling materials in the first quarter of the new year. All of the content is freely available for educators, students and researchers.

Our process of learning from our users and patrons does not end with the release of the new platform. We want to learn about ways we can improve the quality of the collections and the experience. Our goal is to make the digital collections a premier resource for research and learning in the humanities and social sciences. Digital humanities scholars comprise one of our important target audiences, and the DH11 conference provides us an important opportunity to engage in the discussion around this field of study.","txt","2","",""
"1342","12","Reusability of Literary Corpora: the ""Montaigne at work"" Project","1","Reusability of Literary Corpora: the ""Montaigne at work"" Project
Marie-Luce Demonet, Centre d'Etudes Supérieures de la Renaissance, UMR-CNRS , Université Francois-Rabelais, Tours, France, marie-luce.demonet@univ-tours.fr
Introduction
I shall examine to what extent the BVH (Virtual Humanistic Libraries) project on Montaigne could be considered not simply another electronic edition, but also a component of a digital humanities infrastructure, observing the keywords of an integrated search: reliability, sustainability, dissemination, and above all, reusability. Is a project about Montaigne's work compatible with the ""genericity"" required for an undertaking that concerns a wide community?

""Montaigne at Work"" in the BVH Website
The Bibliothèques Virtuelles Humanistes (http://www.bvh.univ-tours.fr) offers facsimiles (jpeg and light pdf) of books or manuscripts, extracted graphics with their indexing systems, and a textual database called Epistemon. It offers two types of digital surrogates of the book: the facsimile and, for some documents written in French, the corresponding transcription without modifications.

In itself, the idea of digitizing Montaigne's complete works is not original. A ""Corpus Montaigne"" already exists on CD-Rom but no online version is available at present, and access is limited to the few libraries that could afford it. Corpus Montaigne, Paris: Champion-Garnier électronique, 1999.The ""Montaigne project"" in Chicago (P. Desan) offers many documents related to Montaigne: it displays the ""Villey"" edition with every page of the ""Bordeaux copy"" (Exemplaire de Bordeaux, the so-called ""EB""), but the distinction between the three main layers (1580-1582, 1588, 1588-EB) does not comply to the requirements of modern philology and scholarship: cancellations are not visible, and the editor modified the punctuation as well as the spelling.Montaigne project, http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ARTFL/projects/montaigne/The 1595 (posthumous) edition is already available in HTML format at the mysterious Trismegiste website, but there is no XML encoding, and the spelling is regularized. http://www.bribes.org/trismegiste/es1ch03.htm.In our project, all the editions will offer the double display of original/regularized spelling; indexes of names, places, errata, and a basic encoding appropriate for early printed books and manuscripts. Easy retrieval of both versions, in the format preferred (XML/TEI, HTML, PDF) will be the user's choice, according to the principle of reusability.

As we share our expertise with cultural institutions, we borrow our techniques and methods of digitization of cultural heritage objects, such as rare books collections, from libraries and archive repositories: digitization, metadata organization and catalogs, and database management. Our membership in the European Library (Europeana) helps to understand the difference between a cultural heritage attitude and a research project.http://www.europeana.eu/portal/.The parallel display of the facsimiles and their transcriptions, TEI encoding, tools for scholarly annotations and an accurate query system are not simple challenges to take on: the uniqueness of every work of art, the complexity of the process of writing seems incompatible with the unified view of textual databases usually found in library websites (e.g. Shakespeare at the British Library) or linguistic corpora (Frantext database or ARTFL in Chicago). Scholarly annotation will be minimal, and limited to the accuracy of the transcription, in order to provide a basis for further commentary, encyclopedic information, and glossaries. The very process of building the corpus for online publication is a field of new research in this case, for it combines ergonomic full display and retrieval, complex and relevant extraction procedures, treatment of texts and graphics.

The ""Montaigne at work"" project aims to support both the reading and the mining of the text, and to render the chronology. Our new data, expertise, and tools will try to fulfill the main goal we have always had of understanding Montaigne's Essays better: 1) to offer a genetic editionof the ""Bordeaux copy,"" containing several layers of handwritten additions that reveal up to seven moments of writing or re-writing; 2) to give access to what is left of the famous ""Librairie de Montaigne"". The main corpus (all the editions from 1580 to 1595, with their transcriptions) will be enshrined inside a wider set of later editions of the Essais (Marie de Gournay's copy, Rousseau's copy), of several other works of Montaigne (the translation of the Theologie naturelleby Raymond Sebond, the Journal de voyage), of all his surviving manuscripts (marginalia, letters and Parliament archives), and of facsimiles of about a hundred identified sources (mainly classics, but also books by his contemporaries).

Genetic Encoding
The genetic edition of the Bordeaux copy, compatible with the TEI schemas for manuscripts and prints, and the ""TEI Renaissance encoding"" protocol developed in Tours, Manuel d'encodage TEI-Renaissance, 2009, http://www.bvh.univ-tours.fr/XML-TEI/index.asp.raises the question of the relevance of such an undertaking. It must from with a benchmarking of other websites offering open access to digitized works of late Medieval and Early Modern period (Chaucer, Dante, Shakespeare, Cervantes, Descartes, Molière,...). What kind of textual properties do these sites represent? Do they use several models? Exclusive tools? Many literary projects, particularly in France, do not use TEI encoding (Flaubert in Rouen, Montesquieu in Lyons, Stendhal in Grenoble), and scholarly corpora seem to be specific to each author.

Classicists and Medievalists have opened many doors, and they know quite well how to refine an ultra-diplomatic encoding and display. Rendering the writing process requires the adequate edition to feed every hypothesis about the moments of the gesture itself, the ""traits de plume"" (pen strokes), and the modifications the printing press of the time forced upon the original. Special software designed by our computer science partners (in Tours, Paris, Rouen, La Rochelle) is currently being developed to detect image similarity. Thus, Montaigne's different ""hands"" could be classified according to time and language, with the expert help of Alain Legros (researcher in Tours, and an expert in Montaigne's handwriting).LEGROS, Alain, Montaigne manuscrit, Paris : Garnier, 2010.We need also the clearest visualization of the readable parts, the possibility of displaying either a smoothed text or a page, which represents all the complex arrangements of the words in a spatio-temporal order. No models seem to be directly reusable: ours would take place between the very precise reconstitution of all the spellings of Medieval texts (e.g. the Actes des Apôtresproject) and the Madame Bovarydigital edition of manuscripts at the University of Rouen, but with a display system that would look like the Deutsche Text Archive (DTA): the facsimile of the page linked to the HTML text, and to the XML/TEI source, searchable with PhiloLogic (Mark Olsen, University of Chicago) and other NLP tools, with the XTF search engine. Actes des Apôtres, http://eserve.org.uk/anr/; DTA, http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/; Madame Bovary, http://bovary.univ-rouen.fr/; XTF, http://xtf.cdlib.org/documentation/programming-guide/.All the quotations of the Bordeaux copy will be fully referenced and translated in French.

In Tours, we have already begun the keyboarding and encoding of the main editions (1580-82, 1588, 1595). The genetic edition of the Bordeaux copy will be based on the principles of the ITEM laboratory (École Normale Supérieure, Paris), a leader in genetic analysis, which are compatible with the TEI tagging of the main operations (addition, deletion, inversion, etc.), according to the latest documentation of the TEI consortium. The COST ""Interedition"" project (funded by Europe) offers several tools to test (e.g. Collatex for the main editions), and discusses some issues close to our preoccupations, such as the limits of crowdsourcing: we plan to use collaborative annotation by scholars for corrections of errors. http://www.interedition.eu/.

Every layer of text must be retrievable, to avoid incompatibility between the genetic and the generic, and to guarantee reusability to anyone who wishes to process the text (with permission) for other purposes. Ideally, a collaborative edition of Montaigne's Essaiswould blossom out of the accurate transcription of the Bordeaux copy, and/or of the posthumous 1595 edition: the debate is still pending among specialists.

Automatic Regularization
We will generate three levels of transcripts:

the ""quasi-diplomatic"" transcript, crucial for the comparison between the typeset and the handwritten passages (the spelling of which has never been thoroughly studied)
the ""cultural heritage"" transcription that regularizes the distinction of I/J and U/V, expands the brevigraphs and normalizes the ends-of-lines, so that the corpus can be processed by the NLP tools and parallel corpora analysis
the modernized version, so that powerful search engines can offer accurate results to anybody.
A prototype of I/J U/V normalization tool is already prototyped in Tours and Poitiers, with a set of rules and specific dictionaries; the modernization tool is in progress, and requires another set of rules, and other dictionaries.
The development of these tools benefits one of the two Google awards that the University of Tours obtained in December 2010 for ""Full-text retrieval and indexation for Early Modern French documents"". New software will process a sentence such as:

Ie veus qu'ō m'y voie en ma façō simple, naturelle & ordinaire, sans estu de & artifice: car c'est moy que ie peins(Montaigne, Essais, 1580)

With these spellings, the user who is not a specialist will find only few results in his word or string query because of typographic abbreviations ( façōfor façon), obsolete morphology ( veusfor veux), and the frequent lack of hyphenation. In modern editions, one will find easily « estude » in the editions following former spellings; but if one looks for « étude » (in modern French), the old spelling will not be offered, and one will miss the variant « estude » in the corpus, where moreover the word is typed without hyphenation.Cf. the Old English variation analysis in the York-Helsinki corpora (http://www.helsinki.fi/varieng/CoRD/corpora/YCOE/index.html).

Montaigne's Library
Thus, Montaigne's library itself can be rebuilt through the comprehensive digitization of what remains of the hundred known copies with his signatures and annotations: 33 are preserved at the French National Library, 30 at the Bordeaux Public Library, others in at least 15 other libraries and private collections. Samples of his handwriting will be analyzed and compared to non-attributed manuscripts, in order to confirm or exclude dubious documents.

Such a project will enlarge the knowledge we already have of Montaigne's method of writing, within the context of his favorite readings. If other projects provide data, this one offers also reusable sets of transcriptions, facsimiles and new tools for further analysis.","txt","2","",""
"1343","12","A User-Centered Digital Edition of Vuk Stefanović Karadžić's Lexicon Serbico-Germanico-Latinum","1","A User-Centered Digital Edition of Vuk Stefanović Karadžić's Lexicon Serbico-Germanico-Latinum
Tasovac, Toma , Center for Digtial Humanities (Belgrade, Serbia) , ttasovac@humanistika.org
Ermolaev, Natalia , Center for Digtial Humanities (Belgrade, Serbia) , ne99@columbia.edu
Dictionaries lie at the core of the human ability to conceptualize, systematize and convey meaning. But a dictionary (both print and digital) is many things at once: a text, a tool, a model of language, and a cultural object deeply embedded in the historical moment of its production (Tasovac, 2010). While it is true that we now live in the age of the electronic dictionary (de Schryver, 2003), dictionaries have always played an important role in the interplay between production technology and knowledge taxonomies (McArthur, 1986; Hüllen and Schulze, 1988; Hüllen, 1999). In this respect, historical dictionaries remain particularly valuable objects of study because they illustrate sociolinguistic perceptions and reveal culturally shaded conceptualizations of lexical knowledge of a particular epoch — often in stark contrast to our contemporary attitudes and values. Moreover, they pose a veritable challange for text encoding, semantic markup and database modeling (Fomin and Toner, 2006; Nyhan, 2006; Nyhan, 2008; Mooijaart and van der Wal, 2009; Lemnitzer et al., 2010). This is why all dictionaries, including retrodigitized historical dictionaries, are important for digital humanities, and why DH — with its concern for (abstract) modeling of knowledge and its (practical) implementations in humanities research — can integrate and propel different trains of lexicographic and metalexicographic thought at the intersection of language and technology.

Many DH research projects have aimed to produce electronic editions of printed lexicons (see for instance Morrissey, 1993; Lemberg et al., 1998; Christmann, 2001; Fournier, 2001). In such efforts, retrodigitization is usually based on one of two approaches: either the production of “faithful“ digital copies (at the cost of reproducing factual or typographic errors), or the structural modelling of the content, which treats the print edition as a data source, rather than as an immutable text to be reproduced in its entirety (Lobenstein-Reichmann, 2008). In either case, retrodigitization projects tend not to involve any degree of re-editing or expanding the actual content of historical dictionaries.

We agree with Kirkness (2008) that digitalizing historical dictionaries can increase and optimize their use value, especially in global, networked environments. But we also feel that one central aspect is often overlooked in current studies of retrodigitized dictionaries: users interacting with a historic lexicon do no longer necessarily have active command of the text's primary language. Even when historical dictionaries are retrodigitized with the user's needs in mind, the focus is usually on easy-to-handle navigation, presentation layout and retrieval of elements from a full-text search (Christmann, 2003); or on uniformization of existing data elements, such as dates (Kinable, 2006). While these efforts are worthwhile and necessary because they contribute greatly to editions that are more usable and eﬃcient than their hardcopy counterparts, electronic dictionaries remain in essence lookup tools (for words encountered in a given text) rather than exploratory tools (for unknown words or concepts). This, we believe, can reduce both their scholarly and popular appeal.

It may seem unlikely at ﬁrst that historical dictionaries can generate non-academic interest, but experience has shown that there is a broad audience outside highly professionalized linguistic circles that is both curious and enthusiastic about exploring the historic and ethnographic fabric of a language (Kirkness, 2008). In our own web-project — “Reklakaza.la” (Serbian for “hearsay”) — we have been publishing online selected entries from the classic, 19th-century Serbian Dictionary by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić and linking them via social networks Twitter (http://twitter.com/ Vuk_Karadzic) and Facebook (http://facebook.com/reklakaza.la). The project has gained more than 24,000 fans on Facebook alone, becoming a platform for bringing meaningful humanities inquiry into the public conversation, fostering the sense of community, sharing, and mutual learning that proves the relevance of the humanities in today's world despite academic budget cuts and declining job opportunities.

The success of our pilot project has strengthened our conviction that a modern, electronic edition of Karadžić's dictionary is long overdue. Vuk Stefanović Karadžić (1787-1864), the linguist, folklorist and reformer of the Serbian language, published his landmark Srpski rječnik, istumačen njemačkijem i latinskijem riječima — Lexicon Serbico-Germanico-Latinum in two editions (1818 and 1852). This ﬁrst lexicon of the modern Serbian vernacular, rather than the Church-Slavic hybrid language used by the educated elites up to the 19th century, has a unique place in the history of not only the Serbian language, but the South Slavic diasystem in general (Дмитриев and Сафронов, 1984; Wilson, 1986; Стојановић, 1987; Eschker, 1988; Potthoff, 1990; Ивић, 1990; Vitalich, 2005; Кулаковский, 2005). The text is rich with ethnographic and anthropological material. Not only do many entries contain examples of Balkan folk storytelling, but some are themselves structured as historical, cultural and ethnographic narratives that offer informative sketches and sometimes even very detailed accounts of the myths and realities of the Balkan past (see, for instance, entries for кмет, отмица, мора, хајдук, etc.).

Though it was republished twice (in 1898 and 1935), the Lexicon has not been reprinted since (other than in facsimile editions). Meeting the needs of modern-day users, however, presents a host of editorial challenges. The entries in the Lexicon are written mainly in a dialect which is on the margins of contemporary standard Serbian. Thus, the lexicographic material is not always entirely understood by contemporary speakers, and can often appear obscure or unwieldy. It is hard for the average user to answer questions such as: what was the early 19th-century equivalent of a mod-ern-day Serbian word? What household objects, for instance, are listed in Karadžić‘s dictionary? What words were difficult or impossible for Karadžić to translate into German or Latin?

Our “Annotated Digital Edition of Vuk Stefanović Karadžić’s Srpski rječnik” is therefore conceived as a resource that caters to access needs and habits of modern scholars, teachers, students, and, last but not least, general readers. The entries are marked up XML, in compliance with the Guidelines of the Text Encoding Initiative (Burnard et al., 2006). In this, initial phase of the project, we are focusing solely on text encoding, but in view of the potential use in a data-base driven web-application at a later stage.

In addition to marking up existing structural elements of a dictionary entry (such as lemma, part of speech, senses, deﬁnitions, translation equivalents, examples etc.), our work supplies important additional information that will enhance the modern-day user's interaction with the dictionary, including:

standard Serbian equivalents to dialect word forms (e.g. бичевање vs. бичкарење, мешина vs. мљешина, енглески vs. инглешки);
Serbian ekavian word-forms to both standard and east-Herzegovina jekavian entries (e.g. терати vs. тјерати, терати vs. ћерати);
both the original 19th-century accentuation (e.g. кòчија̑шки) and its modern-day graphic equivalent (кòчија̄шкӣ);
indications when modern-day accentuation differs from the from found in the Lexicon (e.g. мо̑ре vs. мо̏ре, das Meer, mare);
an extension of the extant cross-reference system through linking synonymous and near-synonymous entries that have been overlooked by previous editors (e.g. жаба and напнигуша; обрљуга and неопера).
labeling of Turkisms overlooked by previous editors (e.g. була, инћар, џукела);
marking up persons, places and dates for easy indexing and analysis;
indications of word usage (eg. ист. and ист. кр. as <usage type=""geo"">East</usg> for better statistical analysis and possible further processing and creation of geo-spatial word maps etc.);
marking up instances where Karadžić uses a ﬁrst-person narrative to explain an entry;
indications of the edition in which entries appeared for the ﬁrst time, etc.
Furthermore, we are assigning semantic domain labels to word senses in accordance with Magnini and Cavaglia, 2000; Bentivogli et al., 2004, cross-referencing senses with the Transpoetika Dictionary — a bilingualized, Wordnet-based Serbian-English dictionary (Tasovac, 2009), and providing English glosses in addition to the existing German and Latin. All of this will help us meet our goal of moving beyond the current paradigm of limiting retrodigital text editing to the creation of electronic replicas of hardcopy lexicons or semantically structured electronic representations of the original data source. We are interested in hybrid approaches that respect the integrity of the original text, but also take advantage of the digital medium to create modern, deeply-encoded, user-centered editions of historical dictionaries, which can not only provide look-up mechanisms for particular words, but also function as exploratory tools for various types of knowledge discovery.

Some practical advantages of our edition of Vuk Karadžić's dictionary will include reverse look-ups, allowing a user to search an English, German, or Latin word and ﬁnd its Serbian equivalent in the Lexicon. The domain labels will provide researchers with valuable and, for the ﬁrst time, measurable information about the clusters of paradigmatically related terms, as well as the extent of domain ambiguity and domain variability. Users will be able to treat semantic domains as thematic entry points into the dictionary, looking up, for instance, all entries that belong to AGRICULTURE, FOLKLORE, HISTORY or GASTRONOMY; while our logically and semantically consistent markup of Karadžić's own usage notes will make it possible for users to easily explore regional and dialectological distribution of entries in the Lexicon, offering a basis for subsequent work that could involve data visualization, statistical analysis, text mining etc.

References:
Bentivogli, L P Forner B Magnini E Pianta 2004 “Revising the Wordnet Domains Hierarchy: Semantics, Coverage and Balancing, ” Proceedings of the Workshop on Multilingual Linguistic Resources, 101-108

Burnard, Lou Katherine O’Brien John Unsworth 2006 Electronic Textual Editing, New York The Modern Language Association of America

Christmann, R 2001 “Books into bytes: Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm’s Deutsches Worterbuch on CDROM and on the Internet, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 16 no. 2 121-133

Christmann, R2003 “Towards the User: The Digital Edition of the Deutsche Worterbuch by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, ” Literary and linguistic computing, 181: 11-22.

de Schryver, Gilles-Maurice2003 “Lexicographer’s Dreams in the Electronic-Dictionary Age, ” . International Journal of Lexicography, 162: 143-199

Eschker, Wolfgang, ed. 1988Jacob Grimm und Vuk Karadžić: Zeugnisse einer Gelehrtenfreundschaft, Volkskundliche Schriften, Bd. 4 KasselE. Röth-Verlag

Fomin, Maxim Gregory Toner. 2006 “Digitizing a Dictionary of Medieval Irish: the eDIL Project, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 21 1 83

Fournier, Johannes 2001. “New directions in Middle High German lexicography: dictionaries interlinked electronically, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 16 no. 1 99-111

Hüllen, Werner 1999 English Dictionaries, 800-1700: The Topical Tradition, Oxford [England] New York Clarendon Press Oxford University Press

Hüllen, Werner Rainer Schulze. 1988 Understanding the Lexicon: Meaning, Sense, and World Knowledge In Lexical Semantics, Tübingen M. Niemeyer

Kinable, Dirk 2006. “Computerized Restoration of Historical Dictionaries: Uniformization and Date-assigning in Dictionary Quotations of the Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing 21 no. 3 295-310

Kirkness, Alan 2008 “Digitalisierung -Vernetzung -Europäisierung: Zur Zukunft der historischen Lexikographie des Deutschen, ” Lexicographica, 2007 7-38

Lemberg, I S Petzold H Speer 1998 “Der Weg des Deutschen Rechtswörterbuchs in das Internet, ” Wörterbücher in der Diskussion III. Vorträge aus dem Heidelberger Lexikographischen Kolloquium,, Tübingen Niemeyer 262-284

Lemnitzer, Lothar Laurent Romary Andreas Witt 2010 “Representing Human and Machine Dictionaries in Markup languages (SGML, XML), ” (link)

Lobenstein-Reichmann, Anja 2008 “Allgemeine Überlegungen zur Retrodigitalisierung historischer Wörterbücher des Deutschen, ” Lexicographica, 2007 173-198

Magnini, B G Cavaglia. 2000 “Integrating Subject Field Codes into WordNet, ” Proceedings of LREC-2000, Second International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, 1413-1418

McArthur, T. B. 1986 “Thematic Lexicography, ” The History of Lexicography: Papers from the Dictionary Research Centre Seminar at Exeter, March 1986, R. R. K Hartmann 40 Amsterdam; Philadelphia J. Benjamins

Mooijaart, Marijke Marijke van der Wal 2009 Yesterday’s Words: Contemporary, Current and Future Lexicography, Historiographia Linguistica, Newcastle Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Morrissey, Robert 1993 “Texts and Contexts: The ARTFL Database in French Studies, ” Profession, 27-33

Nyhan, Julianne 2006. “The Application of XML to the historical lexicography of Old, Middle, and Early-Modern Irish: a Lexicon based analysis, ” National University of Ireland Cork

Nyhan, Julianne2008 “Developing Integrated Editions of Minority Language Dictionaries: The Irish Example, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 231: 3-12

Potthoff, Wilfried 1990Vuk Karadžić im europäischen Kontext, Beiträge des internationalen wissenschaftlichen Symposiums der Vuk-Karadzic-Jacob-Grimm-Gesellschaft am 19. und 20. November 1987, HeidelbergCarl Winter Universitätsverlag

Tasovac, Toma 2010 “Reimagining the Dictionary, or Why Lexicography Needs Digital Humanities, ” Digital Humanities 2010, (link)

Tasovac, Toma 2009 More or Less Than a Dictionary? Wordnet as a Model for Serbian L2 Lexicography Infotheca: Journal of Informatics and Librarinaship, 10 no. 1-2 13a-22a

Vitalich, Kristin Leigh 2005 “Lexicographical doxa: The writing of Slavic dictionaries in the nineteenth century (Samuel Bogumil Linde, Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, Vladimir Ivanovich Dal), ” University of California at Los Angeles

Wilson, D1986The life and times of Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, 1787-1864: Literacy, Literature, and National Independence in Serbia, Oxford Clarendon Press

Дмитриев, Петр Андреевич Герман Иванович Сафронов1984Вук С. Караджич и его реформа сербскохорватского/хорватосербского литературного языка. Учеб. пособие, ЛенинградЛГУ

Ивић, Милка 1990О jезику Вуковом и вуковском, Нови СадКњиж. заjедница Новог Сада

Кулаковский, Платон Андреевич 2005Вук Караджич. Его деятельность и значение в сербской литературе, МоскваУРСС

Стојановић, Љубомир1987Живот и рад Вука Стеф. Караџића, Београд Београдски издавачко-графички завод","txt","2","",""
"1344","12","The Theory and Design of PlotVis","3","The Theory and Design of PlotVis

Dobson, Teresa M., University of British Columbia, Canada, teresa.dobson@ubc.ca
Ruecker, Stan, The University of Alberta, sruecker@ualberta.ca
Brown, Monica, mm2brown@interchange.ubc.ca University of British Columbia, Canada,
Rodriguez, Omar, omar.rodrigueza@gmail.com The University of Alberta,
Michura, Piotr, zemichur@cyf-kr.edu.pl Academy of Fine Arts, Krakow, Poland,
Grue, Dustin, dgrue@shaw.ca University of British Columbia, Canada,

PlotVis is a 3D system for people interested in examining narrative action, or plot, from a variety of perspectives. The system was developed as one outcome of a funded study examining the teaching of complex narrative forms in secondary and undergraduate classrooms. Results of this study have revealed, inter alia, that conventional approaches to teaching fiction, particularly at the secondary level, fail to take account of the diversity of contemporary narrative (cf Dobson, 2006).

For example, instructors, particularly at the secondary level, still rely heavily on the five-stage plot mapping first described by Gustav Freytag (1863) in Die Technik des Dramas (Figure 1), and the superimposition of this model on forms beyond those it was originally intended to describe can be misleading (Dobson, Michura, Ruecker, 2010).

Figure 1: Freytag’s Pyramid shows five basic components of plot, based on Greek and Shakespearean tragedy.

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In addition, the reliance on the Cartesian graph to model narrative generally – and there are a number of examples of such graphing (e.g., Sterne, 1847; Vonnegut, 1973) – is restricting because it fails to take account of the multiple dimensions of story.
Considering the limitations of the Cartesian graph for modeling narrative along with conceptualizations of narrative as multidimensional (e.g., Shields, 2000), our goal was to produce a three-dimensional digital environment that reifies different perspectives on plot, so that students and other scholars can quickly shift from one 3D object to another, or spend time exploring any of the visualizations in more detail. We currently support three perspectives and are beginning to experiment with the design of a fourth.

This panel will examine the results of the PlotVis project from several different perspectives, including an introduction to the project, schema design for narrative encoding, a reading practices study, and design and programming.

Introduction to PlotVis as a Form of Distant Reading
… what we really need is a little pact with the devil: we know how to read texts, now let’s learn how not to read them. Distant reading: where distance, let me repeat it, is a condition of knowledge: it allows you to focus on units that are much smaller or much larger than the text: devices, themes, tropes—or genres and systems. (Moretti, 2000, p. 57).
Recently, literary theorists and digital humanists alike have taken up Moretti’s appeal, later developed in Graphs, Maps, Trees (2005), for the development of new methods of textual analysis. Clement (2008), for example, uses mapping techniques and visualizations to facilitate, quite literally, new perspectives on a canonical text, Gertrude Stein’s The Making of Americans. By premising knowledge on distance rather than closeness, Clement discerns significant patterns in the narrative’s structure, in so doing discovering a new logic to Stein’s text. Such new insights, made possible by adapting the scale and focus of textual analysis, are exactly what Moretti expects readers will earn by learning how not to read texts—and, by extension, by learning how to use different technologies to complement, and corroborate, our readings of texts.

Experiments with distant reading challenge the truism that readers make sense of a story by seizing upon a narrative episode, using it as a key to gain entry into the deeper meaning inherent within the text, “as if meaning resided in a buried treasure chest or behind a lock door” (Clement, 2008, p. 365). Clement proposes a different metaphor for understanding narrative structure, that of a map key, which instead implies that readers make sense of stories by using narrative structure as a guide. The metaphor of the map key offers a view of reading complex narrative as a process of orientation, through which readers manage their awareness of a text’s meanings by acquainting themselves with its structure.

Similar views of distant reading and complex narrative inform the project of developing XML schemas for encoding digitized versions of fictional narratives. Undertaken as part of a larger study based out of the University of British Columbia, this project investigates, and proposes, methods of reading adapted to contemporary print and digital fiction’s “shift away from conventional narrative logic toward indeterminacy, fragmentation, and open-endedness” (Dobson, 2008, p. 1). While the goal of our larger study is the development of new models for writing, reading, and teaching complex print and digital narrative, the focus here will be the use of XML to encode fictional narratives as, in itself, a form of textual analysis, involving both closeness and distance, and enabling even further alterations, of the kind Moretti proposes, to the scale and focus of scholarly reading practices.

Towards a Schema Design for Narrative Encoding
This paper will discuss the iterative development and use of a set of Extensible Markup Language (XML) schemas for encoding digitized versions of fictional narratives. Although the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange define and document a thorough markup language for encoding humanities texts, including significant provisions for encoding scholarly editions of drama, poetry, and manuscripts, there presently exist only a handful of XML schemas designed specifically for marking up literary fiction (e.g., StoryML, FicML, PftML).

Drawing on principles and approaches from narratology, our literary encoding schemas combine TEI elements and attributes with tags that specifically mark up elements of narrative structure, such as actions, characters, dialogue, narration, objects, places, and time. Examples of encoded short stories, such as Alice Munro’s “The Love of a Good Woman” and Ernest Hemingway’s “Hills Like White Elephants,” will be used to demonstrate, and critique, the different possibilities we have explored for developing literary XML schemas.

From Envisaging to Visualization: Young People’s Narrative Reading Practices
This paper will present findings of a study examining the reading practices of young adults. The study focused on the dialectic between how students of literature envisage narrative and how they actually visualize it in systematized approaches. Fifty participants in grades 11 and 12 read Hemingway’s “Hills Like White Elephants” and O’Faolain’s “The Trout.” They then engaged in a series of activities: evaluating form by physically “cutting and pasting” a narrative’s text, sketching narrative diagrams, XML tagging of narratives, and an exit interview.

Participants indicated that narratives were enjoyable because their plots were “unexpected,” but also un-enjoyable because they were “hard to understand.” That is, comprehension of a narrative is a condition of enjoyment and disappointment: narratives ought to be original but not confusing. In XML tagging, grade 11 students were given a basic schema to tag a narrative but were also encouraged to modify this schema. The schemas were altered beyond a systematized approach, instead revealing critical activity across a range of “levels.” Globally, for example, subjects modified the schemas beyond a “systematic” approach in order to highlight salient features particular to a text. Subjects added the tags setting and contradictory statements to the XML schema for “Hills,” suggesting a post-critical (and almost juridical) attitude. More locally, there is evidence that tagging is dependent on “spheres of lexical activity,” where tagging of features depends on the immediate context in which they occur. Furthermore, tagging appears to be not only independent of syntax, but also independent of the tagged-narrative’s grammar – subjects prescribe systematic rules, but do not follow them.

PlotVis: Design and Implementation of Five Plot Models
Our final panelists will discuss issues related to designing and programming four different views of narrative structure. In the first case, the user is able to see a Fibonacci series where one of the encoded plot elements is placed at the centre of the visualization, and other elements are arranged out from the centre, either sequentially as they appear in the text or else hierarchically as they are arranged in the XML tree (Figure 2).

Figure 2: This screenshot of Munro’s “Love of a Good Woman” demonstrates the complexity of the tagging, with each coloured cylinder representing one of roughly 7000 tagged pieces of text.

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In this visualization, each piece of text appears as a coloured cylinder. The height of the cylinders can be associated with the length of the text they contain. The second visualization privileges sequence over centrality, with multiple pipelines representing the characters or narrator, and changes to the arrangement of the pipe showing where changes in time occur (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Our design sketch for a view that privileges sequence over centrality, with multiple pipelines representing the characters or narrator.

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The third visualization is based on an architectural metaphor, where readers see the different kinds of encoded plot elements as floors of a building (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Our design sketch of the architectural concept of story visualization.

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Text that occurs only within a single element tag fills a space on a single floor, while text that spans multiple elements appears as blocks that span the floors. Our fourth and most recent design resembles in some ways our sequential model, only in this case the text is represented by vertical walls of text that bend at locations where there are changes in time, while the other encoded plot elements appear as colours on the surfaces of the walls (Figure 5).
Figure 5: This screenshot shows the wall display. Vertical coloured bands represent the encoded text elements that are shown as nodes in Figure 2.

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The visualization system was created using a popular game engine, called Unity3D, which provides us with a flexible platform for interaction with 3D objects, primarily through writing Javascript. The contents of the visualization, as indicated above, are produced from XML-encoded text files.
References:
Clement, T. E. 2008 “‘A thing not beginning and not ending’: using digital tools to distant-read gertrude stein’s the making of americans, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(3) 361-381 Dobson, T.M. 2008 Reading, Writing, and Teaching Complex Narrative, Standard Research Grant Application submitted to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.,

Dobson, T. M. 2006 “For the love of a good narrative: Digitality and textuality, ” English Teaching: Practice and Critique, 5(2) 56-68

Dobson, T. M. Michura, P. Ruecker, S. 2010 “Visualizing plot in 3D, ” Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Digital Society,

Freytag, G. 1863/1983 Die technik des dramas,

Hemingway, E. 1927 Men Without Women,

Jessop, M. 2008 “Digital visualization as a scholarly activity, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(3) 281-293

McCarty, W. 2002 “Humanities computing: essential problems, experimental practice, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing , 17(1) 103-125

Moretti, F. 2005 Graphs, maps, trees: Abstract models for a literary theory,

Munro, A. 1998 The love of a good woman,

O'Faolain, S. 1980 “The trout, ” Collected stories. (Vol. I), 383-386

Shields, C. 2000 ““Ilk”, ” Dressing up for the carnival, 53-60

Sterne, L. 1847 The works of Laurence Sterne, containing the life and opinions of Tristram Shandy, gentleman,

Van Peer, W. Chatman, S. B. 2001 New perspectives on narrative perspective,

Vonnegut, K. 1973 Breakfast of champions,","txt","2","",""
"1345","12","Joanna Baillie's Witchcraft: from Hypermedia Edition to Resonant Responses","1","Joanna Baillie’s Witchcraft: from Hypermedia Edition to Resonant Responses
Eberle-Sinatra, Michael, Université de Montréal, Canada;, michael.eberle.sinatra@umontreal.ca
Crochunis, Tom C., TCCroc@ship.edu Shippenberg University,
Sachs, Jon, jsachs@alcor.concordia.ca Concordia University,
This paper will report on the first eighteen months of a 3-year grant funded by the Fonds québecois de la recherche sur la société et la culture led by playwright Patrick Leroux (overseeing the creative component) and Michael Eberle-Sinatra (overseeing the academic component). The specific nature of this group project is nestled in the promising dialogue to be established between Romantic literature scholars, a theatre practitioner, and a scholar preoccupied with the pedagogy of Romantic drama using hypermedia as a template and an engaging interface.

When artists teach, they never quite relinquish their initial creative impulse. Historical works, while being taught for their intrinsic value and larger pertinence within a literary context, nevertheless solicit a resonant response. Classroom exercises in both academic and creative courses suggest that many students engage in a similar empathic manner when allowed to prod, question, and interact actively with a studied text.

The “creative” component of this research-creation project with strong pedagogical intent is precisely linked to an artistic response to the source text, Joanna Baillie’s Witchcraft. In addition to the edited text, its scholarly annotations and commentary, and the filmed Finborough production of the play, we will create workshop situations with actors and students in which the play will be explored in rehearsal prompting us to investigate other manners of staging the work and illustrating, through filmed documentation, the process of reading a text for performance. Short video presentations of key creative and interpretive issues will be edited for inclusion in the hypermedia presentation. The actual process, whether filmed or not, will allow the actors and creative faculty to fully immerse themselves in Baillie’s world and work in order to fuel their resonant responses to them.

This second creative component, the resonant response, will take the form of short theatrical pieces conceived for film. The nuance is essential as the pieces will not be short cinematic films but rather short-filmed theatrical pieces. The emphasis on speech, dramatic action, and relationship to a defined theatrical space will differentiate these pieces from more intimate, image-based cinematic pieces. The resonant responses could be as short as two minutes or as long as ten minutes, in order to fully explore very precise formal issues (a character’s speech, the subtext in a given dialogue, what we couldn’t stage during the 19th Century but feel we could now). These creative pieces will be developed with Theatre, Creative Writing, and English literature students and faculty.

Existing TEI guidelines for scholarly encoding do not account for the unique relationship between a play script and performance practice and history. Scholarly encoding typically views the structures of texts in relation to the protocols that guide how readers interpret documents. But dramatic scripts require different kinds of reading and, thus, different kinds of encoding. Performance-informed inquiry into play texts depends on a reader’s ability to think about the range of possibilities—both historically distant and contemporary—for theatricalization of a line of dialogue, a bit of physical action, or a visual space.

Additional historical materials on the theatre and culture of Baillie’s era will be provided by team members. For our hypermedia resource to organize multi-media materials in ways that will help students in literature classes to use the hypermedia edition of the play, we will need to develop innovative customizations of TEI encoding guidelines. Discovering how best to support a student reader’s work with a historically unfamiliar dramatic work provides an important test case for existing guidelines for XML encoding of drama.

This project will take an innovative approach in several senses. It will use hypermedia to try to solve a classroom problem created by plays with little performance history or connection to familiar theatrical styles. It will also test the limitations of the TEI scholarly encoding guidelines by exploring how, in the case of play scripts, building hypermedia resources requires creative, user-oriented strategies of encoding. The research-creation program will illustrate how contemporary artists can engage with historical works, while shedding light onto the theatrical creative process. Finally, our Resonant Response to Joanna Baillie’s Drama will combine scholarly research on Romantic drama, practice-driven analysis, the creation of new work, and hypermedia expertise.

This particular research-creation program is singular and innovative in its combination of academic close reading, dramaturgical analysis, dramatic writing and theatrical performance, filmed theatre, and a resolutely pedagogical preoccupation with a full and thorough exploration of the possibilities of hypermedia edition.

In addition to creating a prototype hypermedia edition, the project seeks to find out:

what value performance annotations can add to a teacher’s work with students on a seldom-performed play;
how the Text Encoding Initiative’s (TEI) scholarly encoding guidelines can best be customized to design hypermedia play editions;
how the process of collaboration among faculty and students in humanities and communications disciplines can enrich understanding of technology’s interaction with interpretation.
References:","txt","2","",""
"1346","12","Introduction to Text Analysis With Voyeur Tools","15","Introduction to Text Analysis With Voyeur Tools
Sinclair, Stéfan, McMaster University, sgsinclair@gmail.com
Rockwell, Geoffrey , University of Alberta, geoffrey.rockwell@ualberta.ca
Description
Are you interested in using computing methods to analyze electronic texts? Geoffrey Rockwell (University of Alberta) and Stéfan Sinclair (McMaster University) will run a hands-on workshop on using the web-based Voyeur Tools text analysis environment (voyeurtools.org). Participants can follow along with example documents or use their own. Voyeur Tools is the latest text analysis web-based system developed by TAPoR collaborators and it brings together visualization and concording tools in a fashion that allows multipanel interactive analysis or single tool analysis. Voyeur Tools runs on a high performance computing cluster and is capable of scaling to handle multiple documents and larger texts than previous web based tools.

The workshop will provide:

An introduction to basic text analysis concepts and techniques (independent of the tool set being used)
An introduction to different ways of using Voyeur Tools. Voyeur can be used in a multi-panel view where the different tools interact or as individual tools. Users will be shown different ways of running Voyeur Tools and how to manage panels.
Understanding the Voyeur display. Voyeur provides a number of different panels with information from a summary of the corpus to distribution graphs. Participants will be taken through the different panels and the capabilities of each one.
Using Voyeur Recipes for analysis. Participants will be introduced to the Voyeur Recipes, which are tutorials on how to use Voyeur for research tasks. We will start by looking at how Voyeur can be used to explore a theme through a text. We will then look at using Voyeur for diachronic study of a collection of documents over time.
Quoting Voyeur results. Users will be introduced to Voyeur's ability to produce HTML fragments that can be used to quote results in other online documents. With Voyeur you can export your results in various ways, one of which is placing live panels into blogs or wikis.
Integrating Voyeur into remote sites. We have developed specialized plugins that integrate with frameworks such as WordPress, Drupal and OJS. Participants will learn about these as well as how to integrate Voyeur into almost any site with a generic plugin module.
Instructors
Stéfan Sinclair is an Associate Professor of Multimedia. His areas of interest include computer-assisted literary text analysis, experimental visualization interfaces, and 20th Century French literature (especially Oulipo). He is the creator or co-developer of online Digital Humanities tools such as Voyeur Tools, the TAPoR Portal, the Humanities Visualization Project.

Geoffrey Rockwell is a Professor of Philosophy and Humanities Computing at the University of Alberta, Canada. He has published and presented papers in the area of philosophical dialogue, textual visualization and analysis, humanities computing, instructional technology, computer games and multimedia.","txt","2","",""
"1347","12","Computational Analysis of Gender and the Body in European Fairy Tales","1","Computational Analysis of Gender and the Body in European Fairy Tales
Weingart, Scott, Indiana University, United States of America, scbweing@indiana.edu
Jorgensen, Jeana, Indiana University, United States of America, jeanaj@gmail.com
This paper presents preliminary results on using computational analysis to understand the representations and constructions of gender and the body in fairy tales. While scholarship on contemporary fairy tales utilizes various cutting-edge theories, ranging from postmodern narrative to feminist theories of gender performance (Bacchilega 1997, Benson 2008, Smith 2007, and Tiffin 2009), little of the research on canonical fairy tales or oral folktales incorporates these recent theories. Additionally, folkloristic research on fairy tales, whether contemporary or traditional, would benefit from incorporating computational methods such as network analysis. These methods allow scholars to test their theories more quickly and empirically.

Our research utilizes nearly three hundred canonical fairy tales and oral folktales, deemed canonical because they are from well-known collectors such as the Brothers Grimm, or because the tales are examples of well-known plots spanning time and space in Europe (such as “Snow White” and “Cinderella”). We combine textual and network analysis with discipline-specific expert oversight for a large-scale, theoretically informed discussion on gender and the body that would not be possible without both in tandem. A feminist critique of fairy tales is predicated upon the notion that fairy tales construct and represent bodies differently according to gender, yet no studies have shown whether this difference actually exists in canonical tales, or have addressed what this difference would mean for studies of cultural values and narrative strategies (Bottigheimer 1987, Haase 2004, and Stone 2008). Computational analysis of how bodies and body parts are depicted in the text provides empirical evidence against which this and other aspects of feminist theory can be tested.

Humanities scholars have already established a vast theoretical and methodological framework for interpreting texts, and they ought to be able to view their data in the context of those theories developed within their disciplines. This study combines traditional critical analysis with computational tools in an attempt to utilize the best of both worlds.

Data
Our analysis uses a hand-coded database representing a geographically and temporally diverse sample of tales. Careful attention was paid to the tale tellers and collectors for further study of the context in which bodies are depicted.

Fairy tales as a genre span oral, communal performances and literary, single-author renditions. In order to represent this spectrum, our database tracks specific references to bodies in six tale collections. We collected 13 data points from nearly three hundred tales (Tale, Collection, Author, Teller, Collector, Year of Writing/Collecting, Year of Publication, Tale Type, Region, Original Language, Gender of Teller/Writer, Gender of Collector, Gender of Editor) and categorized another 14 data points for every mention of a body in each tale, some evident in the texts (Noun, Adjective, Surrounding Text, Page Number, Gender, Young/Old, High/Low, Quoted Speech, Skin Tone) and some requiring interpretation (Positive/Negative value, Grotesque, Violence, Nudity, Move).

The database variables were chosen in light of pre-existing work on structure and theory, creating a layer of interpreted data that would not be found in full-text analysis alone. The “Tale Type” classification system gives tale plots numbers so that their transmission can be traced as tales migrate across linguistic and national boundaries. This is what allows us to generalize about the worldview contained within the tales, as the same plot with variations occurs between multiple ethnic groups. The concept of “Moves” breaks up tale plots into 5 distinctive plot pieces based on folkloristic theory of how tales are structured.

Methodology
We use co-occurrence and vector analysis to explore the database. Each field is compared against several others in order to find correlations. For example, “beautiful” may only be referenced with young women, or old rich men may only appear in tales from certain tellers. Using dimensionality reduction, we can find which body parts tend to be discussed in tandem in various situations. We also explore how the representations of bodies change throughout the plots of tales using Bengt Holbek’s “Moves.” Holbek built on the work of Vladimir Propp, who identified the most important plot points in sequence that could occur in a fairy tale (31 points, or “functions,” total) (Holbek 1998). Holbek condensed Propp’s functions into five “Moves,” or clusters of thematic actions that move the tale’s plot forward.

Finally, networks of database data are generated and analyzed to test the hypothesis that fairy tales construct bodies differently according to gender. This analysis serves both as empirical evidence to test a theory and also as an exploratory tool, revealing possible correlations or links between body representations that are not immediately apparent in the texts.

Folklorists approach fairy tale interpretation in many ways: ethnographic approaches seek connections between the taletellers’ lives and the tales’ content; historical approaches search for and analyze the origins and diffusion of tales; structural analyses seek to understand the underlying narrative of the tales; psychological approaches search for latent meaning in the tales; and feminist and sociohistorical approaches interpret the meanings of the tales as they relate to, convey values from, and inculcate values of the social world. Feminist scholars have been particularly active in critiquing the normative beauty scripts and gender roles promoted in fairy tales. This study investigates how gender roles are constructed and situated in fairy tales, which is why we encoded categories to investigate links between gender, age, and social position, as well as where in the tale’s structure these social values are relevant. We also hope to obtain information about how female and male bodies are valued differently, hence the relevance of variables like “grotesque”.

Preliminary Results
Second-wave feminists such as Simone Beauvoir developed the notion of the universal masculine perspective, the idea that in Western culture, the public, unmarked, assumed universal position is in fact specifically male. Our data supports this assertion in terms of female bodies being marked within fairy tales, but we also believe that the same principle applies to the age of bodies. Youthful bodies are assumed to be the unmarked universal category in fairy tales.

The descriptions of old bodies are strikingly polarized: old people are more likely than young to be described as evil or good, wicked or wise. These findings suggest that old bodies must be differentiated in fairy tales, because they are no longer in the supposedly universal category of youth. Old bodies are qualified with more descriptions in order to give audiences a sense of who these characters are, since they don’t fall into the category of the youthful protagonist, with whom listeners are supposed to easily identify. If the bodies in fairy tales had the same meanings across age and gender, we would have seen a proportional relationship between the number of references to types of bodies, and the number of adjectival descriptions attached to each. However, the data shows that young men are associated with adjectival descriptions less frequently than any other type of body. Old women, in contrast, are associated with adjectival descriptions more than any other grouping. Further, a wider variety of adjectives are used to qualify old bodies than young compared to the proportion they are mentioned. Figure 1 shows a sample of which adjectives are associated with mentions of various bodies.

Figure 1. Lines are drawn between adjectives (red) and the body-types they modify (yellow). Node size represents word usage counts and edge thickness represents frequency of co-occurrence.

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Goals
Our method of layering computational analysis atop previous theoretical research can be used as a template for further studies, especially those of other folk narrative genres like legends or ballads. Some of the most intriguing questions in folklore research pertain to how verbal expressive genres relate to the lived experiences of their performers—and a method for digitizing and interpreting these texts could yield valuable insights.

As digitization is interpretation (Tarte 2010), it is necessary to be especially careful and theoretically-grounded when choosing variables and selecting exactly what data will populate the fields. The scholar must also decide the most fruitful analyses to run on the data available. These studies ought to also include computational analyses that are not linked to previous critical theories (like word frequency or co-occurrence), however, in order to check against biases which might creep into variable choice. The ultimate goal is to turn well-researched, theoretically sound scholarly observations into machine actionable data which can be analyzed to test the scholar’s hypotheses and open the door for future studies.

References:
Bacchilega, Cristina 1997 Postmodern Fairy Tales: Gender and Narrative Strategies

Bakhtin, Mikhail 1984 Rabelais and His World Helene Iswolsky

Benson, Stephen 2008 Contemporary Fiction and the Fairy Tale

Blei, David Ng, Andrew Y. Jordan, Michael I. Lafferty, John January 2003 Latent Dirichlet Allocation Journal of Machine Learning Research 3 993–1022

Bottigheimer, Ruth 1987 Grimms’ Bad Girls and Bold Boys: The Moral and Social Vision of the Tales

Haase, Donald 2004 Feminist Fairy-Tale Scholarship In Fairy Tales and Feminism: New Approaches Donald Haase 1-36

Holbek, Bengt 1998 Interpretation of Fairy Tales

Muhawi, Ibrahim Sharif Kanaana 1989 Speak, Bird, Speak Again: Palestinian Arab Folktales

Propp, Vladimir 1968 [1928] Morphology of the Folktale L. Scott

Roberts, Warren 1994 [1958] The Tale of the Kind and Unkind Girls

Russo, Mary 1994 The Female Grotesque: Risk, Excess, and Modernity

Smith, Kevin Paul 2007 The Postmodern Fairytale: Folkloric Intertexts in Contemporary Fiction

Stone, Kay 2008 Some Day Your Witch Will Come

Taggart, James M. 1990 Enchanted Maidens: Gender Relations in Spanish Folktales of Courtship and Marriage

Tarte, Ségolène M. 2010 Digitizing the Act of Papyrological Interpretation: Negotiating Spurious Exactitude and Genuine Uncertainty Digital Humanities 2010

Tiffin, Jessica 2009 Marvelous Geometry: Narrative and Metafiction in Modern Fairy Tale

Zipes, Jack 1994 Spreading Myths about Iron John Fairy Tale as Myth, Myth as Fairy Tale 96-118","txt","2","",""
"1348","12","Synergies: On the Production of a Sustainable, Open, e-Publication Infrastructure for the Academy","2","Synergies: On the Production of a Sustainable, Open, e-Publication Infrastructure for the Academy
Eberle-Sinatra, Michael, michael.eberle.sinatra@umontreal.ca Université de Montréal,
This poster will present an overview of Synergies: The Canadian Information Network for Research in the Social Sciences and Humanities, a project funded by the Canada Foundation for Innovation to the order of $13 millions in their 2007 program ‘Knowledge Management Resources for the Human and Social Sciences’. The poster will also offer a progress report on the technical challenges for harvesting and displaying various kind of information and data from across the 22 universities involved in this large scale infrastructure project as the project enters its last year of funding. It will be accompanied by a live demonstration of the web-based search interface launched in the spring of 2010.

Synergies is a four-year project intended to be a national distributed platform with a wide range of tools to support the creation, distribution, access and archiving of digital objects such as journal articles. It will enable the distribution and use of social sciences and humanities research, as well as to create a resource and platform for pure and applied research. In short, Synergies will be a research tool and a dissemination tool that will greatly enhance the potential and impact of Social Sciences and Humanities scholarship.

Canadian social sciences and humanities research published in Canadian journals and elsewhere, especially in English, is largely confined to print. The dynamics of print mean that this research is machine-opaque and hence invisible on the internet, where many students and scholars begin and sometimes end their background research. In bringing Canadian social sciences and humanities research to the internet, Synergies not only brings that research into the mainstream of worldwide research discourse but also it legitimizes online publication in social sciences and humanities. The acceptance of this medium opens the manner in which knowledge can be represented. On one plane, researchers will be able to take advantage of an enriched media palette—color, image, sound, moving images, multimedia. On a second plane, researchers will be able to take advantage of interactivity. And on a third plane, those who query existing research will be able to broaden their vision by means of navigational interfaces, multilingual interrogation and automatic translation, metadata and intelligent search engines, and textual analysis. On still another plane scholars will be able to expand new areas of knowledge such as bibliometrics and technometrics, new media analysis, scholarly communicational analysis and publishing studies. This poster will introduce the main goals of the Synergies project and the impact it will have on the production and dissemination of Canadian research.

Scholarly research and communication are undergoing an evolutionary transformation. Research environments, scholarly communication, knowledge sharing and services are moving to the digital and becoming network-oriented. This evolution raises many new questions about models of knowledge sharing. Emerging research environments, data providers, publishers, and libraries will need to develop and deploy a wide variety of new resource models to address these new realities. These resource models will lower the barriers to access and exploitation of research and information resources, serve the needs of individuals and both general and specialized communities, and integrate new models of publication, annotation, communication and knowledge sharing.

Synergies will provide a needed infrastructure for the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) to follow through its in-principle commitment to open access and facilitate its implementation by extending the current venues and means for online publishing in Canada. With Synergies in place the funding of journals based on dissemination effectiveness rather than sales levels will become both feasible for journals and possible as an evaluative criterion for SSHRC funding. The Canadian Federation for the Humanities and Social Sciences, with a membership of over 30,000, has also adopted a position in favor of open access and indicate the role that Synergies can play.

Alongside a new web interface and tools for accessing information produced in Canada (with the website to be demonstrated alongside the poster), Synergies will be a digital publishing platform for scholarly publications, with its first goal being to offer digital publishing services prepared to international standards with the lowest cost possible for the editorial production side. This project will thus work as a sustainable, open, e-publication infrastructure for the academy.

In sum, this poster will contain an overview of the project, and progress reports on its five regional components. Synergies is the result of a collaboration among five core universities which have been working together for several years. With each partner bringing its own expertise to the initiative, a genuine collaboration resulted in an infrastructure which was conceived from the start as truly scalable and extendable. Each regional node ntegrates the input of current and future regional partners in the development of Synergies, thus continuing to extend its pan-Canadian dimension. For instance, the PKP project is introduced within the broader context of scholarly communications. The Ontario region is presented as a case study, with particular emphasis on project integration with Scholars Portal, a digital library. (The other three regions will also be included in this progress report to the Digital Humanities community.)","txt","2","",""
"1349","12","Victorian Women Writers Project Revived: A Case Study in Sustainability","1","Victorian Women Writers Project Revived: A Case Study in Sustainability
Dalmau, Michelle, Indiana University Digital Library Program, mdalmau@indiana.edu
Courtney, Angela, Indiana University Libraries, ancourtn@indiana.edu
The Victorian Women Writers Project (VWWP, (link) ) began in 1995 at Indiana University under the editorial leadership of Perry Willett and was celebrated early on for exposing lesser-known British women writers of the 19th century. The VWWP’s original focus on poetry was meant to complement The English Poetry Full-Text Database, but soon Willett acknowledged the variety of genres in which women of that period were writing – novels, children’s books, political pamphlets, religious tracts. The collection expanded to include genres beyond poetry, and continued active development from 1995 until roughly 2000 at which point the corpus reached approximately two hundred texts.

These nearly two hundred texts comprise only a small fraction of Victorian women’s writing. Encouraged by renewed interest among Indiana University’s English faculty and graduate students, the Indiana University Libraries and the English Department are exploring ways to reinvigorate the project. The real challenge lies in the project’s past and present susceptibility to graceful degradation, which can be defined as stagnation or “deterioration of a system in such a manner that it continues to operate, but provides a reduced level of service rather than failing completely” (“Graceful degradation”). This has been a recurring topic in the digital humanities community as evidenced by a recently published article cluster, “Done,” in the Digital Humanities Quarterly (Spring 2009, v 3 n 2) and research by Bethany Nowviskie and Dot Poter on the very topic:

“Decline is a pressing issue for digital scholarship because of the tendency of our projects to be open ended. One could argue that digital projects are, by nature, in a continual state of transition or decline. What happens when the funding runs out, or the original project staff move on or are replaced? What happens when intellectual property rests with a collaborator or an institution that does not wish to continue the work? How, individually and as a community, do we weather changes in technology, the patterns of academic research, the vagaries of our sponsoring institutions?” (“Graceful Degradation: Managing Digital Projects in Times of Transition and Decline”).

The Orlando Project is a text-based resource containing primary texts, archival documents, biographies, chronologies and bibliographies. Despite the collection’s extensive size, Brown et al. reveal their sustainability challenges in an article published as part of the “Done” cluster:

Lack of people, time, or funding has consigned more than one project involuntarily to becoming a static tribute to its former activity. The reasons for this include people moving on, intellectually or institutionally, without taking their projects along with them, or people using electronic media to disseminate without particularly desiring to exploit their potential for continual updating, but even where the will to continue persists, inadequate funding mechanisms for sustainability may make it impossible. This is a shame, since, as we have argued here in the case of Orlando and many other digital publications not only does there remain the potential to enrich the contents, but the first iteration often merely begins to tap the potential of the project’s data architecture and potential for interface development (“Published Yet Never Done”).

Unfortunately and to no surprise, the VWWP, quite modest compared to its Orlando Project counterpart, has also suffered from nearly all the challenges highlighted by Nowviskie, Porter, and Brown.

In an effort to combat this “darker side of project management,” a framework for continual project support is being explored that reaches beyond any one individual or department (Nowviskie and Porter). At the crux of this framework is digital humanities-focused curriculum-building for the English department in partnership with the library, with a concentration on scholarly encoding and textual editing, working with English faculty, librarians, and technologists. The goals are to leverage domain expertise in the English Department; integrate the VWWP as a core research and teaching tool in the English curriculum; develop TEI and text encoding expertise in faculty and students; and through coursework, internships, and other opportunities, encourage English literature students— graduates and undergraduates—to continually contribute new content to the VWWP. Tools and workflows, such as robust encoding guidelines, quality control assessment, etc. will be provided to ensure proper markup, and the VWWP editorial board will additionally vet course output before submission to the project.

Through our newly offered graduate English course (L501, Digital Humanities Practicum), an eager and curious group of students learned not only encoding skills but also began to develop the collaborative practices pervasive in the digital humanities. As part of our talk, we plan to explore whether cultivating “markup skills” are sufficient enough in establishing a digital humanities curriculum (Rockwell) and whether “majoring in English” today means the curriculum should include awareness of the possibilities that arise for new scholarship when technology is applied to literary studies (Lanham). Certainly Indiana University is not breaking new ground or alone in this endeavor, but the literature is scarce is terms of understanding successes of graduate level digital humanities curricula situated in an English or any other humanities department. As Diane Zorich reports in her recent review of digital humanities centers, “A Survey of Digital Humanities Centers in the United States,” archives such as the Willa Cather and Walt Whitman Archives are precisely leveraged for teaching and learning, and this reporting is promising for the Victorian Women Writers Project as a project reconceived to meet both teaching and research needs in a classroom setting (19).

Currently, the VWWP is a standard e-text project, although current plans call for phased, modular development that will eventually include now commonplace “Web 2.0/3.0” functionalities. By garnering institutional commitment (at the risk of wavering priorities) across multiple departments (thereby minimizing risk), we hope to achieve the following:

Encourage English department buy-in and continual collaboration by updating the current state of the VWWP’s functionality and modernizing the look-and-feel (eliminate “first impressions” syndrome discussed by Brown et al.)
Establish a sustainable scholarly encoding infrastructure based in the English department curriculum
Provide a consistent mechanism (e.g., coursework output) for critical content to accompany the encoded texts
Facilitate connections between other DLP-supported Victorian projects like the Swinburne Project and the Victorian Studies Bibliography
Evolve the project’s encoding guidelines, inclusion of critical contextual materials, and advanced functionality (e.g., visualizations, textual analysis tools, blog integration, etc.) so that the VWWP becomes a dependable, growing and relevant online resource that can be adopted as a pedagogic and research tool for Victorian scholars
Our talk will introduce the Victorian Women Writers Project, explore curriculum-building strategies; and propose ways in which faculty and students can reliably and perpetually contribute to the VWWP.

References:
Brown, Susan “Published Yet Never Done: The Tension Between Projection and Completion in Digital Humanities Research., ” Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3.2 2009 Web 12 April 2010 (link)

“Graceful Degradation, ” Federal Standard 103C: Glossary of Telecommunications Terms, Institute for Telecommunication Sciences 23 Aug. 1996 Web 12 April 2010 (link)

Lanham, Richard “The Electronic Word: Literary Study and the Digital Revolution, ” New Literary History, 20.2 1989 265-290 Web 30 October 2010 (link)

Nowviskie, Bethany “Graceful Degradation, ” 10 July 2009 Web 10 April 2010 (link)

Porter, Dot Bethany Nowviskie “Graceful Degradation: Managing Digital Projects in Times of Transition and Decline, ” Digital Resources for the Humanities and Arts7-9 September 2009 Belfast, Ireland

Rockwell, Geoffrey “A Graduate Education in Humanities Computing, ” Computers and the Humanities, 37.3 2003 243-244 Web30 October 2010 (link)

Willett, Perry “The Victorian Women Writers Project: The Library as a Creator and Publisher of Electronic Texts, ” The Public-Access Computer Systems Review, 7.6 1996 Web 10 April 2010 (link)

Zorich, Diane “A Survey of Digital Humanities Centers in the United States.” Council on Library and Information Services (2008): 1-86 Web 30 October 2010 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1350","12","ComPair: Compare and Visualise the Usage of Language","1","ComPair: Compare and Visualise the Usage of Language
Beavan, David, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom, David.Beavan@glasgow.ac.uk
Introduction
This paper will demonstrate ComPair, a new tool to investigate and compare word usage, encouraging new ways to explore language variation. While remaining focussed on the usability and the promotion of navigation, this tool represents an evolutionary step forward from the author’s previous award winning visualisation applications. This paper will introduce the methods and technologies at its core, perform a demonstration of the tool and discuss opportunities for further collaboration.

Collocation
Firth in 1957 tells us ‘You shall know a word by the company it keeps’ leading to a contextual investigation of language which remains with us today. Identifying a word of interest and examining its collocates, often tells us more than a traditional dictionary definition ever could. Traditional corpus tools display collocates in tabular format, providing rich statistical data at the expense of giving the user an opportunity to see the overall linguistic landscape. Tools such as Beavan’s Collocate Clouds present this information very differently, visualising the collocates in cloud form, as in figure 1.

Figure 1. Collocate Cloud of node word ‘stars’ [http://www.scottishcorpus.ac.uk/corpus/bnc/collocatecloud.php?word=stars (accessed 1 November 2010)]

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A collocate, if known, can be quickly located due to the alphabetical nature of the display. Frequently occurring collocates stand out, as they are shown in a larger typeface, with collocationally strong pairings highlighted using brighter formatting. Therefore bright, large collocates are likely to be of interest, whereas dark, small collocates perhaps less so.

Comparison
Louw introduced us to semantic prosody, which describes how synonymous words can actually take on positive or negative connotations. A natural way to investigate this would be to separately compare the collocates of each node word of interest. This can be performed by looking at multiple collocate clouds side by side, or by using statistical tools presenting tabular data. While these methods may be best suited to the comparison of many node words of interest, ComPair provides a solution to the comparison of two words, while keeping true to the aims of collocate clouds.

Semantic prosody is illustrated in figure 2, comparing the collocates of ‘utterly’ vs. ‘absolutely’. Negative terms cluster near ‘utterly’ where as positive terms cling to ‘absolutely’. At face value these words are synonymous, but they are clearly used in different contexts and are not simply interchangeable. These are often issues which challenge learners of English as a foreign language.

Figure 2. ComPair visualisation of ‘utterly’ vs. ‘absolutely’ in the British National Corpus

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Method
ComPair calculates the collocates of both node words, ranking the results using a combination of frequency of co-occurrence, and by collocational strength (adopting the Mutual Information (MI) measure). A continuum is formed, with each extremity representing the separate node words (imagine a piece of string, with a label representing each search term at each end). The collocates are then distributed along this continuum, using the relative pull of collocational strength towards each node (the words near the end of the string are strongly associated with those end labels, those in the centre much less so).

Visualisation
ComPair displays this continuum, displaying each node word and the collocates between them. The display uses a spectrum of colour, to further enforce the ordering of the collocates. In the MI tug of war, the words in the centre share similar MI scores with each input term. Typically these are fairly low MI figures and appear green. In the ‘utterly’ vs. ‘absolutely’ example above ‘ridiculous’ appears in pink, this indicates that while the MI scores (utterly- ridiculous’ vs. absolutely- ridiculous) are roughly the same, they are much higher than the surrounding collocates. Ridiculous is therefore a word used strongly with both utterly and absolutely. Those collocates appearing close to each node, and sharing its colour are used very strongly with that node word, and only that word. Figure 2 tells us that things can be ‘absolutely marvellous’ but not ‘utterly marvellous’. In comparison, someone can be ‘utterly ruthless’, but not ‘absolutely ruthless’.

Future Directions
At present ComPair allows for the comparison of two separate words in a single corpus. One possible extension would be the facility to search for the same words across two corpora. Imagine two corpora of differing political parties. With a single search term, ComPair would help expose the views and attitudes towards that concept. Another avenue would contrast word usage in British vs. American English.

Other applications would involve its use as a learning tool, allowing users to go beyond dictionaries and thesauri, to see in detail how different words actually operate. Visualisation of more than two node words should also be possible given different display techniques.

References:
Beavan, D. 2008 “Glimpses though the clouds: collocates in a new light, ” Proceedings of Digital Humanities 2008, University of Oulu, 25-29 June 2008

Firth, John R. 1957 Modes of meaning, Oxford Oxford University Press

Louw, B. 1993 “Irony in the Text or Insincerity in the Writer? The Diagnostic Potential of Semantic Prosodies, ” Text and Technology [ed. Baker, M., Francis, G. & Tognini-Bonelli, E.], Philadelphia/Amsterdam John Benjamins","txt","2","",""
"1351","12","Computing in Canada: a History of the Incunabular Years","1","Computing in Canada: a History of the Incunabular Years
Rockwell, Geoffrey, University of Alberta, grockwel@ualberta.ca
Smith, Victoria Susan, University of Alberta, victoriassmith@gmail.com
Hoosein, Sophia, University of Alberta, shoosein@ualberta.ca
Gouglas, Sean, University of Alberta, sean.gouglas@ualberta.ca
Quamen, Harvey, University of Alberta, hquamen@ualberta.ca
Introduction
How were computers introduced to the public and how did humanities issues figure in the introduction of computing? The time has come in the digital humanities to think historically about computing in the humanities as Willard McCarty has pointed out in Humanities Computing and other venues. This paper describes a study of public representations of computing in Canada using the Globe and Mail, our major national newspaper. This paper restricts itself to what we call the incunabular years when computing was still a curiosity and business applications didn’t yet dominate the public discourse.

References to digital computers in the Globe and Mail start in 1950 with a report of the annual meeting in London, England of Ferranti Ltd. This report describes under the heading of “Instruments” the development of a digital computer that was probably the predecessor of the Ferranti Atlas which pioneers like Susan Hockey worked on.

""The instrument department has a design team of considerable strength working in conjunction with Manchester University on the development of an electronic digital computer."" (Globe and Mail, Oct. 31, 1950, p. 21)

From this first reference to digital computers buried in a business report, interest in and then anxieties about computers grow steadily through the 1950s and early 1960s until by 1964 the Globe runs a full page story in “The Woman’s Globe and Mail” on “Will Computers Replace the Working Girl?” by Michelle Landsberg (Globe and Mail, May 21, 1964) that warns of the effects of automation on women who do most of the clerical work that can be automated. Computers go from being objects of curiosity in research labs at the University of Toronto with speculative utility to instruments that are changing the nature of office work, especially for women. It is this “incunabular” period that interests us, partly because it is a period when the academy is one of the major sites where computers are being installed and because academics are explaining computers to the broader community. This paper, using these early stories about computers, will tease out a history of early representations of computing in Canada. Specifically we will:

Describe the content analysis methodology used in this study.
Discuss the ways computers are presented to the public in the first decade and a half. Who is represented as having access to digital computers? What tasks are they presented as suitable for?
Discuss how computing jobs like data-entry, training and programming are gendered in the public discourse of the Globe.
Discuss the first references to the installation of computers at Universities and how these installations were presented to the public.
How was research computing presented and how were humanities applications of computing presented?
Methodology
The Globe and Mail online archive, unabashedly titled “Canada’s Heritage from 1844,” provides a full-text historical database of articles, ads, editorials and special features. In order to document the early discourse around computers we searched and collected all references to the word “computer” for content analysis coding and reading. The first reference we found dates back to 1897, though in this case it is not a reference to digital computers, but the computer as a type of job. The first reference to digital computers dates from 1950 and the number of references per year remains fairly low until the early 1960s when computing takes off as a subject of news, advertising and opinion.

Once gathered we coded the articles for content analysis. The coding rubric was developed iteratively as we read articles and developed hypotheses. For example, during the coding we became interested in gender and went back over the early stories to recode materials. Below is an example of the codes applied:

Type of reference (i.e. news, classified ad, feature)
Photos (i.e. were there photos and what do the photos show)
Category of Application (University, Science, Military, Automation, Industry, Government, and Arts and Humanities)
Gender of Named People (male, female, both, none)
Discourse like “Brain” (Is the computer described as a giant “brain”)
Types of computers mentioned in the references where applicable
Themes Running Through the Early Years
Close reading and content analysis led us to identify and follow a number of themes running through the stories in these incunabular years. For example, related to the Ferranti mentioned in the first reference, is a Canadian turn from being oriented towards computing in the UK to being oriented towards computing from the USA. This turn is obviously a much larger issue for Canada after the war than just a change in where computers are coming from, but you see the turn in the articles from the 1950s. Bylines from London dominate in the early 50s, but by the end of the 1950s New York begins to be source of information about computers outside of Canada. You can see the early orientation towards the UK in titles like the 1955 article “Britain Leads in Office Automation.” But, by 1961, in a comprehensive pair of articles on the computer industry, it is clear that US companies dominate. As the author Hugh Munro puts it, “Ferranti is the only company that designs and manufactures in Canada – specializing in big installations – which means the country is heavily dependent on the United States, where the other companies are based, not only for supplies but for technological advancement in the computer field.” (Munro, “Surging Computer Industry Confident It Has Only Begun”, December 6th, 1961, p. 23.)

Exclusionary Practices: Gender and Computing
One theme that stands out in the early representations of computing in the Globe is how women were excluded from computing. Advertisements for programmers are in the “Help Wanted Male” section. It isn’t until 1960 that a woman is named in a story and then she is discussed as an exception. The exclusion of women gets discussed explicitly in 1964 when Michelle Landsberg writes the extraordinary feature “Will Computers Replace the Working Girl?” mentioned above (Globe and Mail, May 21, 1964). This feature confronts the effects of automation on women who happen to do most of the clerical work that is being automated. In the full paper we will contrast the exclusion with what we know of pioneers like Beatrice Worsley who was one two staff hired initially by the University of Toronto Computing Centre.

Computers and the Working Girl; Title, Illustration and Text

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Computing in the University
The second story published about digital computers in the Globe is much more substantial than the Ferranti reference and it describes the first research computer installed in Canada at the University of Toronto. The story titled “Junior Electronic Brain Cost $100,000” dates from 1951, was accompanied by two photographs, and is about the UTEC Jr. computer installed at the U of T’s Computing Centre. It is really the first significant story about computing in the Globe, which is significant. In the full paper we will go into some detail about this first significant representation of computing as it illustrates many of the other points we want to make.

Much could be said about the U of T Computing Centre and the birth of academic computing in Canada. Here we will restrict ourselves to the way computing was presented to the public as starting at the University of Toronto. The U of T Computing Centre stayed in the news for decades, along with its director, Dr. Gotlieb, who was the most frequently mentioned expert of the period. But academic computing is not just about Gotlieb and research at his Centre. By 1955 we see the first ads for computing courses at U of T and the first reports of computers at other universities. By 1957 we see an article about computing in the arts and humanities. This article, titled, “Strange Music Made By an Electronic Brain” reports about a music composition experiment.

""To the casual observer, the squeaks, squawks, groans and hints of tunes were a harsh cacophony. To Professor C. C. Gotlieb and his colleagues, the sounds were the Iliac Suite, a string quartet composed by the electronic brain at the University of Illinois. It was an experiment in composition designed by Prof. Gottlieb and his fellow-workers with the university’s electronic brain to show that humans are not the only ones that can compose music.""

What stands out about this and subsequent stories is that they are about the computer as an extraordinary device best understood as an “electronic brain” performing tasks that are human. The stories don’t really report humanities applications differently from scientific and engineering ones. Instead this research brain is presented as answering questions and completing tasks from all fields – it is a general purpose inquiry engine that the U of T Computing Centre is turning to questions and academic tasks from one field to the next. The brain is curious as we are, and the stories convey a sense of the discovery as Gotlieb’s team crosses disciplines discovering new uses for the computer. What remains to be seen (in a future study) is how the public discourse matches or reflects the evolving discourse within the academy and especially in humanities computing circles. We humanists, after all, are also reading the news; did we come to computing influenced by news of its promise or were we concerned about how it might affect our work?

References:","txt","2","",""
"1352","12","The Digital Materiality of Early Christian Visual Culture: Building on John 20:24-29","1","The Digital Materiality of Early Christian Visual Culture: Building on John 20:24-29
Heath, Sebastian , Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, New York University, sebastian.heath@nyu.edu
This paper explores the nature of digital materiality as it resides in the visual and written culture of Early Christianity. Within archaeology and related disciplines, “materiality” is a theoretical approach that focuses on physical things - such as objects, books, or buildings - as one starting point for building an understanding of past thought and behavior (White 2009). As a term, ""digital materiality"" does not yet have a fixed meaning and can refer to the physical manifestations of the computer age (Manoff 2006), to the processes by which digital representations become physical architecture (Gramazio and Kohler 2008) or to the effects of digital information in the modern world (Leonardi 2010). Here, I mean ""digital materiality"" as the transport of information about the material culture of past societies, and particularly the material culture of Early Christianity. Looking for fluid relationships between thought and object in ancient evidence suggests that ""digital materiality"" is an appropriate metaphor for both recovering past interactions with material culture and for describing the role of networked information in modern archaeological and art historical scholarship. It is this intersection of past and present that is of particular interest. While stressing potential, this paper also looks to the practical consequences of current efforts to digitize ancient activity that survives in material form.

Existing virtual representations have already exposed clear overlaps between the written word as object and the manifestation of those concepts in visual media. The Codex Sinaiticus is a fourth century codex bible removed from Saint Catharine’s monastery on the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt in the 19th century and now largely in the British Museum. Its early date makes it plausibly the first extant bible as that term is conceived in Christian terms. Most of the surviving pages of the codex are available online at the site http://codexsinaiticus.org/ . Among the passages found there is John 20:24-29, where the disciple Thomas, of “doubting Thomas” fame, demands to touch the wounds of the resurrected Jesus when he appears to his followers. The passage ends with the exhortation, “20:29. Because you have seen me, you have believed; blessed are those who have not seen and yet have believed.”

The traction this concept had in Early Christian culture is clear from a hammered gold disk produced in Egypt and now in the collection of the American Numismatic Society that has a stable digital representation available at the URI http://numismatics.org/collection/0000.999.51006 . This physical object quotes the text of John 20:29 while illustrating Thomas in the act of touching Christ. This paper stresses that the modern opportunity to engage in such a self-referential illustration of the materiality of thought in the Later Roman Mediterranean is a serendipitous result of independent efforts to digitize the material record of that time and place. Just as the creation of the surviving material record should be recognized as the cumulative action of many individuals, it is likely that exploration of that record will be enabled by many projects and institutions working within their own areas of expertise and with content specific to their domain (Heath 2010, Terras 2010). It is the interactions of a series of self-digitizing and independent communities – here Early Christian textual studies and Numismatics – that can recover relationships between physical object and human thought that is a primary goal of materiality as a methodological approach.

It is, of course, important to recognize that while the Internet will make evident the material implications of past human thought and action, it will not of its own bring scholars into direct contact with the material culture they study. Digital Humanities as applied to archaeology and visual culture will usually mean working with surrogates: one cannot download an object, one can only see its representation . The network does not take us to a site, it only provides access to descriptions and pictures. Digital materiality is therefore an act of transmission (Liu 2004) so that its deficiencies leave it open to criticism.

Trends within the study of textual evidence as embodied in manuscripts suggest that this observation is not a barrier to analytical progress. Projects such as the Codex Sinaiticus digitization effort are showing that digital access to manuscripts is returning the material to a central place in the study of primary sources that had been abstracted in critical editions. The digitized page images show in great detail the large number of variants and corrections that make plain that written evidence for the ancient world does not exist independently of its physical media. The Homer Multi-Text project (http://chs.harvard.edu/chs/homer_multitext) is self-consciously engaged in enabling virtual access to multiple manuscripts of the Iliad and Odyssey that range from the Hellenistic to Medieval periods. Such initiatives indicate that material and thought become meaningfully unified in a digital domain. Accordingly, digital materiality is not a poor substitute for direct autopsy of material culture. Rather than de-emphasizing the physical, Digital Humanities will bring it to the fore. But it needs to be pointed out that at this moment, the best critical editions of the New Testament (Aland and Nestle 2006, Aland et al. 2006), with rich apparatus for the Gospel of John, is not available online so that commercial interests are an impediment to to the study of the text, whether considered as an idealized abstraction or a material object. This suggests that the constituent components of both modern and ancient digital materiality are at a transitional point where ""primary sources"" are more accessible than ""secondary works"".

It is particularly important to stress this point when we recognize that it is no longer possible within archaeological scholarship to have hands-on access to all relevant material (Stewart 2008). To recall the ending sentiment of the doubting Thomas story, “blessed are those who have not seen and yet have believed.” This can be applied to the current state of archaeological and material studies and lightly reformulated as an invitation to both make use of the full potential of material and textual sources on the internet, and to aggressively pursue such availability.

References:
Aland, B. et al. 2006 Greek New Testament 4th Edition, Hendrickson Publishers Peabody, MA

Aland, B. Nestle, E. 2006 Novum testamentum Graece 27th Edition, Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft Stuttgart

Gramazio, F. KOHLER, M. 2008 Digital Materiality in Architecture, Lars Müller Publishers Baden

Heath, S. 2010 “Diversity and reuse of digital resources for ancient Mediterranean material culture, ” Digital Research in the Study of Classical Antiquity, G. Bodard S. Mahony Ashgate Farnham, UK 35-52

Leonardi, P. 2006 “Digital materiality? How artifacts without matter, matter., ” First Monday, 15.6 (6-7 Jine 2010) (link)

Liu, A. 2004 “Transcendental data: toward a cultural history and aesthetics of the new encoded discourse, ” Critical Inquiry, 31 (Autumn 2004) 49-84 (link)

Manoff, M. 2006 “The materiality of digital collections: theoretical and historical perspectives, ” Portal: Libraries and the Academy, 6.3 (July 2006) 311-235 (link)

Stewart, P. 2008 The social history of Roman art, Cambridge University Press New York

Terras, M. 2010 “Digital curiosities: resource creation via amateur digitization, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 25.4 (2010) 425-438 (link)

White, C. 2009 The materiality of individuality: archaeological studies of individual lives, Springer Science New York","txt","2","",""
"1353","12","Network and Topical Analysis for the Humanities using NWB and Sci2","15","Network and Topical Analysis for the Humanities using NWB and Sci2
Weingart, Scott, Indiana University, scbweing@indiana.edu
Börner, Katy, Indiana University, katy@indiana.edu
Duhon, Russell, Indiana University, rduhon@indiana.edu
Linnemeier, Micah, Indiana University, mwlinnem@indiana.edu
Phillips, Patrick, Indiana University, pataphil@gmail.com
Biberstine, Joseph, Indiana University, jrbibers@indiana.edu
Tank, Chintan, Indiana University, tankchintan@gmail.com
Kong, Chin Hua, Indiana University, kongch@indiana.edu
Abstract
More and more, research in the humanities requires making use and sense of datasets that represent the structure and dynamics of complex natural and man-made systems. Recent trends in the digital humanities have resulted in the wide-scale availability of this data. The analysis, navigation, and management of these large-scale, dynamically changing datasets requires a new kind of tool, a macroscope (from macro, great, and skopein, to observe).

Microscopes empowered our naked eyes to see cells, microbes, and viruses, thereby advancing the progress of biology and medicine. Telescopes opened our minds to the immensity of the cosmos and prepared mankind for the conquest of space. Macroscopes promise to help us cope with another infinite: the infinitely complex. They allow us to detect patterns, trends, and outliers, give access to details, present a ‘vision of the whole,’ and assist our ‘synthesis’ of what we observe. While most microscopes and telescopes are static physical instruments, macroscopes are continuously changing bundles of software deployed as cyberinfrastructures, Web services, or standalone tools.

This tutorial presents and demonstrates CIShell powered tools such as the Science of Science (Sci2) Tool (http://sci.slis.indiana.edu/sci2) and the Network Workbench (NWB) Tool (http://nwb.slis.indiana.edu). The NWB Tools is a network analysis, modeling, and visualization toolkit for physics, biomedical, social science, and other multidisciplinary research. The Sci2 Tool was specifically designed for researchers and science policy makers interested to study and understand the structure and dynamics of science. These versatile tools can be utilized for humanities data, allowing humanists to explore topical or social networks within their areas of study. They will be utilized for the analysis of temporal, geospatial, topic, and network datasets, and the professional visualization of analysis results by means of large-format charts and maps. Both tools are standalone desktop applications that install and run on Windows, Linux x86 and Mac OSX.

Outline
15 Min.Marcoscope Design and Usage

45 Min. Sci2 Tool Basics

Download and run the tool.
Load and clean a dataset using the Sci2 Database; process raw data into networks.
Find basic statistics and run various algorithms over the network.
Visualize the networks as either a graph or a circular hierarchy.
15 Min. Sci2 Workflow Design. Padgett's Florentine Families - Prepare, load, analyze, and visualize family and business networks from 15th century Florence.

15 Min. Break

30 Min. Sci2 Research Demonstration I. Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project - Map concepts and influence in the field of philosophy.

30 Min. Sci2 Research Demonstration II. The Republic of Letters - Find central correspondents in Early-Modern Europe.

30 Min. Q&A and Technical Assistance

Software Needed
Custom software that uses Java 1.5 or higher and the OSGI/CIShell (http://cishell.org) core together with algorithm plugins and sample datasets from the Network Workbench Tool (http://nwb.slis.indiana.edu) and Science of Science Tool (http://sci.slis.indiana.edu).

Suggested Reading
Börner, Katy, Chen, Chaomei, and Boyack, Kevin. (2003). Visualizing Knowledge Domains. In Blaise Cronin (Ed.), ARIST, Medford, NJ: Information Today, Inc./American Society for Information Science and Technology, Volume 37, Chapter 5, pp. 179-255. http://ivl.slis.indiana.edu/km/pub/2003-borner-arist.pdf
Börner, Katy, Sanyal, Soma and Vespignani, Alessandro (2007). Network Science. In Blaise Cronin (Ed.), ARIST, Information Today, Inc./American Society for Information Science and Technology, Medford, NJ, Volume 41, Chapter 12, pp. 537-607.http://ivl.slis.indiana.edu/km/pub/2007-borner-arist.pdf
Scott Weingart, Hanning Guo, Katy Borner, Kevin W. Boyack, Micah W. Linnemeier, Russell J. Duhon, Patrick A. Phillips, Chintan Tank, and Joseph Biberstine (2010) Science of Science (Sci2) Tool User Manual. Cyberinfrastructure for Network Science Center, School of Library and Information Science, Indiana University, Bloomington. http://sci.slis.indiana.edu/registration/docs/Sci2_Tutorial.pdf
Instructors
Scott Weingart is a doctoral student at Indiana University studying History of Science and Information Science. His primary research is on the Republic of Letters in Early Modern Europe, and has worked with the CKCC project in the Netherlands and Dr. Robert A. Hatch at the University of Florida on digitizing, visualizing, and analyzing early modern correspondence networks. Scott focuses on the intersection of computational analysis and the humanities, and how each can shape the other.

Previous Venues
NWB and Sci2 have been presented at dozens of previous venues with audience sizes ranging from under 10 to over 100. A full list of our previous presentations can be found at http://cns.slis.indiana.edu/presentations/. The most recent workshop presented specifically for humanists was at the NEH-funded Networks and Network Analysis for the Humanities Summer Institute at UCLA in August 2010. There were approximately 40 audience members in attendance, and the workshop resulted in over half of the attendees using the Sci2 tool in their final presentations for the institute.","txt","2","",""
"1354","12","Visualization for Literary History","15","Visualization for Literary History
Brown, Susan, English and Humanities Computing, University of Alberta/University of Guelph, Susan.Brown@ualberta.ca
Ruecker, Stan, English and Humanities Computing, University of Alberta, sruecker@ualberta.ca
Rockwell, Geoffrey, Philosophy and Humanities Computing, University of Alberta, grockwel@ualberta.ca
Sinclair, Stéfan, Communications and Multimedia, McMaster University, sgs@mcmaster.ca
This workshop will present, demonstrate, and provide participants with the opportunity to test and discuss prototypes of several experimental visualization tools for literary studies. The tools will provide a range of approaches to visualizing the Orlando Project’s textbase. Some but not all will allow for input of other data. Although the workshop is focused on literary studies in English, we welcome participants from other related disciplines such as history, philosophy, the history of science, media studies, or library and information science, as well as those with an interest in text visualization generally, and those interested in corpuses in languages other than English.

The Orlando Project’s fifteen-year experiment in literary history explores the potential of computers to support new modes of humanities research, particularly the potential of digital technologies to enable interpretive and critical scholarship. The major result of that endeavour, the online Orlando: Women’s Writing in the British Isles from the Beginnings to the Present (Brown et al 2006; orlando.cambridge.org), constitutes the single most extensive and detailed resource in the area, hailed by the Modern Language Association’s Guide to Literary Research as “a model for similar databases that will supplant printed literary dictionaries, encyclopedias, and handbooks” (Harner). Though Orlando resembles a reference work, its electronic structure embeds an entire critical and theoretical framework to support advanced literary historical enquiry. The workshop proposed here will present and allow participants to experiment with prototypes based on emergent methods in text mining and visualization that leverage that embedded structure to enable new discovery paths in literary history.

The Orlando textbase—about 80 print volumes’ worth of born-digital scholarship encoded with an XML tagset of more than 250 tags covering the production, characteristics, and reception of texts)—constitutes a rare testbed for investigating the mining of structured text. Its online interface and search system were developed according to W3C standards to exploit the underlying markup, and designed to meet the expectation of text-oriented users of conventional online tools. This existing interface is very search-oriented and entirely textual in its delivery of results.

Current research in humanities computing and human-computer interaction is increasingly expanding beyond the text-oriented information retrieval paradigm, to explore instead the many opportunities offered by new, more flexible, more visually-oriented platforms for web delivery (e.g. Ahlberg and Shneiderman 1994; Bederson 2000, 2001; Harris 2006, 2007; Greengrass and Hughes, 2008). In this period of transformation, the scholarly interface requires not only experimentation but also careful assessment to see what works to make digital materials of real value to humanities scholars. As argued by Ramsay (2003), Unsworth (2006), and others, using computers to do literary research can contribute to hermeneutic or interpretive inquiry. Digital humanities research has inherited from computational science a leaning towards systematic knowledge representation. This has proved serviceable in some humanities activities, such as editing, but digital methods have far more to offer the humanities than this. As Drucker and Nowviskie have argued, “The computational processes that serve speculative inquiry must be dynamic and constitutive in their operation, not merely procedural and mechanistic” (431).

Our goal for this workshop is to provide those interested in literary studies and the digital humanities with an introduction to some of the tools being developed to support interactive speculative inquiry through text mining and visualization. In the process, we hope to garner insight into users’ reactions to these tools to inform further design and development activities. The prototypes presented at this workshop are being developed as possible interfaces to complement Orlando’s current, more conventional one.

The prototypes presented at the workshop will include the following:

Mandala Browser: this browser allows users to create “magnets” based on free text or XML search that attract to them items in a text collection, and to visualize the relationships between different sets. It can be used with the Orlando data or with other textual datasets. (Sinclair and Ruecker)
Fig. 1: Mandala Browser

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Orlando Degrees of Separation tool: this tool shows the connections between individuals in the Orlando data by way of other people, places, organizations, or titles. The challenge is in organizing the visualization of the paths when there are multiple ones, as there frequently are in this highly interlinked set of data
Fig. 2: Orlando Degrees of Separation tool

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OrlandoVision, a network graph visualization tool: creates a social network graph in which individuals’ names are nodes and links between them are edges, which are color-coded according to the semantic context of the link as represented in the markup
Fig. 3: OrlandoVision graphing tool

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Breadboard interface for tracing links between individuals and entities: a more textually-oriented interface for browsing links between individuals and entities within the Orlando data
Fig. 4: Orlando Breadboard Interface

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Voyeur: a general-purpose web-based text analysis environment designed for large-scale corpora; includes experimental visualization modules for exploring word trends, named entities, and other textual features
this tools shows the connections between individuals in the Orlando data by way of other people, places, organizations, or titles. The challenge is in organizing the visualization of the paths when there are multiple ones, as there frequently are in this highly interlinked set of data
Fig. 5: Voyeur text analysis environment

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possibly other visualization tools emergent from current research: we are experimenting with other mining and visualization tools between now and DH2011 and may pull ones that seem to have potential into the workshop program
This workshop emerges from ongoing research on visualization for literary research, and participants will be asked, but not required, to participate in the study through surveys, interviews, and recording of user sessions in accordance with the ethics protocols approved by our respective universities.

References:
Ahlberg, C. Shneiderman, B. “The Alphaslider: A compact and rapid selector, ” Conference proceedings on human factors in computing systems: “celebrating interdependence"", 1994 365–371

Bederson, B. PhotoMesa: A zoomable image browser using quantum treemaps and bubblemaps Proceedings of the 14th annual ACM symposium on user interface software and technology 2001 71–80 (link)

Brown, Susan Orlando: Women's Writing in the British Isles from the Beginnings to the Present Clements, Patricia Grundy, Isobel 2006a (link)

Drucker, J. Nowviskie, B. Speculative computing: Aesthetic provocations in humanities computing A Companion to Digital Humanities, Schreibman, S. Siemens, Ray Unsworth, John 2004

Greengrass, Mark Hughes, Lorna The Virtual Representation of the Past December 2008

Harner, James L. Literary Research Guide: An Annotated Listing of Reference Sources in English Literary Studies, 5th edition, 2008

Harris, J. “10 by 10: 100 words and pictures that define the time, ” (link) 2006

Ramsay, Stephen “Toward an Algorithmic Criticism, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 18.2 2003

Sinclair, Stéfan Ruecker, Stan “Mandala Rich Prospect Browser, ” (link) 2008

Unsworth, John “New methods for Hmanities Research, ” (link) 2006","txt","2","",""
"1355","12","On the Meaning of the Term 'text' in Digital Humanities","1","On the Meaning of the Term 'text' in Digital Humanities
Caton, Paul, Centre for Computing in the Humanities, King's College London, pncaton@gmail.com
In digital humanities the word ""text"" (in both mass and count noun senses)By the end of the paper I hope the relation between the mass and the count senses of the noun ""text"" will be clear. That ""text"" has a count noun sense is embodied in the Text Encoding Initiative Guidelines (2008 passim). occurs ubiquitously; familiar uses include text encoding, full text search, there are six texts online, we are using the text of the first edition. Typically the word is not defined in the specific context of its use, nor is there an overarching definition or description so widely accepted that it is taken as given at all times. However, our various uses of ""text"" show we have a priori assumptions about the nature and scope of its reference. But what are those assumptions? are they justified? do they collectively define ""(a) text"" for us?Text encoding models have of course benefited greatly from the ""ordered hierarchy of content objects"" definition proposed in DeRose et al 1990 and its subsequent refinements such as in Renear et al 1996. Caton 1999 discusses the relation between the TEI element <text> and the concept of ""a text"". Caton and the INKE Research Group 2010 argues for greater precision in the use of core digital humanities terms such as ""text"".

In this preliminary investigation I approach from the outside in. I take a number of marginal cases and of each one ask ""is this a text?"" - because any attempt to answer that question must draw out the assumptions that underlie our common usages. I focus on the count noun sense because discrete entities with boundaries ought to be easier to recognize. In our professional lives we talk about ""texts"" all the time: oughtn't we to know one when we see one?

The marginal cases I discuss are an encrypted message (Figure 1), a sigilSigils in general are magical symbols, and as used by Austin Osman Spare ""are developed by fusion and stylization of letters"" (Frater, U. D. 1991, 7). The letters come from a sentence that expresses a particular desire of the magical practitioner. created by English occultist Austin Osman Spare (Figure 2), a minimal unit (Figure 3), and a poster with quoted words on it (Figure 4).

Figure 1 - encrypted messageFigure 1 is adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher. Retrieved 28/10/2010.

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Figure 2 - creation of a sigil from a message stringFigure 2 is from Spare 1913, page 50.

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Figure 3 - minimal unit.

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Figure 4 - Second World War posterFigure 4 is from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never_was_so_much_owed_by_so_many_to_so_few. Retrieved 28/10/2010.

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Summary of Discussion
I suggest the following are core assumptions underlying our collective use of ""a text"":

representation of language: for any non-metaphorical use we think that language must be involved. Unlike a painting or a piece of music, which seem to affect us unmediated by language, for something to be ""a text"" it must resolve to language in our heads, even if what we see does not directly represent language. Thus we see Milton Glaser's famous logo ""I [heart symbol] NY"" and in our heads hear the words ""I love New York"", because the particular symbol-word association is so common that it resolves almost by default - especially given the linguistic context in which the heart symbol occurs. The encrypted message in Figure 1 is all linguistic symbols, but not directly interpretable as any language. Resolution to language depends upon knowing how to decipher the symbol sequence - though I suggest that as creatures of language even if we do not know the cipher (and so the sequence remains impenetrable to us) we think it likely that the sequence we see is a reversible transformation of a comprehensible linguistic sequence. We accord it an honorary status as ""a text"" whose lack of recognition is due to our ignorance, and not to its being something other than ""a text"". But Figure 2 is a different matter. Unlike the product of the cipher transformation - an incomprehensible string of what are recognisably linguistic symbols - sigilization transforms a comprehensible sequence of linguistic symbols into an almost purely graphic image. I suggest that seeing the final sigil without knowing its origin, we would not even accord it honorary status as ""a text"", because the deletions, substitutions, and spatial reconfigurations make it almost impossible to resolve back into language - there are so few clues that it started out as language in the first place. On the other hand, the linguistic message has not been replaced by a figurative image, in the way that a photograph of an emaciated child might replace the symbol sequence ""children are starving"" - indeed mimetic representation of the desire conveyed by the communication would not be to the purpose, ""[t]he idea being,"" writes Spare, ""to obtain a simple form which can be easily visualised at will, and has not too much pictorial relation to the desire."" (50) For the person who creates the sigil the message is still completely present, implying that for them at least the sigil is ""a text"".

communication: in the normative case for ""a text"" we assume that a linguistic symbol sequence has been created to communicate, which is the primary function of such sequences. We assume the sequence forms a message (or, in the case of a fragment, would form a message if the entire sequence were present). We have such a propensity to find a message, to make sense out of a sequence, that we will try to establish ""a text"" even in the least promising cases. Because the glyph shown in Figure 3 represents a character that (in addition to being a letter) is also a lexical item in English it triggers that response, but because the lexical item is supposed to function as a determiner yet here determines nothing it gives us no semantic purchase. Compare this to Figure 3b:

Figure 3b

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This is another glyph that represents a character that is both letter and lexical item, and here in majuscule form as proper to the lexical item. Because pronouns carry more semantics than indefinite articles it gives us more 'traction'; I suggest that we would rank Figure 3b as closer to being ""a text"" than Figure 3, even if we wouldn't commit to saying that it is ""a text"".

completeness: the completeness of the message embedded in the symbol sequence depends entirely upon the context. What is merely part of ""a text"" in one context can stand alone in another context, as the excerpt from Churchill's speech does in Figure 4. If we say that the poster in Figure 4 contains ""a text"", though, does that text contain the words ""The Prime Minister"" - or are we looking at two texts, one (just the quote) embedded in another (the whole linguistic symbol sequence)? When we hold a paperback book - an edition of Moby Dick, for example - how many texts are represented in that physical object?

Some Preliminary Conclusions
There is a type of thing called ""text"" which is a symbol or sequence of symbols that either directly represents language or can be resolved back into language by reversing an earlier, non-arbitrary transformation. In this mass noun sense, text exists, is independent of context, and independent of individual interpretation or experience. However, while text in the mass noun sense must be what makes up text in a count noun sense, there is no such thing as ""a text"" that is independent of context or of individual experience and interpretation. No linguistic symbol sequence is naturally ""organic"" or ""unitary"" (the adjectives used by the TEI Guidelines), though any complex sequence will have structural features that offer themselves as convenient boundaries. Nevertheless these boundaries are always artificial, as much recent work on genetic editions has shown.Particularly interesting examples are the work of Malte Rehbein on a medieval German town record book (2009), and of Justin Tonra on Thomas Moore's long poem ""Lalla Rookh"" (2009). In each case the multiplicity of symbol sequences that are candidates for being ""a text"" is striking. Being ""a text"" is a status we give some text in a particular context and at our choosing. In this sense ""a text"" is, as Renear and Dubin say in a somewhat similar context, ""a matter of contingent social/linguistic circumstances"" (2007 p.8) and is thus - as they similarly concluded about three of the four FRBR Group 1 entity types - not a type but a role. In other words I suggest that being ""a text"" is not what Guarino and Welty would term a rigid property of any instance of text in its mass noun sense.Guarino and Welty define a rigid property as ""a property that is essential to all its instances"" where by ""essential"" they follow Lowe in saying that ""an essential property of an object … [is one where] the object has that property always and in every possible world"" (2001 p.57). An example of a rigid property that they use several times is PERSON: ""if x is an instance of PERSON, it must be an instance of PERSON in every possible world"" (2001 p.57). They contrast PERSON with STUDENT; STUDENT is a property an entity can have and then not have without the entity changing: the same is not true of PERSON. A good deal of ontological work needs to be done, however, before this can be asserted with confidence.

References:
Caton, Paul 1999 “Using <TEXT> in TEI Markup, ” ALLC/ACH conference, Virginia, June 1999

Caton, Paul, and INKE Research Group 2010 “No representation without taxonomies: Specifying key terms in digital humanities, ” Digital Humanities 2010, London, July 2010

DeRose, Steven J., David Durand, Elli Mylonas, and Allen H. Renear 1990 “What is text, really?, ” Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 1 (2) 3-26

Frater U. D. 1991 Practical Sigil Magic: Creating Personal Symbols for Success. [Trans. Ingrid Fischer.], St. Paul, MN Llewellyn Publications

Guarino, Nicola, and Christopher Welty 2001 “Supporting ontological analysis of taxonomic relationships, ” Data and Knowledge Engineering, 39 51-74

Rehbein, Malte 2009 “Reconstructing the textual evolution of a medieval manuscript, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 24 (3) 319-327'

Renear, Allen, David Durand, and Elli Mylonas 1996 “Refining our notion of what text really is, ” Research in Humanities Computing [edited by Nancy Ide and Susan Hockey], Oxford Oxford University Press

Renear, Allen H. (corresponding author), and David Dubin 2007 “Three of the four FRBR Group 1 entity types are roles, not types., ” Proceedings of the 70th Annual Meeting of the American Society for Information Science and Technology (ASIST) [In Grove, Andrew, Ed.], Milwaukee, WI (US),

Spare, Austin Osman 1913 The Book of Pleasure (Self-Love), LondonCo-operative Printing Society Limited

TEI Consortium 2008 TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange [Lou Burnard and Syd Bauman, eds.],

Tonra, Justin 2009 “Textual studies and the TEI: Encoding Thomas Moore's 'Lalla Rookh', ” Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie, 10 (2009) 25-36","txt","2","",""
"1356","12","A Visual Interface for Exploring Language Use in Slave Narratives","2","A Visual Interface for Exploring Language Use in Slave Narratives
Muralidharan, Aditi, Department of Computer Science UC Berkeley, aditi@cs.berkeley.edu
Abstract
The increasing prevalence of digitized source material in the humanities has led to uncertainty about how this suddenly available information will change scholars' research methods. What balance will scholars strike between in-depth examination of a few sources, and a more ""distant reading"" (Moretti 2005) of a large number of them? Our focus is specifically on text collections: comparing texts, and identifying and tracing patterns of language use. These tasks are not widely supported by any current software, but if humanities researchers want to use digitized text collections on a larger scale, they will need to do exactly such things.

We restrict ourselves to a particular collection: the North American antebellum slave narratives, written by fugitive slaves in the decades before the Civil War with the support of abolitionist sponsors. Scholars agree about the slave narrative's most basic conventions but it is likely that these narratives, with their extreme repetitiveness, may also manifest other regular features that have yet to be detected by scholars. This project aims to assist literary scholars in uncovering these patterns with computational techniques.

In collaboration with English scholars, we have built WordSeer ( http://bebop.berkeley.edu/wordseer), a system that can compare two or more narratives' grammatical features, and analyze the distribution of textual patterns throughout an entire collection. Our goal is for English scholars to be able to use our system to gather accurate information about language use patterns in a way that is intuitive, and natural to them.

We will present the system currently under development, and share the lessons we have learned while building a text exploration interface for use in the humanities.

System Description: Computation
The goal of the computation is to extract grammatical structure from text. We use established techniques in computational linguistics that allow fast and reliable extraction of phrase boundaries, inter-word relationship categories (e.g. subject, verb, object, modifier etc.) and parts of speech. For example, the sentence, ""Marsupial mammals have pouches."" contains the meaningful unit ""marsupial mammals"" that functions as a noun and is therefore a noun-phrase. It further contains the word ""marsupial"" which is an adjective modifier of the word ""mammals"", which is a noun. The process is completely general, and can be applied to any TEI-encoded text collection.

System Description: Interface
Based on the features that our literary scholar collaborators found useful, our current interface supports three tasks: searching for grammatical or word-based patterns in text (Figures 1 and 2), visualizing their distribution in the entire collection (Figure 3), annotating sections of text with tags and notes (Figure 4).

Figure 1: Easily expressing the query, ""How was God described?""

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Figure 2: A list of search results augmented with a frequency visualization.

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Figure 3: The distribution of the exact phrase ""I was born"" through the collection.

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The power of extracting grammatical information is that a list search results is no longer an opaque list: trends and comparative frequencies can be extracted and displayed, giving an instant high-level picture: a guide to further exploration. For example, if a researcher were interested in the relationship between slaves and God, he or she might be interested in how God was described in the collection. Grammatical search makes this query easy to express: just type in ""God"" and choose the ""described as"" relationship, as shown in Figure 1

The search results are augmented with the simple but powerful visualization of relative frequencies shown in Figure 2: all the words that God is ""described as"" arranged from most to least frequent. The presence of the adjectives ""great, true, just"" immediately evokes a picture of the relationship - one very different from the picture more negative adjectives might paint. While this is no substitute for careful literary analysis, it can be a quick way to judge the extent to which an entity or event is represented a certain way in a collection, and so help formulate new hypotheses.

While investigating stylistic similarities between documents in a collection, it is useful to be able to investigate occurrences of patterns of interest and compare their distributions across documents. We use a visualization called heat maps, which uses the visual metaphor of text as a brick wall, with each brick, a section of text, and each column of bricks a document. Typing in a phrase shows its distribution throughout the entire collection, and patterns, such as the overwhelming occurrence (Olney 1984) of the exact phrase ""I was born"" at the very beginnings of narratives ( Figure 3) are easily apparent.

The third research behavior we support is that of organizing sections of text into sets that illustrate a point. With our reading and annotation interface ( Figure 4), researchers can highlight sections of text, and add tags and detailed notes.

Figure 4: Reading and annotating documents with tags and notes.

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Adding a tag to a highlighted section of text is like adding it to a set. Researchers can use the sets they make in other parts of the application: searching within a set, or restricting the heat map visualization to documents in a set.
Related Work
In the digital humanities, the closest work to our project comes from two well- known text analytics efforts. The first is the MONK project (MONK) incorporating the SEASR analysis toolkit. These projects offers two computational linguistics tools in addition to word distribution and frequency statistics: tagging words with their parts of speech and extracting named entities. Users can visualize occurrence patterns of word sequences within a chosen text, and plot networks of how often named entities occur near each other. This research led to visual text-mining analyses of Emily Dickinson's correspondence (Catherine Plaisant et al. 2006), and of Gertrude Stein's ""The Making of Americans"" (Don et al. 2007) and an interface for exploring the parts of speech used near query words of interest (Vuillemot et al. 2009).

The second is Voyeur (Voyeur), which operates entirely at the word level. It allows users to plot word frequencies, see concordances (contexts in which words occur) and create tag clouds.

Other digital humanities projects have used more advanced language processing, but have not developed them into user interfaces or combined them with visualizations. Topic modeling is being applied to 19th Century British and American novels (Jockers 2010). These novels were also the subjects of cutting-edge computational linguistics research that showed how to automatically extract social networks from free text (Elson et al. 2010). Topic modeling is also being applied to the compendium of Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish folklore collected by Evald Tang Kristensen. In the field of visualization, applications to text in the humanities have been limited to word clouds, and node-and-link diagrams of named entities, and co-occurrences.

Outside the realm of text, but in the domain of comparative exploration, LISA, a comparison search interface for cultural heritage artifacts was created by (Amin et al. 2010).

The digital humanities work described above comes from the application of ideas from human-computer interaction and natural language processing. We are informed by general principles of search user interface design described by Hearst (Hearst 2009), and of visual exploration of large data-sets described by Shneiderman (Shneiderman 1996).

References:
Amin, A.K. et al. 2010 “Designing a thesaurus-based comparison search interface for linked cultural heritage sources, ” Proceeding of the 14th international conference on Intelligent user interfaces, 249-258

Voyeur Tools: See Through Your Texts|Hermeneuti.ca - The Rhetoric of Text Analysis, October 29, 2010 (link)

Don, A. et al. 2007 “Discovering interesting usage patterns in text collections: integrating text mining with visualization., ” Proceedings of the sixteenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management, Lisbon, Portugal, 213-222

Elson, D. K. Dames, N. McKeown, K. R. 2010 “Extracting social networks from literary fiction, ” Proceedings of the 48th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 138-147

Hearst, M. 2009 Search user interfaces, Cambridge Univ Press http://searchuserinterfaces.com

Jockers, M L. What is a Literature Lab: Not Grunts and Dullards|Matthew L. Jockers., October 29, 2010 (link)

Moretti, F. 2005 Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract models for a literary history, Verso Books

Olney, J. 1984 “""I Was Born"": Slave Narratives, Their Status as Autobiography and as Literature, ” Callaloo, 46-73

Plaisant, C, et al. 2006 “Exploring erotics in Emily Dickinson's correspondence with text mining and visual interfaces, ” Proceedings of the 6th ACM/IEEE-CS joint conference on Digital libraries, Chapel Hill, NC, 141-150 (link)

Shneiderman, B. 1996 The Eyes Have it: A Task by Data Type Taxonomy for Information Visualizations, April 22, 2010 (link)

Vuillemot, R. et al. 2009 “What's being said near ""Martha""? Exploring name entities in literary text collections, ” In Visual Analytics Science and Technology: VAST 2009. IEEE Symposium, 107-114","txt","2","",""
"1357","12","Digital Image Analysis and Interactive Visualization of 1000000 Manga Pages","1","Digital Image Analysis and Interactive Visualization of 1000000 Manga Pages
Manovich, Lev, University of California, San Diego, manovich@ucsd.edu
Huber, William, University of California, San Diego, whuber@ucsd.edu
Douglass, Jeremy, Software Studies Initiative, Calit2, jeremydouglass@gmail.com
Digitization efforts by many museums, libraries and other institutions, and the massive growth of both user-generated and professional digital content opens us new possibilities for the study of media and visual cultures. To explore these possibilities, in 2007 we set Software Studies Initiative at University of California, San Diego. Since 2009, our research has been focused on exploring manga culture — specifically, 883 manga titles comprising 1 million digitized pages that were available as scanlations on onemanga.com in the Fall 2009. We have downloaded this whole image set along with the user-assigned tags indicating the genres and intended audiences for these titles and begun its analysis using digital image analysis, visualization, statistics, and data mining techniques.

Our paper presents our methods and some of the key findings of this ongoing research. The discussion is framed by three larger issues: 1) What are the new possibilities for describing visual language of manga made possible by using digital image analysis? 2) What do we learn by combining the software-assisted analysis of individual manga pages and the analysis of user-assigned tags? 3) What does the analysis of large cultural data sets such as 1 million manga pages tells us about cultural categories such as style and genre?

As an example of (1), we present 2D visualizations that show sets of manga pages organized by their visual characteristics measured by software (for instance, the presence of texture/detail and the amount of black in a page). Such visualizations allow us to compare visual language of individual titles, groups of titles, all titles by a particular artist, or 1 million manga pages and large sets of other kinds of images. As another example, we show visualizations that show how visual language of titles changes during the duration of their publication.

To research the relations between visual language, genre and gender/age categories in manga market as manifested in our sample (i.e. issue 2), we analyzed connections between 35 user-assigned tags (4 for audience type — shoujo, shounen, josei and seinen — and 31 for genres) available for 883 titles. We found that all tags form a connected network — i.e. any two tags occur together at least once. While some genre tags are more likely to be assigned to a particular audience segment, none of these genre tags are exclusive to male or female audiences. These empirical findings support two ideas. First, rather than thinking of ""action,"" ""adventure,"" ""romance,"" or any other genre category as a distinct genre, we should instead understand them as genre traits that, according to the perception of manga fans, can be combined in a single title. Second, as constructed by these genre traits, the gender categories female / male strongly overlap.

Digital image analysis and visualization of manga pages supports the similar conclusions. If we organize 1 million manga pages by their visual characteristics and then select all pages corresponding to shoujo and shounen titles, we find that these two sets of pages form overlapping fuzzy ""clouds."" In other words, while large proportions of pages have distinct visual characteristics that identify them as belonging to shoujo or shounen category, a significant percentage of pages have an ""androgynous"" visual language.

Finally, we discuss how the analysis of 1 million manga pages leads us to to rethink the concept of style. Consider visualization which shows ourcomplete set of 1 million pages. The pages in the bottom part of the visualization are the most graphic (they have the least amount of detail). The pages in the upper right have lots of detail and texture. The pages with the highest contrast are on the right, while pages with the least contrast are on the left. In between these four extremes, we find every possible stylistic variation. This suggests that manga visual language should be understood as a continuous variable.

This, in turn, suggests that the very concept of style as it is normally used maybe problematic then we consider large cultural data sets. The concept assumes that we can partition a set of works into a small number of discrete categories. However, if we find a very large set of variations with very small differences between them (such as in this case), it is no longer possible to use this model. Instead, it is more appropriate to use visualizations and/or mathematical models to describe the space of possible and realized variations.

References:","txt","2","",""
"1358","12","Handling Glyph Variants: Issues and Developments","1","Handling Glyph Variants: Issues and Developments
Anderson, Deborah, dwanders@sonic.net Department of Linguistics, UC Berkeley,
Introduction
The challenge of how to handle glyph variants when encoding text has long been a dilemma for those working with historical text materials. How can a digital humanist specify a particular glyph of a Unicode character, even if the glyph might be known to be an error? Is it possible to search for the character, and find instances of the “error” glyphs?

This short paper addresses issues involving glyph variants, in light of recent developments within the world of Unicode and W3C standardization, as well as OpenType specifications (also an ISO standard). The different options for handling glyph variants will also be explored in view of sustainability, and viewed from the general perspective of the Unicode character encoding standard, with particular discussion of Unicode variation sequences.

Gaiji
One option available to text encoders is to use the “gaiji” module, a mark-up mechanism described in TEI P5 which offers a means to represent and distinguish specific characters and glyphs that the Unicode Standard considers as identical (TEI Consortium, 2010).

Font-Based Option
Another possibility is to request users view the text with a particular font, one that contains the appropriate shape of the glyph(s). However, this is dependent upon the user having a particular font installed.

Two recent developments affect this option:

A working group of W3C is developing a specification for “WebFonts,” which will enable the automatic downloading and temporary installment of fonts over the Web, so users don’t need to install fonts on their operating systems. WebFonts is expected to be more widely deployed in the future; a public working draft was published in late July 2010 (W3C, 2010). This would apply to viewing text on Web browsers, and does not currently extend to word processing documents. (Note: W3C also is refining the CSS3 fonts module.)
A second development is the OpenType (OT) specification, which permits alternate glyphs to be selected and displayed (Microsoft Typography, 2008a). One drawback is that the person viewing the document must be using an application that supports these OT features in order for the specific alternate glyphs to appear. If the application does not support this OpenType feature, the default glyph for the Unicode character will appear. For example, the original author may have selected the shape “β” for U+03B2 GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA for his Greek text, but without the OpenType feature support, the recipient’s application may display a beta in the default shape, ""ß"".
OpenType also includes a way to specify specific glyph shapes that are commonly used for certain language-specific letters. For example, there are specific forms of italic and cursive Serbian letters that differ from Russian, although they are the same Unicode characters. The OpenType “language system” table and “locl” (localized form) feature table are mechanisms that allow one to specify such variant glyphs. These features are activated by language tags (Microsoft Typography, 2008b). However, as noted above, OpenType support – while becoming more common - is still limited to certain applications, although it is an international standard (ISO/IEC 14496-22:2009 [OFF] [ISO, 2011]).

Encode a Separate Character
One option occasionally mentioned as a way to represent a particular variant in a standardized way is to propose the variant as a separate character in Unicode. Technically, this is not allowed, since one of the core design principles is: “Unicode encodes characters, not glyphs” (Unicode Consortium, 2011a). However, some variants have been included in Unicode if they were present in earlier standards. The character/glyph model in CJK is particularly murky, in part due to the sheer number of characters involved (approximately 75,616 characters or 69% of all graphic characters in Unicode 6.0 are CJK). For the historic East Asian character sets, such as Classical Yi, the writing systems may be poorly understood and there is a tendency to encode glyphs. As a result, some character proposals have been based on glyphs (cf. the Classical Yi proposal, which proposed 88,613 “characters” [China, 2007]). Despite this, requesting the encoding of glyph variants into Unicode (as separate characters) is not generally advisable.

Variation Sequence
A last option is to specify a Unicode variation sequence which is defined as a base character and a variation selector (Unicode Consortium, 2011b). This is a standardized means to indicate the glyphic variants of the base character. The advantage to this mechanism is that the variation is accessible in plain text, and does not rely on code points in the Private Use Area, which are not interoperable.

This particular mechanism has not yet been widely publicized amongst in the world of digital humanities. It will likely become more widely supported in software, particularly as the Japanese government will be using variation sequences to handle rare ideographs used in proper names and place names, rather than proposing 2,621 new “compatibility” characters (Japan , 2009). In 2010, the Japan National Body put forward a large collection of ideographic variation sequences, which have been under review (Unicode Consortium, 2010a).

Variation selectors have been mentioned as a way to handle variants for several historic scripts, namely Tangut and Manichaean. For Tangut, a historic script used in China until the 16c, the variation sequences were suggested as a way to handle cases where the lexical sources don’t agree (that is, there is disagreement whether a given glyph is a variant of a character or is a separate character), as a way to document when different scholarly opinions on unifications, and to address backwards compatibility issues (Cook and Lunde, 2008).

In Manichaean, the variation selectors are mentioned as a way to indicate alternate forms which are not predictable, either by their position in a word, or in a line. The use of the variation sequences maintains the basic character identity (Everson et al., 2009).

Figure 1 is an example showing the proposed shape for the Manichaean HE glyph, and the HE with Variation Selector-1. (See Figure 1)

One drawback is that the variation sequences need to be proposed and approved by the Unicode Consortium, much as new characters are (or, for ideographic sequences, are reviewed as part of the Unicode Public Review Process). However, this hurdle will ensure the characters are standardized, and are publicly accessible (Unicode Editorial Committee Members, 2011; Unicode Consortium, 2010b).

Another benefit is that search queries can ignore the variation selectors or the query can be written to only match a term with a specific variation selector. This mechanism could be useful as a way to display glyph errors, and be able to relate them to the base character. However, if a given application does not support variation sequences, the base character will display by default.

Variation sequences provide a standards-based option, which has some advantages over font-based alternatives. However, to date, relatively few variation sequences have been defined, except for those used in mathematics, Mongolian, and the historic script Phags-Pa (Unicode Editorial Committee Members, 2011).

At present, Ideographic Variation Sequences are only supported in the certain environments (Acrobat/Reader 9.0 and higher, Flash Player 10 and higher, InDesign CS4 and higher, Mac OS X 10.6 and higher, Windows 7 and higher, and Firefox 4 on all platforms [Lunde, 2011]). The dependency on limited implementations can pose a problem for digital humanists, however, if future software fails to support these variation sequences.

Conclusion
In sum, several alternatives are available to text encoders to specify variant glyphs in text at present. This paper has provided new information on different options, which are still developing and may become more widely adopted, affecting choices available to text encoders.

This author cautiously recommends the use of Variation Selectors if the glyph difference needs to be captured in plain-text, and the digital encoder is willing to go through the approval process to get the variation sequence approved by the standards committees.

This work was supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities as part of the Universal Scripts Project [#PW-50441].

Figure 1: Manichaean HE glyph, and the HE with Variation Selector-1

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References:
China [National Body]. Preliminary Proposal to Encode Classical Yi Characters. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 – ISO/IEC 10646 UCS 2007 (link) 14 March 2011

Cook Richard Ken Lunde The UCS Tangut Repertory. 2008 ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 – ISO/IEC 10646 UCS. (link) 14 March 2011

Everson, Michael Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst Roozbeh Pournader Revised proposal for encoding the Manichaean script in the SMP of the UCS. 2009 ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 – ISO/IEC 10646 UCS. (link) 14 March 2011

International Organization for Standardization [ISO] 2009 ISO/IEC 14496-22:2009 (link) 14 March 2011.

Japan [National Body] 2009 Follow-up on N3530 (Compatibility Ideographs for Government Use) ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 – ISO/IEC 10646 UCS (link) 14 March 2011

Lunde, Ken 2011 E-mail to Deborah Anderson, 10 March.

Microsoft Typography. 2008a Developer Info, OpenType specification, OpenType Layout tag registry: Registered features: Tag: ‘cv01’ – ‘cv99’. (link) 14 March 2011

Microsoft Typography. 2008b Developer Info, OpenType specification, OpenType Layout tag registry: Registered features: Tag: ‘locl’. (link) 14 March 2011

TEI Consortium, eds. 2010 ‘5. Representation of Non-standard Characters and Glyphs.’ In: TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange.Version 1.9.1. (link) 14 March 2011

Unicode Consortium 2010a PRI 167: Combined registration of the Hanyo-Denshi collection and of sequences in that collection. (link) 14 March 2011

Unicode Consortium 2010b Ideographic Variation Database. (link) 14 March 2011

Unicode Consortium 2011a “‘Chapter 2: General Structure.’, ” Allen, Julie D., et al. The Unicode Standard Version 6.0 – Core Specification., Unicode Consortium Mountain View (link) 14 March 2011

Unicode Consortium 2011b “‘Chapter 16: Special Areas and Format Characters.’, ” In: Allen, Julie D., et al. The Unicode Standard Version 6.0 – Core Specification. Mountain View: Unicode Consortium, (link) 14 March 2011

Unicode Editorial Committee Members. 2011 Standardized Variants. Revision 6.0.0. (link) 14 March 2011

W3C 2010 Fonts on the Web. (link) 14 March 2011","txt","2","",""
"1359","12","The Digital Archaeological Record--an Analytic Data Repository for Archaeology","1","The Digital Archaeological Record--an Analytic Data Repository for Archaeology
Brin, Adam , Digital Antiquity, abrin@digitalantiquity.org
McManamon, Francis, Digital Antiquity, fpm@digitalantiquity.org
Lee, Allen , Arizona State University, Allen.Lee@asu.edu
In the past 150 years, the discipline of archaeology has changed dramatically; excavation procedures, field methods, and record keeping have both improved and become formalized. Ahead of the digital era, the physical records of an excavation (the papers, data tables, journals, and monographs) were preserved as artifacts alongside the excavated materials in museums and repositories. More recently, Archaeologists have been quick to adopt new technology from punch cards in the 1960s to spreadsheets, databases, GIS, and 3D scanning. Yet, these modern files, images, data sets, and documents, if not properly preserved, are more fragile than the objects they describe. With the Digital Archaeological Record (tDAR --http://www.tdar.org), we hope to change this.

tDAR was designed as a domain-specific digital repository, focused on preservation of, and access to archaeological documents, reports, data sets and images. The most successful digital repositories provide additional value to their users beyond the core mission of preservation. Examples including ArXiv (http://arxiv.org/) or the University of Rochester's digital repository (https://urresearch.rochester.edu) are successful because of additional factors such as reputation or community. For tDAR, the additional value is created through research tools developed on top of the repository. These tools aim to promote new synthetic and comparative research using the data sets stored within the repository.

tDAR's architecture includes three architectural components, a backend preservation repository based on the California Digital Library's Micro-Services model, an interactive web interface, and a research platform. Metadata is stored within tDAR using a extension of the Library of Congress MODS schema, modified to add archaeologically significant metadata. This includes descriptive metadata about the site, location, culture, materials found, among other attributes. Data sets ingested into tDAR function differently from data sets in a traditional repository. Once a data set has been uploaded, users are guided through the process of documenting their data set within the system. This process is designed to focus on identifying non-machine discernible information such as, whether numeric data represents a measurement or count and translating coded values or lookup tables into human-readable values. Once complete, tDAR's additional features provide unique opportunities to compare, contrast, and analyze data within the system.

A significant challenge for many disciplines is the ability to perform synthetic research. Data from archaeological excavations commonly include a mixture of standardized observational data such as Munsell codes to record sediment color and GPS/GIS readings are combined with more qualitative assessments about artifact types, or the amount of ""burning"" on faunal elements. Within the context of a specific site, this is easily reconcilable --as the team develops a common understanding of these terms. However, utilizing these classifications outside of a given site, region, or community of archaeologists, can be challenging. Certain data may lend itself to the application of universal classification schemes --including data that is either more scientific or is derived from a well-documented period. However, more qualitative data may not be as easily mapped to a universal classification model --as definitions of terms will vary between archaeologists or over time. Instead, contributors may provide, or develop a unique classification scheme (ontology) to describe their data. These two approaches represent well-tread road within both research and practice, with distinct benefits to each side. However, to perform any useful comparison, a mapping must be developed.

tDAR does not force users to map data to universal data models or classification schema. Instead, the application has developed a different approach --maintain the data in its original, and capturing the intent of the archaeologist. The application was been developed with reference ontologies available for certain data elements including faunal species data among others. tDAR enables users to create additional ontologies within the repository, or upload existing one using the OWL format. Once a column of data is associated with an ontology, users are presented with straightforward tools to map the unique data values to terms within the ontology. We believe that this process serves a number of purposes, not only does it maintain and represent the data as it was collected, but it provides opportunities for collaboration and communication within the discipline as archaeologists share data, and discuss intents.

Once data has been mapped, the application guides the user through the data integration process of selecting data sets, identifying columns to compare, fine tuning any mapping issues, and producing the new combined data set. In an analog context, or outside of tDAR, this process can be time-consuming for one data set, and overwhelming for multiple. Within tDAR, what would have been a complex process taking days or weeks when performed manually becomes much more fluid, taking hours. With the technology performing much of the heavy lifting, it leaves the archaeologist to focus on the specific questions and details of their research.

While tDAR is still developing, tDAR's data integration has already enabled Archaeozoologists to ask novel questions about the cultural and ecological circumstances under which species are overhunted or subsistence strategies change. It is our hope that tDAR's core values of access, preservation, and integration will enable us to ask, understand, and evaluate new questions and ideas otherwise impossible within the field of archaeology.","txt","2","",""
"1360","12","The Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory: Infrastructure Development through Partnership","2","The Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory: Infrastructure Development through Partnership
Brown, Susan, University of Guelph, Canada, sbrown@uoguelph.ca
This poster will outline the strategies for the collaborative infrastructure development, still in progress, of the Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory (www.cwrc.ca), and the results of these strategies to date. This project is funded by the Canadian Foundation for Innovation to provide an open web-based environment to foster the use of digital tools and resources for literary studies in and about Canada. At this point when Canada’s literary heritage is moving online, management of information about Canadian literary and cultural history still relies on tools derived from print models, which cannot accommodate the explosion of online materials. CWRC is predicated on the assumption that literary studies will increasingly shift from the model of solitary scholars working on small groups of texts, towards working in increasingly collaborative research environments, whether as individuals or in teams, on larger sets of texts. Its infrastructure is designed to help literary scholars make better use of digital tools in their use by providing an online environment developed in response to current research in the scholarly community.

CWRC is designed around partnerships, whether one is referring to: system components; the aggregation and federation of primary and secondary materials; or the scholarly activity for which the infrastructure is designed. This project’s infrastructure is a combination of computing hardware, software, and personnel to deploy a unique platform, a collaboratory, comprised of two major elements, a database and a toolkit, linked through a web-based service-oriented architecture. This poster outlines the key partnerships built into CWRC’s development plan, using visual diagrams to communicate both the system architecture and the various types of partners and the relationships CWRC has with the various partners involved in the project.

The infrastructure will launch with its repository database, Online Research Canada, or ORCA, already populated with a body of open access “seed” data contributed by partners from existing data currently residing in silos. Some of these projects are long-finished and some ongoing. Federation of data in related partner projects will expand the body of initial materials, giving the Collaboratory both a set of materials on which to test its functionality and a critical mass of data necessary to demonstrate the potential of the new research environment to scholars. A number of partnerships with contributing and pilot projects will ensure that further data is ingested while the technical infrastructure is in its early development stages.

The CWRC environment will be designed to empower online modes of research and collaboration for a community that is not well versed in such collaboration. Anticipated components of the CWRC toolkit include: tools to edit and annotate materials in and (in the case of annotating) beyond ORCA; aids to discovery, mining, and visualization of data; and collaboration and social networking tools. However, with the exception of search engines, none of these tools have been adopted broadly within the community of literary scholars, so partnering with scholars to assess various tools and select amongst

the various possibilities is key. A new scholars group will be crucial to ensuring that we anticipate as far as possible the needs of digital adepts, as well as those of established scholars. Partnerships with established tool providers such as the TAPoR portal and with research projects prototyping second-generation tools for literary studies are key to ensuring the right balance of well-tested and emergent tools. More diffuse partnerships such as use of open-source software are also fundamental to the design of this project. CWRC is extremely fortunate to be partnering with researchers in computing science and other technical fields in the development of some crucial areas such as role and workflow management, social networking, and search, federation, and data mining.

Interface will be a major challenge, since its design will likely have a greater impact than anything else on the degree of scholarly adoption. Our strategy here is to develop first the fundamental components of the system—the repository, the editor, and a role and workflow management system—with very minimal interfaces, and then to work with scholars in our contributing and pilot projects to develop an interface in response to user needs, through an iterative process.

One final, essential element in our infrastructure development is working towards long-term sustainability for the data that scholars will be entrusting to CWRC. Partnership with our host institution’s research library for long-term data curation and preservation is fundamental to that planning, and has had a shaping impact on our infrastructure development.

The poster will outline the results so far of this development strategy, since we will by the time of DH2011 be in the thick of development work. In so doing it will assess the challenges and advantages associated with CWRC’s partner-oriented strategy in relation to each of these areas, and assess the impact of this approach on both infrastructure planning and progress to date.

References:
Sample of literature that will be used to contextualize this poster
Brindley. Lynne 2002 “The Future of Libraries and Humanities Research: New Strategic Directions for the British Library, ” Libraries and Culture, 37.1 26-36.

Borgman, Christine L. “The Digital Future is Now: A Call to Action for the Humanities, ” Digital Humanities Quarterly, Forthcoming

Cunningham, Leigh “The Librarian as Digital Humanist: The Collaborative Role of the Research Library in Digital Humanities Projects, ” University of Toronto Faculty of Information Quarterly, 2.2 2010

Deegan, Marilyn 2006 Text Editing in a Digital Environment Follow-up Seminar Report AHRC ICT Methods Network

Hughes, Lorna Digital Tools Development for the Arts and Humanities Report AHRC ICT Methods Network

Martin, Shawn Digital Scholarship and Cyberinfrastructure in the Humanities: Lessons from the Text Creation Partnership Journal of Electronic Publishing 10 1 January 2007

Siemens, Lynne ‘It's a team if you use “reply all” ’: An exploration of research teams in digital humanities environments Literary and Linguistic Computing2009

Sustainability of Digital Resources in the Arts and Humanities Expert Seminar Papers AHRC ICT Methods Network

Ragaz, Sharon Text Editing in a Digital Environment Rapporteur's Report AHRC ICT Methods Network

Unsworth, John Our Cultural Commonwealth: The report of the American Council of Learned Societies Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities and Social Sciences New YorkALCS 2006

Zorich, Diane M. A Survey of Digital Humanities Centers in the United States Prepared for the Council on Library and Information Resources (CLIR) 2007, 2008","txt","2","",""
"1361","12","The Start of a New Chapter: Serialization and the 19th-Century Novel","2","""The Start of a New Chapter"": Serialization and the 19th-Century Novel
Truxaw, Ellen, Stanford University, ellen.truxaw@gmail.com
Although there have been numerous efforts to theorize the novel, little work exists on the chapter. Previous work has focused on the chapter as a device to structure the internal events of a narrative, as well as a means to affect narrative pace. In his essay “The Chapter in Fiction” Philip Stevick discusses the chapter as a structural unit containing events; however, common critical assumptions have been divided over whether to treat the chapter as a bibliographical or formal unit. This study identifies the chapter as a formal unit that is influenced by historical and bibliographic pressures. The chapter's ubiquity and seeming formlessness have made it a difficult object of study with traditional tools of literary analysis, but techniques in humanities computing provide new access to the stylistics of the chapter.

In his book, The Sense of an Ending, Frank Kermode describes novels as “fictive models of the temporal world” in which readers must find a balance between realistic representations of time and necessary narrative deviations from this chronicity (Kermode 54-55). My stylistic analysis of the chapter focuses on grammatical and semantic temporal markers at the beginnings and ends of chapters. By investigating the stylistic trends in 19th century authors’ treatment of narrative time, I argue that historical, literary-historical, and bibliographic forces shape the form and function of the chapter across 19th century.

By the Nineteenth Century, the novel had been established as a largely chapter-based form; however, pressures of serialized publication demanded that authors reconsider the way they structured both their narratives and chapters. In a letter to Elizabeth Gaskell, Charles Dickens offers advice on how to write successful material for serial publication. He writes about what would happen if text that is not intended for serial publication gets divided and serialized anyway. He writes, ""The scheme of the chapters, the manner of introducing the people, the progress of the interest, the places in which the principal places fall, are hopelessly against it. It would seem as though the story were never coming, and hardly ever moving. There must be a special design to overcome that specially trying mode of publication"" (Grubb 143). Dickens insists that serial publication required novelists to rethink the way they structure their narratives. This study analyzes both serialized and non-serialized 19th century novels to ascertain the extent to which serialization affected the chapter as a formal unit.

Using distant reading techniques, I have studied stylistic trends in thirty-six Nineteenth Century novels: Non-serialized -- Pride and Prejudice, Persuasion, Frankenstein, Ivanhoe, The Entail (1823), The Last Man, Pelham (1828), The Heir of Redclyffe (1853), Barchester Towers (1856), Jane Eyre, Villette, Henry Esmond, Tancred (1847), Mary Barton (1849) Mill on the Floss (1860), The Coral Island (1858), Black Beauty (1877), Dracula (1897) Serialized-- Jack Sheppard, Barnaby Rudge, David Copperfield, Vanity Fair, Hard Times, North and South, Our Mutual Friend, Far From the Madding Crowd, The Woman in White, The Moonstone, Middlemarch, Beauchamp's Career, Can You Forgive Her?, The Way We Live Now, Wives and Daughters, David Copperfield, Treasure Island, The Trumpet Major. I selected novels based on their canonicity and tried to study works from a wide historical range. By close-reading chapter beginnings and endings, I have created classification categories for the main ""types"" of beginning and endings. These ""types"" treat diegetic temporality in distinct ways through different verb tenses and deictic markers. I classified chapter beginnings into the following types:

Type 0 — The narrator describes a character or place without direct references to diegetic time.
Type 1 — The narrator starts the chapter on ""the next day""
Type 2 — The narrator begins the chapter where he leaves off, or in medias res often using the past progressive
Type 3 — The narrator summarizes the events of an interim period before entering a scene in the chapter.
Type 4 — The narrator uses phrases like ""one day"" to place the reader in an undefined place within diegetic time.
I differentiate these types based on defining grammatical and semantic markers that indicate the author’s different representations of temporality. I read the beginnings of every chapter from each of the novels and classify them into the category into which they fit best. I then compare the relative frequencies of types of chapter beginnings and endings using χ2 tests to determine whether significant differences between serialized and non-serialized novels appeared. These differences proved significant. Notably, the Type 3 and 4 beginnings occurred significantly more frequently in non-serialized novels than serialized novels. The difference in the relative frequencies of beginning types in serialized and non-serialized novels suggests not only that the chapter exists as a formal unit of narrative, but that historical and bibliographic changes affect this form.

Collaborating with Matthew Jockers and the Stanford Literary Lab, I am continuing to look at trends in a wider data set of novels. Matt Jockers has built software with the primary purpose of classifying the beginning and ending paragraphs of chapters in novels from the Chadwyck Healey 19th century British Fiction database. By obtaining data on over 250 novels, I aim to investigate the prevalence of particular beginning and end types across the 19th century as a whole to elucidate how and why authors divide their narratives as they do as well as to understand the role narrative time plays in these divisions.

References:
Grub, Gerald Giles “Dickens' Pattern of Weekly Serialization, ” ELH, 9:2 1942 141-156

Kermode, Frank The Sense of an Ending, Oxford University Press London 1966

Stevick, Philip The Chapter in Fiction; Theories of Narrative Division, Syracuse, N.Y. Syracuse Univ. Press 1970","txt","2","",""
"1362","12","Toward a Demography of Literary Forms: Building on Moretti's Graphs","1","Toward a Demography of Literary Forms: Building on Moretti's Graphs
Riddell, Allen B., Duke University, allen.riddell@duke.edu
Why do novelistic genres end? Why do we see gothic and industrial novels, Bildungsromane and mysteries, all disappear after periods of popularity during the 18th and 19th centuries? How literary forms—novelistic genres in particular—come and cease to be has long been an area of inquiry, and the work of Franco Moretti (2005) in Graphs, Maps, Trees has given the topic new energy.

The years since the publication of “Graphs” in 2003 have seen the resources available for investigating patterns in 19th century literary production expand immeasurably. For example, scans of over 7,800 volumes of 19th century British novels are now available from the University of Illinois-Urbana-Champaign’s collection alone. Those interested in extending or challenging Moretti’s observation that novelistic genres tend to arrive in “bursts” linked to social generations—or, in general, in contributing to Moretti’s proposed “sociology of literary form”—now have access to a wealth of new data. Given the continuing interest that Moretti’s work has generated among students of the human, social, and natural sciences, this represents an important opportunity.

My contribution explores further the prospects for a “demography of literary forms,” building on Moretti’s proposal for research at the intersection of literary history and sociology.I owe the suggestion for a demographic approach to Shalizi (2006)’s review of Graphs, Maps, Tress: “There is a demography of businesses, of interest groups, even of medieval manuscripts of classical works, and so why not one of literary texts?” First, I consider opportunities to improve Moretti’s original “generational model” of cycles in literary forms, offering new methods to remedy identified evidential gaps. For example, Moretti’s periodizations of genres—e.g. Courtship Novel, 1740-1820—have been criticized as too neatly falling on certain “focal dates” such as years falling at the end of a decade (Shalizi, 2006). I present new evidence in support of this criticism and demonstrate a method for making periodizations reproducible by others. Being able to reproduce Moretti’s results will hopefully make the research program itself more open to experimentation and invite collaboration. My method uses bibliographic databases to establish the period during which the vast majority (~90%) of the novels in a given genre were published. This provides a reproducible periodization suited to an inquiry into social history.The bibliographic databases used are Garside’s British Fiction Database, 1800-1829 with 2,272 titles and Bassett’s At the Circulating Library, 1837-1901 with 7335 titles I also briefly discuss the application of classification algorithms from machine learning to identify possibly overlooked genres in Moretti’s dataset. The new method for periodization is demonstrated in detail for two of the forty-four genres in Moretti’s dataset, the silver fork and Newgate novels.The methods presented are designed to accommodate changes to the underlying dataset and can be used by others who may disagree with classifications of particular novels and even with the bibliographic records provided by Garside and Bassett.

Second, in order to offer an alternative to the generational model, I argue for and attempt to test the hypothesis that the observed clustering of genre appearances and disappearances can also be explained by positing a “carrying capacity,” an upper limit on the number of established novelistic genres able to be supported by writers, readers, and publishers in any given year.

Finally, I explore the suggestion that generational changes in “mental climate” might manifest themselves not (only) in changes in novelistic genres, as suggested by Moretti, but rather in topical changes within novelistic genres. In studying a topic model (Steyvers et al., 2007) of the 7,800 volumes in UIUC’s 19th century novels collection, I observe some evidence for topical trends cutting across multiple genres. For example, starting in the mid-19th century there is a proportional rise in a cluster of words suggestive of farming and rural life.

Moretti’s work has been a touchstone for numerous discussions connected to the digital humanities—for example, the fate of “close reading”. Perhaps more significant in the long-run is the interest his work has gained from scholars in the social and natural sciences, with examples ranging from formal reviews like that of statistician Cosma Shalizi (2006) to more informal commentary on quantitative literary history from social scientists like Henry Farrell (2010) and Andrew Gelman (2010). Finding scholars outside of literary studies and literary history publicly engaging with research is an important development. Given the desirability of new models of research in the humanities, Moretti’s program can claim a interdisciplinary following that makes revisiting and extending his work of particular significance.

References:
Bassett, Troy J. 2010 “At the Circulating Library, ” (link)

Farrell, Henry 2010 “Hugo Awards II, ” (link)

Garside,P. D., J. E.Belanger and S. A. Ragaz 2004 “British Fiction,1800–1829: A Database of Production, Circulation & Reception, ” (link)

Gelman,Andrew 2010 “The Triumph of the Thriller, ” (link)

Moretti, Franco 2000 “Conjectures on World Literature, ” New Lew Review, 1

Moretti, Franco 2003 “Graphs, Maps, Trees, 1., ” New Lew Review, 24 (link)

Moretti, Franco 2005 Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History, London Verso

Shalizi, Cosma 2006 “Graphs, Trees, Materialism, Fishing, ” (link)

Steyvers, Mark Tom Griffiths T Landauer D Mcnamara S Dennis W Kintsch. 2007 “Probabilistic Topic Models, ” In Handbook of Latent Semantic Analysis, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates","txt","2","",""
"1363","12","DHAnswers: Building a Community-Based Q&A Board for the Digital Humanities","2","DHAnswers: Building a Community-Based Q&A Board for the Digital Humanities
Gilbert, Joseph, University of Virginia, joegilbert@virginia.edu
Meloni, Julie, University of Victoria, jcmeloni@gmail.com
Nowviskie, Bethany, University of Virginia, bethany@virginia.edu
Sinclair, Stéfan, McMaster University, sgs@mcmaster.ca
Genesis and Motivation
In late September 2010, the Association for Computers and the Humanities (ACH), together with ProfHacker, a technology and productivity blog hosted by the Chronicle of Higher Education, announced the launch of “DHAnswers,” a community-based question-and-answer board, at http://digitalhumanities.org/answers/.

With DHAnswers, the Outreach Committee of the ACH sought to address both an opportunity and a problem we detected with existing communication venues for digital humanists, such as Twitter, the long-standing Humanist discussion list, and individual blogs. We identified a need for DHAnswers after observing the burgeoning and helpful “big tent” digital humanities conversation happening on Twitter—and the frequency with which answers to questions posed by members of that community exceeded Twitter's 140-character limit for tweets, or required near-impossible sharing of a code snippet. Other exchanges resulted in extended and hard-to capture conversational threads, generally lost in a matter of weeks as older tweets were purged from search engines. We also noted that many questions asked on Twitter were more specific than those generally asked on the Humanist discussion list, or were more basic than a newer member of the DH community might feel comfortable posing on specialist mailing lists for software or standards.

A small team from ACH and ProfHacker worked behind the scenes (with most software development and extension undertaken by the University of Virginia Library's Scholars' Lab and stemming from work on a Spatial Humanities gateway site [http://spatial.scholarslab.org]) to create a useful communication platform, with pre-defined topic categories (enriched by input from the Executive Council of the ACH) to help filter and focus discussion. In addition to a viable, open-source platform for discussion, however, this project needed people. We therefore recruited approximately 25 digital humanities colleagues from around the world, working in different disciplines and with differing areas of expertise to test and cultivate the system. We were mostly concerned with having a friendly group of people helping to pre-populate the site with sample questions and answers, who could be at the ready in the first months after release, to monitor the various notification features we had set up (RSS feeds, email options, and automatic Twitter messages) to ensure that questions were answered promptly and the proper communities were alerted to relevant discussions. We also asked these volunteers to help us keep the discourse on DHAnswers positive and friendly. Thanks to the efforts of this group, we were able to launch the site with a small amount of content present in each of the following categories:

Applications, Tools, Formats
Databases & Data Structures
Interfaces, Design & Usability
DH in the Classroom
Markup & Metadata
Programming
New Media & Games
Project Management & DH Professions
and “About DHAnswers”
Reaction to the public release of DHAnswers was enthusiastic. Within a week, nearly 200 people had registered for accounts and created nearly 300 responses in the site's question-and answer threads. One month in, it is rare to see a question go unanswered for more than a few hours—and thanks to Twitter integration, many questions garner immediate response.

Technical Implementation
DHAnswers leverages an open-source bbPress platform, which employs PHP and MySQL and is related to the popular WordPress content management system. With a flexible system for creating new stylistic themes and adding new functionality through plugins, bbPress allowed us to create a custom set of features built upon a supported and extensible base architecture. To keep the site as lean and usable as possible, and in the hope of creating a self-explanatory service, we simplified or removed altogether a number of features from the out-of-the-box bbPress application.

Given a strong digital humanities presence on Twitter, integrating DHAnswers with that target community was deemed imperative to the site's success. We introduced purpose-built plugins to broadcast new questions from the @DHAnswers Twitter account, giving both DHAnswers members and non-members alike a real-time peek into the ongoing conversation. Initially, we enabled even deeper integration with Twitter: site members could tweet a message to the @DHAnswers account in order to create a new question on the DHAnswers site. In the end, we realized that the complexity of rules and procedures for this connection would require a lengthy, nuanced explanation to each user. The added Twitter functions thus ran counter our goal of a straightforward tool that scholars could easily integrate with their normal communication methods, and we removed them.

To facilitate fast-paced conversation, we created email notifications and RSS feeds for all questions and/or for a selection of “favorite” topics. To reward regular user involvement, the Scholars’ Lab create a new plugin to add various “badges,” small medal-like symbols that indicate a certain number of posts made or questions answered, to user profiles. We feel certain that the robust notification system and subtle reward mechanism for constructive behavior on the site spurred rapid growth and a quick response time for new questions.

Response from the DH Community
The multiple broadcast methods (Twitter, RSS, email) for new questions and answers helped bring together what some feel are disparate groups within the digital humanities: those who are on Twitter and those who are not. Although Twitter integration is a key feature of DHAnswers, Twitter participation is not required of DHAnswers users. Instead of relying solely on the segment of the DH community on Twitter, and thereby narrowing our audience rather than expanding it, DHAnswers has focused on building its own community: the multiple broadcast methods, our ""reward"" badges mentioned previously, the ability for users to select ""favorite"" posts within the system, and our administrative caretaking have all worked to create a community of sharing and mentoring. On more than one occasion, a new user has come to DHAnswers to ask a question, never having set a virtual foot within the initial Twitter community that inspired it (and never intending to), and has found himself or herself surrounded by senior members of both the DHAnswers community and the broader digital humanities community, ready to answer questions from all. Contrary to initial expectations, conversations on DHAnswers have centered on pedagogical and institutional questions, such as building a Digital Humanites center or designing a curriculum, rather than technical inquiries on specific processes. Also, unexpected disciplines, such as archaeology, have established lively running conversations whereas more explicitly digital fields—like media studies—have had relatively limited involvement.

One of the differences between user interactions in the DHAnswers forum and within other social networking spaces is that the inherent expectation of asynchronous responses allows for fruitful participation by more users and according to their own terms of time management. Instead of constantly filtering an incoming information stream via Twitter, in which a response more than a few hours later is viewed as out of date and nearly useless, DHAnswers participants understand that a threaded discussion will remain in plain sight for several days, thus providing the mental space for better discussion. When comments are added to the thread, the “freshness” of the thread—as well as the notifications in place throughout the system—continue to keep the information in view; this process extends the life of the question and, in turn, the visibility of the answers. In addition, we find that users are taking advantage of the ability to “tweet this question”—re-posting questions of interest to them on Twitter—and therefore are helping to ensure that questions get useful answers and important discussions remain in the public eye.

Analysis
In the spirit of ongoing attempts to define and describe the Digital Humanities community (see for instance Svensson’s “The Landscape of Digital Humanities” in Digital Humanities Quarterly vol. 4 no. 1, Summer 2010), DHAnswers provides an interesting opportunity to gather insights about who digital humanists are and what they do, or at least some of who they are and some of what they do (see also Bethany Nowviskie’s article “DH Answers by the Numbers” in the Chronicle of Higher Education’s ProfHacker blog for December 8, 2010). The value of such insights is of course moderated by the specific circumstances of the site, an English-only resource sponsored by two predominantly North American organizations (ACH and ProfHacker), with strong links to an existing Twitter-based community.

In its first month of its existence (essentially October 2010), DHAnswers recorded over 19,000 pages viewed by some 5,575 visitors from 64 countries (these data have been collected by Google Analytics and only include traffic to the main site, not RSS and Twitter feeds). The geographical distribution indicates a predominance of visitors from the USA, but also reveals emerging digital humanities regions such as Australia and Japan.

Figure 1

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Similarly, the geographical distribution of site visits within the United States can be revealing of regional activity in digital humanities.

Figure 2

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Also noteworthy is that in the first month over 250 users have registered to DHAnswers and there have been nearly 600 posts. The most frequently visited page, after the home page, is a topic on defining digital humanities, which further reinforces the community’s desire to understand itself.

Figure 3

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In addition to further analysis of the web logs, we will spend some time analyzing and interpreting the actual content of the DHAnswers posts. For instance, the graph below, generated by Voyeur Tools, shows that the word “like” was the third most common content word in all of the posts, and fairly consistently present across the corpus (the trend column, which indicates relative frequency by topic). The word carries several meanings, of course, but a closer examination of the usages suggests a notable predilection of digital humanists to express preferences and make comparisons.

Figure 4

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References:
Meloni, Julie “Announcing Digital Humanities Questions & Answers (@DHAnswers), ” ProfHacker: The Chronicle of Higher Education, 2010 (link)

Nowviskie, Bethany “DH Answers by the Numbers, ” ProfHacker: The Chronicle of Higher Education, 2010 (link)

Svensson, Patrik “The Landscape of Digital Humanities, ” Digital Humanities Quarterly, 4 1 2010 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1364","12","The Arcane Gallery of Gadgetry: A Design Case Study of an Alternate Reality Game","2","The Arcane Gallery of Gadgetry: A Design Case Study of an Alternate Reality Game
Bonsignore, Beth, elizabeth.bonsignore@gmail.com College of Information Studies, UMD,
Goodlander, Georgina, GoodlanderG@si.edu Smithsonian American Art Museum,
Hansen, Derek, College of Information Studies, UMD, shakmatt@gmail.com
Johnson, Margeaux, University of Florida, geauxgeaux@gmail.com
Kraus, Kari, karimkraus@gmail.com College of Information Studies, UMD,
Visconti, Amanda, Department of English, UMD, amandavisconti@gmail.com
Introduction
This DH2011 paper describes and analyzes the design process and delivery for The Arcane Gallery of Gadgetry (AGOG), a “mini Alternate Reality Game,” that has become the seedbed for a larger ARG currently under development by the authors with a planned launch date of spring 2011. With generous two-year support from the National Science Foundation (NSF), the multi-disciplinary team is conducting exploratory, qualitative research at the University of Maryland on the use and creation of ARGs as participatory design spaces, information literacy systems, and vehicles for scaffolding student learning. The collaborators also include Georgina Goodlander, Interpretive Programs Manager at the Smithsonian American Art Museum; and Margeaux Johnson, Science and Technology Librarian at the University of Florida.

An Alternate Reality Game is a form of interactive storytelling whose narrative elements are distributed over multiple ""real-world"" platforms, including books, mobile devices, and networked computers. They often require participants to solve puzzles, answer riddles, and track down information in order to advance the storyline. Examples of popular commercial ARGs include games such as “The Beast,” “I Love Bees,” and “The Lost Experience.” Although ARGs have been used primarily for entertainment, they can also provide unique and powerful educational opportunities. World Without Oil and ARGOSI are among the growing number of ARGs created with educational, “serious game” goals in mind.

The case study of AGOG focuses on a distinct aspect of ARG design that is well positioned to benefit from theoretical insight and methodological inquiry: namely, embedding counterfactual story bits into a larger historical framework.

The challenge of counterfactual design is to decide how to purposefully, meaningfully, and responsibly depart from the historical record when developing ARGs within the context of libraries, schools, museums, and archives--cultural institutions that place a high value on trustworthiness and accuracy of information, including digital information. The slippage between fiction and reality that is the sine qua non of the genre should be just as much the result of premeditation as any other aspect of game design. To that end, we propose a theoretical and methodological framework for counterfactual design that draws on the neuroscience research of Ruth Byrne, the object-oriented philosophy of Ian Bogost, and the cooperative design techniques pioneered by Allison Druin in the context of Human Computer Interaction (HCI).

Design Case: The Arcane Gallery of Gadgetry (AGOG)
The design attributes of AGOG, a number of which have already been implemented and play-tested, can be conveyed in part with the help of scoping notes:

Place and time period: Civil War and Post-War Reconstruction United States. While the Civil War (understood broadly to also include antebellum and post-war periods) helps anchor the ARG temporally, geographically, and—if only tangentially—thematically, these parameters are intended as guidelines, made flexible by the game’s liberal use of time slips, motivated anachronisms, and counter-factual scenarios.
Thematic features: The game includes the following narrative motifs: historical figures communicating across space and time, messages and artifacts intended for posterity, and secret societies whose members may act as stewards of these information-bearing artifacts.
Activities, puzzles, and history hacks: AGOG incorporates player-created/-curated artifacts, scavenger-hunt like missions; information search and retrieval exercises; and cryptographic challenges.
Aesthetic: The game is steeped in a nineteenth-century retro-futuristic, steampunk style.
Learning objectives: A primary objective of AGOG is to use the machinery and conventions of ARGs to scaffold information and new media literacy instruction, as well as to teach subject knowledge in history, science, technology, and math.
Tools and technologies: The extended version of AGOG will make use of the technological affordances of smartphones--such as camera, phone, GPS, texting, and web-browsing functionality--to enhance interactivity and integrate the offline and online worlds in creative ways.
The game’s mythology is grounded in the history of the U. S. Patent Office. The Smithsonian American Art Museum, where Georgina Goodlander works, is housed in the Historic US Patent Office Building. During the time it functioned as a “Temple of Invention” (1836 to 1932), thousands of patents were submitted, along with miniature models of the designs, which were put on display. The building also variously served as a place of employment, curiosity, ministry, and sociability for a number of historically significant figures and personalities, including Abraham Lincoln, Walt Whitman, and Clara Barton. The stately halls and galleries of the Patent Office were transformed into makeshift barracks and hospital rooms during the Civil War, the grim realities of which were temporarily overshadowed by the repurposing of the space for Lincoln’s second inaugural ball in 1865.

Collecting all of this historical data in a document, the design team began looking for events and places through which it could dig a fictional or counterfactual tunnel. In 1877, “the noblest of Washington buildings” was dealt a severe blow when a fire broke out and destroyed the collection of 12,000 rejected patent models in the attic and damaged another 114,000. It is the fire that provided us with the means to traverse fiction and reality, functioning as a joint in which we could embed a “rabbit-hole” that would draw players into the game: a mysterious document allegedly dating back to the fire of 1877, which cryptically refers to a “Cabinet of Curiosities.” Out of the notional fragments of patent models and other mechanical remains that ostensibly survived the conflagration, players are asked to help reconstruct and curate the Arcane Gallery of Gadgetry by imagining what sorts of wondrous, retro-futuristic inventions might have populated it and then creating those artifacts using found objects (in the spirit of assemblage art) that have first been identified in a database of historic patents. Possible categories of inventions include but are not limited to communications devices, weapons and ammunition (think secret Civil War technologies), cryptographic devices, and medical equipment. Figure 1 shows the chronological and conceptual relationships among the factual and counterfactual narrative elements in AGOG. Other resources relevant to AGOG, including video footage of player-created artifacts for the gallery, can be accessed online at http://www.karikraus.com/?p=69.

Figure 1. Chronological and conceptual relationships among factual and counterfactual narrative elements in AGOG.

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Counterfactual Design
The DH2011 paper triangulates between the neuroscience research of Ruth Byrne, the object-oriented ontology (OOO) of Ian Bogost, and the HCI cooperative design techniques developed by Allison Druin, distilling from them the following set of principles and practices for counterfactual design.

Cognitive Science: In The Rational Imagination: How People Create Alternatives to Reality, Ruth Byrne explores the “faultlines” or “joints” of reality, those “aspects of reality that are more readily changed in imaginative thought.” Byrne’s premise is that there are patterns or regularities in terms of where we locate those faultlines: some attributes of reality just seem inherently more “mutable” to us than others. When we partition, classify, and organize our world, for example, we readily invent new instances or members of a category. In the case of AGOG, the design team identified a real category—patent collections lost (or presumed lost) in the fire of 1877—and created a new member for it: the Arcane Gallery of Gadgetry.

Object-Oriented Ontology: In his forthcoming book Alien Phenomenology, Ian Bogost offers a practice-led approach to philosophy, one that challenges the notion that the inevitable product of philosophical inquiry is a paper, article, or book (“Latour Litanizer”). Instead, Bogost describes and models an alternative approach, carpentry, which “refers primarily to the construction of artifacts that illustrate the perspectives [or inner lives] of objects” (“Latour Litanizer”). As he puts it elsewhere, “as critics, our job is to amplify the black noise of objects to make the resonant frequencies of the stuffs inside them hum in credibly satisfying ways” (“Interview”). Having co-authored Racing the Beam with Nick Montfort in 2009—an MIT platform studies book on the Atari Video Computer System--Bogost compellingly speculates on how carpentry might help us better apprehend the system’s internal hardware design: “What’s it like to be a [Television Interface Adapter]? Or a MOS Technologies 6502 microprocessor? How would one characterize such a thing? Would it even be possible?” (“Interview”).

The DH2011 presentation describes how this “pragmatic” mode of OOO might be applied through circuit-bending—characterized by artists in a popular YouTube video as “parallel worlds within a circuit”--to the Arcane Gallery of Gadgetry.

Cooperative Design: Inspired by the prospect of what we might learn about ARGs and associated technologies by including children in the design process, we partnered with KidsTeam at the HCIL in summer and fall 2010. Adopting an exploratory question related to AGOG, we asked the children how they would collaborate with other in-world players, especially if they had certain in-game constraints, such as only being able to use found objects or materials from a certain time period. Preliminary findings suggest that the joints or faultlines of reality exist across multiple semiotic domains, and that the gap separating fiction and reality is often managed through recourse to metaphor. The DH2010 presentation will elaborate on these findings and their implications for the design of tools that support ARGs.

Funding
This work is supported by the National Science Foundation.

References:
Nicola Whitton 2010 “ARGOSI :: Alternate Reality Games for Orientation, Socialisation and Induction, ” , Manchester Metropolitan University, Project Manger. April (link)

Bogost, Ian. “Latour Litanizer, ” 16 December 2009 (link)

Byrne, Ruth M. J. The Rational Imagination: How People Create Alternatives to Reality, 1st ed The MIT Press 2007

DrRek What is Circuit Bending? YouTube 10 March 2006 (link)

Gratton, Peter Ian Bogost: The Interview Philosophy in a Time of Error (Blog Post) 26 April 2010 (link)

Ken Eklund (Game Designer, Creative Director and Producer) World Without Oil (link) 2007. Web. 1 Nov. 2010

Montfort, Nick, and Ian Bogost. Racing the Beam: The Atari Video Computer System The MIT Press 2009

Robertson, Charles J. Temple of Invention: History of a National Landmark Scala Publishers 2006","txt","2","",""
"1365","12","Civil War Washington: An Experiment in Freedom, Integration, and Constraint","1","Civil War Washington: An Experiment in Freedom, Integration, and Constraint
Price, Ken, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, kprice2@unl.edu
Barney, Brett, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, bbarney2@unl.edu
Lorang, Liz, liz.lorang@gmail.com
Civil War Washington (CWW) is a thematic research collection that strives to enable users to visualize, analyze and interpret the physical, social, cultural, and political transformation of Washington, D.C. The development of Washington, D.C., during the Civil War is pivotal in American history. When the Compensated Emancipation Act went into effect on April 16, 1862, Washington became the first emancipated city—and the country's largest and most important magnet for freed and runaway slaves. From that moment forward, the city would lead the nation in the sometimes tortuous route from slavery to freedom and from an entrenched system of legal inequality to a new commitment to equality for all. Our work on slavery, race, and emancipation in Washington, D.C., is crucial to our larger long-term study of the city in this time of crisis. We are already studying Civil War Washington from a medical perspective (the number of hospitals jumped from three to nearly one hundred making it a city of hospitals), from a military perspective (the city was the prized objective of Southern military strategy and in response the Union army made it the most fortified city in the world), and in fact from numerous other perspectives as well. With the assistance of a collaborative research grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities, our emphasis in 2010-2013 is to study the history of race, slavery, and emancipation in the city, a story of national importance.

The transformation of the U.S. capital has received surprisingly little sustained examination. One reason for this, no doubt, is that developing a rich and accurate understanding of the city's remaking requires not only access to but also synthesis and analysis of large and diverse sets of data, most of which exist only in analogue form. Our project, for example, draws on government reports, journalism, legal documents, diaries, census records, correspondence, city directories, poems, maps, and photographs. A further (and we believe necessary) complication is added by our desire to make a temporally-aware and user-manipulable GIS a significant constituent of our project, perhaps in some ways even its core.

The number of projects, both emergent and established, that claim an interest in GIS and place-based scholarship seems to grow daily. This developing interest is reflected in an increasing number of seminars and training opportunities focused on GIS for the humanities, including at the University of Victoria's Digital Humanities Summer Institute, the Digital Humanities Observatory Summer School in Dublin, and the NEH-funded Geospatial Institute hosted by Scholars' Lab at the University of Virginia. In addition, there is a growing body of work on the value of spatial analysis in the humanities, and historians have taken a leading role in theorizing and conceptualizing the integration of GIS into humanities research, as well as in advancing arguments informed by GIS-enabled research.

In recent years, at conferences such as this, a fair number of projects have been presented as models for addressing the still-daunting set of obstacles to the use of GIS for humanities projects.Martyn Jessop, in his talk At the first Digital Humanities conference in 2006, “The Inhibition of Geographical Information in Digital Humanities Scholarship,"" presented a list of barriers to the application of GIS to humanities projects. This talk, later published in Literary and Linguistic Computing (April 2008), is largely still relevant. In addition, see also the report of the 7th Scholarly Communication Institute at the University of Virginia, ""Spatial Technologies and the Humanities"": http://www.uvasci.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/sci7-published-full1.pdf Our experience on Civil War Washington for the past five years, though, suggests that several important challenges have not yet been adequately investigated (let alone addressed). Our talk, then, is designed to be not a celebration of goals achieved but a case study for the consideration of several large issues that face our project and others like it.) Whereas most projects presented as models began with fairly well defined sets of data,For example, see the following DH2010 abstracts: Ian Gregory, ""GIS, Texts and Images: New Approaches to Landscape Appreciation in the Lake District,"" Elton Barker, et al., ""Mapping the World of an Ancient Greek Historian: The HESTIA Project,"" and "" Wayne Graham, ""A New Spatial Analysis of the Early Chesapeake Architecture,"" available at http://dh2010.cch.kcl.ac.uk/academic-programme/abstracts/ ours began with a research question to which we want to apply as comprehensive a variety of data as possible. Our goal is not the digitization of materials for the sake of digitization but the exploration of a complex set of questions about the transformation of Washington, D.C. Further, our goal ultimately is to produce both a scholarly argument of our own and a resource that will enable our users to perform original, and truly meaningful, research based on our data and interfaces. Given these aims, on what basis should one decide the best technologies and methods for data capture, storage, and retrieval? We have responded to these questions based in part on the expertise of project members and the technologies that are familiar to us and local support staff. This strategy has the benefit of quicker development and an ever-more-refined knowledge in specific tools and technologies. Too heavy a reliance on the technologies and methods that one already knows, however, can lead to overlooking a more appropriate approach or set of approaches. 2) Given the fact that capture and storage of geo-referenced textual data can be accomplished in several different ways (e.g., through wholly TEI-XML, through assigning atomistic textual units to database fields, or through a combination strategy that uses both XML and database), what principles should guide the adoption of a particular encoding strategy? What tools exist or are most easily imaginable for making such data available for a wide variety of research approaches? TEI began providing for the georeferencing of textual data only with the release of P5 in late 2007, and we believe that the integration of textual and geospatial data remains an underdeveloped area to which the DH community should give greater thought. Surely it has potential beyond its rather modest application in existing projects. 3) How should a project deal with the catch-22 situation of wanting to develop and enable geospatial and historical analysis using open source tools even as the most adequate tools for the task, regrettably, are proprietary and the use of these proprietary tools is taught in leading DH institutions? In other environments, work on open source GIS has emerged as part of the larger open source and open access movement. The Open Source Geospatial Foundation, for example, is working to “promote the collaborative development of open geospatial technologies and data.”See http://www.osgeo.org/content/foundation/about.html Humanities scholars, however, do not seem to be involved in the organization. What is and should be the role of humanities scholars in the developer community for GIS software? Does the existing open source GIS software originally conceived of by organizations such as the Army Corps of Engineers (Grass GIS) or NASA (MapServer) meet the needs of humanities scholars? We have considered these questions not merely in the realm of abstract ideals, but as immediate and pressing concerns; we wish to use our project's responses to them not as recommendations but as opportunities for critical reflection and discussion.","txt","2","",""
"1366","12","Reforming Digital Historical Peer Review: Guidelines for Applying Digital Historiography to the Evaluative Process","1","Reforming Digital Historical Peer Review: Guidelines for Applying Digital Historiography to the Evaluative Process
Sternfeld, Joshua, National Endowment for the Humanities, United States of America, jsternfeld@neh.gov
From teaching students how to vet online websites, to formal peer review of digital publications, to evaluation of scholarship for tenure review, the need for a rigorous methodology to evaluate digital historical representations has never been more apparent. Sophisticated databases, digital libraries and archives, and virtual reconstructions have collectively reshaped engagement with the past that has challenged the boundaries of traditional historical practices. University professors encourage students to create mash-ups of historical multimedia content to be posted as YouTube documentaries. Museums employ mobile applications enriched with augmented reality to draw visitors further into an exhibition. Geospatial visualizations and virtual architectural reconstructions bring the past alive and challenge entrenched scholarly and popular perceptions.

While attention and resources have (justifiably) been focused on content creation and tool development, the digital history community has, until recently, neglected the development of a methodology that can evaluate digital work while meeting the needs of this shifting landscape. This has begun to change, as leading scholars in digital history have taken up the clarion call for reform of the peer review process. The perception is that peer review has become outdated and stagnant, promoting conservative scholarship while also failing to exploit more dynamic means of communication and commentary through social media and Web 2.0 technologies. Robert B. Townsend, in a American Historical Association (AHA) blog posting proclaims, “The challenge lies in developing new forms of peer review better fitted to the online environment, both before publication (in the development and assessment stage) and after publication (as a means of validating the value and quality of the work).” Robert B. Townsend. “Assessing the Future of Peer Review.” AHA Today. 7 June 2010. http://blog.historians.org/profession/1065/assessing-the-future-of-peer-review. The absence of peer review standards was also captured in a recent article for The Chronicle of Higher Education and online commentary. Jennifer Howard, ""Hot Type: No Reviews of Digital Scholarship = No Respect,"" The Chronicle of Higher Education (2010), http://chronicle.com/article/Hot-Type-No-Reviews-of/65644/, accessed 31 October 2010. See also Dan Cohen. “Peer Review and the Most Influential Publications.” 19 October 2010. http://www.dancohen.org/. For a more comprehensive discussion of digital peer review, albeit slightly outdated in its conclusions, see Digital Scholarship in the Tenure, Promotion, and Review Process, ed. Deborah Lines Andersen. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 2004. While Townsend and others have highlighted the ills of the current peer review system, they have yet to propose a set of review guidelines or methodology that would bring together the interests and special knowledge of multiple disciplines.

In my DH2010 presentation, “Thinking Archivally: Selection, Search, and Reliability as a Framework for a New Digital Historiography,” I proposed a framework for evaluating digital historical representations called digital historiography.The abstract for the DH2010 presentation may be found online in the conference program. Digital Humanities 2010: Conference Abstracts. Eds. The Alliance of Digital Humanities Organisations, The Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing, The Association for Computers and the Humanities, and The Society for Digital Humanities. London, 7-10 July 2010. http://dh2010.cch.kcl.ac.uk/academic-programme/abstracts/papers/pdf/ab-747.pdf. Accessed 13 March 2011. An expanded version of the paper will appear in a forthcoming issue of American Archivist. Digital historiography is the interdisciplinary assessment of digital historical representations across diverse formats. It promotes the rigorous and coherent use, recombination, and presentation of historical information through digital technologies. Digital historiography also accounts for the increased reliance on complex information systems to organize and represent historical data. The merging of historiography with archival theory and new media studies – along with numerous other fields such as museum studies, information science, and other humanities disciplines – ensures a comprehensive examination of a representation.For a history and examination of the contemporary “divide” between the historical and archival professions, see Francis X. Blouin, Jr. and William Rosenberg. Processing the Past: Contesting Authorities in History and the Archives. Oxford University Press (2011).

Three fundamental areas of archival theory were raised in last year’s presentation as fundamental to unlocking the trustworthiness and soundness of a representation: content selection, search functionality, and metadata. Through a series of illustrative examples of historical representations it was shown that these areas convey a representation’s historical contextualization, where context is defined as the formal and humanistic relationships among data and resources. For an introduction to the relationship of archival theory and context, see for example, Jennifer Meehan, ""Towards an Archival Concept of Evidence,"" Archivaria 61(2006), 143. The discussion of archival context has been subsumed in a larger, more general area referred to as “information as evidence.” For further discussion of this concept, see Terry Cook, ""Archival Science and Postmodernism: New Formulations for Old Concepts,"" Archival Science 1(2001); Terry Cook, ""What Is Past Is Prologue: A History of Archival Ideas since 1898, and the Future Paradigm Shift,"" Archivaria 43(1997); Margaret Hedstrom, ""Archives, Memory, and Interfaces with the Past,"" Archival Science 2, no. 1-2 (2002); Joanna Sassoon, ""Beyond Chip Monks and Paper Tigers: Towards a New Culture of Archival Format Specialists,"" Archival Science 7, no. 2 (2007); Jennifer Meehan, ""Making the Leap from Parts to Whole: Evidence and Inference in Archival Arrangement and Description,"" American Archivist 72, no. 1 (2009).

Whereas last year’s paper focused on the theoretical underpinning of digital historiography, this year’s presentation will provide a programmatic framework that scholars, archivists, librarians, curators, editors and technical specialists may adapt and apply to their own work. There are already a number of promising developments underway in establishing a set of guidelines and practices for digital humanities evaluation, particularly in literature; nonetheless, a similar approach in digital history has been lacking.Perhaps the most comprehensive guide to evaluating digital scholarship can be found with the MLA Guidelines for Editors of Scholarly Editions. Section V is devoted to electronic scholarly editions, and prompts reviewers to consider elements of a digital work such as TEI encoding and the user interface. An NEH-funded Summer Institute entitled “Evaluating Digital Scholarship” will be hosted by NINES at the University of Virginia 30 May – 3 June 2011, which will expand upon a one-day workshop held at Digital Humanities 2010 in London.

This paper will provide a guide to evaluating digital historical representations using a series of exploratory questions. The following questions may provide an entry point with which to kick-start an analysis. It should be noted that these questions do not evoke clear-cut responses, but rather require deeper interpretation of the representation:

Is the representation’s historical content comprehensive or representative of the period/event/issue in question?
How do metadata schema and other descriptive information shape the interpretative possibilities of the representation?
What capacity does the user have to repurpose historical data for additional study? To what extent does a user have sufficient contextual information such as the content’s provenance to conduct such repurposing?
How does the user search or navigate within the representation? In what ways does the interface facilitate or prohibit advanced humanistic inquiry?
These questions apply a combination of historical and archival understanding to address a representation’s approach to selection, search, and metadata. At a more general level, they suggest the need within digital historiography to develop a peer review methodology that examines the intersection of technological and humanistic components of a representation.
A Three-Axis Framework for Peer Review
This paper will propose, based on the sample questions above, three interlocking axes for a peer review methodology: Historical Content, User Experience, and Creator Intent. Critiques of digital representations have all too often isolated one axis at the expense of considering the others. Scientifically driven user or human-computer interaction studies may overlook the unquantifiable nuances of historical contextualization. Similarly, an analysis of content often neglects a representation’s user interface and how it may affect information access. Perhaps the most disregarded of the three areas is the creator’s intent for constructing a digital historical representation. In the fierce competition for funding in the digital humanities, developers must be able to justify their resource-intensive project, which raises basic questions surrounding the representation’s purpose and its contribution to historical scholarship or programming.

For the purpose of demonstrating how to apply digital historiography to peer review, a single digital historical representation will be selected and the audience will be guided through a brief, yet systematic evaluation. In terms of historical content, we will consider the representation’s engagement with relevant scholarship. Although a digital representation’s format may seem to belie traditional modes of historiography, it will be argued that a representation’s demonstrated recognition of historiographic trends is essential for establishing whether it advances new areas of historical understanding. Unlike a text-based monograph, analysis of content depends on the capacity of the user to generate, not just consume, plausible knowledge; therefore, peer review may focus more on the questions that may be posed through a representation rather than the construction of a single argument.

In terms of user experience, this presentation will focus on the question of access to historical content. More than just a scientific optimization of keywords, a reviewer must consider the user experience as a culmination of design features, tool functionality, and search capability. This raises issues regarding the application of standards and best practices. The selection of an appropriate metadata schema or digitization standard will determine a representation’s interoperability with other resources, which will in turn influence historiographic assessment.

Finally, consideration of authorial intent, embedded within elements such as a site’s introductory statement or contextual essays, provides a third axis that can anchor both a representation’s content and user experience. The core question to be considered here will be the representation’s intended or anticipated audience. Digital technology has enhanced access to historical knowledge for a wider public, which has placed additional responsibility on the part of the creator to consider how historical information is selected, presented, and most importantly, handled by diverse types of users.

The Benefits of Peer Review to Digital History
A peer review system that follows shared and accepted standards and methodology may have significant benefits for advancing digital historical scholarship and digital humanities infrastructure in general.For further discussion of how the digital humanities must re-consider infrastructural needs, see Christine L. Borgman. “The Digital Future is Now: A Call to Action for the Humanities.” Digital Humanities Quarterly. Fall 2009. Volume 3, Number 4 Representations may be assessed on the merits of content and usability. In terms of scholarship, digital historiography may liberate scholars and developers to consider how to harness technologies in service of historical inquiry when all too often the reverse seems to hold true. The time for experimentation for its own sake has passed, and we should begin to consider how technology might contribute to more sustainable development of innovative modes of scholarship.

This presentation is not intended to provide a fixed method for peer review; rather it will encourage a revival of humanities-driven interpretative analysis that addresses central areas of scholarship, audience, argument, and most importantly, inquiry. Peer review must be contingent on the unique set of questions related to a representation’s subject area and formal qualities. Those in attendance will have the opportunity to take away a set of general questions that they may use to devise their own review criteria, or that may stimulate further dialogue about the peer review process. Perhaps most significantly, this presentation will defend the need for collaborative, transparent review that brings together subject and technical specialists, which can spark evaluation of noteworthy digital work that continues to elude mainstream academic recognition.The thoughts and ideas expressed in this paper are entirely my own and do not reflect those of the National Endowment for the Humanities or any other federal agency.

References:","txt","2","",""
"1367","12","Moving Beyond Anecdotal History","1","Moving Beyond Anecdotal History
Gibbs, Fred, fwgibbs@gmail.com George Mason University,
Now almost fifty years old, Walter Houghton’s seminal work, The Victorian Frame of Mind, 1830-1870, has influenced generations of scholars of the nineteenth century and remains the primary introduction to Victorian thought that every student in the field reads. From a close reading of famous Victorian writers such as John Stuart Mill and Thomas Carlyle, Houghton argued that the Victorians were characterized by specific, common personality traits such as optimism, hero worship, and earnestness. Houghton believed that these traits were visible in the rise (or decline) in the use of particular words and phrases, such as an increasing use of “light,” “sunlight,” and “hope” as illustrative of their optimistic world view.

Despite the enormous impact of The Victorian Frame of Mind on generations of scholars across the humanities, it has not been accepted uncritically. Many concerns stem from Houghton’s myopic textual methodology: generalizing the character of a people—“the Victorians”—from the words of a select few. Although Houghton cites hundreds of primary sources in his bibliography, his book has been characterized as anecdotal, elite intellectual history. Despite such criticisms, Victorianists have been able neither to thoroughly assess the general validity of Houghton’s theses nor to offer alternatives.

New digital tools and the vast digital library of Google Books now allow us to conduct a comprehensive survey of Victorian writing—not just the well-known Mills and Carlyles, but tens of thousands of lesser-known or even forgotten authors—to test whether the Victorians truly did use the kinds of words and phrases that Houghton claimed they did. Did metaphors of hope actually increase in real terms between 1830 and 1870? Or was this only true for the dozen prominent writers he examined for his chapter on optimism? How can we complicate Houghton’s characterizations and understand change over time through the vast index of Google Books? Can we refine the timeline for the emergence of his characteristics, moving beyond the disturbingly neat, rounded-year boundaries he set for his book? How can we correlate historical events with disturbances in the linguistic data? To what extent can we separate cultural history from printing history with a large corpus of digitized literature?

Dan Cohen, my colleague at the Center for History and New Media, and I have begun work on a project to answer these very questions. With the help of a Google Digital Humanities Grant, we’re attempting what Franco Moretti calls a “distant reading” of the Victorians. My paper will explain how we’ve gone about querying the data available through Google Books, how we’ve been able to make sense of and interpret the results, and how we’ve dealt with the messiness of the data. I hope to solicit feedback about our methodologies and conclusions as part of a larger discussion about how the Google Books corpus (and similar datasets) could be made more usable for large-scale data mining projects relevant to the diverse research interests of the audience. How far can we push our methodologies beyond testing certain theses in order to allow the texts to speak for themselves?

In terms of the Victorians, some preliminary results have proven quite intriguing. For example, the number of books published with “universal” in the title declined steadily throughout the century, but earlier than most interpretations in the secondary literature point out. A look at published titles suggests that the terms “God,” “Christian,” and “Bible” follow rather different contours, though explanations are not immediately apparent. Similarly, how can we explain the striking publication parallels between the terms “belief” and “Aristotle”? The median number of titles that use the word “hope” does not significantly change between 1830 and 1870: does this cast some doubt on Houghton’s characterizations? Or does it simply indicate that book titles are not an accurate gauge of popular sentiment? We have not yet been able to examine the full texts from the publications that are being counted, but we hope to do that soon. To what extent will a more sophisticated linguistic analysis of the full texts reinforce or contradict what the titles alone tell us? Does this have implications for similar large-scale research methodologies?","txt","2","",""
"1368","12","Constructing DARIAH--the e-Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities","2","Constructing DARIAH—the e-Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities
Blanke, Tobias, King's College London, tobias.blanke@kcl.ac.uk
Fritze, Christiane, fritze@sub.uni-goettingen.de State and University Library Goettingen,
Romary, Laurent, laurent.romary@inria.fr INRIA,
The poster will elicit our vision for the DARIAH infrastructure and the first steps towards its implementation. DARIAH (Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities; http://www.dariah.eu) is a European project funded under the ESFRI programme (http://cordis.europa.eu/esfri/), which aims to design a virtual bridge between various humanities and arts resources across Europe. DARIAH is currently in its transition from the preparatory phase to the construction phase, which will be completed by the establishment of the legal framework DARIAH ERIC by end of 2011.

Just like astronomers now require a virtual observatory to study the stars and other distant objects in the galaxy on the basis of a wide variety of existing observations, researchers in the arts and humanities need a digital infrastructure to bring together and collaboratively work with dispersed scholarly resources (e.g. digital content, services, methodologies). DARIAH will be such an infrastructure with a European dimension to support research practitioners at all levels, from beginners through to those employing advanced techniques and methodologies. The grand vision for DARIAH is to facilitate long-term access to, and re-use of, all European arts and humanities digital research data and primary sources.

A typical use case is elicited below (the poster will present several of such scenarios taken from actual e-humanists Europe-wide)

The Digital Postgraduate
Daniela is a postgraduate researcher (PhD candidate) in material culture at a Greek university. She holds a first degree in classical archaeology and a Master's in anthropology. Daniela uses ICT tools very efficiently and considers them vital for her research. She is currently researching material culture and its relationship to the perception of space and landscape in an area of northern Greece. Her topic lies within the areas of archaeology and cultural anthropology; therefore, Daniela's sources include artefacts, interviews with local people, and extensive visual material. As her work is largely interdisciplinary in nature, there is a propensity for making fortuitous discoveries while looking for something unrelated; serendipity is very important in her work. This approach means that she needs to login to different services simultaneously—even login multiple times a day if disconnected—and she must keep multiple open windows in her browser. Furthermore, she must be able to evaluate the authenticity and value of any item she discovers. Thanks to the technical environment developed in the VCCe-Infrastructure of DARIAH, Daniela benefits from both a single sign-on environment for accessing all the necessary digital assets,as well as a virtual portfolio where she can gather all selected sources. The metadata and provenance data associated with an item allows her to evaluate the authenticity and value of an asset, and to link to related items (e.g. other sources for the same asset, other formats, research addressing that asset) once she has found something of interest. From this portfolio, she can publish geographical views on her data, which she exchanges and discusses with other colleagues in Europe.

The mission of DARIAH is to enhance and support digitally-enabled research across the humanities and arts. DARIAH aims to develop and maintain an infrastructure in support of ICT-based research practices and is working with communities of practice to:

Explore and apply ICT-based methods and tools to enable new research questions to be asked and old questions to be posed in new ways;
Improve research opportunities and outcomes through linking distributed digital source materials of many kinds
Exchange knowledge, expertise, methodologies and practices across domains and disciplines.
DARIAH is also not singly discipline-focused; instead DARIAH seeks to support all disciplines across the humanities, encouraging interdisciplinarity and the exploration and sharing of content, tools and methods. Research practice in the arts and humanities is about criticism and meaning, interpretation and re-interpretation, and about extracting meaning from often incomplete and fuzzy data. It requires researchers to seek out a wide range of primary and secondary sources, to organise and structure these, to analyse and interpret them, and to publish the results. In this era of pervasive broadband connectivity, the way in which these processes are undertaken is changing, and in some cases, the processes themselves are changing. Increasingly, research practitioners are using the power of the internet, new tools, and the range of digital information that is available to them to create their own personal network spaces, to digitally publish highly interactive, multimedia-themed collections (critical editions) of research information and knowledge, and to visualise and reconceptualise their interpretations and analysis. New forms of collaboration are also emerging as the tools available encourage and enable ‘web-working’ across the globe.

Hence the key strategic aim of DARIAH is to support researchers in the creation and use of research data and tools, and to apply and use ICT-enabled methods to analyse and interpret digital source materials.

DARIAH will be an infrastructure to promote, support, and advance research in the digital humanities. Digital humanities is a long-established research field, with its origins in the Forties of the last century. Over the past 60 years it has progressed and a large variety of digital humanities centres and related organizations have developed. However, we do not perceive the digital humanities to be a closed field of existing centres but rather an open and developing research environment. Everybody interested in using digital means for arts and humanities research is part of the DARIAH community of practice. In this view, the DARIAH infrastructure would be a connected network of people, information, tools and methodologies for investigating, exploring and supporting work across the broad spectrum of the digital humanities.

The DARIAH network will be designed to be as a decentralised network of competency centres (VCC – Virtual Competency Centres), which will allow services to stay close to end-users (researchers) either geographically or thematically. Common technologies (e.g. for authentication or federation of archive contents) and good practices (standardised formats, digital assets management workflows) will ensure coherence across the support services offered by the competency centres.

When DARIAH is operational after the construction phase, technical products by DARIAH will be manifold:

technological services and tutorials that help existing humanities data archives to link their systems into the DARIAH network;
a package of software and consultancy/training, which supports emerging data centres in establishing their own technology environment quickly;
an interoperability layer that will connect data centres;
means of linking into DARIAH for those countries/disciplines that do not yet have e-humanities infrastructure and cannot afford it in the near future;
best practices and guidelines for individual researchers that foster data interoperability and preservation across the DARIAH network;
a network of expertise linking each scholar to an active and vibrant community of international digital humanists.
DARIAH will make an important contribution towards e-humanities, providing additional services to analyse, annotate and share arts and humanities research activities. DARIAH will stimulate and provide expertise on all aspects of e-humanities, from best practices for digitisation to metadata standards and advice on analysis methods and systems.

References:","txt","2","",""
"1369","12","Probabilistic Analysis of Middle English Orthography: the Auchinleck Manuscript","1","Probabilistic Analysis of Middle English Orthography: the Auchinleck Manuscript
Thaisen, Jacob, University of Stavanger, jthaisen@gmail.com
The bulk of the literary materials that survive from the Middle English period are scribal copies, rather than authorial compositions. Such copies pose a challenge to the stylometrist, the reason being that copies written in a single scribal hand may have non-identical orthographic profiles. Their non-identity is a product of their transmission history, as the typical copy will contain both spelling forms originating in the exemplars and other such forms introduced by the scribe. Historical dialectologists have developed methods for separating the mix of scribal usage and exemplar usage typically recorded in a single scribal copy. Although powerful, these methods rely on questionnaire-based interrogation of text samples and subsequent visual analysis of spelling forms arranged in tables. The arrival of digital transcripts has sped up the data collection process and has led to compilation of fuller profiles, but the questionnaire itself has stayed. Thus, these methods fail to take full advantage of the digital medium.

This presentation demonstrates that a purpose of identifying and isolating locations in which the makeup of the spelling system changes during the full text of a longer Middle English literary manuscript may be met by probability-based comparison of text samples. What spelling forms happen to be attested in a given text is a function of what words happen to make up that text. The direct comparison of texts is therefore not readily possible. It has typically been made possible by considering profiles recording only the spelling forms of those words which may reasonably be expected to occur in every text, such as function words like ""such"", ""that"", and ""these"". The alternative solution proposed in this paper is to base assessment of similarity on ""models"" of text samples' spelling–exhaustive profiles of which letters and letter sequences occur in them and with which frequency. I shall refer to single letters as unigrams, ordered sequences of two letters as bigrams, etc. Such models are easily compiled from electronic diplomatic transcripts. The dissolution into n-grams is equal to identification of the between texts because comparison of the building blocks is in itself relatively independent of the word level.

Similarity is measured between a text sample (the test sample) and a model derived from another text sample (the training sample). It is expressed as the overall probability that the test sample is an instance of the same spelling system as the system modelled. Computing this probability proceeds, with a trigram model, from consideration of each unigram in the context of the bigram preceding it–the reader may correctly recognise the ""Markov assumption"" in this description. What is output, however, is the reciprocal of the average probability per gram. This entity, called ""perplexity"", will conveniently always be a positive number larger than 1 with the present type of data. Moreover, techniques exist for ""smoothing"" a model, that is for reducing its dependence on the words constituting the training sample. This reduction is achieved by statistically manipulating the probabilities computed for the training sample n-grams. Smoothing additionally leads to probability being assigned to spelling forms unattested in the training sample.

It is these properties of these techniques that makes their application on n-gram models based on Middle English texts further increase the comparability of those texts. Probabilistic modeling techniques have, however, as far as I am aware, rarely been applied for the stylometric analysis of Middle English materials, and it has yet to be established which specific smoothing technique produces the most satisfactory models of those materials.

A simple example may illustrate. The spelling forms <suich, suyche, such> for the word ""such"" are found in text A, while the same word is spelt <suche> in text B. Intuitively, the text B spelling form <suche> falls within the range of variation characteristic of the spelling system of text A but happens to be unattested in it, while other known Middle English forms such as as <swylke, suilk> do not. The present methodology involves dissolving <suche> into <su, suc, uch, che, he> and establishing the smoothed conditional probability for each of these trigram building blocks in text A (thus obtaining a intuition that the spelling form is possible in the spelling system of text A. In practice, however, the quantification is not effected for the individual form but for the whole of text B in relation to text A.

To illustrate the adequacy of perplexity-based comparison in stylometry, I trace changes in spelling in a large manuscript collecting several Middle English literary works. The corpus is the Auchinleck manuscript, Edinburgh, National Library of Scotland, Advocates' MS 19.2.1, produced in the London-Westminster area in the first half of the fourteenth century. The potential influences on the scribes include the literary structure, as the codex's total of almost 59,000 lines of text are divided between no less than forty-four literary works representing a range of genres. A map showing locations in which the spelling system changes during the full text of the Auchinleck manuscript may be expected to reflect the literary structure only if the exemplars did so and the Auchinleck scribes reproduced them slavishly. By contrast, it is the boundaries of the scribal contributions that will be visible in the map if each scribe thoroughly converted into his own spelling system when copying. Six scribal hands are present. Of these, Scribe 4's contribution is too short (551 words) to constitute a reliable sample, while the usages of the other five scribes should be visible. They are distinct in terms of their typological classification on the dialect continuum, although they fall into an eastern cluster and a western one. Dialect analysis has thus placed Scribe 1 in Middlesex, Scribe 2 on the Gloucestershire-Worcestershire border, Scribe 3 in London, Scribe 5 in Essex, and Scribe 6 in Worcestershire (McIntosh, Samuels, et al 1986, I: 88; LPs 6510, 6940, 6500, 6350, and 7820).

To be able to compute and compare probability for sections of the Auchinleck manuscript against one another, I obtained a digital transcript of its text from the Oxford Text Archive (Burnley and Wiggins 2003). The transcript is suitable, because rather than modernise the spelling forms found in its source, it reproduces the source in conformity with standard practice of diplomatic transcription. My tool for constructing models and computing perplexity is the SRI Language Modeling Toolkit (SRILM; Stolcke 2002); this toolkit is freely available for noncommercial purposes from the website of its SRILM constructed and smoothed an interpolated model for every 200-line section; the smoothing technique selected was that described by Witten and Bell (1991). This technique was developed for purposes of text compression at the level of the word but it is appropriate for application on Middle English spelling data too. The reason is that the technique effectively assigns probability to collocating letters as if they were a single letter, rather than a series of independent units.

The toolkit took the same modified transcripts of all the sections as the input and computed their similarity with the models. The computation resulted in a separate model for each section, and for every such model, a separate perplexity for every section. I established the mean perplexity and standard deviation for the perplexities obtained for each model. The box and whisker graph below shows the results. In this graph the vertical axis gives perplexity and the horizontal axis position in the text of the Auchinleck manuscript. The diamond represents mean perplexity and the T-bar represents half a standard deviation, so that one upright T-bar and its reverse together indicate an interval of one standard deviation from the mean. A dashed vertical line appears for ease of reference at the boundary of a scribal stint as established by palaeographers (Bliss 1951), with the outlined numbers identifying the scribes.

As is apparent, the figure distinguishes the scribes of the Auchinleck manuscript. The rises and falls in mean perplexity during the text strongly correlate with the boundaries of the scribal stints, while mean perplexity is relatively constant within every such stint. Repetion of the experiment with other divisions of the text produced results sufficiently similar to Figure 1 to establish the pattern as being a property of the data rather than an artefact of the method.

It would have been time-consuming indeed to conduct a questionnaire-based interrogation of the full text of the Auchinleck manuscript. Visual analysis of the resulting profile to identify and isolate locations in which the spelling system changes would, moreover, have been complex, because of the amount of data and difficulty of isolating the diagnostic features. Perplexity-based comparison as illustrated above, by contrast, requires little preprocessing of the transcript, is effected in an afternoon, and is based on all the available data.

Mean perplexity and standard deviation in the Auchinleck manuscript (trigram models, 200-line sections)

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References:
Bliss, A. J. 1951 “Notes on the Auchinleck Manuscript, ” Speculum, 26 652–58

Burnley, D. A. Wiggins2003 The Auchinleck Manuscript (link)

McIntosh, A. M. L. Samuels M. Benskin 1986 A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English, 4 vols Aberdeen Aberdeen University Press

Stolcke, A. 2002 SRILM: An extensible language modeling toolkit Hansen, P. Pellom, B. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Spoken Language Processing Denver Casual Productions 901–04

Witten, I. H. T. C. Bell 1991 The Zero-Frequency Problem: Estimating the Probabilities of Novel Events in Adaptive Text Compression, IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, 37 1085–94","txt","2","",""
"1370","12","Mining Language Resources from Institutional Repositories","1","Mining Language Resources from Institutional Repositories
Simons, Gary F., SIL International and Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics, gary_simons@sil.org
Bird, Steven, University of Melbourne and University of Pennsylvania, sb@csse.unimelb.edu.au
Hirt, Christopher, SIL International and Payap University, chris_hirt@sil.org
Hou, Joshua, University of Washington, jshou@u.washington.edu
Pedersen, Sven, Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics, sven.pedersen@gmail.com
Language resources are the bread and butter of language documentation and linguistic investigation. They include the primary objects of study such as texts and recordings, the outputs of research such as dictionaries and grammars, and the enabling technologies such as software tools and interchange standards. Increasingly, these resources are maintained in digital form and distributed via the web. However, searching on the web for language resources is a hit-and-miss affair. One problem is that many online resources are hidden behind interfaces to databases with the result that only a fraction of these resources are being indexed by search engines (He and others 2007). Even when resources are exposed to online search engines, they may not be discoverable since they are described in ad hoc ways that prevent searches from retrieving the desired results with high recall or precision.

This paper describes work being done in the context of the Open Language Archives Community (OLAC) to develop a service that uses text mining methods (Weiss and others 2005) to find language resources located within the hidden web of institutional repositories. It then uses the OLAC infrastructure to expose them on the open web and make them discoverable through precise search.

The OLAC Infrastructure
As set out in its mission statement, the Open Language Archives Communityhttp://www.language-archives.org/ is “an international partnership of institutions and individuals who are creating a worldwide virtual library of language resources by: (i) developing consensus on best current practice for the digital archiving of language resources, and (ii) developing a network of interoperating repositories and services for housing and accessing such resources.”

With respect to best practices, the community has thus far focused on developing recommendations for the metadata description of language resourceshttp://www.language-archives.org/REC/bpr.html so that they can be discovered in search with high precision and recall. The OLAC metadata formathttp://www.language-archives.org/OLAC/metadata.html is an extension of Dublin Corehttp://dublincore.org/documents/dcmi-terms/—the dominant metadata standard in the digital library and World Wide Web communities (Bird and Simons 2004). To support the need for precise search, the community has adopted five specialized vocabularieshttp://www.language-archives.org/REC/olac-extensions.html for use in describing resources: subject language, for identifying precisely which language(s) a resource is “about” by using a code from ISO 639;http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/ linguistic type, for classifying the structure of a resource as primary text, lexicon, or language description; linguistic field, for specifying relevant subfields of linguistics; discourse type, for indicating the linguistic genre of the material; and role, for documenting the parts played by specific individuals and institutions in creating a resource.

With respect to the network of interoperating repositories, there are now more than 40 institutions that are sharing their language resource metadata to create a virtual digital library with over 90,000 holdings. Participating archives publish their catalogs in the XML format of an OLAC repositoryhttp://www.language-archives.org/OLAC/repositories.html and these repositories are “harvested” thrice daily by the OLAC aggregator using the Open Archives Initiative (OAI) Protocol for Metadata Harvestinghttp://www.openarchives.org/OAI/2.0/openarchivesprotocol.htm (Simons and Bird 2003)—another standard of the digital library community.

Mining for Hidden Language Resources
The Open Access movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Access_movement has led to the widespread uptake of self-archiving of research results by university faculty and staff. It stands to reason that among the millions of resources deposited into open-access institutional repositories, there are thousands of language resources. But these resources are not typically accessible via general web search. This is because they are hidden behind the search interfaces of hundreds of repositories and they lack precise identification as language resources. The question is, “Can we find the language resources in institutional repositories and then make them easy for the language resources community to discover?”

Our research addresses the problem by using text mining techniques. We have begun by training a binary classifier that identifies the likely language resources within an institutional repository. We used MALLET, the Machine Learning for Language Toolkit,http://mallet.cs.umass.edu/ to train a maximum entropy classifier. For data to train the classifier we needed a large collection of metadata records covering the full range of human knowledge that were already classified as to the nature of their content. For this purpose we used the collection of more than 9 million MARC catalog records from the Library of Congress collection that was deposited into the Internet Archivehttp://www.archive.org/details/marc_records_scriblio_net by the Scriblio project.http://about.scriblio.net/ We used bag-of-words features extracted from the title and subject headings of each MARC record. To label each record as to whether it was a language resource or not, we mapped the Library of Congress call number onto the appropriate binary label based on a prior analysis of the Library of Congress classification system. The resulting set of 9 million training records was then given to MALLET to train a binary classifier for language resource identification.

The resulting classifier was applied to over 4 million Dublin Core metadata records that were collected by doing a complete harvest of nearly 700 institutional repositories using the OAI Protocol for Metadata Harvesting. The list of base URLs to harvest was found by going to the University of Illinois OAI-PMH Data Provider Registryhttp://gita.grainger.uiuc.edu/registry/ and querying for all repositories with the word “university” in their Identify response. When applied to a metadata record, the classifier returns a number between 0 and 1 representing the probability that the resource is a language resource. This probability was added as a new metadata element to each harvested record. We then implemented an extension to the OAI-PMH interface on our metadata aggregator that allows us to request a ListRecords response of a given size that is a random sample of the records falling within a given probability range.

Figure 1 shows the result of evaluating the performance of the classifier by means of manually inspecting ten random samples of 100 records each representing the full range of probabilities assigned by the classifier. In the manual evaluation of the classifier results, each record was assigned to one of three categories: not a language resource, a resource about a specific language, or a resource about human language but no language in particular. Figure 1 plots the number of specific language resources found in each sample of 100 as the lower line; the upper line adds the non-specific language resources. (Not plotted are a sample of 500 records for .001 < p < .01 in which were found 0 specific language resources and 4 non-specific resources, and a sample of 200 records for p < .001 in which 0 language resources of either type were found.) The graph demonstrates that the probabilities assigned by the classifier accord well with the actual proportions discovered by manual inspection, thus providing evidence for the validity of the classifier. The notable deviation from the expected trend is in the highest probability range. Inspection of the records in question showed that the majority of false positives were items from computer science about programming languages and formal language theory, leading us to hypothesize that the training data from the Library of Congress catalog was underrepresented in this area.

Figure 1: Evaluation of language resource classifier

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Of the 4 million harvested records, only 52,000 indicate a probability greater than .01 of being a language resource. Multiplying the proportion of actual language resources found within each probability range by the total number of records falling within each range leads to the estimate that there are approximately 8,000 specific language resources within the set of 4 million harvested records.

Exposing the Once-Hidden Resources
The next step in our research is to apply a multiclass classifier for language resource types to the metadata records for the 52,000 candidate language resources, as well as a named entity recognizer for language names. The metadata records to which language resource type and language identification can be assigned with high probability will be enriched using the OLAC metadata vocabularies. They will then be entered into the combined OLAC catalog by creating a new OLAC data provider for these language resources that have been mined from institutional repositories. The final paper will report on the results of these efforts at metadata enrichment and show how the results are exposed to users through the two main OLAC services that support language resource discovery: an indexing service that provides a web page of relevant resources for each of 7,670 distinct human languages (as identified in the ISO 639-3 standard) and a faceted search service that makes it easy to find resources of interest by clicking on selected values of standardized descriptors to successively refine the search.

References:
Bird, Steven and Gary Simons 2004 “Building an Open Language Archives Community on the DC Foundation, ” Metadata in Practice [D. I. Hillmann and E. L. Westbrooks, eds.], 203–222 Chicago American Library Association. (link)

He, Bin, Mitesh Patel, Zhen Zhang, and Kevin Chen-Chuan Chang 2007 “Accessing the deep web, ” Communications of the ACM, 50(5) 95–101

Simons, Gary and Steven Bird 2003 “Building an Open Language Archives Community on the OAI Foundation, ” Library Hi Tech, 21(2) 210–218 (link)

Weiss, Sholom M., Nitin Indurkhya, Tong Zhang, and Fred J. Damerau 2005 Text Mining: Predictive Methods for Analyzing Unstructured Information, New York Springer","txt","2","",""
"1371","12","Googling Ancient Places","1","Googling Ancient Places
Isaksen, Leif, Archaeology, University of Southamp, leifuss@googlemail.com
Barker, Elton, Classical Studies, The Open University, e.t.e.barker@open.ac.uk
Kansa, Eric C., School of Information, University of California, Berkeley, ekansa@ischool.berkeley.edu
Byrne, Kate, Informatics, University of Edinburgh, k.byrne@ed.ac.uk
Overview
Our presentation about the Google Ancient Places (GAP) project will demonstrate new techniques to computationally identify places referenced in scholarly texts. We will also discuss deployment of simple Web services that use resulting place identifications to help bridge across online literary and material culture collections.

Project History
Funded through the Google Digital Humanities Award program (July 2010-June 2011), GAP <http://googleancientplaces.wordpress.com/> mines a portion of the Google Books Corpus <http://books.google.com/intl/en/googlebooks/history.html> to find books related to ancient locations identified by gazetteers of the Classical Mediterranean world.

GAP builds upon the Herodotus Encoded Space-Time Imaging Archive (HESTIA) project. HESTIA <http://www.open.ac.uk/arts/Hestia/> was a two-year collaboration (2008-2010) between The Open University and the Universities of Oxford and Birmingham, funded by the UK Arts and Humanities Research Council. Its aim was to explore new methods for visualizing relationships in Herodotus’ Histories. The project explored multiple approaches, including:

mapping the frequency of references to specific locations (both spatially and in terms of linear narrative)
manually and automatically generating maps of the network connections between places.
The project made use of Greek and English versions of the text from the Perseus Digital Library <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/> which are marked up with the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) XML schema, including geographical locations based on automated string-matching with the Perseus internal gazetteer and Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names. Closer analysis revealed that many of the locations were misidentifications, however, and a relatively labor-intensive process was required to correct them.
HESTIA’s use of Perseus Digital Library resources demonstrates the growing power of open infrastructure already established in Classical studies. HESTIA also helped to demonstrate the utility of visualizing locations within a narrative. However, could the approach be automated so as to scale beyond manually processing individual texts? GAP attempts to answer this question through more sophisticated computational methods and by using additional open infrastructure, especially new Semantic gazetteers (see below) such as GeoNames <http://www.geonames.org/>, and the Pleiades Project <http://pleaides.stoa.org/>.

HESTIA’s focus lies in a seminal text, the Histories by Herodotus. While primary and secondary literary sources represent key resources for Classical Studies, Classics also draws upon diverse sources of material evidence gathered from art history, architecture and archaeology (Mahony and Bodard 2010:3-5). These different sources of evidence and their associated scholarship are often highly “siloed”. Reference to Perseus or Pleiades resources can improve their interoperability. To address this issue, GAP demonstrates how open digital humanities infrastructure together with the Google Books Corpus, can be used synergistically to bridge online literary and material culture collections. GAP uses Open Context <http://opencontext.org/> to test such services. Open Context is an open-access archaeological data publication system offering wide-ranging documentation of architecture, archaeological contexts, and objects from multiple contributors (Kansa and Kansa 2007). Open Context provides a map and timeline on its splash page to enable both providers and users to quickly identify related research. The ability to identify relevant scholarly literature relating to Open Context’s material culture collections would be a ground-breaking extension to this service.

Approach
Prior experience with Herodotus’ Histories informs GAP’s methodology. In developing the HESTIA Narrative Timeline, we learned that places referenced in narrative texts generally cluster together to maintain narrative coherency. Given a set of toponyms with multiple possible identifications, the set of identifications with the shortest overall path between them is likely to be correct. In addition, we can add weight to the importance of each toponym by the number of possible locations it could refer to. Somewhat counter-intuitively, this means that small, obscure places with unusual names are much better guides to location than well-known places with many namesakes. While a useful starting point, several additional factors complicate accurate place identification:

The approach does not work well for fragments or with arbitrary higher-level structures such as the alphabetic organization of an encyclopedia.
The author may assume that the anticipated audience will be able to contextualize by other narrative elements (such as well-known individuals) and thus mention only a single location (or even none at all).
The author may contextualize by giving a territory in which the place is located. These can confuse point-based algorithms as there is no single ‘best’ point that represents them.
The author may have confused the place they are discussing with another, especially if they are commenting on another work or reporting independent sources.
Occasionally the pattern location clustering assumption simply does not hold. This is especially the case for places that do not perform an active function in the text such as personal names derived from places of origin (e.g. ‘Herodotus of Halicarnassus’).
Fortunately, new open infrastructure, especially Semantic Gazetteers such as GeoNames and Pleiades, can improve the precision of place identification. Both GeoNames and Pleiades offer open, machine-readable data curated by dedicated communities. They provide unique HTTP URIs for each place to which multiple names (toponyms), locations (such as spatial coordinates) and categories (like ‘settlement’ or ‘region’) can be assigned. These gazetteers make it much easier to handle the problem of synonymy and allow us to assign non-ambiguous and easily resolved public identifiers to places identified in the Google Books Corpus.

Nevertheless, even with the aid of gazetteers, the difficulties outlined above make place identifications highly probabilistic and uncertain, especially in cases where we find either insufficient or conflicting evidence. Hard cases can then be handled by a variety of methods, including more sophisticated but computationally expensive procedures or by manual effort of a scholar. Computationally, there are multiple levels at which we can look for clustering, including the chapter, book, and corpus (of the author or even genre). Looking at higher levels may provide us with broader contextual clues. A further advantage of working with massive digital corpora is that they frequently provide multiple translations and editions. In such cases we can use the linear chain of places in one edition to inform the processing of another and vice versa. Finally, as we process more books the system can record additional metadata about the places as well as the books. In particular it may see that in cases of homonymy, one location is much more frequently mentioned than all the others (such as the Egyptian Alexandria, as opposed to the many other cities of that name). This can help in cases where we have no other contextual clues to draw on. Google Books metadata and comparison of multiple editions found Google Books corpus may thus help resolve ambiguous place determinations in some cases.

It is also important to remember that there are some hard limits imposed on the process and some pragmatic aspects to our goals. First, we are only able to identify those places for which we have an entry in a gazetteer. Natural Language Processing available to us will not identify places previously unknown. Secondly, we are not looking for a ‘perfect’ set of results for the simple reason that natural language is ultimately indeterminate. Continued improvement of computational methods, as well as more traditional forms of scholarship will be required.

Outcomes
Scaling and adapting text processing methods developed for HESTIA for the larger Google Books Corpus represents one of the key challenges for GAP. To help evaluate the effectiveness of our approach, we first reconciled local identifiers used by the HESTIA project with Pleiades URIs. We will report on how our algorithmic approach to place identifications compares with places manually identified in HESTIA using the same raw text of the Histories as used by HESTIA. We will then report on results of our algorithmic method on the 1828 translation of the Histories provided by Google. Finally we will discuss application of our algorithms for general use on the Google Books corpus, focusing on public domain texts with Library of Congress Headings DE-DG (Greco-Roman World; Greece; Italy).

GAP provides processing results in RDF-expressed annotations for each text. Such annotations are extremely useful to software but generally less helpful for humanities researchers who typically require a human interface. Thus, GAP also provides Web mapping tools, like those on the HESTIA and Open Context websites. These interfaces enable searches in both directions – from text to places, and from a place to the texts which reference it. To lower adoption barriers, we chose RESTful Web service (based on the Atom Syndication Format and GeoJSON) design patterns (see Blanke et al. 2009; Kansa and Bissell 2010). Such services enable other developers and digital humanists to incorporate our results into other research environments and applications.

As discussed above, the GAP project makes extensive use of existing digital humanities infrastructure, especially place gazetteers such as Pleiades. In doing so, GAP helps to demonstrate the growing maturity of digital scholarship in Classical studies. Rather than standing alone as isolated, one-off efforts, digital projects increasingly complement one-another and enable future work. In this light, we hope GAP will catalyze continued research (see Rosenzweig 2007) in the text processing methods, systems design, and semantic standards required to bridge gaps across literary and material culture collections.

References:
Barker ETE, Bouzarovski S, Pelling CBR, Isaksen L. 2010 “Mapping an ancient historian in a digital age: the Herodotus Encoded Space-Text-Image Archive (HESTIA), ” Leeds International Classical Journal, 9 1-24

Blanke, T., M. Hedges, and R. Palmer 2009 “Restful services for the e-Humanities — web services that work for the e-Humanities ecosystem, ” Digital Ecosystems and Technologies, 2009. DEST '09. 3rd IEEE International Conference on Digital Ecosystems and Technologies., 637-642

Cohen, Daniel J. and Roy Rosenzweig 2006 Digital History: A Guide to Gathering, Preserving, and Presenting the Past on the Web, Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press (link)

Kansa, Eric C., and Ahrash N. Bissell 2010 “Web Syndication Approaches for Sharing Primary Data in ""Small Science"" Domains., ” Data Science Journal, 9 42-53

Kansa, E., and S. Whitcher Kansa 2007 “Open Context: Collaborative Data Publication to Bridge Field Research and Museum Collections, ” International Cultural Heritage Informatics Meeting (ICHIM07): Proceedings [J. Trant and D. Bearman (eds)], Toronto: Archives & Museum Informatics, (link)

Mahony, Simon and Gabriel Bodard 2010 “Introduction, ” Digital Research in the Study of Classical Antiquity [Simon Mahony and Gabriel Bodard (eds.)], London Ashgate 1-14

Rosenzweig, Roy 2007 “Collaboration and the cyberinfrastructure: Academic collaboration with museums and libraries in the digital era, ” First Monday, 12(7)","txt","2","",""
"1372","12","Better Software Tools for the Humanities and the Social Sciences: a Computer Science Perspective","2","Better Software Tools for the Humanities and the Social Sciences: a Computer Science Perspective
Stephenson, Russell, Idaho State University, steprus2@isu.edu
Kantabutra, Vitit, Idaho State University, vkantabu@computer.org
As computer use has become more prevalent in all areas of academia, more and more scholars in the humanities and the social sciences have begun to realize the potential usefulness of software tools for their respective areas of scholarship. Many have become expert in the use of software packages ranging from database management systems and GIS to graphical and Web-authoring programs, not to mention the more common packages for word processing and the creation of presentations.

These scholars have also, however, discovered the limitations of current computer software. The problems range from lack of user friendliness to gross inefficiency and the inflexibility of database systems, to the point that important analytical discoveries which should be made are not made. We believe that these problems occur because these software packages were created to serve limited business purposes, and were co-opted for academic use simply because there were no better alternatives available.

We will discuss how to improve software for the humanities and the social sciences by designing programs based upon computer science principles that are at the same time grounded in the needs of humanities scholars, using only those software libraries, programming languages and paradigms that truly fit our purposes. In particular, we will first explain briefly how our Intentionally-Linked Entities (ILE) database system can be used in humanities research, social networks and temporal GIS as a replacement for relational database management systems. In ILE, relationships are represented using linked data structures rather than two-dimensional tables, following the long-term trend in other areas of computing towards replacing arrays by linked data structures. Relationships of user-defined complexity can be used routinely, and unlike in the relational model, such relationships are favored over the use of attributes. We will discuss why using ILE instead of other databases can lead to more accurate modeling of historical knowledge, as well as an almost complete elimination of redundancy.

We will present a new software tool we are developing that will allow humanities scholars to enter and analyze data. Humanities scholars often have documents that contain numerous pieces of interrelated information that need to be analyzed to reach an understanding of the material under study. These texts, most often word processing documents, are developed over a great deal of time from primary sources, requiring a researcher many months or years to compile. It is only after this monumental task that the scholar is finally able to start piecing together the information that is key to an understanding of the research topic. These scholars typically collect data from numerous documents containing interrelated players, places, and events. We will present a tool to help gather these disparate pieces of information into a database. The user interface for this application follows the well-known computer programming paradigm of the Integrated Development Environment (IDE), whereby a project is created by collecting relevant documents (source files, resource files, and supporting data) into a single project file defined by the user. As documents are added to the project, they can be analyzed by selecting text and creating entities and assigning relationships to those entities via an ILE database. The text and matching text in other documents may then be color-coded to make it easier to keep track of the entities that have been created. The entities/relationships will be stored in an ILE database and displayed as a tree next to the document window. We will show an early prototype of this application as well as give an overview of the fundamental components: project browser, document windows, entity/relationship trees, and the ILE database. We will also discuss applications for geographically-integrated history and its relationships to social networks and researcher-guided textual analysis.","txt","2","",""
"1373","12","Good Evidence is Hard to Find: Policy-based Approaches to Curating and Preserving Digital Humanities Data","2","Good Evidence is Hard to Find: Policy-based Approaches to Curating and Preserving Digital Humanities Data
Marciano, Richard, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill USA, richard_marciano@unc.edu
Hedges, Mark, King's College London, mark.hedges@kcl.ac.uk
Chassanoff, Alexandra, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill USA, achass@email.unc.edu
Aschenbrenner, Andreas,
Hasan, Adil, English Department, University of Liverpool, UK,
Blanke, Tobias,
What does it mean to support scholarship in the 21st century? For the digital humanist, scholarly needs range from providing long-term online access to digitized collections to developing reusable tools to discern historical patterns among large data corpuses. The so-called “age of evidentiary abundance”O’Mally, Michel. ""Evidence and Scarcity."" [Weblog entry.] The Aporetic. George Mason University. 02 Oct 2010. (http://theaporetic.com/?p=176). 30 Oct 2010. yielded by linked data and other technological advancements presents further interpretative challenges: materials aggregated across collections need to merge content and context in a seamless research environment. Supporting all of these endeavors over the long term requires an efficient underlying structure to manage evolving technologies, scholarship needs, and research requirements. This infrastructure must ensure longevity and usability by attending to curation and preservation components. Building sustainable research environments for the long term should be seen as a core requirement of scholarly infrastructure in the digital age.

In response to the Digital Humanities 2011 theme of “Big Tent Digital Humanities”, this poster will demonstrate policy-based approaches to building sustainable infrastructures for digital research environments. Drawing on our work from key funded projects in the United States and Europe, including Sustaining Heritage Access through Multivalent ArchiviNg (SHAMAN), DCAPE, and Policy-Driven Repository Interoperability (PoDRI), we will showcase how policy- based frameworks can be applied to both small-scale institutional collections and to larger, federated multi-repository research environments. Our work provides a model for how policy- driven curation and preservation policies can be used to effectively manage digital humanities data.","txt","2","",""
"1374","12","Integration of Distributed Text Resources by Using Schema Matching Techniques","1","Integration of Distributed Text Resources by Using Schema Matching Techniques
Eckart, Thomas, Natural Language Processing Group, Institute of Computer Science, University of Leipzig, Germany, teckart@e-humanities.net
Pansch, David, Natural Language Processing Group, Institute of Computer Science, University of Leipzig, Germany, dpansch@eaqua.net
Büchler, Marco, Natural Language Processing Group, Institute of Computer Science, University of Leipzig, Germany, mbuechler@e-humanities.net
Scattered Landscapes
The world of humanities has seen an enormous growth in available digital text resources in the last decade. This development was driven by many factors like advancements in relevant technologies like OCR, increasing competence in the field of digital encoding and publication, and the spreading of widely accepted encoding formats. It is by now widely understood (among both researchers and funders) that publications and created resources have to be standardized to ensure their relevance for future work and their (re-)use in a linked data environment.

More and more projects with partially very specific research questions are working on the encoding of their results in various (mostly XML based) formats. Encoding standards and formats were established that are widely used and supported by various tools and a helping community. In the field of encoding textual resources the standards of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) and their various dialects are well represented. To cover a wide range of data it is common to create a specific dialect that fits the own data best without losing all compatibility with other projects. As a consequence, various encoding variants exist that cope with similar data but create different schemata to represent them. A drawback of this specialism are problems with aggregating existing data stocks to one global resource: Even combining solely meta data of editions of the same work becomes an expensive (since labor intensive) task. Creating true hypertextuality in digital libraries (Berti et al., 2009) that will massively connect resources in a distributed infrastructure will intensify this problem. Hence data integration will gain relevance in the field of distributed resources.

Since data storage solutions like relational database management systems are often used (for example when fast access to or complicated requests on the data is necessary) this issue does not only apply on the XML data model. These systems often use ETL-procedures (Extract, Transform, Load) to gain uniform and comparable data. The key problem remains the same: A lot of time is spent to gain a clean stock of data and consistent meta data. Experiences show that especially at projects using quantitative approaches, with a demand for large (and as homogeneous as possible) data sets, up to one third of all human resources are needed to overcome different kinds of heterogeneity.

This paper concentrates on the question how existing schema matching techniques that are established in data warehousing and information integration can be used to identify identical structures of different editions of the same source material. Therefore a high similarity of the content can be assumed, whereas structural and semantic heterogeneity prevents fast integration. As all modern storage solutions rely on schema definitions, it was not the task to identify corresponding element instances of two documents but to identify correspondences between collections of documents. For this reason in the following the term 'element' will be used for the set of all elements having the same position in one schema (for example all TEI/teiHeader/fileDesc/titleStmt/titleelements in a set of XML files or all values for one column work-namein a relational database table).

This approach has two advantages: generic profiles for every schema element can be created (thus minimizing the effects of outliers) and computational time is reduced by minimizing the number of comparisons that have to be made to find useful schema mappings.

To illustrate the procedure different versions of the Duke Databank of Documentary Papyri (DDbDP) were used. These include the Perseus version of the DDbDP, its EpiDoc encoded equivalent (Epiduke) and an extraction from the latter, stored in a flat relational schema. These data are only to be seen as a first testing environment. Further evaluation on other text types is in progress.

General Approach
The whole process of finding corresponding elements or larger element structures can be separated into three major working steps:

Fingerprinting: By using various features a fingerprint is created for every element, taking different element properties into account.
Linking: Elements of both schemata are chosen pairwise that are likely matching candidates.
Scoring: Every linked pair is scored by a similarity measure.
To identify corresponding elements of two schemata, for every addressable element various features are used. These features address different types of similarity like structural similarity (with the focus on schema information) or semantic similarity (with the focus on elements' content). Most of the used features do not depend on specific structures or access methods, hence every addressable element can be used and compared. As a consequence XML or SGML documents, columns in a relational database or every other (semi-)structured input schema can be used. Existing works have shown that using only a single feature is not sufficient to identify similarity (Algergawy et al., 2009). For this reason all measures are combined and normalized by a weighted sum.

As there is a wide range of syntactic and semantic ambiguities it is unlikely to achieve a full automated matching. Hence it is the goal to establish an integration procedure that allows a more efficient handling of new data resources to minimize the effort of integrating these resources into an existing data stock.

Methodology
Used Features
A wide range of different features are known in the field of data integration. Some of these make use of structural schema information (schema based) while others use the elements' content (instance based). A constraint based approach checks the type and limitations of data, e.g. the domain of numbers or the differences in cardinality or uniqueness of elements. These features work on different levels: some concentrate on the combination of elements, their hierarchy or their number of child nodes (structure level), while others focus on individual elements and their attributes (element level).

The following features were tested on their usefulness for the described problem. Table 1 gives a short overview of used approaches and their classification (based on Rahm et al., 2009).

Name similarityuses the Levenshtein distance to compute string similarity of database column names, respectively XML element names. For example an element name authorshas a distance of 1 from an element named author, but a distance of 5 from the string work.
Path similaritycompares the structural depth of elements, under the assumption that similar elements have similar positions (and therefore similar distances to the root element) in their respective schema.
Cosine similarityuses the Vector Space Model by representing the content (i.e. the occurring terms) of every element as a vector in a high dimensional vector space. To reflect different importance of terms (for example stop words versus domain-specific keywords) all terms are weighted by using the tf.idfmeasure (Salton et al., 1988). The result vectors are compared using the cosine similarity: $sim_{cos}(p_1, p_2) = \frac{v_{p1} \cdot v_{p2}}{|v_{p1}| \cdot |v_{p2}|}$.
Dice coefficientcalculates the ratio of words, that appear in both compared elements to all occurring words: $sim_{dice}(p_1,p_2) = \frac{2 |W_{p1} \cap W_{p2}|}{|W_{p1}| + |W_{p2}|}$. For example an element that contains the words {bank, money, account, credit} is similar to an element containing the words {bank, money, account, financial} (Dice coefficient = 0.75), but less similar to an element containing the words {bank, river, water} (Dice coefficient ~ 0.29)
Frequency similarityuses the assumption that similar content is encoded by a similar number of elements. Therefore this measure produces a high value if the number of occurrences of the compared elements are similar.
Content typecompares the ratio of numbers to letters. Hence an element with mostly numbers becomes dissimilar to an element containing mostly textual data.
All results were normalized to the interval [0,1] (where necessary), `0' corresponding to no similarity and `1' to identity.
Features that address the element's content use all available data: For example the union of all text addressable with the same XPath expression in a collection of XML files or all data in a column of a relational schema.

Overview of used measures and their classification
             
Similarity measure         Schema-based         Instance-based         Constraint-based         Structure level         Element level 
Name         x                                 x 
Path         x                         x         
Cosine                 x                         x 
Dice                 x                         x 
Frequency         x                 x         x         x 
Content type                 x         x                 x 
Linking
Experiments have shown that many elements in the chosen XML collections occur very rarely. Therefore only elements were considered that occur in at least 50 percent of all documents of the respective collection to reduce the computation time. All other elements of both compared data sets were linked with each other.

In general a more sophisticated approach would be useful to minimize the number of comparisons. This holds especially true in a distributed environment where network response and transmission time is a limiting factor. This was not considered in this work as the focus was on identifying useful features and all resources were locally available.

Scoring and Results
The values of all similarity measures are combined by a weighted sum, yielding a similarity value between `0' (no similarity) and `1' (identity). Starting by identical weights for all measures the weights were iteratively adjusted to enhance the matching precision.

The results show that especially the instance-based approaches (Dice and Cosine) were successful for identifying matching elements. These measures worked well on both XML-XML and relational database-XML comparisons. All other measures turned out to be strongly dependent on the compared formats.

Especially structural differences between optimized (and redundancy-free) relational schemata and XML documents prevent good results when relying solely on schema information: in these cases matching precision drops significantly. Only instance-based measures (Dice, Cosine, and content type similarity) achieved good results, whereas all other measures could be ignored (hence weighted with 0).

A more balanced result shows in the XML-XML analysis: as both document collections are based on subsets of TEI formats many relevant elements are similar regarding their name and position in the XML structure tree. Therefore especially name similarity turned out to be a useful indicator for matching elements. Nonetheless again instance based measures performed best on these comparisons.

Visualization
A graphical user interface was created to visualize the pairwise similarity of elements. In a matrix (c.f. Figure 1) every row stands for an element of the document collection 1 and every column for an element of document collection 2 (or database columns in case of a relational schema). Each cell contains the weighted sum of similarity values for the two respective elements. High certainty values are emphasized with a strong green color. A tooltip on each cell gives additional information about the comparison results (used features and similarity values).

Figure 1 shows an excerpt of a result matrix where a relational database is compared to a collection of XML files. Every column represents a database column of the extracted version of the Epiduke, every row represents a path in Perseus' DDbDP XML files. As an example the element placeNamefrom the collection of XML files has a strong similarity to the geographycolumn in the database, even though different element names were used. By analyzing their content it becomes obvious that there is a strong extensional overlap between these elements' content. On the other hand there are no similar XML elements for the database column female(information about the author's gender) and work_id(a database-specific identifier for every work). This is due to the fact that both elements were created during the extraction process (or the following post-processing) and therefore have no corresponding elements in the original material.

Figure 1: Graphical output for comparison of epigraphic data hold in Perseus' DDbDP XML and an extracted version of the Epiduke.

Full Size Image

Conclusions and Further Work
Various comparisons have shown that especially semantic approaches are promising for identifying similar elements. Apparently these measures' results will degrade when data is compared with a very small semantic overlap (like editions of different domains or languages). As a consequence structural information could be taken into account. For the analyzed data these measures proved useful where complex structures exist, but failed on flat relational schemata.

The existing system is only to be seen as a prototype that will be extended in the future. The further focus will be set on adding new features and analysis of an extended set of input. It is expected that more efficient and domain-specific profiles can be created that will be basis for useful weights and combinations of features. Additionally it is expected that the results can be improved by using a more in-deep view on the data (like identification of key words) or further exploitation of structural information (by including schema definitions into the classification process).

References:
Algergawy, A. Nayak, R. Saake, G. 2009 “XML Schema Element Similarity Measures: A Schema Matching Context, ” Confederated International Conferences, CoopIS, DOA, IS, and ODBASE 2009 on On the Move to Meaningful Internet Systems OTM, Vilamoura, Portugal, 2009 1246-1253

Berti, M. Romanello, M. Babeu, A. Crane, G. 2009 “Collecting fragmentary authors in a digital library, ” 9th ACM/IEEE-CS joint conference on Digital libraries, Austin, TX, USA, 2009 259-262

Bizer, C. Heath, T. Berners-Lee, T. 2009 “Linked Data - The Story So Far, ” International Journal on Semantic Web and Information Systems, 1-22

Epiduke Online publication, 1 November 2010 (link)

LaQuAT: Linking and Querying Ancient Texts, 28 November 2010 (link)

Pansch, D. 2010 Data Integration Methods for Structural Heterogeneous Data in an eHumanity Context, Leipzig

Rahm, E. Bernstein, P.A. 2001 “A survey of approaches to automatic schema matching, ” VLDB Journal, 10

Salton, G. Buckley, C. 1988 “Term-weighting approaches in automatic text retrieval, ” Information Processing and Management, 5 513--523

TEI: Text Encoding Initiative, 23 November 2010 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1375","12","You Suck at Narrative: Disciplinarity, Popular Culture, and the Database Logic of Photoshop","1","You Suck at Narrative: Disciplinarity, Popular Culture, and the Database Logic of Photoshop
Stroupe, Craig, University of Minnesota Duluth, cstroupe@d.umn.edu
The series You Suck at Photoshop first appeared as a three-and-a-half-minute hoax circulating on the web in late 2007—a one-off Internet meme satirizing home-made, how-to videos ubiquitous on YouTube. Conceived and performed by advertising professionals Troy Hitch and Matt Bledsoe, the video featured an ironic, My-Last-Duchess-style commentary by a fictitious computer geek Donny Holye, who unintentionally reveals messy details of his marital, legal, and emotional life while demonstrating techniques of Photoshop. That same fall, in a special issue of PMLA on “Remapping Genre,” some of the leading voices in the emergent field of the digital humanities discuss the database as a cultural form, and debate the political, ideological, and practical impact of databases on the work of the humanities, and the practices of narrative in particular. The varied contributions to “Remapping Genre” provide a dramatic tableau of twenty-first-century academic humanities confronting the database as a cultural discourse, and speculating on whether it represents an alien nemesis from the world of corporate capitalism, the long-sought embodiment of implicit literary ideals, or a value-neutral complement to narrative linearity.

This presentation argues that “Remapping Genre” and You Suck at Photoshop not only share an historical moment, but constitute a common critical effort to understand and respond to the historical rise of databases in cultural practice. Invoking this unlikely affiliation might seem to announce another scholarly incursion on the popular realm under the pirate flag of Cultural Studies.  The relationship suggested here between academic and popular cultures, however, is less a territorial rivalry than a mutually transformational dialogue.  And, in fact, this transformation is well underway.  On one hand, as contributors to “Remapping Genre” amply document, literary studies is rapidly adopting frictionless, digital tools to perform its daily work: from personal, bibliographic browser plug-ins like Zotero, to online databases like The Walt Whitman Archive, to vast digitalization initiatives like Google Books.  Less recognized, on the other hand, is the degree to which popular, database-driven New Media like Facebook, online games, and the web itself are increasingly being constructed not only by the work of programmers and designers, but by narratives that users, players, and an emerging circle of professional critics employ to shape, remember, and publicize their experiences of virtual database environments.  Such narratives reveal how the texture of language—the friction of fiction—is an integral part of how databases are culturally constructed and experienced, and the extent to which that use of narrative language is conditioned by a literary sensibility.

This talk will analyze clips from You Suck at Photoshop—as well as background on the series’ circulation and presentation on the web—to examine the interplay of narrative and database as textual and cultural logics, as well as to suggest the historical transformations that such an emergent dialogic is producing in the relationship between the academic humanities and popular culture. Like Donny Hoyle’s conflicted relationship with Photoshop’s remorselessly vast database of tools, the Digital Humanists featured in “Remapping Genre” express ambivalent responses to database-driven tools of their own academic trade, and debate Lev Manovich’s claim that database and narrative are “natural enemies…[c]ompeting for the same territory of human culture, each claim[ing] an exclusive right to make meaning out of the world” (225). Ed Folsom’s and Kenneth Price’s digital project The Walt Whitman Archive provides a common case in point, serving to ground, historicize, and set in relief the critical differences among these scholars, which echo concerns and anxieties within the profession at large: questions concerning the degree to which databases may or may not threaten narrative forms of thought and meaning (N. Katherine Hayles); the ideological, as opposed to the supposedly libratory, effects of databases, especially mediated by large, corporate interfaces like Google (Jonathan Freedman); the extent to which the seemingly new logic of databases remediates pre-digital, even ancient literacies (Peter Stallybrass and Meredith L. McGill); whether or not the database can be called a genre, perhaps even belonging to the “epic” genre that crosses national and historical boundaries (Wai Chee Dimock); and the problems of deciding whether a tool like The Walt Whitman Archive is really a database at all (Jerome McGann).

Beyond particular insights into the database/narrative question, this talk will explore how the very unlikeliness of this dialogue of You Suck at Photoshop and “Remapping Genre” points to emergent affinities and even alliances among popular, academic, and economically “productive” discourses. If these potential alliances have not been sufficiently described, it is not from lack of trying, however. In his monumental book The Laws of Cool, for instance, literary critic and digital theorist Alan Liu attempts to imagine the relationship between the cultures of “the literary”— not just “works of literature as such,” he says, but “the underlying sense of the literary”—and of digital “knowledge work” characterized by an ethos of “cool” (1, 3). “In [capitalism’s] regime of systematic innovation [and creative destruction],” he asks at the beginning of the book, “is the very notion of the literary doomed to extinction if—or, rather, especially if—it dares to imagine a literature of the database, spreadsheet, report, and Web page?” (3). Essentially, Liu is questioning just how “the contemporary humanities and arts…[might] not only make contact with the generations of cool but lead them beyond the present limitations of cool” (381).

In his somber Epilogue, Liu declares, “I am a believer at heart…. I think literature will indeed have a place in a new-media world…. But what the eventual nature and position of that literature will be among the convergent data streams of the future is something I do not yet know how to theorize” (389). Like Richard Lanham, Katherine Hayles, and other scholars leading the search for the Holy Grail of would-be database literature, Liu tends to look for examples in high-cultural practices of Internet Art, or what he more inclusively terms “ethical hacking,” but Liu ultimately finds them “too closely associated with anarchist, Situationalist, radical leftist, and/or high-theoretical paradigms…to offer persuasive models for an art that might affect the knowledge worker in his or her ordinary cubicle” (397-98). This talk will argue that such persuasive models, or perhaps models of models, can be found in the ordinary cubicles of slackers like Donny Hoyle—but only if academic culture can develop the critical idiom to describe them.

References:
Folson, Ed 2007 “Database as Genre: The Epic Transformation of Archives., ” PMLA, 122 1571-1579

Liu, Alan 2004 The Laws of Cool: Knowledge Work and the Culture of Information. 1st ed., University Of Chicago Press

Manovich, Lev 2002 The Language of New Media. 1st ed., MIT Press Cambridge Mass","txt","2","",""
"1376","12","NeDiMAH a Network for Digital Arts and Humanities","2","NeDiMAH a Network for Digital Arts and Humanities
Hughes, Lorna, National Library of Wales, lorna.hughes@llgc.org.uk
Jannadis, Fotis, Institute for German Philology, University of Würzburg, fotis.jannidis@uni-wuerzburg.de
Schreibman, Susan, Digital Humanities Observatory, Royal Irish Academy, s.schreibman@ria.ie
Introduction
The European Science Foundation has recently recommended the NeDiMAH Network for funding through its 2009 Research Network Programme. The Network will run from June 2011-June 2015, and will provide a focus for researchers using digital research methods in the arts and humanities. NeDiMAH will provide a “methodological layer” to enhance and add value to infrastructure initiatives, and to digital collections. Outputs of the Network will provide evidence of the value of ICT methods for arts and humanities research. This poster will describe the Network and encourage wide participation amongst DH2011 attendees in Europe, and explore pan-national collaboration.

Aims of the Network
The NeDiMAH Network will examine the practice of, and evidence for, advanced ICT methods in the arts and humanities across Europe, and articulate these findings in a series of outputs and publications. NeDiMAH will provide a locus of networking and interdisciplinary exchange of expertise among the trans-European community of digital arts and humanities researchers, as well as those engaged with creating and curating scholarly and cultural heritage digital collections. NeDiMAH will work closely with the EC funded e-research infrastructure projects DARIAH (Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities, (link) ) and CLARIN (Common Language Resources and Technology Infrastructures, (link) ), as well as other national and international initiatives. The Network will bring together practitioners to examine the use of formal computationally-based methods for the capture, investigation, analysis, study, modelling, presentation, dissemination, publication and evaluation of arts and humanities materials for research. This research will contribute to the classification and expression of ICT methods used in the arts and humanities in three key outputs: a map visualising the ICT methodological commons; an enhanced ICT Methods Ontology; and a collaborative forum for the European community of practitioners active in this area. These outputs will serve to formalize and codify the expression of work in the digital arts and humanities, give greater academic credibility to this work, and enable peer-reviewed scholarship in this area. NediMAH will maximise the value of national and international e-research infrastucture initiatives by developing a methodological layer that allows arts and humanities researchers to develop, refine and share research methods that allow them to create and make best use digital methods and collections. Better contextualization of ICT Methods will also build human capacity, and be of particular benefit for early stage researchers.

Background
Advanced ICT methods for discovering, annotating, comparing, referring, sampling, illustrating, and representing digital content (Unsworth, 2000) can be found at a key point of intersection between disciplines, collections and researchers: data-rich disciplines (e.g. archeology, library and information science, and musicology) have refined new ICT methods, and within the data-driven sciences research methods have emerged around data and information processes. The use of advanced ICT methods can effect significant benefits in arts and humanities scholarship. Humanities research can also benefit from the significant volume of digital material available to arts and humanities researchers, the access and use of which is now being supported by the development of research infrastructures.

Despite this activity, uptake and impact of ICT based methods remains fragmented. A recent DARIAH investigation into research practice and Research Actors, examining the institutional settings of digital scholarship in the arts and humanities, has shown that the use of ICT research methods is often concentrated in specific academic disciplines, or in libraries or archives, and there are few opportunities for transfer of knowledge across disciplinary boundaries. This creates disciplinary ""silos"", and communities of practice tend to develop around disciplines, rather than research methods (e.g., archeological computing, etc). Reasons for limited uptake and multidisciplinary collaboration were expressed in the ACO*HUM report ( (link) ), and in the recent evaluation of the UK's AHRC ICT Methods Network ( (link) ). These indicated that there is an urgent requirement for an international collaborative effort to undertake a formal analysis and expression of the ICT methods that can be used for arts and humanities research. Computational methods demand the utmost rigour and precision in their application, and accordingly, research practitioners working in the emerging field of the digital humanities have begun to formalize new theories of the interaction between content, analytical and interpretative tools and technologies, methodological approaches, and disciplinary kinships.

NediMAH will be an interdisciplinary, international Network of expert practitioners in the digital arts and humanities with the following objectives:

To investigate and articulate the use of formal computationally-based methods for the capture, investigation, analysis, study, modelling, presentation, dissemination, publication and evaluation of arts and humanities materials for research.
To facilitate collaboration in this research by:
Building a community of practice that is inclusive in terms of disciplinary coverage and national representation, as well as seeking the active participation of scholars at all stages of the career cycle
Developing a framework for common exchange of expertise and knowledge
Linking researchers with their peers across the disciplines
Enabling participants to develop, share and refine ICT methods as the core elements of digital scholarship and articulate these methods formally
To map the outputs and findings of these investigations in two digital resources:
A ""methodological commons"" to express disciplinary commons, partnerships and synergies, and the potential for cross and interdisciplinary partnerships.
The ICT Methods Taxonomy:
To build a community knowledge base by extending the arts-humanities.net and DRAPIER resources across Europe. This resource will be embedded into DARIAH beyond the end of the funding period to ensure sustainability and continued dissemination of Network outputs.
To investigate issues related to the scholarly publishing of ICT methods in the arts and humanities
To publish Network research in a series of books and articles.
Network Activities
NeDiMAH has a collaborative structure that is trans-European, interdisciplinary, and able to leverage existing nationally funded research and research support activities that can collectively support the development of a better understanding of the role of advanced ICT methods in arts and humanities research. This will support a series of core activities and a mechanism for exchange of expertise and material. These activities include a series of Methodological Working Groups, convened to consider specific methodological areas over the entire duration of the Network. They will investigate the topic from three areas of scientific focus:

Investigating the use of the method and gathering information about specific projects that use it
Analysis of current practice
Modelling ways in which the method can be applied across the disciplines in scholarly practice
Each Working Group will convene a Workshop each year, a key activity by which advanced methods will be formalized.

Proposed Working Group topics include:

Spatial and Temporal Modelling
ICT methods include agent-based modelling geo-temporal referencing and predictive spatial modeling.

Information Visualization
Visualisation refers to techniques used to summarise and present data visually, in a form that enables people to understand and analyse the information. Formats can include images (3-D or 2-D), maps, timelines, graphs and tables.

Ontological methods
Ontological mapping is used to semantically interrelate information from diverse sources to represent complex relationships. In order to do that, it relies on ontologies, formal representations of a set of concepts and relations.

Information extraction and data mining
Text and data mining can reveal new knowledge from (usually) larger amounts of textual data extracting hidden patterns, analysing the results and summarising them into a useful format.

Linguistic Corpora for interdisciplinary research
To study language as expressed in such corpora, corpus linguistics makes use of methods such as annotation, content analysis and parsing. Originally done by hand, corpora are now largely derived by an automated process.

Methods and tools for working with digital manuscripts and images
Methods include text encoding to image restoration, and tools for digital editions

Participation in the Network
NeDiMAH will invite the broadest participation from European researchers in the digital arts and humanities through an open call. The Network also has a Global Dimension, which would enable the participation of researchers outside the EU. NeDiMAH has the full support of the following international digital humanities organizations: the Allied Digital Humanities Organizations (ADHO), the Association of Literary and Linguistic Computing (ALLC); and the Association of Computing in the Humanities (ACH) and CentreNet. Digital Humanities 2011 will be an important opportunity for the Network to invite collaboration.","txt","2","",""
"1377","12","Bamboo Technology Project: Building Cyberinfrastructure for the Arts and Humanities","2","Bamboo Technology Project: Building Cyberinfrastructure for the Arts and Humanities
Cole, Timothy, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, t-cole3@illinois.edu
Fraistat, Neil, Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities (MITH), fraistat@umd.edu
Greenbaum, David, University of California at Berkeley, dag@berkeley.edu
Lester, Dave, Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities (MITH), dlester@umd.edu
Millon, Emma, Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities (MITH), emillon@umd.edu
Introduction
This poster will provide an overview of the Bamboo Technology Project and demonstrate some of its prototypes. We are currently midway through an 18-month implementation phase that builds on the Bamboo Planning Project – a process that engaged approximately 600 faculty, librarians, and technologists from 115 institutions between Spring 2008 and Autumn 2010 – both of which have been funded by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.

The Bamboo Technology Project (BTP) is a multi-institutional, interdisciplinary effort that brings together humanities scholars, librarians, and information technologists to tackle the question: “How can we advance arts and humanities research through the development of shared technology services?” Comprised of an international partnership of 10 universities,The partner institutions are Australian National University; Indiana University; Northwestern University; Tufts University; University of California, Berkeley; University of Chicago; University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign; University of Maryland; University of Oxford; and University of Wisconsin, Madison the project is devoted to building applications and shared infrastructure for humanities research.

Structured Work Areas
During the Bamboo Planning Project, we found that scholar participants repeatedly expressed their desire for technology that would allow them to annotate, to collaborate, to gather materials, to organize information, to share materials, to store and preserve materials, and to use social media. Building upon workshop discussions, we identified a more general set of categories to describe central scholarly practices in the humanities that could benefit from technology. Prominent among them were the practices of aggregation, annotation, consideration, engagement, and interaction.Theme Groups may be found here Using these categories as guidelines, and drawing on the project’s leadership and participation from different partner institutions, we organized ourselves into four major interconnected areas:

Structured Work Areas
Research Environments
“Adapters” are being built that will enable scholars working within the Project Bamboo Research Environments to access and apply research tools to dispersed content collections such as materials in the HathiTrust and Perseus collections. Research is being conducted to enable OpenSocial gadgets to be leveraged within the Project Bamboo Research Environments and potentially other areas of the Bamboo ecosystem. OpenSocial is a promising approach to enable us to develop functionality once and apply it many times. We are also building a Tools and Services Registry through which scholars can discover other software tools that their fellow humanist scholars are using.
Corpora Space
We will carry out a community design process to plan for a future generation of corpora-centered virtual research environments to support the central and growing importance of data and of corpora curation for humanities’ scholarship. The results of this design process will be implemented during the second 18-month phase of the project.
Scholarly Web Services on a Services Platform
We will model existent digital humanities applications as web services and then deploy these or their proxies, and other web services, on robust platforms to help support many application developers in the humanities.
Collections Interoperability
We are selecting and recommending metadata standards for digital content that will allow for predictable use of important scholarly material across all Project Bamboo Work Spaces and with all Bamboo tools. We are building an initial suite of adapters and connectors that facilitate easy, cross-collection use of these “target” collections within the Bamboo environment: content from the inter-university HathiTrust repository; selected content from the Perseus Digital LIbrary; and 400-years of English texts from the Text Creation Partnership (TCP). The CI group is collaborating with other Bamboo working groups and external experts to identify the most appropriate standards to implement for both content access and structural interoperability.
Interoperability and Shared Infrastructure for the Humanities
The BTP is establishing shared infrastructure, in the form of web services, interoperable collections, and organizational partnerships to meet the technology needs of humanities researchers and institutions.

RESTful APIs
Project Bamboo is modeling services as resources, and will leverage RESTful APIs to manage these resources across the Bamboo ecosystem.
AuthN-AuthZ protocols
Project Bamboo will delegate authentication to established institutional infrastructure, such as Shibboleth, and to social media identity providers. Ongoing work with Internet2 committees such as Shib-dev and COmanage will leverage edu- space experience and adopt new and existing software to meet Bamboo's requirements.
Future Work
Our next eighteen-month phase will primarily be concerned with implementing the Corpora Space Road Map, which will focus in terms of content on the 450 years of print culture in English from 1473 until 1923, along with the texts from the Classical world upon which that print culture is based. As an initial set of collections, we will be focusing on Perseus, TCP, ECCO, EEBO, HathiTrust, Google Books, Oxford Text Archive, and AUSTLit. Although we will begin with these corpora, we envisage a principle of user-driven growth. In gathering this material, we will move from the earlier to the later, because earlier texts pose more difficult textual and linguistic issues. In designing protocols that will address these issues of early texts, we believe we will anticipate most of the difficulties of the later material.

To enable users to work with these corpora, we will provide tools from the following five classes: 1. Curation; 2. Corpus Search and Discovery; 3. Collation; 4. Annotation; 5. Analysis/Visualization. We aim to build a modular environment that will attract content and collections from providers beyond the Bamboo partnership, and that will encourage the broad-based development of tools to operate on the data.","txt","2","",""
"1378","12","Cinemetrics: A Digital Laboratory for Film Studies","1","Cinemetrics: A Digital Laboratory for Film Studies
Bosse, Arno, The University of Chicago, abosse@uchicago.edu
Tsivian, Yuri, The University of Chicago, ytsivian@uchicago.edu
Brisson, Keith, brisson@uchicago.edu The University of Chicago,
Cinemetrics (www.cinemetrics.lv) is a collaborative, online tool to enable researchers to collect, store, and process scholarly data about film editing. The long-term goal of the project is to create an extensive, multi-faceted collection of freely accessible digital data on film editing - a digital laboratory for the study of film style. Over the last four years, over 600 individuals have contributed editing data on circa 6,900 films to the project. Our paper at DH2011 will focus on the types of film historical questions Cinemetrics can address today. In addition, we’ll provide a brief overview of how the software and the collaborative submission works, compare our work with similar efforts, and finally offer an early look at future directions for development.

At present, Cinemetrics is programmed handle the aspect of editing known in film studies as cutting rates. Though we tend to perceive their unfolding as continuous most films consist of segments called shots that are separated by instant breaks called cuts. Shots differ in terms of space and in terms of time. We know enough about space-related distinctions between shots, which are easy to name (shot 1: baby playing; shot 2: man looking) and categorize (shot 1: medium long high angle shot; shot 2: facial close up). Time-related differences between shots are more elusive and harder to talk about for; unlike in music or poetry with their scaled feet and measures, variations in shot length are not ones of distinction but of degree.

Shot lengths are sometimes convenient to present as the frequency of shot changes, or cuts, hence the term ""cutting rates.” Shorter shots mean a higher cutting rate. Unsurprisingly, cutting rates are linked to the story and its space-time articulations; likewise, montage sequences meant to cover larger spaces of story time have higher cutting rates than sequences shown in real time. Less evident, but just as important, is the relationship between cutting rates and the history of film. This is this gap in our knowledge that Cinemetrics is designed to bridge.

Using Cinemetrics, we are able to obtain and present cutting-related data in a more flexible way than previously available. Rather than calculate average shot lengths (ASL) arithmetically, Cinemetrics records and stores the time-span of each separate shot. Distinct from the arithmetical ASL, which is a single datum, Cinemetrics treats each film as a database of shots and highlights its individual features. Specifically, it tells us about a film's cutting swing (standard deviations of shorter and longer shots from ASL), its cutting range (difference in seconds between the shortest and the longest shot of the film), and its dynamic profiles (polynomial trendlines that reflect fluctuations of shot lengths within the duration of the film). In the “Articles” section of our site are links to articles by a number of film scholars on movie measurement studies using Cinemetrics.

The Cinemetrics database is an open-submission repository of data collected by people who use the client tool. All raw research data submitted to the site is freely available to anyone. The database's default sorting is alphabetic by film titles, but it can also be sorted by other parameters such as year, submitter's name, submission date, simple vs. advanced mode of measuring, and by the film's average shot length, median shot length, and standard deviation. By clicking on a film, title the user can access the page that provides basic statistics and interactive graphs related to this film.

""Cinemetrics Lab"" is the latest addition to our site, and a work in progress. It is envisaged to offer the students of film history a range of analytical tools that will help them dissect, visualize, and compare film-related data. We started with a large-scale comparative map that looks a little like a star map. It is a scatter graph, and each dot represents a film available on our database. If you find your film on this map, you will instantly see how it relates to thousands of other films on the x-axis on time (111 years of film history) and on the y-axis of average shot lengths.

While Cinemetrics has no clones, there are a number of projects pursuing similar goals that complement our efforts. Jeremy Butler's useful ""Shot Logger"" (www.tcf.ua.edu/slgallery/shotlogger/) features a database of films (mainly TV) and offers statistics ""inspired by Cinemetrics"", but its database is still small, and the seven statistics values the site yields are numerically, not graphically, expressed. The francophone site ""Lignes de Temps"" (web.iri.centrepompidou.fr/pop_site.html), linked to the Georges Pompidou Center for Modern Art in Paris is mainly designed as a video-flow annotation and cut-detection tool.

The above-mentioned ""Shotlogger,"" ""Edit 2000,"" and especially ""Research into Film"" are three sites on which Cinemetrics activities are actively echoed or discussed. Nick Redfern's ""Research into Film"" (nickredfern.wordpress.com/) uses Cinemetrics data to theorize statistical approaches to film studies. ""Edit 2000"" (www.data2000.no/EDIT2000/), launched in Norway in 2009, was made to represent Edit Decision List (EDL) files as numeric and visual summaries. Another group whose researchers deployed Cinemetrics raw data for their experiments in data visualization is ""Software Studies Initiative"" headed by Prof. Lev Manovich at UC San Diego. The site shows how Cinemetrics data can be variously represented using different visualization tools.","txt","2","",""
"1379","12","The Born Digital Graduate: Multiple Representations of and within Digital Humanities PhD Theses","1","The Born Digital Graduate: Multiple Representations of and within Digital Humanities PhD Theses
Webb, Sharon, Department of History, National University of Ireland, Maynooth, sharon.webb@nuim.ie
Teehan, Aja, An Foras Feasa Research Institute, National University of Ireland, Maynooth, aja.teehan@nuim.ie
Keating, John, An Foras Feasa Research Institute, National University of Ireland, Maynooth, john.keating@nuim.ie
Introduction
This paper describes the methodology used in the creation of digital chapters and subsequent recreation of digital entities or objects derived, modified, transformed and visualised from XML encoded scholarship. It considers the changing function of traditional printed theses and how the use of technologies affects the representation and functions of graduate digital scholarship.

This paper is based upon the working methodologies of two PhD theses. Specifically, Webb’s thesis examines the creation of factlets and subsequent visualisation of factoids, which inform not only the source information and encoding but also the development and completion of historical research outputs. These outputs, supported by XML, XQuery and factlets, demonstrate the use of digital technology as an essential feature of humanities research and its methodologies. Teehan’s thesis reflects upon current digital representation models for pre-existing sources relevant to humanities research. Focusing on transactional, or functional, documents, it proposes a methodology for contextually modeling and XML-encoding those resources, using established software engineering and computer science paradigms such as Use Case analysis and UML modeling, which foreground the User. Both theses examine procedures and strategies for conducting humanities research using digital tools and applications. Thus, this paper is central to a reflective and reflexive process resulting from, and in, the critical self-evaluation of the theses and their outputs.

Traditionally, research outputs codified as chapters or sections can be seen as the final manifestation of a PhD thesis and reflect the use of print or static technology. The functionality of these outputs varies according to different headings and ranges from literature reviews, general narrative and concept generation, to the development of structured arguments based on theory and source material, to the provision of essential referencing and bibliographic material. These functions are referred to as “generic characteristics of academic discourse” (Mingwei, 2010) in linguistic structural analysis. Chapter functionality represents and reflects the original research statement and provides the means to convey and articulate traditional scholarship within the medium of print. The use of XML, and XSLT, along with the provision of software libraries, creates a framework to add dynamic functionality to an otherwise static text. “Generic characteristics” (Mingwei, 2010) are encoded, which enable the use of the described framework.

This approach reflects the innate capability of the digital medium to layer extra functionality over the restricted functionality of printed works. Rather than creating just a single representation of scholarly output, the use of XSLT and software libraries generates and encourages a reflexive process between text, argument, narrative and source material.

These methods change reader and user activity - one user may be a reader while another may have access to an interactive environment. Different user roles and environments transform the user from a passive participant to an active one. The realisation of various use cases enables the user to do more than just read the text and this activity realises the importance of data reusability.

Figure 1 outlines the process involved in creating multiple representations of digital scholarship and will be used to detail the various stages involved in creating new digital objects based on specified use cases.

Figure 1: The stages of creating new research outputs, various chapters are defined by various use cases.

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Stage 1 - Defining the Use Cases, Creating the Model, Encoding the Source
Text is innately encoded with semantics and functionality and each chapter or section in a piece of scholarship establishes or conveys various essential processes in the life of a text. These processes consist of deduction, concept development, narrative, consequence, etc., and it is these “lexical relations” (Eggins, 2004) within a text which develop specific research statements. Other bibliographic properties of a section are concrete rather than abstract and provide essential functionality e.g. references, footnotes, paragraphs and titles.

Despite these multiple perspectives, transformation of a born-digital text (a thesis) into both the print and digital media relies upon the existence of a single, defining text-model. Figure 1 shows the process involved in creating new research objects. The first stage makes possible all subsequent processes; creating a unifying model allows the generation of XML schema and subsequent XML encoding in order to manifest the new research objects (the various chapters in a research thesis). The model is driven by specific Use Cases such as the production of both a static printed version of the text, and an interactive digital version.

The source chapters are encoded at the final stages of the research process, rather than during the writing process. The model considers both presentation properties (chapter, paragraph, section), which allows for transformations specifically for presentation purposes, and semantic properties which encode the “textual semantics” (Eggins, 2004) of the text, its logical class (Teehan, 2010). This approach makes the text reusable and ensures “a single lexical can function very differently” (Landow, 2006) in different environments.

The model is translated into a schema which allows us to mark up the content of the scholarship, including narrative which in historical research pertains to ‘logical’ rather than ‘ideological’ content. We view narrative as the logical information contained in the text that contributes to a narrative of the past (Coffin, 2002). The encoding of dynamic narrative and data supports the creation of new research outputs as non-linear components derived from the text.

Stages 2 and 3 - Realising Use Cases
Stage 2 and 3 are the realisation of the various Use Cases. The XSLT transforms and software libraries are templates from which different text from different sources can be modified and transformed, in effect creating a suite of tools.

These various macros are supporting tools for manifestations of a text. Our encoded texts depict the various functions embedded in standard print theses, but augment those capabilities for these born-digital theses. Here, two specific Use Cases address (i) the creation of a dynamic bibliographic referencing model, and (ii) the context-dependent presentation of boundary objects.

A referencing model in XSLT can automatically create a dynamic bibliography for a chapter with features including “intertextual links” (Samraj, 2008) between the text and source material. Software libraries can be used to support the innate variability of a boundary object, which is defined as an object with user dependent functionality and meaning (Thomas). Thus, depending on the User’s activity and perspective, the presentation of the boundary object will change; for instance, a table diagram, static in the print version, may become interactive within a digital context.

These low-level Use Cases support our higher level one; dynamic creation of static or interactive versions of a base text-model. The print model transforms the original text to a print ready text, and can account for various institutional templates. Embedding references to the various primary sources used in the XML encoding instructs an XSLT to create a hypertext of linked resources and creates “intertextual links” (Samraj, 2008) and boundary objects for user interaction between the narrative and various digital objects within the digital medium. Figure 2

Figure 2: Text encoding of this proposal and XSLT transforms

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Conclusion
This paper demonstrates the process and production of support tools for digital scholarship, and how the creation of appropriate templates can make manifest various representations of Digital Humanities PhD theses from a single model. The Use Cases are reliant on the ability of the encoding and the schema to encapsulate both the functions of the text and the various transformations and software libraries. Figure 2 demonstrates the interactions between the encoded text, the transformations and the outputs.

Current research students in Digital Humanities constitute a newly ‘born digital’ generation, the nature of whose outputs differs markedly from earlier generations. Reflections on this changing process should also include an analysis of new methods and techniques to create dynamic scholarship. The encoding of the final phase in a PhD thesis allows scholarship to be reused, modified, visualised and transformed, allowing for greater distribution and accessibility of digital scholarship. Thus the dissertation, in its multiple representations, can not only remain central to the discipline of Digital Humanities but shape its future development.

References:
Mingwei, Zhao Yajun Jiang “Dissertation acknowledgements: Generic structure and linguistic features, ” Chinese journal of applied linguistics, 33 (1) 2010 94-109

Eggins, Suzanne “An introduction to systemic functional linguistics, ” Continuum, 2004

Teehan, Aja John G. Keating “'A digital edition of a Spanish 18th- century account book, Part 1: User-driven digitisation', ” Jahrbuch für Computer-Philologie, 10 2010 169-18 (link)

Landow, George P Hypertext 3.0, Critical theory and new media in an era of globalization, The John Hopkins University Press 2006

Coffin, Caroline “Constructing and giving value to the past: an investigation into secondary school history, ” . Genre and institutions, social processes in the workplace and school, Frances Christie J.R. Martin London 2002

Samraj, Betty “A discourse analysis of master’s theses across disciplines with a focus on introductions, ” Journal of English for academic purposes, 7 2008 55-67

Thomas, Robyn Sargent, Leisa D Hardy, Cynthia Power and participation in the production of boundary objects (link)","txt","2","",""
"1380","12","Computational Discovery and Visualization of the Underlying Semantic Structure of Complicated Historical and Literary Corpora","2","Computational Discovery and Visualization of the Underlying Semantic Structure of Complicated Historical and Literary Corpora
Walsh, John A., Indiana University, jawalsh@indiana.edu
Hooper, Wally, Indiana University, whooper@indiana.edu
This admirable invention [computation by logarithms] added to the ingenious algorithm of the Indians, by reducing to a few days the labour of several months, doubles—if we may so speak—the life of astronomers, and spares them the errors and disgust inseparable from long calculations . . .

–Pierre Simon de LaPlace (1749-1827) Système du Monde, liv. iv, chap. iv

In addition to offering the possibility of new forms of scholarship beyond the traditional article or monograph, digital humanities and the computational tools developed as part of many digital humanities projects allow scholars to practice an accelerated hermeneutics and analysis on ever larger collections of texts and other cultural artifacts. Most projects that create scholarly digital editions of important corpora are consciously addressing a range of research issues in their respective fields and disciplines. Many of these projects are now also developing components and applying computational tools to exploit their new resources with the goal of solving those problems in an efficient and effective way.

Napier’s logarithms (1614) eased the efforts of early modern astronomers. Today, computational tools promise to accomplish lengthy mechanical tasks of review and notation that generations of scholars have done by hand. Effective methods now exist that will aid trained professionals to see into the heart and structure of digital corpora.

Our project is associated with two major digital editions based at Indiana University: the Chymistry of Isaac Newton Project (http://www.chymistry.org), led by William R. Newman, general editor and co-investigator, which is publishing a digital edition of one hundred nineteen alchemical manuscripts written by Isaac Newton, thirty-two of which are now online; and the Swinburne Project (http://www.swinburneproject.org/), edited by Walsh, which is publishing the works of Victorian poet and critic Algernon Charles Swinburne.

The National Science Foundation has funded a three-year project (2009–12, #0620868) to develop computational tools for the analysis of the alchemical language in Newton alchemical corpus. We are investigating the usefulness of methods from computational linguistics, information retrieval, and network sciences for the analysis of the contents of the Newton corpus and the visualization of its structures. We have been running experiments on IU’s Teragrid supercomputer system and at the Computational Linguistics Lab for the last two years.

We have developed a working suite of analytical tools that support effective real-time investigation of the semantics and structure of the corpus. Data from our analytical tools is fed into another suite of tools, the Network Workbench (http://nwb.slis.indiana.edu/), to produce meaningful visualizations that help the user to comprehend the breadth of the materials and their interconnections.

Newman has already used the tools to demonstrate the order of composition of significant parts of Portsmouth MSS. 3973 and 3975, two of Newton’s most important notebooks recording his alchemical experiments performed at Cambridge.

While the tools are being designed primarily for the analysis of alchemical language in Newton's alchemical corpus, we of course hope the tools will be useful in analyzing documents from other disciplines, and so we are also applying these tools to a significant corpus of literary documents by Swinburne.

Among Swinburne's works are six volumes of collected poems, five volumes of collected tragedies, and a number of volumes of prose literary criticism. The style, vocabulary and structures of Swinburne's 19th-century literary works are obviously quite different from Newton's 17th-century scientific texts. Furthermore, Swinburne's prose criticism is very distinct—in style, vocabulary, and structure—from his poetry. An earlier effort from The Swinburne Project, reported on at last year's conference, focused on thematic networks in Swinburne's 1880 volume Songs of the Springtides. Many instances of networked themes were found by simple keyword searching. More elusive instances were identified by traditional methods of close reading, study, and analysis. We are exploring whether our computational tools are successful at locating some of these more elusive instances of previously identified themes and whether the tools can identify clusters that suggest additional themes and streams of meaning.

Our poster and real-time demonstration of the tools will present our results thus far with the Newton and Swinburne projects.

Methods and Results
We have found that Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) is very effective for discovering the semantic structure and organization of Newton’s alchemical corpus. LSA methods use singular-value decomposition (SVD) to uncover hidden layers of structure in a body of information and make it possible to capture and expose similarities and dissimilarities across an entire corpus with a single set of operations.

LSA technologies were discussed in the literature in the early 1990s primarily in the context of information retrieval. That was a problem because LSA methods for formulating and executing freeform user queries over growing datasets are less effective than other methods based on Bayesian modeling like Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), Topic Analysis, and Latent Profile Analysis, which superseded LSA after 2003. Many who follow the current literature regard LSA as an old and limited technology. But the goals of close study and analysis are often distinct from the goals of information retrieval, and there is little useful literature on the use of SVD and LSA for actual text analysis beyond a report produced by a team at Sandia National Laboratories in September 2010.

For our purposes, methods like LDA and LPA, which are based on identifying k-dimensional patterns from one set of document to the next and strategically neglecting what is not pertinent to those dimensions, are less useful for text analysis than methods that explicitly capture and model all relations between all words and document chunks in corpora. SVD and LSA do that very well.

Our research plan includes collocational analysis of the Newton manuscripts (almost a millions word of English, Latin, and French), and we are collaborating with IU computational linguist Sandra Kübler to do part-of-speech markup, lemmatization, and sentence parsing. As part of that effort, we have been varying the size of our LSA document chunks downward from 1000 words to 250 and 100, approaching the sentence level where the distinction between “bag-of- words” approaches and syntax-based methods tends to vanish for practical purposes and the two can be welded in combined operations.

We have created web-based components that generate comprehensive lists of correlated results based upon user-selected documents, document fragments, or word. In the case of document-fragment queries, the user can select any pair of correlated fragments and view them side by side. (See Figure 1)

Figure 1: Screen capture of user component showing a side-by-side view of two brief fragments from Portsmouth Add. MS. 3973, f. 19r, and Add. MS. 3975, f.77r: The yellow color and red dots indicate shared vocabulary and passages.

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Strongly correlated fragments (those correlating at 0.7 and above on a scale ranging between -1.0 and 1.0) almost always share long phrases and sentences. The method is robust enough to detect paraphrases too. One SVD calculation detects and maps all the passages in that large, arcane corpus which share vocabulary, phrases, and ideas, saving investigators considerable time in working through those texts and revealing correlations that might otherwise escape notice.

A useful way to present SVD results for interpretation is to graph them as networks—the document chunks or the terms are graphed as nodes and the cosine similarities or correlations between them as edges. Our tools make network graph files for use in the Network Workbench (NWB) tool developed by our colleague Katy Börner’s team at Indiana University. (See Figure 2)

Figure 2: Sample network graph of relations between a small number of correlated fragments in Keynes MS. 41, Dibner MS. 1070A, Yahuda MS. 259, Babson MS. 417, and Royal Society M/M/6/5.

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NWB is designed to be a “large-scale network analysis, modeling and visualization toolkit for biomedical, social science and physics research.” Another of our contributions is testing this tool in humanities research contexts for which it was not initially designed.
Figure 2 shows that two passages on Keynes 41, ff. 12r and 13r, are better correlated with four fragments in other manuscripts than they are with each other (their correlation is 0.46). Newton worked back and forth between sets of reading notes as he attempted to make sense of the alchemical literature. The algorithms and graphs make all the connections visible at a glance.

We expect that the combination of LSA-based tools and network graphs derived from them will provide invaluable means of problem solving and discovery for the experienced researcher who is working with large, complicated corpora.

References:
Börner, K. 2007 “Making Sense of Mankind's Scholarly Knowledge and Expertise: Collecting, Interlinking, and Organizing What We Know and Different Approaches to Mapping (Network) Science, ” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 34 5 808-825 Pion

Deerwester, S. C. Dumais, S. T. Landauer, T.K. Furnas, G. W. Harshman, R. A 1990 ““Indexing by latent semantic analysis.”, ” Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 41 6 391–407

Dunlavy, D. Shead, T.M. Crossno, P.J. Stanton, E.T. September 2010 ““ParaText - Scalable Solutions for Processing and Searching Very Large Document Collections: Final LDRD Report.”, ” “Technical Report SAND2010-6269, ” Sandia National Laboratories Albuquerque, NM and Livermore, CA

Skillicorn, D. 2007 Understanding Complex Datasets. Data Mining with Matrix Decompositions, Boca Raton, FL Chapman and Hall

Walsh, J. 2010 “""Quivering web of living thought:"" Conceptual networks in Swinburne's Songs of the Springtides., ” Y. Levin A. C. Swinburne and the singing word: New perspectives on the mature work, Farnham, England Ashgate 29-53","txt","2","",""
"1381","12","Layer upon Layer. ""Computational Archaeology"" in 15th Century Middle Dutch Historiography","1","Layer upon Layer. “Computational Archaeology” in 15th Century Middle Dutch Historiography.
Stapel, Rombert, Fryske Akademy (KNAW) / Leiden University, Netherlands, rstapel@fryske-akademy.nl
A scholar or student who wishes to engage in ‘non-traditional’ authorship attribution would be wise to choose a test corpus that is as free as possible of ‘interfering’ features such as genre, external editing, or a corpus that is stretched over a large number of years. The higher the consistency throughout the corpus, the larger the chance of a successful investigation of authorship and/or stylistic features.

Medieval manuscripts are characterized by a much greater amount of, what we could call, ‘interfering’ features. Scribes manually copied texts again and again, not seldom altering the content and often altering the orthography. Most original works have been lost, just as much of the copied material. To add even more difficulties, what we nowadays will easily refer to as ‘original work’ is much less clear-cut in the Middle Ages. Our modern notion of ‘copyright’ is virtually unknown to medieval men and women and for a long time the concept of auctoritas (author) was primarily used in referral to classic writers such as Aristotle and Augustine. Many of the medieval texts are thus written anonymously.

The situation could be characterized as chaotic by scholars used to relatively straightforward text corpora. Before you can begin your quest for a medieval author, you first have to find out what content is scribal related and what can be attributed to the author. And just when you think you are making some progress, you find out that your ‘author’ has been merely compiling source texts, who he (or she) is copying word for word. A scholar addressing these texts should therefore meticulously peal of the different layers of the text. When confronted with these scenarios, it might not sound that surprising that the number of studies involving the use of computational techniques and medieval texts is not that great. In recent years though, some progress has been made (e.g. Van Dalen-Oskam and Van Zundert 2007; Van Dalen-Oskam, Thaisen and Kestemont 2010). Most of all, these studies show that it is possible – using computational techniques such as Burrows’ Delta – to overcome some of the difficulties in distinguishing for instance scribal and authorial layers within a single text.

The Case
In this paper I will contribute to this evolving field of research and discuss some possible methods that can be used to differentiate these different layers within medieval texts. Although the text corpus that I will be using originated from fully tagged TEI/XML files, for this purpose I will be using plain text files. This could be of great interest to scholars who are not able or not willing to spend large amounts of time, energy and skill in preparing their texts. The texts are transcribed without changing spelling to modern use (thus euen instead of even and Iherusalem instead of Jherusalem), but abbreviated words are expanded.

One of the more interesting aspects of this particular text corpus is that it has been written by a single person, whose name is recorded in one of his charters: Hendrik Gerardsz. van Vianen, most likely secretary of the Utrecht Land Commander of the Teutonic Order. The Teutonic Order was one of the three major military orders – beside the Knights Templars and Hospitallers – that defended the Holy Church in the Holy Land, the Iberian Peninsula and the Baltic region and received goods and land all over Europe, including the Low Countries. Hendrik van Vianen wrote at least 25 Middle Dutch charters containing land contracts for the Teutonic Order between 1479 and 1491. He also wrote a few Latin charters between 1489 and 1509 that are not included in this study. Furthermore, he manually copied a manuscript containing a Dutch version of the popular Sachsenspiegel that belonged to two Land Commanders of the Teutonic Order in Utrecht. Last but not least, he was responsible for a chronicle on the history of the Teutonic Order, known as the Croniken van der Duytscher Oirden or Jüngere Hochmeisterchronik (Stapel and Vollmann-Profe 2010). Codicological evidence suggests that the manuscript of his hand, now in Vienna, is an autograph, although it is not sure whether parts of the text existed before. Autographs are relatively rare in a medieval context, a recent survey of Middle Dutch manuscripts mentions barely more than a hundred examples (Houthuys 2009).

As a result, we have the unique opportunity to study a medieval text corpus – perhaps not as large as the ones modern literary scholars work with, but still substantial in medieval terms – of around 131.000 words that includes the work of a single person working as manuscript scribe; writer of land charters; and possible author of a history of his order.

Ever since the Croniken van der Duytscher Oirden has been studied in a scholarly context, there have been questions about the original composition. The original Middle Dutch version of the chronicle consists of a long prologue, a part that contains the deeds and lives of the Grand Masters of the Order, alternated by privileges granted by popes and emperors. It ends with a history of the regional bailiwick of Utrecht and its Land Commanders. Especially that last part is often put aside as a later addition to the chronicle. It is an interesting question, the more so since it has historical significance in the sense that it has an influence on the original function and aspiration of the text.

Methods
To examine the relationship between the different parts of the text corpus we have collected, I employed several methods, but for now, I would like to focus on the use of the Delta Spreadsheets, freely made available by David Hoover (Hoover 2009). Some primary samples were selected from of the text corpus using the Intelligent Archive (Craig, Whipp and Ralston 2010) to create word frequency lists: the combined charters; the Sachsenspiegel; the table of contents of the Croniken; its prologue; some of the privileges; three parts of the Grand Masters’ part; and the bailiwick chronicle. These were computed against 2000 word pieces, overlapping and 500 words advancing. The results are shown in Figures 1, 2 and 3.

Figure 1: Moving Delta, Charters

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Figure 2: Moving Delta, Saxons’ Mirror

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Figure 3: Moving Delta, Croniken

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What stands out is that in all three instances, the primary samples of the table of contents and the bailiwick chronicle (in light and dark blue) outperform the other samples, especially if one leaves out the samples in Figure 3 which perform off course very well in their own consecutive areas.

Conclusion
What can be concluded from this observation? I think the table of content and the bailiwick chronicle best describe the personal writing style and orthography of Hendrik van Vianen. In both the charters, the copied Sachsenspiegel and the Croniken this layer is present, and it raises the question if he indeed can be held responsible for the bailiwick chronicle and the table of contents. The table of contents is clearly written at a later stage, added at the end of project, as is shown by watermark evidence and the distribution of some abbreviations and specific letter forms, quantified in Figure 4 and 5 below.

Figure 4: Different forms of letter “w”. The TOC in front corresponds with the latter part of the chronicle.

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Figure 5: Use or absence of abbreviations in “ende” (Dutch for “and”).

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Moreover, to what extent can Hendrik van Vianen still be held responsible for the rest of the chronicle? Was there an older exemplar of a chronicle available to him? It is hard to say for certain. There is a good possibility that he was not so much the – what we would now call – author, but more a compiler for large parts of the chronicle. The old source texts would then form another layer within the text. Again, in the Middle Ages it is not always possible (and even helpful) to make a strict distinction between the two. An old-fashioned approach to research the sources of the chronicles and how these source-texts were implemented could be a logical step further and will be one of the issues addressed in the remainder of this project.

References:
Craig, H. Whipp, R. Ralston, M. 2010 Intelligent Archive. Budgerigar Version., (link)

Dalen-Oskam, K. van Thaisen, J. Kestemont, M. 2010 “Computational approaches to textual variation in medieval literature, ” Digital Humanties 2010 Conference Abstracts, 37-44

Dalen-Oskam, K. van Zundert, J. van 2007 “Delta for Middle Dutch – Author and Copyist Distinction in Walewein, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, (link) 22 345-362

Hoover, D. 2009 The Excel Text-Analysis Pages, (link)

Houthuys, A. 2009 De autograaf van de Brabantsche yeesten, boek VI (vijftiende eeuw). Hilversum 2009., Middeleeuws kladwerk,

Kestemont, M. Dalen-Oskam, K. van 2009 “Predicting the Past: Memory-Based Copyist and Author Discrimination in Medieval Epics, ” Proceedings of the Twenty-first Benelux Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 121-128

Stapel, R.J. Vollmann-Profe, G. 2010 “Cronike van der Duytscher Oirden, ” Encyclopedia of the Medieval Chronicle, Dunphy, G. 328-329

Thaisen, J. 2010 “A Probabilistic Analysis of a Medieval English Text, ” Digitizing Medieval and Early Modern Material Culture, Terras, M. Nelson, B. 328-329","txt","2","",""
"1382","12","Wandering Jew's Chronicle Research Archive","2","Wandering Jew’s Chronicle Research Archive
Cummings, James, University of Oxford, United Kingdom, James.Cummings@oucs.ox.ac.uk
Bergel, Giles, University of Oxford, United Kingdom, Giles.Bergel@merton.ox.ac.uk
Introduction
This poster will describe and demonstrate work done in creation of an online archive for research into the Wandering Jew’s Chronicle (WJC). The WJC is a printed ballad published between 1634 and circa 1820 which survives in 22 known copies of 15 editions. These are held in ten libraries in Britain and the USA. The ballad itself outlines the succession to the throne of England from William I to a variable contemporary monarch depending on its date of publication. More specifically these are from the reign of Charles I until that of George IV, taking in seven monarchs in continuations from a core text. The succession of these monarchs is narrated by the supposedly immortal Wandering Jew of European legend. There is immense scholarly interest not only in the subject matter, but textually in the pattern of variations, the length and breadth of its publication and distribution. For a digital humanities perspective the textual history and relationships pose interesting problems for collation and textual analysis. Each one of the editions inherits a basic core text: some of these editions incorporate common continuations or variations, while others are textually idiosyncratic. The editions of the WJC are not only textually but also graphically interesting as most of the editions are illustrated with woodcuts of the monarchs described, and while some editions share woodcuts in common others employ copies or individual illustrations. Some of these editions are historically linked to others through relations within the book trade, while others are unauthorised or independent printings. The poster and demonstration will introduce the benefits of having gathered all the material relating to the WJC in a single place while demonstrating the technologies used to create the research archive.

Wandering Jew’s Chronicle Research Archive
Surviving copies of the WJC are scattered: variously held in the Bodleian Library; the British Library; Cambridge University Library; Magdalen College Cambridge, Pepys Library; The University of Texas at Austin Harry Ransom Library; and the Brown University Library. The WJC research archive has created a digital archive in which surviving editions are united under a single authoritative citation and represented by:

archival­quality images
transcriptions marked­up in TEI P5 XML
visualization tools for comparing variations between texts and images
bibliographical metadata
scholarly commentary
It is hoped that by providing all of this in one location research into WJC can flourish in new and interesting ways. This resource helps to foster digital humanities research through tracing and expressing bibliographical, textual and iconological relations across a corpus of copies, variant editions, and versions of ballad texts, including their images and tunes. It is a valuable resource for those researching textual genealogy in the early­modern period. It will impact the research of scholars of folklore, balladry, historiography, book history and textual studies.

The WJC research archive is an interdisciplinary project that touches on literary and textual studies; art history; historiography; popular culture and folklore; music and of course the digital humanities. It is hoped that in addition to its collaboration with the existing Bodleian Broadside Ballad Database, it will also collaborate with similar projects for creating digital archives of other ballads and related texts in a single coherent manner.

One of the key research objectives in the creation of the WJC research archive is the development of a convenient visualization tool for the diachronic representation and scholarly analysis of a popular representation of kingship and English historical continuity. The strengths and limitations for this purpose of the printed ballad form are of particular interest. The archive, and associated research, show both continuities and departures from at least three other comparable forms: oral kinglists; manuscript genealogical chronicles; and iconographic picture­galleries. From its first publication (c.1634), The WJC incorporated up­to­date antiquarian research into the legal documentary sources of royal legitimacy. The text may also be framed within the comparative progress of philological and folkloric inquiry into the origins of national culture and tradition over its span of publication. The WJC research archive seeks to embed this largely forgotten text within a larger history – of historical writing and memorialising in oral, literate and visual cultures, between the antiquarianism of the early seventeenth and the romanticism of the early nineteenth centuries.

Project Outcomes
The main outcome of this project to has been the creation of an archive of the WJC text­tradition that facilitates the analytical comparison of its text and images. In one mode, the archive operates as a parallel­text edition, the usual way of representing a chronicle tradition in print, but greatly enhanced by the flexible display options afforded by digital publication. In particular this allows users to compare arbitrarily­selected transcriptions, revealing accidental, typographic and orthographic variation alongside more substantive literary insertions, emendations and continuations, including those supplied for ideological purposes. In another mode, the archive provides visualizations of surrogate images of original documents. 2 Certain editions are bibliographically related through historical relationships within the book trade, which is graphically revealed through publishers’ imprints and their use of variant states or copies of the same wooden printing­blocks. These relationships will be stated and made visible to the user, through a visualisation of the historical sequence of woodcut images, keyed to corresponding portions of the text.

A second but important outcome has been then provision of a complete citation of all known versions, editions and copies of the WJC tradition, creating common cataloguing standards for ballad texts in both broadside and chapbook formats that date from across the period. By drawing from materials held in various libraries, the project is promoting the importance of common cataloguing standards, scholarly collaboration and technical interoperability. The value of both bibliographically precise and semantically discerning cataloguing practices is demonstrated, at a time when the considerable promise of mass digitization is in danger of eclipsing the increasingly essential function of the authoritative scholarly catalogue. The WJC research archive engages with union catalogues such as OCLC WorldCat; the English Short­Title Catalogue; the Nineteenth­Century Short­Title Catalogue; and is promoting the idea of a common catalogue of British ballads and chapbooks.

Conclusion
While the majority of the technologies used in the creation of the WJC research archive are mature and stable applications, in other aspects it has had to be more innovative in the application and combination of new technologies and bespoke programming. The use of less­traditional digital humanities techniques will be demonstrated and explained alongside the poster.

It is hoped that in time the archive will be the centre­piece of a number of related projects about WJC. These include: a study applying image­recogntion techniques to woodcut illustrations, in partnership with Professor Andrew Zisserman (Oxford Visual Geometry Group); an analysis of the registration and publication history of broadside ballads; an exploration of means of visualizing genealogical structure via early­modern letterpress technology, in partnership with Mr. Paul Nash (Bodleian Library); research in the textual transmission of the ballad; and general researches in the genealogical and historical culture of the hand­press period (c.1450­1820). It is hoped that these projects based on the WJC research archive will bring together scholars of balladry, book history, textual studies and digital humanities, and impact wider audiences interested in history, genealogy, folklore and popular culture.","txt","2","",""
"1383","12","BrailleSC.org: Applying Universal Design Principles to a Digital Humanities Project","2","BrailleSC.org: Applying Universal Design Principles to a Digital Humanities Project
Williams, George H. , English, University of South Carolina Upstate, gwilliams@uscupstate.edu
Bohon, Cory, Computer and Information Systems, University of South Carolina Upstate University of South Carolina Upstate, bohon@email.uscupstate.edu
Over the last several decades, scholars have developed standards for how best to create, organize, present, and preserve digital information so that future generations of teachers, students, scholars, and librarians may still use it. What has remained neglected for the most part, however, are the needs of disabled end-users, especially those whose vision is impaired. While professionals working in educational technology and commercial web design have made significant progress in meeting the needs of such users, the humanities scholars creating digital projects all too often fail to take these needs into account. This situation would be much improved if more of projects embraced the concept of universal design, the idea that we should always keep the largest possible audience in mind in our design decisions, ensuring that our final product serves the needs of those with disabilities as well as those without.

We are proposing a poster session to demonstrate our work in progress on BrailleSC.org, an online scholarly resource dedicated to braille and braille literacy in South Carolina. The earliest stages of development were funded by a grant from the U.S. Department of Special Education, and the site is currently supported by a Level 1 Start-Up Grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities Office of Digital Humanities. The content is managed with both WordPress and Omeka, and for each of these CMSes we are developing accessibility plugins designed to meet the needs of visually impaired users. Our hope is that these plugins become widely adopted by other digital humanities projects that use these same CMSes. During our session we would demonstrate our site, argue for the importance of accessibility, and allow audience members to experience our site in the ways a visually impaired end-user would. We will also discuss the work we are undertaking—at the moment, very preliminary—to develop a tool that would automatically transform an alphabetic text file (encoded in HTML or TEI standards) into a well-formatted contracted braille file. We’re currently looking into whether or not the WordPress plugin Anthologize might be a useful starting point for developing such a capability.

BrailleSC seeks to combine digital humanities expertise with the important insights of disability studies in the humanities, an interdisciplinary field that considers disability “a way of interpreting human differences,” in the words of one prominent scholar. Digital knowledge tools that assume all end-users approach information with the same abilities risk excluding a large population of people. If the digital humanities is to accomplish the admirable goal of creating a “big tent,” welcoming a diverse array of participants, then we must broaden our understanding of the ways in which these participants access digital resources. For example, visually-impaired users take advantage of digital technologies for “accessibility” that (with their oral/aural and tactile interfaces) are fascinatingly different than the standard monitor-keyboard-mouse combination, forcing us to rethink our embodied relationship to data. Learning to create scholarly digital archives that take into account these human differences is a necessary task no one has yet undertaken.

In partnership with the Center for Digital Humanities in Columbia, South Carolina, and with guidance from George Mason University’s Center for History and New Media, BrailleSC aims to model the ways in which digital humanities projects can be designed and implemented with the needs of all users, regardless of disability. Users with visual impairment often access digital information through a variety of alternatives, not primarily using traditional visual cues presented from the standard graphical user interface. For example, many such users navigate information by listening to a synthesized voice reading textual material aloud to them. The software that generates such a voice is known as a “screen reader.” To make navigation easier for these users, our “Access Keys” plug-in for Omeka allows users to get from page to page and section to section by pressing an easy-to-remember combination of keys. Other users require text enlargement , and our Omeka “Text Zoom” plug-in changes the size of the text to suit their needs. Future work will refine these existing plug-ins and develop additional ones for users to customize such elements as color and contrast.

As development of the site content and interface continues, we are conducting various user-testing sessions involving a diverse group of people with varying degrees of visual ability or impairment. All interface tools developed for the BrailleSC project have been or will be released as open source code. All content is being made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike license. Easy-to-follow instructions for how to implement the accessibility features are currently being created. The Center for Digital Humanities has agreed to provide long-term hosting for all tools and content developed. Finally, a white paper will be released at the project’s conclusion explaining what collaborators have learned about developing designing accessible digital humanities projects and making suggestions for “retrofitting” existing projects.","txt","2","",""
"1384","12","Geo-Temporal Argumentation: The Roman Funeral Oration","1","Geo-Temporal Argumentation: The Roman Funeral Oration
Johanson, Christopher, UCLA Classics, cjohanson@gmail.com
Overview of the Discipline-Specific Project
The Roman aristocratic funeral of the Republic was an incredible show. It packaged the Roman spectacular trifecta, the procession, the eulogy and the subsequent games, which comprised gladiatorial and dramatic performances. While each of these components of the funeral has received individual treatment—in the case of the gladiatorial games, extensive—no detailed, comprehensive discussion of the aristocratic funeral of the Republic exists. Moreover, before gladiatorial games were held in the Colosseum and before dramatic performances were staged in a monumental theater, they were first held in ad hoc venues in the heart of Rome. No attempt has been made to situate the phenomenon within its surrounding context, the Roman Forum. My current digital/analog manuscript project, Spectacle in the Forum: the Roman Aristocratic Funeral of the Middle Republic, offers the first attempt to study the mid-Republican funeral in its totality and, in so doing, examines the most significant aspects of spectacular stagecraft of the Roman Republic.

The Intellectual Problem
Spectacle has received considerable attention in recent years, but its study has been marred by deficiencies in method. Classics scholar Richard Beacham pinpoints the problem: “Spectacle is three-dimensional and sequential, realized by taking place over a period of time, and its place, circumstance, and unfolding fundamentally shape what an audience both expects and experiences.”  Ritual parades, political speeches, and religious rites are well described in ancient texts and frequently depicted in art.  Yet, most spatial and spectacular analyses attempt to reconstruct the monuments, imagery, actors and audience, which are inherently kinetic and multi-dimensional (changing over space and time), by means of textual description and two-dimensional plans.

The impact of monumental structures on Roman performers and their audiences, what could and could not be seen during their performance, as well as the significance of monumenta memoriae, directly affected the shows when first performed, and the reading and interpretation of the records subsequently examined by scholars. Performance “stages” of the mid-Republic were ephemeral: extant temple podia, elevated balconies, and hillsides, might serve as caveae. Simple temporary structures may have been all that was needed to mount a production.

Three-dimensional digital models offer a partial solution. There are now a growing number of projects that have used computerized reconstructions to visualize Imperial Rome. There have been very few similar attempts to represent the Republican city, and hardly any that make scholarly arguments set within the digital reconstructions. Most reconstruction projects tend to focus on the creation of a highly accurate, extraordinarily precise digital model informed by scholarship as the ultimate goal. Instead, this project uses hypothetical reconstructions as a digital laboratory. By injecting historical context—the performers and the audience—into the digital environment, the digital investigation transforms the quantifiable elements of the ephemeral experience of ancient spectacle into a digital object fit for experiential analysis. It uses the hypothetical reconstructions as a digital laboratory to explore the staging of Roman spectacle and develop the digital toolset necessary for scholarly interrogation and publication of spatial and experiential arguments.

Geo-Temporal Argumentation: the Roman Funeral Oration
The laudatio funebris of the mid-Republic was genre-defying visual theater. While it is now generally agreed that the persuasive techniques of oratory comprised verbal (the content and delivery of the speech) and visual elements (gestures charged with meaning and explicit visual and topographic references), the degree to which the choreography of the funeral eulogy subordinated the words of the speech has not been fully examined. For much of the audience, the visuality of the event eclipsed the aural content. The laudatio, like the pompa before it, relied on a basic set of quasi-formulaic visual cues to communicate with the audience, or at least, to communicate some ideas to some of the audience. To call the laudatio a speech alone, and to classify it within the realm of oratory without qualification is to misunderstand much of the purpose and the choreography of the event. In this presentation, I will put the event in its proper place: the Forum. Through the use of textual analysis, experiential investigation, and geo-temporal argumentation, I will demonstrate that the laudatio funebris was a multivariate theatrical event, comprising two discrete elements targeted at two distinct audiences.

Though one can use a laboratory built out of virtual world infrastructure to experiment, a researcher cannot (yet) “publish” the entirety of a laboratory experience and call it scholarly communication. Rather, the laboratory is the space where the research occurs; the results must be woven together into a narrative in order to engage with the larger scholarly conversation. Nonetheless, a text and image narrative is insufficient to convey the totality of the kinetic and temporal subject matter. Geo-temporal argumentation presents an innovative and more robust method of idea dissemination by offering:

Continuous and persistent spatial context.
Nodal points of departure for reader-based investigation
A refutable system embedded in a geographic context.
Narrative, perhaps rhizomatic, that enables non-linear review and exploration
When the experience and creation of kinetic transitions are fundamental to an understanding of an argument the reader must, quite simply, walk in the footsteps of the authors in order to participate in the debate, critique the result, and modify the conclusions. In this paper I aim to demonstrate that, for space- and time-centric, phenomenological investigations, geo-temporal argumentation is a new and superior form of scholarly communication.

The Technology and the Collaborative Project
As is always the case, digital humanities projects are collaborative endeavors. My “manuscript” project provides the domain-specific area of inquiry, but the digital platforms that facilitate the research are part of two, larger collaborative efforts of which I am but one of a number of co-investigators.

GeoTemporal Publication Platform: The research results and assessment will be published within HyperCities, a geo-temporal content aggregation and publication platform. Rather than create an entirely new digital humanities tool, “chapters” from my manuscript are being used as case-studies to guide the development of 3D narrative and mark-up tools within the HyperCities platform that will facilitate exploration of the data and publication of this new form of scholarly inquiry. We anticipate a mid-winter release of the working 3D system.

Project Samples
For the geo-aware 3D content, (Google Earth Required)
For a rough, sample narrative
An experiment in geo-temporal argumentation is now available in the inaugural issue of a new hybrid print/digital issue of the JSAH","txt","2","",""
"1385","12","Visualizing Sound as Functional N-Grams in Homeric Greek Poetry","2","Visualizing Sound as Functional N-Grams in Homeric Greek Poetry
Forstall, Christopher, State University of New York at Buffalo, forstall@buffalo.edu
Scheirer, Walter J., University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, wjs3@vast.uccs.edu
The question of the stylistic integrity of Homer's corpus is a venerable one. For centuries, diverse models, subjective as well as quantitative, have claimed to explain the composition of the Iliad and Odyssey: some scholars have seen the poems as the work of a single, literate genius (West, 2001, 3); others as a collective multitext, the superposition of generations of continually-changing performances handed down from one illiterate bard to the next (Nagy, 1996, 107ff.). Often much of the support for these claims is the perceived homo- or heterogeneity of the text. What is at stake in these examinations is larger than a nineteenth-century romantic notion of the artist and his genius; recent studies have used the structure of the ancient Greek epics to examine how cognition structures spoken poetry, and how the sounds of poetry in turn give structure to our thought (Peabody, 1975, 168ff.). A connection between low-level phonetic patterns and larger-scale poetics is not unique to oral composition, but has been shown to be equally active in literate authors as well (Brierley and Atwell, 2010).

The work in progress presented here attempts to examine internal heterogeneity in Homer's language using the tools of computer-based authorship analysis. As stylometric tools become finer-grained, scholars such as Hoover (2007) and Andreev (2010) have turned their gaze from the characterization of an author or corpus as a whole to considerations of an author's stylistic evolution over time, and the differences between and even within individual works. Previously, the authors of this poster have used character- and word-level functional n-grams to compare Homer's two epic poems to one another and to later written text (Forstall and Scheirer, 2010a). We have also adapted the functional n-gram to metrical data (Forstall, Jacobson and Scheirer, 2010). In the present research, we attempt to characterize the internal sound structure of Homer's epics using functional n-grams at the word, character and metrical levels.

We ask,

How homogeneous is the author signal within a large work?
Do the areas frequently identified as later additions stand out?
Can internal patterns help us understand a poem's composition?
While statistical studies of Homer have been made before, it is often difficult for the critic to move comfortably between the numbers and the subjective experience of interpreting poetry. David W. Packard, in pioneering computational work on sound patterns in Homer, cautioned that ""we cannot expect to identify expressive passages merely by counting letters"" (Packard, 1974). More recently, Marjorie Perloff, noting that the significance of sound is all too often overlooked in poetry criticism, has laid part of the blame on ""'scientific' prosodic analysis,"" which

has relied on an empiricist model that allows for little generalization about poetic modes and values: the more thorough the description of a given poem's rhythmic metrical units, its repetition of vowels and consonants, its pitch contours, the less we may be able to discern the larger contours of a given poet's particular practice, much less a period style or cultural construct.
(Perloff and Dworkin, 2009, 2)

In this poster we focus on visualizing the data in ways that bridge the gap between empirical data and the subjective experience of interpreting poetry. We take our inspiration from work such as that of Plamondon (2009) and the online Poetess Archive, which has shown that innovation in how we visualize data is vital to connecting computing with humanities scholarship. In particular, Plamondon used color to represent multi-parameter sound data over individual poems, allowing a subjective appreciation of the poem's structure based on objective values at a glance.
We divide the poem into samples of various sizes, and calculate n-gram frequencies for the most common features. We then use principal components analysis to concentrate the variance among fewer variables. The top three principal components are assigned to three component color channels: red = PC1, green = PC2, blue = PC3. Each sample is visualized as a color which simultaneously represents three parameters, each potentially comprehending the most important aspects of a much larger feature set. The flow of sound in the poem may be seen as a gradient with local and large-scale variation (see Figure 1). As a control, we also treat a text of Homer's poetry in which the order of the lines has been randomized. This is in part a response to the sobering results shown by Eder (2010), who made a strong case that authorship analysis was unreliable at samples fewer than several thousand words, and was improved with randomization in sampling. It may be that smaller samples are less reliable at the author level precisely because they are sensitive to internal patterns in the text, which the randomization should smooth over.

The color gradient produced by this visualization of PCA is useful to the classical philologist precisely because of its subjective quality; yet a more definitive analysis of the epics' internal heterogeneity is also desirable. Which sections are the ""most different""? Are units which are functionally related, for example the type scenes which are played out over and over by different characters (Lord, 2000, 68 ff.), more consistent than the poem as a whole? Is the difference between the Iliad and Odyssey greater than the variation within each poem? In addressing such questions, the classicist cannot help but be biased: certain features, certain passages take on prominence at the expense of others. Here we turn to unsupervised classification for an answer which encompasses all of the text at once, and has no literary bias. Using the same features as for PCA, we now perform k-means classification for various numbers of categories; again, the randomized text is used as a control. In forcing the algorithm to subdivide our sample set into an arbitrary number of classes, we make no specific assumptions about the structure of the poem. Instead we ask, how is variation distributed within the text? For example, with only two or three classes, we find that samples from all are relatively evenly distributed within and between the two poems. With more classes, we find that some tend to be found more in one poem or the other in the ordered version of the text, while in the randomized text samples from all classes are found throughout. The computer-assigned, discrete classifications may be arbitrarily assigned to colors, which are then displayed alongside the continuously varying PCA data to contrast the more subjective, human-interpreted view of the poem's heterogeneity with the entirely objective computer-based analysis.

Figure 1

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The entirety of the Iliad and Odyssey, in 35-line samples. The color of each sample represents the values of the first three principal components of a larger feature set composed of character bi-gram frequencies.
References:
Andreev, V. S. 2009 “Patterns in Style Evolution of Poets, ” Digital Humanities 2009, University of Maryland, June, 2009 52–53

Brierley, C. Atwell, E. 2010 “Holy Smoke: Vocalic Precursors of Phrase Breaks in Milton's Paradise Lost, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 25(2) 137–151

Eder, M. 2010 “Does Size Matter? Authorship Attribution, Small Samples, Big Problem, ” Digital Humanities 2010, King's College London, July 2010 132–133

Forstall, C. W. Scheirer, W. J. 2010 “Features From Frequency: Authorship and Stylistic Analysis Using Repetitive Sound, ” Proceedings of the Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science, 1(2)

Forstall, C. W. Jacobson, S. J. Scheirer, W. J. 2010 “Evidence of Intertextuality: Investigating Paul the Deacon's Angustae Vitae, ” Digital Humanities 2010, King's College London, July 2010 294–295

Hoover, D. L. 2007 “Corpus Stylistics, Stylometry, and the Styles of Henry James, ” Style, 41(2) 160–189

Lord, A. B. 2000 The Singer of Tales, Harvard University Press Cambridge, MA

Nagy, G. 1996 Poetry as Performance: Homer and Beyond, Cambridge University Press Cambridge, UK

Packard, D. W. 1974 “Sound Patterns in Homer, ” Transactions of the American Philological Association, 104 239–260

Peabody, B. 1975 The Winged Word: A Study in the Technique of Ancient Greek Oral Composition as Seen Principally Through Hesiod's ""Works and Days"", State University of New York Press Albany, NY

Perloff, M. Dworkin, C. 2009 The Sound of Poetry, the Poetry of Sound, University of Chicago Press Chicago, IL

Plamondon, M. 2009 “Computational Phonostylistics: Computing the Sounds of Poetry, ” Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science, Illinois Institute of Technology, November 2009

The Poetess Archive, Mandell, L. 09/14/2010 (link)

West, M. L. 2001 Studies in the Text and Transmission of the Iliad, K. G. Saur Munich","txt","2","",""
"1386","12","Towards a Narrative GIS","1","Towards a Narrative GIS
McIntosh, John, jmcintosh@ou.edu University of Oklahoma,
De Lozier, Grant, ghaxed@gmail.com University of Oklahoma,
Cantrell, Jacob , jcantrell@ou.edu University of Oklahoma,
Yuan, May, myuan@ou.edu University of Oklahoma,
Introduction
Research in narrative intelligence applies artificial intelligence approaches to study human ability to organize experience into narrative form (Mateas and Sengers 2003). Narratives are traditionally defined as “a series of temporally ordered clauses” (Labov 1972, p360-361). The time-centric approach leads to a lesser consideration of space in narrative construction and analysis. In contrast, we advocate a geospatial narrative in order to stress the importance of space and time in understanding the ordering and spatial interaction of events.

We define a geospatial narrative as a sequence of events in which space and time are equally important. Narratives are stories that constitutes sequential organizations of events (Franzosi 2010). Each event in a narrative relates sequential or consequential occurrence in space and time. The conventional Geographic Information Systems (GIS) center on information about spatial states of reality, and temporal information is handled as add-ons to spatial objects. Alternatively, we conceptualize a narrative GIS that emphasizes representing and ordering events in space and time as well as functional abilities to construct meaningful geospatial narratives. While an event is a complex, fuzzy term, we start with one basic linguistic element of narratives: action, as the primitive data construct to start building a narrative GIS. By relating action events across space and time, a narrative GIS aims to discover spatiotemporal correlates among actions and relate actions across scales.

Depending on the perspectives, there are many kinds of events, e.g. instantaneous events, discrete events, cyclic events, transitional events, and others. In contrast to TimeMaps (Farrimond et al. 2008), our vision of a Narrative GIS goes beyond spatiotemporal visualization to spatial analytics. By using action events as the primitive data constructs, a narrative GIS can support spatial queries of sequential and consequential actions. A Narrative GIS is therefore capable of revealing how time unfolds change and space unfolds interactions (Massey 2005).

We use two distinctive corpuses of histories in building narrative GIS databases and narrative analytics as a proof of concepts: Dyer's Compendium of the War of the Rebellion and the Richmond Daily Dispatch. Frederick H. Dyers, a Civil War veteran compiled the Compendium based on materials from the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies and other sources. The compendium lists organizations and movements of regiment cavalries mustered by State and Federal Governments for services in the Union Armies. Collaborating with the digital scholarship group at the University of Richmond, we have started with four files from Dyer's Compendium: the 45th Massachusetts Infantry, the 107th Pennsylvania Infantry,the1stCaliforniaInfantry,andthe1stNewYorkCavalry. The Richmond Daily Dispatch was one of the primary news media in the south during the Civil War. The newspaper was one of the most widely distributed newspapers of the south and included news from the entire east coast. The Richmond Daily Dispatch retained the reputation as politically unbiased was published throughout the Civil War.

Methodology
Our idea of a narrative GIS consists of (1) semantic elements (who did what), (2) temporal elements (when), and (3) spatial elements (where). A geospatial narrative object integrates the three elements and enables search for and analysis of spatial and temporal relationships among narrative objects. Input data for narrative GIS vary widely from structured to unstructured sources. In this study, both input data are texts, albeit in very different structures. Dyer's Compendium concisely lists regiment movements. Richmond Daily Dispatch consists of news articles. Spatial and temporal connections among units in these texts are considerably different. Nevertheless, the conceptual framework of a narrative GIS demands the identifications of semantic, temporal, and spatial elements from the texts to form narrative objects and relationships. As such, our workflow includes six key steps: (1) extract text analysis units; (2) identify action verbs; (3) identify time for words and text units; (4) identify locations for words and text units; (5) combine all identified elements into a GIS database; and (6) build spatial and temporal relationships among narrative objects. A schematic view of the workflow is presented in figure 1

Figure 1

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We begin with electronic versions of the historical documents. The texts are split into subsets such as newspaper articles or book chapters for processing. These subsets are typically written as a unit and need to be analyzed that way for successful interpretation. For each processing unit, we apply natural language processing to tokenize sentences and identify parts of speech (e.g. verbs and nouns). The parts of speech provide important clues to extract information.

The work presented here is centered on the location, time, and other characteristics of events. The part of speech tagging is used to identify verbs. We are most interested in “action” verbs and refine our list of potential candidates by removing stative and modal verbs. Location referencing begins with recognition of a standard grammatical structure to the way locations appear in text. In general, locations are proper nouns that do not directly follow a determiner (except for physical features).

Candidate words are matched to all their possible real-world geographic referents in the “Gazetteer Matching” process. A number of different gazetteers are utilized in the matching including the US Populated Places gazetteer and State hydrography datasets from the USGS, historical counties, states, and territories files from National Historical Geographic Information System, and the US Census Bureau’s historical 100 largest cities dataset (US BGN; US NHD; NHGIS 2008; Gibson 2008). These data are assembled in GIS and each location is identified with a historically and spatially appropriate hierarchy. The names of geographic locations are often highly ambiguous. For example “Georgetown” has over 70 possible locations among U.S. cities. Disambiguating a word to its true location is an important and difficult task. A substantial amount of work has already been done on location disambiguation under the heading of “Toponym Resolution” (Leidner2007;Leidneretal2003). Figure 2 illustrates the steps in the location referencing process.

Figure 2

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The temporal processing steps aim to extract dates, durations of events and the relative temporal ordering between events. Historical texts contain temporal information in a variety of formats. Most obvious are explicit dates that include information such as the day, month and year. In addition, these texts often include clues to derive dates and relative ordering of events. For example words such as “yesterday“ or “last week” allow the date to be derived based on a temporal relation to an anchor date (Han 2006). Similarly, relative temporal expressions allow explicit dates to be determined based on temporal relations to the current temporal focus (Han 2009).

Figure 3 outlines the steps in our approach.

Figure 3

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We begin by extracting anchor dates such as the date of publication for a newspaper article and explicit dates found in the text. We use temporal indicator words to refine the date of events and help establish temporal ordering. Explicit dates contained in the text are modified by deictic or temporal expressions. Semantic relationships between events are extracted based on semantic indicators. When all of the temporal information is relative and there are no explicit dates to give an explicit order, thirteen temporal relationships are used to find the temporal ordering (Allen 1983).
Results and Concluding Remarks
Thus far, our effort has been focused on extraction of events from the natural language text sources, anchoring the events to geographical locations and in time, and extracting information on the actors and objects involved in the events. Figure 4 illustrates results from Dyer's Compendium of the War of the Rebellion.

Figure 4

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This figure shows the activity of the 6th New York Regiment Calvary in Maryland and Virginia in September and October of 1862. The processing identified the events including the regiment’s movements and splitting off of a reconnaissance mission from Lovettsville to Smithville while the main regiment moved to Kearnysville. While this example from a single source, it illustrates the potential for the system to support more complex geospatial narratives with the addition of information from other sources.
Figure 5 shows a visualization of a Richmond Daily Dispatch article.

Figure 5

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The article describes a letter from a Union colonel to his family. It discusses the Union’s plan to move troops to Alexandria Virginia the next evening. The article illustrates that in addition to working with events that had already occurred the approach can also be used to help investigate the thoughts and motivation leading to events that had yet to occur.
These examples of preliminary results demonstrate the basic use of a Narrative GIS. As we continue building the event narrative database, additional functions will be built in for narrative analytics. For example, we are interested in deciphering the local, regional and national processes on emancipation and to identify scalar effects on military, political, and individual processes. One approach will be extracting reports on battles and run-away slaves and analyze spatial and temporal correlations among these events. When we extract events of different categories in space and time, a Narrative GIS will allow us to analyze spatial and temporal relationships among these kinds of events to draw insights into the integration of multiple perspectives and interpretations of geospatial narratives.

References:
Allen, J. Waltz, D. 1983 Maintaining Knowledge about Temporal Intervals Communications of the ACM 26 11 32-843

Bird, S. Klein, E. Loper, E. 2009 Natural Language Processing with Python --- Analyzing Text with the Natural Language Toolkit Cambridge, MA O'Reilly Media

Farrimond, B. Presland, S. Bonar-Law, J. Pogson, F. 2008 Making History Happen: Spatiotemporal Data Visualization for Historians Second UKSIM European Symposium on Computer Modeling and Simulation Liverpool, UK IEEE 424-429

Fellbaum, C. 1998 WordNet: An Electronic Lexical Database Cambridge, MA The MIT Press

Franzosi, R. 2010 Quantitative Narrative Analysis Los Angelas, CA SAGE Publications, Inc.

Gibson, C. 2008 Population Of The 100 Largest Cities And Other Urban Places In The United States: 1790 to 1990. U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division (link)

Han, B. Gates, D. Levin, L. 2006 From Language to Time: A Temporal Expression Anchorer Proc. 13th International Symposium on Temporal Representation and Reasoning

Han, B. 2009Reasoning about Temporal Scenario in Natural LanguageIn the Proceedings of AAAI Workshop on Spatial and Temporal Reasoning

Jackendoff, R. 1992 Languages of the Mind Cambridge, MAThe MIT Press

Labov, W. 1972 Language in the inner cityPhiladelphia University of Pennsylvania Press

Leidner, J, L. Sinclair, G. Webber, B 2003 Grounding spatial named entities for information extraction and question answering Proceedings of the HLT-NAACL 2003 Workshop on Analysis of Geographic References Edmonton, CAN

Leidner, J 2007 Toponym Resolution in Text: Annotation, Evaluation and Applications of Spatial Grounding of Place Names. Diss. University of Edinburgh, School of Informatics. Institute for Communicating and Collaborative Systems

Massey, D. 2005 For Space Thousand Oaks, CA Sage

Mateas, M. Sengers, P. 2003 Narrative Intelligence. Amsterdam/Philadelphia John Benjamins Publishing Company

Miller, G. Beckwith, R. Fellbaum, C. Gross, D. Miller, K. 1993 Introduction to WordNet: An Online Lexical Database (Revised) Princeton University

Pouliquen, B. Kimler, M. Steinberger, R. Ignat, C. Oellinger, T. 2006 Geocoding Multilingual Texts: Recognition, Disambiguation and Visualisation In Proceedings of The Fifth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation(LREC) (link)

National Historical Geographic Information System 2008 Minnesota Population Center: University of Minnesota. Minneapolis, MN (link)

U.S. Board on Geographic Names: Domestic and Antarctic Names – State and Topical Gazetteer Download Files United States Geological Survey (link)

U.S. Geological Survey: National Hydrography Dataset United States Geological Survey (link)","txt","2","",""
"1387","12","Expressive Power of Markup Languages and Graph Structures","1","Expressive Power of Markup Languages and Graph Structures
Marcoux,Yves, Université de Montréal, Canada, yves.marcoux@umontreal.ca
Sperberg-McQueen, Michael, Black Mesa Technologies, cmsmcq@blackmesatech.com
Huitfeldt,Claus, University of Bergen, Norway, claus.huitfeldt@uib.no
Extended Abstract
The problem of overlapping structures has long been familiar to the digital humanities community. Early on, the purely hierarchical structure has been identified as an important shortcoming of XML for the representation of meaningful features of complex works in the humanities. For example, the verse and line structures of a poem do not necessarily nest properly, but may overlap. To capture that complexity, it is necessary to host both structures in the same digital object, something which pure XML cannot do directly.

It is customary to represent the structure of a marked-up document by deriving from it a graph in which the adjacency relation among nodes corresponds to the embedding relation among the marked-up elements of the document. It is well known that, through such a construction, XML documents correspond to the subclass of graphs known as trees.

Numerous approaches to extend or specialize XML or SGML to handle overlapping structures in various ways have been proposed in the literature over the years (see for instance [B1995]). Some of these approaches work on the graph-structure view of XML. The graph-structure is no more required to be a tree, but it must still satisfy basic constraints (e.g., finiteness, non-circularity) that make them plausible models for “documents.” One such proposal is the GODDAG (General Ordered-Descendant Directed Acyclic Graph [SH2004]). Roughly, GODDAGs are like XML trees except that they allow multiple parenthood and do not require a total ordering on leaf nodes. (Thus, XML trees constitute a subset of GODDAGs.)

Other proposals address the problem by working on the markup language side. In this group, we find pure XML solutions (which represent the non-hierarchical structures through coding conventions and a corresponding ad hoc layer of semantics, e.g., milestones, fragmentation, virtual elements, etc. [B1995] [SH1999] [W2005]) and non-XML ones, based on generalizations of XML allowing non-embedding constructs, such as overlapping elements. Among the latter is TexMecs [HS2003], an XML-like markup language allowing overlapping elements (as well as other constructs).

An interesting question is how the various proposals compare with respect to their expressive power. Beyond a few obvious subset/superset relations that exist among the formalisms, very little is known in this area. In 2008, Marcoux established a result [M2008] linking a subclass of GOODAGs to a subset of TexMecs. Overlap-only TexMecs (or oo- TexMecs) is the subset of TexMecs that uses only embedding and overlapping elements (and none of the other constructs). A graph whose structure corresponds to an oo-TexMecs document is said to be oo-serializable. Marcoux showed (essentially) that the oo-serializable GODDAGs are exactly the completion-acyclic ones, thus showing that oo-TexMecs and the class of completion-acyclic GODDAGs have the same expressive power.

In this paper, we extend that result in two ways. First, we define child-ordered directed graphs (CODGs), a class of graphs strictly larger than that of GODDAGs, and argue that, in spite of its generality, it still captures a plausible and interesting notion of “document.” Then, we show that the strictly stronger expressive power of the CODG, compared to the GODDAG, vanishes when oo-serializability is required. This constitutes a strong indication that overlap-only markup languages may be insufficient for representing complex document structures.

More precisely, we show that the classes of single-root CODGs and GODDAGs coincide when restricted to completion-acyclic graphs. There are, however, completion-acyclic multiple-root CODGs that are not oo- serializable. We show that, for multiple-root CODGs, the stronger condition of full-completion-acyclicity characterizes oo-serializability.

The definition of fully-completion-acyclic graph does not in itself suggest an efficient algorithm for checking the condition, nor for computing a corresponding overlap-only document when the condition is satisfied. We present ideas that could be exploited to accomplish those tasks efficiently.

The main conclusion of this work is that markup languages that generalize XML only by allowing overlapping elements may not be expressive enough to represent complex document structures. Indeed, our results show that the requirement that a graph be serializable in an overlap-only language effectively prevents the presence of too complex structures in the graph. The new graph structure introduced in the paper, the CODG, is of interest in itself as an abstract document model. Finally, the ideas we present on how to detect whether a graph is serializable using only overlapping elements and on how to then compute a serialization would be helpful in authoring environments, because they would allow serializing documents using the most simple constructs (e.g., overlapping elements) whenever possible, while resorting to more complex constructs (e.g., virtual elements) only when absolutely necessary.

References:
Barnard, David Burnard,Lou Gaspart, Jean-Pierre Price, Lynne A. Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. Varile, Giovanni Battista ““Hierarchical Encoding of Text: Technical Problems and SGML Solutions”, ” Computers and the Humanities, 29 3 1995 211-231 (link) (link)

Huitfeldt, Claus Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. TexMECS: An experimental markup meta-language for complex documents, University of Bergen January 2001, rev. October 2003 (link)

Marcoux, Yves “Graph characterization of overlap-only TexMECS and other overlapping markup formalisms, ” . Proceedings of the Balisage 2008 conference, 12-15 august 2008 Montréal (Canada) (link)

Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. Huitfeldt, Claus GODDAG: A Data Structure for Overlapping Hierarchies, . Springer-Verlag (2004)

C. M. Sperberg-McQueen Claus Huitfeldt ““Concurrent Document Hierarchies in MECS and SGML”, ” Literary and Linguistic Computing, , 14 1999, pp. 29-42. (link)

Witt, Andreas “Multiple Hierarchies: New Aspects of an Old Solution” Stefanie Dipper Michael Götze Manfred Stede Heterogeneity in Focus: Creating and and Using Linguistic Databases, vol. 2Interdisciplinary Studies on Information Structure (ISIS), Working Papers of the SFB 632. University of Potsdam Germany2005 (link)","txt","2","",""
"1388","12","ArchiTrace: An Urban Social History and Mapping Platform","2","ArchiTrace: An Urban Social History and Mapping Platform
Nieves, Angel David, Hamilton College, United States of America, anieves@hamilton.edu
ArchiTrace is a dynamic, web-based markup tool that will allow researchers and content authors to work together in a collaborative co-authoring environment as they build and share architectural drawings, maps, and spatial representations of African urban spaces across a historical timeline. By focusing on the spatial dimensions of the built environment, historical and present-day cityscapes become both the backdrop and interface to a rich archive of cultural heritage assets gathered over the course of their historical development. ArchiTrace will combine a broad range of artifacts such as historical texts and photographs, maps and aerial photographs, providing both cultural and historical context to the depicted regions. Finally, by allowing an audience to watch the transformation of both the spaces and their cultural artifacts evolve over expansive timelines, researchers will be able to follow the historical tracks of the evolution of the regions themselves.

In the example of Soweto, the model housing schemes of the 1950s through the 1980s provided by the state government and its architects were essentially an attempt at social control, but through the inspection of aerial photography and the differences in what was proposed, built, and modified by residents reveals a certain amount of resistance to the ordered panopticon of township housing schemes.

Through the aerial photography captured over a 50-year period, the changes in the city’s physical landscape suggest a form of spatial resistance to the imposed uniformity of the built environment under apartheid. By facilitating architectural and spatial comparisons of this kind through a suite of interactive mapping and comparative tools, ArchiTrace will allow historically embedded social histories to become emergent features of the overall presentation. Where projects like HyperCities focus on the development of the urban form, ArchiTrace facilitates the curation of a biographical narrative in a city’s social history as a way to characterize the development of a region and its people.Todd Presner, “Hypercities: A Case Study for the Future of Scholarly Publishing,” The Shape of Things to Come, ed. Jerome McGann (Houston: Rice University Press, 2010), 251-71. HyperCities provides a blank canvas for understanding urban form, while ArchiTrace will provide a spatial subtext to urban place making.

ArchiTrace’s granular data structure will allow users to inspect fine detail in a city environment at any level of scope, whether tracking the development of entire neighborhoods over decades, or the changes of an individual building’s architecture over the course of mere years. ArchiTrace will offer content authors tools for the creation of data units at several different scopes. Content authors can “curate” the granular layering of spatial information from the level of individual home, block, town or city, to more generalized regional levels. ArchiTrace’s uniquely granular data structure is inspired by architectural “Building lives:” mapping the life cycle of an urban form across a variety of scales and time periods.

ArchiTrace will feature prominent social networking and collaborating tools, allowing researchers and content authors the opportunity to build, share, and co-edit materials within a project collection. This can range from the simple sharing of files within a project’s workspace to the realtime shared editing of text, architectural drawings, and annotations. ArchiTrace aims to facilitate researchers and participants alike in the creation of both collections and exhibits, acting as both an archival and educational platform for researchers and public audience.

By engaging open source software and standards, ArchiTrace aims to create an extensible project platform capable of growing in the many directions promised by forthcoming web technologies. As web-based 3D technology becomes more broadly implemented in future web browsers, we anticipate being able to integrate the models from which our images are derived into an interactive and dynamically-generated 3D environment. Although the initial depictions of ArchiTrace’s cityscapes will begin as 2-dimensional representations, we aim to eventually extend those aerial photographs, maps, and still- image renderings of the project into 3D models.

A recent series of discoveries, in the South African National Archives, provides for some new ways to begin mapping the growth and development of townships over the forty-six year apartheid era. Over the past four months I have come across a cache of maps, architectural plans, aerial photographs and other source documents related to the design and planning of townships across the city of Johannesburg. These drawings and plans suggest, as many historians have previously stated, “the apartheid state remained steadfastly committed to terror” through the design and “layout of the location [townships which] were planned with explicit, detailed attention to the disciplinary potentials of space.”Ivan Evans, Bureaucracy and Race: Native Administration in South Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997). As some have argued, “The tyranny of the planners’ blueprints yielded a degree of spatial compartmentalization whose sheer banality had profound implications for every aspect of urban life.”Ibid. As noted, “when planners reshape the built environment, individuals are compelled to adjust accordingly, reinforcing to some extent the spatial parameters of their oppression.”Ibid. I am however suggesting that individuals and communities impart changing meanings to spatial structures over time. Space not only becomes implicated in the transformation of self-perceptions and the capacities of social groups – space both restrains and enables in some deeply profound ways. Township residents “were neither simple victims of the state nor pure protagonists of resistance” – they negotiated their daily lives through their engagements with racialized space-making. Resistance, among those incarcerated/detained/imprisoned in “planned communities” like Japanese Americans in internment camps, or victims of the Holocaust through concentration camps, is as much about the forging of bonds within space as it is about propelling struggles from one “stage” (or township), to another. How then might we document the “spatial underpinnings of apartheid [era] projects”? After the Soweto Uprising of 1976, the spatial compression, brought on by township planning and design, enabled for the mass proliferation of dense political networks within and between Black residential areas across Johannesburg. How might we then use spatial tools to document the history of resistance, while also telling the story of the ways in which residents converted the bureaucratic and spatial impediments to political mobilization into weapons of struggle? These and other questions – that have yet to be formulated – are the basis for developing ArchiTrace.","txt","2","",""
"1389","12","Abstract Values in the 19th Century British Novel: Decline and Transformation of a Semantic Field","1","Abstract Values in the 19th Century British Novel: Decline and Transformation of a Semantic Field
Le-Khac, Long, Stanford University, llekhac@stanford.edu
Heuser, Ryan, Stanford University, heuser@stanford.edu
Introduction
This paper analyzes the historical behavior of several semantic fields of “abstract values” in a corpus of 2,779 19th century British novels. The corpus is a composite archive of canonical and non-canonical texts drawn from Project Gutenberg, Internet Archive, and Chadwyck-Healey’s 19th-century Fiction Collection. In his classic study, Culture and Society, Raymond Williams claimed that a group of keywords that arose and/or changed dramatically in the nineteenth century offered “a special kind of map [of the] wider changes in life and thought” of the age (Williams 1958). We develop Williams’s insight by applying quantitative methods to a much larger corpus than available at the time of his study. Using a tool we built specifically for our research, we were able to aggregate words whose historical frequencies follow similar trends, thus identifying particularly dynamic semantic cohorts; from these, we found dramatic declines and transformations in fields of social restraint, moral valuation, sentiment, and partiality over the nineteenth century – and an equally dramatic increase in the use of concrete description fields in the same period. We examine the implications of these findings with respect to broader ideological and narrative patterns of the British novel.

Background
In prior applications of semantic fields to quantitative literary studies, researchers have tended to measure the relative presence of certain fields, “themes” or otherwise-labeled word-groups in individual texts (e.g. Louwese 2004; Ide 1989; Fortier 1989). We hope to complement such comparative work by tracing the diachronic behavior of particular semantic fields across a corpus of nineteenth-century novels. In addition, we aim to specify our theoretical object of the semantic field more precisely, both by developing our fields through an empirical method of word-cohort correlation, and by grounding them in their original conceptualization by early twentieth-century semantics. In “Bedeuntungssysteme,” R. N. Meyer influentially defined a semantic field as “the ordering of a definite number of expressions from a particular point of view”—or in other words, from a particular “differentiating factor” (Meyer 1910). To borrow Meyer’s example: the sense of purposefulness, present in the transitive verb ersteigen(to climb) but not in the intransitive verb steigen(to rise), could serve as the “differentiating factor” around which a particular Bedeuntungssystemderived its identity.

In its period focus and objectives, this project is indebted to Raymond Williams’s Culture and Society, which analyzes the historical semantics of a period of unprecedented change for Britain. He contends that changes in discourse help reveal broader sociocultural changes. These wider changes, he argues, are of no small consequence; indeed, they introduced many of the social elements and ideas central to what we now think of as distinctive to our modern way of life (Williams 1958). Of course, Williams’s ambitious attempt to analyze an entire social discourse, astonishing as it is, lacked the tools and corpora now available to digital humanities scholars. This paper represents some first steps in pursuing Williams’s objectives by applying quantitative methods to a large novelistic corpus in order to explore specific but dramatic changes in language and culture in this volatile period.

Methods
Our method of field-creation consists of two stages: discovery and development. First, to discoverpotential fields, we developed a technique of word-cohort correlation. We input “seed” words considered significant by previous literary historical work and query the corpus for words whose historical frequency-trends most resemble those of the “seed” words. When this automatically generated cohort of correlated words shares a specifiable differentiating factor and their overall trend is significant, we consider such a word-cohort the embryo of a dynamic semantic field ripe for development. We then developthe field further by employing semantic taxonomies from within the humanities and linguistics such as the OED's historical thesaurus to identify the semantic content of these word cohorts and subdivide them into specific semantic fields to track. This method, which oscillates between semantic taxonomies and empirical word frequency correlations, ensures that the semantic fields we generate satisfy two characteristics: semantic coherence and coherence of historical behavior. We consider this dual requirement as a pragmatic move. The first requirement ensures that our results are semantically and culturally interpretable. The second requirement ensures that the aggregate term frequency results of the semantic fields are actually representative of the behaviors of their constituent words.

The Semantic Fields
In particular, this paper reports on a study of the historical behavior of four semantic fields of “abstract values.” We identified these transforming semantic fields through the methods described above. This study presents and analyzes the dramatic decline and transformation of four semantic fields [ Fig. 1] discovered under this method (each is named after what we considered the differentiating factor of that field).

Fig. 1
         
Field Name         Example Words 
Values of Social Restraint         modesty, sensibility, propriety 
Moral Valuation         virtue, sin, conduct 
Sentiment         passion, sentiment, sensibility 
Partiality         partiality, prejudice, disinterested 
Results
Fig. 2

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Tracing the diachronic behavior of these fields over the nineteenth century, we found the four abstract values fields exhibited strikingly parallel downward trends [For their individual plots, see Fig. 5-8]. Collectively, the aggregate term frequency for the fields of abstract values decreases step-wise through the nineteenth century [ Fig. 2], from ~1% of all words in the period of 1800-1810, to ~0.6% of words (~1 in every 170 words) by the 1860s, a decrease of about 40%.
Discussion
Given the range and scope of our corpus and the magnitude of this trend, we consider our results reflective of broad changes in the 19th century British novel. The data indicates a significant decrease in the usage of these fields. Without positing a simple reflective relationship between literary and sociocultural currents, we nevertheless take seriously Raymond Williams’s approach to social changes through changes in discourse. Thus, we consider the data to suggest the responsiveness of novelistic language to fundamental shifts in British value systems and social norms in this turbulent and transformative period, specifically shifts away from values of restraint, virtue, objectivity, and sentiment.

Fig. 3

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The historical behavior data of an entirely different set of words, discovered under the same method, helps to contextualize and interpret this trend. Instead of a semantic field tightly organized around a specific differentiating factor, this highly correlated word-cohort (named “Hard Seed” after its seed word) comprises a variety of semantic fields and types of words—colors, body parts, numbers, locational and directional adjectives and prepositions, action verbs, and physical adjectives. This word cohort can be collectively characterized as concrete description words. In contrast to the values fields, the aggregate term frequency of this latter group [ Fig. 3] increases steadily across the 19th century from 3.5% of all words (~1 in every 30 words) to 6.5% of all words (~1 in every 15 words)—an increase in usage of about 85%.
Fig. 4

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Plotting the term frequencies of the abstract values field against those of the hard seed field in each of the novels in our corpus reveals a strongly inverse relationship between the two [ Fig. 4]. Given the observed tendency for novels with higher frequencies of hard seed words to have lower frequencies of abstract values words and vice versa, we produced two rankings of the novels to see the types of narrative that correspond to the emphasis of one field over the other [see Fig. 9 for a ranking of a subset of the corpus, the Chadwyck-Healey fiction collection]. Strikingly, ranking novels by these two features indeed separates out clusters of genres into a spectrum. The resulting distribution of novels allows us to interpret these two major correlated historical trends in novelistic language as deeper shifts in narrative mode. The spectrum shows an overarching movement from narratives with small social spaces organized by highly polarized, evaluative, and uniform fields of social norms to narratives with far larger social spaces where the fields of social norms are more diverse, conflicting, ambiguous, and ultimately, less constraining. Simultaneously, there is a stylistic move away from abstract, explicitly evaluative language to concrete, physical language whose valuation, if any, is more ambiguous, variable, and indirect. That the expansion of narrative social space corresponds to this stylistic shift suggests a systemic tendency in which the representation of wider, more diverse, and less constraining social spaces is made possible by a more physical, concrete language.
Conclusion
This study represents initial steps in developing the quantitative analysis of the historical semantics of literary discourse in a corpus robust enough to allow the study of large-scale historical change. The methods developed herein have proven promising in identifying and analyzing robust semantic fields whose dynamics can rigorously be interpreted as reflections of literary and cultural trends. A wide field of potential inquiry remains for future studies in this vein.

Figures 5-9
Fig. 5

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Fig. 6

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Fig. 7

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Fig. 8

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Fig. 9: Distribution of genres and authors from those with the most frequent usage of Abstract Values, to the least frequent. The X-axis indicates the number of standard deviations above or below the mean. The vertical line in the center of each box indicates the median for that group.

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References:
Fortier, P. A. 1989 “Some Statistics of Themes in the French Novel, ” Computers and the Humanities, 23 (4/5) 293-299

Ide, Nancy M. 1989 “A Statistical Measure of Theme and Structure, ” Computers and the Humanities, 23 (4/5) 277-283

Louwerse, Max M. 2004 “Semantic Variation in Idiolect and Sociolect: Corpus Linguistic Evidence from Literary Texts, ” Computers and the Humanities, 38 (2) 207-221

Meyer, R. N. 1910 “Bedeutungssysteme, ” KZ, 43 (4) 359

Williams, R. 1958 Culture and Society: 1780 – 1950, New York Columbia University Press","txt","2","",""
"1390","12","Trends 21 Corpus: A Large Annotated Korean Newspaper Corpus for Linguistic and Cultural Studies","1","Trends 21 Corpus: A Large Annotated Korean Newspaper Corpus for Linguistic and Cultural Studies
Kim, Heunggyu, Department of Korean Language and Literature, Korea University, gardener@korea.ac.kr
Kang, Beom-mo, Department of Linguistics, Korea University, bmkang@korea.ac.kr
Lee, Do-Gil, Research Institute of Korean Studies, Korea University, motdg@korea.ac.kr
Chung, Eugene, Research Institute of Korean Studies, Korea University, echung2@korea.ac.kr
Kim, Ilhwan, Research Institute of Korean Studies, Korea University, ilhwan52@gmail.com
Introduction
This study aims to introduce how a Korean newspaper corpus, Trends 21 has been constructed and to explore how social, cultural, and linguistic characteristics are portrayed in the Trends 21 corpus. Newspapers contain enormous quantities of language resources which mirror social and cultural characteristics as they undergo gradual as well as sudden changes. Newspapers are regularly published and contain stories of events, personalities, crimes, business, entertainment, society, sports and others. Editorials discuss current or recent news of either general interest or a specific topic. Journalists are trained to write objectively and to show all sides to an issue. In addition, the sources for the news story are identified and are reliable. Therefore, we have employed the newspaper corpus to identify social or culture trends.

Trends 21Project
Aims and Background
Trends 21is the name of a project within the government-led humanities promotion program. The Humanities Korea (HK) project is an initiative aiming to foster world-class research centers that carry out interdisciplinary studies in the areas of humanities.The Research Institute of Korean Studies at Korea University has developed the Trends 21corpus, a collection of four major Korean daily and national newspapers issued from the year 2000. The goal of the Trends 21project can be summarized with the following three points: first, to construct language resources of newspaper articles as a large general purpose database; second, to identify linguistic/social/cultural characteristics and to analyze their changes in Korea; finally, to measure and to estimate any linguistic/social/cultural trends from patterns of language use. One of the outcomes from this project is the Trends 21corpus. It is a collection of Korean newspaper texts covering most of the topics in print. In the next section, we present how the Trends 21corpus has been built.

Designing and Compiling the Corpus
In order to achieve the project goals, articles were culled from a number of newspaper companies. We collected newspaper articles from four major daily national newspapers issued in Korea for one decade, between 2000 and 2009. A daily newspaper is issued every day with the exception of Sundays and some national holidays. A national newspaper, in contrast with a local newspaper that serves a city or region, circulates throughout the whole country.The candidate dailies are Chosun, Dong-a, Joongang, and Hankyoreh.

These daily newspaper companies have provided us with all the contents printed for ten years. In electronic form, the majority of newspaper services are provided in various Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) format, which is hard for us to unify the format by using NewsML. Due to this situation, we developed a ‘Trends 21 Markup Language (T21ML)’ in order to construct our raw corpus. With the availability of machine-readable texts, especially the collection of a large quantity of articles, it was possible to build a large-scale raw corpus. However, we did not upload all the contents from the newspapers into our corpus. Instead we eliminated irrelevant contents (like obituaries) in order to balance the contents.

For our research purposes we established twelve classes of content, namely ‘T21 Class’, to classify the contents of news articles, namely: politics, international news, economics, society, culture, sports, science, columns, opinions, special issues, regions, and people. It excludes lists of names, lists of stocks, obituaries, advertisements, and weather. Although some contents are removed by design, our corpus contains various contents or topics as a whole. Saturation (McEnery et al.2006) at the lexical level can be tested for representativeness of a corpus.

Once the raw corpus was constructed, we employed an automatic morphological analyzer and tagger for Korean, KMAT (Lee & Rim 2009), to annotate parts-of-speech and morpheme information. We applied two-stage tagging processes to our raw corpus, in which an available annotated corpus consisting of 15 million words is corrected by humans and then is employed as a training corpus for the tagger. Further, human annotators not only corrected the erroneous analyses produced by the tagging system, but also improved the tagging system by finding problematic fixed expressions, picking out homonyms, and classifying unseen types of borrowed words or proper nouns. During the first three-year phase of the Trends 21Project (2008-2010), this corpus has been fully annotated for parts-of-speech and morphological information. Figure 1 shows the processing architecture of building the Trends 21Corpus.

Figure 1. An overview of the Trends 21corpus building process

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As of Oct 2010, the Trends 21corpus consists of about 400 million words, and it is by far the greatest morphologically annotated corpus of Korean. In Table 1, statistical information is provided. This information is based on the compiled data between 2000 and 2008.

Case Study: Co-occurrence Network Analysis
In a case study, we focus on only the nouns that are included in the Trends 21corpus. A network based approach is then introduced that can deal with visualizing related nouns. According to Stubbs (1996), frequently occurring patterns allow the observer to make deductions about what a group or society sees as valuable or important. Information about collocation means that new concepts and the range of associations of a word can be monitored. We select target words and extract their co-occurring words appearing nearby. Co-occurrence analysis assumes that two semantically related terms co-occur in the same text segments (Sinclair 1991). In contrast to most previous studies that observe co-occurrences within the same sentence, we propose as a search window size a paragraph (Kang 2010). A paragraph of news article is highly coherent in that its sentences are related to one another to describe one short story or an event.

The extraction of co-occurring words is based on the statistical information about the co-occurrences of words. The mutual information or z-score has mainly been used in various studies as a statistical measure; however, both of the measures give skewed results to infrequently used words. To reduce this difficulty, we adopt t-score as a measure of how strongly word pairs (a target word and co-occurring words) are related (Kang 2010).

Then the information is represented as a network, a formal graph based approach. We have employed Pajek(Nooy, Mrvar & Vladimir 2005) for analysis and visualization of co-occurrence networks. The network structure typically consists of nodes connected by weighted links. Given the current data set, target words and co-occurrences assign a term or a concept to each node and the values of the t-scores to link. This network provides a graphic visualization of potential relationships between nouns that portray social/cultural trends with respect to their language use patterns.

Figure 2 is the co-occurrence network of thirty Korean emotional nouns, such as: ‘love’, ‘hatred’, ‘hope’, ‘disappointment’, ‘happiness’, ‘unhappiness’ and so on. In Figure 2, ‘father’ ( abeciin Korean) co-occurs with ‘love’, ‘hope’, ‘happiness’, ‘hatred’, and ‘unhappiness’; on the other hand ‘daddy’ ( appain Korean) only co-occurs with ‘happiness’.

Figure 2. Network of thirty Korean emotional nouns with their fifty co-occurring words

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The word ‘hatred’ co-exists with ‘terror’, ‘Islam’, ‘(human) race’, ‘religion’, and ‘media’. We notice that in the early twenty-first century there were many international conflicts. If we expand the number of co-occurrences, we may deduce different interpretations from the articles.
Conclusion
This paper has presented how the Trends 21corpus is built and how it is composed. We have proposed a visualization method to express co-occurrences of words in an overview network. The network approach to words in news articles represents contemporary Korean language use. Moreover, information about co-occurrences helps us understand social/cultural issues at a point of time.

The construction of the Trends 21corpus is not done yet. The same composition schema is going to be followed year by year in order for the corpus to be constantly updated. In that sense, the Trends 21corpus serves us as a monitor corpus (Sinclair 1991). This corpus can also reflect language changes in constant growth. In the future we would like to apply cluster analysis as well as keyword analysis. We further plan to enhance the network analysis by displaying concept hierarchy. Finally we also plan to investigate networks according to topics and co-occurrences within an article, not only with in a paragraph.

Table 1: Statistical Information of the Trends 21Corpus
           
Target         Unit         Size 
Trends 21 Corpus         ejels An ejel refers to a chunk between spaces in Korean. The ejel may be one word itself or the morphosyntactic combination of either one word and particle(s) or one word and ending(s).          348,261,978 
Trends 21 Corpus         article         1,763,581 
Trends 21 Corpus         paragraph         13,440,141 
Common Nouns in Trends 21 Corpus         type         487,385 
Common Nouns in Trends 21 Corpus         token         223,794,143 
References:
Biber, D. Conrad, S. Reppen, R. 1998, Corpus Linguistics, Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Church, KW Gale, W. Hanks, P Hindle, D 1991 “Using statistics in lexical analysis, ” In Lexical Acquisition: Using On-line Resources to Build a Lexicon, Lawrence Erlbaum, 115-164

Kang, B. 2010 “Constructing Networks of Related Concepts Based on Co-occurring Nouns, ” Korean Semantics, 32 1-28

Kim, I. Lee, D Kang, B 2010 “A Study of Emotion Nouns Based on Co-occurrence Relation Networks, ” Korean Linguistics, 49

Lee, D. Rim, H. 2009 “Probabilistic Modeling of Korean Morphology’, ” IEEE Transactions on Audio, Speech, and Language Processing, 17 5 945-955

McEnery, T Xiao, R. Tono, Y. 2006 Corpus-Based Language Studies, Abingdon Routledge

Nooy, W. Mrvar, A. Vladimir, B. 2005 Exploratory Social Network Analysis with Pajek, Cambridge University Press

Sinclair, J. 1991 Corpus, Concordance, Collocation, Oxford Oxford University Press

Stubbs, M. 1996 Text and Corpus Analysis, Oxford Blackwell","txt","2","",""
"1391","12","The Social Networks and Archival Context Project: Developing a Prototype Historical Resource and Access System","3","The Social Networks and Archival Context Project

Pitti, Daniel, Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, University of Virginia, dpitti@Virginia.edu
Larson, Ray, University of California, Berkeley. School of Information, ray@ischool.berkeley.edu
Janakiraman, Krishna, University of California, Berkeley. School of Information, krishna.j@berkeley.edu
Tingle, Brian, California Digital Library, brian.tingle.cdlib.org@gmail.com

This session will present an interim report on the findings and a demonstration of the Social Networks and Archival Context (SNAC) project.

SNAC is exploring the feasibility of using existing archival descriptions to create a prototype socio-historical resource and resource discovery tool that will enhance access to and understanding of cultural resources in archives, libraries, and museums. Beginning in May 2010, with funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the two-year project is using advanced technology in three primary ways: to derive descriptions of people from descriptions of their records; to match and merge the derived records with library and museum authority records; and to build a prototype socio-historical resource and access system use the resulting matched and combined records.

Leveraging the new standard Encoded Archival Context–Corporate Bodies, Persons, and Families (EAC-CPF), the project is deriving EAC-CPF records from nearly 30,000 EAD-encoded finding aids made available to the project by the Library of Congress and three archival consortia: Online Archive of California; Northwest Digital Archive; and Virginia Heritage. Names of record creators and of people documented in the records and record descriptions are being used to create EAC-CPF records. Co-occurrence of names in finding aids is also being recorded in order to document social and professional relations among named entities and to interrelate (or link) the related records with one another. The resulting EAC-CPF records are matched against one another and against several million authority records represented in the Library of Congress Name Authority File (NACO/LCNAF), the Getty Vocabulary Program's Union List of Artist Names (ULAN), and the Virtual International Authority File (VIAF), a collaboration between several national libraries. Unique data in matching records is being merged or combined into a single EAC-CPF record, with the ultimate goal of having one record for each unique person, corporate body, for family. Finally, the project is developing a prototype public access and historical resource system based on the unique EAC-CPF records created from the processing.

SNAC is a collaboration between three institutions: the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities (IATH), University of Virginia; the California Digital Library (CDL), University of California; and the School of Information, University of California, Berkeley (SI/UCB). IATH is the lead institution and is responsible for overall project management and for deriving EAC-CPF records from EAD-encoded finding aids. SI/UCB is responsible for the matching and merging of authority records. CDL is responsible for developing a prototype public access and historical resource system based on the data produced by the other two partners.

The three papers presented in the session will cover the following topics: A comprehensive overview of SNAC and a detailed description of the derivation processing; a description of the theoretical and application challenges of matching data from heterogeneous sources; and a description of the methods and technology being adapted or developed to create the prototype public system. Finally, the session will present a brief demonstration of the prototype system.

Overview and Methods

Pitti, Daniel, Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, University of Virginia, dpitti@Virginia.edu

Introduction
Archivists have a long history of describing the people who—acting individually, in families, or in formally organized groups—create and are documented in archival records. They research and describe the artists, scholars, political leaders, scientists, government agencies, soldiers, universities, businesses, families, and others who create and are represented in the items that are now part of our shared cultural legacy. However, because archivists have traditionally described records and the people documented in them in a single apparatus, the finding aid, this biographical-historical information is tied to specific resources and institutions. Currently there is no system in place that aggregates these descriptions of individual persons, families, and corporate bodies, and interrelates them to reveal the professional and social relations that existed among the described entities.

Leveraging the new standard Encoded Archival Context–Corporate Bodies, Persons, and Families (EAC-CPF), the Social Networks and Archival Context (SNAC) project is exploring the feasibility of using existing archival descriptions in new ways in order to enhance access to and understanding of cultural resources in archives, libraries, and museums. Beginning in May 2010, with funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the two-year project is using advanced technology to derive descriptions of people from descriptions of their records, to match and merge the derived records with library and museum authority records, and use the resulting records to build a prototype socio-historical resource and access system.

Data and Data Contributing Institutions
Over 28,000 EAD-encoded finding aids have been made available to the project by the Library of Congress (918+) and three archival consortia: the Online Archive of California (13,932+); Northwest Digital Archive (5,160+), and Virginia Heritage (8,390+). The three consortia represent findings from over 200 individual repositories.

A key criterion in selecting the finding aid sources was geographical proximity. Because archives commonly emphasize local history, it is surmised that the geographic proximity of the archives would yield a higher rate of co-referencing (for example, a correspondent in one finding aid is the creator in another), and thus provide corroborating evidence of social-professional relations. Another very important consideration was encoding consistency, and thus the project emphasized consortia with high quality control standards.

Three institutions are contributing authority records that will be matched and merged with the derived EAC-CPF records. The Library of Congress has made the NACO/Library of Congress Name Authority File (LCNAF) available for project use (3.8M personal and 900K corporate name records). The Getty Vocabulary Program has contributed the Union List of Artist Names (ULAN) (293K personal and corporate names). Finally, OCLC Research has made available the subset of the Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) that intersects with the LCNAF available to the project. The VIAF, for now, only contains personal names.

Separating Description of People from Description of Records
There are several interrelated intellectual and practical rationales for separating the descriptions of people from the description of the records that document their lives. These rationales are based on archival processing efficiencies, the intellectual quality and depth of resource description, and enhanced access to primary humanities resources for all users.

Cooperative Authority Control. Authority control is labor-intensive, and sharing the creation, maintenance, and use of authority data improves catalogers’ productivity. Sharing descriptions of creators and people and organizations documented in archival records saves time and labor.

Integrated Access to and Context for Cultural Heritage. Integrated, union access to archival authority records can be used to locate and identify people, organizations, and families, and these records in turn can lead to cultural heritage resources through links to descriptions or dynamically generated searches of catalogs. An archival authority record can provide not just contextual information for understanding archival resources, but also access to and context for understanding all that constitutes the human record and our cultural heritage.

Biographical/Historical Resource. In addition to name control, archival authority records provide biographical/historical data about the creator, such as when and where the creator existed, significant activities and functions performed by the creator, and other significant dates, places, and events. This historical information can be used as an independent resource that can assist users in identifying and learning about the described entity.

Social/Historical Context. People live and work with other people, both as individuals and as members of families and organizations. These social and professional relations are reflected in records created by them and consequently in the descriptions of the records. Archival authority control records provide a potential means to systematically gather and document these social and professional relations in links that interrelate descriptions of people, organizations, and families. This documentation can provide convenient access to the broad social-historical contexts within which corporate bodies, persons, and families were active, and convenient, navigable access to related or complementary resources.

Methods and Processing Overview
There are three ways in which technology is being used in the SNAC Project. First, using Extensible Markup Language–Transformation (XSLT), the project is deriving EAC-CPF records from EAD-encoded finding aids for record creators and people referenced in the description The co-occurrence of names in the description of a single collection documents either a social-professional or intellectual relation between the named entities. Some occurrences can specifically be identified as correspondents, thus confirming a social-professional relation.. Initially the project is focusing on extracting names, biographical-historical data, occupations, dates of existence, and languages used that are clearly and specifically encoded in the finding aids. Later in the project, natural language processing techniques will be used to experiment with extracting names and other targeted descriptive data that appear in the description but that are not encoded specifically. Second, the extracted EAC-CPF records are being matched against one another and against NACO/Library of Congress Name Authority File (LCNAF) records, Union List of Artist Names (ULAN) authority records, and finally Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) aggregated authority records. Unique data in matching records is being merged or combined into a single EAC-CPF record. Finally, the project is developing a prototype public access and socio-historical resource system based on the collection of unique EAC-CPF records created and interrelated.

This paper will address the first step in the processing, deriving EAC-CPF records from archival finding aids. The matching and merging and development of the prototype system will be addressed in separate papers.

Deriving EAC-CPF Records
The principal technologies involved in the derivation process are XSLT 2.0 and XPath 2.0, with relatively heavy use of regular expressions and customized functions. Initially in the project, the focus is on identifying and deriving individual records from the following EAD tag components: <persname>, <corpname>, and <famname> that occur within <origination>, <controlaccess>, and <unittitle>. Personal, corporate, and family names derived from <origination> and <controlaccess> are generally formulated according to strict cataloging rules (AACR2, for American archives and libraries), though challenges are presented by names that are poorly formulated (for example, in direct rather than inverted order, and intermixed with non-name data, subject subdivisions or uniform titles). While many names occurring within <unittitle> are tagged as such, many occur without being tagged as names. The tagged names found in <unittitle>, like those found in <controlaccess>, are irregularly formatted. Regular customized functions and named templates, many incorporating the use of regular expressions, are used to isolate and normalize the name strings, and to create unique lists of names.

For each unique name string found, an EAC-CPF record is created. For records derived for creators, additional descriptive data for dates of existence, occupation, subject headings assigned to records, languages used, and biographical-historical information is extracted into the corresponding EAC-CPF records. Additionally, all unique referenced names are related to the EAC-CPF record for the creator, and for each an EAC-CPF record is also created, and related to the record for the creator. Because of co-referencing among finding aids (for example, the same person corresponded with two more record creators), the resulting set of records derived from any set of finding aids contains more than one EAC-CPF record describing the same entity. Thus while duplicate entries are not created for named entities found in a particular finding aid, duplicate or, more accurately, matching records are created in the processing of all of the finding aids.

Conclusion
While SNAC has only been underway for five months, the Library of Congress, Online Archive of California, and Northwest Digital Archive finding aids have been processed to derive nearly 160,000 EAC-CPF records. The matching and merging processing at SI/UCB began in September 2010, after several weeks devoted to acquiring and indexing several million VIAF, ULAN, and LCNAF authority records in preparation for the matching and merging processing. The initial release of the prototype public historical resource and access system was in December 2011. Though many challenges remain, the early results suggest that the data and the methods and techniques being applied are highly effective. The deriving, and matching and merging processing will continue to be refined, and the prototype public system will continue to be refined and new features developed.

Matching and Merging EAC-CPF Records

Larson, Ray, University of California, Berkeley. School of Information, ray@ischool.berkeley.edu


Janakiraman, Krishna, University of California, Berkeley. School of Information, krishna.j@berkeley.edu

Introduction
Our interests in cultural heritage, history, and the social sciences are fundamentally about human activities. Understanding the circumstances of people’s actions—who, what, when, how, and why—illuminates their lives and the events that they experienced. While much information of interest to scholars is already available in the collections of cultural institutions such as archives and libraries, there is a significant gap in the information infrastructure for dealing with information about people. Standards for the computerized handling people’s names have been developed in libraries (such as MARC Authorities). With the development of the EAC-CPF (Encoded Archival Context–Corporate Bodies, Persons, and Families) standard, a similar capability is just now becoming available to archival collections. The Social Networks and Archival Collections (SNAC) project aims to start bridging that gap and to connect the information about corporate bodies, persons and families in the library world with those entities in the archival world.

This paper reports on current experiments in matching and merging entities in collections of EAC-CPF records with those in library authority files and other sources. EAC-CPF records represent the entities (which can be individuals or groups of individuals) mentioned in archival description records and can be derived from the EAD (Encoded Archival Description) records that encode description of archival collections. EAD records, created by archivists and librarians, serve as vital finding aids. Information on entities in these records is an invaluable reference for humanities scholars, particularly since entities may be referenced and represented in multiple archival descriptions.

EAC-CPF records encode extensive information about an entity, drawn from various parts of the source records. In addition to basic identifying information (name, type, occupation(s), and existence dates), they include an entity’s relationship(s) with other entities, resources, and works. Since EAC-CPF records are derived independently from each EAD record, there can be multiple records representing the same entity in multiple EAD collections. A key problem, then, is to identify multiple EAC-CPF records that represent the same entity and merge them together into a single record.

SNAC has been given an extensive collection of library Name Authority records, including the Library of Congress Name Authority File (LCNAF), the Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) from OCLC Research, and the Union List of Artists Names (ULAN) from the Getty Vocabulary Program. The VIAF database combines name authority files from a number of libraries worldwide, including the Library of Congress, La Bibliothèque nationale de France, Deutsche Nationalbibliothek, and the Vatican Library. SNAC’s current implementations use either an exact string match criteria or the alternate name information from the name authority files to match entities in the EAC-CPF collection.

Related Work
Our problem is similar to the well-studied entity name disambiguation problem, where the task is to identify the correct entity, under a given context, from a set of seemingly identical entities. Standard approaches use statistical learning techniques, either performing supervised learning and train classifiers that predict the relevance of an entity given a context or performing unsupervised learning and design clustering techniques that cluster similar entities together. As an example of the former, Bunescu and Pasca (Bunescu and Pasca, 2006) suggest a method that trains Support Vector Machines (SVM) classifiers to disambiguate entities using the Wikipedia corpus. The classifier was trained using features extracted from the title, hyperlinks linking other entities, categories assigned to the entity and Wikipedia’s redirect and disambiguate pages. Bagga and Baldwin (Bagga and Baldwin, 1998) and Mann and Yarowsky (Mann and Yarowsky, 2003) are examples of the latter technique, where similar entities are clustered using features extracted from entity’s biographical information, words from sentences surrounding the entity in texts and entity’s social network and relationships. Other techniques involve using gazetteers and name authority files as external references to aid the disambiguation process. Smith and Crane (Smith and Crane, 2001), for example, use gazetteers to disambiguate geographic place names.

SNAC’s focus is more precisely a clustering problem rather than a classification problem, since we want to group, in an unsupervised way, EAC-CPF records belonging to the same entity. While some of the work mentioned above uses sophisticated techniques to discover entities in the text, the EAC-CPF standard provides direct access to the name and other information about the entity. This, combined with the availability of the name authority files, allows use of simpler algorithms based on exact string match and authority file look up for matching entities.

Implementation
We have 158,079 EAC-CPF records — 114,639 persons, 41,177 corporate bodies and 2,263 family names — derived from Library of Congress, the Online Archive of California, and Northwest Digital Archive EAD records. The records were parsed with the EAC-CPF specification to extract information on an entity’s name, type, and relations, stored in a relational database. Preferred and alternate names from the VIAF name authority files were indexed using the Cheshire II information retrieval engine (Larson et.al, 1996), which uses a probabilistic information retrieval algorithm to find the top n VIAF records and their associated names given an entity name. We mapped each EAC-CPF entity to names from top n VIAF records (currently the top five VIAF records). These mappings are also represented in a relational database.

The primary approach is based on the simple hypothesis that two EAC-CPF records belong to the same entity if the entity names exactly match. This simple technique reduced the total number of unique records to 129,915. This meant that EAC-CPF records with different names belonging to the same entity were not matched. This was often due to the presence of existence dates in the name fields (e.g., “Einstein, Albert, 1879-1955” will not match “Einstein, Albert”).

Our second technique uses the hypothesis that entities referring to the same name authority record must be the same. Our database and index setup made this easy. For a given pair of entities, we search the entity VIAF names mapping table for alternate names for the first entity. If the second entity’s name appears in the first entity’s list of possible alternate names, we consider the two entities to be the same. Match results are parameterized by how liberal the search is: including names from all the top five ranked VIAF records would result in a higher number of matches but fewer accurate matches. Using names from higher ranked VIAF records would give a lower number of matches with better accuracy. However, evaluation of the technique showed that using the best matching or top ranked VIAF record reduced the number of unique EAC-CPF records to 124,657, or 5248 records less than what was achieved using the exact name match technique. This was contrary to our expectations and further evaluation suggested that it was a result of either subtle differences in the way the names are spelled and punctuated or the use of names that are not present in the authority files. Using lower ranked VIAF records reduced the number of unique records but introduced serious matching errors and was not a viable option.

Conclusions
We have described our current implementations that match and merge EAC-CPF records belonging to the same entity. Our implementations use exact name match as the criteria or use the name authority files as an external reference to disambiguate and find matches. Our current technique finds mostly accurate matches; false matches occur only when there are two different entities with the same name or when the name authority file has inaccurate information. Although it is possible for different entities to have the same name, the use of existence dates can differentiate the names and given that the VIAF record combines information from institutions with rigorous standards, it is unlikely that the records will have inaccurate information.

However, our current approach still fails to identify many possible matches. The main reasons seem to be subtle variations in names and punctuation or use of names that are not present in the authority files. To handle spelling issues, we plan to experiment on using string comparison algorithms (such as “edit distance” algorithms) and use comparison results as features for a clustering algorithm. We will also experiment with other information about the entities, such as their biographies, relations with other entities, works produced, etc., and external sources such as DBPedia. However, because entity description records are created for individual archives, it is possible that this additional information is non-redundant and therefore not useful for matching purposes.

References:
Bagga, A. Baldwin, B. 1998 “Entity-based Cross-document coreferencing using the vector space model, ” Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Computational Linguistics, 1 79-85

Bunescu, R. Pasca, M. 2006 “Using encyclopedic knowledge for named entity disambiguation, ” Proceedings of EACL, 6

Larson, R. R. McDonough, J. O’Leary, P. Kuntz, L. Moon, R. 1996 “Cheshire II: Designing a next-generation online catalog, ” Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 47 7 555-567

Mann, G. S. Yarowsky, D. 2003 “Unsupervised personal name disambiguation, ” Proceedings of the Seventh Conference on Natural Language Learning at HLT-NAACL 2003, 4 33-40

Smith, D. Crane, G. 2001 “Disambiguating geographic names in a historical digital library, ” Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries, 127-136

Paper Three: The Social Networks and Archival Context Project: Developing a Prototype Historical Resource and Access System

Brian Tingle, California Digital Library, brian.tingle.cdlib.org@gmail.com

Introduction
While authority file interfaces for library authority control is reasonably well understood, archival authority records provide more detailed description and possibly extensive entries to related persons, corporate bodies, and families, and related resources. This paper will explore the opportunities and challenges faced in designing and implementing a public interface to access the unique archival authority record aggregations created by the SNAC project.

The prototype access system (link) strives to enable humanities researchers to make use of archival context records that describe individuals, families, and formally organized groups to find resources and identify social and professional relations that are hard to discover using existing research tools and techniques. Existing methods require searching and exploring dispersed archival finding aids and using the descriptions found to further search and explore dispersed finding aids. The SNAC access system does this work for the researcher, bringing this information together in a searchable database and exposing the discovered social graph as open linked data.

The prototype was made available for public testing on December 17, 2010. From December 17, 2010, through February 17, 2011, the site had 47,857 visits and 104,223 page views, with 91.37% of traffic coming from Google searches. An iterative development model is being utilized, and user feedback on the prototype will help us to identify and prioritize ongoing development activities. New features are released into the prototype site on an ongoing basis, as they are developed. Grant-funded interface development will cease in April 2012 with the completion of the project. Source code for the access interface is also available as open source software (link) .

A copy of the social graph derived from the research data was released as a graphML file (link) on February 17, 2011, under the Open Data Commons Attribution License (link) . Analysis is ongoing to figure out the optimal way to represent the social graph in a conventional RDF model (such as with the FOAF ontology).

Technical Infrastructure
The semantics and structure of the records based on the EAC-CPF schema has been the starting point of the initial prototype. The prototype is being built as an application of the eXtensible Text Framework (XTF) and will support search, display, and navigation of EAC-CPF records (link) . The Tinkerpop Graph Processing Stack (link) is also being utilized by the project to load the relationships recorded in the derived EAC records into a graph database and exposing it though a REST API to the interactive graph visualizations in the prototype interface. The Tinkerpop stack is compatible with linked data technologies through the RDF Sail interface, and will be used as the platform to expose the project’s data as linked data when the semantic modeling is complete.

Current and Future Development
The access system being developed resembles library systems based on authority control, but the EAC-CPF archival authority records are far more complex than those created by the library community. In addition to entry control (authorized and alternative names), the archival authority records frequently have biographical-historical data, occupation, dates of existence, languages used, as well links to related people and resources. An additional challenge is presented by relative quantities of descriptive data found in each record. Some records have as many as 50 or more alternative names, scores of subject headings, more than 50 related persons, families, or corporate bodies, and many linked archival finding aids or titles. Other descriptions are quite brief, based on the name occurring in one finding aid and failing to match an authority record. Finding the right method for displaying and facilitating navigation of this data presents many challenges.

The initial prototype focuses on searching, browsing and displaying the EAC-CPF records as formatted web pages for researchers. Both full text (description less control data) and specific component searches are supported. Full text searches are weighted to give preference to matches in the <identity> section of the record, where all forms of the name of the entity discovered in the derivation, matching, and merging processes are listed. Limiting a search to the <identity> section restricts the retrieval to just the forms of name found in the section, and thus excludes matches in other parts of the description, such as in entries for related named entities. As users enter searches, authorized forms of names are suggested. Users can browse the top occupations and subjects in addition to an alphabetical index of all names in the database. The alphabetical index feature is likely to become less useful as the number of records increases. (At this date, there are over 123,920 named entities.) Search results can be narrowed down to names that have a particular occupation or subject term associated, or restricted to entity type, such as person, corporate body, or family.

In the initial prototype, a wide variety of data and links are displayed to the user. For each EAC-CPF record, the following descriptive components are displayed: authoritative name, alternative names, dates of existence, sex, affiliated countries, occupations, subject terms used in describing related archival records (for record creators), and biographical/historical description (either as prose or a chronological list). In addition to the above biographical/historical data, the following linked information will also be displayed: related persons, corporate bodies, and families; descriptions of related archival records (that is, finding aids within which the name was discovered), published work by or about the described entity. Links are also provided to a matching Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) record, when one is identified as matching.

Though the outbound links to finding aids and VIAF records are currently implemented, the internal ""links,"" for now, are implemented as searches.

While the derivation, matching, and merging processing continues, the persistence of any given EAC-CPF record cannot be ensured: a record may be merged into another record in subsequent processing, so it is difficult to assign persistent identifiers or addresses in links to related entities. Once the deriving, matching, and merging is complete (late in the project), links to associated persons, corporate bodies, and families will directly retrieve the related records.

The list of titles for resources by and about the described entity that have been gathered in the record is currently inactive. We anticipate eventually using entries in this list to query WorldCat. When the project is complete, additional links will be made to descriptions of named entities in DBpedia and WorldCat Identities, where matching entries are found. Also under consideration is offering users the opportunity to use authoritative and alternative name entries to search a selection of archive, library, and museum access systems, and public resources such as Google, Bing, and Flickr.

Another objective of SNAC is to employ a display and navigation tool to graphically display and facilitate the navigation of the social and professional networks discovered and documented in the EAC-CPF records and their relations to one another. Visualization of abstract networks is a well-studied problem and there are many tools available that support the graphML file format that the project has used to represent the historical social graph released under an open license. The project’s objective is to develop a visualization and navigation interface that will make it possible for humanities researchers to explore and discover social-professional relations and related resources that would be difficult to explore and discover using simple lists. Experimentation with appropriate graph visualization and navigation interfaces is ongoing at","txt","2","",""
"1392","12","Visualization of Co-occurrence Relationships Using the Historical Persons and Locational Names from Historical Documents","2","Visualization of Co-occurrence Relationships Using the Historical Persons and Locational Names from Historical Documents
Itsubo, Sho, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, Japan, cm001061@ed.ritsumei.ac.jp
Osaki, Takahiko, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, Japan, cm003060@ed.ritsumei.ac.jp
Kimura, Fuminori, College of Information Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, Japan, fkimura@is.ritsumei.ac.jp
Tezuka, Taro, College of Information Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, Japan, tezuka@media.ritsumei.ac.jp
Maeda, Akira, College of Information Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, Japan, amaeda@media.ritsumei.ac.jp
Introduction
In recent years, there is an increasing use of digital technology in the study of humanities. Many historical documents are now digitally archived, enabling further analysis using computers. There are archives that are accessible on the World Wide Web, including Union Catalog of the Collections of the National Art Museums, Japan (Independent Administrative Institution National Museum of Art, 2010) and Perseus Digital Library (Crane, 2011).

Until recently, the storage of historical documents and data has been the main target of digital archive research. There are, however, many works that go on to analyze the content of the historical documents using text mining techniques. In this paper, we propose a method of visualizing relationships among historical persons using personal names and place names appearing in documents.

Proposed Methods
We propose two methods to extract and visualize the relationships among persons from historical documents. The goal of two methods is to extract dynamics of relationships among historical persons. The first method tracks temporal change in a relationship and visualizes it. The second method utilizes locational information to obtain latent relationships among persons based on their spatial activities.

Personal Relationships Using the Co-occurrence Information between Persons
We use three historical documents in Japan, “Azumakagami”, “Gyokuyou” and “Hyohanki”. “Azumakagami” is an official record written in Kamakura period (A.D.1180-1266). “Gyokuyou” is a personal diary written by Kanezane Kujou (A.D.1164-1200) in the late Heian period from early Kamakura period. “Hyohanki” is a personal diary written by Nobunori Taira (A.D.1112-1187) in late Heian period. We first extracted persons’ names using “Azumakagami” and “Gyokuyou” databases (Fukuda, 2002) that contains an index of persons. This is because in historical Japanese documents, persons are often referred to using other names besides their real names. The index of persons includes such cases also. Since the three historical documents are diaries, we defined co-occurrence to be the case where two persons appearing in the same date. We calculated co-occurrence frequencies among persons for each year.

Personal Relationships Using the Co-occurrence Information between Person and Locational Information
In this method, we used “Hyohanki”. In the first step, we obtain frequencies of co-occurrences between each person’s name and place names. Since “Hyohanki” is written in ancient Japanese, we cannot attach part-of-speech tags using existing morphological analyzers that were trained using modern Japanese. We therefore used pattern matching to find place names that were included in the dictionary. We used the “Index of Kyoto’s Place Names” created by Noboru Tani based on the “Outline of Heiankyo” (Tsunoda, 1994) and “Japan’s Historical Place Names 27: Place Names of Kyoto” (Hayashiya et al., 1979) as the data sources for place names.

We use co-occurrence as the indicator of the relationship between a person and a location. If a person’s name and a place name appear in the same paragraph, we consider it as a co-occurrence between the two. Since each paragraph often covers a specific situation or a topic, we consider it to be a better unit than dates.

Each place name is considered as a dimension of a vector space. For each person, we create a vector having the number of co-occurrences with a place name as the component. For the similarity measure, we used cosine similarity.

We use the similarity measure and the result of clustering for visualization. We used JUNG, a Java open source library for drawing graph structure.

Results of Visualization and Discussion
The result of visualizing temporal change in a relationship

Figure 1-3 show the results of visualization using the method described in Subsection 2.1. Figure 1 shows the change in the relationships of Yoritomo Minamoto and Yoshitsune Minamoto to Emperor Goshirakawa for seven years (from 1184 to 1190).

Fig. 1. Transition of relationships of Yoritomo Minamoto and Yoshitsune Minamoto to Emperor Goshirakawa

Full Size Image

The horizontal axis is the co-occurrence frequency between Emperor Goshirakawa and Yoritomo Minamoto, who became Shogun (the leader of samurai warriors) in 1192. The vertical axis is the co-occurrence frequency between Emperor Goshirakawa and Yoshitsune Minamoto, who is a younger brother and the archrival of Yoritomo. The arrows indicate the transition based on “Azumakagami”, while the dot arrows indicate the transition based on “Gyokuyou”.
The result illustrates the change in the relationship among Yoritomo, Yoshitsune and Emperor Goshirakawa. The change in 1184-1187 indicated by the arrow closely resembles that of the blue allow. The change also matches well with the historical fact. Transitions in 1187-1190 are different among two documents. This is assumed to be due to the fact that “Azumakagami” is a diary written by the Shogunate side and “Gyokuyou” is a diary written by the Imperial court side. The relationship between Yoritomo Minamoto and Yoshitsune Minamoto, who were both samurai warriors, are probably not described well enough in “Gyokuyou”.

Figure 2 shows the change in the relationships of Yoritomo Minamoto and Emperor Goshirakawa to Yoshiyasu Ichijou for seven years (from 1185 to 1191).

Fig. 2. Transition of relationships of Yoritomo Minamoto and Emperor Goshirakawa to Yoshiyasu Ichijou

Full Size Image

The horizontal axis is the co-occurrence frequency between Yoshiyasu Ichijou and Yoritomo Minamoto. The vertical axis is the co-occurrence frequency between Yoshiyasu Ichijou and Emperor Goshirakawa. The arrows indicate the transition based on “Azumakagami”, while the dot arrows indicate the transition based on “Gyokuyou”.
The result illustrates the change in the relationship among Yoritomo, Emperor Goshirakawa and Yoshiyasu. Yoshiyasu is a person who was active on the emperor side and the samurai side. Therefore, the relation between Yoritomo and Emperor Goshirakawa is strong. However, the change is different in “Azumakagami” and “Gyokuyou”.“Azumakagami” is the content of the samurai side and “Gyokuyou” is the content of the emperor side. Figure 2 shows the feature of two historical documents clearly.

Figure 3 shows the change in the relationships of Kiyomori Taira and Emperor Goshirakawa to Motofusa Fujiwara for the six years (from 1166 to 1171).

Fig. 3. Transition of relationships of Kiyomori Taira and Emperor Goshirakawa to Motofusa Fujiwara

Full Size Image

The horizontal axis is the co-occurrence frequency between Motofusa Fujiwara and Kiyomori Taira. The vertical axis is the co-occurrence frequency between Motofusa Fujiwara and Emperor Goshirakawa. The arrows indicate the transition based on “Gyokuyou”, while the dot arrows indicate the transition based on “Hyohanki”.
The result illustrates the change in the relationship among Kiyomori, Emperor Goshirakawa and Motofusa. “Gyokuyou” is the content of the emperor side and the author of “Hyohanki” is a person on the emperor side. Therefore, the contents of two historical documents are similar and the transition of Figure 3 is also similar. The results suggest the possibility of estimating author's standpoint from the document.

The Result of Visualizing Latent Relationships using Locational Information
Using our proposed method of 2.2, we created graphs that visualize relationships between historical persons. We focused on the time range of Hougen Rebellion, starting in early July 1156 and ending in late July of the same year.

Hougen Rebellion is a short civil war caused by a power struggle between Emperor Goshirakawa and former Emperor Sutoku.

We chose 78 persons belonging to either the faction following former Emperor Sutoku or the faction following Emperor Goshirakawa (Hyohanki Reading Circle, 2007). Most of them are aristocrats and samurai warriors. It is distinguishable from historical records to which faction each person belonged to. In “Hyohanki”, 31 of these persons had co-occurrence with location names. We used K = 3 for K-means clustering and L = 20 for initialization. K is the number of clusters used in K-means clustering. L is the number of repetitions for finding the optimal initial centroids.

Figure 4 shows the result of visualization using the similarity of co-occurring location names.

Fig. 4. Relationships among persons and historical factions

Full Size Image

The number next to the node and the color indicates to which faction each person belonged to. A node labeled “1” (box) indicates that he followed Sutoku. On the other hand, a node labeled “2” (circle) indicates that he followed Goshirakawa. Lines are drawn when similarity is over 0.4. Dotted lines indicate similarity between 0.4 and 0.7. Solid lines indicate similarity over 0.7.
Figure 5 shows the result of clustering. The number next to each node indicates to which cluster the person was allocated to.

Fig. 5. Result of clustering persons using locational information

Full Size Image

Colors also indicate clusters. The cluster 1 is box, the cluster 2 is circle, and the cluster 3 is triangle. Table 1 shows to which cluster and to which faction each person belonged to.
Table. 1. Comparisons of factions and clusters

Full Size Image

We proposed a method of revealing and visualizing relationships among historical persons by focusing on place names appearing in digitized historical documents. We used cosine similarity and a modified K-means algorithm to create graphs and cluster persons.

In the experiments, we used persons that we know to which faction he belonged to during the Hougen Rebellion. The result showed a strong correspondence between the factions and the clusters, indicating effectiveness of using location information for clustering people.

Conclusion
The results of our experiments showed that relationships between historical persons can be extracted using historical documents. The experiment described in Subsection 3.1 showed that temporal change of a relationship can be visualized using change in co-occurrence frequencies. The experiment described in Subsection 3.2 indicated a strong correspondence between the factions and the clusters, indicating effectiveness of using location information for clustering people.

References:
Independent Administrative Institution National Museum of Art 2010 Union Catalog of the Collections of the National Art Museums (link) 14 March 2011

Crane,G.R. 2011 Perseus Digital Library (link) 14 March 2011

Fukuda,T. 2002 Azumakagami-Gyokuyou Database

Tsunoda,B. 1994 The Outline of Heiankyo

Hayashiya,T. Murai,Y. Moriya,K. 1979 Japan’s Historical Place Names 27: Place Names of Kyoto

Sakai,M. Yamada, S. Onoda,T. 2010 Initialization of k-means method using independent component analysis The 24th annual meeting of the Japanese Society for Artificial Intelligence

Hyohanki Reading Circle 2007 The Index of Hyohanki’s Persons’ Names","txt","2","",""
"1393","13","Dynamics and Diversity: Exploring European and Transnational Perspectives on Digital Humanities Research Infrastructures","8","In my talk I would like to reflect on Digital Humanities and Research infrastructures from an international and interdisciplinary perspective. Preserving and documenting cultural and linguistic variety is not only one of the most important challenges linked to the development and future impact of Digital Humanities on scholarly work and methodologies, it is also one of the key elements to be considered in the field of policy making and research funding at the European and international level. I will explore this by reflecting on Digital Humanities and its outcomes from the perspectives of cultural history and linguistic and interdisciplinary diversity; I will also tackle key questions related to building multi-level inter- and transdisciplinary projects and transnational research infrastructures. In addition to considering how Digital Humanities can extend and transform existing scholarly practice I will also consider how it is fostering the emergence of new cultural practices that look beyond established academic circles, for example, interactions between Digital Humanities and works of art.
Biographical Note
Claudine Moulin studied German and English philology in Brussels and Bamberg, receiving post-doctoral research grants for manuscript studies in Oxford. She was a Heisenberg fellow of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG); since 2003 she holds the chair for German Philology/ Historical Linguistics at the University of Trier/Germany and is the Scientific Director of the Trier Centre for Digital Humanities. She has published monographs and articles in the domain of text editing, digital lexicography, glossography, historical linguistics, and manuscript and annotation studies. She is a founding member of the Historisch-Kulturwissenschaftliches Forschungszentrum (HKFZ Trier). She is a member of the Standing Committee for the Humanities of the European Science Foundation (ESF) and speaker of the ESF-Expert Group on Research Infrastructures in the Humanities. She was recipient of the Academy Award of Rhineland-Palatinate in 2010, Academy of Sciences and Literature, Mainz.
C. Moulin is co-editor of the linguistic journal Sprachwissenschaft and of the series ‘Germanistische Bibliothek‘; together with Julianne Nyhan and Arianna Ciula (et al.) she has published in 2011 the ESF-Science Policy Briefing on Research Infrastructures in the Humanities (http://www.esf.org/research-areas/humanities/strategic-activities/research-infrastructures-in-the-humanities.html)","txt","2","",""
"1394","13","Embracing a Distant View of the Digital Humanities","8","How should cultures transmit what they believe to be of vital importance from their own culture in its period of decline to another culture on the rise? This question, taken as one of the most challenging by contemporary historians, might well be posed themselves by DH scholars for the purpose of recognizing the magnitude of the problem they have been confronting and the significance of the endeavor they have been undertaking in the domain of the humanities. The variety of efforts that cannot but be included with the aims of each individual project, when combined together in a single arena such as DH 2012, will in the end be found to have been dedicated to the larger project of the constructing of ‘another culture on the rise’ on a global scale in this age of drastic transformation of the medium of knowledge. To keep this sort of ‘distant view’ of DH in mind, while it seems to have no immediate, sensible influence on our day-to-day ‘close views,’ though, would be inevitable. Inevitable not only in the making of untiring efforts to improve research environments amidst bewildering changes of technologies, but also in positively inviting new, unknown, unprecedented enterprises into the domain of DH. DH in its diverse forms should therefore assimilate into its identity the ostensively incommensurate aspects of steadfastness and flexibility. Among the numerous approaches that might be taken for understanding this peculiar identity of DH, I would like to demonstrate the significance of Digital Humanities research of Buddhist scriptures appropriately placed in the longer view of the history of the humanities.
Biographical Note
Masahiro Shimoda is a Professor in Indian Philosophy and Buddhist Studies with a cross appointment in the Digital Humanities Section of the Center for Evolving Humanities at the University of Tokyo. He has been Visiting Professor at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University College London (2006), Visiting Professor at Stanford University (2010), and is presently Visiting Research Fellow at University of Virginia (2012). He is the president of Japanese Association for Digital Humanities established last September (2011), and the chair of the trans-school program of Digital Humanities at the University of Tokyo, which has started on the 1st April 2012 in the collaborative program among the Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Information Studies, the Graduate School of Humanities and Sociology, and the Center for Structuring Knowledge. As his main project, Shimoda has launched since 2010 with government granted budget ‘the construction of academic Buddhist knowledge base in international alliance.’ This multi-nodal project, comprising seven major projects of self-financed agencies (Indo-Tibetan Lexical Resources at University of Hamburg, Hobogirin project at École Français d’Étrême Orient, Pali Text Compilation Project at Dhammacai Institute in Thai, Digital Dictionary of Buddhism in Tokyo etc.) with SAT (Chinese Buddhist Text Corpus Project at the University of Tokyo) placed as their hub, aims at providing a variety of research resources for Buddhist studies such as the primary sources, secondary resources, catalogues, dictionaries, lexicons and translations, all databases interlinked to each other at a deep structural level.","txt","2","",""
"1395","13","Approaches to the Treatment of Primary Materials in Digital Lexicons: Examples of the New Generation of Digital Lexicons for Buddhist Studies","3","introduction
problem statement
It has been and still is one of the core aims in German Digital Humanities to establish large reference corpora for the historical periods of German, i.e. Old and Middle High German, Early New High German (ENHG), New High German and Contemporary German (NHG). This panel focusses on NHG and ENHG. A reference corpus of the 17th to 19th century German is currently being compiled by the Deutsches Textarchiv project at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities (BBAW). The Herzog August Bibliothek Wolfenbüttel (HAB) constructs text corpora encompassing the period between the 15th and the 18th century, with a focus on ENHG. Apart from core activities like these, that usually are carried out by institutions for long time research such as academies, research centers and research libraries, many digital resources are created by individual scholars or small project teams. Often, however, such resources never show up in the pool of publicly available research corpora.
Building an integrated corpus infrastructure for large corpora of ENHG and NHG faces three main problems:
1.        Despite the growing acceptance of annotation standards such as the TEI, there are different ‘encoding dialects’ and baseline formats used in different contexts (e.g. TextGrid Baseline Encoding, the TEI-Encoding recommended by HAB, the ›base format‹ of the DTA, and others). Neither one has gained wider acceptance nor have they been checked against each other. As a result, repositories of digital documents do not apply consistent, interoperable encoding. In addition, users cannot draw on these resources in an integrated way.
2.        There is no approved system of evaluation for both the quality of corpus texts and the quality of the encoding. In addition, there is no reputation system for crediting individual researchers’ accomplishments with respect to the production and annotation of corpus texts. As a consequence, there is no ‘culture of sharing corpus resources’ in a collaborative way in the research community.
3.        The vision of an integrated historical corpus of German and an integrated research platform is inconflict with the principle of local ascription of scholarly work. While the user would like to have oneplace to find all the available corpus texts and one platform to run the available corpus tools, each academy, each institute, each library, each research project and even individual researchers need to produce work and resources ascribable in a local or even in a personal way.
panel topics
Well-established infrastructure projects such as TextGrid, CLARIN or DARIAH can contribute enormously to the process of integration by establishing methods of interoperation, a system of quality assurance and credit, and a set of technical practices that allow to integrate resources of different origin, to credit the producers of resources in an appropriate way, to ensure public access in a persistent way and thereby to involve a greater scholarly community.
The proposed panel, organized by the Deutsches Textarchiv at the BBAW, the Special Interest Group ‘Deutsche Philologie’ (‘German Philology’) in CLARIN-D and the HAB Wolfenbüttel, will demonstrate how efforts for community-building, text aggregation, the technical realization of interoperability and the collaboration of two large infrastructure centers (BBAW and HAB) is set to work in the digital publication platforms of the Deutsches Textarchiv (BBAW) and AEDit (HAB).
Technical requirements include tools for long-term archiving as well as the implementation and documentation of reference formats. Interfaces need to be standardized, easy to handle and well documented to minimize the user’s effort to upload their resources. Transparent criteria have to be developed regarding the expected quality, the encoding level and requirements for interoperability of texts in the repository. The DTA provides a large corpus of historical texts of various genres, a heterogeneous text base encoded in one consistent format (i.e. DTA ‘base format’). Facilities for quality assurance (DTAQ) and for the integration of external text resources (DTAE) have been developed.
the dta ‘base format’
Haaf, Susanne, Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Deutsches Textarchiv, Germany, haaf@bbaw.de
Geyken, Alexander, Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Deutsches Textarchiv, Germany, geyken@bbaw.de
The DTA ‘base format’ consists of about 80 TEI P5 <text>-elements which are needed for the basic formal and semantic structuring of the DTA reference corpus. The purpose of developing the ›base format‹ was to gain coherence at the annotation level, given the heterogeneity of the DTA text material over time (1650-1900) and text types (fiction, functional and scientific texts). The restrictive selection of ‘base format’ elements with their corresponding attributes and values is supposed to cover all annotation requirements for a similar level of structuring of historical texts. We will illustrate this by means of characteristic annotation examples taken from the DTA reference corpus.
We will compare the DTA ‘base format’ to other existing base formats considering their different purposes and discuss the usability of the DTA ‘base format’ in a broader context (DTAE, CLARIN-D). A special adaptation of the oXygen TEI-framework which supports the work with the DTA ‘base format’ will be presented.
dtae
Thomas, Christian, Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Deutsches Textarchiv, Germany, thomas@bbaw.de
DTAE is a software module provided by the DTA for external projects interested in integrating their historical text collections into the DTA reference corpus. DTAE provides routines for uploading metadata, text and images, as well as semiautomatic conversion tools from different source formats into the DTA ‘base format’. The text- and metadata are indexed for lemma-based full text search and processed with tools for presentation in order to offer parallel views of the source image, the XML/TEI encoded text as well as a rendered HTML presentation layer. In addition, external contributors can integrate the processed text into their own web site via <iframe> and use the DTA-query-API for full text queries. DTAE demonstrates how interchange and interoperability among projects can work on a large scale. The paper illustrates these issues by example of five selected cooperation projects. Possibilities (and limits) of the exchange of TEI documents will be discussed as well as the difficult, but worthwhile task of converting other/older text formats into DTA ‘base format’.
dtaq
Wiegand, Frank, Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Deutsches Textarchiv, Germany, wiegand@bbaw.de
DTAQ is a browser-based tool to find, categorize, and correct different kinds of errors or inconsistencies occuring during the XML/TEI-transcription resp. the optical character recognition of texts. Using a simple authentication system combined with a fine-grained access control system, new users can easily be added to this Quality Assurance system. The GUI of the tool is highly customizable and provides various views of source images, XML-transcriptions, and HTML-presentations. The backend of DTAQ is built upon many open source packages. Using Perl as a glue language, the system runs on Catalyst, connects to a PostgreSQL database via the DBIx::Class ORM and builds its web pages with Template Toolkit. The frontend makes heavy use of jQueryand Highcharts JS to create a very interactive and responsive user interface.
the project aedit
Stäcker, Thomas, Herzog August Bibliothek Wolfenbüttel, Germany, staecker@hab.de
In the field of digital humanities there is a great demand for trustworthy platforms or repositories that aggregate, archive, make available and disseminate scholarly texts or databases. AEDit (Archiving, Editing, Disseminating) aims at establishing such a platform at the HAB Wolfenbüttel for documents with a focus on ENHG. Partners and contributors of the initial phase are four outstanding editorial projects from the German academy program. Central issues will be addressed, e.g. creating persistent identifiers at word level by IDs or Xpointer, determining the relation of community specific markup to basic text encoding by means of stand-off markup, defining a basic format for texts and databases, integrating research data originating from biographic, bibliographic or subject-related and lexical databases, examining ways of interconnection with already existing editorial tools such as TextGrid and last but not least setting up an institutional framework for supporting scholars who are willing to participate or publish online.
clarin-d – historical corpora, collaboration, community building
Gloning, Thomas, CLARIN-D, Germany, Thomas.Gloning@germanistik.uni-giessen.de
The task of the special interest group ›Deutsche Philologie‹ in Clarin-D is to support infrastructure centers (IDS, BBAW, MPI, HAB) in building up, enriching and integrating German language resources (e.g. corpora, tools, dictionaries, best practices in research methodology). One goal in the field of historical corpora is to create an infrastructure that allows users (i) to integrate their own documents into historical reference corpora; (ii) to gain proper credit and reputation in doing so; (iii) to reuse the documents in local corpora together with expert corpus technology. – In this talk I shall demonstrate usage scenarios that show how the DTA extension infrastructure (DTAE) can be used to create specialized corpora for specific research topics. These usage scenarios shall serve as prototypes for collaboration and community building in ENHG and NHG corpus research.
references
CLARIN-D http://clarin-d.net/
DTA http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/
DTA ‘base format’, Description [in German]:
http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/doku/basisformat
DTAE http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/dtae
DTAQ http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/dtaq
Herzog August Bibiliothek Wolfenbüttel http://www.hab.de/
Wolfenbütteler Digitale Bibliothek (WDB) http://www.hab.de/bibliothek/wdb/
Geyken, A., et al. (2011). Das Deutsche Textarchiv: Vom historischen Korpus zum aktiven Archiv. In S. Schomburg, C. Leggewie, H. Lobin, and C. Puschmann (eds.), Digitale Wissenschaft. Stand und Entwicklung digital vernetzter Forschung in Deutschland, 20./21. September 2010. Beiträge der Tagung. 2., ergänzte Fassung. Köln: HBZ, pp. 157-161.
Jurish, B. (2010). More than Words: Using Token Context to Improve Canonicalization of Historical German.Journal for Language Technology and Computational Linguistics (JLCL) 25(1).
Jurish, B. (2012) Finite-state Canonicalization Techniques for Historical German. PhD thesis, Universität Potsdam 2012 (urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-55789).
Unsworth, J. (2011) Computational Work with Very Large Text Collections. Interoperability, Sustainability, and the TEI. Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative 1 (http://jtei.revues.org/215, 29. 8. 2011).
Bauman, S. (2011). Interchange vs. Interoperability. Presented at Balisage: The Markup Conference 2011, Montréal, Canada, August 2 – 5, 2011. In Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2011. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies, vol. 7. doi:10.4242/BalisageVol7.Bauman01.","txt","2","",""
"1396","13","Compiling large historical reference corpora of German: Quality Assurance, Interoperability and Collaboration in the Process of Publication of Digitized Historical Prints","3","introduction
problem statement
It has been and still is one of the core aims in German Digital Humanities to establish large reference corpora for the historical periods of German, i.e. Old and Middle High German, Early New High German (ENHG), New High German and Contemporary German (NHG). This panel focusses on NHG and ENHG. A reference corpus of the 17th to 19th century German is currently being compiled by the Deutsches Textarchiv project at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities (BBAW). The Herzog August Bibliothek Wolfenbüttel (HAB) constructs text corpora encompassing the period between the 15th and the 18th century, with a focus on ENHG. Apart from core activities like these, that usually are carried out by institutions for long time research such as academies, research centers and research libraries, many digital resources are created by individual scholars or small project teams. Often, however, such resources never show up in the pool of publicly available research corpora.
Building an integrated corpus infrastructure for large corpora of ENHG and NHG faces three main problems:
1.        Despite the growing acceptance of annotation standards such as the TEI, there are different ‘encoding dialects’ and baseline formats used in different contexts (e.g. TextGrid Baseline Encoding, the TEI-Encoding recommended by HAB, the ›base format‹ of the DTA, and others). Neither one has gained wider acceptance nor have they been checked against each other. As a result, repositories of digital documents do not apply consistent, interoperable encoding. In addition, users cannot draw on these resources in an integrated way.
2.        There is no approved system of evaluation for both the quality of corpus texts and the quality of the encoding. In addition, there is no reputation system for crediting individual researchers’ accomplishments with respect to the production and annotation of corpus texts. As a consequence, there is no ‘culture of sharing corpus resources’ in a collaborative way in the research community.
3.        The vision of an integrated historical corpus of German and an integrated research platform is inconflict with the principle of local ascription of scholarly work. While the user would like to have oneplace to find all the available corpus texts and one platform to run the available corpus tools, each academy, each institute, each library, each research project and even individual researchers need to produce work and resources ascribable in a local or even in a personal way.
panel topics
Well-established infrastructure projects such as TextGrid, CLARIN or DARIAH can contribute enormously to the process of integration by establishing methods of interoperation, a system of quality assurance and credit, and a set of technical practices that allow to integrate resources of different origin, to credit the producers of resources in an appropriate way, to ensure public access in a persistent way and thereby to involve a greater scholarly community.
The proposed panel, organized by the Deutsches Textarchiv at the BBAW, the Special Interest Group ‘Deutsche Philologie’ (‘German Philology’) in CLARIN-D and the HAB Wolfenbüttel, will demonstrate how efforts for community-building, text aggregation, the technical realization of interoperability and the collaboration of two large infrastructure centers (BBAW and HAB) is set to work in the digital publication platforms of the Deutsches Textarchiv (BBAW) and AEDit (HAB).
Technical requirements include tools for long-term archiving as well as the implementation and documentation of reference formats. Interfaces need to be standardized, easy to handle and well documented to minimize the user’s effort to upload their resources. Transparent criteria have to be developed regarding the expected quality, the encoding level and requirements for interoperability of texts in the repository. The DTA provides a large corpus of historical texts of various genres, a heterogeneous text base encoded in one consistent format (i.e. DTA ‘base format’). Facilities for quality assurance (DTAQ) and for the integration of external text resources (DTAE) have been developed.
the dta ‘base format’
Haaf, Susanne, Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Deutsches Textarchiv, Germany, haaf@bbaw.de
Geyken, Alexander, Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Deutsches Textarchiv, Germany, geyken@bbaw.de
The DTA ‘base format’ consists of about 80 TEI P5 <text>-elements which are needed for the basic formal and semantic structuring of the DTA reference corpus. The purpose of developing the ›base format‹ was to gain coherence at the annotation level, given the heterogeneity of the DTA text material over time (1650-1900) and text types (fiction, functional and scientific texts). The restrictive selection of ‘base format’ elements with their corresponding attributes and values is supposed to cover all annotation requirements for a similar level of structuring of historical texts. We will illustrate this by means of characteristic annotation examples taken from the DTA reference corpus.
We will compare the DTA ‘base format’ to other existing base formats considering their different purposes and discuss the usability of the DTA ‘base format’ in a broader context (DTAE, CLARIN-D). A special adaptation of the oXygen TEI-framework which supports the work with the DTA ‘base format’ will be presented.
dtae
Thomas, Christian, Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Deutsches Textarchiv, Germany, thomas@bbaw.de
DTAE is a software module provided by the DTA for external projects interested in integrating their historical text collections into the DTA reference corpus. DTAE provides routines for uploading metadata, text and images, as well as semiautomatic conversion tools from different source formats into the DTA ‘base format’. The text- and metadata are indexed for lemma-based full text search and processed with tools for presentation in order to offer parallel views of the source image, the XML/TEI encoded text as well as a rendered HTML presentation layer. In addition, external contributors can integrate the processed text into their own web site via <iframe> and use the DTA-query-API for full text queries. DTAE demonstrates how interchange and interoperability among projects can work on a large scale. The paper illustrates these issues by example of five selected cooperation projects. Possibilities (and limits) of the exchange of TEI documents will be discussed as well as the difficult, but worthwhile task of converting other/older text formats into DTA ‘base format’.
dtaq
Wiegand, Frank, Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Deutsches Textarchiv, Germany, wiegand@bbaw.de
DTAQ is a browser-based tool to find, categorize, and correct different kinds of errors or inconsistencies occuring during the XML/TEI-transcription resp. the optical character recognition of texts. Using a simple authentication system combined with a fine-grained access control system, new users can easily be added to this Quality Assurance system. The GUI of the tool is highly customizable and provides various views of source images, XML-transcriptions, and HTML-presentations. The backend of DTAQ is built upon many open source packages. Using Perl as a glue language, the system runs on Catalyst, connects to a PostgreSQL database via the DBIx::Class ORM and builds its web pages with Template Toolkit. The frontend makes heavy use of jQueryand Highcharts JS to create a very interactive and responsive user interface.
the project aedit
Stäcker, Thomas, Herzog August Bibliothek Wolfenbüttel, Germany, staecker@hab.de
In the field of digital humanities there is a great demand for trustworthy platforms or repositories that aggregate, archive, make available and disseminate scholarly texts or databases. AEDit (Archiving, Editing, Disseminating) aims at establishing such a platform at the HAB Wolfenbüttel for documents with a focus on ENHG. Partners and contributors of the initial phase are four outstanding editorial projects from the German academy program. Central issues will be addressed, e.g. creating persistent identifiers at word level by IDs or Xpointer, determining the relation of community specific markup to basic text encoding by means of stand-off markup, defining a basic format for texts and databases, integrating research data originating from biographic, bibliographic or subject-related and lexical databases, examining ways of interconnection with already existing editorial tools such as TextGrid and last but not least setting up an institutional framework for supporting scholars who are willing to participate or publish online.
clarin-d – historical corpora, collaboration, community building
Gloning, Thomas, CLARIN-D, Germany, Thomas.Gloning@germanistik.uni-giessen.de
The task of the special interest group ›Deutsche Philologie‹ in Clarin-D is to support infrastructure centers (IDS, BBAW, MPI, HAB) in building up, enriching and integrating German language resources (e.g. corpora, tools, dictionaries, best practices in research methodology). One goal in the field of historical corpora is to create an infrastructure that allows users (i) to integrate their own documents into historical reference corpora; (ii) to gain proper credit and reputation in doing so; (iii) to reuse the documents in local corpora together with expert corpus technology. – In this talk I shall demonstrate usage scenarios that show how the DTA extension infrastructure (DTAE) can be used to create specialized corpora for specific research topics. These usage scenarios shall serve as prototypes for collaboration and community building in ENHG and NHG corpus research.
references
CLARIN-D http://clarin-d.net/
DTA http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/
DTA ‘base format’, Description [in German]:
http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/doku/basisformat
DTAE http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/dtae
DTAQ http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/dtaq
Herzog August Bibiliothek Wolfenbüttel http://www.hab.de/
Wolfenbütteler Digitale Bibliothek (WDB) http://www.hab.de/bibliothek/wdb/
Geyken, A., et al. (2011). Das Deutsche Textarchiv: Vom historischen Korpus zum aktiven Archiv. In S. Schomburg, C. Leggewie, H. Lobin, and C. Puschmann (eds.), Digitale Wissenschaft. Stand und Entwicklung digital vernetzter Forschung in Deutschland, 20./21. September 2010. Beiträge der Tagung. 2., ergänzte Fassung. Köln: HBZ, pp. 157-161.
Jurish, B. (2010). More than Words: Using Token Context to Improve Canonicalization of Historical German.Journal for Language Technology and Computational Linguistics (JLCL) 25(1).
Jurish, B. (2012) Finite-state Canonicalization Techniques for Historical German. PhD thesis, Universität Potsdam 2012 (urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-55789).
Unsworth, J. (2011) Computational Work with Very Large Text Collections. Interoperability, Sustainability, and the TEI. Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative 1 (http://jtei.revues.org/215, 29. 8. 2011).
Bauman, S. (2011). Interchange vs. Interoperability. Presented at Balisage: The Markup Conference 2011, Montréal, Canada, August 2 – 5, 2011. In Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2011. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies, vol. 7. doi:10.4242/BalisageVol7.Bauman01.","txt","2","",""
"1397","13","Computational models of narrative structure","3","introduction
A question of particular interest to the Computational Narrative community is the question of the notion ofstructural equivalence of stories (Löwe 2010, 2011). On the one hand, it is closely related to research in other areas such as the study of analogical reasoning in cognitive science and psychology; on the other hand, a solution to the question of when stories can count as structurally similar underlies a number of potential computational applications for narrative databases.  
In our panel, the four speakers will discuss various foundational issues that have to be dealt with before a structural theory of narrative similarity can be developed. The majority of these issues have to do with the empirical validation of proposed formal representations; the aim is to develop (1) a methodology that allows to determine and investigate those aspects of narratives that are computationally and cognitively relevant for the comparison of stories and (2) a formal framework that allows to represent narratives with regard to these aspects and also allows to encode the necessary algorithm (formalization guidelines). The presentations will report on joint projects of the panelists in this field, and part of the purpose of the panel is to present the results of these projects to the Digital Humanities community.  
These tasks are approached using the following empirical and computational methods: First, (quasi-)ex-perimental studies are used to determine the relevant dimensions and trainability of analysis systems (Fisseni, Bod below). Secondly, computational representation and simulation is used to evaluate representational formalisms, and will be experimentally evaluated in a final step (León, below).
theoretical background
The field of computational models of narrative goes back to the 1970s and has produced numerous computational representations of narrative structure (e.g. Lehnert 1981; Turner 1994; León 2010). Its roots lie in the structuralist school of narratology (Barthes, Genette, Greimas, Todorov, among others) that started with Vladimir Propp’s study of Russian folk tales (Propp 1928), and it was greatly successful with the methods of modern computational linguistics:  
There is now a considerable body of work in artificial intelligence and multi-agent systems addressing the many research challenges raised by such applications, including modeling engaging virtual characters […] that have personality […], that act emotionally […], and that can interact with users using spoken natural language (Si, Marsella & Pynadath 2005: 21).
Recently, there has been an increased interest in developing theoretical foundations of what is called shallow story understanding in this community: high-level structural analysis of the narrative as opposed to understanding ‘deeply’, i.e., with background knowledge. The intersection of narratives and computation is also being considered in the field of Digital Humanities or the application of computer software to narrative analysis. In this context, we assume that theory of narrative structures is a prerogative to computational treatment of narratives. All work presented here is concerned with validating and extending existing theories empirically. Even though non-structural factors may influence judgment of stories, they should evidently be excluded in our formalization of structural similarity. Potentially, one will have to reconsider the notion of ‘structural core’ and its differentiation from ‘mere’ accidental features such as motifs or style (the latter is discussed by Crandell et al. 2009, presented at DH 2009).
Two central themes of the entire panel are the questions (1) Is there a structural core of narratives and can we formally approximate it? and (2) Are structural similarity judgments a ‘natural kind’ or rather a trained skill? The basis for discussing these issues will be prepared in this presentation and further developed in three following presentations.
narrative similarity and structural similarity
Löwe, Benedikt, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands, b.loewe@uva.nl
This first presentation will introduce the notions and concepts that we shall deal with: the distinction between the narrative and its formalization (or annotation), various levels of granularity, and various dimensions of similarity. We shall discuss the human ability to identify a structural core of a narrative and discuss intersubjectively in what respects two narratives are structurally the same.
We discuss the question whether this structural core exists and how to approach it. In particular, we shall discuss a number of methodological issues that create obstacles when trying to determine this structural core(Löwe 2011; Fisseni & Löwe 2012).
empirically determining ‘optimal’ dimensions and granularity
Fisseni, Bernhard, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany, bernhard.fisseni@uni-due.de
Dimensions that can be easily brought into focus by an adequate instruction are highly relevant for our implementations and can presumably also be annotated with high reliability and inter-annotator agreement by test subjects (see Bod, below). These dimensions may also arguably be considered important for the reception of narratives. As different dimensions can be relevant for different tasks, the setting presented to test subjects must be varied to trigger different granularities and (presumably) focus different dimensions. For example, taking the role of a magazine editor should focus different notions than considering movies in an informal setting.
Preliminary experiments (Block et al. submitted; Bod et al. 2012; Fisseni & Löwe 2012) show that naive test subjects do not have a clear preformed concept of story similarity that privileges the structural core of stories. Therefore, work will have to be done to determine how to focus structural aspect and control other, non-structural aspects.
a computational framework for narrative formalizations
León, Carlos, University of Hamburg, Germany, carlos.leon@uni-hamburg.de
Even with the most recent advances of Artificial Intelligence, completely automatic formalizations of narrative texts are still impossible, but it is well possible to develop and process formal representations of stories computationally. In this presentation, we shall focus on implementing a computational instantiation of the set of different formalizations. This instantiation will be used to formalize stories and check their structural similarity under human supervision. In order to do this, a mixed methodology will be applied: computational versions of the defined formal systems will be implemented in the form of several structured descriptions of the stories, along with information about their respective granularities. The dimensions that are modeled should be those that can be easily accessed (see Fisseni, above) and reliably annotated (see Bod, below).
A mixed human-computer process for acquisition of one of the candidate formalizations has been successfully tested by the author (León 2010; León & Gervás 2010); hence, a computational tool will assist human users during the formalization process, iteratively creating partial structures according to the defined granularity. It may also be interesting to use techniques from knowledge representation and natural language processing to formalize at least some guidelines and thus test their consistency and usability. While these guidelines may not unambiguously define how to formalize each story, they will be used to maximize the consensus among the formalizers (see Bod, below).
inter-annotator agreement for narrative annotations
Bod, Rens, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands, L.W.M.Bod@uva.nl
A way to measure the quality of guidelines and formal representation derived by applying them is inter-annotator agreement, which is used to assess the quality of linguistic structural annotations such as treebanks (see e.g. Carletta et al. 1997; Marcu et al. 1999). We intend to apply inter-annotator agreement to the formal study of narratives (Bod et al., 2011, 2012).  
As Propp’s formal analysis of Russian folktales (Propp 1928) has profoundly influenced Computational Narratology, we ran a pilot experiment in which external users are annotating several Russian folktales with a subset of Propp’s definitions, to establish the viability of the methodology (Bod et al. 2012). After a training process, test subjects were expected to have a basic knowledge about Propp’s formal system. In the main phase of the experiment, they were to apply their understanding of the formal system to other stories. The results indicate that Propp’s formal system is not easily taught (or learnt), and that this may have to do with the structural constraints of the system: Its functions and roles are so highly mutually dependent that variation is great.  
Hence, similar experiments with more ‘modern’ and formal representations (such as those by León, above) are planned. These experiments will also profit from the preliminary studies (see Fisseni, above) which try to determine which dimensions can be triggered in test subjects and how to achieve this. Then it will be possible to measure agreement between test subjects (using standard statistics), which should provide an insight in the reliability of the guidelines and the viability of the formal representation.
references
Afanas’ev, A. N. (1973). Russian Fairy Tales. Translation by N. Guterman from the collections of A. Afanas’ev. Folkloristic commentary by R. Jakobson. New York: Pantheon.
Afanas’ev, A. N. (1985). Shabarsha.Translated by Kathleen Cook. In The Three Kingdoms. Russian Fairy Tales From A. Afanasiev’s Collection, illustrated by A. Kurkin. Moscow: Raduga Publisher.
Barzilay, R., and M. Elhadad (1997). Using Lexical Chains for Text Summarization. In I. Mani and M. Maybury(eds.), Intelligent Scalable Text Summarization. Proceedings of a Workshop sponsored by the ACL. Somerset, NJ: ACL, pp. 10-17.
Block, A., B. Fisseni, C. León, B. Löwe, and D. Sarikaya (submitted). Narrative summarization and its correspondence to Proppian functions.
Bod, R., B. Löwe, and S. Saraf (2011). How much do formal narrative annotations differ? A Proppian case study. In C. Ess and R. Hagengruber (eds.), The computational turn: Past, presents, futures?, Aarhus University, July 4–6, 2011. Münster: MV-Wissenschaft, pp. 242-245.
Bod, R., B. Fisseni, A. H. Kurji,  and B. Löwe (2012). Objectivity and reproducibility of Proppian narrative annotations. To appear in the proceedings of the workshop on Computational Models of Narratives, Istanbul, 26-27 May 2012.
Brants, T. (2000). Inter-Annotator Agreement for a German Newspaper Corpus. In Proceedings Second International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation LREC-2000.
Carletta, J. C., A. Isard, S. Isard, J. C. Kowtko, G. Doherty-Sneddon, and A. H. Anderson (1997). The reliability of a dialogue structure coding scheme. Computational Linguistics 23(1): 13-31.
Conroy, J. M., and D. P. O’Leary (2001). Text summarization via hidden Markov models. In Proceedings of the 24th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval, SIGIR ’01. New York, NY: ACM, pp. 406-407.
Crandell, C., E. Gong, R. Kraus, T. Lieu, and J. Mason-Marshall (2009). Modulating Style (and Expectations): An Experiment with Narrative Voice in Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury. Talk at Digital Humanities 2009, Maryland.
Dyer, M. G. (1983). In-depth understanding: A computer model of integrated processing for narrative comprehension. Artificial Intelligence Series. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
Fisseni, B., and B. Löwe (2012). Which dimensions of narratives are relevant for human judgments of story equivalence? To appear in the proceedings of the workshop on Computational Models of Narratives, Istanbul, 26-27 May 2012.
Kupiec, J., J. Pedersen, and F. Chen (1995). A trainable document summarizer. In Proceedings of the 18th Annual International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval. New York, NY: ACM Press, pp. 68-73.
Lehnert, W. G. (1981). Plot units and narrative summarization. Cognitive Science 4: 293-331.
León, C. (2010). A computational model for automated extraction of structural schemes from simple narrative plots. Ph.D. thesis, Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
León, C., and P. Gervás (2010). Towards a Black Box Approximation to Human Processing of Narratives based on Heuristics over Surface Form. Paper at the AAAI 2010 Fall Symposium on Computational Models of Narrative November 11-13, 2010. Arlington, VA.
Lin, C.-Y., and E. Hovy (1997). Identifying topics by position. In Proceedings of the fifth conference on Applied natural language processing, ANLC ’97. Stroudsburg, PA: ACL, pp. 283-290.
Löwe, B. (2010). Comparing Formal Frameworks of Narrative Structures. In M. Finlayson (ed.), Computational models of narrative. Papers from the 2010 AAAI Fall Symposium, vol. FS-10-04 of AAAI Technical Reports, pp. 45–46.
Löwe, B. (2011). Methodological Remarks about Comparing Formal Frameworks for Narratives. In P. Allo and G. Primiero (eds.), Third Workshop in the Philosophy of Information, Contactforum van de Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie van België voor Wetenschappen en Kunsten. Brussel: KVAB, pp. 10-28.
Marcu, D. (1998). Improving Summarization through Rhetorical Parsing Tuning. In E. Charniak (ed.),Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Very Large Corpora. Montréal: Université de Montréal.
Marcu, D., M. Romera, M., and E. Amorrortu (1999). Experiments in Constructing a Corpus of Discourse Trees: Problems, Annotation Choices, Issues. In M. A. Walker (ed.), Towards Standards and Tools for Discourse Tagging. Proceedings of the Workshop, pp. 71-78.
Marcus, M. P., B. Santorini, and M. A. Marcinkiewicz (1993). Building a Large Annotated Corpus of English: The Penn Treebank. Computational Linguistics 19: 302-330.
Miller, G. A. (1995). WordNet: a lexical database for English. Commun. ACM, 38: 39-41.
Passonneau, R., N. Habash, and O. Rambow (2006). Inter-annotator Agreement on a Multilingual Semantic Annotation Task. In Proceedings LREC-2006, pp. 1951-1956.
Propp, V. Ya. (1928). Morfologiya skazki. Leningrad: Akademiya.
Rumelhart, D. E. (1980). On evaluating story grammars. Cognitive Science 4: 313-316.
Schank, R. C. (1982). Dynamic memory: A theory of reminding and learning in computers and people. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
Si, M., S. C. Marsella, and D. V. Pynadath (2005). Thespian: using multi-agent fitting to craft interactive drama. In M. Pechoucek, D. Steiner, and S. Thompson (eds.), AAMAS ’05: Proceedings of the Fourth International Joint Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems (2005), pp. 21-28.
Turner, S. (1994). The creative process. A computer model of storytelling. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.","txt","2","",""
"1398","13","Designing Interactive Reading Environments for the Online Scholarly Edition","3","introduction to designing interactive reading environments for the online scholarly edition
In this panel, members of the Interface Design team of the Implementing New Knowledge Environments (INKE) project will present a set of ideas, designs, and prototypes related to the next generation of the online scholarly edition, by which we mean a primary text and its scholarly apparatus, intended for use by people studying a text.
We begin with ‘Digital Scholarly Editions: An Evolutionary Perspective’, which proposes a taxonomy of design features and functions available in a wide range of existing projects involving scholarly editions. ‘Implementing Text Analysis E-reader Tools to Create Ad-hoc Scholarly Editions’ draws on this taxonomy and examines how the strategies of ubiquitous text analysis can be applied to digital texts as a means of providing new affordances for scholarship. ‘Visualizing Citation Patterns in Humanist Scholarship’ looks at the use of citations in scholarly writing and proposes visual models of possible benefit for both writers and readers. ‘The Dynamic Table of Contexts: User Experience and Future Directions’ reports our pilot study of a tool that combines the conventional table of contents with semantic XML encoding to produce a rich-prospect browser for books, while ‘The Usability of Bubblelines: A Comparative Evaluation of Two Prototypes’ provides our results in looking at a case where two distinct prototypes of a visualization tool for comparative search results were created from a single design concept.
digital scholarly editions: a functional perspective
Sondheim, Daniel, University of Alberta, Canada, sondheim@ualberta.ca
Rockwell, Geoffrey, University of Alberta, Canada, grockwel@ualberta.ca
Ruecker, Stan, IIT Institute of Design, USA, sruecker@id.iit.edu
Ilovan, Mihaela, University of Alberta, Canada, ilovan@ualberta.ca
Frizzera, Luciano, University of Alberta, Canada, dosreisf@ualberta.ca
Windsor, Jennifer, University of Alberta, Canada, jwindsor@ualberta.ca
Definitions of the scholarly edition at times seem as diverse as their content; definitions may highlight usefulness (e.g., Hjørland, n.d.), reliability (e.g. Lyman, 2009), or editorial expertise (e.g. Price 2008). Nevertheless, it is clear that scholarly editions ‘comprise the most fundamental tools in literary studies’ (McGann 2001: 55). The move from print to screen has offered scholars an opportunity to remediate scholarly editions and to improve upon them (Werstine 2008; Shillingsburg 2006), perhaps in the hope of producing their ‘fullest realization’ (Lyman 2009: iii).
Online, distinctions between traditional types of scholarly editions are blurred. Variorum editions are increasingly becoming the norm (Galey 2007), since the economy of space is no longer as important a variable. The notion of a ‘best version’ of a text is also becoming less of an issue, as what constitutes ‘the best’ is open to interpretation and is often irrelevant with regard to questions that scholars would like to ask (Price 2008).
Rather than categorizing electronic scholarly editions, we propose to evaluate a selection of influential and/or representative examples on the basis of a series of functional areas that have been noted in relevant literature as having undergone substantial changes in their move to the digital environment. These areas include (1) navigation, including browsing and searching; (2) knowledge-sharing, including public annotation; (3) textual analysis, including graphs and visualizations; (4) customizability of both interface and content; (5) side-by-side comparisons of multiple versions; and (6) private note-taking and markup.
This study reveals that although all of the functionalities available in the digital medium are not implemented in every digital scholarly edition, it is nevertheless the case that even the simplest amongst them offer affordances that are different than their printed counterparts. The fact remains, however, that due to variety of functionalities implemented in digital scholarly editions, we are still negotiating what Lyman’s ‘fullest realization’ could be.
implementing text analysis e-reader tools to create ad-hoc scholarly editions
Windsor, Jennifer, University of Alberta, Canada, jwindsor@ualberta.ca
Ilovan, Mihaela, University of Alberta, Canada, ilovan@ualberta.ca
Sondheim, Daniel, University of Alberta, Canada, sondheim@ualberta.ca
Frizzera, Luciano, University of Alberta, Canada, dosreisf@ualberta.ca
Ruecker, Stan, IIT Institute of Design, USA, sruecker@id.iit.edu
Sinclair, Stéfan, McMaster University, Canada, stefan.sinclair@mcgill.ca
Rockwell, Geoffrey, University of Alberta, Canada, grockwel@ualberta.ca
With the proliferation of e-readers, the digitization efforts of organizations such as Google and Project Gutenberg, and the explosion of e-book sales, digital reading has become a commonplace activity. Although resources for casual reading are plentiful, they are insufficient to support in-depth scholarly research.
To alleviate this difficulty, we propose integrating Voyant tools, a user-friendly, flexible and powerful web-based text analysis environment developed by Stéfan Sinclair and Geoffrey Rockwell, with current e-reader technology, such as that used in the Internet Archive reader.
In this design, Voyant functions as a sidebar to e-readers, allowing the text to remain visible during analysis. Choosing from a list of tools allows scholars to create a custom text analysis tool palette and having more than one tool open allows cross-referencing between results. Tools can be dragged into a custom order and a scroll bar allows navigation between several tools at once. A Voyant tutorial is available and each individual tool also has its own instructions for use, as well as a help feature and an option to export results.
We anticipate this tool being of use to scholars in various fields who wish to use quantitative methods to analyze text. By implementing tools for textual analysis in an online reading environment, we are in effect offering scholars the ability to choose the kinds of analysis and depth of study that they wish; they will in effect be able to produce ad-hoc customized editions of digital text.
 
Figure 1: Integration of Voyant tools with the Internet Archive e-reader
visualizing citation patterns in humanist monographs
Ilovan, Mihaela, University of Alberta, Canada, ilovan@ualberta.ca
Frizzera, Luciano, University of Alberta, Canada, dosreisf@ualberta.ca
Michura, Piotr, Academy of Fine Arts in Krakow, Poland, zemichur@cyf-kr.edu.pl
Rockwell, Geoffrey, University of Alberta, Canada, grockwel@ualberta.ca
Ruecker, Stan, IIT Institute of Design, USA, sruecker@id.iit.edu
Sondheim, Daniel, University of Alberta, Canada, sondheim@ualberta.ca
Windsor, Jennifer, University of Alberta, Canada, jwindsor@ualberta.ca
This paper documents the design and programming of a visualization tool for the analysis of citation patterns in extended humanist works such as monographs and scholarly editions. Traditional citation analysis is widely acknowledged as being ineffective for examining citations in the humanities, since the accretive nature of research (Garfield 1980), the existence of multiple paradigms, the preference for monographs (Thompson 2002), and the richness of non-parenthetical citations all present problems for interpretation and generalization.
To address this situation, we employ non-traditional methods of content and context analysis of citations, like functional classification (Frost 1979) and the exploration of the way in which sources are introduced in the flow of the argument (Hyland 1999). Acknowledging the richness of citations in humanist research, we employ graphic visualization for display and data inquiry, which allows us to carry out visual analytical tasks of the referencing patterns of full monographs.
We opted to provide three distinct views of the analyzed monograph. The first one – a faceted browser of the references, affords the comparison of different aspects of the references included and introduces the user to the structure and content of the monograph’s critical apparatus. The second view contextualizes individual citations and highlights the fragments of text they support (see Figure 2); by representing both supported and non-supported portions of the monograph in their natural order, the view facilitates the linear reading of the way in which argument is built in the citing work. Finally, the third view of the visualization tool represents the internal structure of complex footnotes (see Figure 3) and visually highlights the relationship between different citations included in the same note, as well as their function in relation to the argument of the citing text.
In this presentation we will introduce the visualization tool, demonstrate its functionalities and provide the results of initial testing performed. We will also discuss the lessons learned from this early stage of the project.
 
Figure 2: ‘Contextualize’ view (citations in context)
 
Figure 3: Displaying complex footnotes
the dynamic table of contexts: user experience and future directions
Dobson, Teresa, University of British Columbia, Canada, teresa.dobson@ubc.ca
Heller, Brooke, University of British Columbia, Canada, brooke.heller@gmail.com
Ruecker, Stan, IIT Institute of Design, USA, sruecker@id.iit.edu
Radzikowska, Milena, Mount Royal University, Canada, mradzikowska@gmail.com
Brown, Susan, University of Guelph, Canada, sbrown@uoguelph.ca
The Dynamic Table of Contexts (DToC) is a text analysis tool that combines the traditional concepts of the table of contents and index to create a new way to manipulate digital texts. More specifically, DToC makes use of pre-existing XML tags in a document to allow users to dynamically incorporate links to additional categories of items into the table of contents. Users may load documents they have tagged themselves, further increasing the interactivity and usefulness of the tool (Ruecker et al. 2009).
DToC includes four interactive panes, and one larger pane to view the text (see Figure 4). The first two panes are the table of contexts and the XML tag list: the former changes when a particular tag is selected in the latter, allowing the user to see where tokens of the tag fall in the sequence of the text. The third and fourth panes operate independently of each other but with the text itself: the ‘Excerpts’ pane highlights a selected token in the text and returns surrounding words, while the ‘Bubbleline’ maps multiple instances of a token across a pre-designated section (such as a chapter, or scene).
 
Figure 4: The Dynamic Table of Contexts, showing three of four interactive panes at left along with the text viewing pane at right.
With twelve pairs of participants (n = 24), we completed a user experience study in which the participants were invited: 1) to complete in pairs a number of tasks in DToC, 2) to respond individually to a computer-based survey about their experience, and 3) to provide more extensive feedback during an exit interview. Their actions and discussion while working with the prototype were recorded. Data analysis is presently underway: transcribed interview data has been encoded for features of experience in XML; screen captures are supplementing our understanding of the participants’ experience. In this paper we will report results and discuss future directions for development of the prototype.
the usability of bubblelines: a comparative evaluation of two prototypes
Blandford, Ann, University College London, UK, a.blandford@ucl.ac.uk
Faisal, Sarah, University College London, UK, s.faisal@cs.ucl.ac.uk
Fiorentino, Carlos, University of Alberta, Canada, carlosf@ualberta.ca
Giacometti, Alejandro, University College London, UK, alejandro.giacometti.09@ucl.ac.uk
Ruecker, Stan, IIT Institute of Design, USA, sruecker@id.iit.edu
Sinclair, Stéfan, McMaster University, Canada, stefan.sinclair@mcgill.ca
Warwick, Claire, University College London, UK, c.warwick@ucl.ac.uk
In this paper, we explore the idea that programming is itself an act of interpretation, where the user experience can be profoundly influenced by seemingly minor details in the translation of a visual design into a prototype. We argue that the approach of doing two parallel, independent implementations can bring the trade-offs and design decisions into sharper relief to guide future development work. As a case study, we examine the results of the comparative user evaluation of two INKE prototypes for the bubblelines visualization tool. Bubblelines allows users to visually compare search results across multiple text files, such as novels, or pieces of text files, such as chapters. In this case, we had a somewhat rare opportunity in that both implementations of bubblelines began from a single design sketch, and the two development teams worked independently to produce online prototypes. The user experience study involved 12 participants, consisting of sophisticated computer users either working on or already having completed computer science degrees with a focus on human-computer interaction. They were given a brief introduction, exploratory period, assigned tasks, and an exit interview. The study focused on three design aspects: the visual representation, functionality and interaction.
All users liked the idea of bubblelines as a tool for exploring text search results. Some users wanted to use the tools to search and make sense of their own work, e.g. research papers and computer programming codes. The study has shown that there was no general preference for one prototype over the other. There was however, general agreements of preferred visual cues and functionalities that users found useful from both prototypes. Similarly, there was an overall consensus in relation to visual representations and functionalities that users found difficult to use and understand in both tools. Having the ability to compare two similar yet somehow different prototypes has assisted us in fishing out user requirements summarized in the form of visual cues, functionalities and interactive experiences from a dimension that that would have been difficult to reach if we were testing a single prototype.
 
Figure 5: The two alternative implementations of Bubblelines (t1 & t2)
In summary, most participants preferred the visual appearance and simplicity of t1, but the greater functionality offered by t2. Apparently incidental design decisions such as whether or not search was case sensitive, and whether strings or words were the objects of search (e.g. whether a search for ‘love’ would highlight ‘lover’ or ‘Love’ as well as ‘love’) often caused frustration or confusion. We argue that the approach of doing two parallel, independent implementations can bring the trade-offs and design decisions into sharper relief to guide future development work.
Our plan is to take these requirements into account in order to generate a third prototype which we envision to evaluate with expert users where our focus would be on the ability of the tool in assisting experts in making sense of the data.
references
Garfield, E. (1980). Is Information Retrieval in the Arts and Humanities Inherently Different from That in Science? The Effect That ISI®’S Citation Index for the Arts and Humanities Is Expected to Have on Future Scholarship. The Library Quarterly 50(1): 40–57.
Galey, A. (2007) How to Do Things with Variants: Text Visualization in the Electronic New Variorum Shakespeare. Paper presented at the Modern Language Association Annual Convention, Chicago.
Frost, C.O. (1979). The Use of Citations in Literary Research: A Preliminary Classification of Citation Functions.The Library Quarterly 49(4): 399–414.
Hyland, K. (1999). Academic attribution: citation and the construction of disciplinary knowledge. Applied Linguistics 20(3): 341–367.
Lyman, E. (2009). Assistive potencies: Reconfiguring the scholarly edition in an electronic setting. United States-Virginia: University of Virginia.
Hjørland, B. (n.d.). Scholarly edition. Available at:http://www.iva.dk/bh/core%20concepts%20in%20lis/articles%20a-z/scholarly_edition.htm (accessed 20 October, 2011).
Lyman, E. (2009). Assistive potencies: Reconfiguring the scholarly edition in an electronic setting. United States-Virginia: University of Virginia. http://www.proquest.com.login.ezproxy.library.ualberta.ca (accessed Sept, 2010).
McGann, J. (2001). Radiant textuality: literature after the World Wide Web. New York: Palgrave.
Price, K. (2008). Electronic Scholarly Editions. In S. Schreibman and R. Siemens (eds.), A Companion to Digital Literary Studies. Oxford: Blackwell http://digitalhumanities.org/companion/view?docId=blackwell/9781405148641/9781405148641.xml&chunk.id=ss1-6-5  (accessed 25 October, 2011)
Radzikowska, M., S. Ruecker, S. Brown, P. Organisciak, and the INKE Research Group (2011). Structured Surfaces for JiTR. Paper presented at the Digital Humanities 2011 Conference, Stanford.
Rockwell, G., S. Sinclair, S. Ruecker, and P. Organisciak (2010). Ubiquitous Text Analysis. Poetess Archive Journal 2(1): 1-18.
Ruecker, S., S. Brown, M. Radzikowska, S. Sinclair, T. Nelson, P. Clements, I. Grundy, S. Balasz, and J.  Antoniuk (2009). The Table of Contexts: A Dynamic Browsing Tool for Digitally Encoded Texts. In L. Dolezalova (ed.), The Charm of a List: From the Sumerians to Computerised Data Processing. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 177-187.
Shillingsburg, P. L. (2006). From Gutenberg to Google: electronic representations of literary texts. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge UP.
Thompson, J. W. (2002). The Death of the Scholarly Monograph in the Humanities? Citation Patterns in Literary Scholarship. Libri 52(3): 121-136.
Werstine, P. (2008). Past is prologue: Electronic New Variorum Shakespeares. Shakespeare 4: 208-220.","txt","2","",""
"1399","13","Developing the spatial humanities: Geo-spatial technologies as a platform for cross-disciplinary scholarship","3","significance
Developments in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) over the past few decades have been nothing short of remarkable. So revolutionary have these advances been that the impact of GIS on many facets of government administration, industrial infrastructure, commerce, and academia has been likened to the discoveries brought about by the microscope, the telescope, and the printing press. While concepts of spatial science and spatial thinking provide the bedrock on which a broad range of geospatial technologies and methods have been founded, the dialog between the humanities and geographic information science (GISci) have thus far been limited and have largely revolved around the use of ‘off-the-shelf’ GIS in historical mapping projects. This limited engagement is in stark contrast to the substantive inroads that GIS has made in the sciences and social sciences, as captured by the growing and valuable field of a social-theoretic informed Critical GIS. Not surprisingly, the humanities present additional significant challenges to GISci because of the complexities involved in meshing a positivist science with humanist traditions and predominantly literary and aspatial methods. And yet it is the potential dialogue and engagement between the humanities and GISci that promises reciprocal advances in both fields as spatial science shapes humanist thought and is in turn reshaped by the multifaceted needs and approaches represented by humanist traditions. We use the term spatial humanities to capture this potentially rich interplay between Critical GIS, spatial science, spatial systems, and the panoply of highly nuanced humanist traditions.      
The use of GIS in the humanities is not new. The National Endowment for the Humanities has funded a number of projects to explore how geo-spatial technologies might enhance research in a number of humanities disciplines, including but not limited to history, literary studies, and cultural studies. The National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health also have supported projects related to spatial history, such as the Holocaust Historical GIS (NSF) and Population and Environment in the U.S. Great Plains (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development). Although successful by their own terms, these projects also have revealed the limits of the technology for a wider range of humanities scholarship, which an increasing body of literature discusses in detail. Chief among the issues are a mismatch between the positivist epistemology of GIS, with its demand for precise, measurable data, and the reflexive and recursive approaches favored by humanists and some social scientists (e.g. practitioners of reflexive sociology) who wrestle continually with ambiguous, uncertain, and imprecise evidence and who seek multivalent answers to their questions. The problem, it seems, is both foundational and technological: we do not yet have a well-articulated theory for the spatial humanities, nor do we have tools sufficient for the needs of humanists. Addressing these deficits is at the heart of much current work in GIScience and in the spatial humanities.      
The panel, composed of scholars who have successfully blended geo-spatial technologies with cross-disciplinary methods in a variety of projects, will discuss how these digital tools can be bent toward the needs of humanities scholars and serve as a platform for innovative work in humanities disciplines. Emphasis will be on three important themes from the spatial humanities that also address the broader interests of the digital humanities:
1.        Exploring the epistemological frameworks of the humanities and GISc to locate common ground on which the two can cooperate. This step often has been overlooked in the rush to develop new technology but it is the essential point of departure for any effort to bridge them. This venture is not to be confused with a more sweeping foundational analysis of ingrained methodological conceits within the sciences and the humanities, and certainly should not be misunderstood as a query about the qualitative approach versus the quantitative approach. Rather, what is desired here is for the technology itself to be interrogated as to its adaptability, in full understanding that the technology has, in its genesis, been epistemologically branded and yet still offers potential for the humanities. What is required is an appropriate intellectual grounding in the humanities and draws the technology further out of its positivistic homeland. The payoff for collaboration will be a humanities scholarship that integrates insights gleaned from spatial information science, spatial theory, and the Geospatial Web into scaled narratives about human lives and culture.
2.        Designing and framing narratives about individual and collective human experience that are spatially contextualized. At one level, the task is defined as the development of reciprocal transformations from text to map and map to text. More importantly, the humanities and social sciences must position themselves to exploit the Geospatial Semantic Web, which in its extraordinarily complexity and massive volume, offers a rich data bed and functional platform to researchers who are able to effectively mine it, organize the harvested data, and contextualize it within the spaces of culture. Finding ways to make the interaction among words, location, and quantitative data more dynamic and intuitive will yield rich insights into complex socio-cultural, political, and economic problems, with enormous potential for areas far outside the traditional orbits of humanities research. In short, we should vigorously explore the means by which to advance translation from textual to visual communication, making the most of visual media and learning to create ‘fits’ between the messages of text (and numbers) and the capabilities of visual forms to express spatial relationships.
3.        Building increasingly more complex maps (using the term broadly) of the visible and invisible aspects of a place. The spatial considerations remain the same, which is to say that geographic location, boundary, and landscape remain crucial, whether we are investigating a continental landmass or a lecture hall. What is added by these ‘deep maps’ is a reflexivity that acknowledges how engaged human agents build spatially framed identities and aspirations out of imagination and memory and how the multiple perspectives constitute a spatial narrative that complements the verbal narrative traditionally employed by humanists.
After an introductory framing statement by the moderator, panelists will each take no more than 10 minutes to offer reflections and experiences drawn from their own projects that will address one or more of these themes. Several questions will guide these presentations:
1.        What advantages did geo-spatial technologies bring to your research? What limitations? How did    you overcome or work around the limits?
2.        How did your project address the mismatch between the positivist assumptions of GIS and the multivalent and reflexive nature of humanities scholarship?
3.        What lessons have you learned that would be helpful for other scholars who use these technologies?
Following the presentations, the moderator will guide a discussion among the panelists and with audience members to explore these themes further in an effort to distill an agenda or, more modestly, a direction for future work.
references
Bodenhamer, D., J. Corrigan, and T. Harris, eds. (2010). The Spatial Humanities: GIS and the Future of Humanities Scholarship. Bloomington: Indiana UP.
Daniels, S., D. DeLyser, J. Entrikin, and D. Richardson, eds. (2011). Envisioning Landscapes, Making Worlds: Geography and the Humanities. New York: Routledge.
Dear, M., J. Ketchum, S. Luria, and D. Richardson (2011). GeoHumanities: Art, History, Text at the Edge of Place. New York: Routledge.
Gregory, I., and P. Ell (2008). Historical GIS: Technologies, Methodologies, and Scholarship. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
Knowles, A., ed. (2008). Placing History: How Maps, Spatial Data, and GIS Are Changing Historical Scholarship. Redlands, CA: ESRI Press.","txt","2","",""
"1400","13","Digital Humanities as a university degree: The status quo and beyond","3","As Desmond Schmidt’s recent posting on Humanist revealed (Humanist 24 September 2011), there have been an increasing number of positions advertised in the Digital Humanities (DH). This uptick in hiring has been, while possibly not uniform across disciplines and countries, impressively diverse. It seems that the impact of Digital Humanities as a recognized field of study is increasing.
Over the past decade a plethora of training activity in the form of summer schools, workshops, and focused training events has taken place. There has also been work in building academic programs. While the field has seen a flowering of individual seminars or modules as part of more traditional curricula over the past decade, the recent announcement of many new degree programs marks a new phase in the discipline. These degree programs, from the undergraduate to the PhD level, are extremely diverse, reflecting not only individual institutional needs and opportunities, but also national scholarly cultures and circumstances.
In Germany, for instance, the national branch of the European project DARIAH (Digital Research Infrastructures for the Arts and Humanities) is addressing current teaching issues through an analysis of DH related teaching in traditional degrees, having created a brochure on existing German DH programs (Sahle 2011), working toward a national reference curriculum, and bringing this discussion to the international level.
This session continues the dialogue begun at DH 2010 and DH 2011, as well as in recent publications (see references), around Digital Humanities education by bringing together Digital Humanities educators who have been pivotal in originating, designing, or teaching degree courses in the field. The panelists will bring a wide international perspective to the discussion in order to move beyond individual academic landscapes.
This panel will also take an historical approach. One should not forget that over a decade ago it seemed that digital humanities programs (or humanities computing as it was then known) would continue to flourish. In the status report on ‘Computing in Humanities Education: A European Perspective’, published in 1999, twenty-five degree programs of various brands of Digital Humanities were presented and discussed. Nine have survived. Of these, five represent various brands of Computational Linguistics. In two workshops aimed at an international curriculum for ‘History and Computing’ in the early nineties, fifteen study programs at European universities were discussed. Of these, one has survived as is, a second survived with a changed focus. Of at least six Italian degree courses created in the nineties, only one has survived. It is also unfortunate, that only three institutions in the UK are continuing their Digital Humanities degrees.
To ensure that new degree courses succeed, we should analyze why programs and courses did not survive. Some reasons for past failures are:
•        Trying to start a degree course with insufficient resources;
•        Starting courses that are dependent on one person;
•        Focusing a degree only on a small specific branch, thus limiting the number of participants;
•        Unclear profiles, making it difficult for students to see which opportunities a specific degree offers;
•        Computer science orientation with a high level of mathematical background frightening away potential Humanities students;
•        Very shallow requirements, giving courses a poor reputation;
With these potential pitfalls in mind, panelists will address the following broad questions, (particularly at the national level) about the current state DH education at university level:
1. Are there degree courses which are explicitly labeled ‘Digital Humanities’ (or with an equivalent label, like ‘Humanities Computing’ or ‘eHumanities’) in your country?
2. Are there degree courses which are not explicitly labeled Digital Humanities but are dedicated to some form of interdisciplinary study between a Humanities subject and the IT tools needed for this field (e.g. degree courses dedicated to IT methods in philology, linguistics, history, cultural studies, archeology, art history etc.)
3. What degree courses exist which are flavors of library and information science degrees, directed explicitly at Humanities’ graduates or including a significant amount of Digital Humanities content?
4. Are there any degree courses offered at Computer Science faculties that are targeting humanities students with DH-flavored degrees?
5. Are there programs or courses at the intersection of DH and other emerging fields of study? Are ‘digital preservation’ or ‘game studies’ real DH programs or DH inflected?
6. On which levels do such course programs exist? (BA, MA, PhD, vocational add-on qualifications after a first degree, etc.)
7. Are such programs well established or recently created? How big is the student demand? How visible are these courses outside the DH community?
8. How are they organized? By a DH Department, a DH Center in collaboration with a more traditional department, or as part of the teaching offered by departments that support traditional academic fields?
9. Are there required / optional courses on Digital Humanities embedded in other Humanities degree programs (beyond “computer literacy” courses)?
10. What content is taught in these classes or degree programs? Is there some consensus between different institutions within a national context on the content of a ‘DH degree’? Is there possibly a consensus on such content within a specific subfield – i.e. ‘Computing in Archeology’ – even if there is no generalized consensus on DH-curricula as such
11. What can or should be done to arrive at a core DH curriculum with a clearly defined bundle of knowledge and skills?
12. Do differences in culture and language make a case for ‘national’ or ‘local’ DH, or is DH a ‘universal’ field in terms of methodologies? Can DH tools, research and curricula be culturally neutral, regardless of where they are designed and produced? How can we best address the problem of cultural diversity within DH?
13. Can a consistent understanding of Digital Humanities as a field be traced in the courses which claim to teach it?
Perspectives for the Digital Humanities look particularly bright at the moment. We should see this as a chance to lay the groundwork for more stable curricula that are comparable at least within, preferably across, different national landscapes in academia. As digital humanities pedagogy continues to flourish, there is a clear desire in the community to compile resources and compare experiences – this panel will be of broad interest to conference participants.
references
Clement, T., et al. (2010). Digital Literacy for the Dumbest Generation – Digital Humanities Programs 2010.Paper presented at the DH 2010. http://dh2010.cch.kcl.ac.uk/academic-programme/abstracts/papers/html/ab-815.html. [references there have been skipped here] (all online resources in this bibliography accessed 23 March 2012).
de Smedt, K., et al. (1999). Computing in Humanities Education: A European Perspective. Bergenhttp://www.hd.uib.no/AcoHum/book/.
Drucker, J., et al. (2002). Final Report for Digital Humanities Curriculum Seminar, University of Virginiahttp://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/hcs/dhcs/.
Fiormonte, D. (2010). The International Scenario of Digital Humanities. In T. Numerico et al. (eds.),L’umanista digitale. Bologna: Il Mulino, pp. 201-210.
Gouglas, S., et al. (2006) Coding Theory: Balancing Technical and Theoretical Requirements in a Graduate-Level Humanities Computing Programme. Mind Technologies: Humanities Computing and the Canadian Academic Community, pp. 245-256.
Gouglas, S. et al. (2010) Computer Games and Canada’s Digital Economy: The Role of Universities in Promoting Innovation http://ra.tapor.ualberta.ca/~circa/?page_id=307.
Hanlon, C. (2005). History on the Cheap: Using the Online Archive to Make Historicists out of Undergrads.Pedagogy 5(1): 97-101 http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/pedagogy/v005/5.1hanlon.pdf.
Brett, D. H., ed. (2012, forthcoming). Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles, Politics. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P.
Kirschenbaum, M. (2010). What is Digital Humanities, and What’s it Doing in English Departments? ADE Bulletin 150 http://bit.ly/hQQ1vI.
Norcia, M. (2008). Out of the Ivory Tower Endlessly Rocking: Collaborating across Disciplines and Professions to Promote Student Learning in the Digital Archive. Pedagogy 8(1): 91-114http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/pedagogy/v008/8.1norcia.pdf.
Orlandi, T. (2007). Ultimo bilancio dell’informatica umanisticahttp://rmcisadu.let.uniroma1.it/~orlandi/pubbli/informatica/montevarchi.pdf.
Parodi, M. (2009). Oltre le due Culture. Informatica Umanistica http://www.ledonline.it/informatica-umanistica/.
Ragone, G., et al. (2011). Lo statuto dell’Informatica umanistica. Session at the Conference “Dall’Informatica umanistica alle culture digitali”, Rome 2011 http://digilab.uniroma1.it/news/news.aspx?IDnews=82.
Rockwell, G. (1999). Is humanities computing an academic discipline?http://www.iath.virginia.edu/hcs/rockwell.html.
Rockwell, G., ed. (2009). The Academic Capacity of the Digital Humanities in Canada(http://tapor.ualberta.ca/taporwiki/index.php/The_Academic_Capacity_of_the_Digital_Humanities_in_Canada
Sahle, P. (2011). Digitale Geisteswissenschaften. Cologne. [Printed catalog on study programs in Germany] (online version: http://www.cceh.uni-koeln.de/Dokumente/BroschuereWeb.pdf.)
Sinclair, S., and S. W. Gouglas (2002). Theory into Practice: A Case Study of the Humanities Computing Master of Arts Programme at the University of Alberta. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education 1(2): 167-183http://ahh.sagepub.com/content/1/2/167.
Spiro, L. (2011). Knowing and Doing: Understanding the Digital Humanities Curriculum. Paper presented at the DH 2011. See blogpost for further information:http://digitalscholarship.wordpress.com/2011/06/20/making-sense-of-134-dh-syllabi-dh-2011-presentation/
Svensson, P. (2010). The Landscape of Digital Humanities. DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly 4(1)digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/4/1/000080/000080.html.","txt","2","",""
"1401","13","Facilitating Research through Social-Document Networks","3","People live and work in socio-historical contexts: over the course of their lives they produce a range of records that document their lives and the contexts in which they lived: birth records, correspondence, books, articles, photographs, works of art, films, notebooks, collected artifacts, school records, manuscripts, employment records, etc. Social relations between people, relations among documents, and relations among people and the artifacts created by them constitute a vast social-document network1 that can be drawn on by scholars needing to reconstruct and study the lives, works, and events surrounding historical persons.
In the past, cultural heritage professionals have largely viewed document networks and social networks in isolation, with a primary focus on documents. Increasingly, in parallel with (and perhaps inspired by) the emergence of social computing on the Web, cultural heritage professionals and scholars are expanding their focus to social-document networks. Scholarly projects that focus on social-document networks or social networks, such as Research-oriented Social Environment (RoSE)2 and The Crowded Page, 3 have begun to emerge. The cultural heritage communities (library, archive, and museum) have begun to make explicit the implicit networks found in the descriptions of books, articles, manuscripts, correspondence, art objects, and other artifacts in their care, and the authority files used to describe people who created or are documented in the resources described. Particularly important examples are the Virtual International Authority File (VIAF, a collaboration between OCLC Research and major national and research libraries)4 and WorldCat Identities5. 
This panel will focus on three national and one international cultural heritage projects facilitating humanities research by providing innovative access to social-document networks that provide access to both resources and the socio-historical contexts in which the resources were created.
interconnecting french cultural heritage treasures on the web: data.bnf.fr – france
Agnès Simon (Curator, Département Information bibliographique et numérique, Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF)), will discuss data.bnf.fr, a service the BnF is developing to facilitate the discovery of its holdings, interrelated and interconnected to other resources on the Web.
The BnF is the most important heritage institution in France, with a history going back to the 16th century. It has fourteen divisions located over many sites. A large variety of materials are processed in different catalogues, reflecting not only the history of the materials themselves but also that of the methods and technologies used for their description. However, the descriptions are maintained in disparate BnF catalogues and databases, complicating discovery of these resources and their interrelation.
data.bnf.fr will leverage both new conceptual models, for organization of the bibliographic information (such as FRBR), and Linked Data technologies, to provide integrated access to both the holdings of the BnF and related resources available on the Web. A high-level ontology has been designed to make the bibliographic, archival, or other metadata models used in the BnF interoperable. RDF is used to express and expose data extracted from the various library descriptive systems and other complementary systems available on the Web. Incorporating other Semantic web-related ontologies, data.bnf.fr provides a scalable foundation for interconnecting diverse resources, particularly cultural heritage.
The project’s effectiveness is made possible by innovative use of the semantics and quality of the structured data contained in the various BnF catalogues. Persons, corporate bodies, and works, accurately identified through authority files, constitute nodes in a network of descriptions of related resources, regardless of the type. Descriptions of persons and corporate bodies are enhanced with information about those entities from Encoded Archival Description (EAD) finding aids. Other Internet resources are used in a similar, complementary way. The bibliographic data is remodeled and collocated according to FRBR categories, and displayed in a user-friendly way, with direct links to the digitized material from the Gallica digital library, whenever they exist.
data.bnf.fr began in July 2011 with a significant amount of information and is continuously broadening its scope and exploring new ways to collaborate with ongoing initiatives in other cultural heritage institutions in France, namely current work remodeling the French Archives’ databases to better fit in the Web landscape of the French and European cultural heritage treasures.
social networks and archival context (snac) project – united states
Daniel Pitti, Associate Director of the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, University of Virginia, will describe the SNAC project.
The initial phase of the two-year SNAC research and demonstration project began in May 2010 with funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities (U.S.). The project’s objectives are to:
•        extract data describing creators of and others documented in records from EAD-encoded descriptions of records (finding aids),
•        migrate this data into Encoded Archival Context-Corporate Bodies, Persons, Families (EAC-CPF)-encoded authority descriptions,
•        augment authority descriptions with additional data from matching library and museum authority records,
•        and, finally, use the resulting extracted and enhanced archival authority descriptions to build a prototype system that provides integrated access to the finding aids (and thus the records) from which the descriptions of people were extracted and to the socio-historical contexts in which the records were created.
In the initial phase of SNAC, the primary source of data was 28,000 finding aids. In the second phase, the source data will vastly expand and include not only descriptions of archival records but also original archival authority descriptions. The number of finding aids will increase to more than 148,000, and up to two million OCLC WorldCat collection-level descriptions will be added. The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), British Library, Smithsonian Institution, BnF, and Archives nationales will contribute nearly 500,000 archival authority descriptions.
While SNAC’s immediate objectives are to significantly refine and improve the effectiveness of the methods used in building an innovative research tool, its long-term objective is to provide a solid foundation of both methods and data for establishing a sustainable national archival program cooperatively governed by and maintained by the professional archive and library community.
catalogo delle risorse archivistiche (cat) – italy
Stefano Vitali, Soprintendente archivistico per l’Emilia Romagna (Supervising Office for the Archives in Emilia Romagna Region), will describe the Catalogo delle Risorse archivistiche (CAT). CAT provides integrated access to archival resources held in national, regional, and local repositories. Access to these holdings will be provided via a central system based on archival descriptions of the custodians and creators of archival records.
CAT will sketch a general map of the national archival heritage, providing initial orientation to researchers and guiding them towards more informative resources available in the systems participating in the National Archival Portal. It will contain descriptive records of both the current custodians and original creators of archival records. Data harvesting techniques based on the OAI-PMH protocol will be used to aggregate descriptive data from systems distributed throughout Italy. In addition, CAT will explore direct submission of XML-based descriptions of archival repositories and creators, as well as direct data entry into the CAT maintenance interface. 
CAT’s goal is to provide a comprehensive list of all of the creators of archival records (persons, corporate bodies, and families) held in Italian repositories, and a comprehensive guide to the custodians (institutional and non-institutional) of the archival records. In addition to providing access to and context for archival records in Italy, CAT will be a bridge to other catalogs and descriptive systems in the cultural heritage domain, include the National Library System.
The Archives Portal Europe: Research and Publication Platform for European Archives– Europe
Kerstin Arnold, Scientific Manager, Bundesarchiv, and Leader of the Europeana interoperability work package of APEx, will describe the APEx project and its predecessor, APEnet.
The Archives Portal Europe has been developed within APEnet, a collaboration of nineteen European national archives and the Europeana Foundation, to build a common access point for searching and researching archival content6. Funded by the European Commission in the eContentplusprogramme, APEnet began in January 2009 and celebrated the release of Archives Portal Europe 1.0 in January 2012. At the moment the portal contains more than 14.5 million descriptive units linked to approximately 63 million digitized pages of archival material. By joining the materials of currently 62 institutions from 14 European countries, the portal has become a major actor on the European cultural heritage scene.
The tasks achieved in APEnet will be taken one step further with its successor, APEx, which recently has held its kick-off meeting at The Hague, The Netherlands. Funded by the European Commission in the ICT Policy Support Programme (ICT-PSP), APEx will inlcude 28 European national archives plus ICARUS (International Centre for Archival Research) as project partners.
While APEnet focused on integrating access to EAD-encoded archival finding aids contributed by the participating national archives and to EAG (Encoded Archival Guide)-encoded descriptions of the national archives themselves, APEx will increase the number of participating archives, enhance and improve the training of archival staff in participating institutions, and improve the quality of the integrated access system, in particular via Web 2.0 functionality and examining Linked Data approaches to be adapted within the Archives Portal Europe.
A primary objective will be incorporating EAC-CPF, the international standard for describing record creators and the people documented in them. The resulting archival authority descriptions will enhance access to archival records, and provide socio-historical context for understanding them.
notes
1.In the describing the RoSE project to Daniel Pitti, Alan Liu described this network as a ‘social-document graph.’
2.RoSE: http://transliteracies.english.ucsb.edu/category/research-project/rose
3.The Crowded Page: http://www.crowdedpage.org/
4.VIAF: http://viaf.org/
5.WorldCat Identities: http://www.worldcat.org/identities/
6.Archives Portal Europe: http://www.archivesportaleurope.eu/ and APEnet: http://www.apenet.eu/","txt","2","",""
"1402","13","Future Developments for TEI ODD","3","The purpose of this panel is to look at the application and future development of the literate programming system known as ODD which was developed for the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) and underlies every single use of the TEI.
Though strongly influenced by data modelling techniques characteristic of markup languages such as SGML and XML, the conceptual model of the Text Encoding Initiative is defined independently of any particular representation or implementation. The objects in this model, their properties, and their relationships are all defined using a special TEI vocabulary called ODD (for One Document Does-it-all); in this way, the TEI model is used to define itself and a TEI specification using that model is, formally, just like any other kind of resource defined using the TEI.  An application selects the parts of the TEI model it wishes to use, and any modifications it wishes to make of them, by writing a TEI specification (a TEI ODD document), which can then be processed by appropriate software to generate instance documents relevant to the given application. Typically, these instance documents will consist of both user documentation, such as project manuals for human use, and system documentation, such as XML schemas or DTDs, sets of Schematron constraints etc. for machine use. In this respect ODD is a sophisticated re-implementation of the ‘literate programming’ paradigm developed by Don Knuth in the 1970s reimagined as ‘literate encoding’.
One of the requirements for TEI Conformance is that the TEI file ‘is documented by means of a TEI Conformant ODD file which refers to the TEI Guidelines’. In many cases users employ pre-generated schemas from exemplar customizations, but they are usually better served if they use the TEI ODD markup language, possibly through the Roma web application, to constrain what is available to them thus customizing the TEI model to reflect more precisely their encoding needs.
Some of the mechanisms supporting this extensibility are relatively new in the TEI Guidelines, and users are only now beginning to recognize their potential. We believe that there is considerable potential for take-up of the TEI system beyond its original core constituencies in language engineering, traditional philology, digital libraries, and digital humanities in general. Recent additions to the TEI provide encoding schemes for database-like information about persons and places to complement their existing detailed recommendations for names and linguistic structures; they have always provided recommendations for software-independent means of authoring scientific documentation, but the ODD framework makes it easier for TEI documents to coexist with other specialist XML vocabularies as well as expanding it to encompass the needs of new specialised kinds of text. It has been successfully used for describing other XML schemas, notably the W3C ITS (Internationalisation Tagset) and ISO TC37 SC4 standards documents; more recently its facilities have greatly simplified the task of extending the TEI model to address the needs of other research communities, such as musicologists and genetic editors.
We believe that the current ODD system could be further enhanced to provide robust support for new tools and services; an important step is to compare and contrast its features with those of other ‘meta-encoding’ schemes and consider its relationship to ontological description languages such as OWL. The potential role of ODD in the development of the semantic web is an intriguing topic for investigation.
This panel brings together some of the world’s most knowledgeable users and architects of the TEI ODD language, including several who have been responsible for its design and evolution over the years. We will debate its strengths, limitations, and future development.  Each speaker will focus on one aspect, problem, or possible development relating to TEI ODD before responding to each others suggestions and answering questions from the audience.
Lou Burnard will introduce the history and practical use of ODD in TEI, and describe its relevance as a means of introducing new users to the complexity of the TEI. Sebastian Rahtz will talk about the processing model for ODD, and the changes required to the language to model genuinely symmetric, and chainable, specifications. Bertrand Gaiffe will look at some of the core mechanisms within ODD, and suggest that model classes that gather elements (or other model classes) for their use into content models could be better as underspecified bags instead of sets. Syd Bauman will discuss co-occurrence constraints, pointing out that ODD’s lack of support for this feature is a significant limitation, but also that it can often be worked around by adding Schematron to an ODD. Laurent Romary and Piotr Banski will describe issues in drafting ODD documents from scratch, in particular in the context of ISO standardisation work, introducing proposals to make ODD evolve towards a generic specification environment.
We believe that the DH2012 conference offers a useful outreach opportunity for the TEI to engage more closely with the wider DH community, and to promote a greater awareness of the power and potential of the TEI ODD language. We also see this as an invaluable opportunity to obtain feedback about the best ways of developing ODD in the future, thereby contributing to the TEI Technical Council’s ongoing responsibility to maintain and enhance the language.
Organization
The 5 speakers will each give a 15-minute introduction to a problem or possible development that relates to TEI ODD. After this the organizer will moderate discussion between members of the panel on a number of questions before opening the discussion to questions from the audience.
Speakers
•        Lou Burnard, lou.burnard@tge-adonis.fr, TGE-Adonis
•        Syd Bauman, syd_bauman@brown.edu, Brown University Center for Digital Scholarship
•        Bertrand Gaiffe, bertrand.gaiffe@atilf.fr, ATILF
•        Sebastian Rahtz, sebastian.rahtz@oucs.ox.ac.uk, University of Oxford
•        Laurent Romary & Piotr Bański (Piotr speaking), laurent.romary@inria.fr, bansp@o2.pl, Inria, HUB & IDS
Organizer James Cummings, james.cummings@oucs.ox.ac.uk, University of Oxford
references
Burnard, L., and R. Rahtz (2004). RelaxNG with Son of ODD. Extreme Markup Languages 2004,http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.124.7139&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Romary, L. (2009). ODD as a generic specification platform, Text encoding in the era of mass digitization – Conference and Members’ Meeting of the TEI Consortium  http://hal.inria.fr/inria-00433433″
TEI By Example (2010). Customising TEI, ODD, Roma. TEI By Example, http://tbe.kantl.be/TBE/modules/TBED08v00.htm
TEI Consortium, eds. (2007). TEI P5 Guidelines Chapter on “Documentation Elements”. TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/TD.html
TEI Consortium, eds. (2007). TEI P5 Guidelines Section on “Implementation of an ODD System”. TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/USE.html#IM
TEI Consortium, eds. (2007). Getting Started with TEI P5 ODDs. TEI-C Website. http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/Customization/odds.xml","txt","2","",""
"1403","13","Prosopographical Databases, Text-Mining, GIS and System Interoperability for Chinese History and Literature","3","introduction
overview
Digital content and tools for Chinese studies have been developing very quickly. The largest digital text corpus currently has 400 million characters. There is now an historical GIS for administrative units and towns in China from 221 BCE to 1911. And there are general and specialized biographical and literary databases. This wealth of resources is constrained, however, by the histories of their development: all have been developed independently of each other and there has been no systematic effort to create interoperability between them. This panel brings together three innovators in Chinese digital humanities and shows how, by implementing system interoperability and content sharing, their separate approaches to content and tool development can be mutually supporting and result in more powerful applications for the study of China’s history and literature. The goal of this session is both to introduce the projects the presenters lead and to demonstrate the advantages of sharing and interoperability across systems. Moreover, because their outputs are multi-lingual (Chinese, English translation, and pinyin) they are making the data from China’s past accessible to a non-Chinese-reading public.
The China Biographical Database (CBDB) has been accumulating biographical data on historical figures, mainly from the 7th through early 20th century. It populates the database by applying text-mining procedures to large bodies of digital texts. Users can query the system in terms of place, time, office, social associations and kinship, and export the results for further analysis with GIS, social networks, and statistical software. The Research Center for the Digital Humanities at National Taiwan University developed the Taiwan History Digital Library, a system for the spatial and temporal visualization of the distribution of Taiwan historical land deeds, creating a temporally-enabled map interface that allows users to discover relevant documents, examine them and track their frequency. Using CBDB code tables of person names, place names, and official titles for text mark-up, the Center is now applying this system to a compendium of 80,000 documents from the 10th through early 13th century that cover all aspects of government, including such diverse topics as religious activity, tax revenues and bureaucratic appointments. Users will be able to track the careers of individuals and call up their CBDB biographies through time and space as well as seeing when, where, and what the government was doing. This will be a model for incorporating the still larger compendia of government documents from later periods. Data will be discovered (e.g. the location and date of official appointments) and deposited into the CBDB. The Ming Qing Women’s Writings (MQWW) project is a multilingual online database of 5000 women writers from Chinese history which includes scans of hitherto unavailable works and analyses of their content. Users can query the database by both person and literary content. Using APIs to create system interoperability between MQWW and CBDB, MQWW is building into its interface the ability to call up CBDB data on kinship, associations, and careers of the persons in MQWW. For their part CBDB users will be able to discover the writings of women through the CBDB interface.
chinese biographical data: text-mining, databases and system interoperability
Bol, Peter Kees, Harvard University, USA, pkbol@fas.harvard.edu
Biography has been a major component of Chinese historiography since the first century BCE and takes up over half the contents in the twenty-five dynastic histories; biographical and prosopographical data also dominate the 8500 extant local histories. The China Biographical Database is a collaborative project of Harvard University, Peking University, and Academia Sinica to collect biographical data on men and women in China’s history (Bol and Ge 2002-10). It currently holds data on about 130,000 people, mainly from the seventh through early twentieth century, and is freely available as a downloadable stand-alone relational database, as an online manual inputting system, and as an online query system with both />English and >Chinese interfaces. Code and data tables cover the multiple kinds of names associated with individuals, the places with which they were associated at birth and death and during their careers, the offices they held, the educational and religious institutions with which they were associated, the ways in which they entered their careers (with special attention to the civil service examination), the people they were associated with through kinship and through non-kin social associations (e.g. teacher-student), social distinction, ethnicity, and writings (Fuller 2011).
The purpose of the database is to enable users, working in Chinese or English, to use large quantities of prosopographical data to explore historical questions (Stone 1972). These may be straightforward (e.g. What was the spatial distribution of books by bibliographic class during a certain period? How did age at death vary by time, space, and gender?) or complex (e.g. What percentage of civil officials from a certain place during a certain period were related to each other through blood or marriage? How did intellectual movements spread over time?). The standalone database and the online query system also include routines for generating genealogies of any extent and social networks of up to five nodes, finding incumbents in a particular office, etc. The standalone database (and next year the online system) can also output queries in formats that can be analyzed with geographic information system and social network analysis software (Bol 2012). Historical social network analysis is challenging but rewarding (Padgett & Ansell 1993; Wetherhall 1998).
We began to populate the database largely through text-mining and text-modeling procedures. We began with Named Entity Recognition procedures (e.g. finding text-strings that matched reign periods titles, numbers, years, months, and days to capture dates, with 99% recall and precision) written in Python. We then proceeded to write more complex Regular Expressions to identify, for example, the office a person assumed at a certain date, where the office title is unknown. Currently we are implementing probabilistic procedures to identify the social relationship between the biographical subject and the names of people co-occurring in the biographical text (we have reached a 60% match with the training data).
An important outcome for the humanities generally is Elif Yamangil’s (Harvard University: Computer Science) development of the ‘Regular Expression Machine.’ This is a graphical user interface (GUI) built within Java Swing library that allows a user to graphically design patterns for biographical texts, match these against the data and see results immediately via a user-friendly color-coding scheme. It consists of a workspace of three main components: (1) a view that displays the textual data currently used, (2) a list of active regular expressions that are matched against the data via color-coding, and (3) a list of shortcut regular expression parts that can be used as building-blocks in active regular expressions from (2). Additional facilities we have built into our product are (1) an XML export ability: Users can create XML files that flatten the current workspace (data and regular expression matched against) at the click of a button. This facilitates interfacing to other programs such as Microsoft Excel and Access for database input. (2) A save/load ability: Users can easily save/load the workspace state which includes the list of regular expressions and shortcuts and their color settings. (3) A handy list of pre-made regular expression examples: Numerous date patterns can be added instantly to any regular expression using the GUI menus. The point of building this application is to allow users with no prior experience with programming or computer science concepts such as regular expression scripting to experiment with data-mining Chinese biographical texts at an intuitive template-matching understanding level only, yet still effectively.
The CBDB project also accepts volunteered data. Our goal in this is social rather than technical. Researchers in Chinese studies have long paid attention to biography and in the course of their research have created tables, and occasionally databases, with biographical data. By offering standard formats and look-ups and queries for coding, we provide researchers with a permanent home for their data. Currently there are twelve collaborating research projects, among which are an extensive database of Buddhist monks, a collection of 5000 grave biographies, 30,000 individuals active in the ninth through tenth centuries. The more biographical data the project accumulates the greater the service to research and learning that explore the lives of individuals.
Humanists are exploring ways in which they can use data in quantity and looking for ways of making it accessible to others on the web. In Chinese studies – speaking now only of those online systems that include biographical data – these include the Tang Knowledge Database at the Center for Humanistic Research at Kyoto University, the Ming-Qing Archives at Academia Sinica and the National Palace Museum Taiwan, the databases for Buddhist Studies at Dharma Drum College, Ming Qing Women’s Writings Database at McGill University, and the University of Leuven’s database of writings by Christian missionaries and converts in China. The role of the China Biographical Database project in this environment is to provide an online resource for biographical data that others can draw on to populate fields in their own online systems. To this end we are currently developing (and will demonstrate this summer) a set of open Application Programming Interfaces that will allow other systems to incorporate data from the China Biographical Database on the fly. This will allow other projects to focus their resources on the issues that are of most interest to them while at the same time being able to incorporate any or all the data in CBDB within their own systems.
 
Figure 1: Online search results for Zhu Xi
 
Figure 2: Persons in CBDB from Jianzhou in the Song period
 
Figure 3: Kin to Zhu Xi (5 generations up and down, collateral and marriage distance of 1)
 
Figure 4: Civil Service Examination degree holders of 1148 and 1256
references
Bol, P. K. (2007). Creating a GIS for the History of China. In A. Kelly Knowles and A. Hillier (eds.), Placing History: How Maps, Spatial Data, and GIS Are Changing Historical Scholarship. Redlands, CA: ESRI Press, pp. 25-57.
Bol, P. K. (2012). GIS, Prosopography, and History. Annals of GIS 18(1): 3-15.
Bol, P. K., and Ge Jianxiong 葛剑雄 (2002-10). China historical GIS [electronic resource] = Zhongguo li shi di li xin xi xi = 中国历史地理信息系统. Version 1.0-5.0 Harvard University and Fudan University.
Fuller, M. A. (2011). CBDB User’s Guide. 2nd edition. Harvard University: China Biographical Database.
Padgett, J. F., and Chr. K. Ansell (1993). Robust Action and the Rise of the Medici, 1400-1434. American Journal of Sociology 98: 1259-319.
Stone, L. (1972). Prosopography. In F. Gilbert, E. J. Hobsbawm and St. Richards Graubard (eds.), Historical studies today., xxi, 469. New York: Norton.
Wetherhall, Ch. (1998). Historical Social Network Analysis. In L. J. Griffin and M. van der Linden (eds.), New methods for social history. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge UP, p. 165.
 
 
context discovery in historical documents – a case study with taiwan history digital library (thdl)
Hsiang, Jieh, National Taiwan University, Taiwan, jieh.hsiang@gmail.com
Research on pre-1900 Taiwanese history has suffered from the lack of primary historical documents. Most of the local government records, except for the Danxin Archives (an archive of about 20,000 official documents from the two northern Taiwan prefectures during the 19th century) are lost. Although there are quite a few records about Taiwan in the Imperial Court archives, they are kept in several different institutions, scattered among the volumes, and are hard to access. The situation with local documents such as land deeds is even worse. Some are published in local gazetteers or books, and some are family records kept by individual researchers for their own research use. There was an urgent need to collect primary documents and put them under one roof so that they can be better utilized by scholars.
In 2002 the Council of Cultural Affairs of Taiwan commissioned the National Taiwan University Library to select imperial court documents relevant to Taiwan from the Ming and Qing court archives, and the National Taichung Library to collect local deeds (especially land deeds). More than 30,000 court documents and 19,000 local deeds were collected and transcribed into full text. Most of the court documents and a portion of the land deeds were then published, from 2003 to 2007, into a book series of 147 volumes.
At the same time, CCA authorized the Research Center for Digital Humanities (RCDH) of NTU to create a digital library so that the digital files of the found materials could be used on line. In addition to creating THDL, the Taiwan History Digital Library, RCDH also added a significant number of documents that were collected later. THDL now contains three corpuses, all in searchable full-text. The Ming and Qing Taiwan-related Court Document Collection, numbered at 45,722, are collected from about 300 different sources and includes memorials, imperial edicts, excerpts from personal journals of local officials, and local gazetteers. The Old Land Deeds Collection contains 36,535 pre-1910 deeds from over 100 sources, with new material added every month. The Danxin Archives includes about 1,151 government court cases with 19,557 documents. Together they form the largest collection of its kind, with over 100,000 documents, all with metadata and searchable full text. The three corpuses reflect 18th and 19th century Taiwan from the views of the central government, the local government, and grassroots respectively. THDL has been available for free over the Internet since 2009, and has already made an impact on research of Taiwanese history.
When designing THDL we encountered a challenge. Unlike conventional archives whose documents have a clear organization, the contents in THDL, being from many different sources, do not have predefined contexts. Although one can easily create a search-engine-like system that returns documents when given a query, such a system is cumbersome since the user has to peruse the returned documents to find the relevant ones. In THDL we use a different approach. We assume that documents may be related, and treat a query return (or any subset of documents) as a sub-collection – a group of related documents (Hsiang et al. 2009). Thus in addition to returning a list of documents as the query result, the system also provides the user with as many contexts about the returned sub-collection as possible. This is done in a number of ways. The first one is to classify the query return according to attributes such as year, source, type, location, etc. Visualization tools are provided to give the user a bird’s eyes view of the distributions. Analyses of co-occurrences of names, locations and objects provide more ways to observe and explore the relationships among the actors and the collective meanings of the documents. For example, co-occurrence analysis of terms reveals the names of the associates mentioned most often in the memorials from a certain official, or the most frequently mentioned names during a historical event. Figure 1 is a snapshot of THDL after issuing the query ‘找洗字’. The map on the left shows the geographic locations of the documents in the query return. The top is a chronological distribution chart, and the left column is the post-classification of the query result according to year. We have also developed GIS techniques both for issuing a query and for analyzing/visualizing query results. For the land deeds, for instance, one can draw a polygon to query about all the land deeds appeared in that region (Ou 2011). (Such a query is quite impossible using keywords.) Figure 2 contains such an example. In order to go beyond syntactic queries, we further developed text mining techniques to explore the citation relations among the memorials and imperial edicts of the Ming Qing collection (Hsiang et al. 2012), and land transaction relations among the deeds in the land deed collection (Chen et al. 2011). Both projects have produced transitivity graphs that capture historical phenomena that would be difficult to discover manually.
In order to accomplish the above we developed a number of text-mining techniques. Term extraction methods were developed to extract more than 90,000 name entities from the corpuses (Hsieh 2011), and information such as the locations, dates, the four reaches of the land deeds, prices, and patterns. Matching algorithms were designed to find the transaction, citation and other relations mentioned above (Huang 2009; Chen 2011). GIS-related spatial-temporal techniques have also been developed (Ou 2011).
The contents of the China Biographical Database (CBDB) and Ming Qing Women’s Writers (MQWW) described in other parts of this panel share a number of commonalities with the contents of THDL. In additional to being written in classical Chinese, the documents in each of the corpuses were collected from many different sources and spanned over hundreds of years. Furthermore, there are no intrinsic relations among the documents other than the obvious. To use such loosely knitted collections effectively in research would require a system that can help the user explore contexts that may be hidden among the documents. This is exactly what THDL provides. The designing philosophy of treating a query return as a sub-collection and the mining and presentation technologies developed for THDL can be adapted in the other two collections as well. Indeed, THDL’s design, interface, and mining technologies are flexible enough to easily incorporate other Chinese language corpuses. The only assumption is that the documents in a collection should have well-structured metadata, which is important for the purpose of post-classification of a sub-collection. If the full-text of the content is also available, then more sophisticated analytical methods such as co-occurrence analysis can be deployed.
We have worked with the CBDB team of Harvard and built, within a month, a fully functional system from the THDL shell for Song huiyao (宋會要), a compendium of government records between 10th and 13th century China. (The content was jointly developed at Harvard and the Academia Sinica of Taiwan.) The system has also incorporated 9,470 person names, 2,420 locations, and 3,366 official titles from CBDB and used them in co-occurrence analysis, classifications and other features. It also extracted, automatically, 11,901 additional terms from the corpus. To reduce the number of errors unavoidable from this automated process, we have designed a crowd-sourcing mechanism for users to make corrections and to add new terms they discovered when using the system. The new names obtained through this process will in turn be fed back to CBDB.
We have also built a prototype for MQWW with post-classification features. Significant enhancement to this system is being planned once we receive enough users’ feedback. Incorporating the names and locations of CBDB into the system is also being studied.
While the text mining techniques that we have described here are designed for the Chinese language, the retrieval methodology of treating a query return as a sub-collection and the mechanisms for discovering and representing its collective meanings is universal. It provides a way to present and analyze the query return that seems better suitable for scholars to explore digital archives than the more conventional search engine that treats a query return as a ranked list.
 
Figure 1: Snapshot of THDL with query term “找洗字”
 
references
Chen S. P. (2011). Information technology for historical document analysis, Ph.D. thesis, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Chen, S. P., Y. M. Huang, H. L. Ho, P. Y. Chen, and J. Hsiang (2011). Discovering land transaction relations from land deeds of Taiwan. Digital Humanities 2011 Conference, June 19-22, 2011. Stanford, CA, pp. 106-110.
Hsiang, J., S. P. Chen, and H. C. Tu (2009). On building a full-text digital library of land deeds of Taiwan.Digital Humanities 2009 Conference. Maryland, June 22-25, 2009, pp. 85-90.
Hsiang, J., S. P. Chen, H. L. Ho, and H. C. Tu (2012). Discovering relations from imperial court documents of Qing China. International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing 6: 22-41.
Hsieh, Y. P. (2012), Appositional Term Clip: a subject-oriented appositional term extraction algorithm. In J. Hsiang (ed.), New Eyes for Discovery: Foundations and Imaginations of Digital Humanities. Taipei: National Taiwan UP, pp. 133-164.
Huang, Y. M. (2009). On reconstructing relationships among Taiwanese land deeds. MS Thesis, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Ou, C.-H. (2011). Creating a GIS for the history of Taiwan – a case study of Taiwan during the Japanese occupation era. MS Thesis, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
 
 
system interoperability and modeling women writers’ life histories of late imperial china
Fong, Grace, McGill University, Canada, grace.fong@mcgill.ca
Recent scholarship has shown that Chinese women’s literary culture began to flourish on an unprecedented level alongside the boom in printing industry in the late sixteenth century, and continued as a cultural phenomenon in the late imperial period until the end of the Qing dynasty (1644-1911) (Ko 1994; Mann 1997; Fong 2008; Fong & Widmer 2010). Over 4,000 collections of poetry and other writings by individual women were recorded for this period (Hu and Zhang 2008). These collections with their rich autobiographical and social contents open up gendered perspectives on and complicated many aspects of Chinese culture and society – unsuspected kinship and family dynamics, startling subject positions, new topoi and genres, all delivered from the experience of literate women. Yet, within the Confucian gender regime, women were a subordinated group and ideally to be located within the domestic sphere, and in many instances their writings had not been deemed worthy of systematic preservation. Perhaps less than a quarter of recorded writings in individual collections have survived the ravages of history; many more fragments and selections are preserved in family collections, local gazetteers, and various kinds of anthologies. Works by individual women have been difficult to access for research, as they have mostly ended up in rare book archives in libraries in China.
Aimed at addressing the problem of accessibility, the Ming Qing Women’s Writings project (MQWW; http://digital.library.mcgill.ca/mingqing) is a unique digital archive and web-based database of historical Chinese women’s writing enhanced by a number of research tools. Launched in 2005, this collaborative project between McGill and Harvard University makes freely available the digitized images of Ming-Qing women’s texts held in the Harvard-Yenching Library, accompanied by the analyzed contents of each collection, which can be viewed online, and a wealth of literary, historical, and geographical data that can be searched (Fig. 1-4). However, MQWW is not a full-text database – we do not have the funding resources for that, but it is searchable based on an extensive set of metadata. In addition to identifying thematic categories, researchers can link between women based on exchange of their work and correspondence, obtain contextual information on family and friends, and note the ethnicity and marital status of the women writers, among other data fields. Each text within a collection is analyzed and identified according to author, title, genre and subgenre, whether it is a poem, a prose piece, or chapter of a verse novel. The MQWW digital archive contains more than 10,000 poems (majority by women) and also more than 10,000 prose pieces of varying lengths and genres (some by men), ranging from prefaces to epitaphs, and over 20,000 images of original texts. It clearly enables literary research; conferences, research papers, and doctoral dissertations have drawn on the resources provided, as well, the database has been serving as an important teaching resource in North America, China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan.
While the MQWW database contains basic information on 5,394 women poets and other writers, it was not originally designed with biographical research in mind. Yet, continuing research has pointed to how family and kinship, geographical location and regional culture, and social networks and literary communities are significant factors affecting the education, marriage, and general life course of women as writers (Mann 2007; Widmer 2006). The current phase of the collaborative project with the China Biographical Database (CBDB), Harvard University, will develop the biographical data of MQWW for large-scale prosopographical study (Keats-Rohan 2007). It is guided by the potential for taking digital humanities research in the China field to a new stage of development by focusing on system interoperability. By this we mean that online systems are built so as to enable interaction with other online systems through an Application Programming Interface (API), which must be developed in both directions. Our methodological strength is based on the two robust databases with demonstrated long-term sustainability and scholarly significance. An API is being created for CBDB to enable it to interact with MQWW and vice versa. MQWW will retain its separate identity as a knowledge site with its unique digital archive of texts and multifunction searchable database. System interoperability will support cross-database queries on an ad hoc basis by individual users. We are developing an integrated search interface to query both databases.
My paper will be an experiment based on a project in progress. With the massive biographical data available in CBDB, I will formulate and test queries for kinship and social network analysis for women writers in MQWW for a life history model, or a prosopographical study, of writing women in late imperial China. Some of the questions I will address are:
•        Can we map historical changes statistically to test the ‘high tides’ of women’s writings (mid seventeenth century and late eighteenth century), which were arrived at through non-statistical observations?
•        What graphs do the data yield for women’s social associations when mapped according to geographical regions, historical periods, and male kin success in the civil examination system, and other defined parameters?
•        How do the official assignments of male kin affect groups of women in their life cycle roles: as daughter, wife, mother, mother-in-law, grandmother?
•        What social patterns can emerge, such as local and translocal marriage and female friendship, through social network analysis with data in CBDB?
The rich data for male persons in CBDB can offer possibilities for mapping the life history of women writers: the circulation of their books, the physical ‘routes’ of movement in their lives, their temporal and geographical experiences, and their subtle role in the social and political domain, and disclose unsuspected lines of family and social networks, political alliances, literati associations, and women’s literary communities for further study and analysis. The experiments can show the probabilities and possibilities of the new system interoperability for identifying not only normative patterns, but also ‘outlier’ cases in marginal economic, geographical, and cultural regions, for which social, political, and historical explanations can be sought through more conventional humanities research.
references
Fong, G. S. (2008). Herself an Author: Gender, Agency, and Writing in Late Imperial China. Honolulu: U of Hawaii P.
Fong, G. S., and E. Widmer, eds. (2010). The Inner Quarters and Beyond: Women Writers from Ming through Qing. Leiden: Brill.
Hu, W., and H. Zhang (2008). Lidai funü zhuzuokao (zengdingben) (Catalogue of women’s writings through the ages [with supplements]). Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe.
Keats-Rohan, K. S. B., ed. (2007). Prosopography Approaches and Applications: A Handbook. Oxford: Unit for Prosopographical Research, Linacre College, University of Oxford.
Ko, D. (1994). Teachers of the Inner Chambers: Women and Culture in Seventeenth-Century China. Stanford: Stanford UP.
Mann, S. (1997). Precious Records: Women in China’s Long Eighteenth-Century. Berkeley, CA: U of California P.
Mann, S. (2007). The Talented Women of the Zhang Family. Berkeley, CA: U of California P.
Widmer, E. (2006). The Beauty and the Book: Women and Fiction in Nineteenth-Century China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center.","txt","2","",""
"1404","13","Text Analysis Meets Text Encoding","3","aim and organization
The main aim of this panel discussion is to bring together text encoding specialists and text analysis researchers. Recent DH conferences have comprised, in addition to other activities, two distinct sub-conferences – one focusing on text encoding in general and TEI in particular, and the other on text analysis, authorship attribution, and stylistics. The separation between the two is so extreme that their participants often meet only at breaks and social events. This is reﬂected in the way text encoding specialists and text analysis scholars do their work as well: they hardly ever work together on the same projects. Because of this lack of connection, some of the long-promised benefits of markup for analysis remain unrealized. This panel takes a step toward bridging the gap between markup and analysis.
We focus on both the causes for the gap and possible solutions. What could and should markup do that it doesn’t currently do? Why do analysts rarely work with the huge number of texts already encoded? How can text encoders and those who process encoded texts make their work more useful to text analysts, and how can text analysis specialists help encoders make their texts more useful? What opportunities currently exist for collaboration and cooperation between encoders and analysts, and how can more productive opportunities be created?
panel topic
The reasons for the present gap between markup and analysis are partly technical and partly non-technical, and arise from the disparate aims and methods of the two camps. While markup systems have generally been designed to meet the needs of (scholarly) publishing, markup adherents have often claimed that their markup is also useful for analytic purposes. However, the very concept of ‘markup’ itself is different for the two constituencies. XML, in particular, isn’t ‘markup’ in the full sense, as used by specialists in text processing. Rather, it is a data structuring methodology that imposes a single unitary hierarchy upon the text. Consequently, it is a poor instrument for the complete interpretive loop or spiral, where we start with text (with or without markup), perform analysis, use markup to record or ‘inscribe’ our findings into the text, and then return to analysis at a higher level. This is largely because the inscription step is usually inhibited by any prior (XML) markup. Consider two ﬂowcharts of document processing workﬂows athttp://piez.org/wendell/papers/dh2010/743_Fig2a.jpg (what XML provides) andhttp://piez.org/wendell/papers/dh2010/743_Fig2b.jpg (what we need). (As noted on the page at http://piez.org/wendell/papers/dh2010 , these images were presented as part of a paper delivered at Digital Humanities 2010 in London Piez 2010].) The difference between these is essentially that in the current (XML-based) architecture, extending and amending our document schemas and processing require re-engineering the system itself; the stable system (which is designed to support publishing not research) does not naturally sustain that activity. A system that supported markup in the sense that text analysis requires – which would support, among other possibilities, multiple concurrent overlapping hierarchies (including rhetorical, prosodic, narrative and other organizations of texts) and arbitrary overlap (including overlap between similar types of elements or ranges) – would also support incremental development of processing to take advantage of any and all markup that researchers see fit to introduce.
Part of the solution to this problem is in the emergence of standard methodologies for encoding annotations above or alongside one or more ‘base’ layers of markup, perhaps using standoff markup or alternatives to XML. The details are less important than the capabilities inherent in a data model not limited to unitary trees (see Piez 2010 for discussion; for a more wide-ranging critique of markup, see Schmidt 2010). Over the long term, given suitable utilities and interfaces, textual analysts may be able to use such systems productively; in the medium term this is more doubtful.
This leads to the non-technical part of the problem: largely because XML is not very well suited to their requirements, text analysis tools typically cannot handle arbitrary encoding in XML along with the texts themselves, while at the same time there is not yet a viable alternative encoding technology, specified as a standard and suitable for supporting interchange. And so an analyst must begin by processing the encoded text into a usable form. While the markup specialist may be able (perhaps easily) to perform such a  transformation on his or her XML texts using XSLT, this is usually more difficult for the text analyst, for several reasons. Moreover, we submit that many or most of these difficulties are not simply due to known limitations of current text-encoding technologies as described above, but will also persist in new, more capable environments.
Markup processing technologies such as XSLT are rarely among the text analyst’s armamentarium, and the benefits of XSLT (and we imagine this would be the case with any successor as well) are often not clear enough to the text analyst to justify its significant learning curve. XSLT need not be difficult, but it can be challenging to assimilate – especially because it seems superficially similar to text analysis. Those who do learn XSLT will find some of the tasks most useful to them relatively easy (e.g., filtering markup and splitting/aggregating texts). XSLT 2.0 also includes regular expressions, grouping, and stylesheet functions, and handles plain text input gracefully, making it a much more hospitable environment than XSLT 1.0 for text analysis. Yet more often than not, these features serve only to make XSLT tantalizing as well as frustrating to those for whom markup processing cannot be a core competency.
Moreover, intimate familiarity with the encoding system is typically necessary to process it correctly, yet  the text analyst is frequently working with texts that he or she was not a party to creating. Many texts are encoded according to the TEI Guidelines, but analysts are often not experts in TEI in general, let alone expert at a particular application of TEI by a particular project. But such expertise is often required, as even ‘simple’ word extraction from an arbitrary TEI text can be problematic. Certainly, plenty of TEI encodings make the task non-trivial. Consider in particular the task of ingesting an arbitrary unextended TEI P5 text and emitting a word list, assuming that we can ignore one important detail: word order. What assumptions are necessary? What information will the data provider need to provide to the transformation process? Below are some preliminary considerations toward a tool that would present the user with a form to fill out and return an XSLT stylesheet for extracting words (note that many of these considerations would benefit from collaboration between the text encoder and the text analyst):
•        What metadata can be ignored? E.g., if a default rendition of display:none applies to an element, are its contents words?
•        Which element boundaries always/never/sometimes imply word breaks? When ‘sometimes’, how can we tell?
•        Which hierarchical content structures (if any) should be ignored? (E.g,. colophons, forwards, prefaces) Which trappings? (E.g., <interGrp>, <figDesc>)
•        Which elements pointed to by an <alt> element (or child of a <choice>) get ignored, and which get included?
The complexity of this analysis compounds the difficulty already described. And it must be performed anew for every encoded text or set of texts the analyst wishes to consider.
Furthermore, the publishing focus noted above means that text-encoding projects rarely encode the elements most useful for analysis, and you can only get out of markup what the encoder puts in. An analyst interested in how names are used in literary texts, for example, will find that even projects that encode proper names often encode only the names of authors and publishers (not very interesting for text analysis), or only personal names (the analyst may also be interested in place names and names of other things). Likewise, adding the desired markup to encoded texts requires that the analyst conform to (or perhaps modify) the existing encoding scheme, imposing another learning curve above that for the XSLT needed to extract the names once they have been encoded. Consequently, scholars interested in text analysis typically find it is more efficient to use plain texts without any markup, and then apply an ad hoc system of manual tagging, or named entity recognition (NER) tools in combination with manual correction of tagging. The analyst who wants to extract the speeches of characters in already-encoded plays will sometimes discover that the speeches are encoded in such a way that automatic extraction is quite problematic (e.g., at Documenting the American South). It is a rare literary encoding project that provides texts with the dialog encoded for speaker so that the speech of each character can be extracted (even apart, again, from the overlap problem) – a kind of analysis made popular by Burrows’s pioneering work (Burrows 1987), but very labor-intensive.
Finally, even if texts with the desired encoding are available and the analyst is willing to learn the basics of XSLT, typically the XSLT has to be rewritten or tweaked for each new collection of texts that is examined because of differences in encoding schemes. And it is just those ambitious encoding projects that are likely to encode more elements of interest to the text analyst that are also more likely to have complex, individualized, and difficult-to-process encoding (e.g., the Brown University Women Writers Project). From the analyst’s point of view, the process of using existing encoding may be more time-consuming and frustrating than doing the work manually. Surely this state of affairs is undesirable.
Yet there is another way forward besides text analysts learning new skills or text encoders offering their own text-extraction tools. While the problems described here add up to a formidable challenge, the very fact that we can enumerate them suggests that we are not entirely helpless. There is much work that can be done both to refine our understanding, and to develop tools and methodologies that will help to bridge this divide. We suggest beginning with closer collaboration between the two camps. If each supports, works with, and learns from the other, both sides will benefit, and we will have a better foundation of understanding on which to build the next generation of technologies – technologies that will be valuable for both camps.
references
Willa Cather Archive http://cather.unl.edu/
The Brown University Women Writers Project.http://www.wwp.brown.edu/
Documenting the American South.http://docsouth.unc.edu/
Piez, W. (2010). Towards hermeneutic markup: an architectural outline. DH2010, King’s College London, July 9.
Burrows, J. (1987). Computation into Criticism. Oxford: Clarendon P.
Schmidt, D. (2010). The inadequacy of embedded markup for cultural heritage texts. LLC 25: 337-356.
Burnard, L., and S. Bauman (eds.). TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Version 1.7.0. 2010-07-06.http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/index.html","txt","2","",""
"1405","13","Topic Modeling the Past","3","introduction
The enormous digitized archives of books, journals, and newspapers produced during the past two decades present scholars with new opportunities – and new challenges as well. The possibility of analyzing increasingly large portions of the historical, literary, and cultural record is incredibly exciting, but it cannot be done with conventional methods that involve close reading or even not-so-close skimming. These huge new text archives challenge us to apply new methods. This panel will explore one such method: topic modeling.
Topic modeling is a probabilistic, statistical technique that uncovers themes and topics and can reveal patterns in otherwise unwieldy amounts of text. In topic modeling, a ‘topic’ is a probability distribution over words or, put more simply, a group of words that often co-occur with each other in the same documents. Generally these groups of words are semantically related and interpretable; in other words, a theme, issue, or genre can often be identified simply by examining the most common words in a topic. Beyond identifying these words, a topic model provides proportions of what topics appear in each document, providing quantitative data that can be used to locate documents on a particular topic or theme (or that combine multiple topics) and to produce a variety of revealing visualizations about the corpus as a whole.
This panel will, first and foremost, illustrate the interpretative potential of topic modeling for research in the humanities. Robert K. Nelson will analyze the similarities and differences between Confederate and Union nationalism and patriotism during the American Civil War using topic models of two historic newspapers. Travis Brown will explore techniques to tailor topic model generation using historical data external to a corpus to produce more nuanced topics directly relevant to particular research questions. David Mimno (chief maintainer of the most widely used topic modeling software, MALLET) will describe his work using topic modeling to generate – while respecting copyright – a new scholarly resource in the field of Classics that derives from and organizes a substantial amount of the twentieth-century scholarly literature.
The panel will also address methodological issues and demonstrate new applications of topic modeling, including the challenge of topic modeling across multi-lingual corpora, the integration of spatial analysis with topic modeling (revealing the constructedness of space, on the one hand, and the spatiality of culture, on the other), and the generation of visualizations using topic modeling useful for ‘distant reading.’ The panel thus addresses issues of multilingualism, spatial history, data mining, and humanistic research through computation.
modeling nationalism and patriotism in civil war america
Nelson, Robert K., University of Richmond, USA, rnelson2@richmond.edu
Scholars of the American Civil War have productively attended to particular keywords in their analyses of the conflict’s causes and its participants’ motivations. Arguing that some words carried extraordinary political and cultural weight at that moment, they have sought to unpack the deep connotations of terms that are especially revealing and meaningful.  To take a couple of recent examples, Elizabeth R. Varon framesDisunion!: The Coming of the American Civil War, 1789-1859 (unsurprisingly) around the term ‘disunion’: ‘This book argues that ‘disunion’ was once the most provocative and potent word in the political vocabulary of Americans’ (Varon 2008: 1). Similarly, in The Union War Gary W. Gallagher emphasize the importance of ‘Union,’ arguing that ‘No single word in our contemporary political vocabulary shoulders so much historical, political, and ideological meaning; none can stir deep emotional currents so easily’ (Gallagher 2011: 46). Others studies have used terms like ‘duty,’ ‘honor,’ ‘manliness,’ ‘freedom,’ ‘liberty,’ ‘nation,’ ‘republic,’ ‘civilization,’ ‘country,’ and ‘patriotism’ to analyze the ideological perspectives and cultural pressures that shaped the actions and perspectives of soldiers and civilians during the Civil War (Linderman 1987; Prior 2012; Gallagher 1997: 73).
Together, the production of enormous digital archives of Civil War-era documents in the past decade and the development of new sophisticated text-mining techniques present us with an opportunity to build upon the strengths of this approach while transcending some of its limitations. While unquestionably insightful, arguments that have relied heavily upon keyword analyses are open to a number of critiques. How do we know that the chosen keywords are the best window through which to examine the issues under investigation?  How can we know – especially in studies which rely upon keyword searches in databases – that we have not missed significant evidence on the topic that does not happen to use the exact terms we look for and analyze? Does the selection of those words skew our evidence and predetermine what we discover? Topic modeling addresses these critiques of the keyword approach while offering us potentially even greater insights into the politics and culture of the era. First, as a ‘distant reading’ approach it is comprehensive, allowing us to analyze models that are drawn not from a selection but from the entirety of massive corpora. Second, as it identifies word distributions (i.e. ‘topics’), topic modeling encourages – even forces – us to examine larger groups of related words, and it surfaces resonant terms that we might not have expected. Finally and perhaps most importantly, the topics identified by this technique are all the more revealing because they are based on statistical relationships rather than a priori assumptions and preoccupations of a researcher.
This presentation will showcase research into Union and Confederate nationalism and patriotism that uses topic modeling to analyze the full runs of the Richmond Daily Dispatch and the New York Times during the war – taken together a corpus consisting of approximately 90 million words. It will make three interrelated arguments drawn from a combination of distant and close readings of topic models of the Dispatch and theTimes.
First, I will argue that Confederates and Yankees used the same patriotic language to move men to be risk their lives by fighting for their countries. Distinct topic models for the Dispatch and the Times each contain topics with substantially overlapping terms (see table below) – terms saturated with patriotism. Typically celebratory of the sacrifices men made in battle, the patriotic pieces (often poems) in these similar topics from each paper aimed to accomplish the same thing: to evoke a love of country, God, home, and family necessary to move men to risk their lives and believe that it was glorious to die for their country.
 
Table 1: The top 24 predictive words for two topics from the Dispatch and the Times, with the words they shared in bold
Second, I will suggest that southerners (or at least the editor of the Dispatch) developed a particularly vitriolic version of Confederate nationalism to convince southern men to kill northerners. The Dispatch was full of articles that insisted that northerners were a foreign, unchristian, and uncivilized people wholly unlike southerners; in vicious editorials the Dispatch’s editor maintained that northerners were infidels and beasts who it was not only okay but righteous to kill. The remarkably similar signatures evident in a graph of two topics (Figure 1) – one consisting of patriotic poetry aimed at moving men to die, the other of vicious nationalistic editorials aimed at moving them to kill – from a model of the Dispatch suggests, first, the close relationship between these two topics and, second, the particular moments when these appeals needed to be made: during the secession crisis and the early months of the war in the spring and summer of 1861 when the army was being built, immediately following the implementation of the draft in April 1862, and at the end of the war in early 1865 as Confederates struggled to rally the cause as they faced imminent defeat.
 
Figure 1
Finally, I will argue the kind of nationalism evident in the Dispatch was not and could not be used by northerners for the same purpose. While northerners and southerners used the same language of patriotism, there is no analog to the vicious nationalistic topic from the Dispatch in the topic model for the New York Times. Unionists insisted that the South was part of the United States and southerners had been and continued to be Americans – though traitorous Americans, to be sure. As a title of one article in the Times proclaimed, this was ‘Not a War against the South.’ It was a war against traitors, the Times insisted, and the ‘swords [of Union soldiers] would as readily seek a Northern heart that was false to the country as a Southern bosom’ (‘Not a War against the South,’ 1861).  Northern nationalism is evident in the model for the Times in a more politically inflected topic on Unionism and a second topic consisting of patriotic articles and poems.  The graphs of these two topics (Figure 2) with spikes during elections seasons suggest the instrumental purpose of nationalistic and patriotic rhetoric in the Times: not to draw men into the army but rather to drive them to the polls.  The editor of the Times (correctly, I think) perceived not military defeat but flagging popular will as the greatest threat the Union war effort, and victory by copperhead Democrats who supported peace negotiations would have been the most potent expression of such a lack of will.
In briefly making these historical and historiographic arguments about nationalism and patriotism and about dying and killing in the American Civil War, this presentation aims to demonstrate the interpretative potential of topic modeling as a research methodology.
 
Figure 2
references
Gallagher, G. W. (1997). The Confederate War. Cambridge: Harvard UP.
Gallagher, G. W. (2011). The Union War. Cambridge: Harvard UP.
Linderman, G. F. (1997). Embattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the American Civil War. New York: Free Press.
Not a War Against the South. (1861). New York Times. 10 May. Available at:http://www.nytimes.com/1861/05/10/news/not-a-war-against-the-south.html [Accessed on 13 March 2012].
Prior, D.  (2010).  Civilization, Republic, Nation: Contested Keywords, Northern Republicans, and the Forgotten Reconstruction of Mormon Utah. Civil War History 56(3): 283-310.
Varon, E. R (2008). Disunion!: The Coming of the American Civil War, 1789-1859. Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina P.
telling new stories about our texts: next steps for topic modeling in the humanities
Brown, Travis, University of Maryland, College Park, USA, travisrobertbrown@gmail.com
Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topic modeling has quickly become one of the most prominent methods for text analysis in the humanities, with projects such as the work by Yang et al. (2011) on Texas newspapers and Robert Nelson’s Mining the Dispatch (Nelson 2010) demonstrating its value for characterizing large text collections. As an unsupervised machine learning technique, LDA topic modeling does not require manually annotated training corpora, which are often unavailable (and prohibitively expensive to produce) for specific literary or historical domains, and it has the additional benefit of handling transcription errors more robustly than many other natural language processing methods. The fact that it accepts unannotated (and possibly uncorrected) text as input makes it an ideal tool for exploring the massive text collections being digitized and made available by projects such as Google Books and the HathiTrust Digital Library.
LDA is an example of a generative model, and as such it has at its heart a ‘generative story,’ which is a hypothetical narrative about how observable data are generated given some non-observable parameters. In the LDA story, we begin with a set of topics, which are simply probability distributions over the vocabulary. The story then describes the process by which new documents are created using these topics. This process (which has been described many times in the topic modeling literature; see for example the original presentation by Blei et al. (2003)) is clearly not a realistic model of the way that humans compose documents, but when we apply LDA topic modeling to a set of documents we assume that it is a useful simplification. After making this assumption, we can essentially ‘play the story in reverse,’ using an inference technique such as Gibbs sampling to learn a set of topic distributions from our observed documents. Despite the simplicity of the generative story, the method can produce coherent, provocative, and sometimes uncannily  ‘insightful’ characterizations of collections of documents.
While LDA topic modeling has a clear value for many applications, some researchers in the fields of information retrieval and natural language processing have described it as ‘something of a fad’ (Boyd-Graber 2011), and suggest that more attention should be paid to the broader context of generative and latent variable modeling. Despite the relatively widespread use of LDA as a technique for textual analysis in the humanities, there has been little work on extending the model in projects with a literary or historical focus. In this paper I argue that extending LDA – to incorporate non-textual sources of information, for example – can result in models that better support specific humanities research questions, and I discuss as examples two projects (both of which are joint work by the author and others) that add elements to the generative story specified by LDA in order to perform more directed analysis of nineteenth-century corpora.
The first of these projects extends LDA to incorporate geographical information in the form of a gazetteer that maps place names to geographical coordinates.1 We propose a region topic model that identifies topics with regions on the surface of the Earth, and constrains the generative story by requiring each toponym to be generated by a topic whose corresponding region contains a place with that name, according to the gazetteer. This approach provides a distribution over the vocabulary for each geographical region, and a distribution over the surface of the Earth for each word in the vocabulary. These distributions can support a wide range of text analysis tasks related to geography; we have used this system to perform toponym disambiguation on Walt Whitman’s Memoranda During the War and a collection of nineteenth-century American and British travel guides and narratives, for example.
The second project applies a supervised extension of LDA (Boyd-Graber & Resnik 2010) to a collection of Civil War-era newspapers.2 In this extension the model predicts an observed response variable associated with a document – in our case contemporaneous historical data such as casualty rates or consumer price index – on the basis of that document’s topics. We show that this approach can produce more coherent topics than standard LDA, and it also captures correlations between the topics discovered in the corpus and the historical data external to the corpus.
Both of these projects preserve the key advantages that the unsupervised nature of LDA topic modeling entails – the ability to operate on large, unstructured, and imperfectly transcribed text collections, for example – while adding elements of supervision that improve the generated topics and support additional kinds of analysis. While we believe that our results in these experiments are interesting in their own right, they are presented here primarily as examples of the value of tailoring topic modeling approaches to the available contextual data for a domain and to specific threads of scholarly investigation.
This work was supported in part by grants from the New York Community Trust and the Institute of Museum and Library Services.
references
Blei, D. M., A. Ng, and M. Jordan (2003). Latent Dirichlet Allocation. Journal of Machine Learning Research 3: 993–1022.
Boyd-Graber, J. (2011). Frequently Asked Questions. http://www.umiacs.umd.edu/~jbg/static/faq.html(accessed 23 March 2012).
Boyd-Graber, J., and P. Resnik (2010). Holistic Sentiment Analysis Across Languages: Multilingual Supervised Latent Dirichlet Allocation. In Proceedings of Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing. Cambridge, MA, October 2010.
Nelson, R. K. (2010). Mining the Dispatch. http://dsl.richmond.edu/dispatch/ (accessed 23 March 2012).
Speriosu, M., T. Brown, T. Moon, J. Baldridge, and K. Erk (2010). Connecting Language and Geography with Region-Topic Models. In Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Computational Models of Spatial Language Interpretation. Portland, OR, August 2010.
Yang, T., A. Torget, and R. Mihalcea (2011). Topic Modeling on Historical Newspapers. In Proceedings of the 5th ACL-HLT Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, and Humanities. Portland, OR, June 2011. http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W11-1513 (accessed 23 March 2012).
the open encyclopedia of classical sites: non-consumptive analysis from 20th century books
Mimno, David, Princeton University, USA, david.mimno@gmail.com
Traditional scholarship is limited by the quantity of text that a researcher can read. Advances in large-scale digitization and data analysis have enabled new paradigms, such as ‘distant reading’ (Moretti 2000). These data-driven approaches, though not approaching the subtlety of human readers, offer the ability to make arguments about entire intellectual fields, from collections spanning hundreds of years and thousands of volumes. Unfortunately, although such corpora exist, the current legal environment effectively prohibits direct access to material published after 1922, even for the great majority of works that are not commercially available (Boyle 2008). This paper explores the feasibility of scholarly analysis on the limited, indirect view of texts that Google Books can legally provide.
The proposed Google Books settlement (Google, Inc. 2011) presents the concept of ‘non-consumptive’ use, in which a researcher does not read or display ‘substantial portions of a Book to understand the intellectual content presented within the Book.’ The most common mode of access supported by archives such as JStor and Google Books is keyword search. When a user provides a query, the search engine ranks all documents by their relevance to a specific user-generated query and then displays short text ‘snippets’ showing query words in context. This interface, though useful, is not adequate for scholarship. Even if researchers have a specific query in mind, there is no guarantee that they are not missing related words that are also relevant. Word count histograms (Michel et al. 2011) suffer similar problems, and are also vulnerable to ambiguous words as they do not account for context.
Another option is the application of statistical latent variable models. A common example of such a method for text analysis is a statistical topic model (Blei, Ng Jordan 2003). Topic models represent documents as combinations of a discrete set of topics, or themes. Documents may be combinations of multiple topics; each topic consists of a probability distribution over words.
Statistical topic models have several advantages over query-based information retrieval systems. They organize entire collections into interpretable, contextually related topics.
Semantically related words are grouped together, reducing the chance of missing relevant documents. Instances of ambiguous words can be assigned to different topics in different documents, depending on the context of the document. For example, if the word ‘relief’ occurs in a document with words such as ‘sculpture’ or ‘frieze, ’ it is likely to be an artwork and not an emotion.
Topic modeling has been used to analyze large-scale book collections published before 1922 and therefore available in full-text form (Mimno & McCallum 2007). In this work I present a case study on the use of topic modeling in digitized corpora protected by copyright that we cannot access in their entirety, in this case books on Greco-Roman and Near-Eastern archeology that have been digitized by Google. The resulting resource, the Open Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, is based on a collection of 240-character search result snippets provided by Google. These short segments of text represent a small fraction of the overall corpus, but can nevertheless be used to build a representation of the contents of the books.
The construction of the corpus involved first selecting a subset of the entire books collection that appeared relevant to Greco-Roman and Near-Eastern archeology. I then defined a set of query terms related to specific archeological sites. These terms were then used to construct the corpus of search result snippets. In this way I was able to use a non-consumptive interface (the search engine) to create a usable sub-corpus without recreating large sections of the original books.
Preprocessing was a substantial challenge. I faced problems such as identifying language in highly multilingual text, recognizing improperly split words, and detecting multi-word terms. This process required access to words in their original sequence, and therefore could not be accomplished on unigram word count data.
Finally I trained a topic model on the corpus and integrated the resulting model with the Pleiades geographic database. This alignment between concepts and geography reveals many patterns. Some themes are geographically or culturally based, such as Egypt, Homeric Greece, or Southern Italy. Other themes cut across many regions, such as descriptions of fortifications or research on trade patterns.
The resulting resource, the Open Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, links geography to research literature in a way that has not previously been available. Users can browse the collection along three major axes. First, they can scan through a list of topics, which succinctly represent the major themes of the book collection, and the specific sites and volumes that refer to each theme. Second, they can select a particular site or geographic region and list the themes associated with that site. For example, the city of Pylos in Greece is the site of a major Mycenaean palace that contained many Linear B tablets, is associated with a character in the Homeric epics, and was the site of a battle in the Peloponnesian war. The topics associated with the site distinguish words related to Linear B tablets, Mycenaean palaces, characters in Homer, and Athens and Sparta. Finally, users can select a specific book and find the themes and sites contained in that volume.
This project provides a model both for what is possible given large digital book collections and for what is feasible given current copyright law. Realistically, we cannot expect to analyze the full text of books published after 1922. But we should also not be satisfied with search and simple keyword histograms. Short snippets provide sufficient lexical context to fix many OCR-related problems and support semantically enriched searching, browsing, and analysis.
Funding
This work was supported by a Google Digital Humanities Research grant.
references
Blei, D. M., A. Ng, and M. I. Jordan (2003). Latent Dirichlet Allocation. Journal of Machine Learning Research3: 993-1022.
Boyle, J. (2008). The Public Domain. New Haven: Yale UP.
Google, Inc. (2011). Amended Settlement Agreement. http://www.googlebooksettlement.com, accessed Mar 24, 2012.
Michel, J., Y. Shen, A. Aiden, A. Veres, M. Gray, J. Pickett, D. Hoiberg, D. Clancy, P. Norvig, J. Orwant, S. Pinker, M. Nowak, and E. Aiden. (2011). Quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books. Science 331(6014): 176-82.
Mimno, D., and A. McCallum (2007). Organizing the OCA. In Proceedings of the Joint Conference on Digital Libraries. Vancouver, BC, June 2007.
Moretti, F. (2000). Conjectures on World Literature. New Left Review (Jan/Feb): 54-68.
notes
1.Joint work by the author with Jason Baldridge, Katrin Erk, Taesun Moon, and Michael Speriosu. Aspects of this work were presented by Speriosu et al. (2010) and will appear in an article in an upcoming special issue ofTexas Studies in Literature and Language.
2.Joint work by the author with Jordan Boyd-Graber and Thomas Clay Templeton. We have also presented results from this work at the 2011 Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science on experiments using casualty rates as the response variable.","txt","2","",""
"1406","13","A Computer-Based Approach for Predicting the Translation Time Period of Early Chinese Buddhism Translation","1","Buddhism is a world-religion which has managed to take roots in cultures vastly different from that of its origin. Its transmission from India to China between the 2nd and the 10th centuries happened against all odds. The ‘Buddhist conquest of China’ can be partly attributed to the successful translation of a great number of texts translated into Chinese from Indian languages. The current standard edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon (Taishō shinshū daizōkyō (Abbr.: T.) 大正新修大蔵經, edited 1924-1934) contains 3053 works in 85 volumes, including about 1000 texts of Indian (or alleged Indian) provenance. However, ca. 150 of these texts are marked as shiyi 失譯, indicating that the name(s) of the translator(s) are unknown. Furthermore, for the texts that were translated between the 2nd and the late 6th century, many attributions are uncertain, problematic or simply incorrect. The issue of doubtful and wrong attributions has been debated in the field of Buddhist studies over the last few decades, e.g., Zürcher (1991), Harrison (1993), (and) Nattier (2008).
Over the years Buddhist scholars have leveraged traditional text-critical methods to corroborate or dispute traditional attributions yet like every method philology has its limits. Faced with a large number of texts in ‘Buddhist Hybrid Chinese’ of unknown provenance/origin, the long-established note-taking on the usage of characters and words quickly runs into problems. As with European languages, computational linguistics might offer new avenues of data collection and verification. The corpus of Buddhist Hybrid Chinese is available in a reliable digital format (XML/TEI) since the first 55 volumes of the Taishō edition were published freely by the Chinese Buddhist Electronic Texts Association (CBETA).
We are now able to apply statistical methods and artificial intelligence algorithms to the analysis of this corpus. This enables us to obtain new evidence bearing on translatorship attribution problems. The major advantage of quantitative methods for translatorship attribution is being able to analyze large amounts of data and to discover patterns which are not evident to the human reader.
Quantitative translatorship attribution is often considered to be a classification problem, that is, a text with uncertain or problematic authorship will be analyzed and compared with a corpus of texts by possible authors and then attributed to the author which whose works the texts shares most ‘characteristics.’ Recent years have seen renewed interest in many issues involved in optimizing quantitative authorship attribution. One of them is the effect of the size of possible candidate authors. As Luyckx and Daelemans (2010) have shown the accuracy of authorship analysis will decrease as the number of possible authors increases. It is therefore advisable to limit the number of possible authors in order to get a high accuracy analysis result. In our case, however, many of the early Chinese Buddhist translations are only rarely mentioned in historical records and canonical catalogues, and few have attracted the attention of philologists. For these translations, it is difficult to reduce the range of possible translators.
Therefore, as part of our attempt to establish a foundation for quantitative translatorship attribution for early Chinese Buddhist translations, we propose a classification mechanism based on predicting the translation time or period of a text. The advantage of this mechanism is twofold. First, within a given time bracket for the translation, the number of possible authors is limited, thereby improving the performance of the translatorship attribution. Second, by examining the result classification mechanism, we are able to identify possible and probable stylistic features of translations for different periods.
The time periods we focus on in the present study include three early Chinese dynasties: the Eastern Han (C.E. 25-220), the Three Kingdoms (C.E. 220-280) and the Western Jin (C.E. 266-316). These three dynasties constitute the earliest phase of Buddhist translation history and most of the translations from these periods present attribution problems. In this research, we build up classification mechanisms for each of the three dynasties. These can be used to test whether the translation style of a text is similar to the one prevalentduring a certain period. We are aware of the fact that within Buddhist Hybrid Chinese translation styles within a given period can vary greatly.
For the Eastern Han (C.E. 25-220) and the Three Kingdoms periods we build on recent philological scholarship (Nattier 2008), which has ascertained a number of attributions for this period. For the Western Jin textual corpus, we rely on contemporary research on traditional Buddhist sūtra catalogs, from which we exclude those texts for which current scholarship has not reached a consensus (Lancaster 2008; Lü 1981; Ren 1985; Yu 1993; Xu 1987). We then adopt the Variant Length N-gram algorithm (Hung et. al. 2009) to extract the stylometric features from the three corpora of ascertained texts. Variant Length N-gram is an extended form of the traditional n-gram algorithm. In the traditional n-gram algorithm, the length of grams n is fixed. Although the exploitation of n-gram algorithm has great impact on the performance of following analysis, deciding the best value of n is not straightforward. The Variant Length N-gram algorithm generates grams of all possible lengths, then removes those which are not significant. Thus, the importance of stylometric features is measured across grams of different length. This is crucial as there are no word boundaries in Buddhist Hybrid Chinese: gram-based analysis must therefore include grams of any length.
In the final stage, we use Fisher Linear Discriminant Analysis (FLDA) to analyze the stylometric features that have been extracted from the translations and to build up the classification mechanisms. The FLDA is a well-known dimension reducing and classification algorithm. It returns a linear function that transfers the high dimension source data of different groups into one-dimension points such that the ratio of total variances of projected points to the variances between groups of projected points is maximized. Since the FLDA’s transformation is based on assigning weight to n-grams, the analysis is capable of yielding distinctive features, i.e. strings of Chinese characters, that are characteristic of the dynasties in question.
According to our experiments, the classification mechanisms for the three dynasties have all reached an accuracy rate higher than 90%. Moreover, when the three classification mechanisms are combined and usedto predict the translation time of an unknown translation, we can achieve an accuracy rate and a recall rate both above 80%. Besides, we are able to identify characteristic translation terms for different time periods.
references
Harrison, P. (1993). The Earliest Chinese Translations of Mahāyāna Buddhist Sūtras: Some Notes on the Works of Lokaksema. Buddhist Studies Review 10(2): 135-177.
Hung, J., M. Bingenheimer, and S. Wiles (2009). Quantitative evidence for a hypothesis regarding the attribution of early Buddhist translations. Literary and Linguistic Computing 25(1): 119-134.
Lancaster, L. (2008). Catalogues in the Electronic Era: CBETA and The Korean Buddhist Canon: A Descriptive Catalogue. CBETA, Taipei, 2008 (electronic publication). Retrieved from http://jinglu.cbeta.org/lancaster.htm.
Lu, Cheng 呂澂 (1981). Xinbian hanwen dazangjing mulu  新編漢文大藏經目錄. Jinan: Jilu shushe  齊魯書社.
Luyckx, K., and W. Daelemans (2010). The effect of author set size and data size in authorship attribution.Literary and Linguistic Computing. 26(1): 35-55.
Nattier, J. (2008). A Guide to the Earliest Chinese Buddhist Translations: Texts from the Eastern Han 東漢 and Three Kingdoms 三國 Periods. Tokyo: The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka University.
Ren Jiyu 任繼愈 (1985). Zhongguo fojiao shi 中國佛教史. Vol 1. Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue 中国社会科学出版社.
Xu Lihe 許理和 (1987). Zui zao de fojing yiwen zhong de donghan kouyu chengfen 最早的佛經譯文中的東漢口語成分, Yu yan xue lun cong 語言學論叢, Vol. 14. Beijing: Shangwu yinshuguan 商務印書館, pp. 197-225.
Yu Liming 俞理明 (1993). Fojing wenxian yuyan佛経文献語言 [The Language of the Buddhist Scriptures]. Chengdu: Bashu shushe巴蜀書社, p. 206.
Zürcher, E. (1991). A New Look at the Earliest Chinese Buddhist Texts. In K. Shinohara et al. (eds.), From Benares to Beijing: Essays on Buddhism and Chinese Religion in Honour of Prof. Jan Yün-hua.Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic Press, pp. 277-304.","txt","2","",""
"1407","13","A Digital Geography of Hispanic Baroque Art","1","In Toward a Geography of Art, Thomas DaCosta Kaufmann, stated that his research would ‘investigate how notions of place, of the geographical, have been inflected into writing about change through time as it has been and is still discussed in art history’ (DaCosta 2004). He goes back to some of the ideas of this book in his contribution to the multi-volume Catalogue of the 2010-2011 international exhibition Painting of the Kingdoms. There he insists on the fact that political geography and artistic geography do not coincide as countries, viceroyalties, native areas, and notions of center and periphery superpose one another in different research works and cataloguing efforts. Da Costa Kaufmann also emphasizes the need of a theory of diffusion that help explain the movements of creators, paintings and features from territory to territory and the effects that this transfers have in the spatial organization of art that experts carry out.
Here, we present the results of a multi-disciplinary collaboration in Digital Humanities, Computer Science and Art History that focuses in proposing a digital geography of Hispanic Baroque art. By digital geography we imply the various possible organizations of the place of art by digital means in a manner that connects various types of data about authors and art-works with different notions of space. This digital geography of art also takes advantage of recent advances in data mining and visualization to offer multiple views of the space of Hispanic Baroque art, as related to geography, movement through territories, transfers over time and cultural borders, clusters of artistic centers (as opposed to centers and peripheries), and movements of works from their places of origin due to contemporary practices of collection by museums and private collectors.
The results shed light on the different ways in which social practices – from creation to circulation to collection – affect the spatial organization of art beyond political territories. The paper also shows how culture – defined as information that affects humans’ behavior and represented here by the case of Hispanic baroque paintings – organizes different real and symbolic ‘places’ in different times. We argue that the study of large-scale cultural systems such as the Hispanic Baroque is better suited by a combination of tools and concepts that deal with the complex and evolving nature of the system and can study it through multi-scale techniques that reduce that complexity to a minimum, offering new ways of arranging the space in which that system unfolded over time. Finally, we argue that this methodology can be extended to other projects in Digital Humanities.
Over the last few years, we have collected an online BaroqueArt (http://baroqueart.cultureplex.ca/) database of more than 12,000 paintings and more than 1,500 creators associated with the territories of the Hispanic Monarchy from the 16th to the beginning of the 19th centuries. The database also contains around 400 series, 200 schools and 2500 geographical locations1. On top of the data stored under a traditional entity-relation model, we implemented a system of annotations that would allow to work on the objects stored in the database and that would provide enough flexibility to describe all aspects of any artwork, defining a hierarchy in a structure similar to an ontology. From a set of more than 200 descriptors we carried out a manual semantic annotation of all artworks (with an average of 5.85 descriptors/work and peaks of 14 per work).
To analyze the resulting dataset we represent it as a graph in which artworks are nodes and that relations among them are established as a function of the descriptors shared by the works (for example, if an artwork is described through 7 descriptors and another work is also using the same set of descriptors, then we say that these artworks are connected through a weighted link with weight 7). We limited our experiment to the period 1550-1850 and divided the global graph into 12 sub-graphs in order to study the temporal evolution, each of them covering a period of 25 years (see Fig.1).
 
Figure 1: Graph obtained from one of the periods
Then, for each of the periods of our data we determine which are the clustering classes, that can be considered bags of ‘similar artworks’, and calculate the distances between classes by measuring the frequency of use of descriptors in the artworks contained in the cluster. We apply our own algorithm to distribute those classes in a 2D space so that their relative positions represent the relative distances among them (the closer the clusters are, the more similar descriptors they use). We are aware that 100% accuracy is impossible because of the size of the descriptors pool we are using, that would require a higher dimensional space.
Once these clusters are organized in our space with a size proportional to the amount of artworks they have, we go back to the descriptors they contain and we generate the areas of influence of each descriptor as a potential field. As it is normal that, due to the ontological organization of the descriptors, some of these areas contain other areas or sections of them, we also represent the borderlines of the areas to show how these intersections play out. This allows us to generate different views of the art-space, taking into account elements such as time, descriptors by modularity class, or specific descriptors closely related to current discussions by art historians specializing in the period (see Figure 2). These different views provide as many different facets of a digital geography of Hispanic Baroque Art.
Also, we calculate distances between similarity classes in different time periods so that we can infer which class evolve from previous ones and draw the semantic evolution of the artworks. This is fundamental for a better understanding of the generation of families of artworks and the variants that this evolution produces, what would help us to connect this process with explanations in political, artistic or economic discourses.
 
Figure 2: Art-space of one period from the point of view of main descriptors
Finally, and from the geographical information available for a subset of artworks (where original location and current location has been determined) we can make a representation of the movement of the artworks along time, and obtain information about how the museums (the main repositories of artworks currently) and other collectors have collected artworks from specific areas or attending to the semantic groups we have discovered from previous analysis.
This methodology allows us to address different issues related to the political, geographic and cultural aspects of art production, reception, and consumption. Some of these issues are: are paintings local, regional, or national?; how different visualizations affect the clustering of art-works and artists?; are there differences between political and artistic territories?; what is the transmission of features across time and space like?; which is the effect of flows of art-works away from their place of origin due to market forces?; how different clusters of art behave and what its effect is on center-periphery debates?. The result is a digital geography of Hispanic Baroque art that will contribute to a better understanding of art history from a spatial point of view and will also shed light on cultural transfers in complex systems.
Funding
This work was supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and by the Canada Foundation for Innovation.
references
DaCosta Kaufmann, T. (2004). Toward a Geography of Art. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, p. 6.
Suárez, J. L.,  F. Sancho, and J. de la Rosa (2011). The art-space of a global community: the network of Baroque paintings in Hispanic-America. Proceedings of the International Conference on Culture and Computing 2011 at Kyoto University, Japan, 2011, pp. 45-50.
Suárez, J. L., F. Sancho, and J. de la Rosa (2012; forthcoming). Sustaining a Global Community: Art and Religion in the Network of Baroque Hispanic-American Paintings. Special Section of Leonardo Journal (MIT Press).
notes
1.For a detailed explanation of the methodology, please see Juan Luis Suárez, Fernando Sancho and Javier de la Rosa (2011 and 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1408","13","A Frequency Dictionary of Modern Written and Oral Media Arabic","1","A Frequency Dictionary of Modern Written and Oral Media Arabic
 
XML
Elmaz, Orhan, University of Vienna, Austria, orhan.elmaz@univie.ac.at
learning arabic
Having about 500 million speakers, Arabic is not just the only Semitic world language but also one of the six UN-languages. The interest in Media Arabic more specifically increased with the popularity of the satellite station al-Jazeera and the modern necessity for reflecting the Arab perspective of what is going on in the world. People interested in the Arab opinions about what is going on in the Middle East as an example should read Arabic newspapers since in ‘Western’ media – as Mol (2006: 309f.) states: ‘often only information on the Arab world gathered by people who have not mastered the Arabic language […] often only interpretations of the Arab world from a Western view are found.’
methods & results
On the base of newspaper texts (Written Media Arabic) and – up to date disregarded – transcripts (Oral Media Arabic), a learner’s vocabulary was developed and evaluated in a computer-assisted way. The corpora put together comprise 23.5 million tokens (cp. Routledge Frequency Dictionaries) and were edited in Perl (a.o. CP-1256 incompatible ligatures were broken down and data read wrongly [about 2%] was deleted).
 
The corpora were analysed using Tim Buckwalter’s word-stem based Buckwalter Arabic Morphologic Analyzer (BAMA 1.0) the output of which was changed in such a way that only possible lemmas per token could be saved (without any further information). Then, line duplicates (semantic ambiguity) were deleted and the line resp. lemma set frequencies were calculated. The latter were broken up and analysed fully forming our primary knowledge base together with each lemma’s estimated frequency in Google News. The material was analysed manually in a top-down manner (average morphological ambiguity rate: 3 possible analyses per token) and a frequency vocabulary of just above 3,500 lemmas (estimated to correspond to CEFR B2) sorted by their roots resp. word families, was extracted. It was demonstrated that these cover 95% of non-trivial, recent media texts which were lemmatised manually! Further, the number of look-ups in dictionaries is reduced to 24 ± 10 times for texts with an average length of about 550 ± 60 words.
In order to be on line with the language of media, neologisms (extracted by word length, patterns and concordances) and generally disregarded multi word items (extracted by n-gram analyses, finding collocations [after Dunning 1993]) which constitute integral elements of it, were dealt with separately.
A discursive glossary including dialectal variants which textbooks published up to now are lacking tops the study off.
 
The present material can be useful for reading courses in which students of different levels and background come together in order to level differences in vocabulary. Moreover, the corpora can be used for learning collocations with the help of concordances in an explorative manner and make idiomatic corrections in writing assignments.
corpora
The largest corpus is made up of texts published between 1 June 2008 and 31 May 2009 in the pan-Arab newspaper al-Quds al-ʿArabī (London) consisting of about 20 million tokens. In order to augment the sections of economy and sports a corpus for each was built using texts from the Qatari newspaper al-Šarq. Oral Media Arabic was regarded by creating a corpus of about 1,5 million tokens out of al-Jazeera transcripts.
text coverage
The following table informs about the contents and length of ten texts (disregarding digits), for which the dictionary’s coverage was tested. The first six are from Lahlali 2008. One finds the number of unknown words (NF), the text coverage rate, the number of words which can be understood by morphological and generative knowledge (NWB) and the number of therein subsumed proper nouns (PN) as well as the therewith corrected coverage rate and the number of look-ups (LU) in dictionaries.
 
Therefore, one can relativise the FSI classification of Arabic – ex aequo with Chinese, Japanese and Korean – as super hard language and the opinion of some natives who – as Belnap puts it ironically (2008: 59) – ‘almost universally revere Arabic as the most difficult language in the world and therefore essentially unlearnable by mortals.’
 
 
 
 
references
Belnap, R. K. (2008). If you build it, they will come. In Z. Ibrahim and S. A. M. Makhlouf (eds.), Linguistics in an Age of Globalization: Perspectives on Arabic Language and Teaching. Cairo: AUC Press, pp. 53-66.
Buckwalter, T. (2002). Buckwalter Arabic Morphological Analyzer Version 1.0. Linguistic Data Consortium.
Dunning, T. (1993). Accurate methods for the statistics of surprise and coincidence. Computational Linguistics19(1): 61-74.
Lahlali, El Mustapha (2008). Advanced Media Arabic. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP.
Mol, M. van (2006). Arabic Receptive Language Teaching: a new CALL approach. In K. M. Wahba et al. (eds.),Handbook for Arabic language teaching professionals. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 305-314.","txt","2","",""
"1409","13","A flexible model for the collaborative annotation of digitized literary works","1","introduction
The Complutense University has been one of the first European universities that has collaborated with Google’s  project1 by putting on the Web 100,000 volumes from its ancient fund. However scholars notice that these digitized texts are often of no much use to professors-researchers-students in literature unless additional tools are provided, to enhance the educational and research value of this material. In particular, the ability of making annotations on these texts has been largely recognized as a basic mean of adding value to this kind of digitized resources (Rios da Rocha et al. 2009). In this paper we present the annotation model used in @Note 1.0, a system developed at UCM funded by the Google’s 2010 Digital Humanities Award program.
@Note 1.0 allows us to retrieve digitized works from Google Books collection and add annotations to enrich the texts with research and learning purposes: critical editions, reading activities, e-learning tasks, etc. One of the main features of @Note annotation model, which distinguishes it from similar approaches (Azouaou & Desmoulins 2006; Bechhofer at al. 2002; Koivunen 2005; Rios da Rocha et al. 2009; Schroeter et al. 2006; Tazi et al. 2003), is to promote the collaborative creation of annotation schemas by communities of researchers, teachers and students, and the use of these schemas in the definition of annotation activities on literary works. It results in a very flexible and adaptive model, able to be used by many different communities of experts in literature defending different critical literary theories and for different annotation tasks. In this paper we present this annotation model.
the @note annotation model
Structure of the model
The structure of the @Note annotation model is summarized in the UML class diagram (Booch et al. 2005) of Fig. 1. In this model:
•        Annotation management communities are groups of annotation managers, experts in literature (teachers, researchers, etc) who act as administrators to create activities, to select works and to organize activity groups.
•        Annotation communities, in their turn, are groups of annotators, students / pupils interested in literature who perform proposed annotation activities.
•        Each annotation activity comprises (i) a digitized work, (ii) a metalevel-oriented annotation schema, (iii) a work-oriented annotation schema.
•        In this context, the works are the literary texts that can be annotated during the annotation activities.Annotations, in their turn, are characterized by: (i) an annotation anchor (the region of the work to which the annotation refers), (ii) an annotation content (a free rich-text piece that actually configure the annotation), (iii) a set of annotation types (semantic qualifiers for annotations) chosen from the annotation schemas attached to the annotation activity (at least one from the metalevel-oriented annotation schema).
 
Figure 1: @Note information model
•        The annotation schemas are explicit formalization of the types of annotations that can be carried out on works. In @Note, annotation schemas are hierarchies formed by annotation types and annotation categories (sets of annotation types and/or others, more specifically, annotation categories). In their turn, they can be metalevel-oriented annotation schemas (schemas which usually comprise concepts concerning particular literary theories around which the annotation activities are articulated), or work-oriented annotation schemas (schemas that capture aspects relative to the relationships between annotations and their anchors). While schemas of the first type are created by annotation managers, schemas of the second type are usually created by annotators.
 
Figure 2: Example of rules governing the annotation process (informally described using natural language)
The annotation process
The @Note annotation process governs how to create the different types of information elements envisioned in the annotation model. For this purpose, @Note introduces a set of rules governing aspects like information visibility, creation and modification privileges of annotations and annotation schemas, etc.  Although, by lack of space, these rules will not be detailed here, in Fig. 2 we include an example concerning an informal description of some of the rules governing the management of annotation schemas.
Annotation browsing and recovering
Annotation schemas in @Note are seen as T-boxes of description logic theories (Brachman & Levesque 2004). For instance, Fig 3a shows, edited in @Note, a fragment of the annotation schema used at UCM in an English Literature introductory course, while  Fig 3b despites the description logic’s counterpart. This simple interpretation is still powerful-enough to enable powerful annotation browsing and annotation recoveringbehavior. Indeed:
 
Figure 3: (a) A fragment of annotation schema (b) description logic counterpart
•        Annotations can be browsed using annotation schemas, in a similar way to a folder explorer in a filesystem. In each step, there is a category or a type selected, and the user will see all the annotations entailed by such a selected element.
•        Queries consist of arbitrary Boolean formulae involving annotation types and categories, being the outcomes the annotations entailed by such formulae.
In both cases, since entailment will be performed according to the description logic principles, the process will take into account the is-a relationship made explicit by the annotation schema.
Some technical details
The system has been entirely developed using Google technologies for the development of Rich-Internet Applications (RIAs) (Fraternali et al. 2010): GWT in the client side and the Google App Engine’s facilities in the server side (Unruh 2010). Fig. 4 shows some snapshots of the system. The current version runs on the fully free-access books integrated in Google Books, and, in particular, on the UCM-Google collection. The works retrieval is achieved by the use of the Google Books API through REST (Richardson & Ruby 2007), and then presented to clients in an asynchronous way to keep them responsive to their events.
 
Figure 4: Some snapshots of @Note
conclusions and future works
@Note promotes a fully collaborative annotation process, in which not only literary works are collaboratively annotated, but also annotation schemas are collaboratively created. The @Note system has been evaluated at UCM by several researchers and students in literature. They highlighted the flexibility of the annotation model, and, in particular, the ability to create and share annotation schemas tailored according to different critical perspectives and annotation activities. Additionally, they appreciate a sufficient expressive power from a browsing and recovering point of view. They also remarked the educational potential of the tool, although some advanced features could add some conceptual difficulties for students.
Currently we are working to adapt the annotation tool in order to facilitate its connection to a repository of learning objects, so as to allow the storage of literary texts’ annotations as learning objects (Polsani 2003), and to make possible the recovery of those annotations and move about them according to the associated metadata. Thus, we are developing a communal working space for the creation of written compositions in different traditions and languages. We are also experimenting with the students’ capability for developing their own catalogues, annotating the literary texts according to them and reusing their annotations in the production of critical essays. Additionally, we are working on connecting our system with other digital libraries (in particular, with Hathi Trust2). Finally, we are planning to address interoperability issues, in order to enable the interchange of annotations according to some of the emerging standards proposed by the digital humanities community (e.g., OAC3).
Acknowledgements
This work has been funded by Google with a grant of the Google’s 2010 Digital Humanities award program entitled Collaborative annotation of digitalized literary texts. Additionally, this work has been performed in the context of the project grants of the Spanish Ministry for Research and Innovation (FF12008-06924-C02-01 and TIN2010-21288-C02-01), UCM (PIMCDs 2010/177 and 2011/313) and Santander-UCM (GR 42/10 – 962022).
references
Azouaou, F., and C. Desmoulins (2006). MemoNote, a context-aware annotation tool for teachers.Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Information Technology Based Higher Education and Training ITHET’06, Sidney, Australia, July 2006.
Bechhofer, S., L. Carr, C. Goble, S. Kampa, and T. Miles-Board (2002). The Semantics of Semantic Annotation. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Ontologies, DataBases, and Applications of Semantics for Large Scale Information Systems ODBASE’02, Irvine, CA, USA, October 2002.
Booch, G., J. Rumbaugh, and I. Jacobson (2005). The Unified Modeling Language User Guide (2nd Edition). Boston: Adisson-Wesley.
Brachman, R., and H. Levesque (2004). Knowledge Representation and Reasoning. Amsterdam: Morgan-Kauffmann.
Fraternali, P., R. Gustavo, and F. Sánchez-Figueroa (2010). Rich Internet Applications. IEEE Internet Computing 14(3): 9-12.
Koivunen, M.-R. (2005). Annotea and Semantic Web Supported Collaboration. Proceedings of the UserSWeb Workshop – 2nd European Semantic Web Conference, Heraklion, Grece, June 2005.
Polsani, P. (2003). Use and abuse of reusable learning objects. Journal of Digital Information 3(4).
Richardson, L., and S. Ruby (2007). Restful web services. Beijing: O’Reilly.
Rios da Rocha, T., R. Willrich, R. Fileto, and S. Tazi (2009). Supporting Collaborative Learning Activities with a Digital Library and Annotations. Proceedings of the 9th IFIP World Conference on Computers in EducationWCCE’09, Bento Gonçalves, Brazil, July 2009.
Schroeter, R., J. Hunter, J. Guerin, I. Khan, I., and M. A. Henderson (2006). Synchronous Multimedia Annotation System for Secure Collaboratories. Proceedings of the Second IEEE International Conference on e-Science and Grid Computing e-Science ’06, Amsterdam, Netherlands, December 2006.
Tazi, S., Y. Al-Tawki, and K. Drira K. (2003). Editing pedagogical intentions for document reuse. Proceedings of the 4th IEEE Technology Based Higher Education and Training ITHET’03, Marrakesh, Morocco, July 7-9, 2003.
Unruh, A. (2010 ). Google App Engine Java and GWT Application Development. Birmingham: Packt Publishing.
notes
1.http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/atencion/25403.php
2.http://www.hathitrust.org/
3.http://www.openannotation.org/","txt","2","",""
"1410","13","Academic Research in the Blogosphere: Adapting to New Opportunities and Risks on the Internet","1","Interdisciplinary research with the intent of publication to a wide audience is increasingly desired. Bloggingoffers new opportunities for academics to collaborate with researchers from other fields and integrate data. The power to publish results and theories freely and get rapid feedback has positive and negative potential implications. On the positive side, new ideas can be presented and discussed easily with progress potentially much faster than a traditional journal peer-review. The internet also provides a forum to engage the public about ongoing research, an increasing concern for funding bodies. On the negative side, ideas can appear in public and affect research without being properly assessed. This could dilute the impact of relevant research. We review whether blogging can become part of research, by examining the case study of our blog on language evolution.
ReplicatedTypo.org has received 120,000~ hits in 3 years (counts gathered using WordPress Analytics) and been awarded 8 editor’s selections from ResearchBlogging.com. As well as reporting on recent publications and conferences, we have written basic introductions to Linguistics, Evolution, mathematical modeling and animal signaling. As a blog with multiple authors, our interests are varied, but our central research theme – evolutionary approaches to language and culture – remains the same. Our post topics include what makes humans unique, top-down versus bottom-up approaches to language evolution, the evolution of colour terms, Specific Language Impairment and Autism, the effect of second language learners on linguistic structure, cultural evolution and the singularity and genetic correlates of social sensitivity. We’ve written about the current trend for large-scale statistical analyses of linguistic features and social features, and contributed some of our own including phoneme inventory size and demography, alcohol consumption and morphological complexity and whether linguistic diversity is correlated with traffic accidents. As shown by the examples provided, Language Evolution is an inherently interdisciplinary field with many new ideas and which relies upon new techniques and analyses.
Blogs are a useful source for discovering current research and a forum for open peer review, whether open (from the public) or closed (from co-authors on drafts). Linguistics blogs have been around for many years (e.g. Language Log), but blogs dedicated to language evolution have emerged, too (e.g. Babel’s dawn, Shared Symbolic Storage, Culture Evolves!, Biolinguistics Blog, Replicated Typo). One of these blog-authors has even published a book directed at a general audience about the theories he developed on his blog (E. B. Bolles 2011). However, there is no universal consensus on the method or acceptability of citing ideas from blogs. We argue that the devaluing of research and criticism appearing in open forums risks obstructing research. This is not merely a debate in Linguistics; much ink has been spilled on a similar grounds in evolutionary biology, in the so called #arsenicgate scandal (see Zimmer 2011). Scholarship will not take advantage of the collaborative potential of the Internet if academic standards are not applied to Internet resources. Concerns about standards and plagiarism, from work that might considered to be in the public domain, are particularly important for blogs that are used to disseminating original work in progress such as small-scale experiments and theoretical essays. A particularly sensitive issue, in that it may stop one blogging about personal research, is public access to experiment data and model code.
On a note unrelated to research dissemination and publication models, writing for blogs can benefit students. It encourages wider reading, engagement with cutting-edge topics and helps integrate students from diverse backgrounds into the language evolution community. In an increasingly competitive academic environment, blogs are a vital tool for career development. We would like to see universities teach new media skills such as blogging.
Our aims as science bloggers on Replicated Typo are: to highlight and discuss new research on language evolution; to engage with the general public by presenting language evolution research in an accessible way; to be a platform for open science research into language evolution. We hope that presentation of research and discussion on the internet can, in conjunction with journal peer-review, lead to more productive, accurate and progressive research. Discussions of posts on our own blog have lead to revisions of our research and new avenues of research as well as collaborations and clarifications of research by the authors of the studies reviewed. Releasing code on our blog has lead to interactions that benefited both the readers and the researcher. We hope that model transparency and the sharing of code can help foster links between language evolution and other fields who use similar techniques and technologies (biology, informatics, etc.).
The aim of this paper is to provide a forum at Digital Humanities 2012 for discussing these issues, and the questions that arise from them, namely:
•        Can blogged research be taken as seriously as peer-reviewed research?
•        What are the risks of publicly accessible research?
•        Is research blogging adaptable to other fields, in particular fields involving minorities or low resource groups?
•        Are there particular concerns with running experiments or soliciting feedback online?
•        Is the field of academia doing enough towards public engagement on the internet?
We hope that providing a focus for these issues will ensure a productive and balanced response.
references
Bolles, E., ed. (n.d.). Babel’s dawn. http://wwww.babelsdawn.com.
Bolles, E. B. (2011). Babel’s dawn: A natural history of the origins of speech. Berkeley, CA: Counterpoint.
Jordan, F. (n.d.). Culture evolves! http://evolutionaryanthropology.wordpress.com.
Liberman, M., and G. Pullum, eds. (n.d.). Language Log. http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu.
Martín, T., ed. (n.d.). Biolinguistics blog. http://biolingblog.blogspot.com.
Munger, D., ed. (n.d.). Research blogging. http://www.researchblogging.com.
Pleyer, M. (n.d.). Shared symbolic storage. http://sharedsymbolicstorage.blogspot.com.
Winters, J., ed. (n.d.). Replicated typo. http://www.replicatedtypo.com
Zimmer, C. (2011) Happy Birthday, #arseniclife. The Loom, December 2, 2011.http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/loom/2011/12/02/happy-birthday-arseniclife (accessed March 14 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1411","13","Aiding the Interpretation of Ancient Documents","1","How can Decision Support System (DSS) software aid the interpretation process involved in the reading of ancient documents? This paper discusses the development of a DSS prototype for the reading of ancient texts. In this context the term ‘ancient documents’ is used to describe mainly Greek and Latin texts and the term ‘scholars’ is used to describe readers of these documents (e.g. papyrologists, epigraphers, palaeographers). However, the results from this research can be applicable to many other texts ranging from Nordic runes to 18th Century love letters.
In order to develop an appropriate tool it is important first to comprehend the interpretation process involved in reading ancient documents. This is not a linear process but rather a recursive process where the scholar moves between different levels of reading, such as ‘understanding the meaning of a character’ or ‘understanding the meaning of a phrase’ (Youtie 1963; Terras 2006). This realization has been paramount to the development of the DSS prototype.
aiding, not making decisions
When examining whether a tool such as DSS can aid the reading of ancient documents it is important first to realize what such a tool can and should do and what it cannot and should not do. I did not set out to develop a tool that could automate the process of reading ancient documents without human interaction. Firstly, I did not wish to see humans removed from this interpretational process and replaced with robotics.
Good reading is a reflective as well as a sensational process which engages our abstract mental faculties, and we give it up at our peril (Deegan & Sutherland 2009: viii).
Secondly, interpretation is a part of the ‘higher levels of analytic and creative functions which are the prerogative of the human mind’ (Busa 1980: 89) and the symbol-processing powers of a computer should not be mistaken for this (Jonscher 2000: 149).
Instead this research has examined how the use of DSS technology can support the interpretative process, among other things, by remembering the complex reasoning that forms a large part of this interpretation process. Remembering decisions and the complex reasoning leading up to decisions is something that DSS is good at. The DSS prototype has demonstrated how this is possible.
Furthermore the prototype has demonstrated other aspects of reading ancient documents, apart from the interpretation process, where IT tools can provide support such as searching huge datasets and the automated publishing of editions.
the dss prototype
The prototype was developed as a proof of concept. First I used existing research on reading ancient documents (Bowman & Brady 2005; Terras 2006; Tarte 2011) to model the network of interpretation (Roued-Cunliffe 2010), and then I developed the DSS prototype to demonstrate how a DSS can aid the interpretation process based on this model.
 
Figure 1: Screenshot from the DSS prototype (Roued-Cunliffe 2012: 87)
The prototype (Fig. 1) demonstrates how it would be possible to input data and edit the structure and meaning of a document on different levels. Scholars can begin by entering basic structure such as line or character elements and work back and forth between this level and higher levels such as editing the meaning of a letter or word. Furthermore, the prototype enables scholars to use the letters and character elements they have input to search relevant corpora databases for possible parallels.
The prototype uses the concept of argumentation, which can be defined as ‘the process of constructing arguments about propositions, and the assignment of statements of confidence to those propositions based on the nature and relative strength of their supporting arguments’ (Fox et al. 1996: 428). In the prototype these statements of confidence are merely whether the user believes the reading to be right or wrong. It does not require users to signify how much they believe in a certain decision. Furthermore, the arguments are either foror against the interpretation in question. No matter how many arguments are for or against any one interpretation the prototype will not try to persuade the user to make a certain decision. The prototype is first and foremost flexible and user-driven and its role is purely that of a good assistant, reminding users of their own decisions and reflections.
future dss
The DSS prototype, presented in this paper, has been successful in illustrating how this technology can aid such a complex interpretation process, as is the reading of ancient documents. However, in future this prototype will need to be re-developed to contain, among others, a more advanced user interface. With this in hand it would be possible to conduct user testing, which would give a basis for the development of a fully working DSS. I have a suggestion for a future layer-based system that would be user-friendly and could work well in conjunction with a DSS and other useful tools for aiding the reading of ancient documents.
 
Figure 2: Drawing of the layer-based DSS concept (Roued-Cunliffe 2012: 132)
The layer-based system would contain four types of layers that users can swap and switch between so that they can edit the different layers at any time and edit one layer while others are visible below (Fig. 2). The first types of layers are the image layers. These image layers could be the original image of an object, PMT images of an object (Earl et al, 2011) or enhanced images (e.g. with wood-grain removed or the illumination corrected (Tarte et al, 2011)). The second type of layers are the editor layers which can include a layer for hand-drawn transcriptions of the text, a layer in which to edit the structure of the text (i.e. lines, words, characters and spaces in the text) and a layer in which to add meaning to the text (i.e. this letter is b). The third type of layers is the DSS layer which would resemble the DSS prototype. The fourth and final type of layers are the suggestion layers from which it would be possible to retrieve for example suggested words from a word search engine based on letters input in the earlier editor layer.
conclusion
The research presented in this paper aims to illustrate how DSS software could aid the interpretation of ancient documents and has been successful in doing this through the development of the DSS prototype. The DSS prototype covered different areas of the interpretation process from input to argumentation for andagainst different decisions. It has illustrated how DSS software can assist scholars by remembering their complex reasoning and suggesting readings along the way. Furthermore, the research describes an idea for a fully formed future DSS based on the finding from the development of the prototype.
Acknowledgements
This research is a part of the author’s thesis: ‘A Decision Support System for the Reading of Ancient Documents’ at the Faculty of Classics, University of Oxford. It is funded by an AHRC Doctoral Studentship attached to the e-Science and Ancient Documents (eSAD) project (http://esad.classics.ox.ac.uk/). I wish to thank Prof. Alan Bowman, Prof. Sir Michael Brady, Dr. Melissa Terras, Dr. Segolene Tarte, Dr. Charles Crowther, Margaret Sasanow and John Pybus for their support throughout my research.
references
Bowman, A. K., and M. Brady (2005). Images and Artefacts of the Ancient World. London: British Academy.
Busa, R. (1980). The Annals of Humanities Computing: The Index Thomisticus. Computers and the Humanities14: 83-90.
Deegan, M., and K. Sutherland (2009). Transferred Illusions: Digital Technology and the Forms of Print. London: Ashgate.
Earl, G., P. Basford, A. Bischoff, A. Bowman, C. Crowther, J. Dahl, M. Hodgson, L. Isaksen, E. Kotoula, K. Martinez, H. Pagi, and K. E. Piquette (2011). Reflectance Transformation Imaging Systems for Ancient Documentary Artifacts.http://ewic.bcs.org/upload/pdf/ewic_ev11_s8paper3.pdf  (accessed 07.03.2012)
Fox, J., P. Krause, and M. Elvang-Gøransson (1996). Argumentation as a General Framework for Uncertain Reasoning. In D. Heckerman and E. H. Mamdani (eds.), UAI ’93: Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Conference on Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence, July 9-11, 1993, The Catholic University of America, USA. San Fransisco: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, pp. 428-434.
Jonscher, C. (2000). Wired Life: Who Are We in the Digital Age? London: Anchor.
Roued-Cunliffe, H. (2010). Towards an Interpretation Support System for Reading Ancient Documents.Literary and Linguistics Computing 25(4): 365-379.
Roued-Cunliffe, H. (2012). A decision Support System for the Reading of Ancient Documents. D.Phil Thesis, Classics Faculty, University of Oxford.
Tarte, S. (2011). Papyroligical Investigations: Transferring Perception and Interpretation into the Digital World. Literary and Linguistics Computing 26(2): 233-247.
Tarte, S., M. Brady, A. K. Bowman, and M. Terras (2011). Image Capture and Processing for Enhancing the Legibility of Incised Texts. In V. Vahtikari, M. Hakkarainen, and  A. Nurminnen, Eikonopoiia. Digital Imaging of Ancient Textual Heritage, Technological Challenges and Solutions. Commentationes Humanarum Litterarum 129. Helsinki: Academy of Finland, pp. 173-88.
Terras, M. (2006). Image to Interpretation: Intelligent Systems to Aid Historians in the Reading of the Vindolanda Texts. Oxford Studies in Ancient Documents. Oxford: Oxford UP.
Youtie, H. C. (1963). The Papyrologist: Artificer of Fact GRBS 4: 19-32.","txt","2","",""
"1412","13","'All Rights Worth Recombination': Post-Hacker Culture and ASCII Literature (1983-1993)","1","ascii literature
This presentation will focus on a literary and cultural movement of the computer underground that featured texts written in ASCII code and distributed by means of the Bulletin Board Systems (BBSes) that flourished from the early-1980s until the mid-1990s. Independently-produced ASCII publications (also known as textfiles, t-files, g-files, philes, etc.) offered computer users a means by which to share information and opinions with one another. This movement, at its height, also gave rise to an innovative literature that was shaped by the technological environment in which it was produced and by the digital culture that it was connected to.
This presentation will focus primarily on two of the earliest serial ASCII publications: PHRACK andCult of the Dead Cow. These publications were founded in 1985 (shortly after the film WarGames and the book Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution). These publications share several things in common: they are collaborative projects, written and edited by pseudonymous computer users in their late teens / early twenties, they contain illicit information about hacking, phreaking, and mischief, and they are uncensored and boundary-pushing. They both refuse to copyright their material, with the hope and expectation that their publications will be freely uploaded and downloaded throughout the computer underground. And most importantly, both of these publications feature literary writings that innovate new forms and styles that are strongly influenced by the techniques and tenets of hacker culture, particularly in its connection to copyright.
rhizomatic transfer
When the earliest ASCII zines emerged, the computer underground consisted of innumerable hubs of digital culture, primarily in the form of independently-operated, predominantly non-profit bulletin board systems. BBSes functioned much like answering services, routing incoming calls into an interface that would allow callers to send messages, upload and download files, and play door games. Most BBSes were very small and had one telephone line, meaning that only one user could access the system at any given time. These small BBSes were not directly linked to one another (unlike hypertext models), but instead were connected through their users, most of whom would frequent several other BBSes, downloading and uploading files from board to board.
Because BBS culture had no hierarchy of organization and because most BBSes were non-profit, there was no major presence of corporate media organization (e.g. newspapers, book publishers) within BBS culture. The literati of the BBS world would instead emerge from a new chorus of voices: namely, those who were willing to publish their works without any remuneration and were willing to allow their works to be copied and distributed freely throughout the computer underground. In exchange for this, the writers would have the potential to proliferate from BBS to BBS, city to city, allowing for the distant (but actual) possibility of becoming major contributors to the shape of computer underground culture. As an acknowledgement of their willingness to allow users to do what they will with the text, most of these files either exclude any statement of copyright (Phrack), or compose puns such as ‘all rights worth shit’ (Cult of the Dead Cow). The publishers implicitly acknowledge that, in order for their work to proliferate, they must allow the work to be freely downloaded from BBSes and freely uploaded to other BBSes.
open source
If information wants to be free, what does this freedom entail? ASCII publishers allow their works to be shared, transferred, and read without cost to the reader or creator. The files can be limitlessly replicated with minimal concern for material costs. But beyond the ability to distribute and use these files freely, Cult of the Dead Cowand Phrack themselves take liberties that extend beyond use and distribution. These publications demonstrate a willingness to modify the work of others in order to produce new works of their own, in the way that we might envision software programmers using open-source code. What follows are three successive stages of open source literature: reprinting, modification, and recombination.
reprinting
‘The Conscience of a Hacker’ (also known as ‘The Hacker Manifesto’) is probably the most well-known essay of the ASCII era. It was originally printed in Phrack 1:3, Phile 7 (1986). It was later republished in Cult of the Dead Cow 12, without any acknowledgement that the essay had previously been published in Phrack, and without the knowledge of the author. Moreover, cDc used ‘The Conscience of a Hacker’ to overwrite the original content of issue 12 (the transcribed lyrics of Metallica’s Master of Puppets album). For Cult of the Dead Cow, it was not only their own copyright that was ‘worth shit,’ but also the copyright claims of other publishers and writers, both digital and mainstream. In 1988, they republished a rant entitled ‘Fuck the World,’ which strongly influenced the next ten years of ASCII literature. The article, ironically, was a reprint from a print publication entitled Forced Exposure. Although the editor of cDc (Swamp Rat) does give credit to the author and original publisher in the issue, the header of the issue clearly reads ‘FUCK THE WORLD / by  Swamp Rat,’ leaving generations of readers confused as to who truly authored the article, and to what extent the text is ‘by’ Swamp Rat. Here, unauthorized reprinting seems to take its place alongside hacking and explosives manuals as yet another form of illicit information.
modification
In Cult of the Dead Cow and Phrack, freedom of information also extends to the modification of text. In academia, scholars frequently build upon the work of their colleagues, citing the findings of other scholars as part of the process of developing their own work. In ASCII publications this is also common, but without the same insistence of formality. The most parasitic example of this was the practice of tagging, where BBS sysops would obtain published text files, modify them by adding advertisements for their BBSes to the header or footer of the file, and continue to distribute the file by means of their BBS. The modified versions would proliferate, often under the same file name, which would limit the circulation of (and possibly overwrite) copies of the original version.
Phrack and Cult of the Dead Cow also modified texts, but for different reasons and in different ways. Instead of inserting their own text into other peoples’ publications, they would bring other people’s writing into their publications. This was often done without the knowledge or consent of the writer. In some instances, they would replicate a substantial portion of another text (or an entire text), and then add to or subtract from that text at will. One of Phrack’s regular features, ‘Phrack World News,’ would republish articles from corporate media outlets, occasionally interjecting their own undercutting commentary in square brackets. The inversion is clear: this is what the mainstream is saying about us, and this is what we are saying about what them.
Phrack’s most documented exploit in modification is their publication of a scaled-back version of a document that had been illegally downloaded from a ‘secure’ BellSouth computer, describing some of the workings of their Enhanced 9-11 system. Even though the contents of the file were lightweight and contained no indication of being proprietary or sensitive information, its republication demonstrated that the systems at BellSouth could be hacked, by affiliates of Phrack. The editor was indicted on charges of wire fraud, interstate transportation of stolen property, and computer fraud and abuse.
recombination
The central concept of hacking is to generate a flexible and adaptable mastery of codes, and to develop a mastery that transcends a system. This is central to the hack and to the hacker ethos. Like any other codes, legal codes are equally susceptible to disruption and modification, as demonstrated in these four publications, which demonstrate a libertarian attitude in their handling of illicit information (in terms both content and copyright). Like any other codes, literary and linguistic codes are likewise susceptible. Even in these early publications, there is a tendency toward the recombinant (that is, writing that borrows liberally from multiple sources). From the inception of ASCII literature, writers tend to transform, and recontextualize language, style, and form from other ASCII publications and from BBS culture. Writers blur the boundaries between information and narrative, purpose and play, text and intertext.
The most prominent example of recombination that took place in this era is probably ‘The cDc #200 Higgledy-Piggeledy-Big-Fat-Henacious-Mega-Mackadocious-You-Can’t-Even-Come-Close-So-Jump-Back-K-BOOMIDY-BOOMIDY-BOOM File.’ This file, designed to simulate the scrolling display of an early-1990s BBS, follows the narrative arc of a BBS experience, with every message board and file area transforming into narrative, each narrative venturing into the most iconic tropes and mythemes of the computer underground, corporate culture, and ASCII literature: Internet Relay Chat, Teen Beat, Encyclopedia Brown, K-Rad slang, Phrackmagazine, ‘The Real Pirate’s Guide,’ George Bush, Malcolm X, and old school 40-column all-caps ASCII. This issue begins to demonstrate what can be done with the structures and contents made familiar by other publications. It demonstrates a writing that takes freely and gives freely, which is never proprietary, and for whom all rights remain shit. Most importantly, it leads into the next generation of ASCII literature, where writers continue to borrow from one another, to build cultural mythologies collectively, and to follow the hacking tenets set out by Steven Levy: ‘All information should be free. Mistrust authority – promote decentralization. You can create art and beauty on a computer.’","txt","2","",""
"1413","13","Approaching Dickens' Style through Random Forests","1","outline of this study
This paper describes a new approach to Dickens’ style, applying a state-of-art machine-learning classification technique in an effort to distinguish Dickens’ texts from a reference corpus of texts. This study makes use of Breiman’s (2001) ‘Random Forests’ in order to spotlight lexical items Dickens consistently used or avoided in his texts in comparison with the control set.
By demonstrating how we can identify Dickensian stylistic markers, this study also proposes Random Forests as a more powerful alternative for traditional ‘key word’ analysis, a popular method in corpus linguistics for extracting a set of words that characterize a particular text, a particular register/(sub)corpus, or a particular diachronic set of texts, etc. from others.
In a typical key word analysis, the significance of difference between two sets of texts in the frequency of a word is calculated based on log-likelihood ratio (LLR, henceforward; Tun- ning 1993; Rayson & Garside 2000). However, LLR alone provides little information about proportion of difference between the sets, not to mention whether or not a particular word is distributed evenly throughout each set of texts. LLR tells us only about the ‘significance’ (NOT the ‘degree’ of) of discrepancy between two sets of texts with respect to frequency of a partic- ular lexical variable. Thus, a potential drawback of the method is seen in a case where a word occurring with exceptionally high frequency in a single text can over-represent the entire set it belongs to. Using Random Forests, this study will address such an issue and provide means to identify a more reliable set of markers of Dickens’ style.
the drawbacks of traditional ‘key’ word analysis
Textual analysis often begins with identifying key words of a text on the assumption that key words reﬂect what the text is really about and that they are likely to reﬂect stylistic features of the text as well. Key words as a corpus linguistic terminology are defined as words that ‘appear in a text or a part of a text with a frequency greater than chance occurrence alone would suggest’ (Henry & Roseberry 2001: 110). A popular method to measure ‘keyness’ is to calculate an LLR to assess the significance of difference between the expected frequency and the observed frequency of a word in a text.  However, one drawback of this approach emerges when we compare Dickens’ texts with, for example, a set of texts by his contemporary Wilkie Collins.
 
Table 1: 40 most significant key words of Dickens compared with Wilkie Collins   (sorted according to log-likelihood ratio (LLR))
Although proper names such as Dombey, Pecksniff, and Boffin are ranked among the top 40 Dickensian ‘key’ words, none of these would normally be counted as important at least from a stylistic perspective, apart from the fact these represent a few peculiar Dickensian characters, who appear only in a single text. As we go down the list, it turns out that 19 out of the top 100 are those which occur only in a single text. As we turn our eyes to words listed as Collins’s key words, we see 35 out of the top 100 are from a single text. If we include words that occur only in a very small number of texts, the proportion becomes even greater.
Another (though less obvious) drawback comes from the mathematical fact that LLR em- phasizes high-frequency items: in fact, high-frequency words tend to predominate towards the top of the list in Table 1, with words in lower frequency-strata not tending to be highlighted easily. A better alternative is needed.
random forests as a stylometric tool
Random Forests (henceforth, RF) are a very efficient classification algorithm based on ensemble learning from a large number of classification trees (thus ‘forests’) randomly generated from the dataset. As RF builds a classification tree from a set of bootstrap samples, about one-third of the cases are left out for running an internal unbiased estimate of the classification error each time. The process is iterated until n-th (500th by default) tree is added to the forests, there being no need for cross-validation or a separate test (Breiman and Cutler, ND). One of the most prominent features of RF is its high accuracy in respect to classification of data sets. In the experiments reported by Jin and Murakami (2007), RF was unexcelled in accuracy among other high-performance classifiers, such as k Nearest Neighbor, Support Vector Machine, Learning Vector Quantification, Bagging and AdaBoosting, in distinguishing between 200 pieces of texts written by 10 modern Japanese novelists. In my own experiments, RF constantly achieved accuracy rates as high as 96–100% in distinguishing Dickens’s texts from the control set of texts.
RF is capable of handling thousands of input variables and of running efficiently on large database.1 The first series of experiments with RF in this study were on a set of 24 Dickens’s texts versus a comparable set of 24 Wilkie Collins’ texts with from more than five thousand to as few as fifty word-variables. The results were fairly consistent with over 96% accuracy. The best of the results was seen when 300 input variables are used (Table 2). The out-of-bag (OOB) estimate of error rate was 0%, or 100% accuracy in distinguishing between Dickens’s and Collins’s texts.
 
Table 2: A result of running Random Forests
 
Figure 1: A multi-dimensional scaling diagram based on the proximity matrix generated by RF: Dickens versus Collins
RF computes proximities between pairs of cases that can be visualized in a multidimensional scaling diagram as in Figure 1. Dickens’s texts and Collins’s texts, respectively, form distinct clusters, with two unusual pieces by Collins shown as outliers: Antonina (1850), which has its setting in ancient Rome, and the travel book Rambles beyond Railways (1851).
Of further merit is the ability to highlight the lexical items that contribute most strongly to authorial classifications. RF shows the importance of variables in two measures: Mean-DecreaseAccuracy and MeanDecreaseGini. The former indicates the mean of decrease in the accuracy of classification when a particular variable is excluded from analysis. The latter shows the mean of decrease in Gini index, an index of uneven distribution of a particular variable between the groups, when the variable in question is excluded from analysis. The two indices are comparable to each other. Table 3 list marker words of Dickens and Collins, respectively, in the order of importance (sorted according to the mean decrease in Gini index).
 
Table 3: Import variables: Dickens markers and Collins markers (in the order of importance)
A close comparison of Table 3 with Table 1 will show how RF helps identify words with high discriminatory power. Proper nouns and words distributed unevenly in each set now have effectively made way for words which are consistently more frequent in one author than the other. Although Table 3 in itself is worth scrutiny in that it reveals how Dickens markers are contrasted with Collins markers, it is necessary to compare Dickens texts with a larger and more representative corpus of writings in order to spotlight Dickens’s stylistic features in a wider perspective.
 
 
comparing and contrasting dickens with a reference corpus of 18th-and 19th-century authors
In the following analysis, the set of 24 Dickens’ texts was compared with a reference corpus consisting of 24 eighteenth-century texts and 31 nineteenth-century texts.
When 300 input variables were used, the OOB estimate of error rate fell down to 1.28%, or 98.72% of runs correctly distinguishing Dickens from the reference set of texts.  Fig.  2 distinguishes between the Dickens cluster and the control cluster. One seeming anomaly is the position of A Child’s History of England (1851), which finds itself as an outlier. This history book for children is considerably different in style from other Dickensian works. Therefore, it is not unexpected for this piece to be found least Dickensian, a phenomenon in consistent with previous multivariate studies based on other linguistic variables, such as collocates ofgentleman (Tabata 2009: 272), –ly adverbs (Tabata 2005: 231) and part-of-speech distribution (Tabata 2002: 173).
 
Figure 2: A multi-dimensional scaling diagram based on the proximity matrix generated by RF:  Dickens versus reference corpus
 
 
Table 4: Important variables: Dickens versus the reference corpus (in order of importance)
 
Table 4 arrays major Dickens markers. Although relationships among these words are com- plex enough to defy straightforward generalization, one could see the predominance of words related to description of actions – typically bodily actions – or postures of characters rather than words denoting abstract ideas.  Words like eyes, hands, saw, looked, back in particular have caught eyes of critics such as Hori (2004) and Mahlberg (2007a, 2007b), which suggests the present methodology is well-grounded. Stubbs (2005) states:
[E]ven if quantification only confirms what we have already know, this is not a bad thing. Indeed , in developing a new method, it is perhaps better not to find anything too new, but to confirm findings from many years of traditional study, since tis gives confidence that the method can be relied on (Stubbs 2005: 6).
In order to determine local textual functions (Mahlberg 2007a, 2007b) each of these words performs, it is of course necessary to go back to texts and examine the words in local contexts with the help of other tools such as concordance, collocation, and n-grams. However, the present method opens up a promising pathway to deeper textual analysis. The results of this study will also point to the effectiveness of this approach in cases of disputed authorship.
 
appendix
 
Table 5: Dickens component of ORCHIDS
 
Table 6: 18th Century component of ORCHIDS
 
Table 7: 19th Century component of ORCHIDS
 
references
Breiman, L. (2001). Random forests. Machine Learning 45: 5-23.
Dunning, T. (1993). Accurate methods for the statistics of surprise and coincidence. Computational Linguistics19(1): 61-74.
Henry.  A., and R. L. Rooseberry (2001). Using a small corpus to obtain data for teaching genre. In M. Ghadessy, A. Henry and R. L. Roseberry (eds.), Small Corpus and ELT. Amsterdam,Philadelphia, Pa.: John Benjamins, pp. 93-133.
Hori, M. (2004). Investigating Dickens’ Style: A Collocational Analysis. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Jin, M., and M. Murakami (2007). Random forest hou ni yoru bunshou no kakite no doutei (Authorship Identification Using Random Forests), Toukei Suuri (Proceedings of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics) 55(2): 255-268.
Mahlberg, M. (2007a). Corpus stylistics: bridging the gap between linguistic and literary studies. In M. Hoey et al. (eds.), Text, discourse and corpora. Theory and analysis. London: Continuum, pp. 217-246.
Mahlberg, M. (2007b). Clusters, key clusters and local textual functions in Dickens. Corpora 2(1): 1-31.
Rayson, P., and R. Garside (2000).  Comparing Corpora Using Frequency Profiling. Proceedings of the Workshop on Comparing Corpora, Held in Conjunction with the 38th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2000), 1-8 October 2000, Hong Kong, 1-6. Available online athttp://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/computing/users/paul/phd/phd2003.pdf.
Stubbs, M. (2005). Conrad in the computer: examples of quantitative stylistic methods. Language and Literature 14(1): 5-24.
Tabata, T. (2002). Investigating Stylistic Variation in Dickens through Correspondence Analysis of Word-Class Distribution. In T. Saito, J. Nakamura and S. Yamasaki (eds.), English Corpus Lin- guistics in Japan. Amsterdam: Rodopi, pp. 165-182.
Tabata, T. (2005). Profiling stylistic variations in Dickens and Smollett through correspondence analy- sis of low frequency words. ACH/ALLC 2005 Conference Abstracts, Humanities Computing and Media Centre, University of Victoria, Canada, pp. 229-232.
Tabata, T. (2009). More about gentleman in Dickens. Digital Humanities 2009 Conference Abstracts, University of Maryland, College Park, June 22–25, 2009, The Association for Literary and Lin- guistic Computing, the Association for Computers and the Humanities, and the Society for Digital Humanities – Société pour l’étude des médias interactifs, pp. 270-275.
notes
1.Breiman, L., and A. Cutler, Random Forests. Online resource. (Last accessed 20 October 2011.)http://stat- www.berkeley.edu/users/breiman/RandomForests/cc_home.htm","txt","2","",""
"1414","13","Automatic Mining of Valence Compounds for German: A Corpus-Based Approach","1","introduction
The availability of large-scale text corpora in digital form and the availability of sophisticated analysis and querying tools have profoundly influenced linguistic research over the past three decades. The present paper uses this eHumanities methodology in order to automatically detect and analyze valence compounds for German. Valence compounds (in German: Rektionskomposita) such as Autofahrer ‘car driver’ have been subject to extensive research in the German linguistics. They are composed of a deverbal head (Fahrer ‘driver’) and a nominal non-head (Auto ‘car’). As the corresponding verb fahren ‘to drive’, from which Fahrer is derived, governs its accusative object Auto, the compound Autofahrer is considered a valence compound.
The automatic detection and semantic interpretation of compounds constitutes an important aspect of text understanding for a language like German where compounding is a particularly productive means of word formation and accordingly occurs with high frequency. Baroni et al. (2002) report that almost half (47%) of the word types in the APA German news corpus, which they used as training material for a word prediction model for German, are compounds.
Due to their productivity, compounds in German do not form a closed class of words that can be listed in its entirety in a lexicon. Rather, as Lemnitzer (2007) has shown, new German compounds are coined daily, and some of them attain sufficient frequency to be eventually included in print dictionaries such as the Duden. Novel compounds that are not yet listed in a dictionary pose a particular challenge for natural language processing systems that rely exclusively on dictionaries as their underlying knowledge source for word recognition.
Since the analysis of compounds constitutes a major challenge for the understanding of natural language text, the structural analysis and the semantic interpretation of compounds have received considerable attention in both theoretical and computational linguistics. Syntactic analysis of compounds focuses on the correct (left- vs. right- branching) bracketing of the constituent parts of a given compound, e.g., [[rock music] singer] vs. [deputy [music director]]. Research on the semantic interpretation of compounds has focused on the semantic relations that hold between the constituent parts of a compound. The present paper focuses entirely on the semantic interpretation of compounds; however see Henrich and Hinrichs (2011) for previous research on the syntactic analysis of nominal compounds in German.
corpus-based experiments
The aim is to determine whether corpus evidence can form the basis for reliably predicting whether a given complex noun is a valence compound or not. For example, if we want to determine whether the complex nounTaxifahrer is a valence compound, we inspect a large corpus of German and investigate whether there is sufficient evidence in the corpus that the noun Taxi can be the object of the verb. The question of what exactly constitutes sufficient corpus evidence is of crucial importance. Three different measures were applied to answer this question:
1.        Relative frequency: The percentage of the verb-object pairs in the corpus among all co-occurrences of the two words in the same sentence with any dependency relations,
2.        The association score of mutual information for the verb-object pairs, and
3.        The Log-Likelihood ratio for the verb-object pairs.
The measure in (1) above constitutes a simplified variant of the data-driven approach that Lapata (2002) applied for the purposes of automatically retrieving English valence compounds from the British National Corpus.
The starting point of the corpus-based experiments was a list of 22,897 German complex nouns and the Tübingen Partially Parsed Corpus of Written German (TüPP-D/Z).1 This corpus consists of 200 Mio. words of newspaper articles taken from the taz (‘die tageszeitung’) and is thus sufficiently large to provide a reliable data source for the experiments to be conducted. The TüPP corpus was automatically parsed by the dependency parser MaltParser (Hall et al. 2006).
Each of the 22,897 potential valence compounds has been split into its deverbal head and its nominal modifier with the help of the morphological analyzer SMOR (Schmid et al. 2004). For example, the compoundAutofahrer receives the analysis Auto<NN>fahren<V>er<SUFF><+NN> in SMOR. From the TüPP corpus, all occurrences of those object-verb pairs are extracted from those corpus sentences where either the verb in the sentence matches the deverbal head of the complex noun (e.g., fahren) or the accusative object of the sentence matches the nominal modifier (e.g., Auto) of the compound.
Figure 1 gives an example of the type of dependency analysis of the MaltParser from which the verb-object pairs are extracted. The dependency analysis represents the lexical tokens of the input sentence as nodes in the graph and connects them with vertices which are labeled by dependency relations. Recall that the MaltParser annotation is performed automatically and thus not 100% accurate. In the case of the sentenceAber dann würde doch niemand mehr Auto fahren. (‘But then, no one would drive cars anymore.’) shown in Fig. 1, mehr is erroneously attached to the noun Auto instead of to the noun niemand.
 
Figure 1: A MaltParser dependency graph for a TüPP corpus sentence Aber dann würde doch niemand mehr Auto fahren
Both the mutual information and the log-likelihood measures determine the association strength between two words by considering the relative co-occurrences shown in the contingency table (Table 1).
Table 1: Contingency table for verb-object pairs
         Accusative object Auto        Accusative object ¬Auto
Verb fahren        Auto fahren        Fahrrad fahren
Verb ¬fahren        Auto waschen        Wäsche waschen
The association strength increases for both measures the more the number of co-occurrences in the upper left corner of the contingency table outweighs the number of occurrences in the remaining cells.
evaluation
From the list of 22,897 putative valence compounds, a balanced sample of 100 valence compounds and 100 non-valence compounds was randomly selected in order to be able to evaluate the effectiveness of the methods described above. Each entry in this sample was manually annotated as to whether they represent valence compounds or not. The sample as a whole serves as a gold standard for evaluation.2
For all three association measures described above recall, precision, and F-measure were computed. The results are shown in Fig. 2, 3, and 4, for log-likelihood, mutual information, and relative frequency, respectively. The first two measures yield a continuous scale of association strength values. The graphs in Fig. 2 and 3 plot, on the x-axis, association strength thresholds that correspond to a quantile between 100% and 10% of the values observed for these measures. The y-axis shows the corresponding effect on precision and recall for each measure.
 
Figure 2: Precision, Recall, and F1 for Log-Likelihood
 
Figure 3: Precision, Recall, and F1 for Mutual Information
 
Figure 4: Precision, Recall, and F1 for Relative Frequency
For the relative frequency approach (Fig. 4) the decision to reject or accept a candidate pair is made by weighting occurrences as a verb-object pair against occurrences in other contexts. The weights can consist of any value between zero and positive infinity. Unlike the association measures (log-likelihood and mutual information), this approach does not yield a ranking of candidates; in consequence, the precision (shown in Fig. 4) does not decrease monotonically but shows an optimal parameter setting for values between 1.0 and 2.0.
The results show that all three measures are independently valuable in the corpus-based identification of valence compounds. Relative frequency and log-likelihood yield the best recall (up to 81%), while mutual information affords the best precision (up to 100%). Future research will address the effective methods for combining the complementary strengths of all three measures into an optimized classification approach.
In sum, the eHumanities method presented in this paper for the identification of valence compounds in German has proven effective and can thus nicely complement traditional methods of analysis which focus on the internal structure of valence compounds as such.
references
Baroni, M., J. Matiasek, and H. Trost (2002). Predicting the Components of German Nominal Compounds. In F. van Harmelen (ed.), Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Artificial Intelligence (ECAI). Amsterdam: IOS Press, pp. 470-474.
Hall, J., J. Nivre, and J. Nilsson (2006). Discriminative Classifiers for Deterministic Dependency Parsing. InProceedings of the 21st International Conference on Computational Linguistics and 44th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (COLING-ACL) Main Conference Poster Sessions, pp. 316-323.
Henrich, V., and E. Hinrichs (2011). Determining Immediate Constituents of Compounds in GermaNet. InProceedings of Recent Advances in Natural Language Processing (RANLP 2011), Hissar, Bulgaria, pp. 420-426.
Lapata, M. (2002). The disambiguation of nominalizations. Computational Linguistics 28(3): 357-388.
Lemnitzer, L. (2007). Von Aldianer bis Zauselquote: Neue deutsche Wörter, woher sie kommen und wofür wir sie brauchen. Tübingen: Narr.
Schmid, H., A. Fitschen, and U. Heid (2004). SMOR: A German Computational Morphology Covering Derivation, Composition, and Inflection. In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2004). Lisbon, Portugal, pp. 1263-1266.
notes
1.See http://www.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de/en/tuepp.shtml
2.Precision measures the fraction of retrieved valence compounds that are correctly analyzed. Recall measures the fraction of actual valence compounds that are retrieved.","txt","2","",""
"1415","13","Automatic recognition of speech, thought and writing representation in German narrative texts","1","Automatic recognition of speech, thought and writing representation in German narrative texts
 
XML
Brunner, Annelen, Institut für deutsche Sprache, Mannheim, Germany, annelen_brunner@gmx.de
This paper presents a subset of the results of a larger project which explores ways to recognize and classify a narrative feature – speech, thought and writing representation (ST&WR) – automatically, using surface information and methods of computational linguistics.
Speech, thought and writing can be represented in various ways. Common categories in narratology are direct representation (He thought: ‘I am hungry.’), free indirect representation, which takes characteristics of the character’s voice as well as the narrator’s (Well, where would he get something to eat now?), indirect representation (He said that he washungry.) and reported representation, which can be a mere mentioning of a speech, thought or writing act (They talked about lunch.). ST&WR is a feature central to narrative theory, as it is important for constructing a fictional character and sheds light on the narrator-character relationship and the narrator’s stance. The favored techniques not only vary between authors and genres, but have changed and developed over the course of literary history. Therefore, an automated annotation of this phenomenon would be valuable, as it could quickly deal with a large number of texts and allow a narratologist to study regularities and differences between different time periods, genres or authors.
The approach presented here specifically aims at applying digital methods to the recognition of features conceptualized in narrative theory. This sets it apart from other digital approaches to literary texts which often operate purely on a vocabulary level and are more focussed on thematic issues or on author or group specific stylistics. Recent approaches to the goal of automatically identifying ST&WR are either not concerned with narrativity at all, like Krestel et al. who developed a recognizer of direct and indirect speech representation in newspaper texts to identify second hand information, or not interested in the techniques themselves, like Elson et al. who use recognition of direct speech representation to extract a network of interrelations of fictional characters. Also, both approaches are for the English language and can therefore not be used in this project.
Basis for the research is a corpus containing 13 short narratives in German written between 1786 and 1917 (about 57 000 tokens). The corpus has been manually annotated with a set of ST&WR categories adapted from narratological theory. This step is comparable to the annotation project conducted by Semino and Short for a corpus of English literary, autobiographical and newspaper texts, but is something that has never been done for German literary texts before. The manual annotation gives empirical insight into the surface structures and the complex nature of ST&WR, but also serves as training material for machine learning approaches and, most importantly, as reference for evaluation of the automatic recognizer.
The main focus of this paper is the automatic recognition. Rule-based as well as machine learning approaches have been tested for the task of detecting instances of the narratological categories. In the scope of this paper, a subset of these strategies is presented and compared.
For the rule-based approach, simple and robust methods are favored, which do not require advanced syntactic or semantic preprocessing, automatic reasoning or complex knowledge bases. The modules make use of conventions like punctuation, as well as lexical and structural characteristics for different types of ST&WR. A central feature is a list of words that signal ST&WR, e.g. to say (sagen), to whisper (flüstern). For the recognition of indirect ST&WR specifically, patterns of surfaces and morphological categories are used to match the dependent propositions (e.g. Er sagte, dass er hungrig sei. [He said that he was hungry.]: signal word – followed by comma – followed by a conjunction – followed by a verb in subjunctive mode). This methods achieves F1 scores of up to 0.71 in a sentence-based evaluation. Direct representation can be detected with an F1 score of 0.84 by searching for quotation patterns and framing phrases (e.g. he said). Annotating reported representation, which is quite diverse, achieves an F1 score of up to 0.57.
The machine learning approach uses a random forest learning algorithm trained on the manually annotated corpus. Features like sentence length, number of certain word types and types of punctuation are used as attributes. The advantage of this approach lies in the fact that it can also be used to handle types of ST&WR which do have less obvious structural or lexical characteristics, like free indirect representation, for which an F1 score of 0.43 can be achieved when performing sentence-based cross validation on the corpus. The F1 score for detecting direct representation is 0.81, for indirect representation 0.57 and for reported representation 0.51. 
The components of the automatic recognizer are modular and realized as working prototypes in the framework GATE (General Architecture for Text Engineering) (http://gate.ac.uk). When the project is finished, it is intended to publish these components as GATE plugins and make them available as a free download.
In the paper, the advantages and disadvantages of rule-based and machine learning approaches as well as possibilities for combination are discussed. For example, rules can be used for ST&WR strategies with clear patterns and conventions, like direct and – to an extent – indirect representation, but machine learning for the more elusive types like free indirect representation. It is also possible to get results for the same ST&WR category from different modules and use those to calculate scores. E.g. merging the results of rule-based and ML methods improves the overall F1 score for recognizing direct representation in the corpus.
Though the figures above give a rough idea of expected success rates, evaluation is in fact an analytic task itself: Results are not only quite different for different types of ST&WR and dependent on the exact configuration of the recognizer modules. There is also the question of what kind of results should be prioritized for narratological research and how to deal with cases which are problematic even for a human annotator. However, the modular structure of the recognizer is designed to allow for customization and the main goal of the project is to shed light on the relationship between the manual annotation, generated with narratological concepts in mind, and the possibilities and limitations of ultimately surface-based automatic annotation.
references
Cunningham, H., et al. (2011). Text Processing with GATE (Version 6): http://www.tinyurl/gatebook (accessed 14 March 2012).
Elson, D. K., N. Dames, and K. R. McKeown (2010). Extracting Social Networks from Literary Fiction.Proceedings of the 48th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics 2010, pp. 138-147.
Krestel, R., S. Bergler,  and R. Witte (2008). Minding the Source: Automatic Tagging of Reported Speech in Newspaper Articles. Proceedings of the Sixth International Language Resources and Evaluation Conference(LREC 2008), Marrakech, Morocco, May 28-30 2008.
Semino, E., and M. Short (2004). Corpus stylistics. Speech, writing and thought presentation in a corpus ofEnglish writing. London, New York: Routledge.","txt","2","",""
"1416","13","Benefits of tools and applications for a digitized analysis of Chinese Buddhist inscriptions","1","The research project ‘Buddhist stone scriptures in China’ hosted at the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and headed by Prof. Lothar Ledderose is devoted to the documentation of holy Buddhist scriptures that were carved onto rocks, boulders and stones from the sixth to the eighth century in China. The digital processing and presentation of these stone carved texts offers remarkable benefits with regard to facilitation of the workflow, incorporation of spatial relations, and transparency.
application of digital tools for enhancing the workflow of transcribing and editing the texts to establish the corpus of carved stone sutras
Traditionally, pre-modern Chinese texts engraved on durable materials like metal or stone were first ‘copied’ by brushing a moistened sheet of paper into the cavities of the carved surface, and applying black ink on all outstanding parts, leaving the traces of the chisel in white on the paper. These transportable rubbings were collected from the eighteenth century on by Chinese epigraphers, who studied their ancient scripts and transcribed them for further publication. However, the rubbings are in no way a faithful copy of what was originally written into stone. The very process of taking them from the stone cut characters already involves a reading and interpretation of less well preserved glyphs.
To avoid such flaws and short-comings of the traditional Chinese procedure of text documentation, our project relies solely on the carved text to provide the lemmas for the corpus of stone sutras. The original stone is documented either by photographs alone, or by both scans and photographs. Then it is collated with several text witnesses, including different versions of rubbings, and different versions of the text extant either in manuscripts, or printed editions of the Buddhist canon, as well as the digital edition of the Buddhist canon, edited by the Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). As a result, the original stone text can be transcribed by reconstructing lost or damaged characters, and can be discussed in text critical annotations.
Digital research and publication helps making this editing process more transparent and replicable. The web application documents each inscription on five levels by providing (1) a scan or photograph of the original stone, (2) one or several paper rubbings of the stone, (3) a transcription in Unicode characters reflecting the original layout of characters in vertical columns on the stone, (4) a transcription in Unicode characters with modern punctuation and reading direction in horizontal lines from left to right, and (5) an English translation of the text including text critical annotations. In this way, text editing is significantly enhanced in terms of correctness as well as transparency, since the user can follow the transcribing of each stone character step by step.
The basis for the transcription process is the documentation of the original stone, which is done ideally by 3D laser scans. After processing, the inscriptions can be viewed either in 2 D or 3 D view by means of an applet developed for the project by the i3 Mainz (University of Applied Sciences, Mainz).1 This applet was already implemented in the workflow of reading and transcribing the text in modern Unicode characters, but it is also available online. It provides various options like zooming, adjusting the light position, or applying colors for better legibility of the carved characters, thereby empowering users to not only better comprehend the editing process, but also to continue research by themselves. The use of this digital tool exceeds by far the possibilities of traditional print media.
Another main challenge of the edition of the medieval stone sutras is their transcription in modern Unicode characters. Many of the ancient carved texts use glyphs not yet encoded in the Unicode standard. Although more Chinese ideographs are being added currently to the Unihan database, the problems of mapping ancient glyphs to Unicode characters are complex, and cannot be solved completely by encoding more glyphs. By programming and implementing a ‘snippet tool’ that is able to search and line up images of the same character connected to a certain Unicode character, we not only provide a tool for an analysis of writing styles, but also bring to light the complexity of the issue of mapping glyphs to unified characters.
incorporation of spatial relations
For a comprehensive understanding of the historical background behind the creation of stone carved sutras in China, each inscription site has to be seen in its particular topography in which it is embedded. The choice of the site is of religious importance, and infers particular ritual uses. Inter-spatial relations between multiple sites are also of interest. 2 For this reason, all inscriptions and sites were GIS documented and can now be addressed on interactive maps.3 In cooperation with the Institute of Geography of Heidelberg University, more tools for a GIS based analysis have been developed to clarify the spatial history of the creation of inscription sites, the related spreading of Buddhist sutras, and the migration movements of the monks responsible for it.4
Right from the start, the project has generated 3D models of larger inscription sites that have been integrated into the project’s web-application. At first, we made use of these models to provide map-like views of the general layout of inscriptions at particular sites. In one case, the course of a pilgrim’s path was simulated in a flash animation. More recently, the visualization with 3D models has become even more rewarding for a particular type of inscription sites, namely those hosting stone sutras inside caves. Now the user can find the inscription site on a map, zoom in, select a particular cave, and by means of a panoramic view, approach the inscriptions inside the digital cave and read them herself by means of high-resolution photographs. In this respect, digital space is not only a synthesis of traditional documentation with rubbings, photographs, and printing, but offers a new level of close-to- reality documentation.5
(future6) digital publication of research results and their transparency for the community
All data of the project are stored in an open source XML database called eXist (exist-db.org); the mark-up of texts follows TEI (Text Encoding Initiative) standards. On the basis of the same set of data, a web application as well as a print publication is generated. For the latter, the data is being transformed by XSLT. The digital as well as the print publication are set up similarly. The scheme of documenting each inscription on the aforementioned five levels pervades the digital and the print publication. While the purpose of this structure is to provide maximum transparency about the editing process for the reader/user, the electronic publication is in this respect even more efficient. By integrating the aforementioned digital tools (Mainz applet, snippet-tool, GIS analysis tools) into the project’s web-application, the (future) user is enabled to replicate the editing of stone scriptures, and to continue research herself.
Funding
This work was supported by the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities (Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften), Germany. The development of digital tools mentioned was supported by the German Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) within a program on interdisciplinary research between natural and social sciences, namely the research project ‘3D-Sutras: A web based atlas of laser scanned Buddhist stone inscriptions in China,’ co-operated by the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences, the Department of Geography of Heidelberg University, and the Institute for Spatial Information and Surveying Technology, i3mainz, of the University of Applied Sciences in Mainz.
references
Auer, M., B. Höfle, S. Lanig, A. Schilling, and A. Zipf (2011). 3D-Sutras: A web based atlas of laser scanned Buddhist stone inscriptions in China. 14th AGILE International Conference on Geographic Information Science, Utrecht, The Netherlands 18-21 April 2011.
Lanig, S., A. Schilling, M. Auer, B. Höfle, N. Billen, and A. Zipf (2011a). Interoperable integration of high precision 3D laser data and large scale geoanalysis in a SDI for Sutra inscriptions in Sichuan (China).Geoinformatik 2011– Geochange, Münster, Germany.
Lanig, S., B. Höfle, M. Auer, A. Schilling, H. Deierling, and A. Zipf (2011b). Geodateninfrastrukturen im historisch-geographischen Kontext – Buddhistische Steinschriften in der Provinz Sichuan/China. AGIT 2011.Symposium Angewandte Geoinformatik, Salzburg, Österreich.
Ledderose, L. (2012, in print) Fünf Perspektiven auf Steinerne Sutren. In I. Reichle and V. Lepper (eds.),Perspektiven. Berlin: Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften 2012.
Schmidt, N., R. Schütze, and F. Boochs (2010a). 3D-Sutra – Interactive Analysis Tool for a Web-Atlas of Scanned Sutra Inscriptions in China. Proceedings of the ISPRS Commission V Mid-Term Symposium Close Range Image Measurement Techniques, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom.
Schmidt, N., F. Boochs, and R. Schütze (2010b). Capture and Processing of High Resolution 3D-Data of Sutra Inscriptions in China. http://www.springerlink.com/content/978-3-642-16872-7/Digital Heritage,http://www.springerlink.com/content/0302-9743/Lecture Notes in Computer Science 6436: 125-139, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-16873-4_10, Limassol, Zypern
Tsai, S., and C. Wenzel (2009). The Stone Inscriptions of the Six Mountains of Zoucheng. Die Steinschriften der Sechs Berge von Zoucheng. In Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst Köln und Forschungsstelle der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Buddhistische Steinschriften in Nord-China (eds), The Centenary of the Museum of East Asian Art in Cologne. The Heart of Enlightenment. Buddhist Art in China 550-600. 100 Jahre Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst in Köln. Das Herz der Erleuchtung. Buddhistische Kunst in China 550-600. Köln, pp. 24-37.
notes
1.Schmidt et al. 2010b: 3-9; Schmidt et al. 2010a: 2-5.
2.Tsai & Wenzel 2009: 24.
3.Auer et al. 2011: 2-5; Lanig et al. 2011 b: 3-4.
4.Lanig et al. 2011a: 4-5; Lanig et al. 2011b: 7-8.
5.Ledderose 2012.
6.According to the agreement of the Chinese-German co-operation project, a print publication has first priority; the digital publication has to follow afterwards. For this reason, the project’s web-application atwww.stonesutras.org is to date still password protected. Access will be granted by request; please contact Claudia.Wenzel@urz.uni-heidelberg.de.","txt","2","",""
"1417","13","Beyond Embedded Markup","1","introduction (manfred thaller)
The unquestionable success of embedded markup methods and practice for the encoding of texts in the humanities is indisputably confirmed by the several projects and the authoritative collections of encoded texts now made available to the scholarly community.
The reasons of this success are many and diverse. An important one, however, consists in the influence that technological innovations have had on the accepted methodological principles of humanities computing. As John Unsworth has shown, we have been witnessing different phases of prevailing concerns in humanities computing projects and research: the chief orientation of interests has shifted from ‘tools,’ in the ’50s, ’60s, and ’70s, to ‘sources,’ in the ’80s and ’90s, and now seems to be turning back from sources to tools (Unsworth 2004). From a computational point of view, what this change in orientation entailed was a shift of the attention focus from processing to representation, from developing algorithms applicable to information contents, to producing digital surrogates to replicate and visualise primary surce materials. The introduction of graphic interfaces, the development of WYSIWYG word processing systems on PCs, and the astounding explosion of the World Wide Web have undoubtedly favoured the expansion of this process.
The original purpose of the Web was actually to allow remote access to documents and to visualise them, and the languages developed to produce Web resources, HTML and now increasingly XML, are data representation languages and not data processing languages. Processing Web resources is heavily dependent on the structure these languages assign them, i.e. on hierarchical tree structures. XSLT, the language used to process XML data, ‘takes a tree structure as its input, and generates another tree structure as its output’ (Kay 2005). The point of view of the so-called ‘document community’ as opposed to that of the ‘data processing’ or ‘database community’ – i.e. ‘to standardize the representation of data’ vs ‘to standardize the semantics of data’ – was heavily influential on the decisions of the scholarly community, where ‘attempts to define semantics […] met with resistance,’ and ‘most notably’ so in the Text Encoding Initiative. Thus, ‘the route proposed by SGML,’ and later XML, was to them ‘a reasonable one’ and embedded markup established itself as a standard for the encoding of texts in the humanities (Raymond 1996: 27-28).
However, from the original surmise that what text ‘really is,’ is nothing but an ‘ordered hierarchy of content objects,’ – the so-called OHCO thesis (De Rose et al. 1990) – the inadequacies of embedded markup have soon come to the fore, just for the sake of representing textual variation, not to mention processing textual information content. The need to overcome these difficulties has prompted several attempts to propose different approaches to text encoding. Among them we may mention the Layered Markup and Annotation Language (LMNL), (Piez s.d.), the eCommentary Machine web application (eComma), (Brown s.d.), the ‘extended string’ model, (Thaller 2006), and the Computer Aided Textual Markup and Analysis (CATMA) desktop application (CATMA s.d.).
One of the most efficient implementations of similar attempts to meet the difficulties of embedded markup is the proposal of ‘standoff properties’ as introduced by Desmond Schmidt. Properties can be assigned to given ranges of text that may nest and overlap, and can be stored separately from the text and in different formats suitable to specific needs. Standoff properties can be used to represent different textual features, for either interpretation or rendition purposes, and they can be organised in different sets, that can be easily merged, thus allowing for different encoding perspectives. The same technique is applicable to semantic annotation needs and stands as a viable and efficient alternative to it. But most importantly, as Desmond Schmidt has pointed out, whereas ‘it is virtually impossible to freely exchange and interoperate with TEI-encoded texts,’ with standoff properties ‘interoperability and interchange are enhanced because the components are small and can be freely recombined and reused’ (Schmidt, forthcoming). Moreover, the afforded flexibility of the standoff representation of property sets allows its ‘textualisation’: it can be expressed as a simple string of characters and its variations can be represented in the Multi-Version Document (MVD) format, i.e. as an oriented graph with a start-node and an end-node. Possible interpretative variants and encodings can then be easily compared and analysed. 
In sum, approaches of this kind seem to be affording viable solutions to the challenge of putting to good use the invaluable wealth of data now made accessible and encoded, by ‘building tools’ that would enable us to proceed ‘beyond representation’ (Unsworth 2004) and to process their information content. Standoff solutions can provide suitable means to deal with the different kinds of information conveyed by textual data structures and to assign them adequate data models for purposeful processing.
As it happens, however, the basic distinction between data and information is often overlooked, just as the clear severing of the two basic components of a text, its expression and content. This lack of distinction often leads to technical and conceptual shortcomings, sometimes intrinsic to the use of embedded markup. In this respect, standoff solutions can usefully complete and supplement embedded markup techniques with additional contrivances to distinguish between rendition and content features and to treat them appropriately. Specific case studies (see Buzzetti 2012, and Thaller 2012) can better exemplify the kind of problems that would require solutions that go beyond the mere representational scope of embedded markup and heed basic conceptual distinctions, such as those between data and information, or interpretation and rendition. To what extent these solution may also converge with the new technologies developed in the context of the Semantic Web would deserve a careful and more documented enquiry.
References
Brown, T. (s.d.). eComma: A commentary machine. http://ecomma.cwrl.utexas.edu/e392k/ (accessed 23 March 2012).
Buzzetti, D. (2012). Bringing Together Markup and Semantic Annotation. In this volume.
CATMA (s.d.). CATMA – Computer Aided Textual Markup & Analysis. http://www.catma.de/ (accessed 23 March 2012).
DeRose, St., et al. (1990). What Is Text, Really? Journal of Computing in Higher Education 1(2): 3-26.
Kay, M. (2005). What Kind of Language is XSLT? An analysis and overview.http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/x-xslt/ (accessed 23 March 2012).
Piez, W. (s.d.). LMNL Activity. http://www.piez.org/wendell/LMNL/lmnl-page.html (accessed 23 March 2012).
Schmidt, D. (forthcoming). Standoff Properties in HRIT.
Thaller, M. (2006). Strings, Texts and Meaning. In Digital Humanities 2006: Conference Abstracts. Paris: CATI – Université Paris-Sorbonne, pp. 212-214.
Thaller, M. (2012). What Is a Text within the Digital Humanities, or Some of Them, at Least? In this volume.
Unsworth, J. (2004). Forms of Attention: Digital humanities beyond representation. Paper delivered at The Face of Text: Computer-Assisted Text Analysis in the Humanities, the third conference of the Canadian Symposium on Text Analysis (CaSTA), McMaster University, November 19-21, 2004.http://people.lis.illinois.edu/~unsworth/FOA/ (accessed 13 March 2012).
what is a text within the digital humanities, or some of them, at least? (manfred thaller)
(i) The Humanities are a very broad field. The following ideas relate to those Humanities disciplines, which are dealing with ‘historical texts’ – or at least they started from them. ‘Historical’ in this context defines any text, which has been created by actors, which we cannot consult any more. This creates a complication when we understand an existing text as a message from a sender to a recipient – an understanding which is absolutely fundamental to modern information technology, as it is the model which has been used within Shannon’s article of 1948, one of the corner stones of modern information theory and for most computer scientist, thecorner stone of Computer Science upon which the later has been built. All of the measures Shannon proposes require an understanding, what the message that has been transmitted by the sender contained before transmission. Another important restriction Shannon acknowledges himself:
The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem.
(Shannon 1948: 379)
The fact that information processing systems start with a model which ignores semantics from page one. is ultimately the reason, why meaning has to be added to the signal stream in ways, which allow the transmission (or processing) of that information as an integral part of the signal stream – today usually as embedded markup. Embedded into a signal stream, which has been created by a sender; so embedding anything into it would, according to the model of Shannon, require the markup being part of the transmitted message. This is indeed, what SGML has been created for: To enter the intentions of the producer of a document about the formatting (and, up to a degree the meaning) of a data stream in such a way, that they would be independent of the requirements of specific devices.
When we are not able to check the meaning of a message with the sender we have to distinguish between the message, even if we do not understand it, and our assumptions about interpreting them. As we do not know the intent of the sender, the result of the ‘transmission’ of a historical text across time cannot be determined conclusively.
(ii) That data – as transmitted in signal streams – and information, as handled by humans, are not identical is a truism. They have long been seen as separate strata in information theory. (For a recent overview of the discussion see Rowley 2007.) A main difference between Shannon and the ‘data – information – knowledge – wisdom’ hierarchy has always been, that the former leads directly to an intuitive understanding of systems which can be realized by software engineering, while the later cannot. This is also true of attempts to use a similar scheme to understand information systems, notably Langefors (1995) infological equation.
(1)      I = i (D, S, t)
Information (I) is understood here as the result of a process of interpretation (i) that is applied to data (D), applying previous knowledge (S) within the time available (t). The great attraction of this model is that – unlike Shannon’s – it explicitly promises to model the meaning of messages, which are explicitly excluded from consideration by Shannon. To emphasize the difference between the models, we could say that Shannon assumes information to exist statically, therefore it can be broken into discrete units, independent of any process dealing with it, while Langefors understands information to be the result of a dynamic process, which, having a relationship to time, goes through different stages: So the amount of information existing at tn is not – or not necessarily – equal to the amount of information at tn-1, the ongoing process i having had the chance to produce more of it in the meantime.
The previous knowledge – S – can of course be easily seen as embodied in the interpreting scholar, who looks at the data. For the creation of systems of information processing Thaller (2009a: 228) has shown that Langefors original equation can be developed further. When we assume that knowledge is transformed from a static entity into a dynamic process, as Langefors has proposed for information, we can – via a few steps omitted in this abstract – reach
(2)       Ix = i (Ix-α, s(Ix-β, t), t)
Roughly: Information at point x is the result of the interpretation of an earlier level of information, in the light of knowledge generated from earlier knowledge, at a point of time t. As this allows the interpretation of data – e.g. a ‘transmission’ of a sender not living any more – as a process, which does not have to terminate, it is a better model for the handling of Humanities’ texts as Shannon’s.
(iii) This abstract model can be turned into an architecture for a representation of information, which can be processed by software. Thaller (2009b) has lead a project team within the digital preservation project PLANETS (cf. http://www.planets-project.eu/), which used this abstract model for the development of tools, which work on the comparison of the information contained within two different representations of an item according to two different technical formats. (Roughly: Does a PDF document contain exactly the same ‘text’ as a Word document.) For this purpose it is assumed, that all information represented in persistent form on a computer consists of a set of tokens carrying information, which exists within an n-dimensional interpretative space, each dimension of that space describing one ‘meaning’ to be assigned to it. Such a meaning can be a request directed at the rendering system processing the data to render a byte sequence in a specific way, or a connection to a semantic label empowering an information retrieval system. As such a representation is fully recursive, the requirements of formalism (2) above are fulfilled. For texts this can be simplified to an introductory example, where a text is seen as a chain of characters, each of which can be described by arbitrarily many orthogonal properties. (Whether the string Biggin within a text describes a person or an airfield is independent of whether that string is represented as italics or not; whether the string ‘To be or not to be’ is assigned to the speaker Hamlet is independent of whether it appears on page 13 or 367 of a book.)
(iv) Returning to the argument of section (i) we can see, that there is a direct correspondence between the two arguments. On the one hand the necessity to keep (a) the symbols transmitted within a ‘message’ from a sender who is irrevocably in the past and (b) our intellectual interpretations of them cleanly and unmistakably separate. On the other hand the necessity to distinguish clearly between (a) the tokens which transmit the data contained within a byte stream and (b) the technical information necessary to interpret that byte stream within a rendering system. If it is useful to transfer information transported within files with different formats into a representation, where the transmitted data are kept completely separate from the technical data needed to interpret them on a technical level, it is highly plausible, that that is even more the case, when we are discussing interpretations of texts left to us by authors we can not consult any more.
This in turn is highly compatible to an architecture for virtual research environments for manuscript related work, where Humanities’ work on historical texts is understood to consist of adding layers of changing and potentially conflicting interpretation unto a set of images of the manuscript to be interpreted. Ebner et al. (2011) have recently described an architecture for a virtual research environment for medieval manuscripts which implements this overall architecture, though using embedded markup for some of the layers for the time being.
To summarize the argument: (1) All texts, for which we cannot consult the producer, should be understood as a sequence of tokens, where we should keep the representation of the tokens and the representation of our interpretation thereof completely separate. (2) Such representations can be grounded in information theory. (3) These representations are useful as blueprints for software on highly divergent levels of abstraction.
References
Ebner, D., J. Graf, and M. Thaller (2011). A Virtual Research Environment for the Handling of Medieval Charters. Paper presented at the conference Supporting Digital Humanities: Answering the unaskable, Copenhagen, November 17-18, 2011 (forthcoming).
Langefors, B. (1995). Essays on Infology. Lund: Studentliteratur.
Rowley, J. (2007). The Wisdom Hierarchy: Representations of the DIKW hierarchy. Journal of Information Science 33(2): 163-180.
Shannon, C. E. (1948). A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Bell System Technical Journal 27(3): 379-423 and 27(4): 623-656.
Thaller, M. (2009a). The Cologne Information Model: Representing information persistently. In M. Thaller (ed.), The eXtensible Characterisation Languages – XCL. Hamburg: Kovač, pp. 223-240.
Thaller, M., ed. (2009b). The eXtensible Characterisation Languages – XCL. Hamburg: Kovač.
bringing together markup and semantic annotation (dino buzzetti)
Far from having been convincingly clarified, the relation between markup and semantics still appears to be a perplexing one. The BECHAMEL project, a consistent and systematic attempt to provide a semantics for document markup (Renear et al. 2002), aimed at introducing mechanisms and rules for mapping syntactic markup structures into semantic domains of objects, properties and relations. In a convincing article, however, Dubin and Birnbaum (2004) acknowledge that ‘all the distinctions that we’re able to explicate using BECHAMEL’ could either ‘guide the re-tagging of documents with richer markup’ or ‘be serialized in the form of RDF or a topic map.’ (p.   But, in the first case, is the prospect of expressing all semantic information through the markup a viable solution? As it has been pointed out, semantic and interpretative encoding prevents interoperability, and since any ‘attempt to make a document interoperational’ is ‘likely to result in decreased expressiveness,’ markup scholars are ready to admit that interoperability is ‘the wrong goal for scholarly humanities text encoding.’ (Bauman 2011) On the other hand, a purely semantic description is clearly incomplete, for it might disregard equally possible and semantically equivalent textual variants.
Keeping inline markup and semantic information distinctly severed proves to be a more appropriate approach. In the case of scholarly digital editions, the sole concern with markup has left us with ‘a problem that still exists,’ for ‘we need (we still need) to demonstrate the usefulness of all the stuff we have digitized over the last decade and more – and usefulness not just in the form of increased access, but specifically, in what we can do with the stuff once we get it’ (Unsworth 2003). How can we proceed ‘beyond representation’ and build tools that shall ‘put us into new relationships with our texts’ and enable us to process their information content? (Unsworth 2004) Embedded markup can best serve as a comprehensive information carrier for textual information content, but we need further solutions to process content in an efficient and functional way. For embedded markup provides a data structure, but it does not beget a suitable data model. (Raymond 1992, 1996) It defines a format, not a semantics to process its information content. Whether Semantic Web technologies do provide satisfactory data models for humanities research is still an open question, but the problem yet remains how markup and semantic description techniques can be suitably related, by heeding carefully the basic distinction between data and information content. TEI extensions on the one side and the RDFa syntax on the other, do not seem to provide an adequate approach, failing as they do to keep format and content concerns duly severed. The apparent markup overload they produce carries with it a dubious Ptolemaic flavour.
The relation between embedded markup and semantic description languages is an indetermination relationship. Dubin and Birnbaum (2004) fully recognise its very nature: ‘the same markup can convey different meanings in different contexts,’ and ‘markup can communicate the same meaning in different ways using very different syntax.’ It is, on both sides, a one-to-many relation. If you fix the syntax, the semantics may vary in various contexts, and vice versa, if you fix the semantics, you can use a different syntax to express the same content. Contrary to the tenets of hard artificial intelligence – ‘if you take care of the syntax, the semantics will take care of itself’ (Haugeland 1985: 106) – and of current analytic philosophy of language – ‘to give the logical form of a sentence’ is to ‘bring it within the scope of a semantic theory’ (Davidson 1980: 144) – there is no one-to-one correspondence between the logical form of a phrase and the structure of its semantic content. We should not take for granted that by processing a string of characters representing a text, we process its information content, for we can, and often do, process a string without processing the content. And far from being a drawback, this circumstance is actually an advantage, for by dealing with indetermination we can effectively chart variation. 
Both the expression and the content (Hjelmslev 1961) of the text are open to variation.  Dealing with textual variants is the task of textual criticism, just as dealing with interpretative variants is that of the literary critic. But we are not at loss in tackling these problems with computational means. We can exploit the ambivalent status of markup to represent the dynamics of variation. (Buzzetti 2009) As a diacritical mark, the markup can be construed either as belonging to the text or as providing an external description of its structure. We may therefore attribute to the markup both a descriptive and a performative function. (Renear 2000) Assumed in its performative capacity, the markup can be seen as an instruction, or as a rule, to determine the semantic structure of the text, whereas taken declaratively it can be equated to a variant of the string of characters that constitutes the text. Referring to a stand-off metadata representation of the textual information content, or to a stand-off markup of sorts with semantic import, we can all the same assume their structural marks in both acceptations, declarative and performative, and get an overall dynamic model of textual and interpretative variation, as shown in Figure 1:
 
Figure 1
In this diagram, ei represents a specific element or construct of the expression of the text, conceived of as the set of all tokens that compose it, or E = { e1 , e2 , … , en }. In its performative capacity that element assumes a different logical status, and can be construed as a function f ( ei ) = ci mapping into the set of all tokens of a given content representation C = { c1 , c2 , … , cn }, whose specific elements ci act in a similar way as a functionf ( ci ) = ei mapping into the set E of all the elements of the expression of the text.
Both kinds of variants, textual and interpretative, can be collectively represented, as a kind of ‘logical sum’ (Thaller 1993: 64), by means of an MVD (Multi-Version Document) graph, as shown by Schmidt and Colomb (2009). Each path of an MVD graph – a directed graph with a start-node and an end-node – represents a different version of the text. A totally isomorphic graph can be obtained also for interpretative variants. In the case of a Topic Maps representation of textual content, an MVD graph was obtained by collating textualized XTM representations of different maps referring to the same text (Isolani et al. 2009). 
A comprehensive representation of this kind, of both textual and interpretative variants through MVD graphs, aims at finding efficient ways to determine which paths of the one graph, or which versions of the text, are compatible with specific paths of the other, or with different interpretations of its information content. Both graphs can be used to process the information they represent: the textual variants graph in order to visualise and display different views and versions of the text of a digital edition; the interpretative variants graph in order to process its information content. Promising and different approaches to that end have been proposed by Schmidt (forthcoming), in the context of the HRIT (Humanities Resources, Infrastructure and Tools) project, and by Thaller (2009), through the development of the XCL (eXtensible Characterisation Language) language. The two methods can offer different implementations of the model here described for specific tasks of the editorial practice, and the pursuit of interoperability between them sets the goal for further development and research.
references
Bauman, S. (2011). Interchange vs. Interoperability. In Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2011. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies, vol. 7, doi:10.4242/BalisageVol7.Bauman01 (accessed 13 March 2012).
Buzzetti, D. (2009). Digital Editions and Text Processing. In M. Deegan and K. Sutherland (eds.), Text Editing, Print, and the Digital World. Aldershot: Ashgate, pp. 45-62.
Davidson, D. (1980). Essays on actions and events. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Dubin, D., and D. Birnbaum (2004). Interpretation Beyond Markup. In B. T. Usdin (ed.), Proceedings of the Extreme Markup Languages 2004 Conference, Montreal, Quebec, August 2-6, 2004http://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/11838/EML2004Dubin01.pdf (accessed 13 March 2012).
Haugeland, J. (1985). Artificial Intelligence: The very idea. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Hjelmslev, L. (1961). Prolegomena to a Theory of Language. Madison, WI: U of Wisconsin P.
Isolani, A., C. Lorito, Ch. Genovesi, D. Marotta, M. Matteoli, and C. Tozzini (2009). Topic Maps and MVD for the Representations of Interpretative Variants. In Digital Humanities 2009: Conference Abstracts, Proceedings of the 2nd ALLC, ACH and SDH-SEMI Joint International Conference (University of Maryland, College Park, June 22-25, 2009), College Park, The Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities (MITH), pp. 8-11.
Raymond, D. R., et al. (1992). Markup Reconsidered. Paper presented at the First International Workshop on Principles of Document Processing, Washington, DC, 22-23 October 1992.http://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/~fwtompa/.papers/markup.ps (accessed 13 March 2012).
Raymond, D. R., F. Tompa, and D. Wood (1996). From Data Representation to Data Model: Meta-Semantic Issues in the Evolution of SGML. Computer Standards and Interfaces 18(1): 25-36.
Renear, A. (2000). The descriptive/procedural distinction is flawed. Markup Languages: Theory & Practice2(4): 411-20.
Renear, A., M. Sperberg-McQueen, and C. Huitfeldt (2002). Towards a semantics for XML markup. In R. Furuta, J. I. Maletic, and E. Munson (eds.), DocEng’02: Proceedings of the 2002 ACM Symposium on Document Engineering, McLean, VA, November 8-9, 2002, New York, NY: ACM Press, pp. 119-126.
Schmidt, D., and R. Colomb (2009). A Data Structure for Representing Multi-version Texts Online.International Journal of Human Computer Studies 67(6): 497-514.
Thaller, M. (1993). Historical Information Science: Is There Such a Thing? New Comments on an Old Idea. In T. Orlandi (ed), Discipline umanistiche e informatica: Il problema dell’integrazione. Roma: Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, pp. 51-86.
Thaller, M., ed. (2009). The eXtensible Characterisation Language: XCL. Hamburg: Kovač.
Unsworth, J. (2003). Tool-Time, or ‘Haven’t We Been Here Already?’ Ten Years in Humanities Computing. Paper presented at the conference Transforming Disciplines: The Humanities and Computer Science, Washington, DC, 17-18 Jnuary 2003. http://people.lis.illinois.edu/~unsworth/carnegie-ninch.03.html (accessed 13 March 2012).
Unsworth, J. (2004). Forms of Attention: Digital humanities beyond representation. Paper delivered at The Face of Text: Computer-Assisted Text Analysis in the Humanities, the third conference of the Canadian Symposium on Text Analysis (CaSTA), McMaster University, November 19-21, 2004.http://people.lis.illinois.edu/~unsworth/FOA/ (accessed 13 March 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1418","13","Bridging Multicultural Communities: Developing a Framework for a European Network of Museum, Libraries and Public Cultural Institutions","1","Global migration is here to stay
Knut Kjeldstadli1
introduction
Traditionally, museums and libraries developed as historically separate institutional contexts and distinct cultures. Trant2 noted how philosophies and policies of museums and libraries reflect their different approach to interpreting, collecting, preserving and providing access to objects in their care. Bishoff remarked that ‘libraries believe in resource sharing, are committed to freely available information, value the preservation of collections, and focus on access to information. Museums believe in preservation of collections, often create their identity based on these collections, are committed to community education, and frequently operate in a strongly competitive environment’3. In the last century policy makers have attempted to group and bridge these communities of practices through ‘their similar role as part of the informal educational structures supported by the public, and their common governance’4. Such commonalities are increasingly important to the sustainability of museums, libraries (and archives) in a globalised world. However a theoretical framework to scope and address such collaborative models still needs to be developed. This is particularly urgent in the specific context of our transnational and multicultural societies.
One of the goals of the recently funded EU FP7 SSH MeLa Project5 is to fill this gap by investigating, identifying and proposing innovative coordination strategies between public European museums, libraries and public cultural institutions, for the benefit of multicultural audiences and towards European integration and European cultural commons 6. The idea of laying the foundations for a European network of museums, libraries and public cultural institutions that address globalisation, migration and new media is particularly fitting for the configuration of migrant communities, which ‘in the receiving countries can best be described from a structural perspective as a network of organizations.’7
collaborations between museums and libraries: potentialities and challenges
In the first phase of our MeLa research, we have been focusing in particular on collaborations between museums and libraries. Some studies in this area8 have highlighted the benefits of joining forces and resources in a variety of areas, including but not limited to:
•        library activities and programmes related to museum exhibits
•        travelling museums exhibitions hosted in libraries
•        links established between web-based resources in library and museum websites
•        library programs including passes to museums
•        collaborative digitisation and digital library projects enhancing access to resources in both museums and libraries
•        collaborative initiatives to bring in authors as speakers
•        museums and libraries partnerships with cultural and education organisational for public programmes.
The overall opportunities for improving collections, increasing the number of users, leveraging experiences and funding also represent some of the main benefit of such partnerships. These studies also often included archives as a third player in museums and archives collaborations. The aims and objectives of collaboration projects between museums and libraries that have been investigated in previous studies, include: educational focus (e.g. learning about past civilisations, encourage families learning together etc.), cross-over visits between institutions, promoting resources to various target groups, improving coordination between institutions, demonstrating joint working or training activities, providing models for working practices.
The International Federation of Libraries Association (IFLA) remarked that museums and libraries would indeed be natural partners for collaboration and cooperation9. In this context, a study in the United States observed that ‘collaboration may enable […] museums and libraries to strengthen their public standing, improve their services and programs, and better meet the needs of a larger and more diverse cross-sections of learners.’10The nature of this collaboration can be multifaceted and varied, and the terminology lends itself to diverse meanings, in particular regarding the degree of intensity of the collaboration and its transformational capacity. Gibson, Morris and Cleeve noted that ‘“Library-museum collaboration” can be defined as the cooperation between a library and a museum, possibly involving other partners. […].’11 Here, the authors use the term ‘collaboration’ with the meaning indicated by Diamant-Cohen and Sherman, as a ‘more involved cooperation where there is a more in-depth sharing and pooling of resources.’12
Museums and libraries seem well positioned to synergically support and enable multicultural identities of migration societies. 13 As a result, museums are ideally placed to interpret and preserve culturally diverse heritage.14 As centres for culture, information hubs, learning and gathering, libraries seemingly represent service providers for culturally diverse communities, enabling inter-cultural dialogue and education while supporting and promoting diversity.15
Nevertheless, the fruitful convergence between museums and libraries faces a number of challenges. Some authors16 have highlighted the risks and obstacles encountered on the road to establish a successful collaboration between museums and libraries with respect to their different missions, cultures, organisational and funding structures. In terms of change management, Zorich, Waibel, Erway suggested that it is important to differentiate between coordination and cooperation, and pointing to the organisational changes required for a deep collaboration between libraries, museums and archives17. In particular for collaboration on digital libraries, Bishoff18 and Innocenti et alii19 remarked that interoperability is critical to the digital library community. Innocenti et alii further stressed the diverse organisational, semantic and technical interoperability levels that need to be addressed in a digital library, using the classification of the European Interoperability Framework for eGovernment services.20 Achieving effective organisational interoperability between digital libraries can imply a radical change in the way that organisations work, manage and share their digital assets.
towards a european network of museum, libraries and public cultural institutions
In the MeLA project, the ongoing research programme on a Network of Museums, Libraries and Public Cultural Institutions is articulated through a series of enquiries that intend to:
•        Investigate the relations between transnational museums, library and public cultural institutions collaborations and the society of migration.
•        Identify and describe how transnational museums, library and public cultural institutions collaborating together present themselves to various public communities.
•        Understand and evaluate the effects (benefits and disadvantages) of transnational museums, library and public cultural institutions collaborations.
The results of this research will be made available in three books (a source book, proceedings of an international conference21 and a reference book), including a coordination framework and policy briefs for the museum Community, policy makers and for European Commission. It is our wish that this coordination framework will contribute to new collaborative models of museums and libraries, testing the possibility of a European ‘imagined community’22 and the idea of European cultural commons, encompassing both cultural and scientific expressions and artefacts.
At the DH 2012 Conference we are presenting an overview of the desk and field investigation on selected case studies, organised in four thematic clusters: Collaboration models, European cultural and scientific heritage, Migration and mobility, Narratives for Europe. Each cluster includes case studies articulated in primary, secondary and tertiary level, with additional information from an online survey on museum collaborations with libraries and public cultural institutions.23 Areas of collaboration explored in our research include the core activities of archiving, preserving and framing memory and the associated categories of hierarchies of cultural value and historical identity. The geographic coverage comprises trans-national and trans-local connections of museums and libraries, to allow more flexible and heterogenic connections to be considered, both within Europe – where for example public libraries are at the forefront of leading initiatives addressing multicultural diversity – and outside its assumed confines (for example the Mediterranean), also in terms of European Union legitimacy and identity.24 We will provide an overview of differences and current tension points between museums, libraries and public cultural institutions investigated in our research, and will discusssome initial suggestions on how they may overcome the challenges built into their infrastructure25 and manage the change conveyed by collaborations and use of ICTs.
conclusions and outlook
Within the MeLa project, we are investigating innovative coordination strategies of transnational European museums, libraries and public cultural institutions, for the benefit of multicultural audiences and towards European integration and European cultural commons. Our research aims to provide evidence of collaborations and networks that can positively impact on the visibility of institutions involved, the improvement of the diffusion and accessibility of the collections, the effectiveness of an integrated organisational structure at European level and the coherence with European policies towards a common cultural and scientific heritage definition. We expect that the results of our investigation, which will continue through 2013, will contribute to the advancement of knowledge in this area, to provide museums, libraries and public cultural institutions with collaboration model framework, and to shaping European policies on multiculturalism and migration.
Funding
This work was supported by the European Commission within the MeLA – European Museums and Libraries in/of the Age of Migration, EU co-funded FP7 Collaborative Project, SSH-2010-5.2-2, 2011-2014 [Grant Agreement No. 266757].
notes
1.Kjeldstadli, Knut (2010). Concepts of nation – and tasks of libraries, Keynote speech at IFLA Section Library Services to Multicultural Populations, IFLA Satellite Meeting, Copenhagen, 17-18 August 2010.
2.Trant, Jennife (2004). Emerging convergence? Thoughts on museums, archives, libraries, and professional training. Museum Management and Curatorship 24(4): 369-387.
3.Bishoff, Liz (2004). The Collaboration Imperative. Library Journal, 2004. Accessed August 16, 2011.http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA371048.html.
4.Trant, Jennifer (2004). Emerging convergence? Thoughts on museums, archives, libraries, and professional training. Museum Management and Curatorship 24(4): 369.
5.MeLa – European Museums in an Age of Migrations, http://www.mela-project.eu/. The work presented in this paper is being conducted within ‘MeLa Research Field 03 – Network of Museums, Libraries and Public Cultural Institutions.’ http://wp3.mela-project.eu/. Last accessed September 23, 2011. MeLa Research Field 03 is led by History of Art at the University of Glasgow (GU); the research team include staff members from Politecnico di Milano, Copenhagen Institute of Interaction Design, Museu d’Art Contemporani de Barcelona, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle/Musée de l’Homme, The Royal College of Art, L’Orientale University of Naples.
6.The definition ‘European Cultural Commons’ has been recently used in relation to digital content within the European Cultural Commons conference (europeanculturalcommons.eventbrite.com, videos athttp://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLE244178708CBB62C) organised by Europeana on October 12, 2011. Europeana, an initiative endorsed by the European Commission, is a single access point to millions of books, paintings, films, museum objects and archival records that have been digitised throughout Europe. In this paper we are using the definition in a wider and more general meaning.
7.Faist, Thomas (1998). Transnational social spaces out of the international migration: evolution, significance and future prospects. Archives Européennes de Sociologie 39: 213-247.
8.See for example: Hannah Gibson, Anne Morris and Marigold Cleeve (2007). Links between Libraries and Museums: Investigating Museum-Library Collaboration in England and the USA. Libri (57): 53-64. Accessed August 16, 2011 www.librijournal.org/pdf/2007-2pp53-64.pdf; Diane M. Zorich, Gunter Waibel, and Ricky Erway. Beyond the Silos of the LAMs: Collaboration Among Libraries, Archives and Museums. Report produced for OCLC Research, 2008. Accessed August 16, 2011 www.oclc.org/research/publications/library/2008/2008-05.pdf; Alexandra Yarrow, Barbara Clubb, and Jennifer-Lynn Draper. Public Libraries, Archives and Museums: Trends in Collaboration and Cooperation. The Hague: IFLA Headquarters, 2008. Accessed August 16, 2011www.ifla.org/VII/s8/pub/Profrep108.pdf . The WP3 team is preparing a selected bibliography for the purpose of the workpackage activities.
9.Yarrow, Alexandra, Barbara Clubb and Jennifer-Lynn Draper. Public Libraries, Archives and Museums: Trends in Collaboration and Cooperation. IFLA Professional Reports N. 108. The Hague: IFLA Headquarters, 2008. Accessed August 16, 2011 www.ifla.org/VII/s8/pub/Profrep108.pdf.
10.Charting the Landscape, Mapping New Paths: Museums, Libraries, and K-12 Learning. Institute of Museum and Library Services. Aug. 2004. Accessed August 16, 2011http://www.imls.gov/assets/1/AssetManager/Charting_the_Landscape.pdf
11.Gibson, Hannah, Anne Morris and Marigold Cleeve. Links between Libraries and Museums: Investigating Museum-Library Collaboration in England and the USA. Libri (57) 2007: 53-64. Accessed August 16, 2011, p.53www.librijournal.org/pdf/2007-2pp53-64.pdf.
12.Diamant-Cohen, Betsy, and Dina Sherman. Hand in Hand: Museums and Libraries Working Together. Public Libraries 42.2 (Mar./Apr. 2003): 102-105.
13.The definition of culture I am looking at can be found in the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity: ‘culture should be regarded as the set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of society or a social group, and that it encompasses, in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs’ (UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity. UNESCO: 2002. Last accessed 18 August 2011,http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001271/127160m.pdf). In this paper the terms “multicultural”, “multiculturalism” and “cultural diversity” are considered synonymous.
14. See for example Barker, Emma, ed. Contemporary Cultures of Display. London: Yale UP 1999; Bennett, Tony, The Birth of the Museum. History, Theory, Politics. London & New York NY: Routledge, 2009. Gonzalez, Jennifer A. Subject to Display. Reframing Race in Contemporary Installation Art. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2008. Graham, Beryl, and Sarah Cook Rethinking Curating. Art after New Media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2010. Karp, Ivan, et al., eds. Museum Frictions. Public Cultures/ Global Transformations. Durham, NC, London: Duke UP 2006. Knell, Simon J., et al., eds. Museum Revolutions. How Museums Change and Are Changed. London, New York NY: Routledge 2007.
15.IFLA – Library Services to Multicultural Populations Section (ed.) The IFLA Multicultural Library Manifesto: The Multicultural Library. 2006. Accessed 18 August 2011:http://www.ifla.org/VII/s32/pub/MulticulturalLibraryManifesto.pdf.
16.Gibson, Hannah, Anne Morris and Marigold Cleeve. Links between Libraries and Museums: Investigating Museum-Library Collaboration in England and the USA. Libri (57) 2007: 53-64. Accessed August 16, 2011www.librijournal.org/pdf/2007-2pp53-64.pdf; Walker, Christopher, and Carlos A. Manjarrez. Partnerships for Free Choice Learning: Public Libraries, Museums and Public Broadcasters Working Together. The Urban Institute and Urban Libraries Council. 2004. 22 May 2008http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/410661_partnerships_for_free_choice_learning.pdf.
17.Zorich, Diane M., Waibel Gunter and Ricky Erway. “Beyond the Silos of the LAMs: Collaboration Among Libraries, Archives and Museums”. Report produced for OCLC Research, 2008. Accessed August 16, 2011, p. 5,www.oclc.org/research/publications/library/2008/2008-05.pdf.
18.Bishoff, Liz. “The Collaboration Imperative”. Library Journal, 2004. Accessed August 16, 2011http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA371048.html
19.Innocenti, Perla, MacKenzie Smith, Kevin Ashley, Seamus Ross, Antonella De Robbio, Hans Pfeiffenberger, John Faundeen. Towards a Holistic Approach to Policy Interoperabilityin Digital Libraries and Digital Repositories. The International Journal of Digital Curation 6 (2011): 1, accessed August 16, 2011,http://ijdc.net/index.php/ijdc/article/view/167/235
20.IDABC. “ European interoperability framework for pan-European eGovernment services”. Luxembourg: European Commission 2004.
21.More information on the forthcoming International Conference for MeLa Research Field 03 are available at http://wp3.mela-project.eu/wp/pages/research-field-03-international-conference.
22.For the concept of ‘imagined communities’ see the seminal book by Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities. Reflections on the Origina and Spread of Nationalism, Verso, London and New York, new edition 2006.
23.Research Field 03: Online Survey, http://wp3.mela-project.eu/wp/pages/research-field-03-online-survey. Accessed March 12, 2012.
24.See for example Fuchs, Dieter and Andrea Schlenker. “European Identity and the Legitimacy of the EU“. EU FP6 Consent Network of Excellence, 2006. Last accessed September 23, 2011. www.eu-consent.net/click_download.asp?contentid=1258.
25.Karp, Ivan, et al., eds. Museum Frictions. Public Cultures/ Global Transformations. Durham NC & London: Duke University Press, 2006.","txt","2","",""
"1419","13","Bringing Modern Spell Checking Approaches to Ancient Texts - Automated Suggestions for Incomplete Words","1","One of the most challenging tasks for scholars working with ancient data is the completion of texts that have only been partially preserved. In the current situation, a great deal of scholarly experience and the use of dictionaries such as Liddell Scott Jones or Lewis & Short are necessary to perform the task of text reconstruction manually. Even though text search tools such as Diogenes or papyri.info exist, scholars still have to work through the results manually and require a very good knowledge about the text, its cultural background and its documentary form in order to be able to decide about the correct reconstitution of the damaged text. Therefore, a ‘selective and relatively small scope’ especially of younger scholars restricts the set of potential candidates.
To overcome these barriers an unsupervised approach from the field of machine learning is introduced to form a word prediction system based on several classes of spell checking (Kukich 1992; Schierle et al. 2008) and text mining algorithms.
Both spell checking and text completion can be separated into two main tasks: identification of incorrect or incomplete words and the generation of suggestions. While the identification of misspelled words can be a very difficult task when working with modern texts (such as with spell checking support provided by modern word processing suites), existing sigla of the Leiden Conventions (Bodard et al. 2009) can be used when dealing with ancient texts. The second step of the process is then to generate likely suggestions using methods such as:
•        Semantic approaches: Sentence co-occurrences (Buechler 2008) and document co-occurrences (Heyer et al. 2008) are used to identify candidates based on different contextual windows (Bordag 2008). The basic idea behind this type of classification is motivated by Firth’s famous statement about a word’s meaning: ‘You shall know a word by the company it keeps’ (Firth 1957).
•        Syntactical approaches: Word bi- and trigrams (Heyer et al. 2008): With this method, the immediate neighbourhood of a word is observed and likely candidates are identified based on a selected reference corpus.
•        Morphological dependencies: Similar to the Latin and Greek Treebank of Perseus (Crane et al. 2009) morphological dependencies are used to suggest words by using an expected morphological code.
•        String based approaches: The most common class of algorithms for modern texts compares words by their word similarity on letter level. Different approaches like the Levenshtein distance (Ottmann & Widmayer 1996) or faster approaches such as FastSS (Bocek et al. 2007) are used to compare a fragmentary word with all candidates.
•        Named Entity lists: With a focus on deletions of inscriptions, existing and extended named entity lists for person names, cities or demonyms like the Lexicon of Greek Personal Names (Fraser et al. 1987-2008) or the Wörterlisten of Dieter Hagedorn are used to look for names of persons and places and give them a higher probability.
•        Word properties: When focusing on Stoichedon texts, word length is a relevant property. For this reason the candidate list can be restricted by both exact length as well as by min-max thresholds.
From a global perspective, every found word in a vocabulary is a potential suggestion candidate. To reduce this list of anywhere from several hundred thousand to several million words to a more reasonable size, the results of all selected algorithms are combined to a normalised score between 0 and 1 (Kruse 2009). In the last working step of this process, the candidates list (ordered by score in descending order) is then provided to the user.
Based on the aforementioned approaches the full paper will explain three different completion strategies:
1.        Using only known information about a word (word length and some preserved characters),
2.        using only contextual information such as word bigrams, co-occurrences, and classification data,
3.        using all available information (combination of strategy a) and b)) of a word.
The main objective of this step by step explanation is to highlight both strengths and weaknesses of such a completely automatized system.
A video demonstration of the current implementation can be viewed at
http://www.e-humanities.net/lectures/SS2011/2011-DigClassSeminar/THATCamp_DevChallenge_BuechlerEckart_TextCompletion.ogv
references
Bocek, T., E. Hunt, and B. Stiller (2007). Fast Similarity Search in Large Dictionaries. Department of Informatics, University of Zurich.
Bodard, G., et al. (2009). EpiDoc Cheat Sheet: Krummrey-Panciera sigla & EpiDoc tags, 2006-2009. Version 1085, last accessed: Nov., 10th, 2009 [date] URL: http://epidoc.svn.sourceforge.net/viewvc/epidoc/trunk/guidelines/msword/cheatsheet.doc.
Bordag, St. (2008). A Comparison of Co-occurrence and Similarity Measures as Simulations of Context, 2008. InCICLing, Vol. 4919. Berlin:  Springer (Lecture Notes in Computer Science).
Büchler, M. (2008). Medusa. Performante Textstatistiken auf großen Textmengen: Kookkurrenzanalyse in Theorie und Anwendung. Saarbrücken: Vdm Verlag Dr. Müller.
Crane, G., and D. Bamman (2009). The Latin and Ancient Greek Dependency Treebanks, 2009. URL: http://nlp.perseus.tufts.edu/syntax/treebank/ last accessed: Nov., 10th 2009.
Firth, J. R., A Synopsis of Linguistic Theory. Oxford.
Fraser, P. M. E. Matthews, and M. J. Osborne (1987-2008). A Lexicon of Greek Personal Names. (In Greek and English),  Vol. 1-5, Suppl. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Heyer, G., U. Quasthoff, and T. Wittig (2008). Text Mining: Wissensrohstoff Text – Konzepte, Algorithmen, Ergebnisse. 2nd edition. Herdecke: W3L-Verlag.
Kruse, S. (2009). Textvervollständigung auf antiken Texten. University of Leipzig, Bachelor Thesis. pp 48-49. URL http://www.eaqua.net/~skruse/bachelor, last accessed on Nov., 10th 2009.
Kukich, K. (1992). Technique for Automatically Correcting Words in Text. ACM Computing Surveys 24(4).
Ottmann,T., and P. Widmayer (1996). Algorithmen und Datenstrukturen. Heidelberg: Spektrum Verlag.
Schierle, M., S. Schulz, and M. Ackermann (2008). From Spelling Correction to Text Cleaning – Using Context Information. In Data Analysis, Machine Learning and Applications: Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the Gesellschaft für Klassifikation e.V.","txt","2","",""
"1420","13","Cataloguing linguistic diversity: Glottolog/Langdoc","1","overview
Glottolog/Langdoc is a comprehensive database linking 180k bibliographical references to 21k languoids (language families, languages, dialects). It provides extensive query possibilities for human users and subscribes to the principles of Linked Open Data (Heath & Bizer 2011) as far as machine users are concerned.
The aim of Glottolog/Langdoc to provide near-total bibliographical coverage of descriptive resources to the world’s languages. Every reference is treated as a resource, as is every ‘languoid’ (Good & Hendryx-Parker 2006). References are linked to the languoids which they describe, and languoids are linked to the references described by them.
Computational treatment and modeling of language resources has so far mainly concentrated on major languages with a research tradition in NLP and some commercial viability. When we leave the industrialized countries, languages resources become very scarce. Treebanks or annotated corpora seem like fanciful ideas when the sum total of resources treating a language amounts to a description of its verbs and a treatise of its phonology from a local university, which is for instance the case of the Niger-Congo language Aduge. Before one can start thinking about developing a WordNet or similar larger resources for these languages, one must take stock of the resources which exist, however arcane they might be. This is one of the aims of the Glottolog/Langdoc project. The resources are tagged for resource type (grammar, word list, text collection etc), macroarea (roughly, continents), and language.
use cases
Four different user groups can be distinguished: language diversity researchers, statisticians, Semantic Web engineers, and linguistic empiricists.
Linguistic diversity researchers
The first groups covers linguists interested in the world-wide distribution of linguistic diversity (cf. Evans & Levinson 2009), for the largest part typologist. These researchers are for instance interested in the distribution of subject, verb, and object in the languages of the world (SVO, SOV, VSO, OVS, OSV, VOS), or in the size of the phonemic inventory. The emerging patterns can be related to human cognition on the one hand hand (SOV and SVO have distinct processing advantages Hawkins 2004) and known migration patterns of humans as they settled the global land mass (Atkinson 2011). In order to acquire the necessary data points, description of various languages have to be perused, respecting genetic and geographical. This means that substantial bibliographical information has to be collected. Glottolog/Langdoc aims at providing near-total coverage of literature of the world’s lesser known languages, including grey literature. Note that Glottolog/Langdoc only provides the bibliographical records, not the references themselves. All bibliographical information can be downloaded as txt, html or bibtex. Zotero integration is also provided. The provision of references is complemented by links to sites where a copy could be obtained (WorldCat, GoogleBooks, Open Library).
Statistical analysis
The links established between 180k references and 21k languoids allow for statistical analyses of the following kinds:
•        What is the descriptive coverage of a particular language?
•        What is the descriptive coverage of a particular language family or area (Hammarström & Nordhoff, in press)?
         Austronesian        non-Austronesian        Total
grammar        93 (17.82)%        114 (13.82%)        207 (15.37%)
grammar sketch        104 (19.92%)        148 (17.94%)        252 (18.71%)
phonology or sim.        55 (10.54%)        54 (6.55%)        109 (8.09%)
wordlist or less        270 (51.72%)        509 (61.70%)        779 (57.83%)
•        How many languages have so far been described  (Hammarström & Nordhoff 2011)?
•        Status of the least described language families in the world (Hammarström 2010)?
•        In which geographic area is the research focus on phonology, in which area is syntax deemed more interesting?
Semantic Web engineers
Next to XHTML, Glottolog/Langdoc data are also available as RDF, making use of a number of established ontologies such as rdfs, skos,1 gold,2 lexvo,3, wgs84,4 bibo,5 and Dublin core.6 This means that Glottolog/Langdoc data can be integrated into other projects making use of the aforementioned ontologies.
Empiricists
There are a number of researchers who are at unease with the current way how languages are defined and language codes assigned by the current registrar, SIL international. Some spurious languages do get codes, while some existing languages do not get a code. Some language families see a multiplication of their members (e.g. there are over 40 Quechuan languages) while this ‘splitter’ approach is not observed in other areas of the world (Nordhoff & Hammarström 2011). SIL draws on the Ethnologue7 for the set of living languages it provides codes for. The Ethnologue lists about 7000 languages, but does not always disclose the information the inclusion is based on. As a result, there are a number of ‘languages’ which do not seem to relate to anything in the real world, dangling pointers so to speak. They have an Ethnologue entry, a name, a code assigned by SIL, but no referent. Glottolog has the stated goal to give a reference for every language it includes. The project distinguishes ‘established languoids’, for which scientific documentation is available, for ‘provisional languoids’, for which we do not have dedicated descriptions. The long term goal is to get rid of ‘provisional languoids’ by either finding a description, making them ‘established’, or by discarding them. This will allow linguists to always be able to ascertain on what grounds a given language is argued to exist.
technologies
Glottolog/Langdoc draws on over 20 input bibliographies, which are enriched with information about document type and languages covered using machine-learning techniques (Hammarström, 2011). The project uses the pylons web framework. Glottolog/Langdoc supports content-negotiation (XHTML and RDF) and is part of the Linguistic Linked Open Data Cloud (Chiarcos et al. 2012).
comparison
There are a number of related projects with slightly different foci. The WEBALL project for instance8 lists genetic, bibliographic, and geographic information about the languages of Africa, but not beyond. We incorporate a recent version of the WEBALL database in Glottolog/Langdoc. OLAC9 aggregates references to linguistic resources, but has a slightly different data model. Furthermore, OLAC uses federated data aggregated via OAI-MHP while Glottolog/Langdoc uses a static repository. OLAC does include genetic information, but this seems to be ad hoc. For instance, OLAC includes Austronesian and Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, but not the lower grouping Oceanic (still over 1000 languages). Furthermore, the coverage of OLAC and Glottolog/Langdoc is different. OLAC has more information on major languages, an area Glottolog/Langdoc disregards. Many of the higher numbers from OLAC come in fact from a single documentation project hosted at the MPI for Psycholinguistics in Nijmegen. These high numbers have technical reasons (every recording of the MPI archives is counted as one resource) and do not translate to an equally high number of publications. The following table gives the top languages as far as number of references are concerned for OLAC and Glottolog/Langdoc. A dagger † signals languages which profit from overcounting of resources from corpus1.mpi.nl.
OLAC        Glottolog/Langdoc
English (9044)        Swahili (1826)
German (5770)        Hausa (1542)
Dutch (5239)        Nama (Namibia) (1270)
Japanese (4317)        Afrikaans (1155)
Spanish (3331)        Central Yupik (1129)
Turkish (3091)        Standard French (1059)
French (1964)        Zulu (1048)
Yuracare (1576) †        South Levantine Arabic (990)
Oxchuc Tzeltal (1390) †        Tlingit (987)
Central Yupik (1312)        Gwich’in (905)
Turkish Sign Language (1157) †        Yoruba (900)
Yele (1152) †        Kabyle (879)
Aleut (1135)        Aleut (740)
Beaver (1080) †        Thai (730)
Dutch Sign Language (1063) †        Koyukon (728)
Tlingit (1028)        Xhosa (728)
North Alaskan Inupiatun (1024)        Akan (709)
Gwich’in (955)        Pulaar (703)
Czech (943)        Ewe (693)
Polish (892)        Tswana (690)
Multitree’s10 focus is on gathering all genetic classifications of the world’s languages, not so much on references. Glottolog uses Multitree information for lower levels, but an own, more conservative, classification for higher levels. Multitree has 141 families while the Glottolog main tree has 429 (including isolates).
The Ethnologue11 finally lists languages and references, but does not subscribe to the document-centric approach Glottolog/Langdoc employs. These projects cover similar ground, but with different specializations. As an example, Ethnologue lists 45 references for Hausa, while Glottolog lists 1826; The figures for Thai are 37 and 730, respectively. Ethnologue has a similar number of languages families as Multitree (132), which is less ‘splitting’ than Glottolog. The Ethnologue lists population figures and language development; this information is not found in Glottolog.
The current technical limitations mean that there is a substantial duplication of work. It is hoped that the use of RDF and related technologies will lead to a decrease of this duplication of work. There is for instance no need that all these projects keep their own database mapping geographical coordinates and countries to languages, neither is there a need to have several databases of language names. Publication of these resources according to the principles of Linked Data (Chiarcos et al. 2012) will mean that the data can easily be repurposed and integrated into other applications.
Glottolog/Langdoc provides URIs for references and languoids so that other resources can easily link to or retrieve from Glottolog/Langdoc. While Glottolog/Langdoc takes a critical stance towards ISO 639-3, all relevant information can nevertheless also be accessed via the ISO 639-3 code.
references
Atkinson, Q. D. (2011). Phonemic Diversity Supports a Serial Founder Effect Model of Language Expansion from Africa. Science 332: 346.
Chiarcos, C., S. Nordhoff, and S. Hellmann, eds. (2012). Linked Data in Linguistics. Representing Language Data and Metadata. Springer. Companion volume of the Workshop on Linked Data in Linguistics 2012 (LDL-2012), held in conjunction with the 34th Annual Meeting of the German Linguistic Society (DGfS), March 2012, Frankfurt/M., Germany.
Evans, N., and S. Levinson (2009). The myth of language universals: Language diversity and its importance for cognitive science. Cognitive and Brain Sciences 32: 429-492.
Fabre, A. (2005). Diccionario Etnolingüístico y guía Bibliográfica de los Pueblos Indigenas Sudamericanos. Book in Progress at http://butler.cc.tut.fi/ fabre/BookInternetVersio/Alkusivu.html accessed May 2005.
Good, J., and C. Hendryx-Parker (2006). Modeling Contested Categorization in Linguistic Databases.Proceedings of the EMELD 2006 Workshop on Digital Language Documentation: Tools and Standards: The State of the Art. Lansing, Michigan. June 20-22, 2006http://www.linguistlist.org/emeld/workshop/2006/papers/GoodHendryxParker-Modelling.pdf.
Hammarström, H. (2010). The Status of the Least Documented Language Families in the World. Language Documentation & Conservation 4: 177-212.
Hammarström, H. (2011). Automatic Annotation of Bibliographical References for Descriptive Language Materials. In P. Forner, J. Gonzalo, J. Kekäläinen, M. Lalmas, and M. de Rijke (eds.), Proceedings of the CLEF 2011 Conference on Multilingual and Multimodal Information Access Evaluation, LNCS, vol. 6941. Berlin: Springer, pp. 62-73.
Hammarström, H., and S. Nordhoff (2011). How many languages have so far been described? Paper presented at NWO Endangered Languages Programme Conference, Leiden, April 2011.
Hammarström, H., and S. Nordhoff (in press). Achievements and Challenges in the Description of the Languages of Melanesia. In M. Klamer and N. Evans (eds.), Melanesian languages on the Edge of Asia, Special Issue of Language Documentation & Conservation.
Hawkins, J. A. (2004). Efficiency and Complexity in Grammars. Oxford UP.
Heath, T., and C. Bizer (2011). Linked Data – Evolving the Web into a Global Data Space. San Rafael: Morgan & Claypool.
Maho, J. (2001). African Languages Country by Country: A Reference Guide, Göteborg Africana Informal Series, vol. 1. Department of Oriental and African Languages, Göteborg University, 5th ed.
Nordhoff, S., and H. Hammarström (2011). Glottolog/Langdoc: Defining dialects, languages, and language families as collections of resources. In Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Linked Science 2011,CEUR Workshop Proceedings, vol. 783CEUR Workshop Proceedings, vol. 783. URLhttp://iswc2011.semanticweb.org/fileadmin/iswc/Papers/Workshops/LISC/nordhoff.pdf.
notes
1.http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/
2.http://linguistics-ontology.org
3.http://lexvo.org
4.http://www.w3.org/2003/01/geo/wgs84_pos
5.http://bibliontology.com/
6.http://dublincore.org/
7.http://www.ethnologue.com
8.http://sumale.vjf.cnrs.fr/Biblio/
9.http://www.language-archives.org/
10.http://multitree.org/
11.http://www.ethnologue.com","txt","2","",""
"1421","13","Catch + Release: Research and Creation of a Digital New Media Exhibition in the Context of a Cultural and Heritage Museum","1","We will present, Catch + Release: Mapping Stories of Geographic and Cultural Transition (2009-2012), a research and creation project funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Council of Canada. It is a case study of a collaborative, interdisciplinary digital new media practice in community engagement and informal learning. It looks at local/global environmental, socio-cultural and historical interplays related to multi-cultural community perspectives, including First Nations, on changes due to the demise of the fishing industry. Historically, fishing was one of the primary reasons for the multi-cultural immigration that helped to foster the settlement, economic development, and social growth on the west coast of Canada.
We will discuss our interactive digital new media exhibition Catch + Release installed in The Gulf of Georgia Cannery Museum National Historic Site, a social history museum in Steveston, British Columbia, a small city on Canada’s Pacific coast. The exhibition proposes to advance an encounter with history as critical inquiry into contemporary life of the region. The researchers’ backgrounds in new media art, new media education, cultural theory, and interactive design, come together to explore how research and creation contributes to informed discourse that engages with the region’s cultural history and social, cultural and ecological present. Our new media exhibition that uses sensor technologies and immersive interactivity to overlay stories from the community together with those of the museum, is intended to foster a sense of belonging and deeper understanding of historical and current circumstances. While our study is localized, these conditions and stories resonate in other coastal communities that once relied on fishing, thus, our project addresses cultural and marine environmental sustainability in many similar contexts.
This project draws on qualitative inquiry informed by practice-based research methodologies in education and visual art and is impacted by the fields of new media art, cultural studies, museum studies and the history of art as a discipline vital to the analysis of how history, including the past and just-past, is mediated through images, objects, and experiences (Benjamin 1968).
Our project at the intersection of socially-engaged interactive new media art and pedagogy, views the museum as an essentially social institution that requires interdisciplinary analysis as an informal site of learning and as space for promoting critical thinking. The Gulf of Georgia Cannery Museum National Historic Site, a museum since the closing of the cannery in 1970 and that still features the intact production line, is an important pedagogical space for school groups, tourists and local visitors, and subsequently a major source of regional identity.
For the Catch + Release exhibition, we designed situation-specific, new media interactive art experiences for contributing diverse perspectives; catching and releasing stories that challenge the seamlessness of those historical narratives typically represented by museum displays of artifacts and information panels. The exhibition is intended to generate polyphony of diverse voices to make viewers feel a part of their regional museum, and exposes them to multiple viewpoints about their (local) relationship to the (global) ecology-making visitors more aware of their relationship to and impact on the local ecology and history. In this way, the project did not seek to create an exhibition in the space, but rather used the space to exhibit the place in which it is situated.
Our presentation will describe the conceptual basis and rationale for the inclusion of the new media artworks that comprise the exhibition. They include: interactive projections of live-stream visualization of data from underwater sensors of Canada’s ocean observatory; clusters of light and sound digital sensor activated interactive sculptures that reference the marine geoscape and communication devices used by fisherman; and a montage of video interviews with people whose stories expose sometimes oppositional views on the fishing industry. The polyphony of multiple and diverse voices argues for a more open-ended and complicated way of dealing with the representation of history. We will discuss how immersive technology can provide unique opportunities for teaching and learning experiences and embodied ways of knowing through a rich multi-sensory environment that engages the viewer with how culture and memory come together in new forms.
Our study is also intended to stimulate interest the historical role of the museum by inviting the community to participate in the creation and complication of historical narratives. Cultural and heritage museums, specifically, have become multi-purpose, spaces where museum professionals strive to expand their programmes and define new communication approaches capable of engaging broader publics (Prior 2008). In this context, recent interactive technologies are seen to offer museums an ability to create a sense of spectacle and excite audiences (Hemsley, Cappellini & Stanke 2005). Increasingly, however, the reification of technologized display raises concerns about the type and quality of museum experience (Griffiths 1999). Despite the potential of multi-media displays to address the diverse needs of different audiences or audience members by combining information and physical spaces and presenting interactive storytelling, there is still a tendency to rely on basic interactive terminals with mouse, keyboard and monitor. While this may be an efficient way to deliver information, our project contributes aesthetic and expressive possibilities for actively engaging audiences. Recent discourse around new media art practices and new museums has encouraged an interest in technology beyond fixed modalities of story authoring, to sensory-driven, interactive processes of learning that allow visitors to engage with interactive art forms and digital technologies to construct their own learning experience in the museum (Henry 2010; Rogoff 2010). However more research is needed to assess new models for establishing and maintaining dialogues with visitors and new ideas about how to connect these dialogues with the broader audiences (Cutler 2010). Contemporary new media artwork that invites users to interpret or experience content and function through a range of physical and sensorial interactions are seen to be extremely promising (Hornecker & Buur 2006). Their ability to author embodied, responsive engagements are well suited to the museums’ pedagogical programs.
As contemporary art is transformed through the incorporation of new media practice, works like Catch + Release offer a potentially innovative approach to learning. If as Ellsworth (2005) contends, new digital media contribute to pedagogic disruption and call for new ‘routes’ of relational thinking, they establish the ground of shared social interest drawing together artists, museum professionals and educators to discuss how the public becomes co-creators of meaning (or active learners) through experiential, participatory engagement (Bishop 2006).
Social history museums have begun to invite artistic inquiry, presenting temporary digital new media art exhibitions such as Catch + Release that advance the idea of a complex cultural and social history, challenge conventional displays and provide alternate modes of visitors’ participation, meaning making and knowledge construction (Bishop 2006), in these new spaces of artistic exchange or encounter.
 
references
Benjamin, W. (1968). The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction. In H. Arendt (ed), Illuminations.Translated from German by H. Zohn. New York: Shocken Books, pp. 217-251.
Bishop, C., ed. (2006). Participation. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Cutler, A. (2010, Spring). What is to be done, Sandra? Learning in cultural institutions in the 21st century. Tate Papers 13. http://www.tate.org.uk/research/tateresearch/tatepapers/10spring/cutler.shtm (accessed 1 October 2011).
Ellsworth, E. (2005). Places of Learning: Media, Architecture, Pedagogy. New York: Routledge.
Griffiths, A. (1999). Media technology and museum display: A century of accommodation and conflict. MIT communications forum. http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/papers/griffiths.html#1 (accessed 1 October 2011).
Hemsley, J., V. Cappellini, and G. Stanke (2005). Digital Applications for Cultural and Heritage Institutions.Burlington: Ashgate.
Henry, C. (2010). The Museum Experience: The Discovery of Meaning. Reston: National Art Education Association.
Hornecker, E., and J. Buur (2006). Getting a Grip on Tangible Interaction: A Framework on Physical Space and Social Interaction, Proceedings of the SIGCHI 2006 Conference on Human Factors in Computing System. New York: ACM Press, pp. 437-446.
Prior, N. (2008). Having One’s Tate and Eating It: Transformations of the Museum in a Hypermodern Era. In McClellan, A. (ed.), Art and its Publics: Museum Studies at the Millenium. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 51-76.
Rogoff, I. (2010, Summer). Practicing research: Singularising knowledge. MaHKUzine, 9: 37-42.http://www.mahku.nl/download/maHKUzine09_web.pdf  (accessed 1 October 2011).","txt","2","",""
"1422","13","Characterizing Authorship Style Using Linguistic Features","1","introduction
For centuries, scholars have been searching for reliable methods to establish the authorship of a work. The underlying premise of this scholarship is that each author has a detectable individual style of writing that can be explored with automated methods.
A range of features have been explored that include function words and character n-grams either individually or in combination with other features (Burrows 1987; Bayeen et al. 2002; Keselj et al. 2003; Argamon & Levitan 2005; Houvardas & Stamatatos 2006), part-of-speech information (Stamatatos et al. 2001), probabilistic context-free grammars (Raghavan et al. 2010), and linguistic features of the text (Koppel et al. 2006). Although many of those experiments consider only lexical features, syntactic features are considered more reliable (Stamatatos 2009: 542), but parsing technologies have only recently achieved the accuracy necessary to consider syntactic features in detail. Once the features are in place, the problem of authorship attribution can be cast as a classification problem and machine-learning methods can be used, such as Naïve Bayes or Support Vector Machine (SVM) that both work well when there are a large number of weak features. For very large collections and for open authorship attribution sets, similarity-based methods are more appropriate than machine-learning methods (Koppel et al. 2011).
Our goal is to analyze the potential of syntactic dependencies to characterize an author’s writing style with respect to how an author refers to people. The features that we use are drawn from both semantic and syntactic features. Specifically we first identify personal names – a semantic feature – and then identify local dependencies that surround those personal names – a syntactic feature. Our results demonstrate that these features vary between authors and that those variations can be exploited to   accurately determine authorship attribution.  
method
The proposed authorship attribution model emphasizes how an author refers to people. This approach leverages linguistically motivated markers and takes advantage of recent automated methods to identify syntactic dependencies. Consider the following sentence shown in Figure 1: ‘Robert Ryan is the prey he captures, along with the girl Janet Leigh’ where author 819382 uses a noun appositive to refer to the actress Janet Leigh. Note that there are two structures in this case – one for Janet Leigh and another for Robert Ryan where the author uses the actor as the subject of the sentence. Our method considers one dependency before and one dependency after the person reference. Author 819382’s profile suggests a preference for appositives, such as in the sentence ‘The claims manager, Lee J. Cobb here, unravels the plot’ where the author again uses the appositive when referring to the character Lee J.Cobb.
 
Figure 1: Dependency Grammar showing Robert Ryan as the subjects and Janet Leigh as a noun appositive
In contrast to author 819382, author 463200 prefers to describe several people together such as in the following examples that occur in different reviews: ‘Lois Lane and Clark Kent are sent to cover a circus (for some reason)’and ‘And there’s Gloria DeHaven and June Allyson in bit parts!’ (see Figure 2 for the dependency grammar representation). The coordination (cc) and preposition (prep) would also be used as candidate markers for this sentence.
 
Figure 2: Dependency Grammar showing Gloria DeHaven as the subject and June Allyson in a conjunctive clause
Author 1609079, however, is more likely to use a nominal subject passive grammatical relation when introducing personal names than other reviewers. Figure 3 shows this pattern when referring to Evelyne in the context of the sentence ‘Arnold’s wife Evelyne is also expected to sacrifice for Edward.’ As with the earlier authors, author 1609079 uses other patterns in addition to nominal subject passive before the name within the same sentence. The generated author’s profile reflects all of these preferences and is thus well suited to use in discerning one author from another.
 
Figure 3: Dependency Grammar of a sentence by author 1609079 who prefers to refer to people as the subject of a passive clause
These examples provide the motivation for our strategy to use local syntactic structures where authors refer to people. The general approach to create an author profile has the following steps. The information shown in parenthesis provides details for the experiments reported in this paper.
1.        Collect and identify sentences from the source collection (Natural Language Toolkit recognizer, nltk.org
2.        Identify people within each sentence (Named Entity Recognizer, nlp.stanford.edu/software/CRF-NER.shtml)
3.        Generate syntactic dependency trees from each sentence (Stanford Lexical Parser version 1.6.9, nlp.stanford.edu/software/lex-parser.shtml)
4.        Align the person names with the dependencies and count the local grammatical structures before and after each person reference
5.        Normalize the local grammatical structures by dividing by the number of people used by an author
Our method only considered those sentences and only those reviews which included personal names and that had 80 or fewer words. Of the 62,000 reviews, 92% or 57,286 included at least one sentence that satisfied this criterion and of the 919,203total sentences 354,389 referred to people.
results
The evaluations presented in this paper are based on a closed set of 62 candidate authors. The publicly available IMDb62 dataset (Seroussi et al. 2011) was harvested from the IMDB (imdb.com) in 2009 and satisfies Grieve’s (2007) requirement that the texts should be written in the same genre and should have originated around the same period. The IMDb62 collection, however, does not satisfy Grieve’s requirement that the texts should preferably be on the same topic as the movie review topics depend on the topic and genre of the movie. Only those reviewers who made prolific contributions to the imdb.com web site were selected for inclusion in the dataset so that each of 62 reviewers has 1,000 reviews (the total of 62,000 reviews). Movie reviewers typically refer to actors, directors and characters from a movie, so the IMDb62 dataset provides a rich collection in which to explore authorship style when referring to people.
Results show that authors differ both with respect to the number of person references made and how they refer to people. The majority of authors in the collection (43/62) referred to between 5,000 and 20,000 personal names in all of the reviews, but 15 authors use far fewer names (between 1,086 and 5,000), and 4 reviewers referred to more than 20,000 personal names (up to 33,115). Twenty-nine candidate syntactic features (13 before and 16 after personal names) were selected based on the frequency of use within the entire set of reviews. The two most frequent syntactic patterns before a personal name were nominal subject and object of a preposition while the most frequent syntactic patterns after a personal name were a punctuation mark and possessive modifier.
To evaluate how well the syntactic features could predict the correct author for a review, a test set was created by drawing 5% of reviews for each author at random from the original collection. The author profile described in the methods section was then created using the remaining 95% of the reviews (the training set) and the cosine similarity between the features in the test set and the profile in the training set was used to identify the correct author, i.e. if syntactic features are well suited to authorship disambiguation then the cosine similarly would place the correct author first in the ranked list of candidate authors. Note that all reviews in the test set (approximately 50) were considered together rather than as 50 different reviews and that this process was repeated 10 times with 10 different samples. On average the correct author appeared at rank 1.84 (in the range from 1 to 6.8). Twenty-one of the 62 authors are ranked first and author accuracy increases from 33.8, 67.7, 83.9 and 95.2% as the rank increases from 1 through 4.
With respect to related work, Seroussi et al. (2011) used Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) to model topics within the IMBDb62 dataset and then authorship attribution is calculated by finding the smallest Hellinger distance between the test and training documents. Author attribution accuracy varied between 19 to 68% for the multi-document approach and 25 to 81% for a single-document approach depending on how many topics were used in the model. Seroussi et al.’s experiment (2011) outperformed the KOP method (Koppel et al. 2011) on the IMDb62 dataset by about 15% at 150 topics and the results were statistically significant.
closing comments
We have presented a new method that leverages local syntactic dependencies to reveal the ways in which an author refers to people. One limitation of this approach is that it is restricted to only those texts and those reviews which contain named entities (in our case personal names);  however, authors frequently refer to people and places in history books, historical novels, and fiction works in general. Our preliminary results on the IMDb62 collection are consistent with Stamatatos’s speculation (2009) and indicate that grammatical structures , in our case that surround personal names, are indeed useful to differentiate between authorship styles. We posit that further experimentation is required to better understand how individual features, and combinations of features can best be used to determine authorship attribution accurately. 
references
Argamon, S., and S. Levitan (2005). Measuring the Usefulness of Function Words for Authorship Attribution.Proceedings of the 2005 ACH/ALLC conference.  Victoria, BC, Canada, June 2005.
Burrows, J. F. (1987). Computation into Criticism: A Study of Jane Austen’s Novels and an Experiment in Method. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Grieve, J. (2007). Quantitative Authorship Attribution: An Evaluation of Techniques. LLC 22(3): 251-270.  
Houvardas, J., and E. Stamatatos (2006). N-Gram Feature Selection for Authorship Identification. AIMSA2006: 77-86.  
Keselj, V., F. Peng, N. Cercone, and C. Thomas (2003). N-gram-based Author Profiles for Authorship Attribution. Proceedings of the Conference Pacific Association for Computational Linguistics. Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, August 2003.
Koppel, M., N. Akiva, and I. Dagan (2006). Feature instability as a criterion for selecting potential style markers: Special Topic Section on Computational Analysis of Style. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 57(11): 1519-1525.  
Koppel, M., J. Schler, and S. Argamon (2011). Authorship Attribution in the Wild. Language Resources & Evaluation 45(1): 83-94.  
Raghavan, S., A. Kovashka, and R. Mooney (2010). Authorship Attribution Using Probabilistic Context-Free  Grammars. Proceedings of the ACL 2010 Conference Short Papers. Uppsala, Sweden, July 2010.  
Seroussi, Y., I. Zukerman, and F. Bohnert (2011). Authorship Attribution with Latent Dirichlet Allocation.CoNLL 2011: Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning. Portland, OR, USA, June 2011.  
Stamatatos, E. (2009). http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/asi.21001/fullA Survey of Modern Authorship Attribution Methods.  Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology60(3): 538-556.  
Stamatatos, E., N. Fakotakis, and G. Kokkinakis (2001). Computer-Based Authorship Attribution without Lexical Measures. Computers and the Humanities: 193-214.","txt","2","",""
"1423","13","Citygram One: Visualizing Urban Acoustic Ecology","1","introduction
The surfaces and spaces of our planet, and particularly metropolitan areas, are not only manifestations of visible physical shapes, but also include dimensions that go beyond the ocular. Furthermore, these invisible energies are often in a state of flux and could potentially yield insights into the living and breathing dimensions of our surroundings that are underexplored in contemporary mapping research. The Citygram project explores and develops ideas and concepts for novel mapping paradigms that reflect aspects of dynamicity and ‘the invisible’ pertinent to cityscapes. The project’s main goal is to contribute to existing geospatial research by embracing the idea of time-variant, poly-sensory cartography. Our multi-layered and multi-format custom maps are data-driven and based on continuous data streams captured by remote sensors. These dynamic maps can inform us of the flux in our built environments, such as parks, museums, alleys, bus stations, freeways, and university campuses.
Citygram is a large-scale project divided into a number of manageable iterations. The current iteration focuses on visualizing acoustic ecology and computationally inferring meaningful information such as emotion and mood. We are currently focusing our attention on small public spaces at the following university campuses: Georgia State University and Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta; California Institute of the Arts in Los Angeles; and Massey University in Wellington, New Zealand. Our aim is to render dynamic, non-intrusive acoustic maps that are scale accurate and topologically oriented.
current mapping paradigms and technologies
The most commonly used mapping paradigms are represented by Google Maps and and Bing Maps (PC World 2010). Many supplemental features are provided by these platforms: street-views, webcams (1 frame/hour), and pre-recorded videos taken from locations. Other mapping systems, such as UCLA’s Hypercities(‘Hypercities’ 2010), BBC’s Save Our Sounds (‘Save Our Sounds’ 2011) and the Locus Stream Project (‘Locus Sonus > Locustream’ 2011) are more creative. Hypercities is an interactive mapping system that allows temporal navigation via layers of historic maps, which are overlaid on modern maps via the Google Earthinterface. Save Our Sounds gathers crowd-sourced audio snapshots, archives them, and makes ‘endangered sounds’ available on a web interface. The Locustream SoundMap project is based on the notion of networked ‘open mic’ audio streaming where site-specific, unmodified audio is broadcast on the Internet through a mapping interface. It seems that the project has its roots in artistic endeavors where ‘streamers,’ persons who install the Locustream boxes in their apartments, share ‘non-spectacular or non-event based quality of the streams’ thereby revisiting a mode of listening exemplified by the composer John Cage.
citygram one: goals, structure, and focus
The project’s main goals are to (1) investigate potential avenues for capturing the flux of crowds, machines, ambient noise, and noise pollution; (2) map, visualize, and sonify sensory data; (3) automatically infer and measure emotion/mood in public spaces through sound analysis, pattern recognition, and text analytics; (4) provide clues to waves of contemplation and response in public spaces; (5) provide hints into the invisible dynamics between Citygram maps and aspects of urban ecology such as crime and census statistics, correlations to municipal boundaries, population density, school performance, real-estate trends, stock-market correlations, local, regional, national, and global news headlines, voting trends, and traffic patterns; (6) seek additional regional, national, and international collaborators.
Figure 1 shows the system overview. The data collecting devices (d) are small computers that wirelessly transmit feature vectors (v[n]) to a central server. The minicomputers autonomously run the signal processing modules for the optimal efficiency of the entire system. Low-level acoustic feature vectors streamed to the server are unintelligible and cannot be exploited to reconstruct the original audio waveforms or ‘eavesdrop’ on private conversations. This protects the privacy of individuals in public spaces. However, to enable users to hear the ‘texture’ of a space without compromising privacy we employ a modified granular synthesis techniques (Gabor 1946) which results in shuffling the temporal microstructure of audio signals.
 
Figure 1: System architecture Top: Autonomous remote sensing devices transmitting feature vectors Bottom: Measurement of acoustic energy (dB)
Citygram focuses on inferring useful information from invisible energies. One type of avisual information is environmental emotion or mood. Although interdisciplinary sentiment research is still in its nascent stages, automatic mood detection has found increasing interest in the field of music (Liu et al. 2003; Wieczorkowska et al. 2006; Meyer 2007), speech analysis (Chuang & Wu 2004; Vidrascu 2005; Schuller 2008; Shafran 2011), face-recognition (Cohn & Katz 1998; Yoshitomi et al. 2000; Nagpal et al. 2010), and natural language processing (Xia et al. 2008; Tao 2004). As far as emotion detection in music is concerned, much of the research can be traced to Kate Hevner’s (Hevner 1936) seminal work in musical expression (see Figure 2) and other models developed by Thayer and Tellegen-Waston-Clark (Thayer 1989; Tellegen et al. 1999) as shown in Figure 3 and 4.
 
Figure 2: Hevner’s adjective circle
 
Figure 3: Thayer’s model of mood
 
Figure 4: Tellegen-Waston-Clark mood model
automatic emotion detection
The fundamental architecture of automatic emotion detection is shown in Figure 5. Features are extracted from audio signals, followed by training of the machine learning (ML) algorithms via a set of training samples; at the final stage, the machine classifies emotion ratings for unknown signals. Although much of the emotion/mood detection research for sound has been in the realm of music, there is strong potential that algorithms and methodologies similar to those used in music will translate to non-musical signals – many of the low-level feature vectors are timbral rather than musical and reflect acoustic dimensions of sound.
We are exploring application of radial and elliptical basis functions (RBF/EBF) artificial neural networks (ANN) for automatic emotion classification as it has shown promise in previous research (Park 2004; Park and Cook 2005). We plan to compare Support Vector Machines (SVM) with RBF/EBF ANNs as each is based on contrasting approaches – RBF/EBF is hyperspherical/hyperellipsoid based and SVM is hyperplane based. We are also investigating ‘knowledge-based’ approaches for automatic verbal aggression detection in acoustically complex social environments already in use in public spaces (van Hengel et al. 2007). Feature vectors will be archived on our server to provide users a hub for future research on public spaces.
 
Figure 5: Mood/Emotion Detection Architecture
Natural language processing techniques will further enrich the project’s assessment of environmental sentiments via site-specific emotional readings from on-line sources. Recent examples of localized text sentiment visualization from blogs and micro-blogs can be found in ‘Pulse of the Nation’ (Mislove et al. 2010) and ‘We Feel Fine’ (Harris & Kamvar 2011). In conjunction with spatial acoustic emotion detection, this analysis will help us render comprehensive, dynamically changing emotion indices through our on-line visualization mapping formats. The general structure for sentiment analysis in the context of ML is similar to general practices in ML for sound; both apply algorithms aimed at revealing patterns through features. We are currently concentrating on keyword spotting (Ortony et al. 1987) supplemented by ‘common sense reasoning.’ Keyword spotting relies on a pre-established lexicon of scored, significant language. Common sense reasoning utilizes a database like Open Mind Common Sense (OMCS) to infer meaning from text. A toolkit like ConceptNet is used in conjunction with OMCS to facilitate sentiment analysis. This combination will allow us to recognize both pre-coded and emergent sentiments. For instance, a keyword approach utilizes lists of significant language and modifiers to recognize that ‘unhappy,’ preceded by ‘very,’ is more significant than just ‘unhappy’ by itself. Recognizing that a capitalized or exclamatory modifier, i.e.’VERY!!,’ accentuates the keyword and intensifies its positive or negative valence (intrinsic attractiveness vs. aversiveness) scale, requires OMCS.
This research, to better understand the dynamic life and mood of urban spaces via acoustic ecology, mapping, pattern recognition, and data visualization, is the first iteration in the larger Citygram project. Subsequent iterations of this project will include analyzing additional types of avisual energies, such as electromagnetic fields, humidity, temperature, color, and brightness and extending this dynamic, poly-sensory cartographic data into a resource for inquiry on topics ranging from urban ontology and climate change to sonification, and environmental kinetics.
references
Baum, D. (2006). Emomusic – Classifying Music According to Emotion. Proceedings of the 7th Workshop on Data Analysis, Kosice, Slovakia, July 2009.
British Broadcasting Corporation (2011). Save Our Sounds.http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specialreports/saveoursounds.shtml  (accessed 10 October 2011).
Chuang, Z., and H. Wu (2004). Multi-Modal Emotion Recognition from Speech and Text. International Journal of Computational Linguistics and Chinese Language Processing 9(2): 45-62.
Cohn, J., and G. Katz (1998). Bimodal Expression of Emotion by Face and Voice. Proceedings of the Sixth ACM International Multimedia Conference, New York, NY, September 1998.
Cohn J., and G. Katz (1998). Workshop on Face / Gesture Recognition and Their Applications. Proceedings of the Sixth ACM International Multimedia Conference, New York, NY, September 1998.
Davies, A. (2011). Acoustic Trauma : Bioeffects of Sound. Honors Thesis, University of South Wales.
Devillers, L., V. Laurence, and L. Lori (2005). Challenges in Real-Life Emotion Annotation and Machine Learning Based Detection. Neural Networks 18(4): 407-422.
Fragopanagos, N., and J. Taylor (2005). Emotion Recognition in Human-Computer Interaction. Neural Networks 18(4): 389-405.
Gabor, D. (1946). Theory of Communication. Journal of the Institute of Electrical Engineers 93: 429-457.
Gupta, P., and N. Rajput (2007). Two-Stream Emotion Recognition for Call Center Monitoring. Proceedings of Interspeech, Antwerp, Belgium, August 2007.
Harris, J., and S. Kamvar (2011). We Feel Fine and Searching the Emotional Web. Proceedings of the Web Search And Data Mining Conference, Hong Kong, China, November 2011.
Hevner, K. (1936). Experimental Studies of the Elements of Expression in Music. American Journal of Psychology 48: 246-268.
Kessous, L., G. Castellano, and G. Caridakis (2004). Multimodal Emotion Recognition in Speech-Based Interaction Using Facial Expression, Body Gesture and Acoustic Analysis. J Multimodal User Interfaces 3: 33-48.
Li, T., and M. Ogihara (2003). Detecting Emotion in Music. Proceedings of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval, Baltimore, Maryland, October 2003.
Li, T., and M. Ogihara (2004). Content-Based Music Similarity Search and Emotion Detection. Proceedings of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval, Quebec, Canada, May 2004.
Liu, D., L. Lu, and H. Zhang (2003). Automatic Mood Detection from Acoustic Music Data.  Proceedings of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval, Baltimore, Maryland, October 2003.
Liu, H. (2002). Automatic Affective Feedback in an Email Browser. In MIT Media Lab Software Agents Group.
Liu, H., H. Lieberman, and T. Selker (2003). A Model of Textual Affect Sensing Using Real-World Knowledge. International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces, Miami, FL, January 2003.
Liu, H., and P. Singh (2004). Conceptnet: A Practical Commonsense Reasoning Toolkit. BT Technology Journal22: 211-26.
Locus Sonus (2008). LocusStream. http://locusonus.org/w/?page=Locustream. (accessed 10 October 2011).
Meyers, O. C. (2007). A Mood-Based Music Classification and Exploration System. Master’s thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Mislove, A., S. Lehmann, and Y. Ahn (2010). Pulse of the Nation: U.S. Mood Throughout the Day Inferred from Twitter. http://ccs.neu.edu/home/amislove/twittermood/. (accessed 1 November 2011).
Nagpal, R., P. Nagpal, and S. Kaur (2010). Hybrid Technique for Human Face Emotion Detection.International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications 1(6).
Null, C. (2010). Which Online Mapping Service Is Best? PC World. http://www.pcworld.com/article/206702-2/which_online_mapping_service_is_best.html. (accessed 30 October 2011).
Ortony, A., G. L. Clore, and M. A. Foss (1987). The Referential Structure of the Affective Lexicon. Cognitive Science 11: 341-364.
Park, T. H. (2004). Towards Automatic Musical Instrument Timbre Recognition. Ph.D. thesis, Princeton University.
Park, T. H., and P. Cook (2005). Radial/Elliptic Basis Functions Neural Networks for Musical Instrument Classification. Journées d’Informatique Musicale.
Presner, T. (2010). Hypercities: Building a Web 2.0 Learning Platform. In A. Natsina and T. Kyalis (eds.),Teaching Literature at a Distance.London: Continuum Books, pp. 171-182.
Schnaps, J. (2009). Age and Clarity of Imagery.http://sites.google.com/site/earthhowdoi/Home/ageandclarityofimagery  (accessed 10 October 2011).
Schuller, B. W. (2008). Speaker, Noise, and Acoustic Space Adaptation for Emotion Recognition in the Automotive Environment. Proceedings of ITG Conference on Voice Communication (SprachKommunikation),pp. 1-4.
Shafran, I., and M. Mohri (2005). A Comparison of Classifiers for Detecting Emotion from Speech. Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing, May 2005.
Singh, P., T. Lin, E. Mueller, G. Lim, T. Perkins, and W. Zhu (2002). Open Mind Common Sense: Knowledge Acquisition from the General Public. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pp. 1223-1237.
Tao, J. (2004). Context based emotion detection from text input. Proceedings ofInternational Conference on Spoken Language Processing, Jeju Island, Korea, October 2004.
Tellegen, A., D. Watson, and L. A. Clark (1999). On the dimensional and hierarchical structure of affect.Psychological Science 10: 297-303.
Thayer, R. (1989). The Biospychology of Mood and Arousal. Cambridge: Oxford  UP.
van Hengel, P., and T. Andringa (2007). Verbal aggression detection in complex social environments. Fourth IEEE International Conference on Advanced Video and Signal Based Surveillance, London, United Kingdom, September, 2007.
Vidrascu, L., and L. Devillers (2005). Annotation and detection of blended emotions in real human-human dialogs recorded in a call center. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo, Amsterdam, Netherlands, July 2006.
Wieczorkowska, A., P. Synak, and Z. W. Ras (2006). Multi-Label Classification of Emotions in Music.Intelligent Information Processing and Web Mining 35: 307-315.
Xia, Y., L. Wang, K. Wong, and M. Xu (2008). Sentiment vector space model for lyric-based song sentiment classification. Proceedings of the 46th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics on Human Language Technologies: Short Papers, Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, USA.
Yoshitomi, Y., S. I. Kim, T. Kawano, and T. Kitazoe (2000). Effect of Sensor Fusion for Recognition of Emotional States Using Voice, Face Image and Thermal Image of Face. IEEE International Workshop on Robot and Human Interactive Communication, Osaka, Japan, September 2000.","txt","2","",""
"1424","13","Code sprints and Infrastructure","1","Over the last five years, several national and supranational funding bodies have invested in large digital humanities infrastructure projects designed, in part, to reduce the proliferation of projects inventing and reinventing small, commonly needed tools.  During the same period, several very modestly funded projects have attempted to achieve the same results by holding working meetings – called ‘code sprints’ – to develop commonly needed tools collaboratively. Interedition, The Center for History and New Media’s One Week|One Tool, MITH’s XML Barn-Raising, and New York Public Library’s Tilden Papers Project have each hosted a series of code camps (also known as boot camps or code sprints) that bring together groups of humanities scholars with serious programming expertise to spend a week working on a tool of value to each of them. The process has proven to be so productive that it has recently been adopted by one of the large infrastructure projects, Project Bamboo, in ‘CorporaCamp.’ In this panel, we will examine the advantages and limitations of the small, agile methods of code sprints and how they may be supported by the large, sustainable infrastructures currently under construction by larger projects.
The advantages of codesprints are numerous. By spending time in rapid prototyping; by gathering scholars who are also coders (rather than those with only one skill or the other); and by establishing a policy of, to quote Dave Lester, ‘More Hack, less yak!’, worksprints quickly determine the real challenges facing academic software development and often make significant headway towards solving them. ‘One week, one tool’ produced Anthologize which continues under active development and use to this day; Interediton has produced, among other things, CollateX (a modular automated collation workflow); the MITH barn raising produced a prototype of a web-based XML editor: ANGLES; and NYPL’s codesprint significantly refactored the code in the Internet Archive’s BookReader tool and prepared it for future extensions by the participants. These sprints not only build tools, they lay the groundwork and point the way for the sort of infrastructure that is truly needed.
Nonetheless, these sprints occasionally encounter problems. Setting up code-sharing mechanisms, installing needed dependencies, and teaching coding dialects such as jQuery or Node.js to participants unfamiliar with them often absorbs a full day of work. Differing expectations and desires by participants can sometimes (though surprisingly rarely) threaten to derail progress. Documenting work so that it can be taken up later or by others is sometimes not prioritized to the extent it should be. Further, although there is often much to do at the end of the sprints, participants frequently find it difficult to continue working when they return home as competing and more immediate priorities take precedence. It is possible that large infrastructure projects such as Bamboo, Dariah, and TextGrid could provide the organizational and administrative infrastructure needed to make codesprints more effective and their work more sustainable.
This paper will discuss four code sprints (outlined below), recount ‘lessons learned’, and discuss how big infrastructure projects and light-weight, rapid development efforts such as these may support each other.
Sample case studies:
MITH ‘Barn Raising’: In 2010, Doug Reside (Digital curator for the Performing Arts, NYPL) organized a ‘barn raising’ to produce a web-based XML editor in his last weeks at the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities. The event brought several participants from Canada and elsewhere in the United States to College Park, Maryland, but also organized a group of coders to participate remotely via Skype and IRC. After the first two days of the sprint, the group divided into two groups, one concerned with building a WYSIWIG editor and one wanting to replicate the core functionality of popular XML editors in a JavaScript-based web application. The second group consisted almost entirely of remote participants, but arguably built more code in the course of the sprint than those working together in the same room.
BookReader Sprint: In 2011, Benjamin Vershbow organized New York Public Library’s worksprint to extend the Internet Archive’s JavaScript widget, BookReader. The goal of the project was to refactor the Internet Archive’s existing code to make it more modular and extensible. Around a dozen participants were brought to New York from libraries around North America for four days of hacking on the code base. In an attempt to be open to the many desired use-cases of the BookReader, NYPL invited participants with a diverse set of skills and desires which, in retrospect, probably dispersed some of the productive energy of the sprint into efforts that could not be realistically achieved in the course of a few days. However, the sprint is notably in that it began to extend an existing, heavily used, code base supported by a major organization.
Interedition: Over the past three years, Joris van Zundert organized ten boot camps as part of European Cost Action IS0704 ‘Interedition’. The boot camps varied in participation from 5 to 15 scholars, developers, and scholarly developers from the wider European region and the US. The boot camps focused transcription, annotation, and collation as primary scholarly tasks in producing (digital) scholarly editions that could effectively be supported by common models and tools. The Interedition boot camps have resulted in various new tools in the form of web services – of which CollateX probably is best known – and considerable progress of development of existing tools (Juxta, eLaborate etc.). However, the production of tools is paradoxically ‘just’ a side effect of the Interedition endeavor. Interedition’s main objective is furthering the interoperability of tools used in the production of scholarly editions as a means of enhancing the sustainability of both tools and digital editions. One of Interedition’s findings was that it is pivotal to such sustainability that there must be an academic platform supporting researcher-developers’ interaction and collaboration in a most concrete way: interoperability and integration of tool development is best done together.
Corpora Camp: Neil Fraistat and Seth Denbo organized Corpora Camp as part of project Bamboo. CorporaCamp was a key step in the design process for Project Bamboo’s Corpora Space, which will enable the curation and exploration of data across the boundaries of large structured collections. The primary goal of Corpora Camp was to see if over the space of three days participants could make a prototype tool for visualization and analysis function across three different collections. While the ‘work’ of the workshop involved building this tool – which we called WoodChipper – the tool itself was only one of several important outcomes. CorporaCamp not only tested our assumptions about the larger design process for Bamboo Corpora Space, but the rapid development process of the workshop required us constantly to balance our long-term goals – experimenting with a distributed, extensible architecture – against our desire to have a working prototype implemented at the end of the three days. In many cases the team had two development threads running in parallel, with one group working on a more general solution and another on a simpler fallback. This process provide a better sense of the problems and decisions – and the range of consequences of those decisions – that would be faced with in developing Bamboo architecture and applications.","txt","2","",""
"1425","13","Code-Generation Techniques for XML Collections Interoperability","1","XSLT has often been criticized for its verbosity.1 Control structures, in particular, can require many more lines of code (and many more indications of start and end state) than nearly any modern programming language. Yet for all this, XSLT has features that make it an ideal language both for code generation (automatic generation of XSLT using XSLT itself) and as a target output format for other languages. In this paper, we discuss our attempts to tackle the problem of collections interoperability by exploiting both features of XSLT.
The rules governing the validity of particular XML instances are usually set forth in one of several standard forms of specification (such as RELAX NG,2 XML Schema,3 or the older Document Type Definition4). Such schemas typically specify the nature, number, and sequence of permissible elements, ensure their correspondence to particular data types, and enforce the overall referential integrity of the instance. We have developed a system (called Abbot) that uses schema definitions located in a target schema to generate a stylesheet that will effect the transformation of one or more document collections into instances that validate against that same schema.5
In the trivial case, where the target schema describes a proper subset of the collections in question, Abbot operates more-or-less automatically, but more complex transformations are also possible. One can, for example, give the system two collections and have it generate a stylesheet that makes one collection conform to the schema of the other. One can also make several collections target an entirely different schema. In these latter cases, it becomes necessary to describe particular mappings in a configuration file, but that configuration uses a simple syntax unrelated either to that of a schema language or XSLT.
The key step here is the automatic generation of an XSLT stylesheet. Our choice of XSLT as the language that generates that stylesheet might at first seem slightly perverse, but because XSLT is a homoiconic language – a language in which the primary representation of the language is itself a data structure in that same language – code generation can be undertaken through the use of metapgramming (in which code is passed into another, more abstract layer and evaluated).6
The Abbot system begins by running a ‘meta-stylesheet’ (analogous to a higher-order function in a traditional functional language) on both a target schema and a configuration file. The configuration file, while not written in XSLT, is nonetheless converted into XSLT by the surrounding runtime (using a translation method we discuss below). By default, that target schema describes TEI Analytics – a TEI subset that provides an encoding scheme optimized for text analysis. This meta-stylesheet generates, as its only output, a conversion stylesheet used for the actual transformation of the documents. This latter transformation yields files that will, in the majority of cases, validate against the target schema.
When Abbot reads the target schema, it accounts for all elements and associated attributes and generates a default XSLT template for each element. These default templates reflect the general assumption that elements and attributes in the input files resemble their counterparts in the target schema. If, for example, <foo n=”001″/> exists in the input file and is specifically allowed in the target schema, then Abbot will pass the element through unaltered under the assumption that the element is fully valid. Anything beyond that needs to be articulated in the configuration file.
Ultimately, the custom transformations set forth in the configuration file need to be instantiated as XSLT templates and included in the conversion stylesheet at runtime. For example, to replace the <temphead> element with <teiHeader> (its TEI P5 counterpart), the system would need to generate the following:
<transformation type=”xslt” activate=”yes”>
  <desc>substitute ’temphead’ with ’teiHeader’</desc>
  <xsl:template match=”*[lower-case(name())=’temphead’]” priority=”1″>
    <teiHeader>
      <xsl:apply-templates/>
    </teiHeader>
  </xsl:template>
</transformation>
To replace spaces with underscores in the extent attribute of the <gap> element (a considerably more complex operation), requires substantially more code:
<transformation type=”xslt” activate=”yes”>
  <desc>add underscore to ’gap’ @extents containing a space</desc>
  <xsl:template match=”*[lower-case(name())=’gap’]” priority=”1″>
    <xsl:choose>
      <xsl:when test=”contains(@extent,’ ’)”>
        <xsl:element name=”gap”>
          <xsl:for-each select=”@extent”>
            <xsl:choose>
              <xsl:when test=”contains(.,’ ’)”>
                <xsl:attribute name=”extent”>
                  <xsl:value-of select=”replace(.,’ ’,’_’)”/>
                </xsl:attribute>
              </xsl:when>
              <xsl:otherwise>
                <xsl:copy-of select=”.”/>
              </xsl:otherwise>
            </xsl:choose>
          </xsl:for-each>
          <xsl:apply-templates/>
        </xsl:element>
      </xsl:when>
      <xsl:otherwise>
        <xsl:copy-of select=”.”/>
      </xsl:otherwise>
    </xsl:choose>
  </xsl:template>
</transformation>
Depending on the particular situation, the configuration file might have to contain dozens of hand-built templates for performing subtle transformations that cannot be deduced from the schema. But here, we undertake a second code-generation step using Clojure – a dialect of Lisp that runs on the Java Virtual Machine.
Because Lisp is also a homoiconic language, it too is well suited to code that reads and writes code. Moreover, XML is itself a first-class datastructure in Clojure, which can be easily (and lazily) transformed into a map object in which descendant nodes are represented as nested vectors. The problem of parsing a configuration file (in which complicated XSLT transformations are rendered in the form of a radically simplified DSL), becomes a matter of parsing the file into a map structure. Clojure can then trivially transform that map directly into XML (XSLT), which can be inserted at runtime into the conversion stylesheet. The first XSLT example above becomes something like:
temphead -> teiHeader
The second, more complicated example might be expressed as:
gap[@extent=’/ /’] -> gap[@extent=’/_/’]
In this way, Abbot becomes not merely a framework for effecting interoperability of XML document collections, but a general purpose XML transformation framework that avoids the need for XSLT itself.7
Thinking of XSLT as an intermediate form – a language that is targeted much as a compiler might target assembly – allows us to imagine radically simplified document transformation languages that can (potentially) exploit the full range of XSLT itself. In the case of Abbot, radical simplification is possible, in part, because the problem domain is itself highly constrained. But such constraints constitute precisely the rationale for domain-specific languages that try to map a user’s domain knowledge to a simplified syntax. Such languages, while smaller and simpler than more general-purpose languages, often still require the full range of language design tools (lexers, parser generators, the specification of a grammar, and so forth). Exploiting the homoiconicity of languages that possess this feature – including XSLT itself – makes the process of designing a ‘mini-language’ considerably easier.
references
Adler, S. (1997). A Proposal for XSL. World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-XSL.html. (accessed 31 October 2011).
McIlroy, D. (1960). Macro Instruction Extensions of Compiler Languages. Communications of the ACM 3(4): 214-220.
Pytlik-Zillig, B. (2009). TEI Analytics: Converting Documents into a TEI Format for Cross-Collection Text analysis. Literary and Linguistic Computing 24(2): 187-192.
Pytlik-Zillig, B. (2011). TEI Texts that Play Nicely: Lessons from the MONK Project. Journal of the Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science 1(3): 1-5.
Unsworth, J. (2011). Computational Work with Very Large Text Collections: Interoperability, Sustainability, and the TEI. Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative 1  http://jtei.revues.org/215. (accessed 21 October 2011).
notes
1.A Web search for ‘XML verbosity’ will bear this out amply, though we note that this ‘loquaciousness’ is itself consistent with the design goals of XML, which was intended to be a human readable format. In the first formal XSL proposal, the authors explicitly state that ‘Terseness in XSL markup is of minimal importance’ (see Adler 1997).
2.http://relaxng.org/
3.http://www.w3.org/XML/Schema
4.The Document Type Definition is currently defined by the XML specification itself, though it descends from earlier specifications associated with Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML). The Extensible Markup Language (XML) specification is at http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml
5.We have called this method ‘schema harvesting’ (see Pytlik-Zillig 2011).
6.Homoiconicity is a property of several programming languages, including REBOL, SNOBOL, PostScript, XQuery, Prolog, and all dialects of Lisp. The concept of homoiconicity is first set forth in Douglas McIlroy’s 1960 article, ‘Macro Instruction Extensions of Compiler Languages’ (see McIlroy 1960).
7.Abbot cannot, of course, replace XSLT in all circumstances, since the DSL we are describing is not intended to capture the entire semantics of XSLT. Still, we imagine that Abbot can be usefully employed in many situations in which large bodies of texts are being transformed, even if interoperability is not a primary concern.","txt","2","",""
"1426","13","Complex Network Perspective on Graphic Form System of Hanzi","1","According to Saussure, there are two systems of writing: (1) The system commonly known as ‘phonetic’ tries to respond to the succession of sounds that make up a word. Phonetic systems are sometimes syllabic, sometimes alphabetic i.e. based on the irreducible elements used in speaking. (2) In an ideographic system, each word is represented by a single sign that is unrelated to the sounds of the word itself. Each written sign stands for a whole word and, consequently for the idea expressed by the word. The classic example of an ideographic system of writing is Chinese. Thus there is a common misunderstanding that treated each Chinese character as a separate sign, especially in Chinese information processing field, and caused a major problem namely the mass encoding set. Hanzi, however, as a kind of common information carrier created and shared by the whole Chinese society, is impossible to be disorderly and unsystematic. There must be some intrinsic laws which make Hanzi the most mature ideograhic system in the world. This paper aims to use some analysis methods for complex network to identify these intrinsic laws of Hanzi system.
Being the representative of ideographic systems of writing, the most noticeable feature of Hanzi is that each character’s graphic form was coined according to its original meaning. The elements of Hanzi graphic forms are called components which have certain functions when they were used to form characters. 梅, for example, is formed by 2 components 木 and 每, with 木 indicating 梅 is a name of tree and 每 indicating the pronunciation of 梅. A Chinese character may be formed only by one component, namely the character itself, and called single-element character; or may be formed by no less then 2 components and called compound-element character. The classical six principles for analyzing Hanzi graphic forms are know as ‘Liushu’. Modern study on the Hanzi graphic forms, on the basis of ‘Liushu’, puts forward a new theory that uses ‘component and component functions’ to analyze Hanzi graphic forms. A component could play a quadruple role in forming a Chinese character: (1) as a pictographic symbol; (2) as a semantic symbol; (3) as a phonetic symbol; (4) as a deictic symbol. They are called component functions. All Chinese characters formed by different components with different functions could be divided into eleven categories, called the formation modes, as listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Eleven Kinds of Hanzi Formation Modes
MODE        DEFINITION        ie
0        Single-element character        止
Deictic-pictographic        composed of a pictographic component and a deictic component        正
Deictic-semantic        composed of  a semantic component and a deictic component        本
Deictic-phonetic        composed of a deictic component and a phonetic component        百
Pictographic-phonetic        composed of a pictographic component and a phonetic component        琴
Semantic-phonetic        composed of a semantic component and  a phonetic component        堤
Comprehensive composite with phonetic component        composed of a phonetic components and other components        寶
Pictographic composite        composed of 2 pictographic components        步
Semantic-pictographic        composed of  a pictographic component and a semantic component        電
Semantic composite        composed of 2 semantic components        是
Comprehensive composite without phonetic component        composed of different components except phonetic component        羅
As a same component could be used to form different Chinese characters with other components, those characters having a common component (with the same function) could be linked to each other, and make the whole set of Hanzi a huge complex network, as Fig.1 shows. Modern Chinese graphology, based on comprehensive and detailed descriptions of Chineses characters’ components and components’ functions, has made some statistical analysis about the systematic features of Hanzi graphic forms, like the number of primitive components on Hanzi if different periods varied from 250 to 400; more than 87% Chinese characters (since seal script) are composed of a semantic component and a phonentic component, or in other words, are of semantic-phonetic mode. These conclusions, however, can not give further explanations on the structure profile of Hanzi System, like how are hundreds of thousands of Chinese characters composed of no more than 400 primitive components; what is the average distance between 2 characters, are there any clusters, what are their densities, do they show a strict hierachy, are there some centers and so on.
 
 
Figure 1: The Network of Hanzi Graphic Forms (Local and Global)
This paper views the system of Hanzi graphic forms as a complex network with each Chinese character linked to its components by an edge indicating the component’s function in the character (see Fig.1); and uses a series of network metics, such as the degree, the path length, the clustereing coefficient, the centrality, the coreness, the betweeness and so on, to analyze its topology features. This could introduce some more in-depth discussions on the structure and formation mechanism of Hanzi graphic form system and help us get more thorough understanding of the nature of Chinese. The innovation of this paper lies in the integration of the techniques of complex network theory and the scientific analysis of Hanzi graphic forms, which would bring some new insights in the study on Chinese graphology and provide some useful help in the teaching of Hanzi and Chinese information processing.","txt","2","",""
"1427","13","Computing and Visualizing the 19th-Century Literary Genome","1","overview
In literary studies, we have no shortage of anecdotal wisdom regarding the role of influence on creativity. Consider just a few of the most prominent voices: 
1.        ‘Talents imitate, geniuses steal’ – Oscar Wilde (1854-1900?).1
2.        ‘All ideas are second hand, consciously and unconsciously drawn from a million outside sources’ – Mark Twain (1903).
3.        ‘The historical sense compels a man to write not merely with his own generation in his bones, but with a feeling that the whole of the literature … has a simultaneous existence’ – T. S. Eliot (1920).
4.        ‘The elements of which the artwork is created are external to the author and independent of him …’ – Osip Brik (1929).
5.        Anxiety of Influence – Harold Bloom (1973).
Whether consciously influenced by a predecessor or not, it might be argued that every book is in some sense a necessary descendant of, or necessarily ‘connected to, ’ those before it. Influence may be direct, as when a writer models his or her writing on another writer,2 or influence may be indirect in the form of unconscious borrowing. Influence may even be ‘oppositional’ as in the case of a writer who wishes to make his or her writing intentionally different from that of a predecessor. The aforementioned thinkers offer informed but anecdotal evidence in support of their claims of influence. My research brings a complementary quantitative and macroanalytic dimension to the discussion of influence. For this, I employ the tools and techniques of stylometry, corpus linguistics, machine learning, and network analysis to measure influence in a corpus of late 18th- and 19th-century novels.
method
The 3,592 books in my corpus span from 1780 to 1900 and were written by authors from Britain, Ireland, and America; the corpus is almost even in terms of gender representation. From each of these books, I extracted stylistic information using techniques similar to those employed in authorship attribution analysis: the relative frequencies of every word and mark of punctuation are calculated and the resulting data winnowed so as to exclude features not meeting a preset relative frequency threshold.3 From each book I also extracted thematic (or ‘topical’) information using Latent Dirichlet Allocation (Blei, Ng et al. 2003; Blei, Griffiths et al. 2004; Chang, Boyd-Graber et al. 2009). The thematic data includes information about the percentages of each theme/topic found in each text.4 I combine these two categories of data – stylistic and thematic – to create‘book signals’ composed of 592 unique feature measurements. The ‘Euclidian” metric is then used to calculate every book’s distance from every other book in the corpus. The result is a distance matrix of dimension 3,592 x 3,592.5
While measuring and tracking ‘actual’ or ‘true’ influence – conscious or unconscious – is impossible, it is possible to use the stylistic-thematic distance/similarity measurements as a proxy for influence.6 Network visualization software can then be used as a way to organize, visualize, and study the presence of influence among of books in my corpus.7 To prepare the data for use in a network environment, I converted the distance matrix into a long-form table with 12,902,464 rows and three columns in which each row captures a distance relationship between two books. The first cell contains a ‘source’ book, the second cell a ‘target’ book, and a third cell the measured distance between the two. After removing all of the records in which the target book was published before, or in the same year as, the source book,8 the data was reduced from 12,902,464 records to 6,447,640. This data and a separate table of metadata were then imported into the open source network analysis software package Gephi (2009) for analysis and visualization.
analysis
Networks are constructed out of nodes (books) and edges (distances). When plotted, nodes with less similarity (i.e. larger distances between them) will spread out further in the network. Figure 1 offers a simplified example of three imaginary books.
 
Figure 1: a sample network with edge numbers representing measured distances between nodes
While it is not possible to show the details of the entire network here, it is possible to display several of the most obvious macro-structures. Figure 2, for example, presents a zoomed out view of the network with book nodes colored according to dates of publication.9
 
Figure 2: The 19th-century novel network colored according to publication date
The shading of nodes and edges according to publication date reveals the inherently chronological nature of stylistic and thematic change. The progressive darkening of the nodes from east to west allows us to see, at the macro-scale, how style and theme are changing and evolving over time. 10Also seen in this image is a ‘satellite’ of books in the northwest. This satellite represents a ‘community’ of novels that are highly self-similar but at the same time markedly different from the books in the main network cluster. 11When the network is recolored according to gender (figure 3), a new axis can be seen splitting the network into northern and southern sectors along gender lines.
 
Figure 3: The 19th-century novel network colored according to author-gender
This visualization (Figure 3) reveals that works by female authors (colored light gray) and male authors (black) are more stylistically and thematically homogeneous within their respective gender classes. As a result of this similarity in ‘signals,’ female-authored books cluster together on the south side of the main network, while male-authored books are drawn together in the north.12 These two ‘views’ of the network allow us to begin imagining the larger macro-history of thematic-stylistic change and influence in the 19th-century novel. What is not obvious in this macro-view, however, is that a great many of the individual books we have traditionally studied are in fact ‘mutations’ or outliers from the general trends. Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin, for example, clusters closer to the works of male authors, and Maria Edgeworth’s Belinda has a signal that does not become dominant for forty years after the date of Belinda’s publication. Also absent from the macro-view are the individual thematic-stylistic ‘legacies’. Using three measures of network significance (weighted in-degree, weighted out-degree and Page-Rank), 13I will end my presentation with the argument that Jane Austen and Walter Scott are at once the least influenced (i.e. most original) of the early writers in the network and, at the same time, the most influential in terms of the longevity, or ‘fitness,’ of their thematic-stylistic signals. The signals introduced by Austen and Scott position them at the beginning of a stylistic-thematic genealogy; they are, in this sense, the literary equivalent of Homo erectus or, if you prefer, Adam and Eve.
references
Bastian, M., S. Heymann, et al. (2009). Gephi: An Open Source Software for Exploring and Manipulating Networks.
Blei, D. M., T. L. Griffiths, et al. (2004). Hierarchical topic models and the nested Chinese restaurant process. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Blei, D. M., A. Y. Ng, et al. (2003). Latent Dirichlet Allocation. Journal of Machine Learning Research 3: 993-1022.
Bloom, H. (1973). The anxiety of influence; a theory of poetry. New York: Oxford UP.
Bloom, H. (2011). The anatomy of influence: literature as a way of life. New Haven, Conn.: Yale UP.
Brik, O. M. (1929). Teaching Writers.
Chang, J., J. Boyd-Graber, et al. (2009). Reading Tea Leaves: How Humans Interpret Topic ModelsAdvances in Neural Information Processing Systems 22.
Eliot, T. S. (1920). The sacred wood; essays on poetry and criticism. London: Methuen.
Garcia, M., and C. Martin (2007). Function Words in Authorship Attribution Studies. Literary and Linguistic Computing: Journal of the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing 22(1): 49-66.
Grieve, J. (2007). Quantitative Authorship Attribution: An Evaluation of Techniques. Literary and Linguistic Computing: Journal of the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing 22(3): 251-270.
Hoover, D. L. (2001). Statistical Stylistics and Authorship Attribution: An Empirical Investigation. Literary and Linguistic Computing: Journal of the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing 16(4): 421-444.
Hoover, D. L. (2008). Quantitative Analysis and Literary Studies. A Companion to Digital Literary Studies. Oxford: Blackwell.
Martindale, C., and D. McKenzie (1995). On the Utility of Content Analysis in Author Attribution: The Federalist. Computers and the Humanities 29(4): 259-270.
Team, R. D. C. (2011). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Vienna: Austria, R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
Twain, M., and A. B. Paine (1975). Mark Twain’s letters. New York: AMS Press.
Yang, Y., and J. Pedersen (1997). A comparative study on feature selection in text categorization. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML ’97), Nashville, Tennessee.
Zhao, Y., and J. Zobel (2005). Effective and scalable authorship attribution using function words. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Berlin: Springer, pp. 174-189.
notes
1.Routinely attributed to Wilde, but of uncertain origin, Wilde probably ‘borrowed’ this quip.
2.An extreme case may be Fielding’s Shamela, which attempts to satirize Richardson’s Pamela.
3.Features with a corpus mean less than 0.10 were excluded. This resulted in 92 features being retained. For more on feature selection practices see: Martindale and McKenzie (1995), Yang and Pedersen (1997), Hoover (2001), Zhao and Zobel (2005), Garcia and Martin (2007), Grieve (2007), Hoover (2008)
4.For this research, the topic model was set to extract 500 latent topics.
5.‘Distance’ here is a measure of stylistic and thematic similarity. Distances were calculated using the default settings of the ‘dist()’ function in the R statistics package. See: Team (2011)
6.This is not simply a ‘proxy’ of convenience. It is, in fact, an ideal proxy, especially so when we consider that even plagiarism (the most obvious form of influence) can be accidental.
7.I’m grateful to my colleague Elijah Meeks who sees the world through network analysis goggles and who aided me in visualizing and analyzing this data.
8.Influence only works in one direction!
9.All network layouts employ Gephi’s built-in Force Atlas 2 algorithm.
10.Remember that time is not a feature in the similarity calculations. The arrangement of the nodes in a chronological fashion is a byproduct of the way in which the books signals change in a regular, chronological, manner.
11.In the larger presentation of this work, I will offer an explanation for why the 499 books in this isolated cluster are split off from the main network. One unifying element is time; most are books from a similar time period, but the full explanation is more nuanced.
12.Even in the satellite community, sub clustering by gender is apparent.
13.Weighted in-degree is a measure of influence coming into a node whereas weighted out-degree provides a measure of the influence a given node exerts on subsequent nodes. The Page-Rank algorithm can be used to gauge the significance/power/importance of a book in the overall network.","txt","2","",""
"1428","13","Connecting European Women Writers. The Selma Lagerlöf Archive and Women Writers Database","1","introduction
Arguments for investing time and resources in digital scholarly editions are often based upon the cultural and literary dignity of the authorship (Shillingsburg 2004). In the case of Selma Lagerlöf, as in the case of for example Ibsen, one can argue that her authorship is one of the most important in Swedish literary history and one of the most well known internationally of all Swedish authors. Following this line of argument, literary scholarly editions tend to be focused on single, canonized authorships, and since letters to the author and translations of his/her work are not usually included, the authorship is represented in splendid isolation.
from work to reception
We will discuss why and how the Selma Lagerlöf Archive (SLA), which makes the Selma Lagerlöf collection at the National Library of Sweden accessible and provides digital scholarly editions of her work, aims to create a broader historical context, including the intensive contacts within networks of European women translators and writers which were important for her success in Europe. What the research on Selma Lagerlöf until now lacks, is a more complete mapping of these patterns of dissemination, and also, of course, evidence of reception of her work in different countries. This has consequences for the Selma Lagerlöf Archive too. Charting the translations is not a small task, and investigating legal rights to be able to publish these translations online is perhaps even more difficult. This also needs to be a collective effort, since the source material is spread over Europe and written in different languages.
collaborative methods
The Selma Lagerlöf Archive’s participation in the COST Action ISO901 ‘Women Writers in History: Towards a New Understanding of European Literary Culture’ (2009-2013), facilitates the discovery of unknown or forgotten connections between European women in the literary field. By standardizing ‘author’ and ‘work’, but not ‘reception’, the Selma Lagerlöf Archive and the WomenWriters database (www.databasewomenwriters.nl) can exchange information on these levels. ‘Reception’ is expressed as a relation between ‘author’ and ‘work’. Thus the ‘author’ can function in different roles – as ‘reader’, ‘critic’, ‘admirer’ etc. ‘Work’ can be specified by type – ‘letter’, obituary’ etc. This is a flexible model, since it covers many different kinds of research material, and there is no need to agree on a common definition of ‘reception’, which would not be adequate for all research material and research questions of the projects using the database.
By way of microservices that are currently being developed, the metadata in the xml-databases of SLA, can be shared within the agreed frame of Women Writers-database, in addition to our other APIs. This collaboration benefits the SLA in two ways. Considering the international reach of Women Writers-database, it may function as an important output to the otherwise limited target group of SLA. SLA can also collect the relevant data on translations or receptions registered in the WomenWriters database and thereby making the time consuming task of finding and registering this information unnecessary.
The development of microservices follows the collective work carried out in COST Action ‘Interedition’ (van Zundert 2011), where the Selma Lagerlöf Archive also participated (although Sweden was not formally a member). The modular microservices developed will vary in implementation language and platform, but will be web-accessible to other services using REST-like interfaces. As for now, the Selma Lagerlöf Archive has not yet developed any standard format tool for visualizing the connections between European women writers, but evidently this will be an important task for the future and a powerful method for rewriting the European map of literary history.
comparing translations and reception documents
An inventory of translations is a first step towards discovering the mechanisms of dissemination of this – and other – authorships. But a qualitative analysis of the translations to different languages and of reception documents such as reviews, are also necessary for understanding the different national and cultural contexts in which the authorship was used. A possible tool in the qualitative analysis of the European translations of Selma Lagerlöf’s work is the development of Juxta and CollateX, which was also previously carried out in ‘Interedition’. The modularisation initiated in the previous COST Action ‘Open Scholarly Communities on the Web’ known as the Gothenburg model, had the objective to transform the collation from a ‘black box’ to a clear process with discrete chainable steps.
The web service versions of the collation step of Juxta and CollateX are primarily used interactively for comparing variants of Selma Lagerlöf’s work online within our own interface. But in addition to this, it allows for any electronic texts to be compared, thus creating the possibility of comparing different translations. Collation of translations is usually as laborious as collation of variants, but in this way we can more effectively trace how Selma Lagerlöf’s work has been transformed in different translations. Since the German translations were often used as sources for other European translations (for example to Czech and Russian), it is important to examine to what extent the translations were rewritten to accommodate to the cultural climate. For example, some of the German translations were explicitly directed towards the Heimatkunstbewegung, which can be described as a precedent to the Blut und Boden-literature in the 1930s (Ljung Svensson 2011). It is a question still unexplored, how this ideological rhetoric was translated into other languages, nations and ideologies.
The possibility of comparing electronic texts through collation may also be applied for other purposes than showing the deviations between two editions or translations. It can be used to discover similarities between texts. One ambition of the COST Action ‘Women Writers in History’ is to bring data together, which has, up until now, been dispersed among different archives, physical and digital. This allows for a quantitative approach in estimating the reach of female writers activities in Europe. The collected data will also be used qualitatively, for example in exploring patterns in the reception of women writers by critics, and if these patterns correspond to specific themes in the literary texts. Provided that the reception documents (for example reviews) are in the same language and in an electronic format, reviews might also be compared through the microservices, in order to find out if certain ways of describing female authors, or focusing on certain themes in their texts, recur. The same method – although still at an experimental stage – may be used to compare texts by different female authors as a shortcut to discovering common topics or themes. The advantage of this method is that the researchers don’t have to know beforehand what to search for, as when you search electronic texts for certain keywords. Similarities may appear that researchers would not have imagined.
conclusion
In order to revitalize the field of scholarly editing, the author’s work must be presented as nodes in cultural networks, involving different contexts and countries, where the texts were received, used and transformed, as well as different agents and institutions, participating in the dissemination of the authorship. This kind of scholarly editing is feasible if existing databases and tools are used to share and compare data. This method of working emphasizes both the text as a social object and digital scholarly edition as a collaborative activity (Robinson 2009).
references
Ljung Svensson, A. S. (2011). Jordens dotter. Selma Lagerlöf och den tyska hembygdslitteraturen/Die Tochter der Erde. Selma Lagerlöf und die deutsche Heimatliteratur um 1900, Göteborg och Stockholm: Makadam förlag.
Robinson, P. M. W. (2009). The Ends of Editing. Digital Humanities Quarterly 3(3).http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/3/000051/000051.html.
Shillingsburg, P. (2004). Hagiolatry, Cultural Engineering, Monument Building, and Other Functions of Scholarly Editing. In R. Mondiano, L. F. Searle, and P. Shillingsburg (eds.), Voice, Text, Hypertext. Emerging Practices in Textual Studies. Seattle, Washington: U of Washington P, pp. 412-423.
van Zundert, J., et al. (2011). Interedition: Principles, Practice and Products of an Open Collaborative Development Model for Digital Scholarly Editions. Book of Abstracts DH 2011, June 19-22, Stanford,http://dh2011abstracts.stanford.edu/xtf/view?docId=tei/ab-227.xml.","txt","2","",""
"1429","13","Constructing a Chinese as Second Language Learner Corpus for Language Learning and Research","1","Many researchers and language teachers around the world believe that language corpora have great potentials for improving second/foreign language learning and teaching.  Among various types of corpora resources, learner corpora in particular have received much attention recently. One of the most influential projects is the ICLE (International Corpus of Learner English) project led by Professor Granger in University of Louvain, Belgium. The new version of ICLE corpus contains 3.7 million words of EFL writing from learners representing 16 mother tongue backgrounds.  The ICLE corpus has helped to produce many research papers and pedagogical materials within the past decade. Although useful English learner corpora such as ICLE are widely available, very few learner corpora for other target languages are available.  
Recently, because of the rapid economic growth in China, an increasing number of students are learning Chinese as a second language. Although the number of Chinese as second language (CSL) learners is increasing rapidly around the world; very few CSL learner corpora are available for teaching, learning, and research. For CSL research, learner corpus can play an important role. CSL teachers and researchers can conduct research on learners’ interlanguage development and gain insights about leaner’s difficulties and needs. Material writers can further use the results of error analysis to produce useful pedagogical materials. CSL leaner corpus might also be used to better understand the differences among learners at different proficiency levels (cf. Cambridge English Profile Project).
This paper will introduce a new Chinese as second language learner corpus and related corpus search tools developed by MTC (Mandarin Teaching Center) and SC-TOP (Steering Committee of Test of Proficiency) in Taiwan. MTC is located at National Taiwan Normal University and it is the largest Chinese teaching centers in Taiwan. There are more than 1600 students enrolled in each quarter, and there are more than 150 teachers in this center. Students from more than 70 countries are studying in this center. SC-TOP is a language testing research center sponsored by Ministry of Education for developing various Chinese as a second language proficiency tests. Based on the data provided by these two centers, a 3 million word Chinese as a second language learner corpus has been developed. The MTC-TOP learner corpus includes the following two different types of learner data:
1.        CSL learners’ short essays written in various TOP tests.
2.        CSL students’ writing assignments at MTC
To facilitate corpus search, the learner corpus was further automatically tagged with a Chinese tagger called CKIP (Chinese Knowledge Information Processing) tagger developed by Academia Sinica, Taiwan. The POS-tagged CSL corpus is useful for research and teaching. In addition to the learner corpus, a web concordancer which has several different search options was also developed. This web concordancer allows users retrieve specific words and phrases from CSL learner corpus. Thus, various CSL learners’ usage can be retrieved and studied more easily and systematically.  Furthermore, the POS-tagged learner corpus can be used to search for collocates used by CSL learners.
In addition, it is also important to further analyze various errors made by CSL learners. Since it is not possible for computers to identify errors, native speakers were asked to tag this learner corpus.  25 types of major errors were first identified, and about 800000 words were tagged so far. These manually tagged errors can also be searched via a web interface. Because these learner data were produced by learners from various L1 language backgrounds, teachers and researchers can also find errors and patterns produced by CSL learners from different native language backgrounds.
To illustrate how this MTC-TOP learner corpus can benefit CSL research, we used this learner corpus to conduct a study on the acquisition of Chinese classifiers by various CSL learners. Chinese classifier is a notoriously difficult language feature for many CSL learners. In the past, most studies on Chinese classifiers learning often involved few subjects and were based on very limited number of learner errors. With the help of this 3 million words CSL corpus, the classifiers errors made by many learners from various first language backgrounds can be found more easily and examined more systematically. The analysis on classifier errors produced by different CSL learners also helps researchers to better identify the common Chinese classifiers errors. In addition to classifiers, other common errors made by CSL learners can also be investigated with the help of computerized corpus.  Several problematic areas (Chinese synonyms and Chinese particle le) will be further discussed in this paper.  The CSL learner corpus and the web concordancer should be able to help more researchers uncover CSL interlanguage patterns and conduct various types of research. It is evident that this CSL learner corpus can make significant impact on CSL teaching, learning, and research.","txt","2","",""
"1430","13","Content Creation by Domain Experts in a Semantic GIS System","1","introduction
The focus of this paper is on how an ontology-based GIS system can be populated with class instances and further maintained by domain experts with no support from ontological engineers. This is an old goal of knowledge engineering. We present our approach in the context of a specific Semantic GIS system called EventMap (Nakhimovsky 2010), but the techniques we propose should be of general interest. At the core of our approach are two simple observations. First, instances of a given class can be described by a table in which each row corresponds to an instance and each column to a property. Such tables can be created in a context that allows data validation for data properties and, for object properties, provides access to already created instances of the object class. If the tables are kept in the cloud (e.g., Google spreadsheets) then we have a ready-made environment for joint distributed authoring, essential for creating community-based resources. The second observation is that map layers can be described by KML documents which can be created using a variety of tools ranging from ArcGIS to the free KML editor built into Google Maps / My Places. This is a flexible arrangement that makes simple things easy and difficult things possible.
Specifically, in this paper we present two mechanisms for data entry: via a blog with links to KML data, in which each blog entry corresponds to an event; and via a Web application that reads in the relevant subset of an ontology (expressed as metadata tables) and provides a form that validates new class instances against that ontology.
the eventmap framework
An EventMap is a sequence of annotated maps produced by a GIS system and controlled by a Timeline: each map corresponds to a time interval, and together a map and a time interval represent an Event. The Timeline makes it possible to navigate event sequences and observe changing event patterns over time; the patterns depend on the query posed to the GIS system. Every event is linked to an annotation that can contain arbitrary web content, including images, multimedia, and output from Web applications. Internally, the content is represented by RDF graphs; specific event sequences, their maps, and their annotations are produced by a SPARQL query (DuCharme 2011).
Instead of thinking of an EventMap as a sequence of maps each corresponding to a time interval and annotated by a web page, one can think of it as a sequence of pages each annotated by a map. A good example of this kind of book is McEvedy (2003). EventMap is a framework for creating such books online.
 
Figure 1: An Event Representation
Figure 1 shows a Google map overlaid with a scanned and edited map of Afghanistan’s borders in 1879. It corresponds to the historical event of the treaty of Gandamak, formalizing the British occupation of the mountain passes into Afghanistan in response to rapid Russian advance into Central Asia. Pink strips on the Timeline correspond to events and link to event descriptions. The controls help navigate the events.
The Architecture of the Framework
The overall structure of the EventMap framework is shown in Figure 2. EventMap data are kept in a Primary Store, with links to other materials. The Store can be in any data structure that can be serialized in the Comma-Separated Values (CSV) format; this includes spreadsheet and relational database. The Store can be located in the cloud, which creates a framework for collaborative authoring that does not require advanced computer skills or server maintenance. We have been using Google spreadsheets, partly because Google provides HTML forms for editing them, and we can write code to validate user input and pre-populate the forms with data that the author must verify but rarely needs to type.
 
Figure 2: EventMap Architecture
In more detail, the Primary Store contains a number of Repositories, each a container of material on a specific topic, such as the history of Afghanistan borders, or the history of Arctic research during the Second International Polar Year. A repository contains the following kinds of materials:
•        data tables, each corresponding to a class of objects or events
•        metadata tables, one for each data table; they describe the table’s schema.
•        an OWL ontology that defines the classes of objects and events in data tables, and provides axioms about them.
When a repository is loaded, all the data tables are linearized as CSV (Comma-Separated Values) and passed to a Java servlet, together with the ontology. The servlet invokes the Jena library to build one big RDF graph out of the tables and the ontology. Individual EventMaps (e.g., the story of a particular Arctic expedition, or the changing patterns of networks of international cooperation) are produced by SPARQL queries from the repository graph, and sent to the timemap library (Timemap 2012) that controls the display of the map and the timeline.
creating a repository
To create a new repository one needs to
•        add to the ontology as needed;
•        populate data tables, using an HTML form with ontology-based validation;
•        create map layers, as KML files;
•        create annotations, which are Web content.
Only the first of these tasks requires a practicing ontologist; the rest is done by domain experts. The ontology and the data tables are aligned, in the sense that if a class has a certain property then the data table has a column whose header is the name of that property. In addition, if the class name has a Wikipedia entry with an infobox, we use the same property names as the infobox, gaining additional alignment with DBPedia.
eventmap authoring
We can usefully distinguish two levels of authoring: working with events within an existing EventMap, and creating a new EventMap. To add an event, one first needs to create a KML file with a placemark or several Placemarks for the event, and an HTML file with the event’s description. This is the creative part; the rest is just filling out a form with time data and links to resources. To edit an existing event the user works with the same tools, but requires a different level of access to the repository. Creating a new EventMap involves creating a metadata table for it, which may be too complex for some domain experts, although most of them will probably be able to copy an existing metadata table and modify it for their needs.
To recapitulate, we are trying to provide a range of options for data entry by domain experts. At one end are users who have access to ArcGIS, Adobe Dreamweaver, and competent designers who transform their knowledge and data into compelling maps and Web pages. At the opposite end are users who are content with simple vector-graphics layers, and a simple arrangement of text and images, to tell a story or to visualize a process. For this latter case, we provide a Blogger-based interface that makes it possible to create an EventMap as a sequence of blog entries. The only constraint is that each entry needs to specify the start and end times of the event, and a link to the KML file that describes the placemark(s).
comparison to similar efforts
As a story-telling and history-writing framework, EventMap resembles two other efforts: (Visual Eyes 2012) (formerly History Browser)  and (Pleiades 2012). Compared to Visual Eyes, EventMap requires less of a learning curve, and is more cleanly based on standard technologies. Compared to Pleiades, EventMap is more flexible because based on dates rather than a closed list of named ‘epochs.’
EventMaps should also be considered in the context of the larger Historical GIS effort (Gregory & Ell 2007). While EventMaps cannot match the scope of large national databases of geospacial data, Google spreadsheets’ storage capacity and computational power provide an adequate platform for many projects in which GIS databases are used. EventMaps can use a database as well, but databases are expensive to create, maintain, and make globally accessible, while Google servers offer an unparalleled global network for free.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Science Foundation [7017695 to A.N.].
references
DuCharme, B. (2011). Learning SPARQL. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly.
Gregory, I., and P. S. Ell (2007). Historical GIS: Technologies, Methodologies and Scholarship. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
McEvedy, C. (2003). The New Penguin Atlas of Ancient History: Revised Edition. London: Penguin.
Nakhimovsky, A. (2010). Timelines, Google Maps, and Visualization of History. Paper presented at the Biannual European Social Science History Conference (ESSHC) Ghent, April 13-16.
Pleiades (2012). http://pleiades.stoa.org/. Accessed March 1, 2012.
Timemap (2012). http://code.google.com/p/timemap/ Accessed February 28, 2012.
Visual Eyes (2012). http://www.viseyes.org/. Accessed March 1, 2012.","txt","2","",""
"1431","13","Contextual factors in literary quality judgments: A quantitative analysis of an online writing community","1","introduction
Some literary works and authors acquire enduring reputation, whereas others do not. What causes the difference is a contested issue. Fishelov (2010) distinguishes between a ‘beauty party’ and a ‘power party’, where the beauty party argues for the existence of aesthetic qualities, inherent in the work, while the power party argues that social power structures determine the outcome of canonisation processes. As argued by Miall (2006), the question should be decided empirically. However, because there is no objective measure of literary quality (if there were one, the discussion would be over) empirical investigation of the issue has been fraught with difficulty. Both parties can lay some claim to empirical evidence. For the power party, Rosengren (1987: 295-325) and Van Rees and Vermunt (1996: 317-333), among others, have shown that reputations to some extent are made by newspaper reviewers. For the other side, some of the evidence that Miall adduces suggests that foregrounded linguistic features (deviant from normal, non-literary usage) may be responsible for some of the (emotional) response that literary reading evokes. It is long way, however, from that finding to showing that this sort of textual properties can actually explain a work’s longer-term reputation.
As a way forward in this debate, I propose to look into online writing communities, i.e. websites where communities of amateur writers publish and discuss their poems and stories. The sites offer the potential for empirical and quantitative research into literary evaluation because they contain large quantities of works and responses to these works. Text analysis can be combined with statistical analysis of number of responses and ratings.
In this paper I will look at Verhalensite, a Dutch-language online writing community, unfortunately no longer active. At the basis of the paper is a site download that contains ca. 60,000 stories and poems, written by 2500 authors. The texts received 350,000 comments and the comments drew another 450,000 reactions. 150,000 comments were accompanied by a rating in terms of 1 to 5 stars. I reported about Verhalensite and its research potential in (Boot 2011a). In (Boot 2011b) I discuss available data and use them in an analysis of the possibility to predict long-term activity on the site based on activity and response in the first four weeks of site membership.
context factors
I focus here on the role of context factors in determining commenters’ response to the works published on the site. I look at pairs of one author and one commenter, where the commenter has responded to at least one of the author’s works. I select only those pairs where both author and commenter have published at least ten works. This makes it possible to compute linguistic similarity between authors’ and commenters’ texts and the similarity of their genre preferences. There are 49,437 of author-commenter pairs fulfilling these requirements, and we can compute statistical relationships between the contextual factors and the response variables. As an example I give correlations between some of the context variables and the number of comments the commenter has given the author, presumably reflecting the commenter’s opinion of the author’s works:
Table 1: Partial correlations with number of comments from commenter to author, given author productivity, commenter’s average number of comments per week and overlap in the commenter’s and author’s active periods on the site
Variable        Partial correlation        Variable grouping
Similarity creative texts        0.06        Author-commenter similarity
Similarity commentary texts        0.11        
Difference in numbers of poems        -0.11        
Same preferred genre        0.09        
Replies by author to comments (fraction)        0.07        Author networking activity
Comments by author on others        0.15        
Comments by author on commenter        0.57        
Ratings by author        0.13        
Prose writers        0.08        Text properties
The first four variables are measures of similarity between the author’s and commenter’s texts. The correlations show that the closer commenter and author are in terms of language, in the amount of poetry they write, and in genre, the more likely the commenter is to respond to the author’s works. I use two aspects of textual similarity. The similarity between authors’ and commenters’ creative texts (poems and stories) is computed using Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC), argued by Pennebaker (e.g. Pennebaker & Ireland 2011: 34-48) to reflect important psychological properties. LIWC counts words in grammatical, psychological and semantic categories (e.g. pronouns, positive emotions, or work-related words). I use the cosine distance over all LIWC categories as a measure of textual similarity. For the commentary texts, I created a number of site-specific vocabulary lists corresponding to certain aspects of the response: compliments (good, nice, cool), greetings (hi, welcome, grtz), critical (not necessarily negative) discourse (dialogue, stanza, suspense), negative response (disappointing, boring, missing), and some others. I computed frequencies for each of these categories. Textual similarity between author and commenter was computed from the weighted differences between their frequencies in the site-specific categories.
The next four variables are measures of the author’s networking activity, which was shown by Janssen (1998: 265-280) to be an important factor in determining the amount of critical attention that an author receives. They represent respectively the fraction of received comments that the author replies to (usually to say thank you, sometimes with a longer reaction), the number of times the author comments on others’ works, the number of comments the author has given to the specific commenter (the quid-pro-quo effect), and the number of ratings that the author has given. All four have positive influence on the amount of comments. The next variable shows that if the shared genre is prose (and not poetry), the commenter is more likely to rate the author’s works highly. At present I have no hypothesis as to why this should be the case.
In terms of the discussion about literary evaluation, the numbers are interesting because none of the context variables reflect properties of the texts (except for the prose/poetry distinction). They show that to some extent literary evaluation depends on linguistic agreement between author and evaluator and on an author’s networking activities. While at a general level this is perhaps hardly surprising, it is interesting to obtain a measure of the (relative) strengths of these influences, including the quid-pro-quo effect. It is also interesting to note LIWC is to some extent able to capture linguistic distance between authors.
As a next step in this analysis, I hope to look more closely into alternative measures of textual similarity and the extent to which they can predict the number of comments exchanged in an author-commenter pair. One interesting candidate would be Latent Semantic Analysis, possibly using only words from certain semantic fields. It would also be interesting to investigate the differences between commenters in sensitivity to the discussed variables. The numbers given here reflect average behaviour, and it seems very likely that some commenters will care more than others for e.g. linguistic agreement between their own works and the works that they comment on. A follow-up question would then be whether it is possible to cluster commenters based on their preferences.
discussion
To some extent a paper such as this one is unusual in the Digital Humanities context. Work in Digital Humanities has tended to focus on texts, their stylistics, authors, their sources, and the vehicles (editions) that bring texts to their modern students. Reader response has been largely ignored in our field. The discussion above shows some of the influence of contextual factors on literary evaluation, but many other sorts of analysis could and should be undertaken on the basis of this material. For one thing, I have not yet investigated the effects of ‘power’ (i.e. the influence of third persons on commenters’ behaviour). Similarly, many analyses at the level of the individual work have yet to be performed. The existence of digital environments such as online writing communities has made these analyses feasible and can thus contribute to broadening the scope of Digital Humanities.
references
Boot, P. (2011a). Literary evaluation in online communities of writers and readers [to appear]. Scholarly and Research Communication.
Boot, P. (2011b). Predicting long-term activity in online writing communities: A Quantitative Analysis of Amateur Writing. Paper presented at Supporting Digital Humanities 2011, Copenhagen. http://crdo.up.univ-aix.fr/SLDRdata/doc/show/copenhagen/SDH-2011/submissions/sdh2011_submission_1.pdf (accessed 23 March 2012).
Fishelov, D. (2010). Dialogues with/and great books: the dynamics of canon formation. Eastbourne: Sussex Academic Press.
Janssen, S. (1998). Side-roads to success: The effect of sideline activities on the status of writers. Poetics 25(5): 265-280.
Miall, D. S. (2006). Literary reading: empirical & theoretical studies. New York: Peter Lang.
Pennebaker, J. W., and M. E. Ireland (2011). Using literature to understand authors: The case for computerized text analysis. Scientific Study of Literature 1(1): 34-48.
Rosengren, K. E. (1987) Literary criticism: Future invented. Poetics 16(3-4): 295-325.
Van Rees, K., and J. Vermunt (1996). Event history analysis of authors’ reputation: Effects of critics’ attention on debutants’ careers. Poetics 23(5): 317-333.","txt","2","",""
"1432","13","Contours of the Past: Computationally Exploring Civil Rights Histories","1","Historical insight is only achieved when the contours of our view of the past are as clear as possible.
(Frank Ankersmit)
Each history provides a unique view of the past by picking out a path through the field of possible events (Veyne 1984: 36). And because histories respond to earlier histories, their paths intersect. At these intersections lie events which become taken for granted as ‘sites to be visited’ on ‘a pre-arranged itinerary marking out the recommended scenic route (and the beaten track) from one major point of interest to the next’ (Rigney 1990: 37). Some of these itineraries are then reified as periods.
If we accept these itineraries too readily, we risk missing opportunities for new insights. Historical insight results not just from the accumulation of new facts about the past, but from the development of new views upon the facts we already know. The more stories we have about some piece of the past, ‘the deeper our insight into it will be […] because only the presence of other stories enables us to draw the contours and to recognize the specificity of the view of the past presented in each one’ (Ankersmit 1983: 219).
In 1983, Frank Ankersmit theorized a procedure for drawing these contours by clustering stories that contain overlapping sets of propositions. By taking a set of stories about a person, place, or period, transforming each story into a list of propositions, and aligning them in such a way that the lists could be compared, Ankersmit posited that ‘certain classificatory patterns [would] automatically appear’ (Ankersmit, 1983: 145).
The Contours of the Past project is testing Ankersmit’s theory by building tools for comparing and contrasting histories of the civil rights movement. The historiography of the civil rights movement exemplifies how periods coalesce around dominant stories. The first generation of civil rights scholars ‘conceived of the civil rights struggle as primarily a political movement that secured legislative and judicial triumphs’ (Lawson 1991). The chronology of this movement began with Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka in 1954 and ended with the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Due in part to intense media coverage, by the end of the twentieth century this chronology had become a well-beaten path not only among scholars but also in popular understanding.
In the past decade, a new generation of scholars has sought to broaden this itinerary, telling ‘the story of a ‘long civil rights movement’ that took root in the liberal and radical milieu of the late 1930s, was intimately tied to the ‘rise and fall of the New Deal Order,’ accelerated during World War II, [and] stretched far beyond the South’ (Hall 2005). The concept of the Long Civil Rights Movement (LCRM) is about more than simply replacing one story with a new one. By widening the scope of the civil rights movement, the LCRM opens space for a greater diversity of stories, enabling greater insight but making it more difficult to grasp the movement as whole. We aim to show how computational analysis might complement the work of scholars evolving new periodizations and perspectives, by providing tools for comprehending narrative patterns in a more complex whole.
We are applying cutting-edge text analysis techniques to two corpuses: eighty-seven books made available by the UNC Press through their Publishing the LCRM project, and transcripts of approximately 350 interviews conducted by the Southern Oral History Program as part of their LCRM initiative.1 The specific techniques we are applying are event parsing and narrative clustering.
Event parsing involves identifying sentences that communicate some event, for example a strike, a protest, a bombing, or a legislative act. Specifically, it involves identifying frames, conceptual structures that describe particular events along with their participants and settings.2 Typically event parsing has been used for detection and tracking of topics in news media, automated question answering, text summarization, and the production of structured data from unstructured text.
We apply event parsing to different ends. We do not treat events as ‘facts’ that can be consumed independently of the histories from which they were ‘extracted.’ Historical knowledge inheres within the narrative form, so the ‘extraction’ metaphor is a poor fit for tools that aim to enhance access to historical knowledge (Shaw 2010). Instead, we use the results of event parsing as features for comparing stories though narrative clustering: treating stories as ‘bags of events’ and applying statistical techniques for grouping together similar ‘bags.’
We envision two forms of comparison. First, along the lines of Ankersmit’s original proposal, we can highlight the specificity of a given history by showing which events it recounts that are not recounted by similar histories. In conjunction with information about the history such as when, where, and by whom it was produced, such comparisons could provide a powerful means of assessing the depth and scope of a given collection of histories.
Second, given a group of histories recounting overlapping sets of events, we can compare their ‘speeds.’ Roland Barthes noted that an event that takes up dozens of pages in one history may be covered by just one in another – a phenomenon he called acceleration.3 Because we propose to bring together histories that recount the same events, and because those events are parsed from the actual texts of those histories, we can potentially compare how different histories speed up and slow down time.
Contours of the Past is comparable to recent projects applying topic modeling to historical sources such as diaries and newspaper archives (Blevins 2011; Nelson). Topic modeling is a statistical technique for discovering independent topics in some collection of documents, where a ‘topic’ is defined as a group of words that tend to appear in the same documents (Blei, Ng and Jordan 2003). Topic modeling has found favor among digital humanists for quickly identifying themes in a large collection of documents without having to specify some set of themes ahead of time.
However, topic modeling as it is usually applied directly to the words used in historical documents will mainly reflect patterns of word usage. This is exactly what is desired for investigations of diction and style, but for identifying common patterns of historical narration, this may not be the best approach. An oral history containing a firsthand account may use language that is very different from that found in a scholarly monograph, even if both sources are describing the ‘same’ event. Yet two sentences may evoke the same semantic frame even if they do not have any words in common. Thus we can potentially find common patterns of historical narration across different kinds of narrative source by applying clustering techniques, not at the surface level of language (the specific words used), but at the level of frame-semantic representation.
references
Agirre, E., and P. G. Edmonds (2006). Word Sense Disambiguation: Algorithms and Applications. Dordrecht: Springer http://www.wsdbook.org/.
Ankersmit, F. R. (1983). Narrative Logic: A Semantic Analysis of the Historian’s Language. The Hague: M. Nijhoff.
Barthes, R. (1981). The Discourse of History. Translated by S. Bann. In E. S. Shaffer (ed.), Comparative Criticism: A Yearbook 3. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
Blei, D. M., A. Y. Ng, and M. I. Jordan (2003). Latent Dirichlet Allocation The Journal of Machine Learning Research  3: 993 http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jmlr.2003.3.4-5.993.
Blevins, C. (2011). Topic Modeling Historical Sources: Analyzing the Diary of Martha Ballard. Proceedings of Digital Humanities 2011. Stanford, CA, 19-22 June 2011. http://dh2011abstracts.stanford.edu/xtf/view?docId=tei/ab-173.xml.
Gildea, D., and D. Jurafsky (2002). Automatic Labeling of Semantic Roles. Computational Linguistics 28(3): 245  http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/089120102760275983.
Hall, J. D. (2005). The Long Civil Rights Movement and the Political Uses of the Past. Journal of American History  91(4): 1235  http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/3660172.
Lawson, S. F. (1991). Freedom Then, Freedom Now: The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement. The American Historical Review  96(2): 456 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2163219.
Nelson, R. K. Mining the Dispatch. Digital Scholarship Lab, University of Richmondhttp://dsl.richmond.edu/dispatch/.
Rigney, A. (1990). The Rhetoric of Historical Representation: Three Narrative Histories of the French Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
Shaw, R. (2010). From Facts to Judgments: Theorizing History for Information Science. Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 36(2): 13http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bult.2010.1720360207.
Veyne, P. (1984). Writing History: Essay on Epistemology. Translated by M. Moore-Rinvolucri. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan UP.
notes
1.See the Publishing the LCRM project at https://lcrm.lib.unc.edu/blog/ and the LCRM Initiative athttp://www.sohp.org/content/our_research/the_long_civil_rights_movement_initiative/.
2.More specifically, it involves two tasks: first identifying the frames invoked by particular words in a text (a form of word sense disambiguation) and then assigning entities to the various roles in each frame, known as semantic role labeling. For an overview of the former, see Agirre and Edmonds (2006). For the latter, see Gildea & Jurafsky (2002).
3.Barthes (1981: 9) hypothesized that ‘the nearer we are to the historian’s own time […] the slower the history becomes.’","txt","2","",""
"1433","13","Corpus Coranicum: A digital landscape for the study of the Qu'ran","1","introduction
In 2007 begun the project Corpus Coranicum located at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Science and Humanities with an estimated duration of twelve years. A goal of the project is a holistic documentation of the holy text. The project consists of different modules: Collection of early manuscripts, documentation of environmental texts to the Quran, documentation of alternate writings and finally a commentary on each sura of the Quran. In the last years the technological infrastructure has been set up and data was collected in a SQL database. The commentary of the  was realised in XML and is stored in a XML-database. The website of the project thus combines SQL and XML in an integrated information system. Lately, a bibliography consisting of 8000 references was added to the system. Further investigations are directed more on a scientific dating, analysing the materiality of early written documents. They are scheduled for 2012/13 within a French-German joint research project. Another new module is a glossary of the  and early Arabic literature. For overcoming troubles in the presentation of early Arabic script a special font has been developed: The Coranica.
The project Corpus Coranicum began at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Science and Humanities in 2007 with a planned duration of 12 years. The project aims at both a holistic edition of the Quran and also an extensive commentary. In addition to the Al-Azhar Quran edition from 1923/1924, this project will provide the reader with early written testimonies as well as oral reading variants that are manifested in early islamic literature.
manuscripta
The project sees the module Manuscripta Coranica as following the tradition of G. Bergsträßers planned Apparatus Criticus, which due to Bergsträßers early death could never be realised. Thus the project aims at a new approach to the text of the Quran. Bergsträßer collected the oldest Quran manuscripts by travelling the Arabic world in the 1920s with a 35-mm camera.
 
Figure 1: A page from the Kodex Meknes from the collection of Bergsträßer
These photographs remained lost until members of the Corpus Coranicum found the filmstrips in 2008 (Higgins 2008). Immediately we began to digitize the images in levels of grey. The project can therefore present digitizations from Quran manuscripts in the module Manuscripta Coranica that are lost today. A database containing metadata that includes the range of verses in one image has been developed and filled. The early manuscripts have a high degree of ambiguity, as vocals and diacritics were used irregularly and different from today. Thus these manuscripts document the continuity as well as the development of the Arabic writing system.
 
Figure 2: Same page in the module Manuscripta Coranica
The Quran was revealed to Mohammed from God via the angel Gabriel beginning in 610 (western dating). Until 632, the year of Mohammed’s death, the divine revelations were mainly orally memorized and written on palm leaves. The Quran consists of 114 chapters that are called suras. Each sura consists of a different number of verses with a total number of 6326 verses. The length of the verses degrees from sura one to 114. The Corpus Coranicum aims at documenting the double string of the quranic textual history, as it was handwritten and orally (which was codified in later islamic sources) passed on next generations. So, beneath the module Manuscripta Coranica, which documents the handwritten tradition of text, the oral reading tradition of the Quran has to be documented as well.
lectiones
This is the module Lectiones Coranicae, in which we present the different readings of the Quran. In this module only these variants that have phonetic effects, are collected. Each variant is assigned to one or more reader or the bequeathing person. A synoptical view on these variants looks like a score of the Quran.
 
Figure 3: Lectiones Coranicae
commentary
The commentary on each sura contains different parts. First, texts from the environment of the Quran like the bible, Talmud and early Arabic inscriptions, papyri and others have to be mentioned. We call these texts intertexts. Here one encounters a high diversity of different writing systems, such as Greek, Syrian, Pahlawi and others. Sources are therefore found in many different languages. With this collection of heterogeneous texts connected to each verse of the Quran the user will be able to draw a map of traditions that were mentioned in the holy text.
 
Figure 4: The module commentary on the Quran
The grammar in the suras is the theme of the second part of the commentary. A word can be explained through comparisons with other manifestations of the word in the Quran. In addition, the identification of Quranic loan words must be mentioned. In order to facilitate this work, a database Glossarium Coranicum has been developed. The formal structure of each sura is the subject of another part of the commentary. The literal appearance of oaths, revelations and other structural phenomena are recorded in this section, thus documenting the formal history of Quranic speech. After having captured the lexical, grammatical and literal characteristics of the sura, it is possible to identify insertions, in so far as they can be proofed following the interpolation hypothesis. The interpretation is the last part of the commentary for each sura. On the one hand each text can be assembled in different ways, reflecting the chronology of the sura’s formation. On the other hand the differences to the intertexts can be used to show the uniqueness of the sura.
the digital landscape
Coming to the digital environment of the project, we try to organize the information in different databases that provide the backbone of the Corpus Coranicum:
•        Manuscripta Coranica
•        Lectiones Coranicae
•        Bibliographia Coranica
•        Glossarium Coranicum
•        Intertexts
•        Quran itself
 
Figure 5: The module intertexts
The connection between these databases is the sura and the verse. It is thus possible to show all connected information for one verse: the manuscripts showing the verse, the intertexts of the verse and the loan words used in the verse. The commentary for each sura is stored in XML, following and extending the transcription rules of the Text Encoding Initiative. We therefore, have a heterogeneous digital information landscape, where different and yet separated information systems are bundled under one umbrella. Generally stated, the different cultures the project deals with are combined within this information system. The usage of different writing systems and languages are thus another challenge in the project. As available fonts were unable to represent ancient Arabic writings (the vocalisation points are orientated on modern Arabic writing systems) a special font had to be developed within the project, called Coranica, which we offer as well for download as open source.
Arabic digital philology is a young and emerging field in the digital humanities. Speech technologies like the Hopper of the Perseus project or the Buckwalter ensive arabic dictionary, remain unfulfilled. However, freshly published resources like the Lane dictionary can be used to broaden the perception of Arabic texts. In my presentation I will demonstrate the techniques and web-contents of the Corpus Coranicum, as the first results of the project goals are published in the first half of 2012. Thus the Quran will be presented for the first time as a digital reference system not only for the Quran itself, but as well integrating other sources from the early Arabic and old Ancient world. Thus, philology must make sense to the text itself (Pollock 2009).
references
Bergsträsser, G. (1993). Nichtkanonische Koranlesarten im Muhtasab des Ibn-Ginnī / von G. Bergsträsser. Egelsbach: Hänsel-Hohenhausen.
Higgins, A. (2008). The Lost Archive. Wall Street Journal. Available at:http://online.wsj.com/article/SB120008793352784631.html (accessed  25 March 2012).
Pollock, S. (2009). Future philology? The fate of a soft science in a hard world. Critical Inquiry. 35(4): 931-961.
Spitaler, A. (1935). Die Verszählung des Koran nach islamischer Überlieferung. München: Bayer. Akad. d. Wissenschaften.
Wansbrough, J. (2004). Quranic Studies: Sources and Methods of Scriptural Interpretation. London: Prometheus Books.","txt","2","",""
"1434","13","Culpeper's legacy: How title pages sold books in the 17th century","1","Nicholas Culpeper (1616–1654) was the best known name in seventeenth century medical publishing in London and is listed in the English Short Title Catalogue (ESTC) as the author of more than 230 books and as the translator of dozens more. An apothecary, man-midwife, and astrophysician, Culpeper is best remembered as the translator and editor of the London Dispensatory (1649), an unlicensed and best-selling translation of thePharmacopoeia Londinensis, the official medicine book of the Royal College of Physicians. However, modern scholarship tells us that Culpeper was only partly responsible for his prodigious and lasting success. Much of his fame can be attributed to the efforts of his many publishers and printers, who over several decades turned the name Culpeper into a commercial brand by reprinting, reissuing, and frequently misrepresenting the author’s relatively few authentic works (see McCarl 1996; Furdell 2002). During his lifetime Culpeper became one of the first names in scientific writing that could sell books. Books bearing his name were widely published throughout the eighteenth century, and sporadically to the present day.
This paper takes the case of Culpeper as a pilot study of title pages as a form of advertisement. Extra copies of title pages were commonly printed as flyers and posted on booksellers’ stalls, hung on cleft sticks, or tacked to walls (Shevlin 1999: 48). In the seventeenth century, the title page – including the title of the work – was largely the domain of the bookseller and printer (McKerrow 1928: 91; Shevlin 1999: 52), making title pages a part of what Genette calls ‘publisher’s peritext’ (1997: 16). In this paper we investigate the typographic and text-structural features of the title page in books attributed to Culpeper. The work builds on an earlier pilot study (Tyrkkö 2011) that identified the systematic nature in which printers and publishers made commercial use of not only the name Culpeper, but also the paratextual features of his previous books in an effort to emulate the style of his authentic works.
To enable the structural and typographical analysis of these title pages, the title pages of all books listed from the period 1649-1700 that mention Culpeper’s name and are available at the British Library, Cambridge University Library or Wellcome Trust Library were transcribed and annotated for structural parts and named entities, as well as for visual features such as layout, graphic elements, and different typefaces and font sizes thereof. The annotation process started with the taking of close measurements, down to one fifth of a millimeter, of the aforementioned elements from original artefacts, and was completed using digital facsimiles from Early English Books Online (EEBO).
The annotation scheme is based on the TEI P5 Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, using elements from the Core, Default text structure, and Names, Dates, People, and Places modules to annotate the textual structure and named entities, and elements from the Core, Representation of primary sources andTables, Formulæ, and Graphics modules to annotate the visual layout of the title page. For the purposes of annotating the typographical layout with sufficient accuracy and consistency, we have developed an experimental system for annotating the different typefaces and their sizes, using the ’rend’ attribute and a controlled value set. This system – which is based on relating the size of the different typefaces used on the title page to the absolutely measured ’base type’ of the text – is intended to combine the benefits of absolute and relative measurement and to alleviate the difficulties caused by working with digital facsimiles, such as unknown scaling factors and distortion of proportions.
The quantitative analysis related the visual and structural features of the title pages to the bibliographic and sociohistorical parameters of the texts – such as stated target audience, format, identity and geographic location of the publisher and printer, publication year (whether before or after Culpeper’s death) and the known relationship of the text to Culpeper. This data is imported into a database together with the abovementioned bibliographic and sociohistorical data, obtained from the ESTC, the British Book Trade Index(BBTI), the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (ODNB) and earlier book historical research.
The database of paratextual, bibliographic and sociohistorical data will be queried using methods of multivariate analysis to identify relationships between the physical features of the title pages and the variables of their production histories. The analyses will reveal diachronic trends in the design of title pages bearing the name Culpeper, and bring to light the underlying factors which influenced the decisions regarding the physical presentation of the texts and to highlight the different means used by printers and publishers to market their products. More specifically, this allows us to reconstruct a timeline of how the commercial brand of Culpeper was created and identify which features of the title page were specific to the brand, which were typical for the time and which were specific to particular publisher’s or printer’s house style. The findings will be examined in light of broader book historical scholarship on such features in an effort to distinguish features specific to the corpus of Culpeper books.
references
Early English Books Online (EEBO). http://www.eebo.chadwyck.com/.
English Short Title Catalogue (ESTC). http://www.estc.bl.uk/.
Furdell, E. L. (2002). Publishing and Medicine in Early Modern England. Rochester: U of Rochester P.
Genette, G. (1997). Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation. Tr. by J. E. Lewin. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
McCarl, M. R. (1996). Publishing the Works of Nicholas Culpeper, Astrological Herbalist and Translator of Latin Medical Works in Seventeenth-Century London. Canadian Bulletin of Medical History / Bulletin canadien d’histoire de la médecine 13(2): 225-276.
McKerrow, R. B. (1928). An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students. 2nd impression with corrections. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (ODNB). http://www.oxforddnb.com/.
Shevlin, E. F. (1999). “To reconcile book and title, and make ‘em kin to one another”: The evolution of the title’s contractual functions. Book History 2(1): 42-77.
TEI Consortium, eds. TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Version 1.9.1. Last modified 5 March, 2011. TEI Consortium. http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/P5/. (Accessed 31 October, 2011).
Tyrkkö, J. (2011). Selling Culpeper: A case study into the use of title pages in seventeenth century commercial publishing. Presentation at SHARP 2011, Washington D.C., July 14-17, 2011.","txt","2","",""
"1435","13","DeRiK: A German Reference Corpus of Computer-Mediated Communication","1","project background and focus of the paper
In view of the increasing amount of reading and writing that people do on the Internet, corpus designers who set out to provide balanced corpora that include all relevant text types of contemporary language should also include samples of genres of computer-mediated communication (CMC) such as e-mail, weblogs, microblogging on Twitter, discussion boards and wiki discussions, chats and instant messaging conversations, and communication in social network sites. In our paper we present selected aspects of an ongoing project that aims at building a reference corpus of German CMC, called DeRiK (‘Deutsches Referenzkorpus zur internetbasierten Kommunikation’).1 DeRiK is a joint initiative of TU Dortmund University and the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and the Humanities (BBAW). The corpus will be integrated into the lexical information system provided by the BBAW project Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache (DWDS,www.dwds.de).2
In our paper we will focus on the role of the DeRiK component in the DWDS framework (section 2) and on CMC-specific issues of corpus annotation (section 3).
integrating cmc discourse into a corpus of contemporary german: motivation and application fields
DWDS (www.dwds.de) is a lexical information system developed by and hosted at the BBAW. The system offers one-click-access to three different types of resources (Geyken 2007):
a) lexical resources: a common language dictionary,3 an etymological dictionary, and a the¬saurus;
b) corpus resources: a balanced reference corpus (called ‘DWDS core corpus’) of German ranging from 1900 up to now, a set of additional newspaper corpora, and specialized corpora;
c) statistical resources for words and word combinations.
These resources are displayed alongside one another in separate panels (cf. Fig. 1). The system offers the choice among several views, i.e. between several profiles with predefined panel combinations.
 
Figure 1: Web frontend of the DWDS system (http://www.dwds.de)
The CMC component DeRiK (‘Deutsches Referenzkorpus zur internetbasierten Kommunika¬tion’) will be integrated into this framework both as an independent panel and as a subcorpus of the DWDS core corpus. The sampling of the CMC genres in DeRiK is guided by the findings of the ‘ARD/ZDF-Onlinestudie’, a German online usage survey conducted once per year (www.ard-zdf-onlinestudie.de). The findings of this survey allow us to derive a key for the composition of our corpus. However, for practical reasons the project will set out to acquire data of only those CMC applications on the Internet for which the users have explicitly granted permission for (re-)distributing and (re-)using their written utterances for non-commercial purposes/academic research.4 The first partial corpus of DeRiK will include discourse from Wikipedia talk pages, a selection of forum and weblog discussions, chat conversations, and postings of selected Twitter users who have licensed their tweets under Creative Commons. We hope that in the long term changes in IPR restrictions within the domain of discourse on the Internet will enable us to apply more principled methods of data sampling.
The integration of the CMC reference corpus into the DWDS system may be valuable for various research and application fields, for example:
a) Language variation, language change and stylistics: A general-language corpus that includes a CMC component will provide a broad empirical basis (a) for further, corpus-based investigations of the usage and dissemination of CMC-specific phenomena across linguistic varieties and digital genres, and (b) for comparative analyses of the features of CMC discourse and of “traditional” written genres (e.g. newspaper, fiction, scientific writing, nonliterary prose); it will thus facilitate to track and describe how new linguistic patterns and communicative genres emerge.5
b) Lexicology and lexicography: Besides genre-specific discourse markers and netspeak jargon (like ‘lol’laughing out loud or ‘imho’ in my humble opinion), new vocabulary is characteristic for CMC discourse, e.g. ‘funzen’ (an abbreviated variant of ‘funktionieren’ to function) or ‘gruscheln’ (a function of a German social network platform, most likely a blending of ‘grüßen’ greet and ‘kuscheln’ cuddle). There are also CMC-specific processes of lexical-semantic changes, e.g. the broadening of the concept of ‘Freund’ (friend). Up-to-date lexical resources should document and describe these tendencies by integrating CMC data into their data basis. Once the first partial corpora of the DeRiK corpus are made available in the DWDS system, it is intended to extend the DWDS dictionary component with entries describing new lexemes that have evolved from CMC discourse. In addition, the DWDS corpus system will then allow one to track how new vocabulary from CMC discourse (such as the examples mentioned above) spreads into ‘traditional’ genres (e.g. newspaper, fiction, nonliterary prose).
c) Language teaching: CMC has become an important part of everyday communication. Language- and culture-specific properties of CMC should thus also be regarded in communicative approaches to Second Language Teaching. In this context, the DeRiK corpus and the documentation of CMC vocabulary in the DWDS dictionary may be useful resources. In school teaching, students with German as a native language may use the DWDS system to compare written language with CMC and to explore how style varies across different genres.
annotation of cmc-specific phenomena
One advantage of integrating DeRiK into the DWDS system is that users can profit from the DWDS corpus annotation and querying facilities: The corpus resources which are currently available in the DWDS system are lemmatized with the TAGH morphology (cf. Geyken & Hanneforth 2006) and tagged with the part-of-speech tagger moot (cf. Jurish 2003). The corpus search engine DDC (Dialing DWDS Concordancer) supports linguistic queries on several annotation levels (word forms, lemmas, STTS part-of-speech categories), filtering (e.g. by text type) and sorting options.
Since all corpus resources in the DWDS system are encoded according the guidelines of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI-P5), the project aims to use and customize TEI for the appropriate base-level annotation of the CMC sub-corpus. For this purpose, we have developed a TEI-compliant annotation schema that
•        provides a macro-structure of CMC discourse which should cover as many genres as possible (see section 3.1);
•        provides a suggestion for the description of CMC-specific phenomena which is oriented mainly on surface features (for instance, the annotation will cover interaction signs of various types; see section 3.2 for details).
The TEI-related details of this schema are described in Beißwenger et al. (2012).6 The discussion in this paper will focus on two annotation issues: The representation of CMC-specific micro- and macrostructures (section 3.1) and the annotation of typical ‘netspeak’ elements (section 3.2).
Annotation of CMC-specific micro- and macrostructures
We introduced the category posting as a basic element to capture CMC micro- and macrostructures. A postingis defined as a content unit that is being sent to the server ‘en bloc’. Postings can usually be recognized by their formal structure, even if they have different forms and structures across CMC genres. This facilitates the automatic segmentation and annotation of CMC micro- and macrostructures.
We use the term microstructure to refer to the internal structure of postings. There are cases in which a posting consists of exactly one portion of text. In other CMC genres, e.g. in discussion groups, postings may contain divisions and markup used by the author to structure their content.
We use the term macrostructure to describe how the postings are sequenced. While microstructures are generated by an individual author, macrostructures do not emerge from the actions of just one user but from all posting activities of all users involved in a CMC conversation plus server routines for ordering the incoming postings.
In our TEI schema, we represent structures on the microstructure level (which result from the planning and composition decisions of one author) using the <p> element (‘paragraph’) from the TEI standard. Structures on the macrostructure level, in contrast, are described using the <div> element (‘division’). In addition, we differentiate between two major types of CMC macrostructures:
•        logfile structures, which arrange the postings in a linear chronological order based on when they reached the server.
•        thread structures, which arrange the postings in a sequence and use two dimensions with specific semantics: the above/below dimension representing a temporal ‘before/after’ relation; the left/rightdimension (by indentation), which usually symbolizes the topical affiliation of one posting to a previous posting.
Annotation of interaction signs
The corpus-based investigation of ‘netspeak’ jargon is interesting in many research contexts (style variation and language change, discourse management, language teaching etc.). Our annotation schema copes for a set of ‘netspeak’ phenomena which we term ‘interaction signs’. The term builds on the category ‘interaktive Einheiten’ which has been introduced in the Grammatik der deutschen Sprache, a three-volume scientific grammar of the German Language (cf. Zifonun et al. 1997), to classify interjections (such as ‘hm’ or ‘oh my god’) and responsives (such as ‘yes’ and ‘no’) in spoken discourse7. In contrast to part-of-speech-categories, interaction signs are not syntactically integrated and do not contribute to the compositional structure of sentences. In spoken discourse, they serve as devices for conversation management, i.e. they can be used to express reactions to the partners’ utterances or to display the speaker’s emotions. Our category ‘interaction sign’ includes interjections and responsives as well as four CMC-specific classes (cf. Fig. 2):
 
Figure 2: Typology of interaction signs (with examples)
1.        Emoticons are iconic units that have been created with the keyboard and which typically serve as emotion or irony markers or as responsives. Being of iconic origin, the use of emoticons is not restricted to a specific language. However, different styles of emoticons exist – e.g, Western style emoticons such as   ,   ,   or the   , or Japanese style emoticons such as (^_^), (^_^)/, (*_*).
2.        Interaction words are symbolic linguistic units whose morphologic construction is based on a word or a phrase. They may describe gestures or facial expressions, e.g. *g* (< “grins” grin), *fg* (< fat grin), *s*(< smile), or they are used for the simulation of actions and events.
3.        Interaction templates are units that the user does not generate with the keyboard but which are generated automatically from a file with a previously prepared text or graphical element after the user has activated a template. Due to their generation from predefined templates, we do not classify them as emoticons, even though some of them may have similar functions. Amongst others, this category includes *.gif files. Many of them portray not just facial expressions but can depict almost everything; in the case of animated graphics they can even portray entire scenes as moving pictures.
4.        Addressing terms are units which are used to address an utterance to a particular interlocutor. The most widely used form here is the one made out of the <@>-character together with a specification of the addressee’s name.
conclusion and outlook
Up to now, many assumptions about the Internet’s impact on language change have been based upon small datasets. As a new component within the DWDS system, the DeRiK corpus is meant to be a resource for the investigation of language usage in CMC genres on a broader empirical basis. The annotation schema sketched in section 3 is used and evaluated in the ongoing work of the DeRiK project. The categories proposed in this schema will have to be further discussed within the CMC community. We consider the development of this schema as a first step towards the development of an annotation standard that will facilitate cross-language, cross-genre, and micro-diachronic investigations of CMC phenomena on the basis of corpora. The schema focuses on linguistic aspects, but it is open for extensions motivated through other fields of research, i.e. cultural studies or sentiment analysis.
references
Beißwenger, M. (2000). Kommunikation in virtuellen Welten: Sprache, Text und Wirklichkeit. Stuttgart: Ibidem.
Beißwenger, M., and A. Storrer (2008). Corpora of Computer-Mediated Communication. In A. Lüdeling and M. Kytö (eds.), Corpus Linguistics. An International Handbook, vol. 1. Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 292-308.
Beißwenger, M., M. Ermakova, A. Geyken, L. Lemnitzer, and A. Storrer (2012). A TEI schema for the Representation of the Computer-mediated Communication. TEI (Text Encoding Initiative) Journal. (submitted 2012).
Biber, D., et al. (1999). Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Edinburgh: Pearson.
Biber, D., et al. (2002). Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Edinburgh: Pearson.
Blake, B. J. (2008). All About Language. New York: Oxford UP.
Crystal, D. (2001). Language and the Internet. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
Crystal, D. (2011). Internet Linguistics. A Student Guide. New York: Routledge.
[DUDEN-45] DUDEN (1995). Die Grammatik. 5th ed. Mannheim: Bibliographisches Institut.
[DUDEN-47] DUDEN (2005). Die Grammatik. 7th ed. Mannheim: Bibliographisches Institut.
Geyken, A. (2007). The DWDS corpus: A reference corpus for the German language of the 20th century. In Ch. Fellbaum (ed.), Collocations and Idioms. London: Continuum, pp. 23-40.
Geyken, A., and Th. Hanneforth (2006). TAGH – A Complete Morphology for German based on Weighted Finite State Automata. In: A. Yli-Jyrä, L. Karttunen, and J. Karhumäki (eds), Finite State Methods and Natural Language Processing – Proceedings of FSMNLP, 5th international workshop, Helsinki 2005, Heidelberg: Springer (= Lecture Notes in Artificial Ingelligence 4002), pp. 55-66.
Greenbaum, S. (1996). The Oxford English Grammar. New York: Oxford UP.
Herring, S. C. (1996). Introduction. In: S. C. Herring (ed.), Computer-Mediated Communication. Linguistic, Social and Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, pp. 1-10.
Herring, S. C., ed. (1996). Computer-Mediated Communication. Linguistic, Social and Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Herring, S. C., ed. (2010). Computer-Mediated Conversation, Part I. Special Issue of Language@Internet 7. http://www.languageatinternet.org/articles/2010 (accessed 11 March 2012)
Jurish, B. (2003). A Hybrid Approach to Part-of-Speech Tagging, Final report. Project ‘Kollokationen im Wörterbuch’. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin. http://www.ling.uni-potsdam.de/~moocow/pubs/dwdst-report.pdf  (accessed 11 March 2012)
McArthur, T., ed. (1998). Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: Oxford UP.
Reynaert, N., O. Oostdijk, H. de Clercq, et al. (2010). Balancing SoNaR: IPR versus Processing Issues in a 500-Million-Word Written Dutch Reference Corpus. In Proceedings of the Seventh conference on International Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC’10). Paris, 2693-2698. Online:http://eprints.eemcs.utwente.nl/18001/01/LREC2010_549_Paper_SoNaR.pdf
Runkehl, K., T. Siever, and P. Schlobinski (1998). Sprache und Kommunikation im Internet. Überblick und Analysen. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.
Schiffrin, D. (1986). Discourse markers. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
Storrer, A. (2012, in press). Sprachstil und Sprachvariation in sozialen Netzwerken. In B. Frank-Job, A. Mehler, and T. Sutter (eds.), Die Dynamik sozialer und sprachlicher Netzwerke. Konzepte, Methoden und empirische Untersuchungen an Beispielen des WWW. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.
[TEI-P5] TEI Consortium (eds., 2007). TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange.http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/P5/ (accessed 11 March 2012).
[WDG]: Klappenbach, R., and W. Steinitz, eds. (1964-1977). Wörterbuch der deutschen Gegenwartssprache (WDG). 6 Bände. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag.
Werry, C. C. (1996). Linguistic and interactional features of Internet Relay Chat. In S. C. Herring (ed.),Computer-Mediated Communication. Linguistic, Social and Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, pp. 47-63.
Zifonun, G., L. Hoffmann, B. Strecker, et al., eds. (1997). Grammatik der deutschen Sprache. 3 Bände. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter.
notes
1.Cf. http://www.empirikom.net/bin/view/Themen/DeRiK. The project is embedded in the scientific network ‘Empirische Erforschung internetbasierter Kommunikation’ (http://www.empirikom.net/), funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG).
2.Another corpus of contemporary language which aims to include a CMC subcorpus is the Dutch SoNaR project (Reynaert et al. 2010).
3.This dictionary is based on a six-volume paper dictionary, the Wörterbuch der deutschen Gegenwartssprache (WDG, en.: ‘Dictionary of Contemporay German’) published between 1962 and 1977 and compiled at the Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften (cf. [WDG]).
4.This is typically communicated by assigning certain subtypes of the ‘Creative Commons’ License to CMC documents or to web applications which specify the terms of (re-)use and (re-)distribution of their content.
5.Overviews of the features of CMC discourse from a linguistic perspective can be found, e.g., in Herring (ed., 1996, 2010), Werry (1996), Runkehl et al. (1998), Beißwenger (2000), Crystal (2001, 2011), Beißwenger & Storrer (2008), and Storrer (2012). The DeRiK corpus will include annotations of selected phenomena which are often described as being typical for language use on the Internet.
6. The RNG schema file, a TEI-compliant ODD documentation as well as encoding examples are available athttp://www.empirikom.net/bin/view/Themen/CmcTEI.
7.In other grammars these units are described as interjections (e.g., Greenbaum 1996; McArthur et al. 1998; Blake 2008) or Interjektionen (DUDEN-47), inserts (Biber et al. 1999, 2002), discourse markers (Schiffrin 1986), discourse particles or Gesprächspartikeln (DUDEN-45).","txt","2","",""
"1436","13","Delta in 3D: Copyists Distinction by Scaling Burrows's Delta","1","This paper reports on our ongoing stylistiscs research and tool development in the specific case of authorship attribution for the Middle Dutch Arthurian novel Roman van Walewein (Romance of Gawain). First we introduce the use case, and we concisely recapture our prior research. We then progress to the description of the re-issued improved software and algorithm we developed and applied to our use case. We conclude with an overview of the first results we derived from applying our tools and approach.
The Roman van Walewein (ca. 1260, Middle Dutch) was written by two authors, Penninc and Vostaert. Only one manuscript containing the complete text, explicitly dated as copied in the year 1350, is left to us. Some fragments of another, probably somewhat younger manuscript contain about 400 lines. The text in the complete manuscript consists of 11,202 lines of rhyming verse. The manuscript was written by two copyists. The first seems to have written the lines 1-5.781 and the second the lines 5,782-11,202.
The second author, Vostaert, explicitly claims to have added about 3,300 lines to Penninc’s text. Several scholars of Middle Dutch have pointed out on various grounds that Vostaert (or the copied text) can not be correct in this claim. We decided to apply current state of the art authorship attribution techniques to find whether this would point us to a specific line in the text where the text before that line and the text after that line contrast the most. In prior research we have used a lexical richness measure, Udney Yule’s Characteristic K, and Burrows’s Delta to try to determine the position in the text where Vostaert may have started to complete Penninc’s text. We thus found that applying Burrow’s Delta indeed gives relatively strong grounds to assume that Vostaert simply stated a truth. Figure 1 can be read as a support of this finding, showing a significant change of stylistic stability occurring around verse line 7,882 (cf. van Dalen-Oskam & van Zundert 2007). New knowledge that we derive from this result is that Vostaert may well have reworked the last portion of his predecessor’s work. However, the most surprising result was that our analysis pointed towards the possibility that Delta is a better indicator for a change of copyists than anything else (cf. the clear local maximum in the graph of figure 1, which is located around verse line 5,783 and reflects the change of hands that takes place in the manuscript).
 
Figure 1: ‘Walking’ Delta. The text corresponding to lines 8,000 – 11,000 in Vostaert’s part of the romance was used as a subset for the procedure. From this subset the top most 50 frequently used words were used for comparison with the text in a ‘sliding window’ of each consecutive 1,000 lines. Taken from (van Dalen-Oskam & van Zundert 2007)
In our research until 2007 we were only able to tentatively look into this copyist distinguishing ability of the Delta measure, and it remains to be investigated until now how effective Delta is as a procedure for copyist distinction. Although Kestemont and van Dalen-Oskam (Kestemont & van Dalen-Oskam 2009) verified the difference between the two scribes of the extent Walewein manuscript using a lazy machine learning technique on other features such as character n-grams and several simple rations, they did not apply a form of Delta procedure to this problem. In our 2007 article we stated that the current application cannot easily and automatically generate and compare a large collection of Delta graphs based on an iterative subselection of a word frequency list’ (van Dalen-Oskam & van Zundert 2007: 360). This is the point where we resume our research endeavor.
We have further developed our ‘sliding window’ approach to measuring the stylistic consistency of texts (i.e. the ability to establish the stability of the value of Delta throughout a single text). We will release the MIT licensed open source Ruby code for this version of the software to Github in June 2012. This version will include a REST-full interface to accommodate polling this tool as a web enabled programmatically negotiable service, a web GUI for human-computer based interaction with the tool, and user documentation as well as format description specifics required for files to be parsed with this tool.
Our analyses until 2007 relied on stepping a ‘window’ through a text, computing the Delta for that window of text using the complete text as a statistical background and a sizeable portion of the part unanimously attributed to Vostaert as a Delta comparison base. The graphs thus computed showed the consistency (or non consistency) of Delta throughout the text tested. Having improved scalability and performance of the algorithm we are now able to run several Delta measuring windows through a text at higher speeds, enabling near instant analysis (typically <5s analysis time for a 65k tokens sized text, analyzed through an approximately 8k token sized window).
This improved approach has enabled us to return to the research question at hand: how well does Delta discriminate copyists? With the current software we are able to determine how stable the characteristic is for Delta that we found in our first computations (see Fig. 1.) throughout the word frequency spectrum of the text. Our algorithm computes the Delta characteristic of a text in an iterative subselection of the word frequency list. For instance, it computes this characteristic first in the top 50 highest frequency spectrum, then it does the same for the top 10 to 60 highest frequencies, then for the top 20 to 70 highest frequencies, then 30–80, 40–90, etc… The size and ‘pace’ of the frequency subset window can in fact be chosen arbitrarily, though sensible heuristics need to be applied to yield meaningful results. In essence then, the current algorithm not only slides a window for Delta measurement through the text, but also slides a measurement window through the frequency spectrum of the vocabulary of the text. In the case of Walewein this yields typically a result as depicted in Fig. 2.
 
Figure 2: Sliding the ‘walking’ Delta through a consecutive subset of the full vocabulary frequency spectrum of the text of Walewein
There are several conclusions we can draw from this result. The general characteristic we found in our earlier attempts to establish the stylistic consistency throughout the text of Walewein holds for any subspectrum of high frequency vocabulary we choose. We conclude that the reproduceability of this characteristic in different frequency spectra, means that indeed this is a viable method of tracing stylistic consistency in a text. We also note that the value for Delta on average rises slightly when our window on the subset of high frequency word usage descends through the full spectrum of vocabulary frequencies. This in itself confirms that Delta is a valid indicator for stylistic similarity, or at least for similarity in high frequency word usage. But more important: because the peak of stylistic inconsistency around verse 5,782 is stable our findings also confirm our tentative assumption that ‘semi-high’ frequency word usage is a better indicator for copyist change than high frequency word use – at least in the specific case of the Walewein. We can in the case of Walewein also infer which part of the high frequency word use spectrum is the best indicator of copyist change: the 80 to 130 most frequently used words. Discussing the lexical characteristics of this part of the vocabulary as well as what this may indicate about copyist behavior will be part of our paper.
Further testing on known use cases of copyist change need to establish whether this result is generalizable. If so, we may have found in this particular application of the Delta procedure an adequate identification procedure for copyist change.
references
Burrows, J. F. (2007). All the Way Through: Testing for Authorship in Different Frequency Strata. Literary and Linguistic Computing 22: 27-48.
Burrows, J. F. (2002). ‘Delta’: a Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. Literary and Linguistic Computing 17: 267-287.
Hoover, D. (2004). Testing Burrows’s Delta. Literary and Linguistic Computing 19: 453-475.
Van Dalen-Oskam, K. H., and J. J.van Zundert (2007). Delta for Middle Dutch: Author and copyist distinction in “Walewein”. Literary and Linguistic Computing 22: 345-362 (First published June 2, 2007: 10.1093/llc/fqm012).
Kestemont, M., and K. H. van Dalen-Oskam (2009). Predicting the Past: Memory-Based Copyist and Author Discrimination in Medieval Epics. Proceedings of the twenty-first Benelux conference on artificial Intelligence (BNAIC, 2009), Eindhoven, The Netherlands, pp. 121-128.
Smith, P. W. H., and W. Aldridge (2011). Improving Authorship Attribution: Optimizing Burrows’ Delta Method. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics 18: 63-88 (First published February 24, 2011: 10.1080/09296174.2011.533591).
Stein, S., and S. Argamon (2006). A Mathematical Explanation of Burrows’s Delta. Proceedings of Digital Humanities 2006, Paris, France, July 2006, p. 207 <http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.71.8771&rep=rep1&type=pdf> (accessed 14 March 2012).
Johnson, D. F., and G. H. M. Claassens (2000). Dutch Romances I: Roman van Walewein. Cambridge: D.S. Brewer.","txt","2","",""
"1437","13","Designing Navigation Tools for an Environmental Humanities Portal: Considerations and Critical Assessments","1","As digital humanities projects bring together more data than ever before, ways of presenting and accessing this data are transforming rapidly: text mining becomes more powerful and ‘searching’ and ‘browsing’ become more complex and interrelated. These tools not only help us find what we are looking for; they also shape our paths of inquiry. For this reason, it is important to carefully consider both the ontologies behind the tools (what exists and how can it be ordered?) as well as their epistemological effects (how do classification and representation affect our understanding?). How can we preserve, in a digital environment, the spirit of serendipity and discovery that characterizes humanities research? By asking such critical questions, we hope to forge tools that may generate unexpected results and new perspectives.
This paper addresses such considerations in the selection and design of navigation tools for humanities subject portals, as well as some current options and concerns related to these choices. As a concrete case study, we reflect on our experiences creating the Environment & Society Portal (http://www.environmentandsociety.org), a not-for-profit education, research, and outreach project at the Rachel Carson Center for Environment and Society in Munich, funded by the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research.
The Environment & Society Portal, which launched in early 2012, makes digital multimedia and interpretive materials in environmental humanities freely and openly accessible to academic communities and the interested public internationally. To enhance user engagement, in the coming year we will be building on features that facilitate and encourage feedback, interaction, contribution and dissemination of information.
The Portal’s multimedia content mixes retrodigitized environmental humanities materials with born-digital content, such as interpretive exhibitions, short descriptions of places and events, or the localized environmental histories related to broader issues found in the sub-project ‘Arcadia: European Environmental Histories’ (this collaboration with the European Society for Environmental History eventually plans to include all world regions). Content may be linked or clustered according to diverse research paths. It will be possible to add new entries on the same topics to provide a fuller picture or alternative perspectives.
The Portal employs three custom-designed interactive navigation tools (map viewer, timeline, and keyword explorer) that invite users to explore content of interest and to visualize chronological, spatial, and conceptual connections. While the Portal offers full-text indexing and searching as well, these three interconnected navigation tools represent its unique functionality. Similar tools exist elsewhere, of course. But rather than simply apply existing tools, we have reviewed our assumptions about categorization and representation and have either modified existing taxonomies or created our own controlled vocabulary; we have reviewed multiple benchmarks, considered the purpose of our representations, and have created our tools’ designs from scratch. While we have done user testing and can discuss our Google Analytics data, our main objective is to reflect on how data selection, categorization, and representation create constraints and opportunities for inquiry. We offer an examination of our decisions regarding the creation of these three navigation tools, and reflect critically, six months after our launch, on their performance.
map viewer
Navigation via the Portal’s map viewer is possible by zooming and browsing on a map and/or searching for placenames. After considering several alternatives, we chose to use GeoNames’ highly hierarchical, but open-source, gazetteer (adopted also by other major European digital humanities portals such as Europeana). We took this decision to reflect as accurately as possible the complexities and vagaries of geographical and administrative dependencies, to potentially ease the retrieval of nested data (e.g., showing results related to a certain village among the results for its parent country), and to allow for a greater degree of interoperability with other websites. The most difficult and important representational consideration was our decision to represent only point data, not lines or areas. This was not only a pragmatic technical decision, but serves the purpose of our map viewer as a content index, not as a thematic mapping of a coherent data set.
interactive timeline
The Portal’s timeline feature allows users to scroll forward and backward in time, to zoom in and out, and to plot the results of up to three searches on an interactive timeline canvas. One of the most difficult decisions was limiting the temporal metadata to years as points in time, to the exclusion of periods, eras, and specific or ‘fuzzy’ dates. Representational considerations included how to distinguish between search results for the same year and the use of a graphic scale for time. Furthermore it was important to us to present the Timeline as a content index, not as a ‘comprehensive’ collection of events. The decision to represent the quantity of relevant Portal results in the timeline slider/scale bar as connected ‘peaks’ may be one of the Portal’s most problematic representations.
keyword explorer
While the map and timeline allow users to compare results geographically and temporally, the keyword search tool offers thematic navigation functionally resembling the former Google ‘wonder wheel.’ Specifically, our keyword explorer lets users refine a search by choosing among the tags that occur most frequently in relation to a given keyword, using a narrowing search and, in future, also a more exploratory, expansive approach in which keywords are linked without limiting the results to previously identified keywords. To facilitate this, we chose to adopt – and constantly develop – a flat controlled vocabulary instead of imposing a predetermined hierarchy of themes and keywords. This means that search experiences may change substantially as new materials are added to the Portal.
As new content is added, users’ search possibilities will grow exponentially. That is, it will be possible to use any tool to refine searches made with any of the other tools. The aim is to allow the users to create completely personalized paths through environmental scholarship and materials gathered on the Portal.
As the ways we organize and represent information have important consequences for the communication and use of knowledge, an enhanced navigational platform provides opportunities to rethink our usual approaches. We hope these tools will offer multiple ways to find and compare information, inspire alternative historical frames, and encourage the formation of new connections across disciplinary and political boundaries.
By examining the complex ontologies behind navigation tools and the epistemological considerations concerning their application and use, we hope our experiences and critical reflections may offer new perspectives for our colleagues working with digital humanities data and databases.","txt","2","",""
"1438","13","Designing a national 'Virtual Laboratory' for the humanities: the Australian HuNI project","1","context
This paper looks at the design and architecture of the Humanities Networked Infrastructure (HuNI), a national ‘Virtual Laboratory’ which is being developed as part of the Australian government’s NeCTAR (National e-Research Collaboration Tools and Resources) programme. One of NeCTAR’s main goals is the development of up to ten discipline-based ‘Virtual Laboratories’. The aims of this programme are to integrate existing capabilities (tools, data and resources), support data-centred research workflows, and build virtual research communities to address existing well-defined research problems.
Beginning in May 2012, HuNI has been funded until the end of 2013. It is being developed by a consortium of thirteen institutions, led by Deakin University in Melbourne.
design framework
HuNI is specifically designed to cover the whole of the humanities (defined as the disciplines covered by the Australian Academy of the Humanities). It uses scientific e-Research consortia as its model: large-scale, multi-institutional, interdisciplinary groups with an e-Research framework covering the entire field of research.
This approach has a sound academic basis. It emphasizes the interdisciplinary and trans-disciplinary reach of the e-Research services and tools which are included in the ‘Virtual Laboratory’ environment – and its value to researchers across the full range of humanities disciplines.
HuNI aims to join together the various digital services and tools which have already been developed for specific humanities disciplines, both by collecting institutions (libraries, archives, museums and galleries) and by academic research groups. It builds on these services and strengthens them, rather than superseding them.
Data-Centred Workflows
The very concept of ‘data’ can be problematic for the humanities. Nevertheless, a distinctive type of humanities data can be identified, different from the quantitative and qualitative data of the social sciences. This ‘humanities data’ consists of the various annotations, tags, links, associations, ratings, reviews and comments produced during the humanities research process, together with the entities to which these annotations refer: concepts, persons, places and events.
It is important to draw a distinction between ‘data’ in this sense and primary source materials, particularly in digitized form (Borgman 2007: 215-217 fails to make this distinction). Primary materials – even in the form of digital objects – are sources of data, rather than data per se.
A data-centred virtual laboratory for the humanities needs to include services for identifying these semantic entities and their relationships (using the Linked Open Data technical framework), and for capturing and sharing the annotations and other scholarly outputs which refer to them. While the Linked Open Data framework is a relatively recent development, there are already a sufficient number of projects and services underway in Europe and North America which can serve as case studies to demonstrate clearly the viability and value of this approach (Bizer, Heath & Berners-Lee 2009).
Integration of Existing Capabilities
Many significant Australian collections of digital content relevant to humanities research already exist. Some of these are descriptions of physical objects (e.g., books, museum objects and art works) and entities (e.g., people and places), some are collections of digital objects, and others are a mixture of the two. In most cases, these collections were not connected with each other except to the extent that they could be searched by services like Google. Working effectively across such a disparate range of sources has been a major challenge for humanities researchers.
The production-level tools for working with these collections of digital content are relatively limited. Most tools are designed to work with a single service or a single type of content, such as the visualization tools developed by AusStage1, the user tagging developed by the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney2, and the Heurist software3developed by the University of Sydney for archaeology. The LORE tool (for annotation and the construction of virtual collections) works mainly with AustLit4, though its federated search also covers some other content services.
To meet NeCTAR’s Virtual Laboratory criteria, content sources need to be integrated (or at least inter-linked), and tools need to be usable across as many sources and types of content as possible. It is neither practical nor desirable to merge content from multiple disciplines into a single enormous database, given the extensive variations in standards and approaches. Federated searching across many services, on the other hand, will not build the data-centred platform required to support the other functions of the Virtual Laboratory. The only feasible solution for data integration is to deploy a Linked Open Data environment on a national scale.
Architecture and Services
The project has defined a data-centred workflow for the humanities, with three main stages:
•        Discovery (search and browse services);
•        Analysis (annotation, collecting, visualization and mapping);
•        Sharing (collaborating, publishing, citing and referencing).
For the Analysis and Sharing functions, a suite of existing Open Source tools developed in Australia are being used and adapted as part of the project. These include:
•        LORE – developed by AustLit for annotation, federated searching, visualization, aggregation and sharing of compound digital objects (Gerber, Hyland & Hunter 2010);
•        Visualization tools developed by AusStage (Bollen et al. 2009);
•        OHRM5 – developed by the University of Melbourne to model entity relationships and publish information about collections into aggregated frameworks;
•        Heurist and FieldHelper – developed by the University of Sydney to aggregate data, model entity relationships and publish collections of data to the Web (including maps and timelines).
The main adaptation required is to extend their functionality to work with Linked Data URIs and to be hospitable to cloud-based hosting. Where no Australian tool can be used or adapted, international Open Source tools will be used.
The annotations, compound objects and tags created by researchers using the Analysis tools will be stored in RDF as part of HuNI’s Linked Data Service. Descriptions of these data collections will also be made available for harvesting in RIF-CS format by the Australian National Data Service (ANDS) for its Research Data Australia service.
HuNI’s Discovery environment builds on the technologies used by a variety of Australian and international services to provide sophisticated searching and browsing across data extracted from heterogeneous data sets and combined into a Linked Data Service. These models include the Atlas of Living Australia6, as well as general humanities-related services like SOCH (Swedish Open Cultural Heritage) and discipline-specific services like CLAROS. The British Museum’s new ResearchSpace will also serve as a key exemplar.
The Discovery environment is underpinned by the Linked Data Service. The preferred solution for supporting and presenting Linked Data is the Vitro software developed by Cornell University, which serves as the basis for the VIVO research profiling service. VIVO has been implemented at two of the HuNI partner institutions: the University of Melbourne and the University of Western Australia.
The outputs from the Discovery environment will be produced in formats which can be consumed by tools performing Analysis and Sharing functions. The Linked Data Service will support an API for exposing data in RDF/XML and JSON formats. This API will form the basis for reuse of the data by service providers other than HuNI, as well as enabling the custodians of data sets which contribute to HuNI to build workflows for pulling new content from the Linked Data Store into their own data sets.
A necessary prerequisite for assembling heterogeneous data from different data sets into a Linked Data format is a Semantic Mediation and Mapping Service. There will be two main components to this service:
•        Tools for extracting, exposing and transforming entity data contained in existing cultural data sets and in digital objects;
•        An environment for harvesting, ingesting, matching, aligning, and linking the entity data.
For extracting and exposing entity data, two different approaches will be supported. The major content providers will develop and provide RESTful Web APIs for their data sets. A service will also be established to allow smaller data providers to expose their data for transformation and ingest without the need to develop an API. This service will use the harvest and ingest functionality of the Vitro software. Tools for converting static databases and spreadsheets to RDF will also be deployed. Data ingest from entity identification using text mining will follow at a later stage.
The Semantic Mediation and Mapping Service will draw on a range of vocabulary and identifier services, which will be managed through a controlled vocabulary registry with links to the ANDS identifier and vocabulary services. HuNI’s initial focus will be on matching, aligning and linking data relating to people, places and objects, using several high-level vocabularies and ontologies. These include Australian vocabularies like the Gazetteer of Australia7 and the PeopleAustralia service (Dewhurst 2008).
The HuNI service will enable researchers to find and analyse data across a range of humanities disciplines, and to save the outputs of their analysis in a variety of forms, including compound digital objects, annotations, maps, timelines, and graphs. They will be able to share their results and outputs with other researchers.
 Figure 1: HuNI Architecture
references
Bizer, C., T. Heath, and T. Berners-Lee (2009). Linked Data – The Story So Far. International Journal on Semantic Web and Information Systems 5(3): 1-22.
Bollen, J., N. Harvey, J. Holledge, and G. McGillivray (2009). AusStage: e-Research in the Performing Arts.Australasian Drama Studies 54: 178-194.
Borgman, C. L. (2007). Scholarship in the Digital Age: Information, Infrastructure, and the Internet. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Dewhurst, B. (2008). People Australia: a Topic-Based Approach to Resource Discovery. In VALA2008 Conference proceedings. Melbourne: VALA.http://www.valaconf.org.au/vala2008/papers2008/116_Dewhurst_Final.pdf (accessed 30 March 2012).
Gerber, A., A. Hyland, and J. Hunter (2010). A Collaborative Scholarly Annotation System for Dynamic Web Documents – A Literary Case Study. In The Role of Digital Libraries in a Time of Global Change (Lecture Notes in Computer Science 6102). Berlin: Springer, pp. 29-39.
notes
1.AusStage is the Australian performing arts service (www.ausstage.edu.au)
2.www.powerhousemuseum.com
3.www.heuristscholar.org
4.AustLit is the Australian literature service (www.austlit.edu.au)
5.www.esrc.unimelb.edu.au/ohrm/
6.www.ala.org.au
7.www.ga.gov.au/place-names/","txt","2","",""
"1439","13","Developing Transcultural Competence in the Study of World Literatures: Golden Age Literature Glossary Online (GALGO)","1","The technological demands of today’s global society call into question the use of traditional approaches to language and literary studies and challenge educators to think about ways to integrate multimedia creatively in their scholarship and teaching. The project presented in this paper and currently under construction offers an innovative approach to studying literature that employs tools from the field of the digital humanities.
The Comprehensive Digital Glossary of Golden Age Spanish Literature or GALGO(GoldenAgeLiteratureGlossaryOnline) is a searchable Spanish-English online glossary that consists of select words, from the most commonly studied literary texts of the 16th and 17th centuries, whose meanings and multiple connotations reflect important linguistic and cultural concepts. The selection of words is broadly consistent with the keyword theory developed by Raymond Williams in the mid-20th century. Keywords are lexical units that comprise a network of associations, triggering ‘different memories and imaginings,’ centered around dominant cultural notions and practices (Hart et al. 2005: 6). Keywords illustrate ways of perceiving the world and reflect the shared interest or ideology of a particular society and find expression in a common vocabulary (Williams 1983: 15). Analyzing keywords is an exercise in examining their usages in context and in considering the evolution of their meanings over time (Burgett & Hendler 2007: 1). Keywords research is rooted in historical semantics and focuses on how meaning is constructed and altered through conflict and negotiation among certain social groups and movements; it is about exploring the possibilities of language and unlocking meaning.
GALGO is a vocabulary of keywords that explores the canonical prose texts of Golden Age Spanish literature –El abencerraje, Lazarillo de Tormes, Miguel de Cervantes’ twelve Novelas ejemplares, and principal comediasby Calderón de la Barca, Cervantes, Lope de Vega and Tirso de Molina – from the perspective of a history of ideas. The digital glossary tags socially charged words that reverberate through the texts and beyond. The glossary stimulates students to evaluate critically their own assumptions and reflect on philosophical and ethical questions that continue to be of current importance. The polysemic nature of the terms selected, words such as esfuerzo, fuerza, gentileza, and honra, offers valuable insight into the complex, idiosyncratic Golden Age Spanish lexicon. We believe that identifying the different uses of the same word in a literary work is both essential to reading comprehension and to an understanding of societal attitudes of the period.
GALGO is organized in such a way that the specific contextualized definition is given in each instance where the keyword is tagged. The literary works have been digitized and are available in the glossary in complete electronic versions. The box containing the definition can remain open and is moveable, and users are able to compare and contrast immediately the word’s varied meanings in the text. Furthermore, with the support of a search algorithm, the glossary’s multilayered design gives students the option to view the same keyword in all of the texts in the database. GALGO also contains a Javascript snippet that will highlight and group together each distinct definition of a search term across texts, thereby allowing students to chart the prevalence of a particular usage of the word.
The methodology of GALGO combines the rich word inventory of literary concordances with the ideological interpretations of medieval and early modern manuscript glosses. The entries reveal a word’s different shades of meaning and, borrowing from the exegetical tradition popularized in the Middle Ages, function as brief explanatory notes that give broader significance to literary passages. For example, in the novella El abencerraje, the noun gentileza and its adjective form gentil are defined in the following ways, depending on the context:
gentileza:
Unrequired goodwill shown by the more powerful to the less powerful (magnanimity).
gentil:
1. Of cultivated manner and appearance.
2. The best of its kind (exemplary).
When necessary, an additional feature called Expansion of meaning appears alongside the definition in order to identify further semantic connections. The entry for honra in the line ‘…tuyo es mi corazón, tuya es mi vida, mi honra y mi hacienda’ from El abencerraje reads:
Definition: Public esteem received in acknowledgement of one’s strength of character, specifically here, a woman’s chastity and/or marital fidelity.
Expansion of meaning: In this period, honor (good reputation) was based on the following factors: social status, material wealth, strength of character, achievements, and in the case of a woman, her chastity and/or marital fidelity. Here, in pledging vida, honra, and hacienda, the noblewoman was committing everything she was and had to the man.
By integrating qualitative analyses of literary texts with quantitative computer derived methods, GALGOpromotes a novel form of active reading and engagement in language and culture. In the last two decades, the pedagogical approach to foreign language study has moved beyond a primary emphasis on developing functional communication skills to an equally compelling interest in acquainting students with representative literary and cultural texts in the target language. The Modern Language Association’s 2007 report places the acquisition of transcultural and translingual competencies, namely the ability to reflect on how realities are shaped differently across languages, historical periods and cultures, at the core of the foreign languages discipline. GALGO engages learners in the analysis of classic literary texts in a meaningful way, allowing them to test their hypotheses as to possible lexical and cultural preconceptions through immediate feedback.
references
Burgett, B., and G. Hendler (2007). Keywords for American Cultural Studies. New York: New York UP.
Hart, D. P., S. E. Jarvis, W. P. Jennings, and D. Smith-Howell (2005). Political Keywords. Using Language that Uses Us. New York: Oxford UP.
MLA Ad Hoc Committee on Foreign Languages (2007). Foreign Languages and Higher Education: New Structures for a Changed World. New York.
Williams, R. (1983). Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. 2nded. New York: Oxford UP.","txt","2","",""
"1440","13","DiaView: Visualise Cultural Change in Diachronic Corpora","1","introduction
This paper will introduce and demonstrate DiaView,1 a new tool to investigate and visualise word usage in diachronic corpora. DiaView highlights cultural change over time by exposing salient lexical items from each decade or year, and providing them to the user in an effortless visualisation.  This is made possible by examining large quantities of diachronic textual data, in this case the Google Books corpus (Michel et al. 2010) of one million English books. This paper will introduce the methods and technologies at its core, perform a demonstration of the tool and discuss further possibilities.
applicable corpora
Key to the success of any large-scale cultural inspection is a large corpus of writing, both in terms of chronological span, and also depth of sampling from each year. Two corpora stand out as candidates for this approach: The Corpus of Historical American English (COHA) (Davies 2010) and the Google Books corpus. The COHA dataset, while being 400 million words and having been more rigorously compiled, is restricted in terms of its availability. Google Books, on the other hand, is 155 billion words, spanning from the sixteenth century to the present, although the precise corpus make-up is less lucid. Google have provided n-gram frequency lists for download, and consequently this visualisation has been based upon the Google Books English One Million data set. It should be stressed that the techniques DiaView are applicable to many other data sets, from very focused specialised corpora to large-scale newspaper archives. The choice of corpus used for this demonstration is mainly driven by two factors: public availability and re-use in addition to the need for general content leading to a wider public appreciation of the results this tool provides.
established query methods
The standard tools available to current corpus users revolve around two methods: word searches or the comparison of frequencies (either over time or between two focussed points). These tools are in widespread use, and while well understood and used, they do not present the whole linguistic picture to their users.
The Google Books n-gram Viewer,2 for instance is very capable at allowing users to chart the usage of lexical items over time. While illuminating, it implies that users already know what they are looking for (the lexical item) and also that frequency (the number of times that word is used) provides enough data to make assertions. Choosing the term of interest at the outset means this resource delivers a powerful search function, but it fails at browsing or exploration. In other terms you only find what you look for.
The alternative method, based upon comparing frequencies over time, is best exemplified (using the same corpus) by the Top Words 1570-2008.3 This tool meticulously visualises the most frequent words in the Google Books corpus and charts their rise and fall across every decade the corpus covers. Word frequency alone does not tell us enough. Just because a lexical item is frequently occurring in a particular time span, it may not be of interest, particularly if you find it frequently elsewhere. That word soon downgrades from important to common and suddenly becomes much less interesting.
DiaView takes a different approach, one that promotes browsing (not searching) and transcends basic word frequency methods (it strives to deliver salience).
diaview concept
DiaView is designed to operate at a more opportunistic conceptual level than the examples above; in this case summarising and browsing data takes precedence over specific focussed searches. DiaView aims to complement other approaches, and as such will operate as a gateway to other methods, particularly lexical searches.
The tool divides its corpus into a number of chronological divisions, i.e. years or decades. In each, statistical measures are used to extract those lexical elements that are salient or focussed on that time-span. This does not necessarily imply frequently used words, but, rather, words which are found predominantly in that time, a possible key into the cultural issues experienced or explored at that moment in time.
diaview method
A relational database has been used to realise DiaView, however other technologies are equally applicable to producing similar results. Equally, any number of statistical measures or comparators can be used to ascertain the salient words for each year, mutual information or log-likelihood are good candidates for use.
For this demonstration DiaView requires word frequency lists for each year. In this case the corpus was trimmed to 1900-1950. Fundamentally this is a tabulated list of lexical items, followed by the number of occurrences in each year.
DiaView then creates an aggregated view of these frequency lists, gathering each type (individual word) and the total number of occurrences across the entire corpus (summing the data above). A further optional stage is to cull this list; either by disposing of the least frequently used types (e.g. remove words not used more than ten times each year) or by concentrating on the most frequently used types (e.g. keep the 100,000 most often used words).
Extracting salient terms from each year is now performed. Taking each type (identified previously) in turn, its frequency in each year is inspected and compared to its global frequency. Here the statistical measure is used to gauge its connection to each particular year. This removes the dependence of raw frequencies: a word may occur few times or a great number, what is of prime importance is if its distribution is skewed or focussed on a particular chronological range. For each year a ranked list of salient types are created.
The visualisation is created by extracting the salient types from each year and displaying the top 25 in descending order. Each type in each year can be used to hyperlink other resources, such as the Google Book n-gram Viewer.
future possibilities
While DiaView offers new ways to view large data sets, it is open to further enhancements. Access to corpora divided by genre would add valuable benefits to the visualisation, allowing users to narrow down the corpus to include material only of their choice. Linguistic stemming could also be used to gather words around their root form, e.g. to cluster run, running, runs, ran etc.
references
Davies, M. (2010). The Corpus of Historical American English: 400 million words, 1810-2009. Available online at http://corpus.byu.edu/coha/.
Michel, J., Y. Shen, A. Aiden, A. Veres, M. Gray, W. Brockman, The Google Books Team, J. Pickett, D. Hoiberg, D. Clancy, P. Norvig, J. Orwant, S. Pinker, M. Nowak, and E. Aiden (2010). Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books. Science (Published online ahead of print: 12/16/2010)
notes
1.http://www.scottishcorpus.ac.uk/corpus/diaview/
2.http://books.google.com/ngrams
3.http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~gleicher/Hacks/tops.html","txt","2","",""
"1441","13","Digital Genetic Criticism of RENT","1","While textual critics of medieval and classic texts require expertise in paleography, those studying contemporary works, and in particular contemporary multimodal works such as musical theater, require a similar sort of facility with digital forensics. In this paper I will detail the digital forensic techniques (and a few dumb hacks) that I have used to create a detailed biography of the musical, RENT, from it’s earliest its earliest incarnation in 1989 to the final version edited by Larson and saved just two weeks before his death in 1996. I will also suggest a set of skills those attempting similar work may wish to acquire.
Jonathan Larson, the Broadway composer and lyricist, used his personal computer as a creative tool throughout his brief career from the mid-1980s to his premature death at 36 in January of 1996. After his death, around 180 of the floppy disks he used to save his work were donated to the Library of Congress. In 2007, I was permitted to create complete, bit-for-bit, data images of these disks and study any file related to the creation of Larson’s most famous musical, RENT. These disks contain several dozen drafts of RENT.
In some cases, multiple drafts are recoverable from a single file. In 1992, when most personal computers ran only about 5% as fast as an iPhone 4, saving an entire file to a floppy disk was a potentially time consuming activity. While writing RENT, Larson mostly used Microsoft Word 5.1, which had a feature called ‘fast save.’ The fast save feature sped the saving process somewhat by replacing the entire file only once every 14 saves or so. In most cases, it would simply append changes to the end of a file with information about where they belonged in the original document. When the file was opened in Word 5.1, the software would integrate these changes back into main text; however, by opening this file with a simple text editor, it is possible to see the text of the last full save along with all the emendations made during fast saves in an apparently uninterrupted text stream stored at the bottom of the file.
Unfortunately, the Word 5.1 standard has no openly published documentation. Thus, while additional text stored by a ‘fast save’ are visible, the way in which this text maps onto the ‘base text’ is not immediately obvious. Fortunately, with the help of Microsoft Research, I have obtained documentation that describes the standard (unfortunately provided under a non-disclosure agreement), which describes how this mapping was accomplished. Therefore, although this paper will not include a complete description of the specification for legal reasons, it will demonstrate how several versions of a Larson’s text might be reconstructed from a single Word file.
For example, throughout 1992 there are several files and folders on Larson’s disks that contain versions specially formatted for the laser printer. In 1992 Larson generally used a ‘dot-matrix’ printer that worked by pushing ink from a small typewriter-like ribbon onto paper in a series of small dots that composed the desired letters or the image. The printer would advance the paper through a spool in increments as tall as the printer ribbon as each line of dots was printed. Although this method of printing was relatively inexpensive and was capable of representing image that could be composed out of the dots (rather than, say, a fixed set of letters and numbers), it produced copies that, even in the 1990s, appeared amateurish. There were a finite (and relatively small) number of dots available on any line which made text appear jagged, and ink would transfer from the ribbon inconsistently, creating a faded, uneven look. Larson was content with this technology for rough drafts, but when he needed a copy to give to a potential producer, he would print the text on a laser printer (perhaps at a copy service store).
There was a complication, however. Text formatting conveys a good deal of meaning in musical theater libretti. Stage directions are often represented alongside spoken text as typed marginalia; overlapping lines sung in unison or counterpoint are represented in different columns. At this period, the relatively low resolution of the screen Changes in typeface or margins can change the line lengths and create wrap-around text where a hard break was intended creating an amateurish appearance that the use of the laser-printer was supposed to prevent. Larson’s usual font ‘New York,’ like many of those designed for early versions of the Macintosh operating system, was a ‘bitmap’ typeface, meaning that each character was stored as a small image. Just as a small ‘thumbnail’ image downloaded from a website becomes fuzzy or ‘pixelated’ when it’s size is increased much beyond the original size, the size of a bitmap font cannot be attractively increased beyond the original size of the character images. Moreover, the quality of the characters themselves – how smooth or jagged they appear – will not change even if the monitor or the printer quality improves. ‘Vector’ fonts, like the ‘Courier’ font used in Larson’s ‘laser’ drafts, on the other hand, are generated not from an image file but from an equation that describes the lines and curves of the characters. The result is that the characters can be smooth as the monitor or printer can make them and can be scaled up to any size without loss of quality. Moreover, ‘Courier’ was designed as a ‘monospace’ font – that is, each character occupies the same amount of space (an ‘M’ is the same width as an ‘I’). ‘Monospacing’ makes the process of aligning text much easier than it would be with fonts of variable width as one can be confident how many characters will fit on a line (regardless of what the characters might be). Thus, for those drafts which needed to look especially good on the page as well as on the screen, Larson would reformat his text to meet the requirements of the printer.
Thus, there are folders on Larson’s disks with titles like ‘Rent Laser’ that contain versions of the script formatted for higher quality printing. By consequence revising the script during the rehearsal process, when all copies should be printed on a laser printer, was difficult. In some cases, probably during the rehearsal or preview period when it was necessary to distribute frequent changes to a cast, Larson found it preferable to print only revised passages on a laser printer and then to literally cut and paste these revisions onto an older laser-printed version and photocopy the result. These pasted-together drafts, preserved in the Library’s paper collection, exemplify the awkward hybrid of centuries old print traditions with the advantages and quirks of new media and serve as a strikingly appropriate metaphor the history of the text to which they bear witness.
Of course, RENT, is hardly the only text for which both digital forensic and bibliographic expertise will be needed to conduct a contemporary critique génétique. Indeed, editors and textual scholars of most work composed after (at the latest) 1995, are likely to encounter digital drafts among their witnesses. This paper is intended to serve as a kind of early exemplar for the kind of techniques a contemporary digital textual scholar must learn and practice.","txt","2","",""
"1442","13","Digital Humanities in the Classroom: Introducing a New Editing Platform for Source Documents in Classics","1","In this paper, I will introduce a new online teaching and research platform on which students can collaboratively transcribe, edit, and translate Latin manuscripts and Greek inscriptions, creating vetted open source digital editions. This platform was created by a group of faculty, software developers, and library professionals at Tufts University to enable students to work with original untranslated documents. By doing so, students not only develop their own language skills and research abilities, but they also contribute to the efforts of the scholarly community worldwide to meet the challenge of publishing large numbers of primary source documents online while preserving high editorial standards as described by Robinson (2010). The platform will be made available as open-source software and since it is language-independent, it can be used to edit and translate any source document in any language and any Humanities field.  
The platform is an adaptation of Image J and Son of Suda Online (SoSOL). It allows students to transcribe ancient texts directly from a high-resolution digital image while mapping the text onto the lettering. The transcriptions thus produced are automatically encoded in accordance with the EpiDoc markup guidelines, a standard developed by an international consortium of scholars for the accurate description of inscriptions and manuscripts in TEI XML (see Sosin 2010). This ensures greater visibility for the collection and fosters scholarly dialogue since all documents published under the EpiDoc standard are compatible and can be exploited together in an open-access collaborative context (see Bodard 2008). The students’ work therefore contributes to a worldwide effort to make ancient manuscripts and inscriptions available online. To link all these resources and present the web interface, we used the CITE services (‘Collections, Indexes, and Texts, with Extensions’) developed by the Homer Multitext Project (see Blackwell and Smith 2009). We intend to investigate ways to take advantage of the chain of authority supported by the SoSOL environment to facilitate the process of the long-term archiving of the resources in the Tufts institutional Fedora repository. We will make the data from this project available to the broader humanities community through the Perseus Project.  
Initially, the students will be working with Latin manuscripts (ranging in date between the 12th and 19th centuries) held in the Tufts University Library which have been digitized and published online. The students will also edit and translate ancient Greek funerary inscriptions which relate to Marie-Claire Beaulieu’s research on the poetics of Greek epitaphs. The collection created by the students will form a cohesive dataset of Latin and Greek texts which will be used at Tufts for ongoing research projects on ancient literature but will also be a valuable addition to corpora being developed by scholars worldwide such as the EpiDoc databases (see Cayless et al. 2009, esp. 34).  
Students will begin their work with a high resolution image of a Latin or Greek document published in our online collection. After receiving training on the decipherment of ancient Greek and Latin scripts, they will transcribe the texts and map them onto the image of the document using the software described above. The transcription step is important since it allows for careful review: thanks to the direct visual link created by the software between the image of the document and the transcription, the instructor and the audience can instantly evaluate the accuracy of the transcription (see figures 1 and 2).  
The second step is to produce a normalized edition of the texts, including the resolution of abbreviations and lacunae, wherever possible. At this stage, two important digital tool sets are integrated with each text. The Alpheios Greek and Latin tools provide interactive lexical and grammatical analysis of each word, and the Perseus tools compute dynamic word lists and help the students and their instructors keep track of the progress accomplished in language learning (see figure 3). The Perseus tools can also be used to design personalized reading lists and exams for each student. Although this project uses Latin and Greek language tools, the design can easily accommodate the integration of similar tools for any language.  
The third and final step is translation and annotation, which is crucial for making the texts accessible to a wide-ranging audience of students and scholars in other disciplines as well as the general public. At this stage, students will translate the texts into English and gather as much information as possible on each text, including its date and historical and literary significance. They will establish parallels with other similar texts, which can be implemented as hyperlinks. The entries are finally rounded out with a complete bibliography of the scholarship available on each text and credits naming all contributors to the entry.  
After their publication online, the entries will be linked to the SAKAI/Trunk software, an open-access collaborative learning management resource that allows students to design personalized electronic portfolios. These portfolios can be used by instructors to evaluate a student’s overall performance and progress and can also serve in applications for grants, graduate school admission, or in the context of a job search. An entry in this online collection should feature prominently in a student’s portfolio, since it constitutes a valuable and quantifiable language learning experience as well as a piece of original scholarship on a previously unedited and/or untranslated text. Throughout this process, students participate in the efforts of the scholarly community worldwide while perfecting their own language and research skills, thus becoming true citizen scholars.
 
Figure 1: The transcription step
 
Figure 2: The submission and evaluation step
 
Figure 3: The Alpheios tools provide interactive lexical and grammatical analysis of each word
references
Blackwell, Chr., and D. N. Smith (2009). Homer Multitext – Nine Year Update. Digital Humanities 2009 Conference Abstracts, (June 2009): 6-8. http://www.mith2.umd.edu/dh09/wp-content/uploads/dh09_conferencepreceedings_final.pdf (accessed March 9, 2012).
Bodard, G. (2008). The Inscriptions of Aphrodisias as Electronic Publication: A User’s Perspective and a Proposed Paradigm. Digital Medievalist 4. http://www.digitalmedievalist.org/journal/4/bodard/  (accessed March 9, 2012).
Cayless, H., Ch. Roueché, T. Elliott, and G. Bodard. (2009). Epigraphy in 2017. Digital Humanities Quarterly 3 (January 2009). >http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/1/000030.html (accessed March 9, 2012).
Robinson, P. (2010). Editing Without Walls. Literature Compass, 7: 57-61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-4113.2009.00676.x (accessed March 9, 2012).
Sosin, J. (2010). ‘Digital Papyrology.’ Congress of the International Association of Papyrologists, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.stoa.org/archives/1263 (accessed March 12, 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1443","13","Digital Language Archives and Less-Networked Speaker Communities","1","During the past decade, digital language archives have flourished as the field of language documentation has entered mainstream linguistics. Major international funding bodies, both public and private, support research on endangered languages, and it is now possible to publish practical and theoretical work on endangered languages and documentary methods in dedicated journals and book series. One of the themes that has emerged most clearly in this literature is that of collaboration. It is now widely agreed that language documentation should be equally responsive to both the technical questions posed by linguists and the more immediate practical interests of speakers and their communities. Issues of rights and access are no longer anxious afterthoughts; they are fundamental matters for negotiation between researchers and speakers, mandatorily addressed in research agreements and funding proposals, and threaded through documentation projects from their very conception (see, e.g., Yamada 2007; Czaykowska-Higgins 2009).
Yet paradoxically, this intense focus on collaborative methods seems to stop where the digital archiving of language data begins. Language archives are doing their best to ensure that source communities can in principle gain access to the language materials they produce, but they are only just beginning to consider possibilities for formally integrating speaker communities into the process of archive curation. Such involvement could potentially transform language archives from repositories of static objects into sites for ongoing dialogue and exchange with living communities.
The obstacles to collaborative archiving are particularly acute in the case of source communities located in hard-to-reach places – often the third world – where many of today’s small, minor, and endangered languages are spoken. As might be expected, a disproportionate percentage of documentary projects are being carried out in such locations (see, e.g., http://www.paradisec.org.au/blog/2010/09/where-does-the-dosh-go), with their outputs being deposited into first world archives. It is imperative that western scholars and institutions be cognizant of the impact their documentation projects have on such communities. In Melanesia, which is arguably the world’s most linguistically diverse area, local value is validated through relationships with outsiders. If community input ceases once the fieldwork phase of a western-sponsored project is over, this can reinforce the feelings of marginalization that motivate language shift in the first place (Dobrin 2008).
In April 2012, the University of Virginia’s Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities (IATH) is hosting an international group of scholars, technical experts, and community members for an intensive two-day meeting, sponsored by the National Endowment for the Humanities, to explore appropriate social and technical models for facilitating the ongoing involvement of less-networked source communities in the digital archiving of their endangered languages. Participants will present on the current state of the art in language archiving, the cultural and infrastructural situations of representative world regions (Papua New Guinea and Cameroon), and promising ‘bridging’ technologies. This paper will report on the results of the meeting, describing their implications for language archiving and for the digital humanities more generally.       
There are a number of reasons why digital language archives must begin to find ways to support direct, ongoing relationships with speakers and community members, and not just with data depositors or researchers. One of these is the unfolding nature and experience-dependence of informed consent. When speakers are first recorded, they may consent to certain levels of access for the resulting materials (full access, access with conditions, researcher-only, etc.; see http://elar.soas.ac.uk/node/32620 andhttp://www.mpi.nl/DOBES/archive_access/access_procedures). But they cannot possibly foresee all potential future uses of the recordings. And where communities have little or no familiarity with the medium of distribution, how can they be expected to grasp even the most basic uses to which their material will be put? Given the opportunity to make their wishes known, judgments made by communities at a given time may be modified, refined, or even reversed later.
Developing direct lines of communication between archives and communities will also improve the quality and discoverability of archived data. Changing circumstances may make possible the engagement of knowledgeable stakeholders who were formerly reluctant or inaccessible. Also, though linguists may be diligent about collecting detailed metadata when making recordings in the field, this process inevitably leaves gaps. After fieldwork is over, missing information, such as the identity of a speaker or dialect, might only be known by difficult-to-reach community members. Whole categories of metadata that once seemed irrelevant (details of local history, relationships between consultants, and so on) often take on new significance as projects evolve. By enabling mechanisms by which community members can identify and attach metadata to recordings that concern them or their communities, endangered language resources will be enriched, making them easier to find and more useful for all users.
Finally, there is a practical need for the kind of direct relationships we are proposing to facilitate, as archives are now receiving expressions of interest from individuals who speak the languages of their collections. At the University of London’s School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), the Endangered Languages Archive (ELAR) has registered speakers of Bena and Pite Saami as users; IATH occasionally receives queries from town-dwelling Arapesh people interested in the Arapesh Grammar and Digital Language Archive (AGDLA). ELAR depositors sometimes specify that access to their deposit requires community approval; the Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America (AILLA) sets up ‘community controlled’ as a systematic level of access (though at present this must be mediated through the institution). Increasingly, we can expect archives to be routinely receiving user account applications from individuals who were either directly involved as research participants or who have ancestors, family members, friends, or community associates who were involved in language documentation projects. But at present there is a clear disconnect between what depositors are able to achieve using the tools and systems provided by archives, and what community members are able to do – especially those with limited internet access.   
Some digital language archives recognize these problems and are seeking to overcome them. Edward Garrett of ELAR has been experimenting with social networking technologies such as the open-source Drupal Content Management System in order to make their archive more user-centered; a desire to extend the ELAR system to include community members is one of the motivations for our meeting. The project BOLD-PNG (seehttp://www.boldpng.info/home) has begun putting digital recording equipment into the hands of community members in Papua New Guinea and training them in techniques of basic oral language documentation, giving people the resources to become data collectors, if not depositors. Kimberly Christen’s Mukurtu platform was designed to facilitate community-controlled archiving, digitally instituting traditional cultural protocols to manage access to archived objects (see, e.g., Christen 2008). But none of these projects develops a generalizable approach to integrating communities without internet access in the ongoing curation of digital language materials they have produced.
We are particularly interested in the possibilities afforded by the increasingly common presence of mobile communication technologies in areas where basic infrastructure such as electricity, running water, and even roads remain absent. In such areas, new social institutions involving cell phones have begun to evolve, for example, conventions for exchanging cell-phone minutes, or new gathering spaces defined by signal access. Exploiting this new form of technology, the non-profit organization Open Mind has developed a system called ‘Question Box’ (see http://questionbox.org/about-mission) which allows remote communities to access information in critical domains such as health, agriculture, and business.  Google’s voice-based social media platform SayNow is being used to allow cell phone users in Egypt and elsewhere to leave voicemail messages that appear online immediately as Twitter audio feeds (http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/02/world/middleeast/02twitter.html). We believe that similar methods are worth exploring as a means to creatively connect less-networked language communities with researchers and archives.
references
Christen, K. (2008). Archival Challenges and Digital Solutions in Aboriginal Australia. SAA Archeological Recorder 8(2): 21-24.
Czaykowska-Higgins, E. (2009). Research Models, Community Engagement, and Linguistic Fieldwork: Reflections on Working within Canadian Indigenous Communities. Language Documentation and Conservation3(1): 15-50.
Dobrin, L. M. (2008). From Linguistic Elicitation to Eliciting the Linguist. Language 84: 300-324.
Yamada, R.-M. (2007). Collaborative linguistic fieldwork: Practical application of the empowerment model. Language documentation and conservation 1(2): 257-282.","txt","2","",""
"1444","13","Digital editions with eLaborate: from practice to theory","1","introduction
The aim of this paper is to show how the development and use of a web based scholarly environment for the creation of digital editions leads to meta reflection and further theorizing on what a digital edition could or should be. This effect of deploying and using virtual environments in turn may lead to improved versions of such working environments or to improvements to other tools facilitating the creation of digital editions.
However creative and inventive scholars may be, it is extremely difficult to contemplate all possibilities and consequences of digital editions without actual hands on experience in a digital environment in which such editions can be created and experimented with. For this and for other reasons, eLaborate was developed by the Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands, an institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. eLaborate is an online research environment in which scholars can create an edition of a text, individually or in a group. They can upload scans of the manuscript or printed book they want to edit, transcribe the text using a zooming and panning tool, write annotations to the text, categorize these according to their own needs, and publish the edition online with minimal interference of IT developers. eLaborate version 3 was released in the Fall of 2011. eLaborate3 is built on a new IT architecture, because the wishes and needs of users of eLaborate1 (2005) and eLaborate2 (2009) could not be accommodated in the technological framework that was chosen as the base at the start of the first project in 2003.
how elaborate changes editorial practice
For more information about the changing organizational practices that arise in a collaboratively made edition, we refer to (Beaulieu, van Dalen-Oskam & van Zundert [to be published] and Pierazzo 2008). In this paper, we will focus on the edition itself, taking as the subject of our case one already published online digital edition made with eLaborate2.
The example we take is Marjolein Hogenbirk’s edition of the Middle Dutch Arthurian romance Walewein ende Keye (‘Gawain and Kay’), published online at http://www.waleweinendekeye.huygens.knaw.nl/ (Hogenbirk 2009). The most prominent representation of the edited text is per column in the manuscript. See for example 182ra (http://www.waleweinendekeye.huygens.knaw.nl/path/editie/kolom/182r/182ra#). eLaborate shows the facsimile of this column, the transcription, and at the far right all the annotations to the transcription are listed. The user can adjust the placement of the facsimile in its panel and zoom in, change the width of the panels (cf. Fig. 1), or click panels away to give the other panels more space.
 
Figure 1: The eLaborate Walewein ende Keye edition opened on colum 182ra
The freedom of customization available to the user goes even beyond this. The key here is the ‘Options’ button in the top right of the screen, where the user can adjust the display of abbreviations: show these in italics, or show these in roman font (in the example they are shown in italics). Another choice concerns line numbers: the user can choose the line numbers of the current edition as well as that of an earlier edition, or choose not to see any of these (in the example only the line numbers of the current edition are shown). The other Options-tab enables the user to choose which of the annotations to see (Fig. 2). The edition of Walewein ende Keye has three different annotation categories, which are marked with three different colours in the transcription panel. Hovering over them with the mouse makes the content and categorization of the specific annotation visible. All annotations are visible in the right hand panel. But the user can deselect those categories that need not be visible for now. When deselected, they immediately disappear as coloured markings in the transcription panel and from the list in the right hand panel.
 
Figure 2: The eLaborate Walewein ende Keye options tab on ‘Annotatiecategorieeën’ (‘Annotation categories’)
The editor has of course added markings of abbreviations, line numbers, and annotation categories in the work environment. This leads us to a very important new basic point of departure or principle for digital editions derived from current practice: everything that is explicitly marked in the edition should be easily made invisible on the fly by the user, whereas it is impossible for the user (as well as for the editor himself) to add non-systematical information on the fly. The occurrence of medieval abbreviations e.g. is unpredictable and therefore cannot be added by current technology correctly automatically. The same goes for the general presentation of the edition. The edition was made column for column, and chapter headings were marked. Therefore it can also be viewed chapter by chapter (‘Overzicht per hoofdstuk’) or as a complete text (‘Volledige tekst’). Should the editor have chosen for a complete text only, the column presentation would not have been possible.
how practice leads to new theory
Simple as this new guideline may seem, it leads to a more theoretical reflection on the nature of digital editions in general and on its possible future(s). For example, we could also apply the principle to more fundamental levels. Based on a.o. funding possibilities, an editor of medieval texts until now had to choose for which audience he would prepare the edition. A diplomatic edition for linguistic and literary scholars, with the exact spelling as in the manuscript or print and with abbreviations marked in italics? Or a critical edition for students, with adaptation of spelling, interpunction and capitalization, and with solved abbreviations? With limited funding the last option usually seemed best. But a critical edition closes the edition down for certain kinds of research. Spelling and interpunction are changed and therefore cannot be researched anymore. This also makes it much more difficult to establish the probable date and location of writing. Such a ’closed-down’ edition has only limited usability and limited influence on the general progress of knowledge. It can even introduce difficult-to-check mistakes that could do harm (cf. van Dalen-Oskam & Depuydt 1997).
Can we address both scholarly users and students in one and the same digital edition without closing down the edition? The basic approach seems to be that the text in a form as close as possible to the source is the basis of all types of representations and that almost all kinds of interpretations by the editors are kept separate from this basic text. The editor transcribes the words or signs diplomatically, for instance the word auenture‘adventure’. The word could receive an annotation that the critical representation of this word is aventure(generated automatically if the editor has run a parser for lemmatization and part-of-speech tagging, having confirmed or corrected the results). The form of the added knowledge would be very different from now, but still depends on the expertise of the editor. Ofcourse we do need a user-friendly way to add all these layers of interpretation to the base text. It is clear that the stand-off mark-up approach as advocated by a.o. (Schmidt 2010) is a necessity to make this work. And then perhaps another problem can also be addressed. What if we have several versions of a text and we want to reconstruct the version as it may have functioned at a certain point in time? If we make one edition with one reconstruction, other kinds of research would again be excluded. So we need to experiment whether we can add a separate layer to editions based on the different manuscripts, with its own annotation categories, which could generate the text in the selection and the order the scholar needs. The user could then toggle between a representation of the original sources and the reconstructed text (van Dalen-Oskam, under review).
Should this be possible, text and interpretation will be separate for ever, making sure all kinds of research are still possible on (different representations of) the same digital edition. But the role of the editor as analyzing, reconstructing, and validating knowledge remains as firm as ever – with a much higher level of reusability.
references
Beaulieu, A., K. H. van Dalen-Oskam, and J. J. van Zundert (to be published). Between tradition and Web 2.0: eLaborate as social experiment in humanities scholarship. In T. Takseva (ed.), Social Software and the Evolution of User Expertise: Future Trends in Knowledge Creation and Dissemination. To be published by IGI Global.
eLaborate: eLaborate1 (2005). Not available anymore.
eLaborate: eLaborate2 (2009). http://www.e-laborate.nl/en/.
eLaborate: eLaborate3 (2011). http://www.elaborate.huygens.knaw.nl.
Hogenbirk, M., ed. (2009). Walewein ende Keye. Een dertiende-eeuwse Arturroman overgeleverd in deLancelotcompilatie. Digitale editie, bezorgd door Marjolein Hogenbirk, met medewerking van W. P. Gerritsen. Eerste editie. November 2009, online op: http://www.waleweinendekeye.huygens.knaw.nl.
Pierazzo, E. (2008). Editorial Teamwork in a Digital Environment: The Edition of the Correspondence of Giacomo Puccini. Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie 10, http://computerphilologie.tu-darmstadt.de/jg08/pierazzo.html.
Schmidt, D. (2010).’The inadequacy of embedded markup for cultural heritage texts. Literary and Linguistic Computing 25(3); 337-356.
van Dalen-Oskam, K., and K. Depuydt (1997). Lexicography and philology. In K. H. van Dalen-Oskam, K. A. C. Depuydt, W. J. J. Pijnenburg, and T. H. Schoonheim (eds), Dictionaries of Medieval Germanic Languages. A Survey of Current Lexicographical Projects. Turnhout: Brepols, pp. 189-197. (Selected Proceedings of the International Medieval Congress, University of Leeds, 4-7 July 1994).
van Dalen-Oskam, K. (under review). All in one, one for all? A possible world of digital editions. Under review for Variants.","txt","2","",""
"1445","13","Discrimination sémantique par la traduction automatique, expériences sur le dictionnaire français de Littré","1","L’exploration d’un corpus sur un champ sémantique, avec plusieurs mots clés, produit de longues concordances fastidieuses à dépouiller. Les outils proposent de trier les résultats par les mots du contexte, ce qui permet rarement de dégager des classes sémantiques éclairantes quand le vocabulaire est varié, sans mots spécialement fréquents. Des regroupements peuvent être opérés par référence à un système de traits sémantiques, ou ‘sèmes’, attribués aux mots du contexte. Maurice Gross1 a ainsi montré comment quelques traits peu équivoques tels que humain–non humain pouvaient distinguer des acceptions: par exemple, le verbepermettre signifie généralement ‘autoriser’ lorsque son sujet est une personne, ou bien, il signifie ‘rendre possible’ lorsque le sujet est une chose. La sémantique syntaxique n’est cependant pas suffisante pour dégager toutes les significations. François Rastier2 a montré que l’interprétation du sens dans un texte, et non seulement dans une phrase, s’appuyait sur l’isotopie de bien d’autres sèmes, par exemple /noirceur/,/rapidité/, et tout le spectre des valeurs et des sentiments. Il a par ailleurs insisté sur les limites des ontologies classificatoires de concepts, comme WordNet3. Si un lexique sémique informatisé serait souhaitable, il n’est malheureusement pas encore constitué4. Notre communication explore les potentialités et les limites de la traduction automatique comme instrument de discrimination sémantique, en observant d’abord son application à un dictionnaire.
L’informatisation de la désambiguïsation sémantique a très tôt (1949) été liée à la traduction automatique, notamment par Warren Weaver5. Lorsqu’un traducteur humain rencontre en contexte le mot français ‘société’, il a l’expertise pour choisir en anglais entre ‘society’ et ‘company’. Comment résoudre informatiquement cette ambiguïté? Weaver appelait à la constitution d’un lexique inventoriant les différents sens de chaque mot, avec des critères repérables dans le contexte permettant d’opérer la distinction. Une telle ressource suppose l’existence d’universaux linguistiques partagés entre les langues, (language invarientsselon les termes de Weaver). À cette époque, c’était visionnaire, la désambiguïsation sémantique se présentait comme un préalable à la traduction automatique.
Actuellement, les traducteurs automatiques en ligne sont de plus en plus performants, pourtant, la désambiguïsation sémantique ne présente pas de résultats aussi convaincants. Par exemple les moteurs de recherche ne distinguent pas encore strictement plusieurs sens d’un même mot, comme société: ‘communauté organisée’ ou ‘entreprise’. Des résultats ont été obtenus, mais les progrès butent sur un obstacle humain. Jean Véronis6 a ainsi montré qu’avec un même dictionnaire et les même textes, des personnes n’affectaient pas le même sens à un mot équivoque (barrage). Les nuances proposées par les lexicographes diffèrent selon les dictionnaires et sont comprises différemment par les lecteurs. Si la traduction automatique a progressé, ce n’est pas par la désambiguïsation sémantique, mais par la loi de Moore qui a augmenté exponentiellement la capacité des ordinateurs, qui désormais mémorisent et traitent une grande quantité de traductions alignées.
Même si elle n’est pas explicitement formalisée, la traduction automatisée effectue pourtant bien des distinctions sémantiques. Dans votre traducteur préféré, proposez par exemple ces deux phrases: ‘La sociétédoit protéger les faibles. La société protège ses biens.’; vous pouvez obtenir les traductions: ‘Society must protect the weak. The company protects its assets.’, ‘Die Gesellschaft muss den Schutz der Schwachen. DasUnternehmen schützt sein Vermögen.’, ‘La sociedad debe proteger a los débiles. La empresa protege sus activos.’ Pourrait-on mobiliser cette information sémantique pour opérer des distinctions dans une même langue?
Pour observer le phénomène plus précisément, nous avons établi une édition électronique du Dictionnaire de la langue française d’Émile Littré (1863-1872)7. Comme tout dictionnaire, le Littré distingue les différentes significations d’un même mot vedette, mais il a aussi l’avantage de comporter de nombreuses citations et exemples d’emplois. L’auteur revendique un ordre historique des significations, ou du moins, fidèle à une reconstruction génétique selon ses convictions positivistes. Si la finesse des définitions et des distinctions de Littré impressionne encore, leur ordre convient beaucoup moins au lecteur d’aujourd’hui. Nous avons fait l’expérience d’utiliser la traduction automatique pour réordonner l’article selon l’équivalent traductionnel proposé dans une langue cible. Soit par exemple l’article SOCIÉTÉ, toutes les occurrences de société dans les exemples et les citations sont en gras. La traduction automatique en anglais renvoie l’article traduit, avec en gras des occurrences de society, company, voire corporation, venture, ou partnership. Ces mots servent ensuite de clés pour regrouper différemment les paragraphes de Littré, et proposer un nouvel ordre de lecture, selon le réseau sémantique de la langue cible. Avec une langue qu’il connait, le lecteur constate évidemment des erreurs de traduction, notamment dans les textes anciens ou les phrases tronquées, mais il est aussi surpris par la reconnaissance de locutions rares (Petites-Maisons: ‘madhouse’). Sur des articles longs, avec assez d’exemples par significations, le classement par équivalent traductionnel dégage généralement des distinctions éclairantes, en pondérant mieux les acceptions fréquentes, en regroupant des usages que la doctrine historique de Littré avait séparé. Au fond, le procédé retrouve la pratique ancienne dans les langues européennes de se référer à une autre langue (en général le latin) pour distinguer les significations dans une langue vivante. La traduction automatique n’a évidemment pas l’exactitude d’un jugement humain, mais elle permet de projeter les textes sur des dizaines de langues, qui sont autant d’espaces sémantiques originaux. La comparaison et la combinaison de plusieurs langues produisent des ordres de lecture parfois difficiles à interpréter, mais rarement dénués de sens.
La traduction automatique articule des distinctions sémantiques, certes biaisées par les limites de l’informatique, les intérêts pratiques des utilisateurs, ou le lexique de l’anglais qui sert généralement de langue pivot, mais pourtant révélatrices de l’expérience singulière de nombreuses langues. Cette approche convient aux digital humanities parce qu’elle ne suppose pas a priori des universaux de signification et tente plutôt d’instrumentaliser l’interculturalité afin de mieux comprendre sa propre culture. La procédure peut être imitée par des dizaines d’autres langues, sans constitution coûteuse de lexiques sémantiques ou de corpus annotés. Le lexicographe, d’abord, sera invité à revoir le plan de ses articles, à se dégager de ses présupposés logiques, par comparaison au découpage lexical d’autres langues. Nous utilisons ce type de procédures dans des interfaces interactives de recherche, afin d’élargir le bouquet de mots d’une requête, puis pour trier les concordances.
notes
1.Les bases empiriques de la notion de prédicat sémantique. Langages 63, Paris 1981, pp. 7-52.
2.Arts et sciences du texte. Paris: PUF 2001.
3.http://wordnet.princeton.edu/
4.Mathieu Valette et al. (2006). Éléments pour la génération de classes sémantiques à partir de définitions lexicographiques. Pour une approche sémique du sens. In TALN’06, 2006.
5.Le Translation memorandum, 1949.
6.Sense tagging: does it make sense? In A. Wilson, P. Rayson et T. McEnery (dir.), Corpus Linguistics by the Lune: a festschrift for Geoffrey Leech. Frankfurt: Peter Lang 2003.
7.http://corpus.enc.sorbonne.fr/littre/","txt","2","",""
"1446","13","Distractorless Authorship Verification","1","introduction
In traditional authorship attribution, our task is to assign an author label (or a similar categorical label such as genre, publication date, etc.) to a work of unlabeled authorship. In the closed-set problem, we assign a label from a set of potential authors for whom we have some labeled training data. In the open-set problem, we also allow for the answer ‘none of the above’. We build upon this here with the authorship verification task, which is essentially an open-class authorship attribution problem with only one author in the candidate pool. Thus for a given document D and candidate author A, we attempt to answer the question ‘Was D written by A?’.
background
Previous approaches to this problem [1-2] have involved the creation of a distractor set, which is normally controlled for genre, tone, length, etc. and performing an a traditional authorship attribution-style analysis to see whether the unlabeled document is more likely to be by the candidate author or one of the authors in the distractor set. This approach is not ideal because it relies heavily on the creation of an appropriate distractor set. That is, enough information was available about the candidate author and the training documents to choose a set of distractor authors that were appropriate for the task. Thus, although these methods performed well at the verification task, they do not lend themselves well to automation. Indeed, the entire result of this type of authorship verification hinges upon the documents chosen for the distractor set. This creates a sort of chicken-and-egg problem wherein it is necessary to know the answer in order to evaluate the suitability of the distractor set, yet it is necessary to know whether the distractor set is appropriate in order to evaluate the results.
We will attempt to remedy the errors introduced by the distractor set by eliminating the set entirely. Instead, we will consider only the document in question as well as a sample of writing known to belong to the candidate author. Thus, the validity of the verification task hinges only on obtaining a representative model of the candidate author’s work, a requirement shared by traditional verification tasks, and does not involve any guesswork.
materials and methods
Distractorless Authorship Verification
Goal: Given a document D, and a candidate author A, determine the likelihood that D is written by A.
Method:
1.        Compile a set of training data, which is known to be written by A.
2.        Compile a model from the training data. This is normally accomplished by extracting linguistic or token-level features from the text and compiling a feature vector using any of various standard techniques from the authorship attribution field. We will label this feature vector M = <m1, m2, …, mn>.
3.        Extract a feature set, F, from D in the form of F = <f1, f2, …, fn>, where fi corresponds to mi for all i.
4.        Choose a ‘distance like’ function, δ, such that if δ(x, y) > δ(x, z), we can say that x is ‘closer to’ or ‘more similar to’ y than to z (in some meaningful way).
5.        Choose a threshold, t, such that if δ(M, F) > t, we accept the premise that M and F are written by the same author, A. This threshold is found empirically by analyzing the average δ between documents of the same author.
The Corpora
To evaluate the performance of our authorship verification algorithms, we used two publically-available corpora. We made use of the Ad-hoc Authorship Attribution Competition corpus (AAAC) [3] and the PAN 2011 Authorship Identification Training Corpus [4].
Ad-hoc Authorship Attribution Competition Corpus
The AAAC was an experiment in authorship attribution held as part of the 2004 Joint International Conference of the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing and the Association for Computers and the Humanities. The AAAC provides texts from a wide variety of different genres, languages and document lengths, assuring that the results will be useful for a wide variety of applications. The AAAC corpus consists of 264 training documents, 98 test documents and 63 authors, distributed across 13 different problems (labeled A-M). A description of each problem is found in Table 1.
 
Table 1: AAAC Breakdown
PAN 2011 Authorship Identification Training Corpus
The PAN 2011 Authorship Identification Training Corpus consists of ‘real-world texts’ (described by the originators as ‘often short and messy’ [4]). These texts appear to come primarily from the Enron Email Dataset [5]. Each text contained authorship information within the text itself, which was removed during the preprocessing stage. They are included to ensure that the results obtained herein are applicable in real-world situations, and to avoid overtraining on the AAAC data. The PAN corpus contained 5,064 training documents and 1,251 test documents across 10 authors.
Preprocessing
Preprocessing was performed on the text based on current best practices from traditional authorship attribution. Both corpora were preprocessed to standardize whitespace and character case. Any sequence of whitespace characters in the documents converted to a single space, and all characters were converted to lower case. As previously mentioned, for the PAN corpus, we also removed the author tags from each document.
Features
We used a variety of features, also chosen for their known performance in traditional authorship attribution, in our approach. Current research [6] shows that character n-grams are strong performers in traditional authorship attribution tasks. As such, we have focused on these features, examining results for character n-grams for n from 1 to 20. For completeness, we also provide results for word n-grams for n from 1 to 10. Here, a word is defined as any series of non-whitespace characters separated by whitespace. The n-grams are generated using a sliding window of size n and slide 1. We have limited ourselves to these simple features as they can be calculated very rapidly and without risk of error (such as that introduced by imperfect part-of-speech taggers), and thus lend themselves well to rapid, confident analysis.
Author Model
In order to perform the distractorless authorship verification, it is necessary to accurately model the writing style of the candidate author. We accomplished this using the centroid of the feature vectors for each training document. The centroid was calculated by using the average relative frequency of each event across the training documents, to adjust for variations in training document length.
Analysis Method
For this study, we have limited ourselves to the use of a normalized dot-product (Cosine Distance) analysis method. This method was shown in [7] to be among the best performing and simplest methods for authorship attribution. The advantage to using the Cosine Distance, particularly in conjunction with the simple features described above, is that it is possible to perform this verification extremely quickly, even on very large data sets. In order to answer the verification task, we need only consider the dot product of the unknown document with the candidate author model. So, let:
 
Evaluation Metrics
For each set of results below we report the ‘accuracy’ of a particular experiment. For the purposes of this paper, we define the accuracy as the number of correctly classified texts divided by the total number of attempts.
results
AAAC Corpus Results
Characters
For the AAAC Corpus with character n-grams, we achieved our best results using Character 12-grams. Our highest accuracy was 87.44% with a threshold, t, of t=0.099387. For character n-grams of various values of n, our best accuracies varied from about 86% to about 88% as seen in Figure 1.
 
Figure 1: AAAC Character n-grams by Highest Accuracy
Words
For the AAAC Corpus with word n-grams, we achieved our best results using Word 4-grams. Our highest accuracy was 88.04. These results were achieved by setting a threshold t=0. For word n-grams of various values of n, our best accuracies varied from about 86% to about 88% as shown in Figure 2.
 
Figure 2: AAAC Word n-grams by Highest Accuracy
PAN Corpus Results
Characters
For the PAN Corpus with character n-grams, we achieved our best results using Character 7-grams. Our highest accuracy was 92.23% with t = 0.1643 and t = 0.1707 respectively. For character n-grams of various values of n, our best accuracies varied from about 90% to about 92% as shown in Figure 3.
 
Figure 3: PAN Character n-grams by Highest Accuracy
Words
For the PAN Corpus with word n-grams, we achieved our best results using Word 2-grams. Our highest accuracy was 91.53%. These results were achieved by setting a threshold, t, of t = 0.1518. For word n-grams of various values of n, our best accuracies varied from about 90% to about 92% as shown in Figure 4.
 
 
Figure 4: PAN Word n-grams by Highest Accuracy
 
 discussion and conclusion
These results are as expected, and show that distractorless authorship verification is a viable technique with high accuracy even on extremely difficult problems. The lower accuracy rates on the AAAC Corpus are expected, as this corpus contains many times more authors than the PAN corpus with fewer training documents per author. Despite this, we were able to achieve accuracy rates of up to 88% on this more difficult corpus, and 92% on the ‘easier’ PAN corpus.
It should be noted that the results of this technique are extremely tunable. For instance, we can tune for any combination of accuracy, precision and recall as desired. That is, this distractorless authorship verification technique allows us to tune the Type I (false positive) vs. Type II (false negative) error rates depending on the application of the technology. For instance, in a forensic context we may want to err on the side of saying ‘no’, and thus prefer to reduce false positives, while in a less stringent application we may wish to improve the overall accuracy at a cost of possibly having more false positives.
Given the performance on both the PAN corpus, which consisted mainly of real-life e-mail messages, and the AAAC corpus, which contained a wide variety of documents, the distractorless authorship verification technique shows promise for a wide range of genres and document lengths, and appears to work across a variety of languages, all without much tuning. Indeed, the only difficulty appears to be in finding an appropriate threshold, t, for given candidate author. This is possible by analyzing the average δ between documents by the candidate author. It can also be approximated from a large corpus, as was done here, although these results make it clear that there will be some of the same problems in controlling the corpus for genre, document length, etc. that were present in forming a distractor set for traditional authorship verification.
Future work will focus on improving these results, mainly through the addition of confidence ratings for the verification answers. That is, by allowing the system to decline to answer some percentage of the verification questions asked (or, effectively, to answer ‘I don’t know’), we have seen some improvement in these experimental results. Although full results for this study are not yet available, we have seen that by dropping the 20% ‘most difficult’ verification problems, we see an increase in accuracy to approximately 96% (from 92% on the strict binary problem). Whether or not this is truly an increase in accuracy depends upon the intended application of the technology, but we believe this future work will provide interesting results in application-specific tradeoffs, as described above.
Overall, we believe we have shown this distractorless authorship verification to be a useful tool on the stylometrist’s workbench. Although no tool is itself a panacea, we are also planning efforts to combine this technique with a mixture-of-experts style voting system, effectively using multiple distance functions and feature sets on the same problem to increase confidence in our answer. Finally, we hope to both more fully explore the process of determining the appropriate threshold without the need for extraneous texts, and to find an acceptable ‘default’ threshold for cases where there is little training data.
references
[1] Koppel, M., and J. Schler (2004). Authorship Verification as a One-Class Classification Problem. ICML ’04 Proceedings of the Twenty-First International Conference on Machine Learning. New York, NY
[2] Koppel, M., and J. Schler (2004). Text Categorization for Authorship Verification. 8th Symposium on Artificial Intelligence.
[3] Juola, P. (2004). Ad-Hoc Authorship Attribution Competition. ALLC/ACH 2004 Conference Abstracts. Gothenberg: University of Gothenberg.
[4] PAN 2011 Lab (2011). Uncovering Plagiarism, Authorship, and Social Software Misuse. Authorship Identification Training Corpus. Amsterdam.
[5] Enron Email Dataset. http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~enron/.
[6] Juola, P., and M. Ryan (2008). Authorship Attribution, Similarity, and Noncommutative Divergence Measures. In Selected Papers from the Chicago DHCS Colloquium. 2008. Chicago, IL,: Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science.
[7] Noecker Jr, J., and P. Juola (2009). Cosine Distance Nearest-Neighbor Classification for Authorship Attribution. In Proceedings from Digital Humanities 2009. College Park, Md.: Digital Humanities.","txt","2","",""
"1447","13","Electronic Deconstruction of an argument using corpus linguistic analysis of its on-line discussion forum supplement","1","introduction
In the last few years, one technological innovation has been the appending of discussion forum facilities to online arguments, such as in online versions of newspapers. The facility allows readers to post responses to an argument and to debate issues raised in it. Such online discussion forums can be regarded as electronic supplements to these arguments.
The aim of this presentation is to report on research which highlights the utility value of this electronic supplementarity for critical reading of arguments (see O’Halloran, 2010, 2011 2012). I show how a content analysis of an online discussion forum appended to an argument can illuminate repression or marginalisation in the latter of concepts which are used in normal discussion of the argument’s topic. In turn, I demonstrate how this can reveal where the rhetorical structure of the argument is unstable, where it deconstructs. Since, to conduct such content analysis, I use corpus linguistic method – the analysis of collections of electronic texts – I refer to this approach to critical reading as Electronic Deconstruction. The theoretical stimulus for this approach comes from an appropriation of ‘the supplement’, an idea of the French philosopher, Jacques Derrida.
keyword analysis
Concepts normally used for discussion of a topic
If an online discussion forum is sufficiently large, and contains a substantial number of critical posts, it can provide illumination of what concepts are normally used in discussion of a particular topic regardless of howthese concepts are used, e.g. whether these concepts are assented to or not. Should certain concepts be salient in the forum as a whole but absent from, or at best marginal in, the original argument, this can offer insights into what the argument might be said to repress or marginalise from normal conceptual discussion of its topic. Since the discussion forum is directly related to the original argument, then arbitrariness will have been considerably reduced in producing these insights.
Keywords
Salient concepts in an online discussion forum, or any collection of electronic texts, can be revealed through keyword analysis using appropriate corpus linguistic software. A keyword is ‘a word which occurs with unusual frequency in a given text…by comparison with a reference corpus’ (Scott 1997: 236). Keywords are established through statistical measures such as log likelihood (see Dunning, 1993). A log likelihood value of ≥ 7 (p < 0.01) confers keyness on a word. The larger the log likelihood value ≥ 7, the greater the salience of the keyword. Importantly, the log likelihood value, as a statistical measure, reduces arbitrariness in what is selected as salient.
Comparison of the highest value keywords in a discussion forum with words in the original argument can be illuminating. For this presentation, the following types of keyword are relevant:
•        high value keywords in the forum which are absent from the original argument. These are candidates for the status of repressed concepts from the argument;
•        high value keywords in the forum which are used infrequently in the original argument. These are candidates for the status of marginalised concepts in the argument.
Keyword analysis should not only be quantitative. They also need to be qualitatively explored to understand how they are being used. Qualitative exploration of keywords in the discussion forum can, in turn, strengthen judgements as to marginalised / repressed candidacy in the original argument.
In order to mobilise how I use keywords in a discussion forum supplement for purposes of Electronic Deconstruction, I take as stimulus how Derrida conceives of ‘the supplement’.
discussion forums as supplements
Derrida’s supplement
We normally think of the word ‘supplement’ as meaning something extra, an add-on. For Derrida, the supplement is more subtle. This is because he illuminates how a supplement ‘adds only to replace’ a lack of something. So, while the supplement may seem like an add-on and thus outside that which is supplemented, in fact it becomes simultaneously inside that which it is added to. Derrida writes that every supplement:
…harbors within itself two significations whose cohabitation is as strange as it is necessary […] [The supplement] adds only to replace. It intervenes or insinuates itself in-the-place-of (Derrida 1976 [1967]: 144-145).
Take, for example, a shop sign outside a bicycle shop. It is outside the shop not part of the inside. It is an add-on, an extra, signaling the nature of the shop. However, in being outside the shop it ‘adds to replace’ a ‘lack’ inside the shop – the shop cannot function unless it can attract custom. The shop sign is thus simultaneously an add-on and an essential part of the shop – it is both outside and oddly ‘inside’ the shop as well.
Discussion forums as Derridean supplements
If we apply the logic of the supplement to online discussion forums appended to arguments, then a discussion forum is not just outside the original argument. It is not just an add-on, an extra. On the logic of the supplement, concepts which are normally used to discuss a topic as reflected in keywords in an online discussion forum – but which are absent in the original argument – can be seen as ‘lacking’ in the argument. In turn, this can offer insights into repression or marginalisation in the argument (relative to the particular supplement). Furthermore, since keywords are generated non-arbitrarily, we have in turn a non-arbitrary basis for intervening in the argument. We can use these keywords to ‘add to replace’ what can be perspectivised as deficient in normal discussion of the argument’s topic, intervening to replace an absence inside the argument with keywords outside the argument. Via the logic of the supplement, the border between an argument and its discussion forum supplement is porous.
To be clear, my use of Derrida’s notion of the supplement is an appropriation of his work. Though Derrida is synonymous with an approach to critical reading called ‘Deconstruction’, I am not doing Derridean Deconstruction. While I appropriate the idea of supplements as being simultaneously inside and outside the things that are supplemented, this does not mean that I concur with Derrida’s vision where meaning is ultimately undecideable. Indeed, a corpus linguistic approach illuminates Derrida’s focus on undecideability in language and meaning to be misguided (see O’Halloran 2012).
Using the supplement to investigate deconstruction in an argument
The next stage is to trace the extent to which an intervention in the argument ‘to add to replace’ leads to instability in its cohesion. An argument’s rhetorical structure is dependent on effective cohesion. If cohesion is disturbed by this intervention, then the credibility of the argument diminishes.
the argument topic: ‘new atheism’
Orientation
I demonstrate the method of Electronic Deconstruction on an argument in an online version of a British newspaper.1 Written by the journalist Brendan O’Neill, the argument criticises ‘new atheism’, the atheism associated with thinkers such as Richard Dawkins. The entire argument rests on a rhetorical structural opposition: ‘old atheism’ (e.g. the atheism of Karl Marx) is good while ‘new atheism’ is bad. Using the corpus linguistic software WMatrix (Rayson 2008), O’Halloran (2010, 2011) generates keywords in the discussion forum appended to the argument.2 ‘Faith’ is a keyword with high statistical significance, its meaning mostly equivalent to ‘religious belief’; ‘belief’ in the sense of ‘religious belief’ also has a high keyness value. Qualitatively examining how the keywords are used in discussion forum posts, I found that discussion of ‘new atheism’ is in relation to criticism of belief/faith in a supernatural power. That ‘religious belief’ or ‘faith’ are key concerns of ‘new atheism’ can be corroborated by examining relevant websites / books by ‘new atheists’3
Turning my attention to the argument, ‘faith’ is absent from it and ‘religious belief’ is marginal, only occurring twice; in contrast, the argument contains 21 instances of the general category ‘religion’. O’Neill describes ‘new atheists’ as being critical of ‘religion’ generally rather than of ‘faith’ / ‘religious belief’ in a supernatural power. In sum, we can say that relative to normal discourse for ‘new atheism’ (as reflected in the discussion forum), there is a deficiency in the argument of ‘faith’ / ‘religious belief’.
Exploring possible deconstruction in rhetorical structure
Below is an example of deconstruction in O’Neill’s argument. Sentences 8-10 set up the rhetorical structure of ‘new atheism’ (bad) versus ‘old atheism (good)’:
8. History’s greatest atheists, or the ‘old atheists’ as we are now forced to call them, were humanistic and progressive, critical of religion because it expressed man’s sense of higher ethical purpose in a deeply flawed fashion [emphasis added].
9. The new atheists are screechy and intolerant; they see religion merely as an expression of mass ignorance and delusion.
10. Their aim seems to be, not only to bring belief [in] God crashing back down to earth, but also to downgrademankind itself [emphasis added].
Notice ‘new atheists’ are described as LOW and ‘old atheists’ as HIGH (see italics).
What happens to the cohesion of this rhetorical structure if I ‘add to replace’ the deficiency of ‘faith’ and ‘religious belief’ in normal discussion of ‘new atheism’ (as reflected in the discussion forum) in sentences 9 and 10? (I do not intervene in sentence 8 since this relates to ‘old atheism’):
8. History’s greatest atheists, or the ‘old atheists’ as we are now forced to call them, were humanistic and progressive, critical of religion because it expressed man’s sense of higher ethical purpose in a deeply flawed fashion [emphasis added].
9. The new atheists are screechy and intolerant; they see  {religion} religious belief merely as an expression of mass ignorance and delusion [emphasis added].
10. Their aim seems to be, not only to bring belief [in] God crashing back down to earth, but also to downgrademankind itself [emphasis added].
As a result of this intervention, the general category of ‘religion’ in sentence 8 is no longer in cohesion with this general category in sentence 9. Since the rhetorical structure of ‘old atheists’ = good / high and ‘new atheists’ = bad / low is dependent on this cohesion, the rhetorical structure can be said to deconstruct. Thus, once normal discourse for ‘new atheism’ is instituted, the argument can be evaluated as falling apart structurally.
references
Derrida, J. (1976 [1967]). Of Grammatology [trans G.C. Spivak] Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP.
Dunning, T. (1993). Accurate methods for the statistics of surprise and coincidence. Computational Linguistics19(1): 61-74.
O’Halloran, K. A. (2010). Critical reading of a text through its electronic supplement. Digital Culture and Education 2(2): 210-229.
http://www.digitalcultureandeducation.com/cms/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/DCE1022_ohalloran_2010.pdf
O’Halloran, K. A. (2011). Limitations of the logico-rhetorical module: Inconsistency in argument, online discussion forums and Electronic Deconstruction. Discourse Studies 13(6): 797-806.
O’Halloran, K. A. (2012). Electronic deconstruction: revealing tensions in the cohesive structure of persuasion texts. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 17(1): 91-124.
Rayson, P. (2008). Wmatrix: a Web-based Corpus Processing Environment. Computing Department, Lancaster University. http://ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/wmatrix.
Scott, M. (1997). PC analysis of key words – and key key words. System 25(2): 233-45.
notes
1.The argument consists of 926 words (42 sentences). The whole argument and the discussion forum appended to it can be found at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2007/dec/30/thenewatheism.
2.The discussion forum appended to the argument consists of 365 individual posts, which in total come to 69, 252 words. In order for keywords to be revealed, WMatrix compares the discussion forum with a reference corpus of around 1 million words of written English (which WMatrix accesses online).
3.In a three minute clip, Richard Dawkins summarises a central argument of ‘The God Delusion’: ‘The great majority of people on this planet do believe that there is some kind of a supreme being…historically it’s always been very important to people their belief in some sort of a supreme being…I give in the book the argument…that there is no supernatural supreme being and that belief in such a being can under some circumstances be rather a bad thing’ [my bold]. The clip can be viewed at:  http://www.amazon.com/The-God-Delusion-Richard-Dawkins/dp/0618918248/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1330788377&sr=8-1   [Accessed March 2012].","txt","2","",""
"1448","13","Engaging the Museum Space: Mobilising Visitor Engagement with Digital Content Creation","1","The following paper presents the results of the QRator research project which aims to understand how digital technologies, such as interactive labels and smart phones, create new ways for users to engage with museum objects; investigate the value and constraints of digital sources and methods involving cultural content; and demonstrate how crowdsourced digital interpretation may be utilised as a research source.
Museum exhibitions have been transformed by the addition of digital technology to enhance the visitor experience. Ubiquitous mobile technologies offer museum professionals new ways of personally engaging visitors with content, creating new relationships between museums and their users. Museums and other cultural institutions have made significant investments in developing and disseminating digital content in the physical museum space to reach and engage users, marking a shift in how museums communicate publicly their role as custodians of cultural content and their attitude towards cultural authority. Despite recent technical advances in collections access and interpretation, a number of key issues still remain. Does the rapidly changing technological environment provide a more engaging and participatory visitor experience?
The QRator project explores how mobile devices and interactive digital labels can create new models for public engagement, visitor meaning-making and the construction of multiple interpretations inside museum spaces. This project is located within the emerging technological and cultural phenomenon known as ‘The Internet of Things’; the technical and social shift that is anticipated as society moves to a ubiquitous form of computing in which every device is ‘on’, and connected to the Internet. QRator is based on ‘Tales of things’ (http://www.talesofthings.com) which has developed a ‘method for cataloguing physical objects online which could make museums and galleries a more interactive experience’ (Giles 2010). QRator takes the technology a step further, allowing users to take part in content creation on digital interactive labels- static iPads and their own mobile phones: a sustainable model for two-way public interaction in museum spaces. The QRator project uses iPads installed in the UCL Grant Museum of Zoology to provide a fully interactive experience where visitors respond to questions posed by the curators, contribute to discussions, and leave comments about individual exhibits. Visitors’ comments are synchronised with the QRator website (http://www.qrator.org) to allow them to contribute to the continuing discussion away from a museum setting. The application provides each exhibit with a QR code, a matrix barcode that embeds information such as text or an URL within a graphic that users can read using mobile devices, which links the physical exhibit with the associated conversations. When scanned these codes allow users to discover information about an object and join the conversation from their own mobile device. The unpredictable, multiple forms of interpretation produced by the use of mobile devices and interactive labels make us to reconsider ways in which museums provide information about objects and collections and should also allow museums to become more engaging for visitors.
methodology
Data from the ten QRator iPads was collected by archiving contributions from March to July 2011; each individual visitor contribution is simultaneously uploaded to the master database on the Tales of Things website, followed by the QRator website pulling the data about each case label (current question) from the master database and integrates these comments within QRator online. These comments are then aggregated together based on the current questions originally asked by the museum. This resulted in a corpus of 1463 visitor contributions, totalling 13,308 words and 2,708 unique tokens, providing a rich dataset for the analysis of visitor experience.
Visitor contributions were categorized qualitatively using open coded content analysis where each comment was read and categorized. Contributions were divided into three basic categories; about the current question or topic, about the museum, or noise. Despite the apparently simplistic categorisation it is possible to discover patterns of use and begin to understand how visitors are relating to and interpreting the exhibitions, and making meaning from their experience.
For the purpose of this study, various quantitative measures were used such as analysing the frequency of comments according to date and time, comparing comment rate between the ten iPad’s and suitable text analysis tools were used to interrogate the corpus. One of these purpose built tools emulates the popular Wordle1 visualisation where the frequency of words within the whole corpus is sized in relation to the words font size. This tool provided more stylistic control over the visualisation than other web-based services like Wordle. In addition, the corpus was analysed using a Sentiment analysis tool, SentiStrength2 developed by Thelwall et al, (forthcoming), in order to automatically measure emotion in the visitor comments, which provides an indication of a positive or negative museum experience.
findings
The largest proportion of the comments in the corpus fell into the category of topic (42%), triggered predominately by the QRator interface and questions posed by the museum curators, suggesting that visitors are inspired to share their own experiences, thus co-constructing a public multiple interpretation of museum objects. This is very pleasing, since this was exactly what the museum professionals had hoped might happen.
The lack of spam and inappropriate commenting is surprising (22%). Many museums have been hesitant to open up commu¬nication to greater participation by visitors. There is an ingrained fear in the museum profession that visitors will leave inappropriate comments when there is no moderation or intervention by the museum (Russo et al. 2008) despite research showing that museum visitors want to engage with complex, controversial topics by making comments or talking to staff and other visitors (Kelly 2006). The QRator project and the Grant Museum have, however, adopted the concept of ‘radical trust’ in the visitor community:
‘Radical trust is about trusting the community. We know that abuse can happen, but we trust (radically) that the community and participation will work. In the real world, we know that vandalism happens but we still put art and sculpture up in our parks. As an online community we come up with safeguards or mechanisms that help keep open contribution and participation working’ (Fichter 2006).
Inherent in the term is the suggestion of a previous lack of trust shown by museums towards visitors, but also the admission that such trust is regarded as new and perhaps dangerous. Nevertheless, the QRator data suggests that ‘radical trust’ in visitors does indeed work: spamming and inappropriate commenting does not appear to have happened to a significant extent in the Grant Museum.
Interestingly, many of the visitor comments focused on opinions of the museum as a whole (36%). This raises the question of whether a digital technology used in this way promotes of an opportunity for visitors to make meaning from their whole experience, rather than engage with the exhibit specific content and interpret the exhibitions themselves.
The length of comment may also be used as an indicator of engagement- if we assume that those who are interested in an issue or topic may wish to write at greater length. Indeed the average length of comment increased significantly between categories. The noise category had an average of 4.071429 words, comments on the museum had 7.431599 words and visitor contributions on topic had an average of 15.36672 words. This is pleasing, since it suggests that visitors were inspired by the questions to engage with topics in a relatively complex fashion. Additionally when compared to the SentiStrength results, which classifies for positive and negative sentiment on a scale of 1 (no sentiment) to 5 (very strong positive/negative sentiment), highlights that the comments on the museum were in average more positive in sentiment (2.04 positive) whereas the comments on topic had an equal positive to negative response (1.52 positive; 1.55 negative). Suggesting more engaged texts often contain a mix of positive and negative sentiment, in contrast to less engagement which is more likely to produce a single sentiment result.
conclusion
Digital technologies are becoming more embedded, ubiquitous and networked, with enhanced capabilities for rich social interactions, context awareness and connectivity. This has led to unprecedented changes in the provision of digital museum resources, which are beginning to transform the experience of visiting museums. The QRator project represents a shift in how cultural organisations act as trusted and authoritarian institutions; communicate knowledge to the community; and integrate their role as keepers of cultural content with their responsibility to facilitate access to content. It also suggests that users are willing to take part in a dialogue, and express their views about their visit and individual object via digital technologies. It further suggests that in most cases they can be trusted to do so in a thoughtful, serious fashion. The challenges that digital technology and participatory media bring to museums demonstrate a change from a one to many transmission to a many to many interaction, in which museums use their own voice and au¬thority to encourage participatory communication and content creation with visitors. The growing emphasis on the interactional and informal nature of learning in museums provides the perfect opportunity to showcase digital interactive technologies as important resources for engaging visitors in exhibits and more generally in museums as a whole (Thomas & Mintz 1998; Marty & Burton Jones 2007; Heath & vom Lehm 2010).
Acknowledgments
The authors of this paper would like to acknowledge the other members of the QRator team: Jack Ashby and March Carnall (UCL Grant Museum of Zoology), Sally MacDonald (UCL Museums and Public Engagement), Sussanah Chan (UCL) and Emma-Louise Nicholls (UCL Grant Museum of Zoology). QRator was funded through Beacons for Public Engagement Innovation Seed funding and we would like to thank Hilary Jackson (UCL Public Engagement) for her support and advice throughout the project.
references
Fichter, D. (2006). Web 2.0, library 2.0 and radical trust: A first take. April 2. Accessed 27th October 2011 athttp://library2.usask.ca/~fichter/blog_on_the_side/2006/04/web-2.html.
Giles, J. (2010). Barcodes help objects tell their stories. New Scientist (17th April, 2010).
Heath, C., and D. vom Lehn (2010). Interactivity and Collaboration: new forms of participation in museums, galleries and science centres. In R. Parry (ed.), Museums in a Digital Age. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 266-280.
Kelly, L. (2006). Museums as sources of information and learning: The decision-making process. Open Museum Journal 8, accessed at http://archive.amol.org.au/omj/volume8/volume8_index.asp.
Marty, P., and K. Burton Jones (2007). Museum Informatics: People, Information, and Technology in Museums. New York: Routledge.
Russo, A., J. Watkins,L. Kelly, and S. Chan (2008). Participatory communication with social media. Curator51(1): 21-31.
Thelwall, M., K. Buckley, G. Paltoglou, D. Cai, and A. Kappas (forthcoming). Sentiment strength detection in short informal text. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology.
Thomas, S., and A. Mintz, eds. (1998). The Virtual and the Real: Media in the Museum. Washington, DC: American Association of Museums.
notes
1.http://www.wordle.net/
2.http://sentistrength.wlv.ac.uk/","txt","2","",""
"1449","13","Enriching Digital Libraries Contents with SemLib Semantic Annotation System","1","introduction
The advent of revolutionary communication tools, like social media and image/video sharing, have transformed the Web into a giant collection of resources created by millions of people around the planet, representative of their different cultures and ideas. In this context, the Digital Humanities community have understood that Digital Libraries (DL) should no longer be simple ‘expositions’ of digital objects but rather provide interaction with users, enabling them to contribute with new knowledge, e.g. by annotating and tagging digital artefacts (Arko et al. 2006). This provides a more engaging user experience, enabling scholars to benefit from the digital world in their everyday work and researchers to work collaboratively (David et al. 2008). The crowdsourcing paradigm has been experimented, as in (Holley 2010), by leveraging users annotations to enrich the DL, helping in curating contents (correcting or signalling typos, etc.) or upload new digital material1.
Existing annotations tools, however, are often limited to context and tags, which provide poor semantics, and, when they offer more expressive annotations, use proprietary or non-interoperable formats to represent semantics. In other words, the knowledge created by advanced users carefully annotating contents with valuable information is often lost, since it is not directly reusable by applications.
In this paper we present the prototypal annotation system developed within the SemLib EU project. The SemLib Annotation System (AS) can be easily integrated into existing DL or used through a bookmarklet to annotate generic Web pages, addressing annotations at different level of complexity and expressivity. In the prototype, users can write simple comments, augment them with links to Linked Data2 (LOD) and semantic tags. But if they are scholars and need more expressivity they can create complex structured relations among digital objects, connecting text within different documents and relating to specific vocabulary terms.
Annotations are structured as RDF data, which is stored to a remote annotation server and can be consumed by third party applications as ‘slices’ of a single collaborative RDF graph.
the role of semantic annotations
Data interoperability and reuse are the main achievements that the DL research community is trying to address by looking at Semantic Web (SW) and LOD technologies. As argued in previous researches (Kahan et al. 2001; Haslhofer 2010; Gerber et al. 2010) and witnessed by the Europeana initiative, which is adopting a RDF based data model (EDM), great expectations come for the semantic technologies. Semantically structured data is expected to provide the ability to mash-up heterogeneous information and establish connections among digital objects independently provided by different institutions.
Data interoperability and flexibility of aggregation foster reuse and enable serendipity: unexpected reuse of data by different persons and in different contexts from the one data was produced in. Users annotations, when properly represented as semantic data, can play an important role in this context, as they link documents to data.
On the one hand, semantic annotations represent precise relations and metadata and they are reusable with relatively low effort to augment the DL’s data. Here, it is very important to expose easily accessible APIs to ‘slice’ the RDF data produced. On the other hand, LOD annotations contain links to open datasets or ontologies that can be contextualized. This allows applications to merge annotations and augment their metadata with other semantic. As an example, if documents are connected to a world wide linked data graph, composed by big datasets, vocabularies and user annotations, software applications can let users explore such a graph and possibly discover unexpected and interesting connections among them.
simple use-case
Let us shortly describe a simple use case that illustrates the kind of scenario that AS should address.
Alice is a researcher in politics and annotates a transcription of an election rally. She writes a comment to a passage and then clicks the ‘extract tags’ button. AS uses DBPedia Spotlight3 (or possibly other multi language entity extraction tools) to propose a set of entity tags, using remote metadata to build a preview with pictures, descriptions, etc. Alice chooses a number of tags including the politician ‘X’ who is mentioned in the transcription and then she loads an ‘emotions vocabulary’ that allows her to express a precise relation (e.g. ‘is a manifestation of’) between the annotated sentence and the term ‘rage’ from the vocabulary. Alices annotations are collected, among others by a virtual community of users, into a Web site exposing a RDF based faceted browser, where they are merged with further metadata about the DBPedia entities cited in annotations and ontologies.
A second user, Bob, made a similar annotation, semantically linking to the politician ‘Y’ from DBPedia. Since in DBpedia the two politicians are connected by their metadata (e.g. they are from the same party or they are born in the same city, etc.), the two entities can have one or more paths that connect them in the graph. Bob can explore such paths and discover a relation among his annotation and the one from Alice. In addition, when Bob search for the keyword ‘anger’, to find objects related to that emotion, he will be able to find the transcription annotated by Alice, since an emotion ontology is available and it defines ‘rage’ as a narrower term of ‘anger’. At this point, Bob could also decide to create a new semantic annotation expressing a similarity between the two transcriptions, for example, using a simple ‘is similar to’ relation.
Using the AS, DL administrators or DL owners/maintainers can make their own annotations but they can also select relevant end-user contributions, aggregate them and then publish back as trusted/official annotations, importing them to enrich the DL.
annotations data model
Annotations represent a peculiar type of resources, specifically conceived to add information to other existing resources. Annotations acquire therefore full significance in relation with the target resource and other contextual information, such as its author, its creation date and the vocabulary terms used. Properly structuring an annotation using SW technologies is therefore necessary at twofold level to clearly separate contextual metadata from its content. The AS data model reuses and extends OAC ontology (Sanderson et al. 2011) to encode contextual metadata and to attach annotations to involved Web resources. Since OAC specification makes no assumption on the kind of body an annotation can have, one of the first issues that have been tackled in SemLib project is how to represent annotations that have an RDF graph as body. In AS data model, annotation body is a named graph containing a set of RDF statements. This allows to represent semantically structured annotation content basing on the standard support for named graphs provided by RDF triplestores and SPARQL in addition to query and access only little slices of the entire collaborative knowledge base (KB).
The annotation storage is agnostic with respect to the ontologies used to represent the informative content of annotations. Pluggable ontologies and SKOS taxonomies can be used to encode annotations content according to standardized domain vocabularies to foster data interoperability between different communities and DL.
annotations sharing model
In AS users collect their annotations in notebooks to organize their work, aggregating annotations by topic or task, and to easily make available to others subsets of their annotations enabling collaborative scenarios. Notebooks are identified by dereferenciable URLs that applications can use to retrieve RDF-encoded annotations and relative metadata in different formats.
Sharing a notebook is as easy as sharing its URL on the Web, similarly to what happens for popular file sharing platforms and common mechanisms like e-mails, wikis or social networks can be used. For each notebook, the owner can easily set fine-grained rights access, also making it public or sharing it only with selected users.
Before creating and sharing annotations each user must signing into the annotation system. To make as easy as possible the integration of the annotation system in existing DL, single sign-on systems like OpenID and OAuth have been used. Different authentication systems can be supported developing dedicated plugins.
prototype
At the time of writing, a fully working AS prototype4 has been developed and will be further enhanced in the continuation of the project. The prototype can be used in any existing Websites through a dedicated bookmarklet, which will injects the needed Javascript code into the Web pages.
System architecture, shown in Fig. 1, is typically client-server. The client-side component, which comprises a set of modules implementing the graphical user interface to create and browse annotations, is developed in Javascript. The server-side component is a RESTful Web service which implements the main application logic and the storage for the annotations based on a native Sesame triplestore with the support for semantic inference.
 
Figure 1: Simplified architecture of the Annotation System
The AS prototype allows users to compose RDF statements using an on purpose GUI (Fig. 2), connecting selected items with properties coming from pluggable ontologies.
 
Figure 2: An example of the annotations editor
Selected items can be DL resources, named entities coming from custom SKOS vocabularies or Web reconciliation services like Freebase5 Web pages or fragments of these. For example, users can create structured annotations in Dante Alighieri’s DL page to reference other pages of the DL about Italian writers that have been influential for him, to provide additional information about his place of birth referring to Florence entity in Freebase or to link text-excerpts of the Divine Comedy coming from the Gutenberg Project6.
The AS prototype includes a module for comments and tags. At the moment, it provides basic functionalities including entity extraction from user comments (based on DBPedia Spotlight) and semantic tagging.
To demonstrate how annotation can be consumed basing on simple REST API, the AS prototype provides also an example faceted browsing facility, implemented using Simile Exhibit7.
conclusions
In this work, SemLib annotation system have been introduced, discussing its data and annotation model and presenting a working annotation system prototype, discussing how this is expected not only to foster annotation sharing between DL and user engagement but also to allow the application of crowdsourcing paradigm in the creation of added value for the DL.
Fundings
The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme managed by REA-Research Executive Agency [SEMLIB - 262301 - FP7/2007-2013 - FP7/2007-2011 - SME-2010-1].
references
Arko, R. A., K. M. Ginger, K. A. Kastens, and J. Weatherley (2006). Using annotations to add value to a digital library for education Online: http://www.dlib.org/dlib/may06/arko/05arko.html (accessed on 7th March 2012).
David, S., M. Nucci, and F. Piazza (2008). Talia: a Research and Publishing Environment for Philosophy Scholars. Proceedings of the Digital Humanities 2008 Conference, Oulu, Finland, 25th-29th June, 2008.
Gerber, A., and J. Hunter (2010). Authoring, Editing and Visualizing Compound Objects for Literary Scholarship. Journal of Digital Information 11.
Haslhofer, B., E. Momeni, M. Gay, and R. Simon (2010). Augmenting Europeana Content with Linked Data Resources. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Semantic Systems (I-Semantics), September 2010.
Holley, R. (2010). Crowdsourcing: How and Why Should Libraries Do It? D-Lib Magazine, The Magazine of Digital Library Research, March/April 2010.
Kahan, J., and M. R. Koivunen (2001). Annotea: An Open RDF Infrastructure for Shared Web Annotations.Proceedings of the 10th international conference on World Wide Web, pp. 623-632.
Morbidoni, C., M. Grassi, and M. Nucci (2011). Introducing SemLib Project: Semantic Web Tools for Digital Libraries. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Semantic Digital Archives – sustainable long-term curation perspectives of Cultural Heritage held as part of the 15th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries (TPDL), Berlin, 29th September 2011.
Sanderson, R., and H. van de Sompel (2011). Open Annotation: Beta Data Model Guide, Online:http://www.openannotation.org/spec/beta/ (accessed on 7th March 2012).
notes
1.BBC WW2 People’s War: http://www.bbc.co.uk/ww2peopleswar/
2.Linked Data: http://linkeddata.org/
3.DBPedia Spotlight: http://dbpedia.org/spotlight
4.For for a working demo see http://metasound.dibet.univpm.it/release_bot/release/semlib-client_0.61-demo_page/examples/demo.html
5.Freebase: http://www.freebase.com/
6.Gutenberg Project: Gutenberg Project: http://www.gutenberg.org/
7.Exhibit: http://www.simile-widgets.org/exhibit/","txt","2","",""
"1450","13","'Eric, you do not humble well': The Image of the Modern Vampire in Text and on Screen","1","This paper discusses the image of the vampire in the television series True Blood and the books by Charlaine Harris on which the series is based. Our analysis is based on cultural imagology as developed by Johnson (2005, 2006) and Lotman (1990). To this end we have used CATMA, the concordance program developed at the University of Hamburg, and added multimodal functionality to it. By time stamping and aligning the image, the soundtrack and the subtitling, we can mark up and investigate both the linguistic and the paralinguistic markers that describe the characters and their emotions. This means that we are able to move between a concordance of the subtitling and the film itself; in addition, we have linked the scenes of the film to the novels of Charlaine Harris, on which the series is based. Thus, this paper not only discusses the images created in the novels and the television series, but also presents the tools we have built to enable us to carry out the research.
Beliefs and legends about vampires have existed probably as long as mankind. The earliest known records are found among the Assyrians (Wright 2006). Lores and legends of some form of the vampire can be found all around the world. The vampire has been described as an evil, bloodsucking creature, a force of darkness. He is seductive, smart, and a powerful predator. Sometimes the vampire is seen as a spirit; some legends say they can change into animals, even control them (Nobleman 2007). Vampire literature began with the Gothic tradition, a fiction that was intended to evoke a sense of dread in the reader. During Victorian times the vampire became more human and a powerful archetype. The common image, which began with Bram Stoker’s Dracula, was one of a gentleman dressed in evening wear and a long cloak; he was smart, polite, wealthy and well-dressed. Of all classic horror creatures, he has had the most sex appeal and has thus easily been able to attract humans.
The image of the vampire has once again changed. He (or she) is now beautiful, erotic, powerful, young and quite human-like. He has human emotions, is dangerous when called for, but loving and good to those humans he is attached to – a modern-day Heathcliff, a dark and brooding sexual fantasy. This is largely due to Anne Rice, who changed the image of the vampire, and vampire literature more generally, with her character Lestat. She achieved this by ignoring the old conventions of what a vampire can or cannot do; she changed the traditional Gothic settings by moving them from isolated houses and areas to central locations and beautiful homes; she made the vampire the protagonist, thus moving away from the more traditional narration by the victim, and focused on their feelings and their anxieties, making them quite sympathetic (Overstreet 2006).
We investigate the True Blood television series and the books it is based on. These were written by Charlaine Harris between 2002 and 2010, in other words well after L.J. Smith’s Vampire Diaries series and after the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, but before Stephanie Meyer’s Twilight series. True Blood features Sookie Stackhouse, a human in her late twenties, a waitress in a local bar, and her relationship to Bill Compton, quite the Southern gentleman, and Eric Northman, the Viking, two vampires who are almost opposites of each other. We set out to investigate what kind of an image the viewer gets of Eric; this we did through investigating the adjectives used to describe him and those used by him. Thus our research questions were: How do others perceive Eric? How does Eric behave? How does Eric perceive others? How does he describe others? To carry out the investigation, we needed a concordance program, but the problem of course was that there simply wasn’t one that could also handle the video. Thus we turned to the CATMA team at Hamburg University and asked whether we could use their program and build on it. We have now built multimodal functionality on top of CATMA and carried out our investigation on the speech of the series, calling up the video of each instance in the KWIC concordance (see Fig. 1). We then marked up the text of the original book series and linked the instances describing Eric in the book to those in the TV series.
 
Figure 1
Our results show that in the television series True Blood, there is little description of Eric; the viewer’s image of Eric is shaped largely by comments made about his behavior, such as ‘Eric, you do not humble well’ or ‘I’m not afraid of Eric’ and ‘Eric has had a thousand years of practicing deceit.’ However, the image of Eric is not only constructed through this. In fact, the multimodality of the television series plays a crucial role in the construction of the characters more generally. Eric, for example, is created through the things he wears, the way he speaks, the things he does and the expressions on his face. Sometimes, for example, Sookie criticizes Eric harshly and his facial expression indicates that he is quite hurt, although he does not say so. Thus it is crucial that in addition to analyzing the actual speech of the characters, one can access the visual images as well – much like in modern conversation analysis, which also relies on sound and images, in addition to the actual words spoken.
Another interesting aspect of the investigation is the comparison of how the image of Eric differs between the original novels and the television series. It seems that much of what is conveyed to the viewer through the images in the television series forms what in literary studies one would think of as that part of the creation of a character in a novel which is left to the reader’s imagination. It is like an interpretation of the character, perhaps even to be seen as the actor’s interpretation, which then gets reinterpreted by the viewer. The image of Eric is also created through the juxtaposition of him with Sookie’s other lover, Bill Compton, who was turned into a vampire after the Civil War and who is quite the Southern gentleman, particularly as opposed to Eric, who is the rogue; he is the ruthless Viking, an absolute ruler, at times rather cruel, and a sharp businessman. He is attractive to women, whom he uses ruthlessly, but he is also very protective of those he really cares for, which often is not reflected in the words he speaks, but rather in his facial expressions and gestures.
Thus, it becomes evident that in order to carry out an analysis of data such as this, it is crucial that one has access to tools which are able to handle the multimodality of the data. Our decision to not reinvent the wheel, but to build upon an already available tool, was the right choice, but there is still work to be done to make it even more applicable to other data and other types of investigations.
references
Johnson, A. W. (2005). Notes Towards a New Imagology. European English Messenger 14(): 50-^58.
Johnson, A. W. (2006). New Methodologies: Imagology, Language and English Philology. In H. Anttila, J. Gear, A. Heikkinen and R. Sallinen (eds.), Linguistic Topics and Language Teaching. Oulu: Oulu UP, pp. 7-27.
Lotman, Yu. M. (1990). Universe of the Mind: A Semiotic Theory of Culture, tr. Ann Shukman, intro Umberto Eco. London and New York: Tauris.
Nobleman, M. T. (2007). Vampires. Oxford: Raintree Publishers.
Overstreet, D. W. (2006). Not Your Mother’s Vampire. Vampires in Young Adult Fiction. Lanham, MD: The Scarecrow Press.
Wright, D. (2006). The Book of Vampires. 2nd revised and enlarged edition. New York: Dover Publications.","txt","2","",""
"1451","13","Estimating the Distinctiveness of Graphemes and Allographs in Palaeographic Classification","1","introduction
Within the discipline of palaeography, the ‘morphological’ approach tries to describe the letter-shape as a whole, so a letter may be described as a ‘Caroline a’ or as an ‘insular r’. Aspects of this approach are visible in almost all palaeographical handbooks, particularly those that provide alphabets or selections of letter-forms. An example is Albert Derolez’s, Palaeography of Gothic Manuscript Books, which also provides a useful discussion of morphology as a palaeographical method.
Commonly, a morphological system of descriptors contains two main categories: One category is the grapheme or perhaps, more correctly, character: the letter as an abstract entity but with physical form, such as a, æ, or a single punctuation mark. The second category is the allograph, namely, a particular way of writing the letter; typical examples include ‘Caroline’ or ‘insular’.
A key question, given any system of descriptors, is to evaluate the relative importance of each of the components of this system. For example, it is well known among palaeographers that the grapheme a is very distinctive for late Anglo-Saxon minuscule (Ker 1957; Dumville 1988; Stokes 2005); however, subjective evaluation of distinctiveness could potentially be misleading. It is therefore quite useful to conduct a statistical analysis of significance, and potentially contribute thereby to the practice of palaeography, provided the results can be presented in a meaningful form.
In this work, we employ methods that are commonly used for mining insights from biological experiments regarding underlying genetic mechanisms. We show that in the context of palaeography such an approach also provides insightful observations.
methods
A dataset consisting of 456 scribal handwritings in English Vernacular minuscule, ca. 990 – ca. 1035, is used (Stokes 2005). ‘Scribal handwriting’ here refers to a single stint or block of writing by one person; these samples are spread across some 198 manuscripts and range from the main text of the book to later additions and notes or glosses between the lines or in the margins.
The handwritings were described using 289 descriptors (Stokes 2007-2008), where each descriptor indicates whether a certain grapheme (or group of similar graphemes) written as specific allograph(s) appear in the manuscript, as well as forms of certain parts of letters such as ascenders, descenders, and pen-angle. Every sample of handwriting is described by its known or predicted place of writing (where possible) and the estimated range of dates of writing. For classification purposes, the dataset was divided into classes that are homogeneous in time and place.
First, we measure for each descriptor how informative it is. This is done using the information gain method (Mitchell 1997), which is often used for feature selection in text categorization tasks. The information gain score measures the decrease in entropy when a descriptor is given vs. the baseline in which it is absent. That is, the information gain measures the discriminative power added by each single descriptor.
Measuring the power of each descriptor by itself is of limited power. That a certain descriptor is ranked high tells us very little about how informative other similar descriptors are. Using an analogy to biology, it is helpful to know which genes express differently in a specific experiment testing different classes of biological conditions. However, if we want to learn about biological functions and processes, we must go beyond the level of the specific gene by aggregating the information from multiple genes of the same family. In palaeography, the importance of a specific character, for example, cannot be reliably detected just by looking at the ranking of one of the associated descriptors, no matter how highly it is ranked.
The Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) is a statistically valid tool to evaluate how prominent a set (that is, a family) of descriptors is (Subramanian 2005). This computational method determines whether an a priori defined set of features presents itself in a statistically significant and coherent manner among a ranked list of descriptors.
The input of the GSEA method is a ranked list of features and a list of families of features. Context is important, and so we conduct one experiment using families derived from graphemes and another experiment for families of allographs. The GSEA method is based on elaborate order statistic mechanisms that can compare, on a leveled ground, between large and small families of features.
results
The information gain method was used to automatically rank all 289 descriptors. The first, most significant, 30 features are listed in Table 1.
 
Table 1: The 30 single descriptors that were found to be the most informative using the information gain score
GSEA was then applied to these results, finding 16 families of graphemes (and stylistic issues, like aspect) that are ‘enriched’ in a statistically significant way, and 20 families of ‘enriched’ allographs. Tables 2 and 4 show the enriched families. The GSEA tool also provides another output: a list of descriptor families that are statistically speaking irrelevant. These lists (Tables 3 and 5) contain 5 graphemes and 9 allographs whose descriptors are ranked so consistently low that it is unlikely to be by chance. As can be seen, the GSEA results contain both expected results and surprising ones; see (Ker 1957; Dumville1988, 1993, 1994) for general background for script of this period.
Table 2: The 16 graphemes (and stylistic issues) that were found to be discriminative in a statistically significant way by the GSEA method. The enrichment score (ES) reflects the degree to which a feature-set is overrepresented at the top. The normalized ES accounts for differences in set size and the correlations between the sets
Rank        Grapheme+        Normalized ES
1        æ        1.73
2        7 (Tironean nota)        1.31
3        a        1.31
4        c        1.15
5        f        1.10
6        d        0.86
7        g        0.82
8        Aspect        0.79
9        e        0.76
10        y        0.64
11        Ascender        0.60
12        h        0.58
13        Þð        0.58
14        k        0.57
15        Descender        0.56
16        s        0.50
It is unsurprising that the ash (æ) is most significant, since it is a combination of a and e, both of which are in themselves significant (Dumville 1988). It is quite surprising that the Tironean nota for and (which looks like the numeral 7) is discriminating, as this is not noted by any of the palaeographers cited. It also came as a surprise that c and y turned out to be highly significant, because they are not generally recognised as such, though some of their specific forms certainly are (Dumville 1993). It was also surprising, from a palaeographer’s viewpoint, to see h in the list, as it is not included in those published by palaeographers (Ker1957; Dumville 1993; 1994; Stokes 2005).
Table 3: The five graphemes and stylistic issues that were found to be irrelevant to the discrimination task to a statistically significant degree
Rank        Graphemes+        Normalized ES
1        Minim        -1.20
2        Pen        -0.90
3        hmn        -0.76
4        r        -0.70
5        ð        -0.62
Here, it is very interesting to see that ð is insignificant, since its form varies very widely between scribes. Perhaps some of its features are better discriminants than others.
 
Table 4: The 20 allographs that were found to be discriminative in a statistically significant way by the GSEA method
Table 4 is also quite insightful. While HORNED is widely accepted as significant (Ker 1957), ANGLED_SW (angled southwest quadrant) is not, although it has been suggested as discriminative (Stokes, 2005). LONG_TONGUE is not attested in the literature as significant, as are the related ANGLED_TONGUE and HORIZ._TONGUE: it will be interesting to study if they are strongly correlated, and if they are even more distinctive in combination. Since TEARDROP, ROUND, and SEMI_CAROLINE are all forms of the letter a, their significance is expected and is supported by related literature on the minuscule of the period (Ker, 1957; Dumville, 1994), and is strongly argued as relevant for this period in the thesis from which this dataset is taken (Stokes 2005).  ROTUND_MINIM is unrecognized as being discriminative. LOW_LIG (low ligature) is less recognized in the literature than TALL_LIG (Ker, 1957) which is correlated with it. BULGING_LIG is well recognized (Ker 1957; Stokes 2005). SQUINTING is recognised as distinctive in Latin (Dumville 1993) but not in the script normally used for the vernacular.
 
Table 5: The nine allographs that were found to be irrelevant in a statistically significant manner to the discrimination task. Most of these results are expected since these allographs are either very common in the corpus or present the ‘default’ values for the script of the period
discussion
Computerized systems that perform digital palaeography have been criticized in the past for reducing script entirely to statistical processes that are themselves difficult or impossible to evaluate (Stokes 2009). In fact, the struggle to elicit meaning out of statistical inference tools is common to many scientific domains. Here we begin to show that, by using the appropriate statistical tools, computers can be used to mine meaningful insights in palaeography.
The proposed method is not without its limitations. First, it relies on a specific definition of ‘distinctive descriptors’ that is derived from the choice of the feature ranking algorithm used. The IG method used focuses on the ability to discriminate between the classes; by choosing another ranking method one could focus, for example, on scribal variation, which is also a question of interest to palaeographers. A second limitation is that the method cannot go beyond the assumptions made in the initial coding system. For example, there is a normalization quality to GSEA, in the sense that, if the palaeographer recorded more varieties of a, say, than of other letters, precisely because he expects that letter to be more significant, the GSEA method will counterbalance this by looking at the overall distribution of all varieties. However, presumably there could have been other letters and features that are in fact more distinctive but that were not recorded in the database because they were mistakenly deemed to be relatively insignificant. Future work should therefore aim to augment the database with automatically extracted features, with the potential benefit of adding a new (robotic) perspective to morphological analysis. Another limitation of the method is its dependence on verbal descriptors for features which are visual, or, indeed, which are a function of the physical movements of the scribe’s arm, hand and pen, particularly given the lack of standard palaeographical terminology for such detailed features (Stokes 2011-2012). These difficulties could potentially be overcome by providing greater rigour in nomenclature and by connecting these labels to particular images. Both approaches are already being tested in the DigiPal project (http://digipal.eu/), and discussions are already underway to combine the work done there with that described here.
Despite these limitations, the method described is still very promising. One of the difficulties in palaeographical study is the vast quantity of detail that must be processed, and so helping the human expert to identify distinctive features would be enormously beneficial in managing that data. For instance, identifying patterns in variation such as those by region, date or group of scribes would be invaluable in identifying manuscripts by their writing. Applying the method to other corpora of scribal handwriting could also lead to valuable insights. For example, if particular features prove to be discriminative across many different script-systems then this could be an important clue into identifying scribes independently of the script that they wrote, something very necessary given that most scribes routinely wrote in a number of very different scripts. Finally, with further testing and refinement, this approach promises an important and large step towards a method for distinguishing handwriting that can be described explicitly, that can be communicated effectively in ways that palaeographers and other humanities scholars can understand, and that can also enjoy the support of quantitative data. This goal is one that has been sought for a very long time (Stokes 2009).
references
Bishop, T. A. M. (1971). English Caroline Minuscule. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Dumville, D. N. (1988). Beowulf come lately: some notes on the palaeography of the Nowell Codex. Archiv für das Studium der neueren Sprachen und Literaturen 225: 49–63.
Dumville, D. N. (1993). English Caroline Script and Monastic History. Boydell: Woodbridge.
Dumville, D. N. (1994). English Square Minuscule script: the mid-century phases. Anglo-Saxon England 23: 133–64.
Ker, N. R. (1957). Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon. Oxford: Clarendon Press
Mitchell, T. M. (1997). Machine Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Stokes, P. A. (2005). English Vernacular Script ca 990–ca 1035. Cambridge [unpublished Ph.D. dissertation].
Stokes, P. A. (2007-2008). Palaeography and image-processing: some solutions and problems. Digital Medievalist 3. http://digitalmedievalist.org/journal/3/stokes/ (accessed 15 March 2012).
Stokes, P. A. (2009). Computer-aided palaeography: present and future. In Rehbein, M., et al. (eds),Kodikologie und Paläographie im Digitalen Zeitalter. Norderstedt: Books on Demand. 309–338.http://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/2978 (accessed 15 March 2012).
Stokes, P. A. (2011-2012). Describing script [Parts i–]. DigiPal Project Blog. King’s College London.http://digipal.eu/blogs/blog/describing-handwriting-part-i/ (accessed 15 March 2012).
Subramanian, A., et al. (2005). Gene set enrichment analysis: a knowledge-based approach for interpreting genome-wide expression profiles. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102(43): 15545-50.","txt","2","",""
"1452","13","Evaluating Unmasking for Cross-Genre Authorship Verification","1","In this paper we will stress-test a recently proposed technique for computational authorship verification, ‘unmasking’ (Koppel et al. 2004, 2007), which has been well received in the literature (Stein et al. 2010). The technique envisages an experimental set-up commonly referred to as ‘authorship verification’, a task generally deemed more difficult than so-called ‘authorship attribution’ (Koppel et al. 2007). We will apply the technique to authorship verification across genres, an extremely complex text categorization problem that so far has remained unexplored (Stamatatos 2009). We focus on five representative contemporary English-language authors. For each of them, the corpus under scrutiny contains several texts in two genres (literary prose and theatre plays).
background: cross-genre authorship verification
In authorship verification, the given text may have been written by one of the candidate authors, but could also be written by none of them. Note that this open case scenario is typical of forensic applications: the author of e.g. a bomb letter is not necessarily among the suspect candidate authors. In the case of a suicide letter (potentially faked by a murderer), it is highly likely that this is the only suicide letter the victim ever wrote. In absence of similar material, it is difficult to extract reliable style markers from pre-existing writings to determine authorship of the letter.
Authorship across genres is an issue that is being paid all too little attention in present-day research. The few remarks that have been made on this issue agree that authorship attribution is difficult within a single textual genre, even more difficult with several topics involved, and likely to be extremely difficult with several genres involved (Luyckx & Daelemans 2011). Although it is generally assumed that an author will display stable style characteristics throughout his oeuvre, irrespective of genre, this remains speculative in the absence of systematic empirical investigation. Consequently, cross-genre authorship verification deserves much more attention than it has attracted so far.
unmasking
Unmasking is a fairly complex meta-learning approach to authorship verification. Koppel et al. (2007) observed in earlier experiments that a small number of features had a lot of discriminatory power. It is indeed common for authors to use ‘a small number of features in a consistently different way between works’. Such features often relate to topic-related, narrative, or thematic differences. As a result, a limited number of features can wrongfully maximize the differences in writing style between two works of identical authorship.
The unmasking approach tests the robustness of a stylistic model by deliberately impairing it over a number of iterations, each time removing those features that are most discriminative between the two texts. The resulting ‘degradation curves’ display many sudden drops in accuracy: when the most telling features are removed during each iteration, it becomes increasingly difficult to differentiate between two texts. In the case of two texts of non-identical authorship, however, a far larger number of features is discriminative, causing less dramatic drops in accuracy during degradation. Using training material in the form of a series of same-author and different-author degradation curves, Koppel et al. (2007) try to verify whether previously unseen degradation curves are of (non-)identical authorship.  
The unmasking technique is especially attractive for authorship verification across genres, because of the interference between genre markers and authorial style markers. It might help remedy genre-related artifacts in that superficial genre-related differences between same-author texts in different genres will be filtered out easily and removed from the model early in the degradation process. After the removal of these non-essential stylistic features, one could hypothesize that only features more relevant for authorial identity will be preserved.
methodology and evaluation
Our unmasking implementation closely adheres to the original description of the procedure. In the experiments, we have used the same generic parameter settings as tentatively adopted by Koppel et al. (2007): a chunk size of 500 tokens, n=250, m=10 and k=3. The main difference is, that a ‘leave-one-text- out validation’ is carried out on these curves for evaluation purposes, whereas k-fold cross-validation was applied in the original paper. We train an SVM classifier on the training curves and have it classify each of the test curves as a same-author or different-author curve. When all predictions have been collected, one can report on the overall classification accuracy and macro-averaged F1-score.
corpus and selection of texts
The corpus we collected for the experiments in cross-genre authorship verification consists of published texts by five contemporary authors: Edward Bond, David Mamet, Harold Pinter, Sam Shepard, and Arnold Wesker. The main criterion for selecting an author was the availability of texts in more than one literary genre. Theatre and prose were the genres these five authors were most productive in, so these were chosen for the experiments. In our corpus, applying a text length threshold of 10,000 words (cf. Sanderson & Guenter 2006) resulted in 11 prose works and 23 theatre plays. We experimented with a complete matrix of authors and genres, allowing both intra-genre and cross-genre experiments for all authors. Digitization of the material involved three steps: scanning, OCR’ing, and manual post-correction.
intra-genre experiments
Figure 1 shows degradation curves for an experiment on the eleven prose works in the corpus. Solid lines represent same-author curves, whereas dotted lines represent different-author curves. All curves display downward slopes, with decreasing cross-validation accuracies, as more predictive features get eliminated in each iteration. For same-author curves, however, it is clearly visible that the effect of degradation generally sets off sooner and more dramatically. Different-author curves are more robust and yield higher cross-validation accuracies, even when a large number of strongly discriminative features is deleted. Intersections between both curve types are minimal. A leave-one-text-out validation test on this set of curves confirms the success of the approach: the overall accuracy amounts to 96%, which is only just over the F1 score of 95%. This result confirms the potential of unmasking for authorship verification in prose work collections.
 
Figure 1: Unmasking on prose texts by five authors
A second experiment has been carried out on the 23 theatrical works in the corpus. Figure 2 displays a much less clear-cut differentiation of the same-author curves and their different-author counterparts, suggesting that the unmasking approach (with its default settings) is less effective for the theatrical section of the corpus. The leave-one-text out validation confirms this, yielding an overall accuracy of 84% and an F1 score of 62%.
 
Figure 2: Unmasking on theatre plays by five authors
cross-genre experiments
So far, the unmasking procedure has been mainly investigated for text pairs within the same text variety, although Koppel et al. (2007) report on a successful application of the technique to Hebrew-Aramaic texts across different topics. It is an interesting question whether the degradation differences between same- author and different-author curves would also hold for pairs of texts that do not belong to the same genre. A leave-one-text-out validation, however, shows poor performance of unmasking in this experiment, with an overall accuracy of 77% and a macro-averaged F1 of 56%.
interpretation
After unmasking has been applied, the individual degradation curves allow for interpretation of results. Figure 3 visualizes the elimination process for Pinter’s play The Caretaker and Mamet’s prose text The Old Religion, who were personal friends. Mamet even acknowledged Pinter as a key influence on his work. The limited degradation in accuracy demonstrates that these Mamet and Pinter texts appear to adopt well-distinguishable styles. Figure 3 shows early elimination of names of principal characters (davies, mick and astonvs. mark and pete), personal pronouns that relate to a text’s narrative perspective (i, you), and colloquial language (aint). Moreover, typical genre-features (e.g. the director’s indication pause) are deleted as anticipated.
 
Figure 3: Visualization of the feature elimination process for Pinter’s play The Caretaker and Mamet’s prose text The Old Religion
conclusion
The experiments reported on in this paper confirm that unmasking is an interesting technique for computational authorship verification, especially yielding reliable results within the genre of (larger) prose works in our corpus. Authorship verification, however, proves much more difficult in the theatrical part of our corpus. The original settings for the various parameters often appear to be genre-specific or even author-specific, so that further research on optimization is desirable. Finally, we have shown that interpretability is an important asset of the unmasking technique.
Funding and Acknowledgements
Kestemont is a Ph.D. fellow of the Research Foundation – Flanders (FWO). The research of Luyckx and Daelemans is partially funded by the FWO project ‘Computational Techniques for Stylometry for Dutch’. The research by Crombez is partially funded by the FWO project ‘Mass Spectacle in Flanders’. The authors would like to acknowledge Sarah Bekaert’s work on the digitization of the corpus.
references
Koppel, M., J. Schler, and E. Bonchek-Dokow (2007). Measuring Differentiability: Unmasking Pseudonymous Authors. Journal of Machine Learning Research 8: 1261-1276.
Luyckx, K., and W. Daelemans (2011). The Effect of Author Set Size and Data Size in Authorship Attribution.Literary and Linguistic Computing 26(1): 35-55.
Sanderson, C., and S. Guenter (2006). Short Text Authorship Attribution via Sequence Kernels, Markov Chains and Author Unmasking: An Investigation. Proceedings of the 2006 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP), Sydney, Australia, pp. 482-491.
Stamatatos, E. (2009). A Survey of Modern Authorship Attribution Methods. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60(3): 538-556.
Stein, B., N. Lipka, and P. Prettenhofer (2011). Intrinsic Plagiarism Analysis. Language Resources and Evaluation 45(1): 63-82.
Koppel, M., and J. Schler (2004). Authorship Verification as a One-Class Classification Problem. Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Machine Learning, Banff, Canada,","txt","2","",""
"1453","13","Experiments in Digital Philosophy - Putting new paradigms to the test in the Agora project","1","Agora extends an existing federation of semantically structured digital libraries named Philosource, a collection of high quality OA content from classical to contemporary European philosophy. Agora intends to transform this federation into a specialised and highly innovative OA archive and publishing venue for new scholarship, by carrying out five experiments: (1) Semantic linking; (2) Linked Open Data (LOD); (3) Advanced Scholarly Linking; (4) Open Peer review; and (5) OA business models in the field of European philosophy. The LOD portal created within experiment (2) will serve as unique access point to the philosophical content of the federation and will expose its metadata to the LOD cloud. Agora’s ultimate goal is to arrive at a model for establishing and accessing a growing open research archive for scholarly publications in the humanities.
The presentation will focus on the rationale for the Agora project’s vision of innovative enhancement of Open Access resources in European Philosophy, and on the TEI framework. The experiments and evaluation strategies will not be presented in detail, and are briefly summarised below. More information can be found on the project website: www.project-agora.eu.
tei framework
The general vision that underlies the Agora project, as well as the mark-up challenges that arose during Agora’s initial phase focused on content preparation for the experiments. It was decided to define a simple TEI-based interchange format which could be used both for existing and for newly published scientific journal articles, enabling different partners to combine these secondary resources seamlessly with other resources within the evolving AGORA framework. To define this format we surveyed about half a dozen different TEI-based publishing systems, as used by different journal publishers in Europe and North America, and identified a common subset of useful markup constructs. We documented this using the TEI’s ‘ODD’ system, which is also used to generate the schemas used to validate the content produced by all partners. For output to readable PDF and HTML formats we rely on a customization of the TEI Stylesheet library. In a parallel experiment, we have used the same library to define an input mapping from ‘docx’ format into TEI, enabling partners to draft new documents in the familiar Microsoft Word environment using a specially customized Word stylesheet.
experiments
Each of the Agora experiments is a trial of a mode of enhancing an aspect of philosophical scholarship through the possibilities offered by digital publications and repositories in philosophy.
The Semantic Linking Experiment has as the goal of enabling a novel way of building, querying, and browsing a knowledge network and to assess its suitability as a collaborative research tool as well as a learning device. A subset of the new content (secondary sources in the form of scholarly articles, monographs) will be interlinked via semantic annotations among each other and its underlying datasets (primary sources in the form of editions of texts, manuscripts) most of which are already available in the Philosource Federation. A subset of secondary sources will be connected with keywords that at the same time will make up domain concepts of the secondary sources ontology. The resulting ontology, in the form of RDF files, will be published on the web and the users will be offered the possibility to browse it, use the ontology to tag additional material, and add to the ontology generating their own notebooks. The semantically linked content will enhance browsing, querying, collaboration and learning.
The Linked Open Data (LOD) Experiment aims to offer users and machines a unique access point to the federation content and to augment the user search and browsing experience. The Philosource Federation is already a federation in the political sense by sharing common values and technological standards. The Federation Portal will mainly serve as a centralised aggregator of all the metadata (semantically structured and non-semantically structured) produced by the federation nodes. It will thereby interlink the federation nodes, and link the federation content with relevant external sources. It is hoped that the linking will make the content more interoperable, easier to discover and retrieve, and provide a richer context for the federation content. The metadata made available through the portal API will make the federation content usable to build other third party applications and aims to stimulate innovative and creative re-uses of our data. The portal will offer a unique SPARQL endpoint to access RDF metadata of all the federation content to third party data consumers; semiautomatically enrich the data to link certain type of resources (most notably books, people, places and events) via rdfs:sameAs properties, to other LOD providers such as DBPedia, Freebase, The Library of Congress, The Open Library, Geonames, Europeana; offering an augmented search facility by expanding queries with data extracted from third party LOD providers. Enhanced search will be offered in an appealing and easy to use interface, for example, by allowing visually browsing search results on a map and on a timeline.
The Open Collaborative Peer Review Experiment has as its goal to experiment in the field of open peer review in order to enhance and determine standards for peer review in the humanities and social sciences in the digital age. In this experiment authors submit their papers to two new online journals (Nordic Wittgenstein Review and Lexicon Philosophicum) via Open Journal System (OJS). Papers will undergo a general eligibility and quality check by the editors and editors-in-chief. Papers will undergo double blind review during which authors and reviewers will remain anonymous. Papers that are accepted for publication will go through one month of additional open review or commentary, during which registered users will be asked to comment on and to discuss the accepted papers. Editors and editors-in-chief will moderate discussions. Editors will proceed with suggesting revisions on the basis of the open review. Authors will be able to use the suggestions, comments and discussions from the open review / comment stage in finalizing their paper for publication. The online publication of the articles will include functionality for readers to evaluate, rate and recommend articles in a comment stage. The user will then be able to select from different criteria of evaluation, such as highest rated, most read, and most cited.
The goal of the PPP OA Business Models Experiment carried out by the philosophy publishing house Ontos is to experiment with different OA Business Models in order to gain insight into their effects on commercial business. A commercial publisher will republish a selection of monographs in digital format and make them available in Open Access, under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivative license. It will study the effects on sales figures over time of re-publishing online in OA existing inprint closed access monographs. It will further study the effects of publishing the Nordic Wittgenstein Review under hybrid and delayed business models.
evaluation strategy
The overarching evaluation strategy that is used has been adapted from Value Sensitive Design (VSD), a design methodology geared towards the values that are involved in technology customization and design, which consists of ongoing evaluation on three levels: conceptual, empirical and technical. VSD has been informed by philosophy from the outset of its development, and is therefore closer to a philosophical ethos, and also makes room for a philosophical as well as user-based evaluation of the technologies as they develop. Even though this methodology has been primarily used for ethical values of technology design and implementation, we will be extending it to epistemic values as well. This is particularly appropriate for technologies for scholarship where the two forms of values are very closely connected, and will also contribute to the further development of VSD as a methodology.
references
Bartscherer, T., and R. Coover, eds. (2011). Switching Codes. Thinking through New Technology in the Humanities and the Arts. Chicago: U of Chicago P.
Bizer, C., T. Heath, and M. Hepp, eds. (2009). Special Issue on Linked Data. International Journal on Semantic Web and Information System 5(3).
D’Iorio, P. (2008). L’île des savoirs choisis. De HyperNietzsche à Scholarsource: pour une infrastructure de recherche sur le Web. Recherches & Travaux 72.
D’Iorio, P., and M. Barbera (2011). Scholarsource: A Digital Infrastructure for the Humanities. In T. Bartscherer and R. Coover (eds.), Switching Codes. Thinking through New Technology in the Humanities and the Arts. Chicago: U of Chicago P.
Galey, A. (2011). Reading the Book of Mozilla: Web Browsers and the Materiality of Digital Texts. In R. Crone and S.Towheed, The History of Reading, Vol. 3: Methods, Strategies, Tactics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Luke, T. W., and J. Hunsinger, eds. (2009). Putting Knowledge to Work and Letting Information Play. Blacksburg: Center for Digital Discourse and Culture.
Mika, P., C. Bizer, M. C. Schaefel, and L. Rutledge (2010). Semantic Web Challenge 2009: User Interaction in Semantic Web Research. Special Issues of Journal of Web Semantics 8(4).
Pichler, A. 2010. Towards the new Bergen Electronic Edition. In N. Venturinha (ed.), Wittgenstein After His Nachlass. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Pichler, A., and S. Säätelä, eds. (2008). Philosophy of the Information Society: Proceedings of the 30th International Ludwig Wittgenstein Symposium, Kirchberg am Wechsel, Austria 2007. Frankfurt: Ontos.","txt","2","",""
"1454","13","Exploring Originality in User-Generated Content with Network and Image Analysis Tools","1","In this paper, we visit the question of originality in the context of creative influence across social networks, using with the tools of network analysis and digital image analysis. Our data sets come from a specialized online social network site (oSNS) called deviantArt, which is dedicated to sharing user-generated artworks. Currently, deviantArt (dA) is the 13th largest social network in the U.S. with 3.8 million weekly visits. Operating since 2000, dA is the most well known site for user-generated art; has more than 15 million members, and hosts a vast image archive of more than 150 million images. The social network infrastructure allows us to gather all sorts of rich data from this platform: which artist is following which other artist, what comments are posted under each artwork and by whom, the temporal unfolding of the connection structure, demographic information about artists, category and user generated tag information for artworks, number of hits per artwork and per artist, etc.
Our main research question: how can we define ‘originality’ in computable terms when analyzing such a massive dataset of visual artworks? Apart from its obvious relevance, we choose dA over other online platforms of art, because 1) unlike (online) museums, dA contains many derivative works, and at the same time provides sufficient information to trace these to their origins; 2) it has a category structure that defines stylistic boundaries; 3) it encompasses many artistic styles, some of which coming with cultural and artistic peculiarities that create unique analysis opportunities (e.g. ‘stock’ images, see below).
For this specific case study, we perused the vast archive of dA and focus on a subset of content, created specifically for being highly volatile and usable. These are the so-called ‘stock’ images; images that are freely available for other members to use. We extracted a set of stock images, linked to a second set of art works created through the use of these stock images, as well as a temporal cross-section of the dA network that encapsulates the social interactions of the producers and consumers of these stock images. Using this dataset, it becomes possible to trace the transformation of ‘visual’ ideas, both in terms of similarities in the image space, and in terms of distances in the social interaction space.
construction the social interaction space
A social network is a graph representation of social relations. Graphs are the most popular and well-researched data structure for representing and processing relational data. In a graph, each node represents one entity (a person in a social network; a researcher or a work in a citation network, etc.) and the edges (or arcs, if they are directed) of the graph represent some relation. One can also indicate the strength of the relation by associating weights with the edges of the graph. Network graphs are very useful for studying social networks.1
The dA network is very rich, not only because it consists of 15 million nodes and billions of edges, but because it represents a multigraph of relations: Different social interaction patterns superpose different arcs on the node structure, and these are amenable to joint analysis, as well as individual inspection. Furthermore, each node (i.e. artist) is complemented with demographic information, and with site statistics showing the popularity of each member and each individual image. Obviously, the ‘re-creation’ of specialized networks from this immense set is crucial in clarifying and then interpreting it via network analysis and visualization tools. 
As a preliminary research for this study, we have crawled the dA site to extract a subset of ‘professional’ members. Professional members are the paying subscribers, and thus contain the highest concentration of users that make a living out of producing artworks, as well as being more regular in their usage of the site in general. In order to obtain a vibrant core of the dA network, we have used a number of assumptions about these members. This helped us reach a manageable and relevant set of users. The first heuristic is the subscription status; the paying members of the site are more serious users and have access to more services. These can be automatically determined through scraping. Our first data reduction followed these members, and we thus obtained a network with 103.663 vertices and about 4.5 million arcs, the latter representing a user being ‘watched’ by another user (average degree is 43.25). (Buter et al. 2011) These data are further scrutinized with a k-Core algorithm that helped us to identify the most important members of the network. In this work we use this core-network as our starting point. Thus out of 103.663 vertices, i.e. members, we extracted a core of 3402 members. Among these, we focus on those who publish stock images, which constitute 642 members with 13762 images. To further analyze how these stock images are reused by other members, we employ digital image analysis.
image tool analysis
Image analysis is a vibrant research area at the intersection of signal processing, computer vision, pattern recognition and machine learning. From medical image processing to image retrieval and biometrics, image analysis techniques are used in a variety of applications. Among these applications, the Digital Humanities community would find the scattered work done around automatic artwork analysis techniques interesting (Hurtut, 2010). These are used in a number of applications such as virtual restoration, image retrieval, studies on artistic praxis, and authentication. The scientific community also shows an interest in the ever expanding professional image archives from museums, galleries, professional artist networks, etc. (Chen 2001, 2005, 2007).
One of the authors, Lev Manovich has founded Software Studies Initiative at UCSD in 2007 to apply image analysis techniques for the analysis of digital content that were not necessarily based on institutionalized archives (Manovich 2008). For example, in How to Analyze Million Manga Pages, Manovich, Douglass and Huber showed how image analysis techniques could be applied to answer humanities research questions, especially the ones that have to deal with the fast growing user-generated image sets, and their cultural dimensions (Manovich et al. 2011).2 In our dA project, we make use of these tools in order to first extract ‘features’ (quantified descriptions of visual properties) from the images that we have located as stock image collections of core deviantArt members. As a second set, we download and analyze the images of members who indicate that they have used these images via the commenting tool of deviantArt. In Fig. 1, one can see an example of how a stock-image and the images that make use of this stock image look. The research questions in this study are 1) to determine in what (measurable) terms to define ‘originality,’ (i.e., how we can rate and compare different ways in which dA members use a stock image); 2) to determine if we can scale this definition for larger image sets.
 
Figure 1: An example of a stock image (right, upper corner), and images that use this stock.
Today it is possible to submit image queries to commercial search engines, where the subsequent image retrieval is not only based on the metadata, but also on the content of the images (for examples, see Li et al. 2007a, 2007b; Wang et al. 2008). Here, the ‘semantic’ component is retrieved from the images themselves: first, some low quality features of images are extracted; these features are used for tagging the images according to a pre-defined image vocabulary. A different approach to image retrieval is suggested by  (Hertzmann et al. 2001), where parts of images themselves are used to locate images similar to those parts. Hertzmann terms this practice as finding ‘image analogies’. Our data set is based on such ‘image analogies’, but for us, it is more important to find the most ‘original’ works – i.e., images that uses the stock image creatively, changing to arrive at different content and visual style than the original version.
conclusion
deviantArt is listed among the top ten most visited websites in the category of art. With 32 million unique visitors, dA has both the world’s biggest artist community and the largest active art audience. To thoroughly understand dA’s cultural and artistic value, one has to use computational methods because of its massive scale. In this study, we use subsets of dA images (stock images and images which use them) to explore how computational analysis can be used to define ‘originality’ in user-generated art in computable terms. To select and then analyze relevant subsets of the data, we designed a work flow which uses network and image analysis methods together. To the best of authors’ knowledge, this is the first project that combines network and image analysis from a humanities point of view. We submit our research as an example that might inspire and guide other researchers who have to deal with huge archives of user generated content.
references
Buter, B., N. Dijkshoorn, D. Modolo, Q. Nguyen, N. van Noort, B. van de Poel, A. A. Akdag Salah, and A. A. Salah (2011). Explorative visualization and analysis of a social network for arts: The case of deviantArt.Journal of Convergence 2(2): 87-94.
Chen, C., H. Wactlar, J. Wang, and K. Kiernan (2005). Digital imagery for significant cultural and historical materials. Int. Journal on Digital Libraries 5(4): 275-286.
Chen, H. (2001). An analysis of image retrieval tasks in the field of art history. Information Processing and Management 37(5): 701-720.
Chen, H. (2007). A socio-technical perspective of museum practitioners’ image-using behaviors. The Electronic Library 25(1): 18-35.
Hertzmann, A., C. E. Jacobs, N. Oliver, B. Curless, and D. H. Salesin (2001). Image analogies. Proceedings of the 28th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, pp. 327-340.
Hurtut, T. (2010). 2D Artistic images analysis, a content-based survey. http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/45/94/01/PDF/survey.pdf (accessed 10 January 2011).
Manovich, L. (2008). Cultural Analytics: Analysis and Visualization of Large Cultural Data Sets.www.manovich.net/cultural_analytics.pdf (accessed 10 January 2011).
Manovich, L., J. Douglass, and W. Huber (2011). Understanding scanlation: how to read one million fan-translated manga pages. Image & Narrative 12(1): 206-228.http://www.imageandnarrative.be/index.php/imagenarrative/article/viewFile/133/104 (accessed 10 January 2011).
Li, Q., S. Luo, and Z. Shi (2007). Semantics-based art image retrieval using linguistic variable. Fuzzy Systems and Knowledge Discovery 2: 406-410.
Li, Q., S. Luo, and Z. Shi (2007). Linguistic expression based image description framework and its application to image retrieval. Soft Computing in Image Processing, pp. 97-120.
Wang, W., and Q. He (2008). A survey on emotional semantic image retrieval. ICIP 15th IEEE International Conference on Image Processing, pp. 117-120.
notes
1.In our work we use Pajek for network analysis (http://vlado.fmf.uni-lj.si/pub/networks/pajek). We also make use of R for building networks (http://cran.r-project.org/), Sci2 for calculating basic network measurements (https://sci2.cns.iu.edu/user/index.php), as well as Gephi for visualizing the networks (www.gephi.org).
2.Software Studies Initiative created Image-Plot, the first set of image analysis and image visualization tools for humanities researches, http://lab.softwarestudies.com/p/imageplot.html.","txt","2","",""
"1455","13","Federated Digital Archives and Disaster Recovery: The Role of the Digital Humanities in Post-earthquake Christchurch","1","The Canterbury region, in the South Island of New Zealand, experienced two major earthquakes during 2010 and 2011. On September 4, 2010 a magnitude 7.1 quake struck at 4.35 am, causing widespread damage and two serious injuries. Significant aftershock sequences followed. On February 22 2011 a 6.3 magnitude quake hit at 12.51 pm. This earthquake caused severe damage and resulted in the loss of 181 lives, making it the second worst natural disaster in New Zealand history. Like the first, the second quake has been followed by thousands of aftershocks, including two significant earthquakes on June 13th 2011.
The University of Canterbury CEISMIC Canterbury Earthquake Digital Archive draws on the example of the Centre for History and New Media’s (CHNM) September 11 Archive, which was used to collect digital artefacts after the bombing of the World Trade Centre buildings in 2001, but has gone significantly further than this project in its development as a federated digital archive. The new University of Canterbury Digital Humanities Programme – initiated to build the archive – has gathered together a Consortium of major national organizations to contribute content to a federated archive based on principles of openness and collaboration derived directly from the international digital humanities community. Two primary archive ‘nodes’ have been built by the Ministry of Culture and Heritage (‘QuakeStories’) and the University of Canterbury (‘QuakeStudies’) to collect content from the public and researchers respectively, and a ‘front window (www.ceismic.org.nz) has been provided by the University of Canterbury to bond the Consortium, raise funds, and provide a platform for future aggregated search functions, which will be powered by New Zealand’s bespoke cultural heritage schema maintained by Digital NZ. Other nodes in the federation include The Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, the National Library, Christchurch City Libraries, NZ On Screen, and the Canterbury Museum. The aim is to create a permanent record of digital objects for both present and future generations. To this end the technical requirements for QuakeStudies have been reviewed by the National Digital Heritage Archive with a view to ingesting significant subsets of content (if not creating a complete dark archive) for long-term preservation. Significant attention has been paid during the design process to multi-cultural and multi-lingual requirements, to ensure content from a broad range of New Zealand communities can be ingested and researched. Future development aims to create a bi-lingual interface in English and Māori.
The story behind the UC CEISMIC Canterbury Earthquake Digital Archive goes somewhat further than other similar digital archives. Not only is it being used to initiate New Zealand’s first Digital Humanities programme, but it hopes to fulfil an important role in the cultural and intellectual recovery of the Canterbury region following the earthquakes of 2010 and 2011. New Zealand is a country with significant levels of technology uptake, and the vast majority of content produced following the earthquakes was created in digital form. As the central focus of the recovery efforts was, of necessity, focussed on the physical and spiritual well-being of the Canterbury public, it was quite possible that large amounts of valuable content would be lost to future generations. This altered somewhat after the initial phase of critical response ended, only to be replaced with new issues. Various institutions began gathering digital content into their separate repositories, but no co-ordinated approach was taken, creating a situation where disparate ‘nodes’ of content might be stored with little possibility of sharing and reuse. It was becoming possible that, although terabytes of content would be captured, future generations of citizens and researchers would need to go to myriad different archives, each with their own metadata standards, in order to get a complete picture of events. Aside from the obvious inconvenience of this, such a situation would seriously constrain the possibility of sophisticated downstream data analysis and content reuse.
The digital humanities ethos of sharing and open collaboration has had a significant positive effect in this context. Consistent recourse to the digital humanities’ message of collaboration has fostered a culture of trust that has in turn allowed an extremely broad Consortium to be initiated. Although there is little chance that the resulting federation will be technically seamless, this has allowed potential conflicts of interest to be put aside and technical discussions to start at a relatively early stage in proceedings, significantly enhancing the chances of developing a highly functional distributed archive. Additionally, the digital humanities’ emphasis on open communication and community engagement has fostered a healthy culture across the federation, which has contributed significantly to the success of the project. This is represented most forcefully in the use of not only crowd-sourcing techniques, but a mobile recording studio fitted out with video and audio equipment, that has been taken to the suburbs of Christchurch to record public reaction to the earthquakes. This pro-active approach, coupled with robust attention to project structure, governance and human ethics, has created not only a digital archive, but a community of friends and partners, and a vibrant new digital humanities programme.
The project is also unusual for a digital humanities project in it becoming a flagship project for the broader university. Although the project and research teams are predominantly from the arts and humanities, close collaboration is also occurring with computer scientists, health researchers, social scientists and economists. As with the interest from New Zealand’s national heritage agencies, digital humanities principles of collaboration and sharing, combined with well-considered metadata ontologies and system architecture, has prompted the project to occupy a central position in the post-earthquake recovery landscape. More than just an IT project, the CEISMIC Canterbury Earthquake Digital Archive is providing local, national and international public and researchers with a forum for discussion, organization and collaboration as well as a heritage asset in itself.
This paper will outline the project and present a model that will hopefully allow our approach to be reproduced in similar post-disaster recovery situations. Key to this model is the conscious use of digital humanities methodologies such as crowd-sourcing, community building and attention to open metadata ontologies and open access principles to create a robust and functional federated archive system. The model has several benefits, including the ability to develop a ‘distributed nodal network’ of archives and repositories independently, thus reducing the need for centralisation that would encumber development, but it requires a long-term vision and a strong governance framework to ensure the federation holds together and organizations feel comfortable sharing content. Similarly, while it offers excellent potential for teaching and research across the humanities as a whole, the relatively advanced nature of the project provides limited opportunity to involve students in system development. Instead, the project has created internships that will see students working as ‘curators’ on the research node in the federation, uploading content and taking responsibility for metadata quality and the integrity of manual procedures.
references
Adams, W. R. (2009). Archiving Digital Materials: An Overview of the Issues. Journal of Interlibrary Loan, Document Delivery & Electronic Reserve 19: 325-35.
Berry, D. (2011). The Computational Turn: Thinking About the Digital Humanities. Culture Machine 12.
Cloonan, M. (2007). The Moral Imperative to Preserve. Library Trends 55(3): 746-55.
Conway, P. (2010). Preservation in the Age of Google: Digitization, Digital Preservation, and Dilemmas.Library Quarterly 80(1): 61-79.
Day, M. (2008). Toward Distributed Infrastructures for Digital Preservation: The Roles of Collaboration and Trust. The International Journal of Digital Curatin 3(1): 15-28.
Gourley, D., and P. Viterbo (2010). A sustainable repository infrastructure for digital humanities: the DHO experience Digital Heritage, pp. 473-81.
Granger, S. (2002). Digital Preservation and Deep Infrastructure. D-Lib Magazine 8(2).http://www.dlib.org/dlib/february02/granger/02granger.html (Accessed 28 February 2012).
Bellardo, T. H. (2008). Mass digitization: implications for preserving the scholarly record. Library Resources & Technical Services 52(1): 18-26.
Lehmann, K. (1996) Making the Transitory Permanent: The Intellectual Heritage in a Digitized World of Knowledge. Daedalus 125(4): 307-29.
Martin, J., and Coleman, C. (2002). Change The Metaphor: The Archive as an Ecosystem. Journal of Electronic Publishing 7( 3).
Neri, M. (2001). Putting the Cart Before the Horse: Understanding the Pros and Cons of Digital Preservation.Library & Archival Security 17: 59-64.
Scheinfeldt, T. Stuff Digital Humanists Like: Defining Digital Humanities by Its Values. Found History, n.d.http://www.foundhistory.org/2010/12/02/stuff-digital-humanists-like/ (Accessed 28 February 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1456","13","Feeling the View: Reading Affective Orientation of Tagged Images","1","problems
Images are visual representations of human experiences and the world (Molyneaux 1997). An image captures a moment of life and provides a glimpse of human history. With the overwhelming popularity of social media and the convenience of personal digital devices, digital images on web platforms have exploded in astonishing numbers. According to a recent article by an independent online news site (Kessler 2011), the number of photos on Facebook was 60 billion, compared to Photobucket’s 8 billion, Picasa’s 7 billion and Flickr’s 5 billion in early 2011. These digital images embody certain aspects of human nature in a historical scale. Challenges and opportunities abound for new findings of humanities research on digital visual media.
Many images (or photos) on social media are associated with tags that describe the content of the images. As opposed to controlled vocabularies in domain-specific taxonomy, tags are keywords generated freely without hierarchical structure and are characterized as folksonomy (Trant 2009). An image, with its visual representation of the world, can be seen as an anchor that links a set of tags. Mitchell (1994) discussed the relations of images and words and suggested the views that images and words are interactive and constitutive of representation and that all representations are heterogeneous. Therefore, images with tags are integral representations that encode fuller and richer content. This observation seems to support the assumption that, through an image anchor, meaningful linkage among tags exists.
This research focuses on the affective aspect of human life in digital images and attempts to identify a subset of tags that may indicate strong affective orientation. This provides a possibility to read into viewers’ affective response to images with certain affect indicative tags that are strongly associated with known affect types. An affective magnitude computation method is also proposed to retrieve images with strong affective orientation.
methodology
Among the major photo web sites, Flickr provides several unique features that seem to be better fit to the purposes of this research. First and foremost, Flickr emphasizes the use of tags for image description and community activity. Flickr photos tend to be associated with more tags than other web site photos. Second, user activities on Flickr involve more direct interaction of images and words with comments and feedbacks. Third, Flickr provides APIs that are conducive to data acquisition.
This research adopts an affective framework based on Russel’s circumplex model of affect (Posner 2005), in which 28 emotion words are evenly distributed around a circle centered on the origin of a two dimensional space of affective experiences. The horizontal dimension of valence ranges from highly negative (left) to highly positive (right), whereas the vertical dimension of arousal ranges from sleepy (bottom) to agitated (top). The set of emotion words were reduced from 28 to 12 based on significant occurrence in Flickr tags and equal representation of four affective quadrants. For each affective tag, a total of 1,000 Flickr photos are retrieved based on a popularity index called interesting. The retrieving process also includes a check-and-replace step to make sure that the final sample of 12,000 photos were all unique and from unique users. This is to remove bias and achieve objective representation in data collection.
Point-wise mutual information (PMI), developed in the fields of probability and information theory, is a measure of mutual dependenceof two random variables and has been successfully applied to provide effective word association measurement in text mining research (Church & Hanks 1989; Recchia & Jones 2009). For any two words X and Y, their PMI value is calculated by taking the base-2 logarithm of the ratio of the joint probability distribution p(X, Y) over the independent probability distributions p(X) and p(Y). Maximal positive PMI values indicate strong tendency of co-occurrence, whereas negative values suggest less chance of occurring together and zero means independence. In this research, two tags co-occur if they appear in the tag set of a photo.
For the purpose of retrieving images with strong affective orientation, an affective magnitude computation method is developed. This method combines association strength, affect distribution in tag set, and community feedbacks. First, community feedback parameters such as views, favorites, and comments, are used to retrieve candidate photos with above average parameter values. Second, for each candidate photo, an affective weight is calculated by the ratio of the number of affect indicative tags in the photo’s tag set to the total number of tags in the photo’s tag set. Third, for each candidate photo, the affective magnitude of certain affective type or certain affective quadrant is computed by the weighted sum of PMI values of the pairs of the affect types and the affect indicative tags of the photo.
results
The total number of tags in the sample set of 12,000 photos is 258,293, in which 70,066 tags are unique. The frequency distribution of these unique tags shows a long tail. A stemming process is applied to these unique tags to reduce the inflected words to their root form, e.g., girls to girl, beautiful to beauti. A frequency threshold of 1% is also set to filter out less meaningful tags. The stemming and filtering processes result in 386 word forms of tags. These 386 tags are called affect indicative tags because of their high co-occurrence with the 12 affective tags. By calculating PMI values of a pair of an affective tag and an affect indicative tag, a matrix of association strength among 12 affective tags and 386 affect indicative tags are obtained. Table 1 shows a partial matrix of PMI values between affective tags and affect indicative tags.
 
Table 1
The PMI values of an affect indicative tag are further grouped by each affect quadrant to provide distinct affective orientation. The association strength of an affect indicative tag with an affect quadrant is calculated by summing up positive PMI values of the three affective tags in the affect quadrant. Negative PMI values indicate unlikely co-occurrence and are taken as zero during quadrant grouping to avoid incorrect underestimation of co-occurrence union. Table 2 shows the lists of the top ten affect indicative tags that have the most association strength with one of the four affect quadrants.
 
Table 2
These affect indicative tags can be used to retrieve images with predicted affective orientation. Given a set of images that include an affect indicative tag in their tag sets, the affective magnitude computation (AffMC) method is then used to determine an image’s affective magnitude in the affect quadrant, and thus provides a ranked list of images. The performance of the affective magnitude computation method is compared to that of Google and Flickr, which also include a ranking mechanism on retrieved images. Images retrieved by AffMC, Flickr, Google with top affect indicative tags of each affect quadrant are shown in Tables 3, 4, 5, and 6.
Table 3
Q1: positive & more aroused affect indicative tag: joy
AffMC         
Flickr         
Google         
*Copyrights of all images shown are reserved by original contributors.
Table 4
Q2: negative & more aroused affect indicative tag: scary
AffMC         
Flickr         
Google         
Table 5
Q3: negative & less aroused affect indicative tag: lonely
AffMC         
Flickr         
Google         
Table 6
Q4: positive & less aroused affect indicative tag: serene
AffMC         
Flickr         
Google         
To evaluate the affective magnitude computation (AffMC) method, top three affect indicative tags for each affect quadrant are used to retrieve images. The number of images retrieved by each ranking method is twelve, with three for each affect quadrant. A total of thirty-six images are given to a group of 136 subjects for testing their emotional response. Survey results indicate that AffMC is better than Flickr and comparable to Google in retrieving images of strong affective orientation. Note that image sources of Google and Flick (and AffMC) are different and Google enjoys a much significant user feedback for effective ranking.
conclusions
This research shows that image tags can be exploited to characterize affect indicative tags. Accordingly, images with strong affective orientation can be identified and retrieved, from which viewers’ emotional response can be mostly anticipated. This method can be further developed into an engine for sorting and grouping images into affective types based on the given tags. Potential applications include intelligent visual services for user emotion enhancement or compensation. Another research implication is that significant pairs can be revealed by substantial repetition among loosely associated items and the triangular cluster of a significant pair and the central item provides the basis for functional exploitation.
Acknowledgement
This work was partially supported by the National Science Council, Taiwan, [NSC 100-2221-E-004-013]; and the National Chengchi University’s Top University Project.
references
Church, K. W., and P. Hanks (1989). Word Association Norms, Mutual Information and Lexicography,Proceedings of the 27th Annual Conference of the Association of Computational Linguistics, June 1989, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, pp. 76-83.
Kessler, S. (2011). Facebook photos by the numbers, Mashable. http://mashable.com/2011/02/14/facebook-photo-infographic/ (accessed 28 October 2011).
Mitchell, W. J. T. (1994). Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal and Visual Representation. Chicago: U of Chicago P.
Molyneaux, B. L., ed. (1997). The Cultural Life of Images: Visual Representation in Archaeology. London: Routledge.
Posner, J., J. A. Russell, and B. S. Peterson (2005). The Circumplex Model of Affect: An Integrative Approach to Affective Neuroscience, Cognitive Development, and Psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology17(3): 715-734.
Recchia, G. L., and M. N. Jones (2009). More Data Trumps Smarter Algorithms: Comparing Pointwise Mutual Information to Latent Semantic Analysis Behavior Research Methods 41: 657–663.
Trant, J. (2009). Studying Social Tagging and Folksonomy: A Review and Framework. Journal of Digital Information 10(1): 1-42.","txt","2","",""
"1457","13","Focus on Users in the Open Development of the National Digital Library of Finland","1","the public interface of the national digital library of finland
The tools for discovering cultural heritage material are changing. For more than a decade there has been a demand for better services for acquiring and working with the ever increasing amount of digitized collections of archives, libraries, and museums. Almost quarterly we hear about new electronic search and research services, which promise better assistance to academic workers. These tools are brought out by software vendors, academic research and development projects, or publishers. Looking at these news we can estimate that the research infrastructure for scholars in the humanities, currently concentrating on resource databases, will be replaced by integrated, modular services, which utilize the potential of social metadata.
As a response to the increasing demand for novel research infrastructure services, we in Finland have started building our National Digital Library (NDL). The NDL project covers the digitization of Finnish archives, libraries, and museums; the long term preservation system; and a next generation search application called the Public Interface, which harvests the metadata from various data repositories and provides it for the end users. The NDL will also serve as the national aggregator to the European Digital Library, Europeana. The development project is funded by the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture until 2014, after which there should be permanent funding for maintenance and support. The project started in 2008 and will reach the publication of the first end-user interfaces displaying the first set of material by the end of the year 2012. (Further information:  www.kdk.fi/en/public-interface.)
The Public Interface facilitates access to the diverse digital repositories of Finnish libraries, archives and museums. The users can use it to find physical items, digital objects, and licensed electronic materials. The metadata for these are harvested from the organizations’ back-end systems via an OAI-PMH interface. Access to restricted and licensed materials will be provided by integrating user authentication from the corresponding back-end system.
Within the service there will be one common user interface for all free contents within the system, called the National View. It will serve as the basis for those organizations who will not need specific system integrations and modifications. Organizations who wish to integrate external services, such as an online payment system or an ontology, to the core service can set their own interface instances and thus create so called Local Views to the NDL. All will still have the entire set of data available for their customers, via whichever user interface, if desired.
a technically challenging project
From the technical point of view, the scope of the project is very ambitious. So far there has been a lot of hard work choosing and testing the satisfactory software for the Public Interface and defining various system interfaces. Potentially all Finnish archives, libraries, and museums are entitled to join the project and get their services within the NDL. While some of them will follow given standards and some have similar back-end systems, there will be those who will require completely individual solutions for systems’ integration.
Scalability and additional service integrations also require thorough planning and good management. The amount of material in a country like Finland is not enormous and the number of possible service integrations can be controlled.  However, the number of organizations and user interfaces is easily in the hundreds. If not compensated, these can have some effect on server loads and delays, which in turn will have impact on the end-user experience.
The greatest technical challenge so far has been the choice of the core software for constructing the Public Interface. When the available software solutions were initially compared, the information discovery and delivery system Primo by the Ex Libris Group was considered as the most suitable for the needs of the NDL. During the pilot testing, which took almost sixteen months, it became apparent that the customizations needed in Primo would require much more time and resources than was reserved for the project. Although the software procurement contract between the National Library of Finland and Ex Libris was cancelled in January 2012, the partnership between these organizations continues. The National Library still examines possibilities to provide access from the NDL Public Interface to the Primo Central Index.
In order to stay in the schedule of the project, a new solution was needed quickly. After a speedy market analysis, the National Library decided to turn to use an open source software solution. Having some experience of open source development, and avoiding a tedious start from the scratch, the National Library studied some alternatives to be used as the basis for the software development. The library resource portal VuFind was selected to serve as the starting point.
focus on usability
From the very beginning of the NDL project the importance of end-users and their expectations has been seriously regarded. As a means to realize the aim of good usability, a Usability Working Group and a reasonable budget has been assigned to meeting the goals and coordinating the needed tasks. The group has established the usability requirements and defined target users for the Public Interface service, and gradually completed a Usability Plan for the project and its outcome. Applicable design approaches (e.g. Meroni & Sangiori 2011) and best practices (e.g. Clark et al. 2010) have been consulted all along the process. The plan covers all project phases from planning to maintenance, but is still flexible enough to adjust to changes in technical solutions  or the scope of the project.
Years 2010 and 2011 were mostly spent on testing the Primo software, but also on testing the service concept among prospect users. Eight organizations among Finnish archives, libraries, and museums volunteered, and started integrating their back-end systems to Primo. The concept testing was conducted by the University of Tampere in summer 2010 (Lavikainen 2010). Some months later a user study was conducted by an usability consultant company Adage on the first end-user interface layouts of the National View (Hirvonen 2011). The results of both studies indicated that some features of the future service might be difficult for end-users to comprehend, and therefore the final design of the end-user interfaces will be crucially important. However, the results gave no reason to change the scope of the service or the system requirements. These studies, on their part, supported the demand to chance the software solution.
several local views, one national view
Although the core software had to be changed after a reasonably long period of work, the efforts put on testing one solution could be immediately utilized with the other option. Especially the concept of different views was considered applicable on VuFind, too.
During the year 2011 some Local Views were implemented with Primo and exposed to technical and functional tests. The first in line was the Turku City Library, which integrated Primo to their web content management and publication system. In their solution the main objective was to merge the  Digital Library into a dynamic and locally oriented customer service. On the second track there was the National Board of Antiquities of Finland, which has invested considerable resources on establishing common technological solutions for Finnish museums. They implemented some varying user interface instances that displayed the museum repositories and utilized the features offered by Primo. Their focus was on experimentation of data visualization and service integration, since they intend to offer one Local View for all museums. The third track of the Local View testing concentrated on a portal-like application that leaves the external services to be run on the back-end system. The National Archives of Finland worked on mapping and normalizing aggregation levels of archival data. They also aim at producing solutions and standards for all archives in Finland. Such applications of Local Views will later provide excellent field for usage studies, since they reveal three entirely different viewpoints to the same service.
The National View, which will serve as the user interface for compiling all free material within the NDL, could not be thoroughly implemented and tested with Primo. Therefore there are now great expectations to the implementation of those features that support effective discovery and display of different types of content, i.e. content from archives, libraries, and museums at the same time. (See Fig. 1.) According to the recently updated Usability Plan the National View will be exposed to several usage tests. Before the summer 2013 there will be a comprehensive log analysis, some customer surveys, and other usability studies, which aim at further analyzing the service concept and giving input to the user interface design.
Along with the new software solution, the software development methods, the collaboration practices, and the user testing processes have been renewed. The usability tests planned for the implementation and production phases will still be valid and executed in time. In addition, a constant row of end-users will be involved in the agile development process to test freshly developed features immediately after they have been published.
 
Figure 1: The layout of the National View exposed to end-user tests in March 2012
more challenges ahead
With the exception of certain back-end a pplication programming interfaces (APIs), the NDL Public Interface service will be mainly developed by the staff of the National Library. It will be crucially important to share knowledge and results with the open source community involved in VuFind. The national open source development community will also be communicated with. This sets extra demands on project management and collaboration management. 
In future years the Public Interface of the NDL will replace several research services currently used by humanities’ scholars. Within the National Library of Finland alone the user interface of the national bibliographic database, the portal of electronic publications in Finnish libraries, and the interface of digital material repository will be ‘powered by’ the Public Interface of NDL. It is difficult yet to foresee how the actual research activities will change due to the new tools. At least  scholars themselves should be more involved in systems’ and services’ development than today (see e.g. Jeffreys 2010).  Nevertheless, the Usability Working Group has already made preliminary plans for examining the scholarly use of the NDL service.
As soon as a sufficient number of organizations have gone live, and there is a critical mass of coherent data within the service, we can start proper tracking and evaluation of the system as a research infrastructure. It is to be noticed, that the service is not just a library in a digital environment, since it can offer and recommend content from archives and museums on single search request.  It will be particularly interesting to study how students and scholars will be able to utilize such diverse and multifaceted information, and how that information can best be represented and laid out to the user. Therefore, it is yet to be seen, how well the National Digital Library of Finland will meet the great expectations.
references
Clark, D. J., D. Nicholas, and I. Rowlands (2011). Europeana Log Analysis Report 1. Europeana Connect.http://ciber-research.eu/download/20110821-M3.1.2_eConnect_LogAnalysis.pdf (accessed 14 March 2012).
Hirvonen, V. (2011). Kansallisen näkymän käytettävyystesti. Project report, The National Library of Finland..http://kdk.fi/wiki/images/4/45/KDK-k%C3%A4ytett%C3%A4vyystesti_2011_01.pdf (accessed 14 March 2012).
Jeffreys, P. (2010). The Developing Conception of e-Research. In W. H. Dutton and P. W. Jeffreys (eds.), World Wide Research. Reshaping the Sciences and Humanities. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press,  pp. 51-66.
Lavikainen, V. (2012). Kansallisen digitaalisen kirjaston palvelukonseptin testaaminen. Project report, University of Tampere.  http://kdk.fi/wiki/images/9/96/KDKn_palvelukonseptin_testaaminen.pdf  (accessed 14 March 2012).
Meroni, A., and D. Sangiori (2011). Design for Services. Surrey, UK: Gower.","txt","2","",""
"1458","13","Formal Semantic Modeling for Human and Machine-based Decoding of Medieval Manuscripts","1","In recent years, archival institutions storing historic handwritten document collections have been somewhat reluctant to invest in digitization (scanning). The reasons for this are threefold. Firstly, early, rigorous digitization campaigns of the past (1985-2000) were costly and sometimes disappointing. Secondly, the quality of Optical Character Recognition (OCR) techniques is very low for handwritten manuscripts. Thirdly, the digitization of historical documents and the permanent storage of the resulting digital images is costly. Such investments are generally only considered worthwhile if it is possible to access and browse the digitized material quickly and easily, in a manner which satisfies a large user base.
The Monk system was developed in answer to the afore-mentioned problem: the aim of this project is build an interactive search engine for browsing handwritten historical documents, using machine-learning and pattern classification. Ultimately, it should become possible to ‘google’ for a search-term in large collections of digitized handwritten document images. Traditional OCR fails in handwriting, because patterns are largely connected, noisy and difficult to read, even for humans. In addition, historical script types vary tremendously according spatio-temporal origins. Furthermore, traditional Automatic Handwriting Recognition (AHM) techniques require many examples of a single word or letter class from a single writer to be considered feasible in this case, and training occurs off line, in a lab or company. Therefore, an innovative new bootstrapping method based on user-based word labeling was developed to train a computer system, Monk, to read historical scripts (Zant, van der et al. 2009). This system has been used successfully in the first massive processing of early twentieth century handwriting in the Dutch ‘Cabinet of the Queen.’ The success of this endeavor stimulated the research in the direction of older, more difficult material.
a difficult case: the leuven alderman’s rolls
The Leuven city archive is currently in the process of digitizing its collection of the Leuven Alderman’s rolls, early fifteenth century. This text is the urban record of voluntary jurisdiction and disputes settled by the Aldermen; individual cases are described in short legal acts. As a pilot study, the book of the year 1421 (MS SAL 7316, Leuven City Archive, Belgium) was ingested by the Monk system, with the aim of achieving handwriting recognition on the current Gothic minuscule these hundreds of pages are written in. Indeed, this is no easy feat, considering that contemporary humans need special training to be able to read this script. However, even if one – as a human – can decipher series of individual characters (letters, abbreviations, glyphs) in the text, this does not directly lead to understanding. Firstly, there is a linguistic barrier: the rolls are written mostly in Latin and occasionally in Middle Dutch. Secondly, in order to understand what the text means one needs much background knowledge about the type of text and the administration of justice in medieval Leuven. As the Monk system still makes many mistakes in its attempts to read the script of the Leuven alderman’s rolls, it seems that additional modeling is needed to improve results of computer-based reading.
contextual modeling: language and semantics
The idea of top-down linguistic support for bottom-up word hypotheses generated by a script classifier such asMonk – is not entirely new. The use of a statistical language model to improve offline handwriting recognition has been proposed (Zimmerman & Bunke 2004). However, the use of a general language model or syntax will not do in case of the Leuven Alderman’s rolls. Firstly, the text employs a register of highly artificial legal language. Secondly, no formal language models are existent for the Middle Dutch and Medieval Latin it employs and no encoded text corpus exists for the automatic generation of a ‘stochastic grammar’ (Manning & Schütze 1999).
Therefore, a semantic model was developed to support recognition by Monk in the rolls. While syntactic modeling may fail due to input variation and variability, semantics are invariably present in any utterance of language. A semantic framework can support both the human- and machine-based decoding. In the case of the Leuven Alderman’s rolls, meaning, i.e. higher knowledge levels, supports the recognition of words and letter forms at the lexical and orthographical level. Human readers, as opposed to digital document processors, sample text opportunistically and take into account contextual information eclectically (Schomaker 2007). To distinguish the /v/ from the /b/ in current gothic minuscule the human reader may rely on contextual information where an uninformed computer program cannot. More specifically, the interpretation of the ink patterns on a page is determined by an expectancy on what to find in the text. In case of an ‘IOU’, for instance, the reader expects to find, somewhere, the names of two persons, a sum of money, and possibly a date of payment. The more difficult the deciphering of patterns at the small scale, the more important is the role of such additional high-level information and expectation at a larger scale of observation: the semantics expressed by a text block of about a paragraph or administrative entry (‘item’) in the case of an administrative archive.
semantic support
During the present project a framework for disclosing the semantics contained in the digital image of the manuscript page was attempted. First, the accomplishments of historical philological method and manuscript studies were put into practice to create a ‘world model’ as introduced in the field of artificial intelligence (Schank 1975), specifying objects, their attributes and their mutual (abstract) relationships. Such a model is the necessary ‘historical backdrop’ for understanding the text. It includes vital information elements, such as the specific type of legal text and its place in the process of administering voluntary justice (Synghel G. v. 2007; Smulders 1967).
Secondly, a typology of types of acts was formulated, with the help of scholarship on the comparable alderman’s rolls of Den Bosch (van Synghel 1993; Spierings 1984). This typology of acts functions as a fundamental part of the interpretative apparatus. Exhaustive knowledge about which key phrases encode for a certain type of act, immensely help in identifying the real-life legal transaction an act refers to. However, the gap between high level meaning and the 2-dimensional format of the document still needs to be bridged.
towards a formal semantic modeling of the act
In the research field of document structure and lay-out analysis a distinction is commonly made between ‘geometrical layout’ and ‘logical content’; referring to specific visual regions on the page, and their content and/or functional label, and reading order. The logical structure can then be mapped to the relevant geometrical regions on the page, to achieve optimal analysis of the document image (Haralick 1994; Namboodiri & Jain 2007).
During the second phase of the project ‘The Legal transactions’ a formal semantic model was constructed based on the basic distinction between geometrical and logical representation, viz. digital image and semantic content respectively. The geometrical branch is subdivided in polygonal regions of interest (ROIs), which again break down into smaller nodes such a ‘ink’ and ‘background’. The logical branch describes the structure of semantic content in legal acts. By interlinking the relevant nodes the two branches using unique identifiers (idROIs), it becomes possible to cross-refer between manuscript page and content.
Several XML schemes for layout and content modeling exist; however, to date none of these standards is designed for handwritten text (Stehno, Egger, & Retti 2003; Bulacu, van Koert & Schomaker 2007). These formalisms are suitable for regular, printed text and rectangular elements. Due to the erratic nature of the page layout and line formation in medieval handwritten manuscripts a system of polygonal visual regions connected to the semantic model by unique identifier codes needs to be used for Monk, comparable to layout modeling tools such as TrueViz and GEDI.
None  of these formalisms provide an easy solution for linkage between layout and the semantic level: such a connective layer needs to be developed for each particular document type. If it is elaborated in Web Ontology Language (OWL) or Resource Description Framework (RDF), the ‘aldermen’ semantic model can be used to train Monk to recognize the structural elements of acts and formulate hypotheses about their meaning. Conversely, the same model may assist in interactive teaching of humans as to where to locate the desired information in an act. The most exciting finding of this study was that superficial low-level ink patterns and glyphs can be used to infer clues about the semantic content, which in turn constrains the large number of possible text interpretations.
As an example, a selection of the most basic logical components in the legal acts was made:
•        the start of a new act is signaled by ‘Item’ (X0,Y0)
•        the semantic anchor reveals the type of legal transaction (X1,Y1)
•        names of presiding aldermen and (X2, Y2)
•        the date give the act legal force (X3,Y3)
•        the ‘solvit’ glyph signals that a charter was issued and seal-money paid (X4,Y4)
From a number of pages, 22 acts were manually analyzed in terms of the geometric distribution of element in the horizontal plane. Based on the relative geographical location of these semantic elements and their probability of occurrence in the plane, Monk may weigh his bottom-up hypotheses using a Bayesian model (see fig. 1). The small sample includes only the most basic semantic elements on the page; many more may be added to improve recognition accuracy.
 
Figure 1
references
Balacu, M., R. van Koert, and L. Schomaker (2007). Layout Analysis of Handwritten Historical Documents for Searching the Archive of the Cabinet of the Dutch Queen: Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition. Curitiba, Brazil, September 2007.
Haralick, R. M. (1994). Document Image Understanding: Geometric and Logical Layout: Proceedings of the Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Conference. Seattle, June 1994.
Manning, C. D., and H. Schütze (1999). Foundations of Statistical Language Processing. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Namboodiri, A., and A. Jain (2007). Document Structure and Layout Analysis. B. B. Chaudhuri (ed), Digital Document Processing. London: Springer, pp. 29-48.
Schank, R. C. (1975). Conceptual Information Processing. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
Schomaker, L. (2007). Reading Systems: An Introduction to Digital Document Processing. In B. B. Chaudhuri (ed), Digital Document Processing. London: Springer, pp 1-26.
Smulders, F. W. (1967). Over het Schepenprotocol. Brabants Heem 19: 159-65.
Spierings, M. (1984). Het Schepenprotocol van’s-Hertogenbosch, 1368-1400. Tilburg: Stichting Zuidelijk Historisch Contact.
Stehno, B., A. Egger, and G. Retti (2003) METAe – Automated Encoding of Digitized Texts. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 18: 77-88.
Synghel, G. van (1993). Het Bosc’’ Protocol: een Praktische Handleiding. ’s-Hertogenbosch: Werken met Brabantse bronnen 2.
Synghel, G. van (2007). “Actum in camera scriptorum oppidi de Buscoducis”: De stedelijke secretarie van’s-Hertogenbosch to ca. 1450. Hilversum: Verloren.
Zant, T. van der, et al. (2009). Where are the Search Engines for Handwritten Documents. Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 34: 228-39.
Zimmerman, M., and H. Bunke (2004). Optimizing the Integration of a Statistical Language Model in HMM based Offline Handwriting Text Recognition: Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Pattern Recognition. Cambridge, UK, August 2004.","txt","2","",""
"1459","13","From Preserving Language Resources to Serving Language Speakers: New Prospects for Endangered Languages Archives","1","This paper will describe seismic shifts that are currently taking place in the field of endangered languages archiving, drawing on research and implementation at the Endangered Languages Archive, together with developments among other innovative archives reported at a recent workshop Language Documentation and Archiving. Endangered languages archives, a new type of facility of which several have sprung up over the last 15 years, have brought new considerations into account:
•        endangered languages materials are predominantly in the language documentation genre, newly created through fieldwork conducted in areas where languages are threatened
•        such language documentation material consists initially, fundamentally, and crucially of media recordings (audio and video) of spontaneous, naturalistic language use such as conversation (Himmelmann 1998)
•        due to the nature and contexts of communities whose languages are endangered, the identities of speakers and the content of their recordings can be sensitive, so that nuanced access protocols must be designed and implemented.
These considerations have brought new types of participants into engagement with each other, some for the first time. Linguists are now found to be working at one moment with members of remote communities and soon after with audio-video specialists, archive technicians, and even journalists and filmmakers. Over the last decade, some researchers have advocated for more direct community participation (e.g., Grinevald 2003), and some archives have steadily built up trust relationships with communities. However, the field has generally remained in a ‘steady state’, emphasising language as data and building infrastructure for research interoperability, in a ‘language resources’ approach.
Now, the situation is suddenly changing, largely as a result of shifting expectations amongst language community members. Following projects funded by DoBeS1, ELDP,2 and DEL,3 more members of communities have been exposed to language documentation and become aware not only of its potential but also of its methods. Digital technologies central to language documentation – media devices (including mobile phones), computers, and the World Wide Web – are rapidly becoming available to people in language endangerment ‘hotspots’, such as in much of Africa, Asia and South America. The shift has been precipitated by growing expectations of participation, control, and personal and local relevance, fostered by social networking platforms such as Facebook, Orkut, YouTube and Twitter. In fact, many communities are first experiencing the internet through these platforms and see the web as a more social, participatory and personally relevant space than those who were ‘first generation’ netizens.
While many communities are keen to participate in the new media landscape (deliberately or incidentally as new providers of language documentation), the challenge is to reconcile their contributions with the structures and policies of archives. Mechanisms need to be created and monitored to determine if increased access to a variety of naturalistic language recordings creates more value for their audiences than is lost through perceived methodological limitations in data collection (Trilsbeek & König 2011). Despite the potential problems of crowdsourcing, it provides a way for language speakers to establish real links with resources, rather than being merely ‘participant metadata’. Here is an example: the web is currently trending towards mash-up pages, mobile ‘apps’, and aggregating portals. These gather resources based on a particular user’s preferences, and display them according to topic, geographic location, or language. But what happens when that user wants to view information connected to a specific person, say language speaker X? Unless speaker X is a true participant in the digital platform as a member, owner, or even curator, rather than a mere meta-data-point, then such a speaker-centred page will be an incomplete and insipid representation, with weak implementation of access control because nobody except speaker X can properly decide who he/she wants to share with. We are fortunate, therefore, to see the maturation and continual rise of online and mobile social networking and innovative ‘apps’ which personalise individuals’ interactions, provide further exemplars for implementing participatory models, and organically solve protocol problems through individually-managed access control.
Mary Linn (2011), for example, has proposed a framework called Community Based Language Archiving, in which the language community is involved in every step, from documentation planning to curating to dissemination. It turns traditional archiving on its head, because the primary curatorial task, namely contextualisation, becomes about the context of the users themselves, because it is they (especially as community members newly welcomed into the archive ecology) who ultimately determine the success of archives in meeting their goals.
Other proposals are for decentralised, web-based functions that allow language speakers to interact with archives’ existing resources. They can add further materials, comments, or contextualisation. They can identify themselves or their relatives in order to claim their moral rights in recordings and other materials, and make corrections to erroneous data, interpretations, and attributions (Garrett 2011).
Existing archivists also need to regain participatory roles. The era of the engineer as the pace-setter is giving way to usage-driven design and evolution, catering for the shifting interests of users. Archivists, whose job entails understanding their audiences, can contribute not only to contextualisation of materials and curation of exhibitions etc but also to software design issues.
Participants at a workshop on language documentation and archiving (Nathan ed. 2011) came up with a number of emerging trends that can be expected to be increasingly influential dynamics for our archives:
Form of documentation: Despite extensive theorisation of documentation in previous work, there has been little discussion of the form of documentation: its granularity, structure, organisation, links, and how it is to be navigated. Archives which attempt to provide attractive and usable interfaces that encourage user engagement will find themselves frustrated with current models for language documentation, which still see documentation as consisting of unstructured collections of data. New genres of expression will be needed, and these will result from collaborative efforts among documenters, archives, and contributors and users.
Community curation and contextualisation: ‘Community curation’ represents a paradigm-changing challenge, changing roles within archives. The original contributors and their language-learning community members become the principal curators, presenting a radical but rational inversion: the archive concept of ‘context’ is no longer that of the materials or their (supposed) provenance, but of the users, where users are often the language speakers. Contextualisation of materials is at the heart of archiving, but in many of our current archives, the art of contextualisation has been replaced by the science of software development. However, communities may wish to play a role in framing the interpretation of their materials to others (cf. Christen 2011: 197). Similarly, community access to materials is not reducible to file transfer, but entails access tomeaning (Christen 2011: 194). Issues of quality control (Trilsbeek & König 2011) become just one of many elements to be renegotiated between technical ‘best practices’ and community aspirations and activities.
Promotion: Archives need to do more than acquire, curate, preserve and disseminate materials. To reach target audiences for language revitalisation, archives also need to actively promote the materials they hold (Wilbur 2011; Woodbury 2011). Archives need to develop relationships with their audiences that are not based purely on access to language materials, for the success of archive outreach may depend on first developing contact, relationships and trust in order to encourage usage or other participation with the materials. Ultimately, social networking provides promotion through social endorsement.
Publishing: Paradoxically, even as archives seem to become fragmented and fluid as they respond to audience participation, they will come to be seen less as archives and more as publishers, due to their increased attention to genre, exhibitions, promotion, and other outreach.
Endangered languages archives are an essential component of ethical and effective responses to language endangerment. However, the ‘language resources’ approach is giving way to a participatory one, because neither the quality of documentary materials, nor the effectiveness of technologies are meaningfully measurable without considering audiences and usages. Full engagement with language speakers through social networking will provide new sources of data for researchers as well as new forms of cultural repatriation for communities, and new ways of supporting threatened languages.
references
Christen, K. (2011). Opening archives: Respectful Repatriation. American Archivist 74(1): 185-210.
Garrett, E. (2011). Web software for participant-driven language archiving. In D. Nathan, David (ed.),Proceedings of Workshop on Language Documentation and Archiving. London: SOAS, pp. 71-72.
Grinevald, C. (2003). Speakers and documentation of endangered languages. In P. K. Austin (ed.), Language Documentation and Description 1: 52-71.
Himmelmann, N. (1998). Documentary and Descriptive Linguistics. Linguistics 36: 161-195.
Linn, M. S. (2011). Living archives: A community-based language archive model. In D. Nathan (ed.),Proceedings of Workshop on Language Documentation and Archiving. London: SOAS, pp. 59-70.
Nathan, D., ed. (2011). Proceedings of Workshop on Language Documentation and Archiving. London: SOAS.
Trilsbeek, P., and A. König (2011). Increasing the usage of endangered languages archives in the years to come. In D. Nathan (ed.), Proceedings of Workshop on Language Documentation and Archiving. London: SOAS, pp. 45-49.
Wilbur, J. (2011). Think globally, archive locally: Opportunities and challenges in working with local archiving institutions. In D Nathan (ed.), Proceedings of Workshop on Language Documentation and Archiving. London: SOAS, pp. 51-58.
Woodbury, A. (2011). Archives and audiences: toward making endangered language documentations people can read, use, understand, and admire. In D. Nathan (ed.), Proceedings of Workshop on Language Documentation and Archiving. London: SOAS, pp. 11-20.
notes
1.Dokumentation bedrohter Sprachen, funded by the Volkswagen Foundation. http://www.mpi.nl/DOBES.
2.Endangered Languages Documentation Programme, SOAS, funded by the Arcadia Fund.http://www.hrelp.org/.
3.Documenting Endangered Languages, National Endowment for the Humanities.http://www.neh.gov/grants/guidelines/del.html","txt","2","",""
"1460","13","Geo-Temporal Interpretation of Archival Collections Using Neatline","1","In late 2009, with funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Scholars’ Lab at the University of Virginia Library began development of Neatline, a tool with which students, scholars, and archivists can express the geo-temporal dimensions of literary or historical collections: http://neatline.org/.  These expressions take the form of customizable, highly interpretive, interlinked, and interactive web-based timelines and maps. They are built using open-source software and standards-based approaches to geospatial data, and they permit scholars to draw heavily on digitized archival content and standardized metadata created by cultural heritage institutions. That said, each use of Neatline is imagined as a carefully-designed narrative or exhibit – a subjective story told in time and space through small-scale interpretive decision-making, rather than (as is more commonly pursued in our era of ‘big data’) an algorithmically-derived or data-driven geotemporal information visualization. In the broadest terms, Neatline is conceived as a contribution – in the visual vernacular – to multidisciplinary, place-based scholarship using primary sources.
This paper describes: 1) the theoretical goals of Neatline, including a role for iterative sketching (or graphesis) and hand-craftedness in digital interpretive toolbuilding; 2) the decision-making process which led us to architect Neatline not as a stand-alone tool, but as a set of mix-and-match plugins for Omeka, an open-source platform for online collections and exhibits; and 3) preliminary assessment of ongoing work on the project, undertaken since 2010 as a partnership between the Scholars’ Lab at UVa Library and the Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media at George Mason University.
As an NEH-funded prototyping project, Neatline made three claims to innovation or to a shifting of the landscape of geo-temporal visualization in the humanities.  First, by building on primary resources expressed in EAD (Encoded Archival Description) metadata – among other standards, such as VRA Core – Neatline creates a pragmatic path for collaboration among metadata providers and scholars. Although EAD has long been employed by academics working in concert with archivists, as in the Walt Whitman Archive, its use has typically been straightforwardly bibliographical, as a finding aid or for the production of catalogs of manuscripts and letters. EAD has rarely been used as a stepping-stone to rich, interpretive or theory-based expression (much less visualization) of the content of those primary resources. The Neatline project aims to demonstrate the value of archival metadata to interpretive scholarship, and thereby strengthen connections among scholars and collections stewards.
Next, Neatline aims for ease of use by scholars new to the digital humanities. This was a major argument in our bid for NEH funding, and our rationale for shifting from development of a stand-alone, downloadable tool (installable as a single, server-side application), to a functionally atomized array of interchangeable plugins for Omeka (http://omeka.org) is arguably the most important contribution of the project to the current scene of humanities computing software development. Neatline was imagined as a self-contained, self-service, single-function tool that nonetheless allowed expert users easy access ‘under the hood’ to customize and contribute to its open source code. For a stand-alone tool, this would have been the right approach; but we quickly realized that we had the opportunity to model a more productive and collaborative set of open source software practices. The Scholars’ Lab has now shared source code for 9 completed or in-progress Neatline-related plugins with the Omeka developers’ community, and Omeka forms the backbone for basic content management functionality in our project. We feel strongly that our shift to Omeka plugin production retains or enhances all of the desired qualities of our originally-proposed system, while adding two great benefits. First, Neatline has become mix-and match. In other words, no longer must users assent to the entire, ideal Neatline workflow in order to make use of our work – and in fact we are seeing great interest in and use of individual plugins in Omeka user communities and scholarly and archival contexts far removed from those interested in geo-temporal interpretation. Secondly, our close collaboration with the Omeka team and open source developers’ community is leading to advancements in the core code of Omeka itself, again benefiting a far wider audience than we anticipated. Not only were we able to leverage Omeka as a technical and social framework for Neatline, but our work has made the system a more attractive option for research and special collections libraries – even those with sophisticated technical and repository infrastructure of their own.
Finally, Neatline makes a theoretical contribution to the digital humanities by emphasizing hand-crafted visualization as a mode of praxis and scholarly inquiry. (This is a practice we have, after the experimentation of the UVa’s former ‘SpecLab’ thinktank and the scholarship of Johanna Drucker, called graphesis.) Low-tech sketching and storyboarding is regularly taught as part of the earliest design processes for digital projects in the Scholars’ Lab. A side effect of our work is to demonstrate the value of iterative interpretation and knowledge-production manifested in visual form – particularly within fields like history and literary studies, in which interpretation of visual artifacts is rarely taught and drawing is infrequently modeled as (in William J. Turkel’s formulation) ‘a way of knowing.’ We have emphasized this by designing drawing and editing interfaces that are relatively simple to use and nearly identical to a finished, end-user’s view. In Neatline, scholars are always sketching, erasing, and sketching again their arguments on the screen.
Subjectivity in space and time is a matter of interest in Neatline. Our map and timeline-related plugins (in progress) are designed to offer users the ability to model multiple backgrounds or alternatives independently from the foreground of their critical attention, and express all of these fields and their interrelation visually. The spatial and temporal foreground stands as a place for scholarly commentary, including textual annotation as well as intervention in the visual field by means of the freehand drawing of lines and shapes. Meanwhile user-specified Neatline backgrounds can be empirical or unabashedly subjective – precisely geo-referenced or wholly speculative.  For example, one local test case, which we will demonstrate, uses the maps and letters of U.S. Civil War cartographer Jedediah Hotchkiss.  GIS (Geographic Information Systems) layers are brought into Neatline from modern satellite imagery, from scans of Hotchkiss’s own surveyed-and-drawn battlefield maps, and from the historical atlases that served as the surveyor’s mental ‘base layer.’  Against these, we have georectified an informal, child’s-eye map Hotchkiss drew in a letter, to allay his young daughter’s concerns about his welfare.  Neatline allows all of these documents to be plotted and annotated in space and time.
We will describe not only the theoretical basis of the project, but its concrete products, including improvements to the Omeka codebase and the creation of a suite of open-source plugins. Most of these plugins are usable independently but gain value in combination, comprising the Neatline system.
1. EAD Importer: allows for the easy and easily-adjusted import of Encoded Archival Description metadata into an Omeka exhibit.
2. Neatline Maps: provides map display through one or more GeoServer instances or through any specification-compliant WMS service.
3. Neatline Features: allows users to draw on map layers, encoding and edit geospatial shape information.
4. Neatline Time: incorporates the well-known Simile Timeline Javascript framework into Omeka to provide chronological visualization of Omeka items.
5. Neatline Theme: provides facilities for combining Neatline and Omeka information into unified interactive presentations.
In addition, our work on Neatline led us to develop five further plugins which users may employ as part of their Omeka exhibits. These plugins greatly extend the capacity of Omeka and make it a more attractive option not only for end-users, but for better-resourced libraries, digital humanities centers, and cultural heritage institutions – the constituency best positioned to contribute further development time to the open source code of Neatline and Omeka alike.
1. FedoraConnector: makes it possible to display, comment on, annotate, and otherwise employ objects inheriting behaviors from a Fedora Commons repository.
2. GenericXmlImporter: permits users to import any arbitrary, flat XML data into Omeka.
3. SolrSearch: allows use of the Solr search engine with Omeka, facilitating improved search and implementing faceted browsing.
4. TeiDisplay: allows users to render TEI files in HTML format and attach them to Omeka items. This plugin integrates with SolrSearch for indexing.
5. VRACoreElementSet: allows users to bring the VRA Core Element Set (designed for description of visual resources) into Omeka.
The project continues under the rubric of an ‘Omeka + Neatline’ partnership with the Center for History and New Media, funded through 2013 by the United States Library of Congress, with a next major code release planned for January 2012. DH 2012 in Hamburg will coincide with the release of Neatline demonstration projects and end-user documentation at http://omeka.org.
Neatline operates on archival metadata – itself already an interpretation of a literary or historical collection – to allow scholars to illustrate connections among documents and the spatial and temporal dimensions that arise through their reading.  In this, it embodies a theme of much work in the Scholars’ Lab: that method is a path to argument, and that interpretive digital humanities scholarship may be best enacted in iterative, visual modes.
 
 
 
 
 
 
references
Catapano, T., K. M. Price, and K. Walter (2005). The Walt Whitman Archive: Archivist-Scholar Collaboration in Description and Representation. Joint International Conference of the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing and the Association for Computers and the Humanities, Victoria, British Columbia, 2005.
Drucker, J., and B. Nowviskie (2004). Speculative Computing: Temporal Modelling. A Companion to Digital Humanities. Oxford: Blackwell.
Drucker, J. (2009). SpecLab: digital aesthetics and projects in speculative computing. U of Chicago P.
Kramer-Smyth, J., M. Nishigaki, and T. Anglade. ArchiveZ: Visualizing Archival Collections. Available:http://www.archivesz.com/
Neatline: Plot Your Archive in Space and Time. University of Virginia Library Scholars’ Lab. Available: http://neatline.scholarslab.org/
Papers of Jedediah Hotchkiss, Accession #2822 and #2907, Special Collections, University of Virginia Library, Charlottesville, Va.
Scholars’ Lab Omeka Plugins. University of Virginia Library Scholars’ Lab. Available:http://www.scholarslab.org/projects/omeka-plugins/
Turkel, W., and D. Elliott (2010). Rapid Prototyping to Support Experimental History. Playing with Technology in History Symposium. 30 April 2010. Available: http://www.playingwithhistory.com/","txt","2","",""
"1461","13","HisDoc: Historical Document Analysis, Recognition, and Retrieval","1","The HisDoc project aims at developing automatic generic tools to support cultural heritage. More precisely, we have designed and implemented a system that performs a fully automated conversion of manuscripts into the corresponding electronic format and provides effective search capabilities. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed solution, we have conducted a large-scale experiment using medieval handwritten manuscripts written in Middle High German. The corpus used in our experiments is based on a well known medieval epic poem called Parzival and attributed to Wolfram von Eschenbach. The first version dates to the first quarter of the thirteenth century. Currently, we can find several versions (with variations) but the St. Gall collegiate library cod. 857 is the one used for experimental evaluation.  
The complete system does not make strong assumptions about the current corpus, and it can be adapted with little effort to handle other types of documents and languages. The proposed HisDoc system is subdivided into three main components, namely: image analysis, text recognition and information retrieval.
The image analysis module basically has two essential goals, namely image enhancement, which aims at improving image quality in order to make handling all the subsequent processing steps an easier task. The second goal is to perform layout analysis that provides a structural description of the scanned document pages. This meta-information may correspond to the number of columns, the number of lines per column, the location of the headline, etc. It is known that these old manuscripts suffer from ink bleeding, holes and stitches on parchments in addition to the artifacts surrounding the non-uniform handwritten text which represents a difficult challenge at this phase as well as in the phases that follow.  
The resulting digital images and their meta-information are then passed to the text recognition phase, the second module of HisDoc, in order to produce the corresponding digital transcription. Here, flexible and robust recognition systems based on Hidden Markov Models (Marti & Bunke 2001) and Neural Networks (Graves et al. 2009) are used for the task of automating the transcription of historical texts (Fischer et al. 2009). In this context, flexibility means that the system can be adapted to new writing styles without great effort, and robustness means that the recognizer should attain a high rate of correctly recognized words. Besides the automatically generated version, an error-free transcription was created manually with the help of experts. This latter version forms our ground-truth text and is used to assess the performance levels in the different stages of our project.
For the analysis and recognition of historical documents, only little work has been reported in the literature so far, (Bunke & Varga 2007; Likforman-Sulem et al. 2007) present surveys of approaches to off-line handwriting recognition and on different state-of-the-art text line extraction methods respectively. Commercial systems with a high recognition accuracy are available only for restricted domains with modern handwritten scripts, e.g., for postal address (Srihari et al. 1996) and bank check reading (Gorski et al. 2001).
The HisDoc recognition module has evolved in terms of performance and achieved its current word-accuracy which is close to 94% thus a word-error rate of around 6% using Hidden Markov Models and character similarity features (Fischer et al. 2010). As can be seen, it is unfortunately impossible to obtain flawless recognition especially with the existence of all of the aging and decorative issues mentioned above. The level of the error rate depends on various factors such as the accuracy of the recognition system, the quality of the contrast between the background and the ink, and the regularity of the handwriting. Finally, the size of the training set also plays a role, but relatively good performance can be achieved with a relatively small training set (around 6,000 words).
In order to reduce the human effort needed to generate training samples, HisDoc’s text recognition module also includes methods for efficient ground-truth creation and text-image alignment in case of an existing electronic text edition (Fischer et al. 2011).
Performing effective searches on the resulting transcriptions is the goal of the third and last module in HisDoc, the information retrieval (IR) module. The cascading effects of manuscript quality, graphical characteristics and recognition error rate will have an impact on the performance level. But we must also consider additional factors particularly related to medieval writing. Our corpus was handwritten during the thirteenth century, when spelling was not standardized which introduces yet an additional challenge. Moreover, the co-existence of different spellings referring to the same entity in the same manuscript would also reduce the retrieval effectiveness. Besides that, one should also keep in mind the fact that grammar used in medieval languages was clearly different once compared to that of our modern days, which allowed more flexibility for the writer, thus varying from one region to another, or even from one writer to another residing in the same region. All these grammatical and orthography-related matters (spelling variations, punctuation, initials’ capitalization, etc.) in addition to the challenges faced in the first two modules of HisDoc would absolutely burden the retrieval process as they impose their negative impact on retrieval effectiveness causing the performance level to fall if the retrieval system is built the conventional way. To quantify this, the retrieval effectiveness is compared to that obtained using the error-free transcription.  
In HisDoc’s retrieval module, certain techniques were introduced in order to integrate the possible variants to accordingly enhance the retrieval effectiveness by allowing some sort of soft-matching between the query terms representing the user’s information needs and four different text surrogates of the transcription, each of which incorporates a certain intensity level of variants’ inclusion. As a concrete example, the term ‘Parzival’ appeared in the original manuscript as ‘Parcifal’, ‘Parcival’ and ‘Parzifal’. All of these variants are possible and must be considered as correct spellings. At this lexical level, one might also consider the inflectional morphology where various suffixes were possibly added to nouns, adjectives and names to indicate their grammatical case. With this additional aspect, the proper name ‘Parcival’ may also appear as ‘Parcivale’, ‘Parcivals’ or ‘Parcivalen’, increasing the number of potential spelling variants that we need to take into account.
Regarding text representations, we have implemented whole words representation, short overlapping sequences of characters within each word (n-gram) or the first n characters of each word (trunc-n). During this indexing stage, we have also evaluated the effect of different word normalization procedures such as stemming. This procedure tries to extract the stem from a surface form by automatically removing its inflectional suffixes (number, gender) (light stemmer) or both inflectional and derivational suffixes (aggressive stemmer). As for search strategies, we have evaluated the classical vector-space model tf idf and its variants as well as several probabilistic models. 
Based on our experiments and using a well-known evaluation methodology (Voorhees & Harman, 2005), using either short (single term) or long queries (three terms), we found that probabilistic IR models tend to produce better retrieval effectiveness (Naji & Savoy 2011).  Regarding the stemming procedure, aggressive stemming tends to produce slightly better retrieval performance when facing with longer queries. On the other hand, ignoring the stemming normalization with short queries usually offers the best performance.  
The presence of compound words was also analyzed in order to improve the quality of retrieval. The German language is known for this compound construction which occurs more frequently than in English. The main concern here is the fact that the same concept can be expressed with or without a compound form (e.g.,Bankpräsident or Präsident der Bank). Applying an automatic decompounding strategy may provide some successful improvement, particularly for longer queries.  
We have assessed the various recognition corpora against the ground-truth version.  Compared to this error-free version, the simplest transcription surrogate (the classical output of recognition system, i.e., including no variants) shows a mean degradation in retrieval performance around -10.24% for single-term queries. Considering systematically three or seven variants per input word usually tends to cause the retrieval effectiveness to decrease significantly (from -5.42% for 3-term queries to -64.34% with single-term queries). Including more possible terms per recognition is therefore not an effective solution. We have thus proposed a wiser strategy that includes word variants according to their likelihood probabilities obtained during the recognition stage. This approach produces clearly better retrieval performance. To somehow illustrate our achievement, we can compare the best results obtained using two versions of an English language corpus having character error rates of 5% and 20%. The retrieval performance degradation was around -17% and -46% respectively (Voorhees & Harman, 2005). While our best results for the Parzival corpus, which has a word-error rate of around 6%, the retrieval performance degradation was only limited to around -5%.
The best practices found and the conclusions drawn from our experiments can then be applied to further manuscripts, hence making them digitally accessible and effectively searchable with the least cost possible by partially or totally eliminating the need to having them manually transcribed which in turn will result in saving a lot of resources (time, human effort, finances, etc.). With these documents being completely searchable via digital means, more user’s information needs can thus be satisfied via the facilities provided by web-service-based search engine.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Prof. Michael Stoltz, Dr. Gabriel Viehhauser (University of Bern, Switzerland), Prof. Anton Näf and Mrs. Eva Wiedenkeller (University of Neuchatel) for their valuable support. This research is supported by the Swiss NSF under Grant CRSI22_125220.
references
Bunke, H., and T. Varga (2007). Off-line Roman Cursive Handwriting Recognition. In B. Chaudhuri (ed.),Digital Document Processing: Major Directions and Recent Advances Berlin: Springer, pp. 165-173.
Fischer, A., M. Wüthrich, M. Liwicki, V. Frinken, H. Bunke, G. Viehhauser, and M. Stolz (2009). Automatic Transcription of Handwritten Medieval Documents. Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia, pp. 137-142.
Fischer, A., K. Riesen, and H. Bunke (2010). Graph Similarity Features for HMM-Based Handwriting Recognition in Historical Documents. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Frontiers in Handwriting Recognition, pp. 253-258.
Fischer, A., E. Indermühle, V. Frinken, and H. Bunke (2011). HMM-Based Alignment of Inaccurate Transcriptions for Historical Documents. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition, pp. 53-57.
Gorski, N., V. Anisimov, E. Augustin, O. Baret, and S. Maximor (2001). Industrial Bank Check Processing: The A2iA Check Reader. International Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition 3(4): 196-206.
Graves, A., M. Liwicki, S. Ferdnandez, R. Bertolami, H. Bunke, and J. Schmidhuber (2009). A Novel Connectionist System for Unconstrained Handwriting Recognition. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 31(5): 855-868.
Likforman-Sulem, L., A. Zahour, and B. Taconet (2007). Text Line Segmentation of Historical Documents: A Survey. International Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition 9(2): 123-138.
Marti, U.-V., and H. Bunke (2001). Using a Statistical Language Model to Improve the Performance of an HMM-Based Cursive Handwriting Recognition System. International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence 15(1): 65-90.
Naji, N., and J. Savoy (2011). Information Retrieval Strategies for Digitized Handwritten Medieval Documents. Proceedings of the Asian Information Retrieval Symposium, Dubai, December 2011, LNCS #7097. Berlin: Springer, pp. 103-114.
Srihari, S. N., Y. Shin, and V. Ramanaprasad (1996). A System to Read Names and Addresses on Tax Forms. InProceedings of the IEEE 84(7): 1038-1049.
Voorhees, E. M., and D. K. Harman(2005). TREC. Experiments and Evaluation in Information Retrieval. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.","txt","2","",""
"1462","13","HyperMachiavel: a translation comparison tool","1","introduction
The HyperMachiavel project started with the idea of a tool that would aid research communities comparing several editions of one text and in particular comparing translations.
The Italian studies department (Triangle laboratory) at ENS de Lyon has been working for many years on fundamental texts, from Machiavelli, Guicciardini and other contemporary followers, that put forward new political concepts throughout Europe in the 16th century. The question addressed in the project was mainly about the transfer of these concepts from one language to another, and especially their reception in France. The first aligned corpora tested in our tool gathers different editions of Machiavelli’s Il Principe, the princeps edito from Blado in 1532 and the first four French translations of the 16th century.
Inspired by machine translation and lexicographic domains, the system presented in this paper proposes an annotation environment dedicated to the edition of lexical correspondences and offers different views to assist humanities researchers in their interpretations of the quality and the specificities of translator’s work.
viewing and searching in aligned corpora
Synoptic View
To be able to identify lexical correspondences, machine translation tools usually propose a frame of two panels, one for the source text and the other for the target text. The visualized interface is meant for annotators to easily revise the results obtained from automatic word alignment. In general it only considers a pair of texts at a time.
In the world of digital editions, text comparison has always been of great interest and the request to view diplomatic vs normalized transcriptions, or simply different editions of one text increases all the more that digital data become truly available. Systems such as the Versioning Machine (Schreibman et al. 2007) already offers parallel views for TEI aligned corpora with no constraint on the number of displayed texts. Being able to take into consideration several target versions was an important starting point when designingHyperMachiavel. Therefore the main panel offers a ‘Parallel view’ (see Fig. 1) to interact with processes that need global context visualization (e.g. concordancer results).
Alignment
To deal with text alignment, many tools working with pair of texts (bitext2tmx, alinea or mkAlign1, Fleury et al. 2008) uses statistical measures of co-occurrence or combines word distribution algorithm with cognates detection. Although original investigation on automatic alignment has been proceeded for non modern texts like in the Holinshed Project (Cummings & Mittelbach 2010), our focus was to fulfill the need for editing and controlling lexical correspondences. Exploring these techniques will be done in a second development phase but for the moment, HyperMachiavel imports aligned corpora encoded in XML-TMX or XML-TEI and proposes a manual alignment feature for additional text files.
Because old edition texts usually present great variability in the lexical forms, we favored a computer-aided system for bilingual search and put efforts in the lexicography work environment.
Lexicography and Lexical Tagging
Linguistic annotation tools make use of external dictionaries to tag texts but cannot be applied on old texts per se. Combining this process with the user’s analysis of the text to build its own lexical resource, either by bringing corrections to the model or proposing partial tagging, is a necessary condition for our study. Recent work conducted by Lay et al. 2010 have also emphasized the user’s interaction in the lexical exploration and offers customization of lexical resources. HyperMachiavel follows that path by presenting tokenizer’s choice (among which TreeTagger java implementation by Helmud Schmid) and a general framework to consolidate endogenous or external lexical resources that would work in harmony with the defined corpora.
Information obtained from tokenization like category, lemma, word onset and offset localisation in the texts are registered in XML files. A full-text search engine, specially designed for the tool, uses this information, so does the ‘Vocabulary view’ listing all the forms for each language in the corpora. This view displays frequency information by text (see Fig. 2) and brings a first impression on lexical distribution among versions, or authors in our case.
The use of concordancer (Key Word In Context) that classically links dictionary entries to corpora occurrences is central in the system (results of monolingual search or after a selection from the ‘Vocabulary view’, e.g. Fig. 3). As for equivalences detection are concerned, some authors have shown that bilingual concordancers (ParaConc; Barlow et al. 2004; ConcQuest; Kraif 2008) are very helpful. However viewing results of bilingual search with concordancers in our case is not sufficient. As we want to compare numerous source and target texts, a ‘Parallel Indexes view’ has been designed and is described hereafter.
exploring equivalences
Equivalences Detection and Validation
Annotating equivalences is a long process and a semi-automatic scenario has been introduced with the bilingual search. Results from that search are displayed in the ‘Parallel indexes view’ (see Fig. 4). Some results will show co-presence in an aligned segment of at least one source and target searched items, but source or target occurrences could be found alone.
When the user is faced with empty results (source or target), the ‘Parallel view’ helps detect other potential equivalence expression. In some cases, it could mean that no translation has been given or that the occurrence belong to another semantic group (e.g. homonyms, polysemes).
Validation of real equivalences versus suggested equivalences from the bilingual search, is done by checking the lines. However manual completion is often required, especially when source or target refer to specific expressions or to other lexical terms that were not used in the search.
Graph Visualizations
Exploring edited equivalences can be pursued in other environments like excel or any data analysis programs but HyperMachiavel has developed some feature to highlight thematic groups of equivalences and show stylistic differences between translations.
For each dictionary entry, one can ask to see validated target equivalences. Information about their frequency and distribution between versions of text help the user evaluate translator’s appropriation of the source text (see Fig. 5). Graph visualizations illustrate the same information but the user can go further and ask to see equivalents of equivalents until no new information is provided. Groups of equivalences usually appear and interrogate the user on the conceptual themes exposed in the corpora.
In the current aligned corpora, we have noticed that most French translators of Il Principe depict the polysemic and complex reality of new political concepts at that time by giving various lexical equivalences. Yet one of the translators prefers to steadily deliver concepts with almost unique translation (e.g. ‘stato’ with only ‘estat(s)’) perhaps believing that the rest of the text would do the rest.
conclusion
This paper presents the state of development of HyperMachiavel2, a tool distributed under a french open-source licence (Cecill-B). Although the demonstration was done with only french-italian texts the tool was defined to support manual edition of equivalences for aligned multilingual corpora and lexicography work.
Providing import and export formats recommended by the digital humanity community ensure reuse of corpora in other environment such as text mining platform using the full complexity of TEI encoded corpora (e.g. TXM3 , Heiden 2010). Use of automatic alignment algorithms will be tested with another aligned corpora based on Machiavelli’s The Art of War-translations. The idea is to extend our tool features for comparable corpora (different texts of authors highly influenced by Machiavelli’s work).
Funding
The work presented here is carried out within the research project (2008-2011) ‘Naissance, formes et développements d’une pensée de la guerre, des guerres d’Italie à la paix de Westphalie (1494-1648)’, funded by the French Agence Nationale Recherche.
 
Figure 1: ‘Parallel view’ of the aligned texts (right panel) and ‘Corpus view’ are showing the text structure common to all versions (left panel)
 
Figure 2: The ‘Vocabulary view’ presents lexical forms and their frequency (number of occurrences) in the different aligned texts
 
Figure 3: The ‘KWIC view’ shows occurrences of the french old form ‘toutesfois’
 
Figure 4: The ‘Parallel Indexes view’ shows searched source and target expressions that appear in the same localization. The bilingual search example was performed with ‘spetie’ as source expression and ‘espece(s)’ as target expressions
 
Figure 5: Views of French equivalents for the Italian concept ‘ordine’
references
Bowker, L., and M. Barlow (2004). Bilingual concordancers and translation memories: A comparative evaluation. In E. Y. Rodrigo (ed.), Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Language Resources for Translation Work, Research and Training. Geneva, Switzerland, August 28, 2004, pp. 70-83
Cummings, J., and A. Mittelbach (2010). The Holinshed Project: Comparing and linking two editions of Holinshed’s Chronicle. In Citation Information. International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing 4: 39-53 DOI 10.3366/ijhac.2011.0006, ISSN 1753-8548, October 2010.
Fleury, S., and M. Zimina (2008). Utilisations de mkAlign pour la traduction philologique. Actes JADT 2008, Journées Internationales d’Analyse Statistiques des Données Textuelles, Lyon, 2008.
Heiden, S. (2010). The TXM Platform: Building Open-Source Textual Analysis Software Compatible with the TEI Encoding Scheme. In 24th Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information and Computation, Sendai, Japan 2010.
Kraif, O. (2008). Comment allier la puissance du TAL et la simplicité d’utilisation ? L’exemple du concordancier bilingue ConcQuest. In Actes JADT 2008, Journées Internationales d’Analyse Statistiques des Données Textuelles, Lyon, 2008.
Lay, M.-H., and B. Pincemin (2010). Pour une exploration humaniste des textes : AnaLog. In Actes JADT 2010, Journées Internationales d’Analyse Statistiques des Données Textuelles, Roma, 2010.
Schreibman, S., A. Hanlon, S. Daugherty, and T. Ross (2007). The Versioning Machine v3.1: A Tool for Displaying and Comparing Different Versions of Literary Texts. In Digital Humanities 2007. Urbana, Illinois. Jun. 2007.
TEI Consortium. (2008). TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Version 1.1.0.,
4th July. L. Burnard and S. Bauman, eds., TEI Consortium. http://www.teic.org/Guidelines/P5
notes
1.Software ‘alinea’ is developed by O. Kraif ( http://w3.u-grenoble3.fr/kraif/index.php?Itemid=43&id=27&option=com_content&task=view), ‘bitext2tmx’ (http://bitext2tmx.sourceforge.net ) by S. Santos, S. Ortiz-Rojas, M. L. Forcada and now R. Martin, and ‘mkAlign’ by S. Fleury (http://www.tal.univ-paris3.fr/mkAlign)
2.The software can be downloaded at http://hypermachiavel.ens-lyon.fr
3.TXM is a collaborative, open-souce software initiated by S.Heiden and the textometrie project members (http://textometrie.ens-lyon.fr/)","txt","2","",""
"1463","13","Information Discovery in the Chinese Recorder Index","1","the chinese recorder
Chinese Recorder (CR) is a (first bi-monthly, then monthly) journal published by the Protestant missionaries in China between 1867, a few years after the 1860 treaty that allowed missionaries to enter China, and 1941, when the U.S. became engaged in the Pacific theater of the Second World War. Except for the nineteen-month interruption from June 1872 to the end of 1873, CR was the longest running English missionary journal in China. The period that CR covered was a tumultuous time in Chinese history, when the country went through the Taiping Rebellion, the Boxer Rebellion, the various wars with the foreign powers, the Republic Revolution of 1911, the civil wars among the war lords, the rise of communism, the invasion of Japan, and the great cultural and social transformation during the late 19th and early 20th century. Being based within China, CR provided a close look at all spectrum of the Chinese society, not only missionary affairs, but also issues such as Chinese civilization, healthcare, education, political situation, opium, and other social issues of the day. CR is unique in that the articles were written by missionaries in China for the benefit of their fellow missionaries. Being supported by missions and not sponsored by any government, Chinese or foreign, the views presented in CR were more candid and not blurred by political agenda. It, thus, provides an angle unlike any others. Although one cannot say that CR is not biased, at least it is biased in its own special way.
the chinese recorder index
With its 73 volumes, one for each year, and over 50,000 pages in total, CR is difficult to use on its own. In 1986 Kathleen Lodwick published the 2-volume The Chinese Recorder Index: a Guide to Christian Missions in Asia, 1867–1941 (CRI), which made it much easier for scholars to utilize CR in their research (Lodwick 1986).
CRI is more than an index. It consists of 3 indices and 6 special lists (of Persons by Affiliation, Persons by Location, List of Women, etc). The Person Index (PI) includes 8,391 names with 192,149 page records; theMission/Organization Index (MI) 712 mission entries with 34,851 page records; and the Subject Index 4,691 entries with 83,636 page records. Altogether, there are 13,794 entries and 310,626 page records, averaging 22.5 page records per entry.
Unlike a conventional book index that only provides the pages in which an entry appears, CRI assigns tags to PI and MI, thus provides additional information about the nature of the occurrence of the entry on that page. Tables 1 and 2 give the names, nature, and numbers about the tags that we have tabulated.
There is a great wealth of information hidden in the tags. For example, if a certain page appears in a person name entry A, and if that page also appears in another person name entry B under an ART (article) tag, then we know that A appears in an article written by B. Using the same page number to check all entries, and we can find all person names, locations, missions, subjects, etc that appear in the same article. If the same page appears in a Subject Index entry indicating a certain event, then we may even ‘guess’ what the article is about without reading the article itself.
As another example, the ATT (attacks) tag tells how many attacks of missions and missionaries had been reported in CR, who were attacked, in what years did they occur and where. This information should be valuable to someone studying the attitude of the Chinese society towards Christianity when it was re-introduced to China in the late 19th century. However, since ‘attack’ is not an entry by itself, this information is scattered all over CRI. One has to pore through the 13,000 entries to collect every relevant bit of information.
Table 1: Person Index
Tag name of Person Index        Tag value        number/no value        explanation
AFF (Affiliation)        Name of mission        27,678 / 14        Affiliation
ARR (Arrival)        Year        8,705 / 6,283        Arrival year (if no value, then it’s indicated by volume number)
ART (Articles)                 11,125        Article written by person
ATT (Attacks)                 1,164        Attack on the person
CHI (Children)                 7,765        Children of the person
CON (Conferences)        Location, year        3,449 / 1,793        Conference attended
COR (Correspondence)                 2,276        Correspondence to the editor
DAT (Dates in China)        Year        139 / 2        Dates in China
DEA (Death)        Precise year        2,459 / 2,035        Death (if no value, then it’s indicated by volume number)
DEP (Departures)        Year of departure        5,496 / 5,000        Departure in the year(if no value, then it’s indicated by volume number)
ITI (Itinerancy)        Location        445 / 413        Itinerancy
LOC (Location)        Location        39,744 / 8        Location
OTH (Other Publications)                 10,095        Other publications
POS (Positions)        Title and mission        6658 / 2        Position of the person
SPO (Spouse)                 13,212        Spouse of the person
UNS (Unspecified)                 51,739        Unspecified
Table 2: Mission/Organization Index
Tag name        Tag value        Number/no value        explanation
ATT (Attacks)                 275        Attacks on the M/O
CON (Convert)                 996        Converts
FIN (Finances)                 1,585        Finances of the M/O
HIS (History)                 650        History of the M/O
HOS (Hospitals)                 639        Hospital
MEE (Meetings)                 2,340        Meeting
LOC (Location)        Location        9,533 / 32        Location
OPR (Opium Refuges)                 0        Opium refuge
ORD (Ordained Asians)                 349        Asians ordained by mission
ORP (Orphanages)                 32        Orphanages
PER (Personnel)                 1,520        Personnel
PRE (Press)                 1,554        Press
REP (Reports)                 772        Reports by the M/O
SCH (Schools)                 1,309        School run by the M/O
STA (Statistics)                 2,510        Statistics about the M/O
UNS (Unspecified)                 10,763        Unspecified
reindexing the cri
To fully utilize the wealth of information embedded in CRI, we developed a system that incorporates the 3 indices of CRI into one uniform framework, under which the indices are fully integrated and cross referenced. This integration enables the user to explore the rich information hidden within CRI.
Our approach starts with a data structure that decomposes an index entry into a number of page records, each consists of the entry name (n), a volume number (vol) and page numbers (the start page and the end page, s and e), a tag (t) and a tag value (v). (The tag part may not be present if it is not indicated.) Thus, a page record is a tuple (n; vol:s-e; t:v). If there is only one page indicated, then the start page and the end page will be the same. For instance, the first page record in the George Leslie Mackay entry (Figure 1) is (Mackay, George Leslie; 13:74-74; AFF: CPM) and the second page record is (Mackay, George Leslie; 13:312-312; AFF: CPM). (The George Leslie Mackay entry as shown in this example becomes 46 page records.) This process will decompose the 13,794 entries in the three indices into 310,626 page records. We then designed algorithms to mine the relationships among the page records, mainly using the page numbers and the tags as reference points (Kung 2011). While the detail of the algorithms cannot be covered in this abstract, we will use two simple examples to demonstrate the outcome.
 
Figure 1: The ‘George Mackay’ entry in Person Index
One of the page records in the Person Index entry of George Mackay is (Mackay, George Leslie; 16:214-214; LOC: Fukien, Amoy). Since in the entry of Thomas Barclay, there is a page record (Barclay, Thomas; 16:214-215; ART), we know that Mackay was mentioned in an article written by Barclay. Other page records show that the same page appeared in the Subject Index of Sino-French War (1884–1885), the Person Index of James Maxwell, William Thow, etc. (Figure 2), plus others. Thus, when issuing George Mackay as a query, instead of simply returning Vol. 16, p. 214 as one of the pages in which Mackay appears, all information in CRI about that page will be organized and returned (Figure 3). (Indeed, it was an article written by Barclay about the returning of the missionaries from Amoy to Taiwan after the lifting of the blockade of Taiwan at the end of the Sino-French War.) Figure 4 shows the webpage resulting from the query ‘George Mackay’. Note that a chronological distribution is presented and a foldable/expandable classification of the return is on the left.
 
Figure 2: Some entries containing Vol. 16, p. 214
 
Figure 3: Information returned about Vol 16, p214 when given query ‘George Mackay’
 
Figure 4: Query result of ‘George Mackay’
Figure 5 shows the return of the query ‘attack’, for which a total of 574 different pages in the entire CR are retrieved. (There are all together 1,439 page records with the ATT tag. But some referred to the same pages.) The peak occurred in 1900, during the Boxer Rebellion, which may not be surprising. However, the post-classification of the query result (Figure 6), an important feature of our system, shows the lists of authors, persons, missions, which might provide interesting information for scholars to pursue further.
The method and system that we have developed provide a more global view of both CR and CRI. It integrates the three indices of CRI and thus reveals relations among them and information implicitly embedded. Our work should make CR and CRI more accessible to the research community. The approach that we have taken is also a general one that can be applied to any index with a similar structure.
 
Figure 5: summary of query ‘attack’
 
Figure 6: Classifications of the query result of ‘attack’ according to Author, Person, Mission, and Subject
references
Kong, J.-W. (2011). Design and Implementation of a Retrieval System for the Chinese Recorder Index. MS Thesis, National Taiwan University.
Lodwick, K. (1986). The Chinese Recorder Index: A Guide to Christian Missions in Asia, 1867-1941. Scholarly Resources Inc. Washington D.C.","txt","2","",""
"1464","13","Information Extraction on Noisy Texts for Historical Research","1","The European Holocaust Research Infrastructure (EHRI)1 project aims to create a sustainable Holocaust Research Infrastructure that will bring together documentary evidence from dispersed archives for historical research. EHRI involves 20 partner organisations in 13 countries. It aims to provide open access to Holocaust material such as documents, objects, photos, film and art. One of the challenges of the project is that the dispersed archives of interest to EHRI often do not have the means to sufficiently digitise their resources. Even if the resources are digitally available, they remain inaccessible to searching and browsing by researchers.
For EHRI, we investigated how we can use open source OCR infrastructure developed at King’s College London for the Ocropodium project (Bryant et al. 2010) so that its output can feed the semantic extraction of metadata useful for research discovery and analysis. Current commercial OCR technology does not serve well such specific research interests in historical document collections, as it cannot be easily customised. Most commercial OCR software products are proprietary ‘black boxes’ which provide digitisation staff with little scope for understanding their behaviour and customising parameters under which they run. At the source level, there is a marked reluctance of OCR software manufacturers to allow access to their code even in a collaborative environment.
In the context of Ocropodium, we developed a workflow tool Ocropodium Web Processing (OWP), with which various open source OCR tools can be combined to create the best possible OCR solution for specific document types. The OWP workflow environment is based on the principles of visual programming environments (Cox & Gauvin 2011). It allows the user to build custom workflows comprised of discrete processes. The workflows need not be purely linear; instead they take the form of a graph, specifically a directed acyclic graph (DAG). The DAG is comprised of connected nodes, which each perform a discrete function. Nodes can be thought of as functions which take one or more inputs and evaluate these to produce a result. Thus, OWP allows archive staff to embed further services beyond OCR. For this paper, we experimented with information extraction (IE) services to semantically enrich archival descriptions. We present our experiments to evaluate how common off-the-shelf IE services behave against potentially noisy OCR’d texts.
Semantically enriched library and archive federations have recently become an important part of research in digital libraries (Kruk & McDaniel 2009). Especially so, as research users often have more demands on semantics than is generally provided by archival metadata. For instance, in archival finding aids place names are often only mentioned in free-form narrative text and not especially indicated in controlled access points for places. Researchers would like to search for these locations. Place name extraction from the descriptions might support this. For the future EHRI infrastructure, we want to use IE services to enrich the researchers’ experience. In our experiments, we concentrated on extracting names and places facets, both immensely important for Holocaust research.
Our experiments demonstrate the principal workflow using IE tools. In our proof-of-concepts, we did not address larger problems of IE from historical texts, which are manifold. As for OCRing, off-the-shelf commercial IE software has often problems with delivering acceptable results here. For the problems of extracting semantic information from low quality textual data, please compare (Packer et al. 2010), while (Warner & Clough, 2009) describe plans for a larger extraction project from the UK National Archives. Instead of concentrating on improving the IE itself, we were mainly interested in mapping and evaluating the current state-of-the-art. For the presentation at DH2012, we will deliver exact evaluations of using off-the-shelf IE tools against various levels of underlying ‘dirty’ OCR text, commonly encountered in OCRed historical resources.
Even the off-the-shelf IE tools have already delivered encouraging results. For instance, we OCR’d PDF files of survivor testimonies sent by the Wiener Library,2 an EHRI partner. The documents were typical fairly low resolution (612×790) grey-scale scans of typed documents. Due to the low resolution we needed to do some advanced preprocessing of the images and scaled the images by a factor of four using an anti-aliasing filter to approximate a typical resolution from 300 DPI scan and finally binarised them (converting a colour or grey-scale image to one containing only black and white). After binarisation, additional filters were applied to deskew the images and remove edge noise.
The resulting transcript produced by the open source Tesseract OCR engine (>Smith 2007) was fairly low quality, with around 90% character accuracy. We ignored further possible improvements by combining Tesseract with more advanced binarisation and pre-processing tools. As said, in this particular experiment, we were interested how standard IE services would react to low-quality textual input. We used the off-the-shelf OpenCalais service by ThompsonReuters to extract semantic information (Goddard & Byrne 2010). Even this standard setup has proven to produce useful results. OpenCalais proved successful at detecting the presence of a personal name in the transcript, even when the OCR was imperfect. For example, it detected that ‘Dmulaltsr Tappe’ (Dr. Walter Tappe) was a name. It also marked up several instances of places, such as Berlin and Wilmersdorf. Other incorrectly OCR’d locations such as ‘Slchsischestraeae’ (Schlesisches) were also marked up as places, due to the (correctly OCR’d) preceding phrase ‘lived in’. Further semantic data marked up by OpenCalais included positions (‘lawyer’, ‘auditor’, ‘actor’) and industry terms (‘food’). In several OCR transcripts it detected the topic as ‘politics’. Social tags given included ‘Berlin’, ‘Geography’ and ‘Geography of Europe’. We repeated our experiment with other IE tools such as the open source Annie tool from GATE (>Bontcheva et al., 2002) and could further improve our results, especially as we could rely on advanced gazetteers of place and person names of the Holocaust that are based on long-running community projects.3
These initial successful results will mean that we will develop our OCRing of finding aids into a full service in the context of the EHRI project. We think we can thereby significantly enhance the research experience of using historical archives.
references
Bontcheva, K., H. Cunningham, D. Maynard, V. Tablan, and H. Saggion (2002). Developing reusable and robust language processing components for information systems using GATE. In Database and Expert Systems Applications. Proceedings 13th International Workshop. Berlin: Springer, pp. 223-227.
Bryant, M., T. Blanke, M. Hedges, and R. Palmer (2010). Open Source Historical OCR: The OCRopodium Project Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries. In M. Lalmas et al. (eds.), Research and advanced technology for digital libraries.  Berlin: Springer.
Cox, P. T., and S. Gauvin (2011). Controlled dataflow visual programming languages. Proceedings of the 2011 Visual Information Communication – International Symposium. Hong Kong: ACM.
Goddard, L., and G. Byrne (2010). Linked Data tools: Semantic Web for the masses. First Monday 15, 1.
Kruk, S. R., and B. McDaniel (2009). Semantic Digital Libraries. Berlin: Springer.
Packer, T. L., J. F. Lutes, A. P. Stewart, D. W. Embley, E. K. Ringger, K. D. Seppi, and L. S. Jensen (2010). Extracting person names from diverse and noisy OCR text. Proceedings of the fourth workshop on Analytics for noisy unstructured text data. Toronto, ON, Canada: ACM.
Smith, R. (2007). An Overview of the Tesseract OCR Engine. Document Analysis and Recognition. Proceedings 9th International Conference. Berlin:Springer, pp. 629-633.
Warner, A., and P. Clough (2009). A Proposal for Space Exploration at The National Archives. 2011. Available:http://ir.shef.ac.uk/cloughie/papers/York2009.pdf
notes
1.http://www.ehri-project.eu/
2.http://www.wienerlibrary.co.uk/
3.http://resources.ushmm.org/hsv/","txt","2","",""
"1465","13","Interfacing Diachrony: Visualizing Linguistic Change on the Basis of Digital Editions of Serbian 18th-Century Texts","1","Analyzing, indexing and marking-up raw data and providing various types of annotations and metadata, named entities and other contextual information is essential for effective searching and retrieval of cultural heritage content (Borin et al.; Borin et al. 2007; Schreiber et al. 2008; Christopher 2011). With commercial search engines dominating our day-to-day interaction with information and framing our data access with non-transparent page-ranking mechanisms, it is especially important for institutions of learning and cultural preservation to use available technologies to encourage meaningful and profound engagement with digital content. In this respect, the interface must not only function as the frame for direct access and data retrieval, but also as the platform for the user’s cognitive, aesthetic and performative interaction with digital objects as such. DH projects, however, often approach interface design in a haphazard way, more as an afterthought than as an essential system component (Warwick et al. 2008). They also tend to be dominated by task-oriented and efficiency-driven paradigms of machine engineering that disregard the performative nature of the interface as a reading space (Drucker 2011a, 2011b).
Ongoing research in digital humanities, human-computer interaction and interface design is focusing on ways to explore textual data by visualizing relations between different sets of data and identifying patterns such as word trends, named entities, collocations etc. (Bederson & Schneiderman 2003; Unsworth 2005; Don et al. 2007; Fry 2007; Greengrass & Hughes 2008; Rockwell et al. 2010). Collins (2010) has explored interactive interfaces that provide direct access to both the online natural language processes, such as statistical translation, keyword detection, and parsing, and the outcomes of sophisticated linguistic analysis. So far, however, no attempts have been made to visually link the user’s subjective experience of archaic texts with a graphic representation of diachronic changes in language. In this paper, we describe our design and development of an interface for representing and highlighting linguistic change on the basis of our annotated digital editions of Serbian 18th-century literary texts (Tasovac & Ermolaev 2011). We treat the interface not only as a dynamic framework for engaging with the text, but also as a ‘provocation to cognitive experience’ (Drucker 2011a: 9).
Unlike many European languages, which underwent relatively uninterrupted linguistic and cultural evolutions, the modern Serbian literary language, as codified by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić in the 19th century, was largely based on the vernacular of his time and had little in common with the literary standards of the previous epoch (Ивић 1990). As a consequence of this radical caesura, 18th-century texts pose a formidable challenge to the modern reader who is unaccustomed to these archaic (Old Church Slavonic) and foreign (largely Russian) imprints (Albin 1970). That is why the Digital Library of Serbian Cultural Heritage of the 18th Century – a joint project of the Belgrade Center for Digital Humanities and the National Library of Serbia – employs a host of mark-up and annotating strategies to make these texts more accessible. The texts are encoded as a word-aligned corpus of TEI XML documents in two versions: one using traditional 18th-century orthography, including the graphemes that have since disappeared from Serbian, and one using modernized and standardized Serbian spelling that increases the legibility and, to a certain degree, searchability of these texts for modern users. Furthermore, the corpus contains lexical and semantic annotations that introduce a large number of modern-day equivalents to the largely archaic vocabulary of the corpus, as shown in the following table:
Original orthography        Modernized orthography        Modern-day equivalent        Type of change
богъ        бог        бог        orthographic
любовъ        љубов        љубав        phonetic
утѣшенїе        утешеније        утеха        morphological
благодѣтель        благодетељ        доброчинитељ        lexical
любезница        љубезница        драга особа (женског пола)        conceptual (term no longer lexicalized)
By applying basic techniques of cross-lingual information retrieval to a historical dimension of one language, and making provisions for multiple indexing and annotations, our project exposes a notoriously difficult chapter in the development of the Serbian language to a wider audience, without sacrificing the edition’s scholarly potential. The user can search the corpus not only using modern standardized spelling, but also the above-mentioned range of modern-day equivalents. This type of extended search, which results in a larger pool of data than a search based on original, non-standardized orthographic forms alone, has the potential of radically opening up the text for the modern reader and leading to discoveries of previously unnoticed thematic similarities and correspondences across different works and authors.
The interface is built dynamically using XQuery and advanced JavaScript on top of the TEI XML files which are stored in the eXist database. We offer three basic views of the text: a static view, a user-driven dynamic view, and the system-driven dynamic view. The static view is the most basic: the user can choose to read the text in either the original orthography (OO) or its modernized version (MO). In either version, each word is also a hyperlink: clicking on a word reveals a pop-up window which lists the form of the corresponding orthographic version as well as the lexical or semantic annotation , when appropriate. In the static view, the user can also choose to juxtapose (place side by side), interpolate (view line by line) or superimpose (merge and differentiate by means of color) the two orthographic versions of the text.
The user-driven dynamic view stresses the evolution of linguistic change: it allows the reader to treat the original 18th-century text as a temporal snapshot – a frozen expression of a certain time and age – that can be, using the familiar UI device (slider) ‘updated’ (or ‘fast-forwarded’) to its other more modern linguistic forms. The stages of transformation include: modernized spelling that keeps the linguistic peculiarities of the original, phonetic changes morphological changes, lexical changes and, finally, conceptual reformulations. Each stage of transformation can be viewed separately or in combination with others. And each change takes place inside the text by means of in-line animated transformations of individual word forms.
Finally, the system-driven dynamic view is the most experimental: it creates a unique reading environment in which annotated words change their linguistic form in-line, but each at its own, randomly assigned speed. In this playful space, the linear reading act becomes predicated upon a chance encounter with a traditional or modern form, an exercise in Benjaminian translation (Benjamin 1972) where the site of alterity (in our case temporal alterity) quite literally (and never in quite the same sequence of transformations) disturbs the text’s imaginary stability. Reading becomes a performance in which the reader is performing the text, and vice versa.
By providing these various visual interfaces in our Digital Library of Serbian Cultural Heritage of the 18th Century, we address for the first time in the framework of visual DH, the subjective perspective of the reader’s process of decoding archaic language. We treat the linguistic expression of the 18th-century Serbian culture not as a stable and self-evident entity, but as a locus of meaning that can (and should) be transformed by the reader. While the interface provides access to systematic linguistic, cultural and historical annotations, it also creates an opportunity for playful interaction with the text as a space of linguistic and cultural mutability.
The more possibilities at a user’s disposal to engage with a digital cultural heritage object, the greater its impact will be at the levels of both individual and institutional experience. The framework of the Digital Library of Serbian 18th-Century Texts can serve as a model for other smaller, lesser-resourced languages struggling with the quest to keep their cultural heritage alive after historical ruptures, linguistic caesuras, changes of alphabet etc.
references
Albin, A. (1970). The Creation of the Slaveno-Serbski Literary Language. The Slavonic and East European Review 48(113): 483-91.
Bederson, B., and B. Schneiderman (2003). The Craft of Information Visualization: Readings and Reflections.San Francisco, CA.: Morgan Kaufmann.
Benjamin, W. (1972). Die Aufgabe des Übersetzers. Gesammelte Schriften IV/1, 9-21. Frankurt Main: Suhrkamp.
Borin, L., M. Forsberg, and D. Kokkinakis (2010). Diabase: Towards a diachronic BLARK in support of historical studies. http://spraakbanken.gu.se/personal/lars/pblctns/lrec2010-diabase.pdf. Accessed 15 March 2010.
Borin, L., D. Kokkinakis, and L.-J. Olsson (2007). Naming the past: Named entity and animacy recognition in 19th century Swedish literature. Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage Data, pp. 1-8.
Christopher, A. (Cal) Lee (2011). A framework for contextual information in digital collections. Journal of Documentation 67(1): 95-143.
Collins, Ch. M. (2010). Interactive Visualizations of Natural Language. University of Toronto.
Don, A., et al. (2007). Discovering Interesting Usage Patterns in Text Collections: Integrating Text Mining With Visualization. Proceedings of the Sixteenth ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management, pp. 213-22.
Drucker, J. (2011a). Humanities Approaches to Interface Theory. Culture Machine: 121-20.
Drucker, J. (2011b). Performative Materiality and Interpretative Interface. Digital Humanities 2011: Book of Abstracts, pp. 39-40.
Fry, B. (2007). Visualizing Data: Exploring and Explaining Data With the Processing Environment. Sebastopol: O’Reilly Media.
Greengrass, M., and L. Hughes, eds. (2008). The Virtual Representation of the Past. Aldershot Hants, England; Burlington VT: Ashgate.
Rockwell, G., et al. (2010). Ubiquitous Text Analysis. Poetess Archive 2(1): 1-19.
Schreiber, G., et al. (2008). Semantic annotation and search of cultural-heritage collections: The MultimediaN E-Culture demonstrator. Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web 6(4): 243-49.
Tasovac, T., and N. Ermolaev (2011). Encoding Diachrony: Digital Editions of Serbian 18th-Century Texts.Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 6966497-500.
Unsworth, J. (2005). New Methods for Humanities Research. The 2005 Lyman Award Lecture. November 11. National Humanities Center. Research Triangle Park, NC. http://www3.isrl.illinois.edu/~unsworth/lyman.htm. Accessed June 10 2011.
Warwick, C., et al. (2008). If You Build It Will They Come? The LAIRAH Study: Quantifying the Use of Online Resources in the Arts and Humanities through Statistical Analysis of User Log Data. Literary and Linguistic Computing 23(1): 85-102.
Ивић, Милка (1990). О jезику Вуковом и вуковском. Нови Сад: Књиж. заjедница Новог Сада.","txt","2","",""
"1466","13","Interoperability of Language Documentation Tools and Materials for Local Communities","1","tools for language documentation
The two main outputs of traditional language documentation are lexicons and corpora of texts. In the last two decades, it has been proposed to augment these in a number of ways (Himmelmann 1998, 2006):
•        The primary data for language documentation should be made available in the form of (digital) audio or video recordings made in the field.
•        Corpora should consist of time-aligned and annotated transcripts of those recordings. Time alignment makes explicit how a given set of annotations relates to a media segment. Since there is a one-to-one correspondence between text and media segments, the latter can be searched by their text and annotations.
•        Text annotations should generally take the form of Interlinear Glossed Text (IGT) (see Palmer & Erk 2007). An example of IGT, from Haspelmath (1993), is shown below. The format has a tree-like structure, which can be represented via a ‘nested’ table. Its basic components include a transcriptional representation of data from the language being described which is further broken down into words and their component morphemes. Each sentence is associated with a free translation, and each word is associated with (possibly specialized) glosses.
 
Existing tools supporting the production of lexicons and time-aligned corpora are not, at present, well integrated. One testimony to this is the continuing use of Toolbox (formerly known as Shoebox), a database utility optimized for the creation of IGT and lexicons initially developed in the 1980s by SIL International (SIL). Toolbox lacks native support for time-aligned annotation and, more strikingly, proper data validation. However, one of its key features, the integration of a text database with a lexical database to facilitate automated glossing, has yet to be effectively replicated in any other widely used tool. A recent major revision of Field Language Explorer (FLEx), also from SIL, positions this tool to fill this gap, however (see Rogers 2010 for a recent review). FLEx is now cross-platform and internally uses a native XML format, which can form the basis for its integration into a set of interoperable tools.
In Europe, there is a major center for the development of language documention and language archiving technology (LAT) software at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics. One of the tools they have produced, ELAN, has become widely adopted for the creation of time-aligned annotations (see Berez 2007 for a review). Toolbox, ELAN and FLEx are the most commonly used specialized tools for language documentation. While all three do some things well, none covers the entire range of language documentation tasks. For example, ELAN has no support for lexicon building, and Toolbox and FLEx have no support for time alignment or audio playback that is of great help in transcribing a media file. In addition, none provides direct support for the creation of publishable outputs, a gap that is most frequently filled by Microsoft Word, even though it offers no ready means of interoperating with custom linguistic software.
While ELAN has import/export modules for Toolbox, there was, until recently, no way to share data between ELAN and FLEx. In 2009, one of the authors (TJM) led the development of a FLEx-import module that was integrated into a release ELAN. This effort was severely handicapped by the limitations of FLEx’s native data storage format at that time, which has been partly addressed in its present XML format. Since then, we have been working with both ELAN and FLEx teams to establish a means for lossless two-way interchange of files between ELAN and FLEx. This will make it possible for a linguist to, for example, exploit the time-alignment functionality of ELAN and the lexicon and parsing functionalites of FLEx without losing information produced by either tool when exporting/importing data between them.
The main obstacle to achieving this goal is that the two programs have very different internal data models: ELAN has the capability to create structures that are not replicable in FLEx (for instance, to represent overlapping utterances from more than one speaker), while FLEx allows words to be associated with a wealth of grammatical information that cannot be encoded using ELAN. At the same time, both ELAN and FLEx contain some overlapping information in their representations of IGT. Our proposed solution to achieve full interoperation is to provide both ELAN and FLEx with a unified underlying representation that will represent data from both programs. Some parts of that representation will be ignored by ELAN, and other parts will be ignored by FLEx, but new tools can be developed to ensure that a lossless round trip between the two programs will be possible (see Cochran et al. 2007 for an earlier discussion). This approach can also broaden the interoperability between ELAN and Toolbox, and indeed facilitate interoperability between both Toolbox and FLEx as well.
An obvious choice for a unifying representation are Resource Description Framework (RDF) graphs of the sort associated with the Semantic Web (Allemang & Hendler 2010). One of the main purposes of RDF is specifically to merge heterogeneous representations of overlapping data. It also has a standard query language and a rapidly growing arsenal of tools for development.
We would like to emphasize the generality of this solution: given two programs with overlapping but partially incompatible data models, RDF, perhaps augmented by Web Ontology Language (OWL), can be used as an interlingua that can represent both. (See Farrar & Langendoen 2009 for discussion of the use of OWL in descriptive linguistics.) When this representation is accessed by one of the programs (e.g., by using SPARQL, the query language for Semantic Web data – see DuCharme 2011), parts of the representation will be ignored, but the editing done on the overlapping part can be preserved for eventual access by the other program.
Since May 2011, we have maintained a discussion group in which both ELAN and FLEx developers participate, allowing the development of a concrete implementation of this proposed solution. A key area of progress has been devising an appropriate system for assigning globally unique identifiers to be used in both ELAN and FLEx to allow the overlapping data available to both tools to be effectively tracked.
serving diverse communities through interoperation
An endangered language documentation project typically results in two collections of materials, one addressed to scholars, the other addressed to the local community. The requirements for the scholarly collection are quite precisely defined in terms of allowable data formats, required metadata, and specifications of access restrictions (see, e.g., Johnson 2004; Austin 2006; Nathan 2011). By contrast, there has been little discussion of a general systematic approach to creating materials for local communities, nor even an attempt to create principled specifications for them (though see Nathan 2006; Nakhimovsky & Myers 2003). As a result, materials for local communities are frequently developed as a separate effort, unrelated to the scholarly archive.
The approach presented in the first section of the paper creates an opportunity for a more general solution. We suggest that a unified RDF representation is well-suited for the creation of materials for local communities due to rapidly developing trends in data dissemination technology, including the increasing adoption of Semantic Web technologies as a means of data exchange, the widespread of deployment of Cloud services, and the increasing use of social media in even relatively marginalized communities especially via mobile devices like smartphones (see, e.g., the BOLD project for an example as well as Nathan 2010).
The overall strategy for developing community materials could be as follows. Using SPARQL queries, extract suitable materials from the overall RDF collection (e.g., streamable media, community-selected texts) and assemble them, possibly dynamically, into a community website to be accessed via the internet or a local server. Such a model would allow community members to reassemble the data to suit their needs while also ensuring they have access to the most up-to-date analyses of the linguists. Moreover, in principle, the same basic techniques that permit tool interoperation via a unified RDF representation could also allow communities to enrich the RDF themselves, thereby adding information (e.g., metadata or cultural annotations) to the dataset and allowing them to take a more active role in the construction of the documentary record of their language.
Funding
This work has been supported by the National Science Foundation [0553546 A.N.; 1065619 A.N., T.M; 0715246, J.G.]
references
Allemang, D., and J. Hendler (2010). Semantic Web for the working ontologist: Effective modeling in RDFS and OWL (second edition). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Austin, P. K. (2006). Data and language documentation. In J. Gippert, N. P. Himmelmann & U. Mosel (eds.),Essentials of language documentation. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 87-112.
Berez, A. (2007). Technology review: EUDICO Linguistic Annotator (ELAN). Language Documentation and Conservation 1: 283-289. http://hdl.handle.net/10125/1718.
BOLD. http://bold.xpdev-hosted.com/ (accessed March 4, 2012).
Cochran, M., J. Good, D. Loehr, S. A. Miller, S. Stephens, B. Williams, and I. Udoh (2007). Report from TILR Working Group 1 : Tools interoperability and input/output formats. Toward the Interoperability of Language Resources Workshop, Stanford, California, July 2007. http://linguistlist.org/tilr/working-group-reports/Working%20Group%201.pdf.
DuCharme, B. ( 2011). Learning SPARQL. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly.
ELAN. http://www.lat-mpi.eu/tools/elan/ (accessed March 4, 2012).
Farrar, S., and D. T. Langendoen (2009). An OWL-DL implementation of GOLD: An ontology for the Semantic Web. In Andreas Witt & Dieter Metzing (eds.), Linguistic modeling of information and markup languages: Contributions to language technology. Berlin: Springer, pp- 45-66.
FLEx. http://fieldworks.sil.org/flex/ (accessed March 4, 2012).
Haspelmath, M. (1993). A Grammar of Lezgian. Berlin: Mouton.
Himmelmann, N. (1998). Documentary and descriptive linguistics. Linguistics 36: 161-195.
Himmelmann, N. P. (2006). Language documentation: What is it and what is it good for? In J. Gippert, N. P. Himmelmann & U. Mosel (eds.), Essentials of language documentation. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 1-30.
Johnson, H. (2004). Language documentation and archiving, or how to build a better corpus. In P. K. Austin (ed.), Language documentation and description, volume 2, 140-153. London: SOAS.
LAT. http://www.lat-mpi.eu/ (accessed March 4, 2012).
Nakhimovsky, A. D., and T. Myers (2003). Digital video annotations for education. Paper presented at the International Conference on Engineering Education, Valencia, Spain.
Nathan, D. (2006). Thick interfaces: Mobilizing language documentation with multimedia. In J. Gippert, N. P. Himmelmann & U. Mosel (eds.), Essentials of language documentation. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 363-379.
Nathan, D. (2010). Archives 2.0 for endangered languages: From disk space to MySpace. International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing 4: 111-124.
Nathan, D. (2011). Digital Archiving. In P. K. Austin & J. Sallabank (eds.), The Cambridge handbook of endangered languages. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, pp. 255-274.
Palmer, A., and K. Erk (2007). IGT-XML: An XML format for interlinearized glossed texts. Proceedings of the Linguistic Annotation Workshop. Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania: Association for Computational Linguistics. 176-183. http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W/W07/W07-1528.
Rogers, Ch. (2010). Technology review: Fieldworks Language Explorer (FLEx) 3.0. Language Documentation and Conservation 4: 74-84. http://hdl.handle.net/10125/4471.","txt","2","",""
"1467","13","Intertextuality and Influence in the Age of Enlightenment: Sequence Alignment Applications for Humanities Research","1","introduction
The relationships between texts are multifaceted and complex, ranging from directly attributed quotations to indirect influences and faint allusions. Tracing these links at all levels is a core humanistic endeavor that can illuminate the meaning and reception of texts through the identification and examination of references, commonplaces, borrowings, re-workings, and even plagiarism. To aid in this sort of intertextual discovery, computational methods for examining literary text reuse can draw upon sequence alignment techniques developed primarily for gene sequencing programs in bio-informatics and plagiarism detection systems, with specific adaptations to suit the needs of humanities scholars. This paper examines just such an approach, first describing an open-source software package developed by the ARTFL Project at the University of Chicago for text reuse discovery in digitized text collections, and then offering a concrete application of this technique for literary critical research.
The software, named ‘PAIR: Pairwise Alignment for Intertextual Relations’ (Horton et al. 2010), applies sequence alignment techniques to large collections of literary and historical texts over several languages. The PAIR system first indexes documents by breaking them into overlapping sequences of words, called ‘n-grams’ or ‘shingles,’ and then creates a database of the occurrences of each shingle in a given corpus. This index allows for the discovery of text reuse by looking for occurrences of the same word sequences shared between documents or within different parts of the same document. Through various tuning parameters, this technique can be made flexible enough to find sequence matches with minor differences in word order, missing words, orthographic variations, misrecognized characters, and other textual variants. The first part of this paper will thus examine the philosophy behind the PAIR approach, the algorithmic design, its implementation as an open-source Perl module, and its eventual application to a variety of tasks relevant to humanities and social science research.
background
While technology is a relatively new entrant to the domain of textual studies, it nonetheless offers scholars important tools for tracing the currents of literary text reuse. Indeed, this form of ‘intertextuality’ can be considered a specific case of the more general problem of sequence alignment; that is, the task of identifying regions of similarity shared by two strings or sequences, often thought of as the longest common substring problem. This technique is widely applied in the field bio-informatics, where it is used to identify repeated genetic sequences, and for plagiarism detection in texts or computer programs (Clough et al. 2002; Lyon et al. 2001; Bourdaillet & Ganascia 2007).
In creating PAIR, we attempted to adapt existing techniques to suit the particular needs of humanities scholarship. Many algorithms such as BLAST exist for identifying duplicated DNA, for example, but these tend to emphasize speed over completeness. In text analysis, our corpora are small enough and our interest deep enough that we can emphasize retrieving as many hits as possible, since computation time is cheap and literary scholars are not traditionally in a hurry. The scholar’s time, however, is quite valuable, so we want to return results that are of maximal interest, avoiding a preponderance of banal commonplaces such as ‘Your devoted, humble servant.’
PAIR is thus based on k-tuple heuristics that provide a suitable balance of efficiency against completeness. Applied to text data, this involves the generation of ‘shingles’ (or n-grams), which are overlapping sequences of words. Preprocessing, such as removal of function and short words and reduction of orthographic variants (accents, spelling changes, case, etc.), is performed during shingle generation. This has the effect of folding numerous shingles into one underlying form for matching purposes, thus eliminating minor textual variations, which makes matching more flexible or ‘fuzzy.’ It also somewhat reduces the overall number of unique shingles, which aids speed of search (Seo & Croft 2008).
Once identified, the shingles within a defined window surrounding the shared shingle in each document are compared and evaluated. PAIR allows the user to set criteria for the acceptability of matches, such as the minimum overlap in shingles between the two sets, the minimum length of a shared shingle sequence, or the maximum number of consecutive gaps allowed between matching sequences in either set. If the criteria are met, the match is expanded, examining wider contexts in each document, until the criteria are violated, at which point the match is terminated and recorded. Furthermore, user configurable parameters for match retention and expansion allow for the fine-tuning of results, which is particularly important given the often ‘noisy’ information space of many humanities text collections.
use case: voltaire and the encyclopédie
As a concrete use case for the PAIR approach outlined above, we examined the intertextual relationships of two of the 18th-century’s most important text collections: Denis Diderot and Jean d’Alembert’s philosophic war machine, the Encyclopédie (28 in-folio volumes, published from 1751 to 1772 – digital edition provided by the ARTFL Project, University of Chicago), and the Complete Works of Voltaire (over 100 volumes, data provided by the Voltaire Foundation, University of Oxford). Both resources represent monuments of Enlightenment thought as well as model digital humanities databases: highly curated collections of historically significant texts built using the open-source PhiloLogic search and analysis software developed at the University of Chicago. By comparing these two data sets using the PAIR sequence alignment approach, we can come to a better understanding of the multifaceted and at times problematic relationship – one of influence, anxiety, and intertextuality – between the French Enlightenment’s most emblematic writer and its most widely-read text.
Though initially enthusiastic about the promise and ambitions of Diderot and d’Alembert’s project, Voltaire nonetheless contributed only 45 articles to the enterprise (Voltaire 1987). This curious lack of engagement on the part of one of the leading philosophes in the most important publication of the mid-18th century has led many to conclude that this diminished role was due to philosophical differences between Voltaire and theEncyclopédie’s editors (Jacob 2006). Or, as Jonathan Israel has recently contended, as a leading figure of the ‘mainstream’ brand of enlightenment (essentially Lockean-Newtonian in nature), Voltaire was in no way eager to follow the Encyclopédie as it steadily moved in the direction of a more ‘Radical Enlightenment,’ fundamentally Spinozist-materialist in inspiration (Israel 2006). The validity of this interpretation, however – which relies on a superficial reading of Voltaire as ‘author’ in the Encyclopédie rather than as ‘authority’ – begins to break down once one is presented with the results of the PAIR comparison. Indeed, even a cursory examination of the more than 10,000 matching sequences between Voltaire’s Complete Works and theEncyclopédie, demonstrates the preponderance of Voltaire’s textual presence as an authority over and against his relatively restrained role as an encyclopedic author; a fact that without sequence alignment would have likely gone largely unnoticed or at least greatly underestimated.
Nowhere is this interaction between Voltaire and the Encyclopédie more pronounced than in his last, longest, and perhaps least known work, the Questions sur l’Encyclopédie (1770-74). Here, Voltaire revisits the ‘encyclopedic moment’ of the 1750s and recasts many of the concerns still relevant to he and his fellowphilosophes some 20 years later. Adopting the same textual strategies as the encyclopédistes before him – indirect citation, playful borrowings, veiled references, etc. – Voltaire’s reassessment of the encyclopedic texts is a treasure-trove of hidden intertextual associations. Our exploration of the Questions using the PAIR system will thus, for the first time, give us a more general idea of the scope and scale of Voltaire’s prolonged engagement with the Encyclopédie and its contributors. Finally, this extended vision (or version) of Voltaire’s ‘encyclopedism’ – made possible through the application of the sequence alignment techniques outlined above – implies a certain continuity of Enlightenment thought (at least by its main protagonists) from 1750 to 1775. By way of this ‘intertextual’ continuity, we thus arrive at a more comprehensive understanding of the French Enlightenment than is currently reflected by recent attempts (Jacob 2006; Israel 2006) at dividing its participants into binomial ‘mainstream’ and ‘radical’ camps.
references
Altschul, S. F., W. Gish, W. Miller, et al. (1990). Basic Local Alignment Search Tool. The Journal of Molecular Biology 215: 403–10.
Bourdaillet, J., and J.-G. Ganascia (2007). Alignment of noisy unstructured data, IJCAI-2007, Hyderabad, India – January 8, 2007.
Clough, P., R. Gaizauskas, S. S. L. Piao, and Y. Wilks (2002). METER: MEasuring TExt Reuse. Proceedings of the 40th Anniversary Meeting for the Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 152-159. 
Lyon, C., J. Malcolm, and B. Dickerson (2001). Detecting Short Passages of Similar Text in Large Document Collections. Proceedings of the 2001 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, pp. 118-125
Horton, R., M. Olsen, and G. Roe (2010). Something Borrowed: Sequence Alignment and the Detection of Similar Passages in Large Text Collections. Digital Studies – Le Champ numérique 2.1.
Israel, J. (2006). Contested Enlightenment: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man 1670-1752. Oxford: Oxford UP.
Jacob, M. (2006). The Radical Enlightenment: Pantheists, Freemasons and Republicans. London: Cornerstone Publishing.
Seo, J., and B. W. Croft (2008). Local text reuse detection. SIGIR ’08: Proceedings of the 31st annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval. New York, NY, pp. 571-578.
Voltaire (1987). Œuvres complètes. Volume 33. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation.
digital resources
The ARTFL Encyclopédie Project (University of Chicago): http://encyclopedie.uchicago.edu/
Voltaire électronique database (Voltaire Foundation, University of Oxford):http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/VOLTAIRE/
PAIR: http://code.google.com/p/text-pair/","txt","2","",""
"1468","13","Intra-linking the Research Corpus: Using Semantic MediaWiki as a lightweight Virtual Research Environment","1","In recent years, virtual research environments (VREs) emerged as a topic referring to the established research field in the digital humanities: enabling research practices with digital tools. First projects in this area are realized and discussed by the community (Carusi 2010; Dunn 2009; Neuroth et al. 2009). In the humanities, researchers point out that the so-called ‘data deluge’ (Hey et al. 2003), which has influenced several national and supranational information policy agendas in the sciences, does not cover the full range of aspects of research practices in the humanities. While digital libraries and archives offer a new plurality of research resources in the humanities, the ‘complexity deluge’ (Dunn 2009) formulates an opposite agenda addressing the sometimes fuzzy, interfering and dispersed practices of humanities research.1In this paper we want to address this tension between research data, metadata and collaborative action in the design of research corpora carried out within a VRE. Therefore we will focus the ongoing corpus re-arrangement and the potentials of Social Semantic Media technologies to expand metadata creation and use in qualitative research. Tools for qualitative research target the flexible coding system, i.e. allowing researchers to annotate research resources according to a classification system that may evolve over time. However, the tools have been criticized for the limited metadata interoperability of resources and research findings (Corti et al. 2011). In our paper, we outline the aspects of interoperability in qualitative corpora research and focus on researchers’ capabilities to intra-link the corpus. We use the term intra-linking2to address a main aspect in qualitative research: to create and to describe entities while allowing for the ongoing re-arrangement of entities and their properties in the research process. These capabilities will be discussed and exemplified within the scope of the project Semantic MediaWiki for Collaborative Corpora Analysis (SMW-CorA) which aims to reconfigureSemantic MediaWiki as a lightweight virtual research environment.3
The field of corpora centered research in the digital humanities offers interesting insights into the design of VREs. In the early 1990s, Biber pointed out main aspects of corpus design by problematizing a priorideterminations of its boundaries and formal specifications. He recommends the selection of relevant objects and the formal description to be realized as a cyclic or iterative process of corpus work (Biber 1993: 256). While a linguistic approach mainly aims at a statistical ‘representation’ in relation to a target population, qualitative corpus research, which is focused here, pursues a so called qualitative selection, i.e. a typification of yet unknown properties in research (Bauer 2000: 20). We argue that this indeterminacy of entities and properties in qualitative research emphasizes the affordance of a VRE enabling researchers to intra-link the corpus – it means to give them the ongoing capabilities to create, modify and re-arrange entities and properties while doing research. This topic of qualitative corpus research addresses the research and design desideratum of qualitative annotations (Juola 2008) and a demanded shift to further capabilities for the researcher to control the data (Smith 2008: 178).
While the SMW-CorA project targets the re-use of its VRE infrastructure in different research contexts in the mid-term, its initial design is subject to a co-operation with a research project in the history of education, involving a major library in this field. The educational research project encompasses the analysis of a corpus of 25 educational lexica dating from 1774 to 1942, reconstructing the development of educational science. Discourse, field and content analysis are supported and applied to grasp the networked relationships in this scholarly field. The Library for the History of Education (BBF) hosts a large part of the lexica at the digital library Scripta Paedagogica Online (SPO).4 The collection amounts to nearly 22,000 articles. Each lexicon is bibliographically described and accessible online as image files. Participatory and agile design approaches are used to offer an adequate shared space for the different stakeholders to articulate possible potentials and boundaries of the VRE.
The SMW-CorA project builds on a Social Semantic Media technology which in turn is based on the Web 2.0 software MediaWiki (MW),5 which is used at the well-known online encyclopedia Wikipedia, and the extensionSemantic Media Wiki (SMW).6 The latter enables the use of semantic annotations and integration within the Semantic Web through import and export of semantic data and linking to external entities. While other VREs7have been realized using this wiki technology, the SMW-CorA project promotes research on a corpus by configuring the facilities of MW and SMW and by developing further extensions to offer a configurable and lightweight VRE.
As such, the basic framework MediaWiki offers some facilities for creating and typifying entities in a corpus for research (in our case: lemmas, authors, institutions etc.). The online encyclopedia Wikipedia demonstrates, besides the collaborative creation of texts, the capability to store documents and digital objects. Therein a wiki page can be related to other entities by hyperlinks and arranged within a hierarchical category system. SMWextends this by offering an increased granularity for describing and linking the corpus by adding metadata descriptions used in the Semantic Web. The unspecific hyperlinks between entities can be typified by metadata and thereby entities can be enriched with attributes or semantic relations to other entities. Furthermore, it is possible to import and export metadata in the Semantic Web standard RDF.
Within the scope of the project a set of use-cases is explored comprising the scholarly work in the research life cycle from importing research resources, coding, classifying and analyzing these to the export for re-use. The supported and envisaged use cases have in common that entities can be integrated, created, modified and interlinked (i.e. intra-linking). This functionality is focused within the project and supported by tools to enable researchers to carry out an ongoing re-arrangement of their corpora. While the aspects of importing lexica from a digital library and of exporting the bibliographic data in RDF are discussed in (Schindler et al. 2011), further use cases exemplify these capabilities. Besides this import functionality, the enrichment of entities such as editors, authors, and related affiliations with properties by using Semantic Web Browsing technologies is a further example.8 Thereby, semantic properties from digital archives, libraries or further collections can be integrated and adapted to the locally used metadata schema in the VRE. This enables researchers for example to add biographical data of authors or editors from authority files (e.g. German National Library GND). Furthermore the import and collaborative development of taxonomies (e.g. classification or coding schema) are supported by interlinking entities within the VRE and linking entities into the Web of Data. These links to the world external to the corpus, together with the data export facilities of the VRE, enable the reuse of the content created within the VRE. Additionally, the VRE provides functionalities for creating and re-arranging metadata schema as well as a bottom-up task management to allow supervision of the research process.
To summarize, we identified the need of researchers to create, manage and intra-link entities and metadata objects in a research corpus. This functionality is relevant for multiple use cases where researchers perform a qualitative analysis on a corpus of resources such as digital/digitized documents and images. Our main contribution is the development of a lightweight collaborative and adaptive VRE that enables researchers to perform these tasks as well as to enable export of the created data and the content’s sharing and reuse. Since the VRE is based on a flexible Open Source platform it can be tailored by the researchers towards their specific needs. Therefore this lightweight environment may serve as a starting point for further re-uses and re-configurations in unforeseen research settings and functionalities required in the future.
funding
This work was supported by the German Research Foundation (DFG) in the domain of ‘Scientific Library Services and Information Systems’ (LIS). The funded project is entitled: ‘Entwicklung einer Virtuellen Forschungsumgebung für die Historische Bildungsforschung mit Semantischer Wiki-Technologie – Semantic MediaWiki for Collaborative Corpora Analysis’ [INST 367/5-1, INST 5580/1-1]
references
Barad, K. (2003). Posthumanist Performativity: Toward an Understanding of How Matter Comes to Matter.Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 28(3): 801-831.
Bauer, M. W., and B. Aarts (2000). Constructing a research corpus. In M.W. Bauer and  G. Gaskell (eds),Qualitative researching with text, image and sound: a practical handbook. Thousand Oaks: Sage, pp. 19-37.
Biber, D. (1993). Representativeness in corpus design. Literary and linguistic computing 8(4): 243-257.
Carusi, A., and T. Reimer (2010). Virtual Research Environment. Collaborative Landscape Study. A JISC funded project. http://www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/publications /vrelandscapereport.pdf (accessed 30 October 2011).
Corti, L., and A. Gregory (2011). CAQDAS Comparability. What about CAQDAS Data Exchange? Forum: Qualitative Social Research 12. http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/viewArticle/1634. (accessed 30 October 2011).
Dunn, S. (2009). Dealing with the complexity Deluge – VREs in the arts and humanities. Library Hi Tech (27)2: 205-216.
Edwards, P. N., M. S. Mayernik, A. L. Batcheller, et al. (2011). Science friction: Data, metadata, and collaboration. Social Studies of Science 415): 667-690.
Hey, T., and A. Trefethen (2003). The Data Deluge: An e-Science Perspective. In F. Berman, G. Fox, and T. Hey (eds.), Grid Computing: Making the Global Infrastructure a Reality. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 809-824.
Huvila, I. (2008). Participatory archive: towards decentralised curation, radical user orientation, and broader contextualisation of records management. Archival Science 8(1): 15-36.
Juola, P. (2008). Killer Applications in Digital Humanities. Literary and Linguist Computing 23: 73-83.
Neuroth, H., F. Jannidis, A. Rapp, and F. Lohmeier (2009). Virtuelle Forschungsumgebungen für e-Humanities. Maßnahmen zur optimalen Unterstützung von Forschungsprozessen in den Geisteswissenschaften. Bibliothek. Forschung und Praxis 2: 161-169.
Schindler, C., C. Veja, M. Rittberger, and D. Vrandečić (2011). How to teach digital library data to swim into research. Proceedings of I-SEMANTICS 2011: 7th International Conference on Semantic Systems, Sept. 7-9, 2011, Graz, Austria New York: ACM International Conference Proceedings Series (2011), 142-149
Smith, N., S. Hoffmann, and P. Rayson (2008). Corpus Tools and Methods, Today and Tomorrow: Incorporating Linguists’ Manual Annotations. Literary and Linguist Computing 23: 163-180.
notes
1.It should be mentioned that a similar field of tension is articulated for the sciences as ‘science friction’ (Edwards et al. 2011) by addressing the problems of different disciplines working on the same phenomena and trying to interoperate.
2.This term refers to the concept of ‘intra-action’, which describes the interrelations and re-configurations of research apparatuses in respect of ‘locally stabilized phenomena’ (Barad 2003: 817).
3.This project is realized in co-operation between the German Institute for International Educational Research (DIPF), the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), the Library for Research on Educational History (BBF) and educational researchers mainly of the Georg-August-University Göttingen. Seehttp://www.dipf.de/en/projects/virtual-research-environment-for-research-in-the-history-of-education-smw-cora.
4.The lexica are available at http://bbf.dipf.de/digitale-bbf/scripta-paedagogica-online/digitalisierte-nachschlagewerke.
5.See http://www.mediawiki.org
6.The extension Semantic MediaWiki is described at http://www.semantic-mediawiki.org and offers further extensions at http://semantic-mediawiki.org/wiki/Help:Extensions.
7.Some interesting cases using MW or SMW as a VRE are http://www.docupedia.de/, a reference work in the area of historical research, http://wiki.digitalclassicist.org and in the context of archives (Isto, 2008). Some further examples of using SMW are listed on the webpagehttp://smw.referata.com/wiki/Special:BrowseData/Sites?Data_type=Science.
8.A prototype of this SMW-based extension Semantic Web Browser is developed in collaboration with KIT – Benedikt Kämpgen, Anna Kantorovitch, and Denny Vrandečić – and is accessible athttp://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Semantic_Web_Browser.","txt","2","",""
"1469","13","Investigating the genealogical relatedness of the endagered Dagon languages","1","Dogon languages are spoken predominately in eastern Mali in West Africa. The Dogon were made famous by Marcel Griaule, a French anthropologist who pioneered Ethnography in France, and worked with the Dogon between 1931-1956. He reported that the Dogon had advanced astronomical knowledge of the Sirius binary star system, knowledge that is not possible without telescope. Since then, the Dogon have been shrouded in controversy and mystery.
As late as 1989, Dogon appeared in reference books as if it were a single language, e.g. Bendor-Samuel 1989 (as found in Blench 2005). The standard encyclopedic reference on the world’s languages, the Ethnologue,1now lists 14 Dogon languages (Lewis 2009), but this figure is too low. In 2004, an extensive sociolinguistic survey by Hochstetler et al. (2004) estimated no less than 17 distinct languages and described the language family as highly internally divided. Since 2004, much initial survey work on Dogon has been undertaken by Roger Blench, Denis Douyon and Jeffrey Heath’s Dogon languages project,2 which has lead to the ‘discovery’ of a web of divergent dialects, some of which have been raised to the status of distinct languages based on standard linguistic criteria. Thus, the current Dogon linguistic situation is not at all transparent. Dogon languages are very under-described, many are highly endangered, and all are genealogically not well established (Blench 2005; Heath 2008).
The Dogon languages project provides a tentative detailed inventory of known Dogon languages. There are currently 20 distinct languages grouped (crudely) into eight geographical regions, with no implications for genealogical subgrouping. The internal structure of the Dogon language family is unknown, as is the number of mutually unintelligible languages it contains. In fact, the Ethnologue gives a flat genealogical tree. The position of the Dogon languages relative to other African language families is also unclear because of Dogon’s unique typological characteristics. Its lineage has long been disputed, as summarized in Table 1.3
Table 1: Historical classification of Dogon
Year        Classification (language family)        Author
1924        Nigéro-Sénégalais        Delafosse
1941        Voltaic (Eng. Gur)        Homburger
1948        Voltaic; Gurunsi        Baumann & Westermann
1951        Mandé        Holas
1952        Mandé        Delafosse
1952        Gur (Fr. Voltaic)        Westermann & Bryan
1953        Voltaic        Bertho
1953        Non-classified        de Tressan
1950/60        Gur        Calame-Griaule
1963        Gur        Greenberg
1971        Gur        Bender-Samuel
1981        Voltaic        Manessy
1981        Volta-Congo        Bendor-Samuel
1993        Unresolved; non-classified        Galtier
1994        Unresolved; non-classified        Plungian and Tembiné
2000        Ijo-Congo        Williamson and Blench
2009        Volta-Congo        Lewis
In this paper, we use a marriage of digital methods successfully applied in bioinformatics to decode DNA and determine the genetic relatedness of humans, and we apply these methods to language data in an attempt to shed light on the prehistory of the Dogon languages and determine their genealogical subgroupings. The comparative method employed in historical and comparative linguistics (the study of language change to reconstruct the genealogical relatedness of languages) is a very laborious and time-consuming task that involves identifying cognates (words that share a common etymological origin) through their shared meanings and common sound change correspondences (e.g. English ‘is’, German ‘ist’, Latin ‘est’, Indo-European ‘esti’).
We show how recent advances in the use of quantitative methods in the study of language comparison can be applied to digital data of (endangered) languages to automate the discovery of regular sound correspondences and cognate forms. Next, powerful statistical techniques allow for new insights into the origin and evolution of human languages. We use distance-based methods like Levenshtein (Levenshtein 1965) and character-based methods like Bayesian Markov Chain Monte Carlo methods (Page & Holmes 2006) to induce language family trees from lexical data. We present the first subgrouping hypothesis for the Dogon language family and we will discuss the limits of current quantitative approaches, where the state-of-the-art in computational historical linguistics is heading, and what we can hope to glean from their application to linguistic diversity.
references
Bendor-Samuel, J., E. J. Olsen, and A. R. White (1989). The Niger-congo languages – a classification and description of Africa’s largest language family, chapter Dogon. Langham: UP of America, pp. 169-177.
Blench, R. (2005). A survey of Dogon languages in Mali: overview. Ogmios 26: 14-15.
Heath, J. (2008). A grammar of Jamsay. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Hochstetler, J. L., J. Durieux, and E. Durieux-Boon (2004). Sociolinguistic survey of the Dogon language area. SIL International.
Levenshtein, V. (1965). Binary codes capable of correcting deletions, insertions and reversals. Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 163: 845-848.
Lewis, M. P. (2009). Ethnologue: languages of the world, Sixteenth edition. SIL International.
Page, R. D. M., and E. C. Holmes (2006). Molecular evolution: a phylogenetic approach. Malden: Blackwell.
notes
1.http://www.ethnologue.com/
2.http://dogonlanguages.org/
3.See Hochstetler et al. (2004) and Hantgan’s Dogon bibliography for references at:http://dogonlanguages.org/bibliography.cfm.","txt","2","",""
"1470","13","Landscapes, languages and data structures: Issues in building the Placenames Database of Ireland","1","introduction
The Placenames Database of Ireland is a bilingual database which records the official names in Irish and English of geographical objects on the island of Ireland. The database contains over 100,000 entries, is accessible to the public for free (www.logainm.ie) and serves around 150,000 searches per month.
The public-facing website was launched in 2008 in the context of recently enacted legislation which gave more prominence to Irish-language placenames in the Republic of Ireland; for details on the legal and sociolinguistic situation of placenames in Ireland see Mac Giolla Easpaig (2008, 2009). For more insights into the history and role of placenames in Ireland, see Mac Mathúna (1990).
We will not attempt to describe the structure of the Placenames Database of Ireland holisticly here. Instead, we will concentrate on three sub-areas where interesting challenges have arisen. In many cases, the issues presented here are issues that have not been solved satisfactorily in our database yet, or a solution has not been implemented yet. In this sense, the paper is merely a discussion of issues rather than a catalogue of solutions.
linguistic properties of placenames
Placenames databases differ in how much attention they pay to the linguistic properties of the names themselves, such as their gender, inflection and so on. Multilingual databases such as Geonames usually ignore such aspects completely. Smaller databases, however, often focus on only one or two languages and are conceived mainly as a lexical database rather than a geographic one. Linguistic properties relevant to placenames can be broadly subdivided into the following three areas.
Internal structure. Practically all placenames that consist of more than one word have an implicit internal structure, just like other linguistic expressions. Some aspects of this structure may need to be made explicit in a database. These include definite articles and other textual phenomena that get in the way of alphabetical sorting including initial mutations in Celtic languages; composite names such as Ballaghgowla and Froghan; and names with disambiguators such as Black Lough (South).
Combinatorial properties. These are linguistic properties relevant to how the placename interacts with the text in which it is being used and include language-specific features such as gender, grammatical number and inflection paradigms. In addition, the following combinatorial properties are relevant to placenames in particular: how the name can be combined with categorizers such as ‘town’ or ‘county’ (Donegal Town butCounty Donegal); which locative prepositions are combined with the placename (i nGaillimh ‘in Galway’ but aran gCeathrú Rua ‘in Carrarow’, literally ‘on Carrarow’).
Lexical relations to other words in the language and to other placenames. The former include demonyms (terms for ‘people from’) and derived adjectives which are sometimes irregular. The latter include cases where one geographical object has been named after another, such as Ballybeg Road or Lismore Terrace.
cross-linguistic issues
A separate cluster of issues stems from the fact that the Placenames Database of Ireland is bilingual. This does not seem to pose a challenge at first; the general principle is that every place has two names, one in each language, and this seems to call for a simple data structure: all we need is two text fields. However, that approach would fail to account for the following phenomena.
Borrowing and gaps. Sometimes, a place has the same name in both languages. An example is an area of Dublin called Dún Laoghaire. This is an Irish name which is also used in English with unchanged spelling (but with anglicised pronunciation). An obvious solution would be to simply record Dún Laoghaire twice, once as an Irish name and once as an English name. However, this is unsatisfactory as it fails to account for the fact that this name is not really in English, it is merely used in English.
On the other hand, in some strongly Irish-speaking areas, minor features such as crossroads, fields and wells only have Irish names and there are no known English names. One can only assume that if somebody needed to refer to such a place while speaking English, one would briefly code-switch into Irish to utter the name.
A fairly granular data structure is called for here, one that allows us to capture facts as to whether a name in a given language exists or not, whether the name used in a given language is also a name in that language, and whether the name has been borrowed from another language.
Anglicisation, translation and re-interpretation. Many English placenames in Ireland have been obtained from the original Irish names by a process of writing down an approximated pronunciation (Gaoth Dobhair ->Gweedore). In other cases, when the English name was created first, the method used to coin the Irish name has often been translation, such as Butler’s Bridge -> Droichead an Bhuitléaraigh. In other cases still, the Irish and English names are independent coinages (example: Loch Garman/Wexford).
Translation is sometimes accompanied by re-interpretation. An example of this is an area of Dublin calledBarra an Teampaill/Temple Bar.The placename originated in English from the personal name Temple but was later re-interpreted as the common noun temple and hence the Irish name (literally ‘the bar of the temple’). Although based on a misunderstanding, it was decided to keep the Irish name as official because it is commonly used.
An ideal data structure would allow us to record these and other etymological relations between names of the same place in different languages. If such relations are explicated and annotated in the database, then we can not only provide better information to users but also extract interesting statistical observations about the relative proportion of these phenomena in the country’s body of placenames.
dealing with overlapping hierarchies
Most countries are subdivided into administrative units such as districts, provinces or counties. These units form a hierarchy and such hierarchies are deliberately designed as a nested hierarchy to disallow overlapping and facilitate reasoning.
In Ireland, the situation is far from this computational ideal. The basic units (counties -> baronies -> civil parishes -> townlands) may have originally been designed as a nested hierarchy but are no longer so because of boundary changes that have not been propagated up and down the hierarchy and because of the introduction of competing hierarchies which overlap with the traditional system.
The consequence when building a placenames database is that we must work with an overlapping hierarchywhere a child may have more than one parent. This complicates things; for example, reasoning is no longer always possible. If we know that A is in B and that B is in C1 and C2 simultaneously, we can no longer infer whether A is in C1 or C2 or both. In fact, there is no way to know this other than by deriving it from a dataset of geographical boundaries, or by recording it explicitly.
place as an abstract concept
Consider the placename Dún na nGall/Donegal which can be found in the north-west of Ireland. The question to ask is: how many places called Dún na nGall/Donegal are there in this corner of Ireland? The answer will differ depending on one’s perspective. An outsider will see only one, a county of that name. A local inhabitant will probably see two, the county and its capital town of the same name. A local politician will probably see an electoral division of that name and also a town of that name with its town council. In total, there are five units called Dún na nGall/Donegal in that part of Ireland.
In our database, these are treated as separate objects which, as far as the database knows, only happen to have the same name. That, however, is unsatisfactory as it fails to distinguish a case like this from cases such as the 19 places called An Baile Mór (literally ‘the large town’) which can be found all over Ireland and which genuinely happen to have the same name. Another reason why this is unsatisfactory is that it introduces a potential for inconsistency because data such as the Irish name’s grammatical information need to be recorded five times instead of once.
An ideal data structure would provide a way to connect several places to a single ‘abstract place’. The abstract place would contain all information common to the concrete places, such as names and historical citations, and these would then be inherited by the concrete places.
conclusion
Many of the issues illustrated here are inherently linguistic and stem from the fact that we conceive of our database as primarily a lexical database and only secondarily as a geographical database. A second cluster of issues is caused by the heritage of conflicting and overlapping administrative hierarchies and from the differences in perspective these hierarchies impose.
references
A. Placenames databases
Geonames: http://www.geonames.org/
Placenames Database of Ireland:http://www.logainm.ie
B. Literature
Mac Giolla Easpaig, D. (2008). Placenames Policy and its Implementation. In Caoilfhionn Nic Pháidín, Seán Ó Cearnaigh (eds.), A New View of the Irish Language. Dublin: Cois Life, pp. 164-177.
Mac Giolla Easpaig, D. (2009). Ireland’s heritage of geographical names. Wiener Schriften zur Geographie und Kartographie 18: 79-85.
Mac Mathúna, L. (1990). Ár dTimpeallacht Logainmneacha: Inniu agus Amárach [our placenames environment: today and tomorrow]. Dublin: Coiscéim.","txt","2","",""
"1471","13","Language Documentation and Digital Humanities: The (DoBeS) Language Archive","1","overview
Since the early nineties, the on-going dramatic loss of the world’s linguistic diversity has gained attention, first by the linguists and increasingly also by the general public. As a response, the new field of language documentation emerged from around 2000 on, starting with the funding initiative ‘Dokumentation Bedrohter Sprachen’ (DoBeS, funded by the Volkswagen foundation, Germany), soon to be followed by others such as the ‘Endangered Languages Documentation Programme’ (ELDP, at SOAS, London), or, in the USA, ‘Electronic Meta-structure for Endangered Languages Documentation’ (EMELD, led by the LinguistList) and ‘Documenting Endangered Languages’ (DEL, by the NSF). From its very beginning, the new field focused on digital technologies not only for recording in audio and video, but also for annotation, lexical databases, corpus building and archiving, among others. This development not just coincides but is intrinsically interconnected with the increasing focus on digital data, technology and methods in all sciences, in particular in the humanities.
As one result, a number of worldwide and regional specialized language archives have been established, devoted to a new type of corpora: digital, multimedia, multi-purpose. The DoBeS archive alone contains data on more than 60 languages; it is hosted at the Max-Planck-Institute for Psycholinguistics (MPI-PL) in Nijmegen, where it is combined with data from other field research projects, in total covering around two hundred languages. The Technical Group of MPI-PL (now as a new unit, ‘The Language Archive’, TLA) has not only been developing new tools such as ELAN and the language archiving technology suite, but is also active in building regional archives offering the same technology around the globe, and in networking with other archives, for instance in DELAMAN.
Furthermore, The Language Archive (TLA) also participates, based on our experience with the DoBeS archive, in international initiatives such as CLARIN, which have a much broader scope than endangered languages. Still, the new type of corpora, including the DOBES archive, have only incipiently been explored with novel research questions and methods, and the full potentials of cooperation between language documentation and, e.g., computational linguistics and automatic data processing methods have only begun to be exploited. This also holds for topics such as community member participation and representation, engaging wider audiences, access methods, ethical issues around privacy and ‘publicness’, documentation and archives’ relations to social networking and other mass participation platforms. In general it seems obvious that neighbouring disciplines can benefit from language documentations, and that also language documentation and archiving can gain much from cooperation with similar activities and research in other fields, which may even change the way language corpora are designed and future documentation projects are carried out. Nevertheless, the concrete details have still to be determined in the quickly growing environment of ‘digital humanities’.
outline of the dobes programme and its relation to the digital humanities
The DoBeS programme emerged from long discussions between the Volkswagen foundation and a small group of linguists around the recently founded German ‘society for endangered languages’, concerned with language diversity and linguistic field research. First result of this interaction was a successful summer school about ‘language description and field research’ in Cologne in 1993, a very early response to the first public statements urging to get active about the problem of ‘endangered languages’, i.e. the imminent loss of humanities linguistic (and cultural) diversity. To that time the very first uses for the internet started to be developed, such as the world wide web; email was rarely used in business and academia, university term papers were still often written on a typewriter or by hand. Although the beginning of ‘computing and the humanities’, ‘linguistic computing’ etc. actually dates back long before the arrival of personal computers (at least to the 1970ies, when todays major DH associations were founded), the digital humanities (DH) as we know them today existed in the early nineties maximally in an embryonic state, for neither sufficient digital data sets nor the needed computational tools and methods existed.
The first call for applications for individual projects of what would soon become to be called the DoBeS programme was made in 1999. Despite the long period of intense debate and planning, it was still all but clear how language documentation (LD) exactly would be carried out. Himmelmann had already published his seminal paper ‘Documentary and descriptive linguistics’ (1998), but still the exact goals of such a research program and especially its methodologies had to be decided, tested and established, and the needed technology had to be identified, designed and developed. Thus, the first year of DoBeS was designated to be a pilot phase, where a consortium of linguists, leading eight different documentation projects on a variety of languages all over the globe,1 together with the technicians of the technical project at the MPI-PL, would discuss and eventually decide on fundamental, methodological, technical and legal/ethical issues, giving clear guidelines to the next generations of projects and establishing the fundaments of a technical infrastructure to support the building of digital language corpora of a new kind – focussed on actual oral language use in a natural cultural context.
By the beginning of the programme in 2000, the general technological setting had changed dramatically. Semi-professional audio and video equipment with satisfactory quality for serious documentation work were now available to affordable prices (although to that time, video recordings were often still analogue, e.g. in HI8 format, and audio recordings were often done in a compressed format, e.g. ATRAC). Most importantly, digital storage capacities had grown to a point where even video recordings with a reasonable resolution and bit-rate could be stored on usual hard discs and even on removable media such as DVDs. This allowed LD to be a fundamentally digital enterprise, aiming at the building of large digital language archives, i.e., multimedia corpora with natural speech data.
At the same time, the technical group (TG) at the MPI-PL had started to tackle the problem of the increasing amount of digital data produced and used at that institute. Some of the data obviously were of relevance for the future – for re-use with different research goals, or just for being able to check and reproduce the results, making the research more accountable. The TG had already started to work on a digital archive of research data (including data from linguistic field research) and was thus in the best position to function as the technical centre for the DOBES programme, which in turn for several years boosted the development at MPI-PL. Most importantly, a meta-data-schema, IMDI, was developed with decisive input from the DOBES consortium of the pilot phase and in the first years of the main phase (most of the 8 projects of the one-year pilot phase also participated in the first years of the main phase of the DOBES programme). Also, the development of a multi-media annotation tool, ELAN, started. Other tools and infrastructure elements were added over the years to what by around 2008 came to be called the ‘Language Archiving Technology’ suite.
These developments occurred basically without connection to the first developments in the mainstream ‘digital humanities’ or ‘E-Humanities’. In the 1990ies, when larger data collections became available, when individual computers became part of every university department, and when the development of tools tailored to specific needs was easily done, research techniques and tools such as text mining, quantitative text analysis, complex databases were increasingly often employed by technophile humanities practitioners and computer linguists. Language documentation, however, was developed by a completely different community of field researchers (linguists, anthropologists, music-ethnologists etc.) which usually were not akin to digital technologies and computational methods. The object of study had little overlap, too: computer linguistics and the emerging digital humanities in general were (and continue to be) mainly concerned with major languages and predominantly in their written form, whereas LD by definition is concerned mainly with small and understudied languages, most of which are only occasionally written.
So for about almost a decade, the two areas developed mostly independently one from another. The DoBeS program grew (each year between five and ten new projects started, each with a duration of usually three to four years) and had followers (see above) and became more mature, as the basic standard methodologies were clear and new research questions were introduced and a stronger interdisciplinary approach consolidated. The necessary tools became available, more stable and increasingly easy to use. In particular, Language Archiving Technology with the web-based programs LAMUS for the upload and archive integration, AMS for archive management, and other IMDI or ELAN related tools were built, so that the DoBeS archive (at the core of the larger digital archive with language resources at MPI-PL, ‘TLA’) became an example for digital archives.
In the last years, the two communities and research traditions (DH & LD) have begun to come closer. In linguistics, language documentation has contributed to raise the interest in linguistic diversity, linguistic typology and language description. This general movement also affects computational linguistics which now increasingly shows also interest in small languages. At the same time, language documentation has from its beginning been concerned with digital data and methods, even if mostly for data management and archiving and less for linguistic analysis. Still, teams for LD projects nowadays usually have quite good computational expertise, and field workers are less distant from digital tools and data than they used to be, and than many other linguists. Furthermore, soon it became obvious that the time was ripe for novel research questions and topics that would make use of these linguistic corpora of small languages, which is where computational linguistics and other statistical methods come into play (see below).
In the opposite direction, the digital humanities grow and consolidated to the point of engaging in constructing major research infrastructures for their needs, integrating the numerous individual data sets and tools ‘out there’ in the many departments and individual computers, and allowing humanities research to be carried out on a completely new higher level. The DH projects such as DARIAH and in particular CLARIN count with the experiences at the MPI-PL, in particular with the DoBeS archive. The Language Archive is now one of the backbone centres in CLARIN and participates actively in developing this DH infrastructure in Germany, the Netherlands and in a European and international level.
With a total of about 70 major project funded, the DoBeS programme is in its final phase now (the last call for projects was in 2011), and already it has been one of the most successful programs of the Volkswagen Foundation, in terms of impact and public awareness. Internationally, LD has grown into a respected sub-discipline of linguistics and neighbouring fields on its own right, as is witnessed by a successful on-line peer-reviewed journal (Language Documentation and Conservation, LD&C) and a bi-annual international conference (ICLDC, 2009 and 2011 in Hawaii) that is attended by many hundreds of participants from all over the world. In this community, the DoBeS programme is generally recognized as trendsetter and in several aspects as a model, and there are numerous personal and technical links between DoBeS and other LD initiatives (ELDP, DEL, EMELD, PARADISEC, etc.).
some key issues of language documentation and digital humanities
One distinctive feature of The Language Archive is diversity, on different levels. First, it is concerned with the very linguistic diversity inner- and cross-language, uniting data from many different languages with unique features and a broad variety of communicative settings. But the data, produced by many different teams with different background and research interests, are also diverse in their formats and contents – what is annotated, and how it is annotated. While with respect to metadata and archiving, DoBeS was successful to create agreement and consensus among the researchers, the same does not hold with respect to levels and conventions of annotation, from the labelling of ‘tiers’ in ELAN or other annotation tools to the abbreviations used for grammatical glosses and labels. This now constitutes a major obstacle for advanced cross-corpora research, and even with the general ISOcat data category registry, much manual work has to be done before different corpora are interoperable. The same holds for lexical data, as the work in the RELISH project has shown which created interfaces and conversions between different standards for lexical databases (LMF & Lexus and LIFT & LEGO).
Another issue is the question of sustainability. Still, too often one finds great initiatives that produce wonderful tools and/or data sets, but without any long term plan – when the funding ends and/or the developer leaves, the resources are abandoned and not rarely unusable after some years, when hardware and software changes. There are different aspects to sustainability – one is the sheer preservation of the bit stream, which is threatened by eroding media such as hard disks or optical discs. The necessary automatic copying of several backups to different locations and the constant replacement of out-phased hardware can only be done by data centres, with which smaller archives should cooperate. The Language Archive was lucky enough to be able to negotiate a 50 year guarantee for bit stream preservation by the Max Planck Gesellschaft already around 2006. For data format accessibility, one needs to rely on a manageable number of open standards (such as XML and UNICODE for text data, or widely used open and preferably not compressed codecs for audio and video data), and has to be prepared to migrate the whole corpus from one format to another if new standards supersede the ones used in the archives (although the original files should always be preserved, too). Finally, the problem of maintenance of tools is generally not satisfactorily solved. Due to changing hardware, platforms, drivers, standards, most tools are bound to need constant maintenance even if no new features are to be implemented (which usually happens if a tool is well received by a large user community), and few funds are available for this kind of activity. One has to be constantly considering how and with how many resources the currently offered software can and should be maintained or further developed. All these questions are by now well known in the DH and now addressed by the infrastructure projects such as DARIAH and CLARIN, but have been addressed at a comparatively early stage at The Language Archive.
It is interesting to notice that one of the strengths of The DoBeS Language Archive is its connecting character. Not only are the data in the archive relevant for many different disciplines, not just linguistics, but also anthropology, history, psychology, music-ethnology, speech technology etc. Also some of the tools developed at The Language Archive are now more widely used, in particular ELAN, which is now used not just by descriptive and documentary linguists, but fostered multi-modality (gesture) and sign language research and is even employed in completely unrelated fields. Also ISOcat has the potential to bridge the gap between different traditions of labelling entities in areas much broader than linguistics, and ARBIL, the successor of the IMDI metadata-editor, is by now being prepared to be the major tool for the creation of modular and flexible CMDI metadata as used in CLARIN. Finally, other archives using Language Archiving Technology have been and continue to be set up at different locations in the whole world, constituting a network of regional archives which soon can interact, exchange their data for backup and ease of access purposes, and hence strengthen and consolidate not just LD but generally the archiving of valuable digital research data.
There are several big challenges ahead for language documentation and the corpora it produces. Some, as the tension between the general movement to open access to research data and the need to protect the individual and intellectual property rights of speakers and researchers are in principle solved by providing different levels of (controlled and possibly restricted) access and employing codes of conducts and other ethical and legal agreements. Still, this state of affairs has constantly to be re-thought and discussed. The same holds for new insights and methods for language strengthening and revitalization, promoting multilinguality and the fruitful interaction between coexisting cultures, and the digital inclusion of linguistic, social and cultural minorities. Obviously, these are questions that cannot be solved by science (alone).
Others are only beginning to be properly addressed, such as the mobilization language data: the future shape of language documentation and archives will be radically different from its current state, in view of new opportunities, needs and goals beyond data gathering, language description and revitalization. How can be ensured that many users, from researchers via the speakers themselves and the general public, make the best use of the data, that novel research questions are addressed and answered with the support from language documentation corpora? How can the process of creating, annotating and archiving new, high-quality documentation data be made easier even for community members without the presence and support of a LD project and researchers from abroad?
The closer interaction of LD and computational techniques as being developed in the context of the DH will certainly help to improve the situation with respect to one of the major impediments in LD: the high costs for annotating the rich corpora. This is currently done mostly by hand, albeit in some cases with semi-automatic support, such as in the case of morphological glossing based on string-matching with a lexical database. Still, segmenting recordings into utterances, identifying the speaker, transcribing the original utterance and providing further annotation is a very time-intensive work which is mostly done by experts and only to a smaller part can be delegated for instance to well-trained native speakers. Here new computational methods which work reasonably well for written major languages can be generalized or adapted for other languages, and statistical methods can be used to segment and label audio and video data based on speaker and/or gesture recognition. The team at The Language Archive is working on the inclusion of such methods into their tools. The better this integration is, the broader are the possible uses in many humanities disciplines way beyond the field of language documentation.
notes
1.Three projects on geographically close languages in the Upper Xingu area in central Brazil formed a collaborative project within the consortium.","txt","2","",""
"1472","13","Literary Wikis: Crowd-sourcing the Analysis and Annotation of Pynchon, Eco and Others","1","introduction
Annotation of complicated texts – the Bible, the works of Shakespeare, experimental fiction – is a familiar concept. In 2005 I had an idea: what if I used a wiki to create such a guide? Would anyone contribute to it? Would anyone read it? Would the results be any good? Since then, hundreds of users have annotations thousands of pages of experimental fiction by the authors Thomas Pynchon and Umberto Eco, and the projectsPynchonWiki and Umberto Eco Wiki.
What have we learned from these projects? What can other digital humanities and crowd-sourcing projects learn from their successes and failures? The Eco wiki project is still ongoing, but I plan to present my findings and insights at DH 2012.
the queen loana wiki
When Umberto Eco’s novel, The Mysterious Flame of Queen Loana, was published a few months later, I launched what I called the Queen Loana Annotation Project, a wiki organized by chapter and page.1 Eco’s novel was a perfect test case for the experiment I envisioned, a literary annotation wiki. First, Eco frequently quotes texts without attribution, which led to wiki entries like:
P. 15, ‘you always said you could resist anything but temptation’
quotation from Lady Windermere’s Fan by Oscar Wilde.
Second, many references in the novel were confusing to readers, making my wiki a useful resource. According to a Village Voice review at the time, ‘Early reviews have dismissed Mysterious Flame as nostalgic and at times so personal as to be impenetrable. Eco concedes he wrote it with his own generation in mind. “It’s a book for Italian people of my age”.’ Thanks to the wiki, though, readers could easily read up on all those references, with entries like this:
P. 382, ‘Rina Fort’
On November 30, 1946, a woman and her three children were found beaten to death in their apartment in Milan. In January, 1950, Caterina Fort, the lover of the woman’s husband, was condemned to life imprisonment for the murders.
Third, Eco has written dozens of books and he frequently references the same incidents, themes and ideas across them. For example:
P. 297, A rose by another other name
from Romeo & Juliet.
Eco remarked in Postscript to The Name of the Rose that everyone assumed that the title, Name of the Rose, was a reference to this same line of Juliet. Eco emphasizes, however, that he meant his title to mean the exact opposite: names are important.
This kind of entry requires more than just Googling. Only someone truly familiar with Eco’s previous works could have written it, thus adding another useful element to the wiki on par with traditional published literary analysis and commentary.
In short, the Queen Loana Annotation Project was a modest success. A couple dozen contributors from around the globe added hundreds of high-quality entries. This group of contributors, which briefly felt like a ‘community’, annotated seemingly every last historical, literary, and artistic reference in Eco’s novel. The quality of the annotations was also surprisingly good, on par with a publishable guide book.
pynchonwiki.com
The next year, 2006, a musician and writer named Tim Ware converted his extensive online notes on the novels of Thomas Pynchon into a wiki, which he aptly named Pynchonwiki.com. The works of Pynchon were also perfect for a literary wiki, as Pynchon’s novels teem with countless obscure references which, when analyzed, often illuminate his bigger themes and messages. I joined Pynchonwiki as one the earliest contributors (under the handle ‘Bleakhaus’) and created a section for page-by-page annotation in the manner of the Queen Loana Annotation Project. This one took off beyond the wildest expectations of a literary annotation wiki geek.
According to Ralph Schroeder and Matthijs den Besten, scholars at Oxford’s Internet Research Institute and e-Research Centre who published a paper2 on Pynchonwiki, some successes of Pynchonwiki include:
•        Over 235 contributors
•        Over 455,000 words (over twice as long as Moby Dick)
•        1350+ alphabetical entries
•        4000+ page-by-page entries
•        >10,000+ edits
Schroeder and den Besten also concluded that:
•        ‘the Wiki had covered all pages within three months of publication’
•        ‘the Pynchon Wiki can be put into the context of growing interest in computer supported collaboration and e-Research’
•        ‘A common theme emerging from the facts and figures presented is the tremendous attraction of the page-by-page style of annotation in the “Against the Day” wiki’
•        ‘Wikis thus seem to be a good tool [for tasks] where endless detective work is called for, and this may apply to other areas of e-Research or online collaboration’
•        ‘the Wiki is bound to encourage learning among contributors’
Section for Pynchon’s other novels followed shortly at Pynchonwiki.com, and in short order there existed annotations for almost all of the thousands of pages in Pynchon’s oeuvre.
what next? umberto eco wiki and linguistic exploration
Over the next few years, I thought vaguely about how the lessons and successes of the Queen Loana Annotation Project and Pynchonwiki could be repeated. I created a site, Literarywiki.com, for my own experiments in annotating different kinds of texts. But I quickly discovered that most novels do not benefit from extensive commentary or annotation. Only certain kinds of novels, those that teem with information, references, and/or enigmas, benefited from such supplementary information. The novels of Pynchon and Umberto Eco, I came to believe, were exceptions rather than the rule.
To explore these issues in greater depth, I will launch, this coming week, the first of November, 2011, a new website named Umberto Eco Wiki, which I am creating through the support of my current employer, the Institut für Deutsche Sprache (Mannheim, Germany).3To coincide with the German- and English-language editions of Umberto Eco’s new novel, The Prague Cemetery, I will launch this wiki in the spirit of the above-named projects.
Umberto Eco Wiki has secions for German and English annotations, and I plan to explore how successful and useful such a resource in multiple languages can be.
My proposed short paper for Digital Humanities 2012 will document the history of the literary wiki as summarized above, relate the progress on the new Umberto Eco Wiki, explore issues relating to the literary wiki concept, including how its lessons can be applied to other digital humanities areas.
notes
1.The Mysterious Flame of Queen Loana Annotation Project was initially online athttp://queenloana.wikispaces.com/. Later it was moved to my own Literarywiki.org, and its contents will soon be migrated to the Umberto Eco Wiki (a project of the Institut für Deutsche Sprache), at http://eco.ids-mannheim.de
2.Schroeder, R., and M. L. den Besten (2008). Literary Sleuths Online: e-Research Collaboration on the Pynchon Wiki. Information, Communication & Society 11(2): 25-45. Available at SSRN:http://ssrn.com/abstract=1086671
3.Umberto Eco Wiki, available at http://eco.ids-mannheim.de","txt","2","",""
"1473","13","L’histoire de l’art à l’ère numérique – Pour une historiographie médiologique","1","Le tournant numérique en Histoire de l’art se prend plus difficilement que dans les autres disciplines des Humanités. L’une des raisons est la transparence dans laquelle ont longtemps été tenus les instruments de l’étude et de la recherche. Et bien que l’image soit considérée comme la pierre angulaire de la méthodologie de la discipline, ses dimensions de médiation et de médiatisation sont rarement abordées, les dispositifs complexes auxquels les images participent, pas davantage. Mais on constate que le tournant numérique donne une nouvelle impulsion aux études qui s’attachent à penser la technologie de la discipline, à ses différentes époques. Plus encore que la quantité, les orientations de ce regain de curiosité en font l’intérêt.
La clarification des conditions d’exercice de l’enseignement, de l’étude et de la recherche, à l’ère du numérique, nécessite d’étudier les conditions passées (techniques, supports et modes de circulation des images des oeuvres). En d’autres termes, je fais l’hypothèse que le tournant numérique requiert l’élaboration d’une historiographie médiologique de l’histoire de l’art afin d’appréhender les singularités d’une pratique numérique des images ainsi que son impact sur cette discipline.
les tendances d’une historiographie médiologique
Pour ce qui concerne le régime photographique de la reproduction, en partie associé à la culture imprimée, on dispose déjà d’une historiographie conséquente : d’abord, les écrits sources relatant les usages de la technique et les réflexions épistémologiques des grandes figures de la discipline des 19ème et début 20ème siècles sont désormais restituées ;un balisage rendu aisé par W. Freitag (1979-1980), 1998). Quant aux mérites du nouveau support, au regard des différentes techniques de gravure, l’ouvrage de William M. Ivins (1953) fait date. Le fait que de la photographie accompagne l’établissement de la discipline académique et de ses méthodes, est unanimement reconnu.
Pour une bonne part, ces écrits sont traversés par les thématiques de l’exactitude et de l’interprétation, – le thème de la fidélité au référent ou à ‘l’esprit de l’artiste’ –  en écho aux débats conflictuels entre graveurs, lithographes et photographes de la seconde moitié du 19ème (Renie 2001). Au moment du tournant numérique, on retrouve cette perméabilité entre les préoccupations de l’histoire de l’art et des démarches relevant de l’esthétique ou de la théorie de l’art – le concept d’aura de Benjamin (1935-1939) dont on peut douter qu’il concerne directement les méthodes de la discipline. L’appropriation du procédé technique par les historiens de l’art du 19ème et du 20ème siècle, est elle-même intriquée à leur ‘vision’ de l’art (Wölfflin 1896, 1897, 1915).
Mais des travaux plus récents visent à saisir une plus grande complexité médiologique: à ce titre, on citera la notion ‘d’économie visuelle’ qui, outre les rapports entre les moyens de reproduction coexistant à une époque donnée (2nde moitié du 19ème siècle), leurs coût et efficacité, rend compte des modes de réception (Bann 2001); ou encore, les quatre colloques Photo archives and the Photographic Memory of Art History,  qui abordent, pour la première fois fois, le fait archivistique même dans toutes ses dimensions, au-delà de l’aptitude du support à rendre compte de son référent (Caraffa 2011).
Ces déplacements de la recherche historiographique concernent également l’étude des périodes antérieures et manifestent que ce mouvement de réflexivité excède le régime documentaire que l’on est en train de quitter. Des études récentes portent sur les ‘musées de papier’, des recueils d’antiquaires jusqu’aux sommes illustrées d’histoire de l’art et soulèvent  des enjeux épistémologiques associés à l’environnement médiologique.
de l’expérience à la culture visuelles
Ainsi, on tente de restituer certains aspects de la pratique des images. Les collections de dessins et de gravures ne donnent que partiellement lieu à des volumes reliés et laissent les feuilles libres; aussi, par exemple, leMuseo Cartaceo, premier recueil du genre, favorise-t-il l’examen visuel, ‘ispezione oculare’ en donnant lieu à des manipulations diverses de confrontation des images, engageant la combinaison du travail de l’œil et du geste (Bickendorf 2010).
L’agencement même des images représentant les œuvres fait l’objet d’attentions nouvelles. Ainsi, par exemple, les planches comparatives de Séroux d’Agincourt (1810-1823), mettent en oeuvre un programme didactique voué à démontrer la corruption du goût antique, la décadence du Moyen Age (Mondini 2005).
Ces travaux partagent une même ambition épistémologique : la réhabilitation d’une histoire de l’art par l’image, à même de réévaluer le poids respectif du visuel et du discursif dans l’historiographie de la discipline. Plus amplement, ces musées de papier s’inscrivent dans une enquête épistémologique qui associe arts et sciences,  dans les transformations de la culture visuelle au 17ème siècle, époque d’instrumentation de la vision par le télescope et le microscope.
La ‘fabrique du regard’ (Sicard 1998) est illustrée par une première figuration d’objets observés au-delà du visible à l’œil nu. La fameuse abeille grossie, réalisée par Francesco  Stelluti, en 1625, devient un repère signifiant (Bickendorf 2010). Cette innovation participe de la culture visuelle en gestation dans laquelle baigne Cassiano del Pozzo.
C’est encore la fabrique d’un nouveau regard qui soutient la constitution de La République de l’œil, (Griener 2010). L’auteur vise à rassembler les éléments matériels et immatériels, intellectuels, cognitifs, de la culture visuelle du 18ème siècle. L’instrumentarium de l’historien de l’art s’y compose aussi bien des techniques de reproduction des œuvres (dessins, gravures) que des régimes de perception et de mémorisation qui s’instaurent. Les travaux de Locke aussi bien que la dépose des pigments d’un support à un autre forment les conditions de possibilité de la ‘lecture des œuvres’; l’image se détache ainsi de l’oeuvre et prend forme dans un espace mental qui fonctionne en corrélation entre les espaces d’exposition (Salons, musées) et celui du livre.
Ces approches ont pour point commun de réinsérer le livre d’images dans un dispositif complexe: contexte intellectuel, pratiques cognitives ou sociabilité des acteurs impliqués.
en écho avec les préoccupations actuelles de l’histoire de l’art numérique
L’étude des remédiations successives de l’image recèle un potentiel heuristique. Ainsi, la multiplicité des montages numériques d’images fait pièce à la réduction méthodologique liée au photographique (modèle binaire de la double projection, standards de l’imagerie imprimée); la liberté des agencements dans les livres anciens peut inspirer.
Par exemple, la grille comme organisation structurelle d’images montre sa permanence. (Fig. 1) Mais alors que dans le régime imprimé, la grille comparative soutient une proposition didactique achevée, (Cf. supra), avec le numérique, elle favorise la prévisualisation de corpus d’images (Welger-Barboza 2011) (Fig. 2) Ici, l’agencement est indissociable de la notion d’agentivité ; c’est en termes d’affordance des interfaces que l’on doit analyser les conditions sémiotiques et cognitives de la manipulation des images, de l’action conjuguée de l’œil et du geste (Rueckert, Radzikowska & Sinclair 2011).
 Figure 1: Jean-Baptiste Louis Georges Séroux d’Agincourt (Vol. IV, planche LXIV : Tableau historique et chronologique des frontispices des temples, avant et durant la décadence de l’art
 Figure 2: Grille de vignettes – Gestionnaire personnel d’images (Picasa)
Autre changement d’envergure, le cadre d’expérience de la pratique visuelle contemporaine, est lié aux dimensions variables du dispositif numérique [navigateur, bases d’images et éditions numériques produites par d’autres opérateurs, individuels ou institutionnels]. Les partitions entre les différentes situations de travail et de communication (personnel/collectif, privé/public, institutionnel/non-institutionnel), dans l’accès et l’utilisation des images, sont fluides, les délimitations poreuses. La culture numérique en gestation, avec ses outils et ses pratiques, forme le cadre de l’expérience visuelle pour la discipline, en transforme les méthodes comme les objets, la culture académique aussi bien que les modes de socialisation.
Dans la brève histoire de l’art numérique, des déplacements font pendant à ceux que l’on remarque dans l’historiographie médiologique de l’histoire de l’histoire de l’art. Les premières réflexions se sont naturellement portées sur les propriétés du document numérique versus le document photographique, sur l’impact de l’accessibilité de grands corpus d’images, sur la réactualisation du Musée imaginaire étendu à la 3D – Piero Project (1994, Princeton) est emblématique. Désormais, l’approche de la complexité du dispositif numérique peut se nourrir de l’étude des supports du passé de l’histoire de l’art.
references
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Mondini, D. (2005). Mittelalter im Bild. Séroux d’Agincourt und die Kunsthistoriographie um 1800. Zürich: Zurich InterPublishers.
Recht, R. (1996). La Mise en ordre, Note sur l’histoire du catalogue. Cahiers du musée national d’art modernenº 56/57, pp. 21-35.
Renie, P. L. (2001). Guerre commerciale, bataille esthétique: la reproduction des œuvres d’art par l’estampe et la photographie, 1850-1880. V. Goudinoux et M. Weemans (dir.), Reproductibilité et irreproductibilité de l’œuvre d’art. Bruxelles: La Lettre volée, pp. 59-81.
Ruecker, S., Radzikowska, M., and S. Sinclair (2011). Visual Interface Desing for Digital Cultural Heritage – A guide ro Rich-Prospect Browsing. Farnham: Ashgate.
Seroux d’Agincourt, J. B. L. G. (1810-1823). Histoire de l’art par les monumens, depuis sa décadence au IVe siècle jusqu’à son renouvellement au XVIe. Paris: Treuttel et Würtz, 6 vol.
Sicard, M. (1998). La fabrique du regard (XV-XXe siècles).Paris: Ed. Odile Jacob.
Welger-Barboza, C. (2011). Pratiques numériques de l’image. Observatoire critique, Etude des resources numériques pour l’histoire de l’art http://observatoire-critique.hypotheses.org, Consulté le 12/03/12.
Wölfflin, H. (1896, 1897, 1915). Comment photographier les sculptures. Présentation, traduction et notes par Jean-Claude Chirollet. Paris: L’Harmattan 2008.","txt","2","",""
"1474","13","Mapping the Information Science Domain","1","In the scholarly community, there has been for the last fifteen years an increasing interest in interdisciplinary projects, where researchers with different disciplinary backgrounds form teams to collaborate in addressing problems that are either not clearly within a single research domain, or that can best be approached by combining a variety of approaches. However, there also remain a number of research areas where interdisciplinary approaches seem to be warranted, but scholars in single disciplines have continued to work largely in isolation from their colleagues in other domains. We focus on one specific scientific field – information science – which is investigated in various disciplines: library and archival studies, computer science, management (and specifically, management information systems), and engineering, to name just a few.
Prior works in the area have discussed the disconnect between various areas within the broad field of information science, relying primarily on co-citation techniques and content analysis. These studies concluded that although all domains within this area are focused on the concepts of information, people, and (information and communication) technologies, the disciplines remain disjunct in terms of their disciplinary recognitions and topic of research. Despite some similarities in research methodology (‘research approach’ and ‘level of analysis’) (Glass et al. 2004), there are substantial differences in terms of co-citation patterns (Ellis et al. 1999; Sawyer & Huang 2007), indicating the fields are distinct. Furthermore, although the research in these various areas may often appear to be similar on the surface, the contents of research are varied as well (Ellis et al. 1999). Glass et al. (2004) concluded that ‘overall, we see that there was minimal topic overlap’ among the various disciplines, and Sawyer and Huang (2007) summarize that these areas of scholarship ‘have overlapping, but substantively different, research foci.’
Despite these interesting findings, extant research suffers from three primary limitations. First, previous studies are limited in scope, often focusing on just a subset of the academic units that publish articles in the domain. Second, prior research often relied on manual analysis, limiting the number of articles that are studied. Third, previous research in the area made little usage of information visualization techniques; recent advancements in the field of visualization have provided tools for exposing intricate relationships in data, and have the potential to reveal interesting patterns in interdisciplinary science.
Furthermore, although research on earlier data describes a disjoint domain, recent years have seen what appear to be the first signs of convergence in the various sub-fields within the broad information science discipline. We see more and more cross-departmental collaborations, journals with a much broader scope (e.g.JASIST), and there is a move across North America to amalgamate these various departments under one institutional roof (often referred to as the ‘information school’ or simply ‘iSchool’).
The objective of this paper is to address these previous limitations and map developments in the information science domain in the last fifteen years, using novel visualization techniques. We revisit the question of the divergence/convergence within the sub-disciplines, and propose a scalable method for analyzing (through both statistical analysis and advanced visualizations) the semantic and usage patterns in information science research articles. We focus our attention on three pre-defined topics that cross boundaries and are investigated in many sub-domains. For example the notion of ‘Trust’ was defined as ‘designing tools that would help alleviate the problem of trust in e-commerce, e.g. rating and reputation mechanisms’, and was represented using the following keywords: ‘trust’, ‘online’, ‘web’, ‘e-commerce’, ‘electronic commerce’, ‘e-business’, ‘trustworthiness’, ‘rating’, ‘reputation’, ‘reputation mechanism’, ‘system’, and ‘information system’.
Our method involved the following steps: (a) defining each of the three topic areas – ‘trust’, ‘text mining’, and ‘web services’ – through a series of search keywords; (b) running these keywords on the Thompson Reuters Web of Knowledge (http://wokinfo.com/http://wokinfo.com/) corpus of research articles, repeating the query separately for the 15 years under investigation, and choosing the 500 highest ranked (in terms of matching the query) research articles at each time period; (c) analyzing the relationships between the 500 articles in each time period using both co-citation and content analysis; and (d) developing novel visualization to expose how the patterns of relationships develop over the fifteen years.
Traditionally, citation patterns have been visualized using a network diagram, where the articles are represented as nodes and the citations are shown as lines connecting the nodes (e.g. Shen et al. 2006). Others have developed variations on this form of visual representation (Nakazono et al. 2006; Brandes & Willhalm 2002; Ibekwe-SanJuan & SanJuan 2009).
Our approach builds on the Eigenfactor method (Bergstrom & West 2008), which applies an algorithm similar to Google’s PageRank (Brin & Page 1998) to determine which nodes in a networks (in this case, journals) are most important, and how nodes connect with one another. The importance depends on where a journal resides in this mesh of citation links: the more citations a journal receives, especially from other well connected journals, the more important the journal is.
We model our visualization technique after the well-formed eigenfactor method (Stefaner 2009) that utilizes Eigenfactor, and was used in the past to track the evolution of the Neuroscience domain (http://well-formed-data.net/archives/331/neuroscience-infoporn). That analysis pre-determined the association of journals to disciplines, and then analyzed the relationships between disciplines as they evolve over time. We, however, sought a more organic approach, which recognizes that a journal could publish articles belonging to various areas (and even a specific article may belong to more than one area). Thus, we employed the classification of articles to categories provided by the Web of Knowledge.
Building on prior work in the field (Ellis et al. 1999; Glass et al. 2004), we analyze relationships both in terms of content and citation patterns. For each of the three topics, and for each of the time periods, we analyzed the 500 research articles to create similarity matrixes – in terms respectively of content and citation pattern – and then aggregated the data to calculate similarities between Web of Knowledge categories. These categories similarity matrixes were the input for our visualization method.
The results of our analysis are 3 pairs of visualizations, where each pair represents the evolution in the information science domain in terms of content and citation pattern for one topic. Figures 1a-c below depict the evolution in the ‘trust’ area, when using citation patterns as the method of analysis.
 
Figure 1a: the evolution in the ‘Trust’ topic; each line represents a Web of Science category; each cluster is made up of similar categories, corresponding to a specific scientific discipline
 Figure 1b: the ‘Information Science & Library Science’ category, and how it evolved in terms of clustering with other categories
 
Figure 1c: the cluster that includes the ‘Information Science & Library Science’ category; on the right: the list of categories in this cluster; each colored line represents a category and its origins
Figure 2, below, represents the visualization for the same topic – ‘Trust’ – this time based on the content of the research articles.
 
Figure 2: the evolution in the ‘Trust’ topic, when analysis is based on the contents of articles
There are two interesting findings from our analysis. First, we see substantial differences between co-citation patterns and the patterns based on content (i.e. comparing Figures 1a and 2a). While the topical analysis shows one primary cluster, the co-citation visualization depicts many small clusters. Thus, while there is a substantial convergence in terms of contents, the information science field remains disjoint in terms of citation patterns. Some of the primary clusters correspond to the domains of management information systems, computer engineering, medical informatics, health information systems, physics, law, and computer science. Second, there are differences between topics. While the ‘Trust’ topic seem to have emerged from one area, and then broken into smaller sub-areas over the years (see Figure 1a), the ‘Text mining’ topic remains relatively consistent in terms of its decomposition to clusters.
We conclude that our novel data analysis and visualization methods have revealed patterns that have never been described before, highlighting the differences between topics of investigation within the broad information science discipline. In our next iteration of the project will include (a) the analysis of a larger corpus of research articles, trying to capture this entire domain, (b) refined data analysis methods, and (c) the exploration of new visualization techniques, which would help us to discover additional hidden patterns.
funding
This research was supported in part by SSHRC, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.
references
Bergstrom, C. T., and J. D. West (2008). Assessing Citations with the Eigenfactor™ Metrics. Neurology 71: 1850-1851.
Brandes, U., and T. Willhalm (2002). Visualization of Bibliographic Networks with a Reshaped Landscape Metaphor. Proceedings of the Symposium on Data Visualisation, Barcelona, Spain, May 27-29, 2002.
Brin S., and L. Page (1998). The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine. Computer Networks 30: 107-117.
Ellis, D., D. Allen, and T. Wilson (1999). Information Science and Information Systems: Conjunct Subjects Disjunct Disciplines. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 50(12): 1095-1107.
Glass, R. L., V. Ramesh, and I. Vessey (2004). An Analysis of Research in Computing Disciplines.Communications of the ACM 47(6): 89-94.
Ibekwe-SanJuan, F., and E.  SanJuan (2009). The Landscape of Information Science: 1996-2008. Proceedings of the 9th ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, Austin, TX, USA, June 15-19, 2009).
Nakazono, N., K. Misue, and J. Tanaka (2006). NeL2: Network Drawing Tool for Handling Layered Structured Network Diagram. Proceedings of the 2006 Asia-Pacific Symposium on information Visualisation, – Volume 60(Tokyo, Japan). K. Misue, K. Sugiyama, and J. Tanaka (eds.). ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, vol. 164. Australian Computer Society, Darlinghurst, Australia, pp. 109-115.
Sawyer, S., and H. Huang (2007). Conceptualizing Information, Technology, and People: Comparing Information Science and Information Systems Literatures. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 58(10): 1436-1447.
Shen, Z., M. Ogawa, S. T. Teoh, and K. Ma (2006). BiblioViz: a System for Visualizing Bibliography Information. Proceedings of the 2006 Asia-Pacific Symposium on information Visualisation – Volume 60 (Tokyo, Japan). K. Misue, K. Sugiyama, and J. Tanaka, Eds. ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, vol. 164. Australian Computer Society, Darlinghurst, Australia, 93-102.
Stefaner, M. (2009). Well-Formed Eignefactor, http://well-formed-data.net/archives/192/well-formed-eigenfactor","txt","2","",""
"1475","13","May Humanists Learn from Artists a New Way to Interact with Digital Technology?","1","takeovers
The two best-known interactions between computational technologies and traditional Humanist pursuits are represented by the Artificial Intelligence/Cognitive science movement and the roughly contemporary Digital Humanities approach (although the label became popular only recently). Classic Artificial Intelligence saw itself as ‘anti-philosophy’ (Dupuy 2000; Agre 2005; Franchi 2006): it was the discipline that could take over philosophy’s traditional questions about rationality, the mind/body problem, creative thinking, perception, and so on, and solve them with the help of a set of radically new synthetic, experimentally based techniques. The true meaning of the ‘computational turn in philosophy’ lies in its methodology, which allowed it to associate engineering techniques with age-old philosophical questions. This ‘imperialist’ tendency of cognitive science (Dupuy 2000) was present from the very beginning, even before the formalization of the field into well – defined theoretical approaches (McCulloch 1989 [1948]; Simon 1994).
The Digital Humanities represent the reverse modality of the encounter just described. The most common approach (Kirschenbau 2010) uses tools, techniques, and algorithms developed by computer scientists to address traditional questions about the meaning of texts, their accessibility and interpretation, and so on. Other approaches turn technology into the scholar’s preferred object of study (Svensson 2010). The recent approach pioneered by the ‘Philosophy of Information’ (Floridi 1999, 2011) follows this pattern. Its focus on the much broader category of ‘information’ substantially increases the scope of its inquiries, while firmly keeping it within philosophy’s standard reflective mode.
The common feature of these two classic encounters between the Humanities and computational theory and technology is their one-sidedness. In either case, one of the two partners took over some relevant aspects from the other participant and fit it within its own field of inquiry (mostly questions, in AI’s case; mostly tools, for the Digital Humanities). The appropriation, however, did not alter the theoretical features of either camp. For instance, AI and Cognitive Science researchers maintained that philosophy pre-scientific methodology had only produced mere speculation that made those problems unsolvable. Therefore, philosophy’s accumulated wealth of reflection about the mind, rationality, perception, memory, emotions, and so forth could not be used by the computational approach. In McCulloch’s famous phrase, the ‘den of the metaphysician is strewn with the bones of researchers past.’ In the Digital Humanities’ case, the takeover happens at the level of tools. In most cases, however, this appropriation does not become an opportunity for a critical reflection on the role of the canon on liberal education, or for a reappraisal of the role of the text and the social, political, and moral roles it plays in society at large.
artistic digital practices
Meetings between artists and computational technology show the possibility of a different paradigm. In many cases, making music, painting, producing installations, and writing with a computer changes the concepts artists work with, and, at the same time, forces computer sciences to change theirs as well. There are many examples in the rich history of ‘digital art,’ broadly understood (OuLiPo 1973; ALAMO (Atelier de Littérature Assistée par la Mathématique et les Ordinateurs); Schaeffer 1952). I will illustrate their general features with reference to two more recent projects: the ‘microsound’ approach to musical composition (Roads 2004) and the T-Garden approach to agency (Sha 2002).
‘Microsounds’ are sonic objects whose timescale lies between that of notes – the smallest traditional music objects, whose duration is measured in seconds or fractions thereof – and samples – the smallest bit, measured in microseconds (10-6). The manipulation of microsounds broadens substantially the composer’s palette, but it is impossible without the help of technological devices of various kinds, from granular synthesis software to high-level mixing interfaces. Composers wishing to ‘sculpt’ sounds at the microlevel face a double challenge that translates into a mutual collaboration between compositional and algorithmic techniques. On the one hand, they need to broaden the syntax an grammar of music’s language to allow the manipulation and aesthetic assessment of previously unheard of objects (Vaggione 2001). On the other hand, they need computer scientists and mathematicians to develop alternative analytic and synthetic models of sound (in addition to Fourier-transforms and similar methods) capable of capturing the features of sonic events lasting only a few milliseconds (Vaggione 1996).
The T-Garden environment produced at the Topological Media Lab follows a structurally similar paradigm. It is a closed room within which people wearing wireless sensors on their chest and limbs can project images and sounds on the room’s walls and ceiling. As the participants move around, their gestures across the floor perturb the preexisting sonic and visual fields, thereby modifying it and introducing new aural and visual patterns. As Sha describes it:
[The environment] was built to explore how people can improvise gestures out of dense, evolving fields of media. In ordinary informal conversation, you can spontaneously drag or pitch your speech to express irony, sympathy, and so forth. Similarly, in a T-Garden, by waving your arm you write video or leave a trace in sound, and by moving about the space, solo or in concert with other people, you construct a voice for yourself out of a sound field that is summed from all the instrumental voices in the room. […] as you play, your continuous motions create an aural and visual ‘voice’ for yourself out of the ambient perceptual field (Sha 2002: 441-442). 
Whereas Roads explored a new sonic object lying between samples and notes, Sha investigated a segment of human agency that is neither fully free nor fully constrained. He took human gestures as a proxy for agency in general and conceived a project that demanded theoretical and technical work on two fronts. On the artistic side, it mandated the translation of a theoretical reflection upon the status of semiotic structures into a concrete installation. It required the construction of an event that forced the participants to reassess their conception of communication and ‘freedom of speech.’ On the technical sides, it forced the computer scientists to develop real-time systems capable of interpreting human gestures and translating them into sonic and visual equivalents the participants could reintegrate into their communicative actions.
These two examples points to a pattern of cooperation between work in computational and non-computational disciplines that is deeply at odds with the AI/CogSci and DigHum patterns discussed above. Instead of a takeover, the artistic model produces a true encounter that changes both partners’ technical and theoretical apparatus.
digital theoretical poiesis
Could the interaction pattern most favored by artists be generalized to the Humanities? With the help of Aristotle’s classification of human activity as poiesis, praxis, and theoria (Aristotle 1984, 1025b19-30, p. 1619), it could be objected that artistic practices are examples of poiesis. They produce objects on the basis of materials and manipulating tools. Anything (including digital tools) that provides new materials (material substrate) or new ways of organizing them will necessarily change artistic practices. And artists have always been extremely keen on expanding their material and formal palettes, long before the advent of digital techniques. The daily work of Humanists, it could be claimed, is essentially theoretical, since their task is to critically reflect upon a previously produced reality.
Paradoxically, however, a serious critical engagement with contemporary reality shows that the Aristotelian tripartite distinction is untenable in the current landscape. How can Humanities’ traditional inquiries about human nature and human cultural production still be relevant in a landscape in which some of the communicating agents may not be human, partially or entirely? Can they go on in the same way? And vice versa: are science and technology fully aware that the new digital artifacts they are shepherding into the world may change its landscape and transform worldly action at the pragmatic as well as at the theoretical level? Or are they still relying upon a pre-digital universe in which technological artifacts were always to be used as mere tools deployed by humans, an assumption that seems increasingly questionable? The genuine challenge Humanists face when confronting the ‘computational turn’ demands a truly poietic effort. Humanists will have to engage in the constructions of new concepts in a close peer-to-peer interaction with the ‘sciences of the artificial’ (Cordeschi 2002) that may result in a form of ‘digital theoretical poiesis’ much closer to artistic practice than to their traditional forms of inquiry.
This suggestion does not pretend to exhaust the theoretical options we have at our disposal when reflecting upon the computational turn. There are certainly other views that may legitimately claim to be seeking the same goal. My contention, however, is that artistic practices in all forms of ‘digital art’ can serve as an inspiration to all of the Humanities disciplines. We can follow their path toward a new mode of digital encounter that does not fall into the well-worn path of hostile takeovers by either partner.
references
Agre, P. E. (2005). The Soul Gained and Lost: Artificial Intelligence as Philosophical Project. In S. Franchi and G. Güzeldere (eds.), Mechanical Bodies, Computational Minds. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
ALAMO (Atelier de Littérature Assistée par la Mathématique et les Ordinateurs).http://alamo.mshparisnord.org/index.html (accessed 24 March 2012).
Aristotle (1984). The complete works of Aristotle. Ed. by J. Barnes. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP.
Cordeschi, R. (2002). Discovery of the Artificial: Behavior, Mind, and Machines Before and Beyond Cybernetics. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Dupuy, J.-P. (2000). The Mechanization of the Mind: On the Origins of Cognitive Science. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton UP.
Floridi, L. (1999). Philosophy and Computing: An Introduction. London, New York: Routledge.
Floridi, L. (2011). The Philosophy of Information. Oxford: Oxford UP.
Franchi, S. (2006). Herbert Simon, Anti-Philosopher. In L. Magnani (ed.), Computing and Philosophy, Pavia: Associated International Academic Publishers, pp. 27-40.
Kirschenbau, M. G. (2010). What Is Digital humanities and What’s It Doing in English Departments? ADE Bullettin 150: 1-7.
McCulloch, W. S. (1989[1948]). Through the Den of the Metaphysician. In W. S.  McCulloch, Embodiments of Mind. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, pp. 142-156.
OuLiPo (1973). La littérature potentielle. Paris: Gallimard.
Roads, C. (2004). Microsound. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Schaeffer, P. (1952). À la recherche d’une musique concrète. Paris: Seuil.
Sha, X. (2002). Resistance Is Fertile: Gesture and Agency in the Field of Responsive Media. Configurations10(3): 439-472.
Simon, H. (1994). Literary Criticism: a Cognitive Approach. In S. Franchi and G. Güzeldere (eds.), Bridging the Gap, Vol. 4. 1. Stanford Humanities Review, Special Supplement, pp. 1-26.
Svensson, P. (Summer 2010). The Landscape of Digital Humanities. Digital Humanities Quarterly 4(1).
Vaggione, H. (1996). Articulating Microtime Computer Music Journal 20(2): 33-38.
Vaggione, H. (2001). Some Ontological Remarks about Music Composition Processes. Computer Music Journal25(1): 54-61.","txt","2","",""
"1476","13","Mind your corpus: systematic errors in authorship attribution","1","introduction
Non-traditional authorship attribution relies on advanced statistical procedures to distil significant markers of authorial style from a large pool of stylistic features that are not distinctive enough to provide reliable information about authorial uniqueness. In other words, the goal is to find as much order in ‘randomness’ as possible. The better the method applied, the more regularities can be extracted from a population that seems to contain nothing but noise. However, it does not mean that one can overcome the impact of randomness: noise is an inherent feature of all natural languages. In particular, word frequencies in a corpus are random variables; the same can be said about any written authorial text, like a novel or poem.
Although dealing with this unavoidable noise is crème de la crème of computational stylistics, any other influence of additional randomness – e.g. caused by an untidily-prepared corpus – might lead to biased or false results. Relying on contaminated data is quite similar to using dirty test tubes in laboratory: it inescapably means falling into systematic error. Certainly, quite an important question is what degree of nonchalance is acceptable to obtain sufficiently reliable results.
The problem of systematic errors in stylometry has already been discussed. Rudman (1998a, 1998b, 2003) has formulated a number of caveats concerning different issues in non-traditional authorship attribution, including possible pitfalls in corpus preparation. Noecker et al. (2008), in their attempt to test the impact of OCR errors on attribution accuracy, have observed that a moderate damage of input texts does not affect the results significantly. Similarly, Eder (2011) has noticed that a faultily prepared corpus of Greek epic poems displayed an unexpectedly good performance. In another study, a strong correlation between the length of input samples and attribution performance has been shown (Eder 2010). In these and many other studies, however, the problem of systematic errors has not been addressed systematically.
The nature of noise affecting the results is quite complex. On the one hand, a machine-readable text might be contaminated by a poor OCR, mismatched codepages, improperly removed XML tags; by including non-authorial textual additions, such as prefaces, footnotes, commentaries, disclaimers, etc. On the other hand, there are some types of unwanted noise that can by no means be referred to as systematic errors; they include scribal textual variants (variae lectiones), omissions (lacunae), interpolations, hidden plagiarism, editorial decisions for uniform spelling, modernizing the punctuation, and so on.
To verify the impact of unwanted noise, a series of experiments has been conducted on several corpora of English, German, Polish and Latin prose texts, the corpora being roughly similar in length and number of authors tested. In 100 iterations, a given corpus was gradually damaged and controlled tests for authorship have been applied (the procedure has been inspired by the study of Noecker et al. 2008). It can be obviously assumed that heavy damage will spoil the results substantially. The aim of this study, however, is to test whether this decrease of performance is linear. On theoretical grounds, one can expect either a linear regression (the more errors, the worse the results), or some initial resistance to small errors, followed by a steep drop of performance.
In all the experiments, the Delta method has been used (Burrows 2002). It is a very intuitive procedure that performs considerably well as compared with much more sophisticated techniques. Like other machine-learning methods, Delta is very sensitive to the choice of number of features to be analyzed (Jockers & Witten 2010). For that reason, each experiment has been approached in a series of 30 independent tests for attribution, increasing the number of MFWs analyzed: 100, 200, 300, and so on, all the way to 3,000. The obtained results should be – by extension – valid for other methods that rely on multidimensional comparison of frequencies of MFWs.
It should be stressed that one can deal with two general types of systematic errors. First, when all the samples are damaged to a similar degree (e.g. if the corpus was not cleaned of markup tags); second, when, in a carefully collected corpus, some of the samples (e.g. one sample) are of poor quality. The latter case will not be discussed in the present study.
misspelled characters
The first experiment addresses a very trivial, yet severe, type of damage – the situation where single characters are misspelled due to transmission disturbance, imperfect typing, poor quality of scanned documents, using untrained OCR software, etc. This type of error is distributed randomly in a string of characters; however, some letters are more likely to be damaged than others. Especially, white spaces are rarely misspelled.
The experiment, then, was designed as follows. In each of 100 iterations, an increasing percentage of letters (excluding spaces) were replaced with other randomly chosen letters. To give an example: in the 15th iteration, every letter of the input text was intended to be damaged with a 15% probability; in consequence, the corpus contained roughly 15% of independently damaged letters.
 
Figure 1: Simulation of poor OCR quality in the corpus of English novels: in 100 iterations, increasing percentage of intentionally misspelled characters has been tested for 30 different MFW vectors
The results were quite similar for most of the languages tested. As shown in Fig. 1 and 2, short vectors of MFWs (up to 500 words) usually provide no significant decrease of performance despite a considerably large amount of noise added. Even 20% of damaged letters will not affect the results in some cases! However, longer MFW vectors are very sensitive to misspelled characters: any additional noise means a steep decrease of performance. Intuitively, this could be expected, as the top of frequency lists is usually occupied by short words, which are less likely to contain randomly misspelled characters. This phenomenon is quite clearly evidenced in the German corpus (Fig. 2): i.e. in a language with words usually longer than those in other languages.
 
Figure 2: Simulation of poor OCR quality in the corpus of German novels
This is very important to stress, however, that using short MFW vectors – despite their considerable resistance to damaged texts – still provides worse performance than relying on a large number of MFWs. This means that the ‘garbage in, gospel out’ optimism is in fact illusory.
noise in word frequencies
The aim of the second experiment is to explore the impact of scribal and editorial modifications of the literary texts. These include orthographic variants, scribal interpolations, editorial textual adjustments, punctuation introduced by modern scholars, etc. A corpus that contains such texts is not merely damaged, i.e. it is clean of misspelled characters. However, due to different spellings used, the obtained word frequencies are likely to be biased. This bias might be used to find unique scribal idiolects (Kestemont & Dalen-Oskam 2009); it can be also subjected to automatic disambiguation of spelling variants (Craig & Whipp 2010). In most approaches, however, there is no sufficient awareness of potential systematic error (Rudman 1998a).
The potential bias in word counts can be simulated by adding pure random noise – gradually increasing its standard deviation – to the computed tables of word frequencies. Thus, in the first of 100 iterations, the added noise would have as little variance as 0.05 σi and the last iteration would include a huge noise of 5 σi variance (which means that the noise is 5 times stronger than the variance of a given word frequencies it is added to).
 
Figure 3: Simulation of editorial modifications in the corpus of German novels
The results seem to be quite similar to those obtained in the previous experiment – but it is worth to note that the pictures are in fact symmetrical (Fig. 1-2 vs. 3-4). Here, short MFW vectors are significantly sensitive to randomness in frequency tables, while the longest vectors can survive a moderate earthquake: even very strong noise – its strength comparable with the variance of the words it infects – has a rather weak influence on attribution effectiveness. The results were roughly similar in each corpus tested.
 
Figure 4: Simulation of editorial modifications in the corpus of Polish novel
impact of literary tradition
The last type of noise can hardly be called systematic error. Namely, the aim of this experiment is to simulate the impact of literary inspirations (plagiarism, imitations, intertextuality, etc.) on attribution effectiveness. In authorship studies, there is always a tacit – and somewhat naïve – assumption that texts in a corpus are purely ‘individual’ in terms of being written solely by one author and not influenced by other writers – as if any text in the world could be created without references to the author’s predecessors and to the whole literary tradition. The problem of collaborative nature of early modern texts has been discussed by traditional literary criticism (Hirschfeld 2001; Love 2002), but it is hardly reported in computational stylistics. In authorship attribution, this feature of written texts is certainly a pitfall; however, the same feature makes it possible to use stylometric techniques to trace stylistic imitations or unconscious inspirations between different authors.
The experiment is designed as follows. In each of 100 iterations, for each text, a consecutive percentage of original words are replaced with words randomly chosen from the entire corpus. Thus, a simulation of increasing intertextual dependence between the texts in a corpus is obtained.
 
Figure 5: Simulation of extreme intertextuality in the corpus of English novels
 
Figure 6: Simulation of extreme intertextuality, in the corpus of Latin prose texts
The obtained results are quite interesting. The corpora of modern literatures, i.e. English (Fig. 5), German and Polish, displayed a gentle decrease of performance (despite the number of MFWs analyzed) in correlation with the amount of ‘intertextuality’ added. The Latin corpus (Fig. 6) behaved as if the authorial uniqueness could be traced through a mass of external quotations: a considerably good performance was achieved despite 40% of original words replaced. This deserves further investigation.
references
Craig, H., and R. Whipp (2010). Old spellings, new methods: automated procedures for indeterminate linguistic data. Literary and Linguistic Computing 25(1): 37-52.
Burrows, J. F. (2002). ‘Delta’: A Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. Literary and Linguistic Computing 17(3): 267-287.
Eder, M. (2010). Does size matter? Authorship attribution, small samples, big problem. Digital Humanities 2010: Conference Abstracts. King’s College London, pp. 132-135.
Eder, M. (2011). Style-markers in authorship attribution: a cross-language study of the authorial fingerprint.Studies in Polish Linguistics 6 (in press).
Hirschfeld, H. (2001). Early modern collaboration and theories of authorship. PMLA 116(3): 609-622.
Jockers, M. L., and D. M. Witten (2010). A comparative study of machine learning methods for authorship attribution. Literary and Linguistic Computing 25(2): 215-223.
Kestemont, M., and K. van Dalen-Oskam (2009). Predicting the past: memory based copyist and author discrimination in Medieval epics. Proceedings of the 21st Benelux Conference on Artificial Intelligence (BNAIC) 2009. Eindhoven, pp. 121-128.
Love, H. (2002). Attributing Authorship: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
Noecker, J., M. Ryan, P. Juola, A. Sgroi, S. Levine, and B. Wells (2009). Close only counts in horseshoes and… authorship attribution? Digital Humanities 2009: Conference Abstracts. University of Maryland, College Park, MD, pp. 380-381.
Rudman, J. (1998a). Non-traditional Authorship Attribution Studies in the ‘Historia Augusta’: Some Caveats.Literary and Linguistic Computing 13(3): 151-157.
Rudman, J. (1998b). The state of authorship attribution studies: some problems and solutions. Computers and the Humanities 31: 351-365.
Rudman, J. (2003). Cherry picking in nontraditional authorship attribution studies. Chance 16(2): 26-32.","txt","2","",""
"1477","13","Modeling Gender: The 'Rise and Rise' of the Australian Woman Novelist","1","overview
Drawing on the AustLit: the Australian Literature Resource database,1 this paper uses quantitative and computational methods to offer new insights into literary history: in this case, gender trends in the contemporary Australian novel field.
austlit
AustLit is currently the most comprehensive and extensive online bibliography of a national literature. Created in 2001, AustLit merged a number of existing specialist databases and bibliographies, and has subsequently involved well over a hundred individual researchers – from multiple Australian universities and the National Library of Australia – in an effort ‘to correct unevenness and gaps in bibliographical coverage’ and continually update the collection. The database has received significant government and institutional funding and support, and includes bibliographical details on over 700,000 works of Australian literature and secondary works on that literature. In addition to its high degree of comprehensiveness, AustLit is well suited to quantitative and computational analysis due to its construction according to established bibliographical standards and fields, which gives the data a high degree of consistency across the collection. This study focuses on Australian novels, the most comprehensively recorded aspect of AustLit. Even so, AustLit notes that its ‘coverage of some popular fiction genres such as westerns and romances, and of self-published works, is representative rather than full’.2
methodology
Although AustLit is generally used by researches for individual queries, it also has a guided search function that allows a large number of results to be extracted as tagged text. Using this function I constructed searches that returned information, including the author, date and place of publication and genre, for all Australian novels published between 1945 and 2009. I then used Apple OS X command lines to organize the data before exporting it to CSV format. Once in this format, I searched all the author names in AustLit to discover any pseudonyms and to determine if the authors were male or female. I explored the data in Excel, using the pivot table function to query the data and the chart function to visualize of trends over time.
My approach to this data is based on a combination of book history’s awareness of the contingency and limitations of data, and the paradigm of computer modeling as outlined by Willard McCarty in Humanities Computing.3 Although there has been virtually no conversation between the two fields, the methodological underpinnings of book history and the digital humanities together signal important directions for developing a critical and theoretically aware approach to working with data in the humanities. Quantitative book historians explicitly acknowledge the limited and mediated nature of data, and provide clear and detailed accounts of the origins, biases and limitations of the literary historical data they employ. In presenting their results, such scholars insist that quantitative results provide a particular perspective, suited to the investigation of some aspects of the literary field but not others, and offer indications rather than proof of literary trends. As Robert Darnton writes, ‘In struggling with [literary data], the historian works like a diagnostician who searches for patterns in symptoms rather than a physicist who turns hard data into firm conclusions’.4
Although developed for use with language, McCarty notion of modeling – as an exploratory and experimental practice, aimed not at producing final and definitive answers but at enabling a process of investigation and speculation – can be adapted for analysis and visualization of literary historical data, and employed in ways that resonate productively with quantitative book historical methods. Specifically, I used a modeling approach to explore a series of hypotheses about trends in Australian literary history. For instance, the gender trends in authorship in a given period might lead me to suppose a particular hypothesis (such as the influence of second-wave feminism on constructions of authorship). In enabling modification of or experimentation with data – for instance, subtracting particular publishers or genres – modeling provides a way of testing such ideas, with the results of different models either fulfilling and strengthening, or challenging, the original hypothesis. This methodological framework shows how relatively simple computational processes in Excel can enable a process of thinking with the computer that reveals trends, conjunctions and connections that could not otherwise be perceived.
This combination of book historical and digital humanities methods avoids what I see as limitations in other ‘distant readings’ of the literary field, including Franco Moretti’s well-known ‘experiment’ in literary history:Graphs, Maps, Trees.5 In particular, the skeptical approach to data encouraged by book history avoids the portrayal of quantitative results as objective and transparent. Meanwhile, McCarty’s notion of modeling – as a means of thinking with the computer – avoids the assumption that the computer is a passive tool in the process of analysis and interpretation.
results
Extracting data from this online archive, visualizing and modeling it, has allowed me to address questions of long-standing interest to literary scholars and to explore new and hitherto unrecognized trends in Australian literary history. This paper illustrates the potential of such research for literary studies with a case study that responds to the conference theme of ‘digital diversity’. A major issue in literary historical discussions of ‘diversity’ is the presence – or absence – of women authors in the literary field. In contemporary literary studies (in Australia and other national contexts), such discussion has focused on the period from the late 1960s to the late 1980s, when second-wave feminism is said to have had its major impact. This period is cited as a time of substantial growth in women’s presence in the literary field, leading to increased diversity and a deconstruction of the canon of male authors. Visualisations of the AustLit data allows me to explore whether this perception of gender trends is warranted, while the process of modeling enables investigation of the causes of the trend.
In relation to gender trends from the late 1960s to the late 1980s, the results of this study support the longstanding perception that women’s involvement in the Australian novel field increased at this time (see Figure 1, showing the proportion of Australian novels by men and women from 1945 to 2009). However, the outcomes of the modeling process significantly complicate the standard interpretation of this trend, and the relationship between politics and the literary field it implies. Contextualising this growth in women’s writing in relation to the genre of Australian novels shows that the largest area of growth was in romance fiction, a form of writing usually seen as inimical to second-wave feminism.
Another challenge to existing interpretations of the relationship between gender, politics and fiction emerges in the past two decades, when gender trends in authorship are explored in the context of gender trends in critical reception. In the 1970s and 1980s, even as romance fiction represented the largest proportion of women’s publishing, critical attention to Australian women writers in newspapers and academic journals increased (see Figure 2, depicting the proportion of men and women among the top twenty most discussed Australian novelists in these different forums and overall). The proportion of Australian novels by women has continued to grow in the past two decades, such that they write well over half of all Australian novels published in the 2000s (see Figure 1), and the proportion of romance fiction in this field has declined. Yet in this same period, women writers have been less and less the subject of critical discussion in newspapers. These results resonate with those recently presented by Vida, an advocacy group for women writers, showing the same prevailing focus on male authors in the book reviews of a wide range of major American and European newspapers and magazines in 2010 and 2011, including The Atlantic, the London Review of Books, the New York Review of Books and the Times Literary Supplement.6
Although women continue to be well represented in academic discussion of Australian literature, the focus in that forum is on nineteenth-century authors, whereas both contemporary and historical male authors are discussed. Despite the impact of feminism on the Australian literary field, these results suggest that the longstanding perception of the great author as a man is still influential. Presence or representation is not, I argue, the only issue in determining the success of diversity in the literary field. Other constructions – relating to the genre in which fiction is written and gender trends in its reception – shape the field in ways that only come into view on the level of trends: when the literary field is approached as a system, using data-rich and computer-enabled methods.
 
 
notes
1.AustLit. (2001-). AustLit. http://www.austlit.edu.au/ (accessed 25 March 2012).
2.AustLit. (2001-). About Scope. http://www.austlit.edu.au/about/scope (accessed 25 March 2012).
3.McCarty, W. (2005). Humanities Computing. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
4.Darnton, R. (1996). The Forbidden Best-Sellers of Pre-Revolutionary France. New York: Norton, p. 169.
5.Moretti, F. (2005). Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History. London: Verso.
6.Vida: Women in Literary Arts (2010). The Count 2010. http://vidaweb.org/the-count-2010 (accessed 19 June 2011); Vida: Women in Literary Arts (2011). The Count 2010. (accessed 9 March 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1478","13","Modeling Medieval Handwriting: A New Approach to Digital Palaeography","1","As many hundreds of thousands of medieval manuscripts are now being digitised, with many millions of pages becoming available, the question of how to find specialised content in this material is becoming increasingly urgent. In this paper I present a new conceptual model for the description and therefore retrieval of features of handwriting in Western medieval script. Digital Humanities requires first a theoretical model which outlines all of the features of a given domain and the relationships between them (McCarty 2004), and this is the focus of the present paper. However, the implications of this work are very much wider: just as the TEI has lead to ‘a new data description language that substantially improves our ability to describe textual features’ (Renear 2004: 235), so the formal model of handwriting presented here sharpens and could even resolve long-standing problems in palaeographers’ own terminology and practice.1
the problem
Common research questions in palaeography include finding examples of a particular way of writing a given letter, or scribes who constructed letters in particular ways. For example, it has been asserted that a specific form of t was used only by English scribes in the ninth century (Dumville 1984: 249-250), and that ‘Square’ features in Anglo-Caroline minuscule of the late tenth century is distinctive of Canterbury (Bishop 1972: xxii). These assertions have generally been made with little supporting evidence, in part because the corpus of surviving manuscripts is too large to support systematic analysis, but one should now be able to overcome this by producing an online resource for searching and viewing scribal practices and examples of script. This is an objective of the DigiPal project,2 which will provide an online catalogue of about 1,200 samples of English handwriting from the eleventh century, along with annotated digital images of about half of these. However, this objective is made very difficult by several factors. Image retrieval is very well studied, with approaches ranging from Content Based Image Retrieval (CBIR) such as that used by Google Images, to tagging with complex taxonomies like IconClass, as well as intermediate combinations of the two such as that provided by font identification software.3 However, CBIR cannot easily be tuned to scholars’ criteria if these do not match the machine’s perception of ‘content’. Similarly, systems like IconClass are very large, very intimidating, and require specialised training to use effectively. IconClass also depends on a shared vocabulary and this is famously absent from palaeography: the Comité international de paléographie latine was established in 1953 partly for this purpose but it has not produced even a draft document some fifty-eight years later.4 This can partly be overcome by thesauri which map equivalent terms from different practices, but an even more fundamental lack is that of a rigorous conceptual model for handwriting itself. The textual community has been debating ‘what text is’ for some time, partly because of the TEI (Pierazzo & Stokes 2011: 399-401), but no discussion like this has yet arisen in palaeography (though see Stokes 2010: 1228-1230). With neither a clear model nor a common vocabulary, it is hardly surprising that the few attempts at digital catalogues to date have been unsuccessful.5
the model
To illustrate the difficulties, consider the following list of possible research questions:6
•        Show me a list of all manuscripts containing the ‘Insular’ form of a (Fig. 1a).
•        Show me images of all occurrences of the ‘Caroline’ form of s written by scribes who otherwise wrote Insular minuscule (Fig. 1b).
•        Tell me which scribe(s) habitually wrote the ‘rounded’ form of a in combination with a hooked top-stroke of t (Fig. 1c).
•        Give me images of all letters with forked ascenders (Fig. 1d).
 
Figure 1: Examples of Medieval Handwriting
 
Although these questions may look similar, they have a range of important differences which are largely concealed by the ambiguous word ‘letter’. The challenge is therefore how to model handwriting in sufficient detail to represent these nuances, considering not only a scribe’s general practice but also its specific instances. It requires first a clear distinction between script (‘the model which the scribe has in mind’s eye when he writes’), and (scribal) hand (‘what he actually puts down on the page’: Parkes 1969: xxvi). The word ‘letter’ is also ambiguous, and so further terms are useful here. Starting with the most concrete, a graph is an instance of the letter as written on the page. In contrast, an idiograph is ‘the way (or one of the ways) in which a given writer habitually writes’ a given letter, and an allograph is a recognised way of writing the given letter, as shared by a group rather than being distinctive of any given individual (Davis 2007: 254-255; cf. also Emiliano 2011).7 A grapheme is a letter-entity as an idealized, abstract, discrete, unit of a writing system. Also useful is Unicode’s character to refer to the intermediate level between grapheme (which by definition has no physical form) and allograph. Thus the grapheme <a> has (at least) two characters, ‘capital’ A and ‘small’ a. The second of these has many allographs, one of which is Insular a, this is normally found in the script known as Insular cursive minuscule; in Figure 1a and 1c we have two distinct allographs of a; and so on. Grapheme and character are both ‘emic’, whereas allograph, idiograph and graph are all ‘etic’.
Two further terms are required to describe specific details of letters. Component refers to the basic parts which make up characters, such as ascenders, descenders, serifs and so on; components may themselves have further components. Features are descriptive labels which may apply to one or more components: thus a descender may be straight or curved, long or short, and so on. Finally, we also need general stylistic features which may not refer to any specific component, such as the thickness and angle of the pen.
From these terms, a formal model has been developed which captures these entities and the relationships between them; this is represented in a simplified UML diagram in Figure 2 below.
According to this model, a grapheme has one or more characters, each character can be represented by an arbitrary number of allographs which in turn are represented by any number of idiographs and those in turn by graphs; a scribal hand comprises a set of graphs, scribal practice a set of idiographs, and so on. Each character, allograph, idiograph and graph can be made up of components, every component has at least one feature, and so on.
 Figure 2: A Simplified UML Diagram showing the conceptual model of medieval handwriting
significance and usage
This model allows us to phrase palaeographical research questions much more precisely. It also allows structured descriptions of both habitual and specific writing-practices, thereby allowing complex queries. For example, we can specify:
1.        A set of possible characters and the components that each character must have.
2.        A script, namely a set of allographs which are normally written together, including their componentsand features.
3.        A scribal hand, namely the set of idiographs which a scribe normally uses.
4.        A set of graphs, for example those in an image of a particular manuscript page.
This model is also significant for capturing not only forms of letters but also specific stylistic features which apply across letters: not only particular forms of b, for example, but also the type of wedges on ascenders of any letter, or indeed wedges on ascenders of all letters exceptb.
An important further advantage is that if one level is fully defined then many details of the levels below that can be inferred automatically and so only exceptions need be recorded. For example:
1.        The character b has an ascender and a bowl.
2.        Insular minuscule script normally features wedges on ascenders.
3.        It follows from (1) and (2) that allographs of b in Insular minuscule will normally have wedges on ascenders.
This allows rapid data capture despite the highly detailed model – a crucial point in a context where many thousands of graphs and idiographs will need to be described in order to be worthwhile. One limitation of the model is that it allows one simply to record the presence of a feature, rather than (for example) numerical values to indicate ‘fuzzy’ cases where a feature is only partially present. The model could easily be adapted to accommodate this, but the increased time in data-entry would be prohibitive. Instead, in the implementation used for DigiPal, many features have n-ary distinctions instead: for example, ascenders can be wedged or clubbed or barbed or deeply-split or without decoration, and so on (see further Stokes 2011, Part v).
This paper will present the model and also demonstrate its use in practice through an annotation tool and search interface which are being developed for the DigiPal project. Reference will also be made to alternative uses which are being planned in the near future, including (we hope) application to Hebrew and Cuneiform script. The paper will also reflect on the process as an example of Digital Humanities bringing rigour to an existing discipline. McCarty has argued that modeling and the computer’s ‘demand for complete consistency’ leads directly ‘to the epistemological question of how we know what we know’ (2004). However, this question is itself fundamental to palaeography, where one of the biggest challenges has been to make explicit the apparently subjective judgments of experts. As Derolez wrote of these, ‘their great deficiency … lies in the difficulty of putting them into words’, and, more generally, he asked ‘whether morphological features [i.e. the shapes of letters] can be described in an unambiguous way’ (2003: 7). If a model such as this can achieve what fifty-eight years of the Comité could not then that would surely be a significant achievement in a field which has often viewed quantitative approaches and the Digital Humanities with significant mistrust (Derolez 2003: 7-9; Stokes 2009).
references
Bishop, T. A. M. (1971). English Caroline Minuscule. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Davis, T. (2007). The Practice of Handwriting Identification. The Library, 7th series, 8: 251-276.
Derolez, A. (2003). The Palaeography of Gothic Manuscript Books. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
Dumville, D. N. (1983). Motes and Beams. Peritia 2: 248-256.
Emiliano, E. (forthcoming 2011). Issues in the Typographic Representation of Medieval Primary Sources. In Y. Kawaguchi and M. Minegishi (eds.), Corpus Analysis and Diachronic Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
McCarty, W. (2004). Modeling: A Study in Words and Meanings. In S. Schreibman, R. Siemens and J. Unsworth,A Companion to Digital Humanities. Oxford: Blackwell. 254-270.
Parkes, M. B. (1969). English Cursive Bookhands 1250-1500. Oxford: Oxford UP.
Pierazzo, E., and P. A. Stokes (2010). Putting the Text Back into Context. In F. Fischer et al. (eds.), Kodikologie und Paläographie im Digitalen Zeitalter. Norderstedt: Books on Demand, vol. 2, pp. 397-430http://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/4360/.
Renear, A. (2004). Text Encoding. In S. Schreibman, R. Siemens and J. Unsworth, A Companion to Digital Humanities. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 218-239.
Stokes, P. A. (2007/08). Palaeography and Image Processing. Digital Medievalist 3http://www.digitalmedievalist.org/journal/3/stokes/.
Stokes, P. A. (2009). Computer-Aided Palaeography: Present and Future. In M. Rehbein et al. (eds.),Kodikologie und Paläographie im Digitalen Zeitalter. Norderstedt: Books on Demand, pp. 309-338http://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/volltexte/2009/2978/pdf/KPDZ_I_Stokes.pdf.
Stokes, P. A. (2010). Scripts. In A. Classen (ed.), Handbook of Medieval Studies. Berlin: de Gruyter, vol. 3, pp. 1217-1233.
Stokes, P. A. (2011). Describing Handwriting (Parts i–). London: King’s Collegehttp://digipal.eu/blogs/blog/describing-handwriting-part-i/.
Stokes, P. A. (forthcoming). Palaeography and the “Virtual library”. In B. Nelson and M. Terras (eds.),Digitizing Medieval and Early Modern Material Culture. Arizona: Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies.
Unicode Consortium (2011). Glossary of Unicode Terms http://unicode.org/glossary/.
notes
1.For initials expression of the ideas in this paper see the DigiPal blog (Stokes 2011).
2.http://digipal.eu/.
3.http://www.iconclass.nl; http://www.identifont.com/; http://new.myfonts.com/WhatTheFont
4.http://www.palaeographia.org/cipl/ciplGen.htm. See further Derolez 2003: 6-9, and Stokes 2010: 1229-1230.
5.See the Palaeographic Catalogue athttp://www.arts.manchester.ac.uk/mancass/C11database/letter_catalogue.php, and that by Stokes (2007/8: §§24-26). The shortcomings of both are discussed by Stokes (forthcoming).
6.These emerged from a workshop for the DigiPal project at King’s College London, 6 September 2011.
7.Idiograph should not be confused with ideograph, a ‘symbol that primarily denotes an idea or concept’ (Unicode 2011).","txt","2","",""
"1479","13","Multi-dimensional audio-visual technology: Evidence from the endangered language documentation","1","The audio-visual documentation of endangered language provides multi-dimensional data which can effect outcomes of research such as understanding the complexities of linguistic diversity and transmitting memory and knowledge. Audio-visual documentation also allows for observing the unique cultural heritage embedded in the culture, and also for understanding the environmental, multilingual and socio-cultural context of the speech community.
This study investigates how the digital audio-video capturing can record several types of information simultaneously and how it has become a successful method for not only documenting the language but also observing the cultural uniqueness.
Linguists such as Daniel L. Everett (2001) prefers monolingual field method for studying the languages, but others like George Cowan (1975) claims that the monolingual approach is a serious barrier to maintaining the good-will of the community members. A common obstacle that linguists face needs to understand the lingua franca, which is essential for practical and administrative purposes of studying a language (Newman & Ratliff 2001). As most of the speakers in this study are multilingual, the language of elicitation and the medium of interview are also influenced by this factor and multilingualism is becoming a social phenomenon among Pumas. The medium of conducting interview and the elicitation for this study are in a ‘lingua franca’, Nepali language. Interviewees in the study speak Nepali as a second or first language. The findings reveal that monolingual research is only contextual and it is not sufficient to study endangered languages.
In 2010 field research was conducted in Nepal to study the ‘Morpho-syntax of Puma, which is an endangered language. During eight months in the field site, a total of 45 informants both male and female were selected and interviewed from all Puma speaking Village Development Committees. A total hour of audio and video recording was 08:35:03 in the natural settings. The recorded corpus is divided into 83 different sessions and all of them have been transcribed in Puma, mostly by native speakers and then translated into Nepali, and English by the researcher. The software/ digital tools and major recording equipments used in this work are as follows:
(a) Software
•        Transcriber (for transcription from audio and/or video data) .trs file
•        Toolbox (for glossing/segmenting, adding sound files into texts and creating a dictionary) .txt file
•        ELAN (for linking audio-visual data with texts; video annotation) .eaf
•        Handbrake to convert original video format (MTS/ AVCHD) into MP4
•        Kigo Video converter to convert original video format (MTS/ AVCHD) into MP4
(b) Recording equipments
•        Zoom-4Hn Recorder for audio recording
•        Canon Legaria HF S200 for video recording
•        Audio-Technica AT8022 stereo microphone
•        Audio Technica Pro 70 Lavalier
•        Rod NTG2 microphone
•        Canon Powershot Digital Camera
WAV, MP4 and text files of the data have been created and can be archived and disseminated for use. In the case of many endangered languages, such materials are essential for developing pedagogical materials in mother tongue education and language revitalization. Csató and Nathan (2003) emphasize that whereas linguists working in the community earlier contributed through traditional academic publishing, linguists in recent years create multimedia resources to highlight their relationships with the community.
This paper attempts to explore fundamental questions of direct elicitation.
Based on complex verbal morphology and paradigms in Puma, without direct elicitation, it is not possible to gather authentic data on verbal paradigms, deixis, compound verbs and among others. Identifying morphemes and their multiple usages are challenging in the Puma language. Using questionnaires and basic sentences are still the most widely and commonly used method for linguistic research. Dixon (2010) states that the only way to understand the grammatical structure of a language is to analyse recorded texts but not elicited sentences. The findings in the study pose that elicited sentences are quite essential and significant especially for eliciting Puma verb paradigms and figuring out deictic categories. We can never neglect direct elicitation, and the established questionnaires and basic sentences (i.e Dahls’ 1985 questionnaire) can be recorded in Puma.
The recording of speech from different genres such as narratives, conversations, myths and stories, life histories, songs, poetry and daily accounts is the core of linguistic fieldwork. Both recording of text and direct elicitation are essential tools that have their own variety of uses. Since none of them are sufficient for all linguistic analysis, both of them should not be overlooked (Mithun 2001). The text collection, its transcription and translation, and glossing are important tools for understanding and learning languages.
Metadata is the additional but essential information needed for archiving and managing language documentation and can be referred to as meta-documentation, which includes information about the identity of stakeholders, the attitudes of language contributors and the methodology (Austin 2010; Nathan 2010). The linked-metadata should be kept and all files name such as text file, WAV file, MP4 file, ELAN file and transcriber file must be the same otherwise there would be great problem not only for future researchers but also for archiving.
Linguists cannot avoid cultural aspects of speakers while studying their language, as culture is an integral part of the language community. The study shows evidence that certain unique genres of ritual speech, like thehopmacham, a chant praising the forces of creation during marriages (CPDP 2004-2008), are still well-known and in practice in the Puma community while it has already disappeared in other neighboring ethnic groups. In this study hopmacham was initially recorded like other texts but its cultural heritage and uniqueness was unknown until it was glossed and translated into Nepali. The recordings allowed for deeper analysis of culture in the community.
Integrating linguistic and cultural resources is a crucial endeavour for documentary linguistics. The audio-visual data include many different types of information which can record several types of information simultaneously such as linguistic and cultural diversity, ethnography of speaking traditions of both everyday and ritual language, socio-cultural aspects of the community such as rites and rituals. It also captures some anthropological considerations such as religion, settlement, clans, emigration, and the socio-linguistic aspects, and most importantly videos and photographs of informants and local features. Thus, the analysis of the study makes clear that digital audio-video method is the best method for documenting endangered language and integrating linguistic and cultural data for archive, dissemination, and mobilization in the humanities.
references
Austin, P. K. (2010). Current Issues in Language Documentation. In P. Austin (ed.), Language Documentation and Description. London: SOAS, vol. 7, pp. 12-33.
Chintang and Puma Documentation Project (CPDP) (2004-2008). www.uni-leipzig.de/~ff/cpdp/.
Cowan, G. (1975). The monolingual approach to studying Amuzgo. In A. Healey (ed.), Language Learner’s Field Guide. Ukarumpa, Papua New Guinea: SIL, pp. 272-276.   
Csató, É. Á., and D. Nathan (2003). Multimedia and documentation of   endangered languages. In P. Austin (ed.), Language Documentation and Description. London: SOAS, vol. 1, pp. 73-84.
Dahl, Ö. (1985). Tense and Aspect Systems. Oxford: Blackwell.
Dixon, R. M. W. (2010). Basic Linguistic Theory. Oxford: Oxford UP.
Everett, D. L. (2001). Monolingual field research. In P. Newman and M. Ratlif (eds.), Linguistic Fieldwork, Cambridge: Cambridge UP, pp. 166-88. 
Mithun, M. (2001). Who shapes the record: the speaker and the linguist. In P. Newman and M. Ratlif (eds.),Linguistic Fieldwork, Cambridge: Cambridge UP, pp. 34-54.
Nathan, D. (2010). Language documentation and archiving: from disk space to my space. In P. Austin (ed.),Language Documentation and Description. London: SOAS, vol. 7.
Newman, P., and M. Ratliff (2001). Linguistic Fieldwork. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.","txt","2","",""
"1480","13","Multilingual and Semantic Extension of Folk Tale Catalogues","1","introduction
The modelling of phenomena related to higher-order knowledge mechanisms poses significant challenges to research in any domain, this being also valid for narratives, which ‘are an important form of knowledge representation’, as (Tuffield et al. 2006) state. In the context of the AMICUS network1 we are more specifically interested in the representation of motifs in narratives. Motifs are recurring conceptual, textual, audio or visual units appearing in artefacts – in folk tales, they can be seen as cognitively complex notions (e.g. ‘Rescue of princess’, ‘Helpful animal’, ‘Cruel stepmother’, etc.), expressed by lexically and syntactically variable narrative structures. The modelling of such motifs, including their typical realizations in natural language form, can help in supporting the automatic motif detection in large (multilingual) text collections2. But this kind of formal representation of motifs is so far unresolved, and thus a large amount of cultural heritage collections of which motifs are typical constructive units can still only be manually indexed, which significantly limits access to these resources and to this type of knowledge. Recently, we started to investigate the utility of linguistic and semantic analysis and mark-up of motifs (Lendvai et al. 2010), which we would like to extend and apply to studies on motif sequencing (Darányi, Wittek & Forró 2012).
In the current study, we address two priorities of the Digital Humanities discipline: devising procedures that integrate semantic enhancement of legacy folk tale indexes, classification systems and taxonomies (Declerck & Lendvai 2011) and their automatized translation (Mörth et al. 2011). For this study we are dealing with two extended catalogues that hold conceptual schemes of narrative elements from folktales, ballads, myths, and related genres: the Thompson’s Motif-Index of Folk-Literature, TMI (Thompson 1955) and The Types of International Folktales, ATU (Uther 2004). TMI has an available on-line version3, only in English language, but the digitized ATU is not yet available on-line in its entirety, only some of its subsections are reproduced in Wikipedia, in various languages4.
TMI indexes and ATU types are both combined with extensive labels, and a novel approach to those resources is that this combination can be linguistically processed (Declerck & Lendvai 2011), semantically represented, and, ultimately, turned into domain-specific ontology classes that can be interlinked. The upgrade leads to semantically enriched catalogues that qualify as interoperable language technology resources that can be harnessed to assign text units to the folktale domain classes, creating in an automatized way indexed folktale corpora. As part of such a normalization process, catalogues have to be made interoperable with each other, and stored in a semantically harmonized representation, like the SKOS5 standard, which is using RDF6 as its formal representation language.
towards semantic and multilingual extensions of tmi
The Thompson’s Motif-Index of Folktale-Literature is organized by alphanumeric indexes, which resembles a taxonomy structure of motifs, but does not express hierarchy or inheritance properties. i.e. it is not made explicit that some elements of the taxonomy introduce mere classification information over a span of labels(‘A0-A99. Creator’, split into finer-grained subclasses, e.g. ‘A20. Origin of the creator.’), that some elements are abstractions of motifs (‘A21. /Creator from above./’), and that some elements are summaries of a concrete motif, supplying source information as well (‘A21.1. /Woman who fell from the sky./–Daughter of the sky-chief falls from the sky, is caught by birds, and lowered to the surface of the water. She becomes the creator.–*Iroquois: Thompson Tales n.27.–Cf. Finnish: Kalevala rune 1.’).
We prepared a program that converts TMI to an XML representation and marks such properties explicitly by designated tags, as exemplified below:
<label class=”TMI_A0″ span=”A0-A99″ type=”abstract” lang=”en”>Creator</label>
<label class=”TMI_A20″ span=”A21-A27″ type=”abstract” Property_Of=”A0″ lang=”en”>Origin of the Creator</label>
<label class=”TMI_A21″ span=”A21.1-A21.2″ type=”abstract” SubClassOf=”A20″ lang=”en”>Creator from Above</label>
<label class=”TMI_A21.1″ span=”A21.1-A21.1″ type=”concrete” SubClassOf=”A21″ lang=”en”>Woman who fell from the sky</label>
This representation makes explicit the fact that the natural language expressions (like ‘Creator from Above’) are labels of classes that we explicitly organise in a class hierarchy. The feature ‘type’ can take two values: ‘abstract’ or ‘concrete’. The latter is indicating that the index (for example: A21.1) is pointing to concrete examples in selected tales. The ‘span’ feature is indicating the number (from 1 to many) of subsumed indexes. We noticed that indexes (‘classes’ in our terminology), which are in fact leaves (spanning only over their own number) point all to concrete tales, and can thus be considered as first level motifs, whereas the other classes have more a classification role.
Ongoing work is dedicated to upgrading the XML representation to SKOS-RDF, to provide adequate means for differentiating between hierarchical realizations and properties associated with classes, and the possibility to compute inheritance properties o  of the class hierarchy. SKOS-RDF is also appropriated for publishing the enriched TMI resource on the LOD. We display below a simplified example (where ‘TMI_A*’ are shortcuts for URIs):
                <TMI_A0> rdf:type skos:Concept ;
                 skos:prefLabel “Creator”@en.
            <TMI_A20> rdf:type skos:Concept ;
                 skos:prefLabel “Origin of the Creator”@en
                 skos:related <TMI_A0>.
            <TMI_A21> rdf:type skos:Concept ;
                 skos:prefLabel “Creator from Above”@en.
            <TMI_A21.1> rdf:type skos:Concept ;
                 skos:prefLabel “Woman who fell from the sky”@en ;
                 skos:broader <TMI_A21>
In parallel, we target the extension of motifs listed in TMI in English into a multilingual version. This is carried out by accessing the Wiktionary lexicon7, via the LOD-compliant lexvo8 service. Actual work (Declerck et al. 2012) is aiming at extracting from Wiktionary a multilingual lexical semantics network for the labels included in TMI.
towards the harmonization of multilingual atu on-line data
As we mentioned above, only segments of ATU are available on-line, in the context of Wikipedia articles, in different languages. We note the following discrepancies in these:
•        (EN) 310 Rapunzel (Italian,Italian, Greek, Italian)
•        (DE) AaTh 310 Jungfrau im Turm KHM 12
•        (FR) AT 310: ‘La Fille dans la tour’(The Maiden in the Tower): version allemande
The English Wikipedia links Rapunzel to four Wikipedia pages on tales belonging to the same ATU type. Rhe Wikipedia page for the original Rapunzel tale is reached if the reader clicks on ‘Rapunzel’. The German page links additionally to the German classification KHM (Kinder- und Hausmärchen). The French Wikipedia page gives an English translation of the French naming, while the French title of the Rapunzel tale is accessible only if the user clicks on the link ‘version allemande’, leading to the French Wikipedia page ‘Raiponce’). There is a clear need to structure this disparate information in one representation format. We turned the basic information from the Wikipedia pages into an integrated SKOS representation:
<ATU_310> rdf:type skos:Concept;
skos:prefLabel “Rapunzel”@en;
skos:altLabel “The Maiden in the Tower”@en;
skos:prefLabel “Jungfrau im Turm”@de;
skos:altLabel “Rapunzel”@de;
skos:prefLabel “La Fille dans la Tour”@fr;
skos:altLabel “Raiponce”@fr.
On the basis of a small fragment of such aligned information from Wikipedia pages, a representative multilingual terminology of ATU terms can be aggregated, and this terminology can be re-used for supporting the translation of other labels of ATU or of TMI. We investigate for this terminology alignment techniques used in the Machine Translation field, adapting them to the short terms that are employed in the catalogues.
relating the upgraded representations of tmi and atu
The SKOS vocabulary allows to establish matching relations between the upgraded TMI and ATU catalogues, so that for example the motif TMI_A2223.1. ‘Cat helps man build house: may occupy chimney corner.’ can be linked to ATU_545 ‘The Cat as Helper’:
            <TMI_A2223.1> rdf:type skos:Concept ;
                 skos:prefLabel “Cat helps man build house: may occupy chimney corner”@en.
            <ATU_545> rdf:type skos:Concept;
              skos:prefLabel “The Cat as Helper”@en.
            <TMI_AA2223.1> skos:relatedMatch <ATU_545>
Whereas we still do not take decisions on the type of matching relation, which could be ‘broader’, ‘narrower’ or ‘close’. Additionally we currently investigate the concrete linguistic and semantic markup of the tokens used in labels, using another RDF-based formalism: the lemon9 representation scheme. Precise linguistic mark-up allows establishing in an automated way this kind of SKOS matching, since the noun ‘Helper’ can be marked as a derivation of the verb ‘help’. This work also supports the building of a lexical semantics network for folktales, based on the labels used in TMI and ATU.
towards the automated analysis of motif sequences in folktale plots
The semantically upgraded TMI and ATU resources incorporate information about class hierarchy, which allows potential users to query for motifs that are connected on the same or on different levels of the taxonomy. This is feature that could be exploited for the analysis or generation of storytelling scenarios, since plot graphs of folktales are like watersheds, progressing by connecting motifs at different hierarchical levels as points at various heights. Thus the semantically upgraded TMI could help to learn about the concatenation patterns of motif categories used in tales In turn, one could use such category information as a source of probabilities for network construction. Such probabilistic networks, prominently Hidden Markov Models, are a highly significant research topic in bioinformatics, a field as much utilizing the concept of motifs as narratology, therefore methodological cross-pollination is a totally realistic option. Darányi et al. (2012) have recently shown that ATU tale types as motif strings exemplify the basic recombination patterns of chromosome mutations already on a limited sample of types, and more new findings can be expected by an extension of the quest for ‘narrative DNA’. Further, the manual tagging of tale types by motifs in ATU is known to be incomplete, so to repeat this tagging by automatic means by annealing motif definitions and NLP-based term or phrase extraction is an ultimately fruitful endeavour.
conclusion
In this study, we focus on converting TMI and ATU into adequate semantic resources, compliant with linguistic and terminological requirements, to enable multilingual, content-level indexing of folktale texts. TMI and ATU in their paper form have mainly been used for manual assignment of English-language metadata. To upgrade these established classification systems of folk narratives, we specify a development program that enhances and links them using language processing and semantic technologies. Recent work was dedicated to establish terminological relationships between both catalogues, using for this the SKOS framework establishing semantic links between specific labels of both semantically enriched catalogues. Our work will lead to the deployment of such resources in the LOD framework, complementing the work of national libraries that already ported their bibliographic data to the LOD. This may not only facilitate automated text indexing, but also allow for more detailed analysis of motif sequencing.
Acknowledgements
The contribution of DFKI to the  work reported in this paper has been partly supported by the R&D project ‘Monnet’, which is co-funded by the European Union under Grant No. 248458.
references
Darányi, S., P. Wittek, and L. Forró (2012). Toward Sequencing ‘Narrative DNA’: Tale Types, Motif Strings and Memetic Pathways. Proceedings of the Workshop on Computational Models of Narrative, Istanbul, May 2012.
Declerck, T., and P. Lendvai (2011). Linguistic and Semantic Representation of the Thompson’s Motif-Index of Folk-Literature. Proceedings of the International Conference on Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries, Berlin, Germany, Springer, 9/2011.
Declerck, T., and N. Koleva (2012). An Iterative Ontology-Based Text Processing Strategy for Detecting and Recognizing Characters in Folktales. Proceedings of Digital Humanities -2012.
Declerck, T., K. Mörth, and P. Lendvai (2012). Accessing and standardizing Wiktionary Lexical Entries for supporting the Translation of Labels in Taxonomies for Digital Humanities. Proceedings of LREC-2012.
Lendvai, P., T. Declerck, S. Darányi, P. Gervás, R. Hervás, S. Malec, and F. Peinado (2010). Integration of Linguistic Markup into Semantic Models of Folk Narratives: The Fairy Tale Use Case. Proceedings of the Seventh International conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, Pages 1996-2001, Valetta, Malta, European Language Resources Association (ELRA).
McCrae, J., E. Montiel-Ponsoda, and P. Cimiano (2012). Integrating WordNet and Wiktionary with lemon.Proceedings of  LDL 2012.
Mörth, K., T. Declerck, P. Lendvai, and T. Váradi (2011). Accessing Multilingual Data on the Web for the Semantic Annotation of Cultural Heritage Texts. Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on the Multilingual Semantic Web, Bonn, Germany, Springer, 10/2011.
Thompson, S. (1955). Motif-index of folk-literature: A classification of narrative elements in folktales, ballads, myths, fables, medieval romances, exempla, fabliaux, jest-books, and local legends. Revised and enlarged edition. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1955-58.
Tuffield, M. M., D. E. Millard, and N. R. Shadbolt (2006) Ontological Approaches to Modelling Narrative. In:2nd AKT DTA Symposium, January 2006, AKT, Aberdeen University.
Uther, H.-J. (2004). The Types of International Folktales: A Classification and Bibliography. Based on the system of Antti Aarne and Stith Thompson. FF Communications no. 284–286. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia.
Zöllner-Weber, A. (2008). Noctua literaria : a computer-aided approach for the formal description of literary characters using an ontology. Ph.D. Thesis, Bielefeld University.
notes
1.AMICUS (Automated Motif Discovery in Cultural Heritage and Scientific Communication Texts),http://ilk.uvt.nl/amicus/.
2.The interconnection of Knowledge Representation systems and automated textual analysis is being successfully applied to various domains. One of our goal is to adapt and apply such technologies to the automated analysis of folk narratives, using for example the approach presented in (Declerck & Koleva 2012), to be extended among others by ontology elements described in (Zöllner-Weber 2008).
3.See http://www.ruthenia.ru/folklore/thompson/index.htm.
4.See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarne%E2%80%93Thompson_classification_system for the English version, http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarne-Thompson-Index for the German version, and for the French version http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_Aarne-Thompson. Note that the online ATU data do not reflect the layout of the original catalogue, as was the case for TMI.
5.SKOS stands for ‘Simple Knowledge Organization System’. See for more details:http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/.
6. RDF stands for ‘Resource Description Framework’. See http://www.w3.org/RDF.
7.See http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wiktionary:Main_Page.
8.‘Lexvo.org brings information about languages, words, characters, and other human language-related entities to the Linked Data Web and Semantic Web.’ See http://www.lexvo.org.
9.‘lemon (LExicon Model for ONtologies) is an RDF model that allows to specify lexica for ontologies and allows to publish these lexica on the Web’ (see McCrae et al. 2012)). This model was developed within the European R&D project “Monnet” (see www.monnet-project.eu","txt","2","",""
"1481","13","Myopia: A Visualization Tool in Support of Close Reading","1","Although the term ‘myopia’ typically has negative connotations, focusing on what is nearby is not always a bad idea. Literary critics value what they call ‘close reading’, the process of carefully reading a poem or other literary work word-by-word and line-by-line in order to analyze how different features of the text – sound, syntax and rhythm work together to create meaning. Through close reading, literary critics hope, the reader might eventually succeed in uncovering hidden connotations. Typically, multiple readings are necessary to understand the structure of a literary work and to unearth multiple meanings, especially in the case of poetry. Only then can the reader perceive the poem’s prosody. A non-abstract, enhanced visualization of the metrical, syntactical, and sonic structures of a poem can greatly ease this laborious process.
There has been a recurrent effort to develop text visualization and visual statistical tools to better understand the underlying structures of chosen textual resources. Some of these tool suites provide opportunities for exploration and collaboration in area of textual analysis [5,6,9,10]; others are more narrowly focused on comparison of plain or encoded text, across versions [3, 7]. Despite attempts to do so these digital tools have not resulted in significantly easing the process of close reading [2]. The side-by-side method of highlighting differences is not conducive to spot connotations and analyses, and thus does not help in fully exploiting potential of digital tools in literature.
At Miami University, we are developing the Myopia Poetry Visualization tool to facilitate display of a multidimensional representation of TEI [8] encoded poetry and text. Presenting an interactive visual representation of differently encoded versions of text, the Myopia tool seeks to amplify understanding and uncover new knowledge in the context of close reading. The tool currently is used to visualize text from The Poetess Archive currently moving to Texas A&M University. The Poetess Archive includes a database of electronic documents encoded using the TEI (Text Encoding Initiative) schemas [8] extended with the Poetess Archive tag-set that has been derived from widely used terms in literary analysis and criticism. Even though one schema is used, a schema extended from the TEI schema, the elements of a poem that are interesting to literary scholars have been formalized as tags and attributes based on XML standards. But the tags relevant to any single poem must be spread across multiple documents. XML by its very nature is hierarchical, and these hierarchies cannot overlap within an XML document. The elements of prosodic structures of poetry however do overlap: a metaphor might begin in the middle of one poetic line and end in the middle of another. Different features thus need to be encoded in separate XML files making a composite analysis difficult. Moreover, the XML representation of literary texts is suitable for machine processing and electronic exchange of information, but it is not intuitively comprehensible even by those scholars who know about poetry and would be most likely to adopt an XML encoding system. A tool which fuses TEI encodings spread over separate files into a single visually integrated document could help overcome the limitations of encoding literary texts in XML. We are developing a visualization tool that seeks to integrate multiple encodings while allowing comparative analysis of multiple poems encoded using the extended TEI tag-set. The proposed solution is an interactive visual representation of differently encoded versions of text that can enhance cognition, and aid in uncovering of new knowledge. This approach facilitates identification of frequently changing hotspots in encoded text and aids in the process of close reading.
Close reading means reading a poem word by word and then repeating the process line by line in order to explore sound, syntax, tropological figures, and the meter or underlying rhythm of the work. The reader might eventually succeed in uncovering hidden connotations. Multiple iterations are necessary to understand the structure and thus to unearth meanings from a poem. Only then is the reader in a position to describe underlying prosodic elements in literary text. A non-abstract, enhanced visualization of syntax and sound structures of a poem can greatly ease this laborious process.
The brain’s capacity to rapidly process visual information, and discern visual patterns forms the basis for any visualization. Pirolli and Card developed a theory of information access to help designing interfaces to visual cognitive tools. People follow a scent as they forage for information, making just-in-time decisions about which path to follow [11]. An ideal cognitive loop between a computer and human would require the computer providing exactly the information needed at any given time. Thus only relevant information should be on screen, allowing users to forage as they explore the interface. In the Myopia tool, the cost of visual queries is reduced by the minimal layering of visual information, a layering that users can control.
The effectiveness of a given visualization is directly related to the properties of the mapping between the raw data and its rendering. In general any mapping should allow the user to access the underlying data, so that he or she can be assured that the visualization actually relates to the source data being rendered. In our visualization tool the textual content of the encoded poetry being visualized is always available to the user. The ability to revert to the source text at any stage of the visualization from abstract graphical mappings is a conscious design choice that we made in building our tool, and we believe that allowing users to see the text enhances the tool’s effectiveness [12]. Myopia employs a direct representation of textual content overlaid with graphical metaphors to aid in literary analysis of poetry.
The User Interface of the Myopia tool is split into three distinct visual regions
•        The Main Visualization Area that displays and allows users to interact with the rendered text.
•        A Key/Legend at bottom of the visualization panel that holds a tabbed display of keys associated with the loaded visualization.
•        GUI Panel at the right of the Visualization panel. This allows loading and manipulating source TEI documents and the resulting3D visual elements.
 
Figure 1: Myopia Tool – Principal Characteristics and Layout
The Myopia Poetry Visualization tool has been developed in Python and utilizes open-source Python libraries for rendering multidimensional graphics integrated with an intuitive user interface. The framework used for multidimensional graphics is called Panda3D, which was developed at Carnegie Mellon University [4]. It is useful to mix two-dimensional interface design elements with higher dimension graphical design elements. Navigational controls should always be visible and accessible to the user. In the Poetry Visualization tool the two-dimensional Graphical User Interface (GUI) elements are created using the wxPython framework.
We are conducting user studies to evaluate the effectiveness of our approach in helping the process of close reading. To achieve this objective we utilize the Pre-Experimental Design methodology known as Pretest-Posttest Experiment design ex- plored by Campbell, Stanley et. al. [1]. The experiment seeks to measure the effective- ness, adequacy and usability of the Myopia Poetry Visualization tool. The research questions of the study seek to determine the three aspects of the tool: its effectiveness, its adequacy, and its usability.
Reading literature closely is a time-consuming activity. Often combining the results of close reading can be difficult. By using Information Visualization, new knowledge about text can be synthesized. We are presenting a method to support close reading of literary texts using multi-dimensional composite visualizations. Offering an interactive visual representation of a poem’s literary qualities, the Poetry Visualization tool al lows for a multidimensional representation of TEI-encoded poetry and text. Presenting an interactive visual representation of differently encoded
versions of text, the tool seeks to amplify understanding and uncover new knowledge. This tool will facilitate identifying hotspots in an encoded text and will visualize the attendant changes in areas of interest across various TEI documents: a poem may be most interesting metaphorically in one line, but metrically it may be more interesting in another. The goal is to help scholars analyze the original documents in new ways and explore information visualization as a rhetorical device in literary criticism. The contributions of this research are in the areas of Information Visualization and Digital Humanities. The purpose of the research is to support reading literature closely using information visualization. This will facilitate abstract analysis of literary texts by fusing multiple perspectives.
 
Figure 2: Myopia Tool – Multiple Perspectives
references
[1] Campbell, D. T., and J. C. Stanley (1966). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
[2] Bulger, M., E. Lagresa, et al. (2008). Close reading re-visited. http://english236-w2008.pbworks.com/Visualization-Project (accessed 11 March 2012).
[3] Mittelbach, A. (2009). Tei-comparator in  my  element. http://blogs.oucs.ox.ac.uk/jamesc/2009/09/04/tei-comparator (accessed  12 March 2012).
[4] Carnegie Mellon ETC (2010). Panda 3d – free 3d game engine. http://www.panda3d.org/ (accessed 12 march 2012).
[5] UC BerkeleyVisualization Lab (2010). Flare data visualization for the web. http://flare.prefuse.org/(accessed 12 march 2012). August 2010.
[6] IBM (2011). Many eyes. http://manyeyes.alphaworks.ibm.com/manyeyes/ (ac- cessed 12 March 2012).
[7] Juxta (2011). Juxta collation software for scholars. http://www.juxtasoftware.org/about.html (accessed 12 March 2012).
[8] TEI (2011). TEI: Text encoding initiative. http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml (accessed 12 March 2012).
[9] University of  Nebraska (2011). Tokenx: a  text  visualization,  analysis,  and      play tool.http://jetson.unl.edu:8080/cocoon/tokenx/index.html?file=../xml/base.xml (accessed 12 March 2012).
[10] Bradfford Paley, W. (2011). Textarc.org home. http://textarc.org/ (accessed 12 March 2012).
[11] Pirolli, P., S. K. Card, and M. M. van der Wege (2001). Visual information foraging in a focus + context visualization.  Proceedings of the SIGCHI","txt","2","",""
"1482","13","Networks of networks: a critical review of formal network methods in archaeology through citation network analysis and close reading","1","This paper will argue that archaeological network researchers are not well networked themselves, resulting in a limited and sometimes uncritical adoption of formal network methods within the archaeological discipline. This seems to have followed largely from a general unawareness of the historicity of network-based approaches which span at least eight decennia of multi-disciplinary research. Many network analytical techniques that would only find a broader use in the last 15 years were in fact introduced in the archaeological discipline as early as the 1970s. This paper does not aim to argue that every archaeological network study should include a historiography. It merely wishes to stress the need to explore the full range of existing network techniques and models. I will illustrate that knowledge of the diversity of archaeological and non-archaeological network methods is crucial to their critical application and modification within archaeological research contexts.
This paper will for the first time trace the academic traditions, network concepts, models and techniques that have been most influential to archaeologists. I will do this by combining a close reading of published archaeological network applications with citation network analysis techniques (Batagelj 2003; Hummon & Doreian 1989; White 2011), an approach that has not been applied to archaeological literature before. A citation network was created consisting of over 10,000 publications and their internal citations. This network consists of all archaeological network analysis applications, all publications cited by them and the citations between those publications. This data was extracted from Web of Knowledge (http://wok.mimas.ac.uk/) and manually when the publications were not included on Web of Knowledge.
The analysis revealed a number of issues surrounding the current use of network methods in archaeology, as well as possible sources and explanations for these issues. They include the following: (1) Although many network techniques are rooted in graph theory, archaeological studies in graph theory were not influential at all to more recent archaeological network studies. The introduction of graph theory and social network analysis into the archaeological discipline happened largely independently and, unlike social network analysts, archaeologists did not collaborate with graph theorists to develop mathematical techniques tailored for their needs. (2) The potential of social network analysis techniques was explored (largely theoretically) by Cynthia Irwin-Williams no later than 1977. Many of the techniques she described were not applied in archaeological research until the last ten years, possibly because the limited availability of cheap and potent computing power and large digital datasets in the late 1970s. (3) Some social network analysis techniques (e.g. centrality measures) have received more attention than others (e.g. ego-networks). The popularity of these techniques seems to be related with their use by social network analysts rather than how archaeologists have used them before. (4) The archaeological use of complex network models is largely limited to the extremely popular small-world and scale-free models. Archaeologists have neglected to explore the potential use of alternative complex network models. (5) The availability of user-friendly software seems to determine the popularity of social network measures used by archaeologists. (6) On the other hand, simulations of complex network models by archaeologists are rare due to the required technological and mathematical skills.
The results of the citation analysis expose the insufficiently explored potential of formal network-based models and techniques and points out publications in other disciplines that might have interesting archaeological applications. The paper concludes that in order to move towards richer archaeological applications of formal network methods archaeological network analysts should become better networked both within and outside their discipline. The existing archaeological applications of network analysis show clear indications of methods with great potential for our discipline and methods that will remain largely fruitless, and archaeologists should become aware of these advances within their discipline. The development of original archaeological network methods should be driven by archaeological research problems and a broad knowledge of formal network methods developed in different disciplines.
references
Batagelj, V. (2003). Efficient Algorithms for Citation Network Analysis. Arxiv preprint cs/03090 23: 1-27.
Irwin-Williams, C. (1977). A network model for the analysis of Prehistoric trade. In T. K. Earle, and J. E. Ericson (eds.), Exchange systems in Prehistory. New York: Academic Press, pp. 141-151.
Hummon, N. P., and P. Dereian (1989). Connectivity in a citation network: The development of DNA theory.Social Networks 11(1): 39-63.
White, H. D. (2011). Scientific and scholarly networks. In J. Scott, and P. J. Carrington (eds.), The SAGE handbook of social network analysis. London: Sage, pp. 272-285.","txt","2","",""
"1483","13","Notes from the Collaboratory: An Informal Study of an Academic DH Lab in Transition","1","introduction
Digital Humanities (DH) as a discipline is highly collaborative and as such requires a departure from typical humanities work patterns with its focus on the lone scholar (Siemens 2009; Siemens et al. 2011). In particular, DHers must develop new skills and knowledge and negotiate new ways of conducting research and organizing people, financial resources, space and other factors (Scholars’ Lab 2011). In this regard, the Sciences and Applied Sciences can provide guidance and suggest several models upon which DH can draw to achieve project objectives.
The Sciences use two primary models of organisation for conducting research. The first model is the typical faculty-directed laboratory where the lead researcher creates a research vision and hires staff to conduct the research. This individual is ultimately responsible for research results, including publications, patents, discoveries, and use of funds, to their department, faculty, university, academic discipline, funders and others. Collaboration occurs at the level of research vision execution, rather than the development of that vision (Haynes et al. 2006). Ultimately, the lead researcher is evaluated by traditional academic measures, including the number of articles, books, patents, lines of software code, and level of grant funding (Cantwell 2011). Many books and manuals are available to guide the new scientist on now to set up and manage a lab, people and resources (Cohen & Cohen 2005; Howard Hughes Medical Institute & Burroughs Wellcome Fund 2006).
Alternatively, Big Sciences are using collaboratories to create ‘centres without walls’ where researchers work together to create common access to data and instruments, such as supercomputers, telescopes, and global history databases within an umbrella research area, but do not necessarily work on the same research projects. These collaborations are most successful when everyone contributes to the same degree that they draw upon the common instruments and data (de Moor & van Zanden 2008; Wulf 1993). Various studies have been conducted to evaluate the productivity of these different models (Finholt 2003; Haynes et al. 2006).
Alongside these well-evolved and understood models of collaboration – that is those that follow patterns of the single-researcher directed ‘collaborat-ory’ and that of the multiple-researcher directed co-laboratory (Glasner 1996: 111) – opportunities exist to create hybrid organisations and apply within the Sciences and beyond to the Humanities and Social Sciences. But how do these models work within DH? Can they be applied directly to DH or does this community need collaborative research models that differ from those typically found in the Sciences?
This paper will examine the experiences of one academic DH lab as it adapts these models, develops collaborative structures, meets its research objectives and produces outputs that can be evaluated by traditional academic measures. It will conclude with recommendations for other Digital Humanists who are setting up their own labs or are collaborating on the creation of new DH centres.
a case study
The case study focuses on the evolution a DH lab as it experimented with different organisational forms to support collaboration over a seven year period of growth, and three distinct stages of organisation and operation. It initially operated as a single faculty-directed lab with graduate research assistants, postdoctoral fellows, programmers, and others as staff in its first four years. At that point, those who worked in the lab underwent a research visioning exercise, the results of which suggested that a hybridised ‘collaborator’ model would be the most appropriate organisational form, one that would allow a fuller and more active participation of faculty, staff and contractors in visioning, consensual decision-making, and leadership. Finally, the lab returned to a more standard model, with a plan for more structured growth in the future.
Over all these transitions, the impacts of these various internal operational models were tracked against standard academic and funding agency benchmarks that included measurable research resource intake, provision of teaching and service, and research outputs, such as books, articles, conference papers, and other types of production, more DH-oriented research outputs in the form of tools and prototype development, and further issues – some measureable, such as documented internal and external complaints, and some less so. As other labs have found, not meeting these targets can lead to reduced grant funding and lack of research space (Cantwell 2011) and, so, meeting such targets is directly tied to the ongoing operation of a lab.
Particularly notable among the results discussed is that the lab’s experimentation with a hybridised collaboratory model unintentionally introduced a diffused accountability structure; many internal mechanisms and accountability structures that allowed earlier successes were inadvertently removed as part of the process of hybridising the two models. As a result, with the checks and balances that ensured consideration of basic collaboration principles removed, lab productivity by all measures fell drastically and almost-immediately, and team functionality became severely handicapped. Formal accountability structures themselves became viewed as contrary to collaborative principles and, without those accountability structures in place, it became increasingly difficult for team members to follow through on the development and implementation of project plans; acts of planning became less meaningful in this context as well. Without a set structure that ensured that those contributing resources and those who were accountable to outside structures (Department, the Faculty, university and funding agencies) enacted a leadership role, few sanctions for non-performance existed (de Moor et al. 2008) and ‘free-riding’ became the chief mode of interaction among staff and contractors. Further, an informal work culture developed that was contrary to local and university policies as well as, in some cases, funding agency guidelines; internal lab groups formed, striated, clique-ified, and could not work together. This situation contributed to a dramatic increase in personnel complaints.
In the end, the experiment could be judged to be a failure as measured by many common benchmarks. Despite attempts to fuse what the lab felt to be the most desirable features of the single-researcher directed ‘collaborat-ory’ and that of the multiple-researcher directed ‘co-laboratory’, the lab became neither. Upon the feedback from the lab’s advisors, the research lead is moving towards [1] a return to the model of the single-researcher directed ‘collaborat-ory,’ with [2] promise to implement plans to become, more formally, a multiple-researcher directed ‘co-laboratory’ – all the while retaining the strong internal operational structures and hierarchies that were in place before the experiment.
conclusion
This case study contributes to ongoing discussions in DH about appropriate organization forms and accountability mechanisms (de Moor et al. 2008; Dormans & Kok 2010; Warwick 2004) , roles, contributions, and status within projects (#alt-academy, 2011) , and the nature of collaboration (Siemens 2009) . It provides several lessons for consideration. First, Science models for collaboration and the creation of well-functioning labs can be applied within DH (Bland & Ruffin IV 1992; Haynes et al. 2006) . Second, some hierarchy is necessary, particularly when one individual is responsible for sourcing the money and other resources which sustains the lab. This lead researcher is accountable for these funds and ‘must have ultimate authority’ (Lawrence 2006; Rogers-Dilon 2005: 449). Having said this, consensus and active participation in discussions around ways to achieve a lab’s research direction can create an exciting and intellectually productive environment and working relationships, as measured by staff satisfaction and academic metrics. These roles must be backed up with clear objectives, tasks, timelines and consequences for non-performance. Lastly, this case study serves as a cautionary tale for new DH researchers who will be tasked with setting up their own labs, managing staff and research, creating partnerships, while remaining accountable to stakeholders inside and outside the university.
references
#alt-academy (2011). #alt-academcy: A media commons projecthttp://mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/alt-ac/ [November 1, 2011].
Bland, C. J., and M. T. Ruffin IV (1992). Characteristics of a productive research environment: Literature review. Academic Medicin, 67(6): 385-397.
Cantwell, B. (2011). Academic in-sourcing: International postdoctoral employment and new modes of academic production. Journal of Higher Education Policy & Management 33(2): 101-114.
Cohen, C. M., and S. L. Cohen (2005). Lab dynamics: Management skills for scientists. Cold Spring Harbor, New York: Cold Spring Habor Laboratory Press.
de Moor, T., and J. L. van Zanden (2008). Do ut des (i give so that you give back): Collaboratories as a new method for scholarly communication and cooperation for global history. Historical Methods 41(2): 67-80.
Dormans, S., and J. Kok (2010). An alternative approach to large historical databases. Historical Methods43(3), 97-107.
Finholt, T. A. (2003). Collaboratories as a new form of scientific organization. Economics of Innovation and New Technology 12(1): 5-25.
Glasner, P. (1996). From community to ‘collaboratory’? The human genome project and the changing culture of science. Science and Public Policy 23(2): 109-116.
Haynes, L., S. Pfeffer, J. M. Boss, et al. (2006). Lab management: Insights for the new investigator. Nature Immunology 7(9), 895-897.
Howard Hughes Medical Institute & Burroughs Wellcome Fund (2006). Making the right moves: A practical guide to scientific management for postdocs and new faculty (2nd ed.). Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Burroughs Wellcome Fund.
Lawrence, K. A. (2006). Walking the tightrope: The balancing acts of a large e-research project. Computer Supported Cooperative Work: The Journal of Collaborative Computing 15(4): 385-411.
Rogers-Dilon, R. H. (2005). Hierarchical qualitative research teams: Refining the methodology. Qualitative Research 5(4): 437-454.
Scholars’ Lab (2011). The praxis program at the scholars’ lab http://praxis.scholarslab.org/ [September 12, 2011].
Siemens, L. (2009). It’s a team if you use ‘Reply all’: An exploration of research teams in digital humanities environments. Literary & Linguistic Computing 24(2): 225-233.
Siemens, L., R. Cunningham, W. Duff, et al. (2011). A tale of two cities: Implications of the similarities and differences in collaborative approaches within the digital libraries and digital humanities communities. Literary & Linguistic Computing 26(3): 335-348.
Warwick, C. (2004). ‘No such thing as humanities computing?’ An analytical history of digital resource creation and computing in the humanities. Paper presented at the Joint International Conference of the Association for Computers and the Humanities and the Association for Literary & Linguistic Computing. tapor.humanities.mcmaster.ca/html/Nosuchthing_1.pdf [May 25, 2006].
Wulf, W. (1993). National collaboratories: Applying information technology for scientific research. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.","txt","2","",""
"1484","13","On the Internet, nobody knows you're a historian: exploring resistance to crowdsourced resources among historians","1","Crowdsourcing, the act of taking work once performed within an organisation and outsourcing it to the general public in an open call (Howe 2006), is increasingly popular in memory institutions as a tool for digitising or computing vast amounts of data, as projects such as Galaxy Zoo and Old Weather (Romeo & Blaser 2011), Transcribe Bentham (Terras 2010) and the Australian Newspapers Digitisation Program (Holley 2010) have shown. However, the very openness that allows large numbers of experts and amateurs to participate in the process of building crowdsourced resources also raises issues of authority, reliability and trust in those resources. Can we rely on content created by pseudonymous peers or members of the public? And why do academics often feel that they can’t? This paper explores some of the causes and forms of resistance to creating and using crowdsourced resources among historians.
‘Participant digitisation’ is a specialised form of crowdsourcing in which the digital records and knowledge generated when researchers access primary materials are captured at the point of creation and potentially made available for future re-use. Through interviews with academic and family/local historians, this paper examines the following: the commonalities and differences in how these two groups assess the provenance, reliability and probable accuracy of digital resources; how crowdsourcing tools might support their working practices with historical materials; the motivations of historians for sharing their transcriptions and images in a public repository; the barriers that would prevent them from participating in a project that required them to share their personally-digitised archives; and the circumstances under which they would selectively restrict content sharing. From this preliminary investigation, the paper will go on to consider implications for the creation of digital humanities resources for academic and amateur users.
references
Holley, R. (2010). Crowdsourcing: How and Why Should Libraries Do It? D-Lib Magazine 16(3/4).
Howe, J. (2006). The Rise of Crowdsourcing. Wired 14.06. [Online] Available from:http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/14.06/crowds.html
Romeo, F., and L. Blaser (2011). Bringing Citizen Scientists and Historians Together. In J. Trant and D. Bearman (eds), Museums and the Web 2011: Proceedings. Toronto: Archives & Museum Informatics.
Terras, M. (2010). Digital curiosities: resource creation via amateur digitization. Literary and Linguistic Computing 25(4), 425-438.","txt","2","",""
"1485","13","On the dual nature of written texts and its implications for the encoding of genetic manuscripts","1","introduction
Discussions about a markup language for the genetic encoding of manuscripts have reached a crucial point. The endeavours undertaken by a couple of notable projects over the last years promise to yield a new encoding standard for the description of the genesis of texts. In our talk we will survey the past and current states of affairs and outline some problems of genetic encoding within and without the framework of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI).
crucial issues in genetic encoding
Early conceptions of a computer-aided genetic edition trace back to the 1970s (Gabler 1998). The absence of any established standard for projects that aim to record revised manuscripts and genetic relations across numerous witnesses was still felt at the end of the 20th century. Through the 1990s and early 2000s, the then available TEI guidelines did not meet the requirements of genetic textual criticism, for genetic manuscripts often lack textual structure in a more conventional sense and show complicated series of revisions. This incompletenesses gave rise to the construction of the HyperNietzsche Markup Language (Saller 2003, esp. note 3) which was a kind of spin-off, but no sustainable alternative.1Some of the problems that led to HNML resolved themselves with the previous version of the Guidelines (Burnard et al. 2008: 72-78, 335-374). Other expectations, however (Vanhoutte 2002; Pierazzo 2009), remained unfulfilled:
•        A documentary or ‘diplomatic’ transcription which focuses less on the as yet privileged textual structure of the examined material.
•        The possibility to record the temporal course of the genesis of texts.
The ‘Encoding Model for Genetic Editions’ (Workgroup on Genetic Editions, 2010) was to satisfy both requests. Now that it has been largely incorporated in chapter 11 of the second version of ‘Proposal 5’ (Burnard et al. 2011), successes and shortcomings can be discussed. As for the documentary transcription, a way of encoding has been made possible which could not be thought of in former versions of the TEI Guidelines up to the first version of P5 (Burnard et al. 2008). However, the suggested approach to transcribe texts, taking into account the spatial distribution of the inscription falls short of completion (Brüning et al., forthcoming). The conceptual tension between the documentary and the textual perspective which gave rise to the proposed encoding model has become even more pronounced. As for the markup of textual alterations, it is not always clear how the newly introduced elements relate to well-established practice.2 The former stringency of chapter 11 of the Guidelines corresponded to the limited goal of providing ‘methods for encoding as broad a variety of textual features as the consensus of the community permits’ (Sperberg-McQueen et al. 1993). This consensus came to be known under the name of an ‘agnostic’ view on the issue of textuality. However, when chapter 11 was revised for the actual version, this consensus was tacitly and perhaps unawares abandoned. for the sake of much specific needs that parts of the new version of the chapter try to fulfill. Many of the needs which the newly introduced parts of the chapter try to fulfill are not covered by a broad consensus, but are based on very specific aims. Therefore the conceptional problems inherent in the genetic module cannot any longer be solved with reference to an alleged ‘agnostic’ basis. A discussion on the nature of text is not only of theoretical interest but also inevitable for practical reasons.
the dual nature of written texts
We would like to submit as a basic principle that any written text is, by virtue of being a linguistic entity, of a double-sided nature: First, it is by virtue of being a written text, a physical object that can be identified in space and time as a document or an inscription (the material or documentary dimension). Second, it is – by virtue of being a written text – an abstract object (the textual dimension), which has to be materialized in some way, not necessarily in one specific material form (Goodman 1977; Genette 1997).  As can be learned from the epistemology of general linguistics (Saussure 1916: introduction, ch. 3; cf. Bouquet 1997), it is imperative for sound methodology to keep irreducible points of view distinct, each of which allows a coherent strategy of inquiry. Any attempt to collapse two entirely different dimensions into one, will ultimately run up on a reef of methodological incoherence. Within the digital humanities, the use of the word ‘text’ is often inspired by the way texts are represented in the digital code: as an ordered hierarchy of content objects (Renear et al. 1996) or as a strictly linear sequence of characters (cf. Buzzetti & McGann 2006: 60). But the hierarchical and/or linear representation of a text in a computer file is not and cannot by principle be a text in a linguistically respectable sense of the word (Sperberg-McQueen 1991: 34).
consequences
Adherence to our basic principle will lead to some important consequences for encoding written texts and to some proposals for the application and further development of the available TEI Guidelines.
1.        The documentary perspective (1) takes the inscriptional point of view and focuses on thematerialization of the text. The basic elements of this perspective are written letters and other inscriptional phenomena, such as cancellations and other sediments of the writing process. Inscriptional analyses can be focussed on units smaller than letters (e.g. allographic forms or elements below the niveau of the letter, see Feigs 1979). But due to the specific aims of our project, units smaller than letters are ignored. Letters can as well be regarded as linguistic units, and a linguistic understanding of what is written is a precondition for any manuscript to be deciphered. However, it is possible to disregard from this understanding for the purpose of a documentary edition. – The textual perspective (2) focuses on linguistic entities. Its basic elements are linguistic units. Depending on the perspective chosen, the following example has to be treated in two different ways:
 
1.        From the documentary perspective, one letter (B) is changed into another (L). As said, even the fact that only a part of the original letter has been modified, might be of interest. But for the above reason, a replacement of letters is recorded. Therefore a documentary oriented encoding will usually look like this:3
 
2.        From the textual perspective, a whole word is substituted by another, ‘Band’ (ligament) by ‘Land’ (land):
 
This way of encoding focuses on the textual impact of the overwriting of (a part of) one letter: the substitution of a whole word. It does not mean that the textual perspective is confined to the level of word forms. In fact, sometimes only the spelling is corrected, and the alteration can very well be recorded on the level of graphemic units alone – no matter how many letters of the word have been replaced, no matter if the complete word is rewritten for the sake of clarity in the manuscript. However, in the given case the substitution does not concern only single letters but the linguistic unit of the next level (the word), although the scribe carefully avoided to deface the manuscript more than was necessary.
How can the sediments of the writing process and the textual genesis be given their equal due?
As is clear from the above example, not only the markup is concerned by the difference of the two perspectives but also the marked up content (‘BLand’ vs. ‘BandLand’). This is one of the reasons why a split-up of the encoding which we tried to avoid for a long time finally proved inevitable. We decided to introduce two separate transcripts: a documentary and a textual one (Bohnenkamp et al., forthcoming). The separate transcripts are the source for different parts of the edition: the documentary for the diplomatic rendering and the textual for the reading text and the apparatuses. The disadvantages of the split-up will be dealt with by help of automatic collation (Brüning et al., forthcoming). Logically, it is possible to integrate both perspectives in a single transcript, under the only condition that the markup is dominated by one of the two perspectives (Renear et al. 1996). Practically, however, it is very difficult to give adequate information on the writing process and on the text with equal regard to both sides. Detailed information of one of both will inevitably get lost. Furthermore, the intermingling of both perspectives complicates the subsequent data processing.
2.        Thanks to the split-up, the documentary transcript is kept free from the limitations inherent to the markup of the textual structure, so that all the information that is needed to generate a satisfying diplomatic rendering can be placed. Likewise, the textual transcript is kept free from descriptive information about the record. In turn, an aspect of the linguistic structure can be taken into account the importance of which for genetic encoding has not yet found sufficient perception. As a concatenation of linguistic entities is not a mere sequence but a structure, it is necessary to distinguish between syntagmatically defined positions and paradigmatically selected items occupying them.4 In the above example, a position is initially occupied by the word ‘Band’, and subsequently by the word ‘Land’. The surrounding <subst>-tag indicates the paradigmatic relation between both items, although this is not explicit in the definition (Burnard et al. 2011: 1348).5 Problems arise in cases which deviate from the normal one-to-one-correspondence of items to positions, for example where the wording of the passage is held in abeyance as a consequence of an unfinished alteration.6 Introducing the differentiation between positions and items into genetic encoding might help to spot, clarify, and solve these problems.
references
Bohnenkamp, A., G. Brüning, S. Henke, K. Henzel, F. Jannidis, G. Middell, D. Pravida, and M. Wissenbach(forthcoming). Perspektiven auf Goethes Faust. Zur historisch-kritischen Hybridedition des Faust. Jahrbuch des Freien Deutschen Hochstifts 2011.
Bouquet, S. (1997). Introduction à la lecture de Saussure. Paris: Payot & Rivages.
Brüning, G., K. Henzel, D. Pravida (forthcoming). Rationale of multiple encoding in the Genetic Faust Edition.Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative (submitted).
Burnard, L., and S. Bauman, eds. (2004). TEI P4. Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. XML-compatible edition. Oxford, Providence, Charlottesville and Bergen: The TEI Consortium.
Burnard, L., and S. Bauman, eds. (2008). TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange by the TEI Consortium. Oxford, Providence, Charlottesville, Nancy: Tei Consortium.
Burnard, L., and S. Bauman, eds. (2011). TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange by the TEI Consortium. Charlottesville: Text Encoding Initiative Consortium.
Buzzetti, D., and J. McGann (2006). Electronic Textual Editing: Critical Editing in a Digital Horizon. In L. Burnard, K. O’Brien O’Keeffe, and J. Unsworth (eds.), Electronic Textual Editing. New York: MLA, pp. 51-71.
Feigs, W. (1979). Deskriptive Edition auf Allograph-. Wort- und Satzniveau, demonstriert an handschriftlich überlieferten, deutschsprachigen Briefen von H. Steffens. Teil 1: Methode. Bern: Peter Lang.
Gabler, H. W. (1998). Computergestütztes Edieren und Computer-Edition. In H. Zeller and G. Martens (eds.),Textgenetische Edition. Tübingen: Niemeyer, pp. 315-328.
Genette, G. (1997). The Work of Art. Immanence and Transcendence. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP.
Goodman, N. (1977). Languages of Art. An Approach to a Theory of Symbols. 2nd ed. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett.
Huitfeldt, C. (1998). MECS – a Multi-Element Code System (Version October 1998), Working Papers from the Wittgenstein Archives at the University of Bergen, 3. http://www.hit.uib.no/claus/mecs/mecs.htm (accessed 9 March 2012).
Owens, J. (1988). The Foundations of Grammar. An Introduction to Medieval Arabic Grammatical Theory. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: Benjamins.
Pierazzo, E. (2009). Digital Genetic Editions: The Encoding of Time in Manuscript Transcription, In M. Deegan and K. Sutherland (eds.), Text Editing, Print and the Digital World. Farnham and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, pp. 169-186.
Renear, A., E. Mylonas, and D. Durand (1996). Refining our Notion of What Text Really Is: The Problem of Overlapping Hierarchies. Research in Humanities Computing 4: 263-280.http://www.stg.brown.edu/resources/stg/monographs/ohco.html (accessed 9 March 2012).
Saller, H. (2003). HNML – HyperNietzsche Markup Language. Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie 5: 185-192.http://computerphilologie.uni-muenchen.de/jg03/saller.html (accessed 9 March 2012).
Saussure, F. de (1916). Cours de linguistique générale. Lausanne: Payot.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. (1991). Text in the Electronic Age: Textual Study and Text Encoding with Examples from Medieval Texts. Literary and Linguistic Computing 6: 34-46.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and L. Burnard, eds. (1993). Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange (P2). Chicago, Oxford: Text Encoding Initiative. http://www.tei-c.org/Vault/Vault-GL.html(accessed 9 March 2012).
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., and L. Burnard, eds. (1999). Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. 1994. Revised Reprint. Chicago, Oxford: Text Encoding Initiative.
Vanhoutte, E. (2002). Putting Time back in Manuscripts: Textual Study and Text Encoding, with Examples from Modern Manuscripts, paper presented at the ALLC/ACH 2002, Tübingen, 25 July 2002.http://www.edwardvanhoutte.org/pub/2002/allc02abstr.htm (accessed 9 March 2012).
Workgroup on Genetic Editions 2010. An Encoding Model for Genetic Editions. http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/Council/Working/tcw19.html (accessed 9 March 2012).
notes
1.‘HyperNietzsche’ nowadays operates under the name of ‘Nietzsche Source’, where the HNML based contents are regrettably cut off. They are still available by the following address:http://www.hypernietzsche.org/surf_page.php?type=scholarly. To become affiliated with the group of ‘Source’ projects, the ‘Bergen Text Edition’ of the Wittgenstein papers was converted from the specifically developed MECS to XML-TEI (P5) (http://www.wittgensteinsource.org/; Huitfeldt 1998). There are other ways to mark up transcriptions of modern manuscripts (see ‘Les manuscrits de Madame Bovary’,http://www.bovary.fr/; ‘Les Manuscrits de Stendhal’, http://manuscrits-de-stendhal.org/). But the set of tools provided by the TEI is clearly the one that is likely to become standard.
2.See esp. sect. 11.3.4.4 of the second version of P5 (Burnard et al. 367 sq.).
3.In fact, we do not use <subst> to record overwritings. Especially in the case of discarded starts overwriting letters do not positively substitute their predecessors. But we will not address this issue here.
4.he terminology of position-in-structure and of items-occupying-positions are very common in various schools of linguistics (cf. Owens 1988: 31-35) and in the computer sciences as well.
5.It is doubtful, therefore, if items which occupy ‘different positions’ (ibid., 352) can enter such a relation, as is, perhaps inadvertently, implied in the name of the newly introduced <substJoin> (ibid., 351 sq.).
6.For an example of the further, see sect. 11.3.4.6 of the TEI Guidelines (Burnard et al. 2011: 369). The suggested encoding (ibid., 370) neglects the symmetrical relation between the items ‘before’ and ‘beside’. From a textual point of view, the latter can be considered added only insofar as the former is considereddeleted.","txt","2","",""
"1486","13","Opportunity and accountability in the 'eResearch push'","1","In this paper I will present an examination of the institutional and epistemological tensions between particular national ‘eResearch’ infrastructure agendas (or ‘eScience’, ‘cyber-infrastructure’) and particular aspects of the digital humanities. Whilst much of the digital humanities positions itself within the research ‘infrastructures’ of the humanities (journals, academic departments, conferences, libraries, and sober ethics committees) – and is partly responsible for building the ‘human capital’ to work in the humanities – eResearch has largely emerged outside of the perspectives and training of the digital humanities, primarily driven by a ‘big science’ agenda (ie. an emphasis on mass data storage and infrastructures that largely support scientific methods and ways of collaborating). This has created numerous complexities for the digital humanities, particularly in the UK and Australia where it may, for better or worse, be emerging as a competing set of discourses and practices to the digital humanities (Examples will be given in the presentation).
Admittedly, the eResearch agenda has created many opportunities for research in the humanities, however, the way in which this agenda has been institutionalised in a number of countries means that it doesn’t always serve the needs of the humanities. This is because eResearch largely exists outside of humanities research structures and is principally measured and driven by different accountability metrics. Its technical development also sits within rarefied institutional hierarchies between ‘service staff and researcher’, and biases a mistaken industrial utility; neither of which seem particularly useful for the contemporary challenges of digital humanities nor humanities research. As Geoffrey Rockwell states:
[there are] dangers in general and especially the issue of the turn from research to research infrastructure [...] we need to be careful about defining the difference and avoid moving into the realm of infrastructure [...] those things we are still studying (Rockwell 2010: 5).
Through presenting key examples, in this presentation I will broadly explore the institutionalisation of eResearch-infrastructures in the humanities over the past decade, and in particular, reference the countries in which I have the most experience, Australia and the UK. The landscape in Australia is particularly problematic as unlike other countries, the eResearch agenda is still at its height whilst the digital humanities is still developing its own institutional addenda.
The main tension appears to be a ‘two cultures’ one; it is the misunderstandings between applied computing, largely focused upon meeting the many practical needs of large-scale scientific endeavours, and the digital humanities that has its own particular understandings of the efficacy of computing within its heterogeneous research endeavours. Many infrastructure investors unavoidably claim a ‘research enabling’ or even a research pedigree for their work, but the exact nature of this research and how it helps us understand humans society and culture is, on occasions, yet to be determined (and this is far from an easy task and is largely an experimental practice; rarely a utilitarian one). Plus the institutional positioning of eResearch infrastructure in university service divisions, remote national services, and monolithic government and science-led programmes, means that the tradition of critique, and synthesis of eResearch infrastructure within contemporary digital humanities scholarship, is barely possible.
what can be done?
As a trained historian and long-time digital humanities advocate who has benefited from investments in eResearch – and indeed, I am employed by a particularly flexible strategic eResearch programme in the State of Victoria in Australia – I caution against retreating too eagerly from the ‘infrastructure turn’ as there are still healthy opportunities in many countries between the cracks of otherwise clumsy agendas. However these opportunities need to be positioned within a research-led digital humanities agenda and not a science led-agenda (and there is a perhaps a dark side to the #alt-ac movement in the United States if new digital outputs are not well supported within a humanities research setting) (Nowviskie 2011).
Perhaps a better approach for the humanities than cambering to a science led ‘e-infrastructure’ funding model, along with its often abrasive tectonic plates of incongruous collaborations, would be to lobby for the funding model to strengthen digital humanities research. The digital humanities has a sophisticated international network of centres, undergraduate and graduate degrees, associations, conferences, journals, and research accountability structures that are largely internal to the humanities and is thus much better equipped to lead computing in the humanities than eResearch (and there are some positive institutional developments in this direction). And if led by the digital humanities, new research infrastructures such as data and text centres, virtual environments, and digital libraries would be more relevant to humanities research, thus insuring their long term sustainability. But this would require ‘e-infrastructure’ to be institutionalised in a much more responsive way; in a way that isn’t unequally coupled with the needs of science. Again Geoffrey Rockwell states:
Perhaps things like the Text Encoding Initiative Guidelines are the real infrastructure of humanities computing, and the consortia like the TEI are the future of light and shared infrastructure maintenance (Rockwell 2010: 5).
I would like to think that this is because the TEI and derivatives such as EpiDoc exist within a deeply scholarly and vibrant international research culture that is both embedded within and accountable to humanities research; this is not always the case with eResearch infrastructure. However, for the digital humanities to take a greater lead in terms of guiding the implementation of eResearch infrastructure, in its various institutional settings, would require the digital humanities to be strengthened institutionally to rise to the challenge, especially in countries where ‘eResearch’ is much stronger than the digital humanities. All infrastructure, despite its veneer of utilitarian simplicity, is ‘among the complex and expensive things that society creates’ (Hauser 2011). ‘e-Infrastructure’ for the humanities may provide opportunities, but aspects of the present model in various countries lacks a complex humanities research environment and is wedded to an empirical, engineering, and industrial instrumentalism that is often at odds or even hostile to the humanities. It is not that eResearch does not do some things very well, it is the promise of research that it doesn’t do particularly well. The goals of eResearch infrastructures are often so monumental; that they should perhaps be a set of research questions in themselves rather than practical goals. Based on my experience within eResearch and the digital humanities I will propose a number of alternative directions in this presentation and seek insight from others in the audience from various national and institutional contexts.
references
Barjak, F., J. Lane, M. Poschen, R. Proctor, S. Robinson, and G. Weigand (2010). e-Infrastructure adoption in the social sciences and humanities: cross-national evidence from the AVROSS survey. Information, Communication and Society 13(5): 635-651.
Capshew, J. H., and K. A. Rader (1992). Big science: price to the present. Osiris 7: 2-25,http://www.jstor.org/stable/301765.
Edwards, P., S. Jackson, J. Bowker, and K. Knobel (January, 2007). Understanding infrastructure: dynamics, tension, design. Report of a Workshop on History & Theory of Infrastructure: Lessons for New Scientific Cyberinfrastructures, Rice University,http://cohesion.rice.edu/Conferences/Hewlett/emplibrary/UI_Final_Report.pdf.
Hauser, Th. (2011). Cyberinfrastructure and data management (presentation). Research Computing, University of Bolder, Colorado, http://www.stonesoup.org/meetings/1106/work3.pres/2b-CI-DM-TH.htm.
Katz, R. N. (2008). The tower and the cloud: higher education in the age of cloud computing educause,http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/PUB7202.pdf.
Nowviskie, B. (2011). #alt-ac Alternative academic careers for humanities scholars,http://nowviskie.org/2010/alt-ac/ (accessed, 30 October, 2011).
Rockwell, G. (14 May 2010 ). As Transparent as Infrastructure: On the research of cyberinfrastructure in the humanities’. Connexions, http://cnx.org/content/m34315/1.2/
http://www.acls.org/cyberinfrastructure/ourculturalcommonwealth.pdf.
Svennsson, P. (2011). From optical fibre to conceptual cyberinfrastucture. DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly5(1), http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/5/1/000090/000090.html.
Turner, G. (September, 2008), Report from the HASS capability workshop, Old Canberra House, Australian National University, 15 August 2008 (unpublished report).
Turner, G. (2009). Towards and Australian Humanities Digital Archive. A report of a scoping study of the establishment of a national digital research resource for the humanities, Australian Academy of the Humanities,http://www.humanities.org.au/Portals/0/documents/Policy/Research/Towards_An_Australian_Digital_Humanities_Archive.pdf
Unsworth, J., Chair (2006) ‘Our cultural commonwealth: The report of the American Council of Learned Societies Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities and Social Sciences, American council of learned societies.","txt","2","",""
"1487","13","Patchworks and Field-Boundaries: Visualizing the History of English","1","introduction
This paper uses the database of the Historical Thesaurus of English (Kay et al. 2009; hereafter abbreviated toHT) to visualize change in the history of English, and in particular in the English lexicon. The HT, published in 2009, is the world’s largest thesaurus and the most complete thesaurus of English, arranging into hierarchical semantic categories all the recorded meanings expressed in the language from Anglo-Saxon times to the present. The underlying HT database (see Kay & Chase 1987; Wotherspoon 1992), held at the University of Glasgow, is a massive computational resource for analyzing the recorded words of English with regards to both their meaning and dates of use.
The present paper describes a methodology of visualizing English using data from the HT, developed from an earlier pilot project (Alexander 2010). By combining visualization techniques with the high-quality humanities data provided in the HT, it is possible to give scholars a long-range view of change in the history, culture and experiences of the English-speaking peoples as seen through their language.
the data
The data stored within the HT is a fine-grained conceptual hierarchy containing almost all of the recorded words in English, arranged semantically. Each category of words is nested within other, wider categories, so that, for example, the verb category Live dissolutely is within Licentiousness, itself adjacent to Guilt andRascalry and within the wider category Morality. This hierarchical structure differs from the organization of many other thesauri; HT categories relate to others not just linearly, but can operate either horizontally (on the same hierarchical level) or vertically (on a higher or lower level, either containing or being contained by another category). In addition, each concept is able to contain a series of subcategories within itself, separate from the main sequence. It is this complex hierarchical structure which helps make the HT database so useful for visualization: each individual point in the hierarchy can contain both word entries for the concept represented by that point, and also all the conceptual descendants which follow it, each surrounded by siblings of similar meaning.
The size of the HT also makes it amenable to computational analysis. The current version of the database (as of mid 2011) contains 793,747 entries, compared to OED2’s 616,500 (Algeo 1990: 137), all within 236,346 categories, each representing a distinct concept. Taking into account each field stored within it, the database itself contains approximately 22.7 million pieces of data.
visualization
The normal metaphor for visualizing hierarchy is a tree-like system, like that often used in organisation charts.HT data is, however, far too large to be used in such a way – even a spider-like tree or hypertree could not represent the thesaurus, whose largest category alone (the adverb Immediately) contains over 250 synonyms.
Instead, the present paper will describe an alternative way of displaying the HT hierarchy, representing each category as a nested rectangle on a plane. This technique produces a ‘treemap’ (see Shneiderman 2009), wherein each entry in a hierarchy is represented by a rectangle which is large enough to contain smaller rectangles representing its descendants while simultaneously being itself small enough to nest within further rectangles representing its parent categories. In short, a treemap structure takes the organisational chart metaphor of senior is up and replaces it with senior is big.
Doing this for the full hierarchy of the HT lets us view the semantic structure of the English language as a whole. Figure 1 is therefore a treemap showing all of present-day English in the HT, with every word represented by a small dot of ink. Those black dots are present-day words which originated in Old English, and white dots represent those which entered the language much more recently. The map is arranged by semantic field, so words in close semantic proximity are also physically close to one another on the diagram. An interactive display of this visualization allows an analyst to see which areas correspond to which categories and lexemes.
patchworks and field-boundaries
One effect which is visible from Figure 1 is that modern English has a ‘patchwork’ effect in the visualization. Areas such as Physics and Chemistry are quite light, as are parts of Number (which includes Mathematics) andLanguage. This phenomenon makes it possible to visually view the areas where the English language has ‘stretched’ in order to accommodate new vocabulary. These light patches within the greater patchwork are areas of recent lexical innovation, made up of clusters of words first cited in the OED and recorded in the HTfrom recent years. Therefore, we would expect this patchwork effect in areas affected by rapid social, technological or academic growth, such as Computing (inside Number, adjacent to Mathematics), Physics, Chemistry, Linguistics, Communication, Travel, and so on. Conversely, darker and therefore older patches cover existence in Time and Space, Creation, Causation, Faith, Emotion, and the parts of Number which refer to Arithmetic or Enumeration.
This effect is pronounced in present-day English, but if other selections of the data are taken, it reduces somewhat. If the present-day data is thought of as a ‘slice’ of the HT, then other such slices can be taken between the Old English period and the present day. Other slices reveal that this patchwork effect, with its pronounced edges between new and old semantic fields, do not occur throughout the rest of the history of the language. Proceeding backwards from the present day through the Late Modern, Early Modern and Middle English periods, there is a visible reduction in the patchwork effect observed above, so that by Middle English almost no delineated rectangular patches of innovation can be found. The paper compares these slices and offers an interpretation of various areas of patchwork and patchwork-like effects across time, which, as a result of rapid growth, generally indicates fundamental and rapid progress in the context of the language.
conclusion
In the ways outlined above, such visual displays of HT data can provide useful entry points to a large, complex lexicographical and lexicological dataset. Firstly, in a pedagogical sense, these displays can give students and the public a new way of looking at humanities data, and of exploring them interactively. Secondly, as computer displays and online dictionary interfaces become more polished, new ways of encouraging exploration of lexical data online are needed to replace the lost experience of browsing a printed dictionary, rather than only providing users with a blank search interface. And finally, such visualizations can point analysts towards areas of possible semantic, lexical or cultural interest, whether areas of trauma in the history of the language, areas of rapid growth, or areas of relative stability. The paper will conclude by demonstrating some of these, including ‘slices’ of the data giving visualisations of various points in the history of English (eg in the time of Chaucer or Shakespeare), and in illustrating lacuna in our knowledge of earlier periods of the language, and will outline areas of future development of this approach.
 
Figure 1: Present-day English from the HT, shaded by first cited date
references
Alexander, M. (2010). ‘The Various Forms of Civilization Arranged in Chronological Strata’: Manipulating theHistorical Thesaurus of the OED. In M. Adams (ed.), ‘Cunning passages, contrived corridors’: Unexpected Essays in the History of Lexicography. Monza: Polimetrica.
Algeo, J. (1990). The Emperor’s New Clothes: The second edition of the society’s dictionary. Transactions of the Philological Society 88(2): 131-150.
Kay, C., and T. J. P. Chase (1987). Constructing a Thesaurus Database. Literary and Linguistic Computing 2(3): 161–163.
Kay, C., J. Roberts, M. Samuels, and I. Wotherspoon (2009). Historical Thesaurus of the OED. Oxford: Oxford UP.
Shneiderman, B. (2009). Treemaps for space-constrained visualization of hierarchies.http://www.cs.umd.edu/hcil/treemap-history/index.shtml (accessed 26 October 2011).
Simpson, J., and E. Weiner, eds. (1989). The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd. ed. Oxford: Oxford UP.
Wotherspoon, I. (1992). Historical Thesaurus Database Using Ingres. Literary and Linguistic Computing 7(4): 218-225.","txt","2","",""
"1488","13","Pelagios: An Information Superhighway for the Ancient World","1","On-line resources that reference ancient places are multiplying rapidly, bringing huge potential for the researcher provided that they can be found; but users currently have no way of easily navigating between them or comparing their contents. Pelagios, a growing international cooperative of online ancient world projects,1 addresses the problems of discovery and reuse with the twin aims of helping digital humanists to make their data more discoverable, and of empowering real-world users (scholars, students and the general public) to find information about particular ancient places and visualize it in meaningful ways. While the project focuses on the ancient world, the methodology and tools developed will be of interest to anyone working with data containing spatial references. The Pelagios family purposefully includes partners maintaining a wide range of different document types including texts, maps and databases. In doing so we take some of the first steps towards building a Geospatial Semantic Web for the Humanities.2
In this paper we discuss two of the major workflows underpinning Pelagios. First, we address the method by which the partners prepare their data so that it can be linked together in an open and transparent manner: i.e. what are the processes that you should undertake if you want to make your data Pelagios compliant? Second, we consider the various ways in which the results can be visualized, paying particular attention to the tools and technologies used and the problems encountered. We end with a brief description of our visualization services – both a Graph Explorer and various embeddable web widgets – which, we believe, demonstrate the value of taking a lightweight Linked Open Data approach to addressing problems of discoverability, interconnectivity and reusability of online resources. At the same time, however, we use this paper to discuss real-world practical concerns as well as engage in deeper speculation about the significance of this type of approach for escaping the ‘siloing’ mentality that inhibits many other data integration initiatives.
ontology
The first part of the paper will sketch out and reflect upon the architectural aspects of Pelagios, in particular the requirements necessary to maximize the exposure and interconnectivity of the data themselves. The structure of the data is targeted at helping the user groups of each partner accomplish two kinds of task:
A) Discovering the references to places within a single document (text, map, database);
B) Discovering all the documents (texts, maps, databases) that reference a specified place.
In order to achieve this we (i) use a common RDF model to express place references (the OAC model); and (ii) align all local place references to the Pleiades Ancient World Gazetteer. The OAC annotation ontology provides an extremely lightweight framework for associating global concepts (such as places) with specific documents (and fragments of them).3 An OAC annotation is a set of RDF triples which identify a target document (by means of its URI) and the body of the annotation itself, in our case a URI identifying a specific place in Pleaides. An example is given below:
ex:ann1 rdf:Type      oac:Annotation
         dcterms:title “Example annotation”
        oac:hasTarget <some resource>
        oac:hasBody   <http://pleiades.stoa.org/places/[PLEIADES ID]>
The decision to use the OAC model typifies our pragmatic lightweight approach, which has not been to reinvent the wheel but to reduce, reuse and recycle wherever possible. Using a publicly available, lightweight core ontology permits modular extensions for different kinds of document so that details specific to each type do not add unnecessary complexity for users wishing to publish data in conformance with the core ontology. We have also found that Pelagios partners are afforded a great deal of flexibility in implementation. For example, the RDF may be expressed in a number of different formats (RDF/XML, Turtle, RDFa, SPARQL, etc.) and the simplicity of the ontology allows partners to focus on the considerably more challenging task of aligning local place referencing systems with the global Pleiades gazetteer.
Pelagios has been documenting the various processes by which each partner has identified place references and aligned those references to Pleiades: one significant outcome of the project will be a ‘cookbook’ guide for those looking to adopt a lightweight Linked Open Data approach to related domains, which we outline here. The Pelagios process, however, has greater extensibility than provision for digital classicists. Although we are using URIs for places in the ancient world, the OAC ontology is equally applicable to other gazetteers (including those based on modern placenames, such as GeoNames) or even non-spatial entities such as periods or people.
the pelagios explorer and embeddable widgets
The second part of the paper assesses the possibilities for data exploration once different projects have adopted the core model for representing place references. Here we discuss the technologies exploited in developing the Pelagios Explorer, a prototype Web application that makes discovery and visualization of the aggregated data simple, and various web widgets that can sit on partner websites to provide a window onto the Pelagios linked data world. By aggregating Pelagios partners’ place metadata in a Graph Database, the Explorer supports a number of common types of query using visually-oriented interaction metaphors (‘which places are referenced in these datasets?’, ‘what is the geographical footprint of these datasets?’, ‘which datasets reference a particular place’) and displays results using a graph-based representation.4 In addition, the Pelagios Explorer exposes all data available in the visualizations through an HTTP API to enable machine-access. For their part the widgets that we are currently developing provide more specific views on Pelagios data than the graph explorer allows (such as an overview of the data about a particular place). But equally we are exploring ways of making these widgets easy to configure to, customise for and embed in external Websites, thereby maximizing the potential reuse value of the data.
There are at least two different user groups whose interests and concerns we address. For the ‘super users’ interested in contributing data, adhering to the two principles of the OAC model and Pleiades URIs is the essential step in order to prepare data for use in these various Pelagios visualizations. With these basic issues established, we go on to discuss more detailed control over how data can be represented in a generic interface, for instance using names and titles to label data, or structuring a dataset hierarchically into subsets, such as individual books, volumes, chapters, and pages. Toolset and methods are still at an early stage but some useful resources have already been made available for general use via our blog.5
Our second user group represents scholars, students and members of the public who may wish to discover the resources that reference an ancient place of interest. We consider how the Pelagios framework is beginning to bring together an enormous diversity of online data – such as books that reference places, and archaeological finds discovered there – which a user can search through, combine and visualize in various ways depending on their needs.6 In particular, we consider the challenges, both technological and intellectual, regarding the development, production and use of such tools or services that aim to provide a useful and intuitive resource for non technically-minded subject specialists.
We conclude with a brief reflection on the processes by which the Pelagios family has been developing. In particular we stress the digital services that have made the coordination of such an international initiative possible, and outline the challenges that remain to anyone wishing to add their data to the Pelagios multiverse.7
Funding
This work has been supported by JISC (the Joint Information Systems Committee) as part of the Geospatial and Community Outreach programme (15/10) and the Resource and Discovery programme (13/11).
Screenshots of the Pelagios Explorer:
 
 
references
Elliott, T., and S. Gillies (2009). Digital Geography and Classics. DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly 3(1).
Harris, T. M., L. J. Rouse, and S. Bergeron (2010). The Geospatial Semantic Web, Pareto GIS, and the Humanities. In D. J. Bodenhamer, J. Corrigan, and T. M. Harris (eds.), The Spatial Humanities: GIS and the Future of Scholarship. Bloomington: Indiana UP.
Sanderson, R., B. Albritton, R. Schwemmer, and H. van de Sompel (2011). SharedCanvas: A Collaborative Model for Medieval Manuscript Layout Dissemination. Proceedings of the 11th ACM/IEEE Joint Conference on Digital Libraries. Ottawa, Canada.
Schich, M., C. Hidalgo, S. Lehmann, and J. Park (2009). The network of subject co-popularity in Classical Archaeology. In Bolletino di Archaeologia On-line.
notes
1.Pelagios includes: Arachne, http://www.arachne.uni-koeln.de; CLAROS, http://explore.clarosnet.org; GAP, http://googleancientplaces.wordpress.com; Nomisma, http://nomisma.org; Open Context,http://opencontext.org; Perseus, http://opencontext.org; Pleiades, http://pleiades.stoa.org; Ptolemy Machine, http://ptolemymachine.appspot.com; SPQR, http://spqr.cerch.kcl.ac.uk; Ure museum,http://www.reading.ac.uk/Ure.
2.See Harris et al. (2010).
3.OAC is a powerful information model in its own right and has recently been used as the basis for the SharedCanvas annotation system. See Sanderson et al. (2011)
4.Network visualizations are ideal for representing bipartite networks such as this. See, for example: Schich et al. (2009).
5.http://pelagios-project.blogspot.com/p/useful-resources.html
6.See screencasts at: http://pelagios.dme.ait.ac.at/screencasts/exploring-datasets.html, andhttp://pelagios.dme.ait.ac.at/screencasts/exploring-places.html.
7.A vision that coincides well with the discussion of the future of Classical scholarship by Elliott and Gillies (2009).","txt","2","",""
"1489","13","Processing Email Archives in Special Collections","1","introduction
Libraries and scholarly institutions often acquire the archives of well-known individuals whose work and life has significant historical or research value. Email collections are now an important part of these archives – the Academic Advisory Board Members in the Paradigm project ranked them the most valuable from among images, speeches, press releases, personal websites and weblogs, campaign materials, engagement diaries, presentations, etc. [3]. The detailed record embedded in email provides access to the donor’s thoughts and actions at a level that has rarely been available in the past and enables researchers to probe questions like: What was the process the donor used to come up with a particular breakthrough? What were they reading at the time and how may it have influenced them? [4] Further, these archives are being accumulated not just by famous people; with about 2 billion users, email reaches just about every section of wired societies. Indeed, the British Library has collected sample email messages from ordinary Britons as a way of capturing a sense of life in the 21st century [5].
In this paper, we describe a new technique for processing email archives in special collections using MUSE (Memories USing Email), an email browsing and visualization system developed at Stanford University. The technical details of Muse are covered in a separate paper [1]. While Muse was initially designed for individuals to browse their own long-term email archives, we have added features that help archivists in processing email archives of others as well. To illustrate with a concrete example, we report our experiences with using Muse to process the email archives of noted American poet Robert Creeley, whose archives are hosted at Stanford University Libraries. The video at http://mobisocial.stanford.edu/muse/creeley.mp4 demonstrates MUSE running on the Creeley archives and supplements the descriptions below. MUSE is publicly available at the URL: http://mobisocial.stanford.edu/muse.
challenges in processing email
Today, email archives are being collected and preserved, but are rarely processed, let alone delivered to researchers and end-users. This is due to concerns about privacy and copyright as well as the relative difficulty of processing large-scale archives with conventional email tools. While paper records are scanned and processed manually by archivists, such a process is cumbersome for archives with tens of thousands of email messages. Hence the potential of email archives for research remains under-tapped and they are often listed as a single series or sub-series in a ‘Finding Aid’ in special collections, making it hard for researchers to make practical use of them. We elaborate on these challenges below.
Stakeholders
There are several stakeholders in the process of acquisition and use of email archives: the donor, the curator, the archivist who processes the collection, and the researcher who uses it. Each of these stakeholders has different requirements and expertise.
Donors are sometimes hesitant to turn over their email archives to curators as they may contain deeply personal information such as family or financial records, confidential letters of recommendation, health matters, etc. Donors are often busy people and may not have the time to perform a detailed assessment of their archives. Further, a donor may sometimes not be the creator, but say, a family member. Curators develop library collections and maintain relationships with donors.
Archivists are generally well versed in tools and archival processes, but may not be subject matter experts. While archivists want to provide broad access to the archives and encourage exploratory use, they also have to be cautious due to embargoes established by the donor, privacy considerations and copyrights restrictions.
Researchers may be familiar with the subject, but may not be experts with tools. Typically, they would like to gain a sense of the content in the email correspondence through the process of exploratory browsing. They may want to know if certain people or subjects are mentioned in the archives even before making a visit to the collection or raising funding for a project.
Data gathering and cleaning
It is common for digital archives to be acquired at different times, over several rounds of accession, and to be scattered across a variety of digital media including floppy disks, Zip drives, CDs, DVDs and hard drives. Email archives are no exception and we find that, over time, donors change computers, accounts, email clients etc, and store email in different formats (such as Eudora, Outlook and mbox). We have found tools like Emailchemy (http://www.emailchemy.com) useful to convert email in disparate formats to the mbox format that Muse can read. Individuals’ email foldering practices tend to be inconsistent over time, and messages are frequently duplicated in various folders. Muse takes care of this problem by detecting and eliminating duplicates. Muse also organizes messages by automatically inferred (but manually editable) groupings of people in the archives, making the folder structure less critical. Further, email addresses and name spellings for the same person tend to change over time; therefore, Muse performs entity resolution to try and merge records for the same individual.
In the Creeley archives, there are about 80,000 emails; after removing duplicates, Muse is left with 40,038 messages. Of these, 14,770 are outgoing messages and 25,268 are incoming messages. Creeley corresponded with about 4,000 people in these archives.
Muse displays graphs of email communication activity, which show that most messages in these archives are from 1996 to 1998, and from 2001 to 2005 (when Creeley passed away), with a sudden dip at the beginning of 2002. This tells us that the archives are missing material from the years 1999 and 2000, and possibly for some period in early 2002. Such signals are useful to the archivist to know that some information may have been missed at some step in the archival process.
Capture and Authenticity
A major benefit of digital records is that they are easy to capture and store compared to paper records. Thus it is possible for a donor to retain access to his or her records for many years or decades, and for archivists to capture the archives of many more individuals and store them in a reasonable amount of space at reasonable cost.
Another benefit of email messages is that, while it is difficult to get access to letters sent by a donor, email copies frequently exist with both the sender and the receiver, leading to a more detailed record. Physical correspondence also has problems with completeness of information. For example, in the Republic of Letters project, many letters were not dated (http://republicofletters.stanford.edu/). In contrast, email messages have an automatic timestamp. While both paper and digital formats can decay physically over time, it is easier to preserve a large volume of digital data.
The techniques to determine the authenticity of a paper document are well established. Paper or vellum can be appraised against a familiar set of physical characteristics, such as ink, handwriting, letterhead, paper quality and signs of tampering. However, there are new problems with electronic records. The Paradigm workbook cited above points out that the capture process itself can alter the perceived creation date, and that author metadata is often inaccurate or misleading. Further it notes that establishing intellectual property rights is a key concern for the digital curator who will need to determine who authored a photograph or article, whether they are still alive, whether they still hold copyright and how long that copyright will last.
cues provided by muse
We ran Muse on the Creeley archives, and found the following cues useful in gaining a quick overview of the archives.  
1. Calendar view of terms.  Muse displays a calendar view of the 30 most important terms per month based on statistical ranking, with a novel time-based TF-IDF metric. The terms scored are named entities extracted from the messages using the Stanford NLP toolkit (http://nlp.stanford.edu). We found this feature useful to give ourselves and potential researchers a high-level sense of the contents of the archives; at the same time, the small number of terms makes it easy for the archivist to manually ensure that they are appropriate for public distribution.  
2. Sentiment Analysis. Muse uses sentiment analysis techniques to identify messages that may reflect certain categories of sentiments including emotions (such as love, grief, anger, etc), family events, vacations, congratulatory messages, etc. We have developed these categories and word lists for personal archives instead of relying on more general lexicons like LIWC [2]. See Fig. 1 for a graph of these sentiments over time in the Creeley archives. The Muse lexicon can be tuned by the user by adding or deleting words to a category, or entire categories themselves. One use we found of this feature was to add a category to identify potentially sensitive messages involving health, finances, recommendation letters, etc.
 
Figure 1: Sentiments over time in the Robert Creeley email archives
3. Attachment wall. To facilitate rapid scanning of picture attachments in email, Muse displays them on a 2.5D zoomable and draggable photo wall (Fig. 2). In the Creeley archives, there are 6,282 picture attachments, of which 4,769 are unique. The archives include many interesting pictures, for example, those of Creeley and his family, his home, trips he took, various forms of artwork, and scanned announcements of events. In general, pictures and documents have associated copyrights, so the archivist cannot publish these images and attachments publicly.
Browsing features
When the user is interested in following a cue, Muse launches a message view with all the messages related to that cue. These views can be fairly large and consist of hundreds of messages. To make it easy to rapidly skim a collection of messages, Muse provides a faceted browsing interface, where the facets are sentiments, groups, people, original folders, email direction (incoming vs. outgoing), and month or year. It also provides a jog dial interface that lets users rapidly flip through messages without the need for keypresses and mouse clicks. The jog dial is very popular with users of Muse.
 
Figure 2: Image attachments in the Robert Creeley email archives
Multiple views
While we initially thought that Muse would be used primarily by archivists, we realized that it can be useful to donors and researchers as well. To support these stakeholders, two distinct views of the archives are needed. The first is a full-access view for donors and archivists to use when processing the archives. The same interface can also be made available to researchers in a reading room environment. The second, more limited interface can be made public and can provide enough detail for potential researchers to get an overall sense of the archives’ contents. It can include a calendar view of important terms, and perhaps the overall patterns of communication with different groups and sentiment. However, the actual message contents are omitted. Since Muse stores message headers, bodies, and attachments separately for each folder in its own cache, we found it easy to support both views for the Creeley corpus; in the public view, we simply hide the message bodies and attachments.  
Message selection and export
We envision that Muse can be used by donors themselves to screen their archives before turning them over to the library, with the help of features like automatic grouping of email and sentiment analysis. We have added a feature in Muse to allow users to tag messages and export all messages with a particular tag (thereby including only the selected messages), or without a particular tag (to redact certain messages). These features can also be used by an archivist to screen the archive for sensitive material.  
connecting the archives to web browsing
While scanning the Creeley archives through Muse, we realized that it would be useful to look in it for terms for which Robert Creeley is most famous. This is a difference from the original purpose of Muse; the archivist or researcher is not expected to be intimately familiar with the life of the donor. For example, according to his Wikipedia page, Creeley is known as a Black Mountain poet; searching for this term in his archives returns 259 messages. We therefore implemented a browser plug-in that searches for named entities on the page being browsed and highlights those that are also present in the archives. Clicking on the highlighted text lets the user explore email messages that include the term. This lets a researcher bring the archives’ lens into his normal browsing.
We hypothesize that researchers can find this feature useful to browse their own research. The browsing lens will automatically find terms in the archives that are relevant to the researcher’s interest and highlight them.  
conclusion  
Our overall experience of processing email archives using Muse was quite positive. Muse can help archivists by letting them spot missing or unclean data, performing quick scans of the contents for material that needs to be restricted, and make parts of the archives publicly available for researchers’ use. Researchers benefit by gaining an overall sense of the material in the archives; when they need to drill down into the actual contents, an interactive browsing and navigation interface aids them explore the archives efficiently, and a browser plug-in lets them bring a lens from the archives into their normal browsing.  
Using Muse, archivists can hope to process email archives quickly and make valuable information available for researchers. Further, we believe that making Muse even simpler to use will enable ordinary individuals to browse their own long-term email archives, or those of people close to them such as family members. This will allow the study of personal archives on a scale that has not been possible until now.
Acknowledgements  
We thank Glynn Edwards, the Andew W. Mellon Foundation, NSF POMI 2020 Expedition Grant 0832820 and the Stanford Mobisocial lab for supporting this work.
references
1. Hangal, S., M. S. Lam, and J. Heer (2011). Muse: Reviving memories using email archives. Proceedings of UIST 2011. ACM, 2011.
2. LIWC Inc. Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count. http://www.liwc.net.
3. Thomas, S. (2005). Paradigm Academic Advisory Board Report. John Rylands University Library, Manchester, Dec. 12, 2005.
4. Wright, M. (2007). Why the British Library archived 40,000 emails from poet Wendy Cope. Wired, May 10, 2011.
5. Zjawinski, S. (2007). British Library Puts Public’s Emails on The Shelves. Wired, May 29, 2007.","txt","2","",""
"1490","13","Promise and Practice of Enhanced Publications to Complement Conventionally-Published Scholarly Monographs","1","The authors of this paper have been involved in preparing a series of enhanced publications as part of a national initiative to introduce ‘enhanced publishing’ to scholars in the Netherlands. One of these publications is the scholarly monograph Virtual Knowledge, in production at MIT Press. This paper reviews different approaches to enhanced publications. In particular, it reports the intentions, challenges, achievements and tensions in the actual workflows in preparation of the Virtual Knowledge enhanced publication version of the manuscript. An enhanced publication can generally be described as scholarly text and related materials presented in a Web environment with interlinking of document ‘objects’ (Jankowski et al. 2011). These objects may include: research data, instrumentation, additional analyses, post-publication addendums, and exchanges between book authors and readers. These objects are often identified in a manner facilitating access and involving utilization of uniform standards of identification. Basic enhancements to this particular volume involve preparation of supplementary resources (e.g., links, blogs, appendices), chapter visualizations (e.g., animations, figures, tables), hyperlinks to materials in and external to the book, and opportunities for conducting searches within and external to the book. The enhancements also emphasize integration of informal scholarly communication (e.g., social media) with traditional academic publishing. The enhanced component also emphasizes integration of informal scholarly communication (e.g., social media) with traditional academic publishing, and the efforts to achieve this aspect are highlighted in the paper.
The overall design strategy for this project was oriented toward introducing book content on the web with two primary objectives in mind: 1) to facilitate compatibility with contemporary Web-based discursive practices, and 2) to facilitate content interoperability in both Web 2.0 and Semantic Web formats. Challenges involved with the first objective are related to varied work practices among participating authors. In addition to variation in skills, competencies, and preferences in working with the web medium, the benefits from the required additional work remain uncertain. The individual career benefit from publishing a book is in most cases largely the same with or without the Web-based enhancements. The second objective entails integration of two distinct content structures. The resulting design is a hybrid platform that leverages Web 2.0 participatory modes of scholarly communication combined with formalized content structures imposed by Semantic Web formats. Differences in the affordances provided by these two content schemas brings into focus contemporary tensions related to scholarly communication in the digital era and raises interesting questions about the emerging role of digital media in scholarly communication.
The expected contribution of this approach to enhanced publications pertains to consumption of the book content by both humans and machines. The platform facilitates situating a published book among related scholarship, institutional settings, and with regard to prior work from contributing authors. This is seen as particularly useful for interdisciplinary research, and especially within a still emerging field. This sort of contextualization is by itself envisioned as value added from the standpoint of consumers of book content and for those engaging in Web-based intertextual discourses. Another contribution is the ways in which the book content is structured in the Web environment. Facilitated through links, categories and tags, and the co-location of related materials, contextualization of content also creates object relationships, e.g. between an author and with regard to intertextual relationships, which are readable by search engines. Fundamental to achieving these objectives is an understanding of the Web as an environment that is dynamic and evolving, which is far removed from not only the printed book, but also from the environment of digital repositories.
references
Jankowski, N. W., C. Tatum, Z. Tatum, and A. Scharnhorst (2011). Enhancing scholarly publishing in the humanities and social sciences: Innovation through hybrid forms of publication. Paper, PKP conference. Available at: http://pkp.sfu.ca/ocs/pkp/index.php/pkp2011/pkp2011/paper/view/326/185","txt","2","",""
"1491","13","Ptolemy's Geography and the Birth of GIS","1","The Geographike hyphegesis of Claudius Ptolemy (c. 90-c. 168 CE) – more commonly known as the ‘Geography’ but hereafter referred to as GH – is perhaps the most important text in the history of digital cartography. While its fame derives from the enormous catalogue of ancient places that have made it indispensable for those studying ancient geography, its central innovations of presenting locations as tables of coordinates and offering multiple projections by which to represent them make it the foundational work for all modern Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Yet despite this historic legacy it remains a deeply problematic text (Dilke 1987). The sheer quantity, breadth and apparent precision of the catalogue greatly surpass that of every other known work of ancient geography. How did a lone scholar, working with only published materials, compile such a comprehensive overview of the inhabited world (oikumene)? And what provoked his revolutionary shift in methodology?
Several research projects have used digital methods to examine aspects of Ptolemy’s Geography in recent years. Most significant is Stückelberger and Graßhoff’s database of coordinates (2006) which forms the baseline data for the research presented. Despite creating this excellent resource, their analysis (Stückelberger & Mittenhuber 2009) remains a fairly traditional close reading of the text, makes scant explicit use of the digital data. Tsorlini (2009) used digital methods to show coordinate discrepancies between different manuscripts, although these largely focus on the medieval maps, the provenance of which remains unclear (Mittenhuber 2010). Kleineberg et al. used digital transformations in order to ‘georectify’ the coordinates in the region of Germania Magna and thus propose the identification of many hitherto unidentified locations with modern sites (2010).
Conventional wisdom is that GH is the culmination of a long tradition of Greek geographical and astronomical science, augmented and improved at each stage by contemporary sources such as merchant’s reports, itineraries and astronomical observations (Berggren & Jones 2000: 25-30). This paper will present several arguments based on digital methods to demonstrate that this view is almost certainly wrong and that Ptolemy’s treatise is a highly original work that fuses two distinct traditions for a specific purpose: the calculation of local celestial and solar phenomena for astrological prognostication. This goal required the combined data of Greek geographic maps – which represented the inhabited world schematically but in relation to cosmological constants such as the poles and equator – and Roman chorographic maps, which represented the world in a series of densely populated but geospatially unanchored regional images. It was the challenge of bringing together these very different traditions which led Ptolemy to apply the data management techniques he had used for astronomical data in the Almagest and thus the lay the groundwork for late medieval geography and ultimately the GIS systems of today.
While Digital Humanities is not the forum to lay out a full argument for Ptolemy’s motives and the nature of his sources – which will be expressed in a forthcoming paper – the following preliminary points should be made. First, his astrological ambitions are no surprise. Ptolemy’s Tetrabiblos became the principle work on the topic for almost a millennium and he explicitly refers to the practice of calculating celestial phenomena for terrestrial locations in the Almagest (2.3; 8.6), GH itself (1.1; 8.2) and the Manual to the Handy Tables. No other practical motive is given for GH’s construction and thus there is no reason to believe that it was ever intended for an alternative purpose. The second point is that while we have virtually no extant examples of pre-Ptolemaic geographic or chorographic maps, the written sources – including Ptolemy’s distinction between the two practices in GH (1.1) – offer some important clues. The mathematical precision ofgeographia is explicitly stated by Ptolemy, but evidence as to the paucity of its content can be adduced from fragments of the three authors most likely to have been sources to Ptolemy – Eratosthenes, Hipparchus and Marinos of Tyre. Ignoring those on the Persian Royal Road, the places they mention are overwhelmingly (~90%) located on coastlines and boundaries. This is stark contrast to GH in which interior locations outnumber liminal ones by about 3:2. In contrast, both Ptolemy and Strabo (Geog. 2.5.17) refer to the richness of chorographic content but a strong indication of their unsuitability for astrology is given by the absence of any geodetic information for the Agrippan ‘World Map’ and other chorographic sources.
statistical distributions of precision
Ptolemy’s coordinates are expressed as fractions of a degree of latitude (measured from the equator) and longitude (measured from an arbitrarily defined prime meridian in the Atlantic ocean). Superficial examination makes clear that the smallest latitudinal and longitudinal increment is 1/12 of a degree (or 5 minutes) of arc. As real world locations are themselves distributed randomly, we would expect a relatively even distribution of Ptolemaic locations with respect to the fraction of degree upon which they fall. In fact their distribution is highly uneven (Figure 1), a phenomenon also observed by Marx (2011). We know that some locations (which we shall refer to as ‘high precision’ locations) must have been assigned to the nearest twelfth of a degree, as they fall on divisions that are indivisible by lower denominators.1 However, the uneven distribution makes it clear that significantly more of the coordinates are assigned at lower levels of precision: sometimes just to the nearest degree. The challenge is to establish which of them have been plotted more or less precisely. While it is not possible to do this by considering each location individually the fact that Ptolemy’s principles are so closely aligned with GIS make it an ideal tool for investigating the data’s underlying structure.
 Figure 1: Quantity of coordinates falling on latitudinal (white) and longitudinal (black) degree divisions (in minutes)
spatial distribution of precision
The first clues as to the spatial distribution of ‘high precision’ locations emerge from plotting all locations which are definitely assigned to the nearest twelfth of a degree in a GIS2 (Figure 2). This demonstrates beyond all doubt that a core body of data – comprising Hispania, Italia and its major island neighbours, Greece, Asia Minor, the Levant and Egypt – contains virtually all known coordinates assigned to this high level of precision. The phenomenon appears in both manuscript traditions. In contrast, the peripheral regions, which include such well-established roman regions as Gaul and Africa Proconsularis, are almost entirely devoid of ‘high precision’ locations. Furthermore, although latitude is generally more likely to be of high precision than longitude, this is not caused by the well-known ‘Problem of longitude’ (Sobel 1995). Latitude can be hopelessly incorrect in some ‘high precision’ regions (such as Sardinia) so it is evident that these values have not been determined from empirical measurements.
 Figure 2: Coordinates know to be assigned at a precision of 1/12 of a degree of latitude or longitude. The effect is observed in both Ξ (black) and Ω (red) recensionsFigure 2: Coordinates know to be assigned at a precision of 1/12 of a degree of latitude or longitude. The effect is observed in both Ξ (black) and Ω (red) recensions
linear interpolation
The order in which Ptolemy’s coordinates are listed is not random. The description of each region follows a strict sequence commencing with boundaries, followed by physical geography, continuing with inland cities and concluding with offshore islands. The boundaries and physical features are typically linear in form and so topographically adjacent locations are listed consecutively to facilitate the drawing of lines or iconography between them. Islands are also listed in the sequence in which they follow a coastline wherever possible. Much more interesting for this analysis are the cities of the interior, for there is no natural order for Ptolemy to follow and so they may betray information as to the manner in which they were obtained.
We can visualize this order very easily by simply ‘joining the dots’ in sequence and colour coding the individual regions. Once again, the results display a striking disparity between the core regions and the periphery. In the core data, coordinates group together in tightly bunched clusters. At the periphery they are generally ‘sketched out’ in linear zig-zagging rows, usually horizontally (Europe, much of Asia) or vertically (Africa), but occasionally in a NE-SW sweep (India). A comparison with the ‘high precision’ coordinates over these features clearly demonstrates a correlation between this stylistic variation and the ‘core’ data we identified previously (Figure 3).
 Figure 3: Detail showing lines interpolated between settlements overlaid with ’high precision’ coordinates
two coordinate systems
We can push this further. Despite the apparent regularity of Ptolemy’s 180 x 360 coordinate grid (first developed by Hipparchus (Dicks 1960: 32-33)), he also makes reference to a traditional series of irregular Greek parallels (based on the length of the longest day) and tripartite divisions of the ‘hour intervals’ – the ‘time-zones’ of antiquity. So which coordinate system is Ptolemy using? The answer is most clearly illustrated by examining Ptolemy’s regional map of Arabia Felix and Karmania. Ptolemy lists a series of tribal and geographic divisions along the coast of the Arabian peninsula and it is apparent that their locations are defined with reference to the traditional coordinate system (Figure 4). Yet the interior, which contains no differentiation and is simply a list of towns conforms, to the entirely separate Hipparchan framework (Figure 5).
We must be careful to jump to conclusions too readily for, as we have seen, there is much regional variation in Ptolemy’s sources, but a consistent pattern emerges in both core and periphery. Boundaries make reference to the coarse-grained and irregular, traditional Greek framework whereas internal cities generally conform to the fine-grained and regular coordinate system. Returning to our earlier argument, there is an obvious explanation. Ptolemy’s goals required him to use Greek geographic maps as a framework if he was to compare terrestrial and celestial locations. Yet we know that the data they provide is scanty. His solution was to pegchorographic maps to this global framework, thereby eliminating systemic error at the cost of local accuracy.
 Figure 4: Ptolemy’s map of Arabia Felix and Karmania showing how tribal divisions and structure are associated with traditional Greek parallels and divisions of ‘hour intervals’
 Figure 5: Ptolemy’s map of Arabia Felix and Karmania showing how the order of undifferentiated cities of the interior is influenced by the Hipparchan coordinate system
references
Berggren, J. L., and A. Jones (2000). Ptolemy’s Geography. An Anntoated Translation of the Theoretical Chapters. Princeton: Princeton UP.
Dicks, D. R. (1960). The Geographical Fragments of Hipparchus. London: Athlone Press.
Dilke, O. A. W. (1987). The Culmination of Greek Cartography in Ptolemy. In J. B. Harly and D. Woodward (eds.), The History of Cartography. Chicago: U of Chicago P, vol. 1, pp. 177-200.
Kleineberg, A., et al. (2010). Germania und die Insel Thule. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
Marx, C. (2011). On the precision of Ptolemy’s geographic coordinates in his Geographike Hyphegesis. History of Geo- and Space Sciences 2(1): 29-37.
Mercier, R. (2011). Ptolemaiou Procheiroi Kanones. Ptolemy’s Handy Tables. Leuven: Peeters.
Sobel, D. (1995). Longitude. The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time. London: Fourth Estate.
Jones, H. L. (1917). The Georgraphy of Strabo. London: Heinemann, vol. 1.
Stückelberger, A., and G. Graßhoff (2006). Ptolemaios. Handbuch der Geographie. Basel: Schwabe.
Stückelberger, A., and F. Mittenhuber (2009). Ptolemaios. Handbuch der Geographie. Ergänzungsband.Basel: Schwabe.
Toomer, G. J. (1984). Ptolemy’s Almagest, London: Duckworth.
Tsorlini, A. (2009). Higher Order Systematic Effect in Ptolemy’s Geographia Coordinate Description of Iberia.e-Perimetron 4(2): 117-130.
notes
1.At 5 minutes (1/12), 25 minutes (5/12), 35 minutes (7/12) and 55 minutes (11/12)
2.Those that fall on the traditional 2nd, 4th, 11th, 12th, 13th, anti-2nd and anti-4th Greek parallels (which also happen to be ‘high precision’ for arbitrary reasons) have also been removed here for reasons which will become clear.","txt","2","",""
"1492","13","Putting TEI Tite to use - generating a database resource from a printed dictionary or reference type publication","1","The motivation to write this paper stems from an experience we had a few years ago. We needed to digitize a large reference work called Danmarks Stednavne (DS 1922-2006, ‘Place Names of Denmark’) which contains most, if not all, of the place names in Denmark.
We wanted and needed the end result to be in a database-style format, that is, capturing or otherwise marking the place name of each record, and including all the sources, scholarly interpretations, historical names and dates, and so on. But we discovered that no one was willing to sign up for the task, even though we had a quite decent budget (capped at approximately $20 a page and 10,000 pages in total).
We were uniformly informed that the task was too complex.
This paper presents the solution we came up with: we bought a TEI Tite (Trolard 2009) encoded digitization procedure from an outside vendor, but did the post processing into a database format ourselves.
Cost and practicality have weighed heavily and are important aspects of the methodology presented. It might seem more interesting to try and create some genetic, self-learning algorithm to automatically eke out the semantics of a large collection of reference entries and mark them up appropriately. We are eagerly awaiting such a marvelous algorithm. However, in our particular circumstances, digital humanities is about developing methods and tools that leverage accessible and affordable competencies and resources in order to reach a practical goal cost-effectively. In this case, it will curate (and thus save) a vital piece of Danish cultural heritage, resulting in a new digital resource usable by anyone with an interest in the origin and history of place names in Denmark, and providing Denmark’s place-name authorities with a modern repository for future place-name registration and research (the first, rough presentation of which can be viewed athttp://danmarksstednavne.navneforskning.ku.dk/).
Since the task had been deemed ‘highly complex’ by the vendors we had approached, we put some effort into the analysis. This paper presents the analysis, along with some ‘mid-term’ results since we have now parsed approximately 50% of the source material.
To date, approximately two thirds of Denmark is covered by the DS publication, which spans 25 (soon to be 26) volumes published in the period from 1922 to 2006. The individual place-names articles list a selection of the earliest known source types, historical forms of the name, and pronunciations, and provide scholarly interpretations and annotation of the name’s origin and meaning. An example is given below.
 Figure 1: An entry in DS
TEI Tite is a subset of the TEI created to standardize off-site text encoding somewhat, so that vendors and buyers can arrange for it by simply agreeing to adhere to TEI Tite at both ends. It captures all the printed material, all characters, and all structural divisions (like chapters, line breaks, etc.).
Given this, our initial data analysis showed us that it should be possible to parse individual ‘records’ (entries in DS) by ‘switching’ on typographical cues – for example, using the semi-colon character ‘;’  to differentiate between different source references, long hyphens to extract the interpretation, and so on.
The lexicography of the publication has never been formally specified, but it was quickly obvious that at least each individual volume had a fairly consistent lexicography; thus, a volume-by-volume parsing might reasonably succeed. Another practical problem was that since the publication has been ongoing for more than 90 years, the volumes exhibited small differences that are significant for parsing and must be dealt with individually.
The prospect of having to code 25 parsers gave us pause, however, so we set ourselves the task of producing a single program that could be configured from the outside to allow for (more or less) minute differences in lexicography and even new lexicographical instances – the roman numeral after the place name in Figure 1 was such an undiscovered item.
Very briefly stated, what we came up with is a modular, outside-of-code configurable, easily extended program/platform for parsing TEI Tite-formatted XML representations of dictionary or reference data, or textual data that exhibit ‘semantic typesetting’.
The general idea is that a module takes care of only one singular task in the whole parsing procedure, operates via a standard interface, and is callable outside the code via a configuration file.
The program is written in a modern high level programming language (C#) so that the skills needed to produce additional modules are readily available on most university campuses and in the population at large.
So: no super computers, no state-of-the-art statistical analysis, no genetic algorithms or natural language comprehension, no crowd-sourcing the production of new knowledge – at least not while digitizing existing sources of knowledge. Moreover, we claim no ‘new forms of scholarly inquiry’, not immediately at least, derived maybe, but not new and probably not that many new questions posed that could not have been answered albeit very laboriously before.
We do, however, believe that the methodology would likely add value to various TEI-encoded digital artifacts at not only a reasonable cost, but also by utilizing skills and competencies that are readily available. Billed hours for the parsing activity ended up in the low hundreds (~450 hours), so cost effectiveness would appear acceptable.
The paper presentation will present and discuss the following elements vital/interesting to the methodology.
1.        80-20 The roughly 50.000 place name entries in DS are of more or less the same lexicography but of vastly differing length and complexity, so the program is designed to quickly pick up all ‘low hanging fruits’, parsing the simpler entries in their entirety and handing them off to the database team.
2.        Scoping of the modules Examples from the code will be presented to illustrate that there is almost no lower limit as to how little a single module should do. The salient point being the number of volumes that the module would be relevant for is more important than doing a lot of stuff all at once.
3.        When in doubt ask Another key element of the design is that every choice the program has to make is estimated as to how long it would take to produce working code versus simply asking the user/parser. As it turned out this principle has been the biggest time and cost saver on the project since it eliminates much of the risk of making the code brittle and having the programmer(s) take off on a quest for ‘a clever hack’™. Differentiating between source references and name instances will be demonstrated and discussed.
4.        Iterative, iterative, iterative Writing the parser modules proved to be at least as much data analysis as the, err, data analysis.
5.        Creating the framework and remembering what was done Taking into account item 4. above the framework was designed so it ‘remembers’ the steps taken on a given volume or subset of the publication so that ‘reparative’ steps/modules can be added on  as they become evidently needed.
6.        Lessons learned
1.        Tools, as they are often envisioned in DH publications are most often ‘done deals’, completed software artifacts that can accomplish this thing or that with humanistic digital artifacts. The ‘tool’ this paper presents is the TEI Tite, a programming language and a methodology for putting the three together to achieve a specific end. As programming languages become more and more ‘user friendly’ the barrier to entry into this type of interactive, iterative, collaborative tool building lowers to the point where a project like ours became possible and this seems to be the way of the future.
2.        Also, last but verily not least: We believe that if it has lexicography, it can be parsed.
However, they are not stringent (database) schema and cannot be fully automatically parsed into such. Enter our technology/methodology for iteratively parsing lexicographically organized digital data (in the form of a TEI Tite encoded digitization).
The digital version of DS is paid for by the DigDag-project (www.digdag.dk)
From the DigDag website:
The DigDag project, short for Digital atlas of the Danish historical-administrative geography, is a research project funded by The National Programme for Research Infrastructure under the Danish Agency for Science, Technology and Innovation.
Running from 2009 to 2012, the aim of the project is the establishment of a database structure which can tie the Danish administrative districts together geographically and historically. This will provide a historical-administrative GIS platform for the digital humanities allowing to:
•        establish a historical-administrative research infrastructure of Denmark c. 1600–
•        form the backbone of future historical and administrative research
•        create a powerful search engine for use in the service functions of archives, collections and libraries
As source data will be used Det digitale matrikelkort, the digital cadastre, and the basic unit will be the ejerlav, the townland.
Participants in the project are a range of major Danish research institutions with a focus on historical and administrative research together with the major Danish heritage institutions and archives.
references
Trolard, P. (2009). TEI Tite — A recommendation for off-site text encoding.  http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-exemplars/html/tei_tite.doc.html
DS 1922-2006. Danmarks Stednavne vol 1-25. Volumes 1-15 published by the Place Names Committee, Volumes 16-24 by the Department of Name Research, Volume 25 by the Department of Name Research at University of Copenhagen. See also http://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danmarks_Stednavne and/orhttp://nfi.ku.dk/publikationer/trykte_serier/danmarks_stednavne/
Bolter, J. D. (2001). Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print. Second Edition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Levy, P. (1998).  Becoming Virtual: Reality in the Digital Age. Da Capo Press.
Weinberger, D. (2002). Small Pieces Loosely Joined: A Unified Theory of the Web. New York: Perseus Publishing.
Lowy, J. (2005). Programming .NET Components: Design and Build .NET Applications Using Component-Oriented Programming. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media; 2 edition.","txt","2","",""
"1493","13","Reasoning about Genesis or The Mechanical Philologist","1","introduction
Dating manuscripts is one of the most demanding tasks of textual scholarship (see e.g. Bockelkamp 1982; Tyson 1987). While there is a vast body of literature on dating and constituting witness stemmata for ancient and medieval codices (West 1973; Bischoff 2009), there seems to be hardly any systematic discussion on the issue of dating modern manuscripts. There have been successful approaches to date older material by computational phylogenetics (Robinson et al. 1998) with the consecutive import of quantitative methods and tools into the field, but to our knowledge, there is no approach that uses formal logics.1
Usually, the tools at the modern philologist’s disposal are very basic: A pencil or marker pen and a maximal writing surface (Figure 1: Reconstruction of the genesis of Faust manuscript  VH2). In this paper, we examine the use of a formal knowledge representation to facilitate the dating of a large corpus of inscriptions on manuscripts. The knowledge representation is to be a
•        point where diverse and possibly conflicting research sources can be integrated
•        working tool for the philologist to be queried and modified during research
•        basis of facts for a formal reasoning calculus
•        database for users.
The quality of the results of automatic reasoning will be of special interest. Will they be incorrect or correct, and in case of the latter, will they be largely expected or to some degree unexpected?
 Figure 1
Relativedating of modern manuscripts
By inscription we understand any portion of written text on a manuscript in one specific phase of writing. If there is no absolute chronology at hand, the only possibility left is to try to give a relative chronology. We believe that a considerable part of conventional dating procedures can be reduced to a combination of more elementary steps that allow a more explicit and even formal approach.
Inductive vs. deductive reasoning
Relations between inscriptions can be used as predicates in a formal logic and reasoned upon by a suitable calculus. In order to reason deductively, a general rule or a set of rules is required. It is imaginable for this set to be induced automatically by a machine learning algorithm. In this study, however, the set of rules is manually defined. Thus, the presented approach is purely deductive.
Dealing with contradictions
Some assertions are taken from various sources of research, others are calculated automatically from existing data and even others are established manually. There will inevitably be contradictions. Possible solutions are:
1.        Do not try to resolve and thus conceal the contradictions.
2.        Try to specify explicit rules that prioritize one class of assertion over the other.
3.        Use a method of approximate reasoning.
We have decided for the second approach, as it preserves the advantages of the first while still enabling a very unambiguous specification and interpretation.
reasoning rules for relative dating
To our knowledge there is no extensive list of typical modes of philological reasoning available, so we will try to give some elementary suggestions (following Pravida 2005:58f.).
Relations between inscriptions
Chronological anteriority
The relation that we are interested in as a result is a temporal one: Which inscriptions predate other inscriptions:
 
 
Syntagmatic precedence
Inscription I syntagmatically precedes a second inscription J if the text of J follows the text of I with respect to a larger text that contains them both:
 
Paradigmatic relationship
Inscription I is paradigmatically related to a second inscription J if they share text:
 
Text-genetic anteriority
Inscription I text-genetically precedes an inscription J, if I contains an earlier stage of a text contained by J:
 
Text-genetic anteriority by definition implies chronological anteriority.
Exclusive containment
The overall syntagmatic interval of one inscription, I, is said to be exclusively contained by the overall syntagmatic interval of another inscription J, if some part of the text of inscription I lies within the overall syntagmatic interval of inscription J, where they have a larger coherent textual neighbourhood than in inscription I:
 
The notion of exclusive containment captures the case of additional amplification of a passage. Exclusive containment is some special case of text-genetic posteriority with regard to some portion of an inscription. (Exclusive containment is very common in the working manuscripts of Brentano; we take it as a matter of course that it will be necessary to refine our set of relations as soon as we will extend our approach to other authors.)
Rules
Rules or axioms can be defined as a basis for deduction. The language we use is that of predicate logic. The transitivity of the predates relation, e.g., can be expressed as
 
Other properties of relations can be modelled for the respective relations accordingly.
Precedence
Rules that might potentially lead to contradictions need to be ordered, so that it is clear which rule has precedence over another. Consider the two rules
 
In order to subordinate rule b under rule a, we add a conjugation of the negated antecedent of the first rule:
 
In this way, all rules can be ordered and thus the set of rules be made logically consistent. In the following, we will list the rules ordered by priority from lowest to highest. The term pi   is used to designate priority.
Syntagmatic precedence
 
Paradigmatic relations
The paradigmatic relation is symmetric. For dating, another hint (term c) must be considered (material, elementary genetic classification, textual):
 
Containment
 
Text-genetic anteriority
 
an example from clemens brentano’s romances of the rosary
The twelfth canto of the Romances of the Rosary serves as an example that our default assumptions and their formalisation do in fact yield adequate results (cf. Pravida 2005; Brentano 2006). We consider the drafts (inscriptions) J1-6.
From the data which can be obtained from manuscript descriptions, we gather the relations shown in Figure 2:
 
Figure 2
From textual evidence we know that:
 
(**)
Our reasoning machine concludes:
 
 
Which establishes a total order (Figure 3):
 
Figure 3
application to the faust edition / outlook
The above example is well suited for our purpose, perhaps exceptionally so. Other texts may prove to be more difficult. Goethe’s habits of composing, for example, are much less linear. Yet, we can show that the genesis of the last act of Faust II can be captured in a way that resembles our example (Pravida, forthcoming). We expect that the genesis of the whole work will permit an analysis closely following these lines. As there is much more electronically encoded material, a computer-assisted approach seems very promising to us.
We used first-order logic and a theorem prover (Schulz 2002). The required expressivity of the logical formalism is probably lower than first-order logic (e.g. it will not need quantification), but more expressive than commonly used Semantic Web logics (e.g. OWL/SWRL) for the purpose of rule prioritisation. The adequacy of a non-monotonic logic, such as default reasoning (Reiter 1980; Delgrande & Schaub 1997), or multi-valued logics and approximate reasoning is to be evaluated. As many facts as possible should be automatically extracted or calculated from existing data, e.g. by means of automatic collation (Stolz & Dimpel 2006), etc.
references
Birdsall, J.N. (1992). The Recent History of New Testament Textual Criticism (from Westcott and Hort, 1881, to the present). In  Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. Vol. II,26,1. Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 99-197.
Bischoff, B. (2009). Paläographie des römischen Altertums und des abendländischen Mittelalters. 4th ed. Berlin: Erich Schmidt.
Bockelkamp, M. (1982). Analytische Forschungen zu Handschriften des 19. Jahrhunderts. Hamburg: Hauswedell.
Brentano, C. (2006). Romanzen vom Rosenkranz. Frühe Fassungen. Ed. by Dietmar Pravida. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer 2006.
Delgrande, J. P., and T. Schaub (1997). Compiling Reasoning with and about Preferences into Default Logic.Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence 1, pp. 168-175.
Greg, W. W. (1927). The Calculus of Variants. An Essay on Textual Criticism. Oxford: Clarendon.
Lachmann, C. (1842). Testamentum Novum Graece et Latine. Vol. 1. Berlin: Reimer.
Pravida, D. (2005). Die Erfindung des Rosenkranzes. Untersuchungen zu Clemens Brentanos Versepos. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
Pravida, D. (forthcoming). Die Entstehung von Faust II, 5. Akt (1. Fassung). To appear in Jahrbuch des Freien Deutschen Hochstifts (2012)
Quentin, H. (1922). Mémoire sur l’établissement du texte de la Vulgate. 1re partie: Octateuque. Paris: Gabalda.
Reiter, R. (1980). A Logic for Default Reasoning. Artificial Intelligence 13: 81-132.
Robinson, P., A. Barbrook, N. Blake, and C. Howe (1998). The Phylogeny of ‘The Canterbury Tales’. Nature394: 839-840.
Schulz, S. (2002). E – A Brainiac Theorem Prover. Journal of AI Communications 15(2/3): 111-126.
Stolz, M.. and F. M. Dimpel (2006). Computergestütztes Kollationieren und dynamische Textpräsentation – Ein Werkstattbericht aus dem Parzival-Projekt. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b4360-1004567
Tyson, A. (1987). Mozart: Studies of the autograph scores. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP.
West, M. L. (1973). Textual criticism and editorial technique, applicable to Greek and Latin texts. Stuttgart: Teubner.
notes
1.Our purpose of mechanizing the operation of manuscript dating has obvious parallels in various approaches (e.g. Quentin 1922; Greg 1927) of charting relationships between different manuscript readings by means of a formula system or a decision procedure (conveniently summarized in Birdsall 1992: 153sq). Dom Quentin, Greg and their followers could build on a highly sophisticated tradition of theoretical reflection on establishing manuscript genealogies without the intervention of subjective interpretation (Lachmann 1842: v) for which there is no analogue in our  particular field of interest.","txt","2","",""
"1494","13","Recovering the Recovered Text: Diversity, Canon Building, and Digital Studies","1","This paper examines the state of the current digital humanities canon, provides a historical overview of the decline of early digitally recovered texts designed to expand the literary canon, and offers suggestions for ways that the field might work toward expansion of the digital canon. The early wave of small recovery projects has slowed and, even more troubling, the extant projects have begun to disappear, as is apparent from looking through the vast number of projects that are if we are lucky, ghosts on the wayback machine. Alan Liu’s Voice of the Shuttle provides a good measure of the huge number of lost early recovery projects. A quick perusal of ‘The Minority Studies’ section reveals that of the six sites listed in ‘General Resources in Minority Literature,’ half cannot be located with a careful search, suggesting that they have been removed.  The same trend is found with other projects listed on the site. While the ‘General Resources in Chicano/Latino Literature’ section, only 50% of projects are still online, other areas, such as Asian American literature, have a higher percentage of active projects. Some projects, such as Judith Fetterley’s 19th Century Women’s Bibliography, are the living dead and have not been updated for years. Similarities exist among the extinct projects. Most were produced in the late 1990s by single scholars at institutions that did not have an etext center or a digital humanities center, never attracted external support, and never upgraded to SGML or TEI. The canon problems are driven by the dual issues of preservation and the stagnation of digitization recovery efforts.
We should find it troubling that the digital canon is losing the very texts that mirrored the revised literary canon of the 1980s. If we lose a large volume of these texts, and traditional texts such as Whitman, Rossetti, and Shakespeare are the highlighted digital literary texts, we will be returning to a new critical canon that is incompatible with current understandings of literature. The early digital recovery work I am discussing is not easily available. Few of these texts are in print. A few more are available on for-profit databases or on microfilm, but most are available only with a return to the one or two libraries that own the original physical copy of the book, journal, or newspaper.
Some have posited that a structural problem in the emergence of digital humanities contributes to the selection of materials for digitization and preservation. Martha Nell Smith contends that digital humanities developed as a space to which practitioners hoped to flee from the shifts in the profession that arose out of the cultural studies movement. Smith highlights the digital humanities’ retreat into modes of analytics, objective approaches as ‘safe’ alternatives to the messy fluidities found in literary studies. If Smith is correct, then there should be no surprise that recovery of messy lost texts has not been a priority for the field. Others, such as Kenneth Price, view the funding mechanism as a contributing factor to the increasingly traditional canon of digitized texts. Price notes that the criteria of impact, crucial to the granting decision, favor the canonical text. The National Endowment of Humanities (NEH) awarded 141 start-up grants from 2007 through 2010. Of those grants, only twenty-nine were focused on diverse communities and sixteen on the preservation or recovery of diverse community texts. It is striking to examine the authors and historical figures individually cited in the list of funding: Shakespeare, Petrach, Melville, and Jefferson. While there are grants to support work on indigenous populations, African and African American materials, and Asian American materials, in addition to other populations, the funding of named great men of history deserve scrutiny.
In addition, the turn to increased standardization (TEI) and big data troubles our efforts at small-scale recovery project, as DIY scholars, outside the DH community, have difficulty gaining access to required technical skills for small projects, leading to a decline in small-scale digital recovery projects. The poor literary data sets impact digital humanities efforts to experiment with visualization and data mining techniques. For example, the UC Berkley WordSeer tool is remarkably useful, but the data set used to test the tool and the conclusions drawn about the texts are problematic. The team chose to examine the slave narratives housed atDocumenting the American South. They ran an analysis on the set to see if the literary conventions of the text corresponded with critic James Olney’s claim that autobiographical slave narratives follow a list of tropes such as ‘I was born’ or ‘Cruel slavemaster.’ However, the chosen data set was not appropriate for the research question. The 300 narratives labeled slave narratives at this site are actually a mixed bag of first person narratives that are fictional and non-fictional, black authored and white authored, pre and post Civil War, some autobiographical, some biographical and some anti and some pro slavery, or at least apologetic. Given the narratives, it is hard to believe that Olney’s criteria, which he says are to be applied to autobiography, would be able to be proven by the test set of data. Literary datamining is still in its infancy, but, to date, the most successful literary results are those that utilize smaller, curated data sets, such as Tanya Clement’s fascinating Stein project.
Dan Cohen writes, ‘Instead of worrying about long-term preservation, most of us should focus on acquiring the materials in jeopardy in the first place and on shorter-term preservation horizons, 5 to 10 years, through well-known and effective techniques such as frequent backups stored in multiple locations and transferring files regularly to new storage media, such as from aging floppy discs to DVD-ROMs. If we do not have the artifacts to begin with, we will never be able to transfer them to one of the more permanent digital archives being created by the technologists.’ I want to spin out the two crucial points that I take from Dan’s argument. 1) we must continue to focus on acquiring artifacts and 2) we must work with short term preservation strategies to stop immediate loss.
If Matt Kirschenbaum is correct and preservation is not a technical problem but a social problem, then it follows that the digital humanities community should be able to address the lack of diversity in the digital canon by attention to acquisition and preservation of particular types of texts.  We need a renewed effort in digitizing texts that occurs in tandem with experimental approaches in data mining, visualization and geospatial representations. Recent critiques have tended to separate the two, a mistake that will damage both efforts. We can create infrastructure to support scholars interested in digital recovery. Leveraging existing structures to support new, small scale scholarship, continued outreach and training for scholars not interested in become digital humanists but interested in digital recovery is crucial.
Preservation of existing digital recovery projects needs to begin immediately. We need a targeted triage focused on digital recovery projects that allow access to materials that are not accessible in print or other digital form. Using existing structures of support, like NEH’s Access and Preservation Grant and Brown’s newly launched TAPAS, we might build an infrastructure to ingest selected digital recovery projects. While it is unlikely that we can preserve the entirety of the project we might, as Dan Cohen has argued, preserve simply. We may not preserve the interface, but if we can preserve the recovery core – the text – then we will not lose the valuable work that the early digital pioneers completed.
We need to examine the canon that we, as digital humanists, are constructing, a canon that skews toward traditional texts and excludes crucial work by women, people of color, and the GLBTQ community. We need to reinvigorate the spirit of previous scholars who believed that textual recovery was crucial to their work, who saw the digital as a way to enact changes in the canon. If, as Jerome McGann suggests, ‘the entirety of our cultural inheritance will be transformed and reedited in digital forms,’ (72), then we must ensure that our representation of culture does not exclude work by diverse peoples.
references
Clement, T. E. (2008). ‘A Thing Not Beginning and Not Ending’: Using Digital Tools to Distant-read Gertrude Stein’s The Making of Americans. Literary and Linguistic Computing 23(3): 361-381.
Cohen, D. J. (2005). The Future of Preserving the Past. CRM: The Journal of Heritage Stewardship 2(2): viewpoint.
Cole, J. L. (2004). Newly Recovered Works by Onoto Watanna (Winnifred Eaton): A Prospectus and Checklist.Legacy: A Journal of American Women Writers 21(2): 229-234.
Cole, J. L. Winnifred Eaton Digital Archive. Formerly http://etext.virginia.edu/eaton/.
Liu, A. Voice of the Shuttle http://vos.ucsb.edu/.
McGann, J. (2005). Culture and Technology: The Way we Live Now, What is to be Done? New Literary History36(1): 71-82.
Olney, R. (1984). I Was Born: Slave Narratives, Their Status as Autobiography and as Literature. Callaloo (20): 46-73.
Price, K. M. (2009). Digital Scholarship, Economics, and the American Literary Canon. Literature Compass 6(2): 274-290.
Smith, M. N. (2007) The Human Touch: Software of the Highest Order: Revisiting Editing as Interpretation.Textual Cultures 2(1): 1-15.
University of Virginia Library. Electronic Text Center ttp://www2.lib.virginia.edu/digitalcuration/etext.html.
Wordseer. The University of Berkley, California  wordseer.berkeley.edu.","txt","2","",""
"1495","13","Research infrastructures for Digital Humanities: The local perspective","1","A number of research infrastructure projects are currently constructing the next generation research environments for digital humanities (Wynne 2010; ESFRI 2011). They are also conducting activities to interact with potential users, early adopters and key multipliers in the field. With this paper, we report on our experience of conducting such activities at the local institutional level in order to (1) identify potential users, to (2) survey their needs and current practice with regard to digital humanities, to (3) try and stimulate them towards adopting research infrastructures where appropriate and, (4), where the case, to identify remaining barriers. We report on our work in progress that is taking these communicative activities to the local level of several humanities faculties of a large German university.
Research infrastructures (Wittenburg et al. 2010; ESFRI, 2011) are complementing a portfolio of established models of supporting computationally intensive research processes in the humanities: (1) the professional intermediary and (2) competence centers (Edmonds 2005; McCarthy & Kirschenbaum, 2003). Some recent infrastructure initiatives have already engaged in bringing research infrastructures to the user, for instance TextGrid and D-SPIN (Binder et al. 2010), others have contacted prospective users to sharpen the research infrastructures’ visions and priorities (e.g. Herold et al. 2010). We believe that these activities need to be complemented at the local levels of universities as well and thereby taking a local perspective on the users and the conditions under which they are carrying out their research activities.
A consideration of the local perspective has two initial foci: The first one lies on general local conditions. These are conditions concerning the local status quo and local infrastructures in digital humanities (henceforth: DH). The second focus has to lie on the local user itself, or better: potential or real users of DH infrastructures, their knowledge about DH infrastructures, their attitude towards DH infrastructures, their requirements and wishes, especially concerning local support structures. Consecutively, a consideration of the local perspective has to lead to an appropriate local DH infrastructure strategy. In the following, we will outline the questions which have to be considered in an analysis of the local perspective, and the methods which can be used for this analysis, before we will conclude with the elements of a local DH user strategy.
An analysis of the local conditions should begin with a detailed analysis of local DH-related research activities: What is already happening (maybe without naming it DH)? Which current and past projects have an affinity with DH? Who are the experts? Which DH support structures already exist, and which current and future roles do local libraries and computing centers have? Methods to be used in this stage are web-based inquiries (on current and past research activities and on existing DH support structures) and expert interviews (on current and future DH strategies). In a second step, it is necessary to further shed light on the (potential or real) users of DH infrastructures, e.g. the local researchers in the humanities. Do they know about existing national and international DH infrastructures? Do they use national or international DH infrastructures? Do they cooperate with DH centers? Which attitude do they have towards DH infrastructures? Which apprehensions or hopes do they have? What requirements and wishes concerning DH infrastructures do they have? Expert users should also be asked whether they are willing or able to serve as professional intermediaries for their local colleagues. This survey on local users should differentiate between experts and non-experts. This could be realized by a qualitative analysis of interviews with two kinds of groups, an expert group and a non-expert group. Furthermore, an online-survey could be used to quantify the findings of the qualitative study.
The analysis of the local conditions and users may then be used to develop a local DH user-strategy which should include elements like local community building, local public relations activities and local support structures. Several such elements have already been described and implemented in DH infrastructure projects and initiatives like TextGrid, D-Spin, CLARIN, and DARIAH. Established community building events like summer schools (e.g. Binder et al. 2010), or the THATCamp series, can also be instantiated as light-weight events, such as a local ‘Data Day’ (Woutersen-Windhouwer 2011). Instruments such as newsletters or mailing lists can be used and adapted for local contexts. Apart from these existing event types and strategic elements, a local perspective on DH infrastructures should also be complemented by local support structures like a DH competence center and local professional intermediaries.
At the Justus-Liebig University Giessen, we conducted a survey of the local DH-related research activities and local DH support structures. We found that more than 25 ongoing or recently completed projects in two of five faculties for humanities could be regarded as DH related projects. This is a surprisingly large amount of projects, if you consider the size of the faculties observed. For the categorization procedure, we defined digital humanities with regard to methods and digital practices. Projects which are classified as DH related projects therefore have to use computer-based methods (e.g. ‘Die Ordnung von Wissen in Texten’), use or produce digital linguistic corpora (e.g. ‘English as a lingua franca in science and business communication’), digital archives (e.g. the ‘Prometheus’ image archive), digital editions (e.g. the digital edition ‘Chronik des Gettos Lodz Litzmannstadt’), or other digital material (e.g. ‘e-campus Altertum’).
The crucial point is that most of these projects do not define themselves as DH projects, which is fatal if you want to build up a local digital humanities community. This finding, which complements previous observations and discussions (e.g. Joula 2008; Svensson 2010; Prescott 2012), is most important for a local DH strategy. What has to be done first, is to make researchers aware that they are already working in the field of digital humanities, and that they could gain a lot from identifying themselves as part of a local and global DH community. We think that this first step, becoming aware of the field of digital humanities and becoming aware that one is already part of the game, is one of the most underestimated and at the same time most important points, if we would like the digital humanities community to grow and if digital humanities research infrastructures should be used by more researchers than at present time.
references
Binder, F., S. Ahlborn, J. Gippert, and H. Lobin (2010). Connecting with User Communities: D-SPIN Summer School 2010. Poster at SDH+NEERI 2010. Vienna/Austria. http://www.dspin-sommerschule.de/ (accessed 22nd March 2012).
Edmond, J. (2005). The Role of the Professional Intermediary in Expanding the Humanities Computing Base.Literary and Linguistic Computing 20(3): 367-80.
ESFRI (European Strategy Forum on Research Infrastructures) (2011). Strategy Report on Research Infrastructures – Roadmap 2010. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.http://dx.doi.org/10.2777/23127 (accessed 22nd March 2012).
Herold, A., T. Warken, F. Binder, and G. Gehrke (2011). D-SPIN Report R3.4 Case Studies, Final Results.ref>http://weblicht.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de/Reports/D-SPIN_R3.4.pdf (accessed 22nd March 2012).
Juola, P. (2008). Killer Applications in Digital Humanities. Literary and Linguistic Computing 23(1): 73-83.
 McCarthy, W., and M. Kirschenbaum (2003). Institutional Models for Humanities Computing. Literary and Linguistic Computing 18(4): 465-89.
Prescott, A. (2012). Consumers, creators or commentators? Problems of audience and mission in the digital humanities. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education 11(1-2): 61-75.
Svensson, P. (2010). The Landscape of Digital Humanities. Digital Humanities Quarterly 4(1).http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/4/1/000080/000080.html (accessed 22nd March 2012).
Wittenburg, P., N. Bel, L. Borin, G. Budin, N. Calzolari, E. Hajicova, K. Koskenniemi, L. Lemnitzer, B. Maegaard, M. Piasecki, J. Pierrel, S. Piperidis, I. Skadina, D. Tufis, R. van Veenendaal, T. Váradi, and M. Wynne (2010). Resource and Service Centres as the Backbone for a Sustainable Service Infrastructure.Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC’10).http://www.lrec-conf.org/proceedings/lrec2010/summaries/679.html (accessed 22nd March 2012).
Woutersen-Windhouwer, S. (2011). Long-term experiences with repositories. Invited talk at CLARIN-D tutorials. http://www.clarin.eu/events/3443 (accessed 22nd March 2012).
Wynne, M. (2010). The humanities research environment of the future. Opening keynote at the D-SPIN Summer School 2010 http://www.clarin.eu/node/3286 (accessed 22nd March 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1496","13","Retrieving Writing Patterns From Historical Manuscripts Using Local Descriptors","1","introduction
Computer-supported retrieval of manuscripts based on the visual features of a query image is a highly desirable, but rarely available service for manuscript research. The service could be used, for example, to check whether a manuscript, specified by a copy, is contained in a museum collection. This kind of retrieval is often approximated by making use of an index based on textual annotations, and thus requires extensive manual preparation. Retrieval based on a query image without annotations, on the other hand, promises to be mainly automatic and also support interesting applications beyond document retrieval. Most importantly, this service can allow retrieval of manuscripts containing the query image as a detail. For example, one could find manuscripts where characters are written in a specific way, exemplified in the query image. Moreover, one could search for the occurrence of  writing patterns consisting of arbitrary graphical features, in short graphs. Similar graphs, retrieved from different manuscripts, may contribute valuable information about a possible scribe identity or a common origin of manuscripts.
In this contribution we describe a novel approach for graph retrieval based on local descriptors at ‘interest points’. Interest points (IPs) specify locations of strong ‘cornerness’ of the image intensities and thus provide reasonably stable reference points for local descriptions. They have proved their worth in many image analysis applications, in particular in image retrieval solutions based on SIFT features (Lowe 2004). Different from SIFT features, our descriptors are not scale and rotation invariant, although tolerant to small variations, giving rise to a distinctly superior performance and efficiency while preserving its usefulness for many concerns of manuscript research. Basically, each descriptor consists of the structure tensors (Koethe 2003) in the neighborhood of an IP, thus giving a precise account of the local gradient distribution. Depending on the resolution of the manuscripts and the chosen size of the neighborhood, the descriptor of a single IP may comprise several hundred feature values, called IP features in the sequel. For highly detailed query images, for example depicting a Chinese character, there may be a large number of IPs (in our experiments up to 40 ), each of which is recorded with its location and its feature values in a local descriptor.
For retrieval, a target image is processed essentially in the same way as the query image, i.e. IPs and IP features are determined. This is done only once and off-line, comparable to establishing an annotation. The main retrieval task is then to find a subset of IPs in a target image whose relative locations and feature vectors best match the query descriptors. We will present an approach which profits from prior segmentation of the target image into possible matching candidates, but can also be applied to large datasets without segmentations. It is controlled by a simple probabilistic model for the kind of differences between query and data which should be tolerated for a retrieval, with parameters which can be adjusted by a manuscript researcher.
First experimental results with Chinese characters in historical manuscripts indicate that our descriptor is tolerant with respect to a certain amount of variations of the same character, yet quite discriminative with respect to structurally different characters, promising high precision and recall.
In the remainder of this abstract, we describe related work in Section 2, give details about the technical implementation in Section 3, and finally report about experimental results in Section 4.
related work
Retrieving graphs from manuscripts is a special case of Content-Based Image Retrieval (CBIR), a well-established research field with a rich set of methods (Datta et al. 2008). But CBIR applied to manuscripts has found very little attention in this community. Most relevant work builds on handwriting recognition which is increasingly applied to historical manuscripts (Fischer et al. 2009; Yosef et al. 2007; Lavrenko et al. 2004; Shrihari et al. 2005). Most approaches so far use retrieval based on words or characters (Lavrenko et al. 2004; Adamek et al. 2007; Srihari et al. 2005; Zhang et al. 2004) which limits the applicability to handwritings with clear word or character separation. A more general approach, as followed in this contribution, relies on retrieving a spatial configuration of graphical features, extracted from the query (Su et al. 2009). For all approaches, the key question is which features to use for the comparison of query and data. It has been shown that the spatial distribution of gradients gives the best results (Zhang et al. 2004; Ding et al. 2007). In most approaches, descriptors based on simple gradient computations (Srihari et al. 2005; Ding et al. 2007) are assigned to a fixed mesh covering a segment. In our work, descriptors are based on structure tensors (Koethe 2003) at IPs determined for each query independent of a segmentation. Furthermore, we use a novel probabilistic model applicable to IPs.
Since our focus is on the retrieval of arbitrary writing patterns, we do not discuss work on OCR here, although OCR could also be an application area worth exploring with our approach.
technical implementation
Due to the restricted length of this abstract, we cannot provide many technical details here. The IPs in our approach are computed using the Harris Corner Detector (Harris and Stephens, 1988) with the improvements introduced in (Koethe, 2003). Fig. 1 shows typical results achieved for manuscripts with Chinese and Arabic handwritings.
Local descriptors are computed for each IP by combining the structure tensors of all points in the neighbourhood (in our examples of size 11 x 11) into a large feature vector characterizing strength and directionality of intensity gradients.
 
Figure 1a: Interest points (IPs) determined (a) for a Chinese character in a 60 x 41 image and (b) for a 86 x 107 segment of Arabic handwriting
 
Figure 1b: for a 86 x 107 segment of Arabic handwriting
To retrieve matching patterns from target data, IPs of the query are incrementally compared with IPs of the data using a probabilistic model comprising the following boolean probabilities, both for the hypothesis H1 that the target is a match, and the hypothesis H0 that it is not a match:
PIP target descriptor missing in window at query location
Ploc target descriptor dislocated from query location
Pfeat target descriptor features differing from query descriptor features
Let A be pairs of descriptors of query and target, P(H0) and P(H1) the prior probabilities of the respective hypotheses, then for a hypothesis test we have to evaluate:
 
 
The comparison is formulated as two hypothesis tests, the first whether the query pattern is contained in the target, and the second whether the target pattern, constrained by a successful first test, is contained in the query. The target is considered a match of the query, if both tests succeed.
experimental results
We have carried out first retrieval experiments with Chinese and Arabic manuscripts. Fig. 2 left shows a section of the Fo shuo Tiwei jing (British Library Or.8210/S. 2051). The left-most white box marks a character used as a query, the other boxes show matching characters found by the retrieval system. There have been no false negatives, but the second hit in Column 6 is a false positive, although quite similar to the query. Similar results have been achieved for other queries, applied to a manuscript section with 364 characters.
 
Figures 2a and 2b: Retrieval from  an Arabic manuscript (top), and a Chinese (below)
 
Figure 2a (top) shows part of Vollers0015,S.2 from the Refaiya Library in Leipzig. The section marked with a box (shown also in Fig. 1b) was used as a query for the same manuscript and retrieved as the only hit as to be expected. Further experiments are on the way.
Funding
This work was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) in the Research Group ‘Manuscript Cultures in Asia and Africa’ and the Collaborative Research Center for the Study of Manuscript Cultures SFB 950.
references
Adamek, T., N. E. O’Connor, N. Murphy, and A. F. Smeaton (2007). Word Matching Using Single Closed Contours for Indexing Handwritten Historical Documents. International Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition 9(2-4): 153-165.
Datta, R., D. Joshi, J. Li, and J. Z. Wang (2008). Image Retrieval: Ideas, Influences, and Trends of the New Age. ACM Computing Surveys 40( 2): 1-60.
Ding, K., Z. Liu, L. Jin, and X. Zhu (2007). A Comparative Study of Gabor Feature and Gradient Feature for Handwritten Chinese Character Recognition. Proceedings International Conference on Wavelet Analysis and Pattern Recognition, pp. 1182-1186.
Fischer, A., M. Wüthrich, M. Liwicki, V. Frinken, H. Bunke, G. Viehhauser, and M. Stolz (2009). Automatic Transcription of Handwritten Medieval Documents. Proceedings 15th International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia, pp. 137-142.
Harris, C., and M. Stephens (1988). A Combined Corner and Edge Detector. Proceedings 4th Alvey Vision Conference, pp. 147–151.
Koethe, U. (2003). Edge and Junction Detection with an Improved Structure Tensor. Proceedings 25th DAGM Symposium, pp. 25-32.
Lavrenko, V., T. Rath, and R. Manmatha (2004). Holistic Word Recognition for Handwritten Historical Documents. Proceedings Document Image Analysis for Libraries (DIAL), pp. 278-287.
Lowe, D. G. (2004). Distinctive Image Features from Scale-Invariant Keypoints, International Journal of Computer Vision 60(2): 91-110.
Srihari, S. N., C. Huang, and H. Srinivasan (2005). A Search Engine for Handwritten Documents. Proceedings SPIE-IS&T Electronic Imaging, pp. 66-75.
Su, T.-S., T.-W. Zhang, D. J. Guan, and H. J. Huang (2009). Off-line Recognition of Realistic Chinese Handwriting Using Segmentation-free Strategy. Pattern Recognition 42(1): 167-182.
Yosef, I. B., I. Beckman, K. Kedem, and I. Dinstein (2007). Binarization, Character Extraction, and Writer Identification of Historical Hebrew Calligraphy Documents. International Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition (IJDAR)  9: 89-99.
Zhang, B., S. N. Srihari, and C. Huang (2004). Word Image Retrieval Using Binary Features. Proceedings Document Recognition and Retrieval XI, pp. 45-53.","txt","2","",""
"1497","13","Sharing Ancient Wisdoms: developing structures for tracking cultural dynamics by linking moral and philosophical anthologies with their source and recipient texts","1","introduction
The Sharing Ancient Wisdoms (SAWS)1 project explores and analyses the tradition of wisdom literatures in ancient Greek, Arabic and other languages, by presenting the texts digitally in a manner that enables linking and comparisons within and between anthologies, their source texts, and the texts that draw upon them. We are also creating a framework through which other projects can link their own materials to these texts via the Semantic Web, thus providing a ‘hub’ for future scholarship on these texts and in related areas. The project is funded by HERA (Humanities in the European Research Area) as part of a programme to investigate cultural dynamics in Europe, and is composed of teams at the Department of Digital Humanities and the Centre for e-Research at King’s College London, The Newman Institute Uppsala in Sweden, and the University of Vienna.
historical background
Throughout antiquity and the Middle Ages, anthologies of extracts from larger texts containing wise or useful sayings were created and circulated widely, as a practical response to the cost and inaccessibility of full texts in an age when these existed only in manuscript form (Rodríguez Adrados 2009: 91-97 on Greek models; Gutas 1981). SAWS focuses on gnomologia (also known as florilegia), which are manuscripts that collected moral or social advice, and philosophical ideas, although the methods and tools developed are applicable to other manuscripts of an analogous form (e.g. medieval scientific or medical texts; Richard 1962).
The key characteristics of these manuscripts are that they are collections of smaller extracts of earlier works, and that, when new collections were created, they were rarely straightforward copies. Rather, sayings were reselected from various other manuscripts, reorganised or reordered, and subtly (or not so subtly) modified or reattributed. The genre also crossed linguistic barriers, in particular being translated into Arabic, and again these were rarely a matter of straightforward translations; they tend to be variations. In later centuries, these collections were translated into western European languages, and their significance is underlined by the fact that Caxton’s first imprint (the first book ever published in England) was one such collection (Craxton [1477] 1877]. Thus the corpus of material can be regarded as a very complex directed network or graph of manuscripts and individual sayings that are interrelated in a great variety of ways, an analysis of which can reveal a great deal about the dynamics of the cultures that created and used these texts.
methods: publishing, linking, and creating tools for other related projects
The SAWS project therefore has three main aspects:
1.        The encoding and publication of a digital archive of editions of a selected number of these texts;
2.        The identification, publication and display of the links between the anthologies, their source texts, and their recipient texts;
3.        The building of a framework for scholars outside the SAWS projects to link their texts to ours and to other relevant resources in the Semantic Web.
TEI XML markup of editions
Each of the texts is being marked up in TEI-conformant XML and validated to a customised schema designed at King’s College London for the encoding of gnomologia. Our structural markup reflects as closely as possible the way in which the scribe laid out the manuscript. The TEI schema uses the <seg> element to mark up base units of intellectual interest (not necessarily identified as single units by the scribe), such as a saying (statement) together with its surrounding story (narrative). For example:
Alexander, asked whom he loved more, Philip or Aristotle, said: ‘Both equally, for one gave me the gift of life, the other taught me to live the virtuous life.’2
This contains both a statement and a narrative:
<seg type=”contentItem”>
   <seg type=”narrative”>
Alexander, asked whom he loved more, Philip or Aristotle, said:
  </seg>
   <seg type=”statement”>
Both equally, for one gave me the gift of life, the other taught me to live the virtuous life.
   </seg>
</seg>
Each of these <seg> elements can be given an @xml:id to provide a unique identifier (which can be automatically generated) that differentiates them from all other examples of <seg>, for instance <seg type=”statement” xml:id=”K.al-Haraka_ci_s1″>. In other words, it allows each intellectually interesting unit (as identified by our team’s scholars) to be distinguished from each other unit, thus providing the means of referring to a specific, often very brief, section of the text.
RDF linking within and between manuscripts
Several types of relationships have been identified within and between the manuscripts. These manuscript relationships exist at many different levels of granularity, from links between individual sayings to interconnections in families of manuscripts. These relationships are represented using an ontology that extends the FRBR-oo model (Doerr & LeBoeuf 2007) (the harmonisation of the FRBR model of bibliographic records (Tillett 2004) and the CIDOC (Doerr 2003) Conceptual Reference Model (CIDOC-CRM)). The SAWS3ontology, developed through collaboration between domain experts and technical observers, models the classes and links in the SAWS manuscripts. Basing the SAWS ontology around FRBR-oo provides most vocabulary for both the bibliographic (FRBR) and cultural heritage (CIDOC) aspects being modelled.
Using this underlying ontology as a basis, links between (or within) manuscripts can be added to the TEI documents using RDF markup. RDF4 is a specification to represent one-way links (known as triples) from an object entity to a subject entity. The use of RDF to represent relationships in markup has to date primarily been seen in XHTML documents containing RDFa5 (RDF in attributes); however it is desirable to extend the scope of RDF in markup, so that RDF links can be added directly into documents such as the TEI XML documents used in SAWS (Jewell 2010).
To include RDF triples in TEI documents, three entities have to be represented for each triple: the subject being linked from, the object being linked to, and a description of the link between them. The subject and object entities in the RDF triple are represented by the @xml:id that has been given to each of the TEI sections of interest. We use the TEI element <relation/> (recently added to TEI) to place RDF markup in the SAWS documents, with four attributes as follows:
•        The value of @active is the @xml:id of the subject being linked from;
•        The value of @passive is the @xml:id or URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) of the object being linked to;
•        The value of @ref is the description of the relationship, which is drawn from the list of relationships in the ontology;
•        The value of @resp is the name or identifier of a particular individual or resource (such as a bibliographic reference).  Many of the links being highlighted are subjectively identified and are a matter of expert opinion, so it is important to record the identity of the person(s) responsible.
 
Example:
 
 
This is equivalent to stating that the Arabic segment identified as ‘K._al-Haraka_ci_s5’ is a close rendering of the Greek segment identified as ‘Proclus_ET_Prop.17_ci1’, and that this relationship has been asserted by Elvira Wakelnig, 2012.
The <relation/> element can be placed anywhere within the XML document, or indeed in a separate XML document if required: for our own purposes we have found it useful to place it immediately after the closing tag of the <seg> identified as the ‘active’ entity.
The SAWS ‘hub’ for enabling related projects to annotate and link their own texts
The project is thus producing a framework for representing these relationships, using an RDF-based semantic web approach, as well as tools for creating these complex resources, and for visualising, analysing, exploring and publishing them (Heath & Bizer 2011). We are engaging with scholars working on related projects in order to establish an agreed set of predicates; the version currently being evaluated and deployed by scholars is available as an ontology athttp://purl.org/saws/ontology . The number of manuscripts of this type is large, and the project is creating the kernel of an envisaged much larger corpus of interrelated material. Many of the subsequent contributions will be made by others; therefore we are creating a framework of tools and methods that will enable researchers to add texts and relationships of their own, which will be managed in distributed fashion. We are also linking to existing Linked Data sources about the ancient world, most notably the Pleiades gazetteer6 of ancient places and the Prosography of the Byzantine World7 which aims to document all the individuals mentioned in textual Byzantine sources from the seventh to thirteenth centuries.
Thus we will create an interactive environment that enables researchers not only to search or browse this material in a variety of ways, but also to process, analyse and build upon the material. This environment will provide tools to browse, search and query the information in the manuscripts, as well as making available SAWS-specific TEI schema and ontology files and XSLTs used to extract semantic information from the structural markup and metadata within the
TEI markup. We also hope to make available tools for adding and editing manuscripts within the SAWS environment. The ultimate aim is to create a network of information, comprising a collection of marked-up texts and textual excerpts, which are linked together to allow researchers to represent, identify and analyse the flow of knowledge and transmission of ideas through time and across cultures.
references
Caxton, W. ([1477] 1877). The Dictes and Wise Sayings of the Philosophers (originally published London, 1477), reprinted 1877 (London: Elliot Stock).
Doerr, M. (2003). The CIDOC CRM – an Ontological Approach to Semantic Interoperability of Metadata. AI Magazine 24(3).
Doerr, M., and P. LeBoeuf (2007). Modelling Intellectual Processes: The FRBR – CRM Harmonization. Digital Libraries: Research and Development, Vol. 4877. Berlin: Springer, pp. 114-123.
Gutas, D. (1981). Classical Arabic Wisdom Literature: Nature and Scope. Journal of the American Oriental Society 101(1): 49-86.
Heath, T.,  and C. Bizer (2011). Linked Data: Evolving the Web into a Global Data Space. San Rafael, CA:  Morgan & Claypool,  pp.1-136.
Jewell, M. O. (2010). Semantic Screenplays: Preparing TEI for Linked Datahttp://dh2010.cch.kcl.ac.uk/academic-programme/abstracts/papers/pdf/ab-878.pdf/Digital Humanities 2010, Friday 9 July, London, UK.
Pleiades gazetteer:http://pleiades.stoa.org/ Last accessed 9th March 2012.
Prosopography of the Byzantine World:http://www.pbw.kcl.ac.uk . Last accessed 9th March 2012.
RDF/XML Syntax Specification (Revised) http://www.w3.org/TR/rdf-syntax-grammar/. Last accessed 31st October 2011.
RDFa in XHTML: Syntax and Processing. http://www.w3.org/TR/rdfa-syntax/. Last accessed 31st October 2011.
Richard, M. (1962). Florilèges grecs. Dictionnaire de Spiritualité V, cols. 475-512.
Rodríguez Adrados, F. (2009). Greek wisdom literature and the Middle Ages: the lost Greek models and their Arabic and Castilian. Bern: Peter Lang.
Tillett, B. (2004). What is FRBR? A Conceptual Model for the Bibliographic Universe. Library of Congress Cataloging Distribution Service, Library of Congress 25, pp. 1-8.
notes
1.http://www.ancientwisdoms.ac.uk
2.Gnomologium Vaticanum
3.SAWS ontology:http://purl.org/saws/ontology ontology. Last accessed 16th March 2012
4.http://www.w3.org/TR/rdf-syntax-grammar/ Last accessed 31st October 2011.
5.RDFa in XHTML: Syntax and Processing http://www.w3.org/TR/rdfa-syntax/ . Last accessed 31st October 2011.
6.Pleiades gazetteer:http://pleiades.stoa.org/ . Last accessed 9th March 2012
7.Prosopography of the Byzantine World:http://www.pbw.kcl.ac.uk/. Last accessed 9th March 2012","txt","2","",""
"1498","13","Social Curation of large multimedia collections on the cloud","1","introduction and prior work
In previous Digital Humanities conferences we presented the Facet System, a system that improves browsing and searching of a large collection by supporting users to build a faceted (multi-perspective) classification schema collaboratively (Georges et al. 2008; Fu et al. 2010). The system is targeted for multimedia collections that have little textual metadata. In summary, our system (a) allows users to build and maintain a faceted classification collaboratively, (b) enriches the user-created facet schema systematically, and (c) classifies documents into an evolving facet schema automatically. It is hoped that through users’ collective efforts the faceted classification schema will evolve along with the users’ interests and thus help them navigate the collection. For the browsing and classification interfaces of the Facet System see Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. This paper discusses scalability challenges and improvements made to the system, cloud deployment, user studies and evaluation results.
 
Figure 1: Browsing of the system enabled by user-evolved faceted classification
 
Figure 2: The click-and-drag classification screen
scalability issues and system improvement
Our Facet System allows users to collaboratively evolve a common, global schema that contains facets (perspectives such as colour) and categories (such as red and green in the colour facet) for a large multimedia collection, using a wiki-inspired interface. The global schema can then used by any users for browsing or searching the collection. The variety of user perspectives increases with the number of users. Even though we have taken measures to cure and reduce the global schema, we find that the global schema alone faces limitations in supporting a large number of users. Many users prefer to focus on a smaller subset of the schema or collection. To address this issue, we have improved the user interface to allow users switch between global and personal schemas. The personal schema allows users to organize digital documents in their own way. A group of people can share the same personal schema which applies to a subset of the large digital collection. On the backend, we developed a ‘merging’ algorithm that automatically enriches the global schema by merging items, categories and facets from personal schema into the global schema. The algorithm applies statistical techniques to item-category associations, category-subcategory and category-facet associations, and Wordnet-based similarities. Figure 3 shows both global and personal schemas that can be utilized by individual users or user groups. More technical details will be presented at the conference.
 
Figure 3: Global and personal (or local) schemas
cloud deployment
A large repository with millions of multimedia items may consume terabytes of storage. To support millions of users, the system needs to be partitioned, mirrored, or load balanced across an array of servers. When user traffic and growth trends are not perfectly predicable, cloud computing is not only the most cost effective but also likely the only viable option.
After evaluating several cloud service providers, we find that Microsoft Azure Cloud provides the best cost-effectiveness for us to host large digital repositories that require scalable database support as well as network bandwidth. Our Facet System was built on an open source technology stack including Joomla, PHP and MySQL. Joomla is a leading open source content management system implemented in PHP. Initially we deployed the system on two server layers, Web (Joomla/PHP) and Database (MySQL) layers, utilizing Web and Worker roles in the Azure cloud (see Fig. 4). The scalability and manageability of the MySQL database turned out to be prohibitive. We found that true database scalability can be accomplished only by cloud-tailored solutions such as Microsoft SQL Azure. We spent significant efforts in porting Joomla from MySQL to Microsoft SQL Azure. In addition, we moved Joomla’s session management from the default storage in operating system files to Azure storage, to enable stateless load balancing across many servers on the Web layer. During the conference we will present more technical details which may benefit users of Joomla and other open source content management systems.
 
Figure 4: The deployment architecture in Microsoft Azure
evaluation and user studies
We evaluated the system using 15 classes (different sessions of a university-wide undergraduate introductory information technology class) during Spring 2011, and continue the evaluation with 22 classes during Fall 2011 semester using the cloud deployment of our system. Each class has around 30 students. The system was used to teach the digital humanities and social computing component of the class, by asking students to collaboratively curate a special library collection of un-cataloged local newspaper clippings and images on African American activism in United States. We captured detailed usage information as users completed a series of tasks involving searching, classification, tagging and voting (providing feedback on digital items and metadata). Each class of students work as a group using a single personal schema, which may be better labeled as ‘local schema’ in the future to avoid confusion. A backend algorithm periodically merges categories and facets from these local schemas into the global schema. While global schema is useful, we find that the students spend a lot of efforts on curating the collection through building the local schemas for their own classes. Therefore we refer to our current system a Social Curation System. The performance of the system and cloud deployment proves to be satisfactory and actually exceeded our expectation in certain aspects.
A common challenge to curating digital collections is the lack of expertise necessary to classify, catalog and create metadata structures for such collections. The evaluation shows the feasibility of social curation by non-expert users supplemented by suitable algorithms for reinforcing, combining and judging user created associations and tags. From a social science perspective, we are interested in the relationship between student’s prior experience and attitudes about social computing and their current behavior in a social curation environment. We used a pre-usage instrument to assess the users’ prior experience with common social sites, then a post-usage instrument to measure post-usage attitudes and conceptual understanding of the resulting metadata among the users. We also measured students’ knowledge in digital humanities and African American activism before and after the system usage. The change in perceived usefulness of the archive from the beginning of the experiment to the end was also measured. We will present the result of the data analysis at the conference and hope that it will help future designs and implementations of socially curated archives.
related work and conclusion
There are many large scale multimedia collections on the Internet. Few of them, however, contain library-grade metadata for digital items. Researchers have proposed or studied how to build large, curated collections on the Internet. Recent Digital Humanities conferences have showcased efforts in trying to utilize multiple organizations’ collaborative efforts in building federated or related collections (Timothy et al. 2011). Our project utilizes cloud computing to explore the scalability limitations of collaborative curation, and implement algorithmic approaches to synthesize individual users’ or groups’ curation efforts. Our work on backend algorithms are build upon recent advancements in ontology building, text categorization and link mining (e.g. Wu et al., 2006a, 2006b; Heymann et al. 2006; Joachims et al. 1998;Schmitz et al. 2006). Evaluation results show the promise of our social curation approach.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Science Foundation [ grant number 0713290].
references
Fu, L., K. Maly, H. Wu, and M. Zubair (2010). Building Dynamic Image Collections from Internet. Digital Humanities 2010, London, UK, 2010.
Georges, A., K. Maly, M. Milena, H. Wu, and M. Zubair (2008). Exploring Historical Image Collections with Collaborative Faceted Classification. Digital Humanities 2008, Oulu, Finland, 2008.
Heymann, P., and H. Garcia-Molina (2006).Collaborative Creation of Communal Hierarchical Taxonomies in Social Tagging Systems. Stanford Technical Report InfoLab.
Joachims, T. (1998) Text categorization with support vector machines. 10th European Conference on Machine Learning. London, 1998.
Schmitz, P., and Yahoo! Research (2006). Inducing Ontology from Flickr Tags. Workshop in Collaborative Web Tagging, WWW 2006, 2006, Edinburgh, UK.
Cole, T., N. Fraistat, D. Greenbaum, D. Lester, and E. Millon (2011). Bamboo Technology Project: Building Cyberinfrastructure for the Arts and Humanities. Digital Humanities 2011, Stanford, CA, 2011.
Wu, H., M. Zubair, and K. Maly (2006). Harvesting Social Knowledge from Folksonomies. ACM 17th Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia, 111-114, Odense, Demark, August 20-25, 2006.
 Wu, H., M. Gordon, K. DeMaagd, and W. Fan (2006). Mining Web Navigations for Intelligence. Decision Support Systems 41(3): 574-591.","txt","2","",""
"1499","13","Social Network Analysis and Visualization in 'The Papers of Thomas Jefferson'","1","The silences endemic to the archive of slavery have long presented a range of challenges to the literary scholar: How does one account for absences in the archival record, both those inscribed in the archive’s contents, and those introduced at the time of the archive’s construction? How does one account for the power dynamics at work in the relationships between the enslaved men and women who committed their narratives to paper, and the group of (mostly white) reformers who edited and published their works? How does one identify and extract meaning from the unique set of documents that do remain – letters, inventories, ledger books, and personal narratives – documents that, in the words of Susan Scott Parrish, the literary critic, we must struggle to make ‘mean something more?’ (2010). And how does one do so without reinforcing the damaging notion that African American voices from before emancipation – not just in the archival record, but the voices themselves, are silent, and irretrievably lost?
This final, critical challenge is what has prompted scholars from across the humanities, such as the literary critics Stephen Best (2009, 2011) and Saidiya Hartman (2008), the sociologist Avery Gordon (2008), the archivist Jeanette Bastian (2003), and the historian Jill Lepore (1998), to call for a shift away from what Best has identified as ‘a logic and ethic of recovery,’ to a new focus, instead, on animating the mysteries of the past (2011). However, each of these scholars proposes traditional methods of analysis and criticism for animating such mysteries.
This short paper will instead draw upon a set of tools and techniques associated with social network analysis and visualization in order to propose a new method for animating the mysteries of the past. While social network analysis and visualization tools have been applied to literary texts (Drouin 2006-), historical datasets (Wilder 2010-), and correspondence networks (Findlen et al. 2008-), these tools have not yet been applied to historical archives with the aim of illuminating the relationships among people mentioned in the archive’s content.
For this task, I employed a named entity recognizer (NER) developed at Stanford, and included in its suite of CoreNLP (Natural Language Processing) tools, in order to identify the names of the people mentioned in the archive’s content (Manning et al. 2010). I then developed my own co-appearance script, in Python, in order to determine which people were mentioned in the same document as each other, and how many times those people appeared together. I then formatted the data to be displayed using Protovis, a javascript-based visualization toolkit also developed at Stanford (Bostock & Heer 2010).
 Figure 1
My paper will focus on a subset of documents included in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, those that make reference to members of the enslaved Hemings family (Figure 1). The descendants of Elizabeth Hemings, including Sally Hemings, the woman with whom, whether consensually or not, Jefferson maintained a lifelong relationship and bore six of his children; and James Hemings, who trained as a chef de cuisine in the high French style, and then worked as the head cook at Jefferson’s Monticello plantation until his emancipation, in 1796, function as an ideal test case both for assessing the limits of the computing methodologies employed, and for determining how the analysis and visualization of social networks can, in fact, animate the mysteries of the past – those that Best, Hartman, and others, have sought to identify and amplify through more traditional scholarly techniques.
A significant limit of employing NER software on this particular dataset is that enslaved men and women were most often referred to by first name alone. For instance, not only are there many Jameses mentioned in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, but James Hemings was also called Jamie, Jimmy, and even Gimmé while in France. After running my co-appearance script, I was required to go through the results by hand in order to determine which names referred to the same individual, and in that event, combine the associated data. Because of the eighteenth-century style of the Jefferson Papers, I was also required to remain attentive to any NER errors, as well as to individuals clearly alluded to in the Papers, but not referred to by name at all.
The test case of the Hemings family also points to the limits of the ‘arc diagram’ model for visualizing complex relationships. While preferable to a force-directed layout, which obscures the distinct relationships among individuals, its layout implies a linearity that is not consistent with the web of relationships contained within the dataset. My paper will thus also propose how hive plots and chord diagrams might function as better models for visualizing such network data (Krzywinski 2009, 2011). In this way, I will suggest how contemporary data visualization research can have a direct impact on a range of literary and cultural investigations.
Furthermore, by demonstrating how a visualization of this particular social network allows us to see the historical traces of the Hemings family as presences, not absences, as scholars such as Best, Hartman, Gordon, Bastian, and Lepore, have each argued for, I begin to address an issue of mounting concern within the community of digital humanities scholars, as voiced by Johanna Drucker (2009) and Alan Liu (2011), among others, about the need to reinscribe humanistic inquiry as the central focus of digital humanities work. The presence of the Hemings family in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, as unearthed by the methods described above, suggests not only how digital tools might be applied to a diverse set of cultural and literary questions, but also how these methods might expose – and animate – the diversity of experience embedded in significant records of early American cultural life.
references
Bastian, J. (2010). Owning Memory, How A Caribbean Community Lost Its Archives and Found Its History.Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.
Best, St. (2011). Neither Lost nor Found: Slavery and the Visual Archive. Representations 113(1): 150-163.
Best, St., and M. Sharon (2009). Surface Reading: An Introduction. Representations 108(1): 1-21.
Bostock, M., and J. Heer (2010). Protovis. http://mbostock.github.com/ protovis/
Drouin, J. (2006-). Ecclesiastical Proust Archive. http://www.proustarchive.org/
Drucker, J. (2009). SpecLab: Digital Aesthetics and Projects in Speculative Computing. Chicago: U of Chicago P.
Findlen, P., et al. (2008-). Mapping the Republic of Letters. https:// republicofletters.stanford.edu/
Gordon, A. (2008). Ghostly Matters: Haunting and the Sociological Imagination. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P.","txt","2","",""
"1500","13","Sounding for Meaning: Analyzing Aural Patterns Across Large Digital Collections","1","introduction
This paper will discuss a case study that uses theories of knowledge representation and research on phonetic symbolism to develop analytics and visualizations that help users examine aural and prosodic patterns in text. This use case is supported by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation through a grant titled ‘SEASR Services.’ Other collaborators include Humanities professors from Stanford, George Mason University, and University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. All of the use cases within the project include research on how humanities scholars can use textual analytics and predictive modeling with visualizations in order to help scholars interpret large digital collections. In particular, while this paper will briefly describe a new reading of Tender Buttons (1914) by Gertrude Stein that was facilitated by text analysis, predictive modeling, and visualization, but this discussion is primarily focused on how the theories, research, and methodologies that underpin this work facilitate digital diversity.
the logic and ontologies of aurality
Relying on the research of literary scholars and psychologists concerning how humanists make meaning with sound, we have chosen to use the logics and ontologies of aurality to model and analyze sound in text. If we are unclear about what we mean and how we mean when we seek to represent ‘sound,’ we discourage diverse readings from those who wish to understand the results of the computational analytics we apply to that model. In order to create a methodological approach that supports digital diversity, we seek to be transparent about the logics and ontologies of sound we are using. To this end, we have listed below each of the five roles that knowledge representation plays in a project according to Davis et al. (qtd. in Unsworth) and how these roles play out in the methodologies we have chosen to use in our use case.
(1) ‘A knowledge representation is most fundamentally a surrogate, a substitute for the thing itself’ (Davis et al. 1993).
In this project, we are defining sound as the pre-speech promise of sound as it is signified within the structure and syntax of text. Charles Bernstein focuses on the ‘aurality’ of text, which he calls the ‘sounding of the writing’ (Bernstein 13). ‘Orality,’ Bernstein writes, ‘can be understood as a stylistic or even ideological marker or a reading style; in contrast, the audiotext might more usefully be understood as aural – what the ear hears . . . Aurality precedes orality, just as language precedes speech’ (Bernstein 13). Using textual analytics to create a surrogate of potential sound is an essential aspect of the theory of aurality underpinning the methods in this project.
(2) Knowledge Representation ‘is a set of ontological commitments, i.e., an answer to the question: In what terms should I think about the world?’ (Davis et al. 1993).
In this project, we are committed to ontologies of sound that define sound as a meaningful aspect of text. This debate concerning whether or not sound makes meaning and how has a long history.1 These ideas, that the meaning of sound correlates to the structure of the text underpins the ontologies we have chosen for this project. Ultimately, the act of reading requires digital diversity since readers create their own sense making systems by making connections and understanding patterns. The same is true of reading sound: computers do an excellent job of modeling the features with which readers make these kinds of connections.
(3) Knowledge Representation ‘is a fragmentary theory of intelligent reasoning, expressed in terms of three components: (i) the representation’s fundamental conception of intelligent reasoning; (ii) the set of inferences the representation sanctions; and (iii) the set of inferences it recommends’ (Davis et al. 1993).
The above theories in aurality and research in phonetic and prosodic symbolism underpin our choice to use OpenMary, an open-source text-to-speech system, as a fundamental first step to generate the features that correspond to sound in texts. Developed as a collaborative project of Das Deutsche Forschungszentrum für Künstliche Intelligenz (GmbH) (German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence) Language Technology Lab and the Institute of Phonetics at Saarland University, OpenMary’s rule set or algorithm for  ‘intelligent reasoning’ is based on the research of both linguists and computer scientists. Created to generate audio files of spoken text from written transcripts, OpenMary captures information about the structure of the text (features) that make it possible for a computer to read and create speech that is comprehensible to humans in multiple languages (German, British and American English, Telugu, Turkish, and Russian; more languages are in preparation). Specifically, OpenMary is a system that accepts text input and creates an XML document (MaryXML) that includes ‘tokens along with their textual form, part of speech, phonological transcription, pitch accents etc., as well as prosodic phrasing,’ all of which are important indicators of how the text could be ‘heard’ by a reader (‘Adding support for a new language to MARY TTS’) (see Figure 1)
(4) Knowledge Representation ‘is a medium for pragmatically efficient computation’ (Davis et al. 1993).
SEASR’s Meandre provides basic infrastructure for data-intensive computation, and, among others, tools for creating components and flows, a high-level language to describe flows, and a multicore and distributed execution environment based on a service-oriented paradigm. The workflow we created in Meandre processes each document in our collection through the OpenMary web service at a paragraph level to create a tabular representation of the data that also includes features that maintain the structure of the documents (chapter id, section id, paragraph id, sentence id, phrase id). Each word is parsed out into accent, phoneme and part-of-speech in a way that keeps the word’s association with the phrase, sentence, and paragraph boundaries. The ultimate benefit to creating this flow in Meandre is digital diversity: it is meant to be accessible to future users who wish to produce or tweak similar results (see Figure 2 and Figure 3).
In order to make comparisons evident with predictive modeling, we have also developed an instance-based, machine-learning algorithm for predictive analysis. We use an instance-based learning algorithm because it was thought to make similar mistakes as humans do (Gonzalez, Lerch, Lebiere). To focus the machine learning on prosody, we only used features that research has shown reflects prosody including part-of-speech, accent, stress, tone, and break index (marking the boundaries of syntactic units) (Bolinger).  To further bias the system towards human performance, we selected a window size of fourteen phonemes, because it was the average phrase length and research has shown that human prosody comparisons are made at the phrase level (Soderstrom et al. 2003).
(5) Knowledge Representation ‘is a medium of human expression, i.e., a language in which we say things about the world’ (Davis et al. 1993).
An essential aspect of this project is ProseVis, a visualization tool we developed that allows a user to map the results of these analytics to the ‘original’ text in human readable form. This allows for the simultaneous consideration of multiple representations of knowledge or digital diversity. Digital Humanities scholars have also used phonetic symbolic research in the past to create tools that mark and analyze sound in poetry (Plamondon 2006; Smolinsky & Sokoloff 2006). With ProseVis, we also allow users to identify patterns in the analyzed texts by facilitating their ability to highlight different features within the OpenMary data (see Figure 4) as well as the predictive modeling results (see Figure 5) mapped onto the original text. The visualization renders a given document as a series of rows that correspond to any level in the document hierarchy (chapter/stanza/group, section, paragraph/line, sentence, phrase). In these ways, the reader can examine prosodic patterns as they occur at the beginning or end of these text divisions. Further, ProseVis represents the OpenMary data2 within ProseVis by breaking down the syllables into consonant and vowel components such as:
Word        Sound        Lead Consonant        Vowel Sound        End Consonant
Strike        s tr I ke        s        I        Ke
This breakdown provides the reader with a finer-grained level of analysis, as well as a simplified coloring scheme. See Figure 6 (beginning sound), Figure 7 (vowel sound), and Figure 8 (end sound).
re-reading tender buttons by gertrude stein
Our predictive modeling experiment was to predict Tender Buttons out of a collection of nine books. The prediction was based on comparing each moving window of fourteen phonemes, with each phoneme represented solely by its aural features listed above. The hypothesis was that Gertrude Stein’s Tender Buttons(1914) would be most confused with The New England Cook Book (Turner 1905). Margueritte S. Murphy hypothesizes that Tender Buttons ‘takes the form of domestic guides to living: cookbooks, housekeeping guides, books of etiquette, guides to entertaining, maxims of interior design, fashion advice’ (Murphy 1991, p. 389). Figure 9 visualizes the results of our predictive analysis by showing the percentage of times the computer confuses its predictions for each of the nine books. In the visualization, row two shows the results for The New England Cook Book with Tender Buttons as the text that the computer ‘confuses’ with the highest percentage when trying to predict the cookbook. By modeling the possibility of sound with pre-speech features marking aurality, we are inviting diverse modes of discovery in textual sound.
 
Figure 1: Shows the phrase ‘Repeating then is in everyone,’ from Gertrude Stein’s text The Making of Americans
 
Figure 2: Shows the flow with the components that are used for executing OpenMary and post-processing the data to create the database tables
 
Figure 3: This is a sample of the tabular output of Tender Buttons by Gertrude Stein created within Meandre
 
Figure 4: Sounds of each syllable in Tender Buttons by Gertrude Stein visualized using ProseVis
 
Figure 5: Predictive Modeling data comparing Tender Buttons to seven other texts visualized using ProseVis
 
Figure 6: Beginning Sound of each syllable in Tender Buttons by Gertrude Stein visualized using ProseVis
 
Figure 7: Vowel sound of each syllable in Tender Buttons by Gertrude Stein visualized using ProseVis
 
Figure 8: End sound of each syllable in Tender Buttons visualized using ProseVis
 
Figure 9: These are the results of a predictive modeling algorithm that was run on nine texts. Each color represents the percentage of times the algorithm predicts one of the nine in its attempt to pick a given text
references
Adding support for a new language to MARY TTS. MARY Text To Speech. Web. 8 Sept. 2011.
Bernstein, C. (1998). Close Listening: Poetry and the Performed Word. Oxford: Oxford UP.
Bolinger, D. (1986). Intonation and Its Parts: Melody in Spoken English. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP.
Clement, T. (2008). ‘A thing not beginning or ending’: Using Digital Tools to Distant-Read Gertrude Stein’s The Making of Americans. Literary and Linguistic Computing 23(3): 361-82.
notes
1.See Bolinger, Cole, Newman, Ong, Plato Sapir, Saussure Shrum and Lowrey, and Tsur.
2.These sounds are documented herehttp://mary.opendfki.de/wiki/USEnglishSAMPA . However, over the course of testing ProseVis, we uncovered two additional vowel components, @U and EI, which are now included in the implementation.","txt","2","",""
"1501","13","Stylometric Analysis of Chinese Buddhist texts: Do different Chinese translations of the ‘Gandhavyūha’ reflect stylistic features that are typical for their age?","1","Buddhist Hybrid Chinese is a form of Classical Chinese that is used in the translation of Buddhist scriptures from Indian languages to Chinese between the 2nd and the 11th century CE. It differs from standard Classical Chinese of the period in vocabulary (esp. the use of compounds and transcriptions of Indian terms), register (esp. the inclusion of vernacular elements), genre (esp. the use of prosimetry), and rarely even syntax (at times imitating the syntax of the Indian original). Texts in Buddhist Hybrid Chinese are central to all traditions of East Asian Buddhism, which is practiced in China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam.
No comprehensive linguistic description of Buddhist Hybrid Chinese has been attempted so far and perhaps never will, due to the great diversity between translation idioms that at times use different Chinese terms for one single Indian term, and in other cases one single Chinese term for different Indian terms. In as far as Buddhist Hybrid Chinese has been described, the research generally concentrates on grammatical particles (e.g. Yu 1993), single texts (e.g. Karashima 1994), single terms (e.g. Pelliot 1933) or even single characters (e.g. Pulleyblank 1965). The stylometric study of Buddhist Hybrid Chinese – as that of Classical Chinese in general – has only just begun. Only since 2002, when the Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA) distributed the texts in XML are the canonical texts available in a reliable digital edition.1
The Chinese Buddhist canon was printed first in the 10th century and regarding texts before that date its contents have been relatively consistent since then. The currently most widely referenced edition (the Taishō edition, published 1924-34) is based on a Korean edition from the 14th century. It contains ca. 2200 texts from India and China. Due to insufficient and unreliable bibliographic information for texts translated before the 7th century, the attributions to individual translators –  where they exist at all – are often questionable. This again has an impact on the dating of the early texts, as they are usually dated via their translator(s). Since most stylometric methods, including those for authorship attribution, were developed for European languages, they often rely on easily parsable word-boundaries, which in the case of Buddhist Hybrid Chinese do not exist. Our wider aim is therefore to develop methods to identify stylistic clues for certain eras in Chinese translations from Indian texts. Can we, based on  stylometric features, find a way to date Chinese Buddhist texts or at least to meaningfully corroborate or contradict traditional attributions?
In this study we have compared three translations of the same text, i.e. the Gandhavyūha section (ch. Ru fajie pin 入法界品) of the Avatamsakamsūtra (ch. Huayan jing 華嚴經). The Gandhavyūha, which contains a long narrative of the quest of the young man Sudhana to visit spiritual teachers, was translated into Chinese three times:
T. 278 by Buddhabhadra 佛陀拔陀羅et. al. (Chang’an 418-20 CE)
T. 279 by Śiksānanda實叉難陀 et. al. (Chang’an 695-699 CE)
T. 293 by Prajña 般若et. al. (Chang’an 796-8 CE)
Our task in this particular case was to develop an algorithm that can demonstrate that the T.278 was translated three to four hundred years earlier than T.279 and T.293, and show which of its features can identify a translation idiom that is earlier or at least different from that of T.279 and T.293. Can it be shown that the two Tang dynasty translations (T.279 and T.293) truly are more closely related to each other than to the translation from the Eastern Jin (T.278)?
Our approach here combines a general statistical weighing of n-grams with a focus on grammatical particles (xuci 虛詞). A ranking of their importance for our corpus must factor in occurrence as well as variance. The algorithm must also provide for the fact that characters that function as particles can also be used in nominal or verbal compounds. These instances must be filtered out by applying a list of compounds from a large dictionary of Buddhist terms (Soothill & Hodous 1937). The algorithm for this is developed in the first section.
The following sections describe the sampling procedure and the preparation of the corpus. Although ostensibly all versions of the same Indian text, the three translations differ greatly in length, mainly because the volume of the Indian Gandhavyūha expanded between the 5th and the 8th centuries.  To counter this problem and to produce enough samples for our analysis, each translation will be divided into sub-divisions of equal length. Then, the frequencies of grammatical particles in these divisions will be calculated and used for defining the stylometric profile of the three translations. We will therefore deal with text clusters on which we can use Principle Component Analysis (PCA), which we have used in a previous study (Hung, Bingenheimer, Wiles 2010). Using PCA on the extracted profiles and plotting the values of first and second components in 2-d charts we are able to discern clearly that T.279 and T.293 are closer to each other and more distant/different from T.278. The two Tang dynasty translations seem indeed to differ from the Jin dynasty translation in its use of particles, and the first and second component of the PCA analysis result shows, which particles create the distinction.
Thus stylometric analysis can give us a better understanding of the translation styles of Buddhabhadra, Śiksānanda and Prajña. All translators have several other translations attributed to them and comparing theirGandhavyūha translation to the rest of their corpus, and then again their corpora with each other, could in the future help us to improve our algorithms that ideally would be able to describe and demarcate the work of different translators. The general aim is to get a first handle on the quantitative analysis of the corpus written in Buddhist Hybrid Chinese and extract significant features, which can then be used for a more accurate linguistic description of the idiom.
What the analysis does not account for is changes in the Indian text. The Eastern Jin translation was translated from a somewhat different version of the Indian text than the two Tang translations 300-400 years later. This does, however, not impact our analysis. It is possible to distinguish how grammatical particles were used by different translators, because they reflect different styles of Buddhist Hybrid Chinese, which is what we are looking to describe.  Even taking into account that the Sanskrit text of the Gandhavyūha has evolved between the 5th and the 8th century, its grammar could not have changed to the degree as there are changes in the translation idiom.
references
Hung, J.-J., M. Bingenheimer, and S.  Wiles (2010). Quantitative Evidence for a Hypothesis regarding the Attribution of early Buddhist Translations. Literary and Linguistic Computing 25(1): 119-134.
Karashima, S. 幸嶋靜志 (1994). Chōagonkyō no gengo no kenkyū – onshago bunseki o chushin toshite 長阿含經の原語の研究 – 音写語分析を中心として[Study of the language of the Chinese Dīrghāgama]. Tokyo: Hirakawa平河出版社.
Pelliot, P. (1933). Pāpīyān > 波旬 Po-siun. T’oung Pao (Sec. Series), 30 (1-2): 85-99.
Pulleyblank, E. G.. (1965). The Transcription of Sanskrit K and Kh in Chinese Asia Major 11 (2): 199-210.
Soothill, W. E. and L. Hodous (1937). A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms. London: Kegan. [Reprint Delhi: Motilal, 1994]. Digital as XML/TEI file at http://buddhistinformatics.ddbc.edu.tw/glossaries/.
Yu, L. 俞理明 (1993). Fojing wenxian yuyan佛経文献語言 [The Language of the Buddhist Scriptures]. Chengdu: Bashu shushe巴蜀書社.
notes
1.The CBETA edition is an openly available digital edition of the Chinese Buddhist Canon (the texts can be downloaded in various formats at http://www.cbeta.org/).","txt","2","",""
"1502","13","Texts in Motion - Rethinking Reader Annotations in Online Literary Texts","1","Taking Reader’s Response Theory as the basis, this short paper discusses approaches to enhancing reader interaction with literary texts through social annotation and visualization tools. The integration of multimedia repositories, collaborative annotation mechanisms, and advanced visualization techniques creates a digital environment for students and scholars alike and provides readers with rich tools for both interpreting literary texts and visualizing reader interactions with these texts. Examples will be drawn from Mary Shelley’sFrankenstein and Herman Melville’s Moby-Dick.
Notes in margins of books fulfill several functions for the individual reader: recording thoughts and associations while reading, marking important passages or references to other parts within the same text, noting possible links to other texts and documents, or simply creating a reference point to come back to in a subsequent reading. From a cognitive point of view, marginalia offer insights into the interaction of a reader with a given text and offer hints towards understanding the process of reading and sense making. Reading a book that already contains notes by another reader can be both enlightening or distracting, yet it allows us to encounter another person’s reading experience, forming another layer of meaning that might influence our own interpretation. It’s this interactive nature of the reading experience, the constant interaction between the text itself and the reader’s response to it that, according to Wolfgang Iser in the Implied Reader (1974)1, allows us to interpret a literary text. The result is a ‘virtual text’ that is formed by a text and the reader‘s interaction with it.
For centuries, marginalia have served as instantiations of a rich reader engagement with a text, often providing hints to interpretations from different times, languages, and cultures thus forming critical insights into texts that would otherwise be lost. With more and more texts being digitized or already born digital texts available online or on electronic readers, the notion of marginalia in a digital space poses a number of interesting questions. How can we preserve, enhance, and expand this critical interaction especially with literary texts, particularly when we consider the social dimension offered through digital media? How can we make use of large digital text, image, video, and audio repositories to help us represent a text as a ‘multi-dimensional space,’ as a ‘tissue of quotations drawn from innumerable centers of culture’ (Roland Barthes)2? What if we had digital tools that allowed us to even visualize how readers experience a text by following their interactions, for example by graphically representing their annotations across the whole text? How do readers discover connections within a text, across different texts, to source texts, to adaptations in other media, or derivative texts? What if we could finally visualize the ‘act of reading’ (Iser) and analyze a literary text from the perspective of both the author and the readers?
A multidisciplinary research team at HyperStudio, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Digital Humanities Lab within Comparative Media Studies, has been exploring these questions, developing digital tools that allow readers to create multimedia annotations to literary texts, and testing them in the literature classroom. HyperStudio has created specific visualization tools that allow for a visual representation of the structural features of a text and, more importantly, offer graphs that show the reader interactions with a given text both on page and whole book levels. At the same time, these visualizations also serve as navigational mechanisms through the texts and annotations, both fine-grained and on a whole-text basis.
Pedagogically this work is informed by a wide range of theoretical and practical approaches: concepts of media literacy, work on interactive and collaborative text editing, a pedagogy of close reading and critical writing devised to place literary texts in relation to their multimedia sources and adaptations; and new Digital Humanities tools for visualization, data mining, and social networking.
At the heart of these different approaches lie theories and technologies for understanding the mix as a central feature of new media ‘literacies’ or ‘competencies,’ in Henry Jenkins’ terminology3. The notion of remix borrowed from popular musical forms has come to define new modes of artistic production and consumption that inspire active creators. Similarly in academic scholarship and pedagogy, an appreciation for how artists borrow and rework cultural materials has energized the study of creative processes. In a literature classroom, traditional methods of close reading, source study, and literary analysis can merge with newer interpretive models to view texts in creative flux: as fluid vessels for recombining older forms of inspiration and engendering new ones in different media adaptations. Reading literary works as textual remixes reinforces strong close reading and critical skills while rejuvenating source study. We see text annotation at the center of this notion of remix.
The visualization approaches have been informed by a range of current online tools for visualizing texts but also by artistic representations of text corpora such as David Small’s work4, timeline tools such as HyperStudio’s Chronos5, and playful approaches such as the ones by John Maeda6. Existing visualization concepts such as word clouds, word trees, phrase nets are only a few of the online visual tools that help us graph occurrences of single words or the relationship between words within texts. Popular visualization tools such as the ones available for experimentation at IBM‘s Many Eyes7 or scholarly tools such as Voyeur8 help us quickly discover word frequencies and usage patterns. Google’s Ngram Viewer9 makes the leap beyond the single text and searches across ‘millions’ of books and displays occurrences of single or multiple words as line graphs along a timeline that spans decades or even centuries. While these tools help us greatly analyze a range of linguistic aspects of the work of an author, they tell us little about how readers interact with literary texts. The tools that HyperStudio is developing allow us to visualize how readers interact with a text, how they discover connections within a text, across texts, to source texts, to adaptations in other media, or derivative texts. In the end, they aim at visualizing the ‘act of reading’ (Iser) and helping to analyze a literary text from the perspective of both the author and the readers.
From a software development point of view, we are using principles of agile development and co-design, involving students, faculty, designers, and assessment specialists from the outset. Building on HyperStudio’s Ruby-on-Rails-based platform Repertoire, the text annotation tools feature shareable text repositories, easy role and group management, filtering of annotations via tags and search, and display of overlapping annotations from different users/groups. The visualization tools will allow a seamless transition from fine-grained display of annotations to a global view of annotations within a whole literary text.
We recognize that there are a number of text annotation tools available, both open source and commercial, that include some of the features we are describing here.  However, the approach to annotating texts with multimedia materials, annotation across texts, a deep integration of visualization tools for both textual features and reader interaction, combined with a strong educational focus, is unique in the field.
Early feedback from students using a prototype of the annotation tools in two literature classes at MIT has shown a deeper engagement by students not only in processes of close reading and creating references to external sources but also in students’ requests for private workspaces where they could upload their selection of literary texts and annotate them in the same way for their own research, not even related to any class assignments. In addition, the HyperStudio team has also received a number of feature requests from students. One feature in particular was in great demand (on our schedule for later implementation): the flexible comparison and joint annotation of two texts side-by-side. Each text can be independently defined as source, version, base, or adaptation, allowing for the display of referenced annotations even when the related text is not present. Additional features such as annotation of non-contiguous portions of text and the creation of multimedia essays based on reader annotations will be implemented in a next phase.  By the time of DH2012, HyperStudio will have tested the annotation tools and visualizations in half a dozen courses and conducted extensive assessment.
Funding
This work was supported by the MIT Class Fund and the MIT SHASS Teaching and Learning Fund.
notes
1. Iser, W. (1974). The Implied Reader; Patterns of Communication in Prose Fiction from Bunyan to Beckett. Baltimore: John Hopkins UP.
2.Barthes, R. (1997). The Death of the Author. In Image – Music– Text. New York: Hill & Wang, pp. 142-148.
3.Jenkins, J., et al. (2006). Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century. Chicago: The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation.http://digitallearning.macfound.org/atf/cf/%7B7E45C7E0-A3E0-4B89-AC9C-E807E1B0AE4E%7D/JENKINS_WHITE_PAPER.PDF accessed 25 March 2012.
4.Small, D. (1999). Talmud Project. http://www.davidsmall.com/portfolio/talmud-project/ accessed 25 March 2012
5.MIT HyperStudio (2011). Chronos Timeline. http://hyperstudio.mit.edu/software/chronos-timeline/accessed 25 March 2012.
6. http://www.maedastudio.com/index.php accessed 25 March 2012.
7. http://www-958.ibm.com/software/data/cognos/manyeyes/ accessed 25 March 2012.
8. http://hermeneuti.ca/voyeur/ accessed 25 March 2012.
9.http://books.google.com/ngrams accessed 25 March 2012.","txt","2","",""
"1503","13","The ARTeFACT Movement Thesaurus: toward an open-source tool to mine movement-derived data","1","problem
The 20th century was a period of vast growth in dance especially in Western cultures, with multiple genres being created and codified techniques being developed. Along with the explosion of new works (danced texts) came an upsurge of research into dance and its acceptance as a scholarly discipline. However, research into movement, and movement-based arts, depends greatly on the ability to peruse documentation beyond static written texts and photographic (still) images. Thus, as visual capture technologies developed, the preferred means of recording and studying a dance work is film and/or video (i.e. visual data). As beneficial as access to film has been to the discipline, this method of preserving and accessing dance contains its own challenges. The current practice of viewing hours of film hinders researchers’ abilities to (a) find movement-derived data (b) find that data quickly (c) find data accurately described and (d) reuse the data. Further, while there are standards for preserving video, there are no standards for providing access and any attempt at mining data from a moving image is fraught with difficulty. Therefore, a new model is required, one that exploits advances in computer software and hardware and can enhance research and innovation into movement-based research in the humanities.
our solution
With funds from an NEH Level II Digital Start-up Grant, the ARTeFACT Movement Thesaurus (AMT) uses motion capture technologies to study movement patterns through a corpus of movement-derived data. In the third phase of the ARTeFACT project, a multi-disciplinary project first developed at the University of Virginia, the AMT includes over 200 movements derived from codified techniques: ballet, jazz, modern dance, and tai chi. Prior to motion capture of movements, we defined and categorized each movement ‘STEP’ in order to develop an ontology (saved as xml files). An eight-camera Vicon system captures individual movements and movement phrases typically seen in the studio and on stage. Using custom Matlab software, 3-D data of individual movements are quantified through mathematical interpretation of joint positions, using the ground truth data of the VICON motion capture system for its input to develop the algorithms. In future, the program, idMove, (developed for the DH SUG) will be modified to use only 2-D data.  
The second planned future component is the development of algorithms to convert 2-D images from the video into files of position data (in practice the second component, creating the position data from video would be applied first to generate the data for movement identification). These two components will be worked on in parallel. In addition, work will be undertaken to examine and improve the robustness of the algorithms when data sets are incomplete. We will validate that the code works with dancers of different morphologies and levels of ability. Also there are often times in dances when body parts are obscured by other dancers or by the dancer him or herself and we will develop our algorithms to work when sections of movements can not be seen. Finally, we will consider movement phrases, a series of dance moves, (the current software is designed for films of a single dance move) and will develop the ability to identify the individual moves within a string of moves.
As choreographers rarely create dances based solely on individual STEPS, and prefer to use them to create a new vocabulary per the requirements of the dance work, we are moving beyond the codified technical movements to incorporate conceptualized movements into the AMT. At this time, we are using Lakoff and Johnson’s work on conceptual metaphor as a basis for pattern recognition of embodied semantics, and we plan to utilize corpus linguistics methods as a basis to formulate a statistical analysis of the STEPS (words) ‘spoken’ in a dance work. This approach is admittedly problematic, in that a movement phrase does not parallel written phrases; however, we are continuing to work with the ideas of statistical analysis against distinct movement vocabularies created as representative of a concept. Thereby we are creating a lexicon of dance based both upon technical description of the moves (STEPS) as well as theme based moves. We are striving toward a future in which researchers will be able to upload videos and have the dance “annotated” by the AMT software for data mining of movement-based texts.
rationale
Dance movement, as a non-verbal language, cuts across cultures without the need of ‘translation.’ The body speaks through a kinesthetic voice. While appreciating that there may be cultural differences at work in choreography, in western theatre dance there is generalized understanding of movement techniques and vocabulary. Therefore, the response to a work, especially as to the meaning of a dance, allows most viewers to understand the work. In other words, there is a set of movements that can be read either by an understanding of the technical form or through mutual conceptual frameworks. That said, the most common verbal languages used in dance are English and French with steps codified to such an extent that dancers and researchers the world over understand a passé, a fondue, a frappe, a fouette, a flat back, a brush knee, etc. Thus, we have begun loading the AMT with codified movements. This will allow researchers to view these movements, performed by a subject-matter-expert, via the step name or by individual movements of body parts (at this time, the knee and foot). By extending the AMT to include conceptual movements, we will enable researchers to search based on an idea (the first conceptual set we are including incorporates movements based on the conceptual metaphor Conflict).
conclusion
We will present the NEH funded portion of the ARTeFACT project: the AMT. This is a major step toward providing access to movement-derived data through sophisticated data mining technologies. By using motion capture technologies we are developing a sophisticated, open source tool that can help make film searchable for single movements and movement phrases. By bringing together engineers, movement specialists, and mathematicians we will forge ahead to break new ground in movement research and take one step closer to the creation of an automated means of mining danced texts and filmed movements.
references
Ahmad, K., A. Salway, J. Lansdale, H. Selvaraj, and B. Verma (1998). (An)Notating Dance: Multimedia Storage and Retrieval. Conference Proceedings, International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Multimedia Applications, World Scientific. Singapore, p. 788.
Bailey, H., M. Bachler, S. Buckingham Shum, A. Le Blanc, S. Popat, A. Rowley, and M. Turner (2009). Dancing on the Grid: Using e-Science Tools to Extend Choreographic Research. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A (13 July 2009) 367 (No. 1898): 2793.
Coartney J., and S. Wiesner (2009) Performance as digital text: Capturing signals and secret messages in a media-rich experience. Literary and Linguistic Computing 24: 153.
Lakoff, G., and M. Johnson (1999). Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenges toWestern Thought. New York: Basic Books.
Lakoff, G., and M. Johnson (1980). Metaphors We Live By Chicago: U of Chicago P.
Starkweather, J. A. (2003). Overview: Computer-Aided Approaches to Content Recognition. In G. Gerbner et al. (eds.), The Analysis of Communication Content. New York: John Wiley & Sons, p. 339.  
Turner, V. (1974). Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors London: Cornell UP.
Wiesner, S. L. (2011) Framing Dance Writing: A Corpus Linguistics. Saarbrücken: Lambert Academic Publishing.","txt","2","",""
"1504","13","The Differentiation of Genres in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century English Literature","1","The title of this paper has changed, because our effort to answer one question (about linguistic register) exposed a larger question with broad relevance to literary study, and indeed to the definition of ‘literature.’
To start where the process of inquiry actually began: what happened to English poetic diction around 1800? William Wordsworth’s claim to have brought poetry back to ‘the language of conversation in the middle and lower classes of society’ in Lyrical Ballads has long been represented as a turning point in literary history. Given the weight attributed to this claim, it is surprising that scholars haven’t tried to test it. Did the language of poetry actually become more formal or specialized in the eighteenth century? And if so, did the change reverse itself around 1798? Finally, was this phenomenon restricted to poetry, or was it a broader transformation of diction that affected other genres as well?
We are increasingly in a position to answer questions like these. True, we can’t ask eighteenth-century English speakers to demonstrate ‘the language of conversation in the middle and lower classes of society.’ Moreover, standard contemporary tests of difficulty (like the Flesch-Kincaid Readability Test) are not very applicable to earlier periods, because they rely on sentence length. Practices of punctuation have changed over time, making the average sentence steadily shorter from the seventeenth century through the twentieth.
It is more practical to assess the formality of diction. This assessment is particularly easy to make in English because of an important peculiarity of its history: English was for two hundred years (1066-1250) almost exclusively a spoken language, while French and Latin were used for writing. Any English word that survived this period had to be the kind of word that gets used in conversation. Words that entered the language afterwards were often borrowed from French or Latin to flesh out the learned vocabulary. Even today, the distinction between these two parts of the lexicon remains an important aspect of linguistic register. For instance, Laly Bar-Ilan and Ruth Berman have shown that contemporary spoken English is distinguished from writing by containing a higher proportion of words from Old English. Moreover, this differentiation between writing and speech increases as students enter high school, where they also learn to use a greater proportion of words from French and Latin in formal expository prose than they do in written narrative (Bar-Ilan & Berman 2007).
If learned and informal registers were distinguished this way in the thirteenth century, and the same thing holds true today, then one can reasonably infer that it held true in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as well (for further evidence, see DeForest & Johnson 2001). Thus an etymological approach to diction can show us how the ‘register’ of a given genre changed across time, becoming more conversational or more formal.
 
Figure 1
We have explored this question in a collection of 3,724 volumes. The eighteenth-century part of the collection was manually keyed by ECCO-TCP; the nineteenth-century part of the collection was digitized by OCR, but has been corrected with a fuzzy-matching script that has a machine-learning component and is extensively optimized for nineteenth-century OCR (our strategy was based on Lasko & Hauser 2002). More importantly, the comparative logic of this inquiry largely factors out the false negatives produced by imperfect OCR.
Instead of distinguishing ‘Germanic’ and ‘Latinate’ diction, we have used the first attested date for each word, choosing 1150 as a dividing line because it’s the midpoint of the period when English was not used in writing. But date-of-entry of course correlates strongly with the Germanic/Latinate division. One can in fact simply measure the average length of words and produce very similar results (the correlation between the pre/post-1150 ratio and average word length is usually -.85 or lower). We exclude a generous list of stopwords (determiners, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, and the verb to be). The reason is that, as Bar-Ilan and Berman point out, ‘register variation is essentially a matter of choice’ (15). There is usually no alternative to stopwords, so they may not reveal much about register. We also exclude abbreviations, proper nouns, and words that entered the language after 1699.
The results of this inquiry do suggest that the register of poetry took a new turn in the late eighteenth century. In the course of the nineteenth century older, pre-1150 words became dramatically more common in poetry. It is reasonable to infer that poetic diction became more familiar and less overtly learned. But this particular detail is hardly the most striking fact about Fig. 1. What’s salient is rather a broader process of generic differention from 1700 to 1899 that affected prose fiction and nonfiction as well as poetry. In the year 1700, these genres each had their own peculiarities of diction, but they didn’t belong to sharply distinguished registers of the language. By 1899, they did. The ratio of pre- to post-1150 words became almost twice as high in prose fiction as in nonfiction, and almost three times higher in poetry. This suggests that the story usually told about Wordsworth may be misleading: far from rebelling against specialized poetic diction, he was producing a manifesto for a style that was – less recondite, to be sure – but also more sharply differentiated from prose.
This result matters, more broadly, because it bears an interesting relationship to the emergence of ‘literature’ as a distinct cultural category in the same period. In the early eighteenth century, ‘literature’ could encompass anything read by the middle and upper classes, emphatically including nonfiction. By the end of the nineteenth century, ‘literature’ was a category sharply distinguished from nonfiction prose, and valued for special aesthetic qualities. If this conceptual shift was also accompanied by a systematic transformation of diction, we may be able to learn something about the nineteenth-century concept of ‘literature’ by paying close attention to the way diction changed.
To start a debate on this topic, we will present an argument with two parts. First, we will show that the differentiation of genres was not merely a matter of linguistic register. When we compare genres in a more general way (using metrics like Spearman correlation and cosine similarity) it remains true that poetry, fiction and, to some extent, drama became steadily less like nonfiction prose in the period 1700-1899 (for the rationale behind these metrics, see Kilgarriff 2001).
 
Figure 2
Second, we will begin to interpret the meaning of the divergence, by examining lists of words that became relatively more (or less) overrepresented in literary genres over this period. Briefly, we will suggest that the transformation of literary diction dramatizes a transformation of the logic of cultural capital. In the eighteenth century, literary diction explicitly thematized the social status associated with fine writing (‘muse,’ ‘pomp,’ ‘taste,’ ‘applause,’ ‘genius,’ ‘merit,’ ‘talents.’) In the nineteenth century, literary diction became more concrete, to be sure, and less explicitly learned – but it also tended to disavow the social in favor of a pure subjectivity embodied, for instance, in nouns and verbs of perception (‘listened,’ ‘heard,’ ‘looked,’ ‘felt,’ ‘dream,’ ‘eye’). We propose that this emphasis on subjectivity and immediacy in fact dramatizes a mode of cultural capital associated with literature’s autonomy from other institutions (Ross 1998). We don’t pretend to have proven that hypothesis. There is room for a great deal more study and argument. We do, however, claim to have shown that the diction of poetry, fiction, and nonfiction prose differentiate from each other over the period 1700-1899 – a puzzle that will need some kind of explanation. We offer the puzzle itself as an example of the way text-mining is already beginning to shape debates in literary history and critical theory.
Acknowledgments
The arguments and methods in this paper have been deeply shaped by conversation with Natalia Cecire, Tanya Clement, Katherine Harris, Ryan Heuser, Natalie Houston, Matt Jockers, Benjamin Schmidt, John Unsworth, and Scott Weingart.
Funding
This work was supported by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation grant, Expanding SEASR Services.
references
Bar-Ilan, L., and R. A. Berman (2007). Developing register differentiation: the Latinate-Germanic divide in English. Linguistics 45: 1-35.
DeForest, M., and E. Johnson (2001).The Density of Latinate Words in the Speeches of Jane Austen’s Characters. Literary and Linguistic Computing 16: 389-401.
Lasko, T. A., and S. E. Hauser (2002). Approximate String Matching Algorithms for Limited-Vocabulary OCR Output Correction. US National Library of Medicinehttp://archive.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/hauser/Tompaper/tompaper.php.
Kilgarriff, A. (2001). Comparing Corpora. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 6: 97-133.
Ross, T. (1998). The Making of the English Literary Canon. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s UP.
Wordsworth, W. (1798). Advertisement. Lyrical Ballads, with a Few Other Poems, by William Wordsworth and S. T. Coleridge. Bristol: Biggs & Cottle.","txt","2","",""
"1505","13","The Digital Daozang Jiyao - How to get the edition into the Scholar's labs","1","introduction
The Daozang jiyao project aims not only at providing a new text-critical edition of an important collection of Daoist works, but also to serve as a research hub to any research concerning the collection and indeed Daoism in China since the 18th century1.
the daozang jiyao 道臧輯要
The Daozang jiyao was first put together as a shorter compendium of the enormous Ming Dynasty Daozang, a collection that features some 1500 texts in thousands of scroll, hence its name, which translates as ‘Essential of the Daozang’. On closer examimnation, only about 60 percent of the text are from the earlier collection however, with much contemporary material added by the group around Jiang Yuanting 蔣元庭 (style Yupu 予蒲, 1755-1819), who reportedly added 79 texts not contained in the Daozang of the Ming during the Jiaqing era (1796-1820). This edition is still available at some libraries around the world, but inspection of these holdings revealed that almost none of these editions are identical; the texts included have been reshuffled, added or removed, woodblocks for missing pages have been recarved and new material has been added. To complicated matters even further, a reprint was done in Chengdu, Sichuan at the beginning of the 20th century, for which all text have been recarved according to the standards of the time, which resulted in a great number of changes to the text and the characters used for writing it. The collection now contains slightly more than 300 texts.
The whole complexity of the textual tradition came only gradually to the light through bibliographical research done by Monica Esposito and other project members, but it become also clear that the digital edition should not only be able to reflect the textual history accurately but should also be done in a way that allows modern day scholars to make full use of the digital edition, which meant that a modern text with normalized characters and modern interpunction had to be produced as well.
In addition to the digital text itself, a compendium with introductions to the texts in English and Chinese, as well a detailed catalog that details the content of the different editions are planned.
towards a digital edition
Given the rather limited resources of the project, an efficient editing routine had to be established, some of which have been already reported in earlier presentations (Wittern 2009, 2010a, 2010b, 2010c).
A multitude of workflows
When the project started in 2006, a first draft of the text files would be made by a partner institution, the Institute for Chinese Literature and Philosophy, at Academy Sinica in Taiwan. In Kyoto, these text files were transformed to TEI conformant XML markup and then proofread and collated in one single step.
It proved to be very slow, first of all, because proofreading and collation are very different activities that are not easily performed together, but also because the editing of the XML source proved to be challenging for the members of the project, who where mostly specialists in Daoist studies.
As a remedy, the workflow of collation and proofreading was separated and performed with a specialised web application, that would allow the operators to see both the digital facsimile and the transcribed text on the same page. This application was developed based on a new text model, that allowed convenient handling even of characters, that could not be distinguished by there character encoding; details of this can be found in Wittern (2010a).
However, as it turned out, this was not yet the end of the work. For further steps, including the collation and subsequent structural markup of the texts, the web based user interface proved to be too limiting and time consuming to use, so another solution had to be found. We were reluctant to go back to editing the XML source, because that made it less convenient to align the text with the digital facsimiles, so a specialieed editor was preferred.
As it happened, around that time Emacs 23 was released, the first version which truly supported Unicode (although for some of the more arcane characters, a patch was still needed), so it became feasible to provide a customized interface for collation and structural editing.
Instead of trying to directly add the results of the collation to the XML file, as has been tried at the beginning of the project, we used now the ideas presented in Wittern (2011) to use the distributed version control system (DVCS) git to maintain the different versions of the text in different branches of the system and could thus easily align them. The algorithms to collate the texts are then partly drawn from Schmidt & Colomb (2009), a working session with a text to be processed is shown in Figure 1.
 
Figure 1: Work on the CK-KZ branch of the Daozang jiyao in a specialized Emacs editing mode
Towards publication
Both stages of the workflow, the web application and the Emacs bases solution have been built not only for internal use, but as a prototype for the eventual publication. This will not only allow us to make more efficient use of scarce resources, but also gives plenty of time to collect experience and improve the interface.
The expected publication will thus have two faces:
•        For the casual user, a web based digital edition will provide easy access to all features of the edition without the need to install specialized software or learn a new tool.
•        For scholars, who want to incorporate the texts into their own digital library and work on them using their own tools, a git repository will provide access to all ’branches’ of the edition and thus the full range of the established texts, including a normalized version.
•        A master XML version, which documents the text using TEI conformant text-critical markup will also be available through a repository.
All of these editions will continue to be enhanced as the knowledge of the texts and their background increases. Since the texts are not simply made available for download, but are set up in a DVCS repository, not only can updates be integrated with local changes of users of the text, but they can make available other branches of the text through separate repositories.
conclusions
Most of the text studied in the Humanities, and especially the material which is at the focus of this project, has come upon us through a long history of writing and re-writing of the text. To fully understand the text requires also an understanding of its tradition and the events that made it possible for us to hold the text in our hand, which might be excavations and spectacular finds or simply the steady and silent work of generations of curators and librarians that preserved the text for us. To realize its full potential, the digital text will thus not only try to reproduce one specific material edition, but allow the reader to look at versions of the text as they existed at certain points in history, so as to know what version of the text was current when it was read (and quoted) by such and such person. At the same time, the text will also be available together with other reference tools and research material in each of the Scholar’s digital library or ‘labs’.
Now, one of the real fundamental differences between digital text and printed texts as we have known it for centuries is the fact that the latter is a single product, whereas a text in the digital medium really wants to be seen in the context of all other texts, read in collaboration with other readers, in short requires a platform for scholarly editions, a ’Scholar’s Lab’, rather than simply a desk to be put on. How such a platform might be constructed and what it needs to do is a matter of heavy debate at the moment; I hope to voice my views at the presentation of this paper.
references
Burnard, L. and S. Bauman, eds (2008). TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Oxford: TEI Consortium.
Esposito, M. (2009). The Daozang Jiyao Project: Mutations of a Canon. Daoism: Religion, History and Society1: 95-153.
Esposito, M. (2011). The Daozang jiyao 道臧輯要 as Receptacle to the Three Teachings in Qing Daoism: Lay and Clerical Authorities Face to Face. In Interactions between the Three Teachings.  K. Mugitani (ed.). Vol. II. Kyoto: Dokisha, pp. 431-69.
Robinson, P. (2009). Towards a Scholarly Editing System for the Next Decades. In Sanskrit Computational Linguistics: First and Second International Symposia Rocquencourt, France, October 29-31, 2007 Prov- idence, RI, USA, May 15-17, 2008. Revised Selected Papers. Springer London: Springer, pp. 346-57.
Schmidt, D., and R. Colomb ( 2009). A data structure for representing multi-version texts online.International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 67(6): 497-514.
Shillingsburg, P. (2006). From Gutenberg to Google : electronic representations of literary texts. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
Shillingsburg, P. (2009). How Literary Works Exist: Convenient Scholarly Editions. DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly 3(3).
Shillingsburg, P. (2010). How Literary Works Exist: Implied, Represented, and Interpreted. Text and Genre in Reconstruction: Effects of Digitalization on Ideas, Behaviours, Products and Institutions.  Willard Mc-Carty (ed). Cambridge: Open Book Publishers.
Wittern, Ch. (2009). Digital Editions of premodern Chinese texts: Methods and Problems – exemplified using the Daozang jiyao. In Early Chán Manuscripts among the Dūnhuáng Findings – Resources in the Mark-up and Digitization of Historical Texts at University of Oslo, Sep. 28 to Oct. 3, 2009.
Wittern, Ch.  (2010a). Mandoku – An Incubator for Premodern Chinese Texts – or How to Get the Text We Want: An Inquiry into the Ideal Workflow. Digital Humanities 2010. Kings College London.
Wittern, Ch.  (2010b). Rebirth of the Daozang Jiyao – The never-ending Process of Creating a Digital Edition. InCultural Crossings: China and Beyond in the Medieval Period Conference – Digital Projects in Asian Art and Humanities Workshop. Charlottesville.
Wittern, Ch. (2010c). Some Remarks Concerning Digital Editions of Premodern Chinese Texts. In: International Conference New Directions in Textual Scholarship. University of Saitama.
notes
1.The project was initiated and led by Monica Esposito (1962-2011), who’s sudden parting came as a shock to all involved in the project. Like all outcomes of the project, this presentation is dedicated to her memory.","txt","2","",""
"1506","13","The Digital Mellini Project: Exploring New Tools & Methods for Art-historical Research & Publication","1","The Digital Mellini Project: Exploring New Tools & Methods for Art-historical Research & Publication
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Rodríguez, Nuria, University of Málaga, Spain, nro@uma.es
Baca, Murtha, Getty Research Institute, USA, mbaca@getty.edu
Albrezzi, Francesca, Getty Research Institute, USA, falbrezzi@getty.edu
Longaker, Rachel, Getty Research Institute, USA, rlongaker@getty.edu
background
This paper will present the project Digital Mellini: Exploring New Tools & Methods for Art-historical Research & Publication, a joint initiative of the Getty Research Institute (Los Angeles) and the University of Málaga (Spain). This paper shall discuss several aspects and challenges related to the development of digital resources for art-historical research.

The main objectives for the Digital Mellini Project are:

To explore new methods and tools with which to reinvent the concept of scholarly work and critical publishing in the field of humanities, particularly in the context of art history, in which the convergence of text and image is essential and provides an interesting context for research – a context that has not yet been adequately investigated.1
To create a methodological model for developing collaborative digital publications that incorporate texts, digital facsimiles, images, computational tools for linguistic analysis and visual communication, and forums for exchanging ideas and sharing knowledge. The ultimate goal is that the international community of specialists can utilize this methodological model and apply to a variety of art-historical projects.
These objectives can be seen within the framework of the recent growing interest that many of us in the art-historical community have in response to the challenges offered by the digital society – we need to analyze and reflect critically on the ‘digital status’ of the discipline of art history from both the methodological and epistemological perspectives. We must be willing to open innovative and creative paths in the design of digital resources for art-historical research – paths that will lead to new lines of investigation and new methods of and attitudes toward information-sharing.

Art historians must participate in the development of tools in the Digital Humanities. In an article published in the Chronicle of Higher Education in 2009,

Johanna Drucker pointed out that many of the critical debates that have characterized the development of the humanities in recent decades – subjectivity of interpretation, multicultural perspectives, a recognition of the social nature of the production of knowledge, etc. – are absent in the design of digital resources. Instead, more emphasis has been placed on adapting to the characteristics of digital media than to the epistemological and interpretive exigencies of the various humanistic disciplines.2 Lev Manovich made similar observations in a Digital Humanities conference held in June 2009 in Maryland, when he asked, ‘Is it sufficient to borrow techniques from the fields of computer science, information visualization and media art – or do we need to develop new techniques specific to the humanities?’ (Manovich 2009: xv).

Regarding the hope that Digital Humanities will assume this new role, we perceive the need to build environments that are intellectually productive and will facilitate interpretive and critical studies above and beyond simple information systems designed for the storage and retrieval of data.

The Digital Mellini Project is a response to these challenges, as the aim of the project is to contribute to the development of virtual research environments (VRE) to promote critical research in the field of art history.

The Digital Mellini Project includes another desideratum that has emerged in recent years: the production of knowledge based on aggregation and collaboration. The culture of open, shared knowledge, which was already being promulgated by UNESCO as early as 2005 as a fundamental way to transition from the information society to the knowledge society, along with the possibilities offered by Web 2.0 technologies, is an essential factor within the evolution of digital scholarship.

There are already several projects oriented toward the development of collaborative environments (NINES3, The VRE-SDM Project4, The Transcribe Bentham Project5, etc.); and there is a burgeoning bibliography on this topic (Deegan & McCarty 2011). Proof of this interest has also been shown by the high percentage of presentations that dealt with this problem in the last Digital Humanities conference, held at Stanford University in June 2011.

Electronic publications and digital editions are not new in the realm of Digital Humanities; the first reflections on what an electronic edition might be appeared in Finneran (1996) and Bornstein and Tinkle (1998). There are also reflections and proposals relating to collaborative editions of unpublished manuscripts in which a dispersed community of scholars could add annotations, as in the case of the Peirce Project (Neuman et al. 1992) and the Codex Leningradensis (Leningrad Codex Markup Project 2000).

Nevertheless, as Susan Hockey (2004) states in her summary of the history of Digital Humanities, ‘The technical aspects of this are fairly clear. Perhaps less clear is the management of the project, who controls or vets the annotations, and how it might all be maintained for the future’.

Similarly, the Digital Mellini Project intends to continue this line of research, addressing the questions that still remain open and launching new ones, cultivating debate and reflection.

digital mellini project: development and intellectual questions
The Digital Mellini Project focuses on a particular text, an unpublished manuscript written in 1681 by Pietro Mellini, a Roman nobleman. This text belongs to the Getty Research Library, Special Collections, found under the title Relatione migliori di Casa delle pittura Melini. Pietro Mellini poetically described the best works as he inventoried the collection of his family’s paintings. This text carries a self-interest for art historical research due to its uniqueness – it is the only document known to date that has a hybrid composition of ekphrastic description in poetic form with a factual descriptive inventory. In addition, it is an important source for studies related to collecting, the market valuation of art, the provenance of collections, etc. Most of the works are unidentified and to analyze their possible allocations through the descriptions provided by Pietro Mellini is a very attractive task for art historians. Lastly, this text gives us an opportunity to explore the possibilities that digital media offers to deepen the relationships between text and image. One of the objectives of the critical edition is to establish hypotheses about the identity of the works described within the manuscript.

To carry out this critical collaborative edition, the Digital Mellini Project is developing a computational prototype. Exploring the possibilities of Drupal, a digital environment is being designed and conceived specifically to this analytic objective. Currently, the project team has completed an alpha version of the digital workspace. The first prototype of a beta version is expected to be finished by the end of 2012.

This prototype was constructed around the object of the critical edition, Mellini’s text, and it includes:

text itself – A diplomatic transcription encoded in XML-TEI, translations into English and Spanish, and a digital facsimile – provided in an interface that allows comparative analysis [Fig. 1];

Figure 1

A representative image gallery, consisting of images of works proposed by experts as possible identifications of the paintings described by Mellini. Additionally, provisions within the environment make it possible to establish comparisons between images and with the linguistic descriptions, so scholars can deepen the analysis of the word-image relationship;
Tools to complement or extend into other areas of research. For example, a repository of thematic texts and/or those structurally related to the Mellini’s text.
Tools for aggregating critical annotations to the text. These annotations can be written by each participating scholar, according to a methodology of action and interaction developed for this purpose. Also, these annotations can be arranged as a response or reply to other entries, thus generating a critical debate among the community of scholars participating [Fig. 2].
Space for debate and reflection on issues related to the text where it can be more broadly discussed.

Figure 2

Note, therefore, that what is proposed as a digital critical edition is far from the conventional academic model of a print publication, which would exist in a static format as the end result of an interpretive study. The result may have been made ​​by one or several specialists, but in the end, what we find is the proposal of one particular interpretation. It is also far from the digital editions that fit this model (eg Van Gogh Letters Project) or electronic repositories focused mainly on the analysis and exploration of texts (The Orlando Project-History of British Women’s Writing). The proposed model is multifaceted. Digital Mellini simultaneously integrates multiple and sometimes contradictory and paradoxical views. It is open and dynamic. Due to processing system records and the dialogue between specialists in the critical annotation process, we can reconstruct the interpretive process itself, as aggregation and contributions grow over time. Therefore, the digital edition is not only the end product of a study and/or research, but also the intellectual and interpretive process through which it unfolds.

In the digital edition, in addition to showing this prototype and its performance, we will address in more detail the intellectual and methodological questions that confront us while developing a resource of this kind, taking into consideration the goal of advancing digital scholarship in the field of art history and the Humanities in general. These topics include:

How to show different viewpoints contributed by specialists, and displaying through visual means the diversity of interpretations and perspectives that converge simultaneously on a text from different contexts – geographical, ideological, theoretical, methodology, etc.?
How to deal with the problem of linguistic variability in a multilingual community of specialists without circumscribing to the most prevalent language?
How to face the problem of authorship? How to maintain the legitimate intellectual property rights of each participant in a publication that emerges from the aggregation of many?
What are the real behaviors and research practices of art historians using such environments? Do these practices lead to the emergence of a new art-historical knowledge of a digital nature or not?
How to develop specific methodologies and protocols for action to guide, assist, and coordinate the participation and interaction of specialists in this type of environment?
How to encourage the participation of specialists in the context of an academic system that does not ‘recognize’ the work developed in these digital environments? For example, what kind of scientific production – monographs, articles, papers – are contributions that fit within critical annotations to a digital edition when referenced in an academic CV? Should we think, then, of the incorporation of new categories of scientific production in line with the specificities of digital media?
Finally, the conclusive question: how can the discipline of art history move away from single authorial models toward more open, collaborative models of research and publication?

references
Bornstein, G., and T. Tinkle (1998). The Iconic Page in Manuscript, Print, and Digital Culture. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P.

Deegan, M., and W. McCarty (2011). Collaborative Research in the Digital Humanities. Surrey: Ashgate.

Drucker, J. (2009). Blind Spots. Humanist must plan their digital future. The Chronicle Review 55, is. 30.  http://chronicle.com/free/v55/i30/30b00601.htm (acessed 15 October 2011).

Finneran, R. J. (1996). The Literary Text in the Digital Age. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P.

Hockey, S. (2004). The History of Humanities Computing. In S. Schreibman, R. Siemens, and J. Unsworth, eds (2004), A Companion to Digital Humanities. Oxford: Blackwell.  http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/ (accessed 15 October 2011).

Leningrad Codex Markup Project (2000). Project ‘EL’: The XML Leningrad Codex. http://www.leningradensis.org (accessed 15 October 2011).

Manovich, L. (2009). Activating The Archive, or: Data Dandy Meets Data Mining. In Digital Humanities 2009. Conference abstract. Maryland: Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities, p. xv.

Neuman, M., M. Keeler, C. Kloesel, J. Ransdell,  and A. Renear (1992). The Pilot Project of the Electronic Peirce Consortium. In ALLC-ACH92 Conference Abstracts and Program. Oxford, pp. 25-27.

Rodríguez Ortega, N. (2010). Digital Resources for Art-Historical Research: Critical Approach. In Digital Humanities Annual Conference 2010. Books of Abstracts. London: Office for Humanities Communication – Centre for Computing in the Humanities, King’s College, pp. 199-201.

Rodríguez Ortega, N. (2010). La cultura histórico-artística y la Historia del Arte en la sociedad digital. Una reflexión crítica sobre los modos de hacer Historia del Arte en un nuevo contexto. Museo y Territorio 2-3: 9-26.

Zweig, R. W. (1998). Lessons from the Palestine Post Project. Literary and Linguistic Computing 13: 89–97.

UNESCO (2005). Hacia las sociedades del conocimiento. París: Ediciones UNESCO.

notes
1.Nevertheless, interesting research has been carried out on linking images to text. See Zweig 1998

2.‘Many humanities principles developed in hard-fought critical battles of the last decades are absent in the design of digital contexts (…) For too long, the digital humanities, the advanced research arm of humanistic scholarly dialogue with computational methods, has taken its rules and cues from digital exigencies’ (Drucker 2009).

3.http://www.nines.org/ (accessed 15 October 2011).

4.Virtual workspace for the study of Ancient Documents, University of Oxford. http://bvreh.humanities.ox.ac.uk/VRE-SDM (accessed 15 October 2011).

5.http://www.ucl.ac.uk/transcribe-bentham/ (accessed 15 October 2011)","txt","2","",""
"1507","13","The electronic 'Oxford English Dictionary', poetry, and intertextuality","1","The electronic ‘Oxford English Dictionary’, poetry, and intertextuality
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Williams, David-Antoine, University of Waterloo, Canada, david.williams@uwaterloo.ca
overview
This paper will discuss recent research carried out in the context of two grant projects: ‘Poetry and Contingency’ (funded by a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada [SSHRC] Insight Development Grant – Digital Economy Priority Area) and ‘Applying search and stylometry techniques to OED2 and poetic text corpora’ (funded by a UWaterloo SSHRC Institutional Grant). It will discuss the processes and methods developed for analyzing and comparing large, heterogeneous text datasets, as well as preliminary results of these analyses and their applications in and implications for traditional literary studies. With implications for digital humanities research, computational approaches to language and literature, linguistics, lexicography, poetics, and literary criticism, the paper will address conference themes of ‘cultures, languages, and methods’ and several of their intersections.

context
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is widely considered to be the greatest philological and lexicographical achievement in English. The core of the work is its 2.5 million quotations, a significant portion of them from poetic and other literary texts, which both shape and illustrate the various sense definitions of roughly 600,000 English words and word forms. Conversely, since its publication, poets have relied on the OED to guide their deployments and arrangements of English words in poems. This reciprocal intertextuality has led to two striking facts which have received insufficient scholarly attention: 1) that the OED’s definitions of English words depend to a significant degree on poetic language, which is striking because by any standard account, poetic usage tends away from the denotative or definitional and towards the connotative and metaphorical; and 2) that much English poetry of the last hundred years contains a philological, etymological, and lexicographical dimension, informed by the OED.

Although the Second Edition of the OED (Murray et al. 1989) was among the earliest large books to be presented to public and academic communities in digitized, marked-up form, and despite the ongoing comprehensive rewriting of the Dictionary (Simpson & Weiner 2000-) no version has ever been marked for quotation genre, meaning that until now the reciprocal influences between dictionary and author have been difficult to identify, and impossible or impracticable to quantify with reference to specific literary genres (e.g. poetry or verse drama, etc.). My projects use the 1989 electronic OED2, digitized at the University of Waterloo, alongside electronic corpora of poetry, derived from Project Gutenberg, Chadwyck-Healey, and other datasets, to generate quantitative and qualitative assessments in two broad fields of inquiry: 1) What has been the influence of poetry on the English language’s most comprehensive lexicographical work? and 2) What influence has the OED had on English-language poetry?

work in progress
The first prong of the project involves creating a parallel OED2 in which poetic quotations are marked for genre, to allow for advanced search and comparison of poetic quotations. Marking OED2 for quotation genre will allow for fast, comparative analysis of the influence of poetic writing on the compilers of the OED. I will discuss the challenges of this task and the methods developed to achieve it, as well as the search and comparison scripts developed to query the new resource. I will give examples and discuss the kinds of queries and comparisons made possible by this new resource, and their implications for literary studies and lexicography.

If the first prong is designed to generate questions and answers about poetic influence on OED2, the second prong investigates a more intricate and subtle problem: the influence of the OED on poetry. For instance, it is a trivial thing for a critic to suppose that Geoffrey Hill’s talk of ‘wrinching and spraining the text’ is a reference to Milton, since it is contains nonstandard spelling, is italicized, and appears in a poem with Milton in the title (Hill 2008: 5). But OED2 also quotes exactly those words from Of Reformation (Milton 1698: 269) under both ‘wrench, v.’, and ‘sprain, v.’ suggesting a second possible source text for Hill. Testing an individual poem for potential OED2 intertextuality requires a set of text comparison techniques plus an appropriate method of applying these. The process can also be applied systematically, to an electronic corpus (or several corpora) of poetry written since c.1884, the year OED1 fascicles began to be published. Relatively simple text-similarity approaches to the two corpora (including, e.g., string, n-gram, functional n-gram, and low-probability statistical approaches) will yield hundreds if not thousands of instances such as these, without depending on the poet to flag his or her source. More sophisticated stylometric techniques will give more promising indications of potential poetic intertextuality with various dictionary entries, including their etymology, definition, and quotation fields. Using these tools, we can quickly identify a very large number of candidates for intertextuality in English poems. I will discuss the comparison methods developed, as well as preliminary results of these, and their implications for literary studies.

A few facts make OED2 intertextuality a special case, overlapping with cases of attribution or allusion, but not identical to these. For one, OED2 is already a multiauthored and intertextual text, written and compiled by hundreds of lexicographers over more than a hundred years, following varying practices and relying on thousands of sources comprising millions of quotations. Secondly, though OED2 carries linguistic information (such as pronunciations, etymologies, definitions, etc.) as well as historical usage information (in the quotations) about every English word that is likely to occur in a poem or anywhere else, it is not often the only text to carry any one subset of this information. This means that finding OED2 in poems may point to another source for a poetic passage than (just) OED2 itself. Comparing the etymology field of a word in OED2 to its occurrence in a poetic text, for instance, might point to an etymological play on words, without conclusively attributing this to OED2. Or comparing the quotation fields may suggest an allusion to a text that happens to be quoted in OED2, even if OED2 is not itself the source of the allusion. But it may also point to true influence, in the form of a poetic allusion or reference which has been occasioned by OED2 and not the original text. I will discuss, with the help of preliminary results, the value and implications of each type of discovery, and ways of differentiating among these possibilities when appropriate. This is, I will argue, a discussion which takes up the crucial question of how, and to what extent, computing technologies can benefit the field of literary criticism, as a species of literary scholarship with its own goals and commitments.

references
Brewer, C. (2008). Treasure-House of the Language: The Living OED.  New Haven: Yale.

Brewer, C. (2009). Literary Quotations in the OED. Review of English Studies 61: 93-125.

Brewer, C. (2011). ‘Happy Copiousness’? OED’s Recording of Female Authors of the Eighteenth Century. Review of English Studies 62: 86-117.

Burchfield, R. W. (1989). Unlocking the English Language. London: Faber.

Forstall, C. W., and W. J. Scheirer (2010). Features from Frequency: Authorship and Stylistic Analysis Using Repetitive Sound. Proceedings of the Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science, 1(2). https://letterpress.uchicago.edu/index.php/jdhcs/article/view/56/67 (accessed March 2012).

Heaney, S. (1996). Opened Ground: Poems 1966-1996. London: Faber.

Hill, G. (2008). A Treatise of Civil Power. London: Penguin.

Hollander, J. (1981). The Figure of Echo. Berkeley: U of California P.

Holmes, David I. (1998). The Evolution of Stylometry in Humanities Scholarship. Literary and Linguistic Computing 13(3): 111-17.

Irwin, W. (2001). What is an Allusion? The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 59(3): 287-297.

Koppel, M., and J. Schler (2004). Authorship Verification as a One-Class Classification Problem. Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Machine Learning, pp. 489-95.

Koppel, M., J. Schler, and E. Bonchek-Dokow (2007). Measuring Differentiability: Unmasking Pseudonymous Authors Journal of Machine Learning Research 8: 1261-1276.

Literature Online. http://lion.chadwyck.com (accessed March 2012).

Milton, J. (1698). Historical, Political, and Miscellaneous Works. Amsterdam.

Muldoon, P. (2001). Poems, 1968-1998. London: Faber.

Murray, J., et. al., eds. (1989). Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed., compiled by J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, 20 vols. Oxford: Oxford UP.

Neumann, P. Statistical metalinguistics and Zipf/Pareto/Mandelbrot. http://www.csl.sri.com/users/neumann/#12a (accessed March 2012).

Project Gutenberg. http://gutenberg.org (accessed March 2012).

Ricks, C. (2002). Allusion to the Poets. Oxford: Oxford UP.

Ruthven, K. K. (1969). The Poet as Etymologist. Critical Quarterly 11(1): 9-37.

Simpson, J., and E. S. C. Weiner (2000-). OED Online. 3rd ed., rev. J. A. Simpson et al. Oxford: Oxford UP.

Tompa, F., E. Blake, E., and T. Bray (1991). Shortening the OED: Experience with a grammar-defined database.  Waterloo: UW Centre for the New Oxford Dictionary and Text Research.

Trillini, R. H., and S. Quassdorf (2010). A ‘Key to All Quotations’? A Corpus-Based Parameter Model of Intertextuality. Literary and Linguistic Computing 25(3): 269-86.

Vogel, C., and G. Lynch (2008). Computational Stylometry: Who’s in a Play? Lecture Notes in Computer Science 5042: 169-186.","txt","2","",""
"1508","13","The MayaArch3D Project: A 3D GIS Web System for Querying Ancient Architecture and Landscapes","1","The MayaArch3D Project: A 3D GIS Web System for Querying Ancient Architecture and Landscapes
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Schwerin, Jennifer von, University of New Mexico, USA, jvonschw@unm.edu
Richards-Rissetto, Heather, University of New Mexico, USA, heathmrr@hotmail.com
Agugiaro, Giorgio, FBK Trento, Italy, agugiaro@fbk.eu
Remondino, Fabio, FBK Trento, Italy, remondino@fbk.eu
Girardi, Gabrio, GraphiTech Trento, Italy, gabrio.girardi@graphitech.it
In this paper, we highlight the need in humanities research for 3D tools with enhanced analytical functionality and present an innovative 3D Web GIS system that we are developing – called QueryArch3D – for studies of ancient architecture and landscapes. We explore the role this tool is playing in the development of new methodologies and formulating and addressing research questions in humanities research. Specifically, we demonstrate how research and teaching on archaeology and art history can be dramatically assisted by a Virtual Research Environment that offers the ability to search and query segmented 3D models (both CAD and reality-based) that are linked to attribute data stored in a spatial database in the context of an online VR landscape – in this case, the eighth-century Maya kingdom of Copan, Honduras.

Modern sensor and computing technologies are changing the practice of art history and archaeology because they offer innovative ways to document, reconstruct, and research the ancient world (e.g., El-Hakim et al. 2008; Reindel & Wagner 2009). 3D digital models and virtual reality (VR) environments allow for remote viewing of objects, as well as multiple iterations of hypothetical reconstructions, and offer the sense of space and experience that researchers now desire (e.g., Barcelo et al. 2000). But, as has been pointed out, there is a common perception that while 3D models are good for education or data conservation, they are not useful for research because they are often deemed as purely illustrative and not useful for analysis (e.g., Frischer & Dakouri-Hild 2008). One promising opportunity offered by 3D models is to use them as visualization ‘containers’ for different kinds of information. Given the possibility to link their geometry to external data, 3D models can be analyzed, split into sub-components, and organized following proper rules. Powerful 3D visualization tools already exist, but often they implement no or only limited query functionalities for data retrieval, and very few of these are web-based. In contrast, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) include queries as standard functions and allow for complex spatial analyses – and therefore are well-suited to research (e.g., Bodenhamer et al. 2010; Conolly & Lake 2006).

Along these lines, archaeologists are using GIS to perform quantitative analyses, such as visibility, accessibility, and network studies, to explore the structure of ancient societies and relationships between anthropogenic and natural phenomena. GIS software, however, falls short when dealing with detailed and complex 3D data. It is comprised of 2.5D data, which are not ideally suited to approaches such as performance studies, phenomenology and aesthetics, the relationship of architecture and landscape, and archaeoastronomy that are becoming increasingly common in archaeology and art history. 3D models of architecture are simply more appropriate for these kinds of investigations, but most 3D digital models of architecture are single objects, removed from the context of their place in the landscape and are not linked to scientific data.

In 2009, the MayaArch3D Project (http://mayaarch3d.unm.edu) was begun to explore the possibilities of integrating GIS and 3D digital tools for humanities research. This interdisciplinary, international project was funded largely by two Digital Humanities Start-Up Grants from the National Endowment for the Humanities (USA) and brings together art historians, archaeologists, and cultural resource managers with experts in remote sensing, photogrammetry, 3D modeling, and virtual reality. The project was founded by Jennifer von Schwerin and Heather Richards-Rissetto at the University of New Mexico working with data from the UNESCO World Heritage site and ancient Maya city in Copan, Honduras, when they realized that their research goals would be better served if they could join their separate sets of data in a tool that linked GIS and 3D data in a virtual reality environment. Von Schwerin, an art historian, had turned to digital 3D tools in order to test her reconstructions of an eighth-century temple at Copan (Figure 1). But other aspects of her research seek to analyze the temple within its larger urban context and the role that space plays in human experience – something for which GIS is well-suited. Richards-Rissetto, an archaeologist, created a GIS for Copan to study the visual and spatial relationships between built forms and natural landscape features, but soon realized that her research could benefit from a 3D perspective, as the 2D perspective of GIS maps limited her interpretations (Figure 2).  Working together, von Schwerin and Richards-Rissetto asked themselves: What are the real research possibilities for 3D models?  How can we create an online resource for researchers of Maya architecture where they can compare and study geo-referenced 3D models and attribute data? How can we perform quantitative and qualitative comparisons with other Maya structures and analyze architecture in larger spatial and temporal contexts?

To address these questions, the MayaArch3D Project developed a new computing pipeline in order to build a prototype tool for an online, searchable repository – called QueryArch3D – that brings together GIS data, 3D models, and virtual environments for teaching and research on ancient architecture and landscapes. This pipeline uses PostgreSQL as spatial repository back-end and allows for the import and export of standard GIS formats, as well as 3D models as triangulated meshes via the common obj format. Like traditional databases, this tool can curate, query, and compare 2D digital objects (such as drawings, maps, diagrams, text, photographs, and videos). However, what is unique and technologically cutting-edge is that QueryArch3D enables users to 1) integrate and edit 2D and 3D data of multiple resolutions, 2) to perform attribute and spatial queries of archaeological data, and 3) to visualize, compare and analyze 3D buildings and artifacts – all in a single online, navigable virtual reality landscape. Developed in 2010 in collaboration with Fabio Remondino and Giorgio Agugiaro at the Bruno Kessler Foundation (FBK) in Trento, Italy, and Gabrio Girardi at Graphitech, in Trento, Italy, the QueryArch3D tool stores both low resolution models, high resolution reality-based, hybrid models and all ancillary attribute data in an open source spatial database, and then makes them queryable via a virtual reality environment that runs on the Unity 3 game engine. Currently the contents of the digital resource include collections on ancient Copan (Figure 3). Overall, our preliminary research results indicate the QueryArch3D tool is poised to offer a new level of collaborative work in any field that works with 3D models, GIS, and large data sets, because it allows researchers to bring 2D and 3D datasets from separate projects into a single environment and work in real-time using the online query and analysis capabilities.

This paper presents this new tool and the results of the beta-testing that was carried out in fall 2011 with researchers, students, and educators in the humanities. Beta testers unanimously were enthused about the tool, particularly at having the ability to (1) navigate online through a virtual model of an ancient Maya city, (2) access higher resolution models of objects, (3) query the archaeological database via the model – and vice versa. Suggestions for improvement centered on decreasing the initial download time, improving the user interface (changes to navigation commands, adding a text search box), and adding a broader range of spatial queries. Because the project is still in its initial stages, the paper also summarizes current research problems, and the tasks to be solved in the project’s next stage of development, in collaboration with the German Archaeological Institute and the University of Heidelberg. The paper concludes with a critical assessment of the possibilities that 3D Web GIS systems currently offer scholars and educators in terms of organizing, searching, and visualizing data, and identifying patterns over space and time.



Figure 1a and 1b: Working hypothetical reconstruction and 3D model of Temple 22 created by the MayaArch3D Project (Graphic: Raul Maqueda, from von Schwerin et al. 2011)



Figure 2: Copan GIS (Graphic: Heather Richards-Rissetto 2011)

Figure 2

Figure 3: QueryArch3D tool showing different data visualization modes and levels of detail.

Graphic: Giorgio Agugiaro

references
a) Selected MayaArch3D Project Publications:

Agugiaro G., F. Remondino, G. Girardi, J. von Schwerin, H. Richards-Rissetto, and R. de Amicis (2011). QueryArch3D: Querying and visualising three-dimensional archaeological models in a web-based interface. In Geoinformatics, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University, ISSN 1802-2669.

Remondino F., A. Gruen, J. von Schwerin, H. Eisenbeiss, A. Rizzi, S.Girardi, M. Sauerbier, and H. Richards-Rissetto (2009). Multi-sensor 3D Documentation of the Maya Site of Copan. Proceedings of the 22nd CIPA Symposium, 11-15 October, 2009, Kyoto, Japan (2009). http://cipa.icomos.org/KYOTO.html.

Richards-Rissetto, H. (2012). Studying Social Interaction at the Ancient Maya Site of Copán, Honduras: A Least Cost Approach to Configurational Analysis.  In D. A. White and S. Surface-Evans (eds), Least Cost Analysis of Sociocultural Landscapes: Archaeological Case Studies, Accepted by University of Utah Press, January 2011.

von Schwerin, J.  (2011). The Sacred Mountain in Social Context: Design, History and Symbolism of Temple 22 at Copán, Honduras. Ancient Mesoamerica 22(2): 271-300.

von Schwerin, J., H. Richards-Rissetto, F. Remondino, G. Agugiaro, M. Forte, and R. Maqueda  (2011). The MayaArch3D Project; Digital Technologies for Research in Maya Archaeology. Final Performance Report and White Paper for NEH Digital Humanities Level II Start- Up Grant.

b) Related Publications:

Barcelo, J. A., M. Forte, and D. Sanders D. (2000). Virtual Reality in Archaeology. BAR International Series 843, Oxford.

Bodenhamer, D. J., J. Corrigan, and T. M. Harris (2010). The spatial humanities: GIS and the future of humanities scholarship.  Bloomington : Indiana UP.

Conolly, J., and M- Lake (2006). Geographical Information Systems in archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.

Dear M., J. Ketchum, S. Luria, and D. Richardson (2011). GeoHumanities Art, History, Text at the Edge of Place. New York: Routledge.

El-Hakim, S., J.-A. Beraldin, F. Remondino, M. Picard, L. Cournoyer, and M. Baltsavias (2008). Using terrestrial laser scanning and digital images for the 3D modelling of the Erechteion, Acropolis of Athens. Proceedings of the DMACH Conference, Digital Media and its Applications in Cultural Heritage. Amman, pp. 3-16.

Frischer, B., and A. Dakouri-Hild (2008). Beyond illustration: 2d and 3d digital technologies as tools for discover in archaeology. Oxford: Archaeopress.

Llobera, M. (2006). What you see is what you get?: Visualscapes, visual genesis and hierarchy. In P. Daly and T. Evans (eds.), Digital Archaeology: Bridging Method and Theory. New York, London: Routledge, Taylor and Francis, pp. 148-167.

Manferdini, A. M., F. Remondino, S. Baldissini, M. Gaiani, and B. Benedetti (2008). 3D modeling and semantic classification of archaeological finds for management and visualization in 3D archaeological databases. Proceedings of 14th Int. Conference on Virtual Systems and MultiMedia (VSMM 2008), pp. 221-228

Reindel, M., and G. A. Wagner, eds. (2009). New Technologies for Archaeology: Multidisciplinary Investigations in Palpa and Nasca, Peru. Natural Science in Archaeology. Heidelberg/Berlin.

Remondino, F., S. El-Hakim, S. Girardi, A. Rizzi, B. Benedetti, and L. Gonzo (2009). 3D Virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures-The 3D-ARCH project. IAPRS&SIS Vol.38(5/W1)

Robertson, E., J. Seibert, D. Fernandez, and M. Zender, eds. (2006). Space and Spatial Analysis in Archaeology. University of New Mexico and University of Calgary Press: Albuquerque and Calgary.","txt","2","",""
"1509","13","The Myth of the New: Mass Digitization, Distant Reading and the Future of the Book","1","The Myth of the New: Mass Digitization, Distant Reading and the Future of the Book
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Gooding, Paul Matthew, University College London, UK, paul.gooding.10@ucl.ac.uk
Warwick, Claire, University College London, UK, c.warwick@ucl.ac.uk
Terras, Melissa, University College London, UK, m.terras@ucl.ac.uk
introduction
This paper proposes the importance of developing a realistic theoretical framework for the rise of mass digitization: the importance of the diffusion of innovations in shaping public opinion on technology; hyperbole and the myth of the ‘digital sublime’ (Mosco 2004); and the role of different media in shaping human understanding. It proposes that mass digitization can only be viewed as a significant deviation from the print medium when it emerges from the shadow of the Gutenberg Press and exerts a similarly powerful paradigm of its own, and that as a result there is a disconnect between the reality of the medium and the discourse with which it is surrounded.

research context
In recent years companies such as Google have generated huge interest in their attempts to digitize the world’s books. Described by Crane as ‘vast libraries of digital books’ (2006), they provide a powerful future vision where books exist within a digital version of the mythical universal library. Yet we know very little about what to do with these books once they are digitized, or even how they are being used by researchers and the wider public. The contemporary debate is defined by hyperbole and the belief that digital texts will inevitably destroy the print paradigm, a discourse that reflects the rhetorical direction of many historical reactions to technological change.

At the same time, a new research method which Moretti labels ‘distant reading’ (2007) allows researchers to undertake quantitative analysis of these massive literary corpora using tools such as the Google Ngrams Viewer1. Important work on these corpora has been carried out within the Digital Humanities community, such as projects by Jockers (2011) and Cohen (2006), and further research is being made possible by Digging into Data2 funding from NSF3, NEH4, SSHRC5 and JISC6. However, as we shall argue below, it is vital that we understand the theoretical background of such research, and its potential effects on scholarly methodology in both DH and traditional literary analysis.

quantitative methods and theories of technology
Rogers (2003) tells us that far from being a deterministic inevitability, the success of a new technology relies in no small part upon external human factors. The role of opinion leaders is essential to this, and in the case of mass digitization the literature is filled with examples of the fetishization of both print and digital technologies. Gurus and promoters tell us that digitization will improve the world, and render obsolete what has gone before; others express concern about the cataclysmic effects that new technologies may have on humanity (Mosco 2004: 24). The result is a powerful narrative of ruptures and dramatic change, a myth that is historically common yet rarely reflected in reality.

This narrative has been shaped by a debate that has spanned decades (Benjamin 1936; McLuhan 1962; Barthes 1977; Baudrillard 1994; Lanier 2011), and so it is essential to consider the influence that theorists have exerted on the contemporary debate, and the misconceptions that have arisen as a result. For example, McLuhan’s conception of a global village, a ‘single constricted space resonant with tribal drums’ (1962), is at odds with our experience of the contemporary World Wide Web. The village operates in a semi-closed system with clear boundaries, whereas the Web is unprecedented in its scale and openness. It more accurately resembles the loose structure of a modern city, and therefore mirrors the behavioural changes that have been noted in residents of large cities. With increased access to information comes an increased opportunity cost, the sense that whatever a person does will necessarily involve missing out on something else potentially useful (Deutsch 1961: 102). Accordingly, we can see that both city dwellers and web users exhibit similar behaviour in filtering and sorting the mass of information to which they are exposed. As a result of this promiscuous, diverse reading style (Nicholas et al. 2004) the authorial voice has been side-lined, and the growth of a specific cultural movement that hyperbolises quantitative analysis of literary corpora threatens to hasten this process.

Many of the quantitative methods we have already seen hold great potential as research methods (Cohen 2006; Jockers 2011; Michel & Shen 2010; Moretti 2007), but there is a wider social discourse that appears to have taken quantitative analysis as a sign that traditional methods have, as with print, become an unnecessary distraction. This culture has redefined the content of texts as information, in an overly literal interpretation of the death of the author that undermines both authority and context. Information, viewed in this manner, is an abstract entity analogous to computerized data and therefore open to the same methods of interrogation (Nunberg 2010). There is no doubt that quantitative analysis holds great potential when combined with close reading, but we have witnessed a rhetoric that argues that close reading becomes unnecessary when large data becomes available (Anderson 2008). What appears to be a revolutionary faith in mass digitization, though, disguises a deeply conservative technological determinism that is reflected in the manner that digitization still so closely remediates the print medium.

Instead of acting as a disruptive force, mass digitization borrows greatly from the print medium that it remediates, a feature common to technologies in the early stages of their development (Bolter & Grusin 1996: 356-357). Even quantitative analysis can operate as a confirmatory method; rather than creating new knowledge it often acts only to confirm what humanities scholars already knew. The digital form, then, still operates ‘not as a radical break but as a process of reformulating, recycling, returning and even remembering other media’ (Garde-Hansen et al. 2009: 14). The reality is that quantitative methods are most effective when used alongside the close textual reading that allows us to contextualize the current glut of information. Yet the high speed processing of huge numbers of texts brings with it a potential negative impact upon qualitative forms of research, with digitisation projects optimised for speed rather than quality, and many existing resources neglected in the race to digitise ever-increasing numbers of texts.

conclusion
We must therefore learn more about the potential, and limitations, of large-scale digitization in order to ensure that a focus on quantity rather than quality does not override the research needs of the wider community. If accepted, therefore, this paper will present some of the results of Gooding’s on-going doctoral research into the use and impact of mass digitization projects, which will include case studies from institutions such as the British Library. It will argue that we must look beyond the noise that characterises the theoretical framework proposed above, and learn more about how the true impact of mass digitization.

references
Anderson, C. (2008). The end of theory: the data deluge that makes the scientific method obsolete. Wired. Available at: http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/magazine/16-07/pb_theory [Accessed May 31, 2011].

Barthes, R. (1977). The death of the author. In Image-Music-Text. London: Fontana Press.

Baudrillard, J. (1994). Simulacra and simulation. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P.

Benjamin, W. (1936). The work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction. In Illuminations. New York: Schocken Books.

Bolter, J. D., and R. A. Grusin (1996). Remediation. Configurations 4(3): 311-358.

Cohen, D. (2006). From Babel to knowledge: data mining large digital collections. D-Lib Magazine 12(3). Available at: http://www.dlib.org/dlib/march06/cohen/03cohen.html [Accessed February 7, 2011].

Crane, G. (2006). What do you do with a million books? D-Lib Magazine 12(3). Available at: http://www.dlib.org/dlib/march06/crane/03crane.html [Accessed January 7, 2011].

Deutsch, K. W. (1961). On social communication and the metropolis. Da 90(1): 99-110.

Garde-Hansen, J., A. Hoskins, and A. Reading, eds. (2009). Save as… Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.

Jockers, M. (2011). Detecting and characterizing national style in the 19th Century novel. In Digital Humanities 2011. Stanford University, Palo Alto.

Lanier, J. (2011). You are not a gadget. London: Penguin.

McLuhan, M. (1962). The Gutenberg galaxy: the making of the typographic. Toronto: U of Toronto P.

Michel, J.-B., and Y. K. Shen (2010). Quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books. Science Magazine.

Moretti, F. (2007). Graphs, maps, trees: abstract models for literary history. London and New York: Verso.

Mosco, V. (2004). The digital sublime: myth, power, and cyberspace. Cambridge  Mass.: MIT Press.

Nicholas, D., et al. (2004). Re-appraising information seeking behaviour in a digital environment: bouncers, checkers, returnees and the like. Journal of Documentation 60(1): 24-39.

Nunberg, G. (2010). Counting on Google Books. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Available at: http://chronicle.com/article/Counting-on-Google-Books/125735 [Accessed September 15, 2011].

Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations. Fifth Edition. New York: Simon & Schuster.

notes
1.http://books.google.com/ngrams

2.http://www.diggingintodata.org

3.http://www.nsf.gov/

4.http://www.neh.gov/grants/guidelines/diggingintodata.html

5.http://www.sshrc-crsh.gc.ca/home-accueil-eng.aspx

6.http://www.jisc.ac.uk/whatwedo/programmes/digitisation/diggingintodata.aspx","txt","2","",""
"1510","13","The Programming Historian 2: A Participatory Textbook","1","The Programming Historian 2: A Participatory Textbook
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Crymble, Adam H., Network in Canadian History & Environment, UK, acrymbl@uwo.ca
MacEachern, Alan, Network in Canadian History & Environment, UK, amaceach@uwo.ca
Turkel, William J., Network in Canadian History & Environment, UK, wturkel@uwo.ca
The second edition of The Programming Historian (PH2) is an open access and open source introductory text designed to teach the fundamentals of programming to humanists. The first edition (Turkel & MacEachern 2007), while popular, is basically a traditional text presented online. It was limited to the lessons that we provided and followed a single narrative arc. The second edition, also online, has been restructured to invite ongoing community participation and authorship.

The project is designed with a core sequence of lessons that get readers up to speed with basic programming concepts. These show how to programmatically download sources from the Internet, process them for keywords, and visualize some textual attributes. Contributors can introduce new lessons at any point by branching off from a previous lesson. They might, for example, introduce a related technique, or show how to implement something in another programming language, on another platform, or using different kinds of sources. The branching structure allows members of the digital humanities community to add lessons based on their own specialties, or to create new sequences for use in the classroom, while still guaranteeing that readers will have the background required to understand a particular branch if their study of PH2 has taken them to that point. Each lesson is intended to take two hours or less to complete.

For contributors, PH2 provides a peer-reviewed platform for methodology. Both literary and technical reviewers vet all submissions with quality emphasized over quantity. Lessons are presented in a custom WordPress installation and code snippets are stored in GitHub for easy maintenance and sharing. To make the site as easy as possible to use, code snippets are pulled directly into the WordPress posts making GitHub essentially invisible for both authors and readers not familiar with or interested in its features. Individual lessons are attributed to their authors, and reviewers and other contributors receive public credit for their labour. For learners, PH2 focuses on the use of programming to solve problems common to academic research, such as obtaining, analyzing, processing, and mashing up sources. While there are hundreds of programming books on the market, very few teach these kinds of hands-on tasks that are crucial to the practice of the digital humanities.

With the first edition of the Programming Historian, we showed that there is a great demand for programming introduction that focuses on the day-to-day work of digital humanists both historians and otherwise. We have commissioned a number of new lessons from guest authors for the second edition and hope to open our submission process to the wider community shortly. From our past experience we know that people well beyond our target audience of digital humanists can and will use the project as a way to delve into programming. When PH2 launches publicly, we believe that the digital humanities community will embrace and expand it and we look forward to working with them.

funding
This work was supported by The Network in Canadian History & Environment, and the Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media.

references
Github.http://github.com (accessed 1 March 2012).

WordPress.http://wordpress.org (accessed 1 March 2012).

Turkel, W. J. and A. MacEachern (2007). The Programming Historian 1st Edition. http://niche-canada.org/programming-historian (accessed 1 March 2012).

Turkel, W. J., A. Crymble, J. Boggs, M. Posner, et al., eds. (2012). The Programming Historian 2. http://chnm.gmu.edu/press/programminghistorian/ (accessed 1 March 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1511","13","The Rarer They Are, the More There Are, the Less They Matter","1","The Rarer They Are, the More There Are, the Less They Matter
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Hoover, David, New York University, USA, david.hoover@nyu.edu
In computational stylistics and authorship attribution recent work has usually concentrated on very frequent words, with a seemingly compelling logic: consistent and characteristic authorial habits seem most likely to exist among frequent function words not closely tied to plot, setting, and characterization, and not likely to be consciously manipulated. Analyses using frequent words have been very successful, and continue to be used (Craig & Kinney 2009). Some researchers have recently begun using many more words in analyses, often achieving excellent results by analyzing the 500-4,000 most frequent words (Hoover 2007). Yet even these words are not truly rare in a 200,000 word novel, where the 4,000th most frequent word typically has a frequency of 3-4.

Brian Vickers has recently attacked work based on common words, claiming that distinctive and unusual word Ngrams are better authorship markers than words for 16th century plays (Vickers 2008, 2009, 2011). He argues that rare Ngrams that are not found in a large reference corpus, but are found in one author’s corpus and in an anonymous text, strongly suggest common authorship. Vickers tests whether Thomas Kyd might have written the anonymous Arden of Faversham by searching for 3- to 6-grams shared by Arden and the three plays known to be by Kyd, but not found in a 64-play reference corpus of texts of similar genre and date. He finds more than 70. This method, an improved method of parallel hunting, is essentially an extreme version of Iota (Burrows 2007), but based on Ngrams rather than words. As he puts it, ‘One or two such close parallels might be dismissed as imitation, or plagiarism, but with over 70 identical word sequences, often quite banal phrases . . . that explanation falls away’ (Vickers 2008: 14). In a later article he reports 95 such matches between Arden and Kyd’s corpus (2009: 43). Does the existence of such rare matches constitute reliable evidence that Kyd wrote Arden? We can begin to answer this question by testing the method on texts of known authorship.

The texts Vickers works on are not ideal for testing: 16th century texts have substantial spelling variation, making automated methods problematic, the authorship and dates of individual plays in the period are often uncertain, and many of them involve collaboration. I instead test the method on American fiction ca 1900 and modern American poetry. Because Ngrams have been used increasingly in authorship study (Clement & Sharp 2003; Grieve 2007; Juola 2008), it seems useful to test frequent word Ngrams before looking at rare ones. My American fiction corpus consists of a bit more than 2 million words of third person narration (10,000-39,000 words each) extracted from 83 texts by 41 authors, 20 of the authors represented by one or more additional texts, 36 test texts in all. A cluster analysis of all 83 texts correctly groups all texts by 16 of the 20 authors; in three cases, one of an author’s texts fails to cluster with the others, and in the other case, the six texts by an author form two separate clusters. Delta correctly attributes 35 of the 36 possible texts in some analyses (on Delta, see Burrows 2002). Bigrams are less effective: a cluster analysis correctly groups only 14 of the 20 authors, and Delta correctly attributes a maximum of 32 of the 36 test texts. Trigrams are even less effective: cluster analysis is fairly chaotic, and Delta correctly attributes a maximum of 31 of the possible 36, with much weaker results overall. The same is true for American poetry, 2.7 million words of poetry by 29 authors, arranged in 23 primary composite samples (19,000-138,000 words), tested against 39 individual long poems (900-1,500 words). Word bigrams are much less effective than words and trigrams do a poor job. While word Ngrams have sometimes given better results than words alone, the results here do not support Vickers’s basic premise that Ngrams are inherently superior to words in characterizing an author’s style, even though they add syntactic information.

Rare Ngrams are a different matter, of course. In order to duplicate the scenario of Vickers’s tests on Kyd, I used 64 of the sections of third person narration above (by 23 authors) as a reference corpus. I collected a three-text corpus for James and eight other James texts as test texts. I also held out six other texts for further testing. There are about 6.5 million 3- to 6-grams in the entire corpus; because the method requires at least one match between texts, I first removed all hapax Ngrams and those found in only one text, leaving about 100,000. I then removed all those found in the reference corpus, leaving about 9,600. I took each of the eight James test texts in turn, and compared it with the James corpus, with the seven other James texts, and with the six texts by other authors, with respect to the proportion of Ngrams in each text that match those in the James corpus or the other texts. The results are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1
Figure 1: Rare Ngrams in James’s Fiction

It is clear that the Ngrams in the James test texts have a higher proportion of matches in the James corpus than do the texts by others, ranging from about 33% to 42%, while the other texts range from about 21% to 28%. But the difference between the James texts and the others is disturbingly small. Also disturbing is that two of the six other authors have more matches to other James texts than one of James’s own texts, and that all of the texts have about the same percentage of matches with texts by other authors. These facts are disturbing because Vickers bases authorship claims on the existence of ngrams found in an authorial corpus and an anonymous text that are not found elsewhere without doing the further tests above. Thus, if one were seriously testing The House of the Seven Gables for the possibility that Henry James wrote it, the fact that 28% (291) of the 1045 Ngrams found in Seven Gables have matches in the James Corpus but are found nowhere else in the reference corpus might seem like a strong argument. Remember that Vickers based an argument for Kyd’s authorship on only about 70 matches between the Kyd corpus and his three anonymous plays that were not found in the reference corpus (or 95 in his later article). (Why there are so many more here needs further investigation, but the somewhat greater average length of my samples is almost certainly a factor.) For the poetry corpus, things are even worse: Kees shows a higher proportion of matches to Rukeyser’s corpus than two sections of her own poetry, and Stafford is not far behind, as Fig. 2 shows.

Figure 2
Figure 2: Rare Ngrams in Rukeyser’s Poetry

Finally, I tested a bogus composite author corpus consisting of the samples by Stafford, Kilmer, and Kees. As Fig. 3 shows, even with an unreal author, there are many Ngram matches between the bogus authorial corpus and each other text that are not found in the reference corpus. For many of the samples, 15% or more of their Ngrams match the bogus corpus but are not found anywhere else. If these texts were anonymous, it would be easy to repeat Vickers’s argument and claim that all of them must be by this illusory ‘author.’

Finally, preliminary tests in which additional texts are added to the analysis show that many of the matches between an authorial corpus and any given test text that are not found in the original reference corpus also have matches in one or more of the new texts. The results presented above suggest that rare Ngrams are unlikely to be good indicators of authorship, in spite of their initial plausibility. There are about 1.3 million trigrams in the 83 narrative texts discussed above, but only about 150,000 of them occur more than once, and the highest frequency is 853. In contrast, there are about 49,000 different words, about 30,000 of which occur more than once, and the highest frequency is 136,000. One might say simply, and somewhat paradoxically, that, although Vickers’s matching Ngrams are rare, there are so many of them that matches can be expected between almost any pair of texts, and some of these matches will also be absent from the reference corpus.


                Figure 3
Figure 3: Rare Ngrams in a ‘Composite’ Author

references
Burrows, J. (2007). All the Way Through: Testing for Authorship in Different Frequency Strata. LLC 22: 27-47.

Burrows, J. (2002). ‘Delta’: A Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. LLC 17: 267-87.

Clement, R., and D. Sharp (2003). Ngram and Bayesian Classification of Documents. LLC 18: 423-47.

Craig, H., and A. Kinney, eds. (2009). Shakespeare, Computers, and the Mystery of Authorship. Cambridge: Cambridge U. Press.

Grieve, J. (2007). Quantitative Authorship Attribution: An Evaluation of Techniques. LLC 22: 251-70.

Juola, P. (2008). Authorship Attribution. Foundations and Trends in Information Retrieval 1: 233-334.

Hoover, D. L. (2007). Corpus Stylistics, Stylometry, and the Styles of Henry James. Style 41: 174-203.

Vickers, B. (2011). Shakespeare and Authorship Studies in the Twenty-First Century. Shakespeare Quarterly 62: 106-42.

Vickers, B. (2009). The Marriage of Philology and Informatics. British Academy Review 14: 41-4.

Vickers, B. (2008). Thomas Kyd, Secret Sharer. Times Literary Supplement, 18 April 2008: 13–5.","txt","2","",""
"1512","13","The Stylometry of Collaborative Translation","1","The Stylometry of Collaborative Translation
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Heydel, Magda, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland, magdalena.heydel@tww.pl
Rybicki, Jan, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland, jkrybicki@gmail.com
the problem
A translated work of literature is a collaborative effort even if performed by a single translator, always haunted by the ghost of the author of the original. The relationship between the two has been at the centre of mainstream translation studies and in the discipline’s corpus-based and stylometric varieties, as evidenced by a growing body of scholarship (Olohan 2005; Oakes & Ji 2012). Stylometric problems multiply when the term ‘collaborative translation’ is taken to signify a joint rendering of a single author into a different language by two (or more) translators, or by translator and editor (Rybicki 2011). In general, stylometry based on multivariate analyses of word frequencies successfully detects the author of the original – rather than the translator – in translations (Rybicki 2010); sometimes, this success varies from translator to translator (Burrows 2002a). It is only when translations of the same author are compared is there any hope for stylometric machine-learning methods to tell translator from translator (Rybicki 2012).

This is exactly why this study focuses on a problem situated somewhat in the middle of the above, as collaborations between translators on a single literary work are a fact in the publishing industry. In the Polish market, this is perhaps most famously evidenced by Maria and Cezary Frąc, responsible for the third Polish translation of Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings. It is notoriously difficult to obtain information on the reasons and details of such translatorial collaborations from either the translators or their publishers; usually, looming deadlines for lengthy popular novels are blamed (Kozieł 2011).

But a collaborative translation can also be made for other reasons. When one of Poland’s most eminent translators, Anna Kołyszko died of cancer during her work on Virginia Woolf’s Night and Day, leaving a finished draft of much of the book and some notes on additional sections, the translation was taken over by Magda Heydel, a particular specialist in Woolf (Jacob’s Room, Between the Acts, A Moment’s Liberty, On Being Ill), who also performed some editing on the entire text. As Heydel stated in a TV interview, it was for the readers to see whether there was or there was not a rift in the middle of the book where one translator took over from the other; she hoped her editing made the narration coherent as far as the style was concerned. She also emphasized the uniqueness of the translator’s experience to confront her own intuition of her voice in the text with that of another (Heydel 2011). Thanks to her previous work and research on Woolf, she had had quite a definite idea of what stylistic shape Night and Day should obtain in its Polish translation. Her linguistic image of Woolf’s style, being, as it to an extent must, rooted in her own idiosyncratic ‘feeling’ of the language, was also informed by tangible evidence in Woolf scholarship. The technique of the changing point of view, to be elaborated in Woolf’s mature work into the stream of consciousness, a very important achievement of the writer, is clearly visible already in this early novel. Recreating this aspect of her writing has always been one of Heydel’s central concerns. Also, her particular translation technique is to a large extent based on the idea of the voice of the speaker, with the actual reading aloud for the effect of naturalness as the ultimate test for a successful rendition. In Woolf the recognizable ‘voice’ of the focalizer is central as it produces the point of view in narration (Rait 2010). Thus the changes Heydel introduced into Anna Kołyszko’s text were not (or very rarely) lexical but mainly syntactical. She worked with the famously long and intricate Woolfian sentences, the more so that the Polish language, with its extremely flexible sentence structure, locates most of its rhetorical and pragmatic devices here. Also for this reason, most-frequent-word analysis was a well-suited approach to this experiment in translatorial attribution.

Indeed, this seems a translatorial counterpart of David Hoover’s study on The Tutor’s Story, a novel begun by Charles Kingsley and completed by his daughter Mary under her pen name Louis Malet, with some information available on who wrote what (Hoover 2011). In the Polish Night and Day case, this information is exact; in both cases, the early chapters have been written by the first, the final ones by the second translator. It is also reminiscent of an earlier study on the Middle Dutch epic Walewein (van Dalen-Oskam & van Zundert 2007). The main difference consists in the fact that Heydel is available to confirm or deny the findings of the quantitative analysis.

the method and the corpus
This study applies Cluster Analysis to Delta-normalized word frequencies in texts; as shown by (to name but a few) Burrows (2002) and Hoover (2004, 2004a), and despite limitations discussed by Smith & Aldridge (2011), this is one of the most precise methods of ‘stylistic dactyloscopy.’ A script by Maciej Eder, written for the R statistical environment, converts the electronic texts to produce complete most-frequent-word (MFW) frequency lists, calculates their z-scores in each text according to the Burrows Delta procedure (Burrows 2002); selects words for analysis from various frequency ranges; performs additional procedures for better accuracy (Hoover’s culling and pronoun deletion); compares the results for individual texts; produces Cluster Analysis tree diagrams that show the distances between the texts; and, finally, combines the tree diagrams made for various parameters (number of words, degree of culling) in a bootstrap consensus tree (Dunn et al. 2005, quoted in Baayen 2008: 143-47). The script was demonstrated at Digital Humanities 2011 (Eder & Rybicki 2011) and its ever-evolving versions are available online (Eder & Rybicki 2011a). The consensus tree approach, based as it is on numerous iterations of attribution tests at varying parameters, has already shown itself as a viable alternative to single-iteration analyses (Eder & Rybicki 2011b; Rybicki 2011).

The Woolf translation was analysed by comparing equal-sized fragments (at various iterations of fragment size) of the translation of Night and Day to determine the chapter where Heydel had taken over from Kołyszko; Heydel was consulted only after the initial determination had been made. At this point, the Kołyszko and the Heydel portions of the book were compared to other translations by Heydel (Woolf’s Jacob’s Room, A Moment’s Liberty and Between the Acts, Graham Swift’s The Light of Day and Conrad’s Heart of Darkness) and by Kołyszko (McCarthy’s Child of God, Miller’s Tropic of Capricorn, Roth’s Portnoy’s Complaint, Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children), and then to an even more extended corpus of author-related translations.

results
All iterations of different fragment sizes of the Kołyszko/Heydel translation pointed to the beginning of Chapter 27 as the place where Heydel took over the translation from Kołyszko. Figure 1 shows the attribution of medium-sized fragments (approximating, in this case, mean chapter length) of the translation. In fact, Kołyszko has completed 25 full chapters and left scattered notes on Chapter 26; these have been collected, organized and edited by Heydel. If we are to believe stylometric evidence, the latter made a very good job of preserving the style of the former, so that her own style is only visible in earnest in Chapter 27.

Figure 1
Figure 1: Consensus tree for equal-sized fragments of Kołyszko and Heydel’s translation of Woolf’s Night and Day, performed for 0-1000 MFWs with culling at 0-100%. The beginning of fragment 27 of the translation roughly coincided with the beginning of Chapter 27

Once the authorship of the translation of Night and Day became confirmed, it was possible to place this shared work in the context of other translations by Heydel and Kołyszko; unfortunately, they never translated different books by the same author. The consensus tree in Figure 2 is divided neatly between Kołyszko and Heydel. In this context, the overall editing by Heydel might be visible in that both parts of Night and Day remain in her section of the tree; this might equally be a result of the original authorship, as the Woolf novels are close neighbours here.

When more translations by the same authors but by other translators are added to the corpus, the balance between translatorial and authorial attribution is clearly shifted towards the latter. In Figure 3, five translations of Woolf (including Night and Day) by four different translators occupy the lower branches of the consensus tree, with Bieroń’s Orlando being the only (relative) outsider. Kołyszko’s and Heydel’s translations in the upper half of the graph cluster with translations of respective authors by other translators.

Figure 2
Figure 2: Consensus tree for translations by Kołyszko and Heydel, performed for 0-1000 MFWs with culling at 0-100%

conclusions
So far, attempts at finding stylistic traces of the translator or the editor have been only partially successful. Word-frequency-based stylometric methods have shown that they are better at attributing the author of the original than the translator (Rybicki 2009, 2010; Eder 2010) – as has already been stated, unless translations of a single author are compared. In the latter case, Burrowsian stylometry is quite capable of telling translator from translator.

The translatorial attribution is greatly helped by the adoption of the bootstrap consensus tree approach, which minimizes attributive errors due to unlucky combinations of parameters as, simply speaking, Delta and similar distance measures are more often right than wrong, but the proportion between right and wrong might vary for a variety of reasons – especially language (Eder & Rybicki 2011b). This is particularly significant in a rare translatorial attribution case such as the Kołyszko/Heydel translation of Night and Day, where the results of stylometric analysis can be confirmed or denied by the translator herself. Equally importantly, this study demonstrates that although stylometry seems to find traces of the author as well as of the translator, these traces can be disambiguated by placing the disputed translations in contexts of various corpora.

references
Baayen, R. H. (2008). Analyzing Linguistic Data. A Practical Introduction to Statistics using R. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.

Burrows, J. F. (2002). Delta: A Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. Literary and Linguistic Computing 17: 267-87.

Burrows, J. F. (2002a). The Englishing of Juvenal: Computational Stylistics and Translated Texts. Style 36: 677-99.

Dalen-Oskam, K. van, Zundert, J. van (2007). Delta for Middle Dutch – Author and Copyist Distinction in Walewein. Literary and Linguistic Computing 22: 345-62.

Dunn, M., A. Terrill, G. Reesink, R. A. Foley, and S. C. Levinson (2005). Structural Phylogenetics and the Reconstruction of Ancient Language History. Science 309: 2072-075.

Eder, M., and J. Rybicki (2011). Stylometry with R. Poster. Stanford: Digital Humanities 2011.

Eder, M., and J. Rybicki (2011a). Computational Stylisticshttps://sites.google.com/site/computationalstylistics/.

Eder, M., and J. Rybicki (2011b). Do Birds of a Feather Really Flock Together, or How to Choose Test Samples for Authorship Attribution. Stanford: Digital Humanities 2011.

Heydel, M. (2011). Interview in ‘Czytelnia.’ TVP Kultura, 12 Feb.

Hoover, D. L. (2004). Testing Burrows’s Delta. Literary and Linguistic Computing 19: 453-75.

Hoover, D. L. (2004a). Delta Prime? Literary and Linguistic Computing 19: 477-95.

Kozieł, M. (2011). The Translator’s Stylistic Traces. A Quantitative Analysis of Polish Translations of The Lord of the Rings. MA thesis, Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny, Kraków.

Oakes, M., and M. Ji (2012). Quantitative Methods in Corpus-Based Translation Studies, Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Olohan, M. (2004). Introducing corpora in translation studies. London: Routledge.

Rait, S. (2010). Virginia Woolf’s early novels: Finding a voice. In Seller, S. (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Virginia Woolf, Cambridge: Cambridge UP.

Rybicki, J. (2010). Translation and Delta Revisited: When We Read Translations, Is It the Author or the Translator that We Really Read? London: Digital Humanities 2010.

Rybicki, J. (2011). Alma Cardell Curtin and Jeremiah Curtin: The Translator’s Wife’s Stylistic Fingerprint. Stanford: Digital Humanities 2011.

Rybicki, J. (2012). The Great Mystery of the (Almost) Invisible Translator: Stylometry in Translation. In M. Oakes and M. Ji (eds), Quantitative Methods in Corpus-Based Translation Studies, Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Smith, P., and W. Aldridge (2011). Improving Authorship Attribution: Optimizing Burrows’s Delta Method. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics 18(1): 63-88.","txt","2","",""
"1513","13","The Swallow Flies Swiftly Through: An Analysis of Humanist","1","The Swallow Flies Swiftly Through: An Analysis of Humanist
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Rockwell, Geoffrey, Department of Philosophy and Humanities Computing, University of Alberta, Canada, geoffrey.rockwell@ualberta.ca
Sinclair, Stéfan, Department of Languages, Literatures & Cultures, McGill University, Canada, stefan.sinclair@mcgill.ca
We’re 14 years old now, a venerable age in this medium, like everything else somewhere between coming into being and going out of it, ‘like the swift flight of a single sparrow through the banqueting-hall where you are sitting at dinner on a winter’s day with your thegns and counsellors. In the midst there is a comforting fire to warm the hall; outside, the storms of winter rain or snow are raging. This sparrow flies swiftly in through one door of the hall and out through another. While he is inside, he is safe from the winter storms; but after a few moments of comfort, he vanishes from sight into the wintry world from which he came.’1

HUMANIST has been one of the few stable discussion spaces where people in the digital humanities can discuss the field. The metaphor of the swallow flying though the banqueting-hall captures what we would like our commons to be, warm and comfortable compared to the winter outside, and a feast of methods, ideas, and conversation. This paper will fly though the hall of HUMANIST on the wings of analytical methods. Specifically this paper will take a retrospective look at the evolution of the digital humanities through an analysis of HUMANIST using Voyant, a suite of web text tools we have developed for handling large corpora like this. In the paper we will therefore,

Ask why we might look at our history now?
Discuss the data analyzed and the methods used
Discuss the shift from humanities computing to the digital humanities
Look at the effect of the web on the field
why look back now?
In the space of a very few years the digital humanities seems to have gone from a marginal field trying to gain respect to a favorite of many university administrators. Digital humanists now need to define (and justify) what the digital humanities is to people who ask us – instead of trying to explain it to anyone willing to listen. It is difficult to pin down exactly when this transition happened, but one important moment was when William Pannapacker wrote in the Chronicle that ‘Amid all the doom and gloom of the 2009 MLA Convention, one field seems to be alive and well: the digital humanities.’ He continued with ‘the digital humanities seem like the first “next big thing” in a long time’.2 As John Unsworth noted in his ‘State of the Digital Humanties, 2010’ address to the Digital Humanities Summer Institute (DHSI), when a field is perceived to have jobs (while other humanities fields are seeing a dramatic decline) ‘it’s bound to attract some notice, especially among bright, goal-oriented graduate students who are approaching the job market.’3 As universities try to get into the game by posting not jobs but clusters of jobs, and graduate students try to adapt to those jobs, issues of definition and self-definition became important.

Alternatively this self-conscious turn could be due to funding agencies noticing and creating programs for the digital humanities like the Image, Text, Sound and Technology program of SSHRC that first made awards in 2003-4 and the Office of Digital Humanities programs of the US National Endowment for the Humanities. We shouldn’t underestimate the degree to which funding programs can get attention.

The self-conscious turn can also be seen in papers looking at the field and asking about it. Some examples include a paper by Wang and Inaba presented in Taipei and then published under the title, ‘Analyzing Structures and Evolution of Digital Humanities Based on Correspondence Analysis and Co-word Analysis.’4 Another is by Patrik Svensson titled ‘The Landscape of Digital Humanities.’5 Both essays provide a ‘birds-eye’ view of the field, though in very different ways. Wang and Inaba use text analysis and text mining techniques to ask about the shift from ‘humanities computing’ to ‘digital humanities’; Svensson takes a cultural studies approach looking at the actors and discourse.

data and methods
Like Wang and Inaba our method is to use DH methods like correspondence analysis, but we analyzed a different, messier and fuller text, the archives of the HUMANIST listserv. HUMANIST is a discussion list that was started by Willard McCarty when he was at the Centre for Computing in the Humanities at the University of Toronto in 1987. The first message introducing the list started with, ‘HUMANIST is a Bitnet/NetNorth electronic mail network for people who support computing in the humanities.’6 The list is still running, and, except for an interlude of a few years, is still moderated by Willard. HUMANIST has limitations that will be discussed in the full paper, but it provides a rich text for understanding the field in the English-speaking world.

Voyant, formerly called Voyeur, is a suite of text analysis tools that can be used individually or combined into ‘skins’ on texts that you upload or link to.7 Voyant is a second generation of web analytical tools that benefited from lessons learned by HyperPo and TAPoR. Our first generation of tools could only handle smaller texts (up to about 500K or the equivalent of a book or two) and therefore weren’t suitable for the study of large corpora. These tools were also developed as close (re)reading tools in a context of literary study of a single text or small corpus. In this project we adapted Voyant to handle the sort of corpus that allows us to do diachronic analysis and distant reading; we added mining tools that facilitate the formation and validation of hypotheses.

Part of our methodological practice is to develop a series of hypotheses about the last 25 years of Humanist. These are then tested, adapting and adding features to Voyant as needed. The tool development is thus deeply integrated with the analytical process. We will use the hypotheses and unexpected themes to discuss our flight through the corpus.

from humanities computing to digital humanities
We started with the expectation that there had been a shift from ‘humanities computing’ to ‘digital humanities’ as discussed by Wang and Inaba. While we certainly found ‘digital humanities’ taking off in 2004-5, we were surprised that ‘humanities computing’ continues to be a popular phrase. What is harder to do is to pinpoint why the term started to be used. One of the limitations of a public list is that it is suitable for epidemiological studies that tell you what happened and what correlated with what happened, but it is harder to tell what motivated people to change how they named the field.

Figure 1
Figure 1: Digital humanities and humanities computing

the passing of centers
A second hypothesis we started with was that the 1980s and 1990s had been a time of centers that made computing available in labs, but that the field had moved on to a more distributed project model. We did not find evidence for this. While the word project becomes more popular and it is true that some centres has closed, we found others had started up. Perhaps our particular experience with certain centers closing biased us into thinking this was a larger phenomenon.

the turn of the web
The most dramatic evidence of change was so obvious that we didn’t think about it or hypothesize it until we developed a tool that could show clusters of years and keywords using correspondence analysis.

Figure 2
Figure 2: Scatter plot from correspondence analysis

The scatterplot display of the major dimensions generated showed a strong pull of patterns like ‘web’, ‘www’, and ‘html.’ There seem to be three phases in the data studied:

1987-95: a phase when humanities computing is interested in computers, software, hardware, texts, and English.
1996-2000: a transitional period which may be an artifact of the corpus.
2001-present: a shift to digital web services and collaborative projects.
Figure 3
Figure 3: Net, web and internet

We believe the use of the web by humanists in the mid 1990s was a transformative for the field and may explain why less and less of our discussion was about hardware and software.

Figure 4
Figure 4: Software, services and hardware

As computers became ubiquitous in the 1970s and 1980s, humanities computing was concerned with supporting the new hardware and software. HUMANIST itself was initially conceived as a discussion list for those who supported others. Many humanists in 1986 were just beginning to use computers for word-processing and most didn’t have email. With the web as a canvas for digital projects we started to pay less attention to ‘processing’ and more to ‘methods.’ We began to make our own tools after the hard work of developing scholarly electronic texts. Above all we returned to ‘content’ going beyond text to look at other ‘media’ and the ‘social.’

Figure 5
Figure 5: Social, media and content

conclusion
The new-found traction of the digital humanities in academia is an opportunity to reflect on how the discipline has evolved and what it has become. Our contribution here is twofold: 1) a reading of HUMANIST that can help understand who we are and 2) a presentation of text analysis in practice. Of course, this is just our fly-through the corpus; with accessible web archives and tools like Voyant, the hall is open.

notes
1.Humanist Discussion Group 15(1), see www.digitalhumanities.org/humanist/Archives/Virginia/v15/0000.html.

2.Pannapacker, W. (2009). The MLA and the Digital Humanities. Brainstorm: The Chronicle Review’s blog, Dec. 28, 2009 chronicle.com/blogPost/The-MLAthe-Digital/19468/.

3.Unsworth, J. (2010). The State of Digital Humanities, 2010. Address to the Digital Humanities Summer Institute, University of Victoria, Victoria, June 2010. The PDF is available at www3.isrl.illinois.edu/~unsworth/state.of.dh.DHSI.pdf.

4.Wang, X., and M. Inaba (2009). Analyzing Structures and Evolution of Digital Humanities Based on Correspondence Analysis and Co-word Analysis. Art Research, No. 9, Mar. 2009, pp. 123-134.

5.Svensson, P. (2010). The Landscape of Digital Humanities. Digital Humanities Quarterly 4(1). This is actually the first of a multi-part essay.

6.This is the opening line of the ‘Welcome to HUMANIST’ message, 14 May 1987. See www.digitalhumanities.org/humanist/Archives/Virginia/v01/8705.1324.txt

7.See voyant-tools.org or voyeurtools.org","txt","2","",""
"1514","13","The Twelve Disputed 'Federalist' Papers: A Case for Collaboration","1","The Twelve Disputed ‘Federalist’ Papers: A Case for Collaboration
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Rudman, Joseph, Department of English, Carnegie Mellon University, USA, jr20@heps.phys.cmu.edu
introduction
This paper discusses the controversy over the authorship of the Federalistpapers as seen and studied by traditional historians and by over 100 non-traditional authorship attribution practitioners.

The  Federalist papers were written during the years 1787 and 1788 by Alexander Hamilton,  John Jay, and James Madison. These 85 ‘propaganda’ tracts were intended to help get the  U.S. Constitution ratified. They were all published anonymously under the pseudonym, ‘Publius.’  The authorship of certain of the  Federalist essays was disputed from the beginning. Both Hamilton and Madison produced lists that claimed some of the same papers. There followed a series of lists, some claiming authorship for Madison and some for Hamilton.

The consensus of traditional scholarship, seconded by Mosteller and Wallace, allocates  the papers: Hamilton 51 (1, 6-9, 11-13, 15-17, 21-36, 59-61, 65-85); Madison 29 (10, 14, 18-20, 37-58, 62, 63); Jay 5 (2-5, 64).

In 2005, I presented a paper at the ACH/ALLC conference, ‘The Non-Traditional Case for the Authorship of the  Federalist Papers: A House Built on Sand?’’ After 7 more years of  ‘traditional’’ research and the addition of over 70 non-traditional studies of the Federalist, I am able to remove the question mark and put forth a reasoned argument that many, if not all, of the twelve disputed papers are a collaboration and not written solely by Madison, as the consensus of traditional scholarship and non-traditional authorship studies claim.

In 1964, Mosteller and Wallace, building on the earlier unpublished work of Frederick Williams and Frederick Mosteller, published their non-traditional authorship attribution study,  Inference and  Disputed Authorship: The Federalist. It is arguably the most famous and well respected of all of the non-traditional attribution studies. Since then, well over a thousand papers have cited the Mosteller and Wallace  work and over 100 non-traditional practitioners have analyzed and/or conducted variations of the original study.

Mosteller and Wallace set the boundary conditions for the subsequent  non-traditional work – e.g., not using the Jay articles as a control. Most of these later practitioners do not select or prepare the input text as carefully as Mosteller and Wallace – and their selection and  preparation was not as rigorous and complete as it should have been – as we will see.

problems with the non-traditional case
There are many problems with the Mosteller and Wallace study and with the over 90 other non-traditional studies that cast strong doubts on their results:

(1.) The Federalist Papers

A crucial step of any non-traditional authorship study is to obtain a ‘starting text.’  As a rule, the closest text to the ‘final’ holograph should be found and  used. Every step away from that holograph introduces systematic errors.

(2.) The Hamilton Texts

Mosteller and Wallace go outside of the Federalist papers to construct their block of Hamilton tracts.

(3.) The Madison Texts

Mosteller and Wallace also go outside of the Federalist papers to construct their block of Madison tracts. In the case of the Madison block, there is a 20 year difference in their production dates. And what is worse – some of these outside essays have been shown to be not by Madison.

(4.) The Control Texts

There is not one non-traditional study that uses any  meaningful controls. The Mosteller and Wallace and Wachal  use of a ‘training set’ is not a control. The closest test to a necessary control is found in the ‘validation’ of four Hamilton papers (79, 80,  82, 85) and other sets by Mosteller and Wallace.

more problems – arriving at the analysis texts
(A) Background and Definitions

No attribution practitioner should question the fact that valid texts are needed  if valid results are to be obtained.  No matter how sophisticated the statistical analysis is, a bad text invalidates the results.

 

(B) Unediting

Editorial Interpolation
Printer Interpolation
(C) De-editing

Quotes
Plagiarism
Collaboration
Graphs and Numbers
Guide Words
Foreign Languages
Translations
(D) Editing

Encoding the Text
Regularizing
Lemmatizing
There are many significant weaknesses in the text preparation part of the Mosteller and Wallace study. For example, they state that:

They ignore the extent of the editing done by the other man [i.e. Hamilton or Madison]  and by all of the ‘outside’ editors.
They did not disambiguate words – e.g. the personal pronoun ‘I’ is teated the same as the Roman numeral ‘I’ – the noun ‘abuse’  is treated exactly like the verb ‘abuse’.
They do not publish complete details of their ‘little book of decisions’ or the rational behind any of these decisions. –
They do not use the newspaper versions of the first 77 papers.
They typed the text onto cards to be read by the computer, but  for reasons of ‘economics’ they used hand counts for much of  their study. They write about the many problems this introduces but do not assign any systematic errors – e.g. (1) they show the  differences in the hand counts vs. the machine counts, (2) they  tell us that their proofreaders missed missing words, repeated lines, and single word repetitions.
Missing bibliographical sources – e.g. Smyth and Wachal.
One of the guiding principles of any scientific study is ‘reproducibility.’  Any other practitioner should be able to reproduce a given study and get identical results. None of the over 90  Federalist studies mentioned in this paper give anywhere near the information  needed – a fatal flaw.

Time will not allow for a detailed explication of these  studies. In essence, they are all fatally flawed – many do not indicate which edition they used, most either did no unediting, de-editing, or editing –  or they fail to say if they did anything to the text.

the case for ‘collaboration’
There can be no doubt that the Federalist project was a collaboration – a collaboration on many levels – but the depth of that collaboration is what is in question.

We know that Publius’ Federalist series was the product of three men –  Hamilton, Madison, and Jay. No one disputes this, as long as specific papers are not discussed.

Most scholars agree that  Federalist 18, 19, and 20 were written jointly  by Hamilton and Madison. Exactly what parts were by which man is not agreed upon.

There is strong evidence that Hamilton and Madison also had joint hands in many other numbers of the Federalist – including the twelve disputed papers.

The evidence comes from traditional and non-traditional authorship attribution  methodologies.

Traditional

1840 – Renwick’s Lives of John Jay and Alexander Hamilton.
1894 – Whitaker’s, ‘A Problem in Authorship: Who Wrote “The Federalist?”’
1978 – Smyth’s, ‘The Federalist: The Authorship of the Disputed Papers.’
1984 – Cary’s, ‘Publius – A Split Personality.’
1984 – Furtwangler’s,  The Authority of Publius: A Reading of  the Federalist Papers.
1999 – Kesler’s ‘Introduction to the Federalist Papers.’
Non-Traditional

The Collins et al. study, ‘Detecting Collaborations in Text: Comparing the Authors’ Rhetorical Language Choices in the Federalist Papers’ confirms the premise of a deeper collaboration. Most of the  non traditional authorship studies do not agree with each other. A list will be shown that reveals how many times each of the twelve disputed papers have been attributed to Hamilton in the over 90 other non-traditional studies.

conclusion
This paper concludes with a discussion of the following:

Acceptance of Results by Non-Traditional Practitioners
Acceptance of Results by History Scholars
Do the Multiple Flaws in the Non-traditional Studies Invalidate the Results
The bibliography for this paper contains  well over 300 entries. The following is just a sample.

references
Adair, D. (1944). The Authorship of the Disputed Federalist Papers. The William and Mary Quarterly (Third Series) 1(2): 97-122.

Bosch, R. A., and J. A. Smith (1998). Separating Hyperplanes and the  Authorship of the Disputed Federalist Papers. The  American Mathematical Monthly 105(7): 601-607.

Carey, G. W. (1984). Publius – A Split Personality? The Review of Politics 46(1): 5-22.

Collins, J., et al. (2004). Detecting Collaborations in Text: Comparing the Authors’ Rhetorical Language Choices in  The Federalist Papers. Computers and the Humanities 38(1):15-36.

Cooke, J. E., ed. (1956).The Federalist. Cleveland: Meridian Books,  The World Publishing Company.

Davis, G. (2003). `RE: Gutenberg Edition of Federalist. Private  E-mail, 20 November 2003, 18:46:51.

Farringdon, M. G., and A. Q. Morton (1990). Fielding and the Federalist. CS Report Series University of Glasgow CSC 90/R6.

Forsyth, R. S. (1995). Stylistic Structures: A Computational Approach to Text Classification. Diss. University of Nottingham.

Fung, G. (2003). The Disputed Federalist Papers: SVM Feature Selection via Concave Minimization. Proceedings of the 2003 Conference on Diversity in Computing. Atlanta, Georgia, pp.  42-46.

Gerritsen, C. M. (2003). Authorship Attribution Using Lexical Attraction. M.S. Dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Hilton, M. L., and D. I. Holmes (1993). An Assessment of Cumulative Sum Charts for Authorship Attribution.  Literary and Linguistic Computing 8(2): 73-80.

Holmes, D. I., and R. S. Forsyth (1995). The Federalist Revisited: New Directions in Authorship Attribution.Literary and Linguistic Computing 10(2): 111-127.

Jockers, M. L., and D. M. Witten (2010). A Comparative Study of Machine Learning Methods for Authorship Attribution. Literary and Linguistic Computing 25(2): 215-224.

Khmelev, D. V., and F. J. Tweedie (2001). Using Markov Chains for Identification of Writers.  Literary and Linguistic Computing 16(3): 299-307.

Kjell, B. (1994). Authorship Determination Using Letter Pair Frequency Features with Neural Network Classifiers. Literary and Linguistic Computing 9(2): 119-124.

Koppel, M., N. Akiva, and I. Dagan (2006). Feature Instability as a Criterion for Selecting Potential Style Markers. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 57(11): 1519-1525.

Levitan, S., and S. Argamon (2006). Fixing the Federalist: Correcting Results and Evaluating Attribution.’ Paper presented at Digital Humanities 2006. Paris, Sorbonne 2006 (Paper courtesy of authors.)

Martindale, C., and D. McKenzie (1995). On the Unity of Content Analysis in Authorship Attribution: The Federalist. Computers and the Humanities 29: 259-270.

Marcus, L. S. (2000). Afterword: Confessions of a Reformed Uneditor. In A. Murphy (ed.), The Renaissance Text: Theory, Editing, Textuality. Manchester: Manchester UP, pp. 211-216.

Marcus, L. S. (1996). Unediting the Renaissance: Shakespeare, Marlow, Milton. London: Routledge 1996.

McColly, W., and D. Weire (1983). Literary Attribution and Likelihood-Ratio Tests: The Case of the Middle English Pearle-Poems. Computers and the Humanities 17: 65-75.

Merriam, Th. (1989). An Experiment with the Federalist Papers. Computers and the Humanities 23(3): 251-254.

Mosteller, F., and D. L. Wallace (1964). Applied Bayesian and Classical Inference: The Case of The Federalist Papers. New York: Springer 1984. CSLI Publications published a reprint of the second edition in 2007 with a new  introduction by John Nerbonne.

Mustafa, T. K., et al. (2010). Dropping Down the Maximum Item Set: Improving the Stylometric Authorship Algorithm in the Text Mining for Authorship Investigation. Journal of Computer Science 6(3): 230-238.

Oaks, M. (2004) Ant Colony Optimisation for Stylometry: The Federalist Papers. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Recent Advances in Soft Computing, pp. 86-91.

Pennebaker, J. W. The Federalist. Unpublished preliminary work – courtesy of the Author.

Piaia, J. [For Frederick Mosteller] Private E-mail, Tuesday,  22 July 2003, 10:57:38.

Project Gutenberg http://promo.net/pg/ [9-30-2003].

Rokeach, M., et al. (1970). A Value Analysis of the Disputed Federalist Papers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 16(2): 245-250.

Scigliano, R., ed. (2000). The Federalist. New York: The  Modern Library.

Smyth, L. Qu. (1978). The Federalist: The Authorship of the Disputed Papers. Ph.D. University of Virginia.

Stamatatos, E., N. Fakotakis, and G. Kokkinakis (2001). Computer-Based  Authorship Attribution Without Lexical Measures. Computers and the Humanities 35: 193-214.

Stillinger, J. (1991). Multiple Authorship and the Question of Authority. In. D. C. Greetham and W. Speed Hill (eds.), Text: Transactions of the Society for Textual Scholarship (5). New York: AMS Press, pp. 283-293.

Wachal, R. S. (1966). Linguistic Evidence, Statistical Inference, and Disputed Authorship. Dissertation, University of Wisconsin.

Waugh, S., A. Adams, and F. Tweedie (2000). Computational Stylistics Using Artificial Neural Networks. Literary and Linguistic Computing 15(2): 187-197.

Yang, A. C. C., et al. (2003). Information Categorization Approach to Literary Authorship Disputes. Physica A 329(3-4): 473-483.","txt","2","",""
"1515","13","The VL3: A Project at the Crossroads between Linguistics and Computer Science","1","The VL3: A Project at the Crossroads between Linguistics and Computer Science
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Nuñez, Camelia Gianina, The CulturePlex Laboratory, The University of Western Ontario, Canada, cnunez3@uwo.ca
Mavillard, Antonio Jiménez, The CulturePlex Laboratory, The University of Western Ontario, Canada, ajimene6@uwo.ca
The current study will introduce the VL3 (Virtual Language Learning Lab) a multidisciplinary project that brings together a variety of disciplines: from Theoretical Linguistics, Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Pedagogy to Computer Science and Natural Language Processing (NLP). The VL3 stands as a great example of how humanistic knowledge, when combined with the power of the technology, can lead to the creation of innovative tools, beneficial to society at large.

Specifically, the VL3 aims to provide a virtual environment where (Spanish) second language learners can work towards improving their communicative skills in the target language, by participating in a set of predefined conversation scenarios that closely mimic real life situations.

As mentioned earlier, the VL3 is heavily based on research within the fields of Linguistics, Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Pedagogy; as such an important part of this presentation will focus on introducing and explaining the theoretical context for the development of the current project. We will then proceed to show how this research has been applied in order to further develop and refine the existing spoken dialogue system technology used by our partner, Natural Language Inc.

Although the importance of linguistic theory (phonology, morphology, syntax) to the advances in the field of NLP has been pointed out by many (Matthews1993; Schultze & Gupta 2010), it continues to be a relationship that needs to be explored in more detail. Without a doubt, greater attention paid to linguistic research would lead to even more significant developments for natural language processing technologies. Skeptics of such technologies claim that computer programs will never be able to account for the complexity of the human language (Salaberry 1996) and although it may well be the case that we will not be able to fully describe something as unpredictable as human language, it is only by maintaining a close relationship with linguistics, its discipline of study, that any real attempt can be made.

As such, in order to meet our objective of creating a highly developed technology capable of processing human language as a whole with the highest degree of accuracy possible, we will recur to recent theories of linguistics and second language acquisition.

Language technologies such as ones described above, are used in telephone conversations where a person needing information is speaking to a machine trained to understand human language (call centers, for example). Although these technologies have enjoyed great success, they are most often limiting, in sense that they are only trained to deal with highly specialized language. For example a NL software employed by an internet service provider will only ‘understand’ language that is specific to this context. In fact, it is often the case that these technologies are trained to only pick up on certain key words (home internet, high speed, technical problems, billing, etc.) uttered by the person on the phone and from that on, infer the purpose of the call. Should the caller ask a question ‘outside’ this scenario, the machine will most likely not understand. As such, it can be said that most of these technologies have divided language into specific contexts and have focused on teaching computers to ‘understand’ scenario-specific language. That is, they are trained to deduce the meaning of an utterance by picking up on certain key words.

The VL3 thus proposes to adopt and further adapt these technologies to the field of foreign language learning and offer students much needed opportunities to practice their target language in one-on-one conversations that imitate real life situations. This of course implies the need of less restrictive NL technology that is able to understand human language as a whole rather than only context-specific language. Consequently, such a project demands a NL technology that is based on grammatical analysis strategy rather than keyword spotting.

The technology used by Natural Language Inc., our partner in this project, is already superior to other existing ones mainly because it employs grammatical strategies for understanding human language. Nonetheless, our research experience within the fields of Linguistics, Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Teaching, will allow us to further develop the existing technology of Natural Language Inc. in order to successfully use it as a second language-learning tool. Any speaker of a foreign language is well aware of the challenge that lays in the process of learning a language other that one’s own as well as the many different factors that come at play in the learning process. The field of Second Language Acquisition has shown us that one such factor is input in the foreign language. In fact, input has been described as ‘the single, most important concept of second language acquisition’ (Gass 1997). Input specifically refers to exposure to the target language (oral, written, formal, informal etc.) and no one would argue that a second language can be learned in isolation and with no exposure to it.

Furthermore, it has been suggested that aside from input, interaction with a native speaker also plays an important role in the process of second language development. (Long 1981, 1983, 1996). As such, producing the target language as part of the learning process (Swain 1985, 1993, 1995, 1998, 2005) has been suggested as beneficial to the learner. One of the benefits of interaction as part of the process of second language learning is what is known as ‘negative evidence’ That is, when the learner says something that their interlocutor does not understand, after some ‘negotiations for meaning’ take place, the interlocutor may model the correct language form. Consequently, this feedback received by the learner on their production will turn into more positive input. Interaction strategies between native and non-native speakers such as modifications, simplifications, paraphrasing etc. have been vastly studied as well and have clearly shown their benefits to the language learner.

Evidently, linguistic research can provide us with valuable information for the development of a project such as the VL3. Throughout this presentation you will have the opportunity to see how such research has been applied to the creation of an effective online tool that will significantly impact the field of second language pedagogy.

references
Gass, S. (1997). Input, Interaction and the second language learner. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Gupta P., and M. Schultze (2010). Human Language Technologies (HLT). Module 3.5. In G. Davies (ed.), Information and Communications Technology for Language Teachers (ICT4LT), Slough, Thames Valley University [Online]. Available from: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod3-5.htm [Accessed 10 December, 2010].

Long, M. (1981). Input, interaction and second language acquisition. In H. Winitz (ed.), Native Language and Foreign Language Acquisition. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 379: 259-278.

Long, M. (1983). Native speaker/non-native speaker conversation and the negotiation of comprehensible input. Applied Linguistics 4(2): 126-141.

Long, M. (1996). The Role of the Linguistic Envronment in Second Language Acquisition. In W. R. Ritchie and T. J. Bhatia (eds.), Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 413-468.

Matthews C. (1993), Grammar frameworks in Intelligent CALL. CALICO Journal 11(1): 5-27.

Salaberry R. (1996). A Theoretical foundation for development of pedagogical tasks in computer mediated communication. CALICO Journal 14(1): 5-34.

Swain, M. (1985). Communicative Competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass and C. Madden (eds.), Input in second language acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, pp. 235-253.

Swain, M. (1993). The Output Hypothesis: just speaking and writing aren’t enough. The Canadian Modern Language Review 50: 158-164.

Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook and B. Seidlhofer (eds.), Principles and Practice in the Study of Language. Oxford: Oxford UP.

Swain, M. (1998). Focus on form through conscious reflection. In C. Daughty and J. Williams (eds.), Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition. New York: Cambridge UP.

Swain, M. (2005). The Output Hypothesis: Theory and Research. In E. Hinkel (ed.), Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 471-483.","txt","2","",""
"1516","13","The potential of using crowd-sourced data to re-explore the demography of Victorian Britain","1","The potential of using crowd-sourced data to re-explore the demography of Victorian Britain
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Duke-Williams, Oliver William, University of Leeds, UK, o.duke-williams@ucl.ac.uk
This paper describes a new project which aims to explore the potential of a set of crowd-sourced data based on the returns from decennial censuses in nineteenth century Britain. Using data created by an existing volunteer based effort, it is hoped to extract and make available sets of historical demographic data.

Crowd-sourcing is a term generally used to refer to the generation and collation of data by a group of people, sometimes paid, sometimes interested volunteers (Howe 2007). Whilst not dependent on Web technologies, the ease of communication and ability to both gather and re-distribute digital data in standard formats mean that the Web is a very significant enabling technology for distributed data generation tasks. In some cases – the most obvious being Wikipedia – crowd-sourcing has involved the direct production of original material, whilst in other cases, crowd-sourcing has been applied to the transcription (or proof-reading) of existing non-digitised material. An early example of this – predating the Web – was Project Gutenberg (Hart 1992), which was established in 1971 and continues to digitize and make available texts for which copyright has expired. A more recent example in the domain of Digital Humanities is the Transcribe Bentham project (Terras 2010), which harnesses international volunteer efforts to digitize the manuscripts of Jeremy Bentham, including many previously unpublished papers; in contrast to Project Gutenberg, the sources are hand-written rather than printed, and thus might require considerable human interpretative effort as part of the transcription process. Furthermore, the Transcribe Bentham project aims to produce TEI-encoded outputs rather than generic ASCII text, potentially imposing greater barriers to entry for novice transcribers.

FreeCEN1 is a project which aims to deliver a crowd-sourced set of records from the decennial British censuses of 1841 to 1891. The data are being assembled through a distributed transcription project, based on previously assembled volumes of enumerator’s returns, which exist in physical form and on microfiche. FreeCEN is part of FreeUKGEN, an initiative aiming to create freely accessible databases of genealogical records, for use by family historians; other member projects being FreeREG, a collection of Parish Registers, and FreeBMD a collection of vital events registers. The database has grown steadily since its inception in 1999, but coverage is variable with differing levels of completeness between censuses, and for individual counties within each census. The current delivery of data from the FreeCEN project is targeted explicitly at genealogists, and is already of benefit to family historians, by delivery freely accessible data. However, the data (and associated interfaces) are not designed for demographic analysis of the content. Two main approaches may be of interest to demographers, historical geographers and historians in this regard: a series of cross-sectional observations, and a linked sample (such that an individual and hir/her circumstances at decennial intervals might be observed).

The first aim of the project reported in this paper is to extract aggregate counts of individuals grouped by their county of enumeration (that is, their place of residence at the time of the census) and their county of birth. Together, these form a ‘lifetime net migration’ matrix, which can be disaggregated by age and sex to allow exploration of differential patterns of mobility for a variety of sub-populations in nineteenth century Britain. An associated requirement will be the aggregation of area level population counts (disaggregated by the same age and sex categories to be used in the migration analysis) in order to permit systematic calculation of migration rates (as opposed to absolute volumes). A second phase of analysis will be to use individual and household level records in order to classify households into ‘household types’ (i.e. persons living alone, married couples with and without dependent or co-resident children etc, households with domestic staff present, households with lodgers present etc).

As usable lifetime migration data sets are extracted, they will be made available via CIDER2, the Centre for Interaction Data Estimation and Research (Stillwell & Duke-Williams 2003). CIDER is funded as part of the ESRC Census Programme 2006-2011, and currently provides access to interaction (migration and commuting) data sets from the 1981, 1991 and 2001 Censuses, together with an increasing number of flow data sets from a variety of administrative sources. The addition of data from historic censuses will require the modification and extension of existing metadata structures, in order to effectively document the data.

The FreeCEN project aims to transcribe data from the 1841, 1851, 1861, 1871, 1881 and 1891 Censuses of Britain. The 1841 Census can be seen as a transitional census. Whereas the first British censuses – from 1801 onwards – had been completed at an area level by local officials and members of the clergy, the 1841 Census was based around a household schedule which listed each individual together with basic demographic details (rounded age, sex, profession and details of place of birth). However a variety of organisation weaknesses (Higgs 1989) were reflected in idiosyncratic results. A much more robust administrative structure was developed for the 1851 Censuses onwards, with improved instructions given to both enumerators and householders. The number and range of questions asked of householder changed over the course of the nineteenth century, with new questions introduced regarding marital status, relationship to head of family, whether the individual was blind, deaf and dumb, an ‘imbecile or idiot’, or ‘lunatic’ and whether the individual was an employer or employee. The aggregation work will concentrate in the first instance on results from the 1891 Census, as these are expected to be of higher quality than the earlier returns. A second strand will then examine data from the 1841 Census, precisely because the quality of the enumerator’s returns was poorer, and thus systemic problems are likely to be exposed. How do transcribers cope with poorly recorded or ambiguous original data? How widely do transcribers vary in their notation style?

As noted above, the data are far from complete, and so comprehensive national analysis is not currently possible. However, there are some counties such as Cornwall for which enumeration is complete or close to completion for all censuses in the period, and county or region based analyses should be possible. The overriding aim of the work reported in this paper is to explore the potential for use of these data, and to ascertain the ease with which aggregate observations can be extracted from the FreeCEN database as it grows in the future.

More significantly, there are more subtle issues with the records contained within the FreeCEN data, and there are a variety of issues to be explored. Primarily, it is necessary to examine the accuracy of transcriptions. Over the course of the 19th century the administrative prowess of census taking increased, and improved instructions to enumerators (probably in combination with improved literacy rates in the general population) caused an overall improvement in the quality of the original data; however the accuracy of current transcriptions must also be assessed. It must also be noted that both the quality and comprehensiveness of records transcribed will vary by area and transcriber: the initial impetus for many will be transcription of their own ancestors, and the sample may not therefore be complete or representative. The degree to which the sample and representative can be gauged by comparison to published totals, although regional and small area totals are less readily available than national totals, constraining the ability to make local level assessments of quality. Mapping of the data will demonstrate the extent to which there are spatial biases (at both local and national levels) in the records selected for transcription.

The lifetime net migration tables to be produced from this project will permit new analysis of mobility in Victorian Britain. Working with the results of the 1871 and 1881 Censuses, Ravenstein (1885) derived a number of frequently cited and debated ‘laws of migration’, including that migrants tend to move in a series of small steps towards a ‘centre of absorption’, that counter-flows exist, and that migration propensities reduce with distance. The actual ‘laws’ are not enumerated as a clear list, but described at separate locations within more than one paper; for a fuller discussion see Grigg (1977). In a discussion of Ravenstein’s work, Tobler (1995) states that the most interesting of a set of maps included in the 1885 paper is not referenced or described in the text, noting that such an omission would cause most modern editors to remove the map. Such a map could perhaps be re-created if migration matrices from the period were made available. Many subsequent studies have been made using the originally published results of these censuses (see for example, Lawton (1968) and Friedlander and Roshier (1966)). However, source data are hard to find, and it is now difficult for the general researcher to re-examine such work: thus, an aim of the work reported in this paper is to facilitate future research in this area.

A second approach to the study of these data is to develop a life course analysis, and find individuals linked across censuses, and examine the ways in which their lives have developed at decennial intervals. Whilst appealing, this approach is significantly harder due to difficulties in linking individuals between censuses. Anderson (1972) studying a sample of 475 people in consecutive censuses (1851, 1861) for example, found that 14% of the sample had inconsistent birthplace recording. Some inconsistencies are down to minor misspellings, but this underlines the difficulty of matching individuals.

This project is currently at its outset, and the paper will report on progress and demonstrate how the data can be accessed and used.

references
Anderson, M. (1972). The study of family structure. In E. Wrigley (ed.), Nineteenth-century society. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.

Friedlander, D.,  and R. Roshier (1966). A Study of Internal Migration in England and Wales: Part I. Population Studies 19(3): 239-279.

Grigg, D. (1977). E. G. Ravenstein and the “laws of migration”. Journal of Historical Geography 3(1): 41-54.

Hart, M. (1992). Gutenberg: the history and philosophy of Project Gutenberg http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/Gutenberg:The_History_and_Philosophy_of_Project_Gutenberg_by_Michael_Hart, retrieved 31 October 2011

Higgs, E. (1989). Making Sense of the Census, Public Record Office Handbooks No 23. London: HMSO.

Lawton, R. (1968). Population Changes in England and Wales in the Later Nineteenth Century: an Analysis of Trends by Registration Districts. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 44: 55-74.

Howe, J. (2007). The Rise of Crowdsourcing. Wired 14(6),http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/14.06/crowds.html, retrieved 31 October 2011

Ravenstein, E. (1885). The Laws of Migration. Journal of the Statistical Society 46: 167-235.

Stillwell, J., and O. Duke-Williams (2003). A new web-based interface to British census of population origin-destination statistics. Environment and Planning A, 35(1): 113-132.

Terras, M. (2010). Crowdsourcing cultural heritage: UCL’s Transcribe Bentham project. Presented at: Seeing Is Believing: New Technologies For Cultural Heritage. International Society for Knowledge Organization, UCL (University College London).

Tobler, W. (1995) Ravenstein, Thornthwaite, and beyond. Urban Geography 16(4): 327-343.

notes
1.http://www.freecen.org.uk

2.http://cider.census.ac.uk","txt","2","",""
"1517","13","Towards Wittgenstein on the Semantic Web","1","Towards Wittgenstein on the Semantic Web
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Pichler, Alois, University of Bergen, Norway, Alois.Pichler@uni.no
Zöllner-Weber, Amélie, University of Bergen, Norway, amelie.zoellnerweber@gmail.com
introduction
Ludwig Wittgenstein’s 20,000 pages of manuscripts and typescripts (his ‘Nachlass’) display his continuous philosophical development and contain revisions, rearrangements and ‘multiple versioning.’ Their publication poses a number of challenges, for book as well as for digital editions (Huitfeldt 1994). Since its creation in 1990, the Wittgenstein Archives at the University of Bergen (WAB) has tried to meet these challenges through digital editorial philology. In 2000, WAB’s ‘Bergen Electronic Edition’ (BEE) of Wittgenstein’s Nachlass was published by Oxford University Press, and in 2009, 5000 pages from the Nachlass were made freely available (Open Access) on the Web ( http://www.wittgensteinsource.org/, cf. Fig. 1). Since 2001, XML-based text encoding (TEI P5) has been one of several central ingredients through which WAB has worked continuously to improve access to Wittgenstein’s manuscripts.

Figure 1
One key aspect of making Wittgenstein better and widely available is to prepare his works for the Semantic Web (Krüger 2007, Pichler 2010, Erbacher 2011). This, in turn, creates new possibilities for achieving deeper insights into his philosophy and intertextual relations within and between his work(s). A case study for developing an ontology for Wittgenstein’s Tractatus (1922) was published in 2007 (Zöllner-Weber & Pichler 2007). Work with the ontology received a significant boost from the EU-supported DISCOVERY project (2006-09, Smith 2007) and established that the ontology should permit interlinked browsing of philosophical concepts and primary sources. Therefore the Wittgenstein ontology includes both classes for sources and for philosophical concepts as well as properties which relate these classes. The ontology was implemented using OWL. A visualization tool (cf. Fig. 2) which allowed for coordinated use of both classes was created: Philospace/SwickyNotes which is today being further developed towards a collaborative Web based ontology browser and annotation tool (Morbidoni & Nucci 2010).

Figure 2
From its start, the project was faced with a major challenge: Wittgenstein’s work and philosophy are highly dynamic, multi-facetted and in continuous development. One example is Wittgenstein’s concept of ‘meaning’ which in his Tractatus is primarily linked to reference, in the middle period to rules, in the Philosophical Investigations (1953) to usage and practice, and in his last years includes yet other aspects such as ‘the atmosphere of a word.’ Even within the same period and work a term can be used in different and not always consistent ways. Many of Wittgenstein’s works are characterized by presenting a range of different views and approaches (cf. Fig. 3). Wittgenstein commentators often disagree and propose conflicting interpretations. How can such challenges be dealt with in ontologies?

Figure 3
In our view, providing a frame for documenting and explicating different models of the world and its domains belongs to the assets of an ontology – irrespective of these models agreeing with one other or not. Disagreement and alternative proposals can be made visible, sharable and debatable exactly through such an ontology. We regard the implementation of an ontology in the field of philosophical interpretation as an opportunity rather than as a hindrance.

When conceiving the ontology, WAB analysed different dictionaries and indices of Wittgenstein’s work, including Hanjo Glock’s valuable Wittgenstein Dictionary (Glock 1996), and philosophical dictionaries and works of reference more generally. Obviously, WAB needed a bottom-up rather than a top-down approach since its ontology should support the use of specific texts, such as the 5000 pages of Wittgenstein Source. Another important aspect was that the ontology should match and support specific tasks that WAB and its partners, including guest researchers, were involved in, such as teaching a class on Wittgenstein’s Tractatus, or joint research on Wittgenstein’s philosophy of psychology. In this way, the ontology could be tested in research as well as learning environments and developed further in cooperation with Wittgenstein experts.

description of the ontology
On the top level, the Wittgenstein ontology is divided into two branches: Source and Subject (see Fig. 4). The Source class houses primary and secondary sources relevant for Wittgenstein research; the subclass PrimarySource divides further into Wittgenstein sources and external sources (e.g. Augustine’s Confessiones). The lowest subclass of Wittgenstein primary sources is Bemerkung and denotes the Wittgensteinian remark: typically  not longer than half a page and separated from other remarks by one or more blank lines.

The Subject class contains four subclasses: Issue, Perspective, Point and Field. Issue refers to subjects dealt with by Wittgenstein himself or in Wittgenstein research, e.g. ‘elementary proposition’, ‘logical independence’, ‘picture’ and ‘state of affairs’. They denote the subjects which one would typically expect to be included in the ‘subject index’ of a comprehensive study of Wittgenstein’s philosophy. Point is a specific category developed at WAB: it refers to the point made or confirmed by an individual Wittgensteinian remark and typically contains an entire statement or a question like ‘The elementary proposition is a picture of a state of affairs’.  Via the Source properties discussesIssue and hasPoint instances of Point can be interlinked with instances of Issue.

Figure 4
In order to provide for different modelling of the relations a Wittgensteinian subject can have, as well as to serve different user needs, WAB introduced the class Perspective. This class contains subclasses which each represent a specific grouping or filtering of the instances of Issue and Point. As an example the following may serve: Logical analysis (which is an instance of Issue) is central to the method of the philosophy from the perspective of the Tractatus, while it is not from the perspective of the Investigations. A course on the Tractatus will draw positive attention to that term, while a course on the Investigations may not even have it in its list of important subjects or start from the following instance of Point: ‘Logical analysis is not central to philosophy’. One and the same instance of Issue can enter different configurations, and even configurations which contrast with each other. For example, the subjects ‘elementary proposition’ and ‘logical independence’ are in the Tractatus (1922) and “Some Remarks on Logical Form” (SRLF, 1929) combined to configurations contrasting with each other. The first work claims: ‘Elementary propositions are logically independent from each other’, while the later denies this. The Tractatus perspective will include the claim ‘Elementary propositions are logically independent from each other’, while the later work’s perspective will include a negation (property deniesPoint) of this claim or the explicit claim: ‘Elementary propositions are not logically independent from each other’ (see Fig. 3).

In addition, the class Field was created as suggested by Grenon & Smith 2011. This field connects the Wittgenstein domain with other domains in philosophy and research more generally, e.g. epistemology or aesthetics. Users not familiar with Wittgenstein at all can enter Wittgenstein research with fields and debates from this class as their starting points. Each instance of Issue can be affiliated with one or more such field.

The name of an Issue instance consists of a German-English compound; this enables both German and English speakers to work more smoothly on the ontology, and in addition provides welcome means for precisely disambiguating and identifying the domain’s instances. Users browse the ontology with a specific language set as preference: each instance can, via rdfs:label, in principle be identified and rendered in all languages. Currently, the ontology contains about 700 Issue instances which are rendered in German, English and Danish. Renderings in Norwegian, French and Finnish are being added. WAB’s vision is that users of the ontology shall as much as possible be enabled to browse and access the Wittgenstein ontology in a language of their preference. The ontology is intended for use in the research and learning environments of different languages.

Properties are key in WAB’s ontology: they provide the relations which allow for interlinked browsing of the ontology and Wittgenstein primary sources. Properties of Bemerkung which is the most important instance of Source, include: isPartOfSource, hasAuthor, hasDifferentVersion, refersToPerson, refersToText, discussesIssue, hasPoint, deniesPoint a.o. Properties of an Issue instance can be: assertsPerspective, isRelatedToIssue, isRelevantForField, a.o. Each Bemerkung of Wittgenstein’s Nachlass shall eventually be associated by discussesIssue to at least one instance of Issue, but also take on Point properties such as hasPoint, directing to the class Point. Thereby, a scholar searching for discussions of certain issues will be steered to certain remarks, and vice versa looking at a specific remark one’s attention will be drawn also to specific issues or points.

summary
WAB’s Wittgenstein ontology is still in its infancy, especially with regard to its Subject branch. WAB naturally cannot achieve its goal of a comprehensive Wittgenstein ontology alone: while the first version of the ontology and its overall structure were developed in the frame of the DISCOVERY project by WAB staff, it has since 2010 been strengthened by international cooperation (see http://wab.uib.no/wab_philospace.page). A key challenge in developing this ontology was to reflect Wittgenstein’s dynamic and multi-facetted work, but also Wittgenstein research’s different interpretations of this work. This was dealt with by introducing among others the class Perspective, allowing for concurring models in and about Wittgenstein’s work while maintaining a technically valid ontology. The instances of Issue are the only stable entities of the Wittgenstein subject domain; through the subclasses of Perspective they can be combined and filtered in different ways which can even contradict each other. The ontology is related to Wittgenstein primary sources via properties, enabling fast and easy studying of Wittgenstein within a common platform. In this way, research and learning about Wittgenstein can be significantly enhanced.

references
Erbacher, C. (2011). Unser Denken bleibt gefragt: Web 3.0 und Wittgensteins Nachlass. In S. Windholz and W. Feigl (eds.), Wissenschaftstheorie, Sprachkritik und Wittgenstein. Heusenstamm: ontos, pp. 135-146.

Glock, H. (1996). A Wittgenstein dictionary. Oxford: Blackwell.

Grenon, P., and B. (2011). Foundations of an ontology of philosophy.Synthese 182(2): 185-204.

Huitfeldt, C. (1994). Toward a Machine-Readable Version of Wittgenstein’s Nachlaß. Beihefte zu editio 6: 37-43.

Krüger, H. W. (2007). Wittgenstein registrieren. In Papers of the 30th International Ludwig Wittgenstein-Symposium. Kirchberg a.W.: ALWS, pp. 119-121.

Morbidoni, C., and  M. Nucci (2010). SwickyNotes user guide. http://www.swickynotes.org/docs/SWickyNotesStartingGuide.pdf.

Pichler, A. (2010). Towards the New Bergen Electronic Edition. In N. Venturinha (ed.), Wittgenstein After His Nachlass. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan pp.157-172.

Smith, D. C. P. (2007). Re-Discovering Wittgenstein. In: Papers of the 30th International Ludwig Wittgenstein-Symposium. Kirchberg a.W.: ALWS, pp. 208-210.

Wittgenstein, L. (1922). Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. London: Kegan Paul.

Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical Investigations. Oxford: Blackwell.

Zöllner-Weber, A., and A. Pichler (2007). Utilizing OWL for Wittgenstein’s Tractatus. In: Papers of the 30th International Ludwig Wittgenstein-Symposium. Kirchberg a.W.: ALWS, pp.248-250.","txt","2","",""
"1518","13","Towards a bibliographic model of illustrations in the early modern illustrated book","1","Towards a bibliographic model of illustrations in the early modern illustrated book
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Bradley, John, Department of Digital Humanities, King’s College London, UK, john.bradley@kcl.ac.uk
Pigney, Stephen, Goldsmith’s College, London, UK, s.pigney@gold.ac.uk
James Knapp, in his book Illustrating the Past in Early Modern England (Knapp 2003) points out that the History of the Book research has been ‘re-evaluating the relation of books to texts’ (p 9). However, he then goes on to say that an ‘overwhelmingly large amount of visual material’ could be found ‘on the pages of early modern English books’ (p 37), and that these books tell a complex story that interconnects books not only with their texts but with their illustrations too.  In this paper we will take up Knapp’s observation about visual material in books and will present a bibliographic conceptual model of the relationship of images, texts, and their makers that could support the enhancement of our understanding of the creation of books from the early modern period.

We come by an interest in this topic honestly, since we were collaborators, with the project’s Principal Investigator Professor Michael Hunter (Birkbeck) on a project called British Printed Images until 1700 (BPI1700) that has resulted in what the front page of its website calls ‘a database of thousands of prints and book illustrations from early modern Britain in fully-searchable form’. At present, bpi1700’s materials come from the extensive collection of primarily single-sheet prints held by the British Museum’s Department of Prints and Drawings and the Victoria and Albert Museum. Clearly, although the focus of bpi1700 has been on single-sheet prints up to now, the project is anxious to progress into the question of illustrations in printed books.

To understand the scale of such an undertaking, it is useful to realise that many early printed books contained illustrations. James Knapp claims that English printers in the mid 16th century commonly used many illustrations for books on historical subjects (Knapp 2003: 2). Luborsky and Imgram catalogued more than 5,000 woodcuts and engravings in English books printed between 1536 and 1603 alone, and a further study published by bpi1700 reveals thousands more for the period 1604-1640.  There is plenty of material to work with. However, the numbers tell only a part of the story: what is the nature of the interaction between an intellectual study of the illustrations as prints with the intellectual study of the books as books, so that their parallel, but interconnected, histories can be more clearly recognised?

To help us explore these issues from a bibliographic perspective, we took up the approach described in the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR) (Tillet 2004) to identifying the nature of the published illustrations and the books themselves. FRBR was developed primarily to clarify the bibliographic analysis of modern printed books, and is developed out of four different senses in which the word ‘book’ can be used. The base sense of book, as a physical item that takes up space in a library, is called an ‘item’. A particular publication is called a ‘manifestation’, and roughly corresponds to an edition in modern publishing. FRBR identifies a higher level of structure in its entity ‘expression’, which, as Tillett describes it, organises a particular text by a specific language or media of delivery. Finally, the fourth and top level of abstraction is the ‘work’, the ‘conceptual content that underlies all the linguistic versions’, and represents things like the story being told, or the ideas in the author’s head (Tillett 2004: 3).

Although bpi1700 was about printed images rather than modern printed books, FRBR had already proven to be useful in our growing understanding of the nature of prints. Bpi1700’s ‘impressions’ were the actual paper objects held by the museums, and represented by digital surrogates in bpi1700, and these seemed to be modelled best by FRBR’s ‘item’. Metadata about them were provided for bpi1700 by our partner museums. Of course, many impressions would be printed from a single plate that had been created by the print maker. Thus, among all the holdings in the museums it was not unusual for the same print to turn up more than once. Out of this realisation came the concept of bpi1700’s ‘work’ that fit FRBR’s ‘work’ category: a bpi1700 work represented a single plate or woodcut and captured the creative act of the print maker when she or he created it. Finally, in early modern times a plate was often modified over time, and these modifications would then be witnessed in surviving prints. A print of Charles I might first show him as a boy, but another impression from what was manifestly the same plate would show him as a young man instead. Between the production of these two impressions, the image of the king on the plate had been modified. Bpi1700 called each of these surviving versions of the plate a ‘state’ (using terminology already in use by print cataloguers), and concluded that this most closely corresponded to FRBR’s ‘manifestation’ category.

Early Modern printed books (in the time of the hand-press), on the other hand, although apparently closer in nature to what FRBR was developed for than print images might be, did not turn out to be entirely aligned to modern print practice for which FRBR had been designed. Works and editions were much more fluid than they are today and early modern books have therefore presented a challenge to the conventional cataloguing rules developed to handle more modern material (see the discussion of this in the context of ‘rare books’ in Moriarty 2004). We chose to examine the British Library’s English Short Title Catalogue (ESTC 2011) for information about our books. It operates at two levels. Its top level consists of records that correspond broadly to book printings – this, in turn, maps broadly to FRBR’s ‘manifestation’ category, since Moriarty (Moriarty 2004: 40) reminds us that in the hand-press era a reprinting of a book was really often like a new edition because it required the hand re-assembly of the type to print the pages again. Within each printing entry ESTC stores information about particular copies (which broadly correspond to FRBR’s ‘Items’) which are grouped by holding institution. There is no explicit structural object corresponding to FRBR’s ‘Work’ or ‘Expression’ in ESTC, although one can use the search forms provide to filter data by author and title, which conceptually allows for materials to be selected by something similar to FRBR’s Work.

So, if we consider both the books’ texts and their illustrations as both having an intellectual history that interests us, we have, then, two parallel and interconnected FRBR hierarchies in operation in early modern printed books. The issue is made more interesting by the fact that in the early modern period plates and/or woodcuts for illustrations were owned by printers and were often reused in more than one book. So, the same illustration might appear accompanying two completely different texts. Although a printer might decide to reprint a book, he or she could at the same time decide to change the illustrations that appeared in it to, say, increase the market for it. Furthermore, illustrations from plates had to be printed by a process separate from that used for the text, and these illustrations had to be inserted into the text pages by hand – a process subject to variability and error. Finally, because book binding was often arranged by the book buyer to be applied after she or he purchased the printed pages, book buyers often added illustrations they liked into printed books – a process called extra-illustration and described in more detail in the Folger library’s online exhibition ‘Extending the Book’ (2010). Thus, a bibliographic model that accommodates both the text and the illustrations – that represents the intellectual history of these two intertwined objects needs to accommodate a complex set of reasons why a set of illustrations (with their creative history) appears with the text of a particular book (with its separate history too).

In our presentation, we will examine some examples of illustrations in early modern books and show how this intertwining operated in practice. We believe that the parallel and intertwined existence of books and illustrations reveals a new and interesting story in the history of the book. We will present our model that represents the parallel FRBR-like nature of the images and the book with their complex web of possible interconnections, and we will discuss some of the possible significance of this for those interested in exploring the role of illustration in these early printed volumes.

(This paper is based on a presentation given by the authors at the Digital Humanities Day at Sheffield Hallam University on 13 December 2010, but will be extended beyond what was presented there with a more detailed presentation of the model for the data, as is suitable for a DH audience.)

references
Bbi1700. British Printed Images before 1700. Online at http://www.bpi1700.org.uk

ESTC (2011). English Short Title Catalogue. British Library. Online at http://estc.bl.uk/

Folger Shakespeare Library (2010). Extending the Book: The Art of Extra-Illustration. An exhibition January 28-May 25, 2010. Online version available at http://www.folger.edu/template.cfm?cid=3346

Knapp, J. A. (2003). Illustrating the Past in Early Modern England: the representation of History in Printed Books. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing.  

Luborsky, R., and E. Ingram (1998). Guide to English Illustrated Books 1536-1603. Tempe, AZ: MRTS.

Moriarty, K. S. (2004). Descriptive Cataloging of Rare Materials (Books) and Its Predecessors: A History of Rare Book Cataloging Practice in the United States. A Master’s paper for the M.S. in L.S. degree. November, 2004. 100 pages. Advisor: Jerry D. Saye.

Tillett, B. (2004). FRBR? A Conceptual Model for the Bibliographic Universe. Washington: Library of Congress Cataloguing Distribution Service. Online at http://www.loc.gov/cds/downloads/FRBR.PDF","txt","2","",""
"1519","13","Tracing the history of Noh texts by mathematical methods. Validitating the application of phylogenetic methods to Noh texts","1","Tracing the history of Noh texts by mathematical methods. Validitating the application of phylogenetic methods to Noh texts
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Iwata, Yoshimi, Doshisha University, Japan, sakunoshippo@gmail.com
introduction
Noh is a classical Japanese stage art consisting of singing and dancing with musical accompaniment. The song lyrics have been documented and are known as Noh texts. It is generally accepted that there are 240 songs, which are still performed today. However, some academic scholars claim that there are more than 500 Noh texts in existence. The texts take on different forms depending on the Noh school and the era in which they were edited.

Very little analyses have been carried out on Noh texts by applying mathematical methods. Therefore, in previous studies, Noh text was analyzed by identifying the authors of each Noh play using mathematical methods. This study employed mathematical and statistical methods to analyze 21 songs including worrier play category from Noh plays. Specific usage within lexical categories (auxiliary verb, adjective) was identified. As in Noh play, there are manuscripts which differ by the Noh school and the era being edited, the manuscripts under study need to be chosen adequately. Therefore, it is necessary to trace the history of each Noh text using phylogenetic analysis. At the same time, one has to be aware of the differences between engineering and literary approaches.

purpose of research
The purpose of this research is to establish a new methodology in Noh field by employing mathemathecal and stylometric techniques. First, data is collected from various research materials and a database is constructed that facilitates preliminary analyses to verify items in the collected data or to draw a complete map for further studies. Practical analyses directly connected to interpretations are based on the preliminary analyses. Although, in Japan, these processes are common in both engineering and literary approaches, attitudes to analyses are completely different. In engineering approaches, final conclusions are derived from practical analyses. In contrast, in literary approaches, analyses and interpretations are essentially synonymous and interpretive understanding is given more importance than scientifically based analyses. Therefore the discussions with other fields, such as information science, are required in each research process. Additionally, linguistic and cultural barriers make foreign researchers to spend a lot of time and care on understanding the research materials. Standing on this point, versatile methodology not to depend on researchers’ skills of language is required. Normalized Compression Distance (NCD) method, the author focused on in this paper, calculates similarity of texts objects by using compression algorithm without any knowledge about the research materials.

previous researches
Two previous research applied biological methodologies to cultural phenomena.

A. Split decomposition, Spectronet

Tamaki Yano (2005)

Tamaki Yano applied Phylogenetic methods to collections of traditional Japanese ‘waka’ poems edited in 1215 [1]. The term ‘waka’ is a form of poem handed down from ancient times in Japan. The research materials had some versions that departed from the original, and the research aimed to identify an archetype for the differing collections. In this study, the genealogy of each collection is visualized by neighbor-net, a distance-based method for constructing phylogenetic networks that is based on the neighbor-joining algorithm of Saitou and Nei [2].

B. Database and Semantic Analysis for Fine Arts Based on Researchers’ Experience –The Case of ‘A Hundred Beauties’ Drawn by YAMAGUCHI SOKEN

Yuka Iemura, Yu Fujimoto (2010)

In Iemura and Fujimoto’s research, NCD was used to calculate the similarity distance because of its simplicity. Suppose, for instance, there are two files named ‘x’ and ‘y,’ C(xy) is the compressed size for the concatenation of files ‘x’ and ‘y.’ C(x) denotes the compressed size of ‘x’ and C(y) denotes that of ‘y.’ Fujimoto and Iemura attempted to apply this method to XML documents and the results were visualized using neighbor-net. They concluded that the results properly reflected differences between each XML document [3].


 

analysis
This study examined Tadanori (忠度), one of the 240 existing songs. Tadanori is one of the oldest accessible manuscripts, and anyone can browse the full version of the photocopied manuscript. In addition, this masterpiece is popular even now, and thus, there is a considerable relevant material that makes it possible to trace the history of the Noh texts (Table 1). Eleven different Tadanori manuscripts were transcribed as data files. The size column in Table 1 shows the byte size of the manuscripts.

 



Table 1: Node names and manuscripts
A. NCD

To create text files for NCD, all kanjis were converted to Japanese hiragana using Visual Basic for Applications (VBA).

NCD was calculated by Hyakka-One, which is a NCD calculating software developed by Fujimoto. The software currently supports zip, gzip, and bzip algorithms. General zip compression was used in this study. Although the original advocates of NCD recommend the quartet method for clustering, neighbor-net was used to visualize the genealogy of Noh-hon. The distance matrix calculated by Hyakka-One was exported to phylogenetic tree software, Splits Tree4, and visualized as a phylogenetic network called a neighbor-net. The neighbor-net derived from the NCD matrix is presented in Figure1.

B. Phylogenetic approach

The phylogenetic approach involves two methods. The first is a method for detecting differences between each group of phrases and calculating distances for a phylogenetic tree. The second, which is used to verify the results of the NCDs, is based on the maximum parsimony method. PAUP*4.0 software was used for this verification in this study. PAUP* is commonly used in cladistics or phylogenetics. To apply the second method, data cleaning is required to conflate each Noh text and extract the different phrases, make groups of phrases, and replace the groups with single letters. The process of separating Noh texts into phrases is not required by the NCD method. The methods provide different results based on differences between phrases. PAUP* returned 841 results. Although the lengths of edges are shorter than the NCD results, they are similar. These result were integrated using super-network and the integrated results were displayed using Splits Tree4.

results
Three results were obtained by the distance method by SplitsTree4 (Figure 2), the Super-Network by the maximum parsimony trees (Figure 3), and the distance method by NCD  (Figure 1). In all three results, the kp and kz groups are apparently separated. This means the texts can be categorized according to schools. With regard to hs_1979, all three networks show that hs_1979 is closer to the kz group. Related to the forms of performance, it is generally accepted in the Noh community that the hs group and the kz group are part of the same group, while kp belongs to other groups that were not included in this study. Therefore, these three results support the generally accepted ideas. Although NCD tends to be criticized because of the difficulty involved in verifying the results, in this study, the NCD approach gives enough results on grouping and can be applied to preliminary analysis. The advantage of NCD is the simplicity of its data cleaning process. Because of this simplicity, foreign researchers who are not fully familiar with the Japanese language or researchers of literature and have a limited knowledge of engineering can handle the data. The other two methods require familiarity with both Japanese and engineering. NCD has a disadvantage for the practical analysis stage. Because NCD depends on a complex compression algorithm, it is difficult to perform verification using the original texts.

conclusion
The NCD approach has been successfully applied to Noh research. In this initial study, the results from the NCD method were not significantly different from the other two common methods, and it is reasonable to conclude that the NCD method can support traditional Noh studies equally as well as the other two methods. In future research, the author will attempt to apply NCD to other Noh plays and determine if it is valid to use the method for preliminary analysis. It is acknowledged that it will be necessary to develop database schemas that can potentially generate text plans for calculating NCD.

Figure 1
Figure 1: Neighbor-net for texts of Tadanori derived from NCD distance

Figure 2
Figure 2: Neighbor-net for texts of Tadanori derived from standard distance method

 

Figure 3

Figure 3: Super-network for texts of Tadanori derived from the maximum parsimony method (PAUP*)

 

references
Yano, T. (2005). Split decomposition, Spectronet. Japan. The Special Interest Group Notes of IPSJ SIG Computers and the Humanities, pp. 33-40.

Saitou, N., and M. Nei (1987). The neighbor-joining method: a new method for reconstructing phylogenetic trees. Molecular Biology and Evolution 4: 406-425.

Iemura, Y., and Y. Fujimoto (2010). Database and Semantic Analysis for Fine Arts Based on Researchers’ Experience – The Case of ‘A Hundred Beauties’ Drawn by YAMAGUCHI SOKEN. Proceedings of Third Japan Art Documentation Society, pp. 12-15.

Omote, A. (1965). The Study of Kozanbunkobon – the part of Utaibon –. Tokyo: Wanya Bookstore.

Yokomichi, M., and A. Omote (1960). Youkyokusyu 1 & 2 (Tokyo: Iwanami Bookstore).","txt","2","",""
"1520","13","Translation Arrays: Exploring Cultural Heritage Texts Across Languages","1","Translation Arrays: Exploring Cultural Heritage Texts Across Languages
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Cheesman, Tom, Swansea University, UK, t.cheesman@swansea.ac.uk
Thiel, Stephan, Fachhochschule Potsdam, Germany, mail@stephanthiel.com
Flanagan, Kevin, Swansea University, UK, K.FLANAGAN.667644@swansea.ac.uk
Zhao, Geng, Swansea University, UK, cszg@swansea.ac.uk
Ehrmann, Alison, Swansea University, UK, alison.ehrmann@t-online.de
Laramee, Robert S., Swansea University, UK, R.S.Laramee@swansea.ac.uk
Hope, Jonathan, University of Strathclyde, UK, jonathan.r.hope@strath.ac.uk
Berry, David M., Swansea University, UK, d.m.berry@swansea.ac.uk
Astronomers use telescope arrays to create high-resolution images of distant objects. In a Translation Array, by aligning multiple divergent translations (target texts) we can produce new images of the historical and contemporary dynamics of translating cultures, and also of the originals (source texts), by showing how these are refracted through translators’ varying interpretations.

Text variation – multiple documentary and curatorial witnesses – is a familiar challenge in digital edition-making (Price 2006; Schmidt & Colomb 2009). But in DH work so far, the ‘story’ which is told about a text or oeuvre is normally confined to its original language. (An exception is Rybicki 2003, 2006; and cf. Altintas et al. (2007) for a historical linguistics application of a ‘time separated’ parallel translation corpus.) In fact, the stories of ‘cultural heritage texts’ (Schmidt 2010) are normally multilingual and multicultural. Can we make it practically possible (and preferably enjoyable as well as informative) to explore, share, and debate the rich knowledge of texts and the world that is encoded in multiple translations?

The fact that multiple translations have remained, until now, an unsuspected resource for DH comes as no surprise from the perspective of Critical Translation Studies (CTS). The Scandals of Translation and The Translator’s Invisibility are two titles by the doyen of the field, Venuti (1995, 1998). Few outside it appreciate the scale of divergence, of multiple kinds, caused by multiple factors, which is normal among multiple translations. The causes of divergence include varying translator competence and individual creativity, framed within target-context-specific norms: linguistic, cultural, political, legal, and ideological constraints and compulsions, which all affect the acts and outputs of translation or retranslation (Gürcaglar 2009). Multiple translations are therefore a very rich resource for transcultural study. They are tailor-made for digital approaches, because each one is implicitly aligned with each other one, and with the original – at least partially.

A Translation Array is a database (a multiple translation text corpus with rich metadata including rich segmental alignments to a source text) with a browser-based interface. It exploits existing and custom-built visualization tools for multi-scale viewing, exploration and creative interaction. Arrays will capture user generated content – both data (texts, text corpora) and metadata: catalogue information, annotations, commentaries, interpretations, algorithmic analyses, micro-alignments, and interlingual re- or back-translations. Data and metadata can be read at various scales. By supporting distant readings (à la Moretti 2005), algorithmic readings (Ramsay 2007; Hope & Witmore 2010), and close, critical and contextual readings, Translation Arrays can be powerful instruments for humanities researchers in diverse fields.

Multiply translated texts include the sacred scriptures of all religions, as well as ancient and modern literature and philosophy, political and historical texts, and so forth. Indeed, (re)translation corpora are coterminous with recorded cultural history. Beyond research applications, therefore, Translation Arrays can become valuable tools for presenting Digital Humanists’ work to wider audiences in beguiling, interactive ways, and encouraging creative interaction with cultural heritage, across global cultural and linguistic barriers. They will be welcome in worldwide classrooms – especially multilingual and cross-culturally networked classrooms. Game-like and creative engagement with cultural heritage material is a key feature of translation itself. This will be facilitated by Array interfaces, alongside more ‘serious’ modes of engagement. Artists and writers will find this type of resource irresistible. In short, Translation Arrays may become a signature Digital Humanities format, coupling screen-based exploration and interaction with truly global, multilingual and multicultural content – content which has (by definition) high international recognition value.

We will present at DH 2012 our work in progress towards building a prototype. We have an experimental corpus of over 50 different German translations of Shakespeare’s Othello, 1766-2006, plus samples from and metadata about hundreds of other translations of the play, in (so far) over 40 languages, crowd-sourced at www.delightedbeauty.org. This site demonstrates the existence of worldwide communities interested in engaging with this type of work. As well as documenting existing translations, some users are also creating their own, ad hoc translations. The site also carries outputs of our project so far, such as: a survey of text visualisation tools, and prototype corpus overview and comparison tools (Geng et al. 2011a, 2011b); discursive text sample analyses (Cheesman 2011, 2012); a Web Science presentation (Wilson et al. 2011); and a paper on using stylometrics to sort multiple translation segments by ‘distinctiveness’, thereby also enabling a source text to be read in a new way, through its translations’ variability (Cheesman et al. 2012).

By summer 2012 we aim to demonstrate a working Array prototype, with an interface designed by Stephan Thiel (see Thiel 2009 for related work). It will deploy Shakespeare’s Othello and c. 20 German translations, which each reflect cultural-historical and idiosyncratic differences, and which collectively re-interpret the original text in ways which, within the Array interface, can even excite the interest of users who know no German.

The technical and conceptual challenges are fascinating. What is a translation? What is a good or interesting translation? What makes some translations last? Why do people keep retranslating the same texts? Are they in fact ‘the same’ texts? What do terms in Translation Theory like ‘equivalence’, ‘adequacy’ or ‘appropriateness’ mean in practice? How can machine- and user-generated ‘back-translation’ best be deployed in an Array?

From a Critical Translation Studies perspective, our ‘source-text-centric’ approach is questionable. The most interesting translations for CTS are often scarcely source-focused (i.e. not very ‘faithful’, ‘literal’, ‘close’, even ‘equivalent’). Often, this means that they cannot easily be aligned with the source. Where diverse ‘translations’, ‘adaptations’, ‘versions’, and ‘rewritings’ shade into texts which are more loosely ‘inspired by’ or ‘answer back to’ source texts and previous reworkings of them, then our approach arguably reaches limits of vaildity. On the other hand, by juxtaposing multiple translations, and by reviving the cultural memory of obscure ones, a Translation Array creates a new and rich context in which radically ‘unfaithful’ ‘un-translations’, too, can be read and interpreted in new ways.

Funding

This work was supported in Feb-July 2011 by Swansea University, College of Arts and Humanities, Research Innovation Fund. The work is currently (Feb-Sept 2012) supported by the UK’s Arts and Humanities Research Council, Digital Transformations Research Development Fund [AH/J012483/1]. The AHRC-funded team consists of: Principal Investigator, Dr Tom Cheesman (Swansea U); Co-Investigators, Dr Robert S. Laramee (Swansea U) and Dr Jonathan Hope (U Strathclyde); Research Assistant, Kevin Flanagan (Swansea U); Design Consultant, Stephan Thiel (FH Potsdam / Studio Nand, Berlin).

references
Altintas, K., et al. (2007). Language Change Quantification Using Time-separated Parallel Translations. Literary and Linguistic Computing 22(4): 375-93.

Cheesman, T. (2011). Thirty Times More Fair Than Black: Shakespeare Retranslation as Political Restatement. Angermion 4: 1-51.

Cheesman, T. (2012; forthcoming).  ”Far More Fair Than Black”: Mutations of a Difficult Couplet. In B. Smith and K. Rowe (eds), Cambridge World Shakespeare Encyclopaedia, vol. 2: The World’s Shakespeare. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.

Cheesman, T., and the Version Variation Visualization Team (2012; forthcoming). Translation Sorting: Eddy and Viv in Translation Arrays. In B. Wiggin (ed.), Un/Translatables. Evanstone: Northwestern UP.

Geng, Z., T. Cheesman, D. M. Berry, A. Ehrmann, R. S. Laramee, and A. J. Rothwell (2011a). Visualizing Translation Variation of Othello: A Survey of Text Visualization and Analysis Tools. http://cs.swan.ac.uk/~cszg/text/textSurvey.pdf (accessed February 29, 2012).

Geng, Z., T. Cheesman, D. M. Berry, A.Ehrmann, R. S. Laramee, and A. J. Rothwell, .  (2011b). Visualizing Translation Variation: Shakespeare’s Othello. In Bebis, G. et al. (eds.), Advances in Visual Computing: 7th International Symposium, ISVC 2011, Part I, LNCS 6938, pp. 657–667. http://www.cs.swan.ac.uk/~cszg/text/isvc.pdf (accessed February 29, 2012).

Gürcaglar, S. T. (2009). Retranslation. In  M. Baker and G. Saldanha (eds.), Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. Abingdon and New York: Routledge, pp. 232-36.

Hope, J., and M. Witmore (2010). “The Hundredth Psalm to the Tune of ‘Green Sleeves”’: Digital Approaches to Shakespeare’s Language of Genre. Shakespeare Quarterly 61(3): 357-90.

Moretti, F. (2005). Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History. London: Verso.

Price, K. M. (2008). Electronic Scholarly Editions. In Schreibman, S. and Siemens, R. (eds.),  A Companion to Digital Literary Studies. Oxford: Blackwell. www.digitalhumanities.org/companionDLS/ (accessed February 29, 2012).

Ramsay, S. (2007). Algorithmic Criticism. In S. Schreibman, and R. Siemens (eds.), A Companion to Digital Literary Studies. Oxford: Blackwell. www.digitalhumanities.org/companionDLS/ (accessed February 29, 2012).

Rybicki, J. (2003). Original Characters. http://www.cyf-kr.edu.pl/~strybick/original_characters.htm” (accessed February 29, 2012).

Rybicki, J.  (2006). Burrowing into Translation: Character Idiolects in Henryk Sienkiewicz’s Trilogy and its Two English Translations. Literary and Linguistic Computing 21(1): 91-103.

Schmidt, D. (2010). The Inadequacy of Embedded Markup for Cultural Heritage Texts. Literary and Linguist Computing 25(3): 337-56.

Schmidt, D., and R. Colomb (2009). A Data Structure for Representing Multi-version Texts Online. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/10715819 International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 67/(6): 497-514.

Thiel, S. (2009). Understanding Shakespeare. www.understanding-shakespeare.com (accessed February 29, 2012).

Venuti, L. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation. London: Routledge.

Venuti, L.  (1998), The Scandals of Translation: Towards an Ethics of Difference. London: Routledge.

Wilson, M. L., Z. Geng, R. S. Laramee, T. Cheesman, A. J. Rothwell, D. M. Berry, and A. Ehrmann (2011). Studying Variations in Culture and Literature: Visualizing Translation Variations in Shakespeare’s Othello. Poster paper at the ACM Web Science 2011 Conference, Koblenz, Germany, 14-17 June 2011. Poster attached to www.delightedbeauty.org Outputs.","txt","2","",""
"1521","13","Trees of Texts - Models and methods for an updated theory of medieval text stemmatology","1","Trees of Texts – Models and methods for an updated theory of medieval text stemmatology
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Andrews, Tara Lee, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium, tara.andrews@arts.kuleuven.be
Macé, Caroline, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium, caroline.mace@arts.kuleuven.be
The construction of a stemma codicum from the manuscript witnesses to a given text remains a somewhat divisive issue in philology. To a classical philologist, it is a necessary first step toward creating a critical edition of the text;1 to a scholar who adheres to the principles of new philology, the assumptions inherent in the construction of a stemma are so fundamentally unsound that the exercise is pointless.2

The advent of digital philology demands a fresh look at the practice of stemmatology; indeed there has been a great deal of work in the past two decades on the subject, and in particular on the applicability of similar work from the field of evolutionary biology on the reconstruction of phylogenetic relationships between species.Among the numerous works on this subject are: 3 More recent work has begun to overcome the limitations of these techniques when applied to manuscript texts, such as the biological assumption that no extant species is descended from another, or the assumption that any ancestor species has precisely two descendants, or the converse assumption that any descendant species has precisely one ancestor.4

Despite this considerable methodological progress, the fundamental assumptions at the core of stemmatology have yet to be formalised, or even seriously questioned. The purpose of this paper is to revisit these assumptions and simplifications; to propose a model for the representation of texts in all their variations that is tractable to computational analysis; to set forth a method for the evaluation of stemma hypotheses with reference to text variants, and vice versa; and to discuss the means by which we can provide the field of stemmatology with a formal underpinning appropriate for the abilities that modern computational methods now provide us to handle vast quantities of data.

modelling a text tradition
The first step to computational analysis of any text tradition is to model it programmatically. This act of object modelling is distinct from, and orthogonal to, text encoding – the component texts may reach us in a variety of forms, including TEI XML and its critical apparatus module, CSV-format alignment tables, a base text and a list of variants exported from a word processor, or even individual transcriptions that remain to be collated. All of these must be parsed into a uniform computational object model for further programmatic analysis.

Our model is relatively simple, taking into account only those features of the text that are computationally useful for our purposes. We define a tradition as the union of all the versions of a text that exist, represented by its witnesses. A collation is the heart of the tradition, representing in a unified way the entire text with all its known variations. We have adapted the variant graph model proposed by Schmidt and Colomb5 for this purpose. Whereas the Schmidt/Colomb model is a single graph, where readings are represented along edges, ours is a pair of graphs, in which readings are represented by vertices. The set of vertices is identical in both graphs; in the ‘sequence’ graph, the witnesses themselves are represented as a set of paths. Each witness path is directed and acyclic, taking a route through the reading vertices from beginning to end, according to the order of its text. The witness path may branch, if for example the text contains corrections by the original scribe(s) or by later hands; the branches are labeled appropriately. If transpositions are present, the graph as a whole is not directed and acyclic (DAG); we have therefore found it most useful to represent transposed readings as separate vertices, linked through a relationship as described below. A DAG may then be trivially transformed into an alignment table, with transpositions handled either as separate rows in the table or as variant characters within the same row.

Figure 1Figure 1: A portion of a variant graph, with directed witness paths and undirected relationships
The second graph concerns relationships between readings, or types of variation that occur within the text. We may specify that two different readings are orthographic or syntactic variants of the same root word, or that they have some semantic relationship to each other. We may also specify transpositions in this way. The result is an unconnected and undirected graph that adds extra information to the sequence graph without compromising its properties. The relationship information allows association and regularization of reading data, producing thereby more exact versions of alignment tables for our statistical procedures.

modelling a stemma hypothesis
The goal of our research is to arrive at an empirical model of medieval text transmission, and set forth a formalized means of deducing copying relationships between texts. As such, we have two tasks before us. We must be able to evaluate a stemma hypothesis according to the variation present in a text tradition, and we must be able to evaluate variants in a tradition according to a given stemma hypothesis.

The problem becomes computationally tractable once we realize that a stemma hypothesis is also a DAG. No matter the complexity of the stemma, no matter the degree of ‘horizontal transmission’, a stemma can be represented as a connected and rooted DAG, where each extant or hypothesized manuscript is a vertex, and each edge describes a source relationship from one manuscript to another. (In our model, any stemma has a single archetype; where multiple archetypes exist in a text tradition, we must either consider a common theoretical origin for these archetypes, or speak of multiple stemmata.)

Figure 2Figure 2: An arbitrarily complex stemma, represented as a DAG
In cooperation with the Knowledge Representation and Reasoning group within the KU Leuven Computer Science faculty,6 we have developed a method for evaluating sets of variants against a stemma hypothesis of arbitrary complexity, testing whether any particular set of variants aligns with the stemma hypothesis, and measuring the relative stability of particular readings (defined in terms of how often they are copied vs. how often they are altered). In conjunction with the variant graphs of our text model, we are also able programmatically to draw some empirical conclusions about the relationships between readings as they are altered within the text.

an empirical approach to text variation
The idea of distinguishing ‘text-genealogical’ variants from the coincidental sort is not new;7 with the exception of U. Schmid (2004), however, none of the approaches taken have been empirical, in accordance with text relationships known from outside the variant tables. Given the means to quickly evaluate a stemma in detail according to the variants present in the text, distinguishing those variants that follow the stemma from those that do not, we should now easily be able to arrive at an empirical classification of genealogically ‘significant’ and ‘insignificant’ variants. This threatens to create a problem of circular logic: how to retrieve the genealogical variants in the real world? We build hypotheses on the basis of variation; we accept or reject variants as ‘genealogical’ based on the hypothesis. How do we break the cycle?8

We may adopt two approaches to anchor our methods in external results. First we test our methods on artificial traditions that have been created for the testing of stemmatological methods. These traditions are convenient in that the true stemmata are known, but they cannot reflect the true conditions under which medieval texts were copied. Thus we must also use ‘real’ text traditions, whose true stemmata are not fully known; in many medieval traditions, however, some paratextual information (e.g. colophon notations, physical damage or other physical characteristics of the texts) survives and can be used to establish or verify copying relationships. In our presentation we will discuss the results obtained on three artificial traditions, and three real medieval traditions with credible stemma hypotheses derived from external characteristics.

conclusion
When examining a medieval tradition, we can rarely be certain what the scribe has copied in a text, and what has changed coincidentally or independently. To date, stemmatic reasoning has relied on the question of whether the scholar finds it likely that a given variant was preserved in copies. Given the models and methods for analysis proposed herein, we have an opportunity to remove this limitation of ‘assumed likelihood’ and take all the evidence of a text into account, to build a statistical model independent of the constraints of evolutionary biology, using statistical probability rather than scholarly instinct alone.

references
Blockeel, H., B. Bogaerts, M. Bruynooghe, B. de Cat, S. de Pooter, M. Denecker, A. Labarre, and J. Ramon (2012). Modeling Machine Learning Problems with FO(·). Submitted to the 28th International Conference on Logic Programming.

Cameron, H. D. (1987). The upside-down cladogram. Problems in manuscript affiliation. In H. M. Hoenigswald and L. F. Wiener (eds.), Biological metaphor and cladistic classification : an interdisciplinary perspective. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P.

Cerquiglini, B. (1989). Éloge de la variante : histoire critique de la philologie, Paris: Éd. du Seuil.

Howe, C. J., A. C. Barbrook, M. Spencer, P. Robinson, B. Bordalejo, and L. Mooney (2001). Manuscript Evolution. Trends in Genetics 17: 147-52.

Maas, P. (1957). Textkritik. Leipzig: Teubner.

Macé, C., and P. Baret (2006). Why Phylogenetic Methods Work: The Theory of Evolution and Textual Criticism. In C. Macé, P. Baret, A. Bozzi, and L. Cignoni (eds.), The Evolution of Texts: Confronting Stemmatological and Genetical Methods. Pisa, Rome: Istituti Editoriali e Poligrafici Internazionali.

Pasquali, G. (1962). Storia della tradizione e critica del testo. Firenze: F. Le Monnier.

Reeve, M. D. (1986). Stemmatic method: ‘Qualcosa che non funziona?’ In P. F. Ganz (ed.), The role of the book in medieval culture : proceedings of the Oxford International Symposium, 26 September-1 October 1982. Turnhout: Brepols.

Roos, T., and Y. Zou (2011). Analysis of Textual Variation by Latent Tree Structures. IEEE International Conference on Data Mining, 2011 Vancouver.

Salemans, B. J. P. (2000). Building Stemmas with the Computer in a Cladistic, Neo-Lachmannian, Way: The Case of Fourteen Text Versions of Lanseloet van Denemerken. Ph.D., Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen.

Schmid, U. (2004). Genealogy by chance! On the significance of accidental variation (parallelisms). In P. T. van Reenen, A. den Hollander, and M. van Mulken (eds.), Studies in Stemmatology II. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Schmidt, D., and R. Colomb (2009). A data structure for representing multi-version texts online. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 67: 497-514.

Spencer, M., and C. J. Howe (2001). Estimating distances between manuscripts based on copying errors. Literary and Linguistic Computing 16: 467-484.

P. T. van Reenen, A. den Hollander, and M. van Mulken, eds. (2004). Studies in Stemmatology I., Amsterdam: Benjamins.

West, M. L. (1973). Textual Criticism and Editorial Technique: Applicable to Greek and Latin Texts. Stuttgart: Teubner.

notes
1.Maas 1957; Pasquali 1962; West 1973.

2. See, among many references on this question Cerquiglini 1989; Reeve 1986.

3.Cameron 1987; Howe et al. 2001; Macé & Baret 2006; Spencer & Howe 2001.

4.Roos & Zou 2011.

5.Schmidt & Colomb 2009.

6.Blockeel et al. 2012.

7.Salemans 2000. See also papers by Wachtel, van Mulken, Schmid, Smelik, Schøsler, and Spencer et al in van Reenen et al. 2004.

8.See the critique of concerning the work of Salemans.","txt","2","",""
"1522","13","Uncertain Date, Uncertain Place: Interpreting the History of Jewish Communities in the Byzantine Empire using GIS","1","Uncertain Date, Uncertain Place: Interpreting the History of Jewish Communities in the Byzantine Empire using GIS
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Rees, Gethin Powell, University of Cambridge, UK, gpr26@cam.ac.uk
introduction
The presentation will address the problem of how to display uncertain historical data in a web-based Geographical Information System (GIS). In recent years the use of internet GIS has allowed the general public to access large volumes of spatial data. Although GIS has been applied in specific areas of academic research, the technology has largely remained the preserve of specialists, as it can be difficult to use, requiring training and experience (Boonstra 2009). Yet the application of GIS to humanities research in general, and to the interpretation of historical data in particular, has the potential to develop and answer innovative research questions (Bodenhamer, Corrigan & Harris 2010).

The ‘Mapping the Jewish Communities of the Byzantine Empire’ project will use Internet GIS technology to disseminate data that outline the history of these communities. The project is based at the Centre for Advanced Religious and Theological Studies, Faculty of Divinity, University of Cambridge and is funded by the European Research Council. Textual, epigraphic and archaeological data allow the project to establish the locations, dates and other attributes of Jewish communities. Prior to our work these data were scattered, fragmentary and difficult to access. The project incorporates varied data in an Internet GIS which provides an efficient method of dissemination through dynamic, interactive maps. The GIS will feature an easy-to-use interface making data accessible through a standard web browser. The project team hopes that this accessibility will promote the inclusion of the Byzantine Jewish communities in the study of Byzantine, Jewish and minority history. A further aim is that medieval historians with little experience of GIS will become familiar with the technology and its potential through use of the website.

The spatial perspective that the project offers will allow research into Jewish communities to develop in new directions. For example, the project’s GIS could be used to aid interpretation of the involvement of Jews in trade, the effect of political change on their distribution and lives, and the factors that influenced the development of separate Jewish residential quarters. The focus of this presentation will be the role of Jews in the Byzantine economy. A robust understanding of geography is important for interpreting trade and therefore the perspective that GIS offers makes it a valuable aid to understanding historical economies. Characteristics of Jewish communities such as their location and date are crucial to evaluating their interaction with the wider economy and are fundamental to the structure of the project’s database. Yet these data are beset by uncertainty, causing significant problems with their representation and interpretation in GIS.

uncertain data in gis
The presentation of historical data using GIS is not straightforward as the technology has developed in the context of empirical research.  Symbols used in any form of mapping can convey an unwarranted air of reliability by masking differences between features represented in a single category. The original sources on which maps are based are rarely revisited by scholars in the same way that references to texts are. Maps have a veneer of objectivity making them easily manipulated to suit particular interpretations (Monmonier 1996). Similar problems affect GIS, and the technology has, since the late-twentieth century, been criticised for being over-reliant on a positivist interpretative framework. Historical or other cultural data are often uncertain and therefore the application of GIS in these areas requires a different approach.

Uncertainty can be divided into three categories. First are factors that are inherent in defining the object of study; second are problems with sources of information and their interpretation; and third are issues with the representation and reduction of these data to feature in a database (Plewe 2002). Uncertainty can arise in each of these areas where characteristics are, for example, contested, ambiguous or unreliable. These problems are particularly acute in interpreting historical data from medieval and earlier periods (Bartley & Campbell 1997). To be a useful resource for historical research, our website must incorporate and communicate the complexity of these data in a format that is straightforward enough to be understood quickly and by non-specialists. This presentation will examine uncertainty in the location and date of Jewish communities as these attributes are fundamental to the structure of the project’s database.

representing uncertainty through transparency
The project has developed a system of symbols that communicates uncertainty in dating and locating Jewish communities. Degree of uncertainty is represented by variation in the transparency of symbols. To give an example, the date of a person’s birth can be known with varying degrees of certainty. Where one source may provide the date to the exact day, another might only give the year. Dates may also be reached by comparison or interpretation. If the symbol that represents a piece of data in the project GIS is more transparent, the user is made aware that there is less certainty regarding its date. Uncertain dates will be displayed as periods with reference to a time series. The system of symbols will communicate the certainty with which the existence of a Jewish community at a particular date is known. This can allows users of the website to examine the Jewish presence within the wider framework of Byzantine economic history with an appropriate level of confidence.

The system will also use transparency to communicate uncertainty regarding where Jewish communities were located. The location of a Jewish community can be questioned due to, for example, ambiguous or imprecise references in sources as well as differences in their interpretation. The degree to which a symbol is transparent will be determined by the number of possible locations. The siting of Jewish communities was influenced by and was an influence on their role in the economy. Preliminary analysis supports the view that some Jewish communities resided in particular locations for economic reasons. Internet GIS can help historians gain a better understanding of these relationships providing that uncertainties in the data are communicated.

To explicate the representation of uncertainty, the website must communicate the sources and types of uncertainty to the user. Information on uncertainty and the transparency of symbols will be made accessible through clicking on symbols. The sources used to produce the GIS will be communicated through metadata. The symbols will also allow access to other attribute data provided in the sources including religious sect, occupation and name. These attributes provide further structure to the database and form the basis of searches.

summary and implications
The historical study of medieval economies would benefit from greater integration with geography, particularly to develop a detailed understanding of the spatial character of trade. Our project’s GIS can help to develop this understanding by disseminating historical data whilst being sensitive to the needs of medieval historians. It is hoped that the system used for communicating uncertainty in our project’s Internet GIS will be taken up by future historical projects that deal with uncertain data. 

references
Bartley, K.,  and B. M. S. Campbell (1997). Inquisitiones Post Mortem, GIS, and the Creation of a Land-use Map of Medieval England. Transactions in GIS 2: 333-46.

Bodenhamer, D., J. Corrigan, and T. Harris, eds. (2010). The Spatial Humanities: GIS and the Future of Humanities Scholarship. Indiana University Press, Indiana. 

Boonstra, O. (2009). Barriers Between Historical GIS and Historical Scholarship. In D. Bodenhamer and P. Ell (eds.), International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing 3. Edinburg: Edinburgh UP, pp. 3-7.

Monmonier, M. S. (1991). How to Lie with Maps. London: U of Chicago P.

Plewe, G. (2002). The Nature of Uncertainty in Historical Geographic Information. Transactions in GIS 6: 431-56.","txt","2","",""
"1523","13","Uncovering lost histories through GeoStoryteller: A digital GeoHumanities project","1","Uncovering lost histories through GeoStoryteller: A digital GeoHumanities project
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Rabina, Debbie L., Pratt Institute, USA, drabina@pratt.edu
Cocciolo, Anthony, Pratt Institute, USA, acocciol@pratt.edu
brief description
In this paper, we first describe the design and implementation of the GeoStoryteller project. GeoStoryteller is a project where learners engage with archival photos and multimedia narratives in historically relevant places using a combination of augmented reality technology and web-based delivery via mobile devices. The initial application of GeoStoryteller is in partnership with the Goethe-Institut New York, the worldwide cultural organization of Germany. In this partnership, learners – particularly German language students in the United States – engage with content that details the historical events and makes use of real places related to German immigration to New York City (1840-1945). Second, based on the design and implementation of this project, we offer a framework for creating location-based mobile learning projects that could be used by others interested in implementing similar projects.

designing geostoryteller
GeoStoryteller builds upon recent research and development from the emerging subfield of the Digital Humanities known as GeoHumanities, which is a term that highlights the growing interconnections between geography and the humanities. GeoStoryteller strengthens this connection specifically by layering historic narratives on a specific location and by making it available to learners’ Internet-enabled mobile device. In the case of the application of GeoStoryteller with the Goethe-Institut – named German Traces NYC – learners can view location-sensitive maps and lists of historic sites related to German immigration to New York. Once a learner arrives at a physical site, he or she can see historic photos layered against the imagery visible through the camera’s phone (also known as augmented reality), as well as watch videos about that particular site that include historic narratives and archival photos. Users can also play short trivia games that answers can only be found from being on physical location and post their accomplishments to Facebook or Twitter.

For developing the videos – which we also refer to as GeoStories – we turned to published, non-published, digital and non-digital sources available from cultural and memory institutions (libraries, archives, museums and historical societies). Using these sources we developed historical narratives as text, and set those to audio recordings that were augmented with archival photos.

We then used geotechnologies to deliver the narratives to users’ mobile devices (smart phones, such as iPhone, Android, Blackberry, and tablets such as iPad) at the places where these events occurred. Geotechnologies used include global positioning systems (GPS), digital mapping services (available through Google) and Layar, an augmented-reality browser for mobile devices.

For example, users can find such sites as the Ottendorfer Library, the oldest public library in Manhattan, opened originally to support the German immigrant community in Kleindeutschland – or Little Germany (today known as the East Village; see Figure 1). While on site, learners can learn about the people who crated the physical site, why they created the site (e.g., philosophies that motivated their action) and how that site has changed over time to reflect cultural and world events (e.g., anti-German sentiment during both world wars).

framework for creating location-based mobile learning projects
From our experience developing GeoStoryteller, we offer a framework that can be used in the planning and implementation of similar projects.

At the core (the inner section) of this framework is traditional humanities research and development (see Figure 2). In the case of the GeoStoryteller project, this included print, non-print, digital, digitized, non-digital, archival, and published sources, all used to construct historical narratives of German immigration in New York. Placing humanities research and development at the core of the framework highlights what distinguishes a digital humanities project from other digital projects. Additionally, this type of research and development could be done with other fields of the humanities, including philosophy, literature, and the arts.


Figure 1. Augmented-reality interface for retrieving multimedia stories

Next, we proceed to the ‘Theory and Interface Development’ ring. At this stage, researchers must consider the theory that will inform their project, and how this theory will be reflected in the user interface available to the learner. For example, some of the theoretical questions we asked were, how does situating historical content in physically relevant locations affect learner engagement? And does making augmented-reality content available to learners further enhance engagement? Such questions necessarily lead to decisions about how to present the content within a digital interface.

In the third ring, learners engage with the socio-technical environment created by the researchers. In the case of GeoStoryteller, this includes not simply a user interface, but also the physically relevant locations that the interface prompts the user to explore. Additionally, social interactions may occur during this stage among multiple others in the environment (e.g. a librarian in the Ottendorfer library). It cannot be assumed that the best learning experience comes from the digital device, but could result from the serendipitous interaction in the real environment.

From this stage, we proceed to the fourth ring, which is the formal user research. In this stage, we use traditional (e.g., surveys and interviews) and digital (e.g., tags, hits, time stamps) social science research methods to uncover the working of the interface, address the theoretical questions, and evaluate the learning outcomes and user engagement. These studies can then influence any earlier stages (e.g., specific areas of content that did not engage the interest of learners could be revised, confirming or refuting the learning theory, or requiring changes to the user interface).

Figure 2
Figure 2: A Process for Digital Humanities Research and Development

relevance to conference themes
The GeoStoryteller project addresses several of the Digital Humanities 2012 conference themes and aspects of digital humanities described in the Call for Papers. By focusing on vertical histories – or presenting narratives that describe events at a specific locale throughout a period of over 100 years – we introduce students to how immigrant communities, their language and cultures, contributed to the fiber of New York City as we know it today. We draw parallels between the prejudices against, hardships, discrimination and finally successful integration of the predominant immigrant community of the 19th and early 20th century immigrant and those of today. GeoStoryteller is a completely bilingual project that serves both to uncover lost histories of New York and demonstrate their relevance to contemporary geohistory.","txt","2","",""
"1524","13","Underspecified, Ambiguous or Formal. Problems in Creating Maps Based on Texts","1","Underspecified, Ambiguous or Formal. Problems in Creating Maps Based on Texts
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Eide, Øyvind, University of Oslo, Unit for Digital Documentation, Norway, oyvind.eide@edd.uio.no
introduction
How can a reading of a textual description of a landscape be expressed as a map? Maps form a medium different from verbal texts, and the differences have consequences not only for how things are said, but also for what can be said at all using maps. Where are these limitations to be found?

In this abstract, I will discuss the relationship between verbal and map based geographical communication. I have created a model of the geographical information read from a source text, then tried to express the contents of the model as maps. I will show that types of geographical information exist that can be stored in and read from verbal texts, but which are impossible to express as geographical maps without significant loss of meaning.

object of study
I used a set of Scandinavian border protocols from the eighteenth century (Schnitler 1962) as source material for this research. The text is based on interrogations about geography with more than 100 different persons, of whom many presumably did not use maps very much if at all. It was created in a society, or a set of societies, on the brink of the transformation from oral to written cultures, where some were firmly placed within the written culture, while others had only been exposed to the activity of reading texts for a few decades. The voices in the text represent persons coming from different ethnic and professional backgrounds, e.g., Sami reindeer herders, Norwegian farmers, and Danish military officers, thus bringing a set of different perspectives into the geographical conversation.

method
Modelling is to create and manipulate models in order to learn from the experiences we gain through the process. Models are in this context representations of something which is created for the purpose of studying what is modelled more closely (McCarty 2005: 24). In the work reported on here, a computer based model was constructed based on the source text. Through experiments on this model, new knowledge about the text was gained. The creation of the model itself also led to problems giving new insights, so it was part of the series of experiments. The same can be said of the development and tailoring of the software used.

The whole experiment was performed in a qualitative manner. Occurrences in the text were not counted and compared, they were rather evaluated as individual cases, in accordance with traditional humanities research where seeking local knowledge about specific cases is the main activity (Galey 2010: 95-100).

The point of a modelling exercise lies in the process, not in the model as a product. Modelling mediates epistemologically between modeller and the modelled, that is, between the researcher and the data. The model was built through a combination between computer based tools and a thorough close reading in which all geographic information I was able to extract from the text was included. The model was stored as a set of connected facts in a computer application I developed in Java for this research.

In the application the results of the close readings are stored as triplets in a fact database. Then the ‘raw’ triplets go through several steps of interpretation, leading to more and more formal structures. These steps eventually result in the standard format RDF1, then further interpretation leads to geographical vector data in a simplified version of the GML format2 which can be imported to GIS software to be viewed as maps.

The modelling process thus involves several steps, each formalising the data in a stricter sense. For each step, what ‘falls off,’ what is difficult to avoid loosing, is the interesting part. This ‘falling off’ will include things that cannot survive a transfer from one system to another, which misses the added level of formality. Through this process I attempted to translate geographical information from one medium to the other. The ‘fall-offs’ show us what was lost in the process; this was not always because of differences between the media, but candidates for further examination were found in the ‘fall-offs’. Examples from this modelling work will be shown in the paper, including some situations where ‘fall-off’ occurs.

As the goal is to understand how texts express geographical information, I made an effort to base the maps on what I read from the text only. While it is impossible to exclude all context information, I tried hard to exclude any local context based on geographical knowledge of the area. This makes the process different from mapping place name information in literary texts, as done by e.g. Smith and Crane (2001). The latter process includes adding a significant amount of contextual knowledge to the process through what is learned from the pre-existing map.

main results
The issues faced in the modelling experiments led to the development of the following typology of textual expressions:

1.  Under-specified texts. Based on such a text, more than one map can be drawn, and at least two of these maps are significantly different.

This situation occurs when the geographical information in a text can be expressed as more than one significantly different map. This happens when directions such as ‘east’ or measurements such as ‘1-2 miles’ are used: given lack of other evidence in the text, a number of different geometrical interpretations of the statements are possible.

2.  Fully specified textual descriptions. Only one map can be drawn based on the description. If the text mentions something, it is fully specified geometrically.

Texts in formal languages, such as GML, are typical cases. I have not found examples of this type in natural language texts.

3.  Ambiguity and negation. The text includes expressions in the forms ‘A or B is located at C’ (ambiguity) or ‘There are no A’s in B’ (negation).

The spatial information read from the text cannot be represented as one single map; one will need two or more maps, a dynamic map or a map with its geometry corrected by a textual description.

The choice of the words ‘significantly different’ as opposed to merely ‘different’ in the description of type 1 is necessary and highlights how the border to type 2 is fuzzy. Two maps can always be made which are slightly different, but which will occur as similar to the reader. Small adjustments in location are routinely made in cartographical work in order to improve the readability of maps. The choice of symbols can also change without its leading to significantly different maps. Any text, also of type 2, could be represented by two slightly different maps.

In the case of Schnitler, type 1 situations are abundant, we see a handful of type 3, and none of type 2. The groups are partly exclusive: 1 and 3 can exist in the same textual description, but is hard to see how a textual description can be both 2 and 1 or both 2 and 3.

discussion
The discussion of the relationship between geographical maps and verbal texts fall into the long tradition of inter-art and intermedia studies. Two important oppositions established by Lessing (1893) can be summarised this way:

1.  Actions in time should be applied in poetry, and bodies in space in painting.

2.  What is hidden is not seen in painting, while things hidden can still be seen in poetry.

Whereas Lessing’s dichotomy between poetry and painting has been questioned, e.g., by Frank (1963) and Mitchell (1980) in connection to their discussions of spatial form in literature, it has never been eliminated. A recent way of formalising such distinctions is the model of Elleström (2010). Instead of starting from a set of different media or art forms, he takes a bottom-up approach, starting from a set of media modalities. His set includes four, namely, the material, sensorial, spatiotemporal and semiotic modalities. The differences between texts and maps fall mainly in the latter two categories.

The two problem areas found in the modelling of Schnitler, under-specified texts and ambiguity and negation, are both connected to Lessing’s thinking. When ‘east’ in a text can mean a number of different things, potentially covering half of the possible directions from a place, the direction between two features on a map is measurable, with only a limited inaccuracy. Space is expressed differently in the two media. And when disjunction is hard to put on a map, it is also connected to the fact that the sign systems used to refer to the external reality are different. This will be discussed in light of Lessing’s opposition and Elleström’s system in the paper. Some comments will also be made as to how this links to narratology.

references
Elleström, L. (2010). The Modalities of Media: A Model for Understanding Intermedial Relations. In L. Elleström (ed.), Media borders, multimodality and intermediality. Basingstoke: Palgrave McMillan, pp. 11-48.

Frank, J. (1963). Spatial Form in Modern Literature. In The widening gyre: crisis and mastery in modern literature. (First published: 1945). New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers UP, pp. 3-62

Galey, A. (2010). The Human Presence in Digital Artefacts. In W. McCarty (ed.), Text and Genre in Reconstruction: Effects of Digitalization on Ideas, Behaviours, Products and Institutions. Open Book Publishers, pp. 93-117.

Lessing, G. E. (1893). Laokoon: oder über die Grenzen der Mahlerey und Poesie. Erster Theil. In K. Lachmann and F. Muncker (eds.), Gotthold Ephraim Lessings sämtliche Schriften. Neunter Band (3., aufs neue durchges. und verm. Aufl.). Stuttgart: Göschen. Photographic reprint. Berlin : de Gruyter 1968, pp. 1-177. First published: 1766.

McCarty, W. (2005). Humanities computing. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Mitchell, W. J. T. (1980). Spatial Form in Literature: Toward a General Theory. Critical Inquiry 6 (3): 539-567.

Schnitler, P. (1962). Major Peter Schnitlers grenseeksaminasjonsprotokoller 1742 – 1745, Volume 1. Oslo: Norsk historisk kjeldeskrift-institutt.

Smith, D. A., and G. Crane (2001). Disambiguating Geographic Names in a Historical Digital Library. In Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries: 5th European conference, ECDL 2001. Darmstadt: Springer, pp. 127-136.

notes
1.Resource Description Framework: http://www.w3.org/RDF/ (checked 2011-10-31)

2.Geography Markup Language: http://www.opengeospatial.org/standards/gml/ (checked 2011-10-31)","txt","2","",""
"1525","13","Using the Google Ngram Corpus to Measure Cultural Complexity","1","Using the Google Ngram Corpus to Measure Cultural Complexity
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Juola, Patrick, Duquesne University, USA, juola@mathcs.duq.edu
It is common to hear assertions that culture is complex, that language is complex, and that while the complexity of language is a universal constant, the complexity of culture is increasing as technology and the increased pace of modern life creates new complexities. These statements are usually based on subjective assessments, often tinged by nostalgia for the ‘good old days.’ Can questions of cultural complexity be addressed quantitatively?

Previous work (e.g. Juola 1997, 2008) has been able to use information theory to address this question. The basic idea is that a sample of language is ‘complex’ if it contains a lot of information, defined formally as the size of the computer program that would be necessary to (re)create the sample from scratch, a measure more formally known as Kolmogorov complexity. This can be approximated by compressing the text sample and looking at the size of the resulting file – the larger the resulting file, the more complex the original. Alternatively, one can compute complexity directly using Shannon’s (1948) famous formula for information entropy based on a concept of the underlying linguistic ‘events.’ In any case, linguistic complexity can be measured observing discourse-controlled samples of language, essentially by comparing several (linguistic) versions of the same text, such as translations of the Bible or of a specific novel, and observing whether one language yields systematically larger measurements than another. Previous work suggests that no such systematic pattern exists, and that all languages are indeed roughly equal in complexity.

Key to this approach is the idea of discourse control; we are measuring how difficult it is to express a specific fixed concept in a given language and comparing it to the same concept expressed in an another language. Culture, however, can be treated as the set of concepts that people choose to express. By eliminating the restriction of discourse control and instead investigating language chosen freely by the cultural participants, we may be able to tease apart the interaction between cultural and linguistic complexity. In particular, we can distinguish between linguistic and cultural complexity as follows: a language is complex if there is a lot of information contained in a topic-controlled discourse. A culture is complex if there is a large range of topics for discourse, or alternatively a lot of information contained in topical choice. Therefore, if we compare the complexity (however measured) of two language samples that are not topic-controlled, but instead are in some sense representative of the breadth of discourse present in a culture, we can calculate the differences attributable to discourse variation, and hence to cultural complexity.

As an illustrative example, we follow the approach of Spenser (1900; cited by Denton 2004), in that ‘complex’ means ‘containing many different interdependent parts.’ A complex political system has many parties and power groups, many different roles and offices, and many relationships among them. In a political discourse, many if not most of these parties and power groups would need to be explicitly named and distinguished from each other. By contrast, an autocratic monarchy is relatively simple: there is the monarch and then everyone else. A game is complex if it has many rules and strategies. A culture is complex if it contains many heterogeneous aspects such as technological specifications, social stratification, multilevel administrative hierarchies, or a large amount of object or object-types. Continuing this line of reasoning, a complex culture is one with lots of ‘stuff’ and where people do lots of things to or with ‘stuff,’ where ‘stuff’ here refers not only to physical objects but also to people, groups, activities, abstractions, and so forth – anything that can be discussed among the group.

We therefore apply the previous methodology to a different sort of corpus; an uncontrolled corpus that represents the breadth of cultural experience. If the information contained in such a corpus is high, then we can say the culture is complex. Several corpora may be suitable for this purpose; we have chosen to study the Google Books Ngram Corpus (Michel et al. 2010). This contains all of the n-grams from the millions of books in the Google Books database, something like 20 million books, or approximately 4% of all books ever printed. While not strictly speaking representative (for example, ‘publishing was a relatively rare event in the 16th and 17th centuries,’ and ‘many more books are published in modern years’), and of course typically only the literate can write or publish books, this nevertheless gives us a time-stamped window into the scope of culture. Furthermore, by focusing on n-grams (and specifically on 2-grams, word pairs), we can observe not only the distribution of ‘stuff,’ but also some of the relationships between ‘stuff’ – for example, the number and range of word pairs beginning with ‘expensive’ will inform us about changing opinions regarding money and the types of goods considered luxurious and pricey.

We therefore used the Google Books American 2-Gram Corpus to measure changes in the complexity of American culture at ten-year intervals between 1900 and 2000. This corpus simply contains a frequency list of all two word phrases used in American-published books in any given year. For example, the phrase ‘hamburgers with’ appeared only 8 times in print in 1940, compared to 45 in the year 2000. Focusing strictly on the US during the 20th century avoids many of the problems with mass culture, as publishing was a well-established industry and literacy was widespread. However, the number of books published in this time of course tended to increase. Our first observation, then, is that culture may be increasing simply from the number of different things to talk about. The number of different word pair types per year increased dramatically, nearly doubling from 1900 to 2000, as given in table 1.

Table 1
Year         # types
1900         17,769,755
1910         22,834,741
1920         22,409,426
1930         19,745,549
1940         20,369,679
1950         23,632,749
1960         27,379,411
1970         34,218,686
1980         34,458,083
1990         37,796,626
2000         41,654,264
This alone indicates an increase in the complexity of written culture, although this process is not continuous and some years during the Depression show a loss. To confirm the overall upward trend, we have also calculated the Shannon-entropy of the 2-gram distributions, attached as table 2.

Table 2
Year         Entropy (bits)
1900         17.942357
1910         18.072880
1920         18.072325
1930         18.133058
1940         18.241048
1950         18.336162
1960         18.391872
1970         18.473447
1980         18.692278
1990         18.729807
2000         18.742085
This further analysis illustrates that a more sophisticated measure of complexity shows a continuous process of increasing complexity, even in times when (for example due to economic downturn) the actual volume of words published decreases. Even when people are writing less, they still have more ‘stuff’ about which to write, showing the cumulative nature of culture (today’s current events are tomorrow’s history, but still suitable material for discussion and analysis – part of culture).

We acknowledge that this is a preliminary study only. Google Books offers cultural snapshots at much greater frequency than ten-year intervals. Google Books also offers corpora in other languages (including German, French, Spanish, Russian, and Hebrew) as well as another English-speaking culture. Use of a more balanced corpus (such as the Google Books English Million corpus, a corpus balanced at about 1 million words/year to offset increased publication), or the BYU Corpus of Historical American English might help clarify the effects of publication volume. Analysis of n-grams at sizes other than 2 would illustrate other types of complexity — in particular, 1-grams (words) would show changes in lexical but not syntactic complexity and hence an analysis of ‘stuff’ but not what people do with ‘stuff.’ Despite these weaknesses, we still feel this paper illustrates that culture-wide analysis of abstractions like ‘increasing complexity’ is both practical and fruitful.

references
Denton, T. (2004). Cultural Complexity Revisited. Cross-Cultural Research 38(1): 3-26.

Juola, P. (1998). Measuring Linguistic Complexity : The Morphological Tier. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics 5(3): 206-213.

Juola, P.. (2008). Assessing Linguistic Complexity. In M. Miestamo, K. Sinnemaki, and F. Karlsson (eds.), Language Complexity: Typology, Contact, Change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Michel, Jean-Baptiste, Y. Kui Shen, A. Presser Aiden, A. Veres, M. K. Gray, W. Brockman, The Google Books Team, J. P. Pickett, D. Hoiberg, D. Clancy, P. Norvig, J. Orwant, St. Pinker, M. A. Nowak, and E. Lieberman Aiden (2010). Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books. Science (Published online ahead of print: 12/16/2010).

Spencer, H. (1900). First principles (6th ed.). Akron, OH: Werner.","txt","2","",""
"1526","13","VariaLog: how to locate words in a French Renaissance Virtual Library","1","VariaLog: how to locate words in a French Renaissance Virtual Library
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Lay, Marie Hélène, University of Poitiers, France, marie-helene.lay@univ-poitiers.fr
introduction
The efficiency of search engines is based on the principle that the information sought can be retrieved by ‘looking for words’ conveying the information and that these words can be identified thanks to the string of characters they are comprised of.  This view takes for granted that the words are always spelt in the same way and that they comply with orthographic rules.

Such is not the situation which prevails for the texts produced during the French Renaissance period. Therefore the availability of older texts for purposes of archiving and disseminating the cultural heritage tradition raises a particular problem. In texts edited in French before the 18th century, spellings are not consistent, as proper spelling has not been ‘invented’ yet. One and the same word may therefore be spelt in a variety of forms. This is not only a time-related variation, as would be expected from the evolution of the language between the 15th and the 17th century. In one and the same book many different spellings may be identified for the one and the same word: for the word côté, either coté, cotté, cote, costé, or couste could be used, the verb savoir may be spelt either scavoir or sçavoir, ‘je sais’ may be spelt ‘ie sçay’, and its past participle ‘su’ may appear as ‘sceu’.

It is therefore necessary to adapt search engines based on word form identification if they are to render the service expected. Several strategies can be envisaged and the purpose of this paper is to focus on those which resort to linguistic expertise, either included in the documents themselves (by annotation) or into the search engine (by query extension). The solutions considered are produced in the context of the Virtual Humanistic Library Project and its evolution (www.bvh.univ-tours.fr ). This part of the project called VARIALOG, is financed by a Google Digital Humanities Research Award.

methodological alternatives
The BVH/VHL context, considered here, is that of a highly expert environment of a relatively moderate size aiming at a complete editorial treatment and the dissemination of annotated and validated resources. Within this context, two solutions have been designed:

Texts annotation with linguistic information gained from lemmatization. The forms retrieved, whatever their spelling, are lemmatized under a canonic form which then becomes the pivot of further requests: for example the lemma for nuit groups together forms like nuits (which is ‘regular french’) or nuyctz (old written form). A first solution, HUMANISTICA (Lay 2000) was based on the adaptation of a probabilistic tagger/lemmatizer. The results achieved were satisfactory but the adaptation of the analyzer had to be started all over again to take into account specific features of this high heterogeneous corpus. Another solution, ANALOG (Lay 2010a, 2010b) was therefore developed. It provides an annotation computer assisted environment, and is currently being used in the BVH project. But the enrichment of text through linguistic annotation is a slow and costly process. Though this solution is very useful to go on producing a reference environment, it is nonetheless desirable to provide efficient query tools on texts already available but not yet annotated.
Query extension, without requiring the lemmatization process. The aim is not to produce exactly the right forms (like in EEBO -VosPos-, Impact, ToTrTaLe, LGeRM, or for old czech, or old German projects). We will do so, in order to help in an editorial process (DISSIMILOG), but here, we just want to spot all the written forms which could correspond to a query, being insensitive to variation.
varialog : principles
To solve the problem of spelling variation, one has to go back to observational evidence. Two directions may be taken in this respect: either observe the texts or observe the variants attested for a given form.

Concerning text observation, the aim is to evaluate the number of forms for a given text which do not correspond to the norm. Moreover, one must take into consideration the extent to which the texts can be compared. We intend to illustrate this with two short extracts from Montaigne and Rabelais, two authors of paramount significance.
Concerning the observation of variants attested for one word, the idea is to formulate the rules which govern the production of abnormal forms. We will then build rules to extend queries, turning the search of a word into the search of all the forms assumed by this word, and match the results with forms in texts.
Comparing the searched forms and their spelling in text, a typology of the situations occurring may be offered. The form being searched is the same one (raisons/raisons) or the link can be very weak (impératrice/empériere). Between these two types, a whole gradation of situations can be organised on a linguistic basis: relations between sounds and different ways of spelling in modern french (c=ss; n=nn; r=rr; s=z; t=th; ai=ei,ai,ey,ay,oi,oy; [uv]=u,v; u=eu), flexionnal history (serais/seray/serois) and morphological history (hôpital/hospitalier; forêt/forestier; advis/avis). Due to the structural instability of this linguistic data, equivalences between character strings are difficult to track statistically and no model-based approach can be developed. But linguistic knowledge helps recognize regular replacement patterns, which can be turned into rules.

The next point which needs to be taken into account is the relevance of the rules: they have to help find all the forms concerned (low silence, good recall), and to avoid generating too much noise (good precision).
To test the first results, a small corpus of  7 words (vices/une/face/fesse/lu/vu/souverain) has been transformed by the substitution rules mentionned above. The results do contain all the relevant forms, but the 7 words have been extended to 118445 forms. There is obviously some correlation between the length of the word and the number of generated words due to the combinatory process.

The solution chosen to fix that problem is to describe, for each rule, the context in which the substitution is allowed. This aims at constraining their application strongly, and limits their productivity. This contextualisation is based on a good knowledge of the linguistic process involved. In the example given below, 8 simple rules are transformed into 9 more complex rules. Most of the time, one simple rule will be derived into 5 to 15 contextualised rules.

(?<=[bdflmnprstv])u=eu         ain=ein,ain,eyn,ayn
(?<=[aeiouy])c(?=[eiy])=ss         ^s(?=[eiy]) = c
(?<=[aeiouy])ss(?=[eiy])=c         (?!^.+)v = u
(?!^.+)n(?<!.+$)=nn         ^u = v
(?!^.+)r(?<!.+$)=rr         s$ = z
The results achieved are satisfactory: the rules produce all the linguistically permissible variants, and the number of variants is much lower. The 7 words generate 37 forms.

varialog : tool description
The tool itself is thought to be really user-friendly especially for the tuning of rules and the evaluation of their consequences (efficiency and non regression tests). It is a free available java program which first transforms a list of words into an extended list of forms, using that for a rules set. Having done this, the need is to localise the different forms attested in the old spelling in a text, according to the requested form. The output file of this last part of the process is an html file with a graphical highlighting (or bold character) of the identified variant. Moreover, each form is connected to a bubble showing the rules used to derive the variant. A table containing the summary of the used rules for the text is also available: the human validation process is quite friendly. This tool is being put forward to be integrated to an XTF platform.

conclusion
Using a rule-based approach, VariaLog is designed to identify all the written forms that are likely to correspond to a query, since it is insensitive to variations in spelling. The recall rate (tested on 5000 forms) provides evidence that all the linguistically permissible variants in French are produced by the rules, so long as the problem is simply one of spelling (nuit/nuyct)and not a morphological one (e.g. impératrice/empérière).  As far as precision is concerned, the rules may sometimes generate more ambiguity than anticipated. If  ‘o’ becomes ‘ou’, then, école becomes écoule, which is not an acceptable variation, but volant becomes voulant, which is an acceptable variation; as a result, volant will correspond to vouloir (‘want’), thus increasing the ambiguity of this form which means  already ‘flying, robbing, wheel, flounce, shuttlecock’. The generated ambiguity is no different from standard ambiguities, even in an orthographic environment.

 Already used to search several French dialects, VariaLog can be used to process any form of spelling variation, in any language. One just needs to adjust one’s own specific spelling rules or dictionary. Our aim is to help locate spelling variation efficiently. User feedback is most welcome.

references
Baron, A., and Rayson, P. (2009). Automatic standardization of texts containing spelling variation, how much training data do you need?In M. Mahlberg, V. González-Díaz, and C. Smith (eds.), Proceedings of the Corpus Linguistics Conference, CL2009. University of Liverpool, UK, pp. 20-23.

Burnard, L. (1995). Text Encoding for Information Interchange – An Introduction to the Text Encoding Initiative.Proceedings of the Second Language Engineering Conference, 1995.

Craig, H., and R. Whipp (2010). Old spellings, new methods: automated procedures for indeterminate linguistic data.Literary and Linguistic Computing 25(1): 37-52.

Demonet, M.-L., and M. H. Lay (2011). Digitizing European Renaissance prints: a 3-year experiment on image-and-text retrieval. International Workshop on Digital Preservation of Heritage (IWDPH07). Kolkata, 2007.

Erjavec, T. (2011). Automatic linguistic annotation of historical language: ToTrTaLe and XIX century Slovene.Proceedings of the 5th ACL-HLT Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, and Humanities, 2011, Portland, pp. 33-38.

Hana, J., A. Feldman, and K. Aharodnik (2011). A Low-budget Tagger for Old Czech.Proceedings of the 5th ACL-HLT Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, and Humanities, 2011, Portland, pp. 10-18.

Lay-Antoni, M.-H. et  al. (2000),  Adaptation d’un lemmatiseur au corpus rabelaisien: naissance d’Humanistica.jadt 2000, Lausanne.

Lay, M.-H., et al. (2010). Pour une exploration humaniste des textes: AnaLog.jadt 2010, Rome.

Sánchez Marco, C., G. Boleda, and L. Padró  (2011). Extending the tool, or how to annotate historical language varieties.ACL-HLT Workshop, 2011, Portland, pp. 1-9.

Scheible, S., R. J. Whitt,M.  Durrell, and B. Bennett (2011). Evaluating an ‘off-the-shelf’ POS-tagger on Early Modern German text. ACL-HLT Workshop, 2011, Portland, pp. 10-18.

Souvay, G. and J.M. Pierrel (2009). LgeRM: Lemmatisation des mots en moyen français. TAL 50(2): 149-172.

Thaisen, J. (2011). Probabilistic Analysis of Middle English Orthography: the Auchinleck Manuscript.Digital Humanities Conference Abstracts, 2011, Stanford.

www.bvh.univ-tours.fr/

http://www.c-tei.org

http://www.bvh.univ-tours.fr/XML-TEI/index.asp

http://www.bvh.univ-tours.fr/Epistemon/philologic.asp

http://xtf.cdlib.org/documentation/programming

http://www.monkproject.org/

http://eebo.chadwyck.com/help/whatis_wh.htm

http://impactocr.wordpress.com/

http://panini.northwestern.edu/mmueller/vospos.pdf","txt","2","",""
"1527","13","Violence and the Digital Humanities Text as Pharmakon","1","Violence and the Digital Humanities Text as Pharmakon
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Bradley, Adam James, The University of Waterloo, Canada, adam.bradley@uwaterloo.ca
There has long been a tendency of tools in the digital humanities to be objects through which literary scholars are intended to perform meta-analyses of texts. One of the inconsistencies with this act is that in the process of displaying a data visualization we destroy the actual text that is being studied. This act is a type of pharmakon, creative because it shifts the aesthetic of the text for re-interpretation and destructive because the original artifact is lost in this process of creation. By appropriating Rene Girard’s definition of violence – namely that the attempt to represent texts visually and digitally is a form of mimetic rivalry that leads to violence in terms of the text itself, and using Denis Diderot’s three fold vision of creation (‘enthousiasme’), I will show that the mimetic nature of digital humanities tools creates an allowing condition for a type of violence that is both destructive (Girard’s ‘violence’) and creative (Diderot’s ‘enthousiasme’). By juxtaposing the work of Girard and Diderot in this way it becomes possible to see digital humanities projects (specifically data visualization projects) as acts of violence. It was this line of reasoning that brought me to my primary research question: Is it possible to develop a visualization technique that does not destroy the original text in the process, one in which the digital humanist can be a creator in terms of Diderot’s enthusiasme?

My paper will suggest a new method for visualizing texts that specifically addresses this question. The proposed method uses rigorous mathematics – developed with the aid of an interdisciplinary team of mathematicians and computer scientists at the University of Waterloo – that addresses this problem of violence and suggests that through interdisciplinary study and mathematical precision we can produce digital humanities tools that encode the original texts in their entirety without any violence towards the text. This project is an attempt to ‘form a new kind of literary study absolutely comfortable with scientific methods yet completely suffused with the values of the humanities’ as suggested by R. G. Potter in Literary Computing and Literary Criticism: Theoretical and Practical Essays on Theme and Rhetoric.

Using the resources of the University of Waterloo’s Digital Media Lab, I created a data visualization technique that was originally intended to study form in poetry but has proven to have wide reaching applications. What differentiates this project from other similar work, such as the TextArc project, is that the algorithm created to model the visualization creates a one-to-one relationship between the visualization and the original text. What this means specifically is that unlike a meta-analysis tool, this project encodes the original layout and punctuation of a text within the algorithm that produces the visualization making it both a tool for meta-analysis and a keeper of the original text. This removes the need for an analyst that intimately understands the visualization and allows for a transition between the two states (aesthetic visualization and original text) without any hindrances. This effectively solves the problem of losing the text in the analysis, or more specifically, of traditional literary scholars complaints that they do not know how to interpret the visualization created by the digital humanities model. By including a one-to-one correspondence between the text and the visualization, the intuition that is being engaged in the criticism spawned by the visualization can take on a second dimension between the original text and the literary critic.

The actual program was written in python and uses an aesthetic inspired by avant-garde art, namely the shifting of perspectives to try to gain insight into the original text. This is accomplished by creating 3D graphs in an infinitely countable box that represents all of the possible words from a null string to an infinitely long word using the alphabet. Each word of the original text is then encoded with an algorithm that uses a combination of mathematics, developed by Georg Cantor, and a method of my own devising to create a unique set of co-ordinates for each word in the English language and graph them in 3d space. This creates a unique 3d object for every poem and engages a shifted aesthetic to try to find new insights into the arrangement of the original words. In terms of the actual aesthetics of the visualization the program claims nothing new, but the focus of this study was to try to devise a method for maintaining the text within the mathematics of data visualization and that is what I have done.  I envision this project as axiomatic in nature and call in my paper for all data visualizations to live up to the standard of non-violence towards texts. I believe this exercise in mathematical rigor will inspire the digital humanist to consider the use of data visualization in a new way that will ultimately lead to better and more thoughtful tools for use in literary study.","txt","2","",""
"1528","13","Wiki Technologies for Semantic Publication of Old Russian Charters","1","Wiki Technologies for Semantic Publication of Old Russian Charters
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Varfolomeyev, Aleksey, Petrozavodsk State University, Russian Federation, avarf@psu.karelia.ru
Ivanovs, Aleksandrs, Daugavpils University, Latvia, aleksandrs.ivanovs@du.lv
The term ‘semantic publication’ denotes an electronic text publication that is provided with additional information layers, which represent knowledge about the text in a formalized way suitable for automatic processing. In the modern Web environments, semantic publications, especially in digital libraries and electronic journals, have become quite topical (Baruzzo et al. 2009; Shotton et al. 2009; de Waard 2010). Their advantages are rather obvious. Firstly, semantic publications provide better facilities for searching for information, since such publications draw together search algorithms used by humans and computers. For instance, if in an ontology is mentioned that a definite term has a synonym, searching for the term and its synonym can be performed simultaneously; and it is not necessary to mention the synonym in the request. Secondly, since formalized knowledge can generate new knowledge, semantic publications can be used as a knowledge base in order to advance hypotheses for further research by means of automatic inference.

It seems that semantic publications of historical records have one more advantage different from the above-mentioned common advantages: semantic layers in the publications of historical records reflect researchers’ interpretations, which can be verified by means of formalized, computer-based procedures.

In order to reveal the advantages of semantic editions in research of medieval documentary records, this paper presents a prototype of the semantic publication of the 13th century Old Russian charter corpus, which forms a constituent part of the vast collection of medieval and early modern records ‘Moscowitica–Ruthenica’ kept in the Latvian State Historical Archives, a structural unit of the Latvian National Archives (Riga, Latvia). This collection of documents provides historians with firsthand information about relations of Old Russian and Byelorussian lands and towns (Smolensk, Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk, etc.), as well as Lithuania (later – Poland-Lithuania) with Riga, Livonia, Hanseatic League and some German towns in the late 12th – early 17th centuries. For the first time, ‘Moscowitica–Ruthenica’ – a historical name of this document collection – was mentioned in the archival inventories dated back to the 1630s. Although ‘Moscowitica–Ruthenica’ as a department of the Latvian State Historical Archives does not exist any more, its documents constitute a natural complex of historical records, which should be studied as a whole (Ivanovs & Varfolomeyev 2005).

In the prototype of the semantic publication, five interconnected charters have been used (Charters nos. 1, 3a, 4, 5, and 6, see Ivanov & Kuznetsov 2009). Actually, there should be mentioned twelve charters that reveal the course of relations between Riga and Smolensk in the 13th – first half of the 14th century, however, the presentation has its limits, therefore the basis of the prototype has been reduced. In the centre of the semantic network represented in the prototype, there is the Missive of Archbishop of Riga Johann II to Fedor Rostislavich, Prince of Smolensk, blaming inhabitants of Vitebsk for unjustified complaint against Rigans (Charter no. 6, 1285–1287).

In order to provide the texts with additional descriptive metadata, information about persons, sites, documents, etc. mentioned in the charters is revealed and linked with the corresponding data extracted from different specialized ontologies. In the last years, a great number of different ontologies have been created, including those intended for historical and source studies, e.g. ontology CIDOC CRM. In this ontology, there are classes and relations that can be used in description of historical persons, sites, and historical events, which are related to museum objects (Doerr 2003). On the basis of this ontology, a number of specialized ontologies for description of definite historical aspects have been elaborated. There can be mentioned ontologies created within Pearl Harbor Project in the USA (Ide & Woolner 2007) or CultureSampo Project in Finland (Ahonen & Hyvönen 2009). Unfortunately, such ontologies can not meet all the requirements of the semantic publication of charter corpora, since they do not reflect the specificity of written historical records. Therefore, the authors of the paper propose a document-oriented approach to creation of ontologies (in contrast with event-oriented approaches accepted in the above-mentioned ontologies).

The semantic publication of the charters constitutes two kinds of semantic links. First, there are links between historically and thematically interconnected charters (these interconnections emerged when the charters were drawn up, in the course of documenting of relations between Smolensk and Riga in the 13th century). Thus, diverse links between information reflected in the charters within this complex of historical records can be revealed. Second, there are links with other historical records, which do not belong to the complex ‘Moscowitica–Ruthenica’. In this case, information extracted from the complex of charters ‘Moscowitica–Ruthenica’ (it can be called ‘internal information’) is linked with ‘external’ information, provided either directly (by other historical records), or indirectly (by research papers, specialized ontologies, etc.).

Within the semantic publication, relations between its objects are described using triplets: ‘a charter is written by a person’, ‘a charter is sent to a person’, ‘a charter mentions a person’. As it is commonly done in different ontologies, inverse relations can also be introduced, e.g. ‘a person is mentioned in a charter’. It should be noted that this publication is partly based on hypothetical data; hypothetic nature of some relations may be reflected using definite combinations of words (‘probably refers to’ instead of ‘refers to’).

However, production of semantic publications on the basis of ontologies, which are recorded using Semantic Web technologies – RDF or OWL, is time-consuming. It seems that opportunities and tools provided by semantic Wiki-systems can facilitate this process. For instance, Semantic MediaWiki (Krötzsch et al. 2007) offers specialized, rather simple markup tools that can be used to indicate different objects (place-names, persons’ names, etc.) in the texts of the charters and to supply the texts with meta-information. The principle feature of this system is the use of typified hyperlinks between pages. These pages constitute the objects of the semantic network, but hyperlinks – denote relations between the objects.

On the site http://histdocs.referata.com, the text of the Charter no. 6 is presented. The text has been translated from Old Russian into English and published applying Semantic MediaWiki. In the published text, hyperlinks to other pages of this semantic network have been marked out. These pages contain texts of the charters of the complex ‘Moscowitica–Ruthenica’, as well as data related to historical persons, places, etc. Below the text, the facts related to a definite charter are mentioned (e.g. ‘Charter 6 mentions Helmich’, ‘Charter 6 probably refers to Charter 4’, etc.) These facts are linked with the text, and this linkage is based on researcher’s interpretation of the document.

It should be noted that within the semantic network different facts about the objects, which are recorded by means of Semantic MediaWiki tools, can be automatically transformed into RDF triplets. Therefore, Wiki-systems can be used for production of semantic publications of charters and other written documents.

However, some shortcomings of Wiki-systems can be mentioned. For example, non-standard fonts can not be used in transcription of the texts; the texts of the charters can not be linked with raster images of the documents; the texts can not be marked up on the basis of XML markup standard (e.g. in accordance with TEI or CEI markup schemes). Therefore, a specialized Wiki-system for charters’ editing purposes should be developed. In the presentation of the paper, some possible solutions to the problems mentioned above are examined.

references
Ahonen, E., and E. Hyvönen (2009). Publishing Historical Texts on the Semantic Web – A Case Study. Proceedings of the Third IEEE International Conference on Semantic Computing (ICSC2009). Berkeley, pp. 167-73.

Baruzzo, A., et al. (2009). Toward Semantic Digital Libraries: Exploiting Web2.0 and Semantic Services in Cultural Heritage Journal of Digital Information 10( 6). http://journals.tdl.org/jodi/article/viewArticle/688/576 (accessed 14 March 2012).

de Waard, A. (2010). From Proteins to Fairytales: Directions in Semantic Publishing. IEEE Intelligent Systems 25( 2): 83-88.

Doerr, M. (2003). The CIDOC Conceptual Reference Module: An Ontological Approach to Semantic Interoperability of Metadata AI Magazine 24( 3): 75-92.

Ide, N., and D. Woolner (2007). Historical Ontologies. In K. Ahmad, C. Brewster and M. Stevenson (eds.), Words and Intelligence II: Essays in Honor of Yorick Wilks. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 137-52.

Ivanov, A., and A. Kuznetsov (2009). Smolensko-rizhskie akty, XIIIv. – pervaia polovina XIVv.: Dokumenty kompleksa Moscowitica–Ruthenica ob otnosheniiakh Smolenska i Rigi [Treaties between Smolensk and Riga: 13th – First Half of the 14th Century: Documents of the Complex Moscowitica–Ruthenica about Relations between Smolensk and Riga]. Riga.

Ivanovs, A., and A. Varfolomeyev (2005). Editing and Exploratory Analysis of Medieval Documents by Means of XML Technologies. In Humanities, Computers and Cultural Heritage. Amsterdam: KNAW, pp. 155-60.

Krötzsch, M., et al. (2007). Semantic Wikipedia. Journal of Web Semantics 5( 4): 251–61.

Shotton, D., et al. (2009). Adventures in Semantic Publishing: Exemplar Semantic Enhancements of a Research Article. PLoS Computational Biology 5( 4): e1000361. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000361 (accessed 14 March 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1529","13","Words made Image. Towards a Language-Based Segmentation of Digitized Art Collections","1","Words made Image. Towards a Language-Based Segmentation of Digitized Art Collections
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Armaselu, Florentina, ZoomImagine, Germany, armaselu@ymail.com
introduction
Within the framework of computer vision, the field of image segmentation is becoming increasingly important for a set of applications aiming to an understanding of the visual content, like object recognition and content-based image retrieval. The goal of the segmentation process is to identify contiguous regions of interest in a digitized image and to assign labels to the pixels corresponding to each identified area. While most of today’s searching capabilities are based on metadata (keywords and caption) attached to the image as a whole, one can observe a tendency towards more meaning-oriented approaches intending to split the analyzed image into semantically annotated objects.

From this perspective, research efforts have been dedicated, on one hand, to the task of automated image annotation (Barnard et al. 2003; Johnson 2008; Leong & Mihalcea 2009; Leong et al. 2010), and on the other hand, to the construction of semi-automatically annotated datasets used for supervised image processing (MSRC-v2; Russel, Torralba et al. 2008; CBCL StreetScenes; PASCAL VOC 2007; Welinder et al. 2010). The visual data used for automated annotation may consist, for instance, in images extracted from the Web and the surrounding text in the html pages used as a source of candidate labels (Leong and Mihalcea; Leong et al.). The datasets are mainly derived from digital photographs with the goal to allow recognition of objects belonging to a number of classes like person, animal, vehicle, indoor (Pascal VOC), pedestrians, cars, buildings, road (CBCL StreetScenes), birds species (Caltech- UCSD Birds 200) or to categories interactively defined by users in a Web-based annotation environment (LabelMe).

Our proposal is related to the latter group of applications, i.e. the construction of an interactively annotated dataset of art images (to our knowledge a category less represented in the field), taking into account the textual descriptions of the images intended for analysis. The set of images for segmentation will include digitized icons on themes described in the Painter’s Manual by Dionysius of Fourna. The choice was not arbitrary, given the highly canonical nature of the Byzantine and Orthodox iconography, almost unchanged for centuries, and the close relationship between the text and the pictorial content of the associated icon. Another reason concerns the potential for subsequent applications of learning algorithms to the segmentation of new sets of icons depicting the same themes (and therefore relatively similar content), starting from the initial annotated training set. The choice of a largely circulated text like the Painter’s Manual, translated in several languages, may also serve as a basis for multilingual annotation of the dataset.

the experiment
The project consists in the use of two types of software, one intended to the segmentation of the visual content, the other to the processing of the textual fragments in order to provide the user with candidate labels for the annotation of the segments. The experiment described below makes use of two open source Java packages, GemIdent – a statistical image segmentation system, initially designed to identify cell phenotypes in microscopic images (Holmes et al. 2009), and the Stanford parser, a natural language statistical parser for English, which can be adapted to work with other languages such as German, French, Chinese and Arabic. Figure 1 presents the original image, The Baptism of Christ (Nes 2004: 66), and the corresponding text from the Painter’s Manual book.

Figure 1 a
Figure 1 a: ‘The Baptism of Christ’. b: The Baptism of Christ (Dionysius of Fourna 1996: 33). Greek variant. Cretan school. Egg tempera on pine. 78.5 x 120 cm (1989) (Nes 2004: 66)

The image processing involved two phases of colour and phenotype (class or category of objects to be distinguished) training and a phase of segmentation (classification) (see Fig. 2). In the phase of colour training (a), the user can define a set of colours, according to their importance in the analyzed image, by selecting sample points on the image for each colour. We defined four colours: Amber, Blue, Brown, and Yellow. The phenotype training (b) implied the choice of representative points for every object in the picture that should be identified by the program in the segmentation phase. From the processed text with the Stanford parser, we used the following nouns as objects labels: angel, bank, Christ, fish, Forerunner, Holy_Spirit, Jordan, ray, and word. For each phenotype, a colour for the corresponding segment was also chosen (b, c). The program required as well the specification of a NON-phenotype, i.e. an area in the image which does not include any of the above defined objects, in our case the black background representing the sky in the picture.

Figure 2
Figure 2: GemIdent. a. Colour training; b. Phenotype training; c. Segmented image

One can observe that the result of the segmentation process (c) is not perfect. There are small regions belonging to a segment but included in another object: for instance, the light blue (Forerunner) and red (Christ) areas inside the angel objects. GemIdent allows error correction and re-segmentation in order to improve the segmentation process. Although more tests are needed, the results obtained so far seem to indicate a performance depending on the colour selection (tests with same theme pictures, using the trained colour set without colour training on the new pictures, showed less satisfactory results), and on the number and position of the sample points for the phenotype training (ranging from 20 points for small objects like word to 150 for larger objects like bank; selection of sample points from border areas adjacent to different objects seem also particularly important).

On the other hand, the experiment supposed the use of the Type dependency Viewer to visualize the grammatical relationships produced by the Stanford parser, according to the typed dependencies model (Marneffe & Manning 2011). Figure 3 presents the parsing results on the Dionysius of Fourna’s text. The directed edges in the graphs show the dependencies between a governor element (or head) and a dependent, both corresponding to words in the sentence. The edge labels express the grammatical relations between the two words. For example, nsubj refers to a nominal subject relation between a verb (standing, surround) and the syntactic subject of a clause (Christ, fish). Similarly, pobj, dobj connect a preposition (in, of, to) with its object – the head of a noun phrase following the preposition (midst, Jordan, head, Christ) – or, respectively, a verb (surround) and its direct object (Christ). Other relations may refer to adverbial, prepositional or relative clause modifiers (advmod, prep, rcmod), determiners (det), coordination (cc), conjunct (conj), undetermined dependency (dep), etc.

Figure 3
Figure 3: Stanford parser results displayed using the Typed dependency viewer. Excerpts. The Baptism of Christ (Dionysius of Fourna 1996: 33)

A parallel between the pictorial and textual representation of The Baptism of Christ may be further explored. The introductory sentence describing Christ, as a subject of the clause, standing in the midst of the Jordan, is actually pointing to the central figure of the painting. Prepositional or adverbial phrases (such as to the right, to the left, above, below) act as mediators positioning the other elements in the icon relatively to the central figure. Likewise, Christ occurrences in the text as direct or prepositional object (of verbs like rest, descend, look back, surround) are emphasising the ‘focal point’ projection towards which all the other agents’ actions in the pictorial composition seem to converge.

further development
Since the project is a work in progress, further development will be required:

more tests, involving new sets of images and associated art-historical description or annotation in another language (if translated variants of the text and an adapted parser for that language are available); tests using similar tools, as the Fiji/ImageJ segmentation plugins, result analysis and comparison with other approaches like, for example, the computer-assisted detection of legal gestures in medieval manuscripts (Schlecht et al. 2011);
extension of the segmentation process and encoding to include language-based information, i.e. not only objects labels (nouns) but also dependencies reflecting the objects relationships in the textual description (relative positioning, actions agents and objects, by means of verbs, adjectival, adverbial, prepositional modifiers), as they are captured by the pictorial content;
implementation of a semi-automatic tool combining segmentation and parsing capabilities as in the presented experiment; the tool and images corpus will be available on line so that potential users (students, teachers, researchers in art history or image analysis) can reproduce the results or use them in their own applications.
The DH 2012 presentation will focus on the preliminary stage aspects of the project, e.g. general framework, goals and expectations, experiments and partial results, tools and data choices, model design, more than on an overall quantitative and qualitative results analysis.

references
Barnard, K., et al. (2003). Matching Words with Pictures. Journal of Machine Learning Research 3.

CBCL StreetScenes. http://cbcl.mit.edu/software-datasets/streetscenes (accessed 25 March 2012).

Typed Dependency Viewer. http://tydevi.sourceforge.net/ (accessed 25 March 2012).

MSRC-v2 image database, 23 object classes. Microsoft Research Cambridge. http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/projects/ObjectClassRecognition (accessed 25 March 2012).

Dionysius of Fourna (1996). The Painter’s manual. 1989, 1996, Torrance, CA : Oakwood Publications.

Fiji, http://fiji.sc/wiki/index.php/Fiji (accessed 25 March 2012).

Holmes, S., A. Kapelner, and P. P. Lee (2009). An Interactive Java Statistical Image Segmentation System: GemIdent. Journal of Statistical Software 30(10).

Johnson, M. A. (2008). Semantic Segmentation and Image Search. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Cambridge.

Leong, C. W., and R. Mihalcea (2009). Exploration in Automatic Image Annotation using Textual Features. Proceedings of the Third Linguistic Annotation Workshop, ACL-IJCNLP 2009, Singapore, pp. 56-59.

Leong, C. W., R. Mihalcea, and S. Hassan (2010). The Mining for Automatic Image Tagging. Coding 2010, Poster Volume, Beijing, pp. 647-655.

De Marneffe, M.-C., and C. D. Manning (2011). Stanford typed dependencies manual. http://nlp.stanford.edu/software/dependencies_manual.pdf (accessed 25 March 2012).

Nes, S. (2009). The Mystical Language of Icons. Michigan/Cambridge, UK: Eerdmans Publishing.

The PASCAL VOC. (2007). http://pascallin.ecs.soton.ac.uk/challenges/VOC/voc2007 (accessed 25 March 2012).

The Stanford Parser. http://nlp.stanford.edu/software/lex-parser.shtml (accessed 25 March 2012).

Russell, B. C., A. Torralba, K. P. Murphy, and W. T. Freeman (2008).  LabelMe: a database and web-based tool for image annotation. International Journal of Computer Vision 77(1-3): 157-173.

Schlecht J., B. Carqué, and B. Ommer (2011). Detecting Gestures in Medieval Images. IEEE International Conference on Image Processing (ICIP 2011), September 11-14, Brussels, Belgium. http://hci.iwr.uni-heidelberg.de/COMPVIS/research/gestures/ICIP11.pdf (accessed 25 March 2012).

Welinder, P., et al. (2010). Caltech-UCSD Birds 200, California Institute of Technology, CNS-TR-2010-001. http://vision.caltech.edu/visipedia/CUB-200.html (accessed 25 March 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1530","13","Workflows as Structured Surfaces","1","Workflows as Structured Surfaces
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Radzikowska, Milena, Mount Royal University, Canada, mradzikowska@gmail.com
Ruecker, Stan, IIT Institute of Design, USA, sruecker@id.iit.edu
Rockwell, Geoffrey, University of Alberta, Canada, grockwel@ualberta.ca
Brown, Susan, University of Guelph, Canada, susanirenebrown@gmail.com
Frizzera, Luciano, University of Alberta, Canada, lucaju@me.com
INKE Research Group, University of Alberta, Canada, sruecker@id.iit.edu
At DH 2011 in Stanford, we introduced the concept of structured surfaces, where we extended the metaphor of interactive digital pins on a digital map into interactive digital pins on any data visualization (Radzikowska et al. 2011). We proposed that such structured surfaces would provide a means for people working with digital collections to gain insight into their material while also providing them a means of formulating an argument about the data.

More recently, in considering scholarly editions, we became interested in how the concept of the structured surface could be applied to the editorial process – in effect, producing an interface derived from the flowchart of activities that an editor can use to manage the movement of a submitted article or other item of text (such as a book review) through the stages from its initial appearance in the editor’s inbox to the final step where it is ready to send to the printer.

Accordingly, we have designed and are in the process of producing experimental prototypes of a series of these workflow interfaces for different kinds of editorial jobs, including the publication of journal articles, the writing of XML-encoded original material based on Orlando biocritical entries on women writers, and the editing of a scholarly edition (e.g. Figure 1). In these designs, the structured surface consists of the flowchart used by the editor, and the pins represent the articles, with size of pin indicating length of article in words.

Figure 1
Figure 1: This workflow diagram shows the movement of a journal article through the publication process from the perspective of the journal editor who is managing that process

Numerous other systems exist for managing workflow in the context of digital text production, such as that devised by the Public Knowledge Project for its Open Journal Systems and its Open Monograph Systems. The interfaces here seek to retain the modularity and customizability associated with such systems but to combine them with a rich prospect visualization (Ruecker, Radzikowska & Sinclair 2011) of the collection being managed than has hitherto been implemented. Recent work in computing science has focused both on workflow analysis (e.g. Schroeder 2009) and on algorithms for automatic layout (e.g. Albrecht et al. 2010).

However, a workflow management tool, as useful it might be to the editor who has not had the advantage of using one yet, is in itself not a particularly interesting object. It is essentially a structured checklist, composed of a collection of stages with transitions, including occasional decision points between them. But once such a concept is available for interrogation, it can begin to introduce additional considerations.

For example, why is the structure of the stages limited to a simple bucket? Would it not be useful to be able to distinguish different kinds of material moving through the system? It might possible, for instance, to automatically identify file types so that digital text is treated one way by the tool, while digital film is treated another. Or the editor may wish to produce a variant of the workflow for book reviews as opposed to peer-reviewed articles. So we have begun to experiment with ways of visually structuring the boxes that represent stages (Figure 2).

Figure 2
Figure 2: An initial attempt to turn the workflow stage itself into a kind of structured surface

Once we have the concept of the system automatically doing something to the documents, it is a short step to recalling that the original goal of the structured surface project was to provide the user with a set of analytics in the form of a data visualization and an argument made by the superimposition of pins. In that context, it seems reasonable to consider what kinds of analytical processes might be applicable to various stages within the workflow, and also what kind of information might be useful to the editor at each stage. For example, when an article is with a reviewer, the editor is likely to be primarily interested in the following information:

the title of the article
the name and contact information of the reviewer
the dates when the article went to the reviewer and when it is expected back
A rollover of the pin within the ‘at the reviewer’ stage should therefore by default produce this list of information, with access to further information relegated to the ‘more…’ link. At the next stage, however, when the article is back from the reviewer(s), what the editor would like to know is the results of the review. A rollover of the pin while in that bucket should therefore produce the title of the article and the name of the reviewer(s), but also the contents of the review.

On the analytics side, there may be processes (like reviewing) where the article is passed to another person, but there may also be processes where the article is passed to some algorithmic treatment, such as an automated step of metadata enhancement where the system makes the first pass at named entity recognition for people and places. Since one of the affordances of the JiTR environment is that any collection or subset of a collection can be passed to a tool, perhaps the contents of the stages within the workflow could serve as subsets for this kind of treatment. An editor might then, for instance, decide to take a look at a KWIC concordance for a term in every article in the ‘accepted’ bucket for the current edition, or run a word cloud on all the articles that have been accepted or rejected. The wordcloud of acceptances might provide some guidance in writing an introductory editorial, for instance, while the latter might help the editor see whether there is a gap in reviewer expertise at work. Support for these sorts of curiosity-driven activities within the editorial process itself has the potential to change the nature of the task in a variety of ways.

Finally, the concept of an interface that combines workflow management with analytics is of considerable interested to the Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory (CWRC) project, which seeks to lower the bar to participation in online resource creation and enhancement by mainstream scholars without significant expertise in digital humanities, and in so doing lower the overhead of producing scholarly materials on the web. In order to ensure quality control within a system such as CWRC’s, a workflow process needs to be highly intuitive as well as modular, robust, and well integrated with other interface components. For these reasons, CWRC is experimenting with the structured surfaces interface and the JiTR environment as a major component of its interface, seeing the potential of it for managing everything from query results to worflow management to membership coordination. The CWRC project has presented the interface to Collaboratory members at two workshops this year and is extending the prototype to handle Orlando-like workflows and interact with an external workflow engine.

This presentation will outline the transfer of the structured surface concept to workflows, show the sketches and demonstrate the prototypes, and report on user feedback to date. It will provide an analysis of the implications of this approach to supporting the editorial process, suggesting that there are a number of potential new affordances that make the workflow a useful addition to the editor’s toolbox. An interface which integrates a tightly defined workflow alongside the ability to invoke other tools, we argue, can also encourage new kinds of thinking about possible improvements or additions to the workflow.

references
Albrecht, B., P. Effinger, M. Held, and M. Kaufmann (2010). An automatic layout algorithm for BPEL processes. Proceedings of the 5th international symposium on Software visualization (SOFTVIS ’10). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 173-182. DOI=10.1145/1879211.1879237 http://doi.acm.org.login.ezproxy.library.ualberta.ca/10.1145/1879211.1879237

Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory.  http://www.cwrc.ca

Open Journal Systems Documentation. pkp.sfu.ca/files/OJSinanHour.pdf

Open Monograph Project. http://pkp.sfu.ca/omp

Orlando Project. http://orlando.cambridge.org

Radzikowska, M., S. Ruecker, S. Brown, P. Organisciak, and the INKE Research Group (2011). Structured Surfaces for JiTR. Paper presented at the Digital Humanities 2011 conference. Stanford, June 19-21, 2011.  

Ruecker, S., M. Radzikowska, and S. Sinclair (2011). Visual Interface Design for Digital Cultural Heritage: A Guide to Rich-Prospect Browsing. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing.

Schroeder, W. (2009). New tools for task workflow analysis. Proceedings of the 27th international conference extended abstracts on Human factors in computing systems (CHI EA ’09). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 3877-3882. DOI=10.1145/1520340.1520587 http://doi.acm.org.login.ezproxy.library.ualberta.ca/10.1145/1520340.1520587.","txt","2","",""
"1531","13","Writing with Sound: Composing Multimodal, Long-Form Scholarship","1","Writing with Sound: Composing Multimodal, Long-Form Scholarship
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Sayers, Jentery, University of Victoria, Canada, jentery@uvic.ca
Historically speaking, the fields of digital humanities and media studies have remained parallel at best, with the former anchored more in computational practices and technical competencies than the latter. However, recent work – such as Sharon Daniel’s ‘Public Secrets’ (2007), Kathleen Fitzpatrick’s Planned Obsolescence (2011), Matthew Kirschenbaum’s Mechanisms (2008), Kari Kraus’s ‘Conjectural Criticism’ (2009), and Lev Manovich’s cultural analytics (2012) – suggestively troubles this parallelism. From the vantage of media studies, digital humanities allows scholars to shift from commenting about new media and technologies to constructing arguments with and through them (McPherson 2009: 120). Informed by claims from experience and anchored in embodied acts of building, digital humanities arguments necessarily become ‘hands on,’ and scholarly distance from technologies no longer holds. Meanwhile, media studies investments in cultural criticism and situated knowledge-making are increasingly important to today’s digital humanities practitioners, involved such as they are in multimodal communication (e.g., interactive visualizations, geospatial representations, rich exhibits, and gaming). For instance, Alan Liu argues that ‘digital humanities should enter into fuller dialogue with the adjacent fields of new media studies and media archaeology so as to extend reflection on core instrumental technologies in cultural and historical directions’ (Liu 2012: 501, emphasis added). This fuller dialogue would enhance the field’s awareness of how work with technologies and data intersects with the relevant social, economic, and political issues of our time. Assuming those conversations are inevitable (and that media studies and digital humanities should continue to overlap and intersect), a key question thus emerges: what would be an appropriate platform for such forms of scholarly communication? How would it function, and under what assumptions about how digital humanities and media studies are practiced?

With these questions in mind, this talk uses the author’s ongoing book project (tentatively titled, How Text Lost Its Source: Magnetic Recording Cultures) to present his findings on the yet-to-be-released Scalar platform. Supported by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation and the U.S. National Endowment for the Humanities, Scalar is designed for authoring and publishing multimodal books. Built using PHP ARC2 (a MySQL-based Semantic Web/RDF framework), HTML, CSS, jQuery, XLST, Dublin Core, and other ontologies including SIOC, it enables users to assemble media (e.g., audio files) from multiple sources and juxtapose them with their own writing. The platform particularly facilitates work with visual materials; however, it also lends itself to audio, which is central to the history articulated in How Text Lost Its Source. Throughout the talk, ‘multimodal’ is preferred over ‘multimedia’ because the term stresses systems of ‘sensory or perceptual experience’ over the ‘means of conveying [or storing] a representation’ (Anastopoulou, Baber & Sharples 2001). And in the particular case of a Scalar book, it assumes that: (1) attention behaviors such as reading, watching, and listening are not inherent to or determined by a medium, (2) digital communication frequently entails blending approaches to composition (e.g., through images, audio, video, text, and databases), (3) layers of digital content are materially distinct and yet function relationally, and (4) scholarly interpretation demands several sensory modes (e.g., listening closely, scanning, and clicking).

The author’s preliminary findings on Scalar show that, most importantly, it encourages reflexive approaches to the computational processes involved in digital humanities research. Influenced by the work of LaDona Knigge and Meghan Cope (2006) as well as Mei-Po Kwan (2002), the author organizes these findings according to how Scalar fosters: (1) exploratory research across multiple archives, (2) iterative and recursive argumentation, (3) an oscillation between abstract and concrete expressions, and (4) multiple interpretations of media and cultural history. Throughout, an emphasis is placed on juxtaposing critical writing with the critical use of audio in Scalar, including a few demonstrations of How Text Lost Its Source. 

In the case of exploratory research across multiple archives, the platform is persuasive because it affords composites of text, audio, video, and images drawn from the various histories of magnetic recording, enabling the author to represent audio across the material specificities of multiple media (rather than reducing audio to simply sound or text). It also allows historical evidence to be modeled and exhibited independently of the author’s writing (e.g., audiences can navigate all audio files collected for the history without reading the author’s interpretations). However, any given audio file in a Scalar book can be annotated through discrete, time-stamped commentary by the author, and this commentary is displayed within the medium’s own temporality. While such features are now typical in visual culture (e.g., annotating lexia in Commentpress or tagging an image in Flickr), few such mechanisms exist for the scholarly treatment of sound.

Additionally, Scalar facilitates iterative and recursive expression because it not only keeps a version history of all contributions and makes that history public; it also allows authors to duplicate media content (e.g., a magnetic tape recording) in another context and then re-evaluate it. Evidence in a scholarly argument thus becomes subject to constant re-visitation and re-use (e.g., the same tape recording is interpreted several times), underscoring the fact that media histories emerge from multiple (and often conflicting) perspectives, worldviews, and accounts. Importantly, these media – together with the author’s writing – are presented throughout a Scalar book both in the aggregate and in the particular. Using RDF/XML and D3.js dynamic visualizations, any single instance (i.e., anything with a URL) in the book can be situated in relation to the balance of the content. Consequently, the book’s historical materials are structured and expressed in such a way that they can be studied in isolation but cannot exist independently. And when a book is modeled effectively, its audiences can study complex cultural relationships (e.g., between two audio files) established by the author. Importantly, such relationships are frequently constructed and encoded based on what has not been written or recorded in media history. While RDF/XML and D3.js help scholars organize and convey it, no computational practices exist (as of yet) for mining or visualizing implicit content, especially in the case of sound.    

Finally, the Scalar platform excels at fostering various interpretations of media history by allowing audiences to – in the fashion of context-sensitive design – select how a book’s content is viewed. These views range from ‘text-only’ and ‘media-emphasis’ to a radial visualization, a force-directed graph, and a history browser. Again, this array of perspectives brushes against any totalizing account of media history, the cultural history of magnetic recording included. It also destabilizes a scholar’s authority over an audience’s interpretation as it allows them to arrange and re-arrange content. Such an emphasis on the constructedness of arguments is especially key in a moment when visualizations are gaining traction in the field. The dynamic juxtapositions of writing and media in Scalar – D3 visualizations among them – actively demonstrate how our data and content are taken, not given (Drucker 2011). They also facilitate robust and often contradictory accounts of material histories, where scholars can: (1) argue with and through the media they study; (2) present material relationally and discretely, either with or without commentary; (3) author within a medium’s temporality; (4) exhibit the otherwise ignored processes of research and revision; (5) duplicate and interpret media in multiple contexts; and (6) underscore the contingent character of historical artifacts, to such an extent that any complete description of a given media object is difficult to say the least.

references
Anastopoulou, S., C. Baber, and M. Sharples (2001). Multimedia and Multimodal Systems: Commonalities and Differences. Proceedings of the 5th Human Centred Technology Postgraduate Workshop. University of Sussex. http://www.syros.aegean.gr/users/manast/Pubs/Pub_conf/C03/C03.pdf.

Daniel, S. (2007). Public Secrets. Vectors 2(2). http://vectors.usc.edu/index.php?page=7&projectId=57.

Drucker, J. (2011). Humanities Approaches to Graphical Display. Digital Humanities Quarterly 5(1). http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/5/1/000091/000091.html.

Fitzpatrick, K. (2011). Planned Obsolescence: Publishing, Technology, and the Future of the Academy. New York: New York UP.   

Kirschenbaum, M. (2008). Mechanisms: New Media and the Forensic Imagination. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Knigge, LaDona, and M. Cope (2004). Grounded Visualization: Integrating the Analysis of Qualitative and Quantitative Data through Grounded Theory and Visualization. Environment and Planning A 38(11): 2021-2037. 

Kraus, K. (2009). Conjectural Criticism: Computing Past and Future Texts. Digital Humanities Quarterly 3(4). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/4/ 000069/000069.html.

Kwan, M.-P. (2002). Feminist Visualization: Re-envisioning GIS as a Method in Feminist Geographic Research. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 92: 645-661.

Liu, A. (2012). Where Is Cultural Criticism in the Digital Humanities? In M. K. Gold (ed.), Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, pp. 490-509.

Manovich, L. (2012). Trending: the Promises and the Challenges of Big Social Data. In M. K. Gold (ed.), Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, pp. 460-475.

McPherson, T. (2009). Media Studies and the Digital Humanities. Cinema Journal 48(2): 119-123.","txt","2","",""
"1532","13","XML-Print: an Ergonomic Typesetting System for Complex Text Structures","1","XML-Print: an Ergonomic Typesetting System for Complex Text Structures
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Sievers, Martin, Trier Center for Digital Humanities (Kompetenzzentrum), Germany, sievers@uni-trier.de
Burch, Thomas, Trier Center for Digital Humanities (Kompetenzzentrum), Germany, burch@uni-trier.de
Küster, Marc W., Worms University of Applied Sciences, Germany, kuester@fh-worms.de
Moulin, Claudine, Trier Center for Digital Humanities (Kompetenzzentrum), Germany, moulin@uni-trier.de
Rapp, Andrea, TU Darmstadt, Germany, rapp@linglit.tu-darmstadt.de
Schwarz, Roland, Worms University of Applied Sciences, Germany, schwarzr@uni-trier.de
Gan, Yu, Trier Center for Digital Humanities (Kompetenzzentrum), Germany, gany2d01@uni-trier.de
introduction
The software XML-Print is used to typeset arbitrary XML files. The joint research project is funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG) for the period starting 1 March 2010 to 28 February 2014. It is a key component of the TextGridLab, which has been under continuous development since 2008.1

XML-Print supports users in formatting their semantically annotated data rule­based and in outputting a high-quality PDF document. Based on existing standards like XSL (XSLT and XSL-FO), Unicode and OpenType, a modern graphical user interface offers different kinds of layout options. Those are then processed by a newly developed typesetting engine using the functional programming language F#.

scholarly typesetting
XML-Print targets in particular specific challenges from the typesetting of scholarly texts such as critical editions, multilingual synoptic editions or scholarly dictionaries.

Taking the example of critical editions as a key product of philological research, they regular attempt to fully describing alternative existing witnesses of the text (old manuscripts, early prints, etc.) and fully covering the genesis of the text (authorial or scribal additions, deletions, comments, etc.).

Critical editions in print use specific layout conventions. The editor notes witnesses in one apparatus and often adds their explanations in a critical apparatus which constitutes a fourth ﬂow on the page. More complex layouts can include more critical apparatus and/or annotations in margins. Other challenges beyond the ‘normal’ typesetting tasks include in particular synoptic prints, marginalia with complex references, unusual or non-standard characters and symbols, including those not (yet) present in the Unicode specifications etc.

state of the art
Many humanities scholars have started to encode their work as XML files. The TEI guidelines have been a major contribution to that. However, when it comes to the stage of publication often problems arise: What tool should be used for that? There are of course well-known solutions: Open-source typesetting engines like TeX (Knuth, 1986) and TUSTEP (Ott, 1979) can be ‘programmed’ to convert large amounts of XML data somehow into their own markup language and then into an output format, typically PDF. However both batch systems need an experienced and skilled user in order to get high-quality results. Very often individual and highly specialized extensions have to be added, in particular in view of the challenges of non-standard typesetting requirements such as multiple apparatus. In addition these systems suffer from the problem of content mixed up with formatting information.

Apart from batch systems many proprietary ‘WYSIWYG’ software came up through the years, e.g. the Critical Edition Typesetter (CET) and the Classical Text Editor (CTE). These are, however, mostly isolated solutions with data – once input and annotated – ‘getting lost’ in a proprietary format.

From the commercial ‘desktop publishing’ sector Adobe InDesign is a reasonable choice using its own XML format as a medium step, but it lacks in the implementation of scientific printing. The same is valid for office suites which are not meant for high-quality typesetting of scientific content.

More about the requirements of scientific typesetting and existing solutions can be found in Küster and Ludwig (2008).

functionality
The following use case is a typical example for the publication of an XML file using XML-Print: A scholar has a critical edition encoded in XML and wants to present a first printed version to their colleagues. In order to do so they have to perform the following steps:

Identify different structures and think about corresponding ways of formatting, e.g. for chapters, sections, footnotes, paragraphs etc.
Create a format for each of the identified structures. Set sizes, spaces, text decorations and other attributes as needed. Modify the standard format if necessary.
Use the mapping dialog to select pairs of XML elements and formats.
Start the integrated typesetting engine to get a PDF document.
If necessary, make changes to the XML source and/or alter formats and mappings.
Figure 1 illustrates the overall data ﬂow.

Figure 1
Figure 1: Data ﬂow in XML-Print: The user decides on the formatting of an annotated XML text with the help of a GUI (front-end). Those information are then merged into a XSL-FO+ file and converted into an internal intermediate format for typesetting (back-end). At last the renderer outputs a PDF file (or any other supported format)

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

A user-friendly and modern GUI is essential for the acceptance by the ‘community’ (cf. Nielsen 1993; Warwick et al. 2011). To make integration into the toolbox of the TextGridLab easier, the front-end has been implemented as an Eclipse plug-in using the Rich Client Platform (RCP) technology. It offers ways to select different layout options which are then incorporated into a dynamic XSLT stylesheet to generate an XSL-FO+ file. This format is based on the standard XSL-FO, but continuously extended where needed.2

Figure 2 shows the user’s view on the XML-Print GUI.

Figure 2
Figure 2: The user’s view on the GUI of XML-Print is tripartite: On the left the XML tree can be expanded while the formats are listed on the right. The middle part links those both together by mappings

Formats

Each format is a set of XSL-FO+ attributes. They determine the concrete rendering later on by the typesetting engine. The attributes are divided into categories inspired by the XSL-FO terminology (block, inline, footnote etc.) to easily navigate through. This idea was derived from similar software familiar to many users. This way the user can set all appropriate values as needed.

New formats can be created and existing ones may be copied, edited or deleted. The complete set of formats can then be saved and transferred to another scholar or can be used for any other XML-Print project.

Mappings

Each XML element can be mapped to a format. Different attribute values can be considered as well, e.g. to distinguish <note type=”footnoteA”> from <note type=”footnoteB”>. The selection of corresponding structures can be easily done directly on the XML tree. Alternatively an arbitrary XPath expression can be used.

Mappings can not only be created, edited and deleted, but also deactivated for testing purposes. A rank order is also established to allow the scholar to use overlapping mappings, i.e. XML structures belonging to more than one mapping.

Typesetting Engine

The disadvantages of existing approaches stated in section 3 led to the decision for a completely new typesetting engine. Established algorithms like the one by Knuth and Plass (1981) are combined with new ideas (cf. Brüggemann-Klein et al. 2003) and open-source libraries like Hunspell and iText are incorporated by a functional approach using the programming language F# as part of the .NET framework and its implementation both under Microsoft .NET and its open-source, cross-platform counterpart Mono.

Functional programming coexists with imperative programming for quite some time3, but was often considered to be too ‘academic’. This has, however, changed over the last years not least because of some important advantages arising from the different approach on modern multicore systems that are available everywhere: no side effects, better evaluation techniques and strong abilities for modularization and parallelism (see e.g. Hughes 1990).

Of course, all essential features of recent typesetting engines are to be implemented, i.e. good line and page breaking, support of OpenType fonts, ﬂoating objects, tables, lists etc. For the underlying access to OpenType fonts and PDF generation we leverage existing cross-platform, open-source libraries such as iTeXtSharp. The main focus, however, has been on those algorithms which substantially improve the quality compared to existing programs. Thus we have already implemented an interface to typeset an arbitrary number of footnotes and apparatus. Other important and requested features are multi-column layout, especially parallel text, and marginals.

The resulting program can be run stand-alone (batch mode) or integrated in the Eclipse plug-in. A Web service will be offered as well.

Figure 3 shows an example of an XML-Print output.


Figure 3
Figure 3: Resulting output of the typesetting engine: Apart from paragraph handling and the use of different fonts the two different types of ‘notes’ (<note type=”footnoteA”> <note type=”footnoteB”>)are both set as footnotes. They are sorted and numbered automatically according to their corresponding format

further enhancement
XML-Print has been released as an alpha version and is tested by researchers of different projects, e.g. for a volume of selected letters of Kurt Schwitters (cf. project’s web site, 2011 and figure 3). The typesetting engine as well as the GUI are continuously enhanced, taking into account new user requirements. By extending the attributes for formatting and user-friendly ways, e.g. to generate registers, tables or the type area, XML-Print will offer more and more features to researchers. The development process continues bipartite: On the one hand the support of all standard XSL-FO elements and basic typesetting functionality has to be completed and maybe adapted to a new specification or other output formats, on the other hand advanced algorithms for more complex problems will be developed and implemented.

Within the next months the following tasks will be targeted:

Continuous work on typographic requirements based on ‘real life examples’
Integration of the open-source tool xindy for indexes
Implementation of more output formats, especially PDF variants like PDF-X and PDF-A
Development of a preview mode to allow faster response to minor changes
With the integration into TextGridLab another large group of new users will get in touch with the software and help to improve it.

references
Brüggemann-Klein, A., R. Klein, and S. Wohlfeil (2003). On the Pagination of Complex Documents. In R. Klein, H. Six and L. Wegner (eds.), Computer Science in Perspective. Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 49-68.

Hughes, J. (1990). Why Functional Programming Matters. In D. Turner D. (ed.), Research Topics in Functional Programming. Reading: Addison-Wesley, pp. 17-42. http://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/people/staff/dat/miranda/whyfp90.pdf (accessed 13 March 2012). First published 1989: 10.1093/comjnl/32.2.98

Knuth, D. E. (1986). The TeXbook. Reading: Addison-Wesley.

Knuth, D. E., and M. F. Plass (1981). Breaking paragraphs into lines, Journal Software: Practice and Experience 1111: 1119–1184.

Küster, M. W., and C. Ludwig (2007). Publishing. http://www.textgrid.de/fileadmin/TextGrid/reports/TextGrid-R1_4_Publishing.pdf (accessed 13 March 2012).

Nielsen, J. (1993). Usability Engineering. London: Academic Press.

Ott, W. (1979). A Text Processing System for the Preparation of Critical Editions. Computers and the Humanities 13(1): 29–35.

Warwick, C., M. Terras, P. Huntington, N. Pappa, and I. Galina (2006). The LAIRAH Project. Log Analysis of Digital Resources in the Arts and Humanities. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/infostudies/claire-warwick/publications/LAIRAHreport.pdf (accessed 13 March 2012).

Wie Kritik zur Kunst wird. Project web site, http://www.avl.uni-wuppertal.de/forschung/projekte/wie-kritik-zu-kunst-wird.html (accessed 13 March 2012).

notes
1.Version 1.0 of the TextGridLab was released in July 2011.

2.There are many attributes intended for XSL-FO 2.0 (e.g. fo:marginalia) and other structures not even specified there. We had to add attributes, e.g. for the placement of footnote apparatus. See the requirements and the latest version of the XSL-FO working draft for more examples.

3.Lisp was the first functional-flavored language in the late 1950s. Modern examples apart from F# are Scala, Haskell and XSLT.","txt","2","",""
"1533","13","A Digital Approach to Sound Symbolism in English: Evidence from the Historical Thesaurus","2","A Digital Approach to Sound Symbolism in English: Evidence from the Historical Thesaurus
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Alexander, Marc, University of Glasgow, UK, marc.alexander@glasgow.ac.uk
Kay, Christian, University of Glasgow, UK, christian.kay@glasgow.ac.uk
This poster examines the phenomenon of sound symbolism, or phonaesthesia, in the history of English. Using digital humanities techniques applied to the database of the Historical Thesaurus of English (Kay et al. 2009; hereafter abbreviated to HT), it presents numerical evidence for the existence of five particular sound-clusters which carry specific meanings in English, and contrasts these with traditional analyses carried out manually in previous years by other scholars. The poster presents some word-initial phonaestheme clusters alongside examples of concepts realised by that cluster, alongside figures showing how many words in that conceptual category are phonaesthetically influenced.

phonaesthesia
The general topic under study is the claim that certain sound-clusters in English convey independent meanings, and that these clusters influence the meaning of those words that contain them (see, inter alia, Hinton et al. 1994; Kay & Wotherspoon 2002; Reay 1991, 2006). For example, the cluster <sw-> is often mentioned as occuring at the start of words indicating movement through air (swoop, sweep, swoosh, swash, swat) in an imitative fashion, meaning that new words starting with that cluster will be affected by its meaning. As Michael Samuels states, the ‘validity of a phonestheme is, in the first instance, contextual only: if it fits the meaning of the word in which it occurs, it reinforces the meaning, and conversely, the more words in which this occurs, the more its own meaning is strengthened’ (Samuels 1972: 46).

This phenomenon is commonly discussed in lexical semantics and lexicography, and while there are theoretical arguments for and against its strength of effect in English, it is ripe for an empirical and digital investigation. Previous studies have relied on dictionary data, or on an analyst’s own introspection. A new style of investigation has recently been made possible, however, by the completion of the HT, from which we take our data.

the data
The HT, published in 2009, is the world’s largest thesaurus and the most complete thesaurus of English, arranging into hierarchical semantic categories all 800,000 recorded meanings expressed in the language from Anglo-Saxon times to the present. These are put into very fine-grained semantic categories, specifying precisely the word’s sense alongside attestation dates for that meaning. As an example, the word broadsword is recorded as being a type of sword and so is within that particular category (a category which exists seven layers of hierarchy down into the HT taxonomy). Moving upwards, all the words for swords, knives, daggers, etc exist within the larger category of side-arms, itself within the category of a sharp weapon (adjacent to club/stick and other blunt weapons), which is a sub-type of weapon, which is a form of military equipment, used in the enactment of armed hostility, which is a phenomenon which arises from society, one of the three top-level categories of the HT. All the recorded words in English are arranged in this way, permitting a fine-grained look at the relationship between word form and meaning. This makes the HT database ideal for a study of this type.

methodology
The underlying HT database (see Kay & Chase 1987; Wotherspoon 1992, 2010), held at the University of Glasgow, is therefore a massive computational resource for analyzing the recorded words of English. The present paper presents data derived from a Python program, written by the authors, which searches through the HT’s word forms and produces data categorizing all word-initial consonant clusters according to their HT concept category, along with some figures about the size of that category and how many words it contains beginning with each consonant cluster. A combination of statistical filtering and manual analysis then resulted in a large set of English initial phonaesthemes; similar work can be undertaken in future on word-final phonaesthemes.

This set of data was then ranked in order of the putative strength of the phonaesthetic linkage (that is, the statistical preponderance in categories of a significant size). Five particular clusters were then identified as being of sufficient significance to be likely candidates as phonaesthemes:

<wr->, <gr->, <sl->, <st-> and <fl->.

The poster goes on to give examples of each throughout time, alongside figures of how many words make up the relevant semantic categories to which the clusters belong. For example, the <wr-> cluster is particularly associated with uncomfortable movement. It consists of 48% of the 145 words in the HT meaning a twisting movement (writhing, wrenching, wresting, wringing, wreathing, wrying, writher, wriggle, wrinkle, etc) and 15% of the 163 words meaning wrestling (including wrestling, wraxling, wrestle, wristle, and the dialectal warsle). It also appears in other related categories (13% of anger and 13% of misery, with words related to wrath and wretchedness), and in a significant metaphorical extension of the twisting sense above (15.1% of distortion or perversion of meaning).

conclusions
By providing evidence of the sort outlined above, this poster describes data derived from applying digital humanities techniques to a new dataset for the study of English. It gives evidence which permits an empirical approach to old questions in linguistic theory, allowing us to move towards an analysis of phonaesthesia which focuses on what percentage of a given concept is realised by words beginning with a particular sound-cluster, and how this relates to similar occurrences in neighbouring semantic concepts.

Beyond the present poster, the diachronic dimension of the HT also allows us to plan future DH work examining the historical development of these patterns, and to link them to historical corpora – something which space does not allow on this poster. Such further research in this area would be able to use further datasets to address and investigate those instances across the history of English where phonaesthemes ‘grow from minor coincidental identification between a few roots to much larger patterns’ (Samuels 1972: 47).

references
Hinton, L., J. Nichols, and J. J. Ohala, eds. (1994). Sound Symbolism. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.

Kay, C., and T. J. P. Chase (1987). Constructing a Thesaurus Database. Literary and Linguistic Computing 2(3): 161-163.

Kay, C., and I. Wotherspoon (2002). Wreak, wrack, rack, and (w)ruin: the History of Some Confused Spellings. In T. Fanego, B. Mendez-Naya, and E. Seoane (eds.), Sounds, Words, Texts and Change: Papers from 11 ICEHL. Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp. 129-143.

Kay, C., J. Roberts, M. Samuels, and I. Wotherspoon (2009). Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford UP.

Reay, I. E. (1991). A Lexical Analysis of Metaphor and Phonaestheme. Ph.D. thesis: University of Glasgow.

Reay, I. E. (2006). Sound symbolism. In K. Brown (ed.), Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier, vol. 11, pp. 531–539.

Samuels, M. (1972). Linguistic Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.

Wotherspoon, I. (1992). Historical Thesaurus Database Using Ingres. Literary and Linguistic Computing 7(4): 218-225.

Wotherspoon, I. (2010). The Making of The Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary. In M. Adams (ed.), ‘Cunning passages, contrived corridors’: Unexpected Essays in the History of Lexicography. Monza: Polimetrica, pp. 271-287.","txt","2","",""
"1534","13","AV Processing in eHumanities - a paradigm shift","2","AV Processing in eHumanities – a paradigm shift
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Wittenburg, Peter, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, The Netherlands, peter.wittenburg@mpi.nl
Lenkiewicz, Przemyslaw, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, The Netherlands, przemek.lenkiewicz@mpi.nl
Auer, Erik, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, The Netherlands, erik.auer@mpi.nl
Lenkiewicz, Anna, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, The Netherlands, anna.lenkiewicz@mpi.nl
Gebre, Binyam Gebrekidan, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, The Netherlands, binyamgebrekidan.gebre@mpi.nl
Drude, Sebastian, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, The Netherlands, sebastian.drude@mpi.nl
introduction
Speech research saw a dramatic change in paradigm in the 90-ies. While earlier the discussion was dominated by a phoneticians’ approach who knew about phenomena in the speech signal, the situation completely changed after stochastic machinery such as Hidden Markov Models [1] and Artificial Neural Networks [2] had been introduced. Speech processing was now dominated by a purely mathematic approach that basically ignored all existing knowledge about the speech production process and the perception mechanisms. The key was now to construct a large enough training set that would allow identifying the many free parameters of such stochastic engines. In case that the training set is representative and the annotations of the training sets are widely ‘correct’ we could assume to get a satisfyingly functioning recognizer. While the success of knowledge-based systems such as Hearsay II [3] was limited, the statistically based approach led to great improvements in recognition rates and to industrial applications.

However, most humanities and social science research does not deal with proper signals that allow to apply neither the purely statistical nor the rule-based approach. Speech is spoken in natural situations embedded in noise, it is widely spontaneous, often one has to deal with much variation for which we lack advanced models and the existing corpora are small. Thus there is no chance to apply holistic speech recognizers that take a speech signal and would produce a useful transcription.

The situation for moving image processing (video) is even worse, since we do not have an accepted target – researchers target annotations are mostly semantic functions that are associated with gestures, mimics and other body motions, which are very much dependent on cultures, situations and other parameters. Only for sign languages we can consider a situation comparable to oral speech, since we can correlate between a stream of video observations and a target transcription. However, sign languages use various information channels, which are easy to be comprehended by the human eye, but difficult to process by machinery.

This situation is not satisfying since we see that the gap between the amount of material that has been recorded by researchers and the amount of material that is available for research purposes gets larger since the available time for creating annotations did not change substantially despite new and more efficient annotation software such as ELAN [4]. Thus in psycholinguistics and in many other humanities disciplines dealing with natural scenes a new ‘paradigm shift’ was required.

interactive recognition paradigm
This new paradigm is based on four equally important pillars:

training many statistic recognizers on small phenomena and improve robustness, i.e. widely reducing the complexity of the phenomena to be recognized
including interactive learning methods
providing a highly efficient usability framework that brings researchers back into an active role
make the existing and partly complex audio/video recognition technology available to the researchers
For data streams in the humanities we cannot assume that there is one recognizer that does it all. What researchers want is to have the possibility to train a recognizer to detect a specific hand movement or a specific intonation contour for example. These recognizers will then create probabilistic annotations at a specific tier. All these detectors are adding annotations ending in a complex lattice. The type of approach to realize a recognizer depends very much on the type of pattern to be detected. A cascaded recognizer, a recognizer that makes use of annotations of earlier ones, could be rule-based or based on statistics.

Interactive learning methods need to be implemented to allow the researcher to quickly improve the representation of a specific pattern including its variation. First, a single sample might be sufficient. Supervised learning techniques might help to improve the annotation accuracy to acceptable values after a few iterations.

Figure 1

Figure 1: Three layers of annotation representing three steps of the automated analysis. First layer is the result of the uniform document segmentation, second layer is the division into speech/no-speech parts, third layer recognizes different speakers in the recording. All the steps have been performed automatically

All recognizers will create erroneous annotations, i.e. we need a framework that allows users to quickly scan annotation patterns and correct them. Here we can build on the ELAN annotation tool and TROVA search tool that have already been optimized over the years.

One of the basic assumptions of such an approach is that there are many recognizers available to the researcher. Although there exists a lot of partly complex technology in the specialist labs, it is not accessible yet. A change of culture is required to make such technology accessible, as is currently being worked out by CLARIN1. A standardized mechanism for invocation is required to allow starting such recognizers and to interact with them. The positive WebLicht2 experience motivates us to continue extending the Service Oriented Architecture to audio/video services.

This new paradigm is shifting complexity to the annotation lattice. From many discussions with researchers we can expect that the method can work, since researchers are mostly not interested in ‘complete’ annotations, but they are interested in certain specific phenomena. For these kind of selected annotations the interactive paradigm seems to be appropriate. In addition, we have seen in first experiments that the researchers will become engaged again, since they are not confronted with a trained machine where they do not know what the values stored in the many parameters mean. Now they can use the patterns to be looked at and the annotation created as part of their theorization process.

Figure 2

Figure 2: Left – a video frame with skin color pixels marked and histograms of those in two dimensions, X and Y. Right – example of ellipses approximating the skin areas in given image

the avatech approach
The AVATecH project [5], started in 2009 as a joint work between MPI, IAIS3 and HHI4 experts, is working along the Interactive Recognition Paradigm. A number of audio/video recognizers have been implemented and integrated, the usability framework ELAN has been improved and a method for remote invocation has been established that can be extended to a Web Services scenario.

Audio Detectors

One of the recognizers provides a fine-granular segmentation of the audio stream into homogeneous segments allowing the user to control the granularity of segmentation. Another recognizer is able to label audio segments containing human speech, regardless of the language of the recording.

A language-independent speaker clustering recognizer is able to find segments spoken by the same person within a given recording (Figure 1).

A pitch contour detector can allow researchers to graphically specify pitch contours and search for similar patterns. The detector can tag segments in audio recordings and annotate with pitch and intensity properties such as for example minimum, maximum, initial or final f0 frequency, or volume.

Video Detectors

A shot and sub-shot recognizer is able to detect shots of similar video content and label them. All further algorithms rely on the results of this shot/cut detection.

Accurate motion analysis allows distinguishing between different types of video content and it can be used to segment a video in order to select only the parts, which are relevant for the researchers. For each frame in the video a motion vector map is computed using the Hybrid Recursive Matching (HRM) algorithm [6].

A skin-color detection algorithm [7] can be used to identify seed points where the hands and heads regions most likely occur. The resulting regions, where heads and hands are identified, are approximated by an ellipse for each video frame (Figure 2). After the hands and head have been labeled, the recognizer can detect strokes, gestures and relation between hands and head (Figure 3).



Figure 3: Results of the Hands and Head Tracking recognizer. On the video file the positions of hands and head are marked for every frame of the video. The annotations created are fully automated and include the time ranges in which left and right hand movement occurs, when the hands join and when there is an overlap of hand and face

User interaction

In close collaboration with the experimenting researchers the ELAN tool has been adapted to become a powerful framework to invoke the various detectors via an API described in XML and to search for annotation patterns and to manipulate them.

conclusions
Automatic audio and video processing of natural scenes is a tough task and the project team from MPI, IAIS and HHI worked hard on the 4 pillars mentioned beforehand. A first number of about 10 recognizers can be used; the ELAN tool has been extended to a comfortable research environment and a mechanism supporting the required complex interaction between the ELAN (and finally the user) and the recognizers has been developed. The first experiments with researchers working on real scenes has shown efficiency gains of about 70% only for the segmentation case which is very promising for speeding up the annotation work. In the realm of CLARIN we will collaborate with more of the technology providers in the specialist labs to tune their algorithms so that they can be integrated in this new interactive paradigm.

references
[1] Rabiner, L., and B. Juang (1986). An introduction to hidden Markov models. ASSP Magazine, IEEE 3(1): 4-16.

[2] Hopfield, J. J. (1988). Artificial neural networks. Circuits and Devices Magazine, IEEE 4(5): 3-10.

[3] Erman, L. D., et al. (1980). The Hearsay-II Speech-Understanding System: Integrating Knowledge to Resolve Uncertainty. ACM Comput. Surv. 12(2): 213-253.

[4] Wittenburg, P., et al. (2006). Elan: a professional framework for multimodality research. In Proceedings of Language Resources and Evaluation Conference (LREC 2006.)

[5] Auer, E., P. Wittenburg, H. Sloetjes, O. Schreer, S. Masneri, D. Schneider, and S. Tschöpel (2010). Automatic annotation of media field recordings. In ECAI 2010 Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, and Humanities 2010: University of Lisbon, Portugal, pp. 31-34.

[6] Atzpadin, N., P. Kauff, and O. Schreer (2004). Stereo analysis by hybrid recursive matching for real-time immersive video conferencing. Circuits and Systems for Video Technology, IEEE Transactions 14(3): 321-334.

[7] Terrillon, J. C., et al. (2000). Comparative performance of different skin chrominance models and chrominance spaces for the automatic detection of human faces in color images. In Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition, 2000. Proceedings. Fourth IEEE International Conference.

notes
1.www.clarin.eu

2.weblicht.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de

3.www.iais.fraunhofer.de

4.www.hhi.fraunhofer.de","txt","2","",""
"1535","13","Adaptive Automatic Gesture Stroke Detection","2","Adaptive Automatic Gesture Stroke Detection
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Gebre, Binyam Gebrekidan, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, The Netherlands, binyamgebrekidan.gebre@mpi.nl
Wittenburg, Peter, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, The Netherlands, peter.wittenburg@mpi.nl
introduction
Many gesture and sign language researchers manually annotate video recordings to systematically categorize, analyze and explain their observations. The number and kinds of annotations are so diverse and unpredictable that any attempt at developing non-adaptive automatic annotation systems is usually less effective. The trend in the literature has been to develop models that work for average users and for average scenarios. This approach has three main disadvantages. First, it is impossible to know beforehand all the patterns that could be of interest to all researchers. Second, it is practically impossible to find enough training examples for all patterns. Third, it is currently impossible to learn a model that is robustly applicable across all video quality-recording variations.

To overcome the three problems and provide practically useful solutions, this paper proposes a case-by-case user-controlled annotation model. The main philosophy for this kind of model is that a model designed to give the best average performance in a variety of scenarios is usually less accurate and less adaptable for a particular problem than a model tailored to the characteristics of that problem. This approach is also grounded in the ‘No Free Lunch’ theorems, which establish that for any algorithm, any elevated performance over one class of problems is offset by performance over another class (Wolpert & Macready 1997).

We apply our proposed solution to the problem of gesture stroke detection. To be more precise, for gesture stroke detection to be more accurate and more robust, we develop a model that takes intuitive input from the user for a given video and then we apply standard algorithms optimized to the characteristics of the video.

gesture stroke
Gesture stroke is the most important message-carrying phase of the series of body movements that constitute a gesture (or the phrases in a gesture). The body movements usually include hand and face movements. The relevant questions for automatic stroke recognition are: a) what is a gesture? b) where does a gesture start and end? c) what are the phases in the gesture? d) which one is the stroke?

The literature does not give completely consistent answers to the above questions (Kendon 1980, 1972; Kita et al. 1998). However, the most prominent trend is that a gesture unit consists of one or more gesture phrases, each consisting of optional preparation, optional pre-stroke hold, obligatory stroke, optional post-stroke hold and optional retraction (Kendon 1980). Figure 1 shows the different phases in a gesture unit as outlined by Kendon.

Figure 1Figure 1: Gesture phases (Kendon 1980, 1972)

For the purpose of this paper, a gesture phrase is classified into two: strokes and non-strokes. The non-stroke gesture phases include the absence of movement, the preparation, the hold, the retraction and any other body movements excluding the strokes.

methodology
Our approach to determining gesture strokes involves four stages: a) detect face and hands for every person b) track them c) extract features d) distinguish strokes from non-strokes.

Different algorithms are used to solve each stage. Two features, corners and skin colors, are used to detect faces and hands. These features have been selected because they are usually stable from frame to frame for a given video.

Corners are shown to be good features for tracking (Shi & Tomasi 1993). They have the property that they are different from their surrounding points. A given point in a homogenous image cannot be identified whether or not it has moved in the subsequent frame. Similarly, a given point along an edge cannot be identified whether or not it has moved along that edge. However, the movement of a corner can conveniently be computed and identified, as it is non-ambiguous in its identity. This makes it a good feature for tracking.

For a given application, not all corners in a video frame are equally important. For gesture analysis, the interesting corners are the ones resulting from the body parts, mainly from face and hands. In order to filter out the corners irrelevant to body parts, we mask out corners that do not correspond to the skin color model.

The skin color model is developed with the involvement of the user. The user selects a representative instance of the skin color in one of the frames of the video, usually the first frame. And then the system extracts color information from that instance and finds all points in the frame where the matching of colors with the extracted color is high.

It is important to notice that the on-line selection of the skin region avoids having to design a skin color model for all human races. Off-line skin color model design is as practically difficult as collecting pictures of all human skin colors and its use in the detection for a particular skin color in a given video will be less accurate.

Given the corners from regions of the skin in the video, the tracking is done with the pyramidal implementation of the Lucas-Kanade algorithms (Bouguet 1999; Bradski & Kaehler 2008). Values extracted from the number of corners, clusters and their dynamics across frames (context) are fed into a supervised learning algorithm with class labels 1 for frames inside a stroke and 0 for frames outside a stroke. For the learning algorithm, we used support vector machine with RBF kernel.

experiment data
Various videos have been used to test the detection of face, hands and their movements. Particularly, we experimented with two videos, each of which consists of two people of the same color: black and white skin colors. The resolution of the video with white people is 320×240 and that of the other video with black people is 1280×720. The higher the resolution, the better the detection quality.

For the supervised learning algorithm, we used a stroke and non-stroke annotated video data of 36 seconds long. This is the same video referred to above that has two white people speaking and gesturing. It has 914 frames, 847 of which are annotated. It has 19 strokes each ranging from 4 to 35 frames with mean 13.5 and standard deviation 6.5. It also has 40 non-stroke regions, which include moments of silence, preparation, retraction and holds.

All the videos for the reported experiments in this paper have been taken from the MPI archive http://corpus1.mpi.nl/ds/imdi_browser/.


Figure 2: A screen shot of a video with moving corners shown in blue. The rectangle is the region selected by the user as a model for the skin color (white)

Figure 3
Figure 3: A screen shot of a video showing detected skin regions. Very white regions correspond to high probabilities for white skin regions

Figure 4
Figure 4: A screen shot of a video with moving corners shown in blue. The rectangle is the region selected by the user as a model for the skin color (black)

Figure 5
Figure 5: A screen shot of a video showing detected skin regions. Very white regions correspond to high probabilities for black skin regions

results
The accuracy of results for face and hands detection based on initializations of regions of skin color on one frame in the video and applied to the subsequent frames in the same video shows that this approach can be very effective in identifying the corners belonging to the moving hands/face. Figures 2 through 5 show screen shots of the process and the results for a chosen video frame.

Figure 6Figure 6: Stroke detection performance varaiation as training data size increases

The stroke/non-stroke classification results are shown in figure 6. The x-axis shows the training data size, which is 75% of the dataset. The y-axis shows the performance of the classification on test data, which is the remaining 25% of the dataset. As we vary the training data size, we get on average a slightly improving performance. The average accuracy, precision and recall achieved are 61.51%, 54.67% and 52.89%. The F1 measure is 53.26%. The average baseline (i.e. classifying every frame as non-stroke) achieves 57.55% accuracy and 0% recall. The performance measures show that there is a lot of room for improvement.

Evaluation for accuracy of frame boundaries for strokes and non-strokes should not be as clear-cut as we assumed in our experiments. One or two frame misses or shifts are tolerable given that even humans do not accurately mark the correct boundary, if any. However, we did not consider that observation in our evaluation results.

conclusion
In this paper, we have put more emphasis on a more adaptive case-by-case annotation model based on the idea that with a little more input from users and facilitated by more user-friendly interfaces, annotation models can be more adaptive, more accurate and more robust (i.e. effectively deal with digital diversity). We have tested our approach on problems of hands/face tracking and automatic stroke detection.

We have noticed that building a skin color model online for all human skin colors will not only make the model more complex but also less accurate when applied on any particular video. However, a model built online for a given video initialized by input from the user achieves higher performance at no more cost than the initialization.

The correct detection of the skin color in combination with feature extraction algorithms can be used to study human gestures. We have shown that unique features (i.e. corners) and their dynamics across frames can be indicative of the presence of strokes, the most meaningful phase of a gesture. In our future research, we will continue to improve the stroke detection performance using more features and learning algorithms. We will also apply our methodology to classify strokes according to their meanings. Success of this methodology will have important impact in human activity recognition from video files.

 

Funding

The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Commissions 7th Framework Program under grant agreement no 238405 (CLARA). Special thanks go to Saskia van Putten and Rebecca Defina for providing one of the videos used in the experiments reported in this paper.

references
Adelson, E. H., C. H. Anderson, J. R. Bergen, P. J. Burt, and J. M. Ogden (1984). Pyramid methods in image processing. RCA engineer 29(6): 33-41.

Bouguet J. Y. (1999). Pyramidal implementation of the lucas-kanade feature tracker: description of the algorithm. Intel Corporation, Microprocessor Research Labs, OpenCV Documents, 3.

Bradski, G., and A. Kaehler (2008). Learning OpenCV: Computer vision with the OpenCV library. O’Reilly Media.

Kendon, A. (1972). Some relationships between body motion and speech. Studies in dyadic communication 7:177.

Kendon, A. (1980). Gesticulation and speech: Two aspects of the process of utterance. The relationship of verbal and nonverbal communication 25: 207-227.

Kita, S.,  I. van Gijn, and H. van der Hulst (1998). Movement phases in signs and co-speech gestures, and their transcription by human coders. Gesture and sign language in human-computer interaction, pp. 23-35.

McNeill, D. (1992). Hand and mind: What gestures reveal about thought. U of Chicago P.

Shi, J., and C. Tomasi (1993). Good features to track. IEEE computer society conference on computer vision and pattern recognition, pp. 593-600.

Wolpert, D. H., and W. G. Macready (1997). No free lunch theorems for optimization. IEEE transactions on evolutionary computation 1(1): 67-82.","txt","2","",""
"1536","13","An Ontology-Based Iterative Text Processing Strategy for Detecting and Recognizing Characters in Folktales","2","An Ontology-Based Iterative Text Processing Strategy for Detecting and Recognizing Characters in Folktales
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Koleva, Nikolina, German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence, DFKI, Germany, nikolina.koleva@dfki.de
Declerck, Thierry, German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence, DFKI, Germany, declerck@dfki.de
Krieger, Hans-Ulrich, German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence, DFKI, Germany, krieger@dfki.de
introduction
Detecting and marking consistently through a folktale the participants that are playing a role in the story can help a lot in assigning in an automatic fashion the typical functions to characters, as those are for example described by (Propp 1968), and we equally expect that the Proppian narrative functions can also be better automatically detected and marked-up in text, if an accurate recognition of the main participants in the story has been performed beforehand. (Lendvai et al. 2010) addresses the issue of semi-automatically assigning Proppian characters and action types to text segments mainly on the base of linguistic analysis.

In this poster/demo article, we describe a complementary approach, which relies first on a knowledge base, in the form of an ontology formalizing family relationships, which is getting populated by iterative applications of the ontology components to a linguistically annotated tale, whereas different natural language expressions referring to an unique character are marked in the iteratively updated knowledge base using the OWL1 ‘sameAs’ property2. We developed a detailed family ontology3, which is for the time being embedded in a small folktale ontology that describes the world of the ‘Magical Swan Geese’ tale4. The class hierarchy of this ontology is displayed in Figure 1, in the Appendix.

The current focus on the family ontology is guided by the fact that family relationships play a central role in many tales. Modeling other participants in tales is much more difficult, since their behavior very often do not correspond to the ‘normal’ entities (so for example a speaking ‘river of milk’, which acts as a ‘helper’ in the tale). Nevertheless our approach allows detecting also such entities as characters.

knowledge-based reference resolution
A problematic issue in processing folktales is the detection and corresponding annotation of co-referring expressions in text. Folktales are particular in this respect, since people (or characters) are relatively rarely mentioned by name, but are prevalently introduced by their function (“the King”), family status (‘the father’) or their mere existence (‘there lived a woman’). This phenomenon, together with very vague contextual spatio-temporal descriptions in text, makes the recognition of co-referring expressions on the basis of mere linguistic features quite cumbersome. This is a reason why we developed the family ontology, in order to support knowledge-based reference resolution of entities detected in text. On the basis of this semantic resource one can store as a specific individual in the knowledge base each entity of the tales that has been associated with a particular biological or family status.

For the purpose of the knowledge-based reference resolution, we equipped the class hierarchy with a set of inference rules, which are acting in a complementary fashion to the Protégé built-in Pellet reasoner5. The rules ensure that instances of the classes Man and Woman are encoded as instances of the class Parents, and therefore are identical to instances of the classes Father and Mother in case enough evidence about the marital or biological status is given by the text. Different instances of the class Children are at the same time instances of the class Siblings, using similar heuristics as for the class Parents, so that family relationships extracted from text can be completed by the inference rules, and made available for the incremental analysis of the text.

Every class and relation encoded in the ontology is associated with a label in natural language (in four languages: English, German, Russian and Bulgarian)6. The labels serve as the interface between the ontology and the text processing system, which is in our case the NooJ platform (Siberztein 2003).

a first iteration of text processing: annotation of nominal phrases
We process with NooJ the whole tale and mark especially all nominal phrases (NPs), being simple (‘The mother’), coordinated (‘a old man and a old woman’) or recursive (‘a river of milk flowing in banks of pudding’) NPs7.

Our textual analysis is further specifying if an NP is indefinite or definite on the basis of the determiners used (‘a woman’ – indefinite – vs ‘the mother’ – definite –), at least for languages using this kind of determiners, like English, German, etc.8  A specific property of indefinite nominal phrases as introducing discourse referents has been widely discussed in the field of computational semantics and (von Heusinger 2000) is giving a good overview of the past discussions. In the special case of tales (Herman 2000) is providing for examples supporting this view on indefinite nominal phrases, relating them to the introduction of characters of tales. Our actual work with NooJ is implementing some of the views described in the work of Herman. The first step of our iterative approach to text analysis is resulting in the linguistic annotation of the folktale in terms of indefinite and definite NPs.

a second iteration: storing core elements of indefinite nps as candidate characters in the knowledge base
The next iteration is dealing then with the application of the knowledge base to the indefinite NPs in the text. The main elements of the indefinite NPs – the nouns – are extracted and compared with the labels of the classes in the ontology. So the noun ‘daughter’ within an indefinite NP in the tale is matching the label of the class Daughter of the family ontology. As a consequence, this noun is stored in the knowledge base as a potential character of the tale and gets the ID ‘ch3’ (since before this the program has identified ‘man’ and ‘wife’ as the first potential characters occurring in the text), marking it as an individual of the class Daughter. This procedure is applied to all indefinite NPs occurring in the tale.

a third iteration: applying inference rules to the stored candidate characters
We apply then the inference rules described above in Section 2 to the candidate characters stored in the knowledge base. Just to give a simple example: ‘ch3’ (‘daughter’) is being automatically encoded in the ontology as an instance of the classes Girl and Sister, while the relationships to the brother is also automatically inferred. These inferences can be draw also du to the fact that after the first iteration, it appeared that the tale is mentioning only one young female person and only one young person. This iteration offers thus also a kind of consolidation of the results of the preceding ontology population procedure.

a fourth iteration: merging the stored characters with the core elements of definite nps
In Figure 2 in the Appendix, the reader can see that our approach manage to map the ‘ch3’ (resulting from the indefinite NP ‘their daughter’) with occurrences of the string ‘girl’ and ‘sister’ occurring in definite NPs elsewhere in the text. This step is for sure benefiting from the results of the application of the inference rules described in Section 4. We apply further a filtering procedure: candidate characters that are mentioned only once in the text (not being matched to the content of definite NPs, for example, or not being involved as agent in an event) are deleted from the knowledge base. On this basis we can eliminate the string ‘a handkerchief’ from the list of potential characters (as an indefinite NPs), but we can keep the string ‘an apple tree’ and consolidate the core element ‘apple tree’ as a character of the tale, since it occurs also in the context of a definite NP, and it is involved in an agentive action (speaking).

conclusion
We demonstrate the potential benefits of the combined use of an ontology, inference rules and textual analysis for identifying characters in the relatively small (and closed) world of a folktale. While first results of our on-going work are promising, we still have to apply the approach to more tales, in other languages, and to evaluate our approach. We plan to use for this purpose the UMIREC Corpus9.

Acknowledgements

The work reported in this paper has been partly supported by the R&D project ‘Monnet’, which is co-funded by the European Union under Grant No. 248458.

Appendix

Figure 1
Figure 1: Screen shot of the Ontology

Figure 2Figure 2: The knowledge base after round4: ‘ch3’ (Daughter) has been associated (Same individuals) with occurences of ‘girl’ and ‘sister’, as those has been identified in the phrases numbered 12, 21, 35, 85 and 91 in our NooJ XML annotation

references
Geist, L. (2008). Specificity as referential anchoring: evidence from Russian. Proceedings of SuB12, Oslo: ILOS 2008, 151-164.

Herman, D. (2000). Pragmatic constraints on narrative processing: Actants and anaphora resolution in a corpus of North Carolina ghost stories. Journal of Pragmatics 32(7): 959-1001.

Lendvai, P., T. Váradi, S. Darányi, and T. Declerck (2010). Assignment of Character and Action Types in Folk Tales. Proceedings of the NooJ 2010 Conference.

McCrae, J., L. Aguado-de-Cea, P. Buitelaar, P. Cimiano, T. Declerck, A. Gomez-Perez, J. Gracia, L. Hollink, E. Montiel-Ponsoda, and D. Spohr (2012). Interchanging lexical resources on the Semantic Web. Journal on Language Resources and Evaluation (in Press).

Propp, V. J. (1968). Morphology of the folktale. Austin: U of Texas P.

Silberztein, M. (2003). Nooj Manual. http://www.nooj4nlp.net.

Thompson, S. (1955). Motif-index of folk-literature: A classification of narrative elements in folktales, ballads, myths, fables, medieval romances, exempla, fabliaux, jest-books, and local legends. Revised and enlarged edition. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1955-58

Tuffield, M. M., D. E. Millard, and N. R. Shadbolt (2006). Ontological Approaches to Modelling Narrative. 2nd AKT DTA Symposium, January 2006, AKT, Aberdeen University.

Uther, H.-J. (2004). The Types of International Folktales: A Classification and Bibliography. Based on the system of Antti Aarne and Stith Thompson. FF Communications no. 284-286. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, 2004.

Zöllner-Weber, A. (2008). Noctua literaria : a computer-aided approach for the formal description of literary characters using an ontology. Ph.D. Thesis, Bielefeld University.

notes
1.OWL (Web Ontology Language) is a formal representation language, which is nowadays widely used for describing ontologies. OWL is a W3C standard. See http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/BestPractices/Tutorials.

2.The ‘owl:sameAs’ property used in OWL knowledge bases offers a formal way for stating that various expressions (represented by various URIs) are referring to an identical person (or entity).

3.The ontology has been encoded using the Protégé editor: http://protege.stanford.edu

4.An online English version of this Russian tale is available at: http://www.fdi.ucm.es/profesor/fpeinado/projects/kiids/apps/protopropp/swan-geese.html. We are currently extending the coverage of the ontology, behind its family relationships component, integrating for example elements belonging to the description of characters of narratives, as those are in detail described in (Zöllner-Weber 2008).

5.We use this reasoner since it is incorporated in the Protégé ontology editor, which we selected for designing our ontology. More details about Pellet are given at: http://clarkparsia.com/pellet/

6.The availability of the ontology class labels in 4 languages is reflecting our additional aim in providing for multilingual ontology resources for ontology-based text mining or information extraction procedures applied to folktales in various languages. In this our effort is complementary to two use cases (on the financial domain and eGovernment) defined in the European R&D project ‘Monnet’ (Multilingual Ontologies for Networked Ontologies, see www.monnet-project.eu).

7.It is important to note that in the actual version of the system only referential expressions are considered. In a next version, the reference resolution work will be extended to all kind of pronominal expressions.

8.For languages not having determiners in their set of categories, like Russian, we are investigating the detection of other linguistic features that can mark indefiniteness, as those are described for example in (Geist 2008).

9.See http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/57507.","txt","2","",""
"1537","13","Author Consolidation across European National Bibliographies","2","Author Consolidation across European National Bibliographies
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Freire, Nuno, The European Library, National Library of the Netherlands, The Netherlands, nfreire@gmail.com
introduction
The European Library holds several million bibliographic records from the national libraries of Europe. The National Bibliographies are one of the main bibliographic data sources in each country and are key for Digital Humanities scholars.

Their purpose is to list every publication in a country, under the auspices of a national library or other government agency. Depending on the country, all publishers will need to send a copy of every published work to the national legal deposit, or in other countries, a national organisation will need to collect all publications.

Given that the publisher domain is very heterogeneous and that thousands of publishers might exist in a country, National Bibliographies are effectively the single point of reference with which to comprehensively identify all the publications in a country.

In Europe, National Bibliographies are typically created and maintained by national libraries. Whenever a book is published in a country, it is recorded in the corresponding national library catalogue from where the national bibliography is derived.

Currently, The European Library holds approximately 75 million bibliographic records in its centralised repository. This number is constantly increasing, as more national libraries’ catalogues are included in the centralised repository. By the end of 2012 the total bibliographic universe of The European Library is expected to be approximately 200 million records.

The centralisation of European bibliographic data in The European Library is creating new possibilities for the exploitation of this data, in order to improve existing services, enable the development of new ones, or provide a good setting for research.

The centralisation of the bibliographic data enables the automatic linkage of the National Bibliographies across countries, through the use of data mining technologies. Our ongoing work is focusing the linkage of the main entities used to describe bibliographic resources: persons, organizations, locations, historical periods, and subjects.

In this poster, we present the current status of our work on the consolidation of authors across the National Bibliographies of Europe. When complete, it will allow the exploration of an author’s work across time and space in the European bibliographic universe.

problem description
Entity resolution is the process of, given a specific context, determining if two or more references correspond to the same entity. An entity might have multiple different representations, and each representation might match the description of multiple objects (i.e., reference and referent ambiguity). The variations found in the descriptions may have multiple origins, such as misspellings, typing errors, different conventions for abbreviations, naming varying over time, heterogeneous data schemas, etc.

Entity resolution is a common problem to many different research communities, although the term used is not always the same. Common designations include record linkage, record matching, merge-purge, data de-duplication, instance identification, database hardening, name matching, reference reconciliation, reference disambiguation, and object consolidation (Elmagarmid et al. 2007; Dong et al. 2005).

Different communities have proposed several techniques, but most frequently we find applications of algorithms from machine learning, artificial intelligence and data mining (Elmagarmid et al. 2007).

Entity resolution is very dependent on the context. The processes need to be adapted to the data that they are being applied to, in order to achieve acceptable results. Our work focuses on exploring the structural and semantic richness of the bibliographic data, as it exists in the National Bibliographies.

In bibliographic records, references to persons are found as authors or contributors of works, and sometimes as the subject of the work. The value of these references being as complete as possible is recognised by cataloguing rules, which indicate that the references should contain not only the name of the person but also their birth and death years (ALA et al. 2002). However, these dates do not always exist, as they are not always known by the cataloguers. It is also often the case that these dates are approximations of real dates – cataloguing rules comprise conventions for these cases. Although this information is not always fully structured, the common conventions used when encoding the information allow it to be reliably parsed automatically.

approach
Our approach leverages two key aspects of the National Bibliographies and consolidation work on authors carried out by libraries.

The first aspect is that national libraries already individually perform a manual consolidation of authors through their ongoing work to maintain National Bibliographies.

The second aspect is that some European national libraries actively work on the construction of the Virtual International Authority File, or VIAF (Bennett et al. 2006). VIAF is a joint project of several national libraries from all continents. It hosts a consolidated data set containing data that national libraries have gathered for many years about the authors of the bibliographic resources held at the libraries. It is available as open data.

Using VIAF, we can already consolidate the authors across the VIAF participating countries and soon we will exploit this resource to consolidate authors in other countries. By extracting statistics about authors consolidated in VIAF, from the National Bibliographies of VIAF participants, we expect to be able to derive a probabilistic model that will allow us to consolidate the authors from other countries not participating in VIAF.

The author consolidation system is being built as an ETL (Extraction, Transformation and Loading) process, a typical approach for performing consolidation of data in data warehouses.

The process starts with the preparation of data for consolidation processing. This step comprises tasks for selecting the relevant data from the National Bibliographies that will be used to represent an author during the consolidation process. The following data about the authors is gathered at the level of each individual national bibliography:

Name;
Variant forms of the name;
Years of birth and death;
Known co-authors;
Known publishers;
Known titles of publications.

As is typical in ETL processes, the final decision to match two author references is made by reasoning on the similarity scores obtained by comparing the each of the above data elements.

Based on previous research on this topic (Freire et al. 2008), we use the Jaro-Winkler similarity metric (Jaro 1989) for calculating the similarity between names.

Comparison of remaining data fields is based on the number of common values found in the two records versus the total number of available values. For example, similarity of co-authors is given by the number of common co-authors between two authors, and similar calculations for titles, and publishers.

This information is compared across National Bibliographies to identify, for example, two authors who can actually be considered to be the same.

The solution for reasoning on the outcome of comparisons will be based on supervised machine learned model. It will process the comparison results between two of the above records of the authors and determine the likelihood that the authors are the same entity. Several machine learning techniques for classification will be tested.

As ground truth, for building and testing the machine learned model, we will use a data set extracted from the National Bibliographies of VIAF participants, therefore removing the need for creating a manually annotated collection.

conclusion
This poster presented the current status of our work on the consolidation of authors across the National Bibliographies of Europe. When complete, it will allow the exploration of an author’s work across time and space, in a much more comprehensive way then is possible today.

We believe that this consolidation will provide new opportunities for the creation of statistical datasets, resulting from data analysis and mining of bibliographic data. Although no concrete plans are ready at this time, we expect these kinds of data sets to emerge as a future result.

This work will also have impact in intellectual property rights identification processes, such as those of the ARROW project1 (Accessible Registries of Rights Information and Orphan Works). In such processes, the identification of all publications of a work by an author is essential, and can benefit from this consolidated author’s bibliographies.

references
ALA, CLA, CILIP (2002). Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules: 2002 Revision.

Bennett, R., C. Hengel-Dittrich, E. O’Neill, and B. B. Tillett (2006). VIAF (Virtual International Authority File): Linking Die Deutsche Bibliothek and Library of Congress Name Authority Files.

Dong, X., A. Halevy, and J. Madhavan (2005). Reference reconciliation in complex information spaces. In Proceedings of the 2005 ACM SIGMOD international Conference on Management of Data. SIGMOD ’05. ACM: New York, NY, pp. 85-96.

Elmagarmid, A. K., P. G. Ipeirotis, and V. S. Verykios (2007). Duplicate Record Detection: A Survey. IEEE Transactions on knowledge and data engineering 19(1): 1-16, DOI: 10.1109/TKDE.2007.250581.

Freire, N., J. Borbinha, and B. Martins (2008). Consolidation of References to Persons in Bibliographic Databases. ICADL 2008. The 11th International Conference on Asian Digital Libraries, Universal and Ubiquitous Access to Information.Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 256-265.

Jaro, M. A. (1989). Advances in record linking methodology as applied to the 1985 census of Tampa Florida. Journal of the American Statistical Society 64: 1183-1210.

notes
1.1. Accessible Registries of Rights Information and Orphan Works website:http://www.arrow-net.eu/","txt","2","",""
"1538","13","Automatic Topic Hierarchy Generation Using Wordnet","2","Automatic Topic Hierarchy Generation Using Wordnet
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Monteiro Vieira, Jose Miguel, King’s College London, UK, jose.m.vieira@kcl.ac.uk
Brey, Gerhard †, Independent Researcher, UK, dh@brey.org.uk
In order to make full use of the rich content of large text collections various finding aids are needed. One very effective way of accessing this kind of collection is via a subject taxonomy or a topic hierarchy. Most subject classification techniques (Sebastiani 2002) are based on supervised methods and need a substantial amount of training data that are used by the various machine-learning algorithms on which they are based. In many cases this constitutes a significant problem if the resources to create these training data are not available.

Unsupervised methods such as clustering algorithms, though not requiring the same resources in data preparation as machine-learning based methods, need considerable attention after the techniques have been applied in order to make the clusters meaningful to users. The use of existing powerful tools such as the semantic tagger developed at Lancaster University1 avoids these problems, providing semantic tags for each document, but often these semantic tags are very general and therefore not ideal for a user who searches for more concrete subject terms.

The aim of the research described here is the automatic generation of a topic hierarchy, using WordNet (Miller 1995; Fellbaum 1998) as the basis for a faceted browse interface, with a collection of 19th-century periodical texts as the test corpus.

Our research was motivated by the Castanet algorithm, a technique developed by Marti Hearst and Emilia Stoica (Stoica 2004, 2007] to automatically generate metadata topic hierarchies. Castanet was developed and successfully applied to short descriptions of documents. In our research we attempt to adapt and extend the Castanet algorithm so that it can be applied to the text of the actual documents for the many collections for which no abstracts or summaries are available. It should also be a viable alternative to the other techniques mentioned above.

methodology
Figure 1
Figure 1: Algorithm Workflow

The algorithm for the automatic generation of the topic hierarchy is implemented using Python with the NLTK,2 Networkx3 and PyGraphviz4 modules. It has three main processes:

Data preparation: data needs to be prepared so that the information contained within the texts is more easily accessible (Pyle 1999).
Target term extraction: select terms that are considered relevant to classify each text.
Topic tree generation: build the tree using the target terms.
data preparation
The first process in the algorithm, data preparation, is also the most important in any text mining application. Data preparation leads to understanding the data and ensures that the processes that follow will be able to get the most out of the data. The data preparation process has three main steps:

Tokenise each of the texts in the corpus.
Remove stop words from the list of tokens.
Remove unknown tokens from the list by using regular expressions and by doing lookups in WordNet’s lemma dictionary. This also has the beneficial effect of removing words that are badly OCRed. Because WordNet is the basis for our topic hierarchy we regard words that not appear in its lexical database as irrelevant.
target term extraction
Of all the words left in the texts after the data preparation, the algorithm only uses a subset of the most relevant terms to create the topic tree. To select the target terms:

Select only the ones that are nouns by performing lookups in WordNet.

Compute TF.IDF (Term Frequency x Inverse Document Frequency) (Manning 1999) for each one of the nouns. There are many ways to compute term relevance. Initially we tested the algorithms described in Castanet, information gain (Mitchell 1997) and term distribution [Sanderson 1999], but they did not produce good results for our texts as the target terms were not meaningful enough. Therefore, we decided to use TF.IDF to select the target terms as this was a more straightforward approach and the results we were getting were more relevant.

Select the fifteen highest scoring terms and merge them all into a unique list of target terms.

topic tree generation
The list of target terms constitutes the input for the topic tree generation process:

Using WordNet generate a hypernym path for each of the target terms.
Using the hypernym paths construct a tree by joining all the paths.
And finally, because the hypernym path lengths are varied and to make the tree more usable/readable the tree is compressed. To compress the tree:
Starting from the leaves, recursively eliminate a parent that has less than two children, unless the parent is the root node.
Eliminate child nodes whose name appears within the parent’s node.
Eliminate selected top-level nodes, because they denote very general categories and have a very broad meaning.
examples
Consider the following hypernym paths for the nouns:

writings: communication.n.02, written_communication.n.01, writing.n.02, sacred_text.n.01, hagiographa.n.01.
charter: communication.n.02, written_communication.n.01, writing.n.02, document.n.01, charter.n.01.
criticism: communication.n.02, message.n.02, disapproval.n.02, criticism.n.01.
This following image shows the previous hypernym paths combined to create a topic tree. There are many parents with just one child and the height of the tree varies across its different paths.

Figure 2
Figure 2: Communication full tree

In the following image we can see how the tree compression works. The grey nodes will be removed because they have fewer than two children, and the black nodes will be removed because their names appear within the parent node.

Figure 3
Figure 3: Topic tree compression

After the grey and black nodes are removed we get the compressed version of the tree. This tree is not as deep, therefore making it easier to navigate and use from a faceted browsing point of view.

Figure 4
Figure 4: Communication compressed tree

results and future work
The text collection used to test the techniques tried in our research is a digital edition of a 19th century periodical, the English Women’s Journal (EWJ). The EWJ is one sub-collection of the Nineteenth Century Serials Edition (NCSE),5 a digital edition of 6 newspapers and periodicals from the nineteenth century. Although the smallest collection within NCSE it was still large and varied enough to serve as a test corpus for our research. EWJ was published monthly between 1858 and 1864. It was edited and written by women and treated mainly literary, political and social contents. The collection is made up of 78 issues containing a total of 7964 articles. The main reason to choose the EWJ collection as our test corpus was that of the 6 periodicals contained in NCSE it is the one with the best OCR quality. Nevertheless the OCR quality of the EWJ was still a problem we had to contend with.

Our test corpus is composed of 1359 texts, with a minimum of 300 characters each, containing about 3.5 million words in total. The list of target terms has 8013 unique terms, when selecting the top fifteen target terms per text. The resulting topic tree has 18234 nodes and after compression it is roughly 50% smaller.

Of the samples we evaluated, over 90% of the topics are relevant, i.e. they clearly illustrate what the articles are about and the topic hierarchy adequately relates to the content of the articles. The results were evaluated by selecting a sample of 20 articles and generating the topic hierarchy for them. After reading each of these articles we compared its contents with the terms in the topic hierarchy, and counted the relevant terms for each one of them.

Figure 5
Figure 5:  Topic hierarchy for an article about Florence Nightingale and the Crimean war [EWJ 1858]

Even though we consider that the algorithm produces good and promising results, we identified problems that mainly relate to the nature of our corpus. Despite our best efforts to filter out mis-OCRed portions of text, it was unavoidable that some misleading tokens remained. This sometimes led to strange results in the topic tree. For example, the partial text ‘Another act in the great European drama’ from the original article was OCRed into ‘Ano , ther act in the great European drama’. The word ‘Ano’, which was not filtered out in the data preparation process, is classified in WordNet as the Abu Nidal Organization, which did not exist in the 19th century.

Another source of problems was the erroneous disambiguation of tokens with multiple meanings in WordNet. An example of this is the word ‘drama’, from the sentence above. It was output in the topic hierarchy as referring to a theatrical play rather than in its figurative sense as a turbulent event.

Future work could explore better ways how to deal with bad OCR. We also plan to enhance topic disambiguation; this could be achieved by analysing the domains of the topics in the hypernym paths before deciding which one to add to the topic tree.

Faceted browsing interfaces based on topic hierarchies are easy and intuitive to navigate (Morville 2006), and as our results demonstrate, topic hierarchies as generated by our approach form an appropriate basis for this type of data navigation. We are confident that our approach can successfully be applied to other corpora and should yield even better results if there are no OCR issues to contend with. And since WordNet is available in several languages,6 it should also be possible to apply our approach to corpora in other languages.

references
EWJ 1858. English Women’s Journal, 1 April 1858, pp. 73-79.

Fellbaum, Ch., ed. (1998). WordNet: An Electronic Lexical Database. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

Manning, Ch. D. (1999). Term frequency x inverse document frequency. In Ch. D. Manning, P. Raghavan, and H. Introduction to Information Retrieval. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, pp. 116-123.

Miller, G. E. (1995). WordNet: A Lexical Database for English. Communications of the ACM 38(11): 39-41.

Mitchell, T. 1997. Machine Learning. New York: McGraw Hill, pp. 57-60.

Morville, P., and L. Rosenfeld (2006). Information Architecture for the World Wide Web. Sebastopol: O’Reilly, pp. 221-227.

Pyle, D. (1999). Data Preparation for Data Mining. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufman Publishers, chapter 3.

Sanderson, M., and B. Croft (1999). Deriving concept hierarchies from text. Proceedings of the 22nd annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval 1999, pp. 206-213.

Sebastiani, F. (2002). Machine Learning in Automated Text Categorization. ACM Computing Surveys 34(1): 1-47.

Stoica, E., and A. H. Marti (2004). Nearly-automated metadata hierarchy creation. Proceedings of HLT-NAACL 2004: Short Papers, Boston, Mass., pp. 117-120.

Stoica, E.,  A. H. Marti, and M. Richardson (2007). Automating Creation of Hierarchical Faceted Metadata Structures. Proceedings of NAACL/HLT 2007, Rochester, NY, April, pp. 244-251.

notes
1.http://ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/usas/

2.http://www.nltk.org/

3.http://networkx.lanl.gov/

4.http://networkx.lanl.gov/pygraphviz/

5.http://www.ncse.ac.uk/

6.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WordNet#Other_languages","txt","2","",""
"1539","13","Building a TEI Archiving, Publishing, and Access Service: The TAPAS Project","2","Building a TEI Archiving, Publishing, and Access Service: The TAPAS Project
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Flanders, Julia, Center for Digital Scholarship, Brown University, USA, Julia_Flanders@brown.edu
Hamlin, Scott, Library and Information Services, Wheaton College, USA, hamlin_scott@wheatoncollege.edu
Alvarado, Rafael, Humanities and Arts Network of Technological Initiatives, University of Virginia, USA, ontoligent@gmail.com
Mylonas, Elli, Center for Digital Scholarship, Brown University, USA, Elli_Mylonas@brown.edu
As the language of DH 2011’s ‘big tent’ suggests, in recent years the profile of digital humanities work has expanded to include many scholars and practitioners who draw on a multitude of digital technologies in research and educational contexts, without assuming all the roles required to implement these technologies. This new generation (though some are ‘new’ only to digital matters) of digital humanists are undertaking intellectually ambitious work with digital methods and tools, but their interest does not necessarily arise from a strong institutional history or infrastructure, or from personal expertise with digital methods. Rather, they are practicing scholars who are increasingly aware of the shifting stakes of technology for the humanities, and who want to explore what may be possible by working in a new way. As a result, their ambitions often outstrip what their own institutions can support: the available infrastructure of digital publishing, archiving, data curation, and repository services may be limited or absent. An individual scholar can gain expertise and achieve interesting results using the TEI Guidelines (http://www.tei-c.org) or GIS, but it is a slower and more challenging process for a university to develop the institutional infrastructure to support that expertise, in the way that traditional libraries (for instance) support traditional forms of humanities scholarship.

The TEI Archiving, Publication, and Access Service (TAPAS, http://www.tapasproject.org) is aimed at addressing this gap, by providing repository and publication services for small TEI projects. TAPAS began with a planning grant from the IMLS (TAPAS 2010), originally proposed by a group of small liberal-arts institutions including Wheaton College, Willamette University, Hamilton College, Vassar College, Mount Holyoke College, and the University of Puget Sound, and later joined by Brown University and the University of Virginia. This planning group conducted an intensive study of the profile of needs, and developed a specification for the TAPAS service. TAPAS is now operating under a two-year IMLS National Leadership Grant to Wheaton College and Brown University which funds the development of the service. TAPAS has also received an NEH Digital Humanities Startup Grant, led by Wheaton College and the University of Virginia, which funds the development of the user interface. Hosted at Brown University, the TAPAS service will provide repository storage, data curation, and simple interfaces for data management and publication. It will also provide an API through which the TEI data can be accessed and remixed. The service thus aims to fill a crucial niche, enabling both a new type of publication and a new model for how scholarly publication is supported. All of these needs are particularly urgent in the liberal-arts community that is the central focus of TAPAS, but they are also strongly evident in the humanities academy more broadly, at a national and international level.

This project takes place within a landscape already well populated with large-scale infrastructural projects (Hedges 2009), such as TextGrid (http://www.textgrid.de/), DARIAH (http://www.dariah.eu/), CLARIN (http://www.clarin.eu/external/), and the Canadian Writers Research Collaboratory (CWRC, http://www.cwrc.ca/). Projects of this kind must all confront a central set of strategic concerns and design challenges, including questions about how much uniformity to impose upon the data, how to accommodate variation, how to create interoperability layers and tools that can operate meaningfully across multiple data sets (DARIAH 2011a, DARIAH 2011b), and how to manage issues of sustainability (of both the data and the service itself). TAPAS is distinctive within this landscape because of its focus on a single form of data (TEI-encoded research materials) and also because of its initial emphasis on serving an underserved constituency (scholars at smaller or under-resourced institutions) rather than on providing an infrastructure that can operate comprehensively. TAPAS is thus able to tackle the questions above in a highly focused way.

The proposed poster will focus on several key areas of the TAPAS project that will be the focus of our attention in the early phases of the project:

Architecture and system design. The TAPAS service is built on a Fedora repository, and the user interaction will be managed as a set of modular layers using tools like Drupal. The design of these layers needs to take into account information about how scholars need to interact with the service for activities such as:
creating new project records
uploading new data files, uploading revised versions of existing data files
creating metadata for data files, updating the metadata for existing files
configuring options for dissemination, publication, and other modes of access and discovery, such as interface choices, stylesheets, and information to be exposed via APIs.
The poster will provide a detailed look at the internal architecture and the ways that standards like RDF and METS are used to organize information and enable flexible deployment of repository data.

TEI schema development and the challenge of eclecticism. TAPAS plans to accept a broad range of TEI data, but will also need to identify different classes of data that share specific properties, such as genre or the presence of certain encoding features, to determine what kinds of interface tools will or will not be appropriate for a given data set. TAPAS will also use various forms of validation to help TAPAS contributors ensure the consistency and quality of their data prior to upload. The design and use of schemas used within the TAPAS ecology – extending from training, through data creation and management, to long-term data curation  is complex and will be an important focus of the project’s research. The poster will provide a detailed view of the different roles that schemas of various kinds will play in this ecology, and the principles guiding their design and use.
Designing a hosted service. Although TAPAS was prompted by the needs of individual scholars, its implementation as a hosted service means that it also plays an important aggregative role. The TAPAS collection of TEI data has the potential not only to serve as an important corpus of TEI data (of value, for instance, to those interested in the historiography of digital humanities, or in studying how the TEI is used) but also to provide important inter-project connections that may benefit the individual TAPAS contributors and their readers. In addition, designing TAPAS as a hosted service raises a number of issues concerning long-term data curation, rights, and the fiscal sustainability of the service itself. The poster will examine these issues with a particular focus on:
the membership and sustainability model for the service
the handling of intellectual property rights
the design of cross-project tools for searching, exploration, and visualization
User interface. Because TAPAS is intended to support scholars who – although they may be expert users of TEI – are not necessarily experts in working with repositories and XML publication, the design of the user interface will be critical in making the TAPAS service approachable. In addition, because some users may be managing very large numbers of files, the user interface will need to provide productive, intuitive ways of visualizing one’s data from a management standpoint as well as a publication standpoint.
funding
This project is made possible by a grant from the U.S. Institute of Museum and Library Services.

references
DARIAH (2011a). Technical Work: Conceptual Modelling. DARIAH Work Package 8. http://www.dariah.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=31&Itemid=35.

DARIAH (2011b). Technical work: Technical reference architecture. DARIAH Work Package 7. http://www.dariah.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=30&Itemid=34.

TAPAS (2010). Roadmap. http://www.tapasproject.org/roadmap

TextGrid (2010). Roadmap Integration Grid/Repository. TextGrid, September 2010. http://www.textgrid.de/fileadmin/TextGrid/reports/TextGrid_R121_v1.0.pdf.

Hedges, M. (2009). Grid-enabling Humanities Datasets. Digital Humanities Quarterly 3(2). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/4/000078/000078.html","txt","2","",""
"1540","13","CWRC-Writer: An In-Browser XML Editor","2","CWRC-Writer: An In-Browser XML Editor
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Rockwell, Geoffrey, Department of Philosophy and Humanities Computing, University of Alberta, Canada, geoffrey.rockwell@ualberta.ca
Brown, Susan, University of Alberta and University of Guelph, Canada, sibrown@ualberta.ca
Chartrand, James, Open Sky Solutions, Canada, jc.chartrand@gmail.com
Hesemeier, Susan, University of Alberta, Canada, s.hesemeier@ualberta.ca
introduction
The Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory (CWRC) has developed an in-browser text markup editor called CWRC-Writer for use by collaborative scholarly editing projects. This poster will demonstrate the editor and discuss the named entity annotation features that use stand-off RDF for text annotation. The combination of the poster and demonstration will:

Introduce CWRC-Writer so that attendees can try it on their own,
Show the hybrid markup model that combines in-text XML and stand-off RDF, and
Explain the agile development process followed and recruit testers.
We deliberately propose this as a poster for two reasons. First, we want to provide an opportunity for attendees to try CWRC-Writer. Second, we want to recruit a larger circle of individuals and projects willing to test it with real editing needs.1

cwrc-writer
CWRC-Writer is an open-source scholarly editor that is undergoing extensive testing and real-world use in scholarly editing projects. CWRC-writer has or will have the following features:

Figure 1
Figure 1: Screen shot of CWRC-Writer showing the tagging options

Close-to-WYSIWYG editing and enrichment of scholarly texts with meaningful visual representations of markup
Ability to add named entity annotations to texts
Ability to combine TEI markup for the text and stand-off RDF for named entities
Ability to export using ‘weavers’ that recombine the plain text, the TEI, and the RDF into different forms (including an embedded TEI-compliant XML)
Documented code to allow editorial projects to incorporate CWRC-Writer into their environments
background to cwrc-writer
The Mashing Texts project, which was funded by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada, developed a prototype text collection and editing environment (called JiTR) that included a Java Web Start XML editor built on Eclipse by Open Sky Solutions.2 The idea was to test the viability of an easy-to-use editor that could be launched from a web-based collections manager with the text that the user wanted to edit. This meant that users would not have to buy and install a complicated editor. Simultaneously, Open Sky Solutions had been developing a similar XML editor for the Russell Letters project led by Dr. Nicholas Griffin at McMaster University.2 While these editors worked, the time they took to load via the Internet was too long, and developments in browser-based JavaScript editors made it feasible to re-implement the editor as something easy to use in the browser itself.

CWRC, which is funded by the Canada Foundation for Innovation to develop a collaborative editing and publishing environment, is therefore developing an in-browser editor dubbed CWRC-Writer.3 CWRC has built the first usable version of the editor and is working on a second version for the Spring of 2012. The development is led by James Chartrand of Open Sky Solutions. CWRC-Writer is based on TinyMCE, a javascript editor using jQuery to extend functionality.4

agile development process
This project uses an agile development model to develop the editor in close consultation with CWRC partner projects and member projects. As part of the JiTR project, we developed personas and usage scenarios for those personas. CWRC, once funded, then developed specific use case scenarios for the XML editor with wireframes showing how it might be launched (from an editorial environment) and how it might look. Now we are developing this editor in iterations with input from partner projects that use it in their editing or born-digital writing. With the partners we follow an agile process that involves:

Presenting prototypes to the partners with suggestions of what we want tested and where we need suggestions. Susan Hesemeier manages this process.
Summarizing the feedback and prioritizing the next features to be developed. Dr. Rockwell and Dr. Brown do the prioritizing in consultation with the developer.
Responding to queries as Open Sky Solutions develops the next iteration of the prototype.
Initial testing of the prototype by a researcher to address any obvious bugs so as not to waste partner time.
Presenting it back again to the partner participants to be used with their texts. Back to 1.
Each iteration takes about a month and we have completed three. Partner projects are committed to iterative development and have research assistants to help with testing in context.

partner projects
The partner projects for the first iterations include:

Orlando Project: This ongoing collaborative experiment in digital women’s literary history has since 1995 involved more than 100 people, many junior scholars, in using a custom semantic tagset based structurally on the TEI but specific to literary history. Orlando’s flagship publication appeared in 2006: Orlando: Women’s Writing in the British Isles is an on-line cultural history generated from the lives and works of over 1200 writers. Orlando continues to produce new materials.

Wilfred Watson and Sheila Watson Projects: The international Editing Modernism in Canada project is producing scholarly print and digital editions of texts by modernist Canadian authors. Through partnerships with several university libraries, University of Alberta Press and CWRC, the EMiC group at the University of Alberta, led by Dr. Paul Hjartarson, is producing digital and print editions of the literary manuscripts of Wilfred and Sheila Watson, who rank among the best late modernist writers in Canada.

Russell Letters Project: Philosopher and social critic Bertrand Russell was one of the twentieth century’s great letter writers and a highly prolific one. His letters are a hugely important resource for philosophers and historians and anyone interested in twentieth-century culture and politics. The Collected Letters of Bertrand Russell project, led by Dr. Nicholas Griffin, is digitizing, transcribing, annotating and indexing more than 40,000 letters from the Russell Archives to create an on-line electronic edition.

Canada’s Early Women Writers Project: Despite the prominence of star authors like Margaret Atwood, little is known of most of Canada’s earlier women writers. This project updates and expands a bio-bibliographical database of 470 Canadian women writers housed at Simon Fraser University. The enlarged semantically-tagged version (of well over 1000 names) will include all notable English-language writers active before 1950 who lived in or wrote about Canada.

named entity annotation
One of the issues flagged early on was that many CWRC partner projects wanted sophisticated annotation for names, places, titles, organization names, dates, citations, and events, as well as great freedom for personal annotation, including overlapping annotations. There is also a desire for interoperability across projects, the coordination of authority lists for these entities, and the ability to harvest some annotations.

The solution is to provide an editing tool that uses a custom in-memory javascript data structure, that can export structural markup that conforms to schemas such as the TEI and Orlando ones, along with Open Annotation Collaboration (OAC) RDF for deeper semantic annotation (using controlled authority lists and vocabulary) of references to people, places, events, organizations, bibliographic material, and dates. CWRC-Writer thus supports creation of structural XML and the RDF in a WYSIWYG environment (WYSIWYG in that the annotations are displayed in the editor as they might appear in the public interface). The formatting of the text within the editor relieves the user of the complexity of interacting directly with RDF formats and even with angle brackets, though both can be viewed on demand and edited by those comfortable with code. There is also provision for exporting enhanced text either as structural markup combined with representations of entities as (potentially overlapping) RDF or, for those who opt for hierarchical markup, entirely as nested tags. The poster will present this in detail with examples.

authority list management and lookup
CWRC-Writer provides forms to look up or construct annotations for people, places, events, organizations, dates, and bibliographic references. The annotations are applied much like formatting is applied in a WYSIWYG editor: the end user highlights the text to be annotated, then clicks on an icon to trigger the annotation lookup or edit form. We are now developing an API so that CWRC-Writer can retrieve a list of recommended entities to present to the user for selection and nominate new entities for inclusion. This is a first step towards a system that can manage people, places, organizations and other entities centrally across multiple projects. In the first instance, this will work with entity data from several CWRC pilot projects and be developed collaboratively with the Watsons project, but we are working towards use of Cool URIs so that CWRC entities can be exposed as and interact with other linked open data.

CWRC’s decision to design an editor that can be used without a full understanding of markup or RDF will undoubtedly be controversial, but we feel such an editor is needed by projects that bring on collaborators for specific tasks who are uninterested in the deeper technology, just as the accessibility of a web-based editor will be useful to many digital projects for light editing, correction, enhancement, and annotation of dynamic collections. We welcome the opportunity to engage in this debate by demonstrating the CWRC-Writer to interested members of the DH community.

references
CKEditor: http://ckeditor.com/

Collected Letters of Bertrand Russell project: http://russell.mcmaster.ca/brletters.htm

Cool URIs: http://www.w3.org/TR/cooluris/

CWRC: Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory: http://www.cwrc.ca/

CWRC-Writer: http://www.cwrc.ca/cwrcwriter

JiTR (Mashing Texts) project: http://tada.mcmaster.ca/Main/MashTexts

jQuery: http://jquery.com

Open Annotation Collaboration: http://www.openannotation.org/

Open Sky Solutions: http://www.openskysolutions.ca/

ORE, a component of the Open Archives Initiative: http://www.openarchives.org/ore/

Orlando Project: http://www.ualberta.ca/orlando and http://orlando.cambridge.org

TEI Lite: http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/Customization/Lite/

TinyMCE: http://www.tinymce.com/

notes
1.For current information and to contact us visit the current CWRC-Writer site: http://www.cwrc.ca/cwrcwriter

2.See http://russell.mcmaster.ca/brletters.htm

3.See http://cwrc.ca

4.For TinyMCE see http://www.tinymce.com/. For jQuery see http://jquery.com.","txt","2","",""
"1541","13","Collaborative Video and Image Annotation","2","Collaborative Video and Image Annotation
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Arnold, Matthias, Cluster of Excellence ‘Asia and Europe in a Global Context’, Heidelberg University, Germany, arnold@asia-europe.uni-heidelberg.de
Knab, Cornelia, Cluster of Excellence ‘Asia and Europe in a Global Context’, Heidelberg University, Germany, knab@asia-europe.uni-heidelberg.de
Decker, Eric, Cluster of Excellence ‘Asia and Europe in a Global Context’, Heidelberg University, Germany, decker@asia-europe.uni-heidelberg.de
The Heidelberg Research Architecture (HRA)1 is the Digital Humanities Section of Heidelberg University’s Cluster of Excellence Asia and Europe in a Global Context – Shifting Asymmetries in Cultural Flows.2 It brings together a team of IT scientists, software developers, and database architects with international researchers and students. In collaborative projects, the HRA aims to develop an integrated digital humanities environment for interdisciplinary studies of transcultural dynamics.

The core of the HRA research environment is Tamboti, the central metadata framework3 which is used to store standards-based metadata information (e.g. MODS, VRA core 4, TEI, MADS) in an XML database4. Researchers can access their resources using a platform-independent browser interface to share and collaboratively work on metadata. In addition, an Open Annotation Collaboration (OAC)5 module for comments and research annotations is under development. Flexible webservices and user-friendly interfaces for data input (using XForms) will help to further accumulate resources for research.

This poster presentation provides two examples of research projects focussing on visual resource material.

First, the Video Annotation Database6 allows to annotate a film as a whole and to comment on individual scenes by using the Public Access Digital Media Archive (pad.ma)7 video annotation software. It offers different types of annotation: transcripts to record the narration, descriptions to annotate scenes, and keywords to add subjects, identify locations, etc. All textual input can be searched. In addition, keywords may be geo-referenced and browsed or searched in a map-interface.

Second, for digital still images a separate module is being developed using the VRA core 4 XML schema8. Besides storing images with metadata its aim is to provide researchers with a set of useful tools to directly link the visual material with their research. Important features for its users will be the opportunity of collaborative metadata editing, a flexible system for sharing of resources, as well as tools for annotation and comments based on OAC. In addition, the module will allow to automatically extract embedded metadata on ingest via exif-tool. It will also be possible to mark, annotate and link parts of images, to group images on virtual lighttables, and to save and export image sequences (‘visual itineraries’).

Two ongoing research projects will exemplify the use of the databases:

Example 1: Global Politics on Screen

As an example for empirical historical research concentrating on visual source material, the project Global Politics on Screen – A Japanese Film on the Lytton Commission in 19329 tests the potential of video annotation tools by combining pad.ma with models of historical film interpretation. In this research based training project, a team of history students and researchers centres on analysing and commenting a silent Japanese propaganda film about a crucial moment of world history – the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 which led the way to the Second World War. While the League of Nations commission aimed at preventing further military disputes in the ‘Far East’ the focus of the film producers was to propagate their own interpretation of international politics. The analysis of the film is a starting point to approach the complex international diplomatic and economic relations of the early 1930s. The project builds up a platform to explore the global contexts and public representations of these critical historical incidents from a new perspective.

Example 2: Priya Paul Collection

The Priya Paul Collection of Popular Art10contains more than 4.200 illustrations from late 19th and 20th century India. It is one of the finest collections of ephemera such as old posters, calendars, postcards, commercial advertisements, textile labels and cinema posters. In a collaborative endeavor with Tasveerghar – A Digital Network of South Asian Popular Visual Culture11the collection was digitised and is now being annotated by experts from history, art history, visual and media anthropology, and ethnology. The subststantial research metadata of the collection is a showcase for  the implementation of VRA Core 4 XML in the metadata framework and a user-friendly VRA metadata editor is under development. Content analysis is closely connected with the intense study of the material which already resulted in fourteen research essays and extensive work of annotation. With the new digital still image module, Tamboti will serve as a platform to integrate archive and metadata storage with scientific discussion and analysis within a single framework.

Screenshot 1
Screenshot 1: Video Annotation Database – Editor

Screenshot 2
Screenshot 2: Image from the Priya Paul Collection – Image Viewer (HeidICON 12)

Coordination

Global Politics on Screen:

Prof. Dr. Madeleine Herren-Oesch, Cluster of Excellence “Asia and Europe in a Global Context”, Heidelberg University;

Cornelia Knab, Cluster of Excellence “Asia and Europe in a Global Context”, Heidelberg University;

Eric Decker, Heidelberg Research Architecture, Cluster of Excellence “Asia and Europe in a Global Context”, Heidelberg University

Priya Paul Collection:

Prof. Dr. Christiane Brosius, Cluster of Excellence “Asia and Europe in a Global Context”, Heidelberg University;

Sumathi Ramaswamy, Duke University

Yousuf Saeed, Tasveerghar, Delhi

Matthias Arnold, Heidelberg Research Architecture, Cluster of Excellence “Asia and Europe in a Global Context”, Heidelberg University

Members

Global Politics on Screen:

Inci Bosnak, Sascha Herlings, Felix Nothdurft, Maya Okuda, Julian Wettengel, Dulip Withanage, Matthias Guth

Priya Paul Collection:

Laila Abu-Er-Rub, Suboor Bakht, Gerhard Schönfelder, Sridevi Padmahan, Simon Grüning, Tony Buchwald, Johannes Alisch

Project term

Global Politics on Screen: September 2010 – September 2012

Priya Paul Collection: January 2009 – September 2012

Funding

DFG – Cluster of Excellence “Asia-Europe in a Global Context”, Heidelberg University

Cooperations

Cluster of Excellence “Asia-Europe in a Global Context”, Heidelberg University;

History Department, Heidelberg University;

League of Nations Archive, UNOG Library, Geneva;

Japan Center for Asian Historical Records (JACAR) アジア歴史資料センター;

LONSEA Project, Heidelberg University;

Tasveerghar – A Digital Network of South Asian Popular Visual Culture, Delhi

Presentation

Cornelia Knab, Eric Decker, Matthias Arnold

notes
1.Heidelberg Research Architecture, http://hra.uni-hd.de

2.Cluster of Excellence ‘Asia and Europe in a Global Context’, http://www.asia-europe.uni-heidelberg.de

3.Tamboti metadata framework, http://tamboti.uni-hd.de

4.eXist-db open source database management system, http://exist-db.org

5.Open Annotation Collaboration, http://www.openannotation.org

6.Video Annotation Database, http://vad.uni-hd.de

7.Public Access Digital Media Archive, http://pad.ma

8.VRA Core 4 XML standard, http://www.loc.gov/standards/vracore/

9.Global Politics on Screen, http://lytton-project.uni-hd.de

10.The Priya Paul Collection of Popular Art, http://priyapaulcollection.uni-hd.de/

11.Tasveerghar – A Digital Network of South Asian Popular Visual Culture, http://tasveerghar.net/

12.HeidICON – Die Heidelberger Bilddatenbank, http://heidicon.ub.uni-heidelberg.de","txt","2","",""
"1542","13","Complex entity management through EATS: the case of the Gascon Rolls Project","2","Complex entity management through EATS: the case of the Gascon Rolls Project
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Litta Modignani Picozzi, Eleonora, King’s College London, UK, eleonora.litta@kcl.ac.uk
Norrish, Jamie, King’s College London, UK, jamie@artefact.org.nz
Monteiro Vieira, Jose Miguel, King’s College London, UK, jose.m.vieira@kcl.ac.uk
Managing entities like people, places and subjects across a large corpus of textual documents can be complicated. While the TEI guidelines offer a sound basis for the encoding of a great variety of textual material, there does not seem to be a general agreement on how to manage information that goes beyond the text, like entity information and relationships between entities.

At the Department of Digital Humanities at King’s College London, past solutions for entity management have included the implementation of the following:

Simple XML authority files that contain basic information about all the entities in the corpus;
EAC files, where a file is created for each entity and linked from the texts using IDs;
Bespoke databases, that are very tied to a specific project and are not designed to be reusable;
RDF/OWL ontologies.1
But all of these seemed either to be too simplistic and hard to maintain, or too complicated for the requirements we had in the Gascon Rolls project.2

In this abstract we will demonstrate how we successfully applied the entity management tool EATS (Entity Authority Tool Set),3 in the context of this project, to successfully manage entity information.

The Gascon Rolls Project (1317-1468) is an AHRC-funded collaborative venture between the Universities of Oxford and Liverpool, and the Department of Digital Humanities at King’s College, London. It began in October 2008, and is due to end in December 2011.

The main aim is to make the unpublished records of the English Government of the Duchy of Aquitaine (1154-1453)4 available to everyone, both in electronic and printed forms.

The corpus of the Gascon Rolls consists of one hundred and twelve rolls containing up to 67 membranes each containing enrolments by the English royal Chancery of letters, writs, mandates, confirmations, inspeximuses, and other documents issued by, and in the name of, the Plantagenet and Lancastrian king-dukes for their Gascon lands and subjects. The rolls contain a large set of information about people and places, in particular, that need to be harvested in order to offer sophisticated indexes and advanced search functions which can give a different research experience to the scholar approaching the online resource. At the time of writing there are 4381 people entities and 2842 place entities in EATS, and there is no issue with having many thousands more. By comparison, the EATS installation at the New Zealand Electronic Text Centre contains almost a hundred thousand entities, drawn from thousands of electronic texts.5

The open access online resource offers images of all the unpublished Gascon Rolls (1317-1468), an edition, in calendar (summary) form, indexes of person, places and subjects mentioned, and advanced search features.

The calendar editing framework is based largely on what has been previously developed,6 7 for the Fine Rolls of Henry III project.8 It uses a customised subset of the TEI P5 guidelines;9 these have been adapted to suit the particular needs of the structural variety presented by the Gascon Rolls.

Calendars are encoded directly in XML. Information is captured about structure (rolls, membranes, entries, openers and closers), dates, people and their offices, places and subjects.

This allows the creation of a number of displays, in both electronic and printed formats, and forms a basis for the construction of indexes and search facilities.

Information about people and their offices, places and subjects are encoded in-line, extracted from the text using a custom-built oXygen XML Editor plugin,10 and added to EATS, where each entity is given a unique identifier (URI).

Figure 1
Figure 1: Graphic display of the Gascon Rolls editorial framework

EATS is a web application for recording, editing, using and displaying authority information about entities.11 It is designed to allow multiple authorities to each maintain their own independent data, while operating on a common base so that information about the same entity is all in one place. It can be accessed by multiple users simultaneously, allowing the research team members to work independently and collaboratively at the same time.

By using a central entity management system to capture information about people, places and subjects mentioned in the rolls, it is possible to track a single entity throughout all the rolls and establish relationships between the entities.

Relationships, along with the variant names of entities, are crucial elements in entity management, since they are not amenable to discovery through simple search interfaces. The Gascon Rolls project harvests relationships from two sources: those explicitly created in EATS by the researchers, and those that can be inferred from TEI markup within the texts. The former encompasses information that is not present in the text, or which is not bounded by time or circumstance; for example, familial relationships. The latter derives from nested name markup, for example specifying that a person is from a particular place.

The publishing framework created at the Department of Digital Humanities at King’s College London, xMod,12 generates the output for the different calendar reading views and for the single entity pages which are the basis for online and printed indexes. The editorial framework and the entity management system together form a flexible structure that can be reapplied for the online and printed publication of other historical sources of the same nature.

One of the advantages of using EATS, as opposed to the other entity management possibilities mentioned above, is the possibility to access EATS directly from the XML editor, by using the plugin, which reduces the time it would take to add or edit information, compared to having to use a separate tool. Another advantage is that, due to EATS being a database at its core, the information that it stores can easily be exported into other formats as desired, such as RDF/OWL and Topic Maps serialisations.

Further, since the EATS installation is not tightly coupled to the other components of the Gascon Rolls project – that is, it does not reference them, but is only referenced – its information can be easily reused in other projects. Indeed, such projects could use the same installation and add their own information about entities, without causing any changes to the information used by the Gascon Rolls project. Data can be shared without being intermingled.

There are some downsides to the current version of EATS, however. When adding more complex information about an entity, like relationships, the users found it complicated to use at first. It is not easy to add some rich information, like tertiary relationships (Person A related to Person B in Place C), although this was never a problem in our case. It is not possible to define entity type hierarchies; for instance County can’t be declared as a subtype of Place. Such a facility would be extremely useful when trying to classify entities and to create an overview of the total number of entities of an overarching type.

The approach taken to entity management in the Gascon Rolls project has so far served it well, and is well suited to similar undertakings.

notes
1.Ciula, A., P. Spence, and  M. Vieira (2008). Expressing complex associations in the medieval historical documents: the Henry III Fine Rolls Project. Journal of the Association for Literaty and Linguistic Computing and the Association for Computers and the Humanities 23( 3).

2.http://www.gasconrolls.org/

3.http://www.gasconrolls.org/

4.The Gascon Rolls (Rotuli Vasconie – C61 class in the UK National Archives) relate to the English Government of the Duchy of Aquitaine (1154-1453) and include information on the Hundred Years War, concluding in 1453 with the end of the Anglo-Gascon union.

5. http://authority.nzetc.org/ and http://authority.nzetc.org/

6.Ciula, A. (2006). Searching the Fine Rolls: A Demonstration of the Electronic Version. Paper presented at the International Medieval Congress 2006, University of Leeds, July 10-13.

7.Spence, P. (2006). The Henry III Fine Rolls Project.Digital Humanities 2006. The First ADHO International Conference: Conference Abstracts. Universite Paris-Sorbonne.

8.http://www.finerollshenry3.org.uk/

9.TEI Consortium (2007). TEI P5 Guidelines. http://www.tei-c.org/.

10.http://code.google.com/p/eats/#EATS_oXygen_Plugin

11.Stevenson, A., and J. Norrish (2008). Topic Maps and Entity Authority Records: An Effective Cyber Infrastructure for Digtal Humanities. Paper presented at the Digital Humanities 2008 conference. Oulu, Finland, June 25-29, 2008.

12.http://www.cch.kcl.ac.uk/xmod/","txt","2","",""
"1543","13","Courting 'The World's Wife': Original Digital Humanities Research in the Undergraduate Classroom","2","Courting ‘The World’s Wife’: Original Digital Humanities Research in the Undergraduate Classroom
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Croxall, Brian, Emory University, USA, b.croxall@gmail.com
What would it mean to turn a class of undergraduates – one of the most important emerging digital humanities communities – loose on a text analysis puzzle unintentionally created by England’s poet laureate? This poster presentation will report on the process, outcomes, successes, and failures of an original research project for those just learning about the possibilities of humanities computing.

Carol Ann Duffy was named the poet laureate of Britain in May 2009, the first Scot, woman, and openly gay person to hold this position. While this choice signaled a desire for diversity and inclusiveness on the part of the crown, the most important criterion for her selection was her poetry itself. Tackling traditional themes of love along with less conventional ones such as sport, what most sets apart Duffy’s poetry from many of her contemporaries is its style, which, on the occasion of her appointment, Sarah Lyall in The New York Times described as ‘deceptively simple’ and which ‘produce[s] accessible, often mischievous poems dealing with the darkest turmoil and the lightest minutiae of everyday life’ (Lyall 2009).

Perhaps Duffy’s style is best exemplified by her 1999 volume, The World’s Wife, in which she presents short dramatic monologues from the women married to famous men throughout history, mythology, and literature. She presents the stories of ‘Mrs. Darwin’, ‘Mrs. Sisyphus’, and ‘Mrs. Quasimodo’, among others. Clever, humorous, and filled with poems that even rhyme, The World’s Wife sold tremendously well and began to be used regularly in classrooms. Yet critics felt that the collection was of substantially different quality when compared to her three previous, prize-winning collections. As Jeanette Winterson reported in a profile on Duffy, The World’s Wife prompted reactions that had critics ‘ask[ing] questions about whether Duffy had lost her balance. Had she stopped writing poetry and slipped into verse?’ (Winterson).

While Duffy did not comment publicly on such evaluations of her work, undergraduate students in my Spring 2009 poetry class discovered evidence that she was aware of a difference between The World’s Wife and those volumes that had preceded it. While exploring her recently acquired papers (http://findingaids.library.emory.edu/documents/duffy834/) in Emory University’s Manuscripts, Archives, and Rare Book Library (MARBL), the students found an undated letter from Duffy to the publisher of her previous volumes. She writes that she will be publishing The World’s Wife with another press: ‘…this book is not a “normal” poetry collection by me – it’s closer to popular entertainment, if you like’ (Duffy). So while Duffy later told Winterson that the question of perceived differences in her volumes doesn’t concern her (Winterson), her letter makes it clear that she perceives real differences prior to the publication of The World’s Wife.

This discovery by my students in a 2009 became the seed for the capstone project in my current course, ‘Introduction to Digital Humanities’ (http://www.briancroxall.net/dh): we are testing Duffy’s own words to see whether The World’s Wife truly does differ from her ‘“normal” poetry collection[s].’ To this end, we are reading The World’s Wife alongside her previous volume, Mean Time (1993), which won both the prestigious Forward Poetry Prize and Whitbread Poetry Award. Initially, students wrote essays that employed close reading to make an argument about whether or not there are differences between the two volumes. The class then turned to less traditional modes of analysis. Each student was assigned a number of poems from each volume to transcribe, preparatory for analysis in the suite of Voyant (http://hermeneuti.ca/voyeur), formerly Voyeur (Rockwell 2011), designed by Stéfan Sinclair and Geoffrey Rockwell. Students used different facets of Voyant to explore possible shifts in Duffy’s language between the two texts: word frequency, the number of unique words, word collocation, and more. With other tools, we tested the relative line lengths between the volumes and the readability scores of Duffy’s language. Students worked in teams on the different modules to understand and interpret their results. The class also turned to the archives and Duffy’s notebooks to determine (anecdotally) the rate of changes and corrections between particular poems in the different volumes. Finally, inspired by Stephen Ramsay’s arguments that ‘Digital Humanities is about building things’ and Mark Sample’s suggestion that digital humanities is ‘about sharing’, the students built interpretive arguments about their findings and shared them via the course website.

As mentioned, this poster reports on the processes of designing a digital humanities research project, the process of making those findings public, and the exposure of undergraduates to some of the basic tools and methods of textual analysis. It incorporates not only the results of textual analysis, but also feedback from students about their experience learning new tools and approaches, including a strong emphasis on collaboration – a rarity in most humanities coursework. The presentation continues the trend to discuss the intersection of pedagogy and digital humanities; multiple panels on this subject are being convened at the 2012 Modern Language Convention, for example, and the 2011 Digital Humanities conference at Stanford featured posters by Katherine D. Harris and Beth Bonsignore et al. on the subject (Croxall & Berens 2011; Harris 2011a, 2011b; Bonsignore 2011). This presentation in particular builds on Harris’s work on the necessity of uncertainty when designing opportunities for ‘ play ’ by presenting students with a research assignment in which the outcomes are not yet predetermined by the instructor (Harris 2011b).

While reporting on original text analysis research, this presentation simultaneously examines how undergraduates and pedagogy are important facets of the increasingly diverse community of practice that is digital humanities.

references
Bonsignore, B., et al. (2011). The Arcane Gallery of Gadgetry: A Design Case Study of an Alternate Reality Game. Digital Humanities 2011 Conference Abstracts, pp. 281-283.

Croxall, B. (2011). Introduction to Digital Humanities. http://www.briancroxall.net/dh (accessed 23 March 2012).

Croxall, B., and K. I. Berens (2011). Building Digital Humanities in the Undergraduate Classroom. http://www.briancroxall.net/buildingDH/ (accessed 23 March 2012).

Duffy, C. A. (1993). Mean Time. London: Anvil Press Poetry.

Duffy, C. A. (1999). The World’s Wife. London: Picador.

Duffy, C. A. (N.D.). Letter. Box 4, Folder 2. Carol Ann Duffy Papers. Manuscripts, Archives, and Rare Book Library. Emory University, Atlanta.

Emory University (N.D.). Carol Ann Duffy Papers, 1985-2007. http://pid.emory.edu/ark:/25593/8z7md (accessed 23 March 2012).

Harris, K. D. (2011a). Acceptance of Pedagogy & DH MLA 2012. triproftri. (14 May 2011). http://triproftri.wordpress.com/2011/05/14/acceptance-of-pedagogy-dh-mla-2012/ (accessed 23 March 2012).

Harris, K. D. (2011b). Pedagogy & Play: Revising Learning through Digital Humanities. Digital Humanities 2011 Conference Abstracts, pp. 319-321.

Lyall, S. (2009). After 341 Years, British Poet Laureate Is a Woman. The New York Times (2 May 2009). http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/02/world/europe/02poet.html (accessed 23 March 2012).

Ramsay, S. (2011). Who’s In and Who’s Out. Stephen Ramsay (8 Jan. 2011). http://lenz.unl.edu/papers/2011/01/08/whos-in-and-whos-out.html (accessed 23 March 2012).

Rockwell, G. (2011). Name Change. Hermeneuti.ca (19 Oct. 2011). http://hermeneuti.ca/node/212 (accessed 23 March 2012).

Sample, M. (2011). The Digital Humanities is Not About Building, It’s About Sharing. Sample Reality. (25 May 2011). http://www.samplereality.com/2011/05/25/the-digital-humanities-is-not-about-building-its-about-sharing/ (accessed 23 March 2012).

Winterson, J. (N.D.). Carol Ann Duffy. Jeanette Winterson. http://www.jeanettewinterson.com/pages/content/index.asp?PageID=350 (accessed 23 March 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1544","13","Cross-cultural Approaches to Digital Humanities  Funding and Implementation","2","Cross-cultural Approaches to Digital Humanities – Funding and Implementation
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Rhody, Jason, National Endowment for the Humanities, USA, jrhody@neh.gov
Kümmel, Christoph, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Germany, christoph.kuemmel@dfg.de
Effinger, Maria, Heidelberg University Library, Germany, Effinger@ub.uni-heidelberg.de
Freedman, Richard, Haverford College, USA, rfreedma@haverford.edu
Magier, David, Princeton University, USA, dmagier@princeton.edu
Förtsch, Reinhard, Universität zu Köln, Cologne Digital Archaeology Laboratory, Germany, foertsch@uni-koeln.de
Beginning in 2008, DFG and NEH provided joint-funding through a bilateral program in digital humanities, a program that was based in part on the previous year’s similar opportunity offered by the NEH and the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) in the United Kingdom. Such collaboration between US and European humanities funding organizations was inspired, in part, by the Report on Cyberinfrastructure in the Humanities and Social Sciences, commissioned by ACLS, which charged that such entities ‘should work together to promote collaboration and skills development – through conferences, workshops, and/or grant programs – for the creation, management, preservation, and presentation of reusable digital collections, objects, and products’ (5). Equally influential was the assertion that ‘defining and building cyberinfrastructure should be a collaborative undertaking [...] designed to foster and support collaboration across disciplinary and geographical boundaries [...] to bring new perspectives to bear on the exploration of the cultural record’ (28). Within the spirit of these charges, funding organizations increasingly believed that a call for increased international collaboration should be supported by efforts to collaborate with each other; in short, they should not demand a model that they were unable to emulate.

This poster session will highlight work from digital humanities projects funded through these international collaboration efforts. Staff from US and German funding agencies will be present to discuss the challenges and opportunities to be found in international collaboration, with input solicited from the projects themselves. The discussion will cover the organizational and financial side of international cooperation as well as issues of compatibility with regards to content. What is good practice in starting new projects in an international environment? What challenges have to be met getting different, established infrastructures to work together smoothly? How can different approaches be combined in a fruitful manner? How can funding organizations allow for flexible collaboration between institutions (including their own) often bound by complex administrative requirements? Why is it important to build infrastructure within an international context? What are successful strategies in combining infrastructure development and humanities research? Finally, what are the next steps for generating successful – even ad-hoc, fluid – international collaborations as part of the natural workflow in digital humanities production?

Brett Bobley, Jason Rhody (both of the National Endowment for the Humanities in the United States) and Christoph Kümmel (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft e.V., DFG, in Germany) will be available to discuss strategies, surprises, and challenges in developing the collaborative framework for the bilateral grant programs. Four projects funded through this process will be emphasized, with each representing a different type of digital humanities project that have unique institutional and disciplinary approaches to bilateral cooperative efforts.

The German Sales Project: Art Works, Art Markets, and Cultural Policy (Dr. Maria Effinger, Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg/Heidelberg University Library) allows conversation about opportunities for shared expertise across cultural boundaries. A partnership with the Kunstbibliothek – Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, the Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg, the Forschungsstelle ‘Entartete Kunst’ at the Universität Hamburg, and the Getty Research Institute, the project team is locating auction catalogs that record art transactions in Germany, Austria and Switzerland between 1930 and 1945. By documenting and digitizing thousands of catalogs in Europe and the United States and producing a database of these records that will form part of the Getty Provenance Index, they will ultimately allow scholars to explore wider issues concerning the German art market beyond traditional provenance research.

The Music Encoding Initiative (MEI) reveals the challenges and opportunities in developing and implementing standards while participating within a coalition of users for international projects. MEI, supported by two grants through the DFG/NEH Bilateral Digital Humanities program, developed an extensive XML DTD that allows for rich tagging of notated scores, which are mostly commonly available only as image files. By encoding music scores, scholars can carry out the same kinds of operations that are commonly performed on electronic textual sources, such as compiling musical corpora, data interchange, and comparative analysis. This project began as a collaboration between the University of Virginia and the University Paderborn, and has transitioned into a prototype gathering exemplar projects involving dozens of scholars, librarians, and universities crossing interdisciplinary and national boundaries. Dr. Freedman co-directs the NEH-supported ‘Les Livres De Chansons Nouvelles De Nicolas Duchemin,’ a digital facsimile project centered on a dozen sets of Renaissance music books, which also serves as an exemplar project for MEI; Dr. Freedman also is a member of the MEI advisory board.

The Yemen Manuscript Digitization Initiative (YMDI) is a collaborative project between Princeton University Library and the Freie Universität, Berlin. David Magier (Princeton University) reports on international cooperation in recovering cultural heritage materials and their subsequent incorporation into research libraries. The private manuscript libraries of Yemen comprise one of the world’s largest and most important collections of Arabic manuscripts. Collectively, these 6,000 private libraries possess some 50,000 codices, many of which are unique, recording a rich cultural legacy of Arabic and Islamic literature from the eighth century to the present. Because Yemen is relatively remote from the central lands of Islam, it has preserved many extremely rare sources, including some of the earliest extant Qur’an fragments and theological tracts, and works of great importance for the study of classical Islam, Arabic literature, science, and history. In recent years, however, Yemen’s private libraries have suffered great losses, in part due to sectarian extremists; over 10,000 manuscripts, including several entire libraries, have been destroyed. YMDI is working with a local foundation in Yemen in order to address this critical situation by devoting itself to the digital reproduction of these private collections.

The Hellespont Project, a collaboration between the German Archaeological Institute (DAI) and Tufts University, combined and expanded the collections of two of the oldest and most established digital projects in Classical Studies – Arachne and Perseus – in order to work toward a single comprehensive digital library about the ancient world. Dr. Reinhard Förtsch of the Cologne Digital Archaeology Laboratory offers commentary on the challenges and cooperative models in building interoperable resources across international boundaries.

In addition to these topics (sharing expertise; building standards and garnering users; international cooperation in recovering cultural heritage; and interoperability), Bobley, Rhody and Kümmel will be available for broader discussion about the future of international infrastructure for digital humanities, data-driven approaches, the rich entanglement of research methods with infrastructure development, and the rationale of bilateral and multilateral approaches in funding and research.

The following participants will be available during the poster session:

Brett Bobley, Director, Office of Digital Humanities, National Endowment for the Humanities
Christoph Kümmel, Program Officer, Scientific Library Services and Information Systems, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
Jason Rhody, Senior Program Officer, Office of Digital Humanities, National Endowment for the Humanities
The following participants contributed to the poster session:
Dr. Maria Effinger, Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg (Heidelberg University Library), German Sales Project
Professor Dr. Reinhard Förtsch, Universität zu Köln, Cologne Digital Archaeology Laboratory, Hellespont Project
Richard Freedman, Haverford College, Music Encoding Initiative & Les Livres De Chansons Nouvelles De Nicolas Duchemin
David Magier, Associate University Librarian for Collection Development, Princeton University,Yemen Manuscript Digitization Initiative","txt","2","",""
"1545","13","DTAQ - Quality Assurance in a Large Corpus of Historical Texts","2","DTAQ – Quality Assurance in a Large Corpus of Historical Texts
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Wiegand, Frank, Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Germany, wiegand@bbaw.de
project
The DFG-funded project Deutsches Textarchiv (German Text Archive, DTA1) started in 2007 and is located at the Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, BBAW2). Its goal is to digitize a large cross-section of German texts from 1650 to 1900. The DTA presents almost exclusively the first editions of the respective works. Currently there are more than 700 texts available (i. e. 500 million characters), most of them transcribed by non-native speakers using the double keying method.

The DTA provides linguistic applications for its corpus, i. e. serialization of tokens, lemmatization, lemma-based and phonetic search, and rewrite rules for historic spelling variation.

Each text in the DTA is encoded using the XML/TEI-P5 format. The markup describes text structures (headlines, paragraphs, speakers, poem lines, index items, etc.), as well as the physical layout of the text down to the position of each character on a page.

problem statement
Even though our corpus of historic text exhibits very good quality, many errors still occur in the transcription, in the markup, or even on the level of presentation. Due to the heterogeneity of the corpus, e. g. in terms of text genres (novels, prose, scientific essays, linguistic reference works, cookbooks, etc.) there is a strong demand for a collaborative, easy to use quality assurance environment.

As of October 2011, the corpus consists of more than 260,000 pages (half a billion characters), several gigabytes of XML. Even though our digitization providers assure an accuracy rate of 99.95 %, many errors remain undetected, not to mention problems in the presentation layer of the DTA or workflow mistakes.

There are many kinds of possible errors in our transcribed texts: transcription errors (e. g. due to illegible text or text written in foreign scripts like hebrew, greek, runic, etc.) sometimes require specialized background knowledge, so we created various assorted tools to aid users in finding potentially problematic spots in our texts, and to help transcribers to obtain better and faster results.

In addition, DTA provides an interface DTAE3 for the integration of external text transcriptions along with the corresponding images and metadata. These transcriptions should be encoded in XML/TEI using the DTA ‘base format’4

Quality assurance (QA) also has to take into account other levels of error prone representations and tasks, namely metadata, XML/TEI annotation, HTML presentation (and other media), and the robustness of workflow. DTAQ is our QA system dealing with all these potential errors: They need to be reported, stored and fixed.

dta quality assurance
DTAQ5 is a browser-based tool to find, categorize, and correct various kinds of errors. Using a simple authentication system combined with a fine-grained access control system, new users can easily be added to our QA system. The GUI of our tool is highly customizable, so we can offer diverse views of our source images, transcriptions, and presentations.

Figure 1
Figure 1: DTAQ: parallel view of image and rendered transcription

Our linguistic tools (CAB,6 PoS-tagging) are integrated into this environment, not only to check their performance for errors, but also to provide alternate views of our texts. To avoid unnecessary repetitions in proofreading, users can mark pages as proofread. Using this technique, we are also able to provide several quality levels of our pages or books. All tickets and proofread pages are stored in a database, thus DTAQ provides in-depth analysis and visualisation of the accuracy of the DTA corpus.

The backend of DTAQ is built upon many open source packages, using Perl as a glue language. The system runs on Catalyst7, connects to a PostgreSQL database via the DBIx::Class ORM and builds its web pages with Template Toolkit. The frontend makes heavy use of jQuery and Highcharts JS to create a very interactive and responsive user interface.

Our XML/TEI files are automatically split up into individual pages and stored in a git8 repository. The development of DTAQ itself also occurs within a distributed git repository.

poster and tool demonstration
Our poster will show the DTAQ workflow patterns, along with a live demonstration showing the various views, tools, and powerful features of the quality assurance platform.

references
Geyken, A., et al. (2011). Das Deutsche Textarchiv: Vom historischen Korpus zum aktiven Archiv. In S. Schomburg, C. Leggewie, H. Lobin, and C. Puschmann (eds.), Digitale Wissenschaft. Stand und Entwicklung digital vernetzter Forschung in Deutschland, 20./21. September 2010. Beiträge der Tagung. 2., ergänzte Fassung. Köln: HBZ, pp. 157-161.

Jurish, B. (2010). More than Words: Using Token Context to Improve Canonicalization of Historical German. Journal for Language Technology and Computational Linguistics (JLCL) 25(1).

Jurish, B. (2012). Finite-state Canonicalization Techniques for Historical German. PhD thesis, Universität Potsdam 2012 (urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-55789).

Unsworth, J. (2011). Computational Work with Very Large Text Collections. Interoperability, Sustainability, and the TEI. Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative 1 (http://jtei.revues.org/215, 2011-08-29).

notes
1.Deutsches Textarchiv (German Text Archive): http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/.

2.Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften: http://www.bbaw.de/.

3.DTAE (DTA Extensions): http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/dtae.

4.DTAB (DTA “base format”): http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/doku/basisformat.

5.DTAQ (DTA Quality Assurance): http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/dtaq.

6.For each text, DTAQ provides a transformation to a normalised modern spelling form using the Cascaded Analysis Broker CAB, cf. Jurish:2010 + Jurish:2012.

7.Catalyst MVC Framework, written in Perl: http://www.catalystframework.org/.

8.git, a distributed version control system written by Linus Torvalds et al.: http://git-scm.com/","txt","2","",""
"1546","13","Data sharing, virtual collaboration, and textual analysis: Working on 'Women Writers In History'","2","Data sharing, virtual collaboration, and textual analysis: Working on ‘Women Writers In History’
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van Dijk, Suzan, Huygens ING – Royal Dutch Academy of Arts and Sciences, The Netherlands, suzan.van.dijk@huygens.knaw.nl
Hoogenboom, Hilde, Arizona State University, USA, Hilde.Hoogenboom@asu.edu
Sanz, Amelia, Complutense University Madrid, Spain, amsanz@filol.ucm.es
Bergenmar, Jenny, University of Göteborg, Sweden, jenny.bergenmar@lit.gu.se
Olsson, Leif-Jöran, University of Göteborg, Sweden, leif-joran.olsson@svenska.gu.se
introduction
The European COST Action IS 0901 (‘Women Writers In History’; 2009-2013; www.womenwriters.nl) will present, through this poster, different aspects of its current activities. These aim at the constitution of a Europe wide (and beyond…) network of researchers, who plan to collectively rewrite European literary history: to give women their due place in transnational literary historiography before 1900, from the Medieval period up to the early 20th century.

Current ways of studying women’s writing, by country or even individual author, do not do justice to women’s contribution to the literary field. Recent publications show that women played important parts as authors, readers, and intermediaries, particularly on the international level: many were allowed to learn languages, and turned their expertise into the profession of translator.

This active female participation needs to be studied more broadly, without treating each woman as an exceptional case. Therefore the project has developed a digital research infrastructure, the WomenWriters database (www.databasewomenwriters.nl), in which the project members have the possibility of sharing their research data (inevitably relevant to each of them), collaborating together in the same tool, as individual researchers and as interconnected projects, creating means for textual and comparative analysis of texts (primary and secondary texts) written in different languages.

Our poster will present:

1. the WomenWriters database, which is currently being developed into a broader Research Environment (plans for development will be included),

2. an example of the types of sources we use to develop large-scale approaches that encourage the serendipitous finding of connections between women authors, works, and countries through readers

as well as two examples of the projects, which will be interconnected to the database (in its next version):

3. a project concerning one individual author: the Swedish Selma Lagerlöf, and

4. an annotating project presently developed and tested for future use in establishing connections between texts, and formulating the significant relationships existing between them.

adapting the structure to the research questions (suzan van dijk)
The WomenWriters database allows researchers to generate new knowledge about women’s impact on their contemporary or early readers: we proceed by large-scale data entry about their works’ reception, without focusing on particular authors. This is how serendipitous findings are provoked: by including information either about authors we did not know as yet, or about reception we would not have been aware of or looking at. The tool currently contains over 20.000 manually processed reception data, which prepare an important empirical basis for research in European women’s literary history. We will gradually complement (or even: replace?) manual processing by technological solutions, and collaboration with other online projects.

One of the challenges is in the way of handling the activities of these authors starting from the reception side. Characteristic of the WomenWriters database (present form) is that it is not just composed of the two ‘classical’ entities: Author and Work. A third one has been added: the Reader. This structure materializes Todorov’s scheme, putting in between writer and reader the imaginary world created by the one and to be ‘constructed’ in the other’s head (Todorov 1980). From our point of view a book/text only gets historical relevance by having been read – this is why we added, next to the Author-Work, the Work-Reader connection.

This symmetrical structure however fails to do justice to the real dynamics of ongoing literary communication: receivers can become senders, even without profiling themselves as intermediaries or translators. Which leads to a view of literary communication as being a series of texts generating each other through the intervention of a reader turned writer. A new data model has been presented doing justice to this, allowing at the same time interconnectivity with related projects.

data sharing (hilde hoogenboom)
In this project, we use different kinds of large-scale sources that contain information about these authors’ early reception, and provide the data we work on. They include bio-bibliographic compilations of European women writers, compiled after the example of Boccaccio’s Famous Women (1361-75) as the databases of their time. This genre spread across Europe, to become an on-going transnational phenomenon that exists today as bio-bibliographic dictionaries and databases. Recording the traces of women and works, some of whom seem to have left no other mark in literary history, and are part of what Margaret Cohen refers to as the ‘great unread’ (1999), they have taken many forms over the centuries. Compilers rely on, disagree with, and often simply borrow their predecessors’ work. Together with other sources, this material allows us to understand and describe the presence of women authors (as a category, or taken individually) over the centuries both using numbers and studying the tropes by which these women are represented. Some of these compilations are available online, which facilitates their use for this kind of analysis.

WomenWriters is the only transnational database of women writers that brings together the whole spectrum of sources for literary markets and literary fields of small and large nations, and can be considered as the ultimate bio-bibliographical compilation.

comparative textual analysis (jenny bergenmar, leif-jöran olsson)
Arguments for investing resources in digital scholarly editions are often based upon the cultural dignity of the authorship (Shillingsburg 2004). For Selma Lagerlöf (first woman to win the Nobel Prize for Literature), this is above any doubt. But scholarly editions that focus on single, canonized authorships represent the author in splendid isolation. On the other hand, for WomenWriters it is important to include as many data as possible on the production and reception of those authors who may have been role models for writers all over Europe – in particular as these data already exist in digital form and are interconnectible.

The Selma Lagerlöf Archive aims to create such a broader (gender) historical context that includes the intensive contacts within networks of European translators and writers that were important for Lagerlöf’s success in Europe. These can in particular be traced thanks to our participation in the COST-WWIH Action, which has facilitated, and will continue to do so, the discovery of unknown connections between European women and Lagerlöf. Standardizing the different entities data will allow, by way of micro services currently developed, exchanging information on these levels.

Here, we benefit from work carried out in COST Action ‘Interedition’ (Joris van Zundert et al.), where the SLA also participated, and where Juxta and CollateX have been developed, to explore patterns in the reception of women writers by critics, and whether they correspond to specific themes in the literary texts. The same method may be used to collate texts by different female authors as a shortcut to discovering common topics. The advantage of this method is, again, that researchers don’t have to know beforehand what to search for: unexpected similarities may appear, that researchers might not have imagined.

sharing annotations (amelia sanz)
Within this COST-WWIH Action, we are proceeding toward a next version of the WomenWriters database, to make it available for other applications and usable outside its original application in such a way that different communities of scholars can ask questions from the same sets of data. Complutense University teams are now testing @Note, an annotation tool capable of supporting collaborative work on texts, using women’s European reception as a case study.

They are developing an innovative annotation method, which will be used in our project for specifying and formulating significant relationships between the texts we are studying. They can be annotated using a shared annotation schema; adding new terms and relationships to the schema as they are required during the annotation process; making it possible for authorized users to edit and to restructure the schema.

As a concrete example, we will present the outcome of an experience of collaborative annotation of the Spanish translation of Mme de Graffigny’s famous novel Lettres d’une péruvienne (1747): Cartas de una peruana (1792, 1823) by María Romero, both translations available in Google Books and Hathi Trust, and included in the WomenWriters database.

references
Cohen, M. (1999). The sentimental education of the novel. Princeton: Princeton UP.

Shillingsburg, P. (2004). Hagiolatry, Cultural Engineering, Monument Building, and Other Functions of Scholarly Editing. In R. Mondiano, L. F. Searle, and P. Shillingsburg (eds.), Voice, Text, Hypertext. Emerging Practices in Textual Studies. Seattle, Washington: U of Washington P.

Todorov, T. (1980). La lecture comme construction. In Poétique de la prose. Paris: Seuil.","txt","2","",""
"1547","13","Digital Edition of Carl Maria von Weber's Collected Works","2","Digital Edition of Carl Maria von Weber’s Collected Works
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Stadler, Peter, Universität Paderborn, Germany, stadler@weber-gesamtausgabe.de
Carl Maria von Weber (1786-1826) was a german composer who is nowadays mainly known for his best selling opera Der Freischütz although he has composed more than 150 works (ranging from operas to piano pieces) in total and has been of substantial influence on the history of musical composition in the whole 19th century. Next to his musical Œuvre he wrote several articles for music journals and even sketched a novel which unfortunately remained unfinished. Additionally to these works intended for the public the Carl-Maria-von-Weber-Gesamtausgabe (WeGA)1 aims at publishing Weber’s private correspondence and diaries as well until Weber’s 200th anniversary in 2026. The WeGA was genuinely a ‘traditional’ scholarly project funded by the German Academy of Sciences and Humanities but has turned during the last years more and more into a ‘modern’ digital editions’ venture both in the field of musical and text edition. The proposed poster should illustrate the current state of development of the text edition and it’s framework and some envisioned future perspectives:

tei based markup of every type of text
Every primary (e.g. diary entry, letter, article) as well as every secondary textual object (e.g. prosopographies, commentaries, descriptions of works) are encoded in conformance with the current TEI P5 guidelines (additionally the encoding of metadata for musical works follows the guidelines of the Music Encoding Initative2). Schemata have been developed and documented for every type of text making use of TEI’s meta language ODD. The overall encoding focus – besides the textual features – lies on the markup of persons, places, works and roles (e.g. in an opera or play).

These files (currently > 15.000) are stored in a subversion system and then exported to an eXist production database for online presentation and to another eXist development database for internal work.

web application
The website of the WeGA which presents the edition to the user is driven by the native XML database eXist.The TEI files are the raw data that are transformed on-the-fly to XHTML for convenient reading while, for a maximum of transparency, they are still accessible in raw XML format through a dedicated tab. A third view on the text is facilitated by the digital facsimile which is presented if not restricted by copyright issues.

The extensive markup (and identification) of persons, places, works and roles in the TEI data allows for a dense linkage between these objects in the web application; additionally, for every such link a preview tooltip with the most relevant information is generated to avoid unnecessary page exits.

Further incorporated website standards are a search function and faceted filtering.

One of our main concerns is to present not only the textual data but also to provide the documentation of encoding practice and the necessary schemata, along with examples, to keep record of the making of the edition and to provide stimuli for envisaged correspondence editions, especially in the field of musicology.

relations
The web application mimics the look of current social network sites and centers around persons and their social networks. These networks (the contacts of a given person) are computed through the available correspondence and are presented in a separate frame on every person’s ‘homepage’. (Two persons A and B are connected if there is some correspondence material in our corpus that was sent from Person A to B or vice versa.) It is a future goal to elaborate on relations of arbitrary objects and to compute and visualize their distance (e.g. by which nodes are Carl Maria von Weber and Mozart’s Zauberflöte connected?)

linked data and web services
The WeGA tries to develop tools and views not only for a ‘reader’ (who is close reading the texts) but also for ‘clients’ who want to access the (raw) data by automatable tasks. Furthermore do we try to incorporate authority files to allow for automated linkage with other repositories. An already established example of Linked Data is the PND beacon3 that connects prosopographic information about a given person from different sources. The information from these sources (e.g. Wikipedia or the German Biographic Dictionaries) are then directly embedded in our web application via according tabs or simply listed as web links.

A future goal is to provide a well documented API to allow for machine interaction with our data.

notes
1.http://www.weber-gesamtausgabe.de

2.http://www.music-encoding.org

3.http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:PND/BEACON","txt","2","",""
"1548","13","Digital Emblematics - Enabling Humanities Research of a Popular Early Modern Genre","2","Digital Emblematics – Enabling Humanities Research of a Popular Early Modern Genre
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Wade, Mara R., Society for Emblem Studies/University of Illinois, USA, mwade@illinois.edu
Stäcker, Thomas, Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbüttel, Germany, staecker@hab.de
Stein, Regine, Bildarchiv Foto Marburg, Germany, r.stein@fotomarburg.de
Brandhorst, Hans, arkyves, The Netherlands, jpjbrand@xs4all.nl
Graham, David, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada, david.graham@concordia.ca
Emblematica Online offers a rewarding site for exploration of the seismic shifts in digital humanities from 1.0 to 2.0,1 while providing perspectives on how Emblems 3.0 can also contribute to Digital Humanities 3.0. Emblem studies are large enough to offer a significant corpus for study, yet small enough to present a finite overview. As a historical field of endeavor – emblems are a Renaissance text-image genre that informed all aspects of early modern literary and material culture – it offers a unique perspective on key questions of digital humanities at 2.0.

The international scholars who cooperate as the OpenEmblem research group have created a vibrant model for humanistic collaborative research, culminating in the international project ‘Emblematica Online,’2 including the OpenEmblem portal for emblem studies.3 The digital emblem projects at Glasgow,4 Utrecht,5 Urbana (Illinois),6 Wolfenbüttel,7 Munich,8 La Coruña (Spain),9 and elsewhere serve the needs of an international community of scholars. The long-term success of working with a consortium has ensured that their research is not preserved in a digital silo, but accessible to a greater range of future projects.

Emblematica Online and its OpenEmblem Portal allows for new levels of research surpassing that which was previously available in emblem scholarship:

Quantity – access to more than 700 fully digitized rare works
Quantity – access to more than 70,000 individual emblems
Quality – extremely rich metadata for approximately 15,000 emblems
federated searching across multiple projects at geographically widespread locations at the book level
federated searching across multiple projects at geographically widespread locations at the level of the individual emblem
emblem motto database
Iconclass notations with associated hierarchies
Iconclass notation with multilingual thesaurus
An emblem exchange format, or emblem schema, taking advantage of namespaces such as TEI and SKOS
High quality digitization suitable for rigorous scholarly research needs
Multiple access routes to the book and to the emblem
Sustainable links at the sub-object level
Multiple levels of granularity
Worldwide unique emblem identifiers at emblem level
Linking book identifiers and emblem identifiers
a prototype emblem registry providing persistent identifiers by means of a handle service
The OpenEmblem portal has moved from generic digitization to customized, sophisticated digitization of a complex Renaissance genre consistent with high scholarly demands. The design and scope of Emblems 2.0 makes these Renaissance resources more interesting to a wide range of scholars who study the Renaissance from diverse and divergent perspectives.

While the current researchers for Emblematica Online have gained experience in creating standard formats for automated metadata exchange,10 digital philology,11 and portal creation,12 through the use of authorities and controlled vocabularies of their metadata, they have indicated relationships among resources, making this work extensible in the future. The Iconclass notations and labels reflect a hierarchy, while the OpenEmblem Portal simultaneously anchors the very rich metadata to the original repositories. We can search at different levels of granularity across integrated corpora and visualize and present whole and part relationships in a meaningful way.

The panelists, all of whom have committed to the DH 2012 conference in Hamburg, will present the following aspects of humanities based research in the digital medium:

Mara R. Wade traces the culmination of the research through Emblems 2.0 and introduces as its key feature unique emblem identifiers. In addition to helping us present the whole-part relationship, the unique identifier reflects the forward vision of the emblem community to anticipate a time when researchers can include annotation functions such as ‘identical with’ or ‘similar to’ in textual and pictorial research. It creates an authoritative basis for expanding the portal for book emblems to the material culture of early modern Europe, enabling the future study of art forms where emblems feature prominently. The unique identifier is a significant scholarly step in emblem scholarship and shows how community driven research serves larger scholarly communities as well.

Thomas Stäcker demonstrates how the project sets digital emblematics to work, focusing on practical issues of sharing, and the distribution and mining of emblem metadata and data. Future digital emblem research, in particular, and digital humanities, in general, must achieve more integrated systems grouping resources together, making them available through uniformly designed graphical interfaces and allowing searches on standardized fields and vocabulary. Emblematica Online established a common format for indexing digital emblem material. Staecker emphasizes 1) the development of a particular XML-schema with a separate emblem namespace based on standards such as TEI, METS MODS, and SKOS; 2) how data originating from different international projects are shared and distributed, e.g. via OAI; and 3) how emblems and theirs parts may be reliably identified and quoted by persistent identifier by means of a central handle service at the University of Illinois.

Two papers focus on image indexing and its broad potential for the digital humanities.

Regine Stein demonstrates how the issuing of a unique identifier at the level of the individual emblem opens emblem studies up for cross-domain research and discusses the Linked Data approach. She argues that the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (ISO 21127, CIDOC-CRM) provides the ‘semantic glue’ necessary to mediate between different sources of cultural heritage information and thus provides the mechanism to open emblem metadata to cross-domain research from both the text and the image research communities, including material culture, such as prints, paintings, illuminated manuscripts, and even architectural ornament. Based on the emblem schema, it is worth exploring a Linked Data implementation using the CIDOC-CRM. Because we aim also for maximum compliance to widely used authorities and controlled vocabularies such as Iconclass, Emblematica Online can offer a best practice case in terms of linking different sources instead of building data silos.

Hans Brandhorst presents the advantages of Iconclass as a shared vocabulary tool demonstrating that it has a vital role to play in making visual information accessible and retrievable. ‘Meaning’ is not an intrinsic quality of a picture, and cannot be detected with image recognition techniques (alone). Non-trivial subject retrieval of visual sources is impossible without rich textual metadata. A classification as a tool for the production of metadata can only survive in the distributed environment of the internet if it functions as a flexible, central webservice, and if the user community itself can correct, edit and expand the vocabulary. He discusses Iconclass 1) as a data production tool; 2) a shared vocabulary tool, open to community editing; 3) as an information retrieval tool; and 4) as Linked Open Data in SKOS/RDF and JSON representations. He ends with a discussion of arkyves as a mixed business model to sustain Iconclass development.

David Graham outlines Emblems 3.0. It can be argued that our earliest efforts were primarily aimed at gaining individual access to digital data that minimally replicates the books comprising our corpus, and in particular at creating ways to digitize, store, and display visual content. The second phase was about making collaborative access possible by ensuring interoperability and independence from particular vendors and platforms. It now seems clear that the third phase will have as its primary focus the goal 1) of massively, pervasively, and permanently interconnecting huge amounts of textual and visual data and metadata in multiple forms, contexts, and purposes, 2) of integrating materials from a wide diversity of sources, and 3) of enabling collaboration and interaction – both among scholars and between the scholarly and lay communities – on an unprecedented scale.

In the spirit of the emblem itself with its visual and textual components, Emblem 3.0 will be interactive and collaborative; it will extend to emblems in material culture. Emblem 3.0 will open up heretofore unanticipated qualitative research questions based on well curated and designed quantitative digital resources.


 

notes
1.The Digital Humanities Manifesto (2009) maintains ‘Digital Humanities is not a unified field but an array of convergent practices that explore a universe in which: a) print is no longer the exclusive or the normative medium in which knowledge is produced and/or disseminated; instead, print finds itself absorbed into new, multimedia configurations; and b) digital tools, techniques, and media have altered the production and dissemination of knowledge in the arts, human and social sciences.’ http://manifesto.humanities.ucla.edu/2009/05/29/the-digital-humanities-manifesto-20/

2.This is a bilaterally funded initiative of the University of Illinois and the Herzog August Bibliothek (HAB), Wolfenbüttel. http://emblematica.grainger.illinois.edu/

3.http://www.germanic.illinois.edu/news/emblem/

4.http://www.emblems.arts.gla.ac.uk

5.http://emblems.let.uu.nl/index.html

6.http://emblematica.grainger.illinois.edu/

7.http://www.hab.de/forschung/projekte/emblematica.htm

8.http://mdz1.bib-bvb.de/~emblem/

9.http://rosalia.dc.fi.udc.es/emblematica/

10.http://www.hab.de/bibliothek/wdb/emblematica/regelwerk.htm

11.See the link to the Spanish project (fn 9) for the link to DEBOW, ‘Digitized Emblem Books on the Web,’ a regularly updated list of digital emblem books.

12.The Portal will be launched in April 2012. Presently book level data can be searched here: http://emblematica.grainger.illinois.edu/Browse/Books/DigitizedBooksByTitle","txt","2","",""
"1549","13","Exploring Prosopographical Resources Through Novel Tools and Visualizations: a Preliminary Investigation","2","Exploring Prosopographical Resources Through Novel Tools and Visualizations: a Preliminary Investigation
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Pasin, Michele, Department of Digital Humanities, UK, michele.pasin@kcl.ac.uk
Structured Prosopography provides a formal model for representing prosopography: a branch of historical research that traditionally has focused on the identification of people that appear in historical sources (Verboven et al. 2007). Thanks to computing technologies, structured prosopography has succeeded in providing historians with a mean to enhance their scholarly work and make it available worldwide to a variety of academic and non academic users. Since the 1990s, KCL’s Department of Digital Humanities (DDH) has been involved in the development of structured prosopographical databases, and has had direct involvement in Prosopographies of the Byzantine World (PBE and PBW)1, Anglo-Saxon England (PASE)2, Medieval Scotland (PoMS)3 and now more generally northern Britain (BoB).4

Pre-digital print prosopographies presented its materials as narrative articles about the individuals it contains. Structured prosopography instead takes a more database-oriented approach as it focuses on isolating information fragments (usually, in textual form) that are relevant to the task of describing the life-events of a particular person. As a result, it is possible to quickly recollect such results in manifold ways using the logical query languages database systems make available.

In particular, DDH has been involved in the development of a general ‘factoid-oriented’ model of structure that although downplaying or eliminating narratives about people, has to a large extent served the needs of these various projects quite well. The structure formally identifies obvious items of interest: Persons and Sources, and extends to related things like Offices or Places. In our prosopographical model the Factoid is a central idea and represents the spot in a primary source where something is said about one or more persons. In other words, it links people to the information about them via spots in primary sources that assert that information (Bradley & Short 2003).

In general, it is fair to say that the issue of representing prosopographical data to the purpose of building large and efficient knowledge bases is no longer a critical problem for digital humanities research to tackle. Thanks to more than twenty years of research in this niche-area, a number of technical approaches such as the factoid one just mentioned have been discussed extensively and thus can facilitate enormously the initial design and construction of a structured back-end for a digital prosopographical project.

For that regards instead the visual rendering and final presentation of the contents of a prosopography, the amount of existing research is considerably smaller5. In fact it is quite common to present data using a classic database-centric approach: the tabular format. This approach normally boils down to a bibliographical-record-like table containing all the information available about a specific person: his/her recorded appellations and life dates, plus of course a variable number of rows that refer to the excepts that describe that person in the primary or secondary sources examined. We can see an example of this classic visualization approach in Fig. 1 (the example can be found online at http://www.poms.ac.uk/db/record/person/251/).

Figure 1
Figure 1: A typical prosopographical record in tabular format

The tabular format has the advantage of offering a wealth of information in a clean and well-organized interface, thus simplifying the task of finding what we are looking for during a search. However, by combining all the information in a single view, this approach also hides some of the key dimensions used by historians in order to make sense of the materials at hand. For example, such dimensions could be deriving from a spatio-historical, genealogical or socio-political consideration of the data.

In other words, we acknowledged that although the tabular format succeeds in creating a comprehensive and condensed version of the information relevant for a search, it would also be interesting to examine if we could present the same data in a more piecemeal fashion, according to predefined pathways or views on the dataset that aim at making explicit some of the coherence principles of the historical discourse.

We believe that this kind of approach could be desirable for both non-expert users (e.g., learners) – who could simultaneously access the data and get a feeling for the meaningful relations among them – and for experts alike (e.g., academic scholars) – who could be facilitated in the process of analyzing data within predefined dimensions, so to highlight patterns of interest that would be otherwise hard to spot.

With these ideas in mind we started to investigate the creation of innovative methods for presenting prosopographical data to users. For the moment these experiments have been developed in the context of a single prosopography, the ‘Paradox of Medieval Scotland’, but we reckon that they could be easily generalizable to other projects too, due to the intrinsic similarity of the approaches we used.

In particular, we have classified these exploratory tools into three broad categories:

Visualizations that focus on specific aspects of the dataset. In this group we have for example visualizations of people that focus on the historical dimension (such as timelines, or views of people’s longevity – as in Fig. 2 below) or the geographical one (e.g., through maps). Also, we can have visualizations that aim at representing the importance of a person in the context of the database i.e., in terms of how often that person is cited. Other visualization approaches such as tag clouds seem to be very relevant in this context too, as they can be customized so to contain visual cues (e.g., through size or color) that give users a quick overview of the data (Bateman et al. 2008).
Digital storytelling systems. With this term we refer to the class of interactive applications aiming at letting users explore the database contents in a more incremental manner, following a story-inspired approach that reflects the key coherence principles of a discipline (Mullholland et al. 2004; Lawrence et al. 2010). For example, the ‘friend-of-a-friend’ exploratory tool (Fig. 3) lets you inspect the available connections between one person and the other people he or she was involved with (obviously, based on the information available in the database). This procedure may lead to dead-ends – for we are looking at a less-known person, e.g., a peasant – or it may take you to the discovery of unanticipated relations among people. This approach can be further elaborated so to pivot around specific social relationships (e.g., witnesses in medieval transactions), to the point that the path a user takes become analogue to the unfolding of a story only partly commanded by the computer (Murray 1997).
Game-like interactive systems. This group of interactive applications are a direct evolution of the digital storytelling systems just introduced (point b), with the difference that a series of user-feedback mechanisms are put into place with the aim of pushing users to engage more actively with the system (e.g., by rewarding certain decisions they make). These approaches are normally more relevant in the context of a classroom, where it is important to provoke students with challenging and mind-stimulating activities (Wolff et al. 2004).
The experiments can be accessed online at http://www.poms.ac.uk/db/labs/; we invite the reader to try them out so to better develop a critical understanding of their potential usefulness.

Although we are still in a very early stage in the development of such exploratory interfaces, we already had a number of enthusiastic early reviews from project partners and work colleagues. As a result of this initial response, and from the evolution of our thinking around these issues, we are currently refining some of these tools and also developing other and more specialized ones. For example, an interesting aspect we would like to explore further concerns the potential applicability of the approaches herewith presented within other prosopographical scenarios, such as the ones focusing on ancient and modern history. Furthermore, in order to gain more empirical evidence on the potential usefulness of these tools for historians, a more formal user-evaluation session involving both high-school students and academic scholars is being planned.

At the conference we intend to present a preliminary analysis of these results, together with a practical demonstration of the most successful prosopographical exploratory tools we developed.

Figure 2
Figure 2: Explorative tool based on people’s life-lengths. Each dot represents a year in the lifeline of a person.


Figure 3. Explorative tool based on the social connections among people. Each indented level (top to bottom) represents a step in the ‘friend-of-a-friend’ chain.

references
Bateman, S., C. Gutwin, and M. Nacenta (2008). Seeing things in the clouds: the effect of visual features on tag cloud selections. In HT ’08: Proceedings of the nineteenth ACM conference on Hypertext and hypermedia. New York, NY, pp. 193-202.

Bradley, J., and H. Short (2003). Texts into databases: The Evolving Field of New-style Prosopography. ACH/ALLC conference, Athens, Georgia.

Lawrence, K. F., et al. (2010). Scanning Between the Lines: The Search for the Semantic Story. Panel Session in Digital Humanities 2010.

Mullholland, P., T. Collins, and Z.  Zdrahal (2004). Story Fountain: intelligent support for story research and exploration. In 9th International Conference on Intelligent User Interface.

Murray, J. H. (1997). Hamlet on the Holodeck. MIT Press.

Verboven, K., M. Carlier, and J. Dumolyn (2007). A Short Manual to the Art of Prosopography. In K. S. B. Keats-Rohan (ed.), Prosopography Approaches and Applications A Handbook. University of Oxford, Linacre College Unit for Prosopographical Research.

Wolff, A., P. Mullholland, and Z. Zdrahal (2004). Scene-driver: a narrative-driven game architecture reusing broadcast animation content. In ACM SIGCHI International Conference on Advances in computer entertainment technology.

notes
1.http://www.pbw.kcl.ac.uk/

2.http://www.pase.ac.uk/

3. http://www.poms.ac.uk/

4.http://www.breakingofbritain.ac.uk/

5.The Berkeley Prosopography Services toolkit (http://berkeleyprosopography.org/) is one of the very few enterprises that aim explicitly at the investigation of alternative visualization mechanisms in digital prosopography. However at the time of writing the results of this research have not been made available yet.","txt","2","",""
"1550","13","Heterogeneity and Multilingualism vs. Usability - Challenges of the Database User Interface 'Archiv-Editor'","2","Heterogeneity and Multilingualism vs. Usability – Challenges of the Database User Interface ‘Archiv-Editor’
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Plutte, Christoph, Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Germany, plutte@bbaw.de
starting point
The Archiv-Editor1 is a multilingual desktop program created for working with prosopographical data and the Personal Data Repository (PDR), a server-client database system developed since 2009 by the DFG-Project Personal Data Repository2 at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities (BBAW). Further development of the Archiv-Editor has become part of the DARIAH-DE initiative for digital infrastructure in 2011. The aim of the Person Data Repository is to provide a decentralized software system for research institutions, universities, archives, and libraries that allows combined access to biographic information from different data pools. It is especially designed to meet the requirements at the BBAW where divers research projects in Humanities collect personal data throughout their work. This data gathered from different research perspectives according to different research questions is usually stored in completely different formats ranging from text documents to relational databases and can hardly be maintained after the research project has finished. Since 2009, the Person Data Repository has provided a productive solution for storing, searching and exchanging person data including long term maintenance and tools such as the Archiv-Editor for working on the data and collecting new data.

The development of the PDR and the Archiv-Editor are based on the experiences that have been made at the BBAW since 2007 with a first version of the Archiv-Editor originally developed for the historical research project Preußen als Kulturstaat investigating archival materials (Czmiel & Holtz 2007). Concepts and approaches that had proved to be useful were generalized and implemented to be thoroughly customizable and extendable.

challenges
The requirements of the starting point produce three main challenges for the data model and the architecture of the PDR and the Archiv-Editor. However, the Archiv-Editor’s interface design must to ensure usability over a complex data model because on the user side no special software knowledge can be presupposed. At the beginning of the PDR project evaluations of repository software and prosopographical databases were made (Körner, Plutte, Roeder & Walkowski 2010) that led to the decision to construct a new system and a new data entry interface rather than extending any existing software. Although this was an expensive approach the experiences with the first version of the Archiv-Editor were very promising and a redevelopment of the software could lead to a perfectly well fitting program, and this was proven to be true.

Enfolding the Heterogeneity of Data

Personal data from different research and editing projects at the BBAW are not only provided in different formats and have to be transformed into the PDR data model (Körner 2010), but come from divergent research perspectives and are semantically heterogeneous: The PDR integrates by means of transformation and the Archiv-Editor data from historians, musicologists, linguists, and philologists. The scientific cultures and disciplines at the BBAW and the kind of personal data and perspectives for which it is gathered differ very much. The PDR has therefore chosen to use a very open data model based on XML that does not narrow the type of information stored but allows the retention of any kind of statement about persons which can then be classified according to customizable semantic, time and spatial dimensions (Walkowski 2009). The approach does not define a person as single data record, but rather as compilation of all statements concerning that person. Thus, it is possible to display complementing as well as contradicting statements in parallel, which meets one of the basic challenges of biographic research. To enable a very deep classification of proper names and notions, words can be marked with a TEI3 compatible and fully customizable mark-up. Thus a very high level of atomization and complexity is implemented.

To ensure interoperability with other data stores transformation scripts are developed that allow the export of personal data into other standards such as TEI person description.

Multilingualism

Already in 2009 when the PDR started to develpe the repository software it began a cooperation with the Rom based German-French-Italian musicological project MUSICI4 (Roeder & Plutte 2010a). Therefore the Archiv-Editor was not only required to be translated into Italian, French and English but the classification schemas itself had to be designed to be language independent. Researchers in Rom want to classify their data in Italian but the data should be semantically compatible with those personal data collected at the BBAW in Berlin.

Usability

The complex data model of the PDR is diametrically opposed to the usability of the Archiv-Editor. The first step to usability was to encapsulate the XML – users do not see or edit XML. Since early 2011 when productive work with the Archiv-Editor began it has become clear that it is not enough to encapsulate XML: Research projects demanded to narrow the data entry fields and to enhance user guidance. In contrast to the – greatly appreciated – complexity and openness of the PDR data model a familiar database interface such as a formula with certain fields (Name, Profession etc.) was desired – as desktop program for offline work as well as an online version for web access.

approaches to these challenges
Modularity

To combine theses divergent requirements the Archiv-Editor is designed modular. The Eclipse Rich Client Platform5 was chosen because of it’s extensibility and because it allows individual plugins for individual project requirements. While the PDR provides a solution to combine heterogeneous data und different research perspectives through a complex data model, the Archiv-Editor provides several general solutions plus individual adaption without cutting back the interoperability and exchangeability of the data.

One Archiv-Editor = 3 different Editors

Currently two desktop versions of the Archiv-Editor are provided and an online version will be published in 2012 porting both versions to the web.


 

The lite version of the Archiv-Editor simplifies the appearance of the editor and provides only the very necessary functionality to make it easy for researchers to get started with the editor. The complex data model is represented in fully customizable formulas with user guidance in order to make the editor look as familiar as a simple database, although the openness of the data model is always in close reach through one click.


The advanced version of the Archiv-Editor contains all the functionality of the lite version and provides editors to fully edit all aspects of the data model. Besides the simple search different levels of advanced search are available as well as options for grouping and filtering statements. Furthermore, tools for datacleaning and automated PID (e.g. PND6, VIAF7, LCCN8) search are included.


Archiv-Editor RAP is the online version of the Archiv-Editor and includes both the advanced version and the lite version. It uses the Eclipse Rich Ajax Platform9 Architecture to port the RCP Application to the web and hold most of the desktop functionality for working from anywhere and without prior installation. The Archiv-Editor RAP will be published in summer 2012.

Language independent classification schemes

Semantic classifications and ontologies are hardly language independent and notions and proper names do not retain exactly the same definition, connotation and discriminatory power when translated into another language. Furthermore, the mapping of classification systems is very problematic (van Ossenbruggen, Hildebrand & de Boer 2011). In order to ensure interoperability between classifications in different languages used in different projects (e.g. in Rom and Berlin) without having to map categories afterwards the Archiv-Editor and the PDR use a hierarchical classification system. Superordinate concepts and ordinate concepts such as ‘personName’, ‘placeName’, ‘profession’, ‘intellectual profession’, ‘musical profession’ are predefined using unique English terms and are translated for presentation in all interfaces to project specific languages. Subordinate concepts such as ‘violinist’, ‘violinista’ or ‘cantate’ can be added according to project specific requirements without prior standardization. Thus classifications in different languages can be compared on high and mid-level terms without any mapping efforts. Although the classification system is thus not thoroughly standardized and internationalized it combines both the need for interoperability and the openness to easily manageable project specific extensions. Even if subordinate concepts such as ‘violinist’ and ‘violinista’ can not directly be mapped they can be identified as subcategories of the same language independent superordinate concept ‘musical profession’.

references
Czmiel, A., and B. Holtz (2007). Quellenarbeit im Projekt ‘Preußen als Kulturstaat’ – Strukturierte Informationserfassung mit dem ‘Archiv-Editor’. Beiträge der Tagung .hist 2006 – Geschichte im Netz: Praxis, Chancen, Visionen. vol 10, part vol. I.

Körner, F. (2010). Datenarchäologie und Datenaufbereitung, digiversity, September 30. http://digiversity.net/2010/datenarchaeologie/.

Körner, F., C. Plutte, T. Roeder, and N.-O. Walkowski (2010). Software-Evaluation für ein Personendaten-Repositorium. Research Paper, Berlin. <urn:nbn:de:kobv:b4-opus-15111>

Neumann, G., F. Körner, T. Roeder, and N.-O. Walkowski (2010). Personendaten-Repositorium (PDR): Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Jahrbuch 2010, Berlin, pp. 320-326.

Plutte, C. (2011). Archiv-Editor – Software for Personal Data. In S. Gradmann, F. Borri, C. Meghini, and H.  Schuldt (2011). Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries, Berlin: Springer,  pp. 446-448.

Roeder, T., and C. Plutte (2010a). Un repositorio per i musici stranieri nell’Italia dal 1650 al 1750. Concezione del database del progetto ANR/DFG: Deutsches Historisches Institut in Rom, January 27.

Roeder, T., and C. Plutte (2010b). Die MUSICI-Datenbank. Personendaten-Repositorium und Archiv-Editor: Jahrestagung der Gesellschaft für Musikforschung, Deutsches Historisches Institut in Rom und Ècole Française de Rome, November 04–05.

Roeder, T. (2009). Kooperationsmöglichkeiten mit dem Personendaten-Repositorium der BBAW: <urn:nbn:de:kobv:b4-opus-9231>

Schattkowsky, M., and F. Metasch (2008). Biografische Lexika im Internet. Thelem, Dresden.

Van Ossenbruggen, J., M. Hildebrand, and V. de Boer (2011). Interactiv Vocabulary Alignment. In S. Gradmann, F. Borri, C. Meghini, and H. Schuldt (2011). Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries, Berlin: Springer, pp. 296-307.

Walkowski, N.-O. (2009). Zur Problematik der Strukturierung und Abbildung von Personendaten in digitalen Systemen: <urn:nbn:de:kobv:b4-opus-9221>

Walkowski, N.-O. (2011). Das Konzept einer polysemischen Datenbank und seine Konkretisierung im Personendaten-Repositorium der BBAW. In G. Braungart, P. Gendolla, and F. Jannidis (2011). Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie – online.

notes
1.http://pdr.bbaw.de/software/ae

2.http://pdr.bbaw.de/english

3.http://www.tei-c.org

4.http://www.musici.eu

5.http://wiki.eclipse.org/Rich_Client_Platform

6.http://www.d-nb.de/standardisierung/normdateien/pnd.htm

7.http://viaf.org/

8.http://www.loc.gov/marc/lccn_structure.html

9.http://www.eclipse.org/rap","txt","2","",""
"1551","13","Historical Events Versus Information Contents - A Preliminary Analysis of the National Geographic Magazine","2","Historical Events Versus Information Contents – A Preliminary Analysis of the National Geographic Magazine
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Fujimoto, Yu, Doshisha University, Japan, yfujimoto@doshisha-bkj.net
introduction
In 2009, Nara University auctioned its full set of ‘National Geographic Magazine (NGM)’, complete back to its first release in 1888. In response to the event, faculty and student devotees of the magazine launched a small working group in June of 2011. Although in the beginning the working group was satisfied with simply browsing the magazines, as discussion continued, members soon recognised academic importance of the collection.

Since magazines are generally driven by the mass interests of their readerships in order to raise their sales, shifting social conditions would become clear by observing variation in themes and physical information content over time in weekly or monthly magazines. In the case of NGM, its readers are mainly drawn from the intellectual classes, which can be thought to effect on global politics disproportionally, and the magazine covered a vast range of cultural and natural themes for more than 120 years.

Because NGM possesses all these characteristics, the author predicts that social conditions since the end of 19th century would become clear through appropriate analyses. Although the working group’s goal is to identify position of ‘Japan’ in global society from the 1890s to the 1950s as seen through NGM, the author focuses on deepening understanding of the magazine itself by analysing how it has changed overtime. In this paper, the author reports on the shift in the physical amount of information over time as the one of the preliminary analyses employing mathematical methods.

Figure 1Figure 1: Conceptual schema for NGM research.
the research material
NGM has appealed to people all over the world since its first release in 1888 (Hubbard 1888), and Japan has been the focus of an issue’s main article more than 90 times since its first appearance in 1894 (Stevens 1894). Some important Japanese historical figures also commented on Japan since then. Additionally, the magazine always took a neutral stance, and even during World War II, conditions in Japan were described objectively; Japan was described as a strong rival to the United States rather than an evil state (Price 1942). Many of photos and illustrations, which are also important characteristics of the magazine, are further significant for Japanology since a huge amount of important materials vanished in 1923 during the great earthquake in Tokyo, and again in 1945 during the American firebombing of Tokyo.

Currently, the working group is planning the 3 phases of research to analyse the ‘Japan’ described in the magazine. The preliminary phase aims to understand the magazine itself, the resource acquisition phase archives various information concerning the magazine, and the analytical phase attempts to identify position of ‘Japan’ in global society from the 1890s to the 1950s from new standpoints. Overall, processes should be based on informatics not to put Japanese feelings in historical facts.

In order to understand the position of ‘Japan’ in global society through studying NGM, first, the characteristics of the magazine itself should be clarified. Therefore, the author designed an entire conceptual schema as a guide line for the project. Figure 1 is the schema that the author draw at the outset of this project. The following sections in this paper reports the results of operations defined on the ‘Magazine’ class and related classes highlighted in the schema. The author gave much attention to temporal shift in the information content as reflected in ocular information. Analysis of information content used the DVD version of the digital archive, published by the National Geographic Society, which includes all of the articles since the first issue in 1888 (National Geographic Society, 2010). Many devotees of the magazine enjoy the photographs and ’browse’ pages rather than ’read’ articles, and the series of analyses in this paper reflect this tendency.

Figure 2Figure 2: Histogram and density plot of colour use
analyses
Although file size would be an adequate index for the amount of information, as well as the easiest approach, the author chose to also analyse the use of colours and entropy of thumbnails in each volume. The first processes consisted of randomly extracting constant numbers of pixel-values 4,096 times from each page to justify the size of the thumbnails, and in parallel, counting the number of pages in each volumes. After those processes, Normalised Colour Values (NCV) files, which consist of RGB values in each volume, were created. The NCV files were assigned a range of values from 0 to 767, and divided into three frequencies: red values were assigned from 0 to 255, green values were assigned from 256 to 511 and blue values were assigned from 512 to 767.

In this study, NCV files were programmatically created for both full pages and cover pages, and shapes of the colour usage distribution of cover pages in each volume were calculated. Changes in colour were detected using  Fourier Descriptors, in other words the coefficient numbers of Fourier Transform  defined as below:


 

Any curves are denoted as infinite summations of two trigonometric function having coefficient of a and b (Fourier Series), and ordered earlier coefficients reflect major changes (lower frequency component), while ordered later coefficients reflect minor changes (higher frequency component) in the curve. Fourier Descriptors are finite version of Fourier Series. In this study, Fourier Descriptors were derived from Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT).

In contrast to the FFT, entropy was used to measure complexity of the magazine (Shannon 1948). Entropy is denoted as below:


Here, H(x) is the average information content, the so-called entropy, of a series of random variable x, and p denotes the probability mass function of x. Therefore, p(xi) shows occurrence ratio of each luminance value of RGB. b specifies the unit of entropy, and 2 (bit) was used in this study. Using entropy, information content in each volume was described as composite index of pages and colours. Finally, changing points of  the shift in entropy were detected by Bayesian Changing Point (BCP) method (Barry & Hartigan  1993).

Figure 3Figure 3: Comparison with information content and historical events
results
The results of these analyses were compared to historical events and tenure of chief editors (Figure 3). First, the shift in file sizes seemed to be related to historical events. The first peak was detected around 1913 after which the curve of information content was decreased until 1919. The curve fit neatly with the duration of World War I. Afterwards, information content rapidly increased until the Wall Street Crash of 1929, known as ‘Black Tuesday’, after which the curve nosedived. During World War II, the curve had small amplitude, and then the curve increased moderately up to the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. The curve was in a gradual decline until the Vietnam War ended. Although a peak was detected around 1979, the year of Iranian Revolution and Oil Crisis, the curve has been stable since then.

Second, the shift of entropy seemed to be related to the history of chief  editors. The curve describing  entropyover time was unstable until around 1916 (Figure 4). This unstable condition might reflect many challenges of  foundational periods. Indeed, another analysis of colour distribution shape for cover pages shows

Figure 4Figure 4: Changing point detection by Bayesian Change Point(BCP)
Figure 5Figure 5: Temporal shift of Fourier Descriptors
similar tendency; although the cover page of NGM had no images at first, the illustrated cover pages had began around 1910 (Figure 5). After 1916, BCP of the shift of entropy was more stable than before, but small peaks appeared near the years in which chief editors changed.

conclusion
The results derived from NCV analysis of the NGM seems to show a relationship to historical occurrences. That is, that NGM represents the conditions of the global society in some way. The results of any analyses should be more clear by overlapping them with these curves. On the other hand, the curves representing physical information content might not fit well with economic curves. Another question is, what does information content actually represent?

The results of these analyses are only a partial implementation of the schema I defined, and I would prefer to refrain from discussing any historical events with these results, under current circumstances. Our working group is currently collecting various kinds of materials, which may concerning NGM. As part of our future research, the author is planning to conduct text mining using the full text of the magazine, and to compare it to the results of this study.

Acknowledgement

This work was supported by Grants-in-Aid for geographic research of Fukutake Science & Culture Foundation (12-GEO-9).

references
Barry, D., and J. A. Hartigan (1993). A Bayesian Analysis for Change Point Problems. Journal of American Statistical Association 88(421): 309-319.

Hubbard, G. G. (1888). Introductory Address by the President. The National Geographic 1(1): 8-10.

National Geographic Society (2010). [DVD] The Complete National Geographic: National Geographic Society.

Price, W. (1942). Unknown Japan. The National Geographic 82(2): 224-252.

Shannon, C. E. (1948).  A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Bell System Technical Journal 27: 379-423, 623-656.

Stevens, D. W. (1894). Japan. The National Geographic 4: 192-199.","txt","2","",""
"1552","13","Hypotheses.org, une infrastructure pour les Digital Humanities","2","Hypotheses.org, une infrastructure pour les Digital Humanities
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Muscinesi, Frédérique, Cleo, France, frederique.muscinesi@revues.org
Hypotheses.org, at http://hypotheses.org/, is a French-based platform hosting academic research notebooks, or research blogs, for the use and consultation by researchers, students and research assistants working in the humanities and social sciences. Hypotheses.org now hosts over 330 research blogs, the work of 600 bloggers who have published over 20,000 posts. Created by Cléo, the Centre for Open Electronic Publishing, in 2008, Hypotheses.org is devoted to an unorthodox strand of the digital humanities: academic blogging. It is one of the three platforms included in the OpenEdition program.

At the Digital Humanities 2012 event, we shall be offering a detailed account of how Hypotheses.org works and inviting visitors and interested parties to browse and use the platform. Hypotheses.org is an online platform and is totally adapted to collective and individual presentations. Our data will also be explained in posters.

academic blogging
Objectives

Academic blogging is a very direct means of communication for academic communities. It also provides a focus for collective exchange, collaboration and construction enabling researchers, research teams, librarians, academic communication assistants, etc, to promote their work.

Hypotheses.org connects with the tradition of academic correspondence, offering a new space for academic writing and enabling wider distribution of results and research processes.

Humanities and Social Sciences Research Blogging

While not the sole academic blogging platform available, it does have a major role to play in humanities and social science blogging, as academic blogging is usually confined to the sciences.

In HSS, the blogging field is more limited, so Hypotheses.org has been able to develop in European countries due to the following factors: in France, the http://culturevisuelle.org/ platform is limited to specialised visual research blogs. In Germany, there is no umbrella platform for HSS blogs. And in Spain, the Madri+d platform hosts research blogs with no distinction between disciplines.

Furthermore, while there are many research bloggers in HSS, their blogs feature on non-specialist platforms and have little visibility, and the numerous existing university platforms offer their services solely to their own researchers.

research, community, technology
Hypotheses.org is an academic tool

The platform has a number of qualities to reinforce its academic credentials. Firstly there is its academic committee, composed of researchers and professionals, which defines the platform’s directions, accepts or refuses applications and supports the Hypotheses.org team in its promotion and communication activities. The catalogue offers a documentary classification of blogs with a stable editorial project. Hypotheses.org is also committed to creating long lasting digital research sources and focuses special attention on maintaining long-lasting urls while making research blogs readily accessible to all. The platform features specific technical functions such as bibliographical management, the insertion of footnotes, the integration of a Library Thing library and the importation of word documents, in particular. These characteristics have enabled Hypotheses.org’s research blogs to be included in the Ebsco Atoz catalogue in May 2011, and in Isidore in September 2011. Recently they received ISSN classifications from the ISSN France centre. All of which means that Hypotheses.org is a quality academic platform, attracting a specialist readership.

Hypotheses.org is a community

The hypotheses.org bloggers’ community has a series of tools at its disposal: training sessions, documentation, a discussion list, La Maison des Carnets collating editorial recommendations, technical updates, the latest news, a contact form and a dedicated email address. One person is in charge of running the blog and helping the community. The Hypotheses.org community is an important attraction for independent academic bloggers who wish to take part in discussions.

Hypotheses.org is a technical platform

The platform uses the free WORDPRESS.ORG blogging software. Every new blogger receives a blank blog created on the Hypotheses.org platform. The platform aggregates the various blogs and forms one point of access for visitors, while the blog itself provides another. The blogger has total control over how the blog is presented – on her/his own editorial project and on how contributors are managed, etc. – and can request modifications or technical adjustments from the Hypotheses.org team. New functions are sometimes developed internally; new templates are regularly made available; and the software is frequently updated. Hypotheses.org enables people with no special technical skills to manage a research notebook with innovative functions which is permanently improving.

Hypotheses.org, as an infrastructure, supports research, encourages involvement by academic communities in the digital humanities and contributes to the visibility of research in progress.

development and practices
More readers and bloggers = new practices

Between 2008 and 2011, Hypotheses.org developed impressively in terms of quantity and quality: on the one hand, the number of new blogs, published posts and visits increased by 40% from 2010 to 2011, a sign that http://hypotheses.org/hypotheses.org has a huge appeal among readers and bloggers alike; on the other hand, technical developments, which have partially evolved from bloggers’ requests, have given rise to, or been accompanied by, new practices.

Case studies

Hypotheses.org can effectively be considered and used as a tool for academic construction, as a support for academic information and as an online discussion space integrated into the broader digital humanities ecosystem. A typology of research notebooks (focussing on seminars, excavations, research programs, etc.) and publication practices (concerned with simplification, publishing sources, research complements, etc.) through case studies and a typology of notebook profiles shows a variety of practices. Furthermore, the tools at the community’s disposal create relationships between bloggers, as well as between bloggers and the Hypotheses.org team. The community is jointly responsible for the initiation and development of discussions, new projects, improvements, technical changes and the introduction of new bloggers. The relationship between individual blogs and the collective platform means that a wide variety of projects can be developed and expressed, while the main characteristics of Hypotheses.org, as an academic infrastructure based on a community, also make up its character, the way it functions and the way it grows.

A fast-developing international academic blogging platform

The many practices hosted on Hypotheses.org create a very unique academic space and reveal that academic blogging is genuinely taking root in the French HSS community. The latest trends indicate that Hypotheses.org is outgrowing its linguistic origins and reaching out to German-speaking academic communities (with the creation of http://de.hypotheses.org/), and Spanish-speaking academic communities (with the creation of  http://es.hypotheses.org/), as well as Portuguese and English speaking communities, among others. As an academic publication and information space, it has been receiving increasing amounts of visitors and is gradually becoming a relay for online media dealing with general information.

Hypotheses.org is thus an infrastructure exclusively dedicated to research which contributes to the expansion of the Digital Humanities through both creation and visibility. Its positive development shows that academic blogging is an expanding field, a place where digital academic communities can build, develop diverse practices and create tools which respond to the special requirements of their bloggers.

References

OpenEdition sites

Hypotheses.org: http://hypotheses.org

de.hypotheses.org: http://de.hypotheses.org

es.hypotheses.org:http://es.hypotheses.org

Hypotheses.org catalogue:http://www.openedition.org/catalogue-notebooks

La maison des carnets: http://maisondescarnets.hypotheses.org

OpenEdition:http://openedition.org

Cléo:http://cleo.cnrs.fr

Platforms for scientific blogging

Culture visuelle:http://culturevisuelle.org/

Madri+d:http://www.madrimasd.org/blogs/

Academic platforms

Harward University: http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/

Université Paris 5: http://carnets.parisdescartes.fr/

Universidad de Salamanca:http://diarium.usal.es/

references
Blanchard, A. (2008). Ce que le blog apporte à la recherche. La science, la cité. http://www.webcitation.org/5iUAxXVIH (accessed 21 March 2012).

Dacos, M., P. Mounier (2009). Sciences et société en interaction sur Internet. Communication & langages 159: 123-135.

Dacos, M., P. Mounier (2011). Les carnets de recherches en ligne, espace d’une conversation scientifique décentrée. In C. Jacob (ed.), Lieux de Savoir, 2. Les mains de l’intellect, Paris: Albin Michel.

Gunthert, A. (2008). Why blog? Actualités de la Recherche en histoire visuelle. http://www.webcitation.org/5iT16xsza (accessed 21 March 2012).

Koenig, M. (2011). Une blogosphère à fort potentiel : petit tour des blogs d’histoire germanophones. Digital Humanities à l’IHA. http://dhiha.hypotheses.org/425.","txt","2","",""
"1553","13","Integrated multilingual access to diverse Japanese humanities digital archives by dynamically linking data","2","Integrated multilingual access to diverse Japanese humanities digital archives by dynamically linking data
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Kuyama, Takeo, Ritsumeikan University, Japan, is017080@ed.ritsumei.ac.jp
Batjargal, Biligsaikhan, Ritsumeikan University, Japan, biligsaikhan@gmail.com
Kimura, Fuminori, Ritsumeikan University, Japan, fkimura@is.ritsumei.ac.jp
Maeda, Akira, Ritsumeikan University, Japan, amaeda@is.ritsumei.ac.jp
introcuction
This poster provides a summary of our ongoing project for providing integrated access to Japanese multiple digital libraries, archives, and museums. The main goal to construct a federated access system for Japanese humanities databases, which searches multiple databases in parallel and provides on-the-fly integration of the results, has required the system to deal with heterogeneous metadata schemas in various formats. Aggregation and integration of the retrieved results in English and Japanese are complicated if a search needs to be performed from multilingual sources. Ukiyo-e, Japanese traditional woodblock printing, is known worldwide as one of the fine arts of the Edo period (1603-1868). Many museums and organizations in Japan as well as in western countries hold numerous Ukiyo-e prints in their collections. As a result of worldwide digitization over the last decade, many cultural institutions including libraries, archives, and museums started to expose digitized images of Ukiyo-e prints on the Internet. How to find the necessary information effectively from multiple databases is becoming an essential issue for users. In other words, users need an efficient way of searching multiple databases, especially when it is getting more difficult to know which museum has a particular Ukiyo-e print. Thus, federated search of multiple Ukiyo-e databases scattered around the world is a feature expected by humanities researchers of Japanese culture. This poster proposes a method of integrated multilingual access to heterogeneous Ukiyo-e databases for improving the search efficiency.

related research
In LODAC (Linked Open Data for Academia) Museum, which is a part of Lod.ac project, Kamura et al. (2011) aimed to connect Japanese museums using Linked Open Data (LOD). The LODAC Museum has an online system1, which can search and browse various data of Japanese museums in Japanese using the concept of Linked Data2. In a similar research of the eCultura project, Cornejo et al. (2010) introduced a set of services and applications to access and integrate diverse web-based contents of the cultural domain.

However, we propose a different approach, which has the following three differentiations. First, instead of collecting data from each database, we create links from the search results dynamically. Second, we access not only Japanese databases but multilingual databases from all over the world. Third differentiation is to use authority data for listing related items. We apply our approach to the federated search system for Ukiyo-e databases that we are developing.

proposed approach
Federated searching system

We are developing a prototype federated searching system for Ukiyo-e prints, which retrieves multiple and heterogeneous back-end databases (Batjargal et al. 2011). In the proposed system, remote databases can be searched and retrieved simultaneously via the federated search protocols such as Search/Retrieve Web service (SRW), Search/Retrieve via URL (SRU), etc. SRU servers return a result set represented in XML, when a search request is received. In addition, web databases are accessible using ‘web/screen-scraping’ techniques that process a list of search results by reading and extracting data from HTML. At present, our proposed system is capable of retrieving the collections of the Library of Congress (approx. 2,740 Ukiyo-e prints), the National Diet Library (NDL) of Japan (approx. 10,000 Ukiyo-e prints), the British Museum (approx. 15,000 Ukiyo-e prints), the Boston Museum of Fine Arts (approx. 57,000 Ukiyo-e prints), the Victoria and Albert Museum (approx. 38,000 Ukiyo-e prints), and the Ukiyo-e database of the Art Research Center of Ritsumeikan University (approx. 12,500 Ukiyo-e prints). Figure 1 shows the conceptual architecture of the existing federated searching system for Ukiyo-e databases. Figure 2 shows the screenshot of sample search results.

Figure 1
Figure 1: Conceptual architecture of a federated searching system for Ukiyo-e prints

Figure 2
Figure 2: Sample search results

Utilizing Linked Data

This section discusses our achievements that utilize Linked Data to providing integrated access to multilingual Ukiyo-e prints from all over the world. Linked Data is a paradigm of constructing structured data, which can be read automatically by computers. Linked Data consists of the interlinked data sets, e.g. have relationships between resources. Each resource is identified by a unique URI (Uniform Resource Identifier), and represented in RDF (Resource Description Framework) format. RDF is a data model, in which any resource can be represented by a set of property and value pairs that make statements about that resource. There are three reasons of using Linked Data in our approach. Firstly, Linked Data could be used to link related data in various databases. Taking advantages of a simple model of RDF, we could create various links by combining various RDF data. Secondly, besides linking related data, Linked Data could enable accessing to diverse databases easily. Prior to Linked Data, users were usually accessing each database one-by-one. However, by using the links of related data, users would be able to access to related data in multiple databases with less trouble. Thirdly, Linked Data could help users to discover some further relationships between individual data.

We utilize the name authorities and subject headings of NDL of Japan, i.e., Web NDL Authorities3, for obtaining data in RDF. In Web NDL Authorities, name authorities and subject headings can be searched via SPARQL (Simple Protocol and RDF Query Language), which is an RDF query language for searching and manipulating data in RDF format. An authority data for a heading (e.g. personal name, subject, etc.) contains aliases and synonyms of the heading, and information showing the reason for being selected as the heading. In our approach, we use the authority data for identifying a particular person from different representations of the personal name in different databases. The subject heading also distinguishes words that have same representations but different meanings. In an example of authority data as shown in Figure 3, the heading ‘Shakespeare, William, 1564-1616’ has three different representations in Japanese. An authority data of NDL of Japan contains personal names, family names, corporate names, place names, uniform titles, and general subjects for a certain heading. At present, we utilize only personal names and general subjects in our approach.

Figure 3
Figure 3: An example of an authority data

The proposed approach in action

In this section, we explain about the proposed system that aims to realize integrated multilingual access to Ukiyo-e prints in the world. Outline of the proposed system is shown in Figure 4. At first, in the step ‘Search (1)’, our system acquires the search results when a user performs a search in a federated searching system. Then in the step ‘Select (2)’, the system extracts the appropriate authority data for a certain record. In the step (3), the system finds the variants or aliases for that authority data by using SPARQL. After that, the system searches diverse databases by using the variants or aliases as queries. Finally, the system shows the refined retrieved results (4) with the links for further search (5). In general, the user will be able to access to other data easily by using the authority data of the aliases.

Figure 4
Figure 4: Outline of the proposed system

For instance, as shown in Figure 5, if a user searches using a query ‘Hiroshige Utagawa’, then our system finds the aliases ‘Hiroshige Ando’ and ‘Hiroshige Ichiryusai’ by using an authority data of ‘Hiroshige Utagawa’. Using the aliases of ‘Hiroshige Utagawa’ (e.g. ‘Hiroshige Ando’ and ‘Hiroshige Ichiryusai’) our system will show further results.

Figure 5
Figure 5: An example of integrated access

Furthermore, some authority data in Web NDL Authorities has a link to Library of Congress Subject Heading (LCSH). Therefore our system can also provide cross-language access between Japanese and English as shown in Figure 6. Using a link from NDL Subject Headings (NDLSH), the proposed system can generate further links. In this way, users will be able to access to more records with ‘Hashirae’, ‘Pillar Prints’ and ‘Ukiyo-e’ for a given query input ‘ukiyo-e’ by generating the links for ‘Ukiyoe’ by using LCSH. Even if the user has no knowledge about the term ‘Hashirae’, he or she can access them easily and efficiently.

Figure 6
Figure 6: An example of multilingual access using Subject Headings

evaluation of the system
In this section, we discuss our preliminary evaluation of the proposed system. In order to evaluate the usefulness of the system, we calculated the accuracy of the aliases obtained by the proposed system by manually checking whether the records retrieved using the aliases are actually about the same person as the original query (Figure 7). Table 1 shows the results of 6,923 retrieved records for several Ukiyo-e painters. The proposed system achieved the accuracy rate of 99.89% for the aliases of Ukiyo-e painters with full names. The accuracy rate drops to 89.91% for the aliases that consist of either first name or last name of Ukiyo-e painters, because of increased ambiguity in short strings. The overall accuracy rate was 95.45%, which should be enough for most purposes.

Figure 7
Figure 7: Evaluation process of the proposed system

Table 1: The results of the evaluation
Type of alias         Number of the records         Number of the records of the same person         Accuracy rate
Full name         3,840         3,836         0.9989
Either first name or last name         3,083         2,772         0.8991
Total         6,923         6,608         0.9545
summary
In this poster, we proposed a technique using Linked Data in order to realize multilingual integrated access to multiple digital archives. One of the unique features of our proposed approach is that we utilize authority data to deal with the problem of different representation of data in different databases, as well as to generate cross-language links between databases. We believe such a system will help users to find new knowledge, and will also facilitate new directions in humanities research. Our future work include extending our system to other humanities digital archives, and user evaluation of the prototype system.

Funding

This work was supported in part by MEXT Grant-in-Aid for Strategic Formation of Research Infrastructure for Private University ‘Sharing of Research Resources by Digitization and Utilization of Art and Cultural Materials’ [Grant Number: S0991041].

reference
Batjargal, B., F. Kimura, and A. Maeda (2011). Metadata-related Challenges for Realizing Federated Searching System for Japanese Humanities Databases. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Dublin Core and Metadata Applications. The Hague, Netherlands, September 2011, pp.80-85.

Kamura, T., F. Kato, I. Ohmukai, H. Takeda, T. Takahashi, and H. Ueda (2011). Study support and integration of cultural information resources with Linked Data. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Culture and Computing. Kyoto, Japan, October 2011, pp. 177-178.

Cornejo, C. M., I. Ruiz-Rube, and J. M. Dodero (2010). eCultura, a semantically-enriched web-based approach to manage cultural content. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Information Reuse and Integration, IRI 2010. Las Vegas, NV, August 2010,  pp. 126-131.

notes
1. http://lod.ac/

2.http://www.w3.org/DesignIssues/LinkedData.html

3.http://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndla","txt","2","",""
"1554","13","Latent Semantic Analysis Tools Available for All Digital Humanities Projects in Project Bamboo","2","Latent Semantic Analysis Tools Available for All Digital Humanities Projects in Project Bamboo
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Hooper, Wallace Edd, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, whooper@indiana.edu
Cowan, Will, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, wgcowan@indiana.edu
Jiao, David, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, djaio@indiana.edu
Walsh, John A., Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, jawalsh@indiana.edu
The Chymistry of Isaac Newton Project (http://www.chymistry.org) added a new component to its website that allows researchers and interested readers to use the extensive results of its Latent Semantic Analysis studies of Newton’s alchemical manuscripts (NSF STS Project #0620868).

The new LSA web component on the Chymistry website allows researchers to form their own queries to discover correlated passages across the published corpus. The component will return 250-word or 1000-word passages which share significant vocabulary from within a published corpus of 62 manuscripts and over 450,000 words of seventeenth-century English, French, and Latin. At the user’s request, the component will also draw network graphs that visualize the structure of semantic relations among the passages in the documents. These network graphs can be examined in Network Workbench, which was developed at the Cyberinfrastructure for Network Science Center in Indiana University’s School of Library and Information Science.

The new Chymistry LSA component will also allow researchers to use regular expressions to form queries to investigate the relationships between words and draw concept maps as network graphs. Unlike many Bayesian topic analysis techniques in which the words drop out in favor of topics (Blei et al., 2003), latent semantic analysis keeps the vocabulary visible and available for direct text analysis.

The new LSA web component on the Chymistry website currently provides results for the 62 manuscripts that have been released in the Chymistry Project’s digital edition. All 119 manuscripts and an expanded LSA component will be released in 2012.

Walsh and Hooper presented initial results of this LSA work with Newton’s alchemical papers and with the poetry and literary criticism of Algernon Charles Swinburne at DH 2011. New directions in their collaboration include undertaking further LSA work that combines the King James Version of Bible with Swinburne’s corpus to detect patterns of influence and identify Swinburne’s extensive borrowing of language from the King James Bible. Similarly, we intend to combine the Geneva bible with the corpus of Newton’s theological and alchemical texts to detect patterns of influence, allusion, and borrowing or quoting in Newton’s texts.

Since that presentation, there has been considerable interest in their LSA methods from other projects and independent digital humanists.

The Digital Library Program at Indiana University is a partner institution in Project Bamboo the mission of which is to deliver a research environment for humanities scholars and a corresponding infrastructure for librarians and technologists supporting humanities research. Cowan and Jiao of the IU Digital Library Program have been involved in current Project Bamboo activities. They have worked on creating a digital humanities research environment using the HubZero platform, a collaboration and research platform that was originally created to serve research communities in the natural sciences. Cowan and Jiao have built several digital humanities tools such as a Java based page-turning tool and a tool that provides topic modeling analysis of textual contents. Hooper and Walsh from the Chymistry of Isaac Newton project with Cowan and Jiao, from the Digital Library Program, will port the LSA algorithms into a tool on HubZero.

Both the Chymistry Project and the Swinburne Project are partners with the IU Digital Library Program, which provides the technical infrastructure for both projects. Cowan and Jiao raised the possibility with Hooper and Walsh of modifying the code they had developed for those projects and making it available as part of Project Bamboo.

Cowan, Jiao, and Hooper argue that every humanities project will be interpreting and analyzing entirely unique content and their public end-user websites will likewise have their own unique design constraints. What needs to be provided is a framework that will allow each project to bring its data sets to a processing interface and submit it, with the full and reasonable expectation that they will receive standardized outputs that they can process and exploit in their own design contexts.

The Chymistry and Swinburne projects use Perl scripts to extract data streams from TEI/XML-encoded documents, then process the streams in MATLAB on a supercomputer at Indiana to produce CSV data that is subsequently imported into MySQL databases for use with their public websites.

Our collaboration, however, has decided to provide tools that provide tools that accomplish just the numerical processing step in MATLAB, so we ask user projects to submit text data in simple text input structures and we return wimple and well-defined CSV data that can be exploited in any manner desired for end-user web interfaces or for further numerical or algorithmic processing.

The LSA analysis workflow in our MATLAB programs contains several components: first the corpus is read into the system and converted to a term/document frequency matrix. Terms of very low frequency and of high frequency (user-defined stop words) are removed. Secondly a TF/IDF (Term Frequency/Inverse Document Frequency) matrix is calculated based on the term/document frequency matrix. Then we apply singular value decomposition (SVD) on the TF/IDF matrix and create the matrices that are used to calculate document distances as well as term/document matrices, which are saved to CSV files as the standard outputs and returned to users. Several steps like the SVD calculation and the distance matrix computations are computationally expensive and require high performance computing resources. Therefore, the MATLAB-based workflow is located and executed on a cluster of IBM servers running Red Hat Linux at Indiana University. The process is invoked and monitored by the HubZero submit module. The technical details of the LSA algorithms are thus hidden from the end users. Digital humanities researchers can utilize our LSA algorithm in their research without having to worry about the supercomputing aspect. To use this service, they only need to preprocess their corpus and provide them in the simple format that the tool accepts, and post-process the outputs of the algorithms such as the document/document distances. We expect such a tool would leverage the usage of the LSA algorithm in the digital humanities research, and can serve as a model to expand the application of computing-expensive algorithms in digital humanities.","txt","2","",""
"1555","13","Le Système modulaire de gestion de l’information historique (SyMoGIH): une plateforme collaborative et cumulative de stockage et d’exploitation de l’information géo-historique","2","Le Système modulaire de gestion de l’information historique (SyMoGIH): une plateforme collaborative et cumulative de stockage et d’exploitation de l’information géo-historique
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Beretta, Francesco, Laboratoire de recherche historique Rhône-Alpes, Université de Lyon, France, francesco.beretta@ish-lyon.cnrs.fr
Vernus, Pierre, Laboratoire de recherche historique Rhône-Alpes, Université de Lyon, France, pierre.vernus@ish-lyon.cnrs.fr
Hours, Bernard, Laboratoire de recherche historique Rhône-Alpes, Université de Lyon, France, bernard.hours@univ-lyon3.fr
Le but de ce poster est de présenter le Système modulaire de gestion de l’information historique (SyMoGIH), un projet né en 2007 qui a développé une méthodologie permettant la mise en place d’une plateforme collaborative et cumulative de stockage et d’exploitation de l’information géo-historique (cf. http://larhra.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/Pole_Methodes/SyMoGIH_fr.php et http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00677658). Il s’agira en particulier de présenter la méthode de modélisation adoptée par le projet SyMoGIH, méthode qui a permis la mise en place d’un système d’information collaboratif, ouvert à accueillir tout type d’information géo-historique.

Le projet SyMoGIH est né de la volonté d’utiliser les nouvelles technologies afin de mutualiser les données produites par les recherches individuelles des historiens, données souvent perdues après la publication des travaux qu’elles documentent, et aussi celles produites par des projets financés par l’Agence nationale de la recherche française, dont deux étaient en cours à l’époque au sein du Laboratoire de recherche historique Rhône-Alpes (CNRS-Université de Lyon). L’apprentissage du langage de modélisation ERD (entity-relationship diagrams) et la collaboration avec des collègues professeurs d’informatique a permis de mettre en place un système collectif d’alimentation de bases de données. L’intégration d’un module de cartographie et d’analyse spatiale pour prendre en compte la dimension spatiale des données historiques et la volonté de disposer d’un système plus robuste ont conduit à l’adoption du système de gestion de bases de données (SGDB) PostgreSQL avec son extension PostGIS.

Le but du projet n’est toutefois pas de produire un nouveau logiciel mais de mettre à la disposition d’une communauté d’utilisateurs une plateforme ouverte et évolutive permettant le stockage collaboratif et cumulatif de l’information. Une trentaine d’utilisateurs et cinq projets collectifs sont hébergés actuellement dans la base de données du projet. Notre but est de mettre les outils digitaux au cœur de la recherche historique selon une démarche qui vise à élargir progressivemnent le nombre d’utilisateurs et qui met l’accent sur la formation des étudiants : une dizaine de travaux de master ont abouti grâce à l’utilisation de la méthode SyMoGIH, quelques doctorats sont en cours tandis que les enseignants et chercheurs du Laboratoire qui le souhaitent peuvent utiliser la plateforme commune pour héberger leurs propres données. Une charte d’utilisation, réglant les droits et obligations des utilisateurs, permet de gérer les questions délicates de la propriété et de l’exploitation des données.

Le poster se propose de présenter les fondements de la méthode de modélisation développée au sein du projet SyMoGIH, ainsi que les types d’exploitation auxquels peuvent être soumises les données collectées. Seront évoquées questions délicates que doit affronter l’historien souhaitant construire un système d’information utilisable pour sa recherche personnelle mais en même temps ouvert à un travail collaboratif : faut-il stocker des textes ou des données extraites des textes ? Faut-il enregistrer toutes les informations contenues dans un texte ou seulement celles liées à la recherche en cours ? Comment articuler la spécificité de la recherche individuelle avec la mutualisation des données et leur réutilisation pour d’autres recherches ?

Le système d’information mis en place comprend deux volets : l’un reproduit les informations telles qu’elles se trouvent dans les documents ; l’autre construit, par un affinement progressif et par le croisement des sources, des informations telles qu’elles se présentaient effectivement dans le monde historique étudié. En termes de choix technologiques, nous avons d’abord opté pour un système de bases de données relationnelles. Un travail de recherche important a été conduit pendant deux ans pour la mise en place d’un méta-modèle ouvert permettant de produire une modélisation documentée et perfectible de toute information géo-historique qu’on souhaite stocker. La mise en place de ce méta-modèle grâce à la modélisation ERD sera présentée en détail, ainsi que la distinction fondamentale introduite dans la construction des données entre un niveau ‘objectif’, visant le stockage collectif des informations, et un codage lié à la problématique de recherche individuelle ou d’un projet.

De plus, l’intégration de la dimension spatiale de la recherche a amené à la mise en place d’un gazetteer permettant de recenser et de localiser tout type de lieu ou de territoire, y compris dans son évolution diachronique. Enfin, la conception du système a visé une ouverture multidisciplinaire et multiculturelle, permettant de stocker toute information sous forme de texte typé par un code de langues selon la norme ISO 639-3.

Cette approche utilisant un SGBD s’est avérée particulièrement adaptée pour le volet ‘reconstitution d’un monde historique’ mais elle a montré ses limites pour ce qui concerne le stockage du contenu d’une source. Depuis deux ans nous avons par conséquent mis en chantier un couplage du SGBD avec l’encodage des textes en xml selon le schéma proposé par la Text encoding initiative (TEI), tout en utilisan les identifiants des objets tels qu’ils ont été définis dans la base de données comme attributs du balisage. Ce système est particulièrement adapté à l’encodage de textes qui sont destinés à une édition, sous forme papier ou digitale.

En s’appuyant sur la modélisation spécifique à chaque information stockée, tout utilisateur suffisamment formé au SQL peut extraire les informations qui lui sont accessibles grâce à des requêtes de base, voire produire de nouvelles connaissances grâce à des requêtes avancées. Les données ainsi produites sont exportées, habituellement sous format cvs, et sont ensuite visualisées et exploitées dans les logiciels existants de statistique, généalogie, analyse des réseaux, SIG, etc. Des formations spécifiques à ces logiciels sont dispensées régulièrement pour permettre aux étudiants et aux collègues d’exploiter les données qu’ils ont collectées.

Concernant la publication des données, il est possible de définir des populations d’objets propres aux différents projets hébergés, par exemple une population d’acteurs, ou d’institutions, dont on souhaite publier un choix de caractéristiques sur un site web, moyennant accord des ‘propriétaires’ des informations publiées. Des sites web dédiés à chaque projet peuvent ainsi être mis en place à partir de la base de données collective, ne publiant qu’une portion limitée d’informations. Actuellement, l’exemple le plus abouti est représenté par le projet de prosopographie du patronat français issu d’un financement de l’ANR (http://www.patronsdefrance.fr/). La méthode adoptée par SyMoGIH permet de valoriser les données produites au cours d’un projet financé de durée limitée, en les rendant directement exploitables par les étudiants ou les chercheurs qui, en retour, continueront à alimenter et à enrichir les données même après la fin de la période de financement du projet.","txt","2","",""
"1556","13","Linguistic concepts described with Media Query Language for automated annotation","2","Linguistic concepts described with Media Query Language for automated annotation
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Lenkiewicz, Anna, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, The Netherlands, anna.lenkiewicz@mpi.nl
Lis, Magdalena, University of Copenhagen, Denmark, Magdalena@hum.ku.dk
Lenkiewicz, Przemyslaw, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, The Netherlands, przemek.lenkiewicz@mpi.nl
introduction
Human spoken communication is multimodal, i.e. it encompasses both speech and gesture. Acoustic properties of voice, body movements, facial expression, etc. are an inherent and meaningful part of spoken interaction; they can provide attitudinal, grammatical and semantic information. In the recent years interest in audio-visual corpora has been rising rapidly as they enable investigation of different communicative modalities and provide more holistic view on communication (Kipp et al. 2009). Moreover, for some languages such corpora are the only available resource, as is the case for endangered languages for which no written resources exist.

However, annotation of audio-video corpora is enormously time-consuming. For example, to annotate gestures researchers need to view the video-recordings multiple times frame-by-frame or in slow motion. It can take up to 100 hours to manually annotate one hour of the recording (Auer et al. 2010). This leads to a shortage of large-scale annotated corpora which hampers analysis and makes generalizations impossible. There is a need for automatic annotation tools which will make working with multimodal corpora more efficient and enable communication researchers to focus more on the analysis of data than on the annotation of material.

The Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics and two Fraunhofer Institutes are working together on developing advanced audio and video processing algorithms, called recognizers (Lenkiewicz et al. 2011), which are able to detect certain human behavior in a recording and annotate it automatically. However, usage of those recognizers is rather complex and their output is limited to detecting occurrences of predefined events without assigning any semantics. They also work independently from one another delivering annotations according to their specification, like for example hand movement or specific speech characteristics, which later need to be manually analyzed by the researchers in order to find any dependencies between different features.

Figure 1
Figure 1: The general structure of the Media Query Language

The core of the work described in this paper is the development of a MQL, which can take advantage of the capabilities of the recognizers and allow expressing complex linguistic concepts in an intuitive manner.

media query language
In the current phase of development general structure of the language is defined (Figure 1). The language contains three integrated components: patterns, actions and libraries.

Patterns

As a first step in media annotation using MQL human behavior would be decomposed to a single meaningful movement, gesture or speech element and saved for future reuse in form of a pattern as presented in Level 1 of Figure 1. A pattern for the purpose of this work is defined as a template or model, which can be used to save elements of human behavior decoded from media file under a meaningful name. It is the primary element created using MQL and it is the base for future action creation. Pattern provides a sort of architectural outline that may be reused in order to speed up the annotation process by applying search-by-example.

As a first step in pattern creation the corpora will be analyzed by recognizers and by a researcher using specifically for this purpose designed active device application, which simplifies new pattern creation by marking interesting parts of a recording and including them in the MQL code (Figure 2). All solutions will be integrated with ELAN (Brugman & Russel 2004) a professional tool for the creation of complex annotations on video and audio resources.

Figure 2
Figure 2: Example of pattern creation using active device as input collector. A to B – start and end point for hand movement. Red square – field determining tolerance in pattern matching in future search

The MQL language will be programmed in order to execute specific recognizers, depending on the nature of the request from the user and using recognizers’ specification. The output of the recognizers will be collected and joined in sets of characteristic human behaviors, like for example when, which and how a given hand is moving, including information about direction (left, right, up, down) and speed. At the same time another recognizer can deliver information about speech characterization, like utterance boundaries, word separation or pitch contour. Recognizers will be therefore used to retrieve numerical description of the features mentioned above. The language will serve as a tool, which helps to convert the code received from the recognizers into patterns expressing human behavior in a language similar to natural. An example of a code fragment describing a pattern in MQL is presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3
Figure 3: Example of a pattern defined in MQL code

Libraries

In order to simplify the feature annotation process and assure that already created patterns can be reused, each pattern created by the user needs to be added to a pattern library. Meaningful name and description needs to be given. MQL allows users to name the patterns and actions in a not imposed way. Formulation of the query is also free, as long as it will be in conformity with the language syntax and will include keywords and pattern names. An example of such library can be a set of patterns describing hand movement patterns like hands overlapping, hands rising, one hand movement with specific speed, etc. It is assumed that a pattern library will be dedicated to single actions occurrences. Moreover, it is planned that the system would inform the user whenever a currently created pattern already exists under different name and in which place of the hierarchy. The main goal of this functionality is the creation of well-developed pattern libraries, which in the future can limit the need for new pattern creation. With proper libraries available for the end-users a lot of media annotation work can be carried out using only already existing patterns. Prototype of such a library is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4
Figure 4: Example of a library defined in MQL code

Actions

The second level of the language will be dedicated to action creation and file annotation. It is called the executing phase of programming with MQL. On this level the user will be able to combine patterns into actions.

Action in MQL is defined as a set of predefined patterns (human movements, gestures or speech elements) composed together. Advancement of a single pattern to an action is also possible. Actions may be composed of patterns that may require execution of more than one recognizer in order to detect features of interest. An example of a  MQL code fragment describing an action is presented in Figure 5.

Figure 5
Figure 5: Example of an action defined in MQL code

A good example to illustrate the concept of action is annotation of utterance type. In signaling whether an utterance is a statement, a question or a command, different communicative behaviors (e.g. both speech prosodic cues and face expression) can work together. With MQL researchers will be able to aggregate such acoustic and gestural patterns together and save them in the form of an action in an action library according to the same rules as apply to pattern library creation. Thanks to this solution the decision about event classification into specific human behavior and creation of annotation can be taken by researchers rather than an automatic system. Work of the recognizers can be limited to detecting audio and body movement as detailed as possible.

conclusions and future work
Thanks to the proposed MQL solution, together with the recognizers, the major problem of researchers, which is the time needed to manually annotate data, will decrease significantly. The expertise of the researchers will be used better by transferring their focus from highly laborious basic feature annotation to adding meaning to retrieved data and semantics to MQL language components.

Using MQL in the annotation process is going to significantly change the way in which the annotation work is carried out and how it can be reused. Using common ways to describe meaningful features and creating reusable libraries will contribute to creation of the interoperability standards.

The feedback on the current version of MQL received from researchers is encouraging. Flexibility and sufficient expressiveness of complex linguistic concepts is seen as a great advantage.

In the future work the problems of semantic gap coverage and interoperability standards will be tackled thanks to the possibility of expressing complex linguistic concepts using MQL.

Acknowledgment

The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Commission’s 7th Framework Program under grant agreement n° 238405 (CLARA).

references
Auer, E., P. Wittenburg, H. Sloetjes, O. Schreer, S. Masneri, D. Schneider, and S. Tschöpel (2010). Automatic annotation of media field recordings. In C. Sporleder and K. Zervanou (eds.), Proceedings of the ECAI 2010 Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, and Humanities (LaTeCH 2010). Lisbon: University de Lisbon, pp. 31-34.

Brugman, H., and A. Russel (2004). Annotating multi-media / multimodal resources with ELAN Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2004). Lisbon, pp. 2065-2068.

Kipp, M., J.-C. Martin,P.  Paggio, and F. K. J. Heylen, ed. (2009). Multimodal Corpora: From Models of Natural Interaction to Systems and Applications. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 5509. London: Springer.

Lenkiewicz, P., P. Wittenburg, O. Schreer, S. Masneri, D. Schneider, and S. Tschöpel (2011). Application of audio and video processing methods for language research. Proceedings of the conference Supporting Digital Humanities 2011 (SDH 2011), Copenhagen, Denmark, November 17-18, 2011.","txt","2","",""
"1557","13","Machine Learning for Automatic Annotation of References in DH scholarly papers","2","Machine Learning for Automatic Annotation of References in DH scholarly papers
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Kim, Young-Min, University of Avignon, France, youngminn.kim@gmail.com
Bellot, Patrice, Aix-Marseille University, France, patrice.bellot@lsis.org
Faath, Elodie, CLEO, Centre for Open Electronic Publishing, France, elodie.faath@revues.org
Dacos, Marin, CLEO, Centre for Open Electronic Publishing, France, marin.dacos@revues.org
introduction
OpenEdition (http://www.openedition.org) is composed of three different platforms dedicated to electronic resources in the humanities and social sciences, Revues.org (journal and book series), Hypotheses.org (research notebooks and scholarly blogs) and Calenda (social sciences calendar). Revues.org is the oldest French platform of academic online journals. It now offers more than 300 journals available in all of the disciplines of the humanities and social sciences. The online publication is made through the conversion of articles into XML TEI (http://www.tei-c.org) format and then into XHTML format and allows the viewing of the full text in web browsers. The bibliographical parts of articles on Revues.org are rather diverse and complicated. One main reason of this complexity is the diversity of source disciplines that makes various styles in reference formatting:

References employ different journal stylesheets or do not follow any stylesheet,
Labeling should be very precise: performance should be close (or better) those of a ‘human labeler’. In case this could not be achieved, the software should provide user with a confidence score. The quality of a digital library depends on the quality of metadata that allow field-based search, citation analysis, cross-linking and so on,
References can be written in different languages,
References contain some misspellings,
Entries may be ambiguous (for example, searching for papers from ‘Williams Patrick’ in Google Scholar retrieve several papers: a) ‘Colonial discourse [...]’ published in 1996, b) ‘Mariage tsigane […]’ (gipsy wedding) published in 1984, c) ‘A randomized trial of group outpatient visits […]: the Cooperative Health Care Clinic’ published in 1997; we can assume that they correspond to different authors with the same name),
Sometimes, one must refer to other references in order to complete them or else references are grouped together,
References may be located anywhere in papers: in the body of the text, at the end of the paper and in footnotes.
three new training corpora in dh fields
In order to prepare a data set for the construction of a machine learning model (see below), which automatically estimates reference fields, we adopted a subset of TEI XML tags and annotated manually three different corpora according to three difficulty levels:  

Corpus level 1: the references are at the end of the article under a heading ”References”. Manual identification and annotation are relatively simpler than for the two next levels. Considering the diversity, 32 journals are randomly selected and 38 sample articles are taken. Total 715 bibliographic references were identified and annotated.
Corpus level 2: the references are in notes and they are less formulaic compared to the ones of the corpus level 1. An important characteristic of the corpus level 2 is that it contains link informations between references. And because of the nature of note data, the corpus contains both bibliographical and non-bibliographical notes. We selected 41 journals from a stratified selection and we extracted 42 articles considering the diversity. We observed 1147 bibliographical references that were manually annotated and 385 non-bibliographical notes, which did not need any manual annotation.
Corpus level 3: the references are in the body of articles. The identification and annotation are the most complicated. Even finding the beginning and end of bibliographic parts in a note is difficult. For example, we may accept a phrase citing a book title as reference even if its author is not found near by but in footnote. We selected 42 articles considering different properties of implicit reference in the body of the articles. From these selected articles, we identified and annotated 1043 references.
The following table shows some examples from these three corpora. In total, we annotated 3290 bibliographical references by using the tags presented on Table 1.

Table 1
Table 1: Tags for annotating references

machine learning for annotation
Most of the free softwares available on the Internet process pre-identified references against a set of predefined patterns. For example, cb2bib (http://www.molspaces.com/cb2bib/) recognizes reference styles of the publications of the American Chemical Society and of Science Direct but does not work on other styles without a costly adaptation. Some other softwares employ machine learning and numerical approaches by opposite to symbolic ones that require a large set of rules that are very hard to manage and that are not language independent. Day et al. (2005) cite the works of a) C.L. Giles et al. for the CiteSeer system (computer science literature) that achieves a 80% accuracy for author detection and 40% accuracy for page numbers (1997-1999), b) Seymore et al. that employ Hidden Markov Models (HMM) that learn generative models over input sequence and labeled sequence pairs to extract fields for the headers of computer science papers, c) Peng et al. that use Conditional Random Fields (CRF) (Lafferty et al. 2001) for labeling and extracting fields from research paper headers and citations. Other approaches employ discriminatively-trained classifiers (such SVM classifiers). Compared to HMM and SVM, CRF obtained better tagging performance (Peng & McCallum 2006). Some papers propose methods to disambiguate author citations (Han & Wu 2005; Torvik & Smalheiser 2009) or geographical identifiers (Volz et al. 2007). These ‘state of the art’ approaches seem to achieve good results but they proceed on limited size collections of scientific research papers only and they do not resolve all the difficulties we identified above. We choose Conditional Random Fields (CRFs) as method to tackle our problem of bibliographic references annotation on DH data (Kim et al. 2011). It is a type of machine learning technique applied to the labeling of sequential data. By definition, a discriminative model maximizes the conditional distribution of output given input features. So, any factors dependent only on input are not considered as modeling factors, instead they are treated as constant factors to output (Sutton & McCallum 2011). This aspect derives a key characteristic of CRFs, the ability to include a lot of input features in modeling. The conditional distribution of a linear-chain CRF for a set of label y given an input x is written as follows. The multiplication of all these conditional probabilities for input data is maximized during the iterative learning process.


experiments
We separately learn a CRF model for each corpus. Until now, we have conducted various experiments with the first and second corpora for the automatic annotation of reference fields. The standard on the effective local features and appropriate reference field labels are established during the construction of CRF model on the first corpus. This standard is equally applied to the second corpus but in this time, another automated process is necessary for the selection of target notes that include bibliographical information. Another machine learning technique, Support Vector Machine (Joachims 1999) is used for this note classification and we propose a new method, which mixes input, local and global features to well classify notes into bibliographical or non-bibliographical categories. The new feature generation method works well in terms of both classification accuracy and reference annotation accuracy. The features we selected for CRF are listed in Table 2.

Table 2
Table 2: Features employed for automatic annotation

A remarkable point is that we separately recognize authors and even their surname and forename. In traditional approaches, different authors in a reference are annotated as a field. Compared to the scientific research reference data used in the work of Peng and McCallum (2006), our corpus level 1 is much more diverse in terms of bibliographical reference formats. However, we have obtained a successful result in overall accuracy (90%) especially on surname, forename and title fields (92%, 90%, and 86% of precision respectively). They are somewhat less than the previous work (95% overall accuracy) but considering the difficulty of our corpus, current result is very encouraging.

The notes in the corpus level 2 are more difficult to treat and had not been studied in the previous works to the best of our knowledge. With our pre-selection process using a Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifier was effective to finally increase the automatic annotation result for corpus level 2. For the comparison, we constructed another CRF model on all notes without classification. Consequently, the CRF model learned with the classified notes using our approach outperforms the other model, especially on recall of three important fields, surname, forename, and title as in the following table. Bold character in the following table means that the corresponding model outperforms in the field with a statistical significance test (see http://bilbo.hypotheses.orghttp://bilbo.hypotheses.org for more information).


Table 3

conclusion
We have constructed three different corpora of bibliographical reference in DH field. Then we have conducted a number of experiments to establish the standards of processing on the corpora. From the basic experiments on the first and second corpora, we continue to refine the automatic annotation via different techniques. Especially we develop an efficient methodology to incorporate incomplete external resources such as proper noun list to a CRF model. According to a trial experiment, the incorporation enhances automatic annotation performance on proper noun fields with corpus level 1. We will try the same method on the second corpus. Given that the annotation accuracies were not so high with the second corpus, we expect a more significance improvement. The integration of the note classification and annotation steps into a process is also expected to improve the efficiency of learning process. One of most important part will be the treatment of corpus level 3. We are now developing several approaches to deal with this corpus.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Google Grant for Digital Humanities in 2011; and the French Agency for Scientific Research under CAAS project [ANR 2010 CORD 001 02].

references
Day, M.-Y., T.-H. Tsai, C.-L. Sung, C.-W. Lee, S. H. Wu, C. S. Ong, and W. L. Hsu (2005). A knowledge-based approach to citation extraction. Information Reuse and Integration. IRI -2005 IEEE International Conference, pp. 50-55.

Han, H., W. Xu, H. Zha, and C.  Lee Giles (2005). A Hierarchical Naive Bayes Mixture Model for Name Disambiguation in Author Citations. Proceedings of SAC’05, ACM.

Joachims, T. (1999). Making large-scale support vector machine learning practical. Cambridge: MIT Press, pp. 169-184.

Kim, Y.-M., P. Bellot, E. Faath, and M. Dacos (2011). Automatic annotation of bibliographical reference in digital humanities books, articles and blogs. Proceedings of the CIKM 2011 BooksOnline11 Workshop.

Lafferty, J., A. McCallum, and F. Pereira (2001). Conditional Random Fields: Probabilistic Models for Segmenting and Labeling Sequence Data. International Conf. on Machine Learning (ICML’01).

Peng, F., and A. McCallum (2006). Information extraction from research papers using conditional random fields. Information Processing & Management 42(4): 963-979.

Torvik, V. I., and N. R. Smalheiser (2009). Author Name Disambiguation in MEDLINE. ACM Transaction on Knowledge Discovering in Data 3(3).

Volz, R., J. Kleb, and W. Mueller (2007). Towards ontology-based disambiguation of geographical identifiers. WWW int. conf., Canada.

Sutton, C., and A. McCallum (2011). An introduction to conditional random fields. Foundations and Trends in Machine Learning. To appear. http://arxiv.org/abs/1011.4088 (accessed 25 March 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1558","13","Medievalists' Use of Digital Resources, 2002 and 2012","2","Medievalists’ Use of Digital Resources, 2002 and 2012
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Porter, Dot, Indiana University, USA, dot.porter@gmail.com
introduction
The field of medieval studies has a long and established history of scholarship assisted by technology. The first person who we now call a digital humanist was a medievalist, Fr. Roberto Busa, who in the 1940s first conceived of the Index Thomisticus, a complete lemmatization of the works of Saint Thomas Aquinas, which was developed through the 1970s with the collaboration of IBM. Today there are dozens of digital resources aimed at medievalists: online collections of digitized manuscript images, full- text databases, online scholarly editions, and secondary sources such as books and journals. Much attention is paid to medievalists who actively contribute to the design and implementation of digital resources but relatively little attention is paid to ‘regular’ or ‘traditional’ medievalists who use these resources for their own research (for example, the Digital Medievalist Community of Practice is a community for medievalists who build resources, not medievalists who use resources). On the other hand there has been a fair amount of work done on the use of digital resources by other scholars in the humanities (see for example the series of studies by Diane Harley on the use of digital resources by humanities scholars) but very little specifically about medievalists. The only study of the use of digital resources by medievalists that I have found thus far in my literature search is my own master’s paper, cited below, which was undertaken in 2002 and is thus quite  bit out of date.

background
In 2002 as part of my MSLS degree work I undertook a research project entitled ‘Medievalists’ Use of Electronic Resources,’ which surveyed a selected group of medievalists on faculty at universities across the US on their use of and attitudes towards electronic resources (http://ils.unc.edu/MSpapers/2807.pdf). The survey asked faculty how they preferred to access various different types of resources (journals, translations, facsimiles, etc.) and attempted to gauge preferences for using digital resources across the community (junior faculty vs. chaired faculty, preferences in different fields, etc.).

Much has changed since 2002. Google Books was first introduced in 2004. ACLS released its final report on Cyberinfrastructure, ‘Our Cultural Commonwealth’ in 2006. The NEH, which had long supported digital projects, awarded the first Digital Humanities Start-Up Grants in 2007, and founded the Office of Digital Humanities in 2008. In medieval studies, more and more digital resources are released every year, there is an established community of ‘Digital Medievalists’, and the International Congress on Medieval Studies has had a steady growth in the number and profile of presentations and events on issues relating to digitization. Digital projects in the medieval studies are ubiquitous. Are they being used?

Now is the perfect time to return to this project, to undertake the survey again, and to see just how (or if) attitudes and use have changed over the past nine years. Looking forward, this research can help resource developers design projects to best serve their audiences and can help librarians understand how scholars assess and use digital resources.

the study
In September 2011 I distributed two parallel surveys, one ‘open’ and one ‘closed’. Both surveys include the same questions; the surveys are very similar but not identical to the 2002 survey. Updates made include asking about use of electronic books and clarifying some of the other questions with input from librarians and both digital and non-digital medievalist colleagues. The closed survey was sent to a selected group of 100 faculty drawn from institutions listed in the CARA database at the Medieval Academy of America (this is the same approach taken for the 2002 survey and will allow for a close study between the findings between the two groups). The open survey was distributed publicly, and announcements sent out to listservs, to my friends on Facebook, and posted to my network on Twitter. This project will compare findings from the open survey both with both the survey from 2002 and the closed survey from this year.

I will be taking research leave in December 2011 and January 2012 in order to undertake analysis of the survey data and to draft initial research findings for presentation and publication. I will be publishing several articles on this research, aimed at several distinct audiences, including medievalists, digital medievalists, academic librarians, the digital libraries community, and he digital humanities community. By July 2012 I will have completed all data analysis and I will have a least one article submitted. The poster session would give me the opportunity to present the findings to a digital humanities audience.

references
Harley, D., et al. Final Report: Assessing the Future Landscape of Scholarly Communication: An Exploration of Faculty Values and Needs in Seven Disciplines. CSHE 1.10 (January 2010) (URL: http://cshe.berkeley.edu/publications/publications.php?id=351)

Porter, D. C. Medievalists’ Use of Electronic Resources: The Results of a National Survey of Faculty Members in Medieval Studies. UNC Chapel Hill (December 2002) (URL: http://ils.unc.edu/MSpapers/2807.pdf)","txt","2","",""
"1559","13","NUScholar: Digital Methods for Educating New Humanities Scholars","2","NUScholar: Digital Methods for Educating New Humanities Scholars
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Graff, Ann-Barbara, Nipissing University, Canada, annbg@nipissingu.ca
Lucas, Kristin, Nipissing University, Canada, kristinl@nipissingu.ca
Blustein, James, Dalhousie University, Canada, jamie@cs.dal.ca
Gibson, Robin, Nipissing University, Canada, ragibson243@community.nipissingu.ca
Woods, Sharon, Nipissing University, Canada, sewoods397@community.nipissingu.ca
NUScholar is an authoritative website and adaptive hypermedia learning environment where undergraduates are introduced to the complex processes of critical scholarly reading.

If Mark Bernstein is right that ‘The future of serious writing will lie on the screen’ (Bernstein 200): 2), then the future of serious reading is also on the screen. In this SSHRC-funded project called NUScholar, Drs. Ann-Barbara Graff and Kristin Lucas (Nipissing University), Dr. James Blustein (Dalhousie University), and student research assistants Robin Gibson and Sharon Woods (Nipissing University), are asking what digital media can do to support the acquisition of foundational academic skills, specifically active reading, annotating and critical thinking. Our objectives address the problems and practices of scholarly readers.

We are operating from two principles: (1) The act of reading is little understood. (2) Students have no idea what we are asking them to do when we instruct them to ‘read this poem’.

The activity of reading is a highly complex cognitive task, involving what Crowder and Wagner (1992: 4) describe as ‘three stupendous achievements’: the development of spoken language, written language, and literacy. Kneepkens and Zwaan (1994: 126) show that ‘In processing text, readers […] decode letters, assign meaning to words, parse the syntactic structure of the sentence, relate different words and sentences, construct a theme for the text and may infer the objectives of the author. Readers attempt to construct a coherent mental representation of the text. In this process, they use their linguistic knowledge (knowledge of words, grammar), and their word knowledge (knowledge of what is possible in reality, cultural knowledge, knowledge of the theme).’ While empirical studies of the reading of literary texts are in their infancy (de Beaugrande 1992), what is known is that reading is not simply a matter of recall, but a ‘complex cognitive and affective transaction involving text-based, reader-based, and situational factors’ (Goertz et al. 1993: 35).

For humanities’ scholars, the primary task is to determine how meaning can be attributed to texts (Dixon et al. 1993). Literary texts pose particular challenges as they rely on allusion, connotation as well as denotation, verbal and situational irony, metaphor and other figurative tropes, and an awareness of etymology and historical possibility. As Warwick observes, much digital humanities research is involved in ‘Digitization projects [which] have revolutionized our access to resources’ (Warwick 2004: 375). Beyond resources, there are 3-D graphical maps of Antony and Cleopatra, Flash animations like ‘What is Print?’ etc., which speak to the strengths of new media to visualize text in new ways. Our work differs from and complements such digitization projects because – avant la lettre digital – we use new media to enable the teaching and learning of core, traditional literary skills.

NUScholar addresses what digital media can do to support the acquisition of close and active reading skills and their cognate, annotation, in part by modeling a number of strategies and also providing, in the case of annotation, an isomorph to effective techniques used with paper (Blustein et al 2011: 252-259).

As to the second point, we accept that students do not have a reference for the task they are being asked to perform, i.e., actively read a poem or prose text to determine ‘how a text means’ in John Ciardi’s phrase. Critical reading is a complex task that does not have a single entry point nor only one path to success.  Because the acquisition of the requisite skills is an open problem (in the cognitive sense), readers need to acquire a wide variety of skills. 

Moreover, as the material encountered becomes more complex and as the expectations increase as one advances through a degree, readers must test those skills upon which they have come to rely. NUScholar uses adaptive hypermedia to assist students in their distilling and acquisition of the skills.  In brief, this poster shows how we are designing the system to support traditional literary skill acquisition by using an hypermedia platform.

Drs. Graff, Lucas, and Blustein are developing an authoritative website (NUScholar) that offers an adaptive hypermedia learning environment where students will be introduced to the processes of critical reading. The website, NUScholar (http://nuscholar.nipissingu.ca), includes instructional web videos, animations designed to demystify the task of close reading of poetry and interviews with writers (http://ccareads.nipissingu.ca/); it will eventually include an annotated and interactive catalogue of verse, annotation tools, and an editable glossary; it also brings together many resources and potentially points to other tools and projects. As an adaptive hypermedia for education, the design allows for the transfer of the burden to readers/scholars as they proceed through the site.  Eventually, scholars/users will be able to import texts in a variety of common formats (.rtf, .pdf, cut-and-paste), to use any of these features.

We seek to harness the power of digital media to demonstrate strategies of critical reading. The intent is similar to the ‘writing in plain sight’ exercise at Dalhousie University http://dalgrad.dal.ca/whips/; where students watch someone complete a writing assignment “live” in order to demystify the notion that lightning bolts and magic are involved in writing to task or deadline and also Michael Wesch’s ‘The Machine is Using Us’ (final version) http://youtu.be/NLlGopyXT_g where students appreciate the power of digital media to provide visualizations of complex tasks.

references
de Beauregard, R. (1992).  Readers Responding to Literature: Coming to Grips with Reality. In E. F. Narduccio (ed.), Reader Response to Literature: The Empirical Dimension. New York:  Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 192-210.

Bernstein, M. (2009). Into the Weeds.  In M. Bernstein and D. Greco (eds.), Reading Hypertext. Watertown: Eastgate, pp. 1-13.

Blustein, J., et al. (2011).  Making Sense in the Margins:  A field study of annotation.  International Conference on Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries (TPDL). Published September 7, 2011.  10.1007/978-3-642-24469-8_27.

Ciardi, J. (1959). How Does a Poem Mean? Boston: Houghton/Mifflin.

Crowder, R. G., and R. K. Wagner (1992). The Psychology of Reading: An Introduction, 2nd edition.  Oxford: Oxford UP.

Dalhousie University.  (2011).  Writing in Plain Site. http://dalgrad.dal.ca/whips. (accessed 24 January 2011).

Dixon, P., et al. (1993). The Effects of Formal Training on Literary Reception. Poetics 23: 471-487.

Goertz, E., et al. (1993). Imagery and Emotional Response. Poetics 22: 35-49.

Kneepkens, E. W. E. M., and R. A. Zwaan (1993). Emotions and Literary Text Comprehension. Poetics 23: 125-138.

MOMA  (2001).  What is Print.  http://www.moma.org/interactives/projects/2001/whatisaprint/flash.html. (accessed 24 January 2011).

Nipissing University  (2012).  Canada Council for the Arts Reading Series.  http://ccareads.nipissingu.ca/. (accessed 8 March 2012).

Warwick, C.  (2004).  Print Scholarship and Digital Resources.  In S. Schriebman et al. (eds.),  A Companion to Digital Humanities.  Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Wesch, M. (2007). The Machine is Us/ing Us (Final Version). http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NLlGopyXT_g. (accessed 24 January 2011).","txt","2","",""
"1560","13","Orbis Latinus Online (OLO)","2","Orbis Latinus Online (OLO)
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Schultes, Kilian Peter, Heidelberg University, Germany, kilian.schultes@zegk.uni-heidelberg.de
Geissler, Stefan, Heidelberg University, Germany, stefan.geissler@zegk.uni-heidelberg.de
Transcultural (historical) research necessitates the integration of both macro and micro levels of research and analysis and emphasizes the dynamic and interactive character of its research objects in their historical and geographical dimension (‘How Histories make Geographies’ and vice versa).1The interdisciplinary, interconnected HGIS-projects located in Heidelberg share a common vision: They facilitate research in the humanities by e.g. (semi-)automatic, it-enhanced processing of information, by adding modes of spatial search in heterogeneous data, by supporting visualization of patterns formed by spatio-temporal data or a mash up of data from different sources of a different kind. Thereby they ultimately foster the researcher to formulate new questions and theses and eventually find some answers by experimenting in a sort of ‘humanities lab’. Only close collaboration of geographers, historians and computer scientists can ensure that new digital tools and methodologies do not stay outside the framework of everyday scientific work in the humanities.

The online gazetteer ‘Orbis Latinus Online’ (OLO) is in its contents based on the three-volume, 1972 edition of the Latin-German-dictionary of the same name (‘Großausgabe’)2 and published as a data base in cooperation with the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Munich (BSB).3The project contributes to the ongoing interdisciplinary Heidelberg HGIS-projects RIgeo.net and uses the geocoder GeoTWAIN, which is part of the Heidelberg Research Architecture (HRA, Cluster of Excellence ‘Asia-Europe in a Global Context’), in addition to further funding mentioned above. The OLO has currently reached beta-status and will be made accessible to the public in 2012.

The OLO provides coordinates to every Latin place name listed in the Orbis Latinus4, additional contextual information missing in the print version as well as links between the entries and different cross-references. The user can, for instance, search for latin place names or their modern equivalents by using a multilanguage webfrontend (php/mySQL). The place names are stored in a PostgreSQL db to use the advanced GIS-functionality of PostGIS. The original print version provided by the Münchener Digitalisierungszentrum (MDZ) is linked and the place is shown on Google Maps (later: Open Street Map) to give the user the opportunity to verify the entry. A web service based on XML-RPC is currently tested. Due to copyright restrictions, this involves as by now just the BSB and RIgeo.net. The basic gazetteer services are accompanied by a kind of ‘geo-wiki’ which provides commentaries and alternatives to the shown locations or the assignment of the Latin place names to the modern ones (or vice versa). The backend of the OLO consists of several parts such as a tool for parsing the ocr-results and ‘cutting them up’ according to the needs of the relational data base, a user management as well as a versioning system.

At first sight, it seems to be a quite simple and one-off task to provide the coordinates, but the design of the database proved not to be without challenges, – a discussion of which will be the main topic of our poster. The first semi-automated georeferencing of the places added from the print version was made via Google Maps. Most geocoders like Google Maps provide satisfactory results merely for the main settlements, since Google Maps provides just the coordinates of the ‘most important’ place. This can but must not necessarily be the searched location (e.g. a town like ‘Neustadt’ exists more than 50 times in the world). Therefore besides establishing a connection to additional gazetteers and georeferencing-services with advanced structured information, a collaborative multi-user-environment with rights-management to add, correct and comment on the entries was needed.

Registered users can now provide alternative modern day place names and/or coordinates and comment on their choice, the level of probable historical correctness of their entries/of their entry, the time span for which their equivalent is valid and on the sources they have used. The search option for alternative/additional coordinates uses the functionality of a web based tool of the HRA called GeoTWAIN.5 Among other options, it offers a quick visual search for coordinates including plausibility checks. During its interview-like search, a range of all coordinates is presented to the user, all of them fitting to given place names worldwide in all languages based on the search in different gazetteers (UTF-8), especially including the Getty Thesaurus of Geographical Names (TGN, which was licensed by the HRA).

To prevent vandalism and obvious incorrect data, new entries will be reviewed by the editors. The new coordinates or place names submitted are presented parallel to the older ones, open for rates and comments by fellow users. The entries on the results page are arranged according to their rating. Contributors are shown by full name (if they want to), so that credits can be assigned to individual researches (and maybe the context of research they used the OLO for).

Together with GeoTWAIN and RIgeo.net the OLO is one of the various interconnected services of a virtual research environment, the ‘gis-toolbox’, envisioned and realized by the Heidelberg HGIS-research which is being developed with the aim to provide researchers with a set of databases and tools, e.g. to facilitate the analysis/mapping/combining of itineraries of medieval nobility and thereby define the spatial dimension of power and control beyond simplified linear boundary lines.

Project coordination

Dr. Kilian Schultes, Stefan Geißler, Jun Zhu: History Department, Heidelberg University in cooperation with Prof. Dr. Bernd Schneidmüller

Project members

Konrad Berner, Arina Chithavong, Matthäus Feigk, Philipp Franck, Anuschka Gäng, Peter Gietz, Timo Holste, Lukas Loos and Thomas Seitz

Project financing

Mostly a private initiative, Heidelberg University, Cluster Asia-Europe in a Global Context; Prof. Dr. Bernd Schneidmüller, History Department, Heidelberg University & RIgeo.net, “Frontier”-project, Heidelberg University (Prof. Dr. Alexander Zipf/Dr. Kilian Schultes in cooperation with Prof. Dr. Paul-Joachim Heinig, Akademie der Wissenschaften Mainz, Deutsche Kommission für die Bearbeitung der Regesta Imperii)

Project cooperations

Heidelberg Research Architecture (HRA) Cluster Asia-Europe in a Global Context, History Department – Universität Heidelberg

Project presented by Stefan Geißler/Dr. Kilian Schultes


Figure 1


Figure 2

references
Appadurai, A. (2011). How Histories make Geographies. Transcultural Studies 1. Available from: http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/ojs/index.php/transcultural/article/view/6129. [Accessed 22 Jan 2011].

Döring, J., and T. Thielmann, eds.  (2009). Spatial Turn: Das Raumparadigma in den Kultur- und Sozialwissenschaften. 2nd ed. Bielefeld: Transcript.

Graesse, J. G. T., F. Benedict, and H. Plechl, eds. (1972). Lexikon lateinischer geographischer Namen des Mittelalters und der Neuzeit: Großausgabe, bearbeitet und herausgegeben von Helmut Plechl unter Mitarbeit von Sophie-Charlotte Plechl, 3 vols. Braunschweig: Klinkhardt & Biermann.

Knowles, A. K., A. Hillier, and R. Balstad (2008). Conclusion: An Agenda for Historical GIS. In A. K. Knowles and A. Hillier (eds.), Placing History. How Maps, Spatial Data, and GIS are Changing Historical Scholarship. Redlands, CA: ESRI Press, pp. 267-274.

Owens, J. B. (2007). Toward a Geographically-Integrated, Connected World History: Employing Geographic Information Systems (GIS). History Compass 5(6): 2014-2040.

White, R. (2010). What is Spatial History? Spatial History Lab: Working paper [online] (Feb.). Available from:  http://www.stanford.edu/group/spatialhistory/cgi-bin/site/pub.php?id=29. [Accessed 29 Dec 2010].

notes
1.Döring et al. 2009; White 2010; Appadurai 2011; see also Knowles et al. 2008 and Owens 2007

2.Graesse et al. 1972. The less extensive one-volume edition from 1909 is online since 2000 as a text-only-html-website and has attracted some 370.000 visits: http://www.columbia.edu/acis/ets/Graesse/contents.html [Accessed 12 Feb 2012].

3.The BSB is the owner of the online publication rights. The pdf-version of the 1972-Orbis Latinus is published here: http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/~db/0005/bsb00050912/images/index.html [Accessed 12 Jan 2011]

4.Currently 140.000 Latin place names and 40.000 modern place names.

5.http://geotwain.uni-hd.de [Accessed 24.3.2012].","txt","2","",""
"1561","13","RIgeo.net - A Lab for Spatial Exploration of Historical Data","2","RIgeo.net – A Lab for Spatial Exploration of Historical Data
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Loos, Lukas, University of Heidelberg, Insitute of Geography, GIScience, Germany, L.Loos@stud.uni-heidelberg.de
Zipf, Alexander, University of Heidelberg, Insitute of Geography, GIScience, Germany, alexander.zipf@geog.uni-heidelberg.de
introduction
Transcultural (historical) research necessitates the integration of both macro and micro levels of research and analysis and emphasizes the dynamic and interactive character of its research objects in their historical and geographical dimension (‘How Histories make Geographies’ and vice versa). (Appadurai 2011; Döring et al. 2009; White 2010;  Knowles et al. 2008; Owens 2007).

The interdisciplinary, interconnected HGIS-projects located in Heidelberg share a common vision: They facilitate research in the humanities by e.g. (semi-)automatic, it-enhanced processing of information, by adding modes of spatial search in heterogeneous data, by supporting visualization of patterns formed by spatio-temporal data or mash up of data from different sources of a different kind. Thereby they ultimately foster the researcher to formulate new questions and theses and eventually find some answers by experimenting in a sort of ‘humanities lab’. Only close collaboration of geographers, historians and computer scientists can ensure that new digital tools and methodologies do not stay outside the framework of everyday scientific work in the humanities.

In the RIgeo.net project historians and geographers are working together in order to gain the full potential of the analytical capabilities of (historical) geographic information systems ((H)GIS) for historians. The aim of the project is the development of an – ultimately globally connected – infrastructure for the spatio-temporal analysis of historical sources. The combination of historical and geographical data as a part of a ‘GIS-toolbox’ provides a kind of ‘laboratory’ to analyze, recombine and disaggregate (mapped) information encoded in historical evidence, here: the abstracts of the Regesta Imperii1 (hereinafter: RI) combined with a spatial perspective and e.g. rearranged with uploaded findings of the RI researchers.

data basis
As a starting point for the development of the project we use the online available and in the European context extremely relevant data base RI and cooperate with the team of researchers of the RI, namely Prof. Dr. Paul-Joachim Heinig. The RI are an inventory of 125,000 mostly German abstracts of documents of all ‘German’ Emperors from Charlemagne to Maximilian I. The comprehensive data of the RI provides for a continuous evaluation on the technical and content level. With a view to sustainability and utility maximization the implemented procedures are designed to be applicable for other similar data sets.

project objective
The objective is the development of spatio-temporal thesauri of places and to geocode the places of issue of the documents and the places mentioned in the documents. One  objective is hereby is to assist in the research on itinerant kingdoms.

A central question is how to visualize (un-)certainty. One should bear in mind the universal warning that ‘all visualizations of information are abstractions, which provide useful approximations of the real world. […] Visualizations reduces the cognitive weight on the analyst or learner when the quantity of information, both quantitative and qualitative, is great, a problem is complex, and alternative solutions are numerous and surpass the capabilities of human reason’ (Owens 2007).

Depending on the source material there are different challenges to be met to allow the user to judge on the degree of confidence of the visualized data (and thus avoid the danger of representing a higher precision than is justified by the historical resource).

The main difficulties are:

Accuracy and precision of the spatial information: The location isn’t just one clearly defined place, but e.g. an diffuse area, a vague offset from a named place (‘near Heidelberg’) and uncertain due to the credibility of the source itself (e.g. a forged medieval document). (Hill 2006).
Accuracy and precision of the resolution of the temporal ranges: the ‘temporal footprint’: the beginning and ending dates are always of a certain fuzziness. The resolution of the dates found in historical sources varies widely, e.g. the RI on when Friedrich II. stayed in a place varies from an exact day (16.3.1217) to the notion of a year (1217) without any further information. (Hill 2006).
implementation
As a first approach we implemented a system that consists of an extract transform and load pipeline (ETL) and a PostgreSQL/PostGIS database with a simple star-schema (see Figure 1). In the dimension tables we store place names, person names, dates and geographic coordinates. Places and dates of issue are being extracted from the XML documents of the RI through Xpath/XQuery queries and stored in the database. In the next step we deploy the GeoTWAIN2 and Nominatim3 web services to geocode the place names. From this we calculate an average traveling distance to derive probable whereabouts of unknown places or places that do not exist anymore. This narrows down the area for a manual search and additionally allows to disambiguate and geocode cases where more than one result was received from the web services.

Figure 1Figure 1: Workflow and system implementation (Source: compiled by the author)
future work
One focus of future work lies in the field of text mining and Geographic Information Retrieval (Feldman 2007; Leidner 2007). It can be assumed that the language used in the documents correlates highly with the age of the documents. The system allows to automatically annotate the  place names and person names mentioned in the documents through the connection of the different datasets of the RI. The annotated documents can be used as training and test data which can be applied for a supervised machine learning approach in order to find regularities in the documents. Due to the sequential properties of the data, a dynamic Bayesian model such as state-of-the-art Hidden Markov Models (Baum 1966) or Conditional Random Fields (Lafferty 2001) will be considered for learning.

references
Appadurai, A. (2011). How Histories make Geographies. Transcultural Studies 1. http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/ojs/index.php/transcultural/article/view/6129 (accessed 28.10.2011).

Baum, L. E., and T. Petrie (1966). Statistical inference for probabilistic functions of finite state markov chains. The Annals of Mathematical Statistics 37(6): 1554-1563.

Döring, J., and T. Thielmann, eds. (2009). Spatial Turn: Das Raumparadigma in den Kultur- und Sozialwissenschaften. 2nd ed. Bielefeld: Transcript.

Feldman, R. (2007). The text mining handbook – advanced approaches in analyzing unstructured data. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.

Hill, L. L. (2006). Georeferencing: The Geographic Associations of Information. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 85-88.

Knowles, A. K., A. Hillier, and R. Balstad (2008). Conclusion: An Agenda for Historical GIS. In: A. K. Knowles and A. Hillier (eds.), Placing History. How Maps, Spatial Data, and GIS are Changing Historical Scholarship. Redlands, CA.: ESRI Press, pp. 267-274.

Lafferty, J., A. McCallum, and F. Pereira (2001). Conditional ramdom fields: Probabilistic models for segmentation and labeling sequence data. ICML, Proceedings of International Conference on Machine Learning, pp. 282-289.

Leidner, J. (2007). Toponym Resolution in Text: Annotation, Evaluation and Applications of Spatial Grounding of Place Names. Ph.D thesis, School of Informatics, University of Edinburgh, Scotland.

Owens, J. B. (2007). Toward a Geographically-Integrated, Connected World History: Employing Geographic Information Systems (GIS). History Compass 5(6): 2014-2040.

White, R. (2010). What is Spatial History? Spatial History Lab: Working paper. http://www.stanford.edu/group/spatialhistory/cgi-bin/site/pub.php?id=29  (accessed 29.12.2011).

notes
1.http://www.regesta-imperii.de (accessed 20.01.2012).

2.http://geotwain.uni-hd.de (accessed 01.11.2011).

3.http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Nominatim (accessed 01.11.2011). (accessed 01.11.2011).","txt","2","",""
"1562","13","Realigning Digital Humanities Training: The Praxis Program at the Scholars' Lab","2","Realigning Digital Humanities Training: The Praxis Program at the Scholars’ Lab
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XML
Boggs, Jeremy, University of Virginia, USA, jkb2b@virginia.edu
Nowviskie, Bethany, University of Virginia, USA, bethany@virginia.edu
Gil, Alexander, University of Virginia, USA, colibri.alex@gmail.com
Johnson, Eric, University of Virginia, USA, ej9k@virginia.edu
Lestock, Brooke, University of Virginia, USA, bnl2ja@virginia.edu
Storti, Sarah, University of Virginia, USA, sas3ca@virginia.edu
Swafford, Joanna, University of Virginia, USA, jes8zv@virginia.edu
Praxis Program Collaborators, University of Virginia, USA, praxis2011@collab.itc.virginia.edu
In September 2011, the Scholars’ Lab at the University of Virginia Library began the Praxis Program, an extra-curricular experiment at realigning graduate methodological training with the demands of the humanities in the digital age. The Praxis Program funds six humanities graduate students from a variety of disciplines to apprentice in the Scholars’ Lab, receiving methodological training and collaborating on a shared digital humanities project for a full academic year. Our goal is to equip knowledge workers for emerging faculty positions or alternative academic careers at a moment in which new questions can be asked and new systems built – and along the way to analyze the role of library- and center-based practicum programs in the larger scene of digital humanities training.

This poster details the results of the pilot year of the Praxis Program, and explores approaches for developing and expanding the program.

background and goals
The Praxis Program represents a continuation of what John Unsworth (1999) dubbed ‘the library as laboratory.’ Because the Praxis Program is centered in a library-based digital humanities shop, the possibilities for exploring iterative, interdisciplinary processes in digital humanities training are greatly enhanced. The program builds on five years of experience with 20 interdisciplinary Graduate Fellows in a digital humanities fellowship program at the Scholars’ Lab. The staff involved in the Praxis Program comes from a variety of humanities backgrounds and library departments.

approaches
Our goal is to address methodological training in the humanities not just through workshops and courses, but by involving graduate students in digital projects from the ground up. The primary task of the 2011–12 Praxis Fellows is to build Prism, a web-based tool for ‘crowdsourcing interpretation’ of texts and images. For Praxis, this means learning by working with faculty, staff, and fellow students as colleagues, with all that entails: paying attention both to vision and detail; building facility with new techniques and languages not just as an academic exercise, but of necessity, and in the most pragmatic framework imaginable; acquiring the softer skills of collaboration (sadly, an undiscovered country in humanities graduate education) and of leadership (that is, of credible expertise, self-governance, and effective project management). All this also involves learning to iterate and to compromise – and when to stop and ship. In fact, collaboration and collective ownership of the work in Praxis Program is so important, the group’s first task was to compose and publish a project charter, influenced by the work of Ruecker and Radzikowska (2004) and Siemens et al. (2009).

The curriculum for the Praxis Program is evolving and iterative, and draws on staff knowledge while adapting to the changing needs of a project actually in development. Over the course of the academic year, the program will cover a variety of topics: evaluating peer work in DH; programming and open source software development; prototyping, wireframing, and user experience design; HTML and CSS; database design; project management; and budget and grants management.

results and continued development
Because Praxis Program participants value publicly sharing ongoing research, our project blog is highly active, and representative of both the successes and anxieties of open collaboration. By the end of the first year, the Praxis Program team will create and release a working version of Prism for public use and critique, and work on publishing the results of their research.

Recognizing that methodological training in the digital humanities is often absent or catch-as-catch-can at the graduate level, we are using the Praxis Program to experiment with an action-oriented curriculum live and in public, hoping to attract local allies as well as partners in labs and centers at other institutions (which could, in future, work as nodes in a larger Praxis Program network).

Above all, we want to situate our contribution to methodological training within a larger debate about the changing demands of the humanities in a digital age. To that end, we are partnering with the Scholarly Communication Institute in fostering conversation about methodological training in the digital humanities with professional societies, consortia of digital and traditional humanities centers, and other library- and center-based programs.


 

references
Gessner, G. C., E. J. Damon, J. Rutner, and K. Tancheva (2011). Supporting Humanities Doctoral Student Success: A Collaborative Project between Cornell University Library and Columbia University Libraries. CLIR Report, October 2011. Available: http://www.clir.org/pubs/ruminations/02cornellcolumbia/report.html

Leon, S. Project Management for Humanists: Preparing Future Primary Investigators. In B. Nowviskie (ed.),  #alt-academy. Available: http://mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/alt-ac/pieces/project-management-humanists

Nowviskie, B. (2011). Where Credit is Due. May 31, 2011. Available: http://nowviskie.org/2011/where-credit-is-due/

The Praxis Program. University of Virginia Library’s Scholars’ Lab. Available: http://praxis.scholarslab.org

Ramsay, St. Care of the Soul. October 8, 2012. Available: http://lenz.unl.edu/papers/2010/10/08/care-of-the-soul.html

Ruecker, S., and M. Radzikowska (2004). The Iterative Design of a Project Charter for Interdisciplinary Research. Available: http://mtroyal.academia.edu/MilenaRadzikowska/Papers/326958/The_Iterative_Design_of_a_Project_Charter_for_Interdisciplinary_Research

Scholarly Communication Institute. New-Model Scholarly Communication: Road Map for Change. Available: http://www.uvasci.org/current-institute/sci-9-report/

Siemens, L., et al. (2009). INKE Administrative Structure, Omnibus Document. Available: http://journals.uvic.ca/index.php/INKE/article/view/546/245

Unsworth, J. (1999). The Library as Laboratory. Presentation at the Annual Meeting of the American Library Association, 1999. Available: http://www3.isrl.illinois.edu/~unsworth/ala99.htm","txt","2","",""
"1563","13","Semantically connecting text fragments - Text-Text-Link-Editor","2","Semantically connecting text fragments – Text-Text-Link-Editor
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Selig, Thomas, Fachhochschule Worms, Germany, selig@ztt.fh-worms.de
Küster, Marc W., Fachhochschule Worms, Germany, kuester@fh-worms.de
Conner, Eric Sean, Fachhochschule Worms, Germany, conner@fh-worms.de
Text-Text-Link-Editor (TTLE) is a tool designed to allow researchers to link arbitrary text fragments across document boundaries. The tool’s architecture was developed with the goal of creating a generic, easy to use tool that can support various disciplines of text research, e.g. for annotating texts or to present an original text together with its translation.

TTLE is developed as part of the TextGrid project and will be integrated in the TextGridLab. Being part of TextGridLab allows TTLE to benefit from the advantages TextGrid offers like user management, storage, search tool and metadata.

The authors are currently not aware of existing tools with a similar set of functionalities as those planned for TTLE. They do, however, closely collaborate in the development with Centre for e-Research (CeRch) at King’s College London, to maximize synergy. They would also be interested in learning about possible other work on similar tools currently ongoing.

Due to scholars usually having different access privileges to various documents they want to work with, TTLE will offer three ways to select text fragments, depending on the accessibility of the source document. If the source document is writable for the user, corresponding tags to mark start and end of a selection will be inserted into the document. If a document is immutable for all users, a document-offset for start and end of the selection will be calculated, this also allows the selection of any text fragment.

Figure 1
Documents that are read only to the TTLE-user but are writable for other users are more difficult to handle. If tags in such documents have unique identifiers, those can be targeted as selection for TTLE. If no unique identifiers are available or do not match the selector’s needs a copy of the document can be created for the TTLE-user. This selection mechanism still requires TTLE to validate all links on a regular basis, as any writable document can be changed and so can be linked text fragments. TTLE will therefore keep hash sums of all text fragments that are referenced by links and inform the user of any changes.

Any number of text fragments can be linked together. These links can be either free form or can be assigned specific types. These link types are pre-defined and belong to a specific person, who can share these types with selected projects. The personalization of link types automatically hides all link types created by other people. This will prevent the user from being confused by hundreds of similar link types. Also, this concept enables working groups to use the same link types without requiring everyone to create their own set. Text can be added to every link. As free form link types do not define any specifications, only a single text block can be added to each link of type free form. Pre-defined link types instead can carry an XML schema fragment, which then has to validate against the text attached to any link of that specific type. Due to the nature of TextGrid as a distributed, collaborative system all link types are stored in a centralized triple-store and are exposed to the web through open interfaces. Additionally, this online storage makes it very easy to assigned groups of link types to specific projects the owner wants to share them with. For future stages of the project an enhancement for handling link types is foreseen. Plans are: grouping link types together, handing over link type groups to other people and making link type groups publicly available to form a text linking community. These future plans will be kept in mind while implementing the current stage.

As mentioned earlier, any text fragments can be linked together. But additionally other targets can be included in a link as well. One possible target is an external URI. This allows to reference sources not directly accessible to TTLE. But additionally this allows to include non text objects into links, for example references to persons, e.g. using their FOAF (http://www.foaf-project.org/)  or dbpedia (http://dbpedia.org/) identifiers. Identical URIs are treated as identical objects by TTLE. Another possible target for a link is another link. This allows grouping links and commenting link groups. For example you can create multiple links in multiple versions of a document showing that part a is followed by part b and then create a link referring all the links of all the documents showing that part a always comes before part b except in document version x. Links to a single target are also possible, offering an easy way to comment text passages when using the free form link type.

All links created will be stored in a specific link document. This document is a TEI compliant XML file. Each link target will be represented there together with a locator specifying the selected text depending on the chosen selection method (see above). Also information about the link type and the additional data required by the link type will be stored in this file. To be more useful to working groups, information about the user who created a link and the user who last changed a link will also be stored here. To ensure easy access to linked data, the links stored in a TTLE-file will be sortable by link types and target documents.

Figure 2
To work with linked texts, TTLE will offer different views, always directly comparing two documents in two viewports. If more than two documents form a link, each of these documents can easily be selected and made visible in one of the two viewports. At a later stage of the project plans are to use a customly defined XSL-transformation to even more adapt the displayed data to the needs of the researcher.

TTLE is developed with open interfaces in mind. One such interface enables other applications to propose links for specific documents. To demonstrate this, a separate webservice will also be implemented, which scans specified documents for similar text fragments and returns a link proposal to TTLE offering to link the text passages found to be similar.

Several prototypic implementations have been created to aid the selection of the best suited technology for this project. A web based solution has been found to be best fit. This web application will be integrated into TextGridLab using the Eclipse browser component, combining the utilization of all existing TextGrid tools, with the rendering capabilities of modern browsers and ease of maintenance of a web deployable application. Basic functionality is currently implemented and a working prototype of the application is expected for May 2012.

Plans to enhance TTLE even further after May 2012 have already been made. The following features were identified as particularly important and, subject to funding, are foreseen to be implemented starting June 2012:

Scientists often present the results of their research on their own web portal. To easily integrate the TTLE-results stored in TextGrid into these portals, an API which allows external applications to directly access links and the linked text fragments would be useful. This can either be done by export functionality within the TextGridLab or by offering a web service interface to access the data stored in the Grid.
Map like visualization of all linked documents in a project can give a good overview of the whole project, while displaying all documents of a specific link type can offer a very good view of a document’s development. Both types of visualization would be important to be supported in TTLE.
Predefined link types are an essential element of TTLE. Having a comfortable editor for managing these link types would be helpful. Important functionality would be: grouping link types together, offering link types and type groups to other people, making link types and type groups publicly available, allowing modifications to link types which are in use and transforming specific link types into others.","txt","2","",""
"1564","13","Storage Infrastructure of the Virtual Scriptorium St. Matthias","2","Storage Infrastructure of the Virtual Scriptorium St. Matthias
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XML
Vanscheidt, Philipp, University of Trier, Germany, pvanscheidt@uni-trier.de
Rapp, Andrea, Darmstadt University of Technology, Germany, rapp@linglit.tu-darmstadt.de
Tonne, Danah, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany, danah.tonne@kit.edu
dariah
DARIAH aims to support and enhance digitally-enabled research across the arts and humanities and builds and maintains a research infrastructure for the wider digital humanities community. The project is based on national contributions whereat this paper emerges from the German part DARIAH-DE (DARIAH-EU 2012; DARIAH-DE 2012). In order to develop adequate strategies it is necessary to orientate on existing projects in the humanities. For this reason contact was established with the ‘Virtual Scriptorium St. Matthias’. Interdisciplinary collaboration like this can work both ways: genuine questions of research within humanities regarding duration and change of cultural and medial identities can get new impulses and possibilities through the representation of analog artifacts in the digital medium and projects in the humanities can learn to define their technical requirements in a more precise way to get fit and proper solutions.

virtual scriptorium st. matthias
The ‘Virtual Scriptorium St. Matthias’ will be an online edition with images of more than 450 medieval codices, mostly written between the eighth and sixteenth century, and a database with information from several manuscript catalogues. Although the supply of the library was dislocated in the time of secularisation most codices remained in the Public Library of Trier and in the library of the Episcopalian Seminary Trier (Becker 1996: 101-103). The latest catalogue of the codices used for the reconstruction can be found in Becker (1996: 66-71, 105-234). The project wants to enable the user to analyse a codex from any place at any time but also to present the codices as an ensemble of medieval writing and reading culture and as an institution of scholarship and knowledge (Embach et al. 2001: 492).

The project is coordinated by the Public Library and Archive of Trier and the Center for Digital Humanities at the University of Trier. It is supported by the German Research Foundation and realised in cooperation with many institutions all over the world that now possess manuscripts from the library and scriptorium of the Benedictine abbey St. Eucharius / St. Matthias in Trier. The digitised content will not only be shown on the project homepage but also on the portals of the TextGrid Repository and Manuscripta mediaevalia (Virtuelles Skriptorium St. Matthias 2011-2012; TextGrid Repository n.d.; Manuscripta Mediaevalia n.d.)

Figure 1
Figure 1: Proposed architecture

supporting storage infrastructure
Requirements for a Storage Infrastructure

Analysing the current digitisation and access process in Trier several requirements can be formulated to design an architecture fitting to the ‘Virtual Scriptorium St. Matthias’. Due to the distributed manuscripts data ingest and access to the storage resource should be possible worldwide. The images ingested should be replicated and their integrity should be checked regularly to ensure a reliable, long-term storage.

Proposed Architecture

To support the ‘Virtual Scriptorium’ an architecture with different locations is proposed as shown in figure 1. The images are produced and ingested into the system in Trier. An automatic replication places a copy in the local data center to ensure the web view currently offered. Another replication process transfers the data to Karlsruhe, where it is securely stored inside the Large Scale Data Facility (Stotzka et al. 2011). Karlsruhe is the coordinating data center and is responsible for the further replications to all remaining locations. With these procedures the actual number of copies depends on the number of attached locations but at least three copies are provided at every time. Although the ingest process described is handled locally, data can be ingested worldwide using the web. For a huge amount of data it is possible to take advantage of a local storage server and connect it to the storage and replication system. Similar procedures can be taken into account for the access as the data is either accessed via web or via a local copy of the data which was replicated from Karlsruhe to the specific location. The replication process itself and the data integrity checks have to be provided by a software for storage virtualisation which is needed because several servers have to be dealt with and which offers the opportunity to extend the system as needed by the users of the ‘Virtual Scriptorium’ by attaching additional servers.

 Figure 2
Figure 2: Implementation of the first iRods zone

Implementation

Although different software solutions are theoretically possible to realise the architecture, iRODS with its overall flexible structure seems to provide the most convenient mechanisms to deal with the humanistic research data of the ‘Virtual Scriptorium St. Matthias’ (iRods 2012). In this implementation two iRODS zones are used to realise a distributed, reliable storage resource. The responsibilities for data inside a zone and for the replications needed are clearly assigned to this specific zone. Additionally the overall performance is improved by using two data bases.

The data is ingested into the ‘DARIAH-Trier’ zone (figure 2) using the iRODS Explorer or the command line tool iCommands with the iRODS specific transfer protocol. The replication to the local data center in Trier resp. to Karlsruhe, which are located outside ‘DARIAH-Trier’, is realised with iRODS rules which are triggered by a data ingest and then activate shell scripts to replicate via scp resp. iCommands.

The replication inside the second zone ‘DARIAH-MUSE’ (figure 3) is also realised with iRODS rules, which copy new data to every server of the zone and synchronises the servers attached. Mean transfer rates of 9 MB/s (30 MB/s, 11 MB/s) could be achieved in the first transfers between Karlsruhe and Trier (Trier and local data center Trier, Trier and Karlsruhe). Access to both zones is possible using various iRODS clients. Additionally to the mechanisms described bit preservation services are executed. An MD5 checksum is computed while uploading a file, stored inside the iRODS system and checked while downloading a file. In Karlsruhe the checksum is recomputed once a month and a corrupted file is replaced with a valid copy if the values mismatch.

Figure 3
Figure 3: Implementation of the second iRODS zone

discussion
An initial implementation was realised with the locations Trier and Karlsruhe and will be extended in the near future. Up to now several codices were successfully ingested and replicated. Because of the humanistic context of this implementation several challenges had to be dealt with. Most of the features are highly automated to be as easy to use as possible for the humanistic researcher. The ‘Virtual Scriptorium St. Matthias’ provides a large amount of files which have to be stored. This issue is faced by using a scalable data management system and by building a distributed system to increase efficiency and reliability. As humanistic researchers rather think in centuries than in years, the system provided has to be longterm available and sustainable. By integration of the implementation to the DARIAH infrastructure this demand is approached but a comprehensive solution is still under research.

Additionally, the architecture has a generic design to be able to provide a storage resource for other humanistic projects as well. This feature is necessary for the infrastructure the DARIAH project aims to build. The implementation described is therefore a basic but nevertheless fundamental component as it ensures preservation on bit level and is a basis for further on-going developments.

Fundings

This work has been supported by DARIAH-DE which is partially funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) under the D-Grid initiative by agreement 01UG1110A-M.

The work has also been supported by the KIT startup budget for the ‘Build-up of an Experimental Research Data Repository (e-Repos)’.

references
Becker, P. (1996). Die Benediktinerabtei St. Eucharius – St. Matthias vor Trier. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter.

DARIAH-DE (2012). Available from: http://www.de.dariah.eu. (Accessed 16 March 2012).

DARIAH-EU (2012). Available from: http://www.dariah.eu (Accessed 16 March 2012).

Embach, M., C. Moulin, and A. Rapp (2011). Die mittelalterliche Bibliothek als digitaler Wissensraum. Zur virtuellen Rekonstruktion der Abteibibliothek von Trier-St. Matthias. In R. Plate, and M. Schubert (eds,), Mittelhochdeutsch. Beiträge zur Überlieferung, Sprache und Literatur. Festschrift für Kurt Gärtner zum 75. Geburtstag. Berlin, Boston: de Gruyter, pp. 486-497.

iRods (2012). Available from: https://www.irods.org/. (Accessed 16 March 2012).

Manuscripta mediaevalia (n.d.) Available from: http://www.manuscripta-mediaevalia.de/. (Accessed 16 March 2012).

Stotzka, R., V. Hartmann, T. Jejkal, M. Sutter, J. van Wezel, M. Hardt, A. Garcia, R. Kupsch, and S. Bourov (2011). Perspective of the Large Scale Data Facility (LSDF) Supporting Nuclear Fusion Applications. Proceedings of the 19th Euromicro International Conference on Parallel, Distributed, and Network-Based Processing (PDP), Ayia Napa: IEEE Press, pp. 373-379.

TextGrid Repository (n.d.) Available from: http://www.textgridrep.de/. (Accessed 16 March 2012).

Virtuelles Skriptorium St. Matthias 2011-2012. Available from: http://www.stmatthias.uni-trier.de. (Accessed 16 March 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1565","13","Supporting the emerging community of MEI: the current landscape of tools for note entry and digital editing","2","Supporting the emerging community of MEI: the current landscape of tools for note entry and digital editing
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Bohl, Benjamin W., Universität Paderborn, Germany, bohl@edirom.de
Röwenstrunk, Daniel, Universität Paderborn, Germany, roewenstrunk@edirom.de
Viglianti, Raffaele, King’s College London, UK, raffaele.viglianti@kcl.ac.uk
introduction
The Music Encoding Initative (MEI), started as a ‘one man show’ at the University of Virginia. Perry Roland first designed an XML based encoding scheme for representing music notation according to principles and concepts that the Text Encoding Initiative was putting into practice for scholarly text encoding (Kepper, 2010). This effort addressed academic encoding approaches since the beginning, thus attracting a group of scholars interested in building a community around the MEI specification. In 2007, the format underwent its first cooperative improvements that added support for medieval notation, editorial interventions, and alignment with facsimile.

These personal initiatives prompted further involvement and soon could be channeled into the formation of a MEI study group in 2009. Since then, institutional support and public funding helped improving MEI. A project funded by the NEH and DFG led to the first community effort by making the first non-beta release of MEI publicly available in May 2010 (Röwenstrunk 2010). To date, the MEI has developed into an open and community-driven effort involving a council, a technical team and a growing user group.

This emerging community intends to improve the involvement of musicology within the Digital Humanities field. With this aim, some members have previously introduced examples of MEI usage to the DH community (see Kepper 2010; Viglianti 2010). Today, MEI’s users are mostly involved in projects that employ the format and/or develop software to support MEI use. This poster intends to demonstrate some of these efforts, particularly concerning the tool support for day-to-day work of the scholar for entering music notation and metadata, creating facsimile alignments and for the production of digital editions.

note entry
Transcribing or entering music notation with a computer is typically a more laborious task than transcribing text; this is because, unlike letters, music symbols themselves require complex codes to be represented. Many machine-readable formats, such as Humdrum or Lilypond, rely on ASCII-based structures which can be more or less intuitive to type. However, the most common note entry is done with WYSIWYG score editors, which allow the transcriber to enter the notation directly on a virtual score.

Note entry also lies at the heart of encoding music documents with MEI; however, encoding music notation in XML immediately poses a problem of overlapping hierarchies, because the score is organized as a grid that represents temporal sequence horizontally (one event comes after the other, such as a sequence of notes) and temporal co-occurrence vertically (events occur at the same time, such as a chord on the piano). The general complexity of music codes and the unavoidable workarounds for dealing with this condition makes hand-encoding a strenuous task.

Given these premises, it is evident that tools are necessary to enter music notation into the MEI format in a more intuitive manner. At this stage of MEI development as a community, there are some options available for simplifying note entry.

1. WYSIWYG score editors. In the past ten years, MusicXML has had outstanding success as an interchange format between different score editors. As a consequence, most specialized software now provide an export to MusicXML. The MEI provides XSLT stylesheets to convert from MusicXML 1.0 and 2.0 to MEI, which makes it possible to use score editors’ exports to be converted into MEI. This, nonetheless, is not necessarily a straight-forward process. Given the graphical, non-linear organization of notation on the page, each score editor can be more or less precise about the graphical positioning of symbols on the page. Symbols such as directions, phrase marks, and dynamics are particularly affected as they can be attached either to a staff, a measure, or a specific event on the staff. These differences are seemingly innocuous to the score editor’s users because their rendition on the page looks the same. However, when moving into a semantic representation system such as MEI, the associations of different symbols and their start/end points matter. Notwithstanding these difficulties, using score editors and MusicXML still simplifies note entry in MEI. Some post-processing, however, is still necessary.

2. MEI-specific score editors. As described above, MEI has existed for more than ten years, but has experienced a considerable community effort only in more recent times. Amongst several uplifting activities, a few focused on the creation of WYSIWYG editors able to export directly into MEI. The TextGrid component MEI Score Editor (MEISE) is the most complete to date.1 Besides exporting notation directly to MEI, it is designed to be able to represent editorial aspects supported by the format, such as variants and alternative readings.

3. XML editors. The first two solutions may be sufficient for most encoding scenarios, especially if MEISE grows to be more comprehensive and/or is followed by other open source efforts for creating MEI exports for more common score editors. It is possible to imagine, however, that MEI will be used for deep-encoding projects, such as critical editions, diplomatic or genetic transcriptions, analyses, etc. For such scenarios, it is debatable that a generic tool would be able to cover all uses. Obtained as an heritage from Text Encoding Initiative, MEI’s flexibility is both a blessing and a curse. It allows one to use the format as a framework within which it is possible to build specific encoding models through customizations; at the same time, though, it makes it impossible to build tools that can cater for all possible declinations of the format.2 Nonetheless, tool development remains an essential component of the MEI’s community efforts; particularly towards building tools tailored to specific tasks or in the form of libraries for manipulating MEI documents.3 Those project that intend to use MEI at its full power, however, will eventually need to resort to the use of XML editors. Editing the XML manually is doable with a little training, but requires some imagination to see the score through the code. Alternatively, one could exploit many modern XML editors’ visual support for text encoding. This is typically done through CSS-based previews that can be edited in real-time. A similar scenario is considerably harder to obtain with music notation; however experimentation is underway.

supporting editorial work
MEI as a format was – amongst other goals – initially intended to ‘represent the common expressive features of traditional facsimile, critical, and performance editions’,4 which opens the way for more and more critical edition projects to describe, preserve and publish their work with MEI.5 Because of the very small or even non existing support of score editors or renderers in the last years, most endeavors to create and publish digital music editions have been based on facsimiles and texts. Other formats could not bridge the gap, because of their limited representation of textual phenomena especially in the fields of editing and transcription.

With the latest possibilities for note entry and score rendering, digital editions are going to reach a higher level of quality. For example, searching and analysing music editions would become possible, similarly to what already happens in digital editions of literature. Moreover, readability and usability would be improved by selectively rendering scores in modern or old notation or in different keys.

The Edirom project started in 2006 with the aim to provide tools for creating and presenting historico-critical music editions. The project was one of the main contributors in moving MEI to a community-driven standard.6 Given the lack of score writers for MEI, the Edirom tools kept using image based presentation techniques. But with emerging tools for MEI, more and more encoded music is being included for different purposes. Recent efforts include a score renderer by Thomas Weber which uses the web standard SVG to enable digital presentations with Edirom tools to show ad hoc generated notation and allow interaction with musical snippets like switching versions or highlighting specific symbols. Eventually, editions will no longer have to be constrained to providing one single edited text for scholars;7 not every uncertainty will have to be resolved; and equitable versions could be presented simultaneously. Hence, the user might have a closer look at the underlying editorial work (see Bohl, Kepper & Röwenstrunk 2011).

In order to provide these functionality and level of knowledge, one needs a detailed encoding of music documents as described above, and a considerable amount of interlinking. Such data may then be used in the Edirom Editor for creating digital music editions. The Editor, for example, provides: a) mechanisms to link structural, musical information (like a movement or measure) to regions on facsimiles; b) functions for formally describing relationships or differences between these music documents. Some of the specific tasks in the workflow of creating digital editions are handled by specific tools outside or included within the Edirom Editor; such as semi-automated recognition of measure positions with Optical Music Recognition techniques or describing the metadata of a document, which is done with a included version of the Metadata Editor and Repository for MEI Data (MerMEId) from the Danish Centre for Music Publication.8

references
Bohl, B. W., J. Kepper, and D. Röwenstrunk (2011). Perspektiven digitaler Editionen aus Sicht des Edirom-Projekts. Die Tonkust 5.

Dabbert, J., and J. Veit (2010). MEISE: an editor for encoded/encoding music. TextGrid Advisory Board Meeting, Detmold. Available at https://www.textgrid.de/fileadmin/TextGrid/konferenzen_vortraege/fachbeirat_0710/meise.pdf (accessed November 2011).

Kepper, J. (2010). A Data Model for Digital Musicology and its Current State – The Music Encoding Initiative. Digital Humanities 2010, London. Available at http://dh2010.cch.kcl.ac.uk/academic-programme/abstracts/papers/html/ab-817.html (accessed November 2011).

Pierazzo, E. (2010). Editorial teamwork in a digital environment: the edition of the correspondence of Giacomo Puccini. Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie 10.

Röwenstrunk, D. (2010). Digital Music Notation Data Model and Prototype Delivery System. Forum Musikbibliothek 31.

Viglianti, R. 2010. Critical Editing of Music in the Digital Medium: an Experiment in MEI. Digital Humanities 2010, London. Available at http://dh2010.cch.kcl.ac.uk/academic-programme/abstracts/papers/html/ab-819.html (accessed November 2011).

notes
1.A first beta release of MEISE is to be made available by the end of 2011.

2.‘[H]umanities data have a very high rate of variation [...], and even when similarities do exist, the differences are important enough to imply that designing tools able to cope with such variety would be a very demanding task’ (Pierazzo 2009).

3.See for example libmei http://ddmal.music.mcgill.ca/libmei

4.http://ddmal.music.mcgill.ca/libmei

5.The german projects OPERA (http://www.opera.adwmainz.de/), Reger-Werkausgabe (RWA, http://www1.karlsruhe.de/Kultur/Max-Reger-Institut/de/rwa.php) and Carl-Maria-von-Weber-Gesamtausgabe (http://www.weber-gesamtausgabe.de) are using the tools provided by the Edirom project.

6.The project organized a conference Digitale Edition zwischen Experiment und Standardisierung, 2007 in Paderborn (Germany), where Perry Roland was invited to present MEI. Later, members of the project co-applied for funding for organizing two more conferences where the MEI council was constituted (see Röwenstrunk 2010).

7.There will probably always be a normalized version of the edition for practical use.

8.http://www.kb.dk/en/kb/nb/mta/dcm/projekter/mermeid.html","txt","2","",""
"1566","13","'Tejiendo la Red HD' - A case study of building a DH network in Mexico","2","‘Tejiendo la Red HD’ – A case study of building a DH network in Mexico
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Galina, Isabel, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico, igalina@unam.mx
Priani, Ernesto, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico, epriani@gmail.com
López, José, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico, josemlv@msn.com
Rivera, Eduardo, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico, eduardo.rivera.sumano@gmail.com
Cruz, Alejandro, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico, alejandro_cruz_cervantes@hotmail.com
introduction
As has been noted previously (Borgman 2009; Friedlander 2009; Presner 2009) Digital Humanities (DH) is becoming an established field. However, one of the remaining challenges is to locate and increase collaboration with new emerging DH communities. At the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) we are working on a) identifying key scholars and projects; b) investigating key local issues in the development of DH projects; c) raising awareness of DH and d) consolidating a community and linking with international DH. Previously we reported (Galina & Priani 2011) on the results from a series of workshops aimed at developing a diagnosis of the DH landscape including the identification of key challenges and issues for the development of projects in order to consolidate and promote DH in the region. An important result of the workshops was the initiative to form a DH community (Red de Humanidades Digitales – RedHD), first in Mexico and then expanding to other Latin American countries. The aim of this poster is to present the multi-faceted approach to DH community building that we are adopting. We will present and discuss the different strategies we have employed and the main challenges encountered. We hope that this model will be useful for other emerging DH communities to build upon.

development of the network
One of the first challenges was moving from a workshop environment to establishing a network of DH practitioners while still remaining a vibrant and participatory group. Although virtual communities can be useful, if not managed appropriately they run the risk of becoming an empty and lifeless virtual space. Although all workshops participants were enthusiastic about promoting DH, in practice we feared that our different disciplines, geographical distance and personal workloads could lead to a weakening of our initiative. Reingold (1993) defines a virtual community as a situation in which ‘people carry on public discussions long enough, with sufficient human feeling, to form webs of personal relationships’. For this we needed to assure that we had good communication channels to talk, organize and work with relevant people on particular topics.

Therefore, one of the first issues was defining who would form part of the network? Following on from the workshops, where we used a very ample definition of DH, we also wanted to make the community as inclusive as possible. University structures can be inflexible, rigid and hierarchical. Many of our workshop participants were not formal employees of the UNAM and we also had participants from other institutions, as well as non academic organizations. Many DH project participants are not established academic members and RedHD should function in such a way as to incorporate this diversity. The second step was to define specific objectives with concrete goals in order to promote meaningful communication of useful information between us. We needed to develop a web based information system that acted as a hub as well as providing information and communication channels.

From the workshops we also defined the initial topics that needed attention:

Information: about digital humanists, digital resources and projects and relevant publications.
Formation of human resources: strategies, guidelines, documentation and other activities that promote the formation of human resources required for the development of DH.
Project evaluation: necessary actions to generate standards, policies and indicators in order to promote the validity of DH projects and lobbying for the recognition of DH as a valid academic field of enquiry.
Information: Initially we defined three different types of information that we wanted to provide through our website: a database of DH practitioners, a catalogue of DH projects and a bibliography of published DH results from a particular DH project. The definition of appropriate XML metadata will be described in more detail at a later date, but for the moment it is important to mention that we wanted the databases to work as a system of information with interconnections. For example, for a DH scholar you can also query all DH projects they have worked on as well as the publications they have, and in the same way a DH project will also list the relevant publication and participants and so forth.

Formation: We found a very limited offer of DH related courses and one of RedHD’s aims is to build upon this. Initially, as means of promoting DH in general, we are working on short introductory type courses (for example, ‘Digital resources and the Humanities’, ‘Introduction to TEI’). This work is leading up to the design of a longer certificate/specialization course1 to be offered at the UNAM beginning of 2012. The aim is that this program will later be developed into a MA course. Human resources can be formed through teaching, but we are also working on the development of documentation, guidelines, publications and other type of support material in Spanish, as there is little available. We published a special issue of Digital Humanities for RDU, a UNAM peer-reviewed, general interest journal (RDU 2011). We are also focusing on the social networking approach for both academic and non-academic audiences. We are also planning a local Digital Humanities conference, the first of its type in the region, in Spring 2012.

Project evaluation: Another key element for the development of DH are the current difficulties involved in the evaluation of research performance of digital humanists as well as the impact and value of DH projects as a research outcome in themselves. One of reasons for this is that evaluation committees do not necessarily have the tools or the know-how to do so. RedHD aims to contribute towards recognition by providing tools and guidelines to help out with this task. This particular type of work requires a more in depth approach and so we have set up a working group that includes face to face meetings. The group is currently revising international available guidelines and will work on developing material not only in Spanish, but also adapted to our own particular institutional and funding structures.

discussion
The consolidation of RedHD has been a huge challenge. Although money is a common problem in Humanities, funding has been a particular ordeal for us. The development of the website, which is the core infrastructure for our network, has consequently been slow. We depend heavily on student work. Long term funding is an issue that we have not yet addressed. In this sense, the registry of DH projects in particular, is a concern. The discontinuation of AHDS, Intute and similar DH resource discovery systems is a negative sign. However, it also presents an opportunity for us to learn from previous initiatives and focus on different approaches to long term sustainability. Initial ideas are linked to our grass root development and working in partnership with libraries (Galina 2011).

In terms of numbers the RedHD has grown little since the workshops. We have not actively sought new members in part due to the delays in the development of our website. The digital humanist registry database is fundamental to our growth as a community and the system must be stable before we encourage new partnerships. However, already there has been a lot of interest and once established we believe that the community will grow rapidly.

We also want to focus on connecting with the international DH community from whom we have had a lot of interest and support. Both DH11 and DH12 have made specific references to emerging digital communities in their call for participation. However, involvement is still low. This could be due to a number of reasons. One is that we are still building momentum. Another factor may be language, as English is the main discourse for publication and participating in DH. It is possible that increased professionalization of the DH field will result in more English speaking members. However, we also we want to focus on Spanish documentation and projects as well. Organizing local, regional and Latin American events will be vital part of our work.

conclusions
There is still a lot of work to do towards consolidating and more importantly maintaining RedHD. Ideally the network will move from being based on enthusiastic individuals to being incorporated into institutional frameworks. Institutional recognition and backing would support long term sustainability. Ideally this network will promote the establishment of DH centres, postgraduate courses, journals, established working groups and other types of academic endeavor. RedHD for the moment works as a proof of concept allowing us to advance towards the next phases.

references
Borgman, C. (2009). The Digital Future is Now: A Call to Action for the Humanities. DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly 3(4).
Friedlander, A. (2008). Asking Research Questions and Building a Research Agenda for Digital Scholarship. In Working Together or Apart: Promoting the Next Generation of Digital Scholarship http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub145/pub145.pdf.

Galina, I. (2011). El papel de las bibliotecas en las Humanidades Digitales, 77th IFLA General Conference and Assembly, San Juan, Puerto Rico. 13-18 August 2011 http://conference.ifla.org/past/ifla77/104-russell-en.pdf.

Galina, I., and E. Priani (2011). Is There Anybody Out There? Discovering New DH Practitioners in other Countries. Digital Humanities 2011, Conference abstracts. Stanford 2011, pp. 135-138

Revista Digital Universitaria-RDU (2011). Las Humanidades Digitales, Special Issue 12(7) http://www.revista.unam.mx/vol.12/num7/art68/index.html.

Rheingold, H. (1993). The Virtual Community. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.

Presner, T.,  and C. Johanson (2009). The Promise of Digital Humanities. UCLA.

notes
1.Known as diplomado this type of academic course is highly specialized and most cover a minimum of 120 hours.","txt","2","",""
"1567","13","TextGrid Repository - Supporting the Data Curation Needs of Humanities Researchers","2","TextGrid Repository – Supporting the Data Curation Needs of Humanities Researchers
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Lohmeier, Felix, Goettingen State and University Library, Germany, lohmeier@sub.uni-goettingen.de
Veentjer, Ubbo, Goettingen State and University Library, Germany, veentjer@sub.uni-goettingen.de
Smith, Kathleen M., Goettingen State and University Library, Germany, smith@sub.uni-goettingen.de
Söring, Sibylle, Goettingen State and University Library, Germany, soering@sub.uni-goettingen.de
This poster will show how the TextGrid Repository assists researchers in the curation of their data and how they can make the data available with TextGrid tools to foster scientific re-use. The increasing importance of digitally-aided research methods has caused exponential growth in the creation of research data. New research methods and collaborative ways of using data sets require sophisticated research infrastructures to support researchers in the Digital Humanities and to enable the re-use of existing data. Data curation must be included in the planning stage as a fundamental requirement for all projects dealing with sustainable data. Therefore, this poster will present an overview of the technical infrastructure and the applicability of the TextGrid Repository for humanities researchers.

The TextGrid Virtual Research Environment (VRE), funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, provides tools, data and services in one integrated interface and supports the long-term archiving and management of research data. It provides a platform for researchers in the Arts and Humanities to curate their data that reflects universally-recognized best practices and standards. TextGrid consists of two main components: the TextGrid Laboratory (TextGridLab), the entry point to the VRE, and the TextGrid Repository (TextGridRep), a long-term humanities data archive. To preserve and maintain research data and ensure its long-term viability, current research practices in all stages of the research lifecycle must be supported. Therefore, the TextGridLab provides common functionalities in a sustainable environment to facilitate the re-use of data, services, and tools, and the TextGridRep enables researchers to publish and share their data in a way that supports long-term availability and re-usability. Rather than acquiring the technical knowledge necessary for data curation themselves, researchers can make use of services and guidelines for long-term data accessibility and sustainability during the initial planning stages of their projects through the TextGrid VRE.

After five years of research and development, TextGrid released a stable, operational version 1.0 in July 2011 and will release a version 2.0 in May 2012.1 The value of this project is demonstrated by the fact that there are already eight long-term research groups actively using the TextGrid virtual research environment for the creation of scholarly editions, for the analysis of humanities research data, as a basis for the development of project-specific tools for specialized analysis and visualization, and for long-term digital archiving and facilitating world-wide access to research data for the scientific community. (In addition to these established research projects, as of February 2012 there were concrete requests from 18 additional research groups about how TextGrid can be integrated into their projects.) These projects deal with large amounts of humanities data that require specialized tools to reflect individualized requirements. To name a few examples:

The project Blumenbach-Online (State and University Library, Göttingen) is producing an online resource providing access to the writings and collections of the German physician and anthropologist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752-1840), in addition to secondary literature resources.2
The project ‘Hybrid-Edition von Theodor Fontanes Notizbüchern’ (University of Göttingen) is creating a critical annotated edition of 67 notebooks from the German writer Theodor Fontane (1819-1898).3
The Virtuelles Skriptorium St. Matthias (University of Trier / City Library Trier / Technical University Darmstadt) is developing a virtual reconstruction of the medieval manuscript collection of St. Matthias.4
The Deutsches Literaturarchiv Marbach is creating an online edition of the letters of Ernst Kantorowicz, a german-jewish historian (1895-1963).5
These projects create significant amounts of data during the research process that require curation. This poster will show how the TextGridRep assists researchers in the curation of their data and in ensuring persistent access to data with TextGrid tools to support scientific re-use.

The first section of the poster will give an overview of the technical functionalities and infrastructure of the TextGridRep, which has been fully operational since July 2011. The TextGridRep provides a repository infrastructure based on grid technology. Researchers can decide how and with whom their data will be shared by using the detailed rights management module. Findings and research data can be published directly from the TextGridLab in the repository via a publishing process that guides researchers in preparing the data for long-term accessibility. The middleware consists of various components for handling files in the data grid, rights management in a role-based access control-enabled database, metadata in an XML database, and relations in a Resource Description Framework (RDF) triple store. On a basic level, TextGrid will offer bitstream preservation with redundant grid storage and tape backup for 10 years (as recommended in the guidelines of the German Research Foundation).6 TextGrid developed its own metadata schema, especially suitable for digital editions, that supports different layers in its object model (item, work, edition, and collection).

When researchers publish their research data via the TextGridLab in the repository, the metadata provided will be automatically validated. The system validates against the TextGrid object model and checks if obligatory metadata fields like rights owner and license are well defined. In the next step, persistent identifiers are allocated by using a reliable handle service that is provided by the center  for scientific data processing in Göttingen, GWDG, which is a main developing partner in the European Persistent Identifier Consortium and functions as the computer centre for the Max Planck Society. As part of the publishing process, the data will be frozen and moved to a storage cluster used for long-term preservation. If researchers want to update their data, they can copy it to their workspace, correct or further annotate the data, and publish the data as a new revision that is linked to the old revision. Both revisions will be available but the newer one will be more prominent in search results. The grid storage for the humanities and all connected resources are maintained together with those from the other academic disciplines at the common Grid Resource Centre in Göttingen (which has allotted 275 terabytes for the humanities).

The second section of the poster will show how researchers can make their data available with the TextGrid Repository. There are currently three different ways for research groups to enable access to their data in the repository:

1) All published data is available via the TextGridRep portal, which is already in place. It enables rapid searching with both simple and advanced search capabilities, in addition to the option of browsing repository content, across public research data with fulltext and metadata indexes.7 Complex editions can be browsed according to the TextGrid object model (see above) and predefined XSLT stylesheets provide HTML representations of TEI documents. Links between texts and images, such as those created in the TextGridLab interface, will be displayed in a synoptical view in a future version of the portal.

2) Research groups who create a digital edition often want to present their data in their own portal with specific graphics, labels, and predefined browse and search options. Therefore, an open REST interface for individual portal solutions is provided so that research groups may provide specific elaborated access to their research collections with common technologies like Javascript, CSS, HTML.

3) Research groups who want to provide complex customized visualizations and complex project-specific search queries for their digital editions often use their own database for their project that is not connected to any long-term archiving solutions. We are developing a straightforward and easy way to sync the data stored in the TextGridRep (for long-term access) with a project-specific XML database (for the project-specific representation of the digital edition). A prototype is already in place that enables users to publish data from the TextGridRep to any eXist database with drag & drop functionality. Users can continuously test the representation of their XML data (e.g., TEI-formatted) in their own environment while they are still working on the digital edition with TextGrid. This allows research projects to annotate their data and develop the representation with XSLT and XQuery scripts at the same time. They can also easily publish new revisions of their data through TextGrid in the TextGridRep as well as in their own environments. TextGrid will provide a TextGrid-specific XQuery-module for the eXist XML database via the newly announced eXist AppRepository.8 Users who install this module will be able to enhance their eXist environment to interface with the TextGrid metadata schema. To provide an out-of-the-box solution for the representation of a digital edition, TextGrid collaborates with the TELOTA working group at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Science and Humanities to use their publishing framework Scalable Architecture for Digital Editions (SADE).9

XML technologies like XQuery and XSLT support the representation of digital editions using a common standard that promotes long-term reusability of and reliable access to research data. Therefore TextGrid facilitates the publication of digital editions in ways that are both easy to use and encourage the use of established best practices.

TextGrid maintains a strong network with other professional associations and eHumanities centres as well as with research infrastructure initatives and projects both nationally (DARIAH-DE,10 eAqua,11 D-Spin12) and internationally (DARIAH-EU,13 CLARIN,14 Bamboo15) with the aim to support the establishment of a comprehensive overall research infrastructure for the eHumanities.

Funding

The initial funding phase by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) lasted from February 2006 to May 2009 (BMBF reference number 07TG01A-H). The second funding phase covered the period from 1 June 2009 to 31 May 2012 (BMBF reference number: 01UG0901A).

notes
1.TextGrid v1.0: http://www.textgrid.de/1-0.html

2.Blumenbach-Online: http://www.blumenbach-online.de

3.Hybrid-Edition von Theodor Fontanes Notizbüchern: http://www.uni-goettingen.de/de/303691.html

4.Virtuelles Skriptorium St. Matthias: http://kompetenzzentrum.uni-trier.de/projekte/kernprojekte/virtuelles-skriptorium

5.Edition Ernst H. Kantorowicz: http://www.dla-marbach.de/dla/entwicklung/projekte/edition_ernst_h_kantorowicz/index.html

6.Proposals for Safeguarding Good Scientific Practice: http://www.dfg.de/download/pdf/foerderung/rechtliche_rahmenbedingungen/gute_wissenschaftliche_praxis/self_regulation_98.pdf

7.TextGridRep Portal: http://www.textgridrep.de

8.eXist AppRepository: http://atomic.exist-db.org/blogs/eXist/AppRepository

9.Scalable Architecture for Digital Editions (SADE): http://www.bbaw.de/telota/sade

10.DARIAH-DE: DARIAH-DE: http://de.dariah.eu

11.eAqua: eAqua: http://www.eaqua.net

12.D-Spin: http://weblicht.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de

13.DARIAH-EU: http://www.dariah.eu

14.CLARIN: http://www.clarin.eu

15.Bamboo: http://www.projectbamboo.org","txt","2","",""
"1568","13","The Academy's Digital Store of Knowledge","2","The Academy’s Digital Store of Knowledge
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Czmiel, Alexander, Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Germany, czmiel@bbaw.de
Jürgens, Marco, Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Germany, juergens@bbaw.de
introduction
The construction of the Digital Knowledge-Store intends to collect and bundle all digital resources of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities (BBAW)1. It extends the existing infrastructure for publishing Digital Humanities knowledge resources in order to increase the visibility of the Academy’s research activities in the World Wide Web.

The BBAW is an institution with a long tradition in humanities research. It hosts various humanities long-term projects, which also do research on textual resources in many different languages from all over the world and any historic period. These projects generate research results that are also published digitally and include a variety of different resource types ranging from digital and interactive scholarly editions over collections of databases and images to multimedia content. These digital resources are unique and contain high quality content, for example, digital publications of medieval charters, ancient inscriptions, stained glass studies, manuscripts and much more. The variety of research content and data formats lead to the desire to build a centralized access point to all digital resources of the BBAW.

During the last decade the BBAW was deeply involved in the development of methods, tools, publications and frameworks of digital media and digital resources for scholars in the humanities. With the foundation of the TELOTA2 (The Electronic Life Of The Academy) working group ten years ago, the Academy became an active part of the ongoing research and development in the field of Digital Humanities. The main tasks of TELOTA are to evaluate and discuss the possibilities that digital technologies offer scholars working at the academy, and to develop tools and digital resources in close collaboration with the Academy’s numerous research projects. Hence TELOTA is also responsible for the development of the Digital Knowledge-Store.

The proposed paper will present the Digital Knowledge-Store of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and show possibilities and methods in the development of an interdisciplinary virtual research environment containing a high diversity of content, languages, data formats and objects.

the digital knowledge store of the academy
The work on the Digital Knowledge-Store was started in 2009 by the TELOTA working group of the Academy. During the current project phase, which started in September 2011 and is funded for three years by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation)3, it will be improved with extended metadata for better interoperability, a search component based on linguistic methods, and an innovative dialog based user interface. The Knowledge-Store aims to be an infrastructure that offers an easy to use but powerful interface, machine readable APIs and web services for translating queries and analyzing multilingual texts. By connecting the resources semantically with the means of linguistic analysis, text mining and semantic web techniques the infrastructure will support interdisciplinary research in- and outside of the Academy.

A dialog-based browsing through the Knowledge-Store

The potential of the Knowledge-Store lies in its way of dealing with the process of searching. One can think of the interface as a way rather to interact with the Knowledge-Store than just a query-answer process. The dialog based retrieval interface, the Knowledge-Browser, is conceptually a completely new development and tries to detach from traditional search interfaces by developing entirely new finding strategies. The Knowledge-Browser can be seen as a tool that enables an interactive step-by-step process of computer aided information retrieval.

A possible scenario would be a researcher who has a question about a certain topic but who does not know the BBAW project which could hold the answer. In that case the Knowledge-Store is the tool to solve this problem. The scholar starts the search with a query on a certain subject. In every following step he will receive qualified links to resources which contain the query term or conceptually related terms out of all the Academy’s digital resources. With every further step the scholar can browse a related term on the basis of the received results in a different context. As the resources will be linked semantically, every step of the query process offers a new query context. Hence the knowledge browsing is an interactive and multilevel process, which makes implicit connections between different internal and external resources explicit.

Rather than just giving the user the possibility to reduce the search results by filtering, as faceted search interfaces do, it extends the result by offering semantic recommendations for data and documents which were not present in the previous search results. On the basis of these connections the user can search overall in projects and even external project resources to find not only the desired answer but the queried term in different contexts and meanings which will lead to more meaningful connections between the research contexts which were not visible before.


 

Challenges and Solutions

The challenges result mainly from the heterogeneous resources which are stored in the various repositories and databases hosted by the BBAW. By defining a metadata scheme for all the different resources in the Academy the Knowledge-Store will provide a basis for the extraction of information by the Knowledge-Browser and a connection to related external projects. This supports interoperability between research data of the BBAW and projects such as Europeana4, Deutsche Digitale Bibliothek5, DARIAH6 or CLARIN7. The existing metadata is based on the Metadata Object Description Schema (MODS)8. It provides the basic information for search criteria and the description of the resource. For extending the metadata the Europeana Data Model (EDM)9 will be used to allow sophisticated connections of various heterogeneous resources. With extended metadata the Digital Knowledge-Store is prepared to provide linked open data to be part of the Web of Data10.

On the level of linguistic analysis an important problem to solve is that the multilingual textual resources in a major part do not follow a normalized orthography or a consistent language space. For the written German language of the 19th century the German Text Archive (DTA)11 and the Digitales Wörterbuch der Deutschen Sprache (DWDS)12 provide appropriate tools for an index based solution. For ancient Greek and Latin texts a cooperation with the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science13 is established to further the integration of the Donatus / Hopper software package14. Donatus is capable of handling texts in Greek and Latin as well as Arabic, German, English, French an others. These services are used for automated lemmatization and stemming as well as text-mining. In combination with Semantic Web technologies such as RDF15 and RDFa16 or ontologies, this results in basic semantic retrieval possibilities which enables the researcher to gain new knowledge by a process of searching in different contexts of the resources.

Additionally the Knowledge-Store aims to make all digital textual resources of the Academy accessible as full texts. Therefore it is important to build up an index which is prepared for a search based on linguistic methods, text mining and semantic information retrieval. This index is prepared using the aforementioned services for a search in corpora of different languages and in historic writings as well. The index uses a Lucene17 / Solr18 – Framework in combination with XQuery and XSLT-scripts to transform XML-Data and to update the index. Furthermore it is intended to integrate a tool which allows querying the full text without background knowledge of a certain language. This would be possible by sending a query via REST to a translation web service endpoint in order to receive a translated search term. There are several possible translation APIs available. Among those are the Microsoft BING Translation API19 and the Google Translate API20 which both provide a translation service that automatically translates text from one language to another.

future prospects
The Knowledge-Store will enable a new way of querying humanities resources. The combination of the Academy’s resources, the Knowledge-Browser and the development of information extraction tools will lead to an infrastructure which allows to put the knowledge of the Academy’s different projects in different contexts. The Knowledge-Store will be build on open source technologies. On the same time it will realize by these means an interoperable infrastructure which can show new possibilities in the usage of Digital Humanities techniques. It guides the humanities scholar to new ways of thinking about the projects contexts by interconnecting and intercontextualizing the research resources in the BBAW. In developing a semantically interlinked base of resources which is capable of gaining knowledge by querying information in various contexts of the Academy’s projects, the Knowledge-Store will serve as a part of the realization of the Web of Data as well as it can be an exemplary project to establish a work flow for the integration of external infrastructure projects into one single endpoint.

A prototype version of the Knowledge-Store which does not include the Knowledge-Browser can be found at http://www.bbaw.de/en/telota/resources/dkb.

A much more developed interface will be available at conference time.

references
Bellamy, C. (2010). What is eResearch in the Arts and Humanities. http://www.craigbellamy.net/2010/04/07/what-is-eresearch-in-the-arts-and-humanities/ (accessed 9 March 2012).

Brock, T. (2010). ReThinking Digital Social Media for Digital Humanities and Community Engagement. http://dirt.terrypbrock.com/?p=1116 (accessed 9 March 2012).

Carusi, A., and T. Reimer (2010). Virtual Research Environment Collaborative Landscape Study. http://www.jisc.ac.uk/publications/reports/2010/vrelandscapestudy.aspx (accessed 9 March 2012).

DINI (2009). Informations- und Kommunikationsstruktur der Zukunft. http://www.dini.de/fileadmin/docs/DINI_thesen.pdf (accessed 9 March 2012).

Dallmeier-Tiessen, S., et al. (2009). Positionspapier Forschungsdaten. Arbeitsgruppe Elektronisches Publizieren. http://edoc.gfz-potsdam.de/gfz/get/13230/0/a271566a9d9f48030ee78e01ceae7138/13230.pdf (accessed 9 March 2012).

Davidson, C. N. (2008). The changing profession – Humanities 2.0: Promise, Perils, Predictions. Publications of the Modern Language Association of America 123(3): 707-717.

De Virgilio, R. (2010). Semantic Web information management: a model-based perspective. Springer.

Heath, T., and C. Bizer (2011). Linked Data: Evolving the Web into a Global Data Space.  San Rafael, CA: Morgan & Claypool.

Key Perspectives Ltd (2010). Data Dimensions. Disciplinary Differences in Research Data Sharing, Reuse and Long term Viability. http://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/1842/3364/1/SCARP SYNTHESIS.pdf (accessed 9 March 2012).

Murray-Rust, P., et al. (2010). Panton Principles. Principles for Open Data in Science. Open Knowledge Foundation. http://pantonprinciples.org/ (accessed 9 March 2012).

Neuroth, H., et al. (2009). Virtuelle Forschungsumgebungen für e-Humanities. Maßnahmen zur optimalen Unterstützung von Forschungsprozessen in den Geisteswissenschaften. Bibliothek, Forschung und Praxis 33(2): 161-169.

Rees, J. (2010). Recommendations for independent scholarly publication of data sets. Creative Commons Working Paper. San Francisco.

Sierman, B., B. Schmidt B., and J. Ludwig (2009). Enhanced Publications: Linking Publications and Research Data in Digital Repositories. http://dare.uva.nl/document/150723 (accessed 9 March 2012).

notes
1.http://www.bbaw.de/en/ (accessed 9 March 2012).

2.http://www.bbaw.de/en/telota (accessed 9 March 2012).

3.http://www.dfg.de/en/ (accessed 9 March 2012).

4.http://www.europeana.eu/portal/ (accessed 9 March 2012).

5.http://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/ (accessed 9 March 2012).

6.http://www.dariah.eu/ (accessed 9 March 2012).

7.http://www.clarin.eu/ (accessed 9 March 2012). (accessed 9 March 2012).

8.http://www.loc.gov/standards/mods/ (accessed 9 March 2012).

9.http://www.europeanaconnect.eu/news.php?area=News&pag=48 (accessed 9 March 2012).

10.http://www.w3.org/standards/semanticweb/data (accessed 9 March 2012).

11.http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/ (accessed 9 March 2012).

12.http://www.dwds.de/ (accessed 9 March 2012).

13.http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/en/ (accessed 9 March 2012).

14.http://archimedes.fas.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/donatus (accessed 9 March 2012).

15.http://www.w3.org/RDF/ (accessed 9 March 2012).

16.http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml-rdfa-primer/ (accessed 9 March 2012).

17.http://lucene.apache.org/java/docs/index.html (accessed 9 March 2012).

18.http://lucene.apache.org/solr/ (accessed 9 March 2012).

19.http://www.microsofttranslator.com/tools/ (accessed 9 March 2012).

20.http://code.google.com/intl/de-DE/apis/language/translate/overview.html (accessed 9 March 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1569","13","The Digital Averroes Research Environment - Semantic Relations in the Editorial Sciences","2","The Digital Averroes Research Environment – Semantic Relations in the Editorial Sciences
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Willems, Florian, University of Cologne, Germany, f.willems@uni-koeln.de
Gärtner, Mattias, University of Cologne, Germany, gaertner@informatik.uni-koeln.de
The Digital Averroes Research Environment aims to provide structured access to the complete oevre of Abū l-Walīd Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Rušd, better known under his latin name Averroes, including scans of thousands of manuscripts, chunked full texts as interim editions of all his works and a comprehensive bibliography of primary and secondary sources. The primary data format is XML as TEI P5, but the complex tradition of Averroes’s body of works necessitates a higher level of abstraction than TEI is able to provide. Consequently, this high level abstraction should pave the way for crosswalks to lower level formats, as FRBRoo and such like will become more and more common.

Averroes himself wrote mostly in Arabic, but nearly all of his works were translated into Hebrew and Latin. As was the case with many medieval manusccripts, scribes often edited the texts they were copying, and, in the case of Averroes, numerous translations were crafted. Sometimes texts were translated from the Arabic original into for example Hebrew, and then, after generations translated back into Arabic. This creates a very inconsistent but very challenging tradition of the works of Averroes. Many of Averroes’s texts also have quite a few witnesses, often numbering in the hundreds, where the TEI doesn’t provide a satisfactory mean to manage that many manuscripts. Semantic interconnection of XML/TEI data to knowledge bases encoded in semantic web technologies may be a solution to that problem.

To this end, the connections between manuscripts, translations, abstract works and traditions have to be modeled as semantic data. Compatibility considerations led to an abstraction of the Europeana Data Model EDM, done in OWL-DL. A possible implementation of the DARE semantic model in CIDOC-CRM is also in the making with the integration of WissKI into our environment. Much work and thought went into the user interfaces, supported by experiments with different types of front ends and different types of users – how should a philologist be able to interface with the semantic data providing the glue between the documents? How should inference engines be used on the data? How will an editor use the manuscripts?

Performance is also in issue in highly interconnected data like that. We will show our backend solution for storage and maintenance of semantic data as well as the implementation of the inference engines. A completely new XML back end, XELETOR, was programmed to serve the sheer amount of XML data in reasonable time. User management and the history of a given triplet is also an issue.

Another challenge is posed by the inherent writing direction of Arabic and Hebrew script. Inputting XML in right-to-left script is tricky, but what about RDF triplets? The on-screen input methods have to be carefully chosen to facilitate bidirectional input. The problem of displaying said information is solved by the DARE, because intelligent usage of CSS- and XSLT properties provides easy display of bidirectional texts.

By using a given standard and giving much thought to interfaces and usability, DARE will have one of the first semantic representations of the complex tradition of one of medieval philosophy’s foremost commentator.

These central questions concerning especially the usability of the interface on the semantic data shall be presented as a demo. Two computers will allow interested parties to try DARE and its semantic technologies out.

All our technology is available as free and open source code.

funding
This work is supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.

references
Hissette, R. (2010). Averroes Latinus. Commentum Medium Super Librum Praedicamentorum Aristotelis. Translation Wilhelmo De Luna Adscripta, ed. by R. Hissette, Arabic-Latin apparatus with notes by A. Bertolacci, glossaries by Hissette & Bertolacci and with † L.J. Bataillon (Averrois Opera. Series B. Averroes latinus 11). Leuven 2010.

Wirmer, D. (2008). Averroes, Über den Intellekt. Auszüge aus seinen drei Kommentaren zu Aristoteles’ De anima. Arabisch – Lateinisch – Deutsch, herausgegeben, übersetzt, eingeleitet und mit Anmerkungen versehen von David Wirmer (Herders Bibliothek der Philosophie des Mittelalters 15). Freiburg 2008.

http://dare.uni-koeln.de

http://wiss-ki.eu/

http://developer.berlios.de/projects/xeletor/","txt","2","",""
"1570","13","The Melesina Trench Project: Markup Vocabularies, Poetics, and Undergraduate Pedagogy","2","The Melesina Trench Project: Markup Vocabularies, Poetics, and Undergraduate Pedagogy
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Singer, Kate, Mount Holyoke College, USA, ksinger@mtholyoke.edu
If we take seriously Stephen Ramsey’s call to arms at the 2010 MLA that Digital Humanities means making something, then it behooves us to teach coding – or other ‘back end’ digital skills – early and often. While many practitioners are focused on creating new courses teaching coding and theory, another important pedagogical approach is to consider how digital ‘poesis’, or making, might change the standard classroom experience. This poster presents some experiments with teaching TEI encoding to upper-level undergraduates at a liberal arts college, specifically in a seminar on women’s poetics in the eighteenth- and nineteenth-centuries. As part of an upper-level undergraduate seminar at Mount Holyoke College, my students set about building a TEI digital edition of Melesina Trench’s long poem ‘Laura’s Dream; or the Moonlanders,’ perhaps the first science fiction text written by a woman in Britain. Since so much of the republication and dissemination of women’s texts from this period occurred through electronic editions and digital scholarship, it seems only right to discuss the ‘radiant textuality’ of these materials.1 One can only properly historicize the last thirty years of research in this field by discussing the ways in which digital encoding has aided and abetted our current thinking about the history and materiality of women’s poetics. While many digital sites were originally built for scholars, it seemed time to consider what kinds of coding and interfaces might work best for students. Most importantly, in a course designed to think carefully about poetic literary terms, TEI seemed like a wonderful way to teach hands-on close reading. Perhaps one of the most interesting and important skills TEI can teach is to help our students become reflective about the various kinds of vocabularies they use to describe texts.

After spending the first few weeks discussing the benefits and problems of several digital editions of women writers, students were taught a series of exercises to learn the basics of encoding. During a two-hour workshop, they were introduced to TEI, especially the difference between html as a formatting language and XML as a descriptive or analytical one. Rather than starting students with the document’s header, they were given a guided tour through it, but spent their time learning the grammar and syntax of line groups and lines, persons and places, figurative strings, and the elements of CSS stylesheets. Students placed in small groups then had a month to tag fifty lines, with the help of a student mentor during lab hours. They were encouraged to use creativity by picking out three or four tropes (figures that repeated throughout the passage). They coded these using seg@ana – the segment element for isolating an arbitrary segment of test of their choice and the @ana type to signal an analytical interpretation of their choice. Finally, students color-coded their mark-up using a CSS stylesheet to visualize their own encoding trends. Two groups of students doubled up on each section of the poem, so that the class could compare two different methods of markup.

In a reflection submitted along with their XML documents, they were asked to describe any especially noteworthy analytical experiences from tagging, any limitations (or frustrations) encountered, and asked to propose possible additions to our tag set. While students readily understood tagging hierarchies, they had a difficult time distinguishing between those proper nouns reserved for <persName> and <placeName> and more generic or figurative people and places, including personifications (e.g., Terror or the Moon). This became an excellent topic for discussion, particularly of Romantic-era poems where real and illusive places tend to intermix. The ambiguity of the seg@ana tagging was likewise initially nebulous to students, but it eventually encouraged them to define what types of repeated figurative language spoke to them, labeling the @ana field (<seg ana=“??”>) with a signifier of their choosing. For example, one group summarized their process this way: ‘The first theme we chose was “decay,” but we had difficulty deciding if that also meant “dirt-related” imagery. We were unable to include as many words as we had initially wanted, so we revised our choices for tags. “Decay” became “morbidity” […] “dirty” became its own tag, and evolved first to “earthy” and then to “earth” so we could include all organic imagery.’ There were also some interesting pleas for more refined tags. One group desired an element for inanimate objects, to parallel the tags for places and people, but almost all groups wanted more granular tags for implied meanings of metaphors and for controversial and debatable topics.

At least three interlocking outcomes suggest how helpful teaching TEI to upper-level undergraduates might be – despite the time-intensive nature of including such a technology in an English seminar. Students not only produced multi-layered, associated observations based on multiple tropes color-coded through a single passage, but they were also quite reflective about the relationship between various elements and figurative trends. In one group’s reflection, for example, the trope of ‘religion is always within a line that is also tagged for emotion or male dominance.’ In larger discussion of this observation, two groups of students had a particularly important debate about the gender differences between ‘spirituality’ and ‘religion’ within a lunar voyage poem, where the main female character Laura dreams that she goes to the moon and falls in love with one of its inhabitants. (See Figures 1 and 2 below.)

Second, and perhaps more important, TEI enabled students to undermine and find vocabularies for formal elements employed by women writers other than the classical rhetoric of figures of speech and figures of thought that still dominate poetic vocabulary in the academy today. Since even the most virtuosic women poets were autodidacts and not classically trained in English public schools, it remains to be seen how some of their more complex formal experimentation can be satisfactorily categorized by such rhetorical figures and forms. TEI – with its ambiguous and flexible vocabulary for poetry – actually allowed students to find larger, more amorphous terms for more organic formal choices in Trench’s poem. By codifying their own vocabularies to isolate and name tropes, students began to consider terminology as descriptive and case-based rather than prescriptive and universal. For example, students decided that the long, multi-lined blocks Trench used in her poems were neither stichic or strophic in quality, but either both or neither. They tended either to decide that the term ‘line group’ gave them more leeway to describe how her units of verse operated or to suggest they needed a new term. This kind of interpretive creativity would not have occurred to them without the problem of trying to figure out TEI’s standards.

Third, the limitations and possibilities of both classical terminology and TEI raised questions about the politics or the ideological traces in both types of categorical vocabularies. Having ‘rediscovered’ women writers in the past twenty years, many Romanticists and Victorianists are now beginning to more closely assess women’s formal experimentation, considering how genre and forms carry with them histories and ideologies.2 While TEI provides both the allure of extensibility, it also provoked particular kinds of observations based on its categories. For example, when discussing the <persName> and <placeName> elements, students felt pressured to locate nameable people and places within the poem and within Trench’s prose writings that we read. They wondered whether the emphasis on person- and place-ographies place a premium on women’s connections to other famous figures and places (such as London or Bath), occluding Trench’s poetic tactics of omitting concrete places while forging intersubjectivities between the ‘moonlanders’ and Laura. They worried that the emphasis on people and places – even imaginary – already framed their ways of looking at a poem for its connections to notable, concrete, and often masculine realities.

These are just a few of the ways in which the TEI terms, culled from many different disciplines, aided a reflective study of poetics and categorical language for younger learners. It likewise provided them with the opportunity to think about creating a scholarly edition by students and for students based on their reading and interpretive inquiries.


Figures 1 and 2
Figures 1 and 2: Two groups’ TEI-encoded markups of the same two stanzas, with figurative tropes and place names

Figure 3
Figure 3: The browser view of figures 1 (left) and 2 (right), using CSS stylesheets. In the left-hand column, green=place; mint green=place with a proper name (<placeName>); red=”ascension”; pink=”spherical”; light blue=”spiritual”; purple=”vision.” In the right-hand column, the color-coding is as follows: green=place; yellow=”male dominance”; lavender=”religion”; plum=”feeling”

references
Blackwell, Ch., and Th. R. Martin (2009). Technology, Collaboration, and Undergraduate Research. Digital Humanities Quarterly 3(1). Accessed February 27, 2011. http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/1/000024/000024.html.

Buzzetti, D., and J. McGann (2006). Critical Editing in a Digital Horizon. In L. Burnard, K. O’Brien O’Keeffe, and J. Unsworth (2006). Electronic Textual Editing. New York: The Modern Language Association of America, pp. 53-73.

Curran, St. (2010). Women Readers, Women Writers. The Cambridge Companion to British Romanticism. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge UP.

Digital Humanities Questions and Answers. ‘Can you do TEI with students, for close reading?’ Association for Computing in the Humanities. Accessed February 27, 2011. http://digitalhumanities.org/answers/topic/tei-encoding-for-close-reading.

Fairer, D. (2009). Organising Poetry: The Coleridge Circle, 1790-1798. New York: Oxford UP.

Flanders, J. (2006). The Women Writers Project: A Digital Anthology. In L. Burnard, K. O’Brien O’Keeffe, and J. Unsworth. Electronic Textual Editing. New York: The Modern Language Association of America, pp. 138-149.

Fraistat, N., and St. Jones (2006). The Poem and the Network: Editing Poetry Electronically. In L. Burnard, K. O’Brien O’Keeffe, and J. Unsworth (2006). Electronic Textual Editing. New York: The Modern Language Association of America, pp. 105-121.

McGann, J. (2004). Marking Texts in Many Dimensions. A Companion to Digital Humanities. Eds. R. Siemens, S. Schreibman, and J. Unsworth. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Accessed February 28, 2011. http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/view?docId=blackwell/9781405103213/9781405103213.xml&chunk.id=ss1-3-4&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ss1-3-4&brand=default.

Piez, W. (2010). Towards Hermeneutic Markup. Digital Humanities 2010 Conference, King’s College London. Accessed February 28, 2011. http://www.piez.org/wendell/papers/dh2010/index.html.

Project Tango. University of Virginia. Accessed February 26, 2011. http://uvatango.wordpress.com/2010/08/28/introducing-project-tango-2/.

Rudy, J. (2009). Electric Meters: Victorian Physiological Poetics. Athens, Ohio: Ohio State UP.

notes
1.See, for example, Jerome McGann’s Radiant Textuality and Julia Flander’s comments on assembling an archive of women’s writing in ‘The Women Writers Project: A Digital Anthology.’

2.This so-called ‘new formalism’ can be seen in monographs on poetry including, to name just a few, Jason Rudy’s Electric Measures, David Fairer’s Organising Poetry or the recent British Women’s Writing Conference panel on ‘Formal Curiosities.’","txt","2","",""
"1571","13","The Musici Database","2","The Musici Database
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Roeder, Torsten, Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Germany, roeder@bbaw.de
Plutte, Christoph, Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Germany, plutte@bbaw.de
about the project
The Musici Database is a research platform that focuses on European musicians who migrated to Italy in the 17th and 18th century. It supports the work of the international research group Musici,1  whose main interest is to compare the cultural impacts and the social roles of foreign musicians in the cities of Rome, Naples and Venice. As the sources on that historical period are dispersed over a number of archives, the researchers decided to share their data on a common platform. For the duration of the project, the Musici Database serves as a research infrastructure, which is intended to be published at the end of the project. The database will contain information on approximately 1,000 persons.

Database Architecture

The database uses an existing repository architecture that provides a broad support of typical research workflows, which can be configured individually. This architecture is known as the Person Data Repository (PDR).2 The aim is to create a musicological database that is fed with data by a number of researchers, and is also capable of interoperating with other data sources (see Roeder 2009). As the quantity of accessible historical data can be critical for the results of the project, it is a main interest to find collaboration partners whose interest is to share research data, helping to enrich the information available to the researchers. The work is facilitated by the client software Archive Editor, which is a substantial element of the PDR.

an approach to digital musicology
The configuration of the Musici Database revealed some data constellations that are typical for the field of digital musicology. Further specialties were accounted for by the focus on migrant biographies. An approach to this was presented by Roeder and Plutte (2010a).

Notation and Performance

The focus on music requires some special information types to be taken into consideration. Usually, music needs to be represented on two different levels: the musical performance, which can be described as the event when one or more musicians produce music; and the composition, usually written in musical notation, which makes it easier to remember and reproduce musical ideas of higher complexity.

Both these forms of musical representation are of relevance for the study of musical biographies. While the written representation is well-preserved in the archives, the performative representation did not exist before the 1860s and can only be reconstructed by coeval descriptions and historical performance practice. As the analysis of musical performance can serve as a key to the social role of music, while the analysis of written music offers insights into creation processes, musical ideas and inspirations, the Musici Database records descriptions of musical events and instruments as well as the various creation levels of compositions from draft to print.

Musical Biographies

Since the project takes biographies of musicians and composers into consideration and compares personal motivations and ethnic backgrounds to social roles they had abroad, a basic question is how musicians integrated their personal background and their expertise in a foreign structure. Minority cultures existed in most Italian cities, thus giving musicians an opportunity to adapt to a familiar local structure and to the individual musical scene of the city. Many musicians did not only work in the field of music, and in some cases, the migrant musicians’ language skills supported second careers in other areas.

The Musici database was prepared to record personal background data and personal relationships as well as itineraries, residences and various occupations; the vocabulary was configured with a broad range of musical professions.

Quantity of Traces

A major challenge of the historical period of 1650-1750 and of the research subject of the Musici project is the relatively little quantity of sources, compared to the 19th and 20th century. Most musicians did not leave many traces on their itineraries, and the available information is more fragmentary. When a person has been identified as musician, sometimes it is not possible to find out his or her name. The Musici Database supports the combination of research data, which helps to identify identical persons by logical comparison of the available information.

Collated Names

Another essential problem is the lack of officially accepted proper names. The German musician Heinrich Schütz was known as Enrico Sagittario in Italy; the settlement of Aachen was known as Aquisgrana; the region of Sachsen was known as Sassonia. Much depended on the language and the cultural background of the writer. The Musici Database collocates various noun forms of the same entity and maintains the original form.

This also meets the requirements of the multilingual research group, where Italian, German and French are the principal languages, and of the final publication of the database, which is also intended to be internationally accessible.

the musici data repository
The PDR architecture, which is used for the Musici Database, provides an environment that allows researchers to store, edit and share information on historical persons. It serves as a platform for both research and publication, and it functions as an infrastructure that is able to interoperate with other data sources.

A Data Model for Historical Persons

The PDR data model is centered on information snippets, which can be connected to corresponding persons and sources. An information snippet contains information on one or more persons, usually one descriptive phrase or a quotation from a source (described in MODS). All information can be marked-up with proper names, keywords and dates.3 It is possible to configure the mark-up vocabulary in different languages, while original text and a language-independent standard form can be maintained.

Adapting the Data Model for Musicians

The PDR data model has proven its capability to meet most of the requirements for the musicological research, as it is well suited to describe both events, seen as information that is connected to all involved persons, and compositions, seen as source objects (see Roeder & Plutte 2010b). However, for the future it might be of interest to extend the data model by other types than persons, in order to describe also places, events and relics in more detail.

project workflow
Client Software

Archive Editor, the client software, is available for different platforms and facilitates the process of data ingestion.4 It is based on Eclipse RCP, which allows extensibility and customization through plug-ins.5 For the multilingual Musici project, localization packages were developed for German, English, French and Italian (presented by Roeder & Plutte 2010b).

Adapted Vocabulary for Musicological Research

To meet the requirements of musicological research, a vast vocabulary of some hundred semantic tags from musical and social history was developed before the researchers started the data ingestion. This project vocabulary was developed by the researchers with Archive Editor. In addition, a number of special source types were defined by the researchers, facilitating the source recording of archive documents like diaries, letters, contracts, bills, drafts, compositions, and etcetera.

Linking to other Resources

Archive Editor allows connecting and uniting data from different projects. The PDR data model utilizes standard identifiers defined by national libraries (PND, ICCU, BNF, LCCN). Data sets bearing the same identifiers can be united by choice. This improves the interrelation of directly and semantically connected personal data inside the Musici Database as well as among other person data repositories or other data sources using the same identifiers and standards.

Data Conversion

During the first phase of the project, a small quantity of data (about 150 musicians) that had already been collected had to be converted to the PDR data format. The project vocabulary was used to enrich the semantic layer of the data. Additionally, some services provided by PDR, like date and place identification tools, were applied during the automatic conversion.6

Database

Standard visualization methods for the repository data are available through the PDR basic infrastructure, although other visualizations need to be developed to meet the interests of the project. These are chronological and geographical views of itineraries and settlements of musicians, as well as social network views of musicians and other social groups, such as clerics or merchants. This could also be achieved collaboratively with other musicological projects.

Interoperation

It is desired to connect the Musici Data Repository to other repositories and databases to exchange data. Contacts have been maintained with French and German musical database projects. The repository can exchange data through RDF and is prepared to be integrated in the Linked Open Data network.

outcome
The results of the Musici Database are twofold. Firstly, an infrastructure for musicological research was created by configuring the PDR system. It became clear that international projects require some special services which probably would not have appeared in a monolingual project. Secondly, a semantically rich database was created, which by its flexible vocabulary allows for structured searches and various forms of visualizations, configurable to correspond directly to specific research questions of the project. It is planned to publish all data together with the research results at the end of the project in December 2012.

Figure 1
Figure 1: The Musici Database

references
Körner, F. (2010). Datenarchäologie und Datenaufbereitung. digiversity, September 30, 2010, http://digiversity.net/2010/datenarchaeologie/.

Plutte, Ch. (2011). Archiv-Editor – Software for Personal Data, TPDL Conference, September 26-28, 2011.

Roeder, T. (2009). Kooperationsmöglichkeiten mit dem Personendaten-Repositorium der BBAW. Berlin: Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, urn:nbn:de:kobv:b4-opus-9231

Roeder, T., and Ch. Plutte (2010a). Un repositorio per i musici stranieri nell‘Italia dal 1650 al 1750. Concezione del database del progetto ANR/DFG. Deutsches Historisches Institut in Rom, January 27, 2010.

Roeder, T., and Ch. Plutte (2010b). Die MUSICI-Datenbank. Personendaten-Repositorium und Archiv-Editor. Jahrestagung der Gesellschaft für Musikforschung, Deutsches Historisches Institut in Rom und Ècole Française de Rome, November 04–05, 2010, http://www.gfm-dhi-rom2010.de/programm/hauptsymposien/hauptsymposium-iii/#AbstractPlutte

Walkowski, N.-O. (2009). Zur Problematik der Strukturierung und Abbildung von Personendaten in digitalen Systemen. Berlin: Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2009, urn:nbn:de:kobv:b4-opus-9221

zur Nieden, G. (2010). Musici. Poster-Präsentation auf dem Workshop ‘Personen – Daten – Repositorien’. Berlin, September 27-29, 2009, http://pdr.bbaw.de/workshop/poster/musici

notes
1.Musici. Europäische Musiker in Venedig, Rom und Neapel (1650-1750). Musik, nationale Identität und kultureller Austausch. http://www.dhi-roma.it/musici.html

2.Personendaten-Repositorium, developed by the Telota initiative of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of sciences and Humanities.http://pdr.bbaw.de

3.The approach of this data model is precisely described in Walkowski (2009)

4.Archive Editor is available for Windows, Mac OS and Linux. http://pdr.bbaw.de/software

5.The software includes a complex help system and a software update mechanism (Plutte 2011). It was extended by a search interface that connects directly to various online research services. Scenarios to integrate the Archive Editor into other research environments through plug-ins are currently being examined.

6.The methodolocigal approach for data conversion was described by Körner (2010).","txt","2","",""
"1572","13","'The Past Is Never Dead. It's Not Even Past': The Challenge of Data Provenance in the e-Humanities","2","‘The Past Is Never Dead. It’s Not Even Past’: The Challenge of Data Provenance in the e-Humanities
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Clark, Ashley M., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA, amclark4@illinois.edu
Holloway, Steven W., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA, hollowa2@illinois.edu
summary
The humanities as a discipline has traditionally exhibited great care in documenting sources and establishing authentic chains of object transmission. Data provenance metadata, however, is rarely curated in digital humanities projects, perhaps due to the lack of interoperable standards for recording data provenance. Recent efforts by the W3C Provenance Working Group to create the PROV-DM (Provenance Data Model) and PROV-ASN (Provenance Abstract Syntax Notation) may answer the requirements of the e-humanist community for such a standard. We examine the provenance capture capabilities of two e-humanities virtual research environments (VRE), TextGrid and Meandre, which also serve as test-beds for PROV-ASN assertions. PROV-ASN provides an interlingua abstract enough to express a common set of data provenance assertions for both software environments. The data for these assertions must be culled manually from various directories and file-types in both TextGrid and Meandre. For data provenance metadata to become as normative a feature of the digital humanities as source provenance is for analog humanities, e-humanities developers need to aggregate provenance metadata, equip it with intuitive visualizations, and render it using interoperable standards capable of transcending a particular VRE or software platform.

data provenance and the humanities
Like the source provenance of art and artifacts, ‘data provenance’ depends upon records to establish a chain of past events which provide context for a digital object at any point in time. However, data provenance traces not ownership changes to a static document, but transformations to a version of a dataset, which then produces further versions. Records of data provenance might then include information on authorship, the name and version of software used to produce transformations, and descriptions of the transformations themselves.

For over fifteen years, the legal, business, computer science, e-science, and e-humanities communities have developed data provenance requirements specific to their disciplines, yet they share a need for interoperable standards. To date, little published research in e-humanities explicitly focuses on data provenance. Paradoxically, humanities scholarship flourishes on traceable reference. Humanities researchers traditionally perform close readings of object relationships, which requires judgments of source trustworthiness, authority, conceptual derivation, and class membership. It is a matter of concern, then, that the humanities, with its native affinity for historical thinking, should find itself unable to migrate provenance documentation methods into the digital realm.

If data provenance is to benefit the humanities, e-humanists must provide coherent metadata about their computing environment, records of state transformation, and file forensics no different than those entailed for e-science validation. Those who view the datasets should also have access to complete provenance information, ideally in human-readable form aggregated as supplemental resources. For this to occur, e-humanities researchers need tools which can either generate such provenance information automatically, or make it easy to manually gather and output. Familiar commercial authoring tools, such as Microsoft Word and Adobe Photoshop, support actionable data provenance (rollbacks to earlier states via the ‘undo’ function), but provide at best meager data provenance in the guise of autonomous metadata, susceptible to extraction and persistent storage. Because they cannot capture data provenance at a high-enough level of abstraction, open-source metadata streams for digital cameras (EXIF) and Adobe software (XMP), useful as they are, cannot serve the e-humanists’ need for interoperable standards.

provenance in e-humanities computing environments
This poster will compare structured provenance metadata in two decidedly different e-humanities computing environments, TextGrid 1.0 and Meandre 1.4.9. By staging an identical literary ‘experiment,’ these tools illustrate typical provenance-capture shortfalls. This poster will also explore the advantages of machine-actionable, interoperable provenance metadata, using the W3C’s PROV-DM standard as a basis for examining the current bedlam of e-humanities data provenance silos.

Meandre

The extensible Meandre software framework is a Java-based, open-source semantic web authoring and publishing tool with heavy emphasis on linguistic annotation and text analytics. The tool is intended to promote rapid software prototyping within two graphical user interfaces, the Meandre Infrastructure and Workbench. Meandre was developed by the Automated Learning Group, National Center for Supercomputing Applications at Urbana-Champaign, as part of an Andrew W. Mellon Foundation-funded text-mining initiative sponsored by the Software Environment for the Advancement of Scholarly Research (SEASR).

Figure 1Figure 1: Provenance information as represented in Meandre
TextGrid

The Eclipse-based software TextGrid, funded by the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung’s D-Grid initiative, represents an attempt to create an e-humanities VRE, consisting of both a ‘lab’ that runs on local hardware, and a sophisticated repository back-end fostering preservation, discovery and publication. A set of purpose-made tools facilitate Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) XML markup of documents and document-images in a collaborative environment. TextGrid was designed for scholars pursuing traditional philological studies, but is intended to serve musicologists, epigraphists, linguists, and art historians.

Figure 2Figure 2: Provenance information as represented in TextGrid
the w3c provenance data model
Meandre and TextGrid serve as production work spaces, yet they fail to comprehensively log transformations of information in accessible ways. Though data provenance should be a requirement for e-humanities tools, solutions to provenance capture are a recent development. An emerging data provenance model, PROV-DM/-ASN, offers a means of capturing data provenance information at a level of abstraction that is hardware- and software-agnostic. For example, a passage from William Faulkner’s Requiem for a Nun edited in both TextGrid and Meandre could be expressed with the same PROV-ASN assertions, despite radically different processing architectures:

Figure 3Figure 3: Text transformations expressed through PROV-ASN assertions
In order to assemble comparable provenance metadata in TextGrid, it would be necessary, at a minimum, to manually open the five TEI revision files and view their descriptive and technical metadata in separate windows. A similar task in Meandre would require: saving five separate ‘workflows’ corresponding to the revisions e1-e5; viewing their associated documentation in both Workbench and Infrastructure; and manually accessing a variety of command-line log and server files.

The PROV-DM/-ASN specification makes allowances for recording system-specific details, such as software function names, component URIs, firing sequence, time of execution, and other technical metadata necessary for describing the process workflow. Since the PROV-O (Provenance Ontology) allows encoding in OWL2 web ontology language, the markup is machine-readable. In Meandre, assembling the data for the platform-specific provenance metadata would entail querying specific projects with command-line file utilities. Even then, some execution information would not persist after closing the program. In the TextGrid interface, a significant portion of execution information is simply unavailable. The experiment could be successfully re-run in Meandre and TextGrid using the saved workflow or project, respectively, but the full scope of the operating parameters remains concealed within software.

concluding remarks
Our poster shows that two prominent e-humanities VREs need considerable retooling to attain the benefits of comprehensive provenance metadata. Recent developments in provenance documentation standards promise the exchange of datasets with a common interlingua, facilitated descriptive analysis, and easier understanding of experimental protocols. Whether or not e-humanities developers adopt the PROV-DM/-ASN standard, the need for a systematic approach to data provenance-capture stands, as well as best practices which will benefit not only the users of e-humanities computing environments, but the larger digital humanities community.

Acknowledgments

This project was supported by DCEP-H, an initiative to extend the Data Curation Education Program to humanities.  DCEP-H is based at the Center for Informatics Research in Science and Scholarship at and funded by IMLS Grant RE-05-08-0062-08.

references
Belhajjame, K., J. Cheney, D. Garijo, T. Lebo, S. Soiland-Reyes, and S. Zednik (2011). PROV Ontology Model, W3C Working Draft 13 December 2011. http://www.w3.org/TR/2011/WD-prov-o-20111213/ (accessed 9 March 2012).

Belhajjame, K., S. Cresswell, R. Golden, P. Groth, G. Klyne, J. McCusker, and S. Sahoo (2011). PROV Data Model and Abstract Syntax Notation, W3C Working Draft 18 October 2011. http://www.w3.org/TR/2011/WD-prov-dm-20111018/

Chao-fan, D., W. Tao, Z. Peng-cheng, and F. Yang-He (2010). A comparation of data provenance systems based on processing. IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Computing and Intelligent Systems 3: 374-379. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ICICISYS.2010.5658641

Freire, J., D. Koop, E. Santos, and C. T. Silva (2008). Provenance for computational tasks: A survey. Computing in Science & Engineering 10(3): 11-21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/MCSE.2008.79

Hasan, R., and M. Winslett (2009a). Trustworthy history and provenance for files and databases. Ph.D. thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. http://search.proquest.com/docview/304899850?accountid=14553 (accessed 9 March 2012).

Küster, M., C. Ludwig, Y. Al-Hajj, and T. Selig (2011). TextGrid provenance tools for digital humanities ecosystems. Proceedings of the 5th IEEE International Conference on Digital Ecosystems and Technologies 2011. Daejeon, Korea, pp. 317-323. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/DEST.2011.5936615 (accessed 9 March 2012).

Neuroth, H., ed. (n.d.). TextGrid: Home. http://www.textgrid.de/en.html (accessed 9 March 2012).

Moreau, L. (2009). The foundations for provenance on the web. doi:10.1.1.155.784 (submitted)

Simmhan, Y. L., B. Plale, and D. Gannon (2005). A survey of data provenance in e-science. SIGMOD Record 34(3), 31-36.

Software Environment for the Advancement of Scholarly Research. (2011). Meandre. http://seasr.org/meandre (accessed 9 March 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1573","13","The Social Edition: Scholarly Editing Across Communities","2","The Social Edition: Scholarly Editing Across Communities
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Crompton, Constance, University of Victoria, Canada, ccrompto@uvic.ca
Siemens, Raymond, University of Victoria, Canada, siemens@uvic.ca
The Devonshire MS Editorial Group
introduction: contexts for social editing
The integration of social tools into the electronic scholarly edition pushes the boundaries of authority, shifting power from a single editor, who shapes the reading of any given text, to a group of readers comprising a community whose interpretations themselves recast the edition form. This poster outlines a method that brings scholarly best practice, open access methodology, and social media technology to scholarly editing. As a test of the method, we, the Devonshire MS Editorial Group,1 are leading the development of a social edition of the Devonshire Manuscript, a multi-authored verse miscellany compiled in the 1530s and early 1540s. Through the production of both a fixed and evolving edition of the text, we are exploring how social media can be used to change the role of the scholarly editor from the sole authority on the text to a facilitator who brings traditional and citizen scholars into collaboration through an ongoing editorial process.

The most conservative electronic scholarly editions have used computation chiefly to ‘describe and express print-, visual-, and audio-based material in tagged and searchable electronic form’ (Schriebman, Siemens & Unsworth 2004: xxv), in many ways mimicking interactive structures more suitable to possibilities of the print medium rather than the digital one; this teleological, codex-based model sees the editor as a single authority, a mediator between the text and the reader, where the editorial entity determines and shapes what is important to the reader, focuses the editorial and analytical lens, and ultimately exerts immense control over how the reader can engage. Social media’s interactive online spaces have produced new environments for textual editing, ones which invite us to consider the best way to move beyond the codex model while preserving qualitative assurance and facilitating community engagement.

materials for the case study: the devonshire ms
If we count all creative textual works – complete poems, verse fragments and excerpts from longer works, anagrams, and other ephemeral jottings – the Devonshire Manuscript consists of 194 items. In addition to 129 courtly verses by Sir Thomas Wyatt, of which sixty six are unique to the manuscript, and eleven poems by Geoffrey Chaucer, the manuscript contains transcriptions of the work of others and original works by prominent figures from the Henrician court including Mary Shelton, Lady Margaret Douglas, Mary (Howard) Fitzroy, Lord Thomas Howard, Henry Howard and, perhaps, Queen Anne Boleyn (Southall 1964: 143). The manuscript itself bears traces of the original contributors’ editorial process: besides writing epistolary verse, contributors to the manuscript interacted with one another through editorial annotation. These marginal responses are, at times, quite personal in nature. They include responses that evaluate the quality of certain lines, the crossing out of one word and the insertion of another, or the writing of textual remarks that seem to comment on real-world situations not necessarily noted in the manuscript. Other aspects of the Devonshire Manuscript – its multi-layered and multi-authored composition, its early history and transmission, the ways in which its contents engage with and comment directly on contemporary political and social issues – confirm the volume’s function as ‘a medium of social intercourse’ (Love & Marotti 2002: 63).

the case study: fixed and evolving editions
The Devonshire MS Editorial Group is modeling the social editing process. We have produced a fixed, authoritative version of the text, which has undergone a thorough review by an international advisory group of Early Modern and Renaissance scholars. This same text, complete with appendices, glosses, commentary, and textual notes is now available in Wikibooks, a platform which provides a flexible environment for collaboration, contribution, and discussion by traditional and citizen scholars. The Wikibook, which has already received promising attention from Wikibooks’ existing editorial community, is augmented with additional images of the manuscript, witness transcriptions, an extensive bibliography, and xml encoded transcriptions of the Devonshire Manuscript – creating an online version that is both an edition and a research environment.  The advisors are currently providing a medial review which is neither as public at the Wikibook discussion pages nor as private as anonymous peer review.  They are in conversation with one another over the fixed authoritative edition and the evolving Wikibooks edition in a social media space housed by Iter, a federated site located at the University of Toronto.

After six months online, the Wikibooks edition will undergo a full comparison with the fixed edition. Keeping the best of the Wikibooks additions, the Devonshire MS Editorial Group will incorporate the advisory group’s suggestions, and will present a truly socially mediated edition of the Devonshire Manuscript for publication with Iter and Medieval and Renaissance Texts Society. Rather than a terminus, this edition will serve as a snapshot of the living edition, one which represents the perpetual process of scholarly editorial practice.

reflection on method and the significance of anticipated outcomes
The public editing process for the social edition has been designed to encourage communication across editorial communities, while preserving the peer review process. In addition to producing an edition that allows for multiple editorial perspectives, the Devonshire MS Editorial Group2 is modeling a social edition methodology. In the interest of refining the process and expounding on its utility for collaborative editors in the Web 2.0 environment, we are using a combination of methods to gather data on the social edition building process. We are conducting qualitative interviews with the members of the advisory group to gather their perspectives not only on the content of our evolving and fixed editions, but also on issues of credit, peer review, and collaborative editing in a social media environment. In addition, we are conducting surveys with self-identified members of the existing Wikibooks editorial community. Finally, we are using analytics to trace the movement of editors through the Wikibooks text, to determine which parts of the edition provoke the most discussion, attract the most attention, and lead to the most community engagement.

Building on existing, expanding, and newly-emerging communities of practice, we can harness the power of specifically social tools, to ensure that the social edition text is fluid, agency is collective, and many editors, rather than a single editor, shape the interpretation of the text. The social edition development process is, by its very nature, under constant review. Relying on dynamic knowledge building, and privileging process, this expansive method promises to bring together communities of scholarly practice to build a new, social, edition.

references
Love, H., and A. Marotti (2002). Manuscript Transmission and Circulation. In D. Loewenstein and J. Mueller (eds.), The Cambridge History of Early Modern English Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, pp. 55-80.

Remley, P. G. (1994). Mary Shelton and Her Tudor Literary Milieu. In P. Herman (ed.), Rethinking the Henrician Era: Essays on Early Tudor Texts and Contexts. Urbana: U of Illinois P, pp. 40-77.

Schreibman, S., S. Siemens, and J. Unsworth (2004). The Digital Humanities and Humanities Computing: An Introduction. In S. Schreibman, R. Siemens, and J. Unsworth (eds), A Companion to Digital Humanities. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. xxiii-xxvii.

Siemens, R., K. Armstrong, B. Bond, C. Crompton, T. Dickson, J. Paquette, J. Podracky, I. Weber, C. Leitch, M. Chernyk, B. D. Hirsch, D. Powell, A. McLeod, A. Arbuckle, S. Patterson, C. Gaudet, E. Haswell, A. Ciula, D. Starza-Smith, J. Cummings with M. Holmes, G. Newton, J. Gibson, P. Remley, E. Kwakkel, and A. Shirkie (eds). A Social Edition of the Devonshire MS (BL Ass 17,492). http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/The_Devonshire_Manuscript.

Southall, R. (1964). The Devonshire Manuscript Collection of Early Tudor Poetry, 1532-41. Review of English Studies: A Quarterly Journal of English Literature and the English Language 15: 142-150.

notes
1.In collaboration with The Devonshire MS Editorial Group: Siemens, R., Armstrong, K., Bond, B., Crompton, C., Dickson, T., Paquette, J., Podracky, J., Weber, I., Leitch C., Chernyk M., Hirsch, B. D., Powell, D., McLeod, A., Arbuckle, A., Patterson, S., Gaudet, C., Haswell, E., Ciula, A., Starza-Smith, D., Cummings, J., with Holmes, M., Newton, G., Gibson, J., Remley, P., Kwakkel E. and Shirkie, A.

2.Siemens, R., Armstrong, K., Bond, B., Crompton, C., Dickson, T., Paquette, J., Podracky, J., Weber, I., Leitch C., Chernyk M., Hirsch, B. D., Powell, D., McLeod, A., Arbuckle, A., Patterson, S., Gaudet, C., Haswell, E., Ciula, A., Starza-Smith, D., Cummings, J., with Holmes, M., Newton, G., Gibson, J., Remley, P., Kwakkel E. and Shirkie, A.","txt","2","",""
"1574","13","The TEICHI Framework: Bringing TEI Lite to Drupal","2","The TEICHI Framework: Bringing TEI Lite to Drupal
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Schöch, Christof, University of Würzburg, Germany, christof.schoech@uni-wuerzburg.de
Achler, Stefan, University of Kassel, Germany, stefan.achler@gmx.de
This contribution presents the TEICHI Framework, a light-weight set of modules for the Drupal content management system serving to display, search and download electronic documents encoded according to the Text Encoding Initiative’s Guidelines for TEI Lite (Burnard & Sperberg-McQueen 2006). This publishing framework was developed jointly by humanities scholars at the University of Würzburg and computer scientists at the University of Kassel in Germany. To showcase the various features and concrete usability of the framework, we present a poster as well as a tool demo.

In comparison to other available solutions for the publication of electronic scholarly editions, such as the combination of an eXist database with a Fedora Commons repository or the Scalable Architecture for Digital Editions (SADE), the focus of the TEICHI Framework is clearly to be a lightweight, low-resource, and easy-to-use solution. Instead of competing directly with more comprehensive but also more demanding solutions, the TEICHI Framework focuses on low technical barriers and optimal usability (see Pape, Schöch & Wegner 2012). The overall feature set of the TEICHI Framework focuses on the requirements of humanities scholars working on straightforward, small-scale digital edition projects and the needs of teachers of electronic textual editing. It allows both these target groups to set up a complete web-based digital scholarly edition with minimal resources and technical support and see the results of their or their students’ work online in a timely manner.

Currently, the TEICHI framework consists of four modules, one each for displaying documents, for searching them, for downloading them, and for browsing associated digital facsimiles. The modular approach means that not all of the modules need to be installed for the others to function, and additional modules may be added in the future. In addition, any digital edition published with the TEICHI Framework can take advantage of the full website infrastructure and community support Drupal provides, including useful features such as revision history for each page or fine-grained users’ rights management and optional extensions such as blog or forum modules. 

At the core of the framework is the TEI Content module, which lets editors upload TEI documents via the Drupal GUI, order them in a hierarchical structure, and modify them online. The module stores XML/TEI documents in the Drupal database and displays them through an XSL transformation and a CSS stylesheet using Drupal’s content filter mechanism. The default stylesheet included with the module provides specific support for many of the features that are part of the TEI Lite (P5) set of elements: author and editor notes are displayed in the right sidebar and scribal corrections and editorial emendations are catered for. A toggle mechanism allows for the display of two alternative readings via the ‘choice’ mechanism. There is currently no support for the use of encoded names, dates and places in an index.

There are several additional modules for the framework. The TEI Download module allows downloading various renderings of TEI-encoded documents. The editor/administrator can choose which of the downloading options should be available to the user for each document: EPUB files for ebook readers, plain text files for use with basic analysis tools, and XML/TEI files for more advanced analysis. There are various additional user-side options for downloading: either one of the alternative readings can be chosen, editor notes can be included or excluded, and several pages can be downloaded as one large file or as separate files. The TEI Image Viewer module allows to associate the displayed texts with their corresponding digital facsimiles. This module is based on Seadragon Ajax, a JavaScript library for interactively viewing high resolution images. It lets the user call up any given digital facsimile, scroll through the available facsimiles, and zoom in and move around in each of them. The TEI Search module, which is still experimental, adds some basic TEI-aware search functions to the framework, allowing the users of the edition to limit their search in ways, for instance, to exclude results from editor notes, to only include results from quotes, or to restrict the search to one of two alternative transcriptions distinguished by the ‘choice’ mechanism. A basic TEI Editor module is in development.

All modules are fully integrated into Drupal’s administrative graphical user interface, allowing the editor or administrator to adjust various settings online. For instance, many settings of the TEI Content module, such as color schemes and button texts can be modified with a few clicks; also, the TEI Download module lets the administrator select metadata fields and a cover image for the EPUB files made available for download; finally, the TEI Image Viewer’s control panel is defined as a block which can be moved to any block region on the website.

The poster will indicate the features each of the modules provides to the overall publishing framework and visualize how each of them is embedded into the Drupal environment from a technical point of view. The tool demo will showcase both the frontend and the backend of the framework: the ways in which readers/users can interact with an electronic scholarly edition supported by the framework will be shown based on one project using the TEICHI framework, the digital edition of Bérardier de Bataut’s Essai sur le récit (Bérardier de Bataut 2010). A local installation will be able to show how easy it is to perform some of the typical tasks of editors/administrators of an electronic edition using the TEICHI framework, such as installing the modules in a Drupal environment, adding, organizing and modifying XML/TEI files, changing some basic settings and associating digital facsimiles to the transcriptions.

references
Bérardier de Bataut, F.-J. (2010). Essai sur le récit, ou entretiens sur la manière de raconter [1776], digital edition ed. by Ch. Schöch http://www.berardier.org.

Burnard, L., and M. Sperberg-McQueen, eds. (2006). TEI Lite: Encoding for Interchange. Text Encoding Initiative http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-exemplars/html/teilite.

Pape, S., Ch. Schöch, and L. Wegner (2012). TEICHI and the Tools Paradox. Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative 2  http://jtei.revues.org/432; DOI: 10.4000/jtei.432.

Software

Drupal. http://www.drupal.org.

eXist-db. http://exist.sourceforge.net.

Fedora Commons Repository. http://www.fedora-commons.org.

Scalable Architecture for Digital Editions (SADE). http://www.bbaw.de/telota/projekte/digitale-editionen/sade/sade-1.

The TEICHI Framework. http://www.teichi.org.

Seadragon Ajax. http://gallery.expression.microsoft.com/SeadragonAjax.","txt","2","",""
"1575","13","Towards a Transnational Multilingual Caribbean Digital Humanities Lab","2","Towards a Transnational Multilingual Caribbean Digital Humanities Lab
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Gil, Alexander, University of Virginia, USA, alexgil@virginia.edu
The Caribbean, broadly understood, encompasses an archipelago, vast continental regions and a growing global diaspora. For Caribbeanists, the challenge has always been to work in many languages and across a dispersed archive. In recent years, the Digital Library of the Caribbean (DLoC) has lead a multi-institutional, multi-national effort to digitize archives dealing with the region. Prominent Caribbean academic journals have begun their move to digital formats. Many informal communities have begun collaborating and engaging in debates in social networks and personal blogs. In this poster, I outline in more detail the current challenges and opportunities that the new technologies bring to the academic life of the region. In particular, I address the following question: What would a Caribbean digital lab look like? Drawing from my experience as a fellow of the Scholars’ Lab and NINES, I argue that the Caribbean Digital Lab of the future must be a combination of both. Despite the fact that the task of digitization and aggregation of vulnerable Caribbean archives remains the number one priority , I argue that the region also needs an R&D agenda, an educational component and an outreach arm in digital humanities.

The poster outlines the four components I see as crucial for a future Caribbean DH Lab.

aggregation
NINES and 18th Century Connect have recently united under the banner of an umbrella organization, ARC, which hopes to welcome many other organizations under its purview. The ARC model provides a set of solutions to three problems in digital scholarship: a) Bringing together specialized digital projects with traditional digital archives under one rubric, one search box; b) Providing peer-review credentials to digital formats; and c) Organizing the digital research of sub-disciplines in the humanities. A Caribbean Digital Humanities Lab (or series of labs) could represent the work of Caribbean Studies at the ARC table. One of the unique contributions of a Caribbean NINES-like aggregator and digital peer-review operation woulb be the fact that the ruling metaphor for the subject of study of Caribbeanists is regional as opposed to temporal. For the region, the construction of a trans-national, polyglot peer-reviewed aggregator would fascilitate the task of discovery and collaboration between Caribbeanists worldwide.

research & development
Computer programming has the unique distinction of allowing anyone with a computer, access to the internet and time to become proficient at it and contribute new technology to the world. While the resources required to digitize all archives in the Caribbean will prove to be a major challenge for our generation, developing new tools and digital projects appropriate to the needs of the region can be within the range of a trans-national digital humanities lab. Research and Development has become a sine-qua-none of contemporary digital humanities worldwide. In order to be true contributors to the advancement of the humanities worldwide, a Caribbean DH Lab must include an active team of developers and designers working on projects that are both pertinent to the region and of universal application. Given that the archives of the region are made vulnerable for many reasons – political, economic, meteorological, linguistic – I argue that the set of solutions that original digital projects born out of a Caribbean DH Lab can offer could provide alternative perspectives on problems familiar to peers in other regions. In order to argue my point I will briefly talk about the technological challenges of two possible projects: a) A multi-lingual archive of plantation records; and b) A geo-temporal project tracing the development of creole languages in the region.

educational opportunities
A Caribbean DH Lab, as most of its peers, must be attached to the educational mission of universities in the region. In order to foster a culture of digital humanities that can be sustained across generations, the lab must be able to provide opportunities for emerging scholars to learn and practice digital humanities at the highest order. Training in digital humanities skills can also serve as a way for young scholars in the region to diversify their portfolios and help them face the challenges of the global economies of the 21st century. In order to achieve this goal, I will argue, the Caribbean DH Lab of the future must secure funding for pre-doctoral and post-doctoral fellowships, organize speaker series and seminars and involve emerging scholars in its projects directly.

outreach
Although our networking technologies have made it possible for us to collaborate in ways that were unimaginable before, many challenges persist for multi-institutional and polyglot collaboration to take place. In this section I will delineate what these challenges are in three categories: funding, language and politics. I offer a set of tentative solutions that all coalesce around the idea of outreach. In order for the Caribbean DH Lab to succeed, I will argue, it must have a strong and well-informed outreach team that can help it get off the ground and sustain itself. Because of the fragility of government funds in the region, our lab must be able to negotiate effectively with private and international sources. Because of the language barriers the outreach team must be able to communicate effectively in the major languages of the region.","txt","2","",""
"1576","13","TXSTEP - an integrated XML-based scripting language for scholarly text data processing","2","TXSTEP – an integrated XML-based scripting language for scholarly text data processing
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Ott, Wilhelm, Universität Tübingen, Germany, wilhelm.ott@uni-tuebingen.de
Ott, Tobias, Stuttgart Media University, Germany, ott@hdm-stuttgart.de
Gasperlin, Oliver, pagina GmbH publication technologies, Germany, oliver.gasperlin@pagina-tuebingen.de
introduction
With TXSTEP, we present and put up to discussion the prototype of a new, powerful XML-based tool for scholarly research in the text-based humanities. Its architecture is based on more than 40 years of experience in supporting humanities projects at the University of Tübingen and beyond.

The purpose of TXSTEP is not to provide another toolbox containing ready-made solutions for pre-defined problems. Of course, tools like these are adequate for many purposes; but we see no urgency to add a further one to the existing packages of this kind.

In fact, TXSTEP has been designed as a high performing scripting environment for the serious humanities scholar and other professionals in text data processing who face problems not easily solvable by XSLT or other means. TXSTEP gives them complete control over every detail of the data processing part of their projects.

humanities software: basic requirements
Software for serious humanities research has to have certain basic qualities:

it must be easy to handle, so that the scholar who is an expert in his field, but not in programming or computer science, can use it safely;
it must be flexible enough to be adapted to the special requirements of each project, be it a philological analysis of a text or the preparation of a critical editon;
it should support not only single phases of a project, but all its stages and steps, including (for an editorial project) first transcription of the sources and collation of the transcribed texts, evaluation of the variant readings, constitution of the edition text and the critical apparatus, up to (and even beyond) the preparation of the final publication of text, apparatuses, and indexes.
TXSTEP tries to take into account these somewhat contradicting requirements by defining the fundamental operations necessary for the processing of textual data, and by providing a separate program module for each of these basic functions, which can be used without any knowledge of conventional programming or scripting languages.

the solution: 1. modularity
These modules may be combined almost arbitrarily: each module reads from and writes to a single basic file structure. This allows to combine these modules like Unix filters in arbitrary ways.

Where necessary, the single modules can be adapted to special requirements by the user, who may change default parameters (e.g. for providing a sort key for a non-latin alphabet) or provide additional ones (e.g. for the omission of the definite article in the sort key for titles in bibliographic records).

However limited the scope of the single modules may be, the flexibility of their combination can be illustrated by the fact that, for example, there is no dedicated program for generating an alphabetical word list. For this purpose the user has to combine the module for text decomposition (for which he has to provide the parameters defining the single elements and the sort keys), the SORT module, and the module which reduces identical or partially identical records contained in the sorted file to single index entries, and adds – when required – informations like frequency counts and/or references to the source text.

The modules provided by TXSTEP include:

collation of different versions of a text; output of the differences in a synoptic list (for eye inspection) and for automatic processing in a file showing an appropriate structure;
text correction and enhancement not only by an interactive editor, but also in batch mode, e.g. by means of correction instructions prepared beforehand (by manual transcription, or by program, e.g. the collation module);
decomposing texts into elements (e.g. word forms) according to rules provided by the user;
building logical entities (e.g. bibliographic records) consisting of more than one element or line of text;
sorting such elements or entities according to the sort keys provided by the preparatory modules, accounting also for non-latin alphabetical rules and other sorting criteria;
preparing indexes by generating entries from the sorted elements;
transforming textual data by selecting records or elements, by replacing strings or text parts, by rearranging, complementing or abbreviating text parts;
integrating external information into a file by means of acronyms;
updating crossreferences;
converting textual data from TUSTEP files into file formats used by other systems (e.g. for statistical analysis or for electronic publication) and vice versa.
As the output of any one of these modules may serve as input to any other module, the range of research problems for which this system may be helpful is quite wide.

the solution: 2. xml interface to an established text processing and analysis suite
In fact, TUSTEP, the Tübingen System of Text Processig tools, has been developed in the past 40 years along these lines. It has been and still is successfully used for many humanities projects in the German speaking part of the world, as may be detect by visiting www.tustep.org.

But, since TUSTEP’s syntax is proprietary, not intuitive and supposed to be difficult to learn, users tend to help themselves with other – often less effective – tools or less specific programming languages.

TXSTEP gives an answer to this situation by providing a user-friendly XML-syntax, allowing beginners and advanced programmers to utilize the whole scope of TUSTEP services in a modern, established scripting environment. The benefits are obvious: support of an open standard, widespread dissemination, programming in every XML-editor, syntax highlighting, code completion and intelligible APIs. Moreover, TXSTEP is aided by the fact that there is no need to change the program’s actual core. TUSTEP itself is open source, as TXSTEP is soon going to be as well.

the txstep prototype
Development of TXSTEP began in 2009, when Tobias Ott, research associate and lecturer at the ‘Stuttgart Media University’ and CEO of pagina GmbH (a service provider for publishing houses) first came up with the idea to build an XML interface to the syntax of TUSTEP commands. This would all at once remove most of the barriers usually preventing people from using TUSTEP:

it would offer an up-to-date established syntax,
it would allow to draft TUSTEP scripts using the same XML-editor as when writing XSLT or other XML based scripts,
it would let you enjoy the typical benefits of working with an XML editor, like content completion, highlighting, showing annotations, and, of course, verifying your code,
it would offer – to a certain degree – a self teaching environment by commenting on the scope of every step,
it would avoid many syntactical errors, even compared to the original TUSTEP scripting environment.
In the meantime, this idea resulted in a prototype of TXSTEP which we plan to demonstrate in more detail during the poster session. The prototype already contains the most important features of all the modules of TUSTEP listed above.

Not contained in TXSTEP is TUSTEPs typesetting module, which has been designed to meet the ambitious layout demands of publications in humanities research, including those needed by critical editions. The user may however use it in the original TUSTEP environment for publishing in print the results gained by TXSTEP, or he may even include it – in original TUSTEP syntax – into his TXSTEP scripts.

One of the features of TXSTEP is it’s capability to process almost all forms of textual data, whether this being XML-data or plain text files. Therefore, even if textual data have to be processed in the first place in order to gain, for example, TEI-data or to enhance the markup of insufficiently tagged XML data, TXSTEP is at it’s place.

The proposed demo is based on the mentioned prototype and shows the achieved state of our work in progress. The demonstration of TXSTEPs functionality will include tasks which can not easily be performed by existing XML tools.","txt","2","",""
"1577","13","Virtual Reproduction of Gion Festival Yamahoko Parade","2","Virtual Reproduction of Gion Festival Yamahoko Parade
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Li, Liang, Ritsumeikan University, Japan, liliang@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp
Choi, Woong, Gunma National College of Technology, Japan, wchoi@ice.gunma-ct.ac.jp
Nishiura, Takanobu, Ritsumeikan University, Japan, nishiura@is.ritsumei.ac.jp
Yano, Keiji, Ritsumeikan University, Japan, yano@lt.ritsumei.ac.jp
Hachimura, Kozaburo, Ritsumeikan University, Japan, hachimura@media.ritsumei.ac.jp
introduction
Originated from Heian period (794-1185), Gion Festival, which has been registered in the list of ‘Intangible Heritage of Humanity’ by UNESCO, is one of the most famous festivals in Japan. Every year on July 17, the festival culminates in a parade of yamahoko, floats known as ‘moving museums’ because of their elaborate decorations with centuries-old tapestries, and wooden and metal ornaments. The festival is held by the Yasaka Shrine whose parishioners parade 32 floats to represents each self-governing parish. Approximately 150 thousands spectators from all around the world gather to see the parade every year.

With the development of computer graphics and virtual reality technologies, extensive researches have been carried out on digital cultural heritage. For decades, tangible cultural heritage contents including historical crafts, archaeological sites, and historical buildings have been digitally archived. Recently, digital archiving the intangible culture heritage contents, such as traditional festivals and behaviors of participants in cultural events have attracted more and more attention (Gandy et al. 2005; Magnenat-Thalmann et al. 2007; Papagiannakis et al. 2007).

In this research, we try to virtually reproduce Yamahoko Parade in Kyoto Gion Festival. We generated a content that combines motion and acoustics of the floats, crews, and spectators, within a virtual platform of ‘Virtual Kyoto’ (Yano et al. 2007). In current step, four well-known floats (Fune-hoko, Naginata-hoko, Kanko-hoko, and Kitakannon-yama) out of thirty-two floats were included in this virtual parade. We also reproduced the motion of four types of crews of Fune-hoko (Hikikata, Ondotori, Kurumakata, Hayashikata) using motion capture technique. This work contributes to the research of digital museum and provides a platform that allows the users to virtually experience the atmosphere of Yamahoko Parade in Kyoto Gion Festival.

virtual yamahoko parade
We construct the virtual Yamahoko Parade using Vizard software. Vizard enables us to integrate and render CG models, animations, and sounds in a virtual space with real time interaction (Figure 1).

Figure 1
Figure 1: Construction of virtual Yamahoko Parade

Virtual Kyoto

A model of Shijo Street, one of the city’s main streets, is reconstructed as the Virtual Kyoto platform for the virtual Yamahoko Parade. Based on MAP CUBE data, the textures of street and building models in Virtual Kyoto are made by capturing photos of the real objects. The model of Shijo Street is transformed into VRML format and imported to Vizard (Figure 2).

Figure 2
Figure 2: Shijo Street in Virtual Kyoto

Crowd Simulation of Spectators

Crowd simulation of spectators is an important element for regenerating the atmosphere of the event. In this work, we arranged about 730 characters on both sides of Shijo Street in Virtual Kyoto (Figure 3).

Figure 3
Figure 3: Crowd simulation of spectators

Three types of character models have been created: high polygon (about 8600 polygons), medium polygon (about 2800 polygons) and low polygon (about 1100 polygons) to build the real time virtual Yamahoko Parade. To make the crowd with realistic behavior, we add basic motions of talking, listening, shouting, and clapping hands to the models.

CG Floats of Yamahoko Parade

Four CG floats of Naginata-hoko, Kanko-hoko, Fune-hoko, and Kitakannon-yama were included in this virtual parade (Figure 4).

Figure 4
Figure 4: CG models of floats

The models have been created by laser-scanning detailed miniatures of the real floats, as well as surveying the floats’ drawings. The textures of the floats are made by capturing photos of the floats during the festival.

Models and Animations of Parade Crews

The Virtual Parade includes four kinds of parade crews: Hikikata who pull the float; Ondotori who lead the parade with Japanese fans; Kurumakata who control the float’s directions; and Hayashikata who play instruments on the platform of the float.

We created CG models of the crews using 3ds max and transformed them into Cal3D format to import to Vizard (Figure 5). The textures of their costumes were obtained from the real costumes.

Figure 5
Figure 5: CG models of Fune-hoko crews

Furthermore, since character animation of these crews is crucial for regenerating realistic movements of the parade, we use motion capture technique to reproduce the unique motions of the crews (Figure 6).

Figure 6
Figure 6: Motion capture of Fune-hoko crews

Acoustics of the Parade

We recorded the music of the parade played with the traditional instruments of drum, flute and bell by using multi-point measurement technique (Figure 7). Besides that, we also captured the sounds of ambient noise made by the floats, crews, and crowds. The collected sounds were integrated and imported to Vizard.

Figure 7
Figure 7: Recording acoustics

Demonstration of Virtual Yamahoko Parade

The virtual Yamahoko Parade can be operated in 3D with high fidelity sounds using an immersive virtual environment system (Figure 8). Users can interactively control the viewing position and angle in the virtual world at real time with a gamepad. Sample screenshots captured under 2D mode are illustrated in Figure 9.

Figure 8
Figure 8: Virtual Yamahoko Parade in an im-mersive virtual environment

conclusion and future works
We virtually reproduced an intangible cultural material of Yamahoko Parade using 3D computer graphics and virtual reality technologies. We received positive feedbacks from the visitors in several exhibitions during which we demonstrated the virtual Yamahoko Parade.

Figure 9
Figure 9: Screenshots of Virtual Yamahoko Parade

Our future works include improving crowd simulation by making more realistic crowd behaviors and creating more Japanese character models; enriching the movements of the floats and the crews; adding more float models to the virtual parade.

Furthermore, we are trying to build a virtual Yamahoko Parade experiencing system by which the users can also experience the vibration as they are riding on the virtual float. We collected the acceleration data of the float with acceleration sensors during the real parade and experimentally reproduced the vibration using a vibration platform. An immersive system which integrates interactive CG animation, high fidelity sound, and realistic vibration is under construction.

Fundings

This research has been partially supported by the Digital Museum Project in the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan. The authors thank the Gion Festival Fune-hoko Preservation Association for the collaboration.

references
Gandy, M., S. Robertson, W. Price, and J. Bailey (2005). The Design of a Performance Simulation System for Virtual Reality. In Proceedings of Human-Computer Interaction International 2005. Las Vegas.

Magnenat-Thalmann, N., N. Foni, G. Papagiannakis, and N. Cadi-Yazli (2007). Real Time Animation and Illumination in Ancient Roman Sites. The International Journal of Virtual Reality 6(1): 11-24.

Papagiannakis, G., and N. Magnenat-Thalmann (2007). Mobile Augmented Heritage: Enabling Human Life in Ancient Pompeii. The International Journal of Architectural Computing 2: 395-415.

Yano, K., T. Nakaya, and Y. Isoda (2007). Virtual Kyoto: Exploring the Past, Present and Future of Kyoto. Kyoto: Nakanishiya.","txt","2","",""
"1578","13","What Has Digital Curation Got to Do With Digital Humanities?","2","What Has Digital Curation Got to Do With Digital Humanities?
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Schreibman, Susan, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland, susan.schreibman@gmail.com
McCadden, Katiet Theresa, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland, katietmccadden@gmail.com
Coyle, Barry, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland, barrypcoyle@gmail.com
The preservation and curation of digital objects begins at the time of the creation. Life-cycle management involves a wide variety of tasks and skills, from applying appropriate metadata to issues of access and reuse, transformation and migration. (What is Digital Curation?)

For the vast majority of humanities scholars, curation has been the preserve of librarians, archivists, and museum curators. But the increasing involvement of humanities scholars in the creation of digital objects, from the creation of texts encoded in TEI, to the development of large datasets suitable for datamining, to the creation of audio/video corpora, puts a new onus on humanities scholars to create durable data. 

In a survey of a majority of the MA degrees awarded in digital humanities,1 none offered a course/module that specifically focused on curation/preservation. More than one of University College London’s courses/modules, as well as one at the National University of Ireland, Maynooth (‘Creating Digital Humanities Artefacts’) and Trinity College Dublin (‘Theory and Practice of Digital Humanities’) contains elements of digital curation within modules with a wider pedagogic focus.

Equally, much shorter-term training in the digital humanities often overlooks digital curation as an area of core curriculum. Yet, as digital humanists increasingly find themselves working in positions from alt-ac roles within a wide variety of memory institutions, to the creators of digital objects as part of a more traditional scholarly profile, we might do well to consider integrating digital curation more centrally in the curriculum. This gap in educational/training courses is being investigated by a pan-European project, Digital Curator Vocational Education Europe (DigCurV). DigCurV is a project funded by the European Commission’s Leonardo da Vinci Lifelong Learning programme to establish a curriculum framework for vocational training in digital curation, http://www.digcur-education.org/; with participants in Ireland, the UK, Germany, Italy, and Lithuania.

In order to inform development of the framework, DigCurV has been carrying out a variety of activities in the library, museum, archive and cultural heritage sector. Two surveys have been conducted, the first focused on training or competence centres to gather information about training opportunities, while the second examined the training needs of practitioners. Focus groups took place in Autumn 2011 in Germany, Ireland, Italy, Lithuania and the United Kingdom in order to learn more about the skills and competences required of those working (in the broadest terms) in digital curation.  

Through research carried out by DigCurV, it has become clear that many of the skills and core competences required of people working in digital curation/preservation map well onto areas traditionally covered in digital humanities degree/training courses. Preliminary DigCurV findings enrich and expand our thinking about what competences are considered core to a digital humanities curriculum. For example, training on how to promote websites using social media and digital marketing strategies emerged as an important part of the digital lifecycle management process. Many of the technical skills required, such as proficiency in XML and TEI and a knowledge and understanding of standards, best practice and the latest technologies, also proved to be a shared competences. Project management skills play an important role in this field as people dealing with digital objects often find themselves influencing attitudes about technology and encouraging digital activities to be seen as core institutional activities.

DigCurV found that many of the skills and core competences requiring training are not strictly in the realm of ‘digital curation’ (ie object creation and preservation), but also deal with the management of objects within an institution, social media savvy, ability to manage organisational change, and cross-disciplinary communication skills. These findings should also expand our ideas of what digital humanities training/education is.

Thus the curriculum framework being developed by DigCurV might also be useful within a digital humanities context. Due to the high degree of interdisciplinarity between digital curation and digital humanities, a case can be made for more emphasis on digital curation in digital humanities curricula. This poster will explore recent findings of the DigCurV network in light of the DH curricula.

references
Bermès, E., and L. Fauduet (2011). The Human Face of Digital Preservation: Organizational and Staff Challenges, and Initiatives at the Bibliothèque nationale de France. The International Journal of Digital Curation 6(1) ,http://ijdc.net/index.php/ijdc/article/view/175.

Fino-Radin, B. (2011). Keeping it Online, http://rhizome.org/editorial/2011/aug/5/keeping-it-online/.

Fulton, B., P. Botticelli, and J. Bradley (2011). DigIn: A Hands-on Approach to a Digital Curation Curriculum for Professional Development. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 52(2).

Hank, C., and J. Davidson (2009). International Data Curation Education Action (IDEA) Working Group: A Report from the Second Workshop of the IDEA. D-Lib Magazine. 15(3/4)http://dlib.org/dlib/march09/hank/03hank.html,

Kraus, K. (2011). When Data Disappears. New York Times Sunday Review, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/07/opinion/sunday/when-data-disappears.html?_r=3&ref=opinion

Lee, Ch. A, H. R. Tibbo, and J. C. Schaefer (2007). Defining What Digital Curations Do and What They Need to Know: The Digcurr Project. ACM Digital Library. Proceedings of the 7th ACM/IEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries.

Long, C. (2011). Developing and Implementing a Master of Archival Studies Program: A Collaborative Effort of a State University, a State Archive, and the National Archives and Records Administration. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 52(2).

Spiro, L. (2011). Knowing and Doing: Understanding the Digital Humanities Curriculum. Paper presented at the DH 2011. See blogpost for further information: http://digitalscholarship.wordpress.com/2011/06/20/making-sense-of-134-dh-syllabi-dh-2011-presentation/.

Stanton, J. M. Y. Kim, M. Oakleaf, R. D. Lankes, P. Gandel, D. Cogburn, and E. D. Liddy (2011). Education for eScience Professionals: Job Analysis, Curriculum Guidance, and Program Considerations. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 52(2).

Tibbo, H. R., C. Hank, Ch. A. Lee, and R. Clemens, eds. (2009). Digital Curation: Practice, Promise & Prospects. Proceedings for DigCurr2 (2009),http://www.lulu.com/product/paperback/proceedings-of-digccurr2009-digital-curation-practice-promise-and-prospects/4994819.

‘What is Digital Curation?’ Digital Curation Centre. http://www.dcc.ac.uk/digital-curation/what-digital-curation.

notes
1.King’s College London, University College London, Trinity College Dublin, National University of Ireland, Maynooth, University of Alberta, Loyola University.","txt","2","",""
"1579","14","A 3D Common Ground: Bringing Humanities Data Together Inside Online Game Engines","9","Over the past decade humanities scholars have begun to seriously explore the potential of using 3D modeling software to reconstruct historic spaces and architecture. However, because of technological and design limitations, their works have tended either to feature visually rich environments that were closed and static, or more interactive and data driven spatial projects that failed to seize upon the potential of realistic 3D imaging. But now as 3D gaming engines are making it easier to display visually sophisticated virtual environments in browser windows in real-time, and to access and interface with large data sets, new possibilities exist for 3D reconstructions. Using both demos of historical reconstructions running live in the Unity 3D engine and mockups of future plug-ins, this presentation imagines future 3D historical reconstructions that bring a variety of data together, and argues for projects that are persistent, historical, collaborative, and curated.

The use of online 3D engines for the display of historical reconstructions first allows for persistent environments that can constantly be explored by any number of users. These reconstructions might be a single town, building, or other reconstructed site that would exist perpetually on the web, constantly accessible to the public. Previously projects aiming for a high level of detail and realism would have to store their 3D scenes offline, and could only share their work by rendering image stills or animation clips that would show prerecorded views. However, significant improvements in the graphical quality of 3D engine browser plug-ins mean that now, these scenes can be uploaded to the web, and users can walk and fly though historical spaces freely, and even interact with the environment.

The sophistication of these 3D engines also opens up new possibilities for depicting historical change over time. The customization of game engines means that scene elements like individual buildings can easily be assigned time ranges, allowing for an environment that can show growth and changes in the architecture and landscape as users move backwards and forwards through virtual time. These innovations are made possible because 3D gaming engines handle complex, visually realistic 3D models more efficiently than platforms like Google Earth or ArcGIS, meaning scholars no longer must choose between a realistic, but static reconstruction, or a historical GIS scene that showed change over time but could not support advanced imaging.

Because browser engines are more adept at dynamically displaying change within a 3D scene the possibilities for scholarly and community collaboration have enlarged considerably. First, with only a little additional scripting, 3D engines can be customized to access large outside data sets, like those used with Google Maps API or standalone GIS programs, but they also can allow any visitor to annotate virtual space in real-time. In a persistent online reconstruction of historic church for instance, users could walk down the aisles and through the balconies, while pausing to mark spots, leaving virtual footnotes in 3D space, which could then link to outside data, text, or images. Additional scripting could store these user annotations in a database, and allow for the community accumulation of data from different scholars and the public, within the same persistent environment. With more advanced plug-ins, there is even the future possibility of users manipulating the environment itself from inside a browser, adding or modifying architectural elements as part of their own interpretations.

Because these persistent, historical, and collaborative 3D reconstructions could quickly become cluttered with multiple interpretations, dedicated editors who could curate the virtual space could provide a balance between open contributions and consistent quality. First, individual contributions or annotations could be grouped into different layers, which viewers could choose to show or hide, and certain of these layers could be ranked both by user voting, as well as by editor endorsement. Especially in the case of contributions that involved significant changes to the 3D models in the scene, site editors could even act as or coordinate with peer reviewers, allowing for scholars to gain publication credit for adding especially valuable 3D content or other data.

This presentation features as an example, a real time reconstruction of an 18th century North American imperial fort running in a customized version of the Unity 3D game engine. This reconstruction shows the development of fort’s architecture over time through various stages of construction, disrepair and remodeling, and also features multiple interpretations of particular architectural elements based on conflicting pieces of evidence. Within this evolving 3D environment, the presentation also show sets of annotations in 3D space that link to copies of archival documents, maps, plans, and archeological artifacts. In addition to plotting historical events or the locations of artifacts, these points may act as footnotes linking to particular pieces of evidence that informed the look or design of a given part of the interpretation. A custom feature programmed into the 3D engine could also allow individual users to tour the space and plot their own original points, each of which can link to multimedia content. Finally, this demonstration will explore possibilities for the importation of Google Earth points, GIS data, and topographic maps into the example 3D reconstruction as distinct viewable layers.","txt","2","",""
"1580","14","4Humanities: Designing Digital Advocacy","10","Introduction: Cuts, Crisis and Criticisms of the Humanities
The Great Recession beginning in 2008 has resulted in a series of budgetary cuts to many universities, education programs, and cultural institutions that reflect indifference about, and even hostility toward, the humanities and arts in favor of scientific, engineering, business, and other applied fields. Even scientists are now concerned about the perceived legitimacy of their ""basic research"" when it lacks evident short-term application. However, the sciences have an established tradition of public advocacy and media communication that is quite effective in putting their discoveries before the public. The humanities have no such consistent, planned tradition of advocacy, and in many ways are starting from scratch.

This paper argues for and demonstrates planned humanities advocacy using the special affordances of the digital humanities. In particular, it discusses how the 4Humanities initiative is leveraging DH for next-generation advocacy. In this paper, we will:

Show how 4Humanities uses DH to help analyze public discourse, both pro and con, about the humanities (including text analysis of such discourse as well as crowd-sourced generation of arguments for the humanities).
Show how statistics and other evidence about the contribution of the humanities to society can be analyzed and visualized in support of effective arguments.
Discuss the role of 4Humanities and, more generally, how DH can provide special tools for humanities advocacy, while humanities advocacy can in return incentivize the creation of next-generation DH research and teaching tools with a built-in public engagement dimension.
Analysis of Arguments Against the Humanities
One way to bolster advocacy for the humanities is first to look closely at the arguments made in public against them. We have compiled a small corpus of recent articles (especially from news sources accessed by a broad public) representative of criticisms of the humanities (Auslin, 2012; Bauerlein, 2011; Cohan, 2012a; Cohan, 2012b; Ellouk, 2011; Fendrich, 2009; Fish, 2007; Fish 2008; Fund, 2012; Knapp, 2011; Murdoch, 2011; Pidgeon, 2007; Riley, 2012; Sini, 2011; Stephens, 2012; Wente, 2012; Wood, 2012).


Fig 1:
Voyant Collocate Cluster Visualization (Sinclair and Rockwell)

We find that arguments critical of the humanities cluster around certain ideas. Principally, detractors accuse the humanities of lacking cultural and/or economic relevance. The most nuanced critiques mix or shade the charges of cultural and economic irrelevance. But other arguments refute the social usefulness of the humanities entirely, simply taking for granted their complete economic and social irrelevance. (Interestingly, however, some of these articles also defend irrelevance as a virtue, as in the case of arguments from friends of the humanities who feel that irrelevance is the basic nature of the humanities and is perfectly acceptable.)

A related critique of the professoriate in the humanities is that our work is no longer accessible to a larger educated public. The argument is that we are our own worst enemies because we have descended into theoretical turf battles that no one cares about. For these commentators such cultural irrelevance goes hand in hand with the supposed lack of respect that academics show for the public’s values, as epitomized in Marxism, feminism, post-colonialism, and other approaches that attack iconic ideas. The antidote sometimes proposed is a return to a nebulous concept of the traditional humanities — e.g., to the venerable search for the “beautiful.”

This paper will summarize our reading of the articles as well as present results from some text analysis of other rhetoric about the humanities.

Analysis of Arguments For the Humanities
As important as it is to know the arguments critical of the humanities, it is also important to gather good arguments for the humanities. 4Humanities has taken two approaches to this. The first is to blog good arguments as we come across them with summaries for those who are looking for essays to help them in their advocacy. We have also summarized these in a digestible form for people to review (Bielby, 2012). Finally we ran an All Our Ideas vote on the value of the humanities (http://allourideas.org/4humanities). At the time of writing this proposal there were over 1600 votes and 31 user submitted possible answers (as opposed to 12 seeds that we provided.) The top choices at the time of writing included:


There is obviously overlap in the top choices, but these indicate what the digital humanities community considers important. In the paper we will provide a fuller analysis of the data along with our list of the best arguments.

Looking Closely at the Statistics
“Liberal arts graduates frequently catch or surpass graduates with career-oriented majors in both job quality and compensation.” (Koc, 2011)

In addition to defining and communicating the cultural value of the humanities, the 4Humanities initiative is also committed to gathering data on the economic value of the humanities. One of the most pernicious arguments against the humanities has been the poor job prospects of graduating humanists. For this reason, we review the statistical arguments carefully, especially to highlight the fact that the data on compensation of humanists at mid-career paints a different story. A humanist may find it harder to get a first job with a degree, but she/he will probably rise faster than many with professional certification.

When making arguments for the humanities’ contribution to society, of course, it can be difficult to produce statistics, given that there has been no comprehensive study that gathers together available facts and figures in a usable manner. As part of the 4Humanities project we have been compiling and listing all statistics we can find in the published literature about the benefit of the humanities to society. This was done by collating the literature – including newspaper articles, reports, websites, and op-ed pieces (listed on the 4Humanities website) – and locating numeric references to the humanities. We have compiled such quantitative evidence, and at DH2013 we will present an infographic that sums up the statistical argument that the humanities are relevant to economic and intellectual development.

In addition, we have recently begun our “Infographics Friday” series (http://humanistica.ualberta.ca/category/for-the-public/humanities-infographics/), highlighting a particular statistic or graphical representation on the 4Humanities website once a week, to demonstrate the range of evidence. A core remit of 4Humanities is to gather, analyse, and disseminate this disparate information to provide a knowledge base upon which others can build their opinions and bolster their understanding of the humanities.

Conclusion: 4Humanities and a Digital Humanities response to the Cuts, Crisis, and Criticism
We argue that the mission of public engagement and advocacy in the humanities as embodied by the 4Humanities initiative provides a unique way to consolidate leading technological and methodological directions in DH with outreach to society. The humanities today have an advantage that was not available earlier: the analytical and communication methods of the digital humanities. Not only do the digital humanities provide a strong argument for the relevance of humanities learning in a digital age; they also provide unique, fresh ways of studying the contributions of the humanities to society and then getting the message out. DH research and humanities advocacy can be one, where DH helps advance advocacy, and, reciprocally, the advocacy mission helps drive research in DH. The hunt is now on to develop and extend new generations of digital humanities platforms and tools that can integrate the core research and teaching work of humanists with public visibility and engagement. Such platforms and tools (for publishing, editing, research, pedagogy, etc.) can be designed from the ground up, both to serve the needs of academics and to engage with today's networked public. This paper is a step in that direction.

References
Auslin, M. (2012). Knowledge is Good. National Review Online. 15 March. http://www.aei.org/article/education/higher-education/knowledge-is-good/ (accessed 13 March 2013).
Bauerlein, M. (2011). Oh, the Humanities! The Weekly Standard. 16 May. http://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/oh-humanities_559340.html (accessed 13 March 2013).
Bielby, J. (2012). Arguments for the Humanities. CIRCA Wiki, October. http://circa.cs.ualberta.ca/index.php/CIRCA:Arguments_FOR_the_Humanities (accessed 13 March 2013).
Cohan, P. (2012a). To Boost Post-College Prospects, Cut Humanities Departments. Forbes, 29 May. http://www.forbes.com/sites/petercohan/2012/05/29/to-boost-post-college-prospects-cut-humanities-departments/ (accessed 13 March 2013).
Cohan, P. (2012b). The 13 Most Useless Majors, From Philosophy to Journalism. The Daily Beast, 23 April. http://www.thedailybeast.com/galleries/2012/04/23/the-13-most-useless-majors-from-philosophy-to-journalism.html (accessed 13 March 2013).
Davidson, C. N. (2011). Strangers on a Train. Academe. 97 (5). http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/pubsres/academe/2011/SO/Feat/davi.htm (accessed 13 March 2013).
Davidson, C. N. (2012). Humanities 2.0: Promise, Perils, Predictions. In Gold, M. (ed), Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 476-489.
Davidson, C. N., and D. T. Goldberg (2004). A Manifesto for the Humanities in a Technological Age. The Chronicle of Higher Education: The Chronicle Review. 13 Feb.
Delblanco, A. (2011). College: What It Was, Is, and Should Be. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Ellouk, B. (2011). Do We Still Need the Humanities? The Daily of the University of Washington. 26 July. http://dailyuw.com/news/2011/jul/26/do-we-still-need-humanities/ (accessed 13 March 2013).
Fendrich, L. (2009). The Humanities Have No Purpose. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 20 March. http://chronicle.com/blogs/brainstorm/the-humanities-have-no-purpose/6738 (accessed 13 March 2013).
Fish, S. (2007). Bound For Academic Glory? The New York Times, 23 December. http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/12/23/bound-for-academic-glory/ (accessed 13 March 2013).
Fish, S. (2008). Will the Humanities Save Us? The New York Times, 6 January. http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/01/06/will-the-humanities-save-us/ (accessed 13 March 2013).
Fish, S. (2010). The Crisis of the Humanities Officially Arrives. The New York Times, 11 October. http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/10/11/the-crisis-of-the-humanities-officially-arrives/ (accessed 13 March 2013).
Fund, J. (2012). Censoring Naomi Riley. The National Review Online, 12 May. http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/299765/censoring-naomi-riley-john-fund (accessed 13 May 2013).
Kirschenbaum, M. (2012). Digital Humanities As/Is a Tactical Term. In Gold, M. (ed), Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 415-428.
Knapp, S. (2011). The Enduring Dilemma of the Humanities. The Phi Beta Kappa Society, 29 March. http://www.pbk.org/home/FocusNews.aspx?id=741 (accessed 13 March 2013).
Koc, E. W. (2011). Just Wait 10 Years. New York Times, 21 March. http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/03/20/career-counselor-bill-gates-or-steve-jobs/your-college-major-matter-less-over-time. (accessed 13 March 2013).
Lakoff, G. (2004). Don’t Think of an Elephant!: Know Your Values and Frame the Debate. White River, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing Company.
Liu, A. (2012). Where Is Cultural Criticism in the Digital Humanities? In Gold, M. (ed), Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 490-509.
Murdoch, R. (2011). The Steve Jobs Model for Education Reform. The Wall Street Journal, 15 October. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203914304576631100415237430.html (accessed 13 March 2013).
Pidgeon, S. (2007). Commented on Fish, S. Bound For Academic Glory? The New York Times, 23 December. http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/12/23/bound-for-academic-glory/#comment-100883 (accessed 13 March 2013).
Riley, N. S. (2012). The Academic Mob Rules. The Wall Street Journal, 8 May. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304363104577391842133259230.html (accessed 13 May 2013).
Sinclair, S., and G. Rockwell Collocates Cluster, from Voyant Tools. http://docs.voyant-tools.org/tools/links/ (accessed 13 March 2013).
Sini, M. (2011). Oh the Humanities! (OR: A Critique of Crisis). OverLand, 22 February. http://overland.org.au/blogs/loudspeaker/2011/02/%E2%80%98oh-the-humanities%E2%80%99-or-a-critique-of-crisis/ (accessed 13 March 2013).
Stephens, B. (2012). To the Class of 2012. The Wall Street Journal, 9 May. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304451104577389750993890854.html (accessed 13 March 2013).
Wente, M. (2012). Quebec’s University Students are in for a Shock. The Globe and Mail, 1 May. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/commentary/quebecs-university-students-are-in-for-a-shock/article4104304/ (accessed 13 March 2013).
Wood, P. (2012). Rick Santorum is Right. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 29 February. http://chronicle.com/blogs/innovations/rick-santorum-is-right/31769 (accessed 13 March 2013).","txt","2","",""
"1581","14","Teaching Text Analysis with Voyant","15","Introduction
One of the common skills covered in introductory digital humanities courses at both the undergraduate and graduate levels is computer-assisted text analysis. This workshop will introduce participants to ways of teaching text analysis with the online text analysis environment, Voyant Tools (voyant-tools.org). Unlike previous workshops that have been focused on using Voyant Tools for research, this workshop is aimed at participants who want to introduce text analysis into their teaching. Participants are not expected to know much about text analysis or Voyant; this workshop will include a brief hands-on component to introduce text analysis with Voyant as an example of what can be done.
Outline of the workshop
The workshop will take the following form.
•        Introductions: where the instructors and participants introduce themselves and their teaching context.
•        Brief example of teaching text analysis with Voyant: where participants are led through a hands-on introduction to Voyant as if they were students.
•        Discussion of example: where we discuss how the hands-on example tutorial could work (or not) in an undergraduate class.
•        Models for text analysis: where we break into groups that develop models for how they might use text analysis in a course. Some might develop a model for introducing text analysis in a literature course, some in a digital humanities course.
•        Managing the module: where we discuss what can go wrong and what learning resources there are.
•        Why bother: where we conclude with a discussion of the place of text analysis in the digital humanities curriculum.
What is text analysis and why teach it?
Text analysis is about asking questions of a text with the help of a computer. As such it is a research method of interest to any who interpret texts. Computer-assisted text analysis tools evolved out of the concordance as a tool for studying a text by searching it for patterns and gathering passages that agree in some way. Early text analysis tools like COCOA and OCP were designed to produce print concordances from the early electronic texts being entered in the 1960s and 70s (Lancashire 1986). With interactive programs like TACT in the late 1980s we saw tools designed to support research on the computer screen (Lancashire 1996). Now text analysis tools like Voyant are available as online web services that you can upload a text to. The newer tools can handle large e-texts and they provide text mining and visualization features. Tools like HyperPo and Voyant can be thought of as reading tools designed to provide multiple interfaces for interpretation (Sinclair 2003). These online tools make it possible to teach text analysis without having students struggle with the complexities of pre-indexing tools, special markup, or installing software.
Teaching text analysis has been part of introductory digital humanities courses because of the important place of electronic texts in computing in the humanities. Humanities computing grew out of early concording efforts like the Index Thomisticus of Father Busa (Busa 1980). As we developed models for how to represent texts in electronic form we began to ask what might be learned from these electronic texts. What questions might be asked of etexts that we couldn’t ask in close reading of a text? Teaching text analysis is a way of letting students see the opportunities and limits to algorithmic criticism, as Stephen Ramsay calls it (Ramsay 2008). Teaching text analysis lets them engage with what the computer can really do in the way of analyzing (taking apart or tokenizing) information and synthesizing new views on information like visualizations. It is also a way of introducing students to research methods that they can use in their studies of texts.
Models for integrating text analysis into a course
Text analysis can be woven into a course in different ways. It can be integrated as a short module just to give students a taste or it can be taught in depth as a research method. In this workshop we will look at three models for integrating text analysis into a course:
•        Short module in an undergraduate class: First, we will look at how this can be taught as a one week module in an undergraduate class with a hands-on tutorial. This is the example that we will walk through with the participants as if they were students.
•        One day workshop: Second, we will look at how text analysis can be taught in a one day workshop for students and colleagues. We will discuss how instructors can set tasks for students to tackle on their own and how one can alternate hands-on instruction with discussion.
•        Research methods for graduate students: Lastly we will cover how one might teach text analysis to graduate students who are going to use it as a research method. In this context we will discuss readings that can be assigned and projects one can assign. We will talk about other tools and resources that graduate students may need for research projects. We will discuss how data can be prepared for Voyant and how data can be extracted from Voyant for other tools. Voyant can be part of a larger suite of tools graduate students use in real research.
In all of these cases there are some common types of materials we will have for participants:
•        Scripts: We will walk through online scripts that can be used for teaching Voyant. These scripts with links to all the resources needed are based on our working scripts that have been tested teaching Voyant around the world. (Seehttp://hermeneuti.ca/workshops for example scripts).
•        Readings: We will share an annotated bibliography of readings about text analysis that can be used with students.
•        Examples: One of the hardest things to teach is how text analysis might be reported in a real research paper. We will share examples of research reports, papers and blog essays that show how others have used text analysis and woven it into assignments.
•        Other Tools: Students who are pursuing original questions almost always run up against the limitations of any particular tool. We will share a list of other tools and discuss how Voyant can be used both to analyze hybrid texts from other tools or to export data for use with other tools.
What can go wrong?
An important part of the workshop will be a final discussion of what can go wrong with Voyant in a classroom and how to deal with it. Courses that introduce computing tools need to be carefully paced and tested so that the technology does not hold back the learning. When teaching with any online tool you need to have contingencies for when the server goes down or is busy with other queries. In the case of Voyant we now have backup servers and a resolver that was set up specifically for training situations. In the workshop we will go over how to prepare for teaching Voyant, how to set up multiple versions of the indexed texts that are being used for a class, and other tactics for dealing with delays with Voyant. For those that are interested we will also discuss how they can set up Voyant on their own servers so that they have control.
References
Barnbrook, G. (1996). Language and Computers: A Practical Guide to the Computer Analysis of Language.Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Busa, R. (1980). The Annals of Humanities Computing: The Index Thomisticus. Computers and the Humanities 14 (2). 83-90.
Lancashire, I. (1986). Concordance Programs for Literary Analysis. Computing in Higher Education, SIGCUE Outlook19 (112). 54-61.
Lancashire, I. (ed). (1996). Using TACT with Electronic Texts. New York: Modern Languages Association of America.
Ramsay, S., S. Schreibman and R. Siemens. (2008). Algorithmic Criticism. A Companion to Digital Literary Studies.Oxford, Blackwell.
Sinclair, S. (2003). Computer-Assisted Reading: Reconceiving Text Analysis. Literary and Linguistic Computing. 18 (2). 175-184.
Sinclair, S. and G. Rockwell. (2009). Teaching Text Analysis with Voyant: Between Language and Literature: Digital Text Exploration. In Lancashire, I. (ed). Teaching Literature and Language Online. New York: Modern Languages Association of America. 104-117.","txt","2","",""
"1582","14","Voyant Notebooks: Literate Programming and Programming Literacy","2","Some thirty years ago Donald Knuth, a computer scientist, proposed literate programming as a better way of organizing narrative and code (1984). Knuth argued that more emphasis should be placed on explaining to humans what computers are meant to do, rather than simply instructing computers what to do. Knuth was especially interested in weaving together macrostyle code snippets with prose that provided a larger narrative context, not merely functional comments of specific lines of code that are the distilled remnants of an intellectual process.
Literate programming has been more influential in theory than in practice (Nørmark), despite several utilities and environments including Mathematica, Knuth's (C)WEB, Sweave for R, and Marginalia for Clojure. Perhaps the exigencies of programming in the real world correspond poorly with the vision of Knuth of the programmer as author: ""the practitioner of literate programming can be regarded as an essayist, whose main concern is with exposition and excellence of style"" (1992, 1). However, that balance of essayist and coder strikes us as perfectly appropriate for the digital humanities, a natural blend of the expression of intellectual process with the exposition of technical methodologies. The prose can gloss the code, or viceversa, in a symbiotic relationship that serves to strengthen an argument and demonstrate its own workings.
One of the most significant potential benefits of the literate programming paradigm is pedagogical: these works can both explain an interpretive insight and present the methodology for reproducing the data or results that were part of the process. Many widely-read digital humanities blogs already present these characteristics of exploration, explanation, interpretation and step-by-step instructions (see for example blogs by Ted Underwood, Benjamin Schmidt, Lisa Rhody and Scott Weingart). Literate programming can be more self-contained and more useful for those learning new methodologies and new programming techniques. This is about the principles of literate programming, but also about the potential for increasing programming literacy.
This poster will introduce Voyant Notebooks, a web-based literate programming environment designed for the digital humanities (see Appendix A). There is already a working prototype and we anticipate having a more feature-rich version available by July 2013. Voyant Notebooks inherits many of the characteristics of the Voyant Tools environment, including a concern for usability and flexibility (researchers and students should be able to use it with minimal or no training and with their own texts of interest). Voyant Notebooks also addresses one of the main weaknesses of Voyant Tools: the fact that most tools are constrained by assumptions about how they would be most commonly used. For instance, the Wordle-like (word cloud) Cirrus tool is designed to show the top frequency terms from a corpus or document; but what if the user instead wants to visualize the top frequency nouns, or people, or repeating phrases? All of that functionality could be built into the tool, but possibly at the cost of usability (endless menus and options), and it could still never address all of the possible use cases. Voyant Notebooks, by contrast, empowers the user to customize some of the functionality by leveraging the analytic capabilities of the Voyant back-end and the visualization interfaces in the front-end (like Cirrus). Our poster will have two parts, a) a usable demonstration on one or more laptops and b) a poster that illustrates how Voyant Notebooks implements Knuth’s concept of literate programming. In addition to these conceptual aspects, the poster will outline technical details about the Voyant Notebooks prototype for those interested, including the technologies used for both client-side (browser) and server-side components. Some of the technical challenges that will be described include:
•        managing the flow of code execution in an asynchronous architecture,
•        using web workers to avoid browser freezes during longer executions,
•        mitigating the security risks of user-defined and persistent Javascript code,
•        code variable scoping across editor instances and window components,
•        embedding of Voyant tool panels (visualizations) and other services,
•        developing a flexible API for different programming levels and styles,
•        developing an API that includes both client-side and server-side operations, and
•        ensuring efficiency of repeated code snippets during writing and viewing.
And of course, visitors to the poster session will be warmly encouraged to play with Voyant Notebooks.
Appendix A: Mockup of Voyant Notebooks (previously called Voyeur Notebooks).
 
Figure 1:
Mockup of Voyant Notebooks
References
Knuth, D. (1984). Literate Programming. The Computer Journal 27(2): 97-111, 1.
Knuth, D. (1992). Literate Programming. Stanford University Center for the Study of Language and Information.
Nørmark, K. (1998). Literate Programming: Issues and Problems. http://www.cs.aau.dk/~normark/litpro/issues-and-problems.html.
Sinclair, S. and G. Rockwell (2012). Teaching Computer-Assisted Text Analysis: Approaches to Learning New Methodologies. in Digital Humanities Pedagogy. Open Book Publishers.","txt","2","",""
"1583","14","Textal: a text analysis smartphone app for Digital Humanities","2","This poster introduces Textal, a text analysis application for iOS, and text analysis service infrastructure, which is currently in development at UCLDH and UCLCASA and will be freely available from Summer 2013. This poster will present findings evaluating the development, launch, and reception of the app, indicating how smartphone technology can increase the potential for public engagement within the Digital Humanities.
Textal (soon to be launched at www.textal.org, currently on twitter at @textal) will be a freely available smartphone application which allows users to create, share, and explore word clouds of a document, website, or tweet stream. Those in visualization and Digital Humanities have tended to sneer at the popular use of word clouds (Harris 2011, Meeks 2012), given we are used to applying robust text analysis tools (such as http://voyant-tools.org/). However, Textal turns word clouds into an intuitive, visually-oriented interface: once a Textal of a chosen text is generated, users can click on words to access underlying statistics, such as frequency and collocates, and so we believe that the pinch, stretch, and click potential in smartphones, along with our judicious design, can fix the elements of word cloud visualization which are currently held to be problematic and act as a bridge between those who have never encountered text analysis techniques, and the more detailed approaches undertaken by researchers in Digital Humanities. All Textal visualizations, including word-clouds, graphs, charts, and word lists, can be shared via social media such as Twitter and Facebook, and the resulting interface word clouds will also be available online. Textal is powered by server-side processing of linguistic data (users can submit any text material they want, by URL, or copy or paste). The resulting sever architecture will also serve as an API for those wishing to carry out on-the-fly generation of text analysis statistics, which can be used in conjunction with other web services.
We envision the Textal iPhone, and iPad, app as a fun text-analysis-in-your-pocket product, which can raise the profile of this technique. We have built Textal with the general audience in mind, to bring Digital Humanities approaches to as wide an international audience as possible (we will be translating the interface into many languages). With an increasing move towards smartphone rather than desktop technologies (Tofel 2012) there is a need to understand how mobile technologies fit within the Digital Humanities remit. We believe we are one of the first teams to build, from scratch, a stand-alone app that brings Digital Humanities techniques to a wider, mobile based, audience. (Previous apps, do exist, such as the DH2012 conference app (https://itunes.apple.com/app/dh2012/id536290090?mt=8), which is an app based version of the conference programme. Geostoryteller is a platform for history walking tours that allow smartphone users to interact with multimedia historical information as they move around a neighbourhood (http://www.geostoryteller.org/index.php, see Rabina and Cocciolo 2012.). Others have used augmented reality viewers for historical and archaeological sites (see http://www.dead-mens-eyes.org/), often built on existing commercial platforms. We don’t believe, however, that others have built smartphone apps that allow the user to do much data analysis or processing in the way we describe).
We are building Textal from the ground up using our own server infrastructure, with the app programmed in house in Objective-C. Textal will be available for iOS only, with a plan to build a stand-alone application for use with Apple laptop and desktops. Depending on reception, we may then build an app for other operating systems. Given that we own the infrastructure, we will be able to view and analyse how, why and when people are using text analysis: we will be tracking use and users, including geo-locating text analysis, to ascertain the potential audience for this type of service and to understand more about the kind of texts people want to analyse, allowing us to undertake a reception study into Textal’s uptake, which will be of great interest to the wider Digital Humanities audience.
Although the app will not be launched until Summer 2013 this is not a promissory abstract: most of the development, including both technical infrastructure, server architecture, and design-work on the app, is now complete and at time of submission we are moving into alpha-testing with a core group of users interested in text analysis. This poster will be an up-to-the-minute account of a very recent development in Digital Humanities: what ramifications do apps hold for Digital Humanities as a discipline or a field of practice? We will report using up-to-date statistics generated from Textal as a case study, and demonstrate Textal at the poster session.
References
Harris, J. (2011). Word Clouds Considered Harmful. Nieman Journalism Lab. http://www.niemanlab.org/2011/10/word-clouds-considered-harmful/ (accessed 13 October 2011.)
Meeks, E. (2012). Using Word Clouds for Topic Modeling Results. Digital Humanities Specialist bloghttps://dhs.stanford.edu/algorithmic-literacy/using-word-clouds-for-topic-modeling-results/. (accessed 15 August 2012).
Rabina, D. L., and A. Cocciolo (2012). Uncovering lost histories through GeoStoryteller: A digital GeoHumanities project. Digital Humanities 2012, Hamburg. http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/uncovering-lost-histories-through-geostoryteller-a-digital-geohumanities-project/
Tofel, K. C. (2012). Uh-Oh, PC. Half of Computing Device Sales are Mobile. Gigaom blog,http://gigaom.com/mobile/uh-oh-pc-half-of-computing-device-sales-are-mobile/ (accessed 16 January 2012.)","txt","2","",""
"1584","14","Academic Migrants: A Digital Discussion of Transnational Teaching and Learning","9","1. Overview
This short paper offers a progress report on the first digital humanities project being conducted at Nazarbayev University, a newly established English-language institution in Kazakhstan. During the 2012-2013 and 2013-2014 academic years, international faculty members and Kazakh students have the opportunity to contribute personal narratives of academic migration to an open-access digital database. The ensemble of narratives documents personal experiences of migration while investigating how academic migration impacts teaching and learning on trans/national scales. Putting the digital accounts into dialogue with print research on academic migration and migration more generally, the short paper probes the following questions: How does the collection of digital narratives from the Nazarbayev University campus community enhance or problematize current research on migration? What does the digital collection reveal about the formation of individual and national identities in an era of increased migration and information technology? And, how does the project’s digital storytelling framework promote transnational dialogue about teaching and learning, thereby impacting trends in higher education?

2. Context and Content
“Academic Migrants” investigates experiences and impacts of academic migration through digital storytelling. The project focuses on the unique case study of academic migration to Nazarbayev University in Astana, Kazakhstan. Migration for academic purposes is integral to the mission of this English-language university. In 2011, Nazarbayev University opened its undergraduate programs in partnership with major international institutions of higher learning including the University of Wisconsin-Madison and the University College London. The faculty consists primarily of scholars trained in North America and Europe, while the student body hails from all regions of the vast country. Over the course of the 2012-2013 and 2013-2014 academic years, students and faculty are invited to contribute personal accounts of academic migration to a project website.

This case study of academic migration contributes to developments in the field of migration studies. In the post-war period of the 1940s, the field of migration studies began to take root in the United States, the United Kingdom and other Western European countries. According to Castles and Miller, a great deal of research in the field has and continues to focus on the political and economic causes and consequences of migratory patterns implicating the U.S. and other global powers. Though much of this research has centered on the migration of unskilled laborers, more recent scholarship takes into consideration the migration of skilled workers. In the past five years, the subfield of “academic migration” has emerged to shed light on the experiences of educated individuals migrating because of academic pursuits. A growing number of social scientists are investigating the impacts of the migration of academics from “developing” countries to North American and European nations. An annual conference on the subject began in 2009 ( http://www.fbmk.upm.edu.my/ICAMM3/ ) and an anthology appeared in 2011 (Dervin). Existing studies overwhelmingly focus on what is termed a “brain drain” phenomenon, studying for example the movement of highly educated individuals from Africa to Europe or from former Soviet republics, like Kazakhstan, to Russia. “Academic Migrants” moves away from the “brain drain” framework to present a different narrative of academic migration. In offering a case study of academic migration that hinges on the movement of North American and European scholars to the post-Soviet capital of Astana, this project addresses new trends in both migration and higher education.

3. Methods
Essential to the project is its use of digital storytelling to document and investigate the causes and implications of academic migration on personal, national and transnational levels. The use of first-hand narratives is inspired by the work of scholars like Homi Bhaba, Stuart Hall and Avtar Brah who draw from their personal experiences of migrating from the “global south” to the “global north” to deconstruct problematic North/South and West/East paradigms. These authors’ cultural theories of hybrid identity and diasporic space challenge the Western-centric foundation and bi-directional focus of migration studies. Similarly, “Academic Migrants” draws from the personal narratives of students and faculty to challenge problematic West/Rest paradigms in its study of migration to and within Kazakhstan in the post-Soviet period. Participants have the option of contributing narratives in written, oral and/or visual formats, and contributions will be arranged on the project website according to particular themes or questions such as the home/land, language and translation, globalization, and so forth. The general public will have the opportunity to interact with the campus community by responding to the digital stories and contributing to online discussions about topics pertinent to academic migration.

4. Outcomes
In using interactive digital storytelling to document and generate discussion about academic migration, this project probes how life narratives can enhance our understanding of the causes and consequences of migration. Specifically, the ensemble of audio-visual and written narratives explores various reasons for which individuals become academic migrants, how personal experiences of migration overlap and/or vary, and how migration impacts teaching and learning on national and transnational scales. In addition to illuminating the varied experiences of academic migrants at Nazarbayev University and informing our understanding of migration, the digital collection invites public dialogue about migration that extends beyond national and academic frontiers.

References
Bhabha, H. (1994). The Location of Culture. London: Routledge.
Brah, A. (1996). Cartographies of Diaspora: Contesting Identities. New York: Routledge.
Castles, S., and M. Miller (2003). The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. London: Guilford.
Dervin, F. (2011). Analysing the Consequences of Academic Mobility and Migration. New Castle upon Thyne: Cambridge Scholars.
Hall, S. (1990). Cultural Identity and Diaspora. In Rutherford, J. (ed), Identity: Community, Culture, Difference. London: Lawrence. 222-237.","txt","2","",""
"1585","14","The Advanced Identity Representation (AIR) Project: A Digital Humanities Approach to Social Identity Pedagogy","10","The Advanced Identity Representation (AIR) Project [1] develops theory and technology for expressive and empowering self-representations (profiles, player characters, avatars) in social networks, games, and related technologies. Here, I report on the development processes and pedagogy of the AIR Project. In particular, I describe two systems implemented as a part of the AIR Project: (1) Mimesis, a critical pedagogy game that increases awareness of covert forms of social discrimination, and (2) Chimeria, a system that computationally models social group membership phenomena and narrates them via a social networking interface. These systems emerged from integrated research and pedagogical aims based upon a unique interdisciplinary theoretical framework and have been published on in peer-reviewed conference proceedings with students as co-authors. Introduction
Over the past several years, I have run a course at MIT on Advanced Identity Representation in which students use software platforms developed in my lab [2] to implement empowering computational systems allowing users to better understand social identity phenomena. In particular, we have explored topics such as microaggression (covert discrimination studied in critical race theory and clinical psychology) and modeling social group membership and naturalization.

Most computational identity systems incorrectly reify identity categories by implementing them as simple data fields (e.g., selecting gender from a brief drop down menu) or collections of attributes (e.g., races represented as modifiers to numerical statistics and constrained graphical characteristics in computer games). In contrast, the AIR Project results in computational models of subjective identity phenomena related to categorization such as specific forms of marginalization that are often overlooked in engineering. Simply put, we intervene in engineering practice by replacing conventional narrow categorization models with systems informed by more critically-aware humanities/social science research.

The AIR Project approach allows us to construct systems, for example, simulating phenomena such as systematic patterns of discrimination or experiences of moving between social groups. These systems cannot express the nuances of real world identities, yet they provide advances [3] over current systems in their foci on phenomena shown by humanities scholars and social scientists to be important for understanding issues such as oppression and supporting user empowerment. The resultant systems are often necessarily reductive (from real life experience to data structures and algorithms) in order to be implementable, yet this reduction is done knowingly with the benefit of expanding the expressive capacity of computational systems to address social identity phenomena.

Theoretical Framework
Our systems are based on a theoretical framework including the following areas:

Digital Humanities/Game Studies
Current user representations in digital media are inadequate for capturing complex phenomena involving subjective experience of social identity. Current character creation tools allow for user representations to be customized on the basis of attributes associated with models of race, class, profession, and similar classifications, along with physical choice and construction of character models, skin tone, gender characteristics, and the like. Many popular current games duplicate and amplify many disempowering existing social structures. Such games hardcode stereotypes into their infrastructures. They reduce social constructs such as race to sets of numerical variables, abstract data structures and cosmetic changes to avatar appearance (Harrell, 2010).

Cognitive Science of Categorization
Results from cognitive science have revealed that there are many basic, entrenched metaphors that inform everyday cognitive categorization, including social stereotyping. (Lakoff, 1987) These concepts are often structured by image schemas, “skeletal patterns” that recur in our motor-sensory experiences such as “Center-Periphery” or “More is Up” as expressed respectively by everyday cognitive metaphors such as “marginalized peoples” or “upper-class.” (Lakoff, 1987)

Sociology of Classification
A great deal of personal suffering has been identified in cases where individuals exist at the interstices and boundaries between social classifications, for example individuals of ambiguous racial classification in Apartheid South Africa (Bowker & Star, 1999), or the classification of “mixed-race” individuals in the United States Census recordings. Such situations, in which there are conflicts between individual biographies, identity self-perception, and social metrification of identity, result in the experience of what Bowker and Star term torque. AIR project systems take up the challenge to computer scientists posed by Bowker and Star by implementing models of social identity that are dynamic, imaginative, and explicitly socially-constructed.

Pedagogy and Development
Building upon the theoretical framework above, my repeatable lab/seminar course CMS.628/828 Advanced Identity Representation is populated by MIT Ph.D. students in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, S.M. students in Comparative Media Studies, a small number of undergraduates from a range of departments, and occasional cross-registered students such as from the Graduate School of Education at Harvard University. My teaching approach draws upon critical pedagogy research and theories of computational literacy (diSessa, 2000; Freire, 1973; Street, 1993). A brief account of two projects developed in the course follows.

Mimesis
Mimesis is an interactive narrative system exploring a particular social discrimination phenomenon via metaphor. As illustrated in Figure 1, in Mimesis the player character encounters others (sea creatures) who perform discriminatory microaggressions. We use metaphor to convey a generalized notion of microaggression from the definition of racial microaggression as “brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral and environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racials slights and insults to the target person or group.” (Sue, et al., 2007) Racial microaggressions have been clinically found to have strong cumulative effects on health and happiness, and restrict understandings between groups. (ibid.) Mimesis aims to explore the efficacy of computational identity representation systems as tools for bringing awareness of microaggression at large. In Mimesis, each encounter between the player and a non-player character progresses according to a conversational narrative schema in which moods such oblivious, confused, suspicious, or aggressive are mapped to strategies of conversationally responding to microaggressions. We aim for Mimesis to be an effective tool for increasing awareness of this subtle form of social discrimination.


Figure 1:
This screen shot shows the player’s character (left) in a microaggressive encounter in which a non-player character (right) metaphorically represents the theme of stereotypical ascription of skill (e.g., assuming someone is good at mathematics because of her ethnicity).

Chimeria
Chimeria consists of: (1) the Chimeria Engine: a dynamic algorithmic model of users’ degrees of membership in multiple social groups, and (2) the Chimeria Social Narrative Interface (Chimeria­SN): a narrative social networking interface for expressing experiences of membership and marginalization in social groups (see Figure 2). The Chimeria Engine’s model of users’ dynamic gradient category memberships in relation to central members enables more nuance than binary statuses of member/non­member. (Bowker & Star, 1999; Harrell, 2010; Lakoff, 1987)

Chimeria­SN is a streamlined, aestheticized social networking interface. The screen is dominated by a photowall: a dynamic collage of photos representing the user’s musical taste preferences. A feed of recent updates, posts, and invitations appear in an adjacent vertical timeline. One initial application of Chimeria attends to the phenomenon of passing—presenting oneself as a member of another group to gain social acceptance (e.g., a multiracial person passing for white or a rock fan passing as a jazz fan). Music is our initial test domain since people often identify with groups based on musical preferences. We generate categories of social groups using music data (e.g., genres, artists, moods) from the Rovi Cloud Services API.


Figure 2:
This screenshot shows the Chimeria social-networking/interactive narrative interface. 



Chimeria­SN begins by initializing a set of musical preferences from the user’s Facebook music likes or by manual entry. A Chimeria profile is then generated, initiating a hybrid real/fictitious simulation presented via narrative structured posts by the user’s friends. The user may click “like,” “dislike,” or simply ignore these posts, resulting in group membership changes illustrated by alterations to the photowall and subsequent posts. The resulting narrative may tell of passing as a member of a new group, reinforcing a prior group affiliation, or even being marginalized in every group. Furthermore, some groups are deemed oppositional, privileged, or marginalized relative to others.

Novel aspects of Chimeria include:

a compelling interface that is familiar and accessible to most users who have used a social networking application,
the combining of real world data with authored data, comprising a new type of alternate reality narrative (blending fact and fiction to convey social themes), and
generalizability to a wide range of applications.
Conclusion
The AIR project looks at the underlying data structures and algorithms and how they implement cultural identity effects, and posits a technical framework for more deeply engaging identity semantics of classification and categorization. Additionally, a primary application of our project is educational software such as Mimesis and Chimeria that utilize digital humanities technology and theory to allow students to represent themselves as learners and doers within subject domains. Digital humanities approaches to identity such as this, we feel, are especially attuned to the pedagogical needs of today’s students.

References
Bowker, G. C., and S. L. Star (1999). Sorting Things Out: Classification and Its Consequences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
diSessa, A. A. (2000). Changing minds: Computers, learning, and literacy. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Freire, P. (1973). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Seabury Press (Originally 1968).
Harrell, D. F. (2010). Toward a Theory of Critical Computing: The Case of Social Identity Representation in Digital Media Applications. CTheory.
Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Street, B. V. (1993). Introduction: The new literacy studies. In B. V. Street (Ed.), Cambridge studies in oral and literate culture: Cross-cultural approaches to literacy. Cambridge, UK: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.
Sue, D. W., C. M. Capodilupo, G. C. Torino, J. M. Bucceri, A. M. B. Holder, K. L. Nadal, et al. (2007). Racial Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Implications for Clinical Practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271-286.
Notes
1. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 1064495.

2. My research group is called the Imagination, Computation, and Expression Laboratory (ICE Lab).

3. The meaning of “advanced” in the AIR acronym refers to advances over the limitations of many current identity categorization systems that are unengaged with theories of identity from the humanities and social sciences.","txt","2","",""
"1586","14","A Digital Humanities Approach to the Design of Gesture-Driven Interactive Narratives","10","Overview
The digital humanities include the development of computing technologies to create and better understand subjective expression and narrative, topics usually studied in fields such as literary and cultural studies. Our open-source platform, the GeNIE system, implemented in Objective C, allows authors to create and better understand culturally salient, effective, gesture-driven interactive stories. Three primary outcomes of this project are described below.

Theoretical Framework
Our new models conceptually build upon:

Theory and Technology for Interactive Narrative (Harrell, 2007)
Studies of human gesture (Ekman & Friesen, 1972; McNeil, 1992)
Studies of human-computer gestural input (Wexelblat, 1994)
Semiotics (Peirce, 1965)
Study of narrative (Goguen, 2001; Labov, 1972)
Study of conceptual metaphor (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Lakoff & Turner, 1989)
On this basis, we developed our own synthesizing process and framework discussed below.
Results
Our research resulted in:

New Theory: We created a taxonomy of relationships between gestures performed by users as input to devices and narrative meanings in digital stories.
New Technology: We built an engine for implementing gesture-driven interactive narratives for mobile devices featuring touchscreens and a sample interactive narrative to instantiate and assess our outcomes.
New Theory
Our expansive definition of “gesture” encompasses a range of non-verbal communication types including hand gestures, posture, facial expression, and other forms of embodied meaning expression. When it comes to digital storytelling, there are two meanings of gesture that are likely to be used. These are:

Input Gesture: Gesture as a user input mechanism on specific device (such as a user clicking and dragging using a touchscreen)
Storyworld Gesture: Gesture as narrative act/expression within a particular media experience (such as a character in a game pointing at another character)
In C.S. Peirce’s classic work in semiotics, he describes multiple types of relationships that representations can have to meanings (Peirce, 1965). One of these types of relationships is termed “indexical.” It describes a function between the representation (representamen) and a meaning (object). The indexical relationship describes a function between these, i.e. how they (often indirectly) relate to one another. For example, “smoke” can be an index for “fire” when the presence of smoke indicates the presence of fire. This is relevant here, because when gestures performed by a user, such as moving a finger up and down (Input Gesture), causes gestures to be performed by a character, such as nodding her head (Storyworld Gesture), then we can say that the two gestures have an indexical relationship to one another.
So, the task of a gesture-driven interactive narrative system is to implement a set of indexical relationships suited for effective interactive narrative.

There are many such indexical relationships. Based on the references in our theoretical framework, some of the most useful in developing interactive narrative works were:

Pantomimic: user action is echoed as an avatar action
Example: swinging a device to swings a storyworld tennis racket
Iconic: user action depicts the form of an avatar action
Example: a “<>” motion with fingers makes a character place its hands on hips
Metonymic or Metaphoric: user action is associated with the same meaning as an avatar action
Examples: Metonymic – shaking the device makes a character angry; Metaphoric —downward swiping makes a character appear emotionally down (SAD is DOWN)
Manipulative: user action tightly manipulates an object
Example: Dragging flips a light switch on/off
Semaphoric (non-diegetic): user action controls something outside of the storyworld
Example: double-clicking pauses
New Technology
GeNIE consists of two components, one structures narrative events and the other renders them using animated graphical images and text.

Narrative system component:
The narrative event-structuring component allows authors to represent stories based on a model of sociolinguist William Labov (see Figure 1). We chose this venerable model as an initial test case since it is empirically-based, easily extensible, and, most importantly, since oral narratives of personal experience are the bases for many more complex forms of storytelling.


Figure 1:
Labov’s model of narratives of personal experience (Labov, 1972)

Story specifications use the well-known XML format to make it easily usable by non-expert programmers.

Graphical System Component:
The graphical rendering system uses appropriate animated illustrations to express underlying narrative content (Figure 2 shows a screenshot of a prototype narrative).


Figure 2:
Screenshots from a test narrative implemented on a mobile “smartphone.” Gestural input causes events to occur in a storyworld and drives the narrative forward.

In a sample narrative, we used these to affect important aspects of storytelling such as emotional tone. For example, the metaphoric gesture of pinching in or pinching out can be used to express introverted or outgoing feelings (see Figure 3).


Figure 3:
Pinching in or pinching out affects the character’s emotional state.

In our prototype, we implemented emotional states resonating with James A. Russell’s idea of core affect (Russell, 2003) by representing both the sense of arousal and the degree of pleasure characters felt as shown in Figure 4 (illustration by Chow):


Figure 4:
A character’s emotional state is displayed via storyworld gestures. The vertical axis shows how the character’s facial expression changes to represent the degree of pleasure. The horizontal axis shows how the character’s body language changes to represent the sense of arousal. Combinations of two dimensions result in emotions such as “tense” or “ebullient.”

Furthermore, the system utilized conventions from cinema in order to shift between gestures of different types that affect storytelling differently (see Figures 5 and 6). For example, a close-up shot allows the user to alter the character’s facial expressions and reactions in greater detail, while still keeping an eye on the actions and reactions of the other characters. Dialogue balloons appear to indicate character speech.


Figure 5:
A semaphoric gesture: touching a hotspot for the first time causes an explanation of the related interaction to appear. An iconic gesture: dragging in a ""U"" shape causes the character to smile (an inverted ""U"" causes the character to frown).


Figure 6:
Manipulative gestures: closing the character’s eyes reveals the character’s thoughts (other gestures can then change the character’s emotions toward objects the character is thinking about); eye-opening exits the thoughts.

Similarly, the medium shot allows the user to get a sense of the environment, and allows for manipulation of the player character’s overall posture (see Figure 7).


Figure 7:
Manipulative gestures: swiping up and down causes the character to agree with a statement by another character, while swiping left and right causes the character to disagree.

Culturally Specific Expressive Interfaces
We were also interested in implementing culturally diverse gestural models and how culturally-specific gestures can be conveyed via digital media. For example, in some speakerly texts (Gates Jr., 1988), actions such as eye-rolling or placing one’s hands on her/his hips have served as markers for a self-possessed “attitude.” Gestural walk cycles can convey culturally meaningful differences such as a “cool strut” or “uptight stride.” In our sample narrative demo, we implemented a specifically Japanese anime-based gestural model explicitly to exploit the notion of cultural discomfort felt between two characters.

Intuitive Interfaces
At the same time, gestures can also implement relatively universal forms of communication such as the intuitively aggressive act of shaking a device. As another example, tilting a device from side to side can be used as in intuitive way to switch between two characters.

Harrell has developed evaluation methods for games and interactive narratives based on grounded theory analysis augmented by metaphor-based analyses from cognitive science. After assessing early prototypes, we began user-testing the first complete interactive narrative produce using the system called Mimesis, which is used to educate users about social discrimination. To summarize early observations, users found the test demo to be effective in conveying our core aims: the system has been found to be intuitive and users conceive of themselves as “puppeteers” for characters. Another outcome is that the system design holds implications that would be a fruitful interaction mechanism for videogames at a diverse user-set. Computer scientists found the gestural input taxonomy to be informative for developing interfaces.

Conclusion
Better understanding and designing digital storytelling systems, as they fit within the broader purview of storytelling in media at large, is a digital humanities endeavor. Our theory helps with better understand digital storytelling systems and enables development of systems that are culturally and technically grounded in a greater diversity of cultural models than most current systems.

References
Ekman, P., and W. V. Friesen (1972). Hand Movements. Journal of Communication, 22:353-374.
Gates Jr., H. L. (1988). The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism. New York: Oxford.
Goguen, J. (2001). Notes on Narrative, from http://www.cse.ucsd.edu/~goguen/papers/narr.html (accessed 8/31/2011)
Harrell, D. F. (2007). Theory and Technology for Computational Narrative: An Approach to Generative and Interactive Narrative with Bases in Algebraic Semiotics and Cognitive Linguistics. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla.
Labov, W. (1972). The Transformation of experience in narrative syntax. Language in the Inner City 354-396. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Lakoff, G., and M. Johnson (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Lakoff, G., and M. Turner (1989). More Than Cool Reason — A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
McNeil, D. (1992). Hand and Mind: What Gestures Reveal about Thought. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Peirce, C. S. (1965). Collected Papers of Charles Saunders Peirce. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
Russell, J. A. (2003). Core Affect and the Psychological Construction of Emotion. Psychological Review, 110:1, 145-172.
Wexelblat, A. (1994). A feature-based approach to continuous-gesture analysis. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Notes
This material is based upon work supported by a National Endowment for the Humanities Digital Humanities Start-Up Grant.","txt","2","",""
"1587","14","Against the Binary of Gender: A Case for Considering the Many Dimensions of Gender in DH Teaching and Research","10","There are genders beyond masculinity and femininity. Genderqueers, bois, gurls and otherwise gender variant people explore and express a wide variety of non-binary gender identities. Joy Johnson and Robin Repta note that “gender is typically theorized as a multidimensional, context-specific factor that changes according to time and place”, but in research practice, gender “is routinely assumed to be a homogeneous category … measured by a single check box” (28). The non-binary gender communities are untapped, underserved, and underrepresented by most scholarly activities. Digital humanities scholars have the potential to move beyond assumptions and to engage with non-binary gender in meaningful and tangible ways. This engagement can help the digital humanities live up to its promise, to “enhance the impact of [scholars’] work and engage with new audiences” (Prescott 63).

Though gender variance is not new, “exposure to new gender norms and social scripts has transformed the ways that some young individuals make sense of gender and gender non-conformity” (Shapiro 21). Shapiro cites technology as a tool that offers “new physical and social possibilities for gender” (24). The technology used in the field of digital humanities is part of this process of renegotiation and understanding, but it is necessary for digital humanities scholars to understand and accommodate these news ways of knowing and being. Mussell (writing about periodicals) notes that “there has been a fundamental transformation in the terms of access” (202) in the digital humanities classroom. This “fundamental transformation” applies to all aspects of knowledge compiled within the digital humanities, and it is perhaps the right moment now for the field to undertake the next step toward a comprehensive and nuanced engagement with new understandings of gender.

This paper is not only a call to catch up to complex understandings of non-binary gender in other disciplines such as queer and feminist theory (Butler), medical research (Johnson and Repta), child psychology (Wiseman and Davidson) and marketing and consumer research (Bettany, Dobscha, O’Malley and Prothero). It is a call to exceed the reach of these existing engagements. We must answer the same challenge Wiseman and Davidson have issued to clinical psychologists, “to continually reflect and discuss the multiplicity that is possible within human experience, recognizing the ways of thinking and knowing that we are embedded in” (536). Because the digital humanities influence how scholars do their work and how students frame their research questions, we are in a strong position to create a comprehensive discipline-wide conceptualization of non-binary gender. This is asking much of the digital humanities. The difficulty of engaging meaningfully with non-binary gender is highlighted by contradictions such as statements that “gender is to be considered as a two-sided coin, as constructions of masculinity, and what it is to be male, inevitably generate and constitute constructions of femininity, and what it is to be female” (Bettany et al 16) resulting from a conference entitled “Moving Beyond Binary Opposition: Exploring the Tapestry of Gender in Consumer Research and Marketing.” What is demonstrated here is the embeddedness of the binary construction of gender that the conference sought to explore and move beyond. It is that very embeddedness that digital humanities should seek to confront and overcome. We have the power to shape views through our construction of digital humanities classrooms and research projects. We should try to answer the challenge offered by Ryka Aoki; “[w]e should provide [genderqueer, trans, and gender variant people] the chance and even some guidance to find their own answers… let us give people the support and affirmation that they may never have experienced” (sec. 4).

Our paper proposes four ways that the digital humanities can engage scholars, research participants, and students in considering the non-binary nature of gender. First, we suggest that the design and development of tools for digital humanities scholarship should enable the exploration of texts according to gender identity, gender expression, biological sex, and sexual orientation. In addition, such exploration should be considered a multi-dimensional spectrum, not a series of on-off switches. Second, when constructing engagements with potential users of DH tools, we should employ design testing methods that move beyond assumptions of the gender binary. Third, in designing DH experiments, we might choose to privilege content from non-binary gender sources. Fourth, we can acknowledge non-binary gender in DH classes and seminars and, where possible, include relevant readings and explore the re-imagining of existing DH tools according to non-binary gender. Though these measures cannot provide a comprehensive response to the many issues that Digital Humanities scholarship must address regarding non-binary gender and gender inclusivity, they do represent important first steps towards an inclusive and collaborative solution.

References
Aoki, R. (2010). “On Living Well and Coming Free.” In Bornstein, K. and Bergman, S. B. (eds). Gender Outlaws. Berkeley: Seal Press.
Bettany, S., S. Dobscha, L. O’Malley, and A. Prothero (2010). “Moving Beyond Binary Opposition: Exploring the Tapestry of Gender in Consumer Research and Marketing.” Marketing Theory 10 3-28. Sage. (accessed 14 Oct. 2012).
Butler, J. (2004). Undoing Gender. New York: Routledge.
Johnson, J. L. and R. Repta (2012). “Sex and Gender: Beyond the Binaries.” In Oliffe, J. L. and Greaves, L. (eds). Designing and Conducting Gender, Sex, and Health Research. New York: Sage Publications: 17-37. Sage. (accessed 14 Oct. 2012.)
Mussell, J. (2012). Teaching Nineteenth-Century Periodicals Using Digital Resources: Myths and Methods. Victorian Periodicals Review 45 201-209. Project Muse. (accessed 25 Oct. 2012).
Prescott, A. (2011). “Consumers, Creators or Commentators?: Problems of Audience and Mission in the Digital Humanities.” Arts and Humanities in Higher Education 11 61-75. Sage. (accessed 24 Oct. 2012.)
Shapiro, E. (2010).Gender Circuits: Bodies and Identities in a Technological Age. New York: Routledge.
Wiseman, M. and S. Davidson (2011). Problems With Binary Gender Discourse: Using Context to Promote Flexibility and Connection in Gender Identity. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 17 528-537. Sage. (accessed 14 Oct. 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1588","14","Agent-Based Modeling and Historical Simulation","10","Overview
This paper will discuss Agent-Based Modeling (ABM) and its application in the humanities, with special focus on questions of concern to literary history. I begin with an introduction to ABM. Unlike text mining, topic modeling, and social-network analysis, which apply quantitative analysis to already existing text corpora, ABM creates a simulated environment and measures the interactions of individual agents within that environment. Like video games, agent-based models simulate rule-bound behaviors and generate outcomes based on those rules. However, unlike most games, where the “procedural rhetoric” of the game “persuades” users (Bogost), ABM does not depend on human interaction, but can be run many times with changing variables. Researchers can alter the parameters of agent behavior and compare how different models generate different outcomes. In the fields of ecology, economics, and political science, ABM has been used to show how the behaviors of individual entities—microbes, consumers, and voters— collectively alter large emergent phenomena. ABM offers a promising new way to approach long-standing humanistic questions, such as how literary genres change over time, how publics form and transform, how consumer markets influence authors, how ideologies move across national boundaries, or how family structures affect reading practices.

The bulk of my presentation will concern ABM in general and the theoretical issues posed by its application to historical data, but I will also discuss our ongoing project: a computer simulation of English print culture of the seventeenth century. Using NetLogo ABM software, we attempt to simulate some of the ways literary and political arguments moved through various textual media (print, manuscript, gossip, and the stage) of the seventeenth century. As the agents in our simulation trade texts, their networks of affiliation create “opinion formations” (groups of like- minded agents), helping us to see how literary and political values were transmitted in tandem. Book historians have shown how the history of ideas is inextricable from the networks of textual circulation through which ideas move. ABM will allow researchers to see these connections in a new way and, most importantly, to test textual relationships in a controlled, manipulable environment.

This paper aims to introduce ABM to digital humanists, not (just) because ABM is “the next big thing,” but also to enrich ABM by importing a “more comprehensive understanding of human decision-making ... needed to move the technique forward” (Williams 2012). The rich traditions and methods of humanistic inquiry have much to contribute to this new and important computational method.

Background: What is Agent-Based Modeling?
Computer simulation has emerged in the past two decades as an important alternate method of quantitative analysis. The social and biological sciences, in particular, have benefited from the adoption of NetLogo, a simple-to-use open-source program which has opened ABM to a wide range of new inquiries (Railsback). In archeology, researchers used ABM to test possible causes for the disappearance of the Kayenti Anasazi, a prehistoric precursor of the Pueblo cultures (Dean, et al.), but ABM has made few inroads into the humanities. In the humanities, quantitative approaches have tended to involve the manipulation of text. Agent-based modeling differs significantly from topic modeling, which identifies and visualizes “lexical relationality among literary works” (Piper and Algee-Hewitt; McCarty). Such techniques identify word-clusters that represent core ideas and demonstrate how these clusters relate to each other within an existing field of text-data. Similarly, text-mining and text-mapping, sometimes called “culturomics,” find large-scale patterns, which sometimes confirm and sometimes unsettle prior expectations (Michel et al.; Wilkens; Underwood; Lieberman). ABM is also concerned with identifying relationships across large bodies of data. However, ABM differs from these methods significantly by moving away from a text-centric understanding of history. ABM instead simulates the causal forces that motivate change in complex systems like historical societies.

ABM is most similar to Game Simulation (GS), and my discussion will briefly outline points of overlap. Historical gaming is an important genre, and research communities like PlayThePast.org are beginning to identify the pedagogical value of historical games. Like GS, ABM can be said to create a “problem space” where the “affordances” and “constraints” of the space dictate player behavior (McCall). Much of what Ian Bogost has said about games applies to ABM as well: “Games represent how real and imagined systems work, and they invite players to interact with those systems and form judgments about them” (Bogost). ABM shares with GS this attention to systems of interaction. Accordingly, there has been a new push to incorporate ABM into GS in order to provide better simulations for gameplay (Arai et al.; Bonnett).

Project Description: Simulating the History of Print Controversy
How do texts move through social networks? How does the movement of texts affect the movement of ideas? Although detailed financial records from the early print era are necessarily sparse, we know a great deal about the history of publishing as a system (Darnton; St. Clair; Raven). Book historians have developed complex qualitative models for understanding how books were produced, sold, and distributed. The most famous such model is Robert Darnton’s “communications circuit,” which provides a schema for describing the production of books as they flow through various contact points in the book trade. Our models point to three specific points of interaction in the circuit:

I: How do readers decide to purchase books?
Working from William St. Clair’s “reader-led model” for understanding the communications circuit, my first model will examine how readers’ preferences influence the decisions of printers and booksellers (St. Clair). Historians know a great deal about what books were published when and about the mix of old and new titles that circulated through bookshops. This simulation will describe when and how books run through multiple editions, when they are kept for sale, and when they are reverted to pulp.

II: How does censorship affect controversial political writing?
The print marketplace was tightly controlled by several governing forces. Some of these were official institutions, like the state Licenser and the Stationers’ Company (the professional association of printers and booksellers), but punishments were also meted out by influential individuals offended by books. In this model, I will adapt Joshua Epstein’s simulation of 20th- century political oppression to the seventeenth-century context in order to examine how the circulation of controversial books was affected by censors (Epstein).

III: How do books change readers’ opinions over time?
ABM has been used to describe voting patterns and “opinion formations” (Afshar and Asadpour; Lorenz). Following this research, my third model will examine how readers’ opinions change over time in response to political rhetoric. The reader-agents will hold an array of opinions along a continuously sliding scale from [-1] to [+1]. Agents respond to the opinions of others based on the confidence they placed in the author and in their proximity within continuously shifting social networks.

References
Afshar, M., and M. Asadpour (2010). “Opinion Formation by Informed Agents.” Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation 13 (4).: 5.
Arai, K., H. Deguchi, and H. Matsui (2006). Agent-Based Modeling Meets Gaming Simulation. Springer.
Bogost, I. (2007). Persuasive Games: The Expressive Power of Videogames. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Bonnett, J. (2007). Charting a New Aesthetics for History: 3D, Scenarios, and the Future of the Historian’s Craft. L’histoire Sociale/Social History 40. 169–208.
Darnton, R. (2006). What is the History of Books? in Book History Reader. 2nd edn. Routlege.
Dean, J., J. Epstein, A. Swedlund, M. Parker, and S. McCarroll Understanding Anasazi Culture Through Agent-Based Modeling. Sante Fe Institute. http://www.santafe.edu/media/workingpapers/98-10-094.pdf.
Lieberman, M. (2012). The ‘Dance of the P’s and B’s’: Truth or Noise? Language Log. http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=3730.
Lorenz, J. (2007). Continuous Opinion Dynamics Under Bounded Confidence: a Survey. International Journal of Modern Physics 18 1819–38.
McCall, J. (2012). Historical Simulations as Problem Spaces: Criticism and Classroom Use. Journal of Digital Humanities.
McCarty, W. (2004). Modeling: a Study in Words and Meanings. in Companion to the Digital Humanities. Blackwell.
Michel, J.-B., et al. (2011). Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books. Science 331 176–182.
Piper, A., and M. Algee-Hewitt (2012). About in Literary Topologies. http://literarytopologies.org/?page_id=15.
Railsback, S. (2012). Agent-based and Individual-based Modeling a Practical Introduction. Princeton University Press.
Raven, J. (2007). The Business of Books. Yale University Press.
St. Clair, W. (2004). Reading Nation in the Romantic Period. Cambridge.
Underwood, T. (2012). Where to Start with Text Mining. in The Stone and the Shell. http://tedunderwood.wordpress.com/2012/08/14/where-to-start-with-text-mining/.
Wilkens, M. (2012). “Canons, Close Reading, and the Evolution of Method.” In Debates in the Digital Humanities, ed. Gold, M. K. 249–58. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Williams, S. (2012). Agent-Based Modeling: History and Applications. Conference Presentation. Quantifying Social Fields. held at Berkeley, CA. http://www.irle.berkeley.edu/culture/conf2012/williams-agents12.pdf","txt","2","",""
"1589","14","Agents for Actors: A Digital Humanities framework for distributed microservices for text linking and visualization","10","The Scene
A raucous party on the eve of the Battle of Bosworth field in 1485, wine flows by the gallon, the table bends under the weight of the meat and breadcrumbs fly across the table as Richard III rises painfully to address his loyal peers:

Now is the summer of our sweet content,
Made overcast winter by these Tudor clouds.
And I that am not shaped for black-faced war,
I that am rudely cast and want true majesty,
Am forced to fight, To set sweet England free.
I pray to Heaven we fare well,
And all who fight us go to Hell
(transcription of the audio recording (British Broadcasting Corporation 2009), checked against (Curtis 2001)).
Thus starts Rowan Atkinson’s fabulously funny alternate history of Britain, the History of the Black Adder (Atkinson et al. 1983), one of the hallmark BBC sitcoms of the 1980s.

Fast forward through the show, right to the closing credits: “Written by Richard Curtis and Rowan Atkinson with additional dialogue by William Shakespeare”. And, indeed, even Richard III’s short speech contains at least three near-verbatim citations from Shakespeare’s play of the same name (and actually a fourth and a fifth, but more on that later):

Now is the Winter of our Discontent
Made glorious Summer by this Son of Yorke: […]
But I, that am not shap'd for sportiue trickes, […]
I, that am Rudely stampt, and want loues Maiesty, […]
And that so lamely and vnfashionable,
That dogges barke at me, as I halt by them [1]
All would be good if the citations were indeed verbatim, but they are not — the wit of Richard’s speech and indeed of much of Blackadder’s attraction depends on twisting citations, creating tension between original and new wordings. Blackadder like much of postmodern British Sitcom consciously sees history as a “cluttered patchwork of questionable stories which have been re-written, re-evaluated and ridiculed“ ((Roberts 2012), pos. 26, Kindle edition), using allusions precisely to enhance the sense of a subjective, patchwork-like history.

Enter Agents for Actors
Agents for Actors (AfA) (https://github.com/mwkuster/agents-for-actors) is an experimental, LGPL-licensed Open Source “framework for distributed microservices for text linking and visualization” that the author has developed to calculate precisely the types of “twisted” citations that we are seeing. It takes some inspiration from W. Artes’ Bachelor thesis (Artes 2012) on Similarity Search (cf. also (Hedges et al. 2012)), that the author has supervised, especially on the choice of NGram models for comparison, but is an independent implementation that deviates in the way the NGram model is built (cf. below). AfA is linked to TextGrid’s Text-Text-Image-Link Editor (Selig, Küster, and Conner 2012).

Afa identifies allusions between texts and their presumed sources and gives exact provenance information as XPointers (Küster et al. 2011). As an additional spin we make the comparison of Black Adder’s modern orthography transcript against the original-spelling First Folio, transcribed by Trevor Howard-Hill (http://ota.ox.ac.uk/id/3014).

AfA is extendable to other similarity models and measures and could be adapted for new visualization frontends. Given the computational complexity it embraces multicore architectures and parallelizes computations wherever possible. AfA situates itself between the macro-vision of big data digital humanities (e.g. (Jockers 2012) and the forthcoming (Jockers 2013)) and the micro-vision of the classical, manually encoded critical apparatus.

Implementation
AfA is implemented in the functional language Clojure (Hickey 2010) (Emerick, Carper, and Grand 2012; Halloway and Bedra 2012) on top of the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). Clojure thrives on immutable functional data structures (Okasaki 1999) for heavily multithreaded applications. Mutable operations are largely under control of Clojure’s Software Transactional Memory (STM).

AfA uses two Clojure paradigms to parallelize activities:

Futures: non-blocking threads that are transparently managed to parallelize calculations
Agents: asynchronous, used to interact with the visualization layer
The code basis itself consists of a number of individual functions for interacting with files, calculating similarity measures, handling visualization etc. They can be regrouped flexibly.

Handling XML
AfA currently expects both source and target to be encoded in XML. Both therefore contain parts such as the TEI header, cast lists or stage directions that without filtering generate noise when searching for references. Still, we need to preserve the exact pointers to source and target fragments in the underlying XML files to guarantee traceability.

With mutable data structures this objective would be difficult to attain without costly copying operations of XML structures in memory. The immutable abstraction of Zippers (Huet 1997) offers a solution by having the XML structures only once in memory, the algorithm operating on pointers to individual elements (“locations”). Furthermore, unlike e.g. XML DOMs Zippers are generic abstractions for tree structures, not only XML. AfA can hence be adapted to any form of structured data sources.

Measuring similarity
The AfA framework allows for multiple models and measures. At is simplest, the comparison is done using NGram models (cf. (Manning and Schuetze 1999)), that are used for fuzzy text comparison, e.g. in (Kestemont, Daelemans, and De Pauw 2010) and (Bernholz and Pytlik Zillig 2011), not to mention in Google-style big-data (Google 2010).

The tests presented in this paper are done with a variation of the NGram model, combining NGrams of words, that move in a slider over the text, creating chunks of size C, with NGrams of letters for the actual comparison of those chunks.

In the following example C=5. This way, the phrase “Now is the summer of our sweet content” into four chunks of five words each:


Each of these chunks is compared with a chunk from the supposed source material, built with the same algorithm, so that the totality of compared chunks is the Cartesian product NxM, N being the number of chunks in the source and M that in the target. Each of these pairs of chunks is compared using an NGram of ngram-count characters to smoothen over differences in spelling. The respective confidence level for a hit is calculated using the maximum dice-coefficient (cf. (Manning and Schuetze 1999), table 8.7) applied to this combination of chunks: (apply max (map (fn [[t1 t2]] (dice-coefficient (ngrams ngram-count t1) (ngrams ngram-count t2))) (for [chunk1 chunk-seq1 chunk2 chunk-seq2] [chunk1 chunk2]))) The algorithm works for other measures returning similarities normalized to [0,1].

Applying this admittedly computationally expensive algorithm to Richard’s speech with C=6, N=4 and a minimum confidence level of 0.65 identifies in Shakespeare’s complete First Folio precisely the expected links (XPointers referring to http://ota.ox.ac.uk/id/3014):


The algorithm cannot identify the fourth allusion, though, that contrasts the concepts of “overcast winter” with “glorious Summer”.

Dressing up
For visualization AfA uses Neo4j, an increasingly popular Open Source Non-SQL graph database (Neo4j.org 2012). Neo4j centres around two Topic Map (ISO/IEC 2002) like concepts, nodes and relationships. Both have unique identifiers and can have arbitrary properties besides. Relationships must have a start and an end node.

With neocons (Klishin 2012) Neo4j has an intuitive Clojure interface that permits to store and query the graph. Neo4j’s admin interface also has one of the more innovative graph UIs available in an off-the-shelf database.


Intertextuality and a bit of theory
This screenshot shows the individual phrases of Richard’s speech in Blackadder with their links to their source (“part-of”) and the phrases they cite (“cites”), giving a good visualization of the intertextuality (Kristeva 1969) (Barthes and Marty 1980; Barthes 1968) (Allen 2011) that animates much of Atkinson’s comedy.

Note that AfA does not “interprete” the links. Statistical methods rarely have an obvious interpretation, their epistemological openness and continuity being an asset for postmodern texts in a world of “stylistic and discursive heterogeneity without a norm” (Jameson 1991). If anything, Genette’s theory of hypertextualité (Genette 1982) might give us an adequate terminological apparatus.

Outlook
Three of the citations in Richard’s speech AfA has identified for us, the fourth we have discussed — but there is a fifth. Films are more than dialogue; intertextuality can just as well be construed without words. When Atkinson’s Richard is halfway through his speech we hear a dog barking — Richard is so ugly that “dogges barke at me”. Also, there is open linked data out there that situates Blackadder in context, here linking manually to Freebase movie data with some of Atkinson’s other films (for handling Freebase data cf. (Redmond and Wilson 2012), chapter Neo4j/Big data):


In the end an approach focussed on a narrow understanding of intertextuality will not suffice for audiovisual media; it must evolve into a network including knowledge and symbols (Peirce 1998), contextual, textual and non-textual. Now we can only manually add nodes establish these links, but there may be another untold history ahead.

References
Allen, G. (2011). Intertextuality. 2nd edn. Abdingdon: Routledge.
Artes, W. (2012). In Marc Wilhelm Küster, (ed). “Konzeption Und Entwicklung Eines Plug-in Basierenden SOAP-Services Für Die Ähnlichkeitsanalyse Im Text-Text-Link-Editor.” Worms: University of Applied Sciences Worms.
Atkinson, R., B. Blessed, E. Gray, R. East, T. McInnerny, and R. Robinson (1983). In Shardlow, M. The Black Adder. http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p006cx8w.
Barthes, R. (1968). “La Mort De l'Auteur.” Manteia (4e trimestre).
Barthes, R., and E. Marty (1980). Oeuvres Complètes: 1974-1980.
Bernholz, C. D., and B. L. Pytlik Zillig (2011). “Comparing Nearly Identical Treaty Texts: a Note on the Treaty of Fort Laramie with Sioux, Etc., 1851 And Levenshtein's Edit Distance Metric..” Llc 26.1: 5-16. doi:10.1093/llc/fqq016.
British Broadcasting Corporation. (2009). The Black Adder. Unabridged. AudioGO Ltd.
Curtis, R.. (2001). Blackadder: the Whole Damn Dynasty: 1485-1917. Re-issue. Penguin Books, Limited (UK).
Emerick, C., B. Carper, and C. Grand (2012). “Clojure Programming — Practical LISP for the Java World.” O'Reilly 2012.
Gérard, G. (1982). Palimpsestes. La Littérature Au Second Degré. Paris: Éditions du seuil.
Google. (2010). Google Books NGram Viewer.
Halloway, S., and A. Bedra (2012). Programming Clojure. Second Edition. Pragmatic Bookshelf.
Hedges, M., A. Jordanous, S. Dunn, C. Roueche, M.W. Küster, T. Selig, M. Bittorf, and W. Artes (2012). “New Models for Collaborative Textual Scholarship.” In, 1-6. doi:10.1109/DEST.2012.6227933.
Hickey, R. (2010). “Clojure.”
Huet, G. (1997). “The Zipper.” Journal of Functional Programming 7 (5) (September).
ISO/IEC. (2002). ISO/IEC 13250: Information Technology — SGML Applications — Topic Maps. {ISO}.
Jameson, F. (1991). Postmodernism or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Durham: Duke University Press.
Jockers, M. L. (2012). “Computing and Visualizing the 19th-Century Literary Genome.” In Hamburg. http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/computing-and-visualizing-the-19th-century-literary-genome/.
Jockers, M. L. (2013). Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History (Topics in the Digital Humanities). 1st edn. University of Illinois Press. http://www.matthewjockers.net/macroanalysisbook/.
Kestemont, M., W. Daelemans, and G. De Pauw (2010). “Weigh Your Words - Memory-Based Lemmatization for Middle Dutch..” Llc 25.3 287-301. doi:10.1093/llc/fqq011.
Klishin, M. (2012). “Neocons.” Clojureneo4j.Info. Accessed October 29. http://clojureneo4j.info/.
Kristeva, J. (1969). Semeiotike. Recherches Pour Une Sémanalyse. Éditions du seuil.
Küster, M. W., C. Ludwig, Y. Al-hajj, and T. Selig (2011). “TextGrid Provenance Tools for Digital Humanities Ecosystems.” In, 317-323. doi:10.1109/DEST.2011.5936615.
Manning, C. D., and H. Schuetze (1999). Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing. 1st edn. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Neo4j.org. (2012). “Neo4j.” Neo4j.org. http://neo4j.org/.
Okasaki, C. (1999). Purely Functional Data Structures. Cambridge University Press.
Peirce, C. S. (1998). “What Is a Sign?.” In The Essential Peirce. 1893-1913, ed. Peirce Edition Project. 2 Bloomington.
Redmond, E., and J. R. Wilson (2012). Seven Databases in Seven Weeks: a Guide to Modern Databases and the NoSQL Movement. Pragmatic Bookshelf.
Roberts, J. F. (2012). The True History of the Black Adder: the Unadulterated Tale of the Creation of a Comedy Legend. Preface Publishing.
Selig, T., M.W. Küster, and E. Conner (2012). “Semantically Connecting Text Fragments — Text-Text-Link-Editor (Poster).” In, ed. Jan Christoph Meister, 518—520. Hamburg. http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/HamburgUP_dh2012_BoA.pdf.
Notes
1. The Tragedy of Richard the Third, cited after Shakespeare’s First Folio as transcribed in http://ota.ox.ac.uk/id/3014","txt","2","",""
"1590","14","XML-Print: Addressing Challenges for Scholarly Typesetting","9","1 Introduction
At last year’s DH conference, we presented our Open Source project XML-Print live(Sievers, et al., 2012). The audience’s responses gave a strong impulse for the second project stage to extend and fine-tune the software and improved its technical architecture. The latest build is available for download from http://www.xmlprint.eu/.
While the former talk focused on the infrastructure and general ideas of XML-Print, this paper delivers insight into the challenges of the project’s development process, which are paradigmatic for the dual nature of the challenges faced by many DH development projects. This includes issues already solved as well as concepts for open ones. The following aspects will be discussed:
•        1. Typesetting critical editions is one of the major use cases for XML-Print. Apart from “standard” typesetting features we have implemented support for manging an arbitrary number of apparatuses (cf. Section 2.1).
•        2. The typesetting engine is written in the functional programming language F#, which — among other advantages — offers powerful parallelization techniques. However, we must use appropriate programming routines for that. The ideas behind parallelizing the typesetting are described in section 2.2.
•        3. Today’s typesetting world is global, meaning support for many writing systems including bidirectional scripts. Section 2.3 reports about the concepts for bidirectional typesetting within XML-Print.
•        4. Last, but not least software development needs sophisticated test concepts to recognize problems before new versions are published. This is important not only for obvious build or compilation errors, but especially for typesetting problems. The image-based test approach is presented in Section 2.4.
2 Challenges
2.1 Critical Apparatus
Typesetting a single footnote apparatus is not sufficient for scholarly purposes. We need a robust and generic algorithm to place any number of apparatuses to be grouped together on a page.
The user manages this grouping process by creating an appropriate mapping between a layout format and XML elements. The output position of the footnote apparat-uses on a page is determined by the order given in the footnote dialogue (cf. Figure 1). This information is coded into the XSL-FO+ [1] file as an XML attribute to the footnote element, e.g.<footnote place=""0"" fn-type=""footnote"">. [2] .
The typesetting engine sorts the footnotes corresponding to their place attribute and calculates the space needed on a concrete output page, including spacing between apparatuses. All this can already be done using XML-Print. An example is illustrated in Figure 2.
However, when typesetting critical editions, footnote apparatuses alone are not sufficient. There has to be a possibility to refer to the line number of a lemma or to use a user-defined reference schema as well. That reference is used instead of the common footnote sign. The typesetting engine must furnish the necessary references, which is only available at runtime and calculated in the output routines.
 
Figure 1:
The grouping and sorting of footnote apparatuses is done with the footnote dialog from the graphical user interface.
 
Figure 2:
Example of two footnote apparatuses of a letter from the “Kurt-Schwitters-Briefe” (Wie Kritik zur Kunst wird). For a real critical apparatus references to line numbers of lemmata have to be implemented.
2.2 Parallelizing the Typesetting
Implementing a typesetting system with all its characteristics and subtleties is a chal-lenge concerning two technical aspects: efficiency and memory consumption. Both aspects can be satisfied by the data structures and algorithms used in the implementation. We need to parallelize the XML-Print typesetting engine as the rendering process is resource intensive. In particular, when pre-rendered pages have to be adapted to changes and need final rendering, the process is very time-consuming. This is the case if XML-Print typesets remaining footnotes from previous pages. The content of the current typeset page must be balanced with the contents of the remaining and the current footnotes. The described problem can be solved in mainly two ways: directly improving the typesetting of footnotes or/and improving the overall rendering process.
Improving the typesetting of footnotes can directly be achieved by a more sophisticated algorithm. That means not by balancing the contents line by line but by using binary cuts instead, i.e. starting with lines1, lines2, lines4, …, lineslines until the footnote and the current page’s contents are in balance. Unfortunately, this solution covers only one of several performance problems.
Therefore, improving the overall rendering process must be the final goal. The parallelization efforts are based on the dynamic programming idea by Bellman (1954). Thus, the rendering process is separated in typesetting single sequences, i.e. single XML fragments. For that the input XML file is read and then split into fragments representing such sequences. These are the basic elements in the XSL-FO (Anders 2006) structure that can be processed independently from other data. Afterwards, these sequences are typeset in parallel, are then concatenated and finally written into a single document.
Implementing the introduced parallelization mechanism requires the following characteristics:
•        Resource-efficient XML processing, especially when reading the file and dividing it into fragments
•        Isolated, side-effect free and generic rendering algorithms for separated sequences.
Indeed, F# as a functional programming language offers the possibilities to address these requirements.
2.3 Bidirectional Text
Like many other typeset editors (e.g. Texmaker, TeXstudio and TeXShop for LaTeX), XML-Print must support bidirectional (BiDi) texts. The implementation of this feature is part of the actual project phase, because we got many requests from scholars and projects to support BiDi. One of those projects is “RIR — Relationen im Raum” (https://dev2.dariah.eu/wiki/display/RIRPUB/RiR), which uses XML as an exchange format with “epidat”, a database of Jewish epigraphy (epidat — epigraphische Datenbank). The typesetting engine of XML-Print shall be used to automatically generate PDF documents with mixed Hebrew and German inscriptions and synoptically typeset German translations.
The Unicode standard provides the Unicode Bidirectional Algorithm (UBA) (Davis) to display BiDi texts correctly making it the industry standard for displaying such texts. The algorithm is well known and extensively tested. XML-Print therefore will base its support for Hebrew and Arabic texts on the UBA.
2.4 Testing and Quality Assurance
Testing is undoubtedly an important factor for any software project, but assuring the quality of a typesetting engine provides some additional challenges. As pointed out earlier, algorithms addressing different functions such as footnotes or bidirectional text are already very complex. Orchestrating multiple algorithms to produce a single document reaches a level of complexity, for which no developer can ultimately consider all side-effects and interoperability problems. Moreover, problems caused by errors in the source code often have minimal visual effects to the result so that a human tester cannot easily assess errors.
Therefore we have developed an automated system for functional testing. These functional tests are based on reference documents of varying complexity. For each test run, these documents are generated anew using the current version of the typesetting engine. In the next step each page of each document is split into regions. All regions are compared to the corresponding regions of the reference document pixel by pixel. This pixel comparison is performed using the Sikuli engine (Sikuli Script), which, in addition to comparing screen images, can be easily extended to display the proper documents and to simultaneously flip the pages of these documents. If any mismatch is detected between the generated and the reference document, a difference-image is created containing the differing section. Further, this image is enhanced with fragments of both documents to make it easier for a developer to recognize the problem (cf. Figure 3).
 
Figure 3:
Example of a pixel comparison of two documents.
3 Summary and Outlook
XML-Print tackles challenges on a number of levels:
•        Handling the requirements of advanced scholarly typesetting, notably the handling of multiple apparatuses and bidirectional texts
•        Responding to opportunities offered by heavily parallel hardware
•        Guaranteeing consistent quality and absence of regressions in a very much visual domain
As we have seen, the project responds to these challenges by
•        Creating a user interface that guides users through the complexity of advanced requirements
•        Opting based on F# for a functional design of the typesetting engine that can easily be parallelized
•        Developing testing techniques to automatically compare typesetting results in PDF to manually validated example documents
XML-Print’s version 1.0 release is already a viable option for simple typesetting needs. However, much remains to be done during the remaining project duration. In addition to fine-tuning the existing implementation for scholarly apparatuses and bidirectional texts, XML-Print still has to support multiple columns, synoptic typesetting, running headers and footers, interactive corrections and manual overrides to the automatic results, e.g. to manually set line breaks or hyphenation. New requirements and changes in the overall of features also result from direct user feedback, e.g. regarding horizontal alignments of phrases in addition to classical synoptic editions. These requests are themselves sign of an increasing and encouraging take-up of XML-Print amongst early adopters, keen to introduce the software into their projects.
References
Sievers, M., Burch, T., Küster, M. W., Moulin, C., Rapp, A., Schwarz, R., Gan, Y. (2012). XML-Print: an Ergonomic Typesetting System for Complex Text Structures. In Hamburg, S. Digital Humanities. Conference Abstracts.375–379.
Wie Kritik zur Kunst wird. Project website. http://www.avl.uni-wuppertal.de/forschung/projekte/wie-kritik-zu-kunst-wird.html [accessed 4 Mar 2013].
Bellman, R. (1954). Dynamic Programming and Modern Control Theory. Princeton, New Jersey.
Anders, B. (2006). Extensible Stylesheet Language (XSL) Version 1.1. W3C Recommendation.http://www.w3.org/TR/xsl11/ (accessed 4 Mar 2013).
Relationen im Raum — Visualisierung topographischer Klein(st)strukturen. Project website.https://dev2.dariah.eu/wiki/display/RIRPUB/RiR (accessed 4 Mar 2013).
epidat — epigraphische Datenbank. Project website.
Davis, M. Unicode Bidirectional Algorithm. http://www.unicode.org/reports/tr9/ (accessed 4 Mar 2013).
http://www.sikuli.org/ (accessed 4 Mar 2013).
Notes
1. XSL-FO+ is an extension of the XSL-FO standard [4] to meet the requirements of scholars in the Humanities. It has been especially designed for XML-Print.
2. This is a prominent example for extending the XSL-FO standard, which does not offer anything for using apparatuses yet.","txt","2","",""
"1591","14","The AIDS Quilt Touch Mobile Web App","2","Q: ""What weighs 54 tons and can be held in the palm of your hand?""
A: ""The AIDS Memorial Quilt.""

AIDS Quilt Mobile Web App Development Team:

Mark NeuCollins (Lead Developer, Database, PHP, Drupal, CSS)
Lauren Haldeman (Drupal, CSS, jQuery Mobile)
Nikki Dudley (PHP, Drupal, Database, Import Scripting)
Kelly Thompson (Drupal, Mapping, Experimental Module Research, User Experience)
Kayla Haar (Graphic Design)
Jon Winet (Project Director, NAMES Foundation Liaison, Editor, Publicity Information)
The AIDS Memorial Quilt is the largest living monument in the world. Composed of over 48,000 three foot by six foot individual panels, it pays tribute to the lives of more than 98,000 individuals who have died during the AIDS pandemic. Maintained by the NAMES Foundation in Atlanta, each panel is painstakingly hand-crafted by those who knew and loved these individuals. Each panel carries the emotional weight of a life lived, of loving relationships, and of heartfelt loss.

Our interdisciplinary team —drawn from backgrounds in information technology, the humanities, and public art, and including undergraduate and graduate students, staff, and faculty — would like to share our experiences building a public digital humanities project that provides access to a virtual experience of the Quilt. Provided with data stored in a structure created in the 1980s, we were tasked with transforming this arcane information repository into something robust, agile, and modern. We aimed to design a system that would be usable by the community surrounding the quilt, comprised of people from all walks of life. The process of creating this public digital humanities project, with its goal of preserving the culture and purpose of the original Quilt, presented many learning opportunities we believe could be of value to others seeking to undertake similar projects. If accepted, we propose a discussion around the cultural, technological, artistic, and community-driven aspects of developing this project. We would also like to discuss the outpouring of community-sourced stories, memorials, and heart-felt comments contributed in the space of this digital memorial by those who visited the Quilt this summer, both physically and virtually.

Working in concert with project director Anne Balsamo at the USC Annenberg Innovation Lab, the University of Iowa Digital Studio for Public Humanities (DSPH) developed ""AIDS Quilt Touch."" A mobile web application for mobile devices and laptop|desktop computers, AIDS Quilt Touch is a digital extension of the Quilt, which celebrated its twenty-fifth anniversary this year.

DSPH was approached last spring to create this digital version of the Quilt in conjunction with a display of all 48,000 panels on the National Mall in Washington DC in July 2012. The immediate purposes of the app were to allow visitors to the Mall to find the panel of their loved one, and to leave digital remembrances. The timeline for the project was formidable, with just two months to produce a functional beta version of the app.

With records dating from the 1987, the NAMES database is a cobbled-together collection. Our first task was to parse the flat spreadsheet document from the NAMES foundation into a relational database format that we could use. Simultaneously we needed to learn enough about the Drupal Content Management System to deliver a complete and stable mobile web app based on these data. This web app was to be used by thousands of people trying to find the panel of their loved ones during the quilt’s display in Washington DC. The stakes were high, the challenges were great, but in an incredibly satisfying and successful collaborative effort, we pulled it off. You can see the results of our efforts here: http://www.aidsquilttouch.org/

To the question of “When will the quilt be on display?” we can now answer, “It is always on display.” To the question of “Where is it being displayed?” we can now answer, “Everywhere.” There is much that we can add to the quilt application, and plan to continue development with future displays of this living monument.

The AIDS Quilt Touch mobile web app allows people to leave comments, to extend the narrative that the quilt has begun to tell, and to create virtual celebrations of the lives lived. We plan to expand the types of media users are able to add in the near future: photographs, audio, video, and information and metadata about the quilt panels, those who constructed the panels, and those whose lives are memorialized by the panels.

The celebrations of life that users have left on the mobile app convey a deep resonance with the heart of the human experience. It is these comments that begin to show the promise of the technology. This is the good stuff—the material of human culture. It is not the mobile web app that is important, but the possibility that this technology can facilitate a deep conversation, can create a well of experience from which we can all draw. The mobile web app points to the possibility that these devices we carry in our pockets hold the potential to be portals to a larger and more inclusive cultural realm.","txt","2","",""
"1592","14","Almost All the Way Through  All at Once","10","Computational stylistics over the past twenty-five years has focused mainly on the most frequent (function) words of texts. This focus has been based on the reasonable belief that very frequent words, especially function words, tend to be used in a routinized or habitual way. Such words seem unlikely to be affected by the conscious manipulations of authors and thus should be the safest words to use in authorship attribution and computational stylistics. However, there has been a recent trend of increasing the number of words for analysis, with improved results (Hoover 2001; Burrows 2002; Hoover 2007; Rybicki and Eder 2011). Recently, special attention has also been paid to individual parts of the word frequency spectrum, attention sparked by Burrows’s “All the Way Through: Testing for Authorship in Different Frequency Strata” (2007), which introduces two new measures of textual difference, Zeta and Iota. Zeta focuses on words that are neither extremely frequent nor rare, and Iota focuses on relatively rare words. Both measures have been applied to a variety of texts (Craig and Kinney 2009; Hoover 2008, 2010, forthcoming). So far as I know, however, no one has suggested using the entire word spectrum all at once, and that is the focus of my proposal.

One problem with analyzing all the words is that standard statistical methods are inappropriate for rare words, as Burrows points out in his discussion of Iota (Burrows 2007: 36). However, both Zeta and Iota are based on presence/absence rather than frequency, and do not require any sophisticated statistical analysis. They are derived by dividing two authors’ texts into segments of the same size and identifying “marker” words that are characteristic of the two authors. (Zeta and Iota can be used to compare any two groups of texts, but my discussion is based on a comparison of two authors for simplicity.) In his introduction of Zeta and Iota, Burrows begins with samples of text by Marvell and Waller and divides Marvell’s sample into five equal segments. For Zeta, he analyzes only those words that appear in at least three of Marvell’s five segments and have a maximum frequency of two in Waller’s sample. For Iota, he analyzes only those words that appear in fewer than three of Marvell’s segments and not at all in Waller’s sample. Both measures eliminate the most frequent words, which appear in most segments of most texts.

Hugh Craig’s version of Zeta (Craig and Kinney 2009), which I will modify to analyze the entire word list, can be explained more clearly by comparing Joseph Conrad and Ford Madox Ford, two authors who were involved in three problematic collaborations. First, samples of text by Ford and Conrad (twelve novels and novellas) are divided into equal-sized segments, here 3,000 words, 132 segments by Conrad and 131 by Ford. Zeta is calculated for each word by counting how many segments by each author contain the word and adding the percentage of Conrad’s segments in which the word appears to the percentage of Ford’s segments in which the word does not appear (with the percentages expressed as decimals). A word found in all of Conrad’s segments but none of Ford’s would have a Zeta score of two; with the occurrences reversed, the Zeta score would be zero. In practice, scores higher than 1.8 or lower than .2 are rare; here they range from 1.66 to .48 (the range depends on the size and number of segments, and on how different the authors are). Sorting the words on their Zeta scores identifies marker words that are consistently used by Conrad and consistently avoided by Ford, and vice versa.


Fig. 1–
Craig Zeta Analysis of Conrad and Ford: 500 Most Distinctive Marker Words for Each

The results of a Craig Zeta analysis of Conrad and Ford are presented in Fig. 1, in which the X axis is the percentage of the types (individual word forms) in each text that are among the 500 most distinctive Conrad marker words, and the Y axis is the percentage of types that are among the 500 most distinctive Ford markers. Craig Zeta does a good, but not perfect, job of separating the segments of text by Conrad and Ford and in attributing some additional independent texts by the two authors–ones not involved in creating the lists of marker words. It also assigns all but the final segment of the collaborative The Nature of a Crime to Ford (most critics believe it was written almost entirely by Ford). For the Ford segments (upper left), Ford marker words account for a minimum of about 8% of the types and a maximum of about 23%, while Conrad marker words account for a minimum of about 6% and a maximum of about 13%. Conversely, about 13%-24% of the types in the Conrad segments (lower right) are Conrad marker words, but only about 3%-10% are Ford marker words. The part of the word frequency spectrum that Zeta is capturing can be gauged by noting that the 1000 marker words here (500 for each author) appear in a range of 12 to 244 of the 263 total base segments, with frequencies ranging from 13 to 7296 and ranks ranging from 16 to 4416. In this analysis, Zeta eliminates the 15MFW, all but 8 of the 100MFW and more than 3/4 of the 200MFW.


Fig. 2–
Craig Zeta Analysis of Conrad and Ford: 500 Most Distinctive Rare Markers for Each

Focusing only on the rest of the words, those appearing in 11 or fewer of the 263 base segments, results in Fig. 2, an analog of Burrows Iota, based on 500 marker words for each author with total frequencies ranging from 1 to 179 and ranks ranging from 4225 to 7797. The fact that the primary and independent texts are more clearly distinguished by these “Iota” markers than by the Zeta markers suggests that it may be useful to test the entire spectrum at once. The results of such a test are shown in Fig. 3, based on almost the full 28,177-word vocabulary of the combined texts by both authors —about 14000 marker words for each author. This analysis omits the 31 words that occur in every segment of every text because these words have a Zeta score of exactly 1, and so cannot help to distinguish the authors. [1]


Fig. 3–
Analysis of (Almost) All the Words of Conrad and Ford: 14,000 Marker Words Each

Much more work is needed to determine how well analyzing the entire word frequency spectrum at once works on various groups of texts and authors, but the method seems promising, in spite of, or perhaps because of, the demonstration by Rybicki and Eder that different groups of texts and authors show different “sweet spots” in the word frequency spectrum (Rybicki and Eder 2011). One reason for this can be seen in Fig. 4, which shows that, in comparing Conrad and Ford, Conrad’s most distinctive words tend to be found among the more frequent words (with lower ranks) than Ford’s. [2] Perhaps using the entire spectrum at once can help to overcome some of the problems of using various methods with various groups of texts. At the very least it has the benefit of basing an argument about similarity and difference on (almost) all of the words of the texts — all at once.


Fig. 4–
Average Ranks of the 8000 Most Distinctive Conrad and Ford Marker Words

References
Burrows, J. (2007). All the Way Through: Testing for Authorship in Different Frequency Strata, LLC, 22. 27-47.
Burrows, J. (2002). Delta: a Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. LLC 17. 267-287.
Craig, H., and A. Kinney (eds) (2009). Shakespeare, Computers, and the Mystery of Authorship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hoover, D. (2012). Text Analysis. In Price, K. and Siemens, R. (eds) Literary Studies in the Digital Age. New York: Modern Language Association.
Hoover, D. (2010). Authorial Style. In McIntyre, D. and Busse, B. (eds) Language and Style: Essays in Honour of Mick Short. London: Palgrave. 250-71.
Hoover, D. (2008). Searching for Style in Modern American Poetry. In Zyngier, S. et. al. (eds) Directions in Empirical Literary Studies: Essays in Honor of Willie van Peer. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 211-27.
Hoover, D. (2007). Corpus Stylistics, Stylometry, and the Styles of Henry James. Style 41 174-203.
Hoover, D. (2001). Statistical Stylistics and Authorship Attribution: An Empirical Investigation. LLC 16 421-444.
Rybicki, J. and M. Eder (2011). Deeper Delta across genres and languages: do we really need the most frequent words? LLC 26. 315-21.
Notes
1. In analyses with equal numbers of segments, all words that occur in the same number of segments for each author, sometimes as many as 1,500-2000, also have a Zeta score of 1 and are eliminated; the potential effects of this need further investigation.

2. The X axis shows the average ranks for the 1-250 most distinctive marker words (MDW), the 251-500MDW, etc. The bizarre peaks and valleys are caused by words with radically different ranks but almost identical Zeta scores; for example, the rare word who’d (rank 10772) appears in 0 of 132 Conrad segments, and in 4 of 131 Ford segments (0% presence + 97% absence = a Zeta of .97), and the common word little (rank 58) appears in 127 Conrad segments and is absent from just 1 Ford segment (96.2% presence + .8% absence = a Zeta of .97).","txt","2","",""
"1593","14","The Full-Spectrum Text-Analysis Spreadsheet","9","The most frequent function words have received the lion’s share of attention in authorship attribution and computational stylistics, partly because they seem intuitively unlikely to be manipulated consciously by authors, and partly because analyses based on them have been quite successful. Rare words have sometimes also been studied (Baayen, H., van Halteren, H., and Tweedie. F. 1996; Holmes 1998). Burrows has recently introduced Iota, which focuses on relatively rare words, and Zeta, which focuses on words that are neither among the very most frequent words nor rare (Burrows 2007; Hoover 2007b; Hoover forthcoming; Craig and Kinney 2009). Other researchers have analyzed very large numbers of the most frequent words (Rybicki, J. and M. Eder 2011; Hoover 2007a). And Rudman has argued that “An individual's style is made up of hundreds and hundreds of markers. The more of these that can be shown to be used consistently (within the same genre and time constraints) by the author, the more that can be used in the study” (1998: 153). However, I know of no computational stylistics tool that analyzes the entire word frequency spectrum.

My Full-Spectrum Text-Analysis spreadsheet, designed to do just that, is a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet with macros, using a simple but powerful method of measuring differences between two groups of texts. It begins with sets of texts by two authors, divided into equal-sized segments, and then compares how many segments for each author contain each word, ignoring their frequencies. Any two groups can be compared, but here I describe the simplest comparison, between two authors, Willa Cather and Edith Wharton.

The snippet from the Calculation sub-sheet of the spreadsheet in Fig. 1 clarifies how it is used (shown before the macro has completed the analysis; the buttons are explained below). In cells E7 and E8, the user enters the names of the two authors to be compared (automatically copied into columns A and G and Row 9), then enters the raw word frequencies for the segments into five sub-sheets (see the tabs at the bottom of Fig. 1). The frequencies for the segments that will be used to create the comparison between the two authors are placed in the “Author1” and “Author2” sub-sheets, with the full word list in column A of“Author1” (all segments in this analysis are 2,500 words). Optionally, independent segments by the same authors can be placed in “Author1Ind” and “Author2Ind” and used to confirm that the method correctly attributes texts not involved in creating the initial comparison. Finally, any texts to be tested for authorship are placed in “Test.” (All word frequency lists must be based on the word list in “Author1.”)

The macro, run by clicking the “Analyze & Graph” button, clears out old data, enters formulas, copies data from the sub-sheets into the “Calculation” sheet (columns H and following), shrinks the columns for easier reading. It also copies the word list into column G, and enters their ranks in column F (this is useful for studying where each author’s characteristic words fall in the frequency spectrum). The calculations are performed in columns A-E. Column D records the number of Cather’s segments that contain the word, and column E records the number of Wharton’s segments that do not contain the word. The most frequent words typically occur in all segments and receive a neutral score of 1, but note that her the 6th most frequent, occurs in only 186 of the 193 Cather segments. Column B calculates the percentage of Cather's segments that contain each word; column C calculates the percentage of Wharton’s segments that do not contain each word (both expressed as decimals). Column A sums columns B and C, producing the Distinctiveness Scores (DS). Columns H and following of row 1 show the number of different words (types) in each segment, and below them the percentage of types that are marker words for Cather or Wharton (these figures are not meaningful until the macro has finished). It sorts the words on the DS, with Cather’s most distinctive marker at the top and Wharton’s at the bottom, then selects Wharton’s markers and re-sorts them in reverse order. The sheet can handle 50,000 words, but the full word list for these samples is 30,435 words.


Fig. 1 —
The Full-Spectrum Text-Analysis Spreadsheet, With Data, Macro Not Finished

After the macro has finished, the spreadsheet looks like Fig. 2. Cather’s most distinctive marker, until(row 11), is found in 162 of the 193 Cather segments and is absent from 170 of the 185 Wharton segments. Wharton’s most distinctive marker, continued (row 14,611), is found in just 22 of the 193 Cather segments, but is absent from only 58 of the 185 Wharton segments. (Note that till, a nice authorial contrast to until, is Wharton’s second most distinctive marker.) Rows 2 and 3 of columns H and following show how these markers are distributed in each segment. For example, H2-H3 shows that about 70% of the types in this segment are Cather markers, but only about 33% are Wharton markers. For Wharton’s first segment (not shown), the proportions are roughly reversed: about 66% of the types are Wharton markers and about 37% are Cather markers.


Fig. 2 —
The Full-Spectrum Text-Analysis Spreadsheet, With Cather and Wharton Data

The macro also creates the scatter graph in Fig. 3. The horizontal and vertical axes record the percentage of types in each segment that are Cather and Wharton markers, respectively. Note that all the independent and test segments are correctly attributed. (I have put some texts in “Author1Ind” and “Author2Ind” and some in “Test” for illustration and have deleted some labels to make the graph easier to read.) Although full-spectrum analysis produces excellent results for these authors and texts, more work will be needed to evaluate its general effectiveness fairly.


Fig. 3 —
A Full-Spectrum Text-Analysis Scatter Graph, With Cather and Wharton Data

The spreadsheet is designed to facilitate further study. I have included a button that toggles the elimination of hapax legomena. Setting this option to “Eliminate” before clicking the “Analyze & Graph” button removes these words from the analysis. The default range of analysis is full-spectrum, but the “Set/Clear Optional Max F2&F3” button toggles a limit of 500 marker words for each author, for comparison with Craig Zeta, which it then mimics. Half the maximum markers for each author are calculated in cells F4 and F5 and one fourth in F6 and F7, and three sets of results based on these three pairs of numbers appear rows 2-7 of column H and following. If these or any other numbers are pasted into cells F2 and F3, the graph automatically updates, facilitating a comparison between full-spectrum and more limited analyses.

I conclude with two more graphs, Fig. 4 showing the same analysis as Fig. 3, but without the hapax legomena, and Fig. 5 showing line graphs of the same information in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 along with information based on the 500 most distinctive Craig Zeta markers for comparison (the sheet pastes the data on which these graphs are based to the right of the word frequency information, ready for graphing). These line graphs show less information about how various segments compare, but give a clearer picture of how many Cather and Wharton markers appear in each segment.


Fig. 4 —
A Full-Spectrum Text-Analysis Scatter Graph, With Cather and Wharton Data


Fig. 5 —
Cather vs Wharton: Full-Spectrum, Full-Spectrum Less Hapax, 500 Markers Each

References
Burrows, J. (2007). All the Way Through: Testing for Authorship in Different Frequency Strata. LLC 22: 27-47.
Baayen, H., H. van Halteren, and F. Tweedie. (1996). Outside the Cave of Shadows: Using Syntactic Annotation to Enhance Authorship Attribution. LLC 11: 121-132.
Craig, H., and A. Kinney. (eds.) (2009). Shakespeare, Computers, and the Mystery of Authorship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Holmes, D. (1998). The Evolution of Stylometry in Humanities Scholarship. LLC 13: 111-117.
Hoover, D. (Forthcoming). “Text Analysis,” in Ken Price and Ray Siemens (eds), Literary Studies in the Digital Age. New York: MLA.
Hoover, D. (2011). Delta, Zeta, and Iota: An Ngrammatical Investigation 'Language Individuation: A Symposium in Honour of John Burrows'. held July 4-8, 2011 at University of Newcastle. Australia.
Hoover, D. (2007a). Corpus Stylistics, Stylometry, and the Styles of Henry James. Style 41: 174-203.
Hoover, D. (2007b). Quantitative Analysis and Literary Studies. In Schreibman, S., and Siemens, R. (eds). A Companion to Digital Literary Studies. Oxford: Blackwell. 517-33.
Rudman, J. (1998). Non-traditional Authorship Attribution Studies in the Historia Augusta: Some Caveats. LLC 13: 151-57.
Rybicki, J. and M. Eder. (2011). Deeper Delta Across Genres and Languages: Do We Really Need the Most Frequent Words? LLC 26: 315-21.","txt","2","",""
"1594","14","Ambiances: A Framework to Write and Visualize Poetry","9","Poetry visualization is used mostly to highlight patterns detected using computational tools. These tools aim to help scholars carry out the critical analysis of poetry and are based on data mining algorithms and visual tools (Bradford Paley). The purpose of these tools is to synthesize and bring forward certain key elements such as the structure of the narrative, the organization of the poem, the language elements, and the metaphors employed (Chaturvedi, 2011). This purpose is achieved by intentionally bringing forward the graphical elements of poetry by carefully layering annotations (Tufte, 1990) based on literary criticism, thus creating new methods to analyze poetry. Additionally, these visualization tools can place special emphasis in viewing the poems from different perspectives (Meneses et al., 2011) and visualizing the textual representation of the poetic texts in their formal structure (Audenaert et al., 2007).

However, poetry visualization can also be used to create new forms of expression. These new forms of expression apply deformation and transformation techniques to the original poem to create a new art form that in some cases retains the original characteristics of the poem. Examples of this transformation include Visualizing Text by Diana Lange (Lange), Poetry on the Road (Schaffors et al.), Text Universe (Rapati) and Ira Greenberg’s Syntactic Arthropod (Greenberg).

We believe that the tools used nowadays to visualize poetry have three important characteristics. First, the visualizations are created after the poem has been published. Second, the scholars who create and use the visualization usually do not have any relationship to the author who created the original literary work. Third, the visualizations are a direct consequence of the transformations applied to the original text. When we put together all three characteristics we are left with a visualization tool that serves its purpose when highlighting certain passages in a poem, but does not have any effect or significant influence on the author as the poem was written beforehand.

In our research, we are attempting to challenge the three notions that in our opinion have defined how poetry is visualized. For this purpose, we are building an interactive framework to write and visualize poetry. We have named this framework “Ambiances”. The main goal of our framework is to create a tool that affords a symbiotic relationship between writing and visualizing a poem. In our framework, the process of writing a new poem influences its resulting visualization and the visualization also affects the process of writing. At first, we envisioned mechanisms that allowed the author to carry out the writing and visualizing processes interactively. However, our tool also brings forth new possibilities of interaction when a different author designs the visualization. In this case, this interaction between the author of the poem and the designer of the visualization can engage in collaborative authorship. Additionally, our prototype borrows some of the concepts behind Storyspace (Bernstein, 2002, Bernstein, 2009). One of our goals is to design a tool that allows the author to create visualizations (Bernstein, 2009) that give aesthetic clues about the contents of the narrative.

We developed the first prototype of the system using Processing , an open-source programming language designed specifically for visual artists and designers with the purpose of teaching the fundamentals of programming. Casey Reas and Ben Fry started Processing as a project in 2001. However, Processing has evolved through the years and it is used beyond its original pedagogical scope. Nowadays, Processing is also widely used by visual artists and designers to create new ways of displaying of data, animations and digital artworks.

Using Processing has some obvious advantages that are concerned how with how the source code is executed and its portability. Processing is an extension of the Java Imaging Library, so Processing files can be executed as Java programs. Additionally, the Processing language is also available as a Javascript port , making it possible to run this system entirely on a modern web browser. However, we believe that the main advantage derived from using Processing is the simplification of the development process by encapsulating the complex data structures into simpler objects and methods.

The Ambiances framework is composed of different areas or “environments”. The first environment is a text editor where the author writes and composes the poem. The second area consists of a minimalist-programming environment optimized for writing Processing code. The third is a visualization environment that uses the poem and the source code as input materials to create a resulting visualization interactively. We specifically chose to emphasize the visualization environment and make it an integral part of the system. Figure 1 shows a screenshot of a prototype of our framework using the poem “Bright Star” by John Keats.


Figure 1.
Ambiances and a visualization of the poem “Bright Star” by John Keats.

The layout of the environments in the user interface allows the authors to engage in interesting ways. People have a natural tendency to create visual structures to organize resources when they share a workspace, which helps them to communicate interpretations and coordinate activities (Shipman et al., 2001a). This tendency towards the creation of visual structures facilitates the exchange and interpretation of visual information. In our prototype, the environments are linked together in a single widow frame.

The layout of the environments allows users to collaborate synchronously: authoring the poem and the visualization at the same time, or asynchronously: working at different times. Additionally, the interface encourages the authors to receive instant feedback through the visualization. Given that the authors cannot critique each other directly and can communicate through the visualization, Ambiances provides an unobtrusive way of writing poetry collaboratively that encourages unexpected interactions. For example: in the specific case where the visual elements are developing in syncopated opposition, we believe that the visualization and the interactions will provide hints that will allow the author of the poem to modify certain figures of speech accordingly. Our vision also allows authors to collaborate remotely from different locations. We will place special emphasis on evaluating the interactions in this case, as authors will communicate mostly through the visualization environment. However, at this point we do not discard allowing the authors to communicate using other means.

We plan on evaluating the affordances and the implications of our system by recording and analyzing the user interactions with the system prototype. This method of evaluation has been used in the past successfully in hypertext systems. In the specific case of the Visual Knowledge Builder (VKB), Shipman et al. recorded, logged and analyzed user interactions and found that their user interface created a strong relationship among documents, environments and their evolution through time (Shipman et al., 2001b). Similarly, our system allows authors to save sets of documents for a later time. This allows authors to expand their creative and explorative processes through multiple sessions, thus making their use of the system into a more complete experience.

In the end, developing the prototype for Ambiances left us with questions that we still need to answer. One of them is if Ambiances will work better with authors in specific genres, writing styles, languages and cultural backgrounds. It is not unconventional to assume that it will, but we still need proof. For this purpose, we are gathering a diverse group of authors to participate in this study. The feedback that we will collect from the authors and their interactions will be included in the new iterations of the system.

The contribution of our research is to explore the advantages, issues and challenges that a framework for writing and visualizing poetry interactively and can provide. More specifically, we are interested in the feedback that authors obtain in real time from the visualizations and how it can affect their writing. Additionally, we will also address the multiple authorship issues and the implications that will surface from the use of our framework. In the end, our research aims to implement, analyze and study new interactive methods for creating and visualizing poetry.

References
Flare — Data Visualization for the Web http://flare.prefuse.org (accessed 1 November 2012.)
Juxta — Collation Software for Scholars http://www.juxtasoftware.org (accessed 1 November 2012.)
Many Eyes http://www-958.ibm.com/software/data/cognos/manyeyes/ (accessed 1 November 2012.)
Processing.js http://www.processingjs.org/ (accessed 22 August 2012.)
Processing.org http://www.processing.org/ (accessed 2 April 2012).
Audenaert, N., U. Karadkar, E. Mallen, R. Furuta, and S. Tonner Viewing Texts: An Art-Centered Representation of Picasso’s Writings. Digital Humanities 2007, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. 14- 16.
Bernstein, M. (2002). Storyspace 1. Proceedings of the thirteenth ACM conference on Hypertext and hypermedia — Hypertext '02. College Park, Maryland, USA.
Bernstein, M. (2009). On hypertext narrative. Proceedings of the 20th ACM conference on Hypertext and hypermedia — Ht '09. Torino, Italy.
Bradford Paley, W. TextArc.org Home http://textarc.org (accessed 1 November 2012.)
Chaturvedi, M. (2011). Visualization of TEI Encoded Texts in Support of Close Reading. M.A. thesis, Miami University.
Greenberg, I. syntactic_arthropod: Built with Processing http://iragreenberg.com/poetess/viz02/ (accessed 22 August 2012).
Lange, D. Visualizing text — OpenProcessing http://openprocessing.org/sketch/44133. (no date).
Meneses, L., C. Monroy, R. Furuta, and E. Mallen (2011). Computational Approaches to a Catalogue Raisonné of Pablo Picasso's Works. Interdisciplinary Journal for Germanic Linguistics and Semiotic Analysis.
Rapati, T. Text Universe http://openprocessing.org/sketch/10383 (accessed August 22,2012.)
Schaffors, A., B. Muller, and F. Pfeffer esono.com — Poetry on the Road 2006 http://www.esono.com/boris/projects/poetry06/ (accessed 22 August 2012.)
Shipman, F., R. Airhart, H. Hsieh, P. Maloor, P. Moore, J. M. Moore, and D. Shah Visual and spatial communication and task organization using the visual knowledge builder. Proceedings of the 2001 International ACM SIGGROUP Conference on Supporting Group Work, 2001 Boulder, Colorado, USA. 500325: ACM, 260-269.
Shipman, F., H. Hsieh, P. Maloor, and J. M. Moore The visual knowledge builder: a second generation spatial hypertext. Proceedings of the twelfth ACM conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia — Hypertext '01, 2001b Arhus, Denmark. 113-122.
Tufte, E. (1990). Envisioning Information, Cheshire, CT, Graphics Press.","txt","2","",""
"1595","14","Approaching Algorithmic Media Analysis in the Humanities: An Experimental Testbed","9","With all of the growth and advancement in text analysis and visualization over the past several years [1] , more attention is being paid both to analyzing Humanities data as well as to exploring the relationship the interpretive mind of the Humanist has with the quantitative evidence gathered by machines. Recently, Steve Ramsay has called for more attentive development of an “algorithmic criticism” for literary analysis, where a reader uses computers to reveal patterns not easily evident or retrievable without the computational power a machine can offer (34). The key for Ramsay, however, is that the computer itself struggles with interpretation, and it behooves the literary critic to read the patterns as one might read a text to find meaning rather than rely on the data as a sort of factual proof of any Humanistic argument. And while, as Ramsay has pointed out, this sort of computational reading is not without conceptual or methodological obstacles (not to mention the technical ones that new tools, projects, and ideas constantly encounter), there is enormous value in “allow[ing] computer-assisted criticism to be situated within the broader context of literary study” (13). In fields ranging from literary studies (consider Franco Moretti’s concept of distant reading) to computer science (such as Ben Shneiderman’s work on information visualization) to predictive cultural analysis (exemplified in today’s popular culture by Nate Silver and his arguments for more work in computer modeling of complex systems), the act of harnessing the power of algorithms to help read “text” demonstrates how vital it is for the digital humanities to avoid the pitfalls that come from crunching words without an ability to also understand them.

It’s our contention that something is often missing from the conversation, however—algorithmic media analysis. If Digital Humanists want to more fully make sense of the relationship between meaning and computation, investigating quantitative reading of media is a far too under developed endeavour. The immediate initial reaction is often one of skepticism—after all, even when focusing solely on textual data, computer-assisted analysis is making strides but is still in its infancy in terms of being able to offer patterns to read that move beyond linguistic models or sentiment analysis. Yet outside of the Digital Humanities an ever-growing number of projects and computational tools from big names in “big data” are exploring the application of traditional text analysis approaches within a wider variety of media, ultimately allowing researchers to discover how multimedia might aid in the evolution of tools and paradigms for making more of quantitative analysis, [2] and we see an algorithmic approach from the Humanistic perspective a significant complement to what might be happening in the commercial enterprise R&D labs.

Of course, we’re not in any way claiming that no work on machine-based analysis of multimedia data has ever taken place in the Humanities; quite the opposite, actually. There has always been a small but steady attention paid to how digital humanists might utilize new models for computationally approaching complex textual narratives, semantic relationships, image corpora, audio, and other such media [3] ; we might look to the work ongoing at the University of California, San Diego’s Software Studies Initiative (such as their “FilmHistory.viz” project generated with the CineMetrics software tools); Lev Manovich’s recent writings on visualization of visual media; the ShotLogger project, and Jason Mittell’s media studies theories of what he calls complex television. But nothing has ever taken off in the way that text analysis has recently, so a question arises; how might the digital humanist more fully embrace multimedia modes of expression as a valid, if not even more informative, subject of algorithmic criticism? What would, for example, a text analysis model for video look like, and might a quantitative approach to something like television or film yield a better understanding of some core Humanistic concepts such as story, character, or emotion? What sorts of quantitative analysis models might we apply to a medium such as television as a gateway for a deeper understanding of humanistic inquiry? And how useful might those models be, given some of the fundamental differences between text or language and newer communicative media of the past century?

In this short presentation, I will lay out this conceptual conversation and demonstrate some of this historical work that exists as examples of attempts to develop analytical tools for quantitative media reading. We are excited about how we might design our experiments to expand the realm that quantitative analysis of video might explore. I will then offer some of the initial trials we are undertaking to explore more robust approaches to an algorithmic criticism of multimedia within the digital humanities. Our preliminary trials are designed to explore what sorts of tools and visualizations might be truly useful for something as complex as a television episode or feature film. For example, whereas a digitized text might have only words to offer, a digital video object will have a text (the transcript), an audio stream (which may overlap with the text but which also includes points of analysis such as intensity, tone, pitch, speed, background music, ambient noise, etc.), and a linear sequence of images (which may be analyzed separately or in relation to other frames). Our various proof of concept models place all of these modes of information in conversation with each other, and we will begin to theorize the types of things that humanists might glean from further development of our initial experiments. For example, we look at what sorts of patterns might arise, from a visualization of a script placed in juxtaposition with a spectrogram of the audio track; how might the spatial and temporal difference between pixel color from one frame to the next as it might relate to a motion analysis.

As I report on our successes and failures with various quantitative models, seeing them truly as preliminary experiments that we hope will lead to tools, we will close with a case study that we hope to use as a demonstration of the real humanistic value of an algorithmic approach to multimedia. Given the underlying principle that algorithmic criticism is only useful inasmuch as a reader can discover patterns and apply semantics to those patterns, we might theorize that an effective way to evaluate a quantitative analytical tool would be to compare the patterns it reveals to patterns discovered manually by critics external to our experiments. We have taken a collection of pilot episodes of 30 American television series from the past 20 years, and and have given them to several different content experts at our university — media studies scholars, literary scholars specializing in narrative principles, contemporary American Studies scholars, etc. We have asked them to generate simple narrative maps of the episodes (i.e. periods of exposition, rising action, location of the climax, scenes depicting various emotions, etc.), as well as to generate some discussion as to what sorts of narrative features the various episodes have in common. Our purpose is to apply quantitative analysis approaches to the digital videos as well, with the ultimate goal being a theory as to what sorts of data-driven calculations, based on observation of technical details of digital video, might correlate best with the manual patterns that our scholars discover with traditional techniques. Can we use changes in audio intensity to help us better understand moments of conflict in a multimedia narrative? Can we find relationships between motion analysis and changing plot action?

Computers are still quite far from being able to perform tasks such as “understanding” nuance, tone, humor, irony, and other components of full semantic comprehension of literature. And we’re not in any way claiming that our analytical approaches are a silver bullet in machine learning of humanities text. But we’re arguing that they are the next step; that the digital humanities can advance the utility of algorithmic analysis by driving full-force in making multimedia the object of our study.

References
Cinemetrics Tools. http://cinemetrics.lv/
Heras, D. C. (2012). The Malleable Computer: Software and the Study of the Moving Image. Frames Cinema Journal. http://framescinemajournal.com/article/the-malleable-computer/
Manovitch, L. Visualization Methods for Media Studies. http://softwarestudies.com/cultural_analytics/Manovich.Visualization_Methods_Media_Studies.pdf
Mani, I. Computational Narratology. The Living Handbook of Narratology. Hamburg University Press. http://hup.sub.uni-hamburg.de/lhn/index.php/Computational_Narratology
Mittell, J. (2006). Narrative Complexity in Contemporary American Television. The Velvet Light Trap 58. 29-40.
Moretti, F. (2000). Conjectures on World Literature. New Left Review 1. http://newleftreview.org/II/1/franco-moretti-conjectures-on-world-literature
Porter, M. J., D. L. Larson, A. Harthcock, and K. B. Nellis. Examining television narrative structure. Journal of Popular Film and Television. 30. 23-30.
Ramsay, S. (2011) Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Shotlogger 2.0. http://shotlogger.org/aboutusV2.php
Silver, N. (2012) The Signal and the Noise: Why So Many Predictions Fail, but Some Don’t. New York: Penguin Press.
Notes
1. I most certainly recognize that text analysis is far from a new field, and has been an activity at the intersection of technology and the Humanities since the days of Father Busa. What I’m referring to, however, is the central primacy that text analysis and similar methodologies have recently acquired in the Digital Humanities discourse.

2. For example, Microsoft (“Multimedia Search and Mining”), IBM (“Semantic Learning and Analysis of Multimedia”), and Google (“Google X Laboratory”) are all heavily invested in automated processing of multimedia for the purpose of pattern recognition.

3. In addition to more comprehensive work, a cursory scan reveals that last year’s Digital Humanities conference offered presentations that dealt with computational analysis (or related strategies such as data mining, visualization, etc.) of acoustic ecology, literary genres, spatial readings, user generated content, aural and prosodic patterns in text, and computational narratology.","txt","2","",""
"1596","14","Architecture to enable large-scale computational analysis of millions of volumes","2","The HathiTrust Research Center (HTRC) is a collaborative research center to provide Digital Humanities researchers access to not only millions of volumes from the HathiTrust (HT) digital library but also cutting-edge software tools and cyberinfrastructure to perform advanced computational analysis over the corpus at an unprecedented scale.

The corpus at the HTRC currently consists of over 3 million public domain volumes, and anticipates access to an additional 6 million in-copyright volumes. In their raw form at the HathiTrust, these volumes are stored as files on special hardware using an internal Pairtree structure. The internal HathiTrust structure is optimal for its primary function of the digital page image delivery to digital library patrons for viewing, however, it does not support well the large-scale computational analysis which is the primary function of the HTRC; navigating the Pairtree and uncompressing the text data would encounter major performance and scalability issues. While researchers from other scientific communities have been addressing aspects of the “Big Data” problem with success, the large corpus that HTRC hosts to support computational analysis presents a unique setting in that it consists of a massive number of small text-based files whereas most solutions from the scientific communities are tailored towards large files and non-text-based content. In this poster, we will present the approach the HTRC takes to solve this problem — the HTRC keeps the Pairtree only for the purpose of synchronization with the HT, and processes and pushes the volume data from the local Pairtree to a NoSQL storage cluster using Apache Cassandra hosted on conventional hardware during the ingest process. In order to balance the data store and ingest workload, the developers at the HTRC and the HT also devised a very simple yet effective way to parallelize the rsync of the single source Pairtree at the HT on all Cassandra nodes by starting rsync at lower branches instead of at the root.

The use of a NoSQL cluster adds more complexity to the architecture than traditional file systems, but such complexity is transparent to the Digital Humanities researchers as most of the HTRC components with which user algorithms have interaction are RESTful web services, such as the Data API for accessing the data. The HTRC uses Blacklight, an open source bibliographic search and display interface, backed by a Solr index, to let users search for volumes for analysis and create collections. To apply analytical techniques to the data, a user may choose from a number of provided algorithms from the web portal, including SEASR/Meandre flows. In addition, the HTRC is actively researching and developing a secure computation environment (dubbed the Sloan Cloud) to support large-scale non-consumptive research over copyrighted volumes, and an experimental release is scheduled for end of March. This Sloan Cloud will allow researchers to deploy their own analysis algorithms against a corpus like the HT data, and to save intermediate data for later reuse, as well as to include custom worksets for the computation. We will present our early findings of the experimental Sloan Cloud and hope to get feedback from the digital humanities research community.","txt","2","",""
"1597","14","Digitizing Serialized Fiction","9","Introduction
One barrier to locating serialized fiction in a digital newspaper archive is the fact that the serialized fiction themselves are not indexed, and individual articles do not have subject terms or tags associated with them that would identify them as fiction. As a result, articles are difficult to find unless the reader browses a large volume of issues or simply hits upon a salutary keyword search. Keyword searching of the collection is more effective for articles on topics in farming or farm life than for works of fiction. Unless the reader is looking for stories by a specific author or for a known story title, keyword searching of fiction is highly ineffective.

While the software used by most archives does a good job of connecting articles in a single issue, the reader does not know where to find the next installment in a serialized work of fiction, so he or she has to find it manually by browsing the collection or doing a keyword search. Finally, while the OCR scanning was done to the highest standard, this is an imperfect process, and much of the content cannot be adequately OCR’d due to background noise and broken letters, features of the original newspapers that impede scanning.

This paper summarized the process of our project that was completed over 15 weeks in the summer of 2012. Our goal was to complete the manual indexing process that had already been started previously, display serialized fiction articles in a new repository, evaluate multiple software packages to see which ones were the most promising for use in the future, and evaluate any automated ways of finding serialized fiction.

Method and Results
Manual Indexing
We experimented with three digital library systems, a Drupal/Fedora based repository (Islandora) (http://islandora.ca/), converting the fiction into TEI P5 and displaying it in the California Digital Library’s eXtensible Text Framework (XTF) (http://www.cdlib.org/services/publishing/tools/xtf/) and Omeka (http://omeka.org) a PHP-based publishing platform for digital library objects. We were unable to get Islandora’s OCR correction module installed so we stopped using it in favor of Omeka. We used XSLT to transform the PrXML into very simple TEI5 files, which we were able to upload to XTF, but the lack of an editor and the intensely manual process of text encoding was also rejected in favor of Omeka. TEI Example: http://uller.grainger.uiuc.edu:8080/xtf/search

Ultimately, we decided on using Omeka with the Scripto Plugin for correction. Serialized fiction articles in one title, the Farmer’s Wife, was manually indexed in a spreadsheet, and graduate assistants converted those stories from PrXML into an exhibit, added Dublin Core metadata and links to the newspaper archive from the new serialized fiction collection. The end result was index of serialized fiction that would increase the accessibility of these articles. Omeka Exhibit: http://uller.grainger.illinois.edu/omeka/

Crowdsourcing OCR correction
The University of Illinois Digital Newspaper collections are in Olive Software ActivePaper Archive, which has a method for administrators to correct text but not users. Omeka provides a plugin called ‘Scripto’ for text correction that we were able to successfully use to correct the text in selected articles. We also evaluated Veridian (http://www.dlconsulting.com/veridian/), which is a commercial digital newspaper library solution used by Trove Digitised Newspapers (National Library of Australia), From the Page (http://beta.fromthepage.com/) and Islandora (http://www.islandlives.ca/). From the Page and Islandora were both very difficult to install and administer, and while not free we felt Veridian was a much better approach and we are evaluating it as part of our future newspaper digitization efforts.

Text Analysis
How can we identify serialized fiction without having to have a human find it, index it in a spreadsheet and manually extract it from the archive? Certain n-grams are common within serialized fiction such as ‘chapter’, ‘the end’, ‘to be continued’ and could be used to simply search for keywords within documents; we could also calculate which words occur most frequently in fiction vs. other types of articles and use those terms to automatically tag articles.

We also evaluated using topic analysis to find fiction. We evaluated the 580 articles we had already identified as serialized fiction using Mallet to find 25 topics with 25 words each. Figure 1. shows the top 25 topics modeled as a network using Gephi, while figure 2 shows the topic words ordered by frequency.


Figure 1


Figure 2

Nodes were ranked by betweenness centrality and topic 14 had the highest at 51,321.01 and its component n-grams along with the other top topics could be used to find serialized fiction in other titles.

One final text analysis technique that could be useful is identifying proper names is Named Entity Extraction. While we made an effort to manually remove names from the topic analysis, as you can see they kept reappearing in the results. By using named entity extraction we could eliminate proper names from the topic analysis to make them more accurate, and to link fiction together by the character’s names. All three of these techniques (keyword frequency, topic analysis, named entity extraction) I plan on evaluating in a future study.

Conclusion
Serialized fiction is an important component of historical newspapers and by making it more accessible to patrons and researchers we can expand the use and usefulness of our digital newspaper collections. The manual indexing approach was relatively inexpensive to accomplish but was time consuming and difficult to do over a large corpus of pages. Two promising approaches to find and digitize serialized fiction in our newspaper archive are adding a crowdsourcing feature to enable users to identify article types and correct mistakes, and utilizing text analysis techniques to identify fiction programmatically. We hope to report on our efforts at the latter at the DH 2013 conference.

References
Bastian M., S. Heymann, and M. Jacomy (2009). Gephi: an open source software for exploring and manipulating networks. International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media.
Brandes, U. (2001). A Faster Algorithm for Betweenness Centrality. Journal of Mathematical Sociology25 163-177.
Cohen, D. (2008). Introducing Omeka. Dan Cohen's Digital Humanities Blog. http://www.dancohen.org/2008/02/20/introducing-omeka/.
Islandora. http://islandora.ca/.
Island Lives. http://www.islandlives.ca/
McCallum, A. K. (2002). MALLET: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit. http://www.cs.umass.edu/~mccallum/mallet.
Veridian. http://www.dlconsulting.com/veridian/.","txt","2","",""
"1598","14","Are Google's linguistic prosthesis biased towards commercially more interesting expressions? A preliminary study on the linguistic effects of autocompletion algorithms","9","Commodification of words
Displaying relevant ads next to non-paid relevant search results is part of Google's original, highly successful business model (Kaplan, 2011). Advertisers bid on certain keywords they want their ad associated with and pay only if Google displays [1] their ad. Which ads are displayed thus does not solely depend on the query keywords, but also on the bidding price advertisers have been willing to pay for the association of their ads to these keywords, as well as the quality score Google has attributed to their ad (Google, 2012a; Kaplan 2011; Lee 2011, p. 439). Advertising accounts for 97% of Google's revenues, which represented about 3 billion dollars per months in 2012/2011 (Singel 2011). By making advertisers bid on certain keywords to advertisers, Google has commodified words (Lee 2011).

The value of keywords change over time. Keywords are traded within Google's Second Price Auction (Edelman et al. 2007). Google's Diane Tang, creator of the Keyword Pricing Index, illustrates the different trading values of various keywords with the following examples: there are generally “very competitive keywords, like 'flowers' and 'hotels'”, whereas other keywords may cost generally little or — such as “snowboarding”, more expensive in winter — vary seasonally (Levy 2009). As a result, there exist different bidding strategies for advertisers (cf. D'Avanzo et al. 2011, p. 143-147 for a discussion of the most common strategies). However, Lee (2011) points out that — although online marketing literature about possible and recommended bidding strategies is abundant — “none of the studies found in advertising journals adopted a critical perspective” (p. 438).

Google-ese, Googlais and Googlisch
The fact that words have become a commodity with different monetary values and can be “bought” from Google implies that there is commodified language, which can be represented in a lexicon containing all the words and expressions which are actually “bought”. The lexicon of the commodified derivate of the English language is Google-ese. [2] (Analogical to the English language, Googlais is Google's commodified derivate of the French language, Googlisch its German equivalent etc.; other ad-selling search engines with potentially different algorithms are associated with different lexica, leading to e.g. Bingese, Bingais and Bingisch for Bing.) Google-ese therefore consists of a certain proportion of the roughly 500''000 dictionary entries (McCrum et al. 2001), some non-dictionary English words like names and places, foreign language expressions and “non-words” such as acronyms, misspelled and mistyped words etc.

Search engine biases
The very existence of Google-ese, Googlais, Googlisch and the like — i.e. specific keywords bought by advertisers and marketers — account for the company's financial success. Therefore, the “importance of pleasing the advertisers and marketers who support Google and other search engines can hardly be underestimated”, underlines Hinman (2008, p. 70). There is “potential for abuse” (p. 73 ff.), notably in the form of “subtle biases” when it comes to search results and search in general (p. 71). Since commodified language is the baseline for a search engine's revenue, there is reason to explore potential biases when it comes to the treatment of words.

Many scholars from different fields have demonstrated the existence of search engine bias empirically (e.g. Edelman 2011), analytically and (e.g. Diaz 2008) conceptually (e.g. Hinman 2008), overall adopting a critical viewpoint (cf. also Lawrence 2009, Zimmer 2009 p.7, Pariser 2011). Studies addressing search engine bias refer mostly to issues of information access, i.e. search engines as gatekeepers (cf. also Gasser 2006), as well as issues of knowledge shaping (Grimmelman 2009, Hinman 2008). But although that there is general acknowledgement of search engines' impact on access to and classification of knowledge, researchers agree that there has been little to no research focus on search engines' impact on society (Hargittai 2007, p.769; Lewandowski 2012, p.5; Spink and Zimmer 2008, p.344; Zimmer 2009, p. 516-517), let alone search engine's impact on language itself.

Linguistic Prosthesis
Certain functions of Google search are visibly impacting language by transforming the initial search query: “related searches”, for instance, associates our initial keyword to other keywords we might not have thought of; “Did you mean” suggests alternatives to our initial keyword, which was either not correctly spelled or not popular (Google 2012b); auto-completion suggests ways of finishing our initial keywords on our behalf while we are typing according to “purely algorithmic factors (including popularity of search terms)” (Google 2012c). These functions act as a mediation between our thoughts (i.e. the initially intended query) and its expression. We suggest to call them linguistic prosthesis (Kaplan 2011). If search engine biases manifest in linguistic prosthesis, the expression of our thoughts is seamlessly transformed by Google's algorithms.

Modeling of linguistic prosthesis and corresponding commercial value
To progress in the understanding of the effects of these linguistic prosthesis, we have started a systematic and periodic modeling of two important functions. The fist function A(x) -> {s} models the association between a string x (a partial word or sentence) in the search engine query field and a set of string {s} (autocompletion). The second function V(s) evaluates the suggested bidding value for a given string s. We would like to measure whether the value V(s) is influencing the suggested set of strings given by the function A(x). Both functions may, of course, vary over time, and we have to measure A(x) and V(s) as time-dependent in order to document their relation at a given time t and, potentially, their evolution and possible correlation.

One obvious difficulty is the size of the space we need to monitor and the scale of all measurements: it is nearly impossible to test all the possible x entries at regular intervals over time. However, this scalability issue is very similar to a well-documented problem in the field of optimal experiment design (Fedorov 1972), addressed by artificial intelligence researchers for at least 20 years (Schmidhuber 1991). When a space is too big to explore in its entirety and when, in addition, each trial is costly – which is exactly our situation – one needs to choose smartly what query to test. In the context of their research in open-ended learning systems, Oudeyer and Kaplan have designed a optimal experiment design algorithm that performs precisely this task (details can be found in Oudeyer et al 2007, Kaplan and Oudeyer 2009): instead of trying random configuration, the algorithm detects situations in which its predictions progress maximally, and it then chooses the input signal in order to optimize its own progress. Following this principle, the algorithm running the measurements of the functions A(x) and V(s) avoids ""uninteresting"" subspaces in order to focus on the actions which are most likely to bring progress. Typically, it will focus its “attention” on subspaces of query strings with significant change in return value as measured by V(s). A daily script thus selects a set Q of n queries each day based on the optimal design algorithm. This produces a set S of results suggestions. For each s of S, we re-test the Value V(s).

Our ongoing experiment, focusing on the commodified lexicon Google-ese, derivated from the English language, is being conducted during one year. In that timeframe we hope to elaborate — at least on certain subspaces — a sufficiently good model of the two functions and their evolution over time to test various possible correlations between the two. These models will then be made public in form of a structured corpus, enabling long-time analysis and further studies by other research groups.

This preliminary study will not permit to assess whether or not — and if so: how — Google's linguistic economy is impacting natural languages. It will, however, allow us to make first educated guesses on the linguistic effects of autocompletion algorithms and keyword bidding. In a broader context, this research is an example of how academia can study technological ""black boxes"", such as search engines' algorithms, without accessing their inner workings. We believe that by their properties (i.e. enabling us to explore big, costly spaces) optimal experiment design algorithms are of great pertinence for this kind of ""reverse engineering"" modeling, and such research is likely to become of crucial societal relevance within the coming years.

References
Byrne, J. (2009). “Do You Speak Google-ese?” Jodybyrne.com, May 31 2009. http://www.jodybyrne.com/1312. (accessed October 31, 2012)
D’Avanzo, E., T. Kuflik, and A. Elia (2011). “Online Advertising Using Linguistic Knowledge.” In D'Atri, A., Ferrara, M., George, J. F., and Spagnoletti, P. (eds), Information Technology and Innovation Trends in Organizations. 143–150. Physica-Verlag HD.
Diaz, A. (2008). Through the Google Goggles: Sociopolitical Bias in Search Engine Design. In Spink, A. and Zimmer, M. (eds), Web search multidisciplinary perspectives. Berlin: Springer.
Edelman, B. H. (2011). “Bias in Search Results?: Diagnosis and Response.” The Indian Journal of Law and Technology 7: 16–32.
Edelman, M., M. Ostrovsky, and M. Schwarz (2007). “Internet Advertising and the Generalized Second-Price Auction: Selling Billions of Dollars Worth of Keywords.” American Economic Review 97.1: 242–259.
Fedorov, V. V. (1972). Theory of Optimal Experiment. New York: Academic Press.
Gasser, U. (2006). “Regulating Search Engines: Taking Stock and Looking Ahead.” Yale Journal of Law & Technology: 124–157.
Google. (2012a). “Quality Score — AdWords Help”. http://support.google.com/adwords/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=2454010. (accessed October 31, 2012)
Google. (2012b). “‘Did You Mean’ — Web Search Help”. http://support.google.com/websearch/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=1723. (accessed October 31, 2012)
Google. (2012c). “Autocomplete — Web Search Help”. http://support.google.com/websearch/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=106230. (accessed October 31, 2012)
Grimmelmann, J. (2009). “The Google Dilemma.” New York Law School Law Review 53, no. 939.
Hargittai, E. (2007). “The Social, Political, Economic, and Cultural Dimensions of Search Engines: An Introduction.” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 12.3: 769–777.
Hinman, L. M. (2008). “Searching Ethics: The Role of Search Engines in the Construction and Distribution of Knowledge.” In Spink, A. and M. Zimmer, (eds). Web search multidisciplinary perspectives. Berlin: Springer.
Kaplan, F. (2009). Quand Les Mots Valent De L’or. Le Monde Diplomatique, November. http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2011/11/KAPLAN/46925. (accessed October 31, 2012)
Lee, M. (2011). “Google Ads and the Blindspot Debate.” Media, Culture & Society 33(3) (April 1, 2011): 433–447.
Levy, S. (2009).“Secret of Googlenomics: Data-Fueled Recipe Brews Profitability.” WIRED, 22 2009. http://www.wired.com/culture/culturereviews/magazine/17-06/nep_googlenomics?currentPage=all. (accessed October 31, 2012)
McCrum, R. M., W. Cran, and R. MacNeil (2001). “The Story of English.” Number of Words in the English Language,. http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/JohnnyLing.shtml. (accessed October 31, 2012)
Miller, D. (2012). “Google Voice Search Coming to iOS | Macworld.” Macworld, August 8, 2012. http://www.macworld.com/article/1168078/google_voice_search_coming_to_ios.html. (last accessed: October 31, 2012)
Oudeyer, P.-Y., and F. Kaplan (2009). “Stable Kernels and Fluid Body Envelopes.” SICE Journal of Control, Measurement, and System Integration 48.1
Oudeyer, P.-Y., F. Kaplan, and V. V. Hafner (2007). “Intrinsic Motivation Systems for Autonomous Mental Development.” IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation 11.2: 265–286.
Pariser, E. (2011). The Filter Bubble. What the Internet Is Hiding from You. London: Penguin Books Ltd.
Schmidhuber, J. (1991). “Curious Model-building Control Systems.” 2:1458–1463. Singapore: IEEE.
Singel, R. (2011). “How Does Google Make the Big Bucks? An Infographic Answer Wired Business Wired.com.” Wired Business, 19 2011. http://www.wired.com/business/2011/07/google-revenue-sources/. (accessed October 31, 2012)
Spink, A., and M. Zimmer (2008). “Conclusions and Further Research.” In Spink, A. and Zimmer, M., Web search multidisciplinary perspectives. Berlin: Springer.
Zimmer, M. (2009). “Renvois of the Past, Present and Future: Hyperlinks and the Structuring of Knowledge from the Encyclopédie to Web 2.0.” New Media & Society 11: 95–113.
Notes
Advertisers choose between two options: display or pay per view (PPV — by thousands) or pay per click (PPC). Differentiating the two options is not necessary at this point, and we therefore use “display” without referring specifically to the PPV option, since PPC also requires the ad to be displayed.
Please note that the expression “Google-ese” has previously occurred in different contexts, notably in two different blogposts describing (1) the language entered in Google's search query field (Miller 2012); (2) machine-generated translation text by Google Translate (Byrne 2009) — none of which we are referring to here.","txt","2","",""
"1599","14","The Atlanta Map project: TEI and GIS collaborate to create a research environment","2","Librarians from Emory's Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library and the library's Data Center envisioned building a base of historic maps from library mao collections that would allow scholars to research aspects of the history of Atlanta, especially its racial history. As a first step the librarians digitized and georeferenced a 1928 Atlas of Atlanta. At the same time the library also digitized the 1928 city directory of Atlanta, which was then proofread and marked up in TEI. In addition funeral home records from 1930 were transcribed and marked up to be added to the text collections. The addition of texts encoded in TEI allows flexible searching, giving the public access to the text records. The GIS work allows researchers to visualize and analyze complex patterns of development. This poster will show the work being done in the library by the volunteer labor of a variety of librarians, and some of the connections between the TEI and GIS use of the data.


The TEI development
The text portion of the research is hosted in an eXist database, and can allow queries from public users and researchers to search names and street locations. To prepare the data staff and students proofed the city directory, and marked up the address listings in TEI. Records from the funeral home from the same period have been transcribed and will be encoded and available for searching also. The xml-encoded city directory document allows the production of lists of names and addresses in various forms to automate much of the geocoding. When the geographic references from the geocoder are added to the coding in the city directory, a search by name will be able to bring up map references showing the locations associated with that name. Web based users can search and to locate names and streets with Google Maps or Google Earth using the georeferenced locations harvested from the geocoder and added back the TEI encoding.

The GIS development
The GIS coding allows researchers with access to GIS software to pursue research via the data encoded in layers of the geographic maps. While the construction of a geodatabase is core to the GIS users, the development of a geocoding reference layer and a specific address locator is what enables us to construct geocoding tools for Atlanta circa 1928. The geocoding reference layer's construction is facilitated by the automation allowed by the TEI encoding of the city directory.


A geocoder transforms data such as addresses into a location on the surface of the earth so the data can be quickly plotted on a map. Using a Geographic Information System (GIS), this project will create an application similar to Google Maps, but it will be a digital research tool for Atlanta from the late 1920s through the early 1950s, not for contemporary Atlanta. The geocoder assigns addresses and maps all of the 250,000 building footprints in Atlanta and its environs in 1930. Students, faculty, and researchers can then add layers and tag attributes to a series of addresses in the historic city. With this research tool, researchers interested in Public Health could explore the correlation between topography, elevation, and incidence of disease in Atlanta, urban historians could map out more complicated, nuanced, and fluid racial residential patterns, political scientists could map the locations of fire hydrants, manhole covers, and sidewalks to provide accurate data about how segregation influenced city services, and historians could map the “watersheds” of churches and discover how far members of a particular congregation lived from a particular church. The goal of the project is to create a digital tool to visualize and analyze historical Atlanta by providing new ways to integrate spatial and non-spatial data in the classroom and in research. This combination of GIS technology and unique datasets will change the way Jim Crow Atlanta is studied.

References
Re-Mapping Segregated Atlanta http://marbl.library.emory.edu/remapping
MARBL Historic Map Collection http://www.digitalgallery.emory.edu/luna/servlet/EMORYUL~3~3","txt","2","",""
"1600","14","Authorship problem of Japanese early modern literatures in Seventeenth Century","9","I. Introduction
This study aims to focus on Yorozu no humihougu 万の文反古 (“An Old letter scrapbook”; 1696), a collection of posthumous works in the early modern Japanese genre of Ukiyozoushi 浮世草子, written by Saikaku Ihara 井原西鶴 (1642?–1693) as a classical, foundational document of Japanese culture; then it will examine the “authorship problem” in Saikaku’s works using the tools of quantitative analysis.

In contrast to so-called scholarly books with named authors, graphic novels or storybooks called soushi 草子(realistic literature), were generally anonymous in this era. The earliest work generally acknowledged as Ukiyozoushi 浮世草子, and thus the first Japanese early modern novel, emerges with the publication of Saikaku's Kousyoku ichidai otoko 好色一代男 (“The life of an amorous man”; 1682) (Munemasa 1969), but there are almost no attributed (signed) works among the 23 Ukiyozoushi 浮世草子 considered to be Saikaku’s. While work on Saikaku has proceeded, these fundamental doubts about his authorship remain.

Meanwhile, the potential of quantitative analysis of textual data and the related field of the digital humanities have also dramatically advanced. However, quantitative analysis of Japanese classical works has lagged behind. Delayed digitalization of classical works has been a problem due to complications regarding development of morphological analysis software for classical works. At this moment, adequate morphological analysis software for early modern Japanese literature does not yet exist.

Five Saikaku's collections of posthumous works were edited and published from 1693 to 1699 by followers of the author including Dansui Houjou 北条団水, on the basis of unpublished drafts considered by them to have been Saikaku’s. As a result, some doubt arose subsequently about the authorship and publication history of these works.

Yorozu no humihougu 万の文反古 was published as the fourth such collection of posthumous works, in the third year after the death of Saikaku (1696). This work is a collection of epistolary novels, consisting of 17 chapters each telling a different short story. The next section considers the doubts about Saikaku’s authorship.

II. Previous Studies
A. Doubts raised by Yamaguchi
Yamaguchi (1929) mentions that Yorozu no humihougu 万の文反古 may be an apocryphal work actually written by Dansui, for the following reasons.

1. While the handwriting is similar to Saikaku’s, the lines are bolder and there is a slight lack of roundness due to the powerful strokes.
2. Unlike in the other posthumous publications, Dansui did not provide a preface to Yorozu no humihougu 万の文反古.
3. The publishers of Yorozu no humihougu 万の文反古 are the same as those for Saikaku oridome 西鶴織留, the unfinished second collection. There is doubt as to why they chose to publish Yorozu no humihougu 万の文反古, later than Saikaku oridome 西鶴織留 although it was in more complete form.
4. While it seems clear that some of the work was written by Saikaku, some chapters seem to have been rewritten by Dansui to impose an epistolary form and remove some descriptive passages. It is considered that these intrusions are less elegantly composed.
B. Arguments for Saikaku's scholarship
Teruoka (1953) thinks that the handwriting is similar to Saikaku’s, but notes that even if this is not the case, it does not prove that Saikaku did not write the actual text, which he feels exhibits clear ideological commonalities with Saikaku’s other work. In addition, Taniwaki (1981) raises various doubts but ultimately assumes that all 17 chapters were written by Saikaku since the inventive ideas would have been beyond the range of his imitators.

C. New doubts raised by Nakamura
Nakamura (1982) mentions Yamaguchi’s concerns regarding the handwriting, concluding that the handwriting likely belongs to the author of Tanba Taro monogatari 丹波太郎物語 (“The story of Tanba Taro”), not Saikaku.

On the basis of similar arguments, Nakamura actually makes an argument for the identities of the authors of each chapter.

The existence/non-existence of the later insertions to the book has not yet been settled. For that reason, this study re-examines the text of Yorozu no humihougu 万の文反古 using a quantitative approach.

III. Database of Saikaku's Works
Table I shows part of the 578,617-word database used for this analysis (beginning with Yorozu no humihougu 万の文反古). We morphologically analyzed all of Saikaku's 23 works. This database is the only one on Saikaku’s works at present and has a high degree of reliability.


Table 1.
Database of Saikaku’s works

IV. Analysis
In general, Saikaku’s works are made up of many short stories(chapters). We used information of each chapter in our analysis. Then, we compared Yorozu no humihougu 万の文 反古 to Kousyoku ichidai otoko 好色一代男, as an authenticated work of Saikaku.


Figure I.
Boxplot (the top six most common classes)

The basic analysis considers appearance ratio of words by grammatical class, using the top six most common classes: nouns, particles, (main) verbs, auxiliary verbs, adjectives, and adverbs for appearance ratio were used in the analysis.

Figure 1 is a boxplot depicting the appearance ratio of these items in both works. We found differences among verbs and particles only.

Furthermore, we examined by welch’s t-test at the 0.05 significance level. It concluded that in Yorozu no humihougu 万の文反古 and Kousyoku ichidai otoko 好色一代男 of verbs and particles using way is different.

Figure II represents the results of the analysis on appearance rate, using principal component analysis (PCA) with a correlation matrix. The horizontal axis shows the importance of first principal component and the vertical axis, the second. Proportion of variance the first principal component is 0.34, while the second is 0.29; the cumulative prpportion up to the second principal component is 0.64.


Figure II.
PCA results for Yorozu no humihougu 万の文反古 and Kousyoku ichidai otoko 好色一代男 (the top six most common classes)

In Figure II, indicating differences revealed by PCA, Yorozu no humihougu 万の文反古 is on the left and Kousyoku ichidai otoko 好色一代男 on the right.

Upon examining the principal component vector, we find that verbs, adverbs, auxiliary verbs, attributes, and adjectives affect in a positive direction, while particles and nouns affect in a negative direction. (Table II).

Yorozu no humihougu 万の文反古 showed a high appearance ratio for verbs and nouns, while Kousyoku ichidai otoko 好色一代男showed a high appearance ratio for auxiliary verbs, particles, and adjectives (Table II). Therefore, it can be said that the appearance ratio of attached words is high in Kousyoku ichidai otoko 好色一代男 compared to that in Yorozu no humihougu 万の文反古.


Table II.
The result of PCA

V. Conclusion
In this study, two works attributed to Saikaku, Yorozu no humihougu 万の文反古 and Kousyoku ichidai otoko 好色一代男, were compared and analyzed for word class appearance ratios. Significant differences were found.

However, it can be argued that the content and date of each work written will influence word class appearance ratios. Thus, we need to consider this issue from other perspectives and using other data.

References
Munemasa, I. (1969). “Kanazoushi kara Ukiyozoushi he (仮名 草子から浮世へ )” Shibundo.
Yamaguchi, T. (1929). ""Saikaku meisakushu ge (西鶴名作集下)"" Nihonmeityo zenshu kankoukai.
Teruoka, Y. (1953). ""Saikaku kenkyu note (西鶴研究ノート)"" Tyuuoukouronsha.
Taniwaki, M. (1981). ""Saikaku kenkyu ronkou (西鶴研究 西鶴研究 論攷 )"" Sintensha.
Nakamura, Y. (1982). “Nakamura yukihiko cyogitsushu (中村幸彦著述集)"", Tyuuoukouronsha.","txt","2","",""
"1601","14","Automatic annotation of linguistic 2D and Kinect recordings with the Media Query Language for Elan","9","Research in body language with use of gesture recognition and speech analysis has gained much attention in the recent times, influencing disciplines related to image and speech processing.

This study aims to design the Media Query Language (MQL) (Lenkiewicz, et al. 2012) combined with the Linguistic Media Query Interface (LMQI) for Elan (Wittenburg, et al. 2006). The system integrated with the new achievements in audio-video recognition will allow querying media files with predefined gesture phases (or motion primitives) and speech characteristics as well as combinations of both. For the purpose of this work the predefined motions and speech characteristics are called patterns for atomic elements and actions for a sequence of patterns. The main assumption is that a user-customized library of patterns and actions and automated media annotation with LMQI will reduce annotation time, hence decreasing costs of creation of annotated corpora. Increase of the number of annotated data should influence the speed and number of possible research in disciplines in which human multimodal interaction is a subject of interest and where annotated corpora are required. Introduction
The development in the area of audio-visual-recording devices leads to increase of the number of high performance hardware, enabling studies based on media recordings. In order to analyze a recording, the corpus needs to be annotated. The ideal solution would be an automated annotation system, which is a challenge for software developers. The algorithms need to not only retrieve points of interest from 2D and 3D recordings, but also to interpret them and to allow users to add extra interpretation, depending on the subject of study.

The work on the MQL and the LMQI is trying to meet the expectations of researchers. The system design assumes no previous knowledge of any query or programing language, nor query interface. The query syntax is similar to the syntax of a natural language with assumption that the data output goes into the Elan tier.

The main requirement of the MQL is that the data received from the recording contains time information, allowing alignment of the tier with the recording. The assumption is that any software retrieving information form the recording may be integrated with the MQL. At the current stage, the algorithms integrated with the system are the recognizers (Lenkiewicz, et al. 2011) delivering time aligned coordinates from 2D video recordings.

The LMQI was built to simplify the work with the MQL.

The Media Query Language
Recently several automated annotation tools and techniques for deriving metadata (Hansen, et al. 2007; Park, et al. 2007; Chia-Han, et al. 2001; Crestani, et al. 2004; Rui Peng, et al. 2010) have been developed. The study often concentrates on joining syntactic and semantic levels of analyzed recordings. The work on the MQL is based on the premise that in order to lead research, the researchers themselves need to decide whenever a given phenomenon carries semantic meaning. To meet this requirements, there has to be a tool able to formulate a query describing elements of a tested theory, and use it on recordings obtained during experiments.

The structure and the syntax of the MQL are already defined. To build a compiler for the language, “SableCC compiler — compiler“ has been chosen. According with the SableCC (Gagnon and Hendren 1998) requirements, the syntax is written using context free grammar rules and a parser is created, which is a Look-Ahead LR (1)(LALR) with one token of look ahead (Puntambekar 2010). SableCC was chosen as a tool to implement the language as it separates syntax and semantic actions of the new created language, shortening development time and significantly simplifying changes, thus improving maintainability of the system.

The hardware used to obtain the linguistic recording determines the software, which may be used to identify the human body parts in 2D or 3D space, further determining the number of elements that may be described. The MQL is designed in such a way that modification of parts of the syntax is possible and relatively easy. Adding new data source algorithms and new body or speech tokens is possible; the only requirement is that obtained data needs to provide:

body token: spatio-temporal information of points of interest (2D or 3D coordinates of new detected body part in the time domain)
speech token: the data relevant to the element in a time domain.
The interaction with the MQL is done thought the LMQI.
Thanks to its expressiveness, the MQL allows identifying movement and speech characteristics. The work with the MQL starts from “building” patterns. The MQL allows creating universal patterns out of motion and speech primitives; including elements such as e.g.: left and right hand, head, joins retrieved by Kinect(like neck, elbow), eye(s), mouth, preparation, stroke, fingers, loudness, peak, range, utterance, prosodic unit and silence, etc. In the level of pattern creation, each of them can be specified accordingly:

motion: direction of movement, angle, speed, relation of body parts and distance between them(example left hand > 20 pixels from eye; left hand <50 pixels from right hand; LH stroke 30 pixels from mouth), duration, and one body part and/or other body part described by mentioned descriptors
speech: range, mean, duration and behaviour of sound wave (e.g. falling, level, raising with numerical description).
The choice of such elements was done after research carried out two fields:

body language study with focus on gestures, mimic and sign language
the study of available and promised tools for human movement detection in 2D and 3D recordings. Only open source software was taken in consideration.
On the level of action, the user will be given the possibility to “advance” created patterns and query them on the recording (in case when atomic element of human behaviour is the subject of interest) or join more than one pattern in a set. The set of patterns can also be describe with more specific conditions:

General: one can assign a person detected in the recording and the action will be found only if done by the person; relation between patterns can be described in detail (example: pattern1 after min 20 ms pattern2), duration of the whole action, etc.,
For motion: speed, place of the gesture in a gesture space.
To query the recordings, the action should be used. The query has a form QUERY {ANNOTATE A.Hand_up by Carl.Smith to (tier1,childTier) WRITE ""This is annotation"" direction duration;} where only ANNOTATE A.Hand_up to (tier1); is the obligatory part and the other descriptors are optional.
Linguistic Media Query Interface
The LMQI is an interface allowing working with the MQL. At the current stage of the development characteristics of the LMQI are:

Window of the query environment is divided into parts displaying a main query window, a library preview, an info text, an syntax error tracker, and the MQL options panel
The MQL options panel contains fields for:
Inserting into main query window fixed parts of the code.
Selection of the source data (indication of hardware, possibility of selection of new/additional data capturing algorithm).
Selection of format in time domain (frames, milliseconds, seconds or minutes).
Place where new created library of elements needs to be saved and the place from which existing should be added to the library preview.
Advanced options allowing to add to the MQL syntax new tokens.
At the current phase of development the system checks the syntax of the language and advises correct tokens in case of syntax errors.
For pattern matching simple algorithm for numerical interval matching with a tolerance for match is used. The tolerance may be changed by the user and specified for each single query.

Future Work
Currently the research is concentrated around new methods of data retrieval and new ways of data matching. The Kinect data retrieving algorithms and available software are under implementation and integration. For speech recognition the usage of Praat is considered. The Hidden Markov Model is studied as an option for the pattern-matching algorithm.

Conclusions
Although the research and the algorithms is in its early phase the development of the MQL and LMQI may change the way humanities researcher may carry their work on media resources. The system can find it usage in:

so-called motor theory of speech perception, co-speech gesture
sign language (place of gesture in body space and in relation to other body elements, speed, etc.)
language acquisition studies
variation in speech and gesture
The information conveyed by gesture can be in a visuo-spatial form even when the speaker’s message is not visuo-spatial, therefore the interface could be used by non linguistic researchers in order to simplify research like:

emotional state: Recognizing Human Emotions from Body Movement and Gesture Dynamics (Castellano 2007)
teaching: Video Annotation Tools Technologies to Scaffold, Structure, and Transform Teacher Reflection (Rich and Hannafin 2009),
events monitoring Automatic Annotation of Humans in Surveillance Video (Miyamori 2003) .
Acknowledgement(s)
This research has received support from the EU 7th Framework Program under a Marie Curie ITN, project CLARA.

References
Lenkiewicz, A., M. Lis, and P. Lenkiewicz (2012). Linguistic concepts described with Media Query Language for automated annotation. in Digital Humanities 2012. Hamburg.
Wittenburg, P., H. Brugman, A. Russel, A. Klassmann, and H. Sloetjes (2006). ELAN: a Professional Framework for Multimodality Research. in The International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC).. GENOA — ITALY.
Lenkiewicz, P., P. Wittenburg, O. Schreer, S. Masneri, D. Schneider, and S. Tschöpel (2011). Application of audio and video processing methods for language research. in Supporting Digital Humanities 2011 [SDH 2011].. Copenhagen, Denmark.
Hansen, D.M., et al. (2007). Automatic Annotation of Humans in Surveillance Video, in Proceedings of the Fourth Canadian Conference on Computer and Robot Vision, IEEE Computer Society. 473-480.
Park, K.-W., et al. (2007). OLYVIA: Ontology-based Automatic Video Annotation and Summarization System Using Semantic Inference Rules, in Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Semantics, Knowledge and Grid, IEEE Computer Society. 170-175.
Chia-Han, L., and A.L.P. Chen (2001). Motion event derivation and query language for video databases. Vol. 4315, Bellingham, WA, ETATS-UNIS: Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers. 208-218.
Crestani, F., J. Vegas, and P. D. L. Fuente (2004). A graphical user interface for the retrieval of hierarchically structured documents. Inf. Process. Manage. 40(2): 269-289.
Rui Peng, A.J. Aved, Kien A. Hua, (2010). Real-Time Query Processing on Live Videos in Networks of Distributed Cameras. IJITN. 2(1): 27-48.
Gagnon, E. M. and L. J. Hendren.(1998). SableCC, an Object-Oriented Compiler Framework. in Proceedings of the Technology of Object-Oriented Languages and Systems.. IEEE Computer Society.
Puntambekar, A. A. (2010).Compiler Design: Technical Publications.
Castellano, G., S. D. Villalba, and A. Camurri (2007). Recognising Human Emotions from Body Movement and Gesture Dynamics, in Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction, Springer-Verlag: Lisbon, Portugal. 71-82.
Rich, P. J., and M. Hannafin.(2009). Video Annotation Tools: Technologies to Scaffold, Structure, and Transform Teacher Reflection. Journal of Teacher Education. 60(1): 52-67.
Miyamori, H. (2003). Automatic annotation of tennis action for content-based retrieval by integrated audio and visual information, in Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on Image and video retrieval, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA: Springer-Verlag. 331-341.","txt","2","",""
"1602","14","Automatic Detection of Reuses and Citations in Literary Texts","10","1 Introduction
For more than forty years now, modern theories of literature insist on the role of paraphrases, rewritings, citations, reciprocal borrowings and mutual contributions of any kinds. The notion of intertextuality was introduced in the sixties to approach these phenomena. PHOEBUS is collaborative project that makes computer scientists from the University Pierre and Marie Curie (LIP6-UPMC) collaborate with the literary teams of Paris-Sorbonne University with the aim to develop efficient tools for literary studies that take advantage of modern computer science techniques.

In this context, we have developed a piece of software that automatically detects and explores networks of textual reuses in classical literature. Written in PROLOG this program has been extensively tested on Isidore Ducasse texts (Lautréamont, 2009) that are known to contain many reuses and on “La comédie humaine” (Balzac, 1976-1981) from Honoré de Balzac, which, according to (Duclos, 2012), reuses some texts of his friend Théophile Gautier (Gautier, 2002). We claim that our approach is more efficient than comparable ones, e.g. (Roe, 2012) (Büchler, Crane, Mueller, Burns, & Heyer, 2011). This abstract describes the principles on which is based this program, the significant results that have already been obtained and the perspectives for the near future.

2 Distinctions between Plagiarism, Pastiches, Citations and Textual Reuses
Before going into the detail of the description of the techniques that are used, let us note that the notions of literary textual reuse and citation, which we aim to automatically detect, have to be distinguished from two similar notions: the plagiarism and the pastiche.

The plagiarism consists in robbing the work of another, i.e. in fraudulently appropriating his/her texts, without mentioning explicitly their origin. As such, the plagiarism is considered as an unethical practice that has to be tracked and prosecuted. Many techniques have been developed to detect plagiarism that is considered as some plague, because intellectual work is stolen. By contrast, the pastiche is an artistic practice that imitates an artist, a style or a period. There is nothing wrong with it, except that it mocks well-known authors. Many great writers, for instance Marcel Proust, began by pastiches for the fun and to improve their style. Their detection is close to the identification of literary style (Dinu, Niculae, & Sulea, 2012), which requires capturing the essence of an artist’s style or of a period. Halfway from detection of plagiarisms and identification of pastiches, the recognition of textual reuses and citations helps to track the literary influences and the spirit of the epoch. Some of the textual reuses and citations are conscious, other not. They may correspond to explicit — or implicit — and more or less distorted quotations. Usually, textual reuses proceed by transforming a piece of text, while citations are verbatim, but it’s not always the case. When a sufficient part of the original text is kept, the fragments can be recognized. This is exactly what we attempt to do automatically here. Reuses and approximate citations are far more difficult to detect than plagiarisms, because the original fragments of text may be distorted, but far less than pastiches. Anyway, their detection could be of great interest for scholars interested in intertextuality.

3 Criteria
As previously said, text reuse and citation discovery is inspired from plagiarism detection, but it has to take into account all the alterations that may have transformed the initial text. To precise the type of distortions that affect a text, we started from a hand made study realized by Tania Duclos who shows in (Duclos, 2013) [cf. figure 1] how some parts of the Human Comedy (Balzac, 1976-1981) reuse fragments of texts from Théophile Gautier.

For instance, some of the passages highlighted in figure 1 are identical, while others are somehow different. For instance “en brocatelle à plis soutenus et puissants, s’entouraient de fraises godronnées” becomes “de brocatelle aux plis soutenus et puissants, les hautes fraises godronnées” and “des manches à crevés et à sabots de dentelles d’où la main sortait comme une fleur de sa capsule” becomes “les manches à crevés et à sabots de dentelles, dont la main sort comme le pistil du calice d’une fleur”. Lastly, some fragments look far more difficult to identify, because they are composed of isolated words or even different words (e.g. “diamants” and “pierreries” or “tableau” and “gravures”) of which meanings are closed. Here, we try to detect string homologies where some words may be missing, especially stop words, i.e. articles, pronouns or prepositions. It may also happen that the number and the genre of nouns, adjectives or verbs change as when “d’une main mignonne frappée de fossettes” is transformed in “des mains mignonnes frappées de fossettes”.


Figure 1: 
example of hand coded comparison (Duclos, 2013) between a fragment of Béatrix (Balzac, 1976-1981) on the left and a fragment of Théophile Gautier (Gautier, Portraits contemporains, 1874) on the right.

4 Detection of Fragments with Holes
Among the more efficient existing plagiarism detection techniques, many are based on fingerprints built with the hash coding of character strings (Potthast, Eiselt, Barron-Cedeño, Stein, & Rosso, 2011), (Potthast, Stein, Barron-Cedeño, & Rosso, 2010), (Burrows, Tahaghoghi, & Zobel, 2006). Other techniques evaluate the statistical distribution of vocabulary with a vector space model of the texts and a cosine similarity measure that evaluate their closeness, however they don’t seem to be appropriate to our purpose, even if we use the distribution of words.

We have implemented and adapted the fingerprint method and we have evaluated it on the reuses isolated by Tania Duclos. It helped us to optimize the values of the different parameters. To do this, we have first eliminated the “stop words”, i.e. article, preposition, pronoun, auxiliary verbs, etc. We have also used the Snowball (Porter, 2001) (Tomlinson, 2004) stemmer to reduce the words to their root, which allows being independent from the inflected forms used in the text. For instance, the words “fishing”, “fished”, “fish”, “fishes” and “fisher” are reduced to the same root word “fish”.

The second part consists in extracting sequences of words characterized by their minimal size, i.e. by the minimal number of consecutive non-“stop words” they contain, which we call the window size. In addition, because we want to allow missing words, we also introduce possible holes. This means that a window of size 4 does not necessarily correspond to 4 consecutive words.

Once the similar fragments are discovered, they are adjoined end to end, which build blocs. Lastly, we have manually defined what we call “weak words”, which are not very significant, and we filter the blocs of similar words of which number of non-“weak words” is bigger than a minimal threshold, for instance 4. This allows eliminating noise, without loosing a lot of information.

5 Obtained Results
The program has been implemented in SWI-Prolog (cf. (SWI-Prolog's home)) using an external table to store hash-coded texts. It is quite efficient, for instance it took less than 10 minutes to index all the Balzac’s Human Comedy (Balzac, 1976-1981) that contains more than 25 millions of characters on a 2GHz MacPro. Then, it takes a couple of minutes to discover text reuses on entire novels.

Using this program, we were able to retrieve all the handed coded reuses of (Duclos, 2013), except the “yellow” one (see figure 1). We have also detected many interesting citations and reuses, for instance a reuse of the Gautier’s Novel entitled “Mademoiselle de Maupin” (Gautier, Romans, contes et nouvelles, 2002) in the Balzac’s Novel “Modeste Mignon” (Balzac, 1976-1981), which has not been mentioned before, or a citation of Lyttleton both in “Delphine” (de Staël, 1869) and in “Ursule Mirouët” (Balzac, 1976-1981). We also tested the system between Lautréamont’s work (Lautréamont, 2009) and Buffon one the one hand and the French moralists like Pascal, La Rochefoucauld or La Bruyère on the other. We have retrieved many text reuses among which some interesting distortions like, for instance the Pascal aphorism “Nous naissons injustes; car chacun tend à soi: cela est contre tout ordre.” that has been rewritten in “Nous naissons justes. Chacun tend à soi. C'est envers l'ordre.”

6 Perspectives
For the near future, we plan to extensively use our system in many fields of literature, especially on the 19th century French literature, with Balzac’s work, which is the aim of the PHOEBUS project funded by the CNRS. More precisely, PHOEBUS is intended to investigate the textual reuses between the Balzac’s youth novels and the Human Comedy, and between Balzac’s work and his contemporaries’ work like Théophile Gautier, Benjamin Constant, George Sand etc. We also plan to digitalize the journals where many authors published either under their own names, or anonymously and to compare them with the Human Comedy. Lastly, we will conduct a thorough comparison with similar approaches.

References
Büchler, M., G. Crane, M. Mueller, P. Burns, and G. Heyer (2011). One Step Closer To Paraphrase Detection On Historical Texts: About The Quality of Text Re-use Techniques and the Ability to Learn Paradigmatic Relations. in Thiruvathukal, G. K. & Jones, S. E., (Éds). Journal of the Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science.
Balzac, H. (1976-1981). La comédie humaine (Vol. I-XII). (C. L. Pléiade, Éd.) Paris: Gallimard.
Burrows, S., S. Tahaghoghi, and J. Zobel(2006). Efficient Plagiarism Detection for Large Code Repositories. Software — Practice and Experience. 37. 151-175.
de Staël, G. (1869). Delphine. Paris: Garnier frères.
Dinu, L. P., V. Niculae, and O. M. Sulea (2012). Pastiche detection based on stopword rankings. Exposing impersonators of a Romanian writer. EACL 2012 — Workshop on Computational Approaches to Deception Detection. Avignon: Association for Computational Linguistics. 72-77.
Duclos, T. (2013). L'intertextualité dans une Fille d’Eve et Béatrix d'Honoré de Balzac. Paris: Sorbonne University.
Gautier, T. (1874). Portraits contemporains. Paris: Charpentier et Cie.
Gautier, T. (2002). Romans, contes et nouvelles. Pléiade, C. D. (ed.) Paris: Gallimard.
Lautréamont. (2009). Œuvres complètes. Pléiade, C. D. (ed.) Paris: Gallimard.
Porter, M. (2001). Snowball: A language for stemming algorithms. http://snowball.tartarus.org/texts/introduction.html (consulté le October 22, 2012).
Potthast, M., A. Eiselt, A. Barron-Cedeño, B. Stein, and P. Rosso (2011). Overview of the 3rd International Competition on Plagiarism Detection. Petras D. V. , P. Forner, and P. D. Clough (eds.), Notebook Papers of CLEF 11 Labs and Workshops.
Potthast, M., B. Stein, A. Barron-Cedeño, and P. Rosso (2010). An Evaluation Framework for Plagiarism Detection. Dans Huang, C.-R. and D. Jurafsky (eds.), 23rd International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING 10). Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. 997-1005.
Roe, G. R. (2012). Intertextuality and Influence in the Age of Enlightenment: Sequence Alignment Applications for Humanities Research. Digital Humanities. Hamburg.
SWI-Prolog's home. SWI-Prolog: http://www.swi-prolog.org/ (consulté le Octobre 22, 2012).
Tomlinson, S. (2004). Lexical and Algorithmic Stemming Compared for 9 European Languages with Hummingbird SearchServer TM at CLEF 2003. Dans Peters, C. (ed.), Working Notes for the CLEF 2003 Workshop. Springer.","txt","2","",""
"1603","14","Getting there from here: Remembering the future of digital humanities","8","Getting there from here: Remembering the future of digital humanities
In this talk I look back on a life of learning in digital humanities and on the past of literary computing. Personal retrospection yields a moral; another arises from my highly referential style of writing. But my overall aim is to pick out from the incunabular period (1949-1991) clues pointing to the trajectory of a discipline that has survived decades of neglect to become popular but is not yet able to articulate an agenda of as well as in the humanities. The Web and what we have made from it were sufficient for popularity. Many have been well served, are grateful and want to do more; others see opportunity to extend the reach of their native research. But beyond providing material for that which happens elsewhere by other means by other people we remain largely as we were before the Web. In this lecture I argue that the key to a scholarly life in digital humanities worth living has been visible all along, by taking seriously what happens where we stand: at the traumatic cross-roads of the humanities and computing.

Biography
Willard McCarty is Professor of Humanities Computing and Director of the Doctoral Programme in the Department of Digital Humanities at King’s College London; Professor in the Digital Humanities Research Group, University of Western Sydney; and Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute (London). He is Editor of the British journal, Interdisciplinary Science Reviews (2008-) and founding Editor of the online seminar Humanist (1987-). He is recipient of the Canadian Award for Outstanding Achievement, Computing in the Arts and Humanities (2005), and the Richard W. Lyman Award, National Humanities Center (2006). He is currently at work on Machines of Demanding Grace, a book concerned with the interrelation of the humanities and computing. He lectures occasionally in Europe, North America, and Australia. See www.mccarty.org.uk.","txt","2","",""
"1604","14","Becoming interdisciplinary","10","Research in the digital humanities is by definition interdisciplinary and is frequently, though not always, collaborative. Both terms are often used in discussions of the field. The qualities they name are vigorously promoted and so close to becoming unquestioned virtues that they may seem merely descriptive of how research should or even must now be done. Yet we have a very poor grasp of what these qualities mean, how they shape practice, what they entail and how they change the disciplines and problems they involve.

Help is at hand for collaborative from the more than 30 years’ work on the laboratory sciences by historians, sociologists and others — work that remains largely untapped by the digital humanities. For interdisciplinary, however, there is much less help, despite the fact that interdisciplinary research has been discussed on and off since the early 20th Century. In the proposed paper I will continue this discussion but in quite practical terms: not asking, as is so often done, what interdisciplinarity is, rather how becoming interdisciplinary can be intelligently attempted. I will briefly describe existing work on the topic and say why I think interdisciplinary is poorly understood and why it is important that we get it right. I will then exemplify a way forward by describing a doctoral-level course which I have taught for the last four years to students from the humanities and the social, health, and physical sciences. I will argue for disciplines as starting-points rather than “islands of knowledge” (Hacking 2012) to which we are necessarily marooned. I won’t say much about how institutions work against our becoming as interdisciplinary as we can be, though they certainly do that.

Almost all discussion of the topic takes one of two forms. Most of it is framed by the ontological question: What is interdisciplinarity? How is it different from multidisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity and so on? (Klein 1990). The remainder assumes that interdisciplinary research is what happens when individuals from different disciplines collaborate. Both have their merits. Asking the ontological question leads to useful work in the history and sociology of knowledge (Frodeman et al. 2010); examining the work of teams illumines the transmission of knowledge across cultural boundaries (Gorman 2010) and their complex social and institutional dynamics (Strober 2010). But neither the ontological nor the sociological approach is of much help to individual scholars attracted by ideas from elsewhere or forced by the logic of their situation to take on a foreign discipline. Their problem is how to proceed immediately, by themselves, from initial curiosity to an understanding sufficient to make responsible use of another perspective. And neither approach addresses the problem illustrated by Myra Strober: how individuals within a collaborative team come to understand what the others are talking about and why, or fail to do so.

The ontological question tends also to mislead by using an abstract noun (“interdisciplinarity” &c) to name what is a way of acting rather than a aspirational state or class which scholarship can achieve. To use the abstraction implies the fixed form and properties of something, or a history of successive forms and properties. The individual scholar, with his or her immediate, practical concerns, needs help with acquiring knowledge how, not knowledge that.

Reframing interdisciplinary research as a way of acting clarifies the problem but does not make it easy. Stanley Fish has famously argued that “being interdisciplinary is so very hard to do” (1989), by which he meant impossible. Many attest that making the attempt is severely challenging. Gillian Beer has perhaps most eloquently of all spelled out the difficulties (2006) but nevertheless continues undaunted into “open fields” of knowledge (1996). Fish’s argument turns on the impossibility of achieving a neutral and therefore perfectly interdisciplinary standpoint. Granted: there can be no perspective on disciplines unaffected by one’s discipline of origin. But Fish goes badly wrong in asserting that any attempt is therefore not only impossible but also a moral error, Alan Liu points out (2008). I argue that trying is all for those of us who would extend our knowledge beyond what we have been conditioned to know in the ways we have been conditioned to know it.

Being interdisciplinary is difficult because from the get-go academic training situates the researcher within a specific field of discourse conducted, as Richard Rorty has said, “within an agreed-upon set of conventions about what counts as a relevant contribution, what counts as answering a question, what counts as having a good argument for that answer or a good criticism of it” (1979: 320). For this reason, in proportion to differences in its conventions, research in a discipline to which one is alien is difficult to see as good research, or even to see as research at all. The outsider presenting to insiders is apt to be greeted by incomprehension, misapprehension, indifference, hostility — or, what is worst of all, he or she may not be heard as saying much of anything.

Practitioners in the digital humanities cannot avoid putting themselves in the path of such danger if they are to be more than experts in a range of techniques. As a matter of course we practitioners are thrust into cross-disciplinary encounters in which operating intelligently within a foreign set of conventions is essential. The question is not whether to engage with strangers at a more than superficial level, rather how to do this well.

We face the problem in three areas.

First, as builders of things for others we cannot simply impose received methods onto problems in the form in which colleagues bring them: both problems and methods must be rethought in the light of each other. Each time the situation demands we converse in a suitable pidgin to negotiate the difficult “trading zone” between another discipline and computing as we know it (Gorman 2010). A conversational language which avoids the difficulties inherent to such an interchange by reducing it to the machine’s known capabilities may lead to useful resources but stretches neither the client discipline nor our own. In fact it reduces the digital humanities to a mere service.

Second, like all those others who have brought new programmes of research into the academy, we need help from the older disciplines. Hence we need to look into them. Their help is not without its dangers, however, since ways of working and thinking, like physical instruments, implicitly carry baggage across that trading zone that can significantly affect how the recipient field subsequently does its work. We interdisciplinary researchers need to know insofar as possible not simply what the insider of another discipline knows but how he or she knows it and what its tendencies and entailments are.

Third, as cultural critics and educators we must be alert to the refiguration of disciplinary thought. This refiguration is powered by two covert forces: the incursion of methodology into the formerly non-methodological humanities (Gadamer 2000/1960), and the unavoidable temptation to stray far and wide in response to the riches presented to us and our students by JSTOR and the like. How possibly can scholars fulfil their responsibilities as educated commentators and teachers without the skills of interdisciplinary navigation?

In the proposed paper I argue that the most promising approach to the problem in all three of its forms is ethnographic, taking disciplines to be “epistemic cultures” (Knorr Cetina 1991) with the objective of discovering “the native’s point of view” (Geertz 1983). Again this does not make the project of taking on a foreign discipline any less of a challenge, but it does provide a starting point. The usefulness of anthropological tools in computer science to improve the fit of system to users suggests their immense practical value (Crabtree, Rouncefield, and Tolmie 2012; cf. Nardi 2010). But as far as I can determine, little to no attempt has been made to train researchers to apply them to interdisciplinary encounters.

I will illustrate how I have done this by presenting the syllabus of a course developed from my own research practices and summarizing what I have learned from teaching it. After a brief theoretical introduction, this course, Exploring Disciplines, takes up a series of case-studies, each with readings in the discipline under consideration: philosophy, biology, history, literary studies, computer science, cultural studies and archaeology and epigraphy. (The Syllabus for 2013 may be found at http://tinyurl.com/bzl8755 .) Its ethnographic orientation is reflected in the organizing metaphor of an archipelago — again Hacking’s “islands of knowledge”. But sensitivity to the operative metaphor is cultivated by returning again and again to explicit consideration of its tendencies and to brief consideration of other possibilities (McCarty 2006).

References
Beer, G. (1996). Open Fields: Science in Cultural Encounter. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Beer, G. (2006). The Challenges of Interdisciplinarity. Speech for the Annual Research Dinner. held 26 April 2006 at Durham University. www.dur.ac.uk/ias/news/annual_research_dinner/ (7 October 2012).
Crabtree, A., M. Rouncefield, and P. Tolmie (2012). Doing Design Ethnography. Berlin: Springer Verlag.
Fish, S. (1989). “Being Interdisciplinary Is So Very Hard To Do”. Profession 89. 15-22. New York: Modern Language Association.
Frodeman, R., J. T. Klein, and C. Mitcham (eds). (2010). The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gadamer, H.-G. (2000/1960) Truth and Method. 2nd rev. edn. trans. by Weinsheimer, J. and D. G. Marshall. New York: Continuum.
Geertz, C. (1983). 'From the Native’s Point of View': On the Nature of Anthropological Understanding”. Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretative Anthropology. 3rd edn. New York: Basic Books.
Gorman, M. E. (2010). Trading Zones and Interactional Expertise: Creating New Kinds of Collaboration. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Hacking, I. (2012). The Anthropology (and Archaeology) of Numbers. The Henry Meyers Lecture 2012. held at Royal Anthropological Institute. London. www.therai.org.uk/ (accessed 7 October 2012).
Klein, J. T. (1990). Interdisciplinarity: History, Theory, & Practice. Detroit: Wayne State University Press.
Knorr Cetina, K. (1991). “Epistemic Cultures: Forms of Reason in Science”. History of Political Economy 23(1). 105-22.
Liu, A. (2008). “The Interdisciplinary War Machine”. in Local Transcendence: Essays on Postmodern Historicism and Database. 169-85. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
McCarty, W. (2006). “Tree, Turf, Centre, Archipelago — or Wild Acre? Metaphors and Stories for Humanities Computing”. Literary and Linguistic Computing 21(1). 1-13.
Nardi, B. A. (2010). My Life as a Night Elf Priest. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Rorty, R. (1979). Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Strober, M. (2010). Interdisciplinary Conversations: Challenging Habits of Thought. Stanford: Stanford University Press.","txt","2","",""
"1605","14","Beyond Infrastructure: Modelling Scholarly Research and Collaboration","10","Over the past decade considerable research has been carried out into creating infrastructure to support digital scholarship — from the “Atkins report” (Atkins et. al. 2003) commissioned by the National Science Foundation, to the more specific humanities/social science focused “Our Cultural Commonwealth” (Unsworth et. al. 2006), to the funding of large community-based infrastructure projects such as the Mellon-funded Bamboo and EU-supported DARIAH (Blanke et. al., 2011b).

The Atkins report introduced the following layered vision of the way technical research infrastructures are related to each other:


This “mother of all eScience layer cakes” introduced the hitherto canonical division between the blue area of supporting Cyberinfrastructure and the white area of discipline-specific applications. Most initiatives following the Atkins report were to focus more or less exclusively on the cyberinfrastructure layer.

The model of thought introduced by the two American-commissioned reports (Atkins and Unsworth) has been adopted in Europe, starting with the e-Science initiative in the UK that focused on the use of Grid technology (and which evolved in parallel with the NSF activity), and the German D-Grid initiative.

But it has become clear, however, that the focus on building infrastructure, while essential to support digital humanities scholarship, needs to be accompanied by a concomitant methodological emphasis. Rockwell (2010) pointed this out in the section of his contribution to “Dangers of Infrastructure”; i.e. that in building infrastructure we need to be aware of two major pitfalls:

Research infrastructure is not research just as roads are not economic activity. We tend to forget when confronted by large infrastructure projects that they are not an end in themselves. [...].
Infrastructure projects can become ends in themselves by developing into an industry that promotes continued investment. To sustain infrastructure there develops a class of people whose jobs are tied to infrastructure investment.
This paper will thus explore what is needed to foster an acceptance of digital practices in the humanities beyond the creation of pure infrastructure, specifically in terms of understanding and technically modelling traditional scholarly research within a digital medium while enabling new modes of scholarly work that could only be carried out within a digitally-mediated environment.

In the latter case, this means moving beyond the emulation of traditional methods of scholarship tied to the page (albeit with linking metaphors as in the first generation document-centric WWW), to new ways anchored in the web of Linked Data which might be viewed as a combination of notebook and Memex proposed by Schraefel (2007), who is, of course, channelling Bush (1949).

In order to model this, we need to better understand how scholars undertake their research now and in the past, and how their functional framework might adequately translate into a digital context in order to attract them to new working modes. Furthermore, this kind of activity needs to be an integral part of a research infrastructure, otherwise the infrastructure runs the risk of becoming a static environment rather than a dynamically evolving one that corresponds to ongoing and dynamic research needs.

John Unsworth (2000) conceptualized “scholarly primitives” as basic functions which are common to any scholarly activity in the humanities independent of discipline, theoretical orientation, or era. He suggested seven recursive and interrelated scholarly primitives —discovering, annotating, comparing, referring, sampling, illustrating, and representing — which he saw as the basis for tool-building enterprises for the Digital Humanities. Since then, Unsworth’s scholarly primitives have been often utilized and further revised.

As John Unsworth (2011) acknowledged in an interview almost a decade later, his list of scholarly primitives is not definitive. Subsequent research shows that there is no agreement on the exact definition or scope of scholarly primitives. However, the approach of using scholarly primitives or similar concepts proved to be a valuable and accepted means of structuring and conceptualizing the scholarly domain or aspects of it. Therefore we decided to use Unsworth’s conceptualization of scholarly primitives as a starting point for our own Scholarly Domain Model. In our model, however, the scholarly primitives represent some of the most generic humanistic functions which are further broken down into more granular sub-functions which resemble scholarly activities.

Our research is part of web of scholarship currently being carried out within research infrastructure projects to link researchers’ processes closer to the development of services and techniques (examples include Europeana Research Cloud and DARIAH’s VCC2). Our contribution is a systematic investigation into how we can model primary research activities embracing the assumption that understanding what John Unsworth had originally proposed in terms of “scholarly primitives” more than a decade ago is central to any such approach at modelling the digital scholarly domain.

This paper will examine how deeper modelling of research processes in the humanities could inform the development of tools to enhance and augment scholarship. In particular we will focus on models of how students and scholars conduct research can be used to inform tool development, particularly in the area of text-based scholarship (both of primary texts and metadata), focusing primarily on transcription, translation, annotation and curation.

Furthermore, our models will be enriched by ontological models which enable scholarly functions. Therefore, the aim is not only to provide a framework for categorizing and assessing tools for the Digital Humanities but also to formalize the model into a computational model in order to capture research activity and thereby also validate our Scholarly Domain Model.

Our Scholarly Domain model will go beyond categorizing tools to create a formal model of interrelated research primitives and functions in order to implement operational scenarios in DM2E (see below). But, the one fundamental difference is the fact that our model is explicitly geared towards a web context, to linked data environments, as the future platforms of scholarly communication and collaboration. As a consequence it uses RDF, RDFS and OWL as “glue” in an effort to ontologically formalize the primitives and their attributes as well as the relations that can be established in such an environment.

Our research is being carried out within the EU-funded DM2E [1] project and its sister projects, which includes the development of a digital humanities collaboration environment, and the development of best of breed semantic sampling and annotation tools such as Korbo [2] and Pundit [3] (originating from the SemLib project [4] ). We will also share results of the JISC-funded TEXTUS [5] project which has objectives similar to those of DM2E, but extends the semantic annotation functionality into a shared citation and referencing system. And lastly, we will include the perspective of the “Virtual and Real Architecture of Knowledge” [6] activity within the “Image, Knowledge, Gestaltung” excellency cluster funded by DFG.

Among other objectives, one of the main goals of the DM2E project is to “work with digital humanities scholars and specialized application developers to explore usage scenarios of the content provided to Europeana in a specialised environment for humanities research generating digital heuristics and making data as well as heuristics available to specialised visualisation or reasoning environments”. The results of DM2E are intended to contribute to emerging distributed, interactive production and processing environments that go well beyond traditional working paradigms in the scholarly culture of the humanities.

References
Anderson, S., T. Blanke, and S. Dunn (2010). Methodological commons: arts and humanities e-Science fundamentals. In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 368. 19-25.
Atkins, D. E., et al. (2003). Revolutionizing Science and Engineering Through Cyberinfrastructure. Report of the National Science Foundation Blue-Ribbon Advisory Panel on Cyberinfrastructure. http://www.nsf.gov/od/oci/reports/atkins.pdf
Bamboo. (2010). Project Bamboo Scholarly Practice Report. Retrieved from http://www.projectbamboo.org/wp-content/uploads/Project-Bamboo-Scholarly-Practices-Report.pdf
Benardou, A., P. Constantopoulos, C. Dallas, and D. Gavrilis (2010). A Conceptual Model for Scholarly Research Activity. iConference 2010. Retrieved from https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/handle/2142/14945
Blanke, T., and M. Hedges (2011a). Scholarly primitives: Building institutional infrastructure for humanities e-Science. Future Generation Computer Systems. doi:10.1016/j.future.2011.06.006
Blanke, T., M. Bryant, M. Hedges, A. Aschenbrenner, and M. Priddy (2011b). Preparing DARIAH. In IEEE 7th International Conference on e-Science, 2011.
Bush, V. As We May Think. Atlantic Magazine (July 1945). http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1945/07/as-we-may-think/303881/.
Gradmann, S., and J. C. Meister (2008). Digital document and interpretation: re-thinking “text” and scholarship in electronic settings. Poiesis Praxis. 5(2). doi:10.1007/s10202-007-0042-y
Rockwell, G. (2010). As Transparent as Infrastructure: On the research of cyberinfrastructure in the humanities. Retrieved from the Connexions Web site: http://cnx.org/content/m34315/1.2/
Schraefel, M. C. (2007). What is an Analogue for the Semantic Web and Why is Having One Important? Manchester: ACM Hypertext 2007. Retrieved from http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/264274/1/schraefelSWAnalogueHT07pre.pdf
Unsworth, J. (2000). Scholarly Primitives: what methods do humanities researchers have in common, and how might our tools reflect this? Symposium on Humanities Computing formal methods experimental practice. Retrieved from http://www3.isrl.illinois.edu/~unsworth/Kings.5-00/primitives.html
Unsworth, J., et al. (2006). Our Cultural Commonwealth. Report of the American Council of Learned Societies Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities and Social Sciences. Retrieved from http://www.acls.org/cyberinfrastructure/cyber.htm
Unsworth, J., and C. Tupman (2011). Interview with John Unsworth, April 2011, carried out and transcribed by Charlotte Tupman. In: Deegan, M. und W. McCarty (Hg.): Collaborative research in the digital humanities. Farnham: Ashgate.
Notes
. http://dm2e.eu/

. http://dm2e.eu/

. http://thepund.it/

. http://thepund.it/

. http://textusproject.org/

. http://www.interdisciplinary-laboratory.hu-berlin.de/en/Virtual-and-Real-Architecture-of-Knowledge","txt","2","",""
"1606","14","Semantic Augmentation and Externalization in the Humanities: a Demonstrative Use Case","9","1. Introduction
The Web is rapidly becoming an important source of documents and information for scholars in diverse disciplines and it is opening new scenarios for communication and collaboration. Scholars do not only need to easily find and access open content online, but also to be able to work with it, producing new knowledge and exchanging it with others. By means of content annotation and augmentation, two of the so-called “scholarly primitives” (Unsworth, 2000; Palmer et al., 2009), scholars have been doing this for decades. Their work consists, among other things, in enriching texts (or other kind of intellectual works) with new information, to advance the knowledge of a certain domain. Finally, externalization is an equally important scholarly primitive as it allows presenting results to the community; this usually corresponds to write a paper in the “traditional” academic world.
Effectively translating these primitives in the digital world is the great challenge and opportunity of Digital Humanities. With such purpose, it is commonly accepted that structuring data and metadata about digital objects using standard formats and schemas is a needed step to make content effectively accessible on a global scale. The Semantic Web technologies and Linked Data paradigm have become growingly accepted a way of representing, contextualizing data and making it interoperable(Gradmann, 2010).
The basic idea behind this paper is that the Semantic Web technologies can be used not only to properly represent “static” metadata but also to effectively structure annotations and make their semantics “explicit”. On one side, this allows scholars to create new data and to contribute to the Linked Data Web. On the other, it enhances the externalization of such created knowledge easing the creation of rich and innovative data visualization applications. This enables a “virtuous circle” in which the knowledge generated by scholars can be merged with other data and become the learning and researching object for other scholars.
This paper presents an experimental scenario showing how annotation, augmentation and externalization of knowledge can be performed with (Semantic) Web tools that are currently under development and evaluation in the SEMLIB [1] and the DM2E [2] EU projects.
After having shortly introduced Pundit (Morbidoni et al., 2011), we present a demonstrative prototype, based on Edgemaps (Dörk, Carpendale and Williamson 2011), where structured annotations are reused in a Web application to visualize a graph of influences among philosophers.
2. Pundit and Semantic Augmentation
Pundit is a semantic annotation tool that allows building structured data about digital objects, annotating entire Web pages down to single paragraphs, sentences or words. Web contents can be semantically augmented, establishing typed relations among different kinds of “entities”, and contextualized, linking them to the Web of Data. For example, a scholar can state that a certain text excerpt “cites” another one, that it “describes” the subject of a picture, or that it “refers to” a place or a person.
 
Figure 1:
Augmenting original content with semantically structured annotations
Augmentations always preserve authorship and are represented in RDF using Named Graphs. Augmentations, even when made by different users, can be merged to form a semantic graph, as the one shown in Fig. 1, where text fragments are connected with images, vocabularies entries and Linked Data sources as Freebase. Note that, as Freebase is an RDF data source itself, links from an annotation to a Freebase entity can be used by machines as possible gateways towards the Web of Data, where they can collect additional information (e.g. Kant date and place of birth)and further augment the original knowledge.
Nowadays, while some of the basic activities scholars do, as reading and writing papers, are already well supported in the digital world, some essential scholarly primitives, such as annotation, augmentation and externalization, do not yet have a clear support in terms of appropriate software tools.
 
Figure 2:
Pundit in action
•        Augmentation of online content:Pundit provides different GUIs allowing the annotation of several media contents at different level of granularity and complexity, ranging from simple comments and semantic tags to triples(statements), where different kinds of “items” as text excerpt, images and fragments on images are connected by semantically defined relations.
•        Contextualization, by linking contents parts to the Web of Data (e.g. DBPedia, Freebase)or to controlled custom vocabularies.
•        Simple aggregation. It allows collecting (and reusing in annotations) items of interest.
•        Collaboration. In Pundit annotations are collected in “notebooks” (each user can have multiple notebooks)that can be kept private or shared with others.
In Fig. 2, a screenshot shows the Pundit GUI. Annotations con be composed as triples of the form “subject-predicate-object” (as shown in Fig. 3). More details about Pundit, as well as a live demo, can be found in (Grassi et al., 2012; Nucci et al., 2012) and on the project Web site [3] .
 
Figure 3:
The Pundit triple composer.
3. Consuming collective knowledge: externalization
In Pundit, semantic augmentations are stored as RDF named graphs and made accessible to software by means of SPARQL endpoints and RESTful HTTP APIs. This allows external applications to easily fetch data and mix it with other Linked Data sources. For example, in the SEMLIB project the collective knowledge created by annotators is reused by a Semantic Recommender System (Policarpio, et al. 2012; Fossati, et al. 2012), which creates similarity links among contents in a digital library, offering an additional navigation layer to users.
3.1 Edgemaps Visualization: A Demonstrative Use Case
Data visualization is not a new topic in the Digital Humanities, as witnessed by projects such as Edgemaps(Dörk, Carpendale and Williamson 2011), where an interactive graph visualization represents philosophers in a timeline or in a similarity graph, showing their influences. The demo shows influence relations coming from Freebase, a well know general-purpose Linked Data repository [4] .
While the visualization is intuitive and has been highly appreciated in the Digital Humanities community, scholars are also concerned with questions like: “Why exactly the graph says that Marx influences Gramsci?”, ”What is the evidence of that in the primary sources?”, “Who said that?”.
The simple idea behind the proposed demonstrative application is to feed the influences graph with precise statements made by scholars, so that each edge in the graph can be linked to an annotation that “justifies” its existence, linking back to primary sources.
In our example, we annotated open contents on Wikisource.org, which publishes in a wiki-form a big amount of primary literature. To do this, Pundit has been customized to accommodate semantic relations extracted from the CiTO ontology [5] . The relation set includes predicates like “cites” and “quotes”, as well as other more specific ones like “discusses”, “cites as sources”, “agrees with”, etc. The Pundit bookmarklet allows loading the Pundit annotation environment on any Web page, and annotating the text while browsing it in its original location (Wikisoruce.org).
Figure 1 shows how Pundit can be used to produce an annotation that connects two texts from different philosophers. The dropdown menu allows specifying a precise relation among the ones proposed (e.g. cites, agrees with, etc.). In terms of RDF triples the annotations would look like the following:
•        :text_1 cito:agreesWith :text_2.
•        :text_1 dc:creator freebase:John_Locke.
•        :text_2 dc:creator freebase:George_Berkeley.
 
Figure 4:
Creating a semantic annotation, composing a triple(or statement)with Pundit.
Finally, we created a simple Web application based on Edgemaps to load influences relations from users augmentations: each time an annotation exists that connects texts from two different authors a corresponding edge is created in the graph connecting the two authors. When browsing the graph, a scholar can see all the annotations that “establish” a specific influence link with another philosopher selecting an author, as shown in Figure 2. The demonstrative application [6] implements a simple HTTP API with the following parameters:
•        nbs, comma separated IDs of notebooks (users personal collections of annotations) to get data from
•        source: [freebase|pundit], tells the application if load data from freebase only, from pundit only or from both.
 
Figure 5:
Showing evidences of philosopher influence with a Timeline Visualization
For example, at the following URL: http://metasound.dibet.univpm.it/thepund.it/edgemaps_demo/demo.html?nbs={c4a2729c}& source={freebase,pundit}#phils;map;;/en/john_locke; the Edgemap shows relations among John Locke and other philosophers retrieved both from freebase data and from a Pundit notebook (whose id is c4a2729c). By mouse over on Berkeley, a box appears showing an annotation that “justifies” the relation. A scholar can easily see who is the author of the annotation, read the annotated text and go to the annotated Web page to see the information in its original context.
4. Conclusions
In this paper, we introduced the concept of semantic augmentation on which Pundit annotation system is founded and presented an example of how semantic data created by scholars or professional con drive live externalizations of a research activity. More experiments are currently undergoing to implement the proposed externalization paradigm also in other scenarios. Another example application has been developed for data journalism, whose detailed description is out of scope here, which allows to put in relations public declarations of politicians (annotated from online newspapers) with the trend of financial indicators [7] .
Acknowledgements
The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme managed by REA-Research Executive Agency [SEMLIB — 262301 — FP7/2007-2013 — FP7/2007-2011 — SME-2010-1]. The research is also supported by the DM2E project, funded by the European Commission's ""ICT Policy Support Programme"" (ICT PSP), agreement No. 297274.
References
Fossati, M., C. Giuliano, and G.Tummarello. (2012). Semantic Network-driven News Recommender Systems: a Celebrity Gossip Use Case. In International Workshop on Semantic Technologies meet Recommender Systems & Big Data held at ISWC 2012.
Gradmann, S. (2010). Knowledge = Information in Context: on the Importance of Semantic Contextualisation in Europeana. http://www.scribd.com/doc/32110457/Europeana-White-Paper-1
Grassi, M., C. Morbidoni, M. Nucci, S. Fonda, and G. Ledda (2012). Pundit: Semantically Structured Annotations for Web Contents and Digital Libraries in Mitschick, A., F. Loizides, P. Predoiu, A. Nürnberger, and S. Ross (eds.) Semantic Digital Archives 2012. Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Semantic Digital Archives (SDA 2012), held 27 September in Paphos, Cyprus. CEUR-WS.org/Vol-912, urn:nbn:de:0074-912-6.
Morbidoni, C. and M. Grassi, and M. Nucci (2011). Introducing SemLib Project: Semantic Web Tools for Digital Libraries, Proceedings of the International Workshop on Semantic Digital Archives — sustainable long-term curation perspectives of Cultural Heritage held as part of the 15th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries(TPDL). Berlin, 29th September 2011.
Nucci, M., M. Grassi, C. Morbidoni, and F. Piazza (2012). Enriching Digital Libraries Contents with SemLib Semantic Annotation System. Proceedings of the Digital Humanities 2012 Conference held 16-20 July 2012 in Hamburg, Germany.
Palmer, C., L. Teffeau, and C. Pirmann (2009). Scholarly Information Practices in the Online Environment: Themes from the Literature and Implications for Library Service Development. Report. Development.http://www.oclc.org/resources/research/publications/library/2009/2009-02.pdf
Policarpio, S., S. Brunk, and S. Tummarello (2012). Implementation of a SPARQL Integrated Recommendation Engine for Linked Data with Hybrid Capabilities. Artificial Intelligence meets the Web of Data Workshop at ECAI'12. held 27-28 August in Montpellier, France.
Unsworth, J. (2000). Scholarly Primitives: what methods do humanities researchers have in common, and how might our tools reflect this? Symposium on Humanities Computing formal methods experimental practice.http://www3.isrl.illinois.edu/~unsworth/Kings.5-00/primitives.html
Notes
SEMLIB Project: http://www.semlibproject.eu/
DM2E Project: http://dm2e.eu/
Pundit: http://thepund.it
Marian Dörk EdgeMaps: http://mariandoerk.de/edgemaps/
CiTO Ontology: http://purl.org/spar/cito/
http://metasound.dibet.univpm.it/thepund.it/edgemaps_demo/demo.html
Political rhetoric vs. STOXX 600: http://thepund.it/journalism-how-to.php","txt","2","",""
"1607","14","Beyond the Document: Transcribing the Text of the Document and the Variant States of the Text","10","The transcription of primary textual sources is at the center of digital editing projects. The capacity offered by the digital medium allows for the inclusion of much more detailed transcriptions than is possible within the frame of printed editions. But this capacity tempted scholars into attempts to capture every possible aspect of the document in their transcription. Unless we are very careful about the choices that we make in relation to the transcription of a document, we risk making an enormous effort and spending a great deal of money on transcriptions that end up not being very useful. This paper describes our use of an encoding system that allows scholars to present a transcription of the text of the document alongside the variant states of the text, making it possible to go beyond the encoding of documents.

Some important projects in digital humanities are focused on the transcription of documents. Notable examples of this are Transcribe Bentham (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/transcribe-bentham/), the Jane Austen’s Fiction Manuscripts Digital Edition (http://www.janeausten.ac.uk) or Nietzsche Source (http://www.nietzschesource.org/). Moreover, editors such as Hans Walter Gabler who have made the transition from print to digital and who advocate critical editions are shifting their focus towards the transcription of primary sources. For example, Gabler, in his article “The Primacy of the Document in Editing,” asserts that:

…the text should be seen fundamentally as a function of the document. For, after all,… it is documents that we have, and documents only. In all transmission and all editing, text are (and, if properly recognized, always have been) constructs from documents. (Gabler 199)

This re-definition of text as construct from a document develops in Gabler’s argument to become “…a set of document functions comprehensively deriving from the continuous manuscript posited…” (207). This represents a shift from what has been considered the traditional role of the editor as the scholar that establishes the text. Indeed, Peter Robinson points out that:

[Gabler] proposes a complete refocusing [sic] of editorial perspective: away from a concentration on the finished product, the editorial text which is supported by reference to various documents, towards a concentration on the documents themselves, from which an editorial text may (or may not) emerge. This is an immense shift. Gabler proposes that the intense editorial effort which for centuries has seen as its goal the construction of an editorial text, should now focus on the construction of the text of the documents. (Robinson 5)

Robinson’s interpretation of Gabler’s text is informed by my own concept of the text of the document, as developed for the article “The Commedia Project Encoding System.” While working on the electronic edition of the Divine Comedy, I developed a complex encoding system to represent, within a single file, the text of the document and the variant states of the text. In this article, I explain that:

I use the phrase the ‘text of the document’ to refer to the sequence of marks present in the document, independently of whether these represent a complete, meaningful text. That is: the reader sees a sequence of letters, occurring in various places in relation to each other (perhaps between the lines or within the margins) and carrying various markings (perhaps underdottings or strikethroughs). These make up what I here refer to as the text of the document. (Bordalejo 2010).

I am not the first in referring to text of the document, G. Thomas Tanselle has contrasted the text of the document (1978; 1996) with “the text of the work” (Tanselle, 1996).

The text of the document, then, can be recorded as a sequence of meaningful marks present on a particular document. MS. Riccardianna 1005, a witness of Dante’s Divine Comedy, presents the following example:


This could ordinarily be represented by: <del>dura</del><add>duro</add>

In our transcriptions, however, we represent this as: <app>  <rdg type=""orig"">dura</rdg>  <rdg type=""c1"">duro</rdg> <rdg type=""lit""> dur<hi rend=""ud"">a</hi>o</rdg> </app>

Here, the last reading, <rdg type=""lit"">, represents the text of the document literally. Unlike traditional TEI recommended encoding we do not use <add> or <del>, on the premise that both of these confound a statement of editorial interpretation (this is a deletion or an addition, so we should read the text with or without these characters) with a statement of what appears on the document (there is a mark under these characters; they are placed interlineally). In our view, the statement of what we see on the page is a different order of declaration from a statement of how we think this should be read. The aim of <rdg type=""lit""> is to present the meaningful marks we see on the document. The statement of how we think these marks should be read, as a sequence of readings, should be left for the other elements within <app>: thus, <rdg type=""orig""> and <rdg type=""c1"">, representing the different perceived stages a particular text has gone through during a process of revision, from its original (“orig”) to first corrected state (“c1”). All these statements — <rdg type=""lit"">, <rdg type=""orig""> and <rdg type=""c1""> — are interpretive. However, they are interpretive in different ways and serve different purposes.

The TEI, in “An Encoding Model for Genetic Editions” (http://users.ox.ac.uk/~lou/wip/geneticTEI.doc.html#index.xml-body.1_div.1_div.1) includes some similar elements to the ones developed for our edition of the Commedia. Consider this example from “An Encoding Model for Genetic Editions”:

“The following example, taken from a manuscript of Jane Austen's Sanditon, shows a rewriting where a pencilled passage has been fixed with ink, with some modification:



Image from page 70 of the Sanditon manuscript

In this example, Austen sees in the fixation an opportunity to manipulate the text previously written, and thus changes the pencilled could but get to the inked could get. A simple way of encoding this might be as follows: <ge:rewrite cause=""fix"" hand=""ja2"" stage=""#s1""> Now, if we could get <del stage=""0"">but</del> a young Heiress</ge:rewrite>”

In our proposed system, not originally designed for genetic encoding but easily adaptable for this purposes, we would encode it as: <app> <rdg type=""orig"">Now, if we could but get </rdg>  <rdg type=""c1"">Now, if we could get</rdg>> <rdg type=""lit""> <seg type=""overwritten""> <seg type=""orig"" rend=""pencil"">Now, if we could but get </seg> <seg type=""c1"" rend=""ink"">Now, if we could get</seg> </seg> </rdg> </app> Both systems explicitly state that there was an original text, written by Jane Austen and that the text was rewritten by herself. The “lit” reading in my proposed transcription specifies that this was originally written in pencil and that the second version of the text was written in ink. In my transcription, it is clearly stated that the original form of the text was “Now if we could but get ” (written in pencil) and that this was altered to “Now if we could get” (written in ink). In contrast, in the proposed TEI encoding it is not at all clear from the use of the various attributes (stages “0” and “#s1”) and from the <ge:rewrite> and <del> elements what was originally written, what it was revised to, and how this was done.

For our purposes, we find that by stating explicitly what occurred to the text, that is whether it was stroke through, underdotted, underlined, erased, scrapped or rewritten, we avoid the ambiguity of the <del> element. The <add> element has also been set aside, to be replaced with markup that indicates position or mode of insertion.

The encoding system being used in our projects is TEI compliant, but it attempts to serve the purposes of various types of scholarly editions. For the purposes of textual scholarship, it is necessary to have a clear idea of what is meant by “representing the text of the document.” In any case, it is not enough to represent the text of the document, we must also represent variant states of the text and give editorial interpretation a more explicit place in the transcription of primary sources.

References
Bordalejo, B. (2010). The encoding system. In Prue Shaw (ed.) The Commedia of Dante Alighieri: A Digital Edition. Saskatoon: Scholarly Digital Editions.
Burnard, L., F. Iannidis, E. Pierazzo, and M. Rehbein (n.d.) An Encoding Model for Genetic Editions. http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/Council/Working/tcw19.html. (Accessed November 1st, 2012).
Gabler, H. W. (2007). The Primacy of the Document in Editing. Ecdotica, 4, 197–207.
Pierazzo, E. (2011). A Rationale of Digital Documentary Editions. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 26, 463–477.
Robinson, P. (2013). Towards a Theory of Digital Editions. Variants 10, 105-32.
Tanselle, G. T., (1978). Editing Historical Documents Studies in Bibliography 31, 1-56.
Tanselle, G. T., (1996). Editing Historical Documents Studies in Bibliography 49, 1-60.","txt","2","",""
"1608","14","Beyond the Scanned Image: A Needs Assessment of Faculty Users of Digital Collections","9","Introduction
The plethora of digital collections now available to humanities scholars — such as the William Blake Archive or the Civil Rights Digital Library— prompt us to ask critical questions concerning the next stage of humanities scholarship: How well are digital collections meeting the research needs of scholars? And how should digital collections evolve to sustain and strengthen their value to digital humanities research? This paper presents the results of a study of humanities faculty at twelve research institutions that surveyed scholars on their use of digital collections and types of additional functionalities they thought digital collections needed for scholarly research. This study specifically focuses on the structural functionalities in digital collections for which libraries have expertise, such as metadata, information retrieval, and other issues surrounding access and communications.

Background
Digital collections are defined in this study as dynamic and coherent aggregations of thematic digital content that provide a “dense unit for exploration or study” (Palmer 2004; Palmer, et al. 2010). Humanities scholars’ use of digital resources has been explored a number of studies during the past several decades. Early studies by Gilmore and Case (1993), Duff and Cherry (2000), and Bates (1993, 1996) among others, analyzed how humanities scholars incorporated early electronic resources into their research. User studies such as those by Brockman et al. (2001), Spiro and Segal (2005), and Warwick et al. (2008) have examined how humanities researchers incorporate digital materials into their workflows and Sukovic (2008, 2011) has analyzed the usage patterns of electronic texts by humanities scholars.

The effectiveness of digital collections for scholarly use has been the focus of several recent studies, including Proffitt and Schaffner (2008), Bulger et al. (2011), and Meyers’ study (2011)that led to the development of Toolkit for the Impact of Digitised Scholarly Resources (TIDSR). Thus there is an emerging and rapidly expanding body of research that examines the use and structure of digital collections. Little, however, has been written on functionalities of digital collections for research needs.

Needs Assessment Study
The study presented here consisted of a survey distributed to English and History faculty at twelve research universities, and interviews conducted with fine arts and performing arts faculty at the same research universities. The faculty were identified and recruited for the study with the assistance of librarians and academic technologists at the institutions. The survey was distributed to a randomly selected one-third of the faculty members in the English and History departments at each institution, and was conducted from October 2011 through February 2012. Interviews were conducted from January 2012 through August 2012 via email and telephone, and a random one-third of faculty members from fine arts departments were recruited for interviews. Both the survey and interviews asked respondents to describe their research work with digital collections, the benefits and disadvantages of digital materials, and functionalities that would improve digital collections for scholarly research. Survey respondents were provided with this precise definition of digital collections as curated collections and asked if they used this type of digital resource. Respondents who answered “Yes” continued the survey, while those who answered “No” were taken to the end of the survey.

The quantitative survey responses were analyzed in Excel for statistical percentages. The open-ended survey responses and qualitative interview data were hand coded for themes, and then automated coding was applied with the ATLAS.ti software. In the analyses of these gathered responses from humanities scholars, this paper asks: How do scholars incorporate digital collections into their research? What do digital collections do well and what functionalities are needed in them?

Two primary needs emerged in the scholars’ responses: sustained access and discovery of digital collections, and the ability to mix and reuse digital materials. These needs map to the issues of digital curation and interoperability, which will be explored in-depth in this paper.

Curation
Among survey respondents, the most frequently used materials were texts at 100 percent and images at 94 percent, followed by maps at 58 percent, video at 42 percent, and audio at 39 percent. For all of these materials, curation was paramount.

The responses on the requirements for preparing these materials for scholarly use corresponded to varying processes within the Data Curation Lifecycle (JISC, 2010). Respondents were asked to identify the most needed functionalities for collections of types of digital objects: texts, images, and multi-format media materials. For text collections, detailed metadata and provenance information were the most desirable features. Respondents also strongly expressed the importance of annotating texts, and access to the text files for analyses. For collections of images, the most frequently identified functionality was the ability to download images, followed by the need for consistent, high quality images. Similarly strong responses were expressed for the availability of annotation and editing tools. One survey respondent noted, “The easier objects are to repurpose, remix, and reuse the better.”

The interviewed respondents had similar needs for curation, citing content of collections as the most critical need. This included the temporal coverage of content, transcriptions, the inclusion of non-textual sources in collections, and access to broader content. Such steps for curation enable the discovery of content, and reveal to scholars the ways in which they can synthesize the digital materials together for scholarship. Yet synthesis also requires interoperability.

Interoperability
Users also need digital collections that contain interoperable content that functionally facilitates the synthesis conducted by humanities scholars in their comparative examinations of digital materials. As noted in a study by Brockman et al. (2001), the research practices of humanities scholars prominently includes the gathering of sources from multiple collections, in order to create a customized corpus that enables them to explore particular research questions. As such digital collections need effective interoperability between collections’ content and metadata to support scholarly research, and the respondents in this study clearly expressed this need.

In the survey and interviews, robust search tools across multiple digital collections were another strongly expressed need among interview and survey respondents. Search functionalities that were particularly valuable included keyword searching, faceted searching, previewing of files, and general browsing of all types of materials. Responses also identified the need for comprehensive metadata in digital collections to enable comparative analysis of collections’ content, particularly the identification of specific scholarly editions. The cross-collection use of digital materials results in remixing and reuse of materials for teaching and research, as one respondent explained that ideal digital collections allowed them to be “exporting files and creating my own text and visual files either for teaching or research purpose.”

Analysis
The respondents’ expressed needs for digital curation and interoperability in digital collections highlight the imperative for libraries to re-evaluate their approach to building and enhancing digital collections. A number of recent studies — notably including the 2010 CLIR report The Idea of Order: Transforming Research Collections for 21st Century Scholarship — argue for a dramatic shift in research libraries’ conceptualization of collections. This shift is marked by an active, user-centered perspective toward collections — both digital and physical. In particular, the principle of contextual mass (Palmer 2001, 2010), which prioritizes users’ research practices in determining collection content, is more imperative than ever in the development of digital collections. Thus as scholarly users demand greater functionality and reliability in digital collections, it is critical that libraries anchor the scope and functionality of their collections in the needs of users, and in doing so, begin establishing deeper research partnerships with users.

Conclusion
This study presents an initial exploration of the needs of researchers when using digital collections. While there are vast differences among the scholarly needs of individual researchers, this study begins to reveal that libraries must work to build collections that exist in a sustainable, networked and iterative environment, and that the content is responsive to the evolving needs for digital humanities research. The study not only reinforces the need for content providers such as libraries and museums to collaborate with humanities scholars when making curatorial decisions about digital collections, it also emphasizes the essential nature of this partnership in shaping digital collection development.

References
American Council of Learned Societies. (2006). Our Cultural Commonwealth: The report of the ACLS Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities and Social Sciences. New York: American Council of Learned Societies. http://www.acls.org/uploadedFiles/Publications/Programs/Our_Cultural_Commonwealth.pdf
Brockman, W. S., L. Neumann, C. L. Palmer, and T. J. Tidline (2001). Scholarly Work in the Humanities and the Evolving Information Environment. CLIR Publication 104. Washington, D.C.: Digital Library Federation and Council on Library and Information Resources. http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub104/contents.html
Bulger, M., E. T. Meyer, G. de la Flor, M. Terras, S. Wyatt, M. Jirotka, K. Eccles, and C. Madsen (2011). Reinventing Research?: Information Practices in the Humanities. A Research Information Network Report. London: Research Information Network.
Council of Library and Information Resources. (2010). The Idea of Order: Transforming Research Collections for 21st Century Scholarship. CLIR Publication No. 147. Washington, D.C.: Council of Library and Information Resources. http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub147/reports/pub147/pub147.pdf
Currall, J., M. Moss, and S. Stuart (2004). “What is a Collection?” Archivaria 58: 131-146. http://journals.sfu.ca/archivar/index.php/archivaria/article/view/12480/13594
Duff, W. M., and J. M. Cherry (2000). “Use of Historical Documents in a Digital World: Comparisons with Original Materials and Microfiche.” Information Research 6.1: http://informationr.net/ir/6-1/paper86.html
Gilmore, M. B., and D. O. Case (1992). “Historians, books, computers, and the library.” Library Trends 40.4: 667-686. https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/7802/librarytrendsv40i4g_opt.pdf?sequence=1
Meyer, E. T., Joint Information Systems Committee Report. (2011). Splashes and Ripples: Synthesizing the Evidence on the Impacts of Digital Resources. London: JISC. http://ssrn.com/abstract=1846535
Meyer, E. T., K. Eccles, and C. Madsen (2009). Digitisation as e-Research Infrastructure: Access to Materials and Research Capabilities in the Humanities. 5th International Conference on e-Social Science. held 14 June 2009 in Cologne, Germany.http://www.ncess.ac.uk/resources/content/papers/Meyer(2).pdf(accessed June 14, 2012).
Palmer, C. (2004). Thematic Research Collections. In A Companion to Digital Humanities. ed. by Schreibman, S., Siemens, R., and Unsworth, J. Oxford: Blackwell. ch. 24.
Palmer, C., O. Zavalina, and K. Fenlon (2010). 'Beyond Size and Search: Building Contextual Mass in Digital Aggregations for Scholarly Use'. Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 47.1: 1-10.
Proffitt, M., and J. Schaffner (2008). The Impact of Digitizing Special Collections on Teaching and Scholarship: Reflections on a Symposium about Digitization and the Humanities. Dublin, OH: OCLC Programs and Research. http://www.oclc.org/programs/reports/2008-04.pdf
Spiro, L., and J. Segal The Impact of Digital Resources on Humanities Research. http://library.rice.edu/services/dmc/about/projects/the-impact-of-digital-resources-on-humanities-research
Sukovic, S. (2008). Convergent Flows: Humanities Scholars and Their Interactions with Electronic Texts. Library Quarterly 78.3: 263-284.
Sukovic, S.. (2008). E-Texts in Research Projects in the Humanities. In Woodsworth, A. and Penniman, W. D., (eds), Advances in Librarianship. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing, 2011.
Warwick, C., M. Terras, P. Huntington, and N. Pappa (2008). If You Build It Will They Come? The LAIRAH Study: Quantifying the Use of Online Resources in the Arts and Humanities through Statistical Analysis of User Log Data. Literary and Linguistic Computing 23.1: 85-102.","txt","2","",""
"1609","14","Exploring Digital Humanities Collaborations in the CIC","2","The CIC — the Big 10 plus the University of Chicago — is a consortium of some of the largest universities in the Midwest region of the United States. Its members include:

The University of Chicago        http://www.uchicago.edu
University of Illinois Urbana Champaign        http://illinois.edu
Indiana University        http://www.indiana.edu/
University of Iowa        http://www.uiowa.edu
University of Michigan        http://www.umich.edu
Michigan State University        http://www.msu.edu
University of Minnesota        http://www1.umn.edu
University of Nebraska–Lincoln        http://www.unl.edu
Northwestern University        http://www.northwestern.edu
Ohio State University        http://www.osu.edu
Pennsylvania State University        http://www.psu.edu
Purdue University        http://www.purdue.edu
University of Wisconsin–Madison        http://www.wisc.edu
The CIC schools, enroll approximately half a million students each year and have over $7 billion in funded research, over 79 million library volumes, and employ 46,000 faculty. The CIC is home to the HathiTrust Research Center, funded by Indiana University and the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and boasts three major digital humanities centers: the Illinois Center for Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (I-CHASS) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (http://ichass.illinois.edu/), Matrix: The Center for Humane Arts, Letters, and Social Sciences at Michigan State University (http://matrix.msu.edu), the Center for Digital Research in the Humanities (CDRH) at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (http://cdrh.unl.edu), and, as of July 1, 2103, Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities (MITH) at the University of Maryland (http://mith.umd.edu). CIC institutes are also home to a lively and varied assortment of digital humanities labs, institutes, and initiatives.

Despite the range of digital humanities activities in the CIC, little discussion concerning broad collaboration at a consortial level had occurred among the schools until the 2012 CIC Digital Humanities Summit was held to foster exchange of knowledge and experience across campuses and to discover basic common needs and vibrant shared objectives that could benefit from cross institutional collaboration.

In our poster session members of the CIC Digital Humanities Committee will discuss the impetus for the CIC Digital Humanities Initiative; describe recommended actions from the Summit; report on some responses from other CIC committees (specifically those on data storage and geospatial research) as well as responses of the deans and provosts of the universities to the action items in the report. We will outline preliminary actions of the universities and faculty as a result of the scan and the recommendations. This poster session provides an opportunity to discuss efforts to build digital humanities infrastructure as well as research within the context of a large academic consortium. Other CIC schools are beginning to invest, with widening DH education and research opportunities that will extend far outside the CIC.

In Fall 2011, a new CIC Digital Humanities Initiative was announced with the intent to form a stronger CIC faculty community and networks in digital humanities. Concurrently, an interdisciplinary CIC Digital Humanities Committee was appointed. Initially, this group developed an environmental scan that identifys CIC digital humanities centers and institutes; initiatives and laboratories; conferences and workshops; degrees, specialization & certificate programs; recent grants; publishing initiatives; and digital humanities faculty members. Meant to be a dynamic report, the Scan has been shared widely within the CIC universities, especially among the leadership and the digital humanities faculty. Each school is being encouraged to add to the CIC Digital Humanities Environmental Scan, with the intent that this will be a living, changing document. One school is developing a database version for tracking their own activities and is sharing the code with others.

In April 2012, the CIC Digital Humanities Summit was co-hosted by the University of Nebraska-Lincoln and the CIC. Sixty representatives from twelve of the universities met, including deans, librarians, faculty conducting research in the humanities using technology, and directors of digital humanities centers, studios and labs. Among topics were the environmental scan and possible opportunities and challenges for digital humanities collaboration among the schools; and how to improve the environment and resources for the digital humanities in the CIC. Keynote addresses regarding trends in digital humanities and success and failure of digital humanities centers, and short talks on university publishing and on promotion and tenure characterized much of the Summit’s group discussions. It is notable that there was a great deal of enthusiasm expressed for collaboration and for open source approaches, with very few challenges identified by the participants.

Following the summit, the CIC Digital Humanities Committee developed a report with action items based on Summit participants’ recommendations. The report is leading to campus-specific efforts as well as consortial activity. The CIC’s focus on digital humanities is significant for several reasons. The environmental scan demonstrates that traditionally strong humanities computing efforts in the CIC include an increasingly diverse range of digital humanities endeavors. Moreover, there appear to be a diversity of strengths across the CIC universities with excellent opportunities to provide mutual support and sharing of expertise, perhaps through a broadly conceived initiative such as a CIC Digital Humanities Commons. Faculty are spread across all the humanities disciplines and are in CIC libraries, archives, museums and iSchools, bringing substance to new coalitions and allowing us to reimagine relations with different audiences inside and outside the university. There was a broad acceptance of the importance of collaboration and transdisciplinarity, and a recognition that while it may be difficulty to create community around Digital Humanities at the local level, there is strength at a consortial level.

In the poster, we will address these points and also present brief but concrete examples of mature and robust research programs and nascent efforts among the CIC universities.","txt","2","",""
"1610","14","Bibliopedia, Linked Open Data, and the Web of Scholarly Citations","9","Overview
Bibliopedia, which recently completed an NEH Digital Humanities Start-Up Grant, performs data-mining and cross-referencing of scholarly literature to create a humanities-centered collaboratory. Currently a working prototype, Bibliopedia can search resources including JSTOR and Library of Congress for metadata about scholarly articles and books, examine the articles and books for citations, then present the results in a publicly accessible database. Bibliopedia is designed to work with all humanities scholarship. It will also allow users to create browsable and customizable bibliographies of all the works cited by each article and book. Most importantly, it uses semantic web technology to enable automated textual analysis, data extraction, cross-referencing, and visualizations of the relationships among texts and authors. Using existing open source software, it extracts citation data from existing plain text resources and transforms them into linked open data. This process makes the information easily accessible to the wider scholarly and linked data communities, enables network visualizations of the scholarly landscape. This presentation will cover the details of the Bibliopedia system to show others how they can replicate it. We will also offer to all interested academic parties our existing installation and hosting platform for their experimentation. In particular, we will present our Drupal-based semantic wiki, which features a full web services API, and our custom citation crawler.

Linked open data, one of the core technologies of the semantic web, promotes open sharing of digital scholarly research while it encourages further, potentially unexpected uses. Bibliopedia's method for incorporating linked open data (via RDFa) requires only minimal technical expertise to reproduce. One of the central components of Bibliopedia is the Drupal content management sytem (CMS), which as of version 7 exposes data via RDF/RDFa as part of its core functionality. This functionality, moreover, is not limited to Drupal. For example, Omeka, another CMS developed at the Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, George Mason University, has some limited support for linked data through its DublinCoreExtended plugin. Bibliopedia demonstrates the power and flexibility of Drupal's approach to linked data while providing more general lessons for digital humanists who seek to incorporate this technology into their projects.

Project Details
Bibliopedia will aid humanities researchers of all levels of expertise by making simple the currently difficult tasks of discovering new scholarly works and the relationships among them. It will create an a scholarly community to verify and elaborate cross-referenced, linked bibliographic data through easy-to-use wiki pages. Scholarly literature will become browsable not only backwards in time, but also forwards, something that is currently impossible.

The semantic web is transforming the Internet from a collection of pages and data readable only by humans to one that machines can understand and process. Semantic web technology promises the ability automatically to determine meaning and then infer connections among different elements, thereby vastly improving search capabilities, discovery of new information, and the overall usefulness of the Internet. Just as information accessible only to humans comprises the great majority of the general Internet, so too is data about scholarly literature locked away in text that computers cannot process without great difficulty. At best, search engines for repositories such as JSTOR permit researchers to query author name, journal titles, and keywords, but once a work is found, the search stops. No connections among works are found precisely because machines cannot currently read that data. Although Google Scholar attempts to show citations of articles, its usefulness is highly limited because it does not make clear the relationships among articles, present very limited metadata about each article (if any), fails to provide for community elaboration or correction, and includes only works that are publicly available. Yet despite its limitations, Google Scholar stands as a significant technological advance beyond keyword-based search engines such as those provided by JSTOR and Project Muse.

Bibliopedia will, by aggregating data from as many sources as possible, converting citations into semantic web format, and then cross-referencing an ever-growing database of scholarly works, be able not only to overcome many of the limitations of Google Scholar and become a powerful research tool in its own right, but also to make a valuable contribution to the growing semantic web. Introducing high quality metadata about humanities scholarship to the semantic web will enable others in the semantic web/linked data world to process that data in new, unexpected ways that will accrue further benefits to the scholarly community. For example, the standards underlying the semantic web make data visualization and automated inferences about relationships trivially easy rather than the complex problems such tasks currently present. Bibliopedia will, then, through the innovation of placing metadata about scholarly literature into a linked data format, open up a vast range of possible future innovations and analyses based on that data, which is currently locked away and readable only by select humans.

Another virtue of a linked data format is that it will help resolve many of the challenges inherent in metadata, some will inevitably remain. Rather than attempt to solve this incredibly complex problem through automation alone, then, Bibliopedia will, in the process of displaying its results for human consumption, also provide for human feedback in the form of correction and elaboration. A common disadvantage of fully automated text analysis and data extraction tools such as Google Books, Google Scholar, and other digital research tools is that their automatic parsers have errors in their metadata that they do not allow subject matter experts to repair. Bibliopedia will pursue the goal of unifying that information into an environment that not only displays the information efficiently, but actively encourages crowd-sourcing metadata on books, articles, and publications of all kinds. In thus opening data up to revision by the scholarly community, Bibliopedia can build on the strong work of mature data silos, improve overall data quality, and provide the academic community at large a continuously evolving research tool.

There currently exists a multitude of projects and tools designed to work with book metadata, cross-reference scholarly articles (localized to the sciences), or create user communities around a chosen interest. Further, some of the most important trends currently revising the ways we use technology are social media, collaboration, and data aggregation. By incorporating the benefits realizable from each of these trends, Bibliopedia will create a powerful tool for scholarly research at all levels. None of the existing tools, however, focus on scholarship for the humanities, nor do they present the information in the linked data format necessary to the semantic web.","txt","2","",""
"1611","14","Bindings of Uncertainty. Visualizing Uncertain and Imprecise Data in Automatically Generated Bookbinding Structure Diagrams","9","1. Introduction
‘If it is drawn it must be true.’ Most people have the tendency to treat visualized data as facts and are much less prone to question visualizations than written words. Incorporating ways of conveying the notions of uncertainty and imprecision within visualizations is therefore a critical issue. This presentation will address this problem and consider what possible steps can be taken to visualize uncertainty and imprecision within the constraints of diagrams whose shapes and appearance are necessarily dictated by those of the objects that they represent.

Amongst the disciplines devoted to the study of books, bookbinding history is young, lacking a well-established vocabulary and a stable description system (Szirmai 1999). Bookbinding descriptions are often inaccurate, and difficult to communicate especially to international audiences.

Verbal descriptions are inadequate and are usually accompanied by drawings, which do not comply with any standard. Different authors employ different styles and conventions, and sometimes a number of conventions are used within one publication.

Recent work at the Ligatus Research Centre addresses the bookbinding vocabulary and classification problem. We have developed a descriptive schema and glossary for bookbinding structures utilizing eXtensible Markup Language (XML) technologies. This has been used to survey the bookbinding structures of the books from the St. Catherine’s Monastery Library, Mount Sinai, Egypt. The records are combined with freehand drawings of the binding structures (Velios 2008; Velios and Pickwoad 2005). More recently, we have been working towards a methodology to automatically transform the XML descriptions of bookbinding structures into Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) diagrams. The advantages of the automated transformations are: (i) standardized output; (ii) production speed as they save significant time during the survey, and (iii) better accuracy as they function as verification of the surveyed data during the survey. However, the data produced during the survey is often uncertain (when features are obscured), imprecise (when surveyors have limited capacity to interpret evidence), and incomplete (when the available time is limited). Uncertain data is so flagged within the XML records, and also the imprecision and the absence of certain elements can be inferred from the records. Therefore, it is possible and appropriate to communicate imprecise and uncertain data within the visualizations. These should be drawn clearly and without affecting the overall meaning of the diagram.

2. Uncertainty and Imprecision of Data
When dealing with historical bookbinding structures, one has to accept that a degree of uncertainty, imprecision and incompleteness is inevitable for the following reasons.

2.1 Uncertainty
As in the case of quantitative and geographical data visualizations (Wilkinson 2005; Wainer 2009; Gethin Powell 2012), factors of uncertainty can be found in (i) inherent problems with the definition of the object of study, i.e. the limitations of current knowledge regarding bookbinding structures and their description; (ii) the sources of information and their interpretation, i.e. the books being described and the interpretation of their binding structures; (iii) issues with the categorization and representation of certain complex features, i.e. undetermined complex shapes for highly decorative and non-functional elements. Uncertainty can arise in all of these areas. One of the main problems faced by bookbinding historians lays in the young age of the discipline. Goldschmidt, in 1928, pointed out that ‘far fewer people [could] give a reasoned opinion on the country of origin and the approximate date of an old bookbinding, than a piece of pottery or furniture’ (Goldschmidt 1928). Unfortunately, almost a century later, the situation has not changed and often bookbinding descriptions are still inaccurate. Moreover, a book is sometimes too damaged to show clear evidence of its origin, or else, elements of the binding, especially decorative ones like metal furniture, are so complex that it is difficult to categorize and describe them.

2.2 Imprecision
The automated visualizations of binding structures, based upon their XML verbal descriptions, do not aim at a naturalistic representation of the item being described. But rather at conveying its general form in a highly prototypified representation, thus making it possible and easier for it to be compared with similar structures found in other books. Similarity of shapes depends on the preservation of certain particular features, referred to as prägnant features, e.g. symmetry, orientation in space, etc., while non-prägnant features, e.g. precise measurements, can be substantially changed without psychologically affecting the overall impression for the observer (Goldmeier 1972). Precise measurements are therefore not essential for the prototypification of shape, and for this reason only few precise measurements are required from the bookbinding record. Nonetheless, we feel that imprecisions in measurement-dependent elements should still be identifiable because they indicate scale, which may be a critical aspect of the description.

2.3 Human Error
When inaccuracy is objectively determinable, it can be expressed as error (MacEachren, et al. 2005). As it is often the case with human generated data, input problems and errors do occur. However, these are not easily identifiable through automated means and, considering that our transformations are also thought of as a possible step in ensuring data correctness by part of the surveyors, ambiguities due to human error are not being considered here.

3. Representation of Uncertainty and Imprecision
Uncertainty and its representation have been studied in the scientific and geographical visualization communities (Wilkinson 2005). Bertin's (Bertin 1981; Bertin 1983) basic graphic variables — location/position, size, value, texture, colour, orientation, shape/form — with the addition of colour saturation, transparency/opacity, and sharpness/blurring (MacEachren 1992) have been used to build graphic representations and depict uncertainty. Interestingly, all these graphical features correspond to the basic feature channels in our primary visual cortex (V1), being thus perceptually distinct features (Ware 2012).

Cultural heritage visualizations are constrained by the shapes, spatial relationships, and relative sizes of the objects being portrayed. Therefore, only a limited set of graphic variables can be used to depict uncertainty. While uncertainty depiction needs to be perceptually salient, understanding the overall meaning of the diagram should not be precluded. Transparency has been used in archaeological reconstructions (Zuk and Carpendale 2006); however, lacking a distinct background, the use of transparency on its own can be problematic. Further, automated visualizations need a flexible system to apply a higher or lower degree of uncertainty to its elements.

3.1 Uncertainty
Out of the possible graphic variables, we have identified blurring as the best option to express uncertainty in our diagrams. People can easily interpret less sharp details as uncertainty (MacEachren 1992), while blurring can be applied to single lines without affecting the diagram's overall appearance. SVG provides a Gaussian-blur filter applicable to any shape and allows for different standard deviation values for the x and y axes. This grants the preservation of the overall shape of uncertain elements (see fig. 1) and permits to visualize different degrees of uncertainty through a flexible and universally applicable system. Uncertain elements are drawn in the configuration deemed most probable, while the degree of blurring can be determined by the number of possible variations.


Figure 1
Example of uncertainty of a sewing pattern

Once identified, uncertainty can be resolved by providing the user with a set of 'small multiples' (Tufte 1990), i.e. alternative possible visualizations, allowing for immediate comparison within the scope of the eye span (see fig. 2).


Figure 2
Example of small multiples for a sewing pattern

3.2 Imprecision
To indicate imprecision we need a graphical variable that could make the element identifiable without affecting the overall outline of the diagram, thus allowing for uninterrupted contour realization by part of the user. While colour labelling could be an option, we need a V1 feature channel that could make the element perceptually distinct leaving the contour unaffected. We find that this could be achieved with a surround colour (see fig. 3).


Figure 3
Figure 3 Examples of a board thickness diagram with and without imprecision highlight

A coloured halo is a perceptual distinction feature (Ware 2012) that can be universally applied to graphics through SVG filters. The reduced contrast with the background makes the feature perceptually less salient, while the shape contour is left unaltered.

4. Conclusions
Visualizations within scholarly research projects should convey uncertainty and imprecision where needed. Depicting uncertainty has been the object of study of many scholars, however, its application to diagrams whose shapes are dictated by those of the objects being represented, like in the case of cultural heritage objects, poses particular issues and constraints. Even more so in the case of automatically generated diagrams within a large-scale project as our bookbinding structure visualizations.

This presentation is intended to serve as an example of the kind of perceptually salient graphical variables that can be used to successfully depict uncertainty and imprecision within cultural heritage prototypical diagrams.

References
Bertin, J. (1981). Graphics and Graphic Information Processing. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co.
Bertin, J. (1983). Semiology of Graphics. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
Gethin Powell, R. (2012). Uncertain Date, Uncertain Place: Interpreting the History of Jewish Communities in the Byzantine Empire using GIS. In Digital Humanities 2012 Conference Abstracts. Hamburg: Hamburg University Press. 329-331.
Goldmeier, E. (1972). Similarity in Visually Perceived Forms. Madison, CT: International Universities Press.
Goldschmidt, E. P. (1928). Gothic & Renaissance Bookbindings, Exemplified and Illustrated from the Author's Collection. London: Ernest Benn, Houghton Mifflin Co.
MacEachren, A. M. (1992). Visualizing Uncertain Information. Cartographic Perspective. 13: 10-19.
MacEachren, A. M., et al. (2005). Geospatial Information Uncertainty, What We Know and What We Need to Know. Cartography and Geographic Information Science 32(3): 139-160.
Szirmai, J. A. (1999). The Archaeology of Medieval Bookbinding. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate Publishing.
Tufte, E. R. (1990). Envisioning Information. Cheshire, CT: Graphic Press.
Velios, A. (2008). Hierarchical Recording of Binding Structures. The Book and Paper Group Annual 27: 97.
Velios, A., and N. Pickwoad. (2005). Current Use and Future Development of the Database of the St. Catherine’s Library Conservation Project. The Paper Conservator 29: 39-53.
Wainer, H. (2009). Picturing the Uncertain World, How to Understand, Communicate, and Control Uncertainty through Graphical Display. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Ware, C. (2012). Information Visualization, Perception for Design. 3rd edn. Waltham, MA: Morgan Kaufmann.
Wilkinson, L. (2005). The Grammar of Graphics. 2nd edn. New York: Springer.
Zuk, T., and S. Carpendale (2006). Theoretical Analysis of Uncertainty Visualizations. in Visualization and Data Analysis. Proceedings of SPIE-IS&T Electronic Imaging 2006; SPIE. held in Bellingham, WA. 66-79.","txt","2","",""
"1612","14","Bootstrapping Delta: a safety net in open-set authorship attribution","10","Introduction
In non-traditional authorship attribution, the general goal is to link a disputed/anonymous sample with the most probable ‘candidate’. This is what state-of-the-art attribution methods do with ever-growing precision. However, it is similarly important to validate the obtained results, especially when one deals with a faultily-collected or incomplete reference corpus. This is a typical situation of an ‘open’ attribution problem: when the investigated anonymous text might have been written by any contemporary writer, and the attributor has no prior knowledge whether a sample written by a possible candidate is included in the reference corpus. Then the attributor faces the question whether, supposing that all the contemporary writers were represented in the corpus, the results in fact suggest a different person as the most likely author. A vast majority of methods used in stylometry establish a classification of samples and strive to find the nearest neighbors among them. Unfortunately, these techniques of classification are not resistant to a common mis-classification error: any two nearest samples are claimed to be similar, no matter how distant they are.

Given (1) a text of uncertain or anonymous authorship and (2) a comparison corpus of texts by known authors, one can perform a series of similarity tests between each sample and the disputed text. This allows us to establish a ranking list of possible authors, assuming that the sample nearest to the disputed text is stylistically similar, and thus probably written by the same author. However, the calculated distance is usually not followed by an estimation of its reliability. While testing the novel Agnes Gray against a corpus of English novels, one will probably have Anne Brontë as the most likely author. However, testing Emily Brontë’s only novel Wuthering Heights, one is guaranteed to obtain wrong results (because no comparison sample is available), but the ranking of candidates will suggest a most likely author anyway, perhaps another Brontë sister. In a controlled authorship experiment, identifying such a fake candidate is easy, but how can we decide the degree of certainty in a real-life authorship attribution case? Although this problem has been discussed (Burrows, 2002, 2003; Hoover, 2004a; Koppel et al., 2009; Schaalje et al., 2011), we still have no widely-accepted solution. The method introduced below provides a new approach to this problem.

Mater semper certa: Burrows’s Delta
Among a number of machine-learning methods used in stylometry, a special place is occupied by Burrows’s Delta, a rare example of a made-to-measure technique designed particularly for authorship attribution (Burrows, 2002, 2003). Delta is one of the simplest and, at the same time, one of the most effective methods (as evidenced in a benchmark presented by Jockers and Witten, 2008); described in detail, tested, and improved (Hoover, 2004a, 2004b; Argamon, 2008; Smith and Aldridge, 2011; Rybicki and Eder, 2011).

However, despite obvious Delta’s advantages, there are also some drawbacks, shared with a vast majority of state-of-the-art attribution methods. Particularly, Delta relies on an arbitrarily specified number of features to be analyzed. Even if most scholars agree that the best style-markers are the counted frequencies of the most frequent words (MFWs), there still remains the nasty question of the number of words that should be taken into analysis. While some practitioners claim that a small number of function words provide the best results (Mosteller and Wallace, 1964), others prefer longer vectors of MFWs: 100 words (Burrows, 2002), 300 (Smith and Aldrigde, 2011), 500 (Craig and Kinney, 2009), up to even 1,000 or more (Hoover, 2004a). However, a multi-corpus and multi-language study (Rybicki and Eder, 2011) shows that there is no universal vector of MFWs and that the results are strongly dependent on the corpus analyzed.


Figure 1.
Who wrote The Europeans? Rankings of 5,000 Delta tests performed on increasing MFW vectors. If the number of MFWs analyzed is lower than 2,700, then Dickens (black thin line) is ranked as the most likely candidate; to get the real author (thick line), one needs to choose a very long vector of words.

What is worse, most attribution techniques, including Delta, allow to measure one vocabulary range (i.e. one vector of MFWs) at once to obtain a ranking of candidates. As shown in Fig. 1, the distances between James’s The Europeans and the members of the training set are unstable and strongly depend on the number of MFWs tested: e.g. one needs to analyze at least 2,700 words to see James ranked as the most likely author of The Europeans instead of Dickens. The danger of cherry-picking is more than obvious here. Although an attributor can perform a series of independent tests with different MFW vectors, a final comparison of thus obtained results is not straightforward at all.

Pater familiae: Bootstrap
In Rudolf Erich Raspe’s collection The Surprising Adventures of Baron Münchhausen, there is a scene where the main character, trapped in a swamp, pulls himself out by his own bootstraps. Although it is still disputed if Münchhausen was pulling by his boots or by his hair, the bootstrapping became a metaphor for statistical methods that make up for absence or unreliability of parameters with intensive resampling of the original population. The bootstrapping procedures are widely used in biometrics and social sciences, and their idea is quite simple: in a large number of trials, samples from the original population are chosen randomly (with replacement), and this chosen subset is analyzed in substitution of the original population (Good, 2006).

When Delta meets Bootstrap
The aim of the technique presented below is to overcome the disadvantages of the existing nearest neighbor classifications. It has been based on Delta and extended with the concept of bootstrap. The method relies on the author’s empirical observation that the distance between samples similar to each other is quite stable despite different vectors of MFWs tested, while the distance between heterogeneous samples often displays some unsteadiness depending on the number of MFWs analyzed.

The core of the procedure is to perform a series of attribution tests in 1,000 iterations, where the number of MFWs to be analyzed is chosen randomly (e.g., 334, 638, 72, 201, 904, 145, 134, 762, …); in each iteration, the nearest neighbor classification is performed. It could be compared to taking 1,000 photos from different points of view. Thus, instead of dealing with one table of calculated distances — as in classic Delta — one obtains 1,000 distance tables. Next, the tables are arranged in a large three-dimensional table-of-tables, as visualized in Fig. 2.


Figure 2.
Results of 1,000 bootstrap iterations (tables of distances between texts samples) arranged in a three-dimensional table.

The next stage is to estimate the mean and standard deviation of each cell across 1,000 layers of the composite table. This is a crucial point of the whole procedure. While classical nearest neighbor classifications rely on point estimation (i.e. the distance between two samples is always represented by a single numeric value), the new technique introduces the concept of confidence interval. Namely, the distance between two samples is a range of values represented by the mean of 1,000 bootstrap trials plus 1.64σij below and 1.64σij above the arithmetic mean.


Figure 3.
Who wrote Phineas Finn? Ranking of candidates using confidence intervals.

An exemplary ranking of candidates is shown in Fig. 3. The most likely author of Phineas Finn is Trollope (as expected), and the calculated confidence interval does not overlap with any other range of uncertainty. This means that Trollope will be ranked first with a 100% probability.

The real strength of the method, however, is evidenced in Fig. 4 and 5, where The Portrait of Dorian Gray is tested against a training set which does not contain samples of Wilde. Classic Delta simply ranks the candidates, Hardy being the first (Fig. 4), while in the new technique, confidence intervals of the first three candidates partially overlap with each other. In consequence, the assumed probability of authorship of Dorian Gray is shared between Galsworthy (54.2%), Hardy (34.8%) and Charlotte Brontë (11%). The ambiguous probabilities strongly indicate fake candidates in an open-set attribution case.


Figure 4.
Who wrote The Portrait of Dorian Gray? Ranking of candidates using classic Delta procedure (500 MFWs tested).


Figure 5.
Who wrote The Portrait of Dorian Gray? Ranking of candidates using confidence intervals.

First benchmark
The first exemplary results of two attribution experiments are shown in Table 1. In both approaches, Jane Austen’s Sense and Sensibility was assumed to be an ‘anonymous’ sample to be attributed, and the comparison corpus consisted of 17 texts by known authors. In the first experiment, the behavior of 1,000 single bootstrap trials led to the final ranking with Jane Austen as the only probable candidate (as expected). In the second experiment, Austen’s sample was excluded from the comparison corpus, so that the real author could not be guessed. However, the method refused to point out a most likely candidate with a high probability. As one can see, there is uncertainty about the first three candidates.


Table 1.
Who wrote Sense and Sensibility? A ranking of candidates: (1) where the real author (Jane Austen) is available in the comparison corpus (left); and (2) where the comparison corpus does not contain samples by the real author (right).

The procedure presented above, displays an accuracy comparable to the state-of-the-art methods used in stylometry, but it is far more sensitive to fake candidates. While the existing methods provide two possible answers to the problem of attribution: X is the author or X is not the author, the procedure proposed introduces a third answer: unclear results, an important safety net against false attribution.

References
Argamon, S. (2008). Interpreting Burrows’s Delta: geometric and probabilistic foundations. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(2). 131-47.
Burrows, J. F. (2002). ‘Delta’: a measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 17(3). 267-87.
Burrows, J. (2003). Questions of authorship: attribution and beyond. Computers and the Humanities, 37 5-32.
Craig, H. and A. F. Kinney (2009). Shakespeare, Computers, and the Mystery of Authorship. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press.
Good, P. (2006). Resampling Methods. Boston: Birkhäuser.
Hoover, D. L. (2004a). Testing Burrows’s Delta. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19(4). 453-71.
Hoover, D. L. (2004b). Delta prime? Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19(4). 477-95.
Jockers, M. L., and D. M. Witten (2010). A comparative study of machine learning methods for authorship attribution. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 25(2). 215-23.
Koppel, M., J. Schler, and S. Argamon (2009). Computational methods in authorship attribution. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 60(1). 9-26.
Mosteller, F. and D. Wallace (1964). Inference and Disputed Authorship: The Federalist Papers. Stanford: CSLI.
Rybicki, J., and M. Eder (2011). Deeper Delta across genres and languages: do we really need the most frequent words? Literary and Linguistic Computing, 26(3). 315-21.
Schaalje, G. B., P. Fields, M. Roper, and G. L. Snow (2011). Extended nearest shrunken centroid classification: a new method for open-set authorship attribution of texts of varying sizes. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 26(91). 71-88.
Smith, P. W., and W. Aldridge (2011). Improving authorship attribution: optimizing Burrow’s Delta method. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics, 18(1). 63-88.","txt","2","",""
"1613","14","Stylometry with R: a suite of tools","2","Stylometry today uses either stand-alone dedicated programs, custom-made by stylometrists, or applies existing software, often one for each stage of the analysis. Stylometry with R can be placed somewhere in-between, as the powerful open-source statistical programming environment provides, on the one hand, the opportunity of building statistical applications from scratch, and, on the other, allows less advanced researchers to use ready-made scripts and libraries. In our own stylometric adventure with R, one of the aims was to build a tool (or a set of tools) that would combine sophisticated state-of-the-art algorithms of classification and/or clustering with a user-friendly interface. In particular, we wanted to implement a number of multidimensional methods that could be used by scholars without programming skills. And more: it soon became evident that once our R scripts are made, provided with a graphic user interface and more or less documented, they are highly usable in class; experience shows that this is an excellent way to work around R’s normally steep learning curve without losing anything of the environment’s considerable computing power and speed.
The crucial point in building the interface was to keep all the stages of the entire analysis – from loading texts to final results in numeric and graphic form — in a single script. To exemplify, our Stylo script does all the work: it processes electronic texts to create a list of all the words used in all texts studied, with their frequencies in the individual texts; normalizes the frequencies with z-scores (if applicable); selects words from stated frequency ranges for analysis; performs additional procedures that (usually) improve attribution, such as Hoover’s (2004a, 2004b) automatic deletion of personal pronouns and culling (automatic removal of words too characteristic for individual texts); compares the results for individual texts; performs a variety of multivariate analyses; presents the similarities/distances obtained in tree diagrams; finally, produces a bootstrap consensus tree — a new graph that combines many tree diagrams for a variety of parameter values. It was our aim to develop a general platform for multi-iteration attribution tests; for instance, an alternate script produced heatmaps to show the degree of Delta’s success in attribution at various intervals of the word frequency ranking list (Rybicki and Eder 2011). The last stage of the interface design was to add a GUI, since some humanists might be allergic to the raw command-line mode provided by R — an observation shared by all three authors — and a host of various small improvements, like saving (and loading) the parameters for the most recent analysis, a wide choice of graphic output formats, etc.
 
Fig. 1 The Stylo script with a bootstrap consensus plot.
The authors believe that at some point the suite of out-of-the-box scripts will cover a wide range of methods used in stylometry. So far, we offer the following tools:
•        (1) the Stylo script, now in version 0.4.8. This is the main tool, thoroughly tested and (partially) documented. It performs Principal Components Analysis, Cluster Analysis, Multidimensional Scaling, and Bootstrap Consensus Trees. The script reads plain text files, XML, or HTML; it supports explicitly nine languages, and implicitly many more (e.g. preliminary tests with a Chinese corpus were quite promising). Publication-quality plots can be exported in PDF, JPEG, PNG, or EMF formats. Additionally-generated files, such as a wordlist used and a table of word frequencies, can be re-used in other scripts or other statistical tools.
•        (2) the Classify script. It performs Delta (Burrows 2002), k-Nearest Neighbors classification, Support Vectors Machines, Naive Bayes, and Nearest Shrunken Centroids (Jockers, et al. 2008). Most of the options are derived from the above-mentioned Stylo script.
•        (3) the Rolling Delta script. It analyses collaborative works and tries to identify the authorship of their fragments. The first step involves a “windowing” procedure (Van Dalen-Oskam and Van Zundert 2007) in which each reference text is segmented into consecutive, equal-sized samples or windows. After “rolling” through the test text we can plot the resulting series of Deltas for each reference text in a graph. 
Fig. 2 Sample plot generated by the Rolling Delta script.
 
Fig. 3 Sample plot generated by the Oppose Test script.
•        (4) the Oppose Test script. It performs a contrastive analysis between two given sets of texts, using Burrows’s Zeta (2006) in its different flavours, including Craig’s extensions (Craig and Kinney, 2009). The script generates a list of words significantly preferred by a tested author, and another list containing the words significantly avoided.
•        (5) the Keywords script. This considerably simple tool is an implementation of the concept of “keywords”, i.e. words appearing with a statistically significantly higher frequency in one text or collection of texts in comparison to another text or collection.
The scripts are available on https://sites.google.com/site/computationalstylistics/
References
Burrows, J. F. (2002). ‘Delta’: a measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 17(3): 267–87.
Burrows, J. F. (2006). All the Way Through: Testing for Authorship in Different Frequency Strata. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 22(1): 27–48.
Craig, H., and A. F. Kinney (eds.) (2009). Shakespeare, Computers, and the Mystery of Authorship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Van Dalen-Oskam, K., and J. Van Zundert (2007). Delta for Middle Dutch – Author and Copyist Distinction in ‘Walewein’. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 22(4): 345–62.
Hoover, D. L. (2004a). Testing Burrows’s Delta. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19(4): 453–75.
Hoover, D. L. (2004b) Delta Prime? Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19(4): 477–95.
Jockers, M. L., D. M. Witten, and C. S. Criddle (2008). Reassessing authorship of the ‘Book of Mormon’ using delta and nearest shrunken centroid classification. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(4): 465–91.
Rybicki, J., and M. Eder (2011). Deeper delta across genres and languages: do we really need the most frequent words? Literary and Linguistic Computing, 26(3): 315–21.","txt","2","",""
"1614","14","Building a Digital Curation Workstation with BitCurator","2","This poster builds on the recent report from the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) titled “You’ve Got to Walk Before You Can Run: First Steps for Managing Born-Digital Content Received on Physical Media” (Erway, 2012). The report identifies eleven specific steps archivist can follow to safely and effectively process born-digital content. This poster considers the hardware needs of archivists and scholars as they look to implement the OCLC’s recommendations by offering a model born-digital curation workstation using readily available PC hardware and a suite of free and open source tools being developed and extended by the BitCurator project. It also offers a use-case demonstrating why such a workstation is a valuable asset for a working digital humanities center.

While a number of commercial solutions are available to aid in processing and curating born-digital collections, the cost of these solutions are frequently beyond the means of libraries and archives at smaller institutions (Kirschenbaum et al, 2010). BitCurator helps ameliorate these obstacles by making available a suite of open source digital forensics tools that run on industry standard PC hardware. The use of standard hardware and open source tools lowers the cost of entry to born-digital curation, thereby enabling more institutions to begin processing their born-digital collections.

The poster offers a best practices example of how to build a digital curation workstation. In conjunction with basic system hardware, a digital curation workstation requires a wide range of media access devices. Some of these devices, such as flash drive readers and DVD/CD-ROM drives, are readily available and come standard on most desktop PCs. However, older media devices, such as 3.5"" and 5.25"" disk drives, can be more difficult to find and integrate into a present-day computer. In addition, older media may not be formatted for a file system that is recognized by current operating systems, so part of this poster will include instructions on how to use the USB based FC5025 5.25"" drive controller to access data across a range of file formats.

While this poster presentation offers practical solutions to some of the challenges of digital curation, it is also intended to promote serious inquiry into the need for the preservation of our digital heritage. In fact, much early work in the digital humanities may be in need of reclamation through tools such as those described above, as was the case recently at MITH with the Shelley-Godwin Archive. That project extends textual analysis work done by Neil Fraistat in the late 1980s on Percy Shelley’s poems and manuscripts. However, that early work was done on a PC running MS-DOS and saved as WordPerfect 4.2 files on 5.25” disks. Using the digital curation workstation described in this poster, we were able to access the floppy disks, download the original files onto a flash drive, and then convert them into the current Word format, all while preserving the original notations. This example illustrates the need for effective and accessible tools for the preservation and recovery of our digital past, both in terms of scholarship and born-digital culture. This poster will enable other digital humanists to take advantage of the work that is being done in the field of digital curation to help preserve and extend their own research for future generations of scholars.

References
Erway, R. (2012). You’ve Got to Walk Before You Can Run: First Steps for Managing Born-Digital Content Received on Physical Media. OCLC Research.
Kirschenbaum, M. G., R. Ovenden, and G. Redwine (2010). Digital Forensics and Born-Digital Content in Cultural Heritage Collections. Council on Library and Information Resources.
Lee, C. A., M. Kirschenbaum, A. Chassanoff, P. Olsen, and K. Woods (2012). BitCurator: Tools and Techniques for Digital Forensics in Collecting Institutions. D-Lib Magazine 18: 5-6.","txt","2","",""
"1615","14","Shall These Bits Live? Towards a Digital Forensics Research Agenda for Digital Humanities with the BitCurator Project","10","In the title of an important early essay on the intersection of bibliographical method and literary interpretation, Jerome McGann (1988) poses the forensically inflected question: “Shall These Bones Live?” Several decades of subsequent scholarly activity have demonstrated the value of embedding the technical and material concerns of bibliographers and textual critics into the pursuits of mainstream literary studies. Though the rise of born-digital materials—documents and other media types that are created by computer and which circulate primarily or exclusively in “virtual” form—would seem to challenge the relevance of a bibliographic approach to textual studies. In fact, as a number of recent scholars have argued, digital texts themselves exhibit distinct material properties. (Kirschenbaum, 2008; Galey, 2012; Piper, 2012)
This paper seeks to enhance the discussion of digital materiality by exploring in a focused way the specific relevance of digital forensics to digital humanities research. Digital forensics is an applied practice involving the “preservation, identification, extraction, documentation, and interpretation” of digital data as legal evidence (Kruse & Heiser, 2002). We will present examples of all of these activities in the context of the BitCurator project, now concluding its first successful phase of development with funding from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. We will demonstrate that digital forensics offers researchers an advanced community of practice around the acquisition, processing, management, and analysis of born-digital objects, and we will suggest that as humanities scholars increasingly engaged with objects of born-digital cultural heritage, digital forensics will emerge as a significant modality within digital humanities. Finally, we will argue that digital forensics offers an especially fruitful area for collaborative research and project development between digital humanities and the digital archives community.
The BitCurator project is a joint effort led by the School of Information and Library Science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (SILS) and the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities (MITH) to develop an environment for collecting professionals that incorporates the functionality of many existing digital forensics tools. There are, however, two fundamental needs for collecting institutions that are not addressed by software designed for the digital forensics industry: incorporation into the workflow of a colleting institution’s ingest and collection management environments, and provision of public access to the data. BitCurator provides an environment in which users can create forensically-packaged disk images, perform a variety of triage tasks on objects within file-systems, extract and repackage metadata, and redact sensitive information from digital materials.
The BitCurator Environment is a fully functioning Linux system built on Ubuntu 12 that has been customized to meet the needs of librarians and archivists, and can be run as a stand-alone operating system, a virtual machine, or as a set of individual tools (see Figure 1). Development has been informed by consultations with two groups: a Professional Expert Panel (PEP) of individuals who are at various levels of implementing digital forensics tools and methods in their collecting institution contexts, and a Development Advisory Group (DAG) of individuals who have significant experience with development of software. (The membership in these two groups represents many of the key researchers and practitioners currently involved in the archival processing of born-digital materials.) The BitCurator environment incorporates a number of useful digital forensics tools that can easily be integrated into digital curation workflows. A sampling of those tools, all of which are available as public domain or open-source (General Public License) software, includes:
•        Guymager: A tool for creating disk images in one of three commonly used disk image formats (dd, E01, and AFF).
•        Custom Nautilus scripts: A collection of enhancements to Ubuntu’s default file browser that allow users to quickly generate checksums, identify file types, and safely mount drives, among other tasks.
•        The Sleuth Kit: A digital investigation platform.
•        fiwalk: An open source tool for processing disk images, producing Digital Forensics XML and human readable metadata on file system structure and contents
•        bulk_extractor: A program that extracts information—including Personally Identifying Information—from disk images without parsing the file-system. bulk_extractor generates reports on the information in both human and machine readable formats, and includes a GUI front-end, Bulk Extractor Viewer.
•        sdhash 2.x – A tool to evaluate file similarity using similarity digests.
•        Ghex: An open source hex editor that allows users to view a file’s bitstream in hexadecimal format.
In addition, the BitCurator team is in the process of building Python-based reporting tools that reprocess and provide visualizations based on the output of forensics tools that produce Digital Forensics XML; these tools are currently distributed separately via GitHub, and are being integrated into the environment as the project progresses.
The relevance of these tools for humanities research comes into focus when we consider that disk images are fast becoming indispensable units of analysis for scholars seeking to understand the primary sources of digital cultural heritage. A disk image is a bit-accurate copy of the raw media to obtain what amounts to a binary facsimile (or “snapshot”) of every signal or inscription recorded on an original piece of source media. As such, it is the gold standard in both the legal forensics community (where investigators routinely conduct their analysis on an authenticated disk image as opposed to the original storage device) and in archival processing (Woods, Lee, & Garfinkel, 2011). Because disk images preserve a record of both file-level metadata as well as the actual physical traces of data recorded on the surface of the media, they are essential for reconstructing the “original order” of digital records, i.e. correct chronologies of file creation and manipulation (which can be obtained through techniques ranging from file system analysis to digital stratigraphy) (Xie, 2011; Woods and Lee, 2012). A disk image also allows an investigator or researcher access to unallocated or even potentially damaged portions of the original media, creating the possibility of restoring fragments of files that would be unrecoverable after normal copy processes (Kirschenbaum et al., 2009). Finally, a disk image can be used as the basis of an emulated experience allowing a researcher to recreate most aspects of the original operating system and computing environment. All of these activities have clear parallels in traditional textual studies and bibliography. Specialists in those areas routinely seek to understand and describe the relationships among sets of primary source documents, identify and enumerate the distinguishing features of individual documents and texts (using those findings to facilitate inquiries ranging from paleography to constructing version histories), and editing or curating primary source materials for presentation in a variety of formats and settings. A disk image thus manifests a strong analogy to the primacy of material/documentary evidence in more traditional forms of bibliographic analysis, enabling a researcher to analyze numerous aspects of a born-digital object relevant to scholarly concerns. As such, we predict that disk images will become increasingly familiar to scholars and researchers working on late twentieth- and twenty-first century history, culture, literature, and the arts, as more and more leading figures consign electronic records to archives who are processing them in environments like BitCurator (AIMS).
While BitCurator’s primary user community consists of librarians and archivists engaged in the processing of digital materials in a variety of institutional settings, its functionality is also useful to those digital humanities scholars with direct access to born-digital materials (Carroll, 2011; Schuessler, 2012). Digital humanities thus has an opportunity to develop a robust research agenda in conjunction with the digital archives community that would ensure that scholarship in areas like contemporary literature, recent world history, digital culture, politics and government, and the arts proceeds on a sound technological footing, using tools and best practices designed to ensure the stability and reliability (and accessibility) of the born-digital cultural record. While the digital archives and forensics communities have developed mature tools around file system metadata and the extraction of personal identifying information, for example, they lack the digital humanities community’s experience in analyzing complex text corpora. Data extracted from disk images can be redirected to tools and assets ranging from geo-spatial visualization to topics modeling and other forms of textual analytics. The open and extensible nature of the BitCurator environment affords the potential for such collaborations, and so the paper concludes with some use case scenarios in this regard.
 
Figure 1. A model BitCurator-supported workflow.
References
AIMS Working Group (2012). AIMS Born-Digital Collections: An Inter-Institutional Model for Stewardship.http://www2.lib.virginia.edu/aims/whitepaper/AIMS_final.pdf
Carroll, L., E. L. Farr, P. Hornsby, and B. Ranker (2011). A comprehensive approach to born-digital archives.Archivaria 72. 61-92.
Galey, A. (2012). The enkindling reciter: E-Books in the bibliographical imagination. Book History 15. 210-47.
Kirschenbaum, M., E. L. Farr, K. M. Kraus, N. Nelson, C. S. Peters, and G. Redwine (2009). Digital materiality: Preserving access to computers as complete environments. in Proceedings of the Sixth International Confereence on Digital Preservation (iPRES). held October 5-6 2009 at California Digital Library, San Francisco. 113-120.http://escholarship.org/uc/item/7d3465vg#
Kirschenbaum, M. (2008). Mechanisms: New Media and the Forensic Imagination. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Kruse, W. G. and J. G. Heiser (2002). Computer Forensics: Incident Response Essentials. Boston: Addison-Wesley.
McGann, J. J. (1988). The beauty of inflections: Literary investigations in historical method and theory. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Piper, A. (2012). Book was there: Reading in electronic times. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Schuessler, J. (2012) Tale of the floppy disks: How Jonathan Larson created RENT. The New York Times February 1.http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/02/01/tale-of-the-floppy-disks-how-jonathan-larson-created-rent/
Woods, K., and C. A. Lee (2012). Acquisition and processing of disk images to further archival goals. In Proceedings of Archiving 2012 (147-152). Springfield, VA: Society for Imaging Science and Technology. Retrieved from:http://ils.unc.edu/callee/archiving-2012-woods-lee.pdf
Woods, K., C. A. Lee, and S. Garfinkel (2011). 'Extending digital repository architectures to support disk image preservation and access'. in Proceedings of the 11th Annual International ACM/IEEE Joint Conference on Digital Librariesheld at Association for Computing Machinery. New York: 57-66.http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1998076.1998088
Xie, S. L. (2011). Building foundations for digital records forensics: A comparative study of the concept of reproduction in digital records management and digital forensics. American Archivist, 74 (2) 576-599.","txt","2","",""
"1616","14","Building the Social Scholarly Edition: Results and Findings from A Social Edition of the Devonshire Manuscript","10","1. Introduction and Background
a. History and Context
Social media technologies can extend and enhance scholarly conversation while challenging traditional notions of textual authority and peer review. Twitter facilitates resource and idea sharing with a speed and ease formerly only possible at conferences; Facebook allows the formation of communities of interest founded not on geography but affinity; blogs disseminate research for widespread discussion; and, most significantly, Wikipedia has become the most popular and largest single reference resource in history, with more than 14 million articles in over 250 languages produced by 1 million monthly contributors (Wikimedia Report Card, 2012). This long paper reflects on the construction of a social scholarly edition of the Devonshire Manuscript that attempted to harness emerging social media environments to produce a new type of scholarly edition, one that allows multiple stakeholders to access, contribute, and discuss its construction. [1]

In this paper we recount the incipient formation of a new type of editing community, one that we argue is defined by iterative publication of material, multiple communities of interest contributing to a single project, the use of technology to facilitate these contributions, and the growing importance of self-directed learning to scholarly editing. Our successes and, just as importantly, our moments of failure, offer insight into best practices for a type of “facilitative scholarship” that will likely become increasingly common as comfort with social media technologies grows within the academy. As outlined in a DH2012 poster session (Crompton and Siemens, 2012), we designed the public editing process for the social edition from the start to encourage communication across editorial communities while preserving the peer review process. These communities included the Electronic Textual Cultures Lab team, the project advisory board, the online Iter Community (http://www.itergateway.org/), early modern critics and scholars operating in the blogosphere, Wikibook and Wikipedia users, Tudor enthusiasts, and the general public. [] 2

b. Materials of the Project
The Devonshire Manuscript (British Library Additional MS 17,492) contains approximately 200 items (Southall, 1964: 143, Remley, 1994: 47), including poems, verse fragments, excerpts from longer works, anagrams, jottings, and doodles by a coterie of men and women centered on the court of Queen Anne Boleyn. Inscribed in over a dozen hands, the manuscript has long been valued as a source of Sir Thomas Wyatt’s poetry. In addition to 129 of his poems, the volume contains other transcribed lyrics and original work by numerous court figures, including Mary Shelton, Lady Margaret Douglas, Mary (Howard) Fitzroy, and Lord Thomas Howard (Southall, 1964: 143). These multiple contributors often comment and evaluate each other’s work through marginal notation and in-line interjection. In addition to a consideration of the volume as “a medium of social intercourse” (Love and Marotti, 2002: 63), the multi-layered and multi-authored composition of the Devonshire Manuscript make it an ideal text for experimentation in social editing.

The Social Edition of The Devonshire Manuscript project manifests Ray Siemens’ earlier argument that social media environments might enable new editing practices (Siemens et al., 2012a). In building an edition of an early modern text on the principles of open access and editorial transparency in both production and dissemination, we have integrated scholarly content into environments maintained by the social-editorial communities that have sprung up on the web; most notably, these include the Wikimedia suite of projects (Wikipedia, Wikibooks, Wikisource). We have run an experiment to see how one might build an edition which is scholarly in a traditional sense, but which extends the editorial conversation into multiple pre-existing social media platforms including blogs, wiki discussion pages, dedicated Renaissance and early modern online community spaces, Skype-enabled interviews with our advisory group, and Twitter.

2. The Complexity of the New Scholarly Editing Community
a. Iterative Publication
Perhaps more than any other editorial choice, the iterative publication of the social edition of the Devonshire Manuscript departed most clearly from traditional scholarly editing practices. We have, in effect published (or are in the perpetual process of publishing) two versions of the edition in two mediums: a fixed PDF version, distributed to the project’s advisory board, and a version housed on the publicly-editable Wikibooks. We are currently working with multiple publishing partners to produce a second online edition, an e-reader edition, and a print edition to meet the needs of a broad and varied readership. These versions were planned to productively inform and influence each other’s development, with cross-pollination of editorial input across platforms. Although they did so, each medium also engendered difficulties in communication, coordination, and expectations to be overcome or accommodated—with varying results.

b. Communities of Interest and Technologies of Communication
As outlined above, a central aim of the project was to facilitate knowledge transfer and creation between multiple editorial communities, all of whom were invested differently in the project. These ranged from individual academics giving feedback as advisors to interested members of the public in contact with project staff via Twitter. These groups adopted, considered, and, at times, rejected different types of communication technologies in fascinating ways. Wikibook discussion pages were considered by established academics to be spaces meant for peer review; wiki editors explained that they were in fact where confrontations over edits usually occurred. Wiki editors were very helpful with questions of coding and technical production of content, while other communities felt deeply uncomfortable editing posted content. Sustained discussions in the Iter Community space proved difficult, while members of the public interested in Tudor culture followed our work avidly and often interacted with us on Twitter. Bloggers focused on the early modern period helped to generate discussion and disseminate reports as our edition building progress, but chose to limit their direct involvement with producing the edition. In often surprising ways, the technologies of communication each group used came to define, in some cases, the communities of interest and their respective investments. Considered as a whole, our project suggests that social media technologies can be harnessed for productive interaction and discussion by those scholars invested in a content area or project, but that they require comprehensive oversight by dedicated staff to develop and maintain participation in knowledge construction and dissemination.

c. Self-Directed Learning
Wikimedia content is openly editable by any individual. Project staff quickly reconsidered this theoretically nonexistent barrier to entry, though, when coding of the edition began in Wikibooks. Resembling a cross between HTML, XML, and CSS, Wikitext language is idiosyncratic and required a great deal of time and experimentation on the part of project staff to use effectively. Given the central importance of lab staff to the production of this edition, we have realized that this ad-hoc program of self-directed study produced a new community: young scholars, mostly masters level and younger doctoral students, who have shown interest in digital scholarly production. In other words, those usually construed as “assisting” in large projects here took on increasingly centralized roles in coordinating community input, coding the social edition in Wikibooks, discussing the project with various communities, and writing and disseminating critical research on the project as a whole.

3. Conclusion
a. The Open Source Edition?
The basic structures of the social edition are completely open for manipulation and repurposing. The formation, maintenance, and oversight of multiple communities, however, is central the success of any such open edition. Community investment provides a foundation for a technologically facilitated, process-driven approach. As our full paper will discuss in more detail, developing such communities is often difficult, with success depending on intensive and regular engagement and oversight. It is difficult for disparate communities, even when facilitated by social media technologies, to effectively come together for intellectual production. As even the well-regarded Transcribe Bentham project has widely discussed, crowdsourcing textual transcription—much less scholarly editing and production—is fraught with difficulties we are only beginning to navigate (Cause et al., 2012a; Causer et al., 2012b). In this reconfigured landscape of scholarly production, where we are likely “witnessing the nascent stages of a new ‘social’ edition existing at the intersection of social media and digital editing” (Siemens et al., 2012a: 446), however, we are not without models: the open source community, especially those groups devoted to general tool building and knowledge construction (OpenOffice, Wikimedia, Linux, Mozilla) is a powerful articulation of possible ways the technologically facilitated social production of intellectual content may fruitfully develop—given a robust and vibrant community of interest.

b. Ways Forward
The past two years of work suggests that some blend of intensive oversight and engagement with defined communities, along with a receptivity to spontaneously formed communities of affinity—as supported by both the Transcribe Bentham project (Causer, 2012b) and our own observations—is necessary to effectively implement social scholarly production. Only by becoming effective promoters, facilitators, and instigators can digital humanists provide an effective locus around which multiple communities can cohere. Although we encountered certain difficulties in facilitating knowledge exchange among various communities, on the whole we learned how to effectively facilitate community interaction across and between mediums and communities to produce scholarly knowledge in new ways.

References
Causer, T., J. Tonra, and V. Wallace (2012a). Transcription maximized; expense minimized? Crowdsourcing and editing The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham. Literary and Linguistic Computing 27(2). 119-137.
Causer, T., and V. Wallace (2012b). Building a Volunteer Community: Results and Findings from Transcribe Bentham. Digital Humanities Quarterly. 6(1). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/6/2/000125/000125.html.
Crompton, C., R. Siemens, and the ETCL and INKE Research Groups. (2013) 'Vertues Noble & Excelent’? Digital Collaboration and the Social Edition. Digital Humanities Quarterly. In consideration. [internally circulated for comment and revision]
Crompton, C., and R. Siemens (2012). The Social Edition: Scholarly Editing Across Communities. In DH2012. 16-22 July 2012. Abstract available at http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/the-social-edition-scholarly-editing-across-communities/.
Love, H., and A. F. Marotti (2002). Manuscript Transmission and Circulation. In Loewenstein, D., and J. Mueller. (eds).The Cambridge History of Early Modern English Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 55-80.
Remley, P. G. (1994). Mary Shelton and Her Tudor Literary Milieu. Rethinking the Henrician Era: Essays on Early Tudor Texts and Contexts. In Herman, P. C. (ed). Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 40-77.
Siemens, R., C. Warwick, R. Cunningham, T. Dobson, A. Galey, S. Ruecker, S. Schreibman, and the INKE Team (2009). Codex Ultor: Toward a Conceptual and Theoretical Foundation for New Research on Books and Knowledge Environments. Digital Studies/Le champ numérique 1(2). http://www.digitalstudies.org/ojs/index.php/digital_studies/article/view/177/220.
Siemens, R., M. Timney, C. Leitch, C. Koolen, A. Garnett, with the ETCL, INKE, and PKP Research Groups (2012a). Toward modeling the social edition: An approach to understanding the electronic scholarly edition in the context of new and emerging social media. Literary and Linguistic Computing. 27(4). 445-461.
Siemens, R., M. Timney, C. Leitch, C. Koolen, and A. Garnett (2012b). Understanding the Electronic Scholarly Edition in the Context of New and Emerging Social Media: Selected, Annotated Bibliographies. Digital Humanities Quarterly, 6(11). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/6/1/000111/000111.html.
Southall, R. (1964). The Devonshire Manuscript Collection of Early Tudor Poetry, 1532–41. RES 15, 142-50. WikiMedia Report Card. (2012). http://reportcard.wmflabs.org/.
Notes
1. For an overview of pertinent critical contexts surrounding the modeling of the social edition, see Siemens et al., “Understanding the Electronic Scholarly Edition in the Context of New and Emerging Social Media.”

2. These efforts are in keeping with the aims of the Implementing New Knowledge Environment (INKE) Project, a $2.5 million, 7-year Major Collaborative Research Initiative (MCRI) grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada devoted to “exploring the future of the book from the perspective of its history.” See the INKE website http://inke.ca/ and Siemens et al., “Codex Ultor: Toward a Conceptual and Theoretical Foundation for New Research on Books and Knowledge Environments.”","txt","2","",""
"1617","14","On Our Own Authority: Crafting Personographic Records for Canadian Gay and Lesbian Liberation Activists","9","Reflecting on her life, Jane Rule suspected that so far as the media was concerned in she was “the only lesbian in Canada” (Martin) the year her novel, Desert of the Heart, Canada’s first English-language literary lesbian novel was published. Online she is one of the best-represented figures in the Canadian gay and lesbian liberation movement, a movement captured byLesbian and Gay Liberation in Canada (LGLC), an infrastructure pilot project of the Canadian Research Writing Collaboratory (CWRC) at the University of Alberta. After introducing the LGLC project, the issues that underpin our TEI encoding, and the CWRC project’s extension of existing personographic records, we, the LGLC project’s co-directors, demonstrate the stakes in producing authority records for the online recuperation and discoverability of underrepresented gay and lesbian activism.
Starting Out: A Single and Singular Source Text
The LGLC project reconfigures Donald McLeod’s remarkable monograph, Lesbian and Gay Liberation In Canada: A Selected Annotated Chronology, 1964-1975, as a TEI-encoded resource within CWRC. The chronology is organized by date and then by location, with each entry neatly summarizing a small moment in history, followed by a bibliography of sources. The book focuses primarily on “self-declared lesbians and gay men and their activities in regard to the forging of lesbian and gay communities and liberation in Canada,” and therefore, dedicates most attention to demonstrations, political actions, lobbying, and legal reforms (McLeod viii). As a secondary and supplementary focus, the book notes “artistic and cultural contributions with significant lesbian or gay content” as part of the chronology, and includes three appendices listing lesbian and gay organizations, periodicals, bars, and clubs (McLeod viii-ix). Heterosexuals who were instrumental either in supporting or opposing the gay liberation movement are included, and foreign events are noted if they either had a direct impact on the Canadian gay liberation movement, or featured prominent involvement by gay Canadians. The start date of the chronology corresponds with the formation of the Vancouver-based Association for Social Knowledge (ASK), the first large-scale homophile organization in Canada. The end date coincides with the founding of the National Gay Rights Coalition/Coalition national pour les droits des homosexuels (NGRC/CNDH), the “first truly national coalition of Canadian lesbian and gay groups” (McLeod viii).
We originally planned the LGLC project as a straightforward and independent representation of Donald McLeod’s book in HTML and KML, both underpinned by TEI, to be housed on the Canadian Lesbian and Gay Archives website. The LGLC’s inclusion within CWRC allows us to capitalize on their infrastructure: a repository and suite of tools dedicated to preserving and showcasing Canadian history and writing. The CWRC infrastructure will cast the LGLC project as an online research and social space — visitors will be able to plot the events of the Canadian gay liberation movement on maps and timelines; read and annotate the text; converse with one another; and contribute their own images and reflections.
The Problem of Representation: Modeling Personhood in TEI and RDF
The LGLC project works within CWRC not solely to recover gay history, but to respond, at the level of code, to the debates that have shaped that history. The LGLC project’s initial personographic encoding has been motivated by the movement to recuperate lost lesbian and trans histories. The debates may be familiar: in the 1980s there was a rush to claim biological females who lived as men, like surgeon James Barry, music hall performer Annie Hindle, and jazz pianist Billy Tipton, as lesbians who had not had access to “lesbian” as an identity marker. In the following decade the transgender community rejoined with competing claims that these historical actors are part of trans history (Halberstam). What ought the conscientious encoder do in the face of such temporal specificity? In building a reliable and ethically responsible code, we are mindful of Alan Galey and Stan Ruecker’s call to make “a virtue of the entanglement of past and future intentions in any artifact”(421); however, we have still experienced anxiety about TEI’s modes of expression. The standards, which for example, only allow four designations for categorizing sex [1] , facilitate interoperability, but limit our encoding’s expressiveness.
Judicious customization that meets the needs of our host project helps us balance our twin goals of ethical representation of the queer community and conformance to digital humanities community practice. Our mid-term objective is to model the history of the queer community’s nonce naming practices through TEI, with the long-term goal of using the CWRC space to allow for user-added folksonomic tagging (Ornelas 231). In the meantime, our aim is to extend our event encoding without resorting to schema customization. CWRC is in the process of defining a wide range of RDF predicates to express the relationship between people in its aggregate data sets. Currently, within an event, encoders can tag time, places, agents of action, and recipients of action. CWRC draws on the TEI encoding to write out RDF triples representing the relationship between incidents, time, and people. CWRC allows encoders to draw from CWRC’s local authority records, authority records on the web, to offer alternate identifiers complete with name and URI, or to write a new personographic records. This opportunity for strategic customization certainly helps the LGLC project model personhood with more nuance, and, looking forward, will allow for a more fine-grained articulation of the relationships between all the people CWRC’s aggregate datasets.
Authoritative Solutions: Dissemination and Discoverability Online
In addition to our desire to integrate LGLC events with other events in Canadian literary history, we are anxious to make the LGLC records widely discoverable. The Canadian lesbian and gay liberation movement is a much-neglected part of Canadian history, one often overshadowed by Stonewall narratives. We aim to rectify the scarcity and relative invisibility of Canada’s gay and lesbian liberation movement online. It is challenging, even when doing traditional research, to draw out all the connections between the organizations, events, and people that make up Canadian LGBT history. The activists in the movement are underrepresented in Wikipedia, and often have only partial records in the Virtual International Authority Files (VIAF), Katalog der Deutsche National Bibliothek (DNB), Freebase, and the Library of Congress Authorities.
CWRC houses its own authority records, which, using linked open data, are connected to VIAF, the DNB, and the Library of Congress, among other authorities. Encoders within CWRC can take their identification of a person further, and create a CWRC-specific authority record for that person, supplementing or even contesting the information housed in other authority records. The actors in LGLC dataset give us an opportunity to code for self-identification over time, correcting VIAF, LC Authorities, Freebase and DBpedia’s failure to account for activists’ changing identities and multiple names, outside of the prose descriptions that they link to or draw from Wikipedia. As legitimate authority records, CWRC’s personographies can serve as the basis for more accurate Wikipedia articles, thus feeding back into VIAF, DBpedia, and Freebase, all of which link to Wikipedia. Encoding practices within the CWRC framework offer a new way to comprehend the relationship between the gender performance, sexual practice, and cultural context embedded in identity naming practices, and provide a way to make those relationships discoverable online.
Our paper shows how the Lesbian and Gay Liberation in Canada project ensures the representation of historical queer Canadian experience in online resources. Ultimately, as co-directors of the LGLC project, we offer our code and our data modeling principles as methods to overcome the limitations of extant authority records. In this way, LGLC contributes to the existing feedback, citation, and authority models in a manner that supports the LGBT community and improves online access to often overlooked histories — after all, Jane Rule was not the only lesbian in Canada in the 1960s.
References
Galey, A., and S. Ruecker (2010). How a Prototype Argues. Literary and Linguistic Computing 25.4: 405–424.
Ornelas, A. (2010). Queer as Folksonomies. In Greenblatt, E. (ed). Serving LGBTIQ Library and Archives Users: Essays on Outreach, Service, Collections and Access. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. 229–239.
Halberstam, J. J. (1998). Transgender Butch: Butch/FTM Border Wars and the Masculine Continuum. GQL: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 4.2: 287–310.
Martin, S. (2007). 'B.C. Novelist Wrote a Cult Classic and Became a Lesbian Role Model'. The Globe and Mail.
McLeod, D. W. (1996). Lesbian and Gay Liberation in Canada: A Selected Annotated Chronology, 1964-1975. Toronto: ECW Press/Homewood Books.
Notes
The four values permitted on the sex’s value attribute are male, female, unknown, and not applicable.","txt","2","",""
"1618","14","Built to Last: Sustainability Strategies for Digital Humanities Projects","15","Scholars, librarians, and publishers today are building digital resources that are valuable for scholarship and teaching in the humanities, from multi-format research projects to digitized collections to born-digital works and innovative software tools. While some may be experiments and are valuable for the experience they offer or the capacity they build, others create collections of content, dynamic websites, or other resources that are intended to continue well beyond their initial creation. As these projects continue, their creators often face the challenge of identifying the financial and non-financial resources that will permit them to maintain their value to users over time.

For the past several years, the team at Ithaka S+R has been studying how project leaders develop successful sustainability plans, learning from hundreds of project leaders around the world who have spoken with us about the challenges they face in building their projects and in finding ongoing support for the activities they feel need to be sustained post-grant.

This half-day tutorial will introduce project leaders to the basics of sustainability planning, help them establish ambitious but realistic sustainability goals, define the challenges they face, and sketch out a hypothesis of their ideal funding model. The workshop will include group participation and will share real-world examples, illustrated by case studies of projects that really worked, or …didn’t. The session will also allow participants to review the ‘Funding Model Framework,’ a tool designed by Ithaka S+R to help guide those leading digital resource projects in choosing and testing the funding strategies that will work best for them

We hope that by introducing new some ideas and practical tools in a supportive and engaging setting, this tutorial will encourage digital humanities project leaders in developing and testing new ideas to support their work.

Ithaka S+R is a not-for-profit research, training, and consulting service that has been studying the sustainability of digital resources for several years. We are currently engaged in an NEH-funded research project on Sustaining the Digital Humanities, exploring institutional strategies for supporting this work. Other recent reports on this topic include Sustaining Our Digital Future: Institutional Strategies for Digital Content (2013); Revenue, Recession, Reliance: Revisiting the Case Studies in Sustainability (2011); Funding for Sustainability: How Funders’ Practices Influence the Future of Digital Resources (2011); Sustaining Digital Resources: An On-the-Ground View of Projects Today (2009). Our reports and tools are freely available on the Ithaka S+R website at http://www.sr.ithaka.org/.

Instructors
Facilitator: Nancy Maron, Program Director, Ithaka S+R

Nancy Maron leads Ithaka S+R’s program in Sustainability and Scholarly Communications, developing research, tools, and training to assist those responsible for funding, leading, or otherwise supporting digital resources in higher education and the cultural sector. She has led Ithaka S+R’s recent studies on sustainability, including Sustaining Digital Resources: An On-the-Ground View of Projects Today (2009), Ithaka S+R Case Studies in Sustainability (2009), Revenue, Recession, Reliance: Revisiting the Case Studies in Sustainability (2011), and Funding for Sustainability: How Funders’ Practices Influence the Future of Digital Resources (2011). Prior to joining Ithaka S+R, Nancy spent more than a decade in the book publishing industry, at Harry N. Abrams, Macmillan Library Reference, and the Perseus Books Group, where she was Director of Academic and Library Marketing. She holds a B.A. in Humanities from Yale University and an M.A. in French Studies and History from New York University.

Target Audience
Participants of this tutorial should be those with interest in and/or responsibility for charting a course for the development of a digital scholarly project or resource. This could include:

Academic project leaders who are leading or have created a digital resource.
Managers of digital collections and digitization units at cultural organizations, including museums, libraries, archives and other institutions.
Those in early stages of considering sustainability strategies for their projects are encouraged to attend. The maximum class size for this workshop is 40, to allow for best discussion and sharing of experience.

Brief Course Outline
9:00–9:20        Introductions; presentation of projects and sustainability challenges
9:20–10:00 Introduction to sustainability basics; defining your sustainability ‘goal’
10:00–10:15 Sketching a funding model: The Funding Model Framework
10:15-10:45 Group work: your sustainability hypothesis
10:45-11:00 Break
11:00-11:30 Testing your hypothesis: The research phase
11:30–12:00 Defining next steps","txt","2","",""
"1619","14","A Case Study of Integration of Services and Resources on a Web Service","2","The SAT Daizōkyō text database committee has released a new version of its integrated Web service that has been offering a series of Buddhist scriptures [1] since June 2012 in order to provide more convenient and powerful digital resources for the field of Buddhist studies. Since August, the number of accesses is over 200,000 per month on an average (not counting accesses by Googlebot and several other automated indexerss). In this paper, we will describe the integration of various services and resources in this Web service.

First of all, we will explain the function of retrieving and displaying of English translations which has been published as a series of Buddhist scriptures rendered into English by the Bukkyō Dendō Kyō kai (BDK) [2] . This function is an implementation of a result that was produced by 18 young researchers using a web collaboration system described in Nagasaki (2011). The collaboration system allows users to easily link a fragment of a text to another fragment of a resource. As a result, a parallel corpus including over 29,000 pairs of English and classical Chinese Buddhist texts has been published on the web service so that users can easily check the English translation of words or phrases in various contexts by dragging a sequence of the text. Moreover, the parallel texts can be shown on the text which was translated sentence-by-sentence. Thus, not only is the English translation provided, but also an interpretation is given for each division of the classical Chinese texts that are not clearly separated by any kind of punctuation. It also continues to provide the function of retrieving terms contained in the Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (DDB) [3] including over 58,000 entries so that users can easily look up the English renderings of terms. We also continue to provide the function of translating an English term into a Chinese term in the input form of keyword search of the whole text, whereby users can search the Chinese text by using an English term.

The Web service has added a function of retrieving two bibliographical databases: SARDS3 [4] and CiNii [5] . SARDS3 includes over 60,000 bibliographical records of western books and papers published in the field of Indology. The SAT Web service provides automatic translation from selected Chinese words or phrases to English or Sanskrit terms using DDB as a support function of retrieval so that user can easily find related western secondary resources. In the previous version, a function of a Web API of the CiNii (the largest academic bibliographical database in Japan, managed by the National Institute of Informatics) was included via Indian and Buddhist Studies Treatise Database (INBUDS) in order to indicate whether or not a PDF file is available on the Web. However, in the new version, the additional function of retrieving the CiNii itself in order to easily search related resources in other fields such as history and linguistics was added according to user requests.

All digital facsimiles of the Taishō Shinshū Daizō kyō — approximately 80,000 files — are scanned in 600 DPI and made available on the web site. When a user clicks an image button embedded in the lines of the text, an image is displayed inside a window on the left in the page corresponding with the paragraph and lines of the text. The image can be zoomed in and out by use of slider in order to examine its details, which allows users to confirm whether or not the encoded texts are accurate, and whether or not the slight differences in ideographs were unified in the process of text encoding.

In the case of classical Chinese, the distinction and unification of ideographs has been an important topic which often provokes heated discussion in East Asia [6] . As the Taishō Shinshū Daizō kyō is one of the important materials for such discussion, we provide a function to research information about each ideographic character by linking to several character databases such as CHISE, Unihan, and so on.

Finally, we will explain our method of implementation of the above functions. Most of them are implemented by Linux, PostgreSQL, Apache, PHP, jQuery, and JavaScript. Most of the interfaces are implemented by jQuery and jQuery-ui, but partly by plain JavaScript because of insufficient functionality in the former. The above functions are provided in each window of jQuery-ui, which can be arbitrarily opened and closed so that users can use only necessary functions. We hope we can have the opportunity to discuss any aspects of this new Web service with those who visit our booth.

References
Muller, A. C., and K. Nagasaki (2012). Request to add Unencoded Characters in the Taishō Shinshū Daizō kyō (Taishō edited series of Buddhist scriptures). http://appsrv.cse.cuhk.edu.hk/~irg/irg/irg38/IRGN1858_ProposalSATgaiji.pdf (Accessed 28 Oct 2012).
Nagasaki, K., T. Tomabechi, and M. Shimoda (2011). Toward a Digital Research Environment for Buddhist Studies. Digital Humanities 2011. 342-343.
Notes
http://21dzk.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/SAT/ddb-bdk-sat2.php Accessed 28 Oct 2012.
http://www.bdkamerica.org/default.aspx?MPID=81 Accessed 28 Oct 2012.
http://www.buddhism-dict.net/ddb/ Accessed 28 Oct 2012.
http://www.indologie.uni-halle.de/sards/ Accessed 28 Oct 2012.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/en Accessed 28 Oct 2012.
Regarding unencoded approximately over 6,000 characters in the text, we are addressing to encode them in the Universal Character set. See Muller (2012).","txt","2","",""
"1620","14","A catalogue of digital editions","9","The focus of my doctoral studies at the UCL Centre for Digital Humanities is the creation of a digital edition of the oldest surviving manuscript of S. Augustine's De Civitate Dei. The manuscript dates back to the early fifth century and most of the existing, scarce research we have predates the 1950s. Its much debated provenance and authorship, due to it being contemporary to Augustine himself, are as intriguing as its rare palaeographical features and marginalia. My research seeks to, firstly, examine best practice in the field of digital editions by collating relevant evidence in a detailed catalogue of extant digital editions. The catalogue records features, scope, philological as well as technological aspects of each edition and aims at becoming a collaborative scholarly endeavour for the benefit of the Digital Humanities community. Secondly (and consequently), lessons learnt from the catalogue will inform the production of an electronic edition of De Civitate Dei, which will include transcriptions of the text and the scholia, high-definition images, a short critical apparatus, as well as background information and links to relevant resources.

What makes a good digital edition? What features do digital editions share? What is the state of the art in the field of digital editions? Why are there so few electronic editions of ancient texts?

To address these questions, I have collated relevant evidence in a detailed catalogue of digital editions. Amongst other things, the catalogue makes a distinction between scholarly and non-scholarly editions; provides a list of tools used; open source and open access projects which will help flag up potential data links; funding bodies which will serve as a popularity record; digital humanities standards compliant projects (TEI, Creative Commons License, linked open data, etc.); and texts under examination as well as their repositories as a means of assessing which countries, areas or cultural institutions are more actively digitising.

Why does this project bring to the Digital Humanities community? A catalogue of digital editions is greatly beneficial as it provides:

an accessible, unique record of which texts have had digital editions created and the historical period they belong to;
a data bank of features, tools, licences, funding bodies and locations;
an insight into past, present and future projects;
the possibility of viewing trends or patterns (e.g. what time periods are most covered or which institutions produce the largest number of digital editions);
a platform where collaborators can engage in live discussions and update information as it becomes available;
a means of identifying which areas need to be improved.
The editions I include in the catalogue come from numerous sources and their selection follows basic criteria: the electronic texts can be ongoing or complete projects [1] , born-digital editions or electronic reproductions of print volumes. These were gathered from existing catalogues [2] , lists, such as Projects using the TEI [3] , RSS feeds, [4] publications (articles, reviews and books), Google Scholar alerts, tweets, word of mouth, web browsing and chaining.

Data is carefully collected and assessed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Content analysis is being carried out along two parallel tracks: a passive approach, whereby I contact each team with a short questionnaire aimed at gaining a deeper understanding of both the production and user ends of the project; and a more active, observational examination of the electronic editions through website and related publications analysis.

The catalogue has been produced using existing tools, Google Spreadsheets and Google Fusion Tables, whose progressive development offers new opportunities in the field of data collection and visualisation. This choice was dictated by a number of factors, namely cost, ease, collaboration, functionality and output. [5] Google Spreadsheets and Tables also provide inbuilt sharing and communication tools, opening up possibilities for live, collaborative and synergetic work.

Once all the data has been analysed, it will be possible to establish the state of the art in the field of electronic editing, draw up a best practice profile and make reliable inferences from which further research can stem and develop.

To date, the catalogue showcases some three-hundred digital editions (this is the estimate figure for July 2013), collected and examined over a period of ten months. Of course, there are many more editions left to include and, indeed, many more to come.

However, interesting facts are already beginning to emerge: several projects, for instance, have not set up analytics as a means of studying usage; projects urging the digital reunification of manuscript fragments are often internally fragmented themselves, having split the project between institutions rather than centralising the material for easy retrieval and management; and TEI guidelines are not as widely adopted in the field of digital editions as we might think.

While initially collated for personal research purposes, I am developing the catalogue into a larger resource, available at: https://sites.google.com/site/digitaleds. The website enables people to report bugs and errors, comment and make suggestions for improvement. Although initially curated by myself, a wider group of administrators is envisaged for a more reliable and smoother experience: regular and prompt updates, continuous support and wider outreach. Scholars can join the project as administrators or editors by contacting the author.

The ultimate aim of the catalogue is not only to be used as a project reference tool but also to bring together scholars in the field, thus systematically and collaboratively creating a unique bank of data which would figure alongside other prominent Digital Humanities resources such as centerNet, the Digital Classicist Wiki and the various associations (ADHO, ACH, ALLC, etc.).

Notes
1. Still active on the web

2. Dr. Patrick Sahle's Catalog of Digital Scholarly Editions (available at: http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ahz26/vlet/vlet-about.html); Dr. Paolo Monella (available at: http://goo.gl/smy6p, section 2.2); Dr. Cinzia Pusceddu (available at: http://www.digitalvariants.org/e-philology); Dr. Aurélien Berra (available at: http://philologia.hypotheses.org/corpus); the Monastic Manuscript Project (available at: http://earlymedievalmonasticism.org/listoflinks.html#Digital); Hunter College (available at: http://goo.gl/cBjci); the Digital Classicist (available at: http://goo.gl/r8eUt and http://goo.gl/GSpLl) and the Associazione per l’Informatica Umanistica e la Cultura Digitale wikis (available at: http://www.digitalclassicist.org/wip/index.html). Another notable catalogue is UCLA’s Catalogue of Digitized Medieval Manuscripts which, however, records some 3126 fully digitised manuscripts as opposed to digital editions (available at: http://manuscripts.cmrs.ucla.edu/index.php ).

3. Available at: http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/Projects/index.xml (Accessed: 2 March 2013).

4. The Ancient World Online (available at: http://ancientworldonline.blogspot.co.uk/); arts-humanities.net (available at: http://www.arts-humanities.net/); Digital Classicist seminars (available at: http://www.digitalclassicist.org/wip/index.html).

5. The data can be exported in different formats: Microsoft Excel (.xlsx); Open Document Format (.ods); PDF Document (.pdf); Comma Separated Values (.csv); Plain Text (.txt); Web Page (.html).","txt","2","",""
"1621","14","Center for Historical Information and Analysis: Big Data in History","3","This session address the development of a significant new digital humanities resource in the form of a world-historical dataset. The session provides an overview of the project and details of two key elements in its early stages of development. The commentator will set this project in the context of other complex, multidisciplinary datasets. The Collaborative for Historical Information and Analysis (http://chia.pitt.edu) is a multi-institutional collaborative of scholars in humanities and in social, natural, and information sciences. The Collaborative, structured as a Research Collaborative, Headquarters, and a wider informal network, has recently received major support from the National Science Foundation, which has provided CHIA with an award in its Building Capacity and Community program. On the Research Collaborative side, the award is to strengthen the organizational and technical infrastructure of linking participating institutions that are collecting data on historical population, climate, and other topics with a crowdsourcing tool to demonstrate the feasibility of building a continuously growing collection of diverse historical data and metadata. On the Headquarters side, the award is to assemble and develop knowledge on repository design to develop a repository sufficient to house the incoming data and permit global and interactive analysis. The Collaborative for Historical Information and Analysis’s future plans include expanding its collection and processing of historical data, broadening its community of social and natural science researchers, analyzing historical patterns of global change, and sharing its resources with researchers, policy-makers, teachers and students. CHIA is headquartered at the University of Pittsburgh with formal affiliates at the University of California – Merced and the International Institute of Social History (Amsterdam) plus two affiliates at Harvard University (Institute for Quantitative Social Sciences and Center for Geographic Analysis). Other associated groups are at Boston University and Michigan State University (participating in the NSF-funded project) as well as the University of Portsmouth, the University of California, Irvine, and the Council for the Development of Economic and Social Research in Africa (CODESRIA).

Three papers discuss varying aspects of CHIA and its work. Patrick Manning of the University of Pittsburgh, director of the project, provides an overview of the project objectives, philosophy, structure, and its practical milestones. Ruth Mostern of the University of California - Merced, a member of the governing Executive Committee, presents on the issue of soliciting, linking, and evaluating scholarly datasets. Kai Cao, the technical lead on the project at the University of Pittsburgh, describes the work of creating the prototype archive.. The discussant, Ian Johnson, the developer of a parallel project at the University of Sydney, will comment on both generalities and specifics of the CHIA project as presented. Big Data in history will provide a new, comprehensive level of documentation on the past. Currently available historical information, while immense in its overall quantity, is scattered and dispersed. Libraries and archives in great cities hold treasure troves of data on trade, politics, and religion for national and imperial centers, but each archive is separate from the others, and the totality of their records provides scanty information on people of rural areas. The idea of Big Data in history is to digitize a growing portion of existing historical documentation, to link the scattered records to each other (by place, time, and topic), and to create a comprehensive picture of changes in human society over the past four or five centuries.

The Collaborative for Historical Information and Analysis (CHIA), formed in 2011, now has five institutional members based in the U.S. and Europe, four additional, informal associated institutions, and expects to grow further through links with such organizations as the Council for the Development of Economic and Social Research in Africa (CODESRIA, based in Dakar). The Collaborative, directed by an international Executive Committee, is administered at the University of Pittsburgh. Its collaborative projects include the creation of a prototype and a full archive able to contain consistent and documented world historical data, along with systems for gathering and incorporating new data and for analyzing and visualizing the data. Data included are expected to begin with demographic, economic, social, political, health, and environmental variables, and to display their patterns and interactions. This presentation will trace the development of the overall project over the past five years and identify the main problems to be taken on in the next three years.

Tasks addressed from 2007 have included initial articulation of the objective, overall design of the research project and work on the initial steps of implementing several aspects of that design. In particular project members have emphasized recruiting and sustaining collaborating groups at several institutions. In addition, work has included collection of various sorts of historical data, design of the repository for worldwide historical data, development of an ontology describing world-historical data at various levels of detail, and systems of cleaning and documenting data.

At an empirical level, major advances have taken place in collecting, displaying, and linking U.S. data on disease, climate, and population.

The NSF-supported project includes three years of a projected ten-year project to create a global- historical dataset, with the hope that it would be taken over and sustained through the efforts of UNESCO or the World Bank. The CHIA project pledges to maintain open-source, open-access, non-proprietary standards throughout its work in constructing a world-historical archive. We have allocated the range of our activities among three basic missions.
Mission 1. Gather historical data.
Mission 2. Aggregate data up to the global level.
Mission 3. Visualize, analyze, and mine the data.

Currently funded infrastructure projects include:

Crowd-sourcing application for collecting and archiving historical and social data will open the bottleneck that has so far prevented systematic study of human society at a large scale (University of Pittsburgh).
Prototype archive – programming a prototype for global integration and visualization of data, relying on the model of the Dataverse Network and a selection of world-wide data for the twentieth century(University of Pittsburgh, Harvard University).
“Hoovering” data, the collection of available datasets and a survey of social scientists to determine the availability of historical datasets (UC-Merced)
Data retrieval for South Asia and Southeast Asia led by the Asian Studies group at Michigan State University
Colonialism – integration and visualization of data collected in a previously project, CLIO, at Boston University.
Collaboration as infrastructure among social scientists all over the world, through the creation and maintaining of a global system of historical data, will bring additional sharing of data and analysis.
Additional areas of activity

Peer-reviewing of datasets through the Journal of World-Historical Information will bring recognition of the scholarly value of creating datasets, and will ensure that high standards for creating historical datasets are created and maintained.
Archive design at Big-Data scale – design and programming through XSEDE program in association with the Pittsburgh Supercomputer Center.
Labour Relations – a program of distributed historical research to assess the structure of labor forces in numerous historical situations, supported by the Netherlands National Science Foundation (International Institute of Social History).
Technical and analytical skills of social scientists will advance through the process of collecting and analyzing data, and demonstrate the parallels and the links of social sciences and natural sciences.
Theoretical debate. The expanded effort to link and apply social science theories, especially in order to fill in missing historical data, will strengthen theory and analysis in social science.
To understand global social patterns as they exist today, it is increasingly clear that we need to understand how they have evolved over recent centuries. The Collaborative for Historical Information and Analysis responds to this need and takes historical analysis into the realm of Big Data. It is expected that the data resources will grow to several terabytes in size. This project will stimulate development of more efficient research collaborations, enabling systematic large-scale consolidation of diverse historical data sources. Once collected and integrated, the data repository and analytical system will allow scholars to address a wider set of questions testing hypotheses about long-term and short-term social change at the global scale and catalyzing an expansion of the evidence base in humanities and social sciences. For example, our understanding of important societal issues can advance by linking health to demography and by incorporating climate and health factors into economic studies. Disciplinary theory will advance through interaction among the various scientific fields, so that a global network of humanities and social-science researchers will emerge.

The project addresses the global dynamics in humanities issues and social-science variables over the past several centuries. Contemporary globalization and concerns about future global trends naturally raise questions about past patterns of global change. What were the interactions of population, economy, governance, and social inequality with each other and with climate and disease? Historical social science, focused at national and subnational levels, has scarcely addressed global issues. Our group expects to collect, document, and analyze historical data to permit cross-disciplinary analysis of human society over time. The overall topic is immense, but we believe we have found an orderly and productive way to work on it.

How are we to create consistent data at regional and global levels over time? Our group, rather than tunneling within a single discipline, seeks to coordinate data collection and research in multiple disciplines. We advance an explicit focus on the global and historical character of human society. The existing data sources are mostly used for regional comparative efforts; they vary widely in degree of consistency, reliability, completeness, as well as in data representation format. The task of large-scale data utilization can only be resolved via collaborative efforts within a large network of researchers.

What criteria distinguish this global strategy in humanities research from other large-scale projects? Our project is not simply to archive large quantities of data but to define and link them into a single overarching set of interacting, historical data. We require a coherent metadata framework to link data to their sources and each other. Creating this mass of new metadata—as we incorporate, integrate, and aggregate data—requires a strong ontological base and a crowdsourcing procedure to link many contributors. Our collection of base data on population worldwide is to go back four centuries and to include migration and other extra-census data—it is thus complementary to rather than competitive with the Terra Populus (University of Minnesota) collection of census data.

The Collaborative responds to an imperative of the current moment: the need to understand global social patterns not only as they exist today but as they have evolved over some four centuries. The program argues that some national resources should be put into research at this broad level, to clarify and diffuse a global strategy in social-science research. It also focuses on population and climate as key layers of global data. In research agenda, CHIA addresses human interaction with the natural world, global population change, patterns in social inequality, and local and global patterns of governance.

Soliciting, Integrating and Evaluating World-Historical Data
Mostern, Ruth | rmostern@ucmerced.edu | University of California - Merced, United States of America
A signal characteristic of world-historical data is that much of it will need to be assembled piecemeal from datasets created by specialists. Some of these datasets, such as those which concern climate information, are quite large. However, at the global historical scale, even climate data needs to be integrated based on local and regional analyses. Ocean sediment samples, ice cores, or dendrochonologies may offer centuries of continuous information, but they concern particular locations. Census and epidemiology datasets often record information about millions of people, but they are episodic in nature and regional in spatial scale. Beyond these types of data, contributions range downward in size and upward in analytical complexity. The history of commodity exchange, for instance, requires meticulous reconstruction from bills of lading and tax documents that may be difficult to locate, trust, and make commensurable. One of the challenges of the CHIA effort concerns this work. The solution involves three tasks.

“Hoovering” data. CHIA needs to engage in a labor-intensive process to identify the specialist holders of relevant datasets and work with them to solve issues of data structure and intellectual property that may prove to be barriers to contributing them to a CHIA archive. This paper will report about the development of a CHIA survey of historians and historical social scientists regarding their creation, preservation, integration, and use of historical datasets.
Integrating data. CHIA needs to identify appropriate standards for the formal descrip- tions of historical datasets. Librarians and archivists stress the importance of appropriate metadata for guiding the ingest, discovery, and integration of datasets, and many domain- specific standards exist. We historians have our own challenges, since our disciplinary traditions (rich footnoting, bibliographies, and descriptive text about method) mean that we need particular standards for describing the dataset as a work, the primary and secondary sources (including other datasets) consulted in its production, and the operations conducted upon them to create the final work. Collaboratively developed datasets have primary and secondary authors as well as technical experts and publishers. This paper will discuss existing metadata standards, best practices for less formal data description, and the promise of linked data solutions.
Evaluating data. Historical datasets lack established conventions of form, content, and genre. Authors do not have clearly recognized models to follow or oppose even as they seek to create effective, excellent, and communicative work; and reviewers, along with readers/users, have to assess the value or character of any given dataset de novo and ad hoc, rather than engaging with a given dataset as an exemplar of a familiar category. CHIA needs to develop standards for reviewing datasets and offering the imprimateur of publication in order to overcome disincentives to pursuing digital scholarship on the part of authors, and trusting it on the part of users. Until these matters are resolved, it will be difficult for historians to contribute data to the CHIA archive, for CHIA editors to evaluate data, and for the CHIA system to handle data content and data types that may be quite diverse. This paper will discuss CHIA efforts to evaluate datasets; in particular by publishing dataset reviews in the Journal of World Historical Information.
Creating a Prototype Archive for a World-Historical Dataset
Cao, Kai | kai.cao@pitt.edu | University of Pittsburgh, United States of America
A key element of the overall project of the Collaborative for Historical Information and Analysis is construction of an appropriate archival system. Three CHIA affiliates collaborate in the initial stage of archive construction by creating a prototype archive and retrieval system based on a “faceted search,” to be created and tested by mid-2013. The collaborating groups are the World-Historical Dataverse at the University of Pittsburgh (Pitt) (with the author as lead developer), the Institute for Quantitative Social Science at Harvard (with Gustavo Durand as principal developer), and the Center for Geographic Analysis at Harvard (with Benjamin Lewis as developer). The archive will be based initially on the Dataverse Network (DVN), to enable linkage of multiple data files (which themselves include explicit spatial and temporal data) so as to develop data that can be searched so as to identify patterns at the global level and interactions among variables at various spatial and temporal levels. Multiple data files will be stored in the DVN system as “studies,” and will be accessed by the system of retrieval.

The “faceted search” is the key element of the archive. It is a search portal, which enables users to define selected data by space, by time, and by topic in a text box. The search is “faceted” in the sense that when the user adjusts the range on one dimension (e.g., space), the range on the other dimensions adjusts appropriately. Once the search criteria are entered, the program identifies the studies that meet the search criteria and displays their geographic distribution within the bounding box on the map. With that, the user can then explore the studies by clicking the dots /links visualized in the mapping area.

Four categories of data have been identified for this task. The four categories of development are:

i. Global population data for the 20th century at national level or provincial level for countries exceeding 100 million to 2000, at 10-year or 5-year intervals.
ii. Climate for the 20th century for identified places and times within the same units as above.
iii. Silver flows of production and trade for the 20th century, by place, trajectory, and time (annual or quinquennial).
iv. Wars during the 20th century, identified by time, space, national or ethnic combatants, casualties.
A graduate researcher at the University of Pittsburgh has been engaged to collect these data.

In addition to the above outline, the presentation will address as many as possible of the details involved in constructing the archive, and will discuss how it is to be used in later phases of project activity. For each study, metadata are to be defined and implemented to ensure that each individual value is fully defined. As a next step, the localized files that are entered into the archive are to be aggregated in order to yield continental and global summaries of data. Besides, we will define and impose the elements of a mid-level ontology for the data, to define relations among all the topical categories, and allow users to use unstructured tags within it.

The archive and faceted search, once implemented, will enable users to envision the breadth of the world-historical analytical system, which is the ultimate objective of the work. The associated website will appear as a storytelling platform. We also expect to rely on social media to spread the word on the archive to convey the idea that its continued development can build a resource of global and interdisciplinary interest.

This archive and faceted search, after its initial development, is to be articulated with other aspects of the overall CHIA project. To begin with, based on the responses and evaluations of users, we will carry out revisions of the faceted search created in this Phase 1, advancing it to lower the barriers of entry for participants and expand the reach of the project. Further, we will encourage the collection of additional categories of data and develop models to improve the analysis of data. In perhaps the most important next stage, we will link the archive and faceted search to the crowd-sourcing data- input application under separate development at Pitt. With the linkage of these two applications, it will become possible for large quantities of data to be incorporated and integrated into the world- historical archive.","txt","2","",""
"1622","14","From database to mobile app: scholar-led development of the Heurist platform","10","At a recent meeting, the head of Intersect, the New South Wales eResearch agency, argued that, since academics are not professional software engineers, eResearch software might be prototyped by academics but development should then be turned over to professionals. I believe this IT-centric viewpoint is based on flawed assumptions about the aims of Humanities computing, and that the potential benefits in good design, documentation and QA (assuming IT-managed projects to be superior in this respect) are generally far outweighed by the loss of flexibility which requirements gathering and structured development impose. An engineering approach may be suitable for well-defined deliverables (with commensurate funding), but research-driven and lightly funded projects will generally be far more productive under the control of a Scholar Programmer (Reside 2011, Welsh 2011) who can optimise the outcomes as opportunities present and rely on the goodwill of colleagues for bug identification and testing. Such an approach does not preclude the involvement of professional programmers in the development process (beyond a certain small scale such involvement is essential) nor equal partnership with IT professionals bringing multi-disciplinary perspectives.

I will use as example our development of Heurist, a database abstraction which allows non-technical researchers to rapidly build and incrementally modify — using a (fairly) simple web interface and researcher-centric concepts — complex multi-user web database applications with many entity types and rich relationships. Effective use of Heurist depends not on technical skill but on the decomposition of research data into a clear conceptual structure — an exercise which imposes a valuable sanity check on the quality of a researcher's conceptual model — and then allows them to pass almost directly to a fully functioning database, bypassing the plumbing of implementation (including programmer-centric abstractions such as UML and application frameworks). Over 30 projects are now running in Heurist, from individual research to public resources such as the Dictionary of Sydney (http://dictionaryofsydney.org), and it has also been used in undergraduate classes. Yet Heurist has encountered opposition from software engineers who believe it could be ‘faster’ or ‘better’ if rewritten (in a variety of alternative technologies, mostly post-dating its design), ignoring the fact that it is stable, extensible and fulfils the needs of its users better than any alternative they can propose.

Over the last few years, there have been significant shifts in data modelling towards object-relational models, XML databases, triple stores and so called NoSQL databases. Digital Humanists have embraced these techniques with varying degrees of success. However these technologies lie outside the knowledge or skills of most Humanities researchers — Excel, Access and Filemaker remain the bread and butter of many who venture into the digital domain; more ambitious projects may commission or develop custom applications backended on MySQL or PostGres. Some of these (eg. Kora) evolve into capable adaptable systems, or are conceived as such from the outset (eg. Zotero and Omeka).

While Heurist uses MySQL as its backend, it uses it to build an agnostic datastore along NoSQL principles. The majority of the code is then devoted to managing a user view of the structure based on entities, attributes and relationships which requires no understanding of the underlying methods. The structure is itself stored within the database, allowing on-the-fly modifications and providing a fully internally documented database (which can be easily — one click — exported to a fully documented XML dump of both the database structure and its content for archiving or transfer to another system). A key strength of this approach is that database structure can be developed incrementally and modified throughout the life of a project as the researcher's understanding of the domain (and software) evolves, without the need for programmers or the loss of existing data.

In this paper I will review the design principles underpinning Heurist and show how its flexible and user-modifiable approach to data structure allows the database to evolve with a scholar's needs. Heurist development has been research-driven and informal, responding to the needs of the many projects that use it, while developing new capabilities as generic tools rather than project-specific additions. I will particularly focus on the advantages of a pragmatic approach to development, driven by a Scholar-Programmer and based on evolving user needs, rapid prototyping and 'permanent beta'. I will contrast this with an 'engineering' approach based on pinning down a set of user requirements and rigorous development and testing within a framework which — even if notionally using an Agile program development methodology — discourages revision and innovation in favour of QA.

My argument will be supported by looking specifically at two mobile applications which were developed as core functions of Heurist. These applications were never envisaged in the original design of the system, but have been added with minor effort, extending the functionality of the system for all users.

First, as part of research into community engagement for the Dictionary of Sydney (dictionaryofsydney.org) we developed a mobile heritage tour application which runs off the Dictionary's underlying Heurist database. The application adopts TourML (TAP Into Museums 2012) but unlike standalone tour applications it is simply designed as a viewer with offline data caching, and can therefore run off any Heurist database containing appropriate data. No additional database design or programming was required to support data entry, storage of TourML data or the import of schemas or data, since these are already an intrinsic part of the Heurist model. With the addition of an appropriate XSL template to transform Heurist's native XML output, we also now have a web-based tour view which will work across all Heurist databases.

My second example is the handling of data schemas for the recently funded FAIMS (Federated Archaeological Information Management System) research infrastructure project funded by the Australian government's NeCTAR program. With trivial programming we were able to add a function to Heurist which exports record schemas as W3C standard XForms which can be loaded onto tablet devices for use in the field. Data is collected using these forms with Open Data Kit (Open Data Kit 2012) and synced back into the Heurist database from which the forms were exported. The field application is thus simply an extension of the Heurist database, rather than a separate application, allowing any Heurist database to become 'mobile' on a tablet — archive and library information gathering are an obvious spin-off acquired at no extra cost. This paradigm is further extended by exposing the database on the web, allowing any other Heurist database to import and reuse the schemas. Using this capability we were able to set up a schema clearinghouse for the FAIMS project and populate it with an initial set of schemas in a matter of hours. The other major components of the FAIMS project are following a formal engineering methodology and will provide useful comparative material by the time this paper is presented.

Through this paper I hope to stimulate a discussion in two areas:

First, on the appropriateness of the concept of the Scholar Programmer, picking up on recent debates on the need for Digital Humanists to embrace programming skills. I will propose an alternative concept of Scholar Analyst — a scholar who might or might not have programming skills, but mostly brings conceptual skills informed by a knowledge of what can be achieved (without necessarily being technically capable, even if time permitted). In that sense the Scholar Analyst is an Architect, who understands what different materials can achieve without being able to so much as lay a brick. I am not convinced that the Architect needs to be able to lay bricks, although they must know the limits of brick structures and of the bricklaying process.

Secondly I hope to stimulate some discussion about the dangers of development for, rather than by, the Academy. While this may not be an issue of concern to current projects with momentum, the centralisation of resources in relatively well-funded and science-dominated eResearch agencies and IT centres plays to the dominance of engineering-driven approaches and loss of capacity to develop applications aligned with Humanities research needs.

References
Date, C. J. (2004). An Introduction to Database Systems. Boston: Pearson/Addison Wesley. 8th edn.
Open Data Kit (2012). Magnifying human resources through technology. http://opendatakit.org/ Accessed 30/10/12
Reside, D. (2011). On Ant-Lions and Scholar-Programmers. http://mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/alt-ac/pieces/ant-lions-and-scholar-programmers Accessed 30/10/2012
TAP Into Museums (2012). TourML Overview. http://tapintomuseums.org/TourML Accessed 30/10/12
Welsh, T. (2011). To Code, or Not to Code. http://hastac.org/blogs/twelsh/code-or-not-code. Accessed 30/10/2012","txt","2","",""
"1623","14","Fast-Tracking a research database using Heurist","15","In this workshop participants will learn how to build a Heurist online database to support a small research project, and end up with a fully operational, web-accessible, private or shared database on a hosted server. From this they will be able to freely create additional databases and/or download the Open Source software for installation on an institutional or cloud-based server. No programming or technical skills are required to complete the workshop.

Heurist is a database abstraction which hides the complexity of database design behind a simple web interface, allowing researchers to rapidly define quite complex databases through a researcher-oriented interface without the need for programming. Heurist has been developed across a number of Australian Research Council research grants in the Humanities to support a wide range of research, from the production of large historical encyclopaedias with an editorial team, such as the Dictionary of Sydney (dictionaryofsydney.org), through archaeological survey and excavation databases to individual text markup projects. We use it internally for project management and task tracking as well as for image collection and PDF document management.

New databases can be set up on a web service within minutes, using templates developed by other Humanities projects. From the start these can include rich interlinking of records, spatial and temporal data, text markup and annotation. Heurist allows incremental development of the database structure as a project develops, without altering data which is already in the system. This allows fast-tracking of database setup because one can start with a few categories and work up to a more complex design, rather than having to do complete planning at the start which locks in a design and creates limitations or additional costs as projects evolve. Heurist is unique in allowing the import of existing record structures from any other Heurist database registered with a central index. We are actively building a number of 'community servers' which provide structural templates for different disciplines. These templates promote good database design and common standards without being prescriptive.

Heurist is being incorporated into two national research infrastructure projects. It will provide database-on-demand services on the NeCTAR Research Cloud for HuNI (Humanities Networked Infrastructure), allowing user-generated databases to expose their content to the HuNI Virtual Laboratory search, web linking and annotation services and to Research Data Australia, the national index of research databases. For FAIMS (Federated Archaeological Information Management System) it will provide a schema repository and data ingest from field data collection devices (Android tablets, GPS, cameras etc.), data refinement, data analysis/visualisation, web publishing and repository output services.

The workshop will be relevant to a wide range of Humanities researchers, but particularly to scholars who deal with collections of richly interlinked heterogeneous entities. These may include historical individuals, organisations and events, inscriptions, manuscripts and archival records, theatrical performances, places, buildings, artefacts, images and bibliographic information. It will be particularly relevant to scholars who do not have good institutional backing for eResearch tools and database development.

By the end of the workshop participants will be confident to use the web interface to create new databases online, import templates, make changes to database structure, edit and import data, search for and save subsets of the data, map, export and transform data, and publish data feeds within a website.

Ian Johnson’s research interests focus on methodologies for managing and publishing research data and the application of GIS and mobile devices in archaeological field research. He has developed a number of eResearch tools including the Minark database for archaeologists (1980-1987), TimeMap web mapping application (1995–2003), The Electronic Cultural Atlas Initiative data clearinghouse (1998–2003), FieldHelper (2004–2007) and Heurist (2005–present).

Target audience
Scholars who deal with collections of richly interlinked heterogeneous entities, particularly those who have limited access to institutional eResearch support, but also Digital Humanists who need to provide eResearch support to other scholars. I can handle up to around 20 people.

URL
HeuristScholar.org/h3/index.html","txt","2","",""
"1624","14","Centre and Circumference: Modelling and Prototyping Digital Knowledge Environments as Social Sandboxes","10","This past year, the Modeling and Prototyping team within INKE (Implementing New Knowledge Environments), a SSHRC Major Collaborative Research Initiative headed by Dr. Ray Siemens (UVic), has focused its research efforts on modeling the digital scholarly edition by producing a number of prototype editing environments. One such environment, NewRadial, is a reimagining of a 2009 Java-based data visualization prototype that was designed by Jon Saklofske and Jean-Marc Giffin for the purposes of reimagining the ways that scholars could work with William Blake’s composite art in an electronic environment. As stated in articles published in the Poetess Archive Journal and European Romantic Review, the 2009 single-user version of NewRadial was intended to facilitate perceptual encounters with Blake’s work that were not bound by the technology and formal constraints of the traditional book, and to provide the opportunity to centralize a user’s secondary scholarship and commentary on Blake’s work in a space that included the original archival material but did not directly alter that material. In an effort to adapt these ideas and arguments to INKE’s focus on digital edition spaces, Saklofske and Jake Bruce have recreated NewRadial as browser-based software that makes use of an HTML5 frontend, an adapter system to ensure compatibility with a variety of database types, and a server-based backend. This new prototype has allowed INKE’s Modeling and Prototyping team to engage with some of the larger questions that have motivate this year’s digital scholarly edition research:

1. How do we model and enable context, such as prosopography and placeography, within the electronic scholarly edition?
2. How do we engage knowledge-building communities within the space of the electronic edition, and capture process, dialogue, and connections in and around such editions?
Material print editions are records, artifacts that efface the process of their formation, version-objects that assert an argument and establish a historical position through the printed finality of their collation and production. If digital editions are to take full advantage of their environments (rather than simply emulating print traditions) they need to visibly include both process and product, and offer opportunities for editorial diligence, contribution, perspective, control and debate to their users. Top-down forms of authoritative and exclusive editorial selectivity become ironic and anachronistic in dynamic digital environments which privilege “a new kind of scholarly discourse network that eschews traditional institutionally-reinforced hierarchical structures” (Siemens 2011).

NewRadial’s collaborative space is a reimagining of the digital scholarly edition as a transparent workspace layer in which established primary objects from existing databases can be gathered, organized, correlated, annotated, and augmented by multiple users in a dynamic environment that also features centralised margins for secondary scholarship and debate. It performs Jerome McGann’s idea that “the fundamentally dynamical character of the textual condition can be digitally realized: the dialectic of the field relations between the history of the text’s transmission and the history of its reception” (para. 34).

The INKE NewRadial prototype is being designed as an effective way for knowledge communities to work with all types of media objects, to aggregate search results from multiple databases using meta-adapters, and to share RDF-based secondary scholarship and annotation data over HTTP for use in other tools and workspaces. Currently, our prototype installation has successfully used adapters to import NINES/ARC data, the Archbook image repository, Google image search results and other scholarly database holdings.

This INKE prototype re-presents database material in a sandbox environment, encouraging iterative experimentation, hosting methodological and interpretative debate and supporting innovative combinations and connections. These opportunities can serve as the raw processes, the activated complex from which more traditional scholarly print projects (collaborative or otherwise) can precipitate. In summary, NewRadial is a social edition space that encourages three types of work:

1. A simple search, sorting and manipulation of database objects in a visual field for the purposes of early scholarly inquiry and curiosity-based research.
2. Initial, raw and in-process commentary on connections and associations between database objects. Within the database’s visual field, scholars can add comments on such correlations, thus starting conversations, discussions and debates relating to such ideas. These discussions are hosted and archived by the NewRadial server.
3. Larger edition projects in which a community is able to centralize and sort specific selections from a larger database. NewRadial can be used to construct these edition environments, browse such environments, and (if desired) encourage secondary scholarship to proliferate in and around such projects.
NewRadial is thus an example of Stuart Moulthrop’s idea of “intervention,” which is “a practical contribution to a media system (e.g., some product, tool or method) intended to challenge underlying assumptions or reveal new ways of proceeding” (212). Its affordances introduce a dynamic multiplicity of vision into what has traditionally been a reductive, oppositional and snail’s pace process of inter-edition debate and evolution. The development of this digital edition environment prototype is the first step towards creating inclusive editorial workspaces which draw from broad data foundations and which encourage knowledge-building communities to actively reimagine edition-building processes.

Neil Fraistat recognizes the importance and potential impact of digital textuality’s massive addressability on the future of editing, and acknowledges the potential for interactivity that digital environments facilitate. Drawing on his own edition work, he suggests that digital editions should be interoperable, layered and modular, multimodal, dynamic, scalable, curatable, everted and sustainable (331-32). NewRadial prototypes these characteristics in a manner that is distinct from Fraistat’s own work on the Shelley-Godwin Archive project, and in doing so, offers an alternative and comparative environment in which such ideas can be implemented, and participates (prototypically and argumentatively) in a larger, theoretical discussion about the nature of new knowledge environments and their impact on traditional ideas of editing.

If we agree with Alan Galey and Stan Ruecker that a prototype is, in essence, an argument (405), then one of NewRadial’s main arguments arises from its reimagining the space of an edition as an inclusive, virtual, visual environment. It builds on Jan Holmevik’s recognition that “visual/auditory modes of delivery of knowledge….[allow] philosophy to divest itself of literate shackles, of narrow-minded thinking, and print-based archives where philosophy feels most at home” (10). Further, by promoting the idea of the social edition through its affordances, NewRadial prototypically engages with the possibility raised by Gregory Ulmer that “while the entire administrative superstructure of literate specialized knowledge will be translated into cyberspace, once there much of it will evaporate” (5). In 2003, Ulmer anticipated that “the practices that will replace specialized knowledge remain to be invented” (5). Jerome McGann reiterated this idea in 2006, suggesting that “at some point books and their technology will cease to be our encompassing informational environment; they will get incorporated into the digital network of artifacts and information” (McGann, para. 19). Ten years after Ulmer’s observation and seven years after McGann’s confirmation of this potential trajectory, in the midst of tools and applications that — for the most part — continue to sustain the dominant paradigms of literacy, NewRadial’s incorporation of the networked inventiveness of INKE’s collaborative practices into its own developmental situation answers Ulmer’s invitation to invent new, digitally-situated practices of knowledge acquisition, creation and exchange.

In the particular context of the INKE project, NewRadial is becoming what it beholds, and is primarily emerging as a social edition prototype. However, beyond the specific implementations within the INKE frame, NewRadial raises broader questions and offers possible directions involving relational data models, scalable data browsing, and crowd-sourced descriptive frameworks in humanities research and scholarship. NewRadial’s knowledge environment both models and prototypes alternative ways of working with and contributing to data-centric humanities research online. It offers a unique lens through which a diverse collection of digital humanities objects can be re-imagined, freely explored and iteratively prototyped.

References
Fraistat, N. (2012). Textual Addressability and the Future of Editing. European Romantic Review. 23 (3). 329-333.
Galey, A., and S. Ruecker (2010). How a Prototype Argues. LLC 25 (4). 405-424.
McGann, J. (2006). From Text to Work: Digital Tools and the Emergence of the Social Text. In Romanticism on the Net. 41-42. (2 November 2013.)
Moulthrop, S. (2005). After the Last Generation: Rethinking Scholarship in the Days of Serious Play. In Proceedings of Digital Arts and Culture Conference. held at IT-University. Copenhagen, Denmark. 208-215.
Saklofske, J. (2011). Remediating William Blake: Unbinding the Narrative Architectures of Blake’s Songs. European Romantic Review 22 (3). 381-88.
Saklofske, J. (2010). NewRadial: Re-visualizing the Blake Archive. In Poetess Archive Journal. 2 (1).
Saklofske, J., and J. M. Giffin (2009). NewRadial. 2 November 2012. http://sourceforge.net/projects/newradial/
Saklofske, J. and J. Bruce (2012). NewRadial (INKE) . 2012. 2 November 2012. http://sourceforge.net/projects/newradial-inke/ and http://inke.acadiau.ca/newradial/
Siemens, R., et al. (2012). Toward Modelling the Social Edition: An Approach to Understanding the Electronic Scholarly Edition in the Context of New and Emerging Social Media. Accepted for publication in Literary and Linguistic Computing. 70.
Ulmer, G. (2003). Internet Invention: From Literacy to Electracy. New York: Longman.","txt","2","",""
"1625","14","The INKE NewRadial Prototype: Evolving the Space and Nature of Digital Scholarly Editions","2","How can digital scholarly editions take full advantage of environmentally-generated opportunities to focus on process, collaboration, and distributed control without losing the traditional affordances that make an edition “scholarly?” The Modeling and Prototyping Team of the Implementing New Knowledge Environments (INKE) project is currently exploring ways in which the scholarly edition can be re-imagined within digital settings. Our prototypes function as virtual environments that encourage play within their designed frames, and as Galey and Ruecker (2010) have argued, the trajectory of prototype iterations establishes a valuable record of critical enquiry. In this spirit, we wonder whether the digital scholarly edition, in addition to being perceived as an environment which is a trace record of the theoretical and argumentative motivations that inform the editorial processes of selection, organization and design, could actively and dynamically host the formation of multiple, simultaneous, and community generated editions. Material print editions are records, artefacts that efface the process of their formation, version-objects that assert an argument and establish a historical position through the printed finality of their collation and production. If digital editions are to take full advantage of their environments (rather than simply emulating print traditions) they need to visibly include both process and product, and offer opportunities for editorial diligence, contribution, perspective, control and debate to their users. Top-down forms of authoritative and exclusive editorial selectivity become ironic and anachronistic in dynamic digital environments which privilege “a new kind of scholarly discourse network that eschews traditional institutionally-reinforced hierarchical structures” (Siemens 2011). We are exploring modelling the digital scholarly edition as a social edition workspace in which a community of users can contribute content and emerge from the debilitating condition that William Blake described as “single vision.”

In this spirit, and to provide essential opportunities for user-based contributions and scholarship within digital edition environments, the INKE Modeling and Prototyping team is currently developing a software environment called NewRadial that significantly reinvents an earlier prototype designed by Saklofske and Giffin (2009) and builds on earlier conceptual work by Nowviskie (2007) and Saklofske (2010, 2011). NewRadial’s collaborative space is a reimagining of the digital scholarly edition as a transparent workspace layer in which established primary objects from existing databases can be gathered, organized, correlated, annotated, and augmented by multiple users in a dynamic environment that also features centralised margins for secondary scholarship and debate. The INKE NewRadial prototype—consisting of an HTML5 frontend and server-based backend—is a workspace that uses simple adapters to query databases for specific results, and then uses those results to harvest representations of the objects (i.e. thumbnails) to populate its workspace. Linked data and annotations produced by a community of users in relation to these objects within NewRadial’s environment then become available to other applications. Our focus on relational data models, scalable data browsing, and crowd-sourced descriptive frameworks means that the INKE NewRadial prototype is being designed as an effective means for working with all types of media objects, for aggregating search results from multiple databases using meta-adapters, and for making its RDF-based secondary scholarship and annotation data available over HTTP for use in other tools and workspaces. Currently, our prototype installation has successfully used adapters to import NINES/ARC data, the Archbook image repository, Google images and other scholarly database holdings.

NewRadial’s affordances introduce a dynamic multiplicity of vision into what has traditionally been a reductive, oppositional and snail’s pace process of inter-edition debate and evolution. The development of this digital edition environment prototype is the first step towards creating inclusive editorial workspaces which draw from broad data foundations and which encourage knowledge-building communities to actively reimagine edition-building processes. This poster/demonstration session is designed to offer conference participants hand-on experience with the INKE NewRadial prototype and to demonstrate the ways that the unique affordances and flexibility of this workspace impacts the nature of scholarly editing, the scholarly edition itself, and the secondary scholarship that such editions generate.

References
Galey, A., and S. Ruecker (2010). How a Prototype Argues. LLC, 25(4): 405-424.
Nowviskie, B. (2007). Collex: Collections and Exhibits for the Remixable Web. Electronic Book Review. 1-17.
Saklofske, J. (2011). Remediating William Blake: Unbinding the Narrative Architectures of Blake’s Songs. European Romantic Review 22(3): 381-88.
Saklofske, J. (2010). NewRadial: Re-visualizing the Blake Archive. In Poetess Archive Journal. 2(1).
Saklofske, J., and J. M. Giffin (2009). NewRadial. http://sourceforge.net/projects/newradial/
Siemens, R., et al. Toward Modeling the Social Edition: An Approach to Understanding the Electronic Scholarly Edition in the Context of New and Emerging Social Media, Accepted for publication in Literary and Linguistic Computing. 70.","txt","2","",""
"1626","14","ChartEx: a project to extract information from the content of medieval charters and create a virtual workbench for historians to work with this information","9","Summary
The ChartEx (Charter Excavator) Project is developing and evaluating an innovative collection of computational methods to assist researchers in searching, extracting, analyzing, linking and understanding the content of medieval charters. The project is using both natural language processing and data mining techniques to establish entities such as locations (location in this context refers to a specific building or piece of land) and actors, events and dates related to those locations. The project is also developing a “virtual workbench” to support historians in working with large corpora of digital charters and the vast amounts of information that can now be extracted from them. These methods could subsequently be applied to other corpora of digitized texts, be they historical or contemporary.

The ChartEx Project
Researchers now have access to a deluge of data in the form of digitized historical records. One example is medieval charters or title deeds which record transfers of land ownership and are a major source for the study of people and places in the past, including the topography, economy and social relationships of pre-modern communities. However, current digital search aids are not sufficiently sensitive to the needs of researchers seeking to exploit the wealth of detail available within this type of record. The ChartEx (Charter Excavator) Project is developing and evaluating an innovative collection of computational methods to assist researchers in searching, extracting, analyzing, linking and understanding the content of medieval charters. These methods could subsequently be applied to other corpora of digitized texts, be they historical or contemporary.

The ChartEx Project is extracting information from charters, using a combination of natural language processing (NLP) and data mining (DM) components to establish entities such as locations (location in this context refers to a specific building or piece of land) and actors, events and dates related to those locations. The NLP component uses rules derived from the knowledge of experienced researchers, in combination with the semantic meaning of the written language of the charters, to extract these entities. In order to inform these rules a new markup schema was defined for use in the project.

From a sample of manually marked up charters, the NLP component generates automatic markup of entities in a larger corpus of charters. The DM component then uses the output of the NLP component, as refined by researchers if needed, to extract relationships between entities.

However, the rules used by the NLP component and the relationships found by the DM component cannot reflect all the knowledge of experienced researchers. Therefore, the third crucial component of the ChartEx Project is the use of novel instrumental interaction techniques which will allow researchers to both refine the processing of the NLP and DM, and to directly manipulate (visualise, confirm, correct, refine, augment) relationships extracted from the charters to gain new insights of interest about the entities within them. Instrumental interaction emphasizes that both the computational system and human users have knowledge and must work together to achieve the users’ goals. ChartEx is developing a highly usable “virtual workbench” for researchers to support this instrumental interaction. The ChartEx Workbench has interactive visualizations of large amounts of data and a range of tools to manipulate data and their relationships.

The ChartEx project is demonstrating its approach by analysing five corpora of charters from the 10th to 16th centuries originating from both the UK and other European countries. Two corpora contain full Latin texts and three contain Latin texts that have been provided with English summaries within digital archival catalogues. The collections derive from The National Archives of the United Kingdom, the Borthwick Institute for Archives in York (United Kingdom), the deeds collected as part of the DEEDS project at the University of Toronto (Canada), and deeds originating from the archive at Cluny (France).

Charters are an abundant and fundamental source for the study of many aspects of medieval societies. While recent scholarship has expanded the range of charter studies to such fields as the history of emotions and performativity, their core usefulness remains their provision of basic data: personal names, place names, and dates. In particular, they help us to trace the ownership and occupation of houses and parcels of land over centuries, providing the basis for many further studies from history to tourism and conservation. Initially in the project we assumed that the formulaic nature of the language in medieval charters would make the NLP quite straightforward. However, the high level formulaic nature of expressions revealed considerable variability when subjected to fine-grained analysis. Nonetheless, by developing a detailed markup schema for the initial hand coding of a set of charters, it was possible to train the NLP component to identify personal names, place names and locations. The Latin (and after c.1300, vernacular) phrases that describe, for example, the location of a property (e.g., ‘the tenement in Petergate lying between the tenement once held by John the apothecary and now held by Richard of Huntington on one side, and the church of St Michael on the other’), were the pre-cursors to street-numbers and scientific spatial referencing developed from the 19th century. When researching a particular historical lived environment, the researcher needs to establish links between actors, events, and locations, by recovering and reconstructing the relationships between hundreds, even thousands, of data points, included in different charters and even in different archives.

Most current systems for searching digital charters depend on manual markup systems which identify entities such as place-names and personal-names in the text and include such entities in catalogue metadata. One example of such a project would be ‘Paradox of Medieval Scotland’ which uses metadata in just this way and then provides full text transcriptions of the locational data within the charter. Another example is the WARD 2 data in The National Archives. ChartEx is using NLP to go beyond the metadata and to explore the actual content of charters, thus enabling researchers to explore the discursive descriptions of locations, actors and events within those locations.

The ChartEx Project has designed a detailed markup scheme that adequately represents the ways in which historians currently read charters and extract spatial means from them. This new markup schema was created through a collaborative process involving researchers from 3 different institutions. This schema includes a set of entities and relationships that are at a level of abstraction above traditional diplomatic markup and specifically identifies actors, locations and events in a way that can be used by the NLP component. This new markup schema is documented in a detailed set of guidelines that have been used annotate a set of 250 charters from across the five different data archival data sets. These manually marked up charters provide act as a set training data for the technical components of the project.

The ChartEx Project has also developed the ChartEx Virtual Workbench to allow historians to work with the large amounts of data becoming available to them. For this we haven taken a highly user-centric approach, using the latest methodologies from human-computer interaction. Eight historians participated in contextual interviews, in which they described in considerable detail how they work with charters on a range of different historic problems and recreated actual pieces of research they had undertaken with charters. These sessions were recorded and analysed in detail to understand the specific tasks that historians are undertaking with charters and how to support them most effectively in doing the same tasks in a purely digital environment, as well as provide them with new functionality that they have not had before. In particular, we also considered the additional information that historians will have available from the results of the NLP and DM components in the project. On the basis of all this information, a number of “low fidelity” prototypes of possible workbench configurations and functionalities have been developed and two co-design workshops have been held with the six historians and two archivist advisors to the to discuss the different possibilities. As a result of these workshops, a more detailed prototype has been developed and is being evaluated by the original set of historians and archivists and a number of newly recruited historians and archivists, who are testing it with realistic research tasks. This will undoubtedly lead to a further iteration of refinement of the Virtual Workbench before the final prototype is developed by the end of the ChartEx Project.

The ChartEx Project is funded under the Digging into Data challenge (www.diggingintodata.org). The research consortium includes, historians and linguists as well as experts in human computer interaction, natural language processing and data mining from six institutions in four countries: Universities of York and Brighton (United Kingdom), University of Toronto (Canada), University of Washington and Columbia University (USA) and University of Leiden (Netherlands).","txt","2","",""
"1627","14","Circular Development: Neatline and the User/Developer Feedback Loop","3","Any tool should be useful in the expected way, but a truly great tool lends itself to uses you never expected.

Eric Raymond, The Cathedral and the Bazaar
Eric Raymond’s Cathedral and the Bazaar describes a series of lessons about the importance of sharing code with users learned during the development of Linux. Raymond emphasizes that non-technical users and third-party developers are capable of doing far more than just finding and fixing bugs—freely distributing code encourages users to take the software and develop new and unexpected things with it. “The next best thing to having good ideas,” argues Raymond, “is recognizing good ideas from your users. Sometimes the latter is better.” (2000) This kind of engagement with users tends to be the exception, not the rule, though, and even when developers are interested in establishing a cycle of feedback with users, that cycle has to be nurtured and maintained. Software development usually does not take place in a vacuum; software is developed for particular users and use cases. How people use software, and the ways in which they can share those uses, can be myriad. Developers are interested in learning how to recognize and nurture those uses, but this often proves difficult. Our panel will examine this complicated issue.

“Building” as a hermeneutic has gained increased attention and scrutiny among the Digital Humanities community. Ramsay (2011) argues that “the Digital Humanities is about building things” and is central to its “methodologization.” Sample (2012) emphasizes the importance of building as work. In particular, Sample espouses collaborative construction as a group effort where each contribution takes place in dialogue with other contributions, and creative analysis as a way to learn through creation. An emphasis on building necessitates an equal emphasis on builder, and as Gina Trampani (2011) argues, nurturing a beneficial user-contributor community that allows a variety of users, regardless of existing skills, to benefit from a hermeneutic of building. Accordingly, we are interested in modeling the communal approaches to building that bridge developer, researcher, and student.

This panel will bring together developers and users to explore the symbiotic relationships built during the life cycle of a software project, to discuss the ways in which open-source Digital Humanities projects should work to build both tools and user/developer communities. The project that we are using as a testbed for this examination is Neatline, a set of a geo-temporal tools built by the Scholars’ Lab at the University of Virginia for use in the Omeka content management system. During the months leading up to the conference, panel participants will work closely together to build and document their working relationships, all the while working to improve Neatline and implement it in productive ways. The panel will elaborate on problems and solutions for collaboration among developers and users they encountered, and suggest ways to turn users into contributors while better attuning a software development team to the needs of its users. Of particular attention to the panel will be the way in which the tool is used for multiple purposes, including research and teaching, and how such uses impact the feedback loop.

Panel Organization & Participants
We propose to conduct a panel featuring users and developers of the Neatline suite. Each participant will open the panel with a 5 minute statement describing their particular experience over the course of their collaboration, followed by a group discussion that addresses several questions. All participants are excited to participate in this panel.

Participants
Jeremy Boggs is Design Architect for Digital Research and Scholarship at the University of Virginia Library. Boggs will discuss methods for getting outside users more easily involved in the development process for Neatline. He will focus on the tools used and documentation developed during the group’s collaboration effort.

Amy Earhart is Assistant Professor of English at Texas A&M University. Earhart will discuss how her undergraduate students used Neatline to map Malcolm X’s New York, pointing to particular areas of tension between pedagogical models of digital humanities tools and the feedback loop. She will offer potential ways to eliminate such issues.

Wayne Graham is Head of Research and Development for Digital Research and Scholarship at the University of Virginia Library. Graham will discuss the day-to-day management of Neatline development, and in particular his strategies for balancing user needs and contributions with the priorities of the core Neatline development team.

T. Mills Kelly is Associate Professor of History at George Mason University and Associate Director of the Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media. Kelly will discuss the use of Neatline in his historical methods course, “Dead in Virginia.” He will focus on the aspects of the user experience that seemed to influence student learning in the course.

David McClure is Web Applications Developer for Digital Research and Scholarship at the University of Virginia Library, and is lead developer on Neatline. McClure will talk about his perspective as a lead developer on Neatline.

Shawn Moore is a doctoral student at Texas A&M University and is a fellow for the Initiative for Digital Humanities, Media, and Culture (IDHMC). Moore will talk about the process of transitioning from a user of Neatline to a contributing developer during his ongoing dissertation project on Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle (1623-1673).

Eric Rochester is Senior Developer for Digital Research and Scholarship at the University of Virginia Library. Rochester will discuss the tenuous balance between choosing the best tools and languages for a project with getting and encouraging outside contributions to a project.

Questions
What benefits will a software feedback loop provide to both user and developer?
What tools and methods did the group find most helpful during the process?
Discuss the impact of non-specialist users, such as students, on the feedback loop.
How can open-source projects create inclusive communities that invite contributions from people with skill-sets and backgrounds that are underrepresented in the open-source community?
In what ways does nurturing an outside user/developer community contribute to the use and sustainability of a Digital Humanities project?
What were the most challenging aspects of this collaboration?
Discuss future models of the feedback loop based on what you have learned in this model.
References
Bryant, T. (2006). Social software in academia. Educause Quarterly 29(2): 61.
Clement, T., and D. Reside (2011). Off the Tracks: Laying New Lines for Digital Humanities Scholars. Results of an NEH Workshop, Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities. http://mith.umd.edu/offthetracks/.
Cohen, D. J. (2008). Creating Scholarly Tools and Resources for the Digital Ecosystem: Building Connections in the Zotero Project. First Monday 13(8) http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2233/2017.
Easley, D., and J. Kleinberg (2010). Networks, Crowds, and Markets: Reasoning about a Highly Connected World. http://www.cs.cornell.edu/home/kleinber/networks-book/
Fogel, K. (2005). Producing Open Source Software: How to Run a Successful Free Software Project. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly.
Klein, L. F. (2012). A Report Has Come Here. http://lmc.gatech.edu/~lklein7/?p=86.
McPherson, T. (2010). Scaling Vectors: Thoughts on the Future of Scholarly Communication. Journal of Electronic Publishing 13(2) http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.3336451.0013.208.
Neatline. http://neatline.org
Nowviskie, B. (ed.) (2011). #Alt-Academy: Alternative Academic Careers for Humanities Scholars. MediaCommons Press. http://mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/alt-ac/
Omeka. http://omeka.org.
Perspectives on Free and Open Source Software. (2010). Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Ramsay, S. (2011). On Building. http://stephenramsay.us/text/2011/01/11/on-building.html (accessed 11 January 2011).
Ramsay, S.. (2011). Who’s In and Who’s Out?http://stephenramsay.us/text/2011/01/08/whos-in-and-whos-out.html (accessed 8 January 2011).
Ramsay, S.. (2012). Programming with Humanists: Reflections on Raising an Army of Hacker-Scholars in the Digital Humanities. In Hirsch, B. D. (ed.), Teaching Digital Humanities: Principles, Practices, Politics. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Ramsay, S., and G. Rockwell (2012). Developing Things: Notes Toward an Epistemology of Building in the Digital Humanities In Gold, M. (ed.), Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 75-84.
Raymond, E. S. (2000). The Cathedral and the Bazaar. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly.
Sample, M. (2012). Building and Sharing (When You’re Supposed to be Teaching). Journal of Digital Humanities. 1(1) http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/1-1/building-and-sharing-when-youre-supposed-to-be-teaching-by-mark-sample/.
Trapani, G. Designers, Women, and Hostility in Open Source. http://smarterware.org/7550/designers-women-and-hostility-in-open-source (accessed 23 March 2011).","txt","2","",""
"1628","14","From 2D to 3D: An Introduction to Additive Manufacturing and Desktop Fabrication","15","Desktop fabrication is the digitization of analog manufacturing techniques. Comparable to desktop publishing, it affords the output of digital content (e.g., 3D models) in physical form (e.g., plastic). It also personalizes production through accessible software and hardware, with more flexibility and rapidity than its analog predecessors.

Additive manufacturing is a process whereby a 3D form is constructed by building successive layers of a melted source material (at the moment, this is most often some type of plastic). There is little waste, as material is not removed from a block to create the shape, as in traditional machine milling, for example. The method also affords the materialization of forms not possible to construct from traditional subtractive processes of manufacturing. The technology driving additive manufacturing in the desktop fabrication field is the 3D printer, tabletop devices that materialize digital 3D models.

In this workshop, we will introduce technologies used for desktop fabrication and additive manufacturing, and offer a possible workflow that bridges the digital and physical worlds for work with threedimensional forms. We will begin by introducing 3D printers, and demonstrate how they operate by printing things throughout the event. The software used in controlling the printer and in preparing models to print will be explained. We will use free software sources so those in attendance can experiment with the tools as they are introduced.

The main elements of the workshop are

Acquisition of digital 3D models — from online repositories to creating your own with photogrammetry, scanning technologies, and modelling software
Software to clean and reshape digital models in order to make them print-ready and remove artifacts from the scanning process.
3D printers and the software to control and use them
Those attending are asked to bring, if possible, a laptop computer to install and run the software introduced, and a digital camera or smartphone for experimenting with photogrammetry. Workshop facilitators will bring cameras, a 3D printer, plastics, and related materials for the event. By the end of the conference, each participant will have the opportunity to print an object for their own use.Those attending are asked to bring, if possible, a laptop computer to install and run the software introduced, and a digital camera or smartphone for experimenting with photogrammetry. Workshop facilitators will bring cameras, a 3D printer, plastics, and related materials for the event. By the end of the conference, each participant will have the opportunity to print an object for their own use.
Instructors
Jeremy Boggs, University of Virginia Library
Jeremy Boggs is the Design Architect for Digital Research and Scholarship in the Scholars’ Lab, at the University of Virginia Library. His dissertation, entitled “The Designing Historian,” explores design as a methodology for doing digital history. Other research interests include the history of design, the history of technology, and social/cultural history. He has conducted workshops and introduced 3D printing at the Scholar’s Lab.

Devon Elliott, Western University
Devon Elliott is a PhD candidate in history at Western University. In addition to his application of digital fabrication methods to his dissertation project on the history of stage magic, he has conducted workshops on 3D technologies at universities, conferences, galleries, and hackerspaces. He is also an instructor on digital fabrication and physical computing at the Digital Humanities Summer Institute.

Jentery Sayers, UVic
Jentery Sayers is an Assistant Professor of English at the University of Victoria, with research interests in comparative media studies, digital humanities, AngloAmerican modernism, computers and composition, and teaching with technologies. He is the director of the Maker Lab at UVic, and teaches digital fabrication and physical computing at the Digital Humanities Summer Institute.

Audience
Targeted towards scholars interested in learning about technologies surrounding 3D printing and additive manufacturing, and for accessible solutions to implementing those technologies in their work. Past workshops have been for faculty, graduate and undergraduate students in the humanities; librarians; archivists; GLAM professionals; digital humanities centers. This is an introductory workshop, so little prior experience is necessary, only a desire to learn and be engaged with the topic.

Length and format of the workshop
The one day workshop will have three major components that all participants will engage with. These core components are:

1) Where to get digital 3D models. This can be from online repositories that are freely available (and also serve as potential archival solutions or distributive channels) to creating one’s own models with photogrammetry or scanning technologies, or drawing virtual models in design software.
2) Software solutions that mediate between the virtual forms and the corresponding physical technologies are necessary to clean and postprocess models to make them suitable for printing. There isn’t one tool to do all this, so this section will introduce those various software platforms, and explain both how the virtual model needs to be transformed and the specific elements of those software packages that enable one to make those changes.
3) 3D printing What is it? How does it work? What machines are available? Pros and cons of using the devices. Software to interface with the machines. Materials that they can print with. Limits of the printable forms.","txt","2","",""
"1629","14","Exquisite Haiku: Experiments with Real-Time, Collaborative Poetry Composition","10","Introduction
There is a long tradition of artistic practices that have tried to reduce or remove the role of the author. Text generators produce poems according to algorithmic recipes; Oulipo procedures shuffle existing texts into new, unanticipated combinations; and collaborative processes produce collages, mash-ups, and other hybrid formats that combine a collection of individual voices into a single work. These author-reducing practices often take the form of rebellions against the “false prophets of genius and inspiration” (Motte, 203; qtd. Ramsay, 28), efforts to transcend the unity and rationality of single-author works and create new forms that “could not be created by one brain alone” (Breton, qtd. Waldberg, 95).

I ask the opposite question: Is it possible to create an “authorless” text that nonetheless looks and acts exactly like a single-author work? Drawing inspiration from the “Exquisite Corpse,” a Surrealist parlor game, I present Exquisite Haiku, a real-time, interactive web application that makes it possible for groups of people to compose short poems. The software enables an extremely granular form of literary collaboration in which the intentions of the individual players are scrambled beyond recognition “into” or “below” the individual word selections. By pushing the register of collaboration down to an extended process of deliberation that takes place for each word, I argue that the resulting texts lack authors in the sense that they are completely unattributable — no individual person is responsible for any addressable part of the text. And yet they emerge from a completely deterministic, human-willed process and exhibit an “aura of sensefulness” (Ramsay, 30) and “closure in meaning” (Laxon, 30) that makes them indistinguishable from single-author texts.

The Exquisite Corpse and the “Fold”
First played by the friends of André Breton in Paris in the 1920’s, the Exquisite Corpse [1] was one of the most influential of the Surrealist parlor games. A group sits at a table and passes around a sheet of paper — each player writes or sketches a new bit of material onto the page, and then folds the paper to conceal all but a small portion of the composite image. The end result is a phantasmagorical mash-up of the individual contributions, all highly individuated but bound together by a web of associations emerging from each player's partial knowledge of the whole. For Breton and the Surrealists, this disjointedness was a feature, not a bug — these “chain games” were efforts to invent new modes of artistic praxis that abandoned the constraints of single-author rationalism and moved towards a collaborative engagement with the sur-reality of Freudian free-association, a hop-scotching movement among images and motifs (Kern, 3-28). To achieve this fragmentation, the “links” of the chain needed to be blocky, rough, and obviously collaborative.

Interestingly, though, these theoretical goals start to unravel as the Corpse becomes more “competent” from a technical standpoint. Susan Laxon describes a variation of the game introduced in the mid-1930’s by Valentine Hugo that tried to combine the energies of the individual players into a more unbroken, continuous form of collaboration. The physical “folds” were replaced with a system of discreet markings that protected the physical purity of the page, and the contour of the final image was traced over in an effort to conceal discontinuities and standardize the shading tech-nique (Laxon, 41). For Laxon, this essentially an artistic error, at least when held up against the intellectual goals of the movement — the effort to “smooth” or “improve” the collaboration has the paradoxical effect of pushing the final product back in the direction of single-author unity. The Corpse stakes its claim to originality on the abruptness and defamiliarization brought on by the juxtaposition of the separate sec-tions. As they bleed together and start to reassemble towards cohesion, the Corpse cedes its raison d'être.

The altered rule set never caught on; before long, the fold was reinstated and the error reversed. But what if the “mistake” had been allowed to continue? Hugo’s modified game points to an intriguing proposition: What if the collaboration actually became so granular — the individual contributions so completely pulverized into the text — that it would be impossible to draw a line between any discrete unit of meaning in the work and an intending consciousness? Is it really true that a complete fragmentation of single authorship would, paradoxically, look almost identical to single authorship? Could this be achieved in a real artistic praxis? What kind of system or a game could actually reach this hypothetical endpoint?

Exquisite Haiku and Literary Consensus
In an effort to explore this question, I built Exquisite Haiku, a real-time web application written in JavaScript using Node.js that makes it possible for groups of people — as few as two, and theoretically as many as about 1,000 — to work together in an interactive, synchronous environment to compose three-line English haiku in a 5-7-5 syllable pattern. The words in the poem are selected one-by-one and in-order by a series of “word rounds,” structurally identical cycles of play that last for a fixed amount of time (1-10 minutes). At the end of each round, the word that emerges with the most points from a game-like process in which the group collectively evaluates the proposals of individual players is locked into the next position in the poem, and the process restarts for the next word.

At the start of each round, players are presented with the words that have already been selected, a countdown timer that shows the amount of time left for the current word selection, and a “points” counter (all players get the same number of points, replenished at the start of each round). Players submit words by typing into a box at the top of the screen, and the words are pushed onto a continuously updated stack of unique possibilities. Starting immediately, and continuing as more proposals are submitted, players can influence the ordering of the stack by spending out little bursts of positive or negative points, of variable size, onto individual words by clicking and dragging up or down.

As soon as a vote is cast, the software immediately propagates the player’s activity to all of the other players in the poem, all of whom see a millisecond-current interface designed to communicate a constant stream of information about the individual and aggregate sentiments of the players. The interface becomes a field of shifting, dilating, recoloring, reordering words that assembles the activity of the group into a single visual representation and sets the stage for an ongoing process of conversation, experimentation, and brinksmanship. Words are floated to the top and floated back down, tried out and then abandoned in favor of other ideas. A new submission or a large vote can trigger a sudden flurry of agreement or dissent. Competing factions form around words, the players tactically pacing their point expenditures to protect or bolster the position of a word in the stack.

Unlike other computer-assisted forms of writing, though, the software doesn’t actually do anything at all — it doesn’t pick words, inject any element of randomness or chance, or do anything else to materially impact the outcome of the process. It is essentially an elaborate scorekeeper or referee, a set of rules and processes according to which the sentiments of the players are collected, tallied, and redisplayed, with the final effect of distilling a single course of action from the divergent energies of the group. In this sense, the software becomes an exercise in applied political philosophy. It is a microcosmic legal or economic system, a legislative process for word selection, an artistic social contract that transplants the lowest-level mechanics of literary meaning-making — the raw, semiotic process of selecting signifiers and linking them together into syntagms — into a system of democratic governance.


Figure 1:
A screenshot of Exquisite Haiku in the middle of the second line of a poem, near the end of a word round. In three seconds, “white,” the top word in the main ranking stack below the poem, will get locked and the process will restart for the next word: “tell me about clouds / what white _____.”

Authorless authorship
In the way that e-x approaches 0 as x increases, I argue that the texts that emerge from this process approach complete unattributability as the number of players increases and the contribution of any individual becomes increasingly marginal. Unlike other “authorless” texts, though, the democratic nature of the game causes the poems to gyroscopically evolve in the direction of highly specific, concrete meanings. At any given point in the composition process, there is a strong social tendency for the players to form a majority consensus around words that are semantically coherent in the context of the words that have already been selected, and that set the stage for future word choices that will result in poems that hold together overall [2] :

winter’s color is
a clanging echo of some
distant summer song
electrical days
arrive without incident
pass without pleasure
in all shades of love
some element of hazard
glows forever pale
despite quiet thought
quote roaring ideas that
compel agreement
Although far from unequivocal (especially the fourth example, with the idiomatic strangeness of “quote” and “roaring”), there is an unmistakable structural firmness at play. At the level of pragmatic, ordinary-language interpretation, specific “theses” or “statements” are advanced. [3] Compare to some of the classic outputs of the original Corpse, which, quite deliberately on the part of their creators, almost provide negative definitions of this notion of sensefulness:

The exquisite corpse will drink the young wine.
The dormitory of friable little girls puts the odious box right.
The Senegal oyster will eat the tricolor bread.
(Rubin, 278)
I will argue that this tension between how the Exquisite Haiku are produced and how they behave as literary objects make them highly peculiar from a theoretical standpoint. They possess characteristics that seem to satisfy all of our intuitive requirements for “authored-ness” in the strong sense of the concept: They are formed exclusively by the volitional actions of human agents; there is no element of randomness or chance involved; they bear well-formed “sentence meanings” that say specific things. And yet they emerge from a radically collaborative process that in fact destroys exactly this concept of authorship.

References
Dowling, W. C. (1983). Intentionless Meaning. Critical Inquiry. 9.4 (June, 1983): 784-789.
Fish, S. E. (1980). Is There a Text In This Class? : The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Gadamer, H.-G. (1975). Truth and Method, trans. Garrett Burden and John Cumming. New York: Crossroad.
Hayles, N. K. (2008). Electronic Literature: New Horizons for the Literary. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press.
Iser, W. (1972). The Reading Process: A Phenomenological Approach. New Literary History. 3.2 (Winter, 1972): 279-299.
Kern, A. M. (2009). From One Exquisite Corpse (in)to Another: Influences and Transformations from Early to Late Surrealist Games. The Exquisite Corpse: Chance and Collaboration in Surrealism's Parlor Game. Katana Kockhar-Lindgren, Davis Schneiderman and Tom Denlinger. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 3-28.
Knapp, S., and W. B. Michaels (1982). Against Theory. Critical Inquiry. 8.4 (Summer, 1982): 723-742.
Laxon, S. (2009). ‘This is not a drawing.’ The Exquisite Corpse: Chance and Collaboration in Surrealism's Parlor Game. Katana Kockhar-Lindgren, Davis Schneiderman and Tom Denlinger. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 29-48.
Mathews, H., and A. Brotchie. (1998). Oulipo Compendium. London: Atlas Press.
Motte, W. F. (1998). Oulipo : a Primer of Potential Literature. 1st Dalkey Archive ed. Normal, IL: Dalkey Archive Press.
Ramsay, S. (2011). Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Rubin, W. S. (1968). Dada and Surrealist Art. New York: H. N. Abrams.
Searle, J. R. (1994). Literary Theory and Its Discontents. New Literary History. 25.3, 25th Anniversary Issue (Part 1) (Summer, 1994): 637-667.
Waldberg, P. (1997).Surrealism. New York: Thames and Hudson.
Notes
1. The name comes from the sentence that was produced the first time the game was played: “Le ca-davre exquis boira le vin nouveau” (“The exquisite corpse will drink the new wine”).

2. No doubt these group dynamics reflect culturally informed values about what poetry should look like. It would be interesting to see if groups of players with different cultural backgrounds approach the game in different ways – both in terms of the types of poetry that the group attempts to produce, and in terms of how players engage with the political (and even ethical) process of choosing words.

3. This is not always the case; sometimes the process “fails” in this regard. For example: “who told god that we / are capable of seeing / shapes in dead leaves that” – in this case, the players (I was one of them) miscounted the syllables in the last line, bringing the poem to a logical conclusion with “leaves,” even though there was still one syllable remaining on the line. The group basically just gave up, the final “that” perhaps a gesture towards an idea that the phrase could continue beyond the boundaries of the poem. This is a technical error – remove the last word, and the poem is actually quite well-formed. In other cases, though, the poem just fails to close towards any immediately obvious, top-level meaning: “we intend just what / you would fear nothing at the / hour of meaning.”","txt","2","",""
"1630","14","Citation studies in the humanities","10","This paper examines prospects and limitations of citation studies in the humanities. We begin by presenting an overview of bibliometric analysis, noting several barriers to applying this method in the humanities. Following that, we present a novel online tool for extracting and classifying citations in the humanities. This tool uses both document layout recognition and natural language processing techniques to classify citations in three ways: frequency, location-in-document, and polarity. Background
Since the 1970s, bibliometrics has been an important method of analysis in studies of scholarly communication and the structure of academic networks that emerge from it. Bibliometricians typically focus on formal citation behavior in the printed scholarly record, occasionally supplemented with additional information. In the humanities, bibliometrics may also hold promise for tracing intellectual influence, especially when supplemented with social data (Sula 2012).

Bibliometric studies have typically focused on scientific and technical corpora, despite the fact that much intellectual history is located in the humanities (Hérubel and Buchanan 1994; Lamont 2000). This lack of attention may be explained by several factors. First, citation data in the humanities has been less available than in the sciences (Linmans, 2010), especially for monographs (Hammarfelt, 2011), which still form the backbone of humanities scholarship (Larivière, et. al. 2006), and for older sources, which humanists cite with greater frequency (Heinzkill 1980). As humanities citation data becomes more prevalent, digital humanists are likely to engage more fully with bibliometrics, and Smith’s recent article on citation in classical studies is a notable example of this crossover (2009).

A second and more persistent barrier to applying bibliometrics to the humanities involves special features of humanities discourse. Studies show that humanists do engage in patterns of cocitation (Leydesdorff, Hammarfelt, and Salah 2011), but they credit each other less frequently than scientists credit each other (Heinzkill 1980; Swales 1990; Hellqvist 2010), and they rarely publish multi-authored articles (Price 1966; Pao 1981, 1982; Sievert and Sievert 1989; Wiberly 1989). Linmans (2010), for example, reports that journal publications in the humanities between 1980 and 2007 averaged a flat 1.06 authors per article. More importantly, the mere fact that one humanist references another says little about the type or significance of the relationship between the two. Several studies have shown that humanists are more likely than scientists to use integral references, which tend to associate their own views with those they references (Swales 1990; Hyland 1999; Harwood 2008), as well as negative references, which object to other authors’ claims (Meadows 1974; Brooks 1985; Cano 1989). Even studies that disambiguate acknowledgments into different types, such as conceptual, editorial, financial, instrumental/technical, etc. (Cronin, Shaw, and Le Barre 2003), fail to capture qualitative elements of author ties, such as agreement, disagreement, intellectual indebtedness, and so on. These different reference contexts cannot be ignored, since intellectual disputes are the bread and butter of humanists.

Given how these nuances affect intellectual history and scholarly influence, reference contexts must be given greater attention in bibliometric studies of the humanities. Several classification schemes for references have been offered (see Table 1). Though there is some convergence in terms of positive, negative, and neutral/mixed contexts, few schemes are based on empirical research and even fewer lend themselves to practical application; many require subject domain expertise and human classification—a task that is far beyond current resources. In addition, several schemes also attempt to use citation context to sort references according to their importance within a work their prominence within the field as a whole (e.g., “historical,” “classic,” “homage”). In our view, this unnecessarily complicates classification schema. We argue that overall prominence is best estimated by extracontextual measures (e.g., pure or normalized citation counts), and we follow Maričić, et. al. (1998) in taking the frequency of each citation and its location-in-document to be important clues to a citation’s role. For example, a reference cited throughout a work is quite different from one cited frequently at the beginning of that work, which usually helps to establish field background.

Table 1. Proposed Reference Classification Schemes
Positive        Neutral/Mixed        Negative
Garfield (1965)        homage
-pioneers
-peers

methodology

substantiating claims

authenticating
data/facts
background

alerting forthcoming work

original publications
-discussion
-eponymic concepts

priority claims
correction
-self
-other
criticism

negative homage
-ideas
Chubin & Moitra
(1975)        affirmative
-essential
--basic (1)
--subsidiary (2)
-supplementary
--add info (3)
--perfunctory (4)
negational
-partial (5)
-total (6)
Moravcsik &
Murugesan
(1975)        evolutionary

confirmative


conceptual–operational

organic–perfunctory
negational

negational
Frost (1979)        (primary texts)
-support opinion/fact
--about specific
author(s)/work(s)
discussed
--outside of central
topic

(secondary texts)
-approval
--support opinion/fact
--take a step further
--acknowledge indebtedness
(secondary texts)
-independent
--meaning of term
--acknowledgement
--state of the field

(neither primary nor secondary text)
-further reading
-bibliographic information about an
edition
(secondary texts)
-disapproval
--disagree with
fact/opinion
--express mixed
opinion
Smith (1981)        organic-positive        perfunctory-positive
perfunctory-negative
organic-negative
Small (1982)        applied (used)

supported by citing
work (substantive)
noted only (perfunctory)

reviewed (compared)
refuted
(negative)
Peritz (1983)                setting the stage

background

methodological
-design
-method of analysis

comparative

argumental/speculative/hypothetical

documentary

historical

casual
Cullars (1990)        positive        mixed

neutral
-springboard for discussion
-establish background
-support interpretation
-supplementary readings
negative
Cullars (1992)        positive        value-free
-historical background
-cultural background
-recommended readings
-biographical data
-support interpretation
-scientific background
negative
Shadish, et. al.
(1995)        supportive        personal
creative
classical
social
negative
Camacho-Miñal &
Múñez-Nickel
(2009)        evolutionary
confirmative
conceptual
operational
organic
perfunctory
other
negational
juxtapositional
(?)
Method
Based on this background literature, we propose an online citation extraction tool that examines PDF documents for citations and reports the frequency of a given reference as well as its location-in-document (relative to the length of the document). In addition, we propose a sentiment classifier that assigns a “polarity” value to each citation on a positive–negative scale (e.g., “I associate with…” and “I disassociate with…”). Sentiment classifiers attempt to determine whether particular sentences or documents express positive or negative opinions about a given topic (Jurafsky and Martin, 2008). This classification is found in nearly all of the other systems surveyed in Table 1, and we hypothesize that it is especially important in the humanities, since it predicts patterns of agreement and disagreement among scholars.

The sample set for this study is 159 articles from four humanities journals (see Table 2). Our choice of journals follows Knievel and Kellsey’s (2005) use of eight humanities journals from 2002 and allows for comparison with their citation frequency results. These journals also reflect a range of citation layout formats, which helps to ensure the usefulness of the tool in other contexts.

Table 2. Journals used in this study
Journal        Year        Discipline        Format        Number of articles
Art Bulletin        2009 [1]        art history        endnote        37
Journal of Philosophy        2011        philosophy        footnote        30
Language        2011        linguistics        inline, bibliography        18
PMLA        2011        language and literature        endnote, bibliography        74
The tool uses document layout patterns to extract each citation and the context of its occurrence—usually a sentence or two. Our website presents this text to users and allows them to select n-gram phrases from context that demonstrate positive or negative polarity. These phrases are compiled into a naive Bayes classifier training set which can predict polarity in novel contexts. The classifier reports polarity scores as probability assignments on two separate scales (positive and negative) each ranging from 0 to 1. Thus, a perfectly positive context would have a score of 1 on the positive scale and 0 on the negative scale. These scores may be combined into a single scale with -1 being purely negative, 0 being neutral, and 1 being purely positive.

Results
Aggregate results for frequency, location-in-document, and polarity in the sample set are reported in Table 3. Raw figures are visualized in three scatterplots comparing frequency and location-in-document (Fig. 1), location-in-document and polarity (Fig. 2), and frequency and polarity (Fig. 3).

Table 3. Aggregate results of citation extraction tool on sample set
Journal        Citations
detected        Frequency per
citation (avg. ± stdev)        Relative location-in-
document (avg. ± stdev)        Polarity (avg. ±
stdev)
Art Bulletin        1681        2.38 ± 2.36        43.81% ± 27.69        0.68 ± 0.37
Journal of Philosophy        713        1.78 ± 1.38        37.74% ± 29.09        0.52 ± 0.49
Language        2374        4.24 ± 4.58        38.77% ± 30.44        0.75 ± 0.31
PMLA [2]        604        1.83 ± 1.28        44.95% ± 27.96        0.57 ± 0.33

Figure 1.
Citation frequency and location-in-document


Figure 2.
Citation frequency and polarity


Figure 3.
Citation location-in-document and polarity

Disciplinary differences in frequency and polarity are especially evident, as is clustering near the beginning of articles.

Future directions
Though automated results were checked informally in the context of manual polarity classification, each article should be manually inspected to determine the reliability of the extraction tool. Patterns of error here may help to improve the citation extraction techniques. In addition, further training of the sentiment classifier would help to clarify the resolution of polarity scores, especially at the positive end. In particular, we are interested in examining the power of crowdsourced classifications for improving the results of classifier and for providing new document layouts that will increase the flexibility of the tool.

References
Bavelas, J. B. (1978). The social psychology of citations. Canadian Psychological Review 19(3): 158–163.
Brooks, T. A. (1985). Private acts and public objects: An investigation of citer motivations. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 36(4): 223–229.
Camacho-Miñano, M. and M. Núñez-Nickel. (2009). The multilayered nature of reference selection. Journal of the American Society for Information Science 60(4): 754–777.
Cano, V. (1989). Citation behavior: Classification, utility, and locating. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 40(4): 284–290.
Chubin, D. E., and S.D. Moitra. (1975) Content analysis of references: Adjunct or alternative to citation counting? Social Studies of Science 5(4): 423–441.
Cronin, B., D. Shaw, and K. La Barre. (2003). A cast of thousands: Coauthorship and subauthorship collaboration in the 20th century as manifested in the scholarly journal literature of psychology and philosophy. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 54(9): 855–871.
Cullars, J. (1990). Citation characteristics of Italian and Spanish literary monographs. The Library Quarterly 60(4): 337–356.
Cullars, J. (1992). Citation characteristics of monographs in the fine arts. The Library Quarterly 62(3): 325–342.
Frost, C. O. (1979). The use of citations in literary research: A preliminary classification of citation functions. The Library Quarterly 49(4): 399–414.
Garfield, E. (1965). Can citation indexing be automated? In Stevens, M., et al. (eds.) Statistical Association Methods for Mechanized Documentation. Symposium Proceedings, Washington, 1964. (National Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous. Publication. 269, 189–192).
Hammarfelt, B. (2011). Interdisciplinarity and the intellectual base of literature studies: Citation analysis of highly cited monographs. Scientometrics, 86, 705–725.
Harwood, N. (2008). Citers’ use of citees’ names: Findings from a qualitative interview-based study. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 59(6): 1007–1011.
Heinzkill, R. (1980). Characteristics of references selected in scholarly English literary journals. Library Quarterly 50, 352–364.
Hellqvist, B. (2010). Referencing in the humanities and its implications for citation analysis. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 61(2): 310–318.
Hérubel, J.-P., and A. L. Buchanan. (1994). Citation studies in the humanities and social sciences: A selective and annotated bibliography. Collection Management, 18(3/4): 89–136.
Hyland, K. (1999). Academic attribution: Citation and the construction of disciplinary knowledge. Applied Linguistics, 20(3): 341–367.
Jurafsky, K., and J. Martin.(2008). Speech and Language Processing, 2nd Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall.
Knievel, J., and C. Kellsey. (2005). Citation analysis for collection development: a comparative study of eight humanities fields. The Library Quarterly 75(2): 142–168.
Lamont, M. (2000). Meaning-making in cultural sociology: Broadening our agenda. Contemporary Sociology, 29(4): 602–607.
Larivière, V., É. Archambault, Y. Gingras, and É Vignola-Gagné. (2006). The place of serials in referencing practices: Comparing natural sciences and engineering with social sciences and humanities. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 57(8): 997–1004.
Leydesdorff, L., B. Hammarfelt, and A. Salah. (2011). The structure of the Arts & Humanities Citation Index: A mapping on the basis of aggregated citations among 1,157 journals. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 62(12): 2414–2426.
Linmans, A. J. M. (2010). Why with bibliometrics the Humanities does not need to be the weakest link: Indicators for research evaluation based on citations, library holdings, and productivity measures. Scientometrics, 83, 337–354.
Lisée, C., V. Larivière, and Archambault, É. (2008). Conference proceedings as a source of scientific information: A bibliometric analysis. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 59(11): 1776–1784.
Maričić, S., J. Spaventi, L. Pavičić, and G. Pifat-Mrzljak (1998). Citation context versus frequency counts of citation histories. Journal of the American Society for Information Science 49(6): 530–540.
Meadows, A. J. (1974). Communication in science. London: Butterworths.
Moravcsik, M. J., and P. Murugesan (1975). Some results on the function and quality of citations. Social Studies of Science 5(1): 86–92.
Pao, M. L. (1981). Co-authorship as communication measure. Library Research, 2, 327–338.
Pao, M. L. (1982). Collaboration in computational musicology. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 33, 38–43.
Peritz, B. C. (1983). A classification of citation roles for the social sciences and related fields. Scientometrics 5: 303–312.
Price, D. J., and D. B. Beaver (1966). Collaboration in an invisible college. American Psychologist, 21: 1011–1018.
Shelton, R. D., and L. Leydesdorff (2011). Publish or patent: Bibliometric evidence for empirical trade-offs in national funding strategies. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology.
Sievert, D. E., and M. E. Sievert (1989). Philosophical research: Report from the field. In Humanists at work: Disciplinary perspectives and personal reflections. Chicago: University Library, University of Illinois.
Shadish, W. R., D. Tolliver, M. Gray, and S. K. Sen Gupta. (1995). Author judgements about works they cite: Three studies from psychology journals. Social Studies of Science 25(3): 477–498.
Small, H. G. (1982). Cited documents as concept symbols. Social Studies of Science 8(3): 327–340.
Smith, A. G. (2004). Web links as analogues of citations. Information Research, 9(4) paper 188 [Available at http://InformationR.net/ir/9-4/paper188.html].
Smith, L. C. (1981). Citation analysis. Library Trends 30(1): 83–106.
Smith, N. (2009). Citation in classical studies. Digital Humanities Quarterly 3(1).
Sula, C. A. (2012). Visualizing social connections in the humanities: Beyond bibliometrics. Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science & Technology 38(4): 31–35.
Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Wiberly, S. E., and W. G. Jones (1989). Patterns of information seeking in the humanities. College and Research Libraries 50, 638–645.
Notes
1. The 2009 issues of Art Bulletin were used because of their high OCR quality as compared to available 2011 editions.

2. Citation detection in PLMA exhibited several weaknesses at the time these proceedings were due. We believe these errors are due to OCR abnormalities, particularly errant spaces within words, as well as a varied mixture of parenthetical and in-text citation styles by authors. We continue work on refining the tool for these documents.","txt","2","",""
"1631","14","A Clear Temporal GIS Viewer and Software for Discovering Irregularities in Historical GIS","9","In order to use geographic information systems (GIS) to understand any aspect of human systems, researchers and teachers require a GIS capable of dealing with temporal information. Recognition of this need among historians, the humanities disciplines, and the historical social scientists extends back at least as far as the initial development of TimeMap (not maintained after 2007) in conjunction with the Electronic Cultural Atlas Initiative (ECAI) in the late 1990s. The project presented in this abstract represents a portion of a larger effort to improve spatio-temporal GIS by developing a database management system, Intentionally-Linked Entities (ILE), consisting of a data structure of direct linking via pointers, rather than storing data in tables, as in a relational database management system (RDBMS). We have taken advantage of linking information entities/objects directly to other entities/objects to create a better exploratory GIS viewer for those seeking to evaluate a large historical database.

When fully implemented the fully-linked data model such as ILE offers many advantages for spatio-temporal GIS. The model permits relationships with unlimited arity (number of roles) that are represented by direct links. Currently the RDBMS permits unlimited arity but relationships are not represented by direct links, whereas network/graph databases (such as the increasingly popular Neo4J (Anonymous, 2013) represent relationships with direct links but are limited in arity to 2. Additionally, network/graph databases have no means of representing entity sets, making them unsuitable for ontological inferences. High arity, direct representation of arity sets, and direct linking are all important attributes for representing and analyzing complex systems often found in the Humanities.

However, for purposes of designing a better temporal GIS exploratory viewer, the major technical innovation relates to quick, effortless searches through large amounts of data. The current standard GIS represent temporal data by means of time-stamping within an RDBMS, leading to much redundant data (Yuan and Hornsby, 2008). The RDBMS is inefficient for temporal applications because all queries require a database search, which is inefficient even with indices because temporal applications require frequent searches as the user moves from one time period to another. We have employed a direct-linking data structure with pointers so that NO searches are required during the display of data. No special work-around in data modeling or indexing is necessary to enhance data exploration.

We used CHGIS (China Historical GIS) V. 4 (current version) time-series database as our test bed. This database is a good test bed because of the amount of data involved, especially when all seven input files are used at once. Moreover, CHGIS is the most accessible and logically designed of all current historical GIS (HGIS) databases available. Bol (Bol, 2007), director of Harvard’s Center for Geographic Analysis and CHGIS founder, wrote that the CHGIS database can be used as an authoritative historical database. Therefore it should be of great interest to be able to find and hopefully correct the errors or note the irregularities. CHGIS’ metadata indicates that the database is established on the datum North American Datum of 1927 (NAD-27), and we have used the Xian 1980, Transverse Mercator projection, which is the correct projection, for examining the relative positions of the provincial capitals and their boundaries.

We explored some of the available options for viewing temporal GIS data by starting with Google Earth. Berman (Berman, 1999), who engineered the pioneering data model and software for CHGIS, wrote, “Now we can browse through hundreds, or thousands of years of Historical GIS objects .... Interestingly, the temporal browsing functionality is only possible using a free software application, Google Earth ..., but cannot be done with any of the major commercial GIS packages.” We found Google Earth to be awkward and confusing. When used with the two time-series provincial data files of CHGIS, the display was often too messy to comprehend precisely. The labeling is very poor, with the names of the capitals showing only in Chinese characters unless we place the mouse over the placemark. Surprisingly, even though the time resolution of the CHGIS time series database is one year, Google Earth only seems to be able to display data sometimes every seven years (such as 373, 380, 387,...) and sometimes every eight years (there is a gap between 1490 and 1498). There are temporal points in the database itself that lie on years that Google Earth apparently cannot display. We attempted to set software preferences and to look in the database files, in vain, to see if there are instructions telling Google Earth to skip or not to skip years. We can only guess that the Google Earth designers skipped years in order to reduce the data handling load. Finally, when asked to animate the map by running through the years, Google Earth animates the map at a speed that is far too rapid for the eyes to comprehend, even at the slowest speed setting [1]. This is not too surprising since Google Earth was probably not created specifically for Historical GIS, and also because of the year skipping mentioned earlier.

We also tested ESRI ArcGIS Explorer on the time-series CHGIS data. Explorer behaves very strangely, however. When sliding the time slider to the right, the time did not always progress in the forward direction! For instance, starting from year 778, the progression in years for the ArcGIS Explorer was 778 - 780 - 786 - 784 - 786 (That's right, another 786!) - 864 - 804 - followed by a crash, which is something that occurs often, even on a powerful PC.

After these unsatisfactory experiences, the first author wrote his own HGIS viewer, Clearview, which displays the provincial boundaries and capital locations clearly. Clearview is also capable of displaying the data at every temporal point for which there is data. Additionally, Clearview’s automated display has a widely adjustable speed that allows slow enough settings for viewing comfortably by a user. Clearview also mines the html data in the place marks to display Pinyin names, and it can be modified to display whatever the user wants.

Due to the clarity of Clearview’s display, the user can clearly visualize the relative locations of provincial capitals relative to their boundaries. As soon as the user animates Clearview through time, it is immediately obvious that there are many instances of provincial capitals that are outside the respective provincial boundaries. Subsequently the first author wrote another piece of software, which goes through the entire CHGIS time-series provincial dataset and computes how many instances there are where a provincial capital lies outside the same province's boundary. This software found the following: 124 instances of the provincial capitals lying outside the same province's boundary, an irregularity (perhaps an error since normally a capital lies inside (or on) the boundary) compared to 420 instances in which the provincial capitals lies inside the same province's boundary. (An instance is a province together with a maximal period during which there are no changes in that province.) There are also three instances in which the provincial capital exists but there is no polygon for the corresponding province, which is not an error. There are also seven curious irregular instances where a province has two capitals the same year. In each case these two locations appear to be so widely separated, sometimes in different polygons. These may not errors since some are military governorships not provinces, but this fact should be in the database.

Getting Clearview to work on large amounts of data requires technical innovation. One way to achieve direct linkage from each time step in the database to all the objects to be displayed at that time step was covered in Kantabutra, et al. (2010). However, with the large amount of data in CHGIS, the number of links can be very large. Suppose a geographical object is valid for 1000 years, then the pointer scheme in Kantabutra, et al. requires 1000 links from the time objects corresponding to those 1000 years to the graphical object. For this viewer, we ameliorate the situation by using a data structure call the Tree of Time. This structure is similar to the Time Tree used for multiresolution video (Finkelstein, et al., 1996), but used differently.

The Tree of Time is a binary tree structure (Cormen, et al, 2007). The Tree of Time is indeed a search tree, but the only searching that occurs is done during the tree construction. When Clearview is running, no searching takes place because each time-object already has pointers to the tree nodes, whose time intervals contain the time represented by the time-object. Because CHGIS intervals are one year, that is the setting for this demonstration, but the Tree of Time can be used for any time resolution in a data set.

The Tree of Time is used internally and the user doesn’t have to deal with its complexity. The software for discovering data errors or irregularities also employs complex data structures in order to ensure correct and efficient enumeration of such situations.

A video about this viewer can be viewed at http://youtu.be/uZrn-hMlZXo


References
Berman, M. L. (2009). Modeling and Visualizing Historical GIS Data. In Spatio-Temporal Workshop. held April 2009 at Harvard University.
Bol, P. K. (2007). The China Historical Geographic Information System (CHGIS): Choices Faced, Lessons Learned. In Conference on Historical Maps and GIS. held August 23-24, 2007 at Nagoya University.
Cormen, T., et al. (2007). Introduction to Algorithms. 3rd edn. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Finkelstein, A., C. E. Jacobs, and D. H. Salesin (1996). Multiresolution video. In Proc. 23rd annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques. SIGGRAPH '96., New York: ACM. 281-290.
Kantabutra, V., J. B. Owens, D. P. Ames, C. N. Burns, and B. Stephenson (2010). Using the Newly-created ILE DBMS to Better Represent Temporal and Historical GIS Data. In Transactions in GIS, 14 (1) 39-58.
Anonymous (2013). Neo4J, a graph database, http://www.neo4j.org/, modified 8 March 2013.
Yuan, M., and K. S. Hornsby (2008). Computation and Visualization for Understanding Dynamics in Geographic Domains. CRC Press.","txt","2","",""
"1632","14","Coding Media History: A Digital Suite for Opening Access, Building Tools, and Analyzing Texts","9","This short paper seeks to introduce the Digital Humanities community to three ongoing, interrelated projects: the Media History Digital Library (an open access digital resource), Lantern (a search tool) and Coding Media History (a text mining research project). Together, these three projects aim to use digital technology to transform the field of Film and Media Studies, a discipline that has lagged English and History in the creation of high impact DH work.

I would also like to suggest that the three interrelated projects demonstrate a productive model for scaffolding work in the Digital Humanities. The three sides of this work—enabling access, building tools, and text analysis — support and enhance one another. In the space below, I will briefly address all three projects and suggest the ways they enrich one another.

In terms of enabling access, the Media History Digital Library (www.mediahistoryproject.org) has digitized over 500,000 pages of out-of-copyright periodicals relating to the histories of film, broadcasting, and recorded sound. Prior to the launch of the MHDL, scholars wrote the histories of film and television through page-by-page microfilm readings of key periodicals, such as Moving Picture World and Photoplay. By scanning these publications along with previously unavailable materials, the MHDL enables scholars to conduct research more efficiently, ask new questions, and write new histories.

The MHDL’s collections are open access and built on a collaborative model. David Pierce and I lead the project, and we work closely with collectors, who loan materials, and sponsors, who pay for the scanning. The scanning is carried out by the Internet Archive (www.archive.org), which also hosts and preserves the digital files. By using the Internet Archive as a scanning vendor and provider of backend infrastructure, the MHDL follows in the tradition of other collaboratively built digital collections, including the Biodiversity Heritage Library (http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/), Medical Heritage Library (http://www.medicalheritage.org/), International Children’s Digital Library (http://en.childrenslibrary.org/), and International Music Score Library Project (http://imslp.org/).

Film and media educators at institutions around the world are already incorporating the Media History Digital Library into their teaching. In one especially creative assignment, Elizabeth Clarke is having her students at Wilfrid Laurier University in Waterloo, Ontario read the MHDL’s digital editions of early cinema magazines and imagine they are the intended audience of motion picture exhibitors in the 1910s. Students are asked to design their own programs of short films and live entertainment based on what they discover inside the magazines.

The MHDL’s diverse user-base encompasses students, educators, expert researchers, and casual classic movie fans. In order to better serve all of these groups, I have been leading the development of Lantern, a software tool that is a co-production of the Media History Digital Library and UW-Madison’s Department of Communication Arts. Lantern offers users the ability to perform fulltext searches across the Media History Digital Library’s entire corpus. Eventually, we also hope to equip Lantern with powerful functionalities beyond search, such as topic modeling and network visualizations.

My team and I are developing Lantern through using Ruby on Rails, Python, XML, and CSS and customizing three open source technologies: Apache’s Solr search engine; the University of Virginia Library’s Blacklight interface; and the Internet Archive’s BookReader. We are currently indexing more materials into Lantern, overhauling its graphic interface, and enhancing its speed and functionality. We anticipate publicly launching Lantern in Summer 2013. In the meantime, you may view a work-in-progress demo at http://lantern-demo.commarts.wisc.edu/

The third project I want to address is a work-in-progress called “Coding Media History: Computational Analysis of the Hollywood Trade Press.” Despite the heavy reliance of film and television scholars on Variety and other industry trade papers, there has been little work that reflexively examines these sources. My research project, Coding Media History, uses computer analytics both to enrich our understanding of these key sources and destabilize the notion that we can conceive of 60 years of Variety as a singular “text.” In pursuit of these goals, I borrow from the text mining methods (and warnings) of Stephen Rasmsay and, especially, from Andrew J. Torget, Rada Mihalcea, Jon Christensen, and Geoff McGhee’s work on applying topic modeling and text mining to historical newspapers.

I have begun the process of working with a research assistant, who is marking-up the XML of the digitized publications. We will soon be able to start asking research questions over the marked-up corpus. In a 1905 issue of Variety, for instance, what percent of the pages were dedicated to vaudeville compared to motion pictures? How were these page allocations different in 1915, 1925, 1935, 1945, and 1955? When were radio and television introduced as their own sections? How did the buyers and amounts of advertising change over time? These are questions that I can answer by starting with the digitized magazines, adding a research assistant’s tags, and finally running my own algorithms over the marked-up corpus.

One of the questions I am exploring is the extent to which the various trade papers were truly similar or different from one another. The Hollywood trade papers have an infamous reputation for publishing the exact same studio press releases. By using open source plagiarism software, we can test whether this reputation is warranted. The answers to these questions hold real stakes. Consider the case of Motion Picture Herald, a trade paper that proclaimed to represent the interests of independent movie theatre owners. What does it mean if we discover that Motion Picture Herald published 40% of the same content as the trade papers that spoke to producers and the major studios? Can we truly think of Motion Picture Herald as representing the independent theatre owners’ interests?

In conclusion, the Media History Digital Library, Lantern, and Coding Media History are already making a positive intervention in the field of Film and Media Studies. I also hope that this suite of interrelated projects can serve as a useful model for scholars in other fields pursuing Digital Humanities projects. In the course of my work, I’ve found that being involved across a suite of activities (digitization, tool building, and text analysis) leads to better decision-making at every stage in the process. Although it’s unrealistic to expect that we’ll all become hybrid librarian-programmer-scholars, we need to better understand the integrated range of activities in order for the Digital Humanities to tackle bold new projects and break free of our tokenized comfort zones.

References
Hoyt, E., W. Hagenmaier, and C. Hagenmaier (2013). “Media + History + Digital + Library: An Experiment in Synthesis.” Journal of E-Media Studies 3: forthcoming.
Ramsay, S. (2011). Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Torget, A. J., et al. (2011). Mapping Texts: Combining Text-Mining and Geo-Visualization To Unlock The Research Potential of Historical Newspapers. UNT Digital Library. http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc83797/. accessed March 9, 2013).
Yang, T.-I., A. J. Torget, and R. Mihalcea. (2011). “Topic Modeling on Historical Newspapers.” Proceedings of the Association for Computational Linguistics workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, and Humanities (June): 96-104. http://aclweb.org/anthology/W/W11/W11-15.pdf. (accessed March 9, 2013).","txt","2","",""
"1633","14","Collaborative Authorship: Conrad, Ford and Rolling Delta","10","Burrows’s “Delta” is a popular authorship attribution algorithm (Burrows 2002). Suppose that we have an anonymous text which has to be attributed to one of a series of candidate authors for whom we have a number of reference samples as training material. Delta computes a dissimilarity score between the test item and all reference samples and attributes the anonymous text to the author of the sample to which it is most similar. We propose a procedure called “Rolling Delta”, reminiscent of a number of earlier applications (e.g. Van Dalen-Oskam & Van Zundert 2007; Burrows 2010; Van Zundert & Van Dalen-Oskam 2012; Hoover 2012). The general goal is to visualize stylistic shifts in texts, for instance, in order to pinpoint authorial takeovers in the case of collaborative authorship. An implementation of Rolling Delta is freely available (Eder, Kestemont & Rybicki 2012).

First, each reference text is segmented into equal-sized, partially overlapping samples. If we specify a ‘window size’ of 5,000 and a ‘step size’ of 100, for example, the first sample of a text contains words 1-5,000, the second 101-5,101, etc. The procedure uses the relative frequencies of the n most frequent words in the reference collection. Subsequently, we compute a centroid (C) for each reference text, containing the mean relative frequency for each word in its windows, and the standard deviation. Then we divide the test text into windows and compute the ‘Delta’ between each test window W and each reference centroid, using the following formula— see Argamon (2008) for more details:


After “rolling” through the test text, we plot the resulting Delta series for each reference text. The lower the Deltas for a reference text, the more similar the style in the test windows — and vice versa. If the curve for a text shows a sudden drop, this may indicate a stylistic change in the test text, caused, for instance, by one author taking over from another. One can use vertical lines in the plot to mark the position of certain events in the test text as an aid in interpretation (e.g. chapter beginnings).

This method seems the perfect tool to study the notable literary collaboration between Joseph Conrad (1857-1924) and Ford Madox Ford (1873-1939): their three joint works, The Inheritors (1901), Romance (1903) and The Nature of a Crime (1909, 1924), and the various authorship claims by Ford, including that concerning a fragment of Nostromo (1904). The Conrad/Ford controversy was enhanced by the two authors’ neurotic behavior that eventually took its toll on their collaboration and friendship. Physical evidence about authorship is complicated by the fact that Ford (and others, including John Galsworthy) took Conrad’s dictation when he was sick or indisposed or could not make a deadline.

The Inheritors is Ford’s second published novel, coming out nine years after The Shifting of the Fire. He did most of the writing himself, though he discussed it extensively with Conrad, whose role, he said, was “to give each scene a final tap” (Saunders 1996: 135-36). For Romance, based on Ford’s earlier unfinished Seraphina, however, the consensus seems to be that it is about two thirds Conrad and one third Ford. According to Conrad:

We collaborated right through, but it may be said that the middle part of the book is mainly mine with bits by F.M.H. — while the first part is wholly out of “Seraphina”: the second part is almost wholly so. The last part is certainly three quarters MS. F.M.H. with here and there a par. by me.

According to Ford, “parts one, two, three and five are a mosaic of alternately written passages while part four is entirely Conrad’s work” (Karl 1997: 147). Najder further comments that “the change in numbering the parts of Seraphina has caused some trouble for Conrad’s and Ford’s biographers. As late as the summer of 1901, the novel consisted of four parts, but ended, as it does now, with Kemp’s trial. While continuing to write part 3, Conrad expanded it into another, which became part 4, and the last, part 5, written by Ford” (Najder 2007: 317). The third collaborative work, The Nature of a Crime, was written almost exclusively by Ford and heavily edited by Conrad.

Ford’s possible contribution to Nostromo — mostly based on the one large part of the manuscript in his hand — is limited to the novel’s second part. Brice quotes a letter from Ford to Keating (1923 or 1925) saying he wrote 10,000 words of Nostromo that he remembers and that he “could place my finger on fairly substantial passages” (Brice 2004: 79), and another 20,000 that he only faintly remembers and would find difficult to trace. Later, in Return to Yesterday, Ford himself minimizes his contribution, saying that what he “wrote into Conrad’s books was by no means great in bulk” (Brice 2004: 78) and was “so frequently emended out of sight that they could not make as much difference to the completion and glory of his prose as three drops of water poured into a butt of Malmsey” (Brice 2004: 79). This study tries to find the drops of Ford’s water in Conrad’s Malmsey.

Figure 1 shows a bootstrap consensus tree of works and collaborations by Conrad and Ford, produced from multiple cluster analyses of the most frequent word frequencies for this collection of texts (Eder & Rybicki 2011). It places Romance decisively among works by Conrad, but the two other collaborative texts among those by Ford.


Figure 1.

Figure 2 is a ‘Rolling Delta’ diagram produced for The Inheritors, which is compared to four novels by Conrad (The Nigger of the Narcissus 1897, Lord Jim 1900, Chance 1913, and Victory 1915) and four by Ford (The Fifth Queen 1906, Privy Seal 1907, The Fifth Queen Crowned 1908, and The Good Soldier 1915). The analysis was performed for the 1,000 most frequent words appearing in all the texts with a ‘rolling window’ of 5000 words, stepping by 1,000. Throughout the collaborative novel, Ford’s style (part that of The Benefactor, part that of Privy Seal) dominates over that of Conrad’s — except for a short fragment that coincides very closely with Chapters 16 and 17 of The Inheritors (contained within vertical lines a and b); here, the greatest similarity is to Chance and Heart of Darkness. Interestingly, however, Conrad’s earliest work among the four used for comparison, The Nigger of the Narcissus, is the outlier almost invariably in The Inheritors.


Figure 2

Figure 3 presents the same comparison for Romance. This novel, in good agreement with Figure 1, exhibits a domination of Conradian style (mostly that of Lord Jim, Heart of Darkness and Chance). Ford’s idiom (this time, in its The Benefactor variety) makes itself seen in a single long fragment: Part 1, Chapter 5 (between lines a and b) and in a much shorter one (Part 2, Chapter 7: c).


Figure 3

Figure 4 shows the same results for The Nature of a Crime, which strongly diverge from the previous collaboration. Ford’s style (mostly that of The Good Soldier) dominates the final joint effort of the two writers, with two minor and non-decisive interventions of Conrad’s style (esp. Under Western Eyes).


Figure 4

Figure 5 tests the hypothesis that Ford did indeed contribute to Conrad’s Nostromo, but provides little to support it: Conrad’s style dominates Ford’s throughout.


Figure 5

The application above of Rolling Delta produces interesting results. Chief among them is a confirmation of the usual (if uncertain) consensus about the proportions of the styles of both writers in their three collaborations. The decisive domination of Ford’s style over Conrad’s in The Inheritors and The Nature of A Crime is interesting, as it seems to have survived Conrad’s extensive editing, confirmed by biographical evidence. A similar stylometric visibility of the underlying authorial personality that persists despite subsequent editing has been reported in a study of an edited translation (Heydel & Rybicki 2012). From a methodological point of view, “Rolling Delta” for R (devised by Kestemont) is a welcome addition to the latest stylometric tools, with its potential to pinpoint the change(s) from author to author in collaborative works. Further experiment are required to explain why, in some cases, the Rolling Delta curves tend to rise and fall in unison. It is possible that these fluctuations are simply indicative of minor stylistic fluctuations in the reference text, or, when these differences are larger, indeed its “originality” or rather its “deviation” with respect to the rest of the texts.

References
Argamon, S. (2008). Interpreting Burrows’s Delta: Geometric and probabilistic foundations. Literary and Linguistic Computing. 23. 131-147.
Brice, X. (2004). Ford Madox Ford and the Composition of Nostromo. The Conradian: the Journal of the Joseph Conrad Society (Autumn) 75-95.
Burrows, J. (2002). 'Delta': A measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship. Literary and Linguistic Computing. 17. 267-287.
Burrows, J. (2010). Never Say Always Again: Reflections on the Numbers Game. In McCarty, W. (ed), Text and Genre in Reconstruction. Effects of Digitalization on Ideas, Behaviours, Products and Institutions. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers. 13-36.
Eder, M. and J. Rybicki (2011). Stylometry with R. In Digital Humanities 2011: Conference abstracts, Stanford University. 308-311.
Eder, M., M. Kestemont, and J. Rybicki (2012). Computational Stylistics. https://sites.google.com/site/computationalstylistics/
Heydel, M., and J. Rybicki (2012). The Stylometry of Collaborative Translation. Woolf’s Night and Day in Polish. Digital Humanities 2012 Conference Abstracts 212-217.
Hoover, D. (2004). Testing Burrows’s Delta. Literary and Linguistic Computing 19. 453-475.
Hoover, D. (2012). The Tutor's Story: A Case Study of Mixed Authorship. English Studies 93. 324-339.
Karl, F. (1997). A Reader's Guide to Joseph Conrad, Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
Najder, Z. (2007) Joseph Conrad: A Life. trans. by Najder, H. New York: Camden House.
Saunders, M. (1996). Ford Madox Ford: A Dual Life. 1. New York: Oxford University Press.
Van Dalen-Oskam, K., and J. Van Zundert (2007). Delta for Middle Dutch — Author and copyist distinction in Walewein. Literary and Linguistic Computing. 22. 345-362.
Van Dalen-Oskam, K., and J. Van Zundert (2012). Delta in 3D: Copyist distinction by Scaling Burrows’s Delta. Digital Humanities 2012 Conference Abstracts. 402-404.","txt","2","",""
"1634","14","Framework for Testing Text Analysis and Mining Tools","2","The most extensive compendium of text mining tools to date included 71 tools and summarized each based on ten criteria (van Gemert 2007). While extensive, this listing of tools and their properties is general in its review criteria and does not offer any testing-based observations to help users assess actual usability. Humanists looking to try text analysis, visualization and mining tools for research need better information that is relevant to their needs and reviews of tools that help them make choices. This poster presents the testing framework developed for the TAPoR 2.0 portal reviews. The poster will cover:

1. The need for tool reviews
2. The information gathered about tools
3. The testing and reviewing process
4. Conclusions about the state of text tools
The poster will be accompanied by a demonstration of TAPoR 2.0 so that users can see the reviews in context.
1. The Need for Tool Reviews
A humanities researcher new to computing methods looking for reviews of text tools on the internet by peers is going to be disappointed. There is nothing like the New York Review of Books, though in the early days of humanities computing you could find short announcements about tools in journals like Computing in the Humanities. We, however, believe that certain text tools are intellectual contributions to the field (Ramsay 2012) that should be reviewed not just to help people choose what tools to use, but also as a way of engaging these tools in a dialogue around computer-assisted interpretation. While there are individual blog entries about tools scattered across the web, each is from the perspective of a single user with an entirely different dataset, making comparison difficult. If we want to make computing methods accessible and encourage colleagues to use tools we need a more systematic approach. This is especially true of text mining tools that can’t simply be tried with a text at hand.

2. Information Gathered About Tools
TAPoR 2.0 (www.tapor.ca) is a portal for text analysis, visualization mining tool discovery and review. TAPoR 2.0 is a complete redevelopment of the original TAPoR portal (Rockwell 2009) that has refocused the portal on discovery and review instead of trying to provide access only to web services. As part of the redevelopment of TAPoR 2.0 we used a persona/scenario usability design approach (Cooper 2004) to identify attributes that users might want to discover tools. Further we built TAPoR 2.0 so that editors can add new attributes without the database having to be reprogrammed. Some of the attributes we currently record for tools include the author(s), ease of use, type of analysis, type of license and so on. We also have links to related tools and tools people also used. Our poster will be accompanied by a demonstration of TAPoR 2.0 so that visitors can explore what we have and how we represent it.


Figure 1:
TAPoR 2.0 Home Screen

3. The Testing and Reviewing Process
Recording basic information about tools alas, is not enough, especially with sophisticated text mining tools like Mallet (mallet.cs.umass.edu/) that take time to learn and that can be used in different ways. With text mining tools users need longer narrative reviews. For this reason we developed processes for testing and reviewing tools. For simpler text analysis and visualization tools this involved developing a set of different texts with which to test tools so we could compare their use. For text mining we had to go further and are working with the CWRC project (Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory, www.cwrc.ca) developing a number of literary corpora with experts we can draw on to help assess the value of results. As of writing we have three corpora drawn from the Orlando project (www.ualberta.ca/ORLANDO) and one of Victorian children’s literature. We expect to have two more by the time or presentation. The poster will discuss the criteria used to develop these open test corpora.

The reviews take the form of comments that have been pinned to the top of the list of comments available. This allows others to leave comments, though we haven’t seen much activity by people not connected to the project (with the exception of spammers who seem to feel there is a connection between text analysis tools and various stimulants.) We have developed guidelines for reviews so as to make them accessible and comparable. The poster will outline our guidelines.

4. Conclusions from Testing and Reviewing
Having tested and reviewed a variety of tools and text mining systems we see some common barriers to access. Most of these tools have been developed for use by the developers and are poorly documented for people not involved in the development. Further, many tools, including those we are involved in, are in continuous development so what documentation there is, is out of date. We will therefore end this poster with lessons learned while testing and reviewing text mining tools, with particular attention to removing usability barriers for novice users.

References
Cooper, A. (2004). The Inmates Are Running the Asylum. Indianapolis, Indiana: SAMS.
Ramsay, S. and G. Rockwell (2012). Developing Things: Notes toward an Epistemology of Building in the Digital Humanities. In Gold, M. K. (ed.), Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 75-84.
Rockwell, G. (2006). TAPoR: Building a Portal for Text Analysis. Mind Technologies: Humanities Computing and the Canadian Academic Community. edited by Raymond Siemens and David Moorman. Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 285-299.
van Gemert, J. (2000). Text Mining Tools on the Internet. ISIS Technical Report Series. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=4312886.","txt","2","",""
"1635","14","A Humanist Perspective on Building Ontologies in Theory and Practice","10","150 Word Summary: Bowker and Star (1999) warn of the shaping force of classification systems, the power of their apparent naturalization as part of infrastructures, and the consequences thereof. The rise of the semantic web and its grounding in the use of ontologies threatens to explode the scale of this issue. This paper explores the practical implications and theoretical limits of using ontologies, offering a survey of best practices and ongoing areas of active research. The survey shows that the process of ontology construction and integration in the semantic web does have the potential to restrict human thought. It is then argued that certain features of the semantic web make it possible to avoid this detrimental outcome but only if a critical mass of people—the community of humanists might be enough—actively use these features to keep the web a place of flexible ontologies and humane classification. Introduction
Creating an ontology amounts to creating a classification system and asserting a system of logic with it. There are inherent consequences to doing this that are both “real world” and potentially serious. Bowker and Star make an assessment of these, arguing that, “it is politically and ethically crucial to recognize the vital role of infrastructure in the ‘built moral environment.’ Seemingly technical issues like how to name things and how to store data in fact constitute much of human interaction and much of what we come to know as natural” (Bowker and Star 1999, 326). The semantic web promises to explode this observation as the interplay of ontology proliferation and convergence begins to create the largest classification system in human history. Insofar as using an ontology tends to establish certain actions, things, and dispositions as natural, this same tendency leads to problems of commensurability that intersect with seminal work by prominent philosophers such as Quine, Wittgenstein, Foucault, Kuhn, and the poststructural movement as a whole (cf. Cope, Kalantzis, and Magee 2011). Bowker and Star advocate the use of flexible or “living” classifications as the approach to solving these deep issues (Star 2010; Bowker and Star 2011), but this is only a prescription and it is left open how the medicine should be delivered.

In the semantic web, ontologies provide the vocabularies and the schemas that tell the machines used to crawl the web just what to do with data when it is found, a view that is supported by the number of introductions to the semantic web that treat it in a purely mechanical way. From such perspectives ontologies bring the promise of inferential reasoning on content and an open environment where information is more easily exchanged (W3C). Along with these benefits come potential problems, including the rise of near silent normalizations around how we think about the world that we live in and the very real possibility of incommensurability among ontologies. Clearly there is a large divide between benefits and concerns, one that is extended through the contrasts between practice and theory, stability and flexibility, mechanical and human(e).

This paper explores possibilities for traversing this divide and considers the extent to which it can be narrowed by considering both the practical implications and theoretical limits of using ontologies, offering a survey of best practices and ongoing areas of active research. From this basis, it argues that the process of ontology construction and integration currently taking place around the semantic web amounts to a massive act of world construction with the potential to severely impact human life through rigidly framing human thought. Certain features of the semantic web make it possible to avoid this, but only if a critical mass of people---the community of humanists might be enough---actively use these features to keep the web a place of flexible ontologies. [1]

This argument and the accompanying assessments of the state of the semantic web today emerge from work that we have done around building a web-based editor to allow scholars with limited technical expertise in either XML or RDF to contribute or enhance online scholarly materials in these data formats. [2] Enabling scholars to use these tools to connect with the open web through a system of references and annotations has meant that the various research groups we are involved with (CWRC, INKE, and the Text Mining & Visualization for Literary History Project) are grappling with ontology construction and integration. Continuing from preliminary work presented at the NeDiMAH workshop at DH2012 (Brown et. al. 2012), this paper will cover the following:

1 Review of practical approaches to ontology integration
2 Current ontology use: summary and analysis
3 Philosophical issues at the core of ontology creation, selection, integration, and use
Review of practical approaches to ontology creation and integration
The challenge of creating ontologies goes back at least to Aristotle’s Categoriae. Problems surrounding such classification systems were given life in the digital world with the creation of the first databases in the 1960s and issues of structuring and integrating data have been of interest to the computer science and business communities since then. The emphasis from these communities has mostly been on the pragmatics of making the related systems work. Particular attention has been given to the challenge of combining ontologies (for extensive examples of this see Noy et. al. 2005 and Klein 2001), a particularly complicated problem that has roots reaching into problems of normalization and commensurability. In the interest of expanding the repertoire of both conceptual and practical tools available to humanists working with ontologies, we share the results of a survey of these approaches to ontology integration, highlighting those from which humanists stand to benefit most particularly. The survey covers:

ontology conformity, as seen in projects like Pelagios and NINES;
mediating ontologies/schemas;
super ontologies such as SUMO (Suggested Upper Merged Ontology);
simple ontology joins such as those allowed by owl:import;
ε-Connections (Cuenca Grau et al. 2011);
ontology design patterns (Presutti and Gangemi, 2008).
Summary and analysis of current ontology use
Some general statistics are available for ontology use (semanticweb.org 2012; UMBC). These reveal that the Dublin Core (DC) namespace is referenced by 82% of semantic websites, with Friend of a Friend (FOAF) a distant second at 38%. While such figures suggest convergence around particular ontologies, they are also clearly influenced by the nature of existing semantic web sites, in which archival institutions such as a libraries have exposed large quantities of material. Fully understanding the implications of such figures requires further inquiry, such as what elements of the DC namespace are in use, what elements of the schemas these sites are leveraging from each namespace, and what semantic web elements sites have created themselves. This information is not readily obtained, so we have built a web crawler to collect it. By the time of DH2013 we aim to have a representative sample from which to report on the state of the semantic web in terms of ontology use at a more granular level.

We will combine the results of this web-crawling endeavour with the results of an analysis and assessment of the leading namespace options available. We will highlight probable points of failure when using ontologies in combination, including type propagation and the misuse of symmetric predicates such as subPropertyOf. Our focus, in terms of capturing relations, properties, and spatial-temporal locations, will be on the following ontologies:


Philosophical issues raised by ontology creation, selection, integration, and use
Building an ontology might start out as a simple matter of enabling certain features or capacities but doing so raises philosophical issues that humanists are experienced at recognizing and considering. The most significant of these is the social construction of reality, with the predicted increase in the prevalence of ADHD via the introduction of new criteria for diagnosis in the DSM-5 (Ghanizadeh 2012; Whitely 2010) standing as a tangible example. Closer to home for digital humanists, the DSM-5 also recommends that a new condition known as “Internet Use Disorder” be the subject of further study so that it may be determined whether to fully include in the future (Walton 2012).

The semantic web was in its fetal stages when Bowker and Star worried that, “In the past 100 years, people in all lines of work have jointly constructed an incredible, interlocking set of categories, standards, and means for interoperating infrastructural technologies. We hardly know what we have built. No one is in control of infrastructure; no one has the power centrally to change it” (Bowker and Star 1999, 319). Now that the semantic web is more established it is possible to see that there are opportunities to leverage its features to address such concerns and to hope that a spillover effect might occur. The particular features that we have in mind are the tolerance of the semantic web to ontologies that are incomplete, contradictory, or otherwise ‘imperfect’, the various levels of granularity that are possible using tools like RDF and OWL, and the transparency that linked online ontologies necessarily provide. We consider these features in light of the insights of the previous sections and conclude that while there is still reason for concern, mindfulness, and caution in constructing ontologies for the semantic web, it still holds promise for cultivating humane practices of classification.

References
Bowker, G. C., and S. L. Star (1999). Sorting Things Out: Classification and Its Consequences. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Brown, S., L. Goddard, and M. Paredes-Olea (2012). RDF for a Dynamic Literary Studies Collaboratory: A Pragmatic and Incrementalist Approach, Proceedings of NeDiMAH workshop on Ontology-based annotation, DH2012, Hamburg, July 2012.
Cope, B., M. Kalantzis, and L. Magee, (eds.) (2011). Towards a Semantic Web: Connecting Knowledge in Academic Research. Oxford: Chandos Publishing.
Cuenca Grau, B., B. Parsia, and E. Sirin (2011). Combining OWL Ontologies Using Econnections. Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web 4(1). http://mail.websemanticsjournal.org/index.php/ps/article/view/83 (accessed March 11, 2013).
Ghanizadeh, A. (2012). Agreement Between Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, and the Proposed DSM-V Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Diagnostic Criteria: An Exploratory Study, Comprehensive Psychiatry. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0010440X12001137 (accessed March 11, 2013)
Klein, M. (2001). Combining and Relating Ontologies: An Analysis of Problems and Solutions, Workshop on Ontologies and Information Sharing, IJCAI, 1:4-5.
Liu, A. (2012). The State of the Digital Humanities A Report and a Critique, Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, 11(1-2): 8-41.
Noy, N. F., A. Doan, and A. Y. Halevy (2005). Semantic Integration. AI Magazine, 26(1). http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/view/1794 (accessed March 11, 2013)
Presutti, V., and A. Gangemi (2008). Content Ontology Design Patterns as Practical Building Blocks for Web Ontologies, Conceptual Modeling-ER 2008: 128-141.
S. L. Star (2010). This Is Not a Boundary Object: Reflections on the Origin of a Concept, Science, Technology & Human Values 35(5): 601-617. semanticweb.org. “Ontology”, June 13, 2012. http://semanticweb.org/wiki/Ontology.
UMBC Ebiquity Research Group (n.d.). 100 Most Common RDF Namespaces. http://ebiquity.umbc.edu/blogger/2006/08/23/100-most-common-rdf-namespaces/ (accessed March 11, 2013).
W3C (n.d.). W3C Semantic Web Frequently Asked Questions. http://www.w3.org/RDF/FAQ (accessed March 11, 2013).
Walton, A. (2012). Internet Addiction: The New Mental Health Disorder?. http://www.forbes.com/sites/alicegwalton/2012/10/02/the-new-mental-health-disorder-internet-addiction/ (accessed March 15, 2013)
Whitely, M. (2010). Speed up & sit still : the controversies of ADHD diagnosis and treatment. Crawley, W.A.: UWA Publishing.
Notes
1. While this critical mass might be drawn from any discipline, humanists most regularly make a practice of attempting to understand the relationships between humans, cultures, representations and artifacts, all of which are deeply intertwined with the semantic web. This understanding is born from a practice of critical reflection that is importantly stretched between the practical and the theoretical, two poles which must be reconciled for the web to avoid the potential problems raised here.

2. The tool we are developing is the CWRC-Writer. More information about it may be found at http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/cwrc-writer-an-in-browser-xml-editor/ .","txt","2","",""
"1636","14","Stylometry and the Complex Authorship in Hildegard of Bingens Oeuvre","10","Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179) is one of the most influential female authors of the Middle Ages (Newman, 1998). The numerous texts attributed to this prophetess are versatile, with topics ranging from her visionary works, over medical issues, to music. Recent decades have seen an increase in the scholarly interest in Hildegard’s works and persona. From the point of view of computational stylistics, the oeuvre attributed to Hildegard is fascinating, because of the exceptionally complex authorship underlying it. Hildegard dictated her texts to secretaries in Latin, a language of which she did not master all grammatical subtleties (Ferrante, 1998; Deploige, 1998). She therefore allowed her scribes to correct her spelling and grammar. A number of manuscripts survive, produced under Hildegard’s supervision. Fig. 1 shows a detail of fol. 77 in the most important manuscript of Hildegard’s Liber operum divinorum (Ghent, University Library, MS 241) with a sample of the numerous adjustments made by Hildegard’s scribes. From these it is evident that multiple scribes have polished Hildegard’s original texts (Derolez, 1972; Derolez & Dronke, 1996). Many of Hildegard’s assistants are known by name, including Volmar, Ludwig of Saint Eucharius and Godfrey of Disibodenberg (Ferrante, 1998).
 
Fig. 1
The extent to which these copy-editors have interfered with Hildegard’s style has been the subject of intense scholarly debate. Especially Hildegard’s last collaborator, Guibert of Gembloux (Moens, 2010), seems to have heavily reworked her works during his secretaryship. Whereas her other scribes were only allowed to make superficial linguistic changes, Hildegard would have permitted Guibert to render her language stylistically more elegant. This is at least what can be deduced from the Visio ad Guibertum missa. Deploige and Moens are currently finalizing an edition (fortcoming in Brepols’sCorpus Christianorum) of the Visio ad Guibertum missa (MISSA) and the lesser known Visio de sancto Martino (MART), both of which Hildegard allegedly authored during Guibert’s secretaryship. Guibert’s interventions in these texts nevertheless seem so far-reaching that one could wonder to what extent they are still attributable to Hildegard (Newman, 1987).
In this paper we will focus on Guibert’s role. At the same time, this case study carries wider relevance for stylometry, especially because medieval Latin prose has been rarely studied in the stylometric community. Stylometrists typically focus on high-frequency function words: as opposed to content words, these function words only carry a bleak, grammatical meaning (Pennebaker, 2011). In the case of Hildegard, it were exactly these grammatical words that were often corrected by her scribes. It would be interesting to assess whether Hildegard’s oeuvre is still a stylistically coherent corpus that is distinguishable from that of contemporary authors or from the stylistically more ornate body of works which she published during Guibert’s secretaryship.
We researched a corpus provided by Brepols’s Corpus Christianorum Library & Knowledge Centre, including works by Hildegard, Guibert and Bernard of Clairvaux. Medieval Latin, like other historical languages, is characterized by spelling variation. We therefore had to normalize the orthography in the corpus using lemmatization. We have trained the Morfettelemmatizer (Chrupala et al. 2008) on the annotated Index Thomisticus Treebank (Passarotti & Dell’Orletta 2010). All experiments described below were carried out on the lemmatized corpus, some using the script suite ‘Stylometry for R’ (Eder & Rybicki, 2011). All content words and personal pronouns were manually “culled” from the set of most frequent lemmas. All analyses were thus restricted to a set of 65 lemmas of high-frequency function words.
A first analysis (Fig. 2) was performed on the epistolaria in the corpus, using Principal Components Analysis (PCA; Kestemont 2012). This analysis excludes the letters by Hildegard which were probably reworked by Guibert. The resulting scatterplot yields an excellent authorial separation (samples of 10,000 lemmas), with Guibert’s samples (GUI_EP) clustering in the top-right corner, Hildegard’s in the left part (HILD_EPNG) and Bernard’s in the lower-right area (BERN_EP). The component loadings (lightgrey) draw attention to Hildegard’s extravagant use of the preposition in (‘in’) or Guibert’s exorbitant use of et (‘and’). The latter remark is in line with earlier observations by philologists, noting Guibert’s clear preference of et to the alternative conjunctions ac or enclitic –que, esp. in compound sentences (Derolez, 1972). To test how long samples from these authors should be for a correct attribution, we carried out a leave-one-out validation using Burrows’s Delta for different samples sizes (Fig. 3). Samples sizes of 2,000 lemmas or more generally lead to reliable attributions (> 95% accuracy).
 
Fig.2
 
Fig. 3
In Fig. 4 we have focused on the differences in writing style between Hildegard and Guibert. In this PCA, we have included Guibert’s letters (GUI_EP), Hildegard’s letters during Guibert’s secretaryship (HILD_EPG), as well as Hildegard’s letters unrelated to Guibert (HILD_EPNG). There is a firm horizontal separation between both authors. Apart from the et-inopposition, we also see a marked contrast with respect to the use of e (‘out’) or cum (‘with’). The samples from letters that result from their “collaboration” (HILD_EPG) cluster in the lower-left corner: they appear to be on Hildegard’s side of the stylistic spectrum, but interestingly, their position is rather isolated from the other Hildegard samples. This result is reminiscent of the Synergy Hypothesis, suggesting that texts resulting from collaboration can display a style markedly different from that of the (average of the) collaborating authors (Pennebaker 2011).
 
Fig. 4
These results demonstrate the general validity of the stylometric approach for the present corpus. It would therefore be interesting to assess how stylometric methods would react to the authorship in the two texts which were our point of departure. Fig. 5 shows the results of a PCA that confronts the epistolaria (Figs. 2 & 3) with the text pair of dubious authorial signature (MART and MISSA, prefixed “D(UBIOUS)”.
 
Fig. 5
Fig. 5 offers a clear-cut confirmation of the previously voiced doubts concerning Hildegard’s authorship for MART andMISSA (sample size=3,304). If indeed anything of Hildegard’s authorial style was ever present in these texts, Guibert seems to have reworked them to such an extent that style-oriented computational procedures are far more inclined to attribute the texts to Guibert than to Hildegard. This result thus yields a quantitative affirmation of the opinion asserted in previous Hildegard scholarship about Guibert’s stylistic reworkings of Hildegard’s oeuvre (Klaes, 1993; Newman, 1987), as well as fresh evidence regarding the Synergy hypothesis with respect to collaborative authorship in general (cf. the “co-authored”H2_EP samples in Figs. 4 & 5).
The results reported in this paper obviously only scratch the tip of the iceberg in Hildegard scholarship. We nevertheless hope to have illustrated the huge potential of stylometric methods in dealing with medieval Latin text collections and similar historical corpora. Quantitative techniques can be used as a refreshing means to falsify or strengthen hypotheses formulated in traditional scholarship (e.g. Guibert’s stylistic influence). Future research will have to consider in what other respects stylometry could advance the traditional Hildegard scholarship, e.g. by isolating the more subtle linguistic influence of her other scribes on her works.
References
Burrows, J. (2002). ‘Delta’: a measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship, Literary and Linguistic Computing, 17 (3). 267–87.
Chrupala, G. et al. (2008). 'Learning Morphology with Morfette'. in Proceedings of LREC 2008. held in Marrakech, Morocco. 2362–7.
Deploige, J. (1998). In nomine femineo indocta. Kennisprofiel en ideologie van Hildegard van Bingen (1098-1179). Hilversum: Verloren.
Derolez, A. (1972). The genesis of Hildegard of Bingen’s Liber divinorum operum. The codicological evidence. In Gumbert, J. P. et al. (eds), Litterae Textuales. Essays Presented to Gerard I. Lieftinck. II: Texts & Manuscripts. Amsterdam: Van Ghent. 23–33.
Derolez, A. and P. Dronke (eds.)(1996). Hildegardis Bingensis Liber Divinorum Operum. Turnhout: Brepols.
Eder, M. and J. Rybicki (2011). Stylometry with R. In Digital Humanities 2011. Conference Abstracts. Stanford. 308–11.
Ferrante, J. (1998), Scribe quae vides et audis. Hildegard, Her Language, and Her Secretaries. In Townsend, D. et al. (eds), The Tongue of the Fathers. Gender and Ideology in Twelfth-Century Latin. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 102–35.
Kestemont, M. (2012). Stylometry for Medieval Authorship Studies. An Application to Rhyme Words, Digital Philology: A Journal of Medieval Cultures, 1 (1): 42-72.
Klaes, M. (1993), Vita sanctae Hildegardis. Turnhout: Brepols.
Moens, S. (2010). Twelfth-century epistolary language of friendship reconsidered. The case of Guibert of Gembloux,Revue belge de philologie et d’histoire, 88 (4). 983–1017.
Newman, B. (1987). Sister of wisdom. St. Hildegard’s theology of the feminine. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Newman, B. (1998). Voice of the Living Light: Hildegard of Bingen and Her World. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Passarotti, M., and F. Dell’Orletta (2010). Improvements in Parsing the Index Thomisticus Treebank. Revision, Combination and a Feature Model for Medieval Latin. In Proceedings of LREC 2010. Valetta, Malta. 1694–71.
Pennebaker, J. (2011). The Secret Life of Pronouns. What Our Words Say About Us. New York: Bloomsbury.","txt","2","",""
"1637","14","Collaborative technologies for Knowledge Socialization: the case of elBulli","10","Introduction
Today, organizations face the crucial challenge of creating and managing knowledge in order to succeed. As part of the Knowledge Management process, Knowledge Socialization is a critical step during which the community experiences a decisive interchange of ideas. In this work, we present a new model for Knowledge Management based on the classic Nonaka and Takeuchi's one but adapted to the Web 2.0 by using wiki technologies to support Knowledge Socialization, and we propose to apply this model to the case of elBulli.

elBulli, voted by industry authority Restaurant magazine as the best restaurant in the world in 2002 and from 2006 to 2009 (William, 2012), has now become a foundation for creativity and innovation in high cuisine. It incorporates disciplines such as technology, science, philosophy, and the arts in its research. Aware of the value of knowledge, the organization publishes its results in international conferences, books or journal articles, in a similar way to the academic process of peer review. Therefore, elBulli is an appropriate case to apply a Knowledge Management model that makes maximum use of its knowledge.

Knowledge as an asset
In recent years, the technological development and globalization have produced significant structural changes in society and the economy. New emergent industries embody a new economic reality: knowledge has become the main economic resource (Drucker, 1969). Indeed, nowadays, knowledge is the asset that generates more value in an organization, and the competitiveness of companies depends heavily on how they maintain and access their knowledge (Fensel, 2004; Davies, 2003).

Ikujiro Nonaka and Hirotaka Takeuchi propose a model whereby the creation of knowledge is a continuous and iterative process that transforms tacit knowledge (individual and subjective) into explicit (objective and shared) and vice versa (Nonaka, 1995). This process goes through four phases:

Socialization is the action of sharing tacit knowledge with other individuals by means of observation, imitation and practice during collective work (for example, celebrating a meeting).
Externalization is the action of making tacit knowledge explicit (for example, writing an article) in order to share it.
Combination is the process of synthesizing more complex explicit knowledge from various sources of simpler explicit knowledge (for example, building a prototype).
Internalization is the assimilation of explicit knowledge. It occurs when we understand explicit knowledge through experience (for example, nobody can tell you how to ride a bike, you need to practise to learn).
Knowledge at elBulli
elBulli is especially fascinating because of the processes from elBulli Restaurant to elBulli Foundation and the way the organization has redefined itself in the last few years: evolution and reinvention, diffusion of their practices, concepts and techniques across time and social space, etc. (William, 2012)


Illustration 1:
Nonaka & Takeuchi’s cycle (Aranda-Corral et al., 2010)

By applying Nonaka and Takeuchi’s principles, we can demonstrate that this organization creates valuable knowledge:

Socialization. Creativity and innovation implies constant learning so that its employees attend specialized courses, gastronomic fairs, research stays, conferences, etc.
Externalization. Unlike the traditional model, in which a chef would closely guard his secrets, elBulli documents exhaustively all its achievements and developments since 1990 (catalogues, audiovisual resources, recipes…) and it publishes its research in conferences, books or journal articles.
Combination. The process of creation can be seen as an engineering process (Soler, 2007):
1. Initial idea
2. Use of one of the creative methods known
3. Tests
4. Analysis and reflection (wisdom and previous knowledge)
5. Finish and last tests
6. Prototype
7. Customer’s feedback
8. Last changes
9. Finished and catalogued dish
The combination of existing creative methods, techniques, previous knowledge and known recipes results in new creative methods and new dishes.
Internalization. Cooking is a suitable example of knowledge internalization: only by practising these new methods and recipes, chefs can learn how to prepare new dishes.
Adrià suggests externalizing all their knowledge onto the Bullipedia, an online database that “will contain every piece of gastronomic knowledge ever gathered”. Adrià and some of the best chefs all over the world are putting in common their wisdom to agree on the content of the Bullipedia. Their aim is to create an encyclopedia with 15,000 articles “where users will leave suggestions for dishes, concepts and combinations of flavours” that will affect, in Adrià’s opinion, other chefs’ creativity.

This agreement can only be achieved through a sound process of socialization. According to Nonaka & Takeuchi’s cycle, socialization entails a transformation from individual tacit knowledge into collective tacit knowledge. This conversion is extremely hard to carry out due to tacit knowledge being highly personal, deeply attached to individual actions in a specific context (a profession, a technology…) and composed of individual’s technical skills that can only be acquired by learning and improved by experience . Hence, it is difficult to formalize and share.

Proposal
Our contribution is a new model for Knowledge Management in which we replace the disadvantaged classic Knowledge Socialization phase, based on few experts and unidirectional master-apprentice relationships, with a new process characterized by:

Multidirectional socialization given in social networks, where users adopt multiple roles (they are now content prosumers, that is, the production and consumption of knowledge is entrusted to the users (Aranda-Corral et al., 2010)).
Interchange of ideas through wiki technologies.
This model fits in better with the current technological and social reality.
Thus, we showcase the advantages that our model would provide in a case such as that of Adrià and his colleagues when building the Bullipedia from scratch, so that they really benefit from the interaction with a large community of prosumers and use wiki technologies to exchange ideas and develop a more nuanced metalanguage that really supports this initative and make it sustainable in the long term. This approach could also be exploited in other cases of collaboration such as collective software construction, project documentation or interactive learning.


Illustration 2:
Social network based on prosumers

Theoretical framework: the power of crowds, social networks and collaborative technologies Socializing knowledge is critical to both its evolution and its usefulness (Inmon, 2008). Knowledge Management cycle might provide better outcomes, in terms of quality and value of knowledge, by improving the socialization process. In the case of elBulli, Adrià and his colleagues are agreeing on the content of the upcoming Bullipedia. However, they discovered that the hardest part was to find a common language, that is, the worlds of science and gastronomy may share similar processes and methodologies, but they rarely intersect.

It is at this point in which we believe things can be enhanced: turning to a big community instead of a few experts. We borrow some James Surowiecki’s concepts on crowdsourcing (Adams, 2011; Schall, 2012; Sautter, 2011; Doan, 2011; Brabham, 2008). Surowiecki asserts that a large group of people is smarter than an elite few, no matter how brilliant (Surowiecki, 2004). Four conditions must be met for a crowd’s collective intelligence to produce more accurate outcomes than a small group of experts (Tapscott, 2006):

1) Diversity of opinion
2) Independence of members from one another
3) Decentralization
4) A good method for aggregating opinions
We can demonstrate Surowiecki’s ideas are applicable to our model. First of all, the case of elBulli is both especially interdisciplinary and heterogeneous enough. Adrià uses “cuisine as a discourse in order to create a dialogue with other disciplines”. The foundation is a mash-up of science, the arts, philosophy and technology as a creativity-generating universe that produces knowledge (William, 2012). It is this crossroad among various disciplines what creates such heterogeneity and diversity of knowledge and opinions about the same topic (1).

Secondly, advance in technology have provided novel ways to socialize knowledge. Social networks have created a new reality of social interaction (Easly, 2010; Mika, 2007) that has enabled more effective ways of agreement (Mazzega, 2011). Users organized around a wiki constitute a non-hierarchical and decentralized social network whose members are independent but collaborate (Leuf, 2001) (2 y 3). According to Complex Systems theory, members in social networks selforganize and agreement emerges from the bottom-up as a result of their interactions (Wood, 2010; Jones-Rooy, 2010).

Finally, a wiki fosters the idea of prosumers collaborating on the Web as it blurs the line between the reader and the writer (Caverly, 2008). Many online communities have adopted this approach to create collective knowledge (John, 2004; Krötzsch, 2006; Ebersbach, 2006). Wikipedia, the great online encyclopedia, supports this proposition. Therefore, Wikis are a good method for aggregating knowldge and opinions (4).

Conclusions
We have shown that elBulli creates valuable knowledge by applying Nonaka and Takeuchi’s principles. The organization is now creating the Bullipedia, an online database that “will contain every piece of gastronomic knowledge ever gathered”. Nonaka & Takeuchi's cycle can be adapted to manage that knowledge in social networks based on prosumers. In our model, we propose:

Turning to the crowd instead of letting the Bullipedia be constructed by a small group of experts.
Use of wiki technologies, as they have demonstrated their effectiveness for collaboration.
References
Adams, P. (2011). Grouped: How Small Groups of Friends Are the Key to Influence on the Social Web. Berkeley, CA, USA: New Riders.
Aranda-Corral, G., J. Borrego-Díaz, and A. Jiménez-Mavillard (2010). Social Ontology Documentation for Knowledge Externalization. Metadata and Semantic Research: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference, MTSR 2010. Sánchez-Alonso, S. and Athanasiadis, I. N. (eds). Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag. CCIS 108, 137–148.
Brabham, D. C. (2008). Crowdsourcing as a Model for Problem Solving An Introduction and Cases. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies 14.1, 75–90.
Caverly, D. C., and A. Ward (2008). Techtalk: Wikis and Collaborative Knowledge Construction. Journal of Developmental Education 32.2, 36-37.
Davies, J., D. Fensel, and F. Harmelen (eds.) (2003). Towards the Semantic Web: Ontology- Driven Knowledge Management. John Wiley & Sons.
Doan, A., R. Ramakrishnan, and A. Y. Halevy (2011). Crowdsourcing systems on the World-Wide Web. ACM 54.4, 86-96.
Drucker, P. (1969). The Age of Discontinuity: Guidelines to our Changing Society. New York: Harper & Row.
Easly, D., and J. Kleinberg. (2010). Networks, Crowds, and Markets. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ebersbach, A., et al. (2006). Wiki: Web Collaboration. Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany: Springer Science+Business Media.
Fensel, D. (2004). Ontologies: Silver Bullet for Knowledge Management and Electronic Commerce. 2nd ed. Heidelberg: Springer.
Inmon, W., B. O’Neil, and L. Fryman (2008) Business Metadata: Capturing Enterprise Knowledge. Morgan Kaufmann.
John, M. and R. Melster. (2004). Knowledge Networks – Managing Collaborative Knowledge Spaces. Proceedings of the LSO 2004. Melnik, G. and Holz, H. (eds). Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag. LNCS 3096, 165–171.
Jones-Rooy, A. and S.E. Page. (2010). The Complexities of Global Systems History. Journal of The Historical Society 10, 345–365.
Krötzsch, M., D. Vrandecic, and M. Völkel. (2006). Semantic MediaWiki. Proceedings of the 5th ISWC 2006. Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag. LNCS 4273, 935–942.
Leuf, B., and W. Cunningham. (2001). The Wiki Way: Quick Collaboration on the Web. Boston, USA: Addison-Wesley.
Mazzega, P., et al. (2011). A Complex-System Approach: Legal Knowledge, Ontology, Information and Networks. Approaches to Legal Ontologies. Sartor, G., et al. (eds), Springer Science+Business Media: Law, Governance and Technology Series 1, 117-132.
Mika, P. (2007). Social Networks and the Semantic Web. Barcelona, Spain: Springer.
Nonaka, I., and T. Takeuchi (1995). The Knowledge-Creating Company: How Japanese Companies Create the Dynamics of Innovation. Oxford University Press.
Sautter, G., and K. Böhm. (2011). High-Throughput Crowdsourcing Mechanisms for Complex Tasks. Social Informatics. Datta, Anwitaman, et al. (eds). Springer: LNCS 6984, 240-254
Schall, D., and F. Skopik (2012). Social network mining of requester communities in crowdsourcing markets. Social Network Analysis and Mining 2.4, 329-344.
Soler, J., F. Adrià, and F. Adrià (2007). Un día en elBulli. elBulli Books.
Surowiecki, J. (2004). The Wisdom of Crowds. New York: Random House.
Tapscott, D., and A. Williams (2006). Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything. New York: Penguin Group.
William, G. (2012). Staying creative. Wired UK Edition, 102-111.
Wood, A. T. (2010). Fire, Water, Earth, and Sky: Global Systems History and the Human Prospect. Journal of The Historical Society 10, 287–318.","txt","2","",""
"1638","14","Collating Texts with Juxta WS in Ruby","15","In this workshop, participants will learn how to develop a customized collation pipeline in Ruby using Juxta WS. Juxta WS is a web service that can collate variant texts and visualize the differences between them. It is free, open-source software comprising a pipeline of “micro-services” that may be valuable to any project that deals with digital texts, especially texts encoded in XML. Juxta WS can take in a variety of source file types including plain text, HTML, and XML, with special handling for texts encoded in TEI. Results can be output at any point along the Juxta WS pipeline, so it can be used, for example, to convert XML to plain text or HTML and output an XSLT style sheet; isolate text from an HTML file; tokenize a text stream; annotate the differences between texts; align fragments of text between sources; visualize the collation of texts encoded in TEI parallel segmentation; or generate a single TEI parallel segmented output from multiple input files

Juxta WS can serve any project where the differences between variant texts are of interest. The Carolingian Canon Law Project at the University of Kentucky was an early adopter of Juxta WS, establishing a private collation workspace where registered users can collate variant texts from a Latin corpus. The Melville Electronic Library at Hofstra University is using Juxta WS to compare variants of Melville’s writings, including the new manuscript transcriptions being created with the TextLab fluid-text editing tool. At Texas A&M University, the Early Modern OCR Project is collating the output of OCR engines with hand-typed versions of the same texts, using the change index calculated by Juxta WS as a metric of OCR performance. Juxta WS also powers Juxta Commons, a site sponsored by NINES where anyone may create a free account, upload source files for collation, and share the resulting visualizations. We think Juxta could be used creatively by diverse projects and we are looking forward to learning about projects participants bring to the workshop.

In the first half of the workshop, participants will follow along on their laptops as we introduce Juxta WS and the constituent parts of the collation pipeline. In the second half of the workshop, we will begin by showing participants how to obtain texts for experimentation from online sources. We will then have a hacking session where participants will work in small groups to leverage Juxta WS on texts from their own projects or obtained online.

During the hacking session, Gregor and Nick will float and answer questions. Participants will be able to access a Juxta WS server for use during this class and throughout DH 2013. Documentation for the Juxta WS API is available online and we will add information about the Ruby bindings there. There will also be a public Github repo where participants can push their work. We will help anyone not familiar with Git with a quick review of the necessary commands.

At the end of the workshop there will be a brief show and tell period. Each group will be invited to show what they worked on, either as working code or as the sketch of an idea.

Workshop Outline (3 hours, not including the break)
1. Introduction of Speakers and Topic (5 min.)
2. Demonstration of Juxta (10 min.)
3. Working with Juxta WS in Ruby (75 min.):
a. Sources
b. Tokenization
c. Filtering XML Tags
d. Collating
e. Presenting Visualizations
4. Break
5. Finding Interesting Data (10 min.)
a. online sources of humanities texts for collation
6. Break into small groups (5 min.)
7. Hacking (60 min.)
8. Show and Tell (15 min.)
Workshop Leaders
Nick Laiacona
Nick Laiacona is the President of Performant Software Solutions LLC. Under his leadership, Performant has cultivated a specialty in building custom software and websites for digital humanities projects. In recent years, Laiacona and the Performant team have worked on Juxta, a program for visualizing textual collations; TypeWright, a tool for crowd-sourcing the correction of “dirty OCR” in databases of early modern books; and TextLab, an NEH-funded web application for fluid text editing. Performant Software also provides ongoing development support to the scholarly websites NINES and 18thConnect, and to their forthcoming peer site, MESA. With more than fifteen years of professional experience, Laiacona has acted as technical lead on digital projects funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, and the National Institutes of Health.

Gregor Middell
Gregor is a scholar in the field of humanities computing currently contributing to a genetic digital edition of Goethe’s Faust. Before joining the Faust project, he earned a Master’s degree in Berlin, majoring in both Modern German Literature and Computer Science. Gregor's main research interests are firstly computer-supported collation with the aim to semi-automatically correlate electronic texts, analyze textual variance and determine intertextual relationships; secondly he is interested in markup theory/practice. To this end he participates in the development of two open-source projects, Juxta and the CollateX. As a lecturer in the Digital Humanities Program at Julius-Maximilans-Universität Würzburg, he also gained experience in teaching DH skills like text encoding, data modeling and programming.

Target Audience and Expected Number of Participants
This workshop is intended for software developers with a basic working knowledge of XML and Ruby. Knowledge of TEI is optional. It will be of interest to developers working on any text-based project, but especially editorial projects, projects handling variant texts, and projects dealing with XML encoded texts, including TEI.

This workshop is designed for between 5 and 20 participants.

Prerequisites
Workshop participants should bring:

A working knowledge of Ruby. Suggested reading: (http://www.ruby-doc.org/docs/ProgrammingRuby/)
A working knowledge of XML. Suggested reading: (http://www.w3schools.com/xml/default.asp)
A laptop with Ruby installed, a working Internet connection, and a favorite code editor.","txt","2","",""
"1639","14","Text to Image Linking Tool (TILT)","10","The digital edition has long been conceived not only as a set of transcriptions of the witnesses that underlie a work, but also as the images of the manuscript and book pages that physically represent it. Showing a readable transcription next to the facsimile of its source document provides the reader with the same level of evidence enjoyed by the editor of a print edition.
Connecting ranges of text to areas in the image is useful wherever a manuscript has been heavily corrected or was written long ago in a writing style now hard to decipher. Even for printed works, the absence of such links forces the reader to waste time scanning the facsimile whenever the layouts differ, spelling variations have been regularised, or the text emended (Kiernan, 2006). Establishing text-image links was first explored in the electronic Beowulf edition (Dektyar et al., 2004). Other examples include the British Museum’s electronic Codex Sinaticus (2009) and, using a different display technique, the ‘zoom topographic’ view of the Samuel Beckett digital manuscript project (Van Hulle et al., 2011). But the technical requirements of providing this form of interaction for any digital edition are considerable. There are three main problems:
•        1. How to display text-image links at the line and word-level over the Web
•        2. How to edit and automate the creation of links
•        3. How to store them in a reusable and efficient form
The following sections describe solutions to these problems and how they can be combined into a single system for storing, displaying and editing text to image links. This solution forms part of the AustESE (Australian electronic scholarly editing) project (Osborne, 2012), which aims to create interoperable Web-based tools for managing and creating digital editions.
1. Viewing links
As a solution to problem 1 a background image (Figure 1c) is overlaid first by a transparent pane or canvas on which drawing is done (b), and second by a set of invisible areas (a) that trigger simultaneous highlighting in the text and image as the mouse moves over them (Schmidt, 2012c). Polygonal areas are needed, since in many cases, e.g. curved or slanted lines, corrections, inserted text-blocks etc. rectangles are simply too imprecise. It is also versioned: the highlighted areas change according to the version of the text (base or corrected) chosen on the right.
 
Figure 1: Web visualisation of image areas
In an alternative technique described by Cayless (2008), images of the text are converted to SVG surrogates (an XML format), and their bounding rectangles computed, to facilitate linking with the XML-encoded text. However, this increases the overall complexity of the encoding, and invites overlap between existing markup and the newly added spans. The solution described here, on the other hand, requires only simple features of HTML5, and is more amenable to automation.
2. Creating and editing links
There have been several tools already developed for creating and updating links from areas in a facsimile to spans in a transcription. This operation should be distinguished from more general kinds of image annotation, because text-image links are far more numerous, more specialised and, as Kiernan notes (2006b), likely to overwhelm any standard annotation system.
There appear to be only three tools that meet this narrow definition. The first is EPPT, created for the electronic Beowulf edition (Iacob and Kiernan, 2009) as part of the ArchWay project (Kiernan et al, 2005). This was an Eclipse plug-in (a programmer’s tool) that created simple shapes without automation. The Textgrid TBLE tool is likewise an Eclipse plug-in (Al-Hajj, 2011). Although it does not yet support automation, it can draw polygons. However, having the editing tool available over the Web would facilitate updating through scholarly collaboration and crowd-sourcing (e.g. ANL, 2012). TILE (Reside et al., 2009) is so far the only Web-based solution to the text-to-image editing problem, but it remains incomplete.
Our need was for an immediate solution for both print and manuscript texts so we could begin entering data for projects like the Charles Harpur archive (SETIS). This is a collection of large manuscript anthologies (100-350 pages) and newspaper cuttings. Thus, to be practical, the text to image linking process would have to be largely automated. Our program was designed as an applet (a Java web plug-in) because this allows for rapid and stable development, support for image analysis, and Web presentation. It is called TILT (text-image linking tool) because it is designed to deal with moderately curved or slanting text (Schmidt 2012b). This is frequently found in facsimilies due to the difficulty of laying books or manuscripts absolutely flat, and also in manuscripts where the text is written in crooked lines or at an angle. TILT uses automation at several levels:
•        1. Auto-recognition of pages at the word or line-level
•        2. Auto-outlining of individual lines in response to a click or tap
•        3. Auto-outlining of individual words similarly
•        4. Manual drawing of polygons and rectangles
•        5. Automatic linking of the current shape to the text
The idea is that when one technique fails another can be used with finer control, and with manual adjustment in case of error.
Word recognition
When the user clicks on a word, a small square is assessed around the click-point (Figure 2). If the darkness of this square exceeds the average document darkness it is accepted (solid outlines, left). Adjacent squares are assessed similarly. If a square fails the test it is subdivided into four. If any one of these smaller squares is accepted then adjacent full-size squares are assessed as before. Otherwise it is discarded (dotted outlines, left). This leads to a rapid determination of word-boundaries. The basic outline is then converted into a bounding box (solid outline, right), or if this is too wasteful, into a polygon (dotted outline, right).
 
Figure 2: Detection of word boundaries
Line recognition
To facilitate line-recognition, the facsimile, which is often in colour, is first reduced to grayscale, then to pure black and white by application of a localised contrast filter, which erases differences caused by uneven lighting.
Baselines of the text can be found by summing the pixels in each horizontal row of the image. Rows with peak pixel-counts exceeding the average background darkness may be interpreted as baselines. These can be further constrained to lie within the text block, and only where there is surrounding text. The user can see the detected baselines by clicking the Lines tool. To detect entire lines the word-detection algorithm is simply applied along each baseline. To detect slanted or wavy baselines the image could be vertically divided into strips, and the lines in each strip joined up, although this is not yet implemented.
Linking word-shapes to the text
Word-shapes detected in the image are allocated approximately to corresponding word-positions in the text. Although breaking up the text into lines will make this more accurate, manually specifying positions where words and shapes do in fact match will allow this approximation to be gradually refined. Thus it is expected that, in practice, little human intervention will be needed to connect all word shapes to their correct words. For well laid-out facsimilies, e.g. of printed books, whole page recognition may be sufficient to link everything in one go.
3. Storing links
There have been several proposals for recording the data of text-image links. The model described by Audenart and Furuta (2009) focuses on the images rather than the work, whereas for our needs the latter is primary. The markup schemes described by Dekhtyar et al. (2005), and in TEI P5 (22.3) are based on embedded XML. As Kiernan (2006b) notes, text to image links, if embedded in the text, usually overlap with any markup already present. The resulting mixture of milestones and ordinary tags can be very complex.
On the other hand, simply using standoff properties (Schmidt 2012a), which are based on LMNL (Piez, 2010), to record the links, would simplify things considerably. Although saving is not yet implemented in TILT, each link, consisting of a shape and a textual span, could be saved as a separate layer. Links could then be merged with the other markup in the text, or used to generate the map which overlays the image (Figure 1a).
Conclusions and future work
The most important goal of TILT will be the testing of user requirements, which can only happen once a practical tool has been built. For example, how to deal with line-breaks in the middle of words, and what level of granularity (word or line) will work best must still be determined. TILT still lacks essential features like zooming, saving, the ability to change images as the user scrolls through the text, and export to other formats. However, based on current progress it is anticipated that these features will be completed by July 2013. There seems to be a pent-up demand for a text-image linking tool like this, given the current interest in digital facsimiles and the general exploration of more interactive interfaces for digital editions.
References
Al-Hajj, Y. A. A., and M. W. Küster (2011). The Text-Image-Link-Editor: A tool for Linking Facsimiles & Transcriptions and Image Annotations. Proceedings of Digital Humanities http://dh2011abstracts.stanford.edu/xtf/view?docId=tei/ab-197.xml;query=Al%20Hajj;brand=default (accessed 25 October 2012).
ANL, (2012). Trove, Australian National Library, http://trove.nla.gov.au (accessed 19 October 2012)
Audenart, N., and R. Furuta (2009). Annotated Facsimile Editions: Defining macro-level structure for image-based electronic editions. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 24.2 pp. 143-151.
Cayless, H. A. (2008). Linking Page Images to Transcriptions with SVG. In Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference. held 12-15 August in Montréal, Canada. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies 1, doi:10.4242/BalisageVol1.Cayless01.
Codex Sinaticus, (2009). http://codexsinaiticus.org (accessed 25 October 2012).
Dekhtyar, A., I. E. Iacob, J. W. Jaromczyk, K. Kiernan, N. Moore, and D. C. Porter (2005). Support for XML Markup of Image-based Electronic Editions International Journal on Digital Libraries.
Iacob, E. and K. Kiernan (2009). Installing the EPPT-Trial. http://beowulf.engl.uky.edu/~eft/eppt-trial/EPPT-Install.htm(accessed 19 October 2012).
Kiernan, K. (2006a) Electronic Textual Editing: Digital Facsimiles in Editing. In Burnard, L., O'Brien, K., O'Keeffee and Unsworth, J. (eds), Electronic Textual Editing. New York: Modern Language Association of America.
Kiernan, K. (2006b). Technology.http://beowulf.engl.uky.edu/~kiernan/eBoethius/tech.htm#tech (accessed 25 October 2012).
Kiernan, K., J. W. Jaromczyk, A. Dekhtyar, D. C. Porter, K. Hawley, S. Bodapati, and I. E. Iacob (2005). The ARCHway Project: Architecture for Research in Computing for Humanities through Research, Teaching, and Learning.Literary and Linguistic Computing 20 (Suppl) pp. 69-88.
Osborne, R.http://austese.wordpress.com AustESE: Australian Electronic Scholarly Editing (accessed 25 October 2012).
Piez, W. (2010). Towards Hermeneutic Markup: An Architectural Outline. Digital Humanities Conference. held 7-10 July at Kings College. London.
Porter, D. (2009). The Text Image Linking Environment. Digital Humanities Summer Institute held at the University of Victoria. http://www.youtube.com?v=BiiNfDLqs6I (accessed 25 October 2012).
Reside, D., D. Lester, D. Porter, and J. Walsh (2011). tile–text image linking environment. http://mith.umd.edu/tile/(accessed 25 October 2012).
Schmidt, D. (2012a). The Role of Markup in the Digital Humanities. Historical and Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung 37.3 pp. 125-146.
Schmidt, D. (2012b). TILT http://austese.net/tests/tilt (accessed 25 October 2012).
Schmidt, D. (2012c). Image. http://austese.net/tests/image (accessed 25 October 2012).
SETIS, The Sydney Electronic Text and Image Service. Harpur. http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/ozedits/harpur/(accessed 26 October 2012).
Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. TEI P5, TEI Consortium(eds). http://www.tei-c.org/P5/(last accesed 26 October 2012).
Van Hulle, D., M. Nixon, and V. Neyt (2011). Samuel Beckett Digital Manuscript Project.http://www.beckettarchive.org/demo/ (accessed 31 October 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1640","14","Collation on the Web","9","Collation comes from the Latin confero (perfect participle collatum) meaning ‘bring together’. There are several meanings in English, among them ‘bring together for comparison … in order to ascertain points of agreement and difference’ (OED, 2012). Even here collation may refer to a mechanical, manual or computerised process of comparing texts. My focus is on the latter, because it derives from an originally manual process as described, for example, by West (1973, 66f) and Dearing (1962, 14ff). Collation was a key part of the preparation of a critical edition because it supplied the raw differences between a chosen copy text and the other versions that aided the establishment of a single text suitable for printing.

Vinton Dearing in 1962 described what is perhaps the world’s first collation program (1962, 18-19). It compared two texts, one line at a time, within a window of 10 lines in either direction. Once a line (or later a word) was matched in the two versions being compared, the window was moved on. This allowed it to recognise insertions, deletions, substitutions and transpositions over short distances. The window was used probably because memory on the IBM 7090 for which it was written, was limited. This basic design was then followed in all subsequent collation programs. For example the collation program of Froger (1968 234), ‘EDIT’ (Silva and Bellamy 1969, 41-25), ‘OCCULT’ (Petty and Gibson 1970), the collation program of Gilbert (1973), ‘UNITE’ (Marín 1991), ‘PC-CASE’ (Shillingsburg 1996, 144-148), ‘TUSTEP-Collate’ (1979), ‘URICA!’ (Cannon and Oakman 1989), ‘DV-Coll’ (Stringer and Vilberg 1987) and ‘Collate’ (Robinson 1989, 1994) all appear to use the same ‘sliding window’ technique. The size of the window varies, and in various programs extra features are added such as the ability to embed references, define transposed blocks and perform spelling normalisation (Collate), or the ability to merge collation output from each run (TUSTEP, PC-CASE).

One point often mentioned in these early collation programs is that they were developed to automate the manual process of producing a print edition. As Cannon explains: ‘automatic collation should proceed as it would be performed manually’ (1976, 33). Robinson also admits, when talking of the automatic treatment of variants that ‘most electronic editions do the same as book editions: they just do more of it, perhaps with marginally more convenience’ (2003).

The sliding window technique has come to define what automatic collation is, but it has some serious technical limitations. For example, it cannot see alignments of words outside of the window, and this makes it prone to mistakes, which must be manually corrected. However, modern computers have no need of a window, as they can easily load into memory the entire text for comparison.

One may also ask whether a print-based collation technique is really suited to a modern fluid medium like the Web. Differences discovered by a machine are not always suitable for display on a screen. As Robinson points out: ‘Some differences will be just, well, noise: only a few ... are real variants, of real interest to real scholars.’ (2009, 349). Hence all the early collation programs employ filtering, whether some kind of fuzzy matching, or a normalisation table to discount minor spelling variants. However, an apparatus generated in this way cannot subsequently be recombined with the base text to produce the faithful text of another version, because after filtering it contains only a tiny fraction of the true differences. It thus can only be attached to a base version as a series of notes, which limits the possibilities for display and interaction between user and text.

Another problem arises from the use of embedded markup. When SGML and then XML became popular from around 1990, there was a notable decrease of interest in collation programs. Existing programs were not updated, and replacements that fully handle XML have not yet emerged. The reason seems to be that if the computed differences between two texts contain disconnected start or end-tags, how does one supply the missing tags? In the case of an apparatus entry generated from TEI-XML such as: ‘word</hi>’, what is the format of ‘word’? It could be anything because the start-tag and its attributes have been lost. So markup must be stripped out before collation can take place, as is done, for example, in Juxta Commons (2012). But stripping out markup is prone to error: how, for example, does one deal with embedded notes, and interpretations, or alternatives like ‘sic’ and ‘corr’ or embedded variants? (Schmidt 2012a). It also makes it difficult to compare formatting differences, and to later restore the markup, because the differences only refer to the stripped text.

A further problem is whether people really want to see a print apparatus on the screen. Although it may be defended as a traditional form of variant display, what the modern user ultimately wants is interactivity. The essence of the modern Web is animation or the ability to edit and contribute in real time, not statically formatted data.

From collation to merging
What is needed for the medium of the Web is a thorough reassessment of the collation process. As a first step the difficulties in comparing embedded markup can be avoided by separating the text from its properties. ‘Standoff properties’ (Schmidt 2012a), which are modelled on LMNL (Piez, 2010), can be used in place of embedded XML, and may be generated from plain text or XML files. For each version this produces one version of the text and one or more markup files. The text and markup can then be merged separately, using the nmerge program (Schmidt 2009), into multi-version documents, which record the differences between all the versions globally – not merely between the base version and the rest. Because it doesn’t use a sliding window, but looks for differences over the entire text, nmerge doesn’t lose its way. The separately computed differences in the markup and the text are merged with the text’s own structural properties and then formatted into HTML, without the need for XML. This new platform for digital editions facilitates various techniques for displaying variation (Figure 1). Each display is generated as a partial web-page so it can be incorporated into any kind of Web-delivery system:


Figure 1:
Collation workflow using MVD+standoff properties

The most popular of these is the side-by-side display. Examples include MEDITE (Bourdaillet and Ganascia 2006), the MVD-GUI (Schmidt et al. 2008), Juxta Commons (2012), the Trein der Traagheid electronic edition (Roelens et al. 2012), the Versioning Machine (Schriebman 2011), etc. Some of these programs have synchronised scrolling, which helps keep compared versions in alignment. Side by side view is more suited to programs like MEDITE or nmerge that compute character-level differences as opposed to word-level differences, because the user can see at a glance how two similar words differ. And multi-version documents already contain all the differences between versions, which don’t need to be recomputed each time, resulting in a much faster response, as can be seen in the AustESE (Australian electronic scholarly editions) test web interface (Schmidt 2012b).

Another popular type of variant display is the table, as found in CollateX (Dekker et al. 2011), and in the Cervantes hypertext edition (Urbina 2008). This is particularly useful in textual criticism because it presents much the same information as the old apparatus, but in a native digital form. In the AustESE test interface, table view (Figure 2) offers several options to reduce variant clutter without resorting to filtering. Character-level granularity can be easily extended to word-level, which is more useful for this type of display. Table view has the advantage over side-by-side in that it allows the user to explore the differences between a larger set of versions. Combining a horizontally scrolling table of variants with a synchronised vertically scrolling main text even produces a credible replacement for the print critical edition in digital form (Schmidt 2012b).


Figure 2:
Table view

Conclusion
The goal of collation on the Web is to provide the user with a variety of display options for exploring variation in a work. Collation conceived as a process for producing an apparatus or a filtered set of differences external to the text is too limited a technique to satisfy the flexible delivery options of the Web. Merging variant versions into a single digital object, on the other hand, provides a more efficient and direct way to query differences between versions, and to present the results through various views. Embedding markup into the text also creates problems for collation, and its removal allows differences between versions of text and markup to be merged as separate layers into the final result. The medium of the Web thus offers more than just new ways to display old data. It challenges us to rethink fundamentally the way we create the modern edition.

References
Bourdaillet, J. and J. G. Ganascia (2006). MEDITE: A Unilingual Textual Aligner. In J. G. Carbonell and J. Siekmann (eds). Lectures Notes in Artificial Intelligence. 4139: 458-469.
Cannon, R. L. (1976). OPCOL: An Optimal text Collation Algorithm. Computers and the Humanities 10(1): 33-40.
Cannon, R. L., and R. L. Oakman (1989). Interactive Collation on a Microcomputer: The URICA! Approach. Computers and the Humanities 23: 469-472.
Dearing, V. A. (1962). Methods of Textual Editing, Los Angeles: William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California.
Dekker, R. H., T. Andrews, B. Buitendijk, Z. Green, T.A. Griffitts, G. Middell, M. Mielnicki, L.-J. Olsson, T. Parkola, T. Vitt, and J. van Zundert (2011). CollateX. http://collatex.sourceforge.net (accessed 8 Oct, 2012).
Froger, D. J. (1968). La critique des textes et son automatisation. Paris: Dunod.
Gilbert, P. (1973). Automatic Collation: A Technique for Medieval Texts. Computers and the Humanities 7(3): 139-145.
Juxta Commons (2012). Juxta. http://www.juxtasoftware.org (accessed 8 Oct 2012).
Marín, F. (1991). Computers and Text Editing: A Review of Tools, an Introduction to UNITE and Some Observations Concerning its Application to Old Spanish Texts. Romance Philology 35: 102-122.
OED (2012). Oxford English Dictionary Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ott, W. (1979). A Text Processing System for the Preparation of Critical Editions. Computers and the Humanities 13: 29-35.
Petty, G. R., and W. M. Gibson (1970). Project OCCULT: The Ordered Computer Collation of Unprepared Literary Texts. New York: New York University Press.
Piez, W. (2010). 'Towards Hermeneutic Markup: An Architectural Outline'. Digital Humanities Conference. held July 7-10 2010 at Kings College London.
Roelens, X., R. Van den Branden, and E. Vanhoutte (2012). De trein der traagheid. http://edities.ctb.kantl.be/daisne/index.htm (accessed 8 Oct 2012).
Robinson, P. M. W. (1989). The Collation and Textual Criticism of Icelandic Manuscripts (1) Collation. Literary and Linguistic Computing 4(2): 99-105.
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Robinson, P. M. W. (2003). Where we are with electronic scholarly editions and where we want to be. Computerphilologie 5: 125-146. http://computerphilologie.tu-darmstadt.de/jg03/robinson.htm.
Robinson, P. M. W. (2009). Towards a Scholarly Editing System for the Next Decades. In: Huet, G., A. Kulkarni, and P. Scharf, (eds), Sanskrit Computational Linguistics 2007/2008. LNCS. 5402: 346–357.
Schmidt, D., D. Fiormonte, and N. Brocca (2008). A Multi-Version Wiki. In Opas-Hänninen, L.L., M. Jokelainen, I. Juuso, T. Seppänen (eds.), Proceedings of Digital Humanities 2008 held June 2008 in Oulu, Finland. 187-188.
Schmidt, D. (2009). Merging Multi-Version Texts: a General Solution to the Overlap Problem, in The Markup Conference 2009 Proceedings held August in Montreal.
Schmidt, D. (2012a). The Role of Markup in the Digital Humanities, Historical and Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung 37(3): 125-146.
Schmidt, D. (2012b). http://austese.net/tests/ (accessed 8 Oct, 2012).
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Shillingsburg, P. (1996). Scholarly Editing in the Computer Age Theory and Practice. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Silva, G., C. Bellamy. (1968). Some Procedures and Programs for Processing Language Data. Clayton: Monash University.
Stringer, G., W. Vilberg. (1987). The Donne Variorum Textual Collation Program. Computers and the Humanities. 21(2): 83-89.
Urbina, E. (ed). (2008). Electronic variorum edition of the Quixote. http://cervantes.tamu.edu/V2/CPI/variorum/index.htm (accessed 8 Oct, 2012).
West, M. L. (1973). Textual Criticism and Editorial Technique. Stuttgart: B.G. Teubner.","txt","2","",""
"1641","14","Combining tailor made research solutions with big infrastructures: The speaking map of the Netherlands","9","Introduction
Since the middle of last the decade investments in large-scale e-infrastructures for the humanities have risen enormously. Projects such as CLARIN, DARIAH and more recently CLARIAH, received funding. But there is growing scepticism concerning the value of these big infrastructures. In 2012, at the Digital Humanities conference, it was questioned if it is possible and desirable to have an infrastructure for the humanities (Bellamy, 2012). At the Cologne Dialogue on Digital Humanities 2012, this perception was even taken a step further. It was argued that digital infrastructures could be regarded as a dead end for digital humanities. According to this view methodological innovation and advancing the modelling of humanities data and heuristics is better served by flexible small-scale research focused development practices (Zundert, 2012).

While this discussion focuses on the question whether or not e-infrastructures are theoretically readily usable for specific research questions, the current challenge is much more concrete. It lies in catering for specific research needs and making the resources available for future and potential interdisciplinary research. This paper will focus on the possibility of creating tailor made solutions for researchers or Virtual Research Environments (VREs), while at the same time connecting, using and contributing to the big infrastructures. To make this tangible a use case will be presented: ‘The speaking map of the Netherlands’. First of all this paper will give an overview of this project. Next it will go into detail concerning the connections with regard to the access, sharing and storage of the data. Finally, the paper will conclude with a reflection on future steps in connecting research data and tools to infrastructures.

Text for the speaking map of the Netherlands
The Meertens Institute, an institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, studies the diversity in language and culture in the Netherlands (Meertens). It possesses a large library and numerous (audio) collections. The institute has more than a thousand hours, or six weeks non-stop listening, of audio recordings of dialects from all parts of the Netherlands. The recordings are of conversations between two or more people, without interference from the researcher. The institute started in 1950 to collect the data. In the eighties collecting stopped when the recordings were sufficiently spread out over the Netherlands. Since 2009 the dialects (in total 2216 recordings are available) can be found on the website of the Meertens Institute as the 'speaking map of the Netherlands’ (Soundbites).

The Meertens Institute also has typescripts of 660 of the available recordings. These typescripts have been digitized and the collection contains in total more than 11,000 scans (Archives). Optical character recognition (OCR) has been performed on these typescripts and samples of the produced texts have been corrected. While this collection is digitized, it is not yet readily available for researchers. In July 2012 the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences funded the project ‘text for the speaking map of the Netherlands’ to provide open access to the typescripts and to facilitate research with the entire resource (including the audio files). The project started in September 2012 and it will run until May 2013. [1]

A tailor made solution
The project ‘Text for the speaking map of the Netherlands’ incorporates the lessons learnt from the construction of previous VREs (Berry et al., 2012). One of the key issues of constructing VREs is the implementation of tailor made interfaces for interaction between research questions, data, tools and infrastructure (Zeldenrust, 2011). To establish direct communication and to bridge the gap between research question and technical possibilities a small team has been formed. In conjunction with a phonologist, a programmer and the audio curator of the Meertens Institute, a dedicated interface for phonologic research has been designed.

The phonologic interface will be a web-based system. Its core is a MySQL database containing the metadata and the web locations of the audio files and the scans of the typescripts. The web application will present various ways of exploring the data. First of all, in the cartographic tradition of the Meertens Institute, the site offers the visual interface of the speaking map. It is a representation of the data using the geographic locations. Next, the web application provides access to the datasets using the metadata fields. This will allow scrolling through the data. And finally, using previous added keywords and the ORCs of the typescripts, a text search will also be available. These dedicated interfaces need a relative small budget, are quick to set up and are able to serve as a stepping-stone for innovative research.

Connecting to a digital humanities infrastructure
The interface is specially designed for phonological research of the Dutch dialects. This field of study of research is currently flourishing. One could for instance perform a large-scale phonetic study into vowel quality and vowel length using the combination of sound and typescript, or research into word frequency in Dutch dialects. In addition, the collection offers a unique representation of the Netherlands that no longer exists. The conversations are about poor living conditions in rural areas, welfare during the Depression, the Second World War, local customs et cetera. This collection presents a rich resource for interested parties other than the traditional dialect researchers and is yet to be discovered by for example historians and ethnologist. While the phonological interface makes the resource available for a specific field of research, the project intends to explore the full potential of the resource and to open it up for a wide variety of research possibilities. To reach this goal the resources will be made available through the Common Language and Resources Infrastructure (CLARIN). Each resource will be described using CMDI (Component Metadata Infrastructure) and will be assigned PIDs (Persistent Identifiers). To allow others to harvest our metadata records an OAI-PMH (Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting) provider will serve the DCMI (Dublin Core Metadata Initiative) and the CMDI documents. The metadata documents are furthermore indexed and made searchable using an open source search platform. [2] It features full-text search, faceted search and geospatial search. CLARIN will handle the long term archiving of the data using the facilities of The Language Archive (TLA). [3] These big infrastructures are expansive and it takes time and mass to reach a critical usable level. In connecting the dataset to the CLARIN infrastructure it will be disseminated not only for phonology but also for other types of research.

Conclusion
In the introduction it was questioned if big infrastructures are potential platforms for methodological innovation. Some even take it a step further and state that big infrastructures could be regarded as a dead end and that flexible small-scale solutions serve humanities research better. In the case of project ‘Text for the speaking map of the Netherlands’ audio files, typescripts and metadata will be made available via a tailor made web interface. Big infrastructure CLARIN will provide dissemination, storage and the possibility of combining the resources. The latter functionality is methodological not innovative, however, it may lead to new insights and knowledge. Using the standards of CLARIN also provides easy to use building blocks for future VREs. The conclusion is that at the moment both tailor made research solutions and big infrastructures are of value for research. This current opportunity is restricted to the use of resources; how we deal with tools in this respect is still a matter to be resolved.

References
Bellamy, C. (2012). Opportunity and accountability in the ‘eResearch push’. In: Digital Humanities 2012, conference abstracts 111–112.
Berry, D. M. (ed). (2012). Understanding Digital Humanities London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Zeldenrust, D., and M. Kemps-Snijders (2011). Establishing connections: Making resources available through the CLARIN infrastructure. In: Supporting Digital Humanities 2011, Copenhagen, proceedings. http://cst.ku.dk/sdh2011/ papers (accessed 5 October 2012).
Zundert, J. (2012). If you build it, will we come? Large scale digital infrastructures as a dead end for digital humanities. In: The Cologne Dialogue on Digital Humanities 2012, Controversies around the Digital Humanities, proceedings. www.cceh.uni-koeln.de/events/CologneDialogue (accessed October 05, 2012).
Archives
The Archives of the Meertens Institute, collection no. 62.
Websites
www.clarin.eu (Accessed October 05, 2012).
www.meertens.knaw.nl (Accessed October 05, 2012).
www.meertens.knaw.nl/soundbites (Accessed October 05, 2012).
www.mpi.nl/research/research-projects/the-language-archive (Accessed October 05, 2012).
Notes
1. In December 2012 the Speaking Map received additional external funding. More than 240 hours of Dutch spoken in France and the USA will be added in 2013. Plans to add other collections are in the making.

2. In this case SOLR is used.

3. The data of the Speaking Map is used by the TLA in a pilot project concerning the archiving of data. This pilot started in November 2012.","txt","2","",""
"1642","14","A Community Fab Lab: Introductions to Making","9","Introduction
Digital technology is revolutionizing both the study of Humanities and the practices of “humanistic” disciplines (Schreibman, Siemens et al. 2004), enabling new forms of creative and scholarly communities (e.g. HASTAC (HASTAC 2013), The Pool (New Media Collective 2013), (Gauntlett 2011)) and new forms of expression (e.g. (Craig 2013; Latulipe, Wilson et al. 2010; Schiphorst 2009; Sherman and Craig 2003; Smith 2011)). Furthermore, as more digital technologies become ubiquitous, humanistic practices are reintegrating the living culture of contemporary life in many ways, including syntheses such as “ArtScience” (Edwards 2008), “Alternative Reality” (McGonigal 2011), and “Learn to Teach, Teach to Learn” (PBworks 2013). This paper considers one example of such reintegration in progress, a local community-based Fab Lab, in which we are developing an approach to fostering collaboration and creativity.

Digital Fabrication Technology
In recent years, digital fabrication technology has become widely available at moderate prices, opening the era of personal fabrication (Anderson 2012; Gershenfeld 2005; Mota 2011; Rischau 2011). Personal fabrication technology is seen as revolutionary; potentially reordering the manufacturing economy and changing the relationship between designer, producer and consumer (Anderson 2012; Gauntlett 2011; Johnson 2010; Rischau 2011). From the perspective of a humanist, this technology can be viewed as transforming creativity and — literally — putting tools in the hands of workers; by empowering every individual to fabricate whatever he or she desires, provided he or she learns how to do so.

Digital Fabrication technology crosses the boundaries between physical and virtual worlds, and this crossing is decisive. Once something (in this case, the design for making an artifact) is digitized, it becomes possible not only to manipulate it, but also to mix, remix, sell, and share it. Just as digital music and video have become universally available, nearly for free, uploaded as well as consumed; the ability to design and make things will be universally shareable.

The availability of low-cost digital fabrication technology has led to the emergence of a variety of community-based social spaces, including Fab Labs affiliated with MIT (FabWiki 2013), independent Maker Spaces (HackerspaceWiki 2013), and similar groups (e.g. (BioCurious 2013)). These spaces deploy low-cost digital design and fabrication techniques in small, community-based workshops featuring an empowering and creative “do it yourself” ethos within a supportive, diverse, and multidisciplinary setting. Digital technology can enhance and magnify long existing creative drives because knowledge can be shared in a very direct way: knowledge (i.e., designs) can be uploaded and then downloaded and “executed” (e.g. from Shapeways (Shapeways 2013), Thingiverse (Makerbot Industries 2013) or Instructables (Instructables 2013)), thereby directly connecting local labs, businesses, and individuals world wide (Anderson 2012; Gauntlett 2011; Gershenfeld 2005).

A Local Community Fab Lab
The Champaign Urbana Community Fab Lab (CUCFL), located on the University of Illinois Urbana campus, is a volunteer-operated, open community of people who like to design and make things (CUCFL 2013; Ginger, McGrath et al. 2012; Watson 2011). The CUCFL makes available to the local community resources, including skilled volunteers, computers, computer-controlled machines, and electronics assembly tools. These high tech tools, and an open, informal environment, make it possible for people of all ages and skill levels to learn to imagine, design, and build.

The CUCFL is affiliated with the International Fab Lab Network that originated at MIT (FabFolk 2013). The more than 140 member labs around the world are operated independently, sharing and cooperating through standards and a common vision (FabWiki 2013). In addition to the MIT affiliated Fab Labs, hundreds of independent “Maker Spaces” and “Hacker Spaces”, which provide similar creative environments (HackerspaceWiki 2013). These spaces form a large, informal, global community of makers, who share a plethora of information and enthusiasm via the Internet.

Who Does What in the CUCFL
The CUCFL has built a community of people with a range of expertise and a desire to share; volunteers who love to learn how to make things, and who love to share their knowledge with others. On any given day you may find kids and parents, University students and staff, artisans, entrepreneurs, school teachers, and retirees; working side by side on projects of their own design; learning and teaching.

An important goal of the CUCFL is to provide an environment in which everyone, including young women and kids from underserved communities, can imagine, make, and share; learn and, in turn, become a teacher. The CUCFL serves kids from youth groups, schools, and home school groups, as well as hobbyists, handicrafters, inventors developing prototypes of new products, and artists exploring and fabricating new creations.

In keeping with a humanistic spirit, many projects develop collaboratively in the lab, through free-wheeling discussion, experimentation, and iteration, which can produce eclectic explorations of academic, technological, and artistic concepts (e.g. (McGrath, Rischau et al. 2012)). The CUCFL hosts workshops and design sessions, such as a one-day “Fab Off”, attended by participants from other Fab Labs in the region (CUCFL 2011). Several founders of the CUCFL have graduated University and founded a local design and prototyping company (The Product Manufactory 2013).

How We Introduce People to Making
We work hard to make the CUCFL something you “do”, not something you “watch,” therefore, one of the most important activities is inviting new users to begin making. Many first time visitors find a Fab Lab to be an alien environment; with an exciting but daunting array of high tech tools. And, at first, many people have little notion of what can be done, and might imagine that they are incapable of creating their own designs.

Introductory sessions consist of an introduction to the lab, followed by a hands-on project tutored by experienced volunteers. Based on the principle of “show, don’t tell”, the novice has the opportunity to, and is strongly encouraged to, design and make a simple object, such as a personalized key ring or sticker — to actually go through the process of making something on the first day. These objects are insignificant in themselves, but are highly meaningful because of who made them and how: the experience of making is simultaneously empowering and an encouraging introduction into our (humanistic) community of makers.

The ""Fab Lab to Lab Fab"" Initiative
In 2011, the global Fab Lab initiative proposed a challenge to see if labs could be created according to the power of ten; if and how labs might be created at a series of scales, roughly designated by levels of cash outlay: $100, $1000, $10,000, etc. In effect, this extends the Global Fab Lab Network with another layer of “capillaries”. Inspired by this challenge, the CUCFL, in collaboration with the Center for Digital Inclusion of the University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, is creating a network of mini labs in a variety of local venues targeted at students from 8 to 18 years of age, including school classrooms, public libraries and dedicated clubhouse/community centers (Ginger, McGrath et al., 2012).

The CUCFL and the collaborative sites have a mutual set of responsibilities. The mini labs commit to use their resources in the promotion and development of skills and capabilities that align with the Fab Lab mission: personal growth, economic development and cross-cultural understanding. In return, each local mini lab receives a starter set of equipment and supplies that will enable the people at that site to create a variety of objects of their own design. The main CUCFL provides training, assistance and materials, including tutorials and starter project kits, and, as users develop skills, they will be able to use the larger capabilities of the main lab.

Conclusion
Fab Labs provide technology within a local, informal community of knowledge, to encourage and enable innovation and creativity by the people who work in or in cooperation with the labs, and, we believe, enabling personal growth, economic development and cross-cultural understanding. The Champaign Urbana Community Fab Lab is one such lab, where we are exploring how to create and sustain a community of learners and makers, with deep local roots, and wide global connections.

These technologically enabled networks of local workshops represent an important trend in the contemporary practices of humanism, (re-)integrating art, design, engineering, and entrepreneurship, and crossing the boundaries between physical and virtual creativity, through social interaction, and knowledge sharing. Beyond the technical and economic implications, these technologies can have profound and exciting psychological and cultural effects. It is thrilling when a kid’s face lights up and he or she holds up an object and says, possibly for the first time in their life, “I made this”. And that is only the beginning — the kids inevitably teach other kids (and adults).

Notes
Thanks to Betty J. Barrett, Jeff Ginger, and Peter Organisciak for reading and discussing the drafts of this paper. Thanks to all the volunteers and community partners who make the CUCFL possible.

Funding
This work was partly supported by the Office of the Provost, Office of Public Engagement, and the Center for Digital Inclusion of the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.

References
Anderson, C. (2012). Makers. New York: Random House.
BioCurious. (2013). BioCurious — your Bay Area hackerspace for biotech.http://biocurious.org/(accessed February 12, 2013).
Craig, A. B. (2013). Understanding Augmented Reality: Concepts and Applications (forthcoming). San Francisco: Morgan Kaufman.
CUCFL. (2011). Fab Off Slideshow! http://cucfablab.org/blog/fab-slideshow(accessed February 12, 2013).
CUCFL. (2013). Champaign Urbana Community Fab Lab http://cucfablab.org/(accessed February 12, 2013).
Edwards, D. (2008). Artscience: Creativity in the Post-Google Generation. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
FabFolk. (2013). The International Fab Lab Association. http://fablabinternational.org/(accessed February 12, 2013).
FabWiki. (2013). Labs. http://wiki.fablab.is/wiki/Portal:Labs(accessed February 12, 2013).
Gauntlett, D. (2011). Making is Connecting: The social meaning of creativity from DIY and knitting to YouTube and Web 2.0. Cambridge: Polity.
Gershenfeld, N. (2005). Fab: The Coming Revolution On Your Desktop — From Personal Computing to Personal Fabrication. New York: Basic Books.
Ginger, J., et al. (2012). Mini Labs: Building Capacity for Innovation Through A Local Community Fab Lab Network. 'World Fab Conference (Fab8)'. held 22-28 August 2012 in Wellington, NZ.
HackerspaceWiki. (2013). hackerspaces. http://hackerspaces.org/wiki/Hackerspaces(accessed February 12, 2013).
HASTAC. (2013). Humanities, Arts, Science Advanced Collaboratory. http://hastac.org(accessed February 12, 2013).
Instructables. (2013). Instructables — Make, How To, and DIY. http://www.instructables.com/ (accessed February 12, 2013).
Johnson, J. (2010). Atoms Are Not Bits; Wired Is Not A Business Magazine. http://gizmodo.com/5457461/atoms-are-not-bits-wired-is-not-a-business-magazine(accessed February 12, 2013).
Latulipe, C., et al. (2010). Exploring the design space in technology-augmented dance. 'CHI '10 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems'. held in 2010 in Atlanta, Georgia.
Makerbot Industries. (2013). Thingiverse. http://www.thingiverse.com/ (accessed February 12, 2013).
McGonigal, J. (2011). Reality is broken: why games make us better and how they can change the world. New York: Penguin Press.
McGrath, R. E., J. Rischau, and A. B. Craig. (2012). Transforming Creativity: Personalized Manufacturing Meets Embodied Computing. Knowledge Management and E-Learning 4.2: 157-173.
Mota, C. (2011). The Rise of Personal Fabrication. Creativity & Cognition. held November 3-6 in Atlanta.
New Media Collective. (2013). the pool.http://pool.newmedia.umaine.edu/ (accessed February 12, 2013).
PBworks. (2013). Learn 2 Teach, Teach 2 Learn. http://learn2teach.pbworks.com/w/page/15779288/Learn%202%20Teach%2C%20Teach%202%20Learn (accessed February 12, 2013).
Rischau, J. (2011). Custom Digital Fabrication in Industrial Design. MFA thesis. Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois.
Schiphorst, T. (2009). Body Matters: The Palpability of Invisible Computing. Leonardo 42(3): 225-230.
Schreibman, S., R. G. Siemens, and J. Unsworth. (eds.) (2004). A companion to digital humanities. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Shapeways, I. (2013). shapeways. http://www.shapeways.com/about/ (accessed February 12, 2013).
Sherman, W. R. and A. B. Craig. (2003). Understanding Virtual Reality: Interface Application and Design. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann.
Smith, B. D. (2011). Telematic Composition. Ph.D. thesis. Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois.
The Product Manufactory. (2013). The Product Manufactory.http://www.theproductmanufactory.com/ (accessed February 12, 2013).
Watson, G. (2011). The Champaign-Urbana Community Fab Lab. ACM interactions 18.5: 86-87.","txt","2","",""
"1643","14","A Comparative Kalendar: Building a Research Tool for Medieval Books of Hours from Distributed Resources","10","The Book of Hours is perhaps the most ubiquitous type of surviving medieval manuscripts. Each unique book contains a wealth of information about liturgical practices, social and private use of books, manuscript production and decoration, and personal and local choices for the creation of private devotional collections. Each Book of Hours contains a Kalendar that lists feast days for the entire year. These document the standard days for liturgical celebration, but are filled with local and temporal variants that paint a picture of the ways in which practices change according to regional interests over the centuries. Any attempt to curate and control a project devoted to cataloging Kalendar variants in a single team or location suffers from the sheer volume of potential inputs to the project. Further, the standard form of the Kalendar invites widespread contributions from interested scholars and the broader public. This paper describes a comparative Kalendar built from distributed resources served from multiple participating tools and repositories.

This distributed environment relies on repository/tool interactions to share image data in multiple tool environments, and harvest the tool output to build a discovery and viewing environment that can grow as more data is added from any participating tool or repository. These interactions rely on two principle interchange protocols: the SharedCanvas data model, used to aggregate distributed resources; and the International Image Interoperability Framework image API for standardized image resource access.

The SharedCanvas data model (http://www.shared-canvas.org) specifies a mechanism for representing a real-world manuscript object as a collection of two or more blank “canvases” each with a URI and an aspect ratio. Information, including digital image surrogates, is then associated with this canvas using the OpenAnnotation specification. This approach decouples information “about” the real-world object from the digital surrogate that could be used to illustrate that object on the web. Because it is quite possible that a single real-world resource will have multiple digital surrogates all purporting to represent the same thing, this approach makes it possible to build a digital facsimile utilizing a choice of digital surrogates without affecting the other information associated with the object (like transcriptions, scholarly commentary, or other metadata).


The International Image Interoperability Framework’s image API (http://lib.stanford.edu/iiif) specifies a RESTful web service to deliver a requested image with a number of specified parameters. These include: image format, size, rotation, cropping, and color. The API allows standardized image retrieval from disparate repositories, leading to the ability of tool developers to pull content in an efficient way from any participating host repository. More importantly, this API allows contributors to the Kalendar project to work with from a number of different interfaces and use image data served from a number of different repositories, allowing scholars with a regional or temporal focus to compare books held in different modern repositories.


The participating repositories in this effort are the Stanford University Libraries (serving content from the Walters Art Museum manuscript collection, the Parker Library, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge manuscript collection, and Stanford’s own collection), along with other participants of the Digital Manuscript Technical Council (http://dms.stanford.edu/). This selection of content offers a variety of geographically and chronologically diverse Books of Hours, leading to an initial dataset that highlights both the consistency of some Kalendar elements over three centuries (13th, 14th, and 15th centuries), and the variants that provide insight into localized practices.

The tools used for this project are T-PEN (http://t-pen.org/TPEN) and DM (http://ada.drew.edu/dmproject/), specialized tools for transcription and annotation of medieval manuscript content. A user of either tool has full access to any of the manuscripts served from the participating repositories, and can add transcriptions of Kalendars while also adding structured data to help organize the material for further analysis and display. Both tools produce outputs that link user-generated information about the Kalendars to a region-constraint on the canvas that represents the page of the real-world manuscript. The tools provide a web service for exposing user-generated information that is then aggregated into a discovery and display interface.

This approach reduces the need for any one institution or project to host and serve every image that might be used in the Comparative Kalendar, to provide the user interface tools for transcription, commentary, and analysis, or to control and curate the input and output. The mechanism for user-interaction allows a user in any of the participating tools to choose content from any of the participating repositories. This allows a user to choose the working environment that most suits the tasks they wish to pursue, and do their analytical work within that tool. Since the tools allow standardized extraction of data for additional display, data management, navigation, or additional analysis and commentary, a user can move from tool environment to tool environment to achieve separate tasks (transcription, addition of structured metadata, commentary and notes, etc.).

The end result of this project is a user interface that draws image resources from the participating repositories and user-generated data produced by the participating tools, hosted by each respective participant. New data from any participating node will be automatically added to the interface without the need for human-mediated interaction, leading to a dynamically growing resource. This resource will allow a user to browse a Kalendar and see image, transcription, and commentary data about each entry, or compare across Kalendars to observe clusterings of continuity and variance over the liturgical year depending on location of book use and production, or chronological period. The distributed approach to a standardized text, where variants are of great interest across a large number of disciplines, and which benefits from a broad array of participants providing small bits of detailed data to build up a useful dataset, could serve as a model for further work on other parts of the Book of Hours, or other medieval texts that were copied frequently an reflect changing social, political, or liturgical practices across Western Europe over a period of several hundred years.","txt","2","",""
"1644","14","A Comparative Study of Astronomical Clock towers in Europe and China based on their detailed 3D modeling","2","The rapid development of computer graphics and imaging provides the modern archeologist with several tools to realistically model and visualize archeological sites in 3D. This creates a bridge between humanities and computer science. This project, integrating interdisciplinary research methods, will explore an effective way to reconstruct tangible cultural heritage. In particular, our research will focus on the structure and mechanisms and art values of the astronomical clock towers both in China and Europe, employing modeling tools such as 3DSMAX and SOLIDWORKS to model the astronomical clock-towers, and making use of JavaScript and VRML technology to control the display. Then, we will use the ADAMS software to analyse the kinetic parameters and rotation periods. After extensive consultation of the literature, we will contrast the different astronomical clock towers in terms of mechanics, astronomy, aesthetics, etc. Understanding each other’s culture will be one of the main challenges of the next generation of world's citizens. Such a study will not only bring us fancy digital exhibits related to astronomical clock towers from different cultures, but also stimulate cross-fertilization between humanities and technology, raising citizens’ awareness towards cultural heritage. Europe has quite a long tradition of building astronomical clock towers, and the candidate’s recent research focused on their Chinese ancient counterparts (the water-powered armillary sphere and celestial globe). He invested much effort in modeling and reconstructing the instrument and designing a Virtual exhibition about it. The candidate is now looking forward to get inspired further by scholars from other nations or civilizations. So far, the modeling of mechanisms, which is highly relevant in industrial archaeology in general, has been missing from these projects. The proposal would help to add this aspect to the work that is ongoing in their realm.

Background
In recent years, multidisciplinary approaches combining Virtual Reality, Archaeology, and Cultural Heritage have become increasingly important. The rapid development of 3D capturing technology provides modern archeologists and other scholars with tools to realistically model and visualize archeological sites in 3D. In the same way as the general public is getting used to more and more realistic visualizations of virtual worlds through games, movies and TV, the demand for such 3D models of archeological sites is growing. These models are not only used for edutainment and site marketing, they also provide a basis for dissemination and scientific discussion about reconstruction hypotheses. In Europe, many research projects were sponsored to support such interdisciplinary research, like EPOCH, 3D-COFORM, ViHAP3D, 3D-Murale, and so on.

This project related to astronomical clocks is an application research integrating computer graphics and 3D acquisition, mechanics, archaeology,arts and history. An astronomical clock is a clock with special mechanisms and dials to display astronomical information, such as the relative positions of the sun, moon, zodiacal constellations, and sometimes major planets. Europe has quite a long tradition of making astronomical clocks and many of them are located in the main cities of Europe, such as Strasbourg, Prague, Copenhagen, but also Olomouc or Lier, and are mostly operating properly.

Similarly, China also has a long tradition of making astronomical clocks. The water-powered armillary sphere and celestial globe were built around the year 1088 AD (Chinese ancient Astronomical Clock-tower built by Su Song and his collaborators in the Northern Song Dynasty). It was undoubtedly one of the pinnacles of this craft and art. In the past two years, the candidate’s major research focused on reconstructing the water-powered armillary sphere and celestial globe and on putting forward a novel reconstruction design different from other designs found in historical archives.

In 1964, J.H. Combridge published an article in Nature, the Chinese water-balance escapement, where he defined the Great wheel as an escapement mechanism and made a 1:6 scale model of the escapement. Beside, the book written by Dr. Joseph Needham- the Heavenly Clockwork, also introduced the Chinese ancient Astronomical Clock-tower according to the statement of J.H Combridge. The water-driven astronomical clock tower was a wooden building 12meters in height. On the top platform was an armillary placed in a chamber with a removable roof which resembled the dome of a modern observatory. The armillary was connected through gears with the driving machinery of the whole installation, which enabled it to follow the diurnal motion of the natural celestial sphere. When the observer aimed the sighting tube at the sun, the mechanical motion of the armillary would keep the sun in the visual field for a fairly long time. This device was working based on a water-powered mechanical clock with an escapement regulator. Literary records are available for this invention, but unfortunately surviving hardware is lacking. However, several reconstruction designs were put forward in the past century.

Objectives
This project, through its interdisciplinary research method, will explore an effective way for the reconstruction of tangible cultural heritage. In particular, our research will focus on the structure and mechanisms of the astronomical clock towers in China and Europe. We will employ modeling tools such as 3DSMAX and SOLIDWORKS to model astronomical clock towers, and we will make use of JavaScript and VRML technology to control the display. Then, we will use the ADAMS software to analyze the kinetic parameters and rotation periods. Through the study of the related literature, a report will be produced that highlights the differences and similarities with other astronomical clock towers.

In general, this project has three main purposes:

(1) Exploring a practical and efficient method for the reconstruction of Cultural Heritage where the objects consist of mechanical parts with relative motions
(2) Comparing the difference of Astronomical Clock towers between Europe and China in terms of mechanics, astronomy, arts,and history
(3) Building a virtual imaging space showing the main Astronomical Clock towers from China and Europe, also explaining their structures and operating principles
Research method
The main methods and resources planned for use in this project could be summarized as follows:

1. Historical Archives,
2. Design specifications,
3. Generalized kinematic chains,
4. Specialized chains,
5. 3D detailed Modeling,
6. Comparative study,
7. Programming

Fig 1. research method

Illustration about Dynamic and Mechanical Analysis
There are a lot of technologies and commercial tools available today to create realistic 3D models of cultural heritage. When producing a dynamics and kinematics model of an Astronomical Clock, the needs go beyond capturing static 3D shapes. We have to produce a geometric model of the parts and to also formulate the possible relative motions, as well as their restrictions. We have already started to make a model with the computer software SOLIDWORKS, including all the main parts. The consistency of the parts will be checked via their assembly into virtual mechanisms, e.g. checking the number of teeth of gears, the diameters of ratchet-wheels, etc. Then, we can also get experimental results by amending the parameters of the simulating model. After we get our 3D model, we can input it to the platform of ADAMS by a kind of Para solid format. Then we can suppose some properties of parts for which the real, original data are lacking, like their masses, original positions, velocities, moving directions and reestablished loads. This will be done through simulations with ADAMS, which can link up the components into complete mechanical systems. This software is also capable of limiting the relative motions between different components by a series of restrictions. Fortunately, a number of parameters for the original parts can still be deduced today. The most important contribution in this however, is that we will endeavor to embed the above analysis within the framework of procedural modeling, which we explain in a bit more detail further below. The aforementioned tools will be used to generate the 3D models of individual parts. Also in a procedural modeling context, several ready-made 3D models (the so-called leaf nodes or `assets’) are included directly from libraries, possibly parameterized so that a number of properties can still be modified. The above tools will be used to generate the necessary assets (i.e. some of the solid components of which the entire structure has been composed).

After we get all useful parameters of the gear system, we will perform experiments to calculate several other parameters like moments of inertia, transmitting power, etc. And then we can deduce its motion and effect on the Astronomical Clock design. At last, we will be able to explain the full 3D model. 'Full model’ is relative here, as we will discard non-essential parts, such as sculptures, puppets for reporting time, etc. And we predigested some complicated parts as a simple rigid body.

The next pages show some examples of parts that have already been modeled, and also of manual compositions into assemblies. This type of tedious, manual composition should be largely replaced by procedural modeling. As can be seen, some of the parts are quite ornamental. Such pieces definitely have to be modeled separately, as the assets that the procedural models are based upon. The procedural modeling aspect will mainly focus on the underlying mechanisms of these clock towers.

*Several pictures of my recent research: (unpublished)


Fig. 1:
research method


Fig. 2:
internal model of the water-powered armillary sphere and celestial globe


Fig. 3:
outside model of the water-powered armillary sphere and celestial globe


Fig. 4:
internal structure of the water-powered armillary sphere and celestial globe


Fig. 5:
model of the Great wheel


Fig. 6:
Dynamic simulation of the Great wheel based on ADAMS","txt","2","",""
"1645","14","Computational Rhetoric: Adapting Graph Theory Analytics to Big Data","3","This panel presents three short papers by a research group working in a new area called “computational rhetoric.” As the name implies, computational methods are used to perform rhetorical analysis on large corpora of texts. In this case, our examples are drawn from online discussion forums related to science topics and hosted by informal learning institutions (science centers and museums). The purpose of the panel is to present a few highly experimental methods developed to conduct rhetorical analysis on big data sets for critique and feedback by members of the DH community who might find such methods useful.

The Rhetoric of Facilitating Learning in Social Media Environments
Speaker one will focus on specific outcomes from five years of studying how people interact via social software tools hosted by two science museums and designed to support science learning. Studies have shown that computer-based learning environments can make inquiry experiences more successful by offering participants cognitive and procedural guidance (diSessa, 1992; Kafai & Resnick, 1996; Linn & Hsi, 2000; Linn & Slotta, 2000; White & Fredericksen, 1998). Internet- based learning environments can also provide embedded reflective opportunities that capture participants’ abilities to critique evidence, make arguments, and reach conclusions.

Our results suggest that social media environments can be effective informal learning spaces because of discourse characteristics that seem to support learning, such as sharing, making ideas public, and writing to learn, all facilitated in particular ways (e.g., invitations to explain and connect; connecting people and their ideas together). My focus in this paper, however, is on the specific rhetorical moves of facilitation that lead to productive outcomes and how to reliably identify them in large discourse sets. As a rhetoric scholar leading a project on science learning, it is this area of expertise—rhetorical discourse analysis—and our ability to develop analytics at scale that has been useful to the larger project and hopefully interesting and relevant to other digital humanists.

The analytical work outlined in this paper begins with understanding that most social software environments are written. That is, people interact through what they write, and so analyzing those written interactions is fundamental to understanding online activity. There are exceptions, of course, but the point is to turn to analytic techniques and expertise appropriate for the modes of interaction (writing, image, video, and so on). In our case, we turned to rhetorical theory and to discourse analysis in order to supplement approaches from the learning sciences. Discourse analysis is commonly used in communication studies to characterize and understand interactions (Fairclough, 1992; Dijk, 1997; Wood & Kroger, 2000; Schiffrin, Tannen, & Hamilton, 2001; Bazerman & Prior, 2004; Gee, 2005). This paper sets the scene for the project and devote much of my time to laying out the analytical approach and tools for the audience. My doing so will make the two other papers on this panel intelligible, but this approach to rhetorical discourse analysis also represents an innovation in rhetorical studies of online interactions (see Grabill and Pigg, 2012).

Betweenness Centrality as Rhetorical Arrangement
Speaker Two reports on experimental protocols used to transform the facilitation data discussed by Speaker 1 into computational formats with the aim of producing an analytic program that might replicate the insights of the human coders on large-scale datasets. These protocols incorporate text tokenization methods employed in computational linguistics and natural language processing to produce contiguous bigrams of words, which, aside from being the smallest graphable unit, we believe retain the lexical and temporal contours of the original discussion board threads.

Speaker Two will then outline a graph-driven approach to these bigram units based on the measure of betweenness centrality. Developed in the field of social network analysis, betweenness centrality holds that for a given sequences of connected nodes numbering more than 2, the node positioned between the most adjacent nodes will serve as the prime mediator of information desseminated through the network, thus rendering it the controller node (see Borgatti, 2005; Freeman, 1979; Freeman, Borgatti, & White, 1991; Friedkin, 1991; Hanneman & Riddle, 2011). Though this type of social network measure is usually applied to discrete entities or interrelated social actors, Speaker Two will demonstrate how we can use the betweenness centrality of interrelated words within a text to understand how a text is organized according to critical terms deployed at critical moments over time. In short, we are interested in how words with high betweenness scores influence words associated with them, signalling probative indices, which we call “matters of concern.”

In marking these matters of concern on discussion board threads focused on the facilitation of science learning, we feel that we have arrived at two significant innovations that could interest the community of digital humanists. First, the ability to graph matters of concern can serve as a productive first step in the global, computational rhetorical analysis of big data. This move could lead to more granular analysis and specific discursive codings. Second, the emergence of machine-driven rhetorical analytics powered by the pattern distribution of bigrams challenges conventional notions of a how written communication creates meaning.

Aristotle, Toulmin, Erdös-Rényi & Markov: Modeling rhetorical moves and patterns of argument using graph theory concepts
Speaker Three presents a brief review of the various mathematical models used in our attempts to render internet discussion threads as computational objects (graphs). The focus of this paper is on the correspondence between these mathematical models and concepts from rhetorical theory, beginning with the way both human coders and our computer model focus on basic units of analysis, and discussing how these units are understood to form larger discursive structures such as arguments. We will also show how we understand random graph and Markov chain models to provide us with a baseline for describing and perhaps predicting the way discussion threads develop over time.

Our group is not the first to propose using text-extraction techniques from Natural Language Processing and mathematical models, some adapted from computational linguistics, to examine rhetorical patterns (see, Grasso 2002, Reed & Grasso 2007, Grasso, et. al. 2010). Our methods take a turn from a relatively strict focus on argument dialectic, strictly defined, to a more holistic view of rhetorical reasoning, Our aim is to understand what rhetorical strategies work in specific situations and what, if any, relationships can be detected between rhetorical patterns deployed and specific outcomes desired. In aim, our work is similar to Ishizakie, Kaufer & colleagues’ efforts using their DocuScope analysis software (Ishizaki & Kaufer, 2011). Where our work differs a bit from Ishizaki & Kaufer is in the use of graph theory techniques to construct textual models for analysis.

Our approach to computational rhetorics, metaphorically, involves attempts to assay complex rhetorical compounds found in nature, with rules of grammar and syntax providing specific affinities to bind markers, amplify & stabilize signals against a noisy background. We seek to isolate the discursive equivalent of what biologists refer to as chemical 'pathways' that yield certain kinds of results in the real world. Of course, we don’t call them pathways. Rather, we are trying to understand if more familiar rhetorical terms like ""topoi"" might function like chemical pathways. If so, we can consider certain patterns as normal (expected) or abnormal (reflective of some pathology). This view also suggests that there may methods to inhibit a pathway at some point, thus changing the outcome but in a (relatively) predictable way. To know for sure, we must first perform some ‘basic science’ to understand how useful known models that could be applied – here we focus on Erdös-Rényi random graphs and Markov Chains – can be for describing rhetorical patterns in a large text corpus.

References
Bazerman, C., and P. Prior (eds). (2004). What writing does and how it does it: An introduction to analyzing texts and textual practices. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
diSessa, A. (1992). Images of Learning. In De Corte, E., M. C. Linn, H. Mandel, and L. Verschaffel (eds.), Computer-based learning environments and problem solving. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Dijk, T. A. V. (1997). Discourse as interaction in society. In Dijk, T. A. V. (ed.), Discourse as social interaction. London: SAGE. 1-37.
Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and social change. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
Gee, J. P. (2005). An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method. London: Routledge.
Grabill, J. T., and S. Pigg (2012). Messy Rhetoric: Identity performance as rhetorical agency in online public forums. Rhetoric Society Quarterly. 42: 99-119
Grasso, F. (2002). Toward Computational Rhetoric. Informal Reasoning 22(3): 195-229.
Grasso, F., I. Rahwan, C. Reed, and G. R. Simari (2010). Introducing Argument & Computation , Argument & Computation, 1(1): 1-5.
Ishizaki, S., and D. Kaufer (2012). Computer-Aided Rhetorical Analysis. Applied Natural Language Processing and Content Analysis: Identification, Investigation, and Resolution, ed. McCarthy, P. & Boonthum, C. IDI Global. 276-296.
Kafai, Y., and M. Resnick (eds.) (1996). Constructionism in practice: Designing, thinking, and learning in a digital world. Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Linn, M. C., and S. Hsi (2000). Computers, Teachers, Peers: Science Learning Partners. Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Linn, M.C. and J.D. Slotta (2000, October) WISE science. Educational Leadership, 58(2): 29-32.
Reed, C., and F. Grasso. (2007). Recent advances in computational models of natural argument’, Int. J. Intell. Syst. 22: 1–15.
Schiffrin, D., D. Tannen, and H. E. Hamilton (eds.) (2001). Handbook of discourse analysis. Oxford: Blackwell
White, B. Y., and J. R. Frederiksen (1998). Inquiry, modeling, and metacognition: Making science accessible to students. Cognition and Instruction. 16: 3-118
Wood, L. A., and R. O. Kroger (2000). Doing discourse analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.","txt","2","",""
"1646","14","Slave Biographies: Atlantic Database Network","10","1) Overview
The NEH supported Slave Biographies: Atlantic Database Network project provides a platform for researchers of African slaves in the Atlantic World to upload, analyze, visualize, and utilize data they have collected, and to link it to other datasets, which together complement each other in such a way as to create a much richer resource than the individual datasets alone. During the past two decades, there has been a seismic change in perception about what we can know about African slaves and their descendants throughout the Atlantic World (Africa, Europe, North and South America). Scholars have realized that, far from being either non-existent or extremely scarce, various types of documentation about African slaves and their descendants abound in archives, courthouses, churches, government offices, museums, ports, and private collections spread throughout the Atlantic World. Since the 1980s, a number of major databases were constructed in original digital format and used in major publications by their creators, but they lacked a platform for preservation and therefore are at risk of being lost as their creators retire. Also, a number of collections of original manuscript documents are beginning to be digitized and made accessible online free of charge. However, our task as historians is more than to preserve images of primary sources; it is to interpret those sources by finding new ways to organize, share, mine and analyze as well as to preserve original materials which might otherwise be discarded or lost.
The Slave Biographies digital repository has developed a core metadata schema describing enslaved peoples. The fields have been defined based on six datasets and a distinguished group of historians, serving on the project's Advisory Board. The digital repository schema, fields, and search interface will be made available in English and shortly thereafter in Spanish, Portuguese, and French.
Slave Biographies addresses two major challenges that historians increasingly face: first, to create models for collaborative research in a field that has been dominated by a methodology of—and rewards for—individual research and, second, to analyze vast quantities of data that can now be accessed digitally. The project makes tools available to perform calculations and visualize the data to encourage and assist collaborative, international studies of these numerous but widely scattered collections of materials. The stories about lives of slaves as well as the analyses of slavery emerging from this network will be a unique resource for linguists, creolists, anthropologists, economic historians, sociologists, geographers, cartographers, creative writers, and genealogists searching for their African ancestors as well as for historians of slavery.
This DH2013 presentation on the Slave Biographies project will not only give a comprehensive overview of the project but will outline the challenges of dealing with large historical datasets. However, what is most exciting about the project is that by bringing together large sets of data, we cannot only do large calculations and visualizations about the historical practices of slavery, but we can drill down to find rich representations of individuals and families, giving life to the individual biographies of slaves and their relationships and contexts. That is, the promise of big data may not be to bury people in blizzards of numbers but to recover the lives of individuals.
2) Significance
Never before has it been more important to the humanities to try, as NEH Chairman Jim Leach has recently noted, “to manage a deluge of data and turn bits of information into useful knowledge.” This is particularly true of history. Historians, their students and the public at large are awash in the materials available in digital archives and databases, a flood of data enhanced by global scholarly networks and better access to archives and collections around the world. More than ever, it is crucial to find ways to preserve and manage large stores of quantitative and qualitative data and to make it accessible in ways that important research questions can be asked and well-formed answers derived. To be sure, the task of accumulating, organizing, and making sense of mountains of information from scattered corners of the globe cannot be handled by any one researcher. If the humanities are to advance in transformative ways in this age of globalization, humanists must find new ways to collaborate—to work together on large, international projects. If international collaboration is to occur, humanists in the wealthy countries with best access to new networking and data-analyzing technologies must find ways to make them available to their colleagues in poorer countries. Slave Biographies, to this end, provides both a collaborative, international project that is building a data network available to scholars, teachers, students, and genealogists in the U.S. and abroad, and a platform for addressing the difficult practical, ethical, methodological and, especially, hermeneutic problems scholars face when turning their attention to collecting and analyzing data about African slaves and their descendants.
Answering important historical questions
For several decades after the publication in 1969 of Philip D. Curtin's seminal book, The Trans- Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census, much scholarly attention and resources have been focused on quantitative studies of trans-Atlantic slave trade voyages. This research has yielded considerable important scholarship, discussed in the following section about related databases. However, these sources contain relatively little information about individual enslaved Africans.
Recently, a growing number of scholars have been unearthing important data from other sources, such as notarial documents; plantation inventories; police reports; testimony by runaway slaves, conspirators and rebels against slavery, church books of baptism, death and marriage, church Inquisition testimony, government and church censuses, which reveal much about slave life in the New World and about African slaves’ lives in parts of the Old World. These sources focus on individual slaves. When records about many individuals are combined, patterns can be discerned. Data about ethnicities tell us from where within Africa many slaves hailed; data about slave residence in the Americas tell us where members of particular groups ended up and where and how they were housed; data about marriages tell us with whom Africans and their descendants chose to partner; data about skills tell us what slaves did and their contributions to agriculture, trade and the economy beyond brute labor. And this list could go on for pages.
Among the questions that might be asked and answered from multiple, large-scale datasets are:
•        What percentage of people by African ethnic group was skilled in X?
•        On X plantation, what was the gender ratio of slaves by African ethnic group?
•        What percentage of Africans married people of the same ethnic group?
•        What were the gender ratios of slaves identified as being of XXXX ethnicity?
•        What injuries did people performing X type of work most commonly have?
•        In X period, what was the percentage of slaves in Y place by ethnic group?
•        In what records does the slave named XXXX appear? What were XXXX's professions?
•        What places did he live? Who were his/her children and children’s children?
•        What was the value of slaves by ethnicity in X period? By skills and gender?
Making statistical data easily available and securely preserved is, then, one aspect of the project. Making that data understandable is another. Scholars and students—and anyone with Internet access—can search and browse (or download) individual datasets or the entire collection of datasets. Users can formulate questions (like those spelled out in section I.A. above), and get calculated answers not only in the form of numbers but also visual graphs: pie and line charts and histograms. The project also has a visualization platform that connects slaves to family members creating a complex web of social and kinship networks. This functionality affords nuanced views of the interconnectedness of individual slaves within the larger data collection.
By aggregating multiple datasets about slaves and developing tools that allow users to visualize and analyze this information,Slave Biographies empowers users to see broad patterns within a big set of data and identify small stories about individual slaves and their families. Ultimately with Slave Biographies scholars will be able to ask and answer unexpected questions that arise from the mass of biographic data in the repository and give life to slave experiences in the Atlantic World through their biographies contain in the data.
Into the future, Slave Biographies intends to enhance the visualization layer of the platform to allow users to map the data; maps of the Americas and Africa will illustrate from the places where individual slaves (based on ethnic identifications) hailed and to where they were finally brought. A time scrubber will enable scholars and students to see temporal and spatial shifts in patterns, a visualization of the slave trade attached to names and individuals. Another frontier for the project marries the geo-spatial mapping layer with richly illustrated slave biographies in an iPad application as well as a Windows Surfaces version for museum exhibition. Prototyping is already underway for this experience, which we hope will provide an engaging access point into the repository for general audiences.","txt","2","",""
"1647","14","Computer Identification of Movement in 2D and 3D Data","10","Wang (2003) noted that the majority of research conducted into movement patterns has been for surveillance, while ‘the breadth of uses for motion analysis beyond surveillance includes sports and ballet’. Although scholars have long recognized the need to employ digital analysis of human movement, especially in dance, the technology for such analyses has not been available. The ARTeFACT project, funded by an NEH Digital Start-up Grant and an ACLS Digital Innovation Fellowship, addresses this lack by developing methodologies for computer identification of complex dance movements in 3-D, through initial work towards the ability to have computer analysis and tagging of 2-D dance film.

Although other projects have had goals specific to dance research and the use of motion capture, we have discovered only one other project that considers a grammar of movement to enable the segmentation, recognition, retrieval, and qualitative analysis of movement from 3D data as we envision (Choensawat et al., 2009). This paper discusses the ARTeFACT approach: the methods used to describe movement, the relationship of NLP to the non-verbal language of dance, and the technology used to automatically identify dance movement in 3-D data.

Ontology, Mo-Cap and Movement Identification
One of the challenges in developing a grammar based on movement is the lack of any clear distinctions between movements, relative to the spaces and punctuation delimiting words in NLP. Thus we must find other means of identifying the patterns and features of movements within a corpus of movement texts. As a first step we developed an ontology, stored in XML files which contain fields and variables pertinent to an individual STEP. STEPS are defined as specific codified movements performed in isolation or in combination with other STEPS; the codified movements are typically performed as part of technique class, and are subsequently used in choreographic works as sections of movement phrases. Each STEP entry includes spatial level, body part, effort, genre, style, relationship to other STEPs (IS A, IS A PART OF, CONTAINS), terminology (folksonomic, codified), and any movement synonyms (movements in one genre synonymous with a movement in another genre, e.g. ‘ecarte derrier’ in ballet and ‘tilt’ in modern dance).

Using a motion capture system we captured over 100 codified steps and phrases from Ballet, Modern, Jazz and Tai Chi Chuan genres. At least three good trials of each move were captured from which we developed a movement database or library of codified moves, with model moves determined by selecting a representative trial for each move. Data was collected at 120 Hz with a VICON 8 camera motion capture system on two highly qualified performers — a professional ballet dancer of 15 years and a practicing Tai Chi Chuan expert of 25 years. Per the modified Plug-In Gait full body marker set, 38 infrared reflecting markers were placed on the performers. The library contains joint position data, classification information (e.g. relationship of feet to ground, number of occurrences, traveling movements, and rotation around the pelvic center). Movement identification was provided by custom MATLAB code, idMove, which reads the joint positions and uses a combination of classification and pattern recognition to identify a dance move.

Data analysis was performed with validated software written in VICON’s Bodybuilder language, which generated the 3-D marker kinematics used in the analysis (Bennett et al. 2005). The output of this software contained 3-D positions of the joints over time, which was the basis for kinematic analysis. Although other parameters such as joint angles and movements were available, only marker position data was used as it was deemed the most compatible with the eventual goal of identifying moves from 2-D film. Classification used empirically pre-set threshold values to determine whether certain conditions were met, e.g. whether a foot was off the ground. idMove computed ten independent time series for the model and the test move — transverse proximity of knees and ankles (2) and both orientations of bilateral hip-knee and knee-heel elevation (8) and the appropriate time series of model and test move were cross-correlated.

A total of 181 trials of 93 unique codified movements were tested with and without classification filtering. Both methods correctly identified the majority of the trials; however, using correlation alone was more accurate. The algorithm using classification as a way to reduce potential model moves produced a sensitivity of 84.5% over the 181 codified trials with an average combined correlation coefficient of 0.856. Additionally, there were 7 false positives and 21 trials not matched with any move. Overall, 88 of the total 93 codified moves were identifiable by at least one trial. When using only correlation in the process of matching moves, the results were greatly improved, demonstrated by a sensitivity of 97.3% and false positives were reduced to a total of five with all unique moves identifiable in at least one trial.

Abstract Movement and Conceptual Metaphor
As helpful as it is to identify codified movements, in reality many movements in dance and other movement-based activities are not codified. Further, earlier research has shown that dance viewers rarely describe movements; instead they note an interpretive, subjective response to movement. Therefore, while codified movements were a logical first step for our research, we chose to use Lakoff and Johnson’s research on conceptual metaphor and embodied knowledge to develop another means of classifying and identifying movement patterns (Lakoff and Johnson 1980; Johnson 2007). By incorporating abstract movement into our library we are able to conduct research into semantic descriptions of human motion in complex unconstrained activities. This is the first time that conceptual metaphor has been used to study the meaning of movement for the purposes of automatic recognition and segmentation of 2D and 3D data strings.

With movements from seven dance works that represent conflict (war) and contain both codified and abstract movement, we categorised and captured 396 different sections of movement, performed by two dancers. We found that movements are shared across the seven dance works studied, specific to 19 different CONFLICT terms listed in the Collins Cobuild Dictionary of Metaphor (Diegnan 1995). Therefore, in order to overcome the challenge of segmentation inherent in abstract movement we have developed rules for identifying similar patterns within a specific context (in this case, metaphoric terms). For example, joint angles of specific body parts can be identified per conflict term (e.g. acute knee and hip angles in ‘struggle’), as can the relation of foot to floor (jumps appear often with ‘hero’ and ‘victory’). Also, as choreographers may include codified movements within an abstract string, we are able to identify those through the application of the model moves in the codified library. By creating the rules and clearly defining the movement specifics relative to the metaphor terms, we can generate ‘start and stop’ points within the string of data, thus replicating the use of spaces to delineate words in NLP methodologies.

In addition to developing rules, we have conducted statistical analysis on the frequency of movements and movement durations per term providing information regarding movement quality, as well as quantity. The most frequently occurring terms are Victim, Struggle and Attack in descending order, although Struggle consumes more time than Victim. Analysis of the empirical data and testing of idMove with the abstract movements associated with Conflict terms is ongoing, as is the development of a grammar to which NLP methods can be applied (i.e. the derivation of tokens from 2D data that are the building blocks for expressions of dance movement).

Conclusion
The ARTeFACT project — which brings together scholars and artists across the sciences, humanities, and arts — is making several scientific and technical advancements in the fields of motion analysis and image pose recognition. This initial work demonstrates our ability to identify codified dance moves using 3-D data from film of a single performer. Consistent with our goal of using only 2-D data, the analysis relied on elevation changes as the primary criteria for recognition. With the assistance of pose recognition software for film, elevation changes in joint centers could be directly applicable to a similar analysis on single camera video. In addition to adding to the ability to identify the semantics of movement in 2D and 3D data and to provide data mining of abstract movement based on concepts as well as codified movements, this is a unique use of conceptual metaphor against a corpus of movements. Further, the knowledge gleaned from this project extends to research into movement-based disciplines (dance, kinesiology, sports medicine, anthropology, etc.)

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Wang, L., W. Hu, and T. Tan. (2003). “Recent developments in human motion analysis.” Pattern Recognition. 36. 585-601.
Wiesner, S., B. Bennett, and R. Stalnaker. (2011). ARTeFACT Movement Thesaurus. [white paper] NEH Office of Digital Humanities.","txt","2","",""
"1648","14","Computing Place: The Case of City Nature","9","A large proportion of digital humanities projects entail mapping and therefore computation about places. Much of that computation concerns spatial attributes and relations — location, distribution, interaction flows, and so on — the list of spatial analytic operations of interest for humanistic studies is long and growing. Much of this decidedly quantitative spatial (often spatial-temporal) analysis is performed to better understand place, a decidedly humanistic concept defined here as ‘experiential space’ or ‘space as experienced by humans.’ [1] This distinction can be confusing because the term space is often appropriated by humanities scholars and critical theorists, in speaking for example of human-constructed spaces. In my biased view as a practitioner of geographic information science (GIScience) with a humanist bent, we need both terms and we need for them not to be conflated.

To date, computational geography (born in the late 1950s but distinguished as GIScience for a couple decades now) has concerned itself with quantitative analyses of spatial and spatial-temporal aspects of natural phenomena at geographic scales. However social scientists, and more obviously, humanist scholars, have questions concerning human experience of space and space-time. In recent years, GIScience has increasingly added methods more directly supporting qualitative analysis (Bodenhamer et al 2010; Dear et al 2011). Examples of this include (i) the semantic analysis of texts joined with spatial analysis of locations associated with their production (Cooper and Gregory 2011), and (ii) the space-time prisms of Time Geography applied to urban residents daily movements by critical human geographers (e.g. Kwan and Schwanen 2009).

In my own recent work on the City Nature project [2] , I have undertaken to characterize “Naturehoods” as areas within cities that are distinctive for their level of “nature-ness;” to capture the human sense of being close to nature in a classification which integrates several physical measures including satellite imagery and social variables including wealth and ethnicity. The overarching goals of City Nature have been first, accounting for the enormous variation in quantity and quality of natural areas in large U.S. cities, and then helping planners arrive at best practices for ensuring reasonable quality of life as cities world-wide grow at an unsustainable pace.

The Naturehoods profile combines satellite measures of mean distance to park-level greenness and non-impervious surface with areal percentages of park and open space, as well as walking distance to parks, and demographic variables like age, household income, diversity, affluence and race.

Somewhat surprisingly, initial results show no appreciable correlation between environmental facts on the ground and social factors. Explanation must now be sought in historical contingency — both in cities’ planning processes and external events. Textual analysis of cities’ comprehensive plans has been undertaken, and is helping us develop hypotheses to investigate further. Some historical investigation has begun as well, with a study of Los Angeles park planning history. Both of these are outside this paper’s scope, but will be discussed in the delivered paper.

Finally, we are also designing a human-subject experiment that will attempt to validate our measures of urban nature on the basis of human reactions to traversing through disparate “Naturehoods.” That is, to learn whether this carefully crafted statistical profile of earth surface characteristics joined with demographic statistics in fact corresponds with peoples’ “sense of place.” Living in an area dominated by strip malls and new tracts is not like living in an area with leafy boulevards, nor a downtown with a few sprinkled mini-parks, nor a wealthy enclave with large yards dense with foliage. Can digital methods predict residents’ affect in this case?

Preliminary results of these attempts at “Computing Place” appear in an interactive scholarly work [3] — a mapping and visualization application that allows researchers and the general public to explore will ultimately tell a story of the variation in people’s experience of nature in US cities.

References
Bodenhamer, D. J., J. Corrigan, and T. M. Harris (eds.) (2010). The spatial humanities: GIS and the future of humanities scholarship. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Cooper, D., and I. N. Gregory (2011). Mapping the English Lake District: a literary GIS. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 36(1).
Dear, M., J. Ketchum, S. Luria, and D. Richardson (2011) (eds),(2011). Geohumanities: Art, history, text at the edge of place. London: Routledge.
Kwan, M. and T. Schwanen (2009) (eds), Critical Quantitative Geographies. Environment and Planning A, 41(2).
Massey, D. (2005). For space. London: Sage
Tuan, Y. F. (1977). Space and place. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press: The perspective of experience
Notes
1. There are of course many understandings of the term Place; my own are influenced heavily by Massey (2005) and Tuan (1977).

2. undertaken with colleagues Jon Christensen, Elijah Meeks and Maria Santos at Stanford

3. http://citynature.stanford.edu","txt","2","",""
"1649","14","A concept of data modeling for the humanities","10","Data modeling is one of the main tasks of digital humanists. They engage in it in creating databases, corpora, digital editions, geographical information systems, research collections, digital libraries, project-specific markup and also crosswalks for heterogenous data collections. In light of this variety of activities, however, it is interesting to note that there is no general theory of data modeling in the digital humanities. Looking at the important works that have defined digital humanities in the recent years, this discrepancy becomes even more noteworthy. On the one hand McCarty 2005 regards modeling as the very basic of humanities computing; on the other hand there is almost no general literature on data modeling in the digital humanities. An explanation for this could be the general feeling that there is no need for research on data modeling because the field of computer science has a vast amount of literature on it. But a closer look soon reveals that in that context the term 'data modeling' refers almost exclusively to database design (for an overview, see Simsion 2007). This discussion carried on by computer scientists and practitioners is detailed and elaborate, but it cannot be a substitute for research on data modeling in the humanities. The relational database – as important as it is – has not become the sole and prototypical data modeling activity in the humanities, in the way that text encoding has. On the principles of text encoding there is an important research literature (for example DeRose et al. 1990, Maler/Andaloussi 1995, or Hockey 2000) and even more literature on specific problems of the intellectual tools used by most digital humanists nowadays, such as the problem of overlapping hierarchies (Schmidt 2010). But it is not our goal to replace one main data modeling activity with another one, but to combine the insights of those different activities and to ask, in a very preliminary way, what ideas could be part of a first outline of a general theory of data modeling in the humanities.

One interesting lesson to learn from the computer science literature on data modeling is the difference between a conceptual and a logical data model. The conceptual data model identifies and describes the entities and their relationship in the ‘universe of discourse’ and displays its result in a graphical notation such as an entity-relationship-diagram. The logical data model defines the tables of a database according to the underlying relational model. In data modeling related to textual material, people usually describe their results in prose and map them to a schema, but there is no graphical notation, or at least no system that is generally agreed upon in the manner of Chen's ER-diagram or the crow foot notation. This is probably less due to the lack of graphical notation than to the lack of a generally accepted conceptual model for XML (for a comprehensive overview of conceptual models for XML see Haitao Chen / Husheng Liao 2010). Besides the technical challenges for establishing such a model it is interesting to note that in the digital humanities there seems to be no real need for it. Even the tree notation proposed by Maler/Andaloussi never caught on. So a deeper understanding is needed why we can find this two very different practices in data modeling.

It is a common feature of literature on data modeling that in order to create and evaluate a model one has to have a clear understanding of the user requirements for the data model. We note an interesting duality in this respect: on the one hand, data models serve as an interchange format for some types of users and user communities where data is typically being created and modeled with someone else’s needs in mind (archives, libraries, others whom we might characterize as “altruistic modelers”). On the other hand, data models also exist whose function is to express specific research ideas in cases where data is being created to support the creator’s own research needs (particularly for individual scholars and projects, whom we might characterize as “egoistic modelers”). Altruistic modelers also make assumptions what features of the digital objects are of interest for most users and in most use cases, while egoistic modelers can and will concentrate on their own needs. Thus, we have in practice very different ways of modeling: one that tries to include very different views on digital objects and aiming to establish standards (and this involves very specific processes to decide on these user needs and to connect these new models with existing traditions of modeling, for example in library science), and another that is interested mainly in expressing as exactly as possible the theoretical assumptions and research interests of one or more scholars. Often the data model for research purposes is evolving during the research process and many functions of schemas are not that important in such a context. 

To conclude our discussion we want to propose a generic definition of data modeling: It refers to the activity to design a model of some real (or fictional) world segment to fulfill a specific set of user requirements using one or more of the meta models available in order to make some aspects of the data computable, to enable consistency constraints and to establish a common field of perception. Two typical forms of user requirements can be found: one which aims to define a data model for a domain in order to support data exchange and long-term use; and alternatively, one that is interested above all in modeling specific research assumptions and is often only used for a short time in a specific research context. In general a data model consists of a conceptual part which defines the data semantics, the relevant entities, their features and their relations, and a logical part which expresses a subset of the conceptual model in such a way that it is an abstract, self-contained, logical definition of the data, data operators, and so forth that together make up an abstract machine which makes the data computable.  

Thus far we have been considering the general aspects of data modeling but in the final section of the paper we turn to the question of whether there is something specific to all of the data modeling activities in the humanities, something which sets them apart. Although we do not assume that this is a clear cut line, we argue that two features are of particular importance for data modeling in the humanities: first, that the objects of the data modeling activities are artifacts and many of their properties are not only man-made but intentionally created. And second, that (in contrast for example to business applications) not only do the objects of humanities research possess a long history which humanist usually respect and want to handle adequately, but in addition the research on these objects has a comparatively long history as well, and our models have to convey the complexities of this research. The implications of these features for a theory of data modeling in the humanities will have to be the topic of further research in the future.

References
Chen, H., and H. Liao. (2010). A Survey to Conceptual Modeling for XML. In proceedings of: Computer Science and Information Technology (ICCSIT), 3rd IEEE International Conference on, Volume: 8.
Hockey, S. (2001). Electronic Texts in the Humanities: Principles and Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Maler, E., and J. El Andaloussi (1995). Developing SGML Dtds: From Text to Model to Markup. Prentice Hall.
McCarty, W. (2005). Humanities Computing. Houndsmill: Palgrave.
DeRose, S. J., D. G. Durand, E. Mylonas, and A. H. Renear (1990). “What is Text, Really?” Journal of Computing in Higher Education 2:1 3-26.
Schmidt, D. (2010). The inadequacy of embedded markup for cultural heritage texts. In Literary and Linguistic Computing 25(3): 337-356.
Simsion, G. (2007). Data Modeling: Theory and Practice. Bradley Beach: Technics Publications.","txt","2","",""
"1650","14","CULTURA: Supporting Professional Humanities Researchers","9","A key challenge facing professional researchers in the domain of cultural heritage across Europe and worldwide is the interrogation of growing digital humanities collections. However, the full value of these heritage treasures is not being realised. After digitisation, these collections are typically monolithic, difficult to navigate and can contain text which is highly variable in terms of language, spelling, punctuation, and consistency of terminology. These difficulties are compounded by a lack of normalised spelling in most European languages before the eighteenth century. This means that search across these digital collections tends to return sub-par results as multiple spellings for many common words are treated as independent document keywords. CULTURA is a corpus agnostic environment with a suite of services, including personalisation, annotation, and recommendation, providing necessary supports and features for a diverse range of professional researchers.

In order to empower communities of researchers with personalised mechanisms which support the collaborative exploration, interrogation and interpretation of complex digital cultural artefacts, the adaptivity provided in CULTURA is required to be integrated and intelligent. The next generation adaptivity provided by CULTURA supports the dynamic composition and presentation of digital cultural heritage resources. Automated adaptivity however, is not enough on its own. Ensuring that the user is in control of the personalisation process is essential. Such user-centred control is enhanced through correlating usage patterns with self-expressed user goals; pre-defined strategies (e.g. research strategies, investigation strategies, discovery strategies, explanatory strategies etc.); and the provision of appropriate tools for users to explore and navigate large cultural heritage information spaces.

A central aspect of the CULTURA environment is its use of rich metadata (user generated, computer generated and expert generated) coupled with natural language processing, entity extraction and social network analysis techniques, in order to support collaborative exploration, interrogation and interpretation of the underlying cultural resources. The Qviz (http://www.qviz.eu) project has some similarities in approach to the CULTURA project in that it makes explicit recognition of the value of users as members of communities, and as contributors to digital cultural heritage collections, however Qviz, however, does not incorporate a personalised or adaptive aspect.

The manual determination of descriptive metadata across a large corpus is too time-consuming to be practical. For example, the process of metadata identification for the 8,000 1641 depositions took a research assistant 12 months (http://1641.tcd.ie). An automated entity extraction process is used by the CULTURA project (Carmel et al. 2012). This process interprets words and combinations of words to identify entities in the corpus such as people, places, events, and dates. Complex entities are then constructed from these entities and the corpus allowing the identification of events, such as WHO did WHAT on such a DATE at a specific LOCATION.

Entity extraction is most powerful on a corpus in which all the content has been normalised as entities can be matched across multiple documents. To enable normalisation a ground-truth is manually generated across a proportion of the corpus, approximately 10% in the case of the 1641 depositions (Hampson et al. 2012). The ground-truth assigns non-normalised terms in the corpus to normalised terms. The ground-truth is applied in the generation of a statistical model that is then utilised on the entire corpus outputting a normalised corpus. It is this normalised content from which entities are identified and extracted. The linguistic model used in the normalisation of the 1641 Depositions has proved highly reusable, and provides robust results when applied to a range of other material contemporary to the corpus used to generate the model, enabling the re-use of the model on additional content collections.

The output of these processes ensures each individual piece of content from the corpus has descriptive metadata in the form of individual entities such as a person or place, and complex entities such as where a person lived (i.e. compound entities) as well as a normalised variant. This enables a simple keyword search to provide results that cover the entire corpus and all variants of spelling of the terms entered. Additionally, and more significantly, individual pieces of content from within the corpus can be linked to other content that contains information on the same event or similar events, based on the date, location, people, and type of event. These links enable professional researchers to quickly identify content that is related to their current research topic, by way of visualisations of these links (Hampson et.al. 2012).

While the automated tools are providing useful results for professional researchers, these state-of-the-art tools cannot replace the insight and experience of a professional researcher. These insights can be captured via an annotation tool that can be used to annotate specific aspects of any piece of content, both textual and visual. Annotations can be at any level, from a single word up to the entire document, or any user-identified region of an image. Annotations also allow the researcher to link the identified content to any other document within the corpus. Links such as this feed a professional researcher’s knowledge into the system, and can be used to aid in the adaptivity and personalisation of the system for all users.

Collaboration between professional researchers occurs in an implicit manner via the use of annotations as link generation between content, which feeds into recommendations and personalisation. Explicit collaboration is also present in CULTURA. Researchers can share annotations with other users, enabling the propagation of insights and discoveries in the content. As annotations are anchored to specific elements of a document they provide a powerful mechanism for inserting detailed and relevant knowledge. This knowledge can be made available to either groups of researchers or all researchers thus enabling a greater collaboration across all users of the environment.

The CULTURA environment has already been used by professional researchers in the course of their research. Services including annotations, document level notes, and multi-dimensional recommendations of content were enabled within the environment.

A number of the professional researchers involved in trials of the CULTURA environment were initially wary of the potential impact of adaptivity on their research. They expressed concern that the recommendation system would create a ‘filter bubble’, distorting the appearance of the collection. As they engaged with the environment, however, these concerns were abated. Research into the user requirements of these end-users had identified this concern, and a concomitant need for a high level of scrutability. In line with this, recommendations made by the CULTURA engine were very explicitly presented in a way that made it easy for researchers to decide whether to use them, or to ignore their suggestions. In addition, the interface made it clear why a given user was being recommended a particular piece of content.

After some initial caution, professional researchers agreed that the adaptive recommendations provided by CULTURA were genuinely useful. This was especially true of researchers who were previously unfamiliar with the CULTURA corpora. These users reported that the recommendations facilitated their mastery of the collection. Researchers who had greater familiarity with the collection rated the utility of the recommendations less highly, but still expressed an appreciation of their potential usefulness. In particular, they suggested that the recommendations were valuable in encouraging them to look at the collection in new ways.

The user model for the professional researchers was evaluated and determined to be an accurate reflection of the researcher’s interests and topics under research. While some anomalies were identified in the user model, the areas of interest that were weighted most highly correlated with the topics of the research.

The CULTURA environment is currently engaged in additional evaluations with trainee researchers utilising a broader set of documents, tools, and adaptivity.

References
http://www.qviz.eu
http://1641.tcd.ie
Carmel, D., N. Zwerdling, and S. Yogev (2012). 'Entity oriented search and exploration for cultural heritage collections: the EU cultura project'. In Proceedings of the 21st international conference companion on World Wide Web. New York: ACM. 227-230 .
Hampson, C., M. Agosti, N. Orio, E. Bailey, S. Lawless, O. Conlan., and V. Wade (2012). CULTURA Project: Supporting Next Generation Interaction with Digital Cultural Heritage Collections. EUROMED 2012, International Conference on Cultural Heritage. Lemesos, Cyprus. To Appear.","txt","2","",""
"1651","14","Fine-tuning Stylometric Tools: Investigating Authorship and Genre in French Classical Theater","9","This paper is concerned with stylometric classification applied to French seventeenth-century plays. It reports on ongoing investigations into parameter setting and its impact on classification of such texts by author, genre, or form, using Eder & Rybicky's stylometric scripts for R (Eder & Rybicky 2011). Based on an investigation into the Corneille-Molière controversy, several methodological issues standing in the way of reliable results have been identified. One issue concerns the degree to which such authorship classification tasks are influenced by genre (here, comedy or tragedy) and form (here, verse or prose). Investigation of this issue shows that input parameters have indeed effects on the relative influence of authorship, genre and form in the classification of plays. Stylometry today: advances and challenges
Stylometry has made significant advances in recent years, due no doubt to the increased availability of electronic texts, of sophisticated and accessible stylometric tools, and of proposed classification methods and distance measures. Based on this range of resources, researchers in stylometry are able to use various linguistic features as input for classification tasks and may adjust a wide range of parameters.

This situation, however, also brings renewed urgency to the issue of fine-tuning input parameters and distance measures, depending on the materials under scrutiny and the type of inquiry. Arguably, this is somewhat less of an issue today for a language such as English, where a well-established stylometric tradition exists. However, despite recent advances for some languages (Van Dalen-Oskam & Van Zundert 2007, Rybicky & Eder 2011), parameter setting remains an insufficiently explored issue for languages such as German, French, Spanish, or Latin, and many more.

The Corneille-Molière controversy
This has been particularly apparent in the domain of seventeenth-century French drama, because work in this area has recently fuelled a controversy over whether or not Corneille was in fact the author of some or several plays traditionally attributed to Molière. In this controversy, traditional biographical and archival research (Boissier 2004) was complemented with results from stylometric analyses (Labbé & Labbé 2001; for a knowledgeable critique, see Brunet 2004; for a more recent approach, see Marusenko & Rodionova 2010). However, the methodological basis for stylometric analyses of this type of material seems to have been insufficiently investigated..

The conditions for reliable stylometric attribution results in this domain are challenging. The strong codification of classical literary discourse and the prevalence of stringent metrical forms mean that stylistic differences between authors are often subtle. At the same time, the available plays vary widely as to dramatic genre (e.g. comedy or tragedy) and form (i.e. verse or prose). Preliminary investigations into the Corneille-Molière corpus using Eder and Rybicky's stylometric scripts have indeed shown the fragility of the results. Depending on the composition of the text collection, on the linguistic material used as input, and on distance calculation measures, results vary widely.

Fine-tuning for author, genre and form
On the one hand, then, it can be challenging to make clear author attributions on material that is heterogeneous as to genre or form. For example, relevant research relying on the „unmasking“ technique showed unsatisfactory results for cross-genre authorship attribution (Kestemont et al. 2012). On the other hand, if only relatively homogeneous material is taken into account, the overall amount of data available for classification may be significantly reduced. What is needed is knowledge about how to limit the influence of factors other than the one of concern in any given classification task. The most relevant factors in the present case are authorship, genre (here, comedy or tragedy) and form (here, verse or prose). If the goal is to make reliable author attributions, how can the influence of genre and form be limited? The research reported on here was designed in order to explore such issues. All investigations are based on the Théatre classique collection (Fièvre 2007-2013), which provides XML/TEI versions of all plays. Texts were uniformely preprocessed to retain only character speeches, but no lemmatization was applied.

A first collection of plays was investigated limiting the number of relevant categories to just two, authorship and genre, and balancing the number of plays for each category. This resulted in a collection of 32 plays by Pierre Corneille and Thomas Corneille, with an equal number of comedies and tragedies by each author. The question at hand was to find out at which settings the classification would be dominated by either one of the author or genre category, and to what extent. Systematic variation was introduced as to the range of words from the frequency list taken into account: All runs relied on 100 words from the word frequency list, and each run took these from a moving onset point onwards, at an interval of 50 words.

For each run, the data was subjected to a distance measurement using Burrows' Delta (Burrows 2002), the results forming the basis of a cluster analysis. The distance tables were saved for each run, and the proportions of the different low-level pairs for each run were extracted. The low-level pairs found can be of the following types: author-and-genre match, author-only match, genre-only match, or pairs without a match. The proportions of author-only and genre-only matches is assumed to indicate to which extent the chosen settings give precedence to textual features associated with authorship or genre, respectively. Figure 1 visualizes the results from this investigation.


Figure 1

Author-and-genre matches decrease overall with increasing onset points, and the proportion of author-only matches remains relatively stable. However, the proportion of genre-only matches increases markedly with increasing onset points. In the range of onsets points between 0 and 1150 words (with two exceptions at 300 and 750 words), pairing is predominantly related to authorship, not genre. In the range of onset points from 1150 to 1650 words, pairing is related both to authorship and to genre, in varying proportions, while genre seems to be taking over more markedly beyond an onset point of 1650 words.

A similar investigation was run with a collection of plays with variation only as to authorship and form (verse or prose). The collection of plays consisted of 28 comedies, with an equal number of prose and verse plays by each of the following authors: Dufresny, Scudéry, Regnard, and Molière. Again, the nature and proportions of the different low-level pairs was assessed. With adjustment for the asymmetrical number of authors and forms, the graph shown here as figure 2 was constructed.


Figure 2

There is a very strong fall-off for author-and-form matches from an onset point of around 800 words. Although author-only and form-only matches increase somewhat over the range of onset points, this does not correspond to the decrease in author-and-form matches. The most important result is that over the entire frequency range, form-only matches are always present and in many though not all cases, they have a higher proportion than the author-only matches. Compared to the authorship vs. genre comparison (figure 1), there is certainly no clear cut-off point below or above which author-only matches would dominate form-only matches.

Conclusions
Despite their limitations, these preliminary results give some useful indications for authorship attribution studies in French classical verse drama, and may increase reliability of attributions. First, text collections of mixed dramatic sub-genre may be used in authorship classification tasks, provided that the wordlist used does not exceed the first 1150 most frequent words, so that influence from features related to genre remains limited. Second, form is a prevalent factor in the entire range of the frequency list, and should be controlled for when creating text collections. Applying these insights to the Molière-Corneille problem permits to enlarge the corpus of comparison texts beyond comedies, thus yielding a broader basis for classification tasks, but not beyond verse plays. While the procedure described here could be used for other languages and genre pairs, the results may be difficult to generalize: the best distinguishing parameters will likely be different from the ones found here for French classical drama.

However, more work needs to be done before the results obtained are sufficiently reliable. On the one hand, the approach taken here could be improved by enhancing the assessment of the dendrograms to take higher-level groupings into account as well. On the other hand, the fact that there are quite a few exceptions to overall trends shows the limit of this approach. In fact, a mechanism like feature selection may be more appropriate to solve the issue. Using supervised machine learning techniques with authorship, genre or form as separate target classes, and combining this with information gain analysis for each target class, would allow generating lists of features relevant for each target category.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Jan Rybicky and Maciej Eder for introducing me to their tools as well as João Guerra for helping me with some Python coding.

References
Boissier, D. (2004). L'affaire Molière. La grande supercherie littéraire, Jean-Cyrille Godefroy.
Brunet, É. (2004). Où l’on mesure la distance entre les distances. Texto!. (4) http://www.revue-texto.net/Inedits/Brunet/Brunet_Distance.html (accessed 10 March 2013).
Burrows, J. (2002). ‘Delta’: a Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. LLC 17 (3) 267-287. 10.1093/llc/17.3.267
Eder, M., and J. Rybicki (2011). Stylometry with R. In DH2011: Conference Abstracts. Stanford University, Stanford, 308-11.
Fièvre, P., (ed.) (2007-2013). Théâtre classique, http://www.theatre-classique.fr/ (accessed 10 March 2013).
Kestemont, M., K. Luyckx, W. Daelemans, and T. Crombez (2012). Cross-Genre Authorship Verification Using Unmasking. English Studies
Labbé, C., and D. Labbé (2001). Inter-textual Distance and Autorship Attribution Corneille and Molière. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics. 8(3): 213-231. 10.1076/jqul.8.3.213.4100
Marusenko, M., and E. Rodionova (2010). Mathematical Methods for Attributing Literary Works When Solving the ‘Corneille-Molière’ Problem. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics 17(1): 30-54.
Rybicki, J., and M. Eder (2011). Deeper Delta Across Genres and Languages: Do We Really Need the Most Frequent Words? LLC. 26(3): 315-321. 10.1093/llc/fqr031.
Van Dalen-Oskam, K., and J. van Zundert (2007). Delta for Middle Dutch. Author and Copyist Distinction in Walewein. LLC. 22(3): 345-362. 10.1093/llc/fqm012.","txt","2","",""
"1652","14","DARIAH-EUs Virtual Competency Center on Research and Education","2","DARIAH (Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts in Humanities — http://dariah.eu) is a large-scale, long-term, pan-European endeavor aiming to enhance and support digitally-enabled research across the arts and humanities. DARIAH aims to develop and maintain an infrastructure in support of ICT-based research practices. It will explore and apply ICT-based methods and tools to enable new research, improve research opportunities through linking distributed digital source materials and tools, and exchange expertise, methodologies and practices across domains and disciplines.

The aim of this poster is to present one of the four primary contact points of DARIAH, the Virtual Competency Center Research and Education Liaison (VCC2). We would like to inform the DH community of our aims and encourage researchers to contact us and explore cooperation opportunities. The VCC is led by Susan Schreibman (Trinity College Dublin, Ireland) and Erik Champion (DIGHUMLAB, Denmark). The VCC’s activities fall into four areas, each of which has a coordinator who serves as the primary contact point.

Understanding Research Practices
VCC2 aims to develop an evidence-based foundation to ensure fitness for purpose of planned digital infrastructures for scholarly research.

To achieve this objective, VCC2 will develop a research protocol and manual for transnational longitudinal research on scholarly practices and for digital tools and services user requirements elicitation. It will conduct baseline research on scholarly research practices, digital tools and services requirements for the arts and humanities across Europe. It will develop a knowledge base of empirically attested research practices in the arts and humanities, by tracking a) information access, use and curation processes, and their relations with disciplines, methods, research objects, tools and services, and b) researcher feedback and case studies on digital tools and services use.

Work will build on earlier interview-based and questionnaire survey research in the “Preparing DARIAH” and EHRI projects, and on synergies with projects such as eCloud, ARIADNE, and NeDiMAH.

Training and Education Program
VCC2 aims to provide a training program for researchers in the methods, tools, and approaches needed to engage with the digital environment, including DARIAH services, tools, and content.

The Training and Education Program will focus in particular on the development and delivery of international summer school programs; development of collaborative, consortium-wide online training materials; and activities that foster a better understanding of teaching DH across disciplinary, institutional, linguistic and cultural borders. In addition, the program will collaborate with institutions providing undergraduate and postgraduate training in the digital humanities to embed DARIAH tools and services in their courses and provide structured feedback on their use.

As part of its effort to support academic mobility and international opportunities in DH education, the Training and Education Program will also create a registry of undergraduate and postgraduate DH courses in Europe.

Community Engagement
Engagement with digital tools, methods and content is an emerging practice for many arts and humanities researchers. VCC2 will seek to engage with these scholars about digital humanities, explain the added value digital data and methods can provide whilst seeking to foster exchange and cooperation within scholarly communities.

To promote engagement with the increasingly large volume of research data being digitized, and in turn the research infrastructures designed to support the use of this data, we support communities of researchers in coming together to learn from each other and express their requirements.

Services to this end include: a series of workshops aimed at younger researchers wishing to make the move towards digital research methods; expert meetings in which confirmed researchers focus on the further development of specific methods and tools; a publication series documenting results from DARIAH’s activities.

Virtual Research Environments
VREs are changing. What previously were closed systems where everything needed to be developed for that system are now becoming more modular systems where the appropriate outside tools can be plugged into a VRE platform.

With this in mind, it seems counterproductive to attempt to create a one-size-fits-all VRE. Instead, VCC2 expects to produce a VRE Blueprint: a document that can be used to guide the conversations between humanities scholars who wish to develop a VRE and the computer developers who will help them to realize this goal.

The blueprint will consist of a list of technical requirements that every VRE will have to meet, questions to guide the conversations between developers and scholars, an annotated bibliography, a list of common pitfalls in VRE development, and an end-user survey template to help developers get feedback from the VRE’s users.","txt","2","",""
"1653","14","The Future of Undergraduate Digital Humanities","3","Alongside the increasing number of digital humanities job listings, postdoctoral fellowships, and graduate programs, we have begun to see a number of introductory digital humanities courses and the creation of several programs at a wide range of undergraduate institutions — everything from small liberal arts colleges to state universities to research-intensive private institutions. Consequently, it seems opportune to think closely about how the digital humanities will shape undergraduate education — and vice versa. New jobs and fellowships presuppose undergraduates who have been and will be introduced to conversations of the digital humanities as well as humanities faculty who will teach them. While the late 1990s sparked discussions among Canadian and US institutions about the creation of undergraduate and master’s programs (Rockwell 1999; Unsworth 2001; Sinclair and Gouglas 2002), new technologies and institutional interest have renewed the conversation (Spiro 2010; Fitzpatrick 2010; Brier 2012; Reid 2012; Davis and Alexander 2012). Because such a large number and range of institutions are now considering implementing some training in the digital humanities, it now seems timely to contemplate the future of undergraduate digital humanities.

This panel considers how we might recalibrate the digital’s role in the humanities by making undergraduate education—and not simply digital pedagogy — a more central preoccupation. Building on recent, compelling discussions of infrastructure and curriculum for digital humanities graduate programs (Clement 2010; Thaller et al. 2012; Boggs et al. 2012) as well as roundtables on alternative careers (Nowviskie et al. 2011), dynamic constellations for undergraduate education are emerging from the interactions among new computational methods, hybrid classroom spaces, reimagined curricula, and alternative career paths for college graduates. This panel gathers several initiators of such digital humanities programs for undergraduates to discuss their past and future.

More than simply creating students to enroll in new graduate programs, introducing the methods of the digital humanities to undergraduates provides opportunities for them to do something traditionally reserved for students in the sciences: original, collaborative research (Blackwell and Martin 2009; Norcia 2008). Moreover, digital humanities has arguably brought renewed attention to discussions of praxis and pedagogy, with online journals such as Hybrid Pedagogy and The Journal of Interactive Pedagogy and Technology; Brett D. Hirsch’s recent Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles, Politics (2012); multiple panels on digital pedagogy at the 2012 MLA (Harris 2012; Berens and Croxall 2012) and a digital pedagogy unconference at the 2013 MLA (Croxall and Koh 2013); Brown University’s “Teaching with TEI” seminar (2012); a dedicated track at recent Digital Humanities Summer Institutes (Harris, Sayers, and Jakacki 2012; Jakacki 2013); and several poster presentations at recent Digital Humanities Conferences (Bonsignore et al., 2011; Harris 2011; Singer 2012; Croxall 2012). Our hope is that a roundtable discussion, drawing on participants from different fields and representing many different types of U.S. institutions, will help, first, to identify some of the best contemporary approaches to undergraduate digital humanities curricula, infrastructure, course scaffolding, and praxis and, second, to sketch out new directions for the future of undergraduate education at a variety of undergraduate institutions.

Organization
Each speaker will talk for 7 minutes about a particular institutional praxis or curricular infrastructure. The organizers will then pose questions for the entire roundtable for 20 minutes, leaving the remainder of the conversation for discussion among panelists and the audience.

To begin with, panelists will map out the multiple and competing histories of digital humanities’ recent incursion into undergraduate education, just as Matthew Kirschenbaum (2010) and others have sought to understand digital humanities by reflecting on its institutional histories. Part of this multiplicity, of course, is due to the ways in which “digital humanities” is understood differently at each institution, due to the specific interests of individual scholars, the focus of particular departments, and the demands of institutional mission. With these issues in mind, panelists will present several different models for integrating digital humanities into undergraduate coursework: from introductory seminars for first-year students who may lack technological skills through advanced courses for majors to specialized, independent research projects as capstone experiences. In doing so, we will consider both how best to structure something like an “Introduction to Digital Humanities” course and how to connect disparate projects, faculty, and upper-level courses. Such scaffolding naturally begs the larger question of whether digital humanities is best introduced to undergraduates as a separate discipline or as a crucial part of traditional humanities courses. Finally, while all panelists generally agree on a praxis-based approach to such courses, they will also discuss how best to execute and theorize praxis in the different disciplines.

Questions that panel organizers might pose during the subsequent discussion include:

Is digital humanities a topic that should be based within particular departments? Or is it something that should be taught across all humanities undergraduate departments?
What departmental or university infrastructure and support are necessary for a digital humanities undergraduate curriculum?
What is necessary to prepare students for digital humanities work at the graduate level? Is adequate preparation possible without more formalized graduate programs in place?
How do we redesign curricula to incorporate both DH courses and incursions into traditional disciplines?
Is digital humanities a methodology or a topic of study? How can the two approaches be best integrated in the undergraduate classroom?
What are best practices for praxis methodologies and project-based research approaches in the undergraduate classroom?
How might we envision curricula to be redesigned in the future with digital tools and digital critical thinking in mind?
How might national and international conceptions of undergraduate education shape digital humanities incursions differently?
Speakers
Recognizing the importance of undergraduate education in the future of the digital humanities, all six speakers have enthusiastically committed to attend and present at DH in Lincoln.

Cheryl E. Ball, Associate Professor of English, Illinois State University
Ball highlights how digital writing studies (a discipline in its fourth decade that integrates digital technology into its writing pedagogy and research) has always focused on issues current to discussions of “making” in the digital humanities: collaboration, openness, multimodality, and peer-review. Ball argues that a digital publishing curriculum, in which undergraduate students theorize and produce texts meant for an audience outside of the classroom (a key concept to digital writing studies pedagogy), is a model for DH in how it bridges theory and praxis across multiple disciplines in the humanities.
Ryan Cordell, Assistant Professor of English, Northeastern University
Cordell writes frequently about technology and teaching for the ProfHacker blog at the Chronicle of Higher Education and has taught digital humanities-inflected courses at both a liberal arts college and a research university. He will draw on those experiences in his contribution to this panel, where he will contend that undergraduates do not share their instructors' fascination with defining or theorizing digital humanities qua digital humanities. Rather than dwelling on such debates, he will suggest that DH instructors should embrace undergraduate disinterest in DH as an aid to curricular incursion, allowing digital practices to be introduced as routine aspects of scholarly practice.
Rebecca Frost Davis, Program Officer for the Humanities, National Institute for Technology in Liberal Education (NITLE)
Davis will discuss results of NITLE’s 2012 Survey of Digital Humanities at Liberal Arts Colleges, institutions that largely integrate digital methodologies via disciplinary coursework and student scholarship, rather than as a separate academic program. Her research explores the motivations and mechanisms for creating, integrating, and sustaining digital humanities within and across the undergraduate curriculum.
Jarom McDonald, Associate Research Professor and Director, Office of Digital Humanities, Brigham Young University
McDonald will address the topic, ""Considering a Moneyball approach to Digital Humanities Education."" BYU has just finished a multi-year assessment project of their long-running Computers and the Humanities minor, gathering empirical data through surveys, collaborative faculty input sessions, student tracking, and external review. He will discuss how he and colleagues are now working to understand how to best implement the wealth of evidence they've collected to help their program evolve for current and future students' needs.
Miriam Posner, Digital Humanities Coordinator and Research Technology Consultant, UCLA
Posner, who both coordinates and teaches in UCLA’s Digital Humanities program, is helping build a new interdisciplinary minor in digital humanities. She will speak on “knowledge design,” a pedagogical approach she and her colleagues have adopted that emphasizes an environment of project-based collaboration. Drawing on theories advanced by Johanna Drucker and Jerome McGann, she will describe the program’s studio model in which students are assigned a novel problem and asked to work across disciplines and hierarchies to solve it together.
John Theibault, Director, South Jersey Center for Digital Humanities, Richard Stockton College of New Jersey
Theibault began his academic career as a historian of early modern Europe and is currently Director of the South Jersey Center for Digital Humanities at Stockton College. He started teaching ""Introduction to Digital Humanities"" to undergraduates in the General Studies program at Stockton in 2011, which prompted his reflections about where such a course fits within a broader digital humanities curriculum for undergraduates, the topic of his presentation.
Organizers
Dr. Brian Croxall, Digital Humanities Strategist & Lecturer of English, Emory University
Dr. Kate Singer, Assistant Professor of English, Mount Holyoke College
References
Alexander, B., and R. F. Davis (2012). Should Liberal Arts Campuses Do Digital Humanities? Process and Products in the Small College World. Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minnesota University Press. 368-389.
Berens, K. I., and B. Croxall (2011). Session Proposal. Building Digital Humanities in the Undergraduate Classroom. 28 Nov. 2011. Web. http://www.briancroxall.net/buildingDH/2011/11/28/session-proposal/. 17 Oct. 2012.
Blackwell, C., and T. R. Martin (2009). Technology, Collaboration, and Undergraduate Research. Digital Humanities Quarterly. 3(1). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/1/index.html. 17 Oct 2012.
Boggs, J., et al. (2012). Realigning Digital Humanities Training: The Praxis Program at the Scholars’ Lab. Digital Humanities 2012. University of Hamburg. 18 July 2012. Poster presentation.
Bonsignore, B., et al. (2011). The Arcane Gallery of Gadgetry: A Design Case Study of an Alternate Reality Game. Digital Humanities 2011. Stanford University. 21 June 2011. Poster presentation.
Brier, S. (2012). Where’s the Pedagogy? The Role of Teaching and Learning in the Digital Humanities. Debates in Digital Humanities. Minnesota UP: 350-367.
Clement, T. (2010). An Undergraduate Perspective. Digital Literacy for the Dumbest Generation. Digital Humanities 2010. King’s College London. 8 July 2010.
Croxall, B. (2012). Courting ‘The World’s Wife’: Original Digital Humanities Research in the Undergraduate Classroom. Digital Humanities 2012. University of Hamburg. 18 July 2012.
Croxall, B., and A. Koh. (2013). A Digital Pedagogy Unconference. Modern Language Association Convention. Boston. 3 January 2013. http://www.briancroxall.net/digitalpedagogy/. 17 Oct. 2012.
Fitzpatrick, K. (2010). Undergrads Reimagine the Humanities. Planned Obsolescence. 11 December 2010. http://www.plannedobsolescence.net/blog/undergrads-reimagine-the-humanities/. 25 February 2013.
Harris, K. D. (2011). Pedagogy & Play: Revising Learning through Digital Humanities. Digital Humanities 2011. Stanford University. 21 June 2011. Poster presentation.
Harris, K. D. (2011). Acceptance of Pedagogy & DH MLA 2012. triproftri. 14 May 2011. http://triproftri.wordpress.com/2011/05/14/acceptance-of-pedagogy-dh-mla-2012/. Web. 17 Oct. 2012.
Harris, K. D., J. Sayers, and D. Jakacki. (2011) Digital Pedagogy in the Humanities. Digital Humanities Summer Institute. University of Victoria. June 2011 and June 2012.
Hirsch, B. D. (2012). Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics. Open Book Publishers, 2012.
Jacacki, D. (2013). Digital Pedagogy in the Humanities. Digital Humanities Summer Institute. University of Victoria. June 2013.
Kirschenbaum, M. G. (2010). What is Digital Humanities and What’s it Doing in English Departments? ADE Bulletin 150: 1-7.
Norcia, M. (2008). Out of the Ivory Tower Endlessly Rocking: Collaborating across Disciplines and Professions to Promote Student Learning in the Digital Archive. Pedagogy 8(1): 91-114.
Nowviskie, B., et al. (2011). The ""#alt-ac"" Track: Digital Humanists off the Straight and Narrow Path to Tenure. Digital Humanities 2011. Stanford University. 22 June 2011.
Reid, A. (2012). Graduate Education and the Ethics of the Digital Humanities. Debates in Digital Humanities. Minnesota UP, 390-401.
Rockwell, G. (1999). Is Humanities Computing an Academic Discipline? http://www.iath.virginia.edu/hcs/rockwell.html. 25 February 2013.
Sinclair, S., and S. W. Gouglas (2002). Theory into Practice: A Case Study of the Humanities Computing Master of Arts Programme at the University of Alberta. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education 1.2: 167-183.
Singer, K. (2012). The Melesina Trench Project: Markup Vocabularies, Poetics, and Undergraduate Pedagogy. Digital Humanities 2012. University of Hamburg. 18 July 2012.
Spiro, L. (2010). Opening Up Digital Humanities Education. Digital Scholarship in the Humanities. 8 September 2010. http://digitalscholarship.wordpress.com/ 2010/09/08/opening-up-digital-humanities-education/. 25 February 2013.
Thaller, M. et al. (2012). Digital Humanities as a University Degree: The Status Quo and Beyond. Digital Humanities 2012. University of Hamburg. 18 July 2012.
Unsworth, J. (2001). A Master’s Degree in Digital Humanities: Part of the Media Studies Program at the University of Virginia. 25 May 2001. http://people.lis.illinois.edu/~unsworth/laval.html. 25 February 2013.
Women Writers Project. (2012). Taking TEI Further: Teaching with TEI. Brown University Seminar. 20-22 August 2012.","txt","2","",""
"1654","14","Data Driven Documentation of Digital Humanities Discourse","2","This poster presents a work-in-progress investigating the use of social media in scholarly communication and the role such technologies play in the formation of scholarly communities. The digital humanities have emerged as a focal point for debates about the impact of information technology in the humanities. [1] While the digital humanities has its roots in the computational processing of text, [2] the landscape today is far richer and more complicated than early practitioners of humanities computing could have ever imagined (except perhaps Father Busa whose grand visions have yet to be realized). [3] Today, the digital humanities encompasses transformative methods of inquiry, radically new kinds of research objects, and potentially destabilizing shifts in scholarly publishing. However, beyond a metamorphosis of method, object, and account, digital humanities leverage information communications technology in unique ways to constitute themselves as a community in-formation.

Social media, especially blogs, have been eagerly adopted by the digital humanities community. [4] Blogs are pregnant with promise and peril as platforms for serious (and silly) scholarly communication. They are quick for publishing, support multimedia, and enable rapid interaction, yet, the low barrier of entry and lack of peer review puts blog's credibility and quality in doubt. Outside of the digital humanities, blogs are not necessarily seen as modes of serious scholarly communication, instead they are considered a place for gossip. [5] Such totalizing perspective ignores the diverse uses and meanings of blogs for scholars in a variety of disciplines. [6] The value of scholar's blogs and the vibrant communities of discourse around them should not be understated or ignored.

The seriousness of blogs as a mode of scholarly communication is evident in the creation of initiatives such as Digital Humanities Now [7] and the Journal of Digital Humanities. [8] These projects treat blogs as legitimate forms of proto-scholarship and provide a filter function to the community; finding high quality discourse within their curated selection of digital humanities blogs, the Compendium of digital humanities. As a model for scholarly publishing, the Journal of Digital Humanities presents a reversal of the traditional dynamics of scholarly discourse. Technology has flipped the flow of scholarly communication from one of scarcity to surfeit. It is impossible to keep up with the flood of blogs and Tweet, yet, scholars ignore this ""cool kids table"" at their peril. [9] In the face of such information overload, scholarly communities must change not only their means of knowledge production, but their information seeking behavior and the ways in which membership and identity are constituted as well.

This study presents a data driven analysis of scholarly discourse focusing on the sociotechnical dynamics of blogs and their role constituting the digital humanities as a community-in-formation. There have been a few data driven approaches to understanding the digital humanities, Melissa Terras' beautiful infographic, Quantifying the Digital Humanities, was an important first step towards surveying the community writ-large. [10] Matthew Jockers and Elijah Meeks have both done some initial work combining topic modeling and digital humanities blogs. Jockers analyzed one year's worth of Day of DH blog posts [11] and Meeks produced a model and visualizations of a variety of texts discussing the question ""What are the digital humanities?"" [12] This study continues these initial works with a broader breadth of data and deeper analysis of the results.

This poster presents initial findings and an innovative mixed methodological approach combining topic modeling, [13] a form of computational text mining, with grounded theory, [14] a method for developing analytical concepts from interpretivist social science. This mixture of methods enables both a ""distant reading"" of a vast textual corpus while also rigorously reading individual texts to better analyze and articulate the content of scholarly discourse. Leveraging the Compendium of Digital Humanities, [15] a curated list of blogs produced by Digital Humanities Now, I archive, mine, visualize, and interpret these communications paying special attention to the discursive work of community constitution.

The contribution of this poster is twofold. First, it presents a data driven landscape of scholarly communication. Using tools and techniques from information visualization, I represent a topic model of discourse on digital humanities blogs using a javascript visualization framework, Data Driven Documents. [16] Second, it presents a rigorous methodological procedure for the analyzing topic models rooted in an interpretivist qualitative analysis framework, grounded theory. Leveraging grounded theory this study informs our understanding of scholarly communities in-formation with an interpretive, grounded, empirical analysis of a computational model and its concomitant texts.

Notes
1. Gold, Matthew K., ed. (2012). Debates in the Digital Humanities. Univ Of Minnesota Press.

2. Hockey, S. ""The History of Humanities Computing."" A Companion to Digital Humanities. 2004.

3. Busa, R. ""Foreword: Perspectives on the Digital Humanities."" In A Companion to Digital Humanities. 2004.

4. Cohen, Dan. ""Professors, Start Your Blogs."" 2006. http://www.dancohen.org/2006/08/21/professors-start-your-blogs/

5. Saper, C. ""Blogademia."" Reconstruction 6, no. 4 (2006). http://www.citeulike.org/group/1736/article/1108357.

6. Hank, C. F. ""Scholars and their Blogs: Characteristics, Preferences, and Perceptions Impacting Digital Preservation"". University of North Carolina, 2011. http://ils.unc.edu/~wildem/ASIST2011/Hank-diss.pdf.

7. http://digitalhumanitiesnow.org

8. http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/

9. Pannapacker, William. ""Pannapacker at MLA: Digital Humanities Triumphant?"" 2011. http://chronicle.com/blogs/brainstorm/pannapacker-at-mla-digital-humanities-triumphant/30915

10. Terras, Melissa. ""Infographic: Quantifying Digital Humanities."" 2012. http://melissaterras.blogspot.com/2012/01/infographic-quanitifying-digital.html

11. Jockers, Matthew. ""Who's Your DH Blog Mate: Match-Making the Day of DH Bloggers with Topic Modeling"" 2010. http://www.matthewjockers.net/2010/03/19/whos-your-dh-blog-mate-match-making-the-day-of-dh-bloggers-with-topic-modeling/

12. Meeks, Elijah. ""Comprehending the Digital Humanities."" 2011. https://dhs.stanford.edu/comprehending-the-digital-humanities/

13. Blei, D. M., A. Y. Ng, and M. I. Jordan. ""Latent Dirichlet Allocation."" The Journal of Machine Learning Research 3 (2003): 993–1022.

14. Glaser, Barney G., and Anselm Strauss. The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Aldine Transaction, 1967. Charmaz, Kathy. Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide Through Qualitative Analysis. 1st ed. Sage Publications Ltd, 2006.

15. http://tinyurl.com/kaj2vpl

16. http://d3js.org/","txt","2","",""
"1655","14","Databases in Context: Transnational Compilations, and Networks of Women Writers from the Middle Ages to the Present","9","Overview
In the 1990s, databases began to expand the potential of quantitative approaches to create new connections between women, their writings, critics, readers and nations. However, in my research on an overlooked reference genre in women’s literary history, compilations — of biographies, bibliographies, and selected works of women, initially as (in)famous women in history, then as learned women and writers — I discovered that most databases enhance rather than transform the national narratives they have inherited, with a few important exceptions. Those national narratives became evident as I traced the development over the past 600 years of over a 100 compilations, a highly coherent, dynamic genre that began with Boccaccio’s Famous Women (1375), and gradually spread in waves from Italy to France, England, Denmark, Germany, Spain, Russia, the United States, and many smaller nations, initially as manuscripts, later as books, in the form of anthologies, biographies, bibliographies, treatises, and literary histories, and now as databases. Despite their quite varied generic properties, which are often hybrid, they are similar in how they function. Compilers list compilations, and rely on, compete and disagree with, and often simply borrow from their predecessors’ work not only nationally, which we would expect, but transnationally — features that make the genre cohere over centuries across national and linguistic boundaries. A comparative, historical survey of compilations reveals that women’s literary history is fundamentally relational, between nations (Hoogenboom, 2013). My project thus situates digital and quantitative scholarship on women in a long historical continuum that invites deeper reflection on the quantitative methods and assumptions underlying digital scholarship on women, and what Ann Blair terms our historically shared “info-lust” (Blair, 2010).

The national limitations of existing databases on women writers, and opportunities to question priorities and structures that reflect the nationalist, canonical narratives of literary histories, are apparent from some recent quantitative papers. Women’s writings remain underrepresented in textual and linguistic corpora, and thus in data mining, despite evidence that in some countries, at certain periods, women were writing more than men (for example, England from 1800 to 1830 (Garside et al., 2000), and Australia since 1990 (Bode, 2012)). In one project on data mining gender differences in French literature, the researchers note that, “The female corpus was assembled first, due to the more limited digital collection of women's writing at our disposal” (Argamon et al., 2009). Among researchers, Nowviskie notes the apparent paucity of women engaged in data mining, which may have causal connections with the lack of quantitative literary research on women’s texts (Nowviskie, 2012). Women’s writings raise questions about the representativeness of Franco Moretti’s project on distant reading, and suggest that book history and bibliographic studies remain central to quantitative projects (Moretti, 2000; Trumpener, 2009).

Two innovative databases, the Orlando Project and WomenWriters, move beyond the traditional categories of poetry, prose fiction, and national literatures, to open national narratives to other genres and writers, and include nations other than the traditional cultural empires of France and England in transnational literary histories. My research on European and American compilations and Russian women writers uses an international database, WomenWriters, which maps the national and international networks of the reception of women writers throughout Europe before 1900 to join traditional humanities and digital scholarship to illustrate new narratives of European women’s literary history. In its historical and geographical sweep, this project illuminates other networks beyond the cultural empires of Europe by integrating small nations, Western with Eastern Europe and Russia, and the U.S. This is also an umbrella project for smaller independent national databases that expands access to the resources and practices of digital humanities for women from diverse countries.

WomenWriters, run by New approaches to European Women Writers (NEWW, 2001-), is a unique international database stored and developed at Huygens ING of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW). WomenWriters uses data fields to link the relations between women and works through readers’ reception, nationally and internationally in many countries large and small to fundamentally reassess the influence of women as writers as broadly as possible. The database contains over 4,000 women writers, 12,000 works, and 22,000 receptions, found in such large-scale sources as library catalogs, translations, the periodical press, and compilations, together with memoirs, letters, archives, and so on. The project was awarded a European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) networking grant (400,000€, 2009-13) and COST Action IS0901 “Women Writers In History” has over 120 participants from 25 European Union countries, as well as myself (in Working Group 3, on sources) and others from the United States and other non-EU countries (http://www.costwwih.net/home). In December 2012, NEWW and Huygens ING received a grant for 2013 from CLARINS-NL to upgrade the database to a Virtual Research Environment (VRE) running on REST data services, which Huygens developed to map the republic of letters (Huygens, Oxford, and Stanford). It will include faceted searches to dynamically visualize networks and trees in interactive timelines or geographical maps, and statistical analysis and charting to map reception networks and topoi. This upgrade will also establish connectivity with five other European databases.

Methodology
My sample maps for both select compilations and select Russian women writers use a preliminary VRE with new data fields that can show quantitative data geographically and over time of transnational reception of women writers, their biographies, and their texts. Rather than rely on a single approach, the combined methodologies of book history, bibliography, national expertise, and quantitative methods of WomenWriters maximize the potential national and transnational influence of women writers. Methodologically, quantitative work on Russian women writers is an instructive case study because, aside from expanding corpora to include women’s writings from smaller nations, Franco Moretti (1998) shows that Russia is, like most nations, an importer of literature, but is exceptional in the amount it imported (over 80%).

WomenWriters has begun to test the systematic input of select contents of compilations of women writers from before 1900, beginning with eighteenth- and nineteenth-century French compilations, some of which found their way to England, Germany, and Russia. Since compilers often reference and borrow material from earlier compilations, this is an especially coherent way to track over time the presence and absence of writers together with the kinds of biographical reception material about them. These compilations can then be compared with national dictionaries, encyclopedias, and literary histories of writers on a larger scale to trace the national inclusion, exclusion, and changing reception topoi of women writers over time. I have done this selectively manually, comparing Russian compilations of women with a handful of dictionaries, encyclopedias, and literary histories for Russian literature (Hoogenboom, 2008), and will present select data visually.

My national research area of Russia expands the reception networks for European women substantially because Russia had many women writers and was among the biggest importers of foreign literature in translation and in the original languages. Currently, WomenWriters contains the only database collection of Russian women writers, who were very active translators. Using compilations, we have input around 500 out of about 1,400 Russian women authors. We are also inputting the Russian reception of George Sand (1804-76), who at present is a central node in WomenWriters because the database began as a Dutch-French project and the director, Suzan van Dijk, is a George Sand scholar (Van Dijk, 2001). Sand was a central node in European networks of women writers and readers, especially for Russians, whose enthusiasm can be measured in the number and speed of translations, many by women, in comparison with other nations. Sand’s predecessor on the international stage, Stéphanie-Félicité, Madame la Comtesse de Genlis (1746-1830), is also a node for Russia’s connectedness to European literature in an earlier era. Women’s hidden role as translators can slowly be made more visible in Russia and the many other nations that depended heavily on them for their reading. Thus as the database grows, it will be able to show significant, hitherto unseen, international connections and networks for such other international writers as Jeanne Leprince de Beaumont, Comtesse Dash and Ouida not only in literature, but also in, for example, pedagogy, religion, politics, and history.

Results
In anticipation of VRE maps and timelines later this year, the following links use the tree tool, the only data tool in the current version of WomenWriters to show an author’s position as a node between predecessors and followers. In Russia, Akhmatova was a translator and publisher of a series of over 300 translated novels and Khvoshchinskaia was the most productive and respected woman writer of the second half of the nineteenth century, and the most highly paid writer by the serious literary journals after Ivan Turgenev and Lev Tolstoy in the 1870s; both women translated novels by Sand and many others.

George Sand:
http://neww.huygens.knaw.nl/treeviews/show/7
Elizaveta Nikolaevna Akhmatova:
http://neww.huygens.knaw.nl/treeviews/show/4934
Nadezhda Dmitrievna Khvoshchinskaia:
http://neww.huygens.knaw.nl/treeviews/show/199
References
Argamon, S., J.-B. Goulain, R. Horton, and M. Olsen. (2009). Vive la Différence! Text Mining Gender Difference in French Literature. Digital Humanities Quarterly 3.2. http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/2/000042/000042.html (accessed 3 November 2012).
Blair, A. M. (2010). Too Much to Know: Managing Scholarly Information before the Modern Age. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Bode, K. (2012). Modeling Gender: The ‘Rise and Rise’ of the Australian Woman Novelist. Digital Humanities 2012. http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/modeling-gender-the-rise-and-rise-of-the-australian-woman-novelist/ (accessed 3 November 2012).
Garside, P., J. Raven, and R. Schöwerling. (ed.) (2000).The English Novel 1770-1829: A Bibliographical Survey of Prose Fiction Published in the British Isles. 2 vols. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hoogenboom, H. (2013). Bibliography and National Canons: Women Writers in France, England, Germany, and Russia (1800-2010). Comparative Literature Studies, 50(2).
Hoogenboom, H. (2008). The Non-Canonical Canon: From Nikolai Novikov’s Historical Dictionary to Dictionary of Russian Women Writers. In Hoogenboom, H., Nepomnyashchy, C., and Reyfman, I. (eds). Mapping the Feminine: Russian Women and Cultural Difference. Bloomington, IN: Slavica. 281-300.
Moretti, F. (2000). The Slaughterhouse of Literature. Modern Language Quarterly 61 207-27.
Nowviskie, B. (2012). What do Girls Dig? In Gold, M. K. (ed). Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 235-40.
Trumpener, K. (2009). Paratext and Genre System: A Response to Franco Moretti. Critical Inquiry 36(1): 159-71.
Van Dijk, S. (2001). WomenWriters. http://neww.huygens.knaw.nl/ (accessed 15 March 2013).","txt","2","",""
"1656","14","Debates in the Digital Humanities: Scholarly Publishing Across Print/Digital Streams","2","Debates in the Digital Humanities, an edited collection featuring contributions from over forty DH scholars and practitioners, straddles the line between print and digital publication. The first edition of the printed text, which was published by the University of Minnesota Press in January 2012, was composed predominately of essays but also incorporated a variety of web-based materials such as blog posts, tweets, and wiki pages. The printed book was, from the earliest stages of the publication process, intertwined with digital platforms: following the model of peer-to-peer review described by Kathleen Fitzpatrick in Planned Obsolescence, all essays in the book were part of a semi-public, web-based review process that mixed new forms of peer-to-peer review with more traditional models of publisher-based blind peer review.

In an attempt to move the university-press based print publication process along at a rapid pace, the book went from initial conception and solicitation of essays to printed publication in the space of a single calendar year, a timeline that involved substantial efforts from contributors and from the Press. The book was conceived of less as an attempt to create a monumental, standard reference guide for the field than as a snapshot of current conversations within it a key moment of growth, with the primary purpose of introducing DH to scholars unfamiliar with its projects, practitioners, and debates.

Debates within the field have not stopped with the publication of the book, of course, so the challenge now facing the editorial team is to create an open access (OA) edition of the text that goes beyond the basic task of making the contents of the print edition available in digital form. In January 2013, an expanded, OA edition of the text will be published on a new platform created by a team of technologists associated with the GC Digital Scholarship Lab at the CUNY Graduate Center, in partnership with the University of Minnesota Press. This platform is being created from a fork of the Prism tool for collective interpretation that was released by the University of Virginia’s Scholar’s Lab in 2012 (Lestock) as part of its innovative Praxis Fellows Program (Nowviskie). The publication platform will feature enhanced social reading experiences that will include shared/social highlighting of the text, a dynamic index of the book built from reader interactions, and a fine-grained commenting system that will allow readers to associate comments with specific words and phrases within the text. Technical challenges for the platform include the creation of a system that will allow reader markup and commenting to be associated with a text even as the text itself is updated over time. Like Prism itself, all code associated with the new publication platform will be shared freely on Github, thus enabling others working on similar projects to use and reshape the codebase. In this respect, the online edition of Debates in the Digital Humanities is itself a DH project.

Beyond the technical infrastructure of the platform, this poster will examine the ways in which the Debates in the Digital Humanities project is moving from a printed book to an open-access digital stream that will be harvested at various points for new print and digital publications. These will include new printed editions of Debates in the Digital Humanities, targeted publications on specific DH topics and themes, and a series of DH annuals that attempt to capture important moments of debate on a yearly basis. And as the expanded edition of the text takes new forms, the publication process will be opened up and will become more inclusive, with open calls for submissions and fully public rounds of peer review. The project is thus attempting to stake out ground as a publication space that lies somewhere between a printed book, a book series, an academic journal, and a blog, one that is actively engaged in exploring both print and digital instantiations of a text as events that take place along a larger continuum of reading and writing around a set of shared issues. The project provides an important example of experimentation by a university press, in partnership with another academic institution, at a moment when the future of such presses is consistently being called into question.

This poster will present the project in its many forms and will attempt to delineate the ways in which the project itself instantiates the values of DH (defined by Lisa Spiro in Debates in the Digital Humanities as the values of openness, collaboration, and connectedness, diversity, and experimentation).

References
Fitzpatrick, K. (2011). Planned Obsolescence: Publishing, Technology, and the Future of the Academy. New York: New York University Press.
Lestock, B. (2012). Announcing Prism! Scholar’s Lab, University of Virginia Library. 1 May 2012. Web. http://www.scholarslab.org/announcements/announcing-prism/
Nowviskie, B. (2011). Announcing the Praxis Program. Scholar’s Lab, University of Virginia Library. 24 August 2011. Web. http://www.scholarslab.org/praxis-program/announcing-the-praxis-program/
Spiro, L. (2012). 'This Is Why We Fight': Defining the Values of the Digital Humanities. In Gold, M. K. (ed.) Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.","txt","2","",""
"1657","14","The Design of New Knowledge Environments","3","1. An Introduction to the Design of New Knowledge Environments
Ruecker, Stan|sruecker@id.iit.edu|IIT Institute of Design
Rockwell, Geoffrey|grockwel@ualberta.ca|University of Alberta
INKE Research Group||
In this panel, we report on our year 4 work in the Interface Design (ID) research team of the Implementing New Knowledge Environments (INKE) project. INKE is a 7-year major collaborative research initiative (MCRI) project funded in Canada by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC). INKE is led by Ray Siemens at the University of Victoria, and includes dozens of researchers worldwide. Each year, we have had a different focus for our work. The schedule is as follows:

Year 1: interdisciplinary citations
Year 2: corpora
Years 3 and 4: the scholarly edition
Year 5: the monograph and journal
Year 6: born-digital literature
Year 7: wrap-up and dissemination
For the first three years of the project, our focus has been on a wide range of experimental prototypes. Beginning in year 4, we attempted to aggregate these prototypes into a smaller set of “new knowledge environments”, where the goal is no longer to have a single piece of functionality that we can experiment with, but instead to begin imagining how the various pieces of functionality, as represented by our prototypes, can work in concert to produce an environment for people working with electronic books.

What makes these environments “new” is that they are comprised of a set of experiments into working with digital text. More often than not, these experiments involve the design and programming of a prototype, which may exist at any one of a range of levels of fidelity. Ideally, the lowest level of fidelity is developed that is necessary in order to come to grips with the central idea. To develop further is sometimes required in order to achieve an adequate user experience study, but in any case it is important to keep in mind that the end goal is the extension of our understanding rather than the production of a piece of stable software.

So the process is to conceive of a concept and produce a prototype to help us better understand the concept. Typically a prototype will generate some new knowledge itself, and that knowledge can contribute to the next iteration of the idea. In some cases, the prototype teaches us enough that there is no need for a further prototype. If what we’ve learned is of potential use, then we can consider a more robust implementation of the idea. If what we’ve learned is that the line of thought we’ve been pursuing may not be fruitful after all, then we can at that point abandon the trajectory and move to another idea.

In the case of the year 4 projects in INKE, we have selected some prototypes that we think deserve to be aggregated into an environment. We are at the same time trying to learn what we can about the theoretical and technical issues involved in this kind of redesign and reprogramming for the purposes of aggregation. These are environments rather than simpler tools in the sense that they afford more than a single task or set of tasks.

In the papers that follow, we describe each of the environments, examine the state of the art in scholarly editions for tablets, and discuss the user experience study of two of the prototypes that have gone on to inform one of our new knowledge environments.

2. Reading Skins: Voyant and Tool Aggregation
Rockwell, Geoffrey|grockwel@ualberta.ca|University of Alberta
Sinclair, Stéfan|stefan.sinclair@mcgill.ca|McMaster University
INKE Research Group||
Tools are not just ways to ask questions - they are also reading skins. Interface designers have known this for some time. They design interfaces to present affordances and views that facilitate different types of reading. A dictionary is designed for consultation reading (Blair 2010), a manual for training. Likewise an e-book minimizes distractions, presenting “just the text”, while text analysis environments embed the texts in alternative ways of reading, from visualizations to interactive controls. These design choices are based on a model of the reader and the tasks they are engaged in. In this paper we will look at the types of interfaces or “skins” presented by text analysis environments and end by discussing the decisions taken in the design of Voyant. We will do that in the following ways:

1 First, we will look back at one of the first computing humanists to consider visualization and the interface to text analysis tools, John Smith.
2 Second, we will survey different types of text analysis interfaces.
3 Third, we will close by discussing how the architecture of Voyant is designed to allow for different reading skins that aggregate different tools to suit different uses.
1. First Thoughts on the Interface
One of the first computing humanists to think about the interface to text analysis tools was John Smith. John Smith in “Computer Criticism” and other articles proposed a way that analytical tools like his ARRAS could fit into interpretative research practices. He saw the computer as a tool to help identify and then trace structures through a text and gave an example of how this can help rereading a text in his article “Image and Imagery in Joyce's Portrait.” In “A New Environment For Literary Analysis” he explicitly discussed how the analytical tool ARRAS was not meant to replace the inquirer but to amplify them, how it could provide what we today call visualizations, and how it should be thought of not as a program, but as an environment for work where one could switch from text analysis to editing the text or sending a message. In the presentation we will go into more detail about how Smith articulated the relationship between tool design and interpretative practices.

2. Survey of Type of Interface
In the second part of the paper we will survey various interface paradigms for text analysis tools including:

ARRAS: We will start with the interface John Smith developed for ARRAS, and discuss his ideas for a humanities accessible command line language.
TACT and TACTweb: We will then discuss TACT, which was released in 1989 and designed by John Bradley and others (Lancashire 1996). TACT, while running in MS DOS, was influenced by the then new idea of a Graphical User Interface (GUI). It had a primitive windowing model that let you split the screen to see multiple displays and use one to drive the other(s). TACTweb, which came later, brought TACT functionality to the web, and illustrated for the first time how the web separated interface from text database so that multiple interfaces could be built.
HyperPo: While HyperPo (hyperpo.org) wasn’t the first text analysis environment on the web, it was one of the first to fully exploit the web. It let you upload a text and it provided a number of innovative features including making displays themselves affordances for further interaction. It was also explicitly designed as a reading environment.
TextArc: One of the most beautiful interfaces to text analysis is the TextArc (textarc.org) visual concordance designed by W. Bradford Paley. This work pushes the idea of interface in interesting directions as it can be considered a work of art or design meant to be appreciated in and of itself rather than as a window onto something else.
Other interfaces could be mentioned like the visual programming interface idea of Eye-ConTACT that is also available in SEASR or the library interface of the MONK project, but these are more management interfaces than reading ones.

3. Voyant and Skins
In the last part of the presentation we will discuss the layered architecture of Voyant that allows one to create different combinations of tools into “skins” that aggregate different tools. A Skin Builder tool for creating your own skins will be demonstrated and different examples of skins for different reading purposes will be shown. Different uses call for different combinations of tools.

All of these text analysis interfaces are presented from the perspective that they are views on a static object that is studied, but what if the object of study is changing? What if we think of text analysis tools performing the text rather than skin it? The presentation will end with an alternative prototype interface designed not for reading, but for animating the text as if it were a performance.


Figure 1 -
Voyant Skin Builder

References
Blair, A. (2010). Too Much to Know: Managing Scholarly Information Before the Modern Age. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Galey, A., and S. Ruecker (2010). How a Prototype Argues. Literary and Linguistic Computing 25(4): 405–424.
Lancashire, I., et al. (1996). Using TACT with Electronic Texts: a Guide to Text-analysis Computing Tools, Version 2.1 for MS-DOS and PC DOS. Modern Language Association of America.
Parunak, H. V. D. (1981). Prolegomena to Pictorial Concordances. Computers and the Humanities 15(1): 15–36.
Rockwell, G., S. Sinclair, et al. (2010). Ubiquitous Text Analysis. The Journal of the Initiative for Digital Humanities, Media, and Culture 2(1).
Sinclair, S. (2003). Computer-Assisted Reading: Reconceiving Text Analysis. Literary and Linguistic Computing 18(2): 175–184.
Sinclair, S., and G. Rockwell (2009). Between Language and Literature: Digital Text Exploration. Teaching Literature and Language Online. In Lancashire, I. (ed. and introd.). vii, 460 pp. New York, NY: Modern Language Association of America. 104–117. Options for Teaching (OfT): 26.
Smith, J. (1984). A New Environment for Literary Analysis. Perspectives in Computing: Applications in the Academic and Scientific Community 4(2): 20–31.
Smith, J. (1989). Computer Criticism. Literary Computing and Literary Criticism: Theoretical and Practical Essays on Theme and Rhetoric. University of Pennsylvania Press. 326–356.
Smith, J. (1973). Image and Imagery in Joyce’s Portrait: A Computer-Assisted Analysis. Directions in Literary Criticism: Contemporary Approaches to Literature. Festschrift for Henry W. Sams, (ed.) Stanley Weintraub and Philip Young (University Park and London: Pennsylvania State University Press): 220–227.
Smith, J. (1985). Arras User's Manual: TR85-036. Chapel Hill, NC, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
3. Designing the interface within the interface: legibility and readability in the Dynamic Table of Contexts
Windsor, Jennifer|jwindsor@ualberta.ca|University of Alberta
Brown, Susan|sbrown@uoguelph.ca|University of Guelph
Nelson, Brent|brent.nelson@usask.ca|University of Saskatchewan
Radzikowska, Milena|mradzikowska@gmail.com|Mount Royal University
Sinclair, Stéfan|stefan.sinclair@mcgill.ca|McMaster University
INKE Research Group||
“Typography is to literature as musical performance is to composition: an essential act of interpretation, full of endless opportunities for insight or obtuseness.”

— Robert Bringhurst, The Elements of Typographic Style
As humanities scholars transition from reading traditional print texts to reading on computer screens, ebooks and tablets, we are discovering that the visible word has taken a step backwards in quality. Typographic considerations are often the most challenging aspects of user experience development of digital reading environments. Ereaders are still in their infancy, and thus far little attention has been paid to textual design beyond very basic choices of typeface and font size.

We have developed the Dynamic Table of Contexts, a text analysis environment that combines the traditional concepts of the table of contents and index to create new methods for Humanities scholars to read and interact with digital text. The main interface consists of four interactive panes that perform dynamically with each other: the table of contents, the index, the xml tag list and a large pane to read the text itself (see Figure 1). In addition, there is a pane for reader notes. The Dynamic Table of Contexts interface is predominantly textual in nature, but the text at the centre of it is itself an interface – the point of interaction between the reader and that which is read. This study examines the appearance and arrangement of the textual interface within the larger interface. We asked: how can we typographically optimize the ereading experience?

The guiding fundamentals of typography are legibility and readability. Legibility concerns the ease with which a letterform can be recognized and readability refers to the ease with which text can be understood (Lupton 2004). Many problems with legibility have arisen in the transition from print to screen. For example, rather than black ink on a paper page, black text on a screen is an absence in the glowing pixels that surround it, and the result is perceived as blurry regardless of screen resolution. Anti-aliasing is used to compensate for low resolution on most computer monitors but can't be applied consistently from character to character because of where the letter may land on the physical pixel grid. In an effort to offset this problem font size is often increased, which in itself can become a reading irritant and navigationally awkward as larger type creates shorter lines of text which in turn requires more left-right eye movements from the end of one line to the beginning of the next. Fewer lines of text also necessitate more scrolling which is visually uncomfortable and requires additional time and visual energy for the reader to relocate himself in the text after each movement. While we wait for technology to catch up in these areas, this study outlines the methods we used to minimize legibility issues and discusses which existing typefaces (most of which, it must be remembered, were never intended for the screen) best counteract blurring and movement. We identify optimal type size and line length combinations for comfortable extended on-screen reading in the Dynamic Table of Contexts.

Compared to legibility, issues of readability are less often addressed in discussions of digital reading environments. Readability is comprised not only of the arrangement of type on a page or screen, but also of attention to the entire visual entity and all the complex relationships between levels of type, symbols and images (Berryman 1984). Typography imparts semantic meaning as it interprets content and influences meaning by creating hierarchies, assigning values, and manipulating emphasis (Bachfischer, Robertson and Zmijewska 2007). Our investigations into optimal readability design for the Dynamic Table of Contexts raised interesting questions about the representation of text and the process of reading on-screen. In the remediation from print to screen, do we still read the same way? Do the rules that apply to the readability of print typography apply to on-screen typography? Do conventions that govern readability of websites also apply to extended reading of scholarly materials?

In this study we have also examined other components of the textual interface that affect readability but that are not necessarily typographic in nature. Often on-screen paging representations (such as a simulated left and right sides of a double page spread or an animated page turning) give the illusion of a traditional print book. We examine theories of whether these provide valuable perceptual cues to the reader or are simply a vestigial device that has lost its significance in a changing environment.

This research represents a move from an adequate to an optimized reading environment.


Figure 2 -
Dynamic Table of Contexts

References
Bachfischer, G., T. Robertson, and A. Zmijewska (2007). “Understanding Influences of the Typographic Quality of Text.” Journal of Internet Commerce 6(2): 97–122.
Berryman, G. (1984). Notes on Graphic Design and Visual Communication. Los Altos, California: W. Kaufmann.
Bringhurst, R. (2004). The Elements of Typographic Style. 3rd ed. Hartley and Marks Publishers.
Larson, K. (2004). “The Science of Word Recognition: Or How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bouma.” July. Microsoft Typography site. Retrieved August 20, 2006. http://www.microsoft.com/typography/ctfonts/WordRecognition.aspx
Lupton, E. (2010). Thinking with Type: A Critical Guide for Designers, Writers, Editors, & Students. New York. Princeton Architectural Press.
Mangen, A. (2008). “Hypertext Fiction Reading: Haptics and Immersion.” Journal of Research in Reading 31(4): 404–419.
Weinzettelova, S. (2012). “Traditional Type in the Digital Era.” Bulletin - Prague College Centre for Research and Interdisciplinary Studies 2012(2): 5–24.
4. The Tablet as a New Medium for Scholarly Editions
Mohseni, Atefeh|amohseni@ualberta.ca|University of Alberta
Sondheim, Daniel|sondheim@uvic.ca|University of Victoria
Frizzera, Luciano|dosreisf@ualberta.ca|University of Alberta
Rockwell, Geoffrey|grockwel@ualberta.ca|University of Alberta
Ruecker, Stan|sruecker@id.iit.edu|IIT Institute of Design
INKE Research Group||
How have scholarly editions been implemented on tablets? In the past few years, a significant number of scholarly editions have seen deployment on the Web, and the differences between printed editions and Web-based ones has become a matter of attention for many scholars. In this paper, we will investigate scholarly editions as they appear in tablets and other mobile devices.

Web-based scholarly editions offer many new features that do not and cannot exist in printed ones. Such features include opportunities for collaboration with other users or with the editors of the work, innovative methods to search and browse, specialized tools and visualizations for text analysis, means to customize the layout of the interface and the content, options to change the language of the interface or to see translations of the text, high resolution zoomable images, multimedia elements such as video and audio, and a wealth of material that would be too costly or cumbersome to include in a printed edition.

Despite these advantages, some users still prefer their scholarly editions to be in paper form. Reasons may include a lack of physical distance between reader and book, and the ability to interact directly with the material. Tablets have solved these problems to some extent, emulating the physicality of paper books, and allowing users an opportunity to touch and feel them. As Elena Pierazzo notes, “Usability studies have demonstrated that reading on tablets is more enjoyable than reading on the screen of computers and, in some cases, more than reading print” (Pierazzo 2011). Additionally, the fact that an app is an independent program housed on a particular machine results in increased speed and stability over Web-based editions, which also serves to reproduce some of the positive features of paper-based editions (McDayter 2012).

Tablets represent a return to printed editions in some more negative respects as well. For instance, users cannot create shared annotations or collaborate with each other in other ways; the app on the tablet is isolated from references and related material available on the Web; tools for text analysis are absent; and no options are provided to show the interface in different languages. Part of the reason for these omissions in tablets may be due to the fact that editions that are currently available on tablets have generally been produced more for a popular audience than a scholarly one. This is reflected not only in terms of functionalities of the interface, but with respect to the content as well. Bibliographies, glossaries, and textual apparatuses are typically missing, variants tend not to be included, and notes and annotations have been recycled from older print-based editions, rather than being the result of new scholarship. Tablet-based editions are often more focused on making an edition attractive and amusing than on making it scholarly, and may include games or quizzes, methods of sharing passages or images via social media sites, and other innovative but potentially distracting features likely to be of interest to keen fans of the material rather than to scholars.

So, tablets are in a way mediating between print and the Web, sharing some of the advantages and disadvantages of both. But what effects will these advantages and disadvantages have on scholarly editions? Do scholarly editions have a future in tablets? These are questions that we will discuss in this paper.

At this point, very few tablet-based scholarly editions have been released, and as discussed above, those that have are decidedly unscholarly in some respects. Touch Press has produced some notable examples, including editions of T.S Eliot’s The Waste Land, Leonardo da Vinci's notebooks, and Shakespeare’s sonnets. The Waste Land is the first edition produced by Touch Press, and continues to stand up as a nice example of the genre. This edition allows the poem to be viewed as plain text, and includes annotations, audio recordings, facsimile images of the original typescript, filmed performance of the poem, interviews about the poem and some image galleries.

Many of the features provided in The Waste Land would make using scholarly editions easier and more pleasurable. As is the case with most works of philosophy, art, and literature, The Waste Land is multi-layered, and multimedia is of great help in exploring, finding and analyzing the different existing layers. Study is also eased and enhanced by being able to quickly and easily reveal or hide information, switch between viewing multiple encodings of the text, and simply by having the ability to manually scroll through the text, rather than having to use a device.

With what has been discussed, some questions require further exploration. Will the advantages of tablet-based editions win out over their disadvantages? Will the tablet become accepted as an appropriate medium in which to produce and study scholarly editions? In this paper, we will consider whether scholarly editions have a future on tablets and how such a future might look.

References
Eliot, T. S. (2011). The Waste Land for iPad, ed. Justin Badger and Charles Chabot, Touch Press LLP, and Faber and Faber. http://touchpress.com/titles/thewasteland/
Pierazzo, E. (2011). Tablets Apps, or the future of the Scholarly Editions? Random Thoughts of a Digital Humanist with a Passion for Cookery, 27 November, 2011. http://epierazzo.blogspot.ca/2011/11/tablets-apps-or-future-of-scholarly.html
McDayter, M. (2012). Are We There Yet? Touch Press’s The Waste Land for iPad. February 25, 2012. http://clickherefordigitalhumanities.wordpress.com/2012/02/25/are-we-there-yet-touch-presss-the-waste-land-for-ipad/
5. Designing for Multi-Touch Surfaces as Social Reading Environments
Frizzera, Luciano|dosreisf@ualberta.ca|University of Alberta
Vela, Sarah|svela@ualberta.ca|University of Alberta
Ilovan, Mihaela|ilovan@ualberta.ca|University of Alberta
Michura, Piotr|pmichura@asp.krakow.pl|Academy of Fine Arts in Krakow
Sondheim, Daniel|sondheim@uvic.ca|University of Victoria
Rockwell, Geoffrey|grockwel@ualberta.ca|University of Alberta
Ruecker, Stan|sruecker@id.iit.edu|IIT Institute of Design
INKE Research Group||
The INKE Interface Design group has been exploring the application of multi-touch table technology for improving the comprehension, manipulation, and analysis of variorum editions beyond what has been accomplished in previous digital variorums. These volumes consist of three general components: the text of the work itself as selected by an editor; a list of variations between this ‘base-text’ and other manuscript or printed versions; and a comprehensive anthology of previous scholarly annotations on a particular line, passage, or the entire work. For many texts the existing notes are so extensive that it is difficult in a print medium to present “…simultaneous access to text and relevant commentary”, leading to an effort since the mid-nineteen-nineties to produce digital variorum editions (Werstine 2011).

Scholarly editions, especially variorums, raise interesting questions about the representation of elements and the act of reading. The richness of this type of edition creates dilemmas related to the organization of different pieces of information, as well as interacting with the text. A print version presents physical space constraints, such as the two-page spread and the necessity of linear presentation. This constraint become less of an issue in a digital environment, where space, time, and dimensionality in general are more fluid.

Although current iterations of digital variora (for example, the Online Chopin Variorum Edition, and the Electronic Variorum Edition of Don Quixote) attempt to take advantage of this flexibility of the medium, they present themselves as flat webpages, losing physical engagement with the materiality of the book. In order to bring back fuller physicality, we have used multi-touch surface technologies to simulate the “real space”, and to return to full gestures as opposed to clicks. A few projects focusing on eBooks and tablets have begun to emerge with the same idea (for example, The Wasteland, Shakespeare's Sonnets and Kerouac's On the Road), but this technology has not yet been applied to variorum editions.

Our project, The Comedy of Errors Tangible Variorum, involves creating a tangible user interface representing the Modern Language Association’s variorum edition of Shakespeare’s Comedy of Errors in order to explore the affordances of this technology to increase collaborative scholarly research and interpretation of the material.

Existing digital variorums have attempted to encourage collaboration and interaction by incorporating features into their web page interfaces. In the Electronic Variorum Edition of Don Quixote (EVE-DQ) from Texas A&M’s Cervantes project, for example, users can add their own commentary and annotations which can then be accessed by future users. Similarly the Online Chopin Variorum Edition (OCVE) in progress at King’s College London allows the attachment of notes to the base text with an option to share them publicly. For both projects, however, adding comments is an individual activity, with a single user at a workstation inputting notes with a mouse and keyboard. There is little room for group interaction, and any that exists must be sequential rather than communal. Most previous electronic New Variorum Shakespeare (eNVS) projects, particularly the recent Winter’s Tale version, have no digital annotation function at all, limiting them to use as a reference tool, rather than an interactive platform.

Furthermore, it can be exceptionally difficult to allow simultaneous visual comparison of the numerous features of a variorum on these web page formats given the small size of most screens. A study by Wästlund, Norlander, and Archer on the effect of page layout on mental workload shows that “manipulating an onscreen text document via scrolling necessitates a shift of focus from the text to the action of controlling the page movement,” (Wästlund, Norlander, and Archer, 1243) leading to decreased performance on reading comprehension tasks. Vandendorpe (2009) writes that “navigation by means of a mouse tends to give rise to chaotic, extremely rapid movement that is not very favorable to reading” (133).

By using a multi-touch table as a display device this project attempts to solve the problems of poor collaboration and broken comprehension. There has been significant research supporting the use of touch screens in improving reader focus, for example a study by Eva Siegenthaler et al. (2012) found that subjects performed better at various tasks involved in reading when using devices with tangible inputs, concluding that “a touch screen allows for an easier and more intuitive interaction” than a non-touch screen (Eva Siegenthaler et al. 2012, 94). The sizes of both the screen and the table perimeter of a multi-touch device, meanwhile, are conducive to multiple users working together. We thus believe that the application of multi-touch technology will have two effects. First, it represents another stage in the remediation of variorums, one that will better allow us to implement Unsworth’s (2000) scholarly primitives: to sample, compare, discover, represent, annotate and reference different versions of the base text. Simultaneously, it encourages these tasks to be performed socially, deepening understanding by incorporating multiple viewpoints.

The collaborative uses of tangible devices in research situations is one of the main goals of this research. In driving towards this end, however, our group has faced issues in two camps: the ability of users to adapt to multiple people concurrently using touch controls; and, less expectedly, the ability of a designer to structure elements on an unconventional screen.

From the perspective of users, much of the challenge is about breaking habits. Since the introduction of personal computers, users have learned how to interact with the machine in individual work spaces. The adoption of this concept is so intense that one is liable to think that group work is less effective than work alone with the computer. However, it is noticeable that the technology has determined this situation: people cannot work together because the machine allows just one input at a time. The questions that we raise are: what happens when more than one person can interact with the machine? What kind of operations and collaborations can a group perform when all of them are engaged with the same machine in the same environment?

For designers, learning to think beyond the confines of a screen and mouse proved to be a major obstacle. The original design conceived of the mutli-touch screen as being suspended on the wall, and the elements were placed accordingly (Figure 1). As we built and tested the interface it became clear that the layout would be effective for a single user, but was not ideal for the collaboration we were trying to achieve. While flipping the screen to a table was a logical choice to allow more users to work simultaneously, reassessing the design from that perspective resulted in a number of questions: where do you place touchstone elements when there is no clear top or bottom? How can items being used by different people overlap without disrupting anyone’s work?

This paper explores the problems faced when building a social reading environment, both for users and for designers. The technology to allow such interaction exists: a multi-touch table has a size that allows for the display of multiple documents side-by-side, and its status as a touch screen enables easy and intuitive operation, lessening the mental workload required to operate it and permitting users to focus on the content rather than the interface. The system accommodates familiar gestures such as touch, pinch and flick to let the user move, select, grab and scroll through information on the screen, and since more than one point of interaction is possible, multiple people are able to work at the same time in the examination of the material, improving collaborative work. Designing for these features, however, is a mental challenge that requires an upset of standards in the minds of all those involved, users and builders, and facing these problems is a necessary step in moving towards the future of collaboration.


Figure 1 -
Initial view showing chosen copy text in a full view and a reading panel. All variants and commentaries on the chosen page are marked. More to the right there are views of all textual notes and commentaries connected to the chosen part of the copy text. At the top there is a representation of all editions in chronological order, in which the dark bars shows the overall difference of a particular edition to the chosen copy text.

References
Bradley, J., and P. Vetch (2006). Supporting Annotation as a Scholarly Tool–Experiences From the Online Chopin Variorum Edition. Literary and Linguistic Computing 22(2): 225–241.
Siegenthaler, E., et al. (2012). The Effects of Touch Screen Technology on the Usability of E-Reading Devices. Journal of Usability Studies 7(3): 94–104.
Furuta, R., et al. (2001). Towards an Electronic Variorum Dition of Don Quixote. Proceedings of the 1st ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries. 444–445.
Galey, A. (2005). ‘Alms for Oblivion’: Bringing an Electronic New Variorum Shakespeare to the Screen. Shakespeare Association of America, Bermuda http://pear.hcmc.uvic.ca:8080/ach/site/xhtml.xq?id=98
Hinckley, K., et al. (1997). Cooperative Bimanual Action. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. 27–34.
Unsworth, J. (2000). Scholarly Primitives: What Method","txt","2","",""
"1658","14","Text Encoding, the Index, and the Dynamic Table of Contexts","10","This paper investigates the nature of the index and its role within scholarly publishing by means of an experiment using the Dynamic Table of Contexts Browser to publish a scholarly essay collection that offers a full intellectual index combined with semantic encoding and free-text search functionality.
Extended Abstract
The index has long been a feature of printed text. The noun form of the word developed from various material pointers, whether literal fingers or portions of instruments, into the more abstract concept of a sign or token that emerged simultaneously with the lists placed at the backs of books in the late sixteenth century (“Index,” def. n. 1, 2a, 4b, 5b).
The concept of the index is all over the digital world. Symptomatically, the most recent change to the meaning of the verb form emerged from computing in 1962 (“Index,” def. n. 5d). The digital humanities themselves trace their origin back to Father Busa’s concordance of the Index Thomisticus, a machine-generated index produced at IBM (Burton). Yet the conceptual index produced through the intellectual engagement of a human being with the meaning of the text, that is, the kind of index that we as scholars most value from print culture, is exceedingly rare in the context of digital texts, where instead the automated, machine-generated index abounds.
The immense gains resulting from the ability of computers to generate indefatigably exhaustive and unimaginably extensive indices or to deliver with lightning speed the portions of a text containing a word on which the user searches are undeniable. However, the fate of the intellectual index is uncertain given the rise of digital books generally and of semantic encoding within digital humanities publishing in particular. This paper reflects on the role of the index within scholarly publishing by means of an experiment using the Dynamic Table of Contexts Browser to publish a scholarly essay collection that offers a full professionally produced intellectual index, semantic encoding of recurrent features, and free text search.
The Dynamic Table of Contexts Browser was designed as a reading environment for digitally encoded texts that would combine the table of contents with tools drawing on embedded semantic markup to create new affordances for reading in a digital environment. The familiarity of the table of contents provides prospect and navigational assistance, while the browser leverages the embedded semantic markup to allow users, as a description of an earlier instance of the browser put it, “to add or subtract what are essentially index items in and out of the table of contents” (Ruecker et al., 180; Nelson et al., 12). The combination aims to provide an advance over the standard fixed-content, if expandable and contractable, digital table of contents, and thereby solve some key usability challenges related to lengthy digital texts.
What an index item is, “essentially,” however, is far from simple. The investigation described here revolves in part around the tension between free text and controlled vocabulary as the basis for indexing. There has long been an unresolved, antagonistic relation between free-text terms and controlled vocabulary terms. [1] Both describe ways of representing and retrieving information in a digital context. Yet, long before the invention of the computer, scholars quibbled over the value and effectiveness of uncontrolled vocabularies and free-text searches (Svenonius, 333). This controversy falls into three stages: the nineteenth century “title-term or title-catchword indexing” of library catalogues; the invention of keyword in context (KWIC) indexing in 1959 by Hans Peter Luhn; and the rise of “instantaneous keyword searching” so familiar to us today (Svenonius, 333; Garret). These debates frequently focus on optimizing access to the vast collections of digital texts on and off the web, but at the level of the book the emphasis on generalized controlled vocabularies gives way to the question of the value of highly granular and customized intellectual indexes, produced by professional indexers, which seem to be struggling for survival against the generalized free-text search function offered by eBook interfaces.
At stake in the transition from the traditional print index to digital modes of retrieving and organizing knowledge is not only the profession of the indexer, but the broader socio-cultural signification and future of the ‘index’. The first generation of eBooks often omitted indexes entirely, even when present in the printed book, or included them as passive page images lacking navigational features. [2] The American Society for Indexing (ASI) is working with the International Digital Publishing Forum (IDPF) to “ensure inclusion of usable indexes in nonfiction digital book formats and e-books” (“Digital Trends Task Force”) in the creation of the specifications for EPUB 3.0. [3] The new workflow required to “output in various formations (e.g. eBook, HTML, PDF for print, etc.)” is part of the challenge for the publishing industry, to which XML seems to be emerging as a leading solution, due to its separation of “function from layout” (“Moving to XML Workflow”). However, the differences between encoding and conventional indexing practices do not figure in considerations to date (MacGlashan).
Semantic encoding is, after all, indexical. It demarcates and hence allows an interface to point to a section of a text; it labels a span of text according to a controlled vocabulary of values that has been devised to elucidate the nature of the text being encoded and conceptually groups that particular span of text with all other spans that have been encoded likewise. The <index> tag in the Text Encoding Initiative tagset is defined as follows: “(index entry) marks a location to be indexed for whatever purpose” (TEI Consortium, “TEI element”). The TEI documentation provides an excellent summary of the tension between what it terms manual indexing and free-text search:
The indexing of scholarly texts is a skilled activity, involving substantial amounts of human judgment and analysis. It should not therefore be assumed that simple searching and information retrieval software will be able to meet all the needs addressed by a well-crafted manual index, although it may complement them for example by providing free text search. The role of an index is to provide access via keywords and phrases which are not necessarily present in the text itself, but must be added by the skill of the indexer. (“TEI Consortium, “3 Elements”)
This begs the question further, however, about the indexical function of markup, since most TEI indexing is still “manual” and much scholarly markup that uses the TEI involves tags, particularly named entities, that overlap substantially with a conventional index. Other semantically oriented schemas, such as the bespoke one developed by the Orlando Project to encode feminist literary history, provide numerous tags that overlap considerably with the terrain of the traditional index: a tag like <education> or <relationsWithPublisher> serves to index portions of the text collection that may not contain such keywords or phrases, but which have been identified as relevant to these concepts by the skilled encoders (Brown et al.). There are significant differences between markup and professional or manual indexing, [4] but the extent of overlap between the two is evident in the ways that such markup functions within interfaces which offer the user the ability to look up spans of text marked with those terms. Yet whereas markup generally is considered quite synonymous with indexing, broadly conceived, particularly where a controlled vocabulary is being employed, whatever the theoretical value of the intellectual index, it seems in practice to have been deemed as dispensable to online digital humanities projects as it has been to early eBooks.
Our survey of a range of online projects, as well as of systematic reviews of features of the digital edition, show little evidence that the backbone of scholarly print resource navigation, the semantic index, is deemed crucial to digital scholarly resources. [6] This probably has in part to do with cost balanced against perceived benefits. [7] User studies in information science show that the strengths of the manual index are rivaled or even outstripped by automated indexing and information retrieval: “users find them, on balance, more or less equally effective” (Anderson and Pérez-Carballo, 233; cf. Barnum et al.; cf. Fidel 575). However, the former is far more costly than the latter, particularly as the volume of digitized materials grows. Furthermore, some of the functionality of the back-of-the-book index is covered by standard entity markup, which is frequently combined with controlled-vocabulary markup associated with the particular domain of the resource. As John Walsh has argued of the image vocabulary employed by the Blake Archive, such controlled-vocabulary markup functions very much like an index (Walsh).
General usability studies do not, however, get at the value of the intellectual or subject index to the scholarly or expert user. Indeed, the Bureau of National Affairs, a Virginia, USA publisher of highly specialized news in such areas as law, employment, the environment, and health care, conducted a usability study at law schools comparing text searching and index-aided research, and found that index users had an 86 percent success rate while text searchers had only a 23 percent success rate, particularly for tasks that departed from specific facts (“Using Online Indexes”). This result suggests the power of intellectual indexing and the potential need for such indexing within online scholarly resources.
To evaluate the role of the intellectual index and its relationship to more common forms of indexing, via markup, in digital humanities publishing, we combined the two in an online edition within a new version of Dynamic Table of Contexts (DToC) interface to publish an online version of Canadian Women Writers: Connecting Texts and Generations, edited by Marie Carrière and Patricia Demers, in partnership with the University of Alberta Press and in conjunction with their print publication. The online version incorporates the same extensive intellectual index as the printed version, along with semantic markup for named entities and other recurrent features of the text, some of which (such as named entities) overlap with index terms. To accommodate the index, the interface has been revised to incorporate a specialized panel for the index terms that operates as an alternative to the panel for tags; users can use the two panels to see both types of term embedded together in the table of contents. It incorporates free-text search, coinciding with the ASI proposal to EPub that user interfaces combine search and index functionality (Wright et al., “DTTF proposal to EPub,” 2, 7), and draws on the utility of the concordance in the provision of KWIC-like snippets for index terms and tags as well as keyword searches.
This paper describes the markup strategy used to encode the collection, including the index, in TEI; summarizes the team’s revisions to the interface; and demonstrates the function of the intellectual index within the interface in relation to table of contents, the markup of named entities, and other features of the text. The Dynamic Table of Contexts Browser retains the traditional content of the intellectual index prepared for the back of the print edition, but dramatically reorients its location in the digital interface by placing it at the “front” or within the persistent navigation features of the reading interface. We will present some preliminary results of combining markup with an intellectual index by reporting on an initial user study undertaken with scholars from the Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory community from which the collection emerged, and suggest future directions for investigating the function of the intellectual index within digital scholarly editions.
References
Anderson, J. D., and J. Pérez-Carballo. (2001). The Nature of Indexing: How Humans and Machines Analyze Messages and Texts for Retrieval. Part 1: Research, and the Nature of Human Indexing. Information Processing and Management. 37: 231-254.
Barnum, C., et al. (2004). Index Versus Full-text Search: A Usability Study of User Preference and Performance.Technical Communication. 51(2): 187-206.
Brown, S., S. Fisher, P. Clements, K. Binhammer, T. Butler, K. Carter, I. Grundy, and S. Hockey. (1998). SGML and the Orlando Project: Descriptive Markup for an Electronic History of Women’s Writing. Computers and the Humanities. 31: 271-85.
Burnard, L. Technical Documentation. TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/Customization/Lite/U5-techdoc.html
Burton, D. (1981). Automated Concordances and Word Indexes: The Fifties. CHum. 15(1): 1-14.
Butler, T. J., S. Fisher, G. Coulombe, P. Clements, I. Grundy, S. Brown, J. Wood, and R. Cameron. (2000). Can a Team Tag Consistently? Experiences on the Orlando Project. Markup Languages: Theory & Practice 2(2): 111-125.
Digital Trends Task Force. American Society for Indexing. American Society for Indexing,http://www.asindexing.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3647 (accessed 15 October 2012).
Fidel, R. (1994). User-Centered Indexing. Journal of the American Society for Information Science. 45(8): 572-576.
Garret, J. (2006). KWIC and Dirty? Human Cognition and the Claims of Full-Text Searching. Journal of Electronic Publishing. 9(1).
OED Online. (2013). “Index, n.” Def. n. 1, 2a, 4b, 5b, 5d. Oxford University Press.http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/94372?rskey=ZKOmMc&result=1&isAdvanced=false (accessed 28 October 2012).
Jansen, L., H. Luijten, and N. Bakker. (eds). (2010). Vincent van Gogh — The Letters. Amsterdam & The Hague: Van Gogh Museum & Huygens ING. http://vangoghletters.org (accessed 28 October 2012).
Lamb, J. (2011). Kindle and the Index. … Turning it Off and On. Wordpress.com.http://ccgi.jalamb.com/2011/05/kindle-and-the-index/ (accessed 1 May 2011).
MacGlashan, M. (ed). (2012). The Indexer. 30.1 Sheffield, UK: The Society of Indexers.
Moving to XML Workflow. WordCo Indexing Services Inc. WordCo, http://www.wordco.com/ebook/xml.shtml(accessed 25 October 2012).
Nelson, B., S. Ruecker, M. Radzikowska, S. Sinclair, S. Brown, M. Bieber, and the INKE Research Group.(2011). A Short History and Demonstration of the Dynamic Table of Contexts. Research Foundations for Understanding Books and Reading in a Digital Age: Text and Beyond. held 18 November 2011 at Ritsumeikan University. Kyoto: Japan.
Ruecker, S., S. Brown, M. Radzikowska, S. Sinclair, T.M. Nelson, P. Clements, I. Grundy, S. Balasz, and J. Antoniuk. (2009). The Table of Contexts: A Dynamic Browsing Tool for Digitally Encoded Texts. In Dolezalova, L. (ed). The Charm of a List: From the Sumerians to Computerised Data Processing. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 177-187.
Svenonius, E. (1986). Unanswered Questions in the Design of Controlled Vocabularies. Journal of the American Society for Information Science. 37(5): 331-340.
TEI Consortium. (eds). (2012). 3 Elements Available in all TEI Documents. In TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. 2.3.0. TEI Consortium. held 17 January 2013. http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/CO.html#CONOIX (accessed October 28, 2012).
TEI Consortium. (eds). TEI element index (index entry). TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. 2.3.0. TEI Consortium, 17 Jan. 2013. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/ref-index.html
The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc. (2008). Using Online Indexes. BNA Law School Education Series.http://www.levtechinc.com/pdf/Using%20BNA%20Indexes%20study.pdf (28 October 2012).
Van Vliet, H. T. M., and A. Kets-Vree (2000). Scholarly Editing in the Netherlands. Literary and Linguistic Computing. 15(1): 65-72.
Walsh, J. A. (2008). Multimedia and Multitasking: A Survey of Digital Resources for Nineteenth-Century Literary Studies. In Siemens, R., and S. Schreibman (eds.), A Companion to Digital Literary Studies. Oxford: Blackwell.
The Models Editions Partnership Consortium. (1996). Why Markup is Important. A Prospectus for Electronic Historical Editions. http://wyatt.elasticbeanstalk.com/mep/misc/prospectus.html#Section 4 (accessed 12 March 2013).
Wright, J. (2012). The devil is in the details: indexes versus Amazon's X-Ray. The Indexer. 30(1): 11-16.
Wright, J., D. Ream, and the Digital Trends Task Force (DTTF). (2012). DTTF proposal to EPub 3.0 Working Group. American Society for Indexing’s Digital Trends Task Force (DTTF). American Society for Indexing,http://www.asindexing.org/files/DTTF/DPFIndex_functionality_in_ePub.pdf (29 October 2012).
Notes
1. “Controlled vocabulary terms are variously called index terms, descriptors, subject headings and, somewhat erroneously and increasingly ambiguously, keywords. Terms not belonging to a controlled vocabulary are called free-text terms, natural language terms and, again, keywords. Free-text is also used as an adjective to describe a type of searching, viz., searching that can be performed without the constraint of having to translate one’s own vocabulary into the vocabulary used by a particular system” (Svenonius, 332).
2. Blogger John Lamb notes that when the Amazon Kindle was released in 2007 it did not support an index. When publishers created an eBook for it they “often excluded the index, even when it existed in the print version” (Lamb). In November 2011, Amazon released a new search tool to replace the index, called the Kindle X-Ray: “a new search and information feature that allows you to find information about characters, events, and topics in books” (Wright, “Amazon”, 11).
3. The DTTF’s “proposal moved forward quickly and an Indexes Charter document was published for a vote. The IDPF approved the formation of the EPUB 3.0 Indexes Working Group in December 2011 […] When completed it will be added as a modular update” (Digital Trends Task Force).
4. These include the plurality of the encoders involved and the fact that the indexical terms were developed in advance and applied to multiple texts (Butler et al.). The plurality of the encoders also suggests an aspect of the potential of digital systems for novel forms of indexing that is beyond the scope of this paper: the crowdsourcing of keywords, and perhaps even relations among them, as a basis for a folksonomic navigational aid.
5. It is telling that one of the more extensive discussions of how to encode indexes in the TEI documentation relates to the encoding of “existing ‘pre-electronic’ documents” (Burnard). A section called “Why Markup is Important” from A Prospectus for Electronic Historical Editions, a methodological framework compiled by the Steering Committee of the Model Editions Partnership, indicates the extent to which early thinking about TEI considered indexing an intrinsic function of markup (“Why Markup is Important”).
6. The Rossetti Archive and Orlando, for example, provide quite sophisticated search capabilities including Boolean functions or ones that draw on sub-elements or attributes in the markup. However, digital humanities projects seldom include anything resembling the intellectual index with its carefully organized hierarchy of terms systematically synthesizing the contents of the book. The exemplary edition of Vincent Van Gogh’s letters project offers a case in point. Whereas the 6-volume hardback edition includes a “full index,” the online edition provides access to the letters by period, correspondent, place, or other features that could easily be flagged via structural and entity markup (Jansen et al.). Portions of the scholarly apparatus are available via a table of contents or through the same searches (Van Vliet and Kets-Vree).
7. It is noteworthy that even in the embattled context of print scholarship, the intellectual index seems to be losing ground: indexes are often absent from scholarly collections of essays altogether, or limited to named entity listings.","txt","2","",""
"1659","14","The Textual Communities Transcription workspace: a poster and demonstration","2","This poster will present the beta version of the Textual Communities transcription tool, describing its underlying principles, its innovative structure, and its functionality.
Study of literary works that exist in many different forms is one of the most important and difficult tasks in the humanities. The number of forms a work may have—eighty-four fifteenth-century manuscripts and printed texts of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, more than eight hundred manuscripts of Dante’s Comedia, and five thousand manuscripts of the Greek New Testament — is both testimony to their significance and a challenge to scholars. In order to understand these texts and how they relate, we have to discover as much as we can of how they came to be written and disseminated. Only then can we seek to establish how they might best be read and prepare texts (in the form of scholarly editions) for scholars to use.
The work of building archives of primary materials for this kind of work is daunting and prohibitive in the old lone scholar method. At the same time that scholars working on large editing projects have opted for a team approach, several projects internationally have demonstrated the tantalizing possibilities of crowd-sourcing for processing large amounts of textual data. The challenge it to coordinate this work in a way that produces high-quality, useful results.
The work of building archives of primary materials for this kind of work is daunting and prohibitive in the old lone scholar method. At the same time that scholars working on large editing projects have opted for a team approach, several projects internationally have demonstrated the tantalizing possibilities of crowd-sourcing for processing large amounts of textual data. The challenge it to coordinate this work in a way that produces high-quality, useful results.
The Textual Communities workspace is a tool, in the first instance, for defining, transcribing, and linking textual materials for a digital archive or edition and for marshaling and managing a community of participants with an array of community building tools.
There are many transcription tools under development and a few that are already functional. There are three defining features that make this tool different than the rest: its integrated participant and document management systems, and its mapping of fundamental document-entity structure. These features correspond to two underlying principles: that the work of amassing large corpora of textual materials is best accomplished by a well-managed community of interested participants from within, but also potential from outside the academy; and that for the resulting materials to be useful, their relationships must be clearly articulated.
As its name suggests, the Textual Communities tool is designed for gathering and organizing multiple participants around a common editorial project. It supports a wide range of relational structures, from a carefully crafted team to ad hoc community built on crowd-sourcing. Crucially, it enables definition of roles in the project with varying degrees of access to project materials, and authority to do the work of pressing these materials, and oversight over other participants. It is also built on a data structure that uses RDF files built on the FRBR ontology to identify and relate the produced transcriptions (“texts”), the exemplars they derived from (“documents,” usually in the form of a digital image of a particular witness), and the intellectual construct they instantiate (the “work,"" or our preferred term, ""entity""). Thus anyone interested in John Donne’s poem “The Good Morrow” will find various “texts” (transcriptions) of this work as found in the extant “documents” (the poem as it is found in each of the manuscripts and printed books that contain it).
The tool itself enables uploading of digital images of primary documents in jpeg, tiff, or pdf, and linkage of these images with a transcription space. The user supplies information for each document, which produces an RDF file that defines the text that is to be transcribed and its relationship to the source document and entity. The user also defines the structure of the document, which is rendered behind the visible transcription in TEI conformant XML. The transcription area, which is automatically linked to the source image, can also support any XML markup that is desired or required for intelligent transcription of the source document.
This open-source tool will be freely available free of charge for use and adaptation by anyone anywhere. Development of this tool is funded by a generous grant from the Canadian Foundation for Innovation with the support of the Digital Research Centre at the University of Saskatchewan.
This poster will be accompanied by a live demonstration of the transcription workspace.","txt","2","",""
"1660","14","Made to Make: Expanding Digital Humanities through Desktop Fabrication","10","Introduction
This paper presents substantive, cross-institutional research conducted on the relevance of desktop fabrication to digital humanities research. The researchers argue that matter is a new medium for digital humanities, and—as such—the field’s practitioners need to develop the workflows, best practices, and infrastructure necessary to meaningfully engage digital/material convergence, especially as it concerns the creation, preservation, exhibition, and delivery of cultural heritage materials in 3D. Aside from sharing example workflows, best practices, and infrastructure strategies, the paper identifies several key growth areas for desktop fabrication in digital humanities contexts. Ultimately, it demonstrates how digital humanities is “made to make,” or already well positioned to contribute significantly to desktop fabrication research.

Terminology
Desktop fabrication is the digitization of analog manufacturing techniques (Gershenfeld 2005). Comparable to desktop publishing, it affords the output of digital content (e.g., 3D models) in physical form (e.g., plastic). It also personalizes production through accessible software and hardware, with more flexibility and rapidity than its analog predecessors. Common applications include using desktop 3D printers, milling machines, and laser cutters to prototype, replicate, and refashion solid objects.

Literature Review
To date, desktop fabrication has been used by historians to build exhibits (Elliott, MacDougall, and Turkel 2012); by digital media theorists to fashion custom tools (Ratto and Ree 2012); by scholars of teaching and learning to re-imagine the classroom (Meadows and Owens 2012); by archivists to model and preserve museum collections (Terdiman 2012); by designers to make physical interfaces and mechanical sculptures (Igoe 2007); and by well-known authors to “design” fiction as well as write it (Bleecker 2009; Sterling 2009). Yet, even in fields such as digital humanities, very few non-STEM researchers know how desktop fabrication actually works, and research on it is especially lacking in humanities departments across North America.

By extension, humanities publications on the topic are rare. For instance, “desktop fabrication” never appears in the archives of Digital Humanities Quarterly. The term and its methods have their legacies elsewhere, in STEM laboratories, research, and publications, with Neil Gershenfeld’s Fab: The Coming Revolution on Your Desktop (2005) being one of the most referenced texts. Gershenfeld’s key claim is that: “Personal fabrication will bring the programmability of digital worlds we've invented to the physical world we inhabit” (17).

This attention to digital/material convergence has prompted scholars such as Matt Ratto and Robert Ree (2012) to argue for: 1) “physical network infrastructure” that supports “novel spaces for fabrication” and educated decisions in a digital economy, 2) “greater fluency with 3D digital content” to increase competencies in digital/material convergence, and 3) an established set of best practices, especially as open-source objects are circulated online and re-appropriated.

To be sure, digital humanities practitioners are well equipped to actively engage all three of these issues. The field is known as a field of makers. Its practitioners are invested in knowing by doing, and they have been intimately involved in the development of infrastructure, best practices, and digital competencies (Balsamo 2009; Elliott, MacDougall, and Turkel 2012). They have also engaged digital technologies and content directly, as physical objects with material particulars (Kirschenbaum 2008; McPherson 2009). The key question, then, is how to mobilize the histories and investments of digital humanities to significantly contribute to desktop fabrication research and its role in cultural heritage.

Research Questions
To spark such contributions, the researchers are asking the following questions: 1) What are the best procedures for digitizing rare or obscure 3D objects? 2) What steps should be taken to verify the integrity of 3D models? 3) How should the source code for 3D objects be licensed? 4) Where should that source code be stored? 5) How are people responsible for the 3D objects they share online? 6) How and when should derivatives of 3D models be made? 7) How are fabricated objects best integrated into interactive exhibits of cultural heritage materials? 8) How are fabricated objects best used for humanities research? 9) What roles should galleries, libraries, archives, and museums (GLAM) play in these processes?

Findings
In response to these questions, the three most significant findings of the research are as follows:

I) WORKFLOW: Currently, there is no established workflow for fabrication research in digital humanities contexts, including those that focus on the creation, preservation, exhibition, and delivery of cultural heritage materials. Thus, the first and perhaps most obvious finding is that such a workflow needs to be articulated, tested in several contexts, and shared with the community. At this time, that workflow involves the following procedure: 1) Use a DSLR camera and a turntable to take at least twenty photographs of a stationary object. This process should be conducted in consultation with GLAM professionals, either on or off site. 2) Use software (e.g., 3D Catch) to stitch the images into a 3D scale model. 3) In consultation with GLAM professionals and domain experts, error-correct the model using appropriate software (e.g., Blender or Mudbox). What constitutes an “error” should be concretely defined and documented. 4) Output the model as an STL file. 5) Use printing software (e.g., ReplicatorG) to process STL into G-code. 6) Send G-code to a 3D printer for fabrication.

If the object is part of an interactive exhibit of cultural heritage materials, then: 7) Integrate the fabricated object into a circuit using appropriate sensors (e.g., touch and light), actuators (e.g., diodes and speakers), and shields (e.g., wifi and ethernet). 8) Write a sketch (e.g., in Processing) to execute intelligent behaviors through the circuit. 9) Test the build and document its behavior. 10) Refine the build for repeated interaction. 11) Use milling and laser-cutting techniques to enhance interaction through customized materials.

If the object and/or materials for the exhibit are being published online, then: 12) Consult with GLAM professionals and domain experts to address intellectual property, storage, and attribution issues, including whether the object can be published in whole or in part. 13) License all files appropriately, state whether derivatives are permitted, and provide adequate metadata (e.g., using Dublin Core). 14) Publish the STL file, G-code, circuit, sketch, documentation, and/or build process via a popular repository (e.g., at Thingiverse) and/or a GLAM/university domain.

When milling or laser-cutting machines are used as the primary manufacturing devices instead of 3D printers (see step 6 above), the workflow is remarkably similar.

II) INFRASTRUCTURE: In order to receive feedback on the relevance of fabrication to the preservation, discoverability, distribution, and interpretation of cultural heritage materials, humanities practitioners should actively consult with GLAM professionals. For instance, the researchers are currently collaborating with libraries at the following institutions: the University of Virginia, the University of Toronto, York University, Western University, McMaster University, the University of Washington, and the University of Victoria.

By extension, desktop fabrication research extends John Unsworth’s (1999) premise of “the library as laboratory” into all GLAM institutions and suggests that new approaches to physical infrastructure may be necessary. Consequently, the second significant finding of this research is that makerspaces should play a more prominent role in digital humanities research, especially research involving the delivery of cultural heritage materials in 3D. Here, existing spaces that are peripheral or unrelated to digital humanities serve as persuasive models. These spaces include the Critical Making Lab at the University of Toronto and the Values in Design Lab at University of California, Irvine. Based on these examples, a makerspace for fabrication research in digital humanities would involve the following: 1) training in digital/material convergence, with an emphasis on praxis and tacit knowledge production, 2) a combination of digital and analog technologies, including milling, 3D-printing, scanning, and laser-cutting machines, 3) a flexible infrastructure, which would be open-source and sustainable, 4) an active partnership with a GLAM institution, and 5) research focusing on the role of desktop fabrication in the digital economy, with special attention to the best practices identified below.

III) BEST PRACTICES: Desktop fabrication, especially in the humanities, currently lacks articulated best practices in the following areas: 1) attribution and licensing of cultural heritage materials in 3D, 2) sharing and modifying source code involving cultural heritage materials, 3) delivering and fabricating component parts of cultural heritage materials, 4) digitizing and error-correcting 3D models of cultural artifacts, and 5) developing and sustaining desktop fabrication infrastructure.

This finding suggests that, in the future, digital humanities practitioners have the opportunity to actively contribute to policy-making related to desktop fabrication, especially as collections of 3D materials (e.g., Europeana and Thingiverse) continue to grow alongside popular usage. Put differently: desktop fabrication is a disruptive technology. Governments, GLAM institutions, and universities have yet to determine its cultural implications. As such, this research is by necessity a matter of social importance and an opportunity for digital humanities to shape public knowledge.","txt","2","",""
"1661","14","The FAST-CAT: Empowering Cultural Heritage Annotations","10","Introduction
The role of annotations in digital humanities is well known and documented (Agosti et al., 2004, 2007) (Bélanger, 2010). Subsequently, many different tools which allow for the annotation of digital humanities content have been developed. Unfortunately, tools designed specifically for an individual portal are typically only compatible with that system. More general solutions, which can be easily distributed across various sites, have been produced, but these systems often have limited functionality (only annotating a single content type, no sharing features etc.) (Okfn) (TILE, 2011).

FAST-CAT (Flexible Annotation Semantic Tool — Content Annotation Tool) is a generic annotation system that directly addresses this challenge by implementing a convenient and powerful means of annotating digital content. It provides a reliable, portable manner of annotating both textual and image content in documents. The annotations are stored remotely by the FAST service which means that they may be shared across different sites maintaining the same data without the need for modification.

FAST-CAT has been developed as a module for the Drupal 7 content management system making it extremely easy to add to an existing Drupal site.

This paper introduces FAST, the backend service providing powerful annotation functionalities, and CAT, the frontend Web annotation tool, and discusses how its features are tackling important challenges within the Digital Humanities field.

Features of FAST
The FAST annotation service adopts and implements the formal model for annotations proposed by (Agosti and Ferro, 2008). Since then, FAST has been completely reengineered with added functionality such as provenance, logging and extended searching. According to this model, an annotation is a compound multimedia object which is constituted by different signs of annotation. Each sign materializes part of the annotation itself; for example, a textual sign would contain the textual content of the annotation, an image sign would contain images, etc. Each sign is characterized by one or more meanings of annotation, which specify the semantics of the sign, e.g. a sign whose meaning corresponds to the “title” field in the Dublin Core (DC) metadata schema or a sign carrying a question from the author whose meaning may be “question” or similar.

The flexibility inherent in the annotation model allows us to create a connective structure, which is superimposed to the underlying documents managed by digital libraries. This can span and cross the boundaries of different digital libraries and the Web, allowing the users to create new paths and connections among resources at a global scale.

FAST defines three different scopes which determine the visibility of an annotation — private, public and group. With FAST-CAT, the scope of an annotation is set to private by default, meaning that only the person who created the annotation can see it. These annotations may serve as reminders or notes within the document for the user, akin to writing in the margin of a page.

The user can choose to make an annotation public, allowing other users to read their comments on a document. This has numerous applications for users of all levels of expertise. For instance, experienced users may choose to create public notes and annotations which can expand on the text of the document, helping less experienced users to comprehend the content. Less experienced users may indicate parts of the document which they would like to be explained further.

Group annotations allow users to provide viewing and editing permissions on an annotation to specific users. This means that a team of people working towards a similar goal could communicate directly through the medium of annotation. In this way, it can be seen that FAST-CAT can play a crucial role in collaboration.

Features of CAT
CAT is a web annotation tool whose development began in July 2012. It has been developed with the goal of being able to annotate multiple forms of document content and assist in collaboration in the field of digital humanities. At present, CAT allows for the annotation of both text and images. The current granularity for annotation of text is at the level of the letter. For image annotations, the granularity is at the level of the pixel. This allows for extremely precise document annotation, which is very relevant to the Digital Humanities domain due to the variety of different assets that prevail.

There are two types of annotation which may be created using CAT; a targeted annotation and a note. A targeted annotation is a comment which is associated with a specific part of the document. This may be a paragraph, a picture or an individual word, but the defining feature is that the text is directly associated with a specific entity. Conversely, a note is simply attached to the document. It is not associated with a specific item therein. Typically, this serves as a general comment or remark about the document as a whole. Further to allowing a user to comment on document text, the annotations created using CAT allow a user to link their annotations to other, external sources. Hence CAT can be used to construct a narrative through a number of documents. This is hugely beneficial for teachers using digital cultural collections and for students from primary to university level. For example, using these links a teacher can construct a predetermined path for their students to follow through a series of sites relevant to their chosen topic. Importantly, each link has comment text associated with it, allowing an educator to explain why this specific link is important or what the student should seek to gain from following this particular path.

While CAT is beneficial for researchers and educators, it is also being used as an important source of user data for the content provider. Websites such as Amazon and YouTube are able to provide increasingly accurate recommendations for their individual users. These recommendations are facilitated by a user model which is driven by a combination of ratings, recently viewed items and numerous other factors. For a digital humanities site, annotations provide an insight into which entities are of interest to a user. If a user is frequently annotating a document, it is likely that this document is of interest to them. Furthermore, if the text being annotated is analysed, it may be possible to discern specific items of interest within the document. A digital humanities site which can determine what a user is attempting to study, then anticipate and recommend sources that may be of use to them in the future is profoundly useful. If well implemented, curators of digital humanities portals will see a dramatic improvement in the effectiveness with which researchers interact with their domain.

FAST-CAT and CULTURA
At present, FAST-CAT is being developed as part of the CULTURA project (Hampson et al., 2012a, 2012b). A key aspect of CULTURA is the production of an online environment that empowers users, of various levels of expertise, to investigate, comprehend and contribute to digital cultural collections. FAST-CAT is a key component of this environment and is currently being trialled with the help of three different user groups.

A team of MPhil students and professional researchers will use the tool as part of their teaching, collaboration and research into the 1641 depositions. These users will be testing FAST-CAT in a free form manner. How they choose to annotate and what content they label is entirely determined by their own needs. The 1641 depositions are text only content, so these students will serve only to evaluate the text annotation aspect of the tool.

Providing an alternative insight is a group of secondary school students from Lancaster whose teacher will use the annotations to guide them through a lesson. These students will also be working with the 1641 depositions.

Masters students in Padua will test the image annotation functionality of FAST-CAT as part of their research into the IPSA collections of illuminated manuscripts. Similarly to the MPhil students, their approach to annotating documents will be determined by their own research methodology.

The various features offered by FAST-CAT and its user interface will be evaluated in detail and comparisons will be drawn between the manner in which different user groups availed of annotations depending on their level of expertise and document content. Furthermore, FAST-CAT will also help to drive CULTURA’s comprehensive user model by providing the site with updates on the user’s behaviour regarding document annotation.

Future Work
Much of the further enhancement of FAST-CAT will be based on the feedback given by the user groups mentioned in the previous section. However there are already plans to expand and improve the system for future versions.

While FAST-CAT is supported by modern browsers, to improve portability, implementations for older web browsers will be developed.

FAST-CAT is a Drupal 7 module which means that, at present, it is only available for the annotation of websites which are built using the Drupal content management system. However, it only utilises a small amount of Drupal functionality to relay messages from the client computer to FAST. This dependency is easily removed as the majority of functionality is either client side or independent of Drupal. Designing and implementing a more server agnostic php script will allow FAST-CAT to be deployed on any website. This is one of the main items for future development of the system and will help to ensure that FAST-CAT can be utilised by as wide a range of content based websites as possible.

References
Agosti, M., G. Bonfiglio-Dosio, and N. Ferro (2007). A Historical and Contemporary Study on Annotations to Derive Key Features for Systems Design. International Journal on Digital Libraries (IJoDL). 8.1. 1-19.
Agosti, M., & N. Ferro (2008). A formal model of annotations of digital content. ACM Transactions on Information Systems (TOIS). 26.1. 3:1-3:57.
Agosti and Ferro, I. Frommholz, & U. Thiel (2004). Annotations in Digital Libraries and Collaboratories — Facets, Models and Usage. In Proc. 8th European Conference on Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries (ECDL 2004), 244-255. LNCS 3232, Springer: Heidelberg.
Bélanger, M.-E. (2010). Ideals. https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/15035/belanger.pdf?sequence=2 (accessed October 25, 2012)
Hampson, C., M. Agosti, N. Orio, E. Bailey, S. Lawless, and O. Conlan (2012). The CULTURA Project: Supporting Next Generation Interaction with Digital Cultural Heritage Collections. Limassol, Cyprus.
Hampson, C., S. Lawless, E. Bailey, S. Yogev, N. Zwerdling, and D. Carmel (2012). CULTURA: A Metadata-Rich Environment to Support the Enhanced Interrogation of Cultural Collections. Cádiz, Spain.
Okfn. Okfn Annotator. http://okfnlabs.org/annotator/(accessed June 2012).
TILE. (2011). TILE: text-image linking environment. http://mith.umd.edu/tile/ (accessed July 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1662","14","From Anecdote to Data: Humanities Scholars Beyond the Tenure Track","10","Though humanities graduates have long engaged in a range of stimulating careers, little data has been collected on humanities scholars working outside the professoriate. Consequently, discussions about alternative academic careers—those within the orbit of universities and cultural heritage institutions, but off the tenure track—have been largely anecdotal. In order to ground the conversation, the Scholarly Communication Institute (SCI) initiated a study in 2012 to investigate perceptions about career preparation provided by graduate programs. The study was a directive from SCI’s ninth summer meeting in 2011, which identified graduate education reform as an area of critical importance to the current humanities landscape.

The main goal of the study, which focused primarily on the context of North American higher education, was to establish a body of data that can serve as a foundation on which to base recommendations for new and revised methodological training. The results of the study reveal clear patterns that highlight the current strengths of graduate education relative to non-professorial employment, as well as significant opportunities for improvement.

The changing nature of career paths for humanities scholars is an issue of particular concern to digital humanities practitioners, who have long been working in the kinds of hybrid roles that the term “alternative academic” has come to describe. Many of the skills implicit in digital humanities scholarship and work products—including collaboration, project management, and technological fluency—are becoming increasingly important in new models of graduate training, even among programs not specifically allied with the digital humanities.

BACKGROUND
While doctoral study is a time of intense focus, it is also deeply exploratory. This exploration traditionally takes shape through the research process, as candidates follow the winding labyrinth of a line of inquiry, its antecedents, and its significance. Universities understand and value freedom of this nature; indeed, the fundamental structure of academic employment—tenure—is built around the importance of protecting the freedom of academic inquiry.

Increasingly, though, students need space for another kind of exploration, one more directly related to their future employment opportunities. The myth of a single (academic) job market persists in graduate programs today, perpetuated by departments that measure prestige by the tenure-track placements of their graduates. However, the convergence of increased casualization of the academic work force, a period of high unemployment, and steady enrollment in graduate programs means that people with advanced humanities training increasingly seek intellectually satisfying positions outside the professoriate. Following the 2011 launch of #Alt-Academy, a collection of essays edited by Bethany Nowviskie, the neologism and Twitter hashtag #alt-ac became a widely used shorthand to describe these kinds of careers, together with the excitement and challenges that accompany them.

In addition to the rich narrative material gathered under the #alt-ac umbrella, several other studies provide groundwork for SCI’s recent work. In particular, the 2012 report by the Council of Graduate Schools and the Educational Testing Service titled “Pathways Out of Graduate School and Into Careers,” provides a valuable look at graduate education and employment in the U.S. across all disciplines. An earlier study, “Ph.D.’s—Ten Years Later” (Nerad and Cerny, 1996), explores the experiences of Ph.D. holders working in business, government, and non-profits. It provides incredibly useful context, but the data from the study no longer accurately reflects the current academic or employment environments.

While both of these studies provide useful baseline information and analysis, the disciplinary scope of each is quite broad, making it difficult to assess finer-grained issues particular to the humanities. By focusing on a narrower segment of the academic population—humanities scholars working outside the tenure track—SCI’s study can probe more deeply into issues that concern that group.

METHODS
The study consisted of two main phases: one public, one confidential. The first phase involved creating a public database of self-identified alternative academic practitioners. The database was built within the framework of the #Alt-Academy project in order to leverage the energy of existing conversations.

The second phase of the study comprised two confidential surveys. The primary survey targeted people with advanced humanities degrees who self-identify as working in alternative academic careers, while a second targeted employers that oversee employees with advanced humanities degrees. Because we were working with a somewhat nebulous population, our subsequent distribution focused on “opt-in” strategies—especially social media, listervs, and traditional media coverage. While this method has limitations, we hoped to learn something not only from the content of the responses, but from the number and type of respondents.

Data collection extended from July to October, 2012. Overall, the surveys had a very strong response, though the response rate also highlighted an important discrepancy. Nearly 800 people completed the main survey—almost four times our initial goal of 200 respondents. The employer survey, however, fell slightly short of our more modest goal of 100 respondents, totaling about 80 responses. The uneven response rate underscores the significant difference in engagement level on the part of job seekers compared to employers.

FINDINGS
Analysis is still in progress; the final report will be completed and published by August 2013, at the end of SCI’s current phase of funding. The preliminary results of the surveys strongly suggest that while humanities graduates can and do apply their knowledge and skills to wide assortment of careers, there are many ways in which graduate programs could better equip them for the paths they take. Further, many of the skills employers report as desirable for alternative academic roles—such as project management, collaboration, and communicating with varied audiences—would also enhance the research, teaching, and service of those who do pursue academic roles.

Unsurprisingly, the data shows that a large majority of students enter graduate school expecting to pursue careers as professors—a total of 74%. What is perhaps more interesting is their level of confidence: of that 74%, 80% report feeling fairly certain or completely certain that this was the career they would pursue. These expectations are not aligned with the actual career outcomes of the respondents, or with humanities graduates more broadly.

Deepening the problem, students report receiving little or no preparation for careers outside the professoriate, even though the need for information about many different careers is acute. Only 18% reported feeling satisfied or very satisfied with the preparation they received for careers other than the professoriate. The responses are rooted in perception, so there may well be resources available that students are not taking advantage of—but whatever the reason, it is clear that students do not feel that they are being adequately prepared.

NEXT STEPS
Through a series of conversations with experts in the coming year, SCI will explore strategies to better equip students for a variety of careers without sacrificing disciplinary rigor. Based on the outcomes of the meetings, SCI plans to draft recommendations encouraging humanities departments to consider evaluating and modifying required aspects of their graduate-level curricula in ways that best serve students and the health of the discipline.

One way to move toward curricular change is to encourage humanities departments to form more deliberate partnerships with the inter- and para-departmental organizations that are already engaging in this kind of work. Traditional and digital humanities centers have jump-started excellent training programs, research projects, and public-facing work, though opportunities frequently take the form of extracurricular fellowships or informal training programs (such as the Digital Humanities Summer Institute and THATCamps, which both provide short-format, non-credit training opportunities). If departments that wish to move in similar directions connect with these centers, there may be opportunities to share infrastructure (physical and digital), expertise, time, and funding.

While informal programs have been a good starting point, incorporating successful training elements into the structures and core curricula of departments is an important move, especially in terms of sustainability and increased access (for all graduate students, not only those who win competitive spots in small programs). When individuals and small centers are supported by robust partnerships with traditional academic departments, the possibility for sustainable change becomes even greater.

CONCLUSION
This study represents an important step in the path of rethinking graduate education and academic employment, and we hope it helps to lay the groundwork for further study and concrete action. By making our data publicly available, we hope that other scholars will deepen the analysis of the responses that we have received. We also hope that an increasing number of departments will accurately track—and publish—data on the career paths of their former students. Increased information and transparency are critical to fostering an academic community that recognizes the value of permeable boundaries. Finally, we hope that the humanities community will strengthen its efforts to engage with the public. If, rather than feeling constrained by the exclusivity of a tenure-track career path, students instead feel free to explore ways to apply their humanities training to a broad spectrum of paths, their work would enrich both the academic community and the broader public.

References
Council of Graduate Schools (2012). Pathways Through Graduate School and Into Careers. 19 April 2012. http://pathwaysreport.org.
Nerad, M., and J. Cerny (1999). From Rumors to Facts: Career Outcomes of English PhDs. ADE bulletin 32.7. 11. (30 July 2012). http://www.mla.org/bulletin_124043.
Nerad, M., and J. Cerny (2012). “Ph.D.’s—Ten Years Later.” (30 July 2012). http://depts.washington.edu/cirgeweb/c/research/phd-career-path-surveys/phds-ten-years-later/.
Nowviskie, Bethany, (ed). (2012). #Alt-Academy. MediaCommons (2011). (1 Oct. 2012). http://mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/alt-ac/.
Scholarly Communication Institute (2011). New-Model Scholarly Communication: Road Map for Change. July 2011. http://uvasci.org/past-institutes/new-model-scholarly-communication/sci-9-report/.","txt","2","",""
"1663","14","Designing a graduate DH course with DH tools and methods","9","This paper describes an experimental approach to designing and teaching an introductory digital humanities course for graduate students. In 2011 Kevin Kee was asked to create and teach a class as part of a new interdisciplinary Humanities Ph.D. program. The graduate students taking the course would be largely unfamiliar with the digital humanities.

Kee began his preparation for the course by asking several questions. The first was ""what should an introductory digital humanities course attempt to accomplish""? As he searched for answers, another important question emerged: ""How could digital methods be used to design and deliver the course?"" In this paper, Kee and Spencer Roberts, a Research Assistant who worked with Kee, describe first their method for researching and designing the course. They then sketch the structure and content of the course that resulted from their research. Finally, they provide examples of student responses to the material and methods covered in the course (including Roberts's perspective as a graduate student). The collected responses and their reflections on the process suggest particular ways in which future courses of this kind might be designed, implemented, and improved. Most importantly, they found that an effective way to design and teach an introductory digital humanities course is to think about the discipline through discussions about its topics and to think with the discipline by using digital tools and methods in the classroom.

Overviews of digital humanities course offerings have been conducted throughout the past fifteen years. In 1999, Willard McCarty and Matthew Kirschenbaum identified only fourteen institutions that offered courses in humanities computing. In 2006, Melissa Terras conducted another survey of digital humanities curriculum, and in 2011, Lisa Spiro undertook to collect and analyze syllabi from digital humanities courses. Of these previous surveys, Spiro’s was the most comprehensive; she collected over 134 syllabi from various levels of study in the digital humanities. Although Spiro’s work parallels and was helpful to that of Kee and Roberts, the latter were unaware of her project when they began, and had no way to replicate her research method. As a result, Kee and Roberts drew on the results of their own analyses while designing the course.

For Kee and Roberts' research, Roberts designed a method by which syllabi were converted into sets of data representing reading lists, assignments, assessment methods, and digital tools used. Commonly occurring items from within those sets were highlighted and identified as items deemed important by the statistical consensus of instructors represented in their sample. For example, their results showed that seven authors of digital humanities-related articles and books appeared on reading lists at a significantly higher frequency than others; the data also showed that other instructors found these authors most useful. Kee drew on these results when deciding on readings for his course list.

Topics covered in the course included text encoding and markup, distant reading, building, mapping, modelling and simulating, playing and gaming, teaching, and collaborating. Each of these was paired with a practical application, usually drawn from a modified version of William Turkel’s ""Method"". For example, students learned the theory of text markup and were asked to create pages on the course wiki using the basic wiki standard markup. Franco Moretti’s theory of distant reading made more sense for students once they experimented with text mining and analysis tools such as Voyant. Kee’s assessment strategy required students to use blogs and Twitter to comment on the theories and tools they encountered; Kee also encouraged them to participate in scholarly discourse that occurs on the Web. Although most of the students studied history, Kee aimed to create an environment in which the digital humanities were understood as both theory and practice that could be incorporated into any humanities discipline.

Because Kee and Roberts hoped to learn from the experiences of graduate students new to the digital humanities, Kee built feedback mechanisms into the course assignments, and asked students to reflect on the course before and after completion. Nearly all of the students were challenged by the dual responsibility of learning theory and skills simultaneously. Although some students were relieved to finish experimenting, others were pleased with their progress and the opportunities for future research. One student commented, “Not only do I now have some new tools to use while I’m doing research… I’m also more open-minded towards using them in the first place and really trying to engage with them, rather than brushing them off.” While students readily adopted some of the tools, such as Zotero and Evernote, they found more complex tools such as DevonThink or Voyant required a level of commitment and time they did not want to make. In short, these students were not willing to commit to a new, digital research method at a time when they were simultaneously taking graduate courses rooted in conventional research methods. For some students, however, patience led to late or accidental discoveries that improved their methods; in at least one case, a student who was skeptical throughout the course became an enthusiastic supporter of digital methods and now avidly attends DH conferences and events. At the conclusion of the course, most students were open to the various theories and approaches used in the digital humanities, and were enthusiastic about trying new tools and experimenting with new methods that might improve their research and scholarship.

From the outset of the project, Kee and Roberts understood that they were asking questions for which there were several feasible answers. Some graduate level digital humanities courses focus on topics within the digital humanities; others primarily train students to develop digital skills using computational tools. Kee's approach was to combine these two approaches into one course that provided opportunity for theoretical discussion while also showcasing practical applications, so that students could see the potential beneDits of digital humanities methods without having to master sophisticated tools. The research method used to build the course syllabus employed the same theories and tools that were later discussed in the course, creating an iterative loop through which student feedback and developments in the discipline can be incorporated into future versions. Already there are new tools to improve the collection and analysis of digital humanities syllabi, and new methods being explored by instructors. Through the experimental approach described in this paper, Kee and Roberts have found that thinking about and thinking with the discipline, a method that many digital scholars employ in their research, is also an effective way to design a course, and appeals to students who are new to the discipline, fostering enthusiasm for its use in their own often conventional humanities scholarship. The authors hope that this approach contributes to the growing conversation about teaching digital humanities, while also reflecting and adapting to the dynamic topics within the field.","txt","2","",""
"1664","14","Developing a virtual research environment for scholarly editing. Arthur Schnitzler: Digitale Historisch-Kritische Edition","9","Introduction
Arthur Schnitzler: Digitale historisch-kritische Edition. Werke 1904-1931 is a long-term project founded by the Nordrhein-Westfälische Akademie der Wissenschaften with a runtime of 18 years. The aim is to create a digital critical edition of both the majority of works published during Schnitzler's lifetime and his literary estate, providing scholars with an up-to-date, philologically dependable textual basis.

The first project phase (2012-14) is primarily about conceptional groundwork and focuses on two texts, Fräulein Else and Komödie der Verführung which were chosen both for their literary value and their usefulness as a testbed. Editing them will go hand in hand with finalizing the editorial principles and establishing the digital workflow.

To this end, the team of editors at Bergische Universität Wuppertal closely cooperates with computer scientists at Trier Center for Digital Humanities who are developing a customized virtual research environment. Based upon a unified data model, it will support all editorial steps from entering the meta data through transcribing the textual witnesses to preparing the online publication and printouts. This paper shall outline the philological challenges of the project and show how the projected platform is to meet them.

Initial Situation and Objectives
For scholars working on Schnitzler’s writings, the availability of a philologically well founded textual basis is currently a key desideratum. Arthur Schnitzler is probably the only German-language author of literary world rank of whom there are to this day neither a commented student edition nor a (historical) critical edition. The project seeks to remedy this situation by:

Providing the first edition of most of the works published during Arthur Schnitzler‘s lifetime with an authentic, critically constituted text.
Providing a genetic edition of the major part of the literary estate (belonging to both published and unpublished work).
Making the whole edited material accessible by text-critical comments and contextualizing its literary-historical background
The underlying material is just as comprehensive as manifold. Beyond the printed work, there are extensive preliminary works and sketches, as well as numerous unpublished dramatic, narrative, lyrical, aphoristic and essayistic texts. In addition to this literary estate material (which is complemented by film scripts and screenplays) there is a sizable number of non-literary writings. These can be either scientific (e.g. medical) treatises, literary criticisms and other comments, self-criticisms and records about the history of his own works — or, on the other hand, “ego-documents”: autobiography, diaries, dream journaling, correspondences. Thus, the catalogue of the Literaturarchiv Marbach lists about 28,000 letters and the estate material archived at Cambridge University Library comprises approximately 40,000 sheets.
Given this constellation, the integral approach of the projected edition has to be emphasized: The edited material in its diversity is to be united within a homogeneous central data pool, allowing for different types of output. Following the principle of single-source publishing, the projected public online edition could be completed in the future by an annotated student edition or even a critical edition.

Challenges in Scholarly Editing
The new edition of Schnitzler’s — published as unpublished — oeuvre is rich in philological challenges. It presents itself as a dynamic yet coherent system of most diverse transformation processes, branchings and cross-links. The individual literary ""work"" proves to be an unreliable unit; Schnitzler used to work for several years or even decades on a text. In this process, not only the genre would occasionally change, but there also may occur genetic bifurcations (one draft becoming multiple works) or fusions (several drafts being merged into one work).The project thus chooses the text witness in its materiality as a basis, prioritizing the categories of topography, genesis and intertextuality. Hence, the individual witness has to be described not only in its semantics, but also in its physical form and its processuality (writing stages). Moreover, the cross-links and correspondences of sequences and fragments between text witnesses are of particular interest.

Literary Computing and Software Development
In terms of literary computing, two aspects are to be emphasized: Firstly, the various requirements in scholarly editing (meta data capture, transcription, annotation, linking text and facsimile, linking text sequences with each other, collation, preparation of indices and critical apparatus) can only be met with a series of appropriate tools.

Secondly, these tools must be coordinated. In practical terms, this means above all that they have to fit into a unified philological workflow. This brings to the fore a facet that is often considered of minor interest in digital editorial projects: the aspect of the data format.

It is essential to determine a data model which can serve as a basis for the whole philological process, possibly without laborious intermediate conversions. From meta data collection through transcription and annotation to topography, networking and publication, all editorial stages need to be supported. This is complicated all the more by a set of overlapping hierarchies:

Firstly, there is the documentary view (with reference to the material witness, i.e. the single sheet), secondly the semantic-textual view (the text in its philological structure), thirdly sequences of any size have to be linked. This is not a trivial constellation for the XML-format, and the project currently evaluates how different standards deal with this problem. The benchmark are both the guidelines of the TEI and their concrete implementation in current projects (such as the digital Faust-edition). However, some of the proposed strategies, such as a splitting up into multiple files with different markup or the breaking up of subsidiary hierarchy levels, may add great complexity to the editor’s work. So we currently test if the workflow could alternatively build on a database system, out of which the current processing status can be exported or archived any time into an international, platform-independent standard.

Virtual Research Environment
The tools needed for the project are currently being developed and made interoperable at the Trier Center for Digital Humanities. As for the meta data management, an adapted module of the Forschungsnetzwerk und Datenbanksystem FuD is used which allows the physical description of textual witnesses and their often complex tradition via specially customized input masks. For some other tasks (see below), currently existing solutions will be evaluated and tested in terms of usability. However, the core functionality is to be covered largely by Transcribo, an entirely new transcription, topography and edition software.

Transcribo
Transcribo is developed in close collaboration between computer scientists and philologists of the project partners. The graphical user interface is centered around the digital facsimile, i.e. usually the scanned witness. Units of varying extent (e.g. words, lines or paragraphs) can be marked by means of a rectangle-or polygon-tool, and then be transcribed and annotated. Each image file is displayed twice: the original can be examined on the left while the view on the right is used as a work space, where the transcribed text is placed topographically exact on top of the slightly attenuated facsimile. Where the spatial arrangement does not match the textual word order, words can be combined into sequences to preserve the semantic relationships in the transcript. As a central feature, the program further allows to mark genetic and philologically relevant phenomena in each transcribed unit and add annotations to them. This is done by a context menu with a selection of project-specific options. These include so far different variants of corrections (such as immediate corrections or late corrections with single, double or multiple strikethroughs and overwritings), the marking of highlightings, uncertain readings and non-identifiable graphs. This selection, however, can be extended and will be adjusted over the entire course of the project to meet the requirements of the underlying material.


Fig. 1:
Transcription and annotation in Transcribo.

Further Extensions
FuD and Transcribo lay the basis for scholarly editing in an online environment by covering the key requirements: meta data management, transcription, topography description and basic annotations. This nucleus will be expanded over the next years to a virtual research environment that supports the entire project-specific workflow in a unified interface. This implies the integration of a number of additional features:

Collation; here it has to be stressed that we will not only have to compare fixed texts, but also to identify similar sequences in a large data pool.
The linking of freely definable sequences within or between text witnesses.
The identification of dependencies between witnesses, in particular the creation of genetic paths.
A publishing program for printouts.
While in the domain of publishing and collation, there are programs that can be adapted (we evaluate at present: XML-Print and CollateX, Juxta, TUSTEP), the remaining tools are to be developed. The result will be a research environment that — due to its platform-independent and modular design — can be adapted to meet the needs of numerous other editorial projects. Concrete interest in using this environment or individual modules of it has already been expressed by several projects such as:
August Wilhelm Schlegel ""Kritische Ausgabe der Vorlesungen“ Band IV–VI
Digitalisierung und elektronische Edition der Korrespondenz August Wilhelm Schlegels
Wolfgang Koeppens „Jugend“
References
Arthur Schnitzler: Digitale Historisch-Kritische Edition. http://www.buw-output.uni-wuppertal.de/ausgabe4/lukas/.
Trier Center for Digital Humanities. http://kompetenzzentrum.uni-trier.de.
Digitale Faustedition. https://faustedition.uni-wuerzburg.de/dev/project/about/.
TEI guidelines. http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/P5/.
FuD. http://fud.uni-trier.de/.
XML-Print. http://kompetenzzentrum.uni-trier.de/de/projekte/projekte/xml-print/.
Schlegel, A. W. Kritische Ausgabe der Vorlesungen“ Band IV–V:I. http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/fakultaeten/philosophische-fakultaet/fachbereiche/neuphilologie/deutsches-seminar/abteilungen/neuere-deutsche-literatur/mitarbeitende/lehrstuhl-braungart/projekte/august-wilhelm-schlegel.html.
Digitalisierung und elektronische Edition der Korrespondenz August Wilhelm Schlegels. http://www.slub-dresden.de/ueber-uns/projekte/erschliessung-und-digitalisierung/edition-schlegel/.
Koeppens, W. „Jugend“. http://www.phil.uni-greifswald.de/philologien/deutsch/forschung-kooperation/wka/dfg-projekt-jugend.html.","txt","2","",""
"1665","14","DH@WIT: Digital Humanities for Undergraduate Design, Engineering, and Management Students","2","Wentworth Institute of Technology (WIT), an independent, co-educational, technical design and engineering college located in Boston, Massachusetts, offers a comprehensive interdisciplinary, project-based education that integrates classroom, laboratory, studio, cooperative and experiential learning. Our department of Humanities and Social Sciences (HUSS) is currently working to develop and promote a digital humanities-inflected undergraduate curriculum. Unlike more traditional humanities programs, we are using digital humanities to prepare students for careers outside of academia. The proposed poster presentation will highlight the aspects of DH@WIT that we consider to be unique.

We are already a technology and design based institution immersed in a studio/lab-based culture, so, whereas most institutions with an interest in DH tend to bring technology to humanities, we are bringing humanities to technology.

Our department is already highly interdisciplinary and collaborative (with faculty offering courses in Literature, Art History, Film, Music, Philosophy, History, Psychology, Sociology, Political Science, Economics, Cultural Studies, and Communications), and thus we are not hampered by disciplinary boundaries that exist at many other institutions.

In collaboration with our Office of Institutional Research, we have, to date, commissioned three feasibility studies from the Hanover Research Group: New Media Programs in the Liberal Arts (an initial industry survey of institutions that have led the way nationally in incorporating the study of new media into traditional higher education); Market Analysis for a BS in Digital Humanities (a report analyzing the market for a bachelor’s degree program in digital humanities); and Job Opportunities for Digital Humanities Program Graduates (which analyzes occupational demand for DH graduates in related industries, builds profiles of relevant positions in related industries, lists relevant local employers, examines the educational and work experience of current professionals with a professed interest in DH, and surveys the sponsored funding environment for DH programs).

Our research suggests that DH graduates with a strong background in computer application design and programming are likely to have the best prospects for a job outside of academia. A more tech-training-oriented program would also align well with W.I.T.’s other institutional offerings. Including training in advanced technical skills such as graphic design or computer engineering, the DH@WIT curriculum offers significant advantages to students entering the workforce because their interests and skills are applicable to many opportunities in a wide range of industries. Overall, nationwide employment for occupations directly related to DH degree programs appears to be growing steadily. Thus, we are proposing a new degree program at Wentworth: a Bachelor of Science in Digital Humanities. This would be an interdisciplinary program of study that combines theoretical and practical courses, with the goal of educating new digital and media specialists for the growing knowledge and information economy. Such a program would provide students with a multi-disciplinary foundation in visual and digital literacy and competency.

Because the nature of DH work is applied and project-based, students in the BS program will have hands-on training in studio-based classes, in addition to the theoretical, critical, social, and ethical contexts for thinking about the making, and critique, of new knowledge through Digital Humanities/New Media research and applications. Learning outcomes will include digital literacy, visual literacy, rhetorical competence (visual and verbal), cultural awareness, creative self-direction, and intellectual curiosity.

A BS in Digital Humanities will include a cooperative education (co-op) requirement. Wentworth offers one of the most comprehensive co-op programs of its kind in the nation. The experience complements traditional classroom learning with a chance to build important skills and professional connections. Co-op experiences are directly related to our students’ fields of study. Students earn income and do not pay tuition during co-op terms. This kind of co-op opportunity is rare for an undergraduate program in humanities.

DH@WIT is conceived as our own unique response to the ""two cultures"" problem noted by Thomas Bartscherer in his introduction to Switching Codes: Thinking Through Digital Technology in the Humanities and the Arts: ""an attempt to bring scholars and artists into more robust dialogue with computer scientists and programmers""(2). We will prepare our students to serve as cultural-technological intermediaries.

References
Bartscherer, T., and R. Coover (2011). Switching Codes: Thinking Through Digital Technology in the Humanities and the Arts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Job Opportunities for Digital Humanities Program Graduates. Hanover Research Group. Washington, DC. July 2012.
Market Analysis for a BS in Digital Humanities. (2011). Hanover Research Group. Washington, DC. September.
New Media Programs in the Liberal Arts. (2011). Hanover Research Group. Washington, DC. February.","txt","2","",""
"1666","14","Digging into Human Rights Violations: phrase mining and trigram visualization","9","I. Introduction
Digging into Human Rights Violations (DHRV) is developing a computational reader for large text archives of human rights abuses so as to discover the stories of hidden victims and unidentified perpetrators only apparent when reading across large numbers of related documents. In part, this project began with an observation drawn from Benetech’s Human Rights Data Analysis Group’s (HRDAG) report on the Bosnian Book of Dead (Ball 2007). In their report on the tabulation of fatalities resulting from ethnic cleansing undertaken by the Milosevic regime, HRDAG was highly concerned with the de-duplication of entries. This over-reporting of individual victims within human rights corpora is endemic, and represents an opportunity for a system that can read across a corpus. For example, in the 511 interviews comprising our test corpus, one named individual appears more than 60 times. How many times might an unnamed individual reoccur? Automated readers exist that classify documents, produce summaries (Nenkova 2011), extract significant information (Strassel 2008) and highlight sentiment on a perentity, sentence, paragraph, or document basis (Pang 2008). This type of analysis works best with well-defined figures, such as occur in newspaper articles or government documents. That partially describes reports of human rights violations, as each report generally describes a victim’s perspective of one limited event. Currently, these systems have difficulty parsing peripheral entities, indeterminate language, or references that go beyond the boundaries of one document and are only significant when traced across documents; many reports peripherally describe the fates of other victims. These implicit, buried links and duplicate reports amongst records enable horizontally reading across records collections, rather than vertical reading through one record.

The technical goal of DHRV is to create an NLP system that facilitates cross-document coreference of entities in collections of witness statements and interviews within the domain of rights. This project’s approach to resolving the task (Kibble and Deemeter 2000) described as “whether or not two mentions of entities refer to the same person,” begins by considering the subtype of anaphora (indicative language within a document) known as exophora (indicative language across more than one document), and relies on placing pronominal entities within a high-order Event Trigraph of location, time, and name. Because temporal information is so often referential and ambiguous, and therefore difficult to extract and correlate (Northwood 2000) our approach uses a phrase-based establishment of semantic context to support identifying the temporal context. This noun- and verb-phrase extraction, collocation detection, and semi-automated matching, feeds a 2D planar visualization similar to network graph models. Uncertainties in the document and information retrieval processes are visualized to allow researchers to confirm whether entity occurrences should be conflated. Because much human rights documentation contains sensitive information that cannot be made public, this project is prototyping with another historically significant corpus that shares many structural features to our primary data: the World Trade Center Task Force Interviews conducted with first responders to the attacks of September 11, 2001.

II. Event Summarization Based on Matching Phrases
Our main stratagem is to situate entities in the series of events that define their appearances. Phrases useful for this process accord to a “journalist template,” of Who, What, When, Where, and Why, and are situated in the events reporting schema developed by Patrick Ball for human rights violations reporting (Chang 2012, Ball 1996). The goal is a system that can automatically extract these important entities as phrases, and based on these extracts, allow for the recognition of duplicate entities across documents. A perceptual diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 1.


Figure 1:
Phrase mining perceptual diagram

In the system, the noun phrases and verb phrases are first extracted from a parser. Then a phrase classifier is used to determine which phrases fall into important entity categories such as Person names/Geographic Locations/Date/Time or depiction of an event. After classifying these phrases into categories, a module called Collocation detector is ran to detect which of the detected entities are described in the same context within a passage in the corpus. This collocation of phrases is different from the collocation of words usually used in NLP, in that it captures instances of the collocations, instead of a global probability. A collocation is only true when multiple elements correlate. After a set of collocated phrases have been detected, they are placed into the event template and fed to a visualization engine. Human observers then decide which cross-document entities are identical. The engine computes automatic scores to make suggestions to the observers on which events and entities should be merged.

III. Phrase Extraction and Classification
The first step of phrase extraction is done by running a full parser on each document and then extracting all the retrieved noun phrases and verb phrases from the parse tree. We decided against using a shallow parser (chunker) because it has lower recall (may not capture all the desired phrases) than a full parser. The parser we are using is the Stanford parser (Klein 2003(1), Klein 2003(2)). From the extracted phrases, we formulate a classification task for labeling important phrases for event extraction. The important phrases in our research is different from the traditional named entity recognition (NER) problem in NLP, in that we are seeking to connect names to unnamed entities. We have 8 categories for important phrases: Organization, Person, Title, Location, Date, Time, Event, Miscellaneous and the background category of Unimportant. Of these categories, some are traditional NER or TimeML categories. Event and Miscellaneous labels are new, and determine some important phrases that might not be readily interpreted as named entities. Phrases such as “the pedestrian bridge,” “the ferry,” or “the second tower” which are not identifiable as a particular named entity, but might be crucial in depicting the event are classified as Miscellaneous.

To maximally utilize human knowledge in the phrase labeling phase, an unsupervised selection mechanism selects the phrases to be labeled. In this mechanism, phrases are ranked by a score that is similar to a frequency or N-gram model, but discounts the probability of a phrase if it is very common in a background corpus


where log P(phrase) is computed by an N-gram language model trained on the current corpus, and log Pbg(phrase) is based on a Ngram language model trained on a background corpus that is supposed to contain documents of all kinds. Under this model, the probability of a phrase is only discounted if Pbg(phrase) > P(phrase). This application of Term Frequency–Inverse Document Frequency (Cohen 2002) helps us to find frequent phrases in the corpus which are not popular in the background corpus. The phrases with top scores are manually labeled. By this approach we can obtain the labels for the most frequent and unique phrases in the corpus, which are likely to be more important in isolating an event. Our N-gram training uses the modified Kneser-Ney smoothing (Chen 1999) from the MitLMpackage (Hsu 2008). The background language model is obtained from Microsoft Web Ngram Services. Given a set of human-labeled phrases, we then train two levels of classifiers on these phrases. At the first level, a binary Important versus Unimportant phrase classifier is trained. At the second level, a one-against-all multi-class classifier is trained for each of the phrase category described above, except Miscellaneous, which serves as the background category for Important phrases. The features used for the classifiers are common NER features (Zhang 2003, Ratinov 2009), plus standard bagof- words features. For the Date and Time phrases, we make use of the SUTime library (Chang 2012) which matches date and time expressions using an extensive set of rules defined by regular expressions. The classification of these Time and Date phrases do not depend on our own human annotation.

IV. Collocation Detection and Event Templates
For the collocation we use a simple metric: a Gaussian kernel on the distance between mentions of different phrases. Formally, the collocation probability of one occurrence of a phrase, given a set of other phrases is defined as:


where S(pi) is the sentence number where pi occurred. Given the defined conditionals, one can compute the joint probability P(p1, p2, p3, . . . , pk) and use a threshold to determine which phrase set goes to an event template.

V. Visualizing Unvertainty in Event Trigraphs
Depending upon the context, uncertainty refers to statistical uncertainty, ranged values or missing data (Pang 1997). Uncertainty can be introduced in the data during acquisition, processing or even visualization. In this paper, since the underlying data has been extracted from narratives, which in turn lacks precision, uncertainty is introduced right from the data acquisition phase. These uncertainties include the temporal, “By this time, it had to be 11:00 o'clock at night” and “at that time I noticed,” locative, “I guess that would be North End Avenue,” and entity, “At this point I had my five guys"" [WTCTF 9110250]. One of the major goals of this project is to visualize the triadic relationship amongst character, time, and location while incorporating these uncertainties.

In (Skeels 2010), the authors present a survey of the existing works on uncertainty visualization. The survey shows that most research in this area is in the field of geospatial (MacEachren 2005) or scientific visualizations (Lodha 1996, Grigoryan 2004, Wittenbrink1996). It also states, ""[t]he main techniques developed include adding glyphs, (Wittenbrink 1996, Lodha 1996) adding geometry, modifying geometry, (Grigoryan 2004) uncertainty in a model to decision makers (Walker 2003) modifying attributes, animation (Lodha 1996, Gershon 1992) and sonification.(LodhaSonic 1996).” To convey the time-location-character data and the associated uncertainty visually, in this paper, we introduce a trigram based visualization called an Event Trigraph.

An Event Trigraph is a 2D planar diagram consisting of events as its building blocks. An event in this case is a 3-tuple consisting of the basic elements derived from the phrase mining method detailed above to yield three elements: time, location and entity. Events are represented visually as triangles with the aforementioned basic elements as vertices connected with weighted edges. The weights represent the confidence value in the relation as obtained via our text mining methods. These confidence values show how likely is the connection both between two elements and amongst the trigram. Figure 2 shows a trigram with confidence values and elements.


Figure 2.
Event trigraph with uncertainty values and voids

Confidence values peak at 1, or a certain relationship between two elements. To reduce visual clutter due to the excess number of edges and vertices, we employ details on demand (Shneiderman 1996) and filtering capabilities on the dataset. The users can also drag and drop the events over other events and manually enter the confidence values to present the associativity between two or more events. Since the user loads multiple documents at a time, this feature enables users to visually associate events in different documents — the main forte and a unique aspect of our visualization. Furthermore, since the resulting data structure is a weighted network graph, many graph theory algorithms can be readily applied, thus making it scalable.

VI. Conclusion
As reports are processed by this method, the diagram builds in complexity and supplements each individual event trigraph with ones that potentially correlate. In the figure above, John-Café-12:00 pm is correlated to Jill-Playground-12:00pm across the time element, and Jill-Playground-12:00 pm correlates to Eleanor-Playground-12:00 pm across both time and location elements. This aggregated event trigraph builds to represent a corpus, and offers a method for correlating the collocation of entities across documents, and potentially identifying unnamed entities within said corpus.

References
Ball, P. (1996). Who Did What to Whom?: Planning and implementing a large scale human rights data project. Washington, D.C.: American Assoc. for the Advancement of Science, Science and Human Rights Program.
Ball, P., E. Tabeau and P. Verwimp (2007). The Bosnian Book of Dead: Assessment of the Database. Sussex: Households in Conflict Network, Institute of Development Studies.
Chang, A. X., and C. D. Manning (2012). Sutime: A library for recognizing and normalizing time expressions. In International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2012).
Chen, S. F., and J. T. Goodman (1999). An empirical study of smoothing techniques for language modeling. Computer Speech and Language, 13:359–393.
Cohen, W. W., and J. Richman (2002). “Learning to Match and Cluster Large High-Dimensional Data Sets for Data Integration.” Eighth ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD).
Gershon, N. D. (1992). “Visualization of fuzzy data using generalized animation.” IEEE Symposium on Visualization 1992. Chicago: IEEE Computer Society Press, 268–273.
Grigoryan, G., and P. Rheingans (2004). “Point-based probabilistic surfaces to show surface uncertainty.” IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 10(5): 564–573.
Hsu, B. J. and J. Glass (2008). Iterative language model estimation: Efficient data structure and algorithms. In Proceedings of Interspeech.
Klein, D. and C. D. Manning (2003). Accurate unlexicalized parsing. In Proceedings of the 41st Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 423–430.
Klein, D. and C. D. Manning (2003). Fast exact inference with a factored model for natural language parsing. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 15, 3–10.
Lodha, S. K., A. Pang, R. E. Sheehan, and C. M. Wittenbrink (1996). “UFLOW: Visualizing Uncertainty in Fluid Flow.” IEEE Symposium on Visualization Chicago, IL: IEEE Computer Society Press, (1996): 249–255.
Lodha, S. K., C. M. Wilson, and R. E. Sheehan (1996). “LISTEN: Sounding uncertainty visualization.” Proceedings of the Visualization 1996. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society, 189–195.
MacEachren, A. M., et al. (2005). ""Visualizing geospatial information uncertainty: What we know and what we need to know."" Cartography and Geographic Information Science 32.3: 139-160.
Nenkova, A., and K. McKeown (2011). “Automatic Summarization.” In Functions and Trends in Information Retrieval. 5.2-3: 103-233.
Northwood, C. (2010). TERNIP: Temporal Expression Recognition and Normalisation in Python. Sheffield: Department of Computer Science.
Pang, A. T., C. M. Wittenbrink, and S. K. Lodha (1997). ""Approaches to uncertainty visualization."" The Visual Computer 13(8): 370-390.
Pang, B., and L. Lee (2008). “Opinion Mining and Sentiment Analysis.” In Foundations and Trends in Information Retrieval. 2(1-2): 1-135.
Ratinov, L. and D. Roth (2009). Design challenges and misconceptions in named entity recognition. In Proceedings of the Thirteenth Conference on Natural Language Learning (CONLL 2009).
Shneiderman, B. (1996). ""The eyes have it: A task by data type taxonomy for information visualizations."" Visual Languages. Proceedings, IEEE Symposium on IEEE, 1996.
Skeels, M., et al. (2010). ""Revealing uncertainty for information visualization."" Information Visualization 9(1): 70-81.
Strassel, S, M. Przybocki, K. Peterson, Z. Song, and K. Maeda (2008). “Linguistic Resources and Evaluation Techniques for Evaluation of Cross-Document Automatic Content Extraction.” In Proceedings of the Sixth International Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'08).
Walker, W. E., et al. (2003). “Defining uncertainty: A conceptual basis for uncertainty management in model-based decision support.” Integrated Assessment 4(1): 5–17
Wittenbrink, C.M., A. T. Pang, and S. K. Lodha. (1996). “Glyphs for visualizing uncertainty in vector fields.” IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 2(3): 266–279.
Zhang, T., and D. Johnson (2003). A robust risk minimization based named entity recognition system. In Proceedings of the Seventh Conference on Natural Language Learning (CONLL 2003).","txt","2","",""
"1667","14","Digital Humanities Keywords: A Collaborative Community Web-based Project","2","As the field of digital humanities has expanded dramatically in recent years, it has also struggled to define—or perhaps more correctly, to redefine—itself across a seemingly divergent set of its practitioners' backgrounds, interests, priorities, methodologies, and institutional settings that yet still have something fundamental in common. From critical code studies to corpus linguistics to tool creation to online pedagogy, digital humanities practitioners surely share the digital and the humanities yet may work within different fundamental paradigms, asking different questions and using different methodologies in the service of achieving very different final goals (Gold, Kirschenbaum). How, beneath the shared surface of this broadly cast ""big tent"" of digital humanities, can such a diverse community of practice come together in fruitful and mutually beneficial ways? What can we as scholars do to facilitate this convergence in a broad discursive space where the ethic of ""more hack, less yack"" can sometimes discourage the meaningful exchanges of ideas that still need to happen, the collective negotiations of purpose that so often serve as the source of new insights?

In his seminal book Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (first published in 1975), Raymond Williams defines his project as ""the record of an inquiry into a vocabulary"" (Williams, 15) and presents that inquiry as a series of short interpretive essays on carefully selected but commonly used significant words. Between them, his chosen keywords comprise ""a general vocabulary ranging from strong, difficult and persuasive words in everyday usage to words which, beginning in particular specialized contexts, have become quite common in descriptions of wider areas of thought and experience."" (Williams, 14) They are “significant, binding words in certain activities and their interpretations,” and they are “significant, indicative words in certain forms of thought."" (Williams, 15) Keywords, then, are those terms that contain and naturalize the categories through which we form our ideas; in our daily speech they embody the assumptions through which our views of the world around us emerge.

In Williams's approach to the meaningful keywords of a community's shared discourse is an implicit challenge to any diverse yet conscientious community of practice: to deliberately and skillfully make ourselves aware of the multiple, hidden, sometimes divergent, and often hegemonic meanings of our basic shared terminology. Our task becomes, like Williams’s, to inquire into our shared vocabulary rather than merely to use it. So, what are our “big tent” digital humanities community's strong, difficult, persuasive, yet overly-familiarized keywords? They are item-based terms like code, data, object, document, archive, corpus, and collection. They are activities such as digitization, preservation, encoding, visualization, interpretation. They are action words: hack, make, curate, catalog, blog and tweet. They are metadata; they are keyword. They may also reside as absences, a significant subset of keyword yet to be fully explored (Klein).

The Digital Humanities Keywords project, launching in June of 2013 at http://www.dhkeywords.org, seeks to take up that challenge by creating a shared space and collaborative conversation for working through and exposing the underlying assumptions—the points of agreement, the sites of tension, the unanswered questions—of the still-emergent and surprisingly complex digital humanities community, through focused attention to the building blocks of its shared discourse.

Like other keywords projects started in the wake of Williams's work (Bennett, Grossberg and Morris; Burgett and Hendler; García and Faherty), Digital Humanities Keywords will be a multi-authored work, but in addition will also engage the flexibility and collaborative features that many peer-based digital humanities projects now offer. As an open access, lightly edited, and openly peer-reviewed Web-site-turned-publication, Digital Humanities Keywords will function not only as an information resource, but as a site of active dialogue and a temporal record of shared communal content as it emerges over time. The project provides guidelines but no hard-and-fast-rules for contributions and it openly solicits beneficial interventions. Comments and dialogue and feedback will reside permanently side-by-side with the primary essays created for the site. Not so much a ""how to"" as a ""how to think about,"" the Digital Humanities Keywords project explicitly seeks to bring some well-considered yack back to hack, in ways that take fullest advantage of the digital humanities community's existing strengths in open-source online collaboration.

The Digital Humanities Keywords project is sponsored by the Digital Humanities Caucus of the American Studies Association, but is offered to the entire Digital Humanities community with no expectation of an American Studies focus. The current poster presentation works to introduce the project to a broad cross section of the digital humanities community and to solicit participation—which is actively invited at all levels of involvement.

References
Burgett, B., and G. Hendler. (eds). (2007). Keywords for American Cultural Studies. New York: NYU Press.
Garcia, E., and D. Faherty (eds). (2011). Critical Keywords in Early American Studies. Early American Literature 46(3): 601-632.
Gold, M. K. (2012). The Digital Humanities Moment. Debates in Digital Humanities. University of Minnesota Press. ix-xvi.
Kirschenbaum, M. (2012). What is Digital Humanities and What is it Doing in English Departments? Debates in Digital Humanities. University of Minnesota Press. 3-11.
Williams, R. (1985). Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Oxford University Press.
Klein, L. F. (2012). American Studies after the Internet. American Quarterly 64(4). 861-872. http://muse.jhu.edu/ (accessed 15 March 2013).
Bennett, T., L. Grossberg, and M. Morris (eds). (2005). New Keywords: A Revised Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Blackwell.","txt","2","",""
"1668","14","Digital Humanities: Egalitarian or the New Elite?","10","Who is represented within digital humanities and how? This question guides our paper, which focuses on dynamics of representation and exclusion within digital humanities. The field has been subject to a range of criticisms, from its very definition to its relationship to data, building, and hacking. Yet, only recently have scholars begun to raise questions about raced, gendered, and heterosexist assumptions within digital humanities. By exploring these assumptions, we take up the question of how to define digital humanities in ways that are not radically reductive.

Authors Peter Lunenfeld, Anne Burdick, Johanna Drucker, Todd Presner and Jeffrey Schnapp write the following in their new book from MIT Press, Digital_Humanities:

Perhaps, then, the utopian impulse of the Digital Humanities can be characterized as a modality of radically opening discourse to participation for everyone. What if there were no conditions on participation? What if utterances were neither admitted nor denied based on gender, sex, race, ethnicity, language, location, nationality, class, or access to technology? We are not saying that these facticities do not matter or cease to matter in the digital world; instead, we are saying that the utopian element of the Digital Humanities is to at least posit, if not fully enable, a future in which participation is possible for everyone, anywhere, anytime. It would be as if it were possible to bring about a public sphere in which no one was excluded. This is a core human value of the Digital Humanities. (95)

The authors present DH as a “work around” for the issues of race, class, and gender as they have been posited in the “zero-sum game” of the culture wars that have been taking place in the humanities (and elsewhere) for more than 50 years (23-24). We contend that in order for us to even approach the Utopian future of creating a public sphere in which no one is excluded, we cannot work around these issues, but instead confront them head on. The inequities are still too great to ignore.

At the heart of this question is the very definition of “digital humanist.” Ernesto Priego has outlined what he calls the new “super-humanist” who can quote literary theory and create DH interfaces from scratch. Are these super-humanists, armed with large research grants, hardware, and human capital, becoming the “face” of not just DH but the humanities in general? If this is, in fact, the presumptive definition of “digital humanist,” what roles are available to academics and aspiring academics without access to the resources, support, and training that seem to be necessary to be a successful digital humanist? How are gendered, racialized, and queer bodies represented or not represented in such an articulation of DH? How can we begin to address multiple forms of privilege that proliferate in DH? Does DH challenge existing authority structures that define in-group and out-group status? Is it a tool for dismantling those structures?

With these questions in mind, this paper draws attention to the fraught relationship between DH and those who have been marginalized and silenced within traditional power structures both within and outside of academia. As illustrated by Amy Earhart, in her essay in Debates in the Digital Humanities, the promise of open and egalitarian access to materials has largely turned into a funding arms race prioritizing the same texts and projects long favored by academia. In the same collection, Tara McPherson raises questions about the historical separation of technology from studies of race. Accounting for these concerns, who has access and the ability to really do digital humanities? Is digital humanities egalitarian, or is it opening the door to a new elite? Cherie Ann Turpin recently investigate the National Endowment of the Humanities funding numbers to understand who was being funded and found that the vast majority of them went to large, R1 institutions and not HBCUs (Historically Black Colleges and Universities), Primarily Hispanic Institutions, or regional public college, which are often located in rural and/or economically depressed areas. Not only are the kinds of projects being funded not representative, neither are the kinds of institutions, limiting the size, scope, and reach of DH.

The questions of representation within digital humanities that we raise take many forms but center around the tension between macro and microscales of legibility and labor that emerge as scholars define digital humanities. For example, if big data repositories or significant digital archives translated into visualization platforms come to symbolize the work of digital humanities, who is counted and uncounted by absences in big data and silences in the archive? If we foreground technologies and metaphors of visualization and mapping, how do we navigate the imperialist histories that will inevitably be encoded in the structures of digital humanities? We are arguing, as have scholars like Alan Liu, that the collaboration sequence, and its implied hierarchy, needs to be questioned. To borrow and repurpose some phrases from Gayatri Spivak, the active ideology of imperialism provides the discursive field from which the Digital Humanities emerges as both a discipline and a signifier.

Through such definitions of digital humanities, we examine the likely effects on labor, particularly labor performed by women and people of color, who are already plagued with disproportionate service demands in the name of diversity. We will examine where digital humanities fits in with demands on our time made by academic institutions and how we render digital humanities work visible and legible within the broader trajectories of our careers. As put by Julie Flanders, the time and effort that staff who work in DH centers is measured in fundamentally different ways than a “normal” academic. We will discuss further whether digital humanities labor “counts” as teaching, research, or service and propose how those of us in marginal spaces within the academy might best advocate for how digital work is evaluated in our professional portfolios. As such, this paper outlines the issues faced by individuals whose identities render their work marginal or invisible within stringent definitions of digital humanities, identifying solutions for redressing these inequalities.

References
Earhart, A. (2012). Can Information be Unfettered? Race and the New Digital Humanities Canon. In Gold, M. K. (ed), Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 309-318.
Earhart, A. (2012). Recovering the Recovered Text: Diversity, Canon Building, and Digital Studies. DH2012 Programme. http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/recovering-the-recovered-text-diversity-canon-building-and-digital-studies/.
Flanders, J. (2011). You Work at Brown. What Do You Teach? #alt-academy: A Media Commons Project. http://mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/alt-ac/pieces/you-work-brown-what-do-you-teach.
Liu, A. (2012). The State of the Digital Humanities: A Report and a Critique. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education 11(1): 1-34.
Lunenfeld, P., et al. (2012). Digital_Humanities. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
McPherson, T. (2012). Why Are the Digital Humanities So White? or Thinking the Histories of Race and Computation. In Gold, M. K. (ed.), Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 139-160.
Priego, E. (2012). Various Shades of Digital Literacy: The New Digital Divides. HASTAC.org http://hastac.org/node/105147.
Turpin, S. A. (2013). Digital Humanities: Access and Empowerment. http://tinyurl.com/mlsvesg","txt","2","",""
"1669","14","The Digital Orationes Project: Interfacing a Restoration Manuscript","2","Funded by the Academy of Finland (2011-2014), the Digital Orationes Project is an interdisciplinary initiative intended to bring an important unpublished Early Modern manuscript into the scholarly arena. The manuscript, preserved as Lit. MS E41 in the archive of Canterbury Cathedral, was collected, and in part composed, by George Lovejoy (c. 1675), Headmaster of the King’s School, Canterbury, after the English Civil War. The texts within it represent one of the most substantial unpublished sources of English School Drama from the period. As well as containing a previously unnoticed adaptation of a pre-war play by a major author (James Shirley), this large volume, comprising 656 folio pages and running to some 230,000 words, includes a number of short plays and dramatized orations written in English, Latin and Greek by the scholars and staff of the King’s School. (Amid much else, these works celebrate the Restoration of Charles II to power, re-enact the Gunpowder plot, discuss a wide range of topical issues, and provide a wealth of information about the role of drama in Early Modern schooling.)

The overall aim of the project has been to create a state-of-the-art digital archive which makes the texts in the manuscript available to a wider audience at the same time as it offers new affordances for its scholarly users. In this, we have been responding to, and actively critiquing, best practices within the field of digital editions so succinctly summarized by Pierazzo (2011). The final digital interface for the manuscript will enable the searching of its handwritten text by means of visual recognition of the letter forms as well as the more usual text-based functions relating to the transcribed, translated, and edited manuscript; and simultaneously allow access to a number of higher scholarly functions. Accordingly, the present paper will focus on ongoing developments concerning three elements in the (otherwise, substantially developed) package: a) an image calibration tool (i.e. a tool to flatten pages, scale them consistently and link with the transcript); b) an image search prototype (which can search for graphic features in the manuscript using visual cues); and c) the blueprint for the final Orationes user interface. We are presenting these features before they have been packaged into a single polished user-friendly entity – and at the penultimate stage of a larger project involving an international team from four Universities (Oulu, Åbo Akademi, Helsinki [Finland], and Austin, Texas) – in order to make new research available at the same time as we solicit the feedback which will make our final interface as helpful as possible within the DH community.

In its basic form, the Orationes manuscript is represented by a rich digital edition that utilizes the high resolution scanned images of the manuscript pages and TEI-compliant transcriptions created by domain experts. As demonstrated in our JADH-2012 presentation (Opas-Hänninen et al. 2012), our modus operandi has been to approach the work from two opposite directions. First, the team created an uncompromising TEI-XML version of the manuscript (a process which has not only involved rigorous textual transcription but also entailed the translation of the Latin and Greek portions of the material and the identification of features of interest for use in a rich visual interface). Second, it has been working on the production of a reusable software package which, without sacrificing functionality or source integrity, can be used to generate digital editions from similar XML and image source materials in a straightforward manner. In order to combine these two goals successfully, the team navigated the requisite TEI guidelines (tweaking them where necessary as developments within, rather than departures from, the system), constructed an automatic linking mechanism between image and text, and have been creating efficient search mechanisms for TEI data: not to mention an interface that is both intuitive and generic at the same time.

The high resolution scanned images of the manuscript were produced by experts at the Canterbury Cathedral Archives. When beginning the work on image searching, i.e. the recognition of graphical forms such as letters and punctuation, it quickly became evident that in order to be able to carry out any such work, the images of the manuscript would need to be flattened and scaled consistently first, because of slight warping on the inner edges of the pages. Preprocessing will simplify the actual pattern recognition search process, because there will be less variation to account for and thus better results should be achieved; it is also beneficial for creating a clean GUI. Thus we set out to develop a process for calibrating the images, which we think will be very useful for other projects which use similar manuscripts that simply can’t be flattened as the scanned images are produced.

Although, since 2012, the Digital Orationes interface has been able to allow for full searches of the transcribed text (along with translations from the relevant Latin or Greek passages), links to the apparatus and editorial notes, or a layered comparison (at varying magnifications) between the written text and the transcription, our endeavours in the present move considerably closer to an engagement with the manuscript as an artefact and the sort of operations which a professional palaeographer or historical linguist might require of it. In particular, by developing an optical recognition faculty which is able to identify and search out letters and other graphical forms manifested in the manuscript (such as varieties of dashes and other idiosyncracies of punctuation), the 2013 prototype indicates how our edition might contribute to raising the bar for palaeographers: helping them to search, line up, or compare visual features across the manuscript in an easy, intuitive way. Looking ahead, the presenters of the 2013 poster will also be prepared to engage with the wider perspective of how, adapting a tool developed and presented for other purposes (Juuso et al. 2011), our final interface will also be able to serve historians of language and literature by keying in to etymological dictionaries of English, Latin or Greek, identifying new words and colour-coding lexical items according to the first date of occurrence in the historical corpus.

References
Pierazzo, E. (2011) A Rationale of Digital Documentary Editions, LLC: The Journal of Digital Scholarship in the Humanities, 26(4): 463-477.
Opas-Hänninen, L. L., I. Juuso, T. Toljamo, A. W. Johnson, and T. Seppänen (2012). The Orationes Project: Bringing a Restoration Manuscript Online. Paper presented at JADH2012, Tokyo, 17 September 2012.
Juuso, I., L. L. Opas-Hänninen, A. W. Johnson, and T. Seppänen (2011). The Time Machine: capturing Worlds Across Time in Texts. Paper presented at DH2011, Stanford 18 June 2011.","txt","2","",""
"1670","14","Simulation of the Complex System of Cultural Interaction","10","The crucial issue for space and time in language and cultural study is modeling diffusion, how characteristics spread spatially over time. Diffusion creates the regional and social patterns in language that we all perceive around us at any particular moment in time, and the same is true, though perhaps we notice it less frequently, of other cultural practices such as food ways, architectural styles, clothing styles, folk and cultivated narrative and literary modes, and social roles and relationships. The process of diffusion certainly occurs as a result of cultural interaction — to use language as prime example, massive numbers of people talking (and more recently writing) to each other. The new science of ""complex systems"" shows that order emerges from such systems by means of self-organization: particular variants come to be more or less frequent among different groups of people or types of discourse (the same nonlinear curve has a different order of variants at every scale of analysis), and variant frequency comes to mark identity of the different regional and social groups. The process of diffusion corresponds to the frequency differences that emerge from our choices of what to say and write, in the buzz and hum of our daily human interactions with each other. However, we cannot observe diffusion directly because it has never been feasible to collect the time series data required to do so. Computer simulation is the only way that we can model diffusion as the adaptive aspect of complex systems in speech and culture (see Gilbert, Miller and Page, Wolfram). This paper describes the construction and implementation of a GIS-aware cellular automaton for use as a multidimensional simulation for speech. Simulations begin with seeding of characteristics across the live cells of a large matrix, say, with linguistic variants seeded along the coast to model original settlement, or with variants seeded across the survey area of the Linguistic Atlas Project (LAP). Throughout thousands of iterations that correspond to the daily interaction of speakers across time, we observe the distributional patterns in the variants as they emerge.
The key feature of this simulation, one not yet attempted to our knowledge, is that we validate it with respect to the emergent ""clustered"" linguistic distributions known to occur in the LAP, not the actual patterns but instead the sort of pattern that emerges in every elicitation. We know that we have achieved a successful simulation if the result, after hundreds of iterations, is a complex system that shows the clustered distributions we expect in Atlas feature maps (as below; CA at 1000 iterations at left, DE map at right).
 
In work to date we have demonstrated that such stable clusters do emerge in the simulation as the result of restricted rule sets with a random component included.
When social information is associated with each cell, there is an additional opportunity for weighting the decisions about feature adoption and maintenance. In the LAMSAS matrix of 9000+ cells (after creation of non-active boundaries), 1162 cells have metadata available from the LAMSAS survey. We have interpolated metadata for the empty cells, using the primary social characteristics of urban/rural community type, and informant type (an index showing three levels of education and social integration). These characteristics can be applied to empty cells with respect to the nearest neighbors with metadata in the cellular automaton, with respect also to the overall proportions of the characteristics in the survey as a whole, and also with a small random component. We can execute the interpolation on demand, so that we achieve somewhat different but still valid interpolations for testing the simulation.
Given a matrix with social information available for every cell, we apply social weight to the decision for the presence of the feature of interest in every cell of the matrix, based on the rules assigned for the cellular automaton. The decision to adopt or retain the feature of interest is made by rule according to a certain number of similar neighbors (i.e., adopt the feature of interest if 2, 3, or 4 neighbors have it; retain the feature if 5, 6, 7, or 8 neighbors have it). The proximity of first-order neighbors is the primary characteristic for the decision; in GIS applications it is common to invoke the inverse square law by which a second-order element, twice as far away, has only 25% of the influence of an immediately proximate first-order neighbor. Our method considers social characteristics as second-order phenomena, and assigns a small negative weight of .2 (really, it could be any decimal 0> < .25) to each socially dissimilar neighbor, when a socially-similar neighbor receives the full value of 1 for a first-order relationship. Practical implementation of this policy is to award 1 point to a similar neighbor, and .8 point to a dissimilar neighbor, considering a single social characteristic. When we assign weights to more than one social variable at a time, the cumulative influence of the weight plus the random decision component should not exceed the same .25 as a maximum weight. This means that two social variables might be assigned weights of .1 each, if they were judged to be equally influential, or of, say, .15 and .05 if one social variable was thought to be significantly more important than the other. Overall, social weighting conditions the likelihood for adoption and maintenance of any cultural feature. We will illustrate the effects of including social weighting within a cellular automaton that is essentially proximity driven.
In this way we believe that we are breaking new ground in simulation of cultural interactions as complex systems. The study of speech as a complex system addresses language as an aspect of culture that emerges from human interaction. We believe that successful simulation of speech in cultural interaction as a complex system can suggest how other aspects of the humanities, such as sites or artifacts or styles in archaeology, can diffuse and change across space and time.
References
Gilbert, N. (2008). Agent-Based Models. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Gilbert, N., and K. Troitzsch (2005). Simulation for the Social Scientist. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Linguistic Atlas Project. http://www.lap.uga.edu
Miller, J., and S. Page (2007). Complex Adaptive Systems: An Introduction to Computational Models of Social Life.Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Wolfram, S. (2002). A New Kind of Science. Champaign, IL: Wolfram Media.","txt","2","",""
"1671","14","The Digital Scholarship Training Programme at British Library","9","Introduction
Research libraries and cultural heritage institutions must ensure that staff skills and core competencies keep pace with a rapidly changing research environment if they are to continue to effectively support and engage with scholars [1] . The American Council of Learned Societies Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities & Social Sciences (ACLS 2006) observes that: In recent practice, “digital scholarship” has meant several related things:

a) Building a digital collection of information for further study and analysis
b) Creating appropriate tools for collection-building
c) Creating appropriate tools for the analysis and study of collections
d) Using digital collections and analytical tools to generate new intellectual products
e) Creating authoring tools for these new intellectual products, either in traditional forms or in digital form
The British Library is realigning its services and structure and in 2010 the Digital Scholarship department was established with a remit to ensure the Library develops its strategy and service propositions to enable and support these digital scholarship activities. The Digital Curator team was created within it to build the staff capacity to deliver on this strategy and ensure that the entire collections workforce is fully versed in the opportunities that digital content and new technologies can offer. This paper discusses the design and implementation of our in-house Digital Scholarship Training Programme at British Library.

Training Objectives
An important first step in shaping our training initiative was the establishment of four clear objectives for what we hoped to achieve for colleagues, and by extension Library users.

1. Staff across all collection areas are familiar and conversant with the foundational concepts, methods and tools of digital scholarship.
Outside the purview of digital scholarship were courses in basic computer literacy: this training was already available to staff through Human Resources.

2. Staff are empowered to innovate.
Seb Chan(Cooper-Hewitt Museum) and Rob Stein(Dallas Museum of Art) stress that innovation can come from anywhere within an organisation and institutions should be careful to avoid erecting unintentional barriers by allotting space and resources too selectively [2] . Our programme would underscore that staff across the Library have the power to innovate, and would provide the support to do so.

3. Our internal capacity for training and skill-sharing in digital scholarship are a shared responsibility across the Library.
Within the organisation, there are areas of world-class expertise in digital content, research, and scholarship. The programme must leverage and amplify this by working with these staff to develop and deliver course modules.

4. Collaborative digital initiatives flourish across subject areas within the Library as well as externally.
The training programme would open up direct communication between colleagues across subject areas as well as digital scholars, ensuring opportunities for collaboration and improvements on service arise.

Design & Development
In April 2012 the Digital Curator team embarked on an intensive three-month survey of the current digital scholarship landscape.

Having conducted a literature survey, the team sought out scholars working at the intersection of computing and scholarship and joined them for informal chats about their research [3] . Perhaps inevitably, we were frequently drawn to activities within the field of Digital Humanities, its very existence the embodiment of trends towards more digital scholarly practice in academia [4] . We consulted the proceedings of major conferences across Europe such as Digital Humanities 2012 in Hamburg and the Digital Humanities Congress 2012 at University of Sheffield and surveyed the skills which academics were acquiring by attending pertinent training courses [5] and reviewing open syllabi [6] and course materials. [7]

By August 2012 the team had outlined the specific concepts, methods and tools which were of direct relevance to library staff. We initially considered taking an advisory approach whereby we would point staff to externally available training opportunities in the areas we had outlined, but found this would not suffice in meeting our objectives; existing courses were by-and-large written for academics or the private sector and the cost of sending a preponderance of staff on them was prohibitive.

This informed our decision to design and deliver our own curriculum in-house and we subsequently drafted individual briefs and learning outcomes for what would become our core offering of 15 one-day courses. Each of the three Digital Curators took responsibility for managing five of the courses and worked with our internal advisory board and instructors from within the Library and institutions on the leading edge of digital scholarship such as King’s College London, Open University, University College London and University of Oxford to finalise the courses.

Instructors were asked to consider the following when preparing course materials:

Content should be aimed at “intelligent novices”, that is, staff who have heard about the concepts but haven’t had the time, space or opportunity to explore them in any depth.
Focus on the wider concepts, methods and processes which tools enable rather than teaching to the tools.
Include a hands-on practical element wherever possible, preferably using British Library digital content.
Deliver from the library practitioner perspective and highlight the Library’s current work, or potential for such work. It is crucial that staff clearly connect the relevancy of this new knowledge to their role at the Library.
Deliver a one-day workshop onsite rather than online. Courses would not be held online as that could unnecessarily alienate an audience with varied technical skills. A full-day commitment would also provide necessary time and mental space away from business-as-usual activities while underscoring this development is a priority.
The Curriculum
We launched the two-year programme officially in November 2012 and the first of four planned semesters ran through the end of March 2013 with these fifteen courses:

101 What is Digital Scholarship?
102 Digital Collections at British Library
103 Digitisation at British Library
104 Communicating our collections online: Copyright considerations and Opportunities
105 Crowdsourcing in Libraries, Museums and Cultural Heritage Institutions
106 Text Encoding Initiative
107 Data Visualisation for Analysis in Scholarly Research
108 Geo-referencing and Digital Mapping
109 Information Integration: Mash-ups, API’s and Linked Data
110 Social Media: Introduction to the Library’s Social Media Policy, Twitter and Blogging
111 Working collaboratively: Using the British Library Wiki, Yammer and Google Drive
112 Presentation skills: From Powerpoint to Prezi
113 Foundations in working with Digital Objects: From Images to A/V
114 Behind the Screen: Basics of the Web HTML, CSS, XML
115 Metadata for Electronic Resources: Dublin Core, METS, MODS, XML
The content of each was carefully designed to specifically suit the Library’s point-of-view. For example, the course ‘Information Integration: Mash-ups, API’s and Linked Data’ provided a broad overview of the terms [8] , but also stressed to staff the immediate potential for these technologies in connecting our digital content with external sources. A practical hands-on exercise [9] walked them through accessing our own British National Bibliography API as a digital scholar might and highlighted its potential as a rich resource for answering complex research questions. The exercise also showcased how our data formats helped or hindered such queries, providing a useful perspective for staff who may create API’s in future.
Early Progress & Lessons Learned
A total of 86 staff members took part in the first semester, attending an average of 2.7 courses. Nine courses were led by external instructors, while the remaining six were taught by British Library staff. Feedback was captured via free text evaluation forms collected at the end of each course which have given us some good indications about what has worked and what needs addressing in the next semester.

When asked what they enjoyed most on any given course, staff consistently noted they valued time to freely brainstorm ideas with colleagues.
The inclusion of practical hands-on activities alongside lectures was also highly valued. Highly structured exercises with clear step-by-step directions were favoured over unstructured time devoted to free exploration of tools.
We set course capacities too ambitiously which made them a challenge to deliver. We reduced capacities from 30 to 15 for courses with hands-on exercises.
Courses which are tool-based, for example 110 Social Media, will be broken into discreet modules so participants need only attend the sections they require.
Curators were given first priority on all courses initially as we had considered them our target audience. We changed this policy shortly after launch and opened courses to all interested staff as there was little justification for maintaining a waiting list in light of such positive demand.
Initial take-up has benefited from a core of early adopters and new hires. As this demographic complete the courses, we will need to be more strategic and creative in marketing the programme to those less inclined.
How we capture information now will be crucial for gauging impact over the long-term. Several attendees have alerted us to project ideas they intend to take forward and we must ensure a mechanism is in place to log and monitor such activities [10] .
This short paper reports on this model and our experience with the hope that it may be useful for similar institutions.
References
The American Council on Learned Societies (ACLS) (2006). Our Cultural Commonwealth: The report of the American Council of Learned Societies Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities and Social Sciences. New York: ACLS. http://www.acls.org/cyberinfrastructure/(accessed 07 March 2013).
Digital.Humanities@Oxford Summer School (2012) Full Programme. http://digital.humanities.ox.ac.uk/dhoxss/2012/fullprogramme.html (accessed 07 March 2013)
Digital Humanities 2012 Hamburg (2012). Programme. http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/ (accessed 07 March 2013)
Digital Humanities Congress (2012). Programme and Presentations. http://www.sheffield.ac.uk/hri/dhc2012 (accessed 07 March 2013)
Edwards, C. (2013). DH Syllabi. The CUNY Digital Humanities Resource Guide blog, http://commons.gc.cuny.edu/wiki/index.php/DH_Syllabi(accessed 07 March 2013).
Research Information Network (2011). Social media: A guide for researchers. http://www.rin.ac.uk/system/files/attachments/social_media_guide_for_screen_0.pdf (accessed 07 March 2013)
Ridge, M. (2012). War, Plague and Fire’ and ‘Bootstrapping Innovation in Museums’ at ‘Museum Ideas 2012-Museums in the Era of Participatory Culture. Open Objects blog, November 03, 2012. http://openobjects.blogspot.co.uk/2012/11/war-plague-and-fire-and-bootstrapping.html (accessed 07 March 2013).
Robichaud, A., and C. Blevins (2011). Tooling up for Digital Humanities. http://toolingup.stanford.edu/ (accessed 07 March 2013)
Schreibman, S., R. Siemens, and J. Unsworth (eds.) (2004). A Companion to Digital Humanities. Oxford: Blackwell. http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/(accessed 07 March 2013).
Schreibman, S., and R. Siemens (eds.) (2007). A Companion to Digital Studies. Oxford: Blackwell. http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companionDLS/ (accessed 07 March 2013).
Weller, M. (2009). The Digital Scholar: How Technology is Changing Academic Practice. London: Bloomsbury Academic .doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781849666275 (accessed 07 March 2013).
Notes
See also Martin Weller’s The Digital Scholar: How Technology is Changing Academic Practice http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781849666275
From their talk Bootstrapping Innovation in Museums at Museum Ideas 2012 http://openobjects.blogspot.co.uk/2012/11/war-plague-and-fire-and-bootstrapping.html
Several groups meet regularly in the immediate vicinity of British Library such as Decoding Digital Humanities London (DDHL) https://sites.google.com/site/ddhlondon/ and the Bloomsbury Digital Humanities Group.
Texts such as A Companion to Digital Humanities (2004) http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/ and A Companion to Digital Studies (2007) http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companionDLS/ were highly influential in the early formation of the department as well as the initial framing of the training offering.
Digital.Humanities@Oxford Summer School http://digital.humanities.ox.ac.uk/dhoxss/
A brief collection of DH-related syllabi has been helpfully collate here: http://commons.gc.cuny.edu/wiki/index.php/DH_Syllabi
Tooling Up for Digital Humanities at Stanford http://toolingup.stanford.edu/ , David Birnbaum’s http://dh.obdurodon.org/, and Research Information Network’s Social media: A guide for researchers http://www.rin.ac.uk/our-work/communicating-and-disseminating-research/social-media-guide-researchers are notable examples.
As one attendee remarked, “Great to have something often referred to demystified!”
See the full exercise here: http://www.meanboyfriend.com/overdue_ideas/2013/02/introduction-to-apis/
Phil Hatfield, Curator of Canadian & Caribbean Studies, attended several of the courses and is now formally taking forward a project to visualise a portion of his collection: “We have a large collection of Canadian photographs and associated data at the Library and I’d been considering for some time now ways in which to work with them beyond simply hosting them in a typical image gallery. The course on Data Visualisation gave me the space to play around with some of my ideas for visualisations and pointed me in the direction of free tools out there such as Google Fusion Tables. I hadn’t realised it was so easy to get started and was able to see the shape of the collection almost immediately.”","txt","2","",""
"1672","14","Digital Textual Studies, Social Informatics, and the Sociology of Texts: A Case Study in Early Digital Medievalism","10","This paper investigates the use of digital textual studies alongside the discourse of Social Informatics (SI) for the purposes of developing rich sociotechnical analyses of information and computing technologies (ICTs) in their manifestations as both projects and objects. I intend this approach both as a way of studying various digital humanities (DH) projects but also as a way of practicing a form of DH that, while not focused on building DH objects itself, investigates the social and technical conditions under which they are built. Toward that end, I discuss the affinities between digital textual studies and, as a demonstration of the joint analytical power of textual studies and SI, I present a case study of an early project in the history of humanities computing, Bessinger and Smith’s A Concordance to Beowulf (Bessinger & Smith, 1969).

Bibliography and textual criticism have long been characterized by an orientation toward media consciousness, one which has lately expanded to include the social aspects of artifacts. Indeed, as Matthew G. Kirschenbaum has argued (2008, p. 16), ""textual studies,” an umbrella term for bibliography and textual criticism, “should be recognized as among the most sophisticated branches of media studies we have evolved.” As such, they are not just a set of methods for media-specific analysis; they can provide DH with valuable insights into the workings of digital media. For example, Alan Galey (2010, p. 93) has argued that ""Textual scholarship stands to contribute two key ideas to the digital humanities: first, that there is more to electronic forms than what reaches the screen; and second, that the relationship of form to content is complex and sometimes beyond exhaustive modeling.”

Contemporary theorists, such as D.F. McKenzie (1999) and McGann (2004) have argued for the application of textual studies to a broad range of electronic artifacts. Indeed, bibliography, according McKenzie (1999, 12), “is the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception.” (Thus, for McKenzie, textual criticism is a form of Bibliography writ large.) Toward this end, McKenzie (1999, 13) defines “texts” as

verbal, visual, oral, and numeric data, in the form of maps, prints, and music, of archives of recorded sound, of films, videos, and any computer-stored information, everything in fact from epigraphy to the latest forms of discography. There is no evading the challenge which those new forms have created.

Many of these “new forms” overlap with the ICTs that SI and other sociotechnical discourses study. As Rob Kling, Howard Rosenbaum, and Steve Sawyer (2005, 11), explain, “The acronym ‘ICT’ refers to information and communication technology—artifacts and practices for recording, organizing, storing, manipulating, and communicating information.” Moreover, there is also overlap in the social aspects of technology between SI and textual studies. In addition to “physical forms” and “textual versions,” McKenzie (1995, 13) counts among bibliography’s interests, “technical transmission, institutional control, [texts’] perceived meanings, and social effects.”
Indeed, for McKenzie, bibliography is properly considered the sociology of texts. It is in that sense a sociotechnical discipline and thus shares affinities with SI. SI, as defined by Rob Kling, is the ""interdisciplinary study of the design, uses, and consequences of information technologies that takes into account their interaction with institutional and cultural contexts"" (Kling, 2000, 218). SI and the sociology of texts share an attention to the ways in which technology and society are mutually shaped. Texts are key nodes in what Kling, Geoff McKim, and Adam King (2003) have called socio-technical interaction networks (STINs).

As a demonstration of how textual criticism and the insights of SI might be used together to produce an analysis that is above and beyond what either discourse can provide by itself, I present in this paper the case of Jess B. Bessinger and Philip H. Smith’s long term collaboration to produce a concordance of the Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records. Bessinger, a professor of English, and Smith, a professor of Computer Science (and former researcher with IBM) formed various alliances with colleagues, vendors, publishers, and others during the life of their project. They mobilized these alliances to acquire and produce software, have custom hardware produced for them, distribute knowledge about new techniques, solicit advice, and sell the two concordance volumes produced by the project. The story of their collaboration cannot be told without discussing such alliances, specifically the ways in which the ICTs used and made by the collaborators shaped and were shaped by disciplinary cultures and institutional contexts. SI is very well suited for discussing such aspects of the project. A preliminary depiction of a STIN for this case study, which shows various social connections between people, institutions, and technologies could look like the following:


Despite the pioneering technical aspects of the work that went into the project, the goal for Bessinger and Smith was always to produce a paper volume that would be used by Old English scholars—that is, a book that would fit into traditional paper-based scholarly workflows. Thus I propose employing, alongside SI, studying the language features of the concordances and what Jerome McGann (2004, 11) has called “the apparitions of text—its paratexts, bibliographic codes, and all visual features—[which] are as important in the text's signifying programs as the linguistic elements.” By paying attention to such elements as they appear in the concordances, we can see evidence of a program of extreme automatization at work in their production. For example, whereas other computer-produced concordances of the era used computers to produce word lists that were then typeset by traditional methods, Bessinger and Smith used them not only to produce their word lists but also to typeset the camera-ready copy. This is clear, for example, in the fact that the text of the Beowulf concordance is struck in IBM’s Artisan font, which has a distinctly 1960s computerized look.

Both the objects produced by digital humanists and the projects that produce said objects are worthy of study. By “project” I mean the nexus of formal and informal relationships between people, institutions, and technologies that come together to meet a set of goals. Social Informatics is an approach to studying this nexus. In the case of DH, project goals are often the creation of objects (both concrete and virtual). Thus, digital textual criticism provides a powerful approach to analyzing such objects. The contribution my paper makes to the critical conversation in DH is to introduce and theorize this project-object distinction. I will demonstrate how pairing SI and digital textual criticism helps us to open up projects and objects in a way that exposes relationships between people, tools, and the work they produce. This is not simply a matter of saying that we should look at an artifact in context, for that would imply a primacy of object over project where I don’t intend one. In this paper, I lay out the case for why SI is a valuable discourse to be used in the study of DH. I discuss affinities between SI and digital textual criticism, and why a sociotechnical approach is important to understanding what DH practitioners do. By means of bibliography, textual criticism, and the STIN approach, I explore the Bessinger and Smith collaboration to demonstrate both the project’s historical importance and the strength of this hybrid approach. I believe that this paper, given its interdisciplinary focus and willingness to bridge disciplinary boundaries, is in keeping with the theme of DH 2013, “Freedom to Explore.”","txt","2","",""
"1673","14","The Digitized Divide: Mapping Access to Subscription-Based Digitized Resources","10","Introduction
This paper will present the findings from a PhD case study into the use and users of the British Library Nineteenth Century Newspapers Collection (BNCN). [1] Using data gathered from web analytics and user surveys, it will show that although digitization provides clear benefits to users who operate in an information-rich environment, these benefits are distributed unequally. I will therefore present an alternative geographical visualization based upon the location of subscribing institutions rather than individual users. This, combined with university rankings data and relative poverty measures, backs up the main argument of this paper: that the subscription-based model of digitization severely undermines the rhetorical embracement of universal access, and instead reinforces existing divides between information-rich and information-poor communities.

Addressing the Digital Divide
Web analytics services such as Google Analytics [2] provide map overlays that automatically visualize user locations. This important data provides web analysts with important insight into their user base. These automated mapping tools lack, though, a consideration of how user location is influenced by variations in access to digitized resource. The internet, and by extension, digitized collections, are generally viewed as an opportunity to widen participation and improve education (Norris 2001, 7; Bell 2005), but this paper will demonstrate that they can provide these benefits unevenly across society. Norris identifies that the digital divide is multifaceted; it is a global and democratic divide, but also a social divide between different groups in society (Norris 2001, 4).

This is important when considered alongside a common problem in the literature: increased quantities of digitized content have brought with them inflated expectation levels. Everett, for instance, wrongly conflates the digitization of large collections with the concept of universal access: “the problem for the twenty-first century scholar will be to limit inquiry to a manageable subset of data; because all scholars will have immediate access to all archives in the world” (Everett 2005). Commercial reality, though, makes this utopian outlook seem naïve. The social and professional environment in which users operate remains vital in deciding access to digitized content. This mirrors the wider context of the digital divide, which is increasingly manifested as an indicator of the differentiated uptake of important digital resources (Hargittai & Walejko 2008; Hassani 2006; Norris 2001; Castells 2002). Existing research into this “second-level digital divide” (Hassani 2006) suggests that those from higher socioeconomic backgrounds generally benefit most from technological developments. As a result, mapping the location of individual users may show nothing more than high levels of connectivity in a particular demographic (Hassani 2006, 251). Similarly, in academia it appears that a ‘digitized divide’ could emerge between those with access to digitized content in large quantities and those without, one strongly related to social and geographical status.

Methods
While Geographical Information Systems (GIS) have the potential to answer innovative research questions (Bodenhamer et al. 2010), the automated nature of default web analytics visualizations does not allow us to interrogate this problem.

In order to study the impact of BNCN, web data was analysed for a period of one calendar year using reports generated by Google Analytics, including the referral analysis (Madsen 2010) [3] which influenced this paper; the results demonstrated that many users located outside Europe and the USA were in fact linked to institutions within these two regions. A survey was also mounted, which showed that many BNCN users still found access difficult; indeed some were forced to travel in order to access the collection digitally. The GIS was therefore created to test concerns about potential inequalities in access.

The visualization is based upon a list of institutions with current subscriptions to BNCN, including educational institutions, UK public libraries, and national libraries. This list was collated using online subscriber lists, [4] manual searching and referrer lists derived from web analytics. These were then mapped to a web-based GIS using Google Maps Fusion Tables, [5] and combined with demographic information and university ranking data. A separate layer was created for English public libraries which combined access information with UK Government measures of relative deprivation, population, and public spend on libraries.

Findings
The findings demonstrate that the divide in access correlates strongly with the status of a university: more highly ranked institutions were more likely to have current subscriptions. Additionally, English public library authorities were far more likely to have access if they were in less deprived regions, or served a relatively large population. This backs up qualitative data from the survey; some respondents were worried about the impact of working at institutions without appropriate subscriptions, and the prospect of losing access when fixed-term academic posts expire. This mirrors Hargittai’s assertion that “the societal position that users inhabit influences aspects of their digital media use such as the technical equipment to which they have access” (Hargittai 2008, 940). As digitized content proliferates, the expectation that scholars will use it also increases. The idea of democratized access to digital content (Bell 2005) can therefore become a damaging myth for those left behind. Unequal access to resources has been a longstanding problem for researchers, but the rhetorical shift towards universal access has ignored it. Technological inequality never entirely disappears, as Castells points out: “as one source of technological inequality seems to be diminishing, another one emerges” (Castells 2002, 256).

Second, rather than facilitating the disintermediation of information, the current glut of commercially digitized content increases the importance of library services in relation to access. In the wake of the Google Books project, Roush questioned “the ‘value proposition’ they [libraries] offer in a digital future” (Roush 2005)., These findings suggest that this value proposition will centre on the library’s ability to supply relevant subscriptions to its users in a timely manner, for as long as access is too costly to maintain at an individual level.

Conclusion
The study of web impact would benefit from a more realistic appraisal of the digital divide in relation to digitized content. Commercial digitization, while an effective way to fund projects, has implications for scholars working outside information-rich institutions, or indeed outside institutional frameworks entirely. Similar case studies should therefore be done with other digitized resources to discover whether these patterns are replicated elsewhere. Additionally, we must consider how project developers and library services can work to address the inequalities discovered by this project. In keeping with the conference’s theme, this paper provides an analysis of how far digitization truly provides researchers with freedom to explore the content being produced.

References
Bell, D. (2005). The Bookless Future: What the Internet is Doing to Scholarship. The New Republic. http://www.tnr.com/article/books-and-arts/the-bookless-future (accessed March 27, 2012).
Bodenhamer, D. J., J. Corrigan, and T. M. Harris (eds.) (2010). The Spatial Humanities: GIS and the Future of Humanities Scholarship, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Castells, M. (2002). The Internet Galaxy: Reflections on the Internet, Business, and Society, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Everett, G. (2005). Electronic Resources for Victorian Researchers — 2005 and Beyond. Victorian Literature and Culture. 33. 601–614.
Hargittai, E. (2008). The Digital Reproduction of Inequality. In Grusky, D. (ed). Social Stratification. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Hargittai, E. & G. Walejko. (2008). The Participation Divide: Content Creation and Sharing in the Digital Age. Information, Communication & Society. 11(2). 239–256.
Hassani, S. N. (2006). Locating Digital Divides at Home, Work, and Everywhere Else. Poetics. 34(4-5).
Madsen, C. (2010). What is Referrer Analysis? Toolkit for the Impact of Digitised Scholarly Resources (TIDSR). http://microsites.oii.ox.ac.uk/tidsr/kb/45/what-referrer-analysis (accessed June 11, 2012).
Norris, P. (2001). Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty and the Internet Worldwide, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Roush, W. (2005). The Infinite Library. Technology Review. 108(5) 54–59.
Notes
1. newspapers.bl.uk/blcs/

2. www.google.com/analytics/

3. See the Toolkit for the Impact of Digitized Scholarly Resources: http://microsites.oii.ox.ac.uk/tidsr/.

4. http://gdc.gale.com/products/19th-century-british-library-newspapers-part-i-and-part-ii/evaluate/customer-list/ and http://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelprestype/news/database.pdf

5. https://developers.google.com/maps/","txt","2","",""
"1674","14","Five desiderata for scholarly editions in digital form","10","Scholarly editions have received considerable attention from the digital humanities over the last decades. There are several reasons for this: the fundamental place in the academy occupied by scholarly editions, with many humanities disciplines basing their work on texts which require establishment; the amenability of scholarly editions to computer methods, in terms of the digital representations of primary sources from which editions derive, and in terms of the highly-structured nature of the editions themselves, lending itself naturally to complex computer encoding. Accordingly, we have seen many digital editions made, in many different forms, and we are beginning to see too the first attempts towards a theory of digital editions, as a phenomenon distinct from print editions (which are, indeed, the subject of many theoretical debates): thus articles by Kiernan, Gabler, Pierazzo, Siemens and Robinson.

This paper will use the knowledge we have gained from our experiences, and the first competing theoretical discussions of digital editions, towards the statement of a set of desiderata, expressed as five propositions, collectively declaring the principles upon which scholarly editing in the digital medium should proceed. At the least, these will serve as starting points for useful discussion.

Proposition 1: A digital edition should encode both the text of the document, line by line and page by page, and the text of the work which the document text instances, chapter by chapter, paragraph by paragraph (or, poem by poem, line by line). One should be able to examine the text of the document, a page at a time; one should be able to read the text of the work, a chapter at a time, a poem at a time. This might seem obvious: yet several recent editions (for example, Sutherland’s edition of the Jane Austen manuscripts online), the thirty or so online transcription tools listed by Ben Brumfield, and the genetic transcription system proposed by the Text Encoding Initiative (Burnard et al), all assert that one need encode only the disposition of the text on the document. Thus, not one of the separate works contained in the Austen manuscripts is accessible as a work in the Sutherland edition. It is a mistake not to encode both document and work. It is certainly more difficult (because of the all-too-familiar overlapping hierarchy problem) to encode both. But it can be done, and it should be done.

Proposition 2: Every act of editing in a digital edition should be attributed explicitly to the person who did it. Any act of editing, in any medium, requires knowledge and effort: an edition is made from thousands, millions of such acts. Every such act should be recognized, and explicitly linked to the person who did it. Our confidence in editions comes from knowing who was responsible for each act. In the digital medium, as in the print medium, attribution is everything. But in the digital medium, we can go further: we can label who did what. And we should.

Proposition 3: Everything in digital editions should, by default, be made available under a Creative Commons Attribution Share-alike licence. Editing in the digital medium is profoundly collaborative. Even if one scholar does all the work of transcription, encoding, interface design and publication on his or her own: others will want to take elements of that edition and reuse it in ways that the original scholar could never anticipate. Further, we may expect, as the movement to ‘social editing’ gathers pace, that we will see more and more informed readers becoming editors: contributing transcriptions, identifying documents, enriching their encoded texts by labelling persons, places, events. It is not quite true to say that digital editions belong to us all: but it is nearly true enough for us to make us much as possible as free as possible to all: hence, the Attribution Share-alike licence. We should not impose the ‘non-commercial’ restriction (which is too often a back-door way of maintaining the old worst habits of academic culture, to reward our friends and punish our enemies). Indeed, we should welcome and encourage commercial interests to provide the best interfaces they can to our editorial materials; the ‘share-alike’ provision will foreclose any commercial attempt to monopolize the text. Nor should we require the ‘no-derivative works’ restriction: we should welcome the scholar who wants to take what we did and use it as the starting point for his or her work — so long as this scholar acknowledges our work.

Proposition 4: All the materials in a digital edition should be available independent of any one interface. It should be possible (for example) for a scholar interested in the Greek New Testament to take the text of the transcription of Codex Sinaiticus given on the British Library website, combine it with other texts taken from other places, and present it in a distinct interface, offering tools and facilities nowhere else available. To make this possible, it will not be enough for editors to provide text: they must provide the facility (whether through metadata or an ontology or an API) to allow that text to be taken up and given out through an interface completely independent from the original digital publication. Of course, this cannot happen unless the materials are free of any restrictive licence, as argued in proposition 3.

Proposition 5: All the materials in a digital edition should be held in a long-term sustainable data store. Large scale data storage facilities, maintained in perpetuity as part of an institution’s core mission (“in perpetuity” that is, as long as the institution lasts), have become commonplace in the last decade, thanks to the success of the institutional repository movement. Yet, very few editions ground their data in an institutional repository or similar facility. Institutional repositories are mature, well able to dispense scholarly edition materials, of every kind, and are increasingly recognized by universities and other memory institutions as the digital equivalent of a print library. We can and should use them.

A survey of existing digital editions against these propositions would yield interesting reflections. It appears that not one of the many digital editions so far made satisfies all five propositions; and rather many fail to satisfy even one. It is possible, of course, that these five propositions are flatly wrong. It is also possible that much of what we have been doing, under the dizzying spell of the technologies that press upon us, is wrong, and needs to change.

References
Brumfield, W. B. (2012). Crowdsourced Transcription Tool List. Blog entry for April 11, 2012. http://manuscripttranscription.blogspot.co.uk
Burnard, L., F. Iannidis, E. Pierazzo, and M. Rehbein (n.d.) An Encoding Model for Genetic Editions. http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/Council/Working/tcw19.html.
Codex Sinaiticus Online. http://www.codex-sinaiticus.net/en/.
Gabler, H. W. (2007). The Primacy of the Document in Editing. Ecdotica, 4. 197–207.
Gabler, H. W. (2010). “Theorizing the Digital Scholarly Edition.” Literature Compass, 7. 43-56.
Kiernan, K. (2006). “Digital facsimiles in Editing.” In Burnard, L., K. O’Brien O’Keeffe and J. Unsworth (eds.) Electronic Textual Editing. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 262-268.
Mingana Collection online. http://vmr.bham.ac.uk/Collections/Mingana/
Pierazzo, E. (2011). A Rationale of Digital Documentary editions. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 26. 463-477.
Robinson, P. M. W. (2013). “Towards a theory of digital editions.” Variants 10. 105-132.
Siemens, R., M. Timney, C. Leitch, et al. forthcoming. Toward Modeling the Social Edition: An Approach to Understanding the Electronic Scholarly Edition in the Context of New and Emerging Social Media. Literary and Linguistic Computing.
Sutherland, K. (2010). Jane Austen’s Fictional Manuscripts Digital Edition. http://www.janeausten.ac.uk/index.html","txt","2","",""
"1675","14","Document classification based on what is there and what should be there","10","Introduction
Some of the key questions in paleography are those of classification, namely trying to ascertain when and where a given manuscript was written, and — if possible — by whom. Paleographers bring many skills and tools to bear on these questions in what is often a complicated and laborious task requiring reference to paleographic, linguistic and archaeological data, among others. Because it is difficult to quantify the degree of certainty in the final readings and assessments, or even to articulate the arguments underlying these readings, experts have begun to develop computer-based methods for paleographic research in which the description of the various findings is made explicit (Ciula, 2005; Stokes, 2008; Aussems and Brink, 2009; Hofmeister et al., 2009).

Some of these computer-based approaches involve little or no human intervention. However, others require manual selection of regions in the image or manual recording of descriptors, that is, of features in the handwriting which are considered significant (Ciula, 2005; Stokes, 2008). Evaluating the significance of the features can be improved using statistical analysis (Levy et al., 2012). Such manual selection raises a key challenge in any system of descriptors, namely that of attribute repeatability among documents of the same category. Would two different people necessarily record the same descriptors for a given sample of writing? Surely some significant features would then be overlooked? If so then what are the implications, both for the accuracy of the results and for the perceived “objectivity” of the method. A descriptor that is marked as existing in a document is likely to exist; however, a descriptor might be unmarked due to an omission or simply because it is not present in the part of the manuscript that is available for inspection. Moreover, even very discriminative descriptors (those which are very important for distinguishing date, location or scribe) might not be present where expected due to scribal variance within the same location and date.

In order to overcome this challenge, we suggest a new statistical tool that allows us to hypothesize which attributes should be turned on — in other words, which attributes are likely to have been omitted due to the limits of selection — and then to perform classification on the augmented data. Our results demonstrate that this tool is effective in computer-based document classification.

Overview and results
A dataset consisting of scribal hands in English Vernacular minuscule, ca. 990 – ca. 1035, is used, where “scribal hand” here refers to a single stint or block of writing by one person (Stokes, 2005; Stokes et al., 2013). These samples are spread across some 198 manuscripts and range from the main text of the book to later additions and notes or glosses between the lines or in the margins; they therefore can include anything from hundreds of pages to just one or two words.

The hands were described using 289 descriptors (Stokes, 2008), where each descriptor indicates whether a certain letter-form is present; more precisely, whether a grapheme (or group of similar graphemes) written as specific allograph(s) appear in the manuscript, as well as forms of certain parts of letters such as ascenders, descenders, and pen-angle. Every sample of handwriting is described by its known or predicted place of writing (where possible) and the estimated range of dates of writing. The date and localisation is based on external evidence wherever possible, or otherwise by an expert assessment of paleographical judgment (Stokes, 2005).

We focus on the samples whose place of writing is unknown but there is an educated guess to their origin, and try to verify their assumed place of writing. Overall, there are 67 such samples. The samples for which the place of writing is known, totaling 120 documents, serve as the training set. There are seven categories, such as Canterbury, Sherborne, and Worcester.

The baseline classifier we employ is the popular Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifier (Cortes and Vapnik, 1995) since it is known to be robust and to provide results that are often very close to the best obtainable, and because it outperformed other classifiers which we tried such as adaBoost (Freund and Schapire, 1995) and classification trees (Breiman et al., 1984). For each location-based category a model is learned by considering all documents which are known to belong to this location as the positive training set, and all other labeled documents as the negative training set.

Given a handwriting of an unknown origin, we apply all location-based models and compare the model producing the highest classification score with the assessment of the human paleographer (PAS). The obtained accuracy is 36%.

Next, building on our intuition that an unmarked descriptor might actually be present in a given handwriting, we employ a matrix-based method often used for imputing missing data. The method approximates the observation matrix (in our case, the size equals the number of descriptors times the number of documents) as a low-rank matrix using Singular Value Decomposition (SVD). The missing elements are taken directly from the corresponding elements of the approximation (Hastie et al., 1999). Retraining and employing SVM to the obtained descriptor vectors yields only a slight improvement in performance to 37%.

The imputed values are real-valued. We aim to choose an appropriate cut-off threshold for each of the categories. To this end, for every class, we rank all documents by the classification score obtained by the specific SVM model. Then, for each descriptor, we ask what would be the threshold least likely to occur by chance (see “Technical details” below).

Applying all the per-descriptor thresholds, a new set of binary exists/does-not-exist representations is obtained for each handwriting, and SVM-based classification is applied as before. This new method shows a remarkable increase in performance, and 49% of the documents are classified correctly. Examples of augmented representations are presented in Fig.1.

To further illustrate the effectivness of the method, we consider not just the first classification provided by the system, but the top three. SVM on the original descriptor vectors provides the correct answer as one of the top-three classes 78% of the time. Using the SVD based imputation method, the performance remains 78%. Finally, using the new method, the performance improves to 84%.

Technical details
The underlying method compares two ranked lists and returns the pair of thresholds which are the least likely to occur by chance. In our case, one list is a list of classification scores for a specific category, and the other contains imputed scores for a given descriptor. Both ranked lists are of the same length – n – which is the number of handwritings.

Let x and y be two vectors in ℝn. Applying a threshold to either vector divides the elements of this vector into two groups. A natural association between x and y would capture whether there exist thresholds such that the sets of obtained indices significantly overlap.

The hypergeometric distribution f(k;n,i,j) captures the probability of obtaining a certain intersection size k between two sets X and Y of given sizes i:=|X|, and j:=|Y|, where the elements of the two sets are drawn randomly from the set 1…n: P(| X ∩ Y|= k) = f(k;n,i,j).

To evaluate the statistical significance of a certain intersection size, we consider the probability of obtaining an intersection at least as large by random drawing from 1…n two sets of sizes i and j. To that end we employ the hypergeometric cumulative distribution function F(k;n,i,j), which measures the probability of obtaining an intersection size of up to k: F(k;n,i,j)= Σkc = 0 f(c;n,i,j). The statistical significance we consider (probability of an intersection size of at least k) is therefore given by the tail probability: G(k;n,i,j)=1-F(k-1;n,i,j).

Given a vector x ∈ ℝn of unique values, there are n + 1 possible threshold-based subsets of the indices 1…n, i.e., sets X such that for every p ∈ X, xq < xp implies q ∈ X. Each such subset is uniquely identified by its size. Denote these subsets by X0, X1, . .,Xn such that |Xi|= i.

Considering also the vector y, ordered in a similar manner and giving rise to the ordered subsets of indices Y0,…, Yn. Let I ∈ ℝn × n be the matrix such that Ii,j =|Xi ∩ Yj|.

We define the matrix P where Pi,j is the probability of obtaining an intersection size of at least Ii,j for sets of sizes i and j, when randomly drawing indices from 1…n : Pi,j = G(Ii,j,n,i,j).

We seek thresholds whose values produce the minimal value of P, i.e., they produce the subsets of sizes I and j for which the following minimum is obtained: mini,j Pi,j.

For n documents, a naive computation of the matrix I requires O(n3). This can be improved to O(n2) by considering the lists of indices obtained by sorting x and y.

Let C be the matrix defined such that Ci,j = 1 if the        jth sorted index of y is in the first i sorted indices of x. C can be computed from x,y ∈ ℝn in time and storage complexity of O(n2). The following lemma shows that I can be computed from C in a similar time complexity by performing cumulative sum over the rows of C.

Lemma 1. For every x,y ∈ ℝn, and for C and I as above, Ii,j = Σkc = 0Ci,k .

Once I is computed,        P is readily evaluated based on the hypergeometric cumulative distribution function. An efficient algorithm is given in (Berkopec, 2007), which has as many iterations as min(n – i, n – j). Using the identity F(k;n,i,j)=1 – F(n – k – 1;n,m – i,j) (Riordan, 1968), the number of iterations can be further reduced to min(n – i, n – j, i, j). Still, considering that Pi,j is evaluated for all i=1…n and j=1…n this is computationally demanding for large n.

The following lemma can be used to reduce the number of evaluations of the hypergeometric cumulative distribution function. It states that by examining the elements of the matrix C around the location i, j, we are able to determine whether Pi,j can potentially obtain the minimal value out of all elements of P.

Lemma 2. Given any vectors x and y, let C, I, and P be defined as above, then if Pi,j is a minimal value of the matrix P the following two conditions hold: (a) Ci,j= 1; and (b) j < n ⇒ Ci,j+1 = 0.

Experimentally it is found that using lemma 2, between 75% and 85% of the entries of the matrix P need not be computed, where the larger n is, the higher the ratio of discarded entries.

Discussion
Descriptor-based approaches are a key component in shifting paleography from an authoritative discipline to an evidence-based one in which expert rulings can be explained. In an evidence-based approach, decisions should be based on descriptors in the manuscript which can be readily verified by other experts. It should be noted that the ability to rely on concrete evidence does not mean that classification accuracy is improved. The classification of the authoritative expert who is free from the need to explain herself would probably be at least as accurate, if not very much more. Thus, in order to achieve high levels of performance, it is crucial to have accurate decision rules and models on top of the descriptors.

It is also worth observing that none of these systems are truly objective. The premise of the approach taken here is that different people will inevitably make different decisions when selecting and recording descriptors: that the input data in any system is necessarily the result of selection and human decisions with everything that this entails. Indeed, the method outlined in this paper relies on an initial set of descriptors which have themselves been selected by experts, and so any bias in that original selection will necessarily be reﬂected in the descriptors which it predicts. Nevertheless, it does help to reduce the degree of variation when different people are entering data into a system, as normally happens in large projects in the Digital Humanities. As well as improving classification, it can also suggest descriptors that have been overlooked, and so project members who are entering the data can then go and check their work. In this respect the method applies much more widely than simply to paleography, since the problem of consistency in selection across a team is widespread.

Building on the observation that unmarked descriptors are occasionally missing for the “wrong” reasons, we are able to improve classification accuracy significantly. The method relies on several underlying assumptions that should be considered. First, by means of the low-rank approximation, the prediction of the missing descriptors is based on past correlations between the various descriptors. Therefore, a unique configuration of descriptors would be augmented to become a more conventional one, possibly losing valuable information. Second, by means of examining the correlations between descriptors and class memberships, our method assumes that the descriptors are discriminative. As a future direction we can apply our method more selectively, only to descriptors that appear (on the training data) to be informative.

References
Aussems, J. F. A., and A. Brink (2009). Digital palaeography. In Rehbein et al., 293–308.
Berkopec, A. (2007). Hyperquick algorithm for discrete hypergeometric distribution. Journal of Discrete Algorithms, 5(2):341–347.
Breiman, L., J. Friedman, R. Olshen, and C. Stone (1984). Classification and Regression Trees. Monterey, CA: Wadsworth and Brooks.
Ciula, A. (2005). Digital palaeography: Using the digital representation of medieval script to support palaeographic analysis. Digital Medievalist, 1(1).
Cortes, C., and V. Vapnik (1995). Support-vector networks. Machine Learning, 20(3):273–297.
Freund, Y., and R. Schapire (1995). A desicion-theoretic generalization of on-line learning and an application to boosting. In Computational learning theory , 23–37). Springer Berlin/Heidelberg.‏
Hastie, T., R. Tibshirani, G. Sherlock, M. Eisen, P. Brown, and D. Botstein (1999). Imputing missing data for gene expression arrays. Technical report, Division of Biostatistics, Stanford University.
Hofmeister, W., A. Hofmeister-Winter, and G. Thallinger (2009). Forschung am rande des palographischen zweifels: Die edv-basierte erfassung individueller schriftzge im projekt damals. In Rehbein et al. (eds.), 261–92.
Levy, N., L. Wolf, N. Dershowitz, and P. Stokes (2012). Estimating the distinctiveness of graphemes and allographs in palaeographic classification. Digital Humanities (DH), 2012.
Rehbein, M., P. Sahle, and T. Schaßan (eds.) (2009). Kodikologie und Palographie im Digitalen Zeitalter - Codicology and Palaeography in the Digital Age. Schriften des Instituts fr Dokumentologie und Editorik. Books on Demand, Norderstedt.
Riordan, J. (1968). Combinatorial identities. Wiley series in probability and mathematical statistics. Wiley, New York [u.a.].
Stokes, P. (2005). English vernacular script ca 990 – ca 1035. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation.
Stokes, P. (2007-2008). Palaeography and image-processing: some solutions and problems. Digital Medievalist, 3.
Stokes, P. A., S. Brookes, J. M. Vieira, S. Hugel, P. Caton, B. Caballero, R. Mullett, and N. Jakeman (2011-2013). Digipal: Digital resource and database of palaeography, manuscripts and diplomatic.","txt","2","",""
"1676","14","Documentary Social Networks: Collective Biographies of Women","9","Collective Biographies of Women (CBW) is a collaborative [1] , open-access [2] literary and prosopographical project focusing on published collections of biographies of women [3] . The literary focus of this interdisciplinary project (which also centers in women's history in Britain and the U.S.) concentrates on a popular genre that has received little critical attention. We study the narrative structure of short biographies of diverse women’s lives delineated through interpretive analysis captured in a stand-aside XML mark-up using the BESS schema [4] . Having presented the theoretical and literary aspects in multiple venues [5] , in this short paper we will present emerging prosopographical interpretations of a database of over 1200 volumes, comprising more than 13,000 biographies of more than 8000 women. The women in this corpus come from all walks of life (not simply one occupation or nation, such as the women writers considered by Orlando or Brown's Women Writers Project [6] ), and range from ancient and biblical figures to living contemporaries of the biographers.

In our proposed paper we introduce the phrase, “documentary social network,” as a label for our prosopographical interpretations because we are interested in social networks as discovered in biographical documents [7] . Yet these networks do not always resemble those that can be found in an investigation of Twitter feeds or Facebook “friends” or even of archival materials such as provided by SNAC [8] . The social networks evidenced through our collection of collections are those of documentary grouping and reference. In specialized collections, Christian missionaries in Africa or nurses in World War I may have interacted in historical time and place, but assorted tables of contents commonly link some individuals who never actually shared a ""live"" event or a relationship or communication. Thus, the relationships are as perceived and presented through printed volumes collecting short versions of biographies.

Let us consider one Mrs. John Livingstone. She appears in only three CBW collections and by way of those collections her immediate documentary social network has 37 other women [9] . To visualize this network, Figure 1 is centered on Mrs. Livingstone with the three collections positioned on the innermost circle and the other women of those collections around the second circle. Of her 37 collection “siblings,” nine also appear in these same three collections and nowhere else in CBW, confirming some consensus on the names that represent ""Notable Women of the Scottish Reformation,"" a specific historical episode in one location. Other members of Livingstone's documentary “siblings” range into other collections and in Figure 2 those additional collections are positioned on the third circle. In more eclectic lists, some of the Scottish heroines of religious conflict intersect with a multi-national set of women widely recognized today, including writers such as Harriet Beecher Stowe and heroines of war such as Joan of Arc or the Countess of Montfort. Mrs. John Livingstone’s 267 documentary “cousins” are displayed on the fourth circle in Figure 3 [10] .

CBW's first experiments in digital analysis of narrative structure using the BESS schema have focused on two sample archives that are also productive for this paper's claims about documentary social networks. (Each sample archive is a set of all female collective biographies that include a certain woman, as in Fig. 1.) The two sample archives are ""Noble Workers,"" 20 books that include a biography of Sister Dora, who ran hospitals in the industrial Midlands, and ""Women of the World,"" 14 books that include a biography of Lola Montez, a celebrity in Europe, New York, California, and Australia. These Victorian women never met and never appear in the same book. The mediated interconnections between Sister Dora and Lola Montez appear in Figure 4. Only two women, Marie Antoinette (presented as a victimized queen) and Jenny Lind (the celebrated, virtuous singer), appear with Sister Dora in one collection and with Lola Montez in another (i.e., within one degree of separation of both Dora and Lola). The multiple versions of the lives of 141 women who ""network"" with Sister Dora in Noble Workers collections, compared to the versions of the 133 persons linked to Lola Montez in Women of the World books, will demonstrate the utility of our approach to analyze historical social networks and nonfiction narratives of many kinds. In spite of the vast differences between two Victorian women — one a saintly nurse, the other a notorious courtesan and performer — we discover patterns among their associates and their proximity in the CBW documentary social network.

These prosopographical networks reveal unexpected affiliations among different types of women, life stories, and collections; with the CBW tools for searching and visualization, we are now able to calibrate not only frequencies and proximities of persons and publications over time, but gradations of rhetorical assessment of women's roles and deeds, according to the perspectives of these publications [11] . Such multivalent interconnections not only cross categories but also historical periods in significant ways. An example is the connection between Sister Dora and Anne Boleyn, shown in Figure 5. This diagram reveals that the middle-class, now-forgotten Englishwoman, Sister Dora, appears with her contemporary queen, Victoria (in seven books), and in two collections with the martyred queen, Jane Grey (one of the latter, a186 [12] , is a book that Victoria also shares), but not with Henry VIII's second wife [13] . At sufficient scale, and integrated with other elements in our analysis, data on frequency or ""distance"" in networks can lead to productive interpretations. Anne Boleyn, unlike good Lady Jane in ambition and sexual notoriety , but like her in being executed because of the politics of English monarchy, features in 24 collections, including 11 dedicated to English queens and three focused on the English Reformation; the latter three collections include Lady Jane Grey but not one of the obscure Scotswomen of Mrs. Livingstone's ilk. To put it simply, Boleyn serves English and Protestant history, but not the promotion of feminine virtue, heroism, or social service.

More complex documentary interrelationships can be seen in Figure 6, associating the Gothic novelist Ann Radcliffe (dead before Sister Dora was born) with Sister Dora through a range of widely respected eighteenth-and nineteenth-century women writers; these lists also commend Jeanne d'Albret, the French queen regnant who championed the Calvinist Huguenots, as well as Lady Russell, Mme. Roland, and Lady Jane Grey, represented as good, highly educated women who played indelible parts in the history of their countries in revolutionary times.

Our proposed paper will present the methods and implications of prosopographical analyses afforded by the CBW documentary social network. Our demonstration of documentary social networks has implications for any ""personography,"" as well as for historical studies of women and studies of biographical narrative. We argue, in this paper, that digital exploration of the persons, narratives, collections, and documentary social networks in the CBW genre opens a prolific field of ramifying versions of female biography impossible to decipher through an approach to individuals or single full-length biography, and invisible through the customary lenses of historiography, time and period, place and nationality.


Figure 1:
Mrs. John Livingstone and her 37 documentary siblings.


Figure 2:
The 16 collections containing Mrs. John Livingstone and her documentary siblings.


Figure 3:
Mrs. John Livingstone and her 267 documentary cousins.


Figure 4:
Connections between Sister Dora and Lola Montez.


Figure 5:
Connections between Sister Dora and Anne Boleyn.


Figure 6:
Connections between Sister Dora and Ann Radcliffe.

Notes
The collaboration is among the UVa English Department (Booth and numerous graduate students) and the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities (Martin, Pitti, Ross, Girard, Brandon, and Bingler), building on earlier work with the UVa Library’s Scholars’ Lab (Gilbert and others).
To access the complete bibliography and “featured subjects” pages go to http://womensbios.lib.virginia.edu/ and to access a prototype interface to the database go to http://cbw.iath.virginia.edu/cbw_db/ .
The volumes are English-language collections published primarily between 1830 and 1940 (though publications of earlier and later dates are included), each containing biographies of from three to 150 women.
Biographical Elements and Structure Schema (BESS) is designed to reveal narrative structure and other elements in the short biographies, for measurable comparison of versions of one woman's life over many collections, and for analysis of the forms within a single collection or category of collections.
These include invited keynote lectures, e.g. Feminist Narrative Theories (a Project Narrative symposium, Ohio State), Life-Writing (a conference at Huntington Library), and British Women Writers Conference, as well as papers at North American Victorian Studies Association, Narrative, and Modern Language Association conferences (2009-2012).
See Susan Brown, Clements, Grundy, et al. Orlando: Women’s Writing in the British Isles from the Beginnings to the Present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. http://orlando.cambridge.org/, University of Alberta www.arts.ualberta.ca/~orlando; and Julia Flanders, Encoding Names for Contextual Exploration in Digital Thematic Research Collections. NEH ODH Level II Final Report, 30 April 2010. http://www.wwp.brown.edu.
For innovative digital work with literary biographical networks, see Alan Liu, Research Oriented Social Environment (RoSE) http://rose.english.ucsb.edu/. Unlike CBW, most digital prosopography projects reconstruct data about groups of lives in eras that predate printed documentation. See John Bradley and Harold Short, “Using Formal Structures to Create Complex Relationships: The Prosopography of the Byzantine Empire—A Case Study,” in K. S. B. Keats-Rohan (ed.), Resourcing Sources Prosopographica et Genealogica, vol. 7., Oxford, 2002. Susan Brown, Alan Liu, John Bradley and others have committed to participate in a proposed NEH Level-I Startup Grant workshop to be held at University of Virginia in 2013.
The Social Networks and Archival Context Project, see: http://socialarchive.iath.virginia.edu/
Janet Fleming Livingstone or Mrs. John Livingstone surfaces in a cohort of late-seventeenth-century Scottish Protestant Dissenters; many are wives of Presbyterian ministers or widows of martyrs or exiles. The relatively coherent group includes noblewomen, but most are historically obscure (life dates or first names unknown). Two collections have versions of the same list of persons: a029, Anderson, Rev. James [of Edinburgh], The Ladies of the Covenant: Memoirs of Distinguished Scottish Female Characters, Embracing the Period of the Covenant and the Persecution (London: Blackie, 1850), with reprints through 1880; a157, Chapman, William, Notable Women of the Covenant: Their Lives and Times (London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1883). The third book including Mrs. Livingstone is a068, Beaton, Rev. Donald, Scottish Heroines of the Faith: Being Brief Sketches of Noble Women of the Reformation and Covenant Times (London and Glasgow: Catt; Adshead, 1909).
One near relation (two degrees of separation) of Livingstone is Sister Dora, who illustrates the exponential possibilities: she appears in 20 collections with 141 “siblings” and then a prodigious 3560 “cousins.”
One near relation (two degrees of separation) of Livingstone is Sister Dora, who illustrates the exponential possibilities: she appears in 20 collections with 141 “siblings” and then a prodigious 3560 “cousins.”
This is the identifying “key” for this collection in the CBW bibliography for the genre.
Queen Victoria, who boasts 60 biographical chapters in the CBW books, shares 10 books with Lady Jane Grey, but only five with Anne Boleyn. Lady Jane's 48 chapters include 12 in books that also represent Anne Boleyn.","txt","2","",""
"1677","14","Dyadic pulsations as a signature of sustainability in correspondence networks","9","In this paper, we introduce the concept of dyadic pulsations as a measure of sustainability in online discussion groups. Dyadic pulsations correspond to new communication exchanges occurring between two participants in a discussion group. A group that continuously integrates new participants in the on-going conversation is characterized by a steady dyadic pulsation rhythm. On the contrary, groups that either pursue close conversation or unilateral communication have no or very little dyadic pulsations. We show on two examples taken from Usenet discussion groups, that dyadic pulsations permit to anticipate future bursts in response delay time which are signs of group discussion collapses. We discuss ways of making this measure resilient to spam and other common algorithmic production that pollutes real discussions. Can a discussion group be characterized by looking solely at the interaction patterns of its participants? Symmetrically, can the patterns of interaction of a given participant identify its role in a discussion group? Can we predict from these patterns the evolution of the interaction inside a group, spotting for instance the early signs of a group decomposition process? Our research aims to establish a new mathematical approach to distinguish between different types of discussion group participants as well as between different types of discussion groups, both with their typical ways of interacting (interaction ""signatures"") and life cycles.

The analysis of interaction dynamics has recently received an increased focus of attention in the network science community. Mathematical methods (Newman, Barabási and Watts 2006) have been used to identify signatures characterizing the mode of exchanges of famous scholars, comparing for instance patterns in the correspondence of Charles Darwin and Albert Einstein (Oliveira and Barabási 2005). Fluctuation patterns and delays in letter responses indicate prioritization strategies that can be modeled and simulated. These methods permit also to draw comparisons with modern forms of electronic exchanges where similar patterns, corresponding to universal scaling laws (Barabási 2005; Bunde, Eichner, Havlin and Kantelhardt 2004), can be found. Interestingly, all these analyses can be conducted without considering the semantic or pragmatic nature of the exchanges.

Patterns in correspondences networks are of great interest for research in Digital Humanities. For instance, the Stanford’s Republic of Letters project (http://republicofletters.stanford.edu) use “big data” and “distant reading” approaches to offer new visualization tools and test various hypotheses about the Enlightenment. However, mathematical analysis of such networks is not yet common in the Digital Humanities community.

Drawing on research on social networks (Wasserman and Faust 2009 [1994]) and computer mediated communication (Smith and Kollock 1999; Turner, Smith, Fisher and Welser 2005; Welser, Gleave, Fisher and Smith 2007), we analyze the activity and correspondence pattern of participants in Usenet newsgroups about religion and spirituality. Our paper reports an on-going analysis of large data set that consists of more than 1.5 million unique Usenet messages. Usenet is one of the Internet's oldest discussion systems still in widespread use. Unlike more recent platforms like Facebook and Twitter, Usenet hasn't stored its messages in a single central location and offers due to its open nature easier access to its data. Furthermore, Usenet's threaded conversations are organized by topics, with the advantage of allowing comparisons between topics.

In this paper, we introduce the concept of dyadic pulsation (DP) as a complementary measure to reply time for measuring the vitality of a given group. In our representation, a pulsation corresponds to the creation of new communication dyads, i.e. the first direct communication between two users A and B. When B first replies to A, a pulsation of type A (for asymmetric) is emitted. When A replies again to a message of B, a second pulsation of type M (for mutual) is produced. A group that continuously integrates new members in the on-going conversation is characterized by a steady dyadic pulsation rhythm, mixing type A and type M pulsations. On the contrary, groups that either pursue close conversation or unilateral communication (e.g. news feeds, announces without discussion) have no or very little dyadic pulsations.

Our working hypothesis is that evolutions in the pulsation rhythms are earlier predictors of the evolution of group dynamics. Figure A shows an example of a group maintaining a good average response time for a long period followed by an apparently unanticipated explosion of response time. At some point group members simply stop to answer timely to the messages of the discussion group. Interestingly, although no anticipated sign of this evolution could be spotted in the delay time graph, the pulsation graphs shows a progressive reduction of the frequency on the creation of new communication dyads. The grey lines in the lower bar of show pulsations of type A while the black lines show pulsations of type M. Figure B shows the change in delay time after the appearance of a succession of type A and type M pulsations, indicators for the formation of new links between discussion participants.


Figure A and Figure B:

For dyadic pulsations to be a reliable predictor, it is mandatory that they are resistant to the various forms of spam common to digital communication. This is one reason for the distinction of the two types of dyadic pulsations. Indeed, dyadic pulsations of type A can result of spam bots posting messages to a group. However, it is very unlikely that any real user answers to those messages. Thus, the presence of type M pulsations guarantees that new correspondence partners entered the group studied.

We are conducting a larger study to test the relevance of this measure in the particular case of different online discussion groups related to topics about religion and spiritualty. Our hope is to validate the hypothesis that dyadic pulsations on a group level permit to distinguish between different modes in a discussion group's life cycle.

More generally, we believe that this measure can be relevant to characterize the rises and declines of activity in correspondence networks, including literary correspondence networks.

References
Barabási, A.-L. (2005). The origin of bursts and heavy tails in human dynamics. Nature, 435(7039), 207–211. doi:10.1038/nature03459.
Bunde, A., J. F. Eichner, S. Havlin, and J. W. Kantelhardt (2004). Return intervals of rare events in records with long-term persistence. Physica A 342. 308–314.
Newman, M., A.-L. Barabási, and D. J.Watts (eds.). (2006). The Structure and Dynamics of Networks. Princeton Studies in Complexity. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Oliveira, J. G., and A.-L. Barabási (2005). Human dynamics: Darwin and Einstein correspondence patterns. Nature. 437.7063. 1251–1251. doi:10.1038/4371251a.
Smith, M. A., and P. Kollock (eds.). (1999). Communities in Cyberspace. London: Routledge.
Turner, T. C., M. A. Smith, D. Fisher, and H. T. Welser (2005). Picturing Usenet: Mapping Computer-Mediated Collective Action. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 10.4. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2005.tb00270.x
Wasserman, S., and K. Faust (2009). Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Welser, H. T., E. Gleave, D. Fisher, and M. Smith (2007). Visualizing the Signatures of Social Roles in Online Discussion Groups. Journal of Social Structure. 8. http://www.cmu.edu/joss/content/articles/volume8/Welser/","txt","2","",""
"1678","14","eBook as Ecosystem of Digital Scholarship","9","Socratic and Platonic Political Philosophy: Practicing the Politics of Reading (forthcoming Cambridge University Press) is an enhanced digital book that attempts to use digital media technology to cultivate the political practice of collaborative reading for which it argues.

The book’s central argument is that there is an analogy between the ways Socrates practices politics with those he encounters in the dialogues and the ways Platonic writing turns us as readers toward ideals of speaking and acting capable of transforming our lives and the community in which we live. For Socrates, politics involves speaking words to individuals that will require them to turn their attention to questions of justice, beauty and the good, ideals that are at once alluring and yet always also elusive. For Plato, politics involves writing words to readers that will require us to do the same. The book traces the practices of Socratic political speaking and Platonic political writing through five dialogues: Protagoras, Gorgias, Phaedo, Apology and Phaedrus.

This short paper will begin with a very brief overview of the basic philosophical argument of the book and the prior Digital Humanities scholarship from which it emerges. We will then turn to the technologies the enhanced digital book will deploy to further cultivate a community of readers capable of performing the politics of reading and writing for which the book itself argues. In the final third of the paper, deeper philosophical questions will be raised about the nature and limitations of authorial authority and about the connection between the book’s design and the ideals of reading and writing for which it advocates.

The book begins with what I call an “Overture” designed to open a space into which the reader is invited to enter. This space is intended to extend beyond the physical book into an online digital community of dialogue both with me as the author of a reading of Plato, and also with others interested in the possibilities raised by the book. This online community already exists in the ecosystem of online digital spaces I have created over the past five years (via Twitter, Facebook, Google Plus, Flickr, YouTube, and my system of blogs called the Long Road) [1] . During this time I have sought not simply to push information to others about my scholarly work, but rather to engage in substantive digital dialogue with a wider community about issues in which we share an interest.

So a community of scholarly and educated readers has already been cultivated in the course of the writing of the book itself, because the research for it was facilitated by an ongoing public dialogue with colleagues who joined me in discussion on my podcast, the Digital Dialogue [2] . There are currently 57 episodes of the podcast [3] , eleven of which are explicitly referenced in the book itself. In producing these podcasts, I invited scholars to join me to talk about their work and in the course of our discussion, my work was enriched and I came away with new or deepened perspectives.

The publication of the enhanced digital book is designed to further cultivate and enlarge the influence of this community of readers. A book that argues for reading as a collaborative endeavor should be published in a way that performs and enables collaborative reading.

To do this, the Cambridge University Press and I are developing a dynamic enhanced digital book that will embed the audio of the eleven podcasts into the digital book itself, enabling readers to listen to the podcasts directly as they encounter them in the text. In order to cultivate a community of collaborative reading, the enhanced digital book will also enable the reader to make all highlighting and annotations public if desired. Those annotations and markings will then themselves generate a feed that interfaces with a blog plug-in like Comment Press or some other form of integration by which the annotations and highlights can appear in public in ways that are open to further response. Although readers might decide to publish the annotations to a preferred social media site, the annotations should also be accessible to a blog I manage and moderate so that I can respond to and engage with readers as they engage with the book itself.

The publication of this enhanced digital book is designed to facilitate an ongoing dialogue about the book, its ideas and the larger questions of what I call in the book the “politics of reading.” As the conversation develops, I would envision recording new episodes of the Digital Dialogue podcast with readers who have had particularly insightful annotations or comments. Those podcasts too, if desired, could be made available in the enhanced digital book.

I envision the printed version of the book as another way to give readers access to this enhanced digital version and the community of dialogue to which it is intimately connected. We hope to include QR codes or some other method of moving the reader from the physical book to the online conversation. The hope is that the enhanced digital book will interface with existing systems of curated annotations as those found on the Kindle via Amazon.com and sites like Findings.com and Apple’s iBookstore.

Finally, the question of authorial authority emerges as central to this project. On one hand, by inviting readers to become active participants in an ongoing conversation about the ideas articulated in the book, the enhanced digital book is designed to recognize and cultivate the hermeneutical imagination of its readers and open new perspectives on the text for the author. In this sense, the publication of the book is designed to open a site of ongoing scholarly dialogue in which the author is but one of multiple interlocutors. On the other hand, by affording the author ongoing opportunities to moderate and shape the discussion associated with the book, its mode of publication could be taken to further reinforce the centrality and authority of the author. A central question thus emerges: how can digital technologies be deployed that will ensure civil, deliberative dialogue without re-inscribing the hegemony of the author into the published text?

The ideals of reading for which the book argues — the importance of attentively caring for individuals as such, of cultivating ethical imagination, and of orienting our lives toward ideals of justice, beauty and the good — cannot simply be argued for, they must be put into practice. This short paper at DH2013 will be part of the larger attempt to engage an audience of interested scholars in order to further augment the community of active readers on which the success of the project ultimately depends.

Notes
See: http://www.la.psu.edu/chrislong
See: http://www.personal.psu.edu/cpl2/blogs/digitaldialogue/blog/
See: http://ets.tlt.psu.edu/wiki/Digital_Dialogue","txt","2","",""
"1679","14","Eighteenth- and Twenty-First-Century Genres of Topical Knowledge","9","Our paper examines the similarities and differences between two technologies for representing topical information from different historical periods. Taking the 1784 index to Adam Smith’s seminal theory of political economy, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776), as a case study, we investigate the contrasting logics and aesthetics of knowledge organization apparent in the late­eighteenth­century index and the twenty­first­century topic modeling algorithm known as latent dirichlet allocation. To accomplish this, we have collaborated to create a tool we call the Networked Corpus. [1] Inspired by the way readers mark passages that share a common theme, trope, or other feature, the Networked Corpus provides a computational way to navigate a corpus based on a topic model, while also facilitating comparison between this mechanical model and the human­created index of Smith’s text. Our presentation will suggest a historical lineage between modern topic modeling and the eighteenth­century concepts of topic (which developed from the rhetorical idea of “topos”) and system (which emerged in the all­encompassing moral philosophy of the period) that are both exhibited in the index. We argue that the intentionally anachronistic comparison of topic modeling with the eighteenth­century index reveals similarities and differences between what each approach counts as a salient feature of a text for the purpose of organizing and representing its topical, informational, or conceptual content.

Topic modeling is a family of statistical methods that attempt to find “latent” semantic content in texts, under the assumption that texts exhibit mixtures of “topics” that have characteristic vocabularies. [2] Topic modeling software attempts to find the topic definitions that best fit a given set of texts, while inferring which texts exhibit which “topics” based on the words that they use. This method was originally proposed as an information retrieval tool, with the goal of enabling people to search for broad themes that cannot necessarily be identified with particular words. As such, it competes with the subject index; but it differs from traditional indexing both in its assumptions and in the form the output takes. Preparing a subject index generally involves imagining what a reader might want to find — “think of the user” is the “motto” given in G. Norman Knight’s classic indexing textbook — and results in a product that suits those who can describe what they are looking for. [3] Topic modeling, by contrast, is based on a generative model —an abstract description of the process through which texts were produced — and constructs “topics” that do not necessarily correspond to anything that can be easily described. Using the output of a topic model as an index requires that the topics be labeled, something that requires an interpretive judgment that is often very difficult to make, and that can often, as scholars using topic modeling have argued, be misleading. [4]

The first stage of our project was an attempt to create an information retrieval program that better suits this limitation of topic modeling than forms that are tailored for users who already know what they are looking for, such as the index or the search engine. We wrote a Python script that takes in a collection of texts and the output of the topic modeling program MALLET, and produces an HTML version of the corpus with interactive navigation features. [5] In addition to an index of the “topics” in the model, the output includes asterisks in the margin next to passages where there is a particularly high concentration of a given topic relative to the concentration in the text as a whole — “exemplary” passages, as we are calling them. Clicking on an asterisk summons a popup box that contains links to other “exemplary” passages for the same topic. This construct is intended to enable navigation not from a “topic” to a passage, as in an index, but from one passage to another. It encourages the user to read until they come across something interesting that has been marked with an asterisk, and then see where the links go. The network­like structure of this tool gives the topic model an exploratory function that does not depend on any prior knowledge of what topics there are, or of what, if any, significance the topics have.

The Networked Corpus also includes features that are intended to make topic models easier to interpret. The user has the option to “explain the relevance” of a topic, showing a box listing the words most strongly associated with that topic, the “exemplary” passages that the program found for that topic, and other texts in the corpus that also contain a high concentration of that topic. The “explain” feature also highlights all of the words in the text that arose from the selected topic according to the model, and shows the density of the topic over the course of the text as a sideways line graph that runs in the margin. This visualization gives an idea of which parts of a text contribute to its association with a given topic and which do not, providing a rich body of both positive and negative evidence by which the topic model can be interpreted.

In the second stage of our project, we are investigating how the “topics” of a topic model differ from the notion of topic or subject that was employed in the late­eighteenth­century index. Recently literary and intellectual historians including Ann M. Blair and Leah Price have described the historical development of practices of indexing, commonplacing, and generally what we might call “topical” knowledge in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. [6] As a lecturer in rhetoric and belles lettres and later a professor of moral philosophy, Adam Smith participated in defining the significance of those activities for the emergence of modern disciplines such as literature, history, and political economy. Upon the publication of the first edition of The Wealth of Nations without an index, Smith’s friend and fellow university professor, Hugh Blair, encouraged him to add an index and a syllabus like the ones they used “to give in [their] college lectures” because those additions would offer “Exhibit a Scientifical View of the Whole System."" [7] For Blair, like Smith, representing the knowledge a text contained in various comprehensible and manageable forms was a critial aspect of the production of new knowledge.

Our paper considers whether new epistemological units produced by digital methods may facilitate comparative examination of similar ones from earlier periods. More specifically, we track the development of topical knowledge in the eighteenth century by comparing indices and commonplace books of the period to algorithmically produced “topics.” During the last year we have collaborated to create a tool we call the Networked Corpus. Inspired by the way readers mark passages that share a common theme, trope, or other feature, the Networked Corpus provides a computational way to connect topics across the entire range of a corpus. We are currently working on a project that compares the historical changes to the content and form of eighteenth-century indices and commonplace books and topic modeling output from the corpus.

This “scientifical” approach to indexing suggests a particular model of the text, in the sense that Willard McCarty uses the word “model” — a “fictional or idealized representation” that one can see the text through. [8] The models actually employed in the construction of Scottish Enlightenment texts cannot, of course, be directly observed, but as a way of investigating one of these models speculatively, we produced a special version of the Networked Corpus for The Wealth of Nations that presents the highly detailed index that appeared in the 1784 edition of the book alongside a topic model generated from the text (Figure 1). To facilitate comparison of these two constructs at a conceptual level, we transformed both the index and the topic model into something similar to marginal annotations, showing all of the index headings that reference a page on the screen when the page is displayed, along with a list of prominent topics on the page. We also used the Spearman rank correlation to find topics that tend to strongly match the pages referenced under particular index headings, and indicated the pages on which these correlations break down. Based on a reading of these points of disagreement, we contend that the topic model is able to pick up on rhetorical moves in the text that are not represented within the sort of system of concepts that the index constructs, at the cost of never being able to claim the sort of exhaustiveness that the Scottish Enlightenment writers sought.

In this presentation, we suggest that the approach we have taken in our study of The Wealth of Nations — comparing constructs from different time periods that address a problem in radically different ways — opens up a new avenue for examining both contemporary text mining models and the models that are implicit in the organization of historical texts. As McCarty has observed, modeling supports an “orientation to questioning rather than to answers, and opening up rather than glossing over the inevitable discrepancies between representation and reality.” [9] Our deformation of The Wealth of Nations employs a statistical model not as a way of studying the text itself, but as a vantage point from which we can examine the assumptions and blind spots of another, historical model of textual organization, turning this discrepancy into something of hermeneutic use. We thus agree with Alan Liu, who encourages scholars to pursue “any mediation that produces a sense of anachronism (residual or emergent, in Raymond Williams’s vocabulary) able to make us see history as a compound relation of proximity and distance between past and present.” [10] With the Networked Corpus, we suggest a way of doing this that converts the alienness of mechanical methods of reading in comparison to older models into a productive source of tension.


Figure 1:
Screen shot from the Networked Corpus

References
Blair, A. M. (2011). Too Much to Know: Managing Scholarly Information Before the Modern Age. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Blei, D. M., A. Y. Ng, and M. I. Jordan. (2003). Latent Dirichlet Allocation. The Journal of Machine Learning Research 3: 993–1022.
Blei, D. M. (2012). Probabilistic Topic Models. Communications of the ACM 55.4: 77–84.
McCallum, A. K. (2002). MALLET: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit. http://mallet.cs.umass.edu.
McCarty, W. (2005). Humanities Computing. Palgrave Macmillan.
Price, L. (2003). The Anthology and the Rise of the Novel: From Richardson to George Eliot. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Notes
Our tool can be found at networkedcorpus.com.
See D. M. Blei, “Probabilistic Topic Models,” Communications of the ACM 55, no. 4 (2012): 77–84 for a brief review of topic modeling and D. M. Blei, A. Y. Ng, and M. I. Jordan, “Latent Dirichlet Allocation,” The Journal of Machine Learning Research 3 (2003): 993–1022 for a more detailed explanation.
G. Norman Knight, Indexing, the Art of (George Allen & Unwin, 1979), 159.
See recent discussions of this challenge on Ted Underwood’s blog post, “Visualizing Topic Models,” The Shell and the Stone, 11 November 2012, Accessed 13 March 2013, and Ben Schmidt’s blog post, “When you have a MALLET, everything looks like a nail,” Sapping Attention, 2 November 2012, Accessed 13 March 2013.
Andrew Kachites McCallum, “MALLET: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit.”, 2002, http://mallet.cs.umass.edu.
See Ann M. Blair, Too Much to Know: Managing Scholarly Information Before the Modern Age (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011), 137–144 and Leah Price, The Anthology and the Rise of the Novel: From Richardson to George Eliot (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 67–99.
Hugh Blair, “Letter to Adam Smith, 3 April 1776,” The Correspondence of Adam Smith, ed. by Ernest Campbell Mossner and Ian Simpson Ross (Oxford: Clarendon Press: 1977), 189.
Willard McCarty, “Modelling,” Humanities Computing (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 24.
McCarty, Humanities Computing, 38.
Alan Liu, Local Transcendence: Essays on Postmodern Historicism and the Database (University of Chicago, 2008), 25.","txt","2","",""
"1680","14","Elwood Redux: Introducing the Elwood Transcription/Text Encoding Modules as well as a Newly-revised, Browser-independent Version of the Elwood Viewer","2","The ELWOOD VIEWER was created ten years ago as a tool to display the edited text and manuscript images associated with documentary editions produced by the Piers Plowman Electronic Archive (PPEA). As originally written, it contained powerful regular expression search capabilities as well as display formats to enable sophisticated analysis of the texts that it presented. ELWOOD has met with very positive reception during conference presentations and with glowing comment in reviews of individual editions produced by the PPEA, including that of one reviewer (George Shuffelton, Speculum, (85) 2010, 285), who urged that the ELWOOD VIEWER represented “a major step forward in the delivery of digital editions” that “ought to be a model for future programs of this kind.”

Although originally conceived as a general interface for electronic scholarly editions, to date ELWOOD has been available only as a dedicated viewer packaged in the PPEA's CD-ROM editions of the B-version of Piers Plowman. As such, it has not been available for use by other electronic editions . The poster proposed in this abstract highlights recent steps taken to greatly broaden ELWOOD's potential usefulness in the display of scholarly editions available over the Internet. It will also introduce its audience to a new software module developed specifically to enable editors, as well as individuals seeking relatively straightforward means to transcribe and encode manuscript texts for use in their personal scholarship, to have access to the powerful analytical tools contained in the Elwood Viewer. The poster will also introduce a version of Elwood designed to run under all major Internet browsers (the original version could only be run under Microsoft’s Internet Explorer)and enhanced with improvements that draw upon the rich image-handling capacities made possible by HTML 5.

Features that have been supported by the ELWOOD VIEWER for a number of years, including its tight linkage of manuscript image and edited text, are presented (with illustrative figures) in Lyman (2004). The added features to be demonstrated in this poster session include: the enlargement of the software's function from that of the display of single manuscripts to that of serving as an overall archive viewer possessing the capacity to compare and move quickly between edited texts of different witnesses of a work, enhanced text and markup searching capacities along with the capability to export search results for further analysis, frequency counts, organized alphabetically or by descending order of frequency, of searched works or phrases, as well as other enhancements geared to assist readers in their navigation of edited text and manuscript images.

References
Duggan, H. and E. Lyman (2004). A Progress Report on The Piers Plowman Electronic Archive, Digital Medievalist. http://www.digitalmedievalist.org/journal/1.1/duggan/#dm.1.1.duggan.0200
Foys, M. (2012). forthcoming. The Piers Plowman Electronic Archive and the Process of Durable Mutation, : (review essay). Yearbook of LanglandStudies 26. http://tinyurl.com/kkmn8ap
Langland, W. (2005). The Piers Plowman Electronic Archive, Vol 5: British Library Ms Additional 35287 (M). Woodbridge [England]: Medieval Academy of America and Boydell and Brewer.
Langland, W. (2011). The Piers Plowman Electronic Archive, Vol 7: Bodleian Library Ms Rawlinson Poetry 38 (R). Ed. Robert Adams, Woodbridge [England]: Medieval Academy of America and Boydell and Brewer.
Langland, W. (2004). The Piers Plowman Electronic Archive, Vol. 3: Ms Oriel College, Oxford 79 (0). Ed. Katherine Heinrichs. Woodbridge [England]: Medieval Academy of America and Boydell and Brewer.
Langland, W. (2004). The Piers Plowman Electronic Archive, Vol. 4: Ms Laud Misc. 581 Bodleian Library S.C. 987 (L). Duggan, H. N., and R. Hanna III (eds.). Woodbridge [England]: Medieval Academy of America and Boydell and Brewer.
Langland, W. (2009). The Piers Plowman Electronic Archive, Vol. 6: Huntington Library Ms Hm 128 (Hm). Calabrese, M., H. N. Duggan and T. Turville-Petre (eds.). Woodbridge [England]: Medieval Academy of America and Boydell and Brewer.
Lyman, E. (2009). Assistive Potencies: Reconfiguring the Scholarly Edition in a Digital Environment, Dissertation. University of Virginia.
Lyman, E. (2004). In pursuit of radiance: Report on an interface developed for the Piers Plowman Electronic Archive, The Face of Text, Computer Assisted Text Analysis in the Humanities, Canadian Symposium on Text Analysis, November 19-21, McMaster University, 65-70. http://tapor1.mcmaster.ca/~faceoftext/FOTfinal.pdf
Lyman, E. (2008). 'May the text rise up to meet you:' New ways of reading old manuscripts. Digital Humanities Quarterly. 3 (3) http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/3/000058/000058.html 
http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/3/000058/resources/images/figure01.pdf
Shuffelton, G. (2010). Review of Vol 6 of the Piers Plowman Archive, Speculum. (85): 984-986.","txt","2","",""
"1681","14","Practical Interoperability: The Map of Early Modern London and the Internet Shakespeare Editions","10","While the promise of interoperability has been one of the major driving forces in the adoption of standards such as TEI, it has long been recognized that interoperability has only limited practicality (McDonough 2008; Sperberg-McQueen 2008). As large-scale digitization projects have matured, it has become apparent that the most effective approach to interoperability between them is based on loose coupling through APIs and metadata exchange services such as OAI-PMH, rather than wholesale convertibility or aggregation (see, for example, Bol, Hsiang and Fong 2012; Matei 2012).
The Map of Early Modern London (MoEML) and the Internet Shakespeare Editions (ISE) are mature projects, and both are under active development. While MoEML's text database is steadily growing, the literary texts in the ISE collection, on the same network and sharing some of the same research team, have become a tempting target for integration. MoEML’s goal is to give users a sense of the lived space of London, particularly as that space was invoked by the implied geography of early modern plays. Shakespeare’s ten history plays are rich in references to London places. 1 Henry IV moves between Eastcheap and Westminster; the title character of Richard III bustles through London; and the Tower looms ominously over the action of nearly every play. Ingesting and mapping these references in the MoEML environment would stimulate research questions about Shakespeare and London alike. How typical is Shakespeare’s invocation of London? How do his characters move through the urban environment? What is the relationship between London and the court in Shakespeare’s historical vision? How does this vision compare to that of other playwrights, such as Thomas Heywood, and to that of historians like Holinshed and Stow?
MoEML maps the streets, sites, and significant boundaries of London from 1560 to 1640, basing its interface on the Agas Map of London, which dates originally from the 1560s. The project incorporates a detailed gazetteer, topical essays, and digital texts from the period, and will soon include three editions of John Stow's A Survey of London. At the heart of the project is an XML placeography incorporating over 720 streets, churches, wards, neighbourhoods, and sites of interest. Places are both geo-referenced and linked to the Agas Map.
One goal is to use the Agas Map as a platform on which to visualize the locations in texts of the period. To that end, MoEMLincludes a library of early modern texts with all the toponyms identified and tagged. With dramatic texts, we have until now included only the “Dramatic Extracts” that contain London toponyms. It would be preferable, though, to extract toponyms dynamically from existing digital editions and plot them on the Agas map. The simple data visualization in Figure 1 shows a prototype for Richard III, with each location sized according to the number of references to it, demonstrating the manner in which the Tower dominates the action.
 
Figure 1:
The London locations in Richard III on the Agas Map, sized according to the number of references to them.
The Internet Shakespeare Editions is primarily an open-source digital anthology of Shakespeare's plays. The ISE's programming platform also runs the Queen's Men's Editions (QME) and the Digital Renaissance Editions (DRE). Between these three projects, all the plays of Shakespeare and his contemporaries from 1500 to 1640 will be available in standardized XML base texts. At the heart of the projects are carefully edited texts of each play, in both their early printed forms and in modern editions with spelling and punctuation regularized. ISE editors already tag the base texts with simple tags that are converted to XML. We could ask the ISE, DRE, and QME editors to add in the London references; however, they are likely to turn to MoEML for help with identifying specific locations, so it is preferable to process their XML files and identify the toponyms ourselves. We propose to begin our prototyping with the ten history plays because five of them are complete or nearly complete.
TEI versions of the ISE plays are currently indexed in an eXist XML database (like the MoEML texts) in order to provide search capabilities. The ISE textbase also includes modern-spelling versions of the texts, and all its versions of each core text are linked using ""through line numbers"" (TLNs) based on the First Folio. These features provide the basis for a comprehensive system to identify placename references throughout the texts.
We will use a multi-phase approach to identifying relevant placename instances. First, we will deploy a Named Entity Recognition tool such as the Stanford Named Entity Recognizer, trained on a subset of texts selected to provide sufficient variety of genre and known to include a useful number of London place references. We will combine the results with the entries in a dictionary of spelling variants of London placenames extracted from our MoEML collection. We will generate results in a form that includes:
•        Candidate placename
•        Surrounding context (paragraph, line selection, etc.)
•        Link to online version of the text using TLN
•        ID and name of candidate match location in MoEML database (if there is one)
•        Link to MoEML location data
This manner of reporting the results will allow research assistants to rapidly accept, reject, or correct the placename instance. Confirmed references will be stored in a TEI document in the form of <linkGrp> elements: <linkGrp target=""mol:CHAR1"" n=""Charing Cross"">  <link target=""ise:1H4/M/scene/2.1#tln-659|76-88""/>  </linkGrp>
This tagging encodes a link between the MoEML placeography (Charing Cross, which has the @xml:id ""CHAR1"") and theISE's modern-spelling version of Henry IV Part 1. Any other links to the same location will be encoded using <link> elements inside the same <linkGrp>. These links use Private URI Schemes for the sake of convenience. The pointers prefixed with ""mol:"" are dereferenced in the context of the MoEML database through XPath (//TEI[@xml:id=""CHAR1""] in this case). The ""ise:"" prefix can be similarly dereferenced to construct a full URI to the target location in the document:http://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/Library/Texts/1H4/M/scene/2.1#tln-659. The last component of the pointer contains the character offset range for the placename. A formal method for documenting and mechanically dereferencing private URI schemes and similar abbreviated pointers has been proposed (Holmes 2012) and is being considered for adoption by the TEI Council.
Once candidate placenames have been encoded for the modern-spelling editions of the plays, the TLN referencing system in use by the ISE can be used to identify corresponding references in the other editions. We will use this automated process for identifications:
•        1. Retrieve the text following the corresponding TLN from an original-spelling edition of the text.
•        2. Search for the placename as it appears in the modern-spelling edition. If found, record its offsets and generate a <link>.
•        3. If not found, try a search for each variant spelling of the placename known to the MoEML database.
•        4. If a match is still not found, tokenize the target text, create bigrams and trigrams, and run similarity metrics between the original-spelling placename and each n-gram. If a similarity threshold is reached, assume a match and create a <link>.
Various similarity metrics might be appropriate here, including the Universal Similarity Metric (USM; see Holmes 2010). Where a similarity metric is invoked, the results will be flagged for manual checking. Pursuing this particular example, theFirst Folio has Charing Cross with the spelling ""Charing-crosse"". A Java implementation of the USM gives these a similarity score of 0.206, which represents high similarity (scores are between 0 and 1, with 0 representing identity). Processing theFirst Folio edition would generate a second <link>: <link target=""ise:1H4/F1/scene/2.1#tln-660|37-50""/>
 
Figure 2:
A flowchart representing the placename identification process.
 
Figure 3:
Mapping placename identification in the modern-spelling texts onto original-spelling versions.
The complete process is represented in the flow charts in Figures 2 and 3. This approach will enable us to generate a large number of matches and resulting links without excessive human labour. The link groups will be stored in the MoEMLdatabase. No modification of MoEML or ISE texts is required; this is the ""loose coupling"" mentioned above. Links to instances of London placenames in the ISE texts can be provided as part of MoEML's online placeography. Meanwhile, theISE team has expressed interest in linking out to MoEML location data, which could easily be achieved either by processing the MoEML link groups to add annotations directly into the ISE texts, or (pursuing the loose coupling methodology) by making calls to an API provided by MoEML when rendering sections of ISE texts to incorporate relevant links.
References
Bol, P. K., J. Hsiang, and G. Fong (2012). ""Prosopographical Databases, Text-Mining, GIS and System Interoperability for Chinese History and Literature."" Digital Humanities 2012 Conference Abstracts, 43-51.
Hirsch, B. (ed.) Digital Renaissance Editions. http://digitalrenaissance.uvic.ca/.
Holmes, M. (2010). Using the Universal Similarity Metric to Map Correspondences between Witnesses.http://dh2010.cch.kcl.ac.uk/academic-programme/abstracts/papers/html/ab-693.html.
Holmes, M. (2012). ""Prefix Definition Proposal."" http://wiki.tei-c.org/index.php/Prefix_Definition_Proposal.
The Map of Early Modern London. Dir. Janelle Jenstad. http://mapoflondon.uvic.ca.
Matei, S. A. (2012). ""ARTL@S and BasArt: A loose coupling strategy for digital humanities."" Artl@s Bulletin, 1: 27-30.
McDonough, J. (2008). “Structural Metadata and the Social Limitation of Interoperability: A Sociotechnical View of XML and Digital Library Standards Development.” Presented at Balisage: The Markup Conference 2008, Montréal, Canada, August 12 - 15. In Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2008. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies, 1. doi:10.4242/BalisageVol1.McDonough01. http://www.balisage.net/Proceedings/vol1/html/McDonough01/BalisageVol1-McDonough01.html.
Ostovich H., A. Griffin, P. Cockett, and J. Roberts-Smith (eds.) Queen's Men Editions.http://qme.internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/.
Rasmussen, E., M. Best, et al. (eds.) Internet Shakespeare Editions http://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. (2008). “But wait, there's more!” Presented at Balisage: The Markup Conference 2008, Montréal, Canada, August 12 - 15. In Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2008. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies, 1. doi:10.4242/BalisageVol1.Sperberg-McQueen02. http://www.balisage.net/Proceedings/vol1/html/Sperberg-McQueen02/BalisageVol1-Sperberg-McQueen02.html.","txt","2","",""
"1682","14","Encoding historical dates correctly: is it practical, and is it worth it?","9","From the middle ages to the early 20th century, a bewildering variety of calendars and dating methods was in use across Europe. This presentation will address issues involved in encoding historical dates during the early modern period, and look at strategies for enhancing computability and interoperability in date-encoding.

Although other calendars are in use across the world, nearly all societies have adopted the Gregorian calendar to some degree; wherever you go in the modern world, the date and time are generally uncontroversial. In past centuries, this was far from true. Jardine (2009) cites the case of William of Orange, whose invasion fleet left the Netherlands on November 11, 1688, but landed in England on November 5, having negotiated not only the English Channel but also the ten-day discrepancy between the Gregorian calendar in use in the Netherlands and the Julian still used in England. The complicated history of the adoption of the new Gregorian calendar across Europe, between its introduction by Pope Gregory in 1582 and its final consolidation in the early part of the 20th century, is familiar to scholars (see for instance Cheney 2000 and Duncan 1998).

Our project, the Map of Early Modern London (MoEML), falls squarely within the period of maximum calendar confusion for England. The two principle sources of difficulty are the discrepancy between the Gregorian and Julian calendars (ten days during most of the period) and the change in New Year's Day, which from the 12th century onward was March 25 rather than January 1. The resulting ambiguity in actual dating is compounded by the ways in which writers, both in the period and after it, have chosen to deal with the difficulty. The terms ""Old Style"" and ""New Style"" (O.S. and N.S.) have been variously used to indicate the start-of-year convention in use, the leap-day adjustment between Julian and Gregorian calendars, or both; so if we see, for instance, ""February 11 1650 New Style"", it is by no means clear whether the date referred to would have been viewed by contemporaries as February 1 1650 (calendar adjustment), February 11 1649 (start-of-year adjustment), or February 1 1649 (both).

These issues of dating have been a major challenge for MoEML's encoders. Our collection of TEI born-digital documents and historical texts includes dates from many calendars. When we encode dates in historical texts, we first must determine which dating method was used by the clerk or author. Dates are given in terms of many possible systems: regnal years, papal years, mayoral years, legal terms, years calculated from a particular feast day, and even Anno Mundi figures (years since the creation of the world); we follow Cheney (2000) and Fryde (1986) in parsing these references and converting them to Julian dates. We give a few examples.

Julian date from primary source: ""Alfred king of the weſt Saxons, in the yere 886..."" (Stow 1598 8)

regnal date: “a par[l]iament being holden at Carlile in the [...] 35. of Edwarde the firſt"" (Stow 1598 11)

Anno Mundi dates, combined with proleptic Julian: ""[...] Eneas, the ſonne of Venus, daughter of Iupiter, aboute the yeare of the world 2855. the yeare before Chriſtes natiuitie, 1108. builded a Citie [...]"" (Stow 1598 1)

We also use a wide variety of modern sources such as the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. The ODNB has precise methods of expressing uncertainties in dates and date ranges, but does not specify how uncertainties arise, which means we can determine precision from the ODNB but not accuracy.

We have attempted to discover whether other projects are concerned with calendar issues, and if so, whether they have adopted similar encoding methods. A brief survey of the projects listed on the TEI Projects page (http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/Projects/) shows, at the time of writing, 152 projects in total. Of those, 68 projects could be expected to contain materials in the historical range that concerns us. We were able to retrieve XML from 19, 16 of which contained encoded dates that would be subject to calendar issues. Only three of those projects appear to have taken account of calendars in their encoding. The prevalent view is well expressed by Godfried Croenen (personal communication, 2012-10-05):

""All medievalists use Julian dates to refer to any date before the introduction of the Gregorian calendar, and so all the dates before the 16th century I have ever encoded into XML TEI documents are in Julian dates. I never felt it would be useful to convert these dates to Gregorian dates, as nobody would know what I was referring to.""

Croenen also expresses doubt as to whether it is practical or useful to attempt date conversion between calendars. Others have pointed out that, where date encoding involves only the year, there is no reason to worry about the calendar, and one might as well encode using @when (whose datatype is explicitly Gregorian) with a Julian date. However, in the case of England between the 12th century and 1752, assuming Julian years amounts to an allowance that nearly one in four dates is likely to be wrong, because of the New Year issue. Another objection to regularizing all date-encoding to use Gregorian is that it is unconventional to use the Gregorian calendar proleptically. However, it is a long-standing practice to use the Julian calendar proleptically, referring to dates in antiquity — in fact, Stow does this in one of the examples above, in which he glosses the Anno Mundi date 2855 as 1108 BC.

In our encoding of dates for the MoEML project, we have two major concerns: that dates be as accurate as possible so that we know when an event occurred (or at least that the source and scope of inaccuracy be clearly expressed), and that they be computable. We are constructing an eventography, and we want to be able to plot event sequences on timelines. We would also like to be able to integrate our data with that of other early modern projects, many of which will have data from countries whose calendar usage varies substantially from English practice. As a result of these concerns, we are early adopters of some recently-added features of TEI that are intended to formalize accurate encoding of dates from differing calendars.

The original P5 attributes for encoding dates included two distinct classes: att.datable.w3c, and att.datable.iso. These two classes allow slightly different forms of date encoding (derived from XML Schema datatypes, and ISO 8601 respectively), but both are explicitly based on the Gregorian calendar. In other words, it is clearly wrong to encode a Julian date using one of these attributes:
*<birth when=""1566"" calendar=""#julianEngland"">1566</birth>

The recently-added att.datable.custom class remedies this deficiency by providing a full suite of dating attributes designed for non-Gregorian calendars, along with the @datingMethod attribute through which the calendar used can be specified (@calendar refers to the calendar used in the text content of a dating element, not its attributes). We can now encode a date with these attributes and Julian dates :

<birth when-custom=""1566"" datingMethod=""#julianEngland"" calendar=""#julianEngland"">1566</birth>

These tags show that both the attribute value and the text date use the Julian calendar. Given that our purpose is computability, though, the question arises: why not simply convert all our dates to (proleptic) Gregorian before encoding them? If we take the example above, this conversion would be the result:

<birth notBefore=""1566-04-04"" notAfter=""1567-04-03"" calendar=""#julianEngland"">1566</birth>

The conversion, in accounting for the New Year issue and the leap day discrepancy, becomes a rather unwieldy range. Moreover, this conversion is itself computable, so it is unnecessary to impose this burden on our encoders. Instead, we encode Julian dates using @when-custom. On the website, we generate tooltips for all such dates showing the equivalent date or date-range in Gregorian. For the purposes of interoperability, the same conversion could be used to insert Gregorian dating attributes.

Until now, the encoding of historical dates in TEI projects appears to have been haphazard, for a variety of reasons, including the lack of adequate encoding mechanisms, academic convention, and historical practice. However, we now have a set of attributes that enable us to be more precise, and we can easily create conversion functions between (for instance) Julian and Gregorian dating systems. Moreover, as we begin to integrate data from different projects, and create timelines and event sequences that require accurate dating, there is more reason than ever for developing and propagating good practice in date encoding; we do not want to end up creating inter-project timelines in which (for example) the invasion force of William of Orange arrives in England several days before it sets off from the Netherlands. In presenting our date-encoding practices and the issues we have encountered, we hope to stimulate a discussion on accurate date encoding that will encourage those working on projects involving non-Gregorian calendars to be aware of the issues, and to collaborate in creating methods for encoding and interchange that will obviate these problems.

References
Cheney, C. R. (2000). A Handbook of Dates for Students of British history. Revised by Michael Jones. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Duncan, D. E. (1998). Calendar: Humanity’s Epic Struggle to Determine a True and Accurate Year. New York: Avon Books.
Duncan, D. E. (1999). Calendar. Smithsonian 29 (11). 48-58.
Fryde, E. B., D. E. Greenway, S. Porter, and I. Roy (1986). Handbook of British Chronology. 3rd edn. London: Offices of the Royal Historical Society.
Jardine, L. (2009). Another point of view. London: Preface.
Stow, J. (1598). A SVRVAY OF LONDON. London: John Windet for John Wolfe.","txt","2","",""
"1683","14","Encoding Historical Financial Records","2","A significant number of scholars in Europe and North America are now involved in projects utilizing or encoding historical financial and tabular records. Many of them hope that it will be possible to develop guidelines that account for both the idiosyncrasies of such manuscripts and the semantic information embedded in them.

A genre of primary sources that includes such materials as bills, receipts, cashbooks, journals, and account ledgers, historical financial records (HFRs) are abundant in traditional archives. Most current digitization projects do not capture the full range of financial information, and if they do, they have yet to develop a common method for fully expressing this range.

HFRs share certain structural characteristics with such other genres of historical records as plague bills, theatre returns, and probate records. Documents from such genres are generally represented as lists or tables, and in many cases they include numerical sums. The apparent regularity of these documents presents perhaps the most significant challenge for those who seek to encode them, as it often collapses in use. Thus such tabular records tend to include information that cannot be represented through simple transcription of tabular layout. In fact, they tend to contain significant variations and idiosyncrasies, often within the same document or collection.

In the subgenre of double entry accounts, the impulse to keep regular records produced a set of standards for recording financial information. Through the centuries, various influential texts offered ordinary businessmen opportunities to learn how to keep regular accounts. But the popularity of these texts did not guarantee perfect adherence to their principles.

HFRs tend to include three levels of data to consider: layout, textual expression, and a third, more abstract level of financial semantics that are not as yet easily captured through TEI conformant markup. Attention to layout may or may not be necessary. In cases where page images are included in online publication, for example, some projects may choose to omit digital representation of layout. Similarly, different projects place varying emphasis on particular textual features.

At the more abstract level, double entry bookkeeping uses a specialized vocabulary, a professional jargon that requires data modeling with attention to the special meanings of the terms “debtor” and “creditor,” as well as the relationships between transactions recorded in the journal and accounts kept in a separate ledger. We are developing a TEI customization for conveying such meanings and their expressions within double entry account books through a “transactionography” that will represent the relationships among such records in abstracted form.

As currently conceived a “transactionography,” like a “personography,” provides information about the financial information within each transaction separately from the transcribed text. “Transactionographies” follow the principles of double entry accounting to model transactions as a sequence of one or more transfers of anything of value from one account to another. Thus, the simple purchase of a candy bar from a convenience store is represented as two <transfer>s: one of a candy bar from the vendor’s stock account to the buyer, and one of $1.25 from the buyer’s cash account to the vendor’s cash account.

We believe that this model will be sufficient to represent double entry bookkeeping, though we have not yet tested it thoroughly. We are presenting a (working) ODD file for a first cut at such a “transactionography” at the TEI meeting in fall 2012, and we hope to have a more refined version for presentation at DH2013.

This abstract only begins to suggest the research opportunities that might eventually be available should large numbers of HFRs be digitally accessible in machine processable form. As editors of the Alcalá Account Book Project have noted with regard to their digital edition of the account books of the Royal Irish College of Saint George the Martyr in Alcalá, such records promise “insight into the day-to-day running of the college with valuable information on diet, discipline, and domestic matters.” Standardized digitization of HFRs, a rich yet currently inaccessible genre of texts, has the potential to produce harvestable data that could open significant new lines of inquiry about economic, social, and cultural history.

References
The Alcalá Account Book Project http://archives.forasfeasa.ie/index.shtml.
Burnard, L., and S. Bauman (eds.) TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. 2.0.2. 2012-02-02T17:24:24Z. http://www.tei-c.org/P5/.
Gleeson-White, J. (2011). Double Entry: How the Merchants of Venice Created Modern Finance New York: Norton.
Mair, J. (1765). Book-keeping Methodiz’d; or, A methodical treatise of Merchant-accompts, according to the Italian form. Wherein the theory of the art is fully explained,... To which is added, a large appendix. ... Edinburgh: W. Sands, A. Murray, and J. Cochran.
McCusker, J. J. (2001). How Much Is That in Real Money?: A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States Worcester, MA: American Antiquarian Society.
Pacioli, L. The Rules of Double-Entry Bookkeeping: Particularis de computis et scripturis. Michael Schemmann, ed. Orig. pub. 1494. International Institute of Certified Public Accountants, 2012.
Poovey, M. Genres of the Credit Economy: Mediating Value in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Britain. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 2008.
Visible Prices: A Collection of Literary and Historical Economic Information. http://staff.washington.edu/paigecm/vp.","txt","2","",""
"1684","14","An Environment to Support User-Structured Digital Humanities Sources","9","When building digital environments that provide suitable tools for scholarly research, there is a design tension between being generalisable and configurable: purpose-tailored tools only work with specific subjects and objects, while generalised tools can be difficult to use for a specific subject and object. However, there are meta-Use Cases that traverse many disciplines, and it is possible to build tools to support these within in a single hosting environment. In this paper we describe a hosting environment, CRADLE, that is configurable and generalisable.

At An Foras Feasa we repeatedly faced the same meta-Use Cases; researchers wished to create digital versions of their source-system (which might either be a single source represented by components within the system e.g. a manuscript of page-components, or multiple sources connected together, e.g. an archive of diverse materials [1] ) that were reflective of their personal theoretical perspective, provided tools for investigation, and permitted personal and community re-use. This extended to researchers who wished to use the digital source-system to support their teaching remit and to others; allowing them to reinterpret and repurpose hosted digital source-systems to create a digital version consistent with their own theoretical position. This implied that any solution would need to be able to handle multiple, configurable, versions of a digital source-system, and multiple metadata descriptions of any single component within the source-system.

CRADLE (collaborate, research, archive, discuss, learn, engage) was designed as a general software solution to support the hosting of multi-modal Humanities sources, discourse and learning resources. CRADLE has been designed to provide support for a variety of theories and interpretations of source collections. In particular, the general, but sophisticated, creator-user can configure multiple structures for their collections, and also describe multiple versions of each source-object within the collection. Furthermore, it is possible for other users to repurpose and reconfigure those source-objects to suit their own perspective upon them.

In the following fictionalised scenarios, we provide an example of how CRADLE supports this multiplicity of representation. A post-doctoral fellow with the Institute, Jane, is a professional editor, researcher and lecturer. She wanted to create a digital critical edition of an old Irish tale, originally extant in three manuscripts, so that she and her students could undertake research upon them. The digital surrogate object was composed of high-quality images of the manuscripts, their diplomatic transcriptions in XML documents, her edited best-version critical edition in XML, and an english translation of the critical edition. CRADLE provides a comparison panel to show any two of the three versions at a time(figure 1). When examining text, the XML versions are rendered, and equivalent passages across image or text versions can be located. Other tools are available to her and are briefly described further on within this paper.


Figure 1.
The CRADLE comparison panel for digital critical edition components.

Let us now examine the multiplicity of the structures and descriptions that underlie Jane’s version of her Irish Tale. Importantly, Jane self-consciously considers herself to be building a Digital Critical Edition, not a representation of the real work, within CRADLE. She holds that the XML diplomatic transcriptions are inherited from the extant manuscript, not an abstract work. As such, they are less authentic than the manuscripts. Furthermore, she does not consider the images of the manuscripts to be surrogates for the original manuscripts because they have different materiality. Each of the objects is described in metadata, but the images have two descriptions: one for their manuscript-self (in TEI), and one for the digital-image-self(in VRA). Thus, she would describe and arrange all of these objects in a hierarchy as shown below.


Figure 2.
Jane's personal view of the structure of her source-system, a digital critical edition.

Another researcher and lecturer wants to (re-)use the source-system. Contrary to Jane, Steven believes that all extant versions, including the XML and the translation, have the same scholarly merit and that no single one is more authentic than another. For him, all of the versions, including the XML documents, are children of a single, parent, abstract work. Steven wants to use CRADLE to describe this actual work, not the digital version of it. Therefore, he wants the manuscripts to be fully represented by their digital images. Steven wants to be able to explain this to his students, and then to examine the tale from his own scholarly perspective. In CRADLE it is possible dynamically redefine the spring-graph-displayed relationships between the components of the digital critical edition in a personalised user space (""My Collection""). He can also redefine the metadata description associated with the images — while Jane had associated two metadata descriptions with the images (VRA for the image and TEI for the original manuscript page), he only wants to describe the manuscript page because he is using the system as if it really were the work. The structure of this system follows:


Figure 3.
Steven’s personal view of the structure of Jane’s original source-system.

This configuration and reconfiguration of editions, in particular, along previously undefined lines and based on personal interpretation is a direct response to calls from Eggert (2009) and Burnard (1999), among others, for what Burnard terms “an uncritical edition”, and while operating at a higher level of abstraction than that to which he referred, it nonetheless allows for user-driven and defined editions. In this way, it extends the conceptual work already started in projects such as Wittgenstein's Nachlass: The Bergen Electronic Edition (BEE), which allows users to manipulate the edition within the online environment, but through predefined and encoded versions. Gabler’s recent call for a means to navigate the “pyre of humanities objects” using the tools of digital humanities to “allow us to relate, or to model, their relationships — to inscribe the relations and correlations into the materials we digitise” (Gabler, 2012) is also answered with this type of approach. It is possible to use it as a direct model of the source or system, where the reader-user suspends their disbelief and operates within the collection as if it really were the real-world collection, or as an indirect model, where the difference between the real-world collection and digital collection is made obvious and described in detail.

Existing repository solution software, such as FEDORA or Hydra, support the hosting of sources and the many configurations such a system would demand, but they require significant expertise to operate. Other digital library solutions could support multiple representations of sources, but do not supply source-specific tools for detailed investigation, such as the comparison panel; nor do they support dynamic source structural re-configuration in a way that is open to general Users to manage. As far as the authors are aware, no existing systems allow for the direct association of discussion forums or learning resources with sources within a single environment. CRADLE was therefore designed to sit on top of existing repository software(currently FEDORA), provide an intuitive front-end to users wishing to create complex digital versions of their source systems, and provide tools for the research-driven interrogation of those, along with teaching and learning support.

Below it is possible to see the configurable relationships within the test collection used during development of CRADLE; the 1950s newsreel Amharc Eireann Archive, held in the Irish Film Institute.


Figure 4.
Examining the relationships between the newsreel sources within an archive collection.

Metadata describing structure, such as TEI or VRA, can be interpreted by CRADLE and used to generate the relationship graphs. Here, two sample newsreels have been configured as a collection, and that collection is a child of the parent digital Amharc Eireann Archive object. On the left, the source is depicted. On the right, its relationships are viewed in a spring-graph of objects, showing their associated learning resources (a single annotation) and discourse (35 discussions). Once the new user’s personal collection has been created (using the ‘Create New Collection’ option, in the top right of the image), it is the relationships within these graphs that can be clicked and edited to redefine the relationships. The creator-user can then control permission on the new collection to share it with colleagues, students or teachers.

Multiple perspectives on the nature and structure of humanities sources can be accommodated within CRADLE, even for the same real-world objects. Using CRADLE to create models that not only describe our sources, but represent their structure in a manner that is manipulable, reconfigurable and shareable allows researchers to define their own understanding of their material, while also making that material usable to a much wider community. Along with the many source-specific tools, and the provision of a hosting environment for learning resources and discourse associated directly with the humanities sources, this provides a valuable solution to those active in the area of digital humanities research.

References
Burnard, L. (1999). Is Humanities Computing an Academic Discipline? or, Why Humanities Computing Matters. IATH Seminar. http://www.iath.virginia.edu/hcs/burnard.html. (Accessed 31 October 2012)
Eggert, P. (2009). Text-encoding, Theories of the Text, and the “Work-Site”. Literary and Linguistic Computing 20(4). 25. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gabler, H. (2012). The Importance of Digital Humanities. Panel 1. Digital Repository Ireland Conference: Realising the Opportunities of Digital Humanities. held 23-25 October 2012 in Dublin, Ireland.
Notes
1. These distinctions are loosely based on the VRA view of collections, objects and images.","txt","2","",""
"1685","14","Epistolary voices. The case of Elisabeth Wolff and Agatha Deken","10","The Question
In his book Computation into criticism John Burrows analyzed the speech of 44 different characters from novels by Jane Austen using the 30 most frequent function words (Burrows 1987). He showed how even this small amount of high frequency words yielded clearly distinctive results for Austen’s different characters, more so than the characters in novels written by other authors from Austen’s time or from a later time period. Recently, John Burrows and Hugh Craig applied multivariate analysis to the speech of characters in a corpus of seventeenth-century plays (Burrows & Craig 2012). They showed that characters can be distinguished in this way, but that the characters of one playwright usually cluster together compared to the characters of another playwright. In their research, stylometric analysis and authorship distinction are nicely intertwined.

The assumption behind their research seems to be that it is a natural wish of a literary author to make his or her characters speak thus on paper or on stage as one would expect of a character of that gender, age, social background, etc. But is this true? Could it be based on anachronistic expectations, based on our own horizon of experience? Or is it indeed to be seen as a universal characteristic of all kinds of fiction from all time periods and all cultures?

This assumption should be tested on other (historical) genres. In this contribution I want to find out whether the fictional letter writers in the epistolary novels of two famous Dutch women writers show a significant stylistic differentiation. The case also involves an authorship problem.

The Case
Elisabeth Wolff-Bekker (1738-1804) and Agatha Deken (1741-1804) met in 1776 and immediately became great friends. When Wolff's husband died in 1777, Agatha moved in with Elisabeth and from then on, they closely collaborated on many publications, most important of which are their epistolary novels (Buijnsters 1984). The first one, The history of Sara Burgerhart, was published in 1782 and was an immediate bestseller. It was followed by The history of Willem Leevend, a much larger and more complex epistolary novel, published in 1784-1785. The one was The history of Cornelia Wildschut, almost as long and certainly as complex as their Willem Leevend and published in 1793-1796. Much has been written about the two women and their work. Wolff is known to have been a highly educated and very smart and lively woman, whereas Deken, raised in an orphanage, is described as timid and dull. Based on these impressions, many readers and scholars assume that Wolff was responsible for the lively and funny letters (and/or letter writers), and Deken for the dull and simple letters (and/or letter writers). Even during their lifetime, this seems to have been the general idea. In their forewords and in some personal letters they explicitly stated that this was ridiculous: they did everything in close collaboration. Near the end of her life, Deken states she would like to draw up a list of the fictional letters she wrote, to prove these naïve assumptions wrong. She never got around to doing that. Can we, by using stylometric methods, establish how they distributed the work load between them?

The three epistolary novels mentioned above are digitally available at www.dbnl.org. They will be compared to three other epistolary novels that are available in digital form in the same digital library: Het land, in brieven written by Elisabeth Maria Post and published in 1792; Charakters en lotgevallen van Adelson, Héloïse en Elius by Anna Catherina van Streek-Brinkman (1804); and De kleine pligten by Margaretha Jacoba de Neufville (1824-1827). Finally, the fictional letters will be compared with a digitally available corpus of personal letters written by Deken and Wolff, based on the editions of Dyserinck (1904) and Buijnsters (1987).

The Results
We start with an overview, comparing all six epistolary novels with each other. I made use of the stylometric R-script developed by Eder and Rybicki, which performs Principal Components Analysis, Cluster Analysis, Multidimensional Scaling, and Bootstrap Consensus Trees (Eder & Rybicki 2011), choosing the last of these for my analysis since the bootstrap consensus tree is a harmonisation of as many different cluster analysis based on word frequencies as the scholar indicates. The six novels are diverse in length, with a maximum of 585,664 tokens and a minumum of 59,752. In Fig. 1 they have been analyzed in samples of 25,000 tokens.


Fig. 1: Epistolary novels

The three Wolff & Deken novels are clearly separated from the novels by the three other (single) authors. This shows that co-authors Wolff and Deken have a distinctive style compared to the other three. A comparable picture arises when we analyse the text of the 30 main characters from all six novels, all having more than 17,000 tokens in their individual corpus.

In the next step we zoom in on one of the Wolff & Deken epistolary novels to find out if the letter writers can be distinguished, and additionally, if the letter writers clearly fall into two different clusters which could be linked to the two different authors. This will be done on their first joint publication, Sara Burgerhart, published six years after they met. This epistolary novel has letters and some other texts presumably written by 26 different characters, including one Anonymous and also text written by the authors/narrators. Fifteen of these have a corpus of tokens higher than 2,000 (including the authors/narrators). Fig. 2 shows that the different characters are indeed distinguishable when their complete corpora are analyzed.


Fig. 2: Senders from Sara Burgerhart (no sampling)

Since the authors/narrators’ text (Forewords and Afterwords) in Wolff & Deken’s novels is usually undersigned by Wolff only, this consensus tree may show a certain work distribution between the two women. Wolff’s style may be prevalent in the letters attributed to the main characters Sara Burgerhart, her women friends Aletta and Anna, and her husband-to-be Hendrik. Through extrapolation, Deken then could be responsible for some of the bad characters in the novel, such as Cornelia Slimpslamp, and Zuzanna Hofland. She could also be the ghostwriter of pious Styntje Doorzicht. And she would indeed be very lively and funny in her letters by Abraham Blankaart. But it is too soon to conclude this; when we use sampling (2,000 tokens), the picture is rudely disturbed and no clear distinction can be found (Fig. 3). Many of the samples are directly connected to the root, which means the software could not convincingly cluster them to any other sample. The only significant branch occurs for the samples of the character Abraham Blankaart, which suggests his letters have a clearly individual style.


Fig. 3: Senders from Sara Burgerhart (sampling)

The implication is that Wolff and Deken either both worked on the same letters, revising each others’ work all along, or that their style of writing is so much alike that they cannot be distinguished. The first option is difficult to prove; historical evidence is not available to confirm this. The second option can be explored by a comparison of the letters in the epistolary novels to the personal letters of Deken and Wolff from the time period in which they wrote and published Sara Burgerhart (Fig. 4).


Fig. 4: Wolff and Deken and senders from Sara Burgerhart

Fig. 4 has three additional corpora in the comparison, from the years 1776-1782. Eleven letters written by Deken, 4,594 tokens in total; 35 letters written by Wolff, 25,790 tokens in total; and twelve letters that were written jointly, 5,878 tokens in total. The consensus tree again shows no clear distinction pointing to two clearly different authors. And, again, the letters of Abraham Blankaart show up as a rather distinctive set.

Conclusion
The measurements seem to imply that the writing styles of Deken and Wolff in their epistolary novels were very much alike. This confirms their own statements about their collaboration, and can be explained by their close working relation: they not only wrote the works together, but they were very close friends, even living together.

As to the other question I started out with, the style of different characters, something extraordinary showed up in the graphs. Only one of the main characters of Sara Burgerhart clearly had a more individual style than the other main characters, namely Abraham Blankaart. So for now, it seems that a distinctive style for all characters such as John Burrows has shown for the characters of Jane Austen, is not a prerequisite for these epistolary novels or these authors. Still, when reading these novels we do recognize the letter writers. Further research, e.g. with Burrows’s Zeta, is needed to find out how the authors exactly did this. This is not the end of what we have to do, however: we also should continue research into the genre of epistolary novels in other languages and time periods, to find out whether stylistic characterization occurs elsewhere in the genre, or whether the aimiable character of Abraham Blankaart is indeed a clear exception.

References
Buijnsters, P. J. (1984). Wolff en Deken. Een biografie. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff
Buijnsters, P. J. (1987). Briefwisseling van Betje Wolff en Aagje Deken. Uitgegeven met inleiding en aantekeningen. 2 Dln., Utrecht: HES Uitgevers
Burrows, J. F. (1987). Computation into criticism. A study of Jane Austen's novels and an experiment in method. Oxford: Clarendon Press
Burrows, J., and H. Craig (2012). Authors and characters. In English Studies 93 (3). 292-309.
Dyserinck, J. (ed). (1904). Brieven van Betje Wolff en Aagtje Deken. Den Haag: De Gebroeders van Cleef.
Eder, M., and J. Rybicki (2011). Stylometry with R. In ""Digital Humanities 2011: Conference Abstracts."" Stanford: Stanford University. 308-11.","txt","2","",""
"1686","14","eResearch Tools to Support the Collaborative Authoring and Management of Electronic Scholarly Editions","10","1. Introduction
The Australian Electronic Scholarly Editing project is a collaboration between the University of Queensland, University of NSW, Curtin University, University of Sydney, Queensland University of Technology, Loyola University, Chicago and the University of Saskatchewan. The aim of the project is to develop a set of interoperable services to support the production of electronic scholarly editions by distributed collaborators in a Web 2.0 environment.

One of the fundamental challenges faced by the AustESE project is the development of an interoperable data model. In recent years, research focussed on the production and use of electronic scholarly editions has increasingly involved the development and employment of ontologies (Robinson and Meschini 2010; Romanello et al. 2009). The Text Encoding Initiative has provided the necessary elements to describe the textual and material character of documents, but TEI has addressed neither the naming of components of an edition nor the relationships between these components (Robinson & Meschini 2010). Such frameworks are necessary to support the interoperability of the electronic edition and to facilitate and coordinate greater levels of user engagement with annotations.

One of the most significant contributions that ontologies can make to electronic scholarly editions is to more precisely model and capture the dynamic nature of the ‘work’. This provides a more stable framework onto which metadata and annotations can be accurately attached, and also facilitates the efficient execution of workflows that support scholarly editing practices. The importance of acknowledging the complexity and the contingency of the work has been made clear in recent years (Shillingsburg 1997, Eggert 2009). In order to logically integrate the elements of a work into a knowledge-site (Shillingsburg 2006) or a work-site (Eggert 2005), and, at the same time, protect the integrity of transcriptions and images, our approach enables the augmentation of images and transcriptions with stand-off mark-up in the form of annotations. Such an approach contributes not only to theories of scholarly textual editing, but also to theories of knowledge representation in computation (Clement 2011). In this paper we describe the project’s overall objectives and the ontology that we are using to underpin the AustESE Workbench, and we will discuss the practical and theoretical implications of the delivery of an integrated workbench that promises to re-invigorate scholarly editing in Australia.

2. Project Objectives and Ontology
The specific objectives of the AustESE project are to provide the Australian scholarly editing community with an online integrated Workbench that provides:

collation tools for automatically detecting, identifying and highlighting variations between different versions of a work and that allow the relationship between texts to be visualized, authored or edited
annotation tools that:
enable scholars to create and reply to scholarly commentary attached to texts, variants and images;
capture the annotations as stand-off markup that is discoverable, shareable, and re-usable;
provide search, browse and visualisation interfaces for annotations;
enable both manual and automated migration of annotations between transcriptions and facsimiles.
a workflow engine that captures the sequence of tasks and decision-making steps as well as the provenance of generating an electronic scholarly edition;
publishing tools that automatically compile electronic scholarly editions into standard publication formats;
and a repository that supports the discovery, search, retrieval, exploration and re-use of texts and electronic editions.
AustESE Workbench
The AustESE workbench coordinates the scholarly editing workflow and provides access to online tools that support scholarly editing tasks. For the AustESE project, we have adopted a Service-Oriented Architecture, illustrated in Figure 1, with the aim of developing modular, reusable, and potentially distributed components that can be assembled and substituted according to the requirements of each scholarly edition project. To implement this architecture, we are extending existing scholarly editing tools with REST APIs to enable their integration with our content repository and workflow engine, and implementing new open source software to bridge the gaps between existing tools.


FIGURE 1:
AUSTESE TECHNICAL ARCHITECTURE

Ontologies
The AustESE ontology includes key classes Work, Version, Artefact, Agent and Event, and provides the data model used to organise the metadata and conceptual entities represented within the repository. The AustESE ontology can be mapped onto the IFLA FRBR to link with entities from related databases such as AustLit: The Australian Literature Resource, however it provides additional concepts to those defined by FRBR, to make it easier to model and analyse manuscript materials and fine-grained differences at the level of ‘impressions’ and ‘states’.

The Open Annotation W3C Community Group provides a common data model (Sanderson, Ciccarese & Van de Sompel, 2012) for representing annotations across tools, architectures and collections. The model, which is expressed as an OWL ontology, is intended to be extensible, so that it can be refined to meet the annotation requirements of specific communities. To support the production of apparatus and commentary within electronic editions, we build on the OA core data model with specialised annotation Motivations, as illustrated in Figure 2. We categorise annotations as ExplanatoryNotes, providing commentary or TextualNotes, which provide support for editorial decisions. VariationAnnotations are a type of TextualNote that describe textual variation between versions of a work. These annotation Motivations can be used in search queries and for filtering and sorting annotations to enable selective display and inclusion for print or electronic publication.


Figure 2:
AustESE Open Annotation Motivation subclasses

We have defined additional properties that may be used within the body of a VariationAnnotation, (as shown in the example in Figure 3), to record metadata about the agent, date or cause of the variation as well as documentary evidence including links to manuscript facsimiles. Within our RDF-based annotation tool and annotation repository, we have adopted a Linked Data approach of using HTTP URIs to identify entities that may be referenced within annotations, including Agents (people or organisations) and conceptual entities (Works, Versions, Artefacts, Events). We use FOAF and Dublin Core to record annotation provenance, and we apply properties from the AustESE ontology to relate the transcriptions and corresponding facsimile images that are being annotated.

Such a conceptual framework necessarily directs attention to the material artefacts it aims to describe, ‘making the archives talk’ through the arguments of editors and readers (West 2011). A ‘virtual archive’ of artefact images provides a foundation upon which transcription and commentary can be overlaid, satisfying the archival impulse of scholarship, and providing a space for multiple, and, perhaps, competing views about how works could and should be represented (Shillingsburg 2010). With the Workbench, the AustESE project aims to facilitate such processes and to support collaborative editorial models that contribute to the development of social editions (Siemens et al 2012).


Figure 3:
Annotating Textual Variation

3. Practical and Theoretical Implications
The development of the AustESE Workbench has been informed by several case-studies, particularly the requirements of Paul Eggert’s Charles Harpur Critical Archive and Roger Osborne’s electronic edition of Joseph Furphy’s Such is Life. The complex textual and material situations faced by these projects require the type of infrastructure provided by the AustESE Workbench in order to efficiently store, describe, organise and analyse large numbers of image files and their related transcriptions. Projects such as these can still argue for a particular editorial rationale and contribute new, critically established texts to the system. But with the facility to support solitary and collaborative interpretation in the form of annotations across the archive, the editor’s version can be critiqued or ignored if readers object to the editorial approach. Hans Walter Gabler has recently described the emerging phase of electronic scholarly editions as a ‘paradigm of a relational interplay of discourses, dynamically correlated both among themselves and with an edition’s readers and users: that is, to a paradigm once again of text and ongoing commentary.’ (Gabler 2010) While granting due attention to the integrity of the images and transcriptions within the archive, such a paradigm lends itself to the compilation of ‘revision narratives’ (Bryant 2002) and general commentary that will help to reinvigorate and sustain research on literary works into the future. The AustESE Workbench will achieve this by drawing on Web 2.0 technologies and the Semantic Web to support collaborative social editions and/or finely argued editions produced by solitary editors.

Acknowledgements
The University of Queensland is proud to be in partnership with the National eResearch Collaboration Tools and Resources (NeCTAR) project to create a unique opportunity to develop eResearch Tools that support the Collaborative Authoring and Management of Electronic Scholarly Editions.

References
Australian Electronic Scholarly Editing Project http://itee.uq.edu.au/~eresearch/projects/austese/services.html
Bryant, J. (2002). The Fluid Text: A Theory of Revision and Editing for Book and Screen. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 157-161.
Clement, T. (2011). Knowledge Representation and Digital Scholarly Editions in Theory and Practice. Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative 1. http://jtei.revues.org/203
Eggert, P. (2005). Text-encoding, Theories of the Text, and the “Work-site.” Literary and Linguistic Computing. 20. 425-35.
Eggert, P. (2009). The Editorial Gaze and the Nature of the Work, in Securing the Past: Conservation in Art, Architecture, and Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 214-40
Gabler, H. W. (2010). Theorizing the Digital Scholarly Edition. Literature Compass 7 (2). 43.
Robinson, P., and F. Meschini (2010). Works, Documents, Texts and Related Resources for Everyone, DH 2010, http://dh2010.cch.kcl.ac.uk/academic-programme/abstracts/papers/html/ab-816.html
Romanello, M. et al. Rethinking Critical Editions of Fragmentary Texts by Ontologies, Elpub, Milano, Italy, http://conferences.aepic.it/index.php/elpub/elpub2009/paper/view/158
Sanderson, R., P. Ciccarese, and H. Van de Sompel (2012). ‘Open Annotation Core Data Model’, http://openannotation.org/spec/core
Shillingsburg, P. (1997). Text as Matter, Concept and Action. In Resisting Texts: Authority and Submission in Constructions of Meaning, Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. 49-103
Shillingsburg, P. (2006). An Electronic Infrastructure for representing Script Acts. In From Gutenberg to Google. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 80-125.
Shillingsburg, P. (2010). How Literary Works Exist: Implied, Represented, and Interpreted. In McCarty, W. (ed). Text and Genre in Reconstruction: Effects of Digitalization on Ideas, Behaviours, Products and Institutions. Cambridge: OpenBook Publishers. 165-182.
Siemens, R., et al. (2012). Toward modeling the social edition: An approach to understanding the electronic scholarly edition in the context of new and emerging Media. Literary and Linguistic Computing 27 (4). 445-61.
West, J. L. W. (2011). Making the Archives Talk. Pennsylvania University Press.","txt","2","",""
"1687","14","Evaluating Natural Light in Historic Structures through Digital Simulation","2","The search for sustainable solutions to current design problems has been an ongoing focus within the architectural and interior design communities. Returning to historical uses of natural resources is one way to solve these problems. Natural light, which can be defined as light from a natural source (sun, moon, atmosphere) is a resource that has advantages and disadvantages, both aesthetically and physically, in terms of use as a valuable light source to illuminate spaces. The goal of this research was to address how past and present structures have utilized natural light as an effective lighting solution, and then apply these methods to future structures by means of digital simulation and quantifiable data. Through the analysis of exterior façade systems, fenestration design, interior spaces, and building orientation, past and present structures can help provide a complete picture of both successful and unsuccessful daylighting solutions.

Current methods to evaluate daylight prior to the design phase of a building project are wide-ranging and not standardized nor regulated. To effectively study daylighting methods, computer simulation models needed to be developed of past and present structures. Measuring the amount of light from an electric or artificial source can often be straightforward, but daylight is highly variable with many factors to consider and there is not one universal method to calculating quality or quantity. Lighting calculation tools must be able to account for these variables in order to provide an effective lighting solution that can both reduce energy and ensure adequate light levels. The methodology and procedures for this research was conducted as follows: structure selection; three-dimensional computer models of selected structures; physical site visits where applicable; daylight simulation software selection; exterior and interior lighting analysis. Autodesk Ecotect was the software chosen for this research study, which is billed as sustainable design analysis software that offers a variety of simulation and building functionalities.

Data extracted from the digital simulations focused on the amount of interior illuminance in footcandles (one footcandle is equal to the illumination produced by one candle at a distance of one foot), as well as the amount of solar radiation (sunlight) available at each site, average temperatures, and solar geometry (path of travel of the sun). The software data shows that the natural daylight within the buildings as a sole light source can provide adequate illumination levels for tasks completed within the space during daylight hours under varying sky conditions. Site visits were conducted with physical light meters to determine the accuracy of the digital simulations. The techniques employed in the historic structures to control natural light (oculus windows, clerestory windows, site orientation, roof overhangs) were then applied to a current building environment, which was additionally analyzed on daylighting implementation.

Analyzing the success of daylight as a light source before physical construction is difficult in the design industry because there are various units of measurement when dealing with lighting that pertains to different factors (such as climate, weather conditions, time of year). These types of variables can produce a large amount of data in digital simulations, which can alter the perception of the data analysis, where the lighting levels might be extremely low during a winter storm or extremely high at noon in the summer. Determining which data to use and analyze was a large portion of the research in this project. Although standards exist today to attempt to measure the quality and quantity of light within a space, such as illuminance level (footcandle) recommendations and daylight factor ratios (the amount of light available indoors verses outdoors), there is still a great deal of trial and error when designing for daylight. The results of the study were used to verify that the use of current technology, in the format of digital simulation and analysis, on existing historic structures can be reliable indicator of the success of natural lighting solutions for future buildings. From the perspective of energy savings, environmental benefit and occupant comfort, the need for additional studies and research in daylighting metrics in buildings is needed to for natural light to become a viable lighting source.

References
Bhavani, R. G., and M. A. Khan (2011). Advanced lighting simulation tools for daylighting purposes: Powerful features and related issues. Trends in Applied Sciences Research 6 345-363.
Galasiu, A. D., and M. R. Atif (2002). Applicability of daylighting computer modeling in real case studies: Comparison between measured and simulated daylight availability and lighting consumption. Building Environ., 37. 363-377.
Reinhart, C. F., and A. Fitz (2006). Findings from a survey on the current use of daylight simulations in building design. Energy and Buildings, 38. 824-835.
Seward, A. (2011). Light meter. Eco-structure. 9. 21-24.
Webb, A. (2006). Considerations for lighting in the built environment: Non-visual effects of light. Energy and Buildings, 38. 721-727.","txt","2","",""
"1688","14","An Evaluation of the Involvement of General Users in a Cultural Heritage Collection","10","Introduction
Digital tools are becoming increasingly important research aid in the humanities. Scholars in different disciplines related to cultural heritage are currently exploiting digital resources at different levels, including the simple storage of digital acquisitions of cultural objects in an online collection, the 3D rendering of complete sites, the use of advanced search functions to browse multimedia collections, and the possibility of annotating the digital objects or personalizing interaction with the system.[cit]

Once a digital system has been populated by researchers, a natural step is opening it to a wider public, which is enabled to access culturally relevant content. This extension poses a number of issues that are strictly related to the interest a specialized collection can raise. In this paper we present the results of a user study carried out over two years on two user groups: specialists in the domain and members of the general public.

Background
In 2003, we designed and have since continued to develop a digital archive (Agosti et al., 2003) of illuminated manuscripts called IPSA (Imaginum Patavinae Scientiae Archivum). The design was carried out with a user-centered approach, according to the user requirements of professional researchers. The focus of the project was on a collection of scientific manuscripts of Medieval and Renaissance periods, which were influenced by the new spread of scientific culture that saw Padua as one of its main centers. The IPSA collection includes herbals and astrological manuscripts. After scholars had used IPSA as a research tool for a number of years, in 2010 we started a new project to open up IPSA to different kinds of users among the general public. This effort aims at promoting the interest towards ancient manuscript and illumination but, at the same time, is intended as a case study for the dissemination of scientific research in the humanities.

To this end we started to re-evaluate IPSA functions with different groups of users that could have an interest in the IPSA content: students in history of art, students in archival science, and researchers in humanities (but not in history of illumination). In this paper we focus on general trends in the evaluation, with the aim of generalizing the outcomes also to other collections (Sweetnam et al., 2012). Although IPSA is actually restricted online, a subset of the collection will be freely available online once additional functions will be in place.

Methods
Evaluation was carried out during the academic year 2011-2012, using a task-oriented approach and based on the triptych model of interaction (Fuhr et al., 2007), which considers a system consisting of three elements: collection, technical infrastructure, and people for which the collection is built. Participants were asked to perform simple research tasks on the digital collection, requiring about one hour of interaction that involved the use of the main IPSA functions. A total of about 60 users divided into three groups were involved in the evaluation.

Each user group participated to two evaluation sessions which were two weeks apart. This time span was needed because we decided to implement the main suggestions gathered during the first session in the IPSA interface and functions for the second session. In particular, the interface provided clearer contextual information during image analysis and the query results were presented as a wall of image, thus in a way more familiar to the general public. Moreover, the second evaluation session was introduced by a short lecture on the research methods adopted in history of illumination. The goal was to improve users’ motivation by giving them direct feedback of their suggestions on the interface and, at the same time, to raise their interest in the collection. Users’ comments were gathered using both questionnaires on user satisfaction and open-form interviews. The evaluation process ended with a focused-group discussion on the main aspects of the IPSA functions. Comments were also gathered while users were performing the tasks.

Outcomes
The evaluation highlighted a number of common characteristics on how non-specialized users consider the IPSA digital archive, and gave some clues to possible threats in proposing to the general public a digital archive that has been developed for professional users. Firstly, all users showed an appreciation on the quality of the digital content, yet they do not express a sustained interested towards the collection. Although almost all users commented on the beauty of the images, only a few of them continued browsing the digital archive for mere personal interest after they had finished the tasks proposed for evaluation.

Moreover, a large number of users focused their comments on details on the user interface, probably because they were not comfortable in providing comments on a subject they were not acquainted with — as they have no background in history of illuminations. Thus, the evaluation suffered from the “bike-shed effect”, which is well-known in software design and is related to the inverse proportionality between the importance of a subject and the time spent discussing it.

A third outcome regards users’ requests to provide more background information on the digital content. Since it was developed for domain specialists, who are mainly interested in images, IPSA provides only a basic set of descriptive metadata. This information, although relevant and congruent with library standards, was considered insufficient. Users asked for more involvement with the digital content by being provided with access to additional information, such as the research results produced by specialists. Furthermore, we found a substantial difference in user involvement when evaluation sessions were introduced by a lecture on the methods and aims in history of illumination.

During the final discussion, we stimulated users to suggest additional functions that may improve their enjoyment of the digital collection. As expected, most suggestions were about providing IPSA with functions — in particular on searching — that are usually available in popular web services and social networks. In general, the evaluation was biased by a continuous comparison with systems not expressly developed for cultural heritage collections, notwithstanding the clear differences in the selection of the content, the quality of completeness of representation between general-purpose systems and specialized collections such as IPSA.

Discussion
A comparison of the results of this evaluation with the comments gathered by domain specialists after using IPSA reveals that the primary aspect to take into account is the substantial difference in user interest towards — for instance — digital collections of artistic images. This difference exists also between domain specialists and scholars and students in related domains. This aspect affects all the main outcomes described in the previous section. A marginal interest towards the illuminations obviously explains the relative short interaction, which for most users only lasted for the length of the evaluation session, even though they were free to continue exploring the collection. At the same time, the requirement of additional content — extending the simple collection of images and their metadata — may also be an expression of an insufficient involvement towards the content and, to a certain extant, the focus on minor details when evaluating the interface.

These outcomes are completely in line with the trends in dissemination of cultural heritage. The application of 3D technology to interact with digital artifacts and navigate inside virtual spaces (Koller et al. 2010), the development of serious games (Falk Anderson et al, 2010) for dissemination purposes, the increasing exploitation of portable and interactive devices — including users’ portable devices — all suggest that the cultural content itself is not sufficient to raise interest among the general public.

We believe that all these strategies, although not always paired by extensive user studies on their actual effectiveness, are useful for promoting cultural heritage and improving enjoyment of digital collections even in the presence of marginal user interest.

However, an important outcome of our user study shows a direction that may need further exploration. A relevant part of the participants in our user study showed more interest towards the research process carried out by scholars than towards the subject of the research. That is, users seemed much more involved in understanding the different steps of the research work on illuminated manuscripts, its tools, the motivations of the choices made by scholars, the use of different sources for providing evidence of new hypotheses. This consideration suggests a shift in the focus of a digital collection: from a system for disseminating cultural content to a system for involving general users in goals, methods and results of scientific research on the cultural content.

Such a shift requires a novel design of digital systems in order to provide access to a variety of additional content — sources, measurements, analyses — that is routinely used by scholars but which is seldom accessible to the public. Moreover, this approach requires major involvement of domain experts, who would need to allow the system to track their research activity.

This is the approach we have chosen for IPSA, which was created as a research tool and provides methods for keeping track of research results. The further steps will be to make this valuable information available to all users in order to improve their involvement with cultural heritage content.

Funding
This work was supported by the CULTURA project (reference: 269973), and by the PROMISE network of excellence project (reference: 258191), within the Seventh Framework Programme of the European Commission.

References
Agosti, M., L. Benfante, and N. Orio. (2003). IPSA: A Digital Archive of Herbals to Support Scientific Research. Proceedings of the Asian Conference on Digital Libraries. 253-264.
Sweetnam, M. S. et al. (2012). User Needs for Enhanced Engagement with Cultural Heritage Collections. Proceedings of Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries. 64-75.
Fuhr, N. et al. (2007). Evaluation of Digital Libraries. International Journal on Digital Libraries, 8(1): 21-38.
Koller, D., B. Frischer, and G. Humphreys. (2010). Research challenges for digital archives of 3D cultural heritage models. Journal of Computing and Cultural Heritage. 2(3). 7.1-7.17.
Falk Anderson, E. et al. (2010). Developing serious games for cultural heritage: a state-of-the-art review. Virtual Reality. 14(4): 255-275.","txt","2","",""
"1689","14","Excavating Feminisms: Digital Humanities and Feminist Scholarship","3","In a field that sometimes organizes itself around the credo “more hack, less yack,” the role of theory and critical reflection upon race, sexuality, gender and and other discursive identity categories might seem a subordinate concern. But recent calls by Alan Liu, Laura Mandell, Tara McPherson, Adeline Koh, and Jamie Skye Bianco, among others, prompt this panel’s speakers to take up Liu’s challenge to “extend the issues involved” in building and making “into the register of society”:

We digital humanists develop tools, data, metadata, and archives critically; and we have also developed critical positions on the nature of such resources.... But rarely do we extend the issues involved into the register of society, economics, politics, or culture in the vintage manner, for instance, of the Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility (CPSR). How the digital humanities advance, channel, or resist the great postindustrial, neoliberal, corporatist, and globalist flows of information-cum-capital, for instance, is a question rarely heard in the digital humanities associations, conferences, journals, and projects with which I am familiar. [1]

Liu et al. have helped us raise a set of difficult questions: Has feminism slowly been leached out of some DH projects as those projects have become successful? Is a “revolutionary” pedagogy possible if the objects we train our students to make are welcomed by administrators and other higher ed stakeholders as precisely the “information-cum-capital” that Liu warns us against? How does one woman artist’s elision from a field-defining reception history reveal the apparati by which careers are made or broken? Can structuring tools like XML or xHTML or PHP be deployed as a feminist intervention, and how would that differ from other deployments? Do the institutional and funding structures of the field constrain our ability to make ethical interventions and encourage work that turns away from the kinds of social engagement that Liu describes?

The 1970s feminist slogan “the personal is political” taught people to break down systematic sexism into molecules that could at any moment cluster into atoms and catalyze real power. While recognition of the politics of everyday life and the value of quotidian genres of cultural production has clearly influenced certain kinds of recovery projects, moves within Digital Humanities to argue the necessity of advanced programming and development skills fails to recognize the ways in which structural elements of American education, family life, and work remain deeply gendered. Further, advocacy of a “bootstrap” or “DIY” [2] ethos risks perpetuating a dangerous suggestion that historically disenfranchised groups should make “do with what you can scrounge” in order to earn their way into spaces of greater privilege, and fails to recognize the important role that networks of support, mentoring, and technology access play in DH work. [3] While exhortations to “do it yourself” are often made in the spirit of rebellious assertions of power and independence, access to the practices behind these memes is culturally and economically bounded.

These issues have surfaced with striking force in the last couple of years. Miriam Posner’s provocative post from March 2012, “Some things to think about before you exhort everybody to code,” prompted 59 deeply engaged and passionate responses. Her thesis:

The point is, women aren’t [learning to code]. And neither, for that matter, are people of color. And unless you believe (and you don’t, do you?) that some biological explanation prevents us from excelling at programming, then you must see that there is a structural problem. [4]

DH practitioners have gathered into a community founded upon sharing and collaboration, a workflow ethos traceable to second-wave feminism. Several of the major Digital Humanities projects that are now at the forefront of the field and were driven originally by feminist imperatives (WWP, Orlando, Dickenson E Archive); but as these projects developed, their relationship to the communities they were built to serve attenuated at the same time that new types of DH practice, like “big” data mining, have sought to address different agendas. These shifts have left some despairing of the ethics and politics of DH. “I’m a teacher,” says Stephen Ramsay, in a comment on Posner’s “Code” post:

I care about students who want to learn, learning. I’m not so naive as to think that we can reform that culture from without, but honestly, if we just re-duplicate that culture [of sexism] in DH, then we have failed. And we might as well go back to whatever we were doing before. [5]

DHers would not naively posit themselves as uninfluenced by such hegemonic incursions; some of us are particularly mindful of them because we build projects that critique and resist them. But speakers on this panel submit that a tolerance for “yack”— a word that simultaneously conjures ladies chattering, not working, but that also signals attention to discursive and social relations— might be an initial intervention in the terms by which we construe the messy work of “excavating” feminist “art-&-facts” from DH’s rich silt: archives (Katherine D. Harris and Jacque Wernimont), encoding methodologies (Jacque Wernimont), literary reception (Kathi Inman Berens) and pedagogy (Dene Grigar). While we each canvass a discrete topic, we see significant overlap in terms of the means, histories, and technologies of digital production and teaching. Our roundtable will thus be structured by four short position statements, as outlined below, and then will engage all participants in the room to mount a community discussion exploring how and why the histories of cyberfeminism and feminist digital production matter right now as DH becomes “The Hot Thing.” [6] Even as we “excavate,” we look forward to building anew: what are the salient lessons to be gleaned from the presenters’ statements? How do they, and statements and observations from others in the room, suggest new or continuing avenues of work? Two of our panelists (Grigar and Wernimont) run their own labs. Is the material investment in women leading labs and programs an essential intervention in how privilege is disbursed? Or is it just essentialist?

The wide range of reviewers’ responses to our panel suggests a wish for us to address simultaneously an untenable range of feminisms: to be both grounded in material practice, but also theoretically expansive to address “Occupy” and other 21st-century feminisms. We suggest that the reviewers’ collective wish for feminist critique to be both united and expansive in its approach freights it with responsibility beyond the scope of our actual claims.

We appreciate that we can do more to unite the panel and will begin with a foundational grounding that includes of the trajectory of 21st century cyberfeminism that stretches back to Donna Haraway and bell hooks, and moves forward to practical and popular appropriations of Haraway’s theories twenty-five years later by Douglas Rushkoff and Howard Rheingold. We will then turn to the short papers arising from our particular practices and areas of expertise. Rather than seeing this as a weakness, we consider this diversity an important feature of our scholarship — a necessary link between our material practice, historical positions, and theoretical interventions. Additionally, each paper engages with a history of appropriation of technologies, practices, and ideas. The papers are short to encourage discussion by attendees, who will each bring their own expertise and thereby expand the scope of the session. Digital Humanities at large needs this kind of conversation in which feminist practice is deliberately applied in labs, archives, local communities, literary histories, and classrooms.

Notes
1. Liu, Alan. “Where Is Cultural Criticism in the Humanities?” http://liu.english.ucsb.edu/where-is-cultural-criticism-in-the-digital-humanities/

2. see for example: http://mayabielinski.com/?p=297, http://www.trevorowens.org/2011/07/the-digital-humanities-as-the-diy-humanities/,

3. see July 24 comment at 12:38 pm

4. Posner, Miriam. “Some Things to Think About Before You Exhort Everybody to Code.” http://miriamposner.com/blog/?p=1135

5. See Stephen Ramsay’s comment posted March 3, 2012 at 9:47 am: http://miriamposner.com/blog/?p=1135&cpage=1#comments

6. “The Hot Thing” is the title of Stephen Ramsay’s talk he gave at the Debates in DH launch April 2012. http://stephenramsay.us/text/2012/04/09/hot-thing.html","txt","2","",""
"1690","14","Expanding and connecting the annotation tool ELAN","9","Abstract
The annotation tool ELAN allows for adding time-linked textual annotations to digital audio and video recordings. It is applied in various disciplines within the humanities, with linguistics, sign language and gesture research represented most prominently in its user base. This paper highlights new developments in ELAN with an emphasis on those features that introduced new technological and methodological approaches to analysing both audio/video and derived textual data. 1. Introduction
Annotation of audio and video recordings, be it manual or (semi-)automatic, is a crucial step in many areas of research within the humanities. ELAN [1] , developed at The Language Archive (TLA) [2] /Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, is a tool for manual annotation that is already available for more than a decade and that is applied in various types of projects: language documentation, sign language and gesture studies, psychological and educational behaviour studies etc. ELAN enables users to create multi-levelled, multi-participant, time-linked annotations to one or more media streams, including timeseries streams. Both qualitative and quantitative research is supported; arguably the qualitative oriented use is predominant but the quantitative application is gaining popularity. In this paper we focus on recent developments that improve the workflow of researchers by introducing task oriented modes, expand the scope of the program by implementing a framework for computational annotation creation modules and by connecting to web services that, in a similar way, apply computational techniques to create annotations. ELAN is free and open source software and runs on Windows, MacOS and Linux.

2. The Interlinearization mode and text processing modules in Lexan
One of the recent and still ongoing developments concerns the introduction of the Interlinearization mode. This mode, on the one hand, provides a user interface optimized for the task of adding linguistically relevant layers to an orthographical transcription of the media. Layers for morphological break down, part of speech tags and glossing are part of the common repertoire of documentary linguists (Bow 2003). On the other hand this mode is the hub to Lexan, the extensible framework for annotation and text processing modules. Such modules can perform a variety of tasks, from simple to complex, from word segmentation to interlinearization based on machine learning algorithms. Some modules are expected to produce multiple suggestions for new annotation layers and to improve their suggestions based on interactive user feedback accommodated by the user interface of, primarily, the interlinearization mode. The name ""Lexan"" indicates that this framework interconnects ELAN with the TLA multimedia lexicon tool LEXUS [3] . This architecture allows to build and enrich a lexicon while annotating and at the same time to use information in the lexicon in the annotation suggestions process. This combination of NLP (Natural Language Processing) techniques with manual media annotation marks a new line of development in ELAN and brings together technologies that usually seem to develop apart.

For this sort of work other tools are and have been around for a long time and providing interoperability with these tools (often implemented on the level of file format conversion) is highly important for many users.

3. Interoperability with FLEx
The FieldWorks Language Explorer [4] is a prominent example of such tools, therefore import and export facilities for the FLEx format have been implemented and revised with the goal to make repeated transfer of data (""round-tripping"") between the tools as seamless as possible. Importing FLEx files was possible since ELAN version 3.8 (2009) but because the FLEx format at that time did not support time alignment and speaker information, an export function was not implemented simultaneously. That has been added recently, after the introduction of the ""begin-time-offset"", ""end-time-offset"" and ""speaker"" attributes at the phrase level of the flextext format (2012, FLEx 7). The import has been updated such that per speaker a group of tiers is created. Additionally efforts are made to retain punctuation and font information where possible. Punctuation elements are on import linked to an ISOcatdata category so that on export these elements receive the correct attribute again. Exporting an ELAN document that is the result of a FLEx import is fairly straightforward. Exporting just any ELAN document to FLEx remains a challenge; where ELAN is very flexible and allows to have any number of tiers without predefined content designation, there is FLEx much more rigid, providing a fixed set of layers of known categories. Resolving the mapping from one to the other is not (always) possible without user intervention.

4. Connecting to web services and online resources
ELAN is a standalone desktop application that in principle works with locally available (local hard drive, local network) resources. Audio and video files are (more and more) often very large, up to several Gb. per file, and high accuracy annotation is still problematic when using media streaming, even in situations with high speed internet connections. For the vast majority of features of ELAN an internet connection is not required, but recently several options have been added that allow the user to connect to online services and resources. In 2008 association of tiers and annotations with ISOcat [5] data categories was introduced and this feature has recently been improved and made more relevant. By default tiers are generic annotation ""containers"", oblivious of the type of content of the annotations; there are no predefined tiers, e.g. ""translation tier"" or ""gesture phases tier"". By associating a tier with a concept registered and described in ISOcat it acquires an explicit content designation.

In the CLARIN-NL SignLin [6] project support for external controlled vocabularies was added, enabling collaborators to share vocabularies over the network (Crasborn and Sloetjes 2010). This feature improves consistency within a team and prevents team members from making (unchecked) changes to the vocabularies. In the context of several CLARIN [7] projects and of the AVATecH [8] project extensions were developed that call web services which produce segmentations and/or annotation content taking audio, video or text, or a combination thereof, as input. The WebLicht [9] tool chaining framework is a core service in CLARIN-D [10] (Hinrichs, et al. 2010) and preliminary support for calling services registered with this framework is now available to users of ELAN. Tiers can be uploaded (in the required XML format, TCF) in order to be processed by well known parsers and taggers; the results are added as new tiers and thus enrich the annotation document.

No matter how useful these web services are or will become, for many field linguists, and other researchers who are working offline a lot, these provisions will not be available. Therefore the core functions will always be independent of online services. For some services, like ISOcat, it is possible to work with a local cache; a selection of categories is stored on the local machine for use while offline.


Figure 1
Preparing a web service call

Most parsers and taggers are only available for a small number of major languages, linguists who study lesser described, let alone, endangered languages usually don't have similar mature, well tested and well trained systems at their disposal. The Lexan approach, stepwise building up ""personalized"" computational assistance based on the input and feedback of the user, can come to their rescue.

5. Local corpus enrichment and exploration
Though ELAN has been a multiple document application almost from the start, most functions of ELAN allow the user to interact with one, the current active, document. But in recent years more and more functions have been introduced that operate on multiple files e.g. on an entire local corpus. The urge for such functions emerged with the growing number of recordings and transcriptions research teams nowadays are working on (Johnston 2010).

A shortlist of multiple files functions contains creation of transcriptions for a set of recordings, editing the collection of tiers in transcriptions, creating annotations by applying logical operations (AND, OR, XOR) on annotations of selected tiers (Lausberg and Sloetjes 2009), extracting information by executing search queries, generating simple statistics, converting multiple files to and from specific formats etc.

For some types of research assessing the quality of the annotations and the skills of the annotators is crucial. How the inter-annotator reliability best is assessed is still under discussion (Gut 2004; Holle and Rein 2012; Lücking 2011) and the best approach can differ depending on the properties of the data and the focus of the research. A few algorithms for calculating the inter-annotator agreement have been implemented in ELAN and are available for application on multiple files. Especially concerning time-alignment (the segmentation step of the annotation process) there seems to be no generally accepted algorithm for assessing agreement. By offering several alternatives, the choice remains to the user while some of the hassle of exporting data to other tools is taken away from her/him.

6. Conclusion
In this paper we show how researchers working with digital audio/video materials across disciplines can apply new technologies as a result of connections established between ELAN and local or online modules and services. Features that allow to enrich and explore a local corpus are introduced and briefly discussed.

References
Bow, C., B. Hughes, and S. Bird (2003). Towards a general model of interlinear text. In Proceedings of EMELD Workshop 2003: Digitizing and Annotating Texts and Field Recordings. Lansing: MI
Crasborn, O., and H. Sloetjes (2010). Using ELAN for annotating sign language corpora in a team setting. In Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on the Representation and Processing of Sign Languages: Corpora and Sign Language Technologies. Paris: ELRA, 137-142.
Gut, U., and P. Bayerl (2004). Measuring the Reliability of Manual Annotations of Speech Corpora. In Proceedings of Speech Prosody, Nara.
Hinrichs, M., T. Zastrow, and E. Hinrichs (2010). WebLicht: Web-based LRT Services in a Distributed eScience Infrastructure. In Proceedings of the Seventh conference on International Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'10). Valletta, Malta.
Holle, H., R. Rein Assessing interrater agreement of movement annotations. In Lausberg, H. (ed.), Neuroges: The Neuropsychological Gesture Coding System. Berlin: Peter Lang.
Johnston, T. (2010). Adding value to, and extracting of value from, a signed language corpus through secondary processing: implications for annotation schemas and corpus creation. In Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on the Representation and Processing of Sign Languages: Corpora and Sign Language Technologies. Paris: ELRA, 137-142.
Lausberg, H., and H. Sloetjes (2009). Coding gestural behavior with the NEUROGES-ELAN system. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 41(3):841-849.
Lücking, A., Ptock, S., and Bergmann, K. (2011). Staccato: Segmentation Agreement Calculator. Proc. of the 9th International Gesture Workshop held 25-27 May in Athens, Greece.
Notes
http://tla.mpi.nl/tools/tla-tools/elan
http://tla.mpi.nl
http://tla.mpi.nl/tools/tla-tools/lexus
http://fieldworks.sil.org/flex
http://www.isocat.org
http://www.ru.nl/sign-lang/@673229/pagina/
http://www.clarin.eu
http://www.mpi.nl/avatech
http://www.clarin-d.de/language-resources/weblicht-en.html
http://www.clarin-d.de","txt","2","",""
"1691","14","Prosopography in the time of Open data: Towards an Ontology for Historical Persons","9","Along with open data about sources and places, open data about historical people provides one of the three legs for an open framework for historical information, since it is one of the three most obvious ""entry points"" into a potentially shared world of historical data.
DDH has been involved in a number of prosopographical projects (PBE, PBW, PASE, CCEd, PoMS, BoB [1] and most recently the Making Charlemagne's Europe project), and we have become convinced that prosopography is particularly well suited to the world of open and linked data, since its purpose is to establish unique digital identities for people that could be used by other researchers. Furthermore, although we here at DDH have done quite a bit of work on structured prosopography we have found that ""one size does not fit all"" when it comes to structuring the prosopographical materials. Several of our projects have, at their core, a common approach we are calling ""factoid prosopography"". However, several of them (Clergy Church of England, Early Modern London Theatres) [2] do not. Finally, of course, many other people take on prosopographical work in their research without taking up a model of their data like ours: one thinks of the ""personography"" model work within the TEI, for example, and we know of other colleagues with prosopographical components that have developed a different model for their data.
The issue of prosopography as a open, shared resource goes beyond the provision merely of an identity for historical persons. In the same way that CIDOC-CRM (CIDOC-CRM 2011) was developed to record information about cultural heritage objects and therefore not only help uniquely to identify them but also to allow different systems to share a much broader range of data about these objects, a prosopography for historical persons would work to find common ground among the different ways in which different projects collect data about historical persons so that semantic links between them could more effectively be exploited. Indeed, it would seem that much of such a prosopographical ontology would usefully be based on CIDOC-CRM, since there is often significant overlap between the two domains: prosopography often comes into the work of people working with heritage objects, and there are thus substantial elements of prosopography in CIDOC-CRM. We have done some exploring of this idea in a recently created paper by Michele Pasin and myself (Pasin and Bradley, 2012) that takes the ""factoid"" in our prosopographical model and explores how it might be represented primarily in CIDOC-CRM terms.
We propose calling this shared ontological model for prosopography an Ontology for Historical Persons. By the very nature of such a thing, it would need to be developed out of as broad a shared perspective on the different ways that prosopographical data is being collected as possible. As an early step in thinking about this ontology, we have already been in touch with not only our project partners for the prosopographies we have already done, but also with a range of colleagues who have worked on the question of structured prosopography outside of our own projects, and with colleagues who have worked on the development of CIDOC-CRM. In our talk we would also describe the current state of our ontology, and explain how we think it would link with CIDOC-CRM. However, we'd be most interested in hearing of other people who are working on structured prosopography, and who would be interested in working with us towards enabling the open data potential that an ontology for historical persons might provide.
References
CIDOC-CRM (2011). The CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model website. At http://www.cidoc-crm.org/
Pasin, M., and J. Bradley. (2012). Factoid-based Prosopography and Computer Ontologies: towards an integrated approach. Submitted for possible publication. Draft available at http://www.michelepasin.org/papers/43/
Notes
1. PBE: Prosopography of the Byzantine Empire, PBW: Prosopography of the Byzantine World (http://www.pbw.kcl.ac.uk), PASE: Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England (http://www.pase.ac.uk), CCEd: Clergy of the Church of England Database (http://www.theclergydatabase.org.uk/index.html), PoMS: People of Medieval Scotland (http://www.poms.ac.uk), BoB: Breaking of Britain (http://www.breakingofbritain.ac.uk/).
2. http://www.emlot.kcl.ac.uk","txt","2","",""
"1692","14","Fitting Personal Interpretations with the Semantic Web","10","The emergence of formal ontologies into the World Wide Web has had a significant effect on research in certain fields. In parts of the Life Sciences, for example, key research information has been captured in formal domain ontologies, like those mentioned in the Open Biological and Biomedical Ontologies website (OBOFoundary 2012). In parallel with this has been the development of the AO annotation ontology framework (AO 2012) which formalises the act of annotation as a way to connect ontologies such as those in the OBOFoundary to references to them in the scientific literature: an act sometimes referred to as ""semantic annotation"", and tools such as the SWAN annotation system (SWAN 2008) have emerged to support this. We will call the activity of linking references in a domain literature directly to entities in one or more domain ontologies ""direct semantic annotation"", and show it in schematic form in figure I. The annotations — shown as heavier lines connecting spots in the literature (to the left) to the ontologies (to the right) could be expressed in the AO annotation ontology, or something similar to it.


Figure 1:
direct semantic annotation

Can direct semantic annotation like this be applied to research in the Humanities? For it to work as it does in the Life Sciences, formal models of humanities materials, built using an ontology framework such as CIDOC-CRM, would need to exist and be already accepted as a useful representation of material of interest to the humanities. Not much of this has happened at present, although perhaps Linked Data initiatives (Heath and Bizer 2011) show some promise in that general direction, and we in DDH are both exploring making data from our projects available in the Semantic Web sense by, for example, setting up SPARQL endpoints, and thinking about the open-data significance of our structured prosopography model (Pasin and Bradley 2012).

Although open, linked data provides a context for exploring direct semantic annotation and even though there is evidence of this being thought useful in the Life Sciences, by itself the mere act of linking a spot in a published online journal to a relevant bit of an online ontology does not represent anything other than rudimentary research activity in either the Life Sciences or in the Humanities. Instead, almost all humanities scholars want to spend their time, not connecting things they read only to an existing, shared, understanding of things, but instead developing their own original interpretation of the materials they study, and they aim to subsequently explore these new concepts and paradigms in articles and books that they write. (see Brockman et al 2001 and in Palmer et al 2009) For traditional humanists, their scholarship does not start out only with predefined formal structures such as those provided through their community's shared concepts, but begins with a set of vague notions and insights that emerge more clearly over time in the scholar's mind as they read, and that only over time becomes clear enough to be described in original published work. For most humanists scholarship (a) is normally personal, (b) is meant to produce original ideas that must first emerge and then mature over time, and (c) even when the ideas are mature enough for publication, represents a structure that is at least ""pre-ontological"", and perhaps at best only partly compatible with the clarity of ontological modelling.

Surprisingly, however, although products of humanities scholarship do not seem currently to match the formalisms of computer ontologies as perhaps some of the Life Sciences do, there is evidence of some degree of inherent structure in the process of creating them. Many researchers, including Brockman and Palmer mentioned earlier, have noted the importance of notetaking and the management of those notes in humanities research. We can see a significantly structured approach around the process of developing new scholarly ideas when we look at traditional strategies for taking and managing notes as described in books like Altick and Fenstermaker's The Art of Literary Research (1992). Altick and Fenstermaker describe paper-based procedures aimed to provide the new researcher with a methodology to organise notes taken while reading into a structure of topics and concepts that will eventually contribute into the writing of articles that represent publishable thinking. There is structure in Altick and Fenstermaker's approach: figure 2 shows this process in schematic form. We see the original notes created during the reading of articles and books on the left, these notes contributing thoughts in the mind of the scholar that eventually allows him to create new concepts in the middle (only 2 ""concepts"" are shown here, but a real user would have many more), and (towards the right) these new emerging concepts fitting with references to original sources and supporting an argument for new ideas to be presented through the writing of papers. Note the difference from direct semantic tagging in figure I: the annotations do not link directly to preexisting formal ontological entities, but first appear as informal prose notes that may, as the researcher's understanding grows, contribute to a more formal set of ideas and then emerge as entity-like objects in the form of personally developed new concepts, themes, ideas, etc.


Figure II:
a model of the flow of ideas in traditional scholarship

If we wish to explore how traditional personal scholarship could connect to the formal world of RDF and ontology schemes such as the Open Annotations Collaboration (OAC 2011), we need a model that reflects some of these aspects of the act of doing personal scholarship. The models behind the Pliny project (Bradley 2008 and 2012) fit this bill, since Pliny was launched precisely to explore how computing could facilitate exactly this traditional scholarly practice. Pliny tried to be ""Englebartian""— referring to Douglas Englebart's H-LAM/T paradigm (Englebart 1962) that successful software integrates with the human way of doing intellectual things so well as to almost disappear, and that this disappearing software can, paradoxically, sometimes allow its users to do entirely new things that they had been previously incapable of doing. Out of this work came two models: the interface which developed a particular view of how users might usefully interact with a note-taking and note management tool to help them develop their own interpretation, and the data model that stored the information. Bradley 2008 describes Pliny's user interface in terms of affordances: 2-dimensional space, containment and hierarchy, naming and labelling and multiple reference of notes material in different contexts, including typing of a reference.

It turns out that Pliny's data model, as well as being designed to represent aspects of traditional scholarship in its three phases, is strongly suggestive of RDF and broader ontological technologies. Like RDF, the structure is a network and the links between the network nodes can be typed in a way similar to a RDF predicate. Pliny from its first release had the ability to export its structure into a Topic Web format, and some preliminary work has been done (see Jackson 2010) to map Pliny data into RDF through the OAC ontology. Further work has been carried out by us to take Jackson's approach further and better map an interpretation as stored in Pliny into an RDF representation.

The resulting paradigm is one that, unlike direct semantic annotation (as in figure I), separates the annotation of the domain literature from the highly formal world of shared domain ontologies by injecting a personal interpretative component in-between. One introduces, in ways compatible with semantic web technologies, a personal, more informal, and emerging representation of the scholarship into the picture.


Figure 3:
The place of a structured personal Interpretation

Figure 3 is similar to the direct semantic annotation model shown in figure 1, but adds a structured area, representing aspects of the personal interpretative work of an individual, between a scholar's reading material to the left, and any shared public domain ontologies and linked data to the top right. This interjected personal interpretation ""cloud"" might well never be as clear-cut as formal ontologies must be, but its presence here recognises and enables the process towards formality that is a central part of interpretation in humanities scholarship. By interposing this somewhat-informal semantic ""cloud"" between the texts and the formal ontologies of the semantic web, we see a way of thinking about this central personal interpretive work that fits with the larger, more formal, semantic web picture. Although it would seem that the nature of traditional humanities research does not suit the standard direct semantic annotation model currently active in parts of the Life Sciences, we propose here an approach that, over time, encourages the researcher to turn their clouds of personal interpretation into material that might become more and more compatible with computer ontologies and the semantic web.

This presentation will describe work that was first shown in a preliminary fashion in the NeDiMaH Ontology workshop at DH2012 (Bradley and Pasin 2012), but that has continued since then and reaching a significant stage of development.

References
Altick, R. D., and J. J. Fenstermaker (1992). The Art of Literary Research. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
AO (2012). AO: Annotation-ontology. Website at http://code.google.com/p/annotation-ontology/
Bradley, J. (2008). Thinking about Interpretation: Pliny and Scholarship in the Humanities. Literary and Linguistic Computing. 23(3). 263-79. doi: 10.1093/llc/fqn021. Online at http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/fqn021?ijkey=3UzJDubDB0FRQcR&keytype=ref
Bradley, J. (2012). Beyond Digital Media: Moving beyond a 'media' orientation in the annotation of digital objects. In press at the Digital Humanities Quarterly. A draft (under a different name) of this article is available at http://pliny.cch.kcl.ac.uk/docs/article-2011.pdf
Bradley, J., and M. Pasin (2012). Annotation and Ontology in most Humanities research: accommodating a more informal interpretation context. DH2012 NeDiMaH Ontology Workshop. held 17 July, 2012.
Brockman, W. S., L. Neumann, C. L. Palmer, T. J. Tidline. Council on Library and Information Resources. (2001). Scholarly Work in the Humanities and the Evolving Information Environment. Washington, D. C.: Digital Library Federation, Council on Library and Information Resources. (Online version at http://www.diglib.org/pubs/dlf095/
Englebart, D. (1962). Augmenting Human Intellect: A conceptual framework. Stanford CA: Stanford Research Institute. Online at http://www.bootstrap.org/augdocs/friedewald030402/augmentinghumanintellect/AHI62.pdf (accessed March 2007)
Heath, T., and C. Bizer (2011). Linked Data: Evolving the Web into a Global Data Space. 1st edn. Synthesis Lectures on the Semantic Web: Theory and Technology. 1(1). 1-136. Morgan & Claypool.
Jackson (2010). RDF-encoding Pliny annotations in the Open Annotation Collaboration project. University of Illinois: GSLIS Technical Report #ISRN UIUCLIS--2010/2+OAC.
OAC (2011). Open Annotation Collaboration. Website at http://www.openannotation.org/
OBOFoundary (2012). The Open Biological and Biomedical Ontologies. Website at http://obofoundry.org/.
Palmer, C. L., L. C. Teffeau, and C. M. Pirmann. OCLC Research. (2009). Scholarly Information Practices in the Online Environment: Themes from the Literature and Implications for Library Service Development. Available online at: http://www.oclc.org/research/publications/library/2009/2009-02.pdf (.pdf: 412K/59 pp.).
Pasin, M., and J. Bradley (2012). Factoid-based Prosopography and Computer Ontologies: towards an integrated approach. Draft paper submitted for possible publication. Available online at http://www.michelepasin.org/papers/43/
SWAN (2008). SWAN Project: Semantic Web Applications in Neuromedicine. Website at http://swan.mindinformatics.org/.","txt","2","",""
"1693","14","Expanding the Interpretive and Analytical Possibilities for Understanding Slavery and Emancipation in Washington, DC","2","In 1862 the United States' Congress passed two bills which legislated the liberation of slaves in the District of Columbia, making Washington, DC the first emancipated city in the nation. The inaugural act, passed on April 16, called for the compensated emancipation of all persons ""held to service or labor"" in the District. Provisions of the April act required slave owners to submit written petitions to receive compensation. The second, supplemental act of July 12 allowed slaves who were freed under the April act to file for certificates of freedom on their own behalf if their former masters had not petitioned for compensation. Offering valuable descriptions about the lives of former slaves, the documents filed pursuant to these acts have been the focus of our recent work to examine race, slavery, and emancipation for the digital thematic research collection, Civil War Washington (civilwardc.org; CWW). This poster presentation will summarize the digitization process that brought the petitions to CWW (microfilm digitization, transcription and TEI markup, XSLT transformation, and SOLR search/indexing) and, more importantly, it will demonstrate the compelling work yet to be done with the petitions; specifically, the poster will present a case study of what enriched encoding of the petitions — including encoding of monetary values and person roles — contributes to historical scholarship and to the broader understanding of these documents.

In preparing the petitions for publication, the project team was guided by our scholarly understanding of these documents as well as our desire to make them broadly available to students, scholars, and the general public as soon as possible. Our TEI markup distinguishes between handwritten and printed content, identifies personal and place names, records values for dates, notes instances where petition forms have been left blank, and acknowledges illegible words and characters in the text. In developing our encoding practices, we took a pragmatic approach, balancing the urge to encode all complexities that make the petitions such significant documents, with the utility of presenting complete transcriptions of heretofore largely inaccessible texts. However, a longer term project goal is the addition of more detailed encoding. Therefore, working with a subset of files, we have expanded the encoding as described below. Our poster explains and illustrates this expanded encoding and showcases what such additional encoding enables for both the visual presentation and the computer-assisted analysis of the documents.

The April act required petitioners to declare the monetary value of their claim and provide a justification for this valuation. A special board of commissioners was established to determine how much remuneration slaveholders would receive. The board's decisions are documented in their Final Report on Compensated Emancipation in the District of Columbia (1864). Encoding these monetary values allows us to compare these amounts and enables readers to see the results of the petition in this financial sense: what did a petitioner claim and what did he receive? Similarly, by performing calculations with the encoded figures, we can provide users of the site with the monetary equivalent of each award in today’s dollars. These calculations are performed in the XSLT stylesheet used for transforming the TEI files into HTML. Additionally, this encoding, when taken alongside further encoding of details about each slave, enables drawing correlations between the value assigned to each slave and other features. To be sure, we recognize the complex set of problems raised by highlighting the monetary value of people claimed as property. Our intention is to bring this sensitive issue to the forefront in order to encourage discussion and analysis of the complicated calculus at work in the texts and in American history. We mean for our treatment of the financial aspects of these materials to be thought-provoking, not cold and quantitative.

We have also expanded the encoding of the participant description in the TEI header to include a regularized version of the name of every person who appears in a petition. Our long-term goal is to connect every instance of person names to records in the project database. The expansion of the participant description is an intermediate step toward standardizing person names across and within petitions and making people/social connections across documents. The enriched encoding we have implemented here enhances the interpretive and analytical possibilities for understanding slavery and emancipation in Washington. We encourage others to download our TEI files and add encoding that is relevant to their own research interests. Our poster presentation illustrates some of the possibilities that micro-level encoding offers for the study of complex historical documents.","txt","2","",""
"1694","14","Exploring social tags in a digitized humanities online collection","2","The recent development of Web 2.0 technologies has been implemented in many applications with an emphasis on user contribution, active user participation, and harnessing of collective intelligence. In particular, interest has grown in the use of tagging as tagging allows users to add their own keywords or tags to online documents and images so that they can organize resources for themselves, share them with others, and find resources that others have tagged.

With this trend, libraries, archives, and museums are providing digitized collections of primary resources to support learning, research, and scholarly activities along with social tagging software to collect user’s terms. Digital archival collections and tagging are backbone for the infrastructure of digital humanities as digital archival collections have become vital for scholarly research and teaching in humanities for resources access (Sinn 2012) and as tagging provides users a tool to hold a personal interpretation of resources to make meanings in a personal activity (Golder and Huberman 2006; Trant and Wyman 2006).

While an implementation of tagging has been increased in many digital archival collections, most studies investigated tagging in social networking systems such as Flickr, where broad communities contribute to content for different motivation often based on personal intentions. Few studies have paid attention to the tagging on primary resources from digitized collections for research and educational activities. Research thus is needed to develop a basic understanding of how users tag primary resources, and how tagging may function in digital humanities.

The purpose of this study is to find the value of tags in a digital collection for research and educational activities by investigating the way users describe digital resources in tags. Specific research questions are: What kinds of terms do users assign to primary historical and classical resources as tags? In what ways can tags be used to supplement for retrieval purpose and resource representation? Do tags in digital scholarly collections go beyond content description? How do social tags differ from textual annotation of the object?

The research is an empirical study collecting data to find descriptive evidence of tagging values and tagging behavior of scholars and users in conducting online research in the 19th-century British and American literature of the NINES (the Networked Infrastructure for Nineteenth-Century Electronic Scholarship). NINES is a federated online collection of peer-reviewed digital objects from more than 110 sites where humanities scholars can find and bring together primary sources, images, literary and cultural documents, and literary criticism in the field of 19th-century studies (Earhart 2010).

Tag analysis will be done based on several categories to identify functional and linguistic aspects of tag usage as well as to find the relationship between tags and annotation of the resources. Tags will be analyzed based on syntax and variations in spelling. Tags will be categorized based on subject-related tags describing the content of the resource and resource-related tags referring to the resource itself. The degree of overlap between tags and annotation will be examined. The findings will help understand users’ tagging behavior and resource interpretation in primary and historical resources in humanities.

References
Earhart, A. (2010). Using NINES Collex in the classroom. ProfHacker, the Chronicle of Higher Education Blog, http://chronicle.com/blogs/profhacker/using-nines-collex-in-the-classroom/23829 10 May 2010.
Golder, S. A., and B. A. Huberman (2006). Usage Patterns of Collaborative Tagging Systems.Journal of Information Science, 32(2): 198-208.
Sinn, D. (2012). Impact of digital archival collections on historical research. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 63(8): 1521-1527.
Trant, J., and B. Wyman (2006). Investigating social tagging and folksonomy in art museums with steve.museum, World Wide Web 2006: Tagging Workshop. Edinburgh, Scotland: ACM.","txt","2","",""
"1695","14","Freedom and Flow: A New Approach to Visualizing Poetry","10","Much research in the digital humanities has been data-driven and quantitative, and while these methodologies and projects have led to substantial scholarship and vastly improved access to texts, such approaches can also risk diverting us from established values and concerns within the humanities. Under an international Digging Into Data Challenge grant, our team of computer scientists, a linguist, and poet/scholars from the University of Oxford and the University of Utah have been working to move beyond counting to create, through computation and visualization, a richer understanding of how poems work: one that embraces qualitative as well as quantitative components and that engages the perspectives and research needs specific to the humanities in general and to literature, especially poetry, in particular. This paper will describe the challenges and opportunities presented by such multidisciplinary collaboration, and demonstrate how the new visualization tool we are developing provides literary scholars freedom to explore individual poems and bodies of poetry in ways traditional scholarship and other text analysis software cannot. Specifically, we will show how our new approach, by treating poems as complex dynamic systems, opens new interpretive directions via the metaphor of flow.

Dixon (2012, 200) notes that within digital humanities, ‘researchers often appear to be dragged towards more scientific interpretations and methods,’ observing that reasons for these shifts might arise from researchers’ own inclinations, but also as a result of the very tools often utilized in this new field. Tools not only influence scientific or humanist orientations, however; they can also augment or diminish our understanding of the subjects we study. A quarter century ago, in their seminal book Understanding Computers and Cognition, Winograd and Flores (1986, xi) perceived that ‘in designing tools we are designing ways of being’. And for this reason, scholars like Drucker (2011) and Schmidt (2012) have argued forcefully that humanists should actively participate in software design, bringing our disciplinary perspectives to bear on shaping the digital tools we want to use. In the case of literature, available tools have oversimplified poetry, requiring scholars to contort and contract their scholarship. The closest existing tool to the one we are working on is Myopia, presented by Laura Mandell at last summer’s Digital Humanities conference (Chaturvedi et al. 2012). Myopia deals with more complexity in poetry than other programs, attending to meter, sound, syntax, and other poetic devices like metaphor and personification. However, it does so through coding structures developed for other disciplines, rather than incorporating into its design the disciplinary perspective we seek. Fortunately, the computer scientists in our group have not only been open to the input of the poets, they have persistently sought it, leading the poets to new insights about poetry and language. At the same time, the interests and needs the poets identified have pushed the visualization scientists to make groundbreaking advances in their own field.

Poetry scholars see poems as living and relational. The strong reader produces innovative interpretations even of poems that may already have been subject to many previous interpretations by looking at how language is operating across multiple poetic elements, from rhyme and meter, to the use of such figures as metaphor and metonymy, to tone, to the emotional affect that may inhere in specific words. Though we can list these elements as if they are discrete, of course they are not: the emotional affect of a word will influence the poem’s tone, for example, just as metaphors and sonic features work to create and enhance emotion. To adequately address these various elements, any visualization tool must treat poems as multi-dimensional. They not only exist in space but also exist in and change through time, which operates both forward (left-to-right across the line and down the page) and backward. Though almost every poetic device works in this way, the simplest example of poetry’s double movement through time is end rhyme: if two quatrains of a Shakespearean sonnet rhyme abba/abba, each recurrence of the rhyme once it is established not only moves the reader forward, through anticipation, toward the next occurrence, but also sends the reader backward by evoking all previous occurrences. Such nuanced dynamism presents individual poems as highly complex and uncertain, with each word, each sound, each poetic figure and device relating and responding to one another. It demands that visualizations be time dependent and able to handle various poetic elements not only independently but relationally, something we believe has not been accomplished before.

Our current visualization tool, PoemViewer, focuses on the specific but complex task of tracing the movement of sound through the defined space of almost any poem or poem fragment (Abdul-Rahman et al. 2013). In response to a questionnaire produced by the Oxford team, the poets determined that this single poetic device involves twenty-six distinct variables. As Ware (2012) explains, though, visual design for such high dimensional data is challenging due to limitations of human visual perception and the number of visual channels available. For these reasons, visualizations—excluding approaches like parallel coordinates and scatterplot matrices (Inselberg and Dimsdale 1990; Wilkinson et al. 2005)—typically are constrained to no more than nine dimensions (Kindlmann 2004). PoemViewer encodes twenty-six dimensions using d3.js (Bostock, Ogievetsky & Heer 2011; Bostock 2013), a JavaScript library that utilizes SVG, HTML and CSS for data visualization. PoemViewer is a web-based application that can run on all modern browsers. It uses common existing linguistic models and tools, such as the International Phonetic Alphabet (1999) for classifying sounds, and the CLAWS (UCREL 2013) part-of-speech tagger for morpho-syntactic word classes.

Still, not all poetic features need to be visualized at once. In order to create visualizations relevant to particular interests in a particular poem (and to avoid becoming visually overwhelmed), readers can choose which linguistic variables to view—in isolation or relation—at any given time (see Fig. 1). For instance, our interactive tool can identify assonance (the recurrence of vowel sounds) and consonance (the recurrence of consonant sounds) as they occur within a specific poem in time. But by tracking each phonetic placement as it is formed in the mouth, our software can also reveal how sounds relate to and change each other; it can, for example, reveal modulation between long and short vowels in a poem like Louise Bogan’s “Night” (1968, 130). During our presentation we will share additional images, including more screenshots of the tool and its components (menus, legends, etc.) as well as visualizations it can produce—both of singles poems and in comparing multiple poetic and non-poetic texts. Of specific interest are insights drawn from our tracking of how sounds are formed in the mouth and about how poetry behaves differently from prose in its use of sound.

Among the other breakthroughs we have gained through this work on sound is the development of a powerful metaphor for poetry that will move us forward as we continue our work. Specifically, our work on this tool has led us to think of the poem as a fluid (or fluids) moving via its linguistic elements, devices and figures through a self-defined space. Given that a poem, unlike a fluid, has no material analogue in the world, one of our challenges will involve identifying and digitizing those specific elements of the poem in addition to sound that we believe make it behave metaphorically as a fluid does, with the goal of adding new capabilities to our existing model. Elements that are of particular interest to poetry scholars include, among others, syntax, meter, and figure. Eventually, we expect to extend our original tools to analyze different poetic features as they interact within poems, across bodies of work by individual poets, and finally across large numbers of poems representing different poets in different literary periods. We anticipate applying this software to large poetry corpora to detect formal patterns, and conduct explorations such as, for example, recognizing, examining, and beginning to explain widespread poetic responses to historical events, social phenomena, or technological invention.


Figure 1:
Screenshot of PoemViewer visualization of Night by Louise Bogan © 2013 Alfie Abdul-Rahman, Oxford e-Research Centre

Funding
This work was supported by a Digging Into Data Challenge grant: in the US, by the National Endowment for the Humanities; and in the UK by the Arts and Humanities Research Council, Economic and Social Research Council, and JISC. We would like to acknowledge Min Chen, Christopher Johnson, Eamonn Maguire, and Miriah Meyer for their collaboration on this project.

References
Abdul-Rahman, A., J. Lein, K. Coles, E. Maguire, M. Meyer, M. Wynne, A. Trefethen, C. R. Johnson, and M. Chen (2013). Rule-based Visual Mappings—with a Case Study on Poetry Visualization. Paper conditionally accepted to EuroVis, Leipzig, Germany.
Bogan, L. (1968). “Night” The Blue Estuaries: poems 1923-1968. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.
Bostock, M. (2013). Data-Driven Documents. http://d3js.org/ (accessed 4 February 2013).
Bostock, M., V. Ogievetsky, and J. Heer (2011). 'D3: Data-Driven Documents. Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics'. Proceedings of InfoVis 2011 IEEE, 2301-2309. http://vis.stanford.edu/papers/d3 (accessed 7 January 2013).
Chaturvedi, M., G. Gannod, L. Mandell, H. Armstrong, and E. Hodgson (2012). Myopia: A Visualization Tool in Support of Close Reading. Digital Humanities 2012. University of Hamburg, July 2012. http://lecture2go.uni-hamburg.de/konferenzen/-/k/13930 (accessed 6 September 2012).
Dixon, D. (2012). Analysis Tool or Research Methodology: Is there an Epistemology for Patterns?. In Berry, D. M. (ed). Understanding Digital Humanities. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 191-209.
Drucker, J. (2011). Humanities Approaches to Graphical Display. Digital Humanities Quarterly 5:1 http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/5/1/000091/000091.html (accessed 8 September 2012).
Inselberg, A., and B. Dimsdale (1990). 'Parallel coordinates: A tool for visualizing multi-dimensional geometry'. Proceedings of the 1st Conference on Visualization held in 1990. 361-378.
International Phonetic Association. (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kindlmann, G. (2004). Superquadric tensor glyphs, Proceedings of the 6th Joint Eurographics- IEEE TCVG Conference on Visualization held in 2004. 147-154.
Schmidt, B. (2012). 'Reading Genres: Exploring Massive Digital Collections from the Top Down'. in Big Data and Uncertainty in the Humanities. held at Institute for Digital Research in the Humanities. Lawrence, KS.
UCREL. Claws Part-of-Speech Tagger for English. http://ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/claws/ (accessed 7 January 2013).
Ware, C. (2012). Information Visualization, 3rd edn. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann.
Winograd, T., and F. Flores (1986). Understanding Computers and Cognition: A New Foundation for Design. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.","txt","2","",""
"1696","14","Extraction and Analysis of Character Interaction Networks From Plays and Movies","10","1. Introduction
Due to recent efforts to digitize literary works, researchers have been able to perform meaningful large-scale analyses of millions of texts and reach meaningful conclusions about literature, language, and culture using statistical analysis. This approach is powerful, but frequently ignores subtleties in literary works, reducing complex texts to bags of words. Literary theorists take a different approach, performing in-depth qualitative studies examining plot intricacies and character interactions. Unfortunately, such deep analysis does not scale well due to human time constraints.

In our project we combine these two approaches to literary analysis, allowing us to benefit from the advantages of both. More specifically, we develop and apply methods for automatically extracting character interaction networks from works of entertainment and use properties of the resulting networks to draw conclusions about these works.

There are three main components:

(1) Extracting character interaction networks as weighted graphs, with characters as nodes and interaction scores as edges
(2) Computing informative properties (e.g., clustering coefficient) of the resulting networks
(3) Using those properties to answer broad questions about the works (e.g., whether different media types are characterized by distinctive interaction networks) by constructing machine learning classifiers.
2. Related work
As mentioned earlier, most computational literary analysis has been at the word level. There are, however, several exceptions. Most notably, Elson et al. (Elson et al. 2010) effectively utilized dialogue interactions in sixty 19th century literary works to form social networks and make interesting discoveries about a particular genre. Other researchers used network theory to analyze small groups of texts, such as Hamlet (Moretti 2011), Greek tragedies (Rydberg-Cox 2011), Shakespeare (Stiller and Hudson 2011), and Marvel comics (Alberich et al. 2002). These studies were all relatively narrow in focus, leading to valuable discoveries about a small number of texts. More recently, C.-Y. Weng et al. (Weng et al. 2009) proposed a network extraction method for movies and T.V. shows based on co-occurrence, successfully identifying lead roles and other attributes for several movies.

Overall, previous work primarily focused on using character interaction networks to improve understanding of individual texts or movies. We feel humans already do a very good job—better than computers—of analyzing small collections of works; our main limitation is insufficient brainpower to simultaneously analyze and compare hundreds or thousands of works. As such, we are interested in conducting a large-scale study of character interaction networks for diverse works of entertainment. Our goal is not to examine literature from a specific time period or a particular film’s plot, but rather to discover sweeping trends in literature and movies across genres and over time.

3. Methodology
3.1 Building Networks
We focused on play and movie scripts because their structured format is well suited for systematically detecting interactions between characters. We obtained scripts and relevant metadata from a variety of sources (Internet Movie Script Database (2011); Project Gutenberg (2011); The Complete Works of Shakespeare (2011); EOneill.com EText Archive (1999); Read Plays Online-Read Print (2011); The EServer Drama Collection (2011); Rotten Tomatoes (2011); Robnik-Sikonja and Kononenko (1997), automating the process with Python scripts. For consistency, we then converted all data into a standardized intermediate format using more regular expressions, and a blacklist of non-verbal action commands (e.g. “fade in”). In total, we extracted 173 plays and 580 movie scripts.

We experimented with four extraction algorithms for constructing character interaction networks. Our first approach, used by Weng et al. (Weng et al. 2009), defined the interaction score for two characters as the number of scenes in which both appear. Our second algorithm extended this concept, incorporating the number of lines spoken in each scene. Unfortunately, many scripts had long scenes, resulting in falsely high interaction scores between two characters in different parts of the same scene.

We then used what we call the Closeness approach to consider an interaction to have occurred between two characters only when they have spoken nearby lines in the same scene, increasing their scores by an amount linearly decreasing with increased distance. Our fourth and final algorithm weights interactions by the total number of words exchanged.

3.2 Property Calculation
For each character interaction network, we computed the following network properties, which represent different concepts in literary works:

Average clustering coefficient: how much groups of characters tend to cluster together
Single character and relationship centrality: how much the work focuses on a single character above all others
Single relationship centrality: how much the work focuses on a single relationship between characters above all others
Top character weight variance: whether the group has a large group of similarly prominent characters or a few main characters and many less important roles
Top relationship strength variance: whether relationships are emphasized roughly equally, or if there is an emphasis on a select few
Entropy of node degrees and edge weights: an alternate approach to quantifying the spread in the distribution of character and relationship importance
Mean and variance of top character relationship strengths: whether the work has one or several main storylines
Percentage of existing edges: an alternate approach to determining number of storylines
Betweenness centrality — maximum, difference, and entropy: another alternate method of determining the relative importance of main characters
Number of characters: used as a final feature in our classifiers
3.3 Classification
We used our network properties as features in binary classifiers for various media aspects:

Media type: plays or movies
Date of movie: before or after 2000
Date of play: before or after 1800
MPAA rating
Audience and critic ratings
Single genre (e.g. romance or not)
Between genres (e.g. romance or horror)
Author (e.g. Shakespeare or George Bernard Shaw)
We experimented with logistic regression classifiers and decision trees, because these classifier types easily allowed us to understand how features were being used to arrive at predictions. We used the Orange library for Python, normalized our features, used k-fold cross validation to test our classifiers, and used the Relief algorithm [14] for top feature selection.

Because two classification classes did not always have the same number of examples, classification accuracies were sometimes misleadingly high even for poor classifiers. Thus we used area under the curve (AUC) as our primary performance metric.

4. Results
We found logistic regression to have higher AUC’s for 26 of our 35 classification tasks. Of the remaining 9 tasks, 8 performed relatively poorly on both classifiers (AUC < 0.65). Decision trees had consistently high AUC’s (0.8-0.9) on training data, suggesting overfitting despite our parameter selection efforts. The logistic regression classifiers did not suffer from this problem, so we focused on logistic regression results and used decision trees as means of gaining intuition for the role of certain features in the classification step.



Table 1: Logistic regression classifier AUCs for various classification tasks



Table 2: Logistic regression classifier AUCs for genre-related classification tasks

Our results are shown in the above tables. Dashes indicate insufficient data for proper classification.

5. Analysis
5.1 Media type classifier
We were very successful in classifying plays versus movies. We found that plays are characterized by high top character relationships, high single character centrality, and low top character weight variance relative to movies, suggesting that plays tend to have a clear-cut main character with several important supporting characters that interact primarily with the main character. A classic example is Hamlet, as can be observed by its interaction graph:


Results for movies suggest they tend to have several main characters, as in Charlie’s Angels:


5.2 Play date classifier
Important features from our pre or post 1800 play classifier, which also performed well, suggest older plays had more disjoint groups of characters and more distinct plotlines than newer ones. Misclassifications such as Shakespeare’s The Tempest (set on an island where most characters interact with each other), which was misclassified as new, corroborated our hypothesis.

5.3 Movie date classifier
Our movie date classifiers performed poorly. We think this may be due to insufficient data, or no marked difference in interaction patterns between old and new films.

5.4 MPAA and rating classifiers
These classifiers performed poorly, aligning with our expectations because there is a great diversity in the types of movies (and their interaction networks) that are enjoyed by audiences, praised by critics, or given a certain MPAA rating.

5.5 Genre classifiers
Overall, our classifier analysis confirms several common assumptions about genre stereotypes and assumptions. For example, “horror” classifiers performed particularly well, and were often characterized by high average top character relationship strength. This implies that most horror movies have one simple storyline, which is the stereotype.

As another example, romance and comedy proved far too similar to be successfully classified. Upon further reflection, character interaction networks for romances and comedies would be similar; comedies such as Harold and Kumar feature a dynamic duo that interacts much as love interests in a romance would.

5.6 Play author classifiers
Our classifiers achieved rather high AUC’s, and an analysis of the decision trees shows that one of Shakespeare’s defining characteristics is a large spread in the importance of main characters:


6. Conclusion
In this project, we developed a network extraction and classification strategy that sheds light on characteristics that define movies and plays. We automated a literary scholar’s general approach to extracting meaning from movies and plays, leading us to valuable insights about large numbers of works. It is our hope that scriptwriters will be able to use these insights to increase the breadth and diversity of character interactions and counter our generalizations with unique works of entertainment!

References
Elson, D., N. Dames, and K. McKeown (2010). Extracting Social Networks from Literary Fiction. In Proc. 48th Annual Meeting for the Association for Computational Linguistics, 138-147.
Moretti, F. (2011). Network Theory, Plot Analysis. New Left Review 68.
Rydberg-Cox, J. (2011). Social Networks and the Language of Greek Tragedy. Journal of the Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science 1.
Stiller, J., and M. Hudson (2005). Weak Links and Scene Cliques within the Small World of Shakespeare. Journal of Cultural and Evolutionary Psychology 3.
Alberich, R., J. Miro-Julia, and F. Rossello (2002). Marvel Universe looks almost like a real social network. e-print arXiv:cond-mat/0202174
Weng, C.-Y., W.-T. Chu, and J.-L. Wu (2009). RoleNet: Movie Analysis from the Perspective of Social Networks. IEEE Transactions on Multimedia 11.
The Internet Movie Script Database (2011). IMSDb. http://www.imsdb.com/.
Project Gutenberg (2011). Project Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/.
The Complete Works of Shakespeare (2011). MIT. http://shakespeare.mit.edu/.
EOneill.com EText Archive (1999). EOneill. http://www.eoneill.com/texts/index.htm.
Read Plays Online-Read Print Read Print Library (2011). http://www.readprint.com/.
The EServer Drama Collection EServer (2011). http://drama.eserver.org/plays/.
Rotten Tomatoes Flixster, Inc. (2011). http://www.rottentomatoes.com/.
Robnik-Sikonja, M., and I. Kononenko (1997). An adaptation of relief for attribute estimation in regression. In Proc. 14th ICML. 296-304.","txt","2","",""
"1697","14","Solitary Mind, Collaborative Mind: Close Reading and Interdisciplinary Research","9","We have discussed in some detail elsewhere, including in a longer paper at this conference, our ongoing development of software that visualizes poems as complex dynamic systems (Abdul-Rahman, et al. 2013a; Abdul-Rahman, et al. 2013b). In this presentation, we will discuss how working within this interdisciplinary context, which forced us to think about how poems work both as large, complex systems and on their most granular levels, has already led us to new insights about poetry, its features, and its operations. Our focus here will be not on the technology itself, nor on the literary perspectives we have been bringing to bear in its design. Rather, we will discuss how working collaboratively with visualization scientists, whose research practices and values could not be more different from our own, has caused us to imagine poems differently, and on how this adjustment in our thinking, which would not otherwise have happened, has in itself, independently of the technology, led us to new insights about poetry. Interdisciplinary dialogues are also revising our ideas about broader subjects like aesthetics and information as well as the specific ways our different fields perceive them acting on each other. For this reason, we argue, collaboration across the boundaries of very different disciplines has its own inherent value, even to a discipline like ours in which writing, reading, and the ‘freedom to explore’ has most traditionally been associated with solitude.
Even as interest in distant reading (Moretti 2007) rises in the digital humanities, close reading remains central to the practices at the heart of literary scholarship. As helpful as it can be in opening new directions of criticism, distant reading — with its reliance on abstract models based on data mining and quantification — removes human readers from the center of the reading process, bringing them in after the ‘reading’ phase is finished to interpret not texts but data. Thus, these approaches fail to support the most important practice in the study of poetry, which is valued precisely because of its experiential richness. In contrast, close readers engage texts directly, intimately and in detail; they trace the finest interactions among such literary features as rhyme and meter, sound, figures, and syntax, noting how even the subtlest movements and operations (a comma, a repeated vowel, etc.) influence a reader’s interpretation(s) and experience(s) of a particular poem. While the words in a given poem in a given version remain the same, different skilled readers will interact with those words in different ways by choosing moment by moment what to engage and what to ignore. Thus, there is no single ‘correct’ solution to any close reading problem, though there may be many incorrect solutions. A reader’s choices are led both by what is happening on the page and by the reader’s preferences and interests. Close reading, as both expression and experience, thus manifests interactions between poems and human minds.
While close reading is sometimes positioned as belonging to the set of practices not amenable to digitization, we have found in our own work and in a review of the work of others that this is not necessarily the case. In fact, there is no shortage of software designed and applied with the intention to aid close reading practice, whether or not it is yet effective in doing so (Chaturvedi 2011; Chaturvedi, et al., 2012; Clement 2012; Plamondon 2006; Ruecker, et al., 2008; Unsworth and Mueller 2009). This abundance indicates, in our view, an urgent desire in the literary community to embrace and explore the power of computation while at the same time prioritizing and protecting the relationship between literature and human readers. As we explain in our longer paper, one distinguishing feature of our project is the strong emphasis we are placing on poetry’s experiential quality, which we locate in its radical multidimensionality — especially its relationship to time. But we are also, through our interdisciplinary discussions, endeavoring to theorize how to position data visualization and computers as potential — and potentially potent—tools to aid close reading.
Our goal of using visualization to heighten poetic experience has been challenging to describe, understand, and pursue for all the members of our team. In fact, we have struggled to integrate into this overarching objective two distinct and not always obviously compatible elements: intensified aesthetic experience and revelation of new information. Early in our research, we looked to music visualizations for possible analogies that might inform our work. But sometimes impassioned discussions have shown us, for instance, that while visualizers like MilkDrop (Geiss 2012) and the ‘visual music’ of multimedia artists Abstract Birds (2012) may enhance aesthetic pleasure by combining visual and aural elements, they do not necessarily lead viewers to new intellectual perceptions about the music. The computer scientists in our group prioritize information clarity and communication through timesaving tools and techniques. Accustomed to collaborating with biologists, engineers, physicists and physicians to visualize phenomena like combustion, the brain and its electrical impulses, magnetic fields, etc., they have emphasized that their work is more than ‘just pretty pictures.’ At the same time, we poets have consistently defended the aesthetic as meaningful: in poet Robert Creeley’s words, ""FORM IS […] AN EXTENSION OF CONTENT"" (Olson 1966, p. 16, emphasis original). More is at stake than superficial display, we have argued; especially when visualizing aesthetic objects, events, or systems (like poetry), aesthetic choices are necessarily core design considerations. The aesthetics of individual visualizations should somehow reflect the uniqueness of individual poems.
Similarly, our visualization scientist colleagues are used to identifying specific problems to solve, data to isolate, hypotheses to test: explicit aims that help them define programming strategies and evaluation techniques for very complicated software. Our stance on verifiability and accuracy is more ambivalent and ambiguous. Initially we resisted the very idea of literary hypotheses-making and testing, until we saw it as describing the many questions and choices a close reader constantly makes on the fly in her encounter with a poem. We continue to contemplate what ‘poetic data’ might mean, and what its relationship to literary forms and devices like lineation and metaphor might be. Even in our initial focus on poetic sound, the issue of accuracy has proven difficult to treat. How should we mathematically define rhyme? What constitutes the smallest measurable repeating sonic cluster? Of course we want our program to be able to correctly identify single repeating phonemes to show assonance and consonance. But accuracy becomes categorically more uncertain and tenuous as soon as we move beyond single phonemes. Should only full end rhymes qualify as rhymes? What about internal rhymes? Slant rhymes? As we build this software in hopes of its being useful for as many readers as possible, we want to consider not only how we, but how others whose literary perspectives differ from our own, might answer such questions. We want our software to allow individual reader-users to choose how to define some of these parameters in order to best support their unique close readings.
In our program, then, visualizations are not authoritative arbiters to reduce poetic complexity, give definitive answers, or merely save time; rather, they are aesthetic agents, using visual constructs and perception to reveal poetic features, patterns, and qualities readers might not otherwise have noticed by prompting them toward fresh experiences, insights, and questions. Thus, the visualizations do not replace close reading; they suggest rich avenues for initial and subsequent explorations, cuing the reader into which operations of the poem may merit further investigation. This orientation has also encouraged us to consider how the human-computer interaction developing through this software may prove more nuanced than the word ‘tool’ superficially suggests. It has provoked us to ask whether and in what sense the computer generating these visualizations might fruitfully be considered a fellow literary entity and even collaborator in the close reading process—questions we have differed on, as we will explain in our presentation.
Given our usual scholarly practices — based in the essentially experiential and qualitative nature of poetry, not to mention in the space of determined solitude where poetry is usually experienced—we were not natural targets for a project in visualizing poetry or even for a project that is highly collaborative. Of course we recognize that collaboration can generate programs and poems that otherwise would not have been possible. And this interdisciplinary project is indeed accomplishing those results. But it is also challenging us to examine fundamental issues, including our expectations and understanding of collaboration itself. We were brought into the project by our collaborators’ commitment to respond to our existing values and practices. Among the surprises for us has been the usefulness of collaboration itself to the practices and priorities we already embrace. At the same time, when one of the computer scientists in our group recently invoked Gregory Bateson’s notion of information as ‘the difference which makes a difference,’ (1972, p. 453, emphasis original) we recognized it as an apt description of our interdisciplinary research: exploring our various differences is not only leading us to new territory, it is helping us see familiar ground anew.
Funding
This work was supported by a Digging Into Data Challenge grant: in the US, by the National Endowment for the Humanities; and in the UK by the Arts and Humanities Research Council, Economic and Social Research Council, and JISC. We would also like to acknowledge and thank our collaborators: Alfie Abdul-Rahman, Min Chen, Christopher Johnson, Eamonn Maguire, Miriah Meyer, and Martin Wynne.
References
Abdul-Rahman, A., K. Coles, J. Lein, and M. Wynne (2013a). Freedom and Flow: A New Approach to Visualizing Poetry. Paper to be presented at Digital Humanities 2013, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. July 2013.
Abdul-Rahman, A., J. Lein, K. Coles, E. Maguire, M. Meyer, M. Wynne, A. E. Trefethen, C. Johnson, and M. Chen (2013). Rule-based Visual Mappings — with a Case Study on Poetry Visualization. Paper conditionally accepted to EuroVis, Leipzig, Germany.
Abstract Birds. (2012). http://www.abstractbirds.com (accessed 19 February 2013).
Bateson, G. (1972). Form, Substance, and Difference. In Steps to an Ecology of Mind. New York: Ballantine.
Chaturvedi, M. (2011). Visualization of TEI Encoded Texts in Support of Close Reading. M.S. thesis. Ohio: Miami University of Ohio. http://etd.ohiolink.edu/sendpdf.cgi/Chaturvedi%20Manish.pdf?miami1323623830 (accessed 6 September 2012).
Chaturvedi, M., G. Gannod, L. Mandell, H. Armstrong, and E. Hodgson (2012). Myopia: A Visualization Tool in Support of Close Reading. Digital Humanities 2012. held July 2012 at University of Hamburg.http://lecture2go.uni-hamburg.de/konferenzen/-/k/13930(accessed 6 September 2012).
Clement, T. (2012). Methodologies in the Digital Humanities for Analyzing Aural Patterns in Texts. Proceedings of the 2012 iConference. Toronto, Canada, February 2012. ACM Digital Library: http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2132213(accessed 6 September 2012).
Geiss, R. (2012). MilkDrop. http://www.geisswerks.com/milkdrop/ (accessed 19 February 2013).
Moretti, F. (2007). Maps, Graphs, and Trees: Abstract Models for Literary History. London: Verso.
Plamondon, M. (2006). Virtual Verse Analysis: Analysing Patterns in Poetry. Literary and Linguistic Computing.21(Suppl), 127-141. http://llc.oxfordjournals.org (accessed 3 December 2012).
Ruecker, S., M. Radzikowska, P. Michura, C. Fiorentino, and T. Clement. (2008). Visualizing Repetition in Text.CHWP A.46 http://projects.chass.utoronto.ca/chwp/CHC2007/Ruecker_etal/Ruecker_etal.htm (accessed 6 September 2012).
Unsworth, J., and M. Mueller. (2009). The MONK Project Final Report.http://www.monkproject.org/MONKProjectFinalReport.pdf (accessed 6 September 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1698","14","The German Language of the Year 1933. Building a Diachronic Text Corpus for Historical German Language Studies.","9","In the following paper a new research project undertaken within the framework of the AAC–Austrian Academy Corpus operated by the Institute for Corpus Linguistics and Text Technology at the Austrian Academy of Sciences in Vienna will be presented. The topic of this research project is focused on the questions of developing a diachronic text corpus of historical significance and establishing a corpus based research environment for language studies of the interwar period with particular emphasis on the year 1933, the year when the Nazis came to power in Germany. In the presentation of this project an overview of the necessary methodological considerations and an outline of the research perspectives based upon the principles of corpus linguistics will be given. Corpus-based approaches for analyzing the language of the historical periods before, during and after National-Socialism have been rare, despite the numerous works in the fields of historical studies as well as in German language studies. A research group of the corpus research framework of the AAC has decided to start a special investigation into this challenging question.

The AAC is an established German language text corpus of more than 500 million tokens and represents a considerably large diachronic digital text corpus comprising several thousands of German language texts of important historical and cultural significance. The core of the AAC is from the first half of the twentieth century, so that the research issue of an analysis of the German language of 1933 is not only highly appropriate, but can be addressed on a comprehensive basis. Among the sources of the AAC a large number of texts of the historical period in question have already been collected, digitized, converted into machine-readable text and fully annotated as well as been provided with metadata. Structural and thematic mark-up has been applied according to annotation and mark-up schemes based upon XML related standards. The AAC has been committed to the research field of text technology since its official foundation in 2001.

Building a diachronic digital text corpus for historical German language studies of this particular kind is a particularly challenging task for various reasons. First, the technical difficulties of corpus building in dealing with a large historical variety of different text types and genres have to be taken into consideration. Second, the specific historical parameters and the methodological scope of such an investigation has to be taken into account. The German language of the year 1933 is being considered as a historical focal point for which an exemplary corpus-based research methodology for the study of the German language could be developed. The sources of a first exemplary study will cover manifold domains and genres, not only newspapers and political journals and magazines, which will be at the core, but also several other text types representing the historical communicative strategies will be included. Among them are pamphlets, flyers, advertisements, radio programs, political speeches, but also essays and literary texts as well as administrative, scientific or legal texts, just to name a few examples, which are all difficult to collect. The AAC has started to build up a small collection of ephemera in this field.

In the overall project a special emphasis will be given to the ""Dritte Walpurgisnacht"" (Third Walpurgis Night), written by the satirist Karl Kraus, which will be taken (in digital format), among other sources, as a starting point for text selection for the corpus. This text is the most important contemporary text of German literature dealing with National Socialism. In the ""Third Walpurgis Night"" Karl Kraus has documented the murderous reality of the Nazi regime as early as May 1933 and documented and commented upon the murderous language of that time in numerous examples. Because of this text no one can claim not to have been able to know from the very start where Nazi rule would lead. However, Karl Kraus, the editor and author of his journal ""Die Fackel"" (The Torch), who died in 1936, did not publish his text, a text which begins with the famous line ""Mir fällt zu Hitler nichts ein"", because in the face of violence the deed of the word was considered inappropriate by him.

The historical period covered by the AAC is ranging from the 1848 revolution to the fall of the iron curtain in 1989. In this period significant historical changes with remarkable influences on the language and the language use in the German speaking areas can be observed. The year 1933 and the years preceding as well as following the ""Machtergreifung"" (seizure of power) of the National socialists is a historical period of particular interest for language studies. In this case not primarily the well-known documents and the evident language of the Nazis will be included in the analysis, but systematically the less easily visible documents and less significant lexical items will be taken into consideration as well. This methodological approach is considered as particularly fruitful by means of applying methods of corpus linguistics and by testing new strategies of the application of these methods in the context of historical language studies. For this historical period the AAC corpus holdings provide a great number of reliable resources and interesting corpus based approaches for investigations into the linguistic and textual properties of the texts in question. The digital text is going to be enriched by additional data and will be lemmatized and provided with POS data thereby making use of the tag set for this purpose of the STTS (Stuttgart-Tübingen Tagset). ""Quantitative corpus linguistics has proofed to be a valuable technique in many domains of philological, sociological and historical research. The digitized and linguistically annotated corpus is therefore an interesting source for studies in many fields and facilitates the investigation of changing patterns of language use, and how these reflect underlying cultural shifts."" (M. Volk). The question is, whether corpus research methods based upon a multidisciplinary combination of corpus linguistics, lexicography, historical studies and cultural studies can be applied in order to gain insights into the textual representations of historical collections of this importance.

The AAC research group will go beyond a quantitative approach and integrate text studies into its research of the German language of 1933. The methodology of corpus based text research is determined by corpus linguistic, lexicographic and analytical procedures. The historical condition of Germany and Austria with their cultural and linguistic diversities and in particular the situation at the time of National Socialism have to be taken into consideration as historical changes with significant influences on the language. In contrast to other corpus-oriented projects, the working group proceeds from literary studies and text lexicographic premises. Corpus research and the creation of large electronic text collections have traditionally been the domain of corpus linguists. Literary digitization initiatives were quite often restricted to particular writers and many of these projects did neither produce large amounts of data nor pursue research on methods of how to tackle the problems involved in working with such data. Our perspectives parallel those formulated in the European project CLARIN which has been set up to ""create, coordinate and make lan-guage resources and technology available and readily usable"" (Call for Proposal), in this case also for text historians and for those interested in ideologically determined language change.

The AAC has already developed methods and tools to allow scholars to access these texts and other comparable resources. For this purpose the tools provided in order to access the corpus holdings will enable the researcher to input queries and to get a display of the results in forms provided with the necessary metadata such as information on sources, authors, date of publication etc., and with a display of the related pages of the results as digital text, also allowing access to the XML source of the texts and to define custom style sheets, alongside a feature to view facsimiles of the texts offering simultaneous access to text and facsimiles of pages. In addition to that a sophisticated navigational control tool will be provided, offering random access to the variety of different documents, journals, books, etc. to do linguistic, literary or historical research. Access to the text corpus will be given not only through query result lists but also through a structuring tool, which allows readers to navigate to any desired part of the corpus and results of queries are delivered by the server in XML format which makes it fairly easy to adjust the representation of the output, where XSLT style sheets can be used. Using such style sheet transformations also allows creating statistical analyses of the data. And it has been pointed out before (Smith, 2008) that available standard tools provide only limited support when processing query results. Building a diachronic digital text corpus for historical German language studies of this particular kind is a particularly challenging task which demands also the development of new tools and new approaches of text technology. This special research environment would be especially useful for corpus-based analyses of the language of critical historical periods such as the case of the German language in the year 1933.

References
AAC — Austrian Academy Corpus: AAC-FACKEL. Online Version: «Die Fackel. Herausgeber: Karl Kraus, Wien 1899-1936». In Biber, H., E. Breiteneder, H. Kabas, Mörth, K. AAC Digital Edition No 1. http://www.aac.ac.at/fackel
Biber, H. Aufbruch der Phrase zur Tat. Kommunikationsmaßnahmen und sprachliche Formungen der nationalsozialistischen Machtübernahme in Österreich 1938. In: Welzig, W., H. Biber, und C. Resch. Anschluss. März/April 1938 in Österreich. Wien, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 2010, S. 15-37
Bubenhofer, N. et al. (2007). XML-Technologien als Grundlage dynamischer Textpräsentation. Die digitale Quellenedition Der Zürcher Sommer 1968. Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie 9 89-110.
Mörth, K. (2000). The representation of literary texts by means of XML: some experiences of doing markup in historical magazines. In Fraser, M., Williamson, N., and Deegan M. (eds), Digital Evidence. 2002. Selected papers from DRH 2000, Digital Resources for the Humanities Conference. Office for Humanities Communication 14, 17-32.
Roth, T. (2009). Verteilte Korpusabfragesysteme. Proceedings in Language and Text Corpus. Design and Linguistic. Corpus Analysis.
Smith, N. et al. (2008). Corpus Tools and Methods. Today and Tomorrow: Incorporating Linguists' Manual Annotations. LLC. 23 163-180.
Volk, M. et al. (2010). Challenges in building a multilingual alpine heritage corpus, In: LREC Proceedings.","txt","2","",""
"1699","14","Great Parchment Book project","2","Project outline
The Great Parchment Book of the Honourable The Irish Society is a major survey, compiled in 1639 by a Commission instituted by Charles I, of all the estates in Derry, Northern Ireland, managed by the City of London through the Irish Society and the London livery companies. Damaged in a fire at London’s Guildhall in 1786, it has been unavailable to researchers for over 200 years (Moody 1939; Curl 2000). The damaged manuscript has however remained part of the City of London’s collections held at London Metropolitan Archives (LMA). As part of the commemoration of the 400th anniversary of the building of Derry’s city walls in 1613, it was decided to attempt to make the document available as a central point of the planned exhibition. The book represents an important source for the City’s role in the colonisation and administration of Ulster and, given the relative paucity of archival records for early modern Ireland, the manuscript should also reveal key data about landholding and population in 17th-century Ulster.

This ambitious project has attracted support from several funders, including the UK’s National Manuscripts Conservation Trust, the Marc Fitch Fund, the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), a number of London livery companies and the Irish Society itself. University College London (UCL), Derry Heritage and Museums Service (DHMS), and LMA have also provided funds and staff time.

Physical description and conservation issues
The manuscript consists of 165 separate parchment membranes, all damaged in the fire. Uneven shrinkage and distortion has rendered much of the text illegible.

Traditional conservation alone would not produce sufficient results to make the manuscript accessible or suitable for exhibition, the parchment being too shrivelled to be returned to a readable state. Much of the text is visible but distorted; following discussions with conservation and imaging experts, it was decided to flatten the parchment sheets as far as possible, and to use multi-modal digital imaging to gain legibility and enable digital access.

The project
A partnership with the Department of Computer Science and the Centre for Digital Humanities at UCL established a four year EngD in the Virtual Environments, Imaging and Visualisation programme in September 2010 (jointly funded by the EPSRC and LMA) with the intention of developing software that will enable the manipulation (including virtual stretching and alignment) of digital images of the book rather than the object itself. The aim is to make the distorted text legible, and ideally to reconstitute the manuscript digitally.

Conservation work on the membranes encompassed cleaning, humidification, and tension drying, using magnets placed on top of the parchment above a metal sheet to hold creases open during the drying process. This opened out areas of parchment where the camera could not reach the text (De Stefani 2012).

The practical conservation of the membranes was the essential first step, followed by the imaging work being carried out by UCL, where a set of typically 50-60 22MP images is captured for each page and used to generate a 3D model containing 100-170MP, which allows viewing at archival resolution. These models can be flattened and browsed virtually, allowing the contents of the book to be accessed more easily and without further handling the document. A readable and exploitable version of the text is also being prepared, comprising a searchable transcription and glossary of the manuscript. This element of the project has received a grant from the Marc Fitch Fund towards the employment of a palaeographer who is also encoding appropriate terms using TEI to capture structural and semantic information about the texts enabling comprehensive searching of the document.

The transcript and images of the document will be published online. We are currently working with web-designers Headscape to develop a website to enable sophisticated online presentation and searching of the document contents.

From 2013, both DHMS and LMA plan to use the document in their interpretation and outreach programmes, developing resources for schools and colleges based on the information it contains. There is also considerable interest from academics, including the University of Ulster. Our work on the computational approach to model, stretch, and read the damaged parchment will be applicable to similarly damaged material as we believe we are developing best practice computational approaches to digitising highly distorted, fire-damaged, historical documents.

Summary
The digital imaging and transcription will provide a lasting resource for historians researching the Plantation of Ulster in local, national and international contexts. The progress of the project is being recorded on a blog (LMA 2012).

References
Curl, J. S. (2000). The Honourable the Irish Society and the Plantation of Ulster, 1608-2000: the City of London and the colonisation of County Londonderry in the Province of Ulster in Ireland: a history and critique. Chichester, West Sussex: Phillimore.
De Stefani, C. (2012). Conservation of the Great Parchment Book. Presentation held at ARA Annual Conference 2012, Brighton August 29-31.
London Metropolitan Archives (2012). The Great Parchment Book: Conserving, Digitally Reconstructing, Transcribing, and Publishing the Manuscript Known as the Great Parchment Book. http://greatparchmentbook.wordpress.com (accessed 1 November 2012).
Moody, T. W. (1939). The Londonderry Plantation, 1609-41: the City of London and the Plantation in Ulster. Belfast: W. Mullan and son.","txt","2","",""
"1700","14","Uncovering Reprinting Networks in Nineteenth-Century American Newspapers","10","Our paper describes Uncovering Reprinting Networks in Nineteenth-Century American Newspapers, a project to develop theoretical models to help scholars better understand what qualities—both textual and thematic—helped particular news stories, short fiction, and poetry “go viral” in nineteenth-century newspapers and magazines. Prior to copyright legislation and enforcement, literary texts as well as other non-fiction prose texts circulated promiscuously among newspapers as editors freely reprinted materials borrowed from other venues. What texts were reprinted and why? How did ideas—literary, political, scientific, economic—circulate in the public sphere and achieve critical force among audiences? By employing and developing computational linguistics tools to analyze the large textual databases of nineteenth-century newspapers newly available to scholars, this project will generate new knowledge of the nineteenth-century print public sphere.
Although digital databases of nineteenth-century U.S. newspapers are currently keyword searchable, such searches do not allow one to discover frequently reprinted texts of which one is not already aware. To find reprinted texts with currently available online tools, a scholar must first know that a text was reprinted, and then laboriously search for witnesses using a battery of search terms across a range of nineteenth-century periodicals archives. Scholars can easily find more witnesses of texts they already know were popular during the nineteenth-century, but the vast majority of viral texts, since lost to scholarship, remain undiscovered, buried amid millions of scanned pages. This limitation is especially dangerous because it tends to reinforce a scholar’s existing suppositions—on, say, the dominance of a text that is canonical today—while leaving undiscovered the more popular text that is no longer on our radar and that might reveal to us precisely what we have failed to understand about popular opinion, reading habits, and public debate in the period. In other words, the sheer time it takes to trawl through digital archives can reify ideas of canonicity rather than expand our ideas about which texts should be central to academic inquiry.
Our paper will describe how we seek to redress the limitations of keyword searching to uncover previously-lost reprinted texts. We are developing models and algorithms to compare repetitions of words and n-grams (contiguous sequences of n words) between documents in a large corpus. We employ space-efficient n-gram indexing techniques to identify candidate newspaper issues and then exploit local models of alignment (in contrast to whole-sequence models used in much duplicate detection work) to identify the boundaries of reprinted passages, which are not known a priori. Probabilistic alignment techniques also provide greater robustness in the presence of optical character recognition errors. We then group pairs of matching passages into larger clusters of text reuse. This all-to-all comparison automatically uncovers duplicated passages: both shorter quotations and fully reprinted texts.
We have already seen significant success applying these techniques to the Library of Congress’ Chronicling America archive (http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/). In our initial tests, the archive yielded tens of thousands of potential reprinted texts among its publications. Most of these discovered texts are unfamiliar to us, indicating that the archive does include many, many popular texts that have been for years outside the purview of period scholars. This early success points to enormous potential for the project for scholars both in the digital humanities and nineteenth-century American studies. This project also capitalizes on the Library of Congress’ investment in creating an open, accessible record of American print culture, using the data it compiled to develop new knowledge about an important moment in both print and national history. Once honed, these approaches also could be applied to other digitized sources—e.g., materials from the American Memory and Internet Archive magazine and book collections—to uncover patterns of textual reuse and reappropriation in other periods and places.
Our paper will also describe new models we are developing to characterize reprinted texts using both internal and external evidence. We augment models of the linguistic features of reprinted texts with features of the political, social, religious, and geographic affinities of the venues where they appeared, and evaluate the effectiveness of both these components by manually annotating collections of reprinted texts. Using GIS, for instance, we have begun to map our discovered print histories onto historical spatial and social data in order to outline the communities through which particular texts traveled. Historical census data can illuminate who may have read any given publication based on where it was reprinted. By analyzing community data around reprinted texts, we are testing what social variables may have affected textual virality during the antebellum period.
Our ultimate goal for Uncovering Reprinting Networks is to construct models to describe nineteenth-century virality: what textual, social, or other factors contributed to the success of a text in the antebellum newspaper, magazine, or book? By recovering a corpus of antebellum-period, viral texts—many of them previously lost to scholarly view—from within the vast Chronicling America collection, we will give scholars of the period a new window into the values and priorities of antebellum editors and readers. Importantly, this granular data about the nature of frequently circulated texts and the paths of their circulation will enable us to understand the shape and constraints of the public sphere, the development of which was key to nineteenth-century U.S. history, including the democratic extension of the franchise, antebellum sectionalism, the abolitionist movement, and the westward growth of the nation.","txt","2","",""
"1701","14","Harnessing the Wisdom of the Crowd: The Citizen Archivist Program at the National Archives","8","Harnessing the Wisdom of the Crowd: The Citizen Archivist Program at the National Archives
In articulating his commitment to transparency, collaboration, and participation in his administration, President Obama said to his senior staff, on his first day in office:

""Our commitment to openness means more than simply informing the American people about how decisions are made. It means recognizing that Government does not have all the answers, and that public officials need to draw on what citizens know. And that's why, as of today, I'm directing members of my administration to find new ways of tapping the knowledge and experience of ordinary Americans—scientist and civic leaders, educators and entrepreneurs…""

One member of that administration, David S. Ferriero, Archivist of the United States, describes how his agency had embraced the President's message and engaged the American public in the work of the National Archives.

Biography
The Honorable David S. Ferriero was sworn in as 10th Archivist of the United States on November 13, 2009.

The Archivist of the United States, appointed by the President of the United States, is the head of the National Archives and Records Administration, an agency of the Executive Branch of the Government. The agency is responsible for providing guidance to the White House and the Executive Branch agencies and departments on the creation and maintenance of their records. It oversees the transfer to the National Archives of the permanently valuable records of the federal government and makes them available for study. Those records include the Oaths of Allegiance signed by George Washington and his troops at Valley Forge, the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights.

This collection translates into about 12 billion sheets of paper, 40 million photographs, miles and miles of video and film, and more than 5.3 billion electronic records. The records are housed in facilities around the country, from Anchorage, Alaska to Atlanta, Georgia — including 2 Washington, DC, area buildings, 14 Regional Archives, 17 Federal Records Centers, 13 Presidential Libraries, and the National Personnel Records Center.

Previously, Mr. Ferriero served as the Andrew W. Mellon Director of the New York Public Libraries (NYPL). In this position he was part of the leadership team responsible for integrating the 4 research libraries and 87 branch libraries into one seamless service for users; and was in charge of collection strategy; conservation; digital experience and strategy; reference and research services; and education, programming, and exhibitions.

Before joining the NYPL in 2004, Mr. Ferriero served in top positions at two of the nation's major academic libraries, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, MA, and Duke University in Durham, NC.

Mr. Ferriero earned bachelor's and master's degrees in English literature from Northeastern University in Boston and a master's degree from the Simmons College of Library and Information Science, also in Boston. He served as a hospital corpsman in the Navy during the Vietnam War.","txt","2","",""
"1702","14","Identifying the author of the Noh play by considering a rhythmic structure  Validating the application of multivariate analysis","9","I. Introduction
Noh is a classical Japanese stage art involving singing and dancing accompanied by music. Kan’ami (?-1384) and Zeami (1363–1443) are responsible for the present format of Noh. The lyrics of the song have been documented and are known as Noh texts, which are also called as “Utai bon.”

The current repertoire consists of 250 plays. Noh plays are divided into five categories, numbered in the order of the frequency of performance in the past and referred by the following numbers. Japanese words Sho, Ni, San, Yon, and Go correspond to 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively , and “banme” is the ordering suffix. For each category, we list the role that the “Shite” (main actor) plays.

1st Sho-banme: Kami mono. Deity. Mythic story.
2nd Ni-banme: Shura mono. Warrior’s ghost. Battle.
3rd San-banme: Katsura mono. Female. Songs and Dances.
4th Yon-banme: Kyoran mono. Madness or vengeful ghost.
5th Go-banme: Oni mono. Monsters, goblins, or demons.
Each category has a typical construction. However, it is natural that the author’s preference is considerably revealed in the play, both in the texts and songs. It is very important to judge what kind of Noh play can be claimed to be Zeami's work.

The type of rhythm in Noh is called “Nori type.” The standard “Nori” is “Hira-nori,” in which two beats are arranged for three characters. One phrase corresponds to a verse in the seven-and-five syllable meter; thus, 7 + 5 = 12 characters (pronunciation units) will correspond to eight beats or 16 half-beats. It is shown as follows: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12th character (0.5, 1, 0.5, 0.5, 1, 0.5, 0.5; 1, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5) beats.

Compared with the constant rhythmic sentence (“Teiritsu” in Japanese), the sentence is broken rhythmically (“Haritsu”) if a phrase has extra syllables (more than seven for the upper phrase and more than five for the lower phrase) or has an insufficient number of syllables (less than seven or less than five) many times.

In particular, the “Kuse” part, which if exists, is the most important part in a Noh play and should be composed of Haritsu sentences. As an example, we list some Nori parts of the Noh play “Atsumori” in Table 1. The first column is “Ma” for the phrase, which usually represents the start of singing (written on the left side in Utai-bon), whereas “tori” (written on the right side) means that the lower phrase is vacant. The 2nd and 3rd columns are upper (“Kamino-ku”) and lower phrases (“Shimono-ku”), respectively, and the 4th and 5th columns contain the number of characters. In the 6th column, we mention the symbolic expression of the total phrase, whose meaning is easily recognized. In this table, we observe that

1) There are four phrases, whose upper phrase has seven characters.
2) There are three phrases, whose lower phrase has five characters.
3) There are only two phrases whose total phrase has 7 + 5 characters = 12 characters (in the symbol “h75”).
This is a typical example ofin a “Haritsu” sentence.



An example of phrases in “Kuse” for a play “Atsumori”

The first author expected that the authorship should be revealed in the Kuse part. The second author prepared more than 3000 phrases of the Kuse data such as that shown in Table 1 from over 70 Noh plays. The third author analyzed the data using multivariate analysis. Here we explain the partial result concerning 45 Noh plays.

We mainly studied the distribution of Zeami’s Noh plays among other plays during almost the same period. Our result shows that Zeami's work has the specific feature.

II. Previous Studies
Two previous studies were identified.

M. Yokomichi & A. Omote (1963), “Yokoku-shu. Ge.""
On p.8, Prof. M. Yokomichi mentioned the proportion of unusual phrases in the Kuse part for 10 of Zeami’s Noh plays (plays with asterisk in Table 2). On p. 12 and 13, he quoted the three partial Kuse parts of Zeami’s plays in comparison with those of Kanze Nobumitsu. According to the first author, who was one of Yokomichi’s graduate students, Yokomichi seemed to conduct more studies on Haritsu, but did not publish anything on the subject.

Yoshimi Iwata (2012) The tendency of the authors of the Noh play with respect to the basic rhythm. (presentation, not published)
Iwata used Kuse and Kiri (the last song and dance part) data in 20 Noh plays, mainly in the 2nd category (Shura mono). The result shows that with the exception of Sanemori, Zeami’s plays focus on a narrow area. This study was conducted by the third author following the suggestion of the first author two years prior. At this instant, Iwata proposed the parallel usage of the Kiri part and showed that the Kiri part is helpful for the analysis.

III. Analysis
We used texts from two books “Yokyoku-shu. Jyo & Ge” (Yokomichi and Omote 1963) and extracted the Kuse parts. Then, we checked “Ma” in “Kanzeryu yokyoku hyakuban & zoku hyakuban.” We listed only 45 plays in Table 2. Zeami’s father is Kan’ami, and Motomasa (1394?-1432) is his son. Moreover , we added three plays that are attributed to either Zeami or Motomasa.

We prepared a cross table for all Kuse data by using the names of plays and phrase symbols (such as h75). Then, we obtained the 45 × 44 table, in which the rows represent “names of plays,” and the columns represent “symbols.”

First, we analyzed that table using “principal-component analysis”(PCA). Then, we selected variables using “random forests”(RF) and again analyzed them using PCA. Finally, we made a synthetic consideration.



Table 2. Forty-five plays by Zeami and others

IV. Results
The cross table is transformed using the relative frequencies of symbols for each play. We used the 12 variables of the top frequencies to perform PCA. We formed a scatterplot for the 1st and 2nd principal components (Fig. 1) and depicted convex hulls on the plot according to the categories of Zeami’s plays (shown by big numerals). Labels are added in the abbreviated form (cf. Table 2.). Factor loadings are shown in Fig. 2.


Figure 1.
Scatterplot of PCA scores for 45 plays and convex hulls


Figure 2.
PCA loadings for 12 variables.


Figure 3:
Distribution of mean decrease in accuracy


Table 3.
Part of data with selected 7 variables

The result shows a greater concentration of Zeami’s plays compared with those shown in Figure 1. At the far right on top, there is one “Z?2” identified with “Tomonaga.” The play “Tomonaga” is attributed to Zeami or Motomasa. From this diagram, we can say that “Tomonaga” has a very different character from those of Zeami and Motomasa (M2, M4). On the other hand, “Tamura” is very near to Zeami’s 2nd category.

Finally, we performed an “evaluation analysis,” which was developed by the third author. The result (Fig. 5) shows that with few exceptions, for n=4–8 & m in 4–6, {hnm}’s form 5 nearby groups under the framework of selected seven variables.

V. Conclusion
The combination of PCA and RF was successfully applied for the identification of the authors of the Noh play. This methodology can be applied to other analyses related to authors will attempt to apply variable selection by regression and compare the result with those obtained by other methods.

For Noh plays, it was revealed that the rhythm is important for discriminating characteristic features. In the near future, we will develop an appropriate decision method by using a combination of lyrics and the rhythm of Noh plays and also for the art of other kinds.


Figure 4.
Scatterplot of PCA scores and loadings


Figure 5.
Scatterplot of Evaluation Analysis

References
Yokomichi, M., and A. Omote (1963). “Yokyoku-shu, Jyo & Ge” (Anthology of Noh lyrics, volume 1 & 2), Iwanami Shoten.
Strobl, C., A. L. Boulesteix, A. Zeileis, and T. Hothorn (2007). Bias in random forest variable importance measures: Illustrations, sources and a solution. BMC Bioinformatics, 8:25. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471–2105/8/25","txt","2","",""
"1703","14","Identifying the Real-time impact of the Digital Humanities using Social Media Measures","9","Introduction
Rankings of academic articles and journals have been used in most disciplines, although concerns and objections about their use have been raised, particularly when they affect appointments, promotions and research grants. In addition, journal rankings may not represent real research outcomes, since low-ranking journals can still contain good work. Arts and humanities scholars have raised additional concerns about whether the various rankings accommodate differences in cultures, regions and languages. Di Leo (2010) wrote that “journal ranking is not very useful in academic philosophy and in the humanities in general” and one reason is the “high level of sub-disciplinary specialization”. Additionally, Di Leo notes there is “little accreditation and even less funding” in the humanities when compared with business and sciences.

In a Nature article entitled, “Rank injustice”, Lawrence (2002) notes that the “Impact factor causes damaging competition between journals since some of the accepted papers are chosen for their beneficial effects on the impact factor, rather than for their scientific quality”. Another concern is the effect on new fields of research. McMahon told The Chronicle of Higher Education, “Film studies and media studies — they were decimated in the metric because their journals are not as old as the literary journals. None of the film journals received a high rating, which is extraordinary” (quoted by Howard 2008).

Although the Australian government dropped rankings after complaints that they were being used “inappropriately”, it will still offer a profile of journal publications that provides an “indication of how often a journal was chosen as the forum of publication by academics in a given field” (Rowbotham 2011). Despite concerns over rankings, educators and researchers agree there should be a quality management system. By publishing their results, researchers are not just talking to themselves. Research outcomes are for public use, and others should be able to study and measure them. However, the questions are how can we measure the research efforts and their impact, and can we get an early indication of research work that is capturing the research community’s attention. A second question is whether measures appropriate for one research area also can be applied to publications in a different area. In this study, we seek initial insights on these questions by using data from a social media site to measure a real-time impact of articles in the digital humanities.

Research Community Article Rating (RCAR)
Citation analysis is a well-known metric to measure scientific impact and has helped in highlighting significant work. However, citations suffer from delays that could span months or even years. Bollen, et al., (2009) concluded that “the notion of scientific impact is a multi-dimensional construct that cannot be adequately measured by any single indicator”. Terras (2012) found that digital presence in social media helped to disseminate research articles, and “open access makes an article even more accessed”.

An alternative approach to citation analysis is to use data from online scholarly social networks (Priem and Hemminger 2010). Scholarly communities have used social reference management (SRM) systems to store, share and discover scholarly references (Farooq et al 2007). Some well-known examples are Zotero [1] , Mendeley (Henning and Reichelt, 2008) and CiteULike [2] . These SRM systems have the potential to influence and measure scientific impact (Priem et al., 2012). Alhoori and Furuta (2011) found that SRM is having a significant effect on the current activities of researchers and digital libraries. Accordingly, researchers are currently studying metrics that are based on SRM data and other social tools. For example, Altmetrics [3] was defined as “the creation and study of new metrics based on the social web for analyzing and informing scholarship”. PLOS proposed article-level metrics (ALM) [4] that are a comprehensive set of research impact indicators that include usage, citations, social bookmarking, dissemination activity, media, blog coverage, discussion activity and ratings.

Tenopir and King (2000) estimated that scientific articles published in the United States are read about 900 times each. Who are the researchers reading an article? Does knowing who these researchers are influence the article’s impact? Rudner, et al., (2002) used a readership survey to determine the researchers’ needs and interests. Eason, et al. (2000) analyzed the behavior of journal readers using logs.

There is a difference between how many times an article has been cited and how many times it has been viewed or downloaded. A citation means that an author has probably read the article, although this is not guaranteed. With respect to article views, there are several viewing scenarios such as intended clicks, unintended clicks or even a web crawler. Therefore, the number of views has hidden influential factors. To eliminate the hidden-factors effect, we selected the articles that researchers had added to an academic social media site. In this study, we ranked readers based on their education level. For example, a professor had a higher rank than a PhD student, who in turn had a higher rank than an undergraduate student.

Zotero’s readership statistics were not available to the public, and in CiteULike, the most cited articles in Literary and Linguistic Computing (LLC) were shared by few users. Therefore, we were unable to use either system’s data. Instead, we obtained our data from Mendeley, using its API [5] . We measured the research community article rating (RCAR)using the following equation:


RCAR uses the following quantities:


Citations, Readership and RCAR
We looked at seven digital humanities journals that were added to Mendeley and also mentioned in Wikipedia [6] . Of the seven journals, Google Scholar had an h5-index for only two journals: Digital Creativity (h5-index = 7) and LLC (h5-index = 13). We calculated the RCAR and compared the top-cited LLC articles with Mendeley readerships, as shown in Table 1. The number of citations were significantly higher than the number of Mendeley readerships for LLC (p-value>0.05).


Table 1:
Google citations, Mendeley readerships and RCAR for LLC

We investigated how the digital humanities discipline is different from other disciplines. We compared LLC with a journal from a different area of research, Library Trends, which had a similar h5-index. Library Trends received more citations and readerships than LLC. Three of its top articles also had more Mendeley readerships than citations, whereas LLC only had one such case. However, there was no significant difference between Library Trends citations and readerships. Next, we tested the Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology (JASIST) and the Journal of Librarianship and Information Science (JOLIS). We found that JASIST and JOLIS readerships of articles published in 2012 were higher than the citations with significance difference. This indicates that computer, information, and library scientists are more active in academic social media site than digital humanities researchers. By active we mean that they share and add newly published articles to their digital library.

Citations and altmetrics
In order to better understand different socially-based measures, we compared LLC articles using altmetrics and citations. We used an implementation of altmetrics called Altmetric that gave “each article a score that measures the quantity and quality of attention it has received from Twitter, Facebook, science blogs, mainstream news outlets and more sources”. We found that most of the articles that received social media attention were published during the last two years. A number of articles that were published four or more years ago were exceptions to this finding. These older articles had received at least four citations, as shown in Table 2. We also found similar correlations with articles in Digital Creativity.

Finally, we compared readerships and Altmetric. We found no significant difference between LLC citations of articles published in 2012 and readerships. However, we found a significant difference between Altmetric and citations (p<0.05) for articles that were published in 2012. This shows that the researchers who are interested in digital humanities are more active in general social media sites (e.g. Twitter, Facebook) than academic social media sites (e.g. Mendeley).


Table 2:
Altmetric score and citations to LLC articles

In this paper we describe a new multi-dimensional approach that can measure in real-time the impact of digital humanities research using academic social media site. We found that RCAR and altmetrics can quantify an early impact of articles gaining scholarly attention. In the future, we plan to conduct interviews with humanities scholars, to better understand how these observations reflect their needs and the standards in their fields.

References
Alhoori, H., and R. Furuta (2011). Understanding the Dynamic Scholarly Research Needs and Behavior as Applied to Social Reference Management. TPDL’11 Proceedings of the 15th international conference on Theory and practice of digital libraries. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. 169–178.
Bollen, J., H. Van de Sompel, A. Hagberg, and R. Chute (2009). A principal component analysis of 39 scientific impact measures. PloS one. 4(6). e6022.
Eason, K., S. Richardson, and L. Yu (2000). Patterns of use of electronic journals. Journal of Documentation. 56(5): 477–504.
Farooq, U., Y. Song, J. M. Carroll, and C. L. Giles (2007). Social Bookmarking for Scholarly Digital Libraries. IEEE Internet Computing. 11(6): 29–35.
Henning, V., and J. Reichelt (2008). Mendeley — A Last.fm For Research? In 2008 IEEE Fourth International Conference on eScience. IEEE. 327–328.
Howard, J. (2008). New Ratings of Humanities Journals Do More Than Rank They Rankle. The Chronicle of Higher Education. http://chronicle.com/article/New-Ratings-of-Humanities/29072 (Accessed 5 March 2013).
Lawrence, P. A. (2002). Rank injustice. Nature. 415(6874): 835–6.
Di Leo, J. (2010) Against Rank. Inside Higher Ed. http://www.insidehighered.com/views/2010/06/21/dileo (Accessed 5 March 2012).
Priem, J., and B. M. Hemminger (2010). Scientometrics 2.0: Toward new metrics of scholarly impact on the social Web. First Monday. 15(7).
Priem, J., C. Parra, H. Piwowar, P. Groth, and A. Waagmeester (2012). Uncovering impacts: a case study in using altmetrics tools. Workshop on the Semantic Publishing (SePublica 2012) at the 9th Extended Semantic Web Conference.
Rowbotham, J. (2011). End of an ERA: journal rankings dropped. The Australian. http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/end-of-an-era-journal-rankings-dropped/story-e6frgcjx-1226065864847 (Accessed 5 March 2013).
Rudner, L.M., J. S. Gellmann, and M. Miller-Whitehead (2002). Who Is Reading On-line Education Journals? Why? And What Are They Reading? D-Lib Magazine. 8(12).
Tenopir, C., and D. W. King (2000). Towards Electronic Journals: Realities for Scientists, Librarians, and Publishers. Washington, D.C.: Special Libraries Association.
Terras, M. (2012). The impact of social media on the dissemination of research: results of an experiment. Journal of Digital Humanities. 1(3): 30–38.","txt","2","",""
"1704","14","Incidental Crowdsourcing: Crowdsourcing in the Periphery","10","As the customs of the Internet grow increasingly collaborative, crowdsourcing offers an appealing frame for looking at the interaction of users with online systems and each other. However, it is a broad term that fails to emphasize the use of crowds in subtler system augmentation.

This paper introduces incidental crowdsourcing (IC): an approach to user-provided item description that adopts crowdsourcing as a frame for thinking about augmentative features of system design. IC is intended to frame discussion around peripheral and non-critical system design choices.

A provisional definition of incidental crowdsourcing will be defined in this paper, and then refined based on examples seen in practice. IC will be examined from both the user and system ends, positioned within existing work, and considered in the context of its benefits and drawbacks. This approach allows us to explore the robustness and feasibility of IC, looking at the implications inherent to accepting the provisional definition.

The consequences of considering system design on a scale between IC and non-IC design choices remain to be seen. Toward this goal, the second part of this paper shows a study comparing the participation habits of users in two online systems — one that is representative of IC properties and one that is not. This study finds differences in user engagement between the two systems.

Introduction
Crowdsourcing asks a dispersed group of people to contribute toward a common task. It does not need to be the central feature of a project; it can be used for augments parts of a project. For example, Facebook [1] uses “Likes” to gauge popularity of user-generated content, while photo-sharing website Flickr [2] uses user labeling to improve their search engine.

Incidental crowdsourcing functions in in this way, capturing useful but unobtrusive user input and making sense of it in aggregate. An incidental crowdsourcing feature is supplemental to its site’s primary function. Thus, visitors to the website are gently given ways to make a contribution, but not forced into it. IC offers a way to consider the design of online systems through the lens of crowdsourcing, which offers a compelling framework for gathering abstract, perception-based, or conceptual data in a volunteer-driven and often mutually beneficial way.

The value of IC is largely in augmenting existing information, making it valuable in the digital humanities for enriching digital resources. Version 1.0 of Digital Humanities Now, for example, used implicit linking by DH scholars on Twitter to determine the quality of online information (Cohen 2009). Another system dealing with digital resources, citation manager Mendeley, takes an IC approach in improving metadata and predicting research trends (Henning et al. 2010).

Defining incidental crowdsourcing
Incidental crowdsourcing is the gathering of contributions from online groups in an unobtrusive and non-critical way.

It is unobtrusive in that it does not cause significant barriers to a user’s completion of a task. The corollary to this is that IC exists in a task-driven environment where the user has a primary objective and IC exists alongside it without causing resistance to it.

IC is also non-critical to users and systems. For users, making a contribution is not a necessary part of a their use, while systems should not rely on contributions to function, using them for value-added features but degrading gracefully when there are few or unevenly distributed contributions.

This provisional definition is expanded in the full paper by considering complementary characteristics of examples that fit the definition. This refinement expands the definition to note that contributing to IC is descriptive — producing data about existing information objects, contributions tend to toward low granularity, and systems favor choices over statements.

IC is best considered as a scale, where the IC fitness of a crowdsourcing system design element is a mixture of how well it conforms to each part of the above definition.


Table 1:
Common forms of incidental crowdsourcing and examples

Following from the provisional definition, Table 1 shows common IC actions, alongside examples of how they are implemented. The full paper outlines these actions relative to their use in digital humanities. These include:

Scoring the quality of an information object. Rating or ranking systems that conform to the definition of IC tend to be on the lower end of granularity, most often using five- or two-point scales. Unary rating mechanisms are also used, for saving or supporting information items in online systems. For example, Facebook’s “Like” buttons allow users of the social network can make an assertion on the quality of an item. Rating systems tend to skew upward (Hu et al. 2006, Banjeree and Fudenberg 2004), and single button saving features are generally positive. Implicit recommendation is another valuable indicator of support; for example, it has been used to discover notable web resources through microblogging links (Cohen 2009).

Organizing content. Curatorial features are a way for users to thematically group information objects in a way that can teach a system about the relationships between those objects. For example, newer OPAC replacements encourage IC classification and curation with patron-built book lists, ratings, and tagging (Singer 2008, Spiteri 2011). Such catalogues can be interaction points rather than simply retrieval systems, but participation is non-critical to users.

Editing content. Incidental crowdsourcing is sometimes used to switch user roles from consumer to creator. The Australian Newspaper Digitization Project implemented this approach in corrected OCR transcriptions of old newspapers (Holley 2009), offering a link to the editing interface from the newspaper reading screen.

Feedback. Simply asking users questions which they have the capacity to answer has been noted as a strong motivator for contribution (Kraut and Resnick 2012, Organisciak 2010), and feedback mechanisms often make use of this with direct questions and easy to choose answers.

User- and System-end considerations
Since IC contributions are non-critical, systems utilizing IC should degrade gracefully when there is a lack of contributions. A system dealing with IC contributions should not be dependent on large or evenly distributed data sets. For example, the transit tracking application Tiramisu (Zimmerman et al. 2011, Tomasic et al. 2011) aggregates the location of riders when it is being used, but falls back on historical information when real-time data is unavailable.

Table 2 considers common IC actions and the corresponding value to a system and its users. Notably, in the majority of cases the user’s act of contributing is one of description rather than creation. Systems primarily use IC for understanding the content within them, while users primarily contribute to fulfill personal and social needs.


Table 2

Comparison of design choice in product ratings
How would an evaluation of systems through the lens of IC look? As an example, I compared the rating patterns of two application marketplaces—Amazon Appstore [3] and Google Play 4 . From each store the lists of best-selling free and paid items were scraped and parsed, and the applications that were on the lists of both sites were matched while others were removed from the data.

The sites were chosen because they are alike in purpose, selling applications for the Android operating system, and much of the same content is represented between them. However, how each store allows users to rate their purchases differs. Google’s rating functionality is more aligned with IC, allowing users to rate an item with two clicks on one page. Meanwhile, Amazon is non-IC, asking raters to include title, reviews, and to abide by a codebook.


Figure 1

This study found that the distribution of mean ratings skewed higher for Google Play than for Amazon Appstore (Wilcoxon p<0.001, see Figure 1). The difference in rating style exists even though there is no difference between the systems in how likely an application is to be rated (T-test p=0.9873, Ho:μdiff=0). Breaking the rating distributions down by relative choice frequency (Figure 2) shows a clear pivot at four stars.


Figure 2-1


Figure 2-2 (Simplified)

The distinct pivot between the distributions suggests that an adjustment can make Google’s distribution — collecting in a more IC appropriate manner — nearly identical to Amazon’s. Thus, while the non-IC approach receives more written reviews, Google does not appear to sacrifice rating quality with easier ratings. This could make a difference when looking to measure quality of new or barely-seen items.

Conclusion
This paper introduces the concept of incidental crowdsourcing, a way to crowdsource in a way that is non-critical, descriptive, unobtrusive and peripheral. Incidental crowdsourcing matters as a way to adopt crowdsourcing practices to reflect the subjective ‘humanness’ of digital object interpretations by consumers.

References
Banerjee, A., and D. Fudenberg (2004). Word-of-mouth Learning. Games and Economic Behavior 46(1). Web. 7 Dec. 2011.
D. Cohen. (2009). Introducing Digital Humanities Now. 18 Nov. 2009.
Henning, V., J. J. Hoyt, and J. Reichelt (2010). Crowdsourcing Real-Time Research Trend Data. Raleigh, USA. Web. 1 Nov. 2012.
Holley, R. (2009). Many Hands Make Light Work: Public Collaborative OCR Text Correction in Australian Historic Newspapers. National Library of Australia. National Library of Australia Staff Papers.
Hu, N., P. A. Pavlou, and J. Zhang (2006). Can Online Word-of-mouth Communication Reveal True Product Quality? Experimental Insights, Econometric Results, and Analytical Modeling. Proceedings of the 7th ACM Conference on Electronic Commerce-2006. 324–330.
Kraut, R.E., and P. Resnick (2012). Encouraging Contribution to Online Communities. Designing From Theory: Using the Social Sciences as the Basis for Building Online Communities.
Organisciak, P. (2010). Why Bother? Examining the Motivations of Users in Large-scale Crowd-powered Online Initiatives. 31 Aug.
Singer, R. (2008). In Search Of A Really ‘Next Generation’ Catalog. Journal of Electronic Resources Librarianship. 20(3). 139–142. Web. 1 Nov. 2012.
Spiteri, L. F. (2011). Social Discovery Tools: Cataloguing Meets User Convenience. Proceedings from North American Symposium on Knowledge Organization. 3.
Tomasic, A., et al. (2011). Design Uncertainty in Crowd-Sourcing Systems.
Zimmerman, J., et al. (2011). “Field Trial of Tiramisu: Crowd-sourcing Bus Arrival Times to Spur Co-design.” Proceedings of the 2011 Annual Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. CHI ’11 held in Vancouver, BC. ACM. 1677–1686. Web. 4 Dec. 2011.
Notes
1. http://www.facebook.com

2. http://www.flickr.com

3. http://www.amazon.com/appstore

4. http://play.google.com","txt","2","",""
"1705","14","Inferring Social Rank in an Old Assyrian Trade Network","10","1. Introduction
In the early 20th century, the attention of Assyriologists and archaeologists was directed to a number of cuneiform tablets coming from a remote archaeological tell in Kültepe, Turkey. After the first series of excavations, archaeologists discovered a large collection of texts and the remains of a Bronze Age trade colony, referred to in the texts as kārum Kaneš. Once these initial ca. 5,000 texts were deciphered, the field of Old Assyrian studies was born. In 1948 official Turkish excavations began at Kültepe and added over 17,000 tablets to the Old Assyrian text corpus, which now totals ca. 23,000 cuneiform tablets (Michel, 2008). These texts document the intricacies of thriving Bronze Age trade networks, comprised of Old Assyrian merchants from the ancient city of Assur approximately 4,000 years ago (ca. 1950-1750 BCE) (Barjamovic et al., 2012). The texts further show how the merchants acted as the middle-men in a large series of inter-connected networks which, among other things, linked the natural resources of tin (in Iran and Afghanistan) and copper (in Turkey) in order to produce bronze in Anatolia.

However, one thing the texts do not make clear is the scope and structure of the colonial trade network, in terms of the people involved and their organization. Although the high degree of literacy among the inhabitants of the colony at Kaneš helped create an extremely rich source of texts illustrating the daily life of the people involved, the practice of paponomy (naming a son after his grandfather) has obscured the identities of the merchants for modern scholarship. Thus, due to the density and ambiguity of the names mentioned in these texts, it has been too difficult to gain an understanding of the scope of the colonial society on the basis of the textual record at Kültepe.

Our work therefore focuses on jointly inferring the unique individuals as well as their social rank within the Old Assyrian trade network, using a novel probabilistic latent-variable model that exploits partial rank information contained in the texts.

2. Data
Of the 23,000 tablets unearthed at Kültepe (Kaneš), 5,691 published texts (known as the “old texts” (Veenhof and Eidem, 2008)) have been digitized and transcribed into machine-actionable text as part of the Old Assyrian Text Project (Old Assyrian Project). While these tablets include mostly economic and legal transactions, 2,094 of them are letters between merchants. Along with the body of the Akkadian text, each of these letters includes a highly stylized introductory formula (an “epistolary formula”) which lists the senders and recipients using strict dominance rules concerning the order of the names. For example:


These formulae have a consistent internal structure from which we can draw relative social ranks among the individuals involved. Each formula can be divided into two parts (a receiving rank and a sending rank), and an individual placed linearly after another within one of these ranks cannot be socially higher than any mentioned before (whether the first is higher or equal is ambiguous). Additionally, one individual (who may be either among the senders or recipients) is mentioned first in the letter, a marked position signifying the highest social status of those mentioned in either rank.


These partial orderings provide a rich source of evidence for the global social structure; from this example, we can extract seven pairwise partial social orderings: Amur-Ištar ≥Alāhum and Aššur-taklāku; Alāhum ≥ Aššur-taklāku; and Aššur-idī ≥ all four of the others.

If all such partial orderings were to be trusted, if each observed name in such a formula were unambiguous, and if social power were a stationary quality that remained constant over time, inferring a consistent global rank over all individuals would be easy (though more than one such rank may be possible). Unfortunately, however, none of these assumptions are true. The rank we observe in one letter is a subjective judgment by the author, and we can easily imagine that complex social dynamics are involved in the choice of who to rank highest (which can vary by author); names are indeed ambiguous with one name potentially referring to multiple people, and the same person can be known by several names; and the letters span a period of ca. 200 years, over which time a young individual with low social rank can age and accrue power [1] .

3. Technical Approach
Our goal is to find the social ranking over individuals (possibly not in a one-to-one relation with names) that best explains the observed data. To illustrate the intuition behind our approach, consider a simple example. Suppose we are trying to establish the temporal rank of a set of individuals with the names ADAMS, JEFFERSON and MADISON, and we have the following evidence (where > indicates “was president before”).

ADAMS > JEFFERSON
JEFFERSON > MADISON
Assuming transitivity, a sound global rank among these three is: ADAMS > JEFFERSON > MADISON; while we never directly witness a statement of the sort ADAMS > MADISON, we can infer it through intermediary relations. Now suppose we observe an additional piece of evidence:

MADISON > ADAMS
If we assume that the three names only refer to three distinct individuals, transitivity breaks down: putting all three statements together results in a circular rank, leading to the contradiction that ADAMS > JEFFERSON while at the same time JEFFERSON > ADAMS. However, we can establish a sound global order if we allow the three names to refer to four individuals (e.g., two people both have the name ADAMS), resulting in the rank: ADAMS1 > JEFFERSON > MADISON > ADAMS [2] . In fact, given the inconsistency of the evidence under the assumption of only three people, the existence of four underlying people is in fact more likely. Here, our method offers an informed hypothesis—that Adams refers to two distinct individuals rather than one—that can be verified (or refuted) in consultation with the data. In this simple case, the hypothesis is supported by the fact that Adams can refer to both JOHN ADAMS and JOHN QUINCY ADAMS.

In the case of our Old Assyrian dataset, the evidence takes the form of 4,191 pairwise observed ranks of 717 individual names in 1,657 letters, along with the Akkadian text of those letters. Our task is to find the most likely overall social rank of a fixed set of actors that best explains the pairwise ranks in letters that we see. In casting the problem in this way, we are building a probabilistic generative model of the data. Latent Dirichlet allocation (Blei et at., 2003) is a familiar example of a generative model that seeks to explain data in text documents by inferring latent topic assignments to individual words. In our case, the latent variables are a.) the identities of the people named in each letter; and b.) the social rank of those people, represented as continuous values.

Figure 1 illustrates the graphical model in detail using standard notation alongside our inference algorithm. In brief, we use a randomized algorithm known as Monte Carlo Expectation Maximization (Wei and Tanner, 1990). The algorithm alternately a.) samples a value of the latent entity z for each instance of a name x in a given letter, conditioned on current values of all other latent variables and parameters, cycling through the name instances, and b.) uses those accumulated samples to optimize the values of the social rank β that generated the pairwise ranks y in evidence. In this way, we alternate between picking probable latent individuals referred to in letters (given some fixed social rank), and determining the best social rank given that estimate of who those names refer to.


Figure 1:
Graphical model and MCEM algorithm. Shaded circles represent observed or fixed variables, empty circles are latent variables, dotted circles represent variables that are integrated out via collapsed Gibbs sampling, and the double-circled β is optimized via MCEM. φ, θ - Dir; z - Categorical; x - Multinomial; y - Logistic; and β - Normal. In our case, we fix the hyperparameters α = 100, γ = 0.01, μ = 0, σ2 = 1, and the number of possible latent entities to 1000.

4. Results
The input to our algorithm is a set of pairwise ranks between names mentioned in a letter (of the form Aššur-idī ≥ Aššur-nā dā , as above), along with an upper bound on the number of the latent entities we expect (K); the output is twofold: a.) a global rank of those K latent entities, along with the names in letters associated with them most often; and b.) a distribution over all possible latent entities for each name mentioned in each letter.

We apply our model to hypothesis generation: given a set of evidence, the algorithm offers hypotheses it finds likely, which a domain expert can then validate according to established methods in the field. One such lead generated by our method about a well-studied individual concerns the name of Innāya.

4.1 Innāya
In 1991, Cécile Michel produced a two-volume work on two merchants in the colony of Kaneš named Innāya (Michel, 1991a, 1991b) . On the basis of two attested patronyms it was apparent that there were at least two individuals who were known by this name. By charting their family trees and the structure of their respective businesses, she reconstructed the separate archives and identities of these two merchants. The first and best attested individual is Innāya son of Elāli with 142 texts, who appears to have a more complete textual record. The second individual, Innāya son of Amurāya, is only attested in 74 texts; while these two merchants overlapped chronologically, the latter appears to have been a minor figure in the colony (Michel, 1991, 48). While there were a number of texts which Michel was unable to determine (ca. 57), her study illustrated the complexity involved in the Old Assyrian archives due to an active use of homonyms at that time. While the work on Innāya is in no way complete, Michel provided a basis on which future scholarship might build, and will serve as a proving ground for the purpose of this study.

Figure 2 shows the overall distribution for latent ranks associated with the name Innāya in all of the letters, as learned by our model. Given the evidence that we have seen, our algorithm has learned that this name is generally associated with a very high-ranking individual (in this, and all other plots, the highest rank is 1, with 1000 being the lowest).


Figure 2:
Overall distribution of latent ranks for the name Innāya. The highest rank is 1; 1000 is the lowest.

If we look at the individual letters themselves, however, a more nuanced picture emerges. Figure 3 plots the distribution of latent entities for a set of 6 of the 190 letters in which Innāya is mentioned. While the majority of letters in this set recapitulate the overall distribution shown above, several letters are noticeable outliers. For example, in letter TC1,33 and BIN6,109, our model has high belief that the real person associated with the name Innāya is not in fact the high-ranking individual at all, but rather a much lower ranked one. Consulting these letters, we see that Innāya is dominated by one or more individuals with a relatively low rank, which is not consistent with a high-ranking individual. If we look at the intersection of the publicly available letters in our collection and those inspected by Michel (a total of 142 texts), we find that our method agrees with Michel’s assessment of the identity of Innāya in each specific letter 80.9% of the time (discounting the level of agreement due to chance, this leads to a Cohen’s κ of 0.435). These results clearly support the conclusions Michel has drawn for Innāya – two individuals, at least, each with differing social networks and hierarchical ranks – and provide evidence for the validity of our approach.


Figure 3:
Distribution over latent ranks associated with the name Innāya in various letters. The highest rank is 1; 1000 is the lowest.

5. Conclusion
The case of Innāya illustrates one of the greatest obstacles facing the field of Old Assyrian studies to date. Before any definitive statements can be made about the organization and makeup of the Old Assyrian trade network on the basis of the texts found in Kültepe, we must first determine the scope and structure of the Old Assyrian colonial society. Unfortunately, due to an active use of homonyms in the textual record, the scope of this colonial society has been obscured by a level of ambiguity too complex for any single specialist, or for that matter any group of specialists, to untangle.

As part of a solution, we present a method for aggregating small, local pieces of information—pairwise social differences between names in a cuneiform tablet—into a single underlying social order that offers the best explanation for the data we have. The latent variable model that we design allows us to be clear about our assumptions (the relationship between variables is encoded in the structure of the model; whether or not one variable is allowed to exert a direct effect on another is transparent). These kinds of generative models also allow us to add other forms of evidence; one possible extension would tie the choice of latent entity for each name in a letter with all of the other text observed (so that, for example, if one Innāya is often associated with letters mentioning tin while another trafficks in textiles, we have further evidence that the two are different individuals).

In applying this method to our Old Assyrian dataset, we are engaging in exploratory data analysis, offering informed hypotheses that are driven by data, and that our model believes are the most promising avenues for directed research by Assyriologists. Grounding these hypotheses in the data allows us to return to the source of our induction—the letters themselves—and validate whether or not we have sufficient evidence to support our claims. In our particular case, the agreement between our model’s beliefs and those in the published literature are encouraging. We leave to future work to explore the differences that remain.

6. Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Mogens Larsen, Thomas Hertel, and other contributors to the Old Assyrian Text Project for providing the digitized texts we analyze. The research reported in this article was supported in part by Google (through the Worldly Knowledge Project at CMU) and by an ARCS scholarship to D.B. An extended version of this paper can be found at: http://arxiv.org/abs/1303.2873.

References
Barjamovic, G., T. Hertel, and M. T. Larsen (2012). Ups and Downs at Kanesh: Chronology, History and Society in the Old Assyrian Period. PIHANS (Publications de l’institut historique-archéologique néerlandais de Stamboul), vol. 120. Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, Leiden.
Blei, D. M., A. Y. Ng, and M. I. Jordan (2003). Latent Dirichlet allocation. J. Mach. Learn. Res., 3:993–1022, March.
Michel, C. (1991). Innāya dans les Tablettes paléo-assyriennes I: Analyse. Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, Paris, France.
Michel, C. (1991). Innāya dans les Tablettes paléo-assyriennes II: Edition des textes. Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, Paris, France.
Michel, C. (2008).The Alāhum and Aššur-taklāku Archives found in 1993 at Kültepe Kaniš. Altorientalische Forschungen, 35:53–67, May 2008.
Old Assyrian Text Project. http://oatp.ku.dk.
Veenhof, K. R., and J. Eidem (2008).Mesopotamia: The Old Assyrian Period. Orbis Biblicus Et Orientalis 160/5. Academic Press (Fribourg), Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht (Göttingen).
Wei, G. C. G., and M. A. Tanner (1990). A Monte Carlo implementation of the EM algorithm and the poor man’s data augmentation algorithms. Journal of the American Statistical Association.
Notes
1. Most of the letters in our corpus have not been dated to a finer level of granularity than century; a potential extension to the model described here would exploit this information when available.

2. Alternatively, JEFFERSON1 > ADAMS > MADISON > JEFFERSON2 is also valid, as is MADISON1 > JEFFERSON > ADAMS > MADISON2. In data where the orderings are not strict (i.e., ADAMS ≥ JEFFERSON), global ranks involving equalities are also possible.","txt","2","",""
"1706","14","Innovations in Finding Aids and Digital Archives","2","Despite the ubiquity of digital programs at most research libraries, many archives still document and describe collections in much the same way as they did in the pre-digital era. The development and adoption of the Encoded Archival Description (EAD) XML schema serves as the basis of an infrastructure for dynamic research tools capable of seamlessly connecting archival materials to the digital information ecosystem. However, many institutions implement EAD as little more than a formatting guide for displays designed to resemble, as closely as possible, the digital finding aids’ paper predecessors. If we instead think of EAD as a means of encoding archival description as machine-readable data, we open new possibilities for how our finding aids can be displayed and for exposing them to the ever-growing linked open data environment of the semantic web, ensuring that our content can be found and effectively used by those we hope to serve.

XML documents have several advantages over PDF or Word documents as a vehicle for recording archival description: they “future proof” the finding aid data against changes in display technology; they allow for multiple presentations of the same data; and they allow descriptive data to be harvested by automated agents for purposes other than display. Despite these advantages, EAD is frequently used simply to produce Web documents designed to resemble PDFs of Word Documents, often in such a way as to make the original data unavailable for other purposes. This situation is not due to any inherent shortcoming of the standard, but rather to a failure to make full use of its potential.

If we forget, for a moment, our preconceptions about finding aid design and instead ask ourselves what our researchers want to know about our collections, we will likely find that the 'right' way to present a finding aid depends very much on the needs and intentions of the user. Imagine, for example, if instead of a text-heavy display we generate an Excel-style table in which the specific components displayed could be narrowed as the user types a query string in a search box. On the other hand, with the right styles and visual themes, we could use the descriptive data to construct the sort of “featured collection"" sites so many donors support. What if switching between views was as easy as clicking an iTunes-style button that flipped from one option to another to best suit the users’ needs and preferences?

In addition to enabling innovative displays, a data-centric approach to EAD facilitates the transformation of archival description into forms that can participate more effectively in the Web environment, particularly in the area of Linked Open Data. The same technologies that enable Google to suggest resources related to searches and Facebook to suggest new friends can be employed to recommend related resources in our own or other institutions that may be of interest to researchers. In addition to bibliographic and archival resources, data from other data sets such as Wikipedia and the Internet Movie Database can be incorporated to provide additional context for our collections and to point readers to more sources of information.

Of course the structure of our data is only half of the story — in order to facilitate these new uses the data itself must be sufficient to effectively establish links to other resources. The philosophy of ""more product, less process"" has allowed us to make more archival materials available for public use despite shrinking resources, but the primary cost of this efficiency has been the depth of descriptive data produced. Here is another area where we may benefit from allowing our data to participate in the larger Web environment, by taking advantage of the Web's capacity for enabling interaction between users and providers. Consider a finding aid that, in addition to presenting descriptive information, provides access to digital surrogates of the archival materials — a feature that is increasingly common. Among the features of the new generation of finding aids could be tools that allow researchers to provide annotations and access terms associated with the collection as they read and become familiar with the materials. These tools could integrate dynamically with open data sources in order to aid the user in selecting standardized identifiers for names, subjects and titles relevant to the collection. This user-contributed metadata could increase the depth and quantity of our descriptive data with very little investment on the part of the institution, providing a clear benefit to all.

There is very little reason why we can’t do most of this right now. Indeed, the New York Public Library is currently experimenting with finding aid interfaces such as those described above as part of several collection-specific projects. In this presentation, Doug Reside (Digital Curator for the Performing Arts) and Trevor Thornton (Senior Applications Developer at NYPL Labs) will demonstrate prototype interfaces for archival collections and reflect on the future of finding aids and digital archives.","txt","2","",""
"1707","14","An Interactive Interface for Text Variant Graph Models","9","In the last three years there has been an increasing adoption of the variant graph as a suitable computer-internal data model for textual variation in tools and applications such as NMerge (Schmidt & Colomb 2009), CollateX (Dekker & Middell 2011), and Stemmaweb (Andrews & Macé 2013). The variant graph model can be visualized easily and succinctly; these visualizations become for the text researcher the first interface through which to approach the particular similarities and differences in a given text. In this short paper we consider from the theoretical perspective some hermeneutic risks inherent in the static visualization most commonly used at present, when the interface stands between the scholar and the data model (whether produced by a collation tool such as CollateX or NMerge, or generated from a published critical apparatus or text collation). The result of our application of the theory is the tool we present, meant to address these risks in part. Implemented in JavaScript [1] , the tool allows the user to interact with and modify the model of a particular text from within the browser window. By doing so the scholar can move beyond the 'black box' nature of visualizations produced by analysis tools and test alternate hypotheses for understanding a text.

Most visualizations of data analysis results are by their nature static, and the variant graph has so far been no exception. A typical example of a variant graph visualization is given in Figure 1, which shows part of a collation result of a line of text obtained from CollateX. (Example adapted from the prologue of the Canterbury Tales (Solopova, 2000; Robinson 2000).):


Figure 1:
Partial collation of a line of text of the Canterbury Tales' prologue.

Each of the manuscript witnesses A, B, and C takes a single path through the possible readings, indicating the version of the text that appears in the witness itself. The variant graph is a compelling and concise means by which we can display the phenomenon of text variation. However, from the given example it is clear that there remains room for further interpretation: should spelling variants such as 'teh' and 'the' always be represented as having equal impact on the text with transpositions such as the one between 'drought' and 'march'? Does the alignment of witness C's 'teh rood' make sense as it stands?

The initial model is thus not entirely satisfactory; there is a clear need for the scholar to express more information or to express the variation more exactly. As long as the graph remains static, our example reflects a general danger inherent to visualizations of digital models of humanities data. An interface is meant to make an internal computer model tractable to a user, but paradoxically it also imposes a barrier: it most literally stands between the user and the model. The user can not change the model; he or she can basically only inspect it insofar as the interface visualizes it. In this sense the interface becomes a display practice enforcing one-way communication (Rijcke & Beaulieu 2011). The extent to which a visualization is interactive and alterable will consequently have an inverse relationship to the impression of finality or correctness that the user will come away with. A high degree of interactivity arguably conveys an impression of interpretability and malleability of the data and results visualized. In contrast, a static visualization produced by a computer tool carries with it an aura of correctness or immutability — even if it is not the only such visualization. If the scholar/user is unable easily to interact dynamically with the model, or even to modify it, then the danger arises that the visualization as posited by the computer analysis will be regarded uncritically and accorded a problematic or even false authority.

Current automated collation practices are a good example of this phenomenon. If an automatic collation algorithm such as that employed by CollateX chooses arbitrarily between two equally good text alignment scenarios, then unless the user is able not only to visualize the results but to manipulate them and explore the equally valid alternative scenarios, the ‘answer’ produced by the computer will tend to be seen as the ‘correct’ collation. Interactivity can thus be seen as an inherent and indispensable part of any sort of modeling of humanities data if the model is to be accepted, refined and used more widely in the field. In the case of variant graphs resulting from computed collation, essential interactions include:

annotating variants with information about how they are related
combining multiple words into one reading (e.g. 'what/so/ever') to better express the mutation as it occurred
splitting words into multiple readings to show more finely-grained variation
altering or correcting an initial collation
To enable and enhance such interactivity we present a self-contained and generalized JavaScript library for the interaction with and modification of variant graphs produced by online collation services directly in the browser. The library, currently in use by the Greek New Testament Editio Critica Maior project at the Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung (INTF)in Münster [2] and the 'Stemmaweb' application of the Tree of Texts project at KU Leuven [3] , can be applied to any research context wherein a variant graph would be appropriate. Users can relate parallel variants, merge or split variant readings, and regularize variants where appropriate to more easily home in on the variants under investigation. Figure 2 shows our variant graph example annotated with different types of relationship.


Figure 2:
Partial collation of a line of text of the Canterbury Tales' prologue annotated with various types of relationship.

The scholar may make explicit his or her model of variation by defining the types of relationships that can occur between variants, as well as criteria concerning when these variants can or cannot apply (must the variant readings occur in parallel within the text? must they not occur in parallel, e.g. for transpositions? Does the existence of one relationship imply the existence of another?) These interactions with particular instances of a variant text model allow users to adapt, correct, and extend the results of an automated collation engine, thus making the results produced by the software less fixed and more open to scholarly interpretation. To further support interactivity with the model we experiment with methods of machine recognition of user adjustments in context — for instance, we scan the graph using a vector cosine measure that takes into account the two nodes of a user defined relationship and their existing direct adjacent nodes to identify contexts in the graph that are similar to the context where the user adapts the graph, producing automatic suggestions for where the same relationship might apply under the same conditions elsewhere in the graph.

The clear advantage of enabling interactivity is that the problem of one-way communication between visualization and user is resolved: the variant graph model of a particular text becomes a much more tangible and expressive means to engage with and to conduct research into the text in question.

The interactive engagement with a specific instance of a computer model is a first step in our trajectory to enhance interactivity with current state-of-the-art text collation tools. Future research and development work will focus on feeding instance-based manipulations of collation results back into the reference models of online collation services. As a scholar works with a particular graph, the interactions with that instance of the collation model will be captured by decision trees. These trees can be used by the processes backing the collation model to amend the collation and graph construction, not only for specific instances but also for the general model, thus changing collation engines from rather static rule-based automatons into adaptive algorithms that learn from expert input and feedback.

References
Andrews, T. L., and C. Macé. (2013). Beyond the tree of texts: Building an empirical model of scribal variation through graph analysis of texts and stemmata. Literary and Linguistic Computing.
Haentjens-Dekker, R., and G. Middell (2011). Computer-Supported Collation with CollateX: Managing Textual Variance in an Environment with Varying Requirements. Supporting Digital Humanities 2011. University of Copenhagen, Denmark, 17–18 November 2011.
De Rijcke, S., and A. Beaulieu (2011). Image as Interface: Consequences for Users of Museum Knowledge Library Trends. 59(4): 663–685.
Robinson, P. (2000). New methods of editing, exploring, and reading The Canterbury Tales. http://www.canterburytalesproject.org/pubs/desc2.html(accessed 23 October 2012).
Schmidt, D., and R. Colomb (2009). A data structure for representing multi-version texts online. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 67(6). 497–514. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2009.02.001
Solopova, E. (ed.) (2000). Chaucer: The General Prologue on CD-ROM. The Canterbury Tales on CD-ROM. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Notes
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript

2. http://egora.uni-muenster.de/intf/aecm/aecm_en.shtml

3. http://treeoftexts.arts.kuleuven.be/","txt","2","",""
"1708","14","Text Theory, Digital Document, and the Practice of Digital Editions","3","Subject
Many digital tools have been and are being developed aimed at transcribing, annotating and publishing editions of literary or historical texts making use of crowd sourcing for collaborative research. This panel discusses the question how well digital scholarly editions produced by such tools reflect the theoretical notions of digital scholarly editions, and how such may be assessed based on both empirical examination of current practices and text theory in the digital era.
The practice of preparing and producing digital editions is increasingly supported by purpose made and specialized digital tools, many of them involving crowd sourcing. Although an exhaustive survey and typology of these tools is still missing, by and large we can see that most of these tools are highly similar in functionality, text model, and editorial process. As such they express a fairly straightforward transformation from the physical book to a digital metaphor of the book, roughly along a trajectory of transcription, annotation and publication. Quite contrary text theory in the digital era seems to express a different scholarly ideal of representation of text, far more rooted in notions of instability (McGann 2001), fluid text (Bryant 2002), transclusion (Nelson 1982), text as process (Buzzetti 2002, Gabler 1987), transmedialization (Sahle 2010), and distributed editions (Zundert 2011) for instance. Also the usage patterns of emergent digital technologies and their applications such as Web2.0/3.0, crowd sourcing, cloud based services, open notebook science, data as service, multi device enabled layouts –to name but a few– seem to favor shaping the representation of digital text more in line with theory than with the practices of current scholarly digital edition tools.
If we follow Internet pioneer Cailliau (Cailliau 2012) information at our fingertips will become essentially undocumented, in the sense of not being a conventional cover-to-cover document, not even as a metaphor. Rather specific parts and facets of information will adapt to different devices and context, rather reminiscent of the concept of Nelson’s envisioned docuverse (McKnight 1991). It should therefore be critically examined if it is still opportune and adequate to speak of a digital edition as a document, and if a digital editing process should necessarily lead to a single or physical publication to serve maximum scholarly expressiveness. Overall the tools in use mostly let the metaphor of the book be inferred as the de facto model for digital publication. But as users and scholars choose and adapt new technologies and new forms of engagement with information, should scholarly publishing and digital editing follow these patterns of usage? Does an audience oriented approach such as the ideas on minimal and maximal editions expressed by Vanhoutte (Vanhoutte 2011) strike a middle ground between theory and practice? What is the intellectual loss or gain if the metaphor of the book prevails over using the medium of the Internet as an expression of text as process?
It is these kinds of questions about the theoretical underpinnings of the digital scholarly edition that arise at the intersection of shaping technologies, standing scholarly practice, and changing usage. Trying to establish some practices of quality a number of comparative studies have been conducted into transcription tools and crowd sourcing tools for digital editions, notably by members of this panel. Most of these studies have been based on analysis and comparison of functional requirements, usability aspects, and user feedback. However, a text theory based aspect of evaluation of such tools and editions is mostly lacking.
This panel will explore the issue of practice and theory based quality assessment of digital editions, building on the results of a comparative text theory based empirical survey of tools for digital scholarly editions the design of which is the subject of our preparatory paper presented at the NeDiMAH Expert Meeting on Digital Scholarly Editions held in conjunction with the 2012 conference of the European Society for Textual Scholarship. The panel focuses on several prominent digital tools and projects for preparing digital scholarly editions with varying approaches. From this broader view specific themes and issues will be examined, such as:
•        The metaphor of the book as enabler or inhibiter of new avenues for research.
•        User surveys and feedback as shaping forces of tools for digital editions.
•        The role of users, editors, researchers, and funders in determining quality aspects.
•        The digital edition as an expression of text in flux versus the iconic object.
•        Text models for distributed documents.
•        Is the generic or the specific a hallmark of quality of tools for digital editions?
•        Crowd sourcing and open notebook science as determining aspects of digital editions.
•        Visualization of instability of text as a scholarly quality of the digital edition.
•        The relationship between formalization of editorial process and the instability of text.
Organization of the panel
The methodological research program of the Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands, part of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) is the initiator and organizer of this panel. Panel members include e-Humanities researchers from KNAW involved in the development of the transcription and crowd sourcing tool eLaborate (https://www.elaborate.huygens.knaw.nl/); researchers from University College London involved with amongst others the Transcribe Bentham Project (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/transcribe-bentham/); researchers and editors of digital editions (e.g.http://www.i-d-e.de/); researchers working on open science approaches (e.g. http://editorsnotes.org/ andhttp://ecai.org/mellon2010/); and developers and researchers of crowd sourcing software (http://manuscripttranscription.blogspot.com). The panelists are engaged in the study and development of different digital humanities tools and projects pertaining to digital scholarly editions, specializing in transcription tools and crowd sourcing projects, which grants this panel a unique opportunity to comparatively explore various strategies in building and using digital editions, and to reflect on both theoretical and practical concerns of that process. In addition, the panel will critically evaluate the themes and issues listed above.
The panel session will be organized in the following way:
•        The panel chair will introduce the main topic, discussion questions, and the panelists; duration: 3 minutes;
•        Each of the panelists will give a short presentation (6 minutes), followed by questions from the audience (4 minutes); duration: 60 minutes;
•        The themes and questions raised in the presentations will be further discussed in an open forum between the panelists and the audience; duration: 25 minutes
•        The panel chair will briefly reflect on future plans, provide contact information, and close the panel: 2 minutes.
The names and affiliations of confirmed panelists are as follows:
•        Ben Brumfield, Independent Digital History Software Services, Austin Texas (US)
•        Karina van Dalen-Oskam, Huygens ING (The Netherlands)
•        Greta Franzini, UCL Centre for Digital Humanities (UK)
•        Patrick Sahle, Institute for Documentology and Scholarly Editing (IDE) / Cologne Center for eHumanities (CCeH) (Germany)
•        Ryan Shaw, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, School of Information and Library Science (US)
•        Mellisa Terras, UCL Centre for Digital Humanities (UK)
Moderators for this session are:
•        Charles van den Heuvel (panel chair) 
Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands (Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences)
•        Joris van Zundert 
Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands (Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences)
References
Bryant, J. L. (2002). The Fluid Text: A Theory of Revision and Editing for Book and Screen. University of Michigan Press.
Buzzetti, D. (2002). Digital Representation and the Text Model, New Literary History. 33: 61–88.
Cailliau, R. (2012).'WWW: Etat des lieux, Grande conférence de Robert Cailliau'. In Cailliau, R. Les pionniers de l'Internet en Europe. held 22 October 2012 at Mons University. http://expositions.mundaneum.org/fr/conferences/robert-cailliau-co-inventeur-du-world-wide-web (accessed 23 October 2012).
Gabler, H. W. (1987). The Text as Process and the Problem of Intentionality. TEXT, Transactions of the Society for Textual Scholarship 3: 107–116.
McGann, J. (2001). Radiant Textuality: Literature after the World Wide Web. New York: Palgrave.
McKnight, C., A. Dillon, and J. Richardson (1991). Hypertext in Context. Cambridge University Press.
Nelson, T. H. (1982). Literary Machines. Minfull Press.
Sahle, P. (2010). Zwischen Mediengebundenheit und Transmedialisierung. Anmerkungen zum Verhältnis von Edition und Medien. Editio 24: 23-36.
Vanhoutte, E. (2011). So You Think You Can Edit? The Masterchef Edition. The Mind Tool: Edward Vanhoutte’s Blog.http://edwardvanhoutte.blogspot.nl/2011/10/so-you-think-you-can-edit-masterchef.html (accessed 14 March 2013).
van Zundert, J., and P. Boot (2011). The Digital Edition 2.0 and the Digital Library: Services, not Resources. Digitale Edition und Forschungsbibliothek 44: 141–152.
Further reading
Buckland, M. (1998). What is a ‘digital document’? Document Numérique 2(2): 221-230.http://people.ischool.berkeley.edu/~buckland/digdoc.html (accessed 21 October 2012).
Eggert, P. (2009). Securing the Past: Conservation in Art, Architecture and Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pierazzo, E. (2011). A rationale of digital documentary editions. Literary and Linguistic Computing 26(4): 463–477. doi: 10.1093/llc/fqr033
Robinson, P. (2005). Current issues in making digital editions of medieval texts — or, do electronic scholarly editions have a future? Digital Medievalist 1 http://www.digitalmedievalist.org/journal/1.1/robinson/ (accessed 10 September 2012).
Sahle, P. (2012). Kriterien für die Besprechung digitaler Editionen. Köln: Germany. v1.0. IDE, English version ""Criteria for Reviewing Scholarly Digital Editions"" forthcoming. http://www.i-d-e.de/aktivitaeten/reviews/kriterien-version-1 (accessed 23 October 2012),
Shillingsburg, P. (2006). From Gutenberg to Google: Electronic Representations of Literary Texts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Siemens, R., and M. Elkink, et al. (2010). Underpinnings of the Social Edition? A Narrative, 2004-9, for the Renaissance English Knowledgebase (REKn) and Professional Reading Environment (PReE) Projects. In McGann, J., and A. Stauffer, et al. (eds.), Online Humanities Scholarship: The Shape of Things to Come. Houston: Rice University Press.http://cnx.org/content/m34335/ (accessed 10 September 2012).
Sinclair, S., and G. Rockwell (2009). Between Language and Literature: Digital Text Exploration. In Lancashire, I. (ed.), Teaching Language and Literature Online. New York: Modern Language Association.","txt","2","",""
"1709","14","Interfaces for Crowdsourcing Interpretation","2","Our research will detail a number of approaches to crowdsourcing interpretation — especially as these approaches relate to the ongoing development and design of Prism, a tool that facilitates crowdsourced interpretation of texts. We take up the challenge detailed by Ramsay and Rockwell (2012) that the activity of building provides affordances as rich and informed as writing, and that it is important to to be aware of the nature and quality of the intervention that happens through building. Drucker (2009) and Ruecker et. al. (2011) demonstrate the importance of speculative prototyping as a way to explore humanities questions and make arguments through prototypes. In that spirit, our research will inform the creation of several interfaces that address problems related to the individual and crowdsourced interpretation.Background
In 2011, the Praxis team at the University of Virginia created Prism as digital realization of the “Patacritical Demon” imagined by Drucker (2009), McGann (2004), and Nowviskie (2012). In its current form, Prism allows multiple users to highlight a text based on certain predetermined categories. The tool then creates an aggregate visualization of individual responses. In this way Prism diverges from current utilizations of crowdsourcing; where crowdsourced projects have traditionally asked users to compile data or do other mechanistic tasks, Prism asks individuals to mark up a text with categories of meaning, to discern trends in the way a larger group of users reads the text. Although Prism promises to bring individual experience into the fold, Bethany Nowiskie (2012) notes that Prism “is not a device for rich, individual exegesis,” and the usefulness of Prism lies in the overlapping and visualizing of all contributors, “generating spectra of similarity and difference.”

Existing Approaches to Crowdsourcing Interpretation
Owens (2012) distinguishes between two approaches that are commonly lumped under the heading of crowdsourcing: “human computation” and “the wisdom of crowds.” Human computation projects ask participants to solve problems for which computational solutions are comparatively expensive to develop or perform. Such problems include transcription (Transcribing Bentham, Old Weather, reCAPTCHA), protein folding (fold.it), and image metadata tagging (ESP Game). Crowd-wisdom projects, on the other hand, engage participants in open-ended socially-negotiated tasks that may go further than processing information and actually create new knowledge. (This is the mode of Wikipedia or any website with comment or discussion forum functionality.)

Directions for Research
We have begun to consider other ways to crowdsource interpretation, especially approaches that attend more closely to individual responses. In particular, we have identified two areas for exploration:

Computation and Crowd Wisdom — Owens (2012) suggests that both existing modes of crowdsourcing are worth designing for and can work in tandem for Digital Humanities projects (Galaxy Zoo). In that spirit, Prism presents the user with a task that is in both constrained in such a way that it produces information and somewhat open-ended and socially-negotiated through the user’s engagement with a text.
Wisdom of the Individual — Crowdsourcing interpretation might offer an increased focus on individuals as a part of the collaborative process. Preserving the marks of each participant would better respect the human element at the core of crowdsourcing. This feature would also make Prism a more powerful pedagogical tool, as an instructor could identify an individual student’s remarks for generating discussion. This would also be useful for the social sciences, which are inherently concerned with the individual as a member (and perhaps representative) of a particular group.
Future design and development of Prism must account for the many potential roles of individuals in crowdsourcing interpretation. For example, in order to better serve projects concerned with the wisdom of particular individuals Prism would need to store user markings and interpretations, in a way that they are extractable and easily viewed in relation to the markings of the crowd. Similarly, in order to better facilitate social science research Prism might include a way to separate out user interpretations according to demographic information (such as class, gender, age, etc.) or according to specific user responses. The poster will detail how the the design and development of Prism has been and continues to be influenced by the different roles individuals might play within the crowd.

References
Drucker, J. (2009). SpecLab: Digital Aesthetics and Projects in Speculative Computing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009.
Ford, P. (2011). The Web Is a Customer Service Medium. http://www.ftrain.com/wwic.html. (accessed 6 January 2011).
Galey, A., S. Ruecker, and the INKE team (2010). How a Prototype Argues. Literary and Linguistic Computing 25(4): 405–24.
McGann, J. (2001). Radiant Textuality: Literature After the World Wide Web. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
McGann, J. (2004). What is a Text? In Schreibman, S., R. Siemens, and J. Unsworth (eds). A Companion to Digital Humanities. Oxford: Blackwell.http://digitalhumanities.org/companion/view?docId=blackwell/9781405103213/ 9781405103213.xml&chunk.id=ss1-3-4
Meister, J. C. (2012). Crowd Sourcing ‘True Meaning’: A Collaborative Markup Approach to Textual Interpretation. In Deegan, M. and W. McCarthy (eds). Collaborative Research in the Digital Humanities. Ashgate. 105–122.
Nowviskie, B. (2012). A Digital Boot Camp for Grad Students in the Humanities. Chronicle of Higher Education. http://chronicle.com/article/A-Digital-Boot-Camp-for-Grad/131665/ (29 April 2012).
Owens, T. Human Computation and Wisdom of Crowds in Cultural Heritage. http://www.trevorowens.org/2012/06/human-computation-and-wisdom-of-crowds-in-cultural-heritage/
Ramsay, S., and G. Rockwell (2012). Developing Things: Notes toward an Epistemology of Building in the Digital Humanities. In Gold, M. K. (ed). Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press.
Ruecker, S., M. Radzikowska, and S. Sinclair (2011). Visual Interface Design for Digital Cultural Heritage: A Guide to Rich-Prospect Browsing. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
Surowiecki, J. (2004). The Wisdom of Crowds: Why the Many Are Smarter Than the Few and How Collective Wisdom Shapes Business, Economies, Societies, and Nations. New York: Doubleday.","txt","2","",""
"1710","14","Introducing Anvil Academic: Developing Publishing Models for the Digital Humanities","9","Background
Academic publishing provides vital services, including acquisition, peer review, editing, and distribution of scholarship. Yet there are too few venues for publishing digital humanities works, particularly on native platforms that represent the richness of this work and allow for interaction. This paper will introduce Anvil Academic [1] , a new joint initiative of the Council for Library and Information Resources (CLIR) and the National Institute for Technology in Liberal Education (NITLE). Other sponsors include Stanford University, Washington University, Amherst College, Middlebury College, Bryn Mawr College, Southwestern University, NINES at the University of Virginia, and the Brown Foundation.

Anvil aims to address the current crisis in academic publishing by applying the time-honored editorial and peer review practices of publishing to the emerging world of digitally mediated humanities scholarship. In particular, Anvil will focus on four key (and sometimes overlapping) genres: data-driven projects that explore patterns in rich collections of humanities information; multi-modal titles using various modes of display and representation; networked authorship projects that facilitate conversation and connections; and flexible, interactive, media-rich educational resources. As an entrepreneurial, open-access publisher of peer-reviewed digital humanities scholarship, Anvil intends to help bring the digital humanities into the academic mainstream by forging new, sustainable models for publishing as the world of scholarly communication turns steadily digital.

Starting up a new open access, all-digital academic press for the digital humanities presents several challenges. What peer review standards and processes should be used to give credibility to digital scholarship, offer useful feedback for improving it, and promote community and conversation? What are the best technical and logistical approaches to publishing works that exist on a range of platforms and in a diversity of formats? How will these published works be preserved? What business models will enable an open access humanities press to provide core services and sustain itself? While we do not have definitive answers to these questions, we will discuss the contexts and strategies that inform Anvil’s approach.

The Rationale for Anvil
Over the last decade, a rich body of humanities work featuring digital curation, data visualization, network analysis, text mining, multimodal argumentation, and other approaches has demonstrated the vitality and creativity of the digital humanities [2] . Despite its growth, this scholarship has yet to enter the academic mainstream in the way that analog research (words printed on paper or screen and distributed in the form of monographs and journal articles) has. Publishers still print and distribute academic monographs through sales channels, albeit to ever-fewer purchasers, most of which are libraries that find circulation of such books plummeting [3] . Yet traditional book/journal publication still enjoys unequalled status in the evaluation of applications for tenure and promotion while just as — or even more — deserving work in digital scholarship often goes unrewarded [4] .

Barriers facing digital scholarship include the conservatism of academic culture and the lack of respected entities for evaluating and disseminating this work. Some academics regard digital scholarship as second-rate work that has not undergone the scrutiny of credible peer review [5] . Others are reluctant to jeopardize their tenure and promotion prospects by disseminating their work through non-traditional means. In a prestige marketplace where a publisher’s reputation is a primary determining factor in measuring the worth of an academic’s published research, digital humanities need an organization to fulfill a role similar to that of the publisher in the analog world.

Anvil: The Way Forward
In its start-up phase, Anvil is confronting three core challenges:

Validating and Improving Scholarship through Peer Review and Editing
In essence, Anvil Academic aims to determine how a publisher of digital humanities scholarship can bring useful evaluation rubrics to the digital world, and to work with scholars to optimize and improve their work in order to make it publishable through rigorous editing and peer review. By defining and stepping into this role, Anvil seeks to bring order and coherence to a digital scholarship space that currently lacks the kind of guidance toward refined argument traditionally provided to the academic world by the scholarly publisher.

To demonstrate the credibility of digital scholarship, Anvil will involve both traditional and digital scholars in our peer review and acquisitions procedures. Drawing upon prior work on evaluating digital scholarship, we also will develop and implement rigorous standards for acceptance by Anvil. That acceptance will be contingent upon the rationale for the project’s being digital and for what the project contributes to the state of the (digital) art in the humanities, as well as the project’s contribution to the overall body of scholarship in its subject area. By carefully editing (in the senses of acquisitions editing, developmental editing, line editing, copy editing) the work, Anvil aims to demonstrate both the value of the publisher’s role in the digital humanities and the value of digital work to humanities disciplines.

Platforms and Technical Skills
Anvil believes that a digital humanities publisher needs to be platform-independent: that is, the published works must be displayed in their native environments, so as to avoid the substantial costs and headaches of re-authoring complex works for the sake of making them suitable for a one-size-fits all authoring/viewing environment. Anvil thus focuses on providing editorial, marketing, distribution, cataloging, and preservation services rather than platforms in order to make electronic publishing of complex works economically feasible and to allow authors the fullest possible creative freedom. To facilitate the sustainability and reusability of digital scholarship, Anvil will encourage the use of open platforms, open licenses and open web standards. Anvil also uses the Internet Archive’s Archive-It service to catalog and store titles in the Internet Archive and in LOCKSS, and is exploring a similar arrangement with HathiTrust. For some works that can be more constrained in their technical approaches, Anvil may provide hosting, but many Anvil publications will be hosted in their native environments, marked as Anvil publications and made available in Anvil’s catalog. Anvil thus explores what it means to publish in a disaggregated environment where some services are provided through partnerships.

Business Models
Core to Anvil’s mission is making publications available as open access, an approach consistent with the values and practices of the digital humanities community. Unfortunately, no single model for sustaining open monograph publishing has yet emerged. As Anvil explores how to provide the funding necessary to sustain digital publishing, it will experiment with several approaches, such as membership, fee-for service, sales of distilled app versions of Anvil titles, and grant funding.

It should be stressed that Anvil is in a proof-of-concept startup phase; as we grow, and as we acquire more funding, we will be adding to our arsenal of editorial, curatorial, and preservation resources and partnerships. In discussions with us, preservation of titles is the leading item of concern to authors of digital work.

Conclusion
The Anvil experiment hopes to bring digital humanities scholarship to a larger readership and to evangelize to the higher-education establishment for new-form scholarly work. Part of our mission is to work at persuading department chairs and administrators of the worth (and the measurability of that worth) of digitally mediated scholarly research and argument. Also critical to the Anvil experiment and mission is our intent to be as public as possible with our processes, so as to demonstrate to skeptics the worth and rigor of our editorial effort and the related worth of the resulting published work. Finally, Anvil aims to advance the state of the art in digitally mediated humanities scholarship, helping to set and demonstrate standards for assessing not only the scholarly content of such work but its methodology. We hope as well to demonstrate both the worth and the feasibility of publishing in the post-monograph space, so that more publishers will join in this effort, our combined presence growing into a cooperative/competitive effort that in the long run benefits—and advances—digital humanities as a whole.

Notes
http://anvilacademic.org/
Some leading examples of such work can be found in Christa Williford and Charles Henry, One Culture. Computationally Intensive Research in the Humanities and Social Sciences. CLIR, June 2012, http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub151.
See “Report of the Executive Collection Development Executive Committee Task Force on Print Collection Usage Cornell University Library,” http://staffweb.library.cornell.edu/system/files/CollectionUsageTF_ReportFinal11-22-10.pdf (Oct. 22, 2010, revised Nov. 22, 2010), p. 2.
Notwithstanding efforts like the Modern Language Association’s guidelines for evaluating digital humanities scholarship, first approved by the MLA Executive Council in May 2000 and last reviewed by the Committee on Information Technology in January 2012. See “Guidelines for Evaluating Work in Digital Humanities and Digital Media,” http://www.mla.org/guidelines_evaluation_digital.
See, for example, Gary A. Olson, “How Not to Reform Humanities Scholarship.” The Chronicle of Higher Education, February 9, 2012, http://chronicle.com/article/How-Not-to-Reform-Humanities/130675/.
See Diane Harley, Sophia Krysz Acord, Sarah Earl-Novel, Shannon, Lawrence and C. Judson. King, Assessing the Future Landscape of Scholarly Communication: An Exploration of Faculty Values and Needs in Seven Disciplines. UC Berkeley: Center for Studies in Higher Education, 2010, http://cshe.berkeley.edu/publications/publications.php?id=351.
Among our exemplars in evaluating scholarship is NINES (http://www.nines.org/about/scholarship/peer-review/).
See Raym Crow, Income models for Open Access: An overview of current practice. SPARC, September 2009, http://www.arl.org/sparc/publisher/incomemodels/imguide.shtml","txt","2","",""
"1711","14","Introducing GeoBib: An Annotated and Geo-referenced Online Bibliography of Early German and Polish Holocaust and Camp Literature (19331949)","2","1 Introduction and Goals
The Holocaust's aftermath on memory discourses still represents an important research field. Almost 70 years after the end of the Second World War, there will soon be no direct witnesses of the Nazi crimes anymore. What will remain are texts bearing witness to the crimes. These texts are to be collected, preserved, and made accessible in a systematic manner. Especially the early texts are of great interest: texts written or published between 1933 and 1949, particularly in the years 1944/1945. In this context Germany, bearing the guilt for the Holocaust, and Poland, as a Nazi-occupied country where large parts of the Holocaust took place, are of special relevance.


Figure 1:
Outline of the GeoBib project workflow

Unfortunately, the early texts on the Holocaust were soon forgotten or suppressed. With the formation of the two German states (1949), a process of suppression of the texts of the victims began (Cf. Hickethier 1986, p. 578). The official artistic doctrine in the GDR and Soviet Poland excluded certain authors, themes, and forms of presentation.

The goal of the interdisciplinary [2] GeoBib project is to build a systematic and geo-referenced online bibliography of the early German and Polish Holocaust and camp literature: the first complete, bilingual, i.e. with respect to texts written both in German and Polish, research platform for information on the texts. On these, GeoBib seeks to collect annotations and metadata. This includes short summaries, keywords, biographical information on the authors, reviews, scientific literature, information on persons, geographical data, as well as time periods mentioned in the texts. The goal is to make information on these widely unknown texts accessible and searchable for a broad and interdisciplinary audience of researchers. Due to legal restrictions, the project does not, however, aim at annotating the whole texts. The focus lies on the collection and integration of these various kinds of information.

The combination of literary and geo-temporal annotations, as well as the implementation of different (geographical) search mechanisms, enables scholars to conduct innovative research in different scientific domains like literature or history, but is also intended to suit the needs of students, teachers, and the interested public. Maps and other visualizations of geo-temporal information are expected to reveal “historical relations that might otherwise go unasked” (White 2010, p.6).

2 Workflow and Technical Implementation
Since various research areas are involved, we need to aggregate a multitude of different information from the fields of literature, history, and geography — a challenge in data management and text technology. An adaptation of the TEI standard, using an ODD file, is being used to build a schema that serves to integrate the intended collection of the different kinds of metadata mentioned above.

Starting with the texts, annotation data is collected in TEI files that will be used as input for different processing steps (see Fig. 1): Bibliographical, biographical, and other metadata on the text need to be saved in a database and will be linked to the annotated geo-temporal data. Places need to be mapped to coordinates and annotated with the corresponding timestamp. The geographical data will be used in a geographic information system (GIS) and in an online database to support search queries across all relevant annotation data (see Fig. 2). The combination of time and space, extracted from the texts, will be used to display the data in form of geographical maps.


Figure 2:
Exemplary queries that the GeoBib system is expected to support by returning a list of relevant bibliographic references.

3 Context and Outlook
The Holocaust was a traumatic event that has recently been examined with increasing focus on space and time. Or as Beorn et. al. (2009, p. 563) put it: the “Holocaust was a profoundly geographical event, rooted in specific physical spaces, times, and landscapes”. Their project ‘Geographies of the Holocaust’ is actively working on analyzing the Holocaust from a geo-spatial point of view.

Others are looking at how geography is represented in texts (cf. Eide 2012, Appadurai 2010). Specialized software projects were developed to make the representation of, or the work with, geographical information in the humanities easier, e.g. Neatline (Nowviskie et. al. 2012).

Geo-spatial information extracted from literary texts, e.g. Google Ancient Places (GAP), can play a “vital role in improving efficiency for researchers” (Isaksen 2011, p. 82).

Hence, the GeoBib project is active in a growing field of interdisciplinary geo-spatial research as well as the European Holocaust research community (cf. Kahn 2011).

The GeoBib team is looking forward to collaborate in this context.

References
Appadurai, A. (2010). How Histories Make Geographies: Circulation and Context in a Global Perspective, Transcultural Studies. 1: 4–13.
Beorn, W., T. I. M. Cole, S. Gigliotti, et al. (2009). Geographies of the Holocaust, Geographical Review. 99(4): 563–574.
Eide, Ø. (2012). Underspecified, Ambiguous or Formal. Problems in Creating Maps Based on Texts. http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/underspecified-ambiguous-or-formal-problems-in-creating-maps-based-on-texts/ (acessed 10 April 2012).
Hickethier, K. (1986). Biographie, autobiographie, Memoirenliteratur. In Fischer, L. (ed.), Literatur in der Bundesrepublik bis 1967. München 574–584.
Isaksen, L., E. Barker, E. Kansa, et. al. (2011). GAP: a NeoGeo approach to classical resources, Leonardo, 45(1): 82–83.
Kahn, R. (2011). The EHRI Project: building an online archive for European Holocaust research. SCONUL Focus. (52). 21–22.
Nowviskie, B., W. Graham, D. McClure, et al. (2012). Geo-Temporal Interpretation of Archival Collections Using Neatline. Digital Humanities 2012. Conference Abstracts. 299–302.
White, R. (2010). What is Spatial History? http://www.stanford.edu/group/spatialhistory/cgi-bin/site/pub.php?id=29. (acessed 10 April 2012).
Notes","txt","2","",""
"1712","14","Introduction to the TXM content analysis platform","15","The objective of the “introduction to TXM” tutorial is to introduce the participants to the methodology of textometric content analysis (http://textometrie.ens-lyon.fr/?lang=en) through working with the TXM software directly on their own laptop computers. At the end of the tutorial, the participants will be able to input their own textual corpora (Unicode encoded raw texts or XML tagged texts) into TXM and to analyze them with the panel of content analysis tools available : word patterns frequency lists, kwic concordances and text browsing, rich full text search engine syntax (allowing to express various sequences of word forms, part of speech and lemma combinations constrained by XML structures), statistically specific sub-corpus vocabulary analysis, statistical collocation analysis, etc.).

During the tutorial, each participant will install TXM (from http://sourceforge.net/projects/txm) and the TreeTagger lemmatizer (http://www.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/projekte/corplex/TreeTagger) on her Windows, Mac or Linux laptop and will leave the tutorial with a ready to use environment.

The tutorial will also introduce the participants to the TXM community ecosystem (users mailing list and wiki, bug reports, etc.) and to the TXM portal version server software (See for example http://portal.textometrie.org/demo) for on line corpus distribution and analysis. Time permitting, TEI encoding aspects of corpora related to TXM could also be introduced, as well as speech transcriptions or parallel corpora encoding and analysis.

The objective of the “introduction to TXM” tutorial is to introduce the participants to the methodology of textometric content analysis (http://textometrie.ens-lyon.fr/?lang=en) through working with the TXM software directly on their own laptop computers. At the end of the tutorial, the participants will be able to input their own textual corpora (Unicode encoded raw texts or XML tagged texts) into TXM and to analyze them with the panel of content analysis tools available : word patterns frequency lists, kwic concordances and text browsing, rich full text search engine syntax (allowing to express various sequences of word forms, part of speech and lemma combinations constrained by XML structures), statistically specific sub-corpus vocabulary analysis, statistical collocation analysis, etc.)

The tutorial will be taught in English for the first time in DH2013 (the TXM User Graphical Interface is already available in English), and will complement two accepted communications introducing the TXM platform given during the conference:

—“TXM Platform for analysis of TEI encoded textual sources” #391 long paper;
— “TXM Portal: Providing Online Access to Textometric Corpus Analysis” #399 poster with live demo.
Tutorial Instructor
Serge Heiden

Project manager of the TXM platform development (http://textometrie.ens-lyon.fr/spip.php?article9). S. Heiden develops the textometry content analysis methodology through the development of tools able to process richly encoded corpora. Working on the relation between analysis tools and XML-TEI encoded corpora, he is involved in the TEI consortium activities as the TEI Tools SIG convener (http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/SIG/Tools).

Target audience and expected number of participants
The ideal number of participants is about 12-15 people, the maximum number of participants is about 20.

Each participant should come with her own laptop computer. The tutorial needs to run at least for a full day(*): typically half day for TXM tools fundamentals and half day for main corpus formats fundamentals (TXT and XML) and input procedures into the platform.

(*) The regular TXM tutorials run for two days (one day TXM introduction, one day corpus formating and import into TXM).

Brief Outline
9am – 12pm
1pm – 5pm
— Install & introduction: 45'
— TXM user interface & windows, corpus Description command
— Main tools: 2h15
—Lexicon analysis & spreadsheet export
—Index building for distributional semantics & Corpus Query Language syntax
— Concordance & Reading, Progression graphics
—Partitions, Subcorpus & Specificity/Factorial analysis
—Coccurrence analysis
—TXM portal demo (optional)
—TXM community: mailing lists, web sites and documentation
— TXM import strategy and main corpus formats: TXT-Unicode+CSV, XML+CSV, XML-TEI: 1/2h
— TXT-Unicode sample corpus and TXT+CSV import into TXM, sample analysis: 1h15
— introduction to XML and to TXT2XML conversion tools: 1/2h
— XML sample corpus and XML/w+CSV import into TXM, sample analysis: 1h45","txt","2","",""
"1713","14","TXM Platform for analysis of TEI encoded textual sources","10","Textometry is a methodology of text corpora analysis combining qualitative and quantitative techniques (kwic concordances, word frequency lists, collocations, factorial analysis, etc.) and producing valuable results for various fields of the humanities (linguistics, literary studies, history, geography, etc.).
The first generation of textometric software operated mainly on “raw text” with limited metadata and structural markup. In the recent years, a great number of digital resources with complex markup have been created. These can include multiple languages, various readings and other forms of critical apparatus, annotations like word lemmas or part of speech, syntactic structures, etc. As a general markup environment, the TEI guidelines provide a common framework for encoding all kinds of textual resources, although this framework allows a great flexibility and sometimes the same information can be encoded in many different ways. It is a challenge for the software and for the researcher to interpret these data correctly out of the context of their original project but it is also an opportunity to make the textometric analysis deeper and more precise.
A new generation of textometric open-source software called TXM was initiated by the Textométrie research project [1] funded by the French ANR agency (2007-2010) bringing together previous textometric techniques and state-of-the-art text encoding and corpus-building technologies: Unicode, XML, TEI, NLP (Heiden, 2010; Heiden et al., 2010). The TXM platform can be downloaded for free at http://sf.net/projects/txm with its sources. This article presents the design and the current state of the import environment being developed since to allow the platform to analyze various kind of TEI encoded sources.
The TXM platform addresses the challenge of importing TEI encoded corpora by “translating” the source document structure into the terms (or objects) relevant for textometric analysis. The main objects are: “text units” (define text limits in a corpus), “text metadata” (associate texts with their properties), “lexical units” (the way the word forms are separated), “word properties” (how to get their lemma or morpho-syntactic description if available), “text divisions” (book parts, sections, paragraphs...), primary and secondary “text surface” (what is the main language of the text to run NLP tools on the right tokens and possible secondary languages: foreign quotations or section titles provided by the editor of a historical source text), “out-of-text”: parts not to be considered as part of the source text (critical apparatus, encoding comments, etc.), “pagination” (to build an edition of the texts), etc.
For each type of source corpus, one has to precisely define how the textometric objects are encoded in the TEI sources and how to extract them to express the corresponding objects in a specially designed XML-TXM pivotal format before being instantiated inside the platform. The XML-TXM format is specialized in analytic data categories, in a way similar to the “TEI Analytics” format of the MONK project (Brian L. Pytlik Zillig, 2009), but is richer in data categories and is a formal TEI extension.
The extraction process is implemented by a combination of specific XSLT stylesheets, XPATH expressions and Groovy script parameters [2] .
We will describe how that approach has been validated on a comprehensive set of completely unrelated TEI encoded corpora: “Bibliothèques Virtuelles Humanistes” corpus (BVH collection of 16th century books: http://www.bvh.univ-tours.fr), Flaubert’s “Bouvard et Pécuchet” 19th century novel corpus: http://dossiers-flaubert.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr, corpus of 5 years issues of the “DISCOURS” linguistic journal: http://discours.revues.org/?lang=en) and the TEI version of the Brown 1 million words corpus from the NLTK project: http://nltk.org.
TXM TEI import environment and its XML-TXM pivotal format have proven to be flexible enough to process various data sources efficiently. In further developments, we will define a complete ODD description of the XML-TXM format to document it better for the TEI community and to contribute to the discussion on the ability of software tools to analyze TEI encoded data.
References
Heiden, S. (2010). The TXM Platform: Building Open-Source Textual Analysis Software Compatible with the TEI Encoding Scheme. 24th Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information and Computation. Éd. Kiyoshi Ishikawa Ryo Otoguro. Institute for Digital Enhancement of Cognitive Development, Waseda University, 4-7 November 2010. 389-398.
Heiden, S., J.-P. Magué, and B. Pincemin (2010). TXM : Une plateforme logicielle open-source pour la textométrie – conception et développement, in Bolasco, S., et al. (eds.), Statistical Analysis of Textual Data -Proceedings of 10th International Conference JADT.
Pytlik Zillig, B. L. (2009) TEI Analytics: converting documents into a TEI format for cross-collection text analysis.Literary and Linguistic Computing 24(2):187-192; doi:10.1093/llc/fqp005.
Notes
1. http://textometrie.ens-lyon.fr/?lang=en
2. The TXM import environment is implemented by several dynamic scripts written in the Groovy progamming language. All that software environment is directly accessible to the user to be modified and adapted: platform sources, import scripts, XSLT stylesheets, etc.","txt","2","",""
"1714","14","TXM Portal: Providing Online Access to Textometric Corpus Analysis","15","This poster presents the TXM portal, a software providing online access to textometric corpus analysis. Textometry is a computerized methodology of corpus analysis combining qualitative and quantitative tools applicable in various fields of the humanities (linguistics, literary studies, geography, philosophy, history, etc.). This methodology was initially developed in France in the 1980’s under the name of lexicometry and a number of software products implementing various analytical tools were developed. TXM is a new generation of open-source software built on a modular basis bringing together previous textometric techniques and state-of-the-art text encoding and corpus-building technologies (Unicode, XML, TEI, NLP) (Heiden, 2010; Heiden et al., 2010; Pincemin et al., 2010). The word search engine used for TXM is provided by the Open CWB open-source project (http://cwb.sourceforge.net) and syntactic structures can be queried using the TigerSearch engine (provided that the corpus is syntactically annotated in Tiger XML format) (Lezius 2002). Statistical analyses are performed using the R library (http://www.r-project.org). Other search engines and libraries can be plugged in the TXM platform as necessary.
The TXM software is available in the form of a desktop application (for Windows, Mac and Linux) and of a web portal application sharing a common “toolbox” for corpus building, query and statistical analysis. Most of the corpus analysis features are the same in both applications, however a special attention in the poster will be given to the features that are only available in the portal version.
It should be noted that corpus import and annotation features are only available in the desktop version. The portal version allows the administrator to upload previously compiled “binary” TXM corpora.
The major specific feature of the TXM portal is the management of user registration and access rights to the corpora with the possibility to specify access conditions for each individual text of the corpus (e.g. limitation of context size in concordances). This is important for copyrighted texts where owners may wish to prevent users from copying an entire text or a substantial part of it. User accounts and profiles can be edited by the portal administrator through the web interface. Customized web pages (“home”, “help” and “contact”) can be created for each user profile. Internationalization feature is available for the portal interface and user web pages (the current portal distribution provides English and French interface).
Another feature that is only available in the TXM portal version is the creation of subcorpora by selecting texts with a special interface. It allows the user to choose various criteria to select texts (depending on the metadata available for the corpus), to add or remove texts individually and to visualize the dimensions of the subcorpus in number of words or texts.
The basic tools of textometric analysis are available in all TXM versions. These include creating corpus partitions for contrastive analysis, building indexes and concordances of word or text patterns, display of one or several alternative text edition versions (including facsimile images). One can also search for collocates of a particular word. Statistical analysis tools are available for corpus partitions. These include computing specificity of word or text patterns and correspondence analysis. The results of corpus queries can be downloaded for further analysis in the form of CSV tables.
The TXM portal software is available for free under the GNU GPLv3 license from the sourceforge development site (http://sourceforge.net/projects/txm). A demo TXM portal where the various tools can be tested on sample corpora is accessible at the following address: http://txm.risc.cnrs.fr/demo. TXM portal is currently used in production to provide regular access to the Base de Français Médiéval old French corpus (http://txm.bfm-corpus.org/bfm) to a user community of 200 medievalists from around the world.
References
Pincemin, B., S. Heiden, M.-H. Lay, J.-M. Leblanc, and J.-M. Viprey (2010). Fonctionnalités textométriques: Proposition de typologie selon un point de vue utilisateur. In S. Bolasco et al. (Eds.), Statistical Analysis of Textual Data — Proceedings of 10th International Conference JADT 2010, Edizioni Universitarie di Lettere Economia Diritto, Rome, 9-11 juin 2010.
Heiden, S. (2010). The TXM Platform: Building Open-Source Textual Analysis Software Compatible with the TEI Encoding Scheme. 24th Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information and Computation. Éd. Kiyoshi Ishikawa Ryo Otoguro. Institute for Digital Enhancement of Cognitive Development, Waseda University, 2010. 389-398. online.
Heiden S., M. Jean-Philippe, and P. Bénédicte (2010). TXM : Une plateforme logicielle open-source pour la textométrie – conception et développement, in Sergio Bolasco& al (eds), Statistical Analysis of Textual Data -Proceedings of 10th International Conference JADT 2010.
Heiden S., and L. Alexei (2012). The TXM Portal Software Giving Access to Old French Manuscripts Online, Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Adaptation of Language Resources and Tools for Processing Cultural Heritage Objects, Seventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, Istanbul, Turkey, 2012.
Lezius, W. (2002). TIGERSearch – Ein Suchwerkzeug für Baumbanken // Proceedings der 6. Konferenz zur Verarbeitung natürlicher Sprache (KONVENS 2002). Saarbrücken. 2002. http://konvens2002.dfki.de.","txt","2","",""
"1715","14","Is there anybody out there? Building a global DH community","8","Is there anybody out there? Building a global DH community
Digital Humanities has come a long way towards establishing itself as a dynamic and innovative field of study. It has been pointed out however that an important area for further development is a broader internationalization of the Digital Humanities community. Currently most of the available literature is centered on DH projects in a handful of mainly English speaking countries. An important challenge for the DH community is to extend its international reach and integrate work from a wider range of languages and academic institutions. Presently there are numerous initiatives under way that aim to broaden Digital Humanities regional and linguistic diversity. In this talk I will discuss some of the issues with identifying DH scholars and establishing networks of collaboration drawing on specific examples of setting up the Red de Humanidades Digitales (RedHD).

Biography
Isabel Galina is currently a researcher at the Instituto de Investigaciones Bibliográficas at the National University of Mexico (UNAM). With a background in English Literature and Electronic Publishing, her Ph.D. research at University College London (UCL) was on the impact of electronic resources on scholarly communication and publishing. This led to a particular interest in new modes of scholarship and digital projects within the Humanities.

At the UNAM she has been involved in numerous initiatives related to institutional repositories, digitization projects, electronic publishing and the use and visibility of digital resources. She is a founding member and current president of the Red de Humanidades Digitales (RedHD) which aims to promote and strengthen Digital Humanities with special emphasis on research and teaching in Spanish as well as the Latin American region in general. She is Associate Editor of LLC: The Journal of Digital Scholarship in the Humanities and Honorary Research Fellow at the UCL Department of Information Studies.

References","txt","2","",""
"1716","14","Issues in Spatio-Temporal Technologies for the Humanities and Arts","3","Introduction
Spatio-temporal concepts are so ubiquitous that it is easy for us to forget they are essential to everything we do. All expressions of human culture are related to the dimensions of space and time in the manner of their production and consumption, the nature of their medium and the way in which they express these concepts themselves. The Space/Time Working Group (STWG) of the NeDiMAH [1] network held a full day workshop at the DH2012 conference on the topic of theorising methods that exploit space and time in the Digital Humanities. This session proposal is intended to continue and contribute to that discussion.

Issues
Connectivity. Different types of media provide different affordances (Gibson 1986) for representing space and time. We need more work on connecting space and time as represented in texts, audio, and video with the representations being created in GIS systems and other spatiotemporal databases. Texts, sound, and (moving) images are not simply “media” to be spatiotemporally tagged, but may have narrative structures that represent alternative models of space and time (Jewell 2005).

Uncertainty. There has been a lot of emphasis on ambiguity and vagueness in humanist theorising. Our digital tools depend upon our ability to demarcate boundaries, but do the demarcations allow room for the recognition of vagueness, ambiguity, and uncertainty? Should we abandon borders altogether (Berman 2005)? Places and periods are vague, socially defined constructs and source data always leads to imprecise and/or inaccurate data. Can we find a way of encapsulating ambiguity and uncertainty in metadata itself? How can we model for 'vectors of intensity'—impact—thinking about what we really want to do with what time and space tell us?

Contrasts. Although space and time are closely related, there are significant differences between the two. Bakhtin's concept of the chronotope (Bakhtin 1981) implies a strong connection between time and space, but this is a connection between quite different things. Among the most important differences are the natures of their dimensionality (three dimensions vs. one), their different relationships to the static—dynamic continuum where space is static but changeable, whereas time is a “flow” but the past is unchangeable, and the different methods we use to make the communicative leap across spatial and temporal distance.

Representation. Every medium, whether textual, tactile, illustrative or audible, or some combination of them, exploits space and time differently in order to convey its message. “Every medium has the capacity of mediating only certain aspects of the total reality” (Elleström, 2010, 24). The changes required to express the same concepts in different media are often driven by different spatio-temporal requirements. Authors and artists must decide how to collapse reality into the spatio-temporal limitations of a chosen medium, and the nature of those choices can be as interesting as the expression itself.

Absolute vs. Relative. How do we model for movement, trajectory, fluidity and momentum of events and ideas? How do we allow references to float in time and space? Relevant and foundational works exist, particularly for temporal models (e.g. Doerr and Yiortsou 1998; Plewe 2002, 2003; Grossner 2010), but the DH community would benefit greatly by a targeted effort for continued tool development in this area. Holmen and Ore (2010) suggest a way to handle uncertain time in a conceptual documentation system for archaeology. It is, however, not trivial to extend their model to include space as well.

Technical Literacy. In an area combining old with emerging conventions, how do humanists learn when to read a complex visualisation 'with a grain of salt' and to distinguish the 'truthiness' of something that appears on a screen from the complex process of selecting the sources that underlie it? How can humanists learn to justify and critique tool choice in the same way they justify and critique their selection of sources? The development of tools has to be based on informed cooperation, where the representatives of each discipline are allowed to work together on an equal footing.

Theory vs. Practice. The representational issues discussed above also connect to wider questions. The desire to connect digital tool building with the theoretical discourse of the humanities is often expressed, but it is not clear how to do it or what the utility of this will be. Tool building has its own theories, expressed in the form of encoding schemes, data structures, and ontologies. How can we bring the last few years’ discussions in this area forward? This is more than theory-based practice; it also includes practice as a source of theory on many levels, including the experiment as a theory-testing device as well as experiments creating theoretical ideas, also in serendipitous ways.

Presentations
The four panellists will each make a ten minute introduction, discussing aspects of how spatio-temporal datatypes have been, and can be modelled in relational databases. This includes associated operators and algorithms to enable computation of probabilistic or ""fuzzy"" extents, in the context of specific cases faced when dealing with their own spatial / temporal data and related materials. The nature of the choices that have to be made in order to represent aspects of the spatiotemporal reality in media expressions is a key issue. The focus of each of the presentations will be:

1.        The first presentation will be an introduction to the panel where the problems of media translations, especially between texts and maps, will be highlighted by pointing to specific examples. Fiction as well and non-fiction texts will be shown to include spatial description that makes a translation into a map impossible. However, if one sees each map as a possible interpretation of the text, then the complete text-map expression can be seen as a richer expression than either a text or a map alone.
2.        Dealing with dates, time periods, temporal granularity, data formats and asynchronous changes is one of the main issues that needs to be addressed in space-time data models. In the second presentation, we will provide some concrete examples from Chinese history of how using specific dates, qualitative typing of dates, and named time periods can be modelled and queried for spatial objects that change over time. Examples of asynchronous changes in GIS will demonstrate the differences between databases set up for time slices, time series, and temporal networks.
3.        The third presentation will discuss data modelling challenges encountered in representing temporal, spatial and thematic dimensions of the lives of ~28,000 Britons, spanning a period of several hundred years—all related by birth or marriage. Lifespans are in many cases bounded by vague or uncertain dates, and geographic associations have varying granularity. The goal is a meaningful ""contemporary-of"" relation joining the problematic temporal and spatial data with tags for individuals’ professions, aggregated to activity spheres.
4.        The concluding presentation will put the examples into the perspective of ontological modelling in culture heritage. Using time as an example, it will be demonstrated how a tool implementing modelling principles from CIDOC-CRM and Allen operators (Allen 1983). The tool can infer conflicting dating, increase precision of starts, ends and durations of events and finally display a chronological overview from a given a dataset of events, their time-spans and relations between events. The system can display all possible chronologies for the events in the set thus adding information to a combined data set.
After these four presentations, we will then invite the audience to a discussion, before we conclude by suggesting a list of important issues for further research. This list will be included in a panel report that will be written by the panellists and published digitally for further discussions, online as well as at physical meetings. Through the practical examples we hope to catalyse future workshops where new methods (such as topologies or qualitative descriptors) can be applied in practice, under the umbrella of the Nedimah Space/Time Working Group. Interested participants will be invited to take part in this continued work together with the panellists.

References
Allen, J. F. (1983). Maintaining Knowledge About Temporal Intervals. Commun. ACM 26(11): 832–43.
Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). Forms of Time and the Chronotope in the Novel. Notes toward a Historical Poetics. In Holquist, M. (ed.), The dialogic imagination: four essays. 84–258. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Berman, M. L. (2005). Boundaries or Networks in Historical GIS: Concepts of Measuring Space and Administrative Geography in Chinese History. Historical Geography 33: 118–133.
Doerr, M., and A. Yiortsou (1998). Implementing a Temporal Datatype, Technical Report ICS-FORTH/TR-236. url: www.ics.forth.gr/isl/publications/paperlink/implementing_a_temporal_datatype.ps.gz (checked 2009-05-27)
Elleström, L. (2010). The Modalities of Media: A Model for Understanding Intermedial Relations. In L. Elleström (Ed.), Media borders, multimodality and intermediality. 11–48. Basingstoke: Palgrave McMillan.
Gibson, J. J. (1986). The ecological approach to visual perception. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum. 1st ed.: 1979.
Grossner, K. (2010). Representing Historical Knowledge in Geographic Information Systems. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara, United States -- California. URL: http://www.kgeographer.org/assets/Grossner_dissertation_2010.pdf (checked 2012-11-03)
Holmen, J., and C.-E. Ore (2010). Deducing event chronology in a cultural heritage documentation system. In J. W. Crawford and D. Koller (Eds.), Making History Interactive. Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology (CAA). Proceedings of the 37th International Conference. Oxford: Archaeopress.
Jewell, M. O., K. F. Lawrence, and M. M. Tuffield (2005). OntoMedia: An Ontology for the Representation of Heterogeneous Media. In, Multimedia Information Retrieval Workshop (MMIR 2005) SIGIR, ACM SIGIR.
Plewe, B. S. (2002). The nature of uncertainty in historical geographic information. Transactions in GIS, 6(4): 431-456.
Plewe, B. S. (2003). Representing datum-level uncertainty in historical GIS. Cartography and Geographic Information Science, 30(4): 319-334.
Notes
1. Network for Digital Methods in the Arts and Humanities (http://nedimah.eu). NeDiMAH is funded by the European Science Foundation.","txt","2","",""
"1717","14","Joint and multi-authored publication patterns in the Digital Humanities","9","Introduction
A frequently claimed hallmark of Digital Humanities is its emphasis on collaborative work and joint publication (see, for example, Moulin, Nyhan et al 2012; Koh 2012; and Deegan and McCarty 2012). Is there any mismatch between the way that the field describes itself and what we find when we examine the evidence of publication patterns and practices? Furthermore, have publication patterns changed since the first journal of the field, Computers and the Humanities, was established in 1966? Has joint publication become more or less common or have the proportions of jointly published articles remained the same? Also, how do such patterns compare with other disciplines of the Humanities?

Research context
To the best of our knowledge the empirical evidence of publication practices of Digital Humanities scholars has not, until our research, been systematically investigated. In order to make a first contribution towards addressing this gap in the research literature we focused our research on publication patterns in the leading Digital Humanities journals since 1966. We hope to extend our analysis to other Digital Humanities journals (for example Computing in the Humanities Working Papers), identify and analyse publications in non-specialist Digital Humanities journals and contributions to e.g. book collections in a future iteration of this research. We began by harvesting all bibliographical metadata from Computers and the Humanities (1966-2004), Literary and Linguistic Computing (1986-2011) and Digital Humanities Quarterly (2007-2011) and then analysed it in order to explore the following questions:

What can we observe about patterns of joint publication?
What percentage of articles per issue and per journal was jointly published?
What kinds of joint publication patterns existed? What percentage of joint publications had 2 authors? What percentage had 3, 4, 5 or more?
How many authors contributed to more than one joint publication?
Of those who published jointly what patterns can be observed? Did they tend to contribute to papers authored by two or more authors?
Did authors tend to publish with predominately the same people over their careers or do we see a number of shifting constellations?
What percentage of people published only one article in the journals listed above and based on this do we see large portions of people dropping in and out of the field at particular times?
Methodology
Using Zotero we extracted bibliographical metadata from Computers and the Humanities (Chum)(1966–2004); Literary and Linguistic Computing(LLC) (1986-2011); and Digital Humanities Quarterly (DHQ) (2007-2011) and then exported this to Excel for initial viewing. As far as possible the data was cleaned and regularised e.g. a canonical form of personal names chosen where slight differences existed such as E.G. Wills and Edward G. Wills. The cleaned data were then imported into an SQL database and sorted into groups based on the number of authors. The annual observed frequencies of papers with n authors were then calculated. For each group, a linear regression was calculated in order to determine within a given journal whether the incidence of n-authored papers had changed over time.

For each journal the data were also processed so that dual-authored papers could be analysed using a connectivity index (Bell et al 2002)to determine the extent to which the pool of authors contributing to a given journal were interconnected. A connectivity index was constructed both on a journal-wide basis and on a per-author basis, allowing the distribution of ‘well-connected’ authors to be compared within and between journals.

Findings related to Chum
The diagram below shows the key findings in relation to Chum; space will not allow the findings in relation to LLC and DHQ to be presented, and all three journals to be compared and contrasted, so this will be done in the full paper. In relation to Chum, contrary to what one might expect given digital humanities emphasis on collaborative work, the highest incidence is of single-authored papers, but the frequency of this is variable. We should also remember that this does not necessarily mean that the research was done by a single scholar — all we can say is that publications were predominately by a single scholar. Considering trends over the lifetime of Chum we see that single authored papers are flat, whereas frequency of 2 and 3 authored papers increases over time. The strength of this association was examined using regression analysis. For Chum, the observed frequency of 2 and 3 authored papers increased over time, and this was significant at the 1% level. The frequency of 5 authored papers decreased over the observed time period, and this relationship was significant at the 5% level. However the overall number of 5 authored papers was low throughout.


Frequency of n-authored papers, by year

Findings related to LLC
The same analysis was conducted for LLC (graphs to be shown in the full presentation). Again, the most common form of contribution was of sole-authored papers. However, regression analysis highlighted some notable trends. The frequency of sole-authored papers was found to be decreasing over time, and this relationship was significant at the 5% level. As with Chum, the frequency of 3-authored papers was found to be increasing, significant at the 1% level. The frequency of papers with 2, 4 and 5 authors showed some increase over time, but these relationships were not significant.

Conclusion
In relation to Chum we have found that single-author publications were predominant for much of the lifetime of the journal. However, this does not necessarily mean that Digital Humanities does not have a higher occurrence of joint publications than other disciplines of the Humanities. Therefore, it is important to not only examine the empirical evidence that exists for publication practices in the Digital Humanities since 1966 at the aggregate level but to attempt also to situate such findings in a wider comparative context.

It should be noted that authorship as reflected in publication credits does not necessarily reflect actual contribution to research: a range of alternative practices might occur, from papers that only carry a single name despite substantial contributions from others, to papers that include ‘gift’ attributions to persons who have had little or no input(Cronin et al 2003).

The stereotype of the Humanities lone scholar is well known, even if it is increasingly recognised as being an impoverished model(Bulger et al 2011). The rate of publication and productivity in the Humanities has been looked at by Muffo et al(1987); Ramsden(1994); Wanner, Lewis & Gregorio (1981) and Stone (1982) examined, inter alia, “the way humanities scholars work and the materials of their research”. Changing publication patterns in the Humanities in Flanders and Belgium have been analysed by Engels et al who found that in the period 2000-09 “The overall growth rate in number of publications is over 62.1%, but varies across disciplines between 7.5 and 172.9%. Publication output grew faster in the Social Sciences than in the Humanities.”(2012). In 2003 Kyvik found that in Norwegian Universities co-Authorship has become more common but it is difficult to determine from the article to what degree this applies to the Humanities. Lariviere et al used data from the CD-ROM versions of the Science Citation Index, Social Sciences Citation Index and the Arts & Humanities Citation Index from 1980 to 2002, to argue that “contrary to a widely held belief, researchers in the social sciences and the humanities do not form a homogeneous category. In fact, collaborative activities of researchers in the social sciences are more comparable to those of researchers in the [natural sciences and engineering] than in the humanities”(2006).

In essence, looking to the scholarly literature in both Digital Humanities and the wider Humanities context relatively few studies have been undertaken based on the empirical data that exists about joint publication patterns. This short paper will take a first step towards remedying this.

References
Bell, M., M. Blake, P. Boyle, O. Duke-Williams, P. Rees, J. Stillwell, and G. Hugo (2002). Cross-national comparison of internal migration: issues and measures. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society) 165: 435–464. doi: 10.1111/1467-985X.t01-1-00247
Bulger, Monica, et al. Research Information Network (2011). Reinventing research? Information practices in the humanities. Research Information Network, UK.
Cronin, B., D. Shaw, and K. La Barre (2003). A cast of thousands: Coauthorship and subauthorship collaboration in the 20th century as manifested in the scholarly journal literature of psychology and philosophy. Journal of the American Society for Information Science 54 855–871. doi: 10.1002/asi.10278
Deegan, M., and W. McCarty (2012.) Collaborative research in the digital humanities: a volume in honour of Harold Short, on the occasion of his 65th birthday and his retirement, September 2010. Farnham: Ashgate.
Engels, T. C. E., T. L. B. Ossenblook, and E. H. J. Spruyt (2012). Changing publication patterns in the Social Sciences and Humanities, 2000-2009. Scientometrics.
Koh, A. (2012.) The Challenges of Digital Scholarship. ProfHacker, http://chronicle.com/blogs/profhacker/the-challenges-of-digital-scholarship/38103 (accessed 25 January 2012).
Moulin, C., J. Nyhan, et al. (2011) ESF: Science Policy Briefing. Research Infrastructures in the Digital Humanities
Kyvik, S. (2003). Changing trends in publishing behaviour among university faculty, 1980-2000. Scientometrics, 58:1.
Lariviere, V., Y. Gingras, and Archambault, E. (2006). Collaboration networks: A comparative analysis of the natural science, social sciences and the humanities. Scientometrics, 68(3): 519-533.
Muffo, J. A., S.V. Mead, and A.E. Bayer (1987). Using faculty publication rates for comparing “peer” institutions. Research in Higher Education, 27.2 163-175.
Ramsden, P. (1994). Describing and explaining research productivity. Higher Education, 28(2): 207-226.
Stone, S. (1982). Humanities Scholars: Information Needs and Uses. Journal of Documentation, 38(4): 292–313.
Wanner, R. A., L.S. Lewis, and D.I. Gregorio (1981). Research Productivity in Academia: A Comparative Study of the Sciences, Social Sciences and Humanities. Sociology of Education, 54: 238-253.","txt","2","",""
"1718","14","Uncovering the hidden histories of computing in the Humanities 19491980: findings and reflections on the pilot project","10","Introduction
Despite the relative longevity of Digital Humanities (its origins are usually pinpointed to at least 1949, when Fr Roberto Busa, an Italian, Jesuit priest, began work on an index variorum of some 11 million words of medieval Latin in the works of St Thomas Aquinas and related authors) very little is known of history. In this paper we will present the key findings of the pilot stage of the ‘Hidden Histories’ project, which is building an oral prosopography that explores the social, cultural and intellectual factors that helped to shape the work of Digital Humanities scholars since c.1949. We will also demonstrate that Oral History is an important and productive methodology in such research and that it has resulted in the creation of primary sources that not only offer new information and interpretations of the field but that can also be used for further historical research.
Research context and key aims
Contributions and notes towards a history of the field have been appearing since at least 1996 (for example, Fraser 1996; McCarty 2003; Hockey, 2004). The most substantial contribution published to date, that of Hockey (2004), is a chronological outline that emphasises key developments such as TEI. As welcome and important as such contributions are they neither are, nor aim to be, comprehensive histories of the field. As McCarty has argued “For computing to be of the humanities as well as in them, we must get beyond catalogues, chronologies, and heroic firsts to a genuine history. There are none yet.” (McCarty 2008: 255).
Nevertheless, more recent and ongoing research is enabling us to fill in aspects of the broad outlines of such a history. Barnet has researched, inter alia, the evolution of the Memex (2009) and the hypertext editing systems HES and FRESS (2010); Rockwell et al (2011) have presented on the incunabular history of computing in Canada and both Willard McCarty (forthcoming, see http://www.mccarty.org.uk/) and Edward Vanhoutte (forthcoming, seehttp://www.edwardvanhoutte.org/onderzoek/index.htm) are at work on book-length studies of DH literary history and editions.
Looking to the history of computing we can identify a number of the technological developments that gave rise to the possibility of viewing computers as more than mere number crunchers that were unsuitable for use in Humanities research. Given the nature of the Humanities, and its long standing oppositions — between, inter alia, techné and episteme; lone scholars and collaborative teams; discipline and interdiscipline— we hold that the very fact that the computer was used in Humanities research at all is as significant as the results it has yielded. However, the social, cultural and educational factors that helped to shape the early uptake of computing in the Humanities are little understood; it is this gap that the project sought to address. A key aim of the pilot was to investigate the appropriateness of Oral History as a methodology for capturing memories, observations and insights that are rarely recorded in the scholarly literature of the field. Accordingly, we carried out a number of pilot interviews in order to test and refine our methodology, aims and research questions. This paper will describe the key findings of the pilot project 'Uncovering the “hidden histories” of computing in the Humanities 1949–1980,' which has resulted in the creation of primary sources that will further research in this area (for example, McCarty, Nyhan et al forthcoming; Rockwell, Nyhan et al forthcoming; Short, Nyhan et al forthcoming; Siemens, Welsh et al forthcoming; Unsworth, Welsh et al forthcoming).
Methodology
During the pilot phase oral history interviews were carried out with ten prominent scholars in the field including, among others, Willard McCarty, Geoffrey Rockwell, Harold Short, Ray Siemens, John Unsworth. Now into a further iteration of the project the range of people who are being interviewed has been extended. This is to ensure a better balance between the contributions of emeritus, established, mid- and early career scholars as well as gender. Also being interviewing are those who have not necessarily followed a purely academic career path but have worked in research management, funding, foresight and strategy and service or support positions.
The chief methodology of the project was an oral history one. Oral history has been defined as “the investigation of the past by means of personal recollections, memories, evocations or life stories, where the individual talks about their experiences, attitudes and values to a researcher” (Hitchcock and Hughes 1995, 220). Semi-structured interviews were based around the following questions:
•        1) Please tell me about your earliest memory of encountering computing technology
•        2) Did you receive formal training in programming or computing?
•        3) How did you first get involved in what we now refer to as Digital Humanities?
•        4) Which people particularly influenced you and how?
•        5) What about scholars who were not using computers in their research do you have some sense of what their views about humanities computing were?
•        6) What was your first engagement with the 'conference community' and how did that come about?
Content analysis was initially investigated in order to analyse the interviews; however, this was ultimately rejected in favour of a close reading approach. As will be explored in greater detail in the full paper one of the chief strengths of an oral history methodology is its propensity to expose, rather than gloss over the heterogeneity, dissent and difference that is an integral part of the history of computing in the humanities. In seeking to move away from the hitherto evolutionary and catalogue-based approach to the history of computing in the humanities that has often been pursued it seemed especially important to give due regard to this.
Key themes that emerged from the interviews
The forthcoming publications referred to above are to transcripts and audio recordings of five interviews carried out during the pilot phase. The paper will present the key findings of the pilot project based on an analysis of all of the interviews carried out. Specifically we will:
•        (i) Identify and reflect on the advantages and disadvantages of using an Oral History methodology for such research
We will also explore in detail two of the key themes that emerged from the interviews and their implications:
•        (ii) The interviews revealed that historically, both the entry routes through which people entered the field and the levels of formal training in computing that they had access to differ substantially. For example, Willard McCarty did not have access to formal training in computing when he was at Reed college in the 1960s, instead he learned programming ‘by doing’ (McCarty, Nyhan et al forthcoming). In contrast, Ray Siemens, had access to formal training in computing when he was in the English department of the University of Waterloo in the mid-1980s (Siemens, Welsh et al forthcoming). All data collected on this theme will be presented and possible implications discussed. For example, looking to the present time, as more and more dedicated Digital Humanities courses are being founded in countries such as the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada and the USA etc, students have the opportunity to undertake formal and focused training in the subject. It will be most interesting to see, in due course, how this formalisation of the routes of entry into the discipline will effect interpretations about what it is. Will we still be having the ‘what is digital humanities’ debate in ten years and how important will it be to understanding the early history of the emergence of the discipline?
•        (iii) Some interviews, for example, that carried out with Harold Short reveal the importance of the social, intra-personal and administrative work that appears to have been so central to the establishment and institutionalisation of Digital Humanities. Nevertheless, this work tends to be of lower profile that formal scholarly research and is rarely explored in historical studies of the field. The data collected on this will be presented and its wider comparative context with other emerging disciplines will be explored.
Conclusion
The history of Digital Humanities is a research topic that has been neglected not only by those working in long established Humanities subjects but also by the Digital Humanities community itself; much interesting and essential work in this area remains to be done. This paper will present the new findings that the Hidden Histories project has uncovered and will also argue that Oral History has a central role to play in such research. Furthermore, it will draw attention to the pressing need that exists for histories of Digital Humanities.
References
Barnet, B. (2010). Crafting the User-Centered Document Interface: The Hypertext Editing System (HES) and the File Retrieval and Editing System (FRESS). Digital Humanities Quarterly 4.1
Barnet, B. (2008). The Technical Evolution of Vannevar Bush’s Memex. Digital Humanities Quarterly 2.1
Fraser, M. (1996). A Hypertextual History of Humanities Computing. http://users.ox.ac.uk/~ctitext2/history/
Hitchcock, G., and D. Hughes. (1995). Research and the teacher: a qualitative introduction to school-based research. Routledge.
Hockey, S. (2004). The History of Humanities Computing. In Schreibman, S., et al. (eds), A Companion to Digital Humanities. Oxford: Blackwell. http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/
Mahoney, M. S. (1996). Issues in the history of computing. In Bergin Jr., T. J., and Gibson, R. G. (eds), History of programming languages — II. New York: ACM.
McCarty, W., J. Nyhan, A. Welsh, and J. Salmon. Questioning, Asking and Enduring Curiosity: an Oral History Conversation between Julianne Nyhan and Willard McCarty. Digital Humanities Quarterly [Forthcoming]
McCarty, W. (2003). Humanities Computing. In Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. New York: Marcel Dekker. 1224-1235.
McCarty, W. (2008). Whats going on? Literary and Linguistic Computing 23.3: 253-261.
Rockwell, G., J. Nyhan, A. Welsh, J. Salmon. Trading Stories: an Oral History Conversation between Geoffrey Rockwell and Julianne Nyhan. Digital Humanities Quarterly [Forthcoming]
Rockwell, G., V. S. Smith, and S. Hoosein, et al. (2011a). Computing in Canada: a history of the incunabular years.Digital Humanities 2011 http://dh2011abstracts.stanford.edu/xtf/view?docId=tei/ab-311.xml;query=;brand=default
Short, H., J. Nyhan, A. Welsh, and J. Salmon Collaboration must be fundamental or it's not going to work: an Oral History Conversation between Harold Short and Julianne Nyhan. Digital Humanities Quarterly [Forthcoming]
Siemens, R., A. Welsh, J. Nyhan, and J. Salmon. Video-gaming, Paradise Lost and TCP/IP: an Oral History Conversation between Ray Siemens and Anne Welsh. Digital Humanities Quarterly [Forthcoming]
Unsworth, J., A. Welsh, J. Nyhan, and J. Salmon. Postmodern Culture and more: an Oral History Conversation between John Unsworth and Anne Welsh. Digital Humanities Quarterly [Forthcoming]","txt","2","",""
"1719","14","Juxta Commons","2","Free and open source, Juxta Commons (juxtacommons.org) is an online workspace for comparing multiple witnesses to a single textual work, privately storing collations, and sharing visualizations.

Originally offered as a downloadable Java-based application developed by the Applied Research in 'Patacriticism group at the University of Virginia in 2005, Juxta was taken up by NINES (http://nines.org) and transformed into a web service. This open-source API modularizes the sequence of steps required for digital collation and offers more options for working with XML documents. In addition, the NINES R&D team created the interface for Juxta Commons, a destination site for collation on the web.

Juxta Commons offers three visualizations of the differences between a group of texts: the heat map (an overlay of the texts with differences highlighted by color), the side-by-side view (two texts visualized with lines connecting the sites of difference) and the histogram (a global view of the text illustrating the portions with the most change across versions). It is also compatible with TEI Parallel Segmentation, so that users can upload their encoded files and make use of Juxta’s visualizations, or those with text or XML files can export their collations as a digital critical apparatus.

The interface streamlines the workflow of the original desktop application, and allows the user to edit their sources, filter the XML content included in a given collation, and share their results in a number of different ways. Even though the tool provides sophisticated options for working with texts (XML and TXT), our goal in designing Juxta Commons was to allow teachers, scholars, programmers and any other users curious about variants between documents the ability to create, collate and share their findings with others without requiring any extra software downloads or logins.

In taking Juxta to the web, NINES has transformed the tool into a rhetorical as well as analytical tool, enabling initial discoveries to be interrogated, explored, and ultimately offered as a new kind of evidence for scholarly arguments. Instead of relying upon footnotes or links in a digital edition, a scholar can embed their collations within the argument itself, targeting sites of interest, and encouraging readers to explore the full visualizations on their own.

Even as it presents some exciting opportunities for students of book history and textual criticism, Juxta Commons also broadens the scope of interest in collation to the many different kinds of texts on the web. Speeches and transcriptions, Wikipedia article versions, news releases, Google Books and HATHI Trust texts: all these require the kind of authentication and analysis that Juxta Commons makes possible.

Please visit the site juxtasoftware.org to learn more, and to find sample sets to spark your creativity.","txt","2","",""
"1720","14","Keywords to Keyframes: Video Analytics for Archival Research","15","The target audience for this workshop consists of scholars with research interests related to the way that visual media impacts culture.

Description + Schedule
This workshop will serve scholars of any level of technical expertise who are interested in studying images as part of their work in the digital humanities using a hybrid method that combines machine analytics (keyframes) and crowd-sourced tagging (keywords). Facilitating a discussion and training session featuring up to twenty participants, we will demo the Large Scale Video Analytics (LSVA) workbench for moving and still image analysis and archiving. The LSVA is a web portal developed through a collaboration among the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) and the Extreme Science and Engineering Discovery Environment (XSEDE), the IML (Institute for Multimedia Literacy), and ICHASS (the Institute for Computing in the Humanities, Arts and Social Science). The LSVA has customized the prominent Medici content management system, a multimedia database which has served scholars worldwide. The LSVA requires no software installation, though we do require online access. Further, we will provide access to IM2Learn, a free software package for image analysis developed by the NCSA. There will be no CFP associated with this workshop; rather, we would like participants to self select.

The LSVA deploys the application of various algorithms for image recognition and visualization into the workflow that allows real-time analysis of video, as well as crowd-sourced content labeling such that the system becomes more valuable the more it is used.

In addition, the LSVA team has created and customized visualization tools that enhance research in several ways: novel visualizations employ spatial and temporal simultaneity, revealing unique aspects of a single film sequence; comparative visualizations represent relationships among multiple films within an archive; and, finally, the integration of visualization imagery becomes an input tag and a front end process that feeds the Medici content management system and enhances word-based labels, helping to close the semantic gap that occurs when words are applied to images.

8:00-8:30 am: Introduction to basic concepts of computer vision and image retrieval
8:30-9:00 am: Overview of standard research methodologies and those the LSVA extends
9:00-9:15 am:BREAK
9:15-10:00 am: Demo of LSVA system and walkthrough of interpreting output and requerying
10:00-11:00 am: Hands-on with LSVA system: uploading, sorting, and analyzing moving and still images
Workshop Leader Bios
BIO: Virginia Kuhn is associate director of the Institute for Multimedia Literacy, an organized research unit in the School of Cinematic Arts at the University of Southern California. She was the 2009 recipient of the USC provost’s Award for Teaching with Technology, she co-chairs the Scholarly Interest Group on Media Literacy and Pedagogical Outreach for the Society for Cinema and Media Studies, and she serves on the editorial boards of several journals of media and technology. She joined USC in 2005 after successfully defending one of the first born-digital dissertations in the US, challenging archiving and copyright conventions. Committed to helping shape open source tools for scholarship, she published the first article created in Scalar, which appeared in the International Journal of Learning and Media and titled “Filmic Texts and the Rise of the Fifth Estate. She also serves on the editorial boards of several journals of media and technology.

BIO: Michael Simeone is the Associate Director for Research and Interdisciplinary Studies at ICHASS at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Aside from his work on projects that engage the computational study of video, image-analysis of Great Lakes area historical maps, and the significance of social network analytics for the humanities, his research focuses on the intersection of humanities research procedures and data science. He received his PhD in English from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.","txt","2","",""
"1721","14","KORA: A Digital Repository and Publishing Platform","2","MATRIX has developed an open source application that cultural and educational institutions can use to preserve digital materials and display them online. The application, KORA (http://kora.matrix.msu.edu), is particularly well-suited for working with digital objects of all media types and for easily creating displays of these objects in multiple ways that enhance their educational and research value. MATRIX, a humanities computing research center at Michigan State University, has built and enhanced this application in the course of seven years of research with support from the National Science Foundation.

Designed for long-term preservation and access, KORA includes unique features that meet two important needs of institutions that have limited technological resources: (1) simple design of the digital repository and the ingesting of data, and (2) the ability to display digital materials online in diverse ways, such as image galleries, multimedia educational activities, or story chapters.

The KORA architecture is unique in that it can accommodate any set of metadata schemes (or tables) in individualized digital libraries. Users can easily create metadata elements (database fields) using a simple point-and-click interface, select the type of form control for each element (e.g., required formats for date, URL, file upload, etc.), and then determine whether the element is required for each record, whether it should appear in search returns, and other features. KORA then automatically generates storage structures, ingestion (data entry) forms, and validation requirements for each metadata scheme.

Because the back-end of projects can be created in minutes by people without technical training, the overhead for getting projects started is reduced immeasurably compared to beginning with a blank SQL or other database. And because KORA is an online application, multiple users can develop a collection from separate locations at the same time. Also, KORA can ingest materials from any standardized repository and can output XML that can be harvested by these repositories.

KORA also includes an easy-to-use ""associator"" tool for creating relationships that combine objects of various media types. As demonstrated by diverse websites built with KORA, many creative displays are possible using this open source application.

In keeping with the need to ensure authenticity and integrity of files ingested into KORA, as described in the International Research on Permanent Authentic Records in Electronic Systems (InterPARES) guidelines, automatic fixity checking has been built into KORA to verify that data has been kept free of tampering and corruption. Long-term access to digital material can be assured by storing this preservation information in the digital repository, as described by the ISO Reference Model for an Open Archival Information System (OAIS) model and Preservation Metadata: Implementation Strategies (PREMIS).

New Release: KORA 3.0
KORA 3.0 will be released this fall with a host of new features, including many major changes:

all new user experience design;
independence from MYSQL so it can be used with other database management systems;
enhanced Multilanguage capabilities;
rebuilt on Symphony, KORA will have enhanced plugin capabilities;
and many more features.","txt","2","",""
"1722","14","The Lethbridge Journal Incubator: Aligning digital open access scholarly publishing with the teaching and research missions of a public university","2","The Lethbridge Journal incubator is an experiment in the sustainability of academic publishing. The incubator attempts to ensure this sustainability by aligning the publishing processes with the research, teaching, and service missions of the University. Instead of drawing resources away from these central missions, academic communication under this model become a resource that materially improves the University’s ability to carry out these core functions.

The basic premise of the incubator is that the skills and experiences involved in contemporary scholarly journal production are both generalisable across disciplines and of significant value to graduate students whether they pursue post-graduate careers within or without the academy.

Through their work in the incubator, students will acquire training, managerial experience, and networking opportunities that are both of immediate use to them in their research domains and easily transferred to other aspects of their academic or professional careers. These skills are, moreover, highly sought-after by public and private sector employers, especially when combined with the higher-level analytic skills acquired in the course of their graduate studies.


The incubator works by training graduate students in technical and managerial aspects of journal production. On the one hand, academic journals are highly specialised publications that require high-level, research-domain-specific skills and knowledge from their authors, editors, and readers. On the other hand, however, the actual process by which journals are produced is relatively standard and requires very little research-domain knowledge

Under the supervision of academics, professional librarians, and a professional office manager, students are introduced to the core elements of the workflow that underlies the production of all academic journals and trained in detail both in one or more technical aspects of journal production (copy-editing, preparation of proofs, document-encoding, the use of standard journal-production software), and, more broadly, in the duties of an academic journal managing editor (supervising the progress of articles through the workflow from receipt to publication, corresponding with authors and referees, keeping minutes of editorial meetings, and the like). Students then assume managerial responsibility for one or two titles from their broad area of domain expertise while also working as production assistants specialising in one or more technical aspects of journal production across all titles, regardless of discipline, in the incubator as a whole.

The incubator has been in prototype for just over a year. This poster describes the basic approach and reviews the lessons learned from the first year as well as plans for the coming year, in which we will be working on librarianship and business-model issues.","txt","2","",""
"1723","14","Lexomics: Integrating the research and teaching spaces","9","Integrating research and teaching is exciting, time intensive, and a prescription for energizing faculty and students. We present outcomes of a six-year effort in multidisciplinary collaboration centered on the digital humanities as experienced in our teaching and research. Rooted in a set of “connected” courses between English and Computer Science (LeBlanc, et al. 2010) and three summers of NEH-funded research, our Lexomics Research Group has developed a modest set of web-based applications for scholars of digitized texts. We report here on the iterative development of the open-source toolset, how scholars both in and outside our group have used these tools to make significant discoveries, and perhaps most important how our research and teaching collaborations introduce a spirit of experimentation to the digital humanities.

Our current website is both a repository for our tool set as well as an evangelistic platform and teaching resource: http://lexomics.wheatoncollege.edu. We continue to develop online tools for three independent, but logically connected functions that lead scholars through the steps needed for performing hierarchical cluster analyses of texts and/or sections of texts. At this point, our cluster analysis tools are more narrowly focused than other toolsets, c.f. Voyant Tools and the data-intensive flow execution environment of Meandre. Our scrubber tool (PHP, CSS) accepts texts in multiple formats (.txt, .html, .docx) and handles preprocessing steps including stripping tags, removing stop words, and applying lemma lists. A second tool, diviText (ExtJS, PHP), accepts the output from scrubber, cuts texts into “chunks” in one of three ways (fixed size chunks, a specific number of chunks, and/or by manually selecting locations between words for chunk breaks), computes word counts within each chunk, and allows users to merge chunks. The latter functionality has proved valuable for generating “virtual manuscripts”, that is, joining sections from different manuscripts. A third tool, treeView (PHP, R) accepts output from diviText, performs a number of variants of hierarchical cluster analysis, and returns a dendrogram plot in .pdf or phyloXML format.

Based on feedback from scholars who are using our tools, the website now provides video and written tutorials to help new users get started. These tutorials have been especially valuable for introducing these tools to our undergraduates. In the spirit of evangelizing, our website offers a series of “best practices” videos, discussions and step-by-step diagrams that shred insight to the process of how textual analysis at this level of detail can lead to rich new questions. The instructional videos include “The Story of Daniel”, a discussion of one of our initial successes when using the tools where we showed that lexomic methods can accurately characterize the structure and relationships of texts that are already known, for example, identifying Genesis B within the Old English Genesis and the section of Daniel that is paralleled in Azarias (Drout, et al. 2011). Other videos include: “How to Read a Dendrogram”, “How to Create a Dendrogram”, “How to Read a Ribbon Diagram”, “Lexomics for Comparison”, and “Lexomics for Source Detection”. A much longer video, “Editions and Manuscripts,” addresses the challenges of choosing between different kinds of editions that may exist for a text that is found in multiple forms.

We have made what we think are significant discoveries in a number of spaces, including Beowulf, the poems of Cynewulf, Anglo-Saxon prose, a few Old Norse sagas, and Modern English texts including the Harlem Renaissance play Mule Bone (by Zora Neale Hurston and Langston Hughes). Lexomics is both an excellent first step to augment traditional scholarship as well as a rich source of deep analysis.

For example, previous lexomic analysis of several Old English poems suggests that there is a connection between dendrograms with an isolated, single leaf and poems that have an external source for one subsection of the poem different from the source or sources of the main body of the poem. We ﬁnd in the dendrogram of Daniel a single-leaf clade corresponding to lines 299–455 of the poem. This section includes parts of Daniel that have external Latin sources that are different from the source of the rest of the poem (the Latin Bible). Similarly, in the Anglo-Saxon poem Christ III, a single-leaf clade that represents lines 1350–1510 has its source in Sermon 57 of Cæsarius of Arles (lines 1379–1498), and a single-leaf clade in Genesis A (lines 1079–1256) is associated with the genealogical lists from Adam to Noah that give the lineages of both Cain and Seth (lines 1055–1252), material that, for at least some of its content, must have a source different from the biblical text. These relationships were already known to scholars, but our investigation of the Old English poem Guthlac A resolved a century-long critical controversy by demonstrating that a key section of this poem (when demons drag Guthlac to the mouth of hell) has a different proximate source than the rest of the poem and that Guthlac A therefore must have been composed after a separately circulating text similar in content to Vercelli Homily 23 (Downey et al., 2012).

The toolset, instructional materials, and publications are obvious deliverables from our efforts. Yet, we submit that our collaborative experiences with faculty and undergraduate students are even more exciting and provide a significant use-case of how scholarship in the humanities is evolving from the stereotypical solitary scholar to a paradigm of community, collaboration, and experimentation (cf. Unsworth, 1997). In our recent NEH- and locally-funded summer experience, humanities faculty in particular were pleasantly surprised with the intellectual environment that emerged. We got a glimpse of what it must have been like to work at a place like Bell Labs when they were making daily discoveries. This kind of collaborative, fast-moving research is unfortunately largely unknown in the humanities.

So how to continue our own momentum as well as replicate a spirit of experimentation for others? Earhart (2010) rightly notes that “digital projects remain rare, often the product of tenacious participants rather than a supportive academic environment”(emphasis added). We submit that faculty (not administrators nor technologists in the library) are the prime drivers and change must begin with our syllabi. Robust working relationships in the lab are strongest after students have already applied new modes of thinking in the classroom; for example, the importance of exposing undergraduate humanities students to computational thinking: problem decomposition, algorithmic thinking, and the success and failures of experimentation. And we need not overplay the lab metaphor. Our image of the digital humanities lab need not include beakers and soapstone benches, rather, the “new lab” is a room filled with scholars from multiple disciplines and a whiteboard.

Even if we had discovered nothing during our past summers in the lab, the intellectual thrill of the research group would have been a major accomplishment that these students (and we faculty) will never forget. But in fact we made discoveries, so many that there were days when participating faculty got none of their own work done because we were so busy bouncing from student to student seeing what they had found. Most critically, the experience continues to shape the way we share our disciplines with new cohorts of students. The solitary scholar still has a role to be sure, but that is no longer sufficient for the multidisciplinary demands and rewards to be gained from collaborations in the digital humanities: in our teaching, to our research, and back again.

lexomics — The term was originally coined by Betsey Dexter Dyer and ﬁrst appeared in Genome Technology (2002). Since then ‘‘lexomics’’ has appeared on the internet and in some publications without attribution. Some of these appearances could be independent inventions of the term.

References
Downey, S., M. Drout, M. Kahn, and M. D. LeBlanc (2012). 'Books Tell Us': Lexomic and Traditional Evidence for the Sources of Guthlac A. Modern Philology 110: 1-29.
Drout, M., M. Kahn, M. D. LeBlanc, and C. Nelson (2011). Of Dendrogrammatology: Lexomic Methods for Analyzing Relationships among Old English Poems, Journal of English and Germanic Philology 110: 301–36.
Drout, M., M. D. LeBlanc, and M. Kahn (2011-2013). “Lexomic Tools and Methods for Textual Analysis: Providing Deep Access to Digitized Texts.” National Endowment for the Humanities–NEH PR-50112011.
Earhart, A. (2010). Challenging Gaps: Redesigning Collaboration in the Digital Humanities. In Earhart and Jewell (eds),The American Literature Scholar in the Digital Age Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.9362034.0001.001.
Genome Technology (2002). ""In the News."" in Genome Technology 1(27), November 1, 2002.
LeBlanc, M. D., M. Gousie, and T. Armstrong (2010). Connecting Across Campus. 'Proceedings of the 41st SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education' held in Milwaukee, WI.
LeBlanc, M. D., M. Drout, and M. Kahn (2008-2010). “Pattern Recognition through Computational Stylistics: Old English and Beyond.” National Endowment for the Humanities–NEH HD-50300-08.
Lexomics Research Group. http://lexomics.wheatoncollege.edu
Meandre http://seasr.org/meandre/
Unsworth, J. (1997). Documenting the Reinvention of Text: The Importance of Failure. Journal of Electronic Publishing, 3:2. http://dx.doi.org/10.3998/3336451.0003.201.
Voyant Tools. http://voyant-tools.org/","txt","2","",""
"1724","14","LEXUS 3  a collaborative environment for multimedia lexica","9","LEXUS (The Language Archive 2013; Ringersma, et al. 2007) is a flexible web-based lexicon tool that was initially (between 2006 and 2010) developed at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics in Nijmegen within the program “documentation of endangered languages” (DOBES), funded by the Volkswagen Foundation (cf. Volkswagen Foundation). It is a tool specifically tailored for linguists whose research involves collecting and documenting a broad range of spoken data; data that is mainly in the form of audio and video recordings and often depicts a language that has never been documented before and is in danger of becoming extinct. Projects that are supported within the DOBES domain have specific requirements to be met by a lexicon tool. In particular the lexicon tool has to provide a high degree of flexibility with respect to lexicon structure to allow all possible structures, even those that might not have been seen in the description of other languages. Also, given the audio-visual nature of the data, there needs to be proper facilities for presenting multimedia within the lexicon. In what follows we will give a brief overview of how LEXUS is fine-tuned to meet most of the demands of this domain and how it is a useful tool for documenting endangered languages while at the same time suitable as a lexicographic tool for any other language.

LEXUS is not the only lexicographic tool with endangered languages as its key area of application. The KirrKirr software (Manning et al, 2001), the IDD (Indiana Dictionary Database, cf. De Korne, et al. 2009), the Toolbox, Lexique Pro, WeSay and FLEx (SIL 2013) programs are other examples, among which the SIL tools are the most comparable to Lexus. Toolbox is a tool for data management and analysis which includes lexical data and a parsing and glossing engine. Still, the outdated data model of toolbox seriously impedes its sustainability and interoperability with other tools. Lexique-pro is suitable for visualizing Toolbox/Shoebox data. FLEx on the other hand is a powerful lexicon tool with advanced parsing and analytical functionalities. Using other SIL tools one has sophisticated options to present and publish FLEx data. In terms of features and functionality for lexical databases by themselves, LEXUS stands somewhere in the middle with its set of features that aim at user-friendliness. Crucially, it offers online and shared access to the lexicon. It also allows for interoperability and customizable visualization for styled HTML views of data without requiring any knowledge of markup languages.

LEXUS makes use of schema structure trees for representing lexical entry elements. However, it does not enforce any pre-described schema structure for the lexicon of a given language. Instead, upon creating a new lexicon, LEXUS provides the user with a small collection of schema templates to choose from. These templates can be further developed into more complex schemas to build a particular lexicon. Some of these proposed templates have been created based on more standard frameworks such as ISO LMF (ISO 14613, 2008) and promote the usage of concept names and conventions that are proposed by the ISO data categories in ISOcat (Kemps-Snijders et al, 2009). There are even some templates that have been suggested and fine-tuned based on the experience of field linguists who have been involved in documenting endangered languages.

Having a flexible structure as a template is expected to be a helpful starting point for the researchers who are in the initial stages of the documentation process; especially when it comes to a language that has never been studied before. LEXUS’ attempt to more fully comply with ISO LMF structure demands a structure that offers circularities of a graph type structure in addition to a simple linear tree structure. LEXUS 3 now makes it possible to create cross-references between corresponding elements of two different lexical entries of a lexicon. The template collection together with cross-reference linking makes LEXUS quite flexible in creating a wide range of structures. This combination makes LEXUS a suitable lexicon tool for not only under-described languages but also for the most studied and well-documented languages such as English and German.

Previous versions of LEXUS have laid the groundwork to enable projects within the DOBES program to create and view multimedia lexica with a team. LEXUS 3 stabilizes these core features and offers new functions which broaden the scope to the wider linguistic community. One such example is making use of the templates to form the basis for flexible import and export functionality as fleshed out in the RELISH project (Aristar-Dry et al, 2012). This in turn provides better support for standardized lexicon formats and makes it, for example, possible to export a LEXUS 3 lexicon to the LEGO repository (LinguistList 2013) and to import a LEGO lexicon. This supporting feature is based on the new RELISH-LMF serialization (Windhouwer, et al. 2013; RELISH 2013), which is extensible using RELAX NG (ISO 19757-2, 2008) and ISO/TEI feature structures (ISO 24610-1 2008). LEXUS 3 is also being integrated into linguistic infrastructures like CLARIN (CLARIN 2013), which opens it up for an expanding user base.

Digital lexicography is most helpful when there is proper visualization of the content, and it gets even more worthwhile when it is integrated with multimedia. One of LEXUS’ distinct features are the possibilities it offers for visualization of the lexicon, which is often enriched with multimedia. The audio-video recordings and images are critical aspects of the semantic knowledge. Data of such nature is often the only available resource to study the kind of languages that LEXUS is designed for. The written form, together with grammatical, morphological and phonological descriptions of words, completes the semantic knowledge. A given lexicon tool should facilitate an unified way of presenting the text and multimedia together to be able to put the form and meaning next to each other in one picture. With version 3, LEXUS introduces a single unified environment, where users can describe how their lexica would look like, for e.g. in an HTML view (Moreira, et al. 2013). In doing so, users are not required to have any HTML knowledge. Instead, LEXUS offers a graphical tree tool, which mimics the hierarchical structure that is behind the markup-based technologies such as HTML, and which specifies the layout and style of the lexical views. The same tool can be used to create a formatted PDF view for the full lexicon, which is extractable and available for export and print. Figure 1 shows an example of a lexical entry, with an image and different styles for various elements of the entry. The style and the content of list of entries shown on the left side are customized with the same tool as those of the selected lexical entry shown on the right side.


Figure 1:
an example of customized list view and lexical entry view using the same styling tool.

Finally and possibly most importantly, LEXUS allows shared access to a given lexicon. Owners can easily share their lexica by dragging and dropping other users from a list of all registered LEXUS users to the list of readers/writers of an individual lexicon. When a lexicon is shared, it becomes available in the target user’s workspace. This feature paves the way for better collaboration among researchers and facilitates simultaneous work on a given language even from different places in the world. Being an online resource, any archived lexicon will in future be available as an addressable resource in the CLARIN infrastructure. Having an online basis LEXUS also allows for annotated multimedia sessions from the relevant language archive (e.g. sessions depicting particular cultural uses or social practices) to be linked to any part of the entry. The web-based accessibility of LEXUS was initially designed so as to allow the speech community members to get involved in the lexical documentation process. Such collaboration would allow for the continuous and faster growth of linguistic information. However, this appealing potential turned out to be more challenging in practice, mainly due to unforeseen obstacles within the social dynamics in the community (Cablitz 2011, 240).

In the future, special focus will be on an expansion of LEXUS’ functionality to match the requirements of a lexicon tool for sign language documentation; a domain for which there doesn’t exist a suitable tool or a unified schema of lexicography.

With its online accessibility, together with its archive-linking capacity, its multimedia visualization features and its interoperability capacities, we offer LEXUS as an advanced resource and research tool for the scientific community.

References
Aristar-Dry, H., S. Drude, J. Gippert, I. Nevskaya, and M. Windhouwer (2012). Rendering Endangered Lexicons Interoperable through Standards Harmonization: the RELISH project. In European Language Resources Association (ed), Proceedings of the Eight International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, held 23-25 May 2012 in Istanbul, Turkey.
Cablitz, G. (2011). The Making of a multimedia encyclopedic lexicon for and in endangered speech communities. In Haig, G. L. J., N. Nau, S. Schnell, and C. Wegener (eds.), Documenting endangered languages: Achievements and perspectives. Berlin: De Gruyter, 223-261.
CLARIN (2013). Common Language Resource and Technology Infrastructure. http://www.clarin.eu/ (accessed 14 March 2013).
De Korne, H., and the Burt Lake Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians (2009). The Pedagogical Potential of Multimedia Dictionaries — Lessons from a Community Dictionary Project. In Reyhner, J. and Lockard, L.(eds), Indigenous Language Revitalization: Encouragement, Guidance and Lessons Learned. Flaggstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University, 141-153.
DOBES (2013). Documentation of Endangered Languages. http://www.mpi.nl/dobes/ (accessed 14 March 2013).
ISO 14613. (2008). Language resource management — Lexical markup framework (LMF). International Organization for Standardization. http://www.lexicalmarkupframework.org/ (accessed 14 March 2013).
ISO 19757-2. (2008). Information technology — Document Schema Definition Language (DSDL) — Part 2: Regular-grammar-based validation — RELAX NG, International Organization for Standardization.
ISO 24610-1.(2008). Language resource management — Feature structures — Part 1: Feature structure representation, International Organization for Standardization.
Kemps-Snijders, M., M. A. Windhouwer, P. Wittenburg, and S. E. Wright. (2009). ISOcat: Remodeling Metadata for Language Resources. In Open Forum on Metadata Registries of the International Journal of Metadata, Semantics and Ontologies (IJMSO), 4:4: 261-276.
LinguistList. (2013). Lexicon Enhancement via the GOLD Ontology. http://lego.linguistlist.org/ (accessed 14 March 2013).
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Ringersma, J., and M. Kemps-Snijders (2007). Creating multimedia dictionaries of endangered languages using LEXUS. In Van Hamme, H. and van Son, R. (eds), Proceedings of Interspeech 2007. Baixas, France: ISCA-Int. Speech Communication Assoc, 65-68.
SIL.(2013). http://www.sil.org/resources/software (accessed 14 March 2013).
TLA.(2013). LEXUS — A web based lexicon tool. http://tla.mpi.nl/tools/tla-tools/lexus/ (accessed 14 March 2013).
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Windhouwer, M., J.Petro, I. Nevskaya, S. Drude, H. Aristar-Dry, and J. Gippert (2013). Creating a serialization of LMF: the experience of the RELISH project. In G. Francopoulo (ed.), LMF: Lexical Markup Framework, theory and practice. iSTE/Wiley.","txt","2","",""
"1725","14","Linked Data for Music Collections: A User-Centred Approach","9","The emergence of the Linked Data movement offers music collections with the potential to change how they structure and share their data [1] . The ability to use Linked Data to combine music metadata with other information sources offers rich semantic possibilities for both access to and promotion of music, and provides considerable scope for music collections to remodel their data in a way which makes a significant contribution to the growing web of data [2] .

Previously, collections have focused on building and maintaining relational database models and have used, where possible, common metadata schemas to help build interoperability into their collections. While this has achieved a degree of interchange of structured data between collections, much of this approach has been limited by the type of data structure, the standards used, and above all the development of customised solutions such as APIs for sharing such data [3] . The technologies associated with Linked Data hold the promise of enabling music collections to achieve a high level of semantic interchange with other information resources, and examples of such interchange might include the combining of music metadata with geospatial, historical or biographical data [4] . The advantage of such an approach would allow music archives to focus on their core data collection (i.e. music metadata) and achieve a streamlining of their workflow. The publishing of algorithmic data related to musical form and content as linked data also offers the possibility of developing new applications for music information retrieval [5] , and allows exciting possibilities for music searching and recommendation.

This paper will investigate a number of approaches to the publication of music collections as Linked Open Data. It will explore the motivations for, and benefits of, taking this approach to encoding and exposing musical data. A critical appraisal of the state of the art technology will be outlined and its suitability with relation to music collections discussed. The paper will also explore some of the key changes in maintaining a digital collection and will attempt to address how the notion of a centralised collection has changed as a result of this emerging technology. This impending paradigm shift is one which challenges the notion of data ownership and places organisations and collections in a different position when it comes to managing data.

The paper uses the development of a database system for the Contemporary Music Centre (CMC), a national archive and resource centre for Irish composer’s music, to illustrate the design and theoretical processes involved in enabling some of the Linked Data technologies. This database tracks the metadata on Irish composers’ compositions and associated materials and is currently being redesigned as part of a new web site which is under development. In addition to replacing the current structure and underlying technologies which power the database, the project also wishes to futureproof the system for the medium-term and take advantage of the emerging trends in digital collection management.

In deciding upon the particular approach to follow to deploy Linked Data in this system, a series of interviews examining the different user groups’ attitudes and views on the linking of CMC’s content to external data was carried out. The feedback received from these interviews, when combined with the in-depth review of the state of the art, was a key input into developing an approach for the CMC’s content. The results of this user-based research also helped to inform the design of a road map of how an approach to Linked Data for a music data source might be taken. The research also illustrates some of the potential problems with the technology and suggests some ways in which these problems might be overcome.

The user research reveals a number of notable findings in relation to attitudes towards the linking of external data to music information. While many identify with the idea of a distributed music collection, users are cautious about exposing and linking music-related data and content to external non-musicrelated content. Key among users is the need for such a Linked Data-driven system to ensure accuracy of data and maintain the trust of its users. There was also a strong view that such external links needed to be curated by both CMC and the users, and that the Linked Data provided should balance with and enhance the core collection data rather than overshadow it.

The solution proposed as a result of this user research involves the restructuring and mapping of CMC’s database to Music Ontology classes and concepts and presents a number of approaches involving the presentation of the remodelled data.

Notes
1. Raimond, Yves, Christopher Sutton, and Mark Sandler. (2009). “Interlinking Music-related Data on the Web.” IEEE Computer Society.

2. Raimond, Yves, and Mark Sandler. “A Web of Musical Information.” Conference Proceedings on Music Information Retrieval.

3. Heath, Tom, and Christian Bizer. Linked Data: Evolving the Web into a Global Data Space. Ed. Frank Van Harmelen & James Hendler. Vol. 1. Morgan & Claypool, 201.

4. Kobilarov, Georgi, Tom Scott, and Yves Raimond.(2009). “Media Meets Semantic Web–how the BBC Uses DBpedia and Linked Data to Make Connections.” The Semantic Web.

5. Dixon, Simon et al. (2010) “Towards a Distributed Research Environment for Music Informatics and Computational Musicology.” Journal of New Music Research 39.4.","txt","2","",""
"1726","14","Normalisation in Historical Text Collections","2","Improved full-text search, named-entity recognition and relationship extraction are all key research topics across many areas of technology, with emerging applications in the intelligence, healthcare and financial fields amongst many others [1] . In Digital Humanities, there is a growing interest in the application of such Natural Language Processing (NLP) approaches to historical texts [2] with a view to improving how a user can explore and analyse these collections [3] [4] [5] [6] . However, the text contained in handwritten historical manuscript collections can often be ‘noisy’ in nature — with variation in spelling, punctuation, word form, sentence structure and terminology. This is particularly the case with collections written in archaic language forms, such as Early-Modern English. Multiple studies have concluded that the applicability of modern NLP tooling to such historical texts has been very limited due to this inherent noisiness in the texts. This historical language barrier hinders the accessibility and thus the potential exploration and analysis of many significant historical text collections. This paper will discuss the normalisation of historical texts as a solution to this problem and examine how normalisation can improve the analysis, interpretation and exploration of these collections.
Normalisation is the process of transforming text into a single canonical form, in this case, the modern equivalent of the language. Once this has been completed, the texts can be processed using current NLP techniques and technologies. However, the normalisation of historical texts presents a difficult challenge in itself.
Much research has been undertaken in an attempt to cope with the correction and normalisation of text produced by Optical Character Recognition (OCR), speech recognition, instant messaging etc. which show similar characteristics to those of historical texts. One technique which has been applied is the use of a historical lexicon, supplemented by computational tools and linguistic models of variation. However, because of the absence of language standards, multiple orthographic variations of a given word or expression can be found in a collection of material, even in the same document. As a result, the quality of the results achieved, even after normalisation, has not been satisfactory. Researchers have also noted a general lack of tools and resources specialised to this domain.
This paper will present the normalisation research conducted as part of the CULTURA project, which has developed techniques for the normalisation of a 17th century manuscript collection written in Early Modern English, The 1641 Depositions [7] . CULTURA analyses the artefacts and through the application of novel linguistic models of variation, enables normalisation techniques to remove issues of inconsistency in spelling, grammar and punctuation. The technologies developed and applied have had to solve issues arising from the need to contend with noisy inputs, the impact noise can have on downstream applications, and the demands that noisy information places on document analysis. The normalisation of texts in Early Modern English can be interpreted as a special (restricted) case of translation. Using this intuition, a methodology was developed based upon statistical machine translation models. The key ingredient of this approach is a new translation module that further develops known OCR correction techniques.
Once the content has been normalised, further analysis is conducted to perform named entity and relationship extraction. This identifies the individuals, events, dates etc. within the collection and the relationships between these entities. It encodes this data in a manner which promotes interoperability with other collections of related cultural heritage material.
The normalisation process allows CULTURA to perform disambiguation on the text. For example, one of the main players mentioned many times in the 1641 Depositions collection is Sir Phelim O’Neill. In addition to huge variations in the spelling of his name (Phelin, felim, ffelim, O’Neill, Neil, Onell etc.), he is also referred to in a number of different ways throughout the depositions (The O’Neill, Phelim MacTurlough MacAodh, ‘The rebel leader’ etc.). Normalisation is used to address this variation and also identify the context in which he is mentioned – for example, is he accused of being directly involved in an incident or merely mentioned as a known rebel figure? A combination of NLP and SNA techniques are then used to identify relationships between this individual and other people in the community. He can also be associated with specific events and locations over time, all of which would be impossible without the collection having been normalised.
While the normalisation of the collection has facilitated this application of further NLP techniques, it has also supported improved interaction with the collection for novice researchers and members of the general public. People without a deep scholarly knowledge of such collections can find it easier to interact with, and gain an understanding of, the normalised versions of the transcribed text rather than the originals.
The un-normalised text of the collection is still available to “professional” scholars who use the CULTURA portal and every effort is made during normalisation to ensure that changes that implicitly involve interpretation of the text, or that go beyond normalisation, are avoided. The normalisation process should never impact upon the semantic content of the collections.
A number of important advancements have been achieved by CULTURA, including the development of:
•        A normalisation algorithm [8] called Regularities Based Embedding of Language Structures (REBELS).
•        An integrated REST based web service for the implemented normalisation module.
•        A tool for manual annotation which makes the normalisation process as simple as possible, and helps to verify consistency of annotations and to help the resolution of detected conflicts.
These developments all support a more effective text normalisation process and improve the effectiveness of the entity and relationship extraction procedures which follow. Experimental results have demonstrated that the normalisation averages 98% accuracy in the translation of regular words (tokens) in the 1641 Depositions collection.
In order to show the general applicability of the approach, the methodology was applied to another Early Modern English text collection, the Innsbruck Letters Corpus, part of the Innsbruck Computer-Archive of Machine-Readable English Texts (ICAMET) corpus. The results were compared to two state of the art systems, Moses [9] and VARD2 [10] . The CULTURA approach achieved an accuracy of 83% with minimal training, when compared with 77% and 65% for Moses and VARD2 respectively.
In summary, this paper will discuss the normalisation of historical texts, and the analysis and feature identification that normalisation facilitates. These are increasingly important processes for “noisy” cultural heritage resources, and provide significant benefits to the analysis, interpretation and exploration of these collections. Together, they can:
•        Improve the quality and re-usability of artefacts by normalising spelling, punctuation and nomenclature.
•        Facilitate deeper interrogation of the material.
•        Identify features of the collection — individuals, locations, dates etc.
•        Enable social network analysis on these features, identifying those with the greatest influence.
•        Open new pathways for the exploration and interrogation of the resources for both novices and experts.
•        Add structure and logic to otherwise featureless material, enabling new forms of engagement, use and enjoyment of the content.
Notes
1. Sunita Sarawagi. Information extraction. FnT Databases, 1(3), 2008.
2. The CHLT Project, funded under EU FP5, aimed to create an infrastructure for pioneering International Digital Library Technology (IDLT), and a range of IT applications for use within digital collections (with special emphasis on early modern Latin, classical Greek, and Old Norse texts), including generic tools for multi-lingual information retrieval; concept identification and visualisation; vocabulary analysis and syntactic parsing.
3. 3 The IMPACT project http://www.impact-project.eu
4. Annette Gotscharek, Andreas Neumann, Ulrich Reffle, Christoph Ringlstetter, and Klaus U. Schulz. 2009. Enabling information retrieval on historical document collections: the role of matching procedures and special lexica. In Proceedings of The Third Workshop on Analytics for Noisy Unstructured Text Data (AND '09). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 69-76.
5. A. Gotscharek, U. Reffle, C. Ringlstetter, and K. U. Schulz. On lexical resources for digitization of historical documents. In DocEng '09: Proceedings of the 9th ACM symposium on Document engineering, pages 193--200, New York, NY, USA, 2009.
6. A. Ernst-Gerlach and N. Fuhr. Retrieval in text collections with historic spelling using linguistic and spelling variants. In JCDL ’07: Proceedings of the 7th ACM/IEEE-CS joint conference on Digital libraries, pages 333–341, New York, NY, USA, 2007. ACM.
7. The 1641 Depositions – http://1641.tcd.ie
8. Gerdjikov, S. “Some algebraic properties of alignments of words.” In Comptes rendus de l’académie bulgare des science. 2012.
9. Moses is a statistical machine translation system - http://www.statmt.org/moses/
10. A. Baron and P. Rayson. Automatic standardisation of texts containing spelling variation: How much training data do you need? In: Proceedings of the Corpus Linguistics Conference. Lancaster University, Lancaster, 2009.","txt","2","",""
"1727","14","Linked Jazz 52nd Street: A LOD Crowdsourcing Tool to Reveal Connections among Jazz Artists","9","“There's a bond, a sort of invisible bond between all musicians who play jazz. There is always that bond, it holds them together.” — Ian Patterson, 2009

Introduction
Linked Jazz [1] is a Linked Open Data (LOD) project that aims to create methods and tools that reveal the dense fabric of relationships connecting the community of jazz artists who typically practice in rich and diverse social networks. This project takes advantage of the potential of LOD to connect cultural heritage data in new ways and expand traditional access to archival content by making it visible and discoverable in an open information environment. The Linked Jazz project consists of multiple phases and has progressed in an iterative and experimental process. In the first phase, a LOD dataset representing a social network of connections among jazz artists was created through the automatic extraction of personal names from interview transcripts acquired from digital archives of jazz history. Based on this dataset, a visualization tool was developed that offers static and dynamic views of the social network [2] . While the social network is effective in conveying the vast and rich web of interpersonal associations, its connections remain semantically undefined.


Fig. 1:
Frequency-based network rendering

Enriching the Network
Social network analysis is based on graph theory, in which entities such as individuals are presented as nodes and their relationships are represented by edges between them (Chen & Yang, 2010). While this mathematically-based approach allows for analysis of the network’s structure based on parameters like centrality and clustering, typically, social graphs provide little or no explicit information about the nature of the relationship that connects two entities (Chen & Yang, 2010; Scott, 2011). The need for richer descriptions of social relationships within networks and for researchers to be able to find resources more readily has led to projects that focus on enhancing the visibility and interconnectedness of archival resources. Such projects included the development of Encoded Archival Context-Corporate Bodies, Persons, and Families (EAC-CPF) [3] and Social Networks and Archival Context (SNAC) [4] .

The jazz community is characterized by a high degree of interaction and connectivity. A few studies have examined the interconnectivity among jazz musicians. Heckathorn and Jeffri (2003) studied their affiliation patterns and found that this community is highly egalitarian and cohesive. They employed the respondent-driven sampling method, a technique that requires respondents to know and come in regular contact with one another. Approaching the study of personal connections in this community from a different angle, Schubert (2012) adopts discometrics — the application of bibliometric network techniques to discographic data — to reveal how embedded a particular musician is within the jazz community network.

Human-Generated Approach
The complex and dynamic web of interpersonal connections inherent to jazz music is well documented in books and discographies, yet not easy to discover. While a machine-driven approach combining Natural Language Techniques (NLP) techniques and LOD technology has proven effective in revealing basic connections among personal entities (Pattuelli, Weller and Szablya 2011), this approach fell short when attempting to uncover the nature of artists’ interpersonal ties and provide a more powerful tool for analysis. We can only assume that jazz artists who cite other jazz artists in their interviews have some kind of association with them, but this relationship could be anything from close friendship and collaboration to just knowing the other person exists.

Identifying and representing the varied and nuanced semantics of social relationships pose significant computational challenges. To perform a deeper analysis of the social network, we complemented the machine-driven approach with a human-driven one that employs crowdsourcing techniques to assist with the interpretation of the interpersonal connections. Crowdsourcing has become increasingly popular as a means to harness human intelligence to complete small, but crucial tasks within a large-scale project.

Linked Jazz 52nd Street [5] was developed to harness the knowledge of jazz scholars from academic centers for jazz studies as well as jazz enthusiasts from dedicated online forums to assist with the interpretation of the relationships among jazz artists as documented in archived interviews. This tool is a web-based application that asks contributors to classify the relationship between two jazz artists according to a menu of options. This assessment is facilitated by presenting the contributor with interview excerpts referencing the individuals in question. Results are tallied and converted into RDF statements that feed the project’s LOD dataset. As part of the development of the tool, a list of social relationships was compiled by selecting suitable predicates from LOD vocabularies including the Relationship vocabulary [6] , FOAF [7] , and the Music Ontology [8] . The spectrum of relationships ranges from lower degrees of personal closeness (e.g., knows_of, has_met) to deeper levels of social ties (e.g., collaborated_with, influenced_by, mentor_of). This selection was the result of the analysis and mapping of person-centered RDF vocabularies (Pattuelli 2011). Jazz experts were also tapped to help discern which of these relationships would be of most interest to them and the larger community of potential users of jazz archives.

Linked Jazz 52nd Street Design
Crowdsourcing, a term coined by Jeff Howe (2006) in Wired magazine, was predominantly seen as an online business model, but recently successful projects, including New York Public Library’s What’s on the Menu [9] and University College London’s Transcribe Bentham [10] , have brought attention to crowdsourcing in the domain of cultural heritage as a method of supporting an array of labor-intensive and error-prone tasks including transcribing, classifying, proofreading, tagging, and annotating digital content.

The design of the Linked Jazz 52nd Street application was informed by research on crowdsourcing, as shown in Figure 2. The overall design of the site is geared towards lowering the barrier for participation through a simple and clean layout (Oomen and Aroyo 2011). Several studies have revealed that while extrinsic factors, such as monetary compensation and recognition, are strong motivators to engage in crowdsourcing projects, so are intrinsic factors, such as the opportunity to contribute to the greater good and learn new skills (Brabham 2010). This suggests that acknowledging user contributions through methods such as feedback and ranking of contributors, as well as providing tutorials and interaction with staff, helps to keep users engaged (Causer, Tonra and Wallace 2012; Huberman, Romero and Wu 2009). To this end, we encourage visitors to begin contributing by having a strong call to action message on the homepage asking visitors to click on a musician's photograph. As the contributor processes a transcript, an ego network visualization is built in real time while a progress bar fills indicating their progress (Fig. 2.1). This extrinsic motivator provides visual feedback indicating the immediate results of their contribution and makes their work transparent and accessible (Holley 2010). We also provide the ability for the contributor to put the task in context by expanding the transcript dialog (Fig. 2.2) to read more of the interview. This intrinsic motivator allows the contributor to break out of their current task and read more of the transcript if they find a compelling story or want to learn more about what is being discussed. Holly (2010) highlighted the importance of offering the contributor options of where to focus their work. We facilitate this choice by providing the contributor with the ability to select which individuals they wish to review (Fig. 2.3). Another important aspect is maintaining the provenance of the source information (Oomen and Aroyo, 2011) which we accomplish by including a link to the contributing institution and metadata such as the interviewer’s name (Fig. 2.4). As recommended by Causer, Tonra and Wallace (2012), we provide detailed assistance through a tutorial system and instant popup help tips (Fig. 2.5). We also track and display metrics of the contributors (Fig. 2.6) to acknowledge their work and create a sense of community (Huberman, Romero and Wu, 2009).


Fig. 2:
Linked Jazz 52nd Street design elements

Future plans for Linked Jazz 52nd Street include usability testing to be conducted both with jazz experts and non-experts. Feedback from these tests will inform decisions regarding refinements and further development of the tool before its public release.

Conclusion
Scott (2011) points out that advances in social network analysis should not be simply descriptive work, but rather hold substantive significance. In addition to creating a deep network of the jazz community through the description of relationships at a more meaningful level, Linked Jazz 52nd Street will contribute a new LOD dataset representing jazz artists and their relationships that will be freely available for applications developers. Not only does it give new visibility to jazz archival resources, but it has the potential to promote new streams of research, including a socially-driven approach to the study of jazz history.

References
Brabham, D. C. (2010). Moving the crowd at Threadless. Information, Community, & Society, 13(8), 112-1145.
Causer, T., J. Tonra, and V. Wallace (2012). Trascription maximized; expense minimized? Crowdsourcing and editing The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham. Literary and Linguistic Computing. 27.2 119-137.
Chen, I. X. and C. Z. Yang (2010). Visualization of social networks. Handbook of Social Network Technologies and Applications. New York: Springer. 585-610.
Davis, I. and E. Vitiello (2010). Relationship: A vocabulary for describing relationships between people. Available at: http://vocab.org/relationship/.html
Heckathorn, D. D., and J. Jeffri (2003). Social networks of jazz musicians. In Changing the Beat: A Study of the Worklife of Jazz Musicians, Volume III: Respondent-Driven Sampling: Survey Results by the Research Center for Arts and Culture. Washington, D.C.: National Endowment for the Arts Research Division Report #43. 48-61.
Holley, R. (2010). Crowdsourcing: How and Why Libraries Should Do It. D-Lib Magazine, 16.3/4). Retrieved from http://www.dlib.org/dlib/march10/holley/03holley.html
Huberman, B. A., D. M. Romero, and F. Wu (2009). Crowdsourcing, attention and productivity. Journal of Information Science, 35.6, 758-765.
Oomen, J., and L. Aroyo (2011). Crowdsourcing in the cultural heritage domain: opportunities and challenges. Initiatives, 29, 138-149.
Pattuelli, M. C. (2011). Mapping people-centered properties for Linked Open Data. Knowledge Organization 38.4, 352-359.
Pattuelli, M. C., C. Weller, and G. Szablya (2011). Linked Jazz: An exploratory pilot. In DC-2011: Proceedings of the International Conference on Dublin Core and Metadata Applications (pp. 158-164). The Hague, The Netherlands.
Schubert, A. (2012). Jazz discometrics: A network approach. Journal of Informetrics 6: 480-484.
Scott, J. (2011). Social network analysis: Developments, advances, and prospects. Social Network Analysis and Mining 1.1, 21-26.
Notes
linkedjazz.org
linkedjazz.org/network
http://eac.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de
http://socialarchive.iath.virginia.edu/
linkedjazz.org/52ndStreet
http://vocab.org/relationship/.html
http://www.foaf-project.org/
http://musicontology.com/
http://menus.nypl.org
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/transcribe-bentham/","txt","2","",""
"1728","14","Using Open Annotation","15","Brief Description
Annotation is a long-established scholarly primitive [1] supporting digital humanities scholarly workflows and practices. As the humanities scholars use of retrospectively and born-digital materials grows so too does the need for robust, standards-based annotation tools and services that can span content repositories and Web application boundaries.
Over the course of this half-day workshop we will examine the current and prospective role of annotation in digital humanities scholarship and investigate the potential utility of the Open Annotation data model specification [2] recently released by the W3C Open Annotation Community Group. [3] Participants will consider whether this specification can help encourage the extension of existing tools and the development of new more robust, interoperable Web-based annotation tools and services in ways that can better meet the needs of the digital humanities scholarly community. Prior to the Workshop, each participant will be asked to submit a brief (1 to 2 page) summary giving their initial assessment of the Open Annotation data model in the context of a specific annotation application, research requirement or use case drawn from his or her own scholarship. All summary assessments submitted will be posted on a Workshop Website (to be maintained by the Open Annotation Collaboration) [4] and a subset of these assessments will be presented by participants and discussed during the Workshop. In addition the Workshop Leaders will present results from several of the concrete annotation demonstration experiments conducted over the last 18 months by the Open Annotation Collaboration. The current status of Web-based digital annotation tools, services, practices and communities will be reviewed with the goal of illuminating critical facets of infrastructure beyond the scope of the Open Annotation data model or areas of the data model which require further refinement. Outcomes from the Workshop will help identify potential priorities and future directions for the W3C Open Annotation Community Group. Participants will gain a better understanding of the Open Annotation data model, its implementation, and its potential as a resource supportive of their future work.
If accepted, budget for this proposed Workshop will be underwritten by the Open Annotation Collaboration, a project based at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and funded by a generous grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. OAC was one of the initiatives, along with the Annotation Ontology initiative, [5] that founded the W3C Open Annotation Community Group. This workshop represents an opportunity to explore the annotation needs of digital humanists and ensure that these needs are factored into the future plans of the W3C Open Annotation Community Group.
Additional Contributors
•        Paolo Ciccarese, Biomedical Informatics Research & Development, MIND Informatics, Instructor at the Harvard Medical School and Assistant in Neurology at the Massachusetts General Hospital.
•        Jane Hunter, Professorial Research Fellow & Leader of the eResearch Lab, School of ITEE, The University of Queensland.
•        Jacob Jett, Visiting Project Coordinator, Center for Informatics in Science and Scholarship, GSLIS, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
•        Herbert Van de Sompel, Information Scientist at the Los Alamos National Laboratory and leader of the LANL Research Library Digital Library Research & Prototyping Team
Target Audience
We anticipate an audience of about 25 digital humanities tool and Web service developers and technology managers responsible for digital library services, scholarly discourse services, note-taking software and similar Web-based applications. Registration is open (i.e., non-competitive) until full; however, registrants will be advised that we will ask each of them to submit a position paper (see below).
Half-day Workshop Agenda Outline
•        1. Open Annotation Introduction & Overview (30 minutes)
•        2. Example implementations / demonstrations from OAC Experiments (60 minutes)
•        3. Q & A Session (30 minutes)
•        4. [break] (15 minutes)
•        5. Participant presentations (90 minutes)
•        6. Discussion (30 minutes)
Notes
Unsworth, building on a theme from Aristotle, uses the term scholarly primitives ""to refer to some basic functions common to scholarly activity across disciplines, over time, and independent of theoretical orientation."" Unsworth, John. 2000. ""Scholarly Primitives: what methods do humanities researchers have in common, and how might our tools reflect this?"" Presented at Humanities Computing: formal methods, experimental practice, King's College, London, May 13, 2000. Available: http://www3.isrl.uiuc.edu/~unsworth/Kings.5-00/primitives.html
http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core/20130208/
http://www.w3.org/community/openannotation/
http://www.openannotation.org/Partners.html
5 http://code.google.com/p/annotation-ontology/","txt","2","",""
"1729","14","Linked Open Data & the OpenEmblem Portal","9","1. Introduction
Supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (Illinois) and the Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbüttel (HAB), have digitized 728 Renaissance emblem books, thereby substantially expanding the digitized corpus (Wade et al., 2012; Daly, 2002). Each book contains tens, even hundreds, of individual emblems. All together Illinois and HAB have digitized approximately 70,000 individual emblems, creating detailed descriptions(emblem-level metadata)for more than 17,000 of these. Each emblem is identified with a globally unique URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) maintained in a shared emblem registry. The OpenEmblem Portal prototype [1] was collaboratively designed and built to provide access to these materials and to demonstrate the feasibility of international repository interoperability.

Experimentation with Linked Open Data (LOD) services and RDF-based annotation tools, described below, is now underway to demonstrate how Semantic Web technologies can facilitate both discovery and the use of digitized emblem resources. While the OpenEmblem Portal focuses currently on emblems digitized from print, emblematic modes of expression permeate the fine and applied arts as well. Through adherence to LOD best practices and emerging annotation standards, the OpenEmblem Portal eventually will allow scholars to link an emblem design found in a Bavarian church or a Swedish manor house to a printed emblem. This paper reports on our progress with LOD technologies and describes planned next steps to leverage LOD to facilitate emblem research and pedagogy.


Figure 1:
An early modern emblem (Murer 1622)

2. Motivation
Emblems are hybrid, integrating texts and graphics(see Figure 1). Emblem texts were written in European vernacular languages and Latin. As a genre of adaptation, emblem components — picturae, mottos and other associated texts — were constantly (re)used in new constellations to create new meaning, and circulated widely in many different interpretive contexts. For example, Classical and Biblical themes regularly appear across the genre, in emblem images and texts. Emblem-based scholarly inquiry focuses on tracing themes and motifs across authors, over time, through many languages, and in specific religious, political, and social contexts. The purview of emblems includes all areas of Renaissance knowledge from natural history and technology, to secular and divine love.

Discoverability by theme and topic, preferably through a hierarchical, multi-lingual thesaurus, is critical to emblem research and pedagogy. The ready availability of contextual information concerning emblems facilitates both emblem discovery and author-based scholarly investigations and suggests good potential for LOD approaches. The use of annotation to enrich emblem metadata with newly discovered relationships has the potential to stimulate scholarly discourse. The hypothesis motivating the current study postulates that the use of LOD approaches and data sets will allow us to better leverage existing ontologies(e.g. Iconclass [2] ), name authority resources(e.g. the Virtual International Authority File [VIAF] [3] ), and compatible annotation models (e.g. Open Annotation [4] ). Though LOD technologies are now well understood generically, their practical application to emblem studies is novel and represents an opportunity to apply LOD approaches to a mixed text-image corpus of interest to a well-established international community.

3. Enhancing Discoverability through Linked Open Data
Iconclass, a multilingual classification system for cultural heritage resources, is a hierarchical thesaurus consisting of more than 28,000 controlled vocabulary terms describing objects, people, events and abstract ideas (e.g. Figure 2).Iconclass has proven well-matched to emblem literature. In populating our emblem-level metadata records, we utilize more than 15% of Iconclass headings. Iconclass has been published as a LOD data set, and iconclass.org provides LOD services. In our Portal these services enable multi-lingual browsing of digital emblematica. Users browse the Iconclass hierarchy in their preferred language to discover emblem content. Because we employ Iconclass LOD services, this functionality is enabled without a local copy of the thesaurus. Figure 2 shows the Iconclass Notation ""25F33(EAGLE)"" in Resource Description Framework(RDF) [5] XML as retrieved dynamically from iconclass.org.


Figure 2:
Iconclass notation in RDF XML

This RDF XML is used in our Portal to support Iconclass browsing for emblem discovery. In the scenario illustrated in Figure 3, a user has found an emblem from Johann Vogel’s Meditationes Emblematicae de Restaurata Pace Germaniae. One of the Iconclass headings assigned to this emblem is 25F33(EAGLE)(+5245), ""predatory birds: eagle (+ animal(s) holding something).” The user can move from the display of emblem metadata to a view of the Iconclass hierarchy, entering at this heading, and then browse up or down the hierarchy in English, French, German, or Italian, to retrieve other emblem picturae having related Iconclass headings.


Figure 3:
From an emblem metadata display,scholars can browse the Iconclass hierarchy to find other emblems with related headings

We are now linking to name authority services to facilitate emblem discovery by name. Many national libraries have released author name data sets as LOD. These records include variant name forms and links to Websites having contextual information about individual authors. By using LOD services and associating name strings in our indices with canonical identifiers — e.g. http://viaf.org/viaf/54384883/, the OpenEmblem Portal can offer expanded discovery capabilities. VIAF RDF records(e.g. Figure 4)integrate links to and summaries of information about authors maintained by multiple national libraries, including by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek (DNB). [6] So far, we have been able to automate the linking of 90% of our emblem book metadata records to VIAF name entries.


Figure 4:
Fragment of VIAF RDF record for Johann Vogel

Many records in VIAF list alternate name forms, i.e., name variants by which authors also are known. Name variants are indexed and made searchable through the VIAF OpenSearch service [7] . Scholars often know an author by one name and search for resources accordingly. Thus, though not in the Portal's own indexes, a search for ""Joannes Vogelius"" using the VIAF service returns a list of author identifiers, including one for “Johann Vogel (1589-1663),” who is the author of two volumes available through the OpenEmblem Portal. Rather than independently maintaining all name variants in our local indices, the Portal in its next stage of development will leverage canonical URIs and remote LOD services to enhance discoverability.

4. Providing Context through Linked Open Data
VIAF LOD services also can provide users contextual information about emblem book authors. Enriching metadata with canonical URIs for named entities can enable users to link to contextual information pertaining to an author. Currently, VIAF identifiers can be used to link to OCLC's WorldCat Identities [8] , Wikipedia entries [9] , and multiple national library authority entries. As illustrated in Figures 5 and 6, users can see author gender and nationality, names of co-authors, lists of other publications, and descriptions of the individual's religion and life history.(We are also investigating linking to work-level bibliographic authorities such as VD17 [10] and VD18 [11] .)


Figure 5:
Information distilled from VIAF records tells users more about authors


Figure 6:
Links from the pop-up window also connect users to rich contextual information

5. Support for Annotation & Scholarly Discourse
Annotation is a pervasive element of scholarly practice, employed both to organize knowledge and to facilitate the creation and sharing of new knowledge. As a tool of scholarly discourse, Web-based annotation of digital resources has the potential to facilitate research, collaboration, and pedagogy. The W3C Open Annotation Community Group [12] has proposed a data model for scholarly annotation that aligns well with the principles of LOD. According to this view, a student's annotation of picturae from two possibly related emblems might be represented graphically in Figure 7.


Figure 7:
Graphical representation of an annotation involving two picturae

Persistent emblem and annotation identifiers are essential to expressing this annotation as a RDF graph aligned with LOD best practice. The Open Annotation model is extensible and recursive. For example, an instructor might add a subsequent annotation referencing the first student’s original annotation and including additional analysis (Figure 8).


Figure 8:
Start of a chain of annotations (i. e. a netchain [Sukovic, 2008; 2011])

6. Conclusion
Initial experimentation using LOD techniques in conjunction with the metadata describing resources indexed in the OpenEmblem Portal suggests a potential to enhance the discoverability and usability of digitized emblem resources. Faster discovery of and linking to context about authors, places, and other attributes of emblematica has significant potential to propel emblem scholarship and pedagogy. Contextualization that formerly required multiple library visits can now be made available instantly. In tension with this is the risk of information overload and the hazard of diminishing performance as the network of services involved in any transaction grows; connections to LOD data sets must be implemented carefully and used judiciously to realize maximum benefit. LOD technologies also have potential to enable more robust scholarly annotation tools, thereby facilitating asynchronous scholarly discourse. Just as the emblem-level indexing of Henkel and Schöne (1967) spurred new emblem studies research then, early experimentation suggests the potential of LOD technologies to facilitate new emblem studies research initiatives today.

References
Daly, P. M. (2002). Digitizing the European Emblem: Issues and Prospects. New York: AMS Press.
Gueroult, G. (1550). Premier livre des emblemes. Composé par Guillaume Gueroult. Lyons: Balthazar Arnoullet.
Henkel, A., and A. Schöne (1967). Emblemata. Stuttgart: Metzler.
Murer, C. (1622). XL [i.e. Quadraginta] emblemata miscella nova: Das ist: XL. underschiedliche Auszerlesene newradierte Kunststuck. Zurich: Wolf.
Sukovic, S. (2008). Convergent Flows: Humanities Scholars and Their Interactions with Electronic Texts. The Library Quarterly 78(3): 263-284.
Sukovic, S.( 2011). E-Texts in Research Projects in the Humanities. Advances in Librarianship 33: 131-202.
Wade, M., T. Stäcker, R. Stein, D. Graham, and H. Brandhorst (2012). Digital Emblematics — Enabling Humanities Research of a Popular Early Modern Genre. Poster Session, Digital Humanities Annual Conference held July 2012 in Hamburg, Germany.
Notes
http://emblematica.grainger.illinois.edu/OEBP/UI/SearchForm
http://iconclass.org/
http://viaf.org/
http://www.openannotation.org/spec/beta/
http://www.w3.org/RDF/
http://www.dnb.de/DE/Home/home_node.html
http://www.oclc.org/developer/documentation/virtual-international-authority-file-viaf/request-types#opensearch
http://www.oclc.org/developer/documentation/worldcat-identities/using-api
http://en.wikipedia.org, http://de.wikipedia.org, http://fr.wikipedia.org, etc.
http://www.vd17.de
http://www.vd18.de
http://www.w3.org/community/openannotation/
V","txt","2","",""
"1730","14","Literary Geography at Corpus Scale","10","Space is important in literary studies. This was true even before postmodernism’s spatial turn a generation ago, and our collective interest in spatial issues has only grown in recent years. Of course, what we mean by space varies widely across the discipline. We have studies — some historically oriented, some not — of the relationship between literature and geography at scales ranging from the local to the global. We’re also interested in the somewhat smaller scales of built space and the lived environment. And then there’s the long-standing problem of mapping between space and time as organizing principles of narrative and other forms of cultural production (Giles; Hsu; Heise; Orvell and Meikle; Jameson).

We now have methods by which to work with large bodies of text and to extract at least some types of spatial information from them. These methods, which involve computational data mining of hundreds or thousands of books, make it possible for us to address large-scale spatial questions, questions of the type that once seemed unthinkable, in new and robust ways. This is especially true because in many cases we can then combine the evidence produced through these new approaches with our well-established critical judgments.

What follows is an example of such hybrid scholarship. It begins with a question: How can we define and assess the “geographic imagination” of American fiction around the Civil War, and how did the geographic investments of American literature change across that sociopolitical event? To preview quickly the most important results, we find that there is significant national and international dispersion of geographic reference in American novels written between 1851 and 1875; that the distribution of place references tracks closely but not perfectly with population; that changes in literary investment in specific places and regions tends to lag changes in population; and that although there are important shifts in the geographic distribution of literary interest occasioned by the Civil War, such shifts are smaller than established theories would lead us to expect, emphasizing the need to rethink the contours of large-scale cultural change in light of more inclusive textual analysis.

Technical Details
The literary corpus is based on the volumes catalogued by Lyle Wright in his American Fiction, 1851-1875. Of the 2,925 titles listed by Wright, 1,050 have been digitized, thoroughly hand-corrected, and contain firmly established dates of publication between 1851 and 1875. The present work is based on these 1,050 volumes, which together contain over 80 million words. The research corpus thus comprises 36% of all known American long-form fiction produced during the generation spanning the Civil War. Of these, 489 volumes (36 million words) were published before 1861; 561 volumes (44 million words) were published in 1861 or later.

Text strings representing named locations in the corpus were identified using the named entity recognizer of the Stanford Core NLP package (Finkel et al.) with supplied training data. To reduce errors and to narrow the results for human review, only those named-location strings that occurred at least five times in the corpus and were used by at least two different authors were accepted. The remaining unique strings were reviewed by hand against their context in each source volume. After corrections were applied, there remained 143,499 occurrences of 1,577 unique location strings in the corpus. The location strings extracted from the corpus texts were then associated with geospatial information via Google’s geocoding API. Geocoding results were further reviewed and a small number of errors corrected.

Precision and recall measures were calculated on a small sample of the data. With the above corrections, precision was 0.60, while recall was 0.85; F1 was 0.70. This is a good result, given the complexity of the problem and the state of the art (Leidner).

Results
What did the literary-geographic imagination of mid-nineteenth-century American fiction look like? It was global, certainly, making use of international locations nearly as often as domestic ones. It was also surprisingly and disproportionately urban; although the twenty largest American cities by population made up only about 10% of the national headcount at the time, the twenty most frequently occurring US cities in the corpus accounted for well over a third of all US place-name occurrences. Literary attention was most heavily concentrated along the eastern seaboard, but not especially so in New England and not to the exclusion of the rest of the nation. While literary attention generally lagged the large and growing populations of the Midwest, it did not by any means ignore that region, nor did it overlook the South (especially — but not only — after 1861) nor the West. On the whole, the use of US place names in the fiction of the period correlated reasonably well with population; large places occurred more frequently than small ones to roughly the same degree as the population of the larger location exceeded that of the smaller. But this relationship, while strong, was interestingly imperfect, yielding numerous cases of under- and overrepresentation relative to population.

There exist mixed signals concerning the emergence of American literary regionalism in the years before 1875. The period’s strong investment in urban locations suggests that there was at no point a marked preference for the types of rural locales generally associated with the regionalist impulse, nor was there a large-scale shift away from heavily populated regions in the years immediately following the Civil War, when one might have expected to find the early signs of emerging regionalism. Modest changes toward wider distribution of literary attention, especially at the city level, did occur following the war, however, and it remains the case that both before and after 1861 there existed widespread literary use of locations outside the northeast corridor. Whether or not these facts point toward an earlier or later emergence of regional writing — or indeed toward any regionalist flowering at all — remains an open question in the absence of a broader historical extension of the current research, but they provide important contextual information concerning the distribution of literary-geographic attention in the generation leading up to what we have long considered the regionalist era.

The American Renaissance as a phenomenon rooted primarily in New England is also only partially supported by the data. While New England locations were overrepresented relative to the population of the region both before and after the Civil War, the extent of their overrepresentation actually increased after 1861, a trend that’s difficult to reconcile with standard periodizations derived from Matthiessen, which associate the phenomenon with the first half of the 1850s. At the same time, the fraction of all US location uses that fell within New England was hardly overwhelming at around 15%, a figure that indicates the breadth and depth of literary investment elsewhere in the nation and world at the time.

Finally, the literary-geographic imagination of the period was largely — perhaps surprisingly — stable over time. True, there were small overall shifts toward greater diversity of locations used after the Civil War and away, on a percentage basis, from some of the largest cities, but these and other changes were on the order of single percentage points in most cases. They were potentially important, but they were not overwhelmingly large. This fact doesn’t necessarily suggest that significant shifts weren’t taking place over the 25 years in question; indeed it’s hard to imagine that the Civil War didn’t result in meaningful cultural reconfigurations that are traceable through the period’s literary output. But it does suggest that at least in the literary-geographic cases studied here, intellectual significance and the absolute magnitude of the observed effect may be best measured on separate scales.

The work presented here represents the first broadly inclusive survey of American literary-geographic usage in the mid-nineteenth-century, one that casts light on — and complicates — our long-standing narratives concerning two of the most important periods of American literary history. Increased focus on the international, urban, and slowly evolving nature of the literary-geographic imagination in the United States around the Civil War is warranted by the current results, which plot a significant path for future work in both conventional and computationally assisted American literary studies.

References
Finkel, J. R., T. Grenager, and C. Manning (2005). Incorporating Non-Local Information into Information Extraction Systems by Gibbs Sampling. Proceedings of the 43nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics. held 2005. 363-370.
Giles, P. (2011). The Global Remapping of American Literature. Princeton: Princeton UP.
Heise, T. (2010). Urban Underworlds: A Geography of Twentieth-Century American Literature and Culture. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Hsu, H. (2010). Geography and the Production of Space in Nineteenth-Century American Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jameson, F. (2003). The End of Temporality. Critical Inquiry 29.4. 695-718.
Leidner, J. L. (2006). Toponym Resolution: A First Large-Scale Comparative Evaluation. Institute for Communicating and Collaborative Systems: n. pag.
Orvell, M., and J. L. Meikle. (eds), (2009). Public Space and the Ideology of Place in American Culture. New York: Rodopi.
Wright, L. H. (1965). American Fiction, 1851-1875: A Contribution Toward a Bibliography. 2nd edn. San Marino, CA: Huntington Library.","txt","2","",""
"1731","14","Live Coding Music: Self-Expression through Innovation","2","Musical live coding is a relatively new discipline that explores the manipulation of audio and music through altering a program in real-time, frequently while projecting the music-generating code in front of an audience (TOPLAP, 2012). Live coding falls under both the realm of computer music and computer science in a blend of programming and artistic output. Pioneering live coders often write their own languages, adapt existing environments, and create unique interfaces and control mechanisms for their systems (McLean and Wiggins, 2010). The frequency of this personalization gives rise to two important questions: in spite of the presence of existing, similar environments, why are live coders creating their own systems and what types of changes are they making to the musical and programming functionality of their environments?

The questions are addressed by a comparative study of a wide range of live coding environments, the literature on live coding, and by interviews with active live coders. The types of implementations the environments use for musical expression and the rationale provided by their creators illustrate the many routes that live coders are taking to explore musical creativity and programming intricacies (for discussion of this creativity, see Collins, 2011; Magnusson, 2011; and McLean and Wiggins, 2010). From community supported languages such as SuperCollider (McCartney, 2002, 2012) and MAX/MSP (Puckette, 2002) to individually crafted, younger languages like Sorensen’s Impromptu (2013), Fluxus (Griffiths and Papp, 2012) and Tidal (McLean, 2011), the study shows that all live coding environments must find solutions to the issues of musical representation, time passage, audio creation, and programming paradigm, and it is in these differences and similarities between environments that individual strategies of the live coders become apparent. Figure 1 shows a single note expressed in multiple environments, illustrating the differences between them.


Figure 1:
A sustained note at 440 Hz in three environments used for live coding audio:(a) Impromptu, (b) ixi lang, and (c) Pure Data (see Sorensen, 2013; Bausola et al., 2013; and Puckette 2013, respectively).

The dedication to individuality in live coding has led to a wide range of methods, goals, and musicality that, as of yet, has no formal theory to describe or categorize the products and notations of live coding (McLean and Wiggins, 2010). Therefore, this study categorizes methods used by live coders in a prototypical music theory. The study concludes that live coders create and modify their own environments because musical improvisation and on-the-fly composition demand a certain familiarity with a programming environment that is not easily obtained by adopting an existing system (see also Brown, 2006). Additionally, the study proposes that live coders prefer their own environments to others’ because live coders are as interested in the processes behind making the music as they are in the music itself(see also Brown, 2006; Brown and Sorensen, 2009; and Aaron et al., 2011). By adapting their programming environments, live coders explore the boundaries of their processes and the impact that constraints, interfaces, and techniques have upon the musical output.

The presentation includes descriptions and examples of code illustrating the different treatments that live coders use when approaching musical or programming requirements. These include the passage of time, ensemble coordination, and types of code interfaces. A laptop will be provided to offer a hands-on interactive comparison of several live coding languages, and an ongoing, paper-based live coding game will encourage participation throughout the course of the conference (Nilson, 1975).

References
Aaron, S., A. F. Blackwell, and R. Hoadley (2011). A Principled Approach to Developing New Languages for Live Coding. Proceedings of the International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression (NIME), 381–386. Oslo, Norway.
Bausola, D., E. Hurtado, and T. Magnusson (2013). “Ixi Audio.” http://www.ixi-software.net/ (accessed 14 March 2012).
Brown, A. R. (2006). Code Jamming, M/C Journal, 9(6). http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0612/03-brown.php.
Brown, A. R., and A. Sorensen (2009). Interacting with Generative Music Through Live Coding. Contemporary Music Review. 28(1): 17–29. doi:10.1080/07494460802663991.
Collins, N. (2011). Live Coding of Consequence. Leonardo Music Journal. 44(3): 207–211.
Griffiths, D. and G. Papp (2012). “Fluxus.” http://www.pawfal.org/fluxus/ (accessed 30 October 2012).
Magnusson, T. (2011). Confessions of a Live Coder. Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference, 609–616. University of Huddersfield, England. http://quod.lib.umich.edu/i/icmc/bbp2372.2011.122.
McCartney, J. (2002). Rethinking the Computer Music Language: SuperCollider. Computer Music Journal 26(4): 61–68.
McCartney, J. (2012). “SuperCollider.” http://supercollider.sourceforge.net/ (accessed 30 October 2012).
McLean, C. A. (2011). Artist-Programmers and Programming Languages for the Arts. Ph.D. thesis, Goldsmiths, University of London. http://yaxu.org/writing/thesis.pdf.
McLean, A., and G. Wiggins (2010). Live Coding Towards Computational Creativity. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Computational Creativity (ICCC-X). Lisbon, Portugal.
Nilson, C. (1975). An Instructional Game for 1 to Many Musicians. Composition. http://toplap.org/index.php?title=Click_Nilson%27s_text_piece.
Puckette, M. (2002). Max at Seventeen. Computer Music Journal, 26(4): 31–43.
Puckette, M. (2013). “Pure Data.” http://puredata.info/ (accessed 14 March 2013).
Sorensen, A. (2013). “Impromptu.” http://impromptu.moso.com.au/ (accessed 14 March 2013).
TOPLAP (2012). “Toplap.” http://toplap.org/about/ (accessed 30 October 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1732","14","The Long Road Home: conversion and transformation of the Text Creation Partnership corpus","2","This poster addresses some of the practical problems of working with the underlying digital files prepared by the Early English Books Online-Text Creation Partnership (EEBO-TCP) using generalized tools developed for used with files following the recommendations of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI). [1] This conversion work, at the University of Oxford, was initially driven by a desire to experiment with the creation of truly usable ePub editions of the Eighteenth Century Collections Online - Text Creation Partnership (ECCO-TCP) corpus released into the public domain in 2010. It was undertaken at the University of Oxford's IT Services independently of the EEBO-TCP team at the Bodleian Library or in Michigan.

The Text Creation Partnership (TCP) digitization programme is a large and complex operation, with very detailed guidance and standards (http://www.textcreationpartnership.org/docs/) worked out over the last decade. When the project started the decision was made to use SGML markup as the archival storage format, and a variation on the TEI Guidelines, version P3, for the encoding vocabulary. Unfortunately, SGML-aware software is increasingly hard to come by, and the advantages of doing this kind of work in XML these day are self-evident. The TEI has also developed significantly since TEI P3, with the current TEI P5 releases making many changes and improvements (some of them owing to proposals arising from work rationalizing the TCP markup). Interchange or comparison with other TEI texts, or use of TEI-aware software, suggests that we should have a way to transform the TCP texts into valid TEI P5 XML. This does not mean that once texts are in TEI that they are inherently interoperable, at least not without some effort, but this should be a vastly simpler task with a converted version of the EEBO-TCP corpus because they have all been created by a single project following a single set of encoding guidelines. These TCP guidelines have been developed over the course of the project and while not always perfect have gradually been increasing in standards of consistency.

The transformation of these EEBO-TCP texts to a basic and conventional web site alongside the facsimile page images is generally a straightforward task. However, if we want to take advantage of some of the tools now commonly used to process digital files, particularly those based on the current TEI P5 recommendations, this is much more problematic. At very least this involves transforming the SGML markup to XML, and then to the latest edition of the TEI (TEI P5). This poster will document these stages in conversion with examples of some of the problems encountered in this sort of conversion. This has sometimes necessitated changes to the TEI Guidelines themselves in order to be able to consistently encode textual phenomena that has been identified by the TCP project which cannot adequately be described using the current TEI recommendations. In other cases, decisions have needed to be made in the appropriate way to map some of the encoding variants adopted by EEBO-TCP back onto the existing and TEI P5 markup guidelines.

As well as the process, this poster presents some of the software that we have developed for converting ECCO-TCP and EEBO-TCP files. The exercise of transformation gives an interesting opportunity to examine the nature of the encoding of TCP texts, analyze the range of textual phenomena which are recorded in the corpus, and predict which structures which will be amenable to discovery by future scholars. The approximately 40000-text corpus of TCP also provides a good testbed for the more generalized TEI tools that we have developed. For this poster we describe some of the tools that we've used for the TCP conversions and the results of analysis of the converted TCP texts. As a case study we examine and demonstrate the generation of ebook editions (ePub format) of the ECCO-TCP and EEBO-TCP texts from the converted TEI. The results of such conversions will be discussed with regard for their usefulness for contemporary readers and any failures in representing the intellectual content of the original text.

Notes
1. Significant thanks are owed to Paul Schaffner for his very patient and understanding help in explaining decisions made by the TCP project. We are also grateful to Martin Mueller, Stephen Ramsay and Brian Pytlik Zillig of the Monk and Abbott projects, who wrestled with some of the same dilemmas before and in parallel with us, for discussions of minutiae of the markup. See http://www.tei-c.org/ for more information about the TEI.","txt","2","",""
"1733","14","Looking for needles in DH haystacks: efficient querying of complex data","15","The rapid development of the discipline (or, more precisely, disciplines) known as Digital Humanities resulted in the ever wider accessibility of digitization methods and, consequently, the steadily growing amount of digitized and interlinked data. However, as in many other disciplines that have followed a similar pattern of development, it turns out that, while the amount of information is growing, the methods for quick, easy and successful retrieval of that information are either not yet established, or not yet sufficiently widespread.

In view of the massive amount of available data, an average DH scholar is confronted with the task of finding a needle in a haystack: while, seemingly, everything is there: structured, interlinked and ready to be used, and while wellknown query mechanisms exist and have been used for years in other disciplines, the fundamental questions still concern the best way to formulate the particular research questions, the best method appropriate to the task at hand, or a friendly tool that would provide the relevant results in the desired format and without too steep a learning curve.

The tutorial is going to present stateoftheart methods in querying data, from textual to multimodal, with a focus on use cases commonly found in Digital Humanities, or envisioned for the near future of this expanding field. It will be taught by two specialists in markup languages and corpus linguistics, currently involved in the process of creating a new analysis platform designed to handle large amounts of linguistic data. This is not meant to be a tutorial just for linguists, however: we intend to provide an opportunity to carry over some wellknown methods and techniques from linguistic research, where they have been used for years, onto the broader area of Digital Humanities, where queries target not only texts, but also nontextual objects, such as binary streams, ontologies, prosopographic databases or GIS data (these latter types of objects will be discussed to the extent to which they can be linked from textual resources).

We shall focus primarily on the search in metadata, nonannotated data, and structured annotated data (especially TEIencoded).

Part of the way to ensure closer cooperation among DH researchers may be to provide them with a common language in which they can specify questions asked of a variety of datasets in a variety of structures. The tutorial shall investigate to what extent the creation of such a Corpus Query Lingua Franca is a realistic endeavour, what basic elements such a language would have to possess, what kind of objects it would have to query, and what set of constraints it will have to unavoidably obey. This is also one of the current foci of the Special Committee of ISO that addresses language resource management (TC37 SC4), in which both presenters actively participate.

Description of target audience and expected number of participants
We expect up to ca. 35 people. We intend the tutorial for general DH audience: variety is a virtue in this case, because we want to address actual use cases, some of which will surely come from the participants themselves.

Background information
Piotr Bański is an Assistant Professor of linguistics at the Institute of English Studies of the University of Warsaw, and a researcher at the Institut für Deutsche Sprache in Mannheim, where he is the Project Manager of the “Corpus Analysis Platform of the Next Generation” (KorAP), a project financed by the Leibniz Association (LeibnizGemeinschaft). He served as an elected member of the TEI Technical Council for term 20112012 and since 2010 has been involved in the work of the ISO TC37 SC4 committee for Language Resource Management. His latest project within the scope of ISO is work on Corpus Query Lingua Franca, within TC37 SC4 Working Group 6, convened by Andreas Witt. His current interests focus mostly on text encoding as well as the creation and use of robust language resources.

After graduating from Bielefeld University in 1996, Andreas Witt started at this university as a researcher and instructor in Text Technology. He was heavily involved in the establishment of the Magister and BA programmes in Text Technology at Bielefeld Universität in 1999 and 2002 respectively. After completing his Ph.D. in 2002 he became an assistant lecturer with the Text Technology group in Bielefeld. In 2006 he moved to Tübingen University, where he was involved in a project on “Sustainability of Linguistic Resources” and in projects on the interoperability of language data. Since 2009 he has been a senior researcher at the Institut für Deutsche Sprache (Institute for the German Language) in Mannheim. Andreas is a member of numerous research organizations including the TEI Special Interest Group ""TEI for Linguists"". His major research interests deal with questions of the use and limitations of markup languages for the linguistic description of language data.

Outline
Main issues addressed by the tutorial:

What should a text query system for DH in the 21st century look like?
What kinds of queries should a query system be able to deal with?
How to define a modern query language?
How should a text corpus be structured in the future?
List of topics (some of them may receive only cursory attention; much depends on the composition of the audience and the demand)

Digital text
Annotation of text
Annotation formats (HTML, TEI, others)
Text corpora
Corpora of written languages
Corpora of spoken language
Aligned corpora
Trees, Graphs, feature structures
Web as a Corpus
Characters and character encoding
Metadata
Simple search
Search with regular expressions
Search in XMLData (Xquery, XPATH)
Complex Annotations
Multilevel annotations
Relations between annotations
Existing corpus query systems","txt","2","",""
"1734","14","Lost in the Data, Aerial Views of an Archaeological Collection","9","Introduction
A guiding principle in digital curation is that continuous management of data renders digital collections sustainable for continuous access and reuse (Higgings 2008). This assumes embedding data organization, documentation, and preservation practices in the research process, ideally from inception, as well as the persistence of resources to support past, current, and future technologies. In reality, these goals remain unattainable for many projects, especially those with long histories. Large gaps must still be bridged to build solutions to accommodate the realities of contemporary humanities data (Borgman, 2009).

Humanities projects can be long and multi-faceted, leading to convoluted collections that reflect technological and methodological changes over time. Researchers tend to adopt new technologies to solve specific problems and intend to deal with preservation later. Meanwhile, technologies evolve, putting data at risk. Research can be segmented due to funding constraints, changing teams, and new domain directions, making it difficult to enforce standards and achieve consistency. This is especially true in archaeological research, where fieldwork is cyclical and produces huge and complex datasets (Kansa, el al. 2011). After decades of accumulating data, it is easy to become lost in one’s own collection, wondering how to make sense of it all (Trelogan et al. 2010).

While initiatives are developing (Open Context 2012; Richards 1997) to help projects prepare data for centralized repositories, there is still a dearth of tools for on-the-fly management of evolving datasets with a long history. Here we present a visual analytics tool that provides an “aerial views” of digital collections and tools to help navigate the curation process.

We present a case study that adds new functionality to a visual analytics application designed for archival analysis with support from the National Archives and Records Administration (Esteva, et al. 2011; Xu, et al. 2011). New developments provide intuitive guidance for users with large collections in need of intervention without interrupting the flow of active research. New functions include tools for locating and sorting primary data, identifying duplicated and corrupted files, and creating timelines of production. It provides a toolkit for investigating formation processes in order to inform future plans and establish priorities for a collections’ documentation, preservation, and archiving. While this concept may resonate well with archaeologists familiar with the importance of formation processes and multiple viewpoints for analysis, the tool has wide application for any kind of disparate data with a long, continuing evolution.

Project Background
This study consists of an active collection of over 1,000,000 files from investigations by the Institute of Classical Archaeology (ICA) at the University of Texas at Austin, representing over forty years of research activities. It reflects the technological changes that have affected research since the mid-seventies, as well as the methodological and theoretical changes that have influenced archaeology and associated disciplines. The data are typical of a large archaeological project, from scans of photographs, drawings and field notes, to GIS datasets, 3D visualizations, and databases. Adding further complexity, ICA’s multidisciplinary approach has resulted in data amassed by generations of scholars and students, reaching across disciplinary, geographical, and political boundaries, each with its own set of methods, questions, and solutions.

As ICA’s focus has recently turned from fieldwork to publication, an increasing sense of crisis has arisen as researchers attempt to retrieve, assimilate, and share digital resources for study and dissemination. Past efforts to organize and document this collection have been piecemeal and have lacked consistent conventions for file naming, metadata, or organization. Data previously distributed throughout hard drives and detached storage devices have been consolidated in a networked server, but remain in serious disarray.

Help was sought from the Texas Advanced Computing Center (TACC), which provides high performance computing services, including data management support. Starting in 2009, the teams began a collaboration to assess and organize a sample dataset from one of ICA’s excavations (Esteva, et al. 2010). Work has since expanded to assess the entire collection, with goals to develop data management strategies that can be adopted without interrupting ongoing research, to document and archive the collection in TACC’s storage infrastructure, and to provide web access for collaboration and dissemination. Here we describe new functionality and promising results with the initial triage of the collection using the visual analytics application discussed above.

Methods
The application uses file system and file format metadata extracted from files and directories to create a visualization of the collection, akin to aerial photographs that provide encompassing views of a landscape from above. File paths and sizes represent the collection’s organizational structure as a treemap (Shneiderman 1992), and file format metadata is further classified using PRONOM’s file categories (PRONOM 2012) to narrow the information to a comprehensible amount. File classes are rendered as colored distributions within the collection’s structure.

In the background the extracted metadata is computationally analyzed and aggregated at different directory levels, and the results are written to a comma-separated table processed for display by the visualization. Users can interact with the visual representation of the collection by navigating directory levels, searching directory names, browsing, and selecting directories for observation. They can also select and group metadata using filtering functions. Tag clouds showing directory and file names, color and file class maps, and charts representing numbers of files per class allow users to verify and clarify the collection views.

File Class Analysis
In this project, for purposes of understanding the contents of the collection in relation to research stages, file classes are further categorized as: 1) primary, 2) process, and 3) publication data. Raster images, for example, are more likely primary data (e.g. site photographs), whereas vector images are more likely illustrations for publication. These categories were mapped to contrasting color maps, allowing for quick visual identification of directories according to classes and categories of the files they contain (Figure 1). Figure 1 is a view of the entire collection represented as a treemap showing file classes.


Figure 1.
5tb of archaeology data are represented as a treemap. The predominance of raster images across the collection, as well as primary, process, and publication data can be identified.

Directories can be further explored via search and browsing functions to refine the assessment. One useful discovery was a large collection of artifacts left over from obsolete operating systems and software. Using the directory labels search function we located a large collection of raw digital photographs that had been thought lost. Consequently several areas of the collection were identified as priority for archiving and others for disposal.

Checksums and Date Analyses
A checksum analysis function was developed to aid identifying corrupted and duplicated files. Identical checksums are rendered in the directories where they are located. Through this function we found that identical checksums can exist in large quantities (over ~5000 in this archive). Those are likely to belong to error messages, empty strings, cache artifacts and similar images made by databases for speeding retrieval, are generated automatically, and can span many directories. This led the team to find multiple copies of old web-based databases to mark for deletion. Instead, checksums for duplicate files likely created by copying files or directories, are generally distributed across only two or three directories. Several sets of duplicated files were located and marked for deletion, freeing up space and allowing a clearer picture of the collection.

In analyzing repeated checksums, associating them with file class information aids in deciding if they should be kept or deleted. In addition, learning the complete file path allows identifying if these are temporary files, svn-related, duplicates, backups, and their provenance. The location of these files and their distribution are indicative of the archive's formation process and can lead to clues about associated data (Esteva 2008).

We are working on incorporating dates into the analysis so that file classes and checksums can be viewed in a timeline. Last modified dates will be aggregated by year and shown in relation to file classes. Users will be able to select viewing features and amounts for a given year [1] , and many treemaps can be opened at a time to allow comparison of technologies in a timeline.

Much like in archaeological excavations, the knowledge brought by various experts regarding the collection’s history, work processes, workflows, and technological change, aids in understanding the collection’s context and planning for its preservation. With these tools, we are able to “dig” through the archive much more effectively and gain a clearer picture of its content and significance.

Conclusions
This application provides a framework to study collections with interactive tools for discovery, condition assessment, and a roadmap to make inferences about the processes by which they were formed. It has wide-ranging implications for collections that must be explored from multiple viewpoints — as with archaeological landscapes — in order to understand their condition and plan their future trajectories.

A work in progress, the tool requires further development from multiple ends. Presently, not all file formats can be identified and the file classes may be too broad for the study of specific datasets. Ideally, the tool should be implemented to update dynamically for purposes of continuous monitoring of active collections. We will illustrate the presentation with images, report findings, and will discuss functionalities and the challenges ahead.

References
Borgman, C. L. (2009). The Digital Future is Now: A Call to Action for the Humanities. Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3(4) http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/4/000077/000077.html%20/000077.html (accessed 1 November 2012).
Esteva, M. (2008). Formation Process and Preservation of a Natural Electronic Archive. In Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 2008 Conference held 24-29 October 2008 in Ohio. 45(1): 1-9. doi: 10.1002/meet.2008.1450450270
Esteva, M., J. Trelogan, A. Rabinowitz, D. Walling, and S. Pipkin (2010). From the Site to Long-Term Preservation: A Reflexive System to Manage and Archive Digital Archaeological Data. Proceedings of the IS&T’s Archiving 2010 Conference June 1-4, 2010, Den Haag, The Netherlands. http://test.imaging.org/ScriptContent/store/epub.cfm?abstrid=43763 (accessed 1 November 2012).
Esteva, M, W. Xu, S. D. Jain, J. Lee, and W. K. Martin (2011). Assessing the Preservation Condition of Large and Heterogeneous Electronic Records Collections with Visualization. International Journal of Digital Curation, 6:1 UKLON, University of Bath. Digital Curation Center. http://www.ijdc.net/index.php/ijdc/article/view/162 (accessed 1 November 2012).
Higgins, S. (2008).The DCC Curation Lifecycle Model. International Journal of Digital Curation. 3:1 134-140. doi:10.2218/ijdc.v3i1.48.
Kansa, E. C., S. W. Kansa, and E. Watrall (2011). Archaeology 2.0: New Approaches to Communication and Collaboration Location: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology. http://escholarship.org/uc/item/1r6137tb (accessed 1 November 2012).
Open Context. Alexandria Archive Institute. http://www.opencontext.org. (accessed 1 November 2012).
Richards, J. D. (1997). Preservation and Re-use of Digital Data: the Role of the Archaeology Data Service. Antiquity 71 1057–1059.
Shneiderman, B. (1992). Tree Visualization with Tree-maps: 2-d Space-filling Approach. ACM Trans. Graph. 1992: 11, 92-9.
The National Archives. PRONOM,The Technical Registry. http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/aboutapps/pronom/ (accessed 1 November 2011).
Trelogan, J., A. Rabinowitz, M. Esteva, and S. Pipkin (2010). What Do we Do with the Mess? Managing and Preserving Process History in Evolving Digital Archaeological Archives. In Contreras, F., and F. J. Melero (eds.), Proceedings of the 38th Conference on Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology. held April 6-9 in Granada, Spain.
Xu, W., M. Esteva, S. J. Dott, and V. Jain (2011). Analysis of Large Digital Collections with Interactive Visualization. VisWeek. Conference. In Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Visual Analytics Science and Technology. held 23-28 October in Providence, Rhode Island. 241-250, doi: 10.1109/VAST.2011.6102462.
Notes
1. The assumption is that last modified dates are valid for analysis, which is the case in this study collection.","txt","2","",""
"1735","14","Making the Digital Humanities More Open: Modeling Digital Humanities for a Wider Audience","2","“Making the Digital Humanities More Open”, a NEH ODH Digital Humanities Start-Up Grant Project, is creating a free and easy-to-use tool that enables end-users with a variety of disabilities and abilities to access online humanities resources, allowing digital humanities projects to share the products of their text-based projects with this often-neglected audience of readers. During the year previous to DH 2013, our team will design and deploy a WordPress-based accessibility tool that will create braille content for end-users who are blind or low vision. Specifically, we plan to extend the use of Anthologize — a free and open source plug-in for WordPress that currently translates any RSS text into PDF, ePub, HTML, or TEI — to include the conversion of text to braille. As a result, we will not only make it easy for digital research content creators to convert a text into braille, thereby extending humanities content to hundreds of thousands of visually disabled readers, but we will also experiment with making braille available visually through the WordPress interface. This tool will also make it possible to translate the textual content of an Omeka archive into braille provided the site — like most that use Omeka — publishes an RSS feed; we’ll have conducted initial tests of the tool by translating the existing BrailleSC oral histories into braille, and then we will reach out to other Omeka- and WordPress-based humanities computing projects to ask for their cooperation and collaboration in translating their content.

Over the last several decades, scholars have developed standards for how best to create, organize, present, and preserve digital information so that future generations of teachers, students, scholars, and librarians may still use it. What has remained neglected for the most part, however, are the needs of people with disabilities (Abou-Zahra). As a result, many of the otherwise most valuable digital resources are useless for people who are blind or have low vision; the barriers to participation are varied and include such obstacles as the high price of specialized software and hardware, the advanced expertise that such software and hardware often requires, and design choices that can prevent end-users with sensory disabilities from taking full advantage of online resources (Fox).

For public humanities practitioners, including the many local museums, small organizations, and individual scholars, our project provides an entrance into digital humanities communities that might otherwise be obfuscated by the high costs of technology adoption, customization, and deployment. Accessibility is important because disabled users need to be able to participate fully in humanities research and teaching. In providing accessibility tools to disabled communities, we enrich their individual research and learning efforts beyond the formal educational process. As the insights of scholars working in disability studies in the humanities have shown, creating tools for individuals with disabilities improves digital environments for all users (Williams). Our work aims to increase participation by all people in experiencing and creating scholarly digital projects.

The deliverables of the project, all completed by May 2013, will be a public GitHub repository of the code, a documentation guide, a pilot test of using a local LibLouis library with WordPress, a pilot test of using a remote LibLouis library with WordPress and Anthologize, and a white paper explaining what we’ve learned about various options for creating online braille documents. A demo of the technical components of our work will be part of our poster presentation, but we will emphasize the theoretical takeaways of the project, modeling the ways in which digital humanities projects should be designed and implemented with the needs of disabled users in mind. We will discuss what we have learned about accessibility for both digital humanities projects and digital writing in general, and explore both the direct impact of this tool and the significance of opening digital humanities work to a wider audience of participants. Our poster will be of interest to anyone interested in the theory behind how we code and design digital humanities tools and site, designing for universal and accessible use, and accessing, preserving, and working with the cultural histories of people interacting with the braille form of reading and writing.

References
Abou-Zahra, S. (ed). (2011). Evaluating Web Sites for Accessibility: Overview. Web Accessibility Initiative. World Wide Web Consortium. http://www.w3.org/WAI.
Fox, S. Americans Living with Disability and Their Technology Profile. Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project. http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2011/Disability.aspx. (accessed 21 January 2011).
Williams, G. H. (2012). Disability, Design, and the Digital Humanities. In Gold, M. K. (ed.), Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 202-212.","txt","2","",""
"1736","14","Reliable Citation as a Foundation for Preservable Web-Based Digital Humanities Projects","2","Preservation of digital humanities (DH) projects is an emerging problem. As languages, frameworks, platforms, libraries, and databases evolve, the effort required to maintain meaningful access to existing projects is a challenge that competes with efforts to produce new work. Creators of DH projects need to be able to continue to iterate and innovate but also demonstrate good stewardship of digital materials.
The field recognizes this problem, from the 2004 Sustaining Digital Scholarship (SDS) final report and continuing through such projects as Memento, SiteStory, and TAPAS, and is actively researching ways to enable sustainable, long-term stewardship for certain project components, but these efforts do not provide a comprehensive platform for the full DH project. All of these efforts consider a project to be a set of static pages or resources that seldom change. None of them would be sufficient for hosting or describing ongoing projects such as World Shakespeare Bibliography Online.
Many new DH projects build their web presence with open source platforms such as Wordpress, Drupal, or Omeka, extending them through customizations. The long-term sustainability of such projects is an issue, involving the cost of hosting as well as migration of customizations as platforms and languages evolve. SalahEldeen and Nelson show evidence that after only a year, an average of eleven percent of cited on-line resources are lost. It is not surprising then that none of the common systems used to build DH projects allows reliable citation since the same platforms used in DH host a share of the resources lost each year. It is surprising that reliable citation is not seen as a greater problem by the scholarly community. Reliable citation is necessary for long-term preservation and therefore expresses a need for a temporal content and data management system that allows for reliable citation of scholarly narratives and resources.
We might base the value of a scholarly work on its place in the larger scholarly conversation. If it is not part of the conversation, then it has little effect on the field and thus has little value. Scholarly work can only be part of the conversation if it can be referenced. This is well developed for traditional publications (e.g., citing a particular edition of a printed work), but remains a problem for web-based scholarly work, not because particular pages can not be addressed, but because the information presented as part of that page is not stable. Without being able to reference the particular version of the page, scholars can not make reliable arguments about the work. What a reader sees might differ from what the author saw when researching and writing the work referencing the web¬based project. These problems increase when referencing a dynamic, algorithmic project.
We see three fundamental requirements for such a system to enable reliable citation of scholarly works and resources: temporal citation, reproducible citation, and sustainable citation. Any platform meeting these requirements should be able to provide level four preservation as described in the SDS final report (11).
A temporal citation of a web-based scholarly work must be able to address the view within the context of the project’s history. Not only must a scholar be able to point a reader to a particular resource in a project, but the scholar must be able to point to a particular resource at a particular date and time.
A reproducible citation of a web¬based scholarly work must show the same content over time. Fetching the cited resource year after year should show no significant changes in the scholarly content of the resource.
A sustainable citation of a web-based scholarly work allows a scholar to cite a project and know that their readers will be able to see the same information they saw by following the citation, for as long as their citation exists. Sustainability is a social issue as much as a technical one. We are not trying to address the social issues involved in sustainability in this poster.
The poster consists of diagrams and text explaining how reliable citation works with respect to resource versioning and project timelines. In addition, a demonstration of a temporal content and data management system hosted athttp://alpha.ookook.net/ providing reliable citation will accompany the poster so that attendees can interact with the system and see the platform affordances in action. The demonstration will also provide an opportunity for attendees to interact with the developer.
Reliable citation does not require any unique data model or software architecture. The poster outlines both the data model and the architecture as they are developed in the demonstration software, principally by segmenting a project’s history into discrete editions that aggregate changes to the project.
Discussion will quickly muddy if we don’t establish some nomenclature for dates and times. A resource date and time is the date and time for which the resource should be rendered. For example, if I specify a resource date and time of noon on January 1st, 2012, then I expect the see a rendering of the resource as it appeared at noon on January 1st, 2012. A request date and time is the date and time at which the request is made, even if the request is for a resource with a resource date and time different than the request date and time.
The data model partitions the project into two classes of objects: editioned objects, such as a project or theme, and versioned objects, such as pages or stylesheets. Editions are published for a span of time during which no public changes are made to the pages. Any changes made to a page require the creation of a new page version which will be aggregated with other versions when a new edition is created and published. Only one project edition is active for a resource date and time. By tracking the time spans for which an edition is active, we can reproduce the project as it existed at a particular date and time.
The demonstration software separates information into two editioned resources: Projects (web sites) and Themes (collections of style information). Editions of projects and themes are independent of each other, with each managing their own history.
References between different editioned resources are done by naming the referenced resource as well as the referenced resource date and time. This allows a project to select a theme in a reproducible fashion. References to a versioned resource within an editioned resource (e.g., a page within a project) may reference the page without referencing a particular version. The appropriate version will be retrieved based on the edition selected by the resource date and time of the request.
This poster will be of interest to anyone wishing to see how a platform supporting reliable citation might be designed.
References
Drupal. http://www.drupal.org/
Memento. http://www.mementoweb.org/
Omeka. http://www.omeka.org/
SalahEldeen, M. Hany, and M. L. Nelson Losing My Revolution: How Many Resources Shared on Social Media Have Been Lost? (2012). arXiv:1209.3026.
Sustaining Digital Scholarship Final Report. (2004) http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/sds/SDS_AR_2003.pdf
SiteStory. http://mementoweb.github.com/SiteStory/
TEI Archiving Publishing and Access Service (TAPAS) Project. http://www.tapasproject.org/
Wordpress. http://www.wordpress.org/
World Shakespeare Bibliography Online. http://www.worldshakesbib.org/","txt","2","",""
"1737","14","Mapping DH through heterogeneous communicative practices","9","Objective
Digital Humanities (DH) has been exhaustively defined in the literature (e.g., Rockwell, 2002; Bellamy, 2012; Text Analysis Portal for Research, 2011; Fitzpatrick, 2011). Such definitions are sometimes at odds with each other and often represent differences based upon disciplinary concerns. Despite the assertion that DH is a “term of tactical convenience” (Kirschenbaum, as cited in Gold, 2012), the existence of a DH community seems to be well-established; there are a dizzying array of scholars identifying themselves as digital humanists and there are others doing work that some have categorized as DH. However, a thorough investigation and description of the communicative practices of DH is lacking. We know neither the breadth of methods used, the depth to which they are used, nor the purposes to which they are put. To this end, this paper examines informal and formal communication channels used by members of the DH community to diffuse information and build communities. These communications are negotiated at a variety of levels including students and faculty at the individual level, collaborative teams at the group level, and funding agencies and institutions at the societal level (Svensson, 2010). We analyze the data from these communications to determine how these interactions connect DH community members at the individual, group, and institutional levels and across the DH landscape and helps answer the question: How does the socio-technical ecology connect or partition the landscape of the DH community?

Background
In a discussion of how qualitative research may aid bibliometric analyses of the humanities, Sula (2012, para. 18) claims that “a fuller picture of the humanities will help to clarify the ways in which the humanities and sciences differ, beyond citation patterns and authorship practices”, calling for studies that look to both formal scholarly communication and informal communication from sources deriving from mentoring, peer-to-peer, and other relationships (built on interactions such as conference co-attendance, editorship, and contributorship to anthologies). Sula (2012) concludes by suggesting that these proposed studies based on expanded sets of communications look to apply the methods of network analysis and visualization. Our proposed study answers this call both in terms of the data used and the methods of analysis.

Previous studies outside the realm of formal scholarly communication in the DH domain have begun this expansion of information sources, examining DH Twitter communications (Ross, Terras, Warwick, & Welsh, 2011), syllabi (Terras, 2006; Spiro, 2012), journal citation analysis (View DHQ, 2012), and research centers (Zorich, 2008), exposing the diversity of scholarly communication activities in DH; however such studies have been limited for the most part to single channels of communication. In Terras (2011), an infographic quantifying DH produced by the UCL Centre for Digital Humanities displays DH’s burgeoning internationality as well as its institutionalization. Still another dimension of diversity is addressed by McPherson (2008) via Svensson (2010) — namely, a diversity of topicality, defined as foci in digital humanities upon computing, blogging, and multimodality. The current study addresses the demands of these multiple diversities to investigate divisions in the overall DH landscape, while doing so across multiple communication channels in order to discern how different dimensions of diversity and division may or may not overlap.

Methods
This work will apply multi-dimensional network analysis to data from Twitter, LLC and DHQ journals (data taken from the Web of Knowledge database), NEH grants awarded for DH-related projects, the TEI-L and Humanist listservs, DH syllabi, and a variety of other sources (blogs, centers, and projects), employing a cumulative, normalized database composed of data from these sources to paint a wider view of the connections among people, teams, institutions, and communication channels that make up the DH landscape. Our sources will be validated through consultation with prominent members of the DH community. The resulting normalized database will be rendered as a graph connecting URLs, projects, institutions, people, publications, and grants, which will then be partitioned and analyzed using standard community detection algorithms. We will then compare community overlap over different scholarly media to explore how DH practitioners organize themselves into and across communities, specifically looking at whether certain people, technologies, or publications sit at intersection points in the network, holding communities together.

Significance
This research is innovative in its combination of both formal (syllabi, journals, grant proposals, etc.) and informal (Twitter, blogs, listserv, etc.) communication channels allowing for a broader analysis of the communication network of the DH community. Previous work has focused on single source types and has marginalized community members who communicate in other ways. There is a vacuum of formal DH connectivity and this work addresses ways in which this vacuum is being filled and what that implies about the DH community. The DH community forms a network spanning across the world (Kamada, 2010) and it’s important to understand how this network is connected and how it is establishing itself in traditional academic institutions (Adams & Gunn, 2012). From a broader perspective, the methodology introduced here to study DH is generalizable to the analysis of other fields and will hence make a valuable contribution to scholarship.

Because DH community members are situated in various locales across a wide array of institutions, there are few formalized communication channels that span the DH landscape. The lack of formalized communication channels and instructional structure indicates that multi-dimensional methods are needed to fully comprehend this network; this premise informs our selection of formal and informal data sources. It is important to note that the DH community is an area of research made up of theories, methods, and people spanning multiple domains who publish across a variety of disciplines; that said, we will not be providing an exhaustive analysis of the entire landscape of DH. Examination of a large swath of this landscape allows for a wide-ranging analysis of the various channels used to keep those in the DH community informed. It is important for members of the DH community to be made aware of the various channels of communication that are being used to spread information. As Terras (2010) stated in her plenary speech to the DH2010 conference, “digital presence and digital identity is becoming more important to Digital Humanities as a discipline.” This work addresses this statement with empirical and heterogeneous evidence.

Acknowledgments
This work was funded by the Digging into Data initiative, organized by the National Endowment for the Humanities. Specific funding for this DID project comes from the National Science Foundation in the United States (Grant No. 1208804), JISC in the United Kingdom, and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

References
Adams, J. L. & D.B. Gunn (2012). Digital humanities: Where to start. College & Research Libraries News, 73(9): 536-569. http://crln.acrl.org/content/73/9/536.full
Bellamy, C. (2012). The sound of many hands clapping: Teaching the digital humanities through virtual research environments (VREs). Digital Humanities Quarterly, 6(1): http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/6/2/000119/000119.html
Fitzpatrick, K. (2011). The humanities, done digitally. The Chronicle of Higher Education. http://chronicle.com/article/The-Humanities-Done-Digitally/127382
Gold, M. K. (ed.) (2012). Debates in the Digital Humanities. University of Minnesota Press.
Juola, P. (2008). Killer applications in digital humanities. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(1): 73-83.
Kamada, H. (2010). Digital humanities: Roles for libraries. College & Research Libraries News, 71(9): 484-485. http://crln.acrl.org/content/71/9/484.full
Kirschenbaum, M. (2010). What is digital humanities and what’s it doing in English departments? ADE Bulletin, 150: 1-6.
Rockwell, G. (2002). Multimedia: Is it a discipline? The liberal and servile arts in humanities computing. Yearbook of the Seminar for Germanic Philology 4. Paderborn: Mentis Verlag. http://computerphilologie.uni-muenchen.de/jg02/rockwell.html
Ross, C., M. Terras, C. Warwick, and A. Welsh (2011). Enabled backchannel: Conference Twitter use by digital humanists. Journal of Documentation. 67(2): 214–237
Rosenbloom, P. S. (2012). Towards a conceptual framework for the digital humanities. Digital Humanities Quarterly 6(2). http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/6/2/000127/000127.html
Schriebman, S. (2012). Digital humanities: Centres and peripheries. Historical Social Research. 37(3): 46-58.
Spiro, L. (2011). Knowing and doing: Understanding the digital humanities curriculum. (Powerpoint slides) http://digitalscholarship.files.wordpress.com/2011/06/spirodheducationpresentation2011-4.pdf
Spiro, L. (2012). Models for supporting digital humanities at liberal arts colleges. (PowerPoint slides) http://digitalscholarship.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/spirodhsupportstructureswooster2.pdf
Sula, C. A. (2012). Visualizing social connections in the humanities: Beyond bibliometrics. Bulletin 38(4): Retrieved from http://www.asis.org/Bulletin/Apr-12/AprMay12_Sula.html
Svensson, P. (2010). The landscape of digital humanities. Digital Humanities Quarterly 4(1). http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/4/1/000080/000080.html
Svensson, P. (2012). Envisioning the digital humanities. Digital Humanities Quarterly 6(1). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/6/1/000112/000112.html
Text Analysis Portal for Research. (2011). How do you define Humanities Computing/Digital Humanities? http://tinyurl.com/9lw97hm (accessed 7 March 2012)
Terras, M. (2010). DH2010 Plenary: Present, not voting: Digital humanities in the panopticon. http://melissaterras.blogspot.com/2010/07/dh2010-plenary-present-not-voting.html (accessed 10 July 2010).
View DHQ (Data Visualization). (2012). 2012 ACH Microgrant: Citation Network Visualization for Digital Humanities Quarterly. http://digitalliterature.net/viewDHQ/
Wagner, C. S. (2008). The topology of science in the twenty-first century. In The New Invisible College Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. 15-32.
Zoirch, D. M. (2008). A survey of digital humanities centers in the United States. Council on Library and Information Research. (CLIR) held 12 May 2007. http://www.uvasci.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/dhc-survey-final-rept-2008_05_22-for-distribution.pdf, accessed on October 1, 2012.","txt","2","",""
"1738","14","Contemporary solutions to retrieve and publish information in ancient documents using RDF and Islandora","10","Introduction
This paper considers what can be gained from enhancing TEIencoded texts with RDF and OAC annotations and transforming to other representations, and how to facilitate their production, editing and storage. Our case study is the Sharing Ancient Wisdoms (SAWS) [1] project, which analyses the tradition of wisdom literatures. Scholarly interest is focused on semantic links within and between specific sections of these texts. SAWS produces TEIbased digital editions with semantic annotations in RDF to allow investigation of these links as Linked Data. This approach has the potential to be used widely to link and describe related sections of a variety of texts. Links can be extracted and transformed for manipulation and searching using alternative methods, illustrated by our TEItoRDF XSLT. In producing, storing and annotating such documents, the TEIediting process may present barriers to information enrichment for nontechnical users. The Islandora repository management software assists in creating and managing collections of documents through more intuitive, GUIdriven interactions with Fedora repositories. Within Islandora, the Digital Humanities Solution Pack provides a WYSIWIG online interface to help create, edit and annotate TEI documents, and simplifies the addition of semantic links. We demonstrate how TEI documents can be developed in diverse directions using Linked Data and RDF, and show how production of LinkedDataenhanced TEI documents can be facilitated using the Digital Humanities Solution Pack within Islandora. [2] RDF triples generated through the Islandora interface are exposed as standalone relationships which may be applicable in other contexts.

The Sharing Ancient Wisdoms (SAWS) use case
SAWS [3] [4] [5] is a key use case for this work, requiring an approach encapsulating various types of information including structural markup and semantic annotation. SAWS enables linking and comparisons within and between anthologies, their source texts, and their recipient texts, acting as a framework through which others can link their own materials via the Semantic Web.

SAWS focuses on gnomologia [6] , collections of sayings that transmitted moral or philosophical ideas. [7] These sayings were selected from earlier manuscripts, reorganised or reordered, and often modified or reattributed. The texts crossed linguistic barriers in the mediaeval period, and in later centuries were translated into western European languages. They form a complex network of interrelated texts, which when analysed can reveal much about the dynamics of the cultures that created and used them.

SAWS enables investigation of the relationships between specific sayings, tracing the links through different textual variants and languages. This has been achieved by enhancing our TEI with RDF: each saying can be linked to other relevant sections of text via a subject-predicate-object relationship defined as part of an ontology. The <relation> element, which has recently been updated with new attributes, allows us to enter RDF directly into the TEI document and combine this with information about scholarly responsibility. [8]

Combining TEI and RDF
TEI allows for extremely granular expression within a context; RDF is often meaningful in the absence of context. The strength of RDF lies in its apparent simplicity and its interoperability: its data is discoverable and reusable. Combining subject-predicate-object assertions can convey considerable metadata and tell complex stories. RDF can also be expressed as OAC annotations, which may have any number of targets of differing types. A target may indicate a section which overlaps another (via spatial or indexing coordinates) without breaking XML validation. SAWS implements the CITE/CTS citation scheme, [9] allowing overlapping sections to be described fully and referenced using anchor points in the TEI structure.

SAWS accommodates TEI and RDFcompatible markup within the same document and workflow, using established RDF syntax for marking up information of semantic interest. For SAWS, it is preferable to keep structural, syntactic and semantic markup in the same documents where possible, and to access the semantic information using standard tools such as XSLT. [10] [11] [12]

Previous approaches to the recording of semantic links within TEI documents have had limitations. The EARMARK ontology [13] provides an RDF model for XML information, but only for structure, so structural information is separated from text, and we cannot add semantic information while editing. RDFTEF [14] [15] requires documents to be edited in a separate environment within which standard XML tools cannot be used. [16] Approaches to incorporating RDF within XML documents do not transfer easily to a TEI representation: RDFa encodes RDF directly within specific XML attributes, but key attributes for RDFa [17] are not included in standard TEI schemas. [18]

While it would not technically be difficult to use RDFa by extending the TEI schema, this would introduce extra work which may not be necessary, and it would mean ignoring suitable alternatives proposed and accepted by the TEI community (discussed below) which require no extra schema work; if considered suitable, adopting such an alternative would enable SAWS to contribute towards establishing conventions within the TEI community for working with RDF within TEI.

Recognising the importance of combining RDF and TEI, a TEI Special Interest Group (SIG) in the use of ontologies [19] is developing XSLTs to transform TEI documents into RDF, using the CIDOC-CRM [20] as a basis. [21] [22] [23] [24] The SIG maps only a subset of elements to CIDOC-CRM, focusing on those that represent very particular entities. [25] SAWS would therefore not be able to retrieve many triples of scholarly interest such as manuscript structure and metadata.

To represent a wider range of data, a recent TEI recommendation [26] has been adopted by SAWS, using the <relation> element to represent links from one object [27] (@active) to another (@passive), using link types (@ref) which can incorporate a domain ontology. [28] [29] This increases the expressiveness of the markup without requiring changes within TEI. <relation> is an established element; the more recent addition of @ref has enabled <relation> to be used for RDF triples, along with the assertion of responsibility using @resp.

An XSLT stylesheet for extracting information from TEI to RDF
Semantic information can be accessed in limited ways via a TEI document, but when extracted, it can be placed in a triple store for access, querying and reasoning. [30] New knowledge can be derived by traversing internal links, and following links to related external Linked Data sources. [31]

We offer an XSLT stylesheet that transforms TEI, rerepresenting the structural, semantic and metadata information as RDF/XML triples. [32] Acknowledging practical difficulties concerning the size of the TEI tagset, we take the minimal required version of TEI, TEIBare. This forms a base for future extension, e.g. to TEILite. [33] [34] Using Dublin Core terms [35] such as dct:creator and dct:title, statements in the TEI header are transformed into corresponding RDF triples, and structural ordering of blocks within the TEI document are encoded using dct:isPartOf and dct:hasPart triples. We have extended the XSLT to include transformation of triples encoded through the <relation> element into RDF syntax, and further extensions can be added.

Transformations from TEI to RDF for the SAWS use case
The SAWS TEI version of the Kitāb alḤaraka (“Book of Happiness”), held at Ankara Üniversitesi, contains various metadata in its header. Applying the XSLT generates the following triples:


The SAWS TEI version of the Corpus Parisinum manuscript, held in the Digby collection in Oxford’s Bodleian library, contains a section <div xml:id=""Aristippus01""> which is contained by its parent, <div xml:id=""Part01"">. From this we can derive the following structural triples:


Feedback on the editing and linking process
SAWS scholars studying documents in ‘right-to-left’ (RTL) languages noted the difficulties in working with standard XML editing software, and also requested more intuitive interfaces for editing documents and adding <relation> links.

Islandora is an open source project allowing users to manage a Fedora repository through PHP using a Drupal front end. Fedora repositories are adept at maintaining and versioning metadata accompanying scholarly objects. Islandora provides an intuitive way to use Fedora to create, access and manage document collections, and is currently being used across a varied number of use cases. [38]

Various “solution packs” within Islandora are available for different types of projects. The Digital Humanities Solution Pack is specifically designed for text editing and annotation, based on Shared Canvas and CWRC (for editing TEI and adding links). These tools are used to access, edit, and retrieve information held in repositories, including TEI transcriptions of texts, OCR tools related images, annotations and metadata. This Digital Humanities project within Islandora is sponsored by EMiC to develop a suite of applications for managing and critically analysing Canadian modernism. As one of the authors of this paper is the lead programmer of both these projects, he can incorporate these transformations into the workflow to expose the data publicly. Of particular interest is the ability to extract data from TEI to build and maintain authority lists.

The Islandora Critical Editions module exposes a GUI allowing the addition and viewing of RDF entities and TEI tags. No knowledge of XML is required. Entities tie textual offsets to objects from authority lists, userentered notes, external links, or date ranges through RDF. Image annotations are OAC RDF annotations.


Concluding remarks
We offer a functional XSLT for converting TEI to RDF, incorporating the recent application of <relation> for encoding RDF within TEI and extracting TEI <relation> elements and selected structural markup as RDF files.

Future SAWS/Islandora collaboration will investigate the enhancement of TEIencoded documents and a more user-friendly environment for editing, managing and linking texts. The DH Solution Pack by Islandora is available by request but has not yet been released in beta version. It is intended that SAWS will have implemented and tested a working version of the DH Solution Pack by June 2013. Any DH project that wants to link TEI files with other sources of information will, we argue, benefit from investigating the DH Solution Pack. It has wide implementation possibilities and will be particularly useful for projects using right-to-left languages.

The outcomes of this SAWS/Islandora collaboration should apply across a wide variety of texts. It is hoped that this paper will stimulate further interest in RDF and Linked Data within TEI, particularly amongst Digital Humanists wishing to work with a broader range of Humanities scholars.

Notes
1. http://www.ancientwisdoms.ac.uk. Last accessed October 2012.

2. John Unsworth. (2003). Tool-Time, or 'Haven't We Been Here Already?' Ten Years in Humanities Computing. Delivered as part of ""Transforming Disciplines: The Humanities and Computer Science,"" Washington, DC. Available at: http://people.lis.illinois.edu/~unsworth/carnegieninch.03.html (last accessed 20th July 2012).

3. Anna Jordanous, K. Faith Lawrence, Mark Hedges, and Charlotte Tupman. (2012). Exploring manuscripts: sharing ancient wisdoms across the semantic web. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Web Intelligence, Mining and Semantics (WIMS '12), Craiova, Romania.

4. Tupman, Charlotte; Hedges, Mark; Jordanous, Anna; Lawrence, Faith; Roueche, Charlotte; Wakelnig, Elvira; Dunn, Stuart. (2012). Sharing Ancient Wisdoms: developing structures for tracking cultural dynamics by linking moral and philosophical anthologies with their source and recipient texts. In Proceedings of Digital Humanities (DH2012), Hamburg, Germany.

5. Hedges, Mark; Jordanous, Anna; Dunn, Stuart; Roueche, Charlotte; Kuster, Marc W.; Selig, Thomas; Bittorf, Michael; Artes, Waldemar;(2012). ""New models for collaborative textual scholarship,"", Proceedings of the 6th IEEE International Conference on Digital Ecosystems Technologies (DEST), Campione d’Italia, Italy.

6. F. Rodríguez Adrados, (1981). Greek wisdom literature and the Middle Ages: the lost Greek models and their Arabic and Castilian Translations (2001), English translation by Joyce Greer (2009), pp. 9197 on Greek models; D. Gutas, “Classical Arabic Wisdom Literature: Nature and Scope”, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 101, No. 1, Oriental Wisdom (Jan. Mar., 1981), pp. 4986

7. M. Richard, (1962). “Florilèges grecs”, Dictionnaire de Spiritualité V, cols. 475512

8. A full discussion of our TEI markup and use of the <relation> element can be found here: Tupman, Charlotte; Hedges, Mark; Jordanous, Anna; Lawrence, Faith; Roueche, Charlotte; Wakelnig, Elvira; Dunn, Stuart. Sharing Ancient Wisdoms: developing structures for tracking cultural dynamics by linking moral and philosophical anthologies with their source and recipient texts. In Proceedings of Digital Humanities (DH2012), Hamburg, Germany. 2012.

9. (http://www.homermultitext.org/hmtdoc/cite/)

10. M. O. Jewell. (2010). Semantic Screenplays: Preparing TEI for Linked Data. In Proceedings of Digital Humanities, London, UK.

11. 11 K. F. Lawrence. (2011). Wherefore Art Thou? Crowdsourcing Linked Data from Shakespeare to Dr Who. In Proceedings of Web Science, Koblenz, Germany.

12. Blanke, Tobias; Bodard, Gabriel; Bryant, Michael; Dunn, Stuart; Hedges, Mark; Jackson, Michael; Scott, David; (2012). ""Linked data for humanities research — The SPQR experiment,"" 6th IEEE International Conference on Digital Ecosystems Technologies (DEST), Campione d’Italia, Italy

13. S. Peroni and F. Vitali. (2009). Annotations with EARMARK for arbitrary, overlapping and outof order markup. In Proceedings of the 9th ACM symposium on Document engineering, pages 171180, Munich, Germany.

14. G. Tummarello, C. Morbidoni, and E. Pierazzo. (2005). Toward textual encoding based on RDF. In Proceeding of the 9th International Conference on Electronic Publishing (ELPUB 2005), Kath. Univ. Leuven, June, pages 5763.

15. RDFTEF sourcecode: http://rdftef.sourceforge.net/ Last maintained 2007.

16. P. Portier, N. Chatti, S. Calabretto, E. Egyed-Zsigmond, and J. Pinon. Modeling, encoding and querying multistructured documents. Information Processing & Management. Forthcoming.

17. e.g. @rel, @rev, @href, @resource, @property, @vocab

18. A more detailed discussion of existing methods for encoding RDF within TEI markup can be found in: A. Jordanous, A. Stanley and C. Tupman. Contemporary transformation of ancient documents for recording and retrieving maximum information: when one form of markup is not enough. In Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2012. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies, vol. 8 (2012), Montréal, Canada, August 2012.

19. TEIOntologies Special Interest Group http://www.tei-c.org/SIG/Ontologies/

20. ChristianEmil Ore and Øyvind Eide. (2009). TEI and cultural heritage ontologies: Exchange of information? Literary and Linguistic Computing 24(2): 161172

21. http://www.edd.uio.no/artiklar/tekstkoding/tei_crm_mapping.html, http://www.edd.uio.no/tei/teiontsig/test_crm_model.graphml

22. http://www.tei-c.org/release/xml/tei/stylesheet/rdf/

23. http://www.teic.org/SIG/Ontologies/guidelines/guidelinesTeiMappableCrm.xml

24. CIDOCCRM only direct represents textual material through one class (E33 Linguistic Object) and its two subclasses (E34 Inscription, E35 Title), but its selection as a base model is partially influenced by research aims of the SIG members in enhancing cultural heritage and museum documentation (http://www.teic.org/SIG/Ontologies/guidelines/guidelinesTeiMappableCrm.xml). Dicussions (see http://wiki.teic.org/index.php/SIG:Ontologies ) about the use of FRBRoo, a bibliographical records model harmonised with CIDOCCRM (http://www.cidoccrm.org/frbr_inro.html) have not been acted upon, to date. Some mappings from TEI to Dublin Core (a model of metadata information: http://www.dublincore.org) are occasionally present in stylesheets created by the SIG (http://www.teic.org/release/xml/tei/stylesheet/rdf/dc.xsl) but this output has not been highlighted, despite Dublin Core also being a realistic option for more detailed mappings of document metadata, especially from the TEI header.

25. http://wiki.teic.org/index.php/SIG:Ontologies

26. Sourceforge.net discussion: Encoding RDF relationships in TEI ID: 3309894, at http://tinyurl.com/lrbz53b

27. The application of <relation> to express RDF triples has been documented by TEI at http://www.teic.org/release/doc/teip5doc/en/html/refrelation.html with supporting examples.

28. The SAWS ontology (an extension of FRBRoo for representing relations of interest for study of wisdom manuscripts) is available at http://purl.org/saws/ontology.

29. S. Dunn, M. Hedges, A. Jordanous, K. F. Lawrence, C. Roueché, C. Tupman, and E. Wakelnig, Sharing Ancient Wisdoms: developing structures for tracking cultural dynamics by linking moral and philosophical anthologies with their source and recipient texts, Digital Humanities 2012, Hamburg, Germany.

30. For the SAWS use case, a SPARQL endpoint to access the RDF data is available ( http://www.ancientwisdoms.ac.uk/sparql )

31. To date, SAWS links to various collections of ancient data interlinked through Pelagios (http://pelagios.blogspot.com ) references to the Pleiades historical gazetteer (http://pleiades.stoa.org/ ). We are also in the process of linking to existing relevant documents such as in the Perseus Digital Library (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ ) and would like to link to information on people mentioned in the texts, such as through the Prosopography of the Byzantine World resource (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ ). The facility to traverse links between sets of data and discover related information serendipitously is a major benefit of Linked Data for the SAWS project.

32. XSLT available at http://www.ancientwisdoms.ac.uk/media/ontology/tei_to_rdf.xsl , with working versions available through https://github.com/ajstanley/TEI_to_RDF.

33. The Dublin Core Metadata Initiative is the main source model for structural and metadata mappings from TEIBare to RDF: http://dublincore.org/documents/dcmiterms/

34. http://www.teic.org/Guidelines/Customization/

35. The namespace ‘dct’ represents http://dublincore.org/documents/dcmiterms/

36. The manuscript ID is in CITE/CTS format for document citation (see http://www.homermultitext.org/hmtdoc/cite/ )

37. The dct:conformsTo relationship requires the object of the triple to be a string, rather than a resource

38. List of current Islandora installations: http://islandora.ca/current_installations","txt","2","",""
"1739","14","Counting Words with Henry James: Towards a Quantitative Hermeneutics","10","Her function was to sit there with two young men—the other telegraphist and the counter-clerk; to mind the ‘sounder,’ which was always going, to dole out stamps and postal-orders, weigh letters, answer stupid questions, give difficult change and, more than anything else, count words as numberless as the sands of the sea […] [1]

The anonymous telegrapher in Henry James 1898 London-based novella In the Cage has drawn significant attention in recent decades from literary critics and media historians. These scholars have read her story—of projecting herself into the domestic drama of the aristocrats who use her office—for its lessons about the anxieties of surveillance, the instability of public and private domains, the regulation of gendered information workers, and the impact of telegraphic mediation on discourse including James’s own style. [2] But while In the Cage is rich with possible readings for the work of media and cultural history, our own critical reflex to do ‘readings’—to suspect the text for what aesthetic, cultural, and historical lessons it encodes or conceals—overlooks the story’s own emphasis on a very different mode of textual encounter: counting words. By the light of recent interest in quantitative literary analysis, we can see the textual transactions of In the Cage from other angles: as a historical signal for when ‘distant reading’ (as we now call it) may have become necessary, and as a provocation to leave our conventional hermeneutics for the reflective reading that counting words might actually facilitate.

‘Counting Words with Henry James’ undertakes to demonstrate how the digital humanities participates in the recent turn in literary theory from the ‘hermeneutics of suspicion’ to what Rita Felski calls post-critical or ‘reflective reading.’ [3] I argue that critiques of the digital humanities as being anti- or even non-theoretical fundamentally misrecognize its alliance with such recent theoretical initiatives. Instead, the self-critical methodologies of digital humanities also manifest the ‘the intricate play of perception, interpretation, and affective orientation’ that characterizes critical reading after suspicion. [4] Thus, I ultimately hope to move beyond the unfortunate associations of quantitative literary analysis with ‘not reading’ or data crunching by offering a different theoretical vocabulary for its continuing work in partnership with literary theory. At the same time, I propose that the emerging theoretical program of ‘reflective reading’ can address methodological insufficiencies in how quantitative analysts move from data to interpretation or from signal to concept. [5]

My paper will share the results of ongoing text analysis and topic modeling trials of the works of Henry James at multiple levels of address. Using off-the-shelf tools like the text analysis suite Voyeur and the topic modeling toolkit MALLET, I undertake a series of experiments at an increasing scale, beginning with the text of In the Cage and scaling up through James’s entire collected works and prefaces. Quantitative approaches to James are not new, nor are these tools necessarily cutting edge, but my argument is instead about the appropriateness and timeliness of their application for ongoing critical discussions: about In the Cage as well as possible affiliations of surface and distant reading. [6] In the Cage uniquely warrants such treatment, in two senses: first, because of its own conspicuous thematics of textual abundance, word counting, and interpretation; and second, because of James’s own editorial efforts to control interpretations of In the Cage as the story soon joins another massive textual corpus: his collected works for the New York edition.

Throughout his novella, James describes late-nineteenth-century telegraphy with an arithmetical lexicon; the telegrapher is constantly counting, figuring, adding, calculating, working out meaning in the margins, and building a hypothesis about the relations of Captain Everard and Lady Bradeen from her process. Because, in the story, the telegrapher ultimately misreads these relations, James seems to deprecate her quantitative methods compared with his own elaborate narrative procedures. In his later preface to In the Cage, James describes its interest in the ‘wonderment’ of the telegraph office’s cacophonous information field, its investigation into ‘the question of what it might ‘mean’.’ In other words, the story is about challenges to reading practices and, more abstractly, about the methodologies of information processing that might lead to ‘meaning.’ And as the telegraphist tries to deal with the problem of texts at scale, she occupies a similar position of alienated curiosity with respect to digital humanists and large data sets. [7]

How would the telegrapher-as-quantitative-analyst read her own story? Or all of James’s works? The telegraphist is faced with proliferating telegraphic fragments and ‘words as numberless as the sands of the sea.’ These messages are more than merely fragments to reconstruct: they are also units of scalable information. Their textual compression and transcoding make possible the ‘massive addressability’ that characterizes large collections of digitized text. [8] Text analysis and topic modeling lets us further identify different levels by which to approach meaning in the text—e.g. the word, the genre, the topic cluster, the historical trend—as well as in larger corpora in which the text signifies. Those methods have reinvigorated questions familiar to the telegraphist of how to read, count, and interpret.

In addition to thematizing problems of literary interpretation across different textual scales, In the Cage invites them through its own revision history. Shortly after completing the novella, James began collecting his texts into a massive New York edition, revising his works and writing new prefaces which aim to direct our readings of their individual and collective significance. While James writes in his prefaces about what scale of textual address we should use to find meaning, this novella—from its oral composition and transcription, to its narrative about fragments and questions of meaning, to its tenuous status relative to James’s oeuvre—also invites us to reconsider the interpretive possibilities of words and clusters at scale. In a sense, In the Cage embodies the problem of textual addressability.

My reading of the novella aims to link the telegraphist’s wonderment, the ‘hypothesis-testing mode’ characteristic of recent work in quantitative literary analysis, and emergent forms of post-critical reading in literary theory. [9] In effect, post-critical reading offers a recuperative vocabulary for counting words, rescuing the telegrapher from Jamesian suspicion and perhaps bolstering the claims of quantitative literary analysis. Its recursive processes, I suggest, likewise draws upon what Felski calls ‘the intricate play of perception, interpretation, and affective orientation that constitutes aesthetic response.’ [10] Ultimately, this paper argues that the digital humanities are not post-theoretical, but they may be productively post-critical in generating a reflexive, quantitative hermeneutics.

References
Anon. (2013). Surface Reading/ Machine Reading: New Approaches to Texts and Data Available from: http://raley.english.ucsb.edu/wp-content/surface-reading_flyer.jpg (Accessed 5 March 2013).
Clayton, J. (1997). The Voice in the Machine: Hazlitt, Hardy, James, in Language Machines: Technologies of Literary and Cultural Production. New York: Routledge. 209–232.
Felski, R. (2009). After Suspicion. Profession. 28–35.
Flanders, J. (2009). The Productive Unease of 21st-century Digital Scholarship. Digital Humanities Quarterly. 3(3). Available from: http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/3/000055.html (Accessed 10 December 2009).
Heuser, R. & L. Le-Khac (2011) Learning to Read Data: Bringing out the Humanistic in the Digital Humanities. Victorian Studies. 54(1). 79–86.
Hoover, D. (2007) Corpus Stylistics, Stylometry, and the Styles of Henry James. Style. 41 (2). 174–203.
James, H. (2002) 'In the Cage', in Wegelin, C., & H. B. Wonham (eds.) Tales of Henry James. 2nd edn. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Keep, C. (2011) Touching at a Distance: Telegraphy, Gender, and Henry James’s In the Cage, in Media, Technology, and Literature in the Nineteenth Century: Image, Sound, Touch. Surrey, England: Ashgate. 239–255.
Liu, A. (2009) Digital Humanities and Academic Change. English Language Notes. 47(1). 17–35.
Marvin, C. (1988). When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking About Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century. New York: Oxford University Press.
Menke, R. (2000). Telegraphic Realism: Henry James’s In the Cage. PMLA: Publications of the Modern Language Association of America. 115(5). 975–990.
Stauffer, A. (2011) Introduction: Searching Engines, Reading Machines. Victorian Studies. 54.1. 63–68.
Witmore, M. (2010) Text: A Massively Addressable Object. Wine Dark Sea [online]. Available from: http://winedarksea.org/?p=926 (Accessed 8 August 2011).
Notes
1. James, 2002, p.229.

2. Notable examples include Clayton, 1997; Keep, 2011; Menke, 2000; Marvin, 1988.

3. Felski, 2009.

4. 2009, p.31.

5. For an accessible review of this problem, see Stauffer, 2011.

6. For an example of a quantitative approach, see Hoover, 2007. A recent conference at New York University was devoted to such issues: ‘Surface Reading / Machine Reading: New Approaches to Texts and Data’, 2013.

7. For reports of this phenomenon, see Liu, 2009; Flanders, 2009; Heuser and Le-Khac, 2011.

8. Witmore, 2010.

9. Heuser and Le-Khac, 2011, p.85.

10. 2009, p.31.","txt","2","",""
"1740","14","Creating Port: Research Commons","2","Virginia Tech Libraries recently created a digital research lab and collaboration space, Port: Research Commons. Experimental and crossing library departments, Port offers geospatial, data visualization, text analysis, data management, and graphic design software. Additionally, Port supports digital research for a variety of disciplines at Virginia Tech through one-to-one consultations with library and campus experts, small workshops, and speakers’ series.

Within a semester Port has become a hub of intellectual inquiry spanning from graphic design and statistics to data management. This poster highlights the dynamic digital humanities activities and collaborations happening in the space and the process of launching Port: Research Commons.

The poster will detail early library efforts to support digital research and highlight how earlier initiatives laid the foundation for the successful beginnings of Port. It will outline current programming and projects, focusing on the collaborations vital to Port’s success.

Situating Port within the growing landscape of library research commons, the poster explores the library, specifically research commons, as hub for the myriad of disciplines working on digital research and scholarship.

In addition to serving as a critical space for a broad range of learning and eResearch related needs, Port is a gathering space for faculty, graduate students, and librarians working within digital humanities. Port has become a space used in unique ways to support digital humanities initiatives stemming from the Library’s new Center for Digital Research and Scholarship, while also serving as a space incubating collaborations between other campus groups and library programs, including the library’s new learning initiatives. Library outreach efforts to departments around campus are supported by software and inviting collaboration space.

The Center for Digital Research and Scholarship, in collaboration with Center for Applied Technologies in the Humanities, CATH, is working on moving the TEI project, Lord Byron and His Times, to the library for hosting. Bringing together the college librarian for humanities and digital humanities, library ITS, and Dr. David Radcliff, Port is the meeting space for assessing the current TEI information architecture and moving it to a more scalable architecture. In this poster, we’ll highlight the important use of this space for technology explorations related to CATH’s Lord Bryon project as well as use of the space for other digital humanities projects where the library is involved as collaborator or project lead.

Our poster provides the history, current projects, such as Lord Bryon and His Times and the DH Working Group, and explores library research commons as vital support for digital research on campus.","txt","2","",""
"1741","14","The Crowdsourcing Process: Decisions about Tasks, Expertise, Communities and Platforms","10","Introduction
Business, governments, community groups and academic projects are turning to crowdsourcing, an internet-based process, to facilitate access outside expertise needed to complete various tasks (Brabham, 2008; Howe, 2006). This mechanism holds great potential for academic projects, particular for those involving large amounts of data that needs to be identified, transcribed, analyzed and/or catalogued. It can often supplement meager project budgets by sourcing the work at relatively low cost (Corney et al., 2009; Holley, 2010). Further, crowdsourcing supports growing calls for public engagement in research projects (SSHRC, 2012). Several academic projects are at the forefront of this trend with public involvement in data classification (Galaxy Zoo, 2010), error correction in texts (Holley, 2009), text transcription and/or annotation (Transcribe Bentham, 2012; Zou, 2011; Pynchonwiki, nd; Siemens, 2012), cataloging and metadata and database creation (The Bodleian Library, 2012; Picture Australia, nd), and many others.

As crowdsourcing is introduced into more activities, it becomes important to understand “how to manage the crowd in a networked society” to ensure that a project achieves its objectives (DISH, 2011). Initial studies in participation motivation have found that individuals are interested in participating in a larger cause, using their skills, earning recognition and/or being part of a community, and potentially money (Wexler, 2011; Organisciak, 2010; Raddick et al., 2010; Brabham, 2008, 2010). Other research has focused on the most appropriate ways to solicit and encourage participation among a potential community of contributors by making the activity in question fun, presenting a big challenge to be undertaken, and reporting on progress regularly (Digital Fishers, nd; Holley, 2012). However, most of the resaerch has been conducted within the private sector context and on short-term projects with little need to manage volunteers over a longer period of time (Wexler, 2011), which may limit the applicability of results to academic projects.

While the use of crowdsourcing is increasing, little work has been done to understand ways to organize the work to ensure that this crowd’s contribution is delivered within an academic’s project’s schedule, budget and other resources and to the required quality standard (Geiger et al., 2011; Organisciak, 2011). In particular, projects need to understand the most appropriate ways to organize work flows, technical infrastrucure, and staffing requirements to manage volunteers and confirm quality (Zou, 2011). Opportunity exists to build from reflections of several projects to understand these issues (DISH, 2011; Holley, 2012; Zou, 2011; Corney et al., 2009; Holley, 2009).

This paper will contribute to this discussion by reviewing the literature to suggest a crowdsourcing process framework explore the range of decisions that must be addressed in advance to ensure quality and successful project outcomes. In addition, it will report on interviews with several crowdsourcing projects with regards to their workflow organization. The paper will conclude with recommendations for projects contemplating this tool as a way to reach project outcomes with limited project funds.

Literature Review
While no common definition exists for crowdsourcing (Holley, 2010), every crowdsourcing project shares several components. As seen in Figure 1, there must be an organization, a particular task to be completed to meet project goals and outcomes at a specified quality level, and a community, comprised of both experts and novices, which is willing to do the work for little or no money. These interactions are facilitated through an internet-based platform (Brabham, 2012; Schenk et al., 2011; Geiger et al., 2011; Tong et al., 2012). The interested organization must make a series of decisions regarding the type of expertise, qualification and/or knowledge required, the presence of a contributors, the mechanisms by which they will participate and contribute, project remuneration, motivators to keep participants engaged, and quality control mechanisms (Geiger et al., 2011; Corney et al., 2009; Rouse, 2010; Organisciak, 2011). The range of tasks and required expertise can be seen along the continuum in Figure 2.


Figure 1: Crowdsourcing Approach
(Adapted from Geiger et al., 2011; Corney et al., 2009; Rouse, 2010)


Figure 2: Crowdsourcing Task Continuum
(Adapted from Corney et al., 2009; Rouse, 2010)

Ultimately, projects then select the appropriate interface to both solicit and receive contributions from the public in ways that keep the “crowd” motivated and participating (Tong et al., 2012; Organisciak, 2010, 2011).

Methods
This project uses a qualitative research approach with in-depth interviews with members of crowdsourcing projects. The interview questions focus on the participants’ use of the “crowd” to achieve tasks, ways to organize workflows, type of infrastructure in place to support the work, and challenges (Marshall et al., 1999; McCracken, 1988).

At the time of writing this proposal, final data analysis is being completed. The results will inform decision making needed to be made by projects to effectively and successfully use crowdsourcing.

This research will make several contributions to the knowledge base about ways to incorporate the public into academic projects. First, it builds on work already undertaken to community and engage the public in academic research through crowdsourcing (Causer et al., 2012; Holley, 2009; Organisciak, 2010). Second, it builds on earlier studies on participants’ motivation to participate in these projects with an exploration of the organization of the tasks, process, and other components of the crowdsourcing process from the perspective of the project itself (Brabham, 2010; Organisciak, 2010; Wexler, 2011). Finally, it extends understanding about the nature of academic collaboration as projects expand relationships beyond the team to the public (Siemens, 2009).

References
Brabham, D. (2008). Crowdsourcing as a Model for Problem Solving: An Introduction and Cases. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, 14.1: 75-90.
Brabham, D. (2010). Moving the Crowd at Threadless: Motivations for Participation in a Crowdsourcing Application. Information, Communication & Society, 13.8 1122-1145.
Brabham, D. (2012). The Myth of Amateur Crowds: A Critical Disccourse Analysis of Crowdsourcing Coverage. Information, Communication & Society, 15.3 394-410.
Causer, T., J. Tonra, and V. Wallace (2012). Transcription Maximized; Expense Minimized? Crowdsourcing and Editing the Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham. Literary and Linguistic Computing.
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Zou, J. J. (2011). Civil War Project Shows Pros and Cons of Crowdsourcing. http://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/civil-war-project-shows-pros-and-cons-of-crowdsourcing/31749 (accessed February 21, 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1742","14","Meta-Methodologies and the DH Methodological Commons: Potential Contribution of Management and Entrepreneurship to DH Skill Development","9","Given that the nature of the research work involves computers and a variety of skills and expertise, Digital Humanities (DH) researchers are working in teams with Humanists, Computer Scientists, other academics, undergraduate and graduate students, computer programmers and developers, librarians and others within their institutions and beyond (Williford et al., 2012). These projects’ scope and scale also requires larger budgets than is typically associated with Humanities research (Siemens, 2009, Siemens et al., 2011a). As a result, Digital Humanists must developed meta-methodological skills, including teamwork and project management, to support the important and necessary methodological and technological ones in order to achieve project success. Programs such as the University of Victoria’s Digital Humanities Summer Institute’s Large Project Management Workshop (www.dhsi.org), MITH’s Digital Humanities Winter Institute (MITH 2012), University of Virginia’s Praxis Program (Scholars' Lab, 2011) and internships with libraries and DH centres (Conway et al. 2010) are contributing to the formal skill development in these meta-methodological areas while DH teams themselves are reflecting on the importance and nature of collaboration skills developed directly through experience (Liu, et al. 2007; Ruecker, et al. 2007; Ruecker, et al. 2008; Siemens, et al. 2010).
While McCarty (2005) articulates a “intellectual and disciplinary map” for DH (118), which has become an important and agreed upon description of the discipline, no corresponding framework of these necessary meta-methodological skills exists that can guide the preparation of Digital Humanists to be as “comfortable writing code as they are managing teams and budgets” (Scholars' Lab 2011), either within a traditional academic post or an alternative academic one (The Praxis Program at the Scholars' Lab 2012). By drawing upon exemplary DH projects which exhibit individual components of this framework, this paper contributes to larger discussions by suggesting those important meta-methodological skills, knowledge and tasks, whose absences may impact a digital project’s success and long-term sustainability. It ties together the many discussions about undergraduate and graduate DH training and education happening simultaneously across many various forums.
As can be seen in Figure 1, these meta-methodological skills involve more than collaboration and project management skills and include those typically associated with academic entrepreneurship. In their recent report on DH project sustainability, Maron and Loy (2011b) characterize digital resource projects as “small start-up businesses” (32) and use entrepreneurial language, such as empowered leadership, creation of a strong value proposition, cost management, revenue strategies and others to describe the ways in which case study DH projects have managed the impact of the current economic crisis on them. Further, their definition of sustainability, “the ability to generate or gain access to the resources — financial or otherwise — needed to protect and increase the value of the content or service for those who use it” draws further attention to skills, such as management, leadership, budget management, creation of alternative revenue streams, knowledge about users and their needs, and others (Maron, et al. 2011b, 10; Shane 2004). This view has been reinforced in a recent report that reviewed the Digging into Data program. Using the table metaphor, the authors likened project management expertise as the fourth leg, along side data management, domain, and analytical expertise (Williford, et al. 2012). Many digital projects are incorporating aspects of these skills, knowledge and tasks already.
For example, several projects are taking active steps to identify and understand users and their needs and then to ensure that the digital resources address these and allow the user to do more or do it faster or differently than before, while ensuring that knowledge of these resources reach the users (Warwick, et al. 2006; Siemens, et al. 2011b; Ithaka S&R, 2009; Shane 2004; Cohen, et al. 2005). To this end, the LARIAH report (2006) recommends that digital projects consult users widely, often, in a variety of forms and at the different development stages to ensure that a digital resource is in fact used consistently show “a deep understanding and respect for the value their resource contributes to those who use it” (Maron et al., 2009, pg. 7). One way to approach this is have users directly involved in the resource’s development as is the case with TEI-C (nd-b) and Zotero (nd). In other cases, a digital resource can identified new users and extended its services to them, as can be seen with NINES’ move beyond the 19th century to develop a supporting resource for the 18th (18thConnect; Bromley 2011). Alternatively, the digital resource may broaden offerings with new value added services, such as community websites, discussion lists, book and journal distributions and others, in response to users’ requests (Iter 2011). Social media, such as twitter, youtube, and Wikipedia, can also be used to both gather information about users and promote the resource itself. For example, The Modernist Versions project combined an #yearofulysses, webpage, digital version release of Ulysses, and Ulysses Art Competition as a way to generate knowledge (and perhaps even excitement) about the initiative (The Modernist Versions Project). Alternatively, the TEI-C used a viral marketing experiment to understand the size and geographical distribution of its community of practice as it increased awareness of the guidelines (Siemens, et al. 2011b). Digital resource logos embedded in other projects can be important for generating awareness of a resource and its potential uses (TEI-C, nd-a; Zotero). At a basic level, projects must be pro-active in planning effective ways to promote themselves (Guiliano 2012).
As various granting agencies are increasingly prioritizing funding for project development rather than the maintenance and ongoing operations and resource improvements (National Endowment for the Humanities, 2010, Maron et al., 2009), digital projects must develop alternative revenue and funding models that allow them to move from grant funding to “a longer term plan for ongoing growth and development” and to even survive changes in the funding environment (Maron, et al. 2011a, 4; 2011b). These models might include cooperative advertising and click-through ads (Internet Shakespeare Editions, 2010), subscriptions (Iter 2011) and smart phone apps (iHistory Tours 2010b). In order to ensure appropriate levels of resources can be gathered, digital projects must also understand methods to budget the costs need to “cover the costs of the tasks essential to the development, support, maintenance and growth of their projects” (Maron, et al. 2009, 15; Guthrie, et al. 2008; Scholars' Lab, 2011). The latter becomes particularly important since there are expectations that digital resources will continue and be updated and improved with changes in scholarship and technology (Kretzschmar Jr. 2009; Ithaka S&R 2009). Digital projects can then combine both revenue and cost management into long term sustainability plans, often required by funders (National Endowment for the Humanities 2010).
While financial resources are important, long term sustainability and development of digital projects also relies heavily on leadership (Maron, et al. 2011a; Maron, et al. 2009; Shane 2004; Siemens, 2009). These leaders have “a certain passion and tireless attention to setting and achieving goals” (Maron, et al. 2009, 7). This leadership is multifaceted and includes the supervision of human resources, such as paid staff, volunteers and collaborators, and cost and revenue management as well as strategic planning (Ithaka S&R 2009; Shane 2004; National Endowment for the Humanities Office of Digital Humanities 2010). As an example, Transcribe Bentham publishes regular project updates as motivators to its volunteer transcribers (Transcribe Bentham 2011). In addition, these project leaders need to continue to educate colleagues, administration and granting agencies so that these individuals understand the value of DH and the level of support needed for continued growth and development, including financial, in-kind and human resources, recognition and others (Ithaka S&R 2009; Siemens, 2010). The project leader for the 40-year old Thesaurus Linguae Graecae considers “it her job to ‘educate’ current and incoming administrators about her project” (Ithaka S&R 2009, 2). Finally, a strong leader understands when outside expertise and partnerships are necessary to ensure project success (Maron, et al. 2009). The Niagara 1812 iphone app development team included not only writers, researchers, and software developers, but also the nGen-Niagara Interactive media Generator and Brock Business Consulting Group, providing expertise that is not typically available in a History department (iHistory Tours, 2010a).
 
Figure 1:
Meta-methodological Commons1
Given the nature of digital projects, academics, particularly those from the Humanities, need to adopt these important meta-methodological skills and knowledge in addition to content and methodological ones to ensure project success (Ithaka S&R 2009; Cohen, et al. 2009; Cohen, et al. 2005). By outlining the range of meta-methodological skills, this framework has the potential to strengthen the positive work already ongoing to develop these skills and knowledge and to contribute to the discussion about the important skills that Digital Humanists need to create successful, useful and used projects (LeBlanc 2011; Leon 2011; McCarty 2011; Rovira 2011; Spiro 2011; Cohen, et al. 2005; Scholars' Lab 2011). This paper also contributes to the larger discussion of regarding undergraduate and graduate training and education in Humanities, DH, and beyond and provides a context for thinking about the additional skills needed for both faculty and alternative academic positions (Thaller, et al. 2012; Scholarly Communication Institute 2012; The Praxis Program at the Scholars' Lab 2012; Sample 2012; Pannapacker 2012; Williford, et al. 2012). Finally, it is designed to enable those who work in such teams or who work to support these individuals to recognise and develop the necessary meta-methodological skills and knowledge that lead to project success.
References
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Bromley, A. (2011). Nines Project Enhances Tools for Digital Research in the Humanities. UVa Today.
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Conway, P., N. Fraistat, P. Galloway, K. Kraus, et al. (2010). Digital Humanities Internships: Creating a Model Ischool-Digital Humanities Center Partnership. Digital Humanities 2010. London, UK.
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Guthrie, K., R. Griffiths, and N. Maron (2008). Sustainability and Revenue Models for Online Academic Resources: An Ithaka Report, New York: Ithaka.
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Kretzschmar Jr., W. A. (2009). Large-Scale Humanities Computing Projects: Snakes Eating Tails, or Every End Is a New Beginning? Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3 (2).
Leblanc, M. (2011). Re: [Humanist] 25.382 Intro Topics and Texts.http://www.digitalhumanities.org/humanist/Archives/Current/Humanist.vol25.txt (accessed October 17, 2011).
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Maron, N., and M. Loy (2011a). Funding for Sustainability: How Funders' Practices Influence the Future of Digital Resources, Ithaca, NY: Ithaka S&R.
Maron, N., and M. Loy (2011b). Revenue, Recession, Reliance: Revisiting the Sca/Ithaka S&R Case Studies in Sustainability. Ithaca, NY: Ithaka S& R.
Maron, N., K. K. Smith, and M. Loy (2009). Sustaining Digital Resources: An on-the-Ground View of Projects Today, Ithaca, NY: Ithaka S&R.
Mccarty, W. (2005). Humanities Computing, New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
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Notes
1. The meta-methodological commons is centred around McCarty’s (2005) articulation of the Digital Humanities Methodological Commons.","txt","2","",""
"1743","14","Mapping Editions: Literary Editions and GIS (a field report)","9","This paper will grapple with the relationship between geography and literature or, to borrow a phrase from Kevin Bartoy, “between dirt and discussion.” [1] Based on key foundational questions and a brief review of current humanities-based GIS projects, I propose that GIS (Geographical Information Systems) offers the potential to re-imagine the form and practice of literary editions and affords pedagogical opportunities for spatial analysis in literary studies.

This past spring, students in my Literature and Maps class experimented with Google Earth to create a small literary edition of Malory’s Roman War account (from Le Morte Darthur) as a means to explore how textuality and ambiguity might be accommodated in a system based on locational coordinates and quantitative principles. With GIS projects already changing the practice of analyzing literary texts; does it also hold the potential to change the practice of producing literary texts such that they foster spatial thinking and new means of reading and analyzing literary texts? Annotated editions within a geographical platform offer the potential for student projects as contingent, learning-based editions which explore digital and imaginative terrain in the production of literary editions and digital humanities projects.

Theoretical and historical contexts that arise from the “spatial turn” in literary studies and the humanities [2] are key foundational questions that ideally should inform the editorial principles of GIS-based literary editions prior to the technical work of layering a text into a GIS system. Such spatially-based projects in the digital humanities hold significant potential for collaboration between geographers and humanists, between the “the poets and the geeks [3] .

Researchers in the discipline of history have enthusiastically embraced the potential of GIS and, indeed, Richard White, in his introduction to Placing History: How Maps, Spatial Data, and GIS are Changing Historical Scholarship has predicted that GIS databases “are going to change the practice of history [4] .” It is significant, however, that in the seminal text The Spatial Humanities: GIS and the Future of Humanities Scholarship, literary scholars and editors are notably absent as contributors. The Scholars Lab, of course, has begun to generate work such as Mapping St. Petersburg which is experimenting with “literary cartography” to explore the representation of space in literary texts [5] .

There has been a strong pedagogical interest in “literary mapping” via web sites such as Google Lit Maps, but itinerary-based mapping provides only a rudimentary means by which to investigate the potential intersection of GIS and literary study. Indeed, “lit-maps” run the risk of sidestepping Michel de Certeau’s concern that “surveys of routes miss what was: the act itself of passing by [6] and thereby reducing spatial analysis of literary texts to the reductive reproduction of itineraries.

GIS projects offer the potential for a more complex engagement with spatial methodology than mere itinerary mapping, including, as David Bodenhamer has noted, “text-based geographical analysis, multimedia, animated maps, deep contingency, deep mapping, and the geo-spatial semantic web [7] .” The very concept of “deep contingency” offers striking potential for editors and readers of GIS-based literary editions, a potential that has yet to be explored. Such digital humanities-based editions, I would argue, need to accommodate fluidity if they are to engage readers in the kind of analysis Bodenhamer envisions.

Currently, there are a few digital humanities projects that explore the possibility of a GIS-based literary edition. By virtue of the presence of a full version of the text within the GIS system, Mapping the Lakes: A Literary GIS comes closest to creating a true GIS-based literary edition, although the data analysis is less than fully integrated with a readerly analysis of the texts. David Wallace’s project, Europe: A Literary History [8] smartly utilizes key principles of GIS to produce a collaborative approach to literary history that also explores geographic relation in light of what Iain Chambers has conceptualized as “fluid cartographies [9] .” Many contemporary geographers have chafed under the ascendency of GIS in geography departments and the limitations of qualitative analysis within GIS systems; in this regard, literary scholars bring both naiveties and methodological approaches that can critically engage in GIS reception and use. For students, the technical and editorial issues in creating a GIS-based edition offers an opportunity to engage in spatially-attuned literary practices.

This “field report” will engender a conversation about possible methodologies for literary GIS editions and share my students’ foray into the creation of a Google Earth-based edition. I hope to initiate a discussion of pedagogical opportunities for students to engage with literary texts as editors, analytic cartographers, and readers in the process of producing digital and spatial humanities projects.

Notes
Kevin Bartoy, Between Dirt and Discussion: Methods, Methodology, and Interpretation in Historical Archeology (2006).
For example, foundational work by Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space (1974) and Edward Soja, Postmodern Geographies: The Reassertion of Space in Postmodern Critical Theory (1989).
Cohen, Patrica, “Digital Keys for Unlocking the Humanities’ Riches,” The New York Times, November 16, 2010.
Richard White, Placing History: How Maps, Spatial Data, and GIS are Changing Historical Scholarship (2008).
See Mapping Saint Petersburg.
Michel de Certeau, “Walking in the City.”
David Bodenhamer, The Spatial Humanities: The Future of Humanities Scholarship (2010).
Europe: A Literary History
Iain Chambers, “Maritime Criticism and Theoretical Shipwrecks,” PMLA 2010.","txt","2","",""
"1744","14","Mapping Homer's Catalogue of Ships","9","Our project, Mapping the Catalogue of Ships, created by Classicist Jenny Strauss Clay, illustrates the route of Homer’s poetic journey around Greece and provides a digital forum in which to test and develop theories about the poet’s knowledge and use of geography. This paper will detail the ways in which the construction of these digital exhibits has both deepened and changed our initial theories about Homer’s familiarity with ancient routes.","txt","2","",""
"1745","14","Mapping Multispecies Temporalities: Experiments in Diagrammatic Representation","2","Introduction
This paper presents an ongoing experiment in mapping temporalities of multispecies ecologies. Addressing the conference theme, ""Freedom to Explore"", the paper asks: what happens to figurations of ""freedom"" and ""exploration"" when recontextualized as multispecies emergences (more-than-human freedoms), indeterminate patternings (temporal rather than spatial formations), and contingent, historically constituted mobilities (uneven trajectories and explorations constituted through difference and incommensurability)? Rather than proposing answers, my presentation offers two ways of thinking through such recontextualization. It unpacks a speculative methodology for digital and diagrammatic representations of time, and offers an early look at a working prototype for a fungal clock: a web-based visualization of polyrhythmic interactions between multiple organisms.
Diagrammatic Representation, Or Mapping Worlds Otherwise
Political ecologists describe maps as power tools: they both reveal and hide. As Arturo Escobar writes: ""Who counts, draws, and narrates and how is of decisive importance."" (Escobar 2008; Rocheleau 2005). Indeed, fast growing fields of data visualization, geographic information systems, simulation modeling, and scenario planning tap into silos of data to generate seemingly inexhaustible means to chart, count, tabulate, track, tag, and thus masterfully deploy a financialized Fix. Such representations are tethered to nineteenth century projects of calculation and seriality (Daston 1994; Hopwood, Schaffer, Secord 2010), epistemic tools constructed through historical materialities and discursive formations, but fraught nonetheless with violent legacies of occupation, extraction, and obsolescence. Given their rhetorical clout in the production and disruption of globalized hegemonies, how might visualizations — and specifically new diagrammatic forms and alternative cartographies — render worlds otherwise?
To describe freedom and exploration is to consider circulation. To study circulation is to unpack relationships that unfold not just in space, but through time. How might diagrammatic forms open up little-known, or perhaps long-forgotten, multiplicities of time or polyrhythms?
Unilinear orderings of time undergird scientific visualizations of growth, transformation, and exchange. Representations of species origins and variabilities — through historical timelines, energy cycles, network patterns, activity diagrams, genealogies, arborescent or rhizomatic animations — largely depend on a chronological sequence of standardized, homogeneous units of time. Entangled histories, indeterminate contingencies, and dynamic mobilities are distilled into teleological causes and effects. Qualitative differences and durational synchronies/sedimentations (Bergson 1922) that emerge from and constitute change, movement, and encounter are quantified into time series, or a measurable succession of seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years, decades, centuries. Modernity configures and depends upon a temporality abstracted from lived experiences and meterized into a compressed, scalable, and human-centric coordinate of space (Harvey 1990). Against unilinear anthropogenic time, difference is obscured and becomes difficult to locate. As capitalist breakdowns come to a head, the need for critical attention to differential temporalities can no longer be ignored.
Multispecies Times: A Fungal Clock
The second thread of this paper offers a speculative methodology for diagrammatic representation. It presents an experimental web project that reframes unilinear time as entangled polytemporalities constituted through more-than-human assemblages. An interdisciplinary collaboration between anthropologist Anna Tsing and media artist Elaine Gan, it takes the form of a fungal clock. Written in html-5, and built through the lens of field research and multispecies ethnographies of matsutake (mycorrhizal fungi) worlds, the clock brings together a series of digital experiments in representing time. Instead of visualizing cycles and encounters between determinate species beings against a single (Western European) time scale, the clock diagrams interweaving temporal relations or topologies of differential rhythms. These relations are distinguished as three main folds: synchrony or coordination across recurring seasons; emergent becomings or interspecies webs that sediment into ecologies and worlds; uneven trajectories and aleatory encounters that crystallize into historical conjunctures.
Diversity does not unfold against a standard ruler of time. Nor does ""it"" branch through anthropogenic scales. Learning from Karen Barad, ""temporality is produced through the iterative enfolding of phenomena marking the sedimenting historiality of differential patterns of mattering."" (Barad 2007) What is at stake in visualizing temporality is not how formations change, butwhich properties, taxonomies, and relations become meaningful, intense, and valuable within and across particular regimes, niches or semiotic systems. What comes to matter is a matter of time.
Thus, this paper considers critical diagrams of temporalities as expanded ways of defining ""freedom"" and ""exploration"". It calls for ongoing development of conceptual-practical apparatuses that rethink human-centric movements and agencies as multispecies webs and temporal patternings. It highlights these questions as generative lines of inquiry for an exciting field of possibilities, increasingly known as ""digital humanities"": (1) What kinds of temporal relations materialize into and emerge through biocultural assemblages? (2) How might interdisciplinary scholarship (theorizing, making, imagining) articulate these movements to work through incommensurable claims for engineering life or death? (3) What digital diagrammatic media might mobilize ethico-political practices beyond modernist master narratives and postmodernist relativisms — and towards worlds constituted through immanence and difference?
References
Barad, K. (2007). Meeting the Universe Halfway, Durham and London: Duke University Press. 180.
Bergson, H. (1922). Duration and Simultaneity, translation by Leon Jacobson in Durie, R. (ed.) Duration and Simultaneity: Bergson and the Einsteinian Universe, Manchester: Clinamen Press, Ltd., 1999.
Braidotti, R. (2002). Metamorphoses: Towards a Materialist Theory of Becoming, Cambridge: Polity Press.
Daston, L. (1994). Enlightenment Calculations, Critical Inquiry 21(1:) 182-202. Autumn 1994.
De Landa, M. (2000). Deleuze, Diagrams, and the Genesis of Form, American Studies, 45(1): 33-41.
Deleuze, G., and F. Guattari (1987). A Thousand Plateaus. translation by Brian Massumi, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Escobar, A. (2008). Territories of Difference, Durham and London: Duke University Press. 56.
Galison, P. (2003). Einstein's Clocks, Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time, New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company.
Harvey, D. (1990). The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry Into the Origins of Cultural Change, Cambridge, MA and Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
Hopwood, N., S. Schaffer, and J. Secord (2010). ""Seriality and Scientific Objects in the Nineteenth Century"", History of Science 48, 161. 251-285.
Lima, M. (2011). Visual Complexity: Mapping Patterns of Information. New York: Princeton Architectural Press.
Rocheleau, D. (2005). Maps as Power Tools: Locating Communities in Space or Situating People and Ecologies in Place? in Brosius, P., A. Tsing, and C. Zerner (eds.), Communities and Conservation, Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. 326-362.
Rosenberg, D., and A. Grafton (2010). Cartographies of Time. New York: Princeton Architectural Press.","txt","2","",""
"1746","14","Mapping Text: Automated Geoparsing and Map Browser for Electronic Theses and Dissertations","9","While texts contain extensive mentions of locations, traditional library catalogs are lacking when searching for geographic locations. Ahlers and Boll (2007) state that approximately twenty percent of web queries have a geographic relation. Buckland (2007), Hill (2006) and others have emphasized the need for collections to be searchable using geographic means. With the advent of visualization tools and web based mapping, there are numerous possibilities to gain insight into the geographic content of texts. Gregory, and Hardie (2011), Bodenhamer, Corrigan and Harris (2010), Dear, Ketchum, Luria and Richardson (2011) and others discuss the role of geographic information in the humanities. Texts, maps and photographs have been described using map interfaces; however, the grey literature of graduate scholarship output has not thus far been presented graphically. Researchers at Texas A&M University Libraries are taking theses and dissertations, geoparsing those texts, and creating a visual, map-based search interface in order to glean better understanding of the locations and topics presented in these scholarly works.
The ETDMap is a prototype which automatically discerns the places mentioned in digital documents(i.e. geoparsing)and through a series of automated steps creates a map to browse the collection. Researchers gained conceptually from work outlined by Grover, et al (2010) and Leidner (2007). This geoparser operates in the context of a DSpace institutional repository. Development has focused on the electronic theses and dissertations collection, although the software is applicable to any textual content in the repository. This abstract will present the current status and overview of the geoparser and map search interface tool.
The geoparser is implemented as a curation task in the DSpace repository, using the Java programming language. The geoparser automatically parses the text document, dividing it into sections and identifying prospective toponyms. The geoparser excludes certain portions of the document, such as bibliographies and appendices, since the toponyms found in those sections are typically not directly related to the subject matter of the text. The toponyms are filtered according to several heuristic criteria, and then are used to construct queries through the GeoNames Web-based Java API. The GeoNames server returns a set of locations that match the queries. The geoparser then applies disambiguation heuristics to score the locations and determine the most likely referent of the toponym. Finally, the top-scored locations, along with geospatial metadata (including coordinates) are written to metadata fields on the item under consideration. These metadata are then output to a KML file for viewing in a variety of interfaces. The term ‘map’ used in Fig. 1 refers to a data structure map, not a geospatial visualization.
 
Figure 1.
Geoparsing Workflow [image credit: James Creel]
The geoparser uses regular expressions to partition the document text into sections. Theses and dissertations follow a predictable and regulated document format, which allows for clean results. Currently, the sections of interest are the abstract and main document body. These are processed by the geoparser, while the references, vita and appendices are ignored. The geoparser identifies toponyms in several stages using the OpenNLP maximum entropy software library [i] The ETDmap utilizes training data available on the OpenNLP Models page. [ii] The detected potential toponyms are stored along with contextual information, such as the number of occurrences and the locations of those occurrences, all of which is used in subsequent heuristic processing.
The locations referred to are discerned by a variety of heuristics. The primary Java entities used in the process are the CandidateMapper, the RefinementImpl(Implementation) and DisambiguationHeuristic. Pruning heuristics, which eliminate spurious prospective toponyms, are being implemented, and are under review and refinement. Those include heuristics that ignore short or common words, ignore singe occurrences, and require exact matches to records found in GeoNames. Additionally, scoring heuristics add points to scores associated with the possible toponyms. Populated places receive higher scores, as do those closer to or contained within other candidate locations. Once the stock of heuristics has been exhausted, the candidates with the top scores are selected as referents of the toponyms.
The Generate KML curation task reads the geospatial metadata thus generated (including geospatial coordinates provided by the GeoNames server) and encodes it in a KML file attached to the item in DSpace. This KML file includes placemarks for each of the mentioned places and includes description on each placemark with the title, author, advisor, url, date and department. At the collection level, the repository supplies a link to a KML file generated on request that consists of the aggregation of all the KML files generated for items in the collection.
GeoNames.org was selected as the gazetteer for the project due to its inclusion of numerous official gazetteers from countries around the world, and because it is easily and freely downloadable, so therefore practical for use in this case. In terms of visualization, the initial map background was OpenLayers WMS. It provides a simple and easy to use interface and is open source, but did not provide great detail when zoomed in.(See Fig. 2.) Other map backgrounds included are GoogleMaps and Open Street Maps. Open Street maps is open source, but, includes names in the native language of the country, so is not universally user friendly. Google is not open source, but has a nicely displayed product. In our current version, the user has the choice to select which map background they would like displayed by clicking on a button at the upper right hand portion of the map.
 
Figure 2.
Map Using OpenLayers WMS Interface
The metadata created through the KML curation task are used not only to create the points of interest for the map viewer, but to also serve as the database for the search filters. During the early development stage, metadata fields were expanded in the KML to include official place names and geographic coordinates for each location mentioned in the text as well as the work’s author, title, advisor, url, date of publication, and academic department. The latest version of the map includes a time slider search for date of publication, a keyword search for author or academic advisor name, and check boxes for academic college and/or department. Clustering of results enables the user, once zoomed into their areas of interest, to further refine the browse as the results are then broken into smaller groupings(Fig. 3).
 
Figure 3.
Zoomed in View, Showing Expansion of Clusters
Once the user has pinpointed a location of interest, they may click on the pointer and be forwarded to the full text document located in the university’s institutional repository, DSpace. (Fig. 4)
 
Figure 4.
Selected Item Showing Title and Metadata Linked to the Full Text
Future Research
Research continues on refinement and development of the geoparser. Two short-term goals figure prominently in current efforts: an evaluation of the tool, and implementation of a statistical classifier as an augmentation to heuristic-based geoparsing.
Evaluation of the tool presents complications for the traditional precision/recall metrics of information retrieval. While these metrics are easily applicable to the disambiguation task, their application to the name extraction task is less straightforward. The mere occurrence of a toponym in a text does not indicate its relevance to the subject matter. We recognize and deal with certain negative cases by ignoring particular document sections like vitae, references, and appendices, but passing mentions of places occur in body text as well. We plan to implement a statistical comparator for target documents and a set of pre-selected documents known to refer meaningfully to particular places(encyclopedia articles, for instance). The statistics used for the comparator will include term-vectors or other textual derivatives. Techniques gleaned from this development will likely find application in the disambiguation task as well.
We have prepared a set of manually identified and disambiguated toponyms for approximately 100 theses as a basis for our pending evaluation of the toponm disambiguation task. Evaluation of the toponym extraction task will require more subtlety, perhaps including a user study to assess human understanding of the relevance of particular place mentions to document subject matter. Additional user studies will be conducted to enhance usability of the map interface. Finally, we plan to apply the mature application to collections beyond electronic theses and dissertations.
Funding
This research was supported in part by AMIGOS Library Services [Fellowship 2010-2012 to K. Weimer].
References
Ahlers, D., and S. Boll. (2007). Location Based Web Search. In Sharl, A. and Tochtermann, K. (eds), The Geospatial Web: How Geobrowsers, Social Software and the Web 2.0 are Shaping the Network Society. London: Springer. 55-66.
Bodenhamer, D., J. Corrigan, and T. Harris (eds). (2010). The Spatial Humanities: GIS and the Future of Humanities Scholarship. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Buckland, M., A. Chen, F. Gey, R. Larson, R. Mostern, and V. Petras. (2007). Geographic Search: Catalogs, Gazetteers, and Maps. College & Research Libraries 68(5): 376-387.
Dear, M., J. Ketchum, S. Luria, and D. Richardson (eds). (2011). Geohumanities: Art, History, Text at the Edge of Place. New York: Routledge.
Gregory, I., and A. Hardie (2011). Visual GISting: Bringing Together Corpus Liguistics and Geographical Information Systems. Literary & Linguistic Computing 26(3): 297-314.
Grover, C., et al. (2010). Use of the Edinburgh Geoparser for Georeferencing Digitized Historical Collections.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 368. 3875-3889.
Hill, L. L. (2006). Georeferencing: The Geographic Associations of Information. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Leidner, J. (2007). Toponym Resolution in Text. Doctoral Dissertation. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh.http://hdl.handle.net/1842/1849 (accessed 3 November 2012).
Notes
i. http://incubator.apache.org/opennlp/
ii. http://opennlp.sourceforge.net/models-1.5","txt","2","",""
"1747","14","MapServer for Swedish Language Technology","2","Introduction
Digital maps can today ensure a convenient and efficient rendering of geographical information in real time. Perhaps the best-known source for providing a search interface to the contents of tens of millions of computers on the internet, together with free of charge digital maps for anyone to use, is the Google Map server. The development of digital maps supported by Google is to a large extent driven by the needs of the industry whose requirements range from weather maps to driving instructions obtained from GPS information. Because of this focus, geographical locations which are found in literary texts — e.g. no longer existing places or older name variants – are not guaranteed to be available in this pool of modern digital maps. Moreover, freely available digital maps are naturally not optimized for all kinds of applications. The maps available on the internet are often copyright-protected. This lack of flexibility and the need to point to geographical locations of places that are found in literary texts are two of the main reasons why our group at Språkbanken ‘the Swedish Language Bank’ [1] have decided to investigate an alternative open-source solution, a platform called MapServer (Kropla 2005). [2]
Språkbanken
The Swedish Language Bank is a research unit which focuses on developing linguistic resources and tools for use by researchers and online visitors from different research fields such as linguistics, language technology, and language learning (Borin et al., 2012a; 2012b). It offers access to a vast amount of written natural language text resources including historical and literary texts. Recently, we have recognized the need of combining place-name recognition with geographical information systems as an alternative source of valuable information about the texts and a way to increase text understanding. The role of geographic visualization in the language learning and usage has been explored in various projects (Lieberman, et al. 2010; Gregory and Hardie 2011; Bibiko 2012).
MapServer at Språkbanken
MapServer is an open source Geographic Information System (GIS) development environment for producing maps from geographic data on the Web. [3] Its overall architecture is depicted in figure 1. The user interface provides two different ways to render geographic information: (1) static maps to present a small number of places that appear within the same geographical location and (2) dynamic maps that allow the user to change the amount of data appearing on the map in real time. The geographical dataset consists of both spatial and attribute data and is acquired from Geofabrik. [4] It contains raw data (Open Street Map format) and shape files (Haklay and Weber, 2008). [5]
 
Figure 1.
The client-server architecture of MapServer.
MapServer accesses an MySQL database to perform coordinate place-name search. This database is automatically maintained by accessing and extracting place-names from the GeoNames database. [6] Because the GeoNames database contains redundant information about place locations, disambiguation is performed. The disambiguation algorithm calculates the Euclidian distance (using the Pythagorean theorem) between places with the same name. If two or more places with the same name occur within three kilometers of each other, only one of these occurrences is added to the database, the one with the most recent modification date. In the case of modification date ties, the place with the highest latitude value is kept.
Visualization of automatically recognized place-names
The named entity recognizer (NER) and annotator used for annotating place names from Swedish literature (Borin et al., 2007; Borin and Kokkinakis 2010) automatically extracts names across large collections of texts with very high precision. In the kind of texts we are dealing with, the distribution of place entities across the whole document is quite common. The reader may sometimes lose track of where the story takes place, in particular if the plot of the story ranges over a wide geographical area. For example, in classical Swedish author Selma Lagerlöf’s famous two-part work The wonderful adventures of Nils more than 50 place names are mentioned. A reader interested in learning more about these places will benefit from a visualization of their locations.
With the NER tool it is possible extract the place names mentioned in the text and formulate a query with these names to the MapServer application which will render a dynamic map pointing to the geographical locations corresponding to the names. An example is provided in figure 2.
 
Figure 2.
A dynamic map of the place names mentioned in The wonderful adventures of Nils.
Summary
The MapServer application used by the Swedish Language Bank provides new opportunities for visualizing geographical information found in its large repository of written texts, in particular literary texts. The application is capable of performing coordinate search on the basis of recognized place names and rendering both static and dynamic maps that display their geographical locations.
References
Bibiko, H. J. (2012). Visualization and online presentation of linguistic data. In Frank Seifart, Geoffrey Haig, Nikolaus P. Himmelmann, Dagmar Jung, Anna Margetts, and Paul Trilsbeek (eds), Potentials of Language Documentation: Methods, Analyses, and Utilization. 105–110. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Borin, L., and D. Kokkinakis (2010). Literary onomastics and language technology. In Willie van Peer, Sonia Zyngier, and Vander Viana (eds), Literary Education and Digital Learning: Methods and Technologies for Humanities Studies. 53–78. Hershey/New York: Information Science Reference.
Borin, L., D. Kokkinakis, and L. J. Olsson (2007). Naming the past: Named entity and animacy recognition in 19th century Swedish literature. ACL 2007 Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage Data (LaTeCH 2007). 1–8
Borin, L., M. Forsberg, and J. Roxendal (2012a). Korp — the corpus infrastructure of Språkbanken. Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC’12), Istanbul, Turkey, May 2012.
Borin, L., M. Forsberg, L. J. Olsson, and J.Uppström (2012b). The open lexical infrastructure of Språkbanken. Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC’12), Istanbul, Turkey, May 2012.
Gregory, I. N. and A. Hardie (2011). Visual GISting: bringing together corpus linguistics and geographical information systems. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 3:297–314.
Haklay, M. and P. Weber(2008). Open street map: User generated street maps. IEEE Pervasive Computing, 7: 12-18.
Kropla, B. (2005). Beginning MapServer: Open source GIS development (expert’s voice in open source). Berkely, CA: Apress.
Lieberman, M. D., H. Samet, and J. Sankaranarayanan (2010). Geotagging with local lexicons to build indexes for textually-specified spatial data. Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on Data Engineering, California, USA. 201-212.
Notes
1. http://spraakbanken.gu.se
2. There are other open-source GIS alternatives, such as GeoServer and PostGIS, that presumably would serve these needs equally well.
3. http://www.mapserver.org
4. http://www.geofabrik.de/data/download.html
5. http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Sv:Map_Features
6. http://download.geonames.org/export/dump/","txt","2","",""
"1748","14","Markup Beyond XML","10","Markup Beyond XML
A review of the limitations of XML is not necessary here, as they have been debated as long as XML, and SGML before it, have been applied to data in the humanities. (For example, see Barnard et al. 1988, Huitfeldt 1994, Barnard et al. 1995.) Nor is it necessarily helpful, inasmuch as dwelling on the difficulties (while ignoring the considerable strengths) of XML is not in itself a constructive activity.
However, even when conceptualizing a markup technology that does not face these particular limitations, we can also learn from XML's strengths. In particular, from the concept of generic and “descriptive” markup (Coombs 1987) we have learned that document markup need not be strongly bound to application semantics, but can be declarative and oriented to the information and problem domain (rather than the particular platform and toolset in use), providing many advantages both for modeling and for long-term application independence. Similarly, XML's fairly clean separation of syntax (the text-based format that constitutes XML formally — angle brackets delimiting markup and distinguishing it from text content) from model(most commonly, but not necessarily, the W3C DOM or the related “tree”-shaped model of a document described by the Xpath/XSLT/XQuery family of specifications) has enabled the development of powerful standards-based tools — for both creating and maintaining XML syntax and for processing it — and helped ensure the platform independence and portability of XML technologies.
LMNL, the Layered Markup and Annotation Language, borrows both of these fundamental concepts. LMNL was first described by Jeni Tennison and myself in 2002 (Tennison and Piez 2002). However, its model differs significantly from XML's in two important respects:
I. Where XML stipulates a complete organization of a data set into discrete containers (elements), LMNL simply identifiesranges over a text. Ranges, as sequences of characters (or more formally, of atoms) may overlap with other ranges. In LMNL syntax, this is legal: [poem}Et [red}l'unique [gold}cordeau{red] des [green}trompettes{gold] marines{green]{poem]
 
Figure 1.
As identified (in the syntax) by start-tag/end-tag pairs, any range may overlap with any other. Indeed, any relations between ranges — whether one may or does “contain” or “overlap” another — are not conditioned by the rules of LMNL, but provided, when needed, by an application in process. (So an application may say “colors must not overlap”, or “red must not overlap with gold”, but LMNL itself does not.) Thus LMNL markup is like a set of crayons or markers (for marking a text) as opposed to a pair of scissors (for segmenting it).
II. LMNL ranges may be annotated, in a way similar to attributes assigned to elements in XML, but also with significant differences. While in XML, attributes are provided as name-value pairs, any LMNL annotation may have structure: [poem [author}Guillaume [surn}Apollinaire{surn]{author]}Et l'unique cordeau des trompettes marines{poem] Here, the author annotation has content that is marked up: Guilliaume [surn}Apollinaire{surn]. Moreover, in LMNL, annotations may have annotations (as if XML attributes could have attributes), and indeed annotations may encapsulate, comprehend or subsume entire documents (perhaps stored out of line, elsewhere on the network).
Draft specifications for the LMNL model and proposed syntax are at http://www.lmnl-markup.org.
The examples here use markup syntax, but the LMNL model by definition (and in this respect like the W3C XDM) requires no particular serialization format or no serialization at all. The LMNL model is defined in such a way that it can be represented using any capable syntax, or modeled directly in a database or object structure. XML may also be used, and indeed any of the documented XML-based approaches to representing overlap (including so-called milestone elements, or via segmentation and alignment, or using standoff; see TEI P5, chapter 20) may be mapped, usually straightforwardly, into the LMNL model. A simple transformation can rewrite any XML document as a LMNL document; by supplementing this with specialized logic for recognizing any XML-based conventions for representing overlap and expressing them directly as LMNL ranges, any XML that currently represents overlap can be rewritten automatically into LMNL and processed in a LMNL processor. (It is also possible to go back the other way.)
The LMNL model itself is fairly simple. A LMNL instance is defined as a text layer (a sequence of characters) with a set ofranges over the text. A text layer is a sequence of atoms: an atom can be represented using markup, but more commonly Unicode characters (each of which indicates a distince atom) are used. As noted, ranges have annotations. Annotations can be anything, from nothing at all (both ranges and annotations can be anonymous in LMNL) to just a name, to entire documents: annotations have their own text layers, so they can marked up. Annotations, like ranges, may be annotated. And their annotations may be marked up (its content marked with ranges), its ranges annotated, etc. While annotations belong to ranges (or annotations), and ranges belong to text layers (in the documents or annotations over which they range), ranges have no necessary relations to one another except as specified in the application. This means that ranges may overlap even other ranges assigned the same (type) name — so single defined sets of tags may be used to indicate ranges in the text for indexing or annotation, even if these ranges sometimes (or often) overlap. Ranges may also be filtered or associated in ways that represent multiple concurrent hierarchies (not single hierarchies alone, one at a time).
Luminescent, in combination with XSLT stylesheets developed to transform its (XML-based) output, is currently capable of all the following:
•        1. Automatically check for LMNL syntax well-formedness, outside an application.
•        2. Extract XML dynamically from documents marked with LMNL, given a list of elements to represent as (in) the XML tree.
•        3. Analyze the content for overlapping ranges.
•        4. Generate formatted output.
•        5. Generate alternative renditions and visualizations (e.g. SVG), showing structures of relations (and/or the lack thereof) in the marked up text.
•        6. Filter and transform.
A few demonstrations of LMNL syntax with outputs from the Luminescent toolchain (implemented as a sequence of XSLT transformations in a pipeline as described in Piez 2012) are offered to supplement this presentation. See: http://www.piez.org/wendell/papers/dh2013/lmnl/ index.html
These experiments demonstrate the potential of a model supporting overlap for the study of narrative structure (in which narrative and dialogic structures commonly overlap with the native structures of verse, prose or drama) and for prosody (in which verse structure and sentence structure overlap in interesting ways). In addition, many other uses for LMNL can be readily envisioned, whether for supporting indexing, arbitrary annotation, data retrieval and filtering across arbitrary semantic boundaries, or others.
Finally, it must be noted that in a model that supports both overlapping structures and structured annotations, there are expressive opportunities for the representation of phenomena in literary texts (and any complex text) that are unavailable in XML. Consequently, it is suggestive of other models of text altogether — which can be more easily optimized, in many cases, for certain kinds of processing that are difficult, at best, in XML.
Source code for Luminescent is maintained here on github: https://github.com/wendellpiez/Luminescent
At DH2013 I will be demonstrating the pipeline; describing its design, operations, methods and capabilities; remarking on issues and work remaining to be done; and answering questions.
Some LMNL source code
[octave}[quatrain}[line}[s}[phr}She is as in a field a silken tent{line]
[line}At midday when the sunny summer breeze{line]
[line}Has dried the dew and all its ropes relent,{phr]{line]
[line}[phr}So that in guys it gently sways at ease,{phr]{line]{quatrain]
[quatrain}[line}[phr}And its supporting central cedar pole,{phr]{line]
[line}[phr}That is its pinnacle to heavenward{line]
[line}And signifies the sureness of the soul,{phr]{line]
[line}[phr}Seems to owe naught to any single cord,{phr]{line]{quatrain]{octave]
[sestet}[quatrain}[line}[phr}But strictly held by none,{phr] [phr}is loosely bound{line]
[line}By countless silken ties of love and thought{line]
[line}To every thing on earth the compass round,{phr]{line]
[line}[phr}And only by one's going slightly taut{line]{quatrain]
[couplet}[line}In the capriciousness of summer air{line]
[line}Is of the slightest bondage made aware.{phr]{s]{line]{couplet]{sestet]
In an application (in which this document is parsed and transformed into an SVG representation), a graphical view shows how cleanly nested the sentence/phrase structure is with the verse structure of this sonnet. The only case of overlap is at the end of line 9 (at the start of the sestet), where it enjambs with line 10 after the only mid-line caesura in the poem:
 
Figure 2:
References
Barnard, D., R. Hayter, M. Karababa, G. Logan, and J. McFadden (1988). SGML-Based Markup for Literary Texts: Two Problems and Some Solutions. Computers and the Humanities. 22(4): 265-276.
Barnard, D., L. Burnard, J. P. Gaspart, L. A. Price, C. M. Sperberg-McQueen, and G. B. Varile (1995). Hierarchical Encoding of Text: Technical Problems and SGML Solutions. The Text Encoding Initiative: Background and Context. Computers and the Humanities. 29(3). The Text Encoding Initiative: Background and Context. 211-231.
CATMA: Computer Aided Textual Markup and Analysis. http://www.catma.de/.
Coombs, J. H., A. H. Renear, and S. J. DeRose (1987). Markup Systems and The Future of Scholarly Text Processing. Communications of the ACM. 30(11): 933-947
Huitfeldt, C. (1994). Multi-Dimensional Texts in a One-Dimensional Medium. Computers and the Humanities, 28(4-5).Humanities Computing in Norway. 235-241.
Tennison, J., and W. Piez (2002). The Layered Markup and Annotation Language (LMNL). In Extreme Markup Languages 2002.
Piez, W. (2004). Half-steps toward LMNL. In Proceedings of Extreme Markup Languages.http://conferences.idealliance.org/extreme/html/2004/Piez01/EML2004Piez01.html.
Piez, W. (2008). LMNL in Miniature: An introduction. Amsterdam Goddag Workshop held December 2008http://piez.org/wendell/LMNL/Amsterdam2008/presentation-slides.html.
Piez, W. (2010). Towards Hermeneutic Markup: an Architectural Outline. Digital Humanities 2010 held July 2010 at King's College. London http://piez.org/wendell/dh2010/index.html.
Piez, W. (2012). “Luminescent: parsing LMNL by XSLT upconversion.” Presented at Balisage: The Markup Conference 2012 (Montréal, Canada), August 2012. In Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2012. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies, 8. doi:10.4242/BalisageVol8.Piez01.
Schmidt, D. (2010). The inadequacy of embedded markup for cultural heritage texts. Literary and Linguistic Computing 25(3): 337-356. doi: 10.1093/llc/fqq007.
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. (1991). Text in the Electronic Age: Textual Study and Text Encoding, with Examples from Medieval Texts. Literary and Linguistic Computing 6(1).
Text Encoding Initiative (TEI). P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, chapter 20, “Non-hierarchical Structures”. http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/NH.html.
Stührenberg, M., and D. Goecke (2008). SGF — An integrated model for multiple annotations and its application in a linguistic domain. Presented at Balisage: The Markup Conference 2008 (Montréal, Canada), August 2008. In Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2008. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies, 1. doi: 10.4242/BalisageVol1.Stuehrenberg01.
Stührenberg, M., and D. Jettka (2009). A toolkit for multi-dimensional markup — The development of SGF to XStandoff. Presented at Balisage: The Markup Conference 2009 (Montréal, Canada), August 2009. In Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2009. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies, 3. doi: 10.4242/BalisageVol3.Stuhrenberg01.","txt","2","",""
"1749","14","Memoragram, a service for collective remembrance","9","Introduccion
Desde la década de los 80s hasta los 2000 el Perú vivió en medio de un conflicto armado entre dos movimientos terroristas, Sendero Luminoso y el Movimiento Revolucionario Túpac Amaru (MRTA), los cuales buscaban derrocar el sistema democrático peruano, desatando uno de los más violentos pasajes de la historia moderna.
Estos movimientos fueron vencidos militarmente, desarmados y encarcelados, pero a un alto costo en vidas humanas. A pesar de la desarticulación de estos grupos aún se reportan células armadas y organizadas en los lugares más alejados de la selva peruana. Al mismo tiempo, en las ciudades buscan impunidad criminal y política para sus líderes arrestados a través de mecanismos legales que les permitirían introducirse en la política activa.
Hoy, casi 10 años después del fin de este episodio de la historia, el museo que conmemora el recuerdo de las víctimas de la violencia, el Lugar de la Memoria del Perú, no ha sido terminado. Las nuevas generaciones no conocen claramente lo sucedido debido al deficiente programa educativo; tal que estos grupos subversivos aprovechan la desinformación para entregar una imagen distorsionada de esta parte de la historia. (Pisa, 2009). Sin embargo, somos la octava comunidad con mayor uso de las redes sociales (Comscore Inc. 2012) e Internet en el mundo. Asimismo, Perú ya ha sobrepasado el 100% de penetración móvil.(Budde.com 2012)
Estos índices muestran que Perú tiene una oportunidad única y sin precedentes de desplegar servicios que asistan al desarrollo y mantenimiento de una memoria colectiva usando tecnologías móviles.
La Evolucion De La Idea
La misión del proyecto evolucionó con el tiempo y se ha trabajado y conversado con expertos del tema.
Un museo virtual
Memoragram nace a partir de la idea de crear un museo geo-localizado de la memoria, accesible desde cualquier dispositivo sin importar la hora ni el lugar. Los usuarios podrían explorar eventos históricos cercanos a su ubicación actual o hacia la fecha que deseen consultar, revisar los personajes involucrados, los lugares (en su mayoría demolidos), organizaciones e incluso revisar qué libros, revistas, periódicos, películas, reportajes de TV, cómics, entre otras fuentes, hacen referencia al hecho.
Por el lado tecnológico, los usuarios podrían usar smartphones o tablets para que, al acceder a una web móvil, esta solicite permiso para usar el GPS del dispositivo y así mostrar contenido relevante. La tecnología que hace posible este acceso es HTML5, CS3 y Javascript. Asimismo, los usuarios podrían descargar una tercera aplicación móvil llamada Junaio, la cual, usando el GPS, giroscopios, brújula y cámara puede mostrar contenido en una vista de tiempo real.
Si bien esta parte del alcance no ha sido modificada, surgieron otros problemas fuera del campo tecnológico.
El problema de las fuentes de datos
Con la idea y el alcance del proyecto se empezó por buscar fuentes de información fiables, entre ellas el Banco de Imágenes de la Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación Nacional del Perú (Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación del Perú), la cual se basa en los archivos fotográficos de los principales diarios y revistas locales peruanos. Este mismo banco se usó para formar la muestra Yuyanapaq (Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo — PNUD Perú) (término quechua que significa ‘Para recordar’). Este archivo posee alrededor de 1560 fotografías.
Luego de una evaluación de esta fuente y del mapeo de eventos posibles a registrar se concluyó que el número de eventos registrables sería mucho menor a 1560. De encontrarse otras fuentes de datos el número sería más limitado. Esta situación conllevaría a que la oferta de contenido fuera fija, lo cual podría evitar que los usuarios no se familiaricen con el sistema o no tengan una razón para regresar al servicio.
El fenómeno social del traspaso de la memoria y LoSoMo
La memoria colectiva se da como un proceso social y natural en el que las generaciones mayores traspasan conocimiento a las generaciones más jóvenes a través de relatos, documentos, mapas, elementos multimedia como fotos y videos, entre otros.
Este acto puede tener un efecto terapéutico en las personas que vivieron hechos traumatizantes.
A la vez, en el entorno de marketing en Internet (campo en donde se desenvuelve el autor) se hace presente la tendencia llamada “LoSoMo” que son las siglas de tres elementos que se recomienda considerar en una campaña digital: “Local”, “Social” y “Mobile”. Este enfoque se puede encontrar en las más exitosas start-ups como Foursquare y Groupon. A este momento, el alcance de Memoragram sólo abarcaba el primer y último aspecto. El fenómeno de traspaso de la memoria entonces se postulaba como el elemento social para generar una comunidad activa de usuarios.
Nuevas posibilidades
La inclusión de un fenómeno social en el alcance del proyecto abrió un nuevo espectro de posibilidades para la idea de formar un museo virtual. El sistema empezó a evolucionar: pasó de un servicio en el cual los usuarios sólo consumen contenido a una plataforma donde pueden aportar con sus propias memorias, sus propios recuerdos.
Este nuevo tipo de contenido obliga a generar nuevas acciones que se pueden expresar y medir con la plataforma, por ejemplo: los usuarios exploran el contenido y pueden registrar y medir el efecto que este genera en ellos, logrando que esta medida de rankings sea otro criterio de organización de los eventos listados.
El Proyecto
Con las consideraciones listadas previamente se definió el alcance del proyecto, el cual se alcanzará a través de una serie de prototipos funcionales en proceso de perfeccionamiento.
El alance elegido
Los usuarios podrán explorar los eventos históricos más cercanos a su ubicación actual, la fecha en que sucedieron, los personajes, organizaciones y las publicaciones que las mencionan como fotografías, video, audios, archivos periodísticos, libros, películas, entre otros. Asimismo podrán dejar sus propios recuerdos usando texto, audio, fotografías e incluso video, a manera de mensaje a las futuras generaciones (recuerdos públicos).
El contenido al inicio será creado con la asesoría de especialistas basados en fuentes confiables.
La Solucion
Eligiendo el gestor de contenido base
Para construir la plataforma se requiere de un paquete de software web modular, preferentemente gratuito para ahorrar costos y open-source para aprovechar el avance de la comunidad que lo mantiene. Se eligió entonces el CMS (Sistema de gestión de contenido) Drupal 7 basado en el lenguaje PHP, el cual se conecta a una base de datos MySQL (Metaio Inc.) Este sistema ya incorpora funciones de manejo de registro de usuarios, creación de perfiles de usuario, tipos de contenido y una robusta estructura de etiquetas así como soporte de distintos tipos de archivos multimedia.
Interfaces del usuario
En la versión 7 de Drupal ya se maneja HTML versión 5, llamadas asíncronas AJAX e incluso soporte de diseño responsivo, el cual permite crear una sola interfaz que adapta el contenido mostrado según el dispositivo desde el que se accede a él.
Asimismo, se decidió experimentar con una interfaz de realidad aumentada para móviles; para ello se eligió la aplicación móvil Junaio www.junaio.com, disponible para iOS y Android, a la cual basta alimentar con contenido desde una interfaz entre servidores usando XML.
Desarrollo de prototipo
A continuación pueden observarse unas capturas de pantalla. Todas las imágenes son de elaboración propia, se realizaron desde una PC con una navegador web y en un Apple iPhone 3GS.
 
Figura 1.
Home del sitio web prototipo con mapa de los últimos eventos registrados (Mostrando un pin del mapa con burbuja de información)
 
Figura 2.
Captura de pantalla web del detalle de un evento
 
Figura 3.
Vista en vivo en interfaz de realidad aumentada móvil usando la aplicación Junaio en un iPhone 3GS desde la Plaza Mayor de Lima
 
Figura 4.
Vista de mapa usando la aplicación Junaio (navegando a través de eventos)
 
Figura 5.
Vista de lista usando la aplicación Junaio (navegando a través de eventos)
 
Figura 6.
Vista de detalle de un evento usando la aplicación Junaio (los usuarios pueden realizar distintas acciones como obtener la ruta para llegar al punto, ver la imagen, entre otras)
Conclusiones
Es técnicamente viable crear una plataforma que llegue al alcance propuesto, sin embargo, a la fecha sólo se ha implementado el acceso web y realidad aumentada móvil sin la interfaz de creación de memorias por parte de usuarios. En el futuro cercano se irán extendiendo las funcionalidades y luego se pasará a realizar pruebas de usuario para diseñar una interfaz adecuada.
References
1. PISA 2009 Results: Executive Summary (Figura 1), OECD, 2010. Consultado el 2012-11-04.http://www.oecd.org/pisa/46643496.pdf.
2. Comscore Inc. “It’s a Social World: Social Networking Leads as Top Online Activity Globally, Accounting for 1 in Every 5 Online Minutes”. Consultado el 2012-11-04. http://tinyurl.com/bgn3sln
3. BuddeComm. “Peru - Telecoms, Mobile, Broadband and Forecasts”. Consultado el 2012-11-04.http://www.budde.com.au/Research/Peru-Telecoms-Mobile-Broadband-and-Forecasts.html.
4. Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación del Perú. Banco de Imágenes de la Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación Nacional del Perú. http://www2.memoriaparalosderechoshumanos.pe/apublicas/galeria/index.php
5. Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo - PNUD Perú. “Yuyanapaq. Para recordar”. Consultado el 2012-11-04. http://www.pnud.org.pe/yuyanapaq/yuyanapaq.html
6. Metaio Inc. “Junaio Demo Book”. http://www.junaio.com/fileadmin/upload/documents/Promo_Booklet/DOC-junaio_promo_book-EN-DIGI.pdf","txt","2","",""
"1750","14","MESA and ARC, developing disciplinary metadata requirements in a multidisciplinary context","10","The widespread adoption of digital media and technologies in almost every facet of humanities research and scholarly communications, including discovery and repurposing of information, writing, publication, peer review, curation, and dissemination, has brought with it both great opportunities and significant challenges. Medievalists were among the first humanities scholars to adapt digital tools for their work; indeed, Father Roberto Busa’s Index Thomasticus, a digital index begun in 1949 that comprises more than 11 million words of medieval Latin found in the works of St. Thomas Aquinas, is widely acknowledged as the first digital humanities project. Since that time medievalists have a strong record of building a wide array of digital repositories, using electronic tools and textual encoding to advance new methods for editing texts and constructing scholarly editions, and building tools for the analysis of textual and visual data (Unsworth 2011).
Despite such progress, the community still faces significant needs in the area of discoverability of digital scholarship. Many scholarly initiatives that take advantage of the possibilities of digital media are not indexed or discoverable via traditional library and information sciences resources, or even via mainstream search engines such as Google. In recent years two federations of electronic scholarly projects, the Networked Infrastructure for Nineteenth-Century Electronic Scholarship (NINES) and 18thConnect, have made significant progress towards addressing this problem in the fields of 18th- and 19th-cenutry Anglo-American literary studies. Together they provide aggregated searching of more than 1.6 million digital objects from 128 member projects, and users of the web portals provided by each federation may search the content of both federations individually or simultaneously.
In 2010, Dot Porter and Timothy Stinson were awarded a planning grant by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation to explore the feasibility of and need for establishing a similar federation in the field of medieval studies. In May 2011, we organized a planning meeting held in Baltimore, MD in order to take the first steps towards a dialogue with this community. In order to learn from our peers in other disciplinary areas, as well as to explore potential avenues of collaboration with them, we also invited representatives from NINES, and 18thConnect. The outcomes of this meeting included the formation of a steering committee to direct its creation. [1]
After evaluating possibilities for achieving aggregation, including adapting known software or building our own, there was unanimous support from the steering committee for creating an implementation of MESA utilizing Collex, the open-source collections builder that facilitates collecting, tagging, analyzing, and annotating digital sources and provides the framework upon which both NINES and 18thConnect are built (Nowviskie 2007). Collex already has a proven track record in meeting the goals identified by MESA, as evidenced by both of these extant federations. Furthermore, adoption of Collex is efficient because it avoids duplication of tools and facilitates not only aggregation within our field, but also aggregation between fields and between extant aggregators. This has already been demonstrated by NINES and 18thConnect, which are currently linked and may be searched either separately or in tandem. In addition, Laura Mandell, director of 18thConnect, is currently organizing the Advanced Research Consortium (ARC), a meta-federation that will span disciplinary areas from the medieval era through the twentieth century, and MESA has joined NINES and 18thConnect as a member of ARC. More recently, REKn (focused on Renaissance studies) and ModNets (focused on modernist studies) have also joined ARC (Robideau 2011). Thus, all our decisions about how to develop MESA must be informed by, and take into account, the needs of our partner “nodes” in ARC.
The Mellon Foundation awarded MESA an implementation grant in June 2012. We knew, even as we wrote the implementation proposal, that a number of adaptations to Collex and the underlying metadata schemas would be necessary due to the fact that, unlike NINES and 18thConnect, projects in MESA will have medieval and modern languages, as well as a variety of objects including manuscripts, maps, architectural drawings and images, and statuary. In the months since funding was awarded the MESA team has been focusing primarily on the specifics of how to aggregate the first twelve projects into the MESA Collex instance. [2] Aggregation of metadata from member projects is achieved by generating Resource Description Framework (RDF) files from extant metadata (e.g., transcriptions, catalogue records, or descriptions of images) and making these RDF files discoverable and cross-searchable within Collex.
Modifications to MESA RDF have been determined primarily by the MESA co-directors, with significant input from the Steering Committee. Over several meetings and through email correspondence, the Steering Committee developed a list of what they saw as the most important, most basic, metadata requirements for a medieval digital federation to include. We were aware of the metadata requirements already defined for NINES and 18thConnect (detailed on the Collex wiki:http://wiki.collex.org/index.php/Submitting_RDF), which include Dublin Core Metadata Terms, RDF terms, and custom Collex terms. However, rather than use the existing Collex metadata as our starting point, we first brainstormed (from our own extensive experience as scholars and project developers) by what fields and terms users of MESA would expect to be able to search in the federation. We also had to take into account the practicalities of the first twelve projects, and future projects to be accepted into the federation (what metadata these projects have, how is it formatted, and would it be practical for us to request additional metadata of them before they are aggregated into MESA).
In addition to Title, Author, and Date of Creation, we discussed the need to be able to include descriptions of people responsible for creating objects (scribe, artist, etc.); the format of the objects (for example manuscript codex, printed sheet, sculpture, painting, stained glass window, etc.); the provenance of the objects (including where they were created, and where they are now); languages inscribed in and on objects, as well as cultures reflected in objects.
In some cases, NINES and 18thConnect did include the fields we needed, notably a flexible field for Author, <role:***>, where *** can equal one of several roles (AUT for author, ART for Visual Artist, EDT for Editor, etc.) and a very flexible system for noting dates. We added <dc:type> for describing the general format of objects (defined as “The nature or genre of the resource.”). [3] Although the formal definition of <dc:format> seems better (“The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource.”), [4] we discovered that in practice other projects that we are federating or hope to federate (including e-codices and Europeana Regia) use <dc:type> for describing the general format of objects, and <dc:format> for more specific information (including medium and measurements), so we decided to follow their practice. We do plan to include only general format in MESA fields, and not detailed information on medium or measurements of objects.
As neither NINES nor 18thConnect have needed a field for describing provenance, we have added <dc:provenance> as a recommended field in the MESA RDF specifications. [5] At one point we discussed requiring projects to further specify data within <dc:provenance> — for example, one <dc:provenance> for each change in status to the object, and each <dc:provenance> must have one <dc:date>, one <dc:name>, and one <dc:event> defined within it. However it became clear, once we started mapping actual project metadata, that the more highly specified metadata was simply not going to be realistic.
As of November 2012, we are still finalizing our methods for specifying languages and cultures of objects, but we hope to have those finalized soon.
Although NINES and 18thConnect had well-developed RDF specifications and workflows, we knew coming into the project that MESA would need to make changes, some slight and some more radical, in order to ensure that the federation would be usable and useful for an audience of scholars and students in medieval studies. This abstract has detailed some of those modifications, and a full paper at the conference would detail all the changes, the argumentation for including the fields we include, and discussion of how the changes required by MESA have influenced the development of the metadata specifications for the whole of ARC. Indeed, while we knew that MESA would require changes to the existing specifications, what we did not expect was that so many of our requested changes would be welcome, and adopted by, the larger group of ARC nodes. Although our relationship with ARC is ongoing MESA has already made substantial contributions and we look forward to more years of fruitful collaboration.
References
Dublin Core Metadata Terms http://dublincore.org/documents/dcmi-terms/
Eighteenth Century Scholarship Online www.18thconnect.org
Medieval Electronic Scholarly Alliance Blog http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/projects/mesa/
Nineteenth Century Scholarship Online www.nines.org
Nowviskie, B. (2007). A Scholar’s Guide to Research, Collaboration, and Publication in NINES, Romanticism and Victorianism on the Net. 47. http://www.erudit.org/revue/ravon/2007/v/n47/016707ar.html
Resource Description Framework http://www.w3.org/RDF/
Robideau, R. Texas A&M’s College of Liberal Arts to house digital literary research consortium, Texas A&M College of Liberal Arts (press release) http://liberalarts.tamu.edu/html/news-texas-a-m-s-college-of-liberal-arts-to-house-digital-literary-research-consortiu.html
Unsworth, J. (2011). Medievalists as Early Adopters of Information Technology. Digital Medievalist Journal 7http://www.digitalmedievalist.org/journal/7/unsworth/
Notes
1. Members of the Steering Committee: Dot Porter, co-chair (Indiana University), Timothy Stinson, co-chair (North Carolina State University), James Cummings (University of Oxford), Christoph Flüeler (Institut d'études médiévales, University of Fribourg and e-codices), Will Noel (University of Pennsylvania), Dan O’Donnell (University of Lethbridge), Lynn Ransom (University of Pennsylvania), Peter Robinson (University of Saskatchewan), Torsten Schaßan (Herzog August Bibliothek Wolfenbüttel), and Stephen Shepherd (Loyola Marymount University).
2. The projects to be aggregated into MESA during the first year of the project are: Digital Image Archive of Medieval Music (DIAMM), e-codices: Virtual Manuscript Library of Switzerland, Gothic Ivories Project, InteLex, Online Froissart, Parker Library on the Web, Petrus Plaoul, Roman de la Rose Digital Library, St. Gall Monastery Plan, sermones.net, University of Pennsylvania Libraries Penn in Hand, Walters Art Museum
3. http://dublincore.org/documents/dcmi-terms/#terms-type
4. http://dublincore.org/documents/dcmi-terms/#terms-format
5. http://dublincore.org/documents/dcmi-terms/#terms-provenance","txt","2","",""
"1751","14","Modelling the Interpretation of Literary Allusion with Machine Learning Techniques","2","A Computational Perspective on Allusion
Most literary allusion, the deliberate evocation by one text of a passage in another, is based upon text reuse. Yet most instances of textual similarity are not meaningful literary allusions. The goal of the Tesserae project (http://tesserae.caset.buffalo.edu) is to automatically detect allusion in a corpus of literary texts, primarily Classical Latin poetry. We begin with a large set of textual parallels, and then attempt to model which of these instances of text reuse are meaningful literary allusions and which are not, according to a group of human readers. While initial attempts with a few basic textual features have proven surprisingly effective, here we employ a more complex feature set and machine learning techniques drawn from the field of computer vision in an attempt to improve the results. Novel applications of machine learning, beyond the well known but constrained textual classification tasks of attribution and categorization, have the potential to be transformative for complex analysis tasks in the Digital Humanities.
Benchmark Data
As an illustration, we consider textual parallels between Book 1 of Lucan’s Bellum Civile and the entirety of Vergil’s Aeneid(Coffee et al. 2012). Our benchmark dataset comprises a list of 3,400 pairs of sentences that share at least two different words. Each of these pairs has been read and graded for its literary significance by a group of students and faculty working in small teams. These annotator rankings range from 1 (no literary significance) to 5 (pointed literary allusion).
Learning Relevant Features
Earlier work showed that high-ranked parallels could be distinguished from the others with modest accuracy using only word frequency, distance between words, and the presence of exact form matching versus differently-inflected forms of the same word (Gawley et al. 2012). Nevertheless, others have recommended more sophisticated approaches to this problem (Bamman and Crane 2008). Here we consider an expanded feature set including bi-gram frequency, frequency of individual words, character-level n-grams and edit distances. Our goal is to learn relevant combinations of features in the presence of often incomplete data.
Recent work by members of our team has developed new methods for tuning machine-learning using support vector machines (Scheirer et al. 2012) and random forests (Xiong et al. 2012). Random forest is of particular interest, providing robust feature selection that shows promise for literary analysis (Tabata 2012). The problem of missing data is prevalent in all areas of literary study, but is not well addressed by existing algorithms in common use by digital humanists. This is especially true for ancient texts, where we often find a significant gap in the manuscript tradition. Using principled strategies for imputation and marginalization, we reduce the impact on the results.
Results and Implications
Our ability to learn the difference between high-ranked parallels (ranks 4 & 5) and low-ranked parallels (ranks 1 & 2) forBellum Civile and the Aeneid is strong: random forest achieves an average AUC score between 82% and 83%, while linear SVMs yield an average score of 81.5%. This suggests that quantifiable patterns do exist across allusions, which can be captured algorithmically. In this ongoing research we seek a more successful model of literary significance that will allow our software to put interesting allusions at the top of the list; at the same time, we hope it will also cast new light on the underlying structures of our experience of literature.
An interactive demonstration of the Tesserae allusion detection tool accompanies this poster.
Notes
Bamman, D., and G. Crane (2008). The Logic and Discovery of Textual Allusion. LaTeCH
Coffee, N., J.-P. Koenig, S. Poorima, C. W. Forstall, R. Ossewaarde, and S. Jacobson (2012). Intertextuality in the digital age. Transactions of the American Philological Association, 142(2).
Gawley, J., C. W. Forstall, and N. Coffee (2012). Evaluating the literary significance of text re-use in Latin poetry. DHCS
Scheirer, W. J., A. Rocha, J.Parris, and T. E. Boult (2012). Learning for meta-recognition. IEEE T-IFS 7.
Tabata, T. (2012). Approaching Dickens’ style through random forests. DH.
Xiong, C., D. Johnson, R. Xu, and J. J. Corso (2012). Random forests for metric learning with implicit pairwise position dependence. ACM SIGKDD.","txt","2","",""
"1752","14","A national virtual laboratory for the humanities in Australia: the HuNI (Humanities Networked Infrastructure) project","10","Summary
The Humanities Networked Infrastructure (HuNI) is a national “Virtual Laboratory” which is being developed as part of the Australian government’s NeCTAR (National e-Research Collaboration Tools and Resources) programme. HuNI is using Linked Data to combine a range of different Australian datasets and deploying a suite of software tools to enable researchers to work with the data in various ways.
The HuNI project began in May 2012 and is scheduled to be completed at the end of 2013. It is being developed through a partnership between thirteen public institutions, led by Deakin University in Melbourne. At the Digital Humanities 2012 conference we presented a short paper on the overall design and proposed architecture for HuNI. We now propose a long paper reporting on HuNI’s progress in its first twelve months and demonstrating the initial version of the Virtual Laboratory.
A national virtual laboratory for the humanities in Australia: the HuNI (Humanities Networked Infrastructure) project
The Humanities Networked Infrastructure (HuNI) is a national “Virtual Laboratory” which is being developed as part of the Australian government’s NeCTAR (National e-Research Collaboration Tools and Resources) programme. The aims of NecTAR’s Virtual Laboratories are to integrate existing capabilities (tools, data and resources), support data-centred research workflows, and build virtual research communities to address existing well-defined research problems. HuNI is addressing these aims across the whole of the humanities and creative arts, using Linked Data to combine a range of different Australian datasets and deploying a suite of software tools to enable researchers to work with the data in various ways.
The HuNI project began in May 2012 and is scheduled to be completed at the end of 2013. It is being developed through a partnership between thirteen public institutions, led by Deakin University in Melbourne. At the Digital Humanities 2012 conference we presented a short paper on the overall design and proposed architecture for HuNI (Burrows 2012). We now propose a long paper reporting on HuNI’s progress in its first twelve months and demonstrating the initial version of the Virtual Laboratory. We plan to address the following issues.
Data harvesting from heterogeneous sources
The datasets being combined into HuNI come from a range of disciplines, including literature, performing arts, film and media, history, art and design. Some originate from an academic community, others from the curatorial sector. Various standard and customized metadata schemas are used, and software environments vary considerably. HuNI has tested and deployed several methods for harvesting data directly. Harvesting data indirectly through a third-party pre-aggregator has also been employed, though the use of the National Library of Australia’s Trove service and especially its PeopleAustralia component (Dewhurst 2008).
Transformation to Linked Data
Transforming the harvested data into RDF triples is an essential first step in building HuNI’s Linked Data store. This process has raised a variety of issues around data quality and validation, including spelling, misnaming, semantic ambiguities, incorrect coding and so on. Various methods have been used to address these issues, accompanied by considerable discussion around the respective roles of dataset custodians and HuNI itself in this process. We will also report on the use of tools like Google Refine for this kind of data cleaning (Van Hooland 2012).
Mapping and aligning vocabularies and ontologies
One of the key elements of HuNI is its semantic mapping and alignment service, which connects similar semantic entities in the different datasets — at the level of both classes and instances. A range of ontologies are being used in this mapping and alignment process, with CIDOC-CRM serving as the key ontology (Doerr, Hunter, Lagoze 2003; Gill 2004). Aspects of the Europeana Data Model have also been evaluated and incorporated (Isaac, Clayphan, Haslhofer 2012). User needs and requirements have been fed into the design of this process, in order to identify how extensive the mapping and alignment need to be before they start adding measurable value for researchers.
Strategies for software tools
The Australian datasets which have been combined into HuNI also offer a range of software tools for working with their data. These tools have mostly been developed in-house, and are written in a variety of languages. They include LORE, AusStage, Heurist and OCCAMS (Bollen et al. 2009; Gerber, Hyland, Hunter 2010). HuNI has been assisting the enhancement of these tools to work with Linked Data, enabling users of these datasets to incorporate HuNI’s data into their working environment.
HuNI also incorporates generic tools for working with Linked Data within the Virtual Laboratory itself, grouped around three main stages in the research workflow:
•        Discovery (search and browse services);
•        Analysis (annotation, collecting, visualization and mapping);
•        Sharing (collaborating, publishing, citing and referencing).
Engaging and involving the research community
HuNI aims to reach and involve researchers from disciplines across the whole of the humanities and creative arts. It is critical that this broad research community is engaged effectively in the governance of the project as well as in the identification and implementation of user requirements and in order to address these aspirations a formal stakeholder management plan has been adopted. External validation is being provided through an international Expert Advisory Group. A range of communication channels have been established and used, ranging from “user story” requirements workshops to social media dissemination. An Agile software development framework has been adopted, enabling detailed and frequent user input. Considerable time was devoted to establishing these processes in the first stage of the project.
Project Governance
One of the key challenges for large-scale data interoperability projects such as HuNI is achieving common goals, problem definition and processes amongst participating organisations (Pagano 2010). HuNI involves 13 partner institutions including universities, development agencies and cultural institutions. Acknowledging that collaboration and data sharing involve various organisational complexities, a steering committee and several advisory groups have been set up as part of the formal governance structure for HuNI.
Summary
The paper will discuss HuNI’s approach to these issues and examine the lessons learnt from the project to date. We will compare HuNI’s approach with that taken by other digital environments for the humanities, particularly those involving the aggregation of digital resources and the creation of collaborative environments (Svensson 2010). We will assess HuNI’s significance as a new model for integrating and sharing knowledge and enabling research in the humanities and creative arts in the future. Particular focus will be given to the way in which HuNI embodies a theoretical framework in which semantic entities and assertions about their relationships, expressed as Linked Data, serve as the fundamental building-blocks. Instead of digital objects, primary sources or metadata records, these semantic assertions form the “data” on which a service like HuNI is built (Borgman 2007:215-217; Burrows 2011).
HuNI will be undertaking a formal evaluation process as part of the last stage of the project, during the last quarter of 2013. In this paper, we will be able to present informal feedback to date from researchers and other users on the pilot version of the service.
References
Bollen, J., N. Harvey, J. Holledge, and G. McGillivray. (2009) AusStage: e-Research in the performing arts,Australasian Drama Studies. 54: 178-194.
Borgman, C. L. (2007). Scholarship in the Digital Age: Information, Infrastructure, and the Internet. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Burrows, T. (2012). Designing a national 'Virtual Laboratory' for the humanities: the Australian HuNI project. In Meyer, J. C. (ed), Digital Humanities 2012: Conference Abstracts. held July 16-22 at University of Hamburg. 139-141
Burrows, T. (2011). Sharing humanities data for e-research: conceptual and technical issues. In Thieberger, N. et al. (eds), Sustainable Data from Digital Research. Melbourne: PARADISEC, 177-192. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/7938
Dewhurst, B. (2008). People Australia: a Topic-Based Approach to Resource Discovery. VALA2008 Conference proceedings. held in Melbourne: VALA. [http://www.valaconf.org.au/vala2008/papers2008/116_Dewhurst_Final.pdf]
Doerr, M., J. Hunter, and C. Lagoze (2003). Towards a Core Ontology for Information Integration, Journal of Digital information 4.1 http://jodi.ecs.soton.ac.uk/Articles/v04/i01/Doerr/
Gerber, A., A. Hyland, and J. Hunter (2010). A collaborative scholarly annotation system for dynamic Web documents — a literary case study. In The Role of Digital Libraries in a Time of Global Change (Lecture Notes in Computer Science 6102). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 29-39.
Gill, T. (2004) Building semantic bridges between museums, libraries and archives: The CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model, First Monday 9 (5). http://www.firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/viewArticle/1145/1065
Isaac, A., R. Clayphan, and B. Haslhofer (2012). Europeana: moving to Linked Open Data, Information Standards Quarterly. 24.2-3. 34-40.
Pagano, P. (2010). Data interoperability. In: GRDI2020 Consortium. Technological and Organisational Aspects of a Global Research Data Infrastructure: a View from the Experts. 25-33.http://www.grdi2020.eu/Repository/FileScaricati/9a85ca56-c548-47e4-8b0e-86c3534ad21d.pdf
Svensson, P. (2010). The Landscape of Digital Humanities, DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly 4.1http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/4/1/000080/000080.html
Van Hooland, S., R. Verborgh, and R. Van de Walle (2012). Joining the Linked Data Cloud in a cost-effective manner. Information Standards Quarterly. 24.2-3. 24-28.","txt","2","",""
"1753","14","The Network is Everting: the Death of Cyberspace and the Emergence of the Digital Humanities","10","This paper (with slides) is drawn from a book in progress (under contract at Routledge) about an important cultural context for the digital humanities. It argues that the emergence of DH in its newly prominent forms during the past decade is closely connected to a larger shift in the collective imagination of the network. This context helps us understand the public role that DH might play in exploring multiple connections between digital and physical materialities out in the world.
“Cyberspace is everting,” as William Gibson has said, turning inside out and leaking out into the physical world (2007; 2001). Cyberspace was always a notional nonspace, a consensual hallucination. a metaphor for our relationship to the global network. But it was a powerful metaphor that made a material difference in both technology and culture. In 2007, Gibson overwrote his own metaphor in Spook Country, thirty years after he coined the term cyberspace (1984). As he now notes, the term cyberspace is fading from use as the network everts, turns itself inside out. More than a literary metaphor, this eversion of cyberspace marks a profound shift in our collective understanding of the digital network—from an online world apart to a pervasive part of the world, from a transcendent virtual reality to a ubiquitous grid of data we move through every day.
We can even roughly date the shift to 2005-2006, when a number of important developments occurred: the quintessential virtual world Second Life began to decline; Nintendo’s motion-control Wii was introduced and helped to usher in the era of casual gaming; so-called “Web 2.0” social networks and mobile platforms, first introduced in 2004-2005, came into their own and gained a mass user base; the Google Maps API was launched in 2005; the iPhone was previewed in 2006 and introduced in January 2007; again, Gibson’s Spook Country was published early in 2007, its story based on augmented reality and locative art and media. More recently, this same shift in the collective imagination has been tracked by proponents of the so-called New Aesthetic (2012), which notes the increasing appearances of glitches, pixel art, and so on, as signs of “the irruption of the digital into the physical.” These and other emerging expressions are part of a larger cultural change whose effects we are still experiencing, a multi-platform shift in the nature of our relation to technology, corresponding to what N. Katherine Hayles has called a fourth phase in the history of cybernetics, a phase of “mixed reality” in terms of cultural perception and material technology (148).
At about that same historical moment, the digital humanities gained public attention, emerging out of the longer tradition of humanities computing, marked by the rise of the term “digital humanities”—which was coined in 2001 but reached public consciousness and institutional weight between 2004-2007—with an emphasis on data analysis, distant reading, the maker movement, and the spatial turn, as well as a sometimes unacknowledged debt to video games and game theory.
These juxtaposed events have nothing to do with an argument for technological determinism. They’re just meant to suggest that the emergence of the new digital humanities isn’t an isolated academic phenomenon. The institutional and disciplinary changes are part of a larger cultural shift, a rapid cycle of emergence an convergence in technology and culture. The new DH is both a response to and a contributing cause of the ongoing eversion. Seen in context, the newer forms of supposedly practical or instrumental DH were produced in the first place by younger scholars working with a keen awareness of the developments I’m grouping under the concept of the eversion, and a sense of what these meant at the time for various technology platforms of interest to humanists (Gold). In the era of social networks, casual gaming, distributed cognition, augmented reality, the internet of things, the geospatial turn, one segment of new digital humanities work took a hands-on, practical turn, yes (“more hack, less yack”), but arguably based on theoretical insight, as a kind of deliberate rhetorical gesture—a dialectical counter-move to the still-prevailing idealisms associated with the cyberculture studies of the 1990s. Much of the practical DH work during the decade that followed was undertaken not in avoidance of theory or in pursuit of scientistic instrumentalism, but against disembodiment, against the ideology of cyberspace. The new DH was deliberately figured as digital not just digitized, moving from a perceived separation between the stuff of the humanities—books, manuscripts, artifacts, works of art—and the digital medium, to more of a mixed-reality model, characterized by two-way transactions between the two realms, crossing multiple materialities (Kirschenbaum; Svensson; Gold).
This kind of mixed-reality reciprocal interaction between data and artifacts, algorithm and world, has been effectively modeled for decades in video games. My paper will triangulate (1) the eversion of the network and the (2) rise of the new digital humanities by way of (3) the increasing role of video games in the contemporary media landscape. If possible, I’ll demonstrate the games live as part of the slide presentation, as examples of interdimensional transit and play across the boundaries of different materialities, citing Fez, an independent platformer with a toggling 2D/3D game world that includes QR codes incorporated in it; Wii U games and 3DS AR Games—which experiment with augmented and mixed reality in console gaming; and Skylanders, with collectible fantasy figurines, prototyped using 3D printers, containing RFID and NFC chips that create a “Hertzian field” (Dunne) within which to translate characters into and back out of the game world. As part of establishing context, I’ll also cite recent fiction about the interdimensional relation of games and the world by Neal Stephenson, Ernest Cline, and China Mieville. In conclusion I’ll suggest that games offer ways to think about the active role of DH in the ongoing eversion of the network, and about the engagement of humanities research with developments in the wider world.
References
Cline, E. (2011). Ready Player One. New York: Crown Publishers.
Dunne, A. (2005). Hertzian Tales: Electronic Products, Aesthetic Experience, and Critical Design. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; rept. 2008.
Farman, J. (2011). Mobile Interface Theory. New York: Routledge.
Gibson, W. (2011). Interviewed by David Wallace-Wells in The Paris Review, 197 (Summer 2011), 107-149.
Gibson, W. Neuromancer. New York: Ace Books, 1984.
Gibson, W. Spook Country. New York: Putnam, 2007.
Gold, M. K. (ed). (2012). Debates in the The Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Gordon, E. and A. de Souza-Silva (2011). Net Locality: Why Location Matters in a Networked World. Boston: Wiley-Blackwell.
Greenfield, A. (2006). Everyware: The Dawning Age of Ubiquitous Computing. Berkeley, CA: New Riders.
Hayles, N. K. (2010). Cybernetics. In Critical Terms for Media Studies. Mitchell, W. J. T., and M. B. N. Hansen (eds.), Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 145-56.
Kirschenbaum, M. (2008). Mechanisms: New Media and the Forensic Imagination. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Mieville, C. (2009). The City and the City. New York: Del Ray.
Sterling, B. (2005). Shaping Things. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Stephenson, N. (2011). Reamde. New York: William Morrow.
Svensson, P. (2009). Humanities Computing as Digital Humanities. DHQ 3.3http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/3/000065/000065.html.","txt","2","",""
"1754","14","Networking the Belfast Group through the Automated Semantic Enhancement of Existing Digital Content","2","There is increasing work on and interest in social networks in the digital humanities community (Meeks 2011). Analysis is frequently done on digital content—including images (Akdag Salah et al. 2012); email (Hangal et al. 2012); and citation networks (Visconti 2012) — because the data lend themselves to aggregation, conversion, and analysis. Yet despite this flurry of activity, the possibility exists for an exponential jump in network analysis. After all, the holdings and catalogs of galleries, libraries, archives, and museums (GLAMs) include traces of vast paper-based networks, but the data are locked away in forms that don’t easily lend themselves to analysis. What if we could open up that content? In this poster, we will report on an attempt to provide tools for archivists to expose the information embedded in the descriptions of their collections as well as a test case for analyzing that data: an examination of the networks of the Irish poets collectively known as “the Belfast Group.”
Our goal is to develop software tools and design a workflow to enhance TEI and EAD — documents that are already commonly created and maintained by archivists and text centers — without radically increasing the time and effort involved. The software tools (http://github.com/emory-libraries-disc/name-dropper) consist of a plugin for the Oxygen XML editor and command line scripts that will, first, make use of DBPedia Spotlight to identify and annotate recognized names and other resources within the text and, second, connect to linked-data systems (starting with the Virtual International Authority File [VIAF]) to provide authoritative, scholarly identifiers. [1] The scripts will allow technical users to inspect and tune the results or to automatically tag high-certainty resources, and the plugin will provide a user-friendly interface to review and accept suggested names while editing a document. The enhanced documents should provide significant benefits to GLAMs, allowing them to connect disparate types of content (e.g., digitized texts or photographs from an archival collection) and augment with data from other linked data systems. Furthermore, the enhanced documents will make it possible to expose these data in more machine-readable and research accessible formats. Our tools and workflow could be applied to resources held by different archives (for a different approach, see Blanke et al. 2012). What’s more, enhancing these documents helps GLAMs provide a means for researchers to do non-consumptive, social network research on the metadata of collections that might otherwise be closed or problematic in other ways (e.g., restricted correspondence from living authors).
Although our tools are not yet complete, we have already begun preliminary visualization and analysis of network relationships using data that mirrors what we will generate automatically by Summer 2013. The difficulties of defining “the Belfast Group” make for a compelling test case for our attempt to understand networks via data that are newly machine readable. The Group is a contentious network since the label has been variously applied to a weekly writing workshop that ran from 1963-1972, the most famous poets who attended that workshop — including Seamus Heaney, Michael Longley, and Paul Muldoon — or more loosely applied to all of the writers who “put Belfast on the literary map” (Clark 6). The significance of the writing workshop is debated by critics and often rejected by the poets themselves, sometimes vehemently. In contrast to a more formalized group, some scholars identify “an informal community” of poets evidenced by their letters, promotion of each other, and poems dedicated to each other(Drummond 32), connections which are richly documented by archival materials held at Emory University.
Using preliminary data manually generated from a subset of the correspondence EAD, our data suggests a wider set of connections in the Group than traditional scholarly approaches. The latter selectively emphasize the relationships of the most prominent authors and the role of the writing workshop (see fig. 1). Since our data is based on a much larger set of artifacts, as well as their complete metadata, we find that the locus of poetic activity in Belfast is not so oriented around the workshop (see fig. 2). Once we collect the full dataset via our completed tools and workflow, we will compare it with models generated by traditional scholarly methods, to identify significant gaps and discrepancies in either model.
Providing not only this new analysis of the Belfast Group’s network and a report on the development of our tools, our poster presentation at DH 2013 will also include a hands-on demonstration of the software tools and interactive visualizations of network data.
 
Figure 1.
Graph of relationships inferred from Heather Clark’s Ulster Renaissance. Nodes are sized by degree and colored by hub score. The writing workshop is the strongest hub; the trio of large nodes represent Michael Longley, Derek Mahon, and Seamus Heaney.
 
Figure 2.
Relationship graph based on preliminary correspondence data, sized and colored as in figure 1. Based on this data, the writing workshop does not function as a hub at all, and Paul Muldoon becomes the largest node.
References
Akdag Salah, A. A., et al. (2012). Exploring Originality in User-Generated Content with Network and Image Analysis Tools. Digital Humanities 2012. University of Hamburg. 19 July 2012.
Blanke, T., et al. (2012). Information Extraction on Noisy Texts for Historical Research. Digital Humanities 2012.University of Hamburg. 19 July 2012.
Clark, H. (2006). The Ulster Renaissance: Poetry in Belfast, 1962-1972. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Drummond, G. (2005). The Difficulty of We: The Epistolary Poems of Michael Longley and Derek Mahon. The Yearbook of English Studies, Irish Writing since 1950 35: 31-42
Hangal, S. (2012). Processing Email Archives in Special Collections. Digital Humanities 2012. University of Hamburg. 20 July 2012.
Litta Modignani Picozzi, E., J.Norrish, and J. M. Monteiro Vieira (2012). Complex entity management through EATS: the case of the Gascon Rolls Project. Digital Humanities 2012. University of Hamburg. 18 July 2012.
Moretti, Franco et al. (2011). Networks, Literature, Culture. Digital Humanities 2011. Stanford University. 21 June 2011.
Meeks, E. (2011). More Networks in the Humanities or Did books have DNA? Digital Humanities Specialist. 6 December 2011. Web. 1 November 2012. https://dhs.stanford.edu/visualization/more-networks/.
Mendes, P. N., et al. (2011). DBpedia Spotlight: Shedding Light on the Web of Documents. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Semantic Systems (I-Semantics). Graz, Austria. 7–9 September 2011. http://www.wiwiss.fu-berlin.de/en/institute/pwo/bizer/research/ publications/Mendes-Jakob-GarciaSilva-Bizer-DBpediaSpotlight-ISEM2011.pdf.
Pitti, D., et al. (2011). The Social Networks and ARchival Context Project. Digital Humanities 2011 Stanford University. 22 June 2011.
Pitti, D., et al. SNAC: The Social Networks and Archival Context Project. http://socialarchive.iath.virginia.edu/.(accessed 29 October 2012.)
Visconti, A. View DHQ: Citation Network Visualization for Digital Humanities Quarterly.http://digitalliterature.net/viewDHQ/. (accessed 1 November 2012.)
Notes
1. It is in the use of existing systems (DBpedia) and vocabularies (VIAF) that distinguishes this project from the Entity Authority Tool Set (EATS), which involves setting up and maintaining one’s own authority server. See Litta Modignani Picozzi, Norrish, and Monteiro Vieira (2012).","txt","2","",""
"1755","14","Not Exactly Prima Facie: Understanding the Representation of the Human Through the Analysis of Faces in World Painting","2","In his 1872 book The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals (Darwin 1872), Charles Darwin drew our attention to the relationship between human expressions, movements and emotional states, and tried to frame his conclusions by highlighting the similarities between humans and animals. The light he shed on cultural differences with respect to the appearance of the face and variations in expressions perceived across different groups to communicate the same emotions is also important.
More recent scientific evidence highlights the importance that the human beings give to the face. The brain has a specialized amygdala to discriminate scenes in favor of facial expressions, a primitive mechanism to detect potentially dangerous situations (Hariri et al. 2002), that explains our impulse to immediately look at people faces and try to read their facial expression. Finally, the recent discovery of “mirror neurons” (Rizzolatti and Craighero 2004) and their connection with the imitative ability of several primates offers a glimpse about the social construction of emotions, helps to explain the spread of behaviors within human groups, and opens up the possibility of a phenomenology of human expressions.
Nevertheless, the fascination with the human face is not something new in humanities. It has been present since the beginnings of art history; artists have always sought to relate the face to the human body (Chase 2005) and, especially, to the different ways in which how faces reflect the human condition. In this sense, human facial representations contain a human expressions and emotions archive that can help us understand, through a science of the face (Cleese and Ekman 2001), various human condition traits that evolved through time and space. We aim to answer questions about periods in art history, such as the Baroque significance as a culture derived from human expansion. Even if we cannot say that Baroque is just as a historical period, before the discovery of America all faces in art were mostly european; the presence of indigenous faces in paintings is a big disrupt. Another example would be the cultural meaning of the progressive human face disappearing from modern painting. Our methodology analyzes this through facial recognition techniques, data mining, graph theory and visualization and cultural history.
Quantitative analysis of huge amounts of data has provided answers to new and different questions that otherwise couldn’t have been considered (Michel et al. 2011). The study borrows some ideas from the Culturomics (Michel et al. 2011) concept by creating a set of more than 123,500 paintings from all periods of art history, and applying a face recognition algorithm used in Facebook’s photo-tagging system#. The result is a set of over 26,000 faces ready to be analyzed according to several features extracted by the algorithm.
The extracted information accuracy may fluctuate depending on several factors, such as the reproduction quality and size; the thematic content, a portrait is not the same than a hunting scene; the pictorial style, e.g., Cubism versus Figurative art; the lighting, dark and hellish overtones as opposed to daytime or celestial images; or even the contrast between the background and skin tone. At the same time, these elements also provide information about how human faces are depicted by authors, styles and cultures across time. Once a face has been recognized, it provides data about the position of eyes, mouth, chin and ears — what we call the face basic features. If the confidence measure we have reached during the recognition process is satisfactory, we can consider gender, mood, position of lips, range of age or even if the person is wearing glasses — we call these extended features of facial recognition.
 
Figure 1:
Example of face graph for two randomly selected paintings. The red crosses indicate what we called face basic features. The blue lines show the different distances in between the features.
The methodology tackles the study of this huge amount of features in three steps. First, we build a graph with the set of basic features. Second, we look for clusters in the extended features. Third, we compare the graphs and the clusters, corresponding to the basic and extended features respectively, using time intervals and space as factors of the comparison. The selection of the procedures in each of the steps considers different strategies to address the fluctuations in accuracy. What follows is a more detailed explanation of the main mathematical and computational tools used for the processing of the data in each step.
For the basic features graph (Figure 1), we apply the Elastic Bunch Graph Matching (Wiskott et al. 1997) to the extracted data, and then we calculate the resulting weighted graph after applying graph similarity functions like Euclidean Geometry Similarity and Least Square Geometry Similarity. Once the graphs that represent the 26,000 faces are done, we normalize the weights and prune those relationships with weights below the first quartile. Then, a combination of YiFan Hu Multilevel (Hu 2005) and ForceAtlas (Bastian et al. 2009) layouts algorithms are run against the graph to see how the faces are clustered according to their modularity class.
For the extended features clustering, we create a vector for each face and run the K-Means method (Sculley 2010) that is able to cluster unlabeled data, i.e there is no need of a pre-training process but the classification emerges naturally from the data similarities. We check the clusters obtained according to their homogeneity and completeness, according to the definitions given by Rosenberg and Hirschberg (Rosenberg and Hirschberg 2007), in order to establish a good value for V-measure, a conditional entropy-based external cluster evaluation measure that indicates the success of a clustering solution.
Finally, we compare the two sets: the basic features set using graphs and the extended features set using clustering by K-Means method (Sculley 2010). At this point, we are at the perfect position to analyze and characterize each of the groups according to different historical perspectives and cultural questions, for instance, the distinction among styles by giving a minimum set of features that determines its membership. A similar set of features is obtained for a particular interval of time or a specific geographical region. Extending that analysis we are able to study the evolution of these sets of features over time.
In this study, we tackle three important issues that also show the potential of this kind of work to develop new approaches to cultural history and to establish some yardsticks in order to complement the incipient methodology for a Big History (Christian 2004) approach to human culture. First, we show how the analysis of the representation of human faces — both the internal features and in its relative position to the rest of the composition — offers important data to determine periods and borders in the history of art beyond the generalizations supported by the notions of “style”, “genre” and “national history”. Second, we study the correlations between the European expansion overseas from the 16th Century onwards, and the introduction of new human “types” in world paintings, focusing on concepts of identity and gender (with special emphasis on the size and form of the forehead), and relating the results to notions of Baroque, hybridization and globalization (Suarez 2007; Suarez 2008). Finally, we move to the 20th Century and study the disappearance of the human face from art in relation to Ortega y Gasset’s concept of the “dehumanization of art” (Ortega y Gasset 1968) and the artistic and political movements of the first half of the century.
References
Bastian M., S. Heymann, and M. Jacomy (2009). Gephi: an open source software for exploring and manipulating networks. International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media.
Chase, P. G. (2005). The Emergence of Culture: The Evolution of a Uniquely Human Way of Life. Birkhäuser.
Christian, D. (2004). Maps of time: an introduction to big history. Heldref Publications.
Cleese, J., and P. Ekman. (2001) The Human Face. [BBC] John Cleese, Paul Ekman. http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00pfqy6
Darwin, C. (1872). The expression of the emotions in man and animals. London: John Murray.
Hariri, A. R., et al. (2002). The Amygdala Response to Emotional Stimuli: A Comparison of Faces and Scenes.NeuroImage 17: 317–323.
Hu, Y. (2005). Efficient, high-quality force-directed graph drawing. Mathematica Journal. mathematica-journal.com.
Michel, J. B., et al. (2011). Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books. Science 331(6014): 176-182.
Ortega y Gasset, J. (1968). The Dehumanization of Art and Other Essays on Art, Culture, and Literature. Princeton Paperbacks. 128.
Press notice: https://developers.face.com/signup/?g and http://face.com/blog/facebook-acquires-face-com/ Accessed October, 31st , 2012.
Rizzolatti, G., and L. Craighero, (2004). The mirror-neuron system. Annual Revision Neuroscience.annualreviews.org
Rosenberg, A., and J. Hirschberg. (2007). V-measure: A conditional entropy-based external cluster evaluation measure'. In Proceedings of the 2007 Joint Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and Computational Natural Language Learning held June 2007 in Prague. 410–420.
Sculley, D. (2010). 'Web Scale K-Means clustering'. Proceedings of the 19th international conference on World wide web.
Suarez, J. L. (2007). Hispanic Baroque: A Model for the Study of Cultural Complexity in the Atlantic World. South Atlantic Review 72(1): 31-47.
Suarez, J. L. (2008). Complejidad y Barroco. Revista de Occidente. 323. 58-74.
Wiskott, L., et al. (1997). 'Face recognition by elastic bunch graph matching. Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence'. IEEE Transactions. 19(7): 775-779.","txt","2","",""
"1756","14","Current Research & Practice in Digital Archaeology","3","Archaeology has a long history of innovative work with information and computing technology. While there are a small number examples in the late 1950s, the most influential comes courtesy of James Deetz’s seminal work on Arikara ceramics. Carried out in the early 1960s, Deetz’s project used the IBM704 mainframe at the MIT Computation Laboratory to discover ""stylistic coherence"" on over two thousand rim sherds from central South Dakota Medicine Crow site. Deetz’s work was extremely important as it suggested that computers were excellent tools for statistical, typological, chronological, or stylistic analysis of large and complex sets of data (a hallmark of archaeology).

Since these early days, digital archaeology has remained intently focused on the analysis, interoperability, and preservation of digital data. By the mid-1980s, however, the personal computer had reached a point where they became effective tools for archaeological visualization and imagery. Desktop applications such as GIS, which allowed for the visualization, analysis, and modeling of socio-spatial data, and CAD, which facilitated the production of detailed and geometrically accurate archaeological maps at various scales without time-consuming redrafting, became central in the digital archaeological ecosystem.

In recent years, along with many other disciplines in the humanities and social sciences, archaeology is entering a new age in which information, computing, and communication technology is having transformative impact on all aspects of the field. The archaeological domains and activities in which digital approaches, methods, and technologies are relevant have grown well beyond the traditional trinity of data, GIS, and CAD. All aspects of research (including field and lab methods), teaching, outreach, publication, and scholarly communication are being impacted in new and unpredictable ways by “digital.” Quite frankly, gone are the days in which digital archaeological methods were siloed off from the main body of scholarly practice. In many ways, one might argue that we have entered an age in which all archaeology is digital archaeology and all archaeologists are digital archaeologists.

In is within this context that this session will highlight a series of innovative projects and practices that represent the forefront of work in digital archaeology. Special attention has been made to highlight projects which represent a variety of domains within digital archaeology including digital data, public engagement, data & topic modeling, crowdsourcing, linked-open data, and digital fieldwork records management. All papers in the session also speak to the changed and changing nature of scholarly and professional practice within archaeology, addressing new approaches to collaboration, community engagement, citizen scholarship, cyberinfrastructure, preservation & access, capacity building, and sharing. A second, but no less important, goal of this session is to challenge the rather curious separation that exists between digital archaeology and the digital humanities by clearly placing the two domains parallel to one another and recognizing the fact that they both have much to learn from one another. The ultimate goal in this regard is to foster and support fruitful discussions and collaboration between digital archaeologists and digital humanists.

Topic Modeling Time and Space: Archaeological Datasets as Discourses
Graham, Shawn|Shawn_Graham@carleton.ca|Carleton University, Canada
Topic modeling is very popular at the moment in the digital humanities. A recent tutorial on getting started with this tool explains them as tools for extracting topics or injecting semantic meaning into vocabularies: ""Topic models represent a family of computer programs that extract topics from texts. A topic to the computer is a list of words that occur in statistically meaningful ways. A text can be an email, a blog post, a book chapter, a journal article, a diary entry – that is, any kind of unstructured text"" (Graham, Weingart, and Milligan 2012). In that tutorial, 'unstructured' means that there is no encoding in the text by which a computer can model any of its semantic meaning.

Archaeological datasets are rich, largely unstructured bodies of text. While there are examples of archaeological datasets that are coded with semantic meaning through xml and Text Encoding Initiative practices, many of these are done after the fact of excavation or collection. In the field, things can be rather different, and this material can be considered to be 'largely unstructured' despite the use of databases, controlled vocabulary, and other means to maintain standardized descriptions of what is excavated, collected, and analyzed. This is because of the human factor. Not all archaeologists are equally skilled. Not all data gets recorded according to the standards. Where some see few differences in a particular clay fabric type, others might see many, and vice versa. Archaeological custom might call a particular vessel type a ‘casserole’, thus suggesting a particular use, only because in the 19th century when that vessel type was first encountered it reminded the archaeologist of what was in his kitchen – there is no necessary correlation between what we as archaeologists call things and what those things were originally used for. Further, once data is recorded (and the site has been destroyed through the excavation process), we tend to analyze these materials in isolation. That is, we write our analyses based on all of the examples of a particular type, rather than considering the interrelationships amongst the data found in the same context or locus. David Mimno in 2009 turned the tools of data analysis on the databases of household materials recovered and recorded room by room at Pompeii. He considered each room as a 'document' and the artefacts therein as the 'tokens' or 'words' within that document, for the purposes of topic modeling. The resulting 'topics' of this analysis are what he calls 'vocabularies' of object types which when taken together can suggest the mixture of functions particular rooms may have had in Pompeii. He writes, 'the purpose of this tool is not to show that topic modeling is the best tool for archaeological investigation, but that it is an appropriate tool that can provide a complement to human analysis....mathematically concrete in its biases'. The ‘casseroles’ of Pompeii turn out to have nothing to do with food preparation, in Mimno’s analysis.

To date, this is the only example of topic modeling applied to archaeological data. As such, it is novel in the digital humanities for applying the tools of data mining not to texts, but to things. In this paper, I explore the use of topic models on another rich archaeological dataset, the Portable Antiquities Scheme database in the UK. The Portable Antiquities Scheme is a project ""to encourage the voluntary recording of archaeological objects found by members of the public in England and Wales"". To date, there are over half a million unique records in the Scheme's database. I use topic modeling of this database to tease out archaeological patterns -the discourses of topic modeling, to use Ted Underwood's phrasing - over both time and space. In order to visualize these discourses, I map them both in geographic and relational space, using the network analysis program Gephi. The constellation of ideas (the resultant ‘topics’) that make up the various discourses in the data can be represented as nodes while the strengths of the associations suggested by the topic model can be represented as edges. This two-mode graph (words and ‘topics’ or ‘discourses’) can be queried for deeper structure. I look at the modularity of this graph to determine ‘communities’ of ideas or discourses. I then lay this network against real geographic space by time-slice to understand changes over time and space in the Portable Antiquities Scheme data. I agree with Mimno's suggestion that this is an appropriate tool for the digital archaeologist, but try to understand the limitations, caveats, and lessons for digital humanities more generally, from this application.

The Archaeological Resource Cataloging System (ARCS): An Open-Source Solution to Digitizing an Archaeological Archive
Frey, Jon M.|freyjona@msu.edu|Michigan State University, United States of America
Adams, Brian|adamsb@msu.edu|Michigan State University, United States of America
Schopieray, Scott|schopie1@msu.edu|Michigan State University, United States of America
Over the past few decades, archaeologists have begun to realize the benefits of providing archival records in digital form. Whether information is collected electronically or digitized from pre-existing materials, digital archaeological data should be readily accessible from anywhere in the world. These developments have increased the productivity of scholars who no longer need to visit the actual archive and eased the strain on those projects that must accommodate visiting researchers in addition to their normal daily operations. On the other hand, the creation of digital archives has drastically impacted the ways in which we interact with documents and artifacts that form the basis of archaeological research. Financially constrained projects have lagged behind their better-funded peers in the process of digitization and dissemination of electronic records. As a result, instead of providing greater access to a wider range of archaeological data, the process of archival digitization runs the risk of further privileging the evidence of those surveys and excavations with greater financial resources. In addition, many of the existing digital archaeological archives concentrate upon artifacts to the point that the archaeologist’s field journal, arguably the most important evidence in establishing context, is rarely presented in its original form. Even where diverse forms of information are provided, a digital archive often encourages the study of objects and documents in isolation from one another and without the benefit of the institutional memory that often aids in their interpretation. While a traditional archive allows an individual to conduct their research through physical interaction with a number of different archival materials at once, often in the presence of those who discovered and prepared them, many digital archives simply rely on keyword searches to generate lists of electronic records that to the untrained eye appear to be of equal value as forms of evidence.

In this paper, we present the Archaeological Resource Cataloging System (ARCS), an open-source digital asset management application created for the Ohio State University Excavations at Isthmia in order to address these issues. Developed at Michigan State University through an NEH Digital Humanities Startup Grant, ARCS utilizes a web-based interface that allows authorized users to upload and “tag” digital resources consistently according to generally accepted metadata standards that can be further refined to reflect any project’s unique terminology. These resources can then be searched, sorted into collections and connected to one another through the creation of virtual links without affecting the integrity of the original data. In this way the essential interrelatedness of the various forms of archaeological data is preserved in a flexible electronic format. In order to foster a better sense of community among researchers, each resource is also provided with a discussion tool that allows users to ask questions or identify mistakes, thereby making use of others’ knowledge and experience to cultivate the development of the dataset. In addition, because ARCS depends on the collective effort of a community of users, the system generates a permanent record of all additions and modifications of resources so that errors can be easily corrected and dependable users more clearly identified.

Perhaps most importantly, because it is an open-source application that relies on multiple users to develop and manage the digital assets of an excavation or survey, ARCS offers an affordable option for archaeological projects that lack a dedicated digital archivist or IT specialist. Digital data can be added as it is made available and, once uploaded, new resources can be linked to body of evidence that continues to grow in size and detail. In the end, ARCS not only retains the many benefits of more traditional research involving physical documents at an actual archive but in many ways also speeds and simplifies the process of archaeological investigation.

“All of Us Would Walk Together"": Digital Cultural Heritage and the African American Past at Historic St. Mary's City, Maryland
Brock, Terry P.|brockter@msu.edu|Michigan State University, United States of America
In October 2012, Historic St. Mary's City (HSMC) launched a digital exhibit and social media campaign focused on the 19th-century component of their museum. HSMC, an archaeology and living history museum, has traditionally focused its 17th-century component, which was Maryland's first capital city. The digital exhibit, however, allowed the museum to begin interpreting additional centuries without disrupting the 17th-century landscape. Additionally, the digital exhibit, HSMC is able to develop an approach that focuses on public communication and engagement, allows for transparent research methods and interpretations, and provides flexibility when integrating the content into future programming and on-site exhibit. Through a combined approach of a content based digital exhibit, research blog, and social media, the digital exhibit, called ""All of Us Would Walk Together"", provides an example of digital archaeology that incorporates contemporary concepts of public archaeology through digital exhibitions and research methods. This paper will discuss how this has been put into action.

During the past few decades, community engagement has become a critical component of African American archaeology. Starting with the public excavations at the African American Burial Ground project in New York City, researchers have begun to incorporate local communities and descendants in the development and implementation of research projects and museum exhibits. Establishing a transparent, reciprocal, and pragmatic back-and-forth has become a valued and integral part of the research process for many archaeologists. Online tools have also been used as a means for public engagement, in particular at the Levi Jordan Plantation and Rosewood. More recently, archaeologists have adopted social media as a means for engaging communities and stakeholders, such as at the Michigan State University Campus Archaeology Program, Florida Public Archaeology Network, and at Mt. Vernon. Although each approach has highlighted different topics and methods for engagement, each has found the use of the web and digital social media to be a beneficial means of engaging the public.

At HSMC, the interpretation of the 19th century had not been the primary focus of the museum. This was particularly evident when the structures relating to the 19th century, including a manor home, its outbuildings, and a former duplex slave and tenant quarter, were physically moved to a different location in 1992 due to its conflict with the 17th-century interpretation. While the buildings continued to be used as a bed and breakfast, they were not used as an interpretive component of the museum, causing memory of the 19th century to be lost to the public. Recently, this story has begun to resurface, due to a number of factors at the museum. Included was the reacquisition of the manor home and outbuildings from the owners of the bed and breakfast, and funding opportunities to interpret the duplex quarter through a digital exhibit and a physical exhibit. In addition to interpreting the site, the goal of the exhibits was also to build a relationship with the African American community and to reinstate the 19th-century story into the public consciousness.

The digital exhibit consists of two components: a traditional exhibit space and social media. The exhibit space presents a number of webpages devoted to the interpretation of the historical and archaeological data that has already been analyzed. These pages trace the transition from slavery to freedom for the African Americans who lived on the site, and uses historical and archaeological evidence to develop the narrative. Interspersed are links to blog posts that discuss how the evidence was gathered or used by researchers to draw the conclusions. Additionally, each exhibit page has a comment field, where the public can ask questions, offer their own interpretation, or provide additional commentary. This allows for two-way communication between the public and researchers, while also allowing the public to engage in the interpretive efforts. Lastly, these pages will be linked to the physical exhibit through the use of QR codes or augmented reality to provide more flexibility to the interpretive efforts at the site of the duplex. In doing so, the exhibit becomes flexible, transparent, and engaged physical space, fitting within the parameters of an engaged cultural heritage project.

The use of social media, through a blog, Twitter, and Facebook, adds extra depth to these efforts. The blog provides the most flexibility and transparency by allowing the exhibit space to be amended, added to, or modified in a transparent way. This provides a great deal of flexibility to the site that only a digital exhibit can provide. For example, if the research results in a major change to the exhibit, a blog post can be written to discuss the change and why it happened. In the exhibit, a link to this post can be added to demonstrate that the research process is a fluid, ongoing process. The blog and Twitter are also used to highlight research at comparable sites or examining comparable themes. This ties the archaeological work conducted at this site to larger themes in the discipline, and begins to build relationships with other institutions, while providing additional resources and access to new scholarship to the public. The blog and Twitter are both instrumental in the preservation and exhibit building process, as they make it more transparent: the public can watch and participate in the decisions about what will be included in the exhibit, in addition to understanding what types of constraints are placed on the construction of an exhibit. Twitter also allows lab and fieldwork to be shared in realtime with the public. Lastly, Twitter provides access to a larger, global network, particularly an African American network, a demographic that uses Twitter more than others. Facebook, on the other hand, is being used to connect with HSMC's current online fans through its official Facebook account.

The project itself has a high set of goals, and is approaching it with a multifaceted approach. While the digital component is a crucial step, it is only part of a larger program of public engagement. For example, HSMC has been actively soliciting feedback from local community members and seeking to engage them through the formation of an advisory board. This reiterates an important tenant of engaging in digital public archaeology: that one cannot rely solely on one approach. Nonetheless, the use of the digital space does provide us with additional exhibit and interpretive space, and gives us a great deal of flexibility when dealing with the public, research, and presentation. Most importantly, the use of the digital arena allows this all to be transparent, reciprocal, and dynamic.

An Introduction to the Practices and Initial Findings of the Digital Index of North American Archaeology (DINAA)
Wells, Joshua J.|jowells@iusb.edu|Indiana University, South Bend
Anderson, David G.|dander19@utk.edu|University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Yerka, Stephen J.|syerka@utk.edu|University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Kansa, Eric C.|ekansa@ischool.berkeley.edu|University of California, Berkeley
Whitcher Kansa, Sarah|skansa@alexandriaarchive.org|Alexandria Archive Institute
Noack Myers, Kelsey|kejmyers@indiana.edu|Indiana University, Bloomington
DeMuth, R. Carl|rcdemuth@gmail.com|Indiana University, Bloomington
The Digital Index of North American Archaeology (DINAA) is a project to create interoperability models for archaeological site databases in the eastern United States, funded by the National Science Foundation (#1216810 & #1217240). The core research team consists of researchers from the Department of Anthropology and Archaeological Research Laboratory at the University of Tennessee, the Alexandria Archive Institute, and the Anthropology and Informatics programs at Indiana University. Open Context (http://opencontext.org) will be used as the primary platform for data dissemination for this project. Our aims are to work with the databases held by State Historic Preservation offices and allied federal and tribal agencies in Eastern North America, with the goal of linking data across state lines for research and management purposes. Redacted of sensitive items, such as site location, data linkages will promote extension and reuse by government personnel in state and federal agencies, and domestic and international researchers. The project will mint stable Web-URIs for each site record, and in doing so, we will help lay the foundations for future Linked Open Data applications in North American archaeology, architectural history, and historical studies.

This project repurposes government curated datasets to support innovative humanistic and social science research. Governmental archaeological site files in North America are important loci for documentary information on known archaeological sites. Their most basic function is to contain data about site types and information quality pursuant to heritage preservation legislation at the federal level, but potentially state and local levels as well. However, as a matter of practice these files, often as relational databases, contain many other data fields that describe important archaeological findings, and other data that serve environmental and bureaucratic functions for management and protection of heritage resources. The ways in which data about archaeological sites are recorded and communicated have an important origin in theoretical models about past behavior, and also have important implications on the professional comprehension of the data at large and the use of the data to rank planning and preservation priorities.

Efforts to collect and compile archaeological data have a long history, and information about archaeological sites and collections is maintained by every state and territory. Only rarely, however, have these data been compiled and examined at large geographic scales, especially those crosscutting state lines, and never to the extent and for the research and management purposes proposed in this project. Data from some 15 to 20 states (>half a million sites) east of the Mississippi will be integrated with a common ontology, based on existing standards, and adapted in collaboration with researchers and government personnel in state and federal agencies. The ontology will classify site files according to cultural affiliation and chronology as well as agency assessments of historical significance.

Linkage of site file and other datasets will facilitate studies of past human adaptation spanning large areas, and lead to greater collaboration between archaeologists and scientists in other disciplines. As examples, the linkage of archaeological data at broad new scales will permit, for the first time, the exploration of exciting new research topics, such as how the human populations in North America responded to climate change, population growth, and/or anthropogenic environmental issues over the past 13,000 years.

The availability of output online in the form of maps and data tables (at significantly reduced spatial resolution, to protect sensitive locations) will enhance public awareness, education, and appreciation for scientific research in general and archaeology in particular. The demonstration that primary archaeological data can be integrated and used to address fundamental questions at such scales will stimulate similar efforts worldwide. Finally, by creating translating routines rather than dictating procedures, this project will foster archaeological cooperation through cyberinfrastructure with a high ratio of benefits to costs.

The project helps achieve broader archaeological concerns regarding professional data management training, research ethics and outreach education. It will foster novel networking and data integration among multiple partners, as well as research and educational activities across multiple disciplines and geopolitical boundaries. Publicly accessible data products, at coarse scales to preserve site location security, will also be available for download and reuse as shapefiles, CSV data tables, and RDF and N3 triples for other Web and desktop applications, including desktop GIS investigation. The project will provide specific instructions for the open source GIS applications QGIS gvSIG, and uDIG, and the widely used proprietary application ArcGIS, in order to foster education in geographic information science within archaeology and related disciplines. The project will fund graduate and undergraduate students, and will assist their training in critical information management skills for the 21st century. The project addresses head-on a major challenge facing research communities worldwide: how to link disconnected and incompatible data systems in such a way that the combined data are useful for important scientific research.

The integration of site file data at continental scales in a new and unique informational infrastructure will allow, for the first time, the exploration of the North American archaeological record across multiple temporal periods and geographic regions. The geographic scale and extent of data integration proposed is currently unprecedented in American archaeology yet, we believe we have demonstrated that it is readily achievable. With proper attention these data have the potential for continued growth as developed by the professional archaeological community, and as the resulting datasets become more inclusive they may transform the practice of our profession.

The Portable Antiquities Scheme: a new(ish) model for recording public discovery
Pett, Daniel|DPETT@thebritishmuseum.ac.uk|The British Museum
The Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS) was inaugurated in 1997, following the revision of the ancient law of Treasure Trove and the subsequent implementation of the Treasure Act in 1996. This project has been through several funding phases all using public money and encourages the voluntary recording of archaeological objects discovered by members of the public in England and Wales (Scotland is subject to different legislation) and items that meet the stipulations of the Treasure Act.

One of the key pillars of the PAS has been its digital presence, which has now been online in some form for over 13 years and this paper will discuss the impact that the digital arm of the project has had on a national and international audience. The PAS has been hailed by many as a model of public archaeological engagement and decried by others for allowing the mining of the archaeological record for personal gain; however this paper will show some of the PAS’ many successes. For example the PAS has had contributions from over 20,000 individuals worldwide, a new facility has been created for contributors to record their own discoveries through taxonomy driven interfaces and over 350 projects utilise these data for informing their research - for example Oxford University’s EngLaID project. The project has also absorbed and enhanced internationally renowned resources such as Oxford University’s Celtic Coin Index and Cardiff University’s Iron Age and Roman coins of Wales database to provide the largest national, single search node for the study of Roman and Celtic coinage.

The project website records a huge array of metadata about objects, that we often have but one chance to record; images, textual description, measurements, spatial data and user generated comments and audit logs. Over 820,000 objects have been recorded on the PAS database and these are made available for all to view, comment and reuse within their own research or their own websites under a Creative Commons ‘by attribution share-alike’ licence. This liberal approach to licensing content has not been seen widely in the UK and European archaeological sector and the launch of the PAS’ Staffordshire Hoard microsite in September 2009 showed how well received this approach would be. Over 250,000 unique visitors in one day used the innovative microsite to learn more about the amazing Anglo-Saxon hoard and many more viewed the images that had been disseminated via Flickr. The PAS has also utilised and archived social media platforms with varying degrees of success and is a major case study within Lorna Richardson’s forthcoming PhD and complements that of its host organisation (the British Museum.)

This paper will show how the PAS website impacts on the public with specific reference to stories of international interest – such as the Staffordshire Hoard, the Frome hoard of 52,503 Roman coins, the Crosby Garrett helmet and the Staffordshire Moorlands Patera. It will also discuss how these successes have been reached on a minimal digital budget (less than £5000 per annum) via the use of open source technology and through the buy in of its audience. The website has been internationally recognised, winning the prestigious Museums and the Web ‘Best of Web’ award for ‘research or online collection’ (recent winners include the V&A and the Metropolitan Museum of Art.)

The author will demonstrate how a variety of digital techniques that have been employed to complement and enhance data collected via our network of archaeologists, volunteers and citizen scientists; for example geo enrichment through the use of Yahoo!, Geonames, Pleiades and Google Maps, text extraction through OpenCalais and Autonomy, the implementation of a Solr based faceted multi-core search engine and also how a wide variety of application programming interfaces (api) have been employed throughout the site. It will also show how the author has been influenced by ground breaking projects such as Open Context, Pleiades and Pelagios and a variety of Museum sector projects.

The paper will also touch on the recent steps towards providing the PAS data through linked data (for example the release of over 50,000 annotations for Pelagios), towards integrating linked data into the site (for example dbpedia enriched resources) and the CIDOC-CRM mapping process. It will also discuss 3D , computed tomography and PTM/RTI imaging projects conducted by Brighton and Southampton universities that have used PAS sourced objects and hoards of coins to provide research material. If time allows, the paper will also demonstrate the success achieved through the use of Flickr as a disseminator for a wide variety of archaeological images; how the author has leveraged news sources such as the Guardian and UK parliamentary records for background debate on the portable antiquities debate (ethical and fiscal) and how it has impacted on the public psyche within the UK and further afield.

msu.seum: A Location Based Mobile Application for Exploring the Cultural Heritage and Archaeology of Michigan State University
Watrall, Ethan|watrall@msu.edu|Michigan State University, United States of America
The spaces we inhabit and interact with on a daily basis are made up of layers of cultural activity that are, quite literally, built up over time. While museum exhibits, historical and archaeological narratives, and public archaeology programs can communicate this cultural heritage, they do not generally allow for rich, place-based, and individually driven exploration by the public. In addition, museum exhibits rarely explore the binary nature of material culture and the preserved record of human activity: the presented information about material culture and the process by which scholarly research has reached those conclusions. In short, the scholarly narrative of material culture, cultural heritage, and archaeology is often hidden from public consumption.

In recent years, mobile devices as well as the development and maturation of augmented reality (broadly construed) have offe","txt","2","",""
"1757","14","Open Notebook Humanities: Promise and Problems","10","“When found, make a note of” (Dickens 1848, 149). In 1849, William Thoms took this rule as the motto of his new journalNotes and Queries, observing that following this rule for any length of time will result in “a good deal of matter in various forms, shapes and sizes . . . [in] countless boxes and drawers, and pigeon-holes of such things, which want looking over, and would well repay the trouble” (Thoms 1849, 1–2). Thoms could have been describing the offices of a contemporary documentary editing project, except that these days the “pigeon-holes” include shared hard drives. Good documentary editors follow this rule scrupulously, and as their projects stretch on into multiple decades, they amass a rich storehouse of notes, which would indeed repay the trouble of those who would look over them. Yet few have this opportunity, as only a small fraction of the content of these notes are ever made available.
Our aim in the Editors’ Notes project (http://editorsnotes.org/) is much the same as that of Thoms in 1849: to provide a “medium by which much valuable information may become a sort of common property among those who can appreciate and use it” (Thoms 1849, 2). Much recent work in the digital humanities has focused on exploring ways to use networked computing to change scholarly practice. Tools like Zotero encourage open sharing of bibliographic data (Cohen 2008). Sharing of scholarly annotations has also been widely explored, and the Open Annotation Collaboration is working on developing standards and tools for making annotations interoperable across multiple tools (Hunter et al. 2010). Various projects have experimented with widening participation in humanist scholarship through “crowdsourcing” (Causer, Tonra, and Wallace 2012). Other projects have sought to banish the stereotype of the “lone scholar” through experiments in collaborative authorship of edited volumes (Dougherty and Nawrotzki 2012). And considerable effort has been made to increase access to the products of humanist scholarship through the creation of open access journals, monographs, and scholarly editions, most of these building upon a well-established humanities practice of digital editing and publishing.
These various projects address many aspects of the humanities research process. But notes have been curiously overlooked. Reference management tools like Zotero do enable shared note taking on individual documents, but this functionality is secondary to the management and sharing of bibliographic data. Other projects primarily focus either on managing research “inputs” such as annotations and transcriptions of source documents, or on “outputs”—finished scholarly products—whether these are books, databases, or virtual environments. With Editors’ Notes we are addressing the space in-between: the writing, organization, and linking of working notes, which are relevant to source documents but not necessarily tied to any specific document, and which may or may not become a formal finished product.
While not yet widely explored in the humanities, this space is one that has recently received much attention in the sciences. Both the National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation have instituted data sharing policies that encourage the researchers they fund to make
 
Figure 1.
Editing one section of a note on ""Sanger and the Third ICPP.""
available to other researchers the final research data underpinning their published work. “Open notebook science” presents a more radical vision in which not just the final research data, but all data generated during every stage of the research process is captured and made publicly available, either in “real time” or at the conclusion of a project. Advocates of this radically transparent approach to scientific practice expect it to result in more verifiable and reproducible research results, more efficient management and re-use of data on both the local and global levels, and new forms of algorithmic and “crowdsourced” research (Velden and Lagoze 2009).
The case for open notebook science rests upon the recognition that data from failed or incomplete experiments are potentially as important as those from successful ones. The problem is that current models of scientific publishing provide few incentives to publish such data, nor are there places to put it. Historians face similar problems, especially those engaged in long-running projects like documentary editions that may involve dozens of researchers working over decades. It is typical for a researcher to spend hours upon hours researching a topic only to find that she has duplicated work done years earlier and stowed away in a file cabinet or on a floppy disk.
William Thoms recognized back in 1849 that a major benefit of sharing working notes would be to induce researchers to “look over their own collections” and, by allowing others access, improve their own chances of finding past work (Thoms 1849, 2). In other words, a researcher need not be motivated by scholarly altruism to share her work. Yet Thoms believed that were sharing of notes to become cheap and frequent, then researchers would not hesitate to give help, not only to others engaged in similar lines of research, but also to “those who are going different ways, and only meet at the crossings” (Thoms 1849, 2). As this research commons grew, so would the opportunities for such crossings, and the net result would be more efficient research at the global level as well as the local.
Thoms’ vision is echoed in efforts by the scientific community to create publishing models that enable both finer-grained publication units (Mons and Velterop 2009; Groth, Gibson, and Velterop 2010; Mons et al. 2011) and new attribution practices (Nature Genetics 2007; Nature Genetics 2008; Giardine et al. 2011). These efforts recognize that citing published work helps drive scientific publication. They aim to expand the universe of citable work beyond the canonical research paper to units as small as individual statements. In doing so they hope to make visible the great iceberg of scientific work of which published papers are only the tip.
Scholarly footnotes such as those produced by documentary editors can be viewed as a form of nanopublication. One of the goals of the Editors’ Notes project is to give the status of individual publications to footnotes and the working notes that led to those footnotes. These notes can be complemented by machine-readable “factoids” (Bradley and Short 2005) about people, places, organizations, and events, drawn from open-access linked datasets (Heath and Bizer 2011). Scholars can assess and improve the quality of these factoids, connecting assertions to bibliographic descriptions of evidential resources and publishing “gold standard” datasets that meet their high standards (Shaw and Buckland 2011). The scholars’ notes provide context for the otherwise bare factoids, documenting why and to what extent they have chosen to accept them and the conclusions they have thus drawn.
Mons and Velterop (2009) make a distinction between “curated” and “observational” statements in scientific discourse. “Curated” statements take the form of records in trusted scientific databases. For example, a database recording known protein interactions may contain statements about these interactions along with metadata describing their context, conditions and provenance. In contrast, “observational” statements are factual statements such as “malaria is transmitted by mosquitos” that have not been formally recorded in any database but nevertheless are commonly asserted. A goal of nanopublication is to build knowledge bases that transform observational statements into curated ones.
History and the humanities mostly lack the databases of curated statements that exists in the sciences. The closest equivalents might be prosopographical or genealogical databases (Bradley and Short 2005; Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 2012) or digital historical gazetteers (Elliott and Gillies 2011). These are exceptions that prove the rule, however, and the vast majority of factual statements in history and the humanities remain at the observational level.
To facilitate the shift from closed, personal or project-specific notes to openly shared notes, we’ve had to address a number of challenges. Editorial projects take varying approaches to structuring their research workflow, dividing labor among editors and student assistants, and standardizing on naming and citation practices. We have attempted to accommodate these varying work practices while creating opportunities for standardization across projects where it is desired. Our efforts to accommodate existing practices align with the broader objective of not disrupting ongoing research by integrating with research tools already in use. For example, Editors’ Notes integrates with the Zotero bibliographic data management platform, allowing researchers to access their existing bibliographic databases (Shaw, Buckland, and Golden 2012).
A major challenge has been developing a data model for notes that is flexible enough to accommodate a variety of working styles (Figure 2). We have tried to support fine-grained addressing and indexing of notes, allowing researchers to search for and link to notes taken on a single source document as it relates to one narrow topic. At the same time, we have sought to develop ways that researchers can work with aggregations of these small “atoms” in ways that feel natural to them. For example, notes taken while researching “the status of birth control in India in the 1930s” might reference dozens of documents encompass several more specific topics such as the Indian birth control activist Dhanvanti Handoo Rama Rau, birth control clinics, and the Bombay Municipal Corporation. Researchers can work with these notes in the context of the broader research task, or they can pull together all the notes about Rama Rau, whether or not these were taken in the course of researching “the status of birth control in India in the 1930s.”
 
Figure 2.
Part of the Editors' Notes data model. Notes, sections of notes, and topic summaries may cite document. Notes, sections of notes, documents, and document annotations are linked to the topics to which they relate.
Another ongoing challenge has been the question of how to bridge the gap between note-taking practices in scholarly research projects and those of curators of special collections and archives. The Joseph A. Labadie special collection of radical history at the University of Michigan helped us explore this question by providing thousands of notes created by Agnes Inglis, the first curator of the collection. The subject matter of these notes overlapped with that of the editorial projects involved, but these “curator’s notes” turned out to be useful less for their content per se, than for the metadata infrastructure (network of relationships among names and other topics) they produced. This realization helped catalyze our ongoing experimentation with incorporating linked data from libraries and archives.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation for funding “Editorial Practices and the Web” (http://ecai.org/mellon2010) and for the cooperation and feedback of our colleagues at the Emma Goldman Papers, the Margaret Sanger Papers, the Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony Papers, and the Joseph A. Labadie Collection.
References
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Causer, T., J. Tonra and V. Wallace (2012). Transcription Maximized; Expense Minimized? Crowdsourcing and Editing. The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham. Literary & Linguistic Computing 27 (2). 119–137. doi:10.1093/llc/fqs004.
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (2012). FamilySearch. https://familysearch.org/.
Cohen, D. J. (2008). Creating Scholarly Tools and Resources for the Digital Ecosystem: Building Connections in the Zotero Project. First Monday. 13(8). http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/viewArticle/2233/2017.
Dickens, C. (1848). Dombey and Son. Boston: Bradbury and Guild. http://books.google.com/books?id=3r1yo6lx3BsC.
Dougherty, J., and K. Nawrotzki (eds). (2012). Writing History in the Digital Age. Trinity College web-book edition.http://writinghistory.trincoll.edu/.
Elliott, T., and S. Gillies (2011). Pleiades: an un-GIS for Ancient Geography. In Digital Humanities. held June 19-22 in Stanford, California. http://dh2011abstracts.stanford.edu/xtf/view?docId=tei/ab-192.xml.
Giardine, B., J. Borg, D. R. Higgs, K. R. Peterson, S. Philipsen, D. Maglott, B. K. Singleton, D. J. Anstee, A. Nazli Basak, B. Clark, F. C. Costa, P. Faustino, H. Fedosyuk, A. E. Felice, A. Francina, R. Galanello, M. V. E. Gallivan, M. Georgitsi, R. J. Gibbons, P. C. Giordano, C. L. Harteveld, J. D. Hoyer, M. Jarvis, P. Joly, E. Kanavakis, P. Kollia, S. Menzel, W. Miller, K. Moradkhani, J. Old, A. Papachatzopoulou, M. N. Papadakis, P. Papadopoulos, S. Pavlovic, L. Perseu, M. Radmilovic, C. Riemer, S. Satta, I. Schrijver, M. Stojiljkovic, S. Lay Thein, J. Traeger-Synodinos, R. Tully, T. Wada, J. S. Waye, C. Wiemann, B. Zukic, D. H. K. Chui, H. Wajcman, R. C. Hardison, and G. P. Patrinos. (2011). Nature Genetics 43:295–301. doi:10.1038/ng.785.
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Heath, T., and C. Bizer (2011). Linked Data: Evolving the Web into a Global Data Space. Morgan & Claypool. doi:10.2200/S00334ED1V01Y201102WBE001.
Hunter, J., T. Cole, R. Sanderson, and H. Van de Sompel (2010). The Open Annotation Collaboration: A Data Model to Support Sharing and Interoperability of Scholarly Annotations. Paper presented at Digital Humanities, London, July 7–10.http://dh2010.cch.kcl.ac.uk/academic-programme/abstracts/papers/html/ab-860.html.
Mons, B. and J. Velterop (2009). Nano-Publication in the e-Science Era. In Clark, T., Luciano, J. S., Marshall, M. S., Prud'hommeaux, E., and Stephens, S. (eds). Proceedings of the Workshop on Semantic Web Applications in Scientific Discourse (SWASD 2009). http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-523/.
Mons, B., H. van Haagen, C. Chichester, P.-B. Hoen, J. T. den Dunnen, G. van Ommen, E. van Mulligen, B. Singh, R. Hooft, M. Roos, J. Hammond, B. Kiesel, B. Giardine, J. Velterop, P. Groth, and E. Schultes. (2011). The Value of Data. Nature Genetics 43:281–283. doi:10.1038/ng0411-281.
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"1758","14","Opening Aladdins cave or Pandoras box? The challenges of crowdsourcing the Medici Archives","10","Introduction
This year the Medici Archive Project (MAP), based in the State Archive in Florence, launches BIA, an interactive on-line digital platform, thanks to the generous funding from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. This ambitious project is in the process of digitizing around four million handwritten letters dating from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries which are part of the Medici Granducal Archive, 1537-1743. Eventually MAP will publish digital images of these historical documents on BIA, which were formerly accessible only onsite in Florence. Along with each image, BIA will also provide a transcription of each document in its original language, accompanied by an English-language synopsis, which places the document within a historical context. BIA has been developed using Java following the J2EE standards, utilizing the Spring Framework. It is based on a relational database and uses Apache Lucene for indexing the data for full-text searching.
Existing models
The completion of this vast undertaking has become a real possibility by using crowdsourcing and digital editing techniques. Projects such as the University College London’s award-winning Transcribe Bentham [1] and the The Civil War Diaries & Letters Transcription Project at the University of Iowa [2] have demonstrated how successful crowdsourcing can be, having accomplished a large proportion of their transcriptions in a relatively small amount of time. However, these projects encompass relatively small collections: Transcribe Bentham is part of a collection that contains around 60,000 folios, arranged into 174 boxes; the Civil War Diaries project has 172 documents, with a total of 18,270 scanned pages. Like these, the Center for History & New Media at George Mason University’s The Papers of the War Department Project 1784-1800 [3] , the National Archives’ You Can Transcribe It! [4] , and the New York Public Library’s What’s On The Menu? [5] , among others, also invite members of the general public to volunteer to transcribe documents.
Challenges
Unlike the above projects, however, the Medici Archive Project faces specific challenges based on the following:
•        Size of collection: ca. four million handwritten letters
•        High level of technical expertise: paleography, language, historical training
•        Varying languages, nationalities, and cultural backgrounds of community
Comparably large digitized projects, which make use of crowdsourcing, such as the Australian Newspapers Digitisation Program [6] , can take advantage of OCR technologies to expedite the data entry phase. However, because the documents in the Medici Granducal Archive are handwritten, each document needs to be manually transcribed. Moreover, the technical expertise in paleography required to read these documents excludes the feasibility of broad-based crowdsourcing of data entry. Among the challenges we face, is that of finding the broadest possible group of community contributors with sufficient expertise to transcribe and provide historical context. Thus, MAP’s user base tends to be high-level academic researchers, professors and graduate students, who are specialists in early modern history and art history, who are at least bilingual in English and Italian. There are other languages used in the granducal documents as well—Spanish, German, Latin, French, etc.—because the Medici court had connections throughout all of Europe. Thus the BIA community will involve scholars from around the globe; each scholar bringing not only varying levels of linguistic ability, but also different cultural approaches to collaborative work.
There were two main cruxes that our IT Team had to resolve, while building BIA: firstly create a stable platform suitable for proper data-entry and transcription of digitized manuscripts; and secondly coming up with a forum-like tool which could be employed by the scholars to communicate while working on BIA.
The community-sourcing model
Thus, rather than crowdsourcing, MAP’s approach is one of community-sourcing, creating a hierarchy of levels of contributors to the BIA system, where issues of gatekeeping are foremost. Furthermore, unlike many opensourced projects, where a user’s anonymity or pseudonymity is the standard, the academics who make use of BIA require the assurance of the authority behind transcriptions and contextualizations. They need to be assured that fact-checking procedures have been rigorously followed, that disambiguation with regard to people and places have been correctly ascertained, and these can only be guaranteed by providing the name of the scholar beside his or her work. In addition to these accountability mechanisms, the scholarly community presents further challenges to a project of this kind. There is often resistance to sharing documents, especially if they have not yet been published. In order to encourage trust in sharing raw, early-stage data before publication, MAP must create a spirit of open collaboration between peers, with mutual accountability, as well as enforce scholarly citation norms and occasionally issuing warnings when abuses are reported. The system was first tested by a restricted group of off-site scholars (30) a few months before the official launch. The results of this testing phase have been very successful. BIA has now been made available for the entire scholarly community: by July 2013, we shall have a clearer picture of the evolution of this DH project.
Conclusion
This paper describes the challenges faced within the first nine months of this innovative project, examining the successful strategies implemented, as well as improvements that have been introduced. There will be discussion of the future not only of the Medici Archive Project BIA system, but of the long-term prognosis of community-sourced digital humanities projects as a whole.
References
Causer, Tim, and V. Wallace (2012). Building A Volunteer Community: Results and Findings from Transcribe Bentham DHQ, 6(2). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/6/2/000125/000125.html
Deegan, M., and W. McCarty (2012). Collaborative Research in the Digital Humanities. London: Ashgate.
Dormans, S., and J. Kok (2010). An Alternative Approach to Large Historical Databases: Exploring Best Practices with Collaboratories. Historical Methods, 43:3. 97-107.
Organisciak, P. (2010). Why Bother? Examining the Motivations of Users in Large-Scale Crowd-Powered Online Initiatives. MA Thesis, University of Alberta.
Parry, M. (2012). Historians Ask the Public to Help Organize the Past. But is the crowd up to it? The Chronicle of Higher Education, 3 September 2012.
Ridge, M. (2012). On the Internet, nobody knows you’re a historian: exploring resistance to crowdsourced resources among historians Digital Humanities Conference, Hamburg, 20 July 2012. http://lecture2go.uni-hamburg.de/konferenzen/-/k/14007
Sample Ward, A. (2011). Crowdsourcing vs Community-sourcing: What’s the difference and the opportunity? Amy Sample Ward’s Blog, 18 May 2011. http://amysampleward.org/2011/05/18/crowdsourcing-vs-community-sourcing-whats-the-difference-and-the-opportunity/
Siemens, L., R. Cunningham, W. Duff, and C. Warwick (2011). More minds are brought to bear on a problem: Methods of Interaction and Collaboration within Digital Humanities Research Teams DS/CN, 2(2).
Terras, M. (2010). DH2010 Plenary: Present, Not Voting: Digital Humanities in the Panopticon. Digital Humanities 2010 plenary talk manuscript. Melissa Terras' Blog, 10 July, 2010. http://melissaterras.blogspot.com/2010/07/dh2010-plenary-present-not-voting.html.
Winters, J. (2011). Digital editions and crowdsourcing Blog ReScript, the Institute of Historical Research, 9 June 2011. http://rescriptihr.blogspot.it/2011/06/digital-editions-and-crowdsourcing.html
Notes
1. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Bentham-Project/transcribe_bentham
2. http://diyhistory.lib.uiowa.edu/transcribe/
3. http://wardepartmentpapers.org/index.php
4. http://www.archives.gov/citizen-archivist/
5. http://menus.nypl.org/
6. http://www.nla.gov.au/content/newspaper-digitisation-program","txt","2","",""
"1759","14","Optimized platform for capturing metadata of historical correspondences","9","Various projects around the world focus on analyzing and visualizing the correspondences and social networks of scholars(academics, writers, etc), e.g., the ‘Mapping the Republic of Letters’ project centered at Stanford University (Edelstein et al., 2008) and the project ‘Vernetzte Korrespondenzen’(engl.: Networked Correspondences)(Burch et al., 2012) run by Trier Center for Digital Humanities, German Literary Archive Marbach, and Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg. In addition to the design and implementation of adequate tools for analyzing and visualizing the big data, an indexing scheme for the content of the letters of the corpus under consideration has to be developed and the letters have to be captured, annotated, and indexed with respect to the indexing scheme.
The capturing, annotating, and indexing process should be supported by an interactive browser based platform which allows the professional philologists (as well as ‘citizen scholars’ from non-academic backgrounds) to quickly enter metadata (e.g., date, name/identification of senders and addressees) in an accurate und simple manner. To meet the simplicity requirement, the platform should accept unformatted entries as far as possible; to meet the accuracy requirement, the entries have to be clear without ambiguity. The two requirements appear to be competitive and conflicting. To sort out the problem, we propose to support unformatted data entry by auto-completion based on external catalogues, e.g., the ‘Deutsche Nationalbibliografie’(DNB, 2013b) provided by the German National Library. The auto-completion tool should provide additional biographical information on the proposed scholars as soon as the philologist enters first data, to help the philologist uniquely identify scholars.
In preparation for the above mentioned ‘Vernetzte Korrespondenzen’ project(Burch et al., 2012) which investigates the correspondences and social networks of German scholars which went into exile during Nazi Germany, we have implemented such a browser based platform.
•        The platform is generic in the sense that it can be trained on different centuries by using one or several external catalogues. In principle, each catalogue which provides a web service that offers infix search of names with the possibility of limiting the search to a specified time period can be used for training the platform. The illustrations presented in the next paragraph assume that the platform has been trained on scholars of the 18th and 19th Century.
•        The platform only propounds scholars based on PND/GND-normed data together with additional accurate biographical and historical data which are extracted from existing audited catalogues. These supplementary data should allow the philologist/historian to uniquely identify the scholar. After identification the system files the scholars in a standardized manner, i.e., normed data are inserted in the metadata.
•        The platform provides capturing of accurate dates by nearly unformatted entries.
As soon as the philologist enters a part of the name of the sender or the addressee, e.g., ‘Joseph’, the tool makes proposals of scholars of the 18th and 19th Century that match the requirement, e.g., ‘Eichendorff, Joseph von’, ‘Hübner, Joseph Alexander von’ and so on, together with their dates of birth and death, identification number of the name authority file (‘Gemeinsame Normdatei’) published by the German National Library(DNB, 2013a), and short vitae. Especially these secondary data are of benefit if several scholars with similar(or same) name exist. Once the philologist made her choice, the system pins the scholar’s biographical data to the work space. If the person is unknown to the system which may be the case if the letter was sent, e.g., to the pharmacist next door (whose name is not specified in the letter), the philologist enters this new person into the system. The autocompletion mechanism of the platform uses these new data during future requests.
The entry of the letter’s date poses a further challenge as the determination of the date is harder than you think. For instance, a letter can be written over several days, the date may be hardly readable, it can be given by a holiday, or it can be specified imprecisely. That’s why our platform allows the philologist input the date of the letter in various formats. For instance, the letter can be dated ‘early January 1798’, ‘Eastern 1770’, ‘mid-April 1770’, ‘19/04/1770’, or ‘15/04/1770-20/04/1770’. The conversion of the entry to an exact date or a period is automatically done by the underlying system. ‘Early January 1798’, e.g., is converted to the period 01/01/1798-10/01/1798, ‘Eastern 1770’ to the period 12/04/1770-16/04/1770, ‘mid April 1770’ to 11/04/1770-20/04/1770. After the date had been entered, the platform provides additional information: It runs plausibility checks, e.g., whether the date of the letter is in life of the correspondents, and provides information on historical events that took place immediately before or immediately after that date. For instance, in the case of Eastern 1770, the system would provide the information that the German evangelical theologian August Wilhelm Reinhart passed away on 17 April 1770 and Marie Antoinette got married per procurationem Dauphin Louis-Auguste in the Augustinian Church in Vienna on 19 April 1770. Especially, later on, such data should help the philologist annotate the letters. These latter data can be extracted from digital chronicles, e.g., the ‘Chronik deutscher Zeitgeschichte’(Overesch et al., 1982) for adapting the platform to the project ‘Vernetzte Korrespondenzen’(Burch et al., 2012).
If possible, we will distribute the tool in different digital research infrastructures for the humanities, e.g., DARIAH(DARIAH-EU, 2012), CLARIN(CLARIN, 2011).
Funding
This work was supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) [grant number 01UG1354C]
References
Edelstein, D., P. Findlen, and N. Coleman (2008). Mapping the Republic of Letters. Stanford University.https://republicofletters.stanford.edu/(accessed 15 February 2013)
Burch, T., V Hildenbrandt., S. Kamzelak, P. Molitor, C. Moulin, and J. Ritter (2012). Vernetzte Korrespondenzen — . BMBF-Projekt 01UG1354. http://kompetenzzentrum.uni-trier.de/de/projekte/projekte/briefnetzwerk/(accessed 15 February 2013)
Deutsche Nationalbibliothek (2013a). Homepage. http://www.dnb.de/DE/Home/home_node.html(accessed 15 February 2013)
Deutsche Nationalbibliothek(2013b). Deutsche Nationalbibliografie.http://www.dnb.de/EN/Service/DigitaleDienste/DNBBibliografie/dnbbibliografie_node.html(accessed 15 February 2013)
Overesch, M., and F. W. Saal (1982). Chronik deutscher Zeitgeschichte. Droste Geschichtskalendarium. Droste Verlag 1982-1986.
DARIAH-EU (2012). Introducing DARIAH-EU. Information Brochure. http://www.dariah.eu/(accessed 15 February 2013)
CLARIN(2011). CLARIN ERIC STATUTES.http://www.clarin.eu/external/index.php?page=about-clarin(accessed 15 February 2013)","txt","2","",""
"1760","14","Possibilities of narrative visualization: Case studies of lesson-learned-oriented archiving for natural disaster","9","Abstract
After the Great East Japan earthquake struck, the need for learning lessons from the vast amount of information has been increased in order for preparing the next Great earthquake. Therefore, the present study explores a method of displaying textual information of experiences and detecting narratives to learn lessons. We conducted two visualizations of database on the Great earthquakes and considered the outcome of each. We found that the outcome of one of the visualization was gaining factual information on phenomena, whereas the other that was designed to have future perspectives allowed to find the demands or views for the future as well as the facts in the past. If taking the perspective for extracting narratives and learning lessons, the outcome having future views is more contributing to gaining meaningful story. The future-oriented perspective would be recommended to add into the process of designing archive to learn lessons on natural disaster. 1. Background and purpose
As a means of succeeding collective memory, the social significance of digital archives has been increased. Since the Great East Japan earthquake in particular, organizations both in public and private sectors have created archives on the Great earthquake. As can be seen in numbers of archiving projects, large amount of descriptions, pictures, and movie images has been collected (examples seen in references section).
In creating archives, on the one hand, it is very important to preserve the whole and various kinds of information as much as possible. On the other hand, if considering the natural disaster will occur again, there is an emergent need to learn lessons from the experiences on the natural disaster and convey the lessons to the next generation in order to prepare for the next strike of the Great earthquake. As such, the issue here is to develop an effective way to learn lessons from large amount of information in archive.
One of the ways to learn lessons is focusing on narratives on the disaster and visualizing them. Narrative here is defined as the one having story line which is associated with time and space. According to the Bamberg (2012), when people do storytelling, the narrators “position characters in space and time and, in a broad sense, give order to and make sense of what happened” (85). In applying this into the context of visualizing archive, it would be beneficial to extract the time order and things making sense in order to learn lessons that are supposed to be something making sensible and meaningful. The present study, therefore, explore a method of displaying textual information of experiences and detecting narratives to learn lessons. More concretely, we conduct two visualizations of database on the Great earthquakes and discuss the outcome of each from the perspective of leveraging information in archives.
2. Case studies
2-1. Study 1: Visualizing information database of the Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake
We visualized the information database of the Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake of 1995, which was created and published by the government of Japan (Cabinet Office, Government of Japan, 2006). The database included textual information in relevant articles to what happened in local places within the Hanshin-Awaji area in Western Japan from 1995 to 2005, 10 years after the earthquake. These articles were classified into four periods. Details on the data were presented in Table 1.
 
Table 1.
Content structure of articles in the information database of the Great Hansin-Awaji earthquake (from Cabinet Office, Government of Japan, 2006)
For the visualization, we utilized KACHINA CUBE (KC) system that is a web-based platform allowing to store, plot, and display information in three-dimensional space (Saito, Ohno, & Inaba, 2009; Ohno, Saito, & Inaba, 2010). Manually inputting data on the Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake into the KC system, we designed the KC output which contained a 2D geographical map of the Hanshin-Awaji area, and a time line on the vertical axis. Segmented textual information from the database was plotted as information fragments into three-dimensional space. More concretely, the textual information including names of municipality was plotted in the space where a municipality was given a particular coordinate. Information fragments in each time period had each color. A total of 1,000 fragments were created in the KC system.
The KC system operated on three main functions (Figure 2). First was to access the original articles in the database by clicking information fragments plotted as segmented information. Second was to allow the cube in the system to rotate so that viewers could locate each information fragment on the map according to time period, at different angles. Finally, the system was equipped with a search function to retrieve the information that was specifically interested in by the users.
 
Figure 1.
Visual image of KACHINA CUBE output (as seen from the top) and its functions of rotating and accessing original information of a fragment
One of the outcomes of the visualization of the study 1 was inferred by paying attention to this quantitative distribution of articles in the geographical map. Comparing the number of articles across particular places and time periods reveals how textual information on the Hanshin-Awaji earthquake was accumulated. Few information fragments were related to the Nagata area in periods 1, 2, and 3 (Figure 3). During these periods, the Nagata area experienced the most damage, with the large number of houses destroyed in Kobe city (City of Kobe, 2010). However, the Nagata area did not have as much information as Nishinomiya city or Ashiya city which is close to the Nagata area. Thus, we could hypothesize that gaining information from severely damaged places was more difficult.
 
Figure 2.
The quantitative change in information fragments related to the Nagata area from periods 1 to 4. The fragments in red circles are the articles on Nagata area in each period (the KACHINA CUBE system as seen from the front)
2.2 Study 2: Visualizing the survey data on the Great East Japan earthquake
We also created a 3D visualization of the free textual responses in a questionnaire survey data on the Great East Japan earthquake by using the KC system. The survey was conducted by Kashima city, which is located in Ibaraki prefecture in the east coast Japan. The aim of the survey was to preserve and hand down the experiences on the Great East Japan earthquake to next generation and to gain useful information for making a disaster prevention plan (Kashima city, 2012).
As the target and database of the visualization, the textual information of the responses in the survey was sorted and organized into 14 areas in the city. The textual information of the responses was also separated and organized by the time periods of past, present and future. Showing the definition of the time periods, textual information in the past includes the experiences when the Great earthquake happened, the one in the present includes the experiences when people are in evacuation center, and the one in the future includes the demands or wishes for the future in relation to the earthquake. The contents of the textual information included the descriptions of the situation immediately after the earthquake, the behavior and actions taken in evacuation, recovery of infrastructure and procurement of foods and goods. An example of the table in the original survey report was in Figure 3.
 
Figure 3.
Part of table including textual information of the participants' responses (In the figure above, the textual information was sorted and organized by time periods and areas of the city, and by colors for showing each of contents)
For the visualization, we utilized the KC having a 2D geographical map of the Kashima city, and a time line on the vertical axis. One area had a particular coordinate in the space of the cube, and the textual information as information fragments was manually put into the space of each area. The color of the information fragments was classified according to the contents of the information as in the Figure 3.
Similar to the outcome of the study 1 above, the lopsided gathering of information fragments was seen in the study 2. Taking an overview to the distribution of information fragments in KC, the quantity of information fragments in future time period was larger than those of the other time periods (Figure 4 and 5). In order to understand why the quantity of information fragments was larger in the future time period, we focused on the Hirai area where the tendency was remarkable and explored what was happening in each time period by accessing the original texts in KC. As the results, in the past time period which was immediately after the earthquake hit, we could find a voice in an information fragment that presented the experience of feeling difficulty in catching wireless broadcast for evacuation in Hirai area. There was also a voice showing that it was unclear of the primary school as an evacuation center. Even in the present time period in the life in evacuation center, a voice showed that it is not easy to catch wireless broadcast clearly. In the future time period, there were voices showing the participants’ demands of giving clear pictures of evacuation routes to evacuation center, keeping evacuation route in good condition, setting evacuation center to the familiar or close place and conducting a disaster drill. From these results, we were able to recognize the possibility of the rise in the citizens’ awareness of disaster evacuation in Hirai area.
 
Figure 4.
Image of KACHINA CUBE output in the study 2, as seen from the top
 
Figure 5.
The quantitative distribution of information fragments in Hirai area in each time periods.
3. Discussions
The outcome of the visualization of the database on the Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake was gaining the factual information on phenomena, whereas the visualization of the survey data in Kashima city on the Great East Japan earthquake allowed us to find the demands or views for the future as well as the facts in the past. If taking the perspective for extracting narratives and learning lessons, the outcome having future views is more contributing to gaining meaningful story. As presented in the visualization with the survey data in the study 2, therefore, the future-oriented perspective would be recommended to add into the process of designing archive, in order for leaning lessons for the next natural disaster.
In addition to the suggestion of future-oriented archive for gaining lessons, the uniqueness of the present study is having both processes of extracting and displaying stories or narratives in visualization. As equal to conveying stories with visualizations (e.g. Segel & Heer, 2010), extracting the stories or narratives from the vast amount of information would also be important to effectively leverage textual information in archive. The visualization with the KC system will be also useful as a web-based visualization tool for supporting the research collaborations or interactions such as Heer and Agrawala (2008)have pointed out.
References
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Ohno, S., S. Saito, and M. Inaba(2010). A platform for mining and visualizing regional collective culture. In Ishida, T. (ed), Culture and Computing, LNCS (Lecture Notes in Computer Science), 6259:189-199. Berlin: Springer.
Saito, S., S. Ohno, and M. Inaba(2009). A platform for visualizing and sharing collective cultural information.International Conference Digital Archives and Digital Humanities held in Taipei, Taiwan.
Segel, E., and J. Heer (2010). Narrative visualization: Telling stories with data. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics. 16: 1139-1148.","txt","2","",""
"1761","14","The DARIAH Approach to Interdisciplinary Interoperability","9","Introduction
In this paper we present the preliminary results of the work that is being carried out in the framework of the DARIAH-DE [1] project on the topic of interdisciplinary interoperability. DARIAH-DE is the German branch of the EU-funded Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities (DARIAH) project with 17 institutions belonging to a wide range of disciplines as project partners. This fortunate circumstance compelled us to tackle the problem of how to achieve greater interoperability between the digital collections of institutions coming from different disciplines.

We first present our pragmatic approach to interoperability and then discuss some use cases that were developed to complement a set of recommendations on interdisciplinary interoperability. These recommendations are meant, on the one hand, to help Humanities institutions to integrate their collections into the DARIAH data federation and, on the other hand, to let them benefit fully of the services provided by the infrastructure.

The importance of interoperability when building a research infrastructure becomes evident as soon as one considers, for example, even a basic search mechanism over several collections, also known as federated search. Building such a federated search requires institutions to expose, at least, an end-point that can be harvested using a given protocol (Aschenbrenner, et al. 2010). The Collection Interoperability group in Bamboo — an analogous infrastructure project in the United States — was faced with the same problem of making collections interoperable and decided for developing adapters to make collections compliant with the OASIS Content Management Interoperability Services (CMIS) standard. Let us see now what has been DARIAH's approach to interoperability.

Methodology
If interoperability is difficult, true interoperability across disciplines is perhaps even more so as — particularly when talking about semantic interoperability — the narrower is the application domain the higher are the chances of achieving some results. This is the case, for example, when using ontologies for this purpose as shown by (Marshall and Shipman 2003).

Therefore, given the number of domains and disciplines that DARIAH is trying to cater for, the solution of mapping the meaning of content in different collections onto the same ontology or conceptual model appeared soon to be not a viable one. As Bauman makes clear while discussing the topic of interoperability in relation to the goal and mission of TEI (Bauman 2011), the drawback of adhering to standards for the sake of interoperability is the consequent loss in terms of expressiveness.

Instead,DARIAH position on this respect is of allowing for crosswalks between different schemas: a sort of “crosswalk on demand”. Infrastructure users will be able to use the Schema Registry — a tool which is being developed in DARIAH-DE — to create crosswalks between different metadata schemas so that they are made interoperable.

Our main goal was to devise a set of guidelines that is realistically applicable by partner institutions as part of their policies. Therefore, the first preliminary step was to gather and analyze information about the digital collections of the partners with regard to interoperability. We identified the following key aspects to guide our analysis:

1        Identifiers: two aspects of identifiers were considered: on the hand, their persistence over time, which is a crucial aspect for any infrastructure project, and on the other hand the use of common, shared identifiers(e.g. controlled vocabulary URIs)to express references to the same “things”, that is one of the core ideas of Linked Data.
2        APIs and Protocols: APIs and protocols are essential as they allow for workflows of data access and exchange not necessarily dependent on human agents. This idea is implied in the notion of “blind interchange” discussed by Bauman with the only difference being that, in our own vision, as little human intervention as possible should be required.
3        Standards: using the same standard is in some, if not many cases, not enough to achieve real semantic, not only syntactic, interoperability. Therefore we discuss further aspects of standards in relation to interoperability such as multiple serializations of the same scheme, and the problem of adoption and adaption of schemes to different contexts.
4        Licences: licences, and specifically their machine-readability, play — perhaps not surprisingly — a crucial role within an interoperability scenario: not only should a licence be attached to any collection as soon as it is published online, but such licence should also be readable and understandable, for example, to an automated agent harvesting that collection.
These four aspects define the context for the use cases that are described in the next section and also define the core aspects that will be covered in the recommendations.
Use Cases
The main aim of the use cases was to show how basic, minimal standards, such as the OAI-PMH protocol, can be exploited together with already existing and re-usable tools in order to devise more advanced interoperability scenarios. The requirements of such use cases were that they could be implemented in a limited amount of time, without requiring much programming effort and using openly available tools and data coming from partner institutions.

Static OAI-PMH
The first use case focussed on tools that can be used to create an OAI-PMH end-point for collections without having to set up an own repository as this could be a problem particularly for small institutions or poorly funded disciplines. Since OAI-PMH will be part of the recommendations as the minimal protocol for accessing collections, we wanted to explore ways so to overcome the barriers to adopting it. We used as data collection a sample of Kalonymos [2] , a journal published by the Steinheim-Institut (STI), as it does not provide yet such an interface. The Dublin Core metadata for the articles in Kalonymos, stored in a static file, were then served by an OAI-PMH end-point created out of such static file by using the OAI-PMH Static Repository Gateway [3] , a piece of software written in C and openly available.


Fig. 1
Sample output of RDFizer.

OAI to LOD
The OAI-PMH protocol is central also in the second use case, which seeks to show how the metadata served by an OAI-PMH end-point can be harvested and programmatically transformed into an RDF representation, more suitable for example in a Linked Data scenario.

The data we used come from a document repository of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Science [4] containing Open Access publications by the academy members. We were able to transform into RDF the Dublin Core metadata served via the OAI-PMH interface of the repository by running the open source OAI-PMH RDFizer [5] .

The so obtained output, see fig. 1, could be enriched by adding links for example to the subject headings contained in the Gemeinsame Normdatei (GND) catalogue of the German National Library (DNB) [6] that are already available as RDF. However possible, this enrichment was not implemented for this use case as it required some extra work to overcome the lack of a lookup API or SPARQL end-point on the DNB side.

Marc21 to SKOS/RDF
The third use case consisted in transforming the thesaurus of the German Archeological Institute, currently encoded in Marc21XML and accessible via an OAI-PMH end-point, into an RDF representation of the same data encoded in SKOS — the W3C standard to publish Knowledge Organization Systems in the Semantic Web [7] .

Such transformation was made possible by the Stellar Console, an open source tool developed by Ceri Binding and Doug Tudhope(Keith et al. 2012) in the framework of the AHRC-funded project “Semantic Technologies Enhancing Links and Linked Data for Archaeological Resources”(STELLAR) [8] . The 80,00 Marc21 records of the thesaurus, after being harvested via the OAI-PMH interface, were transformed into an intermediate CSV file, which is in turn fed into the Stellar Console in order to produce a SKOS/RDF output consisting of slightly less than 1 million triples (Romanello 2012).

TEI to CIDOC-CRM
The last use case is another example of extracting more deeply structured semantic information from legacy data, in this case some letters, encoded in TEI, that are part of the project Carl Maria von Weber — Collected Works (WeGA) [9] .

We ran the TEI documents through an XSLT transformation written by Sebastian Rahtz [10] and included as part of OxGarage [11] , an online toolkit for the conversion of TEI-compliant documents into other formats. What this transformation does is to look for elements of specific types and to transform them into equivalent statements expressed by means of the CIDOC-CRM ontology and encoded in RDF/XML.

Straight out of the box, the tool created the corresponding semantic statements for the elements <date>, <persName> and <placeName>. As we observed also for use case 3, it is technically possible to enrich the RDF output by adding the URIs of the person or place that is being referred to in the document. This could be realized by leveraging the links to authority lists that are often included directly into the TEI elements, but the required effort goes beyond the scope of our current work.


Fig. 2
Sample output of OxGarage

Conclusions
We hope that the use cases above have shown how the use of open standards and protocols combined with open source, thus adaptable and reusable, tools can allow us to achieve some greater interoperability in a cost- and time-effective way.

References
Aschenbrenner, A., W. P. Andreas, T. Blanke, and M. W. Küster Towards an Open Repository Environment. Journal of Digital Information 11:1. http://journals.tdl.org/jodi/article/viewArticle/758. (accessed 22 März 2010).
Bauman, S. (2011). 'Interchange vs. Interoperability'. In Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies. held 2011 in Montréal, Canada. http://www.balisage.net/Proceedings/vol7/html/Bauman01/BalisageVol7-Bauman01.html.
Marshall, C. C., and F. M. Shipman ‘Which Semantic Web?’ In Proceedings of the Fourteenth ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia. held 2003 in Nottingham, UK. Nottingham, UK: ACM, 57–66. http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=900063.
May, K., C. Binding, D. Tudhope, and S. Jeffrey ‘Semantic Technologies Enhancing Links and Linked Data for Archaeological Resources’. In Zhou, M., I. Romanowska, W. Zhongke, X. Pengfei, and P. Verhagen (eds.), CAA Proceedings 2012. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 261–272.http://dare.uva.nl/aup/nl/record/412958.
Romanello, M. Skosifying an Archaeological Thesaurus. Computers for the Classics. http://c4tc.wordpress.com/2012/10/08/skosifying-an-archaeological-thesaurus/. (accessed 8 October 2012).
Notes
1. http://de.dariah.eu/

2. http://sourceforge.net/projects/srepod/

3. http://d-nb.info/025276212

4. http://edoc.bbaw.de/oai2/oai2.php

5. http://simile.mit.edu/repository/RDFizers/oai2rdf/README.txt

6. http://www.dnb.de/EN/Standardisierung/Normdaten/GND/gnd_node

7. http://www.w3.org/TR/skos-reference/

8. http://hypermedia.research.glam.ac.uk/resources/STELLAR-applications/

9. http://www.weber-gesamtausgabe.de/en/

10. http://www.zde.uni-wuerzburg.de/tei_mm_2011/abstracts/abstracts_papers#c249172

11. http://www.tei-c.org/oxgarage/","txt","2","",""
"1762","14","Preliminaries: The Social Networks of Literary Production in the Spanish Empire During the Administration of the Duke of Lerma (1598-1618)","10","The “preliminaries” section of a 17th-century book encompasses the pages appearing in the printed text before the beginning of the work itself. This information is divided into seven different types of documents: details of publication, documentation of censorship (both civil and ecclesiastical), licensing, selling price, dedications, letters, and errors. The importance of the preliminaries for this project lies in the information present in these sections: the names of the officials signing the documents, their governmental/institutional affiliation, dates, place of issue, and literary circles that appear in the form of dedications and poetry written by various authors and published in their friend’s or associate’s books. In a few pages, the preliminaries give a complete image of the formal process required for the publication of each work of literature. By compiling all this information into a graph database and performing queries specific to various research questions, we have at hand a valuable source of information about the historical networks that influenced the publication of Early Modern Spanish literature.
To get a comprehensive look at this information, we generated lists of every edition of what we consider literary texts (fiction in prose, theatre, poetry, chronicles) published during the 17th -century in the Spanish empire (Jiménez et al. 1980)(Calvo et al. 2003). As shown by the following screen shot, we have focused on acquiring every available edition of each literary work.
 

Sample of one of our acquisitions lists
We then divided the 17th Century into periods corresponding to the different “validos” —royal favorites that served as head of government or “prime ministers” — of the various kings in order to address the changing power structures of the time and their influence in literary production (Hernán et al. 2002). Through interlibrary loans and, in some cases, trips to the libraries that hold the edition, we acquired copies of the pages of each book that make up the preliminaries section. Then, we manually built a graph database using sylvadb.com, an open source software and free graph database management service developed in the CulturePlex Lab. Within Sylva, data was stored and organized using a custom designed system of schemas based on a node/edge relationship system. Finally, we exported the database to Gephi (https://gephi.org/), a software package that allows for visualization and statistical/metric analysis of the network using built-in algorithms and Python based scripting (Bastian et al. 2009). This allows us to detect important communities within the network, key players, important objects, and hubs of production.
For this study, we have unearthed the social networks of publishing and literary creation in 17th-century Spanish literature, focusing particularly on the period during the rule of the Duke of Lerma (1598-1618). Currently the first of our editions lists (Duke of Lerma) consists of 330 editions, out of which we have successfully obtained 228 scanned copies of preliminaries sections: approximately 70% of the total number. Of these scans, 121 have been entered into the database, producing a graph with 1612 nodes and 3472 relationships. Rendered in Gephi using the built-in OpenOrd algorithm, the graph looks like this:
 

The Preliminaries graph rendered in Gephi
Using the algorithms, metric analysis tools, and filters built into Gephi we pinpointed the individuals, governmental and ecclesiastical bodies that influenced publication in this period. Also, by using the concept of “ego network” from social network analysis, we established what we call the “publication network” of some of the authors that interest us (Carrington et al. 2011). A publication network includes the editors, censors, and other individuals important in the formal process of publication, as well as any other individuals that are more directly connected to the author: friends, family, patrons, literary colleagues, etc. We determined the range of the publication network based on the internal data structure of the Preliminaries database as follows. Due to bibliographic concerns (Bowers et al. 1962) and organizational aspects of our data schema, in order to establish a connection between the author and those involved in the approval, licensing, and publication of an edition there are four steps e.g., Author->Work, Work->Edition, Edition->Approval, Approval->Censor. Therefore, to establish an author’s publication network we needed to find neighbors for up to four degrees of separation. Although Gephi does not include ego network filters that extend to four degrees, using its Python based scripting console we were able to code functions that allowed us to isolate subsets within the graph to generate ego networks for any node to n degrees of separation. For instance, in the graph below we can see the publication networks of two authors associated with Mexico; Bernardo de Balbuena, author of Grandeza Mexicana; Juan de Torquemada, author of Monarquía Indiana; and the intersecting nodes in their publication networks:
 

Publications Networks: Balbuena=Black, Torquemada=Grey, Intersecting Nodes=White
Using the above techniques, we set out to find and isolate the main nodes of this social network that made possible the creation and sustainability of a transatlantic network of cultural agents. The first thing that stands out in the graph is Lope de Vega and his powerful, Madrid based publication network (Martínez et al. 2011). Using the Python scripting console, we determined that Lope’s publication network consists of 1083 nodes, or 67% of the nodes in the graph. This information is not new, based on the extremely prolific nature of his literary production we can assume that he was very well connected. However, we can also determine who wasn’t in his publication network. Departing from Lope’s publication network, we were able to locate the successful political and institutional connections that help us explain the central position of institutions such as the House of Zúñiga in the cultural fabric of the period.
 

Publication network: Lope de Vega=Black
To do this we used the scripting console to remove the subset of nodes representing Lope’s publication network from the other nodes that make up the graph, and returned a list of the names of all of the people who are not in Lope’s publication network. A quick review of this list produced some interesting results: we found several authors based in Spain including Gonzalo de Céspedes y Meneses and El Inca Garcilaso; and two authors active in Peru, Diego Dávalos y Figueroa and Pedro de Oña. While a quick look at both Céspedes and El Inca produced interesting results, the two Lima based authors attracted our attention. In this period social circles were highly influenced by geography, and it is logical that these authors find themselves at the periphery of a network centered geographically in Madrid. However, despite geographic concerns both authors remain connected to Lope de Vega’s network. We found that both Oña and Dávalos y Figueroa are connected to Lope’s network at 3 degrees of separation through their dedications to the Viceroy of Peru, Luis de Velasco y Castilla; and at four degrees through Juan de Zúñiga, Diego de Ojeda, and the Order of Santiago:
 

Publication networks: Dávalos y Figueroa=Black, Lope de Vega=Grey, Intersecting nodes=White
In order to contextualize the Peruvian network we compared the aforementioned “Mexican” authors with the “Peruvian” authors. Combining the four social networks into two based on geographic constraints, we found that at 4 degrees of separation there was no direct overlap, so we upped the parameter to 5 degrees of separation and produced the following image:
 

Publication Networks: Intersection between Mexican and Peruvian Networks
As shown here, even at five degrees of separation there are few overlaps between the networks. However, in the above image we begin to notice the importance of the House of Zúñiga. It is well known that the House of Zúñiga was powerful in both Spain and the Americas, and also that certain members of this house were important patrons of the arts and literature (Cátedra 2003; Díez Fernández et al. 2005). Nonetheless, we don’t think that their role in transatlantic literary production has been adequately explored. The political importance of this family in New Spain is obviously important (an Archbishop and a Viceroy); however, the Preliminaries graph illustrates not only the political role this house played in America, but also the importance of political figures/nobility in publication circles and how the members of one house can spread their cultural influence throughout geographic space. To take this concept one step further, we followed the Zúñigas back the Spain. Here we find the Duke of Béjar, Alonso López de Zúñiga y Pérez de Guzmán, and the first part of Don Quixote. It turns out that American authors were not the only artists soliciting support from the House of Zúñiga: Miguel de Cervantes dedicated part 1 of Don Quixote to the famous Duke of Béjar(Rico 2005).
The above samples show the potential of a research model that combines network-based analysis with quantitative and qualitative studies of cultural production, providing evidence of the interaction between political structures and cultural production in the Spanish Empire (Martínez et al 2008). By repurposing bibliographic data, the Preliminaries Project allows us to explore the concept of cultural networks within the framework of transatlantic studies and complexity theory (Wood 2010; Suárez 2007). Furthermore, this study demonstrates the effectiveness of digital humanities methods as a tool to locate previously overlooked areas for further study using a more traditional humanistic approach.
References
1. Pedraza Jiménez, F. B., and M. R. Cáceres. (1980). Manual de literature española. Pamploa: Cénlit.
2. Huerta Calvo, J. (dir.) (2003). Historia del teatro español. Madrid: Gredos.
3. García Hernán, E. (2002). Políticos de la monarquía hispánica (1469-1700). Madrid: Fernández Ciudad.
4. Bastian M., S. Heymann, and M. Jacomy (2009). “Gephi: an open source software for exploring and manipulating networks.” International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media.
5. Carrington, P. J., and J. Scott (2011). The SAGE Handbook of Social Network Analysis. Los Angeles: Sage.
6. Bowers, Fredson. (1962). Principles of Bibliographic Description. New York: Russell & Russell.
7. Martínez, J. F. (2011).Biografía de Lope de Vega, 1562-1635: un friso literario del Siglo de Oro. Barcelona, PPU.
8. Cátedra, P. M. (2003). La ""Historia de la Casa de Zúñiga"" otrora atribuida a Mosén Diego de Valera. Salamanca: Gráficas Cervantes.
9. Díez Fernández, J.; I., and G. Santonja. (2005). El mecenazgo literario en la casa ducal de Béjar. Burgos: Instituto Castellano y Leonés de la Lengua.
10. Rico, F. (2005). El texto del ""Quijote”: preliminares a una ecdótica del Siglo de Oro. Barcelona: Ediciónes Destino.
11. Martínez Millán, J.;, and M. A. Visceglia (eds.) (2008). La monarquía de Felipe III. >Madrid: Cyan, Proyectos y Producciones Editoriales. Print.
12. Wood, A. T. (2010). Fire, Water, Earth, and Sky: Global Systems History and the Human Prospect. The Journal of the Historical Society. X:3: 287-318.
13. Suárez, J. L. (2007). Hispanic Baroque: A Model for the Study of Cultural Complexity in the Atlantic World. South Atlantic Review. 72(1): 31-47.","txt","2","",""
"1763","14","Programming with Arduino for Digital Humanities","2","Background
The department of library, archive and information studies at Tsurumi University provides courses on computer science for humanities students. The courses include one introductory and two intermediate programming courses. There are project-based courses on Digital Humanities instead of an advanced programming course. In the introductory course, Scratch was used, and in the intermediate courses, Java has been adopted.
Difficulties in teaching programming in an introductory course to humanities students have been to let students find interest or enjoyment in (1) symbol manipulation and (2) grouping tasks with functions or other similar units.
Humanities students tend to expect big results in programming. They are disappointed at small results from source codes in exercises. It is usually difficult to expect them to find interest in a small result from symbol manipulation in introductory programming.
As far as our experience goes, humanities students seem to struggle to envision the existence of a computational world in their minds. The formats and abstract behaviors of typical programming patterns appearing in structured programming such as assignment, iteration, condition and flow control themselves are not difficult for humanities students to understand. The grammar is easy to comprehend. The problem they face is to understand the ways to use them as substantial components making up the whole code in actual programming (Winslow 1996).
Embedded System: Arduino
In order to respond to aforementioned difficulties or problems, we set two requirements to the programming environment:
•        (1) letting students be interested in something moving, and
•        (2) letting students be satisfied with small results.
Then, we decided to introduce embedded systems to an introductory programming course. We expected embedded systems to bring the real world into a scene of learning programming.
Current students have been immersed in digital or virtual environment from an early age. They are not easily satisfied with computational results on screens. On the other hand, interestingly, they show their interest to physical phenomena even if it is slight (Ishii 2006). They are very sensitive to physical stimuli. Embedded systems can be expected to let students be interested in something moving that may be small. And, it can contribute to facilitate students to envision a computational world in their minds.
As an embedded system, we adopted Arduino which provides a good developing environment:
•        (1) there is no need to prepare a device to install native codes to ICs,
•        (2) there is an easy IDE based on Processing, and
•        (3) the price of Arduino is affordable.
A concern we noticed about introducing Arduino was that students have to learn about electricity to some extent. It is an unfamiliar subject to humanities students.
The IDE for Arduino on Processing provides simple descriptive rules reminiscent of BASIC, and easy to view and write grouping tasks in methods. We expected this feature would make it easy for students to concentrate on finding categories of processes and making groups with functions.
Course Design
One semester consists of 15 classes, which are lectures on and practices of programming. The practices consist of four themes: LED handling, variable registor, sound handling, and binary display.
In all practices, we used only three circuit patterns based on a voltage divider. The typical four programming patterns in procedural languages were learned with eight source codes using one circuit pattern of an LED. We used a variable resistor as an input device and a game controller in learning structural programming. An array is not a difficult topic in programming, but it is not easy for students to understand the usefulness of the array. Arrays working as music scores to handle sound seemed to be a good example. We think that even though a topic of binary digit could not be useful in Digital Humanities, students should learn it to feel the philosophy behind symbol manipulation. We used bit operation to control LEDs of a binary digit display, and provided a chance to learn binary digit.
Observation and Future
Fortunately, many students seemed to find enjoyment from a small result in physical programming and grouping tasks. However, as we expected before this experiment, learning electricity seemed to be difficult for students. For example, Ohm's law was difficult for students who had learned it in junior high school. It might be possible to teach electronic circuit like LEGO Block without any explanation about a theory or background knowledge. However, learning theories in nature is inevitable in science education. We are planning to devise course materials to reduce the offset of learning electricity for next year.
References
Banzi, M. (2011). Getting Started with Arduino. 2nd edn. O'Reilly Media.
Gibbs, N. E. and A. B. Tucker (1986). A Model Curriculum for A Liberal Arts Degree in Computer Science.Communications of the ACM 29(3), ACM.
Ishii, H. (2006). Tangible User Interfaces. CHI 2006 Workshop Proceedings.
Kobayashi, S. (2010). Prototyping Lab in Japanese. O'Reilly Japan.
Liberal Arts Computer Science Consortium (LACS) (2007). A 2007 Model Curriculum for a Liberal Arts Degree in Computer Science. ACM Journal on Educational Resources in Computing 7(2). ACM.
Marshall, P. (2007). Do tangible interfaces enhance learning? TEI'07. ACM.
Monk, S. (2012). Programming Arduino. McGraw-Hill Companies.
Schmidt, M. (2011). Arduino, The Pragmatic Programmers.
Winslow, L. E. (1996). Programming Pedagogy — A Psychological Overview. SIGCSE Bulletin 28(3). ACM.
Arduino, http://www.arduino.cc/
Processing, http://processing.org/
Scratch, http://scratch.mit.edu","txt","2","",""
"1764","14","Pure Transcriptional Markup","10","Renear (2000) introduces the term ""transcriptional markup"" with a loose sense of pertaining to the reproduction of an existing text, and he does not attempt to define transcription per se. More recently Huitfeldt and Sperberg-McQueen (2008), and Huitfeldt, Marcoux, and Sperberg-McQueen (2009, 2010) have developed a model of transcription (hereafter the HMS model) that they believe ""provides a sort of greatest common denominator for markup systems"" (2010, 15). But an awkward gap exists between the HMS model's abstract components and the realities of, for example, the TEI markup language and its typical usage. Here I make the case for a kind of markup — perfectly possible though in practice improbable — which bridges that gap. I call it pure transcriptional markup because it refines the sense of Renear's term and grounds it in an actual, formally specified model of transcription. [1]
Transcription and text encoding are clearly connected, especially where markup replaces the work of presentation. [2] However, not everything that typical scholarly encoding practice might assert regarding the logical domain of a pre-existing text can be considered proper to transcription (if ""transcription"" is to have any specific meaning of its own). In the initial HMS model Huitfeldt and Sperberg-McQueen (2008) avoid the trap of trying to decide what visible details of an exemplar document E should be reproduced in a transcription T by asking instead what overall relation must hold between the two such that document T is a successful transcription of document E (expressed as t_similar). They say that under a set of reading conditions R, marks of E can be seen as a sequence of tokens each instantiating a type. So, abstractly, a document E is a sequence of types, and if under the same set of reading conditions R a document T can be seen as a token sequence whose corresponding type sequence matches E's type sequence, then E and T are t_similar.
The initial HMS model considers a simple sequence of basic, indivisible tokens at grapheme level; later versions (2009, 2010) introduce components that allow the modeling of a complex structure of token groups (and related types). These groups, known as compound tokens, may have as constituents either compound tokens or basic (atomic) tokens. The resulting view of a document comprising a structured, multi-level token sequence immediately suggests similarities with the well-known 'ordered hierarchy of content objects' (OHCO). As noted above, its creators explicitly connect the HMS model to markup, saying some aspects ""serve purposes analogous to the generic identifiers and attribute-value pairs of SGML and related markup languages"" (2010, 11), that ""element types are types"", and ""element instances are tokens"" (2010, 15).
However, some features of common encoding practice are problematic for the model. I briefly outline two of them here; a single example will illustrate both. [3] Suppose an original printed text contains the sentence ""Joe stinks!"" Describing this sentence in terms of the HMS model we have:
•        11 basic tokens at character level — 'J', 'o', 'e', ' ', 's', 't', 'i', 'n', 'k', 's','!'
•        2 compound tokens at word level — 'Joe' and 'stinks'
•        1 compound token at sentence level — 'Joe stinks!'
A typical TEI encoding of our example might be:
•        <persName>Joe</persName> <emph rend=""italics"">stinks</emph>!
For the first of the awkward features, recall that for HMS element types are types and element instances are tokens. In markup theory an instance of an element with #PCDATA content would be start tag + content + end tag. So <persName>Joe</persName> is a single element instance and hence a single token. But what type does it instantiate — type 'persName', or type 'Joe'? The problem here is that the single element instance appears to be two tokens, one wrapped inside another. Furthermore, they appear to be operating at different levels: as a specific lexical item, and as a characterization of the lexical item.
The second awkward feature can be seen in <emph rend=""italics"">stinks</emph>. If element types are types, then we must assume an <emph> element instantiates an 'emphasis' type. Yet there are strong grounds for arguing that emphasis is not a type in the sense used by the model. Wetzel (2009, xii-xiii), citing arguments from Wollheim 1968, believes that while types may well be considered universals, they differ from other universals such as properties. Speaking of words as types she says ""they are objects according to the common sense and scientific theories we have about them—values of the first-order variables and referents of singular terms—rather than properties"" (124). The emphasis associated with the token ""stinks"" by the use of italic typeface is at the type level a property associated with the word type 'stinks', not a type itself. Viewing emphasis as a property does accord with the model, which allows for relations between properties and types.
Commonly in encoding schemes there are elements that certainly seem to be associated with types as per the HMS model; but there are also elements we would associate with properties, a point noted by Dubin (2003). The TEI scheme has many type-like elements, but no constraining principle that elements should be restricted to Peirceian types. Rather the 'targets' seem to be textual features — that may or may not be objects, may or may not be visible properties. Markup is directed at organizational features made manifest by the work of presentation (paragraphs, lists, etc.), and non-organizational features that stand out in the regular text flow by virtue of either visible difference or semantic nature.
The challenge, then, is firstly to describe a general view of encoding that does fit the HMS model, and secondly to see if this view helps account for actual encoding in terms of the model. We noted that in the HMS model transcription is defined by the mediation of a type sequence between E and T. The conceptual movement is not
E_token_structure -> T_token_structure
but rather
E_token_structure -> E_type_structure -> T_token_structure.
The middle part of this progression — establishing the type sequence under a reading — may happen in the transcriber's head, but it is the core of the model nevertheless. It is also fundamental to the HMS model that at any one level, a token instantiates a single type. From these givens, some criteria for pure transcriptional encoding emerge.
* if elements are tokens they must instantiate a single type. We therefore move #PCDATA content into attribute values and make all basic-level elements empty. Our example ""Joe stinks!"" might be represented as follows:
<sentence> <word designation=""persName""> <character type=""j"" form=""majuscule""/> <character type=""o""/> <character type=""e""/> </word> <whitespace/> <word communicative_intent=""emphasis""> <character type=""s""/> <character type=""t""/> <character type=""i""/> <character type=""n""/> <character type=""k""/> <character type=""s""/> </word> <punctuation type=""exclamation""/> </sentence>
* elements, attributes, and element structure must either supply overtly or make available through logical inference the information necessary for t_similarity; we must therefore view pure transcriptional encoding as applying to E_type_structure rather than to E_token_structure. [4]
* under a reading R, at whatever level a token is considered basic, so must an element at that level be considered basic and therefore atomic; ie. if character level is considered basic, then ""e"" and ""<character type='e'/>"" are equally indivisible.
* the status of elements as tokens must be somewhat unusual. Wetzel (2012), following Wollheim (1968), notes that types usually resemble their tokens. Even if we allow for minor differences of form (eg. token ""E"" instantiating type 'e'), we cannot claim ""<character type='e'/>"" resembles 'e'. Pure transcriptional markup represents an intermediary stage not normally intended for human consumption — in effect a kind of precipitation out of the E_type_structure into something half-way towards a normal token sequence.
The elements of pure transcriptional markup are analogous to the posited sentences that Zellig Harris in his mathematical theory of grammar says ""go beyond what is normally said in English and are characterized as grammatically possible rather than as actual sentences"" (1982, p. 15, my emphasis). The crucial point for Harris is that these sentences, while never encountered 'in the wild', can through a series of rule-governed transformations be reduced to — and so account for — the sentence forms we do encounter in everyday English. These operations ""have the common property . . . of reducing high-likelihood, low information entries [or words into sentences]"" (p. 8). I suggest a similar relation holds with respect to the difference between pure transcriptional markup and everyday markup, and that we could describe a series of non-random transformations that would reduce the high-likelihood, low-information encoding such as we see in the example above to the kind of markup we normally encounter. In digital humanities we commonly 'zero out' most transcriptional encoding leaving a majority of tokens in #PCDATA form - so ""<character type='e'/>"" becomes just ""e"". Where we want to retain information about a type property without using a specific form of #PCDATA token, we apply transformations that zero out the nature of the type (ie. we remove the low-information markup that says ""stinks"" is a word) leaving just the property to be expressed by the markup — hence TEI's <emph>.
References
Caton, Paul (2004). Text Encoding, Theory, and English: A Critical Relation. Ph.D dissertation. Brown University.
Caton, Paul (2009). Lost in Transcription: Types, Tokens, and Modality in Document Representation. In Digital Humanities held June 2009 at College Park, University of Maryland.
Dubin, D. (2003). Object mapping for markup semantics. In Usdin, B. T. (ed). Proceedings of Extreme Markup Languages. Montreal, Quebec.
Harris, Z. (1982). A Grammar of English on Mathematical Principles. New York: Wiley-Interscience.
Huifeldt, C., and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen (2008). What is transcription? Literary and Linguistic Computing. 23 (3). 295-310. doi:10.1093/llc/fqn013
Huitfeldt, C., Y. Marcoux, and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen (2009). ""What is transcription? (Part 2)."" In Digital Humanities held June 2009 at College Park, University of Maryland.
Huitfeldt, Claus, Yves Marcoux and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen (2010). ""Extension of the type/token distinction to document structure."" In Balisage: The Markup Conference 2010. held August 3-6, 2010 in Montréal, Canada. InProceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2010. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies.5. doi:10.4242/BalisageVol5.Huitfeldt01.
Renear, A. (2000). The descriptive/procedural distinction is flawed. Markup Languages 2 (4). 411-420.
Renear, A., and D. Dubin (2003). Towards identity conditions for digital documents. In S. Sutton (ed.) Proceedings of the 2003 Dublin Core Conference. University of Washington, Seattle, WA.
Wetzel, L. (2009). Types and Tokens: On Abstract Objects. Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press.
Wollheim, R. (1968). Art and Its Objects. New York: Harper and Row.
Notes
1. This paper presents work from a much larger, ongoing project prompted by ideas first presented in Caton 2009. I no longer defend the conclusions of that earlier work, and the current project represents a substantial rethinking and development of my initial ideas.
2. On the work of presentation see Caton 2004. Another part of the larger project from which this work is drawn examines in detail how presentation mediates transcription and encoding.
3. Necessarily, the outline given here is greatly condensed from an extensive discussion in the larger project, with some consequent loss of continuity and supporting evidence from the argument.
4. Note that we would still have to associate a semantics with the pure transcriptional markup if we wanted to establish formal identity between documents in the manner suggested by Renear and Dubin (2003).","txt","2","",""
"1765","14","Reading Habits & Attitude in the Digital Environment: A Study on Dhaka University Students","9","Technological advancement has made books available not only in printed format but also in electronic format. Bangladesh is currently experiencing the exponential growth of information and entertainment being created in a digital format. The government of Bangladesh declares ‘Digital Bangladesh’ by 2020. This steps, activities and environment are gaining importance particularly among younger people in Bangladesh (Islam & Tsuji 2011). This phenomenon may change the way people perceive about reading and how printed materials are being utilized to facilitate reading. At present this paper is the first attempt to measure reading habits and attitudes in digital environment of the students in Bangladesh. This study may trigger more such research in other developing countries.
Reading culture in Bangladesh
Based on the survey conducted Bishwa Sahitya Kendra meaning 'World Literature Center' the reading interest and habits of Bangladeshis is very low (Bishwa Sahitya Kendra, 2012). In Bangladesh, primary, secondary and higher secondary level education are completely in Bengali medium and in higher education is both in Bengali and English languages. As most of the web contents in Bangladesh are in English language, it usually reduces the reading habits in online environment. The electronic media is challenging the reading habit in the society by shifting the attention to computer, mobile phone and internet. In the last few years it has grown dramatically, although obviously from a very low base. With an estimated internet user-base of 7.5 million coming into 2012, representing a 5% user penetration by population, the local internet industry has been preparing to move into the next stage of its development (Internet World Statistics, 2012). In a recent survey by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS), it was found that the literacy rate is only 56.8% (CIA, 2012).
Research about reading has been approached from various possible angles and from a variety of disciplinary backgrounds including literature, social science, library and information science, information systems and more recently information and communication technologies (ICT). With the growing amount of digital information available and the increasing amount of time that people spend reading electronic media, the digital environment has begun to affect people’s reading behavior. Studies on reading habits and attitude among university students has gained as much attention in recent years due to the impact of digital media made available through the internet (Liu 2005; Ramirez 2003). Several theorists in reading and literacy such as Landow (1992), Lanham (1993), O’Donnell (1998) and Murray (1997) all agree that the digital media brought through progressive development of ICT has introduced a transformative shift in reading and writing. University students have been known to be very receptive to different forms of media in their reading and writing practices. A number of scholars argue that the arrival of digital media, together with the fragmentary nature of hypertext, is threatening sustained reading (Healy 1990; Birkerts 1994). Birkerts (1994) further notes that the younger generation growing up in the digital environment lacks the ability to read deeply and to sustain a prolonged engagement in reading. Bolter (1991) states: “The shift from print to the computer does not mean the end of literacy itself, but the literacy of print, for electronic technology offers us a new kind of book and new ways to write and read”. Digital media contribute to a transformative shift in reading. They also introduce a number of powerful advantages that are traditionally absent in the printed environment, such as interactivity, non-linearity, immediacy of accessing information, and the convergence of text and images, audio and video (Landow 1992; Lanham 1993; Murray 1997; Ross 2003). Abidin, Pour-Mohammadi & Choon Lean (2011) conducted a study on Malaysian Chinese university students and it is revealed that the participants prefer the electronic media when reading for leisure but prefer the printed media to pass exams.
Methodology
In this study, the researcher intends to explore the reading attitude and habits among the Dhaka University students using a survey research method.
Online survey tool
An online survey tool Kwik Surveys was used for this research. The URL to the online questionnaire was sent mainly through different SNTs using personal messaging option and group post where the university students were connected via Facebook, Twitter, etc. Also, the URL was printed and provided to the students to respond to the questionnaire.
The questionnaire
The survey requested basic demographic data regarding age, gender and academic status and also contained items regarding the reading attitudes and habits. Students were asked to provide answers of viz, how often do you read in a week, what types of materials do they read, resources to get the reading materials, reading materials in leisure time, times spend on reading in online and so on. The survey also included 7-point Likert scale items regarding students’ attitudes towards reading, preference of reading in online and manual (1 being the lowest and 7 being the highest). The data analysis was carried out using SPSS statistical analysis software.
Data analysis techniques
In order to determine influence of students’ demographic characteristics on their opinions on reading attitudes and behaviour, Mann-Whitney and Kruskall-Wallis tests were carried out. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze demographic characteristics of the students in relation to their reading books in digital environment. A total 192 students responded to the online survey.
Objectives of the study
This study attempts to answer the following Major Research Questions (MRQs) as formulated below:
MRQ 1. What is the reading habit of the students in terms of the following?
•        (a) What type of reading material do they read?
•        (b) How much time do student spend on reading?
•        (c) Where do they get the reading material?
•        (d) When do they read?
•        (e) What do they read during leisure time?
•        (f) What percentage of time reading spent on reading electronic documents, browsing and scanning, and their overall experience with online reading?
•        (g) What are the tools they use access to electronic resources?
MRQ2. What is the students’ attitude towards reading?
•        (a) Do they love to read book?
•        (b) Do they think reading is boring?
•        (c) Do they feel pleasure to spend money for buying book?
•        (d) Which medium (printed or online) do they feel comfort for reading book?
•        (d) What is their overall reading attitudes and other relevant issues?
MRQ3. Is there any relationship between gender, age, study level with their reading habit and attitude?
Findings
This study was conducted in an attempt to enhance our understanding about reading habits and attitudes of the university students in Bangladesh focusing on a case of a public university. In this effort, students from all the faculties were chosen as the respondents. In overall analysis that include both groups, results indicates that university students spend quite a signiﬁcant amount of time reading newspapers 84.90% and second highest is the academic books 61.46%. A good number of students (50%) read also website materials. Reading has also become a major activity during their leisure time. Most of the students (57.81%) read fiction and novel in their leisure time and it is followed by newspaper 55.73%, magazine 43.75% and website materials (29.17%). The amount of time spent on reading other materials by the university students is seen as higher than their academic books and materials. This group is expected to read more due to their engagement in the academic process that requires them to read. Despite different extent in the preference among different genders and different study level, the study ﬁnds that preference for reading printed text remains strong which is 51.56%. This clearly indicates that printed media is the more used than online media due to the lack of facilities, poor online content and less availability of reading materials in online. On the other hand, students prefer reading in online environment when read short documents, casual reading and most recent information which mean score is above 4. In online environment, access to electronic resources mobile phone, laptop and desktop are the most used tools. Attitudes towards reading was high as the statements love to read books, like to read books when have free time and enjoyment from reading score was above 4. Several limitations can be found in the conduct of this study. Among them are the small sample size, the inclusion of only one university and the limited amount of variables studied. A bigger scale study need to be conducted for more reliable results, and with the inclusion of more variables such as family background, reading exposure and availability of reading materias, and variables that are related speciﬁcally with reading in the digital environment. In addition, the ﬁndings of the study should assist the university authority, especially the library and the computing department to look into service matters pertaining to accommodating the reading as well as the studying habits of the student. 24 hours of computing service may also allow students to use the internet since the day time is fully occupied with classes. This practice has been carried out in many western high academic institutions.
References
BSK (2012). Bishwa Sahitya Kendra available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishwa_Sahitya_Kendra
Birkerts, S. (1994). The Gutenberg Elegies: The Fate of Reading in an Electronic Age. Boston: Faber and Faber.
Bolter, J. D. (1991). Writing Spaces: The Computer, Hypertext, and the History of Writing. Hillsdale, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum Associates.
CIA (2012). The World Factbook: Bangladesh, available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bg.html.
Healy, J. M. (1990). Endangered Minds: Why Our Children Don’t Think. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Internet World Statistics (2012). Bangladesh-Internet Markets and Forecasts, available at:http://www.internetworldstats.com/asia/bd.htm
Islam, M. A., and K. Tsuji. (2011). Bridging digital divide in Bangladesh: study on community information centers, The Electronic Library. 29 (4): 506–522
Landow, G. (1992). Hypertext: The Convergence of Technology and Contemporary Critical Theory. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Lanham, R. (1993). The Electronic Word: Technology, Democracy, and the Arts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Liu, Z. (2005). Reading behavior in the digital environment: changes in reading behavior over the past 10 years, Journal of Documentation. 61(6): 700-12.
Murray, J. H. (1997). Hamlet on the Holodeck: The Future of Narrative in Cyberspace. Boston: MIT Press.
O’Donnell, J. J. (1998). Avatars of the Word: From Papyrus to Cyberspace. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Abidin, M. J. Z, M. Pour-Mohammadi, and O. Choon Lean (2011). The reading habits of Malaysian Chinese University Students. Journal of Studies in Education. 1(1):E9.
Ramirez, E. (2003). “The impact of the internet on the reading practices of a university community: the case of UNAM”, paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress: 69th IFLA General Conference and Council, Berlin, August 1-9.
Ross, C. S. (2003). “Reading in a digital age”, available at www.camls.org/ce/ross.pdf.","txt","2","",""
"1766","14","Reading the Visual Page of Victorian Poetry","10","The digitization of nineteenth-century texts offers us the opportunity of asking new research questions that could transform our historical understanding of Victorian culture. Digital access to the breadth of nineteenth-century print culture, which included books, periodicals, and newspapers published for an ever-increasing reading audience, puts pressure on traditional configurations of the literary canon, which examines only a limited number of authors and texts. As Dan Cohen asks, ‘Should we be worrying that our scholarship might be anecdotally correct but comprehensively wrong? Is 1 or 10 or 100 or 1000 books an adequate sample to know the Victorians?’ (Cohen). In developing VisualPage, a software application for the large-scale identification and analysis of the graphical elements of digitized printed books, we will enable researchers to identify unique or representative examples across very large data sets of digitized texts. Such computational analysis will reveal new ways of thinking about both the printed book and its digitized forms. This paper presents the current development of this proof-of-concept software (funded in 2012 by a Level II NEH Digital Humanities Start-Up Grant) and some findings from the analysis of our initial data set.
Large Scale Analysis and Victorian Books
As Franco Moretti notes, the traditional Victorian canon includes only a ‘minimal fraction of the literary field’ constituted by all the texts published in the period. He calls for new methods of analysis because ‘a field this large cannot be understood by stitching together separate bits of knowledge about individual cases, because it isn't a sum of individual cases: it's a collective system’ (3-4). To understand the literary field as a system requires examining what Pierre Bourdieu calls ‘position-takings’ — all of the actions, persons, and objects that produce a work of art and its cultural value, including those ‘which, because they were part of the self-evident givens of the situation, remain unremarked and are therefore unlikely to be mentioned in contemporary accounts’ (30-31). The structures of cultural value that surrounded Alfred Tennyson's In Memoriam, Christina Rossetti's Goblin Market and Other Poems, or any other volume of Victorian poetry were partly created by all the other books of poetry, including what Bourdieu calls the ‘unremarked’ ones that were overlooked by both Victorian critics and scholars in our own day.
Digitization offers us the possibility of expanding our study of Victorian literature to include previously ‘unremarked’ texts. However, most tools for large-scale research focus on the linguistic content of texts, through either syntactic or semantic analysis. But printed texts simultaneously convey meaning through both linguistic and graphic signs. As Jerome McGann suggests, ‘text documents, while coded bibliographically and semantically, are all marked graphically’ and a ‘page of printed or scripted text should thus be understood as a certain kind of graphic interface’ (138, 199). We’ve taken poetry as our starting point for VisualPage because the visual appearance of the printed page contributes to the reader’s understanding of the poem’s form and meaning through the conventions of line capitalization, punctuation, and indentation.
Printed poems are typically framed by the white space created by line endings, creating a distinctive visual signal of the genre on the printed page. Experienced readers evaluate the graphical codes of printed texts quickly, often subconsciously; as Johanna Drucker suggests, ‘we see before we read and the recognition thus produced predisposes us to reading according to specific graphic codes before we engage with the language of the text’ (242). In Victorian books of poetry, for example, rhymed lines were frequently indented the same distance from the left margin to visually indicate the poem’s form and structure. Rhyme is thus simultaneously a linguistic, poetic, and graphic feature of many Victorian books.
Scholars have long realized that ‘Typographic transcriptions . . . abstract texts from the artifacts in which they are versioned and embodied’ (Viscomi 29). Although full bibliographical analysis of a book is not available from a digital surrogate, digital images of a book’s pages offer researchers more information about ‘the interaction of its physical characteristics with its signifying strategies’ than can text alone (Hayles 103). Accordingly, most scholarly digital archive projects today recognize the value of this graphical meaning and provide users access to both digitized page images and plain text versions. But until now, researchers have been limited to only what their human eyes can see or recognize in those page images. Developing tools for the large scale graphical analysis of digitized books will contribute to a broader understanding of literature’s circulation, consumption, and function within Victorian culture.
Overview of the VisualPage Application
In order to make the visual structure of document images explicit and available to both computational processing and interactive human analysis, the VisualPage application is designed around three inter-related tasks. The Feature Extraction module analyzes the digitized page images in order to translate pixels into the language of visual features used to design and analyze page layout: typeface size; margin size; width, height and spacing of text lines; and more. These features are then organized in relation to bibliographic categories, such as volumes, poems, and pages, in order to enable questions such as ‘how much variability is there in the length of lines in poems from two different publishers?’ or ‘how does the visual density of a page change for this publisher over time?’ VisualPage is designed so that the specific set of features extracted from a collection can be changed in response to new analytical needs and new technical capabilities.
Once these features have been extracted and stored in an attribute-relation file (ARFF), the next task is to discover relationships within the data. This is the responsibility of the Pattern Recognition module. The pattern recognition module will support basic queries such as ‘find all poems that use dropped capital letters’ or ‘find poems whose line length is in the bottom 25% of poems from this publisher.’ It will also enable more sophisticated data mining based on machine-learning techniques. Simple examples include the ability to cluster documents based on a set of features such as margin width and line height or to find documents that are ‘visually similar’ to a set of known documents.
Finally, the Analysis module presents data visualization and exploration interfaces. This is the outward-facing portion of the application that allows scholars to interact with the documents and to harness the pattern recognition tools in order to pose new questions and discover new relationships within the collection.
During the start-up phase of this project, we are focusing software development work toward two main objectives. First, we are designing the main structure of each module and implementing an initial set of features that can be extended and enhanced through future work. Second, we are performing an initial proof-of-concept prototyping for the more technically complex components of the system. Notably, this includes:
•        recognition of the low-level image features
•        understanding the higher-level structure in terms of both poetry (e.g., titles, epigraphs, stanzas as they are found within a single page and across multiple pages) and page layout (margins, running heads, page numbers, footnotes, etc.)
•        analyzing these structures using pattern recognition and machine learning techniques
This proof-of-concept work addresses questions about which approaches hold the most promise for scholarly research in addition to demonstrating the technical feasibility of our approach. In order to ensure that the techniques we develop are appropriate to collections beyond that which can be easily analyzed and comprehended by a single scholar, our initial data set consists of 300 single-author books of poetry published between 1860-1880, or approximately 60,000 page images.
Initial Research Findings
In presenting research findings from our initial data set of single-author books of poetry, we will focus on three main areas of research:
•        identifying historical changes correlated with particular publishers in the printing of poetry during the period 1860-1880
•        analyzing line indenting and line length to understand Victorian rhyme and poetic form across a varied set of authors and texts
•        identifying computationally significant patterns or trends in the graphical design of Victorian books
Our VisualPage software enables researchers to move beyond our human capacity to view, compare, and understand only a limited number of texts at one time. Large-scale analysis of the graphical dimensions of previously ‘unremarked’ books offers us the possibility of understanding the cultural field of Victorian poetry in all its historical complexity.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities [HD5156012].
References
Bourdieu, P. (1993). The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed. In Johnson, R. (ed). The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press.
Cohen, D. (2010). Searching for the Victorians. Dan Cohen, http://www.dancohen.org/2010/10/04/searching-for-the-victorians (accessed 4 October 2010).
Drucker, J. (2009). SpecLab: Digital Aesthetics and Projects in Speculative Computing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Hayles, N. K. (2005). My Mother was a Computer: Digital Subjects and Literary Texts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
McGann, J. (2001). Radiant Textuality: Literature after the World Wide Web. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Moretti, F. (2005). Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History. London: Verso.
Viscomi, J. (2002). Digital Facsimiles: Reading the William Blake Archive. Computers and the Humanities 36(1). 27-48.","txt","2","",""
"1767","14","Rebuilding Civil War Washington","2","In April 2012, the Center for Digital Research in the Humanities at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln launched version 2.0 of Civil War Washington (civilwardc.org). This poster presentation will document the evolution of Civil War Washington(CWW) from version 1.0 to version 2.0, including the technologies used, the changing aims of the project, and the intellectual rationale underlying these decisions. Changes made for version 2.0 included a revamping of the overall design and underlying framework of the site and the development of three major sections, Texts, Data, and Maps. This poster will emphasize the structure and design of the site, as well as the Texts section.
Although the site maintained a similar but updated visual look from version 1.0 to version 2.0, nearly everything on the back end was rewritten, including the HTML and CSS. The technology in the intervening three years had changed so much that we were able to streamline the HTML and employ CSS3 elements for features such as drop shadows and embedded fonts. At the same time, we chose to abandon a CSS framework used in the first version of the site because the framework made it too easy to accidentally break the layout. We are now using heavily commented descriptive classes on HTML elements.
The Texts section of CWW changed significantly from the first version of the site to the second. Most visibly, the amount of available material expanded. Originally, CWW included six HTML pages of cases from the Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion and a number of issues of a single hospital newspaper. With the relaunch of the site, we added 200 petitions filed in response to the DC Emancipation Act of 1862 (more petitions are added on a regular basis), separated the medical cases into their own files (more than 1,400 and counting), and posted nearly complete runs of three newspapers. Each of these different types of texts required specific encoding choices that were rooted in our scholarly commitments and were necessarily influenced by more pragmatic concerns.
Throughout the history of the project, all documents represented in the Texts section have been encoded in TEI. Working toward version 2.0 of the site, we determined that the initial encoding for the medical cases—in which all cases from a particular volume of the Medical and Surgical History were represented in a single TEI file, transformed to HTML — did not adequately model our understanding of the cases or how we thought they most usefully told the story of Civil War DC. We used XSLT to separate all of the cases into individual files, drawing on existing metadata to generate new TEI headers and keywords for the cases. We also modified our approach to encoding personal, place, and organization names and references to dates. For the petitions, we recognized that the key features to be encoded were form and handwritten text; personal, place, and organizational names; and the structure of the documents. In addition, part of our editorial work was rejoining documents separated into two record groups at the U.S. National Archives. Therefore, our encoding practices needed to be able to accurately describe and reconstruct this quality of the documents.
One goal of the revamped Texts section was to make use of this new deep encoding. For version 2.0 of the site, we made use of the CSS element @font-face, which allowed for considerable typographic choices. This change required further discussion and raised potential problems, however, as many free fonts support only limited character sets, and many of the project documents included Unicode characters such as ligatures. In addition, the encoding and new site infrastructure allowed us to link cases to one another by drawing on the encoded keywords and utilizing SOLR as the search engine. Likewise, we utilized the encoding to visually mark the handwritten text of petitions in the browser. Users have the option to toggle on the highlighting of handwritten text, thereby calling attention to the parts of documents unique across petitions. These examples illustrate just a few the many problems confronted and decisions made during the redesign.
The poster will include examples of the old code and content and the new code and content, noting the differences between them and providing screenshots that demonstrate the evolution of the site. In addition, the poster will document the technical and humanistic reasons for the changes, as part of the larger rationale of Civil War Washington.","txt","2","",""
"1768","14","Representing Materiality in a Digital Archive: Death Comes for the Archbishop as a Case Study","10","A central concern of digital humanities has been how satisfactorily a digital transcription or facsimile represents its object of study. Dino Buzzetti, noting that “every form of text representation entails the implicit or explicit assumption of a model,” has stressed the importance of a clearly defined digital text model to define a threshold for digital representation and critical study. [1] Sarah Werner, in a related turn, has asked what happens if “we move away from reading text to studying the physical characteristics of text, characteristics that can reveal important information about the content of the text and the cultural and historical creation of the artifact.” [2] Werner is particularly concerned with large-scale digitization projects’ inability to represent works with physical features integral to their interpretation. Andrew Jewell and Amanda Gailey, in their introduction to the journal Scholarly Editing, echo her concern with “quick and dirty automated methods” that “digitize vast quantities of texts” but invariably create “shortcomings in metadata, accuracy, representation of compositional and publication complexities, and annotation.” [3] Integral to all of these interventions is a distinction between the material form and linguistic content of print and manuscript material, and a desire to create digital archives that bring audiences closer to both. [4]
Two prominent initiatives, FRBR and TEI, exemplify efforts to address these kinds of concerns. The first has its origins in the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), which authored a study in 1990 “to delineate in clearly defined terms the functions performed by the bibliographic record with respect to various media, various applications, and various user needs.” [5] The result of this study was a report on Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR), released in 1997 and updated as recently as 2009. The Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) evolved from previous efforts to make texts machine readable through standardized markup practices. TEI states as its “chief deliverable” a set of guidelines “to represent all kinds of textual material for online research and teaching.” [6] Particular communities within TEI such as the Manuscript Description Task Force, the Physical Bibliography Work Group, and the Work group on Genetic Editions have established specialized approaches for the markup of particular bibliographical and book historical data. [7] TEI and FRBR share a vested interest in the responsibility of representation. Whereas TEI markup represents a mix of linguistic representation and bibliographic information, FRBR attempts to create hierarchies to differentiate record-level bibliographical attributes. [8]
I am developing a small-scale mark-up and metadata approach that reflects the strengths of TEI and FRBR. [9] The strength of such an approach would be its applicability to items with noteworthy physical and/or bibliographical features. I have created the structure for a relational database that integrates FRBR-inspired metadata with a collection of digital texts, which will eventually include digital facsimiles and transcriptions. My paper will discuss my continuing project for the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Center for Digital Research in the Humanities to provide users with a dynamic, visually-rich, and critically nuanced history of Willa Cather’s Death Comes for the Archbishop (1927) as a set of different material objects in multiple forms, including but not limited to manuscripts, notable editions, notebooks, translations, and interviews. My project has the particular goal of advancing knowledge about the creation, production, distribution, and reception of Death Comes for the Archbishop. It is also a test case in creating digital representations of print culture artifacts, textual variances, and bibliographical relationships among items. Central to my presentation will be a discussion of questions of form and content a project like this one raises:
•        1. What is the minimum baseline for representing the materiality of digital facsimiles and transcriptions? What is the optimum standard?
•        2. How successfully have efforts such as TEI and FRBR offered digital text models for different kinds of materials?
•        3. Do we need a better understanding of potentially significant bibliographical lines of inquiry in order to make these decisions?
•        4. Is materiality essentially a cataloging/records management problem, a mark-up problem, both, or neither?
•        5. To what extent will advances in interoperability improve book historical and digital humanities scholarship?
•        6. What is the optimum relationship between large-scale digitization efforts and small scale projects of scholarly interest?
My presentation will engage with these questions and report on the challenges I have encountered in this process and explain some of the decisions associated with the project. I will compare and contrast my work with some of the approaches to book historical questions taken by significant digital projects, including but not limited to the Modernist Journal Project, Radical Scatters, The Walt Whitman Archive, and The Digital Scriptorium, and Folger Digital Texts. I will also compare my approach to other experiments in FRBRization.
Notes
1. Buzzetti, D., Digital Representation and the Text Model New Literary History. 33 (1). 61. Buzzetti differentiates between the “form of the information’s expression”—the data representation—and the “form of the information’s content”—the “data model” (pp. 65-66). Markup has aspects of both. His central point rests on the conclusion that “the correct use of markup and the adequacy of digital representation presuppose … recourse to a suitable text model” (p. 84).
2. Werner, S. (2012). Where Material Book Culture Meets Digital Humanities. 'Geographies of Desire Conference'. held 27-28 April 2012 at University of Maryland, College Park. http://sarahwerner.net/blog/index.php/2012/04/where-material-book-culture-meets-digital-humanities/
3. Gailey, A. and Jewell, A.(2012). Editors' Introduction to the First Issue of Scholarly Editing: The Annual of the Association for Documentary Editing. 33. http://www.scholarlyediting.org/2012/essays/essay.v33intro.html
4. McGann, J. J.(1991). The Textual Condition. Princeton: Princeton University Press). 16. In Jerome J. McGann’s terms, interpreting a textual object requires delineation between its linguistic and bibliographical codes.
5. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. (1997). Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records, Final Report. As amended and corrected through February 2009, p. 2.
6. TEI: Text Encoding Initiative Home Page, http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml
7. Bibliographical data, manuscripts’ physical layout, and text topography fall under what McGann classifies as bibliographical codes.
8. TEI markup describes linguistic text structure and physical object properties with hierarchizing them per se. The proportion of each category differs from case to case, as TEI offers different guidelines for different types of texts, as well as a range of established customizations and recommended practices for establishing new customizations. See http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/Customization/.
9. FRBR is a bibliographical ontology but does not have a prescribed implementation scheme. Recognizing its potential, several projects have attempted to “FRBRize” their catalogues with varying degrees of success. The Resources Description and Access (RDA) standard is influenced by FRBR groupings. Perseus has a “FRBR-inspired” catalogue. Indiana University has piloted ""Variations as a Testbed for the FRBR Conceptual Model"" as a digital project. For an initial analysis of compatibilities between TEI and FRBR, see Kevin S. Hawkins, FRBR Group 1 Entities and the TEI Guidelines TEI Annual Members Meeting, held 6–8 November 2008, London http://www.ultraslavonic.info/preprints/20081102.pdf","txt","2","",""
"1769","14","Representing Texts Electronically in Lesser-used Languages: Current Issues and Challenges in Character Encoding","9","A premise of the Digital Humanities 2013 conference theme, “Freedom to Explore,” is that users of the languages of the world should be able to express themselves and search for documents in their own language (or one of their heritage), using the script employed to write that language. For many widely used languages, this is generally possible today, because its script (and characters) can be represented by the international character encoding standard Unicode (Unicode Consortium, 2012) and its ISO mate, ISO/IEC 10646 (ISO/IEC, 2012), and because these scripts are supported on today’s computers and electronic devices.
But those scripts used for lesser-used languages — both modern and historic — that are not in Unicode are subject to problems in representation and searching, since they are not part of the standard. One consequence is that this will leave gaps in the world’s cultural, linguistic, and historical legacy. Even after the scripts are accepted and published in the Unicode Standard (and ISO standard), the languages and their scripts must then be supported in fonts and rendering engines, and locale data information is needed to implement a modern script on cell phones or computer devices. Because of these factors, the goal of making electronic text communication truly global and multilingual remains a high bar, but one that the digital humanities should continue to strive to achieve.
This short paper will report on recent developments in the effort to make the text of lesser-used languages accessible electronically, focusing primarily on issues involved in getting characters into Unicode but also touching on the social aspects of character encoding.
In the past few years, Unicode (and ISO/IEC 10646) has become more widely accepted and better understood, even by laypeople. Indeed, forty-two modern and historic scripts have been added in the various releases over the past six years [1] , most through the UC Berkeley Script Encoding Initiative (Script Encoding Initiative, 2012). In the past, it was often challenging to explain to language communities the importance of getting a script into Unicode. However, today user communities are themselves approaching the Unicode Consortium (or others involved in character encoding) in order to get their script included in the standard. The Script Encoding Initiative at UC Berkeley has, for example, been approached to help in encoding the ADLaM alphabet in Guinea and the Mandombe script in the Democratic Republic of Congo, two recently devised scripts intended for modern use. Historic script users — who may be heritage language users, “hobbyists” or come from academia or a liturgical setting — have also been active in getting scripts encoded. For example, experts of the Hatran script of the Middle East recently sought help in getting their script encoded.
While it is useful to have the user communities directly involved in the proposal process, proposals written by new authors often require extensive assistance. Typically, the approval process takes much longer for proposals written by new authors in order for all the required technical information to be included in the proposal. A more effective approach, adopted by the Script Encoding Initiative (SEI), has been to encourage user communities to work with a veteran Unicode proposal author, who is familiar with the standards committees’ requirements. However, relying on an outsider to help on a proposal may be looked on with suspicion. One way to allay this fear, an approach also advocated by the SEI project, is to try to encourage collaborative work between an expert in the encoding process and the users, making it clear the ownership of the script clearly belongs to the user community, but the encoding expert (and the standards committees) will help make sure the script will be implementable on today’s computers and fonts. Currently, work on the Nepaalalipi/Newar proposal is following this approach and a report on its success (or failure) will be relayed.
One issue in the encoding process that has repeatedly been an issue for user communities of modern scripts is what name to assign the script. A script name in Unicode is meant to be as an identifier (such as in programming), and typically one that is commonly found in English.2 The English requirement has been problematic, since the English name is often not that of the user communities. Also, the name for a script can vary across languages (and countries), so there can be a tug-of-war between groups as to which name to use. One way to deal with the name has been to encourage user communities to translate character names in the code charts into their own language. Likewise, once the script is approved, fonts can use their preferred name for the glyphs. In dealing with competing names in different languages, one solution has been to get the groups to try to agree on a name that is acceptable to all. This approach was successful for Tai Tham (“Lanna” in Thailand), but has not worked out well for Old Hungarian/Szekely-Hungarian Rovas. (Typically, names for historic scripts are not controversial or contentious, though disagreements have arisen within in the standards committees on a particular name or character.)
The current process of script encoding involves approval by the Unicode Technical Committee (UTC) and the subcommittee on coded character sets in the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Because ISO represents character encoding in the governmental arena, the subcommittee chair on Coded Character Sets in the past three years has tried to encourage countries of lesser-used scripts to participate in ISO, particularly those in West Africa. However, many countries have not been able to participate due to lack of funding. As a way to involve the user communities, the SEI project has worked with user communities, without direct support or involvement of the government.
Once a script is approved and published in a version of the Unicode Standard (and ISO/IEC 10646), a text in that script is not necessarily ready for interchange: fonts with the correct codepoints must be created as well as an input method, the rendering engine must be updated to support the script (particularly if the script is complex and has special processing for display), and locale data is needed for implementations, including electronic devices. In these areas, one of the more promising areas of assistance for modern lesser-used languages and scripts is the ScriptSource project sponsored by SIL International (SIL International, n.d.), The talk will include a discussion of the Cherokee script as it progressed from initial Unicode proposal to iPad and iPhone implementations, as a model for other lesser-used scripts. The paper will close with thoughts from the speaker on how to improve the current process and possible next steps, such as:
•        engage users and relevant national body standards bodies early in the process of encoding a script (so as to prevent a situation that arose with Khmer3)
•        support funding for projects in which a dedicated person can work with the user communities and instruct them on the encoding process
•        encourage users to vote (via their national standards body) on relevant ISO script encoding ballots.
References
Bauhahn, M., and M. Everson (2001). Response to Cambodian official objection to Khmer block (N2380).(=ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N2385). http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2385.pdf (accessed February 2013).
Committee for Standardization of Khmer Characters in Computers (2001). Cambodian official objection to the existing Khmer block in UCS. (=ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N2380). (2001). Web.http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2380.pdf (accessed 19 February 2013).
International Organization for Standardization/International Electrotechnical Commission (2012). ISO/IEC 10646:2012(E). Information technology — Universal Coded Character Set (UCS). Third ed.http://standards.iso.org/ittf/PubliclyAvailableStandards/index.html (accessed: 12 February 2013).
Script Encoding Initiative. (2012). List of SEI-Supported Proposals Completed and Published in Unicode and ISO/IEC 10646. UC Berkeley. http://www.linguistics.berkeley.edu/sei/alpha-script-completed.html. (accessed 19 February 2013).
SIL International Writing systems, computers and people. Scriptsource. http://scriptsource.org. (accessed 19 February 2013).
Unicode Consortium (2012). Character Properties, Case Mappings and Names FAQ.http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.2.0/. (accessed 3 November 2012).
Unicode Consortium (2012). Unicode 6.2.0. http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.2.0/. (accessed 3 November 2012).
Notes
1. See the charts for the various editions of the Unicode Standard, such as: http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/Unicode-6.1/, http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/Unicode-6.0/, http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/Unicode-5.2/,http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/Unicode-5.1/, http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/Unicode-5.0/.
2. See the Unicode Consortium’s Frequently Asked Question on this topic, Unicode Consortium 2012b.
3. The encoding of the Khmer script in 1999-2000 resulted in the Khmer community feeling acutely left out of the process, (cf. their objections in Committee for Standardization of Khmer Characters in Computers, 2001), although the situation was probably somewhat more complex (cf. Bauhahn and Everson, 2001)","txt","2","",""
"1770","14","Research to clarify the interrelationships between family members through the analysis of family photographs","9","1. Background
In Japan, historical studies have focused on communities, such as families, have usually taken the form of using written documents. However, written documents such as diaries, records, and letters contain many descriptions of events that occurred in the past and of the actions of the head of the family etc., and they are as such not appropriate for bringing light to the relationships between the family members in the carrying out of this research. And these written documents are often dependent on the subjective view of the person who wrote them.
On the other hand, it is possible to perform an objective and holistic analysis of human relations by performing a numerical analysis of the people displayed together in photographic materials that were taken during the family’s official events. Especially the aristocratic family had the habit of taking pictures at their regular rituals, meaning they left behind many official photographs. The reason that digital tools were used is that network analysis of all of the people depicted on over 100 photographs requires not only functions that assign the information of person to images but also computing facilities that perform network analysis on relationships between tagged persons, and in order to implement this, digital technology is indispensable. Thus,we constructed a digital cultural heritage system to analyze relationship in a family using photograph.
2. An Overview of Iconographic Analysis using Authoritative Information.
In this research, as shown in Fig. 1, an authoritative information database of personal names was constructed, and that information was analyzed through API using an iconographic material subject analysis system.
 
Fig 1:
System Overview
For authoritative personal name information, focusing on the pre-war imperial family, the nobility and photographers, roughly 3000 names were entered into a Shareword DB system. This authoritative personal name information was mainly made from standardized reference materials used in museums, libraries and archives, and created from element sets which allowed the sharing of information in this research, and API was added to the database to enable external searching (Togiya 2010; Kawashima and Togiya 2010). In addition, as an external system a picture annotator was created using this API.
3. Photograph Annotator
The photograph annotator was based on analysis of annotations of individuals present in group photos of the nobility. For the prototype, a stand-alone application using Java was implemented. Functions were largely divided into three: search, annotation, and analysis.
•        (1) Search: The search function can search through annotated photos. For each picture, metadata of title, photographer, creation date, publication, related organization, location, time and copyright is assigned, and search can be performed using this as a basis. Furthermore, for photographs that are annotated with personal names, specified characters can be searched.
•        (2) Annotation: Fig. 2 shows the annotation screen. Annotations are enclosed in a circle around a person's face, and are assigned the name of that individual. Using an API the name is linked to the individual in the authoritative information source, and is identified. At the present, individuals that are not included in the authoritative reference source are saved only on the local database, and are not specified. This is to prevent data from easily being added to authoritative information sources which are necessary to control, from here on the introduction of an API for adding new data is being considered.
•        (3) Analysis: As a further developmental feature, an analysis function was included. The analysis function creates graphs of the personal network of those assigned annotations. (Fig. 3) This graph affixes a node (point) to each individual and, by drawing edges (lines) between each person, allows the visualization of the personal relationships between individuals appearing in the same photograph.
In addition, a merit of entering blood relation data in the authoritative data DB through an API is that kinship ties between two specified individuals can be searched. By combining these two functions, it is possible to determine the kinship ties between two individuals who always appear together in photographs. 
Fig 2:
Annotation Display
4. Family network analysis results
For the analysis of family members, photographs of the former ducal Iwakura family from the 1860s to the 1920s were analyzed. Divided into generations by the heads of the family, generations can be divided into the 1st generation (from the 1860s to the 1900s), the 2nd and 3rd generations (from the 1890s to the 1900s), and the 4th and 5th generations (from the 1910s to 1945). For analysis of the family network, personal name information provided from authoritative information was attached to the appropriate family heads in digitalized photographs. Then, we interpreted that “the higher level of frequency with which certain members appear together in group photographs, the stronger the interrelationship between the members”, and analyzed the network relationship of the ties between each member. The basic information of analysis was summarized in Table1. The total number of photographs was 326 and the total number of family number in photographs was 29.And co-appearance pattern was 28 and the average number of occurrence of same pattern was 1.7.
As for analysis results, on a whole, since there is severance between the 1st generation and the 2nd and 3rd generations and on, and because daughters in particular bring the families into which they have married to be photographed with the main families, new groups become added to the family network in the photographs. Also, since people in the families of women who had married into the Iwakura family were invited and there were opportunities to be photographed with the family married into, it is possible to verify the formation of new family networks from the Iwakura family photographs.
Additionally, for the 1st generation, the family head was photographed alone, men and women were photographed separately, and the head, child siblings, women, and retainers were all photographed separately, network severance was observed. On the other hand, for the 2nd and 3rd generations, there were more photos which portrayed the family head together with the family members, and with the 4th and 5th generations in particular, there was a great volume of family photographs, with more photographs with relatives. Also, for the 1st generation the head husband and wife acted as a sort of “hub” which connected the family members and each of the 2nd and 3rd generations, but for the 3rd and 4th generations, the family head acted as a “hub” connecting their own generation with the previous generation.
On top of the results of this photograph analysis, we also examined written records and spoke to descendants of the family, and we learned that in actuality, in the 1st generation the family head played a feudalistic role, and family members were not able to simply interact with them. Also, the 2nd and 3rd generations had the same sort of situation, and it was the head husband and wife of the 1st generation who brought the family together and around whom the family was centered. Additionally, on the other hand, for the 4th and 5th generations, there were many cases in which the entire family was photographed together. Since the 4th generation retired from activity early on, the 4th generation head husband and wife act as the hub. Also, since the head of the 5th generation became head at the age of six, he is shown as the center of the family from early childhood, and is shown together with other family members in many photographs. Since he was the head of the family for over 60 years, it can be clearly seen from the analysis of the photographs that he acted as the “hub” which brings the family together.
 
Fig 3:
Diagram of Individual Appearance Network (Chinese character Version)
 
Table 1:
The summary of the analyses
5. Usage and Future Issues
By studying photographs and other iconography using these tools, perhaps the actions of the members, families or the individuals in the targeted picture can, to a degree, be comprehended, or possibly, further investigation is necessary to objectively identify the contents of the remaining materials as well as the matter of to which of these materials these contents belong. Furthermore, in order to improve the accuracy of the examination contents, comparison and verification with other materials is necessary. For this reason, it is necessary to promote the coordination with other databases through the sharing of API.
Additionally, as explained in the previous part, by analyzing photographs added to group photos, effective analytical data regarding the manner in which human relationship networks were formed among groups such as families can be provided. By using this data, it is possible to analyze the ways in which the interrelationships between members change throughout the years and generations. Also, by using these tools, photographs which have been used as verification tools for written records can be further utilized as historical materials which can be used for the acquisition of further subjective data.
References
Togiya, N. (2010). Building an authority file for personal names that leverages societal networks: centered on personal names of the 'Shashin-shi' of the pre-War period. The Bulletin of Japan Art Documentation Society 17: 31-52
Kawashima, T., and N. Togiya (2010). Cooperative Database Editor for expanding Japan MARC/A Japan Society of Information and Knowledge. 20(1): 24-29","txt","2","",""
"1771","14","Responding to the frame: classification, material boundaries, and expressiveness in personal digital bibliography","10","A systematic bibliography is a thematic collection of references to intellectual works, such as the subject guides produced by academic librarians. Free of the constraints of physical libraries, these metadata representations are able to describe and relate any resource in the bibliographic universe at the will of the bibliographer, to fulfill an endless variety of goals and express any number of associated opinions. A consumer health bibliography might provocatively endorse certain elements of alternative medicine; a guide to anthropology might focus on “scientific” methods as opposed to ethnographic ones, as espoused by the department at a particular institution.
Accordingly, the ultimate collection, comments Roger Chartier, is not one of actual books but of citations, a “library without walls,” as in Conrad Gesner’s monumental sixteenth-century compendium (Chartier, 1994). Instead of shelves, Gesner’s intricate classification scheme endows the bibliography’s contents with form and structure. Although expressed in words, a classification of this sort is meant to establish relationships between abstract concepts, for which the identifying terms are merely replaceable labels. A category labeled “Geometry” indicates the idea of geometry, not the word. Current standards, such as the 2005 NISO standard for controlled vocabularies and the 2010 IFLA recommendations for the representing subjects in the library catalog (FRSAD) continue this mode. (Jonathan Furner [2012] contributes a useful critique of the FRSAD approach.) Even library classifications are designed as abstractions, independent of the material world, to be potentially expressed in any shelving configuration; in these classifications, as well, the concept that designates a class is conceived as a purely mental construct. Its proper identification is a notation or code (e.g., GN 790 in the Library of Congress Classification), for which any label is just a form of convenient documentation.
The interpretive nature of these concepts, of their system of relations in a classification scheme, and of their application to any set of physically or virtually collected works, has been widely accepted within information studies (as in, for example, work by Birger Hjorland, Jens-Erik Mai, and Hope Olson). A subject class like GN 790 (Anthropology — Prehistoric archaeology — Megaliths) embodies a remarkable complex of judgments: that the significance of megaliths has to do with anthropology, that a subject is both an identifiable and important characteristic of documents, that the set of documents assigned to GN 790 are equally about “megaliths,” that “aboutness” is a decision easily and concretely made, as only some examples of the complex of appraisals that GN 790 expresses.
The recognition of classification as a mode of interpretation, and an accompanying sense that a citation collection or bibliography is itself a form of creative expression, is similar to the recognition of textual scholars that the application of markup languages such as TEI to digital texts is equally an interpretive act, and that critical editions expressed as digital collections are interpretive efforts. In textual studies, such realizations have led scholars such as Jerome McGann (2001), Johanna Drucker (2006), and Bonnie Mak (2011) to examine both the ways in which the material qualities of printed documents contribute to meaning and the means in which these material effects are transformed through digitization. Mak, for example, traces the semantic contributions of the page in manuscript, print, and digitized versions of a fifteenth-century Latin text. While the page signifies differently across these versions, the page as a material and conceptual construct always “matters.”
In contrast, due to the longstanding emphasis on the nature of classification as abstraction, the contribution of any material component to the meaning of a systematic bibliography would initially seem quite strange. Classifications are most often studied as self-contained systems of their own, and not as applied to works in practice. Even when classifications have been studied as infrastructural components of document collections, the relation between class and text is seen as a dialectic of ideas, and not as a means of constituting a thing with a specific material presence. The translation of paper-based systems to digital environments has only confirmed this rejection of presentation as having anything at all to do with the meaning of either classification schemes or the systematic bibliographies structured by them.
This paper describes how a user study focused on the authoring of personal digital collections, or personal systematic bibliographies, demonstrated a link between the material instantiation of a bibliography and the expressiveness of its structuring. Findings from this study suggest that meaning making for both writers and readers of personal digital bibliographies inheres to some degree within the abilities of the bibliographic environment to enact framing devices that clarify the system of relations between items as the primary focus of the text. Just as Gesner’s famous bibliography achieved notoriety not merely for its comprehensive selection of works but for its instantiation of relations between its contents, so does the expressiveness of personal digital collections result from the interplay between structure and contents, and not merely from the contents alone. In this paper, I contend that the ability to articulate and perceive this set of relations requires a frame with material presence, and not just mental presence.
The study described here is part of a larger project to investigate personal digital collections, or personal systematic bibliographies, as a form of creative expression. On the Web, social media services that enable users to aggregate content through the creation of personal digital collections have proliferated. Through communities such as Pinterest and GoodReads, users select and share resources linked (or cited) from elsewhere. Personal collections are enabled for retail sites, such as Amazon, and content providers, such as YouTube and Spotify. Cultural heritage institutions, including libraries and museums, have also encouraged users to create personal collections, through services like MyMet from the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Marty and Kazmer (2011) contend that such personal bibliographies facilitate the co-construction of knowledge between institutions and their user communities. As opposed to Gesner’s opus, however, most Pinterest boards and YouTube playlists are trivial and bland. The project’s initial investigation identified, out of the masses, a few salient examples that did constitute compelling expression and defined characteristics that contributed to these examples’ expressiveness: an original purpose for creating the bibliography, a distinct authorial voice in the presentation of the bibliography, and a sense of emotional intimacy underpinning the bibliography’s contents (Feinberg 2010, 2011).
The second stage of the project began to consider the design of environments to author such collections: could we encourage writers of personal bibliographies to generate more expressive examples? (One can see this as similar to an investigation focused around describing a markup language to more effectively characterize the poetic nature of texts as opposed to their informative nature, a complaint against TEI articulated by Jerome McGann.) A first experiment examined whether exposure to bibliographies that embodied all three of the identified expressive characteristics would affect the process or product of collection design (Feinberg, et al, 2012). Twelve participants created bibliographies by selecting items from specially constructed digital video libraries of source content. After creating one bibliography, participants interacted with expressive examples that were also created from the that video library. Participants then created a second bibliography using a different library of video source material. This simple intervention did not work; participants’ bibliographies and design processes did not change after experiencing the examples. Participants did, however fluently read and describe the distinctive characteristics of the expressive bibliographies. Participants especially noticed the use of descriptive infrastructure (titles, annotations, and so on) in the examples to convey meaning, yet participants made little use of such descriptive elements themselves.
This paper focuses on a second experiment to encourage descriptive infrastructure as a means of facilitating expressiveness in participant bibliographies. We examined whether a structured task that asked participants to separately consider the mechanisms of resource selection, description (titles, labels, annotations), and arrangement (systems of ordering, or relations between items) would enhance expressiveness. To focus on task, and not interface, we switched from a digital environment to a simple physical one, using small libraries of print books as source materials and bulletin boards as document substrates (with preprinted paper slips for citations, along with index cards and Post-its for descriptive elements). To our surprise, while task structure did not influence designs, all the bibliographies were more expressive, compared to the examples, than the previous experiment, and 19 of 24 participants implemented classificatory structure in their work. Many of these structures were reinforced via complex visual arrangements. This paper describes how what initially appeared to be small, inconsequential changes in the material conditions of our experiment resulted in markedly different authoring processes, as well as significantly more complex products. I discuss what the framing devices illuminated via this experiment signify for the development of digital environments to support the authoring of personal expressive bibliographies. As Johanna Drucker (2005) delineates the areas on a page where graphic elements contribute to its meaning, I will describe how material elements of personal digital bibliographies may contribute to (or detract from) their textuality.
References
American National Standards Institute/National Institute of Standards Organization (ANSI/NISO). (2005).Guidelines for the Construction, Format, and Management of Monolingual Controlled Vocabularies. (ANSI/NISO Z39.19 — 2005). http://www.niso.org/apps/group_public/project/details.php?project_id=46 (accessed 3 March 2013).
Chartier, R. (1994) The Order of Books. trans by Cochrane, L. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Drucker, J. (2006). Graphical Readings and the Visual Aesthetics of Textuality, Text. 16. 267–276.
Feinberg, M. (2011a). Expressive Bibliography: Personal Collections in Public Space. Knowledge Organization. 38 (2). 123–134.
Feinberg, M. (2011b). Personal Expressive Bibliography in the Public Space of Cultural Heritage Institutions. Library Trends. 59 (4). 588–606.
Feinberg, M., G. Geisler, E. Whitworth, and E. Clark (2012). Understanding Personal Digital Collections: an Interdisciplinary Exploration. Proceedings of the 2012 ACM Conference on Designing Interactive Systems (DIS). 200–209.
Furner, J. (2012). FRSAD and the Ontology of Subjects of Works. Cataloging and Classification Quarterly. 50 (5-7). 494–516.
Hjorland, B. (1992). The Concept of “Subject” in Information Science. Journal of Documentation. 48 (2). 172–200.
International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA). Functional Requirements for Subject Authority Data (FRSAD). http://www.ifla.org/files/assets/classification-and-indexing/functional-requirements-for-subject-authority-data/frsad-final-report.pdf (accessed 3 March 2013).
Mai, J.-E. (2011). The Modernity of Classification. Journal of Documentation. 67 (4). 710–730.
Mak, B. (2011). How the page matters. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Marty, P. and M. Kazmer (2011). Introduction to Understanding Users. Library Trends 59 (4). 563–567.
McGann, J. (2001) Radiant Textuality. New York: Palgrave.
Olson, H. (2001). The Power to Name: Representation in Library Catalogs. Signs 26 (3). 639–668.","txt","2","",""
"1772","14","Digitization and Dissemination: A Reverse Image Lookup study to assess the reuse of images of paintings from the National Gallery London?s website","2","Once digital images of cultural and heritage material are digitized and placed online, how can we tell if they are copied, disseminated, and reused? This poster explores Reverse Image Lookup (RIL) technologies — usually used to identify unlicensed reuse of commercial photography — to help in assessing the impact of digitized content. We report on a pilot study which tracked a sample of images from The National Gallery, London, to establish where they were reused on other webpages. In doing so, we assessed the current methods available for applying RIL, establishing how useful it can be to the cultural and heritage sectors.
RIL technologies are those which allow you to track and trace image reuse online. The main commercial service, TinEye, available since 2008, finds ‘exact and altered copies of the image you submit, including those that have been cropped, colour adjusted, resized, heavily edited or slightly rotated’ (TinEye, n.d). Since 2007, Google Image Search has also provided a free service which can find similar images across the Internet. Can these tools provide a useful method for tracking reuse of images of paintings once they are placed online? Kousha et al (2010) published a pioneering study which assessed ‘image reuse value’ of academic scientific images. We believe ours is the first systematic study to use RIL to look at digitized heritage content.
We choose two samples of paintings from the National Gallery: all paintings held in Room 34 entitled ‘Great Britain 1750-1850’, containing 26 paintings by 9 artists, just over 1% of their total number holdings (National Gallery, n.d.). We also created a random sample of 6 paintings, from different artistic periods and of varying levels of fame. We analysed the dissemination of these images using TinEye and Google Image Search, using Content Analysis (White and Marsh 2006) to discover the contexts for image reuse.
We then triangulated findings using web access statistics from the National Gallery’s Google Analytics account, and from the commercial ISP analysis firm Hitwise. Our results show that the most popular paintings (by access) are the most commonly used elsewhere, but we also uncover a feedback loop which proves dissemination of images online provides direct traffic back to the National Gallery’s website. Our content analysis also provides a qualitative analysis of types of image reuse, such as commercial art publishers, blogs, reviews, tourism, image collections, encyclopaedias, other museum websites, DVD cover images, and beyond. We demonstrate that type and volume of image reuse is both subject and artist specific.
This study has allowed us to establish what motivates image reuse in a digital environment. We recommend a framework for data collection that could be used by other organisations. However, we also show that there are limitations to the information that can be gleaned from a study of this kind, due to the problematic implementation of the RIL tools which were not designed for this sector.
Acknowledgments
We thank Charlotte Sexton, Melissa Naylor, and Matt Terrington from the National Gallery, and Mike Tovell from Hitwise.
References
Kousha, K., M. Thelwall, and S. Rezaie (2010). Can the Impact of Scholarly Images be Assessed Online? An Exploratory Study Using Image Identification Technology. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 61(9): 1734
The National Gallery, ‘Room 34’ http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/visiting/floorplans/level- 2/room-34 (accessed 12 February 2012.
TinEye, (n.d.) “Frequently Asked Questions”. http://www.tineye.com/faq (accessed 26 September 2011.)
Domas White, M. and E. E. Marsh (2006). Content Analysis: A Flexible Methodology Library Trends 55(1): 23-4.","txt","2","",""
"1773","14","Scholarly Open Access Research in Philosophy: Limits and Horizons of a European Innovative Project.","10","Abstract
The paper concerns the development and achievement of the European project Agora: Scholarly Open Access Research in European Philosophy. This project aims at improving the spread of European research results in the field of philosophy, while advancing new paradigms of Open Access (OA) publishing, peer-reviewing, and rendering thanks to the interlinking, connecting, and commenting of digital versions of primary sources (manuscripts, original printed editions, critical editions) and secondary literature (articles, monographs, audio and video contributions). In particular, the paper presents and discusses the experiments on semantic linking and the open peer review experiment, their results and some critical aspects and open issues. 1 Introduction
At the present time, in the Humanities and the Social Sciences it is still unusual to have access to networks of interrelated infrastructures offering large datasets so arranged and encoded to allow easy comparative research as well as to encourage the online publication of its outcomes for scholarly and learning purposes. [1] This paper deals with developments and achievements of the European project Agora: Scholarly Open Access Research in European Philosophy, [2] which aims at improving the spread of European research results in the field of philosophy, while advancing new paradigms of Open Access (OA) publishing, peerreviewing, and rendering thanks to the interlinking, connecting, and commenting of digital versions of primary sources (manuscripts, original printed editions, critical editions) and secondary literature (articles, monographs, audio and video contributions).
In this presentation we will first offer an overview of the semantically structured digital libraries set up by the Agora consortium of partners, which include extensive and coherent collections of high quality OA contents from classical to contemporary European philosophy and a large selection of the related critical literature. We will then concentrate on some innovative aspects of the OA archiving and publishing which characterize the Agora project as regards the rendering of texts (in fac-simile as well as in transcription) and the need of ensuring the requested scholarly credibility of their digital editions.
After a description of the federation of textual archives, which constitute the Agora portal, we will briefly present the five experiments envisaged in the project, namely: 1. Semantic linking; 2. Linked Open Data (LOD); 3. Advanced Scholarly linking and rendering; 4. Open peer review; and 5. OA business models in the field of European philosophy. We will focus, in particular, on the experiments on semantic linking and on the open peer review experiment, on their results and some of their critical aspects. [3]
2 The Portal Federation
The digital libraries (Portal Federation) created thanks to the Agora project (in continuity with the previous project Discovery) [4] represent a coherent collection of philosophical datasets both complementary and fully interoperable with general-purpose European-wide digital libraries and other content aggregators. These datasets offer the basis for the scholarly output and include, among others, testimonies about Socrates and Socratics, texts by Pre-Socratics, Diogenes Laertius, and Sextus Empiricus, Giordano Bruno, René Descartes, John Locke, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Giambattista Vico, Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, Immanuel Kant, Friederich Nietzsche, and Ludwig Wittgenstein. These philosophers are mostly studied in the Philosophy departments, although many of them are also widely studied by researchers working on history of science and epistemology.
The collections of texts are organized in several platforms managed by open source software; four of them are dedicated to primary sources namely: Ancient Philosophy and Modern Philosophy (both available within the portal Daphnet, i.e. Digital Archives of PHilosophical Texts on the NET), NietzscheSource and WittgensteinSource. [5] Moreover, large collections of selected secondary literature concerning these primary sources are stored in additional OJS (Open Journal System) platforms, and finally two online journals for newly produced scholarly literature are also included in the Portal: Lexicon Philosophicum: International Journal for the History of Texts and Ideas and The Nordic Wittgenstein Review (see infraSection 4). [6]
The Agora collection can really be seen as one of the most extensive and freely available collection of primary and secondary source for scholars and students in the field of philosophy.
The software infrastructure, built up according to the semantic web standards, coherently integrates the functions of anarchive for the consultation of primary sources (which in the Humanities is equivalent to raw data), a library for the consultation of research output, and a publisher for peer review and publication of new research in dedicated digital journals and monographs.
All scholarly information made accessible by the Agora project is first marked up in order to establish links to the underlying data sources, which are available in the federation, and subsequently published in the three new online OA journals created by the Agora consortium partners. The above mentioned functions (i.e. that of archive, library, and publisher) together provide the critical mass of content which is required to propose an innovative set of solutions for the Humanities and also to carry out experiments to test these solutions.
3 The semantic linking experiment
In general, the goal of semantic linking experiment of the project Agora [7] is to test the possibility of a novel way of building up, querying, and browsing a knowledge network in relation to a given set of primary and secondary scholarly sources and to assess its suitability as a collaborative research tool as well as a learning device. More specifically, this experiment aims at analysing and testing procedures, protocols and tools to enrich with semantic information the textual corpora (or collections of texts) included in the various platforms of the portal. To this aim, any individual document can be put in relation either with another document (internal or external to a given platform), or with an element belonging to a class as defined in the reference ontology. [8]
The experiment will focus on two main cases: the relations between primary and secondary sources, and the tagging of primary sources with reference to a selected list of the most relevant philosophical subjects. In the first case, a subset of the critical literature (scholarly articles, monographs) included in a specific OJS platform is semantically linked to a related dataset (manuscripts or editions of primary sources), which is already available online (and can be either internal or external to the portal). We will call this kind of relationship a ‘Text-to-Text interlinking’, whereas we will call a ‘Text-to-Subject interlinking’ the case of a semantic connection between a document and a specific subject included in one of the subclasses which constitute the class of philosophical subjects in the reference ontology of the portal.
As a matter of fact, such a vast research area will be covered in different but complementary ways by three partners of the project. Indeed, while the CNRS-ITEM team in Paris will work only on Text-to-Text relations, the UIB-WAB team in Bergen as well as the CNR-ILIESI one in Rome will consider both the Text-to-Text and the Text-to-Subject interlinking. In the specific perspective of the CNRS-ITEM team, the relationship between secondary and primary sources will be envisaged and a dedicated software will be developed — called Contexta — aiming at establishing and managing bi-univocal correspondences between them, so that, given a document (primary source), it will be possible to know at the same time not only the list of the quoted external sources but also the list of the external sources quoting it. As mentioned above, the Norwegian and the Italian teams will also consider the Text-to-Subject interlinking but, in their turn, they will use different methodological approaches. Whereas WAB will go on with making use of SWickyNotes (a software developed in the framework of the previous European project Discovery), CNRILIESI will test a novel semantic annotation tool, called Pundit. [9]
We will now focus on the CNR-ILIESI contribution to the semantic linking experiment. [10] A result of another European project, called SemLib, [11] Pundit is a newly produced software specifically dedicated to establishing relations between texts and semantic information with reference to a domain ontology. It will be tested on a selected corpus of philosophical writings covering both the ancient and the early modern philosophy and belonging to the Daphnet portal, which includes works by the Greek sceptical philosopher Sextus Empiricus and the German philosopher and mathematician G. W. Leibniz. In this case, the experiment will aim at semantically interlinking these texts with a number of scholarly contributions stored in the same portal as well as at semantically enriching them with reference to a number of philosophical subjects (or themes) offered by the domain ontology. The basic strategy of this tool consists in creating a triple for each individual information that has to be recorded and stored, each triple consisting in its turn of two terms (a subject and an object) connected by a relation. In the case of a Text-to-Text relation, both subject and object of the relation are texts (or better, portions of texts), while in the case of a Text-to-Subject relation its object is an element of the list of philosophical subject included in the appropriate class of the portal ontology.
Having set up our sample of texts, the second step has been to define a number of relations, which would be useful for the creation of the two types of triples we were looking for, i.e. the triples expressing relations between texts and those classifying texts according to the most relevant philosophical subjects. Clearly, in the meantime two lists of philosophical subjects were also needed: one including the most relevant subjects for tagging Sextus’ writings, another one for tagging Leibniz’s writings. At the present moment, a list of eleven relations (and their inverse) has been selected and defined to classify Text-to-Text relationships, which includes: ‘quotes’, ‘paraphrases’, ‘refutes’, ‘argues for’, ‘explains’, ‘criticizes’, ‘agrees with’, ‘interprets’, ‘is similar to’, ‘makes a reference to’, ‘makes an internal reference to’.
By means of the Pundit software it is then possible to annotate, for instance, a given passage of a monograph dealing with a specific paragraph of Leibniz’s Monadology, simply by selecting on the screen both the texts to be related and choosing the most appropriate relation in the list. In this way, the user might for instance create a triple of this kind: ‘<lmonograph A, p. n>explains <Monadology, § n>’. This and its inverse relation (‘<Monadology, § n > is explained by < monograph A, p. n >’) would be stored among the annotations connecting the primary source Monadology and a given monograph dealing with it.
As regards philosophical subjects, two lists were necessary, since we decided that it would be preferable to express them in the same language of the primary sources. Consequently, we selected a preliminary list of ancient Greek subjects for the works of Sextus (including approximately 200 subjects), and a preliminary list of French subjects for Leibniz’s works (including approximately 650 subjects). On these basis, two small teams will be at work in order respectively to annotate both Sextus’ and Leibniz’s texts and to edit the final lists of relations and subjects; in this respect in particular, the merging is expected of the two lists of subjects into only one, which would contain pairs of Greek-French subjects, when a semantic equivalence can be stated. In addition, a list of relations possibly connecting texts and subjects has been set up, which includes the following five relations (and their inverse): ‘defines’, ‘indirectly defines’, ‘extensional instantiation’, ‘intensional instantiation’, ‘dealings’. Also in the case of the Text-to-Subject interlinking, semantic annotation would require the creations of triples connecting a given text with a subject by means of the appropriate relation. Thus, for instance, the user might select a paragraph of Leibniz’s Monadology and connect it to the subject ‘action’ thanks to the triple: ‘<Monadology, § n > defines< action >’, which is equivalent to the inverse triple ‘<action > is defined by < Monadology, § n >’.
As a result, once the texts annotated, it will be possible: (a) to move from primary sources to the relevant secondary sources (and vice-versa) according to the different relations connecting a philosophical texts to their relevant scholarly literature, and (b) to locate and select passages from the annotated texts according to their relevance for the main philosophical subjects contained in the reference domain ontology either by using a Greek or a French key-subject indifferently. Insofar as the experiment will provide satisfactory results, we will enlarge both the textual dataset and the list of subjects, our final goal being to set up a multilingual structured thesaurus of philosophical subjects in seven languages, namely ancient Greek, Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, English, and German.
4 The peer review experiment
Especially in Europe, peer reviewing in the narrow sense is not largely used in the Human and Social Sciences (SSH), because the book (monograph, edition) is, with some exceptions in local and specialized communities, the main publishing tool, while journals represent a minimal fraction of the whole amount of scientific publications, since articles account for only 20% to 35% in the Humanities, depending on the discipline (Simba Information, 2010). When eatablishing editorial series, the initiators (usually the publisher) establish scientific committees, whose members carry out an initial quality control; most of the time it is the author, who generally pays for the printing of the book with funds granted by his/her institution or other funds. Journals are mainly funded through subscriptions; usually, in philosophy the Impact Factor is not calculated, and bibliometric techniques are not used; niche journals in foreign languages (academic communities being national) are very numerous, and there is a wide discretion in assessing their relevance.
Scientific journals have been in existence for over 400 years and since the appearance of the first learned journals, as for example the Journal des Sçavans which first issue is dated 5 January 1665, or the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, first issue dated 6 March 1665, some level of peer review were set in place (Harcourt, 1972; Biagioli, 2002; Johns, 1998). Nevertheless, some journals do not use peer reviewing in the true sense of the expression, but rather directly request articles from authors. In many cases, peer review in the Humanities is realized ex post (after publication), and often through reviews.
Various forms of “open review” has been advocated and experimented by scholarly journals most of them in medicine, biomedicine, hard science. In the last decade the benefits and the advantages as well as the limits and defects of the open peer review as been largely discussed. [12]
The discussion on the changing nature and role of peer review in SSH is almost absent and only recently started to be an issue (British Academy, 2007). The debate grows along with the impact and the influence of electronic journals and the use of internet in conducting peer review. The electronic procedures respond to the necessity of more flexibility, transparency, and non-expensive, fast, and more reliable and objective evaluation (Salomon, 2007).
The “Open Collaborative Peer Review Experiment” [13] conducted by the project Agora wants to contribute to this debate and investigate whether the quality and the credibility of a journal and its authors can be assured also by an articulated peer review process under the “responsibility” of the scientific community and not by quantitative evaluation criteria.
The experiment combines traditional double-blind peer review with different modes of open peer review and post-review comments by other scholars. The goal of the experiment is to enhance and determine standards for open peer-reviewing in Humanities and Social Sciences. The experiment is designed to contribute to the current discussion concerning the value of the peer review and the different ways to approach it. The experiment is conducted on two new OA international Journals:Lexicon Philosophicum: International Journal for the History of Texts and Ideas and The Nordic Wittgenstein Review. [14] The first, published by the CNR-ILIESI, focuses on the history of philosophy and the history of ideas, with a special attention to textual and lexical data (the journal also includes a specific section devoted to Digital Humanities). The second one, is published by the Nordic Wittgenstein Society (NWS) and is dedicated to all aspects of Wittgenstein’s thought and work.
The peer review procedure followed by the two journals consists in two main phases: refereeing and reviewing, and is based on a four-stages process. During the first stage, the submitted manuscripts go to the general eligibility and quality check made by the editors. The editorial procedure is designed to follow best practice concerning excellence, impartiality, transparency, purposefulness, efficiency, confidentiality and integrity. The general eligibility is followed by the acknowledgement of the results to the authors, and in case of ineligibility sufficient information describing the decision is communicated. In the same case resubmission is encouraged.
During the second stage, eligible articles go through a double-blind peer review process in which the identity of reviewers and authors is kept confidential from each other. During the third stage, accepted articles for publication go in pre-print form for one-month of open peer-reviewing or commentary, during which registered users are asked to comment on and to discuss the accepted papers. Discussions are moderated by editors and editors-inchief. Authors are therefore able to take benefit from suggestions, comments and discussions from the open peer review in addition to the comments received by the reviewers when finalizing their paper for publication.
During the fourth stage (the post-peer review), published articles are available in the appropriate Agora platform for ranking and commenting. Such a process is designed to improve the quality of the review and the peer review process but it also wishes to contribute as much as possible useful suggestions to the authors in the final preparation of their publications.
This procedure would probably present less elements of originality if it were not accompanied by a constant activity of monitoring and analysis. The Agora project in fact includes a Work Package (WP2) specifically dedicated to “Monitoring and evaluating Agora’s experiments”. [15] An accurate analysis and evaluation of the open peer review for the first two issues of the two journals, including the double-blind phase, is carried out and reported to the Consortium and the EU officers and reviewers [16] by a dedicated team of experts who closely works with the editorial boards of the journals. One aspect of this evaluation involves the various parties who plays a role in the reviewing process such as authors, reviewers, editorial boards, and editors-in-chief via interviews and a survey, which aims not at detecting only positive comments but at identifying critical aspects to reflect upon in order to undertake remedial actions.
The results of the first phase of the evaluation stressed the following points: editors had realised that the peer reviewers needed more guidance concerning how to conduct and complete the review process and to remedy the situation; in addition, they agreed that instructions for reviewers and review forms needed to be clear and very detailed. The scholarly community is somehow reticent to comment openly and in most of the cases preferred to do it via email directly addressing the authors.
The Editorial Boards of the two journals considered also implementing a triple-blind review, in which even the editors would not know the identity of the authors, but in practice, it was not possible to test such an hypothesis. Very often the authors contacted the editors in advance with questions; on the other hand, a triple-blind review would require an editorial apparatus heavier than the one a journal of small dimensions can handle.
The Agora Open Collaborative Peer Review Experiment is to some extent still problematic, because of some cultural resistances still active in the field, not to mention the intrinsic limits inherent to the search for an objective evaluation. On the other hand, it is a possible answer to some of the questions emerging in the European (and international) debate concerning peer review and research evaluation to be transferred in the SSH, and especially an answer to the need of integrating policies and practices into coherent procedures by involving in a transparent and constructive way the scientific community in the process of building up knowledge (Marras, Ranjbaran, 2011).
The open collaborative peer review experiment is a way of engaging communities in reflecting on and refining the peer review process, even if it does not always result into open peer review. Nevertheless, it contributes to a better understanding of what a good peer review can be in philosophy and, more broadly, in the Humanities.
Moreover, the open collaborative peer review experiment and its evaluation want to contribute to frame peer review as an intellectual subject and to activate research on it by promoting empirical analysis (practices) as well as philosophical reflection about the conditions of possibility of the academic knowledge (Biagioli, 2002, cit.)
5 Conclusion
In drawing the conclusions we would like to stress a few points and some open issues.
1. The synergy between the solutions developed for the Agora project (based on OA and interoperability) as well as the variety of perspectives and approaches it supports are key for ensuring that platforms are not simply content aggregators but mostly rich and attractive collaborative environments capable of managing exchanges between languages and traditions.
2. The multilingual Agora portal will serve as a unique access point to the philosophical content of the federation and will expose its metadata to the LOD cloud. This integrated pilot will serve as a model for establishing and accessing a growing open research archive for scholarly publications in Humanities and Social Sciences as a whole.
3. The integrate infrastructure would enable scholars, university students and teachers to improve knowledge transfer and sharing, to promote remote learning and distance collaboration, thus fostering the development of critical thinking skills and autonomous production of scientific contributions. In the meantime, the associated research publication system would enable a de-localized community of specialists to work in a cooperative way, to publish the results of this work on the Internet, and to establish collaborative initiatives with colleagues based in other universities and research centres.
It will therefore be useful to investigate limits and potentiality of the model proposed by Agora, and see in which way it can still improve the spread of research results in the field of Humanities and Social Sciences and advance new paradigms of knowledge and knowledge organization.
Basing on the results achieved in the project, we can summarize a few issues, which are still open:
1. The sustainability of particular publishing practices in philosophical research,
2. The economic dimension of philosophical journals and publications in Humanities vis-ávis that in the hard sciences,
3. While peer review and edition costs are extremely high in the hard sciences, there remains a strong tradition of voluntary work in the Humanities, which can be easily transferred to the digital world in order to contribute to a viable economic model.
In conclusion, we would like to stress that what inspired the construction of the Agora federation portal is not simply the creation of a digital library but the desire to set up and offer to the scholarly community a digital environment designed for research. Users should access not only classical philosophical texts (primary and secondary sources, journals) but a very large set of the available features and tools (tags, annotations, interlinking, advanced search, etc.), which are needed to foster improvements and advancements in the analysis and interpretation of philosophical problems.
References
Biagioli, M. (2002). From Book Censorship to Academic Peer Review. Emergences: Journal for the study of media & composite culture. 12(1): 11–45. DOI:10.1080/1045722022000003435.
British Academy (2007). Peer Review: The Challenges for the Humanities and Social Sciences.http://www.britac.ac.uk/policy/peer-review.cfm (accessed 13 March 2013).
ESF (2011). Research Infrastructures in the Digital Humanities. Science Policy Briefing, n. 42. European Science Foundation, September 2011. Available at: http://www.esf.org/research-areas/humanities/publications.html (accessed 13 March 2013).
ESFRI (2010). Road Map. http://ec.europa.eu/research/infrastructures/pdf/esfristrategy_report_and_roadmap.pdf(accessed 13 March 2013).
Garshol, L. M. (2004). Metadata? Thesauri? Taxonomies? Topic Maps! Making sense of it all.http://www.ontopia.net/topicmaps/materials/tm-vs-thesauri.html#N773 (accessed 14 March 2013).
Grenon, P., Smith, B. (2009). Foundations of an ontology of philosophy, Synthese 182, 2011:185–204.
Harcourt, B. (1972). History and the Learned Journal. Journal of the History of Ideas, 33(3): 365-378.
Johns, A. (1998). The Nature of the Book. Print and Knowledge in the Making. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Marras, C., Ranjbaran, F. (2011). ESF Member Organisation Forum on Peer Review, European Peer Review Guide – Integrating Policies and Practices into Coherent Procedures, Strasbourg. http://www.esf.org/activities/mo-fora/peer-review.html (accessed 13 March 2013)
Salomon, D. (2007). The role of peer review for scholarly journals in the information age. Journal of electronic publishing, 10:1, Winter 2007: http://dx.doi.org/10.3998/3336451.0010.107 (accessed 13 March 2013).
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Notes
1. An interesting document reflecting on the centrality of Research Infrastructures to the Humanities and drawing on a number of case studies has been published by the European Strategy Forum on Research Infrastructures (ESF, 2011). See also: ESFRI, 2010.
2. The project is a CIP-project co-funded by the European Commission under the “Information and Communication Technologies Policy Support Programme” (ICT PSP); on this regard see:http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/activities/ict_psp/index_en.htm. The Project reference number is 270904, CIP-ICT-PSP.2010.2.5 - Open access to scientific information; see:http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/apps/projects/factsheet/index.cfm?project_ref=270904. The ICT PSP program aims at stimulating a wider uptake of innovative ICT-based services and the exploitation of digital content across Europe by citizens, governments and businesses. Details of the project are available in the project web site: http://www.project-agora.org. The Agora’s consortium involves six European countries, and some of their major research institutions and leading software companies including the Institut des Textes et Manuscripts Modernes of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (ITEM-CNRS), France; The Wittgenstein Archives at the University of Bergen (UIB-WAB), Norway; the Åbo Akademi University, Finland; the University of Copenhagen (KU), Danemark; the Net7 company, Italy; the Istituto per il Lessico Intellettuale Europeo e Storia delle Idee of the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR-ILIESI), Italy, which also coordinates the project. Antonio Lamarra is the project coordinator.
3. In writing this paper we took benefit from consulting a number of documents and reports prepared by the partners of the consortium. We are grateful to all of them and in particular to Anna Maria Carusi (KU), Paolo D’Iorio (CNRS-ITEM), Yrsa Neuman (Åbo Akademi University), Alessio Piccioli (Net7), Alois Pichler (UIBWAB).
4. For more details conserning the Discovery project see: http://www.discovery-project.eu/home.html.
5. See: www.daphnet.org (which includes two platforms of primary sources: http://modernsource.daphnet.org/, under the responsibility of Roberto Palaia (ILIESI-CNR), and http://ancientsource.daphnet.org/, under the responsibility of Emidio Spinelli (University of Rome, Sapienza); www.nietzschesource.org, under the responsibility of Paolo D’Iorio (CNRS-ITEM) and www.wittgensteinsource.org, under the responsibility of Alois Pichler (UIB-WAB). A platform dedicated to the French philosopher J.J. Rousseau (Rousseausource) is currently under preparation. The platforms are built under open source software: Daphnet and Wittgesteinsource are managed by MURUCA (http://muruca.netseven.it), a framework for building digital libraries that allows to edit and enhance digital material and it can be used also as a research tool. The “Nietzsche facsimile edition” (www.nietzschesource.org/DFGA) is managed by TALIA (http://net7sviluppo.com/trac/talia/wiki/TaliaTutorial), and the “Nietzsche critical edition” is managed (www.nietzschesource.org/eKGWB) by a combination of MySQL and PHP.
6. A third journal, Studia Nietzscheana, is currently in preparation.
7. The Semantic Linking Experiment is carried out within the activities of the Work Package 5: “Scholarly interlinking & rendering experiment”, leaded by Paolo D’Iorio (CNRS-ITEM). This experiment, semantically linking primary and secondary source takes into account the specific needs of researchers working in the field of philosophy and it is conducted by CNR-ILIESI, and by UIB-WAB, in collaboration with ONTOS Verlag.
8. On semantic enrichment and discussion about ontologies you can see: Garshol, 2004; Grenon, Barry, 2009; Su, Gulla, 2004.
9. For more details and demos on Pundit see: http://thepund.it.
10. The experiment is carried out in collaboration with Andrea Costa, Michela Tardella and Francesco Verde.
11. More details on SemLib are available at: http://www.semlibproject.eu
12. See for example the debate carried out in Nature: http://www.nature.com/nature/peerreview/debate/ (accessed 13 March 2013).
13. The Open Peer Review Experiment is the focus of the Work Package 6, which is carried out by ILIESI and UIB-WAB and leaded by Cristina Marras (CNR-ILIESI).
14. The Nordic Wittgenstein Review (editors-in-chief: Yrsa Neuman of Åbo Akademi University, Simo Säätelä and Alois Pichler of the University of Bergen) and Lexicon Philosophicum (editors-in-chief Antonio Lamarra and Roberto Palaia, (CNR-ILIESI) are built in OJS and semantically linked to the primary sources published in the federation portal (see above, Sections 2 and 3). Both journals are open access and share the same policy: the individual contributions are made available under the Creative Commons General Public License Attribution, Non-Commercial, Share-Alike version 3 (CCPL BY-NC-SA). The first issue of the Nordic Wittgenstein Review is available in print (published by the ONTOS Verlag) and online, whereas Lexicon Philosophicum is published only online. See: http://www.lexicon.cnr.it;http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com.
15. The WP2 is leaded by Anna Maria Carusi (KU).
16. See: Agora Project Deliverable D2.3 Interim Evaluation Report (June 2012) compiled by Anna Maria Carusi and Giovanni De Grandis (KU), document for internal use of the Consortium available upon request.","txt","2","",""
"1774","14","Schooling the Scholar, Poaching the Fan: Fannish Intellectual Production and Digital Humanities Methods","9","Scholars have often maintained a critical distance between their own forms of knowledge making and those of fans, a distance that we find worth interrogating in the setting of digital humanities. After all, the kind of mapping and charting of vast amounts of cultural data that digital humanists are beginning to do seems closely tied to fan practices of collective textual analysis (and production). We argue against a general academic hesitation to seriously incorporate or interrogate fannish intellectual production as compatible with academic work, and we see digital humanities as a promising site for cooperation between fans and academics. Indeed, digital humanities appear indebted to the intellectual productions of fan communities in an age of media convergence.
Specifically, this paper engages with fan material in a way that acknowledges how it may inform and work alongside academic work in television studies. Fan communities’ collective work analyzing and producing digital work around television shows, including mapping characters and their affective relationships, has heavily influenced our own television analysis method, which involves graphing and analyzing social networks of television characters. This method also draws on the academic work of Franco Moretti and other digital humanities scholars who have demonstrated the usefulness of social network analysis of various texts, but who have not discussed the relationships between their analysis and that of fans. We use digital graphing tools to investigate affective relationships, as defined primarily by fans, between television characters across lines of racial or sexual “difference” in ensemble character-driven dramas. Our data sets have in some cases been gleaned from fan forums, from which we have constructed affective social network graphs using tools like Gephi, ManyEyes, and Mathematica. Analysis of these graphs, we found, illuminates trends and “underlying structures” that might otherwise be difficult to notice (Moretti).
To explore the usefulness of graphing social networks, we demonstrated the absence of queer characters and relationships in the television series Lost, a show with a sizable multi-ethnic cast that draws heavily on the sexual, affective, and familial tension of its characters for dramatic effect. First establishing the overwhelming preponderance of heterosexual pairings, we reorganized the nodes so that the most frequently appearing characters gravitate towards the center of the field, and the less frequently appearing characters radiate outwards. As we might expect, characters who appear most frequently have multiple lines of (heterosexual) relationships, while less frequently appearing characters are likelier to be unattached or to have only one relationship over the course of the series. The suggestion of an undergirding heterosexual matrix, visible here, is borne out in the conclusion of the show. In a ""flash-sideways,"" the storyline in a parallel timeline where Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 never crashes, characters recall the moments on the island when they make contact with their principal love interests. This forces a heteronormative pairing as an organizing force (possibly queering the pair of John Locke and Ben Linus, who recall their past lives but without the benefit of a significant other). The graph also makes legible the outliers, exceptions, and outsiders that relate to the frequently appearing characters in ways that support the structuring heterosexual matrix (See Figure 1). One interesting cluster that the graph brings to our attention, for instance, is the set of characters who are positioned as paternal figures to specific nodes.
 
Fig. 1:
Affective and Parental Relations in Lost (Nodal size indicates relative frequency of character’s appearance). Constructed using Gephi.
The lines of paternity as a special category that our graphing highlights, and the general heteronormative drift of the show, also invites us to consider the separateness of maternity as a category with a unique valence. Apart from the running theme of pregnancy dramatized by repeated attempts to capture or rescue the visibly pregnant character, maternity we uncover is an organizing type distinct from paternity. While the characters Kate and Jack both co-parent a child, only Kate’s status as a mother symbolically revokes her candidacy as protector of the island in the finale.
Along similar lines, social network graphs of Friday Night Lights reveal the extent of the characters’ racial segregation in the early seasons. [1] We chose this show to analyze because race is a central theme as characters negotiate racial tensions in a small Texas town. In the case of Friday Night Lights, segregation is apparent through conventional modes of analysis, but a graph makes it more starkly visible. This graph of a Friday Night Lights episode, for example, shows a notable degree of segregation between black and white characters. The mix of such characters on the television screen hides the fact that there are very few interracial conversations, which this graph depicting all interactions in the episode maps clearly. Here we see that the majority of white characters are only connected to other white characters, and, importantly, that the white characters tend to be more strongly socially connected than black characters—they are given more social power (See Figure 2). This graph then provides in one image a sense of how racial interaction plays out across a whole episode.
 
Fig. 2:
Interactions in Friday Night Lights Season 2 Episode 8. Constructed using ManyEyes.
One way we have used social network graphs to heighten visibility of character segregation (or commonality) is through “deformance,” a playful textual reimagining that in some ways resembles remix culture. Deformance is described by Lisa Samuels and Jerome McGann in reference to poetry analysis, as a kind of “reading backwards,” a reconsideration of a text by undoing it, upsetting its order, revealing its gaps (30). In the context of this project, deforming graphs has entailed removing certain networked nodes—and thus removing certain characters from the plot—to see what new connections come to the fore, as well as to reveal the role of those removed nodes in the networked system. If a network falls apart when one node is removed, that often speaks more to the significance of that character than does looking at the graph before he or she is removed from the network. In our analysis of Friday Night Lights, for instance, deforming social networks created from fan-generated relationship information (or from our own fannish data generation) revealed that interactions across race hinged on just one or two key characters. Deforming the episode graph above, for example, by removing the central black character Smash and all those characters who interact exclusively with him, revealed the extent to which he functioned as a “bridge” node connecting two otherwise largely distinct communities of characters (See Figure 3).
 
Fig. 3:
Interactions in Friday Night Lights Season 2 Episode 8, with Smash and characters who speak only to him removed. Constructed using ManyEyes.
As this work demonstrates, we are not interested in fan labor solely as sources for data, but also as rich and challenging sites for methodological exchanges. The intellectual production of fans has been acknowledged and celebrated; indeed Henry Jenkins’s now-classic text on fan cultures, Textual Poachers, highlights the intelligence of audiences and the seriousness of their responses, which engage in familiar practices of literary criticism. Yet to Jenkins, while fans do work that is critical and interpretive, their criticism “is playful, speculative, subjective” and directed to the fan community (284). We see our methodology as a gesture toward the possibility of digital humanities to engage this playful approach seriously, and to consider the importance of the relationships between fans and other interpretive communities.
With academics and fans less strictly monitoring their boundaries in this era of convergence, and with scholars using digital techniques that may formerly have been dismissed as too “playful” or not seriously analytical, a reconsideration of the fan/scholar relationship and possibilities of exchange (or poaching) is called for. Visualization and mapping are widely circulated by fans broaching similar themes to those we explored. In toggling between an episodic mode of analysis and a mode that exceeds the episode, we rely on the community and labor of fans, appropriating their knowledge as the basis of our inquiry. What this suggests is that the digital humanities can anticipate not just a new kind of appreciation of the fan but an acknowledgement of the rich, intellectually productive, and rigorous strategies of knowledge making that new scholarship exploits in its interpenetrative incursions into the terrain of fandom.
References
Jenkins, H. (1992). Textual Poachers: Television Fans & Participatory Culture. New York: Routledge.
Jenson, J. (1992). Fandom as Pathology: The Consequences of Characterization. In Lewis, L. A. (ed), The Adoring Audience: Fan Culture And Popular Media. London: Routledge, 9-30.
Moretti, F. (2011). Network Theory, Plot Analysis. Stanford Literary Lab Pamphlet #2.http://litlab.stanford.edu/LiteraryLabPamphlet2.pdf.
Moody, J. (2001). Race, School Integration, and Friendship Segregation in America. American Journal of Sociology, 107(3): 679–716.
Samuels, L., and J. McGann (1999). Deformance and Interpretation, New Literary History, 30(1): 25-56.
Notes
1. Our interest in using social network graphs specifically to look at racial interaction was partly inspired by James Moody’s 2001 study of integration in high schools, in which he used social network graphs to make visible certain trends of friendship formation between high school students.","txt","2","",""
"1775","14","The Science Fiction of Science: Collaborative Lexicons and Project Hieroglyph","10","Overview
The Center for Science and the Imagination at Arizona State University is the institutional home for the Hieroglyph project, an innovative collaboration that pairs leading science fiction writers with scientists and engineers to craft techno-optimistic narratives set in the near future. The project asks these writers to create stories that radically extend real technologies and ideas that are at least conceptually possible. Hieroglyph draws its name from the notion that we have been inspired by certain iconic fictional ideas—Robert Heinlein’s rocket ships and Isaac Asimov’s robots, for example—that have come to shape our visions of the future.
In addition to organizing this project and serving as a co-editor of its culminating anthology, I am also researching Hieroglyph as a site of collaborative communication. By tracking the spread and contextualization of keywords during the project, I will explore the role of shared language in framing collaborations. Using empirical data as well as interviews and close readings, my research will consider how successful Hieroglyph is in living up to its name, asking how narrative keywords can serve as catalysts for stories that extend scientific discourse into the realm of science fiction. Background
Hieroglyph is a collaborative project between the Center for Science and the Imagination at Arizona State University and a collective of science fiction writers led by Neal Stephenson. The project’s end goal will be an anthology of near-future, techno-optimistic fiction that engages with technologies already visible on the horizon. The project is unusual in that it asks these writers to collaborate directly with scientists and engineers on their ideas, and to do so primarily through the medium of a website where they can converse and share work in progress.
The Hieroglyph site serves as both a community and a serial publication platform, regularly releasing work in progress, interviews and other contributions as a kind of “Hieroglyph Magazine” so that subscribers can experience the project online and through mobile apps. In this way the site incorporates multiple discourse communities within the same platform, creating spaces for interaction, collaboration and play between science fiction writers, their fans, research scientists and engineers.
Hieroglyph is a bold experiment because it brings together several diffuse communities into a microcosm of new cultural practices. By asking science fiction authors to work directly with scientists and engineers, the site formalizes and compresses a long-running informal relationship that has mutually informed readers and writers of science fiction for many decades. At the same time, the project creates a public performance aspect for these collaborations through its serial publication, inviting a general reading public to track work in progress and engage with both the science and the personalities behind the stories under development.
Proposal
I propose to evaluate the success of Hieroglyph and its individual collaborations by bringing a literary frame to the quantitative analysis of interdisciplinary collaboration. This approach draws together Bruno Latour’s Actor-Network Theory, Pierre Bourdieu and John Guillory’s concepts of social and cultural capital and my own evolving mixed-methods computational and close reading approach to these collaborations (Latour 2005; Bourdieu 1993; Guillory 1993; Finn 2012). My presentation at Digital Humanities 2013 will focus on several key research questions:
How do authors and their technical collaborators converge on shared understandings of technical and domain-specific concepts? By tracing the deployment and adoption of keywords in both collaborative exchanges and the ensuing fictions, can we identify patterns of transference? What role does shared language play in successful collaboration, and how do keywords operate both behind the scenes and within the framework of the science fiction narrative?
How do authors structure relationships between multiple knowledge domains and extend those domains into uncharted territory? When writers transgress disciplinary boundaries and, indeed, the boundaries of scientific knowledge as a whole, how will their collaborators react? In parallel, how do scientists and engineers describe their own field paradigms and establish points of consilience (or not) with other academic fields (Wilson 1998)?
What relationships will these authors, scientists and engineers develop beyond individual collaborations? Will participants develop broader collective dialogs, perhaps even an emergent paradigm for the project, or remain primarily engaged in small groups? This research question extends the concept of consilience and a collaborative lexicon to Hieroglyph itself, potentially creating opportunities for writers and researchers to create technological and narrative threads that bridge multiple stories in the final anthology.
Finally, how will readers and broader fan communities engage with the ideas embedded in these collaborations? To what extent will keyword discussions among the Hieroglyph collaborators translate to the discussions conducted among the project’s subscribers and fans?
Methodology
By focusing on the definition and transmission of keywords, this project adopts a social network analysis methodology to the process of collaboration (Wasserman and Faust 1994). As new conceptual keywords are introduced in various collaborations (i.e. “symmetry” or “solar sail”) they will be mapped based on the sender(s) and recipient(s) of the relevant correspondence. Collaborators will have a number of communication options available to them, ranging from email and in-person interactions to private small-group blogs, public restricted-authorship blogs and totally open public forums. [1] By mapping these networks over time, we can identify relationships between keywords and evolving groups of participants.
The project will identify keywords as they propagate across subject domains, adopting an approach inverse to the typical applications of statistical modeling (where algorithms are used to identify key terms within specific knowledge domains or discourses). For this reason, the project will combine statistical modeling Termine or another term extraction tool with direct interventions, including user-initiated tagging, surveys and editorial analysis (National Centre for Text Mining). For example, collaborators will be asked to identify and define active keywords in their conversations at regular intervals, and editors will offer their own keyword analyses of the writers’ work in progress. By combining these different quantitative and qualitative approaches, we can address the research questions listed above at the level of individual actors, small collaborative teams and broader discourse groups.
These multilayered groupings of terms and participants will inform a “middle ground” reading of the collaborations in Hieroglyph, looking at the collective crafting of fact-driven narratives as a form of cultural production. By including the interactions of the site’s reading public as well as its official collaborators, the project also allows us to explore the discourse boundaries between scientists, engineers, science fiction writers, science fiction fans and other groups.
Conclusion
Hieroglyph defines a new direction in the study of scientific collaboration by embedding the importance of narrative and broad public engagement into the core of the collaborative process. Asking scientists and engineers to work directly with science fiction writers (and vice versa) forces each group to question assumptions and move beyond the terministic screens that define their individual artistic practices and knowledge domains (Burke 1968). Hieroglyph seeks to open up a creative space for experimentation by all participants, allowing them to step outside of traditional discourses and explore new ideas through new language.
This research project will trace the success or failure of the Hieroglyph experiment using a mixed-methods approach including keyword extraction, tagging, user surveys and traditional literary close reading of the collaborative fiction. Its middle ground approach will allow us to see how writers, scientific experts and the general public interact in the making of science fiction, that most accessible literature of ideas.
References
Bourdieu, P. (1993). The Field of Cultural Production. Ed. Randal Johnson. New York: Columbia University Press.
Burke, K. (1968). Language as Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method. University of California Press.
Finn, E. (2012). New Literary Cultures: Mapping the Digital Networks of Toni Morrison. In Lang, A. (ed.) From Codex to Hypertext: Reading at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century, University of Massachusetts Press.
Guillory, J. (1993). Cultural Capital: The Problem of Literary Canon Formation. University of Chicago Press.
Latour, B. (2005). Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory. Oxford University Press.
National Centre for Text Mining. TerMine. http://www.nactem.ac.uk/software/termine/.
Wasserman, S., and K. Faust. (1994). Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications. 1st ed. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Wilson, E. O. (1998). Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. New York: Knopf.
Notes
1. While it will probably prove impossible to capture every interaction, the Hieroglyph digital and procedural structure is designed to archive most exchanges.","txt","2","",""
"1776","14","Scientific Visualization for the Digital Humanities as CLARIN-D Web Applications","10","The importance of scientific visualization for basic and applied research has been recognized as an importance aspect of scientific practise in many disciplines. Recent research trends in the Humanities in general and in Digital Humanities in particular are no exception in this respect (Culy and Lyding, 2010). The goal of the present paper is threefold: (i) to survey different types of scientific visualizations needed for language data, (ii) to describe a set of web applications that have been implemented in the context of the CLARIN–D project [1] , and (iii) to demonstrate the added value of visualization.
CLARIN offers language resources on a large scale, with text corpora often exceeding 100 million words, with spoken and multi–modal data recorded and annotated at different tiers, and with structured language resources of high complexity. In all instances, the querying of such resources will result in new data sets of considerable quantity and complexity. These results are typically rendered in raw data formats that are not conducive to direct inspection by the user. This lack of readability provides a major obstacle for Humanities scholars who are not accustomed to perusing large amounts of data in such a raw, digital form. To overcome this impasse, it is crucial to render data sets in a form that is cognitively more accessible and that highlights the central characteristics of the data in an intuitive fashion.
One area of language–related research where visualization is particularly useful concerns the domain of language variation and language diachrony. The web application CiNaViz (short for City Name Visualization) [2] has access to names and geographical coordinates of 1.162.040 geographical locations all over Europe. With its query interface, researchers can search for specific distributions of city names and visualize them on a map. As an example of language variation, Figure 1 shows on the left the distribution of city names ending with bach (red), beck (blue) and bek (green) in Central Europe. One can see that there are clear separators between the three variations, where the separator between bach and beck follows the so called Benrath Line which divides the nothern from the southern dialects in Germany. The map on the right hand side of Figure 1 shows locations containing the substring schwab. It is evident that these locations are not located in the region called Schwaben (Swabia) today (the region around Stuttgart/Tübingen/Ulm, marked on the map by a blue ellipse). This is because the Swabian people were relocated during the Middle Ages from their original places of residence.
 
Figure 1:
Visualization of language variation and diachrony
The use of language data is, of course, not only relevant for linguistic and philological research. The social sciences also draw on language data for empirical investigations of various kinds. One area where visualization can help is in tracking the dynamics of culture as reflected in language use. Michel et al. 2010 have coined the term culturomics for this new terrain of digital humanities at the interface of humanities and social sciences. One area discussed by Michel et al. concerns the tracking of celebrity names over time by frequency of mention in the Google Books corpus. Such data are, of course, of immediate relevance for historians, sociologists, as well as researchers in media and cultural studies. While Michel et al. based their visualizations on a very large, closed data set, we have applied the same type of techniques to a much smaller and dynamically updated corpus of news articles harvested from the online news feeds of major German newspapers and magazines.
Our WhoIsInTheNews [3] web application consists of two parts: (i) a web crawler, which downloads German news feeds everyday and extracts the contained named entities with the help of a chain of WebLicht web services [4] . (ii) A graphical user interface to the stored named entities which allows the user to analyze and visualize the appearances of named entities over time and geographical diffusion. For a morphologically rich language like German, linguistic– preprocessing of the raw data is necessary and is performed by a WebLicht workflow which consists of the following automatic annotation steps: tokenization, part of speech tagging and named entity recognition.
Figure 2 shows the occurrences of the names Romney (red) and Santorum (blue) in German newsfeeds over a 12 month timeframe, from November 2011 until October 2012. The visualization captures in a concise way the dynamics of the German news coverage of the two leading candidates in the Republican primaries for the 2012 U.S. presidential election. Despite the sometimes unexpected victories by Santorum in several primaries such as Minnesota, Missouri and Colorado, Romney had a consistently higher coverage in the German media, with Santorum dropping out of the German news alltogether shortly after abandoning his campaign on April 10. The WhoIsInTheNews application shows that visualization techniques can be used not just to plot unrelated career paths of celebrieties as in the case of Michel et al., but also to track the interdependence of such paths in textual materials harvested from online sources in a continuous and incremental fashion.
 
Figure 2:
Tracking of celebrity names over time
The WhoIsInTheNews web application also supports the visualization of named entities that refer to geographical locations. Figure 3 shows the distribution of the 1000 most frequent city names, referenced in the German news feeds harvested over the November 2011 to October 2012 timeframe. Not surprisingly, the density of locations is highest among European cities, followed by the Middle East, the east coast of the United States and the Pacific Rim. Equally noteworthy are the omissions: much of the Midwestern states of the United States, the vast Russian territory outside St. Petersburg and Moscow, as well as much of Africa and South America.
 
Figure 3:
Tracking the 1000 most frequent city names
Technical realization in CLARIN–D
All visualizations described in this abstract are embedded in the CLARIN–D infrastructure. More specifically, they are implemented as Web 2.0 Ajax driven web applications which make use of annotation web services included in WebLicht [5] , a Servic Oriented Architecture for the orchestration of RESTstyle web services (Hinrichs et al. 2010 and Dima et al. 2012).
 
Figure 4:
Embedding web services into web applications
Conclusion and Outlook
Space limitations do not allow us to present the full range of visualization web applications and their significance for Digital Humanities research that are offered in the CLARIN–D infrastructure. For an overview of the visualization tools offered in the CLARIN–D project, we refer interested readers to the WebLicht tools suite (http://weblicht.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de). Therefore, we concentrated on those visualizations that are of relevance to disciplines beyond Linguistics.
The easy web availability of the WebLicht tools is a crucial advantage over existing visualization tools, which typically require expertise in software installation and customization beyond the competence of ordinary digital humanities users. We therefore view web availability as a crucial advantage over existing solutions based on geographical information systems.
References
Culy, C., and V. Lyding (2010). Visualizations for exploratory corpus and text analysis, in Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Corpus Linguistics CILC–10, May 13–15, 2010, A Coruña, Spain, pp. 257–268.
Dima, E., E. Hinrichs, M. Hinrichs, A. Kislev, T. Trippel, and T. Zastrow (2012). Integration of WebLicht into the CLARIN Infrastructure. Proceedings of the joint CLARIN–D/DARIAH Workshop ""Service–oriented Architectures (SOAs) for the Humanities: Solutions and Impacts"" at Digital Humanities Conference 2012. Hamburg. 17–23.
Hinrichs, E., M. Hinrichs, and T. Zastrow (2010). WebLicht: Web–Based LRT Services for German. In: Proceedings of the Systems Demonstrations at the 48th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL–2010). Uppsala, Schweden. 25–29.
Michel, J. B. et al. and The Google Books Team (2010). Quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books. Science 331, 176 – 82. (doi:10.1126/science. 1199644)
Notes
1. http://www.clarin-d.de
2. CiNaViz is freely available as a web application (see http://weblicht.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de/CityViz/). The Java code of CiNaViz is available under the GPL v. 3 generally used within CLARIN–D
3. WhoIsInTheNews can be accessed at http://weblicht.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de/ne/. The source code of WhoIsInTheNews is free available under GPL 3. The only IPR restriction concerns the particular data set of news articles, harvested from the news feeds of German newspapers and further processed by the WhoIsInTheNews application. Scholars who want to utilize WhoIsInTheNews for their own data sets and offer this web application on their own server, are free to do so under GPL.
4. https://weblicht.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de
5. The WebLicht acronym stands for Web based Linguistic Chaining Tool (https://weblicht.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de)","txt","2","",""
"1777","14","Should the Digital Humanities be taking a lead in Open Access and Online Teaching Materials?","10","The digital age has introduced new possibilities but also new problems for higher education. Academics within the same departments have always shared teaching materials but a cultural change is taking place in universities, with academics using the internet to share their research (Open Access) and teaching and learning resources (OER: Open Educational Resources) more widely. This spirit of collaborative working is increasing, and potentially opens up higher education to a wider and global market, giving students and teachers greater access and flexibility. Education for all has taken on a new meaning in the digital age and the true rationale of Openness is one of reclaiming original academic practice and collaboration; consequently the move towards openness extends beyond resources and also increasingly includes Open Educational Practices, or just Open Education. How do new initiatives such as OERu, Open Text Books, and iBooks Author contribute to this? To change academic culture and to encourage open educational practices requires much more than technological changes. It will require an understanding of the challenges facing the educational community today and how OERs can help them achieve their goals in teaching and learning. This is particularly pertinent in the Digital Humanities where there is great emphasis on the teaching of the collaborative and communication skills that are requirements for our researchers and research projects as well as important job skills for our students that do not stay in the academy.
This paper draws as case studies on the experiences and publishes the results of two completed and one currently in¬progress JISC funded projects for the creation, use, and importantly re¬use of OERs. Firstly, VirtualDutch (www.dutch.ac.uk) where a lesser taught language (despite being the one most closely related to English) subject community have collaborated in joint teaching projects. A wide range of Open Educational Resources has been developed since the start of the programme, including self-access reading skills courses, learner’s grammars, online reference works and some 30 multimedia study packs for autonomous learning. These resources cater for various levels of linguistic competence, ranging from topics such as individual Dutch or Flemish authors, like Multatuli or Louis Couperus, to the sociolinguistic situation of Brussels and the multicultural society in the Netherlands today. These are also being used in a series of distance¬learning programmes.
The second is Digital Humanities Open Educational Resources (DHOER: www.ucl.ac.uk/dhoer) which was set up to create and release a comprehensive range of introductory materials on approaches, topics, and methods in the digital humanities; these are based on modules currently taught as part of the Master’s programme at the UCL Centre for Digital Humanities. Importantly, these resources go beyond the digital humanities sphere and support many cognate disciplines, including the whole spectrum of the arts and humanities, cultural heritage, information studies, library studies, computer science and engineering. Indeed by pushing the disciplinary boundaries DHOER has contributed considerably to the advancement of the OER idea and helped to start a movement to bring about the cultural change that the UKOER programme envisages.
The third project, OER CPD4HE/Sustexts (OER Continued Professional Development for Higher Education, Sustainable Texts and Disciplinary Conversations), a collaboration with HEDERA.org (HE Development, Evaluation and Research), recognises that subject discipline is a key part of academic identity and that narratives are important in both learning and professional development. It has set out to increase the reach of open practice and engage with institutional policy makers.
Each of these projects has been involved in the awareness¬raising of OER, by presenting at workshops, conferences and organizing several UKOER programme¬ and institution¬wide events. The focus for each is on building communities of users and contributors to ensure sustainability and to develop standards of best practice. We can gather download statistics simply enough, just as we can for journal articles and other academic resources, but that is no indication of whether or not they have actually been used or indeed re¬used as a teaching resource. How this might be achieved is one of the challenges addressed here. This paper develops themes introduced in a recent publication: ‘Open access and online teaching materials for digital humanities’, Warwick et al eds. (2012) Digital Humanities in Practice, charting the progress and results of new initiatives since that chapter was authored.
Digital humanities should be taking a lead in the development of open access online teaching materials. In our community we take openness and collaboration for granted and commitment to these principles should be central to the development of any of our teaching programmes. By making our teaching resources openly and freely accessable to all we make our ideas and methodologies available to the wider academic and research communities. It is in this way, by creating synergies rather than silos and making our educational practice, particularly our critical and methodological approaches to teaching and learning, available to others, that we will overcome the sometimes sceptical reaction to the value of the work that we do (see Bradley 2010, which is taken from a paper he gave at DH2009). Experience has shown that digital humanities teaching must be relevant to students’ studies and research interests and we must be clear that what we offer are not ‘skills training’ courses (although they too play a part) but new methodologies and new ways to think about our material. Institutional barriers need to be overcome. Colleagues across the arts and humanities and other faculties need to be able to see how students benefit from the digital humanities approach, and then they will better understand our work and support the training of future digital humanities students and researchers (see Mahony and Pierazzo, 2013).
References
Bradley J. (2010). No job for Techies: Technical Contribution to Research in the Digital Humanities. In Deegan and McCarty (eds.) Collaborative Research in the Digital Humanities, Ashgate http://www.ashgate.com/isbn/9781409410683
Centre for Excellence in Teaching and Learning (CETL) Open Educational Resources (2010) Universities’ Collaboration in eLearning (UCEL), http://www.ucel.ac.uk/oer10. DHOER: Digital Humanities Open Educational Resourceshttp://www.ucl.ac.uk/dhoer
Hirsch (ed.) Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics, Open Book Publishers.http://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/161/digital-humanities¬pedagogy¬¬practices ¬¬principles¬and¬politics
JISC Phase 1 (2010). Open Educational Resources Programme Phase one: JISC,https://cms.jisc.ac.uk/whatwedo/programmes/elearning/oer.aspx
JISC Phase 2. (2011). Open Educational Resources Programme Phase 2http://www.jisc.ac.uk/whatwedo/programmes/elearning/oer2.aspx
JISC Phase 3. (2012). Academy/JISC Open Educational Resources Programme Phase 3 http://www.jisc.ac.uk/oer
Mahony, Tiedau, and Simons (2012). Open access and online teaching materials for digital humanities. In Warwick et al., (eds). Digital Humanities in Practice. Facet.
Mahony, and Pierazzo (2013). Teaching Skills or Teaching Methodology?, in Hirsch (ed). Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics, Open Book Publishers.
SustextsOER, Sustainable Texts & Disciplinary Conversations, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/calt/cpd4he/
Warwick, Terras, and Nyhan (eds). (2012). Digital Humanities in Practice. Facet.http://www.facetpublishing.co.uk/title.php?id=7661
VirtualDutch Open Educational Resource http://www.ucl.ac.uk/alternative-languages/OER/","txt","2","",""
"1778","14","SIMSSA: Towards full-music search over a large collection of musical scores","9","Musical scores are the central resource for music research, and research involving the capture, transmission, and analysis of these resources is a unique and largely untapped area in the Digital Humanities. For hundreds of years before the invention of audio recording music scores were the only format capable of capturing and transmitting sounds from one musician to the next. Our project, the Single Interface for Music Score Searching and Analysis (SIMSSA) targets digitized (scanned) music scores, and seeks to provide tools for searching and retrieving these resources. We seek to replicate the successes of similar initiatives for textual materials, like the HathiTrust or Google Books, in bringing large collections of musical materials to anyone with an internet connection. We have made the first steps towards this goal by developing a number of prototype systems, and have been actively seeking partnerships with music researchers and libraries.
An unprecedented number of musical scores are being made available as libraries digitize their collections. Nevertheless, there are two major challenges to using them. One is that the digitization efforts are distributed: all across the world, many different libraries, archives, and museums are digitizing their collections of music scores, both printed and manuscript, but no standards exist currently to unify these collections so that these digital scores can be easily found. The other challenge is that it is virtually impossible to perform content-based search or analysis of online scores — a sharp contrast with the situation for digitized texts. There is simply no reliable optical music recognition (OMR) software that can achieve results comparable to the optical character recognition (OCR) software that institutions use to make their text collections searchable. Until digital page images of musical scores can be converted into computer-readable format using OMR, the full potential of search, analysis, and retrieval of digital music collections is cannot be realized.
We currently have two research teams in place, developing tools to support our efforts. One team is concentrating on finding scores available as digital images on the Internet. This task requires crawling the Internet, automatically discovering digitized books, articles, and facsimiles of music sources. Each digital image is analyzed to determine whether it contains printed music. This type of large-scale music document analysis has never been attempted before, thus new and efficient algorithms need to be developed. Our preliminary study involving 659 page images, resulted in 98.7% recall; missing only 3 pages containing musical scores (false negatives). We are aware of large sites that contain music scores among the millions of books already digitized, such as Google Books, Internet Archive, HathiTrust, and the Bibliothèque nationale de France. When our system determines that there are music scores in a book, we will index the information so that in the future, each digital object will be easily locatable. In other words, we will automatically create a catalogue of digitized scores so that researchers can use a central resource to search hundreds of independent websites containing scores — much like web crawlers do today.
Our second team is working on developing content-based analysis tools for performing large-scale OMR. Current OMR tools are highly limited in scope — they can only work with a subset of music notation types, and are restricted to operating as a desktop application. We are currently developing new, web-based OMR tools that will allow us to operate large, flexible OMR systems through a web browser. We are also developing new methods of “crowdsourcing,” allowing us to distribute the steps of the OMR process to a wide, global audience. This work represents a significant advance in the state-of-the-art for OMR systems.
The outcomes of the SIMSSA project will prompt further exploration into large-scale digitization, transcription, retrieval, and analysis of music documents. The larger agenda behind SIMSSA is to make all musical documents available in electronic format to the wider public — an ambitious goal, but one that has some precedent in the library and musicological domain. To achieve this goal, we recognize that there are both technological and intellectual issues that need to be addressed.
The technological outcome of the SIMSSA project will be the development of powerful software tools that are accessible and usable by our constituent communities. Through the creation of web crawling and music image indexing systems, we hope to unlock the contents of existing digital music page images and convert them into searchable and analyzable data. The creation of an advanced, online toolkit for optical music recognition will also assist researchers in performing their own content analysis, both for improving the results of our indexing system, as well as operating on their own document collections.
Intellectually, the SIMSSA project will open up the possibility of performing search and analysis on the world’s musical collections, which will create new avenues of exploration in music theory and history. Currently researchers are limited to small personal data sets or to music that they have transcribed and analysed by hand. Researchers need tools that provide the ability to search across thousands of documents. This will promote discoveries about the nature of music that would have taken years or even lifetimes to do manually.
We also hope to tackle some of the issues surrounding the creation of the digital scholarly edition for music. While the digital edition represents several important advances over the traditional print edition by virtue of being in a dynamic, interactive environment, it also presents some difficulties in how these musical editions are represented at the computational level, and the amount of complexity involved in making these editions a reality. The large-scale nature of the SIMSSA project presents a unique opportunity for practitioners in musicology, library science, and computer science to develop standards, tools, and best practices for creating the digital scholarly edition.
The SIMSSA project is well into its second year of operation and we have already presented a number of prototype projects and software packages useful for both our project, and the digital humanities in general. We have developed the Diva.js image viewer, a web-based software package that allows users to quickly and efficiently view extremely high-resolution (multi-gigabyte) document images on the web. We have demonstrated both the Liber Usualis prototype for performing musical search and retrieval, and the Salzinnes Antiphonal prototype that combines high-quality scholarly information from the CANTUS website with a unique exploration interface that allows users to see this information in situ with the original page images.
We are continuing to develop a number of important relationships with the large, national libraries (British Library, Library of Congress, Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek) who will provide access to their digital collections. We are also working closely with the Music Encoding Initiative, an international group of scholars, technologists, and librarians based at the University of Virginia who are developing standards and best practices for the digital music edition.
Musical scores is a unique and, as-yet, untapped area for digital humanities research. We have a very limited understanding of how people use and interact with vast amounts of musical information at their fingertips, since there are no large-scale initiatives that offer this. To address this we are actively creating a community of technologists, musicologists, librarians, and other interested parties to begin to uncover the many questions that must be answered, and to explore the new areas of research that will emerge from this work.
Notes
1. http://ddmal.music.mcgill.ca/diva/
2. http://ddmal.music.mcgill.ca/liber/
3. http://ddmal.music.mcgill.ca/salzinnes/
4. http://www.music-encoding.org/","txt","2","",""
"1779","14","Simulating Plot: Towards a Generative Model of Narrative Structure","10","Introduction
This paper explores the application of computer simulation techniques to the fields of literary studies and narratology by developing a model for plot structure and characterization. Using a corpus of 19th Century British novels as a case study, this author begins with a descriptive quantitative analysis of character names, developing a set of stylized facts about the way narratives allocate attention to their characters. I show that narrative attention in many novels appears to follow a “long tail” distribution. I then construct an explanatory model instantiated in a JAVA-based simulation, demonstrating that basic assumptions about plot structure are sufficient to generate output consistent with the real novels in the corpus.
This study differs from prior computational work in literary criticism in two crucial respects. First, rather than style, this paper is concerned with plot and characterization. As critic Franco Moretti has argued, plot is the crucial element that must be quantified if computational methods are to gain traction in mainstream literary criticism. Second, the overwhelming majority of prior computational studies in literary criticism have been descriptive—counting and classifying the surface features of a text. This study, however, is focused on generative models. Although I make use of descriptive analysis, the main intent is to motivate a computer simulation that I will show is sufficient to reproduce several key stylized facts about actual narratives.
Part 1: Descriptive Analysis
In The One vs. The Many (2003), literary critic Alex Woloch repositions the questions of plot and characterization with which narratologists and formalists have traditionally been concerned in terms of the concept of “narrative attention.” Woloch argues that “narrative attention” is a scarce resource that authors must choose how to allocate amongst the characters populating their stories.
Taking a cue from The One vs. The Many, this paper begins by applying quantitative rigor to the concepts of “distribution” and “apportioning of narrative attention,” terms that Woloch uses qualitatively. By way of example, Figure 1 depicts the statistical distribution of character name mentions in Charles Dickens’ The Pickwick Papers. The distribution of name mentions (an observable metric) can be used as an instrumental variable for the distribution of narrative attention (a latent, unobservable variable). The result is striking—109 characters organized into what one might term “the long tail”: a small set of central characters represented by the spike on the left followed by a steep drop off to a long but shallow tail consisting of dozens of characters who are mentioned fewer than 10 times.
A wide range of phenomena are also known to follow a long tail: wealth distribution, website hits, and online books sales, for example, all obey a power law. The data for the novels sampled suggests that character name mentions and, by extension, narrative attention, are similarly distributed. That the distribution of attention within a novel should closely resemble the distribution of wealth within a nation is a provocative fact that calls for explanation. Do narratives exhibit power-law behavior because of rich-get-richer effects such as preferential attachment or are character names merely a special case of Zipf’s law regarding word frequency?
 
Part 2: Generative Models
Computer simulation techniques can play a valuable role in elucidating the dynamics driving narrative attention. This paper takes a structuralist approach that envisions narrative as composed of sub-structures with combinatorial rules. I assume that a plot structure is composed of a set of interwoven “plot strands” each with an internal hierarchy of characters. A JAVA-based simulation is used to implement this model. The user specifies the number of characters, plot strands, and scenes. The model then progresses sequentially through the plot, instantiating each strand as a scene in the predetermined order.
Although simplistic in its assumptions, this simulation is sufficient to reproduce a number of the salient features of narrative attention in the novels sampled. If the number of plot strands and main characters are set low—corresponding to a narrative that is tightly focused around one or a few characters in a single story line—the results closely resemble those observed for a Bildungsroman such as Pride and Prejudice. If the number of plot strands and main characters are set high—corresponding to a narrative focused around a large ensemble of characters across many subplots or parallel plots—the results closely resemble those observed for a sweeping social problem novel such as Bleak House.
Figure 2 shows a sweep of the model’s output in parameter space. The z-axis is the average goodness of fit of a power-law distribution. The x-axis represents the number of main characters (from x = 1 to x = 20) and the y-axis the number of plot strands (from y = 1 to y = 20). The number of characters is held constant at 50 and the number of scenes is held constant at 30. The model is run 40 times for each (x,y) pair, for a total of 16,000 runs. As the graph shows, the distribution of narrative attention fits a power law well for a low number of plot strands. As the number of plot strands increases, the fit erodes, particularly if the number of characters is increased along with the strands.
The simulation developed is intentionally simplistic: I have modeled plot structure and characterization only in terms of combinatorial rules for plot strands. Nevertheless, this simple model of plot structure is sufficient to generate results consistent with the way narrative attention is allocated in actual novels. This suggests the explanatory power of the “strand”—an historically under-theorized narrative unit that is worthy is further investigation.
 
References
Anderson, C. (2008). The Long Tail. New York: Hyperion.
Easley, D., and J. Kleinberg (2010). Power Laws and Rich Get Richer Phenomena. Networks, Crowds, and Markets. Cambridge UP.
Moretti, F. (2010). Network Theory, Plot Analysis. New Left Review.
Woloch, A. (2003). The One vs. the Many. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.","txt","2","",""
"1780","14","Six Degrees of Francis Bacon","10","Six Degrees of Francis Bacon (SDFB) is a digital reconstruction of the early modern social network (EMSN) that scholars and students from all over the world will be able to collaboratively expand, revise, curate, and critique. The primary motivation for the creation of SDFB is to make possible a new way to reconstruct, represent, and study the complex relations between authors, texts, publishers, and readers in the early modern period.
Historians and literary critics have long studied the ways that early modern writers and thinkers associated with each other and participated in various kinds of formal and informal groups. Yet their findings, published in countless books and articles, are scattered, unsynthesized, and unstructured. There is currently no way to get a unified view of the early modern social network. A scholar must start largely from scratch if she seeks to do any of the following:
•        1 Understand the importance or type of a particular bilateral relationship
•        2 Identify potentially important relationships that have yet to be explored
•        3 Understand the extent of communities of interaction
•        4 Visualize the consensus opinion regarding networks, whether small or large
To grasp the scale of the problem, consider that, at a conservative estimate, a network representing key early modern figures, their friends, families, critics, biographers, adversaries, influences, etc., could easily run to over 10,000 nodes. Each actor node could potentially be connected to any of the other nodes, leading to 5 million or more potential edges to explore.
To build a network of such a size manually is scarcely feasible. A computational approach, unifying the dispersed knowledge in the scholarly literature, is essential. Indeed, the digital tool we are building is superior to prose alone in representing the complexities of the early modern social network. Unlike published prose, it is extensible, collaborative, and interoperable: extensible in that affiliations can always be added, modified, developed, or, removed; collaborative in that it synthesizes the work of many scholars; interoperable in that new work on the network is put into immediate relation to previously mapped relationships.
Currently funded by a Faculty Research Grant from Google, SDFB is an innovative approach to comprehensively learning the early modern social network. It combines computational and statistical methods, which can explore the relationships of thousands of historical figures using hundreds of thousands of source documents, with the local expertise of a growing number of humanities scholars.
SDFB does not aim to replace the work of scholars studying individual texts, persons, or historical conjunctures. It does not even aim to provide a single totalizing synopsis of the scholarly literature. Rather, its twin goals are to make it easier for scholars to grasp what the scholarly community, as a whole, already knows about particular connections or social formations, and to enable the exploration of larger-scale patterns, alongside detailed studies. SDFB generates the social network in the following steps:
•        1 Identify and continuously expand the collection of sources used as input
•        2 Process unstructured data sources (largely text) into structured data amenable for statistical analysis
•        3 Apply statistical methods to infer relationships
•        4 Validate a sample of proposed relationships using local expertise of humanities scholars
•        5 Organize and visualize the social network
We illustrate these steps by describing the start-up phase of SDFB, where we used the entries in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, and a statistical model in which network connections are reflected in co-mentions of actors’ names, to produce an estimate of the existence and types of relationships between thousands of figures in early modern Britain.
We used the ODNB as the source of documents both because of the present authors’ primary interest in the target geography and time period (Britain, c. 1550–1700), and because the dense-in-data documents are all machine-readable text in largely uniform format. Existing named entity extraction software (Alias-i, 2008; Finkel et al., 2005) produced an initial list of people mentioned in each document, which was refined with semi-automatic disambiguation and de-duplication of names. From this we created a matrix, where the rows represent documents (or document sections), the columns represent historical figures, and the entries of the matrix are the number of times each document mentioned each figure.
We developed a statistical model for the data in this matrix form, assuming that direct connections between historical figures will be reflected by their being mentioned together, but that such direct connections will “screen off” indirect connections mediated by third (or fourth, etc.) parties, rendering the latter irrelevant. That is, if Irene and Joey are connected they will tend to be mentioned together in source documents, so how often Irene is mentioned can be predicted (in part) from how often Joey is mentioned. Likewise if Joey and Karl are connected, mentions of Karl predict mentions of Joey. But if there is no direct tie between Irene and Karl, then mentions of Karl convey no information about mentions of Irene not already accounted for by mentions of Joey. Under this assumption, inferring the existence of network connections is then the same problem as inferring the conditional independence structure in our statistical model, a well-studied problem in statistics and machine learning (Spirtes, Glymour and Scheines, 1993). We solve our instance of the problem through a sequence of penalized Poisson regressions (the “Poisson graphical lasso”, Allen and Liu 2012). This allows us to process thousands of historical figures in tens of thousands of documents in a matter of hours, and to obtain confidence intervals on each network connection through subsampling of documents.
Having inferred the existence of network ties through conditional dependence, we infer the types of relationship by examining the distribution of key words found in small sections of documents where a pair of connected people are both mentioned. We compare this distribution to those of pairs where the relationship is known and validated by experts, building a relationship-type classifier with standard supervised learning techniques.
We then choose a sample of people in our network and create a master list of connections inferred from our model and from competing methods. These master lists are provided in random order to a select group of scholars who then order them by importance of the relationships. We use these ordered lists to tune our model and demonstrate its effectiveness relative to competing methods.
The next phases of the project will involve extending all components of the approach. Millions of texts have been digitized and are theoretically available for use in this project, but even identifying the relevant sources is a non-trivial task. The next phase will not just increase the number of source documents, but also broaden the kinds of documents used. Some historical accounts may provide evidence of relationships not found in DNB entries, and printed scholarly compilations from primary sources (e.g., membership rolls, parish records) may be invaluable for some types of relationships. This will require new methods of processing different types of unstructured data as well as new statistical models. In the first phase all the documents were of the same type (online biographies) and a unified statistical model made sense – this may not be true as we include a variety of texts. We will also consider dynamic network models that attempt to infer the timing of relationships.
Validation will be expanded to include an ever broader collection of experts and will focus on individual relationships that are not well explained by the current model. The problem is algorithmic (an automated feedback loop to refine the model) as well as managerial (allowing corrections from multiple experts while assuring quality).
Finally, the next phase will involve roll-out of a wiki front-end that allows easy exploration of actors, their connections, and network visualizations.
References
Alias-i (2008). LingPipe 4.1.0. http://alias-i.com/lingpipe.
Allen, G. I., and Z. Liu (2012). A Log-Linear Graphical Model for Inferring Genetic Networks from High-Throughput Sequencing Data, htttp://arxiv.org/abs/1204.3941.
Davidson, C. N. (2012). Humanities 2.0: Promise, Perils, Predictions. In Gold, M. K. (ed.) Debates in the digital humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Evans, J. A., and J. G. Foster (2011). Metaknowledge. Science 331.6018: 721–725. Online. Internet. 3 Nov. 2012.
Finkel, J. R., T. Grenager, and C. Manning (2005). Incorporating Non-local Information into Information Extraction Systems by Gibbs Sampling in Proceedings of the 43nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics(ACL 2005), 363-370 http://nlp.stanford.edu/~manning/papers/gibbscrf3.pdf.
Grafton, A. (2009). Worlds Made by Words: Scholarship and Community in the Modern West. Harvard University Press.
Liu, A. (2011). Friending the Past: The Sense of History and Social Computing. New Literary History 42(1) : 1–30. Accessed 3 Nov. 2012.
Michel, J.-B., et al. (2011). Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books. Science 331(6014): 176–182. Accessed 4 Oct. 2012.
Moretti, F. (2007). Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for Literary History. vols. Verso.
Spirtes, P, C. Glymour, and R. Scheines (1993). Causation, Prediction, and Search. Springer Lecture Notes in Statistics, vol. 81. New York: Springer-Verlag.","txt","2","",""
"1781","14","A social network analysis of Rousseau's autobiography ""Les Confessions""","10","Introduction
We propose an analysis of the social network composed of the characters appearing in Jean-Jacques Rousseau's autobiographic Les Confessions, with existence of edges based on co-occurrences. This work consists of twelve volumes, that span over fifty years of his life.
Having a unique author allows us to consider the book as a coherent work, unlike some of the historical texts from which networks often get extracted, and to compare the evolution of patterns of characters through the books on a common basis.Les Confessions, considered as one of the first modern autobiographies, has the originality to let us compose a social network close to the reality, only with a bias introduced by the author, that has to be taken into account during the analysis. Hence, with this paper, we discuss the interpretation of networks based on the content of a book as social networks. We also, in a digital humanities approach, discuss the relevance of this object as an historical source and a narrative tool.
Literature review
Prior to this work, comparable studies have been published (Elson et al. 2010; Elson 2012), with edges based on conversations. After presenting a model to build ""conversational networks"" from classic novels, the authors conduct a social network analysis from which they can conclude that ""as the number of characters in a novel grows, so too do the cohesion, interconnectedness and balance of [its] social network"".
In (Moretti 2011), the author proposes the use of network theory to analyse the plot of Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Finally, the study consists of re-telling the story via networks in order to sensitize the reader to this problematic, but doesn’t develop any tool or concrete methodology.
Another recent paper (Carron, et al. 2012) proposes a statistical method invoking concepts of small-world, centrality and assortativity, with the objective of detecting real facts from fictional ones in mythological narratives.
Methodology
We propose a method that allows building a network from an index of names, and pages on which they occur (528 names on 672 in the selected – Slatkine, 2012 – edition). Vertices in the network represent the characters. To determine the existence of an edge between two characters, we have to deal with two constraints : the page is a restriction we have to get around, and some co-occurrences may be too weak to mean anything. Therefore, we take into account co-occurrences on same and adjacent pages (a name on last line of page n and a name on first line of page n+1 are closer than two names on first and last line of the same page), and then restrict the meaningful links to those reaching a certain level of significance. In this study, an edge with a coefficient of 1 means it links two adjacents nouns. An edge with a coefficient of 2 means two times adjacents nouns, or two names occuring on the same page. With that in mind, we choose to impose a threshold of 3 on links for them to be considered, so that no two characters are linked by error.
The resulting network is composed of 435 vertices and 3572 edges situated in a single connected component instead of 528 vertices and 4138 edges without threshold (links incident to non-contemporary characters like Plato or Copernic, cited together by Rousseau because of the influence of their work on his, have disappeared). It is undirected, i.e. relations are reciprocal. For comparison, the network with co-occurrences per page only, without threshold, is composed of 528 vertices and 2047 edges.
 
Analysis
Average path length is 2.48 steps, a small number but equal to what is obtained from random graphs generated with same order and density. However, diameter is equal to 10, which is high compared to 4 in the random case. The fifty years of Rousseau’s life covered by Les Confessions lead to characters of the beginning and end of his life far away one from the other in terms of network distance. The comparison with random cases also yields an interesting result in the case of transitivity (closure of triplets of characters), which is equal to 0.299 against 0.038 in the random case, and global clustering coefficient equal to 0.724 against 0.038. These two results lead to assert that Rousseau links strongly characters between them in his narratives. According to (Watts et al., 1998), the network satisfies conditions to be considered as a “small-world” network (with possible discussion because of the high value of diameter).
Minus some noise on both sides, distribution of degrees of vertices and weights of edges show obvious power-law shape. Distribution of degrees has mode equal to 6, which is an interesting result since such a shape is common with many networks, but not a known results for literary or narrative networks. This implies that the author usually cite characters at least a few times, or with many other characters at the same time.
 
In (Newman et al. 2003), the authors define assortativity as the correlation of degrees of adjacent nodes. They conclude that social networks have positive assortativity, which is due to the frequent group structure observed on networks of this type. Assortativity of degrees computed on the network equals -0.114, while in the random case we obtain -0.006. In this work, we explore the potential explanations, from a possible bias introduced by the author, to a criticism of our method of creating the edges.
In the rest of the work, we still plan to show how the roles of protagonists can be identified, followed and compared via centrality indices like eigenvector centrality (centrality measure of a character depends on the ones from his neighbours, as it does with theirs). The question of dynamics of a literary network, linked to the chronological way Rousseau wrote the book, will also be considered.
References
Barabási, A.-L., and R. Albert (1999). Emergence of scaling in random networks. Science, 286(5439): 509–512.
Brandes, U., and T. Erlebach (2005). Introduction. In Network Analysis, volume 3418, pages 1–6. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer.
Mac Carron, P., and R. Kenna (2012). Universal properties of mythological networks. EPL (Europhysics Letters), 99(2): 28002, July 2012.
Elson, D. K. (2012). Modeling narrative discourse. Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, New York City.
Elson, D. K., N. Dames, and K. R. McKeown (2010). Extracting social networks from literary fiction. In Proceedings of the 48th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2010), Uppsala, Sweden.
Marina, H., B. Ulrik, P. Jürgen, and M. Ines (2012). Studying Social Networks: A Guide to Empirical Research. Campus Verlag.
Moretti, F. (2011). Network theory, plot analysis. http://litlab.stanford.edu/?page_id=255
Newman, M. E. J., and J. Park (2003). Why social networks are different from other types of networks. Phys. Rev. E, 68(3): 036122, September 2003.
Wasserman, S., and K. Faust (1994). Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications. Cambridge University Press, November 1994.
Watts, D. J., and S. H. Strogatz (1998). Collective dynamics of ‘smallworld’ networks. Nature, 393:440–442, June 1998.","txt","2","",""
"1782","14","The Sounds of the Psalter: Computational Analysis of Phonological Parallelism in Biblical Hebrew Poetry","10","1. Introduction
Parallelism lies at the artistic heart of Biblical Hebrew poetry. Traditionally, the focus of research on parallelism in Biblical Hebrew poetry was largely limited to semantic parallelism, but in recent decades scholars have responded to Roman Jakobson's challenge to explore the grammatical and phonological aspects of parallelism as well (1966). These recent treatments of phonological parallelism have represented an important addition to the study of Biblical Hebrew poetry (Watson 1984, 1994; Pardee 1988; Alonso-Schökel 1963, 1988; McCreesh 1991). However, the number of phonemes in Biblical Hebrew is naturally limited, so repetition of phonemes and phonemes with similar features is inevitable. In the rare instances in which scholars have offered objective criteria by which to discriminate between intentional and unintentional phonological parallelism in ancient Semitic poetry, the criteria have been arbitrary, divorced from any nuance required to make them statistically meaningful (e.g. Margalit 1979). Criteria proposed by scholars for other languages have been better but still not designed to responsibly find clusters of any phonemes over an arbitrarily large swath of poetry (Clement 2012; Plamondon 2001, 2005, 2006; Barquist 1987, 1991; Hidley 1986; Leavitt 1976; Jackson 1942; Skinner 1941; Chisholm 1976, 1981; Magnuson 1962; Hervás 2007).
There are three main ways in which ancient Israelite poets used phonological parallelism. First, they used a cluster of a single phoneme or a group of phonemes with similar features in a small section of a poem for artistic effect, making lines memorable and binding together poetic units tightly. Second, they clustered the sounds from a key word in the poem, reinforcing the theme. Third, they used phonological parallelism in creative ways across large sections of a poem to reinforce the structure of the poem and/or its function in Israelite society. In this paper, I explore computational techniques for studying the first two of these categories in a single, sizable corpus of Biblical Hebrew poetry, namely the Book of Psalms.
This paper limits its investigation to the consonants on account of the difficulties in reconstructing the precise vowels of the biblical period, particularly in the Book of Psalms, an anthological corpus with compositions from many different centuries. For the consonants, I assume that the consonantal orthography represents the phonology well, with three exceptions: the representation of /ʕ/ and /ɣ/ by ע (ʿ), the representation of /ħ/ and /x/ by ח (ḥ), and the occasional quiescence of א (ʔ). I also assume that the Massoretes correctly distinguished between two phonemes in marking ש as שׁ (ʃ) and שׂ (ɬ).
2. Source of Data
The J. Alan Groves Center for Advanced Biblical Research maintains an accurate digital representation of the text of the Hebrew Bible, following the Leningrad Codex, and has also tagged each word with lexical and morphological information. Version 4.14 is used herein after having stripped the vowels, cantillation marks, and matres lectionis—vowels represented in the orthography using consonant symbols—from the text.
3. Visualization
Two types of visualizations have been employed. Both rely on a mapping from the features of each phoneme onto a three dimensional RGB color space so that similar sounds are mapped to similar colors. In the first visualization, each consonant of the text of the Hebrew Bible is colored. In the second visualization, each consonantal phoneme is represented by a short vertical line, with one row of these vertical lines per chapter. The user can view the vertical lines for all consonantal phonemes or any subset of them, with the rest forming a black background.
 
Figure 1.
Visualization for Psalm 37, showing just the ﬧ (ʁ) phoneme. The white block indicates the end of the psalm. Note the cluster of lines near the right side (verses 34-36), in which eighteen consecutive words contain a ﬧ (ʁ).
4. Statistical and Computational Techniques
With a limited consonantal phonemic inventory A and the hypothesis that a particular poem or section thereof contains a cluster of a set of phonemes P, the simplest way of testing that hypothesis is to calculate the probability that a poetic section that size would contain at least the observed number of occurrences of phonemes in P if the phonemes were chosen randomly in accordance with their respective frequencies in the corpus as a whole. Thus, let n be the number of consonantal phonemes in the poetic section, let x be the observed number of phonemes in P in the poetic section, and let p be the probability of any given consonantal phoneme in the entire corpus being an element of P. Then, based on the cumulative distribution function of the binomial distribution:
 
Where computationally necessary, the normal approximation of the binomial distribution or the Poisson approximation of the binomial distribution can be used to estimate this probability.
Greater nuance can be added to this statistical test by weighting certain words in the text more heavily than others, taking into account all of the following:
•        a) The relative frequency of lexemes. A list of nouns with the definite article ה (h) does not represent a cluster of the ה (h) phoneme. By contrast, a rare lexeme may have been chosen over a more common one precisely on account of its sound.
•        b. The repetition of lexemes. The repetition of a particular lexeme does not signal that the poet was specifically seeking to employ phonological parallelism over against another type of parallelism. A clause such as פַַּ֥חַד וָפַַ֖חַת וָפָָ֑ח עָ לַ֖יךָ(pħd wpħt wpħ ʕlk; “terror, pit, and snare are upon you”; Isaiah 24:17), is rhetorically effective on account of its use of different lexemes with similar phonemes.
•        c. Parts of speech. Phonological parallelism using content words is more effective than that which uses function words.
These factors are used to weight each word so that each consonantal phoneme in that word counts not as a single Bernouilli trial but rather as a trial with weight in the range (0.0, 1.0]. Since this no longer results in a discrete binomial distribution, the distribution can be approximated via the continuous Gamma distribution, the cumulative distribution function of which can be used to find the probability of a given poetic section having at least the observed number of phonemes in P.
When a scholar proposes the artistic use of sound in a text, one can evaluate this claim using this technique. In addition, this technique can be used to identify poems or sections thereof that deserve the researcher’s consideration. I have written software that, given a set of consonantal phonemes and constraints on the size of text, computes this metric for every stretch of text in the Hebrew Bible and lists all of them that score above a given value, with care taken so that only the highest scoring passage is shown among qualifying passages that overlap. In other words, this software finds the passages within a given size range that are most likely to contain an artistic clustering of the desired sounds.
5. Results
The Hebrew Bible, and even the Book of Psalms, is large enough that given a set of phonemes, our software is bound to find many false positives alongside any legitimately artistic uses of sound. Indeed, estimates concerning the number of expected false positives can be discerned by two methods. First, one can compare the number of prose texts found with a given minimum score to the number of poetic texts found. In addition, one can rearrange at random the words of the Hebrew Bible and of the psalms in particular and then re-run the algorithm to see how many passages score above a given level. Doing these tests indicates that we should expect the majority—but not all—of the high-scoring passages to be false positives. Thus, a critical eye and ear are required to determine when phonological parallelism is not merely statistically plausible but also rhetorically plausible, to the point that it is likely that the poet used sound intentionally.
Looking through the output of the software tool has produced some compelling examples, of which three are presented briefly in conclusion. In Psalm 37:34-36, the ר (ʁ) phoneme appears precisely one time in each of eighteen consecutive words. Psalm 37 is an acrostic poem, and these eighteen words span the ק (kʾ) and ר (ʁ) sections. This phonological parallelism helps to reinforce the acrostic structure of the poem and also serves to bind the ק (kʾ) and ר (ʁ) sections together. Psalm 46 is generally classified by modern interpreters as a song of Zion, one of a series of psalms with Jerusalem/Zion as its central theme. The psalmist only actually mentions the city in verses 5-6 and does not even name it. Yet in verses 3-4, there is a cluster of the sounds of the word יְרוּשָׁלַם (jʁʃlm; “Jerusalem”), climaxing with the two words יִרְעֲשׁוּ־הָרִים (jʁʕʃ hʁm; “mountains quake”), which together sound very much like יְרוּשָׁלִַם (jʁʃlm; “Jerusalem”). Similarly, Psalm 122 is all about Jerusalem and its temple, and it makes heavy use of the phonemes in יְרוּשָׁלִַם (yʁʃlm; “Jerusalem”) throughout the psalm, with an especially high density in verse 6.
References
Alonso Schökel, L. (1963). Estudios de Poética Hebrea. Barcelona: J. Flors.
Alonso Schökel, L. (1988). A Manual of Hebrew Poetics. Translated by Adrian Graffy. Subsidia Biblica 11. Rome: Biblical Institute Press.
Barquist, C. R. (1987) Phonological Patterning in Beowulf. Literary and Linguistic Computing 2: 19-23.
Barquist, C. R., and D. L. Shie (1991). Computer Analysis of Alliteration in Beowulf Using Distinctive Feature Theory.Literary and Linguistic Computing 6. 274-280.
Berlin, A. (1985). The Dynamics of Biblical Parallelism. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press.
Chisholm, D. (1976). Phonological Patterning in German Verse. Computers and the Humanities. 10. 5-20.
Chisholm, D. (1981). Phonology and Style: A Computer-Assisted Approach to German Verse. Computers and the Humanities. 15. 199-210.
Clement, T. (2012). ""Methodologies in the Digital Humanities for Analyzing Aural Patterns in Texts."" Proceedings of the 2012 iConference. New York: ACM, 2012. 287–293.
Hervás, R., J. Robinson, and P. Gervás. (2007). Evolutionary Assistance in Alliteration and Allelic Drivel. Lecture Notes on Computer Science. 4448. 537-546.
Hidley, G. R. (1986). Some Thoughts Concerning the Application of Software Tools in Support of Old English Poetic Studies. Literary and Linguistic Computing. 1. 156-162.
Jackson, E. (1942). The Quantitative Measurement of Assonance and Alliteration in Swinburne. American Journal of Psychology. 55. 115-123.
Jakobson, R. (1966). Grammatical Parallelism and Its Russian Facet. Language 42. 399-429.
Leavitt, J. A. (1976). On the Measurement of Alliteration in Poetry"" Computers and the Humanities. 10. 333-342.
Magnuson, K. (1962). Consonant Repetition in the Lyric of Georg Trakl. Germanic Review. 37. 263-281.
Margalit, B. (1979). Introduction to Ugaritic Prosody. Ugarit Forschungen.11. 289-313.
McCreesh, T. P. (1991). Biblical Sound and Sense: Poetic Sound Patterns in Proverbs 10-29. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press.
Pardee, D. (1988). Ugaritic and Hebrew Poetic Parallelism: A Trial Cut ‘nt I and Proverbs 2. Vetus Testamentum Supplements 39. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
Plamondon, M. R. (2001). The Musical Aesthetics of the Poetry of Tennyson and Browning. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Toronto.
Plamondon, M. R. (2005). Computer-Assisted Phonetic Analysis of English Poetry: A Preliminary Case Study of Browning and Tennyson. TEXT Technology. 14. 153-175.
Plamondon, M. R. (2006). Virtual Verse Analysis: Analysing Patterns in Poetry. Literary and Linguistic Computing. 21. Supplemental Issue: 127-141.
Skinner, B. F. (1941). A Quantitative Estimate of Certain Types of Sound-Patterning in Poetry. American Journal of Psychology. 54. 64-79.
Watson, W. G. E. (1984). Classical Hebrew Poetry: A Guide to its Techniques. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. Supplement Series 26. Sheffield: JSOT Press.
Watson, W. G. E. (1994). Traditional Techniques in Classical Hebrew Verse. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. Supplement Series 170. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.","txt","2","",""
"1783","14","""State of the Art"": Negotiating a National Standards-approved Digital Humanities Curriculum","10","The University of Canterbury has recently completed development of New Zealand (and Australasia’s) first digital humanities degree program that is also standards-approved on a national level. The process required the development of document sets that were submitted for review by the University of Canterbury Faculty, Academic Advisory Committee, Academic Board, the New Zealand Vice-Chancellor’s Committee on University Academic Programs (CUAP), the New Zealand Vice-Chancellor’s Committee, and the Tertiary Education Commission. Fourteen national and international reviewers, drawn from technology education, information science, computer science, high performance computing and the digital humanities also provided their opinions. The program represents a significant baseline for future digital humanities programs, and the lessons learned during its development are of importance to the broader digital humanities community. Although New Zealand universities operate with basically the same degree of independence in course and program development as universities elsewhere in the world, the requirement to submit all new programs to a national standards body is unusual, if not unique. It may be that the University of Canterbury digital humanities program is the most closely scrutinised example the digital humanities community have seen. This has resulted in a program that is embedded within both the culture of Canterbury, and the national educational policies of NZ. It therefore comes with a higher degree of legitimacy, but also a complex set of stake holders. Moreover, because of the close policy ties between New Zealand and Australia (in education as well as other areas) the program has implications for the Australasian region as a whole.
The implications of national accreditation
Programs and curriculums have pedagogical, methodological, administrative and indeed philosophical issues embedded in them. Their final form reflects not only the ‘state of the art’ in the discipline in question, but the ‘state of the art’ as parsed through academic staff, informed (and uninformed) reviewers, institutional context (and necessity), national educational politics, and the shifting sands of methodological and critical best practice. The forces are such that it is quite possible for the final program of study to be quite different from that originally intended, although for obvious reasons the applicants tend to press on regardless, making modifications where necessary but attempting to safeguard the core pedagogical principles wherever possible. This is a process that many digital humanities teams should be expected to go through in the coming years as more institutions attempt to establish programs; it is a period in time when the digital humanities are going to begin to be influenced not only by internal pressure, but external ones such as the need to conform to national educational standards.
Teaching applied and critical DH in the context of standards-approved accreditation
The program will be delivered to fourth year students undertaking their ‘Honours’ year, a first year of post-graduate study often taken before embarking on more advanced Masters or Ph.D. study. The program was informed by existing programs at Kings College London, University College London, the Open University (Wilks 2011) and the University of California, but the author drew most heavily on theoretical and pedagogical perspectives raised through DH social media and publishing channels over the past five years. A balance has been struck between the ‘hack’ and ‘yak’ positions (Cecire 2011; Ramsay 2011; Koh 2012 and others), in the light of what Alexander Reid has suggested is a need for the field to equip students with a broad “yet undefined digital literacy” (Reid 2012, 354) encompassing both technical and critical skills. The position taken is similar to that espoused by Alan Liu and Andrew Prescott, who argue that tomorrows students and scholars will need to function in a world in which computers are not only ubiquitous, but knowledge itself is a commodity (Liu, 2004; Prescott, 2012). In this sense, the program assumes an ethical imperative to prepare students for work in the post-industrial society that was envisaged by Daniel Bell in 1973, and now forms the basis of both graduate employment structures (Castells and Aoyama, 1994; Aneesh, 2001; Cohen 2010) and tertiary education systems (Donoghue 2008; Brier 2012). In keeping with the core values of the digital humanities community, emphasis has been placed on the development of technical skills that can enhance and extend humanities research activities, and promote awareness of the engineered nature of the digital world.
The program is structured around two core assessment papers: DIGI 401: Introduction to Digital Humanities and DIGI 402: Humanities and New Media. DIGI 480: Research Essay will also be available, to students interested in exploring a topic in detail via a 10,000 word essay. A variety of other (assessment) papers will be rolled out in future years, including Applied Digital Humanities, Digital Literary Studies, and Digital History. Masters and Ph.D. offerings are expected to follow. DIGI 401: Introduction to Digital Humanities is modelled on courses in historical method that are well known to History students. The course provides a broad and challenging overview of the digital humanities, organised into History, Theory and Applied modules. Topics include technological determinism, systems theory, materiality and digital forensics, the nature of digital texts, and data visualization. Introductory lectures on TEI and GIS will prepare students for further study in Digital Literary Studies and Digital History. In order to provide students with generically useful programming knowledge an applied module will concentrate on teaching TEI, GIS, Python and use of APIs. Lecturers will be drawn from University of Canterbury’s Digital Humanities program, Human Interface Technology Laboratory, Computer Science, Information Systems, and Geography. The aim is to offer the students an overview of tools and methods in the digital humanities, and encourage them to think about how the digital world is engineered. DIGI 402: Humanities and New Media is an overt attempt to blend the ‘hack’ and ‘yak’ sides to DH as a practice. Students will be strongly encouraged to take DIGI 401 before taking 402 so they have a solid understanding of the technical side to new media culture and politics. Topics in this course include digital modernity, technocracy, cybernetics, knowledge economies, the Internet, open and closed data, open and closed ecosystems. Focus will be placed on both the engineered nature of the digital world, and the concepts required to critique it. Assessment will include traditional essay-based assessment, blog posts, forum posts, and quizzes designed to ensure students are capable of analysing the digital world as an engineered phenomenon.
Pedagogical focus will be placed on graduate outcomes across the program as a whole, and students will be offered opportunities for student exchanges, internship and work experience opportunities. The aim is for graduates to have a blend of traditional humanities-related skills and applied computing skills. They should have an understanding of the moral and ethical issues surrounding digital technologies, the ability to write clear, concise prose, and an understanding of the technical constraints and opportunities provided by digital technologies. Students should be well suited to work in all new media and digital industries, but especially ones requiring a blend of analytical and technical skills. Graduates would be suitable for work in research, relationship management, business analysis, digital archiving, project management, and the creative and cultural heritage sectors. They should be particularly suited to policy analysis positions related to technology and culture, and any position that requires communication across technical and non-technical audiences. The aim is to create a ‘porous’ educational environment that encourages interaction both inside and outside the university, equipping students with experiences and relationships that can translate into enhanced employment prospects. Inter-disciplinarily will be encouraged, and it is hoped that a DH Commons can be developed to integrate university service support teams in the library and digital media group into the learning experience.
The accreditation process means that, while reflecting the core aims and values of the digital humanities community, the program is also relevant to the pedagogical and strategic aims of the University of Canterbury and the wider New Zealand tertiary education sector. Although challenging, once successfully negotiated the accreditation process effectively embeds the digital humanities into the New Zealand government’s long-term education strategy, providing significant pedagogical sanction, integration with the secondary education sector, and a strong platform for future growth. All New Zealand, and undoubtedly Australian, universities aiming to develop digital humanities programs will need to reference the University of Canterbury as a baseline. The implications of this for the development of the digital humanities across Australasia are significant, and (as long as the Canterbury program enshrines core DH aims and values) largely positive.
This paper will provide an overview of the program from intellectual, pedagogical and strategic perspectives in an attempt to share lessons learned with the international DH community, and redress some of the “emphasis on research over teaching” prevalent in the field (Brier 2012, 391). Specific focus will be placed on the implications of the program for Australia and the development of the digital humanities across Australasia as a whole. All program documentation will be made available online so that conference participants have full-text access to the issues being discussed.
References
Aneesh, A. (2001). Skill Saturation: Rationalization and Post-Industrial Work. Theory and Society 30(3). 363–396.
Bell, D. (1973). The Coming of Post-industrial Society: a Venture in Social Forecasting. New York: Basic Books.

Brier, S. (2012). Where’s the Pedagogy: The Role of Teaching and Learning in the Digital Humanities. in Gold, M. K. (ed), Debates in the Digital Humanities. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Castells, M., and Y. Aoyama (1994). Paths towards the informational society: Employment structure in G-7 countries, 1920-90. International Labour Review 133(1). 5.
Cecire, N. (2011). When DH Was in Vogue; or, THATCamp Theory. Works Cited, October 19 2011.http://nataliacecire.blogspot.com/2011/10/when-dh-was-in-vogue-or-thatcamp-theory.html.
Cohen, D. (2008). Three Lectures on Post-industrial Society. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Smart, B.(2010). Post Industrial Society. Sage.
Donoghue, F. (2008). The Last Professors: The Corporate University and the Fate of the Humanities. 1st edn. New York: Fordham University Press.
Kent, E. F. (2012). What Are You Going to Do with a Degree in That? Arguing for the Humanities in an Era of Efficiency. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education 11 (3). (July 1, 2012) 273–284.
Koh, A. (2012). More Hack, Less Yack?: Modularity, Theory and Habitus in the Digital Humanitieshttp://www.adelinekoh.org/blog/2012/05/21/more-hack-less-yack-modularity-theory-and-habitus-in-the-digital-humanities/. (accessed May 21, 2012).
Liu, A. (2004). The Laws of Cool: Knowledge Work and the Culture of Information. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Prescott, A. (2012). An Electric Current of the Imagination: What the Digital Humanities Are and What They Might Become. Journal of Digital Humanities. http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/1-2/an-electric-current-of-the-imagination-by-andrew-prescott/. (accesssed June 26, 2012).
Ramsay, S. (2011). On Building. Stephen Ramsay, http://lenz.unl.edu/papers/2011/01/11/on-building.html. (accessed January 11, 2011).
Reid, A. (2012). Graduate Education and the Ethics of the Digital Humanities. Debates in the Digital Humanities. Ed. Matthew Gold. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Thaller, M. (2012). Controversies Around the Digital Humanities: An Agenda. Historical Social Research 37(3). 7–23.
Wilks, L. (2011). Developing the Digital Humanities at the Open University. Open University, June 2011.","txt","2","",""
"1784","14","Surrogacy and Image Error: Transformations in the Value of Digitized Books","10","The large-scale digitization of books is generating extraordinary collections of visual and textual surrogates, whose preservation is premised partly upon expected transformations in teaching and scholarship in the humanities. Questions have been and continue to be raised about the quality and usefulness of digital surrogates produced by third-party vendors and deposited in digital repositories for preservation and access (Cohen 2010). If the surrogacy of published materials that serve as primary sources is to find wide acceptance within humanities scholarship, then those who build and manage preservation repositories must be able to make claims about, validate the quality of, and certify the fitness of use of these preserved digital surrogates. Understanding the relationship between digital surrogacy and the presence or absence of evidence regarding digitization processes is thus a substantial challenge for scholars and preservation archivists alike.
The purpose of the paper is to synthesize and extend the findings and implications of a major ongoing research project at the University of Michigan School of Information. The research explores the relationship between quality (or its absence in the form of unacceptable error) and usefulness of digitized books at scale. The HathiTrust Digital Library is the test bed for the project. HathiTrust is an international repository collaborative that is preserving and providing access to the output of large-scale book digitization projects, including those by Google, the Internet Archive, and a host of localized digitization programs (York 2010). The research reported here is designed to produce some foundation of statistical truth, accompanied by a transparent methodology, so that follow-up user validation studies can explore how digital image error impacts the acceptance of digital surrogates for scholarly inquiry and the management of physical collections in libraries.
This research into the quality and usefulness of large-scale digitization is built on a synthesis of scholarship in multiple fields that typically do not intersect: information quality (Knight 2008), digital image analysis (Lin 2006), relevance clues (Saracevic, 2007), and humanities scholars’ use of digital collections (Henry 2010). The research is grounded on a model of error that specifies the gap between the digitization ideal, represented by digitization best practices and standards, and the realities of repositories’ acceptance of digitized content produced by third parties. The design of the research (Conway 2011), data gathering and analysis procedures (Conway and Bronicki 2012), and summary findings (Conway 2012) are reported separately. This work was supported by the US Institute of Museum and Library Services [grant number LG-06-10-0144-10]; and The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.
The emphasis of the research is on the visual representation of books as digitally bound bitmap sequences, derived from sometimes deeply flawed source volumes and produced through a complex set of manual scanning processes and automated post-scan image processing procedures. The transformation of published books to digital code and algorithm is mitigated by the terms of digitization technologies. “The aesthetic transformations that make digital objects so eloquent are themselves always subject to the functional constraints imposed by the material variables of computation. Understood at this level, digital surrogates are just as ‘real’ (and tangible) as their analog counterparts.” (Eaves 2003, 164) The relationship between source and digital surrogate conforms to the “law of contact” proposed by Taussig (1993): “things which have once been in contact with each other continue to act on each other at a distance after the physical contact has been severed.” (52-53) Significantly, digital surrogates produced through high-volume digitization carry with them traces of the terms of their creation. Such traces may inevitably affect the trust that is essential the acceptance of digital surrogates as sources of scholarship. “If we cannot trust our means of reproduction of images of texts, can we trust the readings from them? How do scholars acknowledge the quality of digitized images of texts?” (Terras 2011, 1)
This paper is an explicit effort to foster a conversation on the impact of digital imaging at scale on humanities scholarship by marshaling empirical research data on digitization error to characterize the strengths and limitations of digital surrogacy. The implications for the use of surrogates are derived from data gathered from four 1,000-volume random samples of digital surrogates covering the full range of source volumes digitized by Google and the Internet Archive from more than 20 research libraries. Proportional and systematic sampling of page-images within each volume in the samples produced a study set of over 350,000 page images, which have been evaluated visually by highly trained coders working in two university libraries in the United States. Using a web-enabled database system, coders assigned error severity scores for eleven page-level errors and five book-level errors specified in the carefully tested model.
Statistical analysis of the datasets produces a stark portrait of the visual properties of book surrogates in a 10 million volume collection, in which nearly a third of all volumes that exhibit a low level of text-oriented degradation coexist with volumes where severe error cascades through inter-related digitization processes. Minor error that does not limit the readability of digitized text might be accepted as a part of the price of enhanced access. Only a minority of the volumes in HathiTrust are error free at very low levels of severity. The four most common errors (thick text, broken text, warped pages, and obscured content) are easily and reliably detectable and so common as to be part of the fabric of digital surrogacy. With the exception of Asian language text digitized by Google, near fatal errors largely exist randomly and in very small proportions in the corpus of HathiTrust volumes digitized by Google and the Internet Archive. Extremely severe error, however, compromises the integrity of large-scale digitization and threatens the long-term trustworthiness of repositories that preserve digital surrogates. The findings from one aspect of a multi-faceted investigation into the quality of the digital surrogates suggest that the imperfection of digital surrogates is a transparent and nearly ubiquitous attribute, one that reflects the flaws of the source and introduces new complexity in preservation repositories.
Additional details about the project, including its metrics and progress reports, may be found on the project’s website:http://hathitrust-quality.projects.si.umich.edu/ For information on HathiTrust Digital Library, see: http://www.hathitrust.org
References
Cohen, D. (2010). Is Google Good for History? Dan Cohen’s Digital Humanities Blog. Posting on 12 Jan. 2010.http://www.dancohen.org/2010/01/07/is-google-good-for-history/ (accessed 8 March 2013).
Conway, P. (2011). Archival Quality and Long-term Preservation: A Research Framework for Validating the Usefulness of Digital Surrogates, Archival Science, 11, 3. Open access online.
Conway, P. (2012). Validating Quality in Large-Scale Digitization: Selective Findings on the Distribution of Imaging Error. In Proceedings of UNESCO Memory of the World in the Digital Age, September 26-28, 2012, Vancouver, BC Canada.
Conway, P and J. Bronicki (2012). Error Metrics for Large-Scale Digitization. In Curating Quality: Ensuring Data Quality to Enable New Science: An invitational workshop sponsored by the National Science Foundation, September 10-11, 2012, Arlington, VA USA.
Eaves, M. (2003). Graphicality: Multimedia Fables for ‘Textual’ Critics. In Bergmann-Loizeaux E., and N. Fraistat (eds.)Reimagining Textuality: Textual Studies in the Late Age of Print, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 99-122.
Henry, C. (2010). The Idea of Order: Transforming Research Collections for 21st Century Scholarship. Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources. http://www.clir.org/pubs/abstract/reports/pub147 (accessed 8 March 2013).
Knight, S. (2008). User Perceptions of Information Quality in World Wide Web Information Retrieval Behaviour. Ph.D. thesis, Edith Cowan University.
Lin, X. (2006). Quality Assurance in High Volume Document Digitization: A Survey. In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Document Image Analysis for Libraries (DIAL’06), 27-28 April, Lyon, France, 319-326.
Saracevic, T. (2007). Relevance: A Review of the Literature and a Framework for Thinking on the Notion in Information Science. Part III: Behavior and Effects of Relevance, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 58, 13: 2126-2144.
Taussig, M. (1993). Mimesis and Alterity: A Particular History of the Senses. Routledge, London.
Terras, M. (2011). Artefacts and Errors: Acknowledging Issues of Representation in the Digital Imaging of Ancient Texts. In Fischer, F., Fritze, C. and Vogeler, G. (eds), Kodikologie und Paläographie im digitalen Zeitalter 2 / Codicology and Palaeography in the Digital Age 2. Norderstedt, Germany: Books on Demand, 43 - 61.http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/171362/ (accessed 8 March 2013.
York, J. J. (2010). Building a Future by Preserving Our Past: The Preservation Infrastructure of HathiTrust Digital Library. In Proceedings of 76th IFLA General Congress and Assembly, 10-15 August 2010, Gothenburg, Sweden.","txt","2","",""
"1785","14","Surveying a Corpus with Alignment Visualization and Topic Modeling","2","With the advent of sophisticated computational tools for analyzing large corpora of literary texts, scholars have proposed a variety of terms to describe what they do when they use these tools. Text data mining (Hearst), distant reading (Moretti), algorithmic criticism (Ramsay), assisted reading (Schmidt), hyper reading (Hayes), faceted search (Whaling), scalable reading (Mueller): these seek to capture a shift in how digital technology allows readers to observe patterns within texts and to use the findings to inform a closer reading. N. Katherine Hayes summarizes the affordances of computational tools as methods of scanning, which quickly seek specific words within texts, and methods of skimming, which attempt to get a rapid sense of what texts are about (61). Scanning is best served by text retrieval, whereas skimming requires techniques like corpus queries and topic modeling.
To add to the lexicon of digital text analysis, I propose the idea of surveying a corpus using a combination of text retrieval for scanning and data visualization for skimming. Stan Rucker, Milena Radzikowska and Stéfan Sinclair have articulated a theory of data visualization based on the notion of prospect, “a view of the world where enough information is available for the perceiver to understand the terrain and have a sense of what it affords, without necessarily seeing all the details” (26). Surveying a corpus relies on sufficient prospect to enable the reader to see textual information from a distance and to perceive patterns on a scale larger than a single text. The ability to skim a corpus for the purpose of surveying it would ideally allow the reader to easily zoom from a comprehensive view of patterns to specific instances within texts where scanning for specific words may be desired. Conversely, the results of text retrieval searches should be available for constructing corpus queries: if a particular string appears in one or more texts, a reader surveying a corpus may want to get a broader sense of how the string is used without skimming through a long KWIC listing.
To show what I mean by surveying a corpus, I will offer a demonstration of a database built with ARTFL’s Philologic that includes a visualizer for sequence alignments and a topic model browser for ordered lists of documents, words and algorithmically derived topics (see http://bumppo.hartwick.edu/rw/). The corpus is comprised of 181 adventure novels published in French during the nineteenth century. The digital texts were created recently by the Bibliothèque de France using OCR and they contain no markup. Using plaintext documents with minimal metadata, I am able to survey the corpus to get a sense of its themes, recurrent rhetorical devices, innovators, and imitators. This approach is proving particularly helpful for studying a corpus that has received relatively little critical attention. It does not require significant resources for text preparation, and it allows for exploring an obscure corpus to determine if further research is warranted.
I first identified sequence alignments among texts in the corpus using ARTFL’s Philoline module for Philologic. Sequence alignment is the identification of common n-grams shared between two or more documents (Horton et al). The technique, developed for DNA analysis and plagiarism detection, identifies segments of text that have been “borrowed” or reproduced from one document to another. The alignment visualizer, based on an implementation of Danny Holton’s hierarchical edge bundling algorithm and built with Michael Bostock’s D3 JavaScript library, displays texts as a circle of nodes with edges indicating which texts share common passages (Fig. 1).
 
Nodes are grouped by author, and authors are distinguished by colors. The number and thickness of the edges reflect the number of alignments between texts: a node with many edges represents a text that shares alignments with many other texts, and thicker edges mean more alignments between two texts. A “fan” among nodes of a similar color shows numerous alignments among texts by the same author (Fig. 2).
 
The CSS stroke attribute of edges and nodes changes color when the reader moves the pointer over them (red strokes designate source nodes, green strokes target nodes, blue strokes nodes that are selected by the pointer) (Fig. 3).
 
The reader can click on an edge or node and immediately examine the associated aligned passages. The selected node in Figure 3 represents Gustave Aimard’s La Grande Flibuste (1860), a text that shares many alignments with other texts by Aimard and five other authors. The graphic suggests that the text is an important one in the corpus, both as a source and target of aligned passages. The visualizer allows the reader to skim the corpus to get a distant view of what it contains. Figure 4 shows two particular alignments between Aimard’s novel and novels by Louis de Bellemare and Mayne Reid. In examining alignments like these, one can contextualize them and get a sense of how La Grande Flibuste is representative of the corpus.
 
The topic model browser is a JavaScript interface that allows the reader to query the frequencies of documents, words and topics against each other in a corpus. The topics were generated using Andrew McCallum’s Mallet toolkit and then migrated to a MySQL database where each word in each text is assigned to one of fifty modeled topics (Fig. 5).
 
Beginning with a list of documents, the reader can select a text and see lists of words and topics in the text in descending order. From these query results the reader can select any item in any list as the parameter for a subsequent query, which will produce new, ordered lists of documents, words and topics. A basic string search feature (without regular expressions) will also generate ordered lists. In scanning the corpus for words and topics related to La Grande Flibuste, the reader can see how the text relates to other texts and explore the relationships between words and topics.
As prototypes, both the alignment visualizer and the topic model browser are currently limited in their capacity to survey a large corpus. Numerous texts are difficult to represent as bundled nodes in a web browser, and the reader may only be able to skim a subset of the corpus instead of its entirety. My implementation of topic modeling uses the default algorithm for Mallet and does not afford the reader any control over or explanation of the algorithm’s implementation. It also takes a long time to execute queries on a MySQL database of 7,500,000 tokens and their assigned topics. Alternative data structures such as key-value stores may increase speed.
Despite these limitations, the database interface I present here enables the reader to survey a corpus with enhanced prospect. Alignment visualization and topic model browsing offer two methods for skimming a corpus for patterns, which may lead to further insights for interpretation.
References
Bostock, M., V. Ogievetsky, and J. Heer (2011). D3: Data-Driven Documents. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics (October 2011).
Hayes, N. K. (2012). How We Think: Digital Media and Contemporary Technopoesis. University of Chicago Press.
Hearst, M. A. (1999). Untangling Text Data Mining. In Proceedings of ACL ‘99: the 37th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics held June 20-26, 1999 at the University of Maryland.
Holton, D. (2006). Hierarchical Edge Bundles: Visualization of Adjacency Relations in Hierarchical Data. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 12(5). (September/October 2006).
Horton, R., M. Olsen, and G. Roe (2010). Something Borrowed: Sequence Alignment and the Identification of Similar Passages in Large Text Collections. Digital Studies/Le champ numérique 2(1).
McCallum, A. K. (2002). MALLET: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit.
Moretti, F. (2000). Conjectures on World Literature. New Left Review. 1: 54-68.
Mueller, M. (2012). Scalable Reading. Scalable Reading. 29 May 2012.https://scalablereading.northwestern.edu/scalable-reading/
Ramsay, S. (2011). Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism. Univeristy of Illinois Press.
Ruecker, S., M. Radzikowska, and S. Sinclair (2011). Visual Interface Design for Digital Cultural Heritage: A Guide to Rich-Prospect Browsing. Surrey: Ashgate.
Schmidt, B. (2010). Assisted Reading vs. Data Mining. Sapping Attention. 30 December 2010.http://sappingattention.blogspot.com/
Whaling, R. (2011). Faceted Search for a Corpus Query System. 2011 Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science. 21 November 2011. http://chicagocolloquium.org/dhcs-2011-program/","txt","2","",""
"1786","14","Taking modeling seriously: A hands-on approach to Alloy","15","Description
The modeling of humanities data is a core activity (some say the core activity) of the digital humanities. The activity so described may take a wide variety of forms; often the term is used for any compact description of a domain, whether in prose or in user-interface metaphors. Machine-processable descriptions are probably more common, but these, too, vary: the definition of an XML vocabulary, the table declarations for a SQL database, the data structures or even the executable code of a program may all be described informally as offering a ‘model’ of some domain or other.
The term model, however, is here applied more narrowly to expressions in some well defined formalization. Models are most useful when formalized in a declarative not a procedural notation and when their logical import is clear. Formulating precise models can be difficult. Inconsistencies and unforeseen interferences between parts of the model can easily creep in. With informal definitions, such shortcomings can remain undetected for long periods, even until after the model has been put to use. Formally defined models, on the other hand, can be tested systematically for logical consistency; their consequences can be established systematically. Such testing can help uncover shortcomings in a timely manner.
Alloy is a tool for “lightweight formal methods”, which makes it easier to test the implications of models and to check assumptions for plausibility, consistency, and completeness. Its usual application area is the testing of software designs but the variant of first-order logic provided by Alloy is by no means limited to the description of software or electronic objects. It has been successfully used to formalize notions far removed from any software, including the nature of transcription, an application of the type/token distinction to document structure, and fragments of Goodman and Nelson's mereology and of Hilbert's formulation of Euclidean geometry. Alloy's logic is powerful enough to formulate interesting concepts, while remaining weak enough to be tractable for machine processing. Using Alloy's syntax, a modeler can formulate the axioms of a model and augment them by asserting that certain properties hold for all instances of the model, or by defining predicates which characterize particular instances of the model. The Alloy Analyzer can test the assertions and illustrate the predicates, by seeking counter-examples to the assertion or instances of the predicate.
This one-day tutorial introduces digital humanists to the use of Alloy for modeling. Topics include:
•        introduction to Alloy's logic
•        compressed summary of Alloy syntax
•        use of Alloy for formulating assertions and predicates
•        describing individual test cases for Alloy
•        Alloy's place in the larger context and Alloy's relation to light-weight formal methods, to other formal methods (e.g. Z), and to theorem-provers
•        limits on Alloy's logic, from a theoretical point of view (how Alloy and other tools deal with Goedel's incompleteness result and Turing's halting problem), and from a practical point of view (modeling recursion using transitive closure)
Examples will be drawn from domains discussed at recent DH conferences.
Prerequisites: some prior exposure to symbolic logic and/or programming is probably desirable; failing that, highly motivated participants may be able to benefit from the workshop if they have sufficiently high tolerance for exposure to new material.
Participants should bring a laptop computer with a current installation of Java; they may optionally preinstall Alloy 4.2 or they may install it during the workshop.
Target audience and expected number of participants
Short answer: not a large target audience (but a choice one!); estimated attendance perhaps 5-10 (no evidence).
The target audience consists of digital humanists interested in techniques for formalizing important concepts and tools for working with such formalizations. The tutorial deals with high level data modeling concepts. Some prior exposure to symbolic logic and/or programming is desirable; failing that, highly motivated participants may be able to benefit from the workshop if they have sufficiently high tolerance for exposure to new material. Participants should bring a laptop computer with a current installation of Java; they may optionally pre- install Alloy 4.2 or they may install it during the workshop.
Outline
Full-day outline
I'd prefer to teach this as a full-day tutorial; that allows time for a mixture of lecture-style presentation of information and hands-on exercises. A tentative full-day schedule is:
9:00-10:30 Introduction to the course
•        Modeling, formal logic, formal methods. Lightweight formal methods; Alloy.
•        Demonstration: Alloy model of a Web interface (capabilities, security issues, user information).
•        Demonstration: Using Alloy to generate test cases.
•        The small-scope hypothesis; how Alloy manages to be useful despite Goedel's Theorem.
•        Hands-on exercise: Using the Alloy Analyzer.
10:30-11:00 Break
11:00-12:30 Alloy's first-order logic
•        Atoms, relations, tuples, sets. Basics of syntax: signatures, relations, multiplicities.
•        Hands-on exercise(s) (logic puzzles, simple proofs from logic textbooks).
•        Styles of expression: predicate-calculus style, navigational style, relational style. More syntax: assertions, predicates, quantification, let-expressions.
•        Using Alloy to model concepts: FRBR entities, metadata records, XML and non-XML document structures.
•        More exercises(s).
12:30-2:00 Lunch
2:00-3:30 Alloy as a tool for software design
•        Examples: using Alloy to model an interactive concordance system, a query interface, a database system.
•        Hands-on exercises.
•        Idioms for modeling state, change, and dynamic systems in Alloy.
•        Idioms for testing specific instances with Alloy.
3:30-4:00 Break
4:00-5:30 Recursion, Conclusion
•        Using transitive closure to model recursion.
•        Hands-on exercises.
•        Review, questions, clarifications.
•        Where to go from here? Further Alloy resources, other tools for formal methods and theorem proving.","txt","2","",""
"1787","14","XQuery databases for language resources in the IAIA and UyLVs Projects","10","This paper reports on work done in the Interactive Inner Asia (IAIA) and Uyghur Light Verbs (UyLVs) projects [1] on two problems arising in the construction of XML query interfaces for linguistically annotated corpora in Central Asian languages: (1) providing both simple search interfaces for casual users and open-ended interfaces for specialists, without security vulnerabilities; and (2) using XQuery for search patterns involving precedence relations (on sequences of siblings) and not only dominance (containment) relations.
XML query interfaces are not the focus of either project, just means to an end. The immediate purpose of both projects is the study of language contact, language areas, and the development of particular linguistic structures; a broader aim is the creation of annotated corpora useful both for comparative and historical linguistic research and for ethnological, folkloric, literary, historical and other study.
1 Current corpus format and user interfaces
Although the goals of the two projects differ, the IAIA and UyLVs projects share a common corpus format. Transcriptions of audiovisual recordings and transliterations of manuscripts are presented in multiple tiers: one tier holds the text in a practical orthography, one in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA); other tiers contain a morphological segmentation, part-of-speech labels, an interlinear gloss, free translations in English, Russian, German, Chinese, and/or Tibetan, and comments (not all tiers are present for all utterances).
In the current version of our XML corpus format (Sperberg-McQueen 2012), a sample Uyghur sentence takes the following form:
 
Future versions will replace the implicit alignment of the SEG, POS, and ILG tiers with an explicit alignment to simplify validation and searching (Dwyer / Sperberg-McQueen 2013).
2 Sample queries
Simple searches (e.g. for light verbs, coded “LV” in the pos tier) are useful for the project. But linguistically motivated queries easily become complex. Like those of many corpora, our POS tier does not encode grammatical relations (including Subject), so to study the co-occurrence of light and main verbs with the subjects of their sentences, we search for types of noun (tagged N, PN, etc.) in certain positions and with certain predicted inflections, in order to identify subjects. In Uyghur, a subject or agent is likely to be the leftmost uninflected noun (e.g. Bu in the sentence “Bu [Alimdin kelgen xet] PN [Npr-ABL Vi-PST.REL N] 'This is the letter from Alim',”) even when the subject is a relative clause (e.g. xet, in: “[Alimdin kelgen xet] uzun iken. [Npr-ABL V-PST.REL N] AJ COP.indir '[The letter from Alim] seems to be long.')”.
To exclude adjuncts (like after lunch in “After lunch, Mahire took a nap”), which are potentially the leftmost N, we search for the leftmost N (excluding the string ""NUM""), and excluding N-*, N(*) POST and then sort the results by the surface form of the matrix verb or light verb.
A third query searches for patterns across different languages in the IAIA project. Both SE Monguor and Baonan have calqued a postposed indefinite article nege~nige ‘one’ from Tibetan zeg ‘one’. We've seen instances of postposed yi-ge (yi ‘one’ (Chinese) + ge ‘classifier’ (Chinese) in the same postnominal position, at least in mjg-se. We might hypothesize that that yige is the Mandarin calque equivalent of the Mongolic nege calque, and that both originate in Tibetan zeg. The presence of yige is thus a good indicator of a strong Mandarin influence on the language. To test the hypothesis, we will want to search the segmentation layer for the morphemes yi and -ge in adjacent positions, or alternatively for adjacent pairs of the POS tags NU-CL.
3 Supporting open-ended queries
The queries above illustrate a common pattern. The first is trivial to express in XPath or XQuery:
 
or alternatively
 
Similar queries will be necessary for other POS tags; the query “Find all sentences containing a morpheme tagged X” (for any POS-tag X) will be useful both to the project team and to casual outside users of the collection.
Not all users will know enough XPath to formulate such queries on the fly, however, so it would be helpful to provide query interfaces for this and similar queries which do not require the use of a query language. The usual solution to this common problem is to make some pre-defined searches available in some fill-in-the-blank or point-and-click interface where users can select a pre-defined query and select its parameters from a list. In our full paper, we will show the search forms in use in the IAIA and UyLVs projects for this kind of canned search.
For intensive use of the collection, however, such fixed-parameter searches will not suffice. As the other queries above illustrate, intensive use of any collection will require new ad-hoc searches, not predefined ones, and arbitrary Boolean combinations of basic searches. How can projects support such open-ended queries?
One easy solution is to allow users to formulate queries in the underlying query language (for these projects, XQuery; in the case of relational data, SQL). Feeding raw user data to a live XQuery interpreter, however, represents a sizable security hole and cannot be advised. [2] We discuss other ways to provide open-ended searches:
•        Define an acceptable ('safe') subset of XQuery. If the user input is in that subset, hand it to the XQuery engine for evaluation; otherwise, hand it back to the user for correction (or conclude that the user is an attacker and shut down).
•        The safe subset can be checked by:
o        a full context-free parser for the subset, or
o        regular expressions which capture 'regular approximations' of the subset; we will generate these automatically from the subset definition and execute them with standard regular-expression evaluators.
•        Define a new open-ended query language for advanced users, using an ad-hoc character-based syntax, then write (a) a parser for the language, and (b) a translator into XQuery, for communication with the underlying XQuery engine.
•        Implement some existing query language (or a subset); candidates include Annis 2 (Zeldes 2012); Arras (Smith 1985); CSS Selectors (); the DynaText query language (EBT 1996), (Silicon Graphics 1995); the ‘extended pointer notation’ of TEI P3 and P4 (ACH/ACL/ALLC 1994), (ACH/ACL/ALLC 2001-2004); the query language of Sara / Xaira (Burnard, n.d.); and subsets of XPath 1.0 or 2.0 (W3C 1999), (W3C 2010).
•        Define a query language using an XML syntax, with a user interface defined in XForms to allow the user to formulate complex queries (roughly analogous to the 'query builder' interfaces familiar from search tools like Xaira [Burnard, n.d.] and EXMARaLDA [Schmidt 2010]).
4 Searching on siblings in XQuery
A second class of challenge is illustrated by the third query described above. In building our corpora we have, like many others before us, focused our attention initially on segment-by-segment annotation of the data. We have not built parse trees for our sentences; we are building corpora, not tree banks. Automatic parse-tree generators are widely available for ‘major’ languages, but for the non-standardized, unwritten, and ‘non-major’ languages at the center of our work, such tools will become possible only as a result of projects like ours. In the absence of XML representations of full parse trees, subjects, agents, etc., our users will need to search for grammatical relations by using surrogates. As illustrated above, a search for a subject will need to be reformulated as a search for a particular pattern in the sequence of anotated morphemes in a sentence.
Sequence searching is a particular challenge for linguistic resources. XQuery engines are typically very good at building indexes for Boolean combinations of context-sensitive searches (find X within Y where Z and (W or V) ...), but sequence searches are much trickier to support. By a 'sequence search' we mean (for example) a search for morphemes M1, M2, M3 in that order, with M1 matching this pattern, M2 matching that pattern, and M3 the other pattern, and M1 adjacent to M2 and M3 anywhere later in the same utterance. Some of our work will focus on whether we can construct indexes manually to help make such queries faster or more convenient. Sequence searches are likely to be of interest for corpus linguists in any area, as well as for people interested in tight control of full-text phrase searches.
In the full paper, we survey some existing work in this area (e.g. in the Prague Markup Language [Pajas 2010] and in corpus search tools like EXAKT [Schmidt 2010] or Sara and Xaira [Burnard, n.d.]), and describe our work on supporting sequence pattern searches in XQuery. In so doing, we also illustrate the balance between the inclusion of syntactic annotation and ease of querying.
References
Association for Computers and the Humanities, Association for Computational Linguistics, and Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing. (1994). Extended Pointers, section 14.2 of Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange (TEI P3). Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. and Burnard, L. (eds), Chicago: Oxford: Text Encoding Initiative.http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/tei/tei-idx?type=pointer&value=SAXR
Association for Computers and the Humanities, Association for Computational Linguistics, and Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing. (2001-2004). Extended Pointers’, section 14.2 of Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange (TEI P4), Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. and Burnard, L. (eds.) XML conversion by Bauman, S., L. Burnard, S. DeRose, and S. Rahtz: Text Encoding Initiative. http://www.tei-c.org/Vault/P4/doc/html/SA.html#SAXR.
Burnard, L. All about Xaira. Oxford: OUCS, n.d. http://projects.oucs.ox.ac.uk/xaira/
Dwyer, A. M., and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen (2013). The Uyghur Light Verbs and Interactive Inner Asia Corpora. Lawrence, KS: Interactive Inner Asia Project: Uyghur Light Verbs Project. http://uyghur.ittc.ku.edu/2013/tsd/UyLVs-IAIA-corpora.xml.
EBT (Electronic Book Technologies). (1996). ‘Searching’ In DynaText Publishing: Document Preparation. Providence: EBT.
Pajas, P. (2006-2010). The Prague Markup Language (Version 1.1). Prague: Institute of Formal and Applied Linguistics, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University. http://ufal.mff.cuni.cz/jazz/PML/doc/.
Schmidt, T. (2010). EXMARaLDA EXAKT Manual Version 1.0. Hamburg. http://www1.uni-hamburg.de/exmaralda/files/EXAKT_Manual.pdf
Silicon Graphics, Inc. (1995). IRIS InSight DynaWeb User's Guide. Silicon Graphics.http://techpubs.sgi.com/library/dynaweb_docs/0620/SGI_EndUser/books/IIDWeb_UG/sgi_html/index.html
Smith, J. B. (1985). Arras User's Manual. TR 85-036. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Department of Computer Science. http://www.cs.unc.edu/techreports/85-036.pdf
Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. (2012). PixCor 1.1 Tag-set documentation for Project-internal corpus vocabulary The Uyghur Light Verbs and Interactive Inner Asia Corpora. Lawrence, KS: Interactive Inner Asia Project: Uyghur Light Verbs Project. http://uyghur.ittc.ku.edu/2012/tsd/pixcor.v1.1.tsd.xml
van der Vlist, E. (2011) XQuery injection: Easy to exploit, easy to prevent in Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2011, 'The Markup Conference' held 2011 at Prague and Montreal. In Balisage Series on Markup Technologies, vol. 7 (2011). doi:10.4242/BalisageVol7.Vlist02. http://www.balisage.net/Proceedings/vol7/html/Vlist02/BalisageVol7-Vlist02.html; slides from a presentation of an earlier version of the material XML Prague 2011 athttp://archive.xmlprague.cz/2011/presentations/eric-vdv-xquery-injection/xquery-injection.xhtml
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). (1999). XML Path Language (XPath) Version 1.0. In Clark, J. and DeRose, S. (eds), W3C Recommendation 16 World Wide Web Consortium. http://www.w3.org/TR/xpath.
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). (2010). XML Path Language (XPath) 2.0 2nd edn. In Berglund, A. (ed), W3C Recommendation. World Wide Web Consortium. http://www.w3.org/TR/xpath20.
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Selectors Level 3, In ed. Çelik, T. et al. W3C Recommendation. World Wide Web Consortium. http://www.w3.org/TR/css3-selectors/, (accessed 29 September 2011).
Zeldes, A. ANNIS: User Guide - Version 2.2.1. Potsdam: SFB 632 Information Structure / D1 Linguistic Database. Potsdam: Humboldt Universität zu Berlin und Universität Potsdamhttps://launchpadlibrarian.net/102488706/ANNIS_User_Guide_2.2.1.pdf (accessed 18 April 2012).
Notes
1. The IAIA and UyLVs projects are supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF-BCS 1065524, 1053152). Much of the data for IAIA stems from earlier work sponsored by a Fulbright-Hays and a Volkswagen Foundation DOBES grant.
2. The problem is that SQL injection is widely known as an attack vector for machines on the open net; XQuery injection is also possible and has been documented (van der Vlist 2011).","txt","2","",""
"1788","14","TEI Boilerplate","2","Introduction
TEI Boilerplate (http://teiboilerplate.org/) is a lightweight, HTML5 compliant framework for publishing TEI documents. TEI Boilerplate (TEIBP) is designed to bridge the gap between the browser-friendly features of HTML and the semantic richness of native TEI documents (Walsh, Simpson, & Moaddeli, 2012).
Although TEI provides mechanisms for describing the design, presentational, and material features of the source document, projects and individual scholars that use TEI are responsible for developing their own methods, or implementing existing solutions, for converting the TEI to a presentation-ready state for the web or print (Rahtz, 2006). Two potential paths to reach this goal are:
•        1. Transforming TEI to HTML using XSLT and styling the HTML output with CSS.
•        2. Styling the TEI directly with CSS by referencing a CSS stylesheet from within the TEI document.
Both approaches have advantages and disadvantages. Although HTML is the language of the web and is well supported by browsers, HTML’s descriptive capabilities are less expressive than TEI’s. When TEI is transformed to HTML, much of the richness of the TEI is lost in the resulting HTML. However, the browser understands HTML very well and knows, for example, when to initiate retrieval of a document based on certain user events, such as clicking a link. The second option, CSS-styled TEI, delivers the TEI document directly] to the browser. However, while the browser may apply CSS to format and style a TEI document, the browser does not understand the semantics of TEI. For instance, the browser does not understand that TEI’s <ptr> and <ref> elements are linking elements.
TEIBP bridges the gap between these two approaches by making use of the built-in XSLT (1.0) capabilities of browsers to embed the TEI XML, with minimal modifications, within an HTML5 shell document. Features expected of web documents, such as clickable links and display of linked images, are enabled through selective transformation of a very small number of TEI elements and attributes. Both the HTML5 shell and the embedded TEI are styled using CSS.
TEIBP gives HTML/CSS/JavaScript documents direct access to original TEI content, and it gives TEI documents direct access to the substantial capabilities of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript — the dominant document format, styling language, and (client-side) programming language of the web. TEIBP aims for simplicity and elegance, but it also facilitates complexity and innovation by exposing TEI content directly to the capabilities of JavaScript, the many powerful JavaScript frameworks, and CSS.
Theoretical Motivations
The power of TEI lies in the richness of its vocabulary. But much of that richness and expressiveness is lost in the translation to HTML. TEIBP largely preserves the integrity of the TEI document. Because the TEI document is delivered directly to the browser, that source TEI document — unchanged by any XSLT transformation — can be easily accessed and saved.
Scholars labor over the intricate encoding of TEI documents, encoding that may represent sophisticated readings and analysis. But with the typical XSLT publishing solution, much or all of the richness of the TEI content is lost. Furthermore, the presentation of the document is targeted at the HTML surrogate rather than the encoded TEI document. This results in a conceptual disconnect between the design of the document and the original TEI encoding. By exposing the TEI itself to the browser, one may format the TEI directly, applying intentional design to a sophisticated document model.
TEIBP respects the integrity of the TEI document, and keeps the TEI document central throughout the publication process. TEIBP takes advantage of the separation of form and content inherent in XML, XSLT, CSS frameworks. However, like Liu (2004), Galey (2010), and others, the authors of TEIBP view that separation with suspicion. TEIBP attempts to weaken that separation of form and content in the typical TEI-to-web design and delivery model by largely removing the HTML layer, exposing the TEI-encoded text directly to the browser, and providing scholars with more immediate access to the readings, models, and analysis embedded in the TEIencoded document.
Our proposed poster will provide an overview of the TEIBP system and explore in more detail the theoretical motivations behind the project.
References
Galey, A. (2010). The human presence in digital artifacts. In W. McCarty (ed), Text and genre in reconstruction: effects of digitization on ideas, behaviours, products, and institutions 93–117. Oxford: Open Book.
Liu, A. (2004). Transcendental data: Towards a cultural history and aesthetics of the new encoded discourse. Critical Inquiry, 31: 49–84.
Omeka (2012). Omeka: Serious web publishing.http://omeka.org/about/.
Rahtz, S. (2006). Storage, retrieval, and rendering. In Burnard, L., K. O’Brien O’Keeffe, and J. Unsworth (eds.),Electronic textual editing 310–333. New York, NY: Modern Language Association of America.
Walsh, J., G. Simpson, and S. Moaddeli (2012). TEI Boilerplate. http://teiboilerplate.org.","txt","2","",""
"1789","14","Victorian Paratextual Poetics and Citation Analysis","10","This study combines elements of literary theory, citation theory, and techniques of citation analysis to study paratextual elements in the work of Victorian poets Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837–1909), Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828–1882), and Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809–1892). The study will focus on Swinburne, who provides the largest and richest collection of paratextual elements, but will also look at Rossetti and Tennyson for the sake of comparison. In his Foreword to the English translation of Gérard Gennette’s Seuils (translated as Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation), Richard Macksey defines paratexts as
those liminal devices and conventions, both within the book (peritext) and outside it (epitext), that mediate the book to the reader: titles and subtitles, pseudonyms, forewords, dedications, epigraphs, prefaces, intertitles, notes, epilogues, and afterwords…but also the elements in the public and private history of the book, its “epitext,” that are analyzed in the latter part of this volume: “public epitexts” (from the author or publisher) as well as “private epitexts” (authorial correspondence, oral confidences, diaries, and pre-texts). (Macksey xviii)
In humanities documents, particularly primary source materials, analysis of paratextual elements may provide information about influence, impact, and networks shared by authors, artists, and their works. These networks of intertextual and interpersonal relationships contribute to the production of meaning in the text. Our study will focus on peritexts, that is, the paratexts within the document. We are further limiting our focus to paratexts that in some way or another resemble a citation, i.e., those paratexts that explicitly reference one or more bibliographic elements, such as author, title, date, or a quotation that identifies itself as such (e.g, by the use of quotation marks). We look at a number of specific textual elements, including titles, subtitles, epigraphs, dedications, and notes. Titles may reference specific authors (e.g., Swinburne’s “Song for the Centenary of Walter Savage Landor” and “From Victor Hugo”) and/or works (e.g., Swinburne’s “Grand Chorus of Birds from Aristophanes”). Epigraphs include quoted text, often accompanied by more formal citations indicating author, title, and even line numbers. See the example below, one of the epigraphs to Swinburne’s lyrical drama Erechtheus (1876):
ΑΤ. τίς δὲ ποιμάνωρ ἔπεστι κ πιδεσπόζει στρατοῦϗ;
ΧΟ. οὔτινος δοῦλοι κέκληνται φωτὸς οὐδ’ ὑπηκόοι.
Æsch. Pers. 241 - 2.
By focusing our attention on these “citation-like” paratexts, we are able to apply the techniques of citation analysis to probe these poets’ paratextual gestures. Our analysis is complicated and enriched by the presence of “invented” paratextual citations, such as the fictitious French epigraph to Swinburne’s “Laus Veneris” (1866).
Dedications provide an interesting case in that they typically refer to a person rather than a specific work. But the overwhelming number of Swinburne’s dedication were to men and women of letters and visual artists: Walter Savage Landor, Victor Hugo, Richard Francis Burton, Edward John Trelawny, William Bell Scott, Charles Lamb, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, William Michael Rossetti, Christina Rossetti, Edward Burne-Jones, and William Morris. The target of the dedication, posited as a bibliographic entity in a bibliographic and literary context, becomes a sort of document, like Suzanne Briet’s antelope, and represents not just the individual but that individual’s body of work.
Swinburne’s notes, like the epigraphs, often include more formal citations. In fact, a number of long odes —to favorite authors Walter Savage Landor and Victor Hugo — may be characterized as bibliographies in verse, accompanied by notes containing formal citations to the works described in the verse. The “Birthday Ode” (1880) to Victor Hugo contains thirty-eight notes, each with a citation to one or more works by Hugo. Harold Nicolson called this poem “a complete rhymed bibliography of the works of Victor Hugo.”
Swinburne is certainly not unique among nineteenth-century poets in buttressing his poems with a rich paratextual framework. Other noteworthy examples include the Preface to Lyrical Ballads, Coleridge’s introductory note to Kubla Kahnand his glosses to The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Byron’s notes to Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, and Shelley’s notes toQueen Mab. But Swinburne was incredibly widely read, a scholarly poet, and an enthusiastic bibliophile. The paratextual network that surrounds Swinburne’s work is particularly large, diverse, and complex, and in the context of information studies his work provides fertile ground for this sort of bibliometric analysis. Swinburne’s poems and paratexts reference a large number of explicitly identified works by other writers and artists. The six volumes of Swinburne’s collected Poems contain over four hundred poems, large and small. Within these roughly four hundred poems, we have identified over four hundred and fifty paratextual citations, references embedded within Swinburne’s titles, epigraphs, notes, and so on. The works cited by Swinburne cover the range of Western culture from the Old and New Testaments of the Bible to classical antiquity through the middle ages, Renaissance, and Enlightenment to contemporary 19th-century works by figures such as Landor, Hugo, Tennyson, Gautier, Robert Browning, Whitman, and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Besides English, languages represented by Swinburne’s paratexts include French, Greek, Italian, and Latin. His paratexts also reference visual art (Rossetti, Whister) and music (Wagner).
The Swinburne documents analyzed in this study have been digitized and are available in TEI/XMLencoded formats through the Algernon Charles Swinburne Project http://www.swinburneproject.org/. The TEI provides markup elements that map fairly neatly to the types of paratexts and bibliographic entities under consideration here:
•        <epigraph>
•        <title>
•        <author>
•        <date>
•        <quote>
•        <div type='dedication'>
•        <ab type='dedication'>
Since these elements were already encoded in the TEI/XML, it was relatively trivial to extract them from the enclosing texts and identify those that contain paratextual references. Swinburne’s references, or “citations,” were entered into a database that was augmented with more detailed bibliographic information about Swinburne’s sources. This bibliographic information was then analyzed to provide different “views” of Swinburne’s paratexts. The analysis provides us with feedback about:
•        frequency of paratextual types (i.e., titles, epigraphs, notes, etc.)
•        frequency of cited authors/artists
•        genres of cited works
•        literary/historical periods of cited works
•        languages of cited works
•        trends in paratextual practice across Swinburne’s career
The text/document sits at the intersection of the humanities and information studies, and a consideration of the paratext brings together theoretical concerns about the material document and intertextuality from literary studies with theories about citation and methodologies of citation analysis from information studies.
In an effort to broaden the study and provide comparison data, we have also gathered information about paratexts in the poetry of Swinburne’s contemporaries, Rossetti and Tennyson. Our paper will provide a comprehensive examination of a large, defined subset of the paratexts found in the work of a three important Victorian poets. Our analysis will provide different views of these poets as seen through their paratexts and the diverse collection of authors, artists, and works referenced by those paratexts. We will present the findings from a thorough analysis of paratextual reference in Swinburne, Rossetti, and Tennyson, and based on those findings, we will make some preliminary observations about Swinburnian Victorian paratextual poetics.
References
Briet, S. (2006). What is Documentation?. Trans. Ronald E. Day and Laurent Martinet. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.
Genette, G. (1997). Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation. Trans. Jane E. Lewin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Macksey, R. (1997). Foreword. Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation. By Gérard Genette. Trans. Jane E. Lewin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. xi-xxii.
Nicolson, H. (1926). Swinburne. New York: Macmillan.
Swinburne, A. C. (1904). The Poems of Algernon Charles Swinburne. 6 vols. London: Chatto & Windus.
Walsh, J. A., (ed.) (2011). The Algernon Charles Swinburne Project. Indiana University. 1 Nov. 2011.http://www.swinburneproject.org/.","txt","2","",""
"1790","14","A Text-Mining Approach to the Authorship Attribution Problem of Dream of the Red Chamber","10","Abstract
Dream of the Red Chamber (DRC), written in the 18th century, is among the greatest Chinese classic novels. Indeed, so many studies have been devoted to this work that the term Redology was created to designate this field of research (Pan 1974). In 1921, Hu Shi (胡適) provided solid evidence to show that, of the 120 chapters, the first 80 were written by Cao Xueqin (曹雪芹) based on his life. He also attributed the remaining 40 chapters to Gao E (高鶚) (Hu 1921). While the first conclusion is commonly accepted, the second is not settled.
Researchers have also used statistical methods to study this problem. The most common approaches use pre-defined linguistic features, usually function words, to check frequencies of words. Interestingly, however, people came to different conclusions when choosing different features.
We propose a text-mining approach to the DRC author attribution problem. We define a mining function to find terms that clearly show discrepancies between the two corpuses. Some of the terms are semantic in nature, thus avoiding the pitfalls with the more syntactic function words approach. In addition to supporting the claim that the first 80 chapters and the last 40 were written by different authors, a somewhat surprising side result is the evidences that show Chapters 64 and 67, two chapters missing from the oldest existing edition, may also have been written by someone else. 1. Introduction
Authorship attribution is a well-researched subject. Brinegar (1963) used word length as the text feature to conclude that the 10 Quintus Curtius Snodgrass letters were not written by Mark Twain. Recent approaches, that usually assume the contextual independence of the texts being compared, make use of most frequent words and clustering analysis to identify the most likely author (Peng and Hengartner 2001, Burrows 2002, Hoover 2004, Malyutov 2006, Stamatatos 2009, Jockers and Witten 2010).
A well-known author attribution problem in Chinese literature is the author of the last 40 chapters of the novel Dream of the Red Chamber. Past stylistic studies lead to contradictory claims due to different feature selections and experiment designs. Karlgren (1952), Chan (1986), and He (2002) concluded that the entire DRC was written by the same person, while Zhao and Chen (1975), Yu (1998), and Yang (2003) observed significant differences between the first 80 and the last 40 chapters.
Most of these works started from choosing certain linguistic features (usually function words). A hypothesis testing method is then deployed to check whether the frequency distributions of features in the first 80 chapters are significantly different from those in the last 40. Yang (2003) used a different approach. They first partitioned DRC into 12 documents, each with 10 chapters. Instead of using pre-defined words, they designed a simple function that used the frequencies of unigrams to associate similarities between each pair of the 12 documents. They found strong similarities in the first 2 documents (containing Chapters 1-20), the next 6 documents (Chapters 21-80), and the final 4 (Chapters 81-120), and thus concluded that the final 40 chapters were written by a different author. However, following the same reasoning, one should also conclude that the first 20 chapters and the middle 60 were written by different authors.
2. Our text-mining approach
We propose a text-mining approach to the DRC author attribution problem. Instead of choosing pre-defined words, we design a mining function to generate candidate words. In addition to term frequencies, we also consider the number of chapters in which a term appears.
2.1 The edition question
The first question is to choose a proper edition. The earliest of DRC (1754) contains merely 16 chapters, and the second,gengchen edition (庚辰本) of 1760, has 78 chapters (1-80 except 64 and 67). The earliest existing version with 120 chapters, edited by Cheng Weiyuan and Gao E, appeared in 1791. The full text we chose was
 
Table 1.
The top 5 high-scored unigrams and top 10 bigrams computed by the mining function f(t).
the one provided by YuanZe University [1] , which is the closest to the earliest editions.
2.2 The text-mining function
Regarding each chapter as a document, we use A and B to denote the corpuses of the first 80 chapters and the last 40 respectively. Thus |A|=80 and |B|=40. We use t∈d if the term t occurs in document d. Let Dt={d: t∈d, d∈D} be the subset of D which contains term t. We call |Dt| the document frequency of t in D. We define the average document frequency of t, a term, in D, a document set, to be pt(D)= |Dt|/|D|. pt(D) indicates the average probability for any document in D to containt.
We define the text-mining function to be
 
where a constant k is added to avoid the case f(t)=∞ when pt(A) or pt(B) equals 0. We set k=0.02 in our experiments. We assume pt(A) ≥ pt(B) and use k=0 to illustrate how the function works. Then f(t)= pt(A)/ pt(B) and a big f(t) means a high ratio of pt(A) to pt(B). Thus a high-scored f(t) means that the average document frequency of term t in A is significantly different from that in B.
The top 5 unigrams and top 10 bigrams obtained through f(t) are given in Table 1. We have studied the top 30 unigrams and bigrams, which all showed similar behavior.
2.3 Some findings
We now briefly discuss some of our findings. The top-scored unigram ma (嬤) occurs only in the form of mama (嬤嬤) which we shall discuss later. The second unigram li (裡) is interchangeable with another li (裏), thus could have been replaced during transcribing and should not be considered. However, we remark that among the 109 appearances of li (裡) in the first 80 chapters, 54 of which are in Chapter 67 alone! This strongly suggests that the current Chapter 67 (missing in the gengchen edition) was later added by another person.
The bigrams reveal even more insight. The top scored qizhi (豈知), which occurs in 24 chapters in corpus B but none in corpus A, does not have a clear semantics in itself. The third bigram weizhi (未知) appears in 31 chapters of the last 40, and the only chapter of the first 80 in which it appears is Chapter 64, another chapter missing in the gengchen edition. This provides another evident that both chapters (64 and 67) were added later by someone else. The third example, the fifth bigram mama (嬤嬤, a respectful title given to an elder wet nurse) occurs in 34 of the first 80 chapters but none in the last 40. There are many mama’s in DRC. They all conspicuously disappeared after Chapter 80.
2.4 The three-author question?
Recall that Yang (2003) also did not chose function words a priori and found strong discrepancies between Chapter 1-20, 21-80, and 81-120. Thus, if one is to conclude from their studies that the last 40 chapters were written by a different author, one may also need to declare that the first 80 chapters were also written by two different authors.
To make sure that our method does not pose similar problems, we ran the same experiment between the texts of Chapters 1-20 and Chapters 21-80. Not surprisingly, we found some unigrams and bigrams that appear in one corpus but not in the other. A careful analysis, however, shows that they are mostly event-dependent, involving persons or places that appeared later in the story or died. Considering that there are more than 400 characters in DRC, such event-dependent differences are expected.
3. Discussions
Our studies support the thesis that the last 40 chapters of DRC were written by someone other than Cao Xueqin. It also shows that Chapters 64 and 67 may also have been written by another person. Furthermore, the text-mining method we used offers a different approach to the author attribution problem.
A common textual analysis approach is to use function words to detect discrepancies in different texts. For instance, in Chinese ma (嗎) as a function word has the equivalent me (麼). Suppose one uses ma as a proof that an article is not written by a certain person, can the verdict be overturned if one uniformly replaces all the function word occurrences of maby me?
The text-mining approach proposed here is different. Although it is also based on differences in word style, the words are generated by the method itself. Take the term mama as an example. Mama appeared in 34 of the first 80 chapters, and was used to address quite a few minor characters in the book (last appearance in Chapter 80). However, not only was the term completely missing from the last 40 chapters, so did the concept and the characters! Such ""semantic"" differences seem to provide more solid evidence than purely syntactic ones.
References
Brinegar, C. S. (1963). Mark Twain and the Quintus Curtius Snodgrass Letters: A Statistical Test of Authorship, Journal of the American Statistical Association, 58(301): 85-96.
Burrows, J. (2002). 'Delta': a Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship, Literary and Linguistic Computing, 17(3).
Chan, B.-C. (1986). The authorship of the Dream of the red chamber based on a computerized statistical study of its vocabulary, Joint Publishing Co Ltd., Hong Kong.
He, G.-G. (2002). From Chinese function words to the characteristics of authors – also the author attribution problem of Dream of the Red Chamber, Traditional Chinese Literature e-Journal, Hualian.
Hoover, D. L. (2004). Testing Burrows's Delta, Literary and Linguistic Computing,19(4).
Hu, Shi(1921). Textual Research on the Dream of the Red Chamber, reprinted by Yuandong Publishing, 1985.
Jockers, M. L., and D. M. Witten (2010). A comparative study of machine learning methods for authorship attribution,Literary and Lingistic Computing, 5(2).
Karlgren, B. (1952). New Excursions in Chinese Grammar, Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities(Stockholm), 24: 51-80.
Malyutov, M. B.(2006). Authorship attribution of texts: a review. General Theory of Information Transfer and Combinatorics, Springer-Verlag, 362-380.
Pan, C.-G.(1974). Sixty years of Redology. 2,226 pages. Taipei: Wen-shi-je Publishing.
Peng, R., and N. Hengartner (2001). Quantitative Analysis of Literacy Styles. Department of Statistics Papers, Department of Statistics, UCLA.
Stamatatos, E. (2009). A Survey of Modern Authorship Attribution Methods, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 60(3): 538-556, March 2009.
Yang, A. C.-C., C.-K Peng, H.-W. Yien, and A. L. Goldberger (2003). Information categorization approach to literary authorship disputes, Physica A 329: 473-483.
Yu, Q.-X. (1998). Applications of Statistical methods to Dream of the Red Chamber, Journal of National Cheng-Chi University, 76: 303-327.
Zhao, G., and Z. Chen (1975). «紅樓夢研究新編» A New Compilation on the research of The Dream of The Red Chamber, Taipei: Linking Publishing.","txt","2","",""
"1791","14","Theorizing Data Visualization: A Comparative Case-Study Approach","10","Data visualization is a digital technique for organizing, representing, and interpreting information visually. Etymologically, data visualization is the process wherein “that which is given” is “made visible to the eye,” translating a particular collection of statistics, values, or words into a visual diagram, design, or architecture. Due to its efficient (computational) and scalable workflow, data visualization lends itself particularly well to working with large amounts of raw or unprocessed information, which is typically collected and organized into datasets and stored in electronic collections called databases. This project takes as its critical object the application of data visualization as a means of textual analysis in the digital humanities, examining how a technology with a long-running history in corporate business contexts and the social and STEM sciences might affect the practice of literary scholarship, particularly in terms of reading and interpretation.
Due in large part to its often powerful and aesthetically pleasing visual impact, relatively quick learning curve, and overall “cool” the practice of visualizing textual data has been widely adopted by the digital humanities. This prevalence is evidenced by, for instance, the high frequency of the term “data visualization” in the 2011-2012 Digital Humanities conference abstracts as well as the 2011-2013 Modern Language Association panels related to the digital humanities. If the first wave of large-scale database projects in the digital humanities is exemplified by the practices of digitizing texts, constructing archives, and determining best practices for digital preservation, then the practice of data visualization is emblematic of the second wave of projects devoted to mining this new data. The NEH-funded “Digging into Data” granting program, a yearly challenge that asks how the notion of scale affects humanities research, has specifically supported this practice of engaging with huge databases and archives.
This paper directly engages with the (oft-overlooked) notion that data visualization is in fact an argumentative, non-neutral process and asks: what is and is not visualized, how are visualizations produced, how do aesthetics factor into this discussion, why and how are digital humanists using this technology, and how can data visualization be contextualized historically, materially, and politically. The paper does so by offering focused case studies of two specific data visualization environments:
1.) IBM’s Many Eyes — This case study involves close-reading mission statements, web content, user-instructions, and sample and showcase datasets and visualizations. This case-study helps to construct and illuminate the project’s corporate identity. IBM’s history, after all, is deeply intertwined with the invention of the punch-time clock and other aspects of contemporary (Taylorist) business culture and embodies the corporate values of efficiency and time management. Further, due to its work with Swiss-style graphic designer Paul Rand on the company’s logo and minimalist aesthetic identity, IBM is emblematic of the intersection of early computing and mid-century graphic design. The company is unique in that it managed to synthesize cutting edge technology, profit-driven corporate culture, and “cool” graphic design, an accomplishment that I argue contributes to the prevalence of Many Eyes data visualizations in the digital humanities, especially in projects produced by individuals who are making their first forays into the field.
2.) Alan Liu’s NEH-funded Research-oriented Social Environment (RoSE) — This section contrasts Many Eyes with RoSE, a data visualization platform with a different material and cultural history. I use my insight here as a humanities developer on the project team to explain how RoSE privileges critical approaches to design, collaborative development, and data transparency. In fact, the data itself is produced collaboratively through cooperation with individual users and large-scale institutional partners, including Project Gutenberg and the SNAC team at the University of Virginia. Finally, unlike Many Eyes, RoSE hosts a supplementary website that provides details about the project’s goals, developers, and potential limitations.
The project complements other recent and historical moves to examine data visualization, particularly as it is embedded within a longer engagement with graphic design, information aesthetics, and visual rhetoric. The work of theorists of information design and large-scale data analysis, including Edward Tufte, Andrea Lau, and Lev Manovich, has been crucial in formulating an informational aesthetic. This aesthetic framework extends from the mid-twentieth century introduction of the so-called Swiss graphic design, known for its emphasis on minimalism and reliance on the “grid,” to new media art practice. Whereas much of the research to date has dealt with database and visualization design, my intervention is to engage with the importation and application of data visualization in the digital humanities as such. Previous research on data visualization in the field has been concerned primarily with the development of visualization software and the technology’s exciting new capabilities, rather than how such development might in fact transform literary scholarship. This project takes a critical step back from these discussions in order to consider how visualization techniques, tools, and technologies might in fact transform literary scholarship, what is at stake in their instrumentalized use, and how humanistic modes of critical engagement might be applied to them.
The focus here is on differentiating the cultural genealogies of each platform to shed light on their unique ideological foundations. The paper examines the corporate lineage of Many Eyes, while constructing a parallel but alternative genealogy for RoSE, one rooted more in scholarship, new media art practice, and collaborative knowledge production than profit-driven commercial activity. The goal of the paper is not to critique the corporate affiliation of Many Eyes as such, but to ask what might be at stake in the implementation of a technology that has its roots outside of the humanities, specifically a technology that has existed for half a century in other contexts and contains its own embedded goals, methodologies, and ideological underpinnings.
References
Borner, K. (2003). Visualizing Knowledge Domains. Annual Review of Information Science & Technology, 37, Medford, NJ: Information Today, Inc./American Society for Information Science and Technology. 5. 179-255.
Fitzpatrick, K. (2011). Planned Obsolescence: Publishing, Technology, and the Future of the Academy. New York: New York University Press.
Gold, M. (2012). Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
IBM Research (2012). Many Eyes Data Visualization Platform. 2007-present. URL: http://www-958.ibm.com/software/data/cognos/manyeyes/ (accessed 15 September 2012).
Lau, A. and A. Vande Moere (2004). Towards a Model of Information Aesthetics in Information Visualization.http://web.arch.usyd.edu.au/~andrew/publications/iv07.pdf (accessed 15 September 2012).
Lima, M. (2011). Visual Complexity: Mapping Patterns of Information. New York: Princeton Architectural Press.
Liu, A. (2004). The Laws of Cool: Knowledge Work and the Culture of Information. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Manovich, L., and J. Douglass (2007). Cultural Analytics. UC San Diego Software Studies Initiative. 2007-present. URL: http://lab.softwarestudies.com/2008/09/cultural-analytics.html (accessed 18 September, 2012).
Mirzoeff, N. (2011). The Right to Look: A Counter History of Visuality. Durham: Duke University Press.
Moretti, F. (2007). Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for Literary History. London: Verso.
Nowviskie, B., and J. Unsworth (1999). Is humanities computing an academic discipline? An interdisciplinary seminar. University of Virginia.
Ramsay, S. (2011). Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
Terras, M. (2008). Digital Images for the Information Professional. London: Ashgate.
Tufte, E. (1983). The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.
Vesna, V. (2007). Database Aesthetics: Art in the Age of Information Overflow. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Yau, N. (2011). Visualize This: The FlowingData Guide to Design, Visualization, and Statistics. Hoboken: Wiley Press.","txt","2","",""
"1792","14","VizOR: Visualizing Only Revolutions, Visualizing Textual Analysis","9","Introduction
This paper describes VizOR, a new digital resource currently under development, that visualizes Mark Z. Danielewski’s 2006 novel Only Revolutions. VizOR is built on top of a MySQL database comprised of the complete text of Only Revolutions and is programmed in Python to produce a dynamic, database-driven visualization of the novel. In this paper, we discuss the methods and procedures we are currently developing to create this visualization and highlight the implications of these methods and procedures for theoretical concerns in both digital humanities and media studies. This project, we propose, is both a re-reading of and an exploration of the process of reading Danielewski’s novel: as such, it joins the novel in examining the interrelation of human and machine “reading” and “authorship,” pointing to a procedural understanding of reading and writing and suggesting that both activities occur across a wide variety of actors and platforms.
Context
The form of Danielewski’s novel is unique: the narrative consists of two parallel yet interrelated narratives, one by Hailey and one by Sam, and which one the reader reads depends on how the reader holds the book. If the reader is reading Hailey’s narrative, for instance, she must flip the book upside down to read Sam’s (and vice versa). Apart from the main narrative, each page also contains what we call a chronology section — a date with a list of historical people and events associated with that time or date, which Danielewski crowdsourced from his fans while writing the novel. Thus, each page is divided into four sections: Sam’s narrative, Sam’s chronology (which runs from November 22, 1863 to November 22, 1963), Hailey’s narrative, and Hailey’s chronology (which runs from November 22, 1963 to June 19, 2063).
In addition to its formal innovations, Only Revolutions is interesting for this project because it proliferates numbers, playing with the boundaries between “data” and “narrative.” For example, the numbers 360 and 8 and their factors and multiples are particularly important. Each narrative is 360 pages long, and each narrative and chronology section on each page contains 90 words (90 X 4 = 360). Furthermore, the narrative is divided up into sections of eight pages each, and the number of lines in each narrative section decreases, at regular intervals, from 22 to 14 as the reader progresses through these sections (22 - 14 = 8). “H,” for Hailey, is the eighth letter in the alphabet, and “S,” for Sam, is the eighth letter from the end of the alphabet; “Mark Z. Danielewski” has 16 letters; and Sam and Hailey are described as being “allways sixteen.” There are many, many more examples we could cite here. In this way, Only Revolutions encourages readers — human and machine alike — to count, and count again, the many different numbers that emerge from its pages.
In How We Think: Digital Media and Contemporary Technogenesis, N. Katherine Hayles includes a coda featuring visualizations of Only Revolutions produced with Google Maps. Collaboratively designed with Allen Beye Riddell, these three visualizations trace the geographical “place-names” of Sam and Hailey as they travel throughout the story, and then layer the two to create a composite map of the characters’ movement through the text (243-244). The resulting visualization shows that Hailey and Sam take similar paths across the map and that their overall directionality is nothing if not inconsistent. They move on a whim, together, wherever their overwhelming affection for one another points them. On one hand, VizOR is a response to Hayles’s map-based visualization and is concerned with the assumptions underpinning her choice of visualization platform. On the other hand, the project is addressing a larger trend within the digital humanities: the increased prevalence of data visualization as a mode of literary interpretation.
Due in large part to its often powerful and aesthetically pleasing visual impact, relatively quick learning curve, and overall “cool,” the practice of visualizing textual data has been widely adopted by the digital humanities. This prevalence is evidenced by, for instance, the high frequency of the term “data visualization” in the 2011-2012 Digital Humanities conference abstracts as well as the 2011-2013 Modern Language Association digital humanities panel descriptions. If the first wave of large-scale database projects in the digital humanities is exemplified by the practices of digitizing texts, constructing archives, and determining best practices for digital preservation, then the practice of data visualization is emblematic of the second wave of projects devoted to mining and interpreting this newly available data.
VizOR is influenced by the thinking of scholars and practitioners like Franco Moretti, Matthew Jockers, Jeremy Douglass, and Lev Manovich, as well as by visualization projects like UC San Diego’s “Cultural Analytics” initiative and Stanford’s “Gephi” visualization engine. Like other critical DH projects, VizOR is not only interested in engaging with literature via data visualization, but also in performing this engagement to ask what is at stake in this new mode of interpretation, both in terms of the individual scholar and the digital humanities as a field.
Project Description
The database is designed to be highly flexible, and this architecture allows us to enact the same linguistic layering that occurs while reading the text. We can query a specific word of a particular character’s narrative or chronology, the text from a specific line of a character’s narrative or chronology on a specific page, or the narrative or chronology text from a whole page for a specific character. Querying the database in this way allows us to instantly compare the words and phrases used by one character with those used by the other character on the same page and in the same position. For example, on Sam’s page seven, line five, we see “Gold Eyes with flecks of Green,” while the words in the same position on Hailey’s page seven, line five read,“Green Eyes with flecks of Gold” (Danielewski). VizOR surfaces this kind of reading through its very design, allowing readers to see the similarities and, perhaps more importantly, the differences between the narratives.
The visualization is currently still under development using the Python programming language. Python was selected as the programming language for VizOR due to its general flexibility and its ability to produce dynamic, database-driven visualizations. However, static mock-ups have been designed using Adobe Illustrator and are included at the end of this document.
The visualization reproduces the image of the page numbers in the novel, the two small rotating circles enclosed within the larger circle. In the visualization, however, each of the two smaller circles represents the narratives of Hailey or Sam. All three circles are comprised of absent centers with the text literally expanding outward. The larger circle is comprised of the chronological headings and entries. Clicking on one of the text strings in either narrative will query the database for the corresponding narrative’s string. This correspondence, as well as the inclusion of the Boolean double pipe (symbol for “or”) as link, is shown in the mock-ups at the end of the document. This, in effect, mirrors the layering that occurs during the act of reading. The visualization, though, has the ability to position the corresponding lines on the same plane at the same time, a phenomenon in the novel that is always already delayed or fading away. Rather than attempting to flip the book fast enough to see both sides of the coin, so to speak, VizOR attempts to freeze the text at each moment of mirroring. This moment of pause opens up the possibility of interpretation without disrupting the line’s relationship to other lines or removing it from its context.
Users can navigate the visualization in a number of ways, hovering over any of the terms to magnify chosen words or lines. Once users click on a given line, the circles will rotate to realign the corresponding terms. Further, rotating the encircling chronology forward or backward in time will result in the rotation of the two inner narratives, mirroring the motion of the flip-book page numbers of the print text.Users can navigate the visualization in a number of ways, hovering over any of the terms to magnify chosen words or lines. Once users click on a given line, the circles will rotate to realign the corresponding terms. Further, rotating the encircling chronology forward or backward in time will result in the rotation of the two inner narratives, mirroring the motion of the flip-book page numbers of the print text.
The finished form of the visualization will be searchable and will also contain external hyperlinks. In keeping with the novel’s data-driven construction, produced in some ways by a crowd-sourced or “collaborative” author, the visualization produces a similarly data-driven reading experience. The goal here is to mirror the outward push of the novel, its awareness and incorporation of external databases like online encyclopedias, and the uniquely distributed reading experience of excitedly setting the book down to search for one of its vague historical entries.
Conclusion
In the name of this speed and efficiency, however, these technologies often strip data of its context and idiosyncracies, creating what Tara McPherson has called “a system of interchangeable equivalencies” (35). VizOR, through its emphasis on the distributed processes of reading and writing across different technologies and media, pushes against this seamless homogenization. By highlighting particular, idiosyncratic moments of reading, we hope to activate the messy, ""seamy"" place where data meets narrative.
References
Barthes, R. (1977). Rhetoric of the Image. Image, Music, Text. New York: Hill and Wang.
Borner, K. (2003). Visualizing Knowledge Domains. Annual Review of Information Science & Technology. 37. Medford, NJ: Information Today, Inc./American Society for Information Science and Technology. 179-255.
Cartwright, L. (2009). Practices of Looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Danielewski, M. (2006). Only Revolutions. New York: Pantheon.
Drucker, J. (2008). The Virtual Codex from Page Space to E-space. In Schreibman, S., and R. Siemens, (eds). A Companion to Digital Literary Studies. Oxford: Blackwell. http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companionDLS/ (accessed September 21, 2012.
Hayles, N. K. (2012). How We Think: Digital Media and Contemporary Technogenesis. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Lima, M. (2011). Visual Complexity: Mapping Patterns of Information. New York: Princeton Architectural Press.
Manovich, L. and J. Douglass (2007). Cultural Analytics. UC San Diego Software Studies Initiative.http://lab.softwarestudies.com/2008/09/cultural-analytics.html (accessed: September 21, 2012.)
McPherson, T. (2012). U.S. Operating Systems at Mid-Century: The Intertwining of Race and UNIX. In Nakamura, L. and Chow-White, P. A., (eds). Race and the Internet. New York: Routledge.
Terras, M. (2008). Digital Images for the Information Professional. London: Ashgate.
Tufte, E. (1983). The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.
Vesna, V. (2007). Database Aesthetics: Art in the Age of Information Overflow. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Yau, N. (2011). Visualize This: The FlowingData Guide to Design, Visualization, and Statistics. Hoboken: Wiley Press.","txt","2","",""
"1793","14","This is Not a Novel: Experimental Literature as Prototype","9","Introduction
This short paper describes how digitizing experimental print texts can be used to innovate the aesthetics of the web, produce new models for human-computer interaction, and further theorize touch interfaces. Matthew Kirschenbaum has long identified the “tactile fallacy” often associated with digital media (43), but, as Sebastian Heath pointed out more recently at the 2011 Digital Humanities meeting, “‘digital materiality’ does not yet have a fixed meaning.” By building upon work by Katherine Hayles, Alan Liu, Marlene Manoff, and others, this paper will help account for the material metaphors of interface design and how touch interfaces have become a central concern for a supposedly immaterial medium. Because of the advanced design techniques used by commercial web developers and the universalized standards and backward compatibility of HTML markup, popular manifestations of the web have a great deal to teach academic discourses about the aesthetics of reading and visualizing the materiality of texts. I turn, therefore, to contemporary experimental literature as a means of grappling with the materiality of print and testing the limits of presentation semantics in web markup. As a first step, this paper will present various web based prototypes of CSS styling to visualize Jonathan Safran Foer’s decidedly print textTree of Codes (2010).
At the core of my approach are two simple observations. First, since experimental authors have been pushing the limits of print and remaking traditional conceptions of the book for decades, any digital humanities discourse that presumes to revolutionize literature through a radical reshaping of its formal possibilities must also account for the long tradition of experimental literature. Second, contemporary fiction is published in an increasingly digital media environment, and contemporary authors are responding to this new context through a critique of digital publishing. As Elizabeth Eisenstein argues, the printing press has long been an agent of social and political change, but it is also becoming a tool for technological critique. In short, the purpose of my paper will be to show how this critique can be leveraged to produced innovative methods of web development.
Digitizing Experimental Literature as a Prototyping Framework
Specifically, this paper will present several style sheets in CSS 3 that attempt to digitize Foer’s Tree of Codes. Since the failure of any perfect mimesis is a foregone conclusion, this failure demonstrates a method for producing new text forms but also offers a vantage point from which to make interpretations about the importance of materiality in Foer’s text. Through a combination of 3D transforms and animations made possible with CSS3 and canvas elements, I will work to show the complexity of our still new and evolving web standards. Technological experimentation makes manifest the purpose of all cultural and literary experimentation. Because literary traditions perform and inform the history of the book along with a broader technological context, prototyping experimental literature in the populist medium of the web is most capable of formally bridging reading technologies. It is, I argue, the points of rupture between mediums that signals new directions for development and experimentation. Furthermore, this methodology exists at the threshold between electronic literature community and the digital humanities, while offering a means of reconciling these often disparate discourses.
Web Development and Literary Authoring
In a commercial context, developers like Mike Kuniavsky, Indi Young, Luke Wroblewski, Peter Merholz, Jeffrey Kalmikoff, and John Zeratsky have become the theorists of the ever emergent web. The tools that have thus far been created by engineers and designers must, however, incorporate a broader understanding of the function and purpose of literature and literacy. It is the role of academically informed web designers to interpret contemporary design culture through the history of the book. It is now well understood that digital literacy must not relegate pedagogical practice to simply teaching a new user interface. Because of the great potential for “computers as modelling machines” (McCarthy 27), prototyping and making digital books is a fundamental methodology of the digital humanities and, as Alan Galey has described it, “the design ethos of thinking through making” (111). In the context of Jerome McGann’s earlier claim that “The next generation of literary and aesthetic theorists who will most matter are people who will be at least as involved with making things as with writing texts” (19), I argue for literary authoring and web development to become a unified creative act. As Manoff has observed, “The content or text of a book cannot be separated from the physical object that houses it” (319). In a print context, the storage and delivery of content is linked absolutely, while authoring is a privileged external act. In a digital context, creative web development has the potential to link literary authoring and delivery into a single act, while storage and preservation becomes an external function of literary production taken up by digital humanists.
Platform Development and Repository Building
This paper represents only the earliest stages of a multi-year project to build an experimental literature web platform that hosts a repository of open source CSS modules and the tools to develop online literary projects. As a member of the multidisciplinary research team in The Electronic Textual Cultures Lab, I am currently seeking funds to mobilize the additional expertise required to complete a project of this size and complexity. Set within the context of the early prototyping and feasibility stages of a broader digital humanities project, this paper represents a template for the future implementation of this longer term development strategy with the technical support at the Humanities Computing and Media Centre at the University of Victoria.
Acknowledgements
I would also like to thank the generous input and mentorship of Raymond Siemens and Jentery Sayers at the University of Victoria during the development of this project. This work is supported by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada.
References
Foer, J. S. (2010). Tree of Codes. Belgium and The Netherlands: Visual Editions.
Galey, A. and Ruecker, S. (2010). How a Prototype Argues. Literary and Linguistic Computing 25.4 :405-424.
Gramazio, F. K. (2008). Digital Materiality in Architecture. Baden: Lars Mäller. .
Hayles, N. K. (2003). Translating Media: Why We should Rethink Textuality. The Yale Journal of Criticism 16.2: 263-290.
Heath, S. (2012). The Digital Materiality of Early Christian Visual Culture: Building on John 20:24-29.http://dh2011abstracts.stanford.edu/xtf/view?docId=tei/ab-315.xml. (accessed October 25, 2012).
Kirschenbaum, M. G. (2002). Editing the Interface: Textual Studies and First Generation Electronic Objects. Text: An Interdisciplinary Annual of Textual Studies 14: 15-51.
Kuniavsky, M. (2010). Smart Things: Ubiquitous Computing User Experience Design. Burlington: Morgan Kaufmann.
Leonardi, P. M. (2010). Digital Materiality? How Artifacts Without Matter, Matter. First Monday 15.6(June 2010):http://www.uic.edu/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/ article/viewArticle/3036/2567. Accessed October 25, 2012. Web.
Liu, A. (2004). Transcendental Data: Toward a Cultural History and Aesthetics of the New Encoded Discourse. Critical Inquiry 31.1:49-84.
Manoff, M. (2006). The materiality of digital collections: theoretical and historical perspectives. Portal: Libraries and the Academy 6.3 311-235. http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/35689. (accessed October 25).
McCarthy, W. (2005). Humanities Computing. London: Palgrave.
McGann, J. (2001). Radiant Textuality: Literature After the World Wide Web. New York: Palgrave.
Merholz, P. (2008). Subject To Change: Creating Great Products & Services for an Uncertain World: Adaptive Path on Design. Sebastobol: O’Reilly.
Wroblewski, L. (2002). Site-Seeing: A Visual Approach to Web Usability. New York: Hungry Minds.
Young, I. (2008). Mental Models: Aligning Digital Strategy with Human Behaviour. New York: Rosenfeld.","txt","2","",""
"1794","14","Toward a Noisier Digital Humanities","9","Soundbox, a graduate student-led project funded by the new PhD Lab in Digital Knowledge, part of the Franklin Humanities Institute at Duke University, explores new ways of incorporating sound into digital scholarly productions. It does so primarily by hosting a series of ""provocations"" — that is, essays, experiments and events both digital and local — that challenge those who experience them to imagine a noisier form of scholarship. In this presentation, we will discuss the theory behind Soundbox’s approach to Digital Humanities, as well as the transformative impact that de-centralized graduate co-learning structures have had on it.
Unlike many other Digital Humanities projects, Soundbox 1) has been conceived and implemented entirely by graduate students, and 2) does not intend to produce a tool but generate creative spaces that provoke new expressive forms. These spaces are by their nature hybrid, layering physical rooms (exhibit halls, museums, street corners) with digital connectivity in order to extend and expand what we imagine as possible fora for scholarly productions. They are also inherently multidisciplinary and inter-institutional, bringing together artists, audio engineers and scholars from universities, museums, public libraries and commercial studios. By fostering and encouraging these creative partnerships, Soundbox perceives its role primarily as facilitating and archiving sonic interventions in research and scholarship. That is, support for ideas comes before questions of technical implementation. While not all provocations may be fully implementable, we see the imaginative potential of digital media as one of its most transformative contributions to the humanities — perhaps more transformative than the production of platforms and tools that contain scholarship within certain product-oriented formats.
In addition to discussing the current and future work of Soundbox, this paper uses our experiences with Soundbox as a case study in how to incorporate Digital Humanities into the graduate curriculum. At an October 2012 meeting of the Scholarly Communication Institute (SCI) on “Rethinking Humanities Graduate Education,” Katina Rogers discussed results from a recent SCI survey on career preparation in humanities graduate programs, focusing on alt-ac training. While the sheer number of respondents proved the viability of and interest in alt-ac careers for recent PhDs, the survey’s data showed that there continues to be a significant gap between the expectations of students entering PhD programs in the humanities and the realities of the academic job market (Rogers 2012). Moreover, even those students who had successfully negotiated into alt-ac positions reported feeling under-trained and ill-prepared by their departments for the often collaborative managerial skills required in non-teaching positions. As one respondent noted, “by far my most valuable experiences were the jobs I held while in grad school (which I kept hidden from my advisers).”
The final report from the SCI’s meeting emphasized the need for centers to “work in concert with humanities departments to develop pilots of innovative research and pedagogy modes,” pointing to Duke’s PhD Lab in Digital Knowledge as a model (Rumsey 2012). As active graduate student members of the PhD Lab co-steering one of its current projects, Soundbox, we offer our honest, practical assessment of the promises and perils of such a model. On the one hand, it is difficult to underestimate the value of extra-curricular, extra-departmental collaborative learning environments. More than technical skills or the burden of more classroom instruction, students need flexible, unstructured spaces for learning from and collaborating with each other within and across institutions. Small seed grants and other untethered forms of funding, such as that which Soundbox has received through the PhD Lab at Duke, go a long way toward providing these opportunities by encouraging students to self-organize reading groups and field trips, or by allowing individual students to attend week-long gatherings like DHSI. On the other hand, by dissociating such activities from degree requirements set out by the student’s home department, these valuable learning opportunities become additional burdens that potentially lengthen the time to degree. Extra-departmental centers need to work closely with departments to ensure that the activities students pursue in these centers contribute in meaningful, tangible ways to completing their coursework, their comprehensive exams and their dissertations. Similarly, departments need to inscribe the value of students’ work in these centers into their degree requirements, especially for students who articulate a desire to pursue alt-ac careers.
Collaboration is a messy, even noisy process. As we cross disciplines and departments, the Soundbox collaboration has made visible for us the histories embedded within the institutional structures that define our roles within the university, and our progress toward earning a degree. It has also forced us to confront the cacophony of conversation in a way that puts pressure on what “interdiscipinarity” really means. In this way, the provocatively noisy product of Soundbox is inextricable from the processes of our collaboration. This paper addresses both of these topics.
References
Rogers, K. (2012). Outside the Pipeline: From Anecdote to Data. Scholarly Communication Institute blog.http://www.scholarslab.org/scholarly-communication-institute/outside-the-pipeline-from-anecdote-to-data/ (accessed 5 November 2012).
Rumsey, A. S. Rethinking Humanities Graduate Education. Final report of the Scholarly Communication Institute meeting, October 22-23, 2012. Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities. http://uvasci.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/final-report.pdf","txt","2","",""
"1795","14","Tropes, Context and Computation: An approach to digital poetics","10","While text mining, and similar quantitative analyses of lexical and semantic frequencies, have proven to be highly informative about aspects of literary history, the origin of these methods within the “hard"" sciences creates hurdles for their application within the humanities (Pasanek and Sculley 2008, Bei 2008). Fundamental to these statistical strategies is the assumption of communicative equivalence among words as types: to most kinds of frequency analysis, each instance of a particular word retains the same meaning, force and valence of all other instances of that word. A chapter of a book in which the word “money” is relatively frequent suggests, to these methods, that the author is concerned with economics and it can therefore be related to other texts densely populated by economic terms. A critical problem in literary analysis, however, occurs within the field of tropes: in a seventeenth-century poem, a flea may be a small insect, or it may be a complex metaphor for a particular kind of romantic relationship. While newer, mixture-based, text mining methods, such as topic modeling, can use semantic clusters to reveal the difference between homonyms (the associated “topic” words of “bow”— applause, cheer, crowd — would be different than those of “bow” - arrow, fletch, string) they remain unable to detect the nuance of metaphors that are critical to our understanding of literary effect (Ross 2003, Blei 2012). Indeed, if most of the work of a poem comes not through the communicative value of the literal meaning of the words themselves, but instead, through the complex tropology of the formal effects, then we, as digital scholars of literary texts, require a new way to incorporate an understanding of the work of tropes within the semantic field. In particular, at the level of genre identification, where much text mining or frequency analysis finds its home, the genres of allegory and satire, as extended tropes, remain unavailable to these methods. This problem is particularly acute when bringing to bear new quantitative methods on studies of poetry: with its highly figurative language and complex communicative intent, poetry remains on the fringe of quantitative analyses of literature. Most such studies focus exclusively on prose writing, and, in particular, the novel (Stanford Literary Lab 2011, Clement 2008). Given the importance of poetry to literary history, we believe that this lacuna represents a critical problem for the use of digital humanities in the study of literature.
Our project is an attempt to address this challenge through a new approach that combines a digital analysis of both the formal and lexical features of a constrained sample of poetry to test if it is possible to detect and identify the presence of tropological structures within poetic writing. In particular, this paper explores whether trope-based genres, specifically satire and allegory, are identifiable from linguistic and formal artifacts that can be recovered through digital analysis. In literary criticism, these genres are highly dependent upon context: a traditional analytic approach insists that a detailed knowledge of the poem’s intended reception is necessary to recognize the satiric intent of a particular poem, or the allegorical framework that informs it (Fletcher and Bloom 2012). We contend, however, that there are generic markers within the formal and semantic fields of the poem that can be used to identify the presence of these tropes. To perform this analysis, we will draw upon a corpus of eighteenth-century poems selected for their comprehensive use of either satire or allegory, as well as a corpus with the same distribution across the period composed of poems that do not participate in either genre. By carefully choosing period and genre specific texts, our project, the first effort in this direction, seeks to limit the scope of its inquiry. As a way of approaching the larger question of poetic tropes, we ask if within the specific genres of eighteenth-century allegoric and satiric poems, we can train an algorithm to recognize the presence of either genre. A key to this project is our belief that the greatest challenge for the analysis of poetry using quantitative methods, that is, its highly figurative and stylized language, can be turned into an advantage in our approach. Both genres, we argue, operate on a semantic, as well as a formal level, and, therefore, the regularities of these formal structures can aid us in revealing key generic identifiers. Our method operates by identifying both the formal features and lexical regularities within a poem and comparing their relationship: we argue that the match, or more importantly, the mismatch between the formal structure and the semantic fields within poems reveals the presence of these tropological genres. In our project, this relationship becomes one of mediation: what patterns emerge when a topic is mediated through a form for which it is traditionally unsuited?
This is a particularly relevant question for the poetry of the eighteenth century, which formalized many of the generic tropes within specific combinations of style and meaning. Satire, for example, borrowed the rhetorical tropes of high-minded discourse (heroic couplets, iambic meter and poetic epithets) which are undercut by the inappropriateness of the poetic object (a lady’s dressing room, the theft of a lock of hair) to the poetic medium. Similarly, allegory uses specific formal constraints to layer meaning within its lexical patterns. It is this formal shift towards different models of mediation that our project measures by combining text mining strategies, such as frequency analysis and topic modeling, with an automated recognition of poetic structure (like meter or rhyme scheme). While the results that we will present are specific to the genres of eighteenth-century poetic allegory and satire, we nevertheless believe that this represents a crucial first step towards automating the ways in which we recognize figurative language and developing flexible methods that can be extended to other contexts of use.
This project builds upon ongoing work within the Stanford Literary Lab on the subject of poetic discourse. Our project depends upon a corpus of poetry tagged as either satire or allegory (or neither, as a control), which can be used to both train our algorithm and test its efficacy. For this project, we have assembled a corpus of over 1500 poems, written between 1700 and 1800 that have been identified as belonging to one of our two particular genres. As this project seeks to test the ability of the methodology we have devised to identify the presence of satire or allegory within an entire poem, we have limited our corpus to poems that participate fully within the genres of satire or allegory, rather than those that have satiric or allegoric passages only. As the identifying markers of these genres are already highly nuanced, we feel that restricting our study to these two examples better enables us to identify a working model of poetic tropes that can later be improved for finer-grained and more detailed applications. Similarly, this will be the first practical application of an automated method for identifying and cataloguing meter and rhyme scheme within poetic writing that we have developed for the lab. As we argue that the artifacts of poetic tropes exist within the interaction between semantic fields and their formal mediation, we are able to bring our new ability to identify formal aspects of the poem to bear on the analysis of the patterns that these interactions take.
The stakes of this project involve both a push to incorporate poetic writing within our methodology of quantitative analysis, and a challenge to our understanding of the ways that figurative language operates within eighteenth-century poetry. Scholars, such as Fletcher and Bloom on allegory (2012) and Connery and Combe on satire (1995), argue that we are only able to recognize these genres through a detailed understanding of the historical and cultural contexts in which the poem was written. Our methodology, however, argues for an expanded understanding of context: instead of a detailed knowledge of eighteenth-century political or economic history, context, in our study, is a function of the relationship between semantic fields and their formal mediation within a poem. This, we argue, is equally as important to the context of the poem as the geo-political and historical world from which it emerged. While the necessary specificity of our study limits our project's conclusions to the genres of eighteenth-century allegory and satire, we believe that our results have implications for a wider understanding of how figurative language can be incorporated within a quantitative analysis of literature. By carefully limiting our genres and period, we are offering this study as a proof-of-concept test whose results will aid in future quantitative and digital work on poetry. We anticipate that this pilot study can be extrapolated into a wider understanding of figurative language and the tropes in which it operates and that our results from this project can be incorporated into future work that seeks to undertake a wider and more comprehensive analysis of poetic language across multiple centuries.","txt","2","",""
"1796","14","Tutorial: Designing successful digital humanities crowdsourcing projects","15","Brief description of content or topic
Successful crowdsourcing projects help organisations connect with audiences who enjoy engaging with their content and tasks, whether transcribing handwritten documents, correcting OCR errors, identifying animals on the Serengeti or folding proteins. Conversely, poorly-designed crowdsourcing projects find it difficult to attract or retain participants.
This workshop will present international case studies of best practice crowdsourcing projects to illustrate the range of tasks that can be crowdsourced, the motivations of participants and the characteristics of well-designed projects. Attendees will learn about the attributes of well-designed humanities crowdsourcing projects and will be able to apply these lessons by designing and critiquing a simple crowdsourced task based on their own materials or projects.
Sample outline for half-day workshop:
•        9:00-10:30 Introductions, definitions, history and examples of types, tasks
•        10:30-10:45 Break
•        10:45-11:30 Ethics, participation and motivations in crowdsourcing; design tips for crowdsourcing projects
•        11:30-11:45 Break
•        11:45-12:30 Working in pairs/small groups: design a crowdsourcing project; optionally discuss results with the group
Contact information for workshop leader, including a one-paragraph statement of research interests and areas of expertise
Mia is currently researching a PhD in digital humanities (Department of History, Open University, United Kingdom), focusing on historians' use, evaluation of and contributions to scholarly crowdsourcing projects. She has published and presented widely on her research including user experience research and design for engagement and participation in cultural heritage and is editing a book called Crowdsourcing our Cultural Heritage (Ashgate, forthcoming). Formerly Lead Web Developer at the Science Museum Group, Mia has designed successful crowdsourcing projects, advised prestigious cultural organisations on usability and design for audience participation, and delivered full-day training workshops on crowdsourcing and data visualisation for scholarly research for the British Library's Digital Scholarship programme.
Description of target audience and expected number of participants (based, if possible, on past experience)
I have run this workshop before as a full-day workshop and have modified it for a half-day version for DH2013. Based on past experience, this tutorial can accommodate up to 24 participants. No technical or design experience is necessary but knowledge of potential or existing audiences for any relevant datasets or related tasks would be helpful in the design exercise. There are no special requirements for technical support.","txt","2","",""
"1797","14","Unsupervised Learning of Plot Structure: A Study in Category Romance","10","There are two broad approaches to machine plot analysis: annotation-based systems (Lendvai et al. 2010) and formal models of plot (Lakoff and Narayanan 2010). Annotation-based systems are inspired by markup languages such as XML, while formal models of plot are offshoots of artificial intelligence research. This paper proposes a new approach, based on gene sequencing, and derives a model of plot directly from a very large corpus of novels without training or a pre-defined model. The technique reduces novels to their narrative components, classifies these components according to type, then recombines these constituent elements to typify the plots of a group of texts. This technique is applied to an entire genre, the category romance imprint Harlequin Presents.
Harlequin Presents publishes roughly eight books every month, and is probably the most commercially successful fiction genre in the world (Harlequin Company History). The genre can be characterized by recourse to a limited number of types of plot, although there are distinct sub-categories. Most importantly, the genre is available as an ebook, so each novel in the imprint has a definitive edition that is easily subjected to machine analysis. This study uses 1500 novels — over 15 years ofHarlequin Presents. This is one of the first studies of popular culture to use machine analysis on an entire genre.
Although the conscription of machines to the task is relatively recent, the study of narrative is not. Traditional narratology can be traced back to Propp’s work on folklore in the early twentieth century (Propp 1968). Propp collected a set of functions that described all possible actions in his collection of folk tales. The plot of any single folk tale could be described as a subset of these functions laid end-to-end. Propp’s work was rejected (Lévi-Strauss 1976a), integrated (Dundes 1997, 47) and then conflated with that of the structuralists, whose work with myths extended Propp’s ideas to cover much more than folklore.
Romance novels have two important parallels with Propp’s folk tales and Lévi-Strauss’ myths. Firstly, all three genres are, or were, contemporary. Propp’s folk tales were a living art form in the early twentieth century (Haney 2009, xiii). Lévi-Strauss recorded many of the oral myths that he later integrated into his theories (Lévi-Strauss 1976b, 35-65). While stretching back 15 years, the most recent Harlequin Presents novels in our sample have been published this month. Secondly, all three genres are curated by others. Propp used a standard edition of folktales and Lévi-Strauss tapped indigenous traditions to define his myths. In our case, Harlequin Presents has been categorized by the publisher. Yet, unlike either folk tales or myths, romance novels have never had an oral form — which makes them ideal for machine analysis.
The technique itself is a modified version of Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis (Zhang and Hovarth 2005). This technique has been developed to allow mining of gene sequencing information, although the application to written language is a natural extension. Like words, genes are typically redundant, in that many genes signal at once to achieve a desired effect, similar to the manner in which words are collocated when expressing an idea. Natural language data is transformed to resemble gene sequencin information by seg- menting novels into bins and counting the words in each segment. A correlation matrix is then computed, giving the strength of relationship between each word to each other. Words are then clustered together into co-expression networks based on their frequency of co-occurrence.
Networks of genes that frequently co-occur are known as modules, and this terminology is used here to describe collocated words. The behaviour of a module throughout the genre is then typified, giving a cardinal behaviour for all words in the module. External factors, such as author and date of publication can then be related to the modules, to see how they effect the genre. It is this relationship between modules and external data that reveals the most interesting patterns within the genre. Some modules, such as those relating to the status of the hero, are correlated with the beginning of the novel. Other modules, such as those relating to pregnancy or marriage, are strongly correlated with the final segments of a novel. Other modules are related to authorship, and others can be used to classify the entire genre according to narrative strategy.
Unlike purely stylometric studies, modules are typically closely related to theme and incident - concerns directly under the control of an author. Corre- lation of modules to individual authors is not truly useful for authorship dis- crimination, but reflects preferences that an author can be expected to show as they specialise in particular narrative forms or explore certain themes. Similarly, changes in a genre over time can be seen as a direct reaction to external events rather than changes in an author’s internal mental state.
One criticism of traditional narratology is the difficulty it has relating abstract categories back to the mechanics of the writing (Shen 2005, 146). Machine analysis based on annotations or artificial intelligence research both go some way to alleviating this problem. Deriving a model directly from the text eliminates this problem entirely, although it introduces another: modules of words do not always tie closely into our received notions of narrative. In particular, the abstract categories structuralists leveraged to study the similarities between cultures (Lévi-Strauss 1981, 64-66) are not found by this technique. While modules are illustrative of the texts and genres at hand, they do not really generalize beyond them, providing an insight that is deep but not broad.
Broad insights are the specialty of mark-up based and artificially intelligent narrative systems. These other systems have recourse to categories not derived from the texts at hand, and are much more able to draw links between different groups of texts. Mark-up based systems, although they cannot easily scale to working with thousands of novels as we do here, are able to leverage the (often formidable) skills and intelligence of their users. The more formalistic systems, with their pre-programmed categories are also able to generalize from a single genre. This reflects the very different design goals of these approaches: we are concerned here with mere analysis, whereas markup tools are often a form of scholastic augmentation and artificially intelligent systems typically have plot generation as an ultimate aim (Gervás 2012).
Stylometry has typically focused on high-frequency function words to show the mechanics of language at work. Techniques derived from computational biology allow the extraction of thematic and narrative components, and allows these to be related to authorship, date of publication or other external factors. Other approaches to modeling narrative structure have their strengths, but frequently have broader objectives than the analysis of the texts at hand. Weighted Gene Co-Expression Networks sacrifice these goals but provide a flexible method of unsupervised learning of narrative structure.
References
Dundes, A. (1997). Binary Opposition in Myth: The Propp/Lévi-Strauss Debate in Retrospect. English. In: Western Folklore 56.1, 39–50. issn: 0043373X. url: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1500385.
Gervás, P. (2012). From the Fleece of Fact to Narrative Yarns: a Computational Model of Composition. In: Workshop on Computational Models of Narrative, 2012 Language Resources and Evaluation Conference (LREC’2012). Istanbul, Turkey.
Haney, J. (2009). An Anthology of Russian Folk Tales. New York: M. E. Sharpe.
Harlequin Company History. url: http://tinyurl.com/4mwtts (visited on 08/18/2011).
Lakoff, G., and S. Narayanan (2010). Toward a Computational Model of Narrative. In: Proceedings of the AAAI Fall Symposium 2010. Istanbul, Turkey.
Lendvai, P. et al. (2010). Propp Revisited: Integration of Linguistic Markup into Structured Content Descriptors of Tales. Digital Humanities 2010. Oxford University Press.
Lévi-Strauss, C. (1976a). Structure and Form: Reflection on a Work by Vladimir Propp. Structural Anthropology 2. Trans. by Monique Lane. London: Allen Lane.
Lévi-Strauss, C. (1976b). The Raw and the Cooked. Trans. by Claude Levi-Strauss. London: Harper & Row.
Lévi-Strauss, C. (1981). Structuralism and Myth. Kenyon Review 3.2, 64–88.
Propp, V. (1968). Morphology of the Folk Tale. Trans. by The American Folklore Society. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Shen, D.(2005). What Narratology and Stylistics Can Do for Each Other. A Companion to Narrative Theory. Phelan, J., and P. J. Rabinowitz, (eds). Blackwell Publishing, 136–150.
Zhang, B., and S. Hovarth (2005). A General Framework for Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis.Statistical Applications in Genetics and Molecular Biology 4.","txt","2","",""
"1798","14","User ethnographies: informing requirements specifications for Irelands, national, trusted digital repository.","10","1 Introduction
The Digital Repository of Ireland (DRI) is an interactive national trusted digital repository for contemporary and historical, social and cultural data held by Irish institutions; providing a central internet access point and interactive multimedia tools, for use by the public, students and scholars. DRI is a four-year exchequer funded project, comprising six Irish academic partners, and is supported by the National Library of Ireland, the National Archives of Ireland (NAI) and the Irish national broadcaster, RTÉ. [1]
DRI is in its second year and has completed a number of project deliverables, including initial requirements statements, a lean prototype with core functionality and a national practice report, Digital archiving in Ireland: National survey of the humanities and social sciences (O'Carroll et al. 2012). This report is based on the findings from our requirements interviews which represent the first phase of engagement between DRI and its stakeholders and can be described as a ‘descriptive ethnographic contribution’ (Wynne et al. 2012). The principle aim of the interviews was to inform the system’s business, functional and nonfunctional requirements as well as to drive policy decisions and inform guidelines on issues such as metadata, file formats and access rights. Since DRI’s remit extends to the humanities as well as the social sciences the interviews revealed a diverse problem domain (Hull et al. 2011). However, even within this diverse space the interviews uncovered many similarities, shared problems and challenges among the community of users.
The diversity of DRI’s community, that is national cultural institutions, university libraries and other higher education institutions, as well as their respective research institutes, national broadcasters and various independent and state bodies, requires reconciliation between their various perspectives. This paper will discuss requirements specifications in light of these stakeholder interviews and the national report, which form a crucial part of the information gathering phase of requirements engineering, and consider how user ethnographies can enhance our understanding of the user and their software needs.
2 Methodology - requirements gathering and qualitative interviews.
The generation of use cases and use case scenarios are paramount to the successful development, and completion, of digital humanities projects, resources and artifacts and is crucial in the first phase of requirements engineering, that is requirements elicitation and information gathering. Use cases inform the system that will be and advance the development teams’ knowledge of their end user, focusing attention on authentic users and their needs. These use cases, and the actors involved, must be linked to some, but perhaps augmented, reality. Analysis of the various actors is required to develop use case scenarios that consider the context in which the future system, that is the Digital Repository of Ireland (DRI), will be used.
To achieve this we used a qualitative approach to requirements elicitation and carried out extensive stakeholder interviews (we completed 40 separate interviews between Nov. 2011 - Aug. 2012). While alternative approaches to requirements elicitation exist, and include quantitative methods such as online voting and user questionnaires, as well as traditional JAD (Joint Application Development) methods, (Maciaszek et. al. 2001) we elected the use of semi-formal and topic driven requirements interviews because they enhanced our user engagement and helped to develop important ties and relationships with our community (O'Carroll et al. 2012). This approach allowed us to incorporate our requirements interviews with policy management and ensured that we addressed the key concerns of the community and developed strategies for digital rights management, digital preservation, access control, digital standards, among others. The interviews were ‘an inquiry’ rather than ‘an inquisition’, (Weigers et al. 2006) and as such required close analysis to extract requirements, as they were not explicitly stated or expressed. The result of this analysis is requirements statement as well as descriptive user ethnographies linked to specific activities, namely preservation, interaction and access.
Ethnographic research, as a core feature of anthropology and sociology, encourages us to observe social and cultural norms and can help us interpret individual, as well as group, behaviour, activities and practices. As a research methodology it is concerned with ‘why’ we perform and engage in certain cultural and social norms and as such can help us understand technological practices and workflows associated with particular software systems. Rönkkö et al. (2002), describe ethnographic research as a means to emphasise ‘the members’ point of view’ and as a method which can help us ‘understand the organisation of social, cultural and technical setting[s]’. From a software engineering view point user ethnographies can provide an ‘inside perspective’ (Rönkkö et al. 2002) and help reveal the different methods, practices, and indeed agendas, of the community. Some of these ‘inside perspectives’ are captured in our national report which considers key topics such as digital preservation, user tools, file formats and metadata standards (O'Carroll et al. 2012).
A user ethnography, in this context, is essentially a composite analysis of the methods and practices identified as the salient features of the system to be, which we considered as part of the social, cultural and institutional norms of particular methods, behaviors and user activity linked to digital archiving. It is a term borrowed from the anthropological practice which may involve participant observation or immersion in a particular group or society. However, this was not possible given resource limitations and the scope of this project. Instead, we chose requirements interviews, focus groups with a subset of users, feature development through executable requirements specification and online surveys to develop the user ethnography, the extended use case scenario, to provide a holistic view of the problem domain in order to inform the solution.
3 Reconciling ‘the members’ point of view’ - requirements engineering and user ethnographies
Requirements engineering is a key aspect of the software development cycle and is a necessary activity for any small or large scale project. The methods developed within DRI to capture the requirements were informed by the need to capture a ‘panoramic view’ of DRI’s community (Passos et al. 2012). A high level consideration of requirements was necessitated given the broad range of users and their needs. The ethnographic approach, that is considering the setting, the field or indeed the culture of our designated community, allowed us to ‘focus on the participants and their interactions in [the] system rather than the data, its structure and its processing’ (Sommerville et al. 1993).
From this analysis we developed our requirements statements which were expressed as structured, natural language statements as well as executable specifications, developed as Cucumber tests or features which support user testing and the development of live documentation (Wynne et al. 2012). Cucumber features are also key to the ethnographic approach as they are specified collaboratively with the software development team and key stakeholders in DRI. This allows us to observe and analyse particular activities related to core functionality and provides essential feedback, validation and verification of the requirements specification.
Feature development is key to the reconciliation process as it allows us to test particular high level requirements in terms of specific user goals. For example, feature development with an audio archive highlighted a missing requirement in terms of time coding audio content in comparison to “tagging” associated with images based content. Through this process we try to reiterate the importance of the informants point of view (the problem rather than just the solution) and in this sense we view feature development as part of “participant observation” techniques.
4 Conclusion
To develop our requirements specifications, we used a qualitative methodology to drive requirements gathering and have similarly applied a qualitative method, that is user ethnographies, to reconcile the various perspectives of the community. Our national practice report represents the first analysis of DRI’s requirements but reconciling the various perspectives requires further, more thorough analysis of each domain, that is humanities and social sciences, within the context of three separate activities, preservation, access and interaction. This paper will consider the development of these user ethnographies, a method which is an important aspect of software engineering and requirements engineering and how they inform the final stages of requirements specification.
References
O’Carroll, A., and S. Webb (2012). Digital archiving in Ireland. National survey of the humanities and social sciences. National University of Ireland Maynooth available at www.dri.ie/publications
Wynne, M., and A. Hellesøy (2012). The Cucumber book, behaviour-driven development for testers and developers.Pragmatic Programmers.
Hull, E., K. Jackson, and D. Jeremy. (2011). Requirements engineering. Springer.
Maciaszek, L. A. (2001). Requirements analysis and system design, developing information systems with UML. Addison-Wesley.
Weigers, K. E. (2006). More about software requirements, thorny issues and practical advice. Microsoft Press.
Rönkkö, K., O. Lindeberg, and Y. Dittrich. (2002). ‘Bad practice’ or ‘bad methods’. Are software engineering and ethnographic discourses incompatible? Proceedings of the International Symposium on Empirical Software Engineering, Nara, Japan 204-10.
Passos, C., D. S. Cruzes, and T. Dybå (2012). Challenges of applying ethnography to study software practices.Proceedings of the ACM-IEEE international symposium on Empirical software engineering and measurement 9-18.
Sommerville, I., T. Rodden, P. Sawyer, R. Bentley, and M. Twidale (1993). Integrating ethnography into the requirements engineering process. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium onRequirements Engineering 165-73.
Sharp, H. (2012). Keynote: Using ethnography in empirical software engineering. 16th International Conference on Evaluation & Assessment in Software Engineering.","txt","2","",""
"1799","14","Using the Social Web to Explore the Online Discourse and Memory of the Civil War","9","Overview
Some humanities scholars argue that the social web “poses a grave threat to the humanities because it lacks the depth, nuance and permanence that make genuine, meaningful interactions about the human condition possible.” They fear that “we risk becoming a world without the comprehensive communication tools needed to keep the humanities alive” (Adamek 2010). Even those who embrace social media all too often dismiss it as a tool that is used primarily for community engagement and self-promotion (Terras 2012). Yet the social web — which we broadly define as the array of technologies that allow individuals to post their thoughts, pictures, and comments in a public forum — when coupled with recent advances in cloud computing, data management and statistical/visual analysis offers significant potential to explore new and enduring humanities questions.
Through careful, rigorous analysis, we believe that the social web affords opportunities for the humanities to realize a contemporary, nuanced understanding of how the public believes our past informs modern society. For example, although there is a strong consensus amongst historians, the broader American public remains conflicted, divided, and confused about the causes of the Civil War. This is evident in any number of recent public polls, such as an April 2011 CNN poll which found that 42% of Americans believed that cause was something other than slavery, and the April 18, 2011 issue of Time, whose cover said “Why We’re Still Fighting the Civil War: The Endless Battle over the War’s True Cause Would Make Lincoln Weep” (CNN 2011; von Drehle 2011). Where polls provide a snapshot of Americans’ views, analysis of online discourse and social media activity affords opportunities to explore modern attitudes towards issues surrounding the Civil War.
Hence, against the backdrop of the on-going sesquicentennial commemorations, this paper examines the intersection of humanities, social sciences, social media, and computing to probe enduring questions around the legacy of the Civil War. To do so, we will illustrate how an ongoing study that uses the Civil War serves as a testbed for examining and developing techniques to conduct traditional types of humanistic inquiry in the context of the social web. Our results demonstrate how careful analysis of the online discourse that occurs across the social web enables deeper understanding of how the Lost Cause Ideology continues to recast the origins of the war and minimize the role of slavery. Simultaneously, we explore how stereotypes of Southerners continue to be propagated and used to shape a memory of the Civil War.
To conduct this study, we demonstrate how contemporary tools developed by industry may be used to analyse the social discourse around the Lost Cause and stereotypes of Southerners. Most scholars researching the social web rely primarily on the use of single keyword search and user-specified hashtags to narrow the size of their datasets to only posts that are immediately relevant to the topic under discussion (for example, Graham 2012; Ross, et al. 2010). However, these methods can be inadequate or problematic for understanding widely diffused social phenomena. For example, when attempting to study a topic such as the Civil War or especially a concept such as “the South” this methodology isn’t adequate as the majority of users do not tag their casual online conversations with these types of metadata nor do they restrict their conversations to a single platform (e.g., Twitter, Facebook etc.). To elicit a holistic view of conversations on the social web, the researcher has to employ strategies that reach across social media platforms and go beyond simple hashtag sets. To overcome these limitations, we leverage software originally developed for business analytics to aggregate content from across the social web (Radian6, 2012) — our search includes not just Twitter and Facebook, but also content from sources such as mainstream news sites, blog posts, and forum posts.
Method
Through our analysis of the social web, we highlight issues and opportunities for scholars who work at the intersection of the humanities, social science, social media, and computing. One issue that must be overcome is that, on a global scale, there are many Souths: not only must we find a way of eliminating references to countries or continents such as South Africa, South America, and the South Pole, we must also filter out conversations related to places such as the South Side of Chicago and even the television show South Park, none of which would be relevant for this research. Similarly, while most Americans would refer to the American Civil War as simply “The Civil War,” there are many similarly named historic and ongoing conflicts that we must filter from our results. The solution is to create “topic profiles” — collections of words that fall into one of three categories: words or phrases that must be present in a post to be included in the results; phrases that must be present along with words from the first category to help categorize results into different topics; and, finally, phrases that, if present in a post, will result in that post being excluded from our results. So, when conducting research into online discussions of southern gender ideals, we create a topic profile similar to the following:
•        1. Posts that CONTAIN any of the following: “the south”, “thesouth”, “southern”
•        2. AND CONTAINS any of the following: “belle”, “lady”, “gentleman”, …
•        3. But DOES NOT CONTAIN any of: “south pole”, “south park”, “south side”, “south africa”, …
By using keywords that were selected following a survey of users of the H-South discussion list, a request from leading scholars (including several former presidents of the Southern Historical Association, of the American South, surveys of a graduate and an undergraduate history class on Southern History at Clemson University, as well as a non- random sample of black and white southerners who were not academics, we have constructed topic profiles for five different themes that might be used to segment contemporary discussion of the South online: Southern Culture (which includes concepts such as honor, hospitality, and accents), Southern Food, Discussions of Gender, Religion, and Southern History. This set of keyword groups results in approximately 300,000 unique hits from the social web each month. Figure 1 illustrates the relative volume of each keyword group during September 2012 and shows how the number of hits varies for each topic across the month. Similar keyword groups have also been constructed for specific events that occurred during the Civil War, such as the attack on Fort Sumter, the Emancipation Proclamation, and the Battle of Gettysburg.
 
Figure 1:
Relative Volume of Five Topic Profiles for September 2012
Analysis
Drilling into this data reveals numerous insights into how users of the social web conceptualize the South and what topics are of interest. Figure 2(a), for example, presents a word cloud of the major terms associated with civil war commemorations, again for the month of September 2012. This word cloud immediately reveals several potential avenues for further investigation, including the centrality of Gettysburg to the online discourse surrounding the Civil War, but also suggests other useful topics to explore. Indeed, although word clouds have frequently been criticized for divorcing words from their context (Harris, 2011), we are able to maintain the connection between the words represented in a cloud and the underlying data. Therefore, if we are interested in further exploring the appearance of the word “history”, we can, as shown in Figure 2(b), drill further into the data to reveal new levels of insight to our topics. At all times, the original posts remain available both to view at an individual level to ensure the relevancy of content and to download for further textual and statistical analysis with dedicated software packages such as R and Gephi.
 
Figure 2:
(a) Word Cloud of Frequently Used Words in the Civil War Profile for September 2012; (b) The same word cloud, instead focused on the word “history”
We can also analyse demographic information, such as age, gender, and location, from the posts we have collected, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of our results. Figure 3 illustrates the location of users in the United States whose posts and tweets were collected from the Civil War topic profile over a seven-day period in mid- September 2012, while Figure 4 presents word clouds of the conversations that occurred in our Civil War topic profile on the 150th Anniversary of the Battle of Antietam by (a) people located in Maryland; (b) those in North Carolina; and (c) users aged between 36 and 45. These charts reveal not only the geographic distribution and volume of conversations, but also regional and demographic differences in the topic, tone, and scope of this online discourse.
 
Figure 3:
Geographic Distribution of Unique Hits from the Civil War Topic Profile in September 2012. A darker shade of orange indicates a greater number of posts from that state.
 
Figure 4:
Word Cloud of conversations that occurred on the 150th Anniversary of the Battle of Antietam by (a) people located in Maryland; (b) those in North Carolina; and (c) users aged between 36 and 45.
References
Adamek, D. (2010). Social Media Flaws and the Humanities. Valley Advocate, 13 December.http://www.valleyadvocate.com/blogs/home.cfm?aid=12863 (accessed 10 October 2012).
CNN Political Unit. (2011.) Civil War Still Divides Americans. CNN, 11 April.http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2011/04/12/civil-war-still-divides-americans/ (accessed 11 April 2011).
Graham, S. (2012). Mining the Open Web With Looted Heritage — Draft. Electric Archaeology, 8 June 2012.http://electricarchaeology.ca/2012/06/08/mining-the-open-web-with-looted-heritage-draft/ (accessed 15 October 2012).
Harris, J. (2011). Word Clouds Considered Harmful. Nieman Journalism Lab, 13 October.http://www.niemanlab.org/2011/10/word-clouds-considered-harmful/ (10 October 2012).
Radian6 (2012). http://www.radian6.com. accessed 10 October 2012.
Ross, C., M. Terras, C. Warwick, and A. Welsh. (2010). Pointless Babble or Enabled Backchannel: Conference Use of Twitter by Digital Humanists. in2010 Digital Humanities Conference. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/infostudies/claire-ross/Digitally_Enabled_Backchannel.pdf
Terras, M. (2012). The Impact of Social Media on the Dissemination of Research: Results of an Experiment. Journal of Digital Humanities, 1(3) http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/1-3/the-impact-of-social-media-on-the-dissemination-of-research-by-melissa-terras/ (accessed 10 October 2012).
Von Drehle, D. (2011). 150 Years After Fort Sumter: Why We're Still Fighting the Civil War. Time, 18 April.http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2063869,00.html (accessed 18 April 2011).","txt","2","",""
"1800","14","Versioning Texts and Concepts","9","Introduction: This paper presents the results of the Modernist Versions Project’s (MVP) survey of existing tools for digital collation, comparison, and versioning. The MVP’s primary mission is to enable interpretations of modernist texts that are difficult without computational approaches. We understand versioning as the process through which scholars examine multiple witnesses of a text in order to gain critical insight into its creation and transmission [1] and then make those witnesses available for critical engagement with the work. Collation is the act of identifying different versions of a text and noting changes between texts. Versioning is the editorial practice of presenting a critical apparatus for those changes. To this end, the MVP requires tools that: (1) identify variants in TXT and XML files, (2) export those results in a format or formats conducive to visualization, (3) visualize them in ways that allow readers to identify critically meaningful variations, and (4) aid in the visual presentation of versions.
The MVP surveyed and assessed an array of tools created specifically for aiding scholars in collating texts, versioning them, and visualizing changes between them. These tools include: (1) JuxtaCommons, (2) DV Coll, (3) TEI Comparator, (4) Text::TEI::Collate, (5) Collate2, (6) TUSTEP, (7) TXSTEP, (8) CollateX, (9) SimpleTCT, (10) Versioning Machine, and (11) HRIT Tools (nMerge). We also examined version control systems such as Git and Subversion in order to better understand how they might inform our understanding of collation in textual scholarship. This paper presents the methodologies of the survey and assessment as well as the MVP’s initial findings.
Problem: Part of the MVP’s mandate is to find new ways of harnessing computers to find differences between witnesses and to then identify the differences that make a difference (Bateson). In modernist studies, the most famous example of computer-assisted collation is Hans Walter Gabler’s use of the Tübingen System of Text Processing tools (TUSTEP) to collate and print James Joyce’s Ulysses in the 1970s and 1980s. Yet some constraints, such as those identified by Wilhelm Ott in 2000, still remain in the field of textual scholarship, especially where collation and versioning applications are concerned. Ott writes, “scholars whose profession is not computing but a more or less specialized field in the humanities have to be provided with tools that allow them to solve any problems that occur without having to write programs themselves. This leads to a concept of relatively independent programs for the elementary functions of text handling” (97). Indeed the number of programs available for collation work have proliferated since 2000, including additions to TUSTEP (TXSTEP) as well as the newest web-based collation program, JuxtaCommons.
Accordingly, the MVP has reviewed tools currently available for collation work in order to provide an overview of the field and to identify software that might be further developed in order to create a collating, versioning, and visualization environment. Most of these tools were developed for specific projects, and thus do what they were designed to do quite well. Our question is whether we can modify existing tools to fit the needs of our project or whether a suite of collation and visualization tools needs to be developed from scratch. This survey is thus an attempt to chart the tools that may be useful for the kinds of collation and versioning workflows our team is developing specifically for modernist studies, so we can then test methods based on previous tools and envision future developments to meet emerging needs. Our initial research with Versioning Machine and JuxtaCommons suggests that there is potential for bringing tools together to create a more robust versioning system. Tools such as the Versioning Machine work well if one is working with TEI P5 documents; however, we are equally interested in developing workflows that do not rely upon the TEI, or do not require substantive markup. Finally, we are examining whether the development of version control systems such as Git present viable alternatives to versioning methods now prevalent in textual studies.
Method: Our method adapts the rubric Hans Walter Gabler devised for surveying collation and versioning tools in his 2008 white paper, “Remarks on Collation.” We first assessed the code and algorithms underlying each tool on our list, and we then tested each tool using a literary text. In this particular case, we used two text files and two TEI XML files from chapter three of Joseph Conrad’s Nostromo, which we have in OCR-corrected and TEI-Lite marked-up states from the 1904 serial edition and the 1904 first book edition. During each test, we used a tool assessment rubric (available upon request) to maintain consistent results across each instance. All tests were accompanied by research logs for additional commentary and observations made by our research team.
Preliminary Findings: Our preliminary findings suggest that:
•        Many existing collation tools are anchored in obsolete technologies (e.g., TUSTEP, which was originally written in Fortran, despite having undergone major upgrades, still relies on its own scripting language and front end to operate; also, DV-Coll was written for DOS, but has been updated for use with Windows 7).
•        Many of the tools present accessibility obstacles because they are desktop-only entities, making large-scale collaborative work on shared materials difficult and prone to duplication and/or loss of work. Of the tools that offer web-based options, JuxtaCommons is the most robust.
•        The “commons” approach to scholarly collaboration is among the most promising direction for future development. We suggest the metaphor of the commons is useful for tool development in versioning and collation as well as for building scholarly community (e.g., MLA Commons). We note the particular usefulness in this regard of the Juxta Commons collation tool and the Modernist Commons environment for preparing digital texts for processing. The latter, under development by Editing Modernism in Canada, is currently working to integrate collation and versioning functions into its environment.
•        Version control alternatives to traditional textual studies-based versioning and visualization presents an exciting set of possibilities. Although the use of Git, Github, and Gist for collating, versioning, and visualizing literary texts has not gained much traction, we see great potential in this line of inquiry.
•        Developers and projects should have APIs in mind when designing tools for agility and robustness across time. Web-based frameworks allow for this type of collaborative development, and we are pleased to see that Juxta has released a web service API for its users.
•        During tool development, greater attention must be given to extensibility, interoperability, and flexibility of functionality. Because many projects are purposebuilt, they are often difficult to adapt to non-native corpora and divergent workflows.
References
Bateson, G. (1972). Steps to an Ecology of Mind. New York: Ballantine.
Gabler, H. (2013). Remarks on Collation. Academia.edu. Academia.edu, 2008. 14 Mar. 2013.http://www.academia.edu/167070/_Remarks_on_Collation_.
Gabler, H. (2000). “Towards an Electronic Edition of James Joyce’s Ulysses.” Literary and Linguistic Computing 15(1): 115-20.
McGann, J. J. (1991). The Textual Condition. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Ott, W. (2000). “Strategies and Tools for Textual Scholarship: The Tubingen System of Text Processing Programs (TUSTEP).” Literary and Linguistic Computing 15(1): 93-108.
Reiman, D. H. (1987). “Versioning.” Romantic Texts and Contexts. Columbia: University of Missouri. 167-179.
Notes
1. For a definition of the “social” life of texts, see Jerome McGann’s The Textual Condition. For a definition of “versioning,” see Donald Reiman, who writes, “In those cases where the basic problem facing the scholar or reader involves two or more radically differing versions that exhibit quite distinct ideologies, aesthetic perspectives, or rhetorical strategies, the alternative to ‘editing,’ as conventionally understood, may be what I call ‘versioning”’ (169).","txt","2","",""
"1801","14","Visual Historiography: Visualizing The Literature of a Field","2","The call for visualizing “Big Data” has generated a groundswell of interest among historians and humanities scholars, as demonstrated by the international response to the National Endowment for the Humanities’ 2010 and 2011 Digging into Data challenges (Williford and Henry, 2012). Exemplary efforts from the first two rounds of projects, such as Stanford University’s “Mapping the Republic of Letters,” and the University of Nebraska at Lincoln’s “Railroads and the Making of Modern America,” suggest the great potential for visualizing large repositories of primary sources for historical insight.
Our project treats the published work of historians in a peer-reviewed scholarly journal — Florida Historical Quarterly,housed at the University of Central Florida and accessible in digital form through J-STOR — as a primary source dataset to be analyzed and visualized. In applying macro-level reading and text-mining tools to the secondary literature of a scholarly field (History) and its subfields (American History/Florida History), we propose to make “visible” patterns of topical “coverage,” changing conceptual/analytical/theoretical frames of reference, and patterns of scholarly influence. We know, for instance, that the Civil Rights Movement, feminism, and the opening of the academy in the 1970s had a profound impact on historical interpretation at the national level (Novick 1988). We expect our data visualization of FHQ journal articles to reveal the impact of these and other “turns” within the scholarly subfield of Florida History, both confirming and perhaps challenging assumptions based on more traditional reading practices.
“Knowledge mapping"" is more commonplace in the sciences than in the humanities. Chaomei Chen asks, “Why do scientists not have a viewfinder to their own fields? Why cannot scientists videotape the evolution of their own fields, their paradigm shifts, the rises of their own stars and the expansion of their own galaxies of intellectual contributions? … How can we visualize the process of a paradigm shift?” (Chen 2006) We ask the same questions about history: can we use the tools of knowledge domain visualization to map out shifting paradigms and historiographic “turns” in history? What happens when we apply the techniques of “distant reading” (Moretti 2005) and human-assisted “machine reading” (Hayles 2012) to the secondary literature in history? What insights might visualization of the data produce for historiography? (Staley 2003) Our reading of the literature at this scale forces us to rethink our assumptions about how we understand “seminal” articles/works. More importantly, new questions emerge when we “read” the secondary literature of a field at this macro scale, such as determining the influence of journal editors on the topical/historiographic orientation of the journal.
This poster will present the results of our case study, which examines an 85-year run of the Florida Historical Quarterly,(1924-2009) made accessible and searchable via Data For Research J-STOR. We will display our findings through interactive visualizations generated in consultation with Ohio State and UCF graduate researchers, FHQ editorial staff, and visualization specialist Bill Ferster (Ferster, 2012) at the University of Virginia. Visual patterns, the result of a reading of a large textual corpus at a distance, can in and of themselves result in interpretive insights. Stephen Ramsay’s “algorithmic criticism” (criticism derived from algorithmic manipulations of text) relies on the generation of visual patterns as the product of these computer-enabled interpretive acts (Ramsay 2011). Rather than being an intermediate step toward a written piece of scholarship — the preferred approach of humanists — the visualization itself becomes the hermeneutical/scholarly performance, the visualization is the hermeneutic object. Such a practice asserts “the primacy of pattern as the basic hermeneutical function [which would unite] art, science, and criticism.” Our poster visualizes the “primacy of topical/historiographic patterns” in the Florida Historical Quarterly.
Our poster will outline our research methodology — a hybrid of qualitative and quantitative analysis, enabled by human-assisted machine-reading. We extend David Mimno’s “computational historiography” (Mimno 2012) beyond a two-topic, p- or not-p approach to topic modeling. For analytic purposes, we will compare the results of our human-assisted “distant reading” with the perceptions of editors about how the field of Florida history, in its discourse with history in general, has changed over time. We will also problematize these results, pointing to the potential “false positives” that can result from such machine reading and visualization. We will explore the relationship of necessity between machine-and human-reading.
References
Williford, C. and C. Henry (2012). One Culture: Computationally Intensive Research in the Humanities and Social Sciences: A Report on the First Respondents to the Digging into Data Challenges. Washington, D.C.: Council on Library and Information Resources.
Mimno, D. (2012). Computational Historiography: Data Mining in a Century of Classics Journals. Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 5(1):1-19.
Hayles, N. K. (2012). How We Think: Digital Media and Contemporary Technogenesis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Ferster, B. (2012) Interactive Visualization: Insight Through Inquiry. Boston: MIT Press.
Ramsay, S. (2011). Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism. Champaign, Il.: University of Illinois Press.
Chen, C. (2006). Information Visualization: Beyond the Horizon. New York: Springer.
Staley, D. (2003). Computers, Visualization and History: How New Technology Will Transform Our Understanding of the Past. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe.
Novick, P. (1988). That Noble Dream: The ‘Objectivity Question’ and the American Historical Profession. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.","txt","2","",""
"1802","14","Visualizing Centuries: Data Visualization and the Comédie-Française Registers Project","9","I. Overview
From 1680 to the present day, the Comédie-Française (CF), France’s national theater troupe, has kept daily records of its repertory, box office receipts, and expenses, as well as additional information on set and costume design, actors’ roles, and other matters. This wealth of information is a vital resource for theater scholars, literary historians, and those interested in the political, social, and cultural history of France more generally. Students of French theater and literature have long been interested in the performance practices and institutional functioning of the troupe that held a monopoly on the public performance of works by Molière, Racine, Corneille, and Voltaire in Paris before 1789. Historians have come to realize that the public theaters of Paris, especially the CF, vividly reflected the mounting social and political tensions of the time. Because the CF combined the rituals and concerns of the court, the ideas of the philosophes, and the everyday actions of working class Parisians in the same space, some have argued that the troupe played a central role in the negotiation of French national culture. And yet, the workings of the CF have been difficult to analyze. Access to the CF’s archives in Paris has historically been extremely limited and the sheer volume of information quickly overwhelms traditional humanities research methods.
As an international collaboration between Hyperstudio — MIT’s digital humanities research lab, MIT’s department of history, and the Bibliotheque-Musee de la Comédie-Française, the Comédie-Française Registers Project (CFRP) seeks to provide access to and new ways to analyze such culturally significant data. In addition to creating an online database containing each daily receipt register of the Comédie-Française from 1680 to 1793, the CFRP also features a suite of interactive search and data visualizations tools, which allow for both filtering and complex analysis of information according to a set of parameters. Being able to apply different parameters, filter data, and see the results dynamically generated within a set of visualizations allows scholars to discover patterns and ask new kinds of research questions not possible without the tool. In this short paper, we will discuss the relationship between original sources, tool creation, and new research questions arising from visualization, in order to ask how quantitative analysis at unprecedented “levels of abstraction” (Witmore, 2012) might contribute to existing methodologies for historical research.
II. Current Implementation and Research Questions
Funded by grants from the Office of the Dean of MIT’s School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences and a number of other internal MIT sources, the CFRP has already made substantial progress on a number of levels. We have created a database of high quality digital copies of thirteen seasons of the daily registers (1780-1793) and created a number of search and interactive visualization tools based on this initial data set. Our custom faceted browser allows users to filter and view archival documents according to a number of parameters, including play title, author, genre, year, number of tickets sold, ticket price, location of seats within the theater, and whether a particular showing was a premiere, a first run, revival, or revue. This search tool is also directly integrated with a range of data visualization tools, which are manipulated either by changing parameters in the faceted browser or the visualization tools directly. These visualizations encompass layered histograms, heat maps, parallel axis graphs, and flexibly scaled timelines.
In experimenting with potential combinations of such parameters through the faceted browser, our team has already generated a number of initial research questions which we believe could reveal telling patterns through data visualization. Rather than simply using data visualization to demonstrate pre-existing conclusions, our methodology emphasizes the process of discovery in research, allowing interesting questions and patterns to emerge from the scholar’s dynamic interaction with the faceted browser tool:
•        Like most theatrical spaces of the time, the physical structure of the theater where the CF performed was highly stratified according to class, with tickets in the loges costing significantly more than those in the parterre. Each register contains information on the kinds of tickets sold for each performance, along with a diagram of the theatrical space. Thus, pairing the number of tickets sold in each seating section with the title of the play performed could reveal the popularity of certain titles or genres with particular demographics. We are also currently developing an interactive version of the theater diagram which would allow the user to toggle between different titles or individual performances, and see the relative socioeconomic makeup of specific audiences through a map of the physical space.
•        Given that the CF registers range from 1680 to 1793, researchers can use the CFRP tools to study the effect of important political and cultural events like the French Revolution or the death of a king on the popularity of certain genres and authors, as well as general ticket sales. In terms of the latter question, experiments with our parallel axis graph have revealed large gaps in ticket sales in mid 1774, reflecting the death of King Louis XV.
•        Researchers could also use this data to track how the popularity of emerging plays interacted with more established works. Thus, visualizations of the data could begin to ask such questions as: Were the great seventeenth-century tragedians Racine and Corneille diminished by the success of Voltaire’s tragedies in the eighteenth century? Did the success of Voltairean themes indicate a new public sensibility in the Age of Enlightenment? Did audiences in the decades leading up to the Revolution prefer comic playwrights or tragic ones, and what might this tell us about pre-Revolutionary political culture?
According to the French theater historian Christian Biet, simply having the ability to answer such macro-level questions about the Comédie-Française could have a “transformational impact on the study of eighteenth-century French theatre.” But we also believe that our project will be of interest to those outside this specialized field. Because CFRP’s approach emphasizes dynamic interaction with visualization tools as a means to generate new research questions, we believe that our project could provide new insights and approaches to any scholar interested in the use of data analysis for historical research.
III. Conclusion and Future Directions
These major questions will receive new and more precise answers as we continue to create visualization tools for the analysis of CFRP data. As more scholars begin to explore this rich database, we believe that other interesting lines of inquiry will emerge, prompting us to tweak existing tools and create entirely new ones which support the needs of these domain experts. However, while we believe that simply having the technical ability to search through large amounts of documents at different levels of granularity, compare parameters, and control scales of analysis in data visualization is important in generating new scholarly insights, we also believe that such large-scale data crunching must be put into conversation with historians’ existing practices of close reading. Following Dan Cohen’s call in a recent essay on Google’s n-grams to not fetishize the macroscopic in data visualization, the CFRP toolset is meant to facilitate a scholarly process of toggling between macro- and micro- scales: moving seamlessly “from distant reading to close reading, from the bird’s eye view to the actual texts” (Cohen, 2010). By allowing scholars the ability to control the levels and parameters with which they engage with archival documents, the CFRP helps generate new questions for historians, while also relying on their expert knowledge to discern patterns and anomalies in the data. The principal justification for the CFRP, therefore, is that it will not only make data contained in the registers immediately accessible to anyone without access to the original sources in Paris, but also permit users to interpret data in ways which merge quantitative and qualitative approaches.
References
Witmore, M. (2012). Text: A Massively Addressable Object. In Gold, M. K. (ed.), Debates in the Digital Humanities.Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 324-327.
Cohen, D. (2010). Initial Thoughts on the Google Books Ngram Viewer and Datasets. Dan Cohen’s Digital Humanities Blog. http://www.dancohen.org/2010/12/19/initial-thoughts-on-the-google-books-ngram-viewer-and-datasets/ (accessed 11 November 2012).","txt","2","",""
"1803","14","Visualizing Uncertainty: How to Use the Fuzzy Data of 550 Medieval Texts?","9","Our research project Visualizing Medieval Places brings together a computer scientist and a literary historian. We use the web-based tool GeoTemCo (Jänicke, 2012) to visualize thousands of place names against a focusable timeline. The resulting geospatial-temporal visualization is a way for the researcher to analyze space and time in a historical corpus of literature. The ideal user interface will allow manipulation of the visualization by (1) dynamically changing the thresholds for both visualizing and suppressing given types of uncertainty in the geospatial and temporal dimensions, and (2) adding or removing facets (e.g. particular genres, time ranges) to broaden or constrain the amount of data to be displayed. This interactivity will hopefully allow for controlled visualization of literary data, and will facilitate the formation of nuanced, supportable hypotheses about time and space in literature. Figure 1 illustrates the current user interface.
 
Figure 1:
The current GeoTemCo user interface, showing 636 data points from the Franco-Italian dataset. NB: The time line at the bottom does not represent the real temporal data of the project.
The data set is being built using a corpus of nearly 550 medieval French texts. Unlike English or Classics, scholars of medieval French have few electronic texts at their disposal. Furthermore, spelling variance of toponyms in medieval vernacular texts poses a significant challenge for any semi-automatic extraction. We are considering combining our geospatial data of French places with Latin place names to build a bilingual gazetteer for use by the digital medievalist community in the future. For now, the toponyms (and their variants) are being manually harvested from a canonical reference work, the Table des noms propres (Flutre, 1962); they are subsequently disambiguated and geocoded. Unlike narratologically-inspired digital literary geographies such as The Literary Atlas of Europe (Hurni, Piatti et al., 2012) constructed on close readings of fictional and vernacular spaces, the data model for Visualizing Medieval Places includes only real geographical place names. It shares more with the GIS-based analysis of unstructured texts found in the Lancaster University initiative entitled Spatial Humanities (Gregory et al., 2012). Since Flutre’s work does not fully represent the variety of textual communities and genres of medieval French, we are also extracting place names from name indices in selected critical editions. The first subset of data points from Franco-Italian literature is virtually complete. The project uses the crowd-sourced Archives de littérature du moyen âge (Brun, 2012) to enrich the metadata about the texts.
Using the data has proved problematic since so many aspects of it are uncertain. Situating the composition of medieval texts in a specific time and place can be at best speculative. Date formats of traditional scholarship have been represented in idiosyncratic ways (e.g. between 1095-1291, first half of the 14th century, before 1453). Likewise, the toponyms found in these works are difficult for various reasons: they are unmappable, they can refer to multiple places, or they designate ancient Greco-Latin or medieval geographical zones no longer found on the contemporary map.
The visualization of uncertainty is a hot topic in the visualization community. Despite a broad set of applications in this field, there are still no straightforward solutions for displaying multiple, overlapping kinds of uncertainty within one set of visual interfaces. Drawing upon a long list of uncertainty types (Griethe et al., 2006), a data item within our project might be said to embody two basic kinds of uncertainty. The first uncertainty is one of “lineage,” by which we mean the reliability of the text source. Certainty values for lineage can simultaneously affect the representation of data items in both dimensions, the geospatial and temporal. The second uncertainty is one of “accuracy,” referring to the granularity of place or time, that is, to the distinctly sized intervals in which a value can lie. Again, granularity impacts both dimensions, the geospatial (with units such as landmarks, localities, regions, countries, continents) and the temporal(years, eras, as well as upper- or lower-bounded time declarations). Unlike Rees, who primarily uses transparency to depict uncertain information (Rees, 2012), we need to investigate multiple visual metaphors that represent several dimensions of uncertainty in a clear way.
Visualizing distinct, overlapping geographic entities with different certainty values represents a major challenge for the project. Inspired by MacEachren’s overview of existing methods for the geospatial (MacEachren et al., 2005), we suggest testing pairwise mixtures of color hue, texture, saturation and transparency, as well as other features such as pop-up text, backgrounds and overlapping/non-overlapping shapes to encode lineage and accuracy uncertainties. Figure 2 demonstrates how we use different shapes to encode objects with distinct geospatial accuracies.
 
Figure 2:
A visualization of 636 points from the Franco-Italian dataset, with non-overlapping shapes denoting different toponym types.
Although some work addresses the problem of temporal uncertainty for small datasets (Zuk et al., 2005), sufficient research on large-scale temporal uncertainty is not available. Expecting thousands of overlapping temporal values of variable granularity on the timeline, we need to create novel visualization approaches. Figure 3 illustrates one solution for dealing with aggregated temporal uncertainty where increased saturation designates a higher degree of certainty. In our short presentation, we will demonstrate the tool and some strategies for simultaneous visualization of various aspects of the data.
 
Figure 3:
: A timeline represented as a stacked graph with multiple aggregated uncertain temporal values (increased saturation designates increased certainty in lineage value). NB: The time line below does not represent the real temporal data of this project.
The project hopes to bring attention back to hundreds of unread works of the period (Moretti, 2005), perhaps even spawning new close readings of them based on their “interspatiality” — the common spaces that texts reference — but also to encourage students and scholars to experiment with visualizing spatial clusters and patterns
References
Brun, L. (2012). Archives de littérature du moyen âge. University of Ottawa http://www.arlima.net (accessed 28 October 2012).
Flutre, L.-F. (1962). Table des noms propres avec toutes leurs variantes figurant dans les romans du moyen âge écrits en français ou en provençal et actuellement publiés ou analysés.
Gregory, I. (2012). Spatial Humanities: Texts, Geographic Information Systems and Places.http://www.lancs.ac.uk/spatialhum/ (accessed 15 February 2013)
Griethe, H., H. Schumann (2006). The Visualization of Uncertain Data: Methods and Problems. In Proceedings of SimVis'06, 143-156.
Harris, R. L. (1999). Information Graphics: A Comprehensive Illustrated Reference.
Hurni, L., B. Piatti, et al. (2013). A Literary Atlas of Europe — Ein Literarischer Atlas Europas.http://www.literaturatlas.eu/ [accessed 1 March 2013].
Jänicke, S. (2012) GeoTemCo: Comparative Visualization of Geospatial-Temporal Data http://www.informatik.uni-leipzig.de/geotemco (accessed 29 October 2012)
MacEachren, A., A. Robinson, S. Hopper, R.M. Gardner, M. Gahegan, and E. Hetzler (2005). Visualizing Geospatial Information Uncertainty: What We Know and What We Need to Know. In Cartography and Geographic Information Science 32.3 139-160.
Moretti, F. (2005). Graphs Maps Trees: Alternative Models for a Literary History.
Rees, G. P. (2012). Uncertain Date, Uncertain Place: Interpreting the History of Jewish Communities in the Byzantine Empire using GIS. Abstract DH2012, Hamburg. http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/uncertain-date-uncertain-place-interpreting-the-history-of-jewish-communities-in-the-byzantine-empire-using-gis/ (accessed 14 March 2013).
Zuk, T., S. Carpendale, and W. Glanzman (2005). Visualizing Temporal Uncertainty in 3D Virtual Reconstructions. In Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Virtual Reality, Archaeology and Cultural Heritage (VAST'05). 99-106.","txt","2","",""
"1804","14","VSim: A new interface for integrating real-time exploration of three-dimensional content into humanities research and pedagogy","15","Study of the built environment is central to humanities scholarship. The meanings inherent in urban plazas, simple homes, and lavish government buildings are integral to an understanding of the human condition. Even as a plethora of new tools and technologies encourage exploration of our physical world in three dimensions, integrating 3D content into academic research and pedagogy remains a challenge because of the limitations of available mass market software for educational interaction with virtual environments. VSim, a new NEH-funded prototype software interface for real-time exploration of 3D content, has the potential to significantly and positively impact humanities scholarship by fostering use of 3D content across grade levels and humanities disciplines, providing opportunities for engaging pedagogical activities, and opening up newavenues for humanities research.
VSim provides a much-needed real-time interface for academics working with 3D content. It allows users three modes of navigation, includes a mechanism for creating linear narratives through the virtual world that can be augmented by text and images (think PowerPoint or Prezi in 3D space), and provides a way for content creators to link to primary and secondary resources from within the modeled environment. Through these two features — the narratives and embedded resources — VSim provides scholars, educators, and students the opportunity to build knowledge through exploration of the virtual world as never before possible. It responds to the needs of inservice educators by supporting both teacher-centered presentations and student-centered exploration, providing the opportunity for students to actively engage with the content to build knowledge by creating a personalized virtual learning environment. And most importantly, VSim breaks down the barriers to instructional use of 3D content by providing a simple interface that easily re-purposes the crowd-sourced computer models built for Google Earth and available in them Google/Trimble 3D Warehouse.
For academics actively creating 3D content, VSim is a viable alternative to online virtual worlds and gaming platforms for the exploration, presentation, and distribution of their work. Within a project team, VSim can be used to interact with raw model files and any referenced component parts (e.g., linked texture maps and external references). Simple narratives and embedded resource files can be constructed to support that interactive experience; the annotation feature can be incorporated into the construction process as an ‘in world’ strategy for marking up the 3D content and generating ‘to do’ lists; and the metadata associated with the embedded resources or included as annotations can be used to promote a dialog about the modeled environment within the project team. When it is desirable to share the model with colleagues and peer reviewers, VSim can be used to export a single file for distribution. In creating this distribution file, content creators have the option to include information about the model and its creation, locked versions of their narratives and embedded resources, and to impose restrictions on the contents. The distribution model can be packaged with a branding overlay (e.g., a screen icon of the lab logo or text identifying the content creator), an expiration date beyond which time the model file will no longer launch, restrictions on the size of the simulation window to control performance and help curb unauthorized image capture, and restrictions on user navigation. The intent of the distribution and restriction options was to provide content creators a mechanism to protect their intellectual property and encourage them to share their work, thus facilitating secondary scholarship and educational re-use of these rich academically generated virtual worlds.
At the time of this writing, the interface is undergoing final testing before the VSim 1.0 release scheduled for Spring 2013. While every effort has been made to keep the software as simple and intuitive as possible to encourage use — even by the technologically challenged — it is still new software that comes with a learning curve. Users have to be comfortable navigating in 3D space before they can engage with the pedagogical tools developed within the interface. It is the goal of the tutorial to provide a low-stress opportunity for academics to overcome that learning curve and become acquainted with key features of the software. (VSim, a sample model of the Pantheon, and user documentation are available for download athttps://idre.ucla.edu/gisvisualization/vsim.)
 
Figure 1.
A screenshot of the Fine Arts building, now the Museum of Science and Industry, from the Urban Simulation Team’s reconstruction of Chicago’s World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893, an example of a real-time model being built at UCLA and intended for educational use.
 
Figure 2.
In the screen snapshot above, the Urban Simulation Team’s model of the Street in Cairo installation from the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 is shown in VSim; the individual nodes of a linear narrative are visible in the bar across the top of the simulation window and the embedded resources available to the user are shown along the bottom of the screen. On the right, an illustration from Daniel Burnham’s Book of the Builders has been opened for comparison with the computer model. On the left, note from the content creator discusses how the Street was photographed for 19th century viewbooks.
Tutorial Details
Instructor
Lisa M. Snyder will lead the tutorial. Snyder is a senior member of the Urban Simulation Team at UCLA and on staff with the Institute for Digital Research and Education, a division of UCLA’s Office of Information Technology. She is also a principal investigator on the NEH-funded VSim project. Her research is focused on the educational use of largescale interactive computer reconstructions of historic urban environments. She is currently working on a real-time reconstruction of the World’s Columbian Exposition held in Chicago in 1893. This model is regularly showcased at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago and appears in the documentary Make No Little Plans: Daniel Burnham and the American City. Snyder was also the primary modeler on the interactive computer reconstructions of the Temple Mount site that were developed jointly by the Urban Simulation Team and the Israel Antiquities Authority for the Davidson Center in the Jerusalem Archaeological Park. (For more information: http://www.ust.ucla.edu/ustweb/Projects/columbian_expo.htm andhttp://www.ust.ucla.edu/ustweb/Projects/israel.htm)
Target Audience
The proposed half-day tutorial will introduce VSim to interested humanities scholars. Probable participants would include academics across the humanities disciplines who are working with 3D content, supervising students on historic reconstruction projects, using available 3D content to supplement their ongoing research activities, or interested in integrating computer models into their seminars, classrooms, and conference presentations. Interest in this tutorial is difficult to predict, so has been organized to work whether capped at 20-25 to ensure individualized attention to each participant or opened up to a larger audience.(The only impact to being flexible is the size of the volunteer pool for the participant presentations scheduled towards the end of the tutorial.) The need for an advance CFP is not anticipated.
Session Outline
Introductory Presentation (30 minutes)
Snyder will begin the tutorial with an introductory presentation about the main features of VSim with a demonstration of the Urban Simulation Team at UCLA’s model of the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893. This large-scale environment is an appropriate testbed for VSim because it includes enough detailed content to allow multiple narratives, an extended suite of embedded resources, and opportunities for user-guided exploration. The introduction will also cover opportunities for humanistic research in 3D environments, suggestions for pedagogical use, strategies for using VSim in presentations and for assignments, and discussion of the metadata associated with the 3D content, narratives, and resources embedded in VSim.
Hands-On Training (2 hours and 30 minutes)
•        Identifying Content (15 minutes) Discussion of 3D modeling packages that can export VSim compatible files (e.g., Trimble’s SketchUp or Autodesk’s 3ds Max); how one might use VSim to share 3D content with colleagues; downloading 3D content from Trimble’s 3D Warehouse. (From this point forward, participants will use VSim to interact with their own content, a model prepared for the tutorial, or a model downloaded from 3D Warehouse.)
•        Navigation Basics (15 minutes) Instructions for working with the three modes of interaction (WASD, Flight Simulation, Object Navigation); the following break an also be used to help any participants having difficulties mastering navigation
BREAK (15 minutes)
•        Building Narratives (30 minutes) Instructions for building narratives within the virtual environment: establishing narrative nodes; adding overlay text and images; adjusting timing on nodes and transitions; exporting narratives
•        Embedded Resources (15 minutes) Instructions for embedding resources within the virtual environment: metadata for resources; file types supported; adding annotations, linked files, and URLs; the auto launch setting; the auto reposition setting; exporting embedded resources; exporting .vsim packaged files
•        Individual Work Session (30 minutes)Participants are given time to finesse presentations and consider applications for the software for teaching and research
•        Participant Presentations (20 minutes) Three to four volunteer participants will share the projects they’ve created in the course of the tutorial; this will require that participants hook up to the projector and present from the front of the room.
•        Concluding Discussion (10 minutes)
•        Participant Presentations (20 minutes) Three to four volunteer participants will share the projects they’ve created in the course of the tutorial; this will require that participants hook up to the projector and present from the front of the room.
•        Concluding Discussion (10 minutes)
VSim: A summary of critical features
(Consider this an Appendix; included in case any reviewers want more information on the software.)
VSim includes key functionality for scholarly interaction with 3D content that can be broken into three categories: functions necessary to import, display, and navigate through the threedimensional content; functions that allow the content contributor and end users to augment the virtual world with multi-media content; and functions that provide the content creator with controls over their intellectual property.
Functions to import, display and navigate three-dimensional content.
•        a) Cross-platform operability: VSim is being released in both Windows and Mac versions with simple user documentation.
•        b) Loading: The software loads multiple three-dimensional file formats including COLLADA (.dae — an industry standard exchange format for 3D content), open flight (.flt — the format used by Presagis’ Creator), and the native OSG formats (.osg, .ive, etc.). The software’s ability to load COLLADA files is particularly important as this makes the entire catalog of 3D buildings in Trimble’s 3D warehouse available to VSim users.
•        c) Interaction: VSim supports three modes of interaction: gamer-style WASD navigation, flight simulation, and Google-Earth style object rotation. This flexibility enables the user to choose how they interact with the virtual environment including a first person point-ofview with the opportunity for unlimited control in all three dimensions.
•        e) Temporal changes to the environment: The software supports two mechanisms to incorporate temporal elements in a 3D model: switches that can toggle between alternative scenarios and a time slider that allows the user to step through a sequence of options within the modeled environment organized to simulate an unlimited number of construction phases or changes over time (.flt files only).
•        f) Image output: VSim generates static images and continuous image sequences that can be assembled into digital video files. These assets can be included in an academic paper or submitted as part of an assignment
Functions to allow the content contributor and end user to augment the virtual world.
•        a) Narratives: Through the narrative feature, either the content creator or end-user can define linear sequences through the virtual space akin to a PowerPoint or Prezi presentation in 3D. Creating a narrative involves establishing a series of key frames within the environment, augmenting those ‘nodes‘ with text and images, and adjusting the timing for pauses on the nodes and the transitions. VSim automatically creates the movement from one node to the next. The mechanism provides an opportunity for a ‘tour’ mode that could be used by educators or in museum installations.
•        b) Embedded resources: Either the content creator or end-user can embed supplementary primary and secondary resources for display during exploration of the virtual world. (The image below illustrates use of embedded resources within the Experiential Technologies model of the Pantheon.) Each resource has its own parameter settings and metadata: links can be constantly available or only visible at specifics points in the model, they can be set to auto launch when the user enters their activation zone or reposition the user so that the simulation view angle matches that of the resource (e.g., to compare the real-world site with the computer model). Resources are launched using the default programs identified by the system’s settings, and can be searched, filtered, and organized into categories set by the content creator. Resources can be embedded within the model to support an academic argument and/or populated for use during free navigation. The combination of the narrative and embedded resources establishes the ground work for the construction of lesson plans, arguments, and narratives by either the content contributor (as subject expert) or a student user (a constructivist learning exercise).
•        c) Annotations Annotations are a specific type of embedded resources that are the equivalent of comments or sticky notes that can be added within the virtual world. This feature can be used by content creators and/or end users in a plethora of ways: to pose questions to collaborators or students in a learning activity, in a series of personal notes from the content creator to end users (“the colors used in this reconstructed element were based on contemporary buildings by the same architect”), or as discrete elements of a non-linear argument set to auto launch as users explore the virtual world.
 
Figure 3.
Functions that provide the content creator with controls over their intellectual property.
•        a) Binary file format for distribution: The aptly titled “To Share or Not to Share?” report describes the hesitation that many scholars feel about sharing their data before they’ve had a chance to wring out the last bits of publishable results. Three-dimensional content creators are no different, and are particularly protective of raw modeling files. To encourage broad distribution of content, VSim allows content creators to load raw files and export an aggregated model file for distribution. This file would require considerable computing skill to ’reverse engineer,’ thereby offering protection against undesirable use. VSim also allows an expiration date be added to the .vsim file to ensure control over use, appropriate updating for works in progress, and time limits that may come into play when subscription service enacted.
•        b) Branding: An overlay that can be added to the simulation viewport and is visible during any user interactions. The branding overlay can include both image files (e.g., lab logos) and text (e.g. “For Educational Use Only”). The user has the option to lock the content creator settings — and therefore the branding overlay on or off — at the point of export.
•        c) Locks on model, narrative, and embedded resource files: The export feature for narratives and embedded resources includes the opportunity for the creator to the lock the resultant file (essentially creating a READ ONLY file). The intent of this feature was to encourage content creators and/or end users to share files generated for VSim models –. For narratives, all nodes and node overlay information are packaged into a single file for distribution that can be shared and replayed by any user with a copy of the 3D model for which it was created. If locked, no changes can be made to the narrative. Exported embedded resource files can also be locked, but only the annotations and links to websites will be preserved. (This decision was made to control the size of the distribution file; hundreds of resources for a large-scale environment might easily exceed 10GB of data.)","txt","2","",""
"1805","14","What ever happened to Project Bamboo?","10","This paper provides a description and analysis of the trajectory of Project Bamboo, a major humanities cyberinfrastructure initiative in the United States. While previous work has addressed the opportunities, consequences and form of humanities cyberinfrastructure (Svensson 2011; Blackwell and Crane 2009), and the development trajectory of cyberinfrastructure initiatives in the sciences (Ribes and Finholt 2009), very little has been written about Project Bamboo (2008-2012), and how it did and did not reflect visions put forth for humanities cyberinfrastructure. In addition, there has been little discussion of the precipitous drop in community enthusiasm and even awareness of Bamboo, despite its considerable amount of funding.
During its 2008-2010 planning phase, approximately 600 scholars, librarians, and IT professionals from 115 institutions participated in conversations about “enhanc[ing] arts and humanities research through the development of shared technology services”. While this broad engagement contributed to the development of a rich picture of the technology needs of humanists and librarians at a wide range of institutions, it resulted in a multiplicity of visions for what Project Bamboo should specifically do to address those needs. By the time the Bamboo phase one technology implementation proposal was funded in fall 2010, there was already a great deal of unclarity among the planning project participants about whether and how Bamboo was translating the enthusiasm for community building and technical interoperability that emerged in the planning project into concrete deliverables. Two years later, most of the digital humanities community had largely written off Project Bamboo for having failed to produce anything of value, or even make clear what it was attempting to deliver. This paper will elucidate the evolution of Project Bamboo’s goals and scope from its inception to its demise, the factors that contributed to its increasingly negative public perception, including an assessment of which form inherent problems for cyberinfrastructure initiatives vs. avoidable tactical missteps.
The Bamboo Planning Project received a $1.4 million dollar grant from the Andrew W. Mellon foundation in March 2008 (towards a total budget of $2.4 million), to carry out a series of five workshops that would lay the foundation for a follow-up proposal geared towards the technical development of infrastructure. The planning project proposal anticipated a total of 200 participants from 65 institutions (Bamboo 2008, 27). Instead, nearly twice that number of institutions applied to participate in the first set of workshops, and participation remained significantly higher than expected throughout the entirety of the planning project. The first workshop—held in four different locations, with a process refined after each iteration—encouraged teams of participants to discuss open-ended questions about the challenges facing the humanities and potentially ameliorating applications of technology. In many cases, the Bamboo workshop was the first time that scholars, librarians and IT professionals from the same institution had met one another, or discussed issues of common concern. These conversations had wide-reaching impact on local campuses, and were among the most well-regarded aspects of the Bamboo Planning Project.
Bamboo’s discussion-centric approach to workshops was intended to shape the enterprise IT-oriented vision of shared services and service lifecycles that was at the core of the project’s vision. Instead, it quickly became clear that many of the workshop participants—most emphatically, but not limited to, the humanities scholars—felt that the emphasis on tools and services was misplaced. Instead of focusing primarily on identifying services that could best be run centrally by a consortium, and how those services could be integrated with one another, subsequent workshops included tracks for participants interested in improving scholarly networking by connecting people, projects and tools; [1] and for participants interested in sharing faculty stories, exemplary practices, and curricula (both student-oriented, and curricula for improving scholars’ fluency with digital tools and resources). The long-term, visionary “Bamboo Program” that gained consensus among participants in June 2009 included a scholarly network; a tool and content guide; a collection of scholars’ narratives about the use of digital technologies across the arts, humanities, and interpretive social sciences; a repository for documenting workflows; and an “exchange” where individuals in need of assistance could connect with others who have the necessary expertise. These areas of work were included alongside the infrastructure components: a cloud-hosted service delivery appliance, the establishment of a service lifecycle, and the formalization of partnerships with tool developers and collection holders. [2] The scope was ambitious to the point of risky, but it addressed the stated needs and interests of almost all the participants who were involved throughout the planning project. Rather than simply voicing their support for the work in principle, most participants expressed an active desire for their institutions to be involved in building these aspects of Bamboo in subsequent phases.
Multiple factors contributed to the significant downscoping of Project Bamboo between June 2009 and the funding of the Bamboo Technology Project in September 2010, including the impact of the world financial crisis and a change in program leadership at the Mellon Foundation. The community-oriented aspects of the project—which fueled the interest of many planning project participants—were eliminated. This did not, however, result in a single, unified vision. One area of the project, led by librarians, focused on developing collection interoperability connectors for text repositories. Another area, led by technologists, worked on the development of a centrally-run Java-based services platform that would run core services for identity and access management, policy management, notification, and result caching, and could either run or proxy services that provided scholar-oriented functionality (e.g. morphological analysis, geoparsing, concordance). Groups of technologists also attempted to integrate these infrastructure services into “Work Space” web-based applications (Alfresco ECM and hubZero). A scholar-led group focused on the development of a “corpus tool set” application that could provide an integrated scholar-facing interface for tools that can work together to analyze textual corpora. Deviating from the planning project model that required scholars, librarians and technologists to collaborate, rather than focusing only on the areas of the project that were the most comfortable fit, led to a sense of disconnect approaching animosity between sub-groups. While progress was made in each of these areas, both tactical and strategic issues around internally- and externally-oriented communications made it difficult to convey these accomplishments intelligibly to the digital humanities community. The lack of a clearly articulated scholar or developer use case that would be facilitated by Bamboo’s technical developments exacerbated the impression that Bamboo was not developing anything of use.
As the Bamboo Planning Project illustrated, a high level of engagement from a broad community can invigorate a project, allowing it to strive for significant goals that have wide-reaching impact. However, this level of engagement comes with the risk of alienating a large swath of the community if exigencies force the project to scope down significantly, without the project fostering “spin-off” efforts to address those needs that are no longer in scope. A clearly-stated scope connected to use cases that resonate with the target community is essential. Infrastructure projects face a number of unique challenges around communication and demonstrating progress to a broad community, in large part because their technical deliverables do not provide functionality that itself directly furthers scholarship (e.g. via an innovative search algorithm or a novel text analysis interface). There are multiple approaches to ameliorating this, including working closely with digital humanities developers on pilot integrations or mockups for integration with scholar-facing tools, developing mockups, and providing documentation and a sandbox environment that developers can explore, share, and blog about. Regardless, long lapses in communication jeopardize a project comparably to significant delays in technical deliverables.
At the request of the Mellon Foundation, Project Bamboo began to shut down active development work and transition to a wrap-up phase in December 2012. By the end of March 2013, all “artifacts” from the project will be publicly available via links from projectbamboo.org.
References
Blackwell, C., and G. Crane (2009). Conclusion: Cyberinfrastructure, the Scaife Digital Library and Classics in a Digital Age. Digital Humanities Quarterly 3(1).
Project Bamboo. (2008). Bamboo Planning Project: An Arts and Humanities Community Planning Project to Develop Shared Technology Services for Research. January 28, 2008 public document revision. Retrieved athttp://www.quinndombrowski.com/sites/default/files/blog/bamboo_planning_project_proposal.pdf
Ribes, D., and T. A. Finholt (2009). The Long Now of Technology Infrastructure: Articulating Tensions in Development.Journal of the Association for Information Systems. 10(5). 375–398.
Svensson, P. (2011). From Optical Fiber to Conceptual Cyberinfrastructure. Digital Humanities Quarterly. 5(1).
Notes
1. http://quinndombrowski.com/projects/project-bamboo/wiki/w3-implementation-proposal
2. http://quinndombrowski.com/sites/default/files/bamboo/pbw4_discussion_draft.pdf","txt","2","",""
"1806","14","Where do you need us?  The National Library in the Digital Humanities","2","In the past two decades or so, national libraries have been digitising millions of pages of books, newspapers, magazines and other text based collections. In this digital age, the research landscape is changing rapidly, with scholars able to ask new types of questions and answer them in novel ways by working with a wide variety of materials and in new collaborative modes.
As a national library, the British Library (BL) holds over 150 million items dating as far back as 2000 BC and is responding to this climate by realigning its services and structure, including the creation of a new digital scholarship department, but there are still fundamental changes the Library needs to make in order to allow researchers to fully exploit digital resources. We are passionate about working with researchers and scholars so that they can use our digital collection to create new knowledge.
The National Library of the Netherlands (KB) has planned to have digitised and OCRed its entire collection of books, periodicals and newspapers from 1470 onwards by the year 2030. But already in 2013, 10% of this enormous task will be completed, resulting in 73 million digitised pages, either from the KB itself or via public-private partnerships as Google Books and ProQuest. Many are already available via various websites (e.g. kranten.kb.nl, statengeneraaldigitaal.nl, anp.kb.nl,earlydutchbooksonline.nl) and we are working on a single entry point to (re)search all sets simultaneously.
Of course, as an institution that serves the community, these (vast) digitisation projects are not done for ourselves and we make everything we digitise publicly available. Unfortunately, as a library that is not connected to a university — with researchers of their own — a place for us in the Digital Humanities landscape is not as naturally formed as that of a university library. But we do have interesting material and want to get our data out there and have it used by researchers, the general public or anyone who is interested in large corpora of text. But how can we best achieve this?
What does the Digital Humanities community need from us? What do we have to do be as institutions to serve researchers who want to get their hands dirty with this data? How would you like to access this data? Would you prefer a lab with support from material experts and programmers? Would you rather have quantity over quality? Which formats should we offer?
This poster will present the KB as the National Library of the Netherlands, and the collections we(currently)have, but also our efforts to make our data available as complete sets by setting up a Data Services team that focuses on the questions raised by these new activities. This poster will also present the British Library, the data and services it provides and the BL Labs project which is designed to achieve the transformational steps that will change the way the Library provides access to its digital collections and enable scholars to research entire collections rather than just individual items.
We hope to stir up a discussion with the digital humanists at DH2013 to ascertain whether our work is going into the right direction, and what researchers need and expect from us as national libraries. How can we help you?","txt","2","",""
"1807","14","Widening the Big Tent: Amateurs and the Failure of the Digital Humanities","9","The Failure of the Digital Humanities
Mark Sample’s “Unseen and Unremarked On: Don DeLillo and the Failure of the Digital Humanities” argues that post-1922 literary texts are being left behind as a part of the Digital Humanities (Sample 2012). This is a direct result of the Sonny Bono, or “Mickey Mouse,” Copyright Term Extension Act, another apparent move towards perpetual copyright. These difficulties are compounded by other obstacles including closed access or disorganised archives, insufficient preservation tools for early computer usage, and authors who simply refuse to embrace the digital. Without the necessary permissions or archival material, scholars of these twentieth century scholars are becoming increasingly envious of their colleagues, who develop tools that would equally aid interpretation of these more recent authors. Mid-twentieth century literature is of particular relevance to Digital Humanities research, since many frequently cited precursors of electronic literature including Vladimir Nabokov’s Pale Fire (1962), Julio Cortázar’s Rayuela (1963), and the short stories of Jorge Luis Borges’sFicciones (originally published c.1960s), are still protected by the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act. Many of the theoretical issues that have been teased out of these texts — especially early hypertext theory (see Landow 1992; Bolter 1991; Joyce 2002) — perhaps can only truly be tested once many of these texts have been the subject of digital experimentation. This paper argues that although these projects are often not being carried out by faculty members, the need and potential uses for such tools among non-academic readers is demonstrated through the samizdat distribution of online versions and tools readily available for all those who wish to conduct a Google search. The launch of the first authorized Pynchon e-books (Flood 2012) was met with dismissive claims that better samizdat copies had been in circulation for many years beforehand. These projects are coming into fruition externally to traditional (digital) humanities departments, spreading out to computer scientists’ extracurricular projects or the work of those outside of the academy who build digital tools and resources for the love of the original literary artefact. A few examples of the diverse work being undertaken includes wikis (for authors such as Thomas Pynchon (Ware 2006) and Terry Pratchett (Anon. 2005)) databases (Finnegans WakeExtensible Elucidation Treasury (FWEET)) (Slepon 2005), interpretations of literary texts through social media on both a single platform, and a dense and complex ecosystem of literary engagement and reception (such as the recently organized group read of William Gaddis’s JR centralised around the Twitter hashtag #occupygaddis) and many other forms that demonstrate potential platforms for further research and development.
Literature Review
This study fits into a wider field of readership and reception studies, an interdisciplinary research subject, which has had some crossover within the Digital Humanities. Anouk Lang’s edited collection, From Codex to Hypertext: Reading at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century, which includes chapters on how reader recommendation systems are changing in the digital age (Wright 2012), the community of LibraryThing (Pinder 2012), and the network of reader reviews on Amazon (Finn 2012). Furthermore, the present study runs parallel to crowdsourcing in the Digital Humanities, most recently exemplified by the Transcribe Bentham Project (Causer and Wallace 2012), as many projects involve large numbers of volunteers to organize materials. Moreover, as Henry Jenkins et al. have recently suggested, the easy transmission and manipulability of media in the early twenty-first century is essential to ensure the text’s viability, and the evidence of fan communities exploring literary texts suggests a desire for these more of these platforms. (Jenkins, Ford, and Green 2013) There have also been more specific papers exploring the use of particular social network platforms for literary reception (see Schroeder and den Besten 2009; Ketzan 2012) and how the use of these tools reflect the development of underlying software through the way users build on the platform (Howison and Crowston 2011).
Do “Amateurs” Fit into the Big Tent of the Digital Humanities?
There has been a considerable debate concerning the purview of the Digital Humanities, particularly the extent to which building tools is essential to being described as Digital Humanities. (Svensson 2012) This paper asserts that the Big Tent should be widened to include a broader spectrum of scholars, amateur or professional, who engage with the transformational nature of digital tools, whether engaging with new methods of collaborating and presenting interpretive data or building databases to explore the manipulable nature of the original texts. These pockets of activity demonstrate a potential audience for these tools and push the boundaries of what counts as fair use in ways that academic institutions typically shy away from for fear of lawsuits. The deformative acts (Samuels and McGann 1999) these projects often engage in can thus reveal the ways in which these texts reflect a Digital Humanities agenda despite their marginalized status as both amateur projects and remediated texts (Bolter and Grusin 2000) still protected by copyright. Furthermore, there is evidence of the acceptance of these projects through examining the number of citations to some of the most prominent projects such as FWEET, which has been cited as both an exemplar of hypertextuality (Krapp 2005) and a reference guide for Joyce’s enigmatic text comparable to Roland McHugh’s authoritative Annotations to Finnegans Wake. (Conley 2007) Thus, we can witness how these projects engage with the academy.
Case Studies
The present study focuses on two case studies to illustrate the range of productivity that has engaged the non-Digital Humanities community for two twentieth-century authors: James Joyce and Vladimir Nabokov. These two authors represent polar opposites regarding their respective estates’ view of intellectual property rights and digital media. The Joyce estate has been involved in a couple of high profile copyright disputes leading to the dissolution of some major digital editions of Joyce’s work, most prominently, Michael Groden’s “Digital Ulysses.” On the other hand, FWEET, maintained by Raphel Slepon, a former medical researcher and programmer, runs counter to the usually aggressive policies of the Joyce estate. FWEET collates allusions from McHugh’s Annotations to Finnegans Wake (1980) and other major reference guides to Joyce’s novel, as well as material collected from a range of independent contributors, into a database which allows the user to sift through a taxonomy of references, view all the noted allusions on a line-by-line basis, or search for particular tropes. The original text is obfuscated by the database’s interface and thus the website acts as a reference guide primarily rather than a readable digital edition of the text.
Meanwhile, the Nabokov estate has occasionally granted the use of his texts for digital work despite taking an aggressive policy towards intellectual property rights in post-Soviet Russia. Two digital Nabokov projects have been sanctioned since 1967: Ted Nelson’s demonstration of Pale Fire as a hypertext in the late 1960s and Brian Boyd’s Ada Online. Alongside these official projects, there have been a plethora of hypertext experiments with the whole or parts of Pale Fire. These examples of remediation begin to explore the generative network of Nabokov’s most complex novel and demonstrate the novel’s effectiveness as a precursor of hypertext literature. Both case studies highlight how two respected authors’ works are being transformed by digital media without the intervention of digital humanists. Through careful study of the digital reception of the texts, we can not only learn how these texts are being transmitted and circulated by a popular audience, but also start to understand how these texts, currently protected by strict copyright laws, can and will be part of a wider Digital Humanities ecology.
References
Anon. (2005). Annotations — Discworld & Pratchett Wiki. http://wiki.lspace.org/mediawiki/index.php/Main_Page(accessed 30 October 2012).
Bolter, J. D. (1991). Writing Space: The Computer, Hypertext, and the History of Writing. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bolter, J. D. and R. Grusin (2000). Remediation: Understanding New Media. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Causer, T., and V. Wallace (2012). Building A Volunteer Community: Results and Findings from Transcribe BenthamDigital Humanities Quarterly 6.2 http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/6/2/000125/000125.html.
Conley, T. (2007). Annotations to ‘Finnegans Wake’ (review). James Joyce Quarterly 1 (2). 363–366.
Finn, E. (2012). New Literary Cultures: Mapping the Digital Networks of Toni Morrison. In From Codex to Hypertext: Reading at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century, ed. Anouk Lang, 177–202. Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Press.
Flood, A. (2012). Thomas Pynchon Finally Gives in to Gravity as Digital Backlist Is Published. The Guardian.http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/jun/13/thomas-pynchon-digital-backlist-published (accessed 25 October 2012).
Howison, J., and K. Crowston (2011). Collaboration Through Superposition: How the IT Artifact as an Object of Collaboration Affords Technical Interdependence Without Organizational Interdependence. Institute for Software Research. Paper 491. http://repository.cmu.edu/isr/491 (accessed 30 October 2012)
Jenkins, H., S. Ford, and J. Green (2013). Spreadable Media: Creating Value and Meaning in a Networked Culture.New York and London: New York University Press.
Joyce, M. (2002). Of Two Minds: Hypertext, Pedagogy and Poetica. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Ketzan, E. (2012). 'Literary Wikis: Crowd-sourcing the Analysis and Annotation of Pynchon, Eco and Others'. Digital Humanities 2012. held 16-22 July in Hamburg, Germany.
Krapp, P. (2005). Hypertext Avant La Lettre. In Hui Kyong Chun, W. and Keenan, T. (eds). New Media Old Media: A History and Theory Reader. 359–373. New York: Routledge.
Landow, G. P. (1992). Hypertext: The Convergence of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
McHugh, R. (1980). Annotations to Finnegans Wake. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Pinder, J. (2012). Online Literary Communities: A Case Study of LibraryThing. In Lang, A. (ed). From Codex to Hypertext: Reading at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century, 68–87. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
Sample, M. (2012). Unseen and Unremarked On: Don DeLillo and the Failure of the Digital Humanities. In Debates in the Digital Humanities, ed. Gold, M. K., 187–201. Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press.
Samuels, L., and J. J. McGann (1999). Deformance and Interpretation. New Literary History 30(1). 25–56.
Schroeder, R., and M. den Besten (2009). Literary Sleuths Online: e-Research Collaboration on the Pynchon Wiki.http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1086671 (accessed 9 October 2012).
Slepon, R. (2005). Love’s Old Fweet Fong. FWEET. http://fweet.org/pages/fw_prlg.php (accessed 30 October 2012).
Svensson, P. (2012). Beyond the Big Tent. In Gold, M. K. Debates in the Digital Humanities. 36–49. Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press.
Ware, T. (2006-). Thomas Pynchon Wiki — A Literary/Literature Wiki. http://pynchonwiki.com/ (accessed 30 October 2012).
Wright, D. (2012). Literary Taste and List Culture in a Time of ‘Endless Choice’. In Lang, A. (ed). From Codex to Hypertext: Reading at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century. 108–123. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.","txt","2","",""
"1808","14","Word-level Language Identification in The Chymistry of Isaac Newton","10","Introduction
Language Identification is the task of determining the language of short text snippets, much shorter than for e.g., text classification. In Computational Linguistics (CL), language identification is generally considered a solved problem—but these methods assume that a text is monolingual, and at least 100 characters long. Furthermore, such methods cannot be used for multilingual texts in which the author switches between languages within a sentence, as in the “Chymistry of Isaac Newton” (Walsh and Hooper 2012), a collection of 119 alchemical manuscripts written by Newton over a 30-40 year period beginning in the mid-1660s. The team behind The Chymistry of Isaac Newton Project at Indiana University has transcribed these manuscripts and is publishing a digital scholarly edition at www.chymistry.org. Attempts to automatically analyze this corpus, even with basic levels like POS markup and lemmatization, are difficult because Newton frequently switches between English, Latin, and French within a paragraph or sentence, as shown in the following sentence: “The short lived & despicable plant [[LAT Paronychia folio Rutaceo [[ENG infused in beer, doth wonders in curing the kings evill.” For this reason, we developed a new method for automatically identifying the language for single words rather than for complete texts. This method requires more information because the classification is finer-grained than standard methods, which have access to more text.
There is an additional complication because seventeenth-century English and French allowed many spelling variations, unlike Latin, which was fairly standardized.
We first train and test the method on the corpus itself. However, since this corpus is rather small for methods developed in CL, we also investigate whether the method can use either current texts or texts written by Newton’s contemporaries. While this approach increases the amount of training data, it is unclear whether the additional data is useful given that all these additional Newton-era and modern texts are monolingual, and that the modern English texts will fail to exhibit the large variations in spelling that we see in Newton’s manuscripts. Our experiments show that using Newton’s own texts reaches the highest accuracy of close to 90%, but using modern text results only in a moderate decrease of 2% points.
Language Identification on the Document Level
All previous work in language identification assumes that each text to be identified is written in a single language. For this task, naïve approaches are often utilized with high success. The simplest methods use the presence of language-specific characters in a text to identify the language. Another method uses lists of the most common words of a language (Johnson 1993). Then, the text is classified based on which set of common words occurs most frequently.
Cavnar and Trenkle (1994) use the same method with relative frequencies of n-grams rather than words and reach an accuracy of 99.8% given texts with at least 400 n-grams.
Our work is based on work by Beesley (1988) and Mandl et al. (2006), who also extract n-grams. Beesley determines language identity for a whole text of any size by comparing probabilities of bigrams and characters of the individual words for each candidate language and labeling the text as the language most probable for the most words. Mandl et al. use n-grams to determine switch points between languages. Recent approaches use more sophisticated methods, such as vector-space models (Prager 1999) or multiple linear regression (Murthi and Kumar 2006). However, those approaches are difficult to use on the word level.
The Data Source
The Newton Alchemical Corpus. The Newton alchemical corpus comprises approximately 850,000 words, drawn from a three-language lexicon of 23,000 unique wordforms. Newton frequently alternates between English, Latin, and French. The collection contains documents written exclusively in either English or Latin. These documents were used as training data for our approach.
For both English and Latin, texts of approximately 70,000 words were used as training data. Additionally, a list of words was extracted from each monolingual training set and used as a lexicon for that language. French only occurs in the multilingual documents and much more rarely than English or Latin in these documents. Since there are no documents written exclusively in French, no French training data was available from this source.
Non-alphabetic elements (e.g., punctuation and numbers) are automatically labeled as non-words. Additionally, the texts include recipes, calculations and figures, and thus contain a large number of alphabetical variables and labels. These items are not relevant for language identification and present potential obstacles for automatic approaches. Thus, they were excluded from training/testing. Any string of letters not containing a vowel was determined to be a non-word.
For testing, we selected six texts (126,000 words) that contained a high degree of switches between languages and annotated them manually for the languages used. Three texts (20,000 words) were used for optimizing parameters, and three more texts (106,000 words) for testing. Note that the test set does not contain any French words.
Other texts: For English texts from Newton's era, we used excerpts of Francis Bacon's The New Atlantis (1627) andEssayes or Counsels, Civill and Morall (1625) and Robert Boyle's The Sceptical Chemist (1661) and Experiments and Considerations Touching Colours (1664). Newton-era Latin texts were excerpted from Rene Descartes' Meditationes de prima philosophia (1641), Benedict de Spinoza's Ethica (1677), and Carl Von Linne's Species Plantarum (1753).
The modern day training set for English was extracted from The Los Angeles Times and The Washington Post stories from 2006.
Word-Based Language Identification: The Newton Corpus
Our approach assumes that a particular document to be identified contains one or more of the languages used in the corpus: English, Latin, and French.
We automatically segment the texts into words, extract all n-grams per word, and calculate the relative frequencies of the n-grams in each language (normalized for capitalization). Figure 1 illustrates this process for the Latin word “ignis”.
 
Figure 1:
Extraction of bigrams (left) and comparison of relative frequencies. $ and # mark word boundaries.
We determine a language score by averaging over all n-gram probabilities of a word. Since there is no training data for French, we use only English and Latin for training, with a threshold: First, the scores for English and Latin are determined. If neither the English nor the Latin probability exceeds a pre-determined threshold, the word is determined to be French. This corresponds to the intuition that if the n-grams of a word are rare in both English and Latin, then that word is unlikely to be from those languages but from a different language. The final decision also takes the language label of the previous word into account. If the current word is in the lexicon of the language of the previous word, the current word is tagged as that language. If the word is not in the lexicon, we consider the language identity probabilities of the previous word by adding a proportion of that probability to the probability that the current word is English, and do the same for Latin. This decision captures the tendency of words to belong to the same language as the words in the immediate context, while allowing for the possibility of switches. At the beginning of a sentence, the threshold is higher than between words.
Performance on the current language identification task is defined as accuracy: the percentage of words in the test texts (excluding non-words) with correct language labels.
Ultimately, we found 5-grams to be the best performing setting.
 
The results in table 1 show that we reach an accuracy of 89.84%. This is lower than the results reported for language identification on full documents, but the task is more difficult. The word misclassified most often is a genuinely ambiguous word, “in”. In general, the words most frequently misclassified are short (2-3 characters).
Word-Based Language Identification: Using Other Corpora for Training
Since the training set from the Newton corpus is rather small, we also investigated using either training texts from Newton’s era, or modern corpora. As no modern Latin is available, we used the Newton-era Latin texts.
 
The results in table 2 show that using the small set of texts by Newton gives the highest accuracy. Adding Newton-era texts does not result in the expected increase in accuracy. Instead, accuracy decreases minimally from 89.84% to 89.28%. Using only Newton-era texts decreases accuracy by approximately 2%. Using modern texts also results in a small decrease in accuracy. However, our method does not suffer much from using modern texts, which suggests that the information about character differences between languages does not heavily depend on the changes in spelling.
Conclusion
We presented a novel method for identifying language on individual words in multilingual texts. We have shown that the method reaches an accuracy of 89.84% when trained on monolingual texts from the same author. However, if no such texts are available, other texts from the same era, or even current texts can be used with only a minor degradation in performance.
References
Beesley, R. K. (1988). Language Identifier: A Computer Program for Automatic Natural-Language Identification of On-Line Text. Languages at Crossroads: Proceedings of the 29th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association: 47-54.
Cavnar, B. W., and J. M. Trenkle. (1994). N-Gram-Based Text Categorization. Proceedings of Third Annual Symposium on Document Analysis and Information Retrieval: 161-75.
Johnson, S. (1993). Solving the Problem of Language Identification. Technical Report. School of Computer Studies, University of Leeds.
Mandl, T., M. Shramko, O. Tartakovski, and C. Womser-Hacker (2006). Language Identification in Multi-lingual Text Documents. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Applications of Natural Language to Information Systems(NLDB 2006), Klagenfurt, Austria. Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science 3999:153-163.
Murthy, K. N., and G. B. Kumar. (2006). Language Identification from Small Text Samples. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics 13: 57-80.
Walsh, J. A. and W. E. Hooper. (2012). The Liberty of Invention: Alchemical Discourse and Information Technology Standardization. Literary and Linguistic Computing 27: 55-79.","txt","2","",""
"1809","14","WordSeer: An Integrated Environment for Literary Text Analysis","2","Summary
I will present WordSeer, an environment for literary text analysis. Literature study is a form of sensemaking: a cycle of reading, interpretation, exploration, and understanding. While there is abundant technological support for reading text in new ways through visualizations and algorithms, the other parts of the cycle — exploration and understanding — have been relatively neglected. WordSeer integrates tools for algorithmic text processing with interaction techniques that support the interpretive, exploratory and note-taking aspects of scholarship. Its design has been shaped by individual case studies with literature scholars as well as a semester-long field trial with a class of undergraduate Shakespeare students.
Proposal
To date, text analysis systems for humanities scholars have focused on aiding interpretation (Clement 2008; Fekete, et al. 2000; J. Guldi, et al. 2012; X. Llorà, et al. 2008; C. Plaisant, et al. 2006; G. Rockwell, et al. 2010; R. Vuillemot, et al. 2009). First, they apply some form of natural language processing to extract aggregate statistics about word usage, topics, named entities, and parts of speech. Second, they display the extracted information with visualizations like word clouds, node-and-link diagrams, and lists of word contexts. Such systems make patterns of style, form, and theme visible, and interpretable by people.
However, literature study is a form of sensemaking (P. Pirolli, et al. 2005): a cycle of reading, interpretation, exploration and understanding. As useful as they are, current digital humanities text analysis systems leave the exploration and understanding part of the cycle unsupported.
The WordSeer project (A. Muralidhara, et al. 2011) is an effort to create a sensemaking environment for literature and language study. Like other systems for the humanities, it has search and visualization capabilities, but it also supports sensemaking activities like collecting and reorganizing information, exploring related words, finding frequent phrases and similar passages of text, and annotating, collecting and tagging items. The system has been under development since 2010. Recently, it was used to produce successful analyses of Shakespeare’s plays (A. Muralidharan, et al. 2012) and North American slave narratives (A. Muralidharan 2012).
To uncover areas for improvement, WordSeer was field-tested at the University of Calgary in the Spring 2012 semester. Students in the undergraduate Shakespeare class ‘Hamlet in the Humanities Lab’ ( M. Ullyot, et al. 2012) spent a few weeks becoming familiar with WordSeer along with four other computational text analysis tools. Then, during the rest of the semester, they used the tools to analyze a topic of their choice within an act of Hamlet. The students recorded their experiences through weekly posts on the class blog (http://engl203.ucalgaryblogs.ca/).
An analysis of their posts revealed four common ways of using digital tools that were not supported well:
•        1. Comparing two or more visualizations side-by-side or referring to multiple tools simultaneously
•        2. Narrowing down analyses by metadata, such as (in Shakespeare) a particular speaker, act, or scene.
•        3. Investigating a group of words together.
•        4. Getting ideas for a new search or analysis based on the results of a previous one.
WordSeer had limited, roundabout support for these activities. For example, Activity 1, comparisons: it was technically possible to compare two visualizations — but only by opening a separate browser window, navigating to the WordSeer Shakespeare website, and re-typing the search parameters for the second visualization. Activities 3 and 4: investigating groups of words, or performing new searches based on previous ones, required manually typing in long search queries, and Activity 2 was entirely impossible.
At this conference I will demonstrate a new WordSeer, completely redesigned with the above activities in mind. Instead of a separate web page per visualization, the application now mimics a desktop environment, with different visualizations opening up in “windows”. In the following figures (Figure 1-Figure 4), I briefly explain how the new tool supports the above activities.
 
Figure 1
This figure shows WordSeer's new desktop environment, featuring a top bar for queries, a sidebar for collections, and multiple windows. Activity 1, comparison and reference, is much easier because the top bar preserves search parameters. For example, comparing the word tree for “face” with that of “eyes” above only requires changing a single word between queries.
 
Figure 2
Metadata filters can be used to restrict analyses to relevant subsets, directly supporting Activity 2. For example, this figure shows how, to find all words described as ""true"" within Antony and Cleopatra, or to further restrict the search to individual speakers, users simply have to select the relevant categories from the browsing menu.
 
Figure 3
For activity 3 (investigating groups of words together), WordSeer has a new word sets feature for creating groups of words. These sets can be used as search queries, and updating the set with new words automatically reflects itself in the new query. For example, this figure shows how word set called “body parts” containing “head, eye, hand, cheek, face, lip” can be used as a grammatical search query (for “body parts” described as ___).
References
Clement, T. E. (2008). ‘A thing not beginning and not ending’: using digital tools to distant-read Gertrude Stein’s The Making of Americans, Literary and linguistic computing, 23(3): 361.
Fekete J.-D., and N. Dufournaud (2000). Compus: visualization and analysis of structured documents for understanding social life in the 16th century, in Proceedings of the fifth ACM conference on Digital libraries, New York, NY, USA, 47–55.
Guldi, J., and C. Johnson-Roberson (2012). Paper Machines: A Tool for Analyzing Large-Scale Digital Corpora, College Park, MD, 03-Nov-2012.
Llorà, X., B. Ács, L. S. Auvil, B. Capitanu, M. E. Welge, and D. E. Goldberg (2008). Meandre: Semantic-driven data-intensive flows in the clouds, in Fourth IEEE International Conference on eScience, 238–245.
Plaisant, C., J. Rose, B. Yu, L. Auvil, M. G. Kirschenbaum, M. N. Smith, T. Clement, and G. Lord (2006). Exploring erotics in Emily Dickinson’s correspondence with text mining and visual interfaces, in Proceedings of the 6th ACM/IEEE-CS joint conference on Digital libraries, Chapel Hill, NC, USA, 141–150.
Rockwell, G., S. G. Sinclair, S. Ruecker, and P. Organisciak (2010). Ubiquitous Text Analysis, Poetess Archive Journal, 2(1).
Vuillemot, R., T. Clement, C. Plaisant, and A. Kumar (2009). What’s being said near ‘Martha’? Exploring name entities in literary text collections, in Visual Analytics Science and Technology 107–114.
Pirolli, P. and S. Card (2005). The sensemaking process and leverage points for analyst technology as identified through cognitive task analysis, in Proceedings of International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, vol. 2005, 2–4.
Muralidharan, A., and M. A. Hearst (2011). Supporting Exploratory Text Analysis Literature Study, Literary and linguistic computing, Digital Humanities Conference Issue (forthcoming), Submitted Dec. 2011.
Muralidharan, A., and M. A. Hearst (2012). A sensemaking environment for literature study, in CHI ’12 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems, New York, NY, USA, 1955–1960.
Muralidharan, A. (2012). Using Digital Tools to Explore Narrative Conventions in the North American Antebellum Slave Narratives, Seattle, WA, USA, 07-Jan-2012.
Ullyot, M. (2012). Hamlet in the Humanities Lab|English 203, Winter 2012|Michael Ullyot, Hamlet in the Humanities Lab English 203, Winter 2012, 13-Jan-2012. http://ullyot.ucalgaryblogs.ca/teaching/hamlet/. Accessed: 13-Jan-2012.","txt","2","",""
"1810","14","Writing your First Digital Humanities Grant","15","Abstract
Designed for humanities scholars seeking assistance with their first grant, this workshop introduces participants to best practices in writing and submitting a grant. Participants will be provided with a series of online resources, including presentations, exemplar successful grants, and podcasts to help them complete a first draft of a proposal before they arrive in Lincoln. Those drafts will be circulated to other participants prior to the workshop and will serve as the core basis of our workshop discussions with the anticipation being that each participant will receive clear feedback from other attendees that will aid them in the revision of their proposal. Drafts will be encouraged to emulate the popular National Endowment for the Humanities Digital Humanities Startup Grant competition in order to provide the most flexibility for participants in their digital humanities endeavors. This seminar will be limited to 15 participants; additional seminars may be made available should demand necessitate.
Target Audience
The target audience for this workshop are primarily early career digital humanists, including graduate students and junior scholars, who will be submitting their first grant in the coming year. We choose to limit the workshop to 15 participants as the substantive nature of the discussion necessitates a smallgroup atmosphere. A session similar to this was successfully held at the Digital Humanities Winter Institute as part of the instructors’ project development class. That class had 20 participants, the majority of whom were digital humanists undertaking their first project. Additionally, Jennifer coled a similar session with Dr. Lisa Rhody at the Modern Studies Association that included neophyte digital humanists. That session benefited from its small size. Both sessions at DHWI and MSA were well reviewed and would be appropriate for firsttime grant writers in the humanities.
Workshop Logistics
Applications: Participants will be admitted on a firstcome, firstserved basis. Registration for this workshop will close on May 1st (or when the workshop reaches capacity). Participants will be notified of their admission on May 1st. Papers are due to the full group no later than June 15th. We set this deadline a bit early to allow participants time to not only read all papers but to complete any supporting reading they might elect to familiarize themselves with.
Papers should be 5 to 7 pages in length, doublespaced. We encourage participants to produce shorter papers to allow for greater commenting/consideration. Additionally, we want to encourage these papers to emulate the narrative section of the National Endowment for Humanities Digital Humanities Start Up Grants solicitation, as this competition focuses on humanities significance and innovation and is a likely funding source for early development projects.
We ask that every paper include the major elements of a project proposal, namely that the narrative should not assume specialized knowledge, and it should be free of jargon. It should clearly define technical terms so that they are comprehensible to a nonspecialist audience.The narrative should address the longterm goals for the project as well as the activities that the project would support.
Within the narrative, you should:
•        1.) Provide a clear and concise explanation — comprehensible to a general audience — of the project activities and the ultimate project results, noting their value to scholars, students, and general audiences in the humanities. Describe the scope of the project activities, the major issues to be addressed, and their significance to the humanities. Show how the project will meet its objectives in innovative ways.
•        2.) Provide a rationale for the compatibility of your methodology with the intellectual goals of the project and the expectations of those who would make use of the project products.
•        3.) Provide a clear and concise summary of an environmental scan of the relevant field. The goal of an environmental scan is to take a careful look at similar work being done in your area of study. For example, if you are developing software to solve a particular humanities problem, please discuss similar software developed for other projects and explain how the proposed solution differs. If there are existing software products that could be adapted and reused for the proposed project, please identify them and discuss the pros and cons of taking that approach. If there are existing humanities projects that are similar in nature to your project, please describe them and discuss how they relate to the proposed project. The environmental scan should make it clear that you are aware of similar work being done and should explain how your proposed project contributes to and advances the field.
•        4.) Provide a concise history of the project, including information about preliminary research or planning, previous related work, previous financial support, publications produced, and resources or research facilities available.
•        5.) Complete a brief workplan that describes the specific tasks that will be accomplished during the grant period, identify the computer technology to be employed, and identify the staff members involved. Indicate what technical resources will be required.
•        6.) Identify potential staff and collaborators.
•        7.) Describe the plans to disseminate the project results through various media (printed articles or books, presentations at meetings, electronic media, or some combination of these).
Instructors
Jennifer Guiliano received a Bachelors of Arts in English and History from Miami University (2000), a Masters of Arts in History from Miami University (2002), and a Masters of Arts (2004) in American History from the University of Illinois before completing her Ph.D. in History at the University of Illinois (2010). She currently is an Assistant Director at the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities at the University of Maryland and a Center Affiliate of the National Center for Supercomputing Applications. She has served as a PostDoctoral Research Assistant and Program Manager at the Institute for Computing in Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (20082010) and as Associate Director of the Center for Digital Humanities (20102011) and Research Assistant Professor in the Department of History at the University of South Carolina. Jennifer currently serves on the Association for Computing in the Humanities (ACH) Executive Council (20132016), as codirector with Trevor Muñoz of the Digital Humanities Winter Institute (DHWI), and has served as an instructor in Project Development and Grant writing by invitation at the Digital Humanities Summer Institute, the Digital Humanities Winter Institute, as well as a number of individual universities. She has been primary author or primary investigator of over $3 million in externally funded grants.
Simon Appleford is Associate Director for Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences at the Clemson CyberInstitute, and an Adjunct Lecturer in History at Clemson University. Simon received a Masters of Arts in Modern History and a Masters of Literature in Modern American History from the University of St. Andrews, Scotland, and is currently completing his PhD in History from the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign. Prior to joining Clemson University in 2011 he was Assistant Director at the University of Illinois’ Institute for Computing in Humanities, Arts, and Social Science. His interests in digital technologies and American history have led to several publications including articles in CTWatch Quarterly and Toward the Meeting of the Waters: Currents in the Civil Rights Movement in South Carolina (University of South Carolina Press, 2007). He has served as primary author or primary investigator of over $3.5 million in externallyfunded research.","txt","2","",""
"1811","15","MServices and The Riddle of Literary Quality","10","Introduction

The Riddle of Literary Quality is a project funded by the Computational Humanities Program of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW). It runs at Huygens ING in partnership with the Institute for Logic, Language and Computation of the University of Amsterdam, and the Fryske Akademy in Leeuwarden. The aim of the project is to develop a method and the necessary software to analyze low-level and high-level formal features in a corpus of modern Dutch long fiction, to find out whether formal features in the texts play a role in the reception and evaluation of the text by the readers. Can we get more insight into the responses of readers to, for instance, texts with on average longer versus shorter sentences, or using a larger vocabulary, or on average showing a more complex syntactical structure (cf. Jautze et al.)? Is there a difference between those texts that readers consider to be highly literary and those that are experienced as more lowbrow? Can we distinguish texts found good or bad by readers based on formal features in these texts? And how do the opinions of readers correlate with the kind of reader they are?
The project thus aims to correlate formal features with readers’ opinions and readers’ roles. The analysis of the formal features is done through a chain of μServices that we will deal with in the second part of this paper. The first part is addressed to the analysis of readers’ opinions and readers’ roles.
Survey

To gather information about readers and their responses we set up a large online survey in which we asked respondents some personal information (age, gender, postal code, level of education) and sixteen questions to find out what kind of reader they predominantly are: autonomous or ‘distanced’: reading for aesthical pleasure; or heteronomous ‘identifying’: reading for fun, to discover other cultures or places, or to identify with the main characters. We based our distinction and our questions on work done by Von Heydebrand & Winko on sociological aspects of (literary) reading. Next to that, we presented a list of 400 recent novels, Dutch originals or translations into Dutch, and asked them to mark the ones they read. A selection of these novels was presented to them, with the question to evaluate these works on two scales: from ‘not so very literary’ to ‘highly literary’ and from ‘bad’ to ‘good’. The survey ran for six months, and received almost 14000 respondents. Analysis of the results has just started.
The results of the survey will be correlated with the results of the measurements of formal features. We would like to describe the technical set-up we have devised to enable the scholars to analyze the texts in the corpus in a way that is trustworthy and sustainable, using μServices written in Java that can also be used by others to repeat and to verify our analyses.
μServices

Research infrastructure for the Riddle of Literary Quality is designed with three goals in mind: research results must be reproducible; analytical tools must be reusable; the entire workflow must be maintainable and reliable. We aim to provide a toolset that allows for a verifiable system that will focus the discussion on the selected methodology - the procedures and algorithms. This also means that we will make the code behind each μService open source.
To accomplish this goal the digital humanities engineering group at Huygens ING based the research infrastructure both on the results of COST Action IS0704: An Interoperable Supranational Infrastructure for Digital Editions (Interedition) – of which the institute was grant-holder – and the work of Joris van Zundert – chair of the Action. Van Zundert (Huygens ING) specified as an objective of the COST Action the development of lightweight and distributed interoperability solutions. These solutions were implemented through webservices. The CollateX algorithm of Ronald Haentjens Dekker (Huygens ING) and Gregor Middell (University of Würzburg) was among the first and most successful of a series of compact analytical demonstrators called μServices.
The Riddle of Literary Quality does not aim to build a workflow management system. Such a top-down standardization methodology is left to large infrastructural programs like CLARIN, DARIAH or the Dutch Nederlab project. Instead we continue Interedition’s grassroots approach and leave (computational) researchers and PhD students free to experiment with high-level and low-level analytical algorithms in languages that range from Python to Java. These algorithms may or may not grow out to be part of the Riddle’s μService infrastructure and those that are deemed useful are eventually hosted at the institute’s servers. 
The current services fall in three distinct categories: data import and preparation; analysis and visualization and export. In the first group we offer e.g. a series of tools that convert documents to specified standards (such as ePub/PDF to TEI) and set the data in the correct character encoding (such as a conversion from Windows-1252, ISO8859 to UTF-8). To prepare the data for further analysis we have converted parsers like the Dutch Ucto: Unicode Tokenizer (Radboud University of Nijmegen/University of Tilburg) to a μService. The output data of services in this group is a standardized json format that can be read by the analytical services in the second category. Experiments in The Riddle currently focus on this analysis group. μServices in the third category perform output operations. Some create visualizations while others export the data to external environments for further analysis. For stylometric research e.g. we created a μService to export data from The Riddle to R and integrate it with the Stylo() package created at the Universities of Krakow (Macej Eder/Jan Rybicki) and Antwerp (Mike Kestemont).
The entire suite of μServices will remain available for persistent access and may be used in alternate workflows or by external third-party software. Thus the suite does not only allow reproduction of the results of The Riddle but will also support entirely new and original research.
Sample Workflow

As an example of a µServices-driven workflow we present one possible use of gathering statistical data from a corpus of ePubs. First, each ePub is sent to a service that prepares it for analysis by converting the book into a structured TEI document. Character-encoding issues are resolved by a second µService, resulting in a normalized, platform-independent UTF-8 version of the TEI-document. Subsequently, a third service offers extraction operations on the structural level of the file. This service is used to extract all relevant paragraphs. These paragraphs are split into sentences and words by one of a family of (TEI agnostic) tokenizers, such as the Ucto-µService. Statistical analysis of these tokens is possible by sending the resulting list of tokens to the exporter µService, which transforms the extracted tokens into a format suitable for use in R.
Conclusion

To make sure that we are able to answer the main questions of The Riddle of Literary Quality – whether there are any correlations between readers' opinions about certain novels, readers' predominant reading role, and the values for a list of formal low-level and high-level features of the novels – we have chosen to develop a set of µServices that deal with single aspects of the needed analysis. By making these µServices available to other scholars we enable them to repeat and verify our research results. We provide users with tools that can be used to answer different questions than we have in The Riddle, thereby making the tools also useful in a wider sense for new original research. We hope our approach invites others to contribute µServices for further textual humanities research.
References

CollateX. collatex.net
Interedition. www.interedition.eu
>Riddle of Literary Quality.literaryquality.huygens.knaw.nl
Ucto. ilk.uvt.nl/ucto
Eder, M., Kestemont, M. & Rybicki, J., (2013). Stylometry with R: a suite of tools.Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts. Lincoln: University of Nebraska-Lincoln, pp. 487-89. dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-136.html
Heydebrand, R. von and Winko, S., (1996), Einfuehrung in die Wertung von Literatur. Systematik – Geschichte – Legitimation. Paderborn etc.: Ferdinand Schoeningh, 1996
Jautze, K., Koolen, C., Cranenburgh, A. van and Jong, H. de, (2013). From high heels to weed attics: a syntactic investigation of chick lit and literature.Proceedings of the Workshop on Computational Linguistics for Literature 2013. aclweb.org/anthology/W/W13/W13-1410.pdf
Zundert, J. van, Middell, G., Hulle, D. Van, Haentjens Dekker, R., et al., (2011). Interedition: Principles, Practice and Products of an Open Collaborative Development Model for Digital Scholarly Editions. Digital Humanities 2011: Conference Abstracts. Stanford: Stanford University. dh2011abstracts.stanford.edu/xtf/view?docId=tei/ab-227.xml","txt","2","",""
"1812","15","\/\/ÆΓÑing: A Conceptual Parsing of ASCII Character Substitutions","10","This presentation will investigate K-Rad character substitutions as they were utilized in serialized ASCII text publications during the 1980s and 1990s. These text files, influenced by a genealogy of informational manuals on the topics of hacking and phreaking, sought to take writing beyond transparent signification, imposing hackerly techniques on to the text itself, by extending, disrupting, and hypermediating codes of discourse. In conventional informational writing, disruption and hypermediation are considered to impede signification; in K-Rad texts, they become key signifying agents.
K-Rad writing attempts to push boundaries, to present the unpresentable, and to break all codes, whether legal, moral, linguistic, or typographic. Although the style finds precursors in the underground discourse of piracy and software cracking, K-Rad was not universally esteemed in these contexts. For example, as Rabid Rasta says in “The Real Pirate’s Guide” (1984):
Real Pirates Don’t Say “K-K00L”, “K- Awesome”, “X10Der”, “L8R0N”, Or Anything Of The Sort.
Real Pirates Know The Difference Between “F” And “Ph” (I.E.”Philes”, “Phuck”, “Fone”, Etc.).
In Rabid Rasta’s opinion, unconventional spelling primarily demonstrates a pirate to not be “REAL.” His attitude attempts to legalize the spelling of words, which. according to Roland Barthes, “keeps the scriptor from enjoying writing, that euphoric gesture which permits putting into the tracing of a word a little more than its mere intention to communicate” (“Freedom to Write” 45). Such substitutions, particularly in published ASCII text files, are rarely accidental; these substitutions extend beyond conventional meaning, into the realm of the specifically technologized word. Consider, for example, the following example from “tHe PHiRzT StEp!!” by (\/)[](_>|#|__ (1994):
iFh i HAvEN'T g0T y0U t0 S+oPA rEA|>iN' YeT tHeN i FiNK 0NlY dA Pe0PlE >tHAt wErE ELiTE eNUFF t0 tA/<3 iT sTaYeeD. On one hand, it is hard for the human eye to read, because it corrupts the alphabet, adding unfamiliar characters to the familiar ones, repurposing characters, using them in new contexts and infusing them with new meanings so as to make them strange. On the other hand, in an era of command line instruction, where computers were incapable of recognizing these visually corrupted renderings, it was only the human eye that could parse them. These words, which we cannot simply reduce to their legalized spellings, demand that we decipher the text on a character-by-character basis.
If the writing seems to falter at the sentence level, this is only because the writing style focuses primarily on the grapheme and the word, constituting an extreme close-up that blurs the shape of the sentence, the paragraph, and the text as a whole. Although we often, in the tradition of Saussure, consider the word to be the smallest unit of meaning, K-Rad graphemes become narrative elements, turning each word into a story. In this context, graphemes take on value within the world of the word. Stanley Fish says, “A reader’s response to the fifth word in a line or sentence is to a large extent the product of his responses to words one, two, three, and four” (Is There a Text in This Class? 27). With K-Rad orthography, we become aware that this process also takes place at the level of the grapheme—a reader’s response to the fifth grapheme is determined largely by graphemes one, two, three, and four. Every word requires active contextualization, active decipherment, a flow that does not merely move forward from left to right across each line, but scans in multiple directions within each assemblage of characters.
To the uninitiated, the writing might present itself only as a kind of line noise. Even for a well-versed reader of ASCII, the reading process never becomes a purely linear one in which words travel left to right without impediment, but, as Viktor Shklovsky says, “Art is not a march set to music, but rather a walking dance to be experienced or, more accurately, a movement of the body, whose very essence it is to be experienced through the senses” (Theory of Prose 22). Although texts might be said to transmit information or communicate, we cannot say that this is all that they do, unless we feel comfortable to ignore all of the text’s non-informational signifying elements. As Jerome McGann says:
""When we imagine texts as transmitters we are not wrong in our imagination, but we are narrow—and much narrower than we should be if we wish to understand how texts work. Indeed, we easily confuse investigations of textuality when we study texts as machines for carrying messages. In the reading of poetry—those paradigm texts—this kind of confusion typically arises in thematic studies, where the “meaning(s)” of the texts are pursued. In poems, however, “meaning” is mistakenly conceived if it is conceived as “message.” Rather, “meaning” in poetry is part of the poetical medium; it is a textual feature, like the work’s phonetic patterns, or like its various visual components. (The Textual Condition 14-15)""
The ASCII text file itself, as a medium, signifies a faith in the new technology of telecommunication and advances ASCII as a preferred means of communication. These texts are not only about their linguistic messages, but also about acquiring, arranging, and moving text, activities that constitute messages in themselves. And beyond all of this, we might also consider K-Rad texts as concrete poetry, a kind of ambient writing, a kind of visual arrangement that can make the initiate reader feel that they are beholding computer code itself and gazing upon some hackerly art. In a 1995 issue of Maclean’s magazine, Joe Chidley described the actions of the hacker:
""His fingers trip lightly over the keyboard. With the punch of a return key, a string of characters – writ in the arcane language of computers – scrolls onto the black- and-white display in front of him. “OK,” he says, “I’m in.” Suddenly, horizontal rows of letters and numbers scroll from left to right across the screen – meaningless to the uninitiated eye. But for the hacker, the mishmash of data contains seductive, perhaps lucrative secrets. (“Cracking the Net” 54)""
Lucrative secrets might be found in the technology of word processing, or the American Standard Code for Information Interchange, or the keyboard, or the technology of writing, or the technology of language in general. K-Rad adds extra texture to the word, complicating meaning and denaturalizing the basic elements of how we communicate. This kind of writing is radical not merely because of what it says but how it says. At the 2014 Digital Humanities Conference, I will present a series of K-Rad ASCII text files, demonstrating a sequence of increasingly baroque substitutions and suggesting conceptual reading practices that we might use to engage with these early avant-garde digital texts and also with conventional literature. These stylized visions do not only affect our reading practices here, but our reading practices everywhere, even in when dealing with texts that are not self-consciously stylized. These highly-coded and hypermediated texts confront us with the fact that there is no such thing as neutral writing, no such thing as neutral discourse, and once we have seen the word in its codified and disruptive form, there is no way to return to our previous unconscious state.
This topic of this presentation is based on “HACK,” a chapter from my recent dissertation, SCROLL / NETWORK / HACK: A Poetics of ASCII Literature (1983-1989).","txt","2","",""
"1813","15","Ideas, Events and Actions: The Digital Humanity Study of the Concept Formation in Modern China","10","1. Introduction

How to figure out the formation process of concepts has long been a significant yet elusive problem in Humanities studies. In order to better understand this problem, we have drawn on insights from History of Ideas (Lovejoy, 1936; Pocock, 1898; Skinner, 2002; Jin et al., 2008), Conceptual History (Koselleck, 2002), Key word studies (Williams, 1983) and computational linguistics (Wittgenstein, 1953; Austin, 1962; Deignan, 2005). More importantly, we have also employed data analytics (Liu et al., 2011), Zipf's law, and statistical methods (Jin et al., 2012). As a result, in terms of methodology, we have come up with a new approach of Chinese historical studies, which explores temporal analysis of keywords and their collocations and promises to outline the trajectory of conceptual formation more accurately. By means of this new approach, we have already investigated closely the formation processes of three concepts (“ism”, “Chinese”, “Chinese labor”) in modern China with good results (Chan et al., 2011; Jin et al., 2012). These studies demonstrate the potential power of DH methods for the study of ideas. Encouraged by the fruits of previous studies, we now try to look into the formation process of three important keywords in the construction of modern Chinese national identity, i.e., “guojia (nation-state)”, “sovereignty”, and “tongbau (siblings).” By utilizing DH methods, we aim to analyze the processes, structures and patterns of formation of concepts in critical phases, and to portray the dynamic schema of the interactions between ideas, events and actions. In the future, we will apply more computational linguistics methods in our study of concept formation process, in order to understand more clearly the birth and evolution of key ideas.
2. Body Paragraphs

Given the fact that during the modernization process of China, the formation of concepts concerning national identity such as “nation-state”, “sovereignty”, and “ siblings” is a very important cultural issue; we need to have new approaches and perspectives to study it, especially in the face of the new age of big digitalized corpora. By handling the huge historical corpora with DH methods, we are able to better grasp the interactive processes and patterns between concept formation, important social events and actions of different groups in modern China.
To investigate the concept formation of “nation-state” in modern China, we choose “Xinmin Congbao” and “Xin Qingnian” as two major sources for analysis. The former was published in the final years of late imperial China, while the later in the early Republican period. By identifying frequent keywords with the PAT-Tree method and computing statistics of these keywords and their collocations, we analyzed the differences between the two sources in terms of their interpretations of the “nation-state” concept. In addition, we explored the complicated relationship between the changing definitions of “nation-state” and important social events and actions. As a result, we have found out that, before 1911 while the formation of “nation-state” concept was inchoate, this concept was mainly embedded in the concepts of citizen and individual, and became popular mainly as a result of civic education. However, after 1911 when “Xin Qingnian” was published, the “nation-state” concept has become very widespread. In particular, along with the breakout of the World War I, under the “party-state” system in modern China, the “nation-state” concept became highly ideologized. Textually speaking, it frequently appeared with terms such as “class” and “capital” in various discourses, relating closely with class revolution and economic revolution as well.
On the other hand, by mapping out the linguistic development of “sovereignty” in modern China, we have outlined three stages of the concept formation of this term. During the first stage (1864-1898), the Western definition of “sovereignly” was selectively interpreted in late imperial China. While “sovereignty” was introduced as a modern idea representing the right of a nation, the Chinese emperor was still conceived as the only master of the sovereignty. In other words, the modern (Western) sense of sovereignty was partially accepted for its instrumental function for dealing with international affairs. During the second stage (1899-1915), China was trying to exercise sovereignty as a modern state. China has then transformed from a dynastic empire into a nation-state and more competitions and negotiations between China and other nation-states took place. Thus, the modern idea of sovereignty became much more popular. During the third stage (1916-1924), the sovereignty concept underwent a drastic transformation. The “party-state” system became dominant and produced a new set of moral-political ideologies, which came to define the sovereignty of a nation-state under the party-state framework and claimed it should be under control by the party-state system.
As well known, the construction of modern Chinese identity is closely related to the idea of “tongbau,” which literally means that every member of the nation is blood kin, united by blood bond. We have utilized DH approaches to explore how and why this “familial” term has not only transformed people’s loyalty from families into the nation but also “naturalized” the sense of solidarity and patriotic love. Our initial investigation of the origin of the modern meaning of “tongbau” has revealed that modern Japan might be the source. We have found that the highest frequency of using the term “tongbau” in its modern meaning appeared in three famous journals (Jiangsu, Xinmin congbao, Qingyibao) published after 1898 in Japan by the exile Chinese intellectuals and students there. This finding is very significant. First of all, the timing itself deserves to be explored further. As well known, the failure of the 1898 political reform in china stimulated many intellectuals to seek popular support for political reform instead. In other words, the rise of “tongbua” discourse in modern China was closely related to the political development in late Qing. Secondly, the fact that “tongbau” discourse originally appeared in Chinese journals published in Japan also provides a piece of solid and interesting evidence to further testify the complicated relationships between modern China and Japan, especially regarding the construction of modern national identity.
3. Conclusion

The birth of a key concept is related to important events and actions, and the formation of a new concept will inevitably bring out changes of values. We have utilized new DH approaches, computational linguistics, analysis of the formations of concept terms, in order to achieve the following goals: (1) outlining the formation structure of concepts, (2) probing how China transformed from a traditional dynastic empire into a modern nation-state, (3) examining the contour of the changing identity from a “subject” into a “citizen” among the Chinese people, and (4) exploring how key Western concepts were translated and reinterpreted in China in the past 150 years.
The target sources for our study are mainly important journals published during the late Qing and early Republican period: “Qingyibao” was published in Japan after 1898 by a pro-emperor group. It was later on succeeded by “Xinmin Congbao.” The editor-in-chief and mastermind for both journals was the important thinker Liang Qichao. Hence, these two journals vividly manifested the changing attitudes and ideas of the pro-emperor group. “Xin Qingnian” was an important journal during the early Republican period, indicating the intellectual trend of the time. With the help of DH methods, we were able to study them in a new manner and therefore reached our research goals aforementioned.
It should be mentioned that, since modern Chinese newspapers served as the platforms for enlightenment and reform, they featured both the elite and the mass. Although it is impossible now for our studies to include all variables, we will in the future try our best to use “media,” “readers,” “editors,” “political stereotypes” or “newspapers position” as our major variables for further investigation. Moreover, in order to strengthen our digital skills, we will use statistical keyword extracting analysis and co-occurrence word cluster statistical method, as well as social network analysis, citation analysis and spatial-temporal analysis. After all, the main characteristics of our studies lie in using DH methods to do Chinese text analysis. We are among a small pioneer group attempting to experiment DH approaches in Chinese studies. We are convinced that the results of our studies are very meaningful and they will provide rich resources of reference for applying DH approaches in textual analysis in other languages.  
Based on what we have done so far, we will further employ theories from cognitive sciences, allegory theory, statistics methods, thinking about the possibility of new breakthroughs of DH approaches. We are confident that our new methods will shed new light on current DH studies. The unique perspectives of DH studies, which differ from the traditional historical approaches, will offer new methods and open up new problem domains, making important paradigm shift in Humanities studies.
References

Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Chan, C.-Y. and Wang, N.-X. (2011). The “Isms” of Digital Humanities. In Hsiang, J. (ed), New Approaches to Historical Studies. Taipei: National Taiwan University Press. (In Chinese)
Chen, C.-L. and Liu, C.-L. and Chang, Y.-C. and Tsai H.-P. (2013). Opinion mining for relating multiword subjective expressions and annual earnings. US financial statements, Journal of Information Science and Engineering, 29(4):743‒764.
Deignan, A. (2005). Metaphor and corpus linguistics. Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Philadelphia, Pa. : John Benjamins.
Huang, W.-J. and Liu, C.-L. (2013). NCCU-MIG at NTCIR-10- Using lexical, syntactic, and semantic features for the RITE tasks. Proceedings of NTCIR-10. Held 18-21 June 2013.
Jin, G.-T. and Chiu, W.-Y. and Liu, C.-L. (2012). Frequency analysis and applications of “co-occurrence” phrases: The origin of the 'Hua-Ren' concept as an example. In Hsiang, J. (ed), Essential Digital Humanities: Defining Patterns and Paths. Taipei: National Taiwan University Press. (in Chinese)
Jin, G.-T. and Liang, Y.-Y. and Yu, Y.-S. and Liu, C.-L. (2012). Lexical statistics and key terms in Chinese documents of the early 20th century. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference of Digital Archives and Digital Humanities. Held 29-30 November, 2012. (in Chinese)
Jin, G.-T. and Liu, Q.-F. (2008). Study of the History of Ideas: Formation of Modern China's Important Political Terms. Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong Research Centre for Contemporary Chinese Culture. (In Chinese)
Koselleck, R. (2002). The Practice of Conceptual History: Timing History: Spacing Concepts. Todd S. P. et al., (trans). Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. (1989). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Liu, C.-L. and Jin, G-T. and Liu, Q.-F. and Chiu, W.-Y. and Yu, Y.-S. (2011). Some chances and challenges in applying language technologies to historical studies in Chinese. International Journal of Computational Linguistics and Chinese Language Processing, 16(1-2):27-46. http://www.aclclp.org.tw/clclp/v16n12/v16n12a3.pdf
Lovejoy, A. O. (1936). The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Pocock, J. G. A. (1989). Politics, Language, and Times: Essay on Political Thought and History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Skinner, Q. (2002). Visions of Politics, vol. I, Regarding Method. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Williams, R. (1983). Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wittgenstein, L. (2001[1953]). Philosophical Investigations. Anscombe E. (trans). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.","txt","2","",""
"1814","15","""Needless To Say"": Articulating Digital Publishing Practices as Strategies of Cultural Empowerment","10","The open-access, multimedia, peer-reviewed journal Southern Spaceswill soon begin its tenth year.1 Published by the Emory University Libraries, Southern Spaces is an online-only journal of critical regional studies that takes as its subject the real and imagined spaces and places of the US South and their global connections. From its years of encouraging digital cultural empowerment as a strategy to transform scholarly publishing, Southern Spaces offers a case study for inquiring into the effectiveness of a project intent upon increasing participation in the creation, dissemination, and curation of humanities scholarship. Given the entrenched commercial clout of conventional scholarly publishing and the slow-to-change institutional structures for tenure and promotion that still resist digital humanities scholarship, how can we assess the significance of this project of digital cultural empowerment? And how do the years of experience in publishing Southern Spaces contribute to an understanding of broader movements of cultural critique and social change?
Writing about the future of digital scholarly publishing in Educause Review Onlinein 2013, Edward Ayers points to several examples of “acceleration into a full, digital-only environment.”
""Scholars, libraries, and professional organizations in my own field of American history are sustaining innovations in online journals such as Southern Spaces and the Journal of Southern Religion and in digital meeting places such as Common-place and History News Network (HNN). These projects bridge traditional practice and digital possibilities in strategic ways. . . . Blogs and online conversations advance and deepen scholarly conversations, with their impact measured immediately in the number of downloads, views, forwards, comments, and tweets.""
Ultimately, however, Ayers argues that outside of a limited number of examples, “the articles and books that scholars produce today bear little mark of the digital age in which they are created. Thus the foundation of academic life—the scholarship on which everything else is built—remains surprisingly unaltered.”2
Years after the emergence of open-access scholarly publishing platforms, the persistence of institutional inertias, rigid business models, and professional habits of judgment delay and thwart wider deployment of the rich media environment and continually expanding platforms of digital dissemination.3 Established academic print journals have little reason to change their modes of publication and few have done so.4 As a result, young scholars, especially in humanities disciplines, find themselves startled by atavistic attitudes. Consider the following excerpt from a letter I recently received from an untenured assistant professor about his journal publishing options:
""I have to share some unfortunate news with you about my contribution to Southern Spaces. I’ve recently been able to have a series of conversations with the new director of my program, who is also my advocate and advisor with regard to tenure and promotion—my review will begin next academic year. I discussed Southern Spaces with [my director] and while we both think that the online format and the multimedia potential of the format are important to the future of scholarship, her advice to me was that other members of my P/T committee have far more traditional views and would be reluctant to recognize Southern Spaces as a publication on par with a print journal. Needless to say, I don’t agree with that assessment, but I think I have to accept it.""
Expressed apologetically, “needless to say” acknowledges the tempting, strong, and rising currents of digital publishing practice that are transforming scholarship by making its production more participatory and “free” (in the sense of free speech),5 and its reception widely available. Necessary to say, peer-reviewed Southern Spaces essays are used by scholars in a variety of successful professional efforts including tenure and promotion, applications for post-doc fellowships, and landing new kinds of jobs with digital libraries and regional centers.
As part of its intentionality, the collaborative process of producing an open access journal can create a training center where students acquire a range of skills—working with open source software, copyediting, map making, assisting writers and videographers in developing essays, creating technological tools, implementing layout and design—that are valuable in the new digital publishing environment. In a sense, this is a kind of “building scholarship,” in which “the interventions that occur as a result of building are as interesting as those that are typically established through writing.”6 If conceptualized broadly, open-access journal production should also involve a network of independent scholars; researchers associated with nonprofit, grassroots, and nongovernmental organizations; alt-academic writers; as well as the expected cast of college and university-based professors. Supporting this broad understanding of scholarship, Southern Spaces (and its social media tools of promotion, e.g., Facebook, Twitter, RSS) has served as an available publishing platform for community-based groups and regional writers engaged in contemporary research related to immigration, environmental destruction, and the crisis of public education. Alerting a networked, topical public about critical writing of interest can produce tens of thousands of readers, as evidenced by a Southern Spaces essay on the crisis of government in North Carolina.7
With persistent advocacy, the presence of a journal project can lead to institutional commitments for long-term archival preservation of the born-digital materials generated in the work of the journal and into mutually supportive intergroup alliances through organizations such as the recently created Library Publishing Coalition.
It is necessary to say, and to articulate in detail, the various practices of open access publishing that, taken together, comprise a strategy that extends beyond the academy into wider social networks. Drawing upon a decade of publishing practice, my proposed paper will identify and elaborate how a project such as the multimedia journal Southern Spaces works to advance cultural empowerment through digital design, creation, dissemination, and curation.
References

1. See southernspaces.org. ISSN 1551-2754.
2. Edward L. Ayers (2013), Does Digital Scholarship Have a Future? Educause Review Online, August 5 www.educause.edu/ero/article/does-digital-scholarship-have-future?utm_source=Informz&utm_medium=Email+marketing&utm_campaign=EDUCAUSE, accessed October 19, 2013.
3. On the social consequences of habits of judgment see Judith Butler, Giving an Account of Oneself (New York: Fordham University Press, 2005).
4. For an early statement on the prospects of change that electronic publishing might bring see Bill Kasdorf, “Guest Editor’s Gloss: Reflections on the Revolution,” Journal of Electronic Publishing, 3:4 (June 1998). quod.lib.umich.edu/j/jep/3336451.0003.401/--guest-editors-gloss-reflections-on-the-revolution?rgn=main;view=fulltext.
5. What is free software? GNU Operating System. www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html.
6. Stephen Ramsay and Geoffrey Rockwell (2012), Developing Things: Notes toward an Epistemology of Building in the Digital Humanities, in Matthew K. Gold, ed., Debates in the Digital Humanities (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press), 83.
7. Dan T. Carter, (2013). North Carolina: A State of Shock, Southern Spaces, September 24. southernspaces.org/2013/north-carolina-state-shock.","txt","2","",""
"1815","15","""Tout ce qui n'est point vers, est prose"" : Raymond Queneau's Matrix Analysis of Language and Syntactic Stylometry","2","Introduction

Established techniques in stylometry typically measure word and ngram frequencies with limited consideration of syntax. While it is often easier to access and interpret statistically significant words in a text, an analysis of syntax alone can provide interesting and unexpected results. The analysis presented here represents what Nick Montfort calls exploratory programming, where ""there's no specification or problem to be solved, but there are things to be discovered.""1 An initial research question can be a pretext for exploring computation as a means of discovery rather than modeling.
Raymond Queneau's Matrix Analysis of Langauge

Raymond Queneau, a founding member of the Oulipo who recognized the potential of computation for literary analysis and creation, developed a technique for measuring a text's syntax. In a paper he published in 19642, Queneau explored the mathematical properties of a system of tagging parts of speech according to two categories: signifiers, which include nouns, adjectives, and verbs (except avoir and être); and formatives, which include everything else (avoir, être, pronouns, articles, conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs, interjections, etc.). Given a word group such as a sentence, one can construct two matrices where the first matrix contains all formatives and the second all signifiers. If a word group contains two consecutive formatives or signifiers, one can use a unitary element in order to construct the matrices: Fig. 1: The sentence “Le vilain chat a bien mangé la belle souris” can be represented as the product of two matrices.
The product of a formative and a signifier is a bi-word. By adopting the conventions that neither (1 x 1) nor (A x 1) + (1 x B) are allowed, one avoids uninteresting or redundant bi-words. Any sentence can therefore be transformed into a sequence of pairs of words, and each pair is either a bi-word (B), a formative (F), or a signifier (S). According to this schema, the sentence in Fig. 1 can be rendered as
B S F B B S.
Syntax and Textual Signals

In previous research I explored Queneau’s matrix analysis as a by-product of a more fundamental approach to ludic experimentation in computational literary analysis.3 Initial results showed that matrix analysis could be used to attribute authorship with reasonable success. With the development of the stylo package of stylometry tools for the R programming language,4 I combined matrix analysis with cluster analysis in order to determine if an authorial signal could be detected through syntax alone. Using a corpus of 17th-century French plays compiled by Fièvre5 and preprocessed by Schöch,6 I transformed the plays into sequences of the letters F, S, B and P using Schmid’s TreeTagger parser.7 I added the letter P to Queneau's schema to designate punctuation, which interrupts the flow of words and allows for occurrences of F P S instead of F S (which would be a bi-word, or B). Spaces were inserted between the letters to facilitate word token analysis (instead of character analysis). The first lines of Molière’s Les Femmes savantes8
 
Quoi ? le beau nom de fille est un titre, ma soeur,
Dont vous voulez quitter la charmante douceur,
Et de vous marier vous osez faire fête ?
Ce vulgaire dessein vous peut monter en tête ?
 
are thus rendered as the following sequence of letters:
F P B S B F B P B P S B S B S P S F B B S S P B S B S B P
 
A cluster analysis of the corpus reveals that that the dominant signal is not authorial but formal, depending on whether a text is written in verse or prose: Fig. 2: Cluster analysis of 17th-century French theatre texts reduced to their syntactic structure according to Queneau’s schema for matrix analysis.
The corpus clustered perfectly into groups of verse texts (light) and prose texts (dark). These results are surprising, given that traditional verse is determined by meter and rhyme and not explicitly by syntax. Because texts in verse follow the convention of capitalizing the initial letter of the first word of each line, the TreeTagger parser occasionally identified conjunctions and other formatives as proper nouns, tagging them erroneously as signifiers. To see if capitalization affected significantly the clustering, I lowercased every letter (thus masking all proper nouns): Fig. 3: Cluster analysis of 17th-century French theatre corpus with lowercased texts.
The results are nearly the same. A more accurate analysis would require documents encoded to identify proper nouns.
Principal Component Analysis of Syntax Sequences

In order to examine more closely the syntactic structures differentiating verse from prose, I adopted a technique developed by Khmelev and Tweedie using Markov chains of letters to detect low-level sequence patterns.9 Given any text, one can produce a transition matrix that represents the frequencies of Markov chains of bigrams based on Queneau’s schema. Here is the transition matrix for Les Femmes savantes:
   S  F  B P
 S  0.2183949  0.2482244  0.2769886  0.2563920
 F  0.0000000  0.3890392  0.4995489  0.1114118
 B  0.2373926  0.2155913  0.2045805  0.3424356
 P  0.4042477  0.3707703  0.2221022  0.0028798
This produces sixteen possible bigram combinations, although in reality there are only fifteen because FS never occurs (FS = B). We can consider the frequency of each bigram as a distinct measurement of a text and then analyze all the texts in the corpus as 15-dimensional vectors (this approach is similar to that of Hirst and Feiguina10). I reduced the vector space to three principal components and generated the following three-dimensional triplot (projected here as three biplots):  Fig. 4: Projection of PC1 and PC2 from a PCA triplot. Fig. 5: Projection of PC1 and PC3 from a PCA triplot. Fig. 6: Projection of PC2 and PC3 from a PCA triplot.
The significant rotations for PC1 are SP, PF, FF, BF and FP, correlated negatively with BB, SS, BS, FB, SB and PS; those for PC2 are BF, SF and FF, correlated negatively with FP, SS, PB and BP; and for PC3 the significant rotations are PP, FP and SF, correlated negatively with FB, FF, BB and PB. These results are preliminary but Fig. 7 clearly shows how prose and verse texts separate in the triplot: Fig. 7: Angled projection of PCA triplot.
There is a higher tendency among verse texts toward SS (consecutive signifiers), PS (initial signifiers after punctuation), SB and BS (signifiers and a bi-words in either order). Prose texts tend toward lower frequencies of SP (signifiers with no preceding formatives, followed by punctuation), FF (consecutive formatives), PB (initial bi-words after punctuation), PF (punctuation followed by formatives) and BF (bi-words followed by formatives). From these observations we can extrapolate further and say tentatively that in the syntactical structure of a text, verse tends to feature signifiers and prose tends to avoid formatives.  These results confirm earlier analyses of classical French plays by Beaudouin and Yvon who detected high frequencies of nouns in the sixth and twelfth metrical positions of alexandrine verse.11
Conclusion

It would seem that the Maître de Philosophie in Molière’s Bourgeois gentilhomme (II, 4) is not entirely risible in explaining the difference between verse and prose to Monsieur Jourdain.12 There appears to be a definite measurable difference between these two text forms, at least in French. What is remarkable with this finding is that the difference does not depend on specific word choice, meter or rhyme, even though those are the qualities readers appreciate in verse. I have completed a similar analysis with the ABU corpus13 (over 200 works in French spanning many centuries) and the results are comparable: Fig. 8: PCA triplot of the ABU corpus.
Cluster analysis and principal component analysis indicate that verse and prose are measurably different according to a purely syntactical analysis, with no explicit reference to semantics, phonetics or scansion. This discovery resulted not from an initial hypothesis about the relationship between syntax and text type but from exploratory programming, where a statistical technique commonly used to test authorship was applied to a purely syntactical transcription of texts. The investigation of an initial hypothesis (that authorship can be attributed to syntactical patterns) led to an entirely different conclusion through experimentation with computational techniques. One could pursue this research further by using Queneau’s matrix analysis of language to test liminal works such as Baudelaire’s Petits poèmes en prose14 to determine if an example of modernist poetry classifies as verse or prose. It should not be overlooked, however, that computational text analysis can produce interesting results through serendipity. 
References

1. Montfort, Nick. (2014) Exploratory Programming. Critical Code Studies Working Group. Web. 7 March 2014.
2. Queneau, Raymond. (1964) L’Analyse matricielle du langage. Etudes de linguistique appliquée 3: 37–50. Print.
3. Wolff, Mark. (2007) Reading Potential: The Oulipo and the Meaning of Algorithms. 1.1. Digital Humanities Quarterly. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
4. Eder, Maciej, Mike Kestemont, and Jan Rybicki. (2013) Stylometry with R: a Suite of Tools. Digital Humanities: Conference Abstracts. Lincoln, NE: 2013. 487–89. PDF file.
5. Fièvre, P. (ed. 2007-2013). Théâtre classique. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
6. Schöch, Christof. (2013) Data Is All You Need: Documentation for ‘Fine-Tuning Our Stylometric Tools’ at DH2013. The Dragonfly’s Gaze. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
7. Schmid, Helmut.TreeTagger: a language independent part-of-speech tagger. Institute for Natural Language Processing, University of Stuttgart. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
8. Molière. (1672)Les Femmes savantes, comédie. Fièvre. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
9. Khmelev, Dmitri V., and Fiona J. Tweedie. (2001) Using Markov Chains for Identification of Writers. Literary and Linguistic Computing 16.3: 299–307. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
10. Hirst, Graeme, and Ol’ga Feiguina. (2007) Bigrams of Syntactic Labels for Authorship Discrimination of Short Texts. Literary and Linguistic Computing 22.4: 405–417. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
11. Beaudouin, Valérie, and François Yvon. (1996) The Metrometer : a Tool for Analysing French Verse. Literary and Linguistic Computing 11.1: 23-31. PDF file.
12. Molière. (1670) Le Bourgeois gentilhomme, comédie-ballet. Fièvre. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
13. ABU (Association des Bibliophiles Universels). (1993-2013) La Bibliothèque Universelle. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
14. Baudelaire, Charles. (1869) Le Spleen de Paris ou Petits Poèmes en Prose. Litteratura.com. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.","txt","2","",""
"1816","15","<audio>Digital Humanities</audio>: The Intersections of Sound and Method","3","A wide range of interdisciplinary scholarship on sound has sparked investigations into the cultural histories of aurality and sound reproduction, the politics of the voice and noise, urban soundscapes, ethnographic modernities, acoustemologies, and the sonic construction of gender, race, and ethnicity.[i] These important qualitative studies, moreover, have in recent years been supplemented by large-scale quantitative analyses of speech and music datasets, several of which have been underwritten by the International Digging into Data Challenge, including the “Structural Analysis of Large Amounts of Music” (SALAMI) and the “Mining a Year of Speech” projects. Yet a lingering textual bias within digital humanities – largely a product of the field’s emergence from textual and literary studies – has obscured the significance of this work for the field, often preventing meaningful overlap. Copyright restrictions, the difficulties of archiving audio formats, and the general lack of tools for researching and writing in audio have contributed to the difficulty of working with sound in digital projects. Aside from the occasional use of CD appendixes or supplementary websites, for example, many studies have not taken full advantage of the affordances of digital media to produce scholarship that integrates audio content into scholarly argumentation. It is against this backdrop that leading sound theorist Jonathan Sterne has argued that “existing digital humanities work has largely reproduced visualist biases in the humanities” (2011).
By identifying and highlighting four research initiatives clustered around audio artifacts, this panel aims to bring sound scholarship and digital humanities into a more meaningful conversation with each other. As these projects demonstrate, sound is materially constituted, containing invisible environmental fingerprints or leaving physical traces in artifacts; and, further, is performative and temporally mediated. Thus to access and analyze sound requires not only a new approach to “tool making” within digital humanities, but a deeper engagement with media studies, archival science, and creative forms of scholarship more generally. As Trettien and Lingold’s Soundbox initiative shows, the methodological vibrancy of the field is also predicated on innovation and reform of our critical infrastructures, including the development of publication environments that can take advantage of the cross-medial character of much sound research. Elliott’s kits for cultural history, for example, allow users to experience the past through multiple sensory channels, including sight, sound, and touch; and Clement and Kraus’s work incorporates extensive spectrographic analysis. Thus a larger aim of the panel is to draw attention to the richly synaesthetic nature of digital sound studies.
Access and Analysis, Tanya Clement (15 minutes)

There are few analysis tools available for humanists interested in accessing and analyzing audio archives that comprise significant artifacts of bygone oral traditions represented in storytelling, speeches, oral histories, and poetry performances. In response to this lack, the iSchool at UT-Austin and the Illinois Informatics Institute (I3) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) hosted a year-long NEH-funded Institute for Advanced Topics in the Humanities called High Performance Sound Technologies for Analysis and Scholarship (HiPSTAS). HiPSTAS included twenty humanities junior and senior faculty and advanced graduate students as well as librarians and archivists interested in analyzing large audio collections. As this speaker will address, HiPSTAS has yielded significant results for audio big data analysis in the humanities including an implementation of the ARLO (Adaptive Recognition with Layered Optimization) software, a machine learning application for analyzing sound on Stampede, an NSF petascale HPC system at the Texas Advanced Computing Center. Originally developed to classify and analyze bird calls by extracting audio features and displaying the audio data as a spectral graph (Downie et al. 2008, Punyasena et al. 2012), ARLO has also been used by humanists as part of HiPSTAS to extract basic prosodic features such as pitch, rhythm and timbre for matching, discovery (clustering) and automated classification (prediction or supervised learning) (Figure 1). This talk will discuss how significant sonic patterns of interest to humanists are discoverable using ARLO with the PennSound poetry archive and the University of Texas Folklore Center Archives, among other collections.

Fig. 1: This spectrogram, created in ARLO, shows Gertrude Stein reading “Some such thing” from her novel The Making of Americans; each row of pixels is a frequency band presented across an X-access of time.
Media Archaeology, Devon Elliott (15 minutes)

Recent research in media archaeology (Fuller 2005, Gitelman 2006, Kirschenbaum 2008) underscores why the material particulars of technology matter where questions of culture are concerned. This research is frequently anchored in archival documents—including lab notebooks, patents, and engineering journals—that correspond with technological experiments. Building on this research, this talk shares initial findings from the “Kits for Cultural History” project, a collaboration between the Maker Lab in the Humanities (UVic), the Lab for Humanistic Fabrication (Western), and several memory institutions across Canada. The project involves making physical kits that encourage scholars to reconstruct historical experiments through the use of schematics, facsimiles, and rich media. Audio is central to a number of these kits, especially kits that focus on sound reproduction. Not only does it add another modality to research that is usually text-based or visual in character. It also emphasizes how any media history is a history of the senses: a history of how embodied behaviors like listening relate recursively with technological developments. With audio in mind, the talk argues for the relevance of experimental reconstruction to digital humanities, highlighting the importance of: 1) old technologies to contemporary computing practices, 2) multimodal learning and applied methods to media history, 3) integrating museum collections into these methods, and 4) understanding sound as necessarily material, subject to techniques commonly found in, say, textual studies. These four points draw together domains all too often parsed: visual and sonic paradigms, critical thinking and critical making, media archaeology and digital humanities. 
Signal and Noise, Kari Kraus (15 minutes)

Twentieth-century recorded sound, like the first electric power system, originated in Thomas Edison’s Menlo Park laboratory shortly before the turn of the century (Hughes, Morton). In the decades that followed, sound technology and power transmission would continue to develop in tandem.  In this presentation we introduce an unexpectedly useful consequence of the historic entanglement of sound and electricity: the ability to code our past for time and place. A new collaboration at the University of Maryland aims to recover the date and time on which an historic recording was made based on analysis of incidentally captured traces of small variations in the electric power supply at the time of recording (Oard, et al; Su, et al). Although the field of audio forensics has used such Electric Network Frequency signatures to authenticate contemporary recordings for over a decade, our project seeks to extend the period for which baselines are available a further half century into the past. We do this by assembling recordings that were made at known times and comparing their ENF signatures with the signatures in recordings for which we lack such provenance information. 
After summarizing the results of our initial experiments, we focus on implications for archival practice, including retention of the original ENF signal across media formats (Figure 1), and conclude on a theoretical note: because ENF is traditionally dismissed as electronic noise by audio engineers and regarded as non-semantic in character, it poses an interesting challenge to the well-established archival concept of “significant properties.”

Fig. 2: Analog recordings that have undergone digital conversion and reformatting will often contain two or more ENF signatures: an original and a recaptured signature. The spectrogram in the image on the left shows the ENF trace from a 1962 magnetic tape recording of an oval office meeting during the Kennedy administration and a separate ENF trace embedded at the time of digitization. In the figure on the right, two signatures overlap. We have developed preliminary techniques for distinguishing these multiple traces.
Publication and performance, Whitney Trettien and Mary Caton Lingold (15 minutes)

Soundbox is a collaborative exercise in producing and publishing sonic scholarship. Its main research output is an edited digital collection bringing together a vanguard of emerging scholars and critical artists engaging in sonic scholarship, from exhibits and installations to digital essays, soundscapes, and speculative digital tools.
While the original goal of the project was to show, through example, the wide range of possibilities for an amplified digital humanities, the impossibility of publishing this work through standard scholarly venues – that is, those that facilitate the forms of peer review required for advancement in the profession – has become clear as the project proceeds. Because of concerns over long-term maintenance of digital scholarship, database-driven platforms like Omeka, Scalar, and Wordpress are quickly becoming the standard publishing format for digital work. Designed around arguments written in text and image, though, these platforms are largely inadequate to scholarship that integrates sound beyond the occasional linked audio clip. Thus the potential for amplified scholarly production opened up by, for instance, creative, small-scale, targeted uses of the HTML5 audio tag remains largely unrealizable within an increasingly calcified digital publishing infrastructure – a fact with ongoing consequences for what “counts” as digital humanities scholarship.
Using Soundbox’s experience as a case study, the speakers address the structural biases that continue to silence digital humanities. We argue for balancing the need for long-term maintenance and accessibility with a pluralistic approach that does not foreclose the possibilities of new forms and formats.
References

Attali, Jacques (1985). Noise: The Political Economy of Music.  Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Cavarero, Adriana (2005).For More Than One Voice: Toward a Philosophy of Vocal Expression.  Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. Print.
Dolar, Mladen (2006). A Voice and Nothing More. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
Downie, J. S. , Tcheng, David K., and Xiang, Xin (2008). “Novel interface services for bioacoustic digital libraries” in Proc. 8th ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conf. on Digital Libraries. New York: ACM, 2008: 423-423.
Fuller, Matthew. (2005). Media Ecologies: Materialist Energies in Art and Technoculture. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.  
Gitelman, Lisa. (2005) Always Already New: Media, History, and the Data of Culture. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.  
Hirschkind, Charles. (2006) The Ethical Soundscape: Cassette Sermons and Islamic Counterpublics.  New York: Columbia University Press.
High Performance Sound Technologies for Access and Scholarship project blogs.ischool.utexas.edu/hipstas/
Hughes, Thomas Parke. (1983) Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Print.
Josephson, Matthew (1992). Edison: A Biography. New York: J. Wiley. Print.
Kirschenbaum, Matthew (2008). Mechanisms: New Media and the Forensic Imagination. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.  
LaBelle, Brandon (2010). Acoustic Territories: Sound Culture and Everyday Life.  New York: Continuum.
Meintjes, Louise (2003. Sound of Africa!: Making Music Zulu in a South African Studio. Durham: Duke University Press.
Morton, David. (2004). Sound Recording: The Life Story of a Technology. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Print.
Moten, Fred (2003). In the Break: The Aesthetics of the Black Radical Tradition.  Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Oard, D., M. Wu, K. Kraus, A. Hajj-Ahmad, H. Su, R. Garg (2014). “It’s about Time: Projecting Temporal Metadata for Historically Significant Recordings.” Forthcoming, Proceedings of the 2014 iConference. Berlin, Germany. 4-7 March 2014. ACM Digital Library. Web.
Ochoa, Ana Maíra (2006). “Sonic Transculturation, Epistemologies of Purification and the Aural Public Sphere in Latin America.” Social Identities 12.6: 803-25.
Punyasena, Surangi W., Tcheng, David K., Wesseln, Cassandra, Mueller, Pietra G (2012). “Classifying black and white spruce pollen using layered machine learning.”New Phytologist 196.3: 937-944.
Rodgers, Tara (2010).Pink Noises: Women on Electronic Music and Sound.  Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Smith, Mark M (2006). How Race Is Made: Slavery, Segregation, and the Senses.  Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Print
Smith, Mark M (2001). Listening to Nineteenth-Century America.  Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Print.
Sterne, Jonathan. The Audible Past: Cultural Origins of Sound Reproduction.  Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003.
Sterne, Jonathan. (2011) “Audio in Digital Humanities Authorship: A Roadmap.” (essay in progress) Super bon! Online:superbon.net/?p=1915. Accessed June 7, 2013.
Sterne, Jonathan (2012). MP3: The Meaning of a Format.  Durham: Duke University Press.
Su, H., Garg, R., Hajj-Ahmad, A., Min Wu (2013). “ENF Analysis on Recaptured Audio Recordings.” Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing (ICASSP). Vancouver, BC, Canada. 26-31 May 2013. 3018-3022. Web.
Thompson, Emily Ann (2002). The Soundscape of Modernity: Architectural Acoustics and the Culture of Listening in America, 1900-1933. Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press.
Toop, David (2010). Sinister Resonance: The Mediumship of the Listener.  New York: Continuum.
Weheliye, Alexander G. (2005). Phonographies: Grooves in Sonic Afro-Modernity.  Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
For cultural histories of aurality, see entries for Smith 2001, 2006 in the bibliography; for sound reproduction, Sterne 2003, 2012; for the politics of the voice, Cavarero 2005, Dolar 2006; and noise, Attali 1984; for urban soundscapes, see entries for Toop 2010, Thompson 2002, Labelle 2010; ethnographic modernities and acoustemologies are covered in Hershkind 2006 and Ochoa 2006. The sonic construction of gender receives treatment in Rodgers 2010 and Martin 1991; for race and ethnicity, see Weheliye 2002, Moten 2003, Smith 2006, and Meintjes 2003.","txt","2","",""
"1817","15","5 Design Rules for Visualizing Text Variant Graphs","10","1. Motivation
After Schmidt’s article 1 on modelling and representing
various versions of text with so called Variant Graphs was
published in 2009, web-based tools were developed that utilize
and adopt the presented model to facilitate the work with digital
editions of text in the browser. CollateX 2 is one of these tools.
It computes a static, horizontally aligned, directed acyclic graph
with vertices showing the various text fragments and edges
labeled with edition identifiers connecting subsequent text
fragments. The tool Stemmaweb 3 extends the CollateX graph
to allow for user-driven annotation and modification of the graph
structure (e.g., merging and splitting of vertices). Despite the
attached interaction capabilities, it seems that there is little
value put on designing the graphs. The purpose of this paper is
to raise awareness for improving the readability of Text Variant
Graphs. We propose a list of design rules for styling the graph
and its vertices and edges to facilitate a rapid comprehension of
the underlying alignment structure by the user.
2. Design Rules for Text Variant Graphs
When defining rules for the layout of Text Variant Graphs,
we refer to the visualization of CollateX, as its layout is also
used in Stemmaweb, and it can be seen as an improvement
in comparison to the generated graph of the tool NMerge 4
– provided by Schmidt –, where edges carry all types of
information.
When we take a look at a resultant CollateX graph (see
Figure 1), it is hard to find out how often a text fragment occurs
over all given editions. Thus, it is hard to compare, e.g. the
numbers of synonyms. The only chance is to count the edition
identifiers at the labels of the incoming edges of the desired
vertices. But we can easily put this information on the vertex
layouts, which leads us to Rule 1: Vary vertex label sizes!
As Wattenberg proposes for the ”Word Tree” 5 , we suggest
weighted vertices also for Text Variant Graphs. The usage of
font size as a metaphor to reflect the number of occurrences
of individual text fragments helps to immediately differentiate
between frequent and infrequent branches of the graph.
Lausanne, Switzerland
221
Fig. 1: Fourth Bible verse in 7 different editions: Text Variant Graph
computed with CollateX
Fig. 2: Fourth Bible verse in 7 different editions: Our visualization
It seems to be obvious to draw the edges of a directed acyclic
graph in the shape of arrows. But for what reason, when we
know that we read a text with a dedicated writing direction?
Then, most probably, the user is supposed to read the graph
in the same direction, and it is counterintuitive to move the
eyes backwards when reading (in Figure 1, we find an edge
from ”saw” (right-top) to ”the light” (bottom-left) – we call this
a backward edge). In graph theory, the common style for a
directed acyclic graph is a so called layered graph drawing 6
 with all edges pointing in the same direction. Thus, we define 
Rule 2: Abolish backward edges!  When doing so, we can
reduce the cognitive load of the visualization by drawing
undirected edges instead of arrows.
The labeling of edges with edition identifiers as it is done
in CollateX leads to two problems. Firstly, the additional text
labels interfere with the vertices' texts. Thus, the reader has
to visually separate vertex labels (text fragments) from edge
labels (identifiers). Secondly, if lots of editions pass an edge
or long edition identifiers are used, the corresponding edge
labels become very large. As a consequence, adjacent vertices
drift apart and the reader quickly loses the context of a text
fragment. Therefore, follows our Rule 3: Do not label edges!
As an alternative, we suggest drawing an edge for each edition
in a different color. However, as the human ability to distinguish
colors is limited, it only works well or a small number (<10)
of editions. But, with varying stroke styles for edges (e.g.,
line, dashed line, dotted line) we are again able to increase
this number. In any case, a legend is required to map the
given styles (or in the CollateX case, the identifiers) to its
corresponding edition name.
When analyzing and comparing text editions to each other,
the user is often interested in those editions, that deviate from
the ”general case”. Within the Stemmaweb tool 7 , edges, that
are passed by most editions, are labeled with ""majority”, thus,
the labels are bundled. When following Rule 3, we receive
multiple lines instead of multiple labels, hence, Rule 4: Bundle
major edges! We highlight both resultant edge types – bundled
and unbundled edges – in a different way. Unbundled edges
receive saturated colors in visually attracting hues, whereas
bundled edges are colored in a plain gray, but drawn with
slightly thicker strokes. Thus, the deviations from the general
case can be detected easily. When following Rules 3 and 4,
we are able to reduce the number of edges to be drawn – and
therefore, the cognitive load of our approach – to a passable
minimum.
Last but not least, the main problem we identified when
reading the horizontal aligned Text Variant Graphs was the
required horizontal scrolling. Especially, when the source texts
are long, the user quickly loses the context and it is hard to
keep track of how individual editions disseminate in the graph.
Moreover, a lot of space is wasted since the height of the
graph is rather small compared to the height of the screen.
The outcome of a survey within the TAdER Project 8 to avoid
horizontal scrolling when reading texts in the browser underpins
our hypothesis that the user is accustomed to scroll vertically.
Thus, here comes our final Rule 5: Insert line breaks! It may
sound tricky to cut the graph into pieces, and thereby, keeping
it easily readable. But, why shouldn’t we adopt the behavior
of a text flowing in a book (with line breaks) for Text Variant
Graphs? When following Rule 3, we receive different colored
edges (or edge bundles) at the end of each line, so that all
paths are visually seizable at the beginning of the next line. This
approach supports the user in following individual editions even
for large graphs, and the user also receives more context on the
screen for a specific position in the graph.
Figures 1 and 2 juxtapose the resultant Text Variant Graphs
for the fourth Bible verse with CollateX and our visualization that
implements the listed design rules above.
3. Following the Rules: 7 English Translations of
the Bible
We are working with seven English translations of the Bible
in our project 9 , which turned out to be a very good use-case
for the presented visualization approach, not only because
the Bible is a very influential and well-known text. Another
reason is, that these translations are all derivatives of the same
Hebrew and Greek original, often trying hard to preserve the
exact wording, and refer to an existing and well structured text,
divided into canonical books and verses.
Figure 3 shows a screenshot of the first five Bible verses.
After tokenization, normalization and alignment procedures,
we layout the resultant directed acyclic graph by following
the rules proposed in the previous section. For the seven
editions, we chose the following colors of the 12-color palette
for categorial usage suggested by Ware 10 to facilitate maximal
visual differentiation by the user: red, blue, green, yellow,
orange, brown, and purple. To support answering various
research questions, the user is able to modify the visualization.
Firstly, when the user hovers a vertex all individual edges of the
corresponding editions are drawn in the dedicated colors. This
mean of interaction helps to highlight the paths containing the
dedicated token and to clarify those editions forming majority
edges. Secondly, unimportant editions can be removed from the
graph. Thirdly, the user is able to select one of the editions as
a main branch, so that the corresponding vertices are drawn on
the same horizontal level – variations to the other editions can
be considered easily.
During the development phase, the humanists of our project
steadily evaluated our design, so that the result remains
intuitive even for the inexperienced, maybe sceptical user. We
strongly recommend such an iterative process when developing
visualizations for humanistic applications as it turned out to
be very successful. In comparison to a plain graph layout, the
presented design for the Text Variant Graph and the project
page reminds the user, that it is a book to be read, not just
some string of letters – which was a major concern of the
humanists.
Our presented approach is still applicable for examples
where whole blocks of text have different orders among the
various editions, but matching text blocks may strongly drift
apart. In the future, we direct our attention on developing
algorithms that visually align such structures more properly.
Digital Humanities 2014
222
Fig. 3: Screenshot of the Bible use case. In Genesis 1:4, all paths
containing the token ”divided” are highlighted.
References
1. Desmond Schmidt and Robert Colomb. A data structure
for representing multi-version texts online. International Journal
of Human-Computer Studies, 67(6):497–514, 2009.
2. Ronald H. Dekker and Gregor Middell. ComputerSupported
Collation with CollateX: Managing Textual Variance
in an Environment with Varying Requirements. Supporting
Digital Humanities 2011, University of Copenhagen, Denmark,
17–18 November 2011.
3. Tara L. Andrews and Caroline Mac. Beyond the tree of
texts: Building an empirical model of scribal variation through
graph analysis of texts and stemmata. Literary and Linguistic
Computing, 2013.
4. Multiversiondocs: Merge, edit and compare N versions in
one document. code.google.com/p/multiversiondocs/ (Retrieved
2013-10-30).
5. Martin Wattenberg and Fernanda B. Viégas. The Word
Tree, an Interactive Visual Concordance. IEEE Transactions
on Visualization and Computer Graphics, 14(6):1221–1228,
November 2008.
6. Kozo Sugiyama, Shojiro Tagawa, and Mitsuhiko Toda.
Methods for Visual Understanding of Hierarchical System
Structures. Systems, Man and Cybernetics, IEEE Transactions
on, 11(2):109–125, Feb 1981.
7. Stemmaweb – a collection of tools for analysis of collated
texts. byzantini.st/stemmaweb/ (Retrieved 2013-10-30).
8. TAdER – Text Adaptability is Essential for Reading.
www.tader.info/scrolling.html (Retrieved 2013-10-30).
9. Holy Bible – Verses in Various English Translations.
informatik.uni-leipzig.de/HolyBible (2013).
10. Desmond Schmidt and Robert Colomb. A data
structure for representing multi-version texts online.
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 67(6):497–
514, 2009.
","txt","2","",""
"1818","15","A ""Deeply Annotated"" Bibliography of Local Social Histories of Early Modern Europe","10","Issue:

Beginning in the 1950s, social historical investigations of single villages, towns, cities, and regions of early modern Europe emerged as a significant genre of historical writing. Authors such as Pierre Goubert and Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie demonstrated that the archival information density for early modern European towns and villages was just right for undertaking a kind of “total history” of the locality. These studies made claims to address important historical issues beyond the locality under investigation (often having to do with the transition to modernity) that were impossible to cover at the level of the nation or Europe as a whole. Though often identified by fairly generic labels such as “social histories” or “micro-histories,” they distinguished themselves from traditional local histories by explicitly promoting their exemplary character. Sources were generally more abundant than in medieval Europe, as parish registers, tax lists, and court protocols became more abundant; but the information was also pre-statistical, unprocessed by its creators. The timing for working with denser local sources was apt because new computer technology in the 1960s allowed historians to build databases that eased analysis of the pre-statistical material. Historians began to use specialized techniques from the social sciences such as Gini-coefficients of inequality and family reconstitution to work with the historical data in order to work with the data from this pre-statistical age.  As a result, early modern European history emerged as one of the historiographically richest historical fields by the 1970s. By the 2000s, however, the initial promise of “total history” from quantitative social science history was in retreat. Some of that retreat may be attributed to conceptual overreach in the first wave of local studies. Some works seemed to make excessively sweeping claims on the basis of limited cases. But perhaps equally consequential is that the sheer numbers of local studies made it hard to gain an overview of what had and had not been investigated for different parts of Europe.
Current Implementation:

The Early Modern European Social History Geospatial Bibliography Project (EMESHGB) is designed to help transcend these limitations and potentially spur new research in local histories by demonstrating the achievements of earlier research and identifying new paths to explore. It operates on several levels. At its simplest, it is a database of monographs about the localities of early modern Europe written since the 1950s. That database is enhanced by being accessible immediately through a map-based interface with a temporal slider. It is the first systematic effort to show the relationships between works concerning different parts of Europe, so that one can quickly establish what regions have been studied in depth and which are relatively under-researched. But the database will contain additional layers of information that can also be accessed geo-spatially and temporally from the interface. It is these additional layers that I call “deep annotation.” The deep annotation in the database is a more complex process. Some of it can be carried out without access to the books, directly from MARC records, but other parts of it require access to the works themselves. So far, the development of the ontology of the database and the required vocabulary for search is being done as an iterative process by looking at the individual works. In this early phase, it is limited to monographs written in English about all parts of Europe, along with a small subset of monographs written in French about France and in German about Germany, with the intention of expanding the geographical and linguistic scope once the robustness of the database ontology is clear.
 The purpose of the deep annotations will be to group information contained in each work in ways that will facilitate comparisons. The database will contain a full bibliographic citation. It will also extract information easily from that bibliographic citation that users would especially wish to search by: 1) date of publication, 2) range of historical dates covered in the book, 3) name of the locality covered, current country of locality, 4) type of locality covered (e.g. village, town, seigneurie, neighborhood of a city, historic province). From that information, the user could locate, for example, all village studies that cover the years from 1550-1600. The value-added annotations in the database will make even more complex comparisons possible. The key ones will be 1) principal sources used for analysis (e.g. local court protocols, parish registers, cadastral records, tax lists, personal correspondence), 2) social groups analyzed (e.g. peasants, nobles, artisans, burghers, women, children, outcasts), 3) social history concepts invoked (e.g. historical demography, proto-industrialization, inheritance practices, rebellion and resistance), and 4) social science methods employed (e.g. family reconstitution, transition matrices, Gini coefficients of inequality, total factor productivity). These categories are populated not by locating every possible mention of a technique or source, but by identifying those that figure most prominently in the overall arguments of each work. 
There is yet another way in which the geo-spatial and temporal information in the database will allow for a more complex visualization of historiography. Some of the works cited in each individual work will be other works in the database. There will, of course, also be many works cited that are not in the database. The ability to visualize citation networks will help establish which works have been most influential within and across national research traditions. 
The linkage of a database with a geo-spatial/temporal interface is no longer that rare in digital humanities. There is also a precedent for the database in question being on its most basic level a bibliography. For example, the Perseus Project located classical works on a spatio-temporal interface. Nevertheless, the EMESHGB is innovative in allowing users to isolate thematic elements in the bibliography for comparison on the map interface. It will prove an important new tool for the next generation of research into Europe’s transformation to modernity.  Researchers interested in undertaking their own local studies and wishing to maximize their impact will be able to quickly assess what kinds of questions have been addressed using what kinds of materials for what parts of Europe. They can examine under-researched regions, identify key questions that might usefully be applied to a different geo-spatial region, and determine how their study might be innovative within the genre. Researchers interested in the comparative development of Europe will be able to quickly identify comparable studies for cross-cultural comparisons.
Future Directions:

The first phase of building out the database of the bibliography relies on the subject matter expertise of a single scholar. The initial set of monographs is large enough to provide a useful test of the concept of the database and interface with a complete collection of information, without being so large that it cannot be processed. One reason for beginning the project “by hand” is because it is useful to check the structure of the database against its output with works that are familiar. Also, the fact that the works included in the database are almost all still under copyright has limited the opportunities for larger scale corpus analysis. However, there are opportunities for automating the assignment of information to the different fields in the database by means of topic modeling, the results of which can then be compared with those produced by the scholar. At the same time, we will be establishing a process to transition the project from a “one-off” single development team product to a permanently extensible project. That process will almost certainly involve some kind of tool for allowing people to contribute to the database directly. The project can be extended in several segments after the initial concept has been demonstrated. With each extension, the original database will gain additional utility. After completing the English-language monographs, the most obvious extension is to cover the foreign-language monographs from the same time period. After completing that phase, which would have to be done in some collaborative format with scholars in Europe, we can consider extending the project on one of several dimensions – chronologically (e.g. adding works addressing the medieval period), geographically (e.g. adding works on Latin America and North America in the early modern era), or genre of historical writing (e.g. adding journal articles).","txt","2","",""
"1819","15","A Digital Metaphor Map for English","2","1. Introduction

This paper focuses on the history of the English lexicon, and on displaying a new approach to this history through the database of the Historical Thesaurus of English1 (hereafter abbreviated to HT). It does so by reference to the semantic space of English, following Lehrer’s statement that ‘the words of a language can be classified into sets which […] divide up the semantic space or the semantic domain in certain ways’. This space is described in this paper as the total accumulation of the various individual semantic fields which make up the language, as represented in the HT database. The paper therefore computationally analyses the size of the English lexicon in these semantic clusters over time, including the metaphorical links which weave between these fields, and so aims to demonstrate the use of the HT in digital humanities by giving a digital analysis of the history of English in ways which were previously not possible.
As part of two wider projects,23 the present paper focuses on describing the general empirical outlines and development of the English semantic space, accompanied by a case study of three contrasting semantic fields and their metaphorical relationships. These are outlined below, following a description of the methodology and theoretical basis of the paper.
2. The Historical Thesaurus and Lexical History

The data used in this paper is drawn from the database of the HT, which arranges into hierarchical semantic categories all the recorded words expressed in English from Anglo-Saxon times to the present day, with 793,742 entries within 225,131 categories, each category representing a distinct concept. These concepts are arranged hierarchically and semantically, so that each concept is placed near or within other, similar concepts.
In so doing, the HT unlocks the linguistic and historical data which is currently inaccessible in any usefully-structured way inside historical dictionaries such as the Oxford English Dictionary (OED)4. As Charlotte Brewer says, with reference to a review in the Times of the OED:
""...even the intensively habitual user [of the OED] could not hope to construct, from an overwhelming multiplicity of individual items, the complete picture, ‘the various forms of [...] civilization arranged in chronological strata’...""5
Alphabetical arrangement, absent any alternative structure, makes this construction incredibly difficult, if not impossible. But the HT, which structures itself based on meaning and not the alphabet, does give researchers access to this ‘complete picture’. This was one of the intentions of the HT from the beginning: Professor Michael Samuels, founder of the project in 1964, saw it as a way of revealing the information about social and cultural change inside and throughout the lexicon which was not easily available for researchers to access.6 The HT is therefore a massive digital resource for the study of this phenomenon.
3. Semantic Space

Key for the first part of this paper is that the HT, when analysed in database form, gives an indication of rates of lexicalisation in the history of English. This relates to the phenomenon of synonymy, a situation in a language where a number of words are created (or lexicalized) for a single concept (for more on the following discussion, see, amongst others, Lyons 19957, Verhagen 20078, Hughes 19899, and Taylor 200310). While synonymy is a common occurrence in English, as in many other languages, the linguistic insight that synonymy is a form of recategorization, where speakers create a new synonymous term because they wish to reflect a shift in their understanding of, or attitudes towards, a particular concept, allows the use of data on lexicalization rates as an indicator of particular speaker attention to a given concept. Therefore, a situation where there are multiple words for a given concept reflects the evolution of speakers’ reactions, attitudes, perceptions and awarenesses of that concept, as human language is too efficient a system to permit there to exist large sets of undifferentiated terms which mean precisely the same thing. The present paper therefore uses this measure as a rough proxy for importance of a concept (just as frequency is used as a similar measure of importance in corpus linguistics, with all the associated issues that varying corpus construction techniques brings with it).
Therefore, for the first time, the database of the HT can give us an empirically based view of English by viewing the changes in the internal structure of the language from an entirely semantic viewpoint. By separating the story of English into the multiple stories of interacting and interrelated semantic fields, this approach can describe the history of English as one generally characterized by overall growth accompanied by occasional trauma which results in sudden expansions or contractions of the English lexicon. The rate of change of each semantic field is therefore a statistic which demonstrates the incidence of such instances of trauma, growing or declining in response to external and internal factors either particular to a semantic field or general to the language as a whole. Such general factors in English include the well-known sudden growth in the mid-1400s which occurs at the start of the English Renaissance, and the Elizabethan and Jacobean spurt which begins a little after 1550, which can be seen in Figure 1:

Fig. 1: The growth of the English language across time, as recorded in the HT.
In addition to presenting an overview of the growth of the semantic space of English between the years 1100 and 2000, the paper will also give short case studies of three aggregate semantic fields (figure 2) and their metaphorical relationships (see section 4 below):
02.01.15 Attention and Judgement, a very large and highly variable category, with an increase of 1000 words in the 1575-1600 period, but a fall of 261 in 1875-1900.
03.10.13 Trade and Commerce, a category which is relatively small but has one of the highest rates of growth spurts, punctuated with long plateaus.
03.05.05 Moral Evil, a category which peaks in 1650 and is one of the rare examples of frequent decline across the history of English, with a loss of 246 words between 1650 and 1900.

Fig. 2: The growth of three semantic fields. Square: 02.01.15 Attention and Judgement; Circle: 03.05.05 Moral Evil; Triangle: 03.10.13 Trade and Commerce.
Each of these reflect both global trends in the history of English (such as those above, in addition to relative plateaus in the 1700s) while also containing their own internal factors, such as shifts in religious emphasis and in broader economic and industrial patterns.
Not all of these factors are expected; there is no mention in the literature of the rise and fall of lexicalization in the semantic field of Moral Evil, nor in many of the other unusual patterns in the rate-of-change data described in this paper. The new data described here gives rise, in the tradition of digital humanities, to the necessity for further explanations from a range of humanities disciplines, such as linguistics, history and literary studies (see Alexander and Struan 201311 for an interdisciplinary study in a further semantic field).
4. Metaphoricity

Beyond these rates of change, each semantic field above has metaphorical links to other areas of the language, which the HT can reveal to us. Far from being a solely literary technique, much of all language is figurative – recent research has shown somewhere between 8% and 18% of English discourse is metaphorical, with an average of every seventh word being a metaphor.12
This is problematic, as while advances are being made in the semantics of digital texts, alongside emerging concepts of a semantically-aware Web, we are at a very early stage in comprehensively and systematically understanding English metaphor, and therefore at an early stage of being able to accurately deal digitally with the meanings encoded in those texts. By mapping the HT's semantic categories onto one another in order to analyse the degree of lexical overlap in different conceptual fields, we can provide results which will comprehensively demonstrate the widespread, systematic and far-reaching impact of metaphor on English. This is the aim of the Mapping Metaphor project at Glasgow,13 which provides some of our data in this paper, demonstrating empirically the systematic lexical connections between our case study fields (such as that between attention and vision, or evil and darkness).
5. Conclusion

Overall, as well as giving an overview of the history of the English semantic space and its metaphorical interrelationships, the paper also argues for a semantically-informed history of English which operates from a top-down approach, picking out broad patterns and the connections between various semantic categories in order to highlight for analysis those noteworthy elements in a large sea of data. As ever, such large-scale analyses are only possible through a combination of database techniques, statistical analysis, visual displays of complex datasets, and humanities scholarship.
References

1. Kay, C., J. Roberts, M. Samuels, and I. Wotherspoon (eds). (2009). Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2. Alexander, M. (2012). Patchworks and Field-Boundaries: Visualising the history of English. Conference paper at Digital Humanities 2012. Hamburg: University of Hamburg.
3. Anderson, W., M. Alexander, E. Bramwell, C. Kay, and C. Hough. (2013)–. Mapping Metaphor with the Historical Thesaurus. Glasgow: University of Glasgow. www.glasgow.ac.uk/metaphor
4. Simpson, J. and E. Weiner (eds). 1989. The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
5. Brewer, C. (2007). Treasure-House of the Language: The Living OED. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Page 232.
6. Samuels, M.L. (1972). Linguistic Evolution: With Special Reference to English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Page 180.
7. Lyons, J. (1995). Linguistic Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
8. Verhagen, A. (2007). Construal and Perspectivization. In The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Lingustics, eds D. Geeraerts and H. Cuyckens. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 48-81.
9. Hughes, G. (1989). Words in Time: A social history of the English vocabulary. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
10. Taylor, J.R. (2003). Linguistic Categorisation, 3rd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
11. Alexander, M and A. Struan. (2013). ‘In countries so unciviliz’d as those?’: Notions of Civility in the British Experience of the World. In Experiencing Imperialism, eds M. Farr and X. Guégan. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
12. www.glasgow.ac.uk/metaphor","txt","2","",""
"1820","15","A glimpse of the change of worldview between 7th and 10th century China through two leishu","10","What is leishu

Leishu (類書) is a unique form of Chinese source book for quick references and quotations.  The editor of a leishu would collect a large number of books, develop a knowledge structure of the intended knowledge domain (usually with a number of categories that cover the domain, each with a list of subjects), then extract texts, that the editor deemed relevant to each subject, from the content in the books.   Thus each subject has a list of entries which are texts taken from existing books.  Because the purpose was for quotation, the meanings of the subjects were not explained and the texts were quoted verbatim, usually with the source indicated.  (The lack of explanation of the subjects differentiates a leishu from an encyclopedia.)  The earliest leishu, Huanglan (皇覽), dates back to 220AD.
During the past 300 years leishu had been looked down upon by many Chinese scholars.  Its compilation nature was regarded as a lack of originality.  The ease of use as quick reference was criticized as providing a short cut and thus encouraged shallowness in scholarship.  Its value in the scholarly circle had largely been limited to being a vessel from which fragments of lost books were collected.
The advance of information technology allows us to look at leishu from a very different angle. The categories and subjects, together with the selections of entries, reflect how the world was perceived at the time when the leishu was compiled. Comparing two leishu from different era, thus, provides a way to observe how the world view had changed during the years between the two tomes.  This was not possible until now, when the availability of leishu in searchable full-text form finally provides a way to study and compare the books in their entirety.  
In this paper we present such a study.  The leishu we have chosen are yiwenleiju – YL (藝文類聚), completed in 624AD (early Tang dynasty) by Ouyang Xun, and taipingyulan – TY (太平御覽), completed in 984AD (early Song dynasty) by Li Fang.  Both were commissioned by the emperors and were about the general knowledge of the world.  YL divides its view of the world into 46 categories, further into 734 subjects. TY has 55 categories and 5,597 subjects.
It was stated in the preface of TY that YL, written 350 years earlier, was among the three main leishu consulted.  (The two other no longer exist.) With the full texts available through digitization, we can finally check effectively the inheritance relation between TY and YL. It also provide a way to observe the change of the world view between the two books, which is reflected not only by the numbers and titles of the categories, but also by the subjects that each category covers, and the entries that are listed under the subjects.   New subjects indicate the emerging importance of new concepts; the increase of entries under the same subject means more knowledge (or interest) about the subject; and the assignment of the same entry to a different subject signals the change of a viewpoint.  We will give some preliminary findings in this paper.
Processing the texts and building a system for comparison

The full texts in our study are obtained through Guoxuewang (www.guoxue.com). Treating an entry as a basic unit, we parsed each entry into the content and its source (the book from which the text is taken).  The source is further analyzed to identify the title of the book (sometimes with the chapter and the section), the author (if known), and the era (dynasty). An XML format is designed to associate an entry with its category, subject, source, and content. Further analysis was conducted to resolve name and author conflicts.  According to our results, YL has 14,572 entries, extracted from 5,628 sources, of which 787 are books and the rest (4,841) are individual articles such as poems, letters, and memorials.  TY, on the other hand, has 65,633 entries, extracted from 2,327 books and 1,832 other sources. Among the books 629 are cited by both. Of the remaining 1,698 books that are cited by TY but not YL, 498 are from pre-Tang era (which could have been included in YL) and 980 from era unknown (although the majority should be pre-Tang). The number of books that are certain to have been written after YL was completed is only 220.  The total numbers of words in the two books are about 900,000 and 4,000,000, respectively.
We then designed an algorithm based on the longest common sequence method to check if an entry appears in both books. Modifications to LCS are necessary to deal with different styles or errors in the quoted texts. Since the entries of YL are classified into affairs (事) and literature (文) while TY is primarily about affairs, we focused initially on comparing the entries in YL about affairs. We found that among the 9,701 such entries in YL, 7,249, or 75%, appear in TY.  That means TY did indeed heavily reference the earlier book. Those entries appeared 11,022 times in TY, since an entry may appear more than once.
We built a visualization system to compare the two books. An important feature is to show how many entries of a category/subject of one book are also cited in the other book and how they are distributed. We present here an example using the category fuming (divine signs, 符命) in YL. Figure 1 shows that of the 41 entries of the affairs part of fuming in YL, 27 also appeared in TY (left-most column). The middle-left column shows that these 27 entries appeared 51 times in TY.  The third column indicates that these 51 appearances belong to 40 subjects, and the right-most column further indicates that they belong to 16 categories.

Fig. 1: Correspondence of entries of fuming in YL and TY
Figure 2 is the list of categories with the number of entries that match those in fuming of YL.   Each category can be expanded to show the subjects that contain some of the related entries.

Fig. 2: Categories and subjects of TY that contain entries of fuming from YL
Figure 3 lists the entries of fuming in YL and the corresponding (similar) entries in TY.

Fig. 3: Comparisons of entries
Evolution of worldview

Comparing the two leishu reveals a number of striking changes in worldview between 7th and 10th century China.  We briefly describe three of them.
 
(1) The disappearance of fuming – divine justification
Fuming, a sign that provides divine justification to overthrow a dynasty (and to establish a new one), was an extremely important concept during Han Dynasty (206BC – 220AD).  Indeed, Fuming was included in YL as a category.  However, although the number of categories increased from 46 to 55, fuming conspicuously disappeared from TY (it did not even appear as a subject). Although many of the entries are still included in the latter book, they are listed in subjects such as an emperor or his mother and are scattered over 16 categories.  This means that the very concept of fuming became irrelevant politically at early Song.  Other subjects such as auspicious signs (祥瑞) met similar fate. Song Confusionism went through a dramatic development in mid 11th century.  The disappearance of fuming from TY seems to hint that the tide of ridding mysticism may have started a lot earlier, since TY was completed in 984AD.
 
(2) The rise and fall of Daoism and Buddhism
In YL, entries about Buddhism were listed in the category inner canon (內典), a Buddhist-centric term; non-Buddhist religious books are outer canons.  Entries about Daoism appeared under the subject immortals (仙道) in the category supernatural (靈異).  In TY, Buddhism and Daoism are both categories, with 10 and 53 subjects each.   While the number of entries about Buddhism increased from 169 to 197, those about Daoism went from 137 to 1402.  The 53 subjects include detailed classification of garments and buildings for different religious purposes.
Buddhism was introduced to China during the 1st century, and became the national religion during the 5th century.  Buddhism was the mainstream religion in early Tang, when YL was compiled.  After mid Tang, the indigenous Daoism started a revival and became an organized religion.   This trend, coupled with the anti-Buddhist attitude of the royal house and many intellectuals, weakened the dominance of Buddhism in China. This phenomenon is vividly demonstrated in our comparison.
 
(3) The emergence of foreign peoples
Although the concept of foreign peoples (四夷) in China is as old as 1000BC, there was no category nor subject about any foreign peoples in YL.  For instance, Wuo (倭), a country probably located in modern day Kyoshu Japan, started paying tribute to China as early as late Han dynasty (around 100AD).   However, Wuo was not mentioned as a subject in YL, although appeared (3 times) in subjects describing produce such as mulberry.  TY, on the other hand, has under the category foreign peoples 388 different countries and peoples with 920 entries, which include countries as far as the Roman Empire (大秦) and as near as various indigenous (yet alien) ethnic groups within China proper.   The entries are from books spanning across 1,500 years and are mostly about foreign tributes, trades, and mythologies.   Tang was a melting pot and its capital, Changan, was a great cosmopolitan city.   The intimate and frequent interactions with foreign people apparently also contributed to the establishment of China as an individual and separate identity.
Discussion

The intellectual progress of China between 7th and 10th century had been described as “mediocrity in an era of prosperity”.   In this paper we showed that the Song Confusionism revival of the 11th century might have had its way paved during this period.   Our observations are mainly through comparing two leishu, yiwenleiju completed in 624AD and taipingyulan in 984AD.  Such a study, however, would not have been possible without a systematic way to compare the knowledge structures and the contents of the two tomes.  This paper presents such a method to tackle this prohibitive task.
References

Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L (2001). Rivest and Clifford Stein.  Introduction to Algorithms (2nd ed.). MIT Press and McGraw-Hill. pp. 350–355. ISBN 0-262-53196-8.
Chung, Chia-Hsuan (2013), A study On the Evolution of Classifications in Leishu Yiwenleiju and Taipingyulan through Textual Analysis, MS Thesis, National Taiwan University.
Fu, Daiwie (2007), “The Flourishing of Biji or Pen-Notes Texts and its Relations to History of Knowledge in Song China (960-1279), in Qu’etait-ce qu’ecrire une encyclopedie en Chine, pp 103-130, Presses Universitaires de Vincennes, Saint-Denis.
Ge, Zhaoguang (1998), Chinese World of Knowledge, Thoughts, and Believes Before 7th Century, Fudan University Press, Shanghai.
Gernet, Jacques (1996), A History of Chinese Civilization, Cambridge University Press.
Hu, Daojing (1981), Zhongguo gudai leishu, Zhonghua Books.
Nakatsuhama, Wataru (1974), Yiwenleiju Yinshu Suoyin, Wenguang Publishing, Taipei.
Nie, Chongqi (1934), Taipingyulan Yinde, publisher unkown.
Wen, I-duo (1956), Tangshi zalun, Shanghai Guji Publisher.
Zhou, Shengjie (1998), Taipingyulai yanjiu, Sichuan Bashu Books.
Zurcher, Erich (2007), The Duddhist Conquest of China, Leiensia Sinica, Vol 11.
Many subjects of TY contain sub-subjects. This figure counts all sub-subjects. If the sub-subjects are not included, then the number becomes 4,066.
As can be seen, both leishu utilized many sources that were not books. This is consistent with previous works, in particular the two important indexes: on YL by Nakatsuhama, which listed 1025 books and 4600 other sources, and on TY by Nie, which listed 5005 sources (without separating books from others). Both indexes contain mistakes, which explains why our numbers are different.
Li Fang, the main editor of TY, also compiled two other great leishu, taipingguangji (太平廣記) and wenyuanyinghua (文苑英華)。Guangji consists of mainly stories and folklores and the latter literature. Since both tomes contain large quantities of material on both Buddhism and Daoism, one might get a different impression if comparing YL with these two leishu. However, as Fu pointed out, TY and guangji were derived from different biji (筆記) traditions and that TY “has an imperial center allied with literati”while guangji “lacks that political center and seems to have an other-worldly, spiritual orientation”.  Since TY  “places a greater emphasis on dynastic orthodoxies”, it is better suited for the comparison than the other two leishu.","txt","2","",""
"1821","15","A hipersensibilidade do Território - viver entre terra e nuvens","9","Os lugares aumentados multiplexos

O mapa é ele próprio um dispositivo cultural que foi tendo a sua metamorfose do proto-mapa aos mapas flexíveis em suporte digital. O mapa é um interface cultural, político, geoestratégico, clássico entre o sujeito e o território. O mapa permite relacionar agentes e sobrepor diversas camadas de informação: “O modelo estrutural do mapa é composto por três níveis de base: o mapa sintático, o mapa semântico, e o mapa pragmático. Os diversos níveis permitem ao mapa expressar-se como ferramenta de conhecimento, poder e comunicação.” (Neves, 2011,p.1). A passagem do paradigma analógico para o paradigma digital trouxe também ao mapa novas identidades e novas potencialidades. O mapa digital passa a ser dinâmico, permitindo usufruir da gestão de dados geográficos e ambientais complexos que os Sistemas de Informação Geográfica (SIG) passaram a permitir.  Desde do surgimento da “geographic information science” passaram mais de 20 anos (Goodchild, 2012), neste período deu-se uma mudança radical nos nível de conectividade à internet, na computação ubíqua, na miniaturização dos dispositivos de comunicação que permitiu a sua portabilidade. É neste contexto em que os dispositivos móveis conectados em rede e apetrechados de aplicações que usam informação georeferenciada,  em que o mapa surge como interface no qual se partilham conteúdos e se estabelecem redes sociais, que interessa pensar a relação entre mapa e território: onde acaba o mapa e começa o território? A terra como interface (Neves, 2011). E onde começa o território e acaba o mapa?  Há uma dupla textualidade. 
O mapa como plataforma geomedia multifuncional e multidimensional (Neves, 2011) abre, num efeito quase paradoxal, a oportunidade de ter o território a desempenhar a função de interface, de mapa que remete para o mapa. O território passa a estar embutido de sensores, de etiquetas RFID, etiquetas QR Code, etc., que o tornam num corpo implantado de dispositivos que o convertem em agente. Simbiose entre biológico, ecológico e a codificação, um meio saturado de capacidade computacional (Kang e Cuff, 2005). A ideia do cyborg, com a incorporação da tecnologia no próprio corpo, salta agora para o território – Cyborguização do território (Cyborgeo) – o território como organismo cibernético, corpo implantado de dispositivos que o tornam agente. Os três atores – natureza (espaço), ambiente construído (território) e subjetividade (usuário/lugar) – interatuam tendo como pele o mapa sensitivo e o território sensitivo que permitem ampliar as relações no cotidiano: “O território humano é o espaço povoado de artefatos tecnológicos. (...) É um mundo de tecnologias infiltradas, das tecnologias que, quanto mais poderosas, mais invisíveis.” (Firmino e Duarte, 2012, p.71).
O território écran, o próprio território é o elemento desencadeador da interação devido à sobreposição de territorialidades, o mesmo lugar pode ser desdobrado em camadas virtuais customizáveis graças à computação ubíqua, à realidade aumentada, aos interfaces tangíveis, aos smart objects (objetos conectados com a internet), wearable computers (dispositivos de computação e telecomunicações embebidos no vestuário), etc.
Nasce e incrementa-se uma nova dinâmica de relacionamento com o território, de possibilidade de antropologicamente nos situarmos, em que o território ganha novas camadas atuantes e em que o usuário se relaciona consigo, com o território e com os outros numa lógica de convergência e participação.
A análise deve ser realizada em três eixos: a representação, a semântica e a participação (Orellana e Ballari, 2009, p.29). Sendo que os LBSM (Location Based Social Media) – “As LBSM create a new kind of visibility and memory about places, persons and activities I argue that they are significant for the subjective assignment of sense top lace.” (Fischer, 2008, p.586) – permitem gerar novas dinâmicas de fruição do território, com uso de dispositivos móveis usando GeoCMS (Geospatial Content Management System).
O enraizamento da comunicação na territorialidade abre novas fronteiras na cultura da mobilidade, que deixa de ser apenas mobilidade virtual, navegação no ciberespaço, para ser navegação entre terra e nuvens. Sobre a imagem captada da realidade o utilizador pode obter novas camadas de informação sobre esse lugar, camadas de experiência e relação que não estariam ao seu alcance, criando ambientes mistos aumentados baseados na colaboração – ACME – Augmented Collaboration in Mixed Environments (Lucas, 2012).
Trata-se de uma ecologia midiática híbrida (Santaella, 2008) – novas espacialidade / hipercomplexidade cultural e comunicacional dos lugares – memória e esquecimento, individual e coletivo.
A informação geográfica (GIS), a internet das coisas dada pelas tags de radiofrequência (RFID) e a linguagem  de marcação geográfica (GML – Geographic Markup Language), entre outras tecnologias, criam a oportunidade de desenvolvimento de serviços que permitem gerar uma relação afetiva e sensorial com o lugar (sensorização do espaço → sensibilidade do lugar). Os elementos dos lugares passam a ser atores que dinamizam o usufruto e a fruição estética, emotiva, histórica, política e cultural do lugar. A questão central não é a tecnologia que rapidamente se torna obsolescente, a questão central é o ontos do lugar,  a sua essência, o que o torna particular, ou seja, é a  dimensão geocultural e geoemocional que é central – as pessoas têm no essencial uma relação estética com os lugares, gostam dos sítios. Mais do que um cálculo racional é de um cálculo relacional, afetivo que se trata. Deixam-se afetar pelo lugar. Esta sensorialidade é projetada na própria tactilidade dos dispositivos que interatuam com o território.
Cada lugar esconde um conjunto de informações, de relações potenciais, de desafios, mistérios e oportunidades, com os serviços de informação e comunicação georeferenciados abre-se a oportunidade de tornar visível o invisível dos lugares, de tornar patente o latente. Rede de pontos quentes do lugar (hotspots places) – rede de geotags que permite transformar/adicionar ao lugar uma camada que está nas nuvens, mas se cola ao lugar ampliando o potencial de relação. O lugar como um corpo com história e com histórias.
A comunicação em rede vê a sua dinâmica enriquecida pela percepção do contexto que se passa a ter. O enraizamento da comunicação na territorialidade abre novas fronteiras na cultura da mobilidade, que deixa de ser apenas mobilidade virtual, navegação no ciberespaço, para ser navegação entre terra e nuvens.
O território interface, desafios futuros

A criação de novos serviços em que a componente cultural e social seja central é o desafio principal. O envolvimento das instituições e organizações culturais a participarem na criação de conteúdos culturais de qualidade, que potenciem a riqueza histórica, cultural, social, política e científica de um lugar.
Este âmbito apresentamos 2 projetos desenvolvidos no Departamento de Comunicação e Arte da Universidade de Aveiro, Portugal. O Projeto Lookin que é um serviço para dispositivos móveis, que permite o reconhecimento de edifícios históricos através de um scan à fachada e partir daí o utilizador pode obter mais informação histórica e cultural sobre o edifico, partilhar comentários e imagens na rede social que esse serviço suporta. 

Fig. 1: Projeto Lookin
O outro Projeto, Bioduna , usa informação georeferenciada no contexto de uma reserva natural – Reserva Natural das Dunas de S. Jacinto – para fornecer ao visitante, que faz caminhada nos trilhos da reserva, informação em regime de realidade aumentada. Ou seja, o visitante apontando o dispositivo móvel (telefone, tablete, etc.) à paisagem recebe mais informação sobre a fauna e a flora, nomeadamente, vídeos com os fenómenos que ocorrem noutras épocas do ano. Assim, a sua experiência entre neste território hipersensível, entre terra e nuvens é muito mais rica.

Fig. 2: Projeto Bioduna
   Vive-se numa realidade mista – “Mixed reality defines the sharing of a space-time between the real and the virtual world.” (Lucasa, Cornishb et al., 2012, p.277) – na confluência da fruição do território com a fruição da territorialidade imaterial da camada cultural e social desse território.
References

Firmino, R.; Duarte, F. (2012) Do Mundo Codificado ao Espaço Ampliado. In: JANEIRO/FAU/PROARQ, U. F. D. R. D. (Ed.). Qualidade do Lugar e Cultura Contemporânea: controvérsias e ressonâncias em ambientes urbanos. Rio de Janeiro: Afonso Rheingantz e Rosa Pedro.  p.69-80.
Fischer, F. (2008) Implications of the usage of mobile collaborative mapping systems for the sense of place. Real Corp, p. 583-587,  2008.  
Goodchild, M. F. (2012)  Twenty years of progress: GIScience in 2010. Journal of Spatial Information Science, n. 1, p. 3-20. ISSN 1948-660X. 
Kang, J.; Cuff, D. (2005) Pervasive computing: embedding the public sphere. Wash. & Lee L. Rev., v. 62, p. 93.
Lucas, J. F. (2012) Interactions et réalité mixte dans la ville hybride. In: KHALDOUN, Z., HyperUrbain 3 : Villes hybrides et enjeux de l'aménagement des urbanités numérique - Actes de colloque HyperUrbain.3, 2012, Paris. Europia Production.
Lucasa, J.-F.; Cornishb, T.; Margolisc, T. (2012) To a cultural perspective of mixed reality events: a case study of event overflow in operas and concerts in mixed reality. New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia, v. 18, n. 4, Special Issue: Cultures in Virtual Worlds, p. 277-293.  Disponível em: < http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13614568.2012.746741 - preview >.
Neves, P. C. M. A Terra (2011) como Interface: O Paradigma do Mapa para o Século XXI. 113 Dissertação de Mestrado (Mestrado em Ciências da Comunicaçõa). Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisboa.
Orellana, D.; Ballari, D. (2009) La GeoWeb y su evolución: Un marco de análisis en tres dimensiones. Revista Universidad Verdad, v. 49, n. Agosto, p. 25-52.","txt","2","",""
"1822","15","A Large Database Approach to Cultural History","10","This panel introduces the work completed since 2012 by the Database of Religious History (DRH)1. The DRH is one of the flagship initiatives of the newly established Cultural Evolution of Religion Research Consortium (CERC)2,  based at the University of British Columbia and Simon Fraser University in Vancouver but involving eight Partner Institutions and over 55 collaborators from all over the world. CERC is funded by a 6-year, $3 million Partnership Grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada3, along with approximately the same amount in matching funds from the host institutions, partner institutions, and other partner organizations. The DRH aims to bring together, in a standardized, systematic form, data on sociocultural history from across the world and throughout history, from the earliest archeological records up to approximately 1500-1600 CE.
The DRH was originally focused on the collection and analysis of data pertaining to religious traditions—hence, its name—but since the summer of 2013 it has also had as its mandate the collection of other historical variables for China and Mesoamerica. These variables pertain in particular to historical polities, social complexity, natural resources, and warfare. Beginning in 2014, the DRH has extended its collection of all types of historical data to the other selected world regions (see below). The DRH thereby provides a reliable system for statistically measuring social complexity of past human civilizations and for identifying the causes of such complexity.
The panel comprises four papers that provide a the disciplinary and historical context of the project, a frank assessment of the project’s methodologies, a case study of religious and social history in Latium, and an overview of the suite of digital tools that have made the project possible. The ninety-minute period will be shared by five presenters (the technical paper has two co-authors), who will present in an organized yet dynamic fashion the history of the project since its conception in 2012. The paper by Brenton Sullivan (a post-doctoral research fellow at the University of British Columbia) focuses on the execution of the DRH, elaborating on the challenges involved with soliciting data from experts from around the globe and the most recent results of the project. The paper by Fred Tappenden (post-doctoral research fellow at McGill University) presents the theoretical challenges involved in defining religious traditions for the sake of quantitative analysis. Next, Carson Logan (technical specialist for DRH at the University of British Columbia) and Michael Muthukrishna (technical specialist for DRH and doctoral student at British Columbia) provide a live demonstration of the Database of Religious History and visualizations of the results of the research while introducing the technical hurdles encountered in the process. Finally, the paper by Edward Slingerland, the director of the DRH and Professor at the University of British Columbia, places the DRH in its disciplinary and historical context and summarizes its conception, its longterm goals, the practical and theoretical challenges it has faced, and how it has already begun to influence various fields of the humanities, particularly the academic study of religion. All five presenters have enthusiastically agreed to present in Lausanne.
References

1. See www.religiondatabase.arts.ubc.ca. A collaboration between DRH and another research project based at the University of Oxford, the Seshat Global Databank, dissolved in Feburary of this year. Although DRH’s data and the arguments made in our panel are our own, we are very indebted to Seshat and its directors for much of the inspiration to commence a project of such magnitude.
2. See www.hecc.ubc.ca/cerc/project-summary.
3. See www.sshrc-crsh.gc.ca.","txt","2","",""
"1823","15","A Morphological Analysis of Classical Chinese Texts","10","The most difficult point in the digital analysis of classical Chinese texts is that they don't have any spaces or punctuations between words or between sentences. They consist of continuous strings of Chinese characters from the start to the end of texts. Contrary to the analysis of modern Chinese texts, which have several punctuation marks and can be fragmented into phrases with these punctuation marks, the analysis of classical Chinese texts has to begin with finding out the ends of sentences.
Classical Chinese is an isolative language, which doesn't have any inflection or agglutination. Furthermore, we don't have any generally accepted word-class system for classical Chinese. We first ought to develop machine-supported word-class system for classical Chinese. However, in classical Chinese, many morphemes may be observed as nouns and verbs, etc. In this paper we propose a method to analyze classical Chinese texts. In our method, we use our original morphological analyzer based on MeCab 1. We propose a new four-level word-class system for classical Chinese on the MeCab-based analyzer. We design the top level of the word-class system to represent the predicate-object structure of classical Chinese. The second level is the ordinary word-class of classical Chinese. The third and fourth levels are word-subclasses to describe detailed behavior of the words in classical Chinese texts.
The development of our four-level word-class system for classical Chinese was not straightforward. At the early stage, we developed a prototype dictionary from IPA Japanese Dictionary 2 and defined a prototype word-class system for classical Chinese. We also developed a prototype corpus along the prototype word-class system. And then, at the later stage, we examined the prototype corpus and redefined our four-level word-class system to be more suitable and systematic for classical Chinese. Especially, we excluded “adjective” from the second level of our new word-class system, since, in classical Chinese, there exists no essential distinction between “verb” and “adjective” 3. We refactored the prototype dictionary into our new dictionary, and the prototype corpus into our new corpus.


Fig. 1: Our Four-Level Word-Class System for Classical Chinese
In our new word-class system (Fig.1), the top level, which we call “word-superclass,” is defined to represent the predicate-object structure of classical Chinese: “n” represents objectives, “v” represents predicates, and “p” represents others. The second level is the ordinary word-class of classical Chinese: noun, pronoun, numeral, verb, preposition, adverb, auxiliary verb, particle, and interjection. We first constructed the word-class from a famous classical-Chinese dictionary Zenyaku Kanjikai 4, and we reconstructed the word-class, especially excluding adjective. In our system, noun, pronoun, and numeral compose “n” word-superclass; verb, preposition, adverb, and auxiliary verb compose “v” word-superclass; particle and interjection compose “p” word-superclass.
The third and fourth levels are word-subclasses to describe detailed behavior of the words in classical Chinese texts. We first tried to construct these word-subclasses from Word List by Semantic Principles5. However, its levels were stratified too deep and its category was highly depended on Japanese. Therefore we constucted rather shallow word-subclasses, suitable for a morphological analysis of classical Chinese texts, from scratch (Fig.1). We have often revised the third and fourth levels of our word-class system. Whenever we revise our word-class system, we should modify our dictionary and corpus.
For the development of a large corpus, the collaboration of linguistic experts, scholars of classical Chinese, input operators, and data managers is required. We use a distributed version control system, Git, to support the collaboration for the development of our corpus. Git is a powerful but complicated system, so we restrict our use of Git to avoid conflicts between versions of our corpus. And we have developed our own “skin” to hide the complicatedness of Git. Our own “skin” mainly consists of Git-based corpus manager, our Mecab-corpus editor (mentioned below), a system updater of our dictionary and corpus, and a system updater of the framework.
In order to make corpus for classical Chinese on MeCab, we have constructed a MeCab-corpus editor based on XEmacs CHISE 6. We use the MeCab-corpus editor to compile our digital corpus and our digital dictionary based on our four-level word-class system for classical Chinese (Fig.2). In our MeCab-corpus editor we first input typical sentences from classical Chinese texts. Second we push the right-most button “classical Chinese” of the editor, then we obtain a morpheme sequence temporarily segmented by MeCab. Third we edit the sequence to categorize its words, looking up authoritative textbook refereneces of the sequences. And last we include the morpheme sequence in our corpus for classical Chinese.
Our corpus for classical Chinese on MeCab now includes about 20,000 sentences, written in our four-level word-class system. Our dictionary for classical Chinese on MeCab includes about 5,000 words, which we categoraized into our four-level word-class system. We keep increasing our corpus, and we also keep selecting new words from our corpus to add them into our dictionary.
In conclusion, we made a morphological analyzer for classical Chinese. The analyzer required a dictionary and a corpus based on a word-class system. We developed our four-level word-class system, suitable for analysis of classical Chinese, originally made from some other dictionaries, and then we reconstructed the word-class system. We also developed the Git-based framework including our Mecab-corpus editor, which allowed us to edit the corpus and dictionary effectively.

Fig. 2: Screenshot of an Authoritative Textbook and Our MeCab-Corpus Editor
References

1. T. Kudo, K. Yamamoto and Y. Matsumoto (2004): Applying Conditional Random Fields to Japanese Morphological Analysis, Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, pp.230-237.
2. mecab-ipadic, code.google.com/p/mecab/downloads/detail?name=mecab-ipadic-2.7.0-20070801.tar.gz
3. N. Yamazaki, T. Morioka and K. Yasuoka: Refactoring of Wordclasses for Morphological Analysis of Classical Chinese, The Computers and the Humanities Symposium 2012, pp.39-46.
4. Y. Togawa, et al. (2011): Zenyaku Kanjikai, 3rd Ed., Sanseido.
5. National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics (2004): Word List by Semantic Principles, Revised & Enlarged Ed., Dainippon Tosho.
6. T. Morioka (2008): CHISE: Character Processing Based on Character Ontology, 3rd International Conference on Large-Scale Knowledge Resources LKR, pp.148-162.","txt","2","",""
"1824","15","A Network Analysis Approach of the Venetian Incanto System","10","The Venetian maritime empire is the subject of numerous works and monographs (e.g. Ercole 20061, Lane 19732, Luzzatto 19413). This paper focuses on the period between the end of the 13th century and the fall of Constantinople in 1453. During that period the Venetian state set up seven regular shipping lanes, linking the Republic of Venice with the oriental and the occidental Mediterranean basins,  the Black Sea, England and Flanders. Special warships—called galleys—were readapted to perform commercial duties during peacetime on these shipping lanes. Every year, the Venetian Republic organized an auction system—the Incanto—to assign the commercial space on these ships. Subsequently the Senate was in charge of determining the mandatory stopovers, duration of the call, date of departure and date of return to Venice. All of this precise information was recorded in the Venetian official administrative documents.
Several authors have tried to reconstruct the Incanto system from the highly detailed information contained in these administrative documents. In 1961, Tenenti and Vivanti produced a series of chronological maps showing the evolution of the lanes year by year. Unfortunately, their model of the archives is not available for further investigation. More recently, Doris Stöckly extracted from the Venetian state archives—and other sources—a detailed list of all the information related to the ships on a year by year basis. She published her analysis in a monography (Stöckly 19954). The compiled tables appear as appendices to her Ph.D thesis; and are only available in printed form (see figure 1).
For this work, we take these printed tables, digitize, automatically transcribe and structure them. We perform new analyses of the structure and evolution of the Incanto system. Our ambition is to go beyond the textual narrative or even cartographic representation to perform a network analysis which potentially offers a new perspective on this maritime system.
Method

Step 1 : From Printed Tables to Structured Data

The first step of our project was the transformation of the appendices into structured data ready for analysis. We scanned these documents and processed each page using a specifically designed pre-processing pipeline, aimed at improving the quality and highlighting the structure of the scanned images. The pre-processing step included several computer vision-based procedures, serving two main purposes: the adjustment of moderate rotations introduced by the scanning process and the removal of noisy components that may disturb the recognition process. To explicit the structure of the table, we elaborated a method based on horizontal and vertical projection profile that automatically fit rows and columns of the document table. This grid was then used in conjunction with Optical Character Recognition Software (ABBYY Fine reader). We extracted 1480 lines of data. Each line matches a galley and includes the following information: name of the line, year, number of ships, stopovers, and optionally duration of stay.

Fig. 1: Excerpt of the extracted data from Doris Stöckly Ph. D thesis appendix.
 
Step 2 : From Structured Data to Networks

We transformed the resulting table into a network. First, we applied a set of rules in order to clean the data. Then, we removed the stops marked as “facultative”. The stops mentioned without any temporal detail were considered as equal to one day—the shortest unit of time. Names of places and geolocations were standardised using a spatial database of Ancient Ports and Harbours based on Harvard’s DARMC5 and the Pleiades data6. We grouped the stopovers under two generic labels for Crete and for Cyprus.

Fig. 2: The 170 years of the Incanto system visualised as a network.
We decomposed—using an R script—the structured table into individual segments made of paired consecutive stopovers. By connecting these directed segments, we created a global directed network encoding 170 years of navigation (see figure 2). The vertices of this network represent all the ports and places mentioned for this period. The size of the nodes is proportional to the sum of in- and out-degree measures of the node. The arcs represent maritime traffic. Two attributes are associated to each arc: one for the year of the trip and another one reporting the number of ships in each convoy.
From the global network, we produced separated subnetworks corresponding to each year of navigation. These subnetworks inherit their attributes from the main network: the number of ships and days. In figure 3, we illustrate evolution and dynamics of the Venetian maritime routes for the three years before and the three years after the Chioggia war (1351-1354) between Venice and Genoa.

Fig. 3: Network visualization of six years of maritime routes before and after Chioggia war (1377-1381)
Network Analysis: Crete vs. Cyprus

We focused our investigation on two particular islands located in the oriental basin of the Mediterranean Sea: Crete and Cyprus. After its acquisition by the Venetian empire and for 460 years, Crete was a fundamental naval base in terms of localisation, logistics and safety (Dudan 2006, Major 1989). Cyprus had a similar strategic position; it was an intermediary stop and became part of the Venetian empire in 1489.
Based on the network extracted from the Incanto dataset, we computed a measure of commercial betweenness of the islands of Crete and Cyprus. In figure 4, we show its time evolution in the period comprised between 1283 and 1453. We highlight three patterns emerging from the computation of this measure and interpret them using three events in the maritime history of Crete and Cyprus.
The first time histogram contains a blue box encapsulating that measure on Crete between 1344 and 1377. During that period, the maritime traffic density increased because of the reopening of the Alexandria lane, as Crete was the last stopover for all the convoys heading to Egypt. It is interesting to compare this change with the increase of commercial betweenness, as highlighted in the figure 4.
In the second time histogram, two red boxes highlight two historical events related to Cyprus maritime traffic. The first one reflects the betweenness of Cyprus as an important stopover on the way to Armenia (1283 - 1338) (Balard 1987). During this period the measure of betweenness naturally skyrockets, as the island had acquired a strategic position as a maritime hub. On the contrary, the second box shows very low measures of betweenness; corresponding to moderate maritime traffic. This was due to the fact that the Senate of Venice reorganised the commercial exchanges by opening a new lane towards Beirut. During this period (1375 - 1444), Cyprus lost its strategic position for maritime activity directed towards Syria and Egypt.
One can notice that the re-opening of Alexandria as destination for Venetian navigation (1344) had the opposite impact on the maritime traffic passing through Cyprus and Crete.

Fig. 4: Betweenness of Crete and Cyprus with respect to the maritime traffic (1283 - 1453)
Conclusions and Future Work

It sounds like a commonplace to describe the Mediterranean Sea, geographically and historically, as an area of intense exchanges and communications; however the fact is that any visualisations up to this point, when they exist, never went beyond the narration and failed to give a concrete idea of the pace imposed by Venetian navigation over a period of 170 years.
With this work, we go beyond that common way of visualising maritime historical data. First, we have designed processing procedures to automatically digitise data present only on paper documents. Second, based on this digitised data, we modelled the Venetian maritime connections over 170 years as a network. Third, we magnified the network over Cyprus and Crete and extracted a measure of betweenness for these two islands.
From a qualitative analysis point of view, we showed the consequences of three historical events with respect to the Incanto system. We are confident that we can apply this methodology to better explain historical events and quantify their influence on the global maritime network.
References

1. Ercole, G. (2006). Duri i banchi!: le navi della Serenissima, 421-1797. Gruppo Modellistico Trentino di Studio e Ricerca Storica.
2. Lane, F.C. (1973). Venice, A Maritime Republic. ACLS Humanities E-Book. Johns Hopkins University Press.
3. Luzzatto, G., Padovan G. (1941). Navigazione Di Linea e Navigazione Libera, Nelle Grandi Città Marinare Del Medioevo. Popoli 1: 389–391.
4. Stöckly, D. (1995). Le système de l’Incanto des galées du marché à Venise: fin XIIIe - milieu XVe siècle. BRILL.
5. Digital Atlas of Roman and Medieval Civilization. darmc.harvard.edu/icb/icb.do (accessed on 30.10.2013)
6. Bagnall, R., Talbert R. J. A., Elliott T., Twele R., Becker. J., Gillies S., Horne R., McCormick M., Rabinowitz A., and Turner B.. (2006). Pleiades: A Community-built Gazetteer and Graph of Ancient Places. Collection. pleiades.stoa.org
7. Dudan, B., (1938), Il Dominio veneziano di Levante. Nicola Zanichelli.
8. Major A. (1989), Les colonies continentales de Venise en Grece meridionale, XIV-XV siecle, Doctorat Nouveau Régime, Histoire, A.N.R.T..
9. Balard, Michel. (1987), Les Vénitiens En Chypre Dans Les Années 1300. Byzantinische Forschungen 12: 580–606.","txt","2","",""
"1825","15","A novel approach for a reusable federation of research data within the arts and humanities","10","1 Introduction

In distributed systems literature the orthogonal but interdependent characteris- tics of autonomy, distribution and heterogeneity are used to classify distributed systems [1,2]. From a holistic perspective on the arts and humanities, collections have evolved over decades or centuries from highly autonomous disciplines and institutions and are widely spread, which resulted in heterogeneous perspectives and data models [3]. Despite its negative notion as data integration problem, the term heterogeneity also symbolizes the diversity of research methodologies within the disciplines of the arts and humanities. Resolving heterogeneity hence implies an abstraction from the specifics that are valuable for focused disciplinary and interdisciplinary research projects.
Our approach presents a novel concept for data federation in the arts and humanities, which focuses the needs of research projects as well as interdisci- plinary and broad use-cases. We especially address the reusability of explicated knowledge on correlations between schemata and digital collections and show where domain experts are required to bridge semantic gaps.
2 Background

Approaches to data integration often follow the theoretical foundation expressed in [4] by employing the concept of a global view. While being highly distinctive in terms of their underlying concepts, established examples such as ISIDORE [5], OAIster [6] and Europeana [7] share the goal of facilitating access to a wide range of research data through integrated schemata or ontologies. Aside from broad services, an integration need that focuses on a specific topic and related research questions is addressed by the Steinheim Institute, which provides a search in the context of german-jewish history and judaism [8]
Despite usability concerns in having to identify relevant services and accord- ingly collections, the reappearing need to overcome the same aspects of hetero- geneity in reaction to new use-cases is one of the problems we address.
2.1 Use cases 

Our federation concept is primarily focused on the realization of the DARIAH- DE Generic Search (http://dev3.dariah.eu/search), which includes support for queries over large sets of unre- lated collections (broad search) and tightly correlated data (deep search)—with different information needs in mind: 
– Broad search: Due to the quantity and distribution, the relevance of digital collections for particular research questions is not easily assessable. A broad view assists scholars in finding and evaluating possibly relevant data. Figure 1 shows an exemplary, collection-level aggregation of results based on term statistics in the prototype of our search, which will be continuously extended by other relevant visualization techniques (e.g. with respect to spacial and temporal aspects).
– Deep search: If the granularity of local data models can be used to formulate more specific queries targeting structure and content (e.g. in search facets), the deep search utilizes mappings specified in the DARIAH-DE Schema Reg- istry. Broad search continuously fades to deep search with an increasing count and richness of mappings and hence typically smaller sets of selected collections. 

Fig. 1: Result aggregation in the generic search
Despite the focus on the generic search with its virtual integration at query-time, the proposed concept also addresses requirements of a materialized integration of data: 
– Data migration and consolidation: Traditional applications of data integra- tion often do not require a dynamic adaption to selected collections, but de- termine a set of relevant data sources and an appropriate integration schema or ontology [4]. Examples include data migration induced by the introduction of new information systems (e.g. replacement of outdated archive informa- tion software) or the consolidation of selected data sources under a merged schema for the purpose of interdisciplinary analysis and visualization e.g. in the DARIAH-DE GeoBrowser [9]. 
2.2 Problem Definition

The common objective of data integration approaches is to resolve heterogeneity on various levels: Syntactical aspects such as the existence of different access and encoding methods can be solved by technical means, whereas structural and semantic heterogeneity depend on the application of background knowledge [1]. Despite continuing efforts in the fields of schema and ontology matching, the manual intervention of domain experts—especially for large or complex schemata and ontologies often found in the arts and humanities—has shown to be essential to generate high-quality results [10].
The correlation of the used schemata and ontologies is an inherently complex manual task in our context, which depends on the fragmented and distributed knowledge of individual disciplines, collections and scholars. Requiring a common understanding, research projects concentrate knowledge about schemata and semantics used in relevant collections and specify meanings and correlations. In order to integrate the described data and establish technical interoperability, an application of digital methods and tools is required. 
3 Concept

Abstracting from aspects of technical and syntactical heterogeneity concerned with accessing, preprocessing and integrating data in a generic fashion, we aim to enable researchers to focus on those aspects of integration, that depend on their knowledge and expertise: the description and correlation of schemata and ontologies. Despite the immediate benefit for individual integration tasks, the centralized formalization and explication of semantics results in the significant advantage of knowledge reusability.
3.1 Semantic cluster

The logical architecture of our idea is represented by a directed, weighed graph, where the schemata and ontologies are described by vertices, and mappings be- tween them are symbolized by edges. Whereas correlations between structural elements symbolize a relation of the described concepts (e.g. persons, locations) and could be considered undirected, more specific rules that are required for data transformation can be composed of non-reversible functions (e.g. the concate- nation of fields). For that reason, parallel edges are required for the description of both mapping directions. Differences of schemata in terms of their complex- ity and expressiveness reduce the achievable level of accumulated completeness, which is represented by the value of cohesion
Figure 2 indicates how the cohesion between schemata can be utilized to sug- gest semantic clusters: C1, C2 and C3 could be the result of research projects, which needed a high level of mapping completeness between relevant schemata. By interrelating clusters or generically used schemata (S10), the expressed se- mantics can be reused in other contexts.
3.2 Use-case orientation

Our example indicates the difference to the commonly found integration pattern of a global ontology or schema. Despite its theoretical foundation, simplicity and proven applicability for broad integration use-cases [5,6,7], we consider the approach to be impracticable for a holistic context of the arts and humanities because a global structure would either have to be an abstraction from collection or discipline specifics or unmanageably complex.
Narrowing this context to individual domains or research projects, standards could be elected as appropriate integrative structures. As exemplified in figure 2, the schemata S3, S5 and S8 form the integration baseline within our clusters due to their cohesion with other schemata. Considering our deep search and data migration and consolidation use-cases, these schemata can be utilized to generate a fine-grained view over selected collections accessible within the cluster. In order to support interdisciplinary use-cases, clusters can be combined (symbolized by the strong cohesion between S5 and S8) to resolve semantic gaps.
For broad use-cases we rely on the collaborative and continuous emergence of schemata or ontologies (compare S10) within our federation that are used to connect the clusters on the coarse levels sufficient for broad use-cases. 

Fig. 2. Semantic clusters of schemata
3.2 Use-case orientation3.3 Scalability considerations

The simplicity of traditional data integration emerges as new local schemata are added to the system and hence an appropriate mapping target needs to be identified. To ensure extensibility and scalability, our proposed federation concept depends on two strategies:
Cluster globals: The concept of semantic clusters builds on the existence or ad- vancement of standards that are considered as appropriate common perspectives by research communities. Although clusters are not predetermined but expected to evolve, established standards such as the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (CIDOC CRM) or the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) Guildelines could be iden- tified as initial cluster schemata, which can be mapped in a generic fashion [11]. As new schemata need to be added, the standard which promises to achieve the highest completeness is selected to be mapped.
Model inheritance: Our proposal includes an approach to specify the actual usage of schemata more precisely than it is possible at the level of generic cross- walks. Figure 3 shows the exemplary derivation of the Dublin Core element dc:coverage to resolve an encapsulated substructure. Mappings are inherited to correlate the refined elements or to specify detailed data transformation rules. As derived schemata are related to their parent, generic mappings remain valid and can be utilized if specific rules are missing.

Fig. 3: Exemplary derived version of Dublin Core
4 Conclusion

As we abstract from technical aspects of heterogeneity and reuse the valuable disciplinary knowledge explicated in terms of correlations, processing and trans- formation rules, the efforts required for integrating research data can be sig- nificantly reduced. Another important aspect that is currently being evaluatedconsists in appropriate techniques for the visualization of our federation concept and system. After all, domain experts need to be able to recognize clusters, im- portant schemata and ontologies as well as their correlations in order to identify semantic gaps and to collaboratively fill them.
References

1. Sheth, A.P., Kashyap, V. (1993): So Far (Schematically) yet So Near (Semantically). In: Proceedings of the IFIP WG 2.6 Database Semantics Conference on Interoperable Database Systems (DS-5), Amsterdam and The Netherlands and The Netherlands, North-Holland Publishing Co 283–31
2. Busse, S., Kutsche, R.D., Leser, U., Weber, H. (1999): Federated Information Systems: Concepts, Terminology and Architectures 
3. Henrich,A.,Gradl,T.:DARIAH(-DE) (2013): DigitalResearchInfrastructurefortheArts and Humanities — Concepts and Perspectives. International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing 7(supplement) 47–5
4. Lenzerini, M. (2002): Data Integration: A Theoretical Perspective. In Abiteboul, S., ed.: Proceedings of the twenty-first ACM SIGMOD-SIGACT-SIGART symposium on Principles of database systems, New York and NY, ACM 23
5. Pouyllau, S. (2011): ISIDORE : acces to open data of arts & humanities
6. Hagedorn, K. (2003): OAIster: a ”no dead ends” OAI service provider. Library Hi Tech 21(2) 170–181
7. Peroni, S., Tomasi, F., Vitali, F. (2013) : Reflecting on the Europeana Data Model. IAgosti, M., Esposito, F., Ferilli, S., Ferro, N., eds.: Digital Libraries and Archives. Volume 354 of Communications in Computer and Information Science. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin and Heidelberg 228–24
8. Lordick, H. (2013): Vieles finden – die Suchmaschine im Steinheim-Institut
9. Romanello, M.  (2013). DARIAH Geo-browser: Exploring Data through Time and Space
10. Rahm, E. (2011): Towards Large-Scale Schema and Ontology Matching. In BellahseneZ., Bonifati, A., Rahm, E., eds.: Schema Matching and Mapping. Springer BerlinHeidelberg, Berlin and Heidelberg 3–27
11. Baca, M., Harpring, P., Ward, J., Beecroft, A.:Metadata Standards Crosswalk
","txt","2","",""
"1826","15","A preparatory analysis of peer-grading for a Digital Humanities MOOC","9","Introduction

Over the last two years, Massive Open Online Classes (MOOCs) have been unexpectedly successful in convincing large number of students to pursue online courses in a variety of domains. Contrary to the ""learn anytime anywhere"" moto, this new generation of courses are based on regular assignments that must be completed and corrected on a fixed schedule. Successful courses attracted about 50 000 students in the first week but typically stabilised around 10 000 in the following weeks, as most courses demand significant involvement. With 10 000 students, grading is obviously an issue, and the first successful courses tended to be technical, typically in computer science, where various options for automatic grading system could be envisioned. However, this posed a challenge for humanities courses. The solution that has been investigated for dealing with this issue is peer-grading: having students grade the work of one another. The intuition that this would work was based on some older results showing high correlation between professor grading, peer-grading and self-grading (Wagner et al. 20111, Topping 19982). The generality of this correlation can reasonably be questioned. There is a high chance that peer-grading works for certain domains, or for certain assignment, but not for others. Ideally this should be tested experimentally before launching any large-scale courses.
EPFL is one of the first European schools to experiment with MOOCs in various domains. Since the launch of these first courses, preparing an introductory MOOC on Digital Humanities was one of our top priorities. However, we felt it was important to first validate the kind of peer-grading strategy we were planning to implement on a smaller set of students, to determine if it would actually work for the assignments we envisioned. This motivated the present study which was conducted during the first semester of our masters level introductory course on Digital Humanities at EPFL. 
Method

56 students were asked to produce a blogpost in which they had to identify trends in Digital Humanities based on the online proceedings of the DH2013 conference in Nebraska3.
Students had to choose three abstracts from the conference, summarise and compare them, then use the Wordpress blog dh101.ch to publish their post. Students were informed that their post would be graded by the professor but also by other students. Following the usual Swiss grading system, the grade range was from 0 to 6. The students were informed that only the grade given by the professor would count for their semester results but that 10% of their semester results depended on whether they took the peer-reviewing seriously. 
The grading criteria was presented in detail to the class at the same time. Students had to check whether the blog post followed the guidelines of the assignment (discussing three articles, identifying a trend) (4 points); whether the English was correct and clearly understandable (+0.5); whether the keywords and post layout were adapted to its content (+0.5); whether the post was not just a summary of the three articles but really compared them, and, more subjectively, whether the post's content was well discussed (+0.5) and the identified trend interesting (+0.5). The students were also asked to verify that the blog post did not contained plagiarised content. 
Each student had to anonymously grade five randomly chosen blog posts. In order to simplify the task and to reduce the risk of manipulation errors, we developed a simple dedicated Wordpress app4 to organise this process. Students used their Wordpress account to log in and by doing so accessed a page listing the five posts that were assigned to them, as well as one checkbox per criteria to be checked. This assignment process was done beforehand in an automated way: each paper was assigned once to the professor and randomly to five students, but under the constraint that no student could get their own paper and no more than five papers in all. Although we are aware that more sophisticated systems exist for assigning work in peer-reviewing processes (e.g. The Caesar system developed at MIT 5), we assumed that this random assignment process was relevant in this context, given the uniform nature of the content to be graded. The professor graded all the blog posts without any information on the results of the peer-grading process.

Fig. 1: Wordpress app for peer-grading
Results and Discussion

52 blogs posts were produced and published on the public website dh101.ch. 47 students completed the peer review grading, and all of them graded all of their five papers. Three students accessed the website without grading any papers, and two didn’t even attempt to log in.
The process drew a lot of interest and questions from the students. The criteria of the grading grid were questioned by many students, in particular the one linked with the more subjective evaluation of the posts (several students thought this was unfair). Other studies have shown that students’ writing and understanding in core courses can be improved through peer ranking (Rhett A. et al 20056). Although it is difficult to measure, it seems that the precise explication of the grading criteria imposed by the peer-review system had a positive effect on the quality on the posts when compared to the last year's course, when this system was not included.
We measured a strong correlation between the average of the peer-graded marks and the mark of the professor ( r(50) = 0.39, p < .01). 
Figure 2 shows the level of matching between the professor's grade and the peer graded marks after normalisation to the closest half point. In 38% of the case, the peer-graded mark is the same as the professor's, in another 38% of the cases the mark shows a 0.5 difference. The remaining 24% of cases show a larger difference. These latter cases mostly correspond to situations where either the professor or one of the students concluded that the post did not respect the instructions for the exercise and therefore gave a sanctioning mark (0 in case of plagiarism, 3 in the case of uncompleted post).

Fig. 2: Level of matching between professor and student grades
 
This relationship can also be shown by breaking down the ratios of validated criteria:
Figure 3 shows the average grades given by students (sorted ascending), the squared mean error intervals for each of them and the professor’s gradings (x marks), confirming that 76% of the papers received an average grading within 0.5 to the professor’s. 

Fig. 3: Average grades, per paper
 
Figure 4 shows a comparison between the grading criteria used by the students and the professor’s grading. The distribution is visually similar (we cannot perform a more detailed statistical analysis because of the sample size).

Fig. 4: Criterias Distribution
 
Figure 5 presents the correlation between the student's grade and their own grading. Although it is not obvious at first sight, there is a marginal significant negative correlation between these two variable datasets ( r(50) = –0.26, p = .07). This could suggest that students who wrote good papers are more critical of their peers. 

Fig. 5: Correlation between received and given grades
 
Figure 6 presents the grades in the order published (the first posts are the ones submitted the earliest by the students). The professor graded the posts following this order. As expected, no correlation exists between the order and the grades in the students' gradings, as they were assigned randomly. However, there seems to be a tendency towards lower grades in the professor's grading sequence. This could be explained if a correlation existed between the quality of the post and their publication time (the best students would publish the first). However, this correlation was not found in the student’s grading. This could suggest a potential temporal bias observed through the fact that the last evaluations were tendentially lower that the first ones (the professor becoming more critical).

Fig. 6: Evolution of grades with time
Conclusion

This article presents a preliminary study for a Digital Humanities MOOC conducted on a class of 56 students. In the present context, we can conclude that peer-grading is highly correlated to the professor’s grading. In about ¾ of the cases, the grades obtained by this method are within a range of 0.5 points of the professor’s grading. Qualitative observations tend to show that the quality of the posts increased when compared to the previous year, likely because students had to reflect on the grading criteria and were cautious of producing good work when this work would be evaluated by their peers. In addition, our study may suggest some possible temporal biases in the way the professor grades a long sequence of work, reinforcing the idea that peer-grading may not only be an interesting positive alternative to traditional grading but also that it may, in some case, be less biased.
Nevertheless, these preliminary results, dependent of the particular context of this study, should be extrapolated with care and would not eliminate the need to conduct regular quality evaluation in the context of a MOOC on Digital Humanities. Indeed, these results do not guarantee that the same peer grading method could scale to a 10 000 student MOOCs without problem. As the number of students increases, and the cultural backgrounds and linguistic competencies diversify, part of the behavioural homogeneity that we observed in this prestudy may no longer be valid. For this reason, this research should definitely be completed with a posteriori study testing the efficiency of peer-grading with a similar method in a randomly chosen set of learners of the entire MOOC. 
Acknowledgments:
The authors would like to thanks Andrea Mazzei for fruitful discussions about the analysis of the results of this preliminary study.
References

1. Wagner, M.L., Churl Suh, D., Cruz, S. (2011). Peer- and Self-Grading Compared to Faculty Grading. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 75, 130.
2. Topping, K. (1998). Peer Assessment between Students in Colleges and Universities. Review of Educational Research 68, 249–276.
3. DH2013 Abstracts, dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/
4. Wordpress Login API, codex.wordpress.org/Plugin_API/Action_Reference/wp_login
5. Tang, M. (2011), Caesar: A social code review tool for programming education, Master project, MIT
6. Rhett A. et al (2005), Using peer ranking to enhance student writing, IOP Science","txt","2","",""
"1827","15","A Quantitative Analysis for the Authorship of Saikaku's Posthumous Works in the Seventeenth Century","2","I. Introduction

In this paper, we focus on Saikaku Ihara's posthumous works collections, especially Yorozu no humihougu (万の文反古) (A Scrapbook of Old Letters; 1696). Saikaku Ihara (井原西鶴) is one of the most famous writers of the Edo period (1603– 1868) in Japan. It is said that he wrote 23 works in 10 years. However, that achievement has not been fully verified.
Identifying authors of novels in this era is difficult, because typically their authors did not sign the books. In addition, Saikaku's posthumous works were edited and published from 1693 to 1699 by his student Dansui Houjyou(北条団水). It became more difficult to identify the authors of Saikaku’s posthumous works.
In our study, we focused on Yorozu no humihougu because many Saikaku’s researchers have raised questions about the authorship. Saikaku researchers have tried to identify his works by investigating their history, content, format and so on. However, it remains unclear which works are really by Saikaku. Meanwhile, the potential of quantitative analysis of textual data and the related field of the digital humanities have also dramatically advanced. For this reason, this study verifies the text of Yorozu no humihougu using a quantitative approach.
II. Database of Saikaku's works

To resolve the Saikaku authorship problem, we made a database of his works with Saikaku researchers, so this database is the only one on Saikaku's works presently and has a high degree of reliability. We made this database based on Shinpen Saikaku Zenshu (新編西鶴全集) (Figure 1)[1].

Fig. 1: 17th century publication
Table.1 is a part of the database from Saikaku’s works used for this analysis. All sentences were divided into words. Moreover, information was added as required for the analysis. According to our database, the total words in 23 Saikaku works are about 578,617 words.

Fig. 2: Database of Saikaku’s works
III. Analysis and results

In general, Saikaku’s works are made up of many short stories (chapters), so we used information of each chapter in our analysis. In addition, we used four posthumous works other than Yorozu no humihougu as one group (Table 2). Then, we compared Yorozu no humihougu to four other posthumous works.

Fig. 3: Saikaku's posthumous works
At first, we examined the appearance rate of the seven principal parts of speech: nouns, particles, verbs, auxiliary verbs, adjectives, adverbs and adnominal adjectives. Figure 2 shows the results of the analysis on the appearance rate, using the principal component analysis (PCA) with a correlation matrix. The horizontal axis shows the importance of the first principal component, and the vertical axis shows the second. In this figure, indicating differences revealed by PCA, 17 chapters of Yorozu no humihougu is on the right and 83 chapters of four other posthumous works on the left.

Fig. 4: CA results for Yorozu no humihougu (万の文反古) posthumous works (These circles drawn on the figure are 95% confidence ellipse)
Upon examining the first principal component, we found that differences in the use of particles and verbs (Table 3). In Yorozu no humihougu, the appearance rate of verbs is higher and those of the particles are lower, compared with four other posthumous works.

Fig. 5: The result of PCA
Furthermore we examined by Welch’s t-test at the 0.05 significance level (Table 4). Significant differences were found in verbs and particles.

Fig. 6: The result of Welch’s t-test. (Note: a positive t-value indicates that the word is characteristically used in four other posthumous works)
Next, we examined the words of verbs and particles characteristically used in each work by using Welch’s t-test for determining whether there exists a difference between the averages of Yorozu no humihougu and four other posthumous works. Of the 1,625 types (15,113 words) of verbs, Welch’s t-test was performed on each of the 47 types (8,055 words) that appeared more than 51 times. Similarly, of the 53 types (29,994 words) of particles, Welch’s t-test was performed on each of the 31 types (29,842 words). We examined 10 words with the smallest p-values.
Table 5 shows that “sourou,” “mousu,” and “gozasourou” are the most frequently used words of verbs in Yorozu no humihougu, and “su,” “iu,” “naru,” “ari,” “yuku,” “sumu,” and “tamau” are in four other posthumous works. From these results, honorific words of verbs are assumed to be characteristically used in Yorozu no humihougu.

Fig. 7: The result of Welch’s t-test. (Note: a positive t-value indicates that the word is characteristically used in four other posthumous works)
Table 6 shows that “he,” “bakari,” “ni,” “nite,” and “ha” are the most frequently used words of particles in Yorozu no humihougu, and “zo,” “te,” “do,” “kasha,” and “tote” are in four other posthumous works.

Fig. 8: The result of Welch’s t-test. (Note: a positive t-value indicates that the word is characteristically used in four other posthumous works)
IV. Conclusion

We conducted the comparative analysis among Yorozu no humihougu and four other posthumous works using a quantitative approach. Yorozu no humihougu was revealed to be characterized as having a higher the appearance rate of verbs and a lower the appearance rate of particles than in four other posthumous works. Furthermore, we analyzed the words of verbs and particles characteristically used in each work by using Welch’s t-test, in Yorozu no humihougu, honorific verbs are used more frequently than in four other posthumous works, while the particles “he,” “bakari,” “ni,” “nite,” and “ha” appear more often. These results indicate that Yorozu no humihougu and four other posthumous works are quite different in the appearance rates of parts of speech as well as the words of verbs and particles.
Among the works created by Saikaku, Yorozu no humihougu is the only work written in an epistolary style. Analyses on the characteristics of the epistolary style of writing should be performed in the future in order to clarify any doubt concerning the author of Yorozu no humihougu.
In addition to the appearance rate of parts of speech, other information such as the appearance rate of words, as well as the works of Dansui Houjyou, should be analyzed.
References

Noboru Asai et al. (2000), “Shinpen Saikaku Zenshu (新編西鶴全集)” vol.1–4, Benseishupan
Munemasa isoo (1969), “Kanazoushi kara Ukiyozoushi he (仮名草子から浮世草子へ)”, Shibundou
Yamaguchi takeshi (1929), “Saikaku meisakushu ge (西鶴名作集下)”, Nihonmeityo zenshu kankoukai
Teruoka yasutaka (1953) “Saikaku kenkyu note (西鶴研究ノート)”, Tyuuoukouronsha
Taniwaki masachika (1981) “Saikaku kenkyu ronkou (西鶴研究論攷)”,Sintensha
Nakamura yukihiko (1982), “Nakamura yukihiko cyogitsushu (中村幸彦著述集)”, Tyuuoukouronsha","txt","2","",""
"1828","15","A Sense of Place: Mapping Fictional Landscapes in Literary Narratives","9","Maps are one of the most universal forms of communication. Having no need for a written language or alphabet, their ability to convey meaning lies within the images that are drawn on the canvas, be it a cave wall, a piece of parchment, or a computer screen. This paper investigates how digital mapping tools present students and readers of literature with an unprecedented ability to map fictional spaces in their own liking and how these various representations can influence our understanding of and relationship with literary works. Typically thought of as a tool to assist the user in finding a certain location, when used to identify fictional spaces, maps possess the power to convey societal and cultural ideologies. In recent scholarship, there has been a growing interest in the interplay between maps and narrative. “Story maps,” “fictional cartography,” and “geospatial storytelling” are some of the terms utilized to describe the relationship between place and space (Caquard). Our paper takes the current discussion of the connection between narrative and space to another plane by exploring the exchange between fictional spaces and narrative as represented by maps. We will construct the the following spaces conceived of by Spanish and Latin American novelists through immersive, 3D mapping technology: Mocondo, the setting for many of Gabriel García Marquez’s writings loosely based off of his hometown in Columbia. Obaba, a town continually developed in the mind of Basque writer Bernardo Axtaga for his novels and short stories; the village of Ordial in the mythical region of Celama generated by Luis Mateo Díez as the setting for his novels in the Leonese countryside; Región - the territory invented by Juan Benet for his novelistic trilogy; and Clarín’s (Leopoldo Alas y Ureña) Vetusta - a reimagination of the Asturian capital, Oviedo - in what many scholars consider the most important Spanish novel of the 19th century, La Regenta. By focusing our work on a defined time period and culture it provides us data to not only analyze how fictional space is described and mapped, but also how it can be culturally determined.
Often the inspiration for fictional maps comes from literature and their creation is not necessarily left solely to cartographers. Bottecelli’s depiction of Dante’s Inferno portraying the various stages of hell is one of the more iconic examples of a fictional map of popular literature, depicting the various stages of hell as described by Dante. The image, however, while rooted in the words of Dante, also serves to reinforce the modernity of Renaissance society through its geometry of order and symmetry, a trend in many works of the Renaissance. By depicting the chaotic world of hell as seemingly rational and ordered, it allowed Renaissance society to interpret Dante as a corollary to their contemporary world, or at least their ideal vision of it (Padron). The maps that accompany J.R. Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings novels are a much more recent example of this phenomenon in which maps of literature are utilized to bridge the gap between fantasy and real world ideals. Tolkien uses his maps to instill the idea of tranquility being found in the eastern world (the Shire) and evil situated in the western world (Mordor), a direct correlation to current thought in the wake of World War I (Croft). The relationship between the fictional world of literature and a “real space” provides a powerful tool that allows readers of these works to interpret the creator’s words in a way which attempts to link them to the real world and prevailing ideologies (Piatti). 
This line between the space and place of the real world and that of the imaginary world becomes increasingly blurred in the last half century (Joliveau). The works of Henri Lefebvre and Ed Soja contribute to the dissolution of concrete boundaries between the materiality of the physical space and the abstraction of the mental space. They theorize that the influence of ideas, signs, and texts on spaces is just as influential as the materiality of a space (Lefebvre, Soja) This grants imaginary spaces another sphere of influence upon the real world and begs for further examination into how readers interpret literary spaces and what impact they may have on their understanding of real spaces.
Fortunately, new digital tools in mapping and geospatial analysis allow for a more thorough and in-depth evaluation of these fictional spaces of literature. They provide the opportunity for the individual reader to craft the imaginary space in their own image instead of defaulting to the omniscient representation provided by the cartographer, artist, or scholar. Digital tools are becoming increasingly more intuitive and their interfaces and operability are more user friendly. This contributes to their use by an ever-growing audience and allows for more rapid production with less years of rigorous training. Innovations in digital tools also provide various ways in which spaces can be mapped. GIS provides a solution to the problematic of shifts in places over time. A particular location or space is not static and spaces evolve over time. These mutations could be caused by natural or man-made disasters--such as an earthquake or tsunami in the former and war in the latter--or simply by natural evolution over time. In literature, characters often move between space and place, at times in a non-linear fashion. When attempting to visualize changes to fictional landscapes over time, digital mapping technologies resolve many complexities by allowing the reader to create thick maps that look at time and space through layered pieces. 
GIS-based tools allow users to map spaces in more conventional methods, while other applications that integrate technologies such as Google Earth provide users with a platform to map not only spaces, but also plot journeys that characters take through these spaces. Other technologies take this one step further and grant the ability to create more immersive 3D environments that attempt to generate a viewpoint similar to what the literary character actually experiences. Furthermore procedural modeling software such as ESRI CityEngine allow for rapid and adaptable modeling of large spaces with written rules, a skill that was previously reserved for the domain of those skilled in modeling software, which is labor intensive. Couple this with new software capable of creating large and expansive terrains, such as VUE, and a user has all of the necessary tools to create expansive imaginary spaces unique to their interpretation of a reading. Finally one may take this even further by incorporating these individually designed environments into amateur gaming software, such as Unity, and share them with other users from around the globe to take them on an immersive tour of the space. This new way of developing imaginary spaces provides critical insight into literary works and opens new avenues of study, which were previously unavailable.
In addition to examining how GIS tools enhance the reader’s experience with literary texts, we will discuss the importance of combining cartography with literature in the classroom. The combination of digital mapping with literary studies allows us to maintain some of the fundamental pedagogical principles of the humanities, such as close reading and attention to detail. The interpretation of literary texts to create digital maps that represent imaginary or fictional locations, often rooted in real spaces, results in the translation of a text into a new medium. Preparing a digital map of a fictional space requires students to critically examine a narrative in order to recreate a visual representation (via a map) of the space described. Working with GIS platforms shows students how to interact with literary texts in a new way, while teaching them digital mapping techniques and new skills in computer-mediated learning. George Siemens’ learning theory entitled “connectivism” helps underline the importance of combining humanistic study with digital technologies. The connectivist’s theory incorporates the ways we ingest information and learn in the digital age, where as behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism (“three broad learning theories most often utilized in the creation of instructional environments”) ignore the technical advances that now greatly impact the way in which students learn. (Siemens).
References

Caquard, Sébastien. (2013). Cartography I: Mapping narrative cartography.Progress in Human Geography. 37.1 (February 2013): 135-144.
Heasley, Lynne. (2013). Shifting Boundaries on a Wisconsin Landscape: Can GIS Help Historians Tell a Complicated Story?Human Ecology. 31.2 (June 2003): 183-213.
Piatti, Barbara, Bär, Hans Rudolf, Reuschel, Anne-Kathrin, Hurni, Lorenz, Cartwright, William, (2009), Mapping Literature: Towards a Geography of Fiction.Cartography and Art. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 1-16.
Siemens, George (2005). Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distant Learning. 2.1 (January 2005): np.
Lefebvre, Henri. (2005). The Production of Space.Oxford: Blackwell.
Soja, Edward (1996). Thirdspace: journeys to Los Angeles and other real-and-imagined spaces. Oxford: Blackwell.
Padron, Ricardo. Mapping Imaginary Worlds (2007). Maps: Finding Our Place in the World edited by James Akerman and Robert Karrow. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press.
Croft, Janet Brennan. The Great War and Tolkien’s Memory: An Examination of World War I Themes in the Hobbit and Lord of the Rings. (2002). Mythlore 23.4: 4-21.
Joliveau, Thierry. Connecting Real and Imaginary Places through Geospatial Technologies: Examples from Set-jetting and Art-Oriented Tourism. (2009). The Cartographic Journal 46.1 (February 2009): 36-45.","txt","2","",""
"1829","15","A Text Encoding Support System for Pre-modern Japanese Historical Materials","2","1. Introduction

Reading comprehension of historical materials is one of important elements in historical study. The results of the reading comprehension should be encoded as texts; however, in Japanese historical study amount of the texts is a few rather than of digital images. Almost encoded texts are not shared and there are no rules for text structuring. 
In the study due to structuring encoded texts automatically and sharing the texts among researchers, we developed a text encoding support system for pre-modern Japanese historical materials, especially Japanese medieval period. The features of our system are follows: web-based system, automatic text structuring, text editing, text sharing and support for reading the characters in the materials. Our system doesn’t have and manage any material’s catalogues. We suppose that the system uses a ready-made system to search catalogue. Particularly, we use “Catalogue database of holding materials”1 (called “HICAT”) in Historiographical Institute the University of Tokyo.
2. Our System

2.1. Basic Methods

Our system has 2 methods; search method and authoring method. The search method allows a user to search for images, texts and annotations. An annotation assignment is one of important work in encoding for research of Japanese history. Our system can deal with following 2 annotation types: marginal note and format note. In the study we defined that a marginal note is a description of “a result of reading comprehension or research” and disappear in the material. Examples of marginal note are personal name, location name, correction and so on. Format note indicates descriptive pattern for strings (e.g. erasure, divide note,…) or lines (address, title, subject,…).
Editing the texts and the annotations can be supported by the authoring method. Using the authoring method, the system starts text structuring automatically as soon as a user edit a text. If the text editing is finished and the text is committed, then new version of the text is created. A version is identified by a user ID, modified time and image ID (as URI). A user can use the previous version and the versions of other users. If the user edits other user’s version, the new version will be created. The new version takes over all annotations in original version and can be edited freely. Therefore, the method of text reuse never violates other user’s text.
2.2. Attempt of converting into TEI

The system can output XML document as the result of text encoding. The structure is useful only in our system, because the structure is specialized in the system. We think an encoded text should be outputted in a general format when the text is used outside our system. Because TEI P52 is “de facto standard” of text encoding in Humanities, we attempted convert our text into TEI P5. We carefully treat the expression of the line and the annotation in the conversion, because in our system text is represented as a set of lines and annotations. For the expression of the marginal notes as personal name, place name, and correction, we use <persName>, <placeName>, and <choice> respectively.
Moreover, we consider automatical assignment of opener and closer in the text. We analyze a form pattern of Japanese historical materials, and the assignment is realized by the basis of the results.
2.3. Reading Support Method

Since the encoding a historical material is very hard, the researcher of Japanese history is needed training or practice for a long time. In order to support the encoding, we provide a suggestion method for support of inputting character. When a user input string in a text field on our system, the suggestion method presents a candidate character which appears after current inputted string. The method is realized by character n-gram model. A learning data of the n-gram is constructed by texts extracted from fulltext database of Historiographical Institute. In order to improve the precision of the suggestion method, we use Modified Kneser-Ney Smoothing method3. We experiment for the confirming the performance of the suggestion method. As the experimental result, the hit ratio whether a set of candidate character in top 20 includes a correct is 0.72. The ratio might seem to low, but it can be effectively used in the actual work.
3. Conclusion

Our system has been developed for managing texts which are represented as results of reading comprehension. We believe that the most important element of the study is to provide an environment in which researchers of Japanese history can encode texts pleasantly and comfortably. In order to achieve it, we'd like to improve the expressiveness of texts and performance of methods in the system.
References

1. Databases of HI. wwwap.hi.u-tokyo.ac.jp/ships/.
2. TEI guidelines. www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/P5/.
3. F. James (2000), Modified Kneser-Ney Smoothing of n-gram Models, Technical report, RIACS Technical Report 00.07, www.riacs.edu/navroot/Research/TRpdf/.","txt","2","",""
"1830","15","A top-down approach to the design of components for the philological domain","9","Introduction

This paper focuses on the methodology applied to the development of components in the domain of collaborative philology in the Memorata Poetis Project. This initiative, led by the University of Venice, coordinates eight units sharing the same cyber-infrastructure and is co-funded by the Italian Ministry of Instruction, University and Research (PRIN 2010/11).
The project aims to study the multilingual intertextuality between epigraphic texts and literary epigrams, the transmission of themes, motives, etc. between different communicative situations (epigraphic versus literary) and different civilisations (Greek, Latin and Italian). As a control group, we analyse a corpus of epigraphic and literary texts in Arabic which do not belong to the same tradition as the others. The study of intertextuality affects both the reconstruction of the text (constitutio textus), by providing variants from the indirect tradition, and its interpretation (interpretatio), by widening the contexts in which the text has been reused.
Methodology

By following a top-down approach the article will discuss the following three aspects of the general design of the components developed by the Institute for Computational Linguistics of the National Research Council (ILC-CNR) in Pisa, which will be integrated into the shared infrastructure managed by the Venetian working unit of the project.
Firstly, we will introduce the ongoing modelling of the philological domain from a formal point of view. Secondly, we will discuss engineering methods for the analysis of the required components. Finally, we will describe the application of the aforementioned methodology to the specific part of the project developed in Pisa.
Computational philology has so far focused on the formalisation of only some aspects of the philological domain, such as stemmatics, derived from the Lachmannian methodology 1, but it is necessary to take into account the formalisation of other aspects essential to understanding the history of the tradition 2 as well as the relation that a text has with its text bearing object (TBO), reusing non-textual annotation tools 3. Thus, any proposed formal models should reflect a representative range of philological methods and practices.
Whereas stochastic theories and processes borrowed from computational linguistics have been successfully employed in computational philology, formal models based on selected logical axioms specific to the philological domain, have not been sufficiently developed 4.  In this aspect of our work, our attention is addressed to an overall class of problems rather than just a single project. The ultimate goal is to model how various kinds of philological data serve as evidence for the construction of dynamic critical editions and critical commentaries. As another outcome, these logical models might result in the development of an extensive domain ontology and subdomain ontologies.
An example should illustrate the benefits that such a process of formalisation could have in the development of software tools for projects in the philological domain such as Memorata Poetis. An analyst designing software for a project that must deal with textual variance due to the existence of several diverging manuscripts of the same work, can afford to focus on creating tools to handle different chunks of text starting at the same textual position, as per his design specifications, while neglecting to deal with the issue of multiple syntactic interpretations in ambiguous sentences. A different project requiring such an extension to the original software in order to record concurrent syntactic analyses suggested by different scholars in commentaries will have to incorporate a comprehensive process of refactoring, instead of a simple development that extends the functionalities of the software developed in the previous project.
Much work in computational philology in the last few decades has been driven by the idea that the design and development of a digital platform for text criticism can be carried out by simply transferring and customizing many of the tools that have been developed in the field of computational linguistics for studying modern languages 5; 6; 7. However we think that it is necessary to develop a different line of research in which the tradition of philological studies can advance into the digital era without relying on such a simplistic view of the relation of such work with computational linguistics.
The development of software components for the philological domain at ILC-CNR is based on the agile paradigm of software development: we mix a top-down with a bottom-up approach, which requires a continual improvement in design and implementation.
Ongoing Results

The library of core components under development is structured into the following packages:  philological content management, TBO management, editing, management of layers of analysis, relations (linked data) management, indexing, search, view.

Fig. 1: Class Diagram of the Aligner Component
Philological entities can be either represented as linear or non-linear structures; in the latter case we have the choice of representing textual variants as graphs 8 or in other ways (e.g. as a swarm of variants). The choice is determined on the basis of the best trade-off between fast access, representation of variable granularity, etc. The strategy for the actual representation of texts with variants will be implemented in the extended classes of the abstract PhilologicalEntity class, which provides methods to set and get the textual variants.
TBO components deal with information related to the epigraphic device, in our case a small subset of the epigraphs. These components manage the multidimensional models (e.g. 3D) and any other relevant information related to theepigraphic situation. Epigraphy, as a specific communication process of writtent text, gives complementary examples of the scientific and digital requirements for a global approach of the TBO. By focusing, among many other complex aspects, on writing and context, epigraphy concerns itself with entangled information from the process of communication that computational linguistic processes only partially take into account. This is necessary to the overall scientific interpretation and understanding of any text.
Editing components manage the creation, reading, updating and deletion of the data stored in the system, preserving the integrity of the data, tracking multiple versions of the information, etc. The following types of objects are affected by editing: texts with variants, automated analyses described below (in order to manually review them), data entries for free annotations (such as commentaries) and structured annotations (such as the tagging of themes and motives and semantic analyses, according to the SIMPLE methodology 9).
Components related to linguistic and stylistic automated analyses both implement cutting-edge algorithms for lemmatization and pos-tagging 10 as well as embedding tools developed in the Perseus project like Morpheus. Components for metrical analysis 11 and 12, individuation of named entities, etc. are pluggable extensions.
Here it is interesting to note that adapting computational models developed for Western languages could result in the loss of information regarding innate characteristics of different and more remote languages as pointed out in recent projects such as Sharing Ancient Wisdoms (SAWS-KCL). For instance the word analyses made by Buckwalter's morphological engine are not marked according to Arabic grammar but according to their translation in English 13. For example, the word biHaq~i is analysed as a preposition and this is incorrect. The words commonly used to translate biHaq~i in English, e.g., “against”, are indeed prepositions, but in Arabic grammar, biHaq~i is composed of the concatenation of  three parts: (1) bi=PREP + (2) Haq~=NOUN+ (3) i=CASE_DEF_GEN. For these reasons, we have brought about improvements to the current morphological analyzers which allow detailed analyses respecting the grammar and granularity of Arabic 14.Linked data components will be developed in order to handle the overall relations between the entities involved in the system through an identification scheme (e.g. RDF). The linking is done at different levels of granularity and between different types of objects. For example, a philological entity can be linked to another philological entity and a character can be linked to the related box in its three-dimensional model.Indexing components will create and handle data structures necessary to efficiently access stored resources.   Search components, devoted to information retrieval, will combine the data indexed in the persistence unit and exploit a large number of query techniques for accessing databases (xquery, sql, sparql, etc).View components will take into account the data structures that represent content combined with multiple levels of analysis. The interaction between the user and the system through the graphical interface (user experience) must be suitable for philologists and their specific needs, avoiding limitations due to the adaptation of the user experience of different domains.

Fig. 2: Web Interface showing the text of an Arabic epigraph aligned with its Italian translation and related morphological analysis
Conclusion

In conclusion, our approach tries to model the principal entities, their relations and their behaviour in the domain of philology at a high level of abstraction and, consequently, we derive a framework that is not based on the requirements of a specific project, but that derives from the logical modelling of the domain. Eventually, the actual software components developed according to the framework will be used for a collaborative project that combines multiple levels of analyses and annotations, in order to enrich the traditional methods applied by philologist to study intertextuality. Applications developed with the CoPhi components are made available here: <http://cophilab.eu>.
References

1. Roos, T. and Heikkila, T. (2009). Evaluating methods for computer-assisted stemmatology using artificial benchmark data sets, Literary and Linguistic Computing, 24: 471-433.
2. Bozzi, A. (2004). Postfazione a Zampolli Antonio, Filologia e informatica: le origini della filologia computazionale, Euphrosyne, n.s. 32: 21-24.
3. Soler, F., Torres, J. C., León, A. J. and Luzón, M. V. (2013). Design of Cultural Heritage Information Systems based on Information Layers, ACM Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage. In press.
4. Endriss, U. (2011). Logic and social choice theory. In Gupta, A. and van Benthem, J. (eds.), Logic and Philosophy Today. London: College Publications. staff.science.uva.nl/~ulle/pubs/files/EndrissLPT2011.pdf (accessed 7 March 2014)
5. Bamman, D. and Crane, G. (2009). Computational Linguistics and Classical Lexicography, Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3. www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/1/000033.html (accessed 7 March 2014).
6. Robinson P. (2004). Where We Are with Electronic Scholarly Editions, and Where We Want to Be, Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie 5: 123-143. computerphilologie.uni-muenchen.de/ejournal.html (accessed 7 March 2014).
7. Orlandi, T. (2010). Informatica testuale - teoria e prassi, Roma: Laterza Editori.
8. Schmidt, D. and Colomb, R. (2009). A data structure for representing multi-version texts online, International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 67(6): 497-514.
9. Lenci, A., Calzolari, N. and Zampolli, A. (2003). SIMPLE: Plurilingual Semantic Lexicons for Natural Language Processing, Linguistica Computazionale 16-17: 323-352.
10. Bamman, D. and Crane, G., (2011). The Ancient Greek and Latin Dependency Treebanks. In Sporleder, C., van den Bosch, A. and Zervanou, K. (eds.), Language Technology for Cultural Heritage. Berlin: Springer Verlag, pp.79-98.
11. Pavese, C. O. and Boschetti, F. (2004). A Complete Formular Analysis of the Homeric Poems, Amsterdam: Hakkert.
12. Fusi, D. (2004). Fra metrica e linguistica: per la contestualizzazione di alcune leggi esametriche. In Di Lorenzo, E. (ed.), L'esametro greco e latino: analisi, problemi e prospettive - Atti del convegno di Fisciano 28-29 maggio 2002. Napoli: Guida Editore, pp.33-63.
13. Zemirli, Z. and Elhadj, Y. O. M. (2012). Morphar+: an Arabic morphosyntactic analyzer, Proceedings of International Conference on Advances in Computing, Communications and Informatics (ICACCI), Chennai, India, 3-5 August 2012, pp. 816-823.
14. Hajder S. R. (2011). Adapting Standard Open-Source Resources To Tagging A Morphologically Rich Language: A Case Study With Arabic, Proceedings of the Student Research Workshop associated with RANLP 2011. Hissar, Bulgaria, pp. 127–132.","txt","2","",""
"1831","15","A vocabulary of the aesthetic experience for modern dance archives","9","This research falls within the field of digital humanities; the arts and information science engage in dialogue. In the last few decades, dance has become a distinct research subject. Dance research needs data. Dance performances remain elusive, and the traces they leave in their wake need to be documented. However, the documentation practices of performance remain unsatisfactory (Couch 1994: 42; Rowat 2005; Desalme 2007: 13; Chaffee 2011: 125), and the specificity of performing arts such as dance is rarely and quite imperfectly taken into account (Le Boeuf 2002; Miller and Le Boeuf 2005).
Dance description in archives needs to be improved because, in this era of massive digital information, the quality of the description impinges on access to the documentation. Description is entangled with access. The better the description, the more efficient the access will be for information seekers. As Nena Couch (2004: 53) once said about dance collections, “If there is no standard language through which a patron may communicate his or her search, the material may be as lost as if the library had never acquired it.” Knowledge extraction seems to offer new opportunities in this regard.
Objectives

The goal of this research is to contribute to the development of information management tools by evaluating the relevance of knowledge extraction in information resources maintenance and development for performing arts such as dance. Aesthetic experience is an essential part of art; a part, however, that is hard to define, let alone describe, in an archives context. Through knowledge extraction, we obtain a vocabulary for describing the aesthetic experience of modern dance in archives. Choreographic works were described using this vocabulary.
Methodology

Many contemporary artists include archival material in their artistic practices (Poinsot 2004; Lemay 2009). Performing arts archives and archivists must be as creative as the art they keep records of (Johnson and Fuller Snyder 1999; Jones, Abbott and Ross 2009: 166; Chaffee 2011: 125). Artists are inspired by archives, and archivists should be inspired by artists in return.
To obtain a vocabulary for representing the aesthetic experience of modern dance, we drew on modern literature and modern art. At the end of the 19th century, French writer Stéphane Mallarmé praised in Autre étude de danse the dazzling performances of Loïe Fuller, a pioneer of modern dance. Mallarmé was an artist and an aesthete (Delfel 1951), a “métaphysicien du ballet” (Levinson 1983). His work is an aesthetic experience in itself, and is related to dance in many ways (Richard 1961; Kristeva 1974: 537; Block 1977: 96; Levinson 1983; Zachmann 2001). Writing about Mallarmé, Mary Ann Caws (1998: 86) says, “[w]hat he gives us is everything that comes after him.” Gayle Zachmann (2001: 188) mentions that “writers and critics […] have highlighted this poet’s contributions to the theoretical underpinnings and reading of modern dance and/or the significance of his writings on dance for his own aesthetic.” His work foreshadowed the spring of modern dance.
We worked from a corpus of texts that includes Mallarmé’s collections Divagations (1897 edition published by Eugène Fasquelle) and Poésies (1899 edition published by Émile Deman) for a total of 119 documents (comprising poetic prose, poem, dialogue), 11,850 types on 70,507 tokens (before lexical filtering) and 7,238 types (after lexical filtering). This corpus has been linked to modern dance for decades, and artists as well as experts in the field of dance studies have drawn on it for inspiration.
The vocabulary was obtained through knowledge extraction methods; to be specific, text mining algorithms combining term extraction and clustering. Documents were grouped into clusters using discriminant features (terms). Clustering is the method of choice for thematic discovery and terminology building (Ibekwe-SanJuan 2007; Forest 2012) and, as such, a bottom-up hierarchical clustering method was used. Once the cluster structure was created, characteristic terms were extracted from each cluster to use as the basis for building a basic structured vocabulary of the aesthetic experience of modern dance.
Results

Two main clusters emerged from the corpus, one of 75 documents, the other of 34 documents. From the 75-document class were drawn three qualifiers, one for each subcluster, of the aesthetic experience of modern dance: petit (small), seul (in solo), beau (beautiful). The antonyms were then drawn directly from the corpus: grandiose (grandiose, great), en couple (in duo) or en troupe (in a body), laid (ugly). From the 34-document class were drawn nine topics related to the aesthetic experience: corps (body), idéal (ideal), nature (nature), nudité (nudity), pureté (purity), rire (laughter), solitude (solitude, loneliness), temps (time), voix (voice). The terms allow the description of what is happening visually onstage beyond the storyline, that is, the visual experience.

Fig. 1: Vocabulary of the aesthetic experience extracted from Mallarmé’s work
We were able to describe choreographic works with the vocabulary. For example, we described Dave St-Pierre’s Un peu de tendresse, bordel de merde! using the following terms: troupe, voix, nudité, rire. St-Pierre’s work is known for theatrical staging, shocking nudity and dark humour.
Exploring Mallarmé’s vocabulary has allowed us to better describe dance performance and to develop minimal yet innovative access points to traditional archives. Thus this initial experiment supports the relevance of knowledge extraction in information resources maintenance and development for performing arts such as dance. Knowledge extraction is one of many solutions for creating a vocabulary for dance archives.
Conclusion

In this research, we delved into the core of an art, literature, to find a vocabulary for describing art. Humanities computing and non-computing approaches are complementary here. The field of digital humanities, recent advances in information technology and opportunities offered by knowledge extraction all contribute to the possibility of exploring innovative solutions to improve the description of dance performance in archives, as well as fostering a better understanding of the art of dance. In this way, information science empowers the arts while the arts empower information science.
References

Block, H. (1977). Mallarmé and the Symbolist Drama. Westport: Greenwood Press.
Caws, M. (1998). Mallarmé’s Progeny. In Cohn, R. and Gillepsie, G. (eds), Mallarmé in the twentieth century. Cranbury, London, Mississauga: Associated University Press, pp. 86-91.
Chaffee, G. (2011). Preserving Transience: Ballet and Modern Dance Archives, Libri: International Journal of Libraries and Information Services, 61(2): 125-130.
Couch, N. (1994). Dance Collections. In Sheehy, C. (ed), Managing Performing Arts Collections in Academic and Public Libraries. Westport: Greenwood Press, pp. 41-72.
Delfel, G. (1951). L’esthétique de Stéphane Mallarmé. Paris: Flammarion.
Desalme, A. (2007). Sur les pas de la danse: l’exemple des bibliothèques américaines, Bulletin des bibliothèques de France, 52(4): 13-22.
Forest, D. (2012). Fouille de textes et analyse thématique: techniques prédictive et descriptive pour la gestion et l’analyse de documents textuels non structurés. Sarrebruck: Éditions universitaires européennes.
Ibekwe-SanJuan, F. (2007). Fouille de textes: méthodes, outils et applications. Paris: Hermès, Lavoisier.
Johnson, C. and Fuller Snyder, A. (1999). Securing our Dance Heritage: Issues in the Documentation and Preservation of Dance. Washington: Council on Library and Information Resources.
Jones, S., Abbott, D. and Ross, S. (2009). Redefining the Performing Arts Archive, Archival Science, 9(3-4): 165-171.
Kristeva, J. (1974). La révolution du langage poétique: l’avant-garde à la fin du XIXe siècle, Lautréamont et Mallarmé. Paris: Éditions du Seuil.
Le Boeuf, P. (2002). Le spectacle vivant en tant qu’objet documentaire et le modèle conceptuel de données des FRBR. In Arts du spectacle: patrimoine et documentation, XXIIIe congrès international, Paris 25-30 septembre 2000. Paris: Société internationale des bibliothèques et musées des arts du spectacle, Bibliothèque nationale de France.
Lemay, Y. (2009). Art et archives: une perspective archivistique, Encontros Bibli, édition spéciale: 64-86.
Levinson, A. (1983). The Idea of Dance: From Aristotle to Mallarmé. In Copeland, R. and Cohen, M. (eds), What Is Dance? New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 47-54.
Mallarmé, S. (1897). Divagations. Paris: Bibliothèque Charpentier, Eugène Fasquelle. http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Divagations (accessed May 2013).
Mallarmé, S. (1899). Poésies. Bruxelles: Edmond Deman. http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Po%C3%A9sies_%28Mallarm%C3%A9%29/%C3%89dition_1899 (accessed May 2013).
Miller, D. and Le Boeuf, P. (2005). “Such stuff as dreams are made on”: How Does FRBR Fit Performing Arts, Cataloging & Classification Quarterly, 39 (3/4): 151-178.
Poinsot, J.-M. (2004). Avant-propos. In Mokhtari, S. (ed), Les artistes contemporains et l’archive. Rennes : Presses universitaires de Rennes, pp. 5-8.
Richard, J.-P. (1961). L’univers imaginaire de Mallarmé. Paris: Editions du Seuil.
Rowat, T. (2005). Review of Recent Approaches to Growing Dance Legacy. Ottawa: Canada Council for the Arts.
Valaskakis-Tembeck, I., Odom, S. and Fisher-Stitt, N. (1997). Dance Research in Canada, Dance Research Journal, 29(1): 107-110.
Zachmann, G. (2001). Offensive Moves in Mallarmé: Dancing with des astres. In Grossman, K., Lane, M., Monicat, B. and Silverman, W. (eds), Confrontations: Politics and Aesthetics in Nineteenth-Century France. Amsterdam, Atlanta: Rodopi, pp. 187-200.","txt","2","",""
"1832","15","Accessing, navigating, and engaging with high-resolution document image collections using Diva.js","9","High-resolution page images are providing digital humanities researchers with unprecedented visual access to historically significant works located around the world. As libraries and archives continue digitizing their historical document collections, they are increasing the quality and resolution of their document imaging systems and producing images that, while unprecedented in their clarity and detail, are inconvenient to navigate and manipulate in traditional browser-based environments. Users find themselves waiting for large PDF files to download, or clicking endlessly through thumbnail after thumbnail to find a page image that contains materials of interest to them. These methods of document navigation and viewing have been in place since the infancy of the web browser, and are needlessly awkward given advances in creating asynchronous web applications.
The most common interface paradigm for browsing images online is the ‘image gallery’. To illustrate this type of interface we will use the example of the Early English Books Online (EEBO) interface as one with which some readers may be familiar. In the EEBO image viewing interface, users navigate a document as if it were a series of independent images, or image gallery, viewing small thumbnails that, while efficient for downloading to a browser, make it impossible to see the actual content of the page (Figure 1). To examine any single page, the user must click on an image, bringing up a second view of the page optimized for viewing in the browser, but may not be usable for close examination if the text on the page is too small. Should a user wish to examine any part of a page in particular detail, there may be an option to download a larger, high-resolution image, but the user must wait for this large image to download to their browser, which may take several minutes depending on the speed of the network connection and the size of the image. If the user waits for the full quality image to download but wishes to continue browsing the document on the next page they must traverse back to the smaller thumbnails and start the process again.

Fig. 1: Viewing page thumbnails in the EEBO collection.
An alternative to the image gallery mode of interaction is the use of a browser-based book reader component. Several of these systems are available for managing user interactions with page images. Perhaps the most well-known purpose-built web-based document viewer is BookReader by the Internet ArchiveI1. Developed as part of the Open Library project, this software presents the user with a book metaphor, inviting them to 'turn' the pages of a book. While this provides a useful alternative to the image gallery mode of viewing, the IA BookReader requires that each page is represented by a complete image file, so zooming in and viewing a page in detail requires the user to wait while the entire image is downloaded—which can be slow and cumbersome depending on the size and resolution of each image. This is also true for PDF-based document image display, where a user is forced to accept a trade-off between viewing low-resolution versions of page images, or waiting for extremely large PDF files to download before they can view any of the pages.
To optimize viewing large, high-resolution documents in a web browser we developed the Diva document image viewer. Diva features several methods for managing user interactions with document page images. Users interact with the full document by scrolling the document, as they might with a PDF file. However, in Diva all page images are composed of smaller tiles. These tiles are of a fixed size (256x256 pixels), and all pages (and their tiles) that are outside of the user's viewport are not downloaded to the browser. This creates an ‘instant-on’ effect to viewing a document, since the user does not have to wait for the entire document to download, but just a small portion. As a user scrolls, new tiles are downloaded on-demand. To view higher or lower resolution page images, users can 'zoom' between resolutions. Zooming in and out on an image will download just the portion of the page that fits on the users’ screen (Figures 2 and 3).

Fig. 2: A zoomed-out view of a manuscript page.

Fig. 3: Zoomed-in detail of the lower-left corner of the page shown in Figure 2.
With the ubiquity of mobile devices it is important to ensure Diva functions on low-memory systems, like the iPad or iPhone. Diva.js uses several methods unique to document image viewers for optimizing memory usage and display. While a document may be several hundred pages long, Diva keeps just three pages in memory at any given point in time, dynamically adding and removing page elements from the browser as the user scrolls. This creates a fast and efficient browsing system for both mobile and desktop devices. 
Furthermore we have built a number of image manipulation tools into Diva.js that allow users to engage with a document. Many documents, especially older manuscripts, feature faded inks or text that is written perpendicular to the captured page orientation (e.g., marginalia). Using Diva, users can manipulate brightness, contrast, and page rotation in their browser via an unique set of HTML5-based image manipulation tools, allowing them to enhance faded inks or rotate a page to read margin notes or tables (Figure 4). Other viewers that offer this functionality manipulate the image on the server and then send it back to the client. This is a high-latency operation. With browser-based image manipulation users can see the results of their changes immediately.

Fig. 4: Manuscript page (in Arabic) rotated 90° to view perpendicular text on flyleaf. The controls on the left allow the user to manipulate brightness, contrast, rotation, zoom, and individual RGB colour channels.
  We have used Diva.js as the presentation layer of a document image search system. When a user searches for a given word or phrase, the results are presented in situ on page images, highlighting the exact location on each page where their result occurs.
All components of Diva are available as free and open-source software, available on GitHub 2. Diva may be integrated into existing digital library systems. On the server-side, Diva requires the IIP Image Server 3, a giga-pixel image server that serves the page image tiles, and a standard web server, such as Apache or NginX. Document images can be encoded as either multi-resolution JPEG2000, or pyramid TIFF files. The JavaScript components of Diva.js will work in any modern web browser. These components manage the asynchronous communication process between the user's browser, the web server, and the IIP Image Server. We have also built in a comprehensive API and plugin system that provides ‘hooks’ into the page loading and image manipulation systems.
In our presentation we will provide a demonstration of Diva.js and an overview of its background and development history. We will discuss several case studies where we have employed Diva.js for viewing and searching large historical document image collections, where it is used to display page images captured at over 1,200 PPI. Zooming in on images at these resolutions allow users to view individual brush strokes, paper detail and condition, to view details of manuscript illuminations, and several other important document factors that are lost in lower-resolution image displays. Finally we will demonstrate several new features for highlighting and annotating places of interest on page images and integrating page images with the output of optical character recognition software.
References

1. The Open Library. 2013. Internet Archive Bookreader. openlibrary.org/dev/docs/bookreader (accessed 7 March 2014).
2. Distributed Digital Music Archives and Libraries. 2014. Diva.js github.com/DDMAL/Diva.js (accessed 7 March 2014).
3. Pillay, R., and D. Pitzalis. (2008). IIP Image Server. iipimage.sourceforge.net (accessed 7 March 2014).","txt","2","",""
"1833","15","Active Authentication through Psychometrics","9","What can your computer habits reveal about you?  The answer might surprise you.  Previous work (Juola, et al., 2013) has shown that just a few minutes of computer usage can be used to identify who is at the keyboard and their demographic and psychological attributes with a fairly high degree of accuracy.  We expand upon this to show that the same usage data can be used to thoroughly profile a previously-unknown user to obtain valuable psychological information about the user.
Authorship attribution, the analysis of a document’s writing style to infer the author’s identity, is a well-established problem in text classification.  Previously, we used classical authorship attribution techniques to identify “who was at the keyboard” using the DARPA Active Authentication Corpus (Juola et al, 2013).  Researchers have successfully applied the analysis of language usage to infer authorship of written documents (Juola, 2006. Koppel et al, 2009. Stamatatos, 2009. Jockers & Witten, 2010), and stylometric analysis has also been applied to things like gender (Argamon et al, 2006), personality (Luyckx & Daelemans, 2008), and even psychological disorders like depression (Rude et al, 2004).
Here, we attempt to perform the same technique with groups composed of individuals who share common psychological traits.  Previous work (Luyckx & Daelemans, 2008. Noecker & Juola, 2013) on personality profiling has so far focused on analyzing previously-written documents.  In contrast, our system provides a method for real-time psychological profiling of a user based on his or her interactions with a computer over a relatively short period of time (approximately 30 minutes).  The ultimate goal is two-fold: to learn something about a previously-unobserved user (traditional stylometric identification techniques require us to have training data on a user before we can identify him) and to use psychological traits as an enhancement to current user authentication methods.
Currently, exact accuracy on the user-based authentication is approximately 90%.  This task becomes more difficult (and the accuracy becomes correspondingly lower) as the pool of potential author models grows.  In order to improve overall accuracy of the user authentication task, we propose to include these psychological profiling tools in the authentication system.  If a given user can be identified as the most likely candidate with 90% probability, and several facets of that user’s personality can be confirmed with similarly high confidence, this will increase the overall robustness of the authentication system.
For our purposes, we used two personality/intelligence measurement systems to profile users: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and Multiple Intelligences Developmental Assessment Scales (MIDAS).
The Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI) assigns four binary classifications to define personality (Myers & Myers, 1980)
Extroversion vs Introversion
iNtuition vs Sensing
Thinking vs Feeling
Judgement vs Perception
The Multiple Intelligences Developmental Assessment Scales (MIDAS) were developed by Dr. Howard Gardner in his 1983 book “Frames of Mind” (Gardner, 1983).  He used a unique definition of intelligence: “The ability to solve a problem or create a product that is valued within one or more cultures” (MI Research and Consulting).  He identified 8 primary intelligent scales, each of which have several subscales (MI Research and Consulting):
Musical
Vocal Ability
Instrumental Skill
Composer
Appreciation
Kinesthetic
Athletics
Dexterity
Logical-Mathematical
Everyday Math
School Math
Everyday Problem Solving
Strategy Games
Spatial
Space Awareness
Working with Objects
Artistic Design
Linguistic
Expressive Sensitivity
Rhetorical Skill
Written-academic
Interpersonal
Social Sensitivity
Social Persuasion
Interpersonal Work
Intrapersonal
Personal Knowledge / Efficacy
Effectiveness
Calculations
Spatial Problem Solving
Naturalist
Animal Care
Plant Care 
We also include a 9th main scale, Leadership, with its own subscales: Communication, Management, and Social.
Materials and Methods

Corpus

In order to create the most accurate corpus possible, we set up a simulated office environment and hired 80 temporary workers for one week each.  Workers were tasked to perform a long-term blogging project (research and write blog articles on topics “related to Pittsburgh in some way”) over the course of a normal workweek.  For this study, we use the Free Key Logger output, which provides the exact text typed by each user.  We do not include any information about the applications being used or any data the user pastes from the clipboard.
Feature Extraction

For our analysis, we used the Java Graphical Authorship Attribution Program (JGAAP) (Juola et al, 2009).  JGAAP is a Java-based, modular program for textual analysis, text categorization, and authorship attribution.  It provides a comprehensive framework, allowing us to rapidly test the effectiveness of different analysis techniques on the recorded data.
JGAAP divides analysis into several steps: Canonicization (Preprocessing), Event Set (Feature) Generation, and Analysis.  In Canonicization, preprocessors are used to standardize the text.  For this step, we converted all input letters to lower case (“Unify Case”) and converted all strings of whitespace characters into a single space character (“Normalize Whitespace”).  At this stage, we also processed a variety of special keyboard characters, converting these non-printable characters into a printable placeholder (e.g. “backspace” was replaced with “β”).  Finally, we divided the input data into blocks of 1,000 characters, representing about 30 minutes of computer usage.
For the event set generation, we tested character N-grams for all N from 1 to 15, and word N-grams for N from 1 to 5.  We then applied a number of analysis methods for each experiment: Cosine Distance, Intersection Distance, Manhattan Distance, and Matusita Distance.  For each method, we used a centroid-based nearest neighbor classifier.  We performed leave-one-out cross-validation to reach our final conclusion.
Models

For the MBTI classifiers, we built four binary classifiers (i.e. E vs I, N vs S, T vs F, and J vs P).  For the MIDAS classifiers, we first built a single 9-way classifier to identify a user’s principle main scale.  This was the scale along which the user scored highest (i.e. the scale for which the user showed the highest preference).  For example, a user might have a preference for “Musical” or “Linguistic”.  We also developed subscale classifiers, which identify a user’s preference within each major scale.  For instance, a user might be identified as “(Musical) Vocal Ability” and “(Kinesthetic) Dexterity”, etc.  Thus, each user was identified by a single main scale preference as well as nine subscale preferences.
Results

MBTI

For the MBTI classifiers, we averaged an accuracy of 81.5%.  The expected baseline average (assuming we pick the most prevalent personality type for each category) is 55%. 
MIDAS

For the MIDAS main category identification, our best performing classifier had accuracy of 70.7%.  This was using character 15 grams with Intersection Distance.  The expected baseline accuracy (achieved by choosing the most common main scale, “Linguistic”) was 22.1%.
For the MIDAS subscale identification, the best performing classifiers used a variety of Character n-grams, again with Intersection Distance as the top performing analysis method.  The average subscale accuracy was 81%.
Conclusion

We have shown here a method to reliably psychologically profile a computer user based on only a short period (about 30 minutes) of usage time.  In addition to providing valuable information about the user in question, this method can also be used to provide additional layers of security for the active authentication system we have described previously.  Even in an adversarial situation, the difficulty of imitating both an individual user’s style, as well as mimicking the psychological profile of the user, will provide additional security to the authentication system.
Also interesting to note is the limited usage data required to perform these analyses.  The initial user psychological testing period took approximately 3 hours, but accurate results were obtained for only 30 minutes of computer usage.  In addition, the three hours of testing were completely lost time – the users were able to work only on the tests during this time.  In contrast, the 30 minutes of analysis can be done on whatever the user is working on at the time.  No downtime is required to perform these analyses.  We believe this system could be useful anywhere a non-intrusive analysis of a user might be beneficial (e.g. determining whether a potential employee would be a good fit).
For future work, we intend to focus on reducing the amount of data needed even further.  Preliminary results on as little as 500 characters (about 15 minutes of usage time) have been promising.  Additional work is also being done to integrate these methods into the broader active authentication system in order to bolster the overall reliability of the system.
References

Argamon, S., Koppel, M., Fine, J., Shimoni, A. R (2006). “Gender, Genre, and Writing Style in Formal Written Texts”. Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of Discourse. Volume 23. Issue 3. pp. 321-346.
“Broad Agency Announcement: Active Authentication”. (2012). DARPA. Solicitation No. DARPA-BAA-12-06. 12 Jan. 2012. <http://www.fbo.gov/index?tab=documents&t abmode=form&subtab=core&tabid=494b6b2c612c4 fd3db6cb018d4467e21>.
Gardner, Howard (1983). “Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences”.  Basic Books.
Jockers, M. L., Witten, D. (2010) “A Comparative Study of Machine Learning Methods for Authorship Attribution”.Literary and Linguistic Computing, vol. 25, no. 2. pp. 215–23.
Juola, P. (2006) “Authorship Attribution”.Foundations and Trends in Information Retrieval, vol. 1, no. 3.  pp. 233–334.
Juola, Patrick, Noecker Jr., John, Ryan, Mike, Speer, Sandy (2009). “JGAAP 4.0 – A Revised Authorship Attribution Tool”. Proc. Digital Humanities 2009. pp. 357–359. Maryland Insitute. for Technology in the Humanities. University of Maryland.
Juola, Patrick, Noecker Jr., John, Stolerman, Ariel, Ryan, Michael, Brennan, Patrick, Greenstadt, Rachel (2013). ""Keyboard Behavior Based Authentication for Security"". IT Professional. 18 June 2013. IEEE computer Society Digital Library. IEEE Computer Society. <http://doi.ieeecomputersociety.org/10.1109/MITP.2013.49>.
Koppel, M., Schler, J., Argamon, S. (2009)“Computational Methods in Authorship Attribution”. J. Amer. Soc. Information Science and Technology, vol. 60, no. 1. pp. 9–26.
Luyckx, K., Daelemans, W. (2008) “Personae, a Corpus for Author and Personality Prediction from Text”.Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation. Marrakech, Morroco.
MI Research and Consulting, Inc. “Multiple Intelligences Theory”.  <www.miresearch.org/mi_theory.html>.
Myers I B, Myers P. (1980)“Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type”. Palo Alto, CA. Consulting Psychologists Press.
Noecker Jr., J. Juola, P. (2013) “Psychological Profiling Through Textual Analysis”. Literary and Linguist Computing.
Rude, S., Gortner, E., Pennebaker, J. (2004) “Language Use of Depressed and Depression-Vulnerable College Students”.Cognition and Emotion.
Stamatatos, E. (2009) “A Survey of Modern Authorship Attribution Methods”. J. Amer. Soc. Information Science and Technology, vol. 60, no. 3. pp. 538–556.
Zheng, N., Paloski, A., Wang, H. (2011) “An Efficient User Verification System via Mouse Movements,”Proc. 18th ACM Conf. Computer and Communications Security (CCS 11). ACM. pp. 139–150.
","txt","2","",""
"1834","15","Adams Family Legacy: Visualizing the World of an American Presidential Family","2","Spanning the years 1735 to 1889, the Adams Timeline (www.masshist.org/adams/timeline) is a searchable collection of key events and happenings in the lives of 2nd U.S. President John Adams, First Lady Abigail Adams and three succeeding generations of their immediate family. Members of the Adams family were deeply involved a tumultuous era of American history and were keen observers of national and domestic politics, as well as the daily activities on their beloved family farm. The collection of Adams Family Papers at the Massachusetts Historical Society is the most comprehensive and historically complete family collection held by any American cultural institution. While forming the basis of numerous digital and analog resources, this vast body of material lacked a coherent summation of major personalities and collection highlights.
The creation of the Adams timeline achieves the dual results of a streamlined presentation of historical data and fulfillment of a need in the research community. A diverse audience ranging from published scholars to schoolchildren land directly on this resource when searching for biographical information on the Adams family and access an interactive organization of key data points. Residing on the website of the Massachusetts Historical Society, the timeline acts as a portal for locating different types of Adams family information held by the Society. This was an initially unforeseen benefit of creating the timeline, but the addition of hyperlinks to transcriptions and images of original documents allowed for ready access to related materials, including collections of letters and transcriptions, images of diary entries and annotated documents from our Adams Papers Digital Edition.
This timeline was built as a customized adaptation of the SIMILE timeline module (simile-widgets.org/timeline), part of a suite of open-source data visualization widgets originally developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Designed to handle specific dates, time spans, events, images and links, the timeline is rendered from data in an underlying XML file. Each individual is also encoded with a unique identifier, allowing for filtering of events relevant to a certain person and the creation of a focused timeline for an individual rather than the whole family.
While an earlier version of the timeline was displayed only as a static table, this newly created web tool visualizes temporal information and allows for the analysis of the intersection and overlapping of interrelated events. A well-designed data visualization allows users to quickly spot patterns, trends, clusters, gaps and outliers and fulfills Maureen Stone’s definition of information visualization, as “the creation of graphical representations of data that harness the pattern-recognition skills of the human visual system”.1 The Adams timeline now allows for users to make ready connections through time, understand relations between events and within context and quickly scan a dataset in ways that were not possible within a static table. As Joseph Priestley noted in his 1764 publication of a chronological chart representing historical figures, “the thin and void places in the chart are, in fact, not less instructive than the most crowded.”2 Thus a gap in a timeline may be just as meaningful as an area of high activity and an opportunity for exploration of the underlying causes of such a void.
The aim of this poster presentation is two-fold:  to explore the process of creating an XML-based timeline with SIMILE widget; and to demonstrate a possible mode of delivery for the vast stores of information held within the walls of public and private cultural institutions. We will offer an interactive demonstration of our customized adaptation of the SIMILE widget timeline module and solicit input from DH2014 attendees on the methodology and creation of complementary interactive tools. We also seek to explore other possibilities for delivering the wealth of historical data in our collection, currently housed in binders or spreadsheets. We envision this timeline as a first step in designing additional tools, such as a map of Adams family residences or a visualization of the correspondence network of a family deeply connected to early American history.
References

1. Maureen Stone (2009), Information Visualization: Challenge for the Humanities, Working Together or Apart: Promoting the Next Generation of Digital Scholarship, 145:43–56 (March 2009). Available at www.clir.org/pubs/resources/promoting-digital-scholarship-ii-clir-neh/stone11_11.pdf.
2. Joseph Priestley (1764), A Description of a Chart of Biography, Warrington, Eng.","txt","2","",""
"1835","15","Advocating for a Digital Humanities Curriculum: Design and Implementation","9","Smith, David
david.chan.smith@gmail.com
Wilfrid Laurier
Perceptions of falling enrollments and demands for closer
alignment with the labour market have placed the humanities
under pressure in North American higher education.[1] These
issues have been particularly pressing at mid-sized institutions
such as Wilfrid Laurier University in Ontario, Canada.[2]
Faculty at Laurier responded to this challenge by developing
a digital humanities program with its first course offerings
expected in 2014-2015. This paper discusses the initial design
of that program and its relationship to three major questions in
digital humanities pedagogy. First, should digital humanities
programs be structured around a common core of learning
objectives, or instead differentiate?[3] Second, what is the
relationship between digital humanities curricula and demand
in the workforce – should digital humanities programs be
designed to pursue indifferent academic knowledge or attempt
to engage more actively with vocational preparation? Finally,
should the teaching of digital humanities focus on specific skill
development, or instead cultivate “methodologies” or critical
perspectives on technology and its application?[4]
In addressing these questions, the paper adds the
experience of one institution to the ongoing conversation among
emerging programs.[5] Although it has been asked whether
only research intensive universities might have the expertise to
field digital humanities programs, at Laurier we were mindful of
the possibilities opened by a primarily pedagogical approach.
[6] To begin with, while the secondary literature’s discussion of
digital humanities research overshadows teaching, pedagogical
arguments can be crucial to attract administrative support.
[7] This is especially the case in faculties that are sensitive
to undergraduate enrollments and their volatility. Digital
humanities programs can present an attractive option for
students while demonstrating the continuing relevance of the
humanities to technological change.[8]
The Laurier curriculum is a program option that majors
or minors can include in their course of study. Structured
around a cluster of required courses, the curriculum allows
departments throughout the Faculty of Arts to add courses
as they are developed. Students use their elective courses to
design a specific pathway, including learning to program.[9]
The required courses expose students to historical analysis
and computer science. The purpose of the curriculum, broadly
conceived, is to improve students’ “digital literacy” or their
ability to find and analyze digital information, and to use digital
tools in active and creative ways.[10] Recent research has
noted that, “There is considerable evidence to support the
view that many students do not explore information in any
deep or reflective manner.”[11] Other authors have preferred
to emphasize student “multiliteracy,” arguing that literacy in
the digital age is a broad concept, and reflects fluency with
and access to a broad range of representative forms, such as
visual or audio media.[12] A narrow concentration on traditional
textual literacy, it is argued, misses the scope of literacy in
a connected, technologically saturated world.[13] Though
some commentators also worry that young people are being
transformed into passive recipients of digital media, others
argue that technology opens their creative potential in blogs
and other formats.[14] All agree, however, with the necessity
of transforming students from “consumers” of digital content
into “creators.”[15] The literature has also argued that digital
humanities can develop students’ critical skills as they engage
with complex digital information on the web and elsewhere.[16]
Mindful of the growing significance of digital literacy, the
Laurier program prompts students to realize the challenge
of using and gathering “deep data,” rather than relying on
data returned from basic Google searches. Throughout the
curriculum students use methods from history to interpret
textual information, and weigh and contextualize evidence.
This approach connects a qualitative layer to the quantitative
and analytic skills learned from computer science.[17] For
example, the program’s foundation course introduces students
to the possibilities of big data. Using existing queries and
code they investigate familiar data sources, such as Twitter
and Google. They then use knowledge from the humanities
to contextualize and shape that data. Students are asked to
consider the limitations of digital information and how to make
data meaningful: what socially significant questions might
they ask of it? During the final project students communicate
their findings using digital media. The course attempts to
demonstrate to students that the familiar digital universe they
inhabit can reveal surprising discoveries with the right tools.
At Laurier three factors shaped the development of the
program: concerns over costs, an increasing emphasis
on differentiation within the Ontario university system, and
the challenge of engaging faculty who had a pre-existing
knowledge of the subject. These pressures demanded the
program leverage existing institutional strengths.[18] For
example, without funds to support new hires, the program
Lausanne, Switzerland
359
was by necessity an interdisciplinary effort among the faculty
already working in the digital humanities. Consequently, their
knowledge directly affected what was initially possible within
the program.[19] As we developed the program we realized
that it was possible for these perceived drawbacks, such as
lack of faculty expertise concentrated in a research cluster, to
become strengths. In response, our program became not only
interdisciplinary, but a scaffold for faculty to build their expertise
and advance their knowledge through teaching.
These factors shaped the curriculum so as to differentiate
it within the Ontario system at a time when such diversity
is becoming a compelling trend in higher education. As
universities attempt to communicate their distinctiveness to
applicants, digital humanities programs can benefit by their
alignment with the institution’s academic identities.[20] In the
case of Laurier, this tilted the curriculum towards business, one
of the university’s strongest areas. Our experience suggests
explicit differentiation is not only the preferable strategy, but
also perhaps a necessity given the resource constraints and the
dynamics of higher education in North America.
The development of the Laurier program was also related
to specific data about the job-market. Whether humanities
programs should explicitly adopt a vocational orientation
has been a subject of pyretic debate.[21] A curriculum that
trains students primarily to investigate academic problems
in the humanities might be especially suitable for research
universities. At Laurier, however, we shaped the curriculum in
consultation with the Career Centre to advance our students
in post-graduate employment more directly. Like it or not,
many students and applicants are preoccupied with the job
prospects associated with their major.[22] Among employers,
we have learned, there is concern that graduates in arts will
be intimidated or flummoxed by even basic tasks using digital
tools. These misgivings might be unfounded, but the Laurier
program explicitly cultivates digital literacy to equip students for
knowledge employment in the future.
For example, the program builds on Laurier’s strength in
business administration to provide an entry point into the
burgeoning field of analytics. This focus is especially important
since the university is located in a region with large technology
and insurance sectors.[23] The curriculum exposes students
to big data problems beginning in the foundation course,
while prompting them to think about the social meaning and
application of this information by drawing on knowledge
from the humanities. A stream may be added to educate
undergraduates specifically in big data and analytics.
An emphasis on employable experience is also reflected
in the experiential and co-op learning integrated into the
curriculum.[24] Students, to give one example, can receive
course credit for work at the Laurier Centre for Military Strategic
and Disarmament Studies. They will undertake projects
such as digitizing and making the Centre’s archival holdings
publically searchable. These kinds of work opportunities, which
combine training in the humanities with digital work, are not only
pedagogically desirable, but meet our students’ demand for coop
experience in the humanities.
Among the hardest questions to answer is whether digital
humanities courses should teach a defined set of skills over
more broadly conceived methodologies. In balance is the
preference among employers that new hires should already
have a minimal level of job-related training, yet programs
focused on imparting specific skills risk narrowness.[25] Instead
we have embraced the concept of digital literacy: students
should have broad facility with digital work, and be confident
and able to self-learn or advance their training in specific areas.
[26] For example, the exposure during the foundation course
to code does not teach them coding, but rather demonstrates
how code works and its limitations. Students choosing to
specialize can take advanced programming electives. However,
all students should leave the program with at least enough
understanding to customize off-the-shelf tools.
Can the digital humanities draw attention to the vitality of
the humanities? Part of doing so may be to demonstrate that
the humanities have much to offer the digital economy. Moving
forward at Laurier, we intend to conduct a more thorough
investigation into the relationship between the digital humanities
and the contemporary workplace. By proceeding with this
research we accept that the humanities can be more explicitly
oriented to post-graduate employment and the challenges of
“knowledge work.” Though we live in a time of doubt about the
humanities, such strategies may instead reveal that this is a
moment of renewed vigor.
References
[1] Jennifer Levitz and Douglas Belkin, Humanities Fall
from Favor, The Wall Street Journal (June 6, 2013), A3; Tamar
Lewin, As Interest Fades in the Humanities, Colleges Worry,
The New York Times (October 31, 2013), A1. For an articulate
discussion of the falling numbers of humanities concentrators
at a leading research university see, David Armitage, Homi
Bhabha et al., The Teaching of the Arts and Humanities at
Harvard College: Mapping the Future, (Cambridge, MA, 2013);
and the analysis of Anthony Grafton and James Grossman,
The Humanities in Dubious Battle , The Chronicle of Higher
Education, July 1, 2013; Contrarian views are offered by
Michael Bérubé, The Humanities, Declining? Not According
to the Numbers, The Chronicle of Higher Education, July 1,
2013; and Robert Townshend, Clio's Charm Holding Fast?
Perspectives on History (October, 2012).
[2] The author’s home institution; its full-time undergraduate
population is approximately 15,400.
[3] Lisa Spiro, Opening up Digital Humanities Education, in
Digital Humanities Pedagogy, pp. 338-39.
[4] Simon Mahony and Elena Pierazzo, Teaching Skills or
Teaching Methodology? in Brett Hirsch (ed.), Digital Humanities
Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics (2012), pp.
215-225; at p. 215.
[5] See, for example, the informal survey of Tanya Clement,
Multiliteracies in the Undergraduate Digital Humanities
Curriculum: Skills, Principles, and Habits of Mind, in Digital
Humanities Pedagogy, pp. 365-88, at pp. 376-384.
[6] Bryan Alexander and Rebecca Frost Davis discuss the
challenges of digital humanities education in liberal arts schools
and the resource limitations in Should Liberal Arts Campuses
Do Digital Humanities? in Matthew K. Gold, Debates in the
Digital Humanities (Minneapolis, 2012), pp. 368-89.
[7] Tanya Clement, Multiliteracies in the Undergraduate
Digital Humanities Curriculum, pp. 366, 370-71.
[8] Luke Waltzer, Digital Humanities and the ‘Ugly
Stepchildren,’ of American Higher Education, in Gold, Debates,
pp. 335-349, 341-42; Stephen Brier, Where’s the Pedagogy?
The Role of Teaching and Learning in the Digital Humanities,
in Gold, Debates, pp. 390-401, at 390-1; and Alan Liu, Digital
Humanities and Academic Change, English Language Notes
47 (2009), pp. 17-35. Recent discussion of undergraduate
pedagogy includes, T. Mills Kelly, Teaching History in the
Digital Age (Ann Arbor, 2013) and throughout Brett Hirsch
(ed.), Digital Humanities Pedagogy. Attempts have been
made to identify the learning outcomes of digital humanities
courses, see the report of Joanna Drucker and John Unsworth
on the NEH Digital Humanities Curriculum Seminar at
jefferson.village.virginia.edu/hcs/dhcs/intro_syllabus.html.
[9] The role and necessity of coding skills in digital humanities
program has been a subject of recent discussion, see
Interchange: The Promise of Digital History, The Journal
of American History 95:2 (Sept. 2008), pp. 452-487, at pp.
459-67; Tanya Clement, Multiliteracies in the Undergraduate
Digital Humanities Curriculum, p. 369; Stephen Ramsay,
Programming with Humanists: Reflections on Raising an Army
of Hacker-Scholars in the Digital Humanities, in Hirsch (ed.),
Digital Humanities Pedagogy, pp. 227-239.
[10] Tanya Clement, Multiliteracies in the Undergraduate
Digital Humanities Curriculum, p. 366. A recent report in the
United Kingdom by a panel of higher education administrators
and faculty defined “information literacy” as “activities such as
search, retrieval and critical evaluation information from a range
of sources, and also its responsible use form the point of view
of attribution.” David Melville et al., Higher Education in a Web
2.0 World (March, 2009), p. 34.
[11] Peter Williams and Ian Rowlands, The Literature on
Young People and their Information Behaviour, work package
II (October, 2007), pp. 17-20, at 19. Other writers have gone
Digital Humanities 2014
360
further, suggesting that the very process of web interaction
and the structure of its information negatively affects users,
Nicholas Carr, Is Google Making us Stupid? What the Internet
is Doing to Our Brains, The Atlantic (July/August, 2008). Daniel
Cohen and Roy Rosenzweig examine historical accuracy on
the web in Web of Lies? Historical Knowledge on the Internet,
First Monday (December, 2005). See also Mark Bauerlein,
The Dumbest Generation: How the Digital Age Stupifies Young
Americans and Jeopardizes Our Future (2008). See also the
National Endowment for the Arts, Reading at Risk: A Survey
of Literary Reading in America, Research Division Report #46,
eds. Tom Bradshaw and Bonnie Nichols (Washington, 2004).
[12] New London Group, A Pedagogy of Multiliteracies:
Designing Social Futures, Harvard Educational Review 66:1
(1996), pp. 60-92.
[13] Ibid., p. 61.
[14] Tanya Clement, Multiliteracies in the Undergraduate
Digital Humanities Curriculum, pp. 375-76.
[15] Melville et al., Higher Education in a Web 2.0 World, pp.
22-3.
[16] Tanya Clement, Multiliteracies in the Undergraduate
Digital Humanities Curriculum, p. 366.
[17] The program also prompts students to reflect on the use
of large-scale historical data, issues that have been explored
by William Thomas III, Computing and the Historical
Imagination, in Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens et al.
(eds.), A Companion to Digital Humanities,(Oxford, 2004),
pp. 56-68, esp. p. 65 for a discussion of the future digital
needs of historians. Frederick Gibbs and Trevor Owens also
suggest that the availability of “big data” requires the historical
profession to rethink its methods and hermeneutics, see The
Hermeneutics of Data and Historical Writing .
[18] Melissa Terras, Julianne Nyhan and others have
recently compiled differing perspectives on the digital
humanities in Defining Digital Humanities: a Reader (Surrey,
UK, 2013).
[19] Undergraduate programs can be capacity building by
attracting resources to digital humanities. Spiro, Opening up
Digital Humanities Education, p. 332.
[20] James Bradshaw, Specialize or Risk Losing Funding
Ontario tells Universities and Colleges , The Globe and Mail,
September 18, 2013.
[21] In the United Kingdom, Jisc has sponsored projects
considering the linkages between digital literacy and
employment through the Developing Digital Literacies
Programme. Examples include the University of Greenwich
Digital Literacy in Higher Education Project, and the Digitally
Ready project at the University of Reading.
[22] The recent Gallup-Lumina survey reported that 90%
of respondents among the general public believed that the
“candidates college or university major” was either “somewhat”
or “very important” to hiring decisions. Only 70% of “business
leaders” who were asked responded similarly. The 2013 Lumina
Study of the American Public’s Opinion on Higher Education
and U.S. Business Leaders Poll on Higher Education (February
25, 2014), pp. 18, 29
[23] Andrew McAfee and Erik Brynjolfsson, Big Data: The
Management Revolution, Harvard Business Review (October,
2012), p. 62; Jonathan Shaw, Why ‘Big Data’ is a Big Deal:
Information Science Promises to Change the World, Harvard
Magazine (March-April, 2014), pp. 30-35; 74-75; Claire Miller,
Data Science: The Numbers of Our Lives , The New York
Times, April 11, 2013; Thomas Davenport and D.J. Patil, Data
Scientist: the Sexiest Job of the 21st Century, Harvard Business
Review (October, 2012), pp. 70-1; Alexandra Stevenson,
New Silicon Valley Fund to Back Big Data Start-Ups , New
York Times Dealbook, October 17, 2013. Claire Miller, Data
Science: The Numbers of Our Lives, The New York Times ,
April 11, 2013.
[24] 14% of business leaders surveyed in 2014 reported
that internships or practical experience would “best prepare
graduates for success in the workforce.” This was the most
popular response (excluding “Don’t know/refused”). The 2013
Lumina Study, p. 30. For discussion of such “participatory”
educational opportunities (or their lack in the humanities) see
Alexander and Frost Davis, Liberal Arts Campuses, p. 380;
Spiro, Opening Up Digital Humanities Pedagogy, p. 352; Cathy
Davidson has called for a “core curriculum to create engaged
entrepreneurs,” here.
[25] Skills may also, without use, atrophy unlike patterns of
critical thinking, see Mahony and Pierazzo, Teaching Skills or
Teaching Methodology? p. 224.
[26] Jisc, Learning Literacies in a Digital Age , September 7,
2009.","txt","2","",""
"1836","15","Aiding Modern Textual Scholarship using a Virtual Hinman Collator","10","Introduction

Collation is an important step in textual criticism and it is most often an arduous task for most scholars involved in scholarly edition. Unsworth includes “collation” as one of the scholarly primitives which have been basic to scholarship across eras and media. Textual variation has been a pervasive problem affecting literary text since the invention of writing. It can arise in two forms - either due to repeated copying of a manuscript such as the variants in the First Folio of Shakespeare or those advertently inserted by the author/copyist such as the changes made in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. In the first case collation aids the scholar in generating a critical edition. In the latter case, collation can help the scholar understand the author’s purpose. Finding variations is important for research in bibliography and book history as well.
Most of the focus in digital humanities until now has been on making documents available digitally. Much less focus has been on actually supporting the process of scholarly research. The area of collation too awaits a lot more from technology. In the late 1940s Charlton Hinman invented the Hinman collator. Using optical means, it allowed manual comparison of separate copies of a text in order to detect differences. Descendants of the Hinman, collators like the Mcleod collator, the Lindstrand collator and the Hailey's Comet, are still used today. Mechanical collators take time to setup correctly, cannot be used on varying fonts, can damage the books, and are expensive and not very portable. Another approach is to perform collation using tools like Juxta or Collate X on text obtained by transcription or by OCR. This method is flawed by the limits of OCR technology and human error. The Sapheos project approaches the collation problem interestingly by attempting to unwarp the pages and registering them using SIFT key points, but this approach will fail if the text differs significantly.
Most of the tools used today are standalone which inhibits collaboration. Also scholars prefer original copies or facsimiles instead of OCR or transcription versions and most of these tools don’t support that.
This work proposes to address these problems. A prototype of the virtual Hinman (vHinman) collator was created and user-evaluation was conducted amongst scholars experienced with collation work. Image-matching algorithms along with context information are used to match words and the tool was integrated into the creativity support environment CritSpace. Moreover, CritSpace provides the functionality to easily extend the tool to support collating multiple (>2) copies.
Methodology

We developed and evaluated some approaches towards comparing page-images.
Some methods worked well only when the images are pre-registered and won’t be practical if the pages have different alignments and different font-sizes, so we used image processing techniques and image matching algorithms to perform comparison of images . We followed an approach similar to to compare word images amongst two scanned pages
We find the unique corner points on the individual words and find a feature vector for these points. Then through clustering we assign an id to each point. Then we are able to use sequence of ids for a word to compare with other words for similarity. Then we take into account the context of the words to aid in finding the exact match for the words.
Integration into CritSpace

Peter Robinson notes that the greatest effect of the digital revolution is that it is empowering a new model of collaboration among scholars, and between scholars and readers. In sync with this, the goal of this project is to integrate the collation tool into CritSpace to greatly increase its usefulness. CritSpace [Figure 1] is a web based creativity support environment that implements spatial information management strategies to assist scholars in their open-ended research tasks.

Fig. 1: Sample workspace with a text panel, image panel and facsimile viewer
The user-interface explained in figures below was planned to generate an effortless user-experience for digital scholars.

Fig. 2: Figure 2 Screenshot highlighting the differences with green boxes around the words. These are displayed when the user clicks on ""Differences"" button. Notable differences like missing hyphens are outlined as well as the end of the page.

Fig. 3: Figure 3 Screenshot demonstrating the tracking feature. When the user hovers the mouse over any block of word its corresponding match is highlighted in the other page in red. The ones that have already been checked are turned black

Fig. 4: Figure 4 Screenshot of the annotation feature. On enabling annotation mode, the user can select a word and a text box will appear. The text is displayed above the word every time annotation mode is set. A sample use-case has been outlined.

Fig. 5: Screenshot of collation output of two 17th century versions of The Late Tryal and conviction of Count Tariff

Fig. 6: Font variations in two versions of word ""French""
Dataset

We tested the vHinman tool on various scanned texts available on the Internet Archive website and within TAMU collections. Some of them are digital copies of SherlockHolmes , copies of early printings of Donne’s Poems (1633 and 1635) and copies of The Late Tryal and conviction of Count Tariff. These books have many print and edition variants; for the pages of SherlockHolmes tested, the tool shows an average accuracy of 95% in tracking the matches.
User Evaluation

Five subjects were chosen to participate in this study which was a mix of semi-structured interview regarding the experience of scholars on collation, followed by a demo of the prototype and then by questions about the feedback of the tool and suggestions for its improvement.
ID Area of interest Career Stage
S1 Eighteenth century literature Senior
S2 Bibliography Senior
S3 Scholarly editing Senior
S4 Scholarly editing Senior
S5 Book history, Linguistics Senior
Most of the subjects had prior experience with collation either in their scholarly research or for some classroom activities. Some of the subjects had experience with mechanical collators or text based collators. Many of the subjects still prefer the paper-based manual collation method because they find the supporting tools either inaccurate or too cumbersome to use or both. The need of collation in the subjects’ research varied from the traditional scholarly editing process to bibliographic research and book history research.
S4 pointed out that he didn’t have the resources to do the transcription for each of the documents he works on and also said that they are prone to errors.
S1 pointed out the need to be able to find differences in font-styles, ligatures like the move from using the long “s” to the current “s”.
S2 liked the idea of integrating the vHinman into CritSpace which can foster collaborative work. She also liked the idea that the tool could have multiple panels (more than two). She pointed out that while supporting multiple images we can display the n-images in the form of medium sized thumbnails as is seen in “Google images”, where the scholar can select any two panels to collate at a time. She noted that the tool could bring forward new uses of collation and could get collation adopted by scholars who currently don’t focus much on it attributing the manual effort and inherent inaccuracies in the current method.
S5 suggested a novel use of the tool in verifying the authorship of a poem.
Some of the subjects felt the need to be able to point small differences like punctuation because this is important for a critical edition. Although our tool currently only supports identifying word differences, punctuation support can be added. S4 felt that the current implementation can quicken the collation process by addressing textual differences while punctuation can be addressed separately. The subjects in general liked the ability to use the original facsimile of the document via the tool rather than a transcription or a somewhat inaccurate OCR version of it.
Conclusion

This work has investigated the way humanities scholars perform collation work and what role collation plays in their research output. Collation is known to be a laborious and monotonous task unaided by technology so far. To address this problem, a prototype has been developed to perform collation in an automated manner. Image matching techniques are employed in building this prototype, so that the scholars can use the original facsimiles of the documents. The tool was integrated into CritSpace and will benefit from the collaborative environment. A user evaluation was conducted with experienced scholars. In summary, the tool looks very promising to the scholars and also has a high accuracy rate for the books tested so far. Thus this kind of tool can save a massive amount of time for scholars and set up a paradigm of digital collation encouraging even more scholars in finding new uses of collation in their work.
It extends the Hinman’s principles by allowing collating multiple editions of a book in addition to multiple copies of same edition having minor differences.
Since it is has application in creating a critical edition, bibliography and book history research, this tool has the capability of gaining widespread adoption.
Future Work

Beyond printed material, it will be interesting to evaluate the tool for handwritten documents and make it robust for such documents. Also it will be great to test the tool for non-English documents. We can try out different visualization formats and different ways the scholars can use the output in their work. A detailed usability study can be conducted where scholars can perform some real collation work on few pages and compare their traditional method and the vHinman. Also the accuracy could be tested for warped images as most of the unobtrusive scanning methods produce some warping on the images.
References

Unsworth J. (2000) ""Scholarly Primitives: what methods do humanities researchers have in common, and how might our tools reflect this?” In Humanities Computing: formal methods, experimental practice (13 May 2000)
Schmidt, D., & Colomb, R. (2009). “A data structure for representing multi-version texts online.” Journal of Human–Computer Studies, 67(6), 497–514.
Smith, S.E. (2002) “’Armadillos of Invention’: A Census of Mechanical Collators, Studies in Bibliography” 55, pp. 133-170
Cream R.“Sapheos Project”, CDH University Of Southern Carolina sapheos.org
Raabe W. “Collation in Scholarly Editing: An Introduction”
wraabe.wordpress.com/2008/07/26/collation-in-scholarly-editing-an-introduction-draft
www.juxtasoftware.org
collatex.net
Lowe, D.G. (2004) “Distinctive image features from scale-invariant keypoints.” Int. J. Comput. Vision, 60:91–110, November 2004.
Audenaert, N. and Furuta, R. (2010) What Humanists Want: How Scholars use Primary Source Documents, Proceedings of the 10th Annual Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, pp. 283-292.
Yalniz, I. and Manmatha, R., ""An efficient framework for searching text in noisy document images,"" Proceedings of the 10th IAPR International Workshop on Document Analysis Systems (DAS'12)
Robinson, Peter M. W. (1994). “Collation, textual criticism, publication, and the computer.” Text 7: 77-94. www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/30227694.pdf. 16 Dec. 2011
Audenaert, N., Lucchese, G. and Furuta, R.”CritSpace: a workspace for critical engagement within cultural heritage digital libraries” ECDL'10 Proceedings of the 14th European conference on Research and advanced technology for digital libraries
Audenaert, N. “CritSpace: An interactive visual interface to digital collections of cultural heritage material”
Marshall, C.C., Shipman, F.M. “Spatial hypertext and the practice of information triage.” In: ACM Conference on Hypertext (Hypertext 1997), pp. 124–133 (1997)
Rosten E., and Drummond T. (2006) “Machine Learning for high-speed corner detection.” In European Conference on Computer Vision. Volume I, 430-443, May 2006.","txt","2","",""
"1837","15","All databases are created equal: building profiles for database standards and interoperability in the Humanities","2","In this paper I will discuss the development of standard
database profiles which shortcut the process of building
complex interlinked Humanities databases. Although there is
a risk of creating restrictive uniformity which stifles creativity,
I argue that the benefits of well-structured starting points
far outweigh the drawbacks, both in terms of immediate
productivity and the avoidance of less than optimal structures.
I will use examples from two national infrastructure projects to
illustrate the use of database profiles to provide a databaseon-demand
service which integrates readily into an aggregated
search of cultural datasets and specific user needs.
Over the past few years I have worked with a number of
projects - notably historical and archaeological projects - to
Lausanne, Switzerland
483
model their database needs in Heurist (HeuristScholar.org).
From these models I have been able to generalise a set of
requirements for commonly encountered entity types, and
their interrelationships. While there is significant variation in
the specific fields required to describe entities (notably the
degree of detail required), there are a range of common
entity types such as - for historic data - person, organisation,
building, ship, voyage, epidemic, performance, venue,
work and other bibliographic types, along with repeatedly
used descriptors (fields), which are common to a range of
projects. Furthermore, there are a range of relationships
between entities, including familial relationships, roles, event
relationships and bibliographic relationships, which are widely
shared.
The role of a database profile is first to shortcut the low
level and time-consuming task of defining a set of commonly
used descriptors. For example, the description of a person -
one of the most widely used and easily standardised entities
- will commonly require some or all of family name, given
names, sex, date of birth, various forms of address and so
forth, with a bifurcation between contemporary individuals (eg.
participants, with an email address and phone numbers) and
historical individuals (eg. slaves with national or racial origins
and date of death). Most of this is not demanding, but it is still
common to see poorly structured descriptors, (such as text
for categorisation fields or loosely structured coordinate data
in place of geometries), with little or no metadata, beyond
a field or column name, identifying the nature of the data
recorded. A pre-populated entity description ensures good,
clear, documented descriptors, which will rarely be perturbed
by, or stand in the way of, individual customisation.
More critically, there are several alternative ways of building
relationships between records, ranging from simple pointers
or foreign keys to typed relationships with annotation and
temporal range. Relationships may be constrained with specific
cardinality eg. a person can only have two biological parents,
but uncertainty or cultural perspectives can complicate such
simple rules. The particular solutions adopted in handling
relationships can have important ramifications down the line
when it comes to searching, analysis and presentation, but
these ramifications lie outside the experience of a researcher
lacking a data modelling background. Even with such a
background, it can be hard to identify the optimum solution
without some trial and error.
Heurist has been incorporated into two national infrastructure
projects - HuNI ( Humanities Networked Infrastructure http://
huni.net.au) and FAIMS ( Federated Archaeological Information
Management System http://fedarch.org). In both cases, Heurist
provides a database-on-demand service, allowing researchers
to build their own databases on the NeCTAR Research Cloud,
or on their own servers (University or commercial IP), without
recourse to technical assistance. For each of these projects
we have therefore developed an initial database profile which
reflects the needs of the community, drawing on both the
ontologies developed by these infrastructure projects and
on our experience in developing practical data models for
numerous individual projects.
The HuNI project has put significant effort into establishing
an ontology (http://wiki.huni.net.au/display/DS/Input+Data
+Sources+Model) to provide interoperable search across the
23 cultural datasets aggregated in the system. The Heurist
HuNI profile reflects this ontology and incorporates a mapping
between human-friendly descriptive terms (which researchers
can modify to suit their needs), and the standardised terms
required by HuNI. This allows any database based on this
template to immediately generate XML which can be harvested
and searched within the HuNI framework.
The FAIMS project has also identified shared units of
description, although it has not generated a formal ontology.
The FAIMS profile reflects this understanding through a
common set of archaeological entities such as project, transect,
survey unit, site, trench, phase, layer, context, feature, find,
sample etc., as well as relationships such as roles, stratigraphic
and contextual relationships. However, in archaeology,
recording systems used are often influenced by national and
state legislation, as well as differing traditions of survey and
excavation methodology, so FAIMS is also building a Heurist
database containing multiple alternative recording systems
deployed as a Community Server. Structural elements - entity
types with all their associated fields, term lists and relationships
- can be imported selectively into a database created with the
FAIMS profile while retaining field and term mappings across
different systems; interoperability is thus not legislated by fixed
structures, but encouraged by reuse.
","txt","2","",""
"1838","15","An easy tool for creating digital scholarly editions","2","The Berlin Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities (BBAW) is home to multiple long term research projects which encompass various fields of study. The research group TELOTA (The Electronic Life of the Academy) supports the digital humanities aspects of these projects, including developing software solutions for the daily work of their researchers.
Experience shows that although using TEI-XML encoding1 for the digital transcription and annotation of manuscripts can improve research in edition projects, the readiness to implement it greatly relies on the user-friendliness of the entry interface. From the perspective of a researcher, working directly in XML simply doesn't compare to the ease of programs like MS Word. A new software solution must therefore at least offer the same amount of editorial comfort as such programs. Ideally, it would also encompass the complete life-cycle of an edition: from the first phases of transcription to the final publication.
TELOTA developed such a software solution “ediarum”2, which can be adapted to the needs of different research projects. The solution consists of various software components that allow the researchers to construct and edit transcriptions of manuscripts and manuscript descriptions into XML following the TEI guidelines. Through editing and tagging manuscripts, a large quantity of digital data can be generated and is prepared for further research and presentation. The solution includes the possibility to create apparatuses of different kinds, as well as to create without much additional effort both a print and web publication.
The central software component of the new digital work environment “ediarum” is Oxygen XML Author3. The researcher does not edit the XML code directly, but instead works in a user-friendly Author mode, which is designed through Cascading Stylesheets (CSS). The researcher is able to choose more than one perspective within the Author view, and thus can select per mouse click the appropriate perspective for the current task. Additionally, a toolbar is provided with which the researcher can enter markup with the push of a button. In this way text phenomena such as deletions or additions, or editorial commentary, are easily inserted. Person and place names can also be recorded with their appropriate TEI markup, and in addition they can be simultaneously linked to the corresponding index. This is done through selecting the name from a convenient drop down list. The entire manuscript text can thus be quickly and simply marked up with TEI conform XML. All documents are stored in the open source database ""existdb"".4
Besides creating a digital work environment for “ediarum” in Oxygen XML Author, a website can also be built based on eXistdb, XQuery, and XSLT. Through the website the researchers can easily page through or search the current data inventory.
Through the intergration of ConTeXt5 into “ediarum” a further publication type, a print edition, can automatically be generated as a PDF from the TEI XML document. The layout and format imitates previously printed volumes of critical editions. Each TEI element must be given a specific formatting command through a configuration file. In this way the different apparatuses appear as footnotes that refer to the main text with the help of line numbers and lemmata. The print edition can also provide the suitable index for each transcription and solves any occurring cross references between manuscripts.
This work environment has been in use since 2012 by the staff of different research projects for their daily work. When asked their opinion, the researchers were in agreement that the new work environment greatly eased their editorial work and saved them significant time. The possibility to directly check the results of their work in a web presentation or as a printed edition was seen as an additional positive aspect.
Presently “ediarum” is used by the edition of letters, lectures and diaries of the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher6; the description of medieval manuscripts of Aristoteles or the regesta of emperor Friedrich III. For each project the TEI XML schemata and main functions were customized to the different manuscript types and needs. In the future, “ediarum” will be implemented for further projects of the academy or other institutions, e.g. the edition of Jeremias Gotthelfs prints and manuscripts at the University of Bern (Suisse).
Screenshots


Fig. 1: Workflow of ediarum

Fig. 2: Customized TEI toolbar in Oxygen XML Author for the digital edition of Friedrich Schleiermachers letters, lectures and diaries

Fig. 3: Transcription of a letter in Oxygen XML Author
References

1. Burnard, Lou; Bauman, Syd (Hg.): TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Charlottesville, Virginia, USA 2007. URL: www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/Guidelines.pdf
2. www.bbaw.de/en/telota/software/ediarum
3. User Manual Oxygen XML Author 14. URL: www.oxygenxml.com/doc/ug-editor/
4. eXist Main Documentation. URL: www.exist-db.org/exist/documentation.xml
5. ConTeXt Dokumentation. URL: wiki.contextgarden.net/Main_Page
6. Dumont, Stefan; Fechner, Martin: Digitale Arbeitsumgebung für das Editionsvorhaben »Schleiermacher in Berlin 1808—1834 In: di giversity — Webmagazin für Informationstechnologie in den Geisteswissenschaften. URL: digiversity.net/2012/digitale-arbeitsumgebung-fur-das-editionsvorhaben-schleiermacher-in-berlin-1808-1834","txt","2","",""
"1839","15","An Integrated Approach to the Procedural Modeling of Ancient Cities and Buildings","10","Fig.1: Urban infill created from the procedural 'domus' rule.
This paper presents a suite of procedural rules for creating 3D models of Roman and Hellenistic architecture and urban environments. The term ‘rules’ in procedural modeling refers to the computer code that generates a 3D model. Unlike traditional 3D modeling software such as SketchUp or 3ds Max, which use polygons to simulate form, procedural modeling entails the use of computer programming languages in textual semantic description of a building that then generates a polygonal model. This represents not only a technical, but also an epistemological difference, as the choice of modeling method can influence not merely the cost or aesthetic outcome of a project, but also how information is selected, processed, and indeed what is considered to be information versus noise. Procedural modeling requires that each stage of the transmutation of data in the modeling process is rigorously thought out and documented, allowing 3D models to move beyond visualization to become robust research tools. 
Procedural modeling has the potential to address a number of issues related to 3D archaeological reconstructions which are of concern to digital humanists. An important advantage of procedural methodology is that it allows for the rapid prototyping and interactive updating of 3D content. The use of attributes and parameters enables scholars to visualize change over time and gauge the impact of various factors on the built environment. Furthermore, these attributes and parameters can be tracked and harnessed as valuable geospatial data through the use of GIS software and of interactive visual displays. Of particular interest for archaeologists and architectural historians is the ability to test hypothetical reconstructions of ancient architecture in a fully realized urban context. Crucially for humanists, the procedural rules link each iteration of a model to its source material, allowing the degree of certainty present in each model to be accurately defined through the documentation of each step in the process of interpreting a given data set. Procedural modeling thus enhances the scholarly value of architectural reconstructions by providing a platform for the comparison and refutation of 3D visualizations.
II. Background and Software

Reconstruction of historical architecture and cities was an early application of procedural modeling. Significant test cases were built around ancient Rome and Pompeii.1 However, the main commercially available procedural software behind these projects, ESRI CityEngine, is currently being marketed mostly as a low-cost rapid-prototyping pipeline to urban planners and production designers rather than to scholars for its ability to create data-rich, detailed architectural models.2 Procedural engines are based on proprietary high-level graphics programming languages which are extremely time- and resource-consuming to produce for most academics, particularly in the humanities, and therefore few open-source alternatives exist.3 A precedent for my current project is Pascal Mueller’s 2010 PhD dissertation which used classical temples as a case study for demonstrating the potential of CGA shape grammar, the procedural language that eventually became the core of ESRI CityEngine. 4I chose to use ESRI CityEngine for my work, because I find it to be the best commercial procedural modeling product for architecture and cities, and because its recent integration with ESRI GIS software such as ArcMap provides significant advantages for managing and visualizing archaeological data (Fig.2).

Figure 2: Screenshot from ESRI CityEngine showing text editor for rules (left) model (center) and model attributes (right).
III. Methodology and Research Application 

My work aims at the creation of a full suite of procedural rules for the main typologies of classical architecture.  A master rule for classical temples exemplifies this project. The temple rule was designed to produce a schematic model of any kind of classical temple with a minimal number of parameters. By selecting from a few options, a user can instantly generate, for example, a tetrastyle Tuscan temple on a high podium; a peripteral Doric temple with pronaos and posticum; or an ionic pseudo-dipteral Hellenistic temple with variable intercolumniation. The rules were based on sources such as actual archaeological remains in Italy and Asia Minor, as well as Vitruvian templates.The rules are designed to by fully modular, that is, the rule for a specific typology such as a temple, arch, or stoa collates several  sub-rules, which can be re-used and combined as necessary. These construct the components of a building, such as colonnades, entablatures, pediments, and roofs, or refer to a specific order, such as Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian.  Urban models are then generated from geodatabases imported from GIS software ArcMap. These geodatabases contain the footprint of the building, along with specific attributes necessary to create the model (such as column diameter, order, and building type), and the bibliographic citations that reference the source material from which the attribute data was derived. All of this textual material may be queried in the final visualization of the model. The original impetus for the creation of the suite of rules was the generation of a series of 3D models of early Republican Rome, eventually to be visualized interactively with Unity game engine web viewer5. The procedural rules facilitated the hybridization of actual Roman data, comparanda from other sites, and hypothetical interpolation that was necessary to complete the picture of the Forum Romanum in this time period. Eventually, the project and the rules expanded to cover the site of Magnesia on the Meander in Turkey, necessitating the addition of new typologies. To date, the suite of procedural rules includes a core set of typologies responding to the topography of Rome and Magnesia on the Meander. These include temples, altars, basilicas, houses, shops, streets, triumphal arches, arcades, colonnaded streets, stoas, theaters, and stadiums (Figs.1,3,4). It is anticipated that these rules will become valuable tools for visualizing the urban fabric at numerous other locations where the archaeological data must be supplemented with well-researched templates that provide customizable parameters.

Figure 3: Procedural basilica, shown in a configuration with a row of shops in front
IV. Conclusions

Procedural modeling presents a powerful new methodology that has yet been underexploited by the Digital Humanities. Contrary to traditional 3D modeling methods, procedural modeling forces the investigator to approach visual and 3D content through a rigorously syntactic and process-oriented framework. This framework preserves the hierarchy of decisions that result in a given visual interpretation of archaeological evidence. Models thus produced are extremely information-rich and the ways in which they can be used to aid research are just beginning to be explored.

Figure 4: The Ionic temple of Artemis at Magnesia on the Meander, procedurally generated from the master temple rule.
References

1. See the Rome Reborn Project, romereborn.frischerconsulting.com/. The procedural aspects of this project were published in Dylla, Kimberly, Bernard Frischer et al., 2010. ""Rome Reborn 2.0: A Case Study of Virtual City Reconstruction Using Procedural Modeling Techniques,"" in CAA 2009. Making History Interactive. 37th Proceedings of the CAA Conference March 22-26, 2009, Williamsburg, Virginia (Archaeopress: Oxford, 2010) 62-66. On Procedural Pompeii, see www.esri.com/software/cityengine/resources/casestudies/procedural-pompeii.
2. ESRI CityEngine: www.esri.com/software/cityengine
3. Some recent cultural heritage projects make use of parametric tools such as Building Information Modeling (BIM), for example ArchiCAD and Revit, or the Rhinoceros plug-in Grasshopper.
4. Mueller’s (unpublished) dissertation and Parthenon rule, which is distributed as an example with CityEngine software, were indispensable in my efforts to master CGA shape grammar. However, his work was oriented to the field of computer science and restricted to peripteral temples of the Doric order. The rules I present here are entirely my own work, as a full restructuring and rewriting of the code, with the addition of much new material, was necessary to implement a wider agenda geared toward an architectural audience. For an overview of the architectural application of CGA shape grammar, see Mueller, et al., 2006. “Procedural Modeling of Buildings”, in ACM SIGGRAPH 2006 Papers (ACM, Boston, 2006) 614-623.
5. This work was undertaken as part of the RomeLab project, an offshoot of the UCLA Experiential Technologies Center. The Unity models are playable at romelab.etc.ucla.edu/. RomeLab investigates the Roman Forum of ca.186 BC, some 500 years before the period represented by Rome Reborn, therefore the procedural content of RomeLab is entirely new.
","txt","2","",""
"1840","15","An ontology for 3D visualisation of cultural heritage","2","To date, 3D computer graphics and modelling techniques have been used in the study of the ancient world mainly as a means to display traditional research. The value of these digital techniques has been often assessed merely on the degree of graphic aesthetic quality (Favro 2006).
The pursuit of photorealism has proven ineffective in engaging the audience (Champion and Dave 2007) but also misleading, as it suggests that is possible to reproduce an artefact or a scene «exactly as it was» in the past (Baker 2012). Behind every scholarly 3D visualisation is a thorough study of excavation records, iconographic documentation, ancient literary sources, artistic canons and precedents (Hermon 2008). However, this valuable research is not always detectable in the final visual outcome.
The London Charter for the Computer-based Visualisation of Cultural Heritage1 made a huge step forward in the regulation of scholarly 3D visualisation—prescribing that researchers’ choices and motivation must all be documented. No 3D model can be considered a scholarly resource if its research method is not «transparent» (Forte 2012). The London Charter presents methodological guidelines for recording this data, but does not go as far as to offer a formal framework in which to place this information; each modeller is left to simply follow their own style. Moreover, the clients who commissioned the 3D model (such as museums or other cultural institutions) are frequently more interested in the final product than in its rationale, which is often completely overlooked and not circulated (or dropped from the budget line altogether). Time and resource constraints not only affect the accuracy and availability of the documentation, but also make it very unlikely that a researcher, or even a team, develops more than one visualisation of the same cultural heritage place/object, perpetuating the naive idea that only one visualisation is possible or correct.
The growing compatibility between 3D content and web browsers2 allows the use of RDF technology to, potentially, connect the 3D model and its parts, internally with each other—identifying and defining relationships—, and externally with online information about the material remains, previous publications, primary and secondary sources, and with available alternative visualisations of the same object (that share the same controlled vocabulary).
Ontologies for cultural heritage are already commonly used in the management of museum collections and databases3. However, they tend to focus on material artefacts and to meet the specific needs of museum curators and cataloguers. Therefore, they do not seem the most suitable means to deal with digital objects (that are hypothetical representations of material objects), to state methodological relationships, or describe a scholarly process.
The proposed ontology for 3D visualisation for cultural heritage will:
• Describe the 3D digital object. After assigning a specific URI to each element of a 3D digital visualisation (@prefix “obj”: <http://hypothetical3donthology.kcl.ac.uk/objects/>), they will be associated to metadata (such as creator(s), software(s) used, formats available) and to a formal description of the cultural heritage object they represent.
For example obj:001 rdf:type art:shaft. Where @prefix “art”: <http://hypothetical3donthology.kcl.ac.uk/ArtVocabs/>4
• Describe the 3D digital object’s relationships with other 3D digital objects5. Through a dedicated namespace (@prefix “tdvo”: <http:// hypothetical3donthology.kcl.ac.uk/threedvisontology/>) it will be possible to state and describe properties, values and relationships of the 3D digital objects such as
the relationship between a 3D digital object and the file it belongs to (obj:001 tdvo:isPartof obj:3Dfile.max);
the relationships between different objects within the same file (obj:001 rdf:type art:shaft. obj:010 rdf:type art:column. obj:001 tdvo:isPartof obj:010). 
• Describe 3D digital object’s relationships with its physical referent. Through a digital geographical gazetteer such as Pleiades6, the 3D digital object will be linked to the place where the visualised building (or other referent) is located. For example, for a file “3Dfile.max” visualising the Odeon in Aphrodisias, we will have: 3Dfile.max gawd:depicts pleiades:638753/odeon. Different 3D visualisations could be connected to the physical building and be available alongside the photographic documentation linked to Pleiades via Flickr. 
• Assess and represent the level of speculation involved in the creation of each element, presenting 3D visualisation more as a scientific hypothesis than an «exact reconstruction». For example obj:001 tdvo:hasCertainty tdvo:certainty6
where the level of certainty from 6 (maximum) to 0 (minimum) would be defined as follow:
tdvo:c6 rdfs:label “Certainty 6”; rdfs:comment “the ancient element is still in situ, and its dimensions and position can be measured”.
tdvo:c5 rdfs:label “Certainty 5”; rdfs:comment “the ancient element is not in situ but it has been visually documented in the past and the documentation is still available”. tdvo:c4 rdfs:label “Certainty 4”; rdfs:comment “the ancient element is not in situ but it can be geometrically derived from the surviving elements”.
tdvo:c3 rdfs:label “Certainty 3”; rdfs:comment “the ancient element is not in situ but it can be visualised according to well accepted standards and precedents”.
tdvo:c2 rdfs:label “Certainty 2”; rdfs:comment “the element is not in situ but it can be visualised according to the modeller’s experience, knowledge, intuition”.
tdvo:c1 rdfs:label “Certainty 1”; rdfs:comment “the element is not in situ and it has been added for communicative purposes”. 
tdvo:c0 rdfs:label “Certainty 0”; rdfs:comment “the element has not been created for scholarly purpose and does not aim to historical accuracy. However, some characteristics of an original referent can still be recognised”. 
Represent the relationships between the 3D digital visualisation, its sources, referents and interpretations.
For example: tdvo:isBasedOn rdfs:label “is based on”; rdfs:comment “the shape, dimensions or decoration of the element is based on visual or written information contained in a relevant document describing established practices, standards and rules”.
The object of the predicate could be traditional bibliographical references and/or the digital URI of the source and/or the URL of a digital edition of the source such as the ones available on open digital archives (obj:001 tdvo:isBasedOn dbpedia:De_architectura). 
tdvo:hasEvidenceIn rdfs:label “has evidence in”; rdfs:comment “the 3D element can be compared with specific verbal or visual evidence such as video/photographic documentation or official excavation records”.
The object of this predicate would be archive numbers or bibliographical references identifying physical documents or artefacts, and/or URIs of digital reproductions of them, available on digital databases such as Arachne7 or CLAROS8. For example, if obj 002 was an element of the 3D visualisation of the Basilica in Pompeii:
obj:002 tdvo:hasEvidenceIn <http://arachne.uni-koeln.de/item/marbilder/2015507>. 
tdvo:isMentionedIn rdfs:label “is mentioned in”; rdfs:comment “the visualised building
(or part of it) is mentioned in a ancient (or modern) text”.
tdvo:isDescribedIn rdfs:label “is described in”; rdfs:comment “the visualised building (or part of it) is described in a ancient (or modern) text”.
The latter predicates could link to bibliographical references and/or to the digital version of ancient texts such as the ones available through Perseus Library9.
The main goal of this proposal is not to present a detailed ontology, but to show the potential of the application of Open Linked Data to 3D visualisation, and how such an interaction will change the way 3D visualisation is applied in the study and understanding of cultural heritage. The ontology itself is not meant to be the work of a single researcher, but the collaborative effort of the different communities of practitioners.
To summarise, the suggested ontology will:
constrain and standardise the documentation, making it synthetic instead of verbose;
speed up the recording process thus reducing time/cost and making the documentation more likely to be retained in projects’ budgets;
allow 3D visualisations to join and enrich the growing network of linked digital resources to study the past; 
make 3D visualisations human- and machine-searchable, connecting them with the literary and historical sources that mention the visualised artefact or building;
allow and encourage comparison of different visualisations and interpretations of cultural heritage, as the same resource (historical, archaeological, literary) will be connected to all the related visualisations that share the same vocabulary;
allow citations, re-use and peer-review of 3D visualisations, as every 3D element (and its author) will always be identifiable and linkable through the URI;
contribute to transform 3D visualisation from a univocal display of traditional research to a collaborative virtual environment where different scholars work together not only to implement the content but also to refine the ontology itself. 
References

1. www.londoncharter.org
2. Thanks, for example to APIs such as OpenGL and WebGL
3. Cf., for example, CIDOC CRM or FRBRoo.
4. There are a few examples of formal vocabularies dedicated to art and architecture that can be used to describe the represented object. The Thesaurus developed by the Getty foundation, for example, has recently been released in Open Linked Data format (February 2014).
5. An interesting and useful precedent in using RDF to describe aggregations of files can be found in the open archive initiative.
6. pleiades.stoa.org
7. arachne.uni-koeln.de/drupal
8. www.clarosnet.org/XDB/ASP/clarosHome
9. www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper
Baker, D. (2012). Defining Paradata in Heritage Visualization. In Bentkowska-Kafel,
A., Denard, H. and Baker, D. (eds) (2012). Paradata and Transparency in Virtual Heritage. Farnham: Ashgate
Champion, E. and Dave, B. (2007) Dialing Up the Past. In Cameron, F. and Kenderdine, S. (eds) (2007). Theorizing Digital Cultural Heritage. A critical discourse. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
Favro, D. (2006) In the eyes of the beholder: Virtual Reality Recreations and academia. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series Number 61(2006): 321-334
Forte, M. (2012) Cyberarchaeology: a Post-Virtual Perspective. www.academia.edu/3573281/Cyberarchaeology_a_Post-Virtual_Perspective (accessed 6th March 2014)
Hermon, S. (2008) Reasoning in 3D: a Critical appraisal of the role of 3D modelling and virtual reconstructions in archaeology. In Frisher, B, and Dakouri-Hild, A. (eds) Beyond Illustration: 2D and 3D Digital Technologies as Tools for Discovery in Archaeology. British Archaeological Reports International Series.
Online Resources:
The CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model:www.cidoc-crm.org (accessed 6th March 2014)
Getty Vocabularies as Linked Open Data:www.getty.edu/research/tools vocabularies/lod/index.html (accessed 6th March 2014)
The London Charter:www.londoncharter.org (accessed 6th March 2014)
Open Archives Initiative:www.openarchives.org (accessed 6th March 2014)
Pleiades Gazetteer:pleiades.stoa.org (accessed 6th March 2014)","txt","2","",""
"1841","15","An XML annotation schema for speech, thought and writing representation","10","This contribution presents an XML schema for annotating a high level narratological category: speech, thought and writing representation (ST&WR). It focusses on two aspects: Firstly, the original schema is presented as an example for the challenge to encode a narrative feature in a structured and flexible way and secondly, ways of adapting this schema to TEI are considered, in order to make it usable for other, TEI-based projects.
The phenomenon ST&WR

ST&WR refers to the way the voice of a character is embedded in the narrator's text and is a feature that is present in most works of fiction. It has been widely studied in narratology, as it contributes to the construction of a fictional character, the narrator-character relationship and fictional world-building in general. Though ST&WR is partly defined by formal features like punctuation, verb mode, and sentence structure, narrative function is what is of interest in literary studies (cf. 1 for an overview). The challenge is to develop an annotation schema which is sufficiently structured to allow consistent annotation (especially with multiple annotators) and still captures nuances that are relevant for literary scholars.
The schema presented here – called ST&WR schema (ST&WR-S) – ties into literature studies as it uses categories agreed upon by most scholars and is similar to categorial systems proposed by narratologists Genette and Leech/Short (cf. 2, 3). The main influence was a project of Semino and Short, who annotated a corpus of English fictional, newspaper and (auto)biographical texts for ST&WR with an SGML-conformant schema (cf. 4).
ST&WR schema

ST&WR-S was developed for manual annotation of a corpus of 13 German narrative texts written between 1786 and 1917 (about 57 000 tokens). This corpus was then used as a reference for the development and evaluation of automatic methods for ST&WR recognition (cf. 5). The purpose of ST&WR-S was twofold: It allows for a very fine-grained classification of ST&WR instances which is helpful in order to study the phenomenon and to do statistical studies on manually annotated data, like in Semino/Short's project. On the other hand it was designed to be modular and easily simplified to accommodate for the rougher classifications of automatic recognizers. Experiences during corpus annotation strongly influenced the design of the annotation schema.
ST&WR-S has three levels of specificity: Main categories, attributes and in some cases different values for further specifications of certain attributes. These are modelled as XML tags with attributes and values.
The manual annotation was done in the GATE framework for natural language processing (cf. 6, http://gate.ac.uk). ST&WR-S is specified in XML schema files used by the plugin Schema_Annotation_Editor. Primarily, it is designed for inline XML, but GATE internally manages annotations as nodes and can convert them to a standoff XML format.
The main categories can be described with two axes: One axis represents the medium – speech, thought or written text (e.g. a quote from a character's letter). The second axis represents the four most common techniques of ST&WR: direct representation (""He said 'I am hungry.'""), free indirect representation (""Well, where would he get something to eat now?""), indirect representation (""He said that he was hungry.""), and reported representation, which can be a mere mentioning of a speech, thought or writing act (""They talked about lunch.""). This results in twelve main categories which are modelled as XML tags (direct_speech, direct_thought, etc.).
However, such a set of categories is necessarily rigid. When annotating a narrative phenomenon in a real corpus you will find many instances which are not clear-cut realisations of a predefined category. To deal with this fact, rather than just adding a confidence marker to the annotation, attributes are used to classify the type of deviation, so that the cases may be further studied and contrasted. As all attributes are optional and can be added to any main category, ST&WR-S allows for different levels of detail very easily. It is also possible to filter your annotation results afterwards by ignoring instances that carry a certain attribute.
Structurally, there is one numerical attribute (level), three attributes which are binary and just indicating whether the feature is present or not (narr, prag, metaph), two with optional further specification (border, non-fact) and one with mandatory further specification (ambig). All lists of attribute values are closed sets. Table 1 gives an overview.
 Attribute name  Description Values
 level  level of embedment  numeric (default: 1)
 ambig  ambiguity of the main category  Name of an alternative main category
 non-fact  non-factual (eg. negated or hypothetical ST&WR) (""He did not admit that he loved her."")  neg, hyp, fut, ques, imp, plan, unspec (default: unspec)
 border  borderline case of ST&WR(""He knew that he had lost."")  percept, feel, state, unspec(default: unspec)
 narr  Ambiguity between ST&WR and non-verbal action(""She greeted her friends."")  binary (dummy value: yes)
 prag  ST&WR, but with non-representional intent (e.g. politeness(""I suggest you leave now."")  binary (dummy value: yes)
 metaph  metaphorical use(""His conscience told him to go."")  binary (dummy value: yes)
Functionally,level stands alone in the group as it does not mark a non-prototypical instance but is rather a 'monitor attribute'. It captures the level of embedment of a ST&WR instance, e.g. an instance of indirect thought that appears as part of an instance of direct speech would be tagged as level=”2”. This marker can then be used to study the behaviour of such embedded instances and compare their behaviour to non-embedded ones.
All other attributes deal with instances that deviate from the prototypical idea of ST&WR in relation to the definition of the main categories.
Ambig and narr both mark ambiguity. While ambig indicates that there is uncertainty as to which main category should be applied, narr signals that it is uncertain whether the instance is a case of ST&WR at all.
Border deals with uncertainty in regard to what is considered speech, thought and writing respectively. Especially thought representation is extremely tricky, as you have to decide what constitutes a thought. For example, the sentence “He knew he had lost.” would be marked as <indirect_thought border=”state”>, as “to know” expresses a state of knowledge rather than a clear-cut thought. Border can also be applied to speech representation, e.g. if it is unclear whether there is a true verbalization like in the sentence “He screamed bloody murder.”
Non-fact deals with instances where the ST&WR is non-factual and thus not a real 'representation' in the story world. Similarly, prag marks instances where ST&WR forms are used for non-representational purposes, especially politeness, and metaph represents metaphorical use of ST&WR.
In addition to that, the ST&WR-S contains two special categories modelled as XML tags. One is frame, which marks the framing clause of a direct representation which is not part of the representation itself but still interesting in the context of ST&WR. The other is called embedded. It can be used to mark embedded narratives which appear in direct representation (usually direct speech), e.g. if a character tells a story. Marking such cases with embedded essentially shifts the whole annotation level into a new narrative frame and gives it a different status than direct_speech. The use of embedded is optional and the tag can be easily transformed to direct_speech if this effect is not desired. 
Adaptation to TEI Guidelines

ST&WR-S is a valid XML schema but not compliant to TEI Guidelines. For sustainability it would be desirable to adapt it, as this would allow its usage in TEI-conformant documents without compromising their validity.
However, such an adaptation is not straightforward. The logical starting point is <said>, a tag from the quotation context which is defined for passages thought or spoken by real people or fictional characters (cf. 7). Though <said> is clearly intended to capture instances of ST&WR, its scope is narrower than the instances covered by ST&WR-S. In its core form, it only carries the attributes aloudand direct, both specified by truth values. Aloud is designed to distinguish between silent thought and passages spoken aloud (speech), but does not accomodate writing representation. Direct does not allow for any distinction between the ST&WR categories free indirect, indirect and reported. Of course, the rich attribute system of ST&WR-S does not have a predefined equivalent in TEI, either.
Several possibilities are considered how to adapt ST&WR-S while conserving its power as well as its modularity as much as possible. Ideas include use of standoff markup, possibly via the <span> tag, modelling of the complex categorizations via feature structures, referenced by the @ana attribute, or extentions of exisiting TEI-tags (most likely <said>).
References

1. McHale, B (2013). Speech Representation, in: Hühn, Peter et al. (eds.): The living handbook of narratology, Hamburg: Hamburg University Press, 2013 URL: www.lhn.uni-hamburg.de/article/speech-representation (last checked 17.10.2013).
2. Genette, G.(1980). Narrative discourse. An Essay in Method, Oxford: Blackwell.
3. Leech, G. and Short, M. (2007). Style in fiction. A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose 2. ed., London: Pearson Education Limited.
4. Semino, E. and Short, M. (2004). Corpus stylistics. Speech, writing and thought presentation in a corpus of English writing, London/New York: Routledge.
5. Brunner, A (2013). Automatic recognition of speech, thought, and writing representation in German narrative texts. Literary and Linguistic Computing 2013; doi: 10.1093/llc/fqt024
6. Cunningham, H. et al. (2011). Text Processing with GATE (Version 6): www.tinyurl/gatebook (last checked 01.11.2013).
7. Text Encoding Initiative (2013). P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, URL: www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/P5 (last checked 31.10.2013)","txt","2","",""
"1842","15","An XML Schema to Interpret Networked Biographies: Reading Mid-Range","9","Collective Biographies of Women, is an open-access project supported by the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, Scholars’ Lab, and the English Department at the University of Virginia, as well as an ACLS Digital Innovation Fellowship. In recent years it has grown from an online bibliography of all English- language books that collect three or more short biographies of women into a digital prosopography that interrelates women, printed books, and narratives in what we call documentary social networks (introduced at DH 2013). CBW stands out as a literary study of prosopographies in the print era, and primarily the transatlantic nineteenth century (see the bibliography, http://womensbios.lib.virginia.edu). Most research that employs the term prosopography allies itself with history or classical and medieval studies, and today, relies on databases and websites. We work with the concept as it is often defined, as collective biography, that is, printed prose collections of short biographies (see the selective bibliography for a context on prosopography, nonfiction narrative, and our method of mid-range reading).
The CBW database associates some 8700 persons, 13,000 chapters (biographies), and more than 1200 books of various types published in English 1830-1940 (see developing database at http://cbw.iath.virginia.edu/cbw_db). Our project, however, is neither a textual archive nor a biographical database but an experiment in interpretation using the tools of DH to recognize the conventions of a genre, biography, and the history of gender conventions in a certain social context. Specifically, we want to get at the conditions of nonfiction, which generate multiple versions and cut and paste with relatively little respect for authorship. Could narrative theory of nonfiction be developed through a technique of digital markup that allows us to compare multiple versions of one life and interrelated types of person and text? With Daniel Pitti, Suzanne Keen, postdoctoral Project Manager Rennie Mapp, and teams of graduate assistants, we have developed and deployed a stand-aside XML schema, Biographical Elements and Structure Schema (BESS), in sample archives of digitized collective biographies that include designated individuals (e.g. all collections in our bibliography that include Caroline Herschel, the astronomer).
Briefly, BESS is an XML schema with a controlled vocabulary for narrative elements that appear in a given text:
StageofLife: before, beginning, middle, culmination, end, after, relative to the lifetimeofthebiography’ssubject
EventType e.g. illness, persona’s
AgentType e.g. mother, unnamed
 Setting:
Location, e.g. city
Structure, e.g. school
Time: Dates, TimeofDay, Season
PersonaDescription e.g. physically daring
Discourse: e.g. retrospective, figureOrImage flower
Topos: e.g. influence, disgrace
Each editor in a trained team creates a separate XML file that in effect is an annotated outline, tagging types of elements identified in numbered paragraphs of a TEI file of the biographical narrative (from 3-100+ paragraphs).

BESS analysis enables us to compare versions of the same person’s life. When we have analyzed all versions in our corpus, we give unique ID numbers to the essential events in all versions (kernels) and the more or less common optional events (satellites, common or rare), and can compare the placement of these in the versions, much as folklorists have charted the variations on the main events of a tale. (Narrative theorists have developed analyses of events in these terms, but not for nonfiction.) BESS analysis reveals differences in narrative technique in books that take different perspectives on women’s roles and that select persons of different types. Thus, beyond the literal level of actions (events), we can measurably correlate, for example, the instances of direct address, use of ‘we’ alongside not only the topos (i.e. situation; underlying scenario) work as social service but also the topos temptation of status or goods. The conjunction of different elements in these biographies often challenges our own later assumptions about historical women and gender norms. As BESS work is completed, we expand a body of data that for the first time documents the distinctive characteristics of third-person narratives about real people.

Fig. 1:
Currently working with a web designer, we have a sustainable, accessible database that functions well for team workflow, with parallel display of text and BESS analyses. We plan to develop the visualizations of BESS beyond current designs of tables and graphs.

Fig. 2:
The CBW project’s BESS “reading” of many narratives is time-consuming and detailed, as in many literary digital projects. As in all DH, we encounter challenges when visualizing quantities of variable data, an issue that this paper merely touches upon. Our aim, instead, is to introduce and make a case for the mid-range approach of BESS, with some reference to other possible approaches.
Many methods of text “reading” en masse might be useful with the CBW books. Broadly, options range from word strings and topic clusters across a large corpus of digitized texts to systematic encoding of all textual features and variants in an onlineß edition of an archive (e.g. Online Froissart; the Rossetti Archive). On the vast end of the scale, we recognize the astounding range of a Google N-gram kind of data capture as well as the precision of some text-mining projects. On the closer focus of the scale, we think human curation is best suited for patterns of narration and ideology, and we begin with books and place them in a context of genre and publishing history. Thus we try to benefit from the precedents of literary editions, and yet CBW is not a project in textual editing. We have no wish to fine-tune exact digital surrogates of these books. The BESS schema and approach to many-versioned biographies within social and historical contexts is designed to moderate between distant and close reading—a comprehensive digital model of variations within a genre and fine textual details.
Many in DH have addressed the question of what to do with a million books. Franco Moretti has espoused distant reading, a term applicable to many kinds of directed and unsupervised queries in big archives. This is understood as opposed to ""close reading,"" the usual literary method (without computational mediation), one text, one person. The findings of singular textual analysis are less appropriate when describing patterns across a genre, especially of nonfiction where there are many versions of the “same” narrative and the author is less important than the protagonist, the representation of a real person. Thus, our method has some affinity for Sharon Marcus and Stephen Best’s concept of “surface reading,” as advocated in their manifesto to put a stop to the required ""critique"" or theoretical digging into a text for what it does not say for ideological purposes. Yet we retain a framing conceptual commitment to ideological critique, as we want to know about the changing gender ideology and historical contexts for women’s lives. More directly, we are pursuing the kind of ""social reading"" promoted by Alan Liu, as we hope to extend BESS as a tool available for other projects in digital interpretation of biographical narratives. BESS, interlinked with a database that reveals networks among historical persons and books about them, recruits computation to aggregate the interpretations of readers to parse a genre.
We call for a new metaphor or spatial model for hybrid methods of mid-range digital interpretation, whether using a stand-aside markup like BESS or other approaches. Our editing teams “hover,"" not at satellite level, but like balloon aerial digital cameras scanning a neighborhood, producing images that can zoom in and out. Such records do much less harm to the person, the individual record, than surveillance or drones. Our schema functions, alternatively, like GPR, ""ground-penetrating radar,"" used to detect buried structures two or three feet into the ground. Although such metaphors for our mid-range reading method with BESS have the inherent comedy of balloons and robot- like go-carts, we can seriously enhance what we know above or beneath the surface without destroying it—without murdering to dissect. I remind the BESS team that the texts are always still awaiting any method of interpretation, unmangled after we have subjected them to our skewed adaptation for prosopographical purposes. We’re not pretending to let machines discover without distortion. Nor are we clinging to the requirement that reading is an individual act—on the contrary. Like reading, biographies trope toward the collective and typological, the mid-range, even in monographic form. Inviting open-access play, we expect to be surprised by the details in the mosaic or wave- like picture from above or below.
References

Booth, A. (2004). How to Make It as a Woman: Collective Biographical History from Victoria to the Present. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Booth, A. (2005). “Fighting for Lives in the ODNB, or Taking Prosopography Personally,” Journal of Victorian Culture, 10: 267-79.
Booth, A.""Prosopography."" The Encyclopedia of Victorian Literature, ed. Dino Felluga, Pamela Gilbert, and Linda Hughes (Wiley Blackwell), forthcoming.
Bradley, J. and H. Short. (2002). “Using Formal Structures to Create Complex Relationships: The Prosopography of the Byzantine Empire—A Case Study.” In K. S. B. Keats-Rohan (ed.), Resourcing Sources Prosopographica et Genealogica, vol. 7. http://prosopography.modhist.ox.ac.uk/publications.htm.
Cameron, A., ed. (2003). Fifty Years of Prosopography. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Oldfield, S. (1999). Collective Biography of Women in Britain, 1550-1900. London: Mansell.
Keats-Rohan, K. S. B. (2007). “Biography, Identity and Names: Understanding the Pursuit of the Individual in Prosopography.” Prosopography Approaches and Applications A Handbook. Oxford: Occasional Publications UPR. 139–81. Prosopographica et Genealogica 13.
Stone, L. (1971). “Prosopography.” Daedalus 100: 57-9.
Bauer, J. Project Quincy. http://projectquincy.rubyforge.org/
Brown, S., with Clements, Grundy, et al.Orlando: Women’s Writing in the British Isles from the Beginnings to the Present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. http://orlando.cambridge.org/
Clergy of the Church of England Database. http://www.theclergydatabase.org.uk/index.html
Liu, A. Research Oriented Social Environment (RoSE) http://rose.english.ucsb.edu/
Perdue, S. People of the Founding Era. http://documentscompass.org/projects/pfe/
Pitti, D.Social Networks and Archival Context Project (SNAC). http://socialarchive.iath.virginia.edu/
Prosopography of the Byzantine World. http://www.pbw.kcl.ac.uk/
The Prosopography of the Neo-Assyrian Empire http://www.helsinki.fi/science/saa/pna.html","txt","2","",""
"1843","15","Analysis of perspectives in contemporary Japanese novels using computational stylistic methods","9","1. Introduction

Perspective in novels has been an important subject of research in literary studies. Ishimaru (1985) defined perspectives as the viewpoint of narrators; she roughly classified perspectives in novels as the first-person perspective, where the central character narrates the story from his/her perspective, and the third-person perspective, where the omniscient narrator recounts the story from a neutral perspective. This is a basic classification of perspective in literature. These perspectives represent the spirit of the age, typically shown in the positivism in 19th century French novels (Ishimaru, 1985), and also affect a readers’ impression of the characters and involvement in the work, and thus perspective is an important subject in literary studies. 
Computational stylistics has been one of the important subfields of Digital Humanities. Using computational methods with digitized text materials, we can obtain systematic findings that can complement traditional qualitative analyses. Although computational methods can be powerful tools for investigating issues in literary studies, perspective in novels has rarely been analyzed with such method.
Against this background, we used computational stylistic methods, i.e., text classification and feature analyses by random forests machine learning methods, to tackle the perspective issue in literary studies. We selected Kotaro Isaka, who is a popular Japanese novelist, as the object of study; he explicitly switches perspective in his novels section by section, and this is an important reason for the popularity of his novels. Note that Haruki Murakami, another popular novelist, uses this perspective switching between two perspectives (Kudo et al., 2012). However, Isaka uses more varied perspective-switching patterns (Yamashita and Suzuki, 2013). First, we generated text files and applied morphological analysis. We then conducted random forests text classification and feature extraction experiments using text-feature matrices for two of Isaka’s novels. Then, we investigated (a) whether textual differences among perspectives can be detected or not, and (b) if detected, what types of textual characteristics contribute to the detection of perspective. By tackling these points, we will show the effectiveness of computational methods for analyzing the perspective issue in literary studies.
2. Data and methods

We selected the following novels by Kotaro Isaka, “Odyubon no Inori” (Audubon’s Prayer; ADP, original 2000, pocket edition 2003) and “Gurasuhoppa” (Grasshopper; GHP, original 2004, pocket edition 2007) as objects. ADP is a work representative of the earlier period of the author’s bibliography, and GHP is representative of the author’s middle period. We used the pocket editions of these two novels because Isaka is known to revise manuscripts when his work is published in pocket editions. We constructed the texts using a OCR document scanner and manually corrected OCR errors. We also removed the rubi, i.e., kanas printed alongside kanjis. We applied morphological analysis using MeCab,[1] Japanese morphological analyzer.
We divided the texts into sections and assigned perspective tags according to the perspective signs assigned by the author. Regarding ADP, we united all character perspectives except Ito, the central character, because the number of perspectives for each character is small. Without unification of perspective, it was difficult to perform meaningful classification and feature analysis experiments. Thus, we used two tags, Ito’s perspective and other characters’ perspectives. The numbers of sections was 56 for Ito and 22 for other characters. It should be noted that Ito’s section appeared after another of his section. Regarding GHP, we used three tags for the three main characters’ perspectives (Suzuki, Kujira, and Semi) according to the signs assigned by the author. The sequences of these three characters’ perspectives are essentially fixed, Suzuki first, Kujira second, and Semi third. In addition, the death of a character leads to the removal of that character’s perspective. The numbers of sections was 17 for Suzuki, 15 for Kujira, and 10 for Semi.
We calculated the frequencies of morphemes and basic textual statistics, and then we constructed the text-feature matrices using the relative frequencies of morphemes appearing in each text. We applied random forests machine learning methods proposed by Breiman (2001) with these matrices as data and perspectives as labels. We calculated the valuable importance provided by random forests and extracted important variables for classification, which are effective for differentiation among perspectives. We selected the random forests method because it has shown the best possible performance for authorship attribution in Japanese (Jin and Murakami, 2007) and is effective for extracting and analyzing the features that contribute to classification in related tasks such as computational sociolinguistics (Suzuki, 2009).
3. Results and discussion

3.1. Basic observation

Table1. Basic data (ADP)
Number of tokens
Number of texts sum mean s.d. c.v.
Ito 56 118042 2107.89 1712.37 0.81
Others 22 23290 1058.64 1315.31 1.24
Table 1 shows the basic data for ADP, the number of texts, and the sum, mean, standard deviation (s.d.), and coefficient of variations (c.v.) of the number of tokens for each perspective. It can be seen that Ito has more that 70% of all sections, and others have larger variances of the c.v. It is assumed that the larger variances were caused by the unification of characters.
 
Table 2. Basic data (GHP)
　 　 Number of tokens
　 Number of texts sum mean s.d. c.v.
Suzuki 17 51229 3013.47 1930.56 0.65
Kujira 15 33453 2230.2 1251.70 0.56
Semi 10 27153 2715.3 946.63 0.35
Table 2 lists the basic data for GHP, the number of texts, and the sum, mean, s.d., and c.v. of the number of tokens for each perspective. The table shows that Suzuki has the largest section numbers and has the largest c.v. It is assumed that Suzuki’s perspective includes both small and long sections.
3.2. Classification by random forests

Table 3. Classification results (ADP)
　 Ito others error rates
Ito 55 1 0.02
Others 17 5 0.77
Table 3 shows the classification results obtained by random forests for ADP. Each column represents the original tags, and each row represents the results. It can be seen that 55 of 56 Ito texts were classified as Ito’s. It is assumed that Ito’s perspectives have special characteristics. In comparison, only 5 of 22 texts by others were classified as others and 17 of 22 texts by others were classified as Ito. It is assumed that these results were partly caused by the limits of our experiments; the number of Ito texts was much larger than others, and the text from several characters was merged.
 
Table 4. Classification results (GHP)
　 Suzuki Kujira Semi error rates
Suzuki 17 0 0 0
Kujira 0 15 0 0
Semi 0 5 5 0.45
Table 4 shows the classification results obtained by random forests for GHP. Each column represents the original tags, and each row shows the results given by random forests. It can be seen that all Suzuki texts were 17 were classified as Suzuki’s, and all Kujira texts were classified as Kujira’s. Only 5 of 10 texts were classified as Semi, and 5 other texts were classified as Kujira. It is assumed that there were special characteristics for Suzuki and Kujira’s perspective; however, in comparison, Semi’s perspectives were rather characterless and closer in nature to Kujira’s texts. It is worth noting that both Semi and Kujira are assassins, and Suzuki is an employee; therefore, it is assumed that the fact that Semi and Kujira are similar characteristics indicates the author’s intent to differentiate these two characters and Suzuki.
3.3. Feature analysis

Table 5. Top 20 important features (ADP)
　 feature readings translation pos variable importance
1 僕 Boku I noun (pronoun) 0.01911
2 だ da be auxiliary verb 0.00661
3 日比野 Hibino Hibino noun (proper) 0.00404
4 ん n - noun, auxiliary verb, particles 0.00293
5 。 - - symbol 0.00267
6 を wo - particle 0.00262
7 静香 Shizuka Shizuka noun (proper) 0.00253
8 」 - - sign 0.00246
9 声 Koe Voice noun 0.00214
10 しれ shire - verb 0.00177
11 よ yo - particle 0.00172
12 伊藤 Ito Ito noun (proper) 0.00165
13 かも kamo May particle 0.00142
14 歯 Ha Dent noun 0.00126
15 に ni - particle 0.00113
16 いや Iya - exclamations 0.00106
17 島 Shima Island noun 0.00095
18 返事 Henji Reply noun 0.00094
19 目 Me Eye noun 0.00093
20 ？ - - symbol 0.00092
Table 5 shows the top 20 variables that contributed to classification of ADP with English translations, indicates parts of speech, and shows the variable importance obtained by random forests. The variables include many proper nouns and content words such as “島” (Shima; Island) which simply represent contextual difference in the narrative. Table 5 also includes stylistic characteristics such as pronouns that represent the differences between the perspectives of Ito and others.
Table 6. Top 20 important features (GHP)
 
　 feature reading translation pos variable importance
1 鈴木 Suzuki Suzuki noun (proper) 0.00947
2 妻 Tsuma wife noun 0.00938
3 比 Hi - noun (proper) 0.00812
4 亡き Naki dead adnominal 0.00781
5 鯨 Kujira Kujira noun (proper) 0.00764
6 亡霊 Borei ghost noun 0.00699
7 僕 Boku I noun (pronoun) 0.00664
8 子 Ko Ko noun (proper) 0.00560
9 槿 Asagao Asagao noun (proper) 0.00524
10 西 Nishi   noun (proper) 0.00477
11 岩 Iwa - noun (proper) 0.00475
12 与 Yo   noun (proper) 0.00452
13 彼女 Kanojo she noun (pronoun) 0.00393
14 ねえ nee - noun 0.00367
15 おまえ Omae you noun (pronoun) 0.00354
16 長男 Chonan eldest son noun 0.00322
17 君 Kimi you noun (pronoun) 0.00297
18 つう Tsuu - auxiliary verb 0.00268
19 なかっ nakatt - auxiliary verb 0.00254
20 だろ daro - auxiliary verb 0.00224
Table 6 shows the top 20 variables that contributed to the classification of GHP with translations in English, indicates part of speech and presents the variable importance obtained by random forests. Table 6 includes many [part of] proper nouns, indicating that they are the most important characteristics for discriminating the perspectives of the three main characters. In addition, Table 6 includes “つう” (Tsuu) and “ねえ” (Nee), which are style markers specific to several characters (e.g., Kujira) This indicates that these special style markers are also important characteristics for discriminating the perspectives among the three main characters.
4. Conclusion

This study analyzed the textual difference among perspectives in two contemporary Japanese novels. The results indicate that (a) respective perspectives have their specific textual characteristics, (b1) textual characteristics such as proper nouns that represent respective scenes are important for discriminating perspectives, and (b2) stylistic characteristics such as pronouns and nouns that represent styles of speech are also important. We conclude that computational stylistic methods can differentiate among perspectives in contemporary novels.
This study is a preliminary analysis of the study of perspectives using computational stylistic methods and is also part of an ongoing study of Kotaro Isaka’s work. In future, we would like to further investigate the effectiveness of computational methods for perspective issues and continue to analyze other work by Kotaro Isaka.
Acknowledgements

This study was supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research 23700288 for Young Scientists (B), from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan. An earlier version of this study was presented at the 19th Annual Meeting of Japanese Natural Language Processing (NLP2008) at Nagoya University. This research includes revised and expanded content based on the gradation thesis presented by Natsumi Yamashita to the Faculty of Sociology, Toyo University.
References

Breiman L. (2001) Random forests, Machine Learning, Vol.45, pp.5-23.
Isaka, K. (2003) Odyubon no Inori,Sincho Bunko, Tokyo.
Isaka, K. (2007) Gurasuhoppa, Kadokawa Bunko, Tokyo.
Ishimaru, A. (1985) Bunsyo ni okeru shiten, Nihongogaku, 4(12), 22-31.
Jin, M. and M. Murakami (2007) Authorship identification using random forests, Proceedings of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics, 55(2), 255-268.
Kudo, A., Murai, H. and A. Tokosumi (2012) Kyotsu go no fuchi to henka ni motoduku heiko keisiki syosetsu no monogatari kouzo, Journal of Japan Society of Information and Knowledge, 22(3) 187-202. 
Suzuki, T. (2009) Extracting speaker-specific functional expressions from political speeches using random forests in order to investigate speakers' political styles, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 60(8), 1596-1606.
Yamashita, N. and T. Suzuki (2013) Keiryo tekisuto bunseki wo mochiita syosetsu no shiten kenkyu: Isaka Kotaro wo rei to shite, Proceedings of 19th Annual Meeting of the Association of Natural Language Processing (NLP2013), P1-3 (www.anlp.jp/proceedings/annual_meeting/2013).
mecab.sourceforge.net","txt","2","",""
"1844","15","Annotating in Digital Music Edition - concepts, processes and visualisation of annotations","3","This panel presents theoretical and technical approaches in digital scholarly music editions focusing on different forms of annotations, data enrichment and data visualization.
Annotating is one of the central techniques in humanities to gather, analyse, discuss and present information about works, sources and their interpretation. In traditional scholarly music edition this means to create extensive catalogues of verbal critical comments on findings (critical apparatus) in one or more corresponding music and text sources. The critical report in print editions, containing the critical apparatus and also general further information about the work and its sources, is usually stored separately from the music editions. Considering the discrepancy between the verbal description of a finding and its representation in notated music, using such linear structured catalogues often requires an intensive effort to read.
The introduction of digital techniques in recent scholarly music editions not only allows an extension of the amount of considered material (editions, digitized images of music and text sources, contextual information), but also facilitates the presentation and immediate contextualization of the edition and its sources within the critical report1.
At first this can be realised as a transformation of traditional critical commentary into a digital form by visualizing it on and linking it to digital representations (images) of editions and sources. With current developments of specialized encoding formats, more elaborate concepts of annotations come into consideration, moving away from commenting on music and text verbally to an encoding of variants, readings or interrelations with the help of markup techniques2.
The Music Encoding Initiative (MEI)3 as an XML-based markup standard provides possibilities to encode data of musical works such as the content itself (music notation and text), bibliographical metadata, structural data of a work and its sources (for instance acts, scenes, sections, parts, bars), and data on corresponding representations like performances. This opens possibilities to embed different types of annotations and/or to link MEI-data to other structured data like texts encoded according to the Guidelines of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI)4.
Over the last decade, various research and music editing projects have been exploring the application of digital technologies for their purposes, and conclusively it can be said that “There is no doubt that digital media already have influenced, and in the future will in some ways fundamentally change our conception of modern editions and editorial practices”5.
For example the Edirom-Project6 at the Musikwissenschaftliches Seminar Detmold/Paderborn (Musicology Seminar Detmold /Paderborn) has developed a set of software tools, the so-called Edirom Tools, to support music edition projects in all work stages from data compilation (Edirom Editor) to publication (Edirom Viewer or Edirom Online)7. Four edition projects currently using the Edirom Tools and additional technologies, will present themselves in the following, covering editions of musical works from different eras and multiple genres. They share in common several approaches to examine and analyse opportunities and changes in the edition process derived from the application of digital techniques. Exploring the process and an extended concept of annotating is thereby of particular interest.
4. Presentations

4.1 Understanding and encoding musical variants and readings as annotations

As an introduction to this panel, MEI principles for in-line data enrichments will be presented, allowing to encode information on variants and readings as musical text. It will be also discussed in which way such encodings could be understood as annotations and how they could be revisualized in music notation software tools for reuse in different contexts of musicological research.
The MEI Score Editor (MEISE)8, developed as part of the infrastructure project DARIAH-DE9 and designed to facilitate editing and visualization of MEI encodings and data enrichments, will be presented as an example application. Considering one of DARIAH's main research topics – techniques of scholarly annotating and annotation – MEISE's key feature is the possibility to handle encoding and visualization of variants in MEI. MEISE will enable edition projects to maintain digital research methods.
4.2 Hybrid Edition Max Reger-Werkausgabe

One of the first projects using digital techniques and the Edirom Tools is the Hybrid Edition Max Reger-Werkausgabe (RWA)10 at the Max-Reger-Institute, Karlsruhe, which is published both as printed and digital edition. Focusing on the organ works in the first module, the two striking features of the edition’s digital part are the prioritised linked-in annotations and its complex encyclopedia as an extensive collection of references to Max Reger’s life and œuvre11.
Several considerations had to be made about organizing the collaborative edition process and the two-way publication model, like centralised capture of annotations in a database for further semi-automated publication processing. This allows for the editor to postpone publication based decisions to later stages in the edition process.
Already when entering the annotations into the database, the editor assigns a priority level according to their respective importance. The lowest priority (= priority level 3) comprises remarks which are relevant only because of philological reasons (such as differing warning accidentals in the various musical sources), while the higher categories (= priority levels 1 and 2) concentrate on important matters concerning either the works themselves or their tonal realization. According to these priorities the remarks are guided either into both the digital and printed editions (levels 1 and 2) or, if of lower importance (level 3), only into the digital version.
Similar collaborative solutions as for the annotations had to be found for the preparation of the digital encyclopedia, containing texts (encoded in TEI) and images, to allow for linking to and between all edition parts and contents.
4.3 OPERA – Spektrum des europäischen Musiktheaters in Einzeleditionen

In the OPERA12 research and edition project, 21 musical dramatic compositions, drawn from different periods and different genres such as opera, Singspiel, drama with incidental music, melodrama, or ballet are being edited. A collaborative team of internal and external editors publishes its editions in a hybrid form: the score is published in traditional book format; the critical report, including images of the Music Edition and sources, and the Text Edition are presented in an electronic Edirom-based form.
The Edirom software has been modified in order to integrate the TEI-based Text Edition into the Edirom environment and to interlink it with other digital resources (digitized score and source images) through synchronization of specific structural units/data of music and text (bars, lines, numbers, etc.). The modification is compatible with future tasks such as the integration of audio and video resources. Both, music and text edition share one common critical apparatus, whose annotations are strictly categorized as Music (M), Text (T), and Stage (S), and reflect the peculiarities of musical theatre13. In addition to the annotations, which are mostly limited to report variant readings, OPERA uses a comment window for historical informations and contextualization.
4.4 Freischütz Digital – Paradigmatische Umsetzung eines genuin digitalen Editionskonzepts

Inspired by Wiering’s multidimensional Model14, the approach of Freischütz Digital15 is a genuine digital edition of the opera Der Freischütz by Carl Maria von Weber, considering all current theoretical and technical possibilities for the edition process. The principal part of this edition is the encoding and interlinking of music sources, libretto sources, and further material. The transcriptions of all music texts are encoded according to MEI whereas the transcriptions of the libretto texts and their stages of development are encoded according to TEI. For the first time, acoustic elements (several sound files of recorded performances), are analysed and visualized in the digital edition in a way that they are synchronized with and set in context to the music and text sources, their transcriptions and annotations16. This opens new possibilities for processing, enriching and reusing the edition’s data.
Annotations for the music sources will be based on the print edition currently under preparation at the Carl-Maria-von-Weber-Gesamtausgabe (WeGA)17 and be transferred to XML-based encoding. For the purpose of annotating the libretto sources the project develops a stand-off encoding model and a corresponding tool (the so-called CoreBuilder) facilitating the generation of associations18.
4.5 A Cosmopolitan Composer in Pre-Revolutionary Europe – Giuseppe Sarti

In the research project A Cosmopolitan Composer in Pre-Revolutionary Europe – Giuseppe Sarti19 two MEI based Edirom editions of Sarti’s operas Fra i due litiganti il terzo gode and Giulio Sabino are prepared, aiming to consider appropriately the fact that Italian opera as a genre does not intend to provide stable works with an “authentic” text. Instead, the operas were always adapted to the conditions of new performances.
Our edition presents the sources and their readings in a non-hierarchical way, with the intention to show a wide range of variants and arrangements20. Therefore, we distinguish between different types of annotations: We do not only document pure errors in the musical text, but also explain the textual variants and establish – according to the FRBR (Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records) model21 – the relationships of the sources. This approach seems to have clear advantages compared to the typical entries in common critical reports.
References

1. Joachim Veit (2010): Es bleibt nichts, wie es war – Wechselwirkungen zwischen digitalen und 'analogen' Editionen. In: editio, vol. 24, Berlin/Boston, pp. 37–52.
2. Johannes Kepper (2011): Musikedition im Zeichen neuer Medien – Historische Entwicklung und gegenwärtige Perspektiven musikalischer Gesamtausgaben, Norderstedt.
3. The Music Encoding Initiative (MEI) provides extensive guidelines and corresponding schemata for XML-based encoding of music. Its special features for academic and scholarly purpose make it unique among other encoding formats for music. Available online at www.music-encoding.org (last accessed: March 6, 2014).
4. The Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) maintains comprehensive guidelines and corresponding schemata for XML-based text encoding, available online at www.tei-c.org (last accessed: March 6, 2014).
5. Bjarke Moe, Axel Teich Geertinger (2008): Digital Editions of Music. Perspectives for Editors and Users. Proceedings, p. 7. Online at: www.bjarkemoe.dk/digitaleditions2008.pdf (last accessed: March 6, 2014).
6. See the project’s website at www.edirom.de (last accessed: March 6, 2014).
7. Benjamin Bohl, Johannes Kepper, Daniel Röwenstrunk (2011): Perspektiven digitaler Musikeditionen aus der Sicht des Edirom-Projekts. In: Die Tonkunst 5, pp. 270-276.
8. See the project’s website at de.dariah.eu/web/guest/mei-score-editor (last accessed: March 6, 2014).
9. See the online portal of DARIAH-DE at de.dariah.eu (last accessed: March 6, 2014).
10. See the project’s website at www.max-reger-institut.de/de/rwa.php (last accessed: March 6, 2014).
11. Alexander Becker, Christopher Grafschmidt, Stefan König, Stefanie Steiner (2013): Möglichkeiten und Konsequenzen der Digitalen Musikedition am Beispiel der Reger-Werkausgabe (RWA). In: Medienwandel/Medienwechsel in der Editionswissenschaft, ed. Anne Bohnenkamp (= Beihefte zu editio 35), Berlin/Boston, pp. 159-166.
12. See the project’s website at www.opera.adwmainz.de (last accessed: March 6, 2014).
13. Janine Droese, Norbert Dubowy, Andreas Münzmay, Janette Seuffert (2013): Musik – Theater – Text. Grundfragen der Musiktheaterphilologie im Spiegel der OPERA-Hybridausgaben. In: editio, vol. 27, Berlin/Boston, pp. 72-95.
14. Frans Wiering (2009): Digital Critical Editions of Music: A multidimensional Model. In: Gibson Crawford: Modern Methods for Musicology, Ashgate, pp. 23-45.
15. See the project’s website at www.freischuetz-digital.de (last accessed: March 6, 2014).
16. Meinard Müller, Thomas Prätzlich, Benjamin Bohl, Joachim Veit (2013): Freischütz Digital: A Multimodal Scenario for Informed Music Processing (conference paper), WIAMIS 2013 - 14th International Workshop on Image and Audio Analysis for Multimedia Interactive Services, Paris, July 3.
17. For further details on the Carl-Maria-von-Weber-Gesamtausgabe see the project’s website at www.weber-gesamtausgabe.de (last accessed: March 6, 2014).
18. Raffaele Viglianti, Solveig Schreiter, Benjamin Bohl: A stand-off critical apparatus for the libretto of Der Freischütz (conference paper), TEI Conference and Members Meeting 2013, Rome, October 5, 2013.
19. See the project’s website at www.udk-berlin.de/musikwissenschaft/sarti (last accessed: March 6, 2014).
20. For a paradigmatic encoding of one aria see Johannes Kepper, Christine Siegert: Oper multimedial. Zur Edirom-Ausgabe von Haydns Arienbearbeitungen. In: Medienwandel/Medienwechsel in der Editionswissenschaft, ed. Anne Bohnenkamp (= Beihefte zu editio 35), Berlin/Boston 2013, pp. 141-150.
21. Kristina Richts (2013): Die FRBR customization im Datenformat der Music Encoding Initiative (MEI), Köln. Online available at publiscologne.fh-koeln.de/frontdoor/index/index/docId/144 (last accessed: March 6, 2014).","txt","2","",""
"1845","15","Annotating texts with ontologies, from geography to persons and events","2","1. Introduction

1.1. Overview

Geolat - geography for latin literature aim is to annotate every placename in the latin literature using a geographical ontology for the ancient world which must be built from scratch. This will allow scholars but also students and citizens to start reading texts choosing a specific area or place they are interested to. The starting point is the Latin literature because of its founding meaning for the European culture 1.
But this same model can be applied to every other literature because nothing in it is language-dependent. Should a scholar be able to browse a map of Europe (or of the world) to choose a specific place and start examining which authors in which works wrote about it is a completely new way or conceiving the study of literature.
But this model can be expanded from place names to persons and events, allowing to browse texts by the names of people they contain or by types and subtypes of events. That is texts are meant as collections of information. Not always and not necessarily  factual information because literary texts can speak of mental, fictional representation of places or people. Nevertheless what texts  say often constitutes the canvas of what real places and people and events actually are or were.
Concurrent 'sayings' about the same place, person, or event, can be managed strictly connecting the annotation to the textual object containing the statement(s). So an ontology of textual objects is needed.
1.2. Methodology

The main methodology is that of starting from a prototype where a geographical ontology is used to annotate place names in latin texts. At this level a startup funding is sufficient to build a prototype showing and example of what could be obtained.
Then the prototype can be expanded:
adding more literatures;
and/or adding more ontologies.
In both cases a great effort is needed to accomplish the task and adequate funding is indispensable.
As the ontology is the core of the project something must be said about it. Conceptually, the annotation mechanism is based on EARMARK 2. EARMARK is an OWL 2 DL ontology that defines document meta-markup (elements, attributes, comments and text nodes), and it can be used to express facts about the inherent semantics of the markup elements and of the content of a text 3 according to a precise semiotic model 4. Thus, using EARMARK it is possible to create annotations on (plain or marked up) documents and document fragments  according to a multilayer architecture (that can be aligned, in principle, with the Open Annotation Data Model 5) and allows one not only to specify by an annotation the referent of a geographic place name, but also to provide a set of data describing such referent.  All of the entities involved in an annotation are identified by an IRI and both the annotation, its metadata and its content are specified according to the RDF data model. In this way, all these pieces of information can be published on the Web of Data following the Linked Data principles 6. The semantics of these data are explicitly expressed by means of formal ontologies, thus allowing the Geolat system itself as well as external applications to capture (at least partially) the data, to draw inferences on them and facilitating data integration. Given the specificity of the domain and of the task, a Geolat ontology has been built: We will discuss it and its relationship with other geographical ontologies widely used in the Linked Data world, such as Geonames 7.
2. Getting Started

What is here described is a running project - geolat - with some possible extensions.
2.1 The Geolat Project

Geolat project is intended to build a complete digital library of classical and late latin texts, to annotate them in every place name and then to offer a double interface to browse the texts: a cartographic one, and a mixed one (textual + cartographic). The first one allow users to choose a region on a map and to obtain a list of authors, and works, and place names pertaining to that region; the second one allows to search for a specific place whose name is written in a text field; the search will show a list of passages, a display of places onto a map, histograms of presence of place names in various sections of the related works, list of other cooccurent place names.
2.2 The Geolat Prototype

A prototype of geolat system will be built for the first months of year 2014 and will be avaliable online at the address http://www.geolat.eu. It will offer a small digital library with some ten latin texts. The placenames contained in these texts will be manually annotated using a geographical ontology specifically conceived for the classical (latin) world and literature. A cartographic interface will allow to browse the texts clicking regions or places showed onto a map.
2.3 Building the Digital Library

As it was said, the first step is having a digital library of texts. The texts in the library will be annotated using a mixed approach: the in-line annotation is based on the TEI standard, and links to an external ontology which describes geographical entities how the ancient Romans did: a forest is the home of a nymph, a river is sacred to a goddess, a city can have more than one founder, and so on. 
2.5 Browsing the Texts through a Map-based Interface

The map-based interface is the more complex part of this project because of its novelty and because of some technical problems which must be solved (e.g. finding geographical places in a given radius from another one).
3. Going further

Project geolat can go further in two non mutually exclusive ways:
adding literatures
adding ontologies (that is, types of entities).
3.1 More Literatures

Adding more literatures to the initial latin one would allow to build distinct layers of literary interpretation and to extend the scope of analysis and queries. For instance we could ask in which texts (and inside them in which passages) of Latin and French literature we find contextual references to the city of Appida and to the person of Caesar.
From the technical point of view different literatures mean different digital libraries which must define a formal protocol for interoperability. There are some basic conditions to assure this interoperability (use of UTF-8 characters encoding; adoption of at least a basic markup - preferably in XML - describing and identifying its structure: title, sections, subsections, but also paragraphs, sentences, words;  adoption of open software systems).
But the only way to assure the level of interoperability we envisage to heterogeneous collections is agian based on sharing conceptual and ontological assumption.
3.2 More Ontologies

Adding more ontologies, that is more types of categories, would offer a more complex access to the texts and the knowledge they contain.
3.2.1 Persons

Recognizing and semantically annotating geographical entities in only a first step to the goal of providing an innovative access to literary works. As witnessed by the work of Francesca Tomasi 8, persons and characters play a central role in many literary productions. In particular, we will describe how the system support the identification and the formal representation of semantic relationships between texts and persons (or characters), among persons themselves and, in general, between persons and other resources and how the EAC-CPF Ontology 9 can be exploited to this aim. The analysis of the context, as conceived in the archival domain, is a fundamental approach to connect people to documents on the basis of the role or function covered. Roles are the key tool to manage self-explanatory relationships. For this reason the Pro Ontology 10 will be also considered. We will also describe how the integration of the geographical and the personal perspectives in a homogeneous framework enhances the benefits provided by both.
3.2.3 Events

Since people participate to events and many relevant events take place in the real world (meetings, battles, travels, etc.), we believe that the notion of event is a sort of conceptual glue between geographical places and people that should be captured within our system. We will discuss this issue.
Events are of different types and are bound to time, to a specific point or duration in time.
Good examples of ontologies for events are the ""Simple Event Model"":
lov.okfn.org/dataset/lov/details/vocabulary_sem.html11 or the ""Linking Open Descriptions of Events"": linkedevents.org/ontology
3.2.4 Textual Objects

Moreover, the work of Peroni and Vitali on semantic publishing 12 13 proved how the semantic technologies can be exploited in order to enrich the meaning of documents published on the Web by specify meaningful relationships between them 14.  We will discuss how this approach can be applied in to the digital library provided within the discussed  system, in order to complement it with a rich network of semantically linked resources connecting both the productions by themselves and their contents (places, persons, characters and events) in a coherent semantic graph.
References

1. M. Lana, Geolat: Geography for Latin Literature, in (forthcoming) ISAW papers 7, Current Practice in Linked Open Data for the Ancient World Editors: Thomas Elliott, Sebastian Heath, John Muccigrosso, sfsheath.github.io/lawdi-publication/isaw-papers-7.xhtml
2. Di Iorio, A., Peroni, S., Vitali, F. (2011). Using Semantic Web technologies for analysis and validation of structural markup. In International Journal of Web Engineering and Technologies, 6 (4): 375-398. Olney, Buckinghamshire, UK: Inderscience Publisher. DOI: 10.1504/IJWET.2011.043439
3. Peroni, S., Gangemi, A., & Vitali, F. (2011). Dealing with markup semantics. In Proceedings the 7th International Conference on Semantic Systems (I-SEMANTICS 2011): 111–118. New York, New York, US: ACM Press. DOI: 10.1145/2063518.2063533
4. Picca, D., Gliozzo, A. M., & Gangemi, A. (2008). LMM: an OWL-DL MetaModel to Represent Heterogeneous Lexical Knowledge. In Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 08). Marrakech, Morocco: European Language Resources Association (ELRA). ISBN: 2-9517408-4-0
5. Open Annotation Data Model, W3C Open Annotation Community Group 2013, www.openannotation.org/spec/core
6. Tom Heath and Christian Bizer, Linked Data: Evolving the Web into a Global Data Space. Synthesis Lectures on the Semantic Web: Theory and Technology, Morgan & Claypool 2011
7. Geonames Ontology, www.geonames.org/ontology/documentation.html
8. ] Tomasi, Francesca. (2013). Digital editions as a new model of conceptual authority data, JLIS.it 4.2 21-44
9. ] Mazzini, Silvia, and Francesca Ricci. (2011). EAC-CPF Ontology and Linked Archival Data. In Semantic Digital Archives (SDA) Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Semantic Digital Archives. ceur-ws.org/Vol-801/
10. Shotton David, Peroni Silvio. (2010). Pro - The Publishing Roles Ontologypurl.org/spar/pro/ (last modified 2013-05-15)
11. Willem Robert van Hage, Véronique Malaisé, Roxane Segers, Laura Hollink, Guus Schreiber.Design and use of the Simple Event Model (SEM)- Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web, Volume 9, Issue 2, July 2011, Pages 128–136 dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.websem.2011.03.003 Postprint at: www.cs.vu.nl/~guus/papers/Hage11b.pdf
12. Peroni, S., Shotton, D., Vitali, F. (2012). Scholarly publishing and the Linked Data: describing roles, statuses, temporal and contextual extents. In Presutti, V., Pinto, H. S. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Semantic Systems (i-Semantics 2012): 9-16. DOI: 10.1145/2362499.2362502
13. Peroni, S., Shotton, D., Vitali, F. (2012). Scholarly publishing and the Linked Data: describing roles, statuses, temporal and contextual extents. In Presutti, V., Pinto, H. S. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Semantic Systems (i-Semantics 2012): 9-16. DOI: 10.1145/2362499.2362502
14. Semantic Publishing and Referencing Ontologies: purl.org/spar
","txt","2","",""
"1846","15","Aplicación del análisis dinámico de redes científicas al estudio de la evolución de la investigación española relacionada con el descriptor “historia del arte” durante 1976-2012, según ISOC.","9","1. Objetivo

El objetivo de la presente comunicación ha sido detectar las dinámicas de la investigación española relacionadas con la historia del arte en un rango cronológico que se extiende desde 1976 hasta 2012. Para ello, se ha utilizado como estrategia el análisis dinámico de redes científicas, lo que nos ha permitido extraer de uno de los corpus más representativos de la investigación histórico-artística en España (ISOC) un conocimiento implícito sobre la evolución y desarrollo de las estrategias temáticas y líneas de investigación relacionadas con la historia del arte como descriptor.
La elección de este rango cronológico no es arbitraria, pues la segunda mitad de la década de los setenta se ha conceptualizado tradicionalmente como un punto de inflexión en los estudios histórico-artísticos en España, al incorporarse metodologías y modelos interpretativos foráneos una vez iniciado el periodo aperturista tras el fin de la Dictadura de Franco, la llegada de todo un conjunto de traducciones de obras que desarrollaban modelos interpretativos distintos a los anteriormente establecidos, y la consolidación de los estudios de Historia del Arte en España como campo académico autónomo.
2. Marco teórico-metodológic

Una red científica está formada según  (Latour, 1983) por el conjunto de actores de la red (investigadores, centros, revistas, temas de investigación, etc.) y por el conjunto de asociaciones establecidas entre ellos. Los actores independientemente de su naturaleza pueden definirse siempre mediante palabras. La red de palabras y de asociaciones establecidas entre ellas es manifestación del comportamiento de la Sociedad y de la estructura del Conocimiento. Los actores son, igualmente, entidades dinámicas que continuamente redefinen sus relaciones y, en consecuencia, la red socio-cognitiva que conforman. Con el devenir, los actores y las relaciones cambian y dan lugar a nuevas redes, y así se suceden unas a otras a lo largo del tiempo.
Latour define la Teoría Actor-Red, teoría sociológica sobre la generación de conocimiento científico, como “Sociología de las Relaciones”  (Latour, 2005). La teoría de la traducción (entendida esta como conversión, transformación, variación o cambio) estudia los cambios que se producen en las relaciones entre los actores de la red. Estos cambios en las relaciones entre los actores producen su aparición, fortalecimiento, equilibrio, debilitamiento o desaparición. La aparición de nuevos actores se produce por emergencia o por convergencia; el fortalecimiento se produce por convergencia o por evolución incremental; el equilibrio, por evolución estable; el debilitamiento, por evolución decremental o por divergencia; y la desaparición, por bifurcación o por exitus. A consecuencia de todos esos cambios, las redes tecnocientíficas de conocimiento se encuentran en continuo cambio  (Ruiz-Baños, 1999).
Las relaciones naturales de coocurrencia de palabras en los textos científicos y técnicos constituyen una red tecnocientífica que puede ser analizada y cartografiada. El análisis y la visualización de estas redes es posible por el desarrollo de sistemas expertos denominados sistemas de conocimiento.
3. Criterios y proceso de análisis 

El corpus documental de análisis lo constituyen los artículos de ISOC, http://bddoc.csic.es:8080/isoc.html, obtenidos  mediante la búsqueda “historia del arte” en los campos título, resumen y descriptores, en el periodo 1976-2012. Este corpus está formado por 873 registros.
Se ha realizado el análisis dinámico de la red científica mediante el sistema de conocimiento Techné Coword; sistema de conocimiento que tiene su antecedente en Copalred  (Bailón-Moreno, 2003), que a su vez tiene como precursor Leximappe  (Law, Bauin, Courtial, & Whittaker, 1988);  (Law & Whittaker, 1992). Para realizar el análisis de palabras asociadas, se ha creado un único campo formado por los descriptores, autores y revista de cada registro. Se han fijado los siguientes parámetros de análisis: ocurrencia mínima, 2; coocurrencia mínima, 2; tamaño mínimo de la subred, 2; y tamaño máximo, 12. Los subperiodos de estudio han sido: 1976-1983; 1984-1989; 1990-1995; 1996-2001; 2002-2007; y, 2008-2013.
Se han empleado técnicas KDD (knowledge databases discovery) y  de text mining (coword analysis o análisis de palabras asociadas) para obtener las subredes de investigación más importantes y relevantes de cada subperiodo. El diagrama dinámico de subredes permite el análisis y la visualización de la evolución de los resultados de la investigación.
4. Resultados e interpretaciones

La gráfica de producción acumulada de documentos por año permite distinguir dos periodos de ""inicio-expansión-agotamiento"" sucesivos: uno de 1976 hasta 1986, y otro de 1987 hasta la actualidad (ver Figura 1) 

Fig. 1: Diagrama de producción anual acumulada de los documentos que incluyen “historia del arte” en su título, resumen o palabras clave.
Estos periodos son una constatación empírica de la Segunda Ley de Price o de Crecimiento Logístico de la Ciencia  (de Solla Price, 1963), así como del concepto de cambio de paradigma, según la obra de Thomas Kuhn La Estructura de las Revoluciones Científicas  (Kuhn, 1962).  Esto último se reafirma aun más si cabe por los profundos cambios conceptuales que ha sufrido la investigación relacionada con el descriptor “historia del arte” según el análisis de palabras asociadas que sido realizado para el presente estudio. Este análisis de palabras asociadas ha identificado los actores temáticos, temas o líneas de investigación en cada periodo, y las ha relacionado entre ellos dando lugar  a diferentes salidas gráficas muy significativas. Los temas de investigación se muestran como redes de palabras que los han definido conceptualmente (ver Figura 2).

Fig. 2: Tema “historia del cine”, tema motor de investigación del último periodo, 2008-2013
Los diagramas estratégicos han revelado las relaciones intertemáticas y su posición estratégica dentro del conjunto de la red (posición motora del campo científico, cuadrante superior derecho; posición transversal, cuadrante inferior izquierdo; posición  accesoria, cuadrante superior izquierdo; y posición naciente o en decadencia, cuadrante inferior izquierdo) (ver Figuras 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 y 8). En los diagramas estratégicos se representan los temas de investigación; estos aparecen nombrados por el descriptor central de la subred que conforman y situados según los parámetros de centralidad y densidad de la misma.

Fig. 3: Diagrama estratégico del periodo 1, 1976-1983.

Fig. 4: Diagrama estratégico del periodo 2, 1984-1989.

Fig. 5: Diagrama estratégico del periodo 3, 1990-1995.

Fig. 6: Diagrama estratégico del periodo 4, 1996-2001.

Fig. 7: Diagrama estratégico del periodo 5, 2002-2007.

Fig. 8: Diagrama estratégico del periodo 6, 2008-2013.
Igualmente, el diagrama dinámico de las series temáticas ha evidenciado la evolución o traducción a lo largo del tiempo (ver Figura 9)

Fig. 9: Diagrama dinámico o de series temáticas. Los periodos son: 1, 1976-1983; 2, 1984-1989; 3, 1990-1995; 4, 1996-2001; 5, 2002-2007; y, 6, 2008-2013
Varias razones de tipo socioeconómico explican la existencia de los periodos anteriormente identificados y los cambios conceptuales y estratégicos sufridos por los actores temáticos en ellos: el dirigismo institucional de la investigación española que está sometido a los vaivenes de la economía general del país en cada momento, la incorporación española a la Unión Europea y a sus planes de apoyo a la investigación, la adopción de un sistema de evaluación de la actividad de los investigadores que impulsa la producción de artículos de revistas, la redefinición de antiguas líneas de investigación y la emergencia de otras nuevas. 
References

Bailón-Moreno, R. (2003). Ingeniería del conocimiento y vigilancia tecnológica aplicada a la investigación en el campo de los tensioactivos. Desarrollo de un modelo ciencimétrico unificado. Granada: Tesis doctoral. Universidad de Granada.
de Solla Price, D. J. (1963). Little Science, Big Science. New York: Columbia University Press.
Kuhn, T. (1962). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Latour, B. (1983). Give me a Laboratory and I Will Raise the World. En K. Knorr-Cetina, & M. Mulkay, Science observed: Perspectives on the Social Study of Science. Londres: Sage.
Latour, B. (2005). Reassembling the Social. An introduction to Actor-Network Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Law, J., & Whittaker, J. (1992). Mapping acidification research: a test of the co-word method. Scientometrics, 23(3), 417-461.
Law, J., Bauin, S., Courtial, J. P., & Whittaker, J. (1988). Policy and the mapping of scientific change: a co-word analysis of research into enviromental acidification. Scientometrics , 14(3-4), 251-264.
Pino-Díaz, J., Jiménez-Contreras, E., Ruíz-Baños, R., & Bailón-Moreno, R. (Julio-Septiembre de 2011). Evaluación de redes tecnocientíficas: la red española sobre Áreas Protegidas, según la Web of Science. Revista Española de Documentación Científi ca, 34(3), 301-333.
Pino-Díaz, J., Jiménez-Contreras, E., Ruíz-Baños, R., & Bailón-Moreno, R. (April de 2012). Strategic knowledge maps of the techno-scientific network (SK Maps). Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 63(4), 796-804.
Ruiz-Baños, R. (1999). Las traducciones dinámicas de las series temáticas, propuesta de una clasificación. La representación y la organización del conocimientoen sus distintas perspectivas: su influencia en la recuperación de la información. Actas del IV Congreso ISKO. Granada.","txt","2","",""
"1847","15","Arabic and Greek New Testament manuscripts: Identities and Digital cultures","2","This research project is supported by the Swiss National Fund under the form of a 3 years grant for a PhD in Arts and Humanities on New Testament, Ancient Greek and Christian Arabic traditions, as interdisciplinary project (2013-2016). It tries to analyse the global disinterest of the Western research for the Arabic manuscripts of the New Testament (NT) since 1945, and the recent growing-up attention for them among Middle-East Christians and some Western scholars, as well as the interest of certain Muslim circles for the Greek and Arabic NT manuscripts, in particular on websites. This project explores the necessary transformations of a classical philological field to study such a phenomenon. The digital culture is the common factor that allows to Western and non Western scholarship to cross over these ancient objects: the digital support of writing requires to use sociology, philology, history, and epistemology to analyse the hybrid cultural objects that it creates. 

Fig. 1: www.sheekh-3arb.net/bible
The first step of the project is to enlighten, according to the approach of the cultural studies, the history of research of the field. The second step is to demonstrate the usefulness of the Arabic manuscripts by doing and studying the list of the Pauline Arabic manuscripts, and to investigate the weight of the language and the culture on the text by editing the First Corinthians in the manuscript Vat. Ar. 13. The third step is to understand the identity polemics on the Christian and Muslim websites studying Greek and Arabic manuscripts of the New Testament. The Digital Humanities epistemology offers here the general background to decipher what happens in a classical philological field of study.

Fig. 2: Codex Sinaiticus (Mk 1.1) on a Salafist Muslim website; http://www.sheekh-3arb.net/vb/showthread.php?t=2127& page=3 (06.03.2014)
Beyond the printed culture, the digital support of writing leads by itself to reconfigure the boundaries of knowledge: in such a project, not only diverse ancient languages are required (Greek, Arabic, Latin), or classical codicology and philology, but also deep epistemological inquiries, with the help of sociology (network analysis), pedagogy (multiliteracies), and other disciplines. Finally, one assists to the emergence of an interdisciplinary terra incognita: a hybrid cross-cultural scholarship. New concepts and points of view are here to be used and created.
More generally speaking, this project participates to the debate about new models of digital critical edition: are we ready to renounce to a stabilized text, in favour of open-ended texts on websites, allowing to integrate comments, diverse languages and images of manuscripts? The digital edition of Homer is going in the sense of a history of reading, rather than to offer a “definitive” text (http://www.homermultitext.org). The example of the present research project underlines that the notion of text is more and more replaced by the “document” in a digital cultural perspective. This project hopes also to demonstrate that we are going from a knowledge based on the general relationship subject-object, to an intersubjective knowledge, developed in networks: for example, how are we going to integrate new forms of academic productions in our analysis, such as blogs and Internet forum?
In this mind, we want to challenge the complexity of our project with a website (www.unil.ch/nt-arabe) offering the possibility of going above the limits of the printed media.
References

Arbache S., L’Évangile arabe selon saint Luc. Texte du VIIIe siècle, copié en 897. édition et traduction, Bruxelles, Safran, 2012.
Clivaz C., “Homer and the New Testament as ‘Multitexts’ in the Digital Age?”, in SRC 3 (2012/3), 1-15 ; open access : http://src-online.ca/index.php/src/article/view/97.
Clivaz C., “Internet Networks and Academic Research: the Example of the New Testament Textual Criticism”, in Clivaz C., Gregory A., Hamidovic D., in collaboration with Schulthess S. (eds.), Digital Humanities in Biblical, Early Jewish and Early Christian Studies (Scholarly Communication Series 2), Leiden, Brill, 2013.
Clivaz C., Hamidovic, D., “Critical Editions in the Digital Age”, in The Johns Hopkins Guide to Digital Media and Textuality, Ryan M.-L., Emerson L., and Robertson B. (eds.), forthcoming.
Griffith S.H., The Bible in Arabic: The Scriptures of the ‘People of the Book’ in the Language of Islam, Princeton/Oxford, Princeton University Press, 2013.
Kashouh H., The Arabic Versions of the Gospels. The Manuscripts and their Families (Arbeiten zur neutestamentlichen Textforschung 42), Berlin, de Gruyter, 2011.
New London Group. “A Pedagogy of Multiliteracies: Designing Social Futures”, in Harvard Educational Review 66, no. 1 (1996), pp. 60–92.
Schulthess S., “Die arabischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments in der zeitgenössischen Forschung: ein Überblick”, in Early Christianity 3(4) (2013), pp. 518-539
Schulthess S., “Les manuscrits du Nouveau Testament, le monde arabe et le digital. L'émergence d'un discours hybride». in Clivaz C., Meizoz J., Vallotton F., Verheyden J. (eds.), in collaboration with Bertho B. (eds.), Lire Demain. Des manuscrits antiques à l'ère digitale / Reading Tomorrow. From Ancient Manuscripts to the Digital Era, PPUR, 2012, pp. 333-344
Thomas, D.R. (ed.), The Bible in Arab Christianity, Leiden, Brill, 2007.","txt","2","",""
"1848","15","Archaeology in social media: users, content and communication on Facebook","9","The use of social media tools within digital archaeology helps create an engaging setting for archaeological content, which integrates archaeology into a broader social context of use by connecting scholars, archaeological heritage professionals, and the wider public. Social media offers various opportunities: researchers may find it useful for discovering, using and sharing information, organizations may use it in promoting institutional agendas and communicating with wider audiences, lay people may see it as a platform for participation, and more. More broadly, social media is transforming ways in which we perceive information, with its use becoming an increasingly important skill for researchers. This paper attempts to address issues of social media usage in digital archaeology through the case study of studying Lithuanian archaeology practices on Facebook.
The study of social media use in archaeology is still new as a topic of research, because social media haven't been around long enough to develop clear patterns of use. However, particular research questions, as well as answers, are emergining (e.g., Morris, 2011; Whitcher Kansa & Deblauwe, 2011; Pett, 2012; Richardson, 2012; Sanchez, 2013); nevertheless, discussions of social media in archaeology are still more often discussed in conferences and seminars, and also on blogs, forums, etc. Authors typically acknowledge the importance of social media, and point to successful examples providing evidence that it stimulates communication between researchers, helps information sharing and reaching wider audiences, as well as fosters community engagement and social participation. However, the diversity of existing practices opens new research questions, transcend disciplinary boundaries and challenges established authority structures.
The research project presented here is a case study of archeaological communication on Facebook (currently the most popular site for digital social networking in Lithuania), based on analysis of empirical data from thirty Lithuanian Facebook groups and pages related to archaeology. The study depends on a mixed methods approach, combining digital ethnography, content analysis and social network analysis aspects. Initial analysis revealed that overall activity relies on engaged communities rather than on research institutions, or custodian archaeological organizations, considered to be directly responsible for the creation and curation of digital archaeological content. The scope of the research covers, therefore, a wider landscape of observable social media practices, by actors including not only research organizations or professional networking groups, but also semi-formal or informal groups. Its objective is to map and understand existing trends, and to provide further insights about new phenomena that emerge from these kinds of interactions.
The paper investigates Facebook profiles of individual users (archaeologists, amateurs) and organizations, specific activities they engage in such as posting, commenting, liking, sharing, etc., and the content that is shared within the network. It seeks to address questions arising from this case study, as well as develop insights for broader research issues, such as:
• Who is using social media in archaeology, and for what reason and purpose? What are the qualitative traits, and in depth profiles, of of the most effective users? What is the nature of the shift towards public archaeology and community engagement practices? What is the role of individual archaeologists in social media? Could Facebook contribute to research proper, or be used for academic purposes?
• Do social media shape and change the content itself? How do people use and make sense of these resources? What are the most common kinds of archaeological objects that people share, like and comment on Facebook., and why? How is content influenced by the complex relation between archaeological heritage and society? What is the balance between expert knowledge and amateur perspectives?
• More generally, are we fully aware of the opportunities and challenges brought by social media? What additional value does communication among individuals and institutional structures create? How does this kind of synergy improve knowledge transfer? Does it empower organizations, or people? How is communication carried out? What is the structure of interactions between users? In what way is Facebook-based activity shaped to satisfy the needs of its users?
This paper will, firstly, provide an overview of Facebook use in archaeology by focusing on three core dimensions: users, content and communication. It will then present a detailed composition of Facebook users in Lithuanian archaeology, in an attempt to understand the position of archaeological institutions and archaeologists in social media, as well as reasons for the lack of participation as the case study suggests. Furthermore, it will describe the main types and subject-matter of current digital archaeological content, and discuss how user responses and interactions could influence the way in which we conceptualise and interpret the past. Finally, the paper will present and compare different cases of archaeological Facebook use, and will examine in what manner archaeological heritage operates in digital social media, how it serves institutional and individual needs, and what criteria could enable successful communication.
References

Morris, J. Zoobook (2011). Archaeologist connecting through social media. The SAA archaeological record, Vol. 11, No. 1 (January).
Whitcher Kansa, S. & Deblauwe, Francis (2011). User-generated content in zooarchaeology: exploring the “Middle Space” of scholarly communication. In E. Kansa et al. (Ed.) Archaeology 2.0: New Tools For Communication and Collaboration. USA: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology.
Pett, D. (2012) Use of Social Media Within the British Museum and the Museum Sector. In Ch. Bonacchi (Ed.) Archaeology and Digital Communication: Towards Strategies of Public Engagement. London: Archetype Publications.
Richardson, L. (2012) Twitter and archaeology: an archaeological network in 140 characters or less. In Ch. Bonacchi (Ed.) Archaeology and Digital Communication: Towards Strategies of Public Engagement. London: Archetype Publications.
Almansa Sanchez, J. (2013) To be or not to be? Public archaeology as a tool of public opinion and the dilemma of intellectuality. Archaeological Dialogues, Vol. 20, No. 1 (June).
","txt","2","",""
"1849","15","Arch-V: A Platform for Image-Based Search and Retrieval of Digital Archives","9","1. Introduction

Arch-V (short for Archive Vision) is a newly developed C++ application that provides image based search capabilities for digital archives of print materials. In 2013 the English Broadside Ballad Archive (EBBA) at the Early Modern Center, University of California, Santa Barbara was awarded an NEH Start-Up Grant to begin work on the Ballad Impression Archive (BIA), a component of EBBA specifically devoted to cataloguing the over 9,000 (and growing) individual woodcut impressions in EBBA and making them fully searchable as an image collection. A key component of this award was the creation of software to provide automated, image based searching of the collection.  The proposed short paper will introduce and provide an overview of the implementation procedures for Arch-V.
1.1. Overview

Arch-V is a platform for delivering automated, image-based indexing and searching of digital archives. While the state of the art in computerized image classification and recognition is quite advanced, the application of these technologies to the specific area of digital archives of printed material presents a unique set of challenges. As noted by Relja Arandjelovic and Andrew Zisserman, the problem of automated recognition of objects has been largely solved, “provided they have a light coating of texture” 1. This is because the state of the art in computer vision relies upon the refraction of light across the surface texture of an object as it is captured in a digital image (or frame of video) in order to extract recognizable feature points as indexable markers of the object in the image. But in digital images of print artifacts, surface texture serves as a distraction from and not an indicator of the objects depicted in the print. This is because the texture belongs to the delivery medium, the carrier, and not to the objects being represented. As a result, the efficacy of current technologies is less than satisfying when applied to the area digital archives of printed materials. More importantly, this is not a problem that computer science researches are likely to solve for the humanities, as the primary interest, funding, and work effort in computer science is in the area of processing networked picture and video feeds such as surveillance footage, YouTube videos, and Facebook photos.
We were able to design and test a solution to this problem as part of the funding provided by the Start-Up award. This solution involves a process of normalizing color and black and white archival images to a common format prior to feature point extraction, utilizing a modified feature point extraction methodology, and combining the feature point extraction with a process of border contour extraction and comparison. This combination of practices allows us to produce a collection of feature points for each image that define the boundaries of the objects represented in them rather than variations in surface texture. Our solution has already been implement in the EBBA cataloguing interface, and it will be implemented on the EBBA website in early 2014.
We continue to investigate and implement improvements (along lines identified during the start-up phase) to the image-based searching technology that specifically address its application for digital archives of print materials, to refactor the codebase as a distributable software package that can be easily implemented by other digital archives without advanced technical knowledge or experience, and to produce companion documentation to insure both success and ease of implementation by other archives. In its current form, the complete c++ codebase is publicly available via Git at https://bitbucket.org/cstahmer/archv/.
1.2. Methodology

Arch-V utilizes of novel combination of SURF feature point extraction of raw images, and feature point extraction of extracted contours from the base image set into order to create a Visual Dictionary of extant features.  Each image in the archive is then processed using the same extraction algorithms and a Visual Word File representing a normalized histogram of the features found in each image is then created for each image.  The Visual Word Files are then indexed using Lucene, which serves as the query engine for image comparison.
1.3 Scope of the Presentation

The proposed Short Paper will introduce the theoretical problems associated with performing visual searches of archives of print materials, give a short demonstration of the Arch-V software in action searching the over 9,000 images in the EBBA archive, and provide information on how users can Implement Arch-V in their own archives.
References

1. Reja Arandjelovic and Andrew Zisserman (2011). Smooth Object Retrieval using a Bag of Boundaries. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision. www.robots.ox.ac.uk/~vgg/publications/2011/Arandjelovic11/arandjelovic11.pdf.
","txt","2","",""
"1850","15","Automating the Search for Cross-language Text Reuse","9","Tesserae is a open-source, online tool for detecting allusions in Classical literature on an automated basis. Originally limited to Latin poetry, the corpus of texts available to Tesserae has recently expanded to include Greek poetry and drama. Word-level n-grams form the foundation of the existing detection algorithm: a standard search returns all instances wherein two words a phrase in a later text shares two words with a phrase in an earlier text. This method has been previously demonstrated to reliably capture intertextual parallels already noted by philologists and to identify significant, previously unrecorded intertexts.
The ability to detect allusions across the language barrier would represent an evolutionary expansion in Tesserae’s functionality as well as a significant contribution to Classical philology. Roman poets openly acknowledged their indebtedness to Greek literature (Horace famously remarked, “Greece, being conquered, tamed its wild conqueror, and brought the Arts to rustic Latium"") and scholarly studies of Latin poetry have long commented on allusions to earlier Greek sources. To apply the existing system where Latin text alludes to Greek, Tesserae requires a translation dictionary linking Greek lemmata to associated Latin lemmata. This paper details two methods for building such a dictionary on an automated basis and compares their relative merits as measured by their ability to capture parallels between book one of Vergil's Aeneid and the Iliad of Homer, as noted by G.N. Knauer in his commentary.
The first method represents an original application of Bayes' theorem to a word-by- word alignment of the Greek New Testament with Jerome's Latin Vulgate.

For a given Greek word Gi, the set of Greek Bible verses in which it appears is identified. The words contained in the Latin translation of these verses become the set of possible translation candidates L. For each Li, the set of possible Greek words G is gathered from the set of Greek verses corresponding to the Latin verses in which Li appears. P(Gi|Li) is represented by the number of words in set G which may share a lemma with Gi, divided by the total number of words in that set. The probability of Gi is represented by a similar calculation, where the set of all words within the Greek text is substituted for G. The value of P(Li) is analogous. The success of this relatively simple alignment algorithm as compared with more classical IBM Models or Hidden Markov Models may be explained by the grammatical similarity of these two inflected languages and importance placed by the translator in remaining precisely faithful to the syntax of the original text. 
The second method employs English as a pivot language, in a method inspired by work done previously by Jeffrey Rydberg-Cox at Perseus on Latin-Greek synonymy. Using the XML-encoded digital editions of Lewis and Short’s Latin-English Lexicon and Liddell and Scott’s Greek-English Lexicon, two dictionaries widely considered authoritative for Classical languages and available through the Perseus Digital Library, each Latin or Greek headword is characterized by a feature set composed of the English words appearing in its definition. The Python-based Gensim topic modelling tools are then used to transform the English word counts to TF-IDF weights and calculate similarities between the dictionary entries. The similarity scores between entries are then interpreted as similarities in meaning between the respective headwords. 
Each of the two methods described above produces pairwise similarities between all Greek and Latin words considered, with those pairings rated by a probability measure between 0 and 1. Because each Greek word may have more than one possible Latin translation, each method accepts the top two translation candidates as valid. 
The text of Homer’s Iliad is then indexed according to a feature set made up of Latin translation candidates. Each Greek token is lemmatized, and the token is then indexed according to all possible Latin translation candidates. Because lemmatization is unsupervised, ambiguous forms may have multiple possible Greek lemmata. Each possible Greek lemma will have two translation candidates if the respective translation method is successful, or zero if no translations are found. The text of Vergil’s Aeneid is indexed simply according to the possible Latin lemmata of each token. A given token in Vergil matches a token in Homer where one or more possible lemmata for the Latin word match against the set of translation candidates for the Greek word. A pair of phrases, one in Greek and the other in Latin, which share two or more words that match in this way, is returned as a possible allusion.
The two methods are evaluated by their ability to detect a subset of Aeneid-Iliad parallels collated from the commentary of G.N. Knauer. Each method retrieves a distinct, though partially overlapping, subset of the parallels noted by Knauer. Comparison of the respective performance of both methods suggests that, while each method can be shown to identify significant Latin-Greek allusions, the Bayesian alignment method provides better recall of the benchmark set than the 'pivot' method at the expense of precision. We ultimately aim to combine the output of both approaches into a single feature set.
References

Tesserae, tesserae.caset.buffalo.edu (Accessed on November 1, 2013).
Coffee, N. et. al (2012).: ""Intertextuality in the Digital Age."" Transactions of the American Philological Association, Volume 142, Number 2, Autumn 2012 pp. 383-422
Epistles, 2.1.156–7
G.N. Knauer (1964): ""Die Aeneis und Homer: Studien zur poetischen Technik Vergils mit Listen der Homerzitate in der Aeneis."" Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
Personal communication with author; tool archived at perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/PR/syn.ann.html
www.perseus.tufts.edu
radimrehurek.com/gensim","txt","2","",""
"1851","15","Beautiful lips and porcelain cheeks: extracting physical descriptions from recent Dutch fiction","10","1. Introduction

In literary analysis, description – as opposed to narration – has previously often been an underestimated part of fiction. Literary theorists such as Bal, Lopes and Nünning however have made a case for its relevance [1, 6, 8]. Lopes reviews how well-known theorists like Barthes have dismissed description as ‘extra’, irrelevant or stalling the plot; he counters these notions with the statement that “[d]escription and narration constitute the two most basic modes of structuring any prose fiction text” [6, p. 19]. How the plot is conveyed, is relevant for how a text is judged. Literary theorist Wells for instance argues that description is the distinguishing factor between quality literature and ‘simple’ chick-lit novels [15]. Indeed, research has shown that literary novels contain significantly more noun phrases and prepositional phrases than chick lit, indicating a larger amount of description [5]. In this paper, the first steps are taken of a larger project in which description in fiction is computationally analyzed, as opposed to the now popular computational analysis of narrative (see for instance 7). The preliminary question that we want to answer is: how (well) can we extract descriptions from fiction? This will be tested in the current paper by zooming in on a specific domain: the physical description of fictional characters.
2. Motivation

Descriptions of physical appearance are chosen as a test case as they are more likely to occur in a current-day novel than for instance landscape description. Moreover, main characters are often introduced in the first chapters. This makes it possible in case of manual tagging (which we have done) to tag only the first chapters of a novel. Finally, it would be an interesting feature for further literary interpretation. Connotations of beauty in folk tales have been researched [i.e. 14], but this has not yet been done for novels.
3. Method

The corpus of [5] is used, consisting of 32 novels of recent Dutch fiction, half chick-lit, half literary novels. Two of them were tagged from beginning to end for descriptions of physicality, including clothing. One is a literary novel, De schilder en het meisje (‘The painter and the girl’) by Margriet de Moor, the other chick lit, Zwaar verliefd (‘Heavily in Love’) by Chantal van Gastel. Bal defines description as “a textual fragment in which features are attributed to objects” [1, p. 36], a definition we will follow. We tagged full sentences that were either mainly concerned with physical appearance (example 1a, Van Gastel), mentioned a single feature (1b, De Moor) or somewhere in between. 
1a. Hij heeft mooie lippen. He has beautiful lips. 
1b. Door de rook heen keek hij naar de porseleinen wangen van mevrouw Cloeck[.]  Through the smoke he watched madam Cloeck’s porcelain cheeks[.] 
For the extraction, two approaches are compared: (1) manual development of lexical-linguistic patterns and (2) a Naive Bayes and an SVM classifier. For the former, because patterns were manually developed on the basis of two novels, the patterns were subsequently tested on the other 30 novels, each of which the first 500 sentences were manually tagged.
3.1 Lexical-linguistic patterns 

After an initial exploration of the two main novels’ tagged sentences, an approach was adopted of manually developing patterns to detect sentences containing description. Hearst uses similar patterns to harvest hyponyms [3]. Patterns consist of a combination of linguistic and lexical information, see example 2 below. A set of 13 patterns was written. The manual exploration showed that sentences containing physical descriptions, as opposed to sentences with no such descriptions, (a) contain more nouns and adjectives, (b) are regularly coupled with a few specific, static verbs, and (c) contain a couple of recurring base lexical-linguistic patterns, e.g., 'He was [a manNP] [[withPP] [brown eyesNP]]’. To perform extraction, the corpus was parsed with Dutch parser Alpino [2, 12]. Alpino parse trees provide rich linguistic annotations of sentences such as grammatical function of constituents. The trees can be queried with XPath, which was integrated in Van Cranenburgh's TreeSearch interface [5]. Linguistic information alone does not suffice however to target physical descriptions, so we used Cornetto, the Dutch WordNet [13], to expand a manually constructed lexicon of nouns and adjectives related to physical descriptions. The lists were cleaned to exclude words that were not relevant to the topic, resulting in a lexicon of almost 600 words. 
An example of a pattern translated to an xPath query is:
//node[@cat=""pp"" and @rel=""mod""]//node[%uiterlijkA%]/../node[%uiterlijkN% or %kleding%]
Example 2: This pattern searches for a modifying prepositional phrase which contains an adjective and a noun from the lexicon. 
3.2 Machine learning 

We cast the task of extracting physical descriptions as a text classification task in order to use machine learning methods. The task then becomes for a given text to automatically assign a class to it (in our case: physical description or no physical description). Usually, text classification is done on the document level. This means that for each document a corresponding class is predicted [10]. Algorithmic methods used for the classification task vary widely. Naive Bayes classification and Support Vector Machines (SVM) were used, two established straight-forward approaches to text classification [4, 9, 11]. We adapted these approaches to our task of classifying sentences. Each sentence was classified as either a description or not, in order to extract the descriptions. 
4. Results

4.1. Lexical-linguistic patterns

Precision, recall and F-measure were calculated for each pattern separately for the two main novels, for the test set of 30 novels, for a cumulative set of all pattern results, and for chick-lit versus literary novels; the most important results can be found in table 1. Sentences that were extracted more than once were calculated as one hit.
4.1. Lexical-linguistic patterns

   F-measure (%) Precision (%)  Recall (%) 
Test set-all novels   31 29  35 
Test set-litterature  25 29  22 
 Test set-chick lit  18  28  13 
 Main novels 16  24  12 
Table 1: Results for lexical-linguistic pattern-based extraction 
An unexpected outcome was that the results were much better for the 30 novels in the test set than for the two novels on the basis of which the patterns were developed; the percentage of descriptions might be higher in the first chapters. Another interesting result was the performance on literary novels, which was better than on chick lit. An explanation might be that in chick lit, sentences are shorter [see 5], more often elliptic (‘And his mouth… He has beautiful lips. Precisely full enough.’) and regularly discuss physicality through dialogue, for which it is hard to develop patterns. Generic patterns, containing little more than lexical information, achieved higher scores than more specific ones. The specific patterns did improve the cumulative outcome. Further research is needed, but an expansion of the lexicon might raise performance. 
4.2 Machine learning 

We trained our classifiers on the two annotated novels. The features selected as input for the classifiers are words weighted with tf.idf, for which we considered the sentences as documents and the novels as the collection of documents. Experiments were also performed for bigrams and part-of-speech tags, but the results were comparable to the results we report here. We performed ten-fold cross validation on the set of sentences from each novel and both novels combined. We found that Naive Bayes outperforms SVM for this task, as can be observed in Table 2.
   F-measure (%) Precision (%)  Recall (%) 
Both novels       
 Naive Bayes 60  57  62 
 SVM 58  59  58 
 Zwaar verlifd      
 Naive Bayes 62  61  64 
 SVM 57  59  56 
 De schilder en het meisje      
 Naive Bayes 58  55  62 
 SVM 52  53  51 
Table 2: Results for the Naive Bayes and SVM classifier 
Performance is considerably higher than that of the pattern-based approach. The skewedness of the class distribution (descriptions form only a small portion of a novel) makes this classification task a hard one, but overall this is a promising method. This machine learning approach can be regarded as a baseline: more sophisticated methods might yield better results.
5. Conclusion

A comparison of two methods for extracting sentences containing physical descriptions paints a clear picture: extracting such information is a complex matter but not impossible, and machine learning performs better than a manual-based approach. However, the main benefit of using the manual tagging and patterns is the insight they give in the form of the sentences that contain the sought-after descriptions, whereas the bag-of-words approach of the machine learning method is limited to finding features based on individual words. A possibility for future research is extension of the patterns and the lexicon to see if the results can be improved, but we prefer to pursue a bottom-up approach. A combination of the methods could be fruitful: using the patterns as features for machine learning. We could also explore descriptions on a different textual level; especially for the chick-lit novels, where use of ellipsis and dialogue confuses sentence extraction, larger fragments of texts should be analyzed. Targeted topic modeling might be useful for this purpose.
References

1. Bal, M. (2009). Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 
2. Bouma, G., Van Noord, G. and Malouf, R. (2001). Alpino: Wide-coverage computational analysis of Dutch. Language and Computers, 37(1). 45–59. 
3. Hearst, M.A. (1992). Automatic Acquisition of Hyponyms from Large Text Corpora. In Proceedings of the 14th Conference on Computational Linguistics, vol. 2 .539–545. 
4. Hearst, M.A., Dumais, S. T., Osman, E., Platt, J., and Scholkopf, B. (1998). Support vector machines. Intelligent Systems and their Applications, IEEE, 13(4). 18-28. 
5. Jautze, K., Koolen, C., Van Cranenburgh, A. and De Jong, H. (2013). From High Heels to Weed Attics: a Syntactic Investigation of Chick Lit and Literature. In Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Computational Linguistics for Literature. http://aclweb.org/anthology//W/W13/W13-1410.pdf. 
6. Lopes, J. M. (1995). Foregrounded Description in Prose Fiction: Five Cross-literary Studies. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 
7. Mani, I. (2013). Computational Narratology. In The Living Handbook of Narratology. Eds. Hühn, P., Schmid W. and Schönert, J. http://www.lhn.uni-hamburg.de. 
8. Nünning, A. (2007). Towards a Typology, Poetics and History of Description in Fiction. In Description in Literature and Other Media. Eds. Wolf W. and Bernhart W. Amsterdam, New York: Rodopi. 91–128. 
9. Rish, I. (2001). An empirical study of the naive Bayes classifier. In IJCAI 2001 workshop on empirical methods in artificial intelligence, 3(22). 41-46. 
10. Sebastiani, F. (2002). Machine learning in automated text categorization. In ACM computing surveys (CSUR), 34(1). 1-47. 
11. Steinwart, I. and Christmann, A. (2008). Support vector machines. New York: Springer. 
12. Van Noord, G. (2006). At last parsing is now operational. In TALN06. Verbum Ex Machina. Actes de la 13e conference sur le traitement automatique des langues naturelles. 20–42. 
13. Vossen, P., Hofmann, K., De Rijke, M., Tjong Kim Sang, E., and Deschacht, K. (2007). The Cornetto Database: Architecture and User-scenarios. In Proceedings of the Dutch-Belgian Information Retrieval Workshop. 89–96. 
14. Weingart, S. and Jorgensen, J. (2012). Computational Analysis of the Body in European Fairy Tales. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 28(4). 
15. Wells, Juliette. (2005). Mothers of Chick Lit? Women Writers, Readers, and Literary History. In Chick Lit: The New Woman’s Fiction. Eds. Ferriss S. and Young, M. New York: Routledge. 45–70. 
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"1852","15","Beslan and the disappearance of opinion","9","Introduction

1.1. Overview

In this paper I use topic models to identify the most common discourses used by Russian newspapesr to discuss Russia’s relations with the North Caucasus region. I then use grammatical features of news texts to identify three styles or genres of news report. Pro-Kremlin texts about Chechnya are overwhelmingly factual  news reports; oppositional texts tend to be analytical or emotional. Using the example of Beslan I show that this divergence coincided increased political control over Russian news media
1.2. Methodology

'Some themes are endemic to particular nations or to particular author genders; other themes cross both geographic boundaries and gender lines' 
-- Matthew Jockers, Macroanalysis (2013, p. 146)
Jockers, writing about how topic modelling can be used in literary studies, argues the digital humanities can tackle big questions, such as how linguistic style and topic selection varies depending on nationality and gender. My research achieves this goal by comparing how thematic and grammatical preferences vary depending on the political orientation of Russian media sources. Most broadly I explore the hallmarks of Russian oppositional and pro-Kremlin discourse, and more specifically I trace how symbols and historical events are mobilised as part of political debates within a database of 1 million news articles.
I use topic models to identify the most common discourses used to express Russia’s relations with the North Caucasus region. I then use grammatical features of news texts to identify three styles or genres of news report (factual, analytical, opinionated), and show that coverage of the Caucasus is divided more strongly along generic lines than by subject matter.
2. Getting Started

Texts about Chechnia and/or legal cases involving Chechens in pro-Kremlin papers are overwhelmingly news reports, while in oppositional texts they tend to be more analytical. The distribution of texts in different genres and across papers is strongly specific to texts about the Caucasus region. The use of a factual register with a high density of nouns may in some cases function as a cover or device for ignoring and overlooking sensitive issues.
While the pro-Kremlin newspapers spoke of the Beslan incident within a narrative of international terrorism, the opposition framed Beslan within a narrative of official incompetence and cruelty. A feature of opposition texts generally, and exhibited in particular by the case of Beslan, is that some news stories almost become symbolic as they extend their shelf-life beyond that of the mainstream media. In the case of Beslan, oppositional longevity was made especially clear due to editorial changes in Izvestiia, where, under stricter political control, coverage of Beslan did not only virtually cease, it also changed dramatically in tone. 
In September 2004, Raf Shakirov, editor of Izvestiia was dismissed from his position. Shakirov, though never an oppositional figure, did at times allow critical material to be printed, and according to a number of sources Izvestiia’s graphic coverage of suffering caused as the security services lifted the siege at Beslan was the final drop.According to a source cited by Polit.ru, Shakirov was dismissed due to publishing necrophilic content (pictures of dead and wounded children) (Polit.ru, 2004). Whether or not the pictures were in poor taste, they certainly portrayed human tragedy with great immediacy and pathos, an aspect that was notably absent from pro-Kremlin coverage of Beslan, and one which, following Shakirov’s dismissal, was notably absent from Pro-Kremlin papers. In June 2005, Gazprom-media bought Izvestiia from Prof Media, and in November 2005 Vladimir Mamontov, was made Editor in Chief. In April 2006 control over Izvestiia was made more overt when Il’ia Kiselev, formerly head of United Russia’s Press Centre was made deputy editor of Izvestiia. Kiselev and Mamontov brought rapid change to Izvestiia: now the newspaper printed a larger number of shorter, more opinionated texts. Coverage of the after effects of Beslan, though, moved in the opposite direction: it became dry and factual. 

noun density over time, colour coded according to genre: news articles (2), analyses (1a) and opinion pieces (1b). Izvestiia is the middle plot on the top row.
All newspapers printed fewer articles as the story lost news value, but all publications except Izvestiia maintained a relatively constant tone. I present illustrations showing how Izvestiia’s tone changed, and how this pattern was repeated for related subject matter. Compared to each newspaper’s average publication patterns, the two oppositional newspapers printed a relatively larger amount of opinion pieces and analyses and virtually no ‘plain’ news reports. 

The two more oppositional papers, Novaia Gazeta and Gazeta.ru are on the right-hand side.
I use Euclidean distance of genre ratios to calculate which subjects are covered most similarly to the pattern above. These tended to be about one of three subjects: Chechnya, legal cases, or opposition politicians. Articles about Chechens generally (but not Chechnya, the Republic) follow this pattern, as do texts about Shamil Basaev, the Chechen militant who claimed responsibility for taking the hostages, Aleksandr Dzasokhov, the president of Northern Ossetia who resigned as a consequence of the incident, and [Aslambek] Aslakhanov and Ruslan Aushev – State Duma deputy from Chechnya 2000-2003  and president of Ingushetia from 1993 to 2003 respectively – who were sent to negotiate with the terrorists.  Additionally Nur-Pashi Kulaev (the single surviving hostage taker at Beslan and subsequently sentenced to life imprisonment in December 2006), Ruslan Gelaiev (Chechen separatist leader, killed leading a raid in Dagestan in 2004), Alkhan Khala (A Chechen village and insurgent stronghold, ‘cleansed’ by the Russian army during 2001) all feature amongst the top twenty most similar subjects.
Very few pro-Kremlin texts explicitly set out to portray Chechens as terrorists and nie-liudi (inhuman). Instead there is a systematic tendency to cover these incidents with a news genre that by its nature obscures the humans behind the story and in a style where the content is easily forgotten. 
References

Jockers, M. (2013). Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History. University of Illinois Press.
Yablokova, O. (2004, September). Izvestia Editor Resigns Over Beslan Coverage. The Moscow Times. Retrieved from www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/izvestia-editor-resigns-over-beslan-coverage/228529.html
Polit.ru. (2004). Rafa Shakirova uvolili za “nekrofiliiu”. polit.ru. Retrieved from www.polit.ru/news/2004/09/06/izv/
R Manual: stat.ethz.ch/R-manual/R-patched/library/stats/html/dist.html
","txt","2","",""
"1853","15","Beyond Style: Literary Capitalism and the Publishing Industry","10","1. Reinvention of the Publishing Industry

Having developed his commercial expertise as an advertising executive, James Patterson went on to forge a publishing empire that, according Forbes, earns him in the region of $91 million each year.1 Leaving his position as an adman to become a full-time writer in 1996,2 a decade later his work had already grossed $1 billion.3 To date, his name has appeared on over 100 books that have sold a combined 300 million copies.4 Patterson is the driving force behind the approach to marketing that has allowed him to overtake his competitors at the top of the bestseller lists, from dictating the advertising campaigns for his titles, to the manner by which they are distributed.5 Patterson’s method is described as “a literary assembly line”,6 an observation which he seemingly embraces: “I look at it the way Henry Ford would look at it,” is his response to criticisms of his approach.7 His vision is such that Little, Brown, Patterson’s publisher, has restructured its organisation in an effort to meet the author’s requirements. In a lengthy piece for The New York Times, Jonathan Mahler quotes former Little, Brown publisher, Sarah Crichton: “To have one writer really start needing, and even demanding, the lion’s share of energy and attention was difficult. There were times when some of us resented that. When Jim felt that resentment, he roared back. And he was too powerful to ignore.”8 In his case study of Patterson’s marketing methods, John Deighton outlines how the author commissioned his own studies in an effort to identify what potential readers want from a novel, so that he could deliver his titles to the widest possible audience: “The Little, Brown publishing group recognized that Patterson was a most unusual author, one who could teach them a lot about selling.”9 Patterson is, according to Time-Warner Publishing’s Larry Kirshbaum, “the first real brand-managed author”.10 
As a reader himself, critically acclaimed writers such as James Joyce and Gabriel García Márquez are amongst Patterson’s preferred authors.11 Patterson admits that there is a distinction between the aforementioned literary works and his novels: ""These books are entertainments. It's a very different process than if you're trying to write Moby-Dick, or The Corrections. That's painful. That's different from very simple, plot-oriented storytelling.""12 Patterson is frequently criticised for his approach, but writing in the fashion of Joyce or Marquez, is a task which he suggests is beyond his ability as an author: “After reading Ulysses, I knew I couldn’t write anything that great. I don’t have it in me.”13 Thus, producing a high volume of entertaining novels has been his objective.
2. Patterson's Collaborative Process

To achieve the prolific output that we see today, Patterson enlists the support of numerous collaborators: “It was Patterson who first showed that television advertising could work for books. More radically, he has demonstrated that working with co‑writers can dramatically multiply sales.”14 Patterson sees little difference between his approach to collaborative writing and those practices that have long been central to other sectors within the culture industry: “It isn’t terribly groundbreaking … The newspaper business, the movie business—they’re full of teams. A lot of art was done by teams …”15 “My short answer to the question as to why work with other people is Gilbert and Sullivan, Rodgers and Hammerstein, Woodward and Bernstein, Lennon and McCartney and it goes on,” he offered in The Guardian.
Patterson is quite forthright when detailing his collaborative process: “I’ll write an elaborate outline, maybe 70 pages, very detailed, clear, and focused. The co-author will write the first draft, and I’ll see the work every few weeks. I’ll do two to seven more drafts.”16 Described as “a natural born writer”, many of Patterson’s collaborators have used the opportunity as a platform from which to launch their solo careers.17 Gaby Wood comments in The Guardian that the sentences in Patterson’s novel “are not designed to be lingered over”, “[t]hey are more or less all plot”.18 But, while it seems that Patterson revises each chapter as they are drafted, as well as making all of the final revisions alone,19 the extent to which he contributes authorial material directly, in terms of writing, remains unclear. Patterson has stated that his “name on the cover is the assurance of a good read”20 – using computational methods central to Digital Humanities scholarship, this paper seeks to determine the volume of writing that Patterson contributes before offering such an assurance.
3. Methodology & Results

We evaluated the relative contributions of Patterson and his collaborators using versions of Burrow’s Delta, a widely-used lexical measure for English texts.21 We selected the collaborators Peter de Jonge and Andrew Gross for this investigation. Patterson, by his own account, allocates most of the actual writing to his junior partners. It was in such a respect that we formed the working hypothesis that the collaborative works would be stylometrically more similar to texts written primarily by Patterson’s co-authors, than to any of the novels attributed to Patterson alone. We expected the lexical features that we employed to pick out the primary writer. This would correlate with much of the field's existing research, for instance by Patrick Juola,22 who suggests that, in attempted forgeries, the lexical signature of the forger overrides the semantic content which might associate it with the impersonated party. However, this is not a foregone conclusion. Jan Rybicki has demonstrated that in literary translations, the original authorial signals dominate that of the translator when using Burrow’s Delta cluster analysis. In other words, the semantic imprint survives the translation process although all of the lexical features examined are written by the translator.23 Our second hypothesis was that, given the former, Patterson’s contribution would be strongest at critical moments in the text. Given the plot-driven genre, we believed that these would typically be present at the beginning and end of the novels.
To test our first hypothesis, we employ a ""bootstrap consensus tree"" cluster analysis over maximum frequency words ranging from 100 to 1000, in intervals of 100, with the Burrow’s Delta metric, using the ""stylo"" package for R.24 25 We avail of a consensus strength of 0.5, meaning that we formed a tree showing proximity wherever this occurred in 50% or more of the 10 maximum frequency clusterings described.26 27 For our second hypothesis, we use the Rolling Delta technique.28 2930 31 To provide a general intuitive description of this method, Burrow’s Delta distances are measured between the collaborative text and single-author texts for each participating author. However, distances are measured to ""windows"" of the collaborative text, allowing for estimation as to which sections carry the stylistic fingerprint of one contributor over another. Sample single-author tests are then plotted over the baseline of the collaborative text, where greater proximity to the baseline indicates greater stylistic similarity, as defined by the delta distance metric.
In this paper, we examine the following collaborative texts:
Patterson & De Jonge:
Beach House (2003)
Beach Road (2006)
Patterson & Gross:
2nd Chance (2002)
3rd Degree (2004)
Judge and Jury (2006)
Our solo texts, by author, are as follows:
DeJonge:
Shadows Still Remain (2009)
Buried On Avenue B (2012)
Gross:
The Dark Tide (2008)
Don't Look Twice (2009)
Killing Hour (2011)
15 Seconds (2012)
No Way Back (2013)
For Patterson, we used this fixed set of nine solo works:
First to Die (2001)
Four Blind Mice (2002)
The Lake House (2003)
London Bridges (2004)
Maximum Ride: The Angel Experiment (2005)
Maximum Ride: Saving The World And Other Extreme Sports (2007)
I, Alex Cross (2009)
Fang (2010)
Nevermore (2012)
The following visualisation displays our bootstrap consensus tree over the entire dataset:

Fig. 1: Boostrap consensus tree
As predicted, the collaborative works all cluster with the respective junior writer. Within both the De Jonge and Gross clusters, the collaborative works form a distinct sub-cluster. Within the Patterson cluster, the Maximum Ride series of novels are separated from another cluster consisting of Alex Cross novels and the Patterson novel, The Lake House. One surprise result is that First to Die, a solo Patterson text, is clustered with the subsequent works in the Women’s Murder Clubseries, which he wrote with Andrew Gross. This could simply represent a limitation of the delta metric over these texts, or alternatively, it could indicate that Gross was so influenced by the particular style that Patterson manifested in this work that he imitated it more exactly than Patterson managed in any of the other works under examination. We discount a third possibility, that the new collaborative series, Women’s Murder Club, opened with a solo Patterson work to kick-start sales. While such an interpretation would align with the marketing ingenuity of both Patterson and Gross, it is without sufficient empirical foundation.
Our full study comprised rolling deltas for all collaborative texts, under a number of different setting. For the purpose of this abstract we include just two rolling delta studies, First to Die and its sequel in the series, Second Chance, respectively, both with pronouns deleted from an initial most frequent word count of 1,000:

Fig. 2: Rolling Delta analysis

Fig. 3: Rolling Delta analysis
For Second Chance, Gross’ texts are closest throughout, apart from First to Die, which, as we have already discussed, is attributed solely to Patterson. The model in First to Die is more interesting as the work appears like a true collaboration in which the authors have shared the task of writing passages or sentences with Patterson intervening at critical junctures.
4. Conclusions

The quantitative data suggests that Patterson’s collaborators perform the vast majority of the actual writing. Therefore it seems that, unlike translation, the semantic signal from Patterson is dominated by the lexical signal of the other writer. We think the explanation for this difference is the density of the semantic message in each case – when implementing the outline of a general plot, there is more freedom for sentence and passage construction.
A full stylometric study of Patterson would also need to measure his contribution to the abstract entity called the plot  in the works under examination. As Patterson says: “above all my brand stands for story. I became successful when I stopped writing sentences and started writing stories. Editors think it's about style. It's not. It's all story”.32 On the one hand, we note that for Patterson, this is just as well, since our analysis shows that his stylometric fingerprint is sometimes weak, even in his solo works. On the other hand, we recall Aristotle also believed, in his analysis of tragedy, that plot (μῦθος) - the “arrangement of the incidents (ἡτῶνπραγμάτωνσύστασις)” is the most important element of the work.33
In the Arcades Project, Walter Benjamin collects several references to writers who brought industrial methods of production to bear upon the process of literary creation in 19th Century France. While the 19th Century “witnessed an institutionalization of the split between technology and art to a degree previously unknown in history”.34 Benjamin pays particular attention to those who found new ways of conjoining the two, such as Eugene Scribe, popularizer of the “well made play (piece bien faite)”, and Alexandre Dumas, who both industrialised the writing process. Dumas was contemporaneously described as running a “factory of novels,”35 and, like Patterson, simultaneously worked on multiple novels, with an output of 400 novels and 35 dramas in 20 years.36 Lucas-Dubreton recounts how accusations of plagiary by one De Mirecourt’s eventually led to Dumas publicly recognising his co-authors, and arranging better terms of payment for them.37  In language which foreshadows the descriptions of Patterson as a “brand-managed” author, Lucas-Dubreton caricatures the allegations against Dumas thus: “Dumas did not exist at all, he was only a myth, a trademark invented by a syndicate of editors to dupe the public”.38
Patterson and Dumas employ modes of authorial production which echo the economic advancements of their times. Unlike Dumas, Patterson has never been questioned in relation to his collaborative process, and such anomalies as we have detected probably indicate most of all the immaturity of stylometry as a method. Regardless, it seems Patterson, an epitome of benign capitalism, has offered sufficient accreditation, tutelage and financial reward for those who work for him.
In this paper, we will discuss our analysis in the context of these publishing practices, both new and old, and how literary collaborations might be approached from a stylometric perspective, using Patterson and his reinvention of the industry as a useful test case.
References

1. Bercovici, Jeff.The World’s Top-Earning Authors: With ‘50 Shades,’ E.L. James Debuts At No. 1. Forbes. Web. 6 Oct. 2013.
2. Mahler, Jonathan. (2010) James Patterson Inc. The New York Times 24 Jan 2010. NYTimes.com. Web. 14 Aug. 2013.
3. Wroe, Nicholas. (2013) James Patterson: a Life in Writing. The Guardian. 11 May 2013. Web. 19 Aug. 2013
4. Wroe, Nicholas. (2013)James Patterson: a Life in Writing. The Guardian. 11 May 2013. Web. 19 Aug. 2013
5. Mahler, Jonathan. (2013) James Patterson Inc. The New York Times 24 Jan. 2010. NYTimes.com. Web. 14 Aug. 2013
6. Deighton, John. (2006) Marketing James Patterson. Case Study. Boston. Harvard Business Publishing. Web. 24 August 2013. pp 4.
7. Deighton, John. (2006) Marketing James Patterson. Case Study. Boston. Harvard Business Publishing. Web. 24 August 2013. pp 1.
8. Mahler, Jonathan. (2010) James Patterson Inc. The New York Times 24 Jan. 2010. NYTimes.com. Web. 14 Aug. 2013
9. Deighton, John. (2006) Marketing James Patterson. Case Study. Boston. Harvard Business Publishing. Web. 24 August 2013. pp 5.
10. Deighton, John. (2006) Marketing James Patterson. Case Study. Boston. Harvard Business Publishing. Web. 24 August 2013. pp 5.
11. Mahler, Jonathan. (2010) James Patterson Inc. The New York Times 24 Jan 2010. NYTimes.com. Web. 14 Aug. 2013.
12. Flood, Alison. (2010) James Patterson Brings in $70m to Become World’s Highest-earning Author. The Guardian, 20 august 2010. Web. 17 Aug. 2013.
13. Patterson, James. (2012) Life’s Work: James Patterson. Harvard Business Review. Web.
14. Wroe, Nicholas. (2013) James Patterson: a Life in Writing. The Guardian. 11 May 2013. Web. 19 Aug.
15. Patterson, James. (2012) Life’s Work: James Patterson. Harvard Business Review. Web.
16. Patterson, James. (2012) Life’s Work: James Patterson. Harvard Business Review. Web.
17. Belena, Ruth. (2013) How James Patterson Has Launched the Careers of His Co-authors. Helium. 5 June 2013. Web. 16 Aug. 2013.
18. Wood, Gaby. (2009) The World’s No 1 Bestseller. The Guardian. 5 Apr. 2009. Web. 17 Aug. 2013.
19. Belena, Ruth. (2013) How James Patterson Has Launched the Careers of His Co-authors. Helium. 5 June 2013. Web. 16 Aug. 2013.
20. Deighton, John.Marketing James Patterson. Case Study. Boston. Harvard Business Publishing, 2006. Web. 24 August 2013. pp 2.
21. Burrows, J. F. (2002) Delta: A Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. Literary and Linguistic Computing 17: 267-87
22. see e.g. Juola, Patrick. (2013) Stylometric Report Heartland Institute Memo, retrieved from wattsupwiththat.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/memoreport.pdf 18th October 2013.
23. Rybicki J (2012) The great mystery of the (almost) invisible translator: stylometry in translation. In: Oakes M, Ji M, editors. Quantitative Methods in Corpus-Based Translation Studies. Amsterdam: John Benjamin.
24. Eder, M., and J. Rybicki. (2011) Do Birds of a Feather Really Flock Together, or How to Choose Test Samples for Authorship Attribution. Stanford: Digital Humanities.
25. Eder, Maciej, Mike Kestemont and Jan Rybicki. (2013) Stylometry with R: a suite of tools. Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts. University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln. pp. 487-89.
26. Wilkinson (1996), M. Majority-rule reduced consensus trees and their use in bootstrapping. Molecular Biology and Evolution 13(3):437-44.
27. Paradis, E. and Claude, J. and Strimmer K (2004) APE: analyses of phylogenetics and evolution in R Bioinformatics 20 (2): 289-290.
28. Rybicki, Jan, Mike Kestemont and David Hoover. (2013) Collaborative authorship: Conrad, Ford and rolling Delta. Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts. University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln. pp 368-71.
29. Rybicki, J., Kestemont, M. and Hoover D. (2013). Collaborative authorship: Conrad, Ford and rolling delta. In: ""Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts. University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, pp. 368-71.
30. Hoover, D. (2011). The Tutor's Story: a case study of mixed authorship. In: ""Digital Humanities 2011: Conference Abstracts"". Stanford University, Stanford, CA, pp. 149-51.
31. Dalen-Oskam, K. van and Zundert, J. van (2007). Delta for Middle Dutch: author and copyist distinction in Walewein. Literary and Linguistic Computing"", 22(3): 345-62.
32. Deighton, John. (2006) Marketing James Patterson. Case Study. Boston. Harvard Business Publishing. Web. 24 August 2013. pp 5.
33. Aristotle (1932). Poetics 1450a. Trans. W.H. Fyfe. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. From www.perseus.tufts.edu. Web 16 October 2013.
34. Buck-Morss, Susan. (1993) The Dialectics of Seeing. Baskerville VA: MIT Press. pp. 126.
35. de Mirecourt, Eugene.Alexandre Dumas (1845) & Co. Factory of Novels. Cited in Benjamin, Walter. The Arcades Project. Trans. Eiland and McLaughlin. (2003) Harvard University Press [d3a,8] p. 749.
36. Benjamin, Walter.The Arcades Project. Trans. Eiland and McLaughlin. Harvard University Press (2003): [d4,2] p. 751-752. See also Buck-Morss, Susan.The Dialectics of Seeing. Baskerville VA: MIT Press (1993) especially pp. 136-142.
37. Lucas-Dubreton, Jean. The Fourth Musketeer: The Life of Alexander Dumas. Trans. Maida Castelhun Darnton. N. p. Web. 24 Oct. 2013
38. Lucas-Dubreton, Jean.The Fourth Musketeer: The Life of Alexander Dumas. Trans. Maida Castelhun Darnton. N. p. Web. 24 Oct. 2013. See also Benjamin, Walter. The Arcades Project. Trans. Eiland and McLaughlin. (2003) Harvard University Press: [P3a,3] p. 523.
","txt","2","",""
"1854","15","Beyond the Tool : A Reflexive Analysis on Building Things in Digital Humanities","9","The goal of this paper is to present some reflections about the process of building things in Digital Humanities. It is based on our own experience in developing an analytic tool to study Internet Relay Chat (IRC) conversations within hacker and free and open source software communities. 
Questions have been raised recently about the epistemology of building and of built artifacts within Digital Humanities. Following Lev Manovich's provocative statement that a “prototype is a theory”, Ramsay and Rockwell have argued that the activity of building a digital prototype should be “capable of providing affordances as rich and provocative as that of writing” (Ramsay and Rockwell 2012, 83). Galey and Ruecker (2010), for their part, propose that the prototype should be received as conveying an argument, as would a book or article, and be evaluated as such. These reflections are interesting in that they propose to go beyond the mere building of a tool to a thinking about things and the building process as valid scholarly contribution. We would like to pursue this line of reasoning but instead of arguing the epistemological validity of tool, we propose to consider the very building process as a methodological and ethnographically-oriented opportunity to reflect on the studied material and the design process. In a sense, we follow Phil Agre's approach, recently re-mobilized by Software Studies theorist Warren Sack (Forthcoming), in pursuing “a technical practice for which critical reflection upon the practice is part of the practice itself” (Agre 1997, xii).
The tool we will present, IRCMine1, was developed in the first part of 2013, within a wider context concerned with data mining conversations and interactions in hackers communities (such as free and open source software and Anonymous). Indeed, although many tools were developed (or are still being developed) to study different aspects of free and open source software online communities – tools for the analysis of mailing list, bug trackers or repository commits  – the analysis of conversations from IRC logs remains neglected. It is still more important to look at this, since IRC is being used increasingly within free software communities, as an open, synchronous, group conversation protocol. Moreover, IRC is a tool of choice for many hacktivist groups such as Anonymous that coordinate their action in this space (Coleman, 2013).

We propose three axes of reflexive exploration about our experience in building the prototype: 
1) Reflection about the studied material. The first axis of reflexive analysis concerns the material, and especially the format of the log files. Our design practices brought us to consider more closely the log files format and the form interactions held in IRC channels. For instance, what could be considered as a conversation in IRC files? Considering the close imbrications between metadata and messages (content), do we consider IRC files as a text? Also, the very choice of looking at IRC conversations – instead of mailing lists or commit logs – can also be reflected upon, since it was justified by the need to look at a less visible space of interactions. In a sense, choosing to give visibility to this space was also a choice about giving visibility to some kind of work over others (Star and Strauss 1999).
2) Ethical aspects of designing the interface. A second set of concerns is  related to ethical concerns, such as having a balance between ease of use and keeping the confidentiality of the studied data. Indeed, most of the time, IRC logs are not available publicly and can only be collected by the researcher, thus posing questions about confidentiality of the data. This presented some important conceptual and technical challenges since we decided to develop a web-based tool (JavaScript, HTML, etc.), thus relying on the web browser to execute the code. Although it could be easy for a technical person to install this code on a local machine and ensure the security, how do we design an interface so that users can trust that the data being analyzed will stay confidential? How do we balance usability and performance on one hand, and security on the other? This axis of reflexive thinking is similar to the proposal of a value sensitive design where attention to values and ethical concerns are integrated in the very process of design (Friedman, Kahn, and Borning 2002; Le Dantec, Poole, and Wyche 2009).
3) Reflection on our design (and coding) practice. This was interesting since one member of our team (Couture) did his thesis on source code, and coding. The project allowed him to experience the actual coding practices (after a long hiatus of coding), especially related to modularity and the circulation of code objects. Although at the start the programming was done in a very ad-hoc manner, it soon became important to modularize the source code and have some consensus on programming standards and the organization of the files. In a way, the organization of source code was articulated to reflect the organization of our collective work. Our coding practice also allowed us to investigate and better understand the different technological resources available to – and often used by – free software coders and other programmers. It would, for instance, allow us to better understand the dynamics around the GitHub Platform, something that has already received some attention by scholars in social science (Takhteyev and Hilts 2010). 
This paper will summarize the problematic as well as our objectives in the development of this tool. However, we propose to concentrate most of our presentation on a reflexive analysis of our own design activity in the development of this tool.
References

Agre, P. E. (1997). Computation and Human Experience (Learning in Doing: Social, Cognitive and Computational Perspectives). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Coleman, G. (2013). “Anonymous in Context: The Politics and Power Behind the Mask”. Paper No. 3. Internet Governance Papers. http://www.cigionline.org/sites/default/files/no3_7.pdf.
Friedman, B., P. H. Jr. Kahn, and A. Borning. (2002). “Value Sensitive Design: Theory and Methods”, UW CSE Tech. Rep. 02-12-01. http://www.urbansim.org/pub/Research/ResearchPapers/vsd-theory-methods-tr.pdf. 
Galey, A., and S. Ruecker. (2010). “How a Prototype Argues.”Literary and Linguistic Computing 25 (4) (October 27): 405–424. doi:10.1093/llc/fqq021. http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2010/10/26/llc.fqq021.full.pdf+html.
Le Dantec, C. A, E. S Poole, and S. P Wyche. (2009). “Values as Lived Experience: Evolving Value Sensitive Design in Support of Value Discovery.” In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1141–1150.
Ramsay, S., and G. Rockwell. (2012). “Developing Things: Notes Toward an Epistemology of Building in the Digital Humanities.” In Debates in the Digital Humanities, edited by Matthew K. Gold. Minneapolis: University Of Minnesota Press.
Sack, W.. Forthcoming. The Software Arts.
Star, S. L., and A. Strauss. (1999). “Layers of Silence, Arenas of Voice: The Ecology of Visible and Invisible Work.”Computer Supported Cooperative Work 8 (1-2): 9–30. http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=309448.
Takhteyev, Y., and A. Hilts. (2010). Investigating the Geography of Open Source Software through GitHub. University of Toronto. http://takhteyev.org/papers/Takhteyev-Hilts-2010.pdf.
","txt","2","",""
"1855","15","BFM Collection - Open-Source Digital Editions of Medieval French Texts","9","1. Introduction

The project of the BFM collection of digital edition was born as a result of over 20 years of developing a large corpus of medieval French texts for research purposes. This corpus called Base de français médiéval (BFM, http://txm.bfm-corpus.org) currently includes over 130 texts, totalling approximately 4.7 million of words. The essential part of the corpus is composed of digitized paper scholarly editions selected for their philological quality. Digitizing paper editions was the only way to build a substantial corpus in a relatively short time and with limited funding. However there are serious copyright issues related to printed editions, as publishers tend to require exclusive rights on the books they print, and they are often reluctant to authorize digitization and re-use of the data in text corpora. Before 2000, publishing contracts rarely included explicit clause on digital distribution, so it can be argued that scholarly editors (or their heirs) still hold copyright for this medium, but more recent contracts include long lists of digital products and distribution modes. Even though possibilities for open-licensed publishing on the web exist, scholars have to give up all their rights if they want to publish their works in a prestigious collection recognized by the academic community. The BFM team aims at providing scholars with a possibility to publish medieval French texts under an open license (like CC BY-SA) in a collection with editorial quality guaranteed by the expertise of the reading committee including leading specialists in medieval French language and literature, in text editing techniques and in digital philology.
2. Editing principles

In addition to the open licensing, the BFM collection marks itself out by innovative editing principles. These principles have been elaborated in the project of the Queste del saint Graal digital edition1 and include a multi-layer transcription of primary sources (at least normalized and diplomatic), particular attention to punctuation and word segmentation, careful and clearly marked correction of scribal errors, linguistic annotation (part-of-speech and direct speech tagging). The ""bedierist"" method of the ""best witness"" is generally applied, but transcriptions of additional aligned witnesses are encouraged.  Whenever possible, an edition should include a digital facsimile of the primary source which allows verifying the quality of the transcription. The presence of a modern French translation is optional but may be very useful to increase the range of potential readers and uses. All these principles are described in detail in the Introduction to the Queste del saint Graal edition and most of them were presented and discussed at the International Congress of Romance Linguistics and Philology (CILPR) in 20132.
3. Workflow and publication platform

At the first stages of the editing process text editors like Microsoft Word or Libre Office Writer may be used for the convenience of scholarly editors. A small number of special characters and character or paragraph styles are defined to facilitate future processing. For instance, a hash symbol before a letter indicates that a small letter from the primary source should be capitalized in the normalized transcription. Once the primary editing complete, the text is converted to XML-TEI, which is the pivot format for all markup and editorial products in the BFM collection.The BFM corpus preparation chain automatic tools for tokenization, morphosyntactic annotation and direct speech markup. Whenever possible, the morphosyntactic annotation is verified by experts, as the automatic tagging of Old French produces inevitably a certain number of errors due to the high level of orthographic and morphological variation.
The BFM web portal built on the TXM platform3 will be used to publish the collection on the web. The advantage of this portal is that it combines the possibility to render the edition in a convenient form for reading (including parallel browsing of multiple transcription layers, digital facsimile and translation) with powerful tools for qualitative and quantitative text analysis (including frequency lists, KWIC concordances, specificity, factorial analysis, etc.). The editions of the BFM collection will be included in the BFM main corpus, and the BFM registered users will benefit from additional services, such as creating a subcorpus or recording queries. However, the possibility to read the text and to download XML-TEI source files or a PDF printable version will be provided without registration requirement.
4. Current state of the project

The edition of the Queste del saint Graal is currently complete from the philological point of view (although additional manuscript transcriptions will probably be produced in the future). All the major components of this edition (multiple layer transcriptions, modern French translation, manuscript images, introduction, proper name index and glossary) are available on the BFM portal (http://txm.bfm-corpus.org) through a special ""GRAAL"" corpus. However, a more convenient interface for browsing the edition and for direct access to its components is still under development.
More editions are being prepared at a more or less advanced stage. These include the Psautier d'Arundel (edited by C. Pignatelli and A. Lavrentiev)4, the Vie de saint Alexis (edited by C. Marchello-Nizia and T. Rainsford) and the first French texts, Serments de Strasbourg and Séquence de sainte Eulalie (edited by C. Guillot, A. Lavrentiev, C. Marchello-Nizia and T. Rainsford). All these editions should be published in 2014.
References

1. Marchello-Nizia, Ch. and Lavrentiev, A. (ed.) (2009-2013). La queste del saint Graal. Édition numérique interactive du manuscrit Lyon (BM P.A. 77). Lyon: ENS de Lyon. txm.bfm-corpus.org/txm (accessed 31 October 2013).
2. Guillot, C., Lavrentiev, A., Rainsford, T., Marchello-Nizia, C., Heiden, S. (2013). La ""philologie numérique"": tentative de définition d'un nouvel objet éditorial. Lemaréchal, A., Koch, P., Swiggers, P. (ed.). Actes du XXVIIe Congrès international de linguistique et de philologie romanes (Nancy, 15-20 juillet 2013). Section 13: Philologie textuelle et éditoriale. Nancy: ATILF. halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00846767
3. Serge Heiden, (2010). The TXM Platform: Building Open-Source Textual Analysis Software Compatible with the TEI Encoding Scheme. Proceedings of the 24th Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information and Computation, Institute for Digital Enhancement of Co
4. Pignatelli, C., Lavrentiev, A. (2013). Le Psautier d'Arundel : une nouvelle édition. Lemaréchal, A., Koch, P., Swiggers, P. (ed.). Actes du XXVIIe Congrès international de linguistique et de philologie romanes (Nancy, 15-20 juillet 2013). Section 13: Philologie textuelle et éditoriale. Nancy: ATILF. halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00846770","txt","2","",""
"1856","15","Big Data and the Literary Archive: Topic Modeling the Watson-McLuhan Correspondence","2","Introduction

The world of Big Data has introduced humanist scholars to new and relatively unfamiliar data-handling techniques such as data mining, graph visualizations, document clustering, and topic modeling. Topic modeling techniques “are statistical methods that analyze the words of the original texts to discover the themes that run through them, how those themes are connected to each other, and how they change over time.”1 This paper examines how one digital humanities project—the digitization of a literary archive—is using topic modeling in order to help users browse and discover the contents of the archive.
Background and Methodology

Topic models have been commonly used to classify documents 23 or to cluster tagged artifacts 4; however, researchers are increasingly using topic modeling as a way to allow users to browse and search large corpora, often through data visualizations. 567 Traditional search techniques often fail with large corpora because, as one researcher puts it, ""users may not be familiar with the vocabulary that defines the topics of their interest, or simply they may wish to get a broad summary of the collection in order to guide their searches.""8 If data visualization in the sciences typically happens after the research and number crunching is finished, data visualization in the humanities often serves as a preliminary tool of exploration and discovery. Literary archives are a perfect litmus test: online finding aids often lack detail and there’s a storied tradition of having to pay one’s scholarly dues by enduring long, physically exhausting archival sessions whose consequences range from bad posture and poor eyesight to contagion and even meningitis.9 Digitization and new search techniques can help make archival research more accessible for all scholars.
Our research team is experimenting with a wide variety of big data techniques as we continue a project funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada to digitize the archives of Wilfred and Sheila Watson, two 20th-century Canadian writers. The Watson Archive—a lifetime of journals, manuscript drafts, notes, sketches, artwork, newspaper clippings, reviews, and correspondence distributed across two universities 1500 km apart—clearly exceeds the scope of any one publication or scholarly project. In archival terms, Wilfred's papers occupy 10.6 metres of shelf space (producing over 101,000 digital images), while Sheila's occupy a further 8.4 metres, none of which has yet been digitized. Topic modeling is one promising way for scholars to understand the the content and the contours of these two separate but related Watson archives in ways that move significantly beyond online finding aids or the serendipity of sifting through the materials in person.
Big data techniques like topic modeling have found a mixed reception in the humanities, however. Twenty-five years ago, Carlo Ginzburg argued that the humanities were different from the sciences because while the humanities privileged “the study of individual cases, situations, and documents precisely because they are individual,” the sciences investigated only phenomena that were quantifiable and repeatable.10 Big Data has begun to challenge that neat division: perhaps most famously, Franco Moretti has used quantitative techniques in order to “distant read” literary history,11 while, more recently, Johanna Drucker has indicted those same methods as “pernicious” because they “violat[e] the very premises of humanistic inquiry.”12
Research

This paper engages those debates in light of one particular test case, a corpus of 413 letters that Wilfred Watson, Sheila Watson, and Marshall McLuhan wrote to each other over a period of more than twenty years. Because Sheila Watson studied for her PhD under McLuhan’s supervision and Wilfred Watson collaborated with McLuhan on the 1970 monograph From Cliché to Archetype,13 the archival letters range across a wide spectrum of topics from the personal to the professional, from the microdata of timelines, draft revisions, and gossip to the macrodata of history, culture and civilization. Topic modeling offers scholars one browsable entrance into such an unwieldy corpus, a corpus that is nonetheless just a tiny fraction of the entire archive. Our team has built a prototype interface that allows scholars to choose the number of topics into which the algorithm should cluster the letters and then, in the resulting force-directed graph, users are able to click on nodes that reveal the significant words that form each cluster and to browse each cluster’s individual letters. Data visualization merges with user interface design to provide scholars a new means of engaging the Watson archive.
Our interface prototype provides scholars a hybrid between a “distant reading” of the archive and a full text search. Broad, long-term patterns and topic shifts become immediately visible. For example, clustering the letters into as few as three or four groups reveals that, as McLuhan and co-author Wilfred Watson collaborated on From Cliché to Archetype, their paradigmatic literary figure shifted from Wyndham Lewis to James Joyce. The conversations about why Joyce proved more satisfactory than Lewis, of course, appear only in the letters and not in the finished monograph. Through data visualization and topic modeling, however, scholars can explore how ideas shift and change over time and can “zoom in” to important moments in the corpus of letters.
Our argument, then, is that topic modeling and other big data techniques are increasingly invaluable to humanists, especially as scholars are confronted by the overwhelming data available in even the most modest-sized archives. Topic modeling provides humanist scholars a valuable new way to explore large collections of texts and artifacts—not necessarily to determine definitively or algorithmically how texts should be classified or clustered, but as experimental, dynamic means of seeing patterns of similarity and difference in a wide range of materials. The result is that humanists are now increasingly able to move beyond the individual, idiosyncratic cases that Ginzburg described to see how people and ideas and discourses change over time.
References

1. Blei, David M. (2011) Introduction to Probabilistic Topic Models.www.cs.princeton.edu/~blei/papers/Blei2011.pdf. p.2.
2. Zhou, Shibin, Kan Li and Yushu Liu (2009). Text Categorization Based on Topic Model. International Journal of Computational Intelligence Systems 2.4 (December 2009): 398-409.
3. Song, Min, and Su Yeon Kim (2013). Detecting the Knowledge Structure of Bioinformatics by Mining Full-Text Collections. Scientometrics 96: 182-201.
4. García-Plaza, Alberto Pérez, Arkaitz Zubiaga, Víctor Fresno, and Raquel Martínez (2012). Reorganizing Clouds: A Study on Tag Clustering and Evaluation. Expert Systems with Applications 39: 9483–9493.
5. Shao, Jian, Shuai Ma, Weiming Lu, and Yueting Zhuang (2012). A Unified Framework for Web Video Topic Discovery and Visualization. Pattern Recognition Letters 33: 410–419.
6. Anaya-Sánchez, Henry, Aurora Pons-Porrata, and Rafael Berlanga-Llavori (2010). A Document Clustering Algorithm for Discovering and Describing Topics. Pattern Recognition Letters 31: 502–510.
7. Gretarsson, Brynjar, John O'Donovan, Svetlin Bostandjiev, Tobias Hollerer, Arthur Asuncion, David Newman, and Padhraic Smyth (2012). TopicNets: Visual Analysis of Large Text Corpora with Topic Modeling. ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology 3.2 (February 2012): Article 23. 26pp.
8. Anaya-Sánchez (2010), p. 502.
9. O'Driscoll, Michael and Edward Bishop (2004). Archiving 'Archiving.' English Studies in Canada 30.1 (March 2004): 1-16.
10. Ginzburg, Carlo (1989). Clues: Roots of an Evidential Paradigm. In Clues, Myths, and the Historical Method. Trans. John and Anne C. Tedeschi. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, UP. 96-125.
11. Moretti, Franco (2005). Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for Literary History. London: Verso.
12. Drucker, Johanna (2011). Humanities Approaches to Graphical Display. Digital Humanities Quarterly 5.1. www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/5/1/000091/000091.html
13. McLuhan, Marshall and Wilfred Watson (1970). From Cliché to Archetype. NY: Viking.
","txt","2","",""
"1857","15","Binarization-free Text Line Extraction for Historical Manuscripts","9","1 Introduction

Nowadays, large collections of old historical manuscripts, which contain valuable information about our cultural heritage, exist in libraries around the world. Recently, there has been much interest in their digitization for preservation reasons, since many of the available manuscripts’ quality has deteriorated from exposure to the environment. Digitization though is only the first step to make the information contained in manuscripts accessible to researchers and to the interested public. What we create after digitization is only a “digital image” of the page and further processing steps need to be applied during the handwriting recognition process, so that the manuscript’s content is transformed into a form that is interpretable by a computer.
One important step in the handwriting recognition process is that of text line extraction, which aims at extracting individual text lines from the manuscript page. In this paper, we propose a binarization-free text line extraction method using seam carving. The main idea is to compute an energy map of the input text blocks and determine minimum energy paths that pass through them. The energy map is constructed in a way so that gaps between text lines have low energy values. Therefore, a minimum energy path will pass only through these regions and will successfully separate two text lines.
Our algorithm has the following two advantages:
1. We make direct use of the original image representation of the manuscript page without any need for prior binarization, which can introduce information loss. This loss can produce unreliable results for the text line extraction algorithm (see Figure 1).
2. Our algorithm is general and can be applied to diverse manuscripts of different time periods and handwritings. Results in Figures 3 and 4 show the applicability of our algorithm to diverse historical manuscripts.
2 Related Work

We briefly summarize the research that has already been done for text line extraction.
Most of the state-of-the-art approaches operate on a binary image of the historical manuscript. One method based on dynamic programming computes the paths with minimum cost between two consecutive lines [11] and has been extensively used in automatic transcription and ground truth creation of historical documents [8, 7]. The work of [6] is based on horizontal projection profiles of black pixel changes. An additional post-processing step is applied, which follows the contour of the ink obtaining curve-linear line separators. Another similar approach is proposed in [13] where the output of the horizontal projections is post-processed based on properties of the computed connected components. The works of [12, 10] are based on the Hough transform, which is able to detect straight lines in images. Smearing methods, such as the ones in [17, 16, 14], try to fill-in the white pixel gaps with black pixels if their distance is less than a threshold. That way, homogeneous blocks of the document page are grouped together. Other approaches use multi-oriented filters and active contours for text line extraction [4, 5]. 

Fig. 1: Left: seams generated using the original scanned image of the manuscript as input. Right: seams generated using a binary version of the original manuscript scan as input. The information loss in the binary version is so extensive that the generated seams do not clearly separate text lines of the original manuscript scan.
A notable exception of an algorithm, which does not depend on binarization, is the work of, where the text lines are found using extracted features from interest points of the original manuscript image. A very recent work uses a framework similar to that in adapted this time to the text line extraction problem.
Our method is closely related to the one in, where the authors use seam carving to generate seams that pass through connected components of a binary image. Unclassified components, which do not belong to any text line are assigned in a post-processing step according to their position and geometric characteristics. The main difference in our approach is that we do not need to binarize the input, which can lead to information loss. Additionally, we are able to generate robust text contours even for manuscripts of deteriorated quality (see Figures 1, 4). The text contours can always be overlaid on the original manuscript scan, even if they have been generated using as input a binarized version of the original scan. However, the technique of , which assigns text components to lines is not able to extract lines from the original manuscript, since the binarization process is not reversible. Binary text components contain only a subset of the information available in the original manuscript image.
3 Our Approach

Our proposed algorithm is inspired by Seam Carving, a computer vision algorithm used for image resizing [1]. We build upon this idea and propose a seam carving algorithm, which operates on the original color image and extracts lines in a sequential way. First, an energy map is calculated and the minimum energy path is computed based on dynamic programming. From the peaks of the horizontal projection profile of the derivative image we can find horizontal line positions. In each such region between two consecutive lines, we apply our seam carving algorithm sequentially until the whole manuscript image has been processed. In Figure 2 we show some examples of seams between two such lines.

Fig. 2: Examples of image blocks and their computed seams.
In the following we use the convention that an image I ∊ ℝ n×m converted to grayscale has n rows and m columns. The notation I(i,j) denotes the image value at the i-th row and j-th column. The coordinate system has its origin in the upper left corner of the image.
3.1 Energy Map

We modify the energy function proposed in [1] so that it can be effectively used for generating text line separation contours. First, we compute an edge image as

Let us denote the energy map between two text lines by Eb = E(J,:) ∊ Rl×m, where J = {s,...,e} is the set of i coordinates between the start and the end of the energy block map and l = e - s + 1. This energy block is weighted by the following linear function, which penalizes the larger i coordinates more:

and the final energy map for this block is

The idea behind this weighting is the observation that we want our seam to be closer to the upper line than the lower one. This will correct for situations where the author has written words in the gap between lines, which always belong to the lower line (see Figure 2a).
3.2 Seam Computation

A seam that passes horizontally through an image block can be defined as

The seam computation is done using dynamic programming. We look for the optimal seam in the image block that minimizes

The first step is to traverse the image block and compute the cumulative minimum energy Mb for all possible connected seams for each pixel position:

The minimum value of the last column in Mb will indicate the end of the minimal connected horizontal seam. Therefore, in the second step we traverse the cumulative energy Mb backwards to find the path of the optimal seam.
4 Experimental Results

We apply our algorithm to original manuscript pages of the work Aline by the important Swiss-French writer Charles-Ferdinand Ramuz. Some examples of manuscript pages overlaid with the text line extraction seams are shown in Figure 3. We observe that our algorithm creates seams that pass through parchment regions, successfully segmenting the text lines. Even when the writer corrects a line or a word and writes above, the seam is able to avoid cutting the text and assigns the word to the line below it. In order to illustrate the ability of the algorithm to generalize to diverse manuscripts, we provide in Figure 4 results on manuscripts of the 16-th and 18-th century. We observe that our algorithm can be applied to manuscripts of very different quality and handwriting styles.

Fig. 9: Seam carving results on two pages of Aline (1905), C.F. Ramuz.

Fig. 10: Seam carving results on manuscripts of the 16-th and 18-th century respectively. Even in the lower left manuscript with extreme bleed-through, our algorithm is able to produce a robust result.
5 Conclusion

We propose a novel text line extraction algorithm for color scans of historical manuscripts based on seam carving. We show that we can obtain state-of-the-art results on these color images without any prior binarization. The next step after the text line extraction process is the application of a learning algorithm for handwritten word recognition in each extracted text line.
References

[1] Shai Avidan and Ariel Shamir (2007). Seam Carving for Content-Aware Image Resizing. ACM Transactions on Graphics, 26(3):10
[2]  M. Baechler and R. Ingold (2011). Multi Resolution Layout Analysis of Medieval Manuscripts Using Dynamic MLP. In International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition, pages 1185–1189.
[3] M. Baechler, M. Liwicki, and R. Ingold (2013). Text Line Extraction using DMLP Classifiers for Historical Manuscripts. In International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition.
[4] S.S. Bukhari, F. Shafait, and T.M. Breuel (2009). Script-Independent Handwritten Textlines Segmentation Using Active Contours. In International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition, pages 446–450, 2009.
[5] S.S. Bukhari, F. Shafait, and T.M. Breuel (2011). Text-Line Extraction Using a Convolution of Isotropic Gaussian Filter with a Set of Line Filters. In International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition, pages 579–583.
[6] M. Bulacu, R. van Koert, L. Schomaker, and T. van der Zant (2007). Layout Analysis of Handwritten Historical Documents for Searching the Archive of the Cabinet of the Dutch Queen. In International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition, pages 357–361.
[7] A. Fischer, E. Indermu ̈hle, H. Bunke, G. Viehhauser, and M. Stolz (2010). Ground truth creation for hand- writing recognition in historical documents. In IAPR International Workshop on Document Analysis Systems, pages 3–10.
[8]  A. Fischer, M. Wuthrich, M. Liwicki, V. Frinken, H. Bunke, G. Viehhauser, and M. Stolz (2009). Automatic Transcription of Handwritten Medieval Documents. In International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia, pages 137–142.
[9] A. Garz, A. Fischer, R. Sablatnig, and H. Bunke (2012). Binarization-Free Text Line Segmentation for Historical Documents Based on Interest Point Clustering. In IAPR International Workshop on Document Analysis Systems, pages 95–99.
[10] L. Likforman-Sulem, A. Hanimyan, and C. Faure (1995). A Hough based algorithm for extracting text lines in handwritten documents. In International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition, volume 2, pages 774–777.
[11] M. Liwicki, E. Indermuhle, and H. Bunke (2007). On-line handwritten text line detection using dynamic programming. In International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition, volume 1, pages 447–451.
[12]  G. Louloudis, B. Gatos, I. Pratikakis, and C. Halatsis (2008). Text line detection in handwritten documents. Pattern Recognition, 41(12):3758–3772, dec 2008.
[13] U.V. Marti and H. Bunke (2011). Using a Statistical Language Model to Improve the Performance of an HMM-based Cursive Handwriting Recognition System. International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence, 15(01):65–90.
[14] N. Nikolaou, M. Makridis, B. Gatos, N. Stamatopoulos, and N. Papamarkos (2010). Segmentation of historical machine-printed documents using Adaptive Run Length Smoothing and skeleton segmentation paths. Image and Vision Computing, 28(4):590–604, April 2010.
[15] R. Saabni and J. El-Sana (2011). Language-Independent Text Lines Extraction Using Seam Carving. In Document Analysis and Recognition (ICDAR), 2011 International Conference on, pages 563–568.
[16]  Z. Shi and V. Govindaraju (2004). Line Separation for Complex Document Images Using Guzzy Runlength. In International Workshop on Document Image Analysis for Libraries, pages 306–312.
[17] K.Y. Wong and F.M (1982). Wahl. Document analysis system. IBM Journal of Research and Development, 26:647–656.
","txt","2","",""
"1858","15","Book History and Software Tools: Examining Typefaces for OCR Training in eMOP","9","In 1936, the notable English bibliographer A. W. Pollard admitted in his Preface to Frank Isaac’s English Printers’ Types of the Sixteenth Century that “[he] had a very poor eye for distinguishing types and a very poor head for remembering them.”1 Pollard is hardly alone among experts in the history of printing in this shortcoming.  Even among scholars with decades of experience in scrutinizing features of the printed book, the ability to distinguish and identify typefaces is a notorious challenge.  The literature about early type designs and designers (known as punchcutters) is partial and contradictory; the variations in typefaces are subtle and, at times, inconclusive; and the ability to make differentiations has been considered less a matter of regimented principle than of elusive skill.  As Harry Carter suggested, “it is evident that in considering the face of a fount of type we are in a world of art, . . . not a mechanical proceeding or anything susceptible of scientific treatment.""2
However, it is precisely the consideration of “founts of type” that is currently engaging a majority of the Early Modern OCR Project (eMOP) team. eMOP, a 2-year Mellon Foundation-funded grant project underway at the Initiative for Digital Humanities, Media, and Culture (IDHMC) at Texas A&M University, aims to OCR the documents that comprise the Eighteenth Century Collections Online (ECCO) and Early English Books Online (EEBO) collections. As a project that involves collecting and aggregating huge amounts of data, OCR’ing 45 million page images on a high-performance computing cluster, and the development of several software tools and services, eMOP is technology-laden. But at its heart eMOP is a Humanities project, conceived  by Humanists, driven by the needs of Humanities scholars, and supported throughout by book history and an understanding of the development of print type in the 15th-18th Centuries.
For eMOP’s book historian, Dr. Todd Samuelson, one of the difficulties in conceptualizing the scope of eMOP has centered in a potential conflict between DH methodology (as encompassed by “big data”) and the traditional means of approaching type identification: as Carter noted, it is an art steeped in years of hard-won practice rather than a science with predictable and reproducible models. While DH is focused on humanities questions and methodologies, it does employ scientific principles as well, especially when dealing with a very large set of documents, and conflict can arise by trying to synthesize a skill set based on minutiae with an extremely large data set. By contrast, even when big data projects incorporate crowdsourcing and the oversight of human experts, they require the ability to find readily transferrable commonalities, rather than to establish proficiency in a small number of experts. In the course of the eMOP project, we have found that the development or adoption of specific software tools has helped to ameliorate this conflict and incorporate type history scholarship into the training of OCR engines.
One of the ideas driving eMOP work is that, by training OCR engines to recognize specific early modern fonts, we can increase the accuracy of those engines when used to OCR documents printed in those fonts. To accomplish this, the eMOP team has spent most of the last year investigating font history, creating a database of early modern printers and the fonts they used, and developing and testing tools and techniques to train Tesseract (an open-source OCR engine) to recognize these fonts. The ability to distinguish between different, but sometimes closely related, fonts, and to train Tesseract to recognize these distinctions has been a central focus. For example, the general classification of different families of typefaces has been attempted by book historians, including Adrian Weiss, who categorized unknown English typefaces of a certain period as either “S-face” or “Y-face”.3 So, though the source of the typeface may not be ascertainable, certain characteristics can be defined which allow scholars (and potentially OCR engines) to identify and group the typefaces more accurately.
As has already been noted, identifying examples of S- and Y-face characters and distinguishing between them, especially when both can be present in one document, is a difficult enough task for an expert. Trying to find all instances of the lower-case letter ‘w’ in a document, as an example, and then deciding which exemplars match some specified “ideal” is difficult and time consuming. Fortunately, eMOP has software tools that can drastically simplify this task, and even allow non-experts to do some of the work. Those tools were originally developed to create training for Tesseract to recognize early modern typefaces, but can also be applied to support research into the typefaces themselves.
To create specific font training for the Tesseract OCR engine, a team of undergraduate student workers, lead by IDHMC graduate student Katayoun Torabi, first process the available page images using Aletheia Desktop. (Aletheia was developed by the Pattern Recognition and Image Analysis (PRImA) Research Laboratory at the University of Salford. Apostolos Antonacopoulos, IMPACT Work Package leader for PRImA, University of Salford, has made Aletheia and other tools available at http://www.primaresearch.org/tools.php.) Aletheia Desktop includes several semi-automated tools that identify and define layout regions, lines, words, and individual characters (glyphs) within documents. Aletheia reads the text in the page image (using Tesseract) and assigns a Unicode value for each letter, number, and punctuation mark.

Fig. 1: Aletheia Desktop with identified glyphs and some of their associated Unicode values.
As output, Aletheia creates an XML file that contains a set of XY coordinates, along with the associated Unicode value, for each identified glyph. The data contained in this XML file is then ingested or imported into a tool created by IDHMC graduate student Bryan Tarpley called Franken+. Franken+ uses a MySQL database to associate each glyph image with its corresponding Unicode character. The user can then select any glyph from a drop down menu to see every instance of that character in a window (Fig. 2). With every instance of a particular glyph (for example all the ‘a’s) from a document available in one window, the user can quickly identify mislabeled glyphs and choose the best exemplar (or exemplars) for each glyph in that font set (Fig. 2). Once the user has isolated the best instance(s) of each character, Franken+ uses a standard text document to produce a set of synthetic TIFF images and XML files, producing a “Franken-text” with only these ideal characters. This Franken-text matches the characteristics of Tesseract’s expected training file and so can be used to train Tesseract to recognize the typeface being processed.

Fig. 2: Some images of the Frank+ user interface.
eMOP’s book history team immediately realized that the capabilities of Aletheia and Franken+ would tremendously benefit their research into the S-face vs Y-face font question. The ability of Franken+ to display all instances of a given letter from a set of page images in one window dramatically simplifies the task of identifying all examples of any letter in a set of pages. And, being able to examine all these examples alongside each other makes comparing similarities or differences much easier and faster (Fig. 3). After a quick installation of Franken+ and less than an hour of training, the book history team was able to commence work on their research question in earnest. Since Franken+ was introduced at the 2013 Doc Eng Conference,4 the eMOP team has been contacted by several international scholars interested in learning more about Franken+ for use in their research on typefaces.

Fig. 3: An image from Franken+ of a set of exemplars of the “a” glyph from one document.
The study of early modern fonts is a road less traveled in the landscape of Humanities research. Based as it is on minutiae and requiring incredible attention to detail, this work traditionally has been left to a handful of individual scholars. However, the development of Franken+ for eMOP, when used in conjunction with Aletheia, promises to open up this field of study to scholars who may have been interested in it, but found the challenges too daunting. This paper will describe aspects of the eMOP work being done in the field of early modern type research, and will introduce Franken+ as a valuable new tool in this research. The creation of tools like Franken+ have the potential to increase attention and alter research methodologies for this field.
References

1. Pollard, A. W. (1936) Preface. Isaac, Frank. English Printers’ Types of the Sixteenth Century. Oxford: Oxford UP. (v-vii).
2. Carter, Harry Graham (1969). A View of Early Typography Up to About 1600. Oxford: Clarendon.
3. Weiss, Adrian. (1990) Font Analysis as a Bibliographical Method: the Elizabethan Play-Quarto Printers and Compositors. Studies in Bibliography 43: 95-164.
4. Torabi, Katayoun, Jessica Durgan, and Bryan Tarpley (2013). Early Modern OCR Project (eMOP) at Texas A&M University: Using Aletheia to Train Tesseract. ACM Press. 23. doi:10.1145/2494266.2494304. Web. 31 Oct. 2013.","txt","2","",""
"1859","15","Bridging the Local and the Global in DH: A Case Study in Japan","10","As the term “Digital Humanities” has been gradually gaining
attention around the world, with researchers in Englishspeaking
countries gathering under this banner in increasing
numbers. Among these, there are the earlier scholars who had
previously known the field as Humanities Computing; and there
are also scholars who have become involved more recently,
directly under the rubric of Digital Humanities. Yet another
new trend is that where scholars from non-English-speaking
and non-Western countries have also been gradually getting
involved in the international DH community. One of these recent
entrants to the international DH community is the Japanese
Association for Digital Humanities (JADH). The presence of this
new organization constitutes one piece of evidence to show that
the international community is gradually broadening the scope
of its membership. This trend has been actively supported by
the Multi-lingualism and Multi-culturalism Committee of the
ADHO, as well as by individual scholars who believe forming
a global community can only enrich DH and the humanities.
In view of this fact, it seems that it will become worthwhile to
release the CFP of the DH conference in many languages.
Additionally, recently several non-English Western
communities have been established. For example, Hispanic,
Italian, and German DH were discussed during the DH2012
conference at Hamburg. Each language area has long and
deep history to engage in the research and practice of DH.
Moreover, Global Outlook::Digital Humanities (GO::DH) has
started to cover a wider area, such as Latin America, China,
Africa, and so on, especially focusing on communication and
collaboration across and between High, Mid, and Low Income
Economies. It is remarkable that the first pilot project of the
GO::DH, “AroundDH in 80 Days” could immediately fill the list of
DH projects around the world (Gil) with the help of international
volunteers. In the context of the humanities, globalization is not
always intrinsically good, but international communication would
be significant for DH and the humanities.
While there have been efforts focused actual local
development, in some cases, such as of the Japan, most DH
activities hadn’t been known in the global community and
most of global DH activities hadn’t been known in Japan until
several years ago. This is in spite of the fact that the number
of identified Japanese DH-related researchers is over 200 and
recently the domestic annual DH conferences have gathered
40-60 papers every year, with 800 papers being presented
since 1989 from many universities, museums, libraries, and
other institutions in a DH-related quarterly workshop (A. Charles
Muller). As the case might be similar in other non-English and
non-Western countries, it might be useful to report our recent
attempts to bridge between the DH research being carried out
by non-English-speaking scholars and those in the international
community.
First, the establishment of the JADH has proved itself to be
one of the most effective solutions for closing this kind of gap.
Since around 80 researchers participated in the first conference
in 2011 in Osaka, 80-90 Japanese researchers have attended
the annual conference and communicated with international
researchers. Then, several germs of international collaboration
have come into being there and Japanese researchers
who paid attention to the results of research activities of the
international DH community have gradually increased as a
“methodological commons”—although most of the research is
still focused on Japanese or Eastern materials.
Secondly, an e-newsletter titled “Digital Humanities
Monthly” (DHII and ARG) has been published by the
International Institute for Digital Humanities since July 2011. It
is has 390 subscribers and is also published on the Web. The
e-newsletter written in Japanese consists of an invited essay,
brief news of international activities of DH and Digital History,
DH-event calendar, and reports of DH events held in Japan and
foreign countries collaborating with some local and international
voluntary DH researchers. The event reports are plotted on
a time-space map of the Neatline.(fig.1) The total number of
the access to the Web pages was over 5,000 this October.
According to comments of the readers, it seems to have gained
the attention of not only DH researchers, but also librarians,
curators, archivists, publishers, and general public, enabling
them to see the picture of the entire situation of the domestic
and the international DH.
Thirdly, we plan to make it easier to treat Japanese and
Eastern materials compliant with kinds of international
standards. So far, we are working to propose the encoding
of Han characters that occur in our research materials in the
Universal Character Set as a group of researchers (rather than
as a national body, as has been the policy heretofore) so that
researchers can not only treat the characters but also propose
the inclusion of new characters more easily. Moreover, we
are planning to form an appropriate guideline of text encoding
of Japanese and Eastern materials in the framework of the
Text Encoding Initiative P5 guidelines (Bauman) collaborating
with related researchers around the world. As a preparation
for this, we’ve held full-day TEI workshop by the participation
of international TEI researchers over 10 times and taught the
framework of the TEI to 50 researchers in total.
While it has up to now been difficult to bridge the local
and the global, we hope our attempts will be useful for an
Digital Humanities 2014
278
appropriate mode of globalization. We would like to discuss
various possibilities with participants in the conference.
Fig. 1:
References
A. Charles Muller, Kozaburo Hachimura, Shoichiro Hara,
Toshinobu Ogiso, Mitsuru Aida, Koichi Yasuoka, Ryo
Akama, Masahiro Shimoda, Tomoji Tabata, and Kiyonori
Nagasaki (2010). ""The Origins and Current State of Digitization
of Humanities in Japan."" Digital Humanities 2010 : 68-70.
Bauman, Lou Burnard and Syd (2007). TEI P5: Guidelines
for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. http://www.teic.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/index.html.
DHII and ARG. Ed. Kiyonori Nagasaki et al. 7 (2011). 
www.dhii.jp/DHM .
Gil, Alex ed. AroundDH | Global List. (2013). http://
goo.gl/4ov5nR.
Active Authentication through
Psychometrics
Noecker Jr, John
Juola & Associates, United States of America
What can your computer habits reveal about you?  The
answer might surprise you.  Previous work (Juola, et al., 2013)
has shown that just a few minutes of computer usage can be
used to identify who is at the keyboard and their demographic
and psychological attributes with a fairly high degree of
accuracy.  We expand upon this to show that the same usage
data can be used to thoroughly profile a previously-unknown
user to obtain valuable psychological information about the
user.
Authorship attribution, the analysis of a document’s writing
style to infer the author’s identity, is a well-established problem
in text classification.  Previously, we used classical authorship
attribution techniques to identify “who was at the keyboard”
using the DARPA Active Authentication Corpus (Juola et al,
2013).  Researchers have successfully applied the analysis
of language usage to infer authorship of written documents
(Juola, 2006. Koppel et al, 2009. Stamatatos, 2009. Jockers &
Witten, 2010), and stylometric analysis has also been applied
to things like gender (Argamon et al, 2006), personality (Luyckx
& Daelemans, 2008), and even psychological disorders like
depression (Rude et al, 2004).
Here, we attempt to perform the same technique with groups
composed of individuals who share common psychological
traits.  Previous work (Luyckx & Daelemans, 2008. Noecker
& Juola, 2013) on personality profiling has so far focused
on analyzing previously-written documents.  In contrast, our
system provides a method for real-time psychological profiling
of a user based on his or her interactions with a computer over
a relatively short period of time (approximately 30 minutes).
  The ultimate goal is two-fold: to learn something about a
previously-unobserved user (traditional stylometric identification
techniques require us to have training data on a user before
we can identify him) and to use psychological traits as an
enhancement to current user authentication methods.
Currently, exact accuracy on the user-based authentication
is approximately 90%.  This task becomes more difficult
(and the accuracy becomes correspondingly lower) as the
pool of potential author models grows.  In order to improve
overall accuracy of the user authentication task, we propose to
include these psychological profiling tools in the authentication
system.  If a given user can be identified as the most likely
candidate with 90% probability, and several facets of that user’s
personality can be confirmed with similarly high confidence,
this will increase the overall robustness of the authentication
system.
For our purposes, we used two personality/intelligence
measurement systems to profile users: Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI) and Multiple Intelligences Developmental
Assessment Scales (MIDAS).
The Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI) assigns four binary
classifications to define personality (Myers & Myers, 1980)
–  Extroversion vs Introversion
–  iNtuition vs Sensing
–  Thinking vs Feeling
–  Judgement vs Perception
The Multiple Intelligences Developmental Assessment Scales
(MIDAS) were developed by Dr. Howard Gardner in his 1983
book “Frames of Mind” (Gardner, 1983).  He used a unique
definition of intelligence: “The ability to solve a problem or
create a product that is valued within one or more cultures” (MI
Research and Consulting).  He identified 8 primary intelligent
scales, each of which have several subscales (MI Research
and Consulting):
–   Musical
–   Vocal Ability
–   Instrumental Skill
–   Composer
–   Appreciation
–   Kinesthetic
–   Athletics
–   Dexterity
–   Logical-Mathematical
–   Everyday Math
–   School Math
–   Everyday Problem Solving
–   Strategy Games
–   Spatial
–   Space Awareness
–   Working with Objects
–   Artistic Design
–   Linguistic
–   Expressive Sensitivity
–   Rhetorical Skill
–   Written-academic
–   Interpersonal
–   Social Sensitivity
–   Social Persuasion
–   Interpersonal Work
–   Intrapersonal
–   Personal Knowledge / Efficacy
–   Effectiveness
–   Calculations
–   Spatial Problem Solving
–   Naturalist
–   Animal Care
–   Plant Care 
We also include a 9th main scale, Leadership, with its own
subscales: Communication, Management, and Social.
Materials and Methods
Lausanne, Switzerland
279
Corpus
In order to create the most accurate corpus possible, we
set up a simulated office environment and hired 80 temporary
workers for one week each.  Workers were tasked to perform a
long-term blogging project (research and write blog articles on
topics “related to Pittsburgh in some way”) over the course of a
normal workweek.  For this study, we use the Free Key Logger
output, which provides the exact text typed by each user.  We
do not include any information about the applications being
used or any data the user pastes from the clipboard.
Feature Extraction
For our analysis, we used the Java Graphical Authorship
Attribution Program (JGAAP) (Juola et al, 2009).  JGAAP
is a Java-based, modular program for textual analysis, text
categorization, and authorship attribution.  It provides a
comprehensive framework, allowing us to rapidly test the
effectiveness of different analysis techniques on the recorded
data.
JGAAP divides analysis into several steps: Canonicization
(Preprocessing), Event Set (Feature) Generation, and Analysis.
  In Canonicization, preprocessors are used to standardize
the text.  For this step, we converted all input letters to lower
case (“Unify Case”) and converted all strings of whitespace
characters into a single space character (“Normalize
Whitespace”).  At this stage, we also processed a variety of
special keyboard characters, converting these non-printable
characters into a printable placeholder (e.g. “backspace” was
replaced with “β”).  Finally, we divided the input data into blocks
of 1,000 characters, representing about 30 minutes of computer
usage.
For the event set generation, we tested character N-grams
for all N from 1 to 15, and word N-grams for N from 1 to 5.
  We then applied a number of analysis methods for each
experiment: Cosine Distance, Intersection Distance, Manhattan
Distance, and Matusita Distance.  For each method, we used
a centroid-based nearest neighbor classifier.  We performed
leave-one-out cross-validation to reach our final conclusion.
Models
For the MBTI classifiers, we built four binary classifiers (i.e. E
vs I, N vs S, T vs F, and J vs P).  For the MIDAS classifiers, we
first built a single 9-way classifier to identify a user’s principle
main scale.  This was the scale along which the user scored
highest (i.e. the scale for which the user showed the highest
preference).  For example, a user might have a preference
for “Musical” or “Linguistic”.  We also developed subscale
classifiers, which identify a user’s preference within each major
scale.  For instance, a user might be identified as “(Musical)
Vocal Ability” and “(Kinesthetic) Dexterity”, etc.  Thus, each user
was identified by a single main scale preference as well as nine
subscale preferences.
Results
MBTI
For the MBTI classifiers, we averaged an accuracy of 81.5%.
  The expected baseline average (assuming we pick the most
prevalent personality type for each category) is 55%. 
MIDAS
For the MIDAS main category identification, our best
performing classifier had accuracy of 70.7%.  This was using
character 15 grams with Intersection Distance.  The expected
baseline accuracy (achieved by choosing the most common
main scale, “Linguistic”) was 22.1%.
For the MIDAS subscale identification, the best performing
classifiers used a variety of Character n-grams, again with
Intersection Distance as the top performing analysis method. 
The average subscale accuracy was 81%.
Conclusion
We have shown here a method to reliably psychologically
profile a computer user based on only a short period (about
30 minutes) of usage time.  In addition to providing valuable
information about the user in question, this method can also
be used to provide additional layers of security for the active
authentication system we have described previously.  Even
in an adversarial situation, the difficulty of imitating both an
individual user’s style, as well as mimicking the psychological
profile of the user, will provide additional security to the
authentication system.
Also interesting to note is the limited usage data required to
perform these analyses.  The initial user psychological testing
period took approximately 3 hours, but accurate results were
obtained for only 30 minutes of computer usage.  In addition,
the three hours of testing were completely lost time – the
users were able to work only on the tests during this time.  In
contrast, the 30 minutes of analysis can be done on whatever
the user is working on at the time.  No downtime is required
to perform these analyses.  We believe this system could be
useful anywhere a non-intrusive analysis of a user might be
beneficial (e.g. determining whether a potential employee would
be a good fit).
For future work, we intend to focus on reducing the amount
of data needed even further.  Preliminary results on as little as
500 characters (about 15 minutes of usage time) have been
promising.  Additional work is also being done to integrate these
methods into the broader active authentication system in order
to bolster the overall reliability of the system.
References
Argamon, S., Koppel, M., Fine, J., Shimoni, A. R (2006).
“Gender, Genre, and Writing Style in Formal Written Texts”.
Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of Discourse. Volume 23.
Issue 3. pp. 321-346.
“Broad Agency Announcement: Active Authentication”.
(2012). DARPA. Solicitation No. DARPA-BAA-12-06. 12
Jan. 2012. <http://www.fbo.gov/index?tab=documents&t
abmode=form&subtab=core&tabid=494b6b2c612c4
fd3db6cb018d4467e21>.
Gardner, Howard (1983). “Frames of Mind: The Theory of
Multiple Intelligences”.  Basic Books.
Jockers, M. L., Witten, D. (2010) “A Comparative Study of
Machine Learning Methods for Authorship Attribution”.Literary
and Linguistic Computing, vol. 25, no. 2. pp. 215–23.
Juola, P. (2006) “Authorship Attribution”.Foundations and
Trends in Information Retrieval, vol. 1, no. 3.  pp. 233–334.
Juola, Patrick, Noecker Jr., John, Ryan, Mike, Speer,
Sandy (2009). “JGAAP 4.0 – A Revised Authorship Attribution
Tool”. Proc. Digital Humanities 2009. pp. 357–359. Maryland
Insitute. for Technology in the Humanities. University of
Maryland.
Juola, Patrick, Noecker Jr., John, Stolerman, Ariel,
Ryan, Michael, Brennan, Patrick, Greenstadt, Rachel
(2013). ""Keyboard Behavior Based Authentication for
Security"". IT Professional. 18 June 2013. IEEE computer
Society Digital Library. IEEE Computer Society. <http://
doi.ieeecomputersociety.org/10.1109/MITP.2013.49>.
Koppel, M., Schler, J., Argamon, S. (2009)“Computational
Methods in Authorship Attribution”. J. Amer. Soc. Information
Science and Technology, vol. 60, no. 1. pp. 9–26.
Luyckx, K., Daelemans, W. (2008) “Personae, a Corpus for
Author and Personality Prediction from Text”.Proceedings of the
Sixth International Conference on Language Resources and
Evaluation. Marrakech, Morroco.
MI Research and Consulting, Inc. “Multiple Intelligences
Theory”. <www.miresearch.org/mi_theory.html>.
Digital Humanities 2014
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Myers I B, Myers P. (1980)“Gifts Differing: Understanding
Personality Type”. Palo Alto, CA. Consulting Psychologists
Press.
Noecker Jr., J. Juola, P. (2013) “Psychological Profiling
Through Textual Analysis”. Literary and Linguist Computing.
Rude, S., Gortner, E., Pennebaker, J. (2004) “Language
Use of Depressed and Depression-Vulnerable College
Students”.Cognition and Emotion.
Stamatatos, E. (2009) “A Survey of Modern Authorship
Attribution Methods”. J. Amer. Soc. Information Science and
Technology, vol. 60, no. 3. pp. 538–556.
Zheng, N., Paloski, A., Wang, H. (2011) “An Efficient User
Verification System via Mouse Movements,”Proc. 18th ACM
Conf. Computer and Communications Security (CCS 11). ACM.
pp. 139–150.
","txt","2","",""
"1860","15","Building a metrical ontology as a model to link digital poetic repertoires","10","1. Introduction

1.1. Overview

The technology of semantic web seems to be a suitable environment to offer solutions for linking poetic repertoires that belong to different European traditions and literatures (González-Blanco & Sélaf 2013)1. The problem of linking poetic repertoires is not simple, as there are not only technical issues involved, but also conceptual and terminological problems: each repertoire belongs to its own poetical tradition and each tradition has developed its own analytical terminology for years in a different and independent way. The result of this uncoordinated evolution is a bunch of varied terminologies to explain analogous metrical phenomena through the different poetic systems whose correspondences have been hardly studied.
1.2. Methodology

The aim of this paper is to present a model able to serve as a uniform solution for terminological issues in order to build a solid semantic structure as a basis to link the different poetic systems. This structure will be used to publish repertoires on the web in a structured format and using open standards in order to build an open-source and collaborative platform based on a poetic ontology which lets interoperability among the different European metrical repertoires with different applications, such as faceted searches based on SPARQL or different kinds of visualizations, very helpful for comparative analysis.
The first step to organize and manage repertoires and database systems was the construction of conceptual schema to define their basic entities and relationships. The ER (Entity-Relationship) data model is the most commonly used for this purpose, together with the data model based on records for the logical implementation (Elmasri & Navathe 2011, 27-ss)2, which is also widely accepted.
To implement this conceptual model, the project ReMetCa (Digital Repertoire on Medieval Spanish Poetry: www.uned.es/remetca) has tested different systems (commercial, free, open-source, and proprietary). The final decision, after experimenting with Oracle Express Edition (González-Blanco & Rodríguez 2013)3, has been MySQL combined with a XML tagging using the TEI-verse module. The relationship between ontological models and TEI is being taken into consideration very seriously in the last years, as it is shown by the activity of the SIG ontologies group wiki.tei-c.org/index.php/SIG:Ontologies and the specific papers published on this topic (Eide & Ore 2007)4. There are also projects that have applied these techniques to the study and analysis of medieval documents (Ciula, Spence & Vieira 2008)5.
2. Getting Started

From the three levels described (conceptual, logical and physical), this paper will focus on the first layer: the semantic description with the design of the semantic ontology, whose elements will be extensible and reusable for its application to other poetic repertoires. The conceptual model, designed on the basis of ReMetCa, will be transferred to the semantic Web as Linked Open Data. The abstraction of this initial model is prepared to be amplified with the necessary fields and terms to define metrical phenomena which are not shown in the Spanish poetic system or in the other repertoires which have been taken into account to design this first version of the semantic prototype. In order to enlarge its horizons, structure, description and contents, datasets of the following corpora have also been taken into account:
The Cantigas de Santa Maria Database: csm.mml.ox.ac.uk
Analecta Hymnica Digitalia: database on Medieval Latin poetry: webserver.erwin-rauner.de/crophius/Analecta_conspectus.htm
Bibliografia Elettronica dei Trovatori: w3.uniroma1.it/bedt/BEdT_03_20
Le Nouveau Naetebus: database on French narrative Medieval poetry : www.nouveaunaetebus.elte.hu
Répertoire de la Poésie Hongroise Ancienne (RPHA) : Repertoire on Medieval Hungarian poetry: rpha.elte.hu
MedDB: Lírica Profana Galego-Portuguesa www.cirp.es/pls/bdo2/f?p=MEDDB2
Corpus rhythmorum musicum (IV-IX secolo): database on Latin Medieval poetry accompanied with music www.corimu.unisi.it
Skaldic poetry of Scandinavian Middle Ages: https://www.abdn.ac.uk/skaldic/db.php
English Broadside Ballad: ebba.english.ucsb.edu/
Dimev: Digital index of medieval English verse: www.cddc.vt.edu/host/imev/record.php?recID=6768
To implement the conceptual model, the project uses one of the most recognized standards for semantic Web description: the Ontology Web Language (OWL), developed by W3C as an extension of RDFS. OWL is used to define the different classes, their properties and the instances of classes. It integrates sets of predefined metadata using namespaces. The set joins not only traditional well-known initiatives, such as Dublin Core, MARC or TEI, but also local proposals such as those used by some of the digital poetic repertoires that serve as a basis for this project. The TEI-Verse module6plays also an important role, due to the use that several repertoires have made of it, such as Henrik Ibsens (http://www.ibsen.uio.no) or the project of Lyrik des Hohen Mittelalters, (whose web access is not public yet), or ReMetCa itself by the addition of a XMLType field to its relational database.

Fig. 1: ReMetCa database screen with XML-type field
The software used to build the collaborative ontology is Webprotege (Tudorache et al. 2011)7, initially combined with Poolparty to create and organize vocabularies. It has been installed at ReMetCa server and opened via web in order to let participation of researchers with similar projects in the field of metrical repertoires. This system presents a light and intuitive interface but solid enough to develop a complex ontology with OWL. An important advantage is that it offers multilingual edition, which is very important for the development of such an international proposal. Once the model had been set, a metadata system has been designed to link the conceptual and logical levels based on a global abstract classification (schema), in which the different particular embodiments of each poetical tradition will be progressively included. This proposal shows both the consistency of this general language purpose and the benefits that can be obtained from the application of this model to the different local projects using a collaborative and open work system, which is essential for this new paradigm.
There are a few studies which deal obliquely with some of the above mentioned aspects (Bootz & Szoniecky 20088and Zöllner-Weber 2009)9, but there is not yet a conceptual model of ontology referred to metrics and poetry. The closest related works to this topic are probably the conceptual model of CIDOC (www.cidoc-crm.org), the vocabularies of the Getty Museum, as they are designed to express relations and artistic manifestations in the field of humanities (http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabularies/), the controlled vocabularies of English Broadside Ballad Project http://ebba.english.ucsb.edu/ and the linked data relations offered by the Library of Congress (http://id.loc.gov/), which do not offer a deep information on metrics vocabulary.
To sum up, this project of a poetic and metrical ontology intends be much more than a repository of datasets, thesauri or controlled vocabularies. It aims to create a semantic standardized structure to describe, analyze and develop logical operations through the different poetic digital repertories and their related resources. Its final objective is to interconnect, reuse and locate the data disseminated through poetic databases in order to get interoperability among projects, to perform complex searches and to make the different resources “talk” to each other following a unique but adaptive model.
References

1. González-Blanco, E. & L. Seláf (2013), Megarep: A comprehensive research tool in Medieval and Renaissance poetic and metrical repertoires, Humanitats a la xarxa: món medieval / Humanities on the web: the medieval world, edited by L. Soriano, M. Coderch, H. Rovira, G. Sabaté & X. Espluga., Oxford, Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, Frankfurt am Main, New York, Wien, Peter Lang (forthcoming).
2. Elmarsi, R. & S. B. Navathe (2011), Fundamentos de Sistemas de Bases de Datos, Madrid, Pearson, Addison Wesley.
3. González-Blanco, E. & J. L. Rodríguez (2013), ReMetCa: a TEI based digital repertory on Medieval Spanish poetry, at The Linked TEI: Text Encoding in the Web, Book of Abstracts - electronic edition. Abstracts of the TEI Conference and Members Meeting 2013: October 2-5, Rome edited by Fabio Ciotti & Arianna Ciula, DIGILAB Sapienza University & TEI Consortium, Rome, 178-185. digilab2.let.uniroma1.it/teiconf2013/abstracts/. Accessed 30-10-2013.
4. Eide, Ø. & C.-E. Ore (2007), From TEI to a CIDOC-CRM Conforming Model: Towards a Better Integration between Text Collections and Other Sources of Cultural Historical Documentation, paper presented at the DH conference 2007. Abstract available at: www.edd.uio.no/artiklar/tekstkoding/poster_156_eide.html
5. Ciula, A., P. Spence & J. M. Vieira (2008), Expressing complex associations in medieval historical documents: the Henry III Fine Rolls Project, Literary and Linguist Computing, 23 (3): 311-325.
6. Burnard, L. & S. Bauman, eds., TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Ver. 2.5.0. Accessed 30-10-2013. www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/
7. Tudorache, T., C. I. Nyulas, N.F. Noy & M.A. Musen (2011), WebProtégé: A Collaborative Ontology Editor and Knowledge Acquisition Tool for the Web, Semantic Web Journal, IOS Press. www.semantic-web-journal.net/content/webprot%C3%A9g%C3%A9-distributed-ontology-editor-and-knowledge-acquisition-tool-web. Accessed: 30/10/2013.
8. Bootz, P. & S. Szoniecky (2008), Towards an ontology of the field of digital poetry, paper presented at Electronic Literature in Europe. Full text available at elmcip.net/node/415 9. Zöllner-Weber, A., “Ontologies and Logic Reasoning as Tools in Humanities?”, DHQ 2009, 3: 4. www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/4/000068/000068.html Accessed: 30/10/2013.
9. Zöllner-Weber, A. (2009), Ontologies and Logic Reasoning as Tools in Humanities?, DHQ, 3: 4. www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/4/000068/000068.html Accessed: 30/10/2013.
","txt","2","",""
"1861","15","Building a multi-dimensional space for the analysis of European Integration Treaties. An XML-TEI scenario","9","Goal of the project

The European Union (EU) is a “union of law”: it is created by law; it enacts laws which confer rights upon EU citizens and impose duties; it acts in accordance with its law and under the legal review of the Court of Justice. The EU has, by its own, neither peoples nor territories. Its existence is entirely enclosed in its ability to bring closer its members states as well as the Europeans through the law. Thus, the knowledge (and the understanding) of the EU law is an essential part of an ongoing democratic process. In practice, pure and perfect knowledge of the law has always faced many difficulties. This is particularly true for the EU constitutional law. It is an economic and technical law faced with significant several changes in recent years and published in all official languages of the Union (24).
The goal of the project is to create a tool for assisting the researchers in European Integration Studies in the analysis of the EU treaties. The system should allow the user to navigate through the treaties along with different axes of inquiry: access to a particular unit inside a treaty (part, section, chapter, article, etc.); multilingual alignment; modifications operated upon or by a treaty and the history of its different (consolidated) versions; status (entered into forced, repealed); possibility to add and retrieve user’s comments. The tool aims also to provide the EU citizens with the consolidated and the original versions of EU treaties enriched with additional materials (i.e. contextual resources, legal & economic doctrine, case law, …). The documents under study are part of the CVCE’s Lisbon research corpus, including founding treaties of the European Union and the treaties modifying them.
Although Web-based services allowing the navigation (EUR-Lex 1, LegiFrance 2, DOCLEG 3,the versioning (Progilex 4, MetaLex 5) and/or annotation (AT4AM for All 6) of legal documents already exists, there is no integrated solution addressing all the questions entailed by our research. So far, our experiments have been dealing with the identification of the documents structure and their relations, and the construction of small prototypes using XML-TEI as an encoding format. As the project is still in an exploratory phase, the paper will focus on the theoretical bases of the project, first experimental results and further development.
Overview of the process of creating/modifying European Integration Treaties

The EU – formerly the European Communities – was established by the Rome Treaty concluded in March 1957. Since then, this treaty was modified more than 20 times, either in application of the general revision procedure or by simplified revision procedures. Every revision is enacted in the form of a legal act – be it a new treaty such as the Maastricht treaty (1992) or a secondary law like a Council decision. The act which introduces changes exists by itself, in addition to the act which is modified. However, nowhere the consolidated versions of the treaties and all their modifications are provided, even by Eur-Lex – the web service maintained by the Publications Office of the EU. This makes any analysis of EU legal texts highly tricky as any user looking for an updated version of a specific text has to compare its original version with all its subsequent revisions. Due to their complexity and their multi-linguistic nature, EU legal texts require also corrections which are legally binding. The rule relating to the allocation of seats in the European Parliament among the EU Member States since 1951 is illustrative of the complexity of the EU law. The modifications are laid down either in primary law or in secondary law; they insert, repeal, include either a whole Article or a part of it. The dates of adoption, of publication, of entry into force, of effective implementation vary from one modification to another. Some modifications were published but never entered into force applied, some other were changed before they become effective.

Fig. 1: Complexity of the EU treaties revision process: the example of the provisions on the allocation of seats in the European Parliament from 1951 to 2013.
Documents structure. Relationships

Structure of the documents

The text of a treaty can include the following elements:
preamble;
main body of the treaty;
annexes;
protocols;
declarations;
final acts;
corrections.
The corresponding TEI document may contain, apart from the metadata encoded in the TEI Header7, a text element 8with the following constituents: front(title, preamble); body (main body of the treaty); back (protocols, declarations, final act, corrections). Except from the title and the main body of the treaty, the other elements are optional. Imbrication between some of these components is possible. For instance, protocols or declarations can appear independently or be included in a final act. The main body of a treaty is structured in Fig. 2. Other components, like protocols or annexes, may have a similar configuration. 

Fig. 2: Structure of the main body of a treaty
Smaller items can be further identified but the lowest unit considered in the study is the alinea (it corresponds to a paragraph in the non-legal writing) 9.
Relations

The relations to be modeled operate either between treaties (Fig. 3) or at the fragment level, for example, an article from a treaty is modifying another article from a different treaty (Fig. 4). The relations between treaties (see also 10) are represented below and correspondingly in Fig.3.
amended_by / amends (oblique arrows pair);
previous /next versions (other than linguistic) (horizontal arrows);
linguistic_version (oblique arrow).

Fig. 3: Inter-treaties relations
The figure shows, along with the Modification and Time/Status axes, how the Treaty establishing European Economic Community (EEC, 1957) is amended by the Single European Act (SEA, 1986) and by the Treaty on the European Union (TEU, 1992), two subsequent consolidated versions being produced accordingly (EEC, 1986; EEC, 1992) (numeric codes are inspired by 11). The Language axis adds another dimension to the representation of the different linguistic versions of the treaties. Since the relations actually produce a multi-dimensional space, we can imagine the representation as functioning by parallel plans, rather than in a single three dimensional reference system. Moreover, the Time/Status axes are used to define three different timelines, for the creation/signature, entered into force and end of validity dates and places.
The relations at the fragment level can be of the following types:
modified_by / modifies;
cited_by / cites;
previous / next.

Fig. 4: Relations at the fragment level
Fig. 4 illustrates the previous/next relations (horizontal arrows) between fragments (dispositions) from a version to the other and how a disposition from TEU (1992) repeals another from EEC (1986) (vertical arrows).
Experiments

The experiments conducted so far dealt with encoding the structure of the treaties main body (Fig. 2) and the multilingual alignment. The production of XML-TEI documents involved a transformation chain represented in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5: XML-TEI transformation chain
First, the styled Microsoft Word documents, with styles corresponding to the structural components down to the level of Article (Fig. 2), were converted into XML-TEI (P5) using the OxGarage converter 12. The components were encoded using div elements. An XSL 13 file was created in order to enrich the encoding produced by the first conversion with attributes (@typeaccepting as values the components names, @xml:id, @n) for every div element. The transformation performed via Saxon 14also included procedures for the delimitation and identification of paragraphs and alineas (not marked by Microsoft Word styles). The resulted XML-TEI files were stored in an eXist-db 15database and HTML, CSS and XQuery 16 scenarios were added for visualization and queries. Fig. 6 shows the result of a search at the level of alinea and its multilingual alignment.

Fig. 6: Search by alinea. Multilingual alignment
Further work

The complexity of the relations modeling involved in our study mainly resides, on one hand, in their temporal dimension (the modifications, the generation of new versions, their validity, and implicitly their relations, query and retrieval should operate in terms of time points and time frames) and, on the other hand, in the linguistic diversity of their expression (multilingual nature but also different ways of expressing, inside the same language, how a given fragment from a treaty modifies another). Our current inquiry is therefore related to the expression of the: types of amendment (e.g. repeal, insertion, substitution) 17; nature of the reference (document/fragment, internal/external, simple/multiple, contextual/non-contextual) 18; active/inactive time intervals 19. Other elements under study and experimentation are the relations encoding (TEI linking specifications 20; xLink, xPointer 21, 22), as well as the potential use of TEI extensions for legal texts 23. Aspects related to the balance between manual versus automatic processing, the corresponding workflow, and the maintenance strategies allowing the incorporation of new data or the integration of user’s intervention are also to be considered.
The presentation will focus on the theoretical bases of the project and the experimental results.
References

1. EUR-Lex Access to European Union, eur-lex.europa.eu/en/index.htm.
2. Legifrance, le service public de la diffusion du droit, www.legifrance.gouv.fr/.
3. Documents DOCLEG, www.riziv.fgov.be/webprd/docleg/cgi-bin/cgint.exe?9&ulang=fr.
4. Progilex, legal publisher in Luxembourg, www.legitech.lu/fr/progilex/presentation.
5. CEN MetaLex, Open XML Interchange Format for Legal and Legislative Resources, www.metalex.eu/.
6. AT4AM for all, the web-based amendment authoring tool used at the European Parliament, www.at4am.org/.
7. Text Encoding Initiative, P5, TEI Header, www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/HD.html.
8. Text Encoding Initiative, P5, Default Text Structure, www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/DS.html.
9. Mencia, Eneldo Loza (2009), Segmentation of legal documents, Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, Barcelona, Spain, p. 88–97.
10. Treaty on European Union, 11992M/TXT, Eur_Lex, eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:11992M/TXT:EN:NOT#top.
11. HOW CELEX NUMBERS ARE COMPOSED, EUR-Lex, 2011, 2013, eur-lex.europa.eu/en/tools/HowCelexNumbersAreComposed.pdf.
12. OxGarage Conversion, www.tei-c.org/oxgarage.
13. The Extensible Stylesheet Language Family (XSL), www.w3.org/Style/XSL.
14. Saxon, The XSLT and XQuery Processor, saxon.sourceforge.net.
15. eXist-db Open Source Native XML Database, exist-db.org.
16. W3C XML Query (XQuery), www.w3.org/XML/Query/.
17. Spinosa, P., Giardiello, G., Cherubini, M. (2009), NLP-based metadata extraction for legal text consolidation, ICAIL '09 Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, pp. 40-49
18. Martinez Gonzalez et al. (1997), Electronic Manipulation of European Texts about Conflicts of Jurisdiction : a Semantic Web Tool, Paper delivered at the Text Encoding Initiative Tenth Anniversary User Conference, November 1997, www.lefis.org/images/documents/outcomes/lefis_series/ lefis_series_2/capitulo4.pdf.
19. Boer, A., Hoekstra, R., Winkels, R. (2002), METALex: Legislation in XML, in T. Bench-Capon, A. Daskalopulu and R. Winkels (eds.), Legal Knowledge and Information Systems, Jurix 2002: The Fifteenth Annual Conference, Amsterdam: IOS Press, pp. 1-10, citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.12.3189&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
20. Text Encoding Initiative, P5, Linking, Segmentation, and Alignment, www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/SA.html.
21. W3C XML Pointer, XML Base and XML Linking, www.w3.org/XML/Linking.
22. Martínez M.M, De La Fuente, P., Derniame, J-C., Pedrero, A. (2003), Relationship-based dynamic versioning of evolving legal documents, INAP'01, Proceedings of the Applications of prolog 14th international conference on Web knowledge management and decision support, Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 290-305.
23. Finke, N.D. (1997), TEI Extensions for Legal Text, Text Encoding Initiative Tenth Anniversary User Conference, www.stg.brown.edu/conferences/tei10/tei10.papers/finke.html#fn0.
","txt","2","",""
"1862","15","Building impact and value into the development of digital resources in the humanities: Rhyfel Byd 1914-1918 a`r profiad Cymreig / Welsh experience of World War One 1914-1918","9","Introduction

In 2011, the National Library of Wales established a Research programme in Digital Collections. The research focus of the programme is to develop an understanding of use of our existing digital content, using this knowledge to identify ways that the content can be enhanced and made more valuable for use in research, teaching, or community engagement; and building projects that develop new digital content that addresses specific research or education needs, in partnership with academics and other key stakeholders.  This activity, an example of which is described below enables critical reflection on making digital objects and the impact of digital collections on the humanities. This research addresses all aspects of digital research methods in the arts and humanities, taking advantage of the convergent practices that are embedded in digital humanities to add impact and value to digital collections of Wales.
The impact of digital collections in the humanities

The NLW Research Programme has carried out research into the use of digital collections, using a variety of methods, especially those included in the TIDSR (Toolkit for the Impact of Digital Resources) developed by the Oxford Internet Institute (microsites.oii.ox.ac.uk/tidsr/welcome). In 2011-12, we used these methods to carry out some analysis of the use of an NLW digital resource “Welsh Journals Online”[. The findings of this investigation were consistent with earlier investigations into the use of digital collections in the humanities. Significantly, the research carried out using this approach led to the conclusion that most studies attempt to measure the use of digital collections after they are launched.
From 2012-13, the Library led a JISC-funded collaborative initiative with other archives and special collections to digitise research material about the First World War in Wales.  The result was Cymru 1914 (www.cymru1914.org), a freely accessible online resource containing 190,000 pages of archival materials (including photographs, manuscripts, artworks, and newspapers); 30 hours of audio and approx. 12 hours of audio-visual material.  Approximately 30% of the content is in the medium of Welsh.  This project has been an important opportunity to incorporate earlier findings about the factors that increase the use and impact of digital collections into each stage of the development of the project. This presentation will discuss this process, and present findings about the factors that increase the value of digital collections for scholarship, with recommendations about their implementation into the development of digital collections in the humanities.
Selection of content for digitization

The primary source materials for the Welsh experience of the First World War were fragmented, frequently inaccessible and difficult to access, yet collectively they form a unique resource of vital interest to researchers, students, and the public in Wales and beyond.
An extensive scoping process of the Library, Archive and Special Collections of Wales highlighted materials in Welsh collections with the greatest relevance to World War One that were suitable for digitization, based on demand for the analogue archive materials and bibliographic research to identify citations of key materials. Research themes were identified that crossed many disciplines, opening up new avenues of research and comparative history. The final refinement of the content selected was completed in consultation academics engaged in teaching and researching the First World War, assessing the content with the greatest value to future scholarship and incorporating considerations of IPR and copyright.
Ingest into an underlying technical repository

The project made content available through ingest into the NLW’s Fedora-based digital repository architecture. This supports the archiving of multimedia digital content; and the further exposure process of content for harvesting and aggregation. Existing workflows were modified to allow ingest into the repository of new content types all content types created by the project: printed text; newspapers; photographs; manuscripts; audio, and moving image materials.
Interface development, including bi-lingual support

Users appreciate straightforward user interfaces, so a simple bilingual interface was developed to provide material in a variety of formats and at varying levels of archival complexity, while retaining the hierarchical structures of archives that increase usability – through familiarity – of digital resources.   An interface group conducted on-going, iterative usability testing and implementation, including several user workshops: a formative evaluation exercise; an education workshop; and a participatory design workshop, organized by the Humanities Research Institute at the University of Sheffield, who are working on a project entitled Participating in Search Design: a study of George Thomason’s English Newsbooks (http://. The goal of the latter workshop was to see if the participatory design methodology could feed into development of the interface by engaging with potential end users[5]. This paper will supply data about the above activities and they will be presented with cross referral against specific user communities. As the resource is used information gathered will be used to generate user case studies.
Dissemination and stakeholder engagement

Stakeholder engagement throughout the development of the project was crucial to ensuring widest use and re-use of the content, via a process of collaboration and outreach to disparate user communities, and usability testing and engagement with the digital outputs of the project. The project team worked with core communities through an iterative process of engagement and input throughout the development of the project, through the establishment of a research network of academics using the content, specifically participating in the three stakeholder workshops, and five Community engagement workshops, organised by the People's Collection Wales (http://www.peoplescollectionwales.co.uk). Post-launch user data from products such as Google Analytics also shape our findings. 
Sustainability

In many respects, the actions described above to promote use, uptake and embedding of the resource are the surest way to ensure sustainability: digital collections that are used will be sustained over the long-term as they become invaluable to education, research, and community building.[6] A recent report by ITHAKA for the Strategic Content Alliance, “Sustaining our Digital Future”[7] highlighted the need to make planning for sustainability a key component of the digital life cycle. The use of good practice in digitization, and the use of an open-source, scalable repository such as Fedora, is key to sustaining the digital objects, of course, but key to cultivating sustainability of our valuable digital content is to embed planning for impact into the planning and development of digital resources.  Fedora is a vital component of our long-term sustainability plans, and our institutional setting is key to this.  Providing a crucial resource for research, teaching and public engagement around the topic of the Welsh experience of the First World War will promote sustainability of the resource. A key factor in planning and designing the resource as described in this paper is to create a digital content platform that can be added to over time. We also plan to revisit the use of the resource and to use this summative evaluation as the basis for any required modifications to increase its use.
Conclusion

It is increasingly obvious that factoring in end use of digital resources as broadly as possible at the outset of a digitization project is crucial: impact is a crucial component of the entire digital life cycle. The ultimate use of digital materials is a consideration that impacts decisions made at every stage of this life cycle: selection, digitization, curation, preservation, and, most importantly, sustainability over the long term. The way that digital resources are used may be unanticipated at the outset; or they may have value for different communities and disciplines than originally intended. The best resources have been developed in such a way that their use and re-use has been anticipated at the outset, and that unforeseen use is anticipated through the use of technical standards and approaches. Just as digital collections that have been developed in formats that are not “open” are far less likely to be re-used for teaching or research, if digitization is to have more impact than being a form of “digital photocopying”, the user needs to be placed at the centre of the process from the outset.
References

Hughes, L.M. (2013) “Digital Collections in the Humanities: Understanding Use, Value and Impact”, special issue of 'Digital Studies / Le champ numérique' from SSHRC Montreal seminar on cyberinfrastructure
Warwick, C., Terras, M., Huntington, P., Pappa, N., & Galina, I. (2006). The LAIRAH Project: Log Analysis of Digital Resources in the Arts and Humanities Final Report to the Arts and Humanities Research Council). London: University College London. Available online: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/infostudies/claire‐warwick/publications/LAIRAHreport.pdf.
Hughes, L.M., Ell, P., Dobreva, M., and Knight, Gareth, K. forthcoming (2013) “Assessing and measuring impact of a digital collection in the humanities: An analysis of the SPHERE (Stormont Parliamentary Hansards: Embedded in Research and Education) Project”, Literary and Linguistic Computing (Oxford)
See Dobreva, M., O’Dwyer, A., and Konstantelos, L., in Hughes, L.M. (ed) (2011)Digital Collections: Use, Value and Impact. London: Facet 
For an overview of this approach, see: Wessels, B., Dittrich, Y., Ekelin, A and Eriksen, S. (2012). 'Creating synergies between participatory design of e-services and collaborative planning' in International Journal of E-planning Research, Volume 1, Issue 3, doi: 10.4018/ijepr.2012070101
Hughes, L.M., (2011) “ICT Methods for digital collections research, chapter in Hughes, L.M. (ed) (2011) Digital Collections: Use, Value and Impact. London: Facet 
http://www.sr.ithaka.org/research-publications/sustaining-our-digital-future","txt","2","",""
"1863","15","Building the Princeton Prosody Archive","2","1. Introduction

The Princeton Prosody Archive (PPA) is a full-text searchable database of nearly 10,000 digitized texts – comprising 800 million words – on prosody published in English between 1750 and 1923. During the 2012-2013 academic year, a grant from the Mellon Foundation supported the completion of the PPA’s first phase. This poster will reflect on the outcomes of the start-up stage, as well as some of the challenges and opportunities the PPA anticipates as the digital collection expands. Conference participants are encouraged to visit prosody.princeton.edu to access the Archive’s beta-site.
2. Prosody and Historical Poetics

In the nineteenth century, “prosody” – which refers to both pronunciation and the technicalities of versification – was codified as the fourth section of the grammar book, after “orthography,” “etymology,” and “syntax.” By the early twentieth century, “prosody” referred primarily to versification. In recent years, scholars of English literature have begun questioning the uniformity of poetic terminology, recognizing terms such as “prosody,” “meter, “tone,” or “rhythm” as culturally determined and fundamentally unstable concepts that have shifted through the centuries. By turning to historical texts, they are tracing how inherited notions of poetic form developed over time, and in turn, painting a more accurate picture of the evolution of English-language discourse on poetics.
As the field of historical poetics has grown, so too has our access to nineteenth-century materials through online archives. The majority of these digital resources, however, are primarily focused on prose works, and thus both technological and scholarly innovation has been made in the field of prose. The PPA is filling the gap as the only digital archive dedicated to the study of poetics, writ large, and allowing scholars to practice the kind of broad-view historical research the field demands. The PPA aggregates foundational texts in the history of poetics, reviews of these texts, debates about poetics in the public press, and grammar books and poetic handbooks that present contrary definitions and views of poetics so that “big questions” about literary movements and culture can be posed. With this large data-set, we can now ask: How did the changing science of linguistics and increased impulse toward education impact discussions of poetry over time? How often were particular poets used as examples in poetic pedagogy? How, when, and why did certain poetic terms and genres came in and out of use? 
3. Methodology

The PPA partnered with Google Books and HathiTrust in 2011, and the collection is currently composed of works digitized by Google and Hathi.[1] In 2013, the PPA began to develop a beta-site, which, though still under development, allows users to browse, search, and correct its content. To best serve its user community, the PPA functions as a freely-available, user-friendly repository, a trusted scholarly reference source, and a creative workspace that enhances traditional scholarly practices and pedagogies while enabling new ones.
3.1 Curation: Google Books and the HathiTrust Digital Library

The PPA’s initial corpus was selected from the holdings of the HathiTrust Digital Library. We began by gathering every out-of-copyright text referred to by prosody scholar T.V.F. Brogan in his annotated bibliography English Versification, 1570-1980 that had been digitized.[2] Though the availability of Hathi’s digital facsimiles and transcriptions is incredibly valuable, some aspects of their digitization and description present serious technical obstacles to the kinds of analysis the PPA intends to support. The most obvious is that the transcriptions were prepared by a range of Optical Character Recognition (OCR) systems, and few (if any) were hand corrected. Most were digitized as part of the Google Books program, whose OCR tools are not tailored to the vocabulary, orthographic conventions, or typefaces of eighteenth and nineteenth century texts. They were generally unable to capture indentation, italicization, or other formatting, variations in font size, or diacritical marks, not to mention musical notation or non-standard marks.
3.2 OCR and Diacritic Correction: Representing Scansion

When dealing with texts on prosody and versification, accurate representation of diacritics and typographical marks is particularly important. How do you render musical annotation, scansion, line spacing, or iambic markings, for example, into plain text? Because of the focus on notation and the transmission of concepts and terms, particular care must be taken to ensure that these issues do not interfere with (or silently distort) scholarly analysis. To that end, we are developing a model for encoding scansion – the non-textual elements such as musical notation, macron, breve, or other diacritics, including non-standard marks created by the many scholars who attempted to invent prosodic systems in English. Moreover, we will employ the kind of OCR that retains document coordinates for individual characters whose position on the page often conveys important information.
3.3 Metadata Correction: Scholarly Re-use and Linking Data

The metadata we ingest from HathiTrust also presents challenges. One of the PPA’s goals is to allow researchers to trace the development of prosodic discourse across time and place, and the ability to support this functionality depends on consistent and reliable metadata. While the HathiTrust provides the Machine-Readable Cataloging (MARC) records that have been supplied by contributing libraries, the fields indicating the place and date of publication are free text and vary widely in their conventions of encoding. In the PPA’s start-up phase, we developed an application that assembles text and metadata from the HathiTrust Digital Library, performs some initial automated correction, and loads the text and metadata into a Drupal 7 installation, where it can be browsed, searched, and corrected by scholars working with the Archive. Corrections to metadata can be credited to registered and authenticated users, and metadata fields can now even be versioned, using Drupal 7’s native revision control. In this initial phase, however, these corrections are essentially locked in the Drupal data store; they cannot be returned to the HathiTrust Digital Library or conveniently shared with other scholars working with the same HathiTrust volumes in other contexts. Going forward, the PPA will explore possibilities for enacting a workflow on its own metadata, engaging in the correction of HathiTrust metadata and connecting those corrections to linked data resources by working with the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities and the Foreign Literatures in America project.
3.4 Connecting Prosody Networks: Topic Modeling and Visualization

Topic modeling, and specifically Latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) has received attention in the digital humanities community over the past several years, in part because it is an unsupervised method – it does not require expensive training material or elaborate encodings – and also because it is relatively robust against textual errors. We have begun experimenting with LDA, not only to return a set of “topics” (which are simply distributions over the vocabulary) that often characterize the semantic and thematic composition of the PPA’s corpus in compelling ways, but also as a means by which we can identify mistranscription, special characters, and even musical notation. We also plan to begin experimenting with visualization tools in the following ways: 1) Plotting temporal and geographical metadata; tools such as Google Earth, MIT’s SIMILE, and Leaflet offer practical and intuitive ways to allow users to navigate temporally and geographically situated data sets interactively – for example, to view a three-dimensional chart on a globe indicating the relative prominence of cities as places of publication while moving a time slider through several centuries; 2) Mapping the documents in the corpus by its topical or lexical spaces; here, each document is represented as a point in a high-dimensional space, where the dimensions of the space are features such as counts or frequencies of individual words or n-grams, or the percentage of words allocated to a particular topic in a topic model; 3) tracking discursive networks by quotation identification and citation extraction; for example, the quotation of exemplars could be represented as a bimodal network, with nodes representing both volumes in the archive and lines of verse, and with edges from the former to the latter indicating instances of quotation.
3.5 Sharing Results

The PPA is committed to providing models so that other digital humanists struggling with the question of how to organize and present their own Hathi collections (in their research or in the classroom). Though these scholars might not be subject area experts in prosody or historical poetics, we would like to provide enough information that we might navigate unspecialized visitors through the corpus and share ideas about how they might build similar archives themselves. 
Notes

[1]  We negotiated a Google Distribution Agreement between the Princeton University Library, Princeton Counsel, and HathiTrust that allowed us to access, download, and host all of this data on our own servers.  A spreadsheet of all Archive monographs is available online at “Princeton Prosody Archive Database.” The PPA’s four collections can also be accessed through the HathiTrust site. See: 1) “Brogan's English Versification, 1570-1980” (578 works); 2) “Prosody Archive” (1,308 works); 3) “PPA Subject Search” (6,991 works); and 4) “Graphically/Typographically Unique“ (26 works set aside as possessing especially complex page images that would be misread by OCR).
[2] Brogan, Terry V. F. English Versification, 1570-1980: A Reference Guide with a Global Appendix. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981.","txt","2","",""
"1864","15","Building the social graph of the History of European Integration: A pipeline for the Integration of Human and Machine Computation","9","CUbRIK and the History of Europe App

The integration of human expertise and machine computation enables a new class of applications with significant potential for the digital humanities. So far this potential remains largely untapped due to the severe requirements of such projects: The implementation and integration of advanced algorithms requires specialized know-how and the final users from the humanities are challenged with defining unprecedented tasks for methods which haven’t emerged yet. The FP-7-funded research project CUbRIK (www.cubricproject.eu) implements and integrates research in computer science, the design of human-computation tasks, data visualization, social engineering and the humanities.
In the proposed presentation we would like to showcase one of CUbRIK’s case studies, the demo of the History of Europe application. The application introduces an effective interface to access collections of historical sources and to discover links among and entities within them. Upon completion CUbRIK will offer an innovative approach to human-enhanced time-aware multimedia search by synthesizing research in computer science, crowdsourcing and gamification. We will conclude the presentation with an outlook on the future development of the application.
Humanist-machine interaction

The History of Europe (HoE) application is based on a curated collection of more than 3000 images, representing the main events and actors in the history of the European integration. The collection is curated and hosted by the Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l’Europe (CVCE). In a first step, an image indexation pipeline identifies the location of individual faces in the photographs. The location of these faces is verified by a crowd of “click-workers” with no specific training who evaluate for each recognized face if the depicted image shows a human face or not. Following the face verification process, an automatic face recognition process is triggered that associates each of the now verified faces with a list of ten possible identities. This list of candidates is then disseminated for example through Twitter to a crowd of experts that vote and comment for their preferred identity.
Besides the identities of the different persons, all information that is associated to an image, such as the time or the place where the image was taken as well as contextual information about associated historical events can be reviewed by expert users and delegated to a crowd of domain experts for review.
Data aggregation, visualisation and analysis

Building on the computed co-occurrence of persons in images a social graph is constructed that connects them with each other. Connections gain in strength the more often persons appear together in an image. Finally the result of this process is depicted in a visualization of the social graph with a set of analytical tools.
The social graph in the History of Europe App aims at representing and visualizing dependencies between historically relevant persons in the context of European integration. Thereby the weight of the (social) links between person entities relies on their co-occurrence in historic photographs as identified by the aforementioned image indexation process. The more frequently two persons appear in different photographs, the stronger the link between the corresponding entities in the graph.
Users can interact with the History of Europe social graph in different ways, e.g. a click on a node results on an ego-graph of the selected person and clicking on an edge displays documents that relate to both selected relationship. As the documents stored in the collection very often come with a date of creation, the graph can be filtered by date with the timeline, displaying only the connections of documents created within this timespan. This timeline also shows the amount of photos per date that are contained in the collection. Another filtering option is the number of connecting documents, which allows the visualization of those relationships that are only included in an interval of a minimum and maximum number of documents. This feature is useful to highlight highest co-occurrences. Finally, the number of appearances of a person in the processed collection lets us identify people who appear particularly often in any given time frame.
Crowd discussion and a new approach to the representation of truth in digital research tools

Another challenge for the HoE app and the domain of the Digital Humanities in general is the conception of truth, which differs significantly e.g. to the conceptions of truth in Computer Science. Computer Scientists can rely on a stable foundation of what is true: Any experiment can be replicated and measured precisely. In the humanities the concept of truth is far more complex: It is based on the insight, that there is no neutral or objective way to study human environments. The way, in which questions are asked, how data is selected to answer them, by what means this data is analyzed and finally the way in which the results of such analyses are communicated and received all challenge the idea of “one truth”.
In order to represent the discursive nature of truth in the humanities within HoE we make use of a community-driven tool for question answering, similar to stackoverflow.com. User have the opportunity to answer questions and thus benefit from the knowledge within the expert crowd. However, the system allows for more than one answer and offers its users the possibility to vote and answer up or down, thereby allowing more than one answer to enter in competition with each other whilst also maintaining the full spectre of the discussion.
Summary and outlook

The History of Europe application takes on the challenge to combine cutting edge research in the domains of computer science, the design of human-computation tasks, data visualization, social engineering and the humanities by identifying synergies between the disciplines’ strengths and by compensating for their weaknesses. We do this by building a pipeline which connects face recognition tools, data visualization and input from humans and creates an ongoing cycle of iteratively improved user input and machine output. The History of Europe application stands in line with a range of other online tools for historical research but introduces new social features as well as crowd sourcing from both click-workers and expert users which continuously improves the system. In the future we will expand the selection of sources to include digitized text documents as well as audio and video interviews from different archives.","txt","2","",""
"1865","15","CAMPUS MEDIUS--Topography and Topology of a Media Experience","9","Campus Medius investigates mediality as historical experience, focusing on a chronotope (Bachtin 2008 & Schlögel 2008) of twenty-four hours in Vienna between May 13 and 14, 1933, and presented on two web-based platforms: an interactive map and an interactive documentary. Methodologically, the project relates Bruno Latour's actor-network theory to dispositif analysis following Michel Foucault, directed at identifying the conditions under which the experiential field of modern media was able to emerge. This approach identifies three levels, distinct in terms of their perspective but empirically overlapping: an archaeology of knowledge forms, a genealogy of power relations, and a typology of subjectivation modes. The twenty-four hours under investigation are marked by the Turks Deliverance Celebrations (Ackerl 1984) held by the Austrian National Socialists and the Home Guards. These events, commemorating the 250th anniversary of Vienna's liberation from the Turkish siege in 1683, were oriented from the outset upon processes of mass communication: the rallies were prepared by the party-political press, partially broadcast live on radio, and captured in propaganda films. To create a counter-public sphere, the Social Democrats published programmatic editorials and organized open-air concerts in Vienna's municipal buildings. While the Burgtheater staged Benito Mussolini's play Campo di Maggio, the large cinemas were screening Fritz Lang's sound movie Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse, a film banned in Germany. Campus Medius reconstructs the media events of this time-space and traces them back to historical media dispositifs. Hence, the project consists of two integral parts:
1. Topography: an interactive map of the chronotope, including hypermedia documents such as video clips, newspaper articles, radio broadcasts, photographs, and archive files. On this mock-up, the events are arranged politically—socialist and communist actors, Austrofascist ators, National Socialist actors, and bourgeois actors.

2. Topology: an argumentative analysis of knowledge forms, power relations, and subjectivation modes underlying the exemplary time-space. Based on the concrete events, this interactive documentary examines functions of media in the classical, modern, and postmodern age—a periodization which constitutes the organizational structure as represented in the diagram.

The technological architecture of the project is comprised of two platforms: the topography exists within the Urban Research Tool (URT) for geospatial mapping, developed at Parsons The New School for Design, and the topology exists within Zeega, a tool for interactive storytelling developed at Harvard's Sensory Ethnography Lab. These platforms provide two complementary lenses for exploring the collection of media material, and will be accessible through one interface: a website with the URLcampusmedius.net. On its front page, an image of Vienna's historical map will be integrated with URT as a kind of basemap, rectified to align with the underlying OpenStreetMap data. The user can either wander through the actor-networks by clicking on the hypertextual points and paths, or follow the Zeega tours that offer three narrative montages, thereby allowing cross-references between the platforms. While the mapped topography describes the events and displays the related media in a networked structure, the Zeegas—titled Sovereign Sign, Disciplinary Gaze, and Controlled Transmission—attempt to explain the historical a priori of the actual experiences, corresponding to the periodization mentioned above. Apart from access to these tours, the interactive map as interface will provide links to three subordinate pages: a text that introduces the project to the users; a glossary of the main theoretical, topical, and technological terms; and a list of references and sources.
Age Knowledge Power Subjectivation
classical representation sovereignty God
modern man disciplinarity individual
postmodern communication control assemblage
The Turks Deliverance Celebrations connect the chronotope with the siege of Vienna in 1683 or—in a broader view—with the classical age. In Foucault's philosophy, this historical dispositif features representation as knowledge form, sovereignty as power relation, and God as subjectivation mode. (Foucault 1966, 1975 & 1976) As shown in the overview of the project's topology, the Viennese weekend actualizes not only these classical attributes, but also features of the modern dispositif in Foucault distinguished by man as knowledge form, disciplinarity as power relation, and individuals in masses as mode of subjectivation. (Foucault 1966, 1975 & 1976) Finally, the exemplary time-space also gives examples of a postmodern dispositif with communication as knowledge form, control as power relation, and assemblages as subjectivation mode. (Deleuze 1990, Hardt/Negri 2000 & Galloway/Thacker 2007) Campus Medius analyzes functions of media in these historical settings as well as effects of their actualization: sovereign leaders of the 17th and 18th century return as theatrical stars; movie houses resemble disciplinary institutions of the 19th century; controls of communication processes as established in the 20th century appear in the form of target groups and public relations; etc.
The research project deals with (a) representational, (b) methodological, and (c) empirical questions currently under discussion in cultural studies and humanities:
a) Campus Medius is rooted in digital humanities. (McPherson 2009 & Gold 2012) In its clear division between topographical presentation (Presner 2010) and topological analysis (Deleuze 1986), the project utilizes two web-based platforms in order to harness each one's particular affordances. While the interactive URT map shows the actors through hypermedia documents, the Zeega tours focus on the emergence conditions of these events. The capacity of this narrative montages to provide an argumentative explanation of its subject is juxtaposed with the map's encouragement to explore the movie clips, newspaper articles, radio broadcasts, photographs, and archive files in various ways. This implementation sets a high value on technological and scholarly transparency: Campus Medius has been examined in a peer-review process, is being programmed with open-source software, and will be published open-access in the online journal Sensate in 2014.
b) Campus Medius contributes to the clarification of the relationship between actor-network theory (Latour 2005) and dispositif analysis (Foucault 1977). According to our thesis, the former suits the description of concrete events that involve human and non-human actors while the latter allows us to derive the examined cases from historical dispositifs of knowledge forms, power relations, and subjectivation modes. (Ganahl 2013) This association is implemented in the dual structure of topography and topology. Due to the media historical subject, the project not only takes up the philosophical (Deleuze 1989 & Agamben 2009) and sociological (Law 1992 & Bührmann/Schneider 2008) discussion, but also the so-called apparatus debate (Baudry 1975 & Rosen 1986).
c) Campus Medius relates actors that are usually covered in separate fields of study. Thus, the representative architecture of Schönbrunn Palace and the disciplinary character of Karl-Marx-Hof meet each other as scenes of antagonistic rallies. (Blau 1999) The sensible leader who Mussolini imagined as Napoleon in Campo di Maggio (Dietrich 1976 & Pyrah 2007) confronts the insane criminal as depicted in Lang's Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse (Jacques 1994 & Aurich 2001). While the chancellor's speech at the Turks Deliverance Celebration was broadcast live on radio, the bourgeois newspaper Neue Freie Presse ran an essay about Edward Bernays, a nephew of Sigmund Freud, who carried out propaganda as an ""exact science"" in order to direct public opinion via ""group leaders."" (Rundt 1933) Bernays had opened his New York office for public relations in the 1920s (Ewen 1996 & Tye 1998), but his concept to build lifestyles around products didn't fully thrive until Paul Lazarsfeld developed complementary statistical methods with his Economic-Psychological Research Bureau in Vienna. (Samuel 2010) The sociologist carried out a survey for Austrian radio in 1932 that broke with an understanding of the audience as a mass of individuals. (Mark 1996) By correlating the listeners' program wishes with their social data, he created target groups that could be exploited in commercial terms.
References

Ackerl, I. (1984). Die Türkenbefreiungsfeiern des Jahres 1933. Historische Jubiläen als politische Propagandavehikel, Geschichte und Gegenwart, 1: 18–26.
Agamben, G. (2009). What is an apparatus? And Other Essays. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Aurich, R. et al. (2001). Fritz Lang. Leben und Werk. Bilder und Dokumente. Berlin: jovis.
Bachtin, M. M. (2008). Chronotopos. Trans. by Michael Dewey. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp.
Baudry, J. L. (1975). Le dispositif: approches métapsychologiques de l'impression de réalité, Communications, 23: 56–72.
Blau, E. (1999). The Architecture of Red Vienna. 1919–1934. Cambridge: MIT Press.
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"1866","15","Canon, valor y cultura artística: diatribas críticas en los nuevos procesos de asignación de valor en la sociedad digital","10","1. Framework of thought and specific purposes 

The processes of assigning value to cultural objects, as well as the establishment of the canons which derive from those processes, have constituted until today one of the intellectual, ideological and political foundations of the development of Art History discipline as an institutional discourse (Halbertsma, 2007). This explains why the critical dismantling of the concept of canon as a structure of power, criterion of authority and legitimizing argument represented a significant line of inquiry for the post-structuralism and, more recently, for the postcolonial theory (Parker and Pollock, 1981; Bloom, 1994; Perry and Cunningham, 1999; Gorak, 2001; Bart, 2005; among others). Especially, it has been emphasized the need to bring out a critical awareness of the multiplicity and heterogeneity that define the processes of assigning  value and meaning to objects on the basis of the variety of cultures, genders, races and territories.  It has been stated that, in our global world it is essential to understand the concepts of canon and value in terms of plurality and difference. It has also become necessary to explore the specific idiosyncrasies of those processes as a mean to make recognizable and significant that diversity.  
Within this framework of thought, the so-called ‘digital turn’ offers to us another scenario of critical analysis to rethink these issues from the perspective of the new conditions of the digital society, which is modeled by the prevalence of the software, and it is characterized by the potentiality of interactivity, user-generated content, and – at least in theory - global access to and massive distribution of cultural images and objects.  This is the intellectual background of my proposal. 
As a response to the theme of Digital Humanities 2014 (Digital Cultural Empowerment), I propose to explore how the digital turn, which has brought a new model of society, economy, culture, and a new epistemology (i.e. new ways of production, narration, distribution and consumption of knowledge), is leading to a redefinition of the processes of assigning values -and the values themselves- that have hitherto prevailed in the comprehension of cultural objects within the Art History discipline, resulting in new forms of canonization. 
My approach is inspired to the current Digital Humanitie’s thought which proposes to rethink the circumstances and the consequences of this 'new' disciplinary field from the perspective of the cultural critique (Lothian and Phillips, 2013; Dacos, 2013; Galina, 2013; Fiormonte, 2012; Liu, 2012; McPherson, 2012; Higgin, 2010, among others). The field of Digital Humanities is becoming aware that there is a real risk of perpetuating in the digital world and in the practice of digital scholarship the same problems of marginality and subalternity that characterized our pre-digital world. In the field of Art History this trend is represented by the super-imposition of specific canons for the understanding and explanation of artistic phenomena. A critical approach to Digital Humanities requires a review of both established and new structures of power that are emerging.However, although the field of artistic culture is one of the most affected by these new processes, the critical discourse is still in its embryonic stage within the context of Digital Art History studies. In my opinion, there is an urgent need to conduct a thorough analysis from the perspective of critical theory. My scope would be to develop such a perspective, unveiling and questioning what kind of art-historical discourses and narratives, and what kind of digital artistic culture we are building on the web (Rodríguez Ortega, 2013).
Now then, we must bear in mind that the building of the digital artistic culture, and the growth of the emerging Digital Art History itself are defined by a dialectical tension between the new processes of assigning value and the maintenance of those traditional structures that had characterized the development of Art History discipline during the Twentieth century [1] (Baca, Helmreich and Rodríguez Ortega, 2013; Kohle, 2013). Examining this tension is a complex task, since these practices and criteria are simultaneously interlaced and in confrontation.  Any inquiry must be based then on a dual question: a) we must scrutiny what is really changing in the digital medium in regard to the processes of assigning value to cultural objects, and to what extent these new processes are entailing a destabilization of the traditional criteria of Art History’s institutional discourses; in short, the aim is to explore to what extent the Art History discipline and its allied institutions (Museum, Art Criticism, Market, etc.) are being put in crisis as argument of authority; b) perhaps more importantly, we must be aware that, while these changes –sometimes very visible- are taking place, the logic that governs the processes of assigning value based on institutional policies and established power structures is maintained, as well as it is preserved the canons  that characterized the critical and conceptual definition of artistic objects and images during the twentieth century –essentially, Western, white and male. 
2.  Defining hyper-canonization and de-canonization processes 

For this presentation, I will focus on two of theses processes, which are related to the conceptualization of the social web as the new laboratory of cultural production. In this scenario, new actors, hitherto completely unrelated to the traditional ecosystem of Art History (Academy - University, Museums, Critique, Market), arise and perform, fostering a paradoxical redefinition –paradoxical due to its ambivalence- of the traditional concepts of canon and value. 
  Firstly, I would like to address the process that I propose to call ‘hyper-canonization’ since this type of process superimposes and at the same time encompass the traditional ones. Therefore, as indicated above, a regime based on institutionalism and authorial power structures remains. The challenge lies, then, in determining which are such arising power structures and who has the ability to control them.  
In part we can associate this process to the rise of software oligopolies and social networks companies (Google, Facebook, Twitter, Apple, Microsoft, etc.) [2], which belong to the same Western and Anglophone economic-cultural context. They control the technological infrastructures, the algorithms for data processing and retrieving, the channels for content distribution and the social interactions platforms that are used by cultural institutions to interrelate with their audiences (see, for example, the massive presence of museums in social networks as inexcusable part of their communication policies and activities). This indisputable technological and economic supremacy can lead us to new forms of digital colonialism and new cultural monopolies. Some of them are obvious. From my point of view, one of the clearest cases is represented by the Google Art Project, whose declared objective is to become the global gate for accessing the entire collections of museums worldwide. Nevertheless, the philanthropic mission of providing a comprehensive and free access to the objects of world culture underlies the threat that the museum identity can get lost on the web. Each museum, as a differentiated institution, is defined by certain discursive strategies, intellectual positions and critical criteria. However, these signs of identity could dissolve if the collections would be seen preferably ‘through’ Google. Not surprisingly, it is frequent to find that museums’ websites use Google Art Project among their recommended and authorized information sources. Consequently, museums themselves are participating in this process of legitimating Google – the Google Cultural Institute - as a new institutional discourse. 
Others are less obvious, but equally disturbing. For example, despite all digital archives and online catalogs developed by public and private institutions, the largest digital images archive and the most accessible is – let admit it - Google Images. Google Images establishes a hierarchy of the images retrieved based on computational procedures that run according to algorithms completely unrelated to the epistemological, aesthetical, historical and/or symbolic specificities of artistic artifacts. Thus, the software, whose conceptualization has nothing to do with these specific aspects, assumes the power of the decision making when ‘ordering’ the images of our cultural heritage. 
‘De-canonization’ is the name that I propose for the second process that I want to address in this presentation. This process emerges directly from the social and distributed users’ interactions with the cultural images and objects on the web. Under my perspective, what is in crisis here is the concept of ‘canon’ itself, because of its bottom-up orientation which dissolves the idea of canon understood as the institutionalization of specific values representing the ideas and interests of those that hold a sort of privileged position of authority (intellectual, economic, political, etc.)
This process is linked to the unprecedented empowerment of social communities to interact with and give new meanings to cultural artifacts through their multiple, heterogeneous, and distributed digital activity.  It is thus set up a new scenario that unfolds outside the institutional frame, and whose processes of assigning value are governed by very different criteria [3]. Hence, social memory, subjectivity, emotionality, etc. become fundamental factors for the re-semanticization of cultural objects and for their relocation in new scales of value. This new context involves a disruption of the principle of authority in the Art History discipline and its allied institutions, which comes into confrontation with these actions in a double way: or ignoring them, or appropriating them. 
In fact, the appropriation of the logics of participation and sharing that characterize the web 2.0 is the basis of the so-called 'social museum' (Simon, 2010). Nevertheless, these actions bring about another problematic issue on which we need to reflect critically.  Certainly, the valuable social knowledge found in the users’ interactions have already been recognized by projects that advocate for a hybrid knowledge (expert plus non-expert), which may result in a new process of assigning value and in a new canonization model. See for example, Your Painting (http:/www.bbc.co.uk/yourpaintings), a project based on the social tagging of British paintings (Baca, 2013), or the History Harvest (http://historyharvest.unl.edu), an open digital archive of historical artifacts collected by various communities through the United States, which are systematized and prepared for research and interpretation by a group of scholars.  While recognizing the positive aspects of these initiatives, some questions arise   To what extent the institutions are appropriating these logics of participation and sharing in order to subsuming them as part of their institutional discourses and canons? To what extent are we facing a phenomenon of ‘domestication’ and an attempt to attract the outsiders to the 'center', establishing a sort of 'controlled' framework for their activities, such as perturbing sometimes for the institutions?
3. Open questions: What are facing?  

I will conclude with a set of open questions that underlie this approach and that should be discussed in depth in following studies: To what extent the Art History discipline is possible outside an institutional framework? Is that condition an argument to explain the need for operating an institutionalization of the digital environment, which is, by nature, open, distributed, and multiple? To what extent the discipline of Art History and its allied institutions are willing to share their position of authority, at least consciously? And to what extent they are aware that they are yielding this position to new structures of power?Recently, James Cuno (President and CEO of the Getty Trust) wondered from a postcolonial perspective: Who owns the past? (Cuno, 2013). Now, I think, it is the time to ask: Who owns the value and the canon in the digital realm? Who has the ability to assign value to cultural objects and images?  Who holds now the authority and power to establish the new canons and legitimizing discourses in the context of digital society?  
 
Notes
 
[1] We should not forget that the dialectic tensions and contradictions have been defining factors in the development of the Art History discipline since its early beginnings (Donald Preziosi. Rethinking Art History. Yale University Press, 1989). Therefore, the challenge now is to examine which are the new factors that participate in this process. 
[2] Regarding the new inclusion-exclusion regimes associated to the software oligopolies, see  Juan Martín Prada. Prácticas artísticas e Internet en la época de las redes sociales, Madrid: Akal, 2012. 
[3] As examples, see the following projects: www.Bdebarna.net; or www.cabanyalarchivovivo.es/index.html. Both initiatives are based on the appropriation by social communities, belonging to a specific territory, of the cultural heritage related to such territory, using for that digital infrastructures and strategies. The objective is to give them –both cultural heritage and territory- new meaning and value, and rethinking them from the point of view of the social memory and collective interests. 
References

Baca, Murtha, Anne Helmreich and Nuria Rodríguez Ortega (2013). Digital Art History. Special double issue of Visual Resources. An international Journal of Documentation. vol.  XXIX (1-2), march-june.
Baca, Murtha (2013). “The Public Catalogue Foundation’s Your Panting Project”, Visual Resources, XXXIX (3), 151-153
Bart, J. M. van der Aa (2005). Preserving the Heritage of Humanity? Obtaining World Heritage Status and the Impacts of Listing. Groningen: University Library Groningen.
Bloom, Harold (1994). The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages. New York: Harcourt Brace.
Cuno, James (2013). “Who Owns the Past? Encyclopedic Museums in the Post-Colonial Present”, in Luis Arciniega, ed., Memoria y Significado. Uso y recepción de los vestigios del pasado, Valencia: Universidad de Valencia, 215-227
Dacos, Marin (2013). “La stratégie du Sauna finlandais”, in Blogo Numericus, Mayo 2013. Disponible en: http://blog.homo-numericus.net/article11138.html [octubre 2013]. 
Fiormonte, Domenico (2012). “Towards a Cultural Critique of Digital Humanities”, Historical Social Research – Historische Sozialforschung, Special Issue, no. 141, HSR vol.37 (2), 59-76. Disponible en: http://www.cceh.uni-koeln.de/files/Fiormonte_final.pdf [octubre 2013].
Higgin, Tanner (2010). “Cultural Politics, Critique and Digital Humanities”, in Gaming the System, 25 Mayo de 2010. Disponible en http://www.tannerhiggin.com/cultural-politics-critique-and-the-digital-humanities/ [octubre 2013].
Galina, Isabel (2013). Is There Anybody Out There? Building a global Digital Humanities community. Keynote speech. Digital Humanities Annual Conference, Nebraska (USA). Disponible en: http://humanidadesdigitales.net/blog/2013/07/19/is-there-anybody-out-there-building-a-global-digital-humanities-community/ [octubre de 2013].
Gorak, Jan, ed. (2001). Canon vs Culture: Reflections on the Current Debate. New York: Garland.
Halbertsma, Marlite (2007). “The call of the canon. Why art history cannot do wituhou”. In Elizabeth Mansfield, ed., Making Art History. A changing discipline and its institutions, New York and London: Routledge, 16-30
Kohle, Hubertus (2013). Digitale Bildwissenschaft. Glückstadt: Verlag Werner Hülsbusch.
Lothian, Alexis and Amanda Phillips (2013), ""Can Digital Humanities Mean Transformative Critique"",  Journal of E-Media Studies 3.1. 
Liu, Alan (2012). “What is Cultural Criticism in the Digital Humanities?”, in Mathew K. Gold, ed., Debates in the Digital Humanities, University of Minnesota Press. Disponible en:  http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/20 [octubre 2013]. 
McPherson, Tara (2012). “Why are the Digital Humanities so White?”,  in Mathew K. Gold, ed., Debates in the Digital Humanities, University of Minnesota Press, 2012. Disponible en:  http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/20 [octubre 2013].
Parker, Roszika and Griselda Pollock (1981). Old Mistresses: Women, Art and Ideology. New York: Pantheon.
Perry, Gill and Colin Cunningham (1999). Academies, Museums, and Canons of Art. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press in Association with Open University.
Rheingold, Howard (2002).  Smart Mobs. The Next Social Revolution, Cambridge: Basic Books
Rodríguez Ortega, Nuria (2011). «Narrativas y discursos digitales desde la perspectiva de la museología crítica», Museo y Territorio, Fundación General de la Universidad de Málaga, n. 4, 14-29
Rodríguez Ortega, Nuria (2013). “Digital Art History: An Examination of Consciencie”, Digital Art History. Special double issue Visual Resources. An international Journal of Documentation. Edited by Murtha Baca y Anne Helmreich and Nuria Rodríguez Ortegavol. Vol. XXIX (1-2), march-june 2013, 129-133.
Simon, Nina (2010). The Participatory Museum, Museums 2.0, Santa Cruz.","txt","2","",""
"1867","15","CatCor: Correspondence of Catherine the Great","2","CatCor: Correspondence of Catherine the Great

Introduction

The CatCor pilot project has produced a searchable online text collection of the letters of Catherine the Great. This poster examines the technical background to the project and specifically how the document analysis and subsequent creation of a TEI P5 customization that tightly controlled the more general TEI P5 Guidelines produced a number of significant benefits for the project. These mainly relate both to the ease of checking of the letters and also the subsequent development of a website extracting data from this text collection. This digital humanities project is used as a case study to demonstrate how, with only very minimal funding, a research project may be empowered to produce resources that are of clear and immediate benefit to socio-cultural historians and literary scholars interested in these materials.  
About Catherine the Great's letters

Catherine the Great used her correspondence, the primary knowledge-transfer medium of the Age of Enlightenment, to shape her nation's and her own role in the political, cultural, and social arenas of Europe. The collection includes epistolary exchanges with such major figures as Voltaire, Frederick the Great, Friedrich Melchior Grimm, and Catherine’s charismatic lover Grigory Potemkin. Catherine ruled Russia for 34 years in the second half of the 18th century (from 1762-1796) and her correspondence was the essential medium through which she governed her court and empire, and established her own and her nation’s formidable presence in the political life of Europe and in the intellectual life of the European Enlightenment. Catherine saw herself as the model Enlightenment monarch, ruling over a nation that had fully opened itself to European influence and entered the European consciousness barely 50 years earlier. The primary aim of her reign was to demonstrate, through both policy initiatives and public relations efforts, that Russia was a European state.
The digital collection

Creating a digital collection of this unique set of letters allows scholars to discover unexpected links between letters that have previously been difficult, if not almost impossible, to juxtapose. The use of digital humanities methodologies has meant this project has been able not only to bring together these disparate and difficult to access texts, but also enabled new ways of searching, browsing, and comparing them. While the pilot project only uses 100 letters these were written by Catherine during two key periods in her transformative reign, 1774 and 1790-91. Later funding bids will aim to expand the collection and the project's scope to encompass a complete collection of Catherine's few thousand extant letters and also include those sent to her.
The text of the letters used for the pilot project are encoded in TEI P5 XML and translations to English are provided to facilitate use by a wider range of researchers. This markup also allows the letters to be classified according to a controlled vocabulary of project-specific themes which are then exposed to users as facets in the web interface. The project supplements the letters with a new apparatus of editorial notes and metadata concerning every single person, place, event, and work mentioned in the correspondence. The ease of extraction and aggregation of these named entity instances is one example of the benefits of using a well-known open international standard and having undertaken the necessary document analysis to significantly constrain this schema. Once extracted the instances along with accompanying metadata are able to be displayed, browsed, and filtered with common technologies such as jQuery DataTables. Similarly the use of schematron constraints in the TEI ODD Customization, and the development of straightforward mechanisms for simplifying proofing of common aspects of textual collections is documented in this poster.
Conclusion

The digital humanities aspects of this project are used as a case study into the re-usability of the general purpose tools developed for processing, displaying, and checking basic named entities as well as other common features of such letters. All of the relevant digital technologies, including the TEI P5 XML files of the letters, metadata files, TEI ODD Customization, and XSLT2 functions used for creation and proofing of the underlying data files are available from a public github repository under an open license. It is hoped that this will encourage re-use and empowerment for other digital humanists wishing to make similar text collections available. The open source development work on this project demonstrates the kinds of sophisticated results, immediately beneficial to the scholars working on these materials, that can be achieved with limited resources.
","txt","2","",""
"1868","15","Check! - An online tool for the recognition and evaluation of DH work","2","Introduction

There has been an increase in the recognition of Digital Humanities (DH) projects as legitimate forms of Humanities research (MLA 2007). Although much work has been done to convince our colleagues that digital research is worthy, a pending problem is that they do not necessarily have the knowledge or tools to evaluate DH work (Rockwell, 2011). Most DH projects are not presented in traditional research output formats such as articles or books, but take on various formats such as development of metadata, textual markup, tools, websites and others (Schreibman et.al, 2011), so many evaluation committees are at loss with how to deal with these materials. At the same time, people developing a DH project do not necessarily know what elements should be included. 
Although there are places in the world where advanced and sophisticated DH projects exist, the vast majority are individual and modest efforts with little access to or knowledge about best DH practices.  This issue becomes particularly acute in emergent DH communities, such as Mexico, where there is little accumulated practical experience.  In previously held workshops of the RedHD (Galina 2012; Galina & Priani 2011), where issues related to developing and promoting DH in the region were addressed, we concluded that one important aspect was providing both DH creators as well as evaluators with mechanisms for recognizing and evaluating the importance and impact of DH projects. 
We therefore decided to develop an online tool for the evaluation of DH project in order to promote the recognition and evaluation of DH work, consisting of a set of guidelines coupled with an online checklist that allows users to evaluate a particular resource using an interface that displays the results of the evaluation, indicating areas of weakness and of strength. The aim of this tool is threefold: step-by-step evaluation tool for committees, a resource for developers and as an informal compliance of a minimum standard.
Methodology

A literature review of relevant guidelines was undertaken and an ad hoc committee was created to discuss the findings.  Other tools were found to be either too specific or general (MLA 2012; Presner 2012; MLA 2011; Warwick 2007; Unsworth 2001) and additionally they were all provided as static document-based resources.
Based on this, guidelines were proposed and divided into sections: Authorship and Attribution, Documentation, Quality Control, Rights Management and Visibility and Dissemination, were created. We then extracted simple yes, no or not applicable questions in order to build up a checklist that corresponded to the guidelines. The checklist was then transferred online and we developed a punctuation system depending on the answers. The results are then displayed by section and overall performance. 
The tool was reviewed by an expert group of 16 people. Each person was assigned five DH projects to evaluate from a random sample taken from the RedHD DH project database. A follow up meeting with all participants was used to discuss their experience and several modifications were made to the tool until a consensus was reached. 
Conclusions

Creating an online resource for evaluating and building a DH project was a necessary but challenging endeavor.  DH resources are heterogeneous and their objectives vary widely. It is therefore difficult to condense into a checklist DH desirable characteristics that are not too specific but at the same time manage to incorporate issues that are particular to DH projects and not to web-based projects in general.  In addition we wanted our tool to address different types of audiences: creators and evaluators of DH resources whom would have different degrees of DH knowledge and expertise. Choosing simple and clear language for the best practices was a challenge. In addition, as we were able to ascertain from the discussions during the committee meetings, there are no clear and definite answers and this tool will probably have to be adjusted continuously as DH work and the technologies evolve and will require continuous community consensus.  In the following months the tool will be tried out with two other user groups: a group of inexpert colleagues who are developing for a DH project for the first time and an evaluation committee that provides small funding grants for UNAM projects.  The feedback from these exercises will also be incorporated as the work on this tool continues.  We do believe however, that this tool that provides an informal certification of compliance will aid in the process of recognition of the validity of DH projects as it gives both creators and evaluators a general standard to which DH projects can be measured against. 
References

Galina, I.Retos para la creación de recursos digitales en las Humanidades, El Profesional de la Información, 21(2), pp185-189, 2012 (ISSN: 1386-6710)
Galina, I., Priani, E., López, J., Rivera, E., Cruz, A.Tejiendo la Red HD- A case study of buidling a DH network in Mexico, Digital Humanities 2012, Conference abstracts, Hamburg, Germany. 16 - 22  July 2012, ISBN 978-3-937816-99-9, pp.456-458
MLA (2007). Report of the MLA Task Force on Evaluating Scholarship for Tenure and Promotion, 2007, Modern Language Association, p.71
MLA (2011), Guidelines for Editors of Scholarly Editions, Modern Language Association, 2011. 
MLA (2012), Guidelines for Evaluating Work in Digital Humanities and Digital Media, Created 2000, last reviewed 2012.
Presner, T. (2011). How to evaluate digital scholarship, http://humanitiesblast.com/Evaluating_digital_scholarship.pdf
Rockwell, G. (2011) On the Evaluation of Digital Media as Scholarship, Profession, 2011, pp. 152-168, 10.1632/prof.2011.2011.1.152
Schreibman, L., Mandell, L., et. al., (2011)  Evaluating Digital Scholarship – Introduction, Profession 2011, pp. 123-201, 10.1632/prof.2011.2011.1.123
Warwick, C; Terras, M. et. al.(2007) Evaluating Digital Humanities Resources: The LAIRAH Project Checklist and the Internet Shakespeare Editions Project. In: (Proceedings) ELPUB 2007.
Unsworth, J. (2001) University of Virginia, Evaluating Digital Scholarship, Promotion & Tenure Cases. http://artsandsciences.virginia.edu/dean/facultyemployment/evaluating_digital_scholarship.html
UNAM, Disposiciones Generales para la Actividad Editorial de la UNAM, cited in López, C. and Estrada, A., Edición y Derechos de Autor en las Publicaciones de la UNAM, 2007. 
UNAM, Recursos web – Lineamientos CATIC. http://recursosweb.unam.mx/recursos-web/lineamientos-unam/","txt","2","",""
"1869","15","Circling around texts and language: towards 'pragmatic modelling' in Digital Humanities","10","1. Introduction (1)

Digital Humanities (hereafter DH) is surely a field in rapid evolution, where open questions (2) are numerous and self-reflexivity is not new. This paper aims to contribute to the discussion around general and somehow obvious questions -  debated globally, often daily, by scholars - by reformulating the issues at stake in the following terms: other scholarship in the humanities and techno-sciences (McCarty 2013b1) has passed/passes via the experimental and the formal; in what way is the experimental and the formal done in DH different and similar? To address this question the argument will circle around two interrelated concepts:
that of ‘text’, intended in its processuality (Meister 20072) and in a wide sense from linear to discontinuous narrative, from manuscripts to printed editions, encompassing hybrid modalities such as maps (Eide 2013a3) and ‘narrative drawings’ (Groensteen 20124);
that of 'modelling', intended as DH-specific research and teaching activity (modelling rather than models; see McCarty 2005, Jannidis and Flanders 20136), but also connected to multifaceted conceptualisations of modelling (in particular Kralemann and Lattmann 20137) as used and seen by other disciplines and practices.
Firstly, ways in which new technologies and languages influence approaches to texts and the consequences for research will be discussed by recalling the results of some research projects (e.g. AGORA8, Marras and Lamarra 20139, Marras 2013b10) and by referring to the literature that reflected at large on the influence the creation and use of, for example, standard markup languages have on the relation between scholars and texts (e.g. Buzzetti 200211).
This has an important epistemological consequence that in the paper will connect directly the reflection on one of, or possibly the privileged object/s of humanities research - text – to the second focus of the argument: by modelling knowledge we somehow provide for an abstract way of looking at the world. Is DH research prone to privilege a symbolic analysis of texts in opposition to a pragmatic one?
Despite being informed by modelling as rooted in computing and therefore in mathematical reasoning, modelling in DH is directly interconnected to the work on texts, but is not only a way to see patterns of similarity across texts (e.g. Eide 2013b12). Beyond what is branded as DH research, other imaginative practices of assembling 'toolkits' to find patterns in human production exist (e.g. Hockney 200613). Can we sustain the unicity of the lens of computing, of modelling through computing? While being a rather theoretical exercise, a comparative perspective on modelling would need to be experimental in its nature: is modelling in computing going to lift our way of seeing and therefore thinking to another level of analysis?
While keeping these questions in mind, we note that significant things are happening. DH or humanities computing in its former vest (Schreibman et al. 200414) is being institutionalized and is an example of how cross-border fertilisation, namely interdisciplinarity, is possible (e.g. McCarty 2013a15, Marras 201216, Ciula 201317). We acknowledge that DH scholars and professionals are making use of a ‘blended’ style (intended as in McCarty 200918) reflected both in their language, by adopting expressions to account for a new scenario, and in their research and teaching approaches, often integrating computational methods and terminologies with modes of discourse associated to more established scholarship in the humanities (Marras 2013a19, Flanders 200920).
DH opened the stage to doing and talking about research recurring to innovative and diverse knowledge as well as to an innovative and diverse way of organising and conceptualising it. Software has also been developed to explore and represent current networked knowledge configurations (e.g. Lima's 'Knowledge Atlas', Quagiotto’s ‘Knowledge Cartography’21).
However, a (cultural) change to inform the sharing of practices and results is possibly still lacking behind (Ciula 201322). Specific modelling practices in DH could be lead to combine theoria cum praxis, anchoring innovative approaches to a solid theoretical framework. 
2. Pragmatic Modelling

In this paper we claim that language as mediation in designing and contextualising models is crucial. We do so by focusing on the concept of pragmatic modeling (4) intended as research strategy, framed within the complex cognitive, social, and cultural functioning of DH practices affected by cross-linguistic and interdisciplinary dimensions. Pragmatic modelling is understood as being anchored to theory and language, while at the same time claiming some freedom from both (e.g. in digital textual editing one might adopt the OHCO model while at the same time questioning it deeply). It operates within the relational and dynamic aspects of modeling.(5)
Middle out method and metaphoric reasoning/language

Metaphors as meta-models (Kralemann and Lattmann 201323) and linguistic tools are called to explore the creative power of pragmatic modelling (Getachew 200624 and Mazzocchi-Fedeli 201325) and to move forward the theoretical reflection as framed so far. With this respect, metaphorical reasoning exemplifies a specific strategy to guide modelling in DH: pragmatic modelling can be understood as facilitating a middle-out approach based on metaphorical language. In general terms, this translates into a move away from the dichotomy at interplay between bottom-up (models emerging from particulars or 'artifacts of study') and top-down (models imposed on particulars) approaches to what we propose to call a middle-out method; a method that acts at the crossing point of data and models adapting itself to specific “textual contexts”. Three interrelated properties (adapted from Verschueren, 1995) can be associated with this method:
Variability - the range of choices in the use of language cannot be seen as static in any respect.
Negotiability - such choices are not made mechanically or according to strict rules or fixed form-function relationships, but on the basis of highly flexible principles and strategies, thus also implying the indeterminacy and unexclusiveness of the choices made.
Adaptability - such negotiable choices can be adapted based on specific needs and contexts according to the variable range of possibilities. 
DH Practices

We will narrow down our approach with selected case studies that show how in DH (in comparison to other contexts) choices are not made mechanically or according to fixed theories, but on the basis of flexible principles and strategies potentially open to creative reasoning. Indeed, with respect to modelling theorised in computer sciences, the challenge in DH is to shift the lens of computing up the scale, to embrace the experimental nature of modelling at the lower level of the scale (e.g. in computing coding) and see indeed how it can scale up (e.g. to do critical scholarship with/via it).
The opportunities enabled by modelling (e.g. emergence of patterns of relation, behaviour, and shape) are rooted not only in a ‘demonstrative’ and ‘literal language’ but also in the metaphorical one (Marras 201327, McCarty 200628). Some modelling attempts in DH and cultural heritage formalisations more in general have embarked in dedicated efforts to problematise terminology (e.g. CIDOC-CRM29; Pundit30); some prominent DH scholarship is reflecting on the limits of adopting uncritically the language of computer sciences (e.g. Eide et al. 201331 on spatio-temporal concepts in humanities and arts; Simpson et al. 201332 on what a ‘person’ is in ontological models for the humanities; Renear 201333 on what ‘datasets’ are for libraries, publishing, data curation, and DH); some other DH scholarship has ventured in creative attempts at establishing neologisms (e.g. “factoid” as described in Short and Bradley 200534): is there a trade-off in projecting historical lexicons in new contexts of use?
3. Conclusions

In conclusion, departing from open and interdisciplinary conceptualisations of objects of analysis – such as texts – and of certain explorative and epistemological strategies of analysis – such as modelling – the authors will show how the spectrum of research in DH is indeed expanding our boundaries of knowledge. However, modelling practices are more than often constrained by the language they are embedded in, either because terminology is not problematised enough or because language is not used imaginatively.
Notes

(1) This paper is the result of an intense discussion carried out between the two authors in the last years on the nature of DH research practices and strategies. This discussion took place in different contexts, in particular during the work on DH infrastructures carried out at ESF (Moulin et al. 201135), but also as part of informal exchanges stemming from diverse teaching experiences and works within collaborative research projects in the broad area of DH. Recently a discussion focused on modelling within the forum of Humanist (see references36) triggered some further reflections partially formalised in this paper.
(2) “Is there such thing as DH? Is DH unique in its practice and research strategy?” See Gold 201237 for a rich overview on this discussion.
(4) We subscribe to a functional perspective on the study of language. By focusing on use, a pragmatic perspective is also integrative in that it aims at encompassing the full complexity of the cognitive, social, and cultural functioning of language (Verschueren 199538).
(5) We mean both the interplay between the object of analysis and the model (usually referred as mapping; e.g. Kralemann and Lattmann 2013, 341739), as well as across different levels of the interpretative process (e.g. close and distant reading, symbolic/sintagmatic and semantic/paradigmatic levels of text analysis).
References

1. McCarty, W. (2013b). DH Conference 2013, Busa Award lecture 2013, Alliance of Digital Humanities Organizations: www.youtube.com/watch?v=nTHa1rDR680 (accessed 3 March 2014)
2. Meister, J. Ch. (2007). Events are Us, Amsterdam International Electronic Journal for Cultural Narratology, (AJCN) 4/Autumn 2007: cf.hum.uva.nl/narratology/a07_meister.htm (accessed 3 March 2014)
3. Eide, Ø. (2013a). Why Maps Are Silent When Texts Can Speak. Detecting Media Differences through Conceptual Modelling. Buchroithner M. F. et al. (eds), Proceedings of the 26th International Cartographic Conference, Dresden 2013: www.icc2013.org/_contxt/_medien/_upload/_proceeding/31_proceeding.pdf (accessed 3 March 2014)
4. Groensteen, T. (2012). Définitions. L’Art de la bande dessinée, Citadelles & Mazenod: 17-75.
5. McCarty, W. (2005). Humanities computing. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
6. Jannidis, F. and Flanders, J. (2013). A concept of data modelling for the humanities. DH Conference 2013: dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/author.html?q=author:%22jannidis%2C%20fotis%7C%7CJannidis%2C%20Fotis%22 (accessed 3 March 2014)
7. Kralemann, B. and Lattmann C. (2013). Models as icons: modeling models in the semiotic framework of Peirce’s theory of signs, Synthese, November 2013, Volume 190, Issue 16: 3397-3420.
8. AGORA, Scholarly Open Access Research in European Philosophy, CIP-Pilot Action (CIP-ICT-PSP-2010-4, n. 270904: www.project-agora.org
9. Marras, C. and Lamarra, A. (2013). Scholarly Open Access Research in Philosophy: Limits and Horizons of a European Innovative Project. DH Conference 2013: dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-316.html (accessed 3 March 2014)
10. Marras, C. (2013b). AGORA-Scholarly Open Access Research in Philosophy. An overview’. Beiträge zur Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft, Projektberichte, 23.2: 295-301.
11. Buzzetti, D. (2002). Digital Representation and the Text Model, New Literary History, 33, 1, Winter 2002: 61-88 | 10.1353/nlh.2002.0003
12. Eide, Ø. (2013b). Ontologies, data modelling, and TEI. TEI Conference 2013: digilab2.let.uniroma1.it/teiconf2013/program/papers/abstracts-paper#C107 (accessed 3 March 2014)
13. Hockney, D. (2006). Secret knowledge: rediscovering the lost techniques of the old masters. London: Thames & Hudson.
14. Schreibman, S.; Siemens, R.; Unsworth, J. (eds.) (2004). Companion to Digital Humanities. Oxford: Blackwell, www.digitalhumanities.org/companion (accessed 3 March 2014)
15. McCarty, W. (2009). Being reborn: the humanities, computing and styles of scientific reasoning. New Technology in Medieval and Renaissance Studies 1: 1-23. Invited paper originally delivered at the Renaissance Society of America conference, Clare College, Cambridge, 7 April 2005.
16. Marras, C. (2012). Pragmatica e comunicazione: orizzonti interdisciplinari. Gensini, S. and Forgione L. (eds.) Filosofia della comunicazione. Roma: Carocci.
17. Ciula, A. (2013). Which Changes are Currently Taking Place in our Research and Academic Culture?, International colloquium: Research Conditions and Digital Humanities: What are the Prospects for the Next Generation?, German Historical Institute in Paris, June 2013: www.slideshare.net/arimare/presentation-ciulaparis2013 (accessed 3 March 2014)
18. McCarty, W. (2009). Being reborn: the humanities, computing and styles of scientific reasoning. New Technology in Medieval and Renaissance Studies 1: 1-23. Invited paper originally delivered at the Renaissance Society of America conference, Clare College, Cambridge, 7 April 2005.
19. Marras, C. (2013a). Structuring multidisciplinary knowledge: Aquatic and terrestrial metaphors. Knowledge Organization, Mazzocchi, F. and Fedeli, G. (eds.), special issue, Fall 2013: 392-399.
20. Flanders, J. (2009). The Productive Unease of 21st-century Digital Scholarship, Digital Humanities Quarterly, vol.3, 3, 2009: www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/3/000055/000055.html (accessed 3 March 2014)
21. Knowledge cartography: www.knowledgecartography.org (accessed 3 March 2014)
22. Ciula, A. (2013). Which Changes are Currently Taking Place in our Research and Academic Culture?, International colloquium: Research Conditions and Digital Humanities: What are the Prospects for the Next Generation?, German Historical Institute in Paris, June 2013: www.slideshare.net/arimare/presentation-ciulaparis2013 (accessed 3 March 2014)
23. Marras, C. (2013b). AGORA-Scholarly Open Access Research in Philosophy. An overview’. Beiträge zur Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft, Projektberichte, 23.2: 295-301.
24. Getachew, M-T. (2006). Metaphor. Continuum Encyclopedia of British Philosophy. Goulder, N., Grayling A.C., Pyle, A. (eds). London: Thoemmes Continuum.
25. Mazzocchi, F. and Fedeli, G. (eds.) (2013). Special Issue: ‘Paradigms of Knowledge and its Organization: The Tree, the Net and Beyond’, Knowledge Organization, vol. 40, n.6.
26. Verschueren, J. (1995, revised 2012). The pragmatic perspective. Handbook of Pragmatics, Östman J-O. & Verschueren J. (eds.), John Benjamins: Amsterdam/Philadelphia.
27. Marras, C. (2013a). Structuring multidisciplinary knowledge: Aquatic and terrestrial metaphors. Knowledge Organization, Mazzocchi, F. and Fedeli, G. (eds.), special issue, Fall 2013: 392-399
28. McCarty, W. (2006). Tree, Turf, Centre, Archipelago or Wild Acre? Metaphors and Stories for Humanities Computing. Literary and Linguist Computing, April 2006, 21, 1: 1-13.
29. CIDOC-CRM, Conceptual Reference Model: www.cidoc-crm.org (accessed 3 March 2014)
30. Pundit: www.thepund.it (accessed 3 March 2014)
31. Eide, Ø; Grossner, K.; Berman, Merrick L.; Ore, C.-E. (2013). Issues in Spatio -Temporal Technologies for the Humanities and Arts. Panel at DH Conference 2013: dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-319.html (accessed 3 March 2014)
32. Simpson, J.E.; Brown, S.; Goddard, L. (2013). A Humanist Perspective on Building Ontologies in Theory and Practice, DH Conference 2013: dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-413.html (accessed 3 March 2014)
33. Reaner, A. (2013). Text encoding, ontologies, and the future. Keynote at TEI Conference 2013: digilab2.let.uniroma1.it/teiconf2013/program/keynotes/ (accessed 3 March 2014)
34. Short, H. and John B. (2005). Texts into Databases: The Evolving Field of New-style Prosopography, Literary and Linguistic Computing, 2005, 19.5: 3-24
35. Moulin, C.; Nyhan, J.; Ciula, A; et al. (2011). Research Infrastructures for the Digital Humanities, ESF Science Policy Briefing 42, Sept. 2011: www.esf.org/publications (accessed 3 March 2014)
36. Humanist Discussion Group, vol. 27, n. 471: 27.471 models of computation: www.digitalhumanities.org/humanist (accessed 3 March 2014)
37. Gold, M.K., ed. (2012). Debates in Digital Humanities. University of Minnesota Press: dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/ (accessed 3 March 2014)
38. Verschueren, J. (1995, revised 2012). The pragmatic perspective. Handbook of Pragmatics, Östman J-O. & Verschueren J. (eds.), John Benjamins: Amsterdam/Philadelphia.
39. Kralemann, B. and Lattmann C. (2013). Models as icons: modeling models in the semiotic framework of Peirce’s theory of signs, Synthese, November 2013, Volume 190, Issue 16: 3397-3420.","txt","2","",""
"1870","15","Cirilo Client: An application for data curation and content preservation","2","GAMS: A Fedora Commons instance

Since 2003 the Centre for Information Modeling - Austrian Centre for Digital Humanities at the University of Graz (Austria) provides an infrastructure for a variety of DH projects. After years of building insular solutions, the Centre introduced a powerful yet flexible new infrastructure, called GAMS (Geisteswissenschaftliches Asset Management System, AMS for the Humanities). It is based on the Fedora Commons architecture. Thus, the infrastructure inherits all features already provided by Fedora: full OAIS-compliance, strict separation of data and metadata, and predefined interfaces like OAI-PMH. A central advantage of the Fedora architecture is its object model: An asset consists of a primary source, some metadata and virtual representations derived from the primary source. The object is completely self-descriptive: It knows about all changes that have been made to it, its version history, datastreams and assigned context objects. Finally, it also knows about all possible representation forms. Each object contains all the necessary information to store, preserve, retrieve and view it.
Cirilo Client: Mass operations in Fedora made easy

Although Fedora is a powerful tool, front-end object management is not always easy, especially with regard to mass operations. The Centre has developed a tool for this use case, complementing Fedora’s built-in Admin Client. Cirilo is a java application developed for data curation and content preservation in Fedora-based repository systems. Content preservation and data curation in our sense include object management and creation, versioning, normalization and standards, and choice of data formats.
Cirilo makes use of Fedora’s management-API (API-M). It offers applications which are particularly prone to being used as tools for mass operations on Fedora repository objects, such as ingest or replacement processes: With Cirilo ingest processes can be performed from the file system, from an eXist database or an Excel spreadsheet. During the ingest metadata is automatically extracted from the source document and written to the newly created object (for instance in DC format).
  The client operates on a collection of predefined content models which can be used without further adjustments for standard workflow scenarios like the management of collections of TEI objects. The content models, which are based on the Fedora object model, are class definitions: On the one hand they define the (MIME-)type of the contained data streams, on the other hand they designate dissemination methods operating on these data streams. Every object in the repository is an instance of one of these class definitions. The advantage of this concept lies in the fact that very complex data sources and workflows can be handled easily.
Currently, the client offers various content models for specific purposes, special emphasis lies on the TEI model. The TEI ingest processes can be flexibly costumized: during ingest policies for the extraction of semantic information can be applied, referenced images can be uploaded simultaneously and ontology concepts can be resolved. A new content model currently in development creates the appropriate ontology objects, especially SKOS objects. A designated query object makes it possible to pose queries with parameters to the Mulgara triplestore. With the help of these ontology and query objects dynamic indices can be created. There is a container object for the creation of collections available, which makes it easy to organize your resources. Finally, there are some models optimized for specified primary sources like METS/MODS, HTML, PDF, BibTeX or external resources accessible via an URL. A content model for linguistic resources is in development (in cooperation with ICLTT, Vienna). Currently, we are testing how controlled vocabularies and thesauri (for instance geonames.org), can be sensibly integrated in the system.
The user can assign numerous virtual representations via the client. The METS/MODS object is designed to be viewed in the DFG-Viewer. TEI objects can be directly used as the input for the Voyant Tools or the Versioning Machine. The members of a context object can be projected on a map using Google Maps. Basically any web-based service can be integrated into the infrastructure. Of course, user- and project-specific stylesheets are often employed.
The Cirilo Client will be made available as an open source software project, including documentation, as a contribution of the Centre for Information Modeling - Austrian Centre for Digital Humanities to DARIAH-AT in 2014.
References

DARIAH-EU: www.dariah.eu [2013-10-28]
DFG-Viewer: dfg-viewer.de/ueber-das-projekt [2013-10-28]
Fedora Commons: www.fedora-commons.org [2013-10-28]
Google Maps: maps.google.at [2013-10-28]
Geisteswissenschaftliches Asset Management System, AMS for the Humanities: gams.uni-graz.at [2013-10-28]
Carl Lagoze, Sandy Payette, Edwin Shin, Chris Wilper, Fedora (2005). An Architecture for Complex Objects and their Relationships. arxiv.org/ftp/cs/papers/0501/0501012.pdf [2013-10-28]
Versioning Machine: v-machine.org [2013-10-28]
Voyant Tools: voyant-tools.org [2013-10-28]
","txt","2","",""
"1871","15","Civilization arranged in chronological strata: A digital approach to the English semantic space","10","1. Introduction
This paper focuses on the history of the English lexicon, and on displaying a new approach to this history through the database of the Historical Thesaurus of English1 (hereafter abbreviated to HT). It does so by reference to the semantic space of English, following Lehrer’s statement that ‘the words of a language can be classified into sets which […] divide up the semantic space or the semantic domain in certain ways’. This space is described in this paper as the total accumulation of the various individual semantic fields which make up the language, as represented in the HT database. The paper therefore computationally analyses the size of the English lexicon in these semantic clusters over time, including the metaphorical links which weave between these fields, and so aims to demonstrate the use of the HT in digital humanities by giving a digital analysis of the history of English in ways which were previously not possible.

As part of two wider projects,23 the present paper focuses on describing the general empirical outlines and development of the English semantic space, accompanied by a case study of three contrasting semantic fields and their metaphorical relationships. These are outlined below, following a description of the methodology and theoretical basis of the paper.

2. The Historical Thesaurus and Lexical History
The data used in this paper is drawn from the database of the HT, which arranges into hierarchical semantic categories all the recorded words expressed in English from Anglo-Saxon times to the present day, with 793,742 entries within 225,131 categories, each category representing a distinct concept. These concepts are arranged hierarchically and semantically, so that each concept is placed near or within other, similar concepts.

In so doing, the HT unlocks the linguistic and historical data which is currently inaccessible in any usefully-structured way inside historical dictionaries such as the Oxford English Dictionary (OED)4. As Charlotte Brewer says, with reference to a review in the Times of the OED:

""...even the intensively habitual user [of the OED] could not hope to construct, from an overwhelming multiplicity of individual items, the complete picture, ‘the various forms of [...] civilization arranged in chronological strata’...""5

Alphabetical arrangement, absent any alternative structure, makes this construction incredibly difficult, if not impossible. But the HT, which structures itself based on meaning and not the alphabet, does give researchers access to this ‘complete picture’. This was one of the intentions of the HT from the beginning: Professor Michael Samuels, founder of the project in 1964, saw it as a way of revealing the information about social and cultural change inside and throughout the lexicon which was not easily available for researchers to access.6 The HT is therefore a massive digital resource for the study of this phenomenon.

3. Semantic Space
Key for the first part of this paper is that the HT, when analysed in database form, gives an indication of rates of lexicalisation in the history of English. This relates to the phenomenon of synonymy, a situation in a language where a number of words are created (or lexicalized) for a single concept (for more on the following discussion, see, amongst others, Lyons 19957, Verhagen 20078, Hughes 19899, and Taylor 200310). While synonymy is a common occurrence in English, as in many other languages, the linguistic insight that synonymy is a form of recategorization, where speakers create a new synonymous term because they wish to reflect a shift in their understanding of, or attitudes towards, a particular concept, allows the use of data on lexicalization rates as an indicator of particular speaker attention to a given concept. Therefore, a situation where there are multiple words for a given concept reflects the evolution of speakers’ reactions, attitudes, perceptions and awarenesses of that concept, as human language is too efficient a system to permit there to exist large sets of undifferentiated terms which mean precisely the same thing. The present paper therefore uses this measure as a rough proxy for importance of a concept (just as frequency is used as a similar measure of importance in corpus linguistics, with all the associated issues that varying corpus construction techniques brings with it).

Therefore, for the first time, the database of the HT can give us an empirically based view of English by viewing the changes in the internal structure of the language from an entirely semantic viewpoint. By separating the story of English into the multiple stories of interacting and interrelated semantic fields, this approach can describe the history of English as one generally characterized by overall growth accompanied by occasional trauma which results in sudden expansions or contractions of the English lexicon. The rate of change of each semantic field is therefore a statistic which demonstrates the incidence of such instances of trauma, growing or declining in response to external and internal factors either particular to a semantic field or general to the language as a whole. Such general factors in English include the well-known sudden growth in the mid-1400s which occurs at the start of the English Renaissance, and the Elizabethan and Jacobean spurt which begins a little after 1550, which can be seen in Figure 1:


Fig. 1: The growth of the English language across time, as recorded in the HT.

In addition to presenting an overview of the growth of the semantic space of English between the years 1100 and 2000, the paper will also give short case studies of three aggregate semantic fields (figure 2) and their metaphorical relationships (see section 4 below):

02.01.15 Attention and Judgement, a very large and highly variable category, with an increase of 1000 words in the 1575-1600 period, but a fall of 261 in 1875-1900.
03.10.13 Trade and Commerce, a category which is relatively small but has one of the highest rates of growth spurts, punctuated with long plateaus.
03.05.05 Moral Evil, a category which peaks in 1650 and is one of the rare examples of frequent decline across the history of English, with a loss of 246 words between 1650 and 1900.

Fig. 2: The growth of three semantic fields. Square: 02.01.15 Attention and Judgement; Circle: 03.05.05 Moral Evil; Triangle: 03.10.13 Trade and Commerce.

Each of these reflect both global trends in the history of English (such as those above, in addition to relative plateaus in the 1700s) while also containing their own internal factors, such as shifts in religious emphasis and in broader economic and industrial patterns.

Not all of these factors are expected; there is no mention in the literature of the rise and fall of lexicalization in the semantic field of Moral Evil, nor in many of the other unusual patterns in the rate-of-change data described in this paper. The new data described here gives rise, in the tradition of digital humanities, to the necessity for further explanations from a range of humanities disciplines, such as linguistics, history and literary studies (see Alexander and Struan 201311 for an interdisciplinary study in a further semantic field).

4. Metaphoricity
Beyond these rates of change, each semantic field above has metaphorical links to other areas of the language, which the HT can reveal to us. Far from being a solely literary technique, much of all language is figurative – recent research has shown somewhere between 8% and 18% of English discourse is metaphorical, with an average of every seventh word being a metaphor.12

This is problematic, as while advances are being made in the semantics of digital texts, alongside emerging concepts of a semantically-aware Web, we are at a very early stage in comprehensively and systematically understanding English metaphor, and therefore at an early stage of being able to accurately deal digitally with the meanings encoded in those texts. By mapping the HT's semantic categories onto one another in order to analyse the degree of lexical overlap in different conceptual fields, we can provide results which will comprehensively demonstrate the widespread, systematic and far-reaching impact of metaphor on English. This is the aim of the Mapping Metaphor project at Glasgow,13 which provides some of our data in this paper, demonstrating empirically the systematic lexical connections between our case study fields (such as that between attention and vision, or evil and darkness).

5. Conclusion
Overall, as well as giving an overview of the history of the English semantic space and its metaphorical interrelationships, the paper also argues for a semantically-informed history of English which operates from a top-down approach, picking out broad patterns and the connections between various semantic categories in order to highlight for analysis those noteworthy elements in a large sea of data. As ever, such large-scale analyses are only possible through a combination of database techniques, statistical analysis, visual displays of complex datasets, and humanities scholarship.

References
1. Kay, C., J. Roberts, M. Samuels, and I. Wotherspoon (eds). (2009). Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

2. Alexander, M. (2012). Patchworks and Field-Boundaries: Visualising the history of English. Conference paper at Digital Humanities 2012. Hamburg: University of Hamburg.

3. Anderson, W., M. Alexander, E. Bramwell, C. Kay, and C. Hough. (2013)–. Mapping Metaphor with the Historical Thesaurus. Glasgow: University of Glasgow. www.glasgow.ac.uk/metaphor

4. Simpson, J. and E. Weiner (eds). 1989. The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

5. Brewer, C. (2007). Treasure-House of the Language: The Living OED. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Page 232.

6. Samuels, M.L. (1972). Linguistic Evolution: With Special Reference to English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Page 180.

7. Lyons, J. (1995). Linguistic Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

8. Verhagen, A. (2007). Construal and Perspectivization. In The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Lingustics, eds D. Geeraerts and H. Cuyckens. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 48-81.

9. Hughes, G. (1989). Words in Time: A social history of the English vocabulary. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

10. Taylor, J.R. (2003). Linguistic Categorisation, 3rd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

11. Alexander, M and A. Struan. (2013). ‘In countries so unciviliz’d as those?’: Notions of Civility in the British Experience of the World. In Experiencing Imperialism, eds M. Farr and X. Guégan. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

12. www.glasgow.ac.uk/metaphor","txt","2","",""
"1872","15","CLARIN: Resources, Tools, and Services for Digital Humanities Research","10","1. Introduction

CLARIN is the short name for the Common Language Resources and Technology Infrastructure. It aims at providing easy and sustainable access for scholars in the Humanities and Social Sciences (HSS) to digital language data and advanced tools to discover, explore, exploit, annotate, analyse or combine them, independent of where they are located. CLARIN is one of the research infrastructures that were selected for the European Research Infrastructures Roadmap by ESFRI, the European Strategy Forum on Research Infrastructures. The CLARIN Governance and Coordination body at the European level is CLARIN ERIC. An ERIC is a new type of international legal entity, established by the European Commission in 2009. Its members are governments or intergovernmental organisations. 
CLARIN is in the process of building a networked federation of European data repositories, service centres and centres of expertise, with single sign-on access for all members of the academic community in all participating countries. Tools and data from different centres will be interoperable, so that data collections can be combined and tools from different sources can be chained to perform complex operations to support researchers in their work. The CLARIN infrastructure is still under construction, but a number of participating centres are already offering access services to data, tools and expertise. The purpose of the present paper is to give an overview of language resources, tools, and services that CLARIN presently offers.
2. Reference Data Sets

The federation of CLARIN centers offers a high number of reference data sets that are well-known and widely used in the scientific community. The CLARIN Center in Vienna offers the Austrian Academy Corpus, a very large collection of German texts and German literature covering the period of 1848 to 1989. The German reference corpus DeReKo, the  largest linguistically motivated collection of contemporary German texts with more than 4.0 billion word tokens, is hosted by the CLARIN Center in Mannheim. The CLARIN Center in Berlin provides access to the German Text Archive, a digital collection of German-language printed works from around 1650 to 1900 as full text and as digital facsimile. The CLARIN Center in Sofia offers the Bulgarian Reference Corpus. CLARIN Center in Warsaw hosts the National Corpus of Polish, a reference corpus with more than fifteen hundred million words.
CLARIN centers offer extensive collections of spoken language. The CLARIN Center in Amsterdam is home to thousands of hours of audio material for Dutch, including more than 1000 hours of dialect recordings. The CLARIN Center in Munich specializes in digital corpora for contemporary German. The CLARIN Center in Sofia offers the Bulgarian Political and Journalistic Speech corpus. 
CLARIN language resources are not restricted to the languages spoken in CLARIN member countries. The CLARIN Center in Nijmegen offers easy access to the DOBES Archive, which documents endangered languages around the world.
Another key language resource are high-quality lexica. The CLARIN Center in Tartu provides on-line access to a variety of lexica for Estonian http://www.keeleveeb.ee/. The CLARIN center in Berlin is home to the Digitale Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache (DWDS). The DWDS lexicon uses extensive digital corpus collections to document the actual usage of German words and offers on-line access to all materials at www.dwds.de/. Apart from traditional lexica, CLARIN also offers access to lexical resources that model word meanings in terms of a network of lexical and conceptual relations. The CLARIN center federation currently hosts such word nets for Czech, Danish, Dutch, Estonian, Finnish, German, and Norwegian. 
In addition to reference data sets, CLARIN provides access to an extensive set of metadata records. The Virtual Language Observatory (www.clarin.eu/vlo) currently contains more than 500.000 metadata records to language resources and tool. Facetted search and a visual map provide easy-to-use interfaces for HSS scholars to locate language resources and tools that match the needs in a  particular research project.
2.2. Creation of New Resources

For new digital data sets, special care must be taken that such data creation efforts adhere to best practises or standards for text encoding whenever possible and follow a data management plan. HSS scholars often lack the necessary experience or access to data repositories to meet these expectations. The CLARIN-D User Guide [1] provides practical information on the use of standards for language resources and on following good practises in data creation.
3. Data Mining and Data Analysis

3.1. Query Tools and Federated Content Search

Since data sets available in electronic form are typically very large, CLARIN centers support HSS scholars by providing powerful and easy-to-use query tools for many of the resources described above. Access is greatly facilitated if such query tools are realized as web applications and thus available in any web browser. Two good examples of this kind are the web application for querying the German Text Archive and the MIMORE (http://www.meertens.knaw.nl/mimore/search/tool) tool, which enables researchers to investigate morphosyntactic variation in the Dutch dialects by searching three related databases with a common on-line search engine. The search results can be visualized on geographic maps and exported for statistical analysis.
In addition to query interfaces for individual resources, CLARIN offers a Federated Content Search (FCS) functionality that enables HSS scholars to construct a virtual corpus collection hosted by different CLARIN centers and to query this virtual corpus via a common search interface. Currently, nine CLARIN centers in Germany and in the Netherlands make more than 20 resources available to the linguistic researches via the common interface of the CLARIN-D Federated Content Search ( weblicht.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de/Aggregator), and this number is growing. The CLARIN Center at the University of Oslo also provides FCS functionality via the GLOSSA corpus query tool.[5]
3.2. Workflows for Data Annotations

Language data that are annotated with linguistic information can be searched with high accuracy for specific data patterns. The CLARIN Centers in Oslo, Prague, Tübingen and at the Dutch Language Union offer linguistically annotated corpora, so-called treebanks, for Czech, Dutch, German, and Norwegian with accompanying query tools.
If a collection of language resources does not contain sufficient linguistic information, for example if the word forms in a corpus have not been lemmatized, it is impossible to obtain meaningful word frequency distributions. Likewise, if an HSS scholar wants to search for all person names in a very large newspaper corpus in order obtain an overview of who is currently in the news, then the person names in such a corpus needs to be marked up. CLARIN offers support for HSS scholars who need to add annotations of this kind. The web application WebLicht [2], hosted by the CLARIN Center in Tübingen, is a tool-suite for automatic annotation of text corpora. Linguistic tools such as tokenizers, part of speech taggers can be combined into custom processing chains. The resulting annotations can then be visualized in an appropriate way, such as in a table or tree format. Recently the WebLicht tool suite has been extended to spoken language. This can be achieved with the integration of the WebMaus tool provided by the CLARIN center in Munich. WebMaus takes as input an audio file and its transcription  and automatically aligns the speech signal with its transcriptions. The WebLicht tool can then further annotate the transcriptions so that via the automatic alignment, a user can find the relevant portions of the speech signal for particular data patterns.
4. Data Visualization

Visualization tools that render the data analysis results in an easy-to-grasp fashion are particularly important if the data sets involved a very large. While CLARIN cannot provide a comprehensive suite of eHumanities visualization tools, it can already support HSS scholars with a number of helpful applications. [3] The CLARIN Center at the University of Copenhagen has developed a visualization tool for parallel inspection of word nets. CinaViz[6] is web application provided that offers geo-visualizations for tracking city names with particular linguistic features.
5. Data Sharing and Data Archiving

CLARIN also provides support for the sharing, publishing and archiving of the data sets. SimpleStore and OwnCloud solutions are available for collaborative work on the same data set. Many CLARIN data repositories offer archiving services for external resources and for finished data sets. For quality assurance, all CLARIN Centers are assessed by the CLARIN Assessment Committeee, according to strictly defined technical requirements (see: http://hdl.handle.net/1839/00-DOCS.CLARIN.EU-78) and have to obtain the Data Seal of Approval[7] for their services.
6. Conclusion

Interoperability of language resources and tools in the federation of CLARIN Centers is ensured by adherence to TEI and ISO standards for text encoding, by the use of persistent identifiers as long-lasting references to digital language data as well as by the observance of common protocols: Shibboleth for user authentication and authorization, SRU/CQL for Federated Contents Search, and OAI-PMH for metadata harvesting.
Here we could describe only a subset of all CLARIN resources and tools. For comprehensive and up-to-date information we refer interested readers to the CLARIN homepage: www.clarin.eu
References

Herold, A. and L. Lemnitzer, eds. (2012). CLARIN-D User Guide. Available at: de.clarin.eu/en/language-resources/userguide.html.
Hinrichs, E., M. Hinrichs & T. Zastrow (2010). WebLicht: Web-Based LRT Services for German. In: Proceedings of the Systems Demonstrations at the 48th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL-2010). Uppsala, Schweden. pp. 25-29.
Zastrow, T., E. Hinrichs, M. Hinrichs, and K. Beck (2013). Scientific Visualization for the Digital Humanities as CLARIN-D Web Applications. Proceedings of Digital Humanities 2013, University of Nebraska.
The ESFRI Roadmap contains five research infrastructures in the area of Social Sciences (CESSDA, European Social Survey, and SHARE) and Humanities (CLARIN and DARIAH).
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Reference_Corpus.
nkjp.pl/index.php?page=0&lang=1
www.mpi.nl/dobes
github.com/textlab
weblicht.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de/weblichtwiki/index.php/CiNaViz_-_Visualization_of_European_City_Names
datasealofapproval.org/en
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"1873","15","ClipNotes: Digital Annotation and Data-Mining for Film & Television Analysis","9","In the age of Big Data and technology­assisted research, scholarship in the humanities is developing innovative new approaches and methodologies, be they quantifiable and visual (Moretti, 2005), algorithmic (Ramsay, 2011), built upon ‘distant’ and ‘machine’ readings (Hayles, 2012) and ‘cultural analytics’ (Manovich, 2009), or of the many possibilities and techniques offered in the field of Digital Humanities (Burdick et al, 2012). Film and television analysis, however, has been slow to adapt digital data­driven research. This presentation will demonstrate a software project entitled ClipNotes, a software application created by Dr. Stephen Mamber at UCLA along with a team of graduate students that are helping to develop it. Examples will be shown of both traditional textual analysis amplified by the software and my own research that quantifies product placement and brand integration in film and television. 
Though cinema and media studies has rightfully continued on its course of splintering and diversifying into a multitude of interdisciplinary amalgamations and sub­disciplines, close textual analysis remains at the heart of what we do, particularly with regards to teaching. Technology has dramatically increased our ability to deconstruct a film text, from VHS to DVD to digital interfaces which allow even more minute control over image and sound. Creating clips and screengrabs is becoming easier and is an increasingly common feature of lectures and presentations, but the method of visual analysis itself hasn’t advanced very much, nor has the incorporation of many other research technologies. Notably, the use of programming and algorithmic analysis is quite limited in film studies research compared to other disciplines within the humanities which are utilizing digital tools to invigorate their methods and broaden their scope.
ClipNotes is an iPad and Windows 8 app that facilitates quick segmentation, annotation and presentation of film clips, an example of the research possibilities that are provided in a collaborative, database-­driven, XML-­based software environment. The design of ClipNotes is deceptively simple: it allows users to mark up video files with metadata and present this analysis. Start/stop times, clip descriptions, and captions are assembled in easily­produced XML files, which stands for extensible markup language that is both human and machine readable. When the XML file is linked to the video file, precise, granular analysis is made possible and is easily presented and disseminated. A public repository for these XML files is available at clipnotes.org, which will allow for widespread sharing of textual analysis and should provide an invaluable teaching resource. Users are encouraged to upload their own XML files for inclusion and we have begun building an extensive database of freely available teaching and research materials. For obvious copyright reasons, the films are not included, but guides are available to demonstrate how DVDs can be easily and legally encoded into digital files under fair use exemptions. Then, the video is linked together with the XML file by the application. In practice, ClipNotes collapses the research and presentation process by bridging the two: your textual research and analysis is the development of your presentation.
To get the archive started, a series of films have been coded in XML and are available for teaching usage. Citizen Kane, of course, has been catalogued, providing quick access to its landmark visual style. All instances of deep focus, triangular framings, door and window framings, graphic matches, media representations, and the motifs of light and bulbs, bars and fences, and mirrors are quickly and easily accessible through ClipNotes. The ability to quickly but briefly demonstrate a series of scenes ­­ particularly ones involving sound or camera and character movement ­­ is a tremendous resource in a lecture or presentation situation. One of the distinct strengths of film is the symphonic arrangement of audiovisual patterns, something that is lost in merely showing screen grabs or a few extended scenes.
Beyond this kind of instructional usage, however, the practice of granular analysis can reveal new discoveries in even the most well­worn films. Hitchcock is likely the most thoroughly researched auteur, but with the ability to isolate and compare shots on a frame­by­frame basis, very subtle visual patterns can be identified. For instance, the ability to document the most minute patterns in Psycho reveals a micro­detailed facial dramaturgy that adds significant visual emphasis to Hitchcock’s already complex exploration of identity. 
Douglas Sirk is another master of this kind of over-­determined mise-­en-­scene, and a fitting subject for ClipNotes, as well as my own work that concerns the political economy of media as a textual phenomenon. Written on the Wind is a fine example, and for my analysis I catalogued over 100 examples of 4 distinct patterns: frame within frames and obscured frames, the mirror motif, vertical objects as phallic imagery, and what I hope is a new addition to the already ­extensive Sirk Studies archive: the product shot. While Sirk’s satirical savvy is well­documented by scholars, the contradictory impulse ­­ the ways in which he helped promote and fetishize the very consumer culture he was satirizing ­­ is a less prominent element of his legacy. Barbara Klinger provides a useful corrective of his body of work in Melodrama and Meaning: History, Culture, and the Films of Douglas Sirk, in which she considers the various extra­-textual discourses (academic, industrial, trade, popular press, star, gossip, camp) that have contributed to Sirk’s legacy, but she expressly decides not to engage in any textual analysis, as her interest is in the surrounding discourse. I believe textual analysis could be a useful addition to furthering her nuanced reading of Sirk, particularly the industrial and promotional elements of his work that get overlooked in favour of his more critical characteristics. 
Klinger shows how Written on the Wind was heavily promoted in women’s magazines as a part of lifestyle marketing, particular tie-­ins with its fashion, make-­up and home decor. Textual analysis of the film itself reveals a similar impetus for commercial promotion, catalogued here as the “product shot.” At least two dozen shots of consumer products are featured in the film, most prominently luxury cars, fashion, and jewellery. The first scene immediately establishes the patterns of framing, mirrors and vertical objects, but it also quickly pronounces the importance of products, by featuring Kyle’s shiny, yellow sportscar. Far from claiming that this kind of quasi­product placement deems Sirk some sort of sell­out or salesman, I think a more complete picture of all that Sirk accomplished in his films just adds to his stature. That he was able to satisfy the high standards of critics, scholars, studio executives, and promotional agents is a testament to the complexity of his filmmaking ability. It also provides some insight into the early history of product placement, brand integration, and transmedia.
ClipNotes and XML­-encoding provides the opportunity to generate and catalogue large data sets of analytic material for audiovisual texts, lending quantification and data ­processing possibilities in the future. Sound and image are inherently more difficult to catalogue and quantify than the written word, which accounts for some of the delay in the use of digital humanities methods in cinema and media studies, but creative new digital tools should be able to bridge this gap. Similar to the Text Encoding Initiative, the data­mining prospects generated by ClipNotes are impressive. With the assistance of digital tools, we will be able to both dig deep into solitary texts, discovering and quantifying micro-­relationships, while also mapping broad, macro-­cultural dynamics as a result of this wide-­ranging data. In a digital era marked by the vast proliferation of complex texts, software applications can be utilized to enact a more rigorously detailed analysis, to archive and disseminate provocative insights, and to extend digital scholarship. 
Thank you, and please visit clipnotes.org for more information.
References

Burdick, Anne et al.Digital_Humanities. The MIT Press, 2012.
Hayles, N. Katherine.How We Think: Digital Media and Contemporary Technogenesis. University Of Chicago Press, 2012.
Klinger, Barbara.Melodrama and Meaning : History, Culture, and the Films of Douglas Sirk. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994.
Manovich, Lev.""Cultural analytics: Visualizing cultural patterns in the era of more media."" Domus: 923 (2009).
Moretti, Franco. Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models For A Literary History. Verso, 2005.
Ramsay, Stephen. Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism. University of Illinois Press, 2011. 
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"1874","15","Clustering Search to Navigate A Case Study of the Canadian World Wide Web as a Historical Resource","9","1. Introduction

From a historian’s perspective, I present an approach to navigate large amounts of Internet Archive information, drawing on a case study of 4.7% of the top-level .ca domains preserved in a scrape of the entire World Wide Web, the March 2011 Wide Web Scrape. Every day, users record their thoughts, feelings, locations, ratings, votes, reviews, jokes, and so forth; an assemblage of traces of the past that historians will be able to mold into narratives. Here, I explain one way to access them beyond the WaybackMachine using open-source tools such as WARC Tools, Apache Solr, and Carrot2 Workbench.
2. Literature Review and Project Rationale

Information scholars and digital archivists are having a conversation around digital preservation and web archiving.1 However, there is a need to approach these issues from the perspective of a historian with an interest in using web archives. My focus is on use rather than preservation.
The current way to access this material is through the WaybackMachine, run on the Internet Archive’s server itself at archive.org/web or as a local installation.2 The WaybackMachine is simple from a user perspective: one enters a URL and then the available dates of various snapshots are displayed across the top of the screen, and the web page is displayed if it is available.
I am concerned with the files that drive the WaybackMachine: the WebARChive (WARC) files, the international standard for preserving Web data.3 Archiving web sites is difficult: a single page is made up of hundreds of parts, with external calls for images or other code hosted elsewhere. A WARC file provides a container for it all.
There are good reasons for a historian to be interested in these files rather than merely using the WaybackMachine. Chief among them is the latter’s lack of a full-text search function. The WaybackMachine takes a URL and generates the corresponding archived website. WARC files are the system’s building blocks. They contain data with can be explored another way.
3. The Canadian Internet Case Study

I draw on the 80TB Wide Web Scrape, released in October 2012 to celebrate the Internet Archive’s accumulation of ten petabytes of data.4 The WARC files in this collection are the results of a crawl that began on 9 March 2011 and ended on 23 December 2011, totalling 2,713,676,341 websites over 29,032,069 hosts. It is important to note the limitations of this scrape. First, we do not have multiple ones: if we had more scrapes, we could compare them and thus establish temporal changes. My hope is that if we can make cogent cases for what we can do with this sort of data, more might be released. Second, the sampling practices of the Internet Archive profoundly impact this sample and are beyond my control. The exact percentage of preserved websites is unknown, but it is probably only a little more than half.5 Furthermore, they are not scraped and preserved on a temporally consistent basis. More work remains to be done to understand these processes, as they profoundly shape work done with it.
Beginning by downloading all 111,690 index files (one line per URL), I found the WARC files that contained the largest number of websites within the .ca domain. I subsequently downloaded the top hundred WARCs containing a total of 397,221 Canadian URLs. Based on Internet Archive statistics, this dataset is 4.7% of the indexed .ca top-level domain.
To extract information, I was primarily interested in drawing on the large body of text within this sample to analyze. Text analysis tools are most developed, and this is my active area of research interest. In order to convert these files into plain text, I relied upon the free and open-source WARC Tools collection. In short, this creates plain text files by running each website through Lynx, a text-based browser. I subsequently selected only those that had Canadian domain names, selected via regular expressions. Each of those full-text files was then transformed into an XML document with fields for the title (URL) and content (textual content of the website). This plain text conversion has also been extremely fruitful in exploring via other text analysis tools, such as Named Entity Recognition.
4. Findings

The interplay between two open-source tools, the Apache Solr search engine and the Carrot2 clustering search engine, presents a fruitful way to explore these archives. Solr is a NoSQL search engine optimized for working with millions of documents. Once data is ingested into Solr, which provides basic search, I turn to Carrot2. It is useful because of the clustering function, which takes objects and groups them into sets sharing common characteristics. While Carrot2 offers several clustering algorithms, Lingo clustering is most fruitful. Its goal is to ""capture thematic threads in a search result, that is discover groups of related documents and describe the subject of these groups in a way meaningful to a human.""6
I now want to provide an overview of what these processes were able to do in my explorations of the Wide Web Scrape. My choices of queries are necessarily limited, as this paper cannot do comprehensive justice. In my other work, I am a historian of youth cultures; how could this methodology help somebody with my research interests? Here, a query for ‘children’:

Fig. 1: The query ‘children’, demonstrating clusters within the collection
At left is an input panel, at right a list of clusters with the documents themselves. At lower left we have visualization options. This visualization is akin to an archival finding aid: we learn what these WARC files tell us about ‘Children,’ and whether this is worth further investigation. We see files relating to children’s health (Health Canada, Tylenol), research into children at various universities, health and wellness services, as well as related topics such as Youth Services, Family Services, and mental health. 
Thus, we have both an ad-hoc finding aid equivalent as well as a way to move beyond distant and close reading levels. While future studies would need to expand the amount of websites studied, we can see in this tranche of 5% of the Web that we have a good amount of information pertaining to children’s health, universities, and beyond. For some researchers, this would be a boon – for others, an indication that they may need to look elsewhere. Some projects are purely exploratory, however, and with a confident sample we could begin to make overall statements concerning societal concerns towards children. Notably, this method helps us find relevant websites by putting them into easy-to-understand groups, allowing for both quantitative (number of sites) and qualitative (the sites themselves) findings.
Clusters often contain more than one object, and the relationship between clusters sheds light on the structure of a document collection. Consider the following:

Fig. 2: The query ‘children’ visualized using the Aduna cluster visualization technique.
Labels represent clusters. If a document spans multiple clusters, it is represented by a dot connected to both labels, which represent clusters. For example, “Christian Education” appears in the middle left of the chart. There is one document to the left of it (partially covered by the label), a document that belongs only to it. Yet there is one to the right of it connected with “Early Learning,” representing a website that falls into both categories. 
From this, we can learn quite a bit about the files that we can find in the Wide Web Scrape as well as suggest which might be most fruitful for exploration. In this chart, at the bottom we see  websites relating to children’s health, which connect to breastfeeding, which connect to timeframes, which actually then connect to employment (which often contains quite a bit of data and time information). We then also see that connect to early childhood workers, which in turn connects to early learning more generally. The structure of the web archive relating to children reveals itself. 
A downside is that the individual files are plain text. However, we can use the online WaybackMachine. Using an Automator script in OS X, a service can be configured to prefix the WaybackMachine’s URL (web.archive.org/web) to any URL. Through three steps (service receives text, adds the prefix string, and displays the webpage), we retrieve the archived version. See Fig 3, 4, and 5 below for this process:

Fig. 3: An example of the plain text files that power the search engine

Fig. 4: WaybackMachine Plugin in Action

Fig. 5: From distant to close reading: the above website in the WaybackMachine.
5. Conclusions

WARC files, and web archives more generally, should be understood as key components of a future historian’s professional training. Undertaking projects growing out of the 1990s or 2000s may require access to such archives. Finding aids are generally unavailable for this type of source, and would be impractical due to the sheer data quantity. This approach, integrating on-the-fly finding aid generation and access to both distant and close reading, should be considered for adoption by historians. 
This project shows that by drawing on a large dataset, 4.7% of the top-level .ca domain, historians will be able to derive meaningful information and find connections between disparate bodies of information. As history enters the web era, new tools and resources will be necessary.
References

1. Song, JaJa, J. (2008). Fast browsing of archived Web contents in 8th International Web Archiving Workshop, Aarhus, Denmark, www.umiacs.umd.edu/publications/fast-browsing-archived-web-contents; Toyoda, M., Kitsuregawa, M., (2012). The History of Web Archiving. Proceedings of the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), 100, 1441–1443; Brügger, N. (2008). The Archived Website and Website Philology: A New Type of Historical Document. Nordicom Review, 29, 155–175; Brügger, N. (2009). Website history and the website as an object of study. New Media and Society, 11, 115–132; Brügger, N. (2010). Web History. Bern: Peter Lang Publishing; Brügger, N. (2012). Web History and the Web as a Historical Source. Zeithistorische Forschungen/Studies in Contemporary History. 9; Brügger, N., Finnemann, N.O. (2013). The Web and Digital Humanities: Theoretical and Methodological Concerns. Journal of Broadcasting and Electric Media 57, 66–80.
2. Internet Archive (n.d). WaybackMachine Github. GitHub. URL github.com/internetarchive/wayback (accessed 5.29.13).
3. ISO (2009). ISO 28500:2009.
4. Internet Archive (2012). 80 terabytes of archived web crawl data available for research. Internet Archive Blog, blog.archive.org/2012/10/26/80-terabytes-of-archived-web-crawl-data-available-for-research.
5. Ed Summers, The Web as a Preservation Medium Inkdroid.org, 26 November 2013, available online, inkdroid.org/journal/2013/11/26/the-web-as-a-preservation-medium, accessed 20 February 2014.
6. Osiński, S., Stefanowski, J., Weiss, D (2004). Lingo: Search Results Clustering Algorithm Based on Singular Value Decomposition, in: Advances in Soft Computing, Intelligent Information Processing and Web Mining, Proceedings of the International IIS: IIPWM ́04 Conference. Zakopane, Poland, pp. 359–368.
","txt","2","",""
"1875","15","Collaborative Scholarly Building with the Early Caribbean Digital Archive","2","This poster presentation will introduce scholars to the collaborative components of The Early Caribbean Digital Archive, a project of Northeastern University’s NULab for Texts, Maps, and Networks.
The Early Caribbean Digital Archive (ECDA) is a highly interactive digital scholarly lab for the collaborative research and study of pre-20th century Caribbean literature. The ECDA seeks to engage scholars and students in a shared, critical study of the textual, material, and cultural histories of the Caribbean by providing them innovative digital technologies and platforms for generating new and understudied knowledges of the Caribbean’s rich body of materials. Our approach to this digital archive solves major challenges facing scholars of Caribbean literature; currently no such pan-Caribbean digital or analogue archive of pre-20th century materials exists. This continued absence of a robust digital archive has largely been the result of the history of empire and colonialism in the Caribbean region, where the negative longstanding impacts of imperialist/colonialist practices is visible in the fragmentation and division of Caribbean print materials among archives in Europe, North America, and the Caribbean. Writings from the Caribbean offer critical perspectives of the broad movements of history and culture in the Atlantic world. In an effort to respond immediately to the needs and imperatives of the wide range of scholars already engaged in generative, collaborative scholarly work in the interdisciplinary field of Caribbean studies, scholars at Northeastern University’s NULab for Texts, Maps, and Networks began building the ECDA in the spring of 2012.
Our site will foster a shared and informed engagement with the Caribbean and its literary, aesthetic, cultural, and political impact on the study of the pre-C20th century Atlantic world. The project will not only preserve original texts, but will also reframe the literary history of the early Caribbean as one where something new is preserved—voices beyond the imperial history of the Caribbean.
Our poster presentation will emphasize how the archive functions as a working lab through which a diverse population can not only access materials but interact and use them while developing and building the project as a whole. For instance, the site allows image annotation and transcription functions that allows conversations between scholars about the materials. The site is currently hosted at http://scholarscommons.neu.edu/omekasites/ECA. This Omeka installation is the first phase in the ongoing development of the ECDA’s digital text analytics research lab. The ECDA project, broadly speaking, seeks to establish strong partnerships with a wide range of publics interested in developing digital analytics, digitization techniques, and digital research methodologies that will benefit a shared and informed engagement with the Caribbean and its literary, aesthetic, cultural, and political impact on the study of the pre-C20th century Atlantic world. Therefore, the creation of the ECDA will provide scholars, teachers, and students an immediate opportunity to begin working with these valuable Caribbean materials, where they will participate directly in the collaborative building of both the ECDA digital archive project and a shared Caribbean studies discourse and scholarly practice.
The digitization of these materials serves an ethical imperative for making these important cultural histories and otherwise difficult to access materials available to a necessarily broad and critically engaged audience. The practice of digitizing and performing digital analyses of these materials raises important questions about both digital humanities practices and methodologies as well as practical questions regarding the establishing of cross–cultural, transnational, multi-institutional, transdisciplinary partnerships in the building of such a massive project. Supported by NULab for Texts, Maps, and Networks, we have also partnered with the Digital Library of the Caribbean.
Our session will invite collaboration and discussion on how the ECDA can make possible not only the compiling and transcription of primary source materials, but also innovative research possibilities for bibliographic and political histories of the site’s catalogued items; provocative and educational developing and designing of curated exhibits; and an open-access and interactive platform for offering original research and analyses of personal, economic, political, and cultural histories, all of which will contribute to Caribbean studies discourse and scholarly practice.","txt","2","",""
"1876","15","Collaboratively maximizing inter-ontology agreement for controversial domains: A case study of Jewish cultural heritage","9","Ontology is a semantic scheme which comprises the main classes (concepts) of the given domain of knowledge, their properties, inter-relationships and instances 1. The basic ontological relationship types are IS-A (hyponymy) and instance-of (a concrete type-of) which are the basis of the conceptual taxonomy, and other thesauri-like (e.g. ""part-of"", ""related-to"") or content-driven relationships (e.g. ""located-at"", ""produced-by"") are allowed as well. One of the standards for formal encoding of ontologies is RDF (Resource Description Framework) 2. RDF-based knowledge representation consists of triples (relations) of the form: (concept1 – relationship type – concept2). For example, in the domain of Jewish cultural heritage the following relations could be included in the ontology: (Passover IS-A Jewish Holiday), (Holiday part-of Cultural Heritage), (Orthodox Jew preserves Jewish Tradition). Every triple corresponds to a certain statement or fact on the domain. 
Nowadays, ontologies are widely used as a formal domain vocabulary for content-specific agreements in a variety of knowledge-sharing activities, such as, information organization, retrieval and tagging 3. However, in the current state of the Semantic Web for many domains there are multiple diverse ontologies rather than one standard vocabulary. This is due to the fact that they are typically constructed by different experts who often possess contrary viewpoints especially in cases of controversial domains. These domains include cultural heritage, economy, politics, history, religion, art and even medicine. Apparently, when using several ontologies in a common application, mismatches can create incoherent results for the users. Therefore, reaching maximal agreement between these ontologies is necessary to standardize and unify the domain vocabulary. Hence, building unified consensual ontologies has become a big research challenge.
The objective of this work is to explore ways to maximize the inter-ontology agreement for controversial domains. Particularly, we experimented with the case of the Jewish life style domain which comprises cultural, religious and political aspects. We also aim to explore whether it is possible to identify consensual ontological relations from diverse ontologies and construct a maximal subset of consensual vocabulary for the controversial domain.
Research Methodology

To overcome the semantic heterogeneity problem in ontologies a variety of ontology matching algorithms were presented in the past decade 4 , 5. These systems usually focus on mapping individual concepts (and/or their taxonomic structures) of one ontology to similar concepts in the other one. However, the level of inter-ontology agreement assessed by the automated approaches is limited by the following major factors:
The algorithm's ability to recognize semantically similar concepts, which are frequently conveyed by different terms;
Matching of isolated concepts which does not reveal the maximal potential for semantic similarity of ontologies unless all the direct and indirect relations (triples) binding these concepts can be consistently matched as well. 
The low overlap between the explicit terminologies of diverse ontologies (for both, concepts and relations) due to the viewpointdiversity of their composers (especially for controversial domains).
 

Some partial solutions were lately proposed in the literature. Thus, in order to reduce the impact of the first factor, a recent study by 6  proposed to employ ""wisdom of crowds"" for detecting similar concepts in two different ontologies. To resolve the second limitation, similarity between ontologies should be computed for relations rather than for individual concepts, as implemented by 7. He counted exactly and partially matching triples from a pair of given ontologies. This methodology is adopted in the current research which further focuses on matching relations rather than individual concepts. However, the third and the most crucial factor, a relatively small amount of common relations, still remains unresolved.
The main question is how to reveal and assess the potential maximal agreement between ontologies despite the low overlap between them. The essence of this problem is the underlying assumption that relations, which are present in one ontology, but are missing from the other ontology, are automatically considered as unmatched and increase the ontology disagreement level. Nevertheless, it can be observed that if the ontology composer did not choose to add a relation to his personal ontology, it is unclear whether he agrees or disagrees with the truth of this relation. To this end, we introduce a new collaborative approach where independent ontology composers can explicitly express their opinions on the others' relations. Thus, after completing the construction of their own ontologies the participants are exposed to the relations of the others and are asked to decide for each of them whether it is true or false. Then, the ""real"" exhaustive inter-ontology agreement can be calculated based on these votes rather than by counting the common relations in the original ontologies.
We distinguish between two levels of ontology agreement:
The local agreement between a pair of ontologies that can be calculated as follows:

Fig. 1: The local agreement measure
 

The global agreement definition between all the ontologies for the domain:

Fig. 2: The global agreement measure
These relations constitute the consensual part of the ontologies. The other relations will be considered as controversial. The threshold descriminating the consensual and controversial relations can be computed by applying machine classification on the composer's votes as features for each relation as described in the next section.
 

Experimental Setting and Results

Based on the above collaborative scheme for relation evaluation we conducted an experiment with 21 ontology composers (students of the Semantic web course in Information Science Department). At the first step, the group has chosen a set of 130 concepts which are the most representative of the domain of Jewish life style. Then, every participant was required to construct up to 100 RDF-style triples (relations) with the above concepts and a set of 15 predefined relationships (such as, IS-A, instance-of, part-of, disjoint-with, entails, located-at, antonym-of) independently from the other members of the group. The relations were inserted into the web-based system implemented for this purpose. Further, each one of 1175 distinct ontological relations, created by all the participants at the first step, was consecutively displayed by the system and independently evaluated as true or false by every participant of the group. The analysis of the results shows that the initial local agreement between the diverse ontologies (the CR component of the measure) was very low (0-22%) reflecting the controversity of the domain. This is despite the fact that all the participants used the similar set of concepts and relationships for relation construction. The exhaustive local inter-ontology agreement assessed after applying the collaborative evaluation procedure appears to be much higher (39-90%), as demonstrated in Fig. 3. Thus, our collaborative scheme substantially enhances the local agreement level between ontologies.

Fig. 3: The local agreement rates computed by the amount of overlapping relations in the original ontologies as a baseline (the blue skew) vs. by the votes after applying the collaborative evaluation procedure (the red skew). Axis X represents pairs of different ontologies in our corpus.
To create a golden standard evaluation required for the global agreement calculation, two experts were asked to annotate all the statements as correct (ground truth) or controversial (depending on one's personal beliefs). First, they worked independently and then reached full consensus through a discussion. Overall, 885 (out of 1175) relations were judged as correct facts (TRgoldstandard), and 290 as controversial viewpoints. For example, the correct relations (like, Passover – is-a – Jewish holiday; Reform Jew – disjoint-with – Orthodox Jew; Western Wall – located-in – Jerusalem) are expected to obtain the large majority of agreement (""true"") votes in the collaborative procedure, while the controversial relations (such as, Ultra-Orthodox Jew – resists – Scientific progress; God – created – Universe; Bible – written by – Man) are supposed to gain intermediate scores for both agreement (""true"") and disagreement (""false"") voting categories. 
The |TRoverlap| component needed for the global agreement calculation was rather low 29% (232 out of 885) even with the threshold of 2,  as only 256 relations appeared in at least two ontologies. 919 (almost 80%) of the relations appeared in one out of 21 ontologies), while only one relation was present in 9 out of 21 ontologies.  
Then, in order to estimate the global agreement after applying the collaborative evaluation procedure, we utilized the WEKA environment 8 to choose the optimal machine classification algorithm. Eventually, the best 10-cross validation results were achieved by the Multilayer Perceptron algorithm which yielded 90% average accuracy. As a result |TRcollaborativevoting| of 876 was obtained. Interestingly, all 232 relations of TRoverlap were included in TRcollaborativevoting. Overall, 99% of the correct relations according to the golden standard were classified as correct by the automatic classifier. The classifier used as features the true and false voting scores. Most of the errors in classification were controversial relations probably reflecting some common viewpoint among the members of the group. So in the future research we intend to conduct crowdsourcing microtask-based experiment (like in 9) with a much larger number of participants.
In summary, our collaborative method significantly increases the baseline agreement that can be achieved manually or automatically from the explicitly overlapping/matching relations. This methodology further leads to construction of a reliable large consensual ontology for controversial domains which seem impossible to achieve from the small overlap of the original ontologies. 
References

1. Noy, N.F. & McGuinness, D.L. (2001). Ontology Development 101: A Guide to Creating Your First Ontology. Technical Report KSL-01-05, Stanford Knowledge Systems Laboratory and Stanford Medical Informatics Technical Report SMI-2001-0880, Publisher: Citeseer, (pp. 1-25) doi: 10.1.1.136.5085
2. Hayes, P. and B. McBride. RDF Semantics. W3C Recommendation: www.w3.org/TR/2004/REC-rdf-mt-20040210/ (2004 last accessed July 2013).
3. Gruber, T. R. (1993). Toward principles for the design of ontologies used for knowledge sharing. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 43(5-6), 907-928. Retrieved from itee.uq.edu.au/~infs3101/_Readings/OntoEng.pdf
4. Shvaiko P. and J. Euzenat (2013). Ontology matching: state of the art and future challenges. IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, 25(1): 158-176.
5. Flouris G., Manakanatas D., Kondylakis H., Plexousakis D. and G. Antoniou (2008). Ontology change: classification and survey. The Knowledge Engineering Review, 23(2), 117–152.
6. Sarasua, C., Simperl, E. and N.F. Noy. (2012)Crowdmap: Crowdsourcing ontology alignment with microtasks. Proceedings of the International Semantic Web Conference, Boston, USA, pp. 525- 541.
7. d'Aquin, M. (2010), Formally measuring agreement and disagreement in ontologies. Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Knowledge Capture, Redondo Beach, California, USA, pp. 145-152.
8. Hall, M., Frank, E., Holmes, G., Pfahringer, B., Reutemann, P. and I. H. Witten (2009). The WEKA Data Mining Software: An Update. SIGKDD Explorations. 11(1): 10-18.
9. Sarasua, C., Simperl, E. and N.F. Noy. (2012) Crowdmap: Crowdsourcing ontology alignment with microtasks. Proceedings of the International Semantic Web Conference, Boston, USA, pp. 525- 541.
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"1877","15","Combining Macro- and Microanalysis for Exploring the Construal of Scientific Disciplinarity","2","1. Introduction

The English Scientific Text Corpus (SciTex) consists of about 5000 scientific papers with about 34 Mio tokens in two time slots, 1970/80s and 2000s 1, 2. It has been compiled to investigate the construal of scientific disciplinarity, in particular, how interdisciplinary contact disciplines emerge from their seed disciplines. Both time slots consist of nine disciplines: Computer Science (A) as one seed discipline, Linguistics (C1), Biology (C2), Mechanical Engineering (C3), Electrical Engineering (C4) as the other seed disciplines, and Computational Linguistics (B1), Bioinformatics (B2), Digital Construction (B3), and Microelectronics (B4) as the corresponding contact disciplines between A and C1-C4. The individual articles are subdivided into Abstract, Introduction, Main, and Conclusion.
The orthogonal dimensions time, discipline, and logical structure provide for many, potentially interesting setups of variational analysis: We can explore the diachronic evolution of contact disciplines in comparison to their seed disciplines, variation between contact disciplines and their seed disciplines, and genre variation between abstracts and text bodies in individual disciplines. In this paper we present an approach that combines a macroanalytic perspective 3 with the more traditional microanalytic perspective served by concordance search to explore variation along these dimensions.
2. Approach

2.1. Macroanalysis

For supporting explorative macroanalysis, we use well understood visualization techniques – heatmaps and wordclouds – and combine them with intuitive exploration paradigms – drill down and side by side comparison (see Figure 1). The heatmaps and wordclouds are interactive, allowing for a closer inspection at various levels. The leftmost heatmap visualizes the highest level contrast between abstracts and text bodies in the two time slots (1970s/80s and 2000s). The middle and right heatmaps serve for inspecting a chosen contrast at a lower level at the level of individual disciplines. A particular contrast can be chosen by clicking on the respective square, numbers indicating which contrast is displayed in the middle (Selection 1) and right heatmap (Selection 2). In this example, the middle heatmap visualizes the distances between abstracts and text bodies, and the right heatmap visualizes the distances between text bodies and abstracts.
The wordclouds underneath the heatmaps display the most typical words for a chosen contrast. In Figure 1 the wordcloud to the left visualizes the most typical words for abstracts as opposed to text bodies in the 2000s. Unlike in the common use of wordclouds, the size of words is proportional to their contribution to the distance (as defined in Section 2.2), whereas relative frequency is visualized by color, ranging from purple to red.

Fig. 1: Contrast between Abstracts and Text Bodies
Having a closer look at Figure 1, we can observe that the distance between abstracts is generally larger than the distance between text bodies, and that it has increased in the 30 years period. This general trend is mirrored in the individual disciplines (not shown here). Looking at the middle and right heatmaps, we can see that - not surprisingly - the distance between particular disciplines are at a minimum (squares forming the main diagonal), and the distances among the seed disciplines (A and C corpora), are generally larger than the distances among contract disciplines.
The corresponding wordclouds visualize the most typical words for abstracts (middle heatmap) and for text bodies (right heatmap) in the discipline B1 (Computational Linguistics). In this particular contrast, words typical for abstracts are clearly centered around constructions of exposition (we propose, describe, investigate), main topics of B1 (natural, language (generation), machine translation), words describing the methodology (method, statistical, computational, system) and function words (and, of, on). Words typical for text bodies are markedly different: they comprise B1's main entities of topic elaboration (tokens, nouns, object, vp, john, probability), references (see figure, table, section), conjunctions (when, since, because, if), auxiliary and modal verbs (be, is, was, were, do, will, would, may), and prominently, the determiner the. In summary, abstracts exhibit characteristics of an informationally dense text (e.g., omission of determiners) with topic oriented content. In contrast, text bodies are less dense (determiners, references, modality) and more elaborated.
Other contrastive pairs, such as the synchronic comparison between disciplines or the diachronic comparison of the two time slots, corroborate the results derived by means of computationally much more demanding techniques from machine learning [1], [2].
2.2. Corpus Representation and Distance Measures

The individual corpora are tokenized, and tokens are transformed to lower case. Stopwords are deliberately not excluded to inspect all levels of variation: style, lexico-grammar, and theme. On this basis, corpora are represented by means of unigram language models smoothed with Jelinek-Mercer smoothing, which is a linear interpolation between the relative frequency of a word in a subcorpus and its relative frequency in the entire corpus 4. The distance between two corpora P and Q is measured by relative entropy D, also known as Kullback-Leibler Divergence:
D(P||Q)>=Sum_w p(w)*log_2(p(w)/q(w))
Here p(w) is the probability of a word w in P, and q(w) is its probability in Q. Relative entropy thus measures the average amount of additional bits per word needed to encode words distributed according to P by using an encoding optimized for Q. Note that this measure is asymmetric, i.e., D(P||Q) != D(Q||P), and has its minimum at 0 for P = Q5.
The individual word weights are calculated by the pointwise Kullback-Leibler Divergence 6:
D_w(P||Q) = p(w)*log_2(p(w)/q(w))
For all words the statistical significance of a difference is calculated based on an unpaired Welch t-test on the observed word probabilities in the individual documents of a corpus. This is used for discarding words below a given level of significance (p-value). A more detailed comparison with other measures for comparing corpora 7 is beyond the scope of this paper and will appear in another venue.
2.3. Microanalysis

Wordclouds serve as a bridge between the big distance picture of macroanalysis and microanalyis. To this end, they are seamlessly integrated with the IMS Open Corpus Workbench (CQPWeb: http://cwb.sourceforge.net/index.php), which provides for an expressive corpus query language and several summarization tools, such as collocations and comparative word frequency lists. A click on a word sends a query to CQPWeb, which returns the word in the chosen context. For example, clicking on “do” in the right heatmap (B1 (Txt00) vs. B1 (Abs00)) generates the following query shown in Figure 2.

Fig. 2: Concordance for “do” in B1, text bodies, 2000s
This query returns a concordance for “do” in the 2000s slot of SciTex constrained to subcorpus B1 and to the divisions Introduction, Main, and Conclusion. Based on this list one can inspect the larger context of individual hits and get a ranked list of collocations to distinguish the uses of “do” as an auxiliary vs. main verb.
3. Related Work

The need for combining macroanalysis with microanalysis is well recognized in the DH community 8, 9, and there does exist a variety of frameworks with similar goals. Due to space restrictions, we can only give an exemplary selection; for a comprehensive overview see TAPoR 2.0 (http://tapor.ca/). The MONK workbench 10 allows to compare pairs of corpora using Dunning's log-likelihood ratio 11 for word weighting. Apart from the different distance measure, the main difference of our approach is that we combine the macro perspective of overall distance with the micro perspective of individual word weights to allow for an explorative analysis of variation. The Voyant Tools 12 provide a plethora of text visualizations, including word clouds, cooccurrences, and word trends based on frequencies. The focus of these tools, however, lies on summarizing and visualizing one text or corpus, rather than on exploring variation among corpora. Finally, the TXM platform 13 integrates the IMS Corpus Workbench with some macroanalysis R packages such as factorial correspondence analysis, contrastive word specificity, and cooccurrence analysis. While this integration certainly provides a broader set of analysis techniques, it is arguably more complicated to use than the system presented in this paper.
4. Summary and Future Work

We have presented a system that combines macroanalysis with microanalysis to explore language variation, and briefly illustrated its use for analyzing differences along the dimensions time, discipline, and genre in a corpus of scientific text. Future work will be devoted both to technical as well as methodological enhancements. A useful technical extension is the facility to interactively group subcorpora to larger units, maybe with the help of hierarchical clustering based on the distance matrix to form meaningful groups. More generally, the support for importing external corpora and exporting distance matrices and word weights for analysis with other tools is desirable – the presented system has been evaluated based on a number of corpora, but the underlying processing pipeline certainly needs to be generalized and improved. On the methodological side the main challenge lies in supporting a broader variety of feature sets beyond simple unigram language models. This includes latent language models such as topic models 14 and hidden markov models 15, but also enriched representations such as part-of-speech tagging, and other extensions of unigram models. Such richer feature sets allow to focus analysis by means of feature selection, but also bear new challenges in measuring and visualizing the contribution of features to a contrast at hand, and translating features into meaningful queries against the underlying corpus.
References

1. Elke Teich and Peter Fankhauser (2010). Exploring a Corpus of Scientific Texts using Data Mining. In S. Gries, S. Wulff, and M. Davies, editors, Corpus-linguistic applications: Current studies, new directions, pp. 233–247. Rodopi, Amsterdam and New York.
2. Stefania Degaetano-Ortlieb, Hannah Kermes, Ekaterina Lapshinova-Koltunski, and Elke Teich (2013). SciTex: A diachronic corpus for analyzing the development of scientific registers. In Paul Bennett, Martin Durrell, Silke Scheible, and Richard J. Whitt, editors, New Methods in Historical Corpus Linguistics, Corpus Linguistics and Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Language (CLIP), Volume 3, Narr, Tübingen.
3. Matthew L. Jockers (2013). Macroanalysis: Digital Methods & Literary History. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Chicago, and Springfield.
4. Chengxiang Zhai and John Lafferty (2004). A study of smoothing methods for language models applied to information retrieval. ACM Transactions on Information Systems (TOIS), 22(2):179–214.
5. David J. C. MacKay (2002). Information Theory, Inference & Learning Algorithms. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, USA.
6. Takashi Tomokiyo and Matthew Hurst (2003). A language model approach to keyphrase extraction. Proceedings of the ACL 2003 Workshop on Multiword Expressions: Analysis, Acquisition and Treatment (MWE '03), Vol. 18, Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, USA, pp. 33–40. DOI=10.3115/1119282.1119287 dx.doi.org/10.3115/1119282.1119287
7. Adam Kilgarriff (2001). Comparing Corpora. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 6(1):97–133.
8. Michael Correll and Michael Gleicher (2012). What Shakespeare Taught Us About Text Visualization. IEEE Visualization Workshop Proceedings, 2nd Workshop on Interactive Visual Text Analytics: Task-Driven Analysis of Social Media Content, Seattle, Washington, USA, Oct 2012.
9. Matthew L. Jockers and Julia Flanders (2013). A Matter of Scale. Staged debate at the Boston Area Days of Digital Humanities Conference at Northeastern University, March 18, 2013. digitalcommons.unl.edu/englishfacpubs/106/
10. John Unsworth and Martin Mueller (2009). The MONK Project Final Report. Sep 2009. www.monkproject.org/MONKProjectFinalReport.pdf
11. Ted Dunning (1993). Accurate methods for the statistics of surprise and coincidence. Computational Linguistics 19(1):61–74.
12. Stéfan Sinclair, Geoffrey Rockwell and the Voyant Tools Team (2012). Voyant Tools (web application). http://voyant-tools.org/
13. Serge Heiden (2010). The TXM Platform: Building Open-Source Textual Analysis Software Compatible with the TEI Encoding Scheme. Proceedings of the 24th Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information and Computation, Institute for Digital Enhancement of Cognitive Development, Waseda University, Japan, Nov 2010, pp. 389-398.
14. David. M. Blei, Andrew Y. Ng, and Michael I. Jordan (2003). Latent Dirichlet Allocation. Journal of Machine Learning Research, 3:993–1022.
15. Sharon Goldwater and Tom Griffiths (2007). A fully Bayesian approach to unsupervised part-of-speech tagging. Proceedings of the 45th Annual Meeting of the Association of Computational Linguistics (ACL'07). Association for Computational Linguistics, Prague, Czech Republic, June 2007, pp. 744–751. www.aclweb.org/anthology/P07-1094
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"1878","15","Common Container Correlation: A Simple Method for the Extraction of Structural Models from Statistical Data","9","The use of topological graphs, or networks, to represent and analyze the semantic contents of source materials, such as texts and images, has become a signature contribution by the digital humanities to the humanities in general. Specific techniques, such as topic modeling and network analysis, and general approaches, such as macroanalysis and distant reading, exemplify the popularity and effectiveness of methods based on the graph theoretical representation and statistical modeling of cultural materials. However, because of their mathematical complexity and their focus on very large corpora of texts, these methods are beyond the reach of many humanists interested in the interpretation of smaller sets of source materials for cultural meaning. They are also suspect since they introduce ontological commitments that both elide traditional notions of human agency and reframe culture as a set of abstract, metrical dimensions. In this talk, I introduce “common container correlation” (C3) as a relatively simple and transparent interpretive method for the graph theoretical analysis of source materials that may be practiced by both students and more advanced researchers to excavate and make sense of cultural models implicit in textual materials.
C3 may be described as a variation of co-occurrence analysis designed to take advantage of the abundance of encoded cultural materials available to the digital humanist and to allow for the analysis of small sample sizes, such as individual texts. Formally, a common container correlation is just a link, or edge, that is asserted between any two items, regarded as nodes or vertices, that are contained within the same structural container. The set of all such links produces a graph of nodes and links based on their co-occurrence in a common container. In some cases these graphs will have meaning—that is, they will exhibit patterns that lend themselves to structuralist and other forms of interpretive analysis. These patterns may sometimes be correlated with psychological, sociological, or material causes that will be of interest to the humanist.
For example, in a novel marked up with TEI-based schema, we may choose to define the paragraphs of the text as container elements and tagged references to proper names as contained elements. We then assert that all named agents in a given paragraph are related to each other (in the special sense of co-occurring). The set of all of these assertions for all paragraphs will produce a kind of social graph that may then be visualized and analyzed in structural terms. In such a case, it may emerge that two characters consistently appear on opposite sides in multiple instances of a force-directed representation of the graph. This may be evidence of a structural opposition that will have emerged from the statistical distribution of the selected elements. Other approaches may use other container elements, such as scenes, and combinations of contained elements, such as places and people.
The C3 method is easy to implement using available tools. Container and contained elements in XML encoded materials may be extracted using simple XPath statements (by means of a variety of tools) and dumped into tables with columns for container IDs and contained IDs. Such tables may then be transformed using simple SQL queries into various graph data formats for visualization and analysis in tools such as Gephi, GraphViz, SHIVA, and D3. Depending on the intention of the user, the resultant graph may or may not reflect the frequency of edges and vertices in the source data.
In this talk I will describe the C3 method using examples taken from three digital humanities projects with which I have been associated. First, I will describe the application of the method to rhetorical figures (containers) and characters (contained elements) using data from the Princeton Charrette Project. Second, I will describe how undergraduates in an introductory digital humanities course at the University of Virginia created a database relating characters and paragraphs in Austen’s Persuasion. Third, I will describe the use of the method in Stephen Railton’s Digital Yoknapatawpha Project, drawing on data correlating scene containers to people and places as contained elements in William Faulkner’s corpus of fiction. In each case, I will explore the interpretive implications of the algorithms used to visualize the data, taking particular care to describe the specific steps involved in going from markup to data representation to visualization to interpretation. In this way, I hope to connect the discourse on data-driven textual analysis to traditional interpretive methods, such as close reading and structural analysis, in order to produce a genuinely humanistic use of quantitative methods that does not alienate the researcher from the tools of interpretation.
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"1879","15","Computational Models of Narrative: Using Artificial Intelligence to Operationalize Russian Formalist and French Structuralist Theories","10","Panel Description:

Narrative has become an active research focus in the artificial intelligence community in recent years, with efforts aimed at the construction of computational models for storytelling and story understanding. AI researchers often speak of narrative as its own form of intelligence—a complex cognitive phenomenon encompassing natural language understanding and generation, common-sense reasoning, analogical reasoning, planning, physical perception, imagination, and social cognition. Computational models of narrative draw upon a multitude of different techniques from the AI toolkit, ranging from detailed symbolic knowledge representation to large-scale statistical analyses
Our purpose in proposing this panel for Digital Humanities 2014 is two-fold. First, we want to introduce literary critics and other humanities scholars to parallel efforts underway in AI-narrative research and computational modeling. Second, we want to open a dialogue about the process for and implications of operationalizing canonical narrative theories, especially those from Russian Formalism and French Structuralism, for the computational analysis and generation of stories.
We have selected the panel papers to represent two broad categories of research: 
Narrative Analysis: use of computational techniques to identify, classify, or extract plot structures from a single text or a corpus of texts; 
Narrative Generation: use of computational techniques to generate new stories based on story grammars, case-based reasoning, or other mechanisms
Computational narrative analysis dates at least as far back as the 1960s, when researchers such as Alan Dundes  experimented with the automated classification of folktale themes using punch-card systems. Generative computational models date to the early 1970s, with systems such as TALE-SPIN.  Most approaches to narrative generation have been based on either story-grammars or case-based reasoning: MINSTEL , BRUTUS , and MEXICA  are canonical examples in the field. Recently, new approaches have leveraged crowd-sourcing  and alternative generation mechanisms, such as games  and network models.
We believe that this panel will be interesting and valuable for conference attendees both because of the innovative nature of recent AI-narrative research and because of its connection to the Russian Formalist and French Structuralist critical traditions. The papers by Finlayson and Gervás, respectively, adapt Propp’s Morphology of the Folktale  to the analysis and generation of narratives. Finlayson augments Propp with machine learning algorithms, while Gervás tests Propp’s formalism with combinatorial simulations. Sack combines Rene Girard’s classic theory of “triangular desire” in the 19th Century Novel with social network analysis to create a mechanism for the generation of narrative event sequences.
Operationalizing Formalist and Structuralist concepts by implementing them computationally both gives new life to canonical theories and raises a number of significant practical and theoretical questions. In what ways are Formalist story-grammars such as Propp’s well-specified and in what ways are they under-specified? Can they be successfully generalized beyond their original domains? How can the analytical tools of literary critics be redeployed for generative purposes?
We hope that the panel will spur lively discussion around these and other questions.
Panel papers :

Paper #1: Learning Propp’s Morphology of the Folktal

Abstract: Vladimir Propp's Morphology of the Folktale is a seminal and highly influential piece of work, and it is one of the most computationally-amenable theories of narrative structure that has been proposed.  Until now we have not had the computational techniques that would allow us to learn Propp’s theory automatically. I describe Analogical Story Merging (ASM), a machine-learning algorithm for extracting Proppian plot patterns from sets of stories. Remarkably, ASM can learn a substantive portion of Propp’s theory of the structure of folktale plots.  I will outline the abilities and deficiencies of the algorithm in detail.  I will also discuss the data collection infrastructure that enables this work, namely, the Story Workbench, a general-purpose linguistic text annotation tool that supports the semi-automatic markup of over twenty different syntactic and semantic representations
Bio: Dr. Mark Finlayson is a Research Scientist at the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory at MIT. His research focuses on representing, extracting, and using higher-order semantic patterns in natural language, especially focusing on narrative. He received the B.S.E from the University of Michigan in 1998, and the M.S. and Ph.D. from MIT in 2001 and 2011, respectively, all in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science.  He is general chair of the Computational Models of Narrative Workshop series
Email: markaf@mit.edu
Homepage: www.mit.edu/~markaf
Paper #2: Generating Russian Folk Tales: A Computational Look at Some Aspects Propp Did Not Formalize

Abstract: Although it was never conceived as a computational framework, the semi-formal analysis of Russian folk tales carried out by Vladimir Propp has often been used as theoretical background for the automated generation of stories. Many story generation systems attempted to generalize Propp’s account to other types of stories or to combine it with other techniques. The added distance introduced by these extensions obscured the nature of the extensions required to transform an analytical view into a computational generative one. Deliberately constraining the domain to Russian folk tales, I revisit Propp’s work to explore the gaps between Propp’s original proposal and the requirements of a modern computational solution. These involve a number of procedures and considerations that Propp describes as fundamental to the process of story generation, but does not formalize. I will describe an existing system under development which respects the core concepts of Propp’s morphology and extends them with additional computational elements for these missing aspects that are reverse engineered from Propp’s descriptions and the examples in his book. 
Bio: Dr. Pablo Gervás is an Associate Professor at the Facultad de Informática at Universidad Complutense de Madrid. He received his PhD from Imperial College in 1995. He has worked on natural language processing, computational creativity, and computational narratology. In the area of creative text generation, he has done work on automatically generating narrative, metaphors, and formal poetry. His current research focuses on studying the role of narrative in human communication, with a view to applying it in human-computer interaction. He is the director of the NIL research group (nil.fdi.ucm.es and also of the Instituto de Tecnología del Conocimiento (www.itc.ucm.es). Dr. Gervás has taken part in the organization of several scientific meetings on topics related to computational creativity, and he is currently involved in three projects funded by the European Commission on this topic, including the PROSECCO initiative (prosecco.computationalcreativity.net).
Email: pgervas@sip.ucm.es
Homepage: nil.fdi.ucm.es/index.php?q=node/92
Paper #3: Character Networks for Narrative Generation: Structural Balance Theory and the Emergence of Proto-Narratives

Abstract: This paper models narrative as a complex adaptive system in which the temporal sequence of events constituting a story emerges out of cascading local interactions between nodes in a social network. The approach is not intended as a general theory of narrative, but rather as a particular generative mechanism relevant to several academic communities: (1) literary critics and narrative theorists interested in new models for narrative analysis, (2) artificial intelligence researchers interested in new mechanisms for narrative generation, and (3) complex systems theorists interested in novel applications of agent-based modeling and network theory. 
The paper is divided into two parts. The first part offers examples of research by literary critics on the relationship between social networks of fictional characters and the structure of long-form narratives. Rene Girard’s theory of “triangular desire” in the 19th Century Novel serves as a key theoretical foundation.    The second part provides an example of schematic story generation based on a simulation of the structural balance network model. I will argue that if literary critics can better understand sophisticated narratives by extracting networks from them, then narrative intelligence researchers can benefit by inverting the process, that is, by generating narratives from networks
Author: Graham Sack is a Doctoral Candidate in English & Comparative Literature at Columbia University. His research focuses on the application of quantitative and computational methods to literary and cultural criticism, particularly the use of network analysis to study plot and characterization and the use of simulation to model the behavior of literary markets and the cultural evolution of literary genres. He holds an MA in English & Comparative Literature from Columbia University, an MSc in Economics from the London School of Economics, and a BA in Physics from Harvard College.
Email: gas2117@columbia.edu
Homepage: www.columbia.edu/~gas2117/grahamsack.html
Corresponding Panel Organizer:

Graham Sack
Doctoral Candidate
Columbia University
English & Comparative Literature Department
gas2117@columbia.edu
857-472-0062
References

Dundes, Alan. (1965). On Computers and Folktales. Western Folklore, Vol. 24, No. 3. 185-193
Meehan, J. R. (1977). Tale-spin, an Interactive Program That Writes Stories. In Proceedings of the Fifth International Joint
Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 91-98. Los Altos, CA: William Kaufmann, Inc.
Turner, S.R. (1993). Minstrel: A Computer Model of Creativity and Storytelling. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA.
Selmer Bringsjord and David A. Ferrucci. (1999). Artificial Intelligence and Literary Creativity: Inside the Mind of BRUTUS, a Storytelling Machine. Erlbaum.
Perez y Perez, R. (1999). Mexica: A Computer Model of Creativity in Writing. Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Sussex, Falmer, UK.
Li, B., Lee-Ubran, S., Appling, D.S., Riedl, M.O. (2012). Automatically Learning to Tell Stories about Social Situations from theCrowd. Proceedings of Computational Models of Narrative, LREC 2012
Gervás, P. (2012). Stories from Games: Content and Focalization Selection in Narrative Composition. I Spanish Symposium on Entertainment Computing. Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Propp, Vladimir (1968). Morphology of the Folktale. 2nd edition. University of Texas Press, Austin, TX.
Girard, Rene (1961). Deceit, Desire, and the Novel: Self and Other in Literary Structure. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore.
","txt","2","",""
"1880","15","Constructing Scientific Archives that Support Humanistic Research","10","1. Introduction

The results of what has been termed the scientific method infuse every aspect of modern life.  Science, as a contested enterprise, affects and is affected by political, economic, technological, social, cultural, religious, and ethical factors. Sensational cases illustrate that people are interested scientific data and the process that produces scientific knowledge.1  Scientific data, and evidence about how it was created, shaped, and interpreted, serve as resources for humanistic studies in disciplines including journalism,2  anthropology,3 history,4 medicine,5 and literary studies.6
If scientific information is to be useful for current and future scholarship, we must answer three fundamental questions: (1) Which information is preserved and made accessible? (2) What evidence does it provide? and (3) How can it be used?   Future users of scientific records will provide conflicting answers: Archivists cannot anticipate the precise nature of future research, and selecting or arranging materials with the expectation of one particular use may preclude transformative uses.
If the goal of preservation is to make accessible a record of science that is amenable to disparate analyses and interpretations, information professionals must identify and preserve evidence regarding the process of scientific production, not just the results of the process.  Given that each lab operates differently, preservation programs must use interdisciplinary modes of analysis and techniques, as must users of archives.
The fields of digital humanities, digital curation, data curation, and digital preservation have long been interdisciplinary, and are becoming increasingly hybrid in terms of the disparate theoretical frameworks and tools of analysis that they utilize. It may well be true that the lines between archives, libraries, digital humanities, and publishing are becoming more fluid, yet we believe that archives are well positioned to serve as centralized sites where these intersections lead to greater collaboration and knowledge dissemination.7
2. Academic Archives (AA)

Academic and research institutions have traditionally played a leading role in preserving the ‘papers’ (i.e. personal archives) of faculty, including scientists.8.  Archival guides devoted to scientific and technical documentation emphasize that reports, correspondence, photographs, scrapbooks, lab records, and supplementary documentation hold as much continuing research value as formal research products (publications and processed datasets).  Ideally, archivists act upon the basis of the core archival doctrine, respect des fonds: the idea that grouping records by the function or activity that led to their creation best preserves their value as evidence.9 To accomplish this, archivists draw upon concepts and techniques from other disciplines, to protect the records’ provenance and original order.
3. Digital Preservation (DP)

DP’s core concepts extend archival doctrine and practice.  DP establishes requirements and processes for maintaining authentic and trustworthy digital objects.10  The Open Archival Information System Reference Model (OAIS) and Trusted Digital Repositories Framework provide recommendations concerning system design, policy development, and institutional commitments.11  Research regarding digital personal papers (including faculty archives) recommends particular acquisition, arrangement, descriptive, and access practices that preserve contextual information regarding the creation and use of digital records, such as documentation about the research environment and the use of communication/dissemination technologies.12
4. Data Curation (DC)

DC techniques complement DP and help scholars manage datasets of continuing informational value, by making them preservable, reusable, and computationally reproducible;13 and by developing “high-functioning” metadata.14  While DC provides a rich data-preservation toolkit, it focuses more attention on data than on ancillary documentation, which provides evidence of the ways in which that data was created, used, or interpreted. If the goal is to document the research environment and process, DC methods are but one (albeit, crucial) element in a broader archival strategy.
5. Anthropology

Documenting scientific activity, one of many social arenas in which knowledge is constructed, is best accomplished by direct observation. In the absence of ethnography, archives play an important documentary role by providing insight into the context underlying scientific fact creation. Anthropology’s focus on praxis and its reflexive methodological and epistemological underpinnings offer meaningful points of departure for archivists seeking to capture a nuanced record of scientific processes and activities.15
One goal of science is to produce authoritative, published documents: a materialized fact.16  The archival challenge lies in documenting social factors at play from data generation through the various stages of processing and interpretation, to the final “point of stabilisation.”17  Archives can lay bare the social factors that are all too easily stripped out when the fact is reified, allowing us to read against and along the scientific grain.18  As anthropological surrogates, archives must capture the processes and events that destroy and create facts.19
6. Digital Humanities (DH)

Network analysis, text mining, and information visualization provide an algorithmic supplement to the pursuit of past, present, and future research questions, enhancing analysis of digital objects.20  Recent work with digitized historical records demonstrates how the algorithmic approach offers a lens with which to gaze upon and ascertain meaning from large and unwieldy bodies of data.21  As the corpus of materials amenable to computational analysis grows in archives throughout the world, approaches of this type are becoming indispensable.
While great promise lies in the analytic potential of the DH, its practitioners are increasingly aware of the challenge to making the results of their research preservable and in the optimal case, reusable.22  For their part, the familiarity that archivists have with the lifecycle of data prepares them well for having conversations with digital humanists.23  Archivists can become digital humanists themselves as they utilize approaches like topic modeling to enhance the ways in which they, and their users, interact with archival materials.
7. General Application

An archival processing strategy that is informed by anthropological principles and that uses DH tools will facilitate reflexivity between the archivist’s professional practices and the scholar’s interpretive possibilities. Evidence of the knowledge production process can be better preserved by integrating DP, DC, and DH concepts and tools as essential elements of a systematic archival processing workflow covering analog, born-digital, and digitized records.24 Archivists should be particularly attuned to six elements of scientific work: inscription, circumstantiality, noise, conflict, credibility, and reification.25
To document these factors, archivists must modify how they appraise, preserve, arrange, and describe scientific records.  The challenges to the archival task are many, and include:
Recognizing the potential of archival sources as anthropological surrogates.
Weighing the value of records in terms of the insight they reveal in terms of the six elements of scientific work that are listed above.
Using tools that preserve authenticity, while also providing scholars the ability to understand how the scientific process played out within the social networks and environment supporting scientific research.
Controlling costs and sustaining the archives over time.
8. Case Study

The strategy being used by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign is illustrated by our ongoing work with the records of Carl Woese (1928-2012), 2003 winner of the Crafoord Prize in Biosciences.26  While a full description of the project is beyond the scope of an abstract, we are integrating DP, DC, and DH concepts and tools into three particular points in our workflow.27
 
Appraisal/Acquisition
Professionally photograph Woese’s laboratory to document microsocial environment.
Transfer materials while maintaining original order and recording original placement in lab.
Create forensic image of Woese’s laptop to capture records in a consistent, verifiable manner and avoid unintended data modification.28
Extract user files with disk analysis reports to use as surrogate during processing and topic modeling.
Used topic modeling and network analysis tools to help develop processing plans.
Processing
Arrange analog records into functional series representing Woese’s activities.
Preserve reprint files in original order, including correspondence regarding Woese’s methods and conclusions.
Generate preservation metadata for born-digital content, including genomic datasets.29
Use open-software and to identify and remove private/confidential records, and to identify documents speaking to the six factors, and to assist in generation of access copies, including topic model as alternate access point.30
Access
Create a summary online description for all analog and digital files, with file-level inventory.31
Use file conversion and normalization tools to create access copies of the digital and digitized files.
Provide access copies in zip format, facilitating application of data analysis tools by scholars.
Present topic-modelled view of data as alternative access point.32
Deposit preserved records in Library’s digital preservation repository (Medusa), ensuring long term integrity and accessibility.33
Undertake migration assessment and planning for at risk file formats.
The process described above is surprisingly cost effective when integrated into the “More Product, Less Process” framework for achieving archival efficiency (more information and examples will be provided at the conference and in a full paper, if selected for inclusion in the proceedings).34
9. Conclusion

In the Woese project, we seek to test one means of preserving evidence about knowledge production in scientific archives.  We believe that techniques like those described above can and should be applied to the archives of important scientists, if we wish for those archives to support humanistic research, but--as with all areas of human knowledge--we realize that our own conclusions are subject to revision after being viewed in the bright the light of experience.
References

1. Anthony A. Leiserowitz, Edward W. Maibach, Connie Roser-Renouf, Nicholas Smith, and Erica Dawson (2013), Climategate, Public Opinion, and the Loss of Trust, American Behavioral Scientist 57:6: 818-837.
2. Jeff Gerth and T. Christian Miller (2013), Use Only as Directed, Pro Publica, accessed October 31, 2013, www.propublica.org/article/tylenol-mcneil-fda-use-only-as-directed.
3. David Zeitlin (2012), Anthropology in and of the Archives: Possible Futures and Contingent Pasts. Archives as Anthropological Surrogates, Annual Review of Anthropology 41: 461-80; for a popular account using scientific archives, see David Grann, The Lost City of Z: A Deadly Tale of Obsession in the Amazon (New York: Vintage Books, 2010).
4. Harry Woolf, Manuscripts and the History of Science, ISIS 53 (March 1962): 3; Lillian Hoddeson, True Genius: The Life and Science of John Bardeen, the Only Winner of Two Nobel Prizes in Physics, (Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press, 2002).
5. Ezra Susser, Hans W. Hoek, Alan Brown, Neurodevelopmental Disorders After Prenatal Famine: The Story of the Dutch Famine Study, American Journal of Epidemiology 147:3 (1998): 213-216. We are indebted to Tom Nesmith for this reference.
6. Lisa Yazek, Narrative, Archive, Database: The Digital Humanities and Science Fiction Scholarship, The Eaton Journal of Archival Research in Science Fiction 1:1 (April 2013): 8-13; Susan Haack, ""Science, Literature, and The Literature of Science,"" The Humanities and the Sciences, American Council on Learned Societies Occasional Papers No. 47, 1999, accessed October 31, 2013, archives.acls.org/op/op47-4.htm.
7. Tanya Clement, Wendy Hagenmaier, and Jenny Levine Knies, Toward a Notion of the Archive of the Future: Impressions of Practice by Librarians, Archivists, and Digital Humanities Scholars, The Library Quarterly 83 (April 2013): 112-130.
8. Maynard J. Brichford, University Archives: Relationships with Faculty, The American Archivist 34, no. 2 (April 1, 1971): 173–181; William J. Maher, The Management of College and University Archives (Metuchen, N.J.: Society of American Archivists and Scarecrow Press, 1992), 27-28; Tom Hyry, Diane Kaplan, and Christine Weideman, “ ‘Though This Be Madness, Yet There Is Method in ‘T"": Assessing the Value of Faculty Papers and Defining a Collecting Policy’,” The American Archivist 65, no. 1 (April 1, 2002): 56–69; Tara Zachary Lavar, “In a Class by Themselves: Faculty Papers at Research University Archives and Manuscript Repositories,” The American Archivist 66, no. 1 (April 1, 2003): 159-196.
9. James O’Toole and Richard J. Cox, Understanding Archives & Manuscripts. Archival Fundamentals Series. (Chicago, IL: Society of American Archivists, 2006), 87-131. Joan K. Haas, Helen W. Samuels, and Barbara Trippel Simmons, Appraising the Records of Modern Science and Technology: A Guide (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1985); Maynard J. Brichford, Scientific and Technological Documentation; Archival Evaluation and Processing of University Records Relating to Science and Technology (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois, 1969), 13-15.
10. InterPARES Project. The Long-term Preservation of Authentic Electronic Records: Findings of the InterPARES Project, no date. www.interpares.org/book/index.cfm; Luciana Duranti, Preservation of the Integrity of Electronic Records. The Archivist’s Library v. 2. (Dordrecht; Boston: Kluwer Academic, 2002).
11. Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems. Reference Model for an Open Archival Information System (OAIS), January 2002, accessed October 31, 2013, public.ccsds.org/publications/archive/650x0b1.pdf; RLG/OCLC Working Group on Digital Archive Attributes. Trusted Digital Repositories: Attributes and Responsibilities (Mountain View, CA: Research Libraries Group, 2002), accessed October 31, 2013, www.oclc.org/research/activities/past/rlg/trustedrep/default.html.
12. Paradigm Project. Workbook on Digital Private Papers, 2005, accessed October 31, 2013, www.paradigm.ac.uk/workbook/index.html; Jeremy Leighton John with Ian Rowland, Peter Williams, and Katrina Dean, Digital Lives: Personal Digital Archives for the 21st Century: An Initial Synthesis (The British Library, 2009), accessed October 31, 2013, britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/files/digital-lives-synthesis01a.pdf; AIMS Work Group. AIMS Born-Digital Collections: An Inter-Institutional Model for Stewardship, 2012, accessed October 31, 2013, www2.lib.virginia.edu/aims/whitepaper/AIMS_final.pdf. Tracey P. Lauriault, Barbara L. Craig, D. R. Fraser Taylor, and Peter Pulsifier, “Today’s Data Are Part of Tomorrow’s Research: Archival Issues in the Sciences,” Archivaria 64 (Fall 2007): 123-179.
13. Esther Conway, David Giaretta, Simon Lambert, and Brian Matthews, Curating Scientific Research Data for the Long Term: A Preservation Analysis Method in Context, International Journal of Digital Curation 6, no. 2 (July 26, 2011): 38-52, accessed October 31, 2013, doi:10.2218/ijdc.v6i2.204; Anne E. Thessen and David J. Patterson, “Data Issues in the Life Sciences,” ZooKeys no. 150 (November 28, 2011): 15–51, accessed October 31, 2013, doi:10.3897/zookeys.150.1766; Victoria C. Stodden, “Reproducible Research: A Digital Curation Agenda” (2011), accessed October 31, 2013, academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_content/download/ac:147764/CONTENT/IDCC-Dec62011-STODDEN.pdf.
14. Carole L. Palmer, Nicholas M. Weber, Trevor Munoz, and Allen H. Renear, Foundations of Data Curation: The Pedagogy and Practice of ‘Purposeful Work’ with Research Data, Archive Journal no. 3 (Summer 2013), accessed October 31, 2013, www.archivejournal.net/issue/3/archives-remixed/foundations-of-data-curation-the-pedagogy-and-practice-of-purposeful-work-with-research-data/.
15. Elisabeth Kaplan, ‘Many Paths to Partial Truths’: Archives, Anthropology, and the Power of Representation, Archival Science 2 (2002): 209-220.
16. Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), 50.
17. Ibid, 175-176.
18. See Nupur Chaudhuri, Sherry J. Katz, and Mary Elizabeth Perry, eds., Contesting Archives: Finding Women in the Sources (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010) Ann Laura Stoler, Along the Archival Grain: Epistemic Anxieties and Colonial Common Sense (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009) and Caroline B. Brettell, Archives and Informants: Reflections on Juxtaposing the Methods of Anthropology and History, Historical Methods 25, no. 1 (Winter 1992): 28-36.
19. David Zeitlin, Anthropology in and of the Archives: Possible Futures and Contingent Pasts. Archives as Anthropological Surrogates, Annual Review of Anthropology 41 (2012): 461-80.
20. D. Sculley, and Bradley Pasenek, Meaning and mining: the impact of implicit assumptions in data mining for the humanities, Literary and Linguistic Computing. no. 4 (2008): 409-424, accessed October 31, 2013, doi:10.1093/llc/fqn019 David Blei, Probabilistic Topic Models, Communications of the ACM no. 4 (2012): 77-84, accessed October 31, 2013, doi:10.1145/2133806.2133826 Andrew Goldstone and Ted Underwood, What Can Topic Models of PMLA Teach Us About the History of Literary Scholarship? Journal of Digital Humanities. no. 1 (2012), accessed November 1, 2013, journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/what-can-topic-models-of-pmla-teach-us-by-ted-underwood-and-andrew-goldstone/.
21. Robert Nelson, Mining the Dispatch. University of Richmond, dsl.richmond.edu/dispatch/. Elijah Meeks. Karl Grossner, “Developing Kindred Britain”. Stanford University kindred.stanford.edu/notes.html?section=originating.lab.softwarestudies.com/p/imageplot.html
22. Julia Flanders, Trevor Munoz, An Introduction to Humanities Data Curation. guide.dhcuration.org/intro
23. Alex H. Poole, Now is the Future Now? The Urgency of Digital Curation in the Digital Humanities, Digital Humanities Quarterly 7 (2013), accessed March 5, 2014, digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/7/2/000163/000163.html.
24. J. Gordon Daines III, Processing Digital Records Manuscripts, in Archival Arrangement and Description. eds. Christopher J. Prom and Thomas J. Frusciano. Trends in Archives Practice Series (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2013), 87-144.
25. Latour and Woolgar (1986), 236-244.
26. Carl Woese, Wikipedia, accessed October 29, 2013, en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carl_Woese&oldid=579341488.
27. See Christopher Prom, Making Digital Curation a Systematic Institutional Function, International Journal of Digital Curation 6, no. 1 (August 3, 2011): 139-152, accessed October 31, 2013, doi:10.2218/ijdc.v6i1.178; links from Staff Resources, University of Illinois Archives website, archives.library.illinois.edu/staff-resources/.
28. Forensic Toolkit Imager (FTK Imager): www.forensicswiki.org/wiki/FTK_ImagerBitcurator: www.bitcurator.net
29. NARA File Anaylzer and Metadata Harvester: https://github.com/usnationalarchives/File-Analyzer. DROID: www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/information-management/our-services/dc-file-profiling-tool.htm; Treesize Pro: www.jam-software.com/treesize; Karen’s Directory Printer: www.karenware.com/powertools/ptdirprn.asp.
30. Thomas Padilla, Topic Modeling Archival Materials, Practical E-Records Blog, accessed November 1, 2013, e-records.chrisprom.com/topic-modeling-archival-materials; Archon: archon.org
Our current descriptive catalog/software is Archon: archon.org; we are migrating to ArchivesSpace, archivesspace.org; A description of the Woese Papers is available at archives.library.illinois.edu/archon/index.php?p=collections/controlcard&id=11138
32. David Blei, Andrew Ng, and Michael Jordan, Latent Dirichlet Allocation, Journal of Machine Learning Research (2003): 993-1022; Robert Nelson, University of Richmond, Mining the Dispatch, accessed October 31, 2013, dsl.richmond.edu/dispatch; Lisa Rhody, Topic Modeling and Figurative Language, Journal of Digital Humanities. no. 1 (2012), accessed October 31, 2013, journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/topic-modeling-and-figurative-language-by-lisa-m-rhody
33. medusa.library.illinois.edu.
34. Mark Greene and Dennis Meissner, More Product, Less Process: Revamping Traditional Archival Processing, The American Archivist 68, no. 2 (Fall/Winter 2005): 208-263.","txt","2","",""
"1881","15","Converting Medieval Documents into a Searchable Database","2","1 Introduction
More and more historical documents are digitised. In their raw form, however, digitised sources are usually unstructured texts, on which only keyword search is possible. This limits their usefulness, even when searching for entities, because a person may be referred to in a variety of ways, e.g. by name (Henry VIII), by title (Lord of Ireland), by ancestry (son of Henry VII) or by role (The undersigner). Furthermore, spellings of proper names vary frequently in historical documents (Greiffenclau, Griffenclae), and persons can also be referred to by pronouns. Searching for all variants is not a perfect solution either, since noun phrases such as the King of England can, of course, refer to different entities in different contexts. Finding a particular entity is thus a laborious and error-prone task. If one is interested in certain types of events, for instance all SELLING events [Fertmann, 2013], it becomes even more difficult to locate the desired information. Hence, digitised sources should ideally be enhanced with a semantic-structural annotation layer. Unfortunately, doing this manually is time-consuming, sometimes prohibitively so [Schäfer et al., 2012].

We describe our work of automatically converting a manually compiled collection of historical manuscripts, first into XML-annotated (structured) text and then into a searchable database with a web-based front end. In the conversion process, we exploit typographic and structural cues as well as heuristics based on domain knowledge. The methods we describe are not in themselves entirely novel. Detecting structure in superficially un- or semistructured texts has been the topic of various research projects. The aim of this paper is thus not so much to introduce novel techniques but to show how relatively simple techniques can be applied to a particular type of collection and thereby make it much more accessible and useful.

2 The Data
The data are a collection of regesta, i.e. summaries of medieval charters, pertaining to the City of Saarbrücken and covering a period of 950 years from 601 to 1545 AD [Eder-Stein, 2012]. Compiling this collection, originally on file cards and later electronically in a Microsoft Word document, started in the late 1950s and ended in 2011. Initially, only an open access book publication was intended, hence the use of a Word document to collect the data, which is, of course, suboptimal from a processing point of view.

Since the manuscript was intended for off-line reading rather than electronic processing, the structure of each regest remained largely implicit, being signalled mainly by typographical means. Figure 1 shows an example. The first line is printed in bold face and contains the year and sometimes also the place of issue as well as additional information, e.g. regarding the reliability of the dating. This line is also used as a unique identifier for the regest in the collection. Then follows the modern German summary of the manuscript. Some passages, often names, are left in their original form and printed in italics, e.g. Sarebrugka debellatur. Various types of metadata follow, including the original dating, signatories, and archival information. Not all metadata are available for each regest but if they occur, their order is fixed and they are usually preceded by keywords such as Druck (print).


Fig. 1: Regest

The book also contains an extensive index, which not only lists named entities (NEs) referred to in the texts but also provides valuable additional information, e.g. about alternative spellings, family relationships (Metze, Witwe des Schultheiß Nikolaus “Metze, widow of ...”), relationships between locations and person (Einwohner “residents”), titles and roles of persons (Ritter “knight”, herrschaftlicher Schneider “stately taylor”), localisation of place names (Kelz, Dorf (Dep. Haute- Saˆone, F.)), and contexts in which an entity was mentioned in the text (Besuch in Saarbrücken “visit to Saarbrücken”). Figure 2 shows three index entries.

3 Related Work
Several projects are dedicated to digitising medieval charters and making them available via sophisticated web interfaces. The most well-known is Regesta Imperii, 1 which provides electronic access to a collection of charters from the period of the Holy Roman Empire [Kuczera, 2005]. Another project is the Charters Encoding Initiative, which has been running since 2004.2 However, as far as we know, in all of these projects, the underlying database is built manually rather than by extracting information from existing texts.

On the other hand, there is a large body of work concerned with determining structure in texts using supervised [Borkar and Sarawagi, 2001, Viola and Narasimhand, 2005] or unsupervised [Grenager et al., 2005] machine learning as well as bootstrapping from existing resources [Canisius and Sporleder, 2007]. Our methods are not as sophisticated nor do they have to be since we can infer a lot of information from typographic cues and domain knowledge. Also related are studies which aim at identifying structure in published papers [Schäfer et al., 2012]. Typically, these, too, employ heuristics [Schäfer and Weitz, 2012].


Fig. 2: Index Entries

4 From Unstructured Text To Searchable Database
The structure of regest texts and index entries is only implicitly encoded by formatting (type face, level of indentation) and ordering of elements. Many of these devices are ambiguous, e.g. italics are predominantly used to indicate original passages but metadata information is also sometimes set in italics (e.g. vgl. “cf.”). We implemented heuristics to determine the function of a piece of text depending on its typographical properties and position relative to other text elements. We also made use of a limited set of manually supplied keywords, such as titles, honorifics and words for groups of persons, mainly for parsing the index entries. This procedure should be relatively easily adaptable for other, similar collections. Once the main structural blocks had been identified, index and regest entries could be linked. Because the index lists NEs and links them to the regesta, we could also relatively easily identify and disambiguate the entities referred to in the regesta themselves, thus avoiding a separate NE recognition step.


Fig. 3: XML Mark-Up in the Index

An XML-schema was designed for representing the collection. We tried to comply with the TEI guidelines [Burnard and Bauman, 2013] whenever possible, however, since TEI does not explicitly cover medieval charters we had to deviate from it occasionally. In general, we designed the schema in such a way that it is extensible. In particular, all automatically inferable information types should be encodable, even if we do not extract them immediately. For example, we refrained from automatically identifying the issuer of a document. However, this can normally be identified relatively reliably as it is typically the first person named in the text. Figure 3 shows part of an (instantiated) example of an index entry of type LOCATION. We encode the type of settlement (Dorf “village”), whether it is abandoned or not, the name and alternative names, and the area, district and region, if provided.

Using the heuristics, an XML marked-up version of the summaries and index was automatically generated from the original Word document. Additionally, the extracted information was stored in a database. We consider the XML file the primary format. However, a database is useful because it can be employed as a straightforward backend for a web application. Furthermore, if the collection is extended at a later stage, a database offers a simple interface for data entry. Additions to the collection can be entered directly in the database, thus rendering the automatic conversion from unstructured text to structured XML unnecessary.The updated database can easily be exported to XML and the proofs for future editions of the book can be generated directly from the XML file. Finally, we created a web interface3 for searching and browsing the collection, which also implements additional features, such as a time line, allowing users to see all regesta from a pre-selected period.

5 Conclusion and Future Work
Where originally only keyword search could be performed on the collection, automatic processing greatly enhanced its utility. Linking of NEs to index entries now allows entity-based search. Furthermore, users can search explicitly for certain information types, e.g. archival information. The explicit mark-up of the documents makes it trivial to implement more complex, logical search options such as searching for co-occurring entities.It is also possible to link to external resources such as maps or show family trees based on the index information. Finally, the database makes the data more easily extensible and allows for error and consistency checking.

With the basic structure in place, one can go further and identify co-reference chains, semantic argument structures or document topics, or extract information, e.g. about all financial transaction in which a given monastery was involved or about the contexts in which certain groups of people are mentioned.

The enhanced collection is not only useful for historians. It is also a valuable resource for students and pupils studying medieval or local history. Historical linguists also have expressed an interest in using it to study historical place names. Moreover, we expect a significant demand from historically inclined laypersons, especially those living in the region covered by the collection.

References
Kaustubh Deshmukh Borkar and Sunita Sarawagi (2001). Automatic segmentation of text into structured records. In Proceedings of the 2001 ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data, pages 175–186.

Lou Burnard and Syd Bauman (2013), editors. TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Text Encoding Initiative Consortium Charlotesville, Virginia.

Sander Canisius and Caroline Sporleder (2007). Bootstrapping information extraction from field books. In Proceedings of the 2007 Joint Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and Computational Natural Language Learning (EMNLP-CoNLL), pages 827–836, Prague, Czech Republic, June 2007. Association for Computational Linguistics.

Irmtraud Eder-Stein, editor (2012). Regesten zur Geschichte der Stadt Saarbrücken (bis 1545). Publikationen der Saarländischen Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek. universaar: Universitätsverlag des Saarlandes. Bearbeitet unter Verwendung von Vorarbeiten von Hanns Klein.Susanne Fertmann (2013). Extraction of selling events from historical documents. Bachelor Thesis, Saarland University.Trond Grenager, Dan Klein, and Christopher Manning. Unsupervised learning of field segmentation models for information extraction. In Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL’05), pages 371–378, Ann Arbor, Michigan, June 2005. Association for Computational Linguistics.

Andreas Kuczera (2005). Die Regesta Imperii Online. In Deutsche Kommission für die Bearbeitung der Regesta Imperii e.V. bei der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Verbindung mit der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek in München, editor, Workshop Buch und Internet - Aufbereitung historischer Quellen im digitalen Zeitalter, pages 3–4.

Ulrich Schäfer and Benjamin Weitz (2012). Combining OCR outputs for logical document structure markup. Technical background to the ACL 2012 contributed task. In Proceedings of the ACL-2012 Special Workshop on Rediscovering 50 Years of Discoveries, pages 104–109, Jeju Island, Korea, July 2012. Association for Computational Linguistics.

Ulrich Schäfer, Jonathon Read, and Stephan Oepen (2012). Towards an ACL Anthology Corpus with logical document structure. An overview of the ACL 2012 contributed task. In Proceedings of the ACL-2012 Special Workshop on Rediscovering 50 Years of Discoveries, pages 88–97, Jeju Island, Korea, July 2012. Association for Computational Linguistics.

Paul Viola and Mukund Narasimhand (2005). Learning to extract information from semistructured text using a discriminative context free grammar. In Proceedings of the 28th Annual International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval, pages 330–337.","txt","2","",""
"1882","15","Creating a Digital Tombstone Archive: From Fieldwork to Theory Formation","10","1. Introduction: A digital tombstone archive

1.1. Overview: Scope and motivation

Since 2007 we work on the construction and exploitation of a digital tombstone archive, “ThakBong”, an archive which mainly contains tombstones of Taiwan, but includes also tombstones of China and tombstones of Chinese migrants in Asia, Europe and the USA. So far, on 850 visits to 500 graveyards, about 170.000 photos of 42.000 tombs have been taken. Repeated visits to graveyards allows us to document regionally different temporal patterns of ancestor veneration and the life-cycle of a tombs, including the burial, a second burial, a tomb renovation and the removal of the tomb. In fact, graveyards in Taiwan continue to disappear from the geographic and cultural landscape through development projects, natural catastrophes and the transformation of graveyards to bone-ash-towers. About half of all graveyards have already been lost or will be removed according to governmental projects in the years to come. As graveyards continue to be taboo for Taiwanese researchers, the records of graveyards we produce are among the only available.

Fig. 1: A graveyard in Southern Taiwan
Using geo-referenced photos as primary data, tombstones, tombs and graveyards are digitally reconstructed, linking back and forth between images and data. Images and data are constantly updated and made available to the scientific community via the research data archive DANS . They can be used in a wide range of research approaches, including corpus linguistics, social history, anthropology and human geography. The wealth of the data, and the interleaving levels of language, culture, geography and history however require the elaboration of more integrative and cross-disciplinary approaches. Beyond the topics in relation to Taiwan, the data permit empirical tests for theories of colonization, globalization, cultural contagion , and social struggle through cultural practices . The approach that we take to our data is that of a Digital Anthropology that combines sociological theories with the transformation of cultural practices .
1.2. Scope of this Presentationy

In this presentation we will summarize the main aspects of our digitization work, starting with the sampling and finishing with some theoretical insights we gained through our work. The purpose of this presentation is two-fold. First, we want to provide those who intend to launch a similar documentation and research project of  their local graveyards with a short project description, which they might follow and, if needed, modify. Second, we want researcher who consider to use the ""ThakBong"" archive for their future studies to be able to evaluate the scope, coarseness and reliability of the data.
2. Methodology

2.1. Sampling

The purpose of the sampling is to produce an adequate representation of the reality in all dimensions we can think of, to avoid many of the unmotivated generalization we find in more traditional research. We are especially eager to capture the voices of poor and uneducated people, as they are usually overheard in linguistic and historic accounts. We therefor sample, without distinction, old and new tombs, king-size national monuments and most elementary tombs. In addition, we try to cover all ethnic groups, all religious orientations and all administrative divisions. For practical reasons, however, we cannot achieve a truly balanced sampling, because urban regions and catastrophe-prone areas have already lost most of their historic graveyards. 
2.2. Fieldwork

The central tools for the fieldwork are digital GPS-cameras, costing about 250€, which store in the EXIF-header the position, altitude and orientation, along with more common metadata. For geographic analyses and the mapping of tombs, graveyards and cultural practices these data are indispensable.
To optimize the automatic use of these data, photos are taken in a regulated way, using two circles with two defined centers as a reference for the photos: All photos from outside are all taken into the direction of the tombstone, allowing the orientation of the tomb and the orientation of the shots to be calculated from the direction of one central camera shot. Photos in the area of the mourners, in front of the tombstone, are taken from the center of this space, allowing to calculate the location of the components of the tomb around the mourner from the orientation of the tomb. Also, through this model, photos are linked in a systematic way, making it possible to browse and virtually explore the tombs.

Fig. 2: The model regulating how photos are taken, so that automatic processing and browsing of the tomb become possible.
2.3. Processing of Primary Data

For the processing and multi-user annotation we use the postgreSQL database the postGIS GIS extension, storing transcriptions in XML. The database tables represent digital objects as bundles of features. A feature is a unique combination of an attribute, e.g. 'direction', a value, e.g. '180' and if necessary a unit, e.g. 'degree'. These objects are called ""graveyard"", ""tomb"", ""tombstone"", ""transcription"" and ""person"", representing the corresponding real-world objects. The object ""person"", for example, contains the features 'surname', 'given name', 'religious name', 'date of birth', 'date of death', 'date of burial', 'ethnicity', 'gender' and 'role', e.g. 'mourner' or 'deceased'. An average tomb has about 50 defined features, but numbers might be much higher for family tombs.
In a first processing step, these objects are created manually through a web-interface that segments the stream of photos. Images that show an object are linked to that object. Images showing inscriptions, offerings, symbols and figurative representations are specifically tagged, so that images can be further filtered, to facilitate the annotation process.
More than 10.000 lines of program code in plpqsql implement PostgreSQL triggers, which help to reduce the manual annotation labor. They can be divided into five groups:
Rules that extract and processes data from the image. From these the position, altitude and slope are calculated.
Rules that fill in logically implied values. E.g. if no image of a tombs is tagged for 'offering', the tomb is marked as offerings='no'.
Rules for a model-based annotation. Models are used for non-visible features, such as the 'ethnicity' of the deceased, if not known otherwise. These statistical models maximize the number of correct annotations over the whole data set, allowing at the same time manual corrections of individual tombs to be respected and calculated into the model. Using external statistical data, for example, on the relation of surnames, administrative regions and ethnicity  , the most likely ethnicity for the deceased can be calculated, given the region and the surname on the tombstone. 
Where no external data resources are available, e.g. for the prediction of the 'gender' from the 'given name', we use bootstrapping: Using statistical data that have been produced in the manual annotation of unambiguous cases, ambiguous cases are automatically annotated when the memory-based model makes clear predictions for a given name. For all features, their epistemic status are retained: Model-derived data are updated when manually set data change. 
2.4. Annotation and Transcription

After experiments with OCR on tombstone images brought no results, tombstones are transcribed manually, phrase by phrase. Until now 24.000 tombstones have been completely, about 10.000 partially transcribed. Transcribed phrases are classified semi-automatically into 'semantic roles', such as 'place', 'person', 'date of birth' etc. Then, example-based taggers extract relevant data, such as dates, names and family relations and fill in the relevant features. Where automatic processes do not yield a clear classification, the system shifts to an interactive mode. All other features, e.g. the color and form of the tombstone are annotated manually until we will have completed the extraction of these features from other photos, using an example-based approach and a similarity metrics of photos. For the entire project, 6 man-years have been invested in 7 years, showing that with the right balance of automatic processing and manual annotation huge data can be created.
 
2.5. Analysis and Theory Formation

The most striking fact about the data is the enormous variation one finds through time and space. This variation contrasts sharply with the literature on funerary traditions in Taiwan, and, second, with statements that informants produce when explaining their traditions. The data thus not only question the foundations of established research on funerary rites, but also on research that uses informants as a source of information. In fact, the relations between publications, informants’ opinions and a national ideology become palpable to such an extent that a scientific approach has to look into the involvement of ideologies in the transformation of cultural practices. The DH-approach is quite suitable for this endeavor: Digitizing scientific and political publications that stand in relation to funerary rites, we could contrast publications with the reality they pretend to describe and reveal their influences on social practices. More particularly, we could show how a governmental publication influenced the way that Taiwanese refer to their ancestral home through tombstone inscriptions . 

Fig. 3: An example for the variation through time and space. The onset of the place-name type 'tanghao' (blue) between 1900 and 2000. Adjacent regions may show similar or very different patterns in the development. B refers to the correlation to the Baijaixing, a century-old book which specifies which surname matches which tanghao. High correlations identify the place-name as a literary reference.
References

thakbong.dyndns.tv
www.dans.knaw.nl
Sperber, Dan (1996). La contagion des idées. Paris: Odile Jacob.
Bourdieu, Pierre (1979). La distinction: Critique sociale du jugement. Collection Le sens Commun Paris: Éditions de Minuit.
de Certeau, Michel and Giard, Luce and Mayol, Pierre (1980/1990). L'invention du quotidien: Arts de faire. Paris: Gallimard.
www.postgresql.org
Holl, Stephan and Plum, Hans (2009). PostGIS. GeoInformatics 3: 34–36.
Chen, Shao-hsing and Fried, Morton (1968). The Distribution of Family Names in Taiwan: Volume I, The Data. Taipei: National Taiwan University & Columbia University.
Streiter, Oliver and Goudin, Yoann and Huang, Chun (Jimmy) and Lin, Ann Mei-fang (2012). Matching Digital Tombstone Documentation to Unearthed Census Data. International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing 6, 1-2: 57-70.
Streiter, Oliver and Goudin Yoann (2014). The Tanghao on Taiwan's Tombstones: The Recuperation of Tactics for a National Space. Archivi Orientalni.","txt","2","",""
"1883","15","Créer un centre de recherche interuniversitaire sur les humanités numériques au Québec : Défis et succès","2","Notre poster portera sur la création du Centre de recherche interuniversitaire sur les humanités numériques (CRIHN), les étapes ayant menées à sa création, surtout liées aux difficultés inter-institutionnelles et en relation avec les organismes subventionaires, plus la question de la langue française dans un contexte des humanités numériques à l’échelle mondiale. Notre poster sera donc une ressource d’information pour d’autres chercheurs qui pensent mettre en place un nouveau centre en présentant notre expérience et en la mettant en perspective avec d’autres centres canadiens et internationaux.
Le CRIHN est basé à l'université de Montréal dans des locaux multimédia qui permettront des rencontres mensuelles en personne et en vidéo- conférence simultanée pour les membres hors Montréal. La direction du centre est assumée par un professeur de l'université de Montréal (Michael E. Sinatra) pour les quatre premières années de son existence, avec l'assistance d'un directeur adjoint a McGill (Stéfan Sinclair) et d'un autre a Concordia (Jason Camlot). La direction ira ensuite en rotation pour un période de quatre ans dans ces deux autres institutions.
Le poster contiendra aussi des informations sur la constitution du CRIHN et la manière dont nous avons structuré les axes de recherches avec nos chercheurs et les institutions impliquées. Le CRIHN qui regroupe 31 chercheurs québécois à la pointe de la recherche sur la culture numérique. Provenant d'horizons disciplinaires variés mais partageant une expérience théorique et pratique, le centre a voulu mettre en avant l'expertise en humanité numérique répartie au Québec à travers sept universités, CEGEP et établissement de recherche et d'enrichir les collaborations présentes et futures en créant une synergie interdisciplinaire et interuniversitaire.
Sous la direction Michael E. Sinatra, la recherche menée dans le CRIHN s’articule autour de deux grands axes. Le premier, intitulé 'Théorie(s) du numérique' (sous la direction d'Ollivier Dyens) regroupe des chercheurs qui développent une réflexion théorique sur les enjeux du numérique et sur les changements culturels détermines par les technologies. L'objectif de cet axe est de fédérer les travaux d'analyse de ces chercheurs afin de clarifier certaines notions clés qui caractérisent l'environnement numérique. Le travail collectif des chercheurs vise à produire des définitions terminologiques et conceptuelles sur lesquelles pouvoir ensuite construire un langage commun et des principes théoriques partagés. Ce travail sert aussi à rendre plus clairs les objectifs plus pratiques des autres volets de recherche du centre.
Le deuxième axe, intitulé 'Les outils du savoir' (sous la direction de Stéfan Sinclair) réunit plusieurs chercheurs très actifs dans le développement et l'utilisation d'outils informatiques conçus pour la création, l'analyse, la visualisation et la diffusion du savoir dans les humanités. L'ambition principale des chercheurs de cet axe est de donner un coup de pouce décisif aux transformations médiatiques en cours dans les recherches des sciences humaines, du texte imprimé toujours dominant vers le support numérique et tout son potentiel interactif et analytique.
Les activités du CRIHN sont organisées autour des projets actuels et futurs des membres du centre et prendront diverses formes d'activités de diffusion (colloques et ateliers, table-rondes avec les média, expérimentations avec de nouvelles formes de publications électroniques, etc.) ainsi que des activités de formation des étudiants, une composante importante des activités du centre.
Le CRIHN offre aussi, dans un axe transversal, un observatoire (sous la direction de Marcello Vitali Rosati) qui développe une veille sur les pratiques émergentes et une vulgarisation des approches liées à la culture numérique. Son objectif principal est donc celui de communiquer avec le grand public pour que la société puisse avancer dans sa façon d’interpréter le rôle et les enjeux de la culture numérique. Le CRIHN permet donc à travers son observatoire de mettre en avant une expertise québécoise reconnue nationalement et internationalement dans le monde académique mais sans vitrine appropriée pour le milieu journalistique et les citoyens.","txt","2","",""
"1884","15","Critical editing with TXSTEP","2","In the ""Afterword"" to his 1984 edition of James Joyce's ""Ulysses"", Hans Walter Gabler gives a short outline of how he collected the variant readings contained in the different sources, how he used them for establishing, in two steps, the critical text, leaving most of the mechanical work (even the automatic insertion of the diacritic marks for the genetic variants) to the computer, and checking, by subsequent machine collation, the manual work which was carried out interactively at the computer console. According to Gabler, ""the systematic and comprehensive reliance on computer aid ... has drastically reformed the editing process... Without it, this edition would neither be as accurate as we hope it is ... nor so rich in recorded facts"" (p. 1909).
The TUSTEP tools Gabler had used more than 30 years ago have constantly been adapted in close collaboration with many editorial projects to their respective requirements and to changing technologies like PostScript and PDF for output or encoding standards like SGML, XML, TEI and Unicode. They have successfully been used for the preparation of many other critical editions; www.tustep.uni-tuebingen.de/ed3.html lists more than 750 volumes of printed editions published between 1972 and 2013 prepared and/or typeset with TUSTEP. They include works written in languages using non-latin alphabets, like greek (e.g. the 28th edition of Nestle-Aland, Novum Testamentum Graece, published in 2012), hebrew (e.g. the Mishna edition published by Michael Krupp) and arabic (Kitab al-Adad al-musamma..., ed. 2012 by Gunhild Graf). Current editorial projects relying on these tools include the works of Marx and Engels, the letters of Philipp Melanchthon, the works of Christoph Martin Wieland, of Albertus Magnus, the philosophical works of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and many others.
The TEI wiki judges the use of TUSTEP for the preparation of critical editions as follows:
Advantage: does the job
Drawback: very difficult to learn.
According to Willard McCarty (Humanities Computing 2005, p. 217), main reasons for these difficulties are the language of documentation and the complexity of the interface.
This mentioned drawback has in the meantime lost much of its impact:
At DH 2012, we presented the prototype of a modern XML-based interface to these tools, called TXSTEP. It both removes the language barrier and provides an user interface which an up-to-date established syntax. It allows the user to take advantage of the typical benefits of working with an XML editor, like content completion, highlighting, showing annotations, and verifying the code. The underlying XML schema contains extensive annotations and documentation on the purpose and syntax of the single functional elements available for building a TXSTEP script. When using a modern XML editor like oXygen, these annotations are shown automatically in a popup window while developing a TXSTEP script, so offering to a considerable degree a self teaching environment.
The poster session demonstrates how to use these tools for supporting the single steps required for the preparation of a critical edition:
Collating witnesses / collecting variant readings
Evaluating the collation results
Constitution of edition text
Compilation of apparatuses
Preparation of indexes
Preparation of printer's copy
Publishing the text with appartus(ses) in print and/or for the web
As text basis for this demonstration, we chose a freely invented scenario: in order to have available a short example showing the whole spectrum of different types of variant readings, we copied a passage from vol. 4 of the edition of the works of Friedrich Schelling, a German philosopher, which had been typeset with TUSTEP in 1988, and labelled it as „version A“. In addition, we invented two other witnesses B and C for this same passage by copying it to separate files, there carrying out systematic replacements of single characters (so, the initial upper case Umlauts which in the 1988 edition have been written as Ae, Oe, Ue, have been converted to Ä, Ö, Ü) and other orthographic corrections (e.g., replacing th by t, y by i, c by k), changed the punctuation (inserting or deleting a comma etc.) and, in addition, made other modifications by inserting / omitting / replacing / transposing whole words or sentences. Starting from this material, the demo will show how the preparation and publication of a critical edition, be it in print or on the web, can profit from the power of TXSTEP – which provides powerful tools not only for editing but also for text analysis, for indexing, for lexicographic or bibliographic work and for publishing the results.  
As a first step of the editorial work, we have to collect the variant readings by comparing the text of the sources, using the TXSTEP module COMPARE and specifying the details needed for our purpose (word-by-word collation; full references for the lemma location; abbreviate lemmata  comprising  more than 5 words; add 1 word of context for insertions; include a version-id for version B), as shown in fig. 1.

Fig. 1: COMPARE script
COMPARE compares  two files only and produces two different kinds of output: a ""comparison protocol"" or listing which may be displayed on screen or printed on paper, showing the text of version A and below that the text of version B. Differences between the two versions are marked between the two lines. This listing (see fig. 2) is useful for checking the results of a correcting step or of automatic transformation of a text.

Fig. 2: COMPARE protocol
For the preparation of critical editions, a different kind of output is more useful (see fig. 3): the differences found by comparison are written to a text file in a syntax which contains all the information necessary for further processing and merging into them the differences found by comparing the same version A to the text of other witnesses.

Fig. 3: differences file with TEI compatible tags
A listing generated from the difference files produced by comparing the text of more than two witnesses is shown in fig. 4.

Fig. 4: Listing showing differerences of more than two witnesses
As the next step, shown in fig. 5, we try to classify the variants found. We try to differentiate between the various types of variants mentioned above when describing our text basis:  we write variants concerning initial umlauts only to a separate file which we decide that its content will not be part of the apparatus, but will be handled in the preface. The merely orthographic variants and the variants concerning different punctuation only will get a respective attribute which allows to either also omit them from the apparatus, or to list them in a separate apparatus level. The remaining variants are those which should be listed in the main apparatus.

Fig. 5: classifying variant readings
The result of this step are two files: one containing the variants concerning (in our case) the initial umlauts only, and a second file  containing the raw material to be used for building the apparatus entries. Fig. 5 shows the procedure for the differences between version A and B only (lines 17-122). There follows the same <transform> for the differences between version A and C, and a further module for sorting and merging the variants found in version B and version C in ascending order of lemma location, of type of variant, and of witness ID.   
When we transform these sorted and merged records of variant readings automatically, without philological inspection and revision, into apparatus entries for a printed critical edition and insert them into our edition text (for which, in this demo, the unaltered text of version A will serve), we get a file of which a detail is shown in fig. 6.

Fig. 6: edition text (version A) with inserted apparatus entries
With a further script (not shown here), making use of the powerful typesetting engine of TUSTEP, this file is transformed to a PostScript or PDF file (see fig. 7),  showing at page bottom the apparatus entries linked to the text by means of line numbers printed in the margin of the edition text. As stated above, in this example, we omitted only the variants concerning the writing of the initial upper case Umlaut only; for the other variants, three apparatus levels have been provided, the first one showing the variant readings which may affect the meaning or interpretation of the text; merely orthographic variants are listed in the second apparatus, the third apparatus contains variants regarding punctuation only.

Fig. 7: typeset Edition with 3 apparatus levels at page bottom
Of course, without investing further philological effort, the results are less than satisfying, as shown in fig. 7 for lines 13-14: the text has ""kleine engherzige"", versions B and C each showing ""engherzige kleine"". The apparatus says that, in line 13, version B and C omit ""kleine"" and insert, after ""engherzige"" ending in line 14, the word ""kleine"". The reason is that the word-by-word comparison has produced this result. In the apparatus, the two entries should however be transformed into a single one, showing an inversion of the two words ""kleine engherzige"" to ""engherzige kleine"".
This means: the procedures shown in the demo can only make available a reliable material basis for the philological work indispensable for responsible critical work on an edition.  At the same time, the scope of work of these procedures can in every detail be specified according to the needs of an actual editorial project, thus saving time for manual work and at the same time providing a reliable material basis for controlled work.
Fig. 8 shows an example of the same text presented as an online edition (also generated automatically, without critical intervention) in html form. In the left column, we have the edition text (version A in our case), highlighting the words where one of the other versions (B and C in our case) show differences. A click at one of the highlighted words makes visible the respective location in the apparatus frame below the text, where a click at the witness code opens, in the right hand frame, the text of the selected version and shows it from the location containing the respective variant reading.

Fig. 8: edition in html frames
Also the right-hand frame, in this case presenting version B, shows an apparatus frame containing however the differences to version A only and not to the other witnesses. Also here, the above mentioned inversion ""kleine engherzige"" vs. ""engherzige kleine"" is not marked as an inversion: ""um"" - though identical to the text in version A - is highlighted because version A has inserted ""kleine"" after ""um"", and ""kleine"" is highlighted because it is missing after ""engherzige"" in version A.  
Of course, editorial work cannot rely on the steps only which are shown in this demo. Alphabetic lists of word forms occurring in the single witnesses, e.g., or sorting the lemma-variant-pairs alphabetically could help to reveal e.g. spelling variants typical for certain geographical regions where a witness has been transcribed and e.g. help to build gropups of witnesses for texts with a great number of witnesses. Also for these and similar task, TXSTEP provides not ready-made solutions but a set of tools for relatively elementary steps of text data processing – tools whose scope of work can be specified in detail according to the needs of each step, and which can be combined in (almost) arbitrary ways to provide solutions also for complex tasks. A list of the basic modules is shown in fig. 9, showing the popup window if you put the cursor in the root tag of a TXSTEP script (in this case, I did this using the script shown in fig. 1).

Fig. 9: showing, as popup, the modules provided by TXSTEP
Both TXSTEP and TUSTEP, the TUebingen System of TExt Processing tools, are open source under the Revised BSD License and can be downloaded from the TUSTEP homepage[6]. The TXSTEP installation package contains in addition a set of 80 exercises, covering tasks like file transformation and extraction of information, collation of different versions of the same text, evaluation of collation results, index generation and sorting.      
References

http://www.bbaw.de/forschung/mega/
http://www.haw.uni-heidelberg.de/forschung/forschungsstellen/melanchthon/edition.de.html
http://www.wieland-edition.uni-jena.de/
http://institut.albertus-magnus-web.de/643_0/editiocoloniensis.html
http://www.uni-muenster.de/Leibniz/seite2.html
www.tustep.org","txt","2","",""
"1885","15","Crowdsourcing Annotation and the Social Edition: Ossian Online","2","1. Introduction

1.1. Overview

James Macpherson’s Ossian poems were the international sensation of the eighteenth-century. First published in 1760, Macpherson’s work caused a literary furore. Ostensibly translations from Gaelic manuscripts, the poems were published as fragments of a lost Celtic epic, salvaged from a dying oral culture and translated for the edification of a modern readership. Despite the controversial provenance of the Ossian poems, they transformed European literature; their impact was profound, international and long lasting, initiating the Romantic movement in Ireland, Britain, Europe, and beyond. 
1.2. Methodology

Ossian Online is a new initiative to freshly edit and make available this profoundly influential work of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century European culture. Itwill work on the principle of the ‘collaboratory’: providing an online infrastructure for scholarly collaboration. As a platform in which participants can annotate, debate, and engage, this project will create an innovative space for interdisciplinary dialogue, where scholarly debate and exchange can occur in real-time. 
2. Proposal

The past five years have witnessed an exponential growth in the use of social media for scholarship and communication in eighteenth-century studies (Eighteenth-Century Questions1, The 18th-Century Common2, 18thConnect3, Mapping the Republic of Letters4). Ossian Online harnesses this critical mass and directs its potential towards the online scholarly edition. By creating a new online edition of the poems which visualises textual variation, evolution, and genetic relations, and altering the medium in which the text is presented, this project will bring Ossian to a global audience.
Ossian Onlinewill also act as a test case for new approaches to humanities research, bringing greater immediacy and interdisciplinarity to the fundamental practices of academic communication than are afforded by traditional models of scholarly publication. The rewards of this endeavour will be apparent not just in the synthesis of different disciplinary insights, but in the challenges it poses to established disciplinary conventions. Ossian Online uses social media technologies to crowdsource annotations to a new edition of the Ossian poems. The project closely follows many of the recent articulations of the possibilities of the ‘social edition,’56. It also provides a practical example of an edition which enacts one of the many potential affordances of social media for scholarly editing and annotation. Ossian Online aims to contribute to the description of an active typology of the emergent ‘social edition,’ which remains more theorised than practiced. More broadly, this paper will seek to “extend our understanding of the scholarly edition in light of new models of edition production that embrace social networking and its commensurate tools”7.
The multidisciplinary appeal of Ossian makes it an ideal candidate to test a set of technologies which promise to use participatory experience to reorient the role of the scholarly editor “away from that of ultimate authority and more toward that of facilitator of reader involvement”8. Scholars from the range of disciplines that study Ossian (literature, history, Irish studies, Scottish studies, Celtic studies, romanticism, textual studies, book history) are a crowd—as McGann has put it—“who have yet to be sourced”9. To date, crowdsourcing has been used for different scholarly ends (including transcription, correction, and identification of data), but this represents one of the first occasions on which the wisdom of the crowd will be leveraged to critically annotate a literary work. Building on the principles of existing crowdsourcing software (Transcribe Bentham10, Candide 2.011, Prism, CommentPress13, Digress.it14), Ossian Onlinewill develop an interface for the collaborative research environment that will satisfy the particular needs of the literary text and reinvigorate related scholarship. Moving Ossian online preserves the core-values of the humanities while articulating them through new opportunities offered by the digital revolution. It will facilitate a forum in which multiple scholarly perspectives can be synthesised, through an interdisciplinary research environment.
Interest in the ‘social edition’ is growing within scholarly editing and digital humanities communities. In a similar manner to the recent ‘Social, Digital, Scholarly Editing’ conference at the University of Saskatchewan15, this paper will address the theoretical, practical, and social effects of the collaborative editorial possibilities enabled by the development of digital platforms.
This paper will have two particular focuses: first, to provide a critique of social media platforms and technologies used by Ossian Online, and suggest which are best suited to fulfilling the needs of ‘social edition’ developers. Second, it will articulate the current possibilities and challenges of constructing a ‘social edition,’ outlining future directions for “the organization of digital text [ . . . ] to promote social interaction within and around it”16.
References

1. Eighteenth-Century Questions. Facebook. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.
2. The 18th-Century Common. Wake Forest University. Web. 17 Oct 2013.
3. 18thConnect. Texas A&M University. Web. 17 Oct 2013.
4. Mapping the Republic of Letters. Stanford University. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.
5. Siemens, Ray et al.Pertinent Discussions Toward Modeling the Social Edition: Annotated Bibliographies. Digital Humanities Quarterly 6.1 (2012): n. pag. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.
6. Siemens, Ray et al.Toward Modeling the Social Edition: An Approach to Understanding the Electronic Scholarly Edition in the Context of New and Emerging Social Media. Literary and Linguistic Computing 27.4 (2012): 445–461. llc.oxfordjournals.org. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.
7. Siemens, Ray et al.Toward Modeling the Social Edition: An Approach to Understanding the Electronic Scholarly Edition in the Context of New and Emerging Social Media. Literary and Linguistic Computing 27.4 (2012): 445–461. llc.oxfordjournals.org. Web. 17 Oct. 2013. 447.
8. Siemens, Ray et al.Toward Modeling the Social Edition: An Approach to Understanding the Electronic Scholarly Edition in the Context of New and Emerging Social Media. Literary and Linguistic Computing 27.4 (2012): 445–461. llc.oxfordjournals.org. Web. 17 Oct. 2013. 446.
9. McGann, Jerome.Introduction. Online Humanities Scholarship: The Shape of Things to Come, ed. Jerome McGann. Houston: Rice University Press, 2010. 1-4. Print. 2.
10. Transcribe Bentham. University College London. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.
11. Candide 2.0. New York Public Library. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.
12. Prism. Scholars’ Lab, University of Virginia. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.
13. CommentPress. Institute for the Future of the Book. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.
14. Digress.it. Institute for the Future of the Book. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.
15. Social, Digital, Scholarly Editing. University of Saskatchewan.11-13 Jul. 2013.
16. Fitzpatrick, Kathleen.CommentPress: New (Social) Structures for New (Networked) Texts. Journal of Electronic Publishing 10.3 (2007): n. pag. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.
","txt","2","",""
"1886","15","Crowdsourcing in the Curriculum: Engaging Undergraduates through Collaborative Manuscript Transcription","2","Summary

Librarians associated with the University of Iowa’s DIY History digitized manuscript archive and Rhetoric faculty members and co-directors of Iowa Digital Engagement and Learning (IDEAL) will detail the design, implementation, and assessment of a collaborative effort to connect a large crowdsourced digital archive with an undergraduate primary research project for a general education rhetoric course.
The panel will discuss the ways in which librarians and rhetoric faculty worked together to create a transcription crowdsourcing pilot project to meet learning objectives and how they devised and implemented an assessment framework for the project. The panel will share outcomes of the assessment together with recommendations for reinvigorating outdated, unimodal, or otherwise staid assignments through crowdsourcing and multimodal composition.
Introduction

Jen Wolfe and Kelly McElroy - librarians associated with the University of Iowa’s DIY History digitized manuscript archive - and Matt Gilchrist and Tom Keegan - Rhetoric faculty members and co-directors of Iowa Digital Engagement and Learning (IDEAL) - will detail the design, implementation, and assessment of a collaborative effort to connect a large crowdsourced digital archive with an undergraduate primary research project for a general education rhetoric course.
Wolfe and McElroy will examine the outcomes of the DIY History initiative, specifically related to attempts to move that crowdsourced resource into the General Education curriculum at Iowa. Gilchrist and Keegan will detail the development and implementation of a rhetorical analysis assignment that asks students to make use of digitized primary source material to create publicly available multimodal compositions. The panel will discuss the ways in which librarians and rhetoric faculty worked together to create a transcription crowdsourcing pilot project to meet learning objectives, and to devise and implement an assessment framework for the project. The panel will share outcomes of the assessment together with recommendations for reinvigorating outdated, unimodal, or otherwise staid assignments through crowdsourcing and multimodal composition.
Background

Since its launch in 2011, the UI Libraries’ transcription crowdsourcing initiative has been an unqualified success. Volunteers at the DIY History website have transcribed more than 35,000 pages of digitized manuscripts ranging from Civil War diaries to suffragette meeting minutes to handwritten cookbooks. The many benefits of the project include improved access to digital collections through full-text searching of the transcripts, as well as new gifts of family papers from donors drawn to the initiative. Perhaps most satisfying of all has been the deep and sustained engagement with the Libraries’ collections from dedicated transcribers around the world. Many users of the site have echoed this volunteer’s sense of connection with the original writers of the documents: “These people come alive; you come to share their hopes, their fears, their everyday concerns. You do become absorbed in the people, and losing one of them is like losing a relative or a friend” (Miller). While the site has attracted national and international audiences, until recently library staff has struggled with finding a user base on campus. That has begun to change thanks to a partnership with IDEAL and the Rhetoric Department. 
Supported by the Office of the Provost and The Studio for Public Digital Arts and Humanities, IDEAL facilitates the design and implementation of digital, publicly-engaged pedagogies across the University. IDEAL is co-directed by two faculty members in the Rhetoric Department. In 2012, the Rhetoric Department began revisiting its emphasis on research in a general education course titled Rhetoric and required of all undergraduates. Faculty agreed that while students had a good understanding of rhetorical analysis, their perception and use of research in service to that analysis could be strengthened. In collaboration with the Libraries, IDEAL developed a four-week assignment that incorporates DIY History as a teaching tool in rhetoric classes. Students transcribe a handwritten document from the DIY History manuscript archive; compose a blog post that attends to both the rhetorical analysis of the document and its historical context; create a brief screencast outlining some intriguing element of the document; and deliver an in-class presentation detailing their work. As a result, students become familiar with primary source research through a public digital humanities resource while they create multimodal documentation of their scholarship.
Literature review

Initial outcomes of this project illustrate the general motivating factors for participants of crowdsourcing projects, including: producing meaningful work; encountering new information; learning new skills; fun; and working collaboratively to achieve a big goal (Holley, Organisciak, Owens). Not incidentally, these same characteristics show up in discussions of digital humanities research for undergraduates -- particularly in the production of real contributions to scholarship, which is sharply contrasted with the traditional undergraduate assignment, the five-paragraph essay with an audience of one (Blackwell & Martin, Cohen, Kolowich).
According to Rebecca Frost Davis, crowdsourcing could be a “silver bullet” for integrating digital humanities practices into the undergraduate classroom. By providing opportunities for collaborative learning and authentic tasks that contribute to student engagement, crowdsourcing can help develop transferable skills and a habit of engagement with the humanities. For institutions without a DH center, crowdsourcing can provide opportunities to engage in innovative classroom technologies without taxing institutional resources, and act as an enticement for faculty interested in using digital research methods (Davis). This is one means by which composition instructors can answer Cynthia Selfe’s call to “expand their own understanding of composing beyond conventional bounds of the alphabetic...or risk having composition studies become increasingly irrelevant” (Selfe, p. 54).
Outcomes

The panel will discuss findings derived from assessment of the first 6 months of the assignment model. Initial findings are that students generally had a positive response to the project and were vocal in both their support for primary research and multimodal composition. Two examples of early assessment feedback follow: 
“Unlike other projects and speeches over random stuff I don’t care about, this one seemed like I made it my own. Nobody else had read the letter my project was based on, and I was in control of telling its story. I think that’s why this project resonated with me more than past projects.” (Economics major)
“Looking back at the whole process, I honestly learned a lot. Don’t get me wrong, it was a challenge. This challenge was what made me enjoy the project. I’m pretty proud of the fact that I could put together a blog, screencast, powerpoint, and presentation for one single letter. I took on each form of this project thinking it would be a struggle, but I feel like I successfully completed each of them. I’m not sure if I should say this, but homework actually can be fun. Not in a “I could do this all day” kind of way, but more of a “I took this project on and showed it who’s boss” kind of way and that feels pretty good.” (Business student) 
In addition to written feedback from the students, the panel will present data from a rigorous assessment of the assignment planned for the spring of 2014 regarding students’ perceptions of the assignment's utility and their understanding of library resources. 
Conclusion

While the collaboration between the Libraries and Rhetoric is currently in its pilot semester, we have already seen that students benefit from conducting inquiries related to primary source materials. Students report feeling a connection to people living in previous centuries. They experience themselves as researchers discovering similarities and differences between present-day rhetorical modes and the modes of Pioneers arriving in the midwest. This intertwining of library resources and general education may suggest possibilities for using multimodal composition and crowdsourced DH resources to demonstrate the value of student research in primary source documents across the curriculum. Our panel will discuss challenges and triumphs uncovered through our experience designing, implementing, and assessing this innovative assignment model.
Panelists

Jen Wolfe, a Digital Scholarship Librarian at the University of Iowa Libraries, will provide background on the development of the DIY History crowdsourcing initiative, with a focus on its significance as a tool for public engagement.
Kelly McElroy is the Undergraduate Services Librarian at the University of Iowa Libraries. She will discuss the role of bibliographic instruction in this project, focusing on the benefits of tying research skills to an inquiry-based assignment. Her presentation will outline challenges in archival education for non-history majors, and the opportunities afforded by digital collections and crowdsourcing projects.
Matt Gilchrist is co-director of Iowa Digital Engagement and Learning (IDEAL) and a lecturer in the Rhetoric Department. In the spring of 2014, he will be interim director of the University of Iowa Writing Center. Matt will discuss the principles of assignment design that inform the approach supported by IDEAL, and more specifically how IDEAL helped shape the assignment model in collaboration with the Libraries. His presentation will include the outcomes of an assessment of IDEAL’s support for assignment design.
Tom Keegan is a lecturer in the Rhetoric Department, as well as the co-director of Iowa Digital Engagement and Learning (IDEAL) and the Assistant Director of Curriculum Design for Business Communication and Protocol in the Tippie College of Business. Tom will discuss the implementation of the assignment model in his class and student responses to the project. His presentation will summarize the findings of an assessment project examining the assignment’s significance in his and other classrooms. 
References

Blackwell, C., Martin, T. (2009) “Technology, Collaboration, and Undergraduate Research.” DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly, 3(1), 2009
Cohen, P. “Giving Literature Virtual Life.” The New York Times 12 Mar. 2011. Web. 1 Nov. 2013
Davis, R. “Crowdsourcing, Undergraduates, and Digital Humanities Projects.” Liberal Education in a Networked World 3 Sept. 2012. Web. 1 Nov. 2013
Holley, R. “Crowdsourcing: How and Why Should Libraries Do It?” D-Lib Magazine, 16 (2/4), Mar./Apr. 2010. Web. 1 Nov. 2013
Kolowich, S. (2012) “Behind the Digital Curtain.” Inside Higher Ed 27 Jan. 2012. Web. 1 Nov. 2013
Lunsford, A. (1996) “Writing Definitions,” in Delivering College Composition: the Fifth Canon. Ed.￼Kathleen Blake Yancey. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann/Boynton, 2006: 141-155
Miller, V. “Hands-on Experience with Civil War History.” The Gazette [Cedar Rapids] 26 Nov 2011. Web.￼1 Nov 2013
Organisciak, P. “Why Bother? Examining the Motivations of Users in Large-Scale Crowd-Powered Online Initiatives.” Diss. University of Alberta, 2010
Owens, T. “The Crowd and the Library.” User Centered Digital History 20 May 2012. Web. 1 Nov. 2013
Sheridan, D.M., Ridolfo, J., Michel, A.J. (2012). The Available Means of Persuasion: Mapping a Theory and Pedagogy of Multimodal Public Rhetoric. Anderson, SC, USA: Parlor Press.
Selfe, C. (2004) Students who teach us: A case study in a new media text designer. In Writing New￼ Media: Theory and Applications for Expanding the Teaching of Composition. Ed. Ann Wyocki,￼Johndan Johnson-Eilola, Cynthia Selfe and Geoffrey Sirc. Logan: Utah State UP. Pgs 43-66.
Shipka, J. (2011). Toward a Composition Made Whole. Pittsburgh, PA, USA: University of Pittsburgh￼Press.
Van Horne, S., Murniati, C., Gaffney, J. D. H., & Jesse, M. (2012). Promoting active learning in technology-infused TILE classrooms at the University of Iowa. Journal of Learning Spaces, 1(2), June 10, 2012.
Yancey, K.B. (ed.) (2006) Delivering College Composition: the Fifth Canon. Portsmouth, NH:￼Heinemann/Boynton, 2006: 141-155.","txt","2","",""
"1887","15","Crowdsourcing Performing Arts History with NYPL's ENSEMBLE","9","1. Introduction

The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts holds in its collection over one million programs documenting a large number of the major theater, music, and dance events performed around the country since the end of the Civil War. Although the collection grows each month, the Library estimates that it currently holds approximately 125,000 dance, 400,000 music, and over one million theater programs. These programs are valuable as individual artifacts, of course, but as an aggregated collection they serve as a sort of analog database of performing arts history.  Unfortunately, querying this “database” is, at present, very inefficient.  The materials are available only to researchers who come to New York to view them in person, and can only be viewed one at a time. Further, many are printed on crumbling paper that may not survive many more examinations by even careful researchers.
In early 2013, motivated both by our responsibility to preserve these artifacts and out of a desire to better expose the data they contain, we launched an effort to create digital images of our program collection and organize a crowd-sourced effort to transcribe and structure the information contained within it.  The project, launched in beta under the name Ensemble1 in June of 2013, is now part of a new NEH-funded Digital Humanities Implementation grant to create tools for crowd-sourced transcription projects2.  This paper will discuss the lessons the team learned from the beta release as well as the modifications we are planning for the upcoming full release in 2014.
2. Behind the Beta

Although it is our goal is to scan and transcribe every program in the Library’s collection, for the beta release we scanned 5 reels of microfilm containing 200 programs connected to theatrical productions in New York City performed between 1860 and 1930.  We selected this content for several reasons:
The relatively low cost and high efficiency of microfilm scanning allowed us to add a relatively large number of programs to our initial set very cheaply and quickly.  Although in most cases we would prefer to digitize originals, the programs preserved on these reels no longer exist in our collections.
Performing arts events from this period are not well-documented by other online databases (such as the Internet Broadway Database3 or Playbill Vault4).
These programs are almost certainly in the public domain; therefore they can be scanned and published online in their entirety. (If programs printed between 1923 and 1950 ever were in copyright, they were not likely not renewed and so passed into the public domain 28 years after publication).
This period was an especially fertile time in the development of the American performing arts; Carnegie Hall was built5, and Vaudeville and American Musical Theater both developed during these decades.
3. What we learned

The beta release of Ensemble has, as of this writing, produced almost 11,500 transcriptions of data from our initial test set of 200 programs.  Although this is significant, it falls far short of the activity seen by other crowd-sourcing projects released by NYPL Labs.  In its first three years, the menus transcription project has had over 1.2 million dishes transcribed. Over 60,000 buildings were checked in the first days of the “Building Inspector” app6. By comparison, participation in Ensemble is very low.
In part, these lower numbers may reflect the relative difficulty of the task Ensembleassigns to its users.  Rather than asking for a simple transcription (as the Menus project does), users of Ensembleare required to identify relationships among text on the page (and occasionally to bring to it their own understanding of the theater industry).  For instance, a program in our collection purports to be a record of “Jesse L. Lasky’s Aristic Novelty: Fleurette.” A user assigned this program must determine whether Jesse L. Lasky is the playwright, the producer, or perhaps the director.
In some cases, our interface may not even have an appropriate category.  Lacking a consistently adopted schema for performing arts data, the user is required to engage in a bit of amateur taxonomy. In our first official release, we plan to revise and publish our schema, and make it easier for novice users to perform less demanding tasks while saving more challenging assignments for “advanced” levels of the game. Zooniverse's transcription project, Old Weather7, has had success with a similar approach.
Following the model of the citizen sciences like Zooniverse’s Galaxy Zoo, Ensemble requires “agreement” by several users before accepting a crowd-sourced transcription as correct. The level of agreement among different transcriptions of the same text is processed by our systems and will eventually be used to determine what assertions are stored in the database that users of Ensemble construct. In our initial version, we attempted to expose the quality assurance/”user-agreement.”  Our hope was that those who were suspicious of the accuracy of any database constructed by the “crowd” would be somewhat reassured after they understood how the process worked.  More often, though, we found that users who were the first to transcribe a fact, and then saw that the system had a low “degree of confidence” in the work they had just submitted (since no one else had yet “agreed” with them) misunderstood what they were being told and felt either insulted or disheartened. We quickly removed these visualization (although we may want to find a way to incorporate them in a more clearly contextualized way in the final version of the tool).
4. Potential uses of the data

Of course, the reason for engaging the crowd to produce this dataset in the first place is based on the assumption that it will be useful to future researchers.  Some initial use cases have imagined include:
Aggregating archives: At present, researching historic performing arts events can be difficult as most of the primary sources are held in collections centered on a particular person. For example, if a scholar is researching the George M. Cohen musical Little Johnny Jones he or she will quickly discover that there is no large Little Johnny Jones collection at any major library. Once all of the data in our programs is available, however, a researcher could write a computer program that, given a title of a show, could generate a list of people associated with it and automatically search Worldcat for libraries that hold archives related to these people.
Discovering untold biographies: The lives of star performers and successful writers are often studied, but the careers of those members of a production whose role is less visible, but no less vital, often go unchronicled. Ensemble will enable researchers to track, for instance, which stage managers are most often associated with successful plays, which celloists were featured in the best orchestras of the 1920s, and, which constellation of artists and technicians is most often associated with the success or failure of the production of a Shakespeare play.
Mapping the arts: Where in New York City in 1920 would one mostly likely find an opera performed? What about a burlesque? A jazz concert? By opening up the data in the programs, it will be possible for software developers and geographers to combine the performance data with our digitized historical map collection and plot the kinds of performing arts events performed in particular regions of the City during a defined time period. This data may confirm or overturn scholarly assumptions about the geographical history of the city.
It is possible that the most illuminating and exciting uses of the data in these programs have yet to be imagined because, at the moment, surprisingly little of this information from this period is available at all.  It is our hope that Ensemblewill soon become the backbone of an extensive, linked, open set of performing arts data that will allow researchers of all kinds to discover new information about the rich history of the performing arts in New York.
References

1. Ensemble (2013). Ensemble: Help Build an Open Database of the Performing Arts.ensemble.nypl.org/ Web. 27 Oct. 2013.
2. Announcing 6 Digital Humanities Implementation Grant Awards (July 2013) | National Endowment for the Humanities (2013). www.neh.gov/divisions/odh/grant-news/announcing-6-digital-humanities-implementation-grant-awards-july-2013 Web. 27 Oct. 2013.
3. IBDB: The Official Source for Broadway Information. ibdb.com Web. 27 Oct. 2013.
4. The Largest Internet Database of Broadway Information - Playbill Vault. playbillvault.com Web. 27 Oct. 2013.
5. History of the Hall | Carnegie Hall.www.carnegiehall.org/History Web. 27 Oct. 2013.
6. Building Inspector by NYPL Labs.buildinginspector.nypl.org Web. 27 Oct. 2013.
7. Alexandra Eveleigh, Charlene Jennett, Stuart Lynn and Anna Cox (2013). I want to be a Captain! I want to be a Captain!"": Gamification in the Old Weather Citizen Science Project. uwaterloo.ca/gamification/sites/ca.gamification/files/uploads/files 26 Oct 2013
8. Galaxy Zoo.www.galaxyzoo.org Web. 27 Oct. 2013.","txt","2","",""
"1888","15","Cultivating the Public Philosophy Journal","2","The orthography/identity hypothesis proposes that a speaker’s motivation for selecting between available orthographic variants in a language (e.g. between British colour and American color in English) is to some extent informed by the speaker’s desire to express a certain identity 1 2 3.  In the Canadian context, where a mixture of American/British variants are used – often with non-categorical preference 45 – Heffernan et al. 6 developed a method to qualify the orthography/identity connection in terms of ideology and show that during periods of increased “anti-Americanism,” specifically during unpopular American-led wars, American variant use declines relative to the British.  Heffernan et al.’s data cover the years 1921 to 2004, and are derived from the student newspaper The Gateway at the University of Alberta in Alberta, Canada.  Their method involved locating expressions of national sentiment for each year of the data, rating “anti-American sentiment” on a 7-point Likert scale (255 ratings over 85 years performed by each author) and correlating this with the relative frequencies of 15 orthographic variables (Table 2, though color / colour is my addition): the negative correlation obtained was quite high, with Pearson-r -0.715, p = 0.001.
However, follow-up work by the present author, using data in the same timeframe from the archive of the University of British Columbia’s student newspaper The Ubyssey (~50 million words) in the neighbouring province of British Columbia, failed to find similar short-term diachronic changes in variant use correlated with periods of increased “anti-American sentiment” 7.  Following Heffernan et al.’s method, an insignificant correlation was obtained: Pearson-r -0.434, p = 0.064.  Historical relative orthographies do differ between Canada’s provinces 8 910 but, assuming the strong connection between orthography and identity, no clear explanation remains for the lack of correlation in other Canadian data.  Without dispensing with the orthography/identity hypothesis, I hypothesize that proximal linguistic contexts are also motivating factors in variant selection, and propose to integrate a more context sensitive model into this top-down, language-external theory of linguistic identity performance.
To test for contextual differences, I treated the problem as one of word sense disambiguation, where the goal is to distinguish lexemes using a set of features and a computational language model—a technique most often used to distinguish between ambiguous meanings of homonyms (such as judge, bank, bow, etc.) 11.  Features used were a window of words surrounding each variant (8 words either side of the target was found optimal, excluding other instances of variables if present) and the model was Naïve Bayes.  If orthographic variants can be discriminated based on surrounding context, we can assume that those words are in some way unique—with the interesting implication, in the extreme case, that spelling variants might not just diverge orthographically but semantically, as well 12.  Maybe they mean different things.  My experiments attempted to disambiguate variants in each variable from one another using unsupervised and supervised classification, in both cases using the Naïve Bayes form.
Though Naïve Bayes makes the linguistically improbable assumption of feature independence, it has been noted for its precision in classification problems in spite of this simplification (i.e. its ‘naiveté’) 13.  For unsupervised classification I used my own Python implementation of a Naïve Bayes classifier where the parameter estimates are learned through Estimation Maximization (EM), as described in e.g. Manning and Schütze 14.  As Pedersen 15 observes, testing the results of unsupervised classification is complicated by the fact that the algorithm does not assign labels to inputs, instead clustering them, but accuracy can be represented as the proportion of the dominant variant in each cluster.  My classifier outputs two ‘sense groups’, which would ideally correspond to the American or Canadian variant.  After performing 10 trials and averaging the results, I found that only three variables out of 16 (Heffernan et al. exclude color / colour—I include it) produced significant results, in that their prediction accuracies departed from – or improved upon – their ‘lower bound’ accuracies, where the lower bound is the relative frequency of each variant and therefore the accuracy one would achieve simply by assigning each variant to a category based on its occurrence.  For brevity, only these three are represented in Table 1.
  American variant  accuracy   lower bound   Canadian variant   accuracy   lower bound 
 color 55.5%  54%  colour  65.6%  46% 
 gray 23.2%  17%  grey  86.2%  83% 
 jewelry 51.3%  49%  jewellery  55.4%  51% 
Unsupervised classification for colour improves accuracy by 19.4% over its lower bound, but increases for other variables are marginal and – like colour – generally apply to one variant only.
For supervised classification I used the Naïve Bayes classifier in the Python library Natural Language Tool Kit (NLTK)16, a similar method to Mahowald’s 17 recent study in which y- and ­th- pronouns were disambiguated in a corpus of Shakespeare’s plays based on context.  Whereas unsupervised classification performed poorly, supervised classification obtained surprising accuracy for multiple variables after 10 validation trials.  These results are summarized in Table 2, ranked by accuracy, with an asterisk denoting significance at the p = 0.001 level.  In this experiment, the lower bound for each variable is 50% because a random subset of the tokens was evaluated and counts were set equal for each variant during testing.
           variable                    accuracy     total count
jewelry / jewellery 81.6%*          564
gray / grey 79.3%*          3112
color /colour 74.5%*          5312
program / programme 70.1%*          5704
honor / honour 62.0%*          2538
enrollment / enrolment 61.2%*          2086
humor / humour 61.1%*          2862
neighbor / neighbour 60.7%*          494
defense / defence 58.6%*          5640
judgment / judgement 56.8%          928
offense / offence 56.3%*          1568
centered / centred 55.7%          488
marvelous / marvellous 55.6%          316
fulfill / fulfil 54.7%          312
labeled / labelled         54.4%          270
kilometers / kilometres 40.0%          72
It would seem that we are able to predict, sometimes with high accuracy, whether certain variables will realize their American or British variant based on context.  But why?  If orthographic variations are simply different graphemes of the same lexeme, decided rather capriciously by an American lexicographer in the nineteenth century 18, why should this be possible?
The Naïve Bayes module in NLTK provides output for identifying features most useful in making its decisions, and can help answer this question.  For gray / grey, the case is clear, since the terms most likely to indicate British grey are Pt. and Point (Point Grey is the name of the land on which the University of British Columbia lies), and terms indicating American gray are proper nouns like Bob, John, and Stuart (Gray is a common surname).  A revealing result, but only so far as it reveals a highly restrictive context in non-compositional forms, and might suggest this variable be excluded from further testing.  Contexts for color / colour are more interesting, however, and fall into two large subjective categories: ‘cultural’ and ‘technological’ (Table 3).
  variant   category   informative features
colour cultural diversity, women, people, racism, queer
color cultural people
colour technological connected, jet, print, modem, monitor
color technological cartoons, TV  
As a collocation analysis reveals, in the ‘cultural’ category phrases such as women of colour, people of colour, andqueers of colour occur often with colour – 225 total instances, its most frequent collocate – but hardly ever with color (11 instances).  In the ‘technological’ category, computer terms appear with colour and entertainment terms with color, where these terms are often found in advertisements and the site of these interactions tend to be local for colour and global for color (a local transaction for a colour monitor, at least prior to the expansion of current global markets, but the international consumption of color television).  However, these phrases are easily recognizable as historically specific (to around post-1980).  Indeed, the unsupervised classification of colour backs up this historical selectivity: significantly more of the items grouped at 65.6% accuracy are from this decade—context and history are intertwined, of course, and it exceeds my scope to disambiguate these here.  But the more a-historical distribution of terms predicting jewelry / jewellery suggests historical clustering is not inevitably the rule: local activities like piercing and repairs, and localities denoted by West and Point (i.e. the location of a shop in WestPoint Grey) predict British jewellery, but generic sales terms accessories, fine, place, and giftware predict American jewelry.  In sum, advertisements, or, more generically, ‘solicitations’, are the dominant vehicle of these variants and prefer the British when the activity is local (both economically and socially—these will be further described) and the American generally.  I will also further discuss how accounting for genre affects classification accuracy.  Overall, British variants are more uniquely contextualized, and therefore more easily discriminated, than American.
Qualitative sociolinguistic approaches like Heffernan et al.’s (2010) locate identity as an exterior motivating condition for language, with the necessary assumption that orthography is selected independently of linguistic context.  And though this paper finds that this assumption does not hold, the ability to disambiguate orthographic variants based on context is interesting, but not explanatory in its own right.  These contexts are also motivated, and computational techniques take us full-circle back to considering ideological – but more interactional – motivations for linguistic context. 
References

1. Lipski, J. (1975). Orthographic variation and linguistic nationalism. La Monda Lingvo-Problemo 6. 37-48.
2. Schieffelin, B. B., and Doucet, R. C. (1994). The ‘real’ Haitian Creole: Ideology, metalinguistics and orthographic choice. American Ethnologist 21. 176–200.
3. Sebba, M. (2000). Orthography and ideology: Issues in Sranan spelling. Linguistics 38. 925–948.
4. Chambers, J. K. (2011). ‘Canadian dainty’: The rise and decline of Briticisms in Canada. In Legacies of Colonial English: Studies in Transported Dialects, 224-241. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
5. Pratt, T. K. (1993). The hobgoblin of Canadian English spelling. In S. Clarke (ed.), Focus on Canada, 45–64. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
6. Heffernan, K., Borden, A., Erath, A. C., and Yang, J-L. (2010). Preserving Canada’s ‘honour’: Ideology and diachronic change in Canadian spelling variants. Written Language and Literacy 13(1). 1-23.
7. Grue, D. (forthcoming). Testing Canada's 'honour': Does orthography index ideology? Strathy Student Working Papers on Canadian English.
8. Brinton, L. and Fee, M. (2001). Canadian English. In John Algeo (ed.), The Cambridge history of the English language, vol. 6, 422-439. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
9. Ireland, R. J. (1979). Canadian spelling: An empirical and historical survey of selected words. Ph.D. dissertation, York University, Toronto.
10. Ireland, R. J. (1980). Canadian spelling: How much British? How much American? English Quarterly 12(4). 64-80.
11. Pedersen, T. (2002). A baseline methodology for word sense disambiguation. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Intelligent Text Processing and Computational Linguistics. 126-135.
12. Miller, G. A. and Charles, W. G. (1991). Contextual correlates of semantic similarity. Language and Cognitive Processes 6(1). 1-28.
13. Abney, S. (2008). Semisupervised Learning for Computational Linguistics. New York: Chapman & Hall.
14. Manning, C. D. and Schütze, H. (1999). Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
15. Pedersen, T. (1998). Learning Probabilistic Models of Word Sense Disambiguation. Ph.D. Dissertation, Southern Methodist University, University Park, Texas.
16. Bird, S., Klein, E., and E. Lopez. (2009). Natural Language Processing with Python. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly Media.
17. Mahowald, K. (2012). A Naïve Bayes classifier for Shakespeare's second-person pronoun. Literary and Linguistic Computing 27(1). 17-23.
18. Webster, N. (1846). A dictionary of the English language; abridged from the American dictionary. [American Dictionary]. New York: Huntington and Savage.","txt","2","",""
"1889","15","Cultural text mining: using text mining to map the emergence of transnational reference cultures in large public media repositories","9","Introduction

This paper discusses the research project Translantis, which uses innovative technologies for cultural text mining to analyze large repositories of digitized public media, such as newspapers and journals.1 The Translantis research team uses and develops the text mining tool Texcavator, which is based on the scalable open source text analysis service xTAS (developed by the Intelligent Systems Lab Amsterdam). The text analysis service xTAS has been used successfully in computational humanities projects such as Political Mashup, WAHSP, BILAND, and DutchSemCor. Within the context of the Translantis project, xTAS, coupled to Elasticsearch, will be further developed. Future versions will include clustering concepts and sentiment mining of issues in public debates. Translantis researchers are using Texcavator to detect and track cultural references in large textual corpora.
Use case: mining transnational references in public discourse

In order to test the potential of cultural text mining, Texcavator will be used to analyze the role of reference cultures in debates about social issues and collective identities. The central use case of this project is the emergence of the United States in public discourse in the Netherlands from the end of the nineteenth century to the end of the Cold War. This concept of reference culture is be used to discuss long-term asymmetrical processes of cultural exchange involving dimensions of power and hegemony. The concept recognizes the fact that some cultures assume a dominant role in the international circulation of knowledge and practices, offering or imposing a model that others imitate, adapt, or resist.
Reference cultures are mental constructs that do not necessarily represent a geopolitical reality with an internal hierarchy and recognizable borders. These culturally conditioned images of trans-national models are typically established and negotiated in public discourses over a long period of time. However, the specific historical dynamics of reference cultures have never been systematically analyzed and hence are not fully understood. To explore these dynamics, this project asks three interrelated questions.
How can e-tools be used to map trends and changes in relation to the economic power, cultural acceptance, and scientific and technological impact of the United States as reference culture?
How does public discourse reflect and influence the emergence and impact of reference cultures?
How were ideas, products and practices associated with the United States valued in Dutch public discourse between 1890 and 1990? 
We propose that the key to understanding the emergence and dominance of reference cultures is to chart the public discourse in which these collective frames of reference are established. Text mining methodologies allow us to trace changes in “big data” repositories of public media, such as newspapers, journals, and other periodicals. Central to this project is the large digital data collection of the National Library of the Netherlands (KB), which contains 9 million newspaper pages and over 1.5 million journal pages2. This large collection of serialized historical texts, which have been OCR-ed and provided with meta-tags, allows us for the first time to study long-term developments and transformations in national discourses in a systematic, longitudinal, and quantifiable way, by using innovative text-mining tools.
Methodological innovations and challenges

The semantic text mining tool Texcavator has direct access to historical textual repositories and is able to handle queries on-the-fly, and to produce visualization such as timelines and word clouds based on integrated topic modeling and NER modules. This allow us to test the value of qualitative heuristic models and to pair them in a meaningful fashion with quantitative methodology. Some of the methodological challenges involve the calibration between close and distant reading, the normalization of search results from unevenly distributed historical media, and adjusting for lexicological changes that affect the accuracy of sentiment mining and concept mining.
First results indicate the ability to mine “hidden debates” in public media in a bottom-up (inductive) manner, based on the footprints that used terms leave behind. More importantly, the tool is innovative in that it pinpoints continuities and discontinuities in public discourse, for instance by showing variations in the context in which key terms are used, and changes in sentiment values of words over time. We argue that this marks a promising transition from text mining to “concept mining” and new forms of cultural text mining that go beyond already established mining features. 
Conclusions

We will demonstrate that semantic mining of big data open new vistas in historical research because they (a) provide a robust framework for producing new vistas on macro history; and (b) can be complemented with numerical data sets provided by other researchers, for example on economic and social trends. This, ultimately, is the transformative promise of digital humanities as a multi-dimensional window on political, economic, and social change. 


References

1. Translantis: Digital Humanities Approaches to Reference Cultures; The Emergence of the United States in Public Discourse in the Netherlands, 1890-1990 (funded by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research), wwww.translantis.nl.
2. kranten.delpher.nl/
Aiden, Erez, and Jean-Baptiste Michel (2013). Uncharted: Big Data as Lens on Human Culture. New Yrok: Penguin.
Balog, K., M. Bron and M. de Rijke (2011). ‘Query Modeling for Entity Search Based on Terms, Categories and Examples,’ ACM Transactions on Information Systems 29, no. 4, Article 22, November 2011.
Dougherty, M., E.T.Meyer, C. Madsen, C. van den Heuvel, A. Thomas, and S. Wyatt (2010), Researcher Engagement with Web Archives: State of the Art. London: JISC.
Eijnatten, Joris van, Toine Pieters, and Jaap Verheul (2013). “Big Data for Global History: The Transformative Promise of Digital Humanities.” Low Countries Historical Review/BMGN 128-4: 55-77.
Hernandez, J.F., A.K. Mantel-Teeuwisse, G.J.M.W. van Thiel, S.V. Belitser, J.A.M. Raaijmakers and T. Pieters (2011). Publication trends in newspapers and scientific journals for SSRIs and suicidality: a systematic longitudinal study. BMJ OPEN 6, no. 1.
Huurnink, B., L. Hollink, W. van den Heuvel and M. de Rijke. ‘Search Behavior of Media Professionals at an Audiovisual Archive: A Transaction Log Analysis.’ Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 61, no. 6 (June 2010): 1180-1197.
Huijnen P., F. Laan, M. de Rijke, and T. Pieters. A digital humanities approach in the history of science; eugenics revisited in hidden debates by means of semantic text mining. Histoinformatics, Springer (forthcoming, 2013).
Jijkoun, V., M. de Rijke and W. Weerkamp. ‘Generating Focused Topic-specific Sentiment Lexicons,’ 48th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2010), July 2010.
Meij, E., M. Bron, L. Hollink, B. Huurnink and M. de Rijke. “Mapping queries to the Linking Open Data cloud: A case study using DBpedia.” Journal of Web Semantics 9, no. 4 (November 2011): 418-433.
Pieters, T., and S. Snelders.“Standardizing psychotropic drugs and drug practices in the twentieth century: Paradox of order and disorder.” (2011) Studies in the History and Philosophy of the Biological and Biomedical Sciences 42: 412-415.
Snelders, S., and T. Pieters. (2011) “Speed in the Third Reich: Metamphetamine (Pervitin) Uses and a Drug History From Below.” Social History of Medicine. First published online: February 19.
Thomas, A., E.T., Meyer, M. Dougherty, C. van den Heuvel, C. Madsen, and S. Wyatt (2010). Researcher Engagement with Web Archives: Challenges and Opportunities for Investment. London: JISC
Verheul, Jaap (2010). “Through Foreign Eyes.” In Discovering the Dutch: On Culture and Society of the Netherlands, edited by Emmeline Besamusca and Jaap Verheul, 267-77. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
","txt","2","",""
"1890","15","CURIOS: Connecting and Empowering Community Heritage through Linked Data","10","1. Moving Towards Community Digital Heritage

Rural areas are characterised by a strong identity of people with place. These identities draw on a repertoire of cultural norms, knowledge, histories, customs and practices which, taken together, construct unique place identities. This cultural distinctiveness is dynamic given traditional cultural practices are reproduced and others introduced as cultural systems evolve and adapt. Forms of cultural expression, such as story-telling, music and song, poetry and literature, dance and drama together with material objects, artefacts, sites and cultural spaces, are resources for interacting with the past and for experiencing the present. In the collection and transmission of these collections there has been a growing sense that the traditional methods for doing this are failing, Nora [1]. In order to address this problem, digital solutions have been sought but this has been a problematic process due to a number of variances. These include the constant changing of file types, software and codes of best practice, as well problems to do with cost and the sheer amounts of ‘analogue’ data to convert. Leading the way in this process have been national institutions but with the production of such local cultural repertoires, which as Flynn [2] suggests ‘are the grassroots activities’ where ‘control and ownership of the project is essential’ there has been a failure to consider the needs of community heritage groups in these processes. As such groups do not want to be subsumed into national archives, which they do not control, is not sensitive to their needs and is juxtaposed ideologically to the production of their own ‘place history’. Following Creswell’s [3] claim that such archives represent ‘spaces  of marginalized memory’ CURIOS is therefore seeking a solution using open linked data in which a system can be developed that is attuned to the specificity of a local heritage but can also take advantage of already collected materials from elsewhere.
2. Case Study – Hebridean Connections

In the past 40 years around 22 ‘Comainn Eachdraidh’[1] (CE), have been established in the Outer Hebrides[2]. CE are community run groups that began in the 1970’s with a very specific political and cultural purpose – to preserve the culture, history and language of the primarily Gaelic regions of Scotland. Such community heritage practices have been described as a ‘messy’ endeavour with a wide variety of different formal and informal practices [5]. The archives embrace different registers of social memory from tangible to intangible heritage, which have been collected and ordered in a variety of different ways. Different CE groups collect and order their archives in a variety of different ways: from the highly ‘professional’ to the more bespoke and sporadic. As the CE groups are voluntary community archives, they are rooted in local historical values, hence there is often little consistency between groups regarding cataloguing, archiving and content management.
Hebridean Connections (HC), which is a community managed, online historical resource was formed due to the driving force of a single member of a CE who saw the benefit of digitising and connecting the different historical catalogues [5]. The idea was proposed to the different CE and four groups were actively involved in a Heritage Lottery Fund (HLF) bid that funded the creation of the HC website[3]. The project website was launched in 2006, holding some 100,000 records relating to the genealogy, history, archaeology, and cultural traditions of the Outer Hebrides. Currently, the system allows users to search using keywords, selecting relevant images, or with a map-based interface. Additionally, the website encourages contributions from its users and, therefore, has the potential to foster reciprocal knowledge exchange across geographical boundaries.
 2.1 Sustainability

HC is one example of a community-built digital cultural heritage repository where their long-term future is unclear. Many issues with the current system have arisen since the initial grant, particularly surrounding funding and scalability. There is a real practical question about how a project of this kind can be maintained over time with the resources available to a small-dispersed community, especially as the initial system was developed by a private development company, using proprietary software. As the project developed, this situation raised the problem that any changes to the system required more financial investment in the software. For the small community heritage groups involved, this was not feasible, especially as the CE became aware of what was possible through digitisation and wanted to expand. The process of digitisation has created three primary issues for HC:
How to expand the project remit without additional funding for developers?
Scalability issues, how can more CE collections be integrated in a closed system
Can empowering communities to control their own digital heritage improve long-term sustainability?
2.2 An Archive for the Future?

Motivated by the limitations of the current HC system, the CURIOS project’s aim is to produce a sustainable system that allows a community of users to manage a digital archive of cultural heritage data, or ‘cultural repository’, releasing them from any specific proprietary software platform. To achieve this goal, CURIOS has made use of existing open source content management system (CMS) software and Semantic Web standards. The emergence of the Semantic Web [6] has led to several standard formats for representing and interchanging data [7, 8]. By making use of linked data, cultural repositories would have the potential for reuse and integration with further related data sources.
In recent years content management systems have gained popularity on the web by allowing users to build and publish web pages without requiring in-depth knowledge of the underlying web technologies. The CURIOS project has extended the web CMS approach to allow users to manage repositories of linked data. This Linked Data CMS approach makes use of existing CMS software to retain the usability and scalability of existing tools that are familiar to users, whilst allowing the users to exploit the benefits of linked data.
The Linked Data CMS approach has been implemented as a module for the popular open source Drupal CMS[1]. Building the next generation of Hebridean Connections on open source software and web standards has distinct advantages for future development and use of the system. The Drupal-based system can be maintained by its community of users and can be extended additional functionality developed by the Drupal open source community, e.g., to support blogging or e-commerce features. This community led maintenance allows for further future development of the cultural repositories as the archives develop.
3. Conclusion

Open linked data can help make local cultural repositories sustainable and collective. Linked data allows for collaboration, mutual authoring, distributed responsibilities through community projects and the utilisation of other community or national resources [4]. The CURIOS project is enabling local cultural heritage repositories to become a meaningful identity resource for an international community, who previously had no access to them. By falling outside of national institutional frameworks, local people are the 'gatekeepers' of their own heritage and are selecting what to commemorate based on their own customs of remembering. This kind of digital archive can have, therefore, potentially significant social impacts which need to be better understood. The vision of Hebridean Connections is to expand the collections to incorporate those held by other Comainn Eachdraidh. Additionally, by making use of linked data, there is now the possibility to integrate further sources of data into HC from other historical societies or even national organisations. 
4. Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Hebridean Connections and the Comainn Eachdraidh for their ongoing commitment to this research. This work is supported by the Rural Digital Economy Research Hub (EPSRC EP/G066051/1).
References

Drupal is a popular open source web content management system: drupal.org.
Comainn Eachdraidh is a Gaelic phrase meaning ‘Historical Society’.
The Outer Hebrides is a group of islands off the West coast of mainland Scotland.
The Hebridean Connections website is hosted at www.hebrideanconnections.com.
Nora, P. (1996). Realms of memory: rethinking the French past. Volume 1: Conflicts and Divisions. Columbia: University Press.
Flinn, A. (2007). Community Histories, Community Archives: Some Opportunities and Challenges 1 in Journal of the Society of Archivists. Volume 28, Issue 2.
Creswell, T. (2012) Value, gleaning and the archive at Maxwell Street, Chicago. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. Vol. 37 (1),1-13.
Mellish, C., Wallace, C., Tait, E., Hunter, C., & MacLeod, M. (2011). Can Digital Technologies increase Engagement with Community History?Digital Engagement 2011. de2011.computing.dundee.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/Can-Digital-Technologies-increase-Engagement-with-Community-History.pdf
Wallace, C., Tait, E., MacLeod, M., Mellish, C., & Hunter, C. (2011). Supporting Digital Humanities Creating Sustainable Digital Community Heritage Resources Using Linked Data. In Supporting Digital Humanities: Answering theunaskable Conference. 17–18.
Spector, A. Z. (1989). Achieving application requirements. In Distributed Systems, S. Mullender, Ed. ACM Press Frontier Series. ACM, New York, NY, 19-33. DOI= doi.acm.org/10.1145/90417.90738.
Berners-Lee, T., Hendler, J., and Lassila. O. (2001). The Semantic Web. Scientific American, 284(5), 34–43
Hitzler, P., Krötzsch, M., Parsia, B., Patel-Schneider, P.F., and Rudolph, S. (2009). (eds.) OWL 2 Web Ontology Language: Primer. W3C Recommendation, www.w3.org/TR/owl2-primer.","txt","2","",""
"1891","15","DARIAH-DE - Digital Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities","2","DARIAH-DE supports digitally-enabled research and teaching in the arts and humanities. The project is developing a research infrastructure, which will offer tools, core services, and access to research data as well as materials for research and education in the digital humanities (DH). The central objective of DARIAH-DE is to enable the interoperability of tools and research data. Following internationally valid and accepted standards and policies, DARIAH-DE aims to ensure the long-term preservation and future use of research data. DARIAH-DE also supports and advises researchers as well as research projects in planning and accomplishing humanities research initiatives within a digital environment. Effective ways of handling digital resources, concepts, and methods in the digital humanities must be introduced into training and instruction for humanities researchers at all educational and career levels. In close consultation with disciplinary communities, DARIAH-DE coordinates and (where necessary) further develops existing study and training courses. Moreover, DARIAH-DE is developing individual qualification modules, such as international workshops for experts dealing with specific themes. This infrastructure will enable researchers to carry out research in an increasingly digital environment, across disciplines and institutions in collaborative ways and towards sustainable results.
For the first two and a half years of the DARIAH-DE project, the computing centers and software partners participating in the consortium have laid the groundwork for the establishment of a sustainable technical infrastructure based on the requirements and needs of researchers in the arts and humanities. Although a productive research infrastructure now exists, there are still some requirements to be addressed in the coming years, together with representatives from the computing centers, the information specialists and the software developers, and partners from the various disciplines in the humanities. As a research-driveninfrastructure project, DARIAH-DE demonstrates that both research projects as well as national and international collaborations in particular need sustainable research infrastructures. Currently there are more than 500 researchers from a wide spectrum of disciplines in the humanities and about 35 projects using the options and services provided by DARIAH-DE, such as the Confluence Wiki system, the Developer Portal, and resources such as VMs, storage, and discipline-specific services. To enhance the stability and usability of research data, DARIAH-DE is building a research data repository for the arts and humanities. This repository supports both the storage of data in the creation process as well as the long-term preservation of research data.
DARIAH-DE is a reliable research infrastructure in Germany for the arts and humanities in the field of research, teaching and research data. It is, furthermore, the German national contribution to the European research infrastructure DARIAH-EU within the framework of ESFRI. External research projects from the arts and humanities and service- or tool providers are invited to cooperate with DARIAH-DE to provide their services and tools in the DARIAH-DE research infrastructure.
The aim of this DARIAH-DE poster presentation at the DH 2014 in Lausanne is not only to present a poster describing DARIAH-DE; it will also include a multi-media presentation of different kind of demonstrators in the fields of research, teaching, research data, and technical infrastructure. The conference participants will be presented with a broad variety of (re-usable) specific and interdisciplinary tools and services from the DARIAH-DE research infrastructure. The overall objective of the multimedia presentation is to show a variety of DARIAH-DE tools and services ready for researchers to use. Examples include DIGIVOY, a bundle of text analysis tools, the DARIAH-DE Geo-Browser, a tool to analyze time-spatial relations, the Collection Registry and a generic search engine. We will also present tools for collaborative work as well as our service-oriented web portal (de.dariah.eu), based on Liferay, which allows for the embedding of externally-developed services and tools.
More information about the German project DARIAH-DE and the European project DARIAH-EU can be found here: https://de.dariah.eu/ (German) and https://www.dariah.eu (English).
Contact address:
 dariah-sub@sub.uni-goettingen.deWebsite: https://de.dariah.eu/","txt","2","",""
"1892","15","Data Criticism: General Framework for the Quantitative Interpretation of Non-Textual Sources","2","1. Introduction

The usage of non-textual sources for historical studies, in addition to conventional textual sources, has a potential to expand our historical knowledge, but non-textual sources have been used less frequently than textual sources, and framework for the critical usage of non-textual sources is under developed. We therefore are working on a framework called “data criticism” to develop methodological commons for the quantitative evaluation of quality and value of non-textual sources (= data sources), such as maps, photographs and illustrations. Here, in the same sense with textual sources, we should not forget critical evaluation in spite of its numerical or graphical appearance that may be misunderstood as ""the objective representation of facts."" The fundamental requirement of using sources for historical studies is that we should critically “read” sources to reduce uncertainty, biases, and other factors that affect the quality of facts derived from sources.
2. Data Criticism

We have been working on Digital Silk Road project (dsr.nii.ac.jp) since 2001, starting from the digitization of historical sources to the analysis of digitized materials for historical studies, especially in the area of Silk Road. We realized that not only textual sources, but also non-textual sources have the challenge of proper interpretation because many types of errors were found. Maps had errors due to technical limitation at the era of making maps, and photograph captions had errors due to misunderstanding or different conceptualization. While working on fixing these problems, we realized that this task is exactly the non-textual version of textual criticism (text critique) which is at the core of historians’ research. We therefore propose the concept of ‘data criticism’ both to clarify the role of the task in the whole process of historical research, and to raise attention to the importance of computational tools, namely algorithms and databases, for processing data. However, the development of computational tools is required for humanists to pursue the potential of data criticism because off-the-shelf tools are usually not available. Hence the contribution of the paper is to demonstrate with case studies how maps, photographs and illustrations can be critically interpreted and used as historical evidences, and also to provide digital tools to support humanities perform this task.
Data criticism has relationships with a few similar concepts. Data criticism on maps, or what we can call map criticism, has much in common with methodologies developed in cartography and geography (for example, reference), but data criticism focuses more on the integration of multiple spatial and visual sources, or also textual sources such as placenames, to cross-check the interpretation of historical landscape. Data criticism can also be characterized as a quantitative approach in comparison to a qualitative approach used previously by historians to “read” evidences from paintings or illustrations based on human interpretations. Here the word ‘interpretation’ needs to be clarified because historical studies deal with two levels of interpretation, namely the evidence level and the history level. In particular, the latter focuses on answering historical research questions, but this answer depends more on the cognitive process of how historians construct the history. The word ‘capta’ is suggested to clarify the constructivism context of historyin comparison to the word ‘data’ that sounds more objective and observer independent. In this sense, our interest is in the evidence level (data), not in the history level (capta). The goal of data criticism is to provide more reliable evidences from data sources through quantitative and integrated procedures using computer algorithms.
3. Case Studies

We introduce data criticism with three case studies from the achievement of our project, namely Digital Silk Road Project.
The first case study is about a map of Silk Road made by Aurel Stein in the beginning of 20th century. This map is still considered as the authoritative reference of Silk Road studies, but the map has a mysterious problem; some of the ruins recorded on the map cannot be found at respective geographic coordinates. A typical interpretation of this mystery explains that those ruins were destroyed or disappeared since his visit of about 100 years ago. We discovered, however, from archaeological survey that those “missing ruins” are still there, but at the location suggested by the map plus the error of the map estimated from ground control points (GCP) given on the map for geometric correction. This ‘place-matching’ result is also supported by evidences from non-textual sources such as photographs and illustrations, because they provide information about ruin’s 2D or 3D structures which has less probability of coincidence. After this matching, we also realized that the comparison of ruins’ name, or ‘name matching’ does not work, because a string comparison of names cannot overcome the problem of linguistic difference between endonyms and exonyms, or different naming conventions due to arbitrary conceptualizations. This case study suggests that the integration of multiple non-textual sources can provide more reliable evidences and new interpretations of historical facts.
The second case study is about a map of Gaochang made by Albert Grünwedel in the beginning of 20th century. This is an important map because artifacts excavated from the site were recorded by ruin symbols on the map, but the accuracy of the map has been considered as untrusted because the map seems to be a sketch with significant distortion. We hypothesized that this is a topological map, just like a subway map, designed for navigation purposes by preserving topological relationships such as connection and intersection of geographical features. We criticized the topological structure of the map, and finally identified most of the ruins recorded on the map. Photographs are again used to support evidences about the identity of ruins. For this purpose, we developed a web-based tool, ‘mappining’ for what we call ‘interactive georeferencing.’ This tool is designed to realize on-the-fly registration of two maps at the focal point specified interactively by a user. This method can avoid significant distortion of the topological map in comparison to geometric correction of the entire map, so historians can keep the original shape of the map, while taking advantage of approximate place matching in the neighborhood of the focal point.
The third case study had the highest technical challenge, because the target map, Complete Map of Peking, Qianlong Period, made about 250 years ago, is a huge map having 29 billion pixels and being separated into 203 sheets. Massive geometric correction of this map required 1800 ground control points and 500 control lines. The uniqueness of this geometric correction is that we used not only control points but also control lines to maximally preserve the linear features of streets in Beijing through geometric correction. This was the first time in the world to obtain the digital version of the fully-connected and geometrically-corrected map.
After geometric correction, we realized that some parts of the map could not be matched well with the current map. This problem was known to some historians, but they could not explain the reason, so they simply judged that this map cannot be trusted. We found, however, that this problem can be explained by the erroneous reconstruction of the broken map at some point in history. We discovered the exchange of sheets from left to right or vice versa, which cannot be caused by mistakes in the digitization process, because some exchange can be observed within a single map sheet. This insight was obtained only after we had an entire picture of the map, and historians in the past could not notice this problem as long as they study the map sheet by sheet. This indicates that human interpretation in a microscopic scale has limitation in understanding the macroscopic issues, and there has been technical barriers to realize this viewpoint. Data criticism tools have potential to break this barrier and may lead to new discoveries based on new interpretations from new viewpoints.
These case studies suggest that the proper treatment of non-textual sources needs an integrated approach using not only maps but also photographs and other spatial and visual sources. Photographs should be interpreted in a three-dimensional historical landscape to identify the location and direction of the photograph. This interpretation should be supported by textual criticism of photograph captions that may also affected by errors or misconceptions.
4. Conclusion

In short, data criticism is not about making historical Geographic Information Systems (GIS) that maps historical facts into digital space and analyze them, but about making quantitative and integrated digital tools to analyze, enhance and re-discover the value of historical sources. We plan to generalize our framework to establish the field of “data criticism” so that we can accumulate historical evidences not only from textual sources but also from data sources. The key is to develop easy-to-use digital tools for humanists to be used by themselves. This is where digital humanities comes in; where team work between computer scientists and humanists can lead to a breakthrough. The final goal is to establish data criticism as a new research field that has its own methodological commons and framework to combine appropriate tools to answer historical research questions.
References

Ono, K., KITAMOTO, A., Onishi, M., Andaroodi, E., Nishimura, Y., Matini, M.R. (2008), Memory of the Silk Road -The Digital Silk Road Project-, Virtual Systems and Multimedia (VSMM), Vol. Project Papers, pp. 437-444
Gregory, I.N., Healey, R.G. (2007), Historical GIS: Structuring, mapping and analyzing geographies of the past, Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 31, No. 5, pp. 638-653.
Drucker, J. (2011), Humanities Approaches to Graphical Display, Digital Humanities Quarterly, Vol. 5, No. 1
Silk Road Maps, dsr.nii.ac.jp/geography/
Kitamoto, A., and Nishimura, Y. (2009), Geometric correction of measured historical maps with a pixel-oriented and geobrowser-friendly framework, Proceedings of the 22nd International Symposium on Digital Documentation, Interpretation & Presentation of Cultural Heritage (CIPA)
Mappinning - Interactive Georeferencing by Pinning Old Maps, dsr.nii.ac.jp/digital-maps/mappinning/
Digital Maps of Old Beijing, dsr.nii.ac.jp/beijing-maps/
Gregory, I.N., Healey, R.G. (2007), Historical GIS: Structuring, mapping and analyzing geographies of the past, Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 31, No. 5, pp. 638-653.
","txt","2","",""
"1893","15","Data Curation Nightmare: Migrating VM/CMS to GNU/Linux in 2 weeks","2","Data Curation Nightmare: Migrating VM/CMS to
GNU/Linux in 2 weeks
Data curation has been described as ""activities [that] enable
data discovery and retrieval, maintain quality, add value, and
provide for re-use [of digital assets] over time"" 1 . Data migration
is a major and necessary (but not sufficient) part of long-term
data curation.
At the time of the project described, the authors had worked
at BrownUniversity in the computing arena since 1985 and
1979 respectively. Up until the mid-1990s this work was almost
exclusively on or related to the IBM VM mainframe system,
but from the mid-1990s onward work and computer usage
gradually migrated off the mainframe to Unix systems,GNU/
Linux systems, and desktop Macintosh computers. By early
2009 almost no one at Brown was using the mainframe.
However, the authors were each responsible for a significant
quantity of data and programs on the mainframe, including
various system utilities, application programs each had written,
and almost all of the historical digital assets of the Women
Writers Project. In 2009, Brown decided to retire the mainframe.
Thus the authors migrated a large quantity of digital data,
comprising widely ranging kinds of files, from a legacy IBM VM
system to a modern GNU/Linux system. This was a significant
undertaking, not just because of the quantity of data (~ 3 GiB),
but because a VM system is *very* different than a GNU/Linux
system. Differences include:
– files are named with a different naming convention
– files are stored in one of several internal formats, none of
which is like that on a GNU/Linux system
– files are grouped in a flat, rather than hierarchical, system
– the underlying character encoding is not only not Unicode, it's
not ASCII -- it is EBCDIC, which is quite different
– some files have been automatically ""packed"" or compressed
by the system
– many files had been put into compressed archives (not unlike
ZIP files) that could not be read on a GNU/Linux system
– many files were stored not on the mainframe itself, but on
tapes that we could not read without the mainframe
– some bits of metadata on the mainframe have no counterpart
in GNU/Linux
Moreover, this project had to be executed under very tight
time constraints without administrative support.
This particular project was further complicated because
it was envisioned not just as a curation of textual data (e.g.,
program source code, text formatting files, or SGML files),
but as preservation of executable programs as well. One goal
was to be able to move this data to a different IBM VM system
without loss of any crucial information, such that the programs
could still be run. It is worth noting that we were not archiving
these materials in the analog archivist's sense -- i.e., we didn't
decide what material to keep and what to discard, we basically
kept it all.
While it must be the case that others have migrated data
off of IBM VMsystems, the authors are not aware of any
similarly ambitious projects. Having no blueprint to follow,
the authors had to invent a method for transferring data from
VM to GNU/Linux in a manner that would both keep all of its
original properties intact (so that it could subsequently be
moved to another VM system), and simultaneously permit direct
use of cross-platform data (e.g., source code, text formatting
documents, JPEGs, etc.). This method involved writing at least
5 separate programs, including a 1751 line-long C program
that can be used to extract files from VM ""DISK DUMP"" format
files(essentially disk images) that have been transferred to a
GNU/Linux system. (In theory this would work just as well on a
Mac OS X system, and perhaps even on a Windows system.)
This paper treats this project as a case study, interesting both
because it describes what many younger DHers would think
of as a foreign or archaic system (or both) that was in heavy
use at Brown a mere 20 years ago, and is still in use today (as
of 2013-11-01, the latest version was released 2013-07-23),
and because it gives evidence to how significant a problem
migration can present.
Notes
Moreover, this project had to be executed under very tight
time constraints without administrative support.
This particular project was further complicated because
it was envisioned not just as a curation of textual data (e.g.,
program source code, text formatting files, or SGML files),
but as preservation of executable programs as well. One goal
was to be able to move this data to a different IBM VM system
without loss of any crucial information, such that the programs
could still be run. It is worth noting that we were not archiving
these materials in the analog archivist's sense -- i.e., we didn't
decide what material to keep and what to discard, we basically
kept it all.
While it must be the case that others have migrated data
off of IBM VMsystems, the authors are not aware of any
similarly ambitious projects. Having no blueprint to follow,
the authors had to invent a method for transferring data from
VM to GNU/Linux in a manner that would both keep all of its
original properties intact (so that it could subsequently be
moved to another VM system), and simultaneously permit direct
use of cross-platform data (e.g., source code, text formatting
documents, JPEGs, etc.). This method involved writing at least
5 separate programs, including a 1751 line-long C program
that can be used to extract files from VM ""DISK DUMP"" format
files(essentially disk images) that have been transferred to a
GNU/Linuxsystem. (In theory this would work just as well on a
Mac OS X system, and perhaps even on a Windows system.)
This paper treats this project as a case study, interesting both
because it describes what many younger DHers would think
of as a foreign or archaic system (or both) that was in heavy
use at Brown a mere 20 years ago, and is still in use today (as
of 2013-11-01, the latest version was released 2013-07-23),
and because it gives evidence to how significant a problem
migration can present.
References
1. Cragin, Melissa H.; Heidorn, P. Bryan; Palmer, Carole
L.; Smith, Linda C. (2007), An Educational Program on Data
Curation; poster session presented at ACRL STS 2007.
www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/acrl/about/sections/sts/
conferences/posters07.cfm
hdl.handle.net/2142/3493","txt","2","",""
"1894","15","Designing the next big thing: Randomness versus serendipity in DH tools","10","A number of recent initiatives within the DH community promote the design, development, and implementation of digital tools aimed at speeding up, clarifying, or otherwise improving the research practices of humanities scholars. This year, the One Week | One Tool (OWOT) summer institute, funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities, resulted in the creation of Serendip-o-matic, a serendipity engine for digital research. This tool relies on users to feed it a selection of text or citations in order to create a list of keywords, which it then uses to find related information. The documents returned are taken from the Digital Public Library of America (DPLA), Europeana, and Flickr1. The participants of the 2013 OWOT initiative are not alone in their quest to design a digital tool geared toward enhancing the chance encounter with information, resources, ideas, research materials, and even people. Tim Sherratt, the manager of Trove at the National Library of Australia, often includes an element of chance in the tools he designs for use in the humanities. For instance, in his tool Trove News Bot, Sheratt (2013) allows users to interact with a Twitter stream by sending tweets with directions (such as #luckydip), which will return random results from the National Archives of Australia’s digital collection2. Similar tools have been developed that introduce serendipity into the collections of the DPLA and the British Library.
One motivation for the development of digital tools aimed at enhancing serendipity in digital environments comes out of the need to redesign and recreate the complexity of the research environment found in library stacks and archival collections. It is often argued that this complexity may be lost in digital environments, which are highly predictable and primarily based on keyword search. To what extent serendipity is reduced in digital search is debatable. Nonetheless, this perception of loss directly affects how scholars, and in particular humanities scholars, adopt and use digital tools. A study of historians’ research practices suggests that these scholars are skeptical of conducting their research exclusively in digital environments because they lack the ability to encounter key resources (primary and secondary materials) that could have a major impact on their research findings 3. In this study, the authors also found that historians were willing to experiment with digital tools, if these could recreate opportunities for encountering information. Hence, scholars perceive the discovery of resources, browsing, and chance encountering as central elements of their research practice that can, and need to, be supported online.
Outside of academia, a number of tools have emerged that try to introduce serendipity into the online experience. What is less clear from the literature is how to best support this process, as a wide range of approaches have been suggested ranging from interactions in social media 4, exploration in non-search related digital environments, and information search in digital environments 5. The approach most commonly taken is to introduce serendipity into the online information search experience; this is often done by introducing some element of randomness and thereby reducing the predictability of search results. An example of this approach is BananaSlug, which returns random results to a search query. Other approaches include reversing or modifying the ranking in which search results are presented online 6. This would draw attention to a different set of items because users commonly tend to investigate only the first and perhaps second pages of search results. All of these approaches aim at broadening “the search space, promoting encounters with items that might not, under existing algorithms, come to the attention of the user”. While the majority of digital tools aimed at promoting serendipity have emerged outside of the humanities, a series of tools have recently been developed with humanists in mind. These tools have garnered considerable attention in the field, but it remains unclear what element of serendipity they support. Part of the problem is the fact that the concept of serendipity is elusive 7 and difficult to pinpoint. Reducing it to the introduction of randomness, however, does not seem to be the best way to move forward, even though it is the one most commonly utilized. A second problem, and perhaps more concerning, is that scholars need to first understand that serendipity is not a one-dimensional concept but, rather, includes a number of related facets, which need to inform tool design and implementation. The present paper critically examines four DH tools that encourage serendipitous results and attempts to place these within current models of serendipity:
Serendip-o-matic (http://serendip-o-matic.com/)
Trove News Bot (https://github.com/wragge/trovenewsbot)
Mechanical Curator (http://mechanicalcurator.tumblr.com/)
DP.LA Bot (https://github.com/wragge/trovenewsbot).
As a basis for this examination, we have established the main facets of serendipity obtained from the extensive literature in Library and Information Science (LIS). Through this comparative study, we aim to accomplish two goals. First, there is a gap in understanding exactly what aspects of serendipity digital tools support. By merging the literature in LIS with tool design in DH, we hope to create greater clarity as to what aspects have been supported. Second, the results of the study will determine what future developments are needed to better support the work of humanists in digital environments.
Interviews with 20 history scholars inform the first phase of this study. These scholars indicated a desire for serendipitous encounters with material to remain a part of their research process after the integration of digital texts to their work. After discovering that historians were seeking new methods of information acquisition online, further interviews were conducted with DH scholars to see what methods they were using to browse information. The results of these two sets of qualitative data will be discussed and used to demonstrate a need for a serendipity tool within the DH community.
The second phase of this research is an in-depth exploration of the four information-discovery tools listed above. These tools will be examined in terms of Erdelez’s (2004) model of information encountering outlined below 8. After analyzing each tool carefully, follow-up interviews will be conducted with the creators of each tool to discuss their intentions for and reflections upon, the use of the tool by humanist scholars.
A wide range of models of serendipity have been developed relying on very different data sets and assumptions. Erdelez (2004) developed one of the first models and emphasized the experience of information encountering (IE), which she defined as a type of opportunistic acquisition of information. Erdelez’s (2004) utilized an experimental setting, where participants were asked to look for information related to a foreground problem and the researcher observed how they would react to information related to a background problem. As part of her model, Erdelez (2000) identified five elements:
noticing: the perception of encountered information;
stopping: the interruption of the initial information seeking activity;
examining: the assessment of usefulness of the encountered information;
capturing: the extraction and saving of the encountered information for future use;
and returning: the reconnection with the initial information seeking task.
In Erdelez’s (2004) model, a person is primarily focusing on the information needs related to a foreground problem. However, cues related to another problem, a background problem, may catch the person’s attention. If the person notices the cues and stops to examine the newly encountered information, then there is an opportunity for discovering unexpected resources. It is this process of noticing, examining, and capturing that digital tools try to emulated or support.
Each of the four tools reflects one or more aspects of the serendipitous process as outlined by Erdelez, (see Table 1).
  Noticing Stopping Examining Capturing Returning
Serendip-o-matic     ✓   ✓    
Trove News Bot   ✓   ✓   ✓   ✓  
Mechanical Curator   ✓   ✓   ✓ some  
DP.LA Bot ✓ ✓ some    
The tools listed above, with the exclusion of Serendip-o-matic, select materials randomly and then present these to followers on Twitter. Randomness, as we know, does not necessarily mean that serendipity will occur. These tools all provide links to places that users can go to receive extraneous materials in the hopes that something of interest will come their way.
Interestingly, the capturing element of these tools seems to be largely disregarded. Considering the DH community is acutely aware of the need to instantly capture digital documents and the associated metadata with citation tools (Zotero), none of the examined tools includes this element in their framework. This leads the authors to conclude that future design could focus on this element of capturing information, and could introduce a method that allows for the saving of documents so users can retrace their footsteps after returning to the initial task or foreground problem. Our critical analysis of various DH tools and how they support serendipity provides opportunity to further enhance these tools as well as a means to design additional tools that can impact the research practices of humanities scholars. 
References

1. CHMN. (2013). Serendip-o-matic: Let your sources surprise you. One Week | One Tool. Retrieved October 31, 2013, from serendip-o-matic.com/about
2. Sherratt, T. (2013). Conversations with Collections. discontents. Retrieved October 31, 2013, from discontents.com.au
3. Martin, K., & Quan-Haase, A. (2013). Are e-books substituting print books? Tradition, serendipity, and spportunity in the adoption and use of e-books for historical research and teaching. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology. 64(5), 1016-1028.
4. Bogers, T., & Björneborn, L. (2013). Micro-serendipity: Meaningful coincidences in everyday life shared on Twitter. In Proceedings of iConference (pp. 196–208).
5. Quan-Haase, A., Burkell, J., & Rubin, V. L. (n.d.). The role of serendipity in digital environments. In Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology. IGI Global.
6. Jansen, B. J., Spink, A., & Saracevic, T. (2000). Real life, real users, and real needs: A study and analysis of user queries and on the web. Information Processing & Management, 36(2), 207–227.
7. Merton, R. K. (2004). The travels and adventures of serendipity: a study in sociological semantics and the sociology of science. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.
8. Erdelez, S. (2004). Investigation of information encountering in the controlled research environment. Information Processing & Management, 40(6), 1013–1025. doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2004.02.002
9. Erdelez, S. (2000). Towards understanding information encountering on the Web. In Proceedings of the 63rd annual meeting of the American Society for Information Science (pp. 363–371). Medford, N.J.: Information Today.
","txt","2","",""
"1895","15","Detecting Linguistic Signal in Cather's Early Journalism: Polishing the Bibliography","2","Background and History

Willa Cather, a novelist whose works include My Antonia and O Pioneers!, served her literary apprenticeship writing drama, music, and book reviews for literary magazines and small-town newspapers between 1893 and 1903. Most of these articles were unsigned or pseudonymous, but were attributed to Cather usually based on circumstance and opportunity, reference, and style – something William Curtain failed to define beyond “the style and swing [being] unmistakably Cather’s” (Curtain 972). Authorship attribution is hardly a new field for digital humanities. David Hoover, Matthew Jockers, Hugh Craig, Patrick Juola and others have done work on  literary authorship attribution in which they examined and refined the different approaches (e.g. function words and lexical entropy) to the authorial question. Our project focuses on a small corpus of short texts, reflecting our attempt to verify authorship attribution in Willa Cather’s early unsigned, attributed journalism from 1893 to 1903.1
Early efforts to create a bibliography of all of Cather’s writing, including documentation of her journalism, were complicated by Cather’s pseudonymous and anonymous publications. In 1950, John Hinz created an initial list of Cather’s pseudonyms, including Mary K. Hawley, Clara Wood Shipman, and Helen Delay, her most famous pseudonym (Hinz 201). In 1966, Bernice Slote published the first definitive bibliography of Cather’s early nonfiction writings in The Kingdom of Art where she uncovered 44 previously unattributed columns she believed Cather wrote for the Nebraska State Journal between 1895 and 1896. In 1970, William Curtain compiled The World and the Parish, a two-volume bibliography of Cather’s journalistic writings. Joanna Lathrop followed up with a 1975 checklist. Joan Crane’s 1982 bibliography of Cather’s work is a departure point for much recent scholarship, including the online Willa Cather Archive (cather.unl.edu).
Tim Bintrim’s 2004 dissertation attributed 19 additional pseudonymous articles to Cather during her Pittsburgh years and successfully challenged at least two pseudonyms proposed by Hinz. In 2013, Kari Ronning of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln and Robert Thacker of St. Lawrence University cleared up confusion about a purported Cather pseudonym “Clara Wood Shipman.” It is not a Cather pseudonym, something Slote had hinted about in a footnote in The Kingdom of Art (Slote 28).
In this research, we investigate Hinz’s original attributions as well as those suggested by scholars that came after him. We apply tools and techniques of authorship attribution and stylometrics in order to assess the extent to which unsigned works and works attributed to Cather possess a stylistic and linguistic voice that is consistent with her known works.
Methodology

We approached the initial problem of authorship attribution first by breaking down the content of each of Cather’s journal articles to the word level. Our sample consisted of 158 texts. Of these, 126 texts were made available through the Willa Cather Archive. The remaining 32 texts were articles written by Fanny Fern (Sarah Parker Willis), which were used as a control group in order to establish a clear stylistic signal that was not Cather’s. We chose Fern’s journalistic work not only because it was available in digital form, but also because Fern’s work constitutes a body of work that is comparable to Cather’s in terms of genre, size, number of works, and available metadata. At the same time, the Fern material is distinctive enough chronologically and geographically to avoid any artistic overlap.
Our total corpora consisted of 216,506 words, or tokens, 192,062 belonging to the Cather corpus and 24,444 belonging to the Fern corpus. The identification of unique token types resulted in 20,868 types: 15,656 appearing only in Cather’s corpus, 5,212 appearing only in Fern’s corpus, and 3,591 shared between the two. Our algorithm then employed simple relative frequency across the corpora in order to account for any discrepancies in article length. The resulting plots are based on the occurrence of the most frequent words in the corpora, such as “the”, “a”, and “of,” above an arbitrary threshold. Instead of imposing structural rules, we practiced unsupervised clustering by allowing the algorithm to group the works itself based on the frequency of these common words. This created hierarchically clustered dendrogram plots, which serve to provide a visual analysis. At first, we seemed to detect a clear linguistic signal for Cather. When we introduced the control set, Fern’s works also tended to cluster together in our initial dendrograms (see figure 1). 

Fig. 1: Example of one of the original, first-run results dendrograms (here, run with a threshold factor of 0.89).
After closely reading the pieces, we discovered that there was a substantial amount of quoted material from other authors (such as William Shakespeare and Rudyard Kipling), which might have skewed the accuracy of our approach. In order to produce the most reliable results, we manually stripped the quoted material from the files.
Observations

After carefully examining the dendrograms from our analysis, we have evidence that the works analyzed were, correctly attributed to Cather, but we cannot be sure to have detected her style or signal.2 Additionally, we found the third-party quotations in Cather’s work had no significant effect on the clustering of works. Contrary to our expectations and conventional wisdom, the same works consistently clustered before and after the extraction of quoted material. No matter which frequency threshold we used to produce the hierarchically clustered models, the results (see figures 2 and 3) did not offer a solid pattern for determining Cather’s early journalistic style or identify possible misattributions. 

Fig. 2: One of the final dendrograms (here, run with a threshold factor of 0.55).

Fig. 3: One of the final dendrograms (here, run with a threshold factor of 0.96).
However, we can claim the veracity of the previously attributed works achieved through traditional scholarship by employing this computational method. With little controversy, the clusters formed by signed or consistently attributed pieces support such articles as likely to have been written by Willa Cather. Our control set consisting of Fanny Fern’s work generally tended to cluster together as a set, indicating that our analysis distinguished between the two authors with high reliability.
Conclusions and Further Research

Our initial efforts at detecting a Cather signal to dispute the attribution of anonymous and pseudonymous texts were not successful. While we can be definitive enough to support Curtain, Bintrim, Slote, and Crane’s attributions, our results cannot be considered reliable enough to dispute any dubious attributions. Burrows, Jockers, Hoover, and Craig suggest machine reading of texts and unsupervised clustering of shorter texts and smaller corpora is still better than working by mere chance. The question is, how much better?
The context of our work seemed to be appropriate for quantitative methods. We set out to allow a machine to do that for which few people have little patience: counting the frequency of function words. As Hoover suggested, “Only when external evidence fails is it reasonable to apply quantitative methods, and the presence or absence of a closed set of possible authors and differences in the size and number of documents available for analysis are usually more significant than the kind of text involved.” The external evidence seemed compelling: Cather’s output as a young journalist was copious, and scholars using traditional methods were able to identify more than three pseudonyms incorrectly attributed to her. We analyzed a closed set of authors, Willa Cather and Fanny Fern, so we expected to find more attribution errors, based upon the timbre of early Cather scholarship, which often smacked of hagiography. What we were lacking was a larger corpus.3 This project indicates the need to digitize more of Cather’s early work to further clarify the historic bibliography using computational stylometry.
Bibliography

Bintrim, Timothy W. (2004) Recovering the Extra-Literary: The Pittsburgh Writings of Willa Cather. Diss. Duquesne University. Print.
Burrows, J.F. (2004). “Textual Analysis.” A Companion to Digital Humanities. Ed. Susan Schreibman and Ray Siemens. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004. Web.
Craig, Hugh (2004). “Stylistic Analysis and Authorship Studies.” A Companion to Digital Literacy Studies. Ed. Susan Schreibman and Ray Siemens. Oxford: Blackwell. Web.
Crane, Joan (1982). Willa Cather: A Bibliography. Lincoln, NE: U of Nebraska P. Print.
Curtain, William(1893-1902). The World and the Parish: Willa Cather’s Articles and Reviews . Lincoln, NE: U of Nebraska P, 1970. Print.
Fanny Fern in the New York Ledger(2013). Center for Digital Research in the Humanities at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Web. 9 Dec. 2013.
Hinz, John P (1950). “Willa Cather in Pittsburgh.” The New Colophon. New York: Duschnes Crawford Inc. Print.
Hoover, David L (2004). “Quantitative Analysis and Literary Studies.” A Companion to Digital Literary Studies. Ed. Susan Schreibman and Ray Siemens. Oxford: Blackwell. Web.
Jewell, Andrew, and Janis Stout (2013). The Selected Letters of Willa Cather. New York: Knopf. Print.
Jewell, Andrew, ed. The Willa Cather Archive. U. of Nebraska-Lincoln, (2004-2013). Web. 9 Dec. 2013. Web.
Jockers, Matthew L. and Daniela M. Witten(2010). “A Comparative Study of Machine Learning Methods for Authorship Attribution.” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 25.2 : 215-224. Web. 9 Dec. 2013.
Jockers, Matthew L., Daniela M. Witten, and Craig S. Criddle(2008). “Reassessing Authorship of the Book of Mormon Using Delta and Nearest Shrunken Centroid Classification.” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23.4 : 465-492. Web. 9 Dec. 2013.
Jockers, Matthew L. (2013) “Testing Authorship in the Personal Writings of Joseph Smith Using NSC Classification.” Literary and Linguistic Computing. 28.3: 371-381. Web. 9 Dec. 2013.
Jockers, Matthew. (2013). Text Analysis with R for Students of Literature. 2 Sept. TS.
Juola, Patrick. “Authorship Attribution.” Foundations and Trends in Information Retrieval 1.3 (2006): 233-334. Web. 1 Dec. 2013.
Lathrop, JoAnna (1975). Willa Cather: A Checklist of her Published Writing. Lincoln, NE: U of Nebraska P. Print.
Ronning, Kari. “Re: theatres in Lincoln.” Message to the author. 9 Dec. 2013. E-mail.
Slote, Bernice. The Kingdom of Art. Lincoln, NE: U of Nebraska P, (1966). Print.
Van Dalen-Oskam, Karina (2013). “Epistolary Voices: The Case of Elisabeth Wolff and Agatha Deken.” Digital Humanities 2013 Lincoln NE. Eds. Katherine Walker and Kenneth Price. Lincoln, NE: Center for Digital Research in the Humanities. Web. 9 Dec. 2013.
References

1. This research began in a class taught by Matthew Jockers and has continued under his direction as a project of the newly formed Nebraska Literary Lab at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
2. If we had found Cather’s signal, it would be best described as the distribution of works that clustered together, whereby some elements of the clusters that have the same frequency consequently have the same style.
3. According to Andrew Jewell, editor of the online Cather Archive, there are a total of approximately 600 pieces of journalism written by Cather. The Cather Archive has digital scans of about 400 of those. About 230 are transcribed in some fashion, and about 206 are in some kind of XML format.","txt","2","",""
"1896","15","Detection of Poetic Content in Historic Newspapers through Image Analysis","9","By conservative estimates, several hundred thousand poems appeared in early American and U.S. newspapers from the eighteenth through the early twentieth centuries. Counting snippets of verse that appeared in death notices, advertisements, and articles makes the presence of poetry in historic newspapers even more pervasive. Feminist scholars and others performing recovery work routinely resurrect authors and works from newspaper pages, but until recently this rich trove of newspaper verse as a corpus of its own has been outside the scope of literary study and a footnote in histories of American newspapers. In the last decade, however, scholars have made significant inroads in studying the importance of newspaper verse as a form and the public role of poetry in American culture. Underpinning this scholarship is a growing recognition that the evaluation and history of American poetry should not be based on less than one percent of the poetic record. In addition, this new scholarship values and explores the role of poetry in the daily lives of people, including making sense of what it means to be human and in processing national, social, and individual experiences. To the extent that these new histories depend on traditional methods of archival discovery and analysis, however, they will remain anecdotal—individual narratives extrapolated from a miniscule subset of the whole, with limited means of situating the anecdote as either representative or idiosyncratic. In short, the magnitude of the corpus requires new modes of discovery and analysis.
A fundamental problem in the reappraisal of newspaper verse has been finding and processing poetic content in an efficient manner, which is essential for developing new interpretations, analyses, and literary histories. The primary means of finding this content typically involves paging through original issues of newspapers, scrolling through reels of microfilm, and browsing digital images to scan, by human eye, each page for graphical features that resemble poetry. Dealing with only daily newspapers for a single year, 1860, would require visually scanning nearly half a million newspaper pages. Certainly no individual in a lifetime could complete a count—to say nothing of a comprehensive bibliography or macro-level analysis—of newspaper verse using this strategy.
While the digitization of historic newspapers has mitigated some issues of access, the main avenues for discovery in these collections are browsing and text-based searching. Browsing for poetic content in such collections follows the strategy outlined above: going image by image through digitized pages and visually scanning the images for features typical of printed poetry. Ironically, web interfaces and variations in Internet connection speeds can make digitally paging through a newspaper a slower process than either scrolling through microfilm or flipping physical pages.
How, then, might one discover poetic content in digitized historic newspapers? Our research shows that digital page images hold significant promise for scholarly inquiry with regard to poetic content. The basis for our approach is that the appearance of poetic content usually follows certain patterns that can be visually differentiated from other published texts in newspapers. Given a newspaper page, a person can survey the page and figure out quickly whether it contains a poem, to a certain degree of accuracy, without having to read or understand the text. Our project has the computer do the same visual processing as the human eye and brain when a person moves through a newspaper issue looking for poetic content. This image processing approach can also be used as a powerful filter, removing materials from further consideration that do not meet the specified criteria. That is, not only does the process work to identify pages that appear to include poetry, but it discards those that do not, weeding out much of the noise.
Methodology

The image processing component of the project consisted of two important phases: training and deployment. During the training phase, the goal was to produce a classifier able to categorize an image as either a poem or non-poem image. To produce the classifier, a training dataset was prepared and fed into a machine learning-based classifier. After the classifier was produced, we moved to the deployment phase. During this phase, the steps used to prepare the training sets were streamlined to automatically process and classify new images. In this paper, we focus on the four stages of the training phase: (1) pre-processing, (2) feature extraction, (2) neural networks learning, and (4) testing.
The first stage involved manual extraction of image snippets from digitized newspapers. For training, we developed three sets of snippets: (1) at least part of a poem appears in the snippet, (2) the snippet contains no poetic content, and (3) the snippet has visual cues that are similar to poetic content. Because each snippet is inherently noisy and could be of low quality, we performed 3x3, 5x5, and 7x7 averaging to smooth out noisy pixels, a step known as blurring. To convert the blurred snippet into a binary image—effectively identifying the object pixels from background pixels—we used a bi-Gaussian (or bi-normal) curve approximation (Haverkamp et al., 1995) to obtain the binary segmentation threshold. (See Figure 1 and Figure 2.)

Fig. 1: Binary non-poem image snippet; 5x5 blurring.

Fig. 2: Binary poem image snippet; 7x7 blurring.
After obtaining binary images, the next task was representing and extracting visual cues as salient features. We evaluated three sets of attributes: (1) the left and right margins (number of columns without a dark pixel); (2) the vertical white spacing between adjacent lines of text (mean and standard deviation); (3) the jaggedness of the ends-of-lines for poetic content (mean and standard deviation).
Then, with this imagery data re-represented as numeric data, we used machine learning techniques to train a classifier. Specifically, we used the machine learning approach known as artificial neural networks (ANNs) (Hopfield, 1988; Yegnanarayana, 2009). An ANN learns a vector of weights on features in the dataset to choose labels for new data. Such a network consists of multiple nodes connected to threshold functions or additional layers of nodes. The network is updated iteratively until it correctly predicts labels for training data. We used a back- propagation ANN (Hecht-Nielsen, 1989) where weights connecting the nodes update iteratively based on how the network classifies known data points in the training dataset—whether its classification matches the labels of training data points.
Back-propagation ANNs have two phases. During phase 1, a training instance or data point is fed into the ANN’s multi-layer structure, generating activations in the nodes and resulting in a final output label. During phase 2, ""rewards"" are propagated back to the input layer from the output layer based on whether the final output label matches the ground-truth label of the instance. If the output label is correct, all the linkages within the structure contributing to the correct output are rewarded with an increased weight. If the output label is incorrect, all contributing linkages are penalized accordingly with a reduced weight. In this manner, the network learns incrementally to find a combination of weights for these links.
Finally, to validate the accuracy of the classifier, a ten-fold cross validation process was used. In this process, the total data set was broken into ten groups. The classifier was trained using nine of the groups and then tested on the single remaining set. This process of training and testing was repeated until each group had been used as the test set once. The results were then aggregated and the accuracy computed.
Findings

In addition to discussing the importance of newspapers and newspaper verse for American literary history and the need for new modes of discovery in digitized collections, this paper will report on three results of our research: (1) basic analysis, (2) training and classification analysis, and (3) a comparative study. The basic analysis will present the algorithms we used to extract visual features from the snippets, and the correlation analyses we did to ascertain the feasibility of our image-based approach. This will show the potential discrimination power of our visual features in distinguishing poem or non-poem snippets. The training and classification analysis will document our experimentation with different ANN configurations and report on our training processes. This will include the number of hidden nodes in our ANNs used, learning weights and momentum parameters investigated, convergence rates of the different configurations, and training and classification accuracies. Finally, we will report on our comparative study in terms of the usefulness of our blurring processes and how better to fuse them. In particular, we will show whether submitting each image as a single data point with three sets of attributes or submitting each blurred image with its set of attributes as a single data point leads to more effective training and higher classification accuracy.
References

See, for example, Bennett (2003); McGill (2003); Barrett (2012); Barrett and Miller,(2005); Gardner (2009); Cohen (2010); Garvey (2012); Chasar (2012); Rubin (2007).
In his foundational history of American journalism, Frank Luther Mott estimated the number of U.S. newspapers in existence in 1860 at 3,000, 11 percent of which were dailies. Most dailies in this period were four pages long. 
Barrett, F. and Miller, C. (2005). Words for the Hour: A New Anthology of American Civil War Poetry. Amherst, University of Massachusetts Press.
Bennett, P.B. (2003). Poets in the Public Sphere: The Emancipatory Project of American Women's Poetry, 1800-1900. Princeton, Princeton University Press.
Chasar, M. (2012). Everyday Reading: Poetry and Popular Culture in Modern America. New York, Columbia University Press.
Cohen, M. (2010). Contraband Singing: Poems and Songs in Circulation During the Civil War, American Literature, 82(2): 271-304.
Gardner, E. (2009). Unexpected Places: Relocating Nineteenth-Century African American Literature. Jackson, University Press of Mississippi.
Garvey, E. G. (2012). Writing with Scissors: American Scrapbooks from the Civil War to the Harlem Renaissance. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Haverkamp, D., L.-K. Soh, and C. Tsatsoulis. (1995). A Comprehensive, Automated Approach to Determining Sea Ice Thickness from SAR Data, IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 33(1): 46-57.
Hecht-Nielsen, R. (1989). Theory of the Backpropagation Neural Network, Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on Neural Network (IJCANN’1989), Washington, DC, June 1989.
Hopfield, J. J. (1988). Artificial Neural Networks, IEEE Circuits and Devices Magazine, 4(5): 3-10.
McGill, M. (2003). American Literature and the Culture of Reprinting, 1834-1853. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Mott, F. L. (1942). American Journalism: A History of Newspapers in the United States through 250 Years, 1690 to 1840. New York, Macmillan.
Rubin, J. S. (2007). Songs of Ourselves: The Uses of Poetry in America. Cambridge, MA, Belknap Press.
Yegnanarayana, B. (2006). Artificial Neural Networks. New Delhi, Prentice-Hall of India. 
","txt","2","",""
"1897","15","Developing a Physical Interactive Space for Innovative Digital Humanities Exhibition","10","1. Introduction

Digital humanities empower a creative transformation in both humanities and computing research by inspiring and fostering interdisciplinary interaction. Recently, digital visualization has been considered and established as a scholar methodology for digital humanities (Jessop, 2008). Projects, such as “Tooling Up for Digital Humanities” and “The Spatial History” (White, 2010) at Stanford University, have explored and experimented with various forms of graphic representation of data. Visualization is insightfully considered as part of a research process that may induce powerful arguments or raise new questions. It is also pointed out that visualization seems to give a sense of objective and scientific communication in the scholarly, yet sometime ambiguous, activities of digital humanities.
One of the less addressed issues in digital humanities visualization concerns the exhibition facilities. Even though some display equipment and technologies have been developed for some times, their innovative integration with a large-scale auditorium space to create an exhibition facilities for digital humanities has actually been little reported. We developed an innovative exhibition facility for digital humanities visualization with a conceptual framework of place-making that exploits digital technological mediation of people and humanities. Similar to the museum experiences with innovative engagement (Falk & Dierking, 2000) (McCarthy & Ciolfi, 2008), the exhibition facility induces locative experience for sense-making and potentially plays a pivotal role in facilitating further advance of digital humanities. Our work provides a field tested contribution to the research community by engaging wider audience for digital humanities, facilitating its social impact, and filling the vacancy of building a physical platform for presenting and showcasing research results for better recognition.
2. Physical Interactive Space as Digital Humanities Exhibition Facilities

Following the notion of place-making in urban development and heritage studies (Malpas, 2008), a physical space forms an existential ground where people’s senses of digital humanities are shaped and defined. Therefore, an innovative exhibition facility can serve as a social and technical infrastructure of cross-disciplinary interaction and allow for new experiences with tangible and intangible forms of digital humanities. This opens up new ways of exploring and articulating digital humanities visualization with physical and social settings, and potentially widening appreciation and deepening recognition of digital humanities for general audience.
We developed the exhibition facility by transforming a large room used for library reference service and installing an array of display equipment for various forms of interactive visualization. With a floor space of 810 square meters, the room was re-conceptualized as a mixture of digital gallery and auditorium by novel interior design and technology embedment. Figure 1 shows the floor plan of the exhibition facility that comprises an inner conference room, a flanked outer corridor, and a lobby. The inner and outer space are separated by sliding doors in the front opening, auxiliary doors in the corners, and entrance doors from the lobby.

Fig. 1: Floor Plan of the Exhibition Facility for Digital Humanities
A number of ten display systems are either mounted or projected on walls in both parts of the facility, as listed below.
An arc wall in size of 12 meters by 2.5 meters (width and height) used as a touch wall display with projection blending of 5 projectors, rendering a surrounding effect of visualization.
Two 120-inch retractable projection screens, providing auxiliary displays.
Two 42-inch touch screens embedded in a wall book shelf, collaging digital and physical archival exhibition.
Two 12-inch monitors mounted on a photo collage wall, blending digital and physical image display.
A rear projection touch screen in size of 5 meters by 1.2 meters with projection blending of 3 projectors inside the partition wall, providing easy access and playful social interaction with digital images.
Two 60-inch 3D touch screens embedded in a partition wall, rendering 3D images of objects with 3D goggles.
A 55-inch touch screen embedded in a partition wall,
Two 42-inch transparent LCD boxes, exhibiting physical objects/materials inside the boxes while displaying digital information on the transparent screens.
A curvier arc wall in size of 8 meters by 2.5 meters used as a surrounded wall display with projection blending of 3 projectors, rendering immersive visualization.
A collage of wall-mounted four 46-inch screens in 4K2K resolution (ultra high definition), used as a digital signage board in the lobby. 
Figure 2 through Figure 5 show actual images of the renovated results for an innovative exhibition facility. 

Fig. 2: Evacuating a room previously used for library reference service

Fig. 3: Renovated as a conference room and auditorium, showing display systems #3 and #9 in Figure 1.

Fig. 4: Part of the corridor flanking the inner room, showing display systems #5 and #7 in Figure 1.

Fig. 5: Renovated lobby, showing display system #10 in Figure 1.
Figure 6 through Figure 9 show some of the exhibition highlights from a range of 

Fig. 6: A workshop for digital humanities visualization in the conference room

Fig. 7: An international visitor appreciating an ancient book inside the transparent box, while getting information on the touch screen

Fig. 8: A group of students enthusiastically interacting with a large scale touch screen

Fig. 9: A group of international visitors enjoying a 3D digital simulation of the cultural heritage of lantern festival
3. Digital Presentation and Exhibition of Digital Humanities

The developed facility provides intensive and large scale visualization in an atmosphere with aesthetics appeal (Guyer, 2004). Large sized interactive touch screens facilitates audience engagement and creates more persuasive communication. The integration of space and technology in the exhibition facility aims to create a sense of place with a prominent context of digital humanities in which a living and sustainable recognition with exhibited subjects can be induced. Exhibition audience is, therefore, contextualized with senses, feeling, and embodiment that underpins an interpretive process of meaning-making (Schorch, 2012) and leads to an internal understanding and empathy of digital humanities.
The exhibition facility has been completed and inaugurated in May 2013 and has offered a range of subjects on a regular basis. The place becomes a hot spot for campus activities and has been designated to receive dignified visitors. Audience generally expresses experiences of remarkable novelty and deep appreciation for digital humanities exhibition. The innovative facility transformation project has been regarded as an overwhelming success by both inside and outside of campus community and has strengthen the initiative of digital humanities as a university research agenda. 

Fig. 10: Geographic distribution of analytic data being projected on the 12-meter arc wall.

Fig. 11: Cooperative research networks among faculty members with interactive query on touch screen
We illustrate two use cases of the facility. The first is for visualization support of analytic investigation. Figure 10 and Figure 11 show images of analytic data used in research meeting of digital humanities projects. It has been indicated that large scale visualization of exploratory data inspection process achieves effective communication and facilitates research progress. An interactive script of images also helps present research discovery to the general audience. 

Fig. 12: The author digitally interacts with his own handwritten manuscripts, along with his pupil.

Fig. 13: Manuscripts of short articles are collaged on a wall with digital images of places in the articles.
The second use case is an honorary ceremony for a university chair professor, also a revered writer, along with an exhibition of his highly regarded books and original handwritten manuscripts over thirty years. Figure 12 through Figure 15 show a range of presentation forms to provide a rich context for the writer’s celebrated career. The chair professor was apparently moved by the immersive atmosphere that reflected his heartfelt memory of life. 

Fig. 14: The chair professor gave a talk to many of his students and readers in the conference room

Fig. 15: Students listen to a poem recital in author’s recorded voice with an immersive textual and graphic background.
4. Conclusion and Future Work

We conclude that an innovative exhibition facility is a vital infrastructure for digital humanities endeavor. It is argued that the existential grounding of digital humanities is better achieved with an engaging and interpretive process in an immersive atmosphere. This meaning-making system helps gather enthusiastic support for and arouses great interest in digital humanities. More importantly, the facility provides a playground for digital humanities activities and establishes a digital laboratory for digital humanities research.
Another implication is the exciting potential in pedagogical use. With project-based learning, interdisciplinary student teams are taught to digitally curate subjects of cultural heritage and to organize innovative exhibitions for their peers. Ongoing student projects include Chinese puppet show and a local heritage village with colorful house wall painting. We believe that the educational value of the exhibition facility will contribute to wider participation of younger generation in digital humanities.
We also remark that the exhibition facility along with the activities and presentation content that it facilitates are not applicable to a controlled comparison in a research lab. However, since its inauguration, the facility has hosted more than 100 school-level events with 2500 highly-impressed visitors in six months. We feel that this actual usage result provides stronger verification than lab experimental data. A preliminary sampled survey showed significant effects on enabling audience recognition and appreciation of digital humanities activities. Our future work includes a more formal user study. 
References

Falk, J. H., and Dierking, L. D. (2000). Learning from Museums: Visitor Experiences and the Making of Meaning. Altamira Press.
Guyer, P. (2004). The Origins of Modern Aesthetics: 1711-35. In I. Kivy (Ed.), The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
Jessop, M. (2008). Digital Visualization as a Scholarly Activity, Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(3): 281-193.
MaCarthy, J. and Ciolfi, L. (2008). Place as Dialogue: Understanding and Supporting the Museum Experience, International Journal of Heritage Studies, 14(3), pp. 247-267.
Schorch, P. (2012). Cultural Feelings and the Making of Meaning, International Journal of Heritage Studies, pp. 1-14.
White, R. (2010). What Is Spatial History?, http://www.stanford.edu/group /spatialhistory/cgi-bin/site/pub.php?id=29. 
","txt","2","",""
"1898","15","Developing an online resource providing medieval literature for younger students and their teachers","2","Teaching material on medieval German literature adequate to present-day educational standards is insufficiently available. Additionally, the subject tends to be marginalized in current curricula for teacher training. Consequently, schoolteachers often lack the impetus and time to prepare and arrange medieval texts for their students. 

The objective of the publicly funded ""Sparkling Science"" project “Arbeitskoffer zu den Steirischen Literaturpfaden des Mittelalters” (Toolbox for the Styrian literature paths of the Middle Ages) is to develop an openly accessible, virtual didactic environment (the “Text portal”) which enables teachers to address the topic of medieval literature in class and familiarize their students with older German texts. For that purpose a corpus comprising regional medieval literature is made available on the Text portal by providing the transcription, translation and facsimiles of the respective texts. Furthermore, glossarial information and additional teaching material adapted to the requirements of students on secondary educational level are featured.

This poster introduces the online resource outlined above which is developed at the University of Graz in a collaboration between the Department of German Studies and the Centre for Information Modelling. The main focus is set on the following two aspects which are fundamental for the realization, progress and sustainability of the project:

1. The inclusion of prospective users 
The project primarily targets two disparate groups: Teachers in secondary education on the one hand and their students on the other hand. In order to provide an efficient and effective resource, the requirements of both user groups were considered the guiding principles for the development of the portal and its underlying data, from the very beginning.

The initiators of the project are scholars of German Studies involved in the education of both teachers and younger students. In addition to their individual views on the issue, the requirements to this resource were elaborated in the context of university courses for teacher training in concert with actual teachers and teacher trainees.

To investigate the demands of the younger students, a multilayered empirical analysis was conducted amongst several hundred pupils to survey the acceptance and comprehension of Middle High German and Early New High German texts. The outcome of this survey directly influenced later decisions concerning the selection and edition of the texts provided.

Taking account of the diversity of the prospective user groups, an intuitive, user-friendly and dependable interface will be realized. With this goal in mind, the development of the portal is subject to continuous evaluation within the project team. Further evaluations and test runs in a real-life environment with students and teachers are scheduled as the project progresses.

2. The involvement of Digital Humanities competence
The literary texts provided on the text portal are chosen with regards to their supraregional importance or their interest within the medieval literary canon, with the majority not yet being available in a standardized digital format. Enrichment and annotation methods common in Digital Humanities and the usage of trusted digital infrastructures serve to produce digital resources in this particular project which are later reusable in other contexts and sustainably preserved.

All textual sources used within the project are encoded conforming to the guidelines of TEI P5, annotated and documented in a way that makes an adaption to further editorial works or other projects as unproblematic as possible. The TEI representations as well as the pictorial representations and the metadata of the original sources are openly available via the FEDORA based asset management system GAMS.

References
Hockey, S. (2012). Digital Humanities in the Age of the Internet: Reaching Out to Other Communities. In Deegan, M. and McCarty, W. (eds), Collaborative Research in the Digital Humanities. Farnham: Ashgate, pp. 81-92.

Kümper, H.(2011). Mittelalter und Mittelalterunterricht im neumedialen Zeitalter. In Kümper, H. (ed.), eLearning & Mediävistik. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, pp. 7-65.

Schmidt, S. (2004). Neue Medien und alte Themen: Internet & Co als Vermittlungshilfen in der Schule, im Museum und an der Universität. In van Eickels, K., Weichselbaumer, R. and Bennewitz, I. (eds), Mediaevistik und Neue Medien. Ostfildern: Thorbecke, pp. 243-259.

TEI Consortium (2013). TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, Version 2.5.0. Virginia: Text Encoding Initiative Consortium Charlottesville.

Warwick, C. (2012). Studying Users in Digital Humanities. In Warwick, C., Terras, M. and Nyhan, J. (eds), Digital Humanities in Practice. London: Facet Publishing, pp. 1-22.","txt","2","",""
"1899","15","Developing for Distant Listening: Developing Computational Tools for Sound Analysis By Framing User Requirements within Critical Theories for Sound Studies","10","The Council on Library and Information Resources (CLIR) and the Library of Congress (LoC) issued a 2010 report that suggests that if we do not use sound archives, our cultural heritage institutions will not preserve them. Nancy Davenport, previous president of CLIR, concludes that users want unfettered access and better discovery tools for what she calls “deep listening” (what Charles Bernstein calls “close listening”) or “listening for content, in note, performance, mood, texture, and technology.”  It is a typical digital humanities problem: Without a better understanding of what such listening entails, we cannot build tools that afford such listening; and, because we lack the tools, humanists struggle to imagine how to describe the access they want -- what Jerome McGann calls “imagining what you don’t know.” In an attempt to imagine how to facilitate distant listening with computation, this paper positions user requirements for critical listening software within the context of critical listening theories.
Critical Listening Theories

Walter J. Ong once announced that recording technologies have heralded a new age in the study of the “voice, muted by script and print.” Humanists hold a range of theories and perspectives on how to study music or sound aesthetics in experimental poetry or how to contextualize sounds of the recording space (such as the whir of an old air conditioning or babies crying in the background) or the recording machine (such as the clicks and pops and pauses).
In particular, theoretical perspectives on “the voice” are useful in identifying the role sonic features that are discoverable by computation can play while close listening. Most such theories, for example, position sonic vocal traits as meaningful only within the context of a structural code for meaning such as language. Roland Barthes identifies two aspects of the voice in vocal music, for instance, that contribute to meaning making: the pheno-song, which refers to the structured elements of a piece such as speech or melody (or language codes) and the geno-song, which is the material or corporal aspect of the voice, the “volume of the singing and speaking voice, the space where significations germinate” (or sonic features). 5Privileging the pheno-song as more productive for communicating meaning, Barthes maintains that the geno-song –having “nothing to do with communication, representation (of feelings), expression”—is a system for transmitting that meaning.
Similarly, Michael Chion asserts that sonic features have meaning but that it is our lack of a descriptive system or hermeneutics that precludes our ability to make sense of these features. Chion approaches sound study by parsing listening into causal (for the source of the sound), semantic (to interpret a message), and reduced (to identify sonic traits) listening. Chion argues that reduced listening precludes meaning making for two reasons: (1) the “fixity” of sonic features required for close listening to sonic traits makes sound “physical data” that do not represent what was actually spoken or actually heard in real time “presence”; and (2) our language for describing how we make meaning with such traits is “totally inadequate.” Consequently, because of issues of fixity and inadequate identifiers, reduced listening is “an enterprise that is new, fruitful, and hardly natural.”
This argument, however, that the voice is only meaningful in the context of speech that transmits a message is a logocentric theoretical stance that has been readily contested. Adriana Cavarero who seeks to “understand speech from the perspective of the voice instead of from the perspective of language” wants to “pull speech itself from the deadly grip of logocentrism.” Caravero critiques the viewpoint of scholars such as Walter Ong and Marshall MacLuhan who at once essentialize the voice as “presence” and disembody and mythicize orality. Similarly, Mladen Dolar considers a “linguistics of non-voices” including coughing, hiccups, babbling, screaming, laughing, and singing, placing these sounds outside of the phonemic structure yet not outside of the linguistic structure. He argues that “It is not that our vocabulary is scanty and its deficiency should be remedied: faced with the voice, words structurally fail.” Finding possibilities for study in aspects of the voice such as accent, intonation, and timbre, Dolar asks the question at the heart of all of these queries: “how can we pursue this dimension of the voice?”
User Needs

User perspectives on the kinds of access and analysis advanced technologies with sound can facilitate were gathered by Clement as part of the HiPSTAS (High Performance Sound Technologies for Access and Scholarship) project. HiPSTAS is an NEH-funded, year-long Institute for Advanced Topics in the Humanities for librarians, information scientists, and humanities scholars who work with spoken word collections. Such collections include PennSound’s poetry archive, the American Folklife Center of the Library of Congress, oral histories in StoryCorps, and recordings from more than 50 tribes across Native America in the American Philosophical Society’s Native American Collection among other collections of interest to the participants. User perspectives were gathered from the 20 participants in three ways: (1) through Institute applications; (2) through pre-Institute interviews; and (3) through post-Institute surveys and project reports.
This data shows that defining the sonic features that map to specific cultural characteristics of “the voice” in spoken word recordings was not how participants phrased their research interests. One participant, for example, who was interested in working with the PennSound archive, wanted to consider “media ecologies” by analyzing “sounded affinities between poets” or “concepts of community poetics through sound;” this participant wanted “to look at groups of poets who have a common locale in terms of their community formation” and to use these clusterings to investigate how software “may or may not track affinities across gender lines.” Another participant analyzing PennSound was interested in “identifying, exploring, and categorizing performance variants of the same texts” such as “an aural/visual equivalent to the Versioning Machine)” and enabling “a kind of distant listening, flagging and visualizing generic features of poetry performance traditions (Is there, for example, a New York School style of oral delivery?” Other concerns were focused on reorienting how the archive is discoverable by enabling a “batch analysis of an audio corpus to mark the aural/perceptual relationships of poetry performance and extra-poetic ‘asides’ (which often provide significant contextualization of the poems but which may be ‘invisible’ in the Pennsound archive).”
Another participant interested in the APS recordings wanted to discover what it meant to think through “how a digital archive can recover intangible and ephemeral yet deeply powerful social experiences of sound” including “[w]hat themes of identity, gendered relations, and intercultural relations, may be heard in the Native speakers’ and singers’ expressions and performances of the recorded stories and songs in the collections;” this participant wondered, “how might we thematize and index sounds to address issues of indigenous sonic embodiment in files from which we can hear but not necessarily see the speakers and singers? What are the [sonic] differences and similarities among performers of similar source material? How do these performative differences/similarities map or not map onto other factors (race, gender, region, class, age, etc.)?” Also interested in the APS Native American collections, another participant wanted to analyze these holdings in order to classify Navajo speakers against a map of origin in order to illustrate the location of a speaker. With the ultimate goal of “develop[ing] a cultural map to show spheres of influence of those language-speaking approaches on the stories and motifs across time and in proximity to historical centers of tribal trauma,” this participant wanted to use software “to determine whether dialectical region or if proximity to historical centers of tribal trauma (e.g. boarding school experiences or Navajo Long Walk) influence that speaker’s . . . Beauty Way and Protection Way approaches to speaking the Diné language”.
Conclusion

Ultimately, can a computer be taught to distinguish between paralinguistic commentaries and formal (or informal) poetry readings or a Beauty Way speaker and a Protection Way speaker within a large collection of sound files? This paper attempts to imagine these possibilities by positioning what users want to do with sound within a critical framework of listening theories that understand “the voice” as a cultural phenomenon that reflects the resonance between linguistic and non-linguistic features of sound. This paper will primarily frame user requirements gathered as part of HiPSTAS within listening theories in the humanities. However, this paper will also briefly mention possible ways forward including a use case in which PennSound poets and scholars use TEI speech tags for tagging tempo, rhythm, loudness, pitch, tension, and voice across PennSound poetry files in order to enable machine learning with ARLO (Adaptive Recognition with Layered Optimization) software, a machine learning application for analyzing sound on Stampede, an NSF petascale HPC system at the Texas Advanced Computing Center. Finally, we need to understand what users want to do with sound and the theories behind critical listening in the humanities before we can design distant listening tools that afford sound scholarship.
References

Council on Library and Information Resources and the Library of Congress, The State of Recorded Sound Preservation in the United States: A National Legacy at Risk in the Digital Age. Washington DC: National Recording Preservation Board of the Library of Congress, 2010, 157.
Jerome McGann (2008), Radiant Textuality: Literature After the World Wide Web (New York: Palgrave).
Walter J. Ong (1967), The Presence of the Word: Some Prolegomena for Cultural and Religious History (New Haven: Yale University Press), 88.
Marjorie Perloff and Craig Douglas Dworkin (2012), The Sound of Poetry, the Poetry of Sound, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009; Adalaide Morris, ed., Sound States: Innovative Poetics and Acoustical Technologies, Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1998; Jonathan Sterne, ed., The Sound Studies Reader (New York: Routledge).
Roland Barthes (1978), Image-Music-Text. (New York: Hill and Wang), 182.
Barthes, Image, 182.
This seems related to Roland Barthes’s three distinct types of listening in his essay “Listening”: the first represents a listener on “alert” as prey or predator, as mother or child, as lover on the lookout; the second represents ""deciphering"" or ""what the ear tries to intercept are certain signs""; the third is the “intersubjective” listening of the psychoanalyst. Roland Barthes, The Responsibility of Form, trans. Richard Howard (New York: Hill and Wang, 1985), 245; Michael Chion, “Three Listening Modes,” in The Sound Studies Reader, ed. Jonathan Sterne, 48-53 (New York: Routledge, 2012), 50 - 51.
Chion, “Three Listening Modes,” 51.
Chion, “Three Listening Modes,” 50; emphasis added.
Adriana Caravero (2012) “Multiple Voices,” in The Sound Studies Reader, ed. Jonathan Sterne, 520- 532 (New York: Routledge), 530, 531.
Mladen Dolar (2012), “The Linguistics of the Voice,” in The Sound Studies Reader, ed. Jonathan Sterne, 539-554 (New York: Routledge), 552.
Dolar, “Linguistics,” 539.
Dolar, “Linguistics ,” 544.
Please see the project site at http://blogs.ischool.utexas.edu/hipstas/.
Please see the participant list and links to their project interests at http://blogs.ischool.utexas.edu/hipstas/participants/.
Project reports are publically available at https://sites.google.com/site/nehhipstas/project-pages.","txt","2","",""
"1900","15","DH on the Fringes: Using Smartphones, Instagram, and Ruby on Rails to Archive the DH Experience at an HBCU","9","Over the past few years, the literature on race in digital humanities has steadily grown. From various articles in Debates in the Digital Humanities to the development of Postcolonial Digital Humanities and MLA E-Roundtable, “Assessing Race in Digital Humanities”, many have explored the theoretical and activist potential of addressing race in DH. Simultaneously, venues and projects like THATCamp and The Praxis Program have progressively pushed DH beyond the bounds of research one institutes. However, much has yet to be said about the complexities of involving students with digital humanities at under-resourced institutions. Teaching humanities classes at Shaw University, the first historically black college in the South, has given me an excellent opportunity to do just that. 
This paper discusses how I dealt with a lack of technology and student confidence to create a modern archive of Shaw University student life, called #myshawu, by using smartphones and an open-source Ruby On Rails engine for harvesting Instagram photos. Though the assignment taught me the potential of DH as an empowering tool for my students to tell their stories in a public venue, it ultimately convinced me that the greatest hurdle to getting people of race involved in the field is not just exposure to technology, but teaching them the skills and critical thinking necessary for true digital empowerment.
The idea for the assignment began when I read the MacArthur Foundation report, “The Future of Learning Institutions in a Digital Age.”1 In the report, Cathy Davidson and David Goldberg disclose a sobering reality: “Despite government pronouncements to the contrary, ‘digital divide’ is not just an old concept but a current reality” (Davidson and Goldberg 20). The vast public acceptance of a so-called Internet Generation or Generation Y ignores the very real tech fluency differences that often exist along class and race lines. Siva Vaidhyanathan points out just how detrimental this assumption is for underprivileged students in his essay, “Generational Myth”: “to assume an entire generation is ‘born digital’ willfully ignores the vast range of skills, knowledge, and experience of many segments of society. It ignores the needs and perspectives of those young people who are not socially or financially privileged. It presumes a level playing field and equal access to time, knowledge, skills, and technologies.”2
My experience teaching at one of the country’s first HBCUs confirms the cautionary words of Davidson, Goldberg, and Vaidhyanathan. Additionally, when I came across Adeline Koh’s “Race and Digital Humanities: An Introduction” HASTAC presentation, Alan Liu’s “Where is the Cultural Criticism in Digital Humanities”, and other articles addressing the issue of DH and race, I began to wonder what digital humanities could do for my students. Could a DH project be a way to bridge this digital divide? Could a DH project be done with such limited resources?
Not only do many of my students lack technological fluency, many of them don't own computers, there are few computers labs on Shaw's campus, and the university has no technology unit that students or myself can turn to for help. My struggle with these limitations coincided with an interesting project being done at a neighboring institution. NCSU Libraries was using mobile devices to have students generate an archive of its new library in a project called my #huntlibrary. A few conversations and a partnership later, #myshawu was born.
#myshawu is a repository of student-generated images collected from Shaw’s first-year, almost exclusively first-generation students during a one-semester basic writing course into which 90% of Shaw’s incoming freshman are placed. We bridged some digital access hurdles by using largely free tools and open source software. Students were already utilizing Instagram, an app accessible to most of them through their smartphones, a familiarity which lessened the learning curve and gave students the confidence to dive into the assignment. To gather all these images, I spun up an app which uses Lentil, the Rails engine that drives My #huntlibrary, on a free hosting service, Heroku. All the students had to do was use their Instagram accounts, take photos of their lives around campus, and tag them “#myshawu”. Through these simple steps, students were able to represent themselves and share their images with other students, the university community, their communities of origin, and the public. As a companion to the photo collection, students published long-form, photo-rich narratives on a class collaborative Wordpress blog of the same title, #myshawu. These essays focused on their photos and their understanding of themselves in relation to the university and, hence, in relation to their academic identity. 

Fig. 1: A page of student-generated images from the #myshawu website.
When students submitted their Wordpress essays, they also completed a survey to indicate the level of difficulty and the level enjoyment they experienced with the assignment. Out of 91 students who completed the assignment, 14 had difficulty getting the required hardware, 10 had trouble setting up required software accounts, and 15 students had problems using this software. These numbers show the relative ease with which students were able to access the necessary technology, an ease dependent on using personal and open-source tech resources rather than non-existent institutional tech resources. Yet, many of the students struggled to complete the assignment as successfully as I’d hoped. Only about half the images that students used in their final essays on Wordpress ended up on #myshawu, and a good many of these images were copied from the Internet. However, 85% of the students who completed the assignment said it was not difficult to take pictures.
There could be various reasons for this discrepancy between confidence and successful execution, such as poor resiliency or effort, and/or inconsistent classroom attendance. Yet despite some shortcomings, the unintended, often unquantifiable successes continue to emerge. As Shaw approaches its sesquicentennial and HBCU across the South consider closing their doors, the students involved with #myshawu are going to capture oral histories, chronicling in photos, video, and audio the stories of alumni so important to Shaw's history. The project has engaged many students beyond the classroom as they visit local history museums and inquire about the possibilities of exhibiting our work. They reimagine the project with me and ahead of me, asking for opportunities to use their pictures to raise funds to for my technology resources and for more campus events. 
Another facet of this project shines a light on students’ perspective on social media and adds another layer of complexity to the argument that media studies and DH scholars have been posing about race and technology. Logan Hill, in “Beyond Access”, put it best: “Universal access isn’t just about being able to surf the Web, it’s about the ability to participate and compete in a technology-driven industry and society” (29).3 To have a wide range of students from all race and class backgrounds succeed in this media-saturated society, we can’t just give them new technologies to create content only their friends will consume. We need to show them that the technologies they use every day can be harnessed to empower their academic and professional lives.
#myshawu has also taught me the importance of digital humanities for helping my students develop a more critical perspective on technology. The full scope of what these kinds of projects teaches us about DH, HBCU students, cultural representation and empowerment is still unfolding, but it’s clear through collecting and analyzing data, student-generated reflective writing, and evaluations, that digital tools like these cause necessary shifts in students’ understanding of their own agency, particularly the role that writing, technology, and image creation can have on their power as scholars and professionals. Unfortunately, largely due to financial constraints and the many needs pulling at institutions like Shaw, HBCUs are some of the most unlikely to support faculty technology training and least likely to have the resources to support digital projects. Yet DH tools belong in the hands of those who have the most at stake as they become invaluable tools for engagement and student success. That said, certain assitance is needed from the digital humanities community for these projects and these students to reach their full potential. Partnerships with other universities, academic technologists, and more accessible and flexible technologies are just some of the support that can be extended by the greater DH community to HBCUs like Shaw, thereby creating cross-institutional collaborations that highlight the strengths of all institutions. Then #myshawu can become just one effort in a larger movement towards developing a DH pedagogy that can be inclusively practiced without relying on the financial privilege so often synonymous with DH. 
References

1. Davidson, Cathy N. and David Theo Goldberg (2009). The future of learning institutions in a digital age. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
2. Vaidhyanathan, S. (2008). Generational myth: Not all young people are tech-savvy. The Chronicle Review, 55(4), B7. Retrieved October 19, 2013 from: chronicle.com.
3. Nelson, Alondra and Thuy Linh N. Tu with Alicia Hedlam Hines (2001). Technicolor: Race Technology, and Everyday Life. New York: New York University Press.","txt","2","",""
"1901","15","Diagnosing Page Image Problems with Post-OCR Triage for eMOP","9","The Early Modern OCR Project (eMOP), currently underway at the Initiative for Digital Humanities, Media, and Culture (IDHMC) at Texas A&M University, is a Mellon Foundation-funded endeavor tasked with improving, or creating, OCR (optical character recognition) for the Eighteenth Century Collections Online (ECCO) and Early English Books Online (EEBO) collections. The basic premise of eMOP is to 1) use book history to identify the fonts represented in the collections and the printers that used them; 2) train open source OCR engines on those fonts; and 3) OCR documents using an engine trained on the font specific to each documents. In addition, as a Mellon Fountation-funded project eMOP is tasked with using open-source solutions and producing open-source tools, workflows, and processes that are reproducible and which can be implemented by other scholars in their own digitization projects. One of eMOP’s end products will be an open-source workflow of our entire process using Taverna.
As eMOP enters its second year, intensive work on developing and testing training for the Tesseract OCR engine has demonstrated a failing in the three-fold basic premise. Many of the page images which we are trying to OCR are of such poor quality that no amount of training will produce OCR results that meet the standards we have set for the grant outcome.1 These images are already binarized, low-quality, low-resolution, digitized images of microfilm, converted from photographs—4 decades and 3 media generations removed from the originals.Typical problems include noisiness, bleedthrough, skewing, and warping, but there are many more. There already exist many algorithms that can fix most of the problems extant in our collection of page images.23 Applied during a pre-processing stage, these algorithms have the potential to improve page image quality to the point that they can yield excellent OCR results. But with approximately 45 million pages in eMOP’s data set, determining which pages need which kind of pre-processing proved problematic at best. 

Fig. 1: A sample of part of a page image from the eMOP collection showing skew, noise, bleedthrough, over-inking, and an image.
To this end, the eMOP management team, along with our collaborators, Loretta Auvil and Boris Capitanu at SEASR (Software Environment for the Advancement of Scholarly Research, at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign), and Dr. Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna and graduate student Anshul Gupta of Texas A&M University, decided to focus our proposed post-processing triage workflow on the problems that exist in our page image inputs. Originally stated, our triage process would examine OCR results and decide whether the documents would be routed to different tools being built for eMOP to perform automatic word correction, crowd-sourced line segmentation correction, by-hand font identification, or automated re-OCRing with different font training. However, the presence of so many low quality page images in our input required a more robust system for handling the output. What we needed was a triage process that would allow us to programmatically diagnose our input documents based on the output of our OCR system.
The open-source Tesseract OCR engine is capable of producing both plain text files and files in an XML-like format called hOCR. hOCR files contain wrappers around each found word, line, paragraph, and region, and these wrappers contain bounding box coordinates for each entity (Fig. 2). A close examination of the text and hOCR results for nearly 600 poor quality page images revealed certain patterns, or ‘cues’, which could be used, singly or in combination, to uniquely predict individual problems that exist in the original page images.

Fig. 2: Bounding boxes for lines (red) and words (blue) drawn on a page images based on hOCR output.
For example, documents printed in a blackletter or gothic font, but OCR’d with Tesseract trained for a roman font produce a text file with a character frequency distribution different from that expected of English language documents. Basically, if Tesseract is trained with a roman font, characters printed in a blackletter font look predominantly like m, n, u, and l. Similarly, documents containing a lot of noise (e.g. numerous spots and blotches on the page) typically produce “words” found in areas of the page outside of the main text area, have word bounding boxes of widely varying heights, and have line bounding boxes that overlap. Page images that exhibit heavy skewing (the text lines are tilted at an angle from the horizontal) also pose problems for Tesseract, as it will often begin reading one line and then at some point jump to the line above or below (depending on the direction of the skew) to finish reading the ""line."" In these cases the hOCR again contains overlapping line bounding boxes, but also has word bounding boxes that don’t have contiguous coordinates, i.e. it is finding words out of the reading order as they appear on the page to a human reader. These are just a few examples that demonstrate the problems we’ve encountered and the cues we’ve discovered to identify them, which we will identify in this paper.
Cues like these and others have provided us with the mechanism we were looking for to identify page image problems based on OCR output. In order to take full advantage of this information however, we are also developing a full post-processing workflow. Beginning with OCR results, the output of this workflow will be either 95%, or better, corrected text or a per-page indicator describing what kind of pre-processing should be performed before each page is re-OCR’d.
We are also working with our collaborators on developing a mechanism to assess the quality of our OCR output. We have combined different analysis techniques developed by collaborators at SEASR and Texas A&M University, to examine text data (examining character unigram frequency distributions and word lengths), page data, (determining the main text area of the page and looking for outliers), and hOCR bounding boxes (calculating box heights and widths). Applying these mechanisms to the results of each page will yield a score that constitutes a prediction of how the document would compare to a ground-truth transcription. Test results show a strong correlation between these predicted scores and actual scores produced on documents that do have ground-truth available.
Page results receiving a high enough score can then be sent for further text analysis, including dictionary look-ups, to correct as much of the OCR output as possible. Those pages that receive scores below the threshold undergo an iterative process of looking for different cues in order to identify the likely reason the OCR process failed for each page.

Fig. 3: Proposed eMOP post-processing workflow.
Much work has already been done with regard to OCR post-processing, but it has concentrated on questions of identifying and correcting bad OCR.45 In this paper we will report on the development of an OCR post-processing workflow that can evaluate and identify a broad range of defects common to page images of early modern printed documents. The result of this workflow can then be funneled into a pre-processing and re-OCR’ing process later. We plan, by grant-end, to release an open-source workflow and code that can be used by other groups or individuals engaging in large-scale OCR projects. Given the inherent problems that these documents pose for OCR engines, we view this kind of analysis as a vital step forward in the comprehensive understanding and digitization of large collections of early modern printed documents.
References

1. Singh, Chandan, Nitin Bhatia, and Amandeep Kaur. Hough Transform Based Fast Skew Detection and Accurate Skew Correction Methods. Pattern Recognition 41.12 (2008): 3528–3546. CrossRef. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
2. Subramaniam, L. Venkata et al. A Survey of Types of Text Noise and Techniques to Handle Noisy Text. ACM Press, 2009. 115. doi:10.1016/j.patcog.2008.06.002. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
3. Taghva, Kazem, Thomas Nartker, and Julie Borsack. Information Access in the Presence of OCR Errors. ACM Press, 2004. 1–8. doi:10.1145/1031442.1031443. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
4. Wudtke, Richard, Christoph Ringlstetter, and Klaus U. Schulz. Recognizing Garbage in OCR Output on Historical Documents. ACM Press, 2011. 1. doi:10.1145/2034617.2034626. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.
5. Borovikov, Eugene, Ilya Zavorin, and Mark Turner. A Filter Based post-OCR Accuracy Boost System. ACM Press, 2004. 23–28. doi:10.1145/1031442.1031446. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.","txt","2","",""
"1902","15","DigCurV: curriculum framework for digital curation in the cultural heritage sector","10","1. Introduction

The Digital Curator Vocational Education (‘DigCurV’) project was funded by the European Commission’s Leonardo da Vinci lifelong learning programme1.  It aimed to establish a curriculum framework for vocational training in digital curation.
DigCurV brought together a network of partners2 to address the availability of vocational training for digital curators in the library, archive, museum and cultural heritage sectors, with a particular focus on the training needed to develop new skills that are essential for the long-term management of digital collections.
1.1. Overview

In 2013, the DigCurV collaborative network completed development of  this Curriculum Framework for digital curation skills in the European cultural heritage sector.
Drawing on a variety of established skills and competence models in the digital curation and cultural heritage sectors, DigCurV synthesised such expertise with input from those in the digital curation professions to develop a new Curriculum Framework. As a result, the Framework can help develop digital curation training offerings, provide a benchmark against which to map and compare existing offerings, and motivate training providers to continue to develop and refresh training. As the range of digital humanities stretches across disciplines, such frameworks and lenses are essential for understanding the skills and competences of individuals and for describing roles.
Our paper will describe the salient points of this work, including how the project team conducted the research necessary to develop the Framework, the structure of the Framework, the processes used to validate the Framework, and three ‘lenses’ onto the Framework.
Our paper will also provide suggestions as to how the Framework might be used, including a description of potential audiences and purposes.  As such, this paper draws on various DigCurV project deliverables. The contributions of members of the network to these deliverables is gratefully acknowledged.
1.2. Background

A critical and often sidelined issue within digital humanities, and the cultural heritage sector more widely, is the ability of those undertaking research in the arts and humanities to care for their data and other digital material over time.  Digital humanities research creates rich digital resources 3 but also the challenges of sustaining and managing these objects. Other professionals in the cultural heritage sector also have the responsibility of stewardship of digital material over time.  But are those now professionally obliged to perform digital curation receiving the training they need? And what exactly constitutes those training needs?
Another pedagogical dilemma in digital curation is whether all staff in the digital humanities and cultural heritage sector should become more proficient in the curation of digital assets, or whether specific training should be developed to enable a distinct strain of specialists to emerge. As digital humanities scholars should we be skilled to care for as well as to create? The Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto argued at the turn of the twentieth century that a society grown wealthy enough would cease to foster general knowledge in individuals and increasingly encourage individual ability in tightly specified and increasingly complex skills. Each worker would become increasingly proficient at one element of the work of a larger project or process. We are currently at a similar point of decision with digital curation training.  It is in the context of these debates that DigCurV operated.
1.2 Demand from Cultural Heritage Sector

The EC has encouraged the growth of digital information professions with the 2005 launch of its i2010 strategy and a subsequent Digital Agenda initiative, launched in 2010.4.
This investment is justified by the importance of the cultural heritage sector in the European economy. Specifically, in addition to the thousands of universities, libraries and archives across Europe, there are also more than 19,000 museums and art galleries, which employ around 100,000 staff 5.  Traditionally, museums and gallery staff have been trained in physical object care by well-established professional and vocational training courses, but as digital technologies infiltrate every aspect of society, digital objects are increasingly making their way into the collections held by memory institutions.
In 2004, the Digital Preservation Coalition and JISC established the need for digital preservation skills training in multiple sectors in the UK JISC and DPC Training Needs Analysis 6, and DigitalPreservationEurope research has also echoed the need for these skills to be regularly refreshed by professionals as digital curation practice develops and evolves 7.  In 2009, the New York Times recognised the growing demand for digital archivist skills in the USA 8.   In 2010, Gartner Research identified four new roles needed by IT departments to remain effective 9 – one of these was ‘digital archivist’, and it was estimated that fifteen percent of businesses would employ in this role by 2012. And yet, at the 2011 JISC ICE Forum in the UK 10, fewer than half a dozen UK institutions were listed as providing digital curation training as part of their profession library and archive courses. The Digital Preservation Coalition is running again in December 2013 its popular course on ‘Getting started in digital preservation 11’ and indication of the need and requirement from the sector for basic, easy access training.
The existence of such courses evidences that it is not enough to trust new recruitment into the cultural heritage sector to face the challenges of digital curation.  Research conducted by DigCurV confirms that at least in the experience of our respondents, investment is not always channelled towards creating new staff to take on the emerging digital curation duties increasingly required by heritage institutions. There is a need for existing staff to adapt to the emerging digital cultural sector.
2. Methodology

Our paper will describe the research activities of two European wide surveys, focus groups and skills analysis that developed an evaluation framework which was a basis for the curriculum framework. We will focus on the final version of this framework and discuss the research findings that underpin the three lenses, including concept map and model.
The DigCurV Curriculum Framework was developed to compare, describe, and inform the development of training offerings. Useable directly by the individual learner, it can also assist with direction-setting for CPD. The Framework draws on knowledge, expertise and research developed within DigCurV and related initiatives in order to synthesise a matrix of core digital curation skills and competences and, where appropriate, pathways of skills progression between one type of professional role and another.
The DigCurV Curriculum Framework was iteratively developed through extensive testing and evaluation: in the first place, through a series of workshops organised in several locations across Europe; then through a panel of experts in vocational training at a multi-stakeholder workshop, supplemented by targeted interviews and small focus groups with individual professionals.  The content of the Framework has been elicited from the professions it describes in accord with its ambition to be genuinely useful to professional practice. In this way, the Framework in its current form provides a robust description of the digital curation professions at the time of publication.
To this end, the Framework comprises three interrelated parts:
a core Curriculum Framework model, which provides in a cogent, relevant and approachable manner the constituents and interactions of different layers involved in digital curation training;
three ‘lenses’, or views, one each for three broad types of professional role: Practitioner; Manager and Executive;
a technical specification which outlines the groundwork for the Framework, defines the Framework’s terminology and identifies the interactions between the Framework and lenses 12.
In the DigCurV context, the cultural heritage sector is understood to comprise museums, libraries, galleries, archives plus relevant departments of HEIs – critical collaborators in digital humanities.  The types of training relevant to the project were vocational training for those aiming to enter the profession (including Master’s-level qualification) or those already in post (such as in-house skills training, CPD).
The Curriculum Framework has the capacity to be useful to various audiences, including those working in digital humanities and cultural heritage professions who would like to increase their expertise in digital curation.
Current Use Cases

Various institutions in the higher education sector have found the Framework useful to date. Amongst them, University of London Computer Centre (ULCC), providers of the vocational Digital Preservation Training Programme (DPTP) mapped their curriculum to the Framework, helping to review and reflect on programme content and delivery style. The Department of Information Studies at University College London found the Framework helpful as a tool for skills auditing with those Master’s students who had undertaken an option in Digital Curation. The Framework has also been useful to the University of Aberystwyth in devising its MSc Digital Curation programme. The Professor of Library Science at Purdue University Libraries reported that the Framework has been helpful in understanding the impact of various aspects of the curriculum and the importance of understanding the needs of various professional audiences13. This case work in HEIs, rich in digital humanities activities, embeds the DigCurV framework firmly within the DH context.
References

1. ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-programme/ldv_en.htm
2. www.digcur-education.org/eng/About/Founding-Partners
3. Glasgow Digital Humanities Network: www.digital-humanities.glasgow.ac.uk/about
4. European Commission’s Europe’s Information Society webpage available at: ec.europa.eu/information_society/eeurope/i2010/index_en.htm.
5. European Group on Museum Statistics estimate. Data is available at www.egmus.eu/index.php?id=88&no_cache=1.
6. JISC and DPC Training Needs Analysis: www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/programmes/preservation/trainingneedsfinalreport.pdf.
7. Harvey, R. (2007). Professional Development in Digital Preservation: a life-long requirement, DPE briefing paper
8. De Aenlle, C.Digital Archivists: Now in Demand, New York Times, 7th February 2009. Available at www.nytimes.com/2009/02/08/jobs/08starts.html.
9. Gartner Identifies Four Information Management Roles IT Departments Need to Remain Effective, press release available at www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=1282513
10. www.jisc.ac.uk/whatwedo/programmes/preservation/iceforum
11. European Commission’s Europe’s Information Society webpage available at: ec.europa.eu/information_society/eeurope/i2010/index_en.htm.
12. Molloy, Gow et al (2013) www.digcur-education.org/eng/Resources/D4.1-Initial-curriculum-for-digital-curators
13. The three latter reactions are available in full in Molloy et al. (2013). Towards an initial curriculum for digital curators. DigCurV project deliverable D4.1, available at www.digcur-education.org/eng/content/download/10836/166027/file/D4-1_Curriculum.pdf","txt","2","",""
"1903","15","Digital Activism: Canon Expansion and Textual Recovery in the Undergraduate Classroom","10","In Earhart’s recent essay “Can Information Be Unfettered? Race and the New Digital Humanities Canon,” 1 Earhart critiques the digital “canon that skews toward traditional texts and excludes crucial work by women, people of colors, and the GLBTQ community” (316), advocating an activist model of grassroots recovery projects to expand current digital offerings.  In response to such concerns, Earhart and Taylor are currently testing a digital recovery project entitled White Violence and Black Resistance in Texas. This year’s conference theme is Digital Cultural Empowerment, a theme directly related to our testbed project which emphasizes the expansion of cultural capital and digital literary skills through our model pedagogical project.  We view our project as connected to interventions into current structures of production through the digitization and dissemination of materials about white violence and black resistance found buried in difficult to access rare book rooms, crumbling newspapers, analog and/or transcribed oral histories, and unknown journals. Working with primary materials of the reconstruction period, the project seeks to illuminate a time of great cultural conflict within Texas. Newspapers, Freedmen's Bureau records, marriage records, census records, legal records and oral histories illuminate the response to and resistance of emancipated African-Americans from 1867 through the turn of the century. Other projects, such as Black Gotham, have made such archives open to the public, but no project to date has been modeled on the type of student research learning model we are utilizing. Our ongoing project presents an activist model grounded in the classroom where undergraduate students are participants in canon expansion while learning valuable research and digital literary skills, a model that we believe other digital humanists interested in canon expansion and digital pedagogies might replicate. 
Our project is developed to answer two challenges in current digital humanities practice.  First, we view our project as a way to leverage expertise and resources across historical areas of divide. Criticism of current institutional digital humanities practice has targeted the divide between institutional haves and have nots, often portrayed in tensions between well funded research institutions versus small teaching institutions. Our testbed of Texas A&M University and Prairie View A&M University2 provides an important site of intervention.  Founded in 1876, the two universities were divided by race, during segregation, and finance. Though the state constitution in Texas states that both are “universities of the first class” they have not seen funding and resources that make this true. Rather, the campuses have continued to be marked by the separations of race and resources which creates a space where Texas A&M is constructed as a predominantly white research university and Prairie View a historically black teaching university. We reject the differentiations and view projects like our current work as a way of disrupting such binaries, using carefully constructed technological projects to spread digital cultural empowerment through both universities and student bodies. Here we agree with the FemTechNet whitepaper, which states that “We seek to activate a learning process that recognizes and extends across global and cultural contexts. While the use of the world-wide-web and internet infrastructures enables communication among people at great geographic distances, it also strains the capacity for respect and the appreciation of the nuances of diverse backgrounds which increases the intensity of the work that must be done by teachers and organizers of the learning process.”3  In our paper we will discuss how the structure of the project is shaped by such concerns. Second, our project focuses on the recovery of cultural objects that have not been included in digital collections.  Recent work, particularly self defined postcolonial digital humanities projects, has pointed to the lack of attention that digital humanities pays to historical and literary production by marginalized peoples.  Our efforts are focused on the newspapers, photographs, historical accounts and other archival artifacts that discuss the racial violence, tensions and other aggressions (micro and macro) in our localized Texas environment.  By digitizing a related collection of materials we will diversify the digital canon related to conceptions of Texas and the universities. Through our digitization project students will be theoretically and methodologically immersed in practices of research and archival decision making critical to a broader more diverse digital canon.  
This project marks an expansion of previously developed techniques. Our work grows out of individual recovery projects that have been tested by both Taylor and Earhart. Taylor has worked with her undergraduate students to collect the oral histories of women who have had a thirty year or longer relationship to Prairie View A&M University as faculty, staff and/or alum/student in the development of the Prairie View Women Oral History Project. Earhart has worked with her undergraduate and graduate students to recover the Alex Haley Malcolm X papers (Scholarly Editing 2014) and selected Black Radicals Papers which include materials from the Black Panther movement, Angela Davis’ prison stay, and various racial reform protests in the 1960s.  
We have selected a well-known technology tool as a technological interface for collaboration.  Not only is Omeka an excellent entry technology because of its low cost, simple interface, and large developer and user community, but we argue that Omeka is useful as teaching tool due to the emphasis on Dublin Core metadata which forces students to engage with the ways that a controlled vocabulary has been culturally shaped and where such vocabulary is at odds with specific cultural norms engaged in the black resistance documents.
Each class is working with collections held at their respective libraries to find the artifacts for the project then collaborate to curate a cohesive digital space which tells the story of White Violence and Black Resistance in Texas. Using Omeka as our bridge, Earhart and Taylor have modeled student research across the two universities, emphasizing individual archival collection and collaborative moments of interaction between the classes.  This paper will discuss the challenges with working across disparate universities where tradition and necessity have created the space for PVAMU to thrive, its one hundred and thirty plus year history itself a statement of resistance. This project expands the canon to understand the intersectional ways in which both universities actively and passively engage in moments of violence and resistance.  Each class has focused on a particular historical event that occurred in the local area.  Earhart’s class is investigating what we believe to be the largest “race riot” in Texas.  The reconstruction era conflict occurred in Millican, Texas, a town located 15 miles from the Texas A&M University campus. During the first KKK rally in Millican, in 1868, armed freedmen fired on the rally, driving the Klan out of town. After the rally, George Brooks, a local preacher, began a black militia. Several confrontations occurred including a march on Bryan by a large group of armed blacks, which ended in an armed conflict and lynching of Brooks and from 5 to 100 African-American men, women and children. Reports of the conflict were recorded in newspapers around the world.  In addition, the Freedmen's Bureau has records from those sent to investigate the incident. This sketchy information promises to prove fertile for investigation of what is a pivotal event in Texas and African-American history. Taylor will be investigating the ways in which this and other events serve as part of the cultural narrative historical legacy of students, faculty and staff of Prairie View’s earliest members. Students are working with university and community archives, historical newspapers, local church archives, interviews, local Blues lyrics and local literary narratives.  During the class, the students locate materials, digitize, transcribe, conduct historical research on the document and related people and places, and enter the materials and metadata into Omeka.  We will share materials developed for our classrooms that guide students through Omeka.  Of particular interest will be the materials that we have created to explain and facilitate the use of Dublin Core metadata.  In addition, we will highlight ways that we have focused interactivity between the separate institutions and continuing challenges of such work. Our pedagogical approach not only helps students to understand archive to digitization projects, but emphasizes critical engagement in technological decisions.
We will highlight what our project has taught us about developing a more comprehensive, inclusive and effective digital pedagogy and discuss future steps in our collaborative project. Once a substantial set of materials are collected, future classes will construct timelines and maps of the occurrences. By treating the materials as data, using a controlled set of metadata and search techniques, we will be recovering important information that might interact with broader data sets of materials nationally and internationally, ensuring that these important events are not erased from history. Alan Liu has challenged digital humanists “To be an equal partner–-rather than, again, just a servant-–at the table,” by  finding “ways to show that thinking critically about metadata, for instance, scales into thinking critically about the power, finance, and other governance protocols of the world.”4 Our project provides a replicable model that we believe will empower other teachers and students to engage with digital humanities.
References

1. Earhart, A. (2012). Can Information be Unfettered? Race and the New Digital Humanities Canon. In Gold, M. K. (ed), Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 309-318.
2. FemTechNet.
3. FemTechNet. (2013). FemTechNetWhitepaper. femtechnet.newschool.edu/femtechnet-whitepaper
4. Liu, A. (2012). Where Is Cultural Criticism in the Digital Humanities? In Gold, M. (ed), Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 490-509.","txt","2","",""
"1904","15","Digital Actors' Parts: An Interactive Tool for Learning Shakespeare's Plays","2","In the early modern period, rather than having access to a full-text play, actors learned their lines using “Actors’ parts,” hastily handwritten documents that provided them with only their cues and lines. Traditionally, today’s actors learn their lines from full-text plays, without any computer assistance. Digital Actors’ Parts (DAP) is an online environment that both mimics and enhances the early modern acting experience in order to facilitate actors learning their lines. DAP is the first project to give users an interactive experience with an early-modern-inspired “actor’s part,” which encourages both active reading and memorization, in turn leading to a better understanding of the texts themselves.

In Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word, Walter Ong theorized that we were in a “second orality” based on the “use of writing and print” and considered how memorization worked in oral and written circumstances;Digital Actor’s Parts allows us to consider memory as it relates to online technologies. In Shakespeare studies, the function of memory has been an important area of study for years, as scholars debate whether certain texts are “memorially reconstructed,” that is, printed from actors’ memories rather than a playwright’s written text. Our tool argues for the importance of understanding memorization when it comes to cognition and the comprehension of literary and theatrical works. DAP will not only provide expert scholars with a platform for reconsidering memory specifically as it relates to Shakespeare, it will also offer a tool that will be of use for beginners and professionals both in the classroom and the theatre.

As the most prominent figure in English theatre, Shakespeare’s plays have been encoded multiple times; digital Shakespeare projects abound. Unlike most single-source projects, Digital Actors’ Parts brings together open-access data from multiple sources, including the encoded texts from the MLA Committee on the New Variorum Edition of Shakespeare, the Folger Shakespeare Library’s Digital Texts, the Internet Shakespeare Editions, and Open Source Shakespeare. Our project is designed to incorporate new data from these sources, because, forinstance, the MLA and Folger Digital Texts are still encoding Shakespeare’s works and have not yet released their complete data-set. These online Shakespearean texts are as diverse as the original printed editions. By building on existing Shakespearean projects, DAP is not limited to a single copy-text, so an actor or director could choose either the folio or quarto version of, for instance, King Lear.

Digital Actors’ Parts helps students, researchers, and theatre practitioners learn lines by allowing them to select a Shakespearean play, edition, and character from a pre-populated dropdown menu. The users are then presented with their first cue and the ability to type in their line(s). Users will also be able to ask for prompts: their first word, first line, or entire speech. By entering the text of their speeches and checking what they have typed, users receive a score depending on their accuracy. This feature makes Shakespeare’s text interactive in a way beyond most digital editions. The accuracy score allows for the potential gamification of becoming a Shakespearean actor, which will especially promote student learning. In the classroom, DAP encourages students and teachers to memorize and perform Shakespeare’s language, that is, to engage with it beyond simply reading. This online tool makes it easy to transition from, as the saying goes, the page to the stage.

Although Shakespeare’s plays continue to be popular both online and in the theatre, most digital tools for the study of Shakespeare are aimed at literary scholars, teachers, and K-12 students. The intended audience of Digital Actors’ Parts also includes theatre professionals (actors, directors, dramaturgs): indeed, this is not simply a digital humanities project, but also a digital fine arts endeavor.

Digital Actor’s Parts is currently a work in progress. The prototype for DAP runs on an instance of the Web.py framework. Web.py is a Python web framework that is both simple and powerful. We chose to use this framework because it allows rapid prototyping allowing us to concentrate on the specific features that we need to implement. On the other hand, the plays that we are utilizing are encoded and distributed in different formats. For example: The plays from Folger Digital Texts are encoded in TEI-compliant XML, MLA’s are encoded only in XML, and the materials from Open Source Shakespeare are bundled in a Microsoft Access database. Therefore, before being displayed through the interface, the plays must be harvested from their original institutional repositories, parsed, transformed using XSL Transformations and stored into a database. The accuracy scores and metadata for the individual user records are maintained and stored in a using a separate table structure. Figure 1 shows a prototype of the user interface.


Fig. 1: Prototype of the user interface for Digital Actors’ Parts.

Unlike other online memorization tools such as Memorizer and Memorize Now, this project does not require users to first input the text they memorize—which could be a particularly fraught process for texts as complicated as Shakespeare.Digital Actors’ Parts, furthermore, is ideal to help users memorizing all of a character’s lines (and not just a single speech) as it delivers the appropriate cues, unlike existing tools. The automatically-generated accuracy score, another feature other programs lack, can add elements of fun and competition as users strive for mastery of Shakespeare’s text.

In its first iteration, Digital Actors’ Parts relies on a modern web browser to deliver its content and experience. For future releases, we hope to implement an application for mobile devices. This app will allow users to expand the possibilities of interaction by taking DAP to the rehearsal space, theater, or experimenting with entirely new locations. Having this tool in hand will encourage earlier inclusion of blocking and business in the rehearsal process and will also be useful for active classroom learning.

In 2014, Shakespeare 450 will mark the anniversary of Shakespeare’s birth with performances, workshops, and lectures. We envision Digital Actors’ Parts participating in this global celebration by making it easier for performance troupes from amateur to professional to take part in staging Shakespeare’s plays around the world. In “To the Memory of my Beloved the Author, Mr. William Shakespeare,” Ben Jonson famously declared that Shakespeare was “not of an age, but for all time”:DAP is part of the larger movement bringing Shakespeare into the twenty-first century with new digital resources and tool. DAP will help us understand how we engage with Shakespeare’s works in the most fundamental ways and will allow us to theorize memory as it relates not simply to orality or written texts, but also to innovative, interactive, digital tools.

Ultimately, Digital Actors’ Parts capitalizes on the proliferation of open-source Shakespeare texts, offering one answer to the question of “where do we go from here?” with digital projects. This project goes beyond aggregation by suggesting one way these texts can be fruitfully combined. While offering a valuable rehearsal tool in itself, DAP also encourages further research on Shakespeare’s works, the digital practice of combining multiple corpora, and interactive online learning methods.

References
Simon Palfrey and Tiffany Stern, Shakespeare in Parts, Oxford: OUP, 2007.

Walter J. Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word, London & New York: Methuen, 1982, 136. See also esp. 57-68.

On “memorial reconstruction” and the function of memory in Shakespearean texts, see Laurie Maguire, Shakespeare’s Suspect Texts: The ‘Bad’ Quartos and their Contexts, Cambridge: CUP, 1996 and Paul Werstine’s work, especially “A Century of ‘Bad’ Shakespeare Quartos” Shakespeare Quarterly 50 (1999): 310-33.

MLA New Variorium Shakespeare encoding: https://github.com/mlaa/nvs-challenge Folger Digital Texts: www.folgerdigitaltexts.org The Internet Shakespeare Editions: ise.uvic.ca Open-Source Shakespeare: www.opensourceshakespeare.org

Web.py: webpy.org

Memorizer: www.memorizer.me Memorize Now: www.memorizenow.com

Shakespeare 450: www.shakespeareanniversary.org

Ben Jonson, “To the Memory of my Beloved, the Author, Mr. William Shakespeare,” in Shakespeare’s first folio (1623). Facsimile: internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/Library/facsimile/book/SLNSW_F1/9","txt","2","",""
"1905","15","Digital approaches to understanding the geographies in literary and historical texts","10","This paper reports on recent research that explores how geographical information systems (GIS) and related technologies can be used to understand texts, drawing on both literary and historical examples. In Graphs, Maps, Trees, F. Moretti identifies mapping as one tool that facilitates distant reading. Other researchers have subsequently demonstrated that GIS can be used to implement this.The research presented here illustrates that the potential for GIS and related technologies in the humanities goes beyond both mapping and distant reading. Specifically, we identify three general ways that geographical technologies can enrich our understanding of texts: first, distant reading using Geographical Text Analysis (GTA), a combination of techniques from GIS-based spatial analysis and from corpus linguistics; second, enhanced close reading based on using place names or maps as query tools; and third, geographical analyses of the texts using techniques such as network analysis and route reconstruction. The aim of these three approaches is to go beyond simply producing visualisations, and instead to allow us to improve our understanding of the text with an emphasis on its geographies.

Fig. 1: Cholera in the Registrar General’s reports showing (a) locations of cholera instances and (b) instances of terms associated with the water supply.

Fig. 2: Time series of cholera instances from the Registrar General’s reports. The 1868 spike in instances was not matched by a corresponding rise in deaths.
Distant reading through GTA effectively allows us to ask two basic questions:  what places is the corpus talking about? and  what places does the corpus relate to a particular theme? This involves more than simple mapping. First, place-names have to be identified using automated techniques. Once this has been done spatial analysis and corpus linguistics techniques allow the geographies within the text to be investigated either in an exploratory way that asks ‘where is the corpus talking about?’ and ‘what is it saying about these places?’, or in a more thematic way that asks ‘where the corpus is talking about in relation to my theme?’ and ‘what else is being said about these places?’. As all of the place-names are georeferenced, we are also able to integrate them with other sources that are also georeferenced. To illustrate the potential of this we use the Registrar General’s Reports, which document mortality and disease in England and Wales from 1851 to 1911. Using GTA to explore the Registrar General’s reporting of cholera showed a number of interesting things: first, that he was particularly interested in cholera in London (figure 1a); second, that the discourse on cholera in London was strongly associated with potential causes, particularly the water supply (figure 1b), whereas in other parts of the country he tended simply to acknowledge that cholera was occurring, increasing or declining; third, that the emphasis on London could not be justified either by the numbers of deaths from cholera in London or London’s death rate from the disease; and fourth, that whereas early spikes in instances of cholera in the Reports correspond with known cholera epidemics, the last large spike in 1868 (figure 2), was largely associated with the fear of an epidemic spreading to Britain. Given that there were relatively few cholera-related deaths reported in 1868, we have concluded that the improved understanding of the disease had led to improved measures to prevent it.
These types of distant reading techniques can also be applied to literary texts. Using a corpus of writing about the English Lake District we can show that whereas William Wordsworth was associated with a few central parts of the region in the Romantic period, Victorian readers associated him with sites throughout the Lakes. Using digital images from Flickr, furthermore, we can show that this trend has been reversed in the 20th century.
These top-down, automated techniques are valuable because they allow us to understand large corpora quickly, but they do so at the expense of losing much of the subtly and nuance that close reading can offer. It is frequently argued that one of the key advantages of digital texts is that they can be read in a non-linear manner. A weakness of this is that it is not always clear how to structure non-linear reading. Place offers one way in. The decline in mortality, particularly among infants (aged under one), started in the nineteenth century but is poorly understood. Much of the research that has been done focusses on the problems and solutions of large urban centres such as London. This is despite the fact that quantitative evidence shows that some rural areas started to decline far earlier than urban centres and at much faster rates. Despite this, there could be major variations between nearby rural areas with apparently similar quantitative characteristics. To explore this further, three neighbouring districts in rural Suffolk - Sudbury, Samford and Risbridge - were analysed. Sudbury and Samford both had relatively high infant mortality rates in the 1850s, the earliest decade for which data are available, but showed rapid improvements thereafter. Risbridge, by contrast, started with low rates, but only showed slight improvements through the rest of the century. In order to explain these variations we first had to identify all place-names within these districts. This was done using a GIS of the boundaries and a gazetteer. These were then used to query the British Library’s Nineteenth Century Newspaper corpus, which contains text from over two million newspaper pages. Additional search terms thought to be relevant to infant mortality decline were used to narrow the searches and this list was refined as the research progressed. Based on the articles found through these queries, we have concluded that the system of local government in Risbridge was far less effective than the systems in the other two districts. Despite many calls to improve drainage, housing and a range of other features that have well established links to infant deaths, little action was taken by Risbridge’s authorities. This can clearly be contrasted to the situation in the other two districts, where the local authorities took extensive action. Although this is not a definite causal link, it does provide strong evidence that local government played an important role in reducing rural mortality rates, something that has previously only been identified at the national level or for major urban centres.
Again, similar techniques can be used in literature. We demonstrate this using map-based queries rather than place-names. A system was created that uses a Google Map to show every place mentioned in our corpus of Lake District writing as a point. Each point was linked to web-pages that include the full text. Clicking on a point on the map, presents the reader with a keyword-in-context list (or place-name-in-context) list of all of references to that place and hyperlinks can then be used to follow from these to the appropriate location in the full text. This allows the reader to query not only what is being said about a particular place, but also about nearby places.

Fig. 3: Network analysis of Norman Nicholson’s work. The diagram on the right shows the number of letters sent by Nicholson with thicker lines indicating more letters. The map on the right shows where recipients living in Britain lived.

Fig. 4: Cost surface analysis showing the combined estimated routes of Arthur Young (1770), Thomas Gray (1775) and Thomas Pennant (1771 and 1776). Reds and yellows indicate frequented routes.
Finally, geographical technologies can also be used to enhance texts in a number of ways. One way, shown in figure 3, is network analysis which can be used to explore, for example, networks of correspondence. We have used this to explore the correspondence networks of Lake District writers such as Norman Nicholson where a combination of diagrams to show who he was corresponding with and in what volumes, and maps to show where they lived was used. A different approach allows us to move beyond seeing places within texts as isolated points and instead to explore them as parts of journeys. This was done using a number of accounts of journeys through the Lake District. First, the texts were close-read to identify the order in which place-names mentioned were visited. These were mapped as points which were then used as the input into technique called cost-surface analysis which estimates the most likely route between points. This has been shown to be particularly effective in upland areas such as the Lake District (figure 4). This allows us to estimate and map the routes the writers are likely to have taken, and to explore the geographies of silence concerning the places which writers are likely to have visited but have not mentioned.
In conclusion, the use of geographical technologies in understanding texts is potentially multi-faceted and goes far beyond producing maps. It is instead a useful tool for understanding and enhancing texts to produce the abstract summaries required for distant reading, to select parts of the text that require close reading, and to allow new forms of analyse to help understand the geographies within texts.
Acknowledgements

The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) / ERC grant “Spatial Humanities: Texts, GIS, places” (agreement number 283850). We are also grateful to Sarah Hastings for her work on Suffolk while on an internship from Mt Holyoke College hosted in the Department of History, Lancaster University. 
References

F. Moretti, Graphs, Maps, Trees(London, 2005)
I.N. Gregory and A. Hardie A. “Visual GISting: Bringing together corpus linguistics and Geographical Information Systems”Literary and Linguistic Computing, 26 (2011), 297-314
C. Grover, R. Tobin, K. Byrne, M. Woollard, J. Reid, S. Dunn, and J. Ball“Use of the Edinburgh Geoparser for georeferencing digitized historical collections”Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, 368 (2008), 3875-3889.
These are taken from the Histpop collection, see http://www.histpop.org.
D.J. Cohen and R. Rosenzweig, Digital History (Philadelphia, 2006)
I.N. Gregory“Different places, different stories: Infant mortality decline in England & Wales, 1851-1911”Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 98 (2008), 773-794.
http://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelprestype/news/newspdigproj/database/
S. Szreter “The importance of social intervention in Britain’s mortality decline c. 1850-1914: a re-interpretation of the role of public health”Social History of Medicine, 1 (1988), 1-37","txt","2","",""
"1906","15","Digital Cultural Heritage and the Healing of a Nation: Digital Sudan","10","1. Introduction

Sudan is one of the most diverse and culturally rich countries in the world. It is ethnically diverse: the Sudanese are divided among 19 major ethnic groups and about 597 subgroups and speak more than 100 languages and dialects. It is also culturally diverse: tradition, ceremony, language, poetry, art, drama, music and dance, are all vital cultural practices, and Sudan is one of the richest countries in Africa in archaeological remains. Sudan's cultural riches rival those of Egypt, Greece and Rome, but war, famine, displacement and the ravages of time, climate and lack of funds means that the cultural heritage of the country is under severe threat. The preservation and recovery of cultural heritage through digitisation is well-understood by the Sudanese, and many outstanding projects exist throughout the world for Sudan to draw upon. The world knows much about other ancient civilisations, but not much about Sudan. Digitisation will help show the riches of Sudan to the world--and to itself. Many citizens are ignorant of the greatness of the history of their country, and schoolchildren and their elders can benefit greatly from access online to their rich heritage.
The digitisation of selected material of cultural heritage is a national initiative led by the Sudanese Association for the Archiving of Knowledge (SUDAAK), a Sudan-based NGO, to guarantee the long-term preservation, integration, authenticity and accessibility of important cultural content in respective concerned national institutions. The project addresses some of the main issues related to digitisation networks and services in the cultural domain. It specifically aims at safeguarding and reinforcing Sudanese cultural heritage through new technologies. In its initial stage the project will aim at identifying and facilitating the urgent needs for the implementation of appropriate applications of digital technology in cultural content storage and sustainability.
SUDAAK is a cultural non-governmental organisation (NGO) concerned with archiving Sudanese life in history, politics, folklore and culture. While the term archiving is mostly associated with records, the role envisioned for SUDAAK is organising the discovery and display, the celebration and preservation of the traditional and modern knowledge together with the achievements attributable to imagination and leadership of those who were pioneers in laying the foundations of the Sudan and its political, social, economical and cultural strengths. Their major programme now is the Archiving of the 20th Century Sudan Intellectual Heritage, but all other periods and all types of artefacts are within SUDAAK's scope.
1.1. Overview

Digital Sudan

The overall goals of Digital Sudan are:
Storage of selected recorded cultural material on Sudan within a well-designed selection policy;
Electronic treatment of old and decaying books and pictures;
The facilitation of accession to Sudan folklore related material reserved in prominent research institutions; 
Facilitation of access to National Library content needed for Government processes and decision-making;
Improvement and enhancement of digitisation facilities and services in Sudan;
The creation of an online national library serves as a model for integrating multi-format and multi-lingual resources from museums, archives, libraries, and bibliographic and Web resources and develops retrieval capabilities; 
Development of a collaborative infrastructure that can support an increasing number of contributing partners nationally; and 
User provision of integrated digital materials that seamlessly link all types of resources. 
The key stakeholders are currently:
National Record Office / Ministry of Council of Ministers
University of Khartoum/ Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research
Sudan Radio Corporation/ Ministry of Culture and Information
Sudan National Television/ Ministry of Culture and Information
National Corporation for Archaeology & Museum/ Ministry of Tourism
Photography Unit/ Ministry of Culture and Information
Film Production Unit/ Ministry of Culture and Information
National Library of Sudan/ Ministry of Culture and Information
National Research Centre - Information& Documentation/Ministry of Science and Communication
Sudan Folklife Documentation Centre / Ministry of Culture and Information
Africa City of Technology/ /Ministry of Science and Communication
Sudanese Association for Archiving Knowledge: / Non for Profit Civil Society Organisation
SUDAAK is also working with institutions outside Sudan with expertise in digitisation and digital library development. Currently these include Durham University, with whom SUDAAK have a Memorandum of Understanding, and the Department of Digital Humanities at King's College London, where there is a great deal of expertise in all aspects of this area. In April 2013, the stakeholders listed above were formally constituted as the National Cultural Heritage Digitisation Team (NCHDT). SUDAAK is also planning to work with other institutions world-wide in the development of the plans for the Digital Library.
The content available for digitisation is rich and diverse: In the National Archives alone, there are 76 million photographic negatives recording all aspects of life in the Sudan over the past 100 years. The university library has priceless manuscripts from the beginning of Islam; there are 9 museums throughout the country with artefacts from more than 4000 years of history; film, radio tapes and video record all the major events in the country, as well as the music, dances and traditional practices. Traditional foods and medicine are of great importance too, and there are samples, photographs and documents concerning these in the archives.
Sudan has a good education system overall, with a high level of participation in urban areas. Literacy rates are relatively high, though both participation and literacy rates are lower outside urban areas. The universities are excellent, and there is a modern Open University, established in 2003, that has links to the UK's Open University and the University of Cambridge. The Open University uses all forms of modern technology to communication with students: video conferencing, Skype, Facebook, websites, as well as radio, television and telephones.
In planning for Digital Sudan, the country has both advantages and challenges. In terms of advantages, the country has an excellent tele-communications infrastructure. It is modern, well-designed, robust and capacious. Sudatel, the main tele-communications company and the National Information Center can provide some of the storage, connectivity, and band-width that should be needed for Digital Sudan, and as the resource grows, the capacity can be increased. In the Ministry of Information and the cultural institutions there is already some technical knowledge, and more importantly, there is huge enthusiasm for the project and a willingness to make things happen. The National Library, National Archives, and the National Museums have good catalogues in place: these are the backbone of any digital library. There are a number of digitisation projects already being undertaken in the cultural institutions and the universities: for example, the University of Khartoum holds the Electronic Sudan Library which provides rare Sudanese materials of historic and cultural significance, with full text that can be searched in Arabic, English and other languages. Sudan Radio has already digitized 27,000 hours of historic radio tapes; the National Museum has digital images of artefacts attached to a catalogue records. But there is much to do, and many challenges and risks. Digital preservation, for example, needs serious consideration. Here, though, Sudan can benefit from excellent work being done in this area by major institutions throughout the world: the US Library of Congress; Europeana; the British Library; the National Library of Wales and many other institutions.
The condition of the analogue materials is also a serious consideration. An intense programme of physical conservation is needed alongside any digitisation activities, and storage of the valuable original artefacts in better conditions than at present is an urgent need.
Next steps

SUDAAK and the NCHDT, together with their international partners, are in discussion with the Ministry of Information and with other funders to identify possible sources of funding for the activity. They are also taking some steps towards training staff in digitisation skills, and digital library development. A major new development is the signing of an agreement wit the University of Bergen, Norway, to digitise the archive radio, TV and film materials of the Sudan Radio and Television Corporation.
Conclusions

For a country to embark upon a program as ambitious as this is a huge challenge, and will be costly. Even more costly would be the risk of doing nothing. Sudan is emerging from strife and division into the modern world, and is moulding its new identity by building on the strengths of its cultural memory. Digital Sudan has a huge role to play in this.
References

Ishma'il Kushkush (2013), Ancient kingdoms in land of war, Khartoum Journal, Africa: New York Times, 31 March 2013, www.nytimes.com/2013/04/01/world/africa/in-sudan-archaeologists-unearth-ancient-kingdoms.html?pagewanted=all
Simon Tanner -(2013), African Manuscripts - a treasure in danger?, When the Data hits the Fan! The blog of Simon Tanner, Monday, 28 January 2013 simon-tannerblogspot.fr/2013/01/african-manuscripts-treasure-in-danger.html.
Marilyn Deegan (2013), Digital Sudan: cultural heritage revived & preserved, When the Data hits the Fan! The blog of Simon Tanner, Wednesday, 24 July 2013, http://simon-tanner.blogspot.fr/2013/07/digital-sudan-cultural-heritage-revived.html","txt","2","",""
"1907","15","Digital Dutch East Asia Company (VOC) Linguistic Archive: Modeling a community-sourcing platform for historical linguistics research.","9","1. Overview
The primary aim of the project “Digital Linguistic Archive of the Dutch East India Company (VOC)” is to bring together in one online platform all Dutch documents from 1600-1825, which were written either by VOC employees or under the auspices of the Company, and relate to the languages of the “newly discovered” territories, mainly South East Asia and Africa.

The secondary, yet more ambitious goal is to create an online platform enabling researchers to contribute and exchange knowledge about the source documents, possibly including social editions of some texts. Such collaboration would bring together researchers from different countries and languages, and result in opening access to a vast range of unpublished linguistic material.

2. Source material
The archives of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) are spread between The Hague, Jakarta, Kaapstad, Colombo, Madras and London. Their historical and cultural significance was recognized by UNESCO in 2003, when they were added to UNESCO's Memory of the World Register, a 'World Heritage List' for the preservation of valuable archives and library collections. Considering the size of the VOC archives – comprising 34 million pages in total, including 1.4 kilometers of shelf material in the Hague and 2.5 km in Jakarta – one can only be disappointed at the scarcity of available documents relating to the languages of the Dutch maritime empire.

However, a closer inspection of various independent library records yields surprising finds: some of these Dutch manuscripts and printed books may be found scattered in private and public collections from Paris, to London, to Venice, to Sydney. Up to this point, only a few isolated studies on these manuscripts have been available. An online database detailing all bibliographical information available would help unravel the documents’ provenance,  itineraries, and interconnections. 

So far, these documents have never been assembled and arranged into one comprehensive collection. Compiling such an inventory would be highly desirable because it would allow a better evaluation of the scope and content of Dutch colonial linguistic heritage. Last but not least, online publishing of digital editions would open access to a vast range of previously unpublished linguistic material.

3. The need for collaboration
One of the most significant challenges to face in the modeling of this project is the potential multitude of languages and scripts involved. Although the language of the main body of texts is predominantly Dutch, the grammars and vocabularies, by their very nature, each contain at least one other “exotic” language, often written in the native, non-Latin script. Inasmuch as one part of the multi-layered text may be accessible to a particular researcher, chances are that the remaining levels require further work to make them readily understandable.

This is perhaps the most compelling characteristic of the archival material of this type: it lends itself perfectly to a collaborative, crowdsourced (or rather: community-sourced) online undertaking. The tasks may include: adding new documents, transcribing or translating existing documents, proofreading and validating transcriptions, making annotations, and adding references and annotations.

Let’s demonstrate it on a real-life example: a newly discovered and digitised 17th century treatise on Tamil letters, recently made available online by the Utrecht University Library (Ms. 1479):

 

Fig. 1: A newly digitized manuscript: user story

A famous researcher on Tamil would be quite interested in studying it, but she does not know Dutch, or maybe is not familiar with the 17th century Dutch paleography. However, a paleography student may find it motivating and worthwhile to practice his skills on a real-life manuscript; a retired English teacher from Holland may then contribute the English translation.

Once the text is rendered into English, it opens new possibilities for a wide community of non-Western scholars who may be interested in early descriptions of their native languages. They, in turn, can contribute their transcription of parts written in non-Latin scripts, as well as annotations regarding the linguistic content of the documents.

3. Content organisation
The sources will be indexed by title, author, language, printer / publisher (where applicable), and the relevant linguistic category. This will enable a dynamic visualization of interrelations between any selected two criteria by means of relationship graphs, to help users understand the networks and collaboration patterns.

Additional tools, such as geo-referencing, annotations, etc. can also be developed. For the purposes of paleographic research and comparison, a sample of the handwriting from the text would also be provided.

4. Challenges 
However, before any IT solutions can be developed, other key issues will have to be addressed, notably in relation to copyrights and intellectual property rights. How can the existing digitized object from different libraries be brought together? How to ensure access to documents behind a paywall? Could the added value of knowledge and online traffic act as trade-off for libraries?

The other methodological questions will concern ways of organising and managing the crowdsourcing community based on previous experience from comparable projects. The issues of authority, access and quality control will have to be addressed in order to ensure adherence to rigorous scholarship standards.","txt","2","",""
"1908","15","Digital Humanists Are Motivated Annotators","9","Background

One core practice that has traditionally supported humanist research process has been the practice to annotate the object of interest in some way. The handwritten additions to books in dustry shelves of libraries are documenting this very well. Although in digital humanities the concept of object is more problematic, annotations are still a fundamental and even increasingly important principle. For example annotations are used for data enrichment and harmonisation of massive digital collections, to model overlapping semantics and structures in presentation systems, and as the key means of connecting online material in Linked Open Data projects. Annotations are one of the core scholarly primitives of humanities research independent of discipline or media.
The more tools with annotation capabilities that are developed and the more annotations that are published, the more interoperability will be critical. The W3C Open Annotation Community Group and the definition of the Open Annotation (OA) Ontology are important steps to ensure interoperability among digital annotations. Nevertheless some important aspects remain to be done. The OA model describes a comprehensive way of rendering the structure of digital annotations; but its goal is not to reflect the methodological or hermeneutical context of digital annotations beyond what is needed to make the model generic. Moreover, the model claims that every situation where a web-resource can be linked to another web-resource can be modelled as an annotation. 
Problem

The more annotations are published in a consistent way as web resources - a process that is promoted by the Semantic Web framework of the OA model - the more the question of interoperability shifts from the representation of structure to context. The problem here is not the use of a predicate to refer to the annotation target rather than to the annotation body; that can be easily resolved by the inclusion of any concept which is dereferenceable between oa:hasBody and oa:hasTarget. The problem is more that annotations which refer to the same object and which use the same concept may have meanings depending on the research context different from those for which the annotation were originally created. Consider the following examples:
For humanities researchers an algorithm represents an object of interest as much as any other cultural object. That is to say, annotations created in a context where the algorithm is investigated should not be used as expressions about the objects on which this algorithm was tested. As a result, modifications that are made during the investigation ought to reveal something about the algorithm not about the object.
Annotations about the authorship of Shakespeare that are made in a stylometric analysis proving which works should be attributed to Shakespeare ought to be processed and interpreted differently from authorship annotations that create a catalogue of texts in a project.
An annotation created in a crowdsourcing context without the use of a formal ontology is suitable for other research questions than the same annotation created by a disciplinary expert who applies a related ontology.
These cases demonstrate that the efficient reuse of published annotations needs a formalized representation of the research purpose for which the annotation was created in the first place. On the other hand such metadata would also provide a valuable information source in the digital environment for traditional humanities research questions. As Claudine Mouline has put it, contextual data about annotations ought to be an invaluable resource for investigating the social or cultural structures out of which these annotations were made. In one of her examples she gets insights about missionary work in Anglo-Saxonia as well as insights about the social structure of monasteries not only from the content of annotations but also from the context. Annotations made by high-priests can be compared with annotations written by monks if these can be distinguished at the first place. Moulin describes how this knowledge is derived from knowing in which monastery a book was annotated and which tool was used for the annotation because some tools were only used by high-priests. Different purposes for annotations were revealed giving the annotation a specific meaning.
It is true that the first draft of the Open Annotation Ontology attempts to address this issue by introducing the predicate ‘oa:motivatedBy’, in order to describe the motivation or intention associated with the annotation apart from its content. Nevertheless, the exact use of this predicate is still an open question, especially its relation to the type of annotation (Highlighting, Sticky Note, etc.) . Indeed, the community group emphasizes the importance of a general approach for using this predicate and encourages the definition of vocabularies in communities so that proliferation of terms can be avoided. Yet, it is still unsure if the oa:motivatedBy predicate will be kept in the final version of the Open Annotation model as was expressed by Timothy Cole at the DH2013 in Nebraska.
Approaches

The value of maintaining the concept of an oa:motivatedBy predicate may be seen by considering large European infrastructure projects like DARIAH and EUDAT which are developing annotation tools as generic components of their infrastructure. The generic structures and models adopted by these projects strongly demand that digital annotation practices and purposes ought to be systematized. At the same time the massive scale of these projects, resulting from their integrated services, offers a variety of possibilities of defining a vocabulary that can be used for oa:motivatedBy in the Digital Humanities. Specifically we suggest three sources:
The results of the DARIAH-DE experts workshop on interoperable annotations for the arts and humanities
The efforts around the definition of the Scholarly Methods Ontology in DARIAH-EU
The Scholarly Domain Model presented by Stefan Gradmann at the DH2013
Each of these sources represents a different approach to how the motivation of an ontology can be formalized. The methodological part of the June 2013 ""DARIAH-DE Experts Workshop on interoperable annotations"" built a classification upon the evaluation of practices in which digital annotations are used (to collaborate, to review, to enrich, etc.): a DH motivation vocabulary ought to be grounded in general practice and from the annotation point of view. The Scholarly Methods Ontology tries to classify digital research activities according to a methodological framework. Therefore it represents the best possibility of creating a more abstract vocabulary grounded upon theoretical reflections about how the field of DH is organized. The Scholarly Domain Model differs from the former approach because it does not focus on any research activity but on the areas in which humanities research activities take place: these areas are Input, Output, Metadata and Social Context and Research. 
To put it more simply: the first classification model relates to the annotation object itself, the second tries to reflect fields of research, while the third introduces an abstract view on knowledge production itself. It would be misleading to select any one of these perspectives as the annotation model, since all of them have advantages and disadvantages. For example, the Scholarly Domain Model is currently too general in terms of semantics to help overcome interoperability issues for annotations. Besides, these models do not pertain to mutually exclusive ideas: enrichment by annotation in the first model is also suitable to describe the metadata class of the Scholarly Domain Model, while reviewing is located along the input/output axis. Thus, rather than prioritizing one perspective over another, we suggest an ontology concept for oa:motivatedBy that integrates these three models through their overlaps and interconnections, which in turn respects the idea that any ontology should relate annotation patterns to specific research fields.
Perspectives

The problems and approaches presented in the context of annotations and the Open Annotation Ontology address more complex ongoing discussions, such as the need to have a sustainable and expressive concept of provenance for digital research objects. This task is especially difficult in the case of humanities since the frequently non-processural and non-linear elements of humanities research do not sit well with the purely event- and agent-based provenance models created in the e-Science realm. The case of annotation is a good example. The meaning of a result for a humanities-related research question is not made totally transparent by the process or the broader lineage in which it ‘happened’. The Open Annotation Ontology suggests the use of the Provenance Ontology which is modeled along these concepts therefore not offering additional help. Our contribution, then, aims not only to show the importance of the oa:motivatedBy predicate and make the first steps towards developing a concept for a related ontology; we also hope to encourage the development of a discriminating idea of provenance in the humanities that is rarely developed at present time.
References

Simon, R., & Jung, J. (2011). The YUMA Media Annotation Framework. Research and Advanced Technology for, 434–437.
Sanderson, R., Albritton, B., Schwemmer, R., & Van de Sompel, H. (2011). SharedCanvas: A Collaborative Model for Medieval Manuscript Layout Dissemination. arXiv.org, 1104(2925). Retrieved from arxiv.org/abs/1104.2925
Simon, R., Barker, E.T.E. and Isaksen, L. (2012): Exploring Pelagios: a visual browser for geo-tagged datasets. E. Agirre, K. Fernie, A. Otegi and M. Stevenson (eds.), International Workshop on Supporting Users' Exploration of Digital Libraries. Cyprus, 29-34.
Unsworth, J. (2000). Scholarly Primitives: what methods do humanities researchers have in common, and how might our tools reflect this. In Humanities Computing: formal methods, experimental practice symposium, King’s College, London.
www.w3.org/community/openannotation/
Sanderson, R., & Van de Sompel, H. (2013). Designing the W3C Open Annotation Data Model.
Moulin, C. (2010). Vom mittelalterlichen Griffel zum Computer-Tagging. Zur sprach- und kulturgeschichtlichen Bedeutung der Annotation. In Akademien der Wissenschaften und der Literatur Mainz. Jahrbuch 2012 (pp. 84–99). Mainz.
www.w3.org/community/openannotation/wiki/Open_Issues
de.slideshare.net/gradmans/20130719-dh2013-beyondinfrastructure
www.w3.org/TR/prov-o","txt","2","",""
"1909","15","Digital Humanities as Vocation: Possibilities for Undergraduate Education","2","The concept of vocation has continually evolved—from its Catholic origins through the long history of Western education and through the cultural transformation of the Industrial Revolution. In the midst of the Information Revolution, vocation continues to evolve, accommodating emerging trades and the day-to-day operations of participants in a digital information economy. We’ve seen, for example, that the pace of innovation and technological change has destabilized the model of fixed-skills training, demanding instead a rapid and recurrent retraining and retooling of the workforce—and not just for production- or entry-level employees, but for employees across the labor spectrum. 

In our contemporary economic moment, there is an increasing demand for information workers who rely upon applied conceptual knowledge over their ability to simply use existing tools to accomplish existing tasks. Flexible and versatile thinkers—ready to advance with the vanguard—are the order of the day. It is not difficult to make the argument that the skill sets of digital humanists are well matched for this information economy: familiarity with software development and tool-building, intellectually-intensive cross-disciplinary collaboration, appreciation of interface design and visualization, among many others. As the field of digital humanities continues to expand, there is a steady increase of undergraduate programs that provide opportunities for students to learn and apply DH methodologies, build DH tools, and cultivate DH skill sets. Examining the rise of undergraduate digital humanities work on American liberal arts campuses, Bryan Alexander and Rebecca Frost Davis predict that those undergraduate programs will be sending their students into digital humanities graduate programs (Kindle Locations 9938-9939). But we know that not every student will have interest or opportunity to pursue graduate studies or to enter the academic DH industry. So what sort of professional opportunities will await graduates of these proliferating undergraduate programs? Can we think about digital humanities as a vocation—that rich professional calling that is both spiritually and economically sustaining and sustainable? Put another way, is there digital humanities work outside the academy?

Scholarship of teaching and learning in the digital humanities remains scant. In one of the few treatments of the subject, Stephen Brier raises the big question “Where’s the pedagogy?” His project traces the legacy of “innovative pedagogy” at the City University of New York. That pedagogical legacy includes providing access to higher education to a large population of working-class students in New York and the surrounding region—students entrenched in the vocational identities of their families and communities. Brier’s narrative of innovation is one that sees the continual infusion of technology and digital tools to aid student learning that eventually culminates in the pathbreaking digital humanities initiatives housed at CUNY. But while undergraduate students across the curriculum use and engage digital tools, serious DH work is reserved for graduate students and faculty who address teaching and learning as a meta-discursive component of their research. There is a strong and viable connection between DH research and teaching and learning, but digital humanities remains aloof from undergraduate experience and distant from the grounding in vocation.

Blackwell and Martin explore the practice—increasingly common among DH researchers—of involving undergraduate students as research assistants in DH projects. As Blackwell and Martin suggest, these experiences facilitate a mastery of humanities inquiry—classics in their case—and point to a fertile area to see enhancement of teaching and learning. As important as such undergraduate research opportunities are, however, they remain—in most cases—extracurricular activities meant to enhance a student’s education experience rather than define it.

This short paper is interested in exploring the possibility of developing digital humanities as an undergraduate curriculum—especially in a context that privileges a legacy of manual and vocational training. It considers the case of the University of Wisconsin–Stout—a polytechnic university with a historical identity of manual and vocational preparation and an institutional focus on job placement. In 2010, the Professional Communication and Emerging Media program at UW–Stout revised its curriculum to include a new concentration in digital humanities. Different from both research universities and small liberal arts colleges, this polytechnic campus has a teaching-centered mission that is rich with programs that complement digital humanities, including entertainment design, game design & development, media production, computer science, graphic arts, and applied social sciences. As a new program in this novel environment, we are just beginning to see how undergraduate students respond to the digital humanities curriculum, how the first cohorts of students prepare to enter the labor market, and how they shape their own vocational identities.

Such a program raises a number of serious questions. As humanists and digital humanists, how un/comfortable are we with framing any part of our field as vocational training? As the field expands, will we be prepared to think more strategically—more vocationally—about job markets beyond academia? On one hand, vocational thinking goes against the grain of the liberal education sensibilities carried by many members of the DH community. On the other, the rapid expansion of interest and support for our field raises the question: Why? What are the forces—larger than academia’s craving for intellectually fashionable movements—that drive this boom? Among many possible answers to this question, could it be that our methodologies and modes of inquiry are recognized to be well-aligned with the Zeitgeist of our information economy? Might digital humanities be a “new” field that has emerged in response to broader labor and economic forces and not just—as some continue to believe—a technological makeover of a has-been discipline?

Put another way, might digital humanities be viable as a progressive training model for the labor pool of the surging information economy? Can the digital humanities be a twenty-first century vocation outside of academia?

References
Alexander, Bryan and Rebecca Frost Davis (2012). “Should Liberal Arts Campuses Do Digital Humanities? Process and Products in the Small College World.”Debates in the Digital Humanities. Ed. Matthew Gold. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P.

Blackwell, Christopher and Thomas R. Martin (2009). “Technology, Collaboration, and Undergraduate Research.”Digital Humanities Quarterly. 3.1: n. pag. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.

Brier, Stephen (2012). “Where’s the Pedagogy? The Role of Teaching and Learning in the Digital Humanities.”Debates in the Digital Humanities. Ed. Matthew Gold. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P.","txt","2","",""
"1910","15","Digital Humanities Data Curation Institutes: Challenges and Preliminary Findings","2","1. Introduction

The growth of digital humanities research has made the curation of DH research data a priority for humanities scholars and their institutions. Data curation “addresses the challenges of maintaining digital information produced in the course of research in a manner that preserves its meaning and usefulness as potential input for future research” 1.  More fully integrating data curation into digital research involves fluency with topics such as publication and information sharing practices, descriptive standards, metadata formats, and the technical characteristics of digital data. This poster presents lessons learned from a series of workshops on digital humanities data curation conducted in June and October 2013 with funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities Institutes for Advanced Topics in the Digital Humanities program.
2. Project Background

The Digital Humanities Data Curation (DHDC) institute series is a collaborative initiative led by the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities (MITH) in cooperation with the Women Writers Project (WWP) at Northeastern University and the Center for Informatics Research in Science and Scholarship (CIRSS) at the University of Illinois’ Graduate School of Library and Information Science (GSLIS). Institutes are designed to offer humanities scholars with all levels of expertise a grounding in data curation practices and problems. 
3. Workshop Participants and Community Response

Two of three institutes have been conducted, first in June 2013 at GSLIS and again in October 2013 at MITH.  The team received 111 and 136 applications for the first and second institutes, which were designed to accommodate 20 participants each; acceptance rates ranged from 15% to 18%. For an overview of participant demographics across institutes, see Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: Participant demographics from DHDC Institutes
4. Participant Feedback and Lessons Learned

To make the curriculum responsive to participant needs, the project team conducted evaluation surveys following each workshop and analyzed materials generated from workshop activities, note-taking, social media interactions, and direct feedback. Responses thus far have expressed enthusiasm for instructors and the workshop’s overall framework, while also recommending the addition of more hands-on activities and a greater focus on tools, metadata, and infrastructure issues. Participants have consistently ranked the following topics as very valuable for digital humanists: conceptual frameworks for data curation, understanding the nature of digital objects, types of metadata, collections as curation, and data and the law. To address participant feedback following the first institute, the project team revised the initial curriculum by increasing the number of group exercises, adding two lectures on metadata, and including a hands-on session on item deposit and retrieval in Islandora. The schedule for each institute is available at http://www.dhcuration.org/institute/schedule/.
5. Significance of Digital Humanities for Data Curation

One key outcome of the institutes thus far has been a set of emerging insights into the special challenges of data curation in a digital humanities context, which was an important goal of the original proposal. These insights have been particularly evident in several key areas of the discussion. First, each institute has featured a discussion of roles that has revealed the diversity of job descriptions and professional identities of data curators in digital humanities. Second, the featured case studies have demonstrated the challenging nature of digital humanities data with respect to format, anticipated future usage, and methodological texture requiring capture and documentation. And finally, participant questions have shown a need for resources to guide data curators in working with specifically digital humanities data: for example, crowd-sourced transcriptions, standoff annotation, and data in experimental formats. 
6. Conclusion

The overwhelming response to DHDC’s calls for applications indicates the need to sustainably conduct data curation training for digital humanists at a larger scale. While, slide sets, notes, and resources lists are currently available online through the project's GitHub wiki (https://github.com/digital-humanities-data-curation/dhdc-workshop/wiki), project materials will soon be revised for broader impact and integrated into the affiliated DHCuration Guide (http://guide.dhcuration.org/), a community resource that extends beyond the project in promoting a community of scholars focused on discipline-specific curation practices and skills.
References

1. Muñoz, T., & Renear, A.H. (2011). Issues in humanities data curation. Discussion paper circulated at the Palo Alto Summit on Humanities Data Curation, Stanford, CA, June 23, 2011. Available at hdl.handle.net/2142/30852 and cirssweb.lis.illinois.edu/paloalto/whitepaper/premeeting","txt","2","",""
"1911","15","Digital Humanities Empowering through Arts and Music. Tunisian Representations of Europe through music and video clips","10","1. Introduction

How can digital humanities contribute to empowering processes through arts and music1? In this long paper, we aim to analyse Tunisian representations of Europe through images, music and video clips. This in turn forms part of a broader research project funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation that investigates undocumented mobility in the context of recent developments in Tunisia. Even after the events of the “Arab Spring” and its demands for dignity and liberty, the desire of young men (harragas) to “burn their papers” (harga), to leave their country of first citizenship and to reach Europe still persists. However, such a desire to escape one’s overall circumstances cannot be reduced to merely economic motives. Undocumented mobility is by no means a one-dimensional, single-layered process governed by “push-and-pull factors”, but reflects the transnational social imaginaire and its various cultural resources as well.
1.1. Overview

New media such as social networks, blogs and YouTube, as well as their mobile symbolizations, sounds and images, contribute to the dissemination of mobilization, dissent and disagreement, creating a transnational2 socio-cultural space and public spheres in which current (and past) situations are negotiated and contested3. Based on ethnographical fieldwork in Tunisia and Switzerland, as well as on digital anthropology of social networks4 and blogs5, this research project deals with the increasingly important role of these spaces and thus contributes to a fresh and innovative approach that relates undocumented mobility, (political) mobilization, transnational practices and the (gendered) social imaginaire.
1.2. Methodology

What do Tunisian migrants expect of the country they emigrate to? Do they hope to find a job easily, improving their living conditions as soon as they arrive in Europe? In this paper, we aim to reveal migrants’ expectations of moving from Tunisia to Europe. We will take into account the representations of migrants before they leave their country of origin as well as those of migrants already living in Europe. We also seek to understand if these expectations are always the same or if they differ from one person to another. Can we identify certain mental representations that are widespread? By listing semiotic as well as audio-visual representations, we aim to understand what the most prevalent themes and images of migrations are.
Do mental representations evolve? When meeting people who recently emigrated to Europe, we will ask them if the way they now see Switzerland is the same as before. Are they satisfied with their new living conditions? Would they rather leave this country and give another country a try – Canada, for example? On the one hand, we will analyse the way people talk and write about these subjects on blogs, Facebook and YouTube. On the other hand, we will interview both Tunisians who have only been living in Switzerland for a few months and Tunisians who have been living here for much longer.
2. Getting Started

Our paper will take into account documented as well as undocumented migrations. In many videos posted on YouTube and Facebook, boat people explain why they emigrated. Sometimes the people we listen to are still waiting to leave, and sometimes they have already arrived in Lampedusa and are hoping to continue farther into mainland Europe. Finally, there are videos in which people who have arrived at their final destination tell us what they now think of undocumented mobility. Do they think they made the right choice? In this paper, we will analyse the vocabulary as well as the references they use in their discourse.
At the beginning of our research, we planned to analyse audio-visual material available 1) via YouTube and 2) via blogs. Fieldwork conducted in February 2014 has shown that it is more crucial to focus on Facebook, since it seems to have a much wider audience than blogs on irregular migration.
The material analysed will be delimited by five key words in Arabic (different spellings will be taken into consideration) and French (with all possible combinations searched: k1; k1+k2; etc.). Firstly, an expert in media and information technology will help us perform computer-assisted content analysis. The second step is to add manual content and discourse analysis (of semiotics etc.) under the leading research question ""How can digital humanities contribute to empowering processes through (popular) arts and music6 (namely Mizwoud7 and rap music8)?"" We plan to conduct a general analysis of power relations later on, but within the limited space of the present paper, we will focus on processes of empowerment and general forms of representations of Europe.
Five kinds of video clips will be researched: a) music clips, b) music clips without video but with photos, c) news reporting, d) videos taken by harragas during their trips and e) other types of video. Our research schedule consists of four steps: 1) content analysis of the clips and comments posted by the author(s), 2) analysis of images, representations and symbols used in the videos, 3) analysis of the sound and the music, and 4) analysis of hypertext links and YouTube suggestions leading to other videos. This material will be juxtaposed to ethnography ""in the real world“: participant observation in the harraga milieu, semi-guided interviews and informal talks and life histories in Tunisia and Switzerland.
The desire for a better life abroad has been emphasized after the ""Arab Spring"" by the development of a transnational youth culture disseminated via Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter9. Representations of success in Europe also circulate thanks to transmigrants who bring back images and symbols of a higher social status to their home villages. These images and symbols are videotaped, transformed and used in music clips uploaded onto the Internet. New music styles have also emerged as part of a global vernacular language. An example is Mizwoud, which has partly become a language of the political resistance movement in the Maghreb countries. It also belongs to the ""migrating population, and with them travelled outside Algeria into France, then Europe"" (Naïr 2007: 65). Hence, cultural resources10 have given rise to the development of a common artistic language of exclusion, dreams, representation of a better life and resistance11. Videos, soundscapes and images bridge the gap between the street, the sea and the virtual, empowering highways and gates through which multiple belonging processes12 take place.
 
References

1. Bally, John, Collier, Michael (2006). Introduction: Music and Migration, In: Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 167-182.
2. Nair, Parvati (2007) Voicing Risk: Migration, Transgression and Relocation in Spanish/Maroccan Rai. In: I. Biddle/V. Knights (eds) Music, National Identity and the Politics of Location: Between the Global and the Local. Aldershot: Ashgate, 65-79.
3. Salzbrunn, Monika/Sekine, Yasumasa (2011) From Community to Commonality. Multiple Belonging and Street Phenomena in the Era of Reflexive Modernization. Tokyo: Seijo University Press.
4. Graziano, Teresa (2012): The Tunisian diaspora: Between ""digital riots"" and Web activism. In: Dana Diminescu (Hg.): e-diaspora Atlas. Paris: Maison des Sciences de l'Homme. e-diasporas.fr (27.2.14)
5. Héas, Stéphane, Poutrain, Véronique (2003) Les méthodes d'enquête qualitative sur Internet. In: ethnographiques.org, no. 4, novembre. www.ethnographiques.org/2003/Heas,Poutrain.html (27.2.14)
6. Bally, John, Collier, Michael (2006). Introduction: Music and Migration, In: Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 167-182.
7. Stapley, Kathryn (2006): Mizwid: An Urban Music with Social Roots, in: Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 243-256.
8. Friese, Heidrun (2012) ‘Ya l’babour, ya mon amour’ – Raï-Rap und undokumentierte Mobilität’. In: Marc Dietrich/Martin Seeliger (Hg.) Deutscher Gangsta-Rap. Sozial- und kulturwissenschaftliche Beiträge zu einem Pop-Phänomen. Bielefeld: transcript, 231-85.
9. Najar, Sihem (2011) Mouvements sociaux en ligne, cyber activisme et nouvelles formes d’expressions en Méditerranée. Institut de recherche sur le Maghreb contemporain, Bulletin 6:3.
10. Salzbrunn, Monika (2011) Mobilisation des ressources culturelles et participation politique: l’apport des cultural studies à l’analyse des rapports sociaux dans un contexte festif. Migrations et Société (édité par Daniel Bertaux/Catherine Delcroix/Roland Pfefferkorn), 23, 133: 175-92.
11. Souiah, Farida (2011): Musique populaire et imaginaire migratoire en Algérie. In: Diversité, no. 164, pp. 27-33.
12. Salzbrunn, Monika/Sekine, Yasumasa (2011) From Community to Commonality. Multiple Belonging and Street Phenomena in the Era of Reflexive Modernization. Tokyo: Seijo University Press.","txt","2","",""
"1912","15","Digital humanities in Estonia: digital divide or linguistic isolation?","9","1. Introduction

The paper introduces the disciplinary developments in Estonian humanities that are intertwined with use of digital resources and methods. Estonia forms an interesting case. On the one hand, the post-Socialist country is well-known as an example of technological innovation, it was the first to introduce paperless governmental processes, the electronic ID-card is compulsory document and its electronic functions are widely used, to name a few examples.1 However, at the same time, the developments in the field of digital humanities have not taken place at the same pace with the ones in USA or Western Europe.
The aim of this paper is to compare and contrast the use of digital technologies in Estonian humanities to the developments of the field of digital humanities.
2. Use of the digital technologies in Estonia

In 2012, 78% of the population of Estonia aged 16-74 years used the internet. There are various electronic services, like e-Tax Board where 93% of income tax declarations have been made in 2012. From 2005, it is possible to participate in elections electronically. In October 2013, 21,2% votes in the local elections were given electronically. And what is more, 62% of the inhabitants took part of the 2011 Population and Housing Census electronically.2 However, the use of digital solutions is not a spotless success story: according to PIAAC (Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies) study in 2011-2012, 30% of 16–65 year old test group refused to take a part of the test online and 13% did not succeed in the simplest computer-related tasks. The results of PIAAC study reveal a digital divide that is related to the linguistic divide: there are no significant differences in gender, education or the social background, but Estonian-speaking group had in general better skills in the use of technological tools than the group of the speakers of other languages.3 
Apparently, Estonian society is not able to provide all its IT-advantages in the languages other than Estonian enough to integrate the non-Estonians to the Estonian IT-world, thus leaving them isolated to a certain extent. Despite being the wired country in terms of the e-Government, not all fields of life have been equally keeping up the developments in the IT, the humanities being one of these areas. The National Strategy for the Development of Information Society until 2020 addresses the problem of inequality and of moderate specific IT skills in the fields other than ICT.4
3. Field of digital humanities in Estonia

Schnapp and Presner 5 have distinguished between two waves of digital humanities: quantitative and qualitative one. According to the divide, the first wave was about digitisation projects and creating infrastructure, the other wave consists of interpretation and research methodologies for digitised and born-digital materials. Taking this approach as a framework, Estonia could be described as being in the first wave of digital humanities. In archives and libraries, there have been large-scale digitization projects from early 2000s onwards, the digital archival systems and repositories have been created and made publicly available for many different collections. 
For example, in Estonian Literary Museum, a file repository and archival information system Kivike6 has been created to manage the collections to store the digital materials and metadata, and to make the collections as much as possible publicly available via Internet. New archival data is being added to the online repository and described there, among other materials the born-digital sources (photographs, audio and video recordings, as well as “digital manuscripts”) that have been collected systematically since 1994.
This illustrates the tendency of including some of the notions of second wave of digital humanities, because the emphasis on preserving of born-digital materials has also been apparent in several institutions. It is partially connected to the practical needs of document management in a country where governmental practices have moved online. The digital preservation department in Estonian National Archives was founded in 1999 with the goal of “permanent preservation of digital data despite the changes in society and technology”. Web pages are also digitally archived: Estonian National Library is in charge of creating and maintaining a web archive of the web resources that are important for the Estonian culture. For born-digital materials, these approaches still focus on creating an infrastructure rather than using the data. Creating and maintaining the collections have been in the centre of digital humanities projects in Estonia, using them for educational or research purposes is scarcer.
One of the most clearly developed disciplines that uses digital data sets and methodology is linguistics. There has been a constantly developing co-operation of the linguists and computer-scientists since the 1950s in the field of language technology, there has been formed a specific curriculum of computational linguistics at the University of Tartu in the 19977, large corpora and dictionaries are in constant progress and in 2006 the special national financing program has been founded in order to promote the development of language technology and digital language resources.8  
Except of the linguistic studies, the use of digital methods in the humanities research has been somewhat sporadic and depends of the interests and skills of individual researchers. In the curriculums of humanities there are no comprehensive courses on digital research methodology (the social sciences with its traditional data analysis are in much more better situation here). In some of the humanities fields digital methods are being taught in specialised courses. For instance, students of archival science need to follow the course on digital preservation.
To sum up the situation in Estonia, the digital infrastructures for the major humanities collections in Estonia have been created by now or are in progress. There are several original web solutions for presenting and/or collecting the humanities data, a couple of successful examples of crowdsourcing have taken place. The creation of the software for the audience in humanities has been more than modest. Because of the linguistic restrictions, and the small size of researchers' community the specific software (e.g. for the analyse of the Estonian folk song melodies) would be tailor-made for the needs of (the group of) individual researchers and is not developed for the public (or multilingual) use. Use of the digital methods in the research has been constantly increasing, but only occasionally, the lack of systematic technological knowledge base seems to be crucial. All this does not apply for linguistics. However, the research mostly takes place within the disciplinary boundaries and the collaboration between the digital humanists of different disciplines has been modest, without signs for the need of the umbrella discipline.
Only in October 2013, first seminar of digital humanities in Estonia took place providing an overview of the projects in progress within the field.9 Different fields of humanities were represented: linguistics, archeologists, literary studies, folkloristics, arts. In the presentations, digital humanities in general got little attention, most of the presenters focusing on digitizing, maintaining and/or presenting the collections (either digitized or born-digital) rather than interpreting the data. In addition to this a couple of research projects were presented, as well as an technologically innovative film project, two software projects for documenting the artefacts, and a few initiatives of using open data in web projects. It is clear, however, that the seminar did not involve all the digital humanities projects in course. For example there was no paper from Estonian National Archives, although it is serving as the competence center in the field of the digital preservation in Estonia, and there are several IT projects ongoing.
After the seminar an informal network was created with a mailing list and homepage. According to a small survey taken in early 2014, the humanities scholars who work with digital technologies feel the need for collegiality in the field, i.e for wider digital competence among their colleagues both for developing new tools and using the already existing ones.
4. Discussion

Digital humanities became a discipline because the humanities scholars as users of digital resources needed to understand the digital mechanisms and get some academic recognition for using them. One of the crucial questions of the field is how to bring the technological advantages and knowledge within the reach of researchers so they could develop the tools and environments they need. To code or not to code, that is the question, when being probably the only person in the world who would need a language-specific tool, or if the audience of a web environment would consist of mere ten people. The size of the linguistic community restricts the reasonable amount of work hours spent for the IT solutions or web-pages. On the other hand, the available English-language software is often either not known or not easily applicable for several reasons. This is how the linguistic divide becomes the digital divide even in the country with well-established technological infrastructures. The awareness and the use of various IT solutions in Estonian society with its linguistic divide between Estonians and non-Estonians follows the model of the situation in the digital humanities leaving the peripheral group to the isolation to some extent due to the language barrier. 10
References

1. Herlihy, Pete (2013). ‘Government as a data model’: what I learned in Estonia, accessed 1. November 2013. digital.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/2013/10/31/government-as-a-data-model-what-i-learned-in-estonia/
2. Eesti infoühiskonna arengukava 2020, accessed 7.3.14. infoyhiskond.eesti.ee/files/Info%C3%BChiskonna%20arengukava%202020.pdf
3. Täiskasvanute oskused Eestis ja maailmas. PIAAC uuringu esmased tulemused, accessed 1.11.2013. www.hm.ee/index.php?popup=download&id=12426
4. Eesti infoühiskonna arengukava 2020, accessed 7.3.14. infoyhiskond.eesti.ee/files/Info%C3%BChiskonna%20arengukava%202020.pdf
5. Schnapp, J. and Presner, P. (2009). ‘Digital Humanities Manifesto 2.0’, accessed 31. October 2013. www.humanitiesblast.com/manifesto/Manifesto_V2.pdf.
6. Kivike, accessed 1.11.13. kivike.kirmus.ee
7. Koit, Mare (1998); Õim, Haldur. Arvutuslingvistika mujal ja meil. In: Keel ja Kirjandus, No 1, pp. 1-7.
8. Eesti Keeletehnoloogia. National Programme for Estonian Language Technology, accessed 1.11.13. www.keeletehnoloogia.ee
9. Kulasalu, K., Sarv, M. (eds.) 2014. Digitaalhumanitaaria Eestis Ao 2013 - Digital Humanities in Estonia Ao 2013, www.folklore.ee/dh/DHE2013/
10. Galina, Isabel (2013). Is There Anybody Out There? Building a global Digital Humanities community. Accessed 1.11.13, humanidadesdigitales.net/blog/2013/07/19/is-there-anybody-out-there-building-a-global-digital-humanities-community/","txt","2","",""
"1913","15","Digital learning in an undergraduate context: promoting long term student-faculty (and community) collaboration in the Susquehanna Valley, PA","10","In this paper, we will present a case study of how an ongoing, multi-faculty, interdisciplinary DH project focused on the Susquehanna Valley in Pennsylvania has created, and continues to explore, ways in which students can excel both inside the classroom and outside.  These DH projects involve undergraduates working with faculty on an unfolding expansive research project that affords otherwise unachievable opportunities for undergraduate student engagement, the development of new skills, and meaningful ongoing interaction between the institution and community that have, in turn, furthered the scope and scale of the project.
While it is recognized that the most compelling pedagogical experiences bridge the divide between semesters, and even years, of study at the undergraduate level, there has been little examination to date of how digital pedagogy affords particularly effective forms of promoting long term student engagement, challenging students and instructor to consider and reconsider course matter from new and provocative vantage points. In early digital humanities programs, considerations of ensuring that “the acculturation and professionalization that takes place in the learning community is relevant to the students” has been largely situated in graduate programs, leaving undergraduates in learning environments where digital engagement focuses on tool training rather than one in which they learn digital “habits of mind” that involve participation in nuanced humanistic discourse with their professors.
In small liberal arts colleges, where close faculty/student interaction is at the core of high impact practices, opportunities to advance prolonged faculty-student collaboration can produce exceptional results. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation has identified the importance of these opportunities for curricular digital engagement at liberal arts education through strategic multi-year digital initiative grants at an increasing number of liberal arts institutions.
A particularly valuable area for ongoing pedagogical engagement is in developing place-based projects that also enlist local communities in the digital, conceptual mapping of historical and cultural resources.  And yet, such rich and nuanced considerations of local place, culture, and environment call for extended student engagement over time and even across years of undergraduate study.  Thus, the traditional classroom model for the execution of such DH place based projects is inadequate. Extending the classroom outside (both spatially and temporally) allows for the development of rich deep local knowledge in both digital learning tools and content. Indeed, extending the faculty-student collaboration to include students from outside traditional humanities departments also reifies the value of interdisciplinary research at an early level and reflects the professional digital humanities research model employed by larger scale projects. Also, undergraduates engaged in digital humanities work can perform a sort of outreach, demonstrating that “the humanities [belong] to everyone, not just trained professionals” and thereby help “bridge the widening gap between academic humanities and broader American culture.”
At Bucknell University, beginning in 2011, faculty in Comparative Humanities, English, Geography, and Environmental Studies have developed and taught a slate of courses relating to issues vital to the interpretation and conservation of the environmentally impaired Susquehanna River. These courses form a de facto core curriculum designed around the region and consider questions of the environmental effects on regional resources, the eradication of the traces of Native American history and culture as a result of European immigration and settlement, and economic under-investment in post-industrial rural towns. To this point, DH engagement has focused on the collection and analysis of GIS-related materials, work that has been instrumental in the garnering of Federal recognition of the cultural importance of the Susquehanna River through its designation as a National Historic Trail under the umbrella of the National Parks Service.  Students and faculty continue to work with non-profit agencies and the NPS in the development of digital layers of scientific and economic data that will expand the reach of this originally DH project.
 A new phase of this project that will begins this summer with the digitization, transcription, and critical analysis of the collected correspondence, journals, records, and incidental papers of James Merrill Linn (1833-1897), held in the Archives of Bucknell University.  This phase will involve Bucknell faculty, staff, and students in a research project that will develop within and beyond the classroom.  The Linn Papers project is ambitious and represents a new model for collaborative digital humanities research and teaching at Bucknell. Because of Linn’s relationship with “place” (Bucknell, Lewisburg, and the sites of battles and campaigns in the Middle Atlantic and Southern states during the Civil War) this project offers an important opportunity to expand and reconsider Bucknell’s commitment to considerations of “spatial thinking.” The Linn Papers archive includes documents in several media forms: manuscripts, drawings and sketches, printed records, archival newspaper clippings, and hand-drawn maps. Because of the multiple forms of inter-reliant media, the collection encourages analysis of people and places across document types. This form of analysis is best-suited to digital forms of curation and publication.
 The Linn Papers project will a) make available in digital form a wealth of information about a historically under-resourced area of the Susquehanna Valley; b) leach students the principles and techniques of DH, and in particular, TEI-compliant XML; c) enable students to be active and engaged participants in the reframing of humanistic pedagogy and relevance in an age that sees almost daily public media questioning of the value of the humanities.   This phase of the project will begin with a pilot undertaken in summer 2014 with the digitization of a selection of the papers.  The Linn project will  become a central facet of newly designed HUMN 100 courses offered in 2014-15 through the Comparative Humanities program, that are open to first and second year students only. Student engagement with the materials will also serve as a test case to determine best practices for incorporating TEI, GIS and network analysis skill development in a variety of courses, effectively creating a DH training stream at the university.
References

Rockwell, Geoffrey and Stéfan Sinclair (2012). Acculturation and the Digital Humanities Community. Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics. Brett D. Hirsch, ed. Cambridge: UK, Open Book Publishers. 177
Clement, Tanya. Multiliteracies in the Undergraduate Digital Humanities Curriculum: Skills, Principles, and Habits of Mind. Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics. Brett D. Hirsch, ed. Cambridge: UK, Open Book Publishers, 2012. 371, 384
In its 2012 annual report, Mellon identifies digital technology and pedagogy as key components in its commitment to assist liberal arts colleges find “a way for a limited number of faculty to teach the breadth and depth of a 21st-century curriculum and simultaneously help students develop their critical, creative, and intellectual capacities.” Bucknell is one of eighteen liberal arts colleges to receive one of these multi-year digital scholarship grants, and is working with its grant-funded peers to identify and implement learning-centric courses and projects. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Annual Report. 2012. 15. www.mellon.org/news_publications/annual-reports-essays/annual-reports/content2012.pdf
To develop the What Jane Saw project at the University of Texas at Austin Janine Barchas involved a number of undergraduate student technology assistants, summer research apprentices from Architecture as well as English, as well as undergraduates in her Austin course. Barchas, Janine. “Digitally Reconstructing the Reynolds Retrospective Attended by Jane Austen in 1813: A Report on e-Work-in-progress.” ABO Interactive Journal. March 1, 2012. www.aphrabehn.org/ABO/?p=1245#more-1245
Alexander, Bryan and Rebecca Frost Davis (2012). Should Liberal Arts Campuses Do Digital Humanities? Process and Products in the Small College World. Debates in the Digital Humanities. Matthew K. Gold, ed. University of Minnesota Press.
Bucknell Helps Susquehanna River Secure Historic Designation. Bucknell University website. June 11, 2012. www.bucknell.edu/x77947.xml","txt","2","",""
"1914","15","Digital multi-text editions from scratch to electronic performance. Transcription and collation routines transformed in a flexible database system","2","The production of digital multi-text editions requires a wide range of preparatory steps. In the case of texts transmitted in (medieval) manuscripts, the witnesses have to be transcribed according to specific encoding rules. The transcriptions then are collated following certain ideas and concepts of how the transmission process could have developed (phylogenetic analysis can help in this concern, cf. Howe et al. 2004 and 2012, Stolz 2013). The transcriptions and collations finally have to be transferred to a digital edition that allows the users to explore the characteristics of single witnesses as well as the history of a text, which is delivered in variants and in different versions. A dynamically organized database offering various components and adapted to the needs of diverse user-profiles is nowadays the right tool for this purpose.

The poster demonstrates the steps described above that are abstracted from the experiences made in the Swiss Parzival Project, based at the university of Bern (cf. http://www.parzival.unibe.ch). The electronic edition of Wolfram von Eschenbach’s German Grail novel, written shortly after 1200 and transmitted during several centuries in ca. hundred witnesses (complete manuscripts as well as fragments), has now been completed by more than a half of the textual corpus (cf. Stolz 2003 and 2011, Viehhauser 2008). During the last years, transcription rules have been established that consider particular manuscript features as well as the compatibility with international standards such as TEI (cf. Stolz et al. 2007). Following these rules, the manuscript transcriptions are made.

The next step after transcription is the collation of the manuscript texts. In the editing process of Wolfram’s Parzival this decisive stage has to cope with the existence of different textual versions (‘Fassungen’) created in the author’s context (caused by the oral delivery of texts in the Middle Ages). Due to this fact not only different manuscript texts (on a first level), but also the textual versions (founded on different manuscripts groups, on a second level) have to be collated to each other. The poster shows the problems resulting from this two-level collation (performed in the Parzival project so far by electronic, but not automatized procedures), and discloses options for resolving them in a future semi-automatic process of electronic text comparison.

At an early stage of the project, program packages such as Collate (cf. Robinson 1994) seemed to be an adequate tool for producing an electronic edition right from the transcription up to the final product including collations, variant apparatuses and digital images. In a later period of the project the editors switched to modules supported by components of TuStep (Tübinger System von Textverarbeitungs- programmen), which, due to its flexible character, fitted in better with their requests. An electronic mask created with TuStep allows the editors to handle the complexity featured in the Parzival text. However, by using this tool, the collations concentrate more on the editor’s handwork than they would have to with the semi-automatic, yet imperfect techniques offered by Collate. Nowadays, program packages such as CollateX (cf. http://collatex.net/, accessed 05/03/14) offer alternative tools, but still don’t fully satisfy the project’s needs. The examples given in the poster show some basic requirements occurring in the collation of a text transmitted in multiple versions. They result in a plea for enhancing the ingenious potential contained in currently obsolescent programs such as Collate and TuStep.

The poster also demonstrates the concept of the project database that is currently under construction. This tool will enable the users to find their way through a complex textual tradition. They can browse through both single manuscripts and different versions, and they can edit the text in different encodings, both in electronic and printed form.

The readers can, in fact, access synoptic listings of single verses in the variant wordings of the different manuscripts, e.g. verse 249.27:


They can compare the transcriptions and digitized images of singular manuscripts, e.g., V and V’ representing an exemplar and its copy (with V’ omitting a substantial passage before 799.1):


And the readers can explore the textual varieties of a critical electronic edition presenting the Parzival text in four versions. Links to the relevant manuscripts on which the versions are based on are provided (with an example of ms. D in the second image).



The poster concludes with perspectives on the current endeavour of developing sustainable formats for the Parzival database and other textual databases in Switzerland, which are performed by a recently established national “Daten- und Dienstleistungszentrum für geisteswissenschaftliche Forschungsdaten” (DDZ), funded by the Swiss Academy of Humanities and Social Sciences.

References
Howe, Christopher J./ Barbrook, Adrian C. / Mooney, Linne R. / Robinson, Peter (2004): Parallels between Stemmatology and Phylogenetics, in: Studies in Stemmatology II, ed. by Pieter van Reenen/ August den Hollander/ Margot van Mulken, Amsterdam/ Philadelphia 2004, pp. 3–11

Howe, Christopher J./ Conolly, Ruth / Windram, Heather F (2012): Responding to Criticisms of Phylogenetic Methods in Stemmatology, in: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900 52, pp. 51–67

Robinson, Peter: Collate (1991). A Program for Interactive Collation of Large Textual Traditions, in: Research in Humanities Computing 3. Selected Papers from the ALLC/ACH Conference, Tempe (Arizona), March 1991, ed. by Don Ross/ Dan Brink, Oxford 1994, pp. 32–45

Stolz, Michael (2003): New Philology and New Phylogeny. Aspects of a Critical Electronic Edition of Wolfram’s Parzival, in: Literary and Linguistic Computing 18,2, pp. 139–150

Stolz, Michael/ Schöller, Robert/ Viehhauser, Gabriel (2005): Transkriptionsrichtlinien des Parzival-Projekts, in: Edition und Sprachgeschichte. Baseler Fachtagung 2005, ed. by Michael Stolz/ Robert Schöller/ Gabriel Viehhauser, Tübingen 2007 (Beihefte zu editio 26), pp. 295–328

Stolz, Michael (2011): Benutzerführung in digitalen Editionen. Erfahrungen aus dem Parzival-Projekt, in: Digitale Edition und Forschungsbibliothek. Beiträge der Fachtagung im Philosophicum der Universität Mainz am 13. und 14. Januar 2011, ed. by Christiane Fritze et al., Wiesbaden 2011 (Bibliothek und Wissenschaft 44), pp. 49–80

Stolz, Michael (2013): Early versions in medieval textual traditions. Wolfram’s Parzival as a test case, in: Dating Egyptian Literary Texts, vol. 1, ed. by Gerald Moers et al., Hamburg (Lingua Aegyptia – Studia monographica 11), pp. 561–587

Viehhauser, Gabriel (2008): On the Margins of the Canon – Editions, the ‘Whole’ Text and the ‘Whole’ Codex, in: Variants 7 (2008 [recte 2010]), pp. 57–74","txt","2","",""
"1915","15","Digital Pedagogy is About Breaking Stuff","10","John Dewey writes in Schools of To-Morrow: “Unless the mass of workers are to be blind cogs and pinions in the apparatus they employ, they must have some understanding of the physical and social facts behind and ahead of the material and appliances with which they are dealing.” This remark is not unlike the image Fritz Lang depicts at the outset of the 1927 film Metropolis: slaves to a machine becoming food for the machine. The danger in fetishizing machines is that we become subject to them. But turning away in the face of the digital will lead to much the same fate. Rather, we need to handle our technologies roughly -- to think critically about our tools, how we use them, and who has access to them.

Like Digital Humanities, Digital pedagogy has been variously defined. Brian Croxall and Adeline Koh offered a very inclusive, broad-stroke definition at their MLA Digital Pedagogy Unconference, saying that “digital pedagogy is the use of electronic elements to enhance or to change the experience of education.” And Katherine D. Harris offered up the components of her digital pedagogy -- which she borrows in part from the “mainstays of Digital Humanities” -- during a NITLE seminar on the subject: “collaboration, playfulness/tinkering, focus on process, building (very broadly defined).”

Digital pedagogy is an orientation toward pedagogy that is not necessarily predicated on the use of digital tools. This is why I like Harris’s focus on process and Croxall and Koh’s use of the seemingly vague, but in fact quite lovely, phrase “electronic elements.” The phrase dissects the notion of an educational technology, turning the discussion to a consideration of the smallest possible element that might influence teaching and learning: the electrical impulse. At this level, we’re not talking about how we might use Wordpress in a composition class, or how Smart Boards failed to revolutionize K-12 education, but about how the most basic architecture of our interactions with and through machines can inspire new (digital or analog) pedagogies. Thus, Kathi Inman Berens says paradoxically that “the new learning is ancient.”

Many have argued that the digital humanities is about building stuff and sharing stuff -- that the digital humanities reframes the work we do in the humanities as less consumptive and more curatorial, less solitary and more collaborative. I would argue, though, that the humanities have always been intensely interactive, an engaged dance between the text on a page and the ideas in our brains. The humanities have also always been intensely social, a vibrant ecosystem of shared, reworked, and retold stories. The margins of books as a vast network of playgrounds.

The digital brings different playgrounds and new kinds of interaction, and we must incessantly ask questions of it, disturbing the edge upon which we find ourselves so precariously perched.And what the digital asks of us is that every assumption we have be turned on its head. The digital humanities asks us to pervert our reading practices -- to read backwards, as well as forwards, to stubbornly not read, and to rethink how we approach learning in the digital age.

In fact, the course itself is one of our central texts, a collection of stories about reading and writing, that can be actively hacked and remixed. Sean Michael Morris writes, “A course today is an act of composition,” an active present participle and not a static container. This is more and more true of courses that live online, which demand that we carefully examine the digital as a frame, while recognizing that the digital does not supersede and can never unseat the work we do in the world. Kathi Inman Berens writes, “It doesn’t matter to me if my classroom is a little rectangle in a building or a little rectangle above my keyboard. Doors are rectangles; rectangles are portals. We walk through.” This is where learning happens, at the breaking point of its various containers.

This is true just as well of the literary texts we analyze (and ask students to analyze) with digital tools. In the syllabus for a recent undergraduate seminar in the digital humanities, I pose the following questions:

How is literature and our reading of it being changed by computers? What influence does the container for a text have on its content? To what degree does immersion in a text depend upon the physicality of its interface? How are evolving technologies (like the iPad) helping to enliven (or disengage us from) the materiality of literary texts?
Literature, film, and other media are changing, and the way we interact with them is also changing. As we imagine a digital approach to the humanities, we must look back even as we look forward, considering what media has become while we simultaneously examine the hows and whys of its becoming. We used to watch films only in a darkened theater without the distraction of other external physical stimuli. Increasingly, though, we watch film on hand-held digital devices, many with touch screens that allow more and more interaction with the content. Our apparatuses for media-consumption juxtapose digital media, literature, and film: Now, we watch Ridley Scott’s Alien in a window alongside Twitter and Facebook. Film no longer exists as a medium distinct from these other media.

The same is true of new modes of reading. Digital texts invite (or allow) us to do other things with our eyes, brains, and bodies as we experience them. As I write this, I have 9 windows open on my computer, each vying for my attention. Some of these windows have several frames in further competition. Advertisements. E-mail. Documents. Widgets. Social-networking tools. Chat interfaces. Each of these layers has an effect on how I engage the digital text. In spite of all these layers, I don’t think we experience a decreased attention; rather, the digital text demands a different sort of attention. Even as my direct engagement is challenged, my brain is offered more fuel for making connections and associative leaps. A proactive approach to online and digital pedagogy asks us to put these associative leaps to  work. So, Twitter and FaceBook may be a distraction, but that distraction can be harnessed for good pedagogy. 

Social media can function as a site for democratic participation, a leveled playing field, a harbinger for another sort of attention. The keenest analysis in the digital humanities is born of distraction and revels in tangents. The holy grail of this work is not the thesis but the fissure.

Breaking Stuff as an Act of Literary Criticism
The digital humanities is about breaking stuff. Especially at the undergraduate level, this is the work of the digital humanities that most needs doing. Mark Sample proposes “what is broken and twisted is also beautiful, and a bearer of knowledge. The Deformed Humanities is an origami crane -- a piece of paper contorted into an object of startling insight and beauty.” And, by the end of a class, if it’s successful, this is what becomes of the syllabus, the texts, the assignments, and us. Sample continues, “every fact is a fad and print is a prison. Instructors are insurgents and introductions are invasions.” In this way, my digital humanities courses work to violently dismantle fact and print, instructors and introductions, and I revel together (and part and parcel) with students in both discovery and uncertainty.

The digital humanities course I teach for undergraduates has as its first assignment the breaking of something as an act of literary criticism. Specifically, I ask students to take the words of a poem by Emily Dickinson, “There’s a certain slant of light,” and rearrange them into something else. They use any or all of the words that appear in the poem as many or as few times as they want. What they build takes any shape: text, image, video, a poem, a pile, sense-making or otherwise.

This paper expands upon a brief article I wrote about this assignment, analyzing several of the resulting student works and exploring the new pedagogies that the digital humanities demand and give rise to. 

References
Dewey, John (1915). Schools of Tomorrow. Montana: Kessinger Publishing.

Dickinson, Emily (1960). “There’s a certain slant of light.” The Complete Poems. Ed. Thomas H. Johnson. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.

Harris, Katherine D. (2012). “NITLE Digital Pedagogy Seminar.” http://triproftri.wordpress.com/2012/03/27/nitle-digital-pedagogy/ (accessed March 7, 2014).

Inman Berens, Kathi (2012). “The New Learning is Ancient.” New Media Curious. http://kathiiberens.com/2012/12/03/ancient/ (accessed March 7, 2014).

Koh, Adeline and Brian Croxall (2013). “What is Digital Pedagogy?” http://www.briancroxall.net/digitalpedagogy/what-is-digital-pedagogy/ (accessed March 7, 2014).

Morris, Sean Michael (2012). “Courses, Composition, Hybridity.” http://www.seanmichaelmorris.com/courses-composition-hybridity/ (accessed March 7, 2014).

Sample, Mark (2012). “Notes Towards a Deformed Humanities.” Sample Reality. http://www.samplereality.com/2012/05/02/notes-towards-a-deformed-humanities/ (accessed March 7, 2014).","txt","2","",""
"1916","15","Digital Yoknapatawpha: Interpreting a Palimpsest of Place","10","Digital Yoknapatawpha is a critical database, interactive map, timeline, and network visualization that aims to unite the 15 novels and 48 short stories that William Faulkner, over the course of his career, set in the imagined county of Yoknapatawpha. “Digital Yoknapatawpha: Interpreting a Palimpsest of Place” reports on the collaborative effort of 25 scholars from around the world, led by Stephen Railton, to expand the understanding of Faulkner’s creation and recreation of this one county. This paper, written jointly by four of the project’s collaborators, will describe the digital methods and practices engaged in the project, as well as the inherent challenges produced when digital spaces encounter the fictional world of an author who did not care much about getting the facts right.

William Faulkner, the 20th-century writer known for his portrayal of the American South, envisioned his fictional world, Yoknapatawpha County, as a series of maps. In Faulkner's development of Yoknapatawpha’s geography through narrative, the creators of Digital Yoknapatawpha have discovered the patterns of a digital space, meaning that Faulkner returns to the same places, times, and people in his fiction, though he often alters the details. Like a digital space, these details are ever revisable. Yoknapatawpha County’s imagined geography branches out in a web of connections between people, places and events through multiple representations. Each element layers onto another, creating a palimpsest of place throughout Faulkner’s fictional world. For our purposes “place” is not just a point (lat/long) or even a simple area on a map. Certainly, geography is crucial, however, the “place” that constitutes our primary interest is established by the confluence of human activity at locations, across areas and reverberating in time. To be sure, we can gather ideas about Faulkner’s corpus without the use of digital methods. We argue, however, that without the meticulous harvesting and collation of these elements we can, at best, only derive vague impressions of the complicated webs that inhabit Faulkner’s fiction. While a substantial number of Faulknerian scholars already focus on the role of “place” in understanding human activity, our intent is to complement and extend such scholarship, not supplant it, through internet-accessible interactive visualizations.

Our collaboration began with discussions (recurring small-group meetings and a National Endowments for the Humanities funded, multi-day, full-group workshop) in which we worked to establish “editorial policies” that could guide the interpretive decisions that each team of editors would face as it conducted the close reading of individual stories and novels. Fundamental to the interpretation is the agreement that Faulkner’s “confluence of human activity” may be digitally interpreted by identifying the characters that participate in the events Faulkner composes and by identifying the locations and time-frames attached to each event.

Each team therefore conducts close readings of an individual text with the goal to draw out specific details about the categories of characters, events, locations and time frames as keyed to that specific text. The interpretations derived from those close readings form the basis of the interactive visualization we call Digital Yoknapatawpha. While the interactive aspect of the visualization cannot be conveyed here, we have included Figures 1-5 to provide a basic overview of the information available through the visualization.

The novel, Flags in the Dust, and 11 short stories that constitute the current set of interpreted texts are shown on the prototype of the home page in Figure 1. Selecting the leftmost icon takes one to the visualization specific to Flags in the Dust, as shown in Figure 2. The central area of the display depicts a map of the imagined geography engendered by that text. It contains man-made features (e.g., roads), natural features (e.g., hills and waterways) and the location icons that appear as settings for events in the novel. These are in layers that can be hidden or shown via the controls on the left. To the right are generalized geographies for events that might be interpreted as taking place outside of Yoknapatawpha. When a user selects a specific location on the map, the map yields a textual display that describes the location and provides tabs listing the events occurring at that location and the characters participating in those events (see Figure 3).

The dynamic mode of the visualization becomes crucial when we consider the progression of events in the narratives. We use the term “progression” to emphasize that events play out in two spacio-temporal modes: the narrative or textual order (indicated by page number) and the chronological order as we interpret it using historical and calendar clues within the text. The three bars on the bottom of the display (see Figure 2) provide playable timelines; the uppermost play buttons provide a textually organized progression and the lower buttons provide a chronological one.

Figure 4 provides a snapshot of the progression in which the second event has been selected on the page-order progression bar. Allowing the page-order to “play” through to an event that occurs on page 75 yields the display shown in Figure 5. In this mapping one can see the geographic expanse of the events that have occurred up to that point in the novel while the chronological line demonstrates the way that the novel has narrated human activity across various temporal settings.

As presented above, in the Digital Yoknapatawpha project, we use digital methods that both challenge and mimic Faulkner's aesthetic project in order to discover new insights about his narrative approach. For example, Faulkner manipulates, to great effect, narrative space against textual space. By entering events with a page-order aspect, we are forced to focus on the textual space as Faulkner deliberately shaped it. When we order those events into a chronology—a chronology that perhaps spans his entire fiction—we are forced to confront, in very concrete ways, the absences, contradictions, concurrences, and shifting perspectives that spread out over that textual space.

So much in Faulkner is speculated, projected, imagined, and contradicted. Faulkner himself often claimed to be interested in truth, not facts. Therefore, how can we account for the ambiguity evinced through close reading yet also record the specific information required for visualization? The specific manner of close reading that our project of data collection requires forces us to identify, yet at times bracket, the narratives’ ambiguities and contradictions in order to determine precise locations in the textual space. This approach, and its attendant frustrations, allow us to enliven Faulknerian contradiction with traditional maps and innovative network visualizations, thus making the ambiguity that is so central to Faulkner’s fiction also a central element of the project’s design and display. In turn, the potential in the aesthetics of digital space overcome the challenges and frustration of contradictory positions by providing visual and interactive ways to engage with ambiguity in Faulkner's work.


Fig. 1: Home page indicating novel and stories covered.


Fig. 2: A visualization of the imagined geography (and associated geographies).


Fig. 3: Textual information about a specific location.


Fig. 4: A location highlighted to indicate an event is happening there.


Fig. 5: A different location highlighted, with the accumulated evidence of events already told.

References
See: http://faulkner.iath.virginia.edu/prototype/","txt","2","",""
"1917","15","Digitalizing the Matsu Festival Celebration: The Study and Application of Value-Added Creative Methods to Taiwan Folk Culture and Art","2","In August 2009, Mazu belief and customs were formally inscribed on UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (2013)1. Worship of Mazu has long been the folk belief with the largest numbers of believers and temples in Taiwan. It is a deeply rooted faith for Taiwanese. The folk belief has been developed from Taiwan’s immigrant society and maritime culture. Mazu is a goddess transformed from an ordinary female who can protect people on the sea from disasters. Worship of Mazu has spread to more than 20 countries around the world, and has had a profound impact on the majority of the faithful. The artist Chin-Hsin Lin has spent 20 years completing the giant 124 m woodcut prints Celebrating the Mazu Festival. It records the celebrations of the most important religious deity in Taiwan with rich details. The prints, exhibited in many museums abroad, have received international recognition. The Celebrating the Mazu Festival prints are not only artworks but also a part of Taiwan folk culture. Because of the richness of the work, we believe the cultural spirit and content can be expressed through multiple-sensory interactions in digital media.

Based on the longest woodcut print scroll in the world, Celebrating the Mazu Festival, one of the most important Taiwan folk cultural artwork, we propose an interdisciplinary project Digitalizing the Mazu Festival Celebration: The Study and Application of Value-Added Creative Methods to Taiwan Folk Culture and Art. We use digital methods to create it with value-added applications of digital media, such as animation, web site, interactive installation, and mobile app. The goals of the project are as follows:

To complete Taiwan's first digital animation of Celebrating the Mazu Festival.
To add value to the longest woodcut print scroll in the world by applying interactive motion-sensing technology in installation art.
To use the Celebrating the Mazu Festival folk culture material to construct Web 2.0 and mobile social media with creative application design.
To integrate humanistic art, media technology, and cultural and creative industries, to develop the new concept “interactive & digital” culture in Taiwan, and to transfer the experience to education and industry.
This integrated project consists of three sub-projects: (1) The Analysis and Design of Cultural and Creative Content: content analysis and animation creation; (2) The Study and Development of Interactive Display Technology: development of motion-sensing and mobile technologies; and (3) The Application of the Innovative Display Model: design and construction of the web exhibition and interactive installation. The first sub-project uses the Mazu Festival Celebration theme and create varied artistic forms with animated image technology to present Taiwan folk culture. In the second sub-project, we study and develop motion-capture and related innovative display technologies.

This paper focuses on the third sub-project that applies multiple senses and interaction in digital media to represent the cultural content. Integrating information graphics, navigational design, and a dynamic visual style is the design approach. This sub-project consists of three parts: (1) Web Exhibition Hall: To design the information architecture and navigation system, to design and produce the Web Exhibition Hall with 67 prints on the exhibition web; (2) Web Creative Displays: To create Web Creative Displays on selected web pages with interactive information graphics to create deep understanding of the cultural content; (3) Interactive Installation: To design and build the physical installation, and to integrate animated content, artistic form, and motion-sensing technologies in the “Celebrating the Mazu Festival” Interactive Installation. The process and results show the possibility of integration of folk art and digital media.

References
1. UNESCO. (2013). Mazu belief and customs. Retrieved January 20, 2013, from www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00011&RL=00227.","txt","2","",""
"1918","15","Digitization of Hmong Sacred Texts","2","A remote religious community, called Ee Nbee Mee Noo (Ib Npis Mis Nus), in northern Thailand has recently shared their extensive collection of hand-written religious manuscripts with researchers following extensive collaboration and community work. Interested in making these foundational sacred texts more accessible across the global Hmong diaspora, the community leaders sought the cooperation of scholars to digitize the texts in preparation for eventual publication. Rich in historical and religious content, these nine 200-page volumes are written in the community’s own sacred and obscure Puaj Txwm alphabet of the Hmong language.

The scope of our project includes the development of a set of digital tools that will perform OCR (built on the Tesseract engine), error-check based on phonological rules of the Hmong language, and encode the text (according to TEI guidelines) to make the text searchable and indexable for future distribution as electronic texts. In addition, the project will create a transliteration tool that will enable Hmong texts to be transliterated across the dozen or more orthographies used throughout the diaspora, thus facilitating the exchange and investigation of Hmong language texts across diasporic histories and geographies.

This poster will feature the project’s tools and process, emphasizing the solutions to obstacles including a hand-written manuscript and the complicated politics of ethnic minority religious movements in Thailand. The poster will provide context for these sacred texts and their obscure alphabet, overview the digitization process, and provide examples of the work and the innovative solutions developed by our research team.","txt","2","",""
"1919","15","Digitizing the Dead and Dismembered: DH Technologies for the Study of Coptic Texts","10","The Coptic language evolved from the language of the hieroglyphs of the pharaonic era and represents the last phase of the Egyptian language.  It is pivotal for a wide range of humanistic disciplines, such as linguistics, biblical studies, the history of Christianity, Egyptology, and ancient history.  Whereas languages like Classical Greek and Latin have enjoyed advances made in digital humanities with fully-fledged online research environments accessible to students and scholars (such as the Perseus Digital Library), until recently, no computational tools for Coptic have existed. Nor has an open digital research corpus been available.  The research team developing Coptic SCRIPTORIUM (Sahidic Corpus Research: Internet Platform for Interdisciplinary multilayer Methods) is developing and providing open-source technologies and methodologies for interdisciplinary research across multiple disciplines in the Coptic language.  This paper will address the automated tools we are developing for annotating and conducting research on a Coptic digital corpus.  

Conducting digitally-assisted and computational research in Coptic using available DH resources is complex for several reasons.  Most texts are preserved from damaged, incomplete, and dismembered manuscripts or papyri.  The DH project papyri.info has begun to create an online open-access resource for the study of Greek papyri and is beginning to digitize Coptic papyri and ostraca (ancient pot-shards with writing).  These texts, however, are primarily documentary, consisting of wills, contracts, personal letters, etc.  Coptic literary and monastic texts, the core of Coptic SCRIPTORIUM, are essential for the study of the Bible, intellectual history, literary history, and religious history.  The manuscripts containing these texts were removed from Egypt in the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries piece by piece (sometimes page by page).  Some have been published, many have not, and very few have been digitized in a format suitable for digital and computational work.  Texts must be must be reconstructed from pieces of manuscripts published in fragments and/or stored in various libraries and museums worldwide. The status of Coptic literary and monastic complicates metadata management and corpus architecture:  what constitutes a “work” – the codex in which a copy of the text appeared (and which may be dispersed across multiple physical repositories)? the manuscript fragment housed in a particular library or museum repository or the work, which only might survive in fragments of multiple codices (all copies of a “book” from the monastery’s library), and thus in fragments not only from more than one codex but also more than one modern repository?

Coptic scholarship still lacks many standards for digital publication and language research that are taken for granted in Greek and Latin. As with other ancient languages, Coptic manuscripts are written without spaces.  However, in contrast to its ancient counterparts, scholarly conventions on word division differ substantially from scholar to scholar. Additionally, since Coptic is an agglutinative language, the relevant unit for linguistic analysis is the morpheme, below the ‘word’ level.  This means that segmentation guidelines must be developed for both levels of resolution. In order to search multiple texts, guidelines and tools for normalization, part-of-speech tagging and lemmatization of Coptic must be developed.  These tools need to take into account Coptic’s agglutinative nature, e.g. normalizing and annotating on the morpheme and word levels.

Finally, the development of the Coptic language during Egypt’s Greco-Roman era raises questions about the origins of the language, its usage in a multilingual context, and the language practices of its ancient speakers and writers.  Coptic consists of Egyptian grammar, vocabulary, and syntax written primarily in the Greek alphabet; some Egyptian letters were retained, and some Greek and Latin vocabulary was incorporated into the language. The richness of the vocabulary’s languages of origin varies from author to author, genre to genre.  And despite recent publications on the topic, much research remains to be conducted on the extent and nature of multilingualism in late antique Egypt, especially during the fourth and fifth centuries. Additionally, due to the agglutinative nature of the language, one word can be comprised of morphemes with different languages of origin.

This paper will focus on the automated tools our project is developing to process the language, especially tokenizing and part-of-speech annotations.  Coptic SCRIPTORIUM has developed the first tokenizer and part-of-speech tagger for the language, and in fact for any language in the Egyptian language family. The presentation will address the unique challenges to processing and annotating the Coptic language.  We will present our current technical solutions, their accuracy rates, and the potential for future research.  We will also address the ways in which this language’s and corpus’s unique featured differentiate them from other more widely studied ancient languages, such as Greek and Latin.  Examples will be drawn from the open-access corpora we are developing and annotating with these tools, available at coptic.pacific.edu (backup site www.carrieschroeder.com/scriptorium).  The Coptic corpora processed and annotated with these tools can be searched and visualized in ANNIS, a tool for multi-layer annotated corpora.  We anticipate this presentation to be of interest to scholars in digital humanities working with ancient languages and manuscript corpora as well as DH linguists and corpus linguists.

References
Bentley Layton (2011), A Coptic Grammar, 3rd Edition, Rev, Porta Linguarum Orientalium Neue Serie 20 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2011), 19–20.

Layton, Coptic Grammar, 5.

J. N. Adams, Mark Janse, and Simon Swain (2002), Bilingualism in Ancient Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); Arietta Papaconstantinou, ed., The Multilingual Experience in Egypt from the Ptolemies to the Abassids (Burlington: Ashgate, 2010).

http://www.sfb632.uni-potsdam.de/annis/","txt","2","",""
"1920","15","Digitizing women's literary history: The possibility of collaborative empowerment?","10","Introduction
For several years, we have taken initiatives in view of clarifying women’s realparticipation in the European literary field before the early 20th century – as opposed to the relative absence of women in literary histories of the 20th century. We have worked in this large field through a series of successive projects funded on a national as well as a European scale. At present, the HERA project Travelling TexTs 1790-1914. The Transnational Reception of Women’s Writing at the Fringes of Europe (2013-2016) and the CLARIN-NL project Connections Between Women and Writings Within European Borders (COBWWWEB, 2013-2014) provide the context of our presentation. Roughly speaking: the HERA project is about the content, while in the CLARIN project developers are preparing a new structure, allowing the database WomenWriters to connect to other – either structured or editing – projects in the field of women’s literature: for the sake of testing, in the first instance, to the Swedish Selma Lagerlöf Archive, the Norwegian Female Robinsonades and the Serbian Knjizenstvo project; others will follow.  

The intended large-scale approach is meant as a complement to ongoing individual digitizing projects, such as the Huygens ING “Digitizing Isabelle de Charrière’s letters” using the eLaborate edition project. Admittedly, “literary women” are benefitting from the new drive to digitize, but we are not yet able to feel the full benefit of these digitized texts. As Jacqueline Wernimont (2013) states, “simply saving women’s work in digital form” is not enough. The women’s texts are often presented in isolation from their historical reception context – which makes it impossible to evaluate their historical importance.

The large-scale and the individual
Referring to Labrosse 1985, we propose to take this reception context as a starting point for a large-scale approach on female authorship from previous, older periods in time. It represents the other end of the communication process in which these women engaged, and it helps us to select authors and texts that should be studied in more detail. When using these reception documents as an “entry” to the texts themselves, the emphasis obviously is on what struck the contemporary reader, in a positive and negative sense: we are thus in the middle of a dialogue.

Putting this data – with the appropriate metadata – in our online database (discussed and tested during an earlier COST financed phase of the collaboration) allows us to roughly situate these authors and works before analyzing them.  Giving these women their own place in the virtual representation of the literary field, where communication, circulation and transmission can be made visible, provides context and promotes understanding on a larger scale.

Linking for understanding relevance
It is, indeed, not the sheer presence of these women’s texts on the Internet that advances scholarship. It is the possibility of understanding their relevance – which has often been systematically denied, without reference to empirical data by way of arguments. Understanding relevance cannot be reached by any unprepared reading of the writings. Approaching texts from a “prepared” perspective obviously requires time, but frees these texts from prejudices that are inherent in the late 19th and 20th-century literary historiography of women’s authorship and that – although denounced by Virginia Woolf in A Room of one’s own (1929) – inevitably influences even our post-feminist students.

On the practical level, the connection between the structured database content, on the one hand, and the online edited texts to be studied, on the other, can be made visible by using the same terminology for (1) distinguishing database categories, and (2) annotations in the digitized text in editing platforms such as eLaborate. Linking this data is particularly essential for research in women’s literary history because of the small amount of information available, and therefore the need to compare women authors, postulating that problems encountered by one author are experienced similarly by her colleagues.

Use cases 
The objective of this presentation is to highlight the importance of ICT tools used in connection and in complement with each other, for research in domains (not just the one of women’s history) which have fallen behind. We will illustrate this using two examples, representing the two ends of literary communication: 

A female sender, the Dutch-Swiss author writing in French Belle van Zuylen/Isabelle de Charrière (1740-1805), and her international (male + female) reception: she has her place in the WomenWriters database, and her letters are being digitized within the eLaborate project;
A male receiver, the Dutch 19th-century literary critic Conrad Busken Huet, who commented upon important numbers of (Dutch and foreign) women authors: he is present in the WomenWriters database, and his critiques are presented (without the possibility of annotation) in the Digital Library of Dutch Literature DBNL.
Briefly describing these two cases we want to illustrate the way in which this collective and transnational research in women’s literary history not only relies on combining several types of ICT tools, connecting different kinds of data (empirical data, “capta”, (references to the) primary and secondary texts), but also requires the participation of different categories of collaborators: not only professional researchers and ICT specialists but also volunteers.

This “mixed” collaboration is needed at a time when computers are still unable to communicate through the use of different languages. As this project collates women authors from all over Europe different tags and categories (denominated in English) are needed to refer to texts and aspects of texts in different languages. This can currently only be done by judgment, by readers who understand which elements of the (narrative) texts are characteristic or a-typical.

Many of the volunteers obviously will be women: the potential readers of both our research output and of the works written by “our” early women authors. They represent, typically, a category of people who will be “empowered” by the access that is given to their foremothers and potential role models….

Administrative obstacles
This complicated interconnection of collaborators may prove to be difficult. However, scholarship in the academy can no longer be fulfilled exclusively by the work of the professoriate. Technological innovations are not just a matter of devices and tools. They concern social practices; they concern users and uses. We can no longer ignore that, next to professionals (researchers, information technologists, librarians, and even students), there are “end users”, who are in fact essential members of our interdisciplinary community; they justify our very activities. It is important – given the precarious position of women in present-day society and the small number of historical role models – to “spread the word” about these early writing activities and the women behind them.

This massive, complex collaboration is not, at present, recognized by institutions and stakeholders; consequently, young and senior researchers, as much as students, are often not ready to invest themselves in this kind of collaborative project. In our presentation, we will also denounce the gaps between digital technologies, the willingness of potential volunteers and the entire educational and academic system, and we will propose some possible strategies.

References
Bergenmar, J., Olsson, L., (2012). Connecting European Women Writers. The Selma Lagerlöf Archive and Women Writers Database, in Digital Humanities 2012: Conference Abstracts. Hamburg: Hamburg University Press, pp. 113-114. www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/HamburgUP_dh2012_BoA.pdf

Bergenmar, J., Marzec, L., Sanz, A., (2013). Learning to hack the Literary History – teaching Transnational Women’s Writing Digitally, contribution to final conference of COST Action IS0901 “Women Writers In History”: Female authorship in Europe: Networks and obstacles. The Hague, June 2013. www.womenwriters.nl/index.php/Learning_to_hack_the_Literary_History

Jeay, J., Sinclair, S., (2012). En quête d’amitié. Approches méthodologiques pour l’analyse automatisée d’un corpus électronique,  contribution to SATOR conference Topiques de l’amitié, Victoria June 2012. web.uvic.ca/~amitie/index%20resumes.html

Labrosse, C., (1985). Fonctions culturelles du périodique littéraire, in Claude Labrosse, Pierre Rétat, L’instrument périodique, La fonction de la presse au XVIIIe siècle. Lyon: Presses Universitaires de Lyon, pp. 11-136.

Van Dijk, S., (2012).  La correspondance d’Isabelle de Charrière en ligne, Cahiers de l’Association Internationale des Etudes Françaises, 64, pp. 29-40. www.womenwriters.nl/images/8/81/2012_SvanDijk_01_lacorrespondance.pdf

Van Dijk, S., (2012). Amitié, solidarité et entraide féminines : Spécificités d’auteurs femmes ?, contribution to SATOR conference Topiques de l’amitié, Victoria June 2012. web.uvic.ca/~amitie/index%20resumes.html

Van Dijk, S., Hoogenboom, H., Sanz, A., Bergenmar, J., Olsson, L., (2012). Data sharing, virtual collaboration, and textual analysis: Working on “Women Writers In History”, in Digital Humanities 2012: Conference Abstracts. Hamburg: Hamburg University Press, pp. 527-529. www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/HamburgUP_dh2012_BoA.pdf

Van Dijk, S., Prats Lopez, M. (2013). “Participation as a way of creating new audiences ?”, contribution to final conference of COST Action IS0901 “Women Writers In History”: Female authorship in Europe: Networks and obstacles. The Hague, June 2013. www.womenwriters.nl/index.php/Participation_as_a_way_of_creating_new_audiences_%3F

Wernimont, J., (2013). Whence Feminism? Assessing Feminist Interventions in Digital Literary Archives, in Digital Humanities Quarterly 7/1. www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/7/1/000156/000156.html","txt","2","",""
"1921","15","Dimensions of literary appreciation","10","Introduction
The appreciation of literature is a subjective process. In reading and judging books, characteristics of individual readers interact with characteristics of books and their reputation. This paper looks at book ratings on a book discussion site and tries to assess the role of individual readers’ characteristics in these ratings. For that purpose, the paper inspects on the one hand the textual properties of the review texts that readers contribute to this site, and on the other hand the ratings that they assign.

Given the well-established connection between word use frequencies and authorial style (e.g. Burrows, 2002; Burrows, 2003), the paper hypothesizes that these same style markers in texts by readers will correlate with these readers’ quality judgments about books. Patterns in word usage are known to reflect aspects of readers’ psychological make-up (Argamon et al., 2005; Noecker et al., 2013; Pennebaker et al., 2003), and these psychological properties, e.g. the Big Five personality dimensions, are related to aesthetic preferences in many fields (Golbeck and Norris, 2013; Gridley, 2013; Zweigenhaft, 2008), including books and literature (Cantador et al., 2013; Wiersema et al., 2012).

Aesthetic appreciation has been shown to be a multi-faceted process (Myszkowski et al., 2014; Rentfrow et al., 2011). Here, I assume that literary appreciation is influenced by multiple aspects of the reader’s psychology, such as, among others, his/her cognitive, affective and social dispositions. Therefore, besides investigating the over-all most frequently used words, as stylometry often does, I will also look at the high frequency words within the categories of cognitive, affective, and social words, as defined by LIWC (Pennebaker et al., 2007). I expect that the relative frequencies of e.g. individual social words (rather than the category frequencies that LIWC-based research typically uses) will capture to some extent the nature of a person’s sociability and will to that extent also reflect how that sociability affects literary preferences.

Data
The data for this paper come from Dutch book discussion site watleesjij.nu (whatareyoureading.now). The site is similar to e.g. Goodreads, LibraryThing or lovelybooks.de: users rate, label and review books, they can evaluate reviews by others, can strike up friendships with and send messages to other users. I downloaded the site’s content in June 2013. I investigate review texts and ratings contributed by the top 20 (in terms of total review length) contributors to the site (I removed two accounts that seemed to be used by multiple persons.) For each of these users, I create a file containing all of the review texts this user has contributed to the site. The average word count is 44036. I also collect the ratings (in terms of one to five stars) for all of the 624 books that were rated by at least two of the twenty users.

Method and results
As a first step, I compute correlations between the word use frequencies in each of the word categories and the book ratings. The word frequencies are represented as a matrix of zscores, where users are rows and words are columns. For the computation of the zscores I use Eder and Rybicki’s stylo script (2011), then select only those words that form part of the relevant LIWC category. The ratings are given in a matrix with users as rows and books as columns. Non-rated books are represented by 0. To assess the correlation between these matrices I rely on the (bias corrected) distance correlation and the associated significance test as described by Székely and Rizzo (2013). Table 1 reports the results, including the number of words that gave the best results for each category (However, for all categories except Affect the correlations were significant at the .01-level even for the top 25 words.) The table also gives the percentage of words belonging to the category in the review files.

 

Table 1. Bias-corrected distance correlation between word usage and book appreciation for different word categories

Category	bias corrected distance correlation	p-value	Optimum number of most frequent words	percentage of words in category
All words	.49	<.0001	2900	100
Function words	.36	<.0001	250	50
Affect words	.21	.0025	225	3
Cognitive words	.35	<.0001	375	18
Social words	.47	<.0001	125	12
The table shows that frequencies in each of the word categories are quite significantly correlated with the word ratings. The relatively low effect from affective words may be due to the low percentage of affect words in the texts.

The most striking result is no doubt the performance of the category of social words. In order to further investigate this effect, users were clustered in two groups, based on their usage of social words (I employed the pam partitioning function in R.) I then looked at contrastive word use of these clusters and at the books liked by the cluster members. The oppose function from Eder and Rybicki (2011) was used to find words preferred by either cluster. The results are given in table 2. The first cluster shows an interest in people and especially family that the second cluster, with its mostly cognitive or procedural interest, seems to lack entirely.

 

Table 2. Words preferred (from all words) by the two clusters (translated from Dutch). For cluster one, only the top 20 preferred words are given

Cluster	Preferred words
1	daughter, parents, family [nuclear], mother, woman, together, father, children, past, young, child, debut, house, brother, women, tells, love, marriage, family [extended], care
2	so, perhaps, page, of course, pity, well, read, precisely, actually, just, immediately, think, for instance, part, viz., believe, even, sort of, interesting, by the way
In order to find out the sort of books preferred by the clusters, I summed the book ratings by cluster. I then selected and diagrammed a subset of books, consisting of the ten books best liked by either cluster, the ten books best liked ‘contrastively’ by either cluster (computed by subtracting the ratings for cluster 1 from those for cluster 2), and the ten books best liked by both. After removal of duplicates, thirty books remained. Figure 1 displays the books with their ratings by the two clusters. Point and title size reflect popularity on the site. Grayscale represents genre. Point positions were slightly changed to avoid overlap. Lines between title labels and points were suppressed in the interest of clarity.


Fig. 1: Books as rated by the two clusters.

The figure seems to show some systematic differences in the preferences of the two clusters. Cluster 1, that uses mostly family-oriented words, seems to prefer slightly more popular books (larger point size). Cluster 2, that uses procedural or cognitive words, has strong preferences for a number of staunchly ‘literary’ works, such as those by Grass, Binet and classical Dutch authors. As to a potential preference for suspense novels, this figure does not allow us to draw any firm conclusions.

Discussion
The reason why different people prefer different books has often been sought in differing literary norms (e.g. Von Heydebrand and Winko, 2008). This explanation is not quite satisfactory, for two reasons: first because it does not explain why people develop different norms, and second because there are no a priori reasons why norms rather than, say pleasure or ‘thrills’ (Konecni, 2005) should determine one’s preference for one book over another. This paper takes another approach and the results presented here tentatively establish the existence of a correlation between book preferences and patterns of word usage in several psychologically meaningful categories. Especially the relation between the pattern of usage of social words and literary appreciation seems very strong, confirming the importance of extraversion for aesthetic judgment noted by Furnham and Chamorro-Premuzic (2004), but appreciation is also clearly related to usage of cognitive words and of function words.

There are some obvious limitations to this experiment. The number of subjects is very small (dictated by the need to have a sufficient number of words). It would also have been better to use texts from another domain. However, an exploratory analysis of the effect of clustering based on social word usage seems to show that the verbally more ‘social’ group prefers the less literary or more popular novel. Given the small numbers, more than provisional results should perhaps not be expected.

Next steps should include clustering on the basis of other word categories, an investigation into the independent effect of these categories, and case studies at the level of individual readers. It would also be very interesting to see to what extent the literary norms that readers formulate in the reviews can be shown to be related to the word usage patterns as discussed here.

References
Argamon, S., S. Dhawle, M. Koppel and J.W. Pennebaker. (2005) 'Lexical predictors of personality type', Proceedings of the Joint Annual Meeting of the Interface and the Classification Society of North America.

Burrows, J. (2002) '‘Delta’: A measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship'.Literary and Linguistic Computing 17(3): 267-287.

Burrows, J. (2003) 'Questions of Authorship: Attribution and Beyond. A Lecture Delivered on the Occasion of the Roberto Busa Award ACH-ALLC 2001, New York'. Computers and the Humanities 37(1): 5-32.

Cantador, I., I. Fernández-Tobías, A. Bellogín, M. Kosinski and D. Stillwell. (2013) 'Relating Personality Types with User Preferences in Multiple Entertainment Domains', Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Emotions and Personality in Personalized Services (EMPIRE 2013), at the 21st Conference on User Modeling, Adaptation and Personalization (UMAP 2013).

Eder, M. and J. Rybicki. (2011) 'Stylometry with R'. Paper presented at Digital Humanities 2011: Conference Abstracts, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.

Furnham, A. and T. Chamorro-Premuzic. (2004) 'Personality, intelligence, and art'.Personality and Individual Differences 36(3): 705-715.

Golbeck, J. and E. Norris. (2013) 'Personality, movie preferences, and recommendations', Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining: ACM, pp. 1414-1415.

Gridley, M.C. (2013) 'Preference for Abstract Art According to Thinking Styles and Personality'. North American Journal of Psychology 15(3).

Konecni, V.J. (2005) 'The aesthetic trinity: Awe, being moved, thrills'.Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts 5(2): 27-44.

Myszkowski, N., M. Storme, F. Zenasni and T. Lubart. (2014) 'Is visual aesthetic sensitivity independent from intelligence, personality and creativity?'. Personality and Individual Differences 59(16-20.

Noecker, J., M. Ryan and P. Juola. (2013) 'Psychological profiling through textual analysis'. Literary and Linguistic Computing 28(3): 382-387.

Pennebaker, J.W., R.J. Booth and M.E. Francis. (2007) 'Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC2007)', Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC2007). Austin, TX.

Pennebaker, J.W., M.R. Mehl and K.G. Niederhoffer. (2003) 'Psychological aspects of natural language use: Our words, our selves'. Annual review of psychology 54(1): 547-577.

Rentfrow, P.J., L.R. Goldberg and R. Zilca. (2011) 'Listening, watching, and reading: The structure and correlates of entertainment preferences'.Journal of personality 79(2): 223-258.

Székely, G.J. and M.L. Rizzo. (2013) 'The distance correlation t-test of independence in high dimension'. Journal of Multivariate Analysis 117(193-213.

Von Heydebrand, R. and S. Winko. (2008) 'The qualities of literatures', The Quality of Literature: Linguistic Studies in Literary Evaluation. Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp. 223-239.

Wiersema, D.V., J. Van Der Schalk and G.A. van Kleef. (2012) 'Who's afraid of red, yellow, and blue? Need for cognitive closure predicts aesthetic preferences'. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts 6(2): 168.

Zweigenhaft, R.L. (2008) 'A do re mi encore: A closer look at the personality correlates of music preferences'. Journal of individual differences 29(1): 45.","txt","2","",""
"1922","15","Discovering Old Maps Online and Transforming Them Into Digital Humanities Resources","2","Hundreds of thousands of historical maps have now been scanned and made available on-line by libraries and archives around the world, and this has been a great boon to anyone interested in the history of cartography. Despite this fact it is hard to find scanned maps covering area of interest in the large number of online catalogs, library systems and web presentations on the web. The traditional full text search engines, such as Google, are failing to index the scanned maps properly.

Old Maps Online (www.oldmapsonline.org) is a search system tailored just for historical maps. Pick a location on a world map, or type in a place-name, narrow the search by selecting a date range. A listing of all possible maps covering that location appears, ordered by best geographical match. Select a map, click on the link and you go directly to view the map on the original library’s website. 

You don’t need to know who holds the map, just when and where in the world you want to look at. This system is designed to complement rather than compete with libraries' own search interfaces. The system is powered by the enhanced version of the MapRank Search technology and indexes over 130.000 scanned high-resolution maps already and this number grows.

Many major collections in the US, UK and elsewhere have agreed to contribute: The British Library, Harvard Library, National Library of Scotland, David Rumsey Map Collection, Dutch National Archives, Moravian Library, New York Public Library, Norman B. Leventhal Map Center at the Boston Public Library, National Library of Australia, etc. Cooperation with the Europeana project has started as well. Our aim is to include as many collections as possible, so map libraries and collectors are encouraged to participate.

To be able to index the scanned maps geographically, the minimal metadata (title, creator/publisher, date, identifier, and a stable url) plus geographic coordinates for the area covered must be known for each map.

We develop and maintain set of online tools targetting librarians, scholars and volunteers allowing to create the coordinates and assign precise location to the existing online zoomable maps. One of the tools is the Georeferencer online service, which allows rapid collaborative georeferencing, 3D visualization, annotation and accuracy analysis of scanned online maps directly in a web browser environment, without the need to install any additional software on a local computer. The online visitors can help with the metadata enrichment and georeferencing of the scanned maps - and they are motivated with competitions, rewarding, community participation and recognition during this crowdsourcing effort.

With the presented online tools the enrichment and reuse of scanned maps is very straightforward. Recently the system has been improved and extended also with the functionality for favouriting the maps, for creating custom virtual map collections and for overlaying and comparing of the old maps. New tools for annotating and for exporting produced geodata or reusing the maps in a form of the standardized online services OGC WMS / OGC WMTS are integrated as well.

The Georeferencer service is applied in several institutions such as the British Library (London), the David Rumsey Map Collection (USA), the Moravian Library (Brno), the Nationaal Archief (The Hague), the National Library of Scotland (Edinburgh), and the Institut Cartografic de Catalunya (Barcelona).

Next to the service for discovery and indexing of these beautiful valuable resources, and next to the mentioned online tools for collaborative metadata enrichment of the scanned maps, this paper shows also practical applications of free and open-source software projects for online publishing and presentation of high resolution maps and vast collections of large raster images in general. Thanks to the modern web technologies such as HTML5 and WebGL it is now technically possible to bring the maps into web mashups and custom online applications directly.

The maps are undoubtedly extremely important documents for scholars, experts as well as interested general public. Once enriched with the precise geolocation and additional annotations, they are turned into a vary practical reusable online resource. Applying presented available tools and methods in a large scale opens opportunities for completely new forms of research in the area of digital humanities, which has never been possible before.","txt","2","",""
"1923","15","Distant reading of naïve poetry: corpora comparison as research methodology","10","The method of distant reading - term proposed by Franco Moretti (Moretti 2005 , Moretti 2013) , or – using another term – macroanalysis (Jockers 2013) has become a mainstream in digital humanities in last couple of years. The general idea of the approach is to gain new knowledge about literary and cultural processes with the help of digital and quantitative models applied to all sorts of language or literary resources. In our paper we follow the distant reading method focusing on the phenomenon of naïve poetry – poetical opuses, composed by non-professional poets and distributed on special web- sites. One of them – Russian stihi.ru (stihi means 'verses') – has nowadays become a giant collection of diletant literature with more than 5000 authors, about 21 mln of works and everyday update. It, thus, can be regarded as an extraordinary cultural linguistic resource made by crowd sourcing. At the same time Russian National Corpus resources possess a unique resource - Poetic corpus (Grishina et al. 2009; http://ruscorpora.ru/search-poetic.html). In contrast to stihi.ru, Russian Poetic Corpus has been collected and marked up by the team of experts in linguistic and literary studies and it presents Russian poetical classics from the 18th century till the early 1930th.

Comparison of the two poetic resources of naïve and classical poetry gives us an excellent possibility to use quantitative analysis to get some promising insights. We can understand more about the nature of literary imitations and epigone writings, the foundations and circulations of literary canon, the mechanisms of prosaic/poetic language shifts and many other topics related to sociology of textual culture that could not be studied with traditional methods. Some steps taken in this direction are presented in this paper.

We look first of all at frequency measures in both resources and analyze the revealing fluctuations of different word frequencies. We use the frequency list of Russian National Corpus (called below the general frequency list) as a controlling benchmark, that helps us to separate the words, which are most frequent in common Russian Lexicon, from those, which get high frequency exclusively in Russian verses, high or naïve. Then we make a qualitative analysis of the nouns that occur in the top 100 of each frequency list. We identified a range of semantic domains that can be expressed by these nouns and compared the domains of each poetical resource. As a result we defined three main strategies of naïve composition.

Preparation
For our research we have taken a sample of 50 mln word usage from naïve poetic corpus, which makes a representative corpus of more than 54 thousand authors. As our main aim was to find out what poetic patterns from high poetry are apt to be borrowed and imitated, we decided to extract a subcorpus of most typical imitating poetry. We searched for the authors who would bear in mind high poetical examples and try to go with them in their composition. The sorting has been made automatically. First we extracted all the bigramms from the high poetical corpus, and then we took only those documents from the naïve corpus, which a) have at least 50% bigrams that coincide with the bigrams of the high poetry list, b) are longer than 20 bigramms. Our final sample consisted of almost 9 mln word usage. The high poetic corpus has about 8 mln word usage. We lemmatized all the words in both corpora. After lemmatization the naïve poetic corpus consisted of 84 thousand lemmas

Methodology
We conducted three analyses based on the comparison of the three frequency lists: the frequency list from naïve poetic sample, the frequency list from Russian Poetic Corpus and the general Russian frequency list based on Russian National Corpus. In the first experiment we compared the change of ranks of very high frequent words in the naïve sample relatively to high poetic and general lists. Secondly we considered outliers of naïve poetry frequency list: those words that demonstrate dramatically different frequency behavior. The last experiment consisted in relating all the top 100 nouns of each frequency list to semantic domains, that they are most probably used for. Then the contents and the variety of each domain in each list has been analysed.

Results
The interpretation of the resource comparison results can be summarized by defining three basic strategies in naïve poetry: imitation, self-actualization and naming. Each of the strategies will be illustrated below by data examples. 

1. The top frequency list of naïve poetical resource shows interesting deviation both from high poetical corpus list and general frequency list (see table 1) 

Word (in Russian)	Word (translation)	Position rank in naïve list	Position rank in high poetical list	Position rank in general frequency list
И

and

 1	 1	 1
 Я	 I	2 	 3	 5
 не	 not	 3	 4	 3
 в	 in	 4	 2	 2
 ты	 you	 5	 7	
 33

 то	 this	 6	 5	 23
 что	 that	 7	 11	 9
 быть	 be	 8	 10	 6
 на	 on	 9	 6	 4
 как	 as	 10	 9	 19
 с	 with	 11	 8	 8
 мы	 we	 12	 13	18 
 а	 but	 13	 17	 10
 мой	 my	 14	 15	 60
 но	 but	 15	 14	 16
 так	 so	 16	 27	 30
 за	 for|behind	 17	 22	 24
 любовь	 love (noun)	 18	 52	 307
 любить	 love (verb)	 19	 66	 181
As we can see from the table, the naive poetry demonstrates important lexical features, some of them are specific, and some of them are typically poetic, being shared with the list of high poetry frequency. We observe an interesting tendency at the very top, where personal pronouns I and you displace the most common propositions in and on from the second and the forth positions correspondingly. Both pronouns I and you can be considered as lexical traits of poetical discourse. But the naïve poetry shows higher ranks for both of them (2 vs 3 in high poetry, and 5 vs. 7 in high poetry correspondingly). We see increase of frequency of those words which are already indicative for high poetical frequency list. The tendency to intensify specific poetical lexical features can be called the imitative strategy. The rank shift of the words love (noun and verb) is even more straightforward manifestation of the same strategy. While in general frequency list those words are not even in top 100, they occupy 52 and 66 positions in high poetical list and so far being an etalon of poetical shift they become the most frequent words in naïve poetry
2. The table below shows 5 nouns which have the biggest difference of ranks between naïve poetry list noun frequency of the Russian Poetical corpus (see table 2) 

 word	 word (translation)	Position rank in naïve list 	 Position rank in high poetical list	 Position rank in general frequency list
 фото	 photo	 971	 30827	 3400
 сигарета	 cigarette	 939	28957 	2109 
 проблем	problem 	610 	12572 	197 
мама 	mum 	330 	2125 	309 
 девчонка	babe, gal (derivative from girl) 	865 	5030 	2563 
These words behavior is various: some of them are more frequent comparing the general frequency list (photo, cigarette), some of them stay on roughly the same rank (mum), some are more rare than in general, but still show immense difference with the high poetical list (problem). The gap between naïve and poetic frequency list signals that there are some semantic zones where naïve poetry seems to be independent from the classical poetic canon. This trend can be defined as a self-actualization strategy which is in some sense opposite to the imitative strategy. 
3. We took top 100 nouns of every list and compared their lexical distribution . The nouns had been grouped into abstract semantic domains. Some words could be associated with several domains due to their polysemy. As a result we have identified 13 semantic domains, 12 of them are shared between naïve poetry, high poetry and common frequency lists and the 13th is not presented in the naïve poetry list. The domains we have defined are as follows:

Mankind (everything that may characterize a person: soul, beauty, name, heart, strength etc.), Body, Emotions, Mind, Existence (God, world, truth, time, fate etc.), Speech, Person (father, son, friend, enemy etc.), Event (love, happiness, past, disaster etc.), Time, Nature, Geography (road, hill etc.), Home (window, door etc.). The 13th domain which is found only in the high poetical list and in the general frequency list is Social and it includes such words as people, labor, fame in the poetical list, and state, money, law etc. in the general list.

Analysis of the overlaps and varieties of the naïve and high poetical lists showed differences in the elaboration of the domains in two corpora. The general frequency list helped to draw out the words that are commonly frequent and their presence in the list cannot be understood as a signal of the poetic concentration on the domain. The results are demonstrated on the graph below: 


As we can see from the graph, there are three zones of the naïve poetical sample that demonstrate high lexical variety of frequent nouns in comparison to the poetical corpus. These are Emotions, Event and Speech. Most of the words of those domains are not frequent in general lexicon. The lexical multiplicity can be explained by extensive strategy: the naïve poets do not use sophisticated verbal apparatus to express the conceptual space of the verse, but prefer straightforward lexical naming (pain, wish, encounter, grief, love, question, answer etc.)

References
Grishina E., Korchagin K., Plungian V., Sitchinava D. Poeticheskij korpus v ramkah NKRYa: obschaja struktura i perspektivy ispol'zovanija 'Natsional'nyj korpus russkogo jazyka: 2006-2008. Novye rezul'taty I perspektivy'. Saint Petersburg, 2009. P. 71-113. [Poetic Corpus in RNC: general structure and using perspectives] 

Moretti, Franco. Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract models for a literary history. Verso, 2005.

Moretti, Franco. Distant Reading. Verso, 2013

Jockers, Matthew L. Macroanalysis. University of Illinois Press, 2013","txt","2","",""
"1924","15","Distributed ""Forms of Attention"": eMOP and the Cobre Tool","10","A recent article by Paul Gooding, Melissa Terras, and Claire Warwick argues that a gap in our knowledge about the impact upon scholars of “large-scale digitized collections” of textual data has spawned “myths” about mass-digitization—those surrounding the distant- vs. close-reading debate, as well as dystopian arguments about digitally disrupted attention spans (Gooding et. al.; Moretti; Trumpener; Guillory; Hayles). “Where understanding lags behind innovation,” Gooding, Terras, and Warwick argue persuasively, “the rhetoric of technological determinism can fill the void” (633). Central to the myth that digital media produce “crowds of quick and sloppy readers” (632) is ignorance: the last decade has witnessed the emergence of a spate of digital editing and annotating tools as well as the emergence of what might be called “network editing.”[2] As has been amply revealed by the Australian Newspaper Digitisation Program, as well as other projects involving the crowd in correcting textual transcriptions such as Transcribe Bentham, people are as much engaged by the task of modifying digital textual archives as they are in using them (Halley, Terras), and textual “modding”[3] by networks of users requires paying close attention to texts, as might networked monasteries of monks in the process of transcribing them. The need for distributed networks of people helping to solve problems endemic to creating large textual corpora, in other words, fosters close attention to text. This fact is demonstrated by the Early Modern OCR Project (eMOP)[4]: the attempt to produce searchable text for 45 million page-images of texts published between 1473 and 1800 would fail were it not for the project’s adaptation of Cobre, a tool originally designed for closely examining various 16th Century Iberoamerican imprints, and Cobre elicits careful scholarly attention from globally distributed experts and citizen scholars wishing to take part in improving the quality and kind of information available on the Internet.

The eMOP project focuses on how to digitize the archive of early modern texts, despite problems entailed. The printing process in the hand-press period (1473-1800), while systematized to a certain extent, nonetheless produced texts with fluctuating baselines, mixed fonts, and varied concentrations of ink (among many other variables). Adding to these factors, the quality of the digital images of these books is very poor: ProQuest’s Early English Books Online dataset (EEBO) and Gale’s Eighteenth-Century Collections Online (ECCO) contain page images that were digitized in the 1990s from microfilm created in the 1970s and 80s. Hand-press printing as well as skewed low-quality images with no gray-scale originals creates a problem for Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software. OCR engines are notoriously bad at translating into texts digital images of early modern texts even under the best of circumstances (Gooding, Terras, and Warwick). That is trying to translate the images of these pages into archiveable, mineable texts.

The Early English Books Online dataset (EEBO) consists of a collection of approximately 15 million digital page images of texts published between 1473 and 1700, and these page images are practically impenetrable to OCR engines. Moreover, metadata for such early texts is notoriously unreliable: according to David Foxon, title pages don't only lie, they sometimes joke, naming the printer typically used by a rival author as a way of implicating that author in the text's composition, or naming a bookseller in an area of London such as the theater district, for satirical purposes. Not only the binding of books, but the re-use of previously printed materials in ""new"" books makes it very difficult to know what is actually proffered by any title--what editions of other works might be included, unacknowledged in the metadata. A consortium of libraries called the Text Creation Partnership (TCP) has decided to key in, type by hand, one instance of each title in the collection, but obviously, in this context, “the same title” rarely indicates what “buried treasures” lie beneath its mark (Jackson). Moreover, it is even the case that individual witnesses of the same edition vary because of stop-press additions and corrections, changes made during the run of a single printing of one edition.

Gibbs muses that “even once we have more reliable OCR technology, it would be nice to have an infrastructure to allow the manuscripts to be viewed together and improved by user expertise” and expresses hope for a transcription editor with an unobtrusive, functional, and intuitive interface, that allows text to be easily (re)configured while displaying variations between versions. Cobre (COmparative Book REader), a suite of image viewers and tools developed to facilitate detailed interaction with the collection of 16th Century New World imprints in the Proyecto losPrimeros Libros de las Américas: Impresos mexicanos y peruanos del Siglo XVI en la bibliotecas del mundo meets those needs.[5] Cobre ingests content from an OAI/PMH enabled digital repository. To populate a Cobre instance with texts for eMOP triage, we first structure the page images and their associated OCR transcriptions in the DSpace Simple Archive Format for ingestion into a DSpace repository, from which they can be imported into Cobre. Intrinsic to Cobre’s functionality is a Detailed View that not only places page images in context, via a filmstrip metaphor, but provides multiple zoom levels and the ability to drag the page in the viewer pane (Liles et al). Cobre’s Comparison View likewise uses a filmstrip view of two or more books together (Liles et al). These filmstrips can be locked, keeping them aligned when any one filmstrip is moved and when a thumbnail in the filmstrip is clicked, a side-by-side view of all the pages appears (Liles et al) in a Quick Comparative View.


Fig. 1: Cobre's Detailed View with imported OCR and pane for text correction


Fig. 2: Cobre's Comparative View of multiples exemplars


Fig. 3: Cobre's Quick Comparative View of page images and OCR output side-by-side.

Though the Cobre tool was built for the purposes of transcription and thus is technically a crowd-sourced transcription tool like the Bentham wiki and the other tools listed by Melissa Terras,[6] it resembles Ben Brumefield’s FromThePage, also mentioned by Terras, in being half transcription tool and half social editor of the sort described by Ray Siemens et. al. Like Bentham, Siemens’s own Devonshire ms. uses Wikimedia so that editing can be discussed as well as implemented. Cobre too allows for transcription, annotation, and—a key attraction for experts—editing and adding information to page images and to the metadata.

We performed user studies on the tool, bringing in book history experts James Raven and Robert D. Hume to test the tool, and we videotaped their eye movements while recording their comments. There are many things that they did not find intuitive which we fixed on our last development sprint. We will be performing another set of user studies when we teach approximately 50 people to use Cobre at a pre-conference workshop at the American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies, to be held in Williamsburg, VA, 19 March 2014.

Transcribe Bentham and the ANDP have been very successful at recruiting experts and citizen scholars (Causer, et. al., and Holley). While the ANDP required a very light form of attention, transcription, and Transcribe Bentham slightly more – users were asked to encode as well – we will be asking users of Cobre to transcribe and compare transcriptions to multiple pages of various editions. Can a network of “authorized” users who will be carefully comparing pages of editions be generated of sufficient strength? Can there be networked—and so massive—close-reading? We will report on whether and how it is possible to generate distributed forms of attention that are required for careful digitization en masse.

[1] Kermode’s phrase encapsulates the scholarly output over the last two centuries that have produced close readings of the meanings and forms of canonical works of art and literature

[2] Siemens et. al. describe “the social edition,” a procedure that was debated at a recent SSHRC-sponsored conference called “Social, Digital, Scholarly Editing,” hosted by Peter Robinson at the University of Saskatchewan (ocs.usask.ca/conf/index.php/sdse/sdse13). Gibbs calls for a “community transcription tool [that] will reduce significantly the barrier to entry and encourage mark-up of texts,” such as: the CWRC (www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/cwrc-writer-an-in-browser-xml-editor), FromThePage (beta.fromthepage.com) and “Textual Communities” (www.textualcommunities.usask.ca)

[3] Craig Chappel’s view that game-modding is in decline may portend a trend against participation, but that view is arguable.

[4] emop.tamu.edu

[5] primeroslibros.org, libros.library.tamu.edu

[6] melissaterras.blogspot.com/2010/03/crowdsourcing-manuscript-material.html: Scratch, Remote Writer, and the tools hosted by the Australian National Digitisation Program (ANDP) and BYU Historica Journals.

References
Causer, T., J. Tonra, and V. Wallace (2012). Transcription Maximized; Expense Minimized?: Crowdsourcing and editing The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham. Literary and Linguistic Computing 27.2, pp. 119-137.

Causer, T., and V. Wallace (2012). Building a Volunteer Community: Results and Findings from Transcribe Bentham. Digital Humanities Quarterly 6.1. www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/6/2/000125/000125.html. Accessed 8 January 2014

Chapple, Craig (2013). An FPS Insurgency – Breaking into a Crowded Genre. 13 September 2013. www.develop-online.net/interview/an-fps-insurgency-breaking-into-a-crowded-genre/0117719 Accessed 31 October 2013.

Dahlström, Mats. ( 2009). The Compleat Edition. In Text Editing, Print and the Digital World. Eds. Marilyn and Kathryn Sutherland. Farnham, MA: Ashgate. 27-44.

Foxon, David, with James McLaverty. (1991). Pope and the Early Eighteenth-Century Book Trade. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Gibbs, Frederick W (2011). New Textual Traditions from Community Transcription. Digital Medievalist 7. www.digitalmedievalist.org/journal/7/gibbs

Gooding, Paul, and Melissa Terras, Claire Warwick (2013). The Myth of the New: Mass Digitization, Distant Reading, and the Future of the Book. Literary and Linguistic Computing 28.4: 629-39.

Guillory, John (2010). Close Reading: Prologue and Epilogue, ADE Bulletin 149: 8-14.

Hayles, N. Katherine (2007). Hyper and Deep Attention: The Generational Divide in Cognitive Models, Profession 2007: 187-199.

Holley, Rose. (2009) How Good Can It Get: Analysing and Improving OCR Accuracy in Large Scale Historic Newspaper Digitisation Programs. D-Lib Magazine 1.3/4.

---. Many Hands Make Light Work. March 2009. National Library of Australia. ISBN 978-0-642-27694-0

Jackson, Millie. (2008) Using Metadata to Discover the Buried Treasure in Google Book Search. Journal of Library Administration 47.1/2: 165-73.

Kermode, Frank (1985). Forms of Attention. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Liles, B., Creel, J., Maslov, A., Nuernberg, S., duPlessis, A., Mercer, H., McFarland, M. and Leggett, J. (2012). Cobre: A Comparative Book Reader for Los Primeros Libros. Proceedings of the 45th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS45), Maui, HI, USA. January 4-7, pp. 1707-16. dx.doi.org/10.1109%2fHICSS.2012.155

Moretti, Franco.Conjectures on World Literature, New Left Review 1: 54-68. (2000)

---. Graphs, Maps, and Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History. New York: Verso, 2005. 

---. More Conjectures, New Left Review 20 (2003): 73-81.

---. Style, Inc. Reflections ‘Relatively Blunt,’ 172-174.

Robinson, Peter.Textual Communities. www.textualcommunities.usask.ca

Siemens, Ray, and Meagan Timney, Cara Leitch, Corina Koolen, Alex Garnet.Toward Modeling the Social Edition: An Approach to Understanding the Electronic Scholarly Edition in the Context of New and Emerging Social Media. Literary and Linguistic Computing 27.4 (2012): 445-461.

Terras, Melissa. (2010) Crowdsourcing Manuscript Material. 2 March 2010. Adventures in Digital Humanities Blog. melissaterras.blogspot.com/2010/03/crowdsourcing-manuscript-material.html. Accessed 8 January 2014

---. Crowdsourcing or crowdsifting? Results and experiences from Transcribe Bentham. Paper given at Social, Digital, Scholarly Editing Conference, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon,  Saskatchewan, Canada. 11 July 2013.

Trumpener, Katie. (2009). Critical Response I: Paratext and Genre System, Critical Inquiry 3.1: 159–71.","txt","2","",""
"1925","15","Does _colour_ mean _color_?: Disambiguating word sense and ideology in British and American orthographic variants","10","The orthography/identity hypothesis proposes that a speaker’s motivation for selecting between available orthographic variants in a language (e.g. between British colour and American color in English) is to some extent informed by the speaker’s desire to express a certain identity 1 2 3.  In the Canadian context, where a mixture of American/British variants are used – often with non-categorical preference 45 – Heffernan et al. 6 developed a method to qualify the orthography/identity connection in terms of ideology and show that during periods of increased “anti-Americanism,” specifically during unpopular American-led wars, American variant use declines relative to the British.  Heffernan et al.’s data cover the years 1921 to 2004, and are derived from the student newspaper The Gateway at the University of Alberta in Alberta, Canada.  Their method involved locating expressions of national sentiment for each year of the data, rating “anti-American sentiment” on a 7-point Likert scale (255 ratings over 85 years performed by each author) and correlating this with the relative frequencies of 15 orthographic variables (Table 2, though color / colour is my addition): the negative correlation obtained was quite high, with Pearson-r -0.715, p = 0.001.

However, follow-up work by the present author, using data in the same timeframe from the archive of the University of British Columbia’s student newspaper The Ubyssey (~50 million words) in the neighbouring province of British Columbia, failed to find similar short-term diachronic changes in variant use correlated with periods of increased “anti-American sentiment” 7.  Following Heffernan et al.’s method, an insignificant correlation was obtained: Pearson-r -0.434, p = 0.064.  Historical relative orthographies do differ between Canada’s provinces 8 910 but, assuming the strong connection between orthography and identity, no clear explanation remains for the lack of correlation in other Canadian data.  Without dispensing with the orthography/identity hypothesis, I hypothesize that proximal linguistic contexts are also motivating factors in variant selection, and propose to integrate a more context sensitive model into this top-down, language-external theory of linguistic identity performance.

To test for contextual differences, I treated the problem as one of word sense disambiguation, where the goal is to distinguish lexemes using a set of features and a computational language model—a technique most often used to distinguish between ambiguous meanings of homonyms (such as judge, bank, bow, etc.) 11.  Features used were a window of words surrounding each variant (8 words either side of the target was found optimal, excluding other instances of variables if present) and the model was Naïve Bayes.  If orthographic variants can be discriminated based on surrounding context, we can assume that those words are in some way unique—with the interesting implication, in the extreme case, that spelling variants might not just diverge orthographically but semantically, as well 12.  Maybe they mean different things.  My experiments attempted to disambiguate variants in each variable from one another using unsupervised and supervised classification, in both cases using the Naïve Bayes form.

Though Naïve Bayes makes the linguistically improbable assumption of feature independence, it has been noted for its precision in classification problems in spite of this simplification (i.e. its ‘naiveté’) 13.  For unsupervised classification I used my own Python implementation of a Naïve Bayes classifier where the parameter estimates are learned through Estimation Maximization (EM), as described in e.g. Manning and Schütze 14.  As Pedersen 15 observes, testing the results of unsupervised classification is complicated by the fact that the algorithm does not assign labels to inputs, instead clustering them, but accuracy can be represented as the proportion of the dominant variant in each cluster.  My classifier outputs two ‘sense groups’, which would ideally correspond to the American or Canadian variant.  After performing 10 trials and averaging the results, I found that only three variables out of 16 (Heffernan et al. exclude color / colour—I include it) produced significant results, in that their prediction accuracies departed from – or improved upon – their ‘lower bound’ accuracies, where the lower bound is the relative frequency of each variant and therefore the accuracy one would achieve simply by assigning each variant to a category based on its occurrence.  For brevity, only these three are represented in Table 1.

  American variant	 accuracy 	 lower bound 	 Canadian variant 	 accuracy 	 lower bound 
 color	55.5% 	54% 	colour 	65.6% 	46% 
 gray	23.2% 	17% 	grey 	86.2% 	83% 
 jewelry	51.3% 	49% 	jewellery 	55.4% 	51% 
Unsupervised classification for colour improves accuracy by 19.4% over its lower bound, but increases for other variables are marginal and – like colour – generally apply to one variant only.

For supervised classification I used the Naïve Bayes classifier in the Python library Natural Language Tool Kit (NLTK)16, a similar method to Mahowald’s 17 recent study in which y- and ­th- pronouns were disambiguated in a corpus of Shakespeare’s plays based on context.  Whereas unsupervised classification performed poorly, supervised classification obtained surprising accuracy for multiple variables after 10 validation trials.  These results are summarized in Table 2, ranked by accuracy, with an asterisk denoting significance at the p = 0.001 level.  In this experiment, the lower bound for each variable is 50% because a random subset of the tokens was evaluated and counts were set equal for each variant during testing.

           variable                   	accuracy	    total count
jewelry / jewellery	81.6%*	         564
gray / grey	79.3%*	         3112
color /colour	74.5%*	         5312
program / programme	70.1%*	         5704
honor / honour	62.0%*	         2538
enrollment / enrolment	61.2%*	         2086
humor / humour	61.1%*	         2862
neighbor / neighbour	60.7%*	         494
defense / defence	58.6%*	         5640
judgment / judgement	56.8%	         928
offense / offence	56.3%*	         1568
centered / centred	55.7%	         488
marvelous / marvellous	55.6%	         316
fulfill / fulfil	54.7%	         312
labeled / labelled        	54.4%	         270
kilometers / kilometres	40.0%	         72
It would seem that we are able to predict, sometimes with high accuracy, whether certain variables will realize their American or British variant based on context.  But why?  If orthographic variations are simply different graphemes of the same lexeme, decided rather capriciously by an American lexicographer in the nineteenth century 18, why should this be possible?

The Naïve Bayes module in NLTK provides output for identifying features most useful in making its decisions, and can help answer this question.  For gray / grey, the case is clear, since the terms most likely to indicate British grey are Pt. and Point (Point Grey is the name of the land on which the University of British Columbia lies), and terms indicating American gray are proper nouns like Bob, John, and Stuart (Gray is a common surname).  A revealing result, but only so far as it reveals a highly restrictive context in non-compositional forms, and might suggest this variable be excluded from further testing.  Contexts for color / colour are more interesting, however, and fall into two large subjective categories: ‘cultural’ and ‘technological’ (Table 3).

  variant	  category	  informative features
colour	cultural	diversity, women, people, racism, queer
color	cultural	people
colour	technological	connected, jet, print, modem, monitor
color	technological	cartoons, TV  
As a collocation analysis reveals, in the ‘cultural’ category phrases such as women of colour, people of colour, andqueers of colour occur often with colour – 225 total instances, its most frequent collocate – but hardly ever with color (11 instances).  In the ‘technological’ category, computer terms appear with colour and entertainment terms with color, where these terms are often found in advertisements and the site of these interactions tend to be local for colour and global for color (a local transaction for a colour monitor, at least prior to the expansion of current global markets, but the international consumption of color television).  However, these phrases are easily recognizable as historically specific (to around post-1980).  Indeed, the unsupervised classification of colour backs up this historical selectivity: significantly more of the items grouped at 65.6% accuracy are from this decade—context and history are intertwined, of course, and it exceeds my scope to disambiguate these here.  But the more a-historical distribution of terms predicting jewelry / jewellery suggests historical clustering is not inevitably the rule: local activities like piercing and repairs, and localities denoted by West and Point (i.e. the location of a shop in WestPoint Grey) predict British jewellery, but generic sales terms accessories, fine, place, and giftware predict American jewelry.  In sum, advertisements, or, more generically, ‘solicitations’, are the dominant vehicle of these variants and prefer the British when the activity is local (both economically and socially—these will be further described) and the American generally.  I will also further discuss how accounting for genre affects classification accuracy.  Overall, British variants are more uniquely contextualized, and therefore more easily discriminated, than American.

Qualitative sociolinguistic approaches like Heffernan et al.’s (2010) locate identity as an exterior motivating condition for language, with the necessary assumption that orthography is selected independently of linguistic context.  And though this paper finds that this assumption does not hold, the ability to disambiguate orthographic variants based on context is interesting, but not explanatory in its own right.  These contexts are also motivated, and computational techniques take us full-circle back to considering ideological – but more interactional – motivations for linguistic context. 

References
1. Lipski, J. (1975). Orthographic variation and linguistic nationalism. La Monda Lingvo-Problemo 6. 37-48.

2. Schieffelin, B. B., and Doucet, R. C. (1994). The ‘real’ Haitian Creole: Ideology, metalinguistics and orthographic choice. American Ethnologist 21. 176–200.

3. Sebba, M. (2000). Orthography and ideology: Issues in Sranan spelling. Linguistics 38. 925–948.

4. Chambers, J. K. (2011). ‘Canadian dainty’: The rise and decline of Briticisms in Canada. In Legacies of Colonial English: Studies in Transported Dialects, 224-241. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.

5. Pratt, T. K. (1993). The hobgoblin of Canadian English spelling. In S. Clarke (ed.), Focus on Canada, 45–64. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

6. Heffernan, K., Borden, A., Erath, A. C., and Yang, J-L. (2010). Preserving Canada’s ‘honour’: Ideology and diachronic change in Canadian spelling variants. Written Language and Literacy 13(1). 1-23.

7. Grue, D. (forthcoming). Testing Canada's 'honour': Does orthography index ideology? Strathy Student Working Papers on Canadian English.

8. Brinton, L. and Fee, M. (2001). Canadian English. In John Algeo (ed.), The Cambridge history of the English language, vol. 6, 422-439. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.

9. Ireland, R. J. (1979). Canadian spelling: An empirical and historical survey of selected words. Ph.D. dissertation, York University, Toronto.

10. Ireland, R. J. (1980). Canadian spelling: How much British? How much American? English Quarterly 12(4). 64-80.

11. Pedersen, T. (2002). A baseline methodology for word sense disambiguation. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Intelligent Text Processing and Computational Linguistics. 126-135.

12. Miller, G. A. and Charles, W. G. (1991). Contextual correlates of semantic similarity. Language and Cognitive Processes 6(1). 1-28.

13. Abney, S. (2008). Semisupervised Learning for Computational Linguistics. New York: Chapman & Hall.

14. Manning, C. D. and Schütze, H. (1999). Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

15. Pedersen, T. (1998). Learning Probabilistic Models of Word Sense Disambiguation. Ph.D. Dissertation, Southern Methodist University, University Park, Texas.

16. Bird, S., Klein, E., and E. Lopez. (2009). Natural Language Processing with Python. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly Media.

17. Mahowald, K. (2012). A Naïve Bayes classifier for Shakespeare's second-person pronoun. Literary and Linguistic Computing 27(1). 17-23.

18. Webster, N. (1846). A dictionary of the English language; abridged from the American dictionary. [American Dictionary]. New York: Huntington and Savage.","txt","2","",""
"1926","15","Dynamic Visualizations in Enriched Publications of Seventeenth Century Science","10","1. Introduction
Up to now publishers made limited use of the WWW by using websites merely for promotion of their works or as extension of books to accommodate notes, appendices or illustrations that could not be included. This paper describes the results of an interdisciplinary collaboration in which researchers, digital archivists and private companies created web based dynamic visualizations to enrich publications.1 It presents the outcomes of a pilot project in which Brill Publishers, a game developer Wild Card,  historians of science of the Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands and the history of science museum Boerhaave and finally scientific programmers of Data Archiving and Network Services (DANS) experimented one day per week for a period of nine months with the development, preservation and reuse of animations of static illustrations of scientific processes and the working of mechanical instruments and tools. These animations were developed to enhance the understanding of complex, often abstract descriptions in seventeenth century publications of the sciences. In total six animations were produced that can be activated by clicking on QR codes next to illustrations in books on/facsimiles of seventeenth century works on astronomy, physics, biology, fortification, land surveying and mechanical engineering. The aim was not just to produce creative illustrations, but interactive scholarly multimedia animations that would contribute to a critical interpretation of the seventeenth century texts and comments hereof. Moreover, the experiment did not limit itself to creation of animated visualizations, but comprehended workflows for re-use and the development of business models leading to animated discussions about the ownership and responsibility of external links and issues of copy and author rights. The development of criteria for the choice of animations resulted in a typology of enhanced publications. For each of the 6 cases a scenario was developed to model the workflows to enable the publisher and the user to enrich the publications in question. Different types of target  audiences were individuated that resulted in discussions of how much freedom of manipulation the user would have and its impact on the storyboard that was developed for each case. After an overview of the implementation of the  various storyboards into animations,  the architecture of the archive work-flow and business models will be discussed to enable the re-use of the enriched publications in the future.

Toward a Typology of Enhanced Publications
The name of the project that received funding was Dynamic Drawings in Enhanced Publications. DRIVER (2009), the Digital Repository Infrastructure Vision of European Research defines an enhanced publication as one that is enriched with three categories: 1) Research data (evidence of research), 2) Extra materials (to illustrate or clarify) and 3) Post-publication data (commentaries). Our project encompasses enrichments of all these three categories. However, we might have chosen for an alternative definition such as rich internet publication (but we wanted to stress the relationship between the analogue book and the digital enrichment) or scholarly media (but enrichments were not just intended for scholars, but in principal for cultural heritage and education as well). (KAIROS, 2011; Burgess and Hamming, 2011). In hindsight, we probably would have gone for enriched publications, at least if we had followed the distinction that Sondervan (2013) formulated between enhanced publications (hyperlinked content and data with added metadata) and enriched publications that offer more functionality (preferably inside the digital publication itself), with facilities to explore and to analyze data, providing better insight in the underlying research. Instead of contributing to this semantic discussion we created a more pragmatic typology to choose which cases to include for enrichments based on the following criteria: wide coverage of disciplines, degree of interactivity, complexity of dimensions (2D/3D), availability of sources in English and in portfolio Brill publishers and finally the potency for re-use: 

Astrolabe: a two-dimensional model of the motions of the heavens and to measure time. The explanation of its working is complex and turned out to be a  promising case for exploring and reusing the possibilities of dynamic digital drawings in an interactive way for education, exhibitions and research.

Refraction: Several decades before Newton announced his color theory, René Descartes proposed a physical model for light refraction and to explain the appearance of the rainbow. This case resulted in a discussion about how to visualize and contextualize an “incorrect theory.”

Swammerdam’s microscopic drawings: Swammerdam’s aim was to highlight the analogous development, in corresponding stages of both the higher and lower animal species. Therefore a visualization with parallel sliders to animate these stages was chosen.

Surveying/Triangulation: This casus zooms in on the Early Modern tradition of surveying treatises, which provide  practical instructions for measuring objects in the field and to represent them on drawings. For this casus interactivity in educational context was further explored.

Fortification: Early modern science attempted to tackle real-life problems with applied mathematics. The challenge was here to visualize the mathematical optimization of regular polygonal fortified cities without forcing the user to switch to different levels.

Mill model Ramelli: Agostino Ramelli’s Le diverse et artificiose machine (1588) was a highlight in the Renaissance Theatrum Machinarum tradition, but its reconstruction raised historic-methodological issues. The  question was asked whether additional historical sources could be used for making the mill `work’ with digital tools.

Creating Storyboards
The differences between the six chosen cases implied that for each animation a different storyboard had to be created. However, each story board has the following basic architectural features in common: original source –contextualization (in one or  more publication forms) – translation layer and the enrichment. (see Fig.1)


Fig. 1: Storyboard with basic architectural features of enriched publications. Casus Swammerdam

The Astrolabe case
The astrolabe case is not only suitable to illustrate the added value of an interactive animation. In addition to a technical description to explain the working of a complex instruments for research, it is also popular in school and museum environments dealing with education of history of science. Therefore, it has a large re-use potential for non-expert groups as well, which from a business perspective allows spreading the investment over more publication types for different markets. Using the “Integrated Online Exhibit Model” (Marable, 2004) the astrolabe case was translated into a storyboard with three layers: “experience”, “exhibit” and “research” that all could serve as an entry point. The experience layer was used to answer the simple question: “what is an astrolabe?”. In the exhibit layer the user explores interactively functions. Following step by step instructions the user can find the time by measuring and processing solar altitude on the astrolabe (see Fig. 2). The third, “research level” is reserved for all the contextual source material for further in-depth analysis.


Fig. 2: Experience and Exhibit layer of Enriched Publication. Casus Astrolabe.

Archiving Interactive 3D Visualizations for Re-Use
An archiving workflow was developed with persistent identifiers to ensure the long-term availability of the enriched publication and the  reuse of the visualizations. Brill will be the primary publisher for the animated visualizations. DANS will archive the enriched publication, its source files and a durable screencast of the visualization.

Potential Business Models for Publishers

Linked with the Brill content, these enrichments serve as a valuable supplement to current journal articles and books, not only in history of science but in all corners of the humanities & social science spectrum. Open Access publication of the enrichment under CC-BY license seems most suitable. As (governmental) research funding organizations increasingly pose the condition of open access disclosure for research-related data and conclusions, the visualizations should naturally also be freely accessible and ‘discoverable’ as much as possible; for scholars and non-experts alike. Books will become ‘richer’ in content and value to the reader. Even if the visualization is available in OA, such books can be priced higher – to recognize the additional value but also to cover costs of creating and facilitating the enrichment. With the outcome of this experiment Brill can ensure the dissemination and preservation of enriched publications. Moreover, the publisher foresees extra services to authors by providing a toolkit for new enrichments or to create those against cost prize, in case an author is unable to do so.

1 The authors are indebted to Leen Breure (DANS) who provided much information about new publication formats, to Huib Zuidervaart and Eric Jorink  (HuygensING) who gave critical feedback respectively on the Descartes and Swammerdam cases  and to Valentijn Gilissen and Heleen van de Schraaf (DANS) for their contributions to the development of archiving strategies for enriched publications for reuse. Financial support we received from the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and Brill Publishers.

References
Breure, L., Voorbij, H. and Hoogerwerf, M., (2011). Rich Internet Publications: ""Show What You Tell"", Journal of Digital Information,12:1:journals.tdl.org/jodi/index.php/jodi/article/view/1606

Burgess, H.J. and Hamming, J.,(2011). New Media in the Academy: Labor and the Production of Knowledge in Scholarly Multimedia. In Digital Humanities Quarterly, 5:3. www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/5/3/000102/000102.html

DRIVER (2009).  www.driver-repository.eu/Enhanced-Publications.html last updated February 2009. (Accessed March 2014)

KAIROS (2011). pkp.sfu.ca/ocs/pkp/index.php/pkp2011/pkp2011/rt/metadata/287/0. (accessed March 2014)

Marable, B., (2004).Experience, Learning, and research: Coordinating the Multiple Roles of on-line Exhibitions, Museum and the Web, 2004: www.archimuse.com/mw2004/papers/marable/marable.html.

Sondervan, J., (2014). ‘What stakeholders think of enhanced publications.’ Blog post April 10th, 2013

www.sondervanpublishing.nl/?cat=5 (Accessed March 2014).","txt","2","",""
"1927","15","Edition Visualization Technology: a simple tool to publish digital editions and digital facsimiles","2","The Digital Vercelli Book project1 aims at creating a digital edition of the Vercelli Book manuscript (MS CXVII, Biblioteca Capitolare di Vercelli, Italy), a fundamental document for the Old English language and literature area of studies. After the transcription of all the texts was completed using the TEI schemas2, the researchers lacked a tool that would allow to publish a diplomatic edition of the former together with the digitized manuscript images.

Many tools have been created in order to publish digital editions based on XML-encoded texts and meet the various needs of users. Some software tools (such as TEI Boilerplate) allow to publish TEI XML files directly in modern browsers. Even though this method is very light and user friendly, it is both unsuitable for publishing very large files and limited to XSLT 1.0; the typical output is a single web page for each XML document, which is not appropriate for the publication of image-based editions.

This led us to the design and implementation of EVT (Edition Visualization Technology), a lightweight software for that specific purpose. What started as a project, whose goal was the digital edition of a specific manuscript, has grown well beyond that, to the point of being available and usable as a general purpose publishing tool.

EVT can be used to create image-based web editions with different edition levels starting from a multi level encoded text. It is built on open and standard web technologies, such as HTML, CSS and Javascript, to ensure that it will be working on all the most recent web browsers. During the development of the software we have constantly tested it on different cases of study (for instance the NZTEC corpus), in order to verify that the code was actually compatible with the different kinds of TEI P5 encoding.

The general architecture of the software is modular, so that any component can be easily upgraded or replaced. To overcome the limitations hinted above the data processing is carried out by means of a static transformations with XSLT 2.0. EVT's processing system uses a collection of stylesheets to divide the XML file into smaller portions (each corresponding to individual pages of the manuscript), and for each of these parts it creates as many output files as requested by the file settings (for instance, diplomatic and diplomatic-interpretative). On the image side, the system offers a ready-to-use set of instruments (such as a magnifying lens, a general zoom, hot spots) to fully take advantage of manuscripts’ scans. One of the most important tools available in EVT is the image-text link: if the XML files make use of the <facsimile> element and provide the coordinates that identify the lines in manuscript scans, the EVT building system will automatically create clickable areas on the image, which will be handled thanks to CSS and Javascript interaction.


Fig. 1: Main view

The most important feature is that the code is working as a client-only infrastructure, so that the user may immediately make use of it, without requiring any server software installation. This is apparently a limitation, since a client-server architecture would offer many more features, but thanks to the processing done with the XSLT 2.0 processor in the initial phase of the building process the system is also ready to perform complex operations (such as textual searches) which generally rely on interpreted languages and a server back-end.

What has been described up to this point constitutes the core of our project, that is a complex and modular collection of XSLT scripts coupled with text and image browsing tools. The modules are designed in such a way that the scholar will be able to add his own stylesheets to manage the different levels of the edition, and this will not influence the other parts of the system, f.i. HTML generation. Applying the XSLT scripts usually requires the use of specific editors (such as Oxygen), which may be not the user’s favorite tool and add one more step to the process. This is why we decided to create EVT Interface: a Java user interface that allows to avoid loading the XML files in an editor and makes directly use of the open source versions of the Saxon processor to apply XSLT modules to the TEI XML files.

Our main objective is to create a flexible, modular, stand-alone package which is also freely redistributable.

We are now facing several research questions (UI evolution, search engine, embedded transcription, critical edition) that we hope to address during the next few months.

References
1. Vercelli Book Digitale. vbd.humnet.unipi.it/ (accessed on March 2014).

2. Burnard, L., and S. Bauman (eds.) TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. 2.6.0.www.tei-c.org/P5/.","txt","2","",""
"1928","15","Empowering Play, Experimenting with Poems: Disciplinary Values and Visualization Development","2","At DH2013 we presented our initial approach to poetry visualization, which undertakes to support active, spontaneous, and unique close reading experiences by emphasizing temporality and reader-engagement in exploring over twenty dimensions of poetic sound (Abdul-Rahman et al., 2013a; Abdul-Rahman et al., 2013b). PoemViewer, the software we discussed last year, makes important advances toward that aim; some literary colleagues already proficient with digital tools have noted how they might use that program in their own research and classrooms. But many still wonder, Why not just read the poems? Sometimes that question indicates a simple lack of digital literacy or a defensive response to a perceived technological threat. But it also points to ongoing tensions between core values and practices in the humanities (like close reading) and those implicit in the engineering that makes digital tools (like data visualization) possible. 

People will always read and write poems without computers. Still, poets like Nick Montfort and Stephanie Strickland compellingly bridge literary composition and computational techniques. And DH research has powerfully aided traditional humanities scholarship in archival work, mapping, etc., that would also have continued, if differently, without computational tools. We too strive to design software that can support existing humanities practices while also suggesting new ones—a dual goal we believe is served by honoring different disciplinary values: how might we in practice value multiplicity and openness as well as exactitude and decision, for instance? Rather than endeavoring to quell such tensions, we argue they should be embraced and productively leveraged through play—not only in the capabilities a tool can ultimately deliver, but also in the conception and experimentation that inform each stage of its development. 

This poster will share images and anecdotes from the technology probes—what we’re calling ‘experiments’—the rapid prototyping informing and guiding the design of our new close reading tool, Poemage. We will explain how these first development stages already begin to answer the call from DH scholars like Johanna Drucker and Stephen Ramsay for digital tools more imbued with and suited to the humanities—without sacrificing scientific meticulousness and rigor. Like PoemViewer, Poemage will invite users to visualize poems of their own choosing, rather than rely on existing visualizations of poems chosen and manually coded by others. By using automated techniques to reveal various nuanced kinds and patterns of sonic ambiguity (or play) within poems, Poemage promises to advance the fields of computer science, literary study, and digital humanities. By embracing play in its development and prioritizing play as a condition of use, it seeks to empower a greater range of scholars and readers actually to engage and benefit from those advancements.

Poems are not reducible to their constituent pieces. Sound affects tone; lineation expands and turns syntax; meaning is multiple, building on ambiguities and multiplicities of diction and rhyme and so forth—and each reader adds to the complexity already inherent in the words and their arrangement every time she reads a poem. Moreover, all of this happens through many dimensions and in multidirectional time, a factor usually overlooked by other poetry visualization software but crucial to our efforts. We believe that poems are not only animated but created and recreated through each act of reading, and therefore that our tools should foreground this act and the relationship that develops between the reader and the poem.  Rather than simplifying poetic complexity or stifling ambiguity, then, we accentuate and explore them. This approach to poetry visualization does not save a reader’s time, but we do hope our approach enriches time spent. We want users’ interaction with our software and visualizations to continually lead them to new ways in and through a given poem. We want them to experience the pleasurable mental focus and the intellectual and emotional expansion that happen through play: the play that inheres in particular poems and the opportunities for play that emerge as the reader explores a poem with our software. 

These goals require Poemage to offer an unprecedented degree of fluidity, precision, and responsiveness.  In the belief that these complementary values are shared by literary and computer science disciplines alike, our team is endeavoring to build them into Poemage by layers and degrees via strategies like rapid prototyping, user-centered design, and agile programming. To that end, we are experimenting with different algorithms for detecting and classifying sonic elements in a poem, as well as quantifying the uncertainty in these computational results, all within the model of play.  In our work, much as in close reading, play entails testing the tool in multiple ways through query and response and through continually looking at and through new approaches, even when existing approaches may seem to yield satisfactory answers, with an emphasis as much on experience and surprise as on hypothesis and (inherently uncertain) results.

Our poster will share visualizations and screenshots and discuss what we have learned both from our experiments and from some of the practical challenges we have faced so far. For example, our efforts to capture patterns of morphing sonic clusters (like the e/s/t group recurring in different orders and in different syllables in Louise Bogan’s [1968] poem “Night”—“estuaries,” “restless,” “inlets,” “set,” “itself,” “reflects,” “firmament’s,” and “setting”) via data sets and adaptable, customizable queries have raised questions about how much preprocessing is possible and desirable, as well as how much complexity to expose to the user. How do we balance support for open and spontaneous exploration with the computational limitations of computer memory, real-time processing speed, and algorithmic definitiveness? One way is to offer multiple exploratory strategies. Poemage will show readers the set of words in a poem participating in a particular aspect of traditional rhyme, such as a specific vowel recurrence (see Fig.1). We are also exploring how to show “sets of sets,” displaying for instance every distinct assonance pattern (Fig. 2), or the variety of sonic patterns overlapping in a chosen word (Fig. 3).  We are also developing a character cluster search, unique to Poemage, which will reveal sets of words containing letter units of varying length in any order (Fig. 4)—but whose algorithm as yet does not stretch to reach past intervening phonemes. Such gaps, though, invite reader participation to extend or reframe computational results.

Interesting computation limitations also expose other kinds of uncertainty and ambiguity for the literary scholar to consider. For example, an early prototype assumed the pronunciation of “wind” in Bogan’s line, “The restless wind of the inlets,” was the verb “to wind.” It therefore linked that long “i” with words like “tide,” “lights, and “behind” elsewhere in Bogan’s poem (see Fig. 5). Results like this might be taken for meaningless, undesirable noise—except that “Night” enacts and meditates on various kinds of movement and so the notion of winding (of certain movements storing potential energies for other, differently expressed movements) is actually highly relevant, even though a reader might not have noticed it without a prompt. Poets are attracted to noise; part of their work is to render noise meaningful and aesthetically pleasing, and we hope in our visualizations not to eliminate but to capture and highlight just these kinds of uncertainty, which enhance rather than detract from the reading experience. 

As their different names might suggest, Poemage—even more than PoemViewer—emphasizes the interpretive experience, oriented toward play rather than proof. Relying on but moving beyond the transformational power of PoemViewer’s “magic lens” that can reveal previously undetected but nevertheless unhidden poetic features useful for close reading (including the “surface reading” described by Best and Marcus [2009]), Poemage enhances the imaginative conjuring that can happen in readers’ interaction with poetic language and visualizations. It shares Drucker’s “performative materiality” ethos and works to support the critical and computational practices she outlined in DHQ(2013): “In place of transparency and clarity, [. . .] foreground[ing] ambiguity and uncertainty, unresolvable multiplicities in place of singularities and certainties. Sustained interpretive engagement, not efficient completion of tasks, [is] the desired outcome.” For, as Stephen Ramsay (2011) puts it: 

Literary critical interpretation is not just a qualitative matter; it is also an insistently subjective mannerof engagement. . . . [C]onclusions are evaluated not in terms of what propositions the data allows, but in terms of the nature and depth of the discussions [—and we might add, experiences—] that result. . . . We are not trying to solve Woolf. We are trying to ensure that discussion ofThe Wavescontinues. (8-9, emphasis added; 15) 

This is completely consistent with our efforts: we do not wish to “solve” the poem; if anything, we wish to open it to further and deeper questioning, to provide opportunities for continuous unsolving. It’s what our team is working toward both literally and metaphorically, as we seek to design poetry visualization empowering play.

Captions

Fig. 1: Rhyme set of words in “Night” containing “eh” assonance.


Fig. 2: Set of assonance rhyme sets in “Night.”


Fig. 3: Set of assonance, consonance, and slant rhyme sets overlapping in the word “estuaries” in Bogan’s poem.


Fig. 4: The E-S-T character cluster set, revealing each instance of these letters appearing together in any order and in any syllable within Bogan’s poem. Users can also explore other sets of clusters of varying length, including examples of anagram.


Fig. 5: Rhyme set of words in “Night” containing “ay” assonance.

References
Abdul-Rahman, A., K. Coles, J. Lein, M. Wynne. (2013a). Freedom and Flow: A New Approach to Visualizing Poetry. Paper presented at Digital Humanities 2013, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. July 2013. 

Abdul-Rahman, A., J. Lein, K. Coles, E. Maguire, M. Meyer, M. Wynne, A.E. Trefethen, C. Johnson, and M. Chen. (2013b). Rule-based Visual Mappings—with a Case Study on Poetry Visualization. Computer Graphics Forum, 32: 381–390. doi: 10.1111/cgf.12125

Best, S. and S. Marcus.(2009). Surface Reading: An Introduction. Representations, 108: 1, pp. 1-21. 

Bogan, L. (1968). Night. The Blue Estuaries: poems 1923-1968.  New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. 

Drucker, J. (2013). Performative Materiality and Theoretical Approaches to Interface. Digital Humanities Quarterly 7:1 n. pag. www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/7/1/000143/000143.html (Accessed 26 October 2013). 

Montfort, N. Computational Poems. nickm.com/poems (accessed 7 Feb 2014). 

Ramsay, S. (2011). Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. 

Strickland, S. Stephanie Strickland. www.stephaniestrickland.com (accessed 7 Feb 2014).","txt","2","",""
"1929","15","Empowering Student Digital Scholarship: CLASS Program as a model for digital humanities scholarship in the Liberal Arts","2","Proposal
Culture, Liberal Arts, and Society Scholars (CLASS) is an undergraduate research and fellowship program in the digital humanities awarded to student scholars at Hamilton College’s Digital Humanities Initiative (DHi). Basic literacies for the digital age are critical skills sets for students entering the professional world in the twenty-first century. The Digital Humanities Initiative provides new opportunities for students in the humanities to become fully engaged citizens in this ongoing digital revolution.

CLASS is based on three-broad areas of scholarly inquiry and their intersection with new and emerging digital technologies: 1) Culture, 2) Liberal Arts, and 3) Society. CLASS provides a unique partnership between departments, programs, and units across the liberal arts and humanities at Hamilton in partnership with the College’s Career Center. It begins with course connections in our Cinema and New Media Studies (CNMS) program but then removes the confines of the semester to promote deep understanding of digital humanities research within a specific field of interest. In these experiences, students and their faculty advisor become part of a collaborative working team of experts in DHi.

CLASS provides students with skills training in digital literacies through intensive research and scholarship coupled with two unique internship experiences. In the summer between sophomore and junior years CLASS offers undergraduate students an intensive professional development experience and provides a comprehensive overview of work in their respective field of interest. In the summer immediately after their junior year students enter their second internship off campus leading to employment and/or graduate study as a result of the eighteen-month program. Assistance with job placement, in a professional field, based on their CLASS internship placement, and/or graduate studies occurs in their final year at Hamilton. 


Fig. 1: Fig. 1. CLASS Program 18-month Structure

The coursework for the program begins in the fall of their sophomore year with CNMS 120 or 125 (Fig 1). In the spring semester students can enroll in courses offered in the CNMS minor. Students enroll in either CNMS 200W/Introduction to Digital Humanities or CNMS300/Interdisciplinary Research Methods that provide experiences writing grant proposals in the digital humanities.

The goals for CLASS include:

Collaboration with potential faculty and/or staff mentors to define and develop an interdisciplinary project
Writing a research proposal for their projects.
DHi committee reviews the proposals and recommend possible award opportunities.
Students begin work over a 10-week period in the summer, mid-June to late August.
A two-week intensive training program takes place in June of the first summer. Students survey mature digital humanities projects, participate in discussions of digital humanities readings, interact with invited speakers brought into the program, and explore technologies related to their research project goals. During the academic year following the first summer, students work with their mentor between 4-6 hours a week on their collaborative research project. In the summer between junior and senior years, CLASS offers undergraduate students an intensive professional development experience and provides a comprehensive overview of work in new digital technologies.

CLASS will:

Develop understanding of digital humanities methods
Develop technological expertise for careers and digital scholarship
Through their participation in an undergraduate research project, students will be able to:

Develop a research question, problem, or design;
Apply basic principles and knowledge found in the literature related to the research question;
Develop a research proposal to address or resolve a specific research question or problem;
Apply and evaluate interdisciplinary methodologies throughout the project;
Collect, interpret, and critique data in order to resolve a research question or evaluate a design;
Utilize digital skills (TEI, digital collection development, media object creation, geospatial visualization, etc.) necessary for robust digital scholarship in the humanities
Communicate research findings through oral presentations and digital publications.
Students in research collaborations with Faculty and members of the DHi, develop deep understanding of a specific long-term research agenda. They are expected to conduct collaborative investigation of a specific aspect of the research that is of great interest to them and integrate digital humanities research methods in their process. Deliverables include public presentation and/or publication at milestones in this process.

Accomplishments:
Cohort 2011

Sarah Bither and Melissa Yang worked with Professor Kyoko Omori to develop an understanding of Benshi performance art for contemporary audiences. The outcome of this work is a website, http://courses.hamilton.edu/dhi-class-1/sarah with components that will ultimately be incorporated into Professor Omori’s Japanese Comparative Literature Archive. Bither continued her study of Japanese culture and language by going abroad to Japan in the spring and summer of 2012. Randall Telfer worked with Professor Thomas Wilson to explore Confucian rituals and connections to contemporary religious practices in China. The outcomes of this work were additional edits to two of Professor Wilson’s websites http://academics.hamilton.edu/asian_studies/home/asc_test/index.html and The Cult of Confucius website: http://academics.hamilton.edu/asian_studies/home/coc_test/index.html. Brynna Tomassone worked with Professor Angel David Nieves to explore cultural connections between South Africa and the United States during the time period leading up to the events in 1976 Soweto. The outcome of this work is a series of book chapters currently in forthcoming publications including The Heritage of Iconic Planned Communities: The Challenges of Change (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014). Tomassone is now a Ph.D. student in Hispanic/Spanish Studies at Syracuse University. 

 

Cohort 2012

Maxwell Lopez (’14) mentored by Professor Nathan Goodale. Continuing aspects of research on the history and culture of the Sinixt Nation in British Columbia, Lopez proposed to work for the 2012 -2013 year creating, “an accurate three dimensional digital representation of the British Columbia site along with some models of artifacts excavated” using the Unity game engine. He believes the project will create a “new way for people to experience and interact with history” and have great capacity for connecting with research with the public. By the end of the two- week CLASS session in June 2012, Lopez had already made several models in Blender (a 3D modeling software) and site maps in Unity (a virtual world platform for models to reside). The following is a screenshot of his initial construction of a pit house in Blender. Please see the folder on CLASS 2012 for screenshots of his work to date and his complete proposal. 


Fig. 2: Figure 2. Sinixt Ritual Pit House model (created in Blender).

Lopez continued work with Professor Nathan Goodale in GIS mapping and archeological data collection for continued development of Sinixt Ritual Pit (Fig. 2) houses at an archeology Field School in British Columbia summer 2013. Lopez has presented aspects of his work with Professor Goodale at several forums on campus in Fall 2012 and also at the 2013 Re:Humanities symposium April, 5, 2013.

Continuing aspects of O’Neill’s development of Beloved Witness: Agha Shahid Ali Archive, Ujjwal Pradham (’14) will explore the use of text analysis tools and TEI in developing aspects of the Agha Shahid Ali Archive. Pradham is also interested in establishing a connection between the archive and current communities of interest in Kashmir. 

Pradham explored the uses of social software to make connections between contemporary Kashmir communities and the developing Beloved Witness archive. The following is a screen shot of the Voyant Tools (Fig. 3) text analysis Ujjwal did to compare theme words (home, waiting, never, Spring, Kashmir) in multiple manuscripts over the development of a poem written by Ali. 


Fig. 3: Figure 3. Voyant Tools.

Cohort 2013

Working with Religious Studies Professor Abhishek Amar on aspects of his Sacred Centers in India Project, students Kenneth Ratliff (’16) and Alex Gioia (’14), embarked on a study of Indian sacred centers -- Buddhist Bodhgaya and Hindu Gaya. The students expanded their understanding of the Indian sacred cities of Gaya and Bodhgaya. They assisted Professor Amar in organizing his research data for these two cities (images, videos, and GPS coordinates) into the metadata schema for his digital research archive. This work of organizing and processing the over 418 data objects from Gaya into survey forms conducive to further analysis is necessary for long term sustainability of the digital archive. It is also the first step in the creation of interactive models of important artifacts and their locations within these religious sites. Appendix “A” is an example of one of the individual data survey forms used in this project and is based on those used by the K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute, with whom Professor Amar collaborates. Ratliff and Gioia have already begun creating an interactive two-dimensional line map of the Vishnupada complex (Fig 4). 


Fig. 4: Figure 4. Interactive line map of Vishnupada Complex with Mahadeva site highlighted (created in Blender).

This interactive map will link to images of the sites (Fig. 5) and 3D models of the artifacts in situ (Fig. 6). They hope that these virtual 3D and geographically correct models will foster greater interest in these religious sites due to the accessibility and interactivity of the maps, photographs, models, and videos.

Ultimately, the plans are to place the models that they produce into an online viewing space, developed from a game engine (Unity), that will make the models easily viewable and web accessible to the public. 


Fig. 5: Figure 5. Image of Mahadeva site and Tablet artifact on far wall.


Fig. 6: Figure 6. Image of Mahadeva Tablet being modeled in Blender (Free Download at Blender.org).

Working with Patricia O'Neill on aspects of her Beloved Witness archive, Kerri Grimaldi (’16) examined the significance of Emily Dickinson’s poetry to Agha Shahid Ali, a poet from Kashmir, whose work is the focus of the archive. Grimaldi’s project traces the depth of Emily Dickinson’s influence in Shahid’s poem, “A Nostalgist’s Map of America,” by placing Shahid’s poem side-by-side with Dickinson’s “A Route of Evanescence” in four stages of analysis, each increasing in level of explication. By analyzing Shahid’s poem, it is possible to read Dickinson’s in a completely different light, while also witnessing the resonating power of her poetry. Grimaldi has started to create a website to present her analysis of the relationship between the work of Shahid and Dickinson. Ultimately, this website will show not only that Dickinson influenced Shahid’s work, but that his work responded to and interpreted hers, such that their works are in conversation with each other. Please review the current status of this project, including the descriptive first layer of the website, the storyboards exploring intertextuality in the second layer and third layers and a draft of Grimaldi’s own creative video interpretation of the two poems in conversation. This project was submitted in September 2013 to the Dickinson Electronic Archives 2.0: CALL FOR PROPOSALS for volume 3 -- Emily Dickinson’s Reading Culture to be published in 2014. Part One of Kerri's website can be found at http://dhinitiative.org/demos/grimaldi/ 

Challenges
Initial Challenges for DHi in developing CLASS included answering, how do we publish in the digital Humanities? Much of collaborative research includes the use of copyrighted material and/or faculty research that is still in early development. These characteristics of the work in CLASS required that we reconsider the amount and type of information (public or not) conveyed to illustrate the progress of the students. We achieved our goal of facilitating discussion with other scholars in the field by including experts from across disciplines in the two-week intensive training program and through the natural association of collaborators on the faculty research projects. CLASS scholars biographies and research descriptions are announced on the DHi website. CLASS scholars give project prospectus presentations and/or example research projects at the end of their two-week training program in the first summer. These presentations and examples are given to an invited audience for feedback on the projects. Ultimately, each student presents or publishes their work off-campus. Several students have presented at Re:Humanities. 

CLASS Program Summary and Future Plans
Students in research collaborations with Faculty and members of the DHi, have been successful in developing deep understanding of a specific long-term research agenda. DHi provides the immersive experiences and ongoing continuity with faculty research necessary to support this engagement. Most of our CLASS scholars have conducted collaborative investigation of a specific aspect of a long-term research agenda, determined their specific interests and contributions to that agenda, and publicly presented their scholarship “in progress” at Hamilton events and professional conferences.

Our future plans are to continue the CLASS program and to collaborate on its development with other liberal arts schools. Several schools have asked us about building similar models at their schools. This would require thinking more about scaling-up the program. One option we are considering is a form of “Summer Institute” for undergraduates in which we bring them together with their mentors and a larger DH community for a two-week program. 

Appendix A: Proof of Concept for a Sustainable Digital Humanities Faculty Collection Infrastructure in the Liberal Arts. 


DHi’s technology infrastructure and research support model is designed to be sustainable. That is, our approach will reduce the need for regular revamping of static faculty research web pages by creating infrastructure and processes that maintain research outcomes as “living” web presences accessible for faculty and student collaborative scholarship over time. To this end we researched best practices in digital collection development and preservation in collaboration with members of our library and decided to develop an institutional warehouse (repository) for digital collections (Fedora Commons). Fedora was chosen for its scalability and ability to be extremely flexible in the way objects can be accessed. Fedora has built-in flexibility to allow creation and maintenance of relationships among objects and across digital collections over time.

After researching open source collaborative tools to interface with collections in Fedora Commons we decided to make use of Islandora. Islandora can be used to create customized themes for faculty collections and projects. Our DHi Collection Development Team is working with the Islandora and Fedora Commons consultants (at Discovery Garden to create our digital scholarship infrastructure. By using experts to help with development we are making efficient use of the Mellon Grant to move this complex project forward. 

2013 Appendix B: KPJR Form Vishnupada Complex Mahadeva Temple 
DOCUMENTATION SHEET OF BUILD HERITAGE/SITE N.M.M.A., ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVERY OF INDIA

COMPILED AT K.P. JAYASWAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, PATNA

Sl.No.	 Documentation Parameters 	 
 	 State/Dist./Block 	Gaya
 1	 Name of the monument/built heritage/site	 Mahdava Temple
 2	 Date/Period	 Early Medieval/Medieval?
 3	 Location 	To east and north of 16 Vedis/Padas in Vishnupada Complex 
 	 Geo-coordinate	 
 4	 Approach	East of the Vishnupada Temple, in the Vishnupada Complex 
 	 Airport	Gaya 
 	 Railway Station	Gaya 
 	 Bus Stand	Gaya 
 5	 Topographical features	Slope of the Mundaprishta hill on the western bank of the Phalgu 
 6	 Brief History	 
Temple seems to have origins in early medieval or medieval period. The exact date of the construction of the temple is difficult to determine because of lack of historical sources. It has images and inscriptions, but they may have been moved. 

 7	Local tradition associated with building/structure/site	Gaya Shraddha, place of Pinda-dana as well as Darshana 
 8	 Architectural style	 Inner sanctum, which has a Linga, and there are 20 pillars, which constitute the Mandapa
 9	 Description of the building/structure/site	 
Mahadeva temple: Inner sanctum with a Shiva Linga and a twenty pillared Mandapa. Narasimha Temple (east of Mahadeva): Small rock temple Sarasvati Temple (east of Narasimha): Small rock temple Facing Narasimha are two single chamber shrines. All five are treated as one unit in the Vishnupada complex. 

 10	 Building/Structural material and other	Stone and brick; pillars are stone 
11 	Usage(s) 	Active worship, Darshana 
12 	Ownership 	Same as Vishnupada Main Temple 
13 	Protection status 	Good 
14 	Present condition 	Maintained 
15 	Conservation assessment 	Alright 
16 	Photographs 	See attached 
17 	Plan/elevation, if available 	 
18 	Published references 	 
19 	General Remarks 	There is an inscription 
20 	Name and address of compiler with date elements used 	Abhishek Singh Amar Matthew Sayers 
Images: 

Mahadeva Temple (129):

By opening

1. Vishnu, 16'' (122)

2. Camunda, 16'' (120, 121)

There's no logic to the temple - they have plastered images all over the place; normally, you would not see Bishnu and Camunda next to each other, but in this case we do, in a disorganized fashion. For instance, they are in the same niche, but Camunda is platered higher than Vishnu, which speaks to the disorganization of the collection process. 
South wall

3. Ganesha, 16'' (122)

4. Inscription (123-125)

Appears to be painted more recently. 
5. Eroded Uma-Maheshvaga, 14'' (126)

Inner sanctum (127)

6. Huge Shiva Linga (127)

North wall

7. Uma-Maheshvara, 16'' (128)

By opening, on the north, west-facing niche; left

8. Durga, 36'' (130)

9. New inscription (130)

Outside, left

10. Dasavatara (131)","txt","2","",""
"1930","15","Empowering The Matsu(Goddess) Festival Celebration: From Static Woodcut Print to Animated Art","2","Abstract
The Goddess Mazu, who protects sailors, plays an important role in folk culture in Taiwan and China’s southeast coast.  In 2009, UNESCO placed Mazu belief and customs on its list of Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH). Artist Lin Chih-Hsin spent over twenty years making his celebrated woodcut print entitled “Celebrating the Mazu Festival,” preserving vanishing rural scenes and simple style of bygone days. The woodcut print is 125 meters long, making it the longest woodcut print by a single solo artist, and it has been presented in a number of exhibitions throughout Europe.

In our work (supported by the [Taiwan] National Science Council), we extended the original static print into animated images. Our goal was to provide a detailed representation of Taiwanese folk art activities and offer opportunities for further research in this field. We used the original style of Lin’s woodcut print as a visual theme, recreating characters in 3D in an installation that combined motion sensors, performers, and animated image technology to create a work of animated art. Artist Lin Chin-Hsin was closely involved in this research from the beginning with great enthusiasm, and he has approved the results of the animation.

Constructing the artwork consisted of the following phases: (1) scan an original print from a copy provided by artist Lin; (2) cut out characters from scanned images; (3) build a 3D model of each character; (4) make an empty UV texture map for each model; (5) insert woodcut material texture into the empty UV texture maps; (6) assign UV texture maps back to the 3D model; (7) compare with the original print to ensure accurate representation; and (8) approval by artist Lin of final result.

Our artwork faced two special challenges: (1) animating a static image, and (2) maintaining the original visual style of the print in the animation. Animated content was derived by recording dramatic human performances of folk art groups. Each group acted out a historical story as a dance performed as a parade along the street. From over sixty groups, we chose three on which to perform motion capture using portable Kinect motions sensors to capture individual performer’s choreography. The collected motion data was sent to a 3D program as animation frames. However, the Kinect sensor has a limitation: if some object (such as another performer, or a body part such as an arm) is placed before a Kinect sensor, detection of the motion is blocked. To overcome limitations of the Kinect sensor in multi-user sensor capture, we used the traditional methods of animation key frames to render the loss movements which cannot be detected. Using thematic material from the original print, we manipulated the motion data to reconstruct the print as a set of animated 3D characters.

When we finished the animation, 3D animated images were added to the original woodcut print. The highlight of the Mazu Festival is the parade with participants depicting historical stories, and new media technology allows viewers to see how performers actually dance and act in the parade, continuing this folk art tradition. Even artist Lin Chih-Hsin, who spent twenty years on his masterpiece, can now see his work in motion. Tradition and folk values, together with an engaging animated display, are integrated to manifest an exciting yet mysterious side of Eastern culture.


Fig. 1: Lin Chih-Hsin “Celebrating the Matsu Festival” exhibition at Staatliches Museum für Völkerkunde München, Germany,2009.


Fig. 2: The 7th Lord and 8th Lord, who bring the souls of the dead before the judge of the underworld, according to Chinese folk religion.


Fig. 3: Ox fight in spring as an entertainment in rural region.

References
Lin Chih-Hsin (2010), Poseidon Matsu - Lin Chih-Hsin Matsu Festival Celebration Woodcut Prints Watermark Collection, National Museum of History.

UNESCO (2013), Mazu blief and customs, Retrived January 20, from www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00011&RL=00227

K. P. Aaron Hertzmann (2000), Painterly Rendering for Video and Interaction, Proc. of Non-Photorealistic Animation and Rendering.

L. M. B. J. M. M. A. K. J. C. L. Robert D. Kalnins (2002), WYSIWYG NPR: Drawing Strokes Directly on 3D Models, SIGGRAPH 2002.

Jimmy Lin (2006), Shape-Oriented Brush Stroke Synthesis in Non-Photorealistic Rendering, master's dissertation, National Chi Nan University.

Jun-Lan Yang (2008), Simulating the Oil Painting in an NPR 3D Animation System, master's dissertation, National Chi Nan University.

Yi-Hsien Chen (2009), Synthesizing the NPR Volumetric Visual Effects on Canvas, master's dissertation, National Chi Nan University.

A.F.M.C.T.S.M.F.R.M.A.K. a. A.B.J. Shotton (2011), Real-time human pose recognition in parts from single depth images, IEEE CVPR.

V.G.D.K. a. S.T.C. Plagemann (2010), Real-time identification and localization of body parts from depth images, IEEE ICRA.

S. S.Park (2012), 3d hand tracking using Kalman filter in depth space, EURASIP JASP.

F.F. a. U.H.M. Baum (2012, Tracking ground moving extended objects using RGBD data, IEEE MFI.

L.S. a. K.A.M. Luber (2011), People tracking in RGB-D data with on-line boosted target models, IEEE IROS.

F. Lab., 3D Chinese Puppet, 2005. Retrived Feburary 21, 2013, from fbi.oddist.org/?page_id=601

S . C. Hsu (2005), Manipulating Digital Archives Using Digital Art Techniques., The 4th Digital Archive Conference.

F. Lab. (2005, Explore - Along the River During the Ch'ing-ming Festival, Retrived Feburary 21, 2013, from techart.tnua.edu.tw/eTaiwan/contents/chingming-index_e.html

M . Khanna (2002), The Crossing. Retrived Feburary 21, 2013, from www.sacredworld.info/crossing.htm","txt","2","",""
"1931","15","Encoding metaknowledge for historical databases","10","Motivation
Historical knowledge is fundamentally uncertain. A given account of an historical event is typically based on a series of sources and on sequences of interpretation and reasoning based on these sources. Generally, the product of this historical research takes the form of a synthesis, like a narrative or a map, but does not give a precise account of the intellectual process that led to this result.

Our project consists of developing a methodology, based on semantic web technologies, to encode historical knowledge, while documenting, in detail, the intellectual sequences linking the historical sources with a given encoding, also know as paradata1. More generally, the aim of this methodology is to build systems capable of representing multiple historical realities, as they are used to document the underlying processes in the construction of possible knowledge spaces.

Overview of the Approach
Semantic web technologies, with formal languages like RDF and OWL, offer relevant solutions for deploying sustainable, large-scale and collaborative historical databases (see for instance 2). Compared to traditional relational databases, these technologies offer more flexibility and scalability, avoiding the painful problems of large schema migration. They are grounded in logic and thus permit us to easily conduct semantic inferences.  Some very stable semantic based ontologies like CIDOC-CRM, now an ISO standard, have been used successfully in the cultural heritage domain for about 20 years 3.

However, the languages used in the semantic web technologies have a major limitation that prevents their usage for encoding metahistorical information. Expressed knowledge is typically formalised with RDF triplets which are not objects in the same order as the knowledge content (RDF resources identified with URIs) to which they link. For example, it is difficult to document the source, the author or the uncertainty of given RDF statement.

One way to compensate for this flaw, while respecting the W3C norms, consists of transforming each RDF triplet (subject predicate object) into three triplets (statement rdf:subject subject), (statement rdf:predicate predicate), (statement rdf:object object). Using this approach, it becomes possible to add new triplets with a given statement as subject, documenting additional paradata about this statement. The resulting knowledge base can include metahistorical information, i.e. information about historical information creation processes. This metainformation can document the choice of sources, transcription phases, coding strategies, interpretation methods and whether these steps are realised by humans or machines. Thus, each historical database designed following this methodology integrates two levels of knowledge. The first level provides the documentation about the origin, the nature and the formalisation used to encode historical data, while the second level codes for the historical data itself. 

The Knowledge Construction Vocabulary (KCV)
We are working on a specific RDF vocabulary, called Knowledge Construction Vocabulary (KCV), which will enable us to implement the two level organisation using the standards of the semantic web. KCV RDF statements represent knowledge construction steps, while effective historical knowledge is only expressed through reified triplets. An important concept in this vocabulary is the notion of knowledge spaces. A knowledge space designates a closed set of coherent knowledge, typically based on a defined set of sources and methods. Examples of knowledge spaces include documentary spaces (e.g. a defined corpus of sources) and fictional spaces (e.g a coherent world typically described in a book).

  Figure 1 shows an example of the kind of graphs that can be built using the KCV vocabulary.  In this example, two knowledge spaces have been defined: one documentary space (DHLABDocuments) and one so-called fictional space (HistoireVenise_S1). Each of these two spaces is defined as a unique resource with an associated URI.  A statement (Statement1) stands for a reified triplet defining that (HistoireVenise) is a kind of Book and is linked to the documentary space. The KCV vocabulary allows us to document who entered the information (fournier) and the creation time of the statement (May 06th). To formalise the fact that the book, HistoireVenise, is used as a knowledge source, a specific resources HistoireVenise_KS is created and linked with the HistoireVenise, the book, and the general document space DHLABDocuments. 


Fig. 1: A ""toy"" example of the use of the KCV vocabulary to code historical and metahistorical information

In the fictional space HistoireVenise_S1, a statement (Statement2) codes for a reified triplet indicating that the reconstruction of the Rialto bridge occurred during the period of 1588-1591. Information about the author, the creation date and the reliability of Statement2 are documented using various KCV triplets. The link between the document space and the fictional space is encoded by a link between the knowledge source HistoireVenise_KS and a statement, Statement2_origin, linked to Statement2 of type interpretedtextknowledge. 

We can make three remarks:

This is obviously a ""toy"" example (real graphs encoding historical data are typically much bigger), but it illustrates how historical and metahistorical information can be coded with a linked data approach. This allows us to envision queries mixing both historical and metahistorical requests, for instance reconstructing an historical context based only on certain kinds of sources or excluding information that was provided to the database by some authors.
The kind of intellectual processes documented by KCV can easily include algorithmic steps like digitisation, optical character recognition pipelines on documents,  text mining, semantic disambiguation, etc. The version and the author of the algorithms used can easily be included using KCV statements. This kind of documentation permits us to exclude historical information linked with some processing using early versions of algorithms that may have ""polluted"" the data. This is an important prerequisite for building sustainable databases in the long term. 
Documenting metahistorical information using KCV may look like a tedious process; however, in most cases, this information can be inserted automatically using a higher-level interface. A database interface in which the user is logged permits to easily produce historical data based on the KCV vocabulary, taking the form of reified RDF triplets, while documenting the author, the data and the methods used. 
Ontologies Matching
The KCV approach for encoding historical databases is also interesting from the perspective of ontologies alignment: a notoriously difficult issue 4. Each research group tended to code historical data using their own local ontologies, adapted to their research approach. The metahistorical documentation provided by the KCV vocabulary enables us to envision strategies for mapping such ontologies to a pivot ontology. Figure 2 shows this general process in which several knowledge spaces are linked. Each group locally describes the source documents used (1), transcribes their content (2) and eventually codes/interprets this content (3). Throughout this process, two groups produced two independent custom ontologies (A and B). The alignment process proceed in two additional steps. First, both local ontologies are mapped onto a general content ontology (4) (for instance CIDOC-CRM, but not necessarily) and then, once expressed in this common conceptual model, the information contained in the graph is aligned and the content is merged (5). 


Fig. 2: The general process of ontologies matching

Figure 3 gives a more detailed account of the final step. First knowledge sources are mapped, then types are mapped and eventually predicates are mapped. In some cases, only a partial level of correspondence can be reached. These steps can be done manually or automatically and are, of course, subject to errors. It is therefore crucial to document the authors of these matching steps, whether they are humans or algorithms. This is why the authors are, linked all the other steps, described in the KCV vocabulary. 


Fig. 3: Detail of the ontologies matching process

Conclusion
The approach briefly presented in this paper enables us to encode historical and metahistorical data in a unified framework. The method we describe is fully compliant with the current technologies and standards of the semantic web (RDF, SPARQL, etc.). It does impose a unified historical terminology but can also be used in conjunction with existing standards. For instance CIDOC-CRM can be used to describe historical knowledge extracted from archival documents (e.g events, people, places) using RDF triplets and KCV can be used to code information about the CIDOC-CRM triplets themselves, such as documenting who entered a particular triplet. The originality of our proposal comes from the introduction of the this second level (metahistorical) on top of the existing RDF ontologies.  This does not necessarily impose an additional burden on the person encoding the historical data. Using a dedicated web interface, the metahistorical information can be added automatically as the data is progressively entered. 

Coding metahistorical information by making explicit the many underlying modelling processes allows us to prepare for possible ontology evolution and enables easier ontology matching. More importantly, our approach does not impose the search for a global truth (a unique and common version of historical events) but pushes towards the explication of the intellectual and technical processes involved in historical research, thus giving the possibility of fully documented historical reconstructions. 

References
1. Bentkowska-Kafel A., Denard H., and Baker D. (2012). Paradata and Transparency in Virtual Heritage. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.

2. Ide, N., and D. Woolner (2007). Historical Ontologies. Words and Intelligence II: 137–152.

3. Doerr, M. (2003) The CIDOC CRM – an Ontological Approach to Semantic Interoperability of Metadata. AI Magazine 24, no. 3.

4. Shvaiko P. and J. Euzenat (2013). Ontology matching: state of the art and future challenges. IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, 25(1): 158-176.","txt","2","",""
"1932","15","Enduring Traces: Exploring correspondence from the archives of Canadian modernism using digital tools and methods","2","This project uses Neatline and Gephi to demonstrate how digital visualization tools can bring to light new dimensions of modernist studies and periodical studies. Drawing on metadata from as-yet-undigitized letters between various Canadian writers and editors, the project uses geospatial visualizations and network diagrams to interrogate the literary networks and geographical patterning of authors associated with the little magazine Contemporary Verse. In addition to the printed poster, I will have a laptop running Neatline and Gephi, which will allow attendees to interact with the data by exploring it through maps, timelines and network diagrams.

Contemporary Verseran from 1941-1953 and was one of the only vehicles for the publication of modern poetry in mid-century Canada. It was edited by Alan Crawley (1887-1975), whose voluminous correspondence – lodged in various archives across Canada – is an enormously rich resource for the study of the social networks through which poetic currents and aesthetic influences developed. To read it is to get a clear sense of the importance of Crawley in brokering relationships between writers and publishers, shaping the poems that contributors submitted to the journal, and encouraging young writers – particularly younger women who faced considerable difficulties breaking into male-dominated networks for publication and critique – to see their poetry as something worth pursuing.1 

The letters tell an important story of pre-digital cultural empowerment that digital humanities approaches are particularly well suited to uncovering, given that the volume of correspondence lends itself to the kind of distant reading that is made possible by computational analysis of prosopographical and geographical metadata. The new perspectives opened up on this archival material by digital methods are also timely, as scholars of Canadian literature are increasingly engaged in challenging canonical accounts of modernism’s development within the country,2 something which has coincided with a postcolonial turn of sorts within digital humanities more generally.3

The poster, which reports on work in progress into the Crawley letters, is focused around two research questions:

1) How does geography inflect the development of modern poetry in Canada?
Each letter was entered as a record in Omeka and then visualized geospatially using Neatline (www.modmaps.net/mm/neatline/show/crawley-letters). Neatline was configured so that as the timeline slider was moved from earlier to later dates, the map display showed the growth and geographical distribution of Crawley’s network of correspondents. Displaying the correspondence in this way enables investigation of spatial questions that arise at a range of scales from the national to the local, for example the extent to which Crawley’s location on the west coast was able to challenge the dominance of literary networks in the eastern cities of Montreal and Toronto, and the effect of Vancouver’s geography on his ability to participate in literary activities.

2) What is the relationship between literary networks and cultural production?
Gephi was used to create a directed graph with 25 nodes, representing Crawley, various authors with whom he corresponded, other journal editors, and the women who did the bulk of the administrative work for Contemporary Verse. As with the Neatline map, the network diagrams generated by Gephi do not give a complete picture of Crawley’s network of correspondents as archival work is still ongoing, but nonetheless some preliminary suggestive patterns emerge. Crawley’s initial correspondents are more likely to be women, for instance, but as the journal accrues prestige, more established poets become interested in submitting to it, and these poets were more likely to be men. Such a narrative is clearly open to critique – for example it raises methodological questions about which letters were included – but this is a valuable process for raising questions about the partiality of the “data” on which existing narratives about the development of Canadian modernism have relied.

This project forms part of EMiC: Editing Modernism in Canada (editingmodernism.ca). It is also being developed in association with TCLL: Twentieth Century Literary Letters (www.modmaps.net/tcllp), a collaborative project in its early stages which aims to build a digital infrastructure for the discovery, analysis, and visualization of the metadata from a wide range of epistolary materials relating to twentieth century literary figures. As a founding member of TCLL, I am keen to find other scholars working on letter collections who would be interested in joining the project, and one of the aims of showcasing this work at DH2014 is to make connections with others whose metadata could be productively brought into conversation with existing TCLL materials.

References
1. McCullagh, Joan. Alan Crawley and Contemporary Verse. Vancouver: U British Columbia P, 1976. Print; Robertson, George. “Alan Crawley and Contemporary Verse.” Canadian Literature 41 (1969): 87–96. Print; Wilson, Ethel. “Of Alan Crawley.” Canadian Literature 19 (1964): 33–42. Print.

2. Irvine, Dean (2011). Spectres of Modernism. Canadian Literature 209: 6–10. Print.

3. Koh, Adeline, and Roopika Risam (2013). Open Thread: The Digital Humanities as a Historical “Refuge” from Race/Class/Gender/Sexuality/Disability? Postcolonial Digital Humanities. 10 May 2013. Web. 1 Nov. 2013.","txt","2","",""
"1933","15","Enhancing Access to Online Oral History: Oral history in the Digital Age (OHDA) and Oral History Metadata Synchronizer (OHMS)","2","Oral history is in a profound transition, from an extensive period when sophisticated technology meant utilizing tape cassettes, to a time when the field has moved into the digital, networked, multi-media rich age. The transition into a digital world, and the flexibility it brings, has changed the costs of doing oral history, standards of practice and scholarship, and the vehicles for access. Resulting issues are deeply complex and often dynamic. Digital video is now readily affordable, but the field remains deeply divided over its use and role. Equally important, the digital age makes widespread access and use of both audio and video oral narratives, as well as transcripts, increasingly affordable, but it also highlights major questions about intellectual property rights and informed consent.  The Oral History in the Digital Age (http://ohda.matrix.msu.edu) attempts to address many issues faced with new technologies.  

OHDA has over 72 essays, 12 videos, and many other resources, including an interactive review of recording equipment called ""Ask Doug,"" a large collection of online oral history collections, and consent forms. Oral History in the Digital Age (OHDA) is a product of an Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS) National Leadership project and a collaboration among the Michigan State University Museum; Michigan State University Digital Humanities Center, Matrix; the American Folklife Center (AFC/LOC), the Library of Congress; the Smithsonian Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage (CFCH); the American Folklore Society (AFS); the Louie B. Nunn Center for Oral History, University of Kentucky Libraries; and the Oral History Association.

In development with OHDA is the Oral History Metadata Synchronizer (OHMS).  The Louie B. Nunn Center for Oral History at the University of Kentucky Libraries has created a web-based, system called OHMS (Oral History Metadata Synchronizer) to inexpensively and efficiently enhance access to oral history online. OHMS provides users word-level search capability and a time-correlated transcript or index connecting the textual search term to the corresponding moment in the recorded interview online.

In 2011, the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS) awarded the Nunn Center a $195,853 National Leadership Grant to further develop their Oral History Metadata Synchronizer (OHMS).  The grant project is designed to prepare OHMS for open source distribution and to create compatibility between OHMS and other popular content management systems empowering institutions, both large and small, to provide an effective, user-centered discovery interface for oral history on a large scale. In addition to developing OHMS compatibility with open source content management systems such as OMEKA and KORA, and larger scale commercial systems such as CONTENTdm, this project has developed multimedia tutorials instructing users on the use, installation and deployment of OHMS within particular content management systems.

Beginning in 2013, the open source OHMS system has integrated an interview-indexing module.  Instead of relying solely on transcription, OHMS can now be utilized to create segment-level metadata that correlates to the corresponding moment in the recorded online interview.  The new interview-indexing module opens up new capabilities for OHMS and expands possibilities for quickly providing enhanced access to far more interviews online for a fraction of the price of transcription.","txt","2","",""
"1934","15","Enhancing Scholarly Communication and Communities with the PressForward Plugin","2","The PressForward Initiative1 at the Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media (RRCHNM) has developed a methodology and a technology to expedite scholarly communications and nurture and expand communities of practice on the open web. Over the past two years we have produced our own open source WordPress plugin""2 to facilitate aggregating, curating, and disseminating scholarly content with a process that fosters community and resource-sharing among its users. Simultaneously, we experiment with multiple processes for surfacing, selecting, and circulating digital humanities work and gray literature outside formal traditional publication models.

This poster profiles the workflows and content of two digital humanities publications that have adapted technology developed by PressForward to suit their unique editorial and community needs: Digital Humanities Now3, produced by RRCHNM and dh+lib4, a publication hosted by the Association of College and Research Libraries' Digital Humanities Discussion Group. Visualizing and documenting intellectual and technical schemas for the plugins with diagrams and onsite demonstrations, this presentation exposes the philosophies and methodologies behind aggregating and curating scholarly work and learned expertise made available on the open web. Illustrating multiple workflows, layouts, and interfaces, this poster presents the scalable, replicable, and adaptable potential of the PressForward Plugin for niche scholarly communities eager to tailor their own hubs for communication and collaboration.

As a technology, the PressForward Plugin provides a smoothly integrated editorial process for the aggregation, review, discussion, and republication of external web content within the WordPress dashboard. PressForward aggregates content via RSS feeds, functions as a seamless feed reader, and allows users and groups to mark and discuss individual items before modifying or reproducing them for republication. This poster will document how two publications currently tailor the scope, structure, and flow of the plugin, gesturing toward the potential for replication and modification.

The largest case study, Digital Humanities Now (DHNow), is a principle test case for the plugin and for streamlining workflows that facilitate volunteers' nomination of scholarship on the open web. Drawing from a growing digital humanities community, volunteer editors-at-large sign up to survey over 1,000 potential items each week from more than 650 RSS feeds and nominate material they believe is salient to DHNow's readership. Nominations are considered for republication in DHNow as either Editor's Choice or News items. Next, rotating editors-in-chief -- faculty and graduate assistants at RRCHNM -- select, prepare, and publish links to nominated content, improving its visibility by directing attention back to the original site of publication. DHNow's streamlined processes for managing large numbers of novice and seasoned community volunteers also experiments with automated methods that include computer learning algorithms for filtering through large amounts of content.

dh+lib, published by an existing professional group, aims to give increased presence and voice to librarians interested in, or already knowledgeable about, DH. dh+lib publishes content in two streams. First, original content--posts, essays, and other work--is published directly to the site biweekly or monthly. Second, more regular, content, appears as the dh+lib Review. To produce dh+lib Review, dh+lib relies on the PressForward plugin to facilitate the nomination of content from approximately 167 RSS feeds. Modeled after DHNow, dh+lib's workflow also relies on volunteer editors-at-large, who sign up for weekly shifts to sift through the feeds to select material of interest to the community. dh+lib has also developed an additional layer of editorial intervention, where items selected for publication are written up as short ""review"" pieces. These pieces contextualize the nominated content, often pulling in other sources, links, and commentary to frame a project, resource, or post.

By volunteering for DHNow or dh+lib, community editors-at-large develop conversance in relevant trends and issues. While DHNow broadcasts a wide scope of work and provides an easy entry point for new practitioners to begin tracking the field, the published dh+lib Review provides librarians with weekly updates of useful and timely content, as selected by their peers. Additional examples will include Global Perspectives on Digital History5, a collaboration between RRCHNM and his.net, that has adapted the PressForward methodology to monitor and distribute material from a smaller, but multilingual source base.

Committed to the ongoing experimentation of DHNow and GPDH, PressForward also encourages adaptation of the tool by others and welcomes collaborations such as with dh+lib.  Exposing the production of these digital humanities publications through documentation, workflow diagrams, and guides for getting started, we encourage viewers to consider how the PressForward model might improve the scholarly communication and collaboration of their own communities of interest on the open web.

References
1. PressForward: Discover, Curate, and Distribute Scholarship the Web Way. PressForward. Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2013. pressforward.org

2. The PressForward Plugin. PressForward. Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2013. pressforward.org/the-pressforward-plugin/

3. Digital Humanities Now. Digital Humanities Now. Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, n.d. Web. 01 Nov. 2013. digitalhumanitiesnow.org

4. dh+lib. Association of College and Research Libraries, n.d. Web. 01 Nov. 2013. acrl.ala.org/dh/

5. Global Perspectives on Digital History. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Nov. 2013. gpdh.org","txt","2","",""
"1935","15","Enjambment and the Poetic Line: Towards a Computational Poetics","9","The large-scale digitization of public domain texts carried out in recent years by Google and university libraries offers broader scope for literary-historical research into the development and cultural function of specific literary forms and genres. Traditional scholarship on select canonical texts can now be combined with the computational analysis of large document sets to provide insight into what makes those texts distinctive or representative of larger historical patterns. This paper discusses work in progress from Understanding Victorian Poetic Style, a project that examines how text analysis methods can be adapted to the study of poetics at the large scale. Stylometric analysis has largely been focused on identifying the distinctive linguistic patterns used by particular authors; I’m interested in extending these methods to examine poetic genre and form as shared historical, cultural practices.  To do this requires attending to the mutiple ways that poems create meaning through deliberate structures, such as enjambment, repetition, and rhyme.

Recent scholarship in nineteenth-century poetry has returned to the cultural study of form and to the study of historical poetics, which examines the history of theories about poetry’s linguistic textures.1 23 The nineteenth century produced a tremendous variety of metrical, rhymed, and stanzaic verse as well as free verse, which does not follow a set meter or rhyme pattern.  The digitization of ninteenth-century texts now affords the possibility of contributing to our historical understanding of poetic form with large scale analyses of poetic practice. This paper presents my current research into using computational text analysis for understanding the historical practice of enjambment, a key feature of the poetic line. This research contributes both to the project of sociological poetics, the understanding of literary form in its broadest historical function within human culture, and to the development of a computational poetics.4              

The poetic line is a distinguishing feature that separates poetry from prose. Like prose, poems contain sentences which can be analyzed syntactically and semantically. But in verse those sentences are arranged in lines. The poetic line is defined rhythmically in metrical verse; is marked through sound in rhymed verse; and is visually reinforced by white space in free verse and indeed in printed poems of all kinds.                                        

 Lines of poetry are defined to a large degree by their endings: some lines are firmly “end-stopped” by closing punctuation, like a period, and some “enjambed” lines deliberately continue into the line which follows, often by breaking in the middle of a syntactic clause.  Rather than seeing these as simple oppositions, John Hollander looks at the common notation for marking poetic line endings when quoted in the midst of prose (i.e., Wordsworth’s “I wandered lonely as a cloud / That floats on high o'er vales and hills,”) and proposes that we understand enjambment as:        

 "" . . . a kind of spectrum, along which we would arrange all the possible ways of terminating lines, considered not as boundaries or termini, but as the kinds of cutting into syntax which the slant-dash notation illustrates"" (99).5  Enjambment can thus be understood as one measure of the relation between the poetic line and the syntactic sentence. As T.V.F. Brogan suggests, “The sense in prose flows continuously, while in verse it is segmented so as to increase information density and perceived structure.”6  Poetic style can only be partially understood through “bag of words” or even n-gram analyses, since those words are deliberately arranged not only in sentences but in lines. Developing quantitative measures for this segmentation contributes to an historical poetics that defines form and genre as cultural phenomena.

 This paper describes my current approach to computationally analyzing enjambment in a corpus of poetry published in England between 1840-1900. It compares the utility of three different measures of the relation between the poetic line and the syntactic sentence:

 (1) a simple line:sentence ratio;

 (2) a spectrum definition marking degrees of enjambment based on different kinds of punctuation;

 (3) a spectrum definition marking degrees of enjambment based both on different kinds of punctuation and part-of-speech tagging.  

 These measures are considered as features of poetic style that can be used alongside other features in classification experiments or as markers of historical change in poetic practice. This computational analysis can contribute to our understanding of enjambment as a feature of an individual poets’ style; as a feature of particular poetic forms, themes, and genres; and as a feature of poetic discourse in particular historical periods.  As James Scully suggests:

 ""There is no unpositioned, dehistoricized technique – no way to comprehend line breaks in and of themselves. It’s not simply that these are socially specific practices, nor that there are different kinds of line breaks . . . but that line breaks do not work the same way in ballad quatrains as in blank verse, nor in prescribed verse as in free verse. . . Free verse too has a lineage, a historically reproduced repertory of conventions through which it works and to which it responds"" (108).7 The computational analysis of enjambment as it occurs in both prescribed and free verse in the nineteenth century can help us better discover and understand that repertory of formal conventions. By moving the study of poetics to the large historical scale, computational analysis can begin to generate a more detailed historical account of the historical and cultural functions of poetic form.

References
1. Levinson, M. (2007). What is New Formalism?, PMLA: Publications of the Modern Language Association 122.2: 558-69

2. Hall, J. D., ed. (2011). Meter Matters: Verse Cultures of the Long Nineteenth Century. Athens: Ohio University Press.

3. Hollander, J. (1975). Vision and Resonance: Two Senses of Poetic Form. New York: Oxford University Press.

4. Bakhtin, M. M. and Medvedev, P. N. (1978). The Formal Method in Literary Scholarship: A Critical Introduction to Sciological Poetics. Wehrle, A. (trans). Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

5. Hollander, J. (1975). Vision and Resonance: Two Senses of Poetic Form. New York: Oxford University Press.

6. Scully, J. (1988). Line Break. In Frank, R. and Sayre, H., (eds), The Line in Postmodern Poetry. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, pp. 97-131.

7. Scully, J. (1988). Line Break. In Frank, R. and Sayre, H., (eds), The Line in Postmodern Poetry. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, pp. 97-131.","txt","2","",""
"1936","15","Europe as a Digital Network: EGO European History Online","10","The proposed paper reports on the development of a new digital resource: EGO | European History Online(EGO) is a transcultural history of early modern and modern Europeconcentrating on processes of communication, interaction and interdependency (www.ieg-ego.eu). It is being published by the Leibniz Institute of European History (IEG) in Mainz in cooperation with the University of Trier’s Centre for Digital Humanities. At its heart are transfer processes that extended across individual, familial and local realms and had a long-term impact. EGO traces these transfer processes in and between, amongst others, the realms of religion, law, politics, art, music, literature, economics, technology and the military, science and medicine. One can speak of a ""transfer"" when people, objects and ideas move between different cultures (interpretative systems) and as a result undergo transformation.

European History Online is the first history of Europe that links the medium's relevance to the subject matter. The format of an online system of publication is the ideal medium for representing the complexity and dynamics of European communicative and transfer processes. The more than 200 articles are organised into ten thematic threads. These threads group the separate articles into a modular structure arranged thematically and methodologically. These threads are transdisciplinary and multi-thematic; they bring together the perspectives of different historical disciplines and their international authors. At the same time, they are organised diachronically, i.e. they deal with phenomena that – with specific periods of development and significance – are primarily evident throughout modern European history.

This organisation offers flexible means of accessing the contributions: in contrast to a printed book, European History Online does not have a beginning and an end. EGO accommodates the dynamics of intensifying communication and the continuously shifting intersections in European history by assigning many articles to more than one section. Within these multiple classifications, one can see how the topics interconnect. The different forms of presentation – surveys, basic elements and focus elements – and their organisation into a modular structure enable nuanced contextualisation.

In addition to this multi-layered structure, EGO articles are directly connected via hyperlinks. The aim of these connections is to expose the so far unknown concentrations of communication in European history, inspire new transcultural research in the various disciplines and thereby promote a more dynamic understanding of European history. The versatile search function allows users to put together their own ""history of Europe"" which corresponds to their individual interests.

Moreover, EGO pursues a multilingual approachthat acknowledges the need for a workable meta-language / lingua franca in the Humanities but at the same time does justice to the linguistic variety of national academic cultures in Europe: EGO-articles are accepted in English and German. All major contributions are translated by native speakers and published in both languages. In addition, authors may publish their article in their native language. Users are invited to consult both the original and the translation in order to trace differing argumentative patterns and conceptual peculiarities of the respective languages.

From the technical point of view EGO is based on a sophisticated infrastructure which on the on hand supports the editorial board (backend of the system), and on the other hand is used to build the frontend of the system for the publication of the EGO articles in the internet. For these purposes the open source enterprise content management system Plone is used, which is a very powerful environment developed for professional use in organisations and companies. Especially its sophisticated and safe user access management as well as its workflow driven content management makes it one of the outstanding web management systems.

In Plone it is possible to handle very different content types as for example texts, images, PDF-files, audio and video data. For EGO all these project specific media types are modelled by a corresponding Plone article type, such that they can be configured by the editor himself within the Plone configuration layer. Here the editors can specify all relevant visual and layout attributes for each object according to the underlying web design of EGO and thereby prepare the article for the final publication. This step is integrated in the whole publication workflow which is modelled within the content management system. The participating roles are the authors, the editors, the copy editors and the publishers. Every member of this team has its own role and permissions to work with the documents, which run through different stages from ‘private’ (i.e. newly provided by the author) over ‘review/revision’ (redacted by at least one editor and/or copy editor) and ‘internal preview’ until it is ‘externally published’ on the EGO platform (c.f. figure 1).


Fig. 1: EGO article ‘Mental Maps: The Cognitive Mapping of the Continent as an Object of research of European History’

All information about the documents, the media types, the interlinking between documents and external resources and especially about the people involved is managed in an object database, which serves as storage for the backend as well as for the frontend. This guarantees that all changes to a document are logged in one consistent pool of data. Moreover, on this database the search engine for EGO is installed. In addition to a conventional full text retrieval the engine supports the query for specific categories of EGO articles as for example authors, time ranges, themes/threads, geographical regions of Europe and for media types (image, audio, video etc.).

To address aspects of long term availability of the project results the EGO documents are encoded according to international standards (XML/TEI, METS/MODS). The implementation of an open access interface to our Plone system allows a standardized export of the data, which is on the one hand used for long term storage in form of a dark archive. On the other hand it provides possibilities for the reuse of the EGO documents (e.g. linguistic analysis, visualization of the semantic network, compilation of bibliographic information, etc.). 

The consequent use of a technical research and publication infrastructure leads to a highly dynamical publication process, to a very dense network of information and thereby to a very flexible presentation with additional benefits compared to traditional printed editions.

This change in media undertaken by European History Online challenges the concept of multi-volume published surveys, which, as a rule, must wait 20 to 50 years for a new edition. This dynamic form of publication corresponds to the dynamic understanding of Europe: the articles can be updated regularly, and the system can be extended by new articles in order to keep up with new developments in the research. Older versions of an article will remain accessible.

European History Online primarily uses linear, textual presentations of narrative and analysis in order to portray transfer processes in European history. However, EGO enhances spatial perspectives as well. All place names in the articles are georeferenced. They are retrievable in an alphabetical index and being visualized on a dynamic map (via Open Street Map). Thus authors are encouraged reflect their coverage of geographic areas in their resesarch, whereas users, via the general index (and map) of place names, may discern spatial clusters with regard to their topic of interest. EGO thus strives to enhances a spatially-oriented approach in transnational and transcultural history.

In addition, European History Onlinecombines different types of media in a – new – interpretative context. Images and audio and visual clips illustrate not only the topic being described, but also narrate their own histories of transfer and enable new interconnections. EGO's transdisciplinary approach is also to a large degree a product of the images, graphics, maps, tables, film clips and audio samples linked to the different textual contributions. This network exists, on the one hand, via internal links to elements published within EGO and, on the other, via links to external images, textual sources and biographical data digitalised or published elsewhere, as well as – in the notes – scholarly literature and other academic resources online. While these external resources represent all national traditions relevant to the history of Europe, EGO makes them accessible to a transnational academic community via a bilingual user interface. The dynamic EGO system thereby brings together and groups thematically the range of international online resources on European history.","txt","2","",""
"1937","15","Euterpe's Hidden Song: Patterns in Elegy","2","1. Introduction
It is widely acknowledged that classical Latin poetry was heavily influenced by Greek oral poetic traditions. The perception of sound is critical to the experience of the poetic work, and lyrical virtuosity is its hallmark. As Ezra Pound reminds us, ""poetry begins to atrophy when it gets too far from music"" 1. Recent scholarship in Latin poetry emphasizes the primacy of meter as a framework to organize sound 2. Classical notions of sound differ, however, with Plato and Aristotle suggesting that music itself is far more organic – a reflection of natural sounds and emotion that emanates deep within the self 3 4. In our own study of the role of sound in poetry, we have found patterns in the elegiac form at extraordinarily fine levels, only recently detectable with the use of methods from the digital humanities, and never remarked upon by any ancient or contemporary commentator. These patterns are a signature of the process that generates language, forms meter, and enables the creative act.

2. Aspects of Poetic Composition
Consider the phoneme, which is the fundamental building block of language. Philodemus of Gadara posits that the formation of poetry is contingent upon an agreeable arrangement of phonetic units 5. Views on how such an arrangement could come to be varied in classical times. Anomalists like Varro argue for an injection of novelty into language to draw our attention, while Analogistsincluding Julius Caesar recommend an adherence to a perceived natural ordering of linguistic elements 6. In all of these discussions, the relationship between basic elements is key.

Saussure assumes that differential relationships between phonemes are necessarily negative and reduced to opposition 7. Deleuze provides a critique of this based on the deeply plausible possibility that a positive relationship can exist. He states, ""For opposition teaches us nothing about the nature of that which is thought to be opposed. The selection of phonemes possessing pertinent value in this or that language is inseparable from that of morphemes as elements of grammatical constructions"" 8. An interplay between reciprocal sounds leads one to consider alternatives to Saussure's theory.

The linguist Gustave Guillaume writes of a hidden nature of language formulation in the mind before speech actualization 9. Guillaume argues that potential phonetic, lexical, and semantic forms interact in myriad combinations, defining a ""metalanguage"" that supports natural language. Deleuze seizes upon this idea, stating that metalanguage ""cannot be spoken in the empirical usage of a given language, but must be spoken and can be spoken only in the poetic usage of speech"" 10. It is this profound and fundamental insight that we scrutinize in this work.

Is there some way to resolve the opposition between the linguistic theories of Saussure and Guillaume? After all, both systems hint at a probabilistic model that follows some set of rules to enforce cognitive economy, which facilitates memory. Successful ""linguistic throws of the dice"" 11 yield novel turns of phrase, while other combinations fall flat.  The link from theory to experimentation that we pursue can be stated as follows: language is constructed by complex unseen interactions between linguistic elements in the mind (Saussure and Guillaume); poetry is unique, in that it provides a window into the aforementioned process (Deleuze). Based on our analysis of a large corpus using the statistical techniques of distant reading 12 13, this model appears to have some explanatory power.

3. The Elegiac Form
As a first case study, we examine the poetic form of the elegiac couplet under the lens of the above model. The elegiac meter is used for a variety of themes, most notably erotic love 14. The elegiac couplet is a pair of two different one-line ""verses"". The first line is identical to dactylic hexameter; the second, often called the ""pentameter"" line of the couplet, is shorter by two half-feet. The scansion is shown in Fig. 1. In our analysis, we consider all of the extant elegies from Catullus, Propertius, Tibullus, Ovid, and Martial. A selection of non-elegiac poems is also considered for comparison. All texts come from the Perseus Digital Library 15.


Fig. 1: The elegiac couplet. ""—"" represents a long syllable, ""∪"" a short syllable, ""U"" either one long syllable or two shorts, and ""⊔"" either one long syllable or a short.

4. Statistical Analysis
For stylistic analysis, the choice of style marker is important 16 171819. In this work, we look at a particular form of character-level bi-grams as a proxy for phonemes. Unlike phonemes, character-level bi-grams do not suffer from potential errors introduced by scholarly judgment of how an ancient word might have sounded. A functional bi-gram2021, when applied at the character-level, is an n-gram-based feature 22 that describes the most frequent sound-oriented information in a text. Similar to function words, functional n-grams are those n-grams that are elements of most of the lexicon, necessitating their use. We computed functional bi-grams using a set of custom perl scripts, and calculated statistics via Microsoft Excel. All code and data will be released at DH2014.

In Latin elegies, the most frequent bi-gram is ""er"". Because of its frequency, this sound alone is quite sensitive to meter, author, and literary era. Other sound choices exert influence upon ""er"", yielding interesting patterns. It is natural to ask why this is so. In order to see any patterns, we need a large enough feature sampling – otherwise we are simply lost in the noise. This is exactly what a functional bi-gram like ""er"" is meant to provide.


Fig. 2: Functional bi-gram probabilities for Catullus.

Calculating the associated probabilities for ""er"" over a collection of 50 line samples spanning the entire Catullan corpus exposes a substantial divergence between the polymetric poems, numbered 1-64, and the elegiacs, numbered 65-116, in Fig. 2. The probability of ""r"" directly following ""e"" is much higher in the elegiacs. Given just ""er"" for a sample, it is not difficult to guess its meter. In a rigorous statistical sense, we can ask if the bi-gram ""er"" is truly significant compared to the other most frequently occurring functional bi-grams. The null hypothesis states that any bi-gram should occur with roughly the same frequency across the entire corpus. For a multiple comparisons scenario with 100 hypothesis tests, the significance level is 0.0001. ""er"" is statistically significantly different (p < 0.0001) via the two-tailed paired t-test.


Fig. 3: a. Variation between books 1 & 2 and 3 & 4 of Tibullus; b. ""er"" bi-gram probabilities for Propertius.

What does ""er"" tell us about other elegists? In the case of Tibullus, books 3 & 4 are generally acknowledged to be the work of other poets 23, including the perhaps apocryphal contributions of Sulpicia 24. Considering variation with respect to ""er"", there is a noticeable increase in standard deviation for books 3 & 4, which we would expect for multiple authors. In another example, poets after Catullus often end the pentameter line with a two-syllable word 25. Propertius, following Catullus and Tibullus, does not do this in books 1 & 2, but adopts the style in books 3 & 4. From the change in values taken on by the ""er"" feature, a conclusion can be drawn that this new constraint affects sound choice by increasing the number of sound combinations that are used, thus decreasing the probability of ""er"".


Fig. 4: As the elegiac form evolves, the probability of ""er"" occurring declines. A linear regression model was fit to the elegists, highlighting the downward trend. The x-axis is arranged chronologically.

A poem's place in time also reflects its style. When viewed chronologically in Fig. 4, the probability of ""er"" occurring declines. Even within just the Ovidian corpus, this trend is evident. Beyond the change in the pentameter line endings, the pursuit of innovation means more poets look to new sound combinations, which drives down the probability of ""er"" – and gives some credence to the anomalist argument. Ovid, a master stylist, does not want to sound like his old self as his work progresses. In this vein, a further note can be provided on the magnitude of the meter's role in composition. We find in Fig. 5 a smaller number of longer words in dactylic hexameter compared to elegiac hexameter over the complete works in these meters for thirteen poets. We can explain this as a blending of a genre-dependent signal with the meter signal: the pentameter line tends to have shorter words because of constraints imposed by the meter; this tendency steers word choice towards shorter words in the hexameter line, even though here, as proven by dactylic hexameters, word length is not so constrained by meter.


Fig. 5: The interplay between the hexameter and pentameter lines results in shorter hexameter lines with more words, which are atypical outside elegiacs.

5. Discussion
What can be said of these findings? The most frequent sound in a poem provides important clues to the overall construction of language in its aesthetic and historical contexts. Poetry is wonderful for many reasons – that it is a window into the mind is perhaps the most striking.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by NEH Start-Up Grant Award #HD-51570-12.

References
1. Pound, E. (1960). ABC of Reading, New Directions, p. 14.

2. Morgan, L. (2010). Musa Pedestris: Metre and Meaning in Roman Verse. Oxford University Press.

3. Grube, G and C. Reeve. (1992). Plato: Republic, Second Edition. Hackett Publishing Company, pp. 52-80.

4. Lord, C. (2013). Aristotle’s Politics: Second Edition. University of Chicago Press, pp. 223-239.

5. D. Armstrong (1995). The Impossibility of Metathesis: Philodemus and Lucretius on Form and Content in Poetry. In Obbink, D. ed. Philodemus and Poetry: Poetic Theory and Practice in Lucretius, Philodemus, and Horace. Oxford University Press, pp. 210-233.

6. Colson, F. (1919). The Analogist and Anomalist Controversy, The Classical Quarterly, 13.1.24-36.

7. Saussure, F. (1966). Course in General Linguistics. McGraw-Hill.

8. Deleuze, G. (1968). Difference and Repetition. Columbia, p. 205.

9. Guillaume, G. (1984). Foundations for a Science of Language. John Benjamins.

10. Deleuze, G. (1968). Difference and Repetition. Columbia, p. 193.

11. Ibid., p. 205.

12. Moretti, F. (2005). Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History. Verso.

13. Jockers, M. (2013). Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History. University of Illinois Press.

14. Morgan, L. (2010). Musa Pedestris: Metre and Meaning in Roman Verse. Oxford University Press.

15. Perseus Digital Library. Ed. Gregory R. Crane. Tufts University. www.perseus.tufts.edu. Accessed October 17, 2013.

16. Burrows, J.F. (1989). An Ocean Where each Kind...: Statistical Analysis and Some Major Determinants of Literary Style, Computers & the Humanities, 23.309-321.

17. Eder, M. (2008). How Rhythmical is Hexameter: a Statistical Approach to Ancient Poetry, Digital Humanities, 2007.

18. Juola, P. (2008). Authorship Attribution, Foundations and Trends in Information Retrieval 1.3.233-334.

19. Hoover, D. (2013). The Full-Spectrum Text-Analysis Spreadsheet, Digital Humanities, 2013.

20. Forstall, C.W. and W.J. Scheirer. (2009). Features from Frequency: Authorship and Stylistic Analysis Using Repetitive Sound, Journal of the Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science 1.2.1-23.

21. Forstall, C.W., Jacobson, S.L. and W.J. Scheirer. (2011). Evidence of Intertextuality: Investigating Paul the Deacon's Angustae Vitae, Literary and Linguistic Computing 26.3.285-296.

22. Jurafsky, D. and J. Martin. (2009). Speech and Language Processing: Second Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall.

23. Conte, G.B. (1999). Latin Literature: A History. Johns Hopkins, pp. 330-331.

24. Hubbard, T. (2005). The Invention of Sulpicia, The Classical Journal, 100.2.177-194.

25. Platnauer, M. (1951). Latin Elegiac Verse: Study of Metrical Uses of Tibullus, Propertius and Ovid. Cambridge, p. 17.","txt","2","",""
"1938","15","Exploratory Thematic Analysis for Historical Newspaper Archives","10","Introduction
On July 19th, 1848, 300 concerned United States citizens gathered in Seneca Falls, New York, for the women’s rights convention that would culminate in the signing of the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments, the first major document (in the US) to call for women’s right to vote. In The North Star, Frederick Douglass, the former slave turned abolitionist, extolled the event as a “grand movement for attaining the civil, social, political, and religious rights of women” (1848). In the Oneida Whig, the same event was ridiculed as the “most shocking and unnatural event ever recorded in the history of womanity” (1848). As demonstrated by these contradictory accounts, published opinions varied greatly -- about the women’s rights movement in the nineteenth-century United States, and about current events generally conceived. Large-scale digitization projects have increasingly enabled humanities scholars to search newspapers, such as those just cited, for significant words and phrases. But exploring more open-ended questions such as, “How did the discourse surrounding women’s rights in the United States change in the wake of the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention?” or “Did the women’s rights movement borrow language from the nation’s contemporaneous anti-slavery campaign?” remains a challenge. Synthesizing current research on exploratory data analysis with techniques from the fields of computational linguistics and data visualization, we propose a new set of methods to assist humanities scholars in computationally-assisted exploratory research.

Background and Overview
Exploratory data analysis (EDA) has played a fundamental role in quantitative research since at least the 1970s (Tukey 1977). In comparison to formal hypothesis testing, exploratory data analysis is more open-ended, and is meant to help the researcher develop a general sense of the properties of the dataset before embarking on more specific inquiries (Russell, Stefik, Pirolli, and Card, 1993). EDA typically combines visualizations such as scatterplots and histograms with lightweight quantitative analysis, serving to check basic assumptions, reveal errors in the data-processing pipeline, identify relationships between variables, and suggest preliminary models. More recently, Andrew Gelman (2004) has argued that EDA should be interwoven with formal statistical modeling, facilitating an iterative design process driven by experimenter insight.

The questions about women’s rights, posed above, suggest the potential of EDA for humanities research-- a possibility also noted by Muralidharan and Hearst (2012). That team employs automatic syntactic analysis to identify and visualize recurring grammatical patterns, which, when combined with document metadata, reveals insights at the sentence level. By contrast, we combine metadata with techniques such as topic modeling in order to reveal insights at the document level. Inspired by the increasing use of topic models to make literary and cultural arguments (Underwood 2012, Rhody 2012, and Jockers 2013), we ask how the exploratorythematicanalysis of documents might be incorporated into the initial phase of humanities research.

Our approach encompasses both traditional topic models and innovative visualizations, as well as alternative computational techniques targeted at the questions that topic modeling raises but leaves unanswered. By designing new visualizations and text-mining algorithms within the context of a specific, humanities-driven research effort, we hope to prototype a new mode of multi-disciplinary scholarship that will facilitate the iterative research methodology advocated by Gelman (2004). Specifically, we aim to facilitate the thematic exploration of document archives as a precursor to more informed keyword searching, more sustained close reading, and more systematic evidence gathering.

User Scenario and Interface Prototypes
Our focus is on a set of abolitionist newspapers from the nineteenth-century United States, in which antislavery advocates mounted moral, social, and political arguments in favor of emancipation. These newspapers present a particularly compelling dataset for thematic analysis, as similar ideas were purportedly framed differently by (and for) women and men (Dudden 2011). Here, we focus on one newspaper, The Anti-Slavery Bugle, published in New Lisbon, Ohio, between 1845 and 1861. Significantly, it was the source of much reprinting (Golden 2013), and underwent several shifts in editorial control. 

Standard LDA topic analysis (MALLET; McCallum 2002) with 100 topics and standard parametrization reveals a number of topics that might intrigue a scholar in the initial phases of research, including:

T40: states state law constitution tho government power united laws congress rightspeople con ohio tion act union question property
T56: indians indian tribes tribe chiefs frontier dian treaties tiger hawk antelope annuity fiscal lllack hyenas tigers dians avalanche savages
T59: woman women rightshusband wife sex sho marriage property married mrs female legal sphere equality estate social duties sexes
Topic 59 (T59) suggests that the Bugle may offer insight into the relationship between the antislavery movement and the nascent drive for women’s rights. The accompanying metadata reveals that the newspaper was co-edited by a woman between 1845 and 1849; however, this topic peaked in the late 1850s (a time when the women’s rights movement was ascendant). At this point, we reach the limit of what can be learned from a topic model alone. We cannot easily answer, for instance, how the treatment of this topic in the Bugle might have differed from that of other newspapers; whether the editors of the Bugle were early advocates for the women’s rights movement; or whether the peak in the late 1850s followed a national trend.


The above screenshot documents a prototype interface for the visualization and analysis of topic models that can begin to answer these questions. We apply a dust-and-magnetvisualization (Yi et al., 2005), in which user-selected topics exert a magnetic “force” on individual issues of the newspaper (represented as “dust”). The temporal trajectories of several newspapers are shown as “dust trails” in the visual space, with colors indicating the terms of different editorial teams, and with the Bugle highlighted so as to facilitate comparison with contemporaneous newspapers.

Next, we address the topics themselves. In such models, topics are defined by sets of words, with the assumption that each word has a single meaning across all usage contexts. However, much humanities scholarship entails a sensitivity to shifting meanings and uses. A scholar may wonder, for instance, how women’s “rights” (as indicated by the keyword in T59) were described in relation to the legal “rights” featured in T40. She may ask if the rhetoric of one borrowed from the other, or if the use of the word “rights” changed when it was employed to describe women’s vs. legal rights. Again, the scholar seeks to know more than what can be inferred by LDA alone. We propose to link LDA’s high-level thematic analysis with visualizations that drill down to the level of individual examples. Building on the traditional keyword-in-context (KWIC) models, we are developing a computational algorithm for selecting contexts that are both strongly associated with each topic of interest (for example, the contexts for “rights” in T40 and T59), while simultaneously revealing the full range of thematic possibilities within each topic. 

While the range of connotations of individual words in a topic presents one kind of interpretive challenge, the topics themselves can at times present another: when a topic includes words associated with seemingly divergent themes. In T56, the scholar might observe a (seemingly) obvious connection, for the nineteenth-century, between words that describe Native Americans and those that describe nature. However, unlike the words “antelope” or “hawk,” the words “tiger” and “hyena,” also included in the topic, do not describe animals indigenous to North America. Does an explanation lie in a figurative vocabulary for describing native peoples? Or is this collection of words merely an accident of statistical analysis, a result of being built on a randomized algorithm?


To address this question, we propose a spatial visualization using multidimensional scaling (Cox and Cox, 2010) to position the keywords for each topic according to their contextual similarity. As shown in the figure above-left, the terms “indian”, “indians”, and “tribes” are located apart from “hyena”, “tiger”, and “tigers”, which are themselves closely associated. The spatial layout suggests a relatively weak connection between these terms. For comparison, we also include the spatial visualization for a topic relating to the Mexican-American War, above-right, in which terms related to the conduct of the war (“Taylor”, “troops”) are spatially distinguished from those related to its outcome (“treaty”, “annexation”).

Conclusion and Next Steps
The goal of our ongoing work on exploratory thematic analysis is to provide a comprehensive set of algorithms and visualizations for understanding newspaper archives. Topic modeling is an important first step, but if we are to move beyond suggestive word lists in order to contribute to humanities scholarship, topic models must be linked to relevant metadata and concrete examples. Moreover, scholars must be provided with new visual modes that illuminate the substructures within the generalized themes that the topic model produces. Such techniques can reveal new insights about the transmission and circulation of ideas among social and political coalitions, and how the framing of these ideas relates to authors’ genders. By linking technical innovation with real humanistic inquiry, we hope to produce algorithms and visualizations that will meet the needs of substantive humanities research.

References
“Bolting Among the Ladies.” The Oneida Whig, August 1, 1848.

Cox, Trevor F., and Michael AA Cox (2010). Multidimensional scaling. CRC Press.

Douglass, Frederick (1848). “The Rights of Women.”The North Star, July 28.

Dudden, F. (2011) Fighting Chance: The Struggle Over Woman Suffrage and Black Suffrage in America. Oxford UP. 

Jockers, M. (2013) Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History. U Illinois P.

Kwok, James T. and Ryan P. Adams. (2012). “Priors for Diversity in Generative Latent Variable Models.” Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems.

Rhody, L. (2012) “Some Assembly Required: Understanding and Interpreting Topics in LDA Models of Figurative Langauge.” Lisa @ Work.

McCallum, Andrew Kachites (2002).  ""MALLET: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit.""

Muralidharan, Aditi. and Hearst, Marti A. (2012), Supporting Exploratory Text Analysis in Literature Study, Literary and Linguistic Computing, 27 (4), Dec 24.

Russell, Daniel M., Mark J. Stefik, Peter Pirolli, and Stuart K. Card. (1993) ""The cost structure of sensemaking."" In Proceedings of the INTERACT'93 and CHI'93 conference on Human factors in computing systems, pp. 269-276. ACM.

Tukey, John Wilder (1977). Exploratory Data Analysis. Addison-Wesley.

Underwood, Ted (2011). “The Differentiation of Literary and Nonliterary Diction, 1700-1900.” The Stone and the Shell. 

Yi, Ji Soo, Rachel Melton, John Stasko, and Julie A. Jacko (2005). ""Dust & magnet: multivariate information visualization using a magnet metaphor.""Information Visualization 4, no. 4: 239-256.","txt","2","",""
"1939","15","Exploring Qualitative Data for Secondary Analysis: Challenges, Methods, and Technologies","2","Introduction
A remarkable body of data has been collected in the social sciences by interviewing people or observing peoples’ interaction in a variety of situations – qualitative data sources very valuable for contemporary research. Notable projects promoting the re-use of qualitative data are ESDS Qualidata 1 (now UK Data Service) or Bequali 2. Here, we discuss important challenges in re-using qualitative data for secondary analysis and present first ideas on how to overcome them. This includes exploiting state-of-the-art IT-methods from the fields of Information Retrieval and Data Mining – adapting and integrating them for the digital humanities – as well as methodological considerations based on interdisciplinary work, in our case between computer scientists, historians, and social scientists in the project “Gute Arbeit” 3.

Challenges in secondary analysis of qualitative data
We focus on challenges on three main levels: a) making qualitative data accessible for secondary analysis, b) making relevant material findable, and c) making it understandable, i.e., ensuring adequate interpretation.

Accessibility
Efforts towards secondary analysis of qualitative data often have to struggle with researchers’ reluctance to make their data – their asset – (digitally) available. One crucial issue is warranting anonymity. The problem is exacerbated with qualitative data since answers are rather uncontrolled and unstructured, making it possible to combine information from various places in an interview, e.g., potentially giving information on an employee's (rather unique) background. There is an inherent conflict: While the data owners may tend to prefer protecting their clients, other researchers will argue for having complete information on interview content and context.

Findability
The ability to select the right primary material is an important precondition for re-analysis. For this, tools for exploring and searching relevant studies, cases/samples, and documents are needed that allow defining various criteria and notions of interesting or “similar” data. Furthermore, when reading and analysing the selected (long) interviews we envision enhanced analysis support, e.g. for re-using and sharing codes and annotations or for within document navigation to snippets of interest.

Interpretability
Understanding context is crucial to correctly interpret utterances of interviewees. Lack of context knowledge (“Not having been there”) is usually stated as one of the major concerns regarding the feasibility of secondary analysis 4. Furthermore, some qualitative approaches consider interactions between researchers and interviewees as essential for interpretation 5. While for some studies e.g., ethnological field studies, (contextual) data may not be sharable at all, for semi-structured interviews the process of data gathering can be made more transparent 6. Moreover, when working with data from earlier time periods questions of (the comparability of) socio-cultural macro-context are raised 7.

Technologies for digitally enhanced secondary analysis of qualitative data
In current practice, qualitative researchers mainly rely on qualitative data analysis tools like ATLAS.ti or MaxQDA or on (quantitative) dictionary-based content analysis tools, e.g., General Inquirer or Diction. Here, we discuss how secondary analysis of qualitative data can benefit from more sophisticated techniques from text mining and natural language processing – especially when systematically combining them to reveal novel usages.  

Named Entity Recognition
Automatically identifying persons, organizations, and locations, i.e., so called named entity recognition (NER), is a standard task in natural language processing with tools publicly available, e.g. Stanford Named Entity Recognizer 8. In secondary analysis, NER can be used for improving search (e.g., faceted search) and contextualization. While non-disclosure agreements and adequate access rights will be the cornerstone of an anonymization strategy, NER can also assist in the anonymization task by finding persons or organizations talked about or by highlighting location names, which possibly provide additional hints to who was interviewed. Identified named entities can be systematically substituted by pseudonyms – storing the mapping safely on a remote place.

Sentiment Analysis
Opinion mining (sentiment analysis) techniques could support the secondary researcher in finding opinionated material, e.g., passages with positive or negative points of view on a particular subject. For example, our project “Gute Arbeit” is interested in how peoples' concepts of “good"" work evolved over the last decades.  Besides, such techniques may support judging the sensitivity of material, e.g. insults. Direct application of – often vocabulary-based – state-of-the-art sentiment analysis tools (e.g. 9) to qualitative data is usually not feasible. There are peculiarities regarding the detection of subjective expressions and opinion targets, context dependency, indirect opinions, and ordering or omittance effects. For example, in face-to-face interviews subtle sentiment expressions are common. We are researching how to ‘train’ machine-learning approaches to better cope with qualitative data.

Topic Modeling
Topic modeling with its prominent representative Latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) 10 is a statistical technique for identifying the topical structure of large textual corpora. Application to limited size qualitative corpora may require gathering additional training data (11, 12).Topic modeling techniques can highlight themes - possibly going beyond themes asked for - discussed in (long) qualitative documents. Concept Maps or co-occurrence matrixes are related ideas. For a quick overview, interview contents can be visualized by means of representative topics. For example, topics extracted from a collection of studies show commonalities while comparing topics of individual studies sheds light on specifics. Similarly, Janasik et al. 13 argue that such text mining procedures can aid both data-driven, inductive research by finding emergent concepts as well as theory-driven, deductive research by checking the adequacy and applicability of defined schemes.

Context Enrichment
There are different kinds and levels of context of the interview, e.g., conversational, situational, regarding the research project, or institutional/cultural 14. While most of these context variables need to be documented by the primary researcher, IT tools can substantially aid capturing the socio-cultural (macro-)context present at the time of data collection. Using external knowledge bases, e.g. Wikipedia or news corpora, primary data can be automatically annotated and linked with background information (e.g. 15, 16, 17). Changes in socio-cultural context may also be better traceable by topic or word clusters with their evolution tracked over time 18.

Intelligent Search and Visualization
For fast access to an archive of unknown qualitative studies, intelligent search procedures and advanced visualizations for supporting exploration are crucial: Term clouds, Topics maps, and timelines, e.g. for word (cluster) evolutions. Facetted search is a standard in many web applications allowing to browse data or to filter query results based on facets. For a qualitative data archive such facets can be classical metadata like project or study, year, or author, but also advanced information extracted automatically, like entities or topics talked about. All of these may help the secondary researcher to better define his notion of interesting or “similar” material.

While quite many projects make use of one of the aforementioned techniques, novel usage scenarios result from systematically chaining or plugging in the various components. Of course, to aid digital humanities researchers IT tools need to adhere to best practices in interface and interaction design (usability principles like learnability, robustness). More importantly, scepticism regarding the utility and validity of employing IT techniques in humanities research as well as potential misperceptions of ‘hostile takeover’ attempts have to be addressed. 

First experiences
The technologies discussed hold a lot of promise for supporting secondary analysis, but it is important to carefully fit the way they are offered with the work practices and expectations for secondary analysis. Due to the close collaboration across disciplines as well as the work on concrete secondary analysis tasks, our project “Gute Arbeit” provides a good hands-on opportunity for such user-driven technology adaption. We conducted two group discussions where an early prototype realizing topic modelling via Mallet 19 was shown as a stimulus to each three humanities researchers. Despite some limitations in perceived quality, in sum our researchers stated an added value regarding data access and exploration – though considerably less for those very familiar with the data. In general, the need for iterative interaction, flexibility, and personalization were put forward by both groups. For example, instead of aiming at automatic topic labelling users want to maintain their own topic labels and as well define relationships between topics or group topics into clusters. Thresholds for probability-based techniques like topic modeling should be adjustable to allow trading off completeness versus specificity. By enabling ranking based on relative (cumulative) topic coverage one can easily focus on the most relevant subset of documents that cover most of the topic in the corpus. Contrasting different subsets of documents matching criteria like study, profession, or time period regarding prevalent topics was mentioned as an interesting further development. Especially for the historian, the time dimension was important. Language and topic evolution could be visualized.

Our experiments showed the need to select and adapt text mining tools carefully - here tailoring the technology to the needs of secondary analysis. The lessons learned through our interdisciplinary, collaborative, agile approach to tool development highlight the methodological strengths of the rapid prototyping process: researchers get to know and trust the techniques better as these early hands-on sessions demonstrate potentials as well as necessary refinements. While it is hard to know your requirements for novel digital research tools before seeing them in action, iteratively providing (imperfect) evolutionary prototypes seems a useful methodology for establishing a common ground for the Digital Humanities.

References
1. www.esds.ac.uk/qualidata/about/introduction.asp

2. www.bequali.fr/

3. www.sofi-goettingen.de/index.php?id=1086

4. Corti, L., Witzel, A., and Bishop, L. (2005). On the Potentials and Problems of Secondary Analysis. An Introduction to the FQS Special Issue on Secondary Analysis of Qualitative Data. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 6(1).

5. Gillies, V. and Edwards, R. (2005). Secondary Analysis in Exploring Family and Social Change: Addressing the Issue of Context. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 6(1).

6. Irwin, S. (2013). Qualitative secondary data analysis: Ethics, epistomology and context. Progress in Development Studies, 13(4):295-306.

7. Gillies, V. and Edwards, R. (2005). Secondary Analysis in Exploring Family and Social Change: Addressing the Issue of Context. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 6(1).

8. Finkel, J. R., Grenager, T., and Manning, C. (2005). Incorporating Non-local Information into Information Extraction Systems by Gibbs Sampling, Proceedings of the 43nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, ACL, University of Michigan, USA, June 2005.

9. Pang, B. and Lee, L. (2008). Opinion Mining and Sentiment Analysis. Foundations and Trends in Information Retrieval, 2(1-2):1-135.

10. Blei, D. M., Ng, A. Y., and Jordan, M. I. (2003). Latent dirichlet allocation. The Journal of Machine Learning Research, 3:993-1022.

11. Zhu, X., He, X., Munteanu, C., and Penn, G. (2008). Using latent Dirichlet allocation to incorporate domain knowledge for topic transition detection. Proceedings of the 9th Annual Conference of the International Speech Communication Association, INTERSPEECH, Brisbane, Australia, September 2008:2443-2445.

12. Tran, N. K., Zerr, S., Bischoff, K., Niederée, C., and Krestel, R. (2013). Topic Cropping: Leveraging Latent Topics for the Analysis of Small Corpora. Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries - Proceedings of the International Conference on Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries, TPDL, Valetta, Malta, September 2013, Springer LNCS, pp. 297-308.

13. Janasik, N., Honkela, T. and Bruun, H. (2009). Text mining in qualitative research: Application of an unsupervised learning method. Organizational Research Methods, 12(3):436-460.

14. Bishop, L. (2006). A Proposal for Archiving Context for Secondary Analysis. Methodological Innovations Online, 1(2):10-20.

15. Mihalcea, R. and Csomai, A. (2007). Wikify!: linking documents to encyclopedic knowledge. Proceedings of the sixteenth ACM conference on Conference on information and knowledge management, CIKM, Lisbon, Portugal, 2007, ACM, pp. 233–242.

16. Milne, D. and Witten, I. H. (2008). Learning to link with Wikipedia. Proceedings of the 17th ACM conference on Information and knowledge management, CIKM, Napa Valley, CA, USA, October 2008, ACM, pp. 509–518.

17. He, J., de Rijke, M., Sevenster, M., van Ommering, R., and Qian, Y. (2011). Generating links to background knowledge: a case study using narrative radiology reports. Proceedings of the 20th ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management, CIKM, Glasgow, Scotland, UK, 2011, ACM, pp. 1867–1876.

18. Wang, X. and McCallum, A. (2006). Topics over time: a non-markov continuous-time model of topical trends. Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining, KDD, Philadelphia, PA, USA, August 2006, ACM, pp. 424-433.

19. McCallum, A. K. (2002). MALLET: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit, mallet.cs.umass.edu.","txt","2","",""
"1940","15","Exploring the Intersection of Personal and Public Authorial Voice in the Works of Willa Cather","9","1. Introduction
In a letter that Willa Cather wrote in response to a reader's critique in 1924, she claims:“I had a perfectly good reason for writing ‘Antonia’ in the first person, masculine—and I did not for one minute try to ‘talk like a man’. Such a thing as humbugging any one never occurred to me. It does not matter who tells a story. It is merely a point of view, a position which the writer takes in regard to his material...”.1

Looking into an author’s unpublished writings for additional insight is an analytic strategy with a long history in literature studies. With selections from Willa Cather’s extensive collection of correspondences now available for study, scholars are presented with the opportunity to compare Cather’s private letters with her published novels. A statistical examination of Cather’s letters has, until recently, been impossible; until the 2013 publication of The Selected Letters of Willa Cather, Cather’s letters were not available to the public.2 The publication of the letters offers a glimpse into the private life of Cather, a life that she kept carefully guarded. The collection contains approximately 550 letters, spanning her life from age 14 until just days before her death. While Cather often spent years working on her published writings, the fact that many of her correspondences were hurriedly dashed off indicates that an examination of the letters could reveal a style of writing that is less polished, worked, and intentional.

The potential applications of this type of statistical analytic in literature studies as a whole are wide reaching. Many authors have left behind extensive collections of personal writing that could hold untapped insight about how they communicated in different settings, and how their writing evolved. By using similar tools to those we utilized in this exploratory research of Cather, scholars can continue to quantify the suppositions that traditional methods of literary analysis have yielded.

2. Methodology
Our research was divided into two main tasks. First, we established a “personal voice signal” from Cather’s correspondence. To derive a quantitative signal, we narrowed the available letters down to 164 letters using the hclust() function in R (For additional information, see http://www.r-project.org/.). Setting the number of clusters to 18, we chose the cluster that contained the highest percentage of letters addressed to distinctly personal correspondents. The personal signal was created by using a mean frequency threshold to determine a set of frequently used words in the corpus of letters. In the tradition of Burrows and others working in authorship attribution, we elected to measure style based on the occurrence of high frequency word features.34 This allowed us to both avoid arbitrarily selecting words, and to avoid using any context-sensitive words in our signal.5 It is likely that the 15 frequency features, or function words, that we selected are also less dependent on an author’s conscious decision to vary his or her vocabulary.6 Thus, function words might offer a better indication of the subconscious, intrinsic choices that inform a writer’s voice. It was our initial expectation that Cather’s personal voice signal would differ from the narrative voices present within her novels. Our initial research question revolved around the relationship between private and public authorship: how (if at all) did Cather’s fiction act as a mouthpiece for her personal voice?

Once we generated a signal from Cather’s letters, we used a clustering function in R to compare the signal with 15 of her novels. In order to compare Cather’s novels with the personal voice signal derived from her correspondences, we used R to calculate two statistical measures of similarity: correlation coefficient and Euclidean distance. These two units of measure compare the similarity between Cather’s personal voice signal and her use of function words in the corpus of novels. Examining the Euclidean distance (with the dist() function) provides a way to calculate the numerical distance between the frequency of the function words within the personal correspondences and the frequency of the same set of function words within each of the five novels. The correlation coefficient measures the linear dependence between the function words in the correspondences and the function words in each novel. We divided each of the novels into 1,000 word chunks in order to track the extent to which portions of the novels were more similar to Cather’s personal voice than others. In order to calculate a unique Euclidean distance for each novel, as opposed to its parts, we averaged the distances for all the 1,000 word sections of each novel to determine a mean similarity between each novel and Cather’s personal voice signal.

3. Observations
While some of our findings on the similarity between Cather’s personal voice signal and her use of function words within her novels reaffirmed our initial hypotheses, some have defied initial expectations. We found that Cather’s use of function words within her novels was significantly different from the personal voice signal calculated from the correspondences. However, the frequency of function words did not vary significantly among 14 of the 15 novels we examined, regardless of the gender of the narrator. This would indicate that, while there is a difference between Cather’s “personal voice” and 14 of her published novels, certain aspects of the voice she adopts in these novels remains constant regardless of the identity of the narrator. We did identify a single outlier among Cather’s novels. The frequency of function words within Cather’s novel My Mortal Enemy more closely resembles the use of frequency words in Cather’s correspondences than any of the other novels we examined.7

My Mortal Enemy was published in 1926, approximately halfway through Cather’s publishing career. Previous scholarly commentary on Cather has also indicated thatMy Mortal Enemy is a singular book in her fiction corpus. The novel focuses on two periods in the life of Myra Henshawe and her husband, Oswald. The narrator, Nellie Birdseye, who many scholars argue is modeled after Cather, acts primarily as a frame for sharing the Henshawe’s story. It is widely considered to be the embodiment of Cather’s own novelistic ideal, the novel demeuble.8 For Cather, the novel demeuble was an evocative form of realism, stripped of unnecessary detail and embellishment. The unique style of narration present in My Mortal Enemy raises interesting questions about similarities between this novel and Cather’s correspondences. If My Mortal Enemy embodies Cather’s own idealized notion of stripped bare, to the point realism, than is it possible that Cather also adopted a similar style in her personal letters?

Interesting questions are also raised by the way in which My Mortal Enemydraws from Cather’s life. The novel’s autobiographical nature has largely been shrouded in mystery since Cather carefully attempted to conceal the events and people that influenced her novels. Charles Johanningsmeier has made one of the most thorough attempts at unraveling the connections, tracing the novel’s influences to Cather’s history with the McClure family.9 In this sense, our work appears to support Cather studies by backing up scholarly claims about autobiographical influence with quantitative data. We believe that examining the relative similarity or difference between the ‘voice’ of Cather’s letters and fiction is relevant because of the claims she made. Based on comments made in some letters, it appears that she perceived differences in her writing that surpass the conventions of genre. If we assume that in writing about deeply personal issues, an author is likely to lapse into a more personal style, our findings seem to support the claim that My Mortal Enemy was highly influenced by Cather’s personal life. This raises an interesting question: does the use of autobiographical details in Cather’s fiction indicate an unconscious use of a more personal style of writing?

4. Future Work
In the future, we intend to deepen and expand the traits that define the personal voice signal we are deriving from Cather’s correspondences. Sentence length, structure, and the choice of infrequently appearing vocabulary are all elements of a writer’s unique voice. Our research team will be investigating the ways in which these characteristics impact the relationship between Cather’s private letters and her published works.

It is also our hope that the research we have begun will lead towards further studies on the relationship between My Mortal Enemy and Cather’s letters. In addition, since scholars recognize the main character from My Mortal Enemy, Nellie, as modeled after Cather, future research might begin to look specifically at the ways in which Cather’s personal voice is associated with specific characters in her novels. This question might again return to issues of gender; if it becomes clear that certain characters within Cather’s work speak in a way similar to Cather’s personal voice, the next question should revolve around what these characters have in common.

References
1. Cather, Willa. (20139 To Mr. Miller. The Selected Letters of Willa Cather. Ed. Andrew Jewell and Janis Stout. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 362.

2. A. Knopf (2013). The Selected Letters of Willa Cather. Jewell Andrew, and Janis Stout, eds. The Selected Letters of Willa Cather. New York: Alfred.

3. Grieve, J. (2007). Quantitative authorship attribution: an evaluation of techniques. Literary and Linguistic Computing: Journal of the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing, 22(3): 251–70.

4. Burrows, J. (2002). ‘Delta’: a measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship. Literary and Linguistic Computing: Journal of the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing, 17(3): 267–87.

5. Jockers, Matthew L., Daniela M. Witten, and Craig S. Criddle. Reassessing Authorship of the Book of Mormon Using Delta and Nearest Shrunken Centroid Classification. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23.4 (2008): 465-492.

6. Ray Siemens, John Unsworth (2004). A Companion to Digital Humanities, ed. Susan Schreibman. Oxford: Blackwell.

7. Cather, Willa (1926). My Mortal Enemy. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

8. Cather, Willa. (1922) The Novel Demeuble. The New Republic, 30.1: 5-6.

9. Johanningsmeier, Charles. (2003) Unmasking Willa Cather’s ‘My Mortal Enemy.’ Cather Studies, Volume 5: Willa Cather’s Ecological Imagination. n. pag. Web.","txt","2","",""
"1941","15","Exploring the structuring the semantics of Medieval Legal Charters","10","Historical legal charters can provide an important window into the workings of a society, and because of their legal significance they often survive as evidence of a society when there is little other documentary evidence available. Of course, original medieval charters have always been difficult to access, and for this reason work was undertaken even in the 19th century to prepare printed editions of them. Nowadays they are published over the WWW, since space is unlimited and access for potential users is quick and easy. See, for example, the efforts of the Institute of Historical Research in its British History Online project which has been transcribing printed editions of collections and making them available over the WWW (e.g. Marwick 1894), and the monasterium.net (Mom 2013) from which, as its website says, ""Original documents [are] available world wide 24 hours a day, independent of the researcher’s physical location.""

Once the texts have been digitised, the question arises about what can be done with them. One strand for this is exemplified in the work of the ChartEx project (CharteEx 2013) which has been funded by the Digging into Data Challenge and is developing ""new ways of exploring the full text content of digital historical records"" through the use of natural language processing and data mining techniques to extract automatically information about people, events and places and find relationships between them. ChartEx, then, by its use of advanced text processing and analysis techniques follows one of the long traditions of the digital humanities. The other long standing approach to dealing with text – markup – is also active with the work of the Charters Encoding Initiative project (CEI 2009) which has developed a TEI-derived markup scheme suitable for charter texts. CEI takes, perhaps not surprisingly, primarily a diplomatic approach. Georg Vogeler, writing about the CEI, claims that medieval European charters ""reflect contemporary attitudes and mindsets as regards legal and representation issues"" and ""are tools of diplomatic criticism"" (Vogeler 2005, p 276). He further claims that through CEI markup one has a ""platform for seeing the European Middle Ages as they are reflected in their charters"" (Vogeler 2005, p 279).

DDH at King's College London has been involved in several projects that have used charters as their subject matter, but these projects have not taken either the text analysis or markup approaches. Charters were a substantial component of the Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England (PASE 2010). Two other more recent projects have made charters their primary focus, even more than PASE. The Paradox of Medieval Scotland project (PoMS 2010) (extended more recently in the People of Medieval Scotland (PoMS 2013)) represents more than 6000 charters and claims to be ""the first online prosopographical database to comprise exclusively and exhaustively the corpus of administrative documents of a European kingdom in the central middle ages."" (Hammond 2013, p 7). More recently, and still in development, the Making of Charlemagne's Europe project (Charlemagne 2013) is ""a database of prosopographical and socio-economic data found in the more than four thousand legal documents surviving from Charlemagne’s reign."" An important difference between these projects and the methodologies implied by projects such as Chartex or CEI is that none of PASE, PoMS or Charlemagne actually represent the texts themselves. Instead all three projects take a structured data approach – developing a formal model in highly structured data that aims to express some aspects of what the charters are talking about. The very nature of charter texts is that they provide what their creators thought of as a formal approach to the dealing with their property. The models used for these three projects try to capture explicitly formal structures that the charter's creators seemingly had in their mind when they created them. Although studies of the charter documents such as that carried out in diplomatics provides one of the bases for the work here, as Hammond says about PoMS: ""A clear distinction has been dawn [in PoMS] between the form of the document, based on its diplomatic, and the events which are transactions ... in the document"" (Hammond 2013, p 11). What can be said about the charters in these projects when the charter text itself is not present? It turns out that the absence of the text enables a representation of the material about a charter that somehow liberates it from being grounded too exclusively in the words of the text itself.

All three of these projects grew out of the thinking about structure that is represented by DDH's factoid approach to prosopography, described in Bradley and Short 2005 and extended into the world of the Semantic Web in Pasin and Bradley 2013. The virtue of the factoid approach is that it provides a source-grounded place for our researchers to say many different kinds of things about their documents. It allowed researchers to record not only the main things the charter was created to talk about – the arrangements about property – but also the wealth of further information that they capture: relationships between people (kinship and otherwise), the titles they held, other events they were involved in, etc. The factoid model also allows for the roles of people and associated other objects mentioned in the charters to be specified and for the way in which their name was recorded in a particular spot in the charter text to be recorded as well. Furthermore – and most relevant here – it supported a richer understanding of a charter's complex set of associated events. In PASE, for example, we were able to formally separate the event of the charter signing, with its perhaps specific historical significance, from the activities – usually transactions on property – that the charter talked about. Multiple exchanges in a single charter could be captured as separate transaction-like event factoids.

In the end the factoid approach to the charters encouraged us to also think about how to formalise other aspects of what our charters represented. People, for example, turn up not only as agents in the charters but sometimes as possessions. Possessions are complex entities in charters: often they are pieces of land or institutions sitting on land, but charters also show people possessing rights of many kinds, such as the right to run a fair, to collect taxes, to move away from a piece of property, to celebrate divine service, etc. Furthermore, what was actually being given in relationship to a possession could be complex too. PoMS researcher John Reuben Davies developed a scheme to clarify and enrich the classification of transactions presented in charters, going beyond simple classifications such as 'grants' and 'confirmations' to include 'renewals' and 'successions', among many others. Charlemagne has been exploring the terms and conditions attached to the exchange of possessions as described in their charters, and has also been exploring the complex way in which historical places are presented in their charter documents – not only mapping them, where possible, to modern places, but attempting to represent the complex and often obscure connections between place and historical region that their charters describe. In the end, the rich formal structure that underpins PoMS and Charlemagne represents some of the subtlety of the legal understanding that was emerging in Charlemagne's time and in the days of Medieval Scotland. It exposes some part of what the charter creators were trying to achieve in their efforts to formalise their agreements between themselves about their possessions.

In this presentation we will introduce some of the structure that extends the factoid model and represents several of the complex processes that these charter documents were attempting to formalise. The resultant models attempt to structure aspects of these documents than have not been tackled before and tries to find a point that both enriches our understanding through formalising them, and avoids ignoring, through excessive formalisation, the ambiguity and vagueness of the emerging legal process that happened both in the time of Charlemagne and Medieval Scotland. By developing a formal model for our understanding of the framework in which the charters operated, we believe that we complement the text based approaches of both Chartex and the CEI.

Finally, our work is, as the famous historian E.H. Carr said, an attempt to recognise ""History [as] a process"". With its extension of the charter documents into the historical world of people, places and possessions, it attempts to recognise that ""you cannot isolate a bit of the process and study it on its own"" (Evans 2001). Our models make explicit a set of views and assumptions by our researchers about these medieval worlds, and in their formality and clarity make it more possible to, in the words of the historian Richard J. Evans, ""subordinate them to the intractabilities of the material with which they are working, and enable readers to study [our] work critically by making these views and assumptions explicit"". In this presentation we hope to encourage this kind of dialogue.

References
Bradley, John and Harold Short (2005). “Texts into databases: the Evolving Field of New-style Prosopography” in Literary and Linguistic Computing Vol. 20 Suppl. 1:3-24.

CEI (2009). CEI – Charters Encoding Initiative. Online at http://www.cei.lmu.de/index.php (Accessed 30 October, 2013).

Charlemagne (2013). The Making of Charlemagne's Europe. Online at http://www.charlemagneseurope.ac.uk/ (Accessed 30 October, 2013).

ChartEx (2013). ChartEx. Online at http://www.chartex.org/index.html (Accessed 30 October, 2013).

Evans, Richard J. (2001). ""The Two Faces of E.H. Carr"". In What is History?. Website published by Institute of Historical Research. Online at http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Whatishistory/article.html (Accessed 30 October, 2013).

Hammond, Matthew (2013). ""Introduction: The Paradox of Medieval Scotland"". In Matthew Hammond (ed). New Perspectives on Medieval Scotland 1093-1286. Woodbridge UK: The Boydell Press.

Marwick, J.D. (1894). Charters and Documents relating to the City of Glasgow 1175-1649. In British History Online. Online at http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=47934 (Accessed 30 October, 2013).

Mom (2013). Mom: Europe's virtual documents online. Online at http://monasterium.net/pages/en/home.php (Accessed 30 October, 2013).

PASE (2010). PASE: Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England. Online at http://www.pase.ac.uk/index.html (Accessed 30 October, 2013).

Pasin, Michele and John Bradley (2013). ""Factoid-based prosopography and computer ontologies: Towards an integrated approach"". In Literary and Linguistic Computing. published online June 29, 2013 doi:10.1093/llc/fqt037, and soon to be in print.

PoMS (2010). Paradox of Medieval Scotland. Online at http://paradox.poms.ac.uk/ (Accessed 30 October, 2013).

PoMS (2013). People of Medieval Scotland. Online at http://www.poms.ac.uk/ (Accessed 30 October, 2013).

Vogeler, Georg (2005). ""Towards a Standard of Encoding Medieval Charters with XML"". In Literary and Linguistic Computing. Vol 20 No 3. pp 269-280","txt","2","",""
"1942","15","Exploring Usage of Digital Newspaper Archives through Web Log Analysis: A Case Study of Welsh Newspapers Online","10","1. Introduction
This paper will present the findings from a case study undertaken with the support of the National Library of Wales. It utilises web log analysis to discover more aboutt he use and users of Welsh Newpspaers Online (WNO),[1] a digitised newspaper archive which currently contains around 420,000 digitised newspapers from, and relating to, Wales. Web log analysis has previously been undertaken to analyse online user behaviour, with utility for websites 12, e-journals 345, and digital resources 67. To date, however, it has not been used to analyse the use of digitised newspaper archives. This paper presents the findings from a detailed analysis of content logs from a period of three months, starting from the launch of WNO in March 2014, and provides an important empirical study into how users are interacting with digitised newspapers. In doing so, it helps to illuminate some existing debates about the impact of digitisation upon reading and scholarship.

These debates have focused on how digitisation fo newspapers has changed the way users engage with these materials. Mussell, for instance, has noted that article-level representation foregrounds the partial textual transcript, even though the physical article is actually one textual component operating among many others. This means that users of a digitised newspaper may lose the original context of the material by approaching it in a different way online 8. Brake additionally notes that ""digital representations of nineteenth-century copy denaturalizes it and transforms the reader... into a user  who sees the content inextricably embedded in the matrix of the newspaper pages"" 9. These issues have been expressed in concerns that this will have a sever impact on reading behaviour 101112. This paper demonstrates that, while user engagement remains extremely high, it is evident that the nature of this engagement has been unavoidably transformed by digitisation.

2. Methodology
In order to undertake this analysis, the National Library of Wales IT team supplied a complete set of content logs, collected for a period of three months from the launch of the collection in March 2013. These logs specifically recorded interactions with content discover and viewing mechanisms on the WNO website. As a result, they are not a complete log of the user's journey. Instead, the logs track a number of important basic behaviours: searchers undertaken by users on the website (search queries); occasions where users have browsed, filtered, or otherwise interacted with search results (search results queries); and instances where users have viewed newspaper pages (content queries). The weblogs record each interaction with the website as a single line of plain text, recorded automatically on the website servers. The following example demonstrates the format of a single content query:

2013-06-02T12:26:50+01:00 51a5c97c3c8d3 llgc-id:3036868 llgc-id:3039814 llgc-id:3037695 Aberystwyth Observer 21 September 1872 [2] ART40

The elements are, in order: date and time of interaction; unique user ID; server IDS for website content; title of newspaper viewed; date of newspaper edition; page number viewed; article number on the page viewed. Additionally, search queries contain a field with the user’s search terms, and search results queries include a field which shows the nature of the user’s interaction. In total, there were over 300,000 weblogs, which therefore provide a rich source of information about user interactions with the content of WNO.

This data allows several metrics to be analysed: most viewed newspaper titles; most viewed years; most viewed page numbers; average number of pageviews per visit; and percentage of pageviews involving search, search results or content queries. To achieve this, the investigator heavily post-processed the data in Excel.         All non-relevant fields were stripped from the spreadsheet, then a column was added which automatically populated pageview numbers for each unique user ID, from 1 for the first page viewed by a user, to X for the last. Search, browser and content queries were also changed to numerical values of 1,2, and 3 respectively. This allowed the data to be processed into appropriate graphical representations. In particular, it allowed large-scale analysis of the complete dataset, in order to uncover overall patterns and trends in graphical form.

3. Findings 
The content logs have provided a wealth of fascinating data on the behaviour and interests of users of Welsh Newspapers Online. We will discuss some of the most important findings in more depth below.

            The following chart shows the findings from the large-scale analysis of the content logs, demonstrating the percentage of queries by type at each pageview. From this chart we can see which broad categories of user behaviour were most common for any given pageview:


Fig. 1:

The chart demonstrates that content queries remain an important part of user activity, regardless of how long visitors spend on the website. In fact, once visitors view over 100 pages, they seem to view increasingly large amounts of content. By contrast, the longer a user spends on the resource, the less likely they are to be engaged in search activities. Instead, we see that search result queries replace search queries in importance.

This tells us that the importance of search as a discovery mechanism becomes less important with time spent on a particular visit: the majority of users begin by searching the collection, and then slowly but steadily move away from searching to view content or to browse search results. However, the data suggests that digital reproductions of newspapers do effect how users engage with them, in one particular way: while they browse the website, extensively, we can see that they do not browse through newspaper content. The following chart shows that users primarily tend to view the title page but, in general, the further into a newspaper the page is,

the fewer times it will be read. This data should be contextualised: the average number of pages per newspaper is around 6.3. However, the drop in views begins from the second page, which strongly suggests that users are unlikely to browse through pages:


Fig. 2:

In this respect, the findings seem to confirm the fears that digitised texts interfere with the deep, ordered reading behaviour attributed to printed materials. While there are valid concerns about the way in which inline reading may distance users from the original context of newspaper material, we must also recognise that users certainly are deeply engaged with digitised newspaper archives: it is the type of engagement that has changed. This highlights two important conclusions: the side-lining of browsing makes serendipitous discoveries less likely, and means that search functionality, OCR quality, and website design are as important as the availability of content in ensuring that users are able to discover content; and that existing remediations of newspapers are some way from recreating the reading behaviour that has been attributed to the physical text 1314.

4. Conclusion
This case study demonstrates that content log analysis can greatly enrich studies of the impact of digitised collections. They provide empirical evidence of user behaviour, which allows a granular, nuanced understanding of how researchers interact with digitised content online. We can therefore learn a great deal more about this understudied area. The findings also confirm, though, a commonly recorded problem with content logs; they provide a strong statistical base for analysis, but they cannot provide an insight into why users behave how they do. As such, an analysis which relies solely on content logs is necessarily incomplete. This paper will finish by proposing that web log analysis can still play an important role in analysing and understanding usage of digital resources, but that it should not be used in isolation.

----------------------------------------------
[1] http://papuraunewyddcymru.llgc.org.uk/en/home?

References
1. Nicholas, D. et al., (2000). Evaluating consumer website logs: a case study of The Times/The Sunday Times website. Journal of Information Science, 26(6), pp.399–411.

2. Almind, T.C. & Ingwersen, P., (1997). Infometric Analyses on the World Wide Web: Methodological Approaches to ‘Webometrics’. Journal of Documentation, 53(4).

3. Institute for the Future, (2002). E-Journal user study: report of web log data mining, Available at: ejust.stanford.edu/logdata.html [Accessed March 23, 2013].

4. Nicholas, D., Jamali, H.R. & Huntington, P., (2005). The use and users of scholarly e-journals: a review of log analysis studies. Aslib Proceedings, 57(6), pp.554–571.

5. Yu, L. & Apps, A., (2000). Studying e-journal user behaviour using log files: the experience of SuperJournal. Library and Information Science Research, 22(3), pp.311–338.

6. Warwick, C. et al., (2008). If You Build It Will They Come? The LAIRAH Study: Quantifying the Use of Online Resources in the Arts and Humanities. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(1), pp.85–102.

7. Meyer, E.T. et al., (2009). Usage and Impact Study of JISC-Funded Phase 1 Digitisation Projects & the Toolkit for the Impact of Digitised Scholarly Resources (TIDSR), Oxford: Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford. Available at: microsites.oii.ox.ac.uk/tidsr/sites/microsites.oii.ox.ac.uk.tidsr/files/TIDSR_FinalReport_20July2009.pdf [Accessed May 9, 2013].

8. Mussell, J., (2012). The Nineteenth-Century Press in the Digital Age, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.

9. Brake, L.

10. Half Full and Half Empty. Journal of Victorian Culture, 17(2), pp.222–229.

11. Birkets, S., (1994). The Gutenberg elegies: the fate of reading in an electronic age, New York: Ballentine Books.

12. Deegan, M. & Sutherland, K., (2009). Transferred Illusions: Digital Technology and the Forms of Print, Ashgate Publishing. p.49.

13. Baker, N., (2002). Do we want to keep our newspapers? In Do we want to keep our newspapers? London: Office for Humanities Computing, pp. 19–34.

14. Birkerts, S. (1994). The Gutenberg Elegies: The Fate of Reading in an Electronic Age. Boston: Faber and Faber.","txt","2","",""
"1943","15","Extracting Relationships from an Online Digital Archive about Post-War Queensland Architecture","10","The “Architectural Practice in Post-War Queensland: Building and Interpreting an Oral History Archive” project is a collaboration between the University of Queensland, the State Library of Queensland (SLQ) and four of the longest-standing architectural firms in Queensland. The project’s aim is to build a comprehensive online multimedia digital archive that documents architectural practice in post-war Queensland (1945-1975) – a period that was highly significant in Queensland’s architectural history but that remains largely undocumented. The goal was to use innovative Semantic Web technologies to link tacit knowledge extracted from individual oral histories to tangible knowledge (drawings, books, photographs, manuscripts) that exists within personal archives, firm archives as well as State and institutional archives and libraries.

The approach involved firstly conducting and recording a series of oral history interviews and public forums with the key architects from this period. These events comprise both private interviews, one-on-one conversations between the project team and architect/s as well as a number of larger public forums held at the SLQ that focus on a specific theme (education, style, climate, regionalism, etc.)

The oral history interviews and the public forums are filmed, captured as digital files (.wav and .avi) and transcribed. Both manual tagging and text processing tools are applied to the transcripts to semantically tag key entities (architects, firms, structures, places, dates) mentioned in the interviews and extract new knowledge in the form of RDF graphs. The resulting RDF graphs document relationships between architects, firms and buildings (with attribution to the source) and are able to be displayed, edited, saved and re-used via the LORE compound object authoring software (Figure 4).

This paper describes our approach to establishing the online archive and evolving knowledge-base1 that together have been designed to be used for research, teaching and practice within the disciplines of history, architecture and design.

An overview of the system architecture is shown in Figure 1. The system uses the Omeka content management system to support the upload and description of content (oral history files, transcripts, photos, drawings, articles etc.) by the project collaborators. In addition the system provides the following components and functionality:

An OWL Architecture ontology was defined that specifies the core classes, class hierarchy and properties associated with each class (Figure 1);
D2RQ is used to convert Omeka metadata to RDF and save it to a Sesame RDF triple store with a SPARQL query interface;
User-authenticated annotation tools enable users to semantically tag transcripts by identifying people, places, buildings, firms, and events mentioned in the interviews;
The EYE N3 Semantic Reasoner (N3) is applied to the Sesame RDF triple store to reconcile common entities (via URLs) and to infer relationships between key entities (architects, firms, structures/buildings and articles/publications);
A Search and Browse engine (based on Solr) enables users to search for specific entities or perform full-text searching across all transcripts and articles (and jump to the audio/video segments that contain the matching search term);
Word clouds and word frequency histograms (generated from the oral history transcripts using D3) enable architectural historians to understand the main themes and influences on key architects from this period;
Mapping and timeline interfaces enable users to interactively browse and retrieve information (interviews, photos, drawings) about buildings, people or events via maps and timelines;
The LORE tool enables the visualization, editing, sharing and re-use of RDF graphs that document relationships between architects, firms, buildings, and related documents (Figure 3)
At the time of writing this abstract, the archive/database contains 64 interviews, of average length 83 mins. It also contains 64 transcripts, 725 photos, 612 articles, 305 line drawings and detailed information about 464 architects, 119 firms and 357 buildings/structures. The archive is growing continuously as more interviews and associated content are uploaded and annotated. The architectural historians involved in the project and their students, review the transcripts and using the integrated annotation tools identify and tag the names of people/architects, firms/organizations, buildings/structures and places. As new people, structures, firms and places are tagged/identified, they are added to the ontology. Authenticated users can also annotate relationships between people, between people and firms and between people and buildings, by drawing on a controlled vocabulary of relationship types. The reasoning engine then reasons across these relationships to infer new implicit relationships that can be recorded, searched and visualized through the LORE RDF graph visualization tool.

Architects who studied and worked in Queensland during the post-war period are also invited to register, login and submit their own details including a chronology of practice and to provide feedback to the existing content. An additional blog monitored by the project team encourages the broader community (those outside the profession) to comment on aspects of post-war architecture (e.g., nominate their favourite building) and to upload related materials such as photographs or plans.

Future work plans include undertaking a detailed user evaluation of the system with a set of test users that comprises architectural historians from academic, government and industry as well as users from the local architectural community - and refining and extending the system based on user feedback.

Finally, our paper will also describe the challenges that this multi-disciplinary project faces including: how to attract and retain an active community of contributors; ensuring the archive’s sustainability, resolving issues of identity resolution and implementing quality control over the community-generated content.

Biography:
Professor Jane Hunter is the Director of the eResearch Lab at the University of Qld – where she leads a team of post-docs, PhD students and software engineers working on innovative e-research services for a wide range of applications and communities. She has published over 100 peer-reviewed papers on semantic web, digital libraries and e-research and is currently the Deputy Chair of the Australasian Association for Digital Humanities and Chair of the Academy of Sciences Committee for Data in Science. She is a CI on the Mellon-funded Open Annotation Collaboration (OAC) project, the NeCTAR-funded HuNI and Aust-ESE projects and the ARC Linkage Project “Architectural Practice in Post-War Queensland: Building and Interpreting an Oral History Archive”.


Fig. 1: Technical Components underlying the Post-War Queensland Architecture Knowledge Base


Fig. 2: Overview of the Ontology underlying the Post-War Qld Architecture Knowledge-base


Fig. 3: Screen Shot of the Web Portal: Digital Archive of Queensland Architecture


Fig. 4: LORE Visualization and Editing Interface to a Relationship Graph about Karl Langer

References
Digital Archive of Queensland Architecture Web Portal (2014). qldarch.net

I (2014). Omeka. omeka.org

Gerber A. and Hunter, J. (2010). Authoring, editing and visualizing compound objects for literary scholarship. Journal of Digital Information, 11(1), 2010.

Bizer, C. and Cyganiak, R. (2014). D2RQ Accessing Relationsl Databases as Virtual RDF Graphs. d2rq.org

Verborgh, R. (2011). Semantic Reasoning with EYE. n3.restdesc.org

Bostock, M. (2013). D3 Data-Driven Documentsd3js.org","txt","2","",""
"1944","15","Generative Troubling in Emerging Archival Forms","9","Building on the Derrida’s archival theory (1998) through engagement with critical making (Ratto, 2011), reflective design (Sengers, et al., 2005) and empirical investigations into social networking sites (SNS) as emerging archival forms, this paper introduces the FeverBook project (FB). In doing so, it provides evidence of novel distributions of archontic power, or the ordering powers afforded to the actor-network responsible for the construction and maintenance of the archive, in SNS contexts. This paper points to the need for an archival theorization of SNS that extends beyond traditional concepts of the archive.

Broadly operationalized as representative collections of cultural materials appraised and preserved in a standardized way for unspecified future use, traditional archives are central to the production of historical knowledge. For cultural histories, it is archives ‘not compiled with an eye towards history,’ (Farge 2013: 7) but compiled with an eye towards the mundane from which histories of daily life are written. However, massive databases like those found underlying SNSs such as Facebook are recreating what once was stored in traditional archives similar in form and function to the French judicial archives (Farge, 2013). Here the personal digital archive (PDA) (Marshall, 2008) extends the constitution of its actor-network to include myriad users, appraisers, programmers, database managers, graphical user interfaces (GUI), media formats, and external institutions involved in the use of archival materials. 

Despite recent shifts of archival theories from the pre-digital realm (Derrida, 1998; Foucault, 1982; Ridener, 2009) into the digital (Ernst & Parikka, 2013; Garde-Hansen, et al., 2009; Manoff, 2004; Manovich, 1999; Mayer-Schönberger, 2009; Sacasas, n.d.), scholars have only begun to consider the applicability of extant archival theories to SNS-platforms. What work has been done (Acker & Brubaker, 2014; Mitchell, 2014; Garde-Hansen, et al., 2009) comprises the beginning of a lengthy discourse about emerging forms of digital archives. As an entry into this discourse, this paper leverages Facebook’s user affordances to explore the applicability of Derrida’s archival theory to SNS-platform-based PDAs (Derrida, 1998). 

The exploration of archontic power distribution in SNS-platform-based PDAs was occasioned by critical making, defined as ‘a mode of materially productive engagement that is intended to bridge the gap between creative physical and conceptual exploration,’ (Ratto, 2011, p. 252). Such critical making resulted in the production of the FB exhibit and webpage, which present an empirically grounded fictive SNS profile through which users can explore and rethink core aspects of Derrida’s archival theory (1998) in the context of SNSs. 

2. Methods
To generate narrative material for the fictive profile at the center of FB, the FB research and design team[1] conducted two rounds of interviews with a total of twelve informants. Initially, four Facebook users were recruited for pilot participation through convenience sampling, leading to semi-structured interviews lasting 60 to 90 minutes. Eight additional informants were subsequently recruited through similar methods. Analysis of data generated during interviews, including photographic data from participants’ Facebook profiles, took the form of content analysis and occurred concurrently with close readings of Derrida’s Archive Fever (1998).

Following completion of first-round interviews, FB construction began via iterative design (Ishii, Kobayashi, & Arita, 1994). Subsequent to each design meeting, the team engaged in journaling to understand their relationship to proposed interface changes. Journal content then served as a basis for reflection and future design decisions (Sengers, et al., 2005). Upon completion of the initial prototype, the design team then conducted two rounds of user testing.

3. New archival characteristics: Generative troubling
The ‘archontic’ is a key term for Derrida.  The etymological origins of the term ‘archive’ (arkheion) are rooted in ancient Greek social hierarchy and the domesticity of those residing at the hierarchy’s pinnacle (Derrida, 1998). The arkheion refers to the domain, literally the residence, of the archons or ‘those who commanded’ (Derrida, 1998, p. 2).  Thus, the archontic refers to the ordering powers afforded to what might be called the actor-network responsible for the archive – powers to include and exclude, to align and alienate, to consign or fragment. 

Findings from the present research, including the user-practice of what is herein coined ‘generative troubling,’ evidence a direct relationship between the interior and exterior of the archive that exists in stark contrast to the a priori nature of the archive proposed by Derrida (1998).  For Derrida, the archive is inherently violent. The mechanism by which an artifact enters the archive is a process of filtering artifacts-in-the-world through the ordering and inscribing function of the archon (e.g., through the act of appraisal). Such filtering yields an archive only theoretically related to the world it is intended to represent, related purely via the filters of archontic power. Moreover, in working with the archival subject – the object of violence – the historian or archival researcher troubles, perturbing the archival body and allowing narrativity to arise from archived artifacts. Troubled in one way, a given archive, a set of artifacts representing but unattached to the world, yields narrative x; troubled in another way, the same archive yields narrative y, where x and y are topologies of the same set.  In any troubling event, the traditional archive yields only narratives capable of being constructed from that which has already been archived. 

However, the a priori nature of the archive and its limited potential narrativity break down in the SNS-platform-based PDA as a result of its capacity for generative troubling. Such breakage occurs at the level of direct communication within the Facebook user’s timeline – when the archive itself simultaneously constitutes a repository of potential narrative elements and a site of active discourse, the purely a priori is transformed through the addition of a posteriori characteristics. The archive constituting an active site of discourse no longer bears only a theoretical relationship to the world it archives – the communicative act is simultaneously both act-in-the-world and archival artifact. Instead, the SNS archive of Facebook breaks a ‘fourth wall’ between archive and world, necessitating reconsideration of archontic violence. (For further discussion of the fourth wall, see the coverage of Diderot’s grand mur in Bender & Marrinan, 2010). Here the impetus for narrativity doubles as the impetus for the generation of new elements in the archival set, thus expanding the set from which archival narratives may be derived.

The following excerpts from separate interviews with Stephanie and Alexandra (pseudonyms) illustrate the point:

Alexandra: “I went really dark […] because people respond to more personal stuff, I was hoping to get more encouraging words and it, I guess it was dark enough that people didn’t want to respond at all.”

Stephanie: “Which is why I put it up [posted it to my timeline]. Just to see what people come up with. Because you know, a whole bunch of words come in and if one of them happens to … you know … make me feel way better for whatever reason, then great.”

Both Alexandra and Stephanie discuss the communicative function of Facebook’s timeline.  In Alexandra’s case, she describes the execution of a communicative act intended to generate new archival content in hopes of alleviating emotional distress. Although Alexandra’s attempt was unsuccessful (which itself warrants further investigation), the successful communicative attempt Stephanie describes is similar: both participants actively generated content and posted to their timelines, archived in the Facebook databases, with the goal of generating situation-specific responses. Through Alexandra and Stephanie’s acts of appraisal (deciding that a generative communication warrants inclusion in their SNS-based PDA), other users are prompted to add related content to the SNS-archive. The act of generative troubling indicates that the relationship between SNS-based PDAs and the world from which the archival set is gathered is no longer strictly a priori. When otherwise worldly, or extra-archival, communication occurs directly in and through the archive, the wall between a priori and a posteriori is dismantled.

Through the ability to leverage Facebook’s timeline for direct communication, the archontic power underlying the construction of SNS-based PDAs is distributed among all users responsible for content generation at the GUI level. As such, the responsibility for appraising material representative of the mundane is no longer solely held by traditionally defined archivists; no longer is the archon a homogenous body of standardized intent distributed among a defined body of archivists. Instead, as Alexandra and Stephanie have illustrated, the ‘user’ in SNS-based PDAs becomes the ‘user-appraiser,’ or both an archival subject and the archivist. Although the archival act of preservation remains in question in the context of SNS-archives, such user-appraiser empowerment fundamentally separates the SNS-platform-based PDA as an archive of the mundane from the traditional form of mundane archive described by Farge (2013). The archive-theoretical differences resulting in such separation will affect the epistemology underlying the future production of cultural historical narratives – a change in the ‘how’ of mundane archival construction implies a change in the ‘how’ of cultural historical knowledge production. 

References
Acker, A. and J. Brubaker. (in press, 2014). “Death, Memorialization and Social Media: A Platform Perspective for Personal Archives.” Archivaria.

Bender, J., & Marrinan, M. (2010). The culture of diagram. Stanford University Press.

Derrida, J. (1998). Archive Fever: A Freudian impression. (E. Prenowitz, Trans.) (1st ed.). University Of Chicago Press.

Ernst, W., & Parikka, J. (2013). Digital memory and the archive. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/id/10716979

Foucault, M. (1982). The Archaeology of Knowledge & The Discourse on Language (Reprint.). Vintage.

Garde-Hansen, J., Hoskins, A., & Reading, A. (2009). Save as-- digital memories. Basingstoke; New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Ishii, H., Kobayashi, M., & Arita, K. (1994). Iterative Design of Seamless Collaboration Media. Commun. ACM, 37(8), 83–97. doi:10.1145/179606.179687

Manoff, M. (2004). Theories of the Archive from Across the Disciplines. Portal: Libraries and the Academy, 4(1), 9–25.

Manovich, L. (1999). Database as Symbolic Form. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, 5(2), 80–99. doi:10.1177/135485659900500206

Marshall, C. (2008). Rethinking personal digital archiving, Part 1: Four challenges from the field. D-Lib Magazine. 4(3). http://www.dlib.org/dlib/march08/marshall/03marshall-pt1.html

Mayer-Schönberger, V. (2009). Delete the virtue of forgetting in the digital age. Princeton [N.J.]: Princeton University Press.

Mitchell, L. (2014). Life on automatic: Facebook's archival subject. First Monday. 129(2-3). http://www.firstmonday.dk/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/4825

Ratto, M. (2011). Critical Making: Conceptual and Material Studies in Technology and Social Life. The Information Society, 27(4), 252–260. doi:10.1080/01972243.2011.583819

Ridener, J. (2009). From Polders to postmodernism a concise history of archival theory. Duluth, Minn.: Litwin Books.

Sacasas, M. (2013) (n.d.). Social Media and the Arts of Memory. The Frailest Thing. Retrieved October 24, 2013, from http://thefrailestthing.com/2011/05/19/social-media-and-the-arts-of-memory/

Sengers, P., Boehner, K, Shay, D., & Kaye, J. (2005). Reflective design. Proceedings of the 4th Decennial Conference on Critical Computing: Between Sense and Sensibility, p. 49-58. http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1094562.1094569

The FB workgroup is John S. Seberger, Caitlin Lustig, Cory Knobel, and Geoffrey C. Bowker at University of California, Irvine.","txt","2","",""
"1945","15","Finding Inexact Quotations Within a Tibetan Buddhist Corpus","2","Introduction
One thing that literary scholars routinely look for – regardless of the specific field – is textual citations, where one work quotes or paraphrases another work. In historical works, even quotations are frequently quite inexact. To complicate matters further, there is often no clear indication that a passage is being quoted, let alone which work is being cited. It is, therefore, only natural to use algorithmic tools to search for such occurrences in texts and present the results to scholars for consideration.

One such corpus is the Tibetan Buddhist canon. Altogether, there are more than 300 volumes, averaging about 800 pages (400 folios) of 200 words each. In addition to the canon, there are many other important collections in the Tibetan Buddhist literary corpus. And, of course, there are many Buddhist corpora in other languages. Scholarly editions are still wanting for many of these works, so we have set out to design computerized tools to help deal with the masses of data.

The most relevant previous work is by Prasad and Rao [2] who search for citations within Sanskrit texts. They break the text into units (lines, say) and then compare each potential citation with each unit in the cited corpus (Smith-Waterman-Gotoh), using approximate match. To constrain the search, they first sort the units, so they only need compare units that begin similarly. We approach the problem of reducing the complexity of the search differently. We borrowed an algorithm designed for finding all (sufficiently long) approximate subsequence matches in genomic data and adapted it for finding common approximate subtexts between two large corpora. This involved parallelizing the algorithm, adding some simple preprocessing, and some less trivial post-processing.

It is important to distinguish between various string-matching tasks. Given two or more passages known to be similar, or several recensions of the same work, one can seek the best alignment. The task we address of finding all, short or long, approximately similar texts that appear at arbitrary locations within large corpora is vastly different from the alignment tasks Juxta (available at http://www.juxtasoftware.org/) and CollateX (http://collatex.net/) help solve. In order to address the reviewers’ concerns we tried these tools. Juxtas results on our texts were completely irrelevant; CollateX, after running for a long time, produced an empty output.

2 The Corpus
In this exploratory work, we compared two major Buddhist texts, transliterated into Latin characters from the Tibetan, the Sūtrasamuccaya and the Síkṣāmuccaya. Each is over 150,000 words long.

The Sūtrasamuccaya. The “Compendium of [Citations from Mahāyāna] Sūtras” is a compilation ascribed to the famous Nāgārjuna (2nd century ce). The text has survived only in its Tibetan (P5330, D3934) and Chinese translations. It is an important source for early Mahāyāna sūtras, and it is invaluable for the study of the early phase of Mahāyāna. The Tibetan translation was done by the Tibetan famous translator Ye-shes-sde (8th century), in collaboration with Jinamitra and Sílendrabodhi.

The Síkṣāmuccaya. The “Compendium of Teachings” (i.e. citations from mostly early Mahāyāna sūtras) was compiled by the famed Indian scholar Sāntideva (7th c.). It was translated into Tibetan by the same Tibetan translator Ye-shes-sde (8th c.), in collaboration with Jinamitra and Danśīla. Later on the translation was revised by the Tibetan translator Blo ldan shes rab (1059–1109) in collaboration with the Kāśmirian scholar Tilakakalaśa.

3 Method
We designed an algorithm to solve the problem of finding local regions with high similarity in the two texts. The main workhorse is an efficient algorithm for solving the “threshold all against all” variant of the problem, based on that of Barsky et al. [1]. It finds all maximal substrings of the text of some minimal length L0= 60, with an edit distance between them bounded by some given value k = 10.

We worked with transliterations of the Tibetan texts. The texts contain multiple spaces, line breaks, page numbers, punctuation marks and the like. In a preprocessing step, we clean the texts and remove all such.

The texts we are using are very long and therefore we created a parallel version, running on large overlapping chunks of length l = 25000 on a cluster of processor cores. After collecting all the results, some post-processing steps are required in order to build a non-redundant and meaningful collection of local regions with high similarity. Splitting increases the quantity of overlapping results. In addition, some results are very near to each other and should be merged into a longer match. We address these issues by uniting every pair of overlapping or nearby results.

The second problem arises when we have a meaningful result with length that is smaller than the threshold and with a very small edit distance. In this scenario, the algorithm extends the result in order for the minimal length constraint to be satisfied, resulting with a less meaningful result. We solve this issue by applying local alignment on each result, which removes these uninformative extensions.

From the final collection of matched substrings we get two main outcomes; the trivial one is finding the local regions of high similarity in the two texts. We built a designated interface that has tools for investigating the matches. It presents the two texts side by side and a list of all the matches in descending order of their edit distance. Using it, one can focus on a specific match, and see the relevant substrings in both texts. The substrings are also presented in another window, aligned to each other for convenient comparison. Additionally, by selecting a substring in one of the texts, one can see all the matches that overlap with the selection. See the screenshot in Fig. 3.

The second outcome is computing statistics on all the results. This requires us to carefully align each result, as the quality of the statistics depends on the alignment of each single word. The alignment is done by a variant of global alignment that penalizes gaps that occur between words (or at one of the ends of the string) differently from gaps that occur within a word. This simple alignment allows us to derive meaningful statistics on differences between collections.

4 Results
Overall, 2514 matches were found between the texts. These matches cover a significant fraction of the texts and 9.15% of the Sūtrasamuccaya as well as 10.85% of the Sūtrasamuccaya as 10.85% of the Síkṣāmuccaya of regions for which at least one match in the other text was found. Some of the matches are quite long, as can be seen in the histogram in Fig. 1. Example matches, as exported to files by the developed research tool, are presented in Fig. 2.

Sample matches could be verified and found to be correct. In some cases, however, they needed to be extended to regions before or after the marked texts. Many of the omissions and substitutions were not surprising, such as cing --> zhing, bting --> gding, and po wang --> pi bang. Some of the variations seem to be simple typos, either by the scribe of the original or simply during the digital transliteration. Typical transcription errors include substitutions between b and p, or ng and d, which appear similar in Tibetan. In some cases, making the distinction whether a variant stems from an accidental typo or is in fact a substantive variant is not clear. For example, gtor means to scatter and ’thor, which was correctly matched is some of the quotations, means to be scattered. Table 1 exhibits the “confusion matrix”, i.e., the most common letter substitutions between the two texts.

5 Discussion
Two well-known and studied works were chosen as a trial case for our first experiment, namely, transliterated texts of the two Buddhist works that were translated into Tibetan in the 8th century. Due to the large number of shared citations found in these works, they made for a good trial case for algorithmically locating matches. But because these are two different anthologies (i.e., not two versions of the one and the same work), they are different enough to provide sufficiently many instances of approximate matches and discrepancies.

Besides the value of the citations themselves, in the absence of a critical edition of one of the works, statistics regarding the types of variations (particularly in the usage of particles) hint at the nature of the editing done by the 11th-century revisers. Through the statistics, scholars may be able to learn about some stylistic differences and editorial practices. Continuing this line of work, we may even have a case where through a careful analysis of the differences one could become aware of some philosophical differences and developments.


Fig. 1: Histogram depicting the count (y-axis) of matching texts of a certain length (x-axis) [the length in Sūtrasamuccaya]. As can be seen, while most of the matches are for texts of up to 200 characters (median=61), there are also matches for texts of a few thousand characters. Note that some texts (including long ones) have multiple matches.

It has been argued before that the so-called “revisions” often involve only very minor and unimportant changes, and indeed some of the revisers had often been accused by some Tibetans of plagiarism. The difficulty, however, is that in most cases we only have access to the revised version(s), and thus cannot compare the revision with the initial translation. Our alignment and statistical tools can help scholars trace and re-evaluate this phenomenon.

Lastly, going beyond direct matches, it may be possible to identify two different texts that share similar passages, which are paraphrases, not citations. The phenomenon of borrowing is very common in Buddhist texts. In order to identify and locate such cases, the large number of Tibetan texts at our disposal would need to be searched and compared. The scholarly implications promise to be far reaching, as this would enable the discovery of the history and emergence of texts and scriptures, and allow for the estimation of the popularity of certain texts that are cited more often (and to determine in which circles these are cited). Moreover, since in the case of the Tibetan canonical texts, translated material is being used, the translation and editorial practices can also be explored.


Fig. 2: Examples of quotations found. (a) The quotations with the 90th highest score, including its context, before and after. Line breaks have no significance. (Vertical bars serve as commas.) Two hues depict the two texts, red/pink for the Sūtrasamuccaya and blue/magenta for the Síkṣāmuccaya.


Fig. 2: Examples of quotations found. (b) Part of the quotation with the fourth highest score, which is relatively clean except for some omissions.


Fig. 3: Substitution counts between the Sūtrasamuccaya text (rows) and the Síkṣāmuccaya (columns).


Fig. 4: A screenshot of the user interface, with the two matching texts displayed side by side. The text regions for which matching texts exist are emboldened. The first out of two texts that match the blue text are shown in red. This match has a score of 343 and is ranked 29th out of all matches. The panel at the bottom of the screen displays the two texts aligned character by character.

References
Barsky, M., Stege, U., Thomo, A., Upton, C. (2008): A graph approach to the threshold all-against-all substring matching problem. ACM Journal of Experimental Algorithmics 12

Prasad, A.S., Rao, S. (2010): Citation matching in Sanskrit corpora using local alignment. In: Jha, G. (ed.): Sanskrit Compu- tational Linguistics. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 6465. Springer Berlin, Heidelberg 124–136","txt","2","",""
"1946","15","Fractures and Cohesion: Using Systemic Functional Linguistics to Detect and Analyse Hate Speech in an Online Environment","9","1. Introduction
Language acts as the lynchpin of cohesion maintaining electronic conversations across social networking sites. Analysis of that cohesion facilitates the detection of linguistic patterns that initiate and compound hate speech in online environments. This research reports on analysis of hate speech in videos and asynchronous conversation using Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) within social networking site. Focussing on the architecture of language and the influence of social context, SFL facilitates the analysis of language in its temporal and contextual use.1 In applying SFL to the chosen corpus of texts the research team are building reference dictionaries of offensive words and reference catalogues for the clausal structures in which these words are used. The team is exploring the detection of and analysis of hate speech across conversation, that is across texts within social networking sites (SNS). In accumulating data that allows the expansion of dictionaries and clausal catalogues, the team is enabling the building of an automated alert system that scans texts as they develop independently and in their engagement with other texts across time. Overall, this paper outlines the application of SFL to texts accrued from SNS that exhibit aspects of hate speech associated with dehumanisation, details the analysis of visualisations of hate speech within developing texts and demonstrates the building of an automated alert system using SFL to detect hate speech across texts.

1.1 Overview of Context
Raphael Almagor-Cohen describes hate speech as speech that intends to “injure, dehumanise, harass, intimidate, debase, degrade and victimize the targeted groups and to ferment insensitivity against them.”2

Speech acts have the capacity to carry out and compound the dehumanisation of people rendering them powerless within the confines of ""fields of recognition"" demarcated by the limits of language.3

Mining data retrieved from Youtube posts that dehumanise subjects provides the opportunity to analyse the overall ecology of texts as they develop online. The detection and analysis of latent dehumanisation is made possible by the application of SFL to this data thus empowering us to delineate the ""fields of recognition""  and the reinforcement of that field through subtle and explicit modes of language use. 

1.2. Methodology
The corpus of texts used in this research are all drawn from Youtube and consist of the recording of a repeatable event in which

the videos' subjects, drug users, are subjected to dehumanising language and to an ongoing process of dehumanisation. The corpus consists of 20 videos and the associated metadata posted by unknown users of Youtube. Each video is a recording of a drug user in a public space in Ireland’s capital city, Dublin. A second set of videos of similar content recorded in Glasgow, Scotland is being used by the team for comparative purposes. The team have temporarily captured the videos and compiled transcripts of the audio and of the comments posted below. Both of these transcripts and the video are treated as objects that facilitate a users’ engagement with other users and with the different elements of the composite text. That is users may engage with the videos, with the asynchronous conversation that has grown in relation to the video or with media objects posted in relation to or response to these videos.

These media objects consist of mashups, memes, links to other videos and to other websites. Linguistic patterns within each type of engagement act as the creators of cohesion within the text’s overall development. The team have focused on lexical cohesion as a way of analysing how items relate to each other and build the texture of the text.4 Lexical cohesion creates the threads through which language choice manipulates the ""finite nature of language as a semiotic system.5 We argue that is lexical cohesion that binds nodes of conversation with other media objects and which facilitate the development of the relationship between the composite elements of the text. 

By compiling dictionaries of words associated with the dehumanising aspects of hate speech the team is building a framework enabling the initial identification  of  dehumanisation that provides opportunities for the analysis of the ""textual processes of social life"".6 Already marginalised, the recorded drug user is drawn into the connected city as a figure of disruption who is marginalised even further by the language choices evident in the analysed transcripts. The pounding vocabulary of the audio comment adds to their marginalisation as  across each video they are described in dehumanising language. This language becomes part of the rearticulation and recirculation of hate speech. SFL as a system considers language as part of a process of instanstiation.7 That is it builds and develops texts brick by brick and interaction by interaction. In this respect, the text is considered a ""complete linguistic interaction"" that builds continuously.8 Here  we use SFL to create markers for models that will be part of the automated system that detects how hate speech builds across composite texts, between elements of the texts and across the relationships established between particular posters.

The dictionary of offensive words that dehumanise the subjects of our corpus are drawn from the encoded transcripts of both the audio and the textual comments.  Markers defining lexical cohesion facilitate the exploration of the users language as it engages with the overall field of the text, with the ideational expression of the text and the text's tenor. That is markers of lexical cohesion that bind immediate nodes of conversation with each other facilitate the immediate compounding of hate speech. It also enables challenges to posts promoting dehumanising hate speech. These challenges are acheived through the fractures in language  induced through interruptions in lexical cohesion.  Lexical cohesion draws on the temporality of the environment in which language  is used to bind conversation in immediate response structures and across more developed response structures. Interruptions to lexical cohesion can also be use to introduce new ideational expressions that counteract the binds that previously placed limits on the text's field.

Further to this, the application of sentiment analysis (SA) along with SFL methods enables the visualisation of patterns of hate speech as a text develops and as patterns gather accumulative power. Thus visualisations of hate speech in a state of emergence empower moderators to detect less explicit hate speech that may otherwise go undetected. On going analysis of ‘emergent visualisations’ provides further opportunities to examine the participant’s use of language choice in conjunction with grammatical structures to bring cohesion to a text or to counteract the cohesion created through another user’s language choices and invocation of grammatical structures.  In examining the emergent visualisations the research team draws on concepts of lexical cohesion and the clausal structures of sentences to detect linguistic patterns.

2. Demo and Results
By using the concepts surrounding lexical cohesion in conjunction with the dictionary of dehumanising words the team have identified, we are able to use our custom built programme to capture and analyse conversations that have developed as part of the ""complete linguistic interaction"" surrounding each media object in our corpus. An example of a captured conversation is shown below in Figure 1. The media object ""Dublin Junkies"" is shown at the centre of the visualisation. Each node of conversation representing a cluster of chat is represented in yellow. Our custom built programme allows us to identify whether these nodes are anaphoric or exophoric conversations. That is we can identify whether the nodes are related directly to the media object or not. Anaphoric conversations, those directly related to the video ""Dublin Junkies"", are demarcated by the colour blue in the second image, Figure 2. Exophoric nodes, those that do not relate to the video directly, are demarcated by the colour blue. In this second image the lines joining these nodes represent the result of our SA tool. Lines joining nodes that are red denote negative sentiment and those in green denote positive sentiment. The thicker the line the more negative or positive the sentiment. 


Fig. 1: Visualising the ecology of online conversation


Fig. 2: Demarcating elements and relationships within developing texts

3. Conclusions
Analysis of 'emerging visualisations' points to the strong negative sentiment between exophoric nodes of conversation shown in Figure 3. The yellow lines in this figure delineate the reorganisation of the text according to lexical cohesion. This reorganisation demonstrates the capacity of both SFL and our programme to make linkages across texts as they undergo a process of instantiation.


Fig. 3: Lexical Cohesion and Sentiment Analysis

Theorist Judith Butler argues that to be called a name is “to be initiated into a temporal life of language that exceeds the prior purposes that animate that call”.9  Dehumanising language calls subjects into a disempowered temporality rendered increasingly damaging by the capacity for rearticulation and reproduction facilitated by online environments. The use of SFL to analyse the construction of temporal fields that may be sealed by language and grammatical choices  compounding dehumanisation empowers moderators to detect hate speech in an online through longitudinal analysis. The updating of visualisations also allows moderators to identify  the reach of particular posters across texts enabling a vertical and an horizontal analysis of the development of hate speech online. 

References
1. Almagor-Cohen, Raphael (2011), Policing Hate and Bigotry on the Internet in Policy & Internet 3.3 7.

2. Butler, Judith (1997), Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative (London: Routledge) 7.

3. de los Angeles Gomez Gonzalez, Maria (2011), Lexical Cohesion in Multiparty Conversations in Language Sciences 33 168.

4. Eiggins, Suzanne (2004), An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics (2nd Edition) (London: Continuum) 14

5. Eggins, Suzanne (2004), An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics (2nd Edition) (London: Continuum) 2.

6. Halliday, M.A. K and Jonathan J. Webster (2009) (Eds) Continum Companion to Systemic Functional Linguistics (London: Continum International) 4.

7. Eggins, Suzanne (2004), An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics (2nd Edition) (London: Continuum) .

8. Butler, Judith (1997), Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative (London: Routledge) 14.","txt","2","",""
"1947","15","Framework for Quantitative Analysis of Scripts","9","1. Introduction
1.1 Overview
Scripts are usually seen as simple carriers of languages. Research on scripts until recently has been minimal and niche, except for the field of paleography. Scripts are an important part of the cultural heritage of humanity and its analysis and study requires more research. Fortunately, there is a growing interest in analysis of scripts. Altmann 1 published a volume titled “Analyses of Scripts: Properties of Characters and Writing Systems” to explore various properties of writing systems and scripts such as complexity, ornamentality and distinctivity.

Changizi et al 2 discuss the various contour configurations of written symbols and their similarity to the environment in which they were produced.  They also study the distribution of the configurations of various scripts. They 3 further discuss the character complexity and the redundancy of stroke combinations of various writing systems in human history. It is to be noted that analysis in [2] [3] and most methods in [1] were performed manually. Traditionally, analysis and study in paleography have also been done manually. Digital paleographic methods are at present making more inroads into the field. However, applying quantitative analysis on paleographic data is not yet popular and standardized 4. This is partially due to the difficulty of quantifying paleographical features, and partially due to the lack of defined metrics with theoretical and qualitative underpinnings.

1.2 Proposed Framework
We propose here a quantitative analysis framework for scripts that is largely computational and requires minimal user interaction. We do not particularly aim at providing a completely autonomous framework, but rather to aid the user as much as possible, with the ability to manually intervene/override as required. The framework is based on various methods and techniques employed in the field of graphonomics. Our framework is grounded on the principles of handwriting production and handwriting analysis.

We also explore various features used in the related area of gesture design and recognition and its application to the analysis of scripts. Through this, we attempt to find relevant metrics (with qualitative significance) with sufficient evaluation that might be used for glyphs and scripts for various purposes such as classification, visualization etc. The computed quantitative features could serve as descriptors for scripts, and  be used for comparing and analyzing scripts. This is especially applicable to the field of paleography, where such quantitative features are much needed. 

2. Quantitative Analysis Framework
Our proposed framework consists of the following modules. 

2.1 Spline Conversion
The characters of scripts are externally represented as B-splines. B-splines are very efficient in preserving the shape and curvature of glyphic segments. Additionally, they can be manipulated without significant effort. Rather than representing glyphs as pixelated data, converting them into splines eases analysis. This conversion of the glyphic shape of a character can be done automatically or manually. In a manual process, the user defines each shape of a character directly using a set of B-splines, or explicitly draws the shape, which is then internally converted into B-splines. An automatic conversion of glyphs involves thinning and then its conversion into splines. 

2.2 Trajectory Reconstruction
The shape of a character is static and does not contain all information required for analysis. Dynamic information relating to pen movements are not present in the shape. Trajectory reconstruction attempts to recover this temporal information 5. This kinematic information is essential in defining the character. With paleographic scripts reconstructing dynamic information is necessary as the trajectory is usually unknown. Also by altering the trajectory, the changes in dynamic features can be observed. 

The recovery is performed by conducting a global search using a set of heuristics, such as length minimization and curvature minimization 6. Especially in case of paleographic scripts, the algorithm is able to provide several alternative viable writing trajectories.

2.3 Stroke Segmentation
Characters are best analyzed as sequences of natural strokes. Breaking them down into basic strokes is the optimal way for analyzing written characters. It also enables us to understand the process of handwriting. Stroke segmentation retrieves the structure of a character based on its trajectory. This is performed by segmentation of the character at various important landmark points of the recovered trajectory such as the extrema of curvature 7.

2.4 Character Representation
Writing is usually considered to consist of two fundamental types of strokes – up-strokes and down-strokes 8. This distinction is necessary since both these two types behave differently. It has been proved that down-strokes usually do not show a lot of variation in handwriting compared to up-strokes 9.

A character is internally represented as a set of strokes. This is consistent with the way that the character is internalized and produced by humans. This allows us to derive better features that are more natural and descriptive. Later, it will be possible to apply handwriting modelling to generate alternative scribal variants. 

2.5 Feature Extraction
For quantitative analysis, features need to be computed from the characters. These serve to quantify several aspects of the characters. We considered various features used in the field of gesture recognition 1011 1213 and found the features listed below to be relevant to the analysis of characters. We also propose some features in addition to those found in the literature. These features/metrics could additionally serve as descriptors for the scripts. As quantitative features these can be widely used in analysis and/or visualization. 

2.5.1 Production Features
The effort that is required to realize and produce a character is an important element of its analysis.  It is related to the number of velocity inversions, number of velocity breaks, number of pen lifts, etc., which are computed from the stroke representation of the character. These features are calculated from the temporal information that was re-constructed at the earlier stage. These are relevant as they quantify the dynamic handwriting behavior present in the character. 

2.5.2 Geometric Features
Geometric features throw more light on the visual aspect of characters. These are essential for the study of the judged (visual) complexity 14. The features that relate to visual appearance are compactness, openness, number of crossings, average curvature, sum of internal angles, bounding area, etc.  Some of these, like compactness and openness, are ratios of several parameters such as length of strokes, distance between first and last points,  while others, like average curvature, are derived directly from the glyph structure.

2.5.3 Cognitive Features
Though cognitive features cannot be directly measured, some cognitive features could be interpreted from the geometry of a character. The number of unique landmark points required to plan the trajectory is a possible feature that has correlation with the cognitive load of the glyph. An additional measure is the number of minimal points required to recreate the character.

2.5.4 Stroke Features
Stroke based features such as the primary direction of the glyph, ratio of upstrokes to downstrokes, direction change, histogram of inter-stroke angles etc. are also computed for a character. 

3. Prototype Implementation 
A prototype of the framework has been implemented in Python with the modules discussed above. We are planning to analyze the development of Indic scripts using the framework. The source code will be released under an open source license when the project reaches maturity. Its repository will also include a complete a set of Indian paleographic scripts. Below, we briefly describe functionality yet to be implemented in the prototype.

From the perspective of paleographic scripts, the available glyphs in the literature are usually very noisy. Scanning and importing them would require several layers of pre-processing and noise-removal. For modern scripts, importing the Bezier curves from the respective fonts could be done directly.

Trajectory reconstruction has been implemented only for single stroke characters. A primitive implementation exists for multi-stroke characters. This needs to be made more rigorous and accurate.

Based on the stroke structure of a glyph several additional features such as entropy of writing could be calculated as required. Also, the features are to be used for normalized glyph shapes. The behavior of the features with respect to various scribal variants needs to be analyzed further. 

Proper visualization of the various quantitative features would help to better study and understand the characters within a script and also compare several scripts. Such visualization is particularly helpful in studying paleographic scripts and analyzing the changes that took place over time. Various statistical analyses of the features and visualization techniques would be built into the implementation. 


Fig. 1: Spline Conversion and Trajectory Generation


Fig. 2: Stroke Segmentation & Feature Extraction

4. Similar Projects
There are other digital paleographical projects, such as Hand Analyser by Peter Strokes, which work on pixelated images. The current project is more focussed on using strokes to derive various features. Integration/Adaptation of those techniques needs to be further looked into. 

5. Summary
We have presented a computational  framework for quantitative analysis of scripts. The framework requires minimal user interaction, and is based on the principles of handwriting analysis and handwriting production. We also present a prototype implementation of the proposed framework.  We believe this framework and its implementation would facilitate more quantitative study on scripts.

References
1. Altmann, Gabriel, and Fan Fengxiang (2008), eds. Analyses of script: properties of characters and writing systems. Vol. 63. Walter de Gruyter. APA

2. Changizi, Mark A., et al. (2006) The structures of letters and symbols throughout human history are selected to match those found in objects in natural scenes. The American Naturalist 167.5: E117-E139.

3. Changizi, Mark A., and Shinsuke Shimojo. (2005) Character complexity and redundancy in writing systems over human history. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 272.1560: 267-275.

4. Stokes, Peter. (2009) Computer-aided palaeography, present and future. Kodikologie und Paläographie im digitalen Zeitalter - Codicology and Palaeography in the Digital Age. Schriften des Instituts für Dokumentologie und Editorik, 2: 309-338.

5. Doermann, David S., and Azriel Rosenfeld. (1995) Recovery of temporal information from static images of handwriting. International Journal of Computer Vision 15.1-2: 143-164.

6. Jager, Stefan (1996). Recovering writing traces in off-line handwriting recognition: Using a global optimization technique. Pattern Recognition,., Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on. Vol. 3. IEEE, 1996.

7. Li, Xiaolin, Marc Parizeau, and Réjean Plamondon (1998). Segmentation and reconstruction of on-line handwritten scripts. Pattern recognition 31.6: 675-684.

8. Noordzij, Gerrit, and Peter Enneson (2006). The stroke: Theory of writing. Hyphen.

9. Teulings, Hans-Leo, and Lambert RB Schomaker (1993). Invariant properties between stroke features in handwriting. Acta psychologica 82.1: 69-88.

10. Rubine, Dean (1991). Specifying gestures by example. Vol. 25. No. 4. ACM.

11. Long Jr, A. Chris, et al (2000). Visual similarity of pen gestures. Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems. ACM.

12. Willems, Don, et al (2009). Iconic and multi-stroke gesture recognition. Pattern Recognition 42.12: 3303-3312.

13. Tucha, Oliver, Lara Tucha, and Klaus W. Lange. (2008) Graphonomics, automaticity and handwriting assessment. Literacy 42.3: 145-155.

14. Stenson, Herbert H. (1966) The physical factor structure of random forms and their judged complexity. Perception & Psychophysics 1.9: 303-310.","txt","2","",""
"1948","15","Framework of an Advisory Message Board for Women Victims after Disasters","10","1. Introduction
After the East Japan Great Earthquake, women victims have been suffering from different problems and worries: they had to care elders, raise children, and find jobs. They needed women-specific items. Administrative authorities wanted to recognize women victims’ specific problems and give them appropriate supports. However, it was difficult to grasp women victims’ requirements timely, because they were really patient and their needs were sometimes neglected under the environments and conditions that had changed from moment to moment. Because it takes a lot of labor to conduct interviews or questionnaire investigations to acquire their needs, we need a more useful and easily way to obtain women victims’ needs.

To properly detect and analyze needs of women victims, we set our research goal was a development of an advisory message board for women victims on the web. To achieve our goal, this paper aims to make clear issues for acquiring women victims’ needs and propose the frame work of an advisory message board for women victims after disasters. In our proposed message board, women victims can post their messages freely, and data mining techniques are utilized to analyze messages and detect specific needs.

2. Our Previous Work
We have already developed the prototype system for detecting time series victims’ needs changes from social media data. The target data was the social media provided by the non-profit organization that aims the March 11 earthquake and Tsunami relief. In our previous work, time series victims’ needs changes/transitions were shown as changes of topics by adopting data mining techniques (Figure 1).


Fig. 1: Example of our previous work result (小文字にすべき単語が)

In Figure 1, the horizontal line shows time, and each circle shows one requirement. Lines between circles show transitions between requirements. There were three types of needs in affected people concerning the time length. The first is basic needs that appear for a long time, the second is early stage needs that appear immediately after the earthquake, and the third is needs after time passed. Needs about relief supplies and jobs are recognized as basic needs. On the other hand, there are needs for moves to temporary houses and evacuation center improvements at an early stage. After time passed, needs have changed, for example needs for new houses, cars, and mental cares, complaints about facilities of temporary houses, fears about the uncertain future, and wishes of living with families, appear.

Our previous method is useful to visualize victims’ needs changes/transitions easily. However, the extracted needs were basically common to all. They were not special to women victims. Actually, most writers of the blog are male, and women victims tend to hesitate to publish their opinions, needs, or problems on social media.

3. Developing Framework of an Advisory Message Board for Women Victims after Disasters
3.1 Target Data
As a source of data, we used the following data on the web:

Case Study Data: “The Support Women Victim Wanted! A Collection of Good Practices in Disaster Responses based on the East Japan Disaster”
This booklet collects examples of disaster response activities undertaken by various organizations in, and after, the East Japan Disaster. The data was collected by interviews and questionnaires and provided by the non-profit organization, Women's Network for East Japan Disaster(Rise Together).

To design a framework of an advisory message board, it is important to understand what kind of requirements women victims have, and make clear issues for their needs acquisition.

3.2 Issues on Acquiring Women Victims’ Needs
For the target data[9], we adopted the morphological analysis technique to extractkeywords for characterizing women victims’ needs. Then, we evaluated each keyword and tried to connect it to one of three types of needs extracted by our previous method (Table I).

Table I. Relationships between general needs and women victims’ specific keywords

General Needs (men and women)

Women Victims Specific Needs

Basic Needs

Needs for relief supplies

Needs for Jobs

Sanitary goods, Shorts, Bladder control pads, Cosmetics, Sunscreen, Babys’ diaper, Burglar alarm, etc.

Day nursery, Day-care center for elders, Incubation

Early Stage Needs

Needs for immediately moving to temporary Houses

Female Workers, Clear temporally toilet, Women Area, Respite days

Needs after time passed

Needs for new houses, cars, mental cares

Complaints about temporary houses

Complaints about government

Hope to live with families

Networking among women, Health consultation

Women area, Gender-segregated toilets, European style toilet

Female workers, Violence hotline, Translation for foreigners

Support for caring elders, support handicapped people

For example, the relief supplies that women victims needed were “sanitary goods”, “shorts”, “bladder control pads”, “cosmetics”, “diaper”, “burglar alarm”, etc. As for the needs of jobs, women victims needed “day nursery”, “day-care center for elders”, and “incubation”. As for the complaints about governmental responses, women victims needed “female agents”, “a violence hotline”, and “a translation for foreigners” at the early stage. As for the complaints about temporary houses, women victims needed women areas, gender-segregated toilets, and so on. As for the needs of mental care, “networking among women”, and “health consultation” were requested as women victims’ specific needs.

Women victims needs did not appear in the general social media data. We found analyzing just general social media data was not enough for acquiring women victims’ needs. Issues on acquiring women victims’ needs are as follows:

Women tend to hesitate to unfold their specific needs
Women’s needs tend to be put little emphasis on
An interview and a questionnaire take a lot of labor
Because after the disaster, women become very busy, it is difficult to make a time to post messages
3.3 Framework of anA dvisory Message Board for Women Victims after Disasters
Figure 2 illustrates our proposed framework.


Fig. 2: Proposed framework: an advisory message board for women victims after disaster

We suppose that the board is organized by a responsible organization such as a public agency. In our framework, first, women victims who want to use this service, register themselves (1). Basically, it is an anonymous board but only administrator can identify them. ""Anonymity"" is the point for acquiring women victims’ needs easily.

Then they will select their needs/problems/requirements from the menu provided by the system (2, 3). The menu is hierarchically designed in advance according to our investigation. By providing problems candidates from the menu, the time for inputting messages should be decreased because they are busy. Then, solutions for solving their needs will be shown to them. If there are no corresponding problems in the menu, victims can input a text message freely. As for the free text, data mining technique will be adopted for analyzing problems, and solution candidates will be shown to them (5, 6). The menu contents will be maintained according to victims’ inputs and responses.

The points of the framework is to clarify and predict problems of women victims, and continue to be improved according to their inputs and responses for providing appropriate supports at appropriate timing.

4. Conclusion
In this paper, first, we introduced our previous work, and then made clear issues for acquiring women victims’ needs. Finally we proposed the frame work of an advisory message board for women victims after disaster. In our proposed message board, women victims can post their messages (requirements/opinions/complaints) freely, and data mining techniques are utilized to analyze messages and detect specific needs.

As the future work, we will develop the prototype system of the framework, and conduct the field work with non-profit organizations and actual women victims to receive feedbacks from them.

References
Bannya Nippou, sviwatebanya.wordpress.com

SAVE IWATE, http://sviwate.wordpress.com/in-english/

Hashimoto, T., Kuboyama, T., Chakraborty, B., Shirota, Y., (2012), Discovering Topic Transition about the East Japan Great Earthquake in Dynamic Social Media, Proc. Of GHTC 2012, 259–264.

Hashimoto, T. and Chakraborty, B., (2013) Temporal Awareness of Needs after East Japan Great Earthquake using Latent Semantic Analysis, Proc. of EJC2013, 214-226.

Newman, M. E. J. (2006), Modularity and community structure in networks, National Academy of Science USA 103(23), 8577–8696,.

Landauer, T. K., Dumais, S. T. (1997), A solution to Plato’s problem: The latent semantic analysis theory of the acquisition, induction, and representation of knowledge, Psychological Review, 104(2), 211Ð240.

Salton G, McGill MJ. (1986), Introduction to modern information retrieval. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-054484-0.

Church, K. W., Gale, W. A. (1995), Poisson mixtures, Natural Language Engineering 1, 163– 190.

Integrating Gender and Diversity Perspectives into Disaster Responsem: The Support We Wanted! A Collection of Good Practice in Disaster Response based on the East Japan Disaster, risetogetherjp.org/?p=3909

Women's Network for East Japan Disaster (Rise Together), risetogetherjp.org","txt","2","",""
"1949","15","Discourses and Disciplines in the Enlightenment: Topic Modeling the French Encyclopedie","10","1. Introduction
Discourse analysis has for the past half century been a staple of the text-based historical and social sciences. Part and parcel of the ‘linguistic turn’ of the 1960s, French discourse analysis was furthermore one of the first disciplines to embrace computational text processing when Michel Pêcheux developed a computer program to identify ideological processes in textual corpora 1. Steeped in contemporary linguistic theory, Pêcheux and his team sought an automated method for uncovering hidden ideological meanings in text corpora. That same year, Michel Foucault’s L’Archéologie du savoir broadened the conception of ‘discourse’ and of the underlying power politics at play in its formation 2. Diverging significantly with Pêcheux, Foucault’s analytical model of ‘archaeology’ brought with it a less strictly-linguistic approach to the discursive. By “loosening the embrace [...] of words and things”, discourses are understood “as practices that systematically form the objects of which they speak” 3.

This expanded notion of discourse would go on to exert a strong influence on French historical studies, and in particular, on the historiography of the French Enlightenment and Revolutionary periods, as is evident in the work of François Furet, Lynn Hunt or Keith Baker 456. More recently, Sophia Rosenfeld and Dan Edelstein have re-introduced the specifically linguistic elements of discourse analysis back into the historian’s and literary scholar’s toolbox, most notably through the analytical use of historical and linguistic databases 78.

With the rapid growth of digital text collections, a revisiting of Pêcheux’s earlier notion of an ‘Automatic Discourse Analysis’ approach would seem warranted, particularly given recent developments in information retrieval such as topic modeling 9. This paper is thus an attempt at reconciling the computational and the discursive, using topic modeling to uncover Enlightenment discourses in the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert. Moreover, Foucault’s concept of archaeology is used to justify topic modeling’s ‘bag of words’ analytical model, as it frees us from exclusive interest in language structure, and what that structure conveys, and orients us more towards the association of the various ideas or ‘topics’ that form a discourse.

2. Topic Modeling as Discourse Analysis
Topic modeling is a machine learning approach that was originally designed as a way to classify large amounts of text with minimal human intervention 10. David Newman and Sharon Block have furthermore demonstrated through their use of pLSA (Probabilistic Latent Semantic Analysis) that such unsupervised algorithms can provide a unique overall picture of the contents of a corpus by organizing the data in a manner that gives researchers an objective and wholly original perspective on the texts being analyzed 11. Of course, categorizing texts with no human interaction is not something humanists can accept without question, and this critical point forms the basis of our previous experiments with supervised classification algorithms such as Naive Bayes and Vector Space 1213.

For this project, we employ the Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) algorithm as it is built upon the important premise that documents, however focused, are never about one single topic, but are the result of multiple topics bound together in a single text unit 14. Consequently, the documents analyzed by this algorithm will be identified by a unique signature: a distribution of topics that represents the variety of things discussed in them. As these clusters of words do not necessarily map onto what humanists consider a ‘topic’ or theme, we judge their coherence based less on their thematic consistency and more as the representation of a particular discourse, where closely related concepts are used together in a given context. One could imagine, for instance, finding a discourse that never seems to be the main subject of any document, but that nevertheless runs through a significant number of them.

3. Use Case: Topic Modeling the Encyclopédie
As a use case, we have chosen to examine one the Enlightenment’s exemplary texts, the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d’Alembert 15. Our aim here is to use LDA to go beyond the disciplinary boundaries of the editors’ original classification scheme, which was designed (along with the cross-references) to connect articles amongst themselves across the whole work, but in reality did little to provide guidance to its readers. The physical structure of the text, which caused articles to be read in relative isolation from others, made obtaining a full dialogic perspective of any given class or article unrealistic. By using topic modeling as a discourse analysis tool we aim to highlight each article’s unique discursive makeup. This will allow us to generate a more transversal view of the encyclopaedia and its contents. Whereas David Blei has asked: “What is the likely hidden topical structure that generated my observed documents?” 16; we likewise ask, “what are the non-obvious discourses than span across multiple disciplines in the Encyclopédie?”

From a methodological perspective, we are using the well-known machine learning toolkit MALLET with several Python wrap-arounds 17. Since our goal is to uncover discourses across the entire Encyclopédie, we settled on a relatively low number of topics (between 280 and 360) compared to the total number of classes of knowledge (2,900), but this number was consistent with our previous machine classification experiments 18. Once our topic model was generated, we stored the results in a SQLite table, along with all available metadata. We then wrote a web interface to visualize this database and run queries against the original metadata.

Using the above interface we were able to identify many of the Encyclopédie's disciplinary vocabularies in our topic lists, which were verified using article metadata. Not surprisingly, the ‘chemistry’ topic was found most in chemistry articles, the ‘botany’ topic in botanical articles, mathematics in mathematics, etc. What interests us, however, are topics that are both distinct in nature -- i.e., identifiable with a particular ‘discourse’ -- and that span multiple disciplinary boundaries. Mapping these discourses through the various classes and articles in which they are prevalent leads to a greater understanding of the dialogic and discursive elements at play in the seemingly innocuous encyclopaedic classification system.

The topic we have identified with the discourse ‘droit naturel’, for instance, is present in more than 60 grammar articles, almost double that of its own class (Figure 1).


Fig. 1: Topic #56: ""Droit Naturel""

Among the top grammar articles we find the small unsigned article ‘Inviolable’ that has since been attributed to Diderot. In it, alongside the grammatical definition of the term, we find a usage example that reads: “La liberté de conscience est un privilege inviolable” (8:864) -- a reference that subtly places freedom of thought amongst other ‘natural’ and unalienable rights. We find a similar treatment in the article ‘Supplanter’, which contains a thinly-veiled condemnation of tyranny as an unnatural state of governance.

Other classes function in much the same way as Grammar, allowing the philosophes to smuggle controversial opinions into articles of a seemingly neutral scope. By tracing the presence of various discourses in an inter-disciplinary manner we can begin to uncover the various subversive, discursive, and ideological practices in play over the entirety of the Encyclopédie. The discourse around morality, for instance, is found in no less than 94 articles from the ‘géographie ancienne’ class (Figure 2).


Fig. 2: Topic #227: ""Morale""

Diderot is here again exemplary in his discursive acrobatics. Whilst describing a tribe of ancient Thracians in the article ‘Dranses’, he quickly turns the discussion towards moral relativism (in a move the prefigures his later work, Le Supplément au voyage de Bougainville), with the assertion that: “Ce n'est pas la nature, c'est la tyrannie qui impose sur la tête des hommes un poids qui les fait gémir & détester leur condition” (5:106).

A similar deployment of the discourse around ‘le culte religieux’ -- a subject on which the encyclopédistes were forced to tread lightly -- can be found in the more than 100 articles labeled as ‘histoire moderne’ (Figure 3).


Fig. 3: Topic #242: ""Culte Religieux""

The article ‘Schooubiak’, for instance, is another unsigned (but later attributed) article by Diderot, in which he describes an Islamic sect that practices an unusual form of religious tolerance. This seeming incongruence with the accepted cultural stereotypes of the time allows Diderot to raise the issue of religious intolerance thus using the sect as a proxy for the philosophes themselves, and condemning those who would oppose them: ""les prêtres étant les mêmes par-tout, il faut que la tolérance soit détestée par-tout"" (14:778). 

As we have seen above, many of these encyclopaedic discourses were deployed subversively in order to move the narrative of Enlightenment forward, and indeed, the discursive nature of the Enlightenment in France has recently been brought to light 19. By extending the reach of our topic modeling approach to other Enlightenment texts we can begin to identify the discursive practices of texts and authors on an even greater scale and with a greater level of systematicity. As a philosophic war machine, as well as a contemporary reference work, the Encyclopédie is an ideal starting point for this sort of work. Many of the discourses we find therein may have been lost to the modern reader through the classification process itself, and still others may prove useful in uncovering interdisciplinary connections that would have otherwise gone unnoticed.

References
1. Michel Pêcheux (1969), Analyse automatique du discours, Paris: Dunod.

2. Michel Foucault (1989), L'Archéologie du savoir, Paris: Gallimard, (1969) [English translation: The Archaeology of Knowledge, London: Routledge].

3. Foucault (1989), p. 54.

4. François Furet (1978), Penser la Révolution française, Paris: Gallimard.

5. Lynn Hunt (1984), Politics, Culture and Class in the French Revolution Berkeley: University of California Press.

6. Keith Michael Baker (1990), Inventing the French Revolution: Essays on French Political Culture in the Eighteenth Century Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

7. Sophia Rosenfeld (2001), A Revolution in Language: The Problems of Signs in Late Eighteenth-Century France, Stanford: Stanford University Press.

8. Dan Edelstein (2009), The Terror of Natural Right: Republicanism, the Cult of Nature, and the French Revolution Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

9. For a thorough introduction and discussion of topic modeling for humanistic research, see the special issue of the Journal of Digital Humanities edited by Scott Weingart and Elijah Meeks (2012): Journal of Digital Humanities Vol. 2, No. 1 Winter [journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/].

10. David M. Blei, Andrew Y. Ng, and Michael I. Jordan (2003), Latent Dirichlet Allocation, Journal of Machine Learning Research 3 (4–5): 993–1022.

11. David J. Newman and Sharon Block (2006), Probabilistic Topic Decomposition of an Eighteenth-Century American Newspaper, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 57(6): 753–67.

12. Russell Horton, Robert Morrissey, Mark Olsen, Glenn Roe, and Robert Voyer (2009), Mining Eighteenth Century Ontologies: Machine Learning and Knowledge Classification in the Encyclopédie, in: Digital Humanities Quarterly 3.2 Spring.

13. Charles Cooney, Russell Horton, Mark Olsen, Glenn Roe, and Robert Voyer (2008), Hidden Roads and Twisted Paths: Intertextual Discovery using Clusters, Classiﬁcations, and Similarities, Digital Humanities 2008, eds. Lisa Opas-Hänninen, Mikko Jokelainen, Ikka Juuso, and Tapio Seppänen, Univeristy of Oulu, Finland: 93-4.

14. Blei et al. (2003).

15. All data and references are drawn from the ARTFL digital edition of the Encyclopédie, developed by the University of Chicago's ARTFL Project: [encyclopedie.uchicago.edu].

16. David Blei (2013), Topic Modeling and Digital Humanities, Journal of Digital Humanities 2.1.

17. See [mallet.cs.umass.edu/].

18. Horton et al. (2009).

19. Dan Edelstein (2010), The Enlightenment: A Genealogy Chicago: University of Chicago Press.","txt","2","",""
"1950","15","From lighthouse to framework: visualising digital scholarly editions with pathways and histories","10","From lighthouse to framework: visualising digital scholarly editions with pathways and histories
The Woolf Online project (1), now in its second phase of development at Loyola University Chicago’s Center for Textual Studies and Digitial Humanities, continues to address the following fundamental questions about the nature and development of literature:

­ how does a literary text come into being?
­ what kinds of influence are at work upon the writer during the process of initial composition, and thereafter?
The project has continued to investigate the various ways in which different recoverable histories of a particular text can be used to illuminate the process of its composition. By recording the history of a particular text, its cultural, political, and autobiographical contexts and their interaction, we can visually begin to answer some of the following important questions:

how is textual history related to other histories of a text?
­ what use does literary criticism make of textual and contextual histories?
With these goals in mind, we have developed and implemented digital tools and methods that allow the dynamic rendering of a literary text, which is then embedded within a contextual environment relevant to its known, original period of composition. For example, a user can view each day's writing for the Initial Holograph Draft within the context of Woolf's own diary entries and letters, newspapers of the day, and other historical data appropriate to the period. A user can compare different stages of the genetic edition of 'Time Passes', for example, and view earlier and later material that may have impacted upon or been influenced by the composition of 'Time Passes'. This material currently includes extracts from 'Sketch of the Past' and her 1905 journal. We have also delved in to the history of the Stephen Family, and the impact St Ives in Cornwall, and in particular Talland House, may have had upon the composition of this text.

As part of this onging development within the Center for Textual Studies and Digital Humanites, we have developed an extensible development and publication framework, called ‘Mojulem’  (2), for editing, publication, and visualisation of digital scholarly editions. Mojulem now allows us to build on the concept of ‘knowledge sites’, as suggested by Peter Shillingsburg (3) , supplementing a core publication framework with modules/plugins such as editors and image viewers. It is also able to host multiple projects within one installed framework, thereby enabling cross­project research and the option to aggregate specified data. Development of Mojulem, with the Woolf Online project as one of the ongoing working environments, has followed the need for four underlying core structures. These structures include CorPix, CorTex, CorCode, and CorForm, which are detailed as follows.

CorPix
Manuscripts and printed texts materially unite the iconic and lexical, the autographic and allographic (4), whereas all digital representations separate these constituent elements into images and transcriptions. With Mojulem projects, the common default display reunites the image and transcription by mapping the one to the other at the pixel level. CorPix software currently includes eHinman (5) , Transparent (6) , TransparentOCR, Magnify, and Zoom. For example, pixel­level positioning and coordinate fixing is an inherent feature of both Transparent and TransparentOCR, within both editor and visualisation tools. eHinman is a digital adaptation of the original Hinman collator, and enables fade from the image of a page from one copy to another, thereby enabling a visual collation of multiple copies. Transparent is used within both the visualisation and editing stages of a project’s development, enabling an editor and user alike to view the image as the primary entry consideration for the project.

CorTex
The CorTex is the stable resource containing the merged or compacted plain text transcriptions of the variant expressions of a work. It stores all information about text and variations, ready to be extracted for display of variation amongst versions; it is not necessary to recompute them. The CorTex is the entity to which all standoff properties (markup, annotations, links, etc.) points and on whose stability the system depends. It is as the source of each version’s text and variation from other texts. The stability and endurance of the CorTex is protected by multiplying duplicate copies locked with a digital signature, which verifies for each user that a CorTex copy is viable.

CorCode
CorCode is the add­on value of analysis, argument, and explanation. Mojulem stores markup separately, as standoff properties, applying it as the user invokes it for the rendering of a specific item’s image or text within a given visualisation, such as a transparent view of a page of the Initial Holograph Draft of ‘To the Lighthouse’ (7) . To do this, Mojulem includes an editor which saves text and encoding separately, and filters for converting legacy, code­embedded transcriptions, including TEI encoded documents, into separate forms with markup analysed into properties, and filters for reversing this process.

CorForm
A CorForm is a CSS stylesheet, containing special formatting rules, used to transform the overlapping properties of the CorCode into HTML. Each CorCode has a default CorForm, but other Corforms can be used in combination or as alternatives. Since a CorTex may have many CorCodes, and each CorCode many CorForms, structuring or formatting of the text can be attained by specifying some combination of already available resources, or by supplying new ones.

The CorPix, CorTex, CorCode, and CorForm are aggregated for a project within the Mojulem framework. Each such item is identified by a unique key, which is used as an index into the repository or database.

The development and combination of these four cores, within the modular and adaptable framework Mojulem, has allowed the second phase of the Woolf Online project to begin to approach the fundamental questions about the nature and development of literature, as outlined above. As such, this paper and presentation will outline and demonstrate visual methods and considerations for implementing such perceived networked histories. It will also discuss the different aspects of Mojulem, as outlined above, and ground such a discussion within the example of the ongoing Woolf Online project.

Notes
1 Project site is available at the following URL: http://www.woolfonline.com 2 Our current test framework for the Woolf Online project, as of 6th March 2014, can be viewed at the following URL: http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/ 

3 Shillingsburg, P. L. (2006). From Gutenberg to Google: Electronic Representations of Literary Texts: Cambridge University Press. 4 Nelson Goodman noted this distinction to separate art forms with a unique authentic form, for example painting and sculpture, from art forms which are performative with multiple copies, including writing and music.

5 An earlier stand­alone example can be viewed at the following URL: http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman­dep/v6/

6 A test example page of the Initial Holograph Draft can be viewed at the following URLs: Image =

http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&project=1&parent=2&taxa=6&content =353&pos=21 and transcription = http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&project=1&parent=2&taxa=6&co ntent=5136&pos=21 

7 For example, Image =

http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&project=1&parent=6&taxa=24&conte nt=385&pos=49 and transcription = http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&project=1&parent=2&taxa=6&co ntent=5164&pos=49

8 An earlier TEI derived stand­alone example of this concept, using material from the Malory project, can be viewed at the following URL: http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/","txt","2","",""
"1951","15","From Markup to Analysis: Culture Claims and Code in the Digital Archive","10","Following the lead offered in the ""Text Encoding Meets Text Analysis"" panel session at DH2012 in Hamburg,1 and also in the 2013 debate between Matthew Jockers and Julia Flanders on ""A Matter of Scale"",2 the research value of basic modeling for text analysis seems comparatively clear, even if it is as yet unrealized in practice. However, the payoff from the more complex forms of modeling that are evident in typical TEI-encoded thematic research collections has been less clearly demonstrated. The usefulness of such modeling is evident insofar as it supports the publication of these collections: information about document structures is used to produce display formatting and navigation, and information about content features such as named entities and genre is commonly used in searching. But the larger claims made for digital resources—that they ""allow new questions to be asked""3—require us to distinguish between these kinds of functional value and what we might call ""real research value."" The real research value of the modeling is reflected in the ability of the data to support complex inferences, at scale, that materially contribute to humanities research arguments. Huitfeldt et al. in ""Meaning and Interpretation of Markup""4 offers a foundational demonstration of how markup ""licenses inferences"" in formal terms. But projects developing TEI-encoded archival collections have not yet articulated in detail how that markup might lead researchers from comparatively simple inferences (""this paragraph contains a reference to such-and-such a person"") to more complex ones (""if the name of a person classified in our personography as a war hero appears inside an advertisement within a magazine published after the date of the war in question, the advertiser may be using that person's identity to promote the goods being advertised""; ""people whose names appear in both advertisements and poetic dedications command greater social capital than those whose names appear in either genre alone""). And the conceptual leap from complex statements of this kind to larger conclusions is greater still.

This paper seeks to explore how the modeling of textual data for humanities research connects to the high-level research questions humanities scholars address in their scholarly writing. It offers a detailed description of the modeling (transcription, text encoding, metadata) and the high-level research goals for two closely related digital collections: the Early Caribbean Digital Archive and the Women Writers Project. It then traces critically the inferential steps by which we seek to get from the data being captured to the theoretical concepts (""culture"", ""geography"", ""influence"", etc.) that animate the research. The goal of the paper is to provide a much more exacting and thorough understanding of the complexity of data modeling required to support the argumentative nuance and conceptual subtlety of real-world, high-quality humanities research.

In particular, our focus is on the possibilities and challenges of knowledge production afforded by modeling and encoding archives of materials that concern marginalized persons and non-canonical texts and histories. The two projects under discussion here are engaged in bringing to visibility texts and narratives that had previously been submerged beneath (or concealed within) more culturally promiment discursive forms. The Women Writers Project is currently engaged in a grant-funded collaborative research project funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities titled ""Cultures of Reception"" (http://www.wwp.brown.edu/research/projects/reception/) which gathers and digitizes periodical reviews of late 18th- and early 19th-century women's writing, to support the study of patterns of reception in an emerging transatlantic literary culture. The Early Caribbean Digital Archive (http://www.northeastern.edu/nulab/the-early-caribbean-digital-archive/) is digitizing a variety of Caribbean textual sources from the same period, with special emphasis on the study of the emerging culture of commodity circulation and its relation to the transatlantic slave trade and submerged narratives of race and gender. Both projects involve detailed TEI encoding of textual sources animated by research goals such as these:

trace and map the relations between texts as a function of time, human agency, and geography
bring into visibility relations between locations of print activity across the Caribbean archipelago
show relations among individuals, such as printers, consumers, merchants, runaway slaves, missionaries, plantation owners, abolitionists, military figures, and colonial political figures
map relations between legislation, commodity prices, geography
map the geographic circulation of literary tropes
trace changes in the culture of reviewing over time with respect to the emergence of a transatlantic literary culture
bring to visibility the evaluative frames of reference within which women's writing is read
trace the cultural frame of reference for reviewers in England and in North America
In both cases, the projects must make conceptual and inferential bridges between the specific assertions constituted in the markup (observations about genre, named entities, time and location, textual structure, references to circulating cultural objects such as commodities and texts) and concepts operating a much more abstract level: ""culture"", ""geography"", ""influence"", ""relations"", ""frames of reference."" Humanities scholars are comfortable using terms like these in their writing, as the currency of methodologies from cultural studies to cultural geography indicates, but what forms of evidence and inferential reasoning do they entail at the level of textual markup?

We can unpack here, in a preliminary way, the kinds of reasoning through which these bridges might be built, and the final paper will explore these in more detail. First, there is a set of direct modeling activities (transcription and markup) through which the texts are constituted as research evidence. The activities of transcription produce from the source document assertions about the existence of strings of characters, and markup allows the transcriber and editor to identify areas where this evidence is ambiguous or missing. Through markup the editors can also identify specific strings as references to certain types of named entities (persons, places, books, publishing houses, ships, shipping companies, legislative bodies, etc.) and can associate these references with their target to provide unambiguous entity identification via linked data authority records. At a structural level, the markup can also be used to identify the genre and format of texts and parts of texts, and to associate metadata (author, date and place of production, etc.) with these. Following these activities, we must venture to make inferences based on our modeling. For example, the markup allows us to give greater precision to inferences common in text analysis: instead of judging collocation based on raw word proximity, we can identify word pairs or groups as being within the same textual feature (paragraph, poem, letter, advertisement, heading). In specific cases, we may be able to infer something more from such collocation, such as a connection between two authors mentioned in the same paragraph of a review. Genre and format information may enable us to sharpen these inferences further: mentioning an author in a review means something different from mentioning an author in a dedication; a commodity carries a different cultural freight when listed in an advertisement, a bill of lading, a receipt, a letter, a legislative document. The name of an enslaved person means something different when it appears in a bill of sale, a runaway slave notice, a poem. Taking metadata into account, we can also localize documents in space and time, which gives us the possibility of (cautiously) identifying trends, causation, cultural significance.

In building these bridges, we need to be attentive to the gaps or weak inferential points as we move from the modeling to the research. For example, what does it mean to infer relationships between entities from their proximity within documents? Where are these inferences strongly grounded (for instance, co-authorship reflected in metadata records) and where are they weak (for instance, two names appearing in the same paragraph of a historical account)? Or, in another vein, is the model of geography that emerges from textual attestation (i.e. the inventory of place names and location references) adequate for the kinds of geographical analysis we want to do? Or again, what does ""circulation"" (whether of physical objects or of ideas) look like as attested in data of this kind and how do we discover it? Finally, what is the relation between the encoding categories we have identified here and our knowledge production with respect to marginalized texts, persons, and narratives? How will our modelling decisions erase or repeat historical occlusions in the archive, not only by determining what aspects of the text are marked but also by imposing existing frames of knowledge on the archive?

References
1. Bauman, Syd, David Hoover, Karina Van Dalen-Oskam, and Wendell Piez (2012). Text Analysis Meets Text Encoding. Panel session, DH2012, University of Hamburg, July 2012. www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/text-analysis-meets-text-encoding

2. Flanders, Julia and Matthew L. Jockers. (2013). A Matter of Scale. Keynote Lecture from the Boston Area Days of Digital Humanities Conference. Northeastern University, Boston, MA. March 18, 2013. digitalcommons.unl.edu/englishfacpubs/106.

3. Our Cultural Commonwealth (2006). The report of the American Council of Learned Societies Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities and Social Sciences. ACLS.

4. Huitfeldt, Claus, C. M. Sperberg-McQueen, and Allen Renear (2001). Meaning and Interpretation of Markup. Markup Languages: Theory & Practice 2.3: 215-234.","txt","2","",""
"1952","15","From the Archimedes' Palimpsest to the Vercelli Book: Dual Correlation Pattern Recognition and Probabilistic Network Approaches to Paleography in Damaged Manuscripts","9","The human capacity to visually discern and detect information is remarkably powerful. This ability forms the basis for the field of paleography, specifically in terms of text identification. However, while traditional paleographical methods yield impressive results for data characterization, a mathematical approach to identification is desirable as a means of additional verification and as a basis for comparison between varying proposals of text identities, especially in the case of damaged manuscripts in which text is wholly or partially illegible. Executed judiciously, mathematical approaches can aid the transcription efforts for manuscripts and encourage discussion of text identity with appeal to statistical distribution, based on both v!isual and contextual information. !

Derek Walvoord initially employed such an approach for the Archimedes’ Palimpsest in 2004.1 He developed a correlation recognition program and probabilistic network system for data analysis that utilized both visual and contextual information in order to create character identity distributions for the data of interest. I am currently working to adapt and improve his approach in order to analyze image data for the Vercelli Book. The oldest existing record of Anglo-Saxon poetry and homilies, this 10th-century manuscript was imaged in March 2013 by a team from the Lazarus Project at the Archivio Capitolare in Vercelli. Led by Dr. Gregory Heyworth, the team was composed of Dr. Roger Easton, Kenneth Boydston and Dr. Keith Knox, accompanied by several students from the University of Mississippi, including myself. Utilizing reflective and transmissive LED arrays in 12 wavebands ranging over the near-ultraviolet, visible, and near- infrared regions, we imaged the manuscript with the aim of penetrating the chemical reagent a!pplied in the 19th century that obscures sections of the text. !

In order to determine the identities of characters and character fragments which image rendering do not conclusively reveal, I am designing a neural network system which will make use of correlation filtering to classify the data, similar to Walvoord’s system; however, by utilizing subsampling of the initial and subsequent output layers, I will be able to meaningfully analyze fine details of the data in a way that Walvoord’s system did not allow. Moreover, my updated system will be able to weight the importance of particular features in determining class membership via a learning architecture, such that each training image improves the classifier function. This method should overcome problems traditionally associated with correlation filtering methods such as blur, lighting differences, and lack of contrast because of its subsampling and weighting mechanisms. Depending upon the results of this neural network approach of classification for the Vercelli Book data, I will evaluate whether employing a probabilistic network system similar to that used for the Archimedes’ Palimpsest will significantly i!mprove overall data classification and proceed with research accordingly.!

This system would serve to bridge the gap between our knowledge of the Vercelli Book’s contents and the information available to us, providing a probabilistically accurate transcription of data associated with a piece of the humanities corpus that has been obscured from view for over a century. This invaluable data will contribute place and context to our current conversations considering Anglo Saxon literature, language, and culture, as well as manuscripts in general. Moreover, this system will ultimately serve to empower paleographers and computer scientists alike by exploring the relationship between the visual acuity and classification knowledge associated with traditional transcription efforts and neural network-based approaches for mathematical ones. 

References
Walvoord, Derek J. (2008). “Advanced Correlation-Based Character Recognition Applied to ! the Archimedes Palimpsest.” PhD diss., Rochester Institute of Technology.

Sermanet, Pierre et al. (2012) “Convolutional Neural Networks Applied to House Number Digit Classification.” Paper presented at the 21st International Conference on Pattern Recognition, Tsukuba, Japan, November 11-15.","txt","2","",""
"1953","15","Future Development of a System for Annotation and Linkage of Sources in Arts and Humanities","9","1 Introduction
Since the late 90s, a large number of digitization projects relevant to research in the humanities have been carried out. The quality of the digital objects produced by these digitization campaigns most often meets the demands of a ""digital facsimile"". Since - with the exception of text files such as PDF, plain text, etc. where a full text search may be appropriate - digital objects are hardly searchable directly, associated metadata are needed to enable navigation within a collection of digital objects. It should be expected that this simplified accessibility and availability of digitized sources has fundamentally changed research in the humanities by allowing more efficient and broader research methods. However, iseems that this is not yet the case. The reason is that there are very few digital tools available to support the qualitative and comparative methods required in source based research in the humanities.

In the following, we will look at three use-cases which exemplify our vision for a research environment in the digital Humanities.

Digital Humanist. Susan, a digital humanist, is working with digitized manuscripts. For her research, she needs to transcribe, annotate, and link her annotations, regions of interest, and transcriptions with each other. By employing SALSAH as her work environment, Susan can work on the digitized manuscripts in a fully digital workflow.

Long-term Accessibility of Digital Research Data. Jim is at the stage of finishing up a five-year project, and needs to deposit his research results and the data accumulated during his research. The results and the digital data need t be still accessible in the long-term, even after the funding has long since ended. Jim can export his digital research data to an institution deploying SALSAH which will take care of their long-term accessibility.

Linked Open DataWorkbench. Karen's research is based on materials whic are provided in different repositories around the internet. She wants to be able to combine, annotate and create links between those digital objects. Also sh would like to share her results and allow other researchers to use them. By usingSALSAH, Karen can connect to external resources shared over custom APIs or SPARQL endpoints, and work with the data as if it were stored locally. Usin the SALSAH API and the provided SPARQL endpoint, other researchers can build upon her work.

SALSAH (System for Annotation and Linkage of Sources in Arts and Hu manities) version 2.0 is currently under development at the Digital Humanites Lab (DHLab) of the University of Basel, and represents a browser based VRE that will respond to requirements described in the three scenarios above.

The main contribution of this paper lies in the description of novel approache taken in the design of SALSAH 2.0, leading to new features and possibilities.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we introduce newly developed features and Section 3 concludes.

2 SALSAH
SALSAH integrates digital (re)sources, metadata, research data, and relevan working tools. Using SALSAH, researchers are able to: (1) simultaneously visualize multiple digital objects (e.g., facsimiles, images, texts, transcripts, sound and video), (2) annotate digital objects and share these annotations with others (3) establish relations (links) between digital objects and annotate these relations, (4) access and integrate external data sources (e.g., digital libraries) so that the VRE tools may be applied to these sources without the need for local duplicates, and (5) transcribe manuscripts, speech and video.

2.1 Software Architecture
The software is based on a multi-tier architecture in which application logic is distributed between (1) a client application (""front end"") which users interact with, (2) a more or less centralized server (""back end""), and (3) local and/or external data providers which provide the sources that users can work on. The SALSAH software architecture is depicted in Figure 1.

While SALSAH has the capability to function as a repository for digital sources, this is not its primary goal. There are many repositories of professionally digitized sources, and it makes no sense to duplicate their content in yet another repository. Following a logical separation of annotation tools and digital representations, SALSAH provides the basis for referencing sources without having to store them itself. Furthermore, SALSAH can provide annotation, linkag information, and metadata to an external data provider via the SALSAH API (as long as the external request has access rights), as well as over a read-only SPARQL endpoint that provides LOD (Linked Open Data).We expect SALSAH in the long term to evolve into a true distributed P2P system.


Fig. 1: Software Architecture of SALSAH

2.2 Data-Model
The data model is based on the Resource Description Framework (RDF), the Resource Description Framework Schema (RDFS), and the OWL 2 Web Ontology Language all proposed by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) for implementing the Semantic Web. This metadata model makes it possible to describe digital objects in a very flexible way, and to create links and relation between any objects (which are called \subjects"" in RDF terminology). It is based on statements in the form of subject-predicate-object expressions about these digital subjects. Any number of such expressions can be used to describe subjects and their relations.

A given set of predicates is called a vocabulary, and can be used to implement standard metadata schemes such as Dublin Core. Within SALSAH, different vocabularies may be used at the same time to describe a given subject. Since the value of an RDF expression may itself be a subject, RDF allows for a network-like representation of knowledge about a subject and its relations to other subjects. This metadata model is subject-centric, in the sense that for each digital subject, an individual set of predicates may be assigned, in contrast to the relational data model, which is much more restrictive in its ability to assign data field to subjects. Hence, the data model used in SALSAH is especially well suited to the humanities, in which a flexible, qualitative coverage of metadata is essential. Figure 2 (a) depicts an excerpt from the SALSAH ontology, showing how a projects own metadata schema can be incorporated into SALSAH, and (b) a small part of the graph depicting an incunabula of Sebastian Brant with the title ""Das Narrenschi"".


Fig. 2: An excerpt from (a) the SALSAH Ontology and (b) the incunabula of Sebastian Brant.

The data store consists of a native triple-store solution such as Jena, which serves the data over a SPARQL endpoint.

2.3 Versioning
SALSAH is a dynamic system in which data can be changed by users having the necessary access rights at any time. In order to use SALSAH as a citable repository, methods will be implemented to \freeze"" a subset of the data and thus provide versioning. In order to solve this non-trivial problem, SALSAH will use the concept of temporal RDF, in which each element in the RDF graph of a certain granularity will be enriched with temporal information regarding its validity. For example, if the title of a book is changed, the old version is not overwritten, but is instead marked as valid up to the time when the change occurred, while the new title is marked as valid from then on. This allows users to retrieve the state of the RDF graph at any point in time.

Versioning will lead to the concept of a new form of electronic publication. While e-papers and e-journals basically mimic the behavior of their paper equivalents an annotated network of citable sources and links represents a novel form of publication. The reader will be able to navigate through the network and extract his or her own perspectives on the knowledge represented by the interconnected digital objects. This may be the first attempt, within academic publishing in the humanities, to go beyond the phenomenon in which ""new media first mimic older media"", as noted by Marshall McLuhan.

2.4 Digital Long-Term Preservation
DISTARNET (DISTributed ARchival NETwork) is a distributed, autonomous long-term digital preservation system. Essentially, DISTARNET exploits dedicated processes to ensure the integrity and consistency of data with a given replication degree. At the data level, DISTARNET supports complex data objects and the management of collections, annotations, and arbitrary links between digital objects. At process level, dynamic replication management, consistency checking, and automated recovery of archived digital objects is provided, using autonomic behavior governed by preservation policies without any centralized component

DISTARNET will be implemented as a layer underneath the SALSAH local repository, and provide long-term preservation of the digital objects and associated metadata.

3 Conclusion
While the change from the analog to the digital domain makes sources available on the desktops of scholars and researchers, a real paradigm shift in source-based research requires new tools. Virtual Research Environments such as SALSAH may provide the necessary tools to gain a novel, computeraided knowledge rep- resentation that is well-suited to the needs of humanities research. These tools will undoubtedly change the way research is done in the humanities. They will help researchers organize and retrieve knowledge more efficiently, and may disclose hidden relationships between sources, among other things, but they will not replace the researchers' ingenuity and intuition. SALSAH is in use by several research projects within the University of Basel, and has sparked interest on an international scale.

References
Rosenthaler, Lukas Virtual Research Environments (2012). A New Approach for Dealin with Digitized Sources in Research in Arts and Humanities in: Claire Clivaz u.a. (editors): Reading Tomorrow. From Ancient Manuscripts to the Digital Era, Lausanne2012, S. 661-670, Ebook on http://www.ppur.info/lire-demain.html

Rosenthaler, Lukas (2012), Schweizer, Tobias SALSAH - eine webbasierte Forschungsplattform für die Geisteswissenschaften, in: Bulletin der Schweizerischen Akademie der Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaften, Bern

Rosenthaler, Lukas (2011) Entwicklung einer Web 2.0-Applikation zur Präsentation un Erforschung der Basler Frühdrucke, in: Karin Krause und Barbara Schellewald (editors), Bild und Text im Mittelalter, Böhlau Verlag Köln

Schweizer, Tobias, Rosenthaler (2011), Lukas SALSAH - eine virtuelle Forschungsumgebun für die Geisteswissenschaften, in: Dr. Andreas Bienert, Dr. Frank WeckendDr. James Hemsley, Prof. Vito Cappellini (editors), EVA 2011 Konferenzband pp. 147-153 GFai Berlin 

F. Manola and E. Miller, ""RDF Primer,"" tech. rep.

D. Brickley and R. von Guha, ""RDF Vocabulary Description Language 1.0: RDF Schema,"" tech. rep.

W3C OWL Working Group, ""OWL 2 Web Ontology Language,"" tech. rep.

Dublin Core Metadata Initiative. http://dublincore.org.

JENA. http://jena.apache.org.

C. Ogbuji, ""SPARQL 1.1 Graph Store HTTP Protocol,"" W3C working draft, W3C, May 2011. http://www.w3.org/TR/2011/WD-sparql11-http-rdf-update-20110512/.

C. Gutierrez, C. Hurtado, and A. Vaisman (2005), ""Temporal RDF,"" in European Semanti Web Conference The Semantic Web Research and Applications, vol. 3532/2005, pp. 93-107.

J. Tappolet and A. Bernstein (2009), ""Applied temporal RDF : efficient temporal querying of RDF data with SPARQL,"" The Semantic Web: Research and Applications, no. June.

McLuhan, E. and Zingrone, F. (1995) (eds) Essential McLuhan. New York: BasicBooks 

I. Subotic. A Distributed Archival Network for Process-Oriented Autonomic","txt","2","",""
"1954","15","Geographies of Access: Mapping the Online Attention to Digital Humanities Articles in Academic Journals","2","Open access refers to the free access to and reuse of scholarly works. Peter Suber, who was the principal drafter of the Budapest Open Access Initiative (February 2002), and authored the book titled Open Access (2012), defines it as academic literature that is “digital, online, free of charge, and free of most copyright and licensing restrictions.”

What proportion of peer-reviewed digital humanities research is published in open access journals? What proportion of digital humanities monographs and edited collections are available in electronic formats, and which, if any, are available in open access form? How do open access articles about the digital humanities compare in terms of citations/downloads to their toll-access counterparts? How, when, where and why do digital humanities scholars and the public engage in online attention to online academic articles about digital humanities and why does it matter? What kind of licensing and copyright agreements are digital humanities scholars subscribing to, and of those which ones allow and encourage open collaboration and reuse, including text and data mining? What is the role of blogging in the digital humanities publishing landscape?

These are the questions guiding the research project whose findings we will visualise through an infographic. It will show the findings of a comparative, quantitative bibliometric analysis of a data set of academic articles about the digital humanities published between 2010 and 2013. The infographic will visualise the conclusions of an ongoing collaborative research project whose aims are to employ journal and article-level quantitative and qualitative analysis to determine whether alt-metrics can provide a holistic image of impact on diverse audiences.

The poster will also include a visualisation of the geographical distribution of online attention to the articles published on both journals, as well as other quantitative and qualitative data. The main objective of the poster will be to provide demographic data of online activity reflecting the attention paid to digital humanities research by other researchers, the media and the general public, providing much-needed data about where academic articles on digital humanities are published, which are the business models the chosen platforms have (toll-access, open access) as well as other information as presence or absence of digital identifiers, secure archiving, etc.

Scholars in most academic fields are increasingly using online tools and environments (social media, blogs, online reference managers, etc.) to engage with scholarly literature and other events such as lectures, conferences and symposia (Nicholas and Rowlands 2011). Digital Humanities scholars are not the exception (Ross, Terras, Warwick, Welsh, 2011; Terras 2012), but there is a paucity of bibliometric research regarding the type of publications and impact of those publications that they choose to publish their research. In spite of the extensive work by the Statistical Cybermetrics Group (University of Wolverhampton), digital humanities as a specific field of academic publishing remains largely unexplored. The poster we propose seeks to make a contribution by employing alt-metrics, the quantitative and qualitative “study and use of scholarly impact measures based on activity in online tools and environments” (Adie and Roe, 2013; Cameron 2009; Cronin 2001; Priem et al 2012) to assess the publishing landscape in digital humanities. The data about research online engagement we can obtain from them is discipline-agnostic; it is the online behaviour of researchers and interactions with the outputs from different disciplines what can significantly differ.

The poster seeks to make a contribution to the debate about the role of open access and alternative metrics in contemporary research. The poster will be accompanied by an open access online resource including further analysis and the source data, encouraging fellow researchers to explore, reuse and visualise in different ways. This companion site will discuss how alt-metrics data could potentially contribute to –or eventually generate a culture towards– strengthening the evidence informing impact case studies for journals publishing digital humanities scholarship.

Many questions arise from looking at the data. How can we better understand and use it? Can we classify articles and journals by the kind of attention they get? Are there common patterns between themes? How do they compare to articles and journals in other disciplines? Can online attention metrics encourage specific types of online behaviour amongst digital humanities scholars and across disciplinary What does it mean if somebody tweets a paper -what’s the tweeter trying to do? How can the studied journals maximise the online engagement with the research they publish?

This poster and its companion online site will aim to provide some answers in order to provide recommendations and best practices that might help democratise and increase the international access to peer-reviewed digital humanities research. 

References
Adie, E., and William R. (2013) ""Altmetric: Enriching Scholarly Content with Article-Level Discussion and Metrics."" Learned Publishing 26, no. 1 11-17. WEB. http://figshare.com/articles/Enriching_scholarly_content_with_article_level_di scussion_and_metrics/105851. Accessed 28 October 2013.

Cameron N, and Shirley W. (2009) ""Article-Level Metrics and the Evolution of Scientific Impact."" PLOS Biology 7, no. 11 e1000242. WEB. http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1000242. Accessed 28 October 2013. 

Chamberlain, Sc. (2013) ""Consuming Article-Level Metrics: Observations and Lessons."" Information Standards Quarterly 25, no. 2 , 4-13. http://www.niso.org/publications/isq/2013/v25no2/chamberlain

Cronin, B (2001). ""Bibliometrics and beyond: Some Thoughts on Web-Based Citation Analysis."" Journal of Information Science 27, no. 1, 1-7.

Nicholas D, Rowlands I. (2011). Social Media use in the Research Workflow, Information Services and Use 31(1-2, 2011): 61-83

Ross, M., Terras, C. Warwick, A. Welsh, (2011) ""Enabled backchannel: conference Twitter use by digital humanists"", Journal of Documentation, Vol. 67 Iss: 2, pp.214 – 237

Priem, J., Groth, P. and Taraborelli, D. (2012). ""The Altmetrics Collection."" PLOS ONE 7, no. 11 (2012): e48753. WEB. http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.004 8753. Accessed 28 October 2013.

Statistical Cybermetrics Group. University of Wolverhampton, United Kingdom. Publications. WEB. http://cybermetrics.wlv.ac.uk/publications.htm. Accessed 28 October 2013.

Suber, P. (2012). Open Access. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press). WEB and print. http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/open-access Accessed 28 October 2013.

Terras, M. (2012). “Infographic: Quantifying Digital Humanities”. Melissa Terras’ Blog. 20 January 2012. WEB. http://melissaterras.blogspot.co.uk/2012/01/infographic-quanitifying-digital.html. Accessed 28 October 2013.

Terras, M. (2012). “Is blogging and tweeting about research papers worth it? The Verdict.” Melisa Terras’ Blog. 3 April 2012. WEB. http://melissaterras.blogspot.co.uk/2012/04/is-blogging-and-tweeting-about-research.html. Accessed 28 October 2013.","txt","2","",""
"1955","15","Geoweb 2.0 and Design Empowerment: A Critical Evaluation of Eleven Cases","10","1. Introduction
The concept of public participation was brought onto the agenda of urban design and planning prominently after the May events of 1968 (Jencks, 2011). Arnstein (1969)1was the first to identify various ways of participation: manipulation, therapy, informing, consultation, placation, partnership, delegated power and citizen control. After this study, it became more evident that facilitating participation practices do not necessarily grant planning power to the citizens; they may manipulate them as well.

Following the Arnstein's ladder, the understanding of participation shifted towards the greater democratization of the processes and deeper involvement of citizens. Connor (1988)2, Dorcey et al. (1994)3 and Rocha (1997)4 have proposed their updated versions of the participation ladder, each focusing on slightly different aspects. Connor (1988)'s point of view was oriented more towards conflict resolution whereas Dorcey et al. (1994) suggested ongoing involvement and consensus building as the highest level of participation. Rocha (1997) placed political empowerment at the top and atomic empowerment at the bottom of her version of the participation ladder.

Senbel and Church (2011)5 linked various forms of empowerment and visualization media while proposing a more ""enabling"" version of Arnstein's ladder. Their ladder involved six ""instances"" of design empowerment.The highest level on this ladder is independent design, when ordinary citizens gain the capacity to create their own plans and visions; reaching autonomy.

Overall, the brief review above illustrates the theoretical shift or the ""communicative turn"" from rational planning to deliberative planning.

From the perspective of geospatial participatory technologies, it is possible to track similar layers of transformation regarding the production and dissemination of geographic information. From top-down to bottom-up, referring to the public participation GIS (PPGIS), from ""requested production"" to ""voluntary production"", and finally, towards the wikification of GIS and Web 2.0-based social-geographic applications (Geoweb 2.0)(Roche et. al., 2012)6.

Relying on a combination of social software and information aggregation services, Geoweb 2.0-based participatory planning practices stand as a strong alternative to the traditional linear and hierarchical knowledge production methods. These  are loaded with constructivist learning and production principles embedded in the ways they enable social knowledge construction (Pak and Verbeke, 2012)7.

In this context, we would like to critically address the following questions in our study:

Which inclusion strategies and tools are used for design empowerment in popular Geoweb 2.0 supported participatory  planning practices?
To what extent do these practices facilitate participation in urban planning?
Motivated with the questions above, we made an evaluation of relevant practices through an online survey. We will share the method and results of this survey and discuss our findings in Section 2. This discussion will be followed by the conclusion (Section 3), in which we summarize the findings and discuss their possible implications for future developments.

2. Evaluation of Design Empowerment Strategies Employed in Practice
We grounded our survey on Senbel and Church's (2011) theoretical framework for ""design empowerment"". As briefly described in the introduction, the authors proposed six instances of citizen involvement in design (Figure 1). In this framework, independent design is depicted as the highest level of empowerment, followed by integration which involves the coproduction of plans. Inclusion of the thoughts of the participants among other priorities, ideation about the plans and inspiration triggering response to an alternative and information are the relatively lower instances of design empowerment.


Fig. 1: Senbel and Church's (2011) Instances of Design Empowerment 

Based on the instances and forms of design empowerment above, we prepared an online survey to analyze the inclusion strategies and tools used for design empowerment in the existing Geoweb 2.0 supported practices. In January 2013, we distributed the survey to thirty organizations listed by the crowdsourcing.org8 directory as related to urban design and planning. These organizations were contacted via three different communication channels: email, phone and their facebook pages.

Eleven organizations have accepted to attend our survey (OpenPlans, Nextdoor, CitySourced, Neighborland, LocalWiki, Spacehive, MindMixer, LocalData, mySociety, Ideavibes, CommunityPlanIt). At the time of the survey, these organizations represented dominant North America and UK-based practices which operate globally, including the Continental Europe. 64 percent of the participants were private organizations. The remaining 36 percent were NGOs, Social enterprises and University laboratories.

In relation to Senbel and Church (2011)’s instances of design empowerment, we asked the participants to rank the priorities (Table 1) of their practices. A legal representative of each organization answered our survey. 


Fig. 2: Average rankings of the priorities of the Geoweb 2.0 applications (higher levels of design empowerment are indicated as darker colors)

According to the participants, Ideation (empowerment level 3) was the most important priority, followed by Information (level 1) and inclusion (level 4). The two highest levels of empowerment -Independence and Integration- were ranked as the two least important priorities (Figure 2).

Following the ranking, six of the participants chose to answer an open question on the design empowerment potentials of their Geoweb 2.0 applications. One participant expressed that their application ""can be leveraged by people trying citizen design"". According to another participant, the organization ""had lots of broad efforts around planning, driven entirely by citizens. But it had little official use by city planners or professional planners"".

One of the other participants indicated that their ""toolkit is less about formulating citizen-designed plans, but it rather provides a more efficient method for data collection already taking place"". Similar to this comment, another wrote that their application was""designed more for reporting problems with the local area (e.g. potholes, broken street lights) than for any integration with urban planning”. 

In addition to the observations above, we made a brief analysis of the provided functions (Table 1). The most common ones were: commenting on other users' contents (91 percent), followed by adding a placemark and descriptive text (82), tagging content based on predefined categories (64) and uploading a document (55 percent).

Only one of the Geoweb 2.0 applications supported annotated drafting and drawing tools, which are necessary for the empowerment of citizens in the independent and collaborative design of plans and projects. 

Provided Functions	Percentage
Commenting on other users' contents 	91%
Adding a placemark and descriptive text 	82%
Tagging content based on predefined categories 	64%
Uploading a document	55%
Adding a geolocated photo 	45%
Editing other users' contents 	45%
Tagging content based on user-defined categories 	55%
Forum 	36%
Internal Messaging 	27%
User controlled thematic layers 	18%
Timeline 	18%
Other: Search, Video, Organizer moderation, Civic profile, Email notifications, shapefile/kml; data management; survey creation	18%
Drawing polygons on the map and adding a description 	9%
The last finding was on the intended target audience of the Geoweb applications. According to the participants these were Neighborhood Organizations (100 percent), Community Residents/inhabitants (100 percent), Governmental Administrations (91 percent), Governmental Planning Organizations, NGOs and Umbrella Organizations, Urban Designers, Research Organizations  (73 percent), Property and Land Owners and Project, Real Estate Developers  (55 percent), Architects (36 percent), Others (18 percent) and Financers (9 percent).

3. Conclusion and Discussion
Our analysis results suggest that the strategic positioning of the sampled set of Geoweb 2.0 applications was less towards higher levels of design empowerment and more towards data collection, information and ideation. This finding was evident in the individual rankings of empowerment intentions as well as the provided tools and functions.

As a response to the open question, participants reported a specific scenario in which the authorities and experts were empowered through the collection of information from the citizens. The intended levels of design empowerment of the citizens were indirect and limited. 

Only 9 percent of the practices provided drafting-drawing tools which are evidently essential for the citizens to create their own plans/visions and reach autonomy. 

When combined with the self-reported target audiences, our findings suggest that the sampled Geoweb 2.0 applications were primarily intended to be used as a single-sided communication channel between the citizens and the planning organizations. None of them included convincing mechanisms to guarantee the consideration of the data collected from the citizens and the inclusion of these into the design and planning processes. 

Furthermore, according to the survey results, the majority of the practices (64 percent) were controlled by private organizations. Reflecting on the negative experiences of Facebook and Google (Bucher, 2012)9 and (Habermas, 2006)10 we can claim that public opinion on urban planning cannot be formed in a truly democratic manner without separation of tax-based state from market-based society. Unregulated private social networks may encourage disempowerment due to the commodification of personal and sensitive information on citizens, triggering counter results.

Therefore, for better practices in the future, it is of utmost importance to construct self-regulating and independent systems which can:

Operate as a mediating interface between the planning authorities and the society,
Enable inclusion and equal opportunity for participation in innovative ways,
Ensure the privacy and security of the participants,
Mobilize discussion on relevant topics and claims and planning actions,
Promote critical evaluation from different perspectives.
In this context, the potentials of Geoweb 2.0 to empower ordinary citizens to develop their own plans are yet to be harnessed. Reporting potholes can raise awareness but is only a small step in the empowerment ladder.

Acknowledgements
This paper is partially based on post-doctoral research project supported by INNOVIRIS, The Brussels Institute for the encouragement of Scientific Research and Innovation.

References
1. Arnstein, S. R. (1969), A Ladder of Citizen Participation. In Journal of the American Planning Association 35 (4). 216–224. Routledge: New York.

2. Connor, D. M. (1988), A New Ladder of Citizen Participation. In National Civic Review 77(3), 249-57. National Civic League: Jossey-Bass.

3. Dorcey, A. H. J. (1994), British Columbia Round Table on the Environment and the Economy. Public involvement in government decision making: choosing the right model. The Round Table: Victoria, British Columbia.

4. Rocha, E. (1997), A ladder of empowerment. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 17(1), pp.31–44. DOI:10.1177/0739456X9701700104

5. Senbel, M., Church, P. S. (2011), Design Empowerment: The Limits of Accessible Visualization Media in Neighborhood Densification, in Journal of Planning Education and Research 31(4), 423–437.

6. Roche, S., Mericskay, B., Batita, W., Bach, M., Rondeau, M. (2012), WikiGIS Basic Concepts: Web 2.0 for Geospatial Collaboration, in Future Internet 2012, 4, 265-284. Basel: MDPI Publishing.

7. Pak, B., Verbeke, J. (2012), A Web-based Geographic Virtual Environment for the Analysis and Evaluation of Alternative Urban Development Projects Prepared for Brussels, ACADIA 2012 Annual International Conference Synthetic Digital Ecologies October 18-21,

8. Crowdsourcing.org (2013), Available from: crowdsourcing.org/ Open Source Repository (accessed 15 October 2013).

9. Bucher, T. (2012), Want to be on the top? Algorithmic power and the threat of invisibility on Facebook, New Media & Society November 2012 vol. 14 no. 7 pp. 1164-1180.

10. Habermas, J. (2006), Political Communication in Media Society: Does Democracy Still Enjoy an Epistemic Dimension? The Impact of Normative Theory on Empirical Research, Communication Theory 16 (2006) pp. 411–426","txt","2","",""
"1956","15","Global Outlook::Digital Humanities: Promoting Digital Humanities Research Across disciplines, regions, and cultures","3","By DH 2014, Global Outlook::Digital Humanities (GO::DH) will be 18 months old. Old enough to have experienced its first growing pains but also old enough to have a sense of the opportunities that exist for promoting the globalisation of Digital Humanities research. This paper discusses the past and future of the Special Interest Group (SIG), concentrating particularly on what is generalisable: the lessons we have learned about collaborating in a multilingual, multiregional context (although this makes it in some sense a project report, the lessons are themselves highly relevant to and have implications for the community as a whole).

The basic premise behind GO::DH is both exciting and frightening. It is a community for Digital Humanities scholars around the world that encourages them to discover new work and new colleagues in regions and disciplines they might never have considered before. But in asking scholars to do this, it also asks them to work along some of our most controversial lines of division: language, culture, nationality, history, and income level. In a field that is famously and self-consciously “nice” (Scheinfeldt 2010), these are the places where our self-conception has been tested (and called into question) most vigorously (see especially Fiormonte 2012 on language and nationality; Babalola 2012 discusses some of the challenges that divide the use of the digital in High Income vs. Low Income Economies).

The English language and (arguably at least) Anglo-American disciplinary and rhetorical norms dominate the practice of our profession. This places non-native speakers of English and scholars working outside the Anglo-American academic context at an immediate disadvantage. In addition, as Fiormonte suggests, it probably also has led to the relative scarcity of such scholars in the disciplines'gatekeeping positions.

The interest in technology that defines our field, moreover, creates divisions the moment our collaborations attempt to cross the boundaries that distinguish high, mid, and low income economies (O’Donnell 2012a). As Babalola has shown, the kind of basic infrastructure that Digital Humanities scholars in High Income Economies take for granted either does not exist or can be disproportionately difficult and expensive to access in mid- and especially low-income economies. As she demonstrates, moreover, this problem is about more than download speeds or CPUs: many of our core approaches, assumptions, and methods of dissemination (from the outsized importance of conference presentations in our discipline to the use of crowdsourcing) imply an access to resources common only in High Income economies.

And finally there is the spectre of colonialism and development politics. Any project that brings scholars from high-income economies into close contact with scholars from mid and low income economies is going to run into questions of intention, history, and politics. Can such collaborations be collaborations of equals, in which all participants both teach and learn? Or must they inevitably resolve themselves into the more unequal relationship of donor and recipient? The initial impetus for GO::DH arose among scholars working in High Income economies who wondered about their lack of contact with scholars working in other regions (O’Donnell 2012b). Initially, this caused suspicion among scholars who live in or work with those in mid and low-income regions. What was the motivation for interest from the high-income scholars? To what extent would this new organisation be able to avoid replicating the status quo in the field at large, where those with resources determine the course of the collective effort.

Despite our initial fears about what could go wrong in such an endeavour, the first year of GO::DH's existence has been remarkably productive and relatively smooth. While there have been some misunderstandings (some of which are discussed in the other papers in the panel), there have been remarkably few problems. The SIG has successfully managed to integrate multi-lingualism into its discussion-list, which several threads being carried out in languages other than English. It has provided a framework for a remarkable number of projects and working groups—from Around the World of DH to the second Caribbean ThaTCamp, to the first Global DH conference (planned for this coming Spring in Mexico in association with RedHD. And it has even led to the formation of new groups, such as the proposed Portuguese-language DH organisation.

The techniques we have used in building this community, capturing the good will of its constituents while avoiding some of the more obvious potential problems offers wider lessons for the DH community. In this talk I will discuss some of the specific techniques—from ad hoc translation to the collaborative development of by-laws and executive positions that we have used to successfully build GO::DH over the last year into the relatively stable community it has now become.

Works cited
Babalola, Titilola. (2012). “The Digital Humanities and Digital Literacy: A Review of Digital Culture in Nigeria”. Lethbridge, Alta.

Fiormonte, Domenico. (2012). “Towards a Cultural Critique of the Digital Humanities.” Historische Sozialforschung / Historical Social Research 37 (3) (September): 59–76.

O’Donnell, Daniel Paul. (2012a). “In a Rich Man’s World: Global DH?” Dpod Blog. November 2. dpod.kakelbont.ca/2012/11/02/in-a-rich-mans-world-global-dh.

O’Donnell, Daniel Paul. (2012b). “Global Outlook :: Digital Humanities”. Lethbridge: Alliance of Digital Humanities Organisations. ubuntuone.com/187LiVZpJKwFNaRV0lZJeD.

Scheinfeldt, Tom. (2010). “Why Digital Humanities Is ‘Nice’.” Found History. May 26. www.foundhistory.org/2010/05/26/why-digital-humanities-is-%e2%80%9cnice%e2%80%9d.

Thinking with an Accent
Barbara Bordalejo, University of Saskatchewan

 

This paper explores the reasons behind various degrees of impact and development in Digital Humanities in the context of different countries, languages and cultures. It calls attention to the enormous gap between low, middle and high-income countries and offers avenues to continue a change that has already begun. Firstly, the paper considers where is Digital Humanities located as a discipline and how this might influence the phenomenon of inclusion/exclusion (particularly those that refer to language). Secondly, it focuses on practical problems in countries of low and middle-income. Thirdly, it suggests practical ways to construct a field that is truly inclusive and allows wider participation.

Locating the Digital Humanities
Matthew Kirschenbaum, in his article “What is Digital Humanities and What is Doing in English Departments?,” puts forward several possible reasons that explain why English Departments are one of the main spaces in which Digital Humanities is cultured. As Kirschenbaum explains it, the phenomenon is related to text as a relatively easy object to encode (“...by far the most tractable data type for computers to manipulate.”), the relationship between computers and composition, the relationship to editorial theory and the work by Jerome McGann in the 1980s, the advent of electronic literature, “the openness of English Departments to cultural studies,” and the development of e-readers, which have finally made it possible to have digital texts in the same form as we have digital music.

It seems that English and History are the main areas in which Digital Humanities posts are advertised. However, Roopika Risam (roopikarisam.com/2013/09/15/where-have-all-the-dh-jobs-gone) has pointed out that most of the recent DH jobs “go hand-in-hand with Rhetoric and Composition and literature positions.” In practical terms, this means that there is some substance to the Kirschembaum claim about Digital Humanities being easily located within English Departments (generally responsible for the teaching of composition and solid in the teaching of literature). If we, temporarily, accept this premise as true (that the English Department is a place in which we can find an important cluster of Digital Humanists) we have to consider the consequences of this: English Departments might have the natural tendency of hiring English Native speakers. An examination of the structure of the Alliance for Digital Humanities Organizations offers an insight on the distribution of power in Digital Humanities: in the steering committee, of 27 positions only Elisabeth Burr, Christoph Meister, Masashiro Shimoda, Oyvind Eide and Edward Vanhoutte are not British, North American (or more generally, native English speakers, as is Paul Arthur, from the Australasian Association for Digital Humanities). This is an observation of fact and not meant as a criticism of ADHO. In paper and pixels, the policy is of inclusion. ADHO has a committee in multilingualism and multiculturalism. However, those who come from the fringes either know or suspect that equity cannot be reached by decree (if this were possible, we would only have to pass laws forbidding poverty and the issue would be solved).

The Myth of Openness in DH
The state of affairs is surprising because it is widely believed among the high ranking digital humanists that the discipline boasts “...a culture that values collaboration, openness, nonhierarchical relations, and agility” and so “might be an instrument for real resistance or reform (59). Notably, this statement by Kirschembaum is also supported by Burdick et al. (“...however heterogeneous, the Digital Humanities is unified by its emphasis on making, connecting, interpreting, and collaborating” (24)), among others. The widespread belief that these values are at the core of Digital Humanities as a discipline, and that just by virtue of such values it is open and welcoming to all, may make us unable to see that the discipline fails to meet these standards.

Global Outlook :: Digital Humanities
Through GO::DH we have been exploring these and other issues and it is becoming clear that the discipline has a clear center and well defined margins. In April 2013, Frédéric Clavert published a note entitled “The Digital Humanities multicultural revolution that did not happen yet” (www.clavert.net/the-digital-humanities-multicultural-revolution-did-not-happen-yet). Domenico Fiormonte published the link and started a thread in which scholars from very different backgrounds weighed in on their own positions (listserv.uleth.ca/pipermail/globaloutlookdh-l/2013-April/000308.html). Clavert considers the disparity between the number of Anglo-American reviewers for the DH conference and the clear interest in the Francophone community. What defines the field as Anglophone, according to Clavert, is that the “...Digital Humanities, though claiming to be new and revolutionary, are structured in a very classical way for an academic field, where those who master the English language and the English speaking and impact factor based academic journals are the most visible (and the most quoted).” His statements were received with equal amounts of disbelief and approval. As if to confirm Clavert’s position, Craig Bellamy tried to dismiss this issue (listserv.uleth.ca/pipermail/globaloutlookdh-l/2013-April/000309.html). Although the exchange was academic and polite, it brought to light various issues we must face in a global context:

There are projects and initiatives being developed of which we are not aware because they are buried in a non-English context.
There are cultural factors that affect communication, of which one of the most important ones is the perceived imperialism of the imposition of English as lingua franca.
This same linguistic profiling is instrumental in the process of exclusion to which non-native speakers are subject because of the lack of native abilities.
At least, Fiormonte will agree with me in saying that a specific agenda to exclude non-native speakers from Digital Humanities is unnecessary: our linguistic limitations already prevent us from being considered central. Fiormonte’s example of Dino Buzzetti’s rise as an authority in the field (something that occurred not because of his excellent work, or the thirty years of publications in English and Italian, but rather because of the support of recognized scholars) painfully shows the lack of openness of this supposedly all-embracing field. As Fiormonte says: .“..it's not enough to have good ideas, work in the Northern [h]emisphere and write them in English: you need good sponsors and authoritative venues (listserv.uleth.ca/pipermail/globaloutlookdh-l/2013-May/000329.html).

Of course, the question here is how can this problem be solved. It is clear that we cannot both blame the establishment and ask for a solution coming from it. As I stated before, this is not a problem of ill will, but rather a misunderstanding of the determining factors that create these problems.

Minding the Gap
As a member of the executive of GO::DH, I consider that my role is to identify our problems to generate solutions to them. By organizing Spanish language THATCamps and delivering DH lectures in Argentina and Mexico, I have come to understand that to level the field we need not only to translate texts that currently are only available in English (the Cátedra Datos at the Universidad de Buenos Aires does exactly that: a team of seven people produce translations of up to date texts required as an introduction to Digital Humanities), but we also need to understand the reluctance of scholars to subject themselves to English as the exclusive language for communication and we have to allow for non-native standars to be considered when submissions to conferences or journals are made by non-native speakers. We should not forget that those who speak or think with a foreign accent, are able, at least, to speak another language.

The Possibilities and Pitfalls of Global Digital Humanities
Roopika Risam, Salem State University

 

Over the past two years, much has been made of the role of cultural critique in the digital humanities, particularly around silences and absences of race, gender, sexuality, and so forth in the digital humanities (Liu 2012; McPherson 2012; #transformDH Collective 2011; Lothian and Phillips 2013; Bailey 2011). Yet, these conversations have taken shape through a United States-centric frame of reference that often elides the larger picture of the digital humanities: its global frame. Taking up the global scope of the digital humanities, however, is to take up imbalances of power that operate in colonialist frames, visible in the dominance of United States and Western European voices within the digital humanities community writ large. Indeed, it requires heightened attention to cultural critique through a postcolonialist framework.

Reactions within the digital humanities community to cultural critique (Whitson 2012, Reid 2011) renders such critiques as problems. Indeed, the problem, as the narrative goes, lies not in gaps within the digital humanities but with the practitioners who dare to raise these issues. In this talk, I will examine the ""problem"" of the global in the digital humanities. I begin by outlining the stakes of attending to global participation in the digital humanities. These stakes are both intangible and tangible and include radically reimagining loci of the digital humanities beyond the current map that locates the United States and Western Europe at the center, strategizing models for global partnerships outside of neocolonial frames, and developing resources for fostering a truly global digital humanities.

As the stakes imply, attending to the global within the digital humanities requires a two-pronged approach that accounts for the complexities of both theory and praxis. Engaging these concerns, my talk provides a case study of theoretical and practical approaches: Global Outlook :: Digital Humanities (GO::DH) and Postcolonial Digital Humanities (DHPoco). GO::DH is a special interest group (SIG) of the Alliance of Digital Humanities Organizations. GO::DH is dedicated to hacking barriers that prohibit collaboration across both disciplines and geographies (Global Outlook :: Digital Humanities 2013). Barriers include telecommunications, financial resources, human labor, and language (O'Donnell). Focusing on stated goals of ""discovery, community-building, research, and advocacy,"" GO::DH works to foster communication and collaboration on a global scale. DHPoco is both a movement and emergent subfield of the digital humanities, invested in decolonizing digital spaces, making space for colonial critique and anti-colonial thought in the digital humanities, and writing alternative genealogies of the digital humanities (DHPoco 2013). By examining the work of GO::DH and DHPoco, I make the case for continued attention to and development of theoretical and organizational spaces for fostering the global digital humanities, as well as its benefits to the digital humanities community as a whole.

References
Moya Bailey (2011), ""All Digital Humanists Are White, All Nerds are Men, but Some of Us Are Brave,"" Journal of Digital Humanities 1.1.

Alan Liu (2012), ""Where Is Cultural Criticism in the Digital Humanities"" Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Tara McPherson (2012), ""Why Are the Digital Humanities So White?"" Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Daniel O'Donnell (2012), ""In a Rich Man's World: Global DH?,"" 2 November 2012, dpod.kakelbont.ca/2012/11/02/in-a-rich-mans-world-global-dh

Global Outlook (2013) : Digital Humanities, ""About,""www.globaloutlookdh.org/about

Alexis Lothian and Amanda Phillips (2013), ""Can the Digital Humanities Mean Transformative Critique?"" Journal of E-Media Studies 3.1.

Alex Reid, ""Alan Liu, Cultural Criticism, the Digital Humanities, and Problem Solving?""

Roopika Risam and Adeline Koh (2013), ""Mission Statement,"" Postcolonial Digital Humanities, dhpoco.org/mission-statement-postcolonial-digital-humanities/#transformDH Collective, ""A Call to Action,"" 26 October 2011 www.hastac.org/blogs/amanda-phillips/2011/10/26/transformdh-call-action-following-asa-2011 Roger Whitson, ""Does DH Really Need to Be Transformed?,"" 8 January 2012, www.rogerwhitson.net/?p=1358

Global Challenges, Local Interpretations. An analytical perspective about DH in Spain
Paul Spence (King’s College London) and Elena Gonzalez-Blanco (UNED, Spain)

 

Digital Humanities has a long history in the Spanish-speaking world, with landmark projects like Admyte and BOOST/Philobiblon emerging in the 1970s and 1980s (and later the Miguel de Cervantes Digital Library), followed by years of isolated research projects (in Spain, the focus for this paper, these have often had a strong philological focus, but also encompass bibliographic studies, multimedia and other forms of digital scholarship) and a number of experiences in teaching, including the now defunct online Masters programme in Digital Humanities at the University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain, which ran with some success for a few years. But as is common with non-Anglophone traditions, the rich history in digital humanities in Spain is under-represented internationally, and in this particular case has not even achieved a consistent institutional presence in Spain. 2013 was a milestone in the history of digital humanities in the Spanish language (Baraibar 2013), and Spain saw a number of events and initiatives,iv including the inaugural conference (‘Digital Humanities: challenges, achievements and future perspectives’) in July 2013 of the newly-formed association Humanidades Digitales Hispánicas (HDH, ‘Hispanic Digital Humanities in English’). HDH joins a broader articulation of Hispanophone digital humanities organisations, which started with the Mexican association RedHD, and reflects a broader flowering of initiatives in Spain, which however do not conform a homogenous whole.

A survey of digital humanities in Spain
The term ‘humanidades digitales’ is a trending topic in Spain, and in this paper we explore its manifestations, its tensions and its challenges. A wide-ranging history of digital humanities in Spain is much needed, both to communicate the historic and disciplinary depth of the field in the country and to help give substance to the development of the field in Spain itself. What is needed as a prelude to this, however, is stable documentation of the field as it currently stands, and what we have done is to carry out a broad survey of digital humanities activities in Spain with a view to making it available for further research by others. In our research, we have surveyed conferences, publications, official and unofficial websites and blogs in Spain, in addition to broader international resources.

Digital humanities in Spain still suffers from relative invisibility at an international level in digital humanities, but the evidence changes in different settings – for example, Spanish representation is relatively prominent in the results of the ‘Who are you Digital Humanists?’ survey carried out by researchers from OpenEdition, with 40 respondents (compared to 49 in the UK, which has a population 30% higher). In part this is due to more general issues with how digital humanities is defined and represented internationally, but self-identification is a major issue – many researchers are interested in the digital humanities without necessarily feeling themselves to be represented by the label. While there is a relatively strong theoretical tradition often connected to conventional humanities disciplines (digital philology, digital art) or information science, there is not a strong history of tool-building that is more prevalent in other regional contexts.

Communities, definitions, labels
Domain-specific communities have played important role in developing awareness of digital scholarship, although they may not self-identify as digital humanities entities – some of the greatest progress has been made in groups such as TC/12, a research project with major funding to explore texts and research tools in Spanish Golden Age theatre, or CHARTA, an international research network which both provides guidelines for editing Spanish archival texts from the twelfth to nineteenth centuries, although in some cases the engagement with technology is uneven or still under negotiation (Spence et al 2012). Sometimes digital humanities finds its expression more comfortably in MediaLabs, as is the case of the MediaLab of Salamanca, which recently organised a series of seminars, or broader scholarly initiatives in social and human sciences, such as GRINUgr, which examines digital humanities from the prism of digital culture.

If in 2006 Isabelle Leibrandt could ask if Digital Humanities was a science fiction or an imminent reality (Leibrandt 2006), no-one could argue of its existence as such now. The question, and not only in a Spanish context of course, is what is it? Is it just a convenient label which allows each person to project their own fantasies, as Olivier le Deuff puts it (Le Deuff 2012), or is it a set of fully-formed academic practices? Labels may not be particular illuminating here, but the pattern in Spain, where any label has been used at all, is to use the term ‘informática humanística’, roughly equivalent to ‘humanities computing’ in English, and which is probably most closely influenced by the Italian usage ‘informatica umanistica’. Unlike in Italian, where the historic term has persisted (as evidenced in the name of the Italian association, evidence of the use of the term largely disappears in around 2008, when we gradually see the emergence of ‘humanidades digitales’, an almost direct translation of ‘digital humanities’.

In a blog on the relationship of the digital humanities to information science, Luis Rodriguez-Yunta asks why we use the term ‘digital humanities’ and not just ‘digital scholarship’. In his own response, he points to the academic, social and cultural demand for accessible and humanities-focused sources/documentation, but also, crucially, the role of the humanities in defence of the human, implying a ‘humanisation’ of technology.

Spain has suffered especially badly during the global economic crisis, with exceptionally high unemployment figures and drastic cut in funding, which has in turn heightened the sense of crisis in the academy, where the humanities are perceived as being especially vulnerable to criticism, and some have perceived this crisis as an opportunity to redraw traditional disciplinary lines. The Digital humanities have a strong background in the philological tradition in Spain – indeed the two initial seminars which led to the creation of the HDH association in Deusto and La Coruña with strong philological characters. But there are also strong voices for a recalibration of the humanities, which in the words of José Manuel Lucía, can use digital technologies to recuperate a social space it gradually lost in the twentieth century (Lucía, 2012).

Focus for the future
The HDH conference in July 2013 was the focus for a number of key debates affecting Spanish digital humanities at this time, including the role of teaching and systems of academic value and credit. The HDH association has filled an important void in Spain, providing formal structures for digital humanities, offering an organisational focus and functioning as a mechanism to lobby national academic institutions responsible for the formal evaluation process. We will end our paper by exploring the crucial role of HDH and other initiatives in helping the digital humanities to establish itself in Spain, and describe efforts to create an academic centre of digital humanities in Spain, which up until now has not existed, with a focus on research, teaching and general support for digital humanities practitioners.

References
Baraibar, Álvaro (2013) ‘Buenos tiempos para las Humanidades Digitales en español’ Blog dhd2013.filos.unam.mx/porvistadeojos/2013/05/20/buenos-tiempos-para-las-humanidades-digitales-en-espanol

Dacos, Marin (2013) ‘La stratégie du Sauna finlandais’ Blog blog.homo-numericus.net/article11138.html

Galina Russell, Isabel (2011) ‘¿Qué son las Humanidades Digitales?’ in Revista Digital Universitaria Vol. 12, No.7, www.revista.unam.mx/vol.12/num7/art68/index.html

González-Blanco, Elena (forthcoming). ‘Las Humanidades Digitales vistas desde España’

Le Deuff, Olivier. (2012) Humanisme numérique et littératies, Semen n° 34, p.117-134

Leibrandt Isabel “Humanidades, ciencia ficción o realidad inminente?” www.ucm.es/info/especulo/numero33/humadigi.html

Lucía, José Manuel (2012). Elogio del texto, Madrid, Fórcola

Romero, Esteban‘Humanidades Digitales en investigación, docencia y universidad’ presentation at estebanromero.com/2013/10/humanidades-digitales-en-investigacion-docencia-y-universidad

Spence, P., Isasi Martinéz, C., Pierazzo, E. & Vincente Miguel, I. (2012) Nuevas perspectivas para la edición y el estudio de documentos hispánicos antiguos. Sánchez-Prieto Borja, P. & Torrens Alvarez, M. J. (eds.). Bern: Peter Lang

Spence, Paul (forthcoming). Report on first Digital Humanities conference in Spain (forthcoming in Japanese)

Zotero group for ‘humanidades digitales’ https://www.zotero.org/groups/humanidades_digitales

www.admyte.com

bancroft.berkeley.edu/philobiblon/history_en.html iii www.cervantesvirtual.com

hd.paulspence.org/recursos/hh-dd-es/

hdh2013.humanidadesdigitales.org

www.humanidadesdigitales.com

humanidadesdigitales.net

tc12.uv.es

www.charta.es

medialab.usal.es

grinugr.org

Associazione per l’informatica umanistica e la cultura digitale, AIUCD www.umanisticadigitale.it","txt","2","",""
"1957","15","Harddrive Philology: Analysing the Writing Process on Thomas Kling's Archived Laptops","10","The proposed talk will discuss the application of forensic computer science tools and methods to born digital documents and parts of archives, focusing on the philological benefit for genetic scholarly editions and the critique génétique on the one hand as well as on issues of sane archiving and representation of the digital record in a scholarly edition on the other. In the course of the talk, the conceptual impact of this digital forensic perspective on the term 'document', on our concepts of the 'materiality of the historical record' and on 'textual genetics' will also be discussed. 

Exemplary subject matter of the inquiry will be a selection of recovered materials from harddrives in the Thomas Kling archive which represents the range of retrievable transitory 'genetic' textual material, e.g. recoverable documents, temporary files, memory fragments and several disk operation artifacts on multiple generations of operating systems reaching back from Microsoft Windows® XP to 3.11. The harddrives have been forensically imaged for longterm preservation by the author of this paper and by a forensic laboratory recently, and it will be the first time these findings are being publicly discussed.

Thomas Kling (1957-2005) was one of the most influential contemporary poets of the last 30 years in the German-speaking countries. The historical, documentary quoting technique as well as his blending of poetry and performance inspired numerous other authors of his generation. Furthermore, his poetry is enormously aware of the effect that historical media development has on perception, on the way how storage media influence the concept of history and on poetic language itself (s.a. Trilcke 2012). As early as 1985, he wrote: „[...] and everyone knows: from now on, we cast out poetry on floppy disks only, sure thing.“ (Thomas Kling: Die verplemperten Sprachen; Wehr et al. 2012: 13) At the same time, his work reflects not only the medial blending of historical levels and documents as „sondage“, but also the threat of losing the „burning archive“: „It is the tongue-loss. Everything is archive, everything is about to become archive and end up in smoke.“ (Kling 2001: 111) Fortunately, this does not apply to his own archive, nor to the harddrives of his last three laptops, all of which are being kept in the collections on the Raketenstation Hombroich (Scharfschwert 2012).

After a quick introduction to general archival aspects and methods of forensic work with bitstream-preserving images and the several levels of analysis (different kinds of file recovery, drive slack analysis, save operation artifacts, restore points etc., s.a. Ries 2010, Kirschenbaum et al. 2010, Reside 2011), the talk will discuss a couple of example findings from the Thomas Kling harddrive platters to show in which – sometimes surprising – places of these 'real life' case systems textual variants and fragments of poetic draft material actually reside. Possible candidates for this part are digital fragments of the dossier génétique to the poems third cartography and it's abdomen in constant movement (selection to be finalised). The example materials will show Thomas Kling as one of the German poets who relatively early embraced IBM-compatible personal computers with Microsoft Windows®, Word® as a writing tool and used it for most of the draft process, going back and forth between the digital document and corrected printouts after a conception phase on notebook and manuscript pages.

Discussion will show to what extent the philological interpretation of these findings depend on the specifics of the operating system- and application context and that we sometimes have to deal with 'artificial' evidence. Furthermore, the range of variation in terms of completeness of the textual record will be mapped. A tentative genetic close reading of the fragments will also show how the reader's view on the writing process necessarily shifts, coming from a manuscript perspective, as one reads e.g. recovered digital born memory snaphot items. 

Looking at the materials from a scholarly editing point of view, questions arise how these should be represented in a genetic edition, e.g. which metadata has to be included; in which meaningful way can the commentary cover the technical context of the mechanisms of historic software, and how is redundancy of the digital record to be dealt with? (s.a. Pierazzo 2011) How is the 'materiality' of the materials to be represented? (s.a. Ries 2010, Kirschenbaum 2006)

In this sense of the meaning, this talk aims to help „empowering“ scholarly editors, philologists and scholars as readers of future genetic editions to deal with digital heritage collections and digital born documents and material as part of scholarly editions. 

Delivering this talk in German would be an obvious choice, as the discussed archive materials by Thomas Kling are also in German and I am a native speaker. However, the talk can be held in English as well to reach out for the international audience. Regarding the advantages of both options, I would like to leave the choice of language for this talk to the conference board. 

References
Gitelman, Lisa (2006). Always Already New. Media, History, and the Data of Culture. Cambridge, London: MIT Press; 2006.

Kirschenbaum, Matthew G., Richard Ovenden, Gabriela Redwine (Eds.) (2010): Digital Forensics and Born-Digital Content in Cultural Heritage Collections. Council on Library and Information Resources Washington, D.C. December 2010 (CLIR publication, no. 149).

Kling, Thomas (2001): Rhapsoden am Sepik. Botenstoffe. Cologne 2001. 

Pierazzo, Elena (2011). A rationale of digital documentary editions. LL&C 26.4 (2011), 463-77.

Reside, Doug (2011): ""No Day But Today"": A look at Jonathan Larson's Word Files. NYPL Blog, April 22, 2011, URL: www.nypl.org/blog/2011/04/22/no-day-today-look-jonathan-larsons-word-files, accessed: October 30, 2013.

Ries, Thorsten (2010). ""die geräte klüger als ihre besitzer"" Philologische Durchblicke hinter die Schreibszene des Graphical User Interface. Überlegungen zur digitalen Quellenphilologie, mit einer textgenetischen Studie zu Michael Speiers ""ausfahrt st. nazaire"". editio 24.1 (2010), 149-199.

Ries, Thorsten (2012). Review: Willard McCarty (Ed.). Text and Genre in Reconstruction (2010)

Scharfschwert, Alena (2012): Das eingepflegte Archiv. Bericht über die Erschließung des Thomas Kling-Nachlasses. Frieder von Ammon, Peer Trilcke, Alena Scharfschwert (Eds.) Das Gellen der Tinte. Zum Werk Thomas Klings. Göttingen: V&R unipress 2012, 383-400.

Stüssel, Kerstin, Gabriele Wix, et al. (Eds) (2013): Zur Leitcodierung. [Manhattan Schreibszene; Katalog zur Ausstellung ""Thomas Kling: geschmolzener und/ wieder aufgeschmo-/lzener text"" 2013/14 im Universitätsmuseum der Universität Bonn] Göttingen: Wallstein 2013.

Trilcke, Peer (2012): Historisches Rauschen. Das geschichtslyrische Werk Thomas Klings. [The Historical Poetry of Thomas Kling]. PhD thesis Göttingen University 2011/12, URL: hdl.handle.net/11858/00-1735-0000-0006-AEDE-3, accessed: October 30, 2013.

Norbert Wehr, Ute Langanky, Marcel Beyer (Eds.) Thomas Kling (2012). Das brennende Archiv. Unveröffentlichte Gedichte, Briefe, Handschriften und Photos aus dem Nachlass [...]. Berlin: Suhrkamp 2012.","txt","2","",""
"1958","15","Hartmut Skerbisch - Envisioning association processes of a conceptual artist","9","The paper will present the digital genetic edition of the notebooks of the Austrian conceptual artist Hartmut Skerbisch (1945-2009). The edition is currently emerging as part of a PhD project which explores the use and advantages of applying semantic technologies to art historical source materials. Therefore, the central research question is how a digital genetic and semantically enriched edition can support the appreciation of an artist’s concepts and associations during the process of a work’s creation. Such insights should facilitate the interpretation and comprehension of his work.

Hartmut Skerbisch dealt conceptually with an extended notion of sculpture and space and applied these ideas to his works. He explored the relation between these entities, especially how space in general is generated or changed through the interaction of sculpture with audience and setting (e.g. how can electricity generate or compress space) and how electronic media change our perception of space.12 In his notes, he mentioned different authors, philosophers and novelists like James Joyce, Franz Kafka, Kathy Acker or Rudolf Steiner, as well as musicians and bands, ranging from classical to rock to blues music. He frequently cited passages from their works, commented on their ideas and theories, and consequently reflected them in his artistic expressions.

  The 35 notebooks originated between 1969 and 2008 and have a scope of around 2100 pages. They include handwritten texts, calculations, formulas and sketches. The major editorial challenge regarding this source material is dealing with painted over or torn out passages, deletions and corrections. Skerbisch’s notes do not follow a linear construction, they are often fragmentary and lacking formal notation. Additionally, the interconnection between text, graphics, annotations and references to other text passages itself generates an artistic composition in the two-dimensional medium of the notebook. At first glance, texts and sketches seem to be randomly arranged on the surface: Closer inspection, however, reveals an underlying principle of the different building blocks, whose form, shape, size and placement give the entire text additional meaning. This feature of the notebooks calls for special attention to a document-oriented view in addition to a work-oriented view.3

Consequently, the paper will discuss three key issues: 

The need for editions of (hand)written sources in art historical research is evident. The recent editions of the sketchbooks by Max Beckmann4 as well as the class notes on form and design theory by Paul Klee5 show that traditional philological edition methods are not entirely sufficient for art historical needs. Issues of text-image relationships - especially for these types of sources, where images are of equal value as texts or text passages themselves become graphic elements – have not been adequately resolved.
Writing a notebook is a process manifested in time and space, therefore the evolution of a text over time is an important aspect. A genetic edition focuses on the document aspect and attempts to trace the origination process with a view on corrections, deletions and additions of the text to envision the author’s original intentions.  Especially modern manuscripts, with fragmentary and cursory notes, often exist as unfinished drafts and put different demands on the editors.678 The difficulties with digitally encoding such handwritten sources of visual artists with TEI are addressed: The paper will report on the benefits and drawbacks of the already implemented elements and attributes for genetic editions in the TEI guidelines and demonstrate their application on the material at hand.
Finally, the paper focuses on how semantic technologies could help to uncover the cultural and intellectual background of Hartmut Skerbisch’s creative work, through relating textual references to concepts. Recent research projects like the Theodor Fontane’s notebooks 9 pursue a similar approach and emphasize the importance of linking concepts for semantic analysis of the source material.
Thus, in addition to the content-related and formal structure of the text, recurring concepts like people, places, works of literature, music and film are annotated. For uniquely referencing such entities, controlled vocabularies as well as authority files such as VIAF, GND and GeoNames are used. Beyond that, the aforementioned concepts are further classified. The identified concepts are extracted from the TEI document, mapped to a RDF model and stored in a triple store to facilitate reasoning.10 In this manner, implicit relationships between these concepts are established which are not explicitly present in the texts. For example, a quotation from a novel is linked to that novel’s author and other works of the same author. Thus, it is possible to compare and juxtapose the concepts used which allows for a variety of different analyses of the content.

The advantages of these methods are a) bringing the fragmentary entries of the notebook into a content-related sequence, b) visualizing unexpected combinations and associative chains of concepts to show the many-faceted influences on the artist’s work, c) establishing a relation between the notebook entries and Skerbisch’s realized works of art and finally d) tracing the creative process to promote the understanding of his work. The insights gained in the process will provide a basis for further research questions and analysis in art history and digital edition.

References
1. Fiedler, E. (2005). Hartmut Skerbisch. Sphäre 315. www.museum-joanneum.at/de/skulpturenpark/skulpturen/hartmut-skerbisch-1?overlay=true (accessed 7 March 2014).

2. Fenz, W. (1994). Hartmut Skerbisch. Werkauswahl 1969-1994. Graz: Neue Galerie.

3. Robinson, P. (2013). Towards a Theory of Digital Editions, Variants – Journal of the European Society for Textual Scholarship, 10: 105-131.

4. Zeiller, C. (2010). Max Beckmann. Die Skizzenbücher. Ein kritischer Katalog. München: Hatje Cantz.

5. Zentrum Paul Klee (2011). Paul Klee – Bildnerische Form- und Gestaltungslehre. www.kleegestaltungslehre.zpk.org (accessed 7 March 2014).

6. Brüning, G., Henzel, K. and Pravida, D. (2013). Multiple Encoding in Genetic Editions: The Case of ‘Faust’, Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative. jtei.revues.org/697 (accessed 7 March 2014).

7. Burnard, L., Jannidis F., Pierazzo, E. and Rehbein, M. (2008-2013), An Encoding Model for Genetic Editions.www.tei-c.org/Activities/Council/Working/tcw19.html (accessed 7 March 2014).

8. Pierazzo, E. (2009). Digital Genetic Editions. The Encoding of Time in Manuscript Transcription. In: Deegan, M. and Sutherland, K. (eds.), Text Editing, Print and the Digital World. Farnham: Ashgate, 169-186.

9. de la Iglesia, M. and Göbel, M. (2013). From entity description to semantic analysis: The case of Theodor Fontane’s notebooks. In: Ciotti, F. and Ciula, A. (eds.), The Linked TEI: Text Encoding in the Web. TEI Conference and Members Meeting 2013, Rome: UniversItalia, 24-29.

10. Allemang, D. and Hendler, J. (2011). Semantic Web for the Working Ontologist. Effective Modeling in RDFS and OWL. Burlington: Morgan Kaufmann.","txt","2","",""
"1959","15","HistoGlobe - Visualising History","2","Our software HISTOGLOBE visualises historical events and developments on a three- dimensional globe and map. With the help of a timeline users can explore history interactively.

In order to emphasize certain aspects of history or in order to make the map more or less detailed several filters can be used. Zooming in and out enables the user to see more or less details. It is designed to be highly user-friendly with an intuitive handling. 


Fig. 1: Simplified HistoGlobe Mockup

HISTOGLOBE is based on a simple web-browser. Thereby, it can be also be used by smartphone and tablet.

The software enables researchers to visualize their topics concerning long and short time developments with a broad regional expansion. Of course, the historical events can be connected with all kinds of (digital) sources, such as documents, pictures and videos. Thereby, HISTOGLOBE enables scientists as well as for example museums and galleries to present their topics in a unique way.

Our current prototype shows the development of the European Union on the basis of nearly 60 events. In order to use the advantages of a visualization tool, countries as a whole can also be highlighted. Thereby, the growth of the European Union is depicted vividly. Picture 2 shows an exemplary date during which the Federal Republic of Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxemburg, France and Italy are highlighted to show their connection. The stars highlight several events related to the development of the European Union. These events imply a short description and can be matched with sources, such as pictures, videos, audio-files and documents. Of course, the description can also lead to related websites and further information. 


Fig. 2: Developments of countries, taken from www.histoglobe.com


Fig. 3: Single events are connected with multimedia elements

Within the next months we will be able to show different types of events, several filters, connections between events and animations. Of course, HISTOGLOBE can apply different languages.

During the conference we would like to present our visualisation of World War I. which we are currently developing with students at the Justus-Liebig-University Giessen. Conference visitors will be able to use the visualisation and navigate through the course of history using a laptop. If visitors are interested, we are open to show how historical events are implemented in the software and which techniques were used.

In addition, we would like to show how HISTOGLOBE has been in use in several museums in Germany and how it was already used by teachers and students to create their own version of HISTOGLOBE. Based on these examples, we would like to invite academics to discuss how future research could be visualised using HISTOGLOBE.

Our multidisciplinary team consists of six (PhD-) students. En detail, we are three computer scientists, two historians and one business student. Our project is supported by the Heinz Nixdorf Foundation and the Foundation of German Business. The first prototype was developed at the Åbo Akademi in Turku, Finland. We already cooperate with the Bauhaus- University Weimar and the Justus-Liebig-University Giessen.","txt","2","",""
"1960","15","History All Around Us: Towards Best Practices for Augmented Reality for Public History and Cultural Empowerment","9","The desire to reveal the history all around us, to see into the past, is as old as civilization.

With the emergence of augmented reality (AR) technology, historians and public humanities professionals are exploring new ways to research, teach and learn about the past. AR applications augment the physical world by embedding it with digital data, networking, communication abilities and enhanced properties (Mackay 1996). When harnessed for history and public humanities, AR represents a disruptive way of accessing knowledge, making discoveries, and communicating history in new and imaginative ways. In “History All Around Us: Towards Best Practices for Augmented Reality for Public History and Cultural Empowerment”, the authors reflect on the design, development and testing of two location-based AR applications, and propose best practices for using AR to enrich our understanding of history, and support the cultural empowerment of citizens.

The paper is organized in three parts. In part one, the authors draw on the digital humanities to form conclusions about best practices for AR design and development with a focus on two iPhone applications (see www.ihistorytours.com). These apps introduce visitors to the history of the villages of Queenston and Niagara-on-the-Lake, Canada (the latter of which hosts more than 2 million visitors a year). The authors reflect on the effectiveness of the design of these apps, and the development team's decision to offer visitors to these villages two kinds of experiences. The first experience, called “Roam Mode”, follows the user’s directions. It functions like an on-demand tour guide, providing the user with information about the historical buildings and objects that surround her. Apps that employ strategies similar to “Roam Mode” are now ubiquitous. Much less common is the second experience, called “Quest Mode”. It uses gamification (Deterding et al, 2011) to draw the user into exploring the history of the villages to solve long-standing mysteries. Inspired by real-life events, “Quest Mode” features historical personages linked by sometimes real, and sometimes imaginary events. In the case of Queenston, for instance, the user is enlisted to help solve the mystery of who bombed the nearby monument to a local war hero. Along the route, the user must solve puzzles; for example, the user must spot the differences between the real Fort Niagara, which stands watch imposingly from the banks of the United States, to an image of the fort that has been “discovered” by local historians.

The authors outline several best practices for augmented reality design and development for public history, giving special attention to “Quest Mode” and the concept of gamification. They note that the roots of gamification theory lie in the work of game theorists who have separated virtual environment games from real-world environments. These scholars have spent a decade attempting to define what games are, and therefore what they are not (Juul, 2005; Zimmerman, 2004; Pearce, 2004), and have pointed out the many ways that space (virtual, or real world) is treated differently (McGregor, 2006). The authors disagree with a strict adherence to this virtual-/real-world distinction, and suggest that there is much to learn by considering virtual and real-world environments together, because best practices for the development of experiences in one can be applied to the other, resulting in a better understanding of the attributes of gamified augmented reality applications, and contributing to the emergence of (and our understanding of) new forms of expression.

At the same time, the authors urge caution about drawing too heavily on established game theory, and making unwarranted connections between games in virtual space and (augmented) real space. Foundational authors in game studies, such as Roger Callois (1961) and Johan Huizinga (1964) have classified games as activities essentially separate from normal life. But gamified augmented reality applications, such as the two iPhone applications addressed in this paper, often take place during working hours on city streets, and involve “players” playing in the midst of everyday life. (de Souza e Silva, 2008). Similarly, scholars have classified games as primarily escapist – causing players to disengage from their “real world” communities – but the application of interactivity to political and social issues has shown the potential of gamified augmented reality environments for collective cultural empowerment.

In part two of the paper, the authors draw on social science theory and methodology to provide a preliminary report on the testing of these iPhone apps. The authors note that while development of these kinds of digital environments (including, but not limited to augmented reality applications) is now commonplace in the digital humanities, rigorous testing for user engagement and learning within these applications is less common. They note that there is little research that addresses the assessment and appraisal of learning and engagement in augmented reality applications on mobile platforms, and highlight the need for principled and replicable methodologies.

The authors report on their progress towards evaluating the two augmented reality iPhone applications in terms of fostering learning and engagement. Specifically, the authors report on their use, for the purposes of testing, of two theoretical frameworks: i. the Benchmarks of Historical Thinking as outlined by Peter Seixas (2004, 2011; Peck & Seixas, 2008) and; ii. the Control-Value Theory of Emotions as described by Reinhard Pekrun (2009). In addition, the authors outline how they intend to promote learning and engagement in these kinds of apps by embedding dynamic assessment mechanisms to adaptively modify the content that is provided to the users, and improve user experience.

In part three, the authors briefly speculate about the ways in which the imminent (2014) arrival of commercial augmented reality platforms such as Google Glass (http://www.google.com/glass/start/), and connected Google Glass heritage- and history- themed applications such as “Field Trip” (https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.nianticproject.scout&hl=en) will transform the ways in which digital historians and digital humanists develop and use ubiquitous computing and augmented reality for cultural empowerment. 

References
Callois, R. (1961). Man, play and games. (Meyer Barash, Trans.). New York: Free Press of Glencoe. 

Deterding, S., Dixon, D., Khaled, R. and Nacke, L. (2011). “From game design elements to gamefulness: Defining “gamification’”. Proceedings of the 15th International Academic MindTrek Conference.

Huizinga, J. (1964). Homo ludens: a study of the play-element in culture. (Translated from the German). Boston: Beacon Press.

Juul, J. (2005). Half-real: video games between real rules and fictional worlds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Mackay, W. (1996). “Augmenting reality: A new paradigm for interacting with computers”. La Recherche (March).

McGregor, G.L. (2006). “Architecture, space and gameplay in world of warcraft and battle for middle earth”. Proceedings of the 2006 International Conference on Game Research and Development, Perth, Australia. Retrieved October 31, 2013 from http://www.users.on.net/~georgia88/files/Architecture,%20Space%20and%20Gameplay %20-%20Georgia%20Leigh%20McGregor.pdf

Pearce, C. (2004). “Towards a theory of game / responses”. In Noah Wardrip-Fruin and Pat Harrigan, (Eds.). First Person: New Media as Story, Performance, and Game Cambridge: MIT Press.

Peck, C., and Seixas, P. (2008). Benchmarks of historical thinking: First steps. Canadian Journal of Education, 31:4.

Pekrun, R., and Stephens, E. J. (2009). Goals, emotions, and emotion regulation: Perspectives of the control-value theory of achievement emotions. Human Development, 52, 357-365.

Seixas, P. (Ed.). (2004). Theorizing Historical Consciousness. Toronto: University of Toronto Press

Seixas, P. (2011). “Assessment of historical thinking”. In Penney Clark (Ed.), New Possibilities for the Past (pp. 139-153). Vancouver: UBC Press.

de Souza e Silva, A. (2008). “Hybrid reality and location-based gaming: Redefining mobility and game spaces in urban environments”. Simulation & Gaming 39:1 (March).

Zimmerman, E. (2004). “Narrative, interactivity, play, and games”. In Noah Wardrip- Fruin and Pat Harrigan, (Eds.), First Person: New Media as Story, Performance, and Game Cambridge: MIT Press.","txt","2","",""
"1961","15","How a story is performed: traditional storytelling in the hands of computing","2","General description
The main idea is to find out how to edit a collection of oral transmitted texts of literary interest (often called orature), in the future resulting as a marked-up database, serving as a model to future researchers and projects. The main goal is to analyse both the transcribed texts and the way they are performed orally. Until today, several research areas focus on particular parts of this kind of enunciation – Literary studies concentrate on the transcription, Anthropologic studies concentrate on the artistic performance or on the interactants’ behavior, etc. But nowadays we have the means that allow us to study a more complete contextualization of an oral composition, and interaction including voice characteristics (intonation, prosody), body movements (face, torso, arms, hands) and proxemic behaviour (the relation between an interviewee and the interviewer). My presentation will focus on the main parts of my PhD project: a) the creation of a representative corpus of Portuguese oral tradition with performative and literary annotation, b) digital publication of a more complete edition model, and c) gesture and literary classification.

Previous Studies
From previous incipient work done on oral prayers themed on the Passion of the Christ, it proved to be productive to assume that performance integrates verbal art in its many strands. Performative elements have given some hints on their importance, having this previous study focus on the intonational contrast between the informant ́s enunciation of a prayer and in spontaneous speech.


Fig. 1: Image A – spontaneous speech


Fig. 2: Image B – enunciation of prayer a)


Fig. 3: Image C – enunciation of prayer b)

In image A ascending and descending melodic variations contours can me seen, characteristic of human speech. In images B and C, F0, paradoxically, is almost flat, indicating a type of monotonous speech, showing a lowering of the medium tone of voice of the speaker in question. Moreover, the total duration of each one of the extracts, the informant produces a greater amount of words during prayer enunciation than in conversation mode in which, as indicated in A, disfluencies or pauses occur, which rarely occur during prayer ennunciation. These characteristics are due to the fact that, among other reasons, discourse planning is slower during conversation that during prayer enunciation (being a discourse cited by memory, not involving simultaneous processing to the production).

Concluding, the above-explained study shows these to be performative marks to the production of a prayer orally and it gives us hints to question whether other types of orally transmitted texts have them or not.

Data collection and tools used
The data is being collected through fieldwork interviews and archival research, which result in the primary database in video and audio formats that share a common structure for storage. Each entry is accompanied by metadata related to the context of collection: informant’s data, place and date, technical information about support files. The data is worked to ensure time alignment of the different types of representation: transcription of the text, kinesic and verbal (not literary) markup. To this end, the programs being used until now are 'EXMARaLDA' – for the alignment of text and video annotation –, and 'Praat' for intonation and prosodic analysis of the compositions. Together, these elements constitute the support for the database analysis: literary classification according to the taxonomic reference indexes, annotation of text versions and variants, motifs (using AMICUS network labelling), UNESCO intangible heritage taxonomy and Matriz PCI, formal characterization of the text (composition, data contamination or counterfeiting, domain – religious, artistic, etc. – fictionality degree), linked existing Wikipedia entries for each type of text, and literary and compositional context. This way, the database will gather several interpretations on the same composition, letting the user/researcher work with the information that suits their interests.","txt","2","",""
"1962","15","How To Do (Digital) History and Undergraduate Digital Humanities","9","Where exactly is the place of digital humanities to be in undergraduate education? If, indeed, 21st century universities must begin to prepare students for professional work in which digital familiarity, skills, and facility are increasingly central, where is the site of responsibility for that training? It could be disciplinary or interdisciplinary, located within the curricula and pedagogies of existing departments or relocated to the information sciences, library, or core liberal education curriculum.

Joining a chorus of scholars considering the place of undergraduate pedagogy and digital humanities, including those on DH2013's ""The Future of Undergraduate Digital Humanities"" panel, this presentation will detail the highly collaborative creation and facilitation of ""How To Do History,"" a course offered by Donna Gabaccia. In its old form, the course was one of the mainstays of upper-level offerings by the University of Minnesota's History department, serving as a way to prepare students' Senior Thesis and, implicitly, prepare these students for graduate school in History; it has at least temporarily became a venue for students explorations of, and contributions to, digital history in a disciplinary context unofficially known as ""How To Do (Digital) History.""

The core collaboration is between the presenters, respectively, a well-established Professor of History (Gabaccia) and the Digital Humanities Specialist for the University of Minnesota Libraries (Schell). In the summer of 2013, we met to discuss not just the content of the class (readings, assignments, etc), but also what kinds of support the Library could make available to students to actually make projects (rather than, as in the past, preparing to write individual research papers). By circumscribing the options available to them (limiting them to a few of the main digital humanities tools and methods, i.e. mapping, Omeka, digital storytelling), it made both the technologies, and the projects that could be created with those technologies, much more accessible. In addition to creating public projects, the students engaged critically with reframed historiographical questions (i.e. the writing and rewriting of history through Wikipedia) and digital literacy (critically examining Twitter and other online platforms of communication and how they relate to scholarly discourse), reading, among others, Cohen (2006)1, Rosenzweig (2011)2, Kelly (2013)3, and Nawrotszi and Dougherty (2013)Nawrotszi, K. and Dougherty, J. (2013). Writing History in the Digital Age. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 4.

While collaboration was essential to the undergraduates’ creation of digital projects, graduate students also became partners in the course. Instead of Gabaccia trying to supervise the seven groups of undergraduate students, she allowed graduate students to enroll in their own section of the course. In addition to doing further readings with her regarding the intellectual lineage and stakes of digital history and digital humanities (e.g  Gold 2012)5, the graduate students served as project managers for the undergraduate groups, getting valuable experience in facilitating collaborative projects and various digital humanities tools and methods, neither of which are normally part of their History graduate work.

A further collaborative aspect to this version of ""How To Do History"" was extensive collaboration with the University of Minnesota Libraries. While many subject librarians will come once during the semester to introduce research methods, subject-specific database, and other source materials, Schell attended nearly every class, doing multiple presentations about specific ideas and technologies, ranging from introductions to significant digital history projects over the last 15 years to demonstrations of specific tools. In addition, he met multiple times individually with both graduate students (to help construct a blogging assignment for the undergraduate students) as well as the collaborative project groups, helping to refine the scope their projects to make them manageable as a single semester of work.

Finally, one project group worked specifically with the Upper Midwest Jewish Archives, part of the Libraries' Archives and Special Collections, creating an Omeka exhibition around previously unprocessed and undigitized materials. The group looked at the lives of two Jewish men in the early 20th century, through two World Wars, work in the printing industry, and global travel, all set against the backdrop of vicious anti-Semitism in Minneapolis, characterized at that time as the most anti-Semitic city in the United States. A second group created a web feature for the University’s James Ford Bell Library about changing cartographical representations of Scandinavia by mapmakers in the premodern world.

The lessons from “How To Do History” do not end with the completion of these collaborative, public digital history projects. Reflecting on the course after its completion, we realized that, due to the project- and group-based environment, many students considered “middle of the road” in their skills and interests developed more research and technological skills than in previous iterations of the class taught by Gabaccia. While most students are not opting for a digital Senior Thesis, instructors have relayed to us anecdotally that they see a greater preparedness and skill in terms of research in those who took the digital version of “How to Do History” than other versions of the course. Furthermore, as we noted above, the graduate students who supervised and facilitated the undergraduate projects gained valuable experience that opened new directions for their own graduate work in terms of research and instruction. Reactions at the departmental level have been mixed.  The History Department proudly featured the student work on its webpage but also continued its ongoing internal debate about the future of HIST 3959--is the course necessary? Could methodologies other than digital history be featured?  Senior members of the department also continued to express skepticism about their ability to evaluate digital work; the department has responded by offering a future department-wide workshop on that issue.

The knowledge gained from organizing and teaching the course can inform the development of similar courses in different departments (e.g., How To Do Digital Sociology, Anthropology, Ethnomusicology, to name a few). Schell’s position in the Libraries facilitates that possibility. Digital literacy is a critical element to any undergraduate education, regardless of discipline, and especially if one seeks to receive graduate training in that field. Integrating these digital humanities lessons within each discipline helps students engage more deeply in the development of critical inquiry and with the specific transformations underway in these fields. Furthermore, it creates opportunities for transdisciplinary education, as the digital tools and methodologies students used to create these projects are not just limited to digital history projects. Whether this be part of an emerging “digital humanities” cohort or a broader idea of “digital studies,” it allows for collaborative relationships where extra-disciplinary institutions, such as Libraries, are essential partners.

References
1. Cohen, D. (2006). Digital History: A Guide to Gathering, Preserving, and Presenting the Past on the Web. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

2. Rosenzweig, R. (2011). Clio Wired: The Future of the Past in the Digital Age. New York: Columbia University Press.

3. Kelly, T., (2013). Teaching History in the Digital Age. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Nawrotszi, K. and Dougherty.

4. Nawrotszi, K. and Dougherty, J. (2013). Writing History in the Digital Age. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

5. Gold, M., ed. (2012). Debates in Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.","txt","2","",""
"1963","15","How to make games more GLAM-orous: developing game prototypes for the museum and cultural heritage sector in India","2","1. Introduction
1.1. Overview
Meghdoot: Using new technologies to tell age-old stories was conceived as part of the Arts and Humanities Council sponsored 'Unplay' project, under the aegis of its Unbox scheme, a collaborative endeavour with the British Council and the Unbox Festival, an interdisciplinary festival that celebrates creative work at the intersections of art, design and technology.

1.2. Methodology
Despite the exemplary progress in areas of computing, programming and animation in India, there are still no major game companies or developers creating games that compete on a global level 1. In order to explore why this might be, and how our research might stimulate such growth, we are using a two-pronged approach; our methodology can be split into data gathering and analysis of that data, and practice-based research through the creation of a game. The data-gathering is being conducted by an online and offline survey of game developers and gamers, across socio-cultural and linguistic communities in India (covering platform reach, importance of storytelling, gaming practices, problems of accessibility) and through interviews with game developers, gamers, critics, game companies and studios in the UK, US and India. Scoping the market needs to be underpinned by empirical research, which is one of the aims of this project, these explorations will look both inwards at the Indian market, but also the potential of videogames made in India in the global market.

Meghdoot was formulated by me in my role as principal investigator as a response to the open-ended brief articulated by my research partners, which was to create a Kinect-based game while based in India, working with local partners. My conceptualisation of the game was underpinned by three assumptions: that the affordances of the Kinect should be used to its fullest potential; that we should make a conscious effort to move away from Anglo-Saxon linear narrative sequences in the game's design; and that while using deploying an aesthetic that was inspired by the game's Indian origins, it should not resort to usual tropes of the exotic or the oriental. The narrative of the game itself operates on a meta-textual level, in that it is a videogame (a storytelling medium) about storytelling. In order to make the best use of the affordances of the Kinect, the three levels of the game draws on narrative modes that co-exist simultaneously in contemporary India: the textual, the gestural and the oral. As the first phase that developed Meghdoot was successful, my research partners and I have received a second tranche of funding which has allowed us to develop another game, drawing on our learnings obtained from our earlier collaboration.

Research for both games involve modelling artefacts within the game on heritage artefacts from museums, thus providing alternative channels of interpretation for the cultural heritage sector in India, which till date has been quite conservative and prescriptive.These assets have been developed by 3D scanning and rendering cultural objects from various institutions, and part of our research focuses on exploring how the narratives embedded in these objects can be communicated in the gameplay and communication and work as supplementary collateral. The aim is to ultimately educate players in basic programming, in order to create very simple 3D controllers that can be used in the game. In order to do this effectively, empirical research will be conducted into levels of literacy required to acquire simple digital skills—a feat that has been made infinitely more cost-effective and feasible by the introduction of such mini computers as the Raspberry Pi on the market.

The aims of this project are perfectly fitted to this year's conference theme of digital cultural empowerment. By incorporating a 'making' aspect to the game, this research will address how hands-on interaction with code and technologies can enhance the experience of the game as it can create a sense of ownership of artefacts used with the game. The attractiveness of 'digital making' and its relationship to games, in both 2D and 3D space and how it can educate users, has been an important focus of recent research, due to games like Minecraft. Transposing these practices to an Indian context, should yield significant outputs as “Technology usage in turn is shaped by the socioeconomic location of the user, especially in regards to gender and caste” 2. This poster session will demo both game prototypes, and be enhanced by slides of storyboards and showing stages of research design. Discussion of the research will focus on how affordances, cultural context, market and the target demographic should shape game design.

References
1. E.W. Adams (2009), The Promise of India: Ancient Culture, Modern Game Design' at the NASSCOM Animation and Gaming Summit 2009, Game Development Summit Keynote Address, November 7, 2009. [http://www.designersnotebook.com/Lectures/India/india.htm]

2. A. Schwittay (2011), New Media Practices in India: Bridging Past and Future, Markets and Development.' International Journal of Communication, Volume 5, (2011) pp. 349-379.

S. Mukherjee (2012), India in 'Encyclopedia of Video Games: The Culture, Technology, and Art of Gaming, Volume 1' edited by Mark J.P. Wolf (Santa Barbara: Greenwood, 2012) pp. 312-314.","txt","2","",""
"1964","15","How we work: a critical approach to program development to serve library/dh partnerships","2","How we work: a critical approach to program development to serve library/dh partnerships

“‘Some people say, ""what you're developing is a Sciences-based model"" and no, actually [what] we're doing is this experiential based model that is very much geared toward working in the Humanities. It's just different kind of pedagogy, a different kind of learning, a different kind of research that we're engaged in.'""

-Quoted in Siemens, Cunningham, Duff, Warwick (2011).

 

In this short paper, we will analyze studies of how digital humanists and scientists work, testing the oft-referenced distinctions and similarities claimed between science and dh models. The three authors of the paper -- a librarian, scientist, and digital humanist -- bring expertise in different domains and traditions to bear. While much dh work has focused on the expertise of technologists and computer scientists, less attention has been paid to the ways that scientific disciplinarity impacts digital humanities work. And yet science and dh exert influences on one another, particularly as practices and tools developed in the sciences are imagined, borrowed, and manipulated by dh, but also as practices and insights from the humanities are applied to science inquiry. We resist a model wherein science is imported into the humanities unidirectionally, without reciprocal influence.

The impact of partnerships between university-based dh and libraries are strengthened through an understanding of these influences on scholarly practices in dh. As Palmer and Cragin (2008, p. 165) argue, “Understanding the nature of information practices and their relation to the production of scholarship is important for both theoretical and applied work in library and information science (LIS). Research on scholarly practices provides a foundation for the development of information systems, services, and tools to support scholarship and science ...” The applied goal of our research is the framing of the question of library-dh partnerships and the crafting of an approach to program development by the Texas A&M University Libraries that emphasizes a broad coalition of interested dh participants. We argue that examining program design through the theoretical lens of communities of practice will further enhance library and digital humanities partnerships.

A rich, existing literature considers co-authorship patterns and collaborative traditions in the digital humanities (Spiro, 2009; Nowviskie, 2011; Nyhan and Duke-William, 2013) and investigates the sociology of work for different disciplines. Recent scholarship has explored the idea of laboratories, an often cited trope in digital humanities literature (Earhart, n.d.). Additionally, epistemological models from the sciences and the humanities (Duschl and Grandy, 2008) provide insight into how disciplines frame and approach knowledge creation. The concept of data and their deployment in scientific and humanistic settings has been something of a touchstone for disciplinary bounding. Indeed, as Drucker argues, the humanities should reconceptualize data as “capta”: “From this distinction, a world of differences arises. Humanistic inquiry acknowledges the situated, partial, and constitutive character of knowledge production, the recognition that knowledge is constructed, taken, not simply given as a natural representation of a pre-existing fact” (2011). 

In our research, we will critically evaluate the comparisons drawn between epistemological and labor models in dh and the sciences. This approach is in keeping with recent work cautioning against importing from the sciences without an awareness of the complex systems behind them. Earhart cautions: “it is important not to romanticize the lab. … while we might look to the laboratory as a model, we need to be critical about its implementation in our field” (n.d.). As Unsworth has written: “In humanities, we often emulate what we think the sciences do, but our emulation may not actually bear that much resemblance to the reality of what goes on in science. Often science looks more collaborative because a lot of people get together to write a grant proposal, but that does not mean that they have necessarily figured out how to work together” (Unsworth and Tupman, 2012, p. 232. Cited in Earhart, 2014). 

While the “imagined sciences” have not been a major focus on the dh literature, valuable existing work considers the influence of science under the guise of computer science, technology, and library sciences. A growing literature examines how librarians and humanists work on digital projects (Siemens, Cunningham, Duff, Warwick, 2011) and surveys proliferating models for dh-library and dh-librarian collaboration and programming, as well as partnerships and efforts to “reskill” around dh (Posner, 2013; Bryson, Posner, St. Pierre, Varner, 2011). In addition to providing data on influences, these sources will further ground our program design.

Application
University initiatives experience a high rate of failure (Kezar and Eckel, 2002), designed as they often are with simplistic or inaccurate change models. In developing our program, we aim to meet the imperative to design with a community’s needs and practices as its focus, taking the factors and interactions that will affect the success of the program into consideration.

To that end, we will need to match our programming to the particular context of Texas A&M University. As a first step, we will attempt to serve this need through the creation of an institutional profile assessing publication patterns of university faculty. How do rates of, for example, co-authorship or patterns of citations on blogs for humanities faculty at A&M compare with humanities faculty at other institutions? A land-grant, sea-grant, space-grant university with more than fifty thousand enrolled students, A&M has evolved from its historical emphasis on agricultural and mechanical education and become known as a science- and engineering-oriented research institution. Have expectations around the sciences, dominant as they are at the university level, shaped dh work at A&M more profoundly? Is this evidenced in publications?

Taken in combination with our creation of an institution profile, our research into the influences between the sciences and the humanities will provide a framework for the design of a library-dh program. Understanding the “science-based model” and its effects on dh will further inform the development of a system of personas matched to dh needs, barriers, and opportunities on campus. We believe that this research-based approach to dh partnership development will interest the larger dh community.

References
Bryson, Tim; Posner, Miriam, St. Pierre, Alain; Varner, Stewart. (2011). SPEC Kit 326: Digital Humanities. (Association of Research Libraries).

Drucker, Johanna. (2011). Humanistic approaches to graphical display. Digital Humanities Quarterly 5, no. 1.

Duschl, R.A., and R.E. Grandy. (2008). Teaching scientific inquiry: recommendations for research and implementation. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers

Earhart, Amy. (n.d.) The Digital Humanities as a Laboratory. In Humanities and the Digital.  Ed. David Theo Goldberg and Patrik Svensson. Under advance contract, MIT Press. 

Huang, Mu-Hsuan and Yu-Wei Chang. (2013). Quantifying the value of knowledge exports from librarianship and information science research. Journal of Information Science 39: 141-150. 

Kezar, A., & Eckel, P. (2002). The effect of institutional culture on change strategies in higher education: Universal principles or culturally responsive concepts?The Journal of Higher Education, 73(4), 435-460.

Nowviskie, Bethany. (2012). Evaluating Collaborative Digital Scholarship (or, Where Credit is Due).Journal of Digital Humanities 1, no. 4.

Nyhan, Julianne and Oliver Duke-William (2013). Joint and multi-authored publication patterns in the Digital Humanities. Digital Humanities 2013 Conference Proceedings. dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-338.html

Palmer, Carole L. and Cragin, Melissa H. (2008). Scholarship and disciplinary practices. Annual Review of Information Science and Technology 42.

Posner, Miriam. (2013). No Half Measures: Overcoming Common Challenges to Doing Digital Humanities in the Library. Originally published in Journal of Library Administration 53, no. 1. Special issue: Digital Humanities in Libraries: New Models for Scholarly Engagement.

Siemens, Lynne; Cunningham, Richard; Duff, Wendy; Warwick, Claire. (2011) ""A tale of two cities: implications of the similarities and differences in collaborative approaches within the digital libraries and digital humanities communities."" Special issue: Papers from Digital Humanities 2010, King's College, London. LLC 26, no. 3: 335-348.

Siemens, Lynne. (2009). “‘It’s a Team If You Use “Reply All” ’: An Exploration of Research Teams in Digital Humanities Environments.” LLC 24, no. 2: 225 -233.

Sin, Joanna Sei-Ching. (2011). International coauthorship and citation impact: A bibliometric study of six LIS journals, 1980-2008. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 62, no. 9: 1770-1783.

Spiro, Lisa (2012). ‘’This Is Why We Fight’: Defining the Values of the Digital Humanities.” In Matthew K. Gold, ed., Debates in the Digital Humanities (University of Minnesota Press).

Sula, Chris Alen and Matt Miller (2013). Citation studies in the humanities. Digital Humanities 2013 Conference Proceedings. dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-353.html

Unsworth, John and Tupman, Charlotte. (2012). Interview with John Unsworth, April 2011, carried out and transcribed by Charlotte Tupman. In Collaborative Research in the Digital Humanities, ed. Marilyn Deegan and Willard McCarty. London: Ashgate. pp. 231-9.","txt","2","",""
"1965","15","IMPACT : un dispositif de transcription et de commentaire de l'oral, pour l'enseignement et la recherche","10","Cette contribution vise à présenter IMPACT (Interface Multimédia: Présentation, Analyse, CommenTaire), un dispositif technopédagogique hybride, c’est-à-dire mêlant apprentissage en présence et à distance (1) et visant l’amélioration du scénario pédagogique initial par l’usage de Technologies de l’Information et de la Communication (2). Plus généralement, la contribution entend situer le développement et l'utilisation de cette technologie dans une réflexion plus générale, celle des Humanités Digitales, sous l'angle spécifique du rapport entre enseignement et recherche dans la constitution progressive de bases de données enrichies.

1. Besoins initiaux
L’enseignement qui a bénéficié du développement du dispositif s’inscrit dans le domaine des Sciences du langage et entend introduire les étudiants à l’analyse de conversations quotidiennes (3 ; 4 ; 5). En tant que champ disciplinaire, l’analyse conversationnelle insiste sur le caractère mutuellement constitutif de l’analyse des données (les enregistrements tirés de conversations authentiques) et de la production du discours théorique (l’abstraction et la systématisation de régularités). L’analyse conversationnelle se veut éminemment descriptive et inductive, privilégiant un contact direct et constant aux données ainsi qu’une pratique de l’analyse attentive aux détails. Données et théorie apparaissent interdépendantes et il ne s’agit pas de négliger les premières au profit de la seconde. L’enseignement en question est semestriel et articule une partie ""cours"", où les enseignants sensibilisent les étudiants aux outils d’analyse en mobilisant de nombreux exemples, et une partie ""travaux pratiques"" à l’occasion de laquelle les étudiants s’approprient la matière en effectuant un enregistrement, en le transcrivant finement et en en proposant une analyse.

L’obstacle majeur auquel était confronté le scénario pédagogique concerné résidait dans la manipulation constante et fastidieuse de sources hétérogènes et dispersées (sources audio-visuelles, transcription d’extraits, analyses de ces extraits, documents théoriques), mais nécessaires et complémentaires. L’utilisation du CMS Moodle a certes permis de rassembler les fichiers sur un serveur centralisé et a favorisé l’émergence d’un apprentissage à distance. Elle n’a néanmoins pas facilité l’intégration des données : les différentes sources, dont la consultation nécessite à chaque fois un téléchargement, ne peuvent être traitées de manière synchronisée en raison des différences de formats et de types de fichiers. Ceci ralentit le processus, nuit à l’attention et donc rend le rapport aux données opaque sans gain réflexif ou pédagogique (6).

2. Solutions trouvées
Après avoir vérifié leurs intuitions sur un prototype d’interface rapidement assemblé par les ingénieurs pédagogiques de leur institution, les enseignants ont déposé un projet au fond d’innovation pédagogique de l’Université de Lausanne (www.unil.ch/fip). Il a abouti, en 2011, à la confection d’une interface multimédia permettant de construire des fiches qui rassemblent dans un même espace de consultation et d’édition différentes ressources hétérogènes, telles qu’une source audiovisuelle, sa transcription et son analyse. Éditable (par les enseignants et les étudiants) et visionnable (par internet ou par vidéoprojection) de partout et à tout moment (7), l’interface a apporté une plus-value ergonomique indéniable et appréciée par les utilisateurs.


Fig. 1: Exemple de fiche générée par IMPACT.

Plus concrètement, IMPACT permet aux étudiants et aux enseignants de :

Diffuser une source audio ou audio-vidéo dans son intégralité ou en en choisissant un extrait.
Piloter la lecture de la source au clavier (lecture/pause; ralenti; retour de 2 sec.; rembobinage rapide).
Transcrire la source ou un extrait en respectant les standards du domaine mais dans un canevas intuitif et ergonomique.
Exporter la transcription ou en importer une existante.
Synchroniser ou non le défilement de la transcription et de la source.
Ajouter des commentaires textuels (théoriques ou analytiques).
Joindre des documents PDF ou des images.
Introduire un scénario pédagogique grâce à une logique d'étapes, permettant à l'enseignant d'évaluer progressivement le travail de l'étudiant.
Coordonner chaque étape à un rendu de devoirs dans Moodle ou un message aux enseignants.
Pour davantage de détails, voir 8.

3. Evaluation pédagogique et impact pour la recherche
De manière réflexive, l’élaboration d’une telle interface a également (i) enrichi le scénario pédagogique par la réalisation de fiches d’enseignement (la matière du cours est segmentée en unités thématiques cohérentes, articulant théorie et pratique) et de fiches d’étudiants (mise à disposition de la plate-forme pour présenter le travail de recherche personnel), (ii) favorisé une relative autonomisation, saluée par les étudiants, de l’enseignement vis-à-vis de la situation de co-présence (cette autonomisation serait compatible, à terme, avec un apprentissage à distance) et (iii) influencé positivement la motivation et l'engagement des étudiants.

Dans cette perspective, une enquête a été menée auprès des étudiants afin de déterminer dans quelle mesure l'utilisation du dispositif pour s'approprier les notions et réaliser les travaux avait modifié leur apprentissage et leur façon d'appréhender la matière. L'étude révèle, entre autres choses, que les attentes des étudiants envers l'enseignement en présence sont modifiés par l'utilisation d'IMPACT, dans le sens où l'exemplification et la problématisation des notions prennent le pas sur leur seule présentation.

De l’utilisation croissante d’IMPACT dans le domaine de spécialisation – les Sciences du langage – a en outre émergé une réflexion plus générale sur l’élaboration et l’interrogation de bases de données orales comme enjeu pédagogique. Quels sont les défis pédagogiques auxquels l’oralité est actuellement confrontée ? Les Humanités Digitales sont-elles prêtes à intégrer l’oralité, tant sous l’angle de la recherche que de l’enseignement ? Comment se donner les moyens de rendre compte de l’hybridation progressive des dispositifs de communication contemporains, qui articulent de plus en plus finement oralité et scripturalité (9) ?

Partant de ces trois questions, la comparaison des travaux réalisés dans IMPACT avec les principales bases de données orales francophones (VALIBEL, ESLO, CLAPI) s'avère intéressante, lorsqu'on considère ces différents outils sous l’angle spécifique de leur applicabilité pédagogique et particulièrement de la place qu’elles donnent à l’étudiantE. En outre, l'expérience d'IMPACT invite à voir dans quelle mesure un dispositif technopédagogique peut être adapté pour des usages émergents et inattendus, dans le cas présent la constitution progressive et collaborative, par les enseignants et les étudiants, de bases de données orales enrichies et disponibles pour la recherche.

References
Charlier, B., Deschryver, N., & Peraya, D. (2006). Apprendre en présence et à distance : Une définition des dispositifs hybrides. Distances et savoirs, 4, 469–496.

Karsenti, T., & Larose, F. (Eds.). (2001). Les TIC… au coeur des pédagogies universitaires. Québec: Presses de l’Université du Québec.

Sacks, H., Schegloff, E. A., & Jefferson, G. (1974). A Simplest Systematics for the Organization of Turn-Taking for Conversation. Language, 50(4), 696–735.

Ten Have, P. (2007). Doing Conversation Analysis. London: Sage.

Hutchby, I., & Wooffitt, R. (2008). Conversation Analysis. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Karsenti, T., & Larose, F. (Eds.). (2001). Les TIC… au coeur des pédagogies universitaires. Québec: Presses de l’Université du Québec.

Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R. (2001). Multimedia for learning: methods and development. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Gradoux, Xavier & Jacquin, Jérôme, 2013, Le projet IMPACT, disponible à l’adresse www.unil.ch/impact, accédé le 21 octobre 2013.

Lievrouw, L. A., & Livingstone, S. (2006). Handbook of new media: social shaping and social consequences - fully revised student edition. London: Sage.","txt","2","",""
"1966","15","Incommensurability? Authorship, Style, and the Need for Theory","9","1. The need for theory
Harold Somers and Fiona Tweedie pose the following question: If a vocabulary- based authorial attribution technique fails to attribute an original text and a pas- tiche to different authors, “is this because the pastiche is good, or because the technique is faulty” (Somers and Tweedie, 2003)? The question places computa- tional techniques and literary concerns into a direct relationship, inviting a formu- lation that might “leap from [word] frequencies to meanings” (Craig, 1999), and so seems an ideal opportunity to explore and interrogate our assumptions surround- ing literary interpretation, literary style, and genre. Moreover, a failure or refusal to attend to the question would seem to be a catastrophe for attribution studies: without a generalized set of criteria to critique how stylistic concerns influence an algorithm’s effectiveness at identifying an author’s statistical “fingerprints,” the general validity of authorial attribution techniques will remain contested despite persuasive examples of authorial attribution techniques like Hoover (2003) and Garcia and Martin (2007). While scholars such as Jockers (2013) are interested in exploring how attributes such as lexical variability, word frequencies, word choice, and other statistical measures can be used as indicators of authorship, style, genre, gender, and even nationality, there remains a paucity of theory to explain why these and other indicators happen to be more or less effective with respect to the finite sets of authors, books, and/or genres they are applied to. Somers and Tweedie approach their question pragmatically—that is, they subject Alice in Wonderland, Gilbert Adair’s pastiche entitled Alice through the Needle’s Eye, and several “con- trol” texts to a battery of authorship attribution techniques and report the results of their tests. They do not, however, provide a theoretical framework to understand why one technique would be more or less effective than another. Nor are their re- sults generalizable to other cases because there does not exist a larger theoretical framework to understand how Somers and Tweedie’s experiments may relate to a different set of originals and pastiches we might examine. The success or lack of success of the statistical techniques used to distinguish authorship has much to do with the idiosyncrasies of the individual texts and authors being considered and is frequently aided by our historical knowledge of existing texts for which author- ship is already known. But far too little effort has been devoted to developing a theoretical model that might provide us with a compendium of the possible ways our statistical methods might fail.

2. The interdependence of authorship and style 
Somers and Tweedie’s question highlights the contextual dependencies of our terms and the basic differences in assumption between nontraditional authorship attribution and computational stylistics. Effectiveness, for example, appears sen- sible in the context of authorship attribution techniques, but less so in the context of stylistics. Nontraditional authorship attribution techniques exist in a system for which the value of the question hinges on its falsifiability. Is a text of unknown authorship written by author X or Y given a set of existing texts written by both authors? There can only be one correct historical answer—which is usually only one author—and this correct answer is mutually exclusive to any other answer. Such “facts” are independent of the method we use to discover them. Alterna- tively, the question of pastiche quality—of whether the imitation is well or poorly done—is a question for which stylistics should provide an answer; nontraditional authorship attribution may also influence judgments of quality. When performed under the banner of literary studies, computational stylistics is concerned with in- teresting answers that point us to new interpretive insights about a particular text we are studying. These facts are less stable in that they depend on the methods which allow for their discovery and are not necessarily mutually exclusive. 

Yet the epistemological distinctions above are countermanded by cases in which the concerns of authorship interpenetrate the concerns of style in ways that are difficult to generalize. When Erasmus declares a certain letter to be incorrectly at- tributed to St. Jerome based on the belief that “Jerome has a special quality about him, a kind of mental savour and temperament, a quality which may be felt rather than explained,” and, earlier, when we see this “never-failing quality, his lively humour...which the learned admire in Cicero,” the stylistic concern of quality is being used to determine authorship (1992, 80; see also Love 2002:18-22). Yet are issues of authorship and style always interrelated? The answer, I contend, is yes; in limiting cases where we have appeared to isolate these concerns it is because we have already (intentionally or unintentionally) picked our texts in such a way that separation becomes possible.

When we point to a question that does appear to belong exclusively to the do- main of stylistics or authorship attribution, is it not always the case that a careful a priori selection of the texts was conducted at an earlier stage of analysis in which authorship and style did impinge on each other? The decision, for example, to un- dertake a nontraditional authorship attribution test necessarily entails never losing sight of the relationship between authorship and style (i.e., genre) since the signal from the latter sometimes “overpowers” the signal of the former (as one sees in Hoover 2013). And when we do find a statistical result that countermands our (literary) expectations, is not a useful first step to examine the interdependence between authorship and style to account for the surprise? 

3. Pastiche Quality and Authorship 
Somers and Tweedie’s original question can be separated into two: the first relates to the fundamental validity of computational authorship attribution tech- niques and the second relates to a functional definition of what a pastiche is. Ex- plicating these two questions in detail is useful in developing a theoretical perspective to critique and explore Somers and Tweedie’s paper as well as for developing a better theoretical foundation for the acceptance or rejection of certain assumptions inherent to the contemporary practice of computational stylistics. 

As Somers and Tweedie note, for authorship attribution techniques to be most effective one tracks linguistic habits “which may be the least susceptible to variation” (412)—that is, we look at features that an author does unconsciously since the features an author has no control over are those expected to be least affected by the idiosyncrasies of genre, historical moment, and so forth. Yet if we are seeking to examine the “quality” of a pastiche, as Somers and Tweedie ask, then we are seeking features an author is consciously employing in pursuit of imitating another author. The similarities that are relevant to the literary quality of a pastiche would necessarily be those features for which a human reader is able to readily identify and is likely to be those which a reader has had the most practice at identifying. To be sure, the category of pastiche has perhaps a more overt connection to both past literature written and contemporary culture—its existence is defined directly by what has already been written and depends upon the reader’s recognition of this. These relationships between tradition and culture are perhaps no more or less important to other literary forms, but the category of pastiche specifically asks the reader to reflect upon such relationships directly and overtly.

Reframing Somers and Tweedie’s question as two questions allows us to adopt a scheme from R. G. Collingwood’s “On the So-Called Idea of Causation” so as to parse the original ambiguity in Somers and Tweedie’s into several logically distinct classes. This parsing will allow us to see that attributing the success or failure of authorship attribution algorithms to only the two possibilities of algorithm effec- tiveness or pastiche quality effectively equates two incommensurable ontological systems as if they were logically consistent. To avoid this difficulty, we need only clarify the original question so that we are acting in a logically consistent manner. However this particular scheme comes with a high theoretical cost. To resolve the ambiguity inherent to Somers and Tweedle’s question, it may be necessary to re- sort to literary descriptive categories for which the identification by a finite series of computable steps may be theoretically forbidden. 

References
Collingwood, R. G. (1938). ""On the So-Called Idea of Causation."" Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, New Series 38: 85-112

Craig, H. (1999).“Authorial Attribution and Computational Stylistics: If You Can Tell Authors Apart, Have You Learned Anything About Them?” Literary and Linguistic Computing 14: 103-13.

Erasmus, D. (1992) Collected Works of Erasmus. ed. and trans. by James Brady and John Olin. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Garcia, A. and Martin, J. (2007). “Function Words in Authorship Attribution Studies.” Literary and Linguistic Computing 22, No. 1: 49-66.

Jockers, Matthew. (2013). Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History. Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois Press.

Hoover, D. and Hess, S. (2009). “An exercise in non-ideal authorship attribution: the mysterious Maria Ward.” Literary and Linguistic Computing 24(4): 467-89.

Hoover, D. (2013). “The Full-Spectrum Text-Analysis Spreadsheet.” DH 2013 Conference Abstracts. University of Nebraska-Lincoln; (2003). “Multivariate analysis and the study of style variation.” Literary and Linguistic Computing 18(4): 34160.

Love, H. (2002). Attributing Authorship: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ramsay, Stephen. “Toward an Algorithmic Criticism.” Literary and Linguistic Computing 18.2 (2003): 167-74.

Somers, H. and Tweedie, F. (2003). “Authorship Attribution and Pastiche.” Computers and the Humanities 37: 407-29.","txt","2","",""
"1967","15","Integrating Score and Sound: ""Augmented Notes"" and the Advent of Interdisciplinary Publishing Frameworks","10","1. Introduction
While sound studies is experiencing a resurgence in literary criticism, academic arguments involving sound are nearly impossible to make in traditional print media.  An article could include an excerpt of a score, but only scholars who can read music would be able to understand it.  Likewise, articles or books could include audio files externally, as did Nicholas Temperley’s special edition of Victorian Studies, which included a cassette tape with the songs discussed in the articles. 1  However, these solutions do not address the central problem:  readers will have difficulty finding the exact musical phrases mentioned in articles, and those with less musical expertise will be left out of the conversation entirely.  Newer options for incorporating music in academic articles include SoundCite (soundcite.knightlab.com), a tool that lets users embed sound clips in websites, Scalar (scalar.usc.edu/scalar), a publishing framework that lets users annotate media, and the strategy of assigning a QR code to each audio excerpt and inserting these into a print article, as Jennifer Wood suggests. 2  None of these options integrates the audio with the score:  SoundCite will only let users hear the audio, Scalar only supports textual annotations of media files, and QR codes require readers to have smart phones, which vastly limits the audience for the article.  To address these problems, I have built two tools:  ""Songs of the Victorians"" (www.songsofthevictorians.com), an archive and analysis of musical settings of Victorian poems with an interactive framework that highlights each measure of a score in time with its music, and ""Augmented Notes"" (www.augmentednotes.com), a public humanities tool that allows users who do not know how to program to build their own sites like ""Songs of the Victorians.""

2. Overview of ""Songs of the Victorians""
""Songs of the Victorians"" melds the archive and the scholarly article.  It examines both high- and low-brow Victorian settings of contemporaneous poetry by integrating scores, audio files, and scholarly analytical commentary in an interactive environment to help users understand both the literary and musical elements of the argument.  As an archive, it provides audio files of each song and archival-quality scans of first-edition printings of each score.  For every song, the user can listen to the audio while each measure of the score is highlighted in time with the music, as the archive page for William Balfe’s ""Come into the Garden Maud"" demonstrates (www.songsofthevictorians.com/balfe/archive.html).  The project also functions as a collection of scholarly articles in which each song includes an analysis of the song’s interpretation of the text.  When the commentary discusses a particular measure, the users can click on an icon of a speaker, which will play the relevant excerpt of the audio file and highlight the score so they can hear for themselves the effect the commentary describes, as in the analysis page for Caroline Norton's ""Juanita"" (www.songsofthevictorians.com/norton/analysis.html).


Fig. 1: Musical excerpt from the analysis page of Caroline Norton’s “Juanita”

""Songs of the Victorians"" includes Caroline Norton’s ""Juanita,"" Sir Arthur Sullivan’s setting of ""The Lost Chord,"" and two settings of Tennyson's Maud:  a parlor song by Michael William Balfe and an art song by Sir Arthur Somervell.  The site furthers scholarship for bibliographers, musicologists, Victorianists, and cultural studies scholars alike.  More generally, this new framework, which enables critics to describe musical arguments to non-musicians, facilitates this interdisciplinary approach of bringing music and literature together.  It also preserves the musical and cultural afterlives of well-known poems, as many of these scores have either disintegrated and been lost to time or are only available in select libraries.  ""Songs of the Victorians"" empowers users regardless of musical training:  those who cannot read music can overcome their feelings of intimidation at a musical score and can better understand the ideas described in the analysis, whereas those who can read music will still benefit, since few people can hear in their mind the music on the page.

3. Overview of ""Augmented Notes""
After the success of ""Songs of the Victorians,"" I used its framework to produce ""Augmented Notes"" (http://www.augmentednotes.com), a generalized, public humanities tool to allow anyone to develop similar websites.  ""Augmented Notes"" eliminates the need for users to understand programming by creating archive pages, like those from ""Songs of the Victorians,"" which users can tweak and redesign.  It is simple to use, as the site only requires audio files and images of the score to produce an archive page.  After the audio and image files are uploaded, users are taken to a page where they click and drag to draw boxes around each measure (they can also edit the sizes and order of these boxes), indicating what portion of the score should be highlighted when that measure plays.  


Fig. 2: Box-drawing page of “Augmented Notes”

Users can also optionally upload an MEI file--the TEI-based scholarly standard for music--for the score if they already have measure positions recorded in MEI. Users then set the times at which the highlighting box changes position through a ""time editing"" page.


Fig. 3: Time editing page of “Augmented Notes”

The site brings together the measure and time information, saving them in a JSON file, which enables each measure of the song to be highlighted in time with the music.  Users then click ""Download Zip"" to download a zip file with the HTML, CSS, and JavaScript files necessary for a complete archive page, which they can then restyle themselves.  

""Augmented Notes"" also has a sandbox (www.augmentednotes.com/example) through which users who would like to experiment with the technology but do not themselves have the requisite files can try it out.  ""Augmented Notes"" is already being used by scholars, both for archival purposes (such as the ""Performing Romantic Lyrics"" project from the University of South Carolina) and for pedagogical purposes such as generating interactive scores for use in music classrooms.  Since this tool produces websites with integrated audio and scores, it empowers users to preserve cultural archives, whether their materials include classical music, unpublished manuscripts, popular music, or folk music and traditional tunes from around the globe.

4. Implications
This presentation will discuss the projects in greater detail, complete with live demonstrations and an explanation of the underlying technology to show their digital as well as scholarly innovations.  I will explain the rationale for my choice of poems, settings, sound files, and editions for ""Songs of the Victorians,"" as well as my plans for future collaboration and expansion for both projects.  The presentation will illustrate the sorts of arguments that this framework can enable: for example, my examination of Sir Arthur Sullivan’s setting of Adelaide Procter’s ""A Lost Chord"" challenges the received interpretation that the poem merely describes a domestic, uncomplicated religious moment of transcendence.  Likewise, Caroline Norton’s ""Juanita"" has been considered a conventional song that preserves the traditional rules of courtship and parlor propriety, but my analysis of the music helps us see that it critiques the Victorian institution of marriage as imprisoning.  I will conclude by exploring the ways in which ""Songs of the Victorians"" is itself a Victorian endeavor, as it uses new technology to collect, analyze, and bring together Victorian music and poetry, thereby giving voice to the silent page.

5. Funding
This project was made possible by fellowships from NINES and the Scholars’ Lab.

References
1. Temperley, Nicholas (1986). Music in Victorian Society and Culture: A Special Issue of Victorian Studies. 30.1.

2. Wood, J. (2013). Noisy Texts: How to Embed Soundbytes in Your Writing. Burnable Books. Ed. Bruce Holsinger. burnablebooks.com/noisy-texts-how-to-embed-soundbytes-in-your-writing-a-guest-post/ (Accessed 30 October 2013).","txt","2","",""
"1968","15","Intellectual Property Rights vs. Freedom of Research: Tripping stones in international IPR law","10","The paper will address some of the most common and frequent needs and obstacles regarding legal issues in current digital scholarship (e.g. ownership of digital copies, electronic provision of source material) and demonstrate some of the consequent misconceptions, restrictions and legal traps which result from the lack of legal certainty due to the heterogeneous international legal situation regarding IPR and ancillary copyright.

While the free availability of sources has been a long-lasting demand and desire in all fields of research, open access to the results of scientific research has become a de facto obligation in recent years. This is reflected in the requirements of many national and international funding bodies demanding the public and free availability of research results and publications.

Generally speaking, humanities research focusses on products of the human mind – hence, the research object is usually subject to intellectual property rights. Largely based at universities, cultural heritage institutions or other public research institutions, that research is usually non-commercial and based on a public mandate for education, with little to no funding available for the acquisition of licenses and the proper remuneration of IPR holders. Open (and free) access to sources – especially those available only in cultural heritage institutions like archives and libraries – gains further importance because national funding agencies (e.g. the Austrian FWF) generally do not allow for the inclusion of license fees in their grants.

On the other hand, researchers themselves have a keen interest in defending their own intellectual property rights, in part due to economic concerns but also in terms of academic credit. This conflict of interest is evident even in the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, Art. 27, which sets the premise that “(everyone has) the right freely […] to share in scientific advancement and its benefits”, but goes on to say that “everyone has the right to protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author”.

Several European Council Directives (2001/29/EC, 2003/98/EC, 2004/48/EC) have made a strong case for public access and free use of educational and scientific resources. This political agenda has been visible in the 7th EU framework and is also evident in several UNESCO publications (e.g. “Recommendation concerning the Promotion and Use of Multilingualism and Universal Access to Cyberspace” and the “Charter on the Preservation of Digital Heritage”, both dating back to 2003). However, the national implementation of these ideals is lagging behind: The actual legal situation regarding the use of and access to digital resources in many member states of the European Union (and the UNESCO, respectively) poses a number of difficulties.

While Common Law legal systems – most prominently the US and the UK with their allowances for Fair Use and Fair Dealing – focus more on society’s interest in the access to and use of publications for education and self-improvement, the Civil Law systems found in continental European countries stress the rights of authors. Therefore, the usage, distribution and especially the electronic provision of resources require distinct free licenses, i.e. privileges for the educational sector. For non-digital material, a tried and trusted system of such privileges has been in place for decades. However, many countries – Austria among them – have so far failed to implement the necessary legal changes to extend these licenses to digital sources.

This ambiguity between the treatment of non-digital and digital resources poses another problem: Most humanists (or scholars in general, regardless of their respective domains) are unfamiliar with the legal implications of their work. Often drawing assumptions based on long-standing experiences and practices with non-digital material, few are familiar with the details of current legislature on digital sources. Also, though notable and admirable exceptions exist, there is generally also little to no support from universities’ legal offices.

Where source material is owned by universities or cultural heritage institutions, or has moved into the public domain due to the expiration of applicable protection periods (usually 70 years for printed materials), humanities scholars have little need to address such concerns. But more recent sources – especially when dealing with the current interest in Big Data – pose a number of legal challenges. Also, orphaned works (works without a known and retraceable author), while at first glance not subjected to the usual IPR restrictions, are dealt with very differently in the various European countries, but usually involve collecting societies.

Furthermore, cultural heritage institutions often insist that the ownership of physical resources automatically induces a right to their digital copies and demand fees based on that claim – which may, in fact, be unfounded, either because the digitization (which in itself is not subject to IPR but rather of ancillary copyright) was not done by the institution or other legal obligations (e.g. in national or regional archival laws) oblige them to freely provide material in the public domain.The increase of collaborative work across not only disciplinary but also national borders adds another dimension to the already puzzling situation: Which legal system applies to resources hosted in different countries and which legal framework must be used for electronic publications?

A number of these questions can be addressed by taking a look at international IPR treaties like the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) or the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Copyright Treaty.

The paper will therefor demonstrate some of the most common legal obstacles that humanities scholars encounter in the course of digital research and teaching and try to provide an overview of the current legal situation, the differences and common denominators of Civil Law and Common Law systems regarding IPR (especially the electronic provision of material) and the international framework of Copyright treaties. Since an exhaustive juxtaposition of international legal differences is unfeasible due to scale, the Austrian example will be used to showcase some of the most obvious and momentous shortcomings of current IPR legislature, and will be compared with German law (which has addressed some of these issues while still keeping strong restrictions in place) and the Anglo-American concepts of Fair Use and Fair Dealing.

In conclusion, the paper will try to define a possible best practice which draws on the analysis of the common denominators found in international treaties, UK and US law and the EC Digital Agenda for Europe as expressed in recent EU directives.

References
Directive 2001/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 May 2001 on the harmonization of certain aspects of copyright and related rights in the information society.

Directive 2003/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 November 2003 on the re-use of public sector information (amended 2013).

Directive 2004/48/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the enforcement of intellectual property rights.

Goldstein, P. (2010). International Copyright. Principles, Law, and Practice. New York: Oxford University Press.

Jahnel, D. (2012). IT-Recht. Vienna: Verlag Österreich.

Kuhlen, R. (2008). Erfolgreiches Scheitern – eine Götterdämmerung des Urheberrechts? Boizenburg: VWH.

Schöwerling, H. (2007). E-Learning und Urheberrecht an Universitäten in Österreich und Deutschland. Vienna-Munich: Verlag Medien und Recht.

Torremans, P. (2007). Copyright Law. A Handbook of Contemporary Research. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd.","txt","2","",""
"1969","15","Interdisziplinarität modellieren - Über die Modellierung einer Ontologie wissenschaftlicher Prozesse für den Exzellenzcluster Bild Wissen Gestaltung","2","Im November 2012 ist an der Humboldt Universität zu Berlin der Exzellenzcluster Bild Wissen Gestaltung gestartet, der sich selbst als „interdisziplinäres Labor“ bezeichnet. Die Idee hinter diesem Großprojekt ist es, unterschiedlichste wissenschaftliche Disziplinen in ungewöhnlichen und neuen Zusammenstellungen an Fragen unserer Zeit arbeiten zu lassen. Zu einem geisteswissenschaftlichen Schwerpunkt kommen nicht nur Natur- und Technikwissenschaften zusammen, sondern erstmals gleichberechtigt auch Designer und Gestalter. Insgesamt sind über 25 Disziplinen beteiligt. So arbeiten in einzelnen Basisprojekten beispielsweise Architekten, Kunsthistoriker, Germanisten, Informatiker, Chemiker, Kulturwissenschaftler und Interaction Designer zusammen an einer gemeinsamen Fragestellung. Mit zu Hochzeiten über 200 Mitarbeitern ist damit eine Forschungskonfiguration geschaffen, die einzigartig ist und Gelegenheit bietet, das Zusammenarbeiten und die Kommunikationsstrukturen in solchen massiv interdisziplinären Konstellationen zu untersuchen. Darin liegt eines der Hauptinteressen des Clusters: Was ist Interdisziplinarität? Wo funktioniert sie tatsächlich? Und wo nicht? Wann ist sie wirklich hilfreich und zielführend und wann verkommt sie zu einem Schlagwort? Schließlich: Wie kann man das Gelingen der Kommunikation zwischen den Disziplinen sicherstellen bzw. verbessern? Diesen Fragen nähert sich der Cluster mit einer umfangreichen Selbstbeobachtungsstrategie, die in vielen Teilen technisch umgesetzt wird.

Damit steht eine genuin interdisziplinäre Fragestellung im Zentrum dieses Forschungsgroßprojektes und gleichermaßen eine extreme Kommunikationssituation, die sich nur mit digitalen Mitteln adäquat erfassen lässt. Dabei bekommt die Analyse von verwendeter Terminologie und gegenseitigem Verständnis einen wesentlichen Fokus. Selten jedoch konnte sich bisher auf eine spezifische Definition geeinigt werden, die alle Beteiligten vollständig unterstützen. Auch das kann als Terminologiearbeit verstanden werden – allerdings mit einer völlig anderen Zielsetzung als in der klassischen Terminologiearbeit. Dennoch bleibt es das Ziel, auch dieses Arbeiten an Terminologie zu formalisieren, zu ordnen und beschreibbar zu machen.

Die Basisprojekte Virtuelle und reale Architektur des Wissens und Shaping Knowledge setzen sich mit den Möglichkeiten einer solchen Formalisierung auseinander. Als besonders hilfreich haben sich dabei die Erkenntnisse aus dem iglos-Projekt (Akronym für „intelligentes Glossar“) der Technischen Universität Braunschweig erwiesen, mit dem der Exzellenzcluster kooperiert. Das iglos-Team hat jahrelang die Kommunikationsprozesse in interdisziplinären Teams untersucht und darauf basierend ein eigenes Terminologiemanagementsystem entwickelt (www.iglos.de). Dieses setzt auf terminologische Ontologien statt der reinen Sammlung und Listung von Benennungen, Definitionen und ein paar Metadaten. So wird es möglich, die semantischen Zusammenhänge von terminologischen Einträgen als Netzwerk zu modellieren und zu visualisieren, die für ein tatsächliches Begriffsverstehen oft unerlässlich sind. Ein solches semantisches Netz ist auch in der Lage, verschiedene Verständnisräume zu modellieren, die sich nicht ohne weiteres vereinheitlichen lassen. 

Für das Erforschen dieser Struktur als Kommunikationssituation wurde daher die Entscheidung getroffen, eine Cluster-Ontologie aufzubauen, die auf die Modellierung einer erweiterten Version der scholarly primitives setzt (Unsworth 2000, Bamboo 2010, Blanke et. al. 2011). Dabei werden Sprachkonstrukte aus bestehenden Ontologien wie beispielsweise Dublin Core, SKOS, FOAF und CIDOC CRM wiederverwendet (Tzompanaki et. al. 2012). Wichtige Überlegung dabei ist, dass sich die Adaption und Verwendungsweise von Terminologie nur dann erfassen lässt, wenn man sich ihre Anwendung durch Personen oder in Quellen und ihre Kookkurrenzen in diesen Umgebungen ansieht. Die Beschreibung von Verständnisräumen erfordert es, die reale Anwendung von Terminologie zu untersuchen und nicht nur die gewollte: Wer verwendet sie? Wer kommuniziert mit wem damit? Welche Quellen verwenden sie? Welche Person rezipiert welche Quellen? Wie sind diese Quellen verbunden? Welche Themen und Communities sind durch welche Terminologie charakterisierbar? Und schließlich: Wer versteht wen unter welchen Umständen überhaupt richtig? Wo kann ein Forscher für ihn interessante Quellen finden? Und mit wem kann er sich über bestimmte Themen unterhalten? Schließlich: Welche basalen Tätigkeiten machen den Alltag eines Forschers aus und welche Konfigurationen davon sind in interdisziplinären Konstellationen überhaupt kommensurabel bzw. kompatibel?

Vier zentrale Topl-Level-Entitäten organisieren gemäß den oben genannten Überlegungen das Schema der Ontologie: Personen, Quellen, Themenund Termini. Unter Personen sind zunächst die konkreten Mitarbeiter des Clusters zu verstehen; hier werden aber auch angegliederte Personen, virtuelle Akteure sowie Personengruppen, Projekte und Teams modelliert. So entsteht zunächst ein Personennetzwerk das Informationen darüber enthält, wer in welchen Organisationseinheiten mit wem steht. Die kontinuierlich durchgeführte Selbstbeobachtung der Clustermitarbeiter erlaubt aber auch eine Modellierung der Kommunikationsverbindungen zwischen den Personen. So kann angegeben werden, wer wie umfangreich mit wem kommuniziert und auf welchem Wege. Diese Informationen werden teils automatisch mit technischen Mitteln und teils durch empirische Beobachtung erfasst.

Aber nicht nur Personen und deren Verbindungen untereinander werden modelliert, sondern auch die Objekte, mit denen sie umgehen. Diese sind in der Ontologie als Quellen gefasst. Quellen können beispielsweise Bücher oder Zeitschriften sein, die Personen lesen. Genauso kann es sich aber auch um produzierte Texte handeln. Neben Texten werden als Quellen auch Zeichnungen, Fotos und Bilder, Modelle und andere Datenformate gefasst. Eine Quelle ist also ein beliebiges, physisches oder digitales Objekt, mit dem interagiert wird. Quellen können auch Beziehungen untereinander aufweisen, beispielsweise im Sinne von Zitation oder Beeinflussung. Auch diese Beziehungen können in der Ontologie detailliert modelliert werden.

Der Sprung auf die inhaltliche Ebene geschieht mithilfe der Themen. Themen fungieren als zusammenfassende Charakterisierung von zusammenhängenden Inhalten. Typische Themen sind beispielsweise Sachgebiete, Domänen, Ausbildungsgänge und ähnliches. Themen können in Baumstrukturen aufgebaut werden, so dass sich allgemeinere und speziellere Themen anlegen und miteinander verbinden lassen. So kann man Themen zur Charakterisierung von Kompetenzen von Personen verwenden. Oder sie werden genutzt, um Quellen zu klassifizieren und so Aussagen über die darin behandelten Inhalte zu treffen. Dabei ist es wahrscheinlich, dass Personen oder Quellen jeweils mehrere Themen zugeordnet bekommen. Die Flexibilität der Ontologie ermöglicht es, verschiedene existierende Klassifizierungssysteme zu integrieren. Hier wird beispielsweise auf das Open Directory zurückgegriffen werden, das eine der umfangreichsten Themenklassifikationen beinhaltet. 

Der aus terminologischer Perspektive vielleicht interessanteste Teil der Ontologie ist der des Terminus. Unter Terminus wird im Folgenden „das zusammengehörige Paar aus einem Begriff und seiner Benennung als Elemente einer Terminologie“ verstanden. Da Benennungen sehr häufig in unterschiedlichen Varietäten vorkommen, dort jeweils jedoch mit unterschiedlichen Begriffen verbunden werden, erlaubt die anvisierte Modellierung eine Strukturierung auch dieser Fälle.


Fig. 1:

In der Ontologie des Clusters werden Termini auf unterschiedlichen Ebenen modelliert. Zum einen wird den einzelnen Basisprojekten die Möglichkeit gegeben, terminologische Festlegungen für ihre Bereiche vorzunehmen und sich über die anderer zu informieren. Zum anderen werden in größeren Arbeitsgruppen die oben genannten „großen Begriffe“ diskutiert und theoretisiert werden. Die in diesem Rahmen zu diskutierenden Benennungen beginnen mit dem Namen des Clusters selbst – Bild, Wissen, Gestaltung und Interdisziplinarität. Andere wichtige große Begriffe formieren sich um die Benennungen Struktur, Modell, Architektur, RaumoderCode. Es leuchtet schnell ein, dass diese Bemühungen zwar auch kurze und prägnante Definitionen anstreben, diese aber zwingend umfangreicherer Erläuterungen bedürfen. Darüber hinaus reicht es in diesen Fällen nicht aus, eine einzelne Definition zu finden – vielmehr ist es erforderlich eine ganze Menge dazugehöriger Termini zusammenzubringen, zu strukturieren und zu definieren. Für ein solches Vorgehen sind Ontologien besonders geeignet, da sie die Verbindungen und Zusammenhänge zwischen den Termini modellieren können. Der dritte Anwendungsbereich erstreckt sich auf die Analyse tatsächlicher Terminologieverwendung in den Quellen des Clusters. Ein Großteil der verwendeten Textquellen wird wenn nötig digitalisiert und zentral verwaltet werden. Dazu kommt das Open-Source-System Zoterozum Einsatz, das eine direkte RDF-Schnittstelle besitzt. So kann aus der Ontologie direkt auf die Quellen verlinkt werden. Mit verschiedenen Textminingmethoden werden die Digitalisate dann untersucht. Dazu gehört beispielsweise die Topic Detection, die es ermöglicht, Quellen bestimmten Themen zuzuordnen und den Grad der Relevanz der Quelle für ein Thema zu berechnen. Den Themen in der Ontologie sind dazu Termini zugeordnet, die signifikant für das jeweilige Thema sind. Die Ontologie lernt über die Analysen automatisch neue Termini, die zu einem gegebenen Thema gehören.

Alle diese Entitäten und die Relationen zwischen ihnen werden je nach Bedarf in Unterklassen spezialisiert. 

Das Ziel ist es dabei nicht, individuelle und disziplinspezifische Arbeitsweisen über einen Kamm zu scheren – im Gegenteil: Gerade die Heterogenität der Arbeitsweisen besser zu verstehen und mit einer empirischen Datenbasis zu versehen ist nach unserer Überzeugung die Voraussetzung für eine bessere, vielfältigere und innovativere Forschungsarbeit. Wenn sich die Rahmenbedingungen interdisziplinärer Forschung auf Basis der gewonnenen Erkenntnisse auch nur etwas verbessern lassen, ist bereits viel gewonnen – denn interdisziplinäre Strukturen werden immer häufiger und nichts verschwendet so viele Ressourcen wie ungünstige Bedingungen und falsche Annahmen.

Am 1. Juni fand die offizielle Eröffnung des Exzellenzclusters Bild Wissen Gestaltung statt. Hunderte Besucher haben die Projekte begutachtet, sich informiert und angeregt diskutiert. Nun heißt es für unser Team, unsere Pläne umzusetzen. Was daraus wird und wie sich unsere Arbeit entwickelt kann man mit kontinuierlichen Updates auf der Webseite des Clusters verfolgen unter www.interdisciplinary-laboratory.hu-berlin.de.

References
Bamboo (2010): Project Bamboo Scholarly Practice Report.

wikihub.berkeley.edu/download/attachments/68619618/bamboo_scholarly_practice_report.pdf?version=2&modificationDate=1292887646732

Blanke, T., & Hedges, M. (2011). Scholarly primitives: Building institutional infrastructure for humanities e-Science. Future Generation Computer Systems. 

doi:10.1016/j.future.2011.06.006

Tzompanaki, K., & Doerr, M. (2012). Fundamental Categories and Relationships for intuitive querying CIDOC CRM based repositories.139.91.151.170/tech-reports/2012/2012.TR429_Intuitive_querying_CIDOC-CRM.pdf

Unsworth, J. (2000). Scholarly Primitives: what methods do humanities researchers have in common, and how might our tools reflect this? Symposium on Humanities Computing formal methods experimental practice. www3.isrl.illinois.edu/~unsworth/Kings.5-00/primitives.html","txt","2","",""
"1970","15","Interoperable Infrastructures for Digital Research: a proposed pathway for enabling transformation","2","Governments, research organisations, cultural institutions, and commercial entities have invested substantial funds creating digital assets to enable new research in the arts and humanities. These assets have grown to include millions of items and petabytes of material covering all forms of content – manuscripts, monographs, maps, images, sound, and more. Unfortunately, scholars have been unable to fully exploit these digital assets.  The supporting infrastructures are restrictive. The assets are distributed unevenly across organisations and systems. Access restrictions unpredictably limit where, how and who can use items.

This poster will outline a pathway to remedy this unacceptable state of affairs. It will explore the need for a simple-to-use infrastructure for digital scholarship. Built primarily using off-the-shelf technologies and services, we argue that such an interoperable infrastructure should, as far as possible, work like something the user already knows: it should allow the researcher to bring their own content, tools and creativity to a familiar environment. Where we envisage it differing from a local PC setup is by hosting otherwise difficult to obtain and too big to download digital content, offering the computational capacity required to quickly analyse big data using automated processes, and providing network services capable of robustly supporting digitally-driven research.

A key context of this proposed poster is research infrastructure developments around cloud, virtual and remote workflows. Notable among these are ongoing cyber-infrastructure work at the HathiTrust Research Centre1 and the deployed cloud research infrastructure used by the European Bioinformatics Institute.2 Whilst these observations and experiences point to a potentially crucial role for infrastructure in humanities research, we remain mindful of the robust critiques of recent digital humanities infrastructure projects. Quinn3 These critiques have highlighted how infrastructure development should not make strong assumptions about how researchers work, what tools they need, the sorts of problems that they will strive to solve, or even the specialised standards that they will employ. Our proposed pathway avoids these known problems by suggesting that researchers must be enabled to bring their own tools, work in whatever way they want, use any workflow, and address any sort of problem. We envisage this being achieved by infrastructure development that works with many digital content providers, supports a wide range of content types, and is embedded within arts and humanities research that uses a variety of data-driven methodologies. It would support growth in big data research in the arts and humanities using researcher appropriate standards and guidelines.

The informal, conversational setting of a poster session will prove a valuable opportunity to visit the key questions and problems around digital research infrastructure. These include:

What are the benefits of scholars being able to use off-the-shelf technologies to work with big data across major content holders?
How can these infrastructures enable transformative research?
Do hybrid cloud infrastructures provide a sustainable approach to service provision?
Such infrastructure could establish the foundation for scholarly work with large scale content collections for years to come, enabling in turn transformative research that uncovers the value hidden in these digital assets and society to benefit from its investment. Such transformation requires leading-edge researchers, and eventually the majority of researchers, to adopt, learn and use new methods and techniques; to not just answer old questions in new ways but to arrive at new answers and to start asking entirely new questions as a consequence. This proposed infrastructure pathway aims to explore the next steps towards making this transformation a reality

This poster builds on experience providing researchers with digital content. Scholars increasingly demand scalable access to large quantities of digital content – big data – that they can analyse using their own software and tools. Early on, the amounts of digital data were small; it was possible to provide copies or enable network downloads. With the growing volumes of big data, this is no longer plausible. Instead of moving hundreds of terabytes of data to researchers, we must allow researchers to bring their tools to the data. This is consistent with changes in the broader IT landscape. We have established five principles to guide our pathway:

Keep it simple. Any new infrastructure should be simple to use and understand.
Lower the bar. Any new infrastructure should not expose or require users to understand new or complex technologies or processes. It should, as much as possible, work like something they already do
Bring your own tools. Users should be able to employ the tools that they already understand and work with. For example, if a researcher uses Mathematica for image analysis in her office, she should be able to use it on large collections of digital assets distributed across multiple content organisations.
Be creative. Users should be able to use data in creative, novel, unexpected ways. Many systems and infrastructures limit what users can do.
Start small and grow big. Users should be able to try things out; explore, experiment and debug; and then deploy on large content sets.
References
1. Beth Plale, Opportunies and Challenges of Text Mining HathiTrust Digital Library, Koninklijke Bibiotheek, 15 November 2013 www.hathitrust.org/documents/kb-plalehtrc-nov2013.pdf

2. Creating a Global Alliance to Enable Responsible Sharing of Genomic and Clinical Data, 3 June 2013 www.ebi.ac.uk/sites/ebi.ac.uk/files/shared/images/News/Global_Alliance_White_Paper_3_June_2013.pdf

3. Quinn Dombrowski, What ever happened to Project Bamboo?, DH2013","txt","2","",""
"1971","15","Introducing digital humanities through cultural analysis","9","1. Introduction
In this contribution we present a pedagogical approach with the intention to introduce digital humanities to undergraduate students. Our approach may be regarded from three angles: first, as the construction of tailored toolkits of digital methods for students; second, as a contribution to the analysis of material properties of cultural productions, and; third, as a mid-term strategy to orient students toward design-based learning techniques.

The way in which our pedagogical practice connects the three perspectives is as follows. We consider the realm of cultural productions populated by music albums, films, comic books, TV series, video games, digital art, architecture, industrial design, etc. Now, with the emergence of various kinds of tools and scripts for analyzing media data (text, images, audio, etc.), we select and assemble several of them in a tailored toolkit for studying cultural productions. Then we use the toolkit as a teaching methodology in the classroom. In the mid/long-term, our intention is to move students from the use of tools (as it happens in undergraduate courses) to the creation and design of tools, services and processes (as it happens in postgraduate courses). In the present work, we discuss some experiences with undergraduate students in information and communication sciences at the University of Paris 13.

2. Analyzing cultural productions
Before introducing digital tools and methods in the classroom, we discuss about cultural productions: what they are and why/how to study them . Within the context of the undergraduate curricula, our course explores the possibilities of digital and connected technologies. Our course tries to complement other types of communicational analysis such as discourse analysis, semiotic analysis, and quantitative methods. From this perspective, our methods put special attention on the analysis of material properties of cultural productions. 

In that respect, the analysis of cultural productions deals with tasks such as gathering, documenting, representing, and exploring valuable data about forms, materials, contexts, techniques, themes, and producers of these productions. Cultural objects, or cultural productions, represent the tangible or perceivable result of cultural labor.

In our course, we tackle the analysis of material properties of cultural productions from three dimensions: texts, images, and networks. For practical goals, we first ask students to select a production of their choice: a CD album, a film, a comic book, a series of comic covers, a video game, a music video clip, etc. Then two main types of data are collected. On the one hand, media-based data (texts, images, videos, audios, etc.) and, on the other hand, data about data (metadata) such as years, places, actors, roles, etc. Our toolkit of digital methods is tailored to suit the analysis of each dimension.

Once data has been collected, the next step is to perform information processing techniques in order to generate ‘analytical maps’, which are the formal outcome of the analysis of material properties of cultural productions. These maps are helpful in the processes of identification of relationships, observation, comparison, evaluation, formulation of hypothesis, verification of intuitions, elaboration of conclusions, and other social sciences methods.

By learning to manipulate tools and studying material features of cultural productions, students generate their analytical maps and use them as a support to reflect on second-order questions: Why the production was made in such a way? Who created it, how, and by which means? Which actors contributed to it and which roles they played? In which manners those actors influenced the final product? How does the production reflect on societal, scientific, temporal, artistic, and geographic aspects of its time?

3. Our approach
3.1. First step: gather data
As we mentioned above, we first ask students to select a cultural production. The selection is free and subjective, it is an individual decision in order to create a comfortable ambient for research. Students are naturally attracted to an artist or film or CD and this might stimulate to dig deeper in the gathering of data. From another perspective, the choice also reflects ideological presumptions, intuitions and trends in a generation.

For media data, the sources vary according to the choice of the cultural production. In the case of a CD album, for example, texts can be found in the lyrics of songs; for a film it could be the script or even a SRT subtitle file. For comics, it could be the dialog balloons and other paratexts. For images the case is not very different. Images are considered as any graphical information that pertains to the cultural production. CD albums have covers, booklets, etc. Films have frames, posters, etc. Comics have covers, pages, frames, etc. 

For data about data (metadata), students use extensively search engines, Wikipedia, specialized online databases (AllMusic , IMDB , etc.) and Google services (Ngram Viewer , Zeitgeist , etc.) to gather data associated with the production: persons and roles (producers, directors, artists, designers, engineers, etc.); years, places, company, label, duration, technical details, etc.

In any case, students take their own decisions about what kind and how large the corpus of analysis should be. This is the reason why we let students to select freely the cultural production, if they like it they can go deeper and construct bigger corpora.

3.2. Second step: analytical map of digital texts
The first type of analytical maps we generate have text as media data input. We mainly rely on four techniques: 1) generating a word cloud; 2) generating a list of word frequencies; 3) generating a word trend graph and identifying the word in context; 4) generating an exploratory visualization of text: a phrase network or an experimental representation of text.

These techniques are coupled with technological tools. We use easy-to-use web-based software. Word clouds are generated via Wordle . A list of word frequencies, a graph of trends, and words in context can be obtained with voyeurtools.org. Finally, exploratory representations of text can be achieved with ManyEyes  or other Voyeur tools .

3.3. Third step: analytical map of digital images
The second type of analytical maps we generate have images as media data input. We consider five techniques: 1) extracting the color scheme and listing color values; 2) evidencing shapes; 3) distributing colors according to the RGB color model; 4) generating orthogonal views of video sequences.

As it happens with text, image techniques correspond to specific tools. For technique no. 1 we use the add-on tool Rainbow 1.5.1 available for Firefox . For technique no. 2 we use the online editor Pixlr , specially the filter ‘detect contours’ combined with an adjustment of brightness and contrast. For technique no. 3 we use the Firefox add-on Color Inspector 3D . For technique no. 4 we use the tool slitscanner.js  (only available for HTML5 videos).

3.4. Fourth step: analytical map of digital metadata
The third type of analytical maps we generate have metadata as input. Networks are about rendering evident the relationships between data (for instance, persons involved at some point or playing a particular role in the production) of the cultural object. We work on two techniques: 1) cleaning and preparing data in a spreadsheet; 2) generating and navigating network diagrams.

The first technique is accomplished with Google Spreadsheets, and the second one with ManyEyes.

3.5. Fifth step: analysis of analytical maps to elaborate conclusions
The last part of our approach involves all the analytical maps together. The main goal is to use social sciences methodologies (observation, comparison, etc.) to elaborate conclusions about the second-order questions: Why the production was made in such a way? How does the production reflect on societal, scientific, temporal, artistic, and geographic aspects of its time?

This last part is most of the time conducted by students themselves or in teams. They often recreate some of the latter steps or they start searching for more resources. In the end, they are free to design a display support for the analytical maps and the conclusions. I, as teacher, do not make suggestions at this stage because students now use more naturally the web as a service.

4. Conclusions and perspectives
We have used our toolkit as teaching strategy for two years and we have documentation on more than 100 student projects . We have collected informal data about student experiences: technical issues, methodology and even cultural trends (for example, most analyzed groups and films). Among our ideas for evaluation and improvement, we foresee: to design higher level courses based on the learning outcomes of this course; to make available a reference manual of DH techniques for students; and, to collaborate closer with other colleagues to complement other types of analysis.

Our toolkit of digital methods is inspired by techniques that come from the domain of text analysis, visual semiotics, and network analysis. Within a digital context, we believe they foster a more scientific web culture as the web is regarded as a platform and service for research. In that manner, the role of the teacher is more to assist students in every step of the analysis and to help  identify valuable insights that could only be appreciated through digital methods.

References
Software Studies Initiative (2008). Cultural analytics. lab.softwarestudies.com/p/cultural-analytics.html (accessed 7 March 2014).

AllMusic. www.allmusic.com/ (accessed 7 March 2014).

Internet Movie Database. www.imdb.com/ (accessed 7 March 2014).

Google Ngram Viewer. books.google.com/ngrams (accessed 7 March 2014).

Goolge Zeitgeist. www.google.com/zeitgeist/ (accessed 7 March 2014).

Wordle. www.wordle.net/ (accessed 7 March 2014).

>ManyEyes. www-958.ibm.com/software/analytics/manyeyes/ (accessed 7 March 2014).

Voyeur Tools. Online: hermeneuti.ca/voyeur/tools (accessed 7 March 2014).

Rainbow 1.5.1. addons.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/addon/rainbow-color-tools/ (accessed 7 March 2014).

Pixlr. pixlr.com/editor/ (accessed 7 March 2014).

Color Inspector 3D. addons.mozilla.org/En-us/firefox/addon/color-inspector-3d/ (accessed 7 March 2014).

Hwang, S. (2013). Slitscanner.js.sketches.postarchitectural.com/slitscanner/ (accessed 7 March 2014).

Reyes, E. (2013). Culture numérique.bit.ly/1fMDOgU (accessed 7 March 2014).","txt","2","",""
"1972","15","Kanripo and Mandoku: Tools for distributed repositories of premodern Chinese texts","9","Introduction
During the last 15 to 20 years, a considerable amount of premodern Chinese texts have been made available electronically, both for free and unhindered use and commercially in dedicated and locked down applications. Examples for the first type include projects such as the Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (www.cbeta.org) and Wikisource (zh.wikisource.org) and the Internet Archive (www.archive.org), while examples for the latter includes products like the Siku quansshu electronic edition (四庫全書 電子版) by Digital Heritage Publishing or Zhongguo jiben guji ku 中国 基本古籍庫 by Airusheng.

For scholars wanting to make use of these ressources for their research, there are a few obstacles, including:

different formats and ways to access the texts
in many cases, texts do not confirm to philological standards
researchers can not annotate the texts and share their notes
Now, the projects described here attempt to develop an infrastructure for enabling scholars to work with repositories of freely available texts using a rapid prototyping approach with an expanding group of scholars for testing and early adoption. Technically, the main idea is to develop this as a network of repositories of texts, where each node a network consists of a set of git repositories, that can represent multiple editions of texts.

Kanripo: A repository of premodern Chinese texts
First experiments for one node of such a network have been started at Kyoto University's Institute for Research in Humanities and its associated Center for Informatics in East-Asian Studies, CIEAS. In this experiment, the distributed version control system (DVCS) git is used as a basic transportation layer. Every text in the repository is represented by one DVCS node; different editions of the text can be represented by different versions or ""branches"" within this node; digital facsimiles can be associated with such versions. Users can also ""fork"" public projects and create new branches with their own annotations and comments and share these with other researchers, either in closed groups or with the general public.

The interaction with Kanripo occurs mainly through the web interface, but can also occur directly from the desktop tool Mandoku. However, as the experience so far has shown, it seems necessary to further develop the web interface, to enable it to become not just a hub for interaction between the users, but also a full-fledged client for editing texts in the repository or add comments and annotations. For this purpose, a system similar to the popular Github site (github.com) is envisioned, starting from a open source clone of github called gitlab. This is in a very early stage of development and any feedback from the audience will be much appreciated.

Mandoku: A tool for interacting with the repository
Development has also started aiming at a convenient desktop based tool for interacting with the repositories; a preliminary development version of this tool called Mandoku will also be demonstrated during the presentation.

Mandoku tries to meet researchers of premodern Chinese texts where they spent most of their time, that is reading, annotating and translating texts. This is why the current prototype is build on the powerful and extensible editor Emacs, while as a future implementation a interface for more casual users is also planned. To incite users to overcome the initial hurdle of adopting to a new and unusual editing program, a number of tools have been implemented, that enhance the usefulness of the system, among them a keyword in context (KWIC) index is generated on each text in every repository node, which can then be queried through Mandoku and the aggregated results will be displayed, a cumulative index for the query of dictionaries and specialized reference works; further text-analytic tools are planned.

Repository for digital publications
Another problem this system tries to adress is a serious problem with the current mainstream form of digital publication: Currently a website serves usually as the main and in many cases as the sole venue of publication, thus usually hiding a complex textual resources between one browser-mediated interface (For a further discussion of this problem and a model for overcoming it see1, {6}, {7} and {8}). This topic has been discussed for some time and valid suggestions and a discussion of the requirements can be found in 2, 3, 4 and 5. Here, this proposal is taken up and expanded, namely by adding the requirement that the text will not only be made available to the scholarly community, but that it also be able to annotate it in a way that can be owned by the scholar adding the annotation and still be shared with interested colleagues.

In the framework presented here, fulfilling these requirements on a technical level is constructed as follows:

A text available from the repository (which can be edited only by the editors) is ""forked"" into a private text repository on this or any other node in the network.
The researcher can now edit and annotate the text to its hearts content, if so desired making the annotations available to others through pushing them to the forked repository.
Occasionally, the researcher might come across errors in the text or has material he would like to offer for inclusion in the authorative published text. He now issues a ""merge request"", which alerts the editors of the published texts to the existence of this piece of information, which usually is already visible on the private repository.
The editor will consider the merit of the correction and can then incorporate it into the published text. When doing so, the origin of this information and any communication concerning the reason and argument for this correction will retain their relationship to this piece of text and is available as part of the scholarly record for this text.
If used correctly, this mechanism could provide a solution to the above mentioned problems with online digital publications. First experiments with scholars connected to the Kanripo research project showed that the technical protocol is not easily transparent to the scholars who are supposed to use it and does require more fine-tuning and better tool support in order to become more widely acceptable.

Conclusion
In an attempt to provide a stable, extensible platform for the curation of the textual heritage of China, a blueprint for text repositories that can form a network of related, but independent repositories for critically edited texts has been provided and a prototype of this implemented as the Kanseki Repository of texts (Kanripo), which can be accessed through one prototype client Mandoku. Further development will occur in collaborative form with scholars using this framework by attending to their emerging needs and thus hopefully developing into sustainable resources that can provide a solid base for all kinds of scholarly inquiry that relates to premodern Chinese texts.

References
1. Wittern, Christian (2013) ""Beyond TEI: Returning the Text to the Reader"". In: Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative [jtei.revues.org/691], 2013, 4.

2. Robinson, P. (2009). “Towards a Scholarly Editing System for the Next Decades”. In: Sanskrit Computational Linguistics: First and Second International Symposia Rocquencourt, France, October 29-31, 2007 Providence, RI, USA, May 15-17, 2008 Revised Selected Papers. Springer London, Limited, pp. 346–357.

3. Schmidt, Desmond and Robert Colomb (June 2009). “A data structure for representing multi-version texts online”. In: International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 67.6, pp. 497–514.

4. Shillingsburg, Peter (2010). “How Literary Works Exist: Implied, Represented, and Interpreted”. In: Text and Genre in Reconstruction: Effects of Digitalization on Ideas, Behaviours, Products and Institutions. Ed. by Willard Mc- Carty. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers.

5. Siemens, Ray et al. (2009). “It May Change My Understanding of the Field: Understanding Reading Tools for Scholars and Professional Readers”. In: DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly 3.4.

Christian Wittern""Towards an Architecture for Active Reading"", in: Scholarly and Research Communication (www.src-online.ca/index.php/src/article/view/59), 2013, volume 3 / issue 4 p.1-11.

Christian Wittern, ""The Digital Daozang Jiyao – How to get the edition into the Scholar's labs"", in: digital humanities 2012. Conference Abstracts, Hamburg, 2012, p.422-424.

Christian Wittern, ""Text Representation and Interchange in the Digital Age"", at Annual conference of the Japanese Association for Digital Humanities 2012 at University of Tokyo, Sep. 15-17, 2012.","txt","2","",""
"1973","15","Kiln: XML Publishing Framework","2","Getting an XML-based website up and running can be a repetitive, time consuming and tedious task. It usually also requires someone with good technical knowledge to bring all of the pieces together into a complete package. Kiln is a tool that allows a non-technical user to quickly and easily create a working web application that provides base functionality for publishing, indexing and searching XML source content.

The user is free to focus on developing the content, and can easily assess the way in which content is used and review changes to see how they are reflected in the published output. Importantly this ease of use does not preclude the customisation of the existing functionality, nor the addition of new tools, processes and outputs.

Kiln, previously known as xMod, is an open source multi-platform framework for building and deploying complex websites whose source content is primarily in TEI/XML. It brings together various independent software components into an integrated whole that provides the infrastructure and base functionality for such sites.

Kiln is developed and maintained by a team at the Department of Digital Humanities, King’s College London. Over the past years and over several versions, Kiln has been used to generate more than 50 websites for digital humanities research projects which have very different source materials and customised functionality.

The main Kiln components are:

Apache Cocoon web development framework for XML processing.
Jetty web application server.
Apache Solr, a searching platform for indexing, searching and browsing of contents.
Sesame, a framework for processing RDF data.
In a production web server context, Kiln integrates with other web publishing tools to support images, maps and other data sources, like relational databases. It can equally easily be used to provide a full web application solution, or as a backend providing content to be surfaced by some other technology, such as Django or WordPress.

Kiln has been developed around the concept of the separation of roles, allowing people with different backgrounds, knowledge and skills to work simultaneously on the same project without interfering with one another’s work. The parts of the system used by developers, designers and content editors are distinct. For example, the templating engine handles the general structure of an output document in individual files, with reference to separate sources which supply the individual content elements. Templating is also achieved using a lightweight syntax that allows frontend development to take place without any knowledge of XSLT.Kiln has two competing design goals: to support the development of unique, complex web applications; and to provide an out-of-the-box system suitable for a single non-technical person to publish a TEI-based site. The former demands not only the customisability of every component, but also the avoidance of any technical magic that makes one way easier at the cost of another way being harder. The latter requires a large amount of built-in behaviour that can be easily tweaked in isolation, and excellent documentation. Kiln’s documentation includes a tutorial showing how to customise each of the major elements of a site, as required beyond the provided defaults.

In comparison with other publishing tools, such as XTF, SADE and TE- ICHI, Kiln offers some advantages. It is mature and flexible, as it has been in active development for 10 years since its initial version, and has been used in many research projects. It is standalone (beyond an installation of the Java language), requiring no other software for any of its functionality, and it provides a working site, including a faceted search, with no more than placing TEI files in a particular directory.

The proposed poster will provide a diagrammatic overview of a Kiln project structure, and an accompanying interactive demo will show the system in action, from creating a new project through to displaying content as a website.

References
1. kcl-ddh.github.io/kiln/

2. A list of some of these projects is available at kiln.readthedocs.org/en/latest/ projects.html.

3. cocoon.apache.org/2.1/

4. www.eclipse.org/jetty/

5. lucene.apache.org/solr/

6. www.openrdf.org/

7. xtf.cdlib.org/

8. www.bbaw.de/telota/software/sade/sade-1

9. www.teichi.org/","txt","2","",""
"1974","15","Kinomatics: big cultural data and the study of cinema","10","Introduction
The Kinomatics Project is a multidisciplinary study of the industrial geometry of culture focussing in particular (but not exclusively) on the cinema. The project results from both the recent digitisation of the cinema industries as well as contemporary research practices in the discipline1. The researchers have collated a unique dataset of global cinema showtimes which alone, and in combination with additional datasets, challenge many of the unspoken assumptions and ordinary practices of conventional film studies research.

The Kinomatics Project proceeds from the emergent understanding that the cinema is not an isolated set of practices. Cinema comprises institutional, social, and commercial networks that are interdependent which in turn influence and shape our approach to cinema research. This view of cinema is relatively recent. To date, the study of cinema has been predominantly concerned with issues of film content (the text) and with little regard for the events that occur around the actual consumption of film2. By shifting the focus from film content to cinema as a cultural practice we open the way for new questions and approaches to research that effectively draws together a number of discipline areas. This also distinguishes our work from others with a more formally or textually focussed approach to the computational turn in Cinema Studies such as Lev Manovich’s3pioneering studies. In particular the advent of big data has meant that a wider range of digital data types, formats, and sources can be used in innovative ways by all disciplines including the humanities and social sciences. The availability of big cultural data enables the unprecedented mapping of the industrial geometry of motion pictures at an international scale. This paper uses three case studies to demonstrate how the digitisation of cinema can be understood as a set of located and network practices.

A Big Cultural Dataset to Track Film Flow and Diffusion Across the Globe
Over a 12 month period, we have tracked the global flow of film screenings by gathering specific cinema location information for over 47,000 films throughout 48 countries internationally. For each of these 48 countries we have data for every film screening event (down to date and time for each screen) for all venues (a global total of 30,000) resulting in a database of over 120 million records. Data was obtained from a third party source and is directly downloaded to the project database.  Their data comes directly from cinema venues mostly through automated electronic means and also email and phone calls. Until now, databases dealing with cinema consumption and exhibition have been limited to case studies that are either national scope or defined by special interests. Examples include, historical database initiatives such as the substantial Dutch database “Cinema in Context”4 and the “Cinema and Audiences in Australia Project” (CAARP) database5 as well as the GIS based work of Robert C. Allen6 at the University of North Carolina and the “Australian Cinemas Map” database in Australia7. This project extends the scope of such databases by taking it to an international scale, to create the first global study of the film industry.

Method and Analytical Approach
In this paper we will demonstrate how we can further our understanding of cinema as a set of network practices both economically and geographically through the collection of digital datasets and utilising new technologies for analysis. This will be addressed in three linked projects, all of which focus on the global reach of cinematic data and practices. Whilst there are some differences in method across the projects, each of the inter-related projects feature the use of visualisation to explore, analyse, and communicate the information and findings. Visualisations are used throughout the process as it is an effective way of dealing with big data, making the proliferation of data readily accessible.

Each of the related projects are briefly summarised as follows:

1) Tracking the global movement of films
The success of the film The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey has been taken as a case study to track the movement of film at an international scale. The Hobbit was chosen due to the challenges it poses from the large amount of viewings, the geographical reach of its screenings, and also the complex temporal and spatial itineraries involved in ‘staggered’ film releasing strategies. The use of GIS and temporally sensitive visualisations have enabled us to track the spatial and temporal relationships of The Hobbit, highlighting the complexities of international cinema enterprises and the subtleties of contemporary releasing strategies.

2) Interoperating data – linking remittances and the movement of film at the cinema
Using India as a case study we explore the relationship between remittance flows and the movement of film around the globe. India provides an ideal case in point to study this relationship given that a relatively large proportion of Indians work abroad sending remittances back home and that India has its own unique highly successful global film industry emanating from Bollywood.  By merging data on the flows of remittances from countries returning funds to India with data on the screening of Indian film we have used visualisation and economic modelling techniques to identify the pattern of movement of Indian film around the world, with particular focus on how Indian film flows into the various remittance-sending countries. This analysis is based on bi-lateral remittance flow data sourced from the World Bank. In order to investigate the importance of remittances as a factor helping to explain the flow of Indian film around the world we scale remittances relative to the size of the sending countries overall population. As a result, we are able to test whether a greater presence of Indian nationals within a given country supports a higher level of cultural diffusion.

3) Spatial and temporal persistence in distribution patterns during a period of industrial transition
The distribution industry has been explored through modelling the spatial and temporal attributes associated with the diffusion of films. Although the digitisation of the film itself has opened up the possibilities of new distribution markets and strategies, we have found that there is still a strong relationship to pre-digital distribution territories. Through a number of visualisation techniques including Network Analysis and Circular Statistics, our analysis has also found that there is great variation in distribution patterns dependent on variables such as genre, production company, and country of origin.

Conclusion
Rather than measuring the comparative cultural value of film texts as favoured by traditional cinema studies, the Kinomatics Project traces the flows and pace of industrial change in the cinema and measures the intensity of its dynamics. This paper describes the intersection between a revised qualitative cinema historiography (focused around an industrially informed and consumption attentive view of the cinema) and the use of innovative information systems inspired by new research approaches found in big data analytics such as data mining and digital visualisations.

References
1. Verhoeven, D. (2012), New Cinema History and the Computational Turn, in Beyond Art, Beyond Humanities, Beyond Technology: A New Creativity, Proceedings of the World Congress of Communication and the Arts Conference, University of Minho, Portugal

2. Bowles, K and Maltby, R. (2009), What's new about New Cinema History?, in H. Radner, P. Fossen (eds), Remapping Cinema, Remaking History: XIVth Biennial Conference of the Film and History Association of Australia and New Zealand, Centre for Research on National Identity, University of Otago, NZ, Dunedin, New Zealand, pp. 7-21

3. Manovich, L. (2001), The Language of New Media. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA

4. Dibbets, K. (ed) (2013), Cinema Contexts, www.cinemacontext.nl (accessed 12 February 2014)

5. Verhoeven, D. (2013), CAARP, caarp.edu.au (accessed 12 February 2014)

6. Allen, R. (ed), (2013), Going to the Movies, docsouth.unc.edu/gtts/ (accessed 12 February 2014)

7. Maltby, R and Walsh, M. (ed), (2013), Australian Cinemas Map, auscinemas.flinders.edu.au/ (accessed 12 February 2014)","txt","2","",""
"1975","15","L’édition numérique – système d’organisation des connaissances avec les outils sémantiques","10","La culture numérique, ses pratiques et ses exigences ont profondément modifié les pratiques de lecture en introduisant de nouvelles manières de lire. Cela a suscité des changements dans l’édition qui a développé de nouveaux supports et de nouveaux formats à l’aide de technologies capables de transformer l’environnement numérique en environnement de lecture. Avec les outils sémantiques émerge un nouveau modèle d’édition numérique qui est bien plus qu’une simple base de connaissances. 

Le projet Descartes est un projet d’édition numérique mené par l’équipe Objets et Usages Numériques (Laboratoire ELLIADD) et le Centre de Documentation et Bibliographie Philosophiques de l’Université de Franche-Comté au début des années 2000. Il va bien au-delà de la plate-forme de publication, fonctionnalité largement répandue : il s'est interrogé sur les apports des technologies numériques et a élaboré un dispositif ayant pour mission de compléter, voire de renouveler l’expérience de lecture. Ce projet a trouvé un prolongement dans une thèse de doctorat intitulée « Outils sémantiques au service du livre numérique, modélisation et visualisation des liens transtextuels ». L’objectif était de montrer de quelle façon les technologies du web sémantique pouvaient être utilisées pour le développement d’une plate‑forme de lecture numérique en tissant des liens entre des textes. La structuration des connaissances se fait selon trois niveaux : informationnel, descriptif et sémantique. Le niveau informationnel est composé de l’ensemble des ressources numériques primaires (e.g. ressources textuelles et iconographiques). Les métadonnées sur ces documents primaires se retrouvent au deuxième niveau, descriptif, et sont enregistrées en triplets RDF comme une base de connaissances assertionnelles. Le troisième niveau, sémantique, contient les connaissances théoriques du corpus formalisées en ontologies (RDFS, OWL-DL). Cette réflexion a nécessité la modélisation d’une ontologie de la transtextualité, appelée TROW (Web Ontology of TRanstertuality), qui définit les liaisons qui unissent les différents textes à l’intérieur d’un corpus. Ces liaisons, enregistrées sous la forme de métadonnées, permettent de naviguer efficacement dans le corpus et offrent une approche différente grâce à une nouvelle organisation et présentation des informations. La machine complète le travail de l’utilisateur dans la mesure où elle interprète les relations qui existent entre les textes et peut ainsi inférer des liaisons inédites.  Cela a conduit à la création d’une interface de lecture adaptée à la navigation transtextuelle, en particulier via une disposition parallèle des textes et une représentation des liens profonds sous forme de graphe. L’interface est capable d’afficher un graphe des liaisons transtextuelles à l’activation d’un lien et permet la lecture simultanée d’un texte de référence et d’un texte cible. 

Le travail que nous aimerions présenter constitue la prochaine étape de cette réflexion sur la transmission du savoir grâce aux technologies du web sémantique. Il s’inscrit dans une collaboration entre chercheurs qui ouvre le projet Descartes, ancré en philosophie, vers d’autres disciplines pour aboutir à un projet interdisciplinaire où interviennent sciences de l’information et de la communication, informatique, histoire, études chinoises et études germaniques. Il vise le passage d‘un outil pour la lecture de textes à un outil permettant de voyager dans une base de données qui ne sera pas seulement composée de textes. Il s’agit en effet d’éditer un corpus d’archives composé entre autres de cartes, de photographies et de textes sur la présence allemande en Chine au tournant du vingtième siècle. Nous nous intéresserons en premier lieu à un ensemble de cartes postales qui véhiculèrent des représentations de la Chine et de ses habitants dans l’Allemagne wilhelminienne. Nous assurerons la description de ces sources primaires dans la mesure où nous définirons, structurerons et associerons les métadonnées correspondant aux cartes postales afin d’établir une nouvelle ontologie.  

L’objectif est similaire à celui du projet Descartes : accompagner l’utilisateur dans la découverte d’un ensemble de documents, l’aider dans son analyse en tissant des liens entre les ressources documentaires grâce aux possibilités offertes par les technologies du web sémantique. Cela implique d’utiliser l’ontologie TROW comme une base, tout en la complétant, voire en la modifiant pour l’adapter à tous les genres de documents du corpus et de créer plusieurs ontologies, afin d’assurer l’interopérabilité des liaisons.

L’infrastructure doit permettre une visualisation interactive dans la mesure où les représentations visuelles sont considérées comme de véritables supports de la pensée. Elle doit être capable de gérer le déploiement d’archives numériques qui ne prend pas la forme d’une narration hypertextuelle, mais celle d’une représentation cartographique. L’utilisateur reste libre dans sa démarche de découverte et d’appropriation des connaissances : il n’est pas question d’imposer un sens de lecture et une interprétation des documents. La machine propose des connexions nouvelles, mais c’est à l’utilisateur de jouer un rôle actif dans l’acquisition et le partage des connaissances. On passe d’un espace de stockage de documents à un espace interactif qui associe les fonctions du web sémantique et la participation des utilisateurs. Chaque utilisateur compose sa propre sélection et crée son propre parcours dans la base de données. Il a la possibilité d’évaluer la pertinence des sources, d’annoter, de commenter, d’échanger. Ainsi chaque utilisateur devient l’auteur d’une mémoire personnalisée et prend part simultanément à l’écriture de la mémoire collective. Il faut également poursuivre les recherches qui concernent l’ergonomie de l’interface afin de répondre à l’élargissement des fonctionnalités de l’outil et aux besoins de l’utilisateur. 

Il est aussi important de souligner que cet outil vise à développer une passerelle entre le monde universitaire et le grand public en diffusant la recherche en sciences humaines et sociales par un média numérique. Il a pour but d’assurer une diffusion et une réception plus larges d’archives numérisées. Il doit garantir une meilleure visibilité des travaux de recherche au sein de la communauté universitaire, mais aussi une vulgarisation des connaissances scientifiques, une démocratisation du savoir en rendant l’utilisateur actif et en favorisant le travail collaboratif. Il s‘agit de penser la transmission du savoir au‑delà d’une simple numérisation des sources et d’envisager l’apport des technologies du web sémantique dans la constitution d’une mémoire individuelle et collective.

References
Berners-Lee, Tim, Hendler, James et Lassila, Ora (2001), The Semantic Web, A new form of Web content that is meaningful to computers will unleash a revolution of new possibilities, Scientific American, mai 2001, p. 34-43.

Borel, Clément, Royin, Ioan (2013), Ontologie de l'intertextualité. Le cas des corpus numériques philosophiques, in Pratiques et usages numériques. H2PTM'13, Lavoisier, Paris, p. 281-290.

Kaplan, Frédéric, (2013) L’origine médiévale de l’hyperlien, des pointeurs et des smileys avril 19 2013. Disponible à l’adresse : fkaplan.wordpress.com/2013/04/19/lorigine-medievale-de-lhyperlien-des-pointeurs-et-des-smileys

Ong, J. Walter (2002), Orality and Literacy. The Technologizing of the World,Routledge, New York.

Pédauque, Roger T. (2006), Le document à la lumière du numérique, Caen, C&F éditions.

Peirce, Charles Sanders (1978), Écrits sur le signe, Seuil,  Paris.

Tricot, Christophe (2006), Cartographie Sémantique, des connaissances à la carte, thèse de doctorat, Université de Savoie.","txt","2","",""
"1976","15","L`Innommable / The Unnamable: The Second Module of the Samuel Beckett Digital Manuscript Project's Hybrid Genetic Edition.","2","This poster will offer an interactive demonstration of the second module of the Samuel Beckett Digital Manuscript Project (BDMP) – an international collaboration between the Centre for Manuscript Genetics at the University of Antwerp, the Beckett International Foundation at the University of Reading, and the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at the University of Austin, Texas, with the kind permission of the Estate of Samuel Beckett. As its name implies, the BDMP aims to reunite and make publicly accessible all manuscripts of Samuel Beckett’s works, the physical documents of which are located in different holding libraries around the world. This goal will be realized in the form of a hybrid genetic edition that combines a digital archive of the manuscripts organized in twenty-six research modules (one published each year) with a series of twenty-six accompanying volumes analysing the geneses of the texts contained in the corresponding modules. Each of the modules comprises digital facsimiles and transcriptions of all extant manuscripts pertaining to an individual text – or to a collection of shorter texts. The digital archive can be accessed online at www.beckettarchive.org, where you can currently find the project’s first module, which combines the manuscripts of the late short prose text Stirrings Still / Soubresautswith those of Beckett’s last poem Comment dire / what is the word1. The project’s second module, which will present the bilingual genetic dossier of Beckett’s novel L’Innommable / The Unnamable edited by Dirk Van Hulle, Shane Weller and Vincent Neyt, will be made available online towards the end of 20132.

As a hybrid genetic edition, the BDMP combines digital scholarly editing with genetic criticism – a form of literary criticism that studies the dynamics of the writing process. As such, the edition does not aim to support a new reading text of Beckett’s works, but rather to highlight the creative process that brought those works about. Traces of this process can be found in the extant manuscripts, more specifically in their many deletions, additions, paralipomena, doodles, etc. According to Pierre-Marc de Biasi, the objective of genetic criticism is twofold (42)3: first (1) to locate, collate, and transcribe all of the work’s extant versions in order to make them analysable, and then (2) to reconstruct the logic of the work’s genesis (also called the ‘avant texte’) from a chosen perspective. Therefore, rather than focussing solely on an analysis of the works’ geneses – which can be found in the interpretative, printed component of our edition – we also want to make these geneses analysable, by offering fully transcribed (in TEI-compliant XML) and searchable facsimiles in the edition’s digital component. Hence, the BDMP complies with Patrick Sahle’s recent definition of scholarly hybrid editions, stipulating that such editions should not only be published in different media, but that their different components should complement one another, and that each component should take the possibilities and limitations of its medium into account (64)4.

Because the modern manuscripts we exhibit are still under copyright and therefore do not yet belong to the public domain, the BDMP still requires its users (either individuals or institutions) to pay a subscription fee to gain access to its materials. Therefore, this poster will be a great opportunity for potential users to receive a personal, hands-on introduction to the project. The poster’s main focus will be on the project’s newest module, and on the differences between both modules. Because the genesis of every work is different, even within the oeuvre of a single author, we try to determine what the specific needs of the texts in each subsequent module are, and to re-evaluate the tools and functionalities the module will provide to satisfy those needs accordingly. For the BDMP’s second module, for example, this resulted in changes to the Synoptic Sentence View (which allows the user to grab any sentence in our corpus, and generate a chronological list of its different versions), to the image-text linking tool, etc. Furthermore, this poster will also demonstrate the BDMP’s improved integration of CollateX5 – the interoperable collation tool that is part of the Interedition project6. 

References
1. Beckett, Samuel (2011). Stirrings Still / Soubresauts and Comment Dire / what is the word: an electronic genetic edition (Series ‘The Beckett Digital Manuscript Project’ module 1), edited by Dirk Van Hulle and Vincent Neyt. Brussels: University Press Antwerp (ASP/UPA). www.beckettarchive.org (accessed 30 October 2013).

2. Beckett, Samuel (2011). Stirrings Still / Soubresauts and Comment Dire / what is the word: an electronic genetic edition (Series ‘The Beckett Digital Manuscript Project’ module 1), edited by Dirk Van Hulle and Vincent Neyt. Brussels: University Press Antwerp (ASP/UPA). www.beckettarchive.org (accessed 30 October 2013).

3. de Biasi, Pierre-Marc (2004) Toward a Science of Literature: Manuscript Analysis and the Genesis of the Work. Genetic Criticism. Texts and Avant-textes. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press: 36-68.

4. Sahle, Patrick (2013) Digitale Editionsformen, Zum Umgang mit der Überlieferung unter den Bedingungen des Medienwandels. Teil 2: Befunde, Theorie und Methodik. Nordstedt: Books on Demand.

5. CollateX (2013) Home. CollateX. www.collatex.net (accessed 30 October 2013).

6. Interedition (2013) Home. Interedition. www.interedition.eu (accessed 30 October 2013).","txt","2","",""
"1977","15","LA HIPEREDIÇÃO DOS PANFLETOS DE EULÁLIO MOTTA: EDICIÓN FILOLÓGICA Y CULTURA DIGITAL, RETOS DE UN NUEVO TIEMPO","2","Introducción: situando el debate 
El advenimiento de la informática trajo consigo cambios expresivos en el modo como la sociedad se relaciona con la escrita, estableciendo una nueva organización de los modos de producción, transmisión, preservación y usos de los textos. Del mismo modo, las disciplinas que utilizan el texto como objeto de estudio también fueron obligadas a repensaren sus prácticas investigativas. En el ámbito de la Crítica Textual, por ejemplo, los filólogos están utilizando la tecnología digital para diseñar nuevos modelos de edición y para poner en práctica un nuevo concepto de filología. Pero, trasladar textos de la cultura manuscrita y/o impresa al medio digital nos es una tarea simple y requiere pericia filológica (Lucía Megías, 2010).

Los textos no son hechos solamente de una secuencia alfanumérica. En su naturaleza están implicados también los códigos bibliográficos y contextuales que contribuyen para su entendimiento (Bornstein, 2001; Mcgann, 1992, 1991). Los diferentes modos como los textos ganaron forma, fueron distribuidos, leídos, comercializados, almacenados, utilizados, etc. hacen parte de su historia primordial como lo ha señalado tantas veces Roger Chartier (2001; 2002). Por eso, a la hora de editar textos que tuvieron su existencia en la cultura material se necesita conservar, además de los códigos linguísticos, los contextuales y bibliográficos.

Una secuencia de letras y palabras (entendido como texto) puede ser reproducida en diferentes soportes y tipografías. Un texto manuscrito en cursiva humanística escrito en un pergamino, con letras capitulares ornadas, con filigranas y dibujos, puede ser trasladado al impreso tipográfico y después al digital. Supongamos que el único testimonio manuscrito de ese texto tenga huellas de quemaduras en sus bordas, contenga correcciones y anotaciones marginales. Si al editar el texto, el filólogo da atención solamente al establecimiento del código lingüístico, todos los significados que se pueden extraer del soporte, de la técnica de escritura, del design caligráfico y tipográfico se pierden o son señalados en largas notas, aparatos críticos o introducciones exhaustivas que los lectores no suelen leer.

Al ingresar en el mundo digital, un texto oriundo de la cultura material pasa a compartir de una lógica, bastante diferente de la cual él fue creado y construyó su historia. De ese modo, el filólogo que asume la responsabilidad de preparar una edición digital de textos impresos o manuscritos, tiene la responsabilidad de preservar, lo más posible, los códigos inherentes al texto para no alejarlo de su socio-historia. Pero esta no es una tarea sencilla y exige diálogo con diferentes disciplinas.

La Hiperedición de los panfletos de Eulálio Motta
Eulálio Motta (Mundo Novo-Ba, Brasil, 1907-1988) organizó un archivo personal que contiene miles de documentos diversos (libros, manuscritos de sus obras, cuadernos con anotación diaria, cartas, fotografías, colecciones de periódicos, etc.). Entre 1930 y 1988 él escribió panfletos, hojas sueltas impresas en tipografías manuales que eran distribuidas en la ciudad de Mundo Novo, estado de Bahia, Brasil. Por ser una literatura efémera solamente el autor conservó los panfletos en su acervo personal.

Al identificar los panfletos en el archivo del escritor, se observó que los impresos estaban atados a otros documentos tales como cartas, fotografías, postales, manuscritos, libros, etc. Editar los panfletos sin relacionarlos a tales documentos sería alejarlos de su socio-historia. Además de esto, las técnicas utilizadas para la impresión de los panfletos corresponden a la historia cultural de las prácticas de escrita del Sertão de Bahia, siendo imprescindible preservar los códigos bibliográficos, el diesign y el layout de los impresos.

Por lo tanto, se diseñó un modelo de edición digital que valorase la documentación paratextual (organizado en el dosiê arquivístico) y conjugase en un solo sitio transcripción semidiplomática, facsímile, fotografías y hasta video. Según Jerome McGnn, este tipo de edición digital que reúne hipertexto, video, iconografía y textos dinámicos, se configura como una hipermedia que es en verdad una hiperedición.

Para la hiperedición se necesitó: 

organizar el acervo del escritor: describir, catalogar, elaborar un banco de datos digital con el catálogo del acervo y hacer el inventario;
organizar los dossiês arquivísticos de todos los panfletos;
digitalizar los panfletos y los documentos de los dossiês arquivísticos;
editor el vídeo;
transcribir todos los documentos textuales utilizados en la edición;
preparar las ediciones críticas;
elaborar las imágenes de la transcripción sobrepuesta al facsímile;
preparar una versión para imprimir de todos los textos de la edición;
estructurar el banco de dados del Google Drive para la descripción linear de los textos; 1
hacer una descripción paleográfica de los panfletos;
elaborar el layout y el design gráfico de las páginas de la edición digital;
proceder a la etiquetaje del texto y a la edición de la página (utilizando Personal Home Page - PHP y HTML5, a través del editor Adobe Dreamweaver 5);
desarrollar funciones de script a partir de JavaScript.

Fig. 1: Página Inicial de la edición

www.eulaliomotta.com.br

A partir de la página inicial el usuario puede acceder a las ediciones de los panfletos pulsando en las imágenes de los impresos, organizados cronológicamente y con movimiento. Además de esto, hay muchas informaciones contextuales sobre la vida del escritor (álbum, entrevista, etc.). El usuario puede dejar su recado y puede observar los avisos dejados por el editor.

Al pie de la página hay las informaciones sobre los créditos y el aviso sobre los derechos autorales.


Fig. 2: Perfil del Escritor

Hay varios perfiles del escritor: poeta, periodista, político, pasquineiro, álbum, bibliografía.


Fig. 3: El álbum de Fotografías

El usuario puede ver a un conjunto de fotografías organizadas por el editor. Son documentos que pertenecen al archivo del escritor y trae y trae informaciones en el verso.


Fig. 4: La edición de un Panfleto

Facsímile;
Transcripción del texto sobre el facsímile;
Transcripción linear del texto;
Transcripción con link;
Crea una versión para imprimir;
Zoom hasta 100%;
Información paleográfica del texto (textura del papel, gramatura, color, lisura, dimensiones, etc.);
Dossiê arquivístico con los documentos del acervo del escritor que se relacionan con el panfleto editado, todos los ítems del dossiê son editados del mismo modo del panfleto el centro, con las mismas opciones de edición;
Información históricas sobre el documento;
Índice temático y por título de los panfletos.￼

Fig. 5: Visualización en Zoom

Todos los textos o imagen visualizadas pueden ser aumentadas hasta 100%￼


Fig. 6: Edición de una carta > dossiê arrquivístico de un pafleto


Fig. 7: Ejemplo de transcripción con link

Conclusión
La informática y su utilización por las humanidades exigen una revisión metodológica de las ciencias tradicionales, pero señala el valor de estas en el entorno digital. En el campo de la filología, por ejemplo, se nota la necesidad de utilización de los conocimientos especializado de la crítica textual, de la paleografía, de la historia cultural de escrita, de la diplomática, etc. asociados al design gráfico y a la informática. Por todos ganan con estos cambios y diálogos.

Para la edición de los panfletos de Eulálio Motta, la hiperedición cumplió satisfactoriamente el intento de expresar los códigos linguísticos, bibliográficos y contextuales, como se pretendía desde el inicio del proyecto.

References
Barreiros, Patrício. www.eulaliomotta.com.br.

Barreiros, Patrício Nunes. (201)3. O Pasquineiro Da Roça: Edição Dos Panfletos De Eulálio Motta. 386F. Tese (Doutorado Em Letras) - Instituto De Letras - Universidade Federal Da Bahia, Salvador

Bornstein, George. (2001). Material Modernism, The Politics Of The Page. New York: Cambridg University Press.

Chartier, Roger. (2001). Cultura Escrita, Literatura E História: Conversas De Roger Chartier Com Carlos Aguirre Anaya, Jesús Anaya Rosique, Daniel Goldin E Antônio Saborit. Porto Alegre: Artmed

Chartier, Roger. (2002). Os Desafios Da Escrita. Tradução De Fulvia M. L. Moretto. São Paulo: Unesp

Lucía Megías, José Manuel. (2006). De Las Bibliotecas A Las Plataformas De Conocimiento (Notas Sobre El Futuro Del Texto En La Era Digital). In: Santiago, Ramón; Valenciano, Ana; Iglesias, Silvia. Tradiciones Discursivas, Edición De Textos Orales Y Escritos. Madrid: Editorial Compultense.

Lucía Megías, José Manuel. (2007). Hacia Nuevos Paradigmas Textuales (Edición Y Difusión De Los Textos Literarios En El Siglo XXI). Madrid: Universidad Complutense De Madrid.

Lucía Megías, José Manuel. (2008). La Informática Humanística: Una Puerta Abierta Para Los Estudios Medievales En El Siglo XXI. Revista De Poética Medieval, N. 20, Madrid, P. 163-185

Lucía Megías, José Manuel. (2010). Reflexiones En Torno A Las Plataformas De Edición Digital: El Ejemplo De La Celestina. In: Poalini, Devid. (Coord.). De Ninguna Cosa Es Alegre Posesión Sin Compañía, Estudios Celestinescos Y Medievales En Honor Del Profesor Joseph Thomas Snow. Tomo I. New York: Seminário Hispánico De Estudios Medievales, P. 226-251

Lucía Megías, José Manuel. (2012). Elogio Del Texto Digital, Claves Para Interpretar El Nuevo Paradigma. Madrid: Fórcola

Marigno, Emmanuel. (2012). Edición Digital Y Edición Impresa: La Obra Satírica De Quevedo. In: Bravo, Federico. Desafíos Y Perspectivas De La Edición Digital. Villa María: Eduvim, P. 23-34

Mcgann, Jerome. (1991). The Textual Condition. Princeton: Princeton University Press

Mckenzie, Donald Francis. (2005). Bibliografía Y Sociología De Los Textos. Madrid: Akal.","txt","2","",""
"1978","15","Lacuna Stories: Building an Annotation Platform for Historical Thinking","9","Participatory and collaborative sense-making of complex phenomena is central to productive learning and knowledge work in today’s information-rich world.1 The Lacuna Stories Project creates an exploratory, interactive, and collaborative online space where users can research and discuss significant historical events like 9/11. Lacuna Stories draws together primary source documents, fiction, scholarship, wikis, and user-generated forums and blogs. The online space extends current digital annotation software with functionality that encourages skills such as historical thinking, close reading, and comparison of media and sources concerning 9/11. When approached independently, individual sources, genres, and media inevitably fall short of stitching together the “whole story.” The Lacuna Stories Project’s diverse, multimedia environment provides tools for instructors, students, and the general public to “mend” the gaps in our knowledge of major historical events in order to develop their own narratives. User data generated through the site’s design also will allow researchers to compare and better understand reading and engagement behaviors of students; along with other forms of user experience research and assessment, this research also provides directions for improving the platform and instructional materials.

The Lacuna Stories Project is a cross-disciplinary collaboration that includes faculty whose research interests span literature, pedagogy, historical thinking, public humanities, and platform studies. This short paper will describe the research and pedagogical goals of the Lacuna Stories Project as well as the technological innovations developed to support these goals. By the time of the conference, Amir Eshel (PI) and Brian Johnsrud (Project Manager) will have taught a course during Stanford's Winter Quarter in which students use the Lacuna Stories Platform in and outside the classroom. Johnsrud and Michael Widner (Technology Director) will also have taught a course in the same quarter on building in the digital humanities that will use Lacuna Stories as its primary example. This paper will touch upon how the prototype encouraged student learning and collaboration by presenting our data gathered from student use, interviews, and focus groups. By the time of the conference will also have piloted Lacuna Stories for a test-group of up to 30 public users without a college degree to compare experiences of different kinds of users in and out of the classroom, with and without formal academic training in approaching different kinds of historical texts and media.

Compared to other annotation and archive projects, the Lacuna Stories platform provides three key innovations. First, it creates an integrated multimedia environment that encourages the development of core skills for learning and knowledge work: navigation, critical reflection, linking, synthesis, and collaborative sense-making. Second, no existing digital annotation tool connects multiple types of media together to compare and generate new narratives. We are coordinating with MIT's HyperStudio to add this functionality to Annotation Studio (www.annotationstudio.org) and incorporate it into an ecosystem of digital tools for collaborative learning. Third, Lacuna Stories will provide a novel, curated set of diverse 9/11 resources for users to engage with and connect in innovative ways.


Fig. 1: Annotation Functionality

Lacuna Stories is also a platform that fosters good habits of close reading and thinking historically, whether the users are students, researchers, or members the general public. Within the humanities specifically, the interactive, multimedia functionality of Lacuna Stories goes beyond simply replacing print reading and viewing practices; rather, it creates new and innovative experiences for engaging with various texts and media that reflects the networked state of knowledge today. The platform thus builds upon the work done by Sam Wineburg, another member of the project team and Margaret Jacks Professor of Education and (by courtesy) of History at Stanford, to promote historical thinking (sheg.stanford.edu). Wineburg's work to date, however, has been focused on print resources in high school classrooms. Lacuna Stories will bring Wineburg's deep engagement with these matters to digital resources and make them available in the university setting.

The project also seeks to develop an inclusive, empowering, and engaging open-source platform to gather and encourage these responses in a generative and reparative mode. The site aims not to develop a fully coherent or conclusive “truth” of the event, but to encourage the cognitive and imaginative work that inspires responses to and stories about the event, its complexity, and its diverse meanings. Lacuna Stories’ subtitle, “mend the truth,” refers to site’s ability to connect in novel ways the different text, media, and user-generated content. One of our primary contributions to the development of Annotation Studio will be to enable all aspects of the available resources—from images to individual words, lines, or documents to user-generated content—to be archived or collected by registered users into their personal “sewing kit,” which provides users a workspace for the collection, connection, and annotation of materials relevant to their learning and scholarship.

We will incorporate and extend pre-existing open-source projects for the platform, most notably Annotation Studio from MIT’s Hyperstudio group. Annotation Studio is an exemplary, user-centered tool for digital humanities work, currently under active development in conjunction with a wider set of projects to develop shared standards for annotation of multimedia content, a key requirement for widespread adoption both in and outside of classrooms. We are working closely with the Annotation Studio team to ensure that the innovations developed for Lacuna Stories make their way back into the central code base and are thus available to the broadest possible number of users and institutions. One of the core technologies powering Annotation Studio is the javascript library Annotator.js (okfnlabs.org/annotator), a project of the Open Knowledge Foundation that is quickly becoming one of the most popular annotation technologies. By focusing first on developing extensions to Annotator.js, the Lacuna Stories Project ensures that our work will be useable in Annotation Studio and by any other projects that use Annotator.js.

We are also working to bring the functionality provided by Annotator.js into the Drupal platform that powers much of the rest of the Lacuna Stories site. Once this work is complete, users will be able to annotate not only texts available through Annotation Studio, but also blog posts, wiki entries, and any other content in a single, integrated environment. In our talk, we will discuss some of the challenges in the prototype phase for this work and our reasons for using Annotation Studio as a replacement until the Drupal work is complete.

O’Malley and Rosenzweig argue for the growing importance of the web generally because it allows for communication and exchange of divergent interpretations of the past. The web demonstrates how “meaning emerges in dialogue and that culture has no stable center, but rather proceeds from multiple ‘nodes’” (154).2 Being able to create links between annotations and sources and annotate the quality of those connections is central to the academic process of synthesizing information across documents and reflects the natural associative mechanisms that are central to deep learning.3 4

This functionality, however, does not exist in any current digital annotation tools. Lacuna Stories seeks to change this fact, with a tool that is scalable for use in a multitude of sense-making settings. Lacuna Stories will allow users to create categories and links between items in their kit, such as connecting a line from a novel with a paragraph from a user-submitted story, a forum discussion thread, and a section from the 9/11 Commission Report. These links can additionally be connected to a larger theme as described by the user; there can also be a shared set of themes developed collectively by the group or by an instructor. Social learning will be enabled through opt-in sharing functionality, where other learners can view and extend links and notes. Such open linking from users’ digital “sewing kits” exemplifies the idea that connections among narratives can be made quickly and simply, empowering users to “mend,” create, or share meaningful associations. Moreover, this aspect of the project responds to the work done by Fred Turner (Associate Professor of Communication), another faculty member of the team, to create digital humanities projects that are public-facing and that encourage community engagement.

Lacuna Stories is, then, a platform driven by the complementary research interests of a cross-disciplinary team of faculty made possible through technological innovation based on existing, open source tools. Although this paper will focus primarily upon the technology used and plans for future work, a secondary focus will be how the tools and innovations are grounded in research and pedagogy and how these interests influenced our technology choices and strategy.

References
1. U.S. Department of Education. (2010). National Education Technology Plan. Retrieved March 8, 2013, from www.ed.gov/technology/netp-2010

2. O’Malley, M. and Rosenzweig, R. (1997). Brave New World or Blind Alley? American History on the World Wide Web. Journal of American History 84(1): 132–55.

3. Tashman, C.S. and Edwards, W.K. (2011). Active reading and its discontents: the situations, problems and ideas of readers. In Proceedings of CHI ’11, 2927–2936. CHI ’11. ACM.

4. Marshall, C. (2005). Reading and Interactivity in the Digital Library: Creating an Experience that Transcends Paper. In Digital Library Development: The View from Kanazawa, D. Marcum and G. George, Eds.","txt","2","",""
"1979","15","Large-scale text analysis through the HathiTrust Research Center","2","Introduction
Digitization of text and tools for making sense of it are enabling digital humanists to perform ever-larger exploration and inference, from early work analyzing the style of a relatively small set of works or a single writer 12, to the modern-day practice of “distant reading” entire eras.34 However, “research, even in the digital age, is… limited by the materials that scholars can readily and reliably access”.5 Such factors include copyright, availability of materials, cost of infrastructure, and/or the technical capabilities demanded of the researcher tend to limit the access that digital humanists have, in practice, to the texts with which they would like to work.

Overview
The HathiTrust Research Center is a collaborative effort formed in 2011 through a partnership between Indiana University, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and the HathiTrust, to meet the challenge of dealing with massive amounts of digital text that digital humanists confront when they perform “distant reading.” We will present recent progress by the HTRC in addressing this ongoing challenge.

HTRC aims to support the natural investigative process of researchers who want to perform text analytics on the HathiTrust corpus by running the analytics algorithms “close to the data,” even when content restrictions do not allow actual human-reading level (“consumptive”) access to the text. A popular parallel to this higher-level exploration of digital corpora is the Google Ngram Viewer6. HTRC’s tools maintain a conceptually similar non-consumptive separation from the content, while allowing more control over the content being looked at.

The HathiTrust public domain corpus consists of an online repository comprising a comprehensive body of published works drawn from the collections of over sixty participating major research institutions and libraries. Digital humanists can access digitized works through the HTRC via two different levels: the production-system and the sandbox. The production level of the HTRC provides access to the public domain HathiTrust corpus (a mix of works digitized by Google and other digitization projects), secured to comply with the restrictions on the content use. In contrast, the sandbox level of the HTRC provides a more open level of access, to a smaller corpus consisting of 250,000 volumes which do not have any known copyright restrictions. Building on top of the SEASR tools7, both systems support analytics such as topic modeling, tag clouds, entity extraction, spellcheck reports, and the Dunning’s log-likelihood statistic on the distribution of text. They also include functionalities such as a Marc downloader and a word frequencies. The intention is for researchers to design algorithms on the more open sandbox system and then submit the algorithms on the production system.  A metadata and data API exist on the sandbox system as well as on the production system for accessing metadata and token counts.

Methodology
In this poster, we focus on the questions that humanities scholars can address using the HTRC’s front-end tools. Specifically, HTRC offers a workset builder for searching the HathiTrust collection and creating collections of texts (“worksets”), and a portal for analyzing such worksets through a simple web interface.


Fig. 1: Results are collected for a workset of Late 19c Poetry.


Fig. 2: Setting up an algorithm to run on the workset.


Fig. 3: Results from algorithm shown.

As an example of a digital humanities need that HTRC can enable, suppose that an instructor intends her students to discover the differences in themes addressed between that english poets of the eighteenth-century and those of the nineteenth century. Using the HTRC’s workset builder, the instructor can prepare different worksets consisting of appropriately large corpora of eighteenth-century english poetry, nineteenth-century english poetry, and a combination of both. Using the Dunning log-likelihood in the HTRC portal, students can infer a distribution of words in each of these worksets, discovering for themselves that different sets of words —and arguably different thematic concepts— were characteristically preponderant in one century relative to the other. The instructor can also use our metadata capabilities to subset these worksets into finer sets, such as those consisting of male eighteenth-century poets, female eighteenth-century poets, male and female poets, etc. By making worksets easy to create and modify, HTRC affords the user the ability to run analytics on various unions and intersections of sets, as this description suggests, and has the potential to facilitate hands-on-discovery on the part of the instructor’s students.

HTRC has been developed with digital humanists in mind, to overcome some of the technical, logistic, and accessibility hurdles present in large-scale text analysis. As it moves forward, the feedback of scholars is being listened to and solicited in order to meet the needs of scholars. However, the infrastructure that is currently in place already makes it a valuable tool for search.

References
1. Milic, Louis Tonko (1967). A Quantitative Approach to the Style of Jonathan Swift. Mouton: Walter de Gruyter.

2. Burrows, John Frederick (1987). Computation into Criticism: A Study of Jane Austen's Novels and an Experiment in Method. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

3. Moretti, Franco (2013). Distant Reading. London: Verso.

4. Jockers, M. (2013). Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History. University of Illinois Press.

5. Belasco, Susan (2011). Whitman’s Poems in Periodicals: Prospects for Periodicals Scholarship in the Digital Age. in Earhart, Amy E. and Andrew Jewell. The American Literature Scholar in the Digital Age. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. p. 54.

6. Michel, Jean-Baptiste et al. (2011) Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books. Science, Vol. 331 No. 6014, 4 January 2011. pp. 176-182.

7. Auvil, Loretta, Boris Capitanu, Matthew Jockers, Ted Underwood, and Ryan Heuser. (2011) SEASR Analytics. Presentation at the Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science, Chicago, Illinois. November 19. chicagocolloquium.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/dhcs2011_submission_17.pdf. Retrieved: Oct 30, 2013.","txt","2","",""
"1980","15","Latent Information in Libraries and Archives: A Fluid Text Model and Proposed Documenting Infrastructure for Facilitating Textual Transmission from Codex to Online","2","This poster addresses the question: What role can library science and its cooperative organizing methods play within the infrastructure required to facilitate, capture, and preserve the processes involved with the transmission of texts from codex to online? The maturing of online publishing technologies, as evidenced by the present high- rate of innovation in digital scholarly editing, complicates the matter. To deal with this question, library scientists must first make the case to librarians that they are involved in a time of historic change as texts transmit from print books to the online environment and as new types of book and book-like formats emerge online. But more importantly, fundamental research in library science is needed as a basis upon which to develop 21st century professional practice. This poster presents a library science-derived model for the cooperative organizing of the various aspects involved with codex to online textual transmission that is based on the fluid text theory of textual theorist John Bryant. We briefly describe the model and how it provides a basis for an organizing method that relates bibliographical and other evidence centered on a targeted “fluid” text. As a test of the generalizability of the model, we also show how it is extendable to a broader McKenzian conception of “text” in the context of the cooperative organizing of digital special collections materials that themselves are transitioning from analog status to the networked digital environment. We close with speculation on what type of documenting infrastructure might be needed to facilitate such organizing methods including suggestion for intertextual citation approach suitable for an online publishing environment that is absent the familiar pages and page numbering of the codex.

References
Bryant, J. L. (2002). The Fluid Text: A Theory of Revision and Editing for Book and Screen. University of Michigan Press.

McKenzie, D.F. (1999). Bibliography and the Sociology of Texts. New York: Cambridge University Press.","txt","2","",""
"1981","15","LAUDATIO-Repository: Accessing a heterogeneous field of linguistic corpora with the help of an open access repository","2","Open access to digital research data for historical linguistics enables a fruitful exchange of resources and  methods. To achieve this goal the LAUDATIO-Repository provides long-term storage and open access to historical corpus linguistic data. We build a research data repository that on the one hand serves a set of well-defined scholarly communities’ needs, but is on the other hand flexible enough to be used and extended to serve other communities not considered beforehand. In order to consider the scholar's needs, a clear understanding of the research data usage and research practice is required.

Digitalization and annotation of historical texts for linguistic purposes is a methodologically and technologically challenging task that consumes a lot of time and resources. Linguistic analysis uses various annotations and methods such as multiple segmentations¹ 1, normalizations 2, constituent syntax trees, dependency annotations and (semi-) automatic consistency checks 3. Having the chance to either look up these methods and their results, the corpus itself, or to re-use existing corpora for further research may facilitate and enrich the research methods and possibilities of the linguistic community. An extensive documentation of the whole corpus preparation phase including annotation, tools and the resulting data allows a uniform and structured access to such a heterogeneous field of research data and thereby a first establishment of best practice standards.

There are many tools and formats that are used to annotate and process historical corpora, e.g. for token based annotations and parses. g. 4, 5). Thus the repository is open to all formats. The repository is based on the Open-Source Software Fedora 3.6 6 and a custom web interface that uses its API. A single corpus can be stored and downloaded in multiple formats. A specific corpus version therefore comprises any number of data streams that capture the same dataset at a certain point in time. This mechanism is flexible enough to deal with annotation format diversity deriving from existing annotation tools such as EXMARaLDA, @nnotate or ELAN and as well as new formats (that have not been invented yet).

We have also developed a unified meta-model for (historical) text corpora that is used to describe heterogeneous corpus linguistic data and that can be modified according to future developments in the research field. Our repository will support all existing metadata versions for compatibility reasons. For each corpus in the repository a metadata documentation using this meta-model exists. Each corpus’ metadata is automatically validated against the scheme while being imported into the repository. To enable a flexible metadata modeling we chose a customization of TEI XML with the help of an ODD 7 specification. The meta-model indirectly refers to basic concepts of corpora.2 Each corpus has a structured and uniform documentation which comprises information about the corpus creation, the documents and every kind of annotation. For instance the authorship of each annotation layer is reported for citation and copyright reasons. Furthermore the whole corpus preparation process is covered as well.

In order to support re-use of existing corpora and to reduce duplicate work, researchers can search, download and import new corpora. Additionally, new annotations or documents can be added as new versions of existing corpora. The detailed metadata documentation helps researchers to understand the corpus and its context. Moreover LAUDATIO provides a faceted and free-text search for certain annotation methods, tools or annotation values (see  8 for an extensive discussion of faceted search). ElasticSearch³ is used as a technical backend.

The flexible technical infrastructure and the extensive corpus documentation of LAUDATIO will be presented in the demo session.

Footnotes
1 Multiple segmentations or tokenizations are used to represent different, possible conflicting, interpretations of the smallest units in a corpus.

2 The current documentation of the metadata can be accessed under korpling.german.hu-berlin.de/schemata/laudatio/doc/S6/corpus

3 ElasticSearch website, www.elasticsearch.org, accessed 29 Oct. 2013

References
1. Krause, Thomas, Lüdeling, Anke, Odebrecht, Carolin, Zeldes, Amir (2012) Multiple Tokenization in a Diachronic Corpus. Exploring Ancient Languages through Corpora Conference (EALC), 14.-16.Juni 2012.

2. Bollmann, Marcel, Petran, Florian, Dipper, Stefanie (2011) Rule-Based Normalization of Historical Texts. Proceedings of Language Technologies for Digital Humanities and Cultural Heritage Workshop Hissar, Bulgaria, 16 September 2011. pp. 34–42.

3. Dickinson, Markus, and W. Detmar Meurers. . Detecting errors in part-of-speech annotation. Proceedings of the tenth conference on European chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics-Volume 1. Association for Computational Linguistics.

4. Schmidt, Thomas (2009) Creating and Working with Spoken Language Corpora in EXMARaLDA. In: Lyding, V. (ed.) LULCL II: Lesser Used Languages & Computer Linguistics II. pp. 151-164.

5. Brugman, Hennie, Russel, Albert (2004). Annotating Multimedia/ Multi-modal resources with ELAN. In: Proceedings of LREC 2004, Fourth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation.

6. Lagoze, Carl, et al. (2006) Fedora: an architecture for complex objects and their relationships. International Journal on Digital Libraries 6.2: 124-138.

7. Burnard, Lou, Rahtz, Sebastian (2004) RelaxNG with Son of ODD. Extreme Markup Languages Proceedings 2004. Montréal, Québec.

8. Tunkelang, Daniel (2009) Faceted search. Synthesis Lectures on Information Concepts, Retrieval, and Services 1.1. pp. 1-80.","txt","2","",""
"1982","15","Le canon littéraire et les bibliographies numériques: le cas des États-Unis","9","In this research, I propose an alternative technique to the traditional method of constitution of the literary canon. Instead of basing the determination of the canon on different values, I scrutinize the Modern Language Association International Bibliography database in order to determine the most cited authors and literary works. Specifically, I study the literature of the United States of America. Thus, through the process of data mining, I obtain a sample of over 290,000 references that allows us to observe the chronological evolution and the linguistic distribution of the critical bibliography about USA literature. This quantitative technique yields a corpus of more than 100 titles and 100 writers that are cited more than 100 times in the database. Consequently, this bibliography is not the result of subjective selection criteria, but is based on the law of large numbers. Furthermore, this study shows that the quantitative analysis of bibliographic databases is an effective way to bring new light to the field of literary studies.","txt","2","",""
"1983","15","Le labo junior « Nhumérisme » (ENS Lyon), observateur et acteur du « cultural empowerment » français","2","Un labo junior est une structure de recherche interdisciplinaire unique créée par l'ENS de Lyon. Il a pour vocation de donner à des doctorants et jeunes chercheurs, issus d'horizons disciplinaires et géographiques variés, une première expérience de la recherche, dans toutes ses dimensions : depuis la mise en œuvre d'un projet scientifique collectif, que dans ses aspects les plus pratiques, logistiques voire « politiques » (gestion et de « management » d'une équipe de recherche, démarches de financement). Créé en avril 2013, le tout jeune labo junior « Nhumérisme », d'abord dédié à des « humanités numériques » mal définies, tend à glisser vers un « humanisme numérique » à construire. Le néologisme « nhumérisme », né de la contraction entre « numérique » et « humanisme », postule que le « numérique », au-delà des outils et d'une dimension purement technique voire technicienne, est un fait de société et de civilisation, un processus qui reconfigure nos héritages, nos savoirs et nos pratiques, nos valeurs, nos rapports aux autres et au monde. Plus qu'un fait, la civilisation numérique nous apparaît comme un projet, une exigence éthique et pratique. A ce titre, notre « labo junior » s'inscrit doublement dans ce phénomène de « cultural empowerment » : non seulement en tant qu'observateur, mais aussi comme acteur même de cette « montée en puissance du numérique ».

Nhumérisme, observateur critique du cultural empowerment.
Le numérique en est l'objet d'étude même de notre labo junior, dans une perspective critique : loin de le considérer comme allant de soi, nous cherchons dans le cadre de nos divers ateliers et séminaires, à mettre en question sa définition et son existence même, à en retracer l'histoire et en cerner les perspectives, à replacer cette « montée en puissance du numérique » dans le temps long de l'histoire des techniques et de la culture, pour faire la part des permanences et des mutations, et déconstruire le mythe d'une « révolution numérique ». Si cette démarche épistémologique se nourrit d'une culture « humaniste » ancienne, de compétences « traditionnelles » acquises au cours de nos cursus en sciences humaines et sociales, nous tentons aussi de définir et d'acquérir de nouvelles « littératies » pour évoluer dans ce nouvel environnement numérique. Nous pensons qu'il est nécessaire de recomposer nos héritages, de développer des savoirs, savoirs-faire et compétences spécifiques permettant de s'approprier les nouveaux outils et medias, afin de rester maître de la production et la diffusion des connaissances scientifiques. Ainsi, notre première journée d'étude intitulée « la tour de Babel numérique » (octobre 2013) visait à appréhender la diversité des approches et des « langues » autour du numérique, pour en éprouver l'unité et en proposer une définition plurielle. Par la suite, des conférences plus « thématiques » cerneront des domaines plus ciblés : bandes dessinées numériques (novembre 2013) ; design et SHS (décembre 2013), réseaux (février 2014) ; livres, écritures et lectures à l'ère numérique et digitale (avril 2014), datavisualisation (dans le cadre du That Camp Lyon - octobre 2014). Notre premier atelier intitulé « Mapping DH » (novembre 2013) réfléchit aux questions de nomination, à l'élaboration d'un dictionnaire critique ou d'une encyclopédie des humanités numériques, collaboratifs et actualisables, une cartographie, une sociologie des humanités numériques (ses lieux, ses institutions, ses réseaux, ses acteurs), et une histoire des digital humanities, ainsi qu'une bibliothèque virtuelle des grandes références et ressources en humanités numériques.

Nhumérisme, acteur du cultural empowerment.
Nhumérisme est un bon observatoire pour les sociologues des sciences qui étudient la fabrique des projets « numériques » dans leur complexité voire leur ambivalence. Sorte de projet « éprouvette », notre labo junior se sert des institutions tout les servant (mais sans leur être asservi...). Bien que labellisé et financé par l'ENS de Lyon, qui a perçu dans l'étiquette « numérique » de notre projet une manière d'accroître sa visibilité et de suivre un effet de « mode », nous disposons toutefois d'une grande liberté dans le choix des thématiques et des actions que nous menons. La souplesse et la jeunesse de la structure autorise des expérimentations originales et des prises de rique qui intègrent la possibilité de l'échec, moteur même de la connaissance scientifique, pourtant condamné par les politiques de recherche actuelles, les logiques et la temporalité mêmes des projets (court-termisme, obligation de résultats). Acteurs et même médiateurs du cultural empowerment, nous jouons un rôle d'interface entre des communautés séparées, entre projets et des structures épars. Au sein du monde académique d'abord, nous faisons souvent le lien entre différents métiers (chercheurs, ingénieurs ou techniciens), laboratoires, disciplines, générations (junior/senior). Nous tentons également d'établir des ponts entre le monde académique, d'un côté, et le monde non académique, de l'autre (artistes et designers, entreprises et décideurs politiques, grand public et citoyens). Nous pensons que le numérique peut être une opportunité pour le chercheur de « sortir de sa tour d'ivoire », de travailler et collaborer avec d'autres professions, de réaffirmer son importance sociale et de réveiller l'intérêt du public pour la fabrique de la connaissance scientifique en SHS. Au risque d'un angélisme voire d'un évangélisme numérique, peut-être naïf et moralisateur, mais pleinement assumé, nous pensons les digital humanists investis d'une mission critique et pédagogique pour accompagner les citoyens que nous sommes face au déferlement numérique et au danger de l'analphabétisme numérique.","txt","2","",""
"1984","15","Leaves of Grass: Data Animation and XML Technologies","10","Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass is one of the most famous and often-studied works of American literature. In the century since Van Wyck Brooks declared Whitman the originator of “the sense of something organic in American life”—the first to combine high art and rude experience—Whitman’s masterwork has been thoroughly digested into a series of critical truisms that gives even new readers of the poems a sense of familiarity. Whether we have his poems committed to memory or have never actually read one of them, we “all know” that Whitman eschewed traditionally poetic diction, that his is a poetry of inclusiveness, that the first edition of his text in 1855 is more daring, lively, and experimental than later editions, etc. 

Such axioms are comforting in the face of what is on many levels a difficult text (actually, a set of texts) to assimilate. Because Whitman applied the title “Leaves of Grass” to more than ten distinctly different volumes over the course of three and a half decades—not only adding poems but also retitling, cancelling, drastically revising, combining, and re-grouping existing ones—the goal of accurately tracing the book’s evolution has consistently frustrated scholars. Recognizing that “for the reader to understand how Leaves of Grass grew from edition to edition, some sense had to be made of these often bewildering textual permutations,” a group of late-twentieth century scholars labored for over a decade to produce a variorum edition, a tremendous accomplishment that has, unfortunately, done little to alleviate the bewilderment of permutations. 

The hope that digital technologies might offer a way, at last, to lucidly represent the various stages in the evolution of Leaves of Grass was one of the early motivations for the creators of the Whitman Archive in the late 1990s. We have often revisited the question of how to convey visually the information represented in the arcane coding of the 3-volume print variorum and inherent in the separate digitized editions. Nearly two decades later, however, we haven’t made much progress. 

Though they cannot provide the kind of detailed, objective understanding that might be conveyed by the schematic, interactive interfaces that we’ve sometimes (very hazily) imagined—ones that somehow collate whole texts, poems, lines, and phrases—we have begun to experiment with distant reading strategies that provide a different sort of view. So while collation tools do not cope well with the scope of transformation involved in Whitman’s reworking the first edition’s 10,000-word prose preface into the 4,000-word poem “By Blue Ontario’s Shore,” text analysis tools such as Voyant offer a number of potentially enlightening prospects on the two works and their relationship. 

Likewise, such tools can begin to offer ways to assay and quantify some of the critical commonplaces that have grown up around Leaves of Grass: Is Whitman’s diction, in fact, innovative and what makes it so? How do Whitman’s early poems compare to his later poems? What basis might be found for claims that Whitman is the great poet of America, women, the body, male homoeroticism, or democracy?

At the University of Nebraska–Lincoln's Center for Digital Research in the Humanities we have been experimenting with a new way of visualizing phenomena in TEI corpora and have created Indigo, an experimental XSLT-based tool that queries TEI files and generates animated videos of the results. Using XPath and XQuery techniques, this tool makes it possible to ask specific or general questions of a corpus. The data are then output as scalable vector graphic (SVG) files that are converted to raster images and rendered in high definition H.264 video at 30 frames per second. At its core, Indigo is a program for performing scripted stop-motion animation, arranged in one or more scenes. What each scene contains is up to the user: it might include letters, numbers, shapes, colors, gradients, patterns, lines, paths, or imported raster images, each moving or not moving. The only requirement is that a scene must be modeled in XSLT, with SVG structures as the initial output. For the user wishing to visualize aspects of TEI text corpora, the news is good, for that format shares membership with XSLT and SVG in the XML ecosystem. Indigo provides a method for presenting, in fresh and unexpected ways, quantitative data relevant to scholarly questions in a way that is open-ended, making the user a co-creator with Whitman in the “meaning” of his texts. 

Our experiment involves such activities as creating quantitive analyses of some of the linguistic characteristics of Whitman's poetic corpus, comparing them to those of some of his popular contemporaries, and then ""presenting"" the results as a video sequence. Such a procedure is admittedly outside the mainstream of critical methodology in the humanities, but it is entirely in keeping with Whitman’s own theories of the proper relationships among authors, readers, and texts. “The process of reading,” he said, “is not a half-sleep, but, in highest sense, an exercise, a gymnast’s struggle; . . . the reader is to do something for himself, . . . must himself or herself construct indeed the poem, argument, history, metaphysical essay—the text furnishing the hints, the clue, the start or frame-work.”1

As Tanya Clement has recently observed, ""sometimes the view facilitated by digital tools generates the same data human beings . . . could generate by hand, but more quickly,"" and sometimes ""these vantage points are remarkably different . . . and provide us with a new perspective on texts.""2 And as Dana Solomon has written, ""due in large part to its often powerful and aesthetically pleasing visual impact, relatively quick learning curve … and overall 'cool,' the practice of visualizing textual data has been widely adopted by the digital humanities.""3

In representing the literary work as an absorbing performance, one that comprises both ""data"" and ""art,"" the method we are presenting is calculated to provoke responses in both informational and aesthetic registers. It is, in the terms of Jerome McGann and Lisa Samuels, an act of “interpretive deformance,” whereby “we are brought to a critical position in which we can imagine things about the text that we didn’t and perhaps couldn’t otherwise know.”4

References
1. Whitman, Walt (1892). Democratic Vistas in Complete Prose Works, (Philadelphia: David McKay), p. 257.

2. Clement, T (2013). Text Analysis, Data Mining, and Visualizations in Literary Scholarship in Literary Studies in the Digital Age: An Evolving Anthology (eds., Kenneth M. Price, Ray Siemens). Modern Language Association.

3. Solomon, D. (2013). Building the Infrastructural Layer: Reading Data Visualization in the Digital Humanities. MLA 2013 Conference Presentation. url: danaryansolomon.wordpress.com/2013/01/08/mla-2013-conference-presentation-from-sunday-162013/

4. McGann, Jerome and Lisa Samuels.Deformance and Interpretation url: www2.iath.virginia.edu/jjm2f/old/deform.html","txt","2","",""
"1985","15","Less explored multilingual issues in the automatic processing of historical texts - a case study","9","Recently, the collaboration between the Language Technology community and the specialists in various areas of the Humanities has become more efficient and fruitful due to the common aim of exploring and preserving cultural heritage data. It is worth mentioning the efforts made during the digitisation campaigns in the last years and within a series of initiatives in the Digital Humanities, especially in making Old Manuscripts available in the form of Digital Libraries.

Having in mind the number of contemporary languages and their historical variants, it is practically impossible to develop brand new language resources and tools for processing older texts. Therefore, the real challenge is to adapt existing language resources and tools, as well as to provide (where necessary) training material in the form of corpora or lexicons for a certain period of time in history.  

Another issue regarding historical documents is their usage after they are stored in digital libraries. Historical documents are not only browsed but together with adequate tools they may serve as basis for reinterpretation of historical facts, discovery of new connections, causal relations between events etc. In order to be able to make such analysis, historical documents should be linked among themselves and should be linked with modern knowledge bases. Activities in the area of Linked Open Data (LOD) play a major role in this respect

Most digital libraries are made available not only to researchers in a certain Humanities domain (e.g. classical philologists, historians, historical linguists), but also to common users. This fact has posited new requirements to the functionalities offered by the Digital Libraries, and thus imposed the usage of methods from Language Technology for content analysis and content presentation in a form understandable to the end user. 

There are several challenges related to the above mentioned issues:

Lack of adequate training material for real-size applications: although the Digital Libraries usually cover a large number of documents, it is difficult to collect a statistically significant corpus for a period of time in which the language remained unchanged.
Historical variants of languages lack firmly established syntactic or morphological structures thus the definition of a robust set of rules is very difficult.  Historical texts often constitute a mixture of multilingual paragraphs including Latin, Ancient Greek, Slavonic, etc.
Historical texts contain a large number of anon-standardized abbreviations.
The conception of the world is somewhat different from ours, which makes it more difficult to build the necessary knowledge bases.
Whilst these issues are generally accepted there is still less research done towards the content annotation of old texts. Language technology tools are mostly adapted in order to make corpus linguistics research (Piotrowski 2012), (Vertan et. al 2012) but not really used as means for text processing. One of the main barriers is the text readability in terms of language style and terms.

The aim of this paper, describing on-going work is to demonstrate that multilingual aspects in historical texts are a big challenge but can serve also for building a knowledge-based to be used in text presentation.

2. Selected materials
The selected texts are works of Dimitire Cantemir, prince of Moldavia at the end of the XVII century, but also historian, philosopher, composer, musicologist, linguist and much other.

As member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences he was asked to write a history of the Ottoman Empire as well as a history of Moldavia, both unknown territories for Western Europe at this time. These remarkable works remained until the middle of XIXth century the only generally accepted reference. Even if some historical aspects are interpreted in a subjective manner, the works of Cantemir represent a unique testimony of that time. He is not describing only dates and places of historical events but presents daily life, occupations, country organisation as he saw himself as prisoner in Istanbul and prince of Moldavia.

The „History of growth and decay of the Ottoman Empire“ and the §Description of Moldavia“ were written initially in Latin. Later they were translated in German, and then the German Edition was translated in English, French, Romanian and Russian. All these Editions are no tone-to-one translation but in many cases they are influenced by the perception of the translator.

We consider that the works of Cantemir are of particular importance fort he history of Easter-Europe, about which with exception of specialists, is less known.

The current project aims at the presentation and explanation of these works, by means of language technology tools. For the moment we concentrate on the German, English and Romanian Editions of the „Description of Moldavia“, all available in the Library of our institution and intend to extend the work to the other language editions.

3. Exploiting Multilinguality
Usually the multilingual problem of the old texts is resumed to the fact that Latin and sometimes ancient Greek passages are found. The works of Cantemir have the particularity that they introduce words in the language of the described country, namely Romanian and Ottoman Turkish.

Therefore a processing step is needed in order to identify these words. State-of –the art methods in language identifications based on n-grams cannot be used as both old Romanian were written with other alphabets (church Slavonic) and the transliteration rules were not standardised.

Our method uses the multilingual versions of his works help here in identifying the foreign words.

Explanation paragraphs differ slowly but the terms are preserved. Therefore we use comparison at sentence level in order to identify common words, which we mark afterwards as Named Entities.

Following example form the „Descriptio of Moldavia“ in German is illustrative:

„Der Watawul de Aprodschi de Tyrg ist Herr über die Gerichtsdiener, welche den Tribut und andere Abgaben der Bürger eintreiben, und andei Schazkammer liefern. „

Here we observe the following: the expression „Watawul de Aproschi de Tyrg“ is for a language technology tool dealing with German completely noisy. On the other hand the expression is an approximate transliteration of old Romanian written in Church Slavonic. Nowadays the correct transliteration would be „vatavul de aprozi de târg “.

In comparison here the entry in the R Romanian version

„Vatavul de aprozi de târg; este asupra slujitorilor divanului, cari strâng birul si alte dări ale orăsenilor si le aduc la Visterie;

Thus the algorithm for the processing of the text involve the following steps:

1. Sentence splitting of German and English and Romanian texts
2. Sentence alignment by means of comparable corpora sentence extraction (Smith et. al. 2010)
3. Identification of common identical strings
4. Extraction of common passages and normalisation using resources in old Romanian /ottoman Turkish as well as heuristic rules
5. Marking of identified expressions as named entities in order to be blocked from further processing.
We use the output of this process in order to built a multilingual knowledge base, and match the terms on wikipedia entries.

4. Conclusions and further work
Through this contribution we want to raise the attention on less studied aspects of multilinguality in historical texts and show how methods from multilingual language technology, here exploitation of comparable corpora, can be used for dealing with this issue. In the presentation we would describe in detail the algorithms used for the construction of the multilingual knowledge base and give relevant examples.

As mentioned before, this is an on-going project. After creating the knowledge base we intend to built a presentation interface where entries in the knowledge base may-be available at the moment of text reading through a mouse-over function. We intend also to asses how much from the found entries match Wikipedia, and show that in fact the information is complementary. We intend also to extend the methods to other works.

References
Cantemir, C,Descriptio Moldaviae Historisch-geographisch und politische Beschreibung der Moldau, nebst dem Leben des Verfassers (lat. - 1714-1716);  germ. Beschreibung der Moldau, A. V. Büssch (Ed.), 1770

Cantemir, C., Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs nach seinem Anwachse und Abnehmen. Beschrieben  von Demetrie Kantemir, ehemaligem Fürsten in Moldau. Nebst den Bildern der Türkischen Kaiser,  Hamburg Herold, 1745.

Piotrowki, M., Natural Language Processing for Historical Texts, Synthesis Lecture on Human Language Technologies, 2012 

Smith, J and Quirk, C. and Toutanova, K, Extracting parallel sentences from comparable corpora using document level alignment, Proceedings of the HLT '10 Human Language Technologies: The 2010 Annual Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, pages 403-411

Vertan, C. and Osenova, P. and Slavcheva, M. and Piperidis, S.„Adapation of Language Processing and Tools for cultural heritage“, Proceedings of the Workshop at LREC 2012.","txt","2","",""
"1986","15","Let DH Be Sociological!","9","Diagnosis
This paper is a diagnosis and a polemic. It takes as its occasion the startling recent popularity of topic modeling among practitioners of the digital humanities (Nelson, 2010; Weingart and Meeks, 2012; Jockers, 2013; Tangherlini and Leonard, 2013; Laudun and Goodwin, 2013). As diagnosis, I propose that the significance of topic modeling can be contextualized within the rising predominance of social, political, and cultural themes as the major interests of literary scholarship in the last forty years. This predominance can, I show, itself be concretely grasped using topic modeling, as in the three figures below. 


Fig. 1: Yearly proportions of recently-rising topics in a model of seven literary studies journals, labeled by most frequent words. Continued in figure 2.

These figures visualize all the recently-rising topics in a 120-topic model of a corpus of literary-studies articles from seven generalist journals from the 1889–2013 period. Before looking at time series, I coded each topic as “social/political,” “formal,” “other themes,” or “non-thematic.” Of the 26 recently-rising topics shown in the figures, 14 are classifiable as “social/political”; of the remaining 94, only 4 are. (See “Methods” for details). I argue that the recent turn in the digital humanities to computational studies of literary an d cultural texts in the aggregate, typified by the work of Franco Moretti and Matthew Jockers (Moretti, 2013; Jockers, 2013), is best understood as an incomplete methodological response to an already-existing dominant thematic trend in literary studies. 

Polemic
This historical diagnosis then leads to my polemic: let digital humanities be sociological! Instead of insisting on the distinctiveness of a “humanistic” interpretive approach—as, for example, Alan Liu has recently done in a sharp critique of “tabula rasa” digital interpretation—humanists should recognize the problem of interpreting cultural text in the aggregate as one they share with social science (Liu, 2013). This recognition can, in turn, help to clarify the controversy over whether the digital humanities deliberately neglect the social and political concerns central to literary and cultural studies in the last four decades (McPherson, 2012). Recognizing the sociological in the digital humanities would help to see how quantitative methods could address the fundamental concerns that humanists share with social scientists. 


Fig. 2: Continued from figure 1; continues in figure 3.

In this short paper, I focus on the case of topic modeling: though this technique emerges from machine learning (Blei et al., 2003) and has been discussed as a form of distant reading, I argue that topic-modeling analyses of literary material (including my own in this paper) should be categorized as content analyses in the social-scientific sense. Although connections between content analysis and humanities computing are of long standing (see Weber, 1985), the relevance of this methodology for topic modeling has not been widely remarked in the digital humanities. According to a standard book on the technique, “Content analysis is a research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from texts...to the contexts of their use” (Krippendorff, 2013, p. 24). The triple demands for validity, context-sensitivity, and replicability represent the fundamental social-scientific methodological contribution to this work. In work on topic modeling, these methodological problems have been addressed especially by political scientists (Quinn et al., 2010; Grimmer, 2010; Grimmer and Stewart, 2013) and sociologists of culture (DiMaggio et al., 2013; for a recent work on validation with literary topic models, see Mimno and Jockers, 2013).

Topic modeling should not be valued as a tool for discovery alone but as offering evidence of systematic cultural variation. Emphasizing discovery (e.g., Blei, 2012), has led some to insist that the final task for humanistic topic modelers should be to return to “close reading” individual texts (Rhody, 2012; Tangherlini and Leonard, 2013). Yet this return to reading risks neglecting both the promise and the challenge of the topic model, which can reveal the workings of larger-scale cultural and social contexts by systematically and replicably classifying linguistic patterns, including thematic and rhetorical patterns. 


Fig. 3: Continued from figure 2

These patterns are of interest not in themselves alone but for their cultural, historical, and social contexts. 

In my own argument, the category of “recent decades,” which highlights the rise of “social” topics, is actually a proxy for historical causes, including the institutional change represented in the corpus by the inclusion of “theory” journals newly established in the 1970s, Critical Inquiry and New Literary History; it remains for future work to incorporate indicators of these historical forces into the analysis of topic models.

Even this preliminary content analysis suggests that digital humanists who study texts in the aggregrate might reconsider the context in which their own work emerges. Current discussions of “distant reading,” “macroanalysis,” “surface reading,” and “quantitative formalism” converge with sociology in terms of method but not necessarily subject matter (Moretti, 2013; Jockers, 2013; Best and Marcus, 2009; Allison et al., 2010). At the same time, the aggregate of literary studies has been converging with sociology in terms of subject matter but not method, and even the most recent turns to the sociological in literary studies have largely shied away from the quantitative approaches that digital humanists have embraced (see English, 2010). My polemical goal is to advocate for a dual convergence—not only in the case of topic modeling but across the set of quantitative techniques for studying cultural texts that have become central to the digital humanities.

Methods
Latent Dirichlet Allocation has been applied to corpora of scholarly journals by others (Blei and Lafferty, 2009; Mimno, 2012; McFarland et al., 2013); this work applies it to scholarship in literary studies, with the institutional history of the literary humanities as an interpretive frame. The modeled documents consisted of all the items classed as “full-length articles” by JSTOR that exceed 1000 words in length in seven journals chosen for chronological range and broad disciplinary scope: Critical Inquiry (1974–2013), ELH (1934–2013), Modern Language Review (1905–2013), Modern Philology (1903–2013), New Literary History (1969–2012), PMLA (1889–2007), and theReview of English Studies (1925–2012). Wordcounts and document metadata were supplied by JSTOR Data for Research ( JSTOR).

Obvious item misclassifications were corrected. I excluded an extensive set of stop words, including common words, abbreviations, and first names, and retained only the 10000 most frequent word types. MALLET’s Latent Dirichlet Allocation implementation was used, specifying 120 topics and hyperparameter optimization feature (McCallum, 2002). The choice of documents to model and the construction of the stoplist emerged from work by Ted Underwood and me; Underwood should not be held accountable for this paper (Goldstone and Underwood, 2012; Goldstone and Underwood, forthcoming). Additional analysis relied on the R mallet package (Mimno, 2013) and my own R programs.

The procedure for classifying the topics was as follows. I conducted a trial run by hand-classifying a 64- topic model of PMLA articles alone, developing an ad hoc scheme. Then, before visualizing any topics over time in my full seven-journal model, I examined the list of the twenty most frequent words in each topic and applied the categorization scheme to each topic:

 

S: Social or political topics, including national, ethnic, sexual, or gender identities;

 T: Other thematic material, including religion, moral philosophy, love, nature, etc.;

 F: Formal topics, including form, language, style, and genre;

 NT: Non-thematic topics, including other languages, proper names, organizational labels, topics classifying textual studies, and clearly methodological discourses.

 

I classed as “recently rising” topics any topic for which the total proportion of those topics in each of the four decades after 1970 was greater than the total proportions in each of the decades from the 1930s through the 1960s. This heuristic was again devised with respect to the smaller trial model, then applied to the larger model. In future work ahead of the Lausanne conference, I plan to systematically vary the “recency” cutoff in order to test the sensitivity of my claims to the choice of 1970 as a demarcation line.

The breakdown of all topics was as follows: 

 code	 not recent	 recent
 F	 13	 3
 NT	 56	 4
 S	 4	 14
 T	 21	 5
By this effort to make interpretive assumptions explicit (and to highlight the involvement of the researcher in classifying topics), I seek to bring the humanistic analysis of topic models closer to the demands of sociological content analysis. 
References
JSTOR. Data for Research. http://dfr.jstor.org.

Allison, S., et al. (2011). Quantitative Formalism: An Experiment. Stanford Literary Lab. http://litlab.stanford.edu/LiteraryLabPamphlet1.pdf.

Best, S., and S. Marcus (2009). Surface Reading: An Introduction. Representations 108(1).

Blei, D. M. (2012). Probabilistic Topic Models. Communications of the ACM 55(4).

Blei, D. M., A. Y. Ng, and M. I. Jordan (2003). Latent Dirichlet Allocation. Journal of Machine Learning Research 3.

Blei, D. M., and J. D. Lafferty (2009). Topic Models. In Srivastava, A., and M. Sahami (eds.). Text Mining: Classification, Clustering, and Applications. Boca Raton, FL: CRC.

DiMaggio, P., M. Nag, and D. Blei (2013). Exploiting Affinities between Topic Modeling and the Sociological Perspective on Culture: Application to Newspaper Coverage of U.S. Government Arts Funding. Poetics 41(6).

English, J. F. (2010). Everywhere and Nowhere: The Sociology of Literature After “The Sociology of Literature.” NLH 41(2).

Goldstone, A., and T. Underwood (2012). What Can Topic Models of PMLA Teach Us About the History of Literary Scholarship? Journal of Digital Humanities 2(1).

Goldstone, A., and T. Underwood (forthcoming). The Quiet Transformations of Literary Studies: What Thirteen Thousand Scholars Could Tell Us. NLH.

Grimmer, J. (2010). A Bayesian Hierarchical Topic Model for Political Texts: Measuring Expressed Agendas in Senate Press Releases. Political Analysis 18(1).

Grimmer, J., and B. M. Stewart (2013). Text as Data: The Promise and Pitfalls of Automatic Content Analysis Methods for Political Texts. Political Analysis 21(3).

Jockers, M. L. (2013). Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Jockers, M. L., and Mimno, D. (2013). Significant Themes in 19th-Century Literature. Poetics 41(6).

Krippendorff, K. (2013). Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. 3rd ed. Los Angeles: SAGE. 

Laudun, J., and J. Goodwin (2013). Computing Folklore Studies: Mapping over a Century of Scholarly Production through Topics. Journal of American Folklore 126(502).

Liu, A. (2013). The Meaning of the Digital Humanities. PMLA 128(2).

McCallum, A. K. (2002). MALLET: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit. http://mallet.cs.umass. edu.

McFarland, D. A., et al. (2013). Differentiating Language Usage through Topic Models. Poetics 41(6).

McPherson, T. (2012). Why Are the Digital Humanities So White? or Thinking the Histories of Race and Computation. In M. K. Gold (ed.), Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Mimno, D. (2012). Computational Historiography: Data Mining in a Century of Classics Journals. ACM Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage 5(1).

Mimno, D. (2013). mallet: A Wrapper around the Java Machine Learning Tool MALLET. http://cran. r-project.org/web/packages/mallet/.

Moretti, F. (2013). Distant Reading. London: Verso.

Nelson, R.K. (2010). Mining the Dispatch. http://dsl.richmond.edu/dispatch.

Quinn, K. M., et al. (2010). How to Analyze Political Attention with Minimal Assumptions and Costs. American Journal of Political Science 54(1).

Rhody, L. M. (2012). Topic Modeling and Figurative Language. Journal of Digital Humanities 2(1).

Tangherlini, T. R., and P. Leonard (2013). Trawling in the Sea of the Great Unread: Sub-Corpus Topic Modeling and Humanities Research. Poetics 41(6).

Weber, R. P. (1985). Basic Content Analysis. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.

Weingart, S., and E. Meeks (eds.) (2012). Special Issue: Topic Modeling. Journal of Digital Humanities 2(1).","txt","2","",""
"1987","15","Liberate the Text! TypeWright, Cobre, and MapThePage","2","18thConnect (18thConnect.org) and REKn (the Renaissance English Knowledgebase Project) are two new digital aggregators of early modern digital materials and scholarship, both built on the model of NINES (the Networked Infrastructure for Nineteenth Century Electronic Scholarship, nines.org) (McGann and Nowviskie). Unlike NINES, however, 18thConnect and REKn have two major digital resources for primary materials: Early English Books Online dataset (EEBO) and Eighteenth-Century Collections Online (ECCO), the former owned by ProQuest, the latter by Gale Cengage Learning. Both companies have given us the opportunity to work with the page images in these collections which have been derived, unfortunately, from microfilm. In fact, many of these page images are practically impenetrable to Optical Character Recognition Engines, for reasons having to do both with early print practices during the handpress era and the quality of the images themselves. A consortium of libraries called the Text Creation Partnership (TCP), led by Rebecca Welzenbach at the University of Michigan, has decided to key in, type by hand, one instance of each ""title"" in the collection.  But because metadata for such early texts is notoriously unreliable, the texts not typed may contain some “buried treasures” in the EEBO Collection (Jackson). The TCP has not generated enough money to key ECCO texts: only approximately 1.2% of the 182,000 documents have been typed by the TCP. Texas A&M University has received generous funding from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation to work on creating Optical Character Recognition training sets for open-source OCR engines that will allow us to mechanically type those page images. However, OCR can only work so well with these images, and so the Early Modern OCR Project (eMOP; emop.tamu.edu) is also building three crowd-source correction tools: TypeWright, Cobre, and MapThePage. This poster will demonstrate these tools, revealing their use in research and teaching. Cobre allows users to consult multiple editions at once in order to corroborate image data.  For images that are particularly problematic for the eMOP OCR engines, the AWL editor allows users to edit the bounding boxes in order to produce a more accurate OCR.  Finally, within TypeWright users can compare the OCR with the actual images, updating the former as needed.  The proposed poster will:

1. Describe the development of each of these three open-source tools.

2. Detail how each tool is needed for creating and verifying OCR data.

3. Demonstrate the online versions of each tool.

4. Show the utility of these tools both inside and outside of the classroom by discussing how they have been used by researchers and students at Texas A&M University.

5. Explain how this improved OCR will then be fed to EEBO and ECCO to enhance scholarship worldwide.

6. Outline the generous contracts we received from ProQuest and Gale: anyone who corrects a text gets to have it and, in effect, liberates it so that it can be full-text searchable, for free, via the 18thConnect and REKn interfaces. Also, scholars are given TEI versions when the text has been freed by their work, enabling them to make digital scholarly editions such as Jess McCarthy’s edition of Daniel Defoe’s “Hymn to the Pillory” (ahymntothepillory.blogspot.com).

We are about to start a “Liberate the Text!” campaign, and we would like to demonstrate the crowd-sourced correction tools and how to use them as a poster at the DH2014 Conference.

References
The eMOP Project: emop.tamu.edu

Jackson, Millie (2008). “Using Metadata to Discover the Buried Treasure in Google Book Search.”Journal of Library Administration 47.1/2: 165-73.

McGann, Jerome, and Bethany Nowviskie (2005). NINES white paper (PDF, 124kb).","txt","2","",""
"1988","15","Light, Liturgy, and Art at the Monastery of Saint John in Müstair, Switzerland: A Software Demonstration","2","In the early Middle Ages, solar observance shaped the art and architecture of Christian churches in various ways.  Medieval writers from across the Mediterranean related dramatic lighting effects to alignment with the rising sun on astronomically and liturgically significant days.  Medieval tradition about the Jewish temple in Jerusalem provided the model for these lighting effects as well as for the common use in early medieval churches of windows with jambs and sills that widen on the inside to expand the projection of natural light.  Archaeoastronomers have hypothesized that select medieval pictorial programs were coordinated with fenestration to spotlight specific scenes and figures on specific days and at specific hours.  We have created a 3D model that visualizes passage of sunlight on any particular day onto and across the walls of the monastery of Saint John in Müstair, Switzerland, the earliest standing church for which such coordination has been proposed.  Our model tests and refines the theory of Gion Gieri Coray-Lauer, a Swiss archaeoastronomer.

The history of the region and other notable features of the church make Coray-Lauer’s hypothesis highly attractive.  First, early medieval churches in the region were commonly aligned with still-standing prehistoric markers delineating astronomical lines or with the rising sun on a patron’s feast day.  Second, the windows of the church have highly decorated jambs and sills, and they slant at various angles according to the direction that they face.  Third, the feast days of the saints highlighted in the three apses of the church cluster around the summer solstice, when persistent pagan practices denounced by local preachers culminated each year. 

Although situated in a remote alpine valley, the main church of the Monastery of Saint John preserves the most extensive program of church decoration in the west to survive from the first millennium.  The program includes the earliest preserved monumental Last Judgment, east or west, among many precocious pictorial themes.  The highly visible wall paintings display great clarity and exemplify the dictum of Pope Gregory the Great that pictures could serve as books for the illiterate.  A greater understanding of the lighting effects deepens our understanding of the multi-sensory experience of medieval church decoration as well as our understanding of a medieval monument of great importance both for the extensiveness of its pictorial program and for the precocity of many images within it. 

Scholars have well explored the symbolism of light in Christianity, both in text and image.  Writers, both medieval and modern, have also written about the potential for light to move and dazzle the worshipper.  Older scholarship on the quality of light in churches was based entirely on observation, but the methods and calculations of archaeoastronomy, which are generally incomprehensible to humanities scholars, have yet to penetrate the mainstream of art historical scholarship.  The visualization of archaeoastronomical data within 3D virtual models enables art historians to judge more easily archaeoastronomical theories and to incorporate them into interpretations of how architects and designers of decorative programs structured and shaped religious experience. 

We propose to demonstrate our software application in an interactive poster session.  

References
iav.ipfw.edu/iu_home.html","txt","2","",""
"1989","15","Linked Open Data Technologies and Emblematica Online II","2","In the context of Emblematica Online I, with support from the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) from 2009, the University of Illinois and the Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbüttel (HAB), digitized 728 Renaissance emblem books, thereby substantially expanding the digitized corpus. We have digitized approximately 70,000 individual emblems, creating detailed emblem-level metadata for more than 17,000 of these. Each emblem is identified with a globally unique URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) maintained in a shared emblem registry. The OpenEmblem Portal prototype was collaboratively designed to provide access to these materials and to demonstrate the feasibility of international repository interoperability.

A new NEH grant from the Historical Collections and Reference Resources program in 2013 focuses on proving the viability of the OpenEmblem Portal prototype. This grant features an expansion of the Portal with content from the collections of at least 4 additional institutions. The new grant also supports experimentation with Linked Open Data (LOD) services and RDF-based annotation tools, demonstrating how Semantic Web technologies can facilitate discovery, new modes of scholarly communication, and the more effective use of digitized emblem resources in scholarly research and pedagogy. 

To further build the emblem corpus for the OpenEmblem Portal, researchers at Illinois will expand the virtual emblem collections in three important ways at varying levels of granularity. We will

1) integrate existing digital facsimiles of early modern emblem books from the Getty Research Library, Duke University Library, and the Hathi Trust, in order to demonstrate proof of concept. This increases the number of individual emblem books in the OpenEmblem Portal by more than 300 volumes. 
2) incorporate metadata for 8,231 individual emblems from completed digitization projects at Utrecht University and Glasgow University. 
3) digitize and create metadata for approximately an additional 100 rare emblem books from the University of Illinois’ collections and create emblem-level metadata for them. 
By adding the combined number of 8,231 already indexed emblems from Glasgow and Utrecht to 8,000 additional indexed emblems from the University of Illinois, OpenEmblem Portal will nearly double the corpus of searchable emblems, increasing the number of indexed emblems currently available from 18,889 to 35,121. Emblematica Online II thereby creates an extraordinarily rich resource for all areas of Renaissance Studies.

In comparison to the path-breaking publication of Arthur Henkel and Albrecht Schöne’s handbook Emblemata (1967), which partially indexed 45 emblem books, Emblematica Online I made 723 complete digital facsimiles with 18,889 individual emblems available on the Web. At its conclusion Emblematica Online II will expand this corpus to over 1,000 key Renaissance emblem books and present more than 30,000 fully searchable emblems in high quality images indexed by Arkyves according to Iconclass notations and labels for scholars worldwide. The mottos for these emblems will also be searchable in a database of emblem mottos. Additional emblems will be registered and available for browsing, albeit initially without transcription and Iconclass indexing (pending subsequent projects and possible emblem scholar crowd-sourcing). By analogy to Henkel and Schöne, heralded as a major research accomplishment at the time of its publication, Emblematica Online II will accomplish and initiate comparable research activity by a factor of more than twentyfold.

Moreover, the design of the OpenEmblem Portal and its use of LOD directly addresses the acute scholarly need to move beyond a catalogue of a large number of digitally available books and will create a significant corpus of richly indexed materials at the sub-book level. While the OpenEmblem Portal focuses on emblems digitized from print, emblems also permeate the fine and applied arts. Through LOD best practices and emerging annotation standards, the OpenEmblem Portal eventually will allow scholars to link an emblem found in a Bavarian church or a Swedish manor house to a printed emblem.  This more granular and semantic approach to describing digitized emblem resources also opens up opportunities to engage graduate and even undergraduate students in the project. For example, undergraduate students at Illinois are meaningfully supporting the OpenEmblem Portal by participating in emblem motto transcription and registration.

This poster presents our progress with Portal evolution, LOD technologies, and next steps to leverage LOD to facilitate emblem research and pedagogy.","txt","2","",""
"1990","15","Local voices, worldwide conversations: ethnographic methodologies as a route to understanding meaning and value of niche local digital cultural heritage resources.","2","Oral history materials are increasingly disseminated and accessed online. Audio, the primary “document” of the discipline, is now easy to publish in web-based media. It is no exaggeration to say that digital technologies have transformed the practice of oral history. At the same time, the digital has opened up new areas of debate, including the question of assessing the value of online oral history initiatives, a theme that is increasingly common when examining digital cultural heritage resources in general (see, for example, Tanner 2012). This poster presents an ongoing research project that examines the appropriateness of local resources for global audiences, and how the value of these niche projects can be assessed in a meaningful way. This will be combined with a chance to try out an online oral history project, and to engage in discussions with, and elicit feedback from, the international digital humanities community.

The focus of this research is a digital oral history case study from Ireland, the Cork Memory Map (www.corkmemorymap.org). This is one of the online initiatives created by the Cork Folklore Project, a community-based oral history organisation that was set up as a collaboration between university and community and has been collecting everyday stories of life in Cork city since 1996. As a long-standing collection and archiving centre, the Cork Folklore Project has well-established methodologies and understandings that facilitate its work within its host community, with living “subjects”, and all the attendant issues that arise in such situations, particularly those associated with consent, copyright and duty of care towards participants. 

Embedded audio and images in the Cork Memory Map help to explore the narratives and stories associated with the landscape and “culturescape” of the Cork city (see O'Carroll 2011, 184), exploring meaning-making, identity, cultural heritage and local place-making through memory and narrative. Projects such as the Cork Memory Map have a strong local appeal, but how are these received in a global forum such as the web? 

This ongoing research project uses empirical techniques (such as website and social media metrics) and ethnographic methodologies to investigate the questions of value and meaning in digital cultural heritage resources. Some preliminary results will be presented in the poster. Qualitative research will involve conducting ethnographic interviews with many stakeholders in the Cork Memory Map, including the contributors to the map (researchers and interviewees), academics and historians interested in local and oral histories, people from Cork (or with a link to the city), as well as the wider global audience that it is now possible to reach through online dissemination. The aim is to interview as wide a variety of users and stakeholders as possible.

At Digital Humanities 2014 the poster presenting this research will be more than just a poster – the aim is interactivity, with the poster and accompanying elements of the display (laptop displaying the Cork Memory Map and a scrapbook of ethnographic field notes) designed not only to showcase but also to elicit responses from an international community of digital humanities researchers. These opportunities for interaction and discussion will be used as material to be incorporated into the ethnographic research, and to explore potential new avenues of research. The poster and interactions will therefore be an attempt to integrate an academic conference presentation into an ongoing process of research.

References
O’Carroll, C. (2011). The Cork Memory Map.Béascna Journal of Folklore and Ethnology, 7, 184–188.

Tanner, S. (2012). Measuring the imapct of digital resources: the balanced value impact model. Department of Digital Humanities, King’s College London. Retrieved from www.kdcs.kcl.ac.uk/innovation/impact.html","txt","2","",""
"1991","15","Macro-Etymological Textual Analysis","9","The English language has continually borrowed from foreign languages—close to 30% of modern English words are loanwords from French, and another 30% are borrowed from Latin. These words are often concentrated in semantic frames associated with their origin languages—legal vocabulary contains a preponderance of words of French origin, and the vocabulary of the natural sciences contains many words of Latin and Greek origin. The etymology of words in a text, therefore, may be suggestive of its context or its level of discourse. Should a writer choose the Latinate term “masticate” over the Anglo-Saxon term “chew,” for instance, one might assume a scientific context or a high level of discursive formality. By computing the proportion of origin languages for all the words of a given text, we may quantify stylistic properties that are potentially revealing about the text and its rhetorical modes.

The Macro-Etymological Analyzer is a computer program that I wrote for this purpose. Written in PHP on a LAMP stack, it is a web app accessible at http://jonreeve.com/etym, and is freely available for all to use, modify, and distribute under the GPLv3. It accepts as input a user-uploaded text file, and looks up each word in Gerard de Melo’s Etymological Wordnet database. These words are then counted by language of origin using two generations of language ancestry, and then categorized by language family. The results are displayed as a pie chart made with the Google Data Visualization API, along with a CSV log file which can be used for comparative analyses. Currently, the program accepts only English texts, but the database supports queries from any source language, and plans are in place to make the program fully multilingual.

Figure 1 shows the proportions of Latinate words—words descended from Latin or romance languages—for each of the 15 genres in the Brown Corpus. Learned texts and government documents show the highest proportions of Latinate words, whereas romance and adventure stories show the lowest. The same textual categories sorted by proportion of Hellenic words (words of ancient Greek origin) show changes in certain categories—religious language exhibits a higher rank, and that of mystery stories is ranked lower than in the Latinate scale. These data suggest that a high proportion of Hellenic words is correlated with religious language, among other genres, and that a high proportion of Latinate words is correlated with learned language. Once literary works are analyzed with this method, these hypothetical correlations become potentially useful as literary critical tools. 


Fig. 1: Brown Corpus Genres

In one such analysis, the chapters of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man were run through the Macro-Etymological Analyzer. This novel, James Joyce’s Bildungsroman, is known for its style—one that mimics each progressive age of its protagonist Stephen Dedalus. Early chapters, when he is young, are written with infantile language; later chapters are written with more elevated language. The program’s results quantify this stylistic mode, to some degree—Chapters 1 and 2 show low proportions of Latinate words, whereas later chapters show higher proportions, as shown here in Figure 2. The fact that the proportion of Latinate words begins to plateau starting with Chapter 3 might be used to argue that Stephen has at this young age already reached a precocious maturity of vocabulary, which may reflect his study of Latin.


Fig. 2: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

In another analysis, the extracted monologues of the seven narrators of Virginia Woolf’s novel The Waves were computed with this program. As shown in Figure 3, the two university-educated characters, Bernard and Neville, show the highest proportions of Latinate words, while the housewife Susan shows the lowest. In fact, the male characters rank higher for Latinate words than the female characters—this would be an interesting starting-point for a discussion of gender in The Waves, especially framed by Woolf’s much-discussed writings on gender politics.


Fig. 3: The Waves Narrators

The Macro-Etymological Analyzer was also used to chart variations between editions of a text. The seven revisions of Whitman’s Leaves of Grass made available by the Whitman Archive were analyzed with this program. The results show a gradual increase in Latinate words from the 1855 edition to that of 1891-2. This might be used to argue that Whitman inflated his style with each revision, introduced foreign loanwords as he gained a more international reputation, or used a greater breadth of words as his vocabulary increased.

These experiments were not without their surprises, of course. An early test of selected books of the King James Bible seemed promising, as it revealed the gospels Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John to have much higher proportions of Hellenic words than other books (see Figure 4). Unlike the books of the Old Testament, which were mostly written in Hebrew, these books were translated from the Greek—a fact which might seem to explain the presence of Hellenic words. Upon closer examination, however, the program was discovered to be counting the etymology of frequently-mentioned names like “Jesus” among words of Hellenic origin, and it was these names that accounted for most of the Hellenic words. Although the language of the source text did not prove to be the determinant here, this discovery may yet be valuable for other reasons—the synoptic gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke show similar portions of Hellenic words, whereas that of John is 100% greater. This would seem to support the hypothesis that the synoptic gospels were adapted from a common source text, whereas that of John had an independent source.


Fig. 4: KJV Bible

A number of other experiments were also conducted, and are described in this paper. Included among texts analyzed by the Macro-Etymological Analyzer were: selected Canterbury tales (in modern English translation), a series of early and late Henry James novels, a collection of Victorian novels compared with a collection of modernist novels, and groups of French and German novels in English translation. Questions to be explored include:

Do translated works show a larger-than-normal proportion of words with etymological origins in the language of the source text?
Given a large enough data set, can linguistic trends (such as a general decrease in the use of Latinate words) be detected with this program? Can macro-historical events such as the Scientific Revolution be detected?
Do male and female writers of the 19th century differ in the origin-types of words they use?
Can the semantic frames in which these etymological groups of words are concentrated be explained historically, such as through the habits of the French-speaking English aristocracy in the era following the Norman Conquest?
Finally, this paper will discuss how this new tool might contribute to the suite of computational stylistics tools already available, and how macro-etymology might constitute a new metric that could be used towards stylistic fingerprinting or authorial detection.","txt","2","",""
"1992","15","Making Digital Humanities Work","10","Motivation
Historical knowledge is fundamentally uncertain. A given account of an historical event is typically based on a series of sources and on sequences of interpretation and reasoning based on these sources. Generally, the product of this historical research takes the form of a synthesis, like a narrative or a map, but does not give a precise account of the intellectual process that led to this result.

Our project consists of developing a methodology, based on semantic web technologies, to encode historical knowledge, while documenting, in detail, the intellectual sequences linking the historical sources with a given encoding, also know as paradata1. More generally, the aim of this methodology is to build systems capable of representing multiple historical realities, as they are used to document the underlying processes in the construction of possible knowledge spaces.

Overview of the Approach
Semantic web technologies, with formal languages like RDF and OWL, offer relevant solutions for deploying sustainable, large-scale and collaborative historical databases (see for instance 2). Compared to traditional relational databases, these technologies offer more flexibility and scalability, avoiding the painful problems of large schema migration. They are grounded in logic and thus permit us to easily conduct semantic inferences.  Some very stable semantic based ontologies like CIDOC-CRM, now an ISO standard, have been used successfully in the cultural heritage domain for about 20 years 3.

However, the languages used in the semantic web technologies have a major limitation that prevents their usage for encoding metahistorical information. Expressed knowledge is typically formalised with RDF triplets which are not objects in the same order as the knowledge content (RDF resources identified with URIs) to which they link. For example, it is difficult to document the source, the author or the uncertainty of given RDF statement.

One way to compensate for this flaw, while respecting the W3C norms, consists of transforming each RDF triplet (subject predicate object) into three triplets (statement rdf:subject subject), (statement rdf:predicate predicate), (statement rdf:object object). Using this approach, it becomes possible to add new triplets with a given statement as subject, documenting additional paradata about this statement. The resulting knowledge base can include metahistorical information, i.e. information about historical information creation processes. This metainformation can document the choice of sources, transcription phases, coding strategies, interpretation methods and whether these steps are realised by humans or machines. Thus, each historical database designed following this methodology integrates two levels of knowledge. The first level provides the documentation about the origin, the nature and the formalisation used to encode historical data, while the second level codes for the historical data itself. 

The Knowledge Construction Vocabulary (KCV)
We are working on a specific RDF vocabulary, called Knowledge Construction Vocabulary (KCV), which will enable us to implement the two level organisation using the standards of the semantic web. KCV RDF statements represent knowledge construction steps, while effective historical knowledge is only expressed through reified triplets. An important concept in this vocabulary is the notion of knowledge spaces. A knowledge space designates a closed set of coherent knowledge, typically based on a defined set of sources and methods. Examples of knowledge spaces include documentary spaces (e.g. a defined corpus of sources) and fictional spaces (e.g a coherent world typically described in a book).

  Figure 1 shows an example of the kind of graphs that can be built using the KCV vocabulary.  In this example, two knowledge spaces have been defined: one documentary space (DHLABDocuments) and one so-called fictional space (HistoireVenise_S1). Each of these two spaces is defined as a unique resource with an associated URI.  A statement (Statement1) stands for a reified triplet defining that (HistoireVenise) is a kind of Book and is linked to the documentary space. The KCV vocabulary allows us to document who entered the information (fournier) and the creation time of the statement (May 06th). To formalise the fact that the book, HistoireVenise, is used as a knowledge source, a specific resources HistoireVenise_KS is created and linked with the HistoireVenise, the book, and the general document space DHLABDocuments. 


Fig. 1: A ""toy"" example of the use of the KCV vocabulary to code historical and metahistorical information

In the fictional space HistoireVenise_S1, a statement (Statement2) codes for a reified triplet indicating that the reconstruction of the Rialto bridge occurred during the period of 1588-1591. Information about the author, the creation date and the reliability of Statement2 are documented using various KCV triplets. The link between the document space and the fictional space is encoded by a link between the knowledge source HistoireVenise_KS and a statement, Statement2_origin, linked to Statement2 of type interpretedtextknowledge. 

We can make three remarks:

This is obviously a ""toy"" example (real graphs encoding historical data are typically much bigger), but it illustrates how historical and metahistorical information can be coded with a linked data approach. This allows us to envision queries mixing both historical and metahistorical requests, for instance reconstructing an historical context based only on certain kinds of sources or excluding information that was provided to the database by some authors.
The kind of intellectual processes documented by KCV can easily include algorithmic steps like digitisation, optical character recognition pipelines on documents,  text mining, semantic disambiguation, etc. The version and the author of the algorithms used can easily be included using KCV statements. This kind of documentation permits us to exclude historical information linked with some processing using early versions of algorithms that may have ""polluted"" the data. This is an important prerequisite for building sustainable databases in the long term. 
Documenting metahistorical information using KCV may look like a tedious process; however, in most cases, this information can be inserted automatically using a higher-level interface. A database interface in which the user is logged permits to easily produce historical data based on the KCV vocabulary, taking the form of reified RDF triplets, while documenting the author, the data and the methods used. 
Ontologies Matching
The KCV approach for encoding historical databases is also interesting from the perspective of ontologies alignment: a notoriously difficult issue 4. Each research group tended to code historical data using their own local ontologies, adapted to their research approach. The metahistorical documentation provided by the KCV vocabulary enables us to envision strategies for mapping such ontologies to a pivot ontology. Figure 2 shows this general process in which several knowledge spaces are linked. Each group locally describes the source documents used (1), transcribes their content (2) and eventually codes/interprets this content (3). Throughout this process, two groups produced two independent custom ontologies (A and B). The alignment process proceed in two additional steps. First, both local ontologies are mapped onto a general content ontology (4) (for instance CIDOC-CRM, but not necessarily) and then, once expressed in this common conceptual model, the information contained in the graph is aligned and the content is merged (5). 


Fig. 2: The general process of ontologies matching

Figure 3 gives a more detailed account of the final step. First knowledge sources are mapped, then types are mapped and eventually predicates are mapped. In some cases, only a partial level of correspondence can be reached. These steps can be done manually or automatically and are, of course, subject to errors. It is therefore crucial to document the authors of these matching steps, whether they are humans or algorithms. This is why the authors are, linked all the other steps, described in the KCV vocabulary. 


Fig. 3: Detail of the ontologies matching process

Conclusion
The approach briefly presented in this paper enables us to encode historical and metahistorical data in a unified framework. The method we describe is fully compliant with the current technologies and standards of the semantic web (RDF, SPARQL, etc.). It does impose a unified historical terminology but can also be used in conjunction with existing standards. For instance CIDOC-CRM can be used to describe historical knowledge extracted from archival documents (e.g events, people, places) using RDF triplets and KCV can be used to code information about the CIDOC-CRM triplets themselves, such as documenting who entered a particular triplet. The originality of our proposal comes from the introduction of the this second level (metahistorical) on top of the existing RDF ontologies.  This does not necessarily impose an additional burden on the person encoding the historical data. Using a dedicated web interface, the metahistorical information can be added automatically as the data is progressively entered. 

Coding metahistorical information by making explicit the many underlying modelling processes allows us to prepare for possible ontology evolution and enables easier ontology matching. More importantly, our approach does not impose the search for a global truth (a unique and common version of historical events) but pushes towards the explication of the intellectual and technical processes involved in historical research, thus giving the possibility of fully documented historical reconstructions. 

References
1. Bentkowska-Kafel A., Denard H., and Baker D. (2012). Paradata and Transparency in Virtual Heritage. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.

2. Ide, N., and D. Woolner (2007). Historical Ontologies. Words and Intelligence II: 137–152.

3. Doerr, M. (2003) The CIDOC CRM – an Ontological Approach to Semantic Interoperability of Metadata. AI Magazine 24, no. 3.

4. Shvaiko P. and J. Euzenat (2013). Ontology matching: state of the art and future challenges. IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, 25(1): 158-176.","txt","2","",""
"1993","15","Making Waves: Algorithmic Criticism Revisited","10","In Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism, Stephen Ramsay suggests that computational literary studies remain marginalized because they lack “bold statements, strong readings, and broad generalizations” (2011: 2). They are too cautious, too scientific, to interest literary critics, who value opening texts to new interpretations over solving problems (10-11). Ramsay suggests that a feminist discussion of The Waves challenges algorithmic criticism: “literary critical arguments of this sort do not stand in the same relationship to facts, claims, and evidence as the more empirical forms of inquiry. There is no experiment that can verify the idea that Woolf’s . . . ‘elision of corporeal materiality’ exceeds the dominant Western subject” (7). Although many critical claims are computationally intractable, Woolf’s “elision of corporeal materiality” surely has textual implications that might be tested computationally. Literary criticism’s problematic relationship to facts, claims, and evidence seems more like a bug than a feature, but here I want to re-examine and interrogate Ramsay’s algorithmic provocation.

Three male and three female characters in The Waves speak in alternating monologues, an experimental technique that has invited critical comment about what axes of difference or unity characterize the novel. “The ‘problem’ . . . with Woolf’s novel is that despite evidence of a unified style, one suspects that we can read and interpret it using a set of underlying distinctions. We can uncover those distinctions by reading carefully. We can also uncover them using a computer” (Ramsay 2011: 10-11).

Ramsay treats the six monologues as a corpus of documents and investigates them with tf-idf, from the field of information retrieval: tf*(N/df). This, he suggests, should identify each monologue’s characteristic words more effectively than a traditional word-frequency list. Tf-idf is the term’s frequency (tf) multiplied by the total number of documents (N; here 6) divided by the number of documents containing the term (df; document frequency). Tf-idf reduces the importance of function words and increases the importance of speakers’ characteristic words because the frequencies of words used by only one speaker are multiplied by six (6/1), while the frequencies of words used by all six speakers are multiplied by one (6/6) (Ramsay 2011: 11). After identifying each speaker’s most characteristic words, he reveals that he has actually used the formula, 1 + tf *log(N/df), which includes a log function (reducing the effect of a word’s appearance in only one speaker), and adds 1 (preventing the measure from becoming negative). The purpose of the alterations “is not to bring the results into closer conformity with ‘reality,’ but merely to render the weighting numbers more sensible to the analyst” (Ramsay 2011: 15). Yet the variants are not “merely” at the whim of the analyst; they have testable consequences.

But let us travel a bit further with Ramsay. He presents the words with the highest tf-idf scores in Louis’s monologue (listed in Fig. 1, along with his tf-idf scores, my tf-idf scores, and  their frequencies), and suggests that “Few readers of The Waves would fail to see some emergence of pattern in this list” (12). For example, western seems to echo Louis’s concern about his Australian accent, and England (all top 25). But actually western, wilt, and thou appear only in Louis’s quotations from a sixteenth-century poem. Ramsay’s provocation ignores some interesting questions: should Louis’s quotations be considered his speech (and retained?), or the anonymous author’s (and omitted?). 


Fig. 1: Louis’s Most Characteristic Words

Trying to recreate Ramsay’s analysis reveals further interesting points. The mismatched tf-idf scores (bold) reflect different word frequencies. His score for beast requires 6 occurrences, not 5, but the 6th is in the omniscient narration). His score for accent requires 13 occurrences, not 14, but Rhoda’s most characteristic words include them– and accent occurs once as accent–, which presumably reduces his count by 1. (What constitutes a word is a surprisingly complex question, but treating accent– as a word seems odd.) The rarity of the words shows how strongly tf-idf privileges words limited to one character (only accent appears in 2). Ramsay’s intervention raises interesting questions: What does it mean to choose this algorithm? How do the results affect our emerging reading of The Waves? (Ramsay 15). But how to answer these questions? 

Even the identification of characteristic words is problematic. Tick and hoot both occur 4 times, only in Bernard, but all 8 occurrences are in 3 consecutive sentences. How “characteristic” is that? Low occurs just 5 times, “only” in Bernard, yet it also occurs in the omniscient narration. Analyzing only the 6 characters seems reasonable, but should Bernard’s characteristic words also occur in the narration? (Some consider Bernard to be modeled on Woolf herself [Ramsay 2011: 13].) Including the narration seems both intriguing and problematic, not least because it is not dialogue. Doing so removes low, canopy, bowled, and brushed from Bernard’s most characteristic words and beast, steel, and discord from Louis’s. What questions does this raise?

Most algorithms for computational approaches come from authorship attribution, where ostensibly correct answers exist. But Ramsay is right that the existence of “correct” answers to questions like “Do the men and women speak differently?” or “Do the characters have distinct and consistent voices?” is precisely at issue. Examining The Waves in the light of Ramsay’s provocation raises so many intriguing questions that they cannot all be addressed here. But we can approach the question of character individualization by using a radical deformation. I randomly sorted the lines of the six monologues, then selected the first 6067 words of each, the length of the shortest monologue (Susan’s). I identified the 50 most characteristic words using Ramsay’s tf-idf formula, and tested how well they group with the remainders of the longer monologues using cluster-analysis, starting with all 300 words (in descending tf-idf order), then reducing the number gradually. The best result, for the 20 most characteristic words, is shown in Fig. 2. 


Fig. 2: Tf-idf and Character-Individualization

Bernard’s and Louis’s sections group together, while Neville’s and Rhoda’s fail (Jinny and Susan have too little text for 2 sections). A simple word frequency list, however, correctly groups all 4 in many analyses (see Fig. 3, based on the 300 mfw), providing a tentative answer to the question of distinct voices. 


Fig. 3: The Most Frequent Words and Character-Individualization

Selecting the 50 most characteristic words for each monologue using Zeta (Craig and Kinney 2011), also produces many perfect results (see Fig. 4, based on the 200 most characteristic words). This very different method, which measures consistency of use rather than frequency, confirms the distinctness of the voices. Finally, testing the six characters in 2,000-word sections with 2-grams (based on the six full monologues) also yields many completely correct clusters (see Fig. 5 for an analysis based on the 900 mf2Grams). 


Fig. 4: Zeta and Character-Individualization


Fig. 5: 2Grams and Character-Individualization

Ramsay suggests that treating the question of whether the six characters in The Waves share “the same stylistic voice” as a problem to solve is a “category error,” and that the proper question–one computers cannot answer–is “Can I interpret (or read) it this way?” (2011: 9-10). Critics still can read the novel as a single stylistic voice, and the six monologues undoubtedly share many characteristics, but, in spite of a host of very interesting remaining questions about the status of algorithms, arguments, and evidence, it seems reasonable to make the bold claim that there are six distinct character voices in The Waves.

Ramsay’s provocative intervention is valuable for forcing us to re-examine our methods and focus on questions of interest to traditional literary scholars. But further analysis of his provocation and his algorithm suggests that more attention to the text, to the nature and function of the algorithms, and to method may prompt bold claims that rest on a sounder foundation. Further work will help us explore the boundary between computationally-tractable and computationally-intractable questions and the significance of that boundary. 

References
Ramsay does not analyze, then interpret, a method criticized by Fish (2012). He begins with a literary judgment, then investigates it. Despite Fish’s criticism, both methods seem valuable.

Ramsay actually uses (1+LN(tf))*LN(N/df), not 1+tf *log(N/df). Many tf-idf formulas exist; for the 4 I tested, 20 of the 25 most characteristic words are the same.

It also reveals that Ramsay has (not unreasonably) omitted Bernard’s final long “summing up” chapter, as I have also done.

The characters do not group completely by gender in the graphs above, also suggesting a tentative answer to “Do the men and women speak differently?” that is different from Ramsay’s.

Craig, H., and A. Kinney. (2010). Shakespeare, Computers, and the Mystery of Authorship. Cambridge UP.

Hoover, D. L. (2007). “The End of the Irrelevant Text: Electronic Texts, Linguistics, and Literary Theory,” Digital Humanities Quarterly 1(2).

Ramsay, S. (2011). Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Fish, S. (2012) “Mind Your P’s and B’s: The Digital Humanities and Interpretation,” The New York Times, online, January 23..","txt","2","",""
"1994","15","MapaHD: Exploring Spanish and Portuguese Speaking DH Communities","10","1. Introduction
A community of Digital Humanities in Spanish and Portuguese (HD*) has been consolidating over the past few years. Due to a series of events gathering numerous colleagues and taking place in diverse latitudes, 2013 has been a turning point. A milestone was the first DíaHD, which brought together about a hundred practitioners and showed that HD scholarship is highly active and eager to build a cohesive community. The purpose of the event was “to identify and establish or improve networks and collaborative work among the community of digital humanists in Latin America, the Caribbean, and the Iberian Peninsula, as well as digital humanists in other regions of the world whose work is done in Spanish or Portuguese” (translation ours)1. Our project, MapaHD originated that day and has embraced the bilingual profile established by that event. MapaHD is an exploration of the features and intersections among those who self-identify as HD practitioners and their characteristics beyond language affiliation. In our paper, we provide insights into issues of temporal development of HD, geographic location, interdisciplinary practices and approaches, and how progressively a community of digital humanists has been taking shape. The development of MapaHD has been made public from its beginnings at mapahd.org where we have gathered visualizations and preliminary results. Simultaneously, the data collected has been used to build an interactive and exploratory map using DARIAH-DE Geo-Browser that is also available through our website.

1.1. Overview
MapaHD is a direct address to the question launched by Domenico Fiormonte, “Is there a non Anglo-American Digital Humanities, and if so, what are its characteristics?”2. In this project we have gathered and analyzed practitioners’ data that evidences not only the existence of a thriving DH community in Spanish and Portuguese languages, but more importantly what its features are. The diversity of the characteristics we have observed sheds light on the HD community’s institutional and project affiliations, area of research, geographic location, research approaches, and temporal data.

1.2. Methodology
In order to tackle these issues, we have carried out three research phases:

1) Data collection gathered entirely online through a survey, answered voluntarily by 85 participants. The survey was available during a four-month period from June 10th to October 10th, 2013. Questions included gathered data on participants’ institutional, project, and disciplinary affiliations, research approaches, location, among others. The survey was distributed through mailing lists and Twitter. Links to the projects’ survey were tweeted using hashtags used by similar events and communities such as #DíaHD, #HDH2013, #DH2013, #ThatCampBaires, #HDBr, #RedHD, #arounddh, #HumanidadesDigitales, and #dhpoco. The aim of this distribution model was to catch the attention of as many participants in as many locations as possible. This approach to data collection sought to allow anybody who identified himself/herself as a digital humanist in the two languages to self-report their characteristics, rather than send out invitations to those we might consider to fall even under a “big tent” definition of digital humanities.3

2) Using the available data, we built a graph database organized according to the semantic network schema in Fig 1. Rather than looking for person to person connections, this analysis sought to shed light on non-obvious and non-personal connections among participants. The links joining researchers and students among them are disciplines, approaches, work spaces, and geographic proximity. The data was subjected to frequency, central tendency, and network analysis. Several results emerged from the data contained in the database and are presented in the next section.


Fig. 1: Database Schema.

3) An interactive map visualization built on DARIAH-DE Geobrowser. This resource is a second contribution of this project to the field as it seeks to serve not only as a visualization of the data collected, but also as a reference tool. Finally, aside from providing a glimpse of the state of the field, MapaHD hopes to strengthen and expand the sense of community and connection among Spanish and Portuguese speaking digital humanists initiated by DíaHD.

2. Results  
2.1. Discipline Outlook
More than half of the 85 participants reported working in at least two disciplines distributed as shown in Fig 2. Literary studies was the discipline most participants reported. However, out of the 56 participants who reported working on the literary fields, 32 also reported working in other disciplines.


Fig. 2: Discipline distribution of participants.

In Fig 3 we show the most common combinations of literary studies and other disciplines. Aside from the recurrence of literary studies together with other disciplines, the only other recurrent disciplinary combination was History and Visual Art. The rest were mostly unique combinations. This information confirms the fact that, not unlike DH, HD is also “a hybrid domain, crossing disciplinary boundaries and also traditional barriers between theory and practice, technological implementation and scholarly reflection”4.


Fig. 3: Combinations between Literary Studies, the most common discipline in the database, and other fields.

Our analyses offer qualitative insights as to what different disciplines might be bringing in into the mix. For example, the recurrence of interdisciplinary work attached to a “root” field of Literary studies suggests that the field is not necessarily the gravity centre of HD as has been suggested by Azofra5 but, as observed in Fig 4, a hub where other expertises converge, shedding light upon each other. In contrast, network analysis has shown that the second and third best connected disciplines are Information Sciences and History.


Fig. 4: Network visualization showing the prominence of Literary Studies by measuring degree, and History and Information Science as the next two best connected disciplines.

The relevance of these two fields in the network resides not so much in how many participants reported them, but how variably combined they are. As a matter of fact, the cluster formed around Information Sciences brings together a few other disciplines such as Education and Computer Science. Even though they have key links joining them to the rest of the network, disciplines such as Philosophy, Film and Media Studies, and Linguistics retain a certain level of isolation. From our data it is possible to see both the exposing of disciplines to other fields of knowledge, on the one hand; and on the other, how in opening up, disciplines flood other fields too. While some disciplines, by sheer numbers seem to be exercising a larger influence, connecting fields like History and Information Sciences might be providing a common foundation of porous perspectives through which these dynamics take place.

2.2. Geographic Outlook
The geographic location of MapaHD participants (Fig 5) was a foundation for the initial concept of the project. Through the interactive map visualization, we also explored the participants distribution. In total 41 cities located in 11 countries were identified (Fig 6). As a reference, this is close to 50% of the total number of countries represented in ACH membership set at 23, as Bethany Nowviskie reported via Twitter in October 20136.


Fig. 5: Screenshot of MapaHD, built on DARIA-DE Geobrowser, showing the spread of the HD community around the world.

Interestingly, close to half of the locations are found in the UK, USA, Canada, Germany, and Italy where, though common, neither Spanish nor Portuguese are official languages. Although some of the participants’ location can be seen as a ‘diaspora’, our results have showed that this is only a small portion of them (22%) and not the sole distinctive of the analyzed group.


Fig. 6: Geographic distribution of participants.

The issue of location and problems of centrality and periphery in the context of Digital Humanities have been better expressed by Domenico Fiormonte, who stresses the fact that DH have not “succeeded in either strengthening the field of humanities or putting some balance into the power relationships between humanities and computer science” 7. We believe that, as Isabel Galina proposes, this lack of balance “can also help us think about DH from a different perspective… [and] pushes the limits of our creativity and our capacity to solve problems”8.

The clear ties with the Anglo-American branch of DH, and to a lesser extent with the continental European one, seem to imply that as an identifiable community HD is porous and prone to cross-polination in terms of approaches, academic practices, and language. The international spread of HD practitioners might be the cause behind the particular diversity in this community. Nevertheless, the HD community maintains a sense of cohesion that can be traced perhaps to the shared lack of visibility, institutional similarities, and linguistic coincidences – Rafael Alvarado’s “network of family resemblances”9. Furthermore, HD ties with other DH communities, both geographic and linguistic, have set up a communication channel through which approaches and projects may travel back and forth.

3. Conclusions
Much has been said about the characteristics of DH on a global scale and, especially, of the Anglo-American branch. MapaHD constitutes the first data-driven approach to the HD community and we provide insights into its disciplinary and geographical particularities. Not discussed in this abstract but included in the paper are the issues of collaboration and where it takes place, as well as an outlook of the connections among the research approaches undertaken, and the historical development of our participants’ trajectories.

Endnotes
*We use HD to distinguish the Spanish and Portuguese speaking branch of digital humanities from the Anglo-American one commonly referred to as DH.

References
1. “Día de las Humanidades Digitales 2013. Día HD 2013. Día de las Humanidades Digitales. 10 May 2013. Web. 25 August 2013. Par. 1 dhd2013.filos.unam.mx/acerca/

2. Fiormonte, Domenico (2012). Towards a Cultural Critique of the Digital Humanities. Historical Social Research. Historische Sozialforschung. Vol. 37. Print. p. 59.

3. Azofra, Elena. Humanidades digitales cerca del ‘Finis terrae’. MorFlog. 9 July 2013. Web. 13 Sept. 2013. http: morflog.hypotheses.org

4. Flanders, Julia, Wendell Piez, and Melissa Terras (2013). Welcome to Digital Humanities Quarterly. DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly:. The Alliance of Digital Humanities Organizations, 2007. Web. 24 Sept. Par. 3 www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/001/1/000007/000007.html

5. Nowviskie, Bethany (nowviskie). Our numbers have grown & diversified since this page was last updated: ach.org/membership/ -- 480 ACHers now hail from 23 countries. October 14th, 2013, 8:50 a.m. Tweet.

6. Galina, Isabel. Is There Anybody Out There? Building a Global Digital Humanities Community. Red HD. Red de Humanistas Digitales. 19 July 2013. Web. 4 Sept. 2013. Par. 16 humanidadesdigitales.net/blog/2013/07/19/is-there-anybody-out-there-building-a-global-digital-humanities-community

7. Fiormonte, Domenico (2012). Towards a Cultural Critique of the Digital Humanities. Historical Social Research. Historische Sozialforschung. Vol. 37. Print. p. 72.

8. Galina, Isabel. Is There Anybody Out There? Building a Global Digital Humanities Community. Red HD. Red de Humanistas Digitales. 19 July 2013. Web. 4 Sept. 2013. Par. 16 humanidadesdigitales.net/blog/2013/07/19/is-there-anybody-out-there-building-a-global-digital-humanities-community

9. Flanders, Julia, Wendell Piez, and Melissa Terras (2007). Welcome to Digital Humanities Quarterly. DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly:. The Alliance of Digital Humanities Organizations. Web. 24 Sept. 2013. Par. 3 www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/001/1/000007/000007.html","txt","2","",""
"1995","15","Mapping and Unmapping Joyce: Geoparsing Wandering Rocks","10","1. Introduction
The copyright expiry on James Joyce’s Ulysses in 2012 created a unique opportunity to read the seminal modernist text through the refraction of technologies made available by the Digital Humanities and techniques from Computer Science. Ulysses is avowedly and manifestly a work both constructed by and read through explicit references to geography and spatial relations. For instance, Frank Budgen attributes the following statement to Joyce, “‘I want,’ said Joyce, as we were walking down the Universitätstrasse, ‘to give a picture of Dublin so complete that if the city one day suddenly disappeared from the earth it could be reconstructed out of my book.’”.1

However, it has been suggested that uncertainty and disorientation play as great a part as explicit references to place and these qualities are evoked through specific narrative strategies.2 From a Digital Humanities perspective, being able to note such contested or defamiliarising areas presents a challenge.

Significant work has been done in the scholarly literature to manually compile and list named entities such as geographic and place name references in Ulysses. However a significant occasion exists to exploit techniques such as XML mark-up and Natural Language Processing (NLP) to explicitly render geographic and spatial references in Ulysses, make the references available for machine processing and accessible to users for reading the novel.

This paper investigates the automatic extraction of toponyms from the Wandering Rocks episode of Ulysses, proposes a model for encoding the episode and accounting for different types of place (including uncertain locations) and, combining these elements, explores XSLTs and visualisations that support a spatial reading of the text. The model proposed by the paper supports not only the notion of the significance of place but also qualities of spatial uncertainty and disorientation noted in the critical literature. The approach taken in the paper leverages exisiting models and technologies.

2. Methodology
This approach seeks to instantiate geographical evidence in the narrative that is almost exclusively transmitted to the reader through unstructured text in print presentations of the novel. This has been done through a combination of Natural Language Processing tools, geocoding the resulting data and merging the data into a TEI encoded version of the text and presenting the output in a web application.

From a Digital Humanities and Computer Science perspective, a number of readily available tools, technologies and methodologies exist to link place names in unstructured text to geographical data. Such tools allow the novel approaches suggested by Moretti and undertaken by Clement.34For example, Named Entity Recognition (NER), a subset of Natural Language Processing, represents a viable methodology to extract toponyms from unstructured text. Geoparsing place names to match geographical coordinates is assisted through such openly available digital gazetteers such as GeoNames.5  Projects such as the University of Edinburgh’s  Unlock provide non-technical interfaces that allow for automated NER and geoparsing. 6


This paper addresses the role that names play in Ulysses, specifically the Wandering Rocks episode and what this role reveals about the novel as a whole. It confronts whether there is a topographical quality in Ulysses and if so how that quality is defined. Accordingly, it considers three hypotheses: that geoparsing of Ulysses enables distant reading that will in turn enable new interpretations of the text; that geoparsing Ulysses creates a virtual gazetteer of the text; that the development of a model for encoding encompasses areas, such as uncertainty as a quality of place, outside of the scope of geoparsing.


Geoparsing and geocoding have been utilised as a primary methodology for the project. A number of technologies such as the Natural Language Toolkit and software produced by Stanford’s Natural Language Processing Lab were available and assisted in determining whether such an approach was feasible78. Again, it was anticipated that an iterative approach would be followed where initial automated extraction of toponyms via NLP would inform the encoding of episodes. This encoding, in turn, would provide the basis for a coterminal presentation of text and geographical elements through the web application and as the basis for interrogating the text along a geographical orientation.


The data model for the Literary Atlas of Europe was utilised as a framework to assign types to toponyms in the resulting TEI.9 The framework provided by the LAE allowed for further analysis on the role of place in the text, particularly the representation of uncertainty. Accordingly, while the LAE model provides a preliminary scaffolding, the mode proposed in the paper combines semi-automated extration of toponyms combined with a document-based encoding.

3. Lessons Learned
The work described by the paper resulted in a number of outcomes. Firstly, the development of the model and subsequent encoding of toponyms in the text rendered a comprehensive and programmatically presentable list of geographic references. Such a list constitutes a sort of virtual gazetteer for the novel. Secondly, this approach works towards identifying any inconsistencies in Joyce’s use of geographic references (with regard to the “traps” identified by Hart), indicates the role of geographical uncertainty in the episode and potentially suggests productive interpretive approaches.10 Thirdly, such an approach contributes towards the notion of a literary cartography and echoes the work undertaken by the Literary Atlas of Europe. The data produced by such an approach would be available for use in contexts outside the academic realm including use in literary tourism.

4. Conclusions
This paper tentatively indicates that automated processing of text may support a procedural, iteratively based approach to geoparsing Ulysses that combines the application of software with manually identified terms. The project strongly suggests that the NER-CRF software was most effective in identifying explicit toponyms that were marked in the encoding as either routes or projected spaces. What the results of the project suggest also is that the application of typography might be partially automated; types of place may be determined through automated  processes.

The application of the Literary Atlas of Europe’s five categories of spatial representation as a place type within the encoding of the episode clearly supports the contentions of Gunn, Hart and others that place plays a dominant role in the Wandering Rocks episode.11 The relative dominance of places of type “route” in the episode is not surprising and supports the notion of place as being significant to the novel.12 What this approach indicates though is that such critical insights may be verified using the algorithmic or distant reading frameworks. In this case, place is important to the episode because the majority of toponyms indicate explicit routes in particular, verifiable places.

However, one is also left with the insight that uncertainty, as marked by the absence of geographical identifiers, is the highest for certain types of places in the text. While place's significance to the novel is undoubtedly a likely outcome of a traditional, close-reading approach, the model proposed in the paper enforces a certain rigour in its approach to the text. Therefore, while the episode may be in some way explicitly “about” place, roughly a third of the places are of uncertain locations. This would markedly imply that, in the critical literature, Bulson’s emphasis on the notion of disorientation and Hart’s attention to the various “traps” of place can be traced back to measurable “quantities”, within the confines of a constricted model, in the text. Additionally, one outcome of this approach is the difficulty in visually representing spatial uncertainty. This element is accomodated in the web component in terms of character routes rather than explicit location.

While toponym extraction and a geographically-contextualised approach towards the text enabled visual representations of the types of place in Wandering Rocks, the evocation of uncertainty, as facilitated by the LAE data model, made representation of such data challenging in a web-based, visual environment. The work described in this paper is generalizable within the larger Digital Humanities context as it demonstrates the practical application of NER, uses document encoding to explore meaningful geographic relationships in the text and leverages these relationships to interrogate spatial uncertainty.

References
1. Budgen, F. & Hart, C., (1989). James Joyce and the making of ‘Ulysses’ and other writings, Oxford University Press.

2. Bulson, E., (2011). ‘Disorienting Dublin’ in Making Space in the Works of James Joyce 1st ed. V. Benejam & J. Bishop, eds., Routledge.

3. Moretti, F., (2007). Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for Literary History, Verso.

4. Clement, T.E., (2008). ‘A thing not beginning and not ending’: using digital tools to distant-read Gertrude Stein’s The Making of Americans. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(3), pp.361 –381.

5. Anon, GeoNames. Available at: www.geonames.org [Accessed November 3, 2011].

6. Edina, (2009). Unlock - Unlock Text: Geoparser Web service. Unlock - Unlock Text: Geoparser Web service. Available at: unlock.edina.ac.uk [Accessed November 4, 2011].

7. Bird, Stephen, (2013). Natural Language Toolkit, Available at: www.nltk.org [Accessed March 6, 2013].

8. Stanford Natural Language Processing Group, (2013). The Stanford NLP (Natural Language Processing) Group, Available at: nlp.stanford.edu/software/CRF-NER.shtml [Accessed August 10, 2013].

9. Piatti, B., (2013). A Literary Atlas of Europe. Available at: www.literaturatlas.eu/en [Accessed November 4, 2011].

10. Hart, C., (1974). “Wandering Rocks” in James Joyce’s Ulysses. Critical essays. Edited by Clive Hart and David Hayman., Berkeley: University of California Press.

11. Gunn, I., Hart, C. & Beck, H., (2004). James Joyce’s Dublin: A Topographical Guide to the Dublin of Ulysses: with 121 Illustrations, Thames & Hudson, Limited.

12. Bulson, E., (2001). Joyce’s Geodesy. Journal of Modern Literature, 25(2), pp.80–96.","txt","2","",""
"1996","15","Mapping Colonial America's Printing Project","2","In 1524, less than thirty years after arriving on American soil, Europeans opened the New World’s first print shop. By the time creole nationalist movements up and down the two continents were in full swing three hundred years later, the Americas had a thriving print trade with presses spread across two continents.1The Mapping Colonial Americas Publishing Project (cds.library.brown.edu/projects/mapping-genres) aims to visualize New World printing over geographic space and across literary genres from European contact to 1800.  Our poster will illustrate the progress we have made thus far in our efforts to visualize what kinds of works were published where in the Americas before 1800 and how these printing patterns changed over time. 

Scholars who study the print trade in the Americas before 1800 have long known that the types of material printed in Europe’s American colonies varied according to region and historical period.2  Scholars have yet to visualize data culled from library catalogs to illustrate the dramatic differences in the kinds of genres published in different parts of the Americas and the way those generic patterns changed over time.  Mapping Colonial Americas Publishing aims to put these print histories on display.

By representing the generic differences in the history of print in both North and South America, Mapping Colonial Americas Publishing allows scholars, students, and others to compare generic patterns across languages, cultures, and nations.  Scholarship on print in pre-1800 North and South America has, until recently, focused either on English or Spanish materials.  Our project fits with recent trends toward Hemispheric study of the colonial Americas, and our poster will highlight this hemispheric approach to colonial print histories.3   

Early visualizations based on data from the Brown University Library, especially the Universities rare book libraries, the John Carter Brown and the John Hay, as well as the American Antiquarian Society have revealed the complexity of library catalogs as a digital-print hybrid genre.  Literary scholars constantly use library catalogs to locate materials, but rarely think about the conceptual structures or technical possibilities (and limitations) inherent in the data collected by librarians and archivists over the centuries.  Library cataloging systems were designed to group, retrieve, and display records, and provide powerful tools for name authority, but individual records are created by hand and many crucial fields for book history (title, imprint, place of publication) contain long sections of multilingual, free form text, which resist systematic parsing to extract spatial or temporal information.4

Rare book catalogers esteem fidelity to the original title page, including spelling variants and latinized proper nouns (ex. Yale University Press giving its place of publication as “Novo Porto” instead of New Haven).  This makes an individual catalog entry a rich source for work on the cultural history of reading and the materiality of the book trade, but presents real challenges for collating these entries to perform geospatial analysis or genre comparison over one hundred years of changing best practices.  

Library catalog data has become a topic of renewed interest in Digital Humanities with the rise of large scale data repositories such as the HathiTrust and the Digital Public Library of America, but these projects have focused their efforts on combining millions of records into interoperable and searchable data structures.5  The Mapping Colonial America’s Publishing Project is dealing with a much smaller dataset (~140,000 catalog records), produced at Brown University, which allows us to delve into the intricacies of the cataloging and to remodel the data to suit our own research interests and the needs of the Brown University community.

The project will have two major end products: a gazetteer of normalized and geolocated places of publication in the Americas before 1800 and a series of data visualizations designed to help scholars and students explore printed material on the axes of genre, place of publication, date of publication, and format.  Following on our initial dives we are refocusing our efforts to build a visual portal into the printed materials from the colonial americas physically held by Brown University.  A smaller data set will allow us to do the more intensive data cleaning required for Thiessen Polygon analysis (locations) or data mining (titles, subject headings).  Using local data will also allow us to work with our catalogers and verify our analysis against the physical objects as necessary.  This project is using open source tools, including OpenRefine (http://openrefine.org) for data cleaning and the D3.js data visualization library (http://d3js.org).  All the code and cleaned library data produced by this project is available on github under the MIT license for anyone to download and explore.

References
1. For a history of the book trade in colonial British America, see Hugh Armory and David D. Hall, eds., A History of the Book in America. Volume One. The Colonial Book in the Atlantic World (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2000); Hellmut Lehman-Haupt, A History of the Selling and Making of Books in the United States (New York : R.R. Bowker Co., 1951), 2nd. ed., rev. and enl. ed. and Lawrence C. Wroth, The Colonial Printer (NY: Dover, 1965). For a history of the book trade in colonial Spanish America, see Julie Greer Johnson, The Book in the Americas: The Role of Books and Printing in the Development of Culture and Society in Colonial Latin America (Providence, RI: John Carter Brown Library, 1988) and Hensely C. Woodbridge and Lawrence S. Thompson, Printing in Colonial Spanish America (Troy, NY: Whitson, 1976).

2. Scholarship that focuses on the regional dimension of colonial print cultures include Armory and Hall, Trish Loughran, The Republic in Print: Print Culture in the Age of U.S. Nation Building, 1770-1870 (NY: Columbia, 2007). Michael Warner, The Letters of the Republic: Publication and the Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1990), and Wroth.

3. For examples of recent studies that argue for a hemispheric approach to literary and historical approaches to the study of colonial European cultures in the New World, see Ralph Bauer, The Cultural Geography of Colonial American Literatures: Empire, Travel, Modernity (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003) and Anna Brickhouse, Transamerican Literary Relations and the Nineteenth-Century Public Sphere (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2004).

4. Two excellent recent explorations of cleaning catalog data are Mia Ridge, ""Mia Ridge explores the shape of Cooper-Hewitt collections,"" Cooper-Hewitt Labs, June 19, 2012. labs.cooperhewitt.org/2012/exploring-shape-collections-draft/ and Lincoln Mullen, ""Quantifying the American Tract Society: Using Library Catalog Data for Historical Research,"" Religion in American History, August 1, 2013. usreligion.blogspot.com/2013/08/quantifying-american-tract-society.html

5. For example, A Preservation Infrastructure Built to Last: Preservation, Community, and HathiTrust. UNESCO The Memory of the World in the Digital Age: Digitization and Preservation, Vancouver, British Columbia, September 26-28, 2012. (September 2012) - Jeremy York. On the visualization side, the DPLA is experimenting with a number of large scale data visualizations, of which an ever growing list can be found at dp.la/apps.","txt","2","",""
"1997","15","Mapping French Press to the Digital Age","2","Abstract
The unsupervised use of dictionary-lookup is known to enhance NER, however dictionaries have limitations for being finite and ambiguous. On the other hand, supervised NER such as Stanford's NER Classifier that we tested here is known to perform very well but only with the availability of huge amounts of manually annotated training data that is very costly, time consuming and sometimes inaccurate due to inter-annotator inconsistencies. Therefore, we develop and discuss an original unsupervised approach for Named Entity Recognition (NER) and Disambiguation (UNERD) using a French knowledge-base and a statistical contextual disambiguation technique that slightly outperformed Stanford's NER Classifier (when trained on a small portion of manually annotated data) and Aleda's dictionary lookup. Furthermore, we devise a solution to identify and highlight named entity tagging on the original scanned images thus preserving the newspaper’s layout and feel. 

1. Introduction
Huge amounts of printed manuscripts from old French journals (from the 19th and 20th century) have been recently digitized and published by the National French Library, la Bibliotheque Nationale Francaise (BnF). However, the massive amounts of produced textual data are highly unstructured and hard to index or search, needless to mention the digitization errors resulting from ill-preserved or damaged manuscripts and imperfect Optical Character Recognition (OCR) techniques.

Named Entity Recognition (NER) is a task of information extraction that aims to identify in-text references to concepts such as people, locations and organizations, mainly in unstructured natural-language text. NER is very useful for text indexing, text summarization, question answering and several other tasks that enhance the experience between humans and literature. Furthermore, advanced NER and disambiguation techniques are capable of dealing with noise resulting from digitization errors.

Several supervised learning techniques, such as Stanford’s Conditional Random Field (CRF) Classifier 1, have been developed to address the question of NER very successfully, however they require large manually-annotated corpora of text, which is very expensive to obtain and maintain. On the other hand, with the abundance of publicly accessible knowledge bases and dictionaries, such as Freebase, geonames and Aleda 2, unsupervised methods have become popular especially since they require no pre-annotated training data. However,  several challenges have arisen from the choice of appropriate knowledge bases, resolving homonymous ambiguity, detecting entity boundaries, and identifying less common name entities. Moreover, most studies have been dedicated to English text while text in other languages, that has recently been digitized and published at astounding rates, has received little or no attention.


Fig. 1: Original scanned image from ""Le Petit Parisen""

Here, we discuss our model of Unsupervised Named Entity Recognition and Disambiguation (UNERD), and validate it on digitized French text from the 19th century. We claim that NER using Knowledge based disambiguation is especially relevant for minimally annotated texts that are expensive to annotate in several languages and domains, which is often the case in Digital Humanities. More details about our algorithm and its performance are detailed in 3. We also discuss a solution that uses the XML digitized data in order to preserve the location of entities and highlight them on the original scanned image as well as in the OCRised text. 

2. Data
Here we discuss the data at hand, its format, encoding and necessary text processing. Next we discuss a portion of annotated data that is used for validation. Finally, we propose a solution that allows tagging the originally scanned journal image.

2.1. Corpus
The corpus consists of recently digitized and published old unlabelled French journals. More specifically, the data consists of a subset of “Le Petit Parisien” journal supplied by Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF). It was originally published between 1863 and 1944 with a total of 29616 issues. The corpus we are using comprises 260 issues with a total of 1098 pages of natural French text. The pages were recently digitized and OCRised and encoded in the ALTO format, which is an open XML standard for representing OCR text. Both scanned pages and text formats of “Le Petit Parisien” are accessible at the BnF website via their digital portal, Gallica: gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb34419111x/date.langFR

2.2. Format
The ALTO file has 3 major sections:

<Description> contains the metadata about the ALTO file.

<Styles> specify the text and paragraph styles.

<Layout> describes the main content subdivided into <page> elements.

Each page of the content is further divided into margins and printspace, each of which containing  lines, images or textblocks.  The ALTO format provides OCR confidence for each word. The XML files are encoded using the iso-8859-1 encoding. Handling this dataset is challenging due to the old ill-preserved manuscripts resulting in many OCR errors. However, we exclude text blocks with low OCR confidence (lower than 0.85).

2.3. Validation Data
The corpus of French journals is very expensive and time consuming to annotate. Therefore we had experts annotate only a small portion of 4171 words of which the numbers annotated entities are 75 Person, 78 Location, and 22 Organisation entities.

2.4. Text Processing
Text preprocessing is essential for decoding and analysing the data and  the first step is to prepare OCR text for entity extraction such as converting the XML iso-8859-1 encoded corpus into standard UTF-8 encoded text, excluding text-blocks with confidence less than 85% or containing words with length more than 15 characters, applying Part of Speech Tagging (using TreeTagger) and removing French stop-words.

2.5. Representation
Here, we propose a solution that enables the ALTO XML format to keep track of the location of the words in order to highlight the entities not only for the OCRised text but also for on the original scanned image thus maintaining the layout, font types and feel or reading a newspaper.

The ALTO XML format preserves the location of all OCRised words using the tags HPOS and VPOS as illustrated in the following code for the text “Toussaint, humide et pluvieux;”:


Fig. 2: Sample ALTO XML code representing 4 words and their positions on the scanned image


Fig. 3: Sample original scanned image from ""Le Petit Parisien"" highlighting entities corresponding to the following categories: Location (blue), Organization (green) and Person (red) names.

3. Method
Our algorithm first uses a French knowledge-base, namely Aleda, to find contextual collocations (or word co-occurrences) for each entity class (Person, Location or Organisation) within a window of size n.  Next, we compare the context of the candidate entity with the classes'contextual cues that eventually suggest a class name for each contextual word around the entity-mention. The comparison may or may not rely on the position of the three neighboring words that make its context based on the following disambiguation techniques.

The single significant cue selects the class of the contextual cue with the highest TF-IDF score.
The bag of words selects the class of the contextual cue  with the highestTF-IDF ignoring the relative positions of the contextual cues.
The majority rule selects the class that has the majority of the votes by contextual cues or at least two out of three votes.
Finally, our algorithm uses the majority rule to select a class based on the results from the previous techniques i.e. if at least two disambiguation techniques agree on a class then this class is chosen. Furthermore, the entity-boundary detection uses a Parts of Speech (PoS) tagger that identifies noun phrase boundaries.

3. Results
We tested our UNERD algorithm on a small portion of data that we had annotated by experts and we compared it using k-fold cross-validation to mere dictionary look-up, namely Aleda, and to Stanford’s NER Conditional Random Field (CRF) Classifier. The preliminary results reported using F-score are clearly in favor of our unsupervised method as shown in table 1.

 F-score	 Aleda Look-up	 Stanford NER	 UNERD
 LOC	 0.33	 0.54	 0.77
 PER	 0.73	 0.75	 0.83
 ORG	 0.20	 0.44	 0.46
 AVERAGE	 0.42	 0.58	 0.69
For more details about K-fold cross-validation, F-score please refer to 4.

Conclusion
Here, discussed an original unsupervised named entity recognition and disambiguation approach which outperforms mere dictionary lookup and supervised learning on small portions of annotated data. Arguably, Stanford’s supervised NER can outperform our method if trained on a larger set of manually annotated data. However, that may be true with the availability of huge amounts of annotated data that are very expensive and time consuming to produce.  Our NER and disambiguation technique is statistical and is supposed to work on various languages and domains using no annotated data. We also discussed an approach for keeping track and making use of the ALTO XML format in order to highlight entities on the original scanned image. 

References
1. Finkel, Jenny Rose, Trond Grenager, and Christopher Manning (2005). Incorporating non-local information into information extraction systems by gibbs sampling. Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics. Association for Computational Linguistics.

2. Benoit Sagot, Rosa Stern, et al. (2012). Aleda, a free large-scale entity database for french. Proceedings of LREC 2012

3. Mosallem, Yusra, Abi-Haidar, Alaa and Ganascia Jean-Gabriel (Submitted). Unsupervised Named Entity Recognition and Disambiguation: An Application to Old French Journals.

4. Feldman, Ronen, and James Sanger (2007). The text mining handbook: advanced approaches in analyzing unstructured data. Cambridge University Press","txt","2","",""
"1998","15","Marked E-Books and Kindle's popular highlight culture","2","The current project analyses the evidence of readership available through the public facing popular highlights feature of Amazon's Kindle platform. In order to be considered a popular highlight, the text must be shared by three users. There are over one million quotations that meet this basic criteria and can be analyzed in similar ways to evidence of marginalia and provenance in book historical research. The present research analyses the popular highlights as a measure of various genre's popularity as well as observing usage patterns of the highlighting and sharing features.

The static e-book has become embedded in the public’s imagination as an exemplar of the future of reading on the screen. The Kindle is one of the forerunners in the commercial e-book marketplace, encompassing a range of both software and hardware platforms and offering millions of titles. While others have begun to explore the impact of e-book culture, (Galey 2012; Lang 2012; Wu 2013; Thomas & Round 2013), the current project focuses on the traces readers leave directly on their Kindles. Amazon offer tools to share annotations and highlights of their eBooks to replicate print marginalia. The data for popular highlights is shared on a public-facing webpage (Amazon.com, Inc. 2013) that can be collected for analysis. This research offers an approach to the empirical study of reception on a previously unprecedented scale and offers an insight into what users find interesting about the material they are reading.

The data was collected using wget on the Kindle Popular Highlights website, as Amazon.com does not currently offer an API for the dataset. The project focused on the Popular Highlights feature and the metadata pertaining to the book title, author, quotation and number of highlights. While this does not provide evidence of individual readers, it can be used to analyse patterns of readership and marginalia. An initial foray produced the first 100,000 popular highlights (out of a dataset of over 1,000,000 highlights) that were produced by over 8 million shared highlights. Unfortunately this method left many artefacts when converting certain characters, so the data was cleaned and organized.

The initial results revealed some interesting patterns. The most highlighted books were primarily Young Adult (YA) fiction, literary classics, pop science and self-help. Individual passages can be highlighted more than 1,000 times, with a quotation from Catching Fire (The Second Book of the Hunger Games) received over 17,000 highlights. Each genre’s annotations often fit into roughly categorized groups: literary classics and pop science produce pithy aphorisms; self-help books are quoted for their instructions; and YA generally highlighted “spoilers” and dialogue that is central to the novel’s plot. Over 90% of the quotations are under 350 characters, although occasionally readers will highlight a whole page. Since one of the core features of the popular highlight function is the ability to re-use the quotations as tweets, brevity of quotation length is expected and confirmed as 42% of the highlights are tweetable. As the number of highlights fall, the books’ genres tend to become more esoteric and the highlights become fuzzier. Some of these bear the marks of experimenting with the feature or more playful purposes, such as “THE” in the New Oxford American Dictionary receiving 73 highlights.

The analysis comes with a few caveats: (1) the Kindle is only one eBook provider and is not representative of digital reading; (2) it is unknown to what degree this data is representative of reading on the Kindle in general; (3) the data does not currently include 90% of the data; and (4) without a finer breakdown of the users’ demographics, the data can only tell us so much about what the readers are attempting to do through highlighting. Nonetheless, the Kindle Popular Highlights dataset offers a snapshot into the possible ways in which book historical research can be conducted in the early twenty-first century.  

References
Amazon.com, Inc., 2013. Most Highlighted Passages of All Time. Available at: https://kindle.amazon.com/most_popular/highlights_all_time/.

Galey, A., 2012. The Enkindling Reciter: E-Books in the Bibliographical Imagination. Book History, 15(1), pp.210–247.

Lang, A. ed., 2012. From Codex to Hypertext: Reading at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century, Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Press.

Thomas, B. & Round, J., 2013. Digital Reading Network. Available at: http://www.digitalreadingnetwork.com/ [Accessed October 27, 2013].

Wu, Y.-H., 2013. Kindling, Disappearing, Reading. , 7(1). Available at: http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/7/1/000115/000115.html [Accessed October 27, 2013].","txt","2","",""
"1999","15","Marrying the Benefits of Print and Digital: Algorithmically Selecting Context for a Key Word","10","1. Introduction
Over the last few decades as more texts have been digitized, numerous software systems have arisen to display the texts and allow scholars to analyze them. These software systems have varied in their delivery (web-based, desktop software, mobile app, etc.) and their functionality, yet nearly all of them have included full-text search capabilities. Search is a central tool for scholars researching a corpus, and it is a task for which computers are perfectly suited. Despite the ubiquity of searching capabilities, there is no single method for displaying search results. When a user has requested to see a key word in its context, how much context should be presented to the user?

In choosing the context to present, there is no single solution that will always be best. At times, users will want to see detailed context requiring several lines. At other times, users will want to see as many search results as possible in a small visual space. Thus, providing multiple ways of viewing search results is desirable. When each search result is contained in a single line, perhaps the most attractive presentation currently in common use contains the key word in the middle, showing whatever context that fits on each side, a presentation style also found in some print concordances (Clarke, 1984; The Computer Bible, 1970-).


Fig. 1: . Results from a KWIC (Key Word in Context) search using Perseus under Philologic at perseus.uchicago.edu.

However, there is another method of displaying search results on a single line that is found in some print concordances that antedate digital tools. In this tradition, the context surrounding the key word is chosen manually so as to provide the reader as much information as possible about the key word’s context.


Fig. 2: The entry “strengthen” in (Strong, 1890).

Unfortunately, this method requires a tremendous amount of manual effort; it has only been practical in concordances of the Bible and other heavily-studied texts. The following concordances that antedate the maturation of the digital age take this approach: Bible: Cruden (1737); Young (1882); Strong (1890); Mandelkern (1896); Hazard (1922); Gant (1950); Lisowsky (1958); Even-Shoshan (1977); Homer: Prendergast (1875: Iliad); Dunbar (1880: Odyssey); Shakespeare: Clarke (1846). Since the full flowering of the digital age, it has been abandoned in most concordances and even in commercial Bible software, as shown in the following figures.


Fig. 3: Search results from Logos Bible Software (logos.com) on a PC.


Fig. 4: . Search results from BibleWorks (BibleWorks.com) on a PC.


Fig. 5: Search results from Olive Tree Bible Software (OliveTree.com) on a Samsung Galaxy S3 smartphone. As a disclaimer, I wrote the search engine—but not the code to display the search results—for Olive Tree Bible Software as an independent contractor.

There have been some print concordances in the digital age for which the single-line context has been produced algorithmically, at least in part (e.g. Ellison, 1957; Spevack, 1968-1975; Goodrick and Kohlenberger, 1990; Kohlenberger, 1991; Dixon and Dawson, 1992; Mounce, 2012). Where algorithmic details have been published in part (Soule, 1956; Dixon, 1974; Dawson, 1977; Burton, 1982), they have often been primarily dependent on punctuation and/or manual annotation as a pre-processing step. While pioneering in their day, computing resources are more plentiful today, and the field of natural language processing has advanced greatly.

I propose an algorithm that seeks to mimic a human reader’s choice of context for a search term. The goal is to produce the most relevant context for a key word on a line that is of arbitrary width using an arbitrary font. This provides the benefits of traditional print concordances without the tens or hundreds of person-years required to produce them for even a single line width and font size.

2. Algorithm
2.1 Preprocessing
The text must, of course, be available in electronic form, but a syntactic parsing is also necessary. There are some electronic texts that have been parsed syntactically by hand (e.g. Andersen and Forbes, 2012), but the recent development of general-purpose parsers has made this work possible on a broader scale. As these parsers are developed for more languages and dialects and as they improve, the approach outlined here will become more and more useful. For this work, I generated phrase structure trees and dependency trees using StanfordCoreNLP (version 1.3.5, nlp.stanford.edu/software/index.shtml) on three texts (cf. Toutanova et al., 2003; de Marneffe et al., 2006). In keeping with the traditional use of concordances with Bible translations, I chose two Bible translations along with one novel: the King James Version (KJV) of the Bible (1769 text edition), the English Standard Version (ESV) of the Bible (2011 text edition, Old Testament/Hebrew Bible portion only), and Henry James’ novel What Maisie Knew (Maisie). A small amount of preprocessing was done before and after StanfordCoreNLP’s parsing, both to fix some repetitive errors in StanfordCoreNLP’s analysis and also to remove, and then reinstate, the main archaisms in the KJV.

2.2 Algorithm
In order to develop an algorithm for mimicking a human’s choice of context, I developed training data by randomly choosing key words from the ESV and line lengths, ranging from what might fit legibly on a typical smartphone to a line three times as long. I then displayed all possible contexts that fit on the line but make maximum use of the space on the line. That is, no more words could fit on either side. In addition, sensible rules concerning which types of punctuation were appropriate at the beginning or end were employed (e.g. a possible context could not begin with a comma or end with an open quotation mark), and possible contexts could not cross verse boundaries. In the rare case that there was only one option, that key word was discarded. A user selected his preferred context for 500 such key words, occasionally choosing two or three different contexts if they seemed equally desirable1. After analyzing his choices, I produced the following metric w(k,n) to give a value (weight) to each nearby word n for the key word k:


Let ap be the nearest common ancestor of k and n in the phrase structure tree and ad be the nearest common ancestor of k and n in the dependency tree. Then dpk is the distance between ap and k in the phrase structure tree, dpn is the distance between ap and n in the phrase structure tree, ddk is the distance between ad and k in the dependency tree, and ddn is the distance between ad and n in the dependency tree.

Each possible context is evaluated as the sum of w(k,n) for each n in the possible context; the context with the highest value is chosen. If multiple possible contexts have identical values, any can be chosen; I picked the one that had the most context before the key word.

The constants were optimized to the following values using a Monte Carlo particle filter on the training data:


These constants reveal that the dependency tree was more important than the phrase structure tree.
3. Results
In addition to the above-mentioned training set, test sets were then generated from the ESV and Maisie with 100 key words each, and four human annotators made selections for each. The results are listed in Table 1. Since human annotators occasionally selected two or three contexts as equally good, a match for a given key word is calculated as:


 	ESV training set	ESV test set	Maisie test set
Algorithm matches user selection	67.8%	62.5%	47.8%
Expected algorithm matches if selections were random from a uniform distribution	27.4%	25.5%	21.9%
Inter-annotator agreement	N/A	65.8%	53.0%
Expected inter-annotator agreement if selections were random from a uniform distribution	N/A	27.0%	23.5%
These results indicate that on average, the algorithm matches a given human annotator slightly less often than another human annotator does. Assuming that human intuition presents the gold standard for this task, this means that the algorithm is doing only slightly worse than humans at picking the best context for the key word.

Some screenshots of algorithmically-generated key words in context are shown below.


Fig. 6: KWIC search for “Aaron” in ESV, KJV; “Maisie” in Maisie (from left to right).


Fig. 7: Randomly Selected Key Words from ESV, KJV and Maisie (from left to right).

4. Conclusion
Searching for key words is one of the core functions of text analysis software. The work presented here holds promise as a way of improving the way in which search results are displayed by automating a time-consuming manual technique traditionally used in print concordances. In addition, future work could deal with more complex displays, including possibly not using all the space available, possibly using ellipses, and dealing with displaying results of searches involving multiple key words.

I would like to thank James Covington for his annotation of the training set and both test sets, Rodelle Williams and D. Chris Benner for their annotation of both test sets, Humphrey H. Hardy for his annotation of the ESV test set, and Samuel L. Boyd for his annotation of the Maisie test set.
References
Andersen, F. I. & Forbes, A. D. (2012). Biblical Hebrew Grammar Visualized. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.

Burton, D. M. (1982). Automated Concordances and Word-indexes: Machine Decisions and Editorial Revisions. Computers and the Humanities 16, 195-218.

Clarke, E. G. (1984). Targum Pseudo-Jonathan of the Pentateuch: Text and Concordance. Hoboken: Ktav.

Clarke, M. C. (1846). The Complete Concordance to Shakespeare: Being a Verbal Index to all the Passages in the Dramatic Works of the Poet. New York: Wiley and Putnam.

Cruden, A. (1737). A Complete Concordance to the Old and New Testament; or a Dictionary and Alphabetical Index to the Bible with a Concordance to the Apocrypha, and a Compendium of the Holy Scriptures. London: Frederick Warne & Co.

Dawson, J. L. (1977). Textual Bracketing. ALLC Bulletin 5, 148-157.

de Marneffe, M.-C., MacCartney, B. & Manning, C. D. (2006). Generating Typed Dependency Parses from Phrase Structure Parses. Language Resources and Evaluation Conference. Genoa, Italy.

Dixon, J. E. G. (1974). A Prose Concordance: Rabelais. ALLC Bulletin 2, 47-54.

Dixon, J. E. G. & Dawson, J. L. (1992). Concordance des Œuvres de François Rabelais. Genève: Droz.

Dunbar, H. (1880). A Complete Concordance to the Odyssey and Hymns of Homer. To which is added A Concordance to the Parallel Passages in the Iliad, Odyssey and Hymns. Oxford: Clarendon.

Ellison, J. W. (1957). Nelson's Complete Concordance of the Revised Standard Version of the Bible. New York: Nelson.

Even-Shoshan, A. (1977). Ḳonḳordantsyah ḥadashah le-Torah, Nevʼim, u-Khetuvim: botsar leshon ha-Miḳra - ʻIvrit ṿa-Aramit: shorashim, milim, shemot peratiyim, tserufim ṿe-nirdafim. Jerusalem: Ḳiryat sefer.

Gant, W. J. (1950). Concordance of the Bible in the Moffatt Translation. London: Hodder and Stoughton.

Goodrick, E. W. & Kohlenberger, J. R., III (1990). The NIV Exhaustive Concordance. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

Hazard, M. C. (1922). A Complete Concordance to the American Standard Version of the Holy Bible. New York: Nelson.

Kohlenberger, J. R., III (1991). The NRSV Concordance Unabridged: Including the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

Lisowsky, G. (1958). Konkordanz zum hebräischen Alten Testament, nach dem von Paul Kahle in der Biblia Hebraica edidit R. Kittel besorgten masoretischen Text. Stuttgart: Privileg. Württ. Bibelanstalt.

Mandelkern, S. (1896). Veteris Testamenti concordantiae hebraicae atque chaldaicae, quibus continentur cuncta quae in prioribus concordantiis reperiuntur vocabula, lacunis omnibus expletis, emendatis cuiusquemodi vitiis, locis ubique denuo excerptis atque in meliorem formam redactis, vocalibus interdum adscriptis, particulae omnes adhuc nondum collatae, pronomina omnia hic primum congesta atque enarrata, nomina propria omnia separatim commemorata. Lipsiae: Veit et comp.

Mounce, W. D. (2012). ESV Comprehensive Concordance of the Bible. Wheaton: Crossway.

Prendergast, G. L. (1875). A Complete Concordance to the Iliad of Homer. London: Longmans, Green & Co.

Soule, G. (1956). Machine that Indexed the Bible. Popular Science 169, 173-175, 242, 246.

Spevack, M. (1968-1975). A Complete and Systematic Concordance to the Works of Shakespeare. Hildesheim: Georg Olms.

Strong, J. (1890). The Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible: Showing every Word of the Text of the Common English Version of the Canonical Books, and every Occurrence of each Word in Regular Order: together with A Comparative Concordance of the Authorized and Revised Versions, Including the American Variations: Also Brief Dictionaries of the Hebrew and Greek Words of the Original, with References to the English Words. Cincinnati: Jennings & Graham.

The Computer Bible. (1970-). Missoula: Scholars Press.

Toutanova, K., Klein, D., Manning, C. D. & Singer, Y. (2003). Feature-rich Part-of-speech Tagging with a Cyclic Dependency Network. Proceedings of the 2003 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics on Human Language Technology - Volume 1. Edmonton, Canada: Association for Computational Linguistics.

Young, R. (1882). Analytical Concordance to the Bible on an Entirely New Plan: Containing every word in Alphabetical Order, Arranged under its Hebrew or Greek Original, with the Literal Meaning of each, and its Pronunciation; Exhibiting about Three Hundred and Eleven Thousand References, Marking 30,000 Various Readings in the New Testament, with the Latest Information on Biblical Geography and Antiquities, etc. etc. etc. Philadelphia: Lippincott & Co.","txt","2","",""
"2000","15","Matérialiser et rendre perceptible la transmission orale du savoir, L'édition électronique des cours d'Antoine Desgodets à l'Académie royale d'architecture en France, 1719-1728","10","Introduction
Notre propos porte une réflexion sur la manière d’exposer et d’analyser une oralité. Dans le cadre d’un projet collectif, nous avons produit une édition critique numérique des cours d’Antoine Desgodets à l’Académie royale d’Architecture, en France, de 1719 à 17281. Avec cet enseignement, l’architecte opérait une rupture par rapport à ses prédécesseurs (François Blondel et La Hire père et fils) en proposant de mettre en ordre les savoirs d’une discipline professionnelle alors en formation, l’architecture. La particularité du matériau étudié réside dans le fait que les cours ne nous sont parvenus qu’à travers une tradition de manuscrits épars, dispersés dans plusieurs bibliothèques à travers le monde ; aucun des témoins ne semble être autographe. Les quatre thèmes abordés (les ordres, la commodité, les servitudes et le toisé) font l’objet d’une édition critique et ce sont au total trente trois manuscrits et textes imprimés qui ont été traités. En dehors de faire entrer des sources inédites dans l’histoire de l’architecture, des mathématiques et du droit, un des enjeux spécifiques du projet consistait à poser les jalons d’une réflexion sur la façon de traduire, et de mettre à disposition de la communauté des chercheurs, ce passage de l’oralité à l’écrit, puis dans certains cas à l’édition. Ici, tout en plaçant le projet dans le contexte des digital humanities, l’utilisation de méthodes d’édition électronique XML-TEI s’est révélée particulièrement adaptée2. Ce sont les particularités de notre corpus protéiforme qui nous ont amenés à apporter notre contribution à cette problématique : d’abord l’instabilité du texte par le nombre des témoins conservés ; la place et le rôle des images dans le discours ; enfin la forte diffusion du texte juridique par ce que nous nommerons « l’édition à valeur ajoutée ».

1/-  Traduire la labilité du corpus
Le corpus rassemblé contenait plusieurs états du prononcé de certains cours (ordres et toisés). De ce fait, notre but n’a pas été – même si nous en avons été tentés – de reconstituer une version unique de ces cours mais d’en conserver toute la fluidité. Les statuts si différents des témoins reproduits, sans que l’on sache précisément s’ils proviennent d’une dictée académique, d’une copie sur un texte maître disparu laissé à l’académie pour que les absents récupèrent le savoir ou de la simple copie par un clerc pour enrichir une bibliothèque privée ou par un praticien en quête de méthode, empêche de les traiter comme des textes identiques. L’oralité réside ici tant dans les traces de prononciation ou les problèmes d’écoute que dans la multiplicité des versions qui témoignent des différents prononcés du cours. Etant donné que ceux-ci sont dans leurs majeures parties semblables, mais jamais tout à fait identiques, seuls les moyens informatiques nous autorisent à ne pas figer définitivement ce savoir. Le jeu des variantes rendues en ligne propose une double lecture – à la fois rétrospective mais aussi prospective – des témoins sous l’œil averti du chercheur. La première fouille les détails pour requalifier le témoin et se rapprocher de l’oralité originelle ; la seconde plus globale donne une idée d’un savoir voué à encadrer une nouvelle profession. Sans les spécificités de structuration et de précision sur les hésitations manuscrites offertes par les DH, et en particulier l’utilisation d’un balisage XML-TEI, ce matériau variant et composite serait resté insaisissable et intraitable par les procédés classiques de l’édition. L’alignement des témoins au sein du corpus a été déployé dans un fichier externe en utilisant la méthode de localisation référencée. La production d’artefacts numériques offre aux chercheurs l’opportunité de collecter les textes, de les analyser et de les mettre les uns en rapport avec les autres avec la souplesse inhérente au support numérique par l’intermédiaire d’une interface graphique centrée sur la comparaison.

2/- Dire les images au-delà de les montrer
L’architecture est une discipline pour laquelle le dessin n’est pas seulement primordial mais indispensable. Dans la plupart des pratiques architecturales, le dessin est le seul discours de l’architecture, le texte d’accompagnement ne sert souvent que d’explicitation des figures, voire de légende. Trois des cours de notre corpus contiennent des images, soit sous forme de planches comportant des plans ou des coupes et élévations (dans les ordres et les commodités), soit des détails décoratifs d’architecture, des croquis techniques de machines ou de figures géométriques (dans les toisés). Nous ne sommes pas face à des traités d’architecture imprimés, ouvrages savants classiques et référents, mais devant des cours pratiques prononcés devant un parterre d’élèves. Le texte ne fait alors qu’éclairer l’image, la commenter. Celle-ci devrait se suffire à elle-même. Le discours ne serait en quelque sorte que la forme orale de l’image exposée. L’éditorialisation numérique offre la possibilité de montrer les dessins dans leurs variantes et dans leur contexte, bref de les comparer et de les associer avec les textes correspondant par des mécanismes d’alignement et des modalités de consultation différentiées, si tant est que nous soyons parvenus à lever les freins concernant les droits de diffusion. Un tel dispositif replace davantage les illustrations dans leur rôle pédagogique initial et les textes dans celui d’hypertexte, comme si nous avions dû les « dire ».

3/- La mise en abyme des discours
Pour les servitudes, nous n’avons découverts que deux manuscrits non pas du même cours mais préparatoires de celui-ci. Le premier est une compilation de sources, le second un commentaire d’une source principale. Or, d’après ce que nous en savons par ailleurs, le cours a été composé à partir du second complété par des éléments du premier. De surcroît, et c’est la particularité de ce cours de droit, il est le seul à avoir été publié de manière posthume. On peut dire que cette édition connaît un énorme succès si l’on sait que le texte a été commenté, mis à jour, complété, restructuré, annoté par plusieurs mains et compétences une trentaine de fois pendant un siècle. Les méthodes d’édition électronique nous ont permis de rendre compte et d’autoriser l’étude des continuateurs et suiveurs du texte par une sorte d’alignement successif des variantes (comparaison de textes, indexations). Il ne s’est pas agi de faire une édition génétique textuelle – désormais classique pour les œuvres littéraires –,  à laquelle nous n’avons pas pu échapper d’ailleurs pour ce qui concerne la source coutumière, mais surtout de suivre les filiations d’idées dans le futur, bref d’avancer dans le temps plutôt que de reculer. La coutume est intrinsèquement le véhicule d’un contexte validé par sa diffusion sous forme imprimée, elle a sans cesse été glosée et revisitée. Nous aurions aimé pouvoir retrouver des manuscrits d’étudiants mais tous les textes rassemblés sont tous rattachés au commentaire de Desgodets. Le dispositif de consultation mis en place facilite l’analyse de tels enchâssements de textes afin de mettre au jour, selon les travaux de D. F. McKenzie, un « texte social » agrémenté d’un contexte historique, ce qui se révèle particulièrement riche pour des concepts juridiques qui évoluent lentement toujours en rapport avec leur environnement social, politique et économique. C’est la constitution de ce « texte social » que nous voudrions maintenant pouvoir rendre explicite au moyen de visualisations.

Conclusion
Notre méthode numérique d’édition critique de cours appliquée à Desgodets mériterait d’être appliquée à d’autres matériaux inédits qui ont participé à transmettre du savoir. Le fait de ne pas s’arrêter à la publication d’un cours autographe mais à sa perception par les élèves et les praticiens, donne l’occasion de poser les bases d’une réflexion sur la normalisation de la discipline architecturale, la faisant passer d’un académisme engourdi à une solide professionnalisation. Le dispositif de consultation produit, qui est d’abord un dispositif d’étude, entend offrir au chercheur l’opportunité d’explorer avec fluidité toute la richesse de cette tradition de l’oral à l’écrit à travers le support numérique.



References
1. L'édition électronique des cours d'Antoine Desgodets sera accessible en ligne au début de l’année 2014 à l’adresse suivante : www.desgodets.net. Une équipe interdisciplinaire de quinze chercheurs a participé au projet qui a été financé par l'Agence nationale de la Recherche (ANR) de 2008 à 2013. Les membres de l'équipe étaient Joëlle Barreau, Basile Baudez, Anne Bondon, Robert Carvais, Pierre Caye, Emmanuel Château, Guillaume Fonkenell, Béatrice Gaillard, Juliette Hernu-Bélaud, Frédérique Lemerle, Olga Medvedkova, Linnéa Rollenhagen-Tilly, Hélène Rousteau-Chambon, Joël Sakarovitch, Werner Szambien et Dirk Van de Vijver.

2. Plusieurs projets pionniers en histoire de l’art ont constitué des modèles structurants (Blake Archive, Rossetti Archive, etc.). Hormis la récente et excellente édition de la correspondance de Van Gogh, les projets d’édition électronique de sources primaires en histoire de l’art restent peu nombreux.

Computers and the Humanities, Image-Based Humanities Computing, vol. 36, n° 1, feb. 2002.

Burnard, L, O’Brien, K., O’Keeffe, Unsworth, J. (eds.) (2006), Electronic Textual Editing. New York:The Modern Language Association of America.

Hayles, K. (2004), “Print Is Flat, Code Is Deep: The Importance of Media-Specific Analysis”. Poetics Today, 25, p. 67-90.

Hayles, K. (2003), “Translating Media: Why We Should Rethink Textuality”, The Yale Journal of Criticism, 16(2), p. 263-90.

Kirschenbaum. M. (2001), ""Materiality and Matter and Stuff: What Electronic Texts Are Made Of."" Electronic Book Review, 1 Oct. 2001. http://www.electronicbookreview.com/thread/electropoetics/

McCarty, W. (2006), Humanities Computing. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.

McGann J. (2006), “From Text to Work: Digital Tools and the Emergence of the Social Text”. Romanticism on the Net, n° 41-42, février-mai 2006. http://id.erudit.org/iderudit/013153ar.

McKenzie D. F. (1986), Bibliography and the Sociology of Texts. The Panizzi Lectures 1985. The British Library: London.

McKenzie D. F. (1962), Making Meaning. “Printers of the Mind” and Other Essays. Ed. Peter D. McDonald and Michael Suarez, SJ. U. of Massachusetts Press: Amherst and Boston, 2002.

McLuhan M., The Gutenberg galaxy, the making of typographic man. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Shillingsburg P. L. (1996), Scholarly Editing in the Computer Age: Theory and Practice, 3e édition. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Shillingsburg P. L. (2006), Gutenberg to Google: Electronic Representations of Literary Texts. Cambridge University Press.

Waquet F. (2003), Parler comme un livre. L'oralité et le savoir, XVIe-XXe siècles. Paris : Albin Michel.

Waquet F. (2008), Les enfants de Socrate, Filiations intellectuelles et transmission du savoir XVIIe-XIXe siècles. Paris, Albin Michel.","txt","2","",""
"2001","15","Measuring the style of chick lit and literature","2","1. Introduction
Novelistic genres have certain formal conventions. By close reading novels of various genres, structural features such as the differences in theme, motifs and plot can be observed. According to Jockers (2013), there seem to be stylistic differences, caused by the author’s linguistic choices, between genres as well.

In this paper I examine the stylistic fingerprints of chick lit and literature in terms of the most frequent words. The focus on the styles of these particular genres relates to the overarching question of my research: does the perception of literariness (e.g. the dichotomy between “highbrow” and “lowbrow” genres) correlate with certain linguistic characteristics, or with the degree of variety of these in the style? The aim of this pilot study is to explore how well successful stylometric methods could be applied as a starting point for such a comprehensive question. 

2. Background
Stylometrists who study linguistic patterns in fiction typically focus on classification tasks, e.g. authorship attribution or text genre detection. The latter studies usually examine how well certain texts can be identified into pre-defined classes; for instance editorials, newspapers and literature (Stamatatos et al., 2000). Stylometric studies of novelistic genres (e.g. Louwerse et al., 2008; Ashok et al., 2013) seem to be scarce. The most extensive study is performed by Matthew Jockers (2013) and his colleagues at the Stanford Literary Lab (Allison et al., 2011). They examine to what extent formal conventions can be detected at the level of the high-frequency function words. Jockers (2013) concludes that genres to a certain degree have measurable linguistic fingerprints, and that linguistic decisions of the authors seem to be dependent upon their genre choices. An interesting next step would be to analyze and interpret these fingerprints, as has been done for authorial markers by Burrows and Craig (2012). In this paper I adopt their approach to examine the stylistic differences between chick lit and literature.

A previous study into the deep syntactic structures of the two genres shows that literary authors tend to use more complex sentences and employ a more descriptive language, whereas chick lit to a greater extent resembles colloquial speech (Jautze et al., 2013). In the current study I complement this syntactic characterization with a stylometric analysis of the function words. These words relate to syntactic structure because they add grammatical information by organizing and connecting the content words. The question arises if the most frequent words (MFWs) differentiate between the two genres. And if so, do these linguistic patterns give more insight into the two genre styles?

3. Materials and method
According to Jockers (2013) it is hard to distinguish linguistic fingerprints that are related to the time of writing from actual genre signals. This means that when one wants to examine genre fingerprints, the chronology factor must be ruled out as far as possible. My corpus therefore comprises 32 original Dutch novels (16 literary and 16 chick-lit) of the last two decades.

In order to computationally examine the style of the two genres I start with the stylometric approach to search for the style markers. The stylo package in R compiles a word frequency list for the entire corpus (Eder et al., 2013). Then, I want to explore the language patterns to characterize the two genre styles. Egbert (2012) argues that lexicogrammatical features can be captured in three dimensions of discourse presentation. Two of these dimensions I will adopt in this analysis in order to analyze the linguistic patterns: (i) description versus thought representation and (ii) dialogue versus narrative.

4. Results
Figure 1 shows that the titles per author as well as the two genres cluster together (the abbreviations indicate the pre- defined genres). According to Jockers (2013), men and women tend to use different (function) words, so one might have expected the female literary authors in my corpus to cluster together with the female chick-lit writers. My results indicate the opposite, which suggest that (in this corpus) genre signals precede gender signals. It is striking however that the chick-lit writers are more grouped together than the literary authors. This indicates that there is more variation within the literary writing styles. 


Fig. 1: A Bootstrap Consensus Tree showing average similarity of texts based on the frequencies of 100-1000 MFW.

In order to examine linguistic patterns behind this genre-distinction, the word frequencies are analyzed. A Principal Components Analysis uses the MFWs as variables according to which the texts are correlated in a matrix. Figure 2 shows that the 100 MFWs map the genres in separate areas of the graph, except for chick-lit writer Wilma Hollander. She sides with the literary authors. 


Fig. 2: A PCA showing the plotting of texts based on the weightings of 100 MFW.

The two components of the PCA together account for 43.7% of the variation between the novels. The word-variables have their own weightings for each component according to which the texts are scored in the matrix (e.g. Figure 3). In the previous study by Jautze et al. (2013) the novels were parsed with the Alpino parser (Bouma et al., 2001). The parts-of- speech tags made it possible to separate homographic word forms, as in zijn (‘his’) and zijn (‘are’). 


Fig. 3: A PCA showing the plotting of 100 word-variable weightings.

POS tags 	 Translation tags
 Vnw	 Pronoun
 Ww	Verb 
 Bw	Adverb 
 Vg	Conjunction 
 Vz	Preposition 
 Lid	Determiner 
 Adj	Adjective 
 N	Noun 
 Tsw	Interjection 
With regard to Egbert’s dimensions, it can be argued that the literary authors employ more descriptions and narratives, whereas in chick lit more thought representations and dialogues are used. Indicative for the descriptive dimension is the high amount of prepositions, the use of determiners and the demonstrative die (‘that’). Prepositions express spatial or temporal relations between subjects and/or objects, and therefore are used for detailed-oriented description. Along with the use of determiners and demonstratives, this indicates that the literary authors use relatively more nouns. These findings can be underlined by the results of Jautze et al. (2013), that show that noun phrases and prepositional phrases occur more frequently in the literary books than in the chick-lit novels of our corpus.

Other frequent “literary” function words in the PCA are third person pronouns such as hij and hun (‘he’ and ‘their/them’), indefinite pronouns such as iets and alles (‘something’ and ‘everything’) and verbs in the past tense. According to Egbert (2012), these linguistic features belong to the narrative dimension. Especially the past tense verbs indicate that the literary narrators describe events. The chick- lit writers on the other hand, employ more present tense verbs, and first and second person pronouns such as ik, mij and jij (‘I’, ‘me’ and ‘you’). These, as well as the demonstratives dat and daar (‘that’ and ‘there’), are argued to be indicative for the dialogue dimension.

Moreover, at the chick-lit side of the plot a lot of words are mapped that relate to the dimension of thought representation. Function words like the mental verb weet (‘know’), the indefinite pronoun veel (‘many’), the affective adjectives heel and goed (‘very’ and ‘good’), the possibility modal kan (‘can’) and the likelihood adverb misschien (‘maybe’) offer insight into the narrator’s or character’s psyche. The chick-lit authors also employ certain adverbs (maar, toch) that can cause an emphatic effect. It could be compared with ‘there are only seven’. It shows a character’s or narrator’s involvement, and it belongs to a more colloquial language register. 

5. Conclusion
The results of this paper show that stylometric analysis can be used in stylistic research of literary genres. The linguistic patterns detected in this small corpus suggest that the literary authors have a more detail-orientated descriptive style when compared to the chick-lit style, which tends to be more informal and involved. The preliminary results offer a variety of clues to further research. In the next stage I would like to explore for instance word n-grams and parts of speech in a corpus that is expanded with several other “highbrow” and “lowbrow” genres.

Acknowledgements
I am grateful to my supervisor professor Karina van Dalen- Oskam and to Corina Koolen and Andreas van Cranenburgh for reading my drafts, and to Andreas for assisting with tagging the parts of speech in the novels. 

References
Chick-lit novels humorously address the challenges of young urban female protagonists.

his study is part of The Riddle of Literary Quality Project. In this project we explore the assumption that formal characteristics play a role in the aesthetic appreciation of novels. Cf. literaryquality.huygens.knaw.nl

This is the same corpus as has been studied in Jautze et al. (2013). Ideally, female and male writers should be equally represented. But since the chick-lit novels were all written by women, this was not possible.

This Bootstrap Consensus Tree is a mean of ten cluster analyses, varying from 100-1000 MFWs with an increment of 100. The corpus is culled at 100%, which means that words that are unique for individual texts are removed.

Allison, S., Heuser, R., Jockers, M., Moretti, F. and Witmore, M. (2011). Quantitative Formalism: An Experiment. In Pamphlets of the Literary Lab 1,litlab.stanford.edu/LiteraryLabPamphlet1.pdf, (accessed on 24 October 2013).

Ashok, V.G. , Feng, S., and Choi, Y. (2013). Success with Style: Using Writing Style to Predict the Success of Novels. In Empirical Methods on Natural Language Processing, Seattle. 1753-1764,aclweb.org/anthology/D/D13/D13-1181.pdf, (accessed on 28 October 2013).

Bouma, G., Van Noord, G. and Malouf, R. (2001). Alpino: Wide-coverage computational analysis of Dutch. In Language and Computers, 37 (1). 45–59.

Burrows, J. and Craig, H. (2012). Authors and Characters. In English Studies 93 (3). 292-309.

Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J. (2013). Stylometry with R: a suite of tools. In Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts. Lincoln (NE). 487-489.

Egbert, J. (2012). Style in nineteenth century fiction. A Multi- Dimensional analysis. In Scientific Study of Literature 2 (2). 167-198.

Jautze, K., Koolen, C., Van Cranenburgh, A. and De Jong, H. (2013). From high heels to weed attics: a syntactic investigation of chick lit and literature. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Computational Linguistics for Literature. Atlanta (GA). 72-81,aclweb.org/anthology//W/W13/W13-1410.pdf.

Jockers, M. L. (2013). Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History. Illinois: University of Illinois Press.

Louwerse, M., Benesh, M.N. and Zhang, B. (2008), Computationally discriminating literary from non-literary texts. In: Zyngier, S., Bortolussi, M., Chesnokova, A. & Auracher, J. (Eds.), Directions in Empirical Literary Studies. Linguistic Approaches to Literature 5, Amsterdam. 175-191.

Stamatatos, E., Fakotakis, N., & Kokkinakis, G. (2000). Text Genre Detection Using Common Word Frequencies. In Proceedings of the 18th conference on Computational linguistics (2). Stroudsburg (PA). 808–814.","txt","2","",""
"2002","15","Medical Humanities. Projet de musée digital","2","La formation médicale en Suisse doit offrir aux étudiants une plateforme innovante leur permettant de réfléchir aux enjeux sociaux et éthiques du monde de la santé, à l’heure où les nouvelles technologies et le web 2.0 transforment en profondeur l’exercice de la profession médicale. Notre projet consiste en la création d’un site web responsive, prenant la forme d’un musée digital accessible via une webapp adaptée pour les tablettes et les smartphones. Lors du colloque DH 2014 nous présenterons la première exposition virtuelle du musée consacrée aux rapport historiques entre la médecine et l’alimentation. Le poster sera accompagné d’iPads sur lesquels les participants pourront tester la webapp. Le musée s’inscrit dans la lignée de projets DH récents qui exploitent des collections muséographiques et favorisent l’interaction des visiteurs à travers des interfaces web (Tales of Things 2009-2013; Qrator 2011-2013; Ross 2012).

Ce projet présente pour originalité conceptuelle de se situer à l’intersection de deux champs de savoirs en pleine expansion: d’une part les Digital Humanities et, d’autre part, les Medical Humanities qui proposent une réflexion interdisciplinaire autour des enjeux sociaux et culturels de la médecine contemporaine (Bates 2013). Par exemple, différents médecins considéraient la pomme de terre comme un aliment révolutionnaire au 18e siècle, capable d’enrayer les famines. Aujourd’hui, l’Organisation des Nations Unies pour l’alimentation et l’agriculture voit dans les insectes un moyen de pallier au manque de nourriture lié à l’augmentation de la population mondiale et à l’épuisement des ressources naturelles (Durst 2012). Les DH apportent de nouveaux modes de circulation entre ces contenus. Les aliments du passé et ceux d’aujourd’hui seront présentés sous une forme ludique et accrocheuse, capable d’intéresser un public large à des contenus de niveau académique. L’apport des méthodes et des outils DH s’avère ainsi particulièrement adapté et fécond pour organiser, enrichir et diffuser le type de savoirs véhiculé par les Medical Humanities.

Du point de vue des outils informatiques utilisés, le projet profite des dernières avancées disponibles dans les technologies web (HTML5, PHP 5 Orienté objet, JavaScript Orienté objet, jQuery, S-CSS). La mise en place d’un Content Management System fait sur mesure répond aux besoins de multiples contributeurs distants d’avoir une plateforme partagée et multi-langue, permettant d’intervenir dynamiquement dans le contenu. Chaque objet de l’interface sera renseigné suivant le protocole OAI-MH (Open Archives Initiative for Metadata Harvesting), facilitant l’interconnectivité et le partage des données avec d’autres sites sources. Un entrepôt OAI répondra aux demandes des sites tiers pour la récupération du contenu selon un schéma de méta-données précis (plusieurs candidats seront testés, parmi lesquels Dublin Core).

Dans une optique de valorisation patrimoniale, l’exposition réunira sous une forme numérique des objets fournis à la faveur des partenariats ponctuels avec des institutions culturelles locales ou internationales.

A l’issue de l’exposition pilote que nous souhaitons présenter au colloque DH 2014, le musée sera organisé autour d’expositions thématiques et interdisciplinaires, abordant des questions de “médecine et société”. Les expositions feront dialoguer entre eux des points de vue de spécialistes médicaux, d’acteurs du monde de la santé au sens large, mais aussi d’historiens, d’anthropologues ou de représentants des arts et des lettres, afin de faire valoir la complexité sociale et la richesse culturelle des thématiques abordées.

References
Bates, V., Bleakley G., Goodman S. (2013), Medicine, Health and the Arts: Approaches to the Medical Humanities. Oxon & New York: Routledge.

Durst, Patrick B, and FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (2010). Forest Insects as Food. Humans Bite Back: Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and their Potential for Development, 19-21 February 2008, Chiang Mai, Thailand. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific.

“QRator” 2011-2013. Consulté le 30 octobre 2013. www.qrator.org/about-the-project

Ross, C., Gray, S., Warwick, C., Hudson-Smith, A., and Terras, M. (2012). “Engaging the Museum Space:  Mobilising Visitor Engagement with Digital Content Creation”. Digitial Humanities 2012 [conference paper], July 2012, Hamburg.

“Tales of Things” 2009-2013. Consulté le 30 octobre 2013. talesofthings.com/about.","txt","2","",""
"2003","15","Metaphor, Popular Science and Semantic Tagging: Distant Reading with the _Historical Thesaurus of English_","10","1. Introduction
This paper describes and implements a computational procedure for semantically analysing analogy in large bodies of text using a semantic annotation system based on the database of the Historical Thesaurus of English.1 In so doing, it demonstrates the value of a comprehensive and fine-grained semantic annotation system for English within corpus linguistics. Using log-likelihood measures on its semantically-annotated corpus of abstract popular science, the paper therefore demonstrates the existence, the extent, and the location of significant metaphorical content in this corpus. In so doing, it applies a version of Franco Moretti’s ‘distant reading’ programme in the analysis of literary history to non-narrative texts, as well as continuing work on integrating meaning into the methodologies of corpus linguistics.2

1.1. Analogy and Popular Science
Following the 1980 publication of George Lakoff and Mark Johnson’s Metaphors We Live By,3 it has been frequently stated that human beings, as embodied minds perceiving the mental, social and physical worlds around them, understand abstractions in terms of concrete entities. While this is a well-explicated concept in cognitive linguistics and psychology, few studies have yet aimed to establish both the extent and operation of this in a large corpus of discourse. The standard methodology in cognitive linguistics tends to rely on introspection and the intuitions of native speakers, at the expense of empirical data.4 This lack of rigour has resulted in results which, though ""intuitively appealing"", are criticized ""for lacking a clear set of methodological decision principles"".5 Following earlier work we have undertaken on the investigation of analogy and metaphor in English from empirical groundings,67 in this paper we discuss a methodology for identifying these textual phenomena automatically, and in so doing aim to open up cognitive linguistics to more digital humanities techniques, in addition to demonstrating the use of automated semantic annotation and disambiguation techniques at an unprecedented level of granularity.

1.2. The Corpus
We take as our initial data two book-length popular science texts which focus on explaining abstract concepts to a non-specialist audience, and therefore provide the greatest potential for the analysis of non-literary analogy - metaphor theory tells us that these should therefore be rich in non-abstract analogies. The corpus is therefore made up of Brian Greene's 2004 The Fabric of the Cosmos and Marcus du Sautoy's 2003 The Music of the Primes, although we have subsequently tested the methodology on other popular science texts.

Through the procedure we describe in 3.1 below to analyse metaphor and analogy in these texts, we identify a range of domains which are unusually frequent in these texts and which are not pertinent to their subject matter (that is, not in the areas of physics, mathematics or general science). We then demonstrate in the remainder of section 3 that these domains are those analogies used systematically and consistently across the texts to elucidate and explicate the abstract concepts the books are focused on discussing. In order to do this, we identify all the semantic domains mentioned in these texts at very high levels of precision, using an annotation system built around the unprecedented detail found in the database of the Historical Thesaurus. 

2. Semantic Annotation
Semantic tagging and annotation is, we argue, the best solution we have to address the problem of searching and aggregating large collections of textual data: at present, historians, literary scholars and other researchers must search texts and summarize their contents based on word forms. These forms are highly problematic, given that most of them in English refer to multiple senses – for example, the word form ""strike"" has 181 Historical Thesaurus meaning entries in English, effectively inhibiting any large-scale automated research into the language of industrial action; ""show"" has 99 meanings, prohibiting effective searches on, say, theatrical metaphors or those of emotional displays. In such cases, much time and effort is expended in manually disambiguating and filtering search results and word statistics.

To resolve this problem, we use in this paper an early version of the Glasgow-Lancaster Semantic Annotation System, which we are currently developing at both of those universities. GL-SAS is a tool for annotating large corpora with meaning codes from the Historical Thesaurus, enabling us to search and aggregate data using the 236,000 precise meaning codes in that dataset, rather than imprecise word forms. These Thesaurus category codes are over one thousand times more precise than USAS, the current leader in semantic annotation in English corpus linguistics.8 The system automatically disambiguates these word meanings using existing computational disambiguation techniques alongside new context-dependent methods enabled by the Historical Thesaurus' dating codes and its fine-grained hierarchical structure. With our data showing that 60% of word forms in English refer to more than one meaning, and with some word forms referring to close to two hundred meanings, effective disambiguation is essential to GL-SAS. 

3. Results
3.1. Methodology
The 600,000 word corpus we outline above were lemmatised and then processed through our annotation system, resulting in texts with each word being annotated with a Historical Thesaurus meaning code. We then aggregated those codes into a dataset which summarised the frequency of each meaning code in the text, and took that frequency list and compared it to a reference corpus made up of a 14m word corpus of random selections from Wikipedia, to provide a comparison against standard expository text. Our comparison was based on a log-likelihood significance measure,9 which identifies, to an acceptable degree, those semantic domains which are mentioned unusually frequently in our popular science texts by comparison to the reference corpus, and therefore indicates a text's ""key"" domains (where the log-likelihood values are greater than around 20)10 - those domains which reflect what a text is ""about"".11

3.2. The Fabric of the Cosmos
Brian Greene’s 2004 The Fabric of the Cosmos discusses theoretical physics and its relation to the concepts of space and time. Its key semantic domains are given in Table 1:

 HT Category	Category Name 	Log-Likelihood Value 
01.05.07	Space	13655.8 
01.05.07.01	Distance 	6344.8
01.04.07.05.04.08 	Photon 	4912.5 
01.05.06.07 	Computation of time 	3603.5 
01.02.09.15 	Spinning textiles 	3193.5 
03.11.03.01.08.02 	Stringed instruments 	2277.7 
03.11.03.02.09.14 	Pattern/design 	1949.8 
01.02.09.14.01.03 	Woven fabric 	1922.2 
While the first four domains are within the Thesaurus categories which refer to the text's topic, and therefore expected, the next four (in bold) are not immediately relevant to the book's topic. Looking for these domains in the text itself, chunked into 591 smaller files of 320 words each, we get a distribution like this:


Fig. 1: Analogical textual clusters in The Fabric of the Cosmos, shown by frequency of key semantic domains

(Here, the Thesaurus codes have been replaced by words representing those categories, for ease of reading.)

The peak three-quarters of the way through the text indicates an area rich in mentions of textiles, and looking at this point in the text we find passages such as:

Since we speak of the ‘fabric’ of spacetime, the suggestion goes, maybe spacetime is stitched out of strings much as a shirt is stitched out of thread. That is, much as joining numerous threads together in an appropriate pattern produces a shirt’s fabric, maybe joining numerous strings together in an appropriate pattern produces what we commonly call spacetime’s fabric. Matter, like you and me, would then amount to additional agglomerations of vibrating strings.12

The areas we have identified through the log-likelihood analysis are therefore those areas rich in metaphors of fabric and strings (as other examples show) which are used by the author to discuss physics. We can therefore use this technique to pinpoint areas of significant use of metaphor or analogy in a text.

3.3. The Music of the Primes
As a check of the methodology, the same technique shows that in this particular book, which discusses prime number theory, there are highly key domains of travel and landscape in use alongside mathematical terms. Going to sections particularly rich in these domains gives analogical content over a long stretch, introduced by the following extract:

Gauss’s two-dimensional map of imaginary numbers charts the numbers that we shall feed into the zeta function. The north-south axis keeps track of how many steps we take in the imaginary direction, whilst the east west axis charts the real numbers. We can lay this map out flat on a table. What we want to do is to create a physical landscape situated in the space above this map. The shadow of the zeta function will then turn into a physical object whose peaks and valleys we can explore.13

4. Conclusion
We therefore demonstrate in this paper the use of a very fine-grained semantic annotation system, and establish the utility of such detailed annotations by describing a digital technique for discovering not only the existence of systematic metaphorical content but also its location and where it clusters. We believe that this result is significant in its own right, particularly for scholars of metaphor or cognitive linguistics, but we will also show that this represents only one of the uses to which highly-granular semantically annotated data can be put.

References
1. Kay, C., J. Roberts, M. Samuels, and I. Wotherspoon (eds). (2009). Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. See also historicalthesaurus.arts.gla.ac.uk.

2. Rayson, Paul. (2008). From Key Words to Key Semantic Domains. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 13.4. 519-549.

3. Lakoff, George & Mark Johnson. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

4. Gibbs, Raymond W. (2006a). Introspection and Cognitive Linguistics: Should We Trust Our Own Intuitions? Annual Review of Cognitive Linguistics 4(1). 135-151.

5. Evans, Vyvyan & Melanie Green. (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Page 780.

6. Alexander, Marc & Christian Kay. (2011) [2010]. Mapping Metaphors Across Time with the Historical Thesaurus. Conference paper at Helsinki Corpus Festival: The Past, Present, and Future of English Historical Corpora, University of Helsinki, Finland. Based on an earlier paper at The 3rd UK Cognitive Linguistics Conference, University of Hertfordshire.

7. Alexander, Marc. (2011). Meaning Construction in Popular Science An Investigation into Cognitive, Digital, and Empirical Approaches to Discourse Reification. University of Glasgow: Ph.D. thesis.

8. ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/usas

9. Dunning, Ted. (1993). Accurate methods for the statistics of surprise and coincidence. Computational Linguistics 19(1). 61–74.

10. Rayson, Paul, Damon Berridge, & Brian Francis. (2004). Extending the Cochran Rule for the Comparison of Word Frequencies between Corpora. 7th International Conference on Statistical Analysis of Textual Data.

11. McIntyre, Dan & Brian Walker. (2010). How can Corpora be Used to Explore the Language of Poetry and Drama? In Anne O’Keeffe & Michael McCarthy (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Corpus Linguistics. London: Routledge. 516-530.

12. Greene, Brian R. (2004). The Fabric of the Cosmos: Space, Time and the Texture of Reality. Alfred A Knopf: New York. Page 486-7.

13. du Sautoy, Marcus. (2003). The Music of the Primes: Why an Unsolved Problem in Mathematics Matters. London: Harper Perennial. Page 85.","txt","2","",""
"2004","15","Mining a 'Trove': Modeling a Transnational Literary Culture","10","1. Introduction
From colonial times to World War Two, most of Australia’s many newspapers incorporated serial fiction, including local and overseas titles. The Australian fiction in these periodicals has largely been identified (Austlit), and important research in this area is ongoing (Bode 2012; Gelder 2011). However, very little is known about the overseas works, including the titles, authors and themes, and their circulation and reception in Australia.

An important reason for this lack of knowledge is the size of the archive. With hundreds of newspapers – many containing multiple instalments of novels per edition – a systematic manual search for fiction is unfeasible. The search possibilities for this archive have dramatically expanded with the creation of the National Library of Australia’s (NLA) Trove database. From 2007 to 2012, the NLA digitised over four million pages of Australian newspapers, from every state and territory, published from 1803 to the 1950s. Combined with digital humanities methods for data mining and analysis, this ongoing digitisation project makes identifying serial fiction in Australian newspapers possible for the first time in a systematic and reliable way.

The project reported in this paper describes a computer-enabled approach to exploring the presence, circulation and reception of fiction in Australian newspapers that enables research, and advances arguments, relevant to bibliographical, book historical and literary studies as well as digital humanities.

2. Bibliography
The project showcases how digital humanities methods can significantly enhance bibliographical records and knowledge. Searching Trove using terms associated with serial fiction – including ‘chapter’, ‘story’ and ‘fiction’ – enables identification of potentially relevant records. The bibliographic information and full text results of these searches are extracted as CSV and text files using a Python harvesting tool developed by Sherratt (2013). These files are supplemented through additional research (for instance, the authors’ nationalities and gender), and transfer to a database that will be freely accessible to researchers and the public.

This approach is providing extremely effective in identifying serial fiction. The first search – of ‘chapter’ – yielded approximately 200,000 individual instances of fiction in Australian newspapers. Many other searches remain to be done; however, even this initial result demonstrates this method’s capacity to enhance bibliographical records. This search process will undoubtedly reveal previously unrecorded instances of publication, particularly of non-Australian fiction. Some of these instances will almost certainly be of titles that have not been indexed previously, including by well-known authors. More broadly, this project demonstrates the potential of digital humanities methods to maximise the utility, and thus enhance the value and consequence, of digital collections.

3. Book History
The collected bibliographic data enables quantitative analysis of the transnational movement of fiction. This approach builds on earlier studies, most prominently, Moretti’s ‘distant reading’ (2005) and, more recently, Jockers’s ‘macroanalysis’ (2013). In terms of the archive searched and the cultural phenomena analysed, it is also indebted to Nicholson’s identification and analysis of American jokes in digitised nineteenth-century British newspapers (2012). Importantly, however, unlike these other works, the body of data underpinning this project’s arguments and findings will be publicly available, so other scholars can explore, check, extend and potentially challenge the findings; and so this data can be reused in future research.

Findings of initial data analysis, for 1830 to 1880, already indicate trends that challenge existing perceptions of Australian literary culture. Where metropolitan newspapers are routinely identified as the main Australian serial fiction publishers (e.g. Webby 2000), this study highlights the strong involvement of regional newspapers. This finding challenges the existing centre/periphery understanding of colonial literary culture. Also contesting this model is the revelation that – while overseas fiction has been estimated to vastly outnumber local titles (Morrison 1998) – in this period, more local than overseas fiction was published. One interesting outcome of this strong local publication is a reversal of the much-discussed female-dominance of nineteenth-century serial fiction authorship. Although most American and British serial fiction was by women (Casey 1996; Coultrap-McQuin 1990; Thompson 1999), men wrote the majority of titles in Australian periodicals in this period. While local titles outnumbered overseas fiction, this initial search has identified a significant amount of non-Australian titles, including a higher-than-anticipated number of American stories, as well as fiction from a wide range of countries besides Britain, including China, Russia, France and Germany. As well as highlighting the status of Australian periodicals as ‘contact zones’ (Pratt 1990) for literature, this range of national literatures further challenges a centre/periphery understanding of colonial literary culture.

This project’s combination of digital humanities and book history suggests important directions for the former as well as the latter field of study. Book history is increasingly recognised as playing an important role in the development of digital humanities. Alan Liu describes book history as a Levi-Straussian ‘trickster figure’ for digital humanities, uniting the field’s commitment to older humanities disciplines, and the value of the old itself, with more recent interest in emergent media and design (2013, 410). Elsewhere he points to the way book historians ‘increasingly compare, and not just contrast, earlier writing/reading practices to their digital successors’ (2012, 16), and the potential of this approach to enhance understanding the digital age and the digital humanities.

The project employs this comparative framework to consider reading practices. While one might assume nineteenth-century newspapers differ entirely from the Internet, in fact both are networked interfaces uniting various content, including that previously published elsewhere, for readers who have significant autonomy in deciding what to read and what connections to draw. Notwithstanding these significant parallels, it is equally important that the use of digitised archives, and digital humanities search and retrieval methods, not occlude historical context. In particular, this project works to maintain a view of nineteenth-century newspapers as coherent and interconnected cultural artefacts rather than containers of discrete content (a perception potentially encouraged by search results in the form of individual articles).

4. Literary Studies
The full-text records extracted from Trove provide the basis for computer-assisted textual analysis, particularly topic modelling. This aspect of the project will follow, and in so doing, test and extend Jockers’s analysis of influence in relation to Irish, English and American literature (2013). Topic modelling will be used to investigate whether, and if so, to what extent, local stories in Australian newspapers employed similar themes, language, or generic strategies to the other-national literatures alongside which they were published. The same method will be used to consider relationships between other-national literary forms. Like Moretti’s and Jockers’s analyses, this project will contribute to shifting literary studies beyond a nation-based framework. However, where these earlier studies consider general bibliographic corpora, in exploring texts published alongside one another, this project provides an important opportunity to consider influence in relation to a specific material context: that is, fiction received and experienced by particular readers at particular times.

5. Digital Humanities
McCarty's notion of modelling is a key concept in this project's formulation and development. In McCarty’s words, a model is ‘an abstraction or simple representation of a more complex real phenomena’ (2008), and modelling enables exploration of and experimentation with phenomena that would otherwise be intractable or inaccessible (2005: 27). This project will complicate and extend this methodological framework by highlighting the multiple number and layers of models and modelling processes involved in exploring serial fiction in Australian periodicals. These layers include the digitised newspaper pages (themselves created from other models, predominantly microfiche), the Trove database more broadly, the database in which the search and harvesting results are represented, as well as the subsequent quantitative analyses of bibliometric and textual data. Where McCarty has always insisted upon the status of models as fictions, this foregrounding of multiple and layered models emphasises the radical contingency of this foundational concept for digital humanities, as well as the theoretical nature of its outcomes.

Foregrounding the contingent and theoretical nature of modelling has two key implications for this project, and for digital humanities research broadly. First, it provides the groundwork for working with an historical record that necessarily contains multiple gaps: Trove has not digitised all Australian newspapers; some records have been lost, others are still to emerge; the quality of OCR for the texts differs radically; and the search process will not discover all serial fiction in Trove. Second, it enables a recognition that even the historical record we have – including what might be considered its obvious facts – needs to be treated as contingent and theoretical. For instance, bibliographic details added to the database – such as the name and gender of authors – are obviously facts, but may not have been present to historical readers (stories were published anonymously or under pseudonyms) and thus cannot be taken as absolute points of reference for understanding the historical circulation and reception of fiction. In moving away from understanding quantitative analysis of archival records as proof of historical phenomena, the underlying framework seeks to forge a conversation between bibliographers, archivists, book historians, literary critics and digital humanists that is data-rich, but oriented towards theoretical possibilities and constructs rather than proof and measures.

References
Austlit: The Australian Literature Resource. (2002–). www.austlit.edu.au. 

Bode, K. (2012). Reading by Numbers: Recalibrating the Literary Field. London: Anthem Press. 

Casey, E. (1996). Edging Women Out? Reviews of Women Novelists in the Athenaeum, 1860-1900. Victorian Studies39.2: 151-71. 

Coultrap-McQuin, S. (1990). Doing Literary Business: American Women Writers in the Nineteenth Century. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

Gelder, K. (2011). Negotiating the Colonial Australian Popular Fiction Archive. JASAL Special Issue: Archive Madness: 1-12.  

Jockers, M. (2013). Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History. Champaign: University of Illinois Press. 

Liu, A. (2012). The State of the Digital Humanities: A Report and a Critique. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education11.1-2: 8-41.

Liu, A. (2013). The Meaning of the Digital Humanities. PMLA128.2: 409-23.

McCarty, W. (2005). Humanities Computing. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

McCarty, W. (2008). Knowing …: Modeling in Literary Studies. In Susan Schreibman and Ray Siemens (eds), Companion to Digital Literary Studies. Oxford: Blackwell. http://www.digitalhumanties.org/companionDLS/.

Moretti, F. (2005). Maps, Graphs, and Trees: Abstract Models for Literary History. London: Verso.

Morrison, E. (1998). Serial Fiction in Australian Colonial Newspapers. In John O. Jordan and Robert L. Patten (eds), Literature in the Marketplace: Nineteenth-Century British Publishing and Reading Practices (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 306-24.

National Library of Australia. (2007–). Trove Database. http://trove.nla.gov.au/.

Nicholson, B. (2012). 'You kick the bucket; we'll do the rest': Jokes and the Culture of Reprinting in the Transatlantic Press. Journal of Victorian Culture17.3: 273-86. 

Pratt, M. L. (1991). Arts of the Contact Zone. Profession: 33-40.

Sherratt, T. (2013). Mining the Treasures of Trove (part 1). Discontents. Blog. http://discontents.com.au/mining-the-treasures-of-trove-part-1/.

Thompson, N. (1999). Responding to the Woman Questions: Rereading Noncanonical Victorian Women Novelists. In Nicola Diane Thompson (ed.), Victorian Women Writers and the Woman Question. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1-23.

Webby, E. (2000). Colonial Writers and Readers. In Elizabeth Webby (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Australian Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 50-73.","txt","2","",""
"2005","15","Mining poetic rhythm: using text-to-speech software to rewrite English literary history","9","1.1. Overview
Automatically predicting where the beats fall in a line of English poetry is difficult. This is because the stress placed on a word will be dependent upon the meaning of the statement of which it is a part. Without approximating the meaning of a line, then, it is not possible to arrive at an accurate prediction as to where the beats will fall when the poem is read or performed. This is no trivial task. Yet without determining the beats, it is impossible to identify the metre of the line or its sound-patterning, such as alliteration and assonance, which are instrumental to the rhythm.  Because of this difficulty, the history of English poetic rhythm remains almost entirely uncharted. Twenty years ago, Preminger and Brogan's New Princeton Encyclopaedia of Poetry and Poetics lamented that 'there is at present no comprehensive and reliable history of the development of metrical practice in the West, not even competent accounts for any one language'.1 The intervening decades have not resolved this problem for English. While there have been notable attempts to construct a reliable history, none have been comprehensive. Working without the benefit of computer automation, literary historians have focused exclusively on a small number of major poetic figures.

 Having done so, the current histories exhibit erroneous assertions of innovations in rhythm and rhyme, give credit to the wrong poets, and neglect formal experiments occurring on the margins. Further, most approaches tend to rely on the impressions of the critic, rather than empirical data. Consequently, the majority of statements about poetic rhythm have been made in a position of ignorance about the formal characteristics of the corpus of English poetry. 

The problem becomes acute from the start of the nineteenth century as the volume of printed material explodes. Nevertheless, Martin J. Duffell's New History of English Metre (2008) considers only 32 major poets for the period, analysing 200-300 lines of poetry as representative samples of their practice.2 His analysis of poetic form therefore encompasses fewer than 9,000 lines. This is grossly inadequate, given that W. B. Yeats's Collected Poems alone surpasses this total by 2,000 lines. The number of poems considered by Duffell is a tiny proportion of the 151,299 poems in English considered important enough to be included in the Literature Online (LION) database for this period. 

1.2. Methodology
The problem of coverage can be overcome by harnessing the power of 21st Century achievements in speech synthesis and text-to-speech software. My three-year project at King's College London, funded by the British Academy, is concerned with doing just this. It uses the MARY text-to-speech software, developed by the DFKI (the German Research Centre for Artificial Intelligence) and the Institute of Phonetics at Saarland University.  The intended outcome of the project is a more reliable and comprehensive account of developments and trends in poetic rhythm, metrical forms, sound-patterning, rhyme schemes, and stanza types, in verse in English for the period of 1800--1970. 

The MARY-tts software has recently been used to visualize sound patterns in literary texts by Tanya Clement et al, re-presenting aural data as high-lighted text.3 My approach differs by extracting key data from an intermediate stage of natural language processing that enable the software to identify some of the beats in a line of poetry. My scripts then extrapolate where the other beats are likely to fall, if the line be read as poetry rather than normal speech.  From these data, my tools can distinguish between binary and ternary metres, determine the number of beats per line in the metrical template, and identify trochaic and iambic verse. It can spot refrains, and repeated structures, and sound-patterning such as internal rhyme and alliteration. The approach has been tested on verse selected from a wide variety of sources, including Wordsworth, Browning, Keats, Tennyson, Hopkins, Eliot, and the entire corpus of Yeats's poems.

There have been earlier attempts to automatically determine formal qualities of poems using digital tools. Marc Plamondon's tool developed for the Representative Poetry Online database at Toronto remains an impressive example.4 However, none of these approaches have employed text-to-speech software to predict phonemic properties of the text automatically. The manual entry of syllables and phonemes for each word inevitably limits the scope and accuracy of such tools. Other impressive attempts to uncover the grammatical rules of particular poets' prosody have been similarly limited by manual input of language processing.5

1.3. Conclusion
My preliminary results suggest that the project will succeed in its aim of massively enlarging and enriching our understanding of literary history. Further, in assigning credit to the real progenitors of formal trends, and in providing the data with which to analyse formal developments empirically, rather than impressionistically, this project has the potential to rewrite the history of poetic form, and of poetic influence, altogether. 

References
1. Preminger, Alex and Brogan, T. V. F and Warnke, Frank J. and Hardison, Jr., O. B. and Miner, Earl.The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J.: 1993. p. 777.

2. Duffell, Martin J. (2008), A New History of English Metre Modern Humanities Research Association and Maney Publishing, London.

3. Plamondon, M. R. (2006). Virtual Verse Analysis: Analysing Patterns in Poetry. Literary and Linguistic Computing. 21. Supplemental Issue: 127-141.

4. Hayes, Bruce and Wilson, Colin and Shisko, Anne (2012). Maxent grammars for the metrics of Shakespeare and Milton. Language 88:4 (December 2012): 691-731.","txt","2","",""
"2006","15","Mining the Cloud of Witness: Inferring the Prestige of Saints from Medieval Paintings","9","1. Introduction
1.1. Overview
Previous research has demonstrated the utility of constructing undirected, weighted networks from the co-occurrence of people in images.1  Researchers have repurposed the technique to analyze the evolution of iconography in medieval artwork.2  Using this technique, when two saints appear together in an image, the nodes representing these saints are linked.  Moreover, each time these saints appear together the weight on the link connecting them increases.  This technique captures the evolution of these co-occurrences in revealing ways (Fig. 1).3  For example, lines of high weight capture important motifs in the artwork such as the links between Christ and Mary based on the common Madonna and Child image.  In a corpus of early images of Saint Francis, the evolution of this network captured the development of a stable core of saints consistent with the historical and artistic record. 


Fig. 1: Undirected weighted network of saints created in Cytoscape

Unfortunately, these networks do not capture the hierarchies in such iconography.  For example, the presence of Saint Anthony of Padua, a Franciscan saint, depends on the presence of Francis.  Historically, Francis was the head of the Franciscan order and therefore Anthony depended on the institution bearing Francis' name.  Artistically, Anthony does not appear without Francis in imagery at this time.4  In order to capture the development of this imagery, including the hierarchical aspects of the organization of these saints, the technique must capture the direction of links representing these dependencies.   This paper demonstrates that association rule mining allows for the creation of directed, weighted networks of saints.  The social prestige of the saints can then be inferred from the structural prestige observed in the network.

1.2. Methodology
The corpus includes 236 images of Saint Francis of Italian production from 1230 to circa 1320 and serves as an excellent case study for this technique.5 The catalog provides information about dating, provenance, authenticity, style and documentation.  The iconography of Francis provides a dramatic example of a transition from regionally-venerated to internationally-venerated saint.  Given this complex transition, the resulting network captures interesting shifts in the thematic content of the iconography.  The proposed technique along with previously developed network models provide powerful ways to explore iconographic trends.  

Constructing the directed network involves standard techniques in data mining 6 and network analysis 7.  Cook's corpus was converted into a matrix for rule mining in RapidMiner Studio.8     The denormalized data captures the presence or absence of a saint in each painting.  The resulting matrix includes 236 rows representing the paintings and 102 columns representing saints.  After preparing the data, support and confidence metrics for each pair of saints was calculated. The confidence metrics model the strength of the relationship between saints in each direction, providing a basis for inferring rank in the relationships (Fig. 2).  For example, the thick pink link from Anthony to Francis represents a confidence of 1.0, meaning that every time Anthony appears in an image Francis certainly appears as well.  The thin blue link from Francis to Anthony, on the other hand, has a confidence of 0.122, signifying that Francis appears without Anthony in many paintings. The difference between these confidence metrics determines the weight and direction of the link between the two saints.  In this example, we would replace the two links pictured with a single link from Anthony to Francis bearing a weight of 0.878.  With this directed network, we can calculate the structural prestige of the saints in Pajek. 910


Fig. 2: Directed weighted links between Anthony of Padua (left) and Francis

For the purposes of demonstration, the calculations have been performed on a small set of data.  Table 1 shows the weight calculations based on the confidence measures derived from three images.  When these links are combined (Fig. 3), they produce a directed, weighted network well-suited to determining prestige.  Directed networks provide several straight-forward techniques for calculating structural prestige.11  The input degree is the number of links pointing to a node.  In the sample network, Francis has an input degree of 3 while Gregory IX has an input degree of 0. Although input degree is often illuminating, this measure of prestige only addresses direct connections.  The input proximity prestige, on the other hand, uses both direct and indirect links in its calculations of popularity.  Table 2 summarizes the calculations required to compute the input proximity prestige in a directed network.  Each of these metrics highlights Francis as the most prestigious saint in this simple network.

 Antecedent-->Consequent	 Confidence(A-->B)	 Confidence(B-->A)	 Link Weight
 Seraph-->Francis	 1.0	 0.3333	 0.6667
 Gregory IX-->Francis	 1.0	 0.3333	 0.6667
 Narni-->Francis	 1.0	 0.3333	 0.6667
 Seraph<---->Narni	 1.0	 1.0	 1.0

Fig. 3: Directed weighted network of saints

 Saint	 Influence Domain	 Proportional Distance	 Average Distance	 Proximity Prestige
 Francis	 3	 1.00	 1.00	 1.00
 Seraph	 1	 0.33	 1.00	 0.33
 Bartholomew of Narni	 1	 0.33	 1.00	 0.33
 Gregory IX	 0	 0.00	 Undefined	 0.00
2. Results
With the additional interpretive power of directed networks, researchers can better understand changes in the popularity of saints.  Somewhat surprisingly, the painters and patrons of the earliest surviving images of Francis (1230-1249) did not seek to juxtapose Francis with Christ, Mary or other well-known saints.  Instead, the early promoters of Franciscan iconography chose to portray Francis by himself or with other prominent figures in Francis' hagiography such as the Seraph.  As the cult of Francis grew, however, the prestige of Christ and Mary jumped from nil in the 1240s to 0.97 and 0.79 respectively in the 1320s.  Moreover, by examining the correlation of prestige measures of different saints, researchers can identify trends in the artistic tastes of the patrons driving the demand for these images.  For example, the prestige of the Seraph is negatively correlated with the prestige of Clare (-0.82), Benedict (-0.5), and Dominic (-0.6) meaning that when the Seraph is popular in this imagery the monastic and mendicant leaders are not.  This negative correlation echoes Cook's observations regarding the presentation of Francis in non-Franciscan houses, particularly that Francis is often presented without stigmata in this context.12 Apparently, non-Franciscan houses and even the Clares did not wish to emphasize the unique aspects of Francis' hagiography in their commissions.  The prestige figures also register the effects of specific events such as the canonization of saints.  For example, Louis of Toulouse was canonized on April 7th, 1317; his prestige in the decade 1310 to 1319 rose from nil to 0.33.  During this same decade, the prestige of Anthony of Padua, another male Franciscan saint, plummeted to 0.0 from 0.45.  As a popular new saint, Louis displaced Anthony for about a decade as the preferred male Franciscan to balance compositions with Francis.  Finally, the prestige metrics indicate a growing popularity of female saints after 1300.  Excluding Christ, 4 of the 5 most popular saints in these images are female: Mary (0.79), Clare (0.49), Mary Magdalen (0.45) and Catherine of Alexandria (0.42). 

Given the results of this study, we aim to expand the research to include a wider range of images.  In particular, the inclusion of works of Dominican provenance will be helpful for comparing prestige metrics in both mendicant traditions.  Beyond this, we believe that applying the technique more broadly may shed light on some of the larger trends and issues in medieval art history.  For example, researchers have noted that new saints and new imagery related to saints appeared in medieval art in response to the Black Death.13  With this technique, we can gauge the relative prestige of saints before and after the Black Death to determine if the perception of these saints changed in the eyes of painters and their patrons.             

References
1. Golder, S. (2008). Measuring Social networks with digital photograph collections. In Proceedings of the 19th ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia, 43-48.

2. Lombardi, T. (2013). The Communion of the Saints: Networks and the Study of Iconography. Presented as a contributed talk at Arts, Humanities, and Complex Networks – 4th Leonardo Satellite Symposium at NetSci2013. artshumanities.netsci2013.net

3. Smoot, M., Ono, K., Ruscheinski, J., Wang, P-L., & Ideker, T. (2011). Cytoscape 2.8: new features for data integration and network visualization. Bioinformatics 27(3): 431-432. Homepage: www.cytoscape.org/

4. Cook, W. R. (1999). Images of Saint Francis in Painting, Stone and Glass from the Earliest Images to ca. 1320 in Italy: A Catalogue. Italian Medieval and Renaissance Studies 7. Leo S. Olschki.

5. Cook, W. R. (1999). Images of Saint Francis in Painting, Stone and Glass from the Earliest Images to ca. 1320 in Italy: A Catalogue. Italian Medieval and Renaissance Studies 7. Leo S. Olschki.

6. Agrawal, R., Imieliński, T. & Swami, A. (1993). Mining association rules between sets of items in large databases. Proceedings of the 1993 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data - SIGMOD '93. p. 207.

7. De Nooy, W., Mrvar, A. & Batagelj, V. (2011). Exploratory Social Network Analysis with Pajek. 2nd Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

8. RapidMiner Studio. Home page: rapidminer.com/products-2/rapidminer-studio/

9. Mrvar, A. & Batagelj, V. Pajek - Program for Large Network Analysis. Home page: pajek.imfm.si

10. De Nooy, W., Mrvar, A. & Batagelj, V. (2011). Exploratory Social Network Analysis with Pajek. 2nd Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

11. De Nooy, W., Mrvar, A. & Batagelj, V. (2011). Exploratory Social Network Analysis with Pajek. 2nd Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

12. Cook, W. R. (1999). Images of Saint Francis in Painting, Stone and Glass from the Earliest Images to ca. 1320 in Italy: A Catalogue. Italian Medieval and Renaissance Studies 7. Leo S. Olschki, p. 103.

13. Meiss, M. (1951). Painting in Florence and Siena after the Black Death. Princeton: Princeton University Press.","txt","2","",""
"2007","15","Mixed data, mixed audience: building a flexible platform for the Visionary Cross project","10","1. Introduction
Due to an exceptional event, a fragment of The Dream of the Rood poem is found on the Ruthwell Cross (Dumfriesshire, Scotland) in the form of an inscription in runic characters; another fragment of the same work, although much smaller, is visible on the Brussels Cross (St. Michael and St. Gudula Cathedral, Brussels, Belgium); the two monumental crosses of Ruthwell and Bewcastle (Cumbria, England) share the presence of runic inscriptions and the same type of carved decorations; the two poems Elene and The Dream of the Rood (full version) are part of a florilegium of religious works, the Vercelli Book (MS CXVII, Biblioteca Capitolare di Vercelli, Italy), in virtue of the central role that the Cross plays in both: the first poem belongs to the texts inspired by the legend of the inventio crucis by St. Elena, mother of emperor Constantine, while in the second one the Cross itself appears in dream to the author and tells its own story. These witnesses of the Anglo-Saxon Middle Ages are closely related from a thematic point of view as well as for their contents1: one could say that this specific thematic cluster was handled by means of a sophisticated multimedia approach by Anglo-Saxon authors, especially visible in the case of the Ruthwell and Bewcastle crosses. The Visionary Cross project2 aims at creating a mixed media edition of these artifacts putting together not only the critical edition of the poem, which is going to be showed together with the digitized images of the Vercelli Book, but also the three-dimensional data related to the Crosses.

2. Methodological issues I: integration of heterogeneous data
Within the scope of the project I am currently working with the ISTI-CNR researchers (Pisa) to refine and improve the current version of a combined 3D model / textual edition browsing software3, and to prepare a digital edition of the runic version of the Dream of the Rood poem. During this work we faced two critical issues:

the integration of heterogeneous data on the web platform that we are building to visualize the edition: namely, the 3D model of the Ruthwell Cross, which is in a standard format (PLY - Polygon File Format4) but needs specialized software libraries to be displayed in a Web browser window; the digitized images of the Vercelli Book manuscript; and finally, the edition texts (diplomatic and critical editions of the poem fragment);
the adoption of an encoding standard that would allow to preserve the different layers of the text (on the graphic level: rune characters vs. transliterated characters vs. modern rendering of text; on the edition level: diplomatic, interpreted and critical editions) at the same time connecting seamlessly with the 3D and 2D elements included in the web platform.
The two issues mentioned above are currently being solved by means of a software framework designed to be flexible enough to be adapted to different types of media and to cope with the specific characteristics of each object; and by use of the TEI XML schemas5, in a ad hoc customization using only the TEI P5 modules needed for our purposes, to accomplish an encoding of the runic text which is fully interoperable with both the web-based visualization system and the tools commonly used in the digital philology field. The rationale being that, while 3D models have recently started to appear and gain in popularity, they still are self-contained objects with little to no concession to the (possibly very relevant) textual content of the original artifact: our goal is to integrate the separate components in such a way that all the subtle interrelations and connections between the different objects, in short their original multimedia nature, are exposed and made explorable in a flexible browsing environment. For instance, the runes are inscribed on the two narrower sides of the Ruthwell Cross and it is likely that each side, including the larger ones with figural panels, were to be ""interpreted"" in turn according to the movement of the sun6; furthermore, the Bewcastle Cross shows similar iconographic content, but with subtle differences that can be ascribed to the influence of larger cultural traditions (Celtic, Roman) on the work of local artisans.


Fig. 1: Experimental edition of the runic text of the Ruthwell Cross

3. Methodological issues II: defining the user and what s/he can do with the edition
While exploring the future shape of the aforementioned environment, though, we came up with new research questions begging for an answer:

who is going to be the “typical” user of our edition? This is apparently an easy question, but when we considered possible use cases we came up with many more than first anticipated, so that the perspective audience almost looks as heterogeneous as the different media of the edition; taking into account these use cases has led to new functionality being added to the browsing environment, and to the decision that it should be as modular and flexible as possible for future expansion;
what is our user going to do with our edition? Another apparently innocuous question, especially since we considered from the start, besides simple browsing of the content, the possibility of user annotation of edition objects; what is different, as we could try for ourselves, is that giving more powers to the user leads to interesting (and potentially risky) new scenarios.
A traditional edition lets the user verify the soundness of the editor’s constitutio textus by means of the critical apparatus: the latter is a very successful compromise dictated by the limits of the printed edition format, but a digital edition can go beyond such limits and make it possible not only to verify the current version of the edited text but also to experiment with alternatives7, creating a “personal edition” on the basis of the available material and the tools provided by the browsing platform, and sharing it according to the “social edition” concept8, although this will be limited to the ""collaborative annotation"" feature described by Siemens rather than to the ""user derived content"" one (in other words, we are not thinking of a full ""collaborative edition""). Note that in theory this is possible not only with regard to textual content, but also for the 3D reconstruction we offer: the Ruthwell Cross is suffering by problems of incompleteness (the horizontal arm is a spurious piece dating to the XIX century), wrong reconstruction (the top piece was placed back-to-front), legibility of the inscriptions (part of the runes have been effaced by the prolonged exposure to the weather and other damages): making the 3D model dynamic and open to alternative positioning of selected parts, and offering digital restoration tools to insert “digital runes” where the original ones are no longer visible, it will be possible to build and check different theories about the Cross and the text it bears.


Fig. 2: The Ruthwell Cross 3D model as a teaching tool, clicking on the presentation arrows the model rotates andmoves to the location described in the slide

We intend to offer suitable tools to verify our own (as editors) hypotheses, but also to create and manage newhypotheses and to share them with other users, be they related to the textual layers of the edition or to thematerial aspects of the artifact(s) available in the browsing environment. To do this we will have to go beyond asimple catalog of possible use cases, but also prepare the environment for different user “roles”, assigning to eachrole an appropriate set of capabilities (and responsibilities). While the original plan was that of a singleenvironment for all types of possible users, in fact, our initial work with text and 3D models convinced us that it isimpossible to conflate together extremely heterogeneous features. Hence the need to set up a very small numberof different environments in which part of the functionality is shared and always present, while other features arespecifically targeted to a particular type of user.

Conclusion
This paper will report on the methodological issues described above, explaining which solutions have already beenfound and at least in part implemented in the browsing environment, which issues are still open and how theproject researchers intend to deal with them.

References
1. Karkov, C., Keefer, S.L. and Jolly, S.L. (eds.) (2008). Cross and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England. Morgantown: West Virginia University Press.

2. Project web site: www.visionarycross.org/.

3. Callieri, M., Leoni, C., Dellepiane, M., Scopigno, R. (2013). Artworks narrating a story: a modular framework for the integrated presentation of three-dimensional and textual contents. ACM WEB3D - 18th International Conference on 3D Web Technology, pp. 167-175.

4. See en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLY_(file_format).

5. Burnard, L., and S. Bauman (eds.) TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. 2.6.0. Last updated on 20th January 2014. www.tei-c.org/P5/.

6. Ó Carragáin, É. (2007). Christian Inculturation in Eighth-Century Northumbria: The Bewcastle and Ruthwell Crosses. Colloquium Journal 4. ism.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/Christian%20Inculturation%20in%20Eighth.pdf

7. Gabler, H. W. (2010). Theorizing the Digital Scholarly Edition. Literature Compass 7 (2). 43.

8. Siemens, R., et al. (2012). Toward modeling the social edition: An approach to understanding the electronic scholarly edition in the context of new and emerging Media. Literary and Linguistic Computing 27 (4). 445-61.","txt","2","",""
"2008","15","Mixing contributions, collaborations and co-creation: participatory archaeology through crowd-sourcing","10","This paper reflects on the pros and cons of a mixed contributory, collaborative and co-creative model of community engagement (Bonney et al. 2009) with archaeology through crowdsourcing and crowd-funding. It arises from a recently initiated project entitled Crowd- and Community-fuelled Archaeological Research. This project is collaboration between University College London’s Institute of Archaeology and The British Museum and is codenamed MicroPasts. This project is developing a web platform to promote new online communities that span hitherto different kinds of archaeological enthusiasts, from ‘traditional academics’, to already established groups of volunteer interest such as archaeological societies, and a wider crowd of potential contributors.

These potentially diverse and international communities will have the opportunity of collaborating on one or more of three things: 

1. Co-production of open licensed research data, such as 3D models of Bronze Age metal objects from England, or the tagging of historical photographs of early 20th century archaeological excavations in the Levant;
2. Collaborative development of completely new research projects, where several different kinds of contributor will be involved. The intellectual lead need not be an institutionally affiliated academic;
3. Crowd-funding of some of the latter projects alongside a number of other community archaeology initiatives. We hope to thereby formalise and build upon some pioneering but rather spontaneous experiments using crowdsourcing to co-design new research (e.g. Old Weather, or Herbaria@home; Ridge 2013). For example, we will begin with ‘scaffolded’ contributory activities where members of the public are invited to participate in research agendas already outlined by academics. It is then hoped that the contributors can develop these research agendas into a higher or even tangential direction.
On the MicroPasts platform, we hope to foster an ever increasing sequence of participation, by encouraging those involved in data co-production via standard crowd-sourcing to participate in follow-up co-design and also to perhaps fund their projects through crowd-funding initiatives. MicroPasts contributors are entirely free to focus their efforts on just one, or if they prefer, several of these areas. To our knowledge, this is the first model of participatory community engagement of this kind in the archaeology and cultural heritage sector. This paper will present both this overall project rationale and the technical choices we have made to turn it into reality. 

All the software employed in this project will be open source and any modifications we make will be released to the open source community via an institutional GitHub account. For example, we will be using a British Museum hosted multi-site Wordpress installation for our main portal and for blogging about our research. We have already customised an instance of the CrowdCrafting platform (see Mansell 2012:8) and the first application to go live on this will allow transcription of the British Museum’s New Bronze Age II card index. For community interaction, we are using the Discourse  platform for discussion and help to be dispensed by the contributors and facilitators. For the crowd-funding element of the project, we will be implementing an instance of the Neighborly community fund raising software (based on the successful Brazilian Catarse software.)

We will demonstrate how these software packages contribute to the holistic model of participatory archaeological research that we have in mind especially with regard to how the challenging task of effective co-design might be achieved. We will also discuss how different crowd-sourcing tasks have been incorporated into the CrowdCrafting platform, the challenges and obstacles we faced during this process (for example institutional opposition to micropayments), what influenced the choices that we made and how different tasks succeeded or failed. In so doing we hope to provide wider inspiration for others in the fields associated with Digital Humanities and a replicable model for anyone to copy. For instance, all the software created for this project could conceivably be reused by anyone with an interest in crowdsourcing or crowdfunding.

Finally, we will consider what kind of evaluative framework is suitable for understanding community engagement in such activities. We are interested in understanding the experiential, cultural and economic values behind contributors’ involvement in crowdsourcing and crowd-funding research into the human past. To achieve this aim, the following areas will be investigated individually and their inter-relational synthesis:

(a) Motivations for contributing;

(b) Dynamics of community building and the kinds of relationships that are built and sustained;

(c) Cultural and economic resources mobilised via community members.

Our analysis will address existing works on these topics within the science and cultural heritage domains, but will also look to deepen their insights with respect to archaeology and history in particular. For example, previous research such as Raddick et al. 2009, Haklay 2011 and Ridge 2013 can be built upon by closer attention to our contributors’ understanding of the subjects they engage in through our project. 

The framework will be applied using a mixed quantitative and qualitative approach, and by combining more ‘traditional’ methods borrowed from the social sciences with “natively digital” ones (Rogers 2013) that (with due attention to ethical considerations) harvest cultural tastes and practices from social networks and try to understand how they influence community formation processes.

References
Bonney, R., H. Ballard, R. Jordan, E. McCallie, T. Phillips, J. Shirk, C.C. Wilderman. (2009). Public participation in scientific research: Defining the field and assessing its potential for informal science education. A CAISE Inquiry Group Report. Washington: Center for Advancement of Informal Science Education (CAISE).

Haklay, M. (2011). Classification of Citizen Science activities Available at: povesham.wordpress.com/2011/07/20/classificationofcitizenscienceactivities (accessed 31 October 2013).

Mansell, R. (2012). Promoting access to digital knowledge resources: managing in the commons. International journal of the commons, online. ISSN 18750281 (In Press).

Raddick, M., Jordan, G. Bracey, K. Carney, G. Gyuk, K. Borne, J. Wallin, S. Jacoby. (2009). Citizen science: Status and research directions for the coming decade. In Astro2010: The Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey, Vol. 2010.

Ridge, M. (2013). From Tagging to Theorizing: Deepening Engagement with Cultural Heritage through Crowdsourcing. Curator 56 (4): 435450.

Rogers, R. (2013). Digital Methods. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

http://micropasts.org

http://github.com/findsorguk

Built on the Pybossa platform – dev.pybossa.com

crowdsoruced.micropasts.org

discourse.org

neighbor.ly

catarse.me/en","txt","2","",""
"2009","15","Modèles tridimensionnels pour la représentation de létat des connaissances et propositions de visualisation pour lanalyse des corpus textuels.","10","Résumé
Alors que la réflexion sur la visualisation est au cœur de disciplines parfois émergentes, que la web véhicule un grand nombre de représentations souvent sophistiquées, introduisant de nouveaux modèles, souvent esthétiques mais qui nécessitent de nouveaux apprentissages pour la lecture et l’interprétation, de nombreuses disciplines s’appuient actuellement sur la visualisation pour communiquer leurs résultats ou créer des outils scientifiques.

Cette contribution prend appui sur des champs disciplinaires différents pour proposer une réflexion sur la représentation des connaissances qui nous à conduit à développer un outil de visualisation des données textuelles.

Nous analyserons ici les méthodes et principes de restitution archéologiques depuis les envois de Rome jusqu’aux modèles informatiques tridimensionnels interrogeant leur forme, leur propos et le rôle de transformateur d’information que doit endosser tout créateur de restitution archéologique afin de créer un objet répondant aux contraintes de la médiatisation et la médiation de l’objet d’étude. Nous montrerons en quoi ces réflexions ont nourri la conception de l’outil TextObserver qui s’inscrit dans la lignée de la textométrie en y introduisant de nouveaux modèles.

Les outils informatiques utilisés dans le domaine de la textométrie ont longtemps fonctionné sur des modèles bien éprouvés mais reposant quasi-essentiellement sur des visuels statistiques offrant peu de possibilités de manipulation ou d’expérimentation, et parfois peu aboutis sur le plan de l’ergonomie. Face à ce constat, le logiciel développé dans le prolongement de cette réflexion, TextObserver, vise précisément à introduire de nouveaux modèles de représentation des données et des résultats pour l’analyse des corpus textuels et multimodaux. Il propose des fonctionnalités originales sur le plan de la visualisation, rendues explicites par l’interactivité, et le traitement dynamique des données et des résultats textométriques. Il rend possible l’intégration de données textuelles diversifiées dans un cadre multimédia et répond en temps réel aux questionnements expérimentaux comme les facteurs de la variation discursive.

La rencontre entre ces questionnements novateurs en lexicométrie et ceux développés avec la création du modèle archéologique tridimensionnel servent de fondement à la création de cet outil exploratoire. Nous proposons de présenter les étapes de cette réflexion puis d'exposer les fonctionnalités essentielles de TextObserver en explorant un corpus de discours politiques. 

Dans un premier temps nous présenterons une réflexion sur la représentation en archéologie et médiation de l'objet d'étude. Nous reviendrons sur l'évolution des représentations, depuis la renaissance jusqu'aux envois de Rome en passant par les premières représentations scientifiques du 18ème siècle et les premiers graphiques, jusqu'à l'émergence de la notion d'infographie au vingtième siècle dans les années 70, puis les pratiques liées à la data science et data visualisation que nous connaissons aujourd'hui. 

Après cet état de l'art nous en viendrons à la représentation archéologique en nous appuyant sur l'exemple de la modélisation tridimensionnelle du Circus Maximus, mettant au jour le fait que le créateur d'objet multimédia devient un transformateur d'information. 

La seconde partie de la contribution sera consacrée à la présentation de l'outil TextObserver dont la conception est issue d'une réflexion sur l'ergonomisation et la représentation des données textuelles et qui réinvestit les acquis de la recherche évoquée en première partie. 

TextObserverest à la fois un outil de recherche et de formation à la recherche et s'inscrit dans une démarche proche de la textométrie, ajoutant à celle-ci une dimension expérimentale, multimodale et multimédia.

C'est en effet à partir de l'expertise approfondie d'un dispositif composé de logiciels longitudinaux et contrastifs (lexico3, Hyperbase, TXM) ou structurants (comme Alceste, iramuteq ou Astartext) voire de catégoriseurs (Cordial, Treetager), ou d'analyseurs sémantiques (Tropes) que se fonde la conception de TextObserver. Il ne s'agit pas d'implémenter des fonctionnalités qui existeraient déjà au sein de ces logiciels mais d'apporter une réponse en termes d'ergonomie, d'interactivité et de visualisation et de développer des fonctionnalités originales. TextObservera été conçu en outre pour répondre à des questions de recherche faisant intervenir la variation. 

Ainsi TextObserver permet de visualiser les textes sous un angle différent, mais aussi de mieux appréhender les mesures mobilisées en textométrie. L'interactivité est l’innovation essentielle de ce logiciel: elle permet de se saisir de visualisations complexes telle que l'analyse factorielle de correspondances. 

Nous présenterons tout d'abord le principe de la démarche textométrique dans laquelle s'inscrit TextObserver, présenterons le corpus que nous prenons ici comme matériau d'expérimentation, puis montrerons au moyen d'expertises ciblées, en quoi TextObserver permet de mettre au jour des phénomènes de variation qui seraient difficilement appréhendables au moyen des outils logiciels classiques. Nous articulerons cette présentation autour de trois axes: les fonctionnalités de visualisation, les fonctionnalités de calcul, les fonctionnalités de navigation. 

Enfin nous évoquerons les développements futurs de TextObserver et les premières analyses menées au moyen de cet outil sur des corpus multimodaux (donc non exclusivement textuels) qui permettent d'étendre la recherche à l'analyse du web (recueil, constitution et visualisation de corpus en temps réel,analyse automatisée de pagds web). C'est donc un élargissement de la textométrie vers une textométrie multimédia - nous justifierons cette terminologie - que nous nous proposons de présenter dans cette contribution. 

References
Barats, C., Fiala, P., Leblanc, JM (2013) Approches textométriques du web : corpus et outils. In Manuel d'analyse du Web (Dir Christine Barats), Armand Colin, Paris, 100-124.

Benzécri J. P. (1980) Pratique de l’analyse des données, Dunod, Paris.

Benzécri J. P. (1982) Histoire et préhistoire de l’analyse des données, Dunod, Paris.

Bonin S. (1983). Initiation à la graphique : transcription visuelle des données statistiques et cartographiques, Épi éditeurs

Bouroche J-M., G. Saporta, (1980) L'analyse des données, PUF, (coll. ""Que sais-je"", n°1854, Paris.

Cibois P., (2000) l’analyse factorielle, Presses Universitaires de France - PUF (Que sais-je ?), (5e éd.), Paris.

Daknou A. (2011) Architecture distribuée à base d’agents pour optimiser la prise en charge des patients dans les services d’urgence en milieu hospitalier, Thèse de doctorat, Ecole Centrale de Lille.

Gambette, P., Nuria, G., Guénoche, A., Nasr, A. (2012), Longueur de branches et arbres de mots, inCorpus 11, 129-146.

Guilmeau-Shala S. (2011). En quête de la couleur : publication de dessins réalisés lors de voyages d’études en Grèce, in Bibliothèques d’atelier. Édition et enseignement de l’architecture, Paris 1785-1871, INHA (« Les catalogues d'exposition de l'INHA »)

James R. Beniger et Dorothy L. Robyn. (1978). Quantitative graphics in statistics: A brief history, The American Statistician, no 32, pp. 1-11

Lebart L., Morineau A., Piron M., (2000) Statistique exploratoire multidimensionnelle, Dunod, Paris.

Lechleiter F. (sous la direction de Foucart  B.) (2008). Les envois de Rome des pensionnaires peintres de l’Académie de France à Rome de 1863 à 1914, thèse de doctorat, Université Paris IV.

LUONG X., (1998) Représenter les données textuelles par les arbres in S. Mellet (éd.), JADT 98, Nice 1998 (avec J.P. Barthélémy).

Pérès M. (2006). De la modélisation à l’image virtuelle : image et réel. Figure de l’art, vol.(11): 197-208.

Pérès M. (sous la direction de Golvin JC.) (2001). Réflexion sur le modèle informatique du Cicus Maximus. Thèse de doctorat, Université Michel de Montaigne - Bordeaux 3.

Plantin JC, (2013) ""D'une carte à l'autre: le potentiel heuristique de la comparaison entre graphes du web et cartes géographiques"". Dans Barats C.,(dir.) in Analyser le web en Sciences Humaines et Sociales, Armand Colin. Paris.

Roxin I., Hutschmitt B., Mercier D. and Leblanc J.M. (2007) Web sémantique, navigation dans de grands corpus textuels In CIDE 10, dixième colloque international sur le document numérique, 2-4 juillet 2007, Nancy, INIST.

Viprey J.M. (2006) Ergonomiser la visualisation AFC dans un environnement d'exploration textuelle : une projection « géodésique » in actes des JADT 2006, 989-1000.

Weiss G. (2001) Agent orientation in software engineering, in The Knowledge Engineering Review, vol. 16, no. 4, 349 - 373.

Wildbur P. et Burke M. (2001). Le graphisme d'information, Cartes, diagrammes, interfaces et signalétiques, Thames & Hudson

Wooldridge M. and Jennings N.R. (1995) Intelligent agents: Theory and practice, The Knowledge Engineering Review, 10(2):115-152.","txt","2","",""
"2010","15","Modeling Linguistic Research Data for a Repository for Historical Corpora","9","Existing historical linguistic corpora vary a great deal with respect to formats, corpus architecture, annotation types and values and preparation steps. The LAUDATIO-Repository (www.laudatio-repository.org) provides an open access environment to facilitate the management of such heterogeneous research data with an extensive, uniform and structured documentation and faceted and free-text search without limitation with respect to formats or annotations. For this purpose, we have developed a meta-model which is expressive enough to represent a large variety of corpus formats. This meta-model, described as a TEI-ODD specification with automatically generated schemas (Burnard & Rahtz 2004), is also the basis for the technical implementation in the repository.

Building and analyzing historical corpora often incorporates diplomatic transcriptions, normalizations of these transcriptions and research specific annotation layers which will be illustrated with the help of two corpora; the German Manchester Corpus (GerManC) and the RIDGES Herbology Corpus. GerManC1 (Durrell, Ensslin & Bennett 2007) contains for instance two formats (TEI XML and CoNLL) which represent different kinds of annotations and analyses. The TEI XML format contains a diplomatic transcription and a register specific mark-up. By contrast, the CoNLL format contains token annotations for normalization, part- of-speech (POS) and lemmatization (e.g. the STTS tag set, Schiller et al. 1999) as well as morphology and dependency annotation for syntactic relations between the tokens (e.g. Foth 2006). Thus, this corpus uses two formats for encoding different kinds of annotations and analyses.2 On the other hand, the second version of the RIDGES Herbology Corpus3 contains all annotations in one format (EXMARaLDA, Schmidt & Wörner 2009) which is then converted into the relANNIS format used by the ANNIS corpus system (Zeldes et al. 2009) for search and visualization capacities. The corpus architecture of RIDGES is specific in the following way: Via multiple segmentations, annotations can refer to different basic textual data in the corpus (Krause et al. 2012). To normalize separate spellings of complex verbs in historical German such as zusammen gesetzet to zusammengesetzt (RIDGES, Curioser Botanicus oder sonderbares Kräuterbuch, 1675), the tokens need to be merged in the normalized annotation whereas tokens need to be separated when normalizing zuverstehen to zu verstehen (RIDGES, Alchemistische Praktik 1603). Every further annotation — for instance the POS annotation may either refer to the diplomatic segmentation layer or to the normalized segmentation layer.

Having identified what exactly needs to be described by a meta-model, we then define the actual use-cases associated with this meta-model. With respect to range, specificity and user scenarios, distinct requirements could only be designed for concrete applications. For this study, the LAUDATIO-Repository (Krause et al. 2013) is taken as an example. In this case, the meta-model will enable a retrieval of, a structured search on and a holistic and extensive documentation of the heterogeneous historical corpora and their preparation (for further details see Odebrecht & Krause 2013 and Odebrecht & Zipser 2013). It should be possible to search for a distinct annotation type or content in several different corpora within the repository. Along with the content requirements the repository needs a structured, machine readable metadata format which can be represented in a graphical interface for the display of information and in the repository system for the different ways to search through the data, e.g. faceted search and free-text search. The meta-model developed from these requirements results in a metadata TEI XML format for the LAUDATIO-Repository but is also designed for and may be applied to other use cases and applications.

The meta-model is designed as an analytic class diagram for which the Unified Modeling Language is used4. Such a diagram is useful to document the important issues or concepts in an abstract way. Therefore, the class concepts represent the concepts for the subject-specific application domain ‘historical corpora’.5

Four main classes are defined: ‘corpus’, ‘document’, ‘annotationKey’ and ‘annotationValue’ which refer not only to historical corpora but to textual corpora in general: 


Fig. 1: Meta-model of a corpus. For the sake of concision, the attributes of the classes are left out.

As shown in figure 1, the meta-model6 defines a corpus as the sum of all documents regardless of their structure and size. A document is defined as the sum of all annotations regardless of their structure, format and content. ‘Annotation’ is defined by the sum of all annotation keys and values. For the meta-model, it does not matter whether they have flat, hierarchical or semantic relations. Every concept carries its own attributes. A ‘corpus’ is a conceptual collection of digitized and not only linguistically processed (here historical) text. It carries among other things the attributes title, creator, creation date, revision history etc. The class ‘document’ represents the actual historical text – source text - with its own attributes such as author, date and publication history. The classes ‘annotationKey’ and ‘annotationValue’ constitute a document because the sum of transcriptions, normalizations, including segmentations and further annotations build - technically speaking - a ‘document’. ‘AnnotationKey’ in turn carries attributes similar to ‘corpus’ and ‘document’ such as date, author and revision history. For example, the attribute ‘author’ can refer either to the creator of a historical text or to the annotator of a certain annotation layer and may also refer to the same entity or person. This is important for corpus documentation. When re-using corpora, for instance further annotations on an existing corpus are made by third parties, a clear reference can be made to the copyrights. Attributes such as ‘date’ also refer to every class of the meta-model, meaning that ‘corpus’ as well as ‘annotation’ may have a date of creation like ‘document’ which genuinely has a publication date.

For the technical realization7 we used a customization of TEI XML with an ODD specification. The meta-model was mapped to three TEI header structures, one for each concept: a header for ‘corpus’, ‘annotationKey’ and ‘annotationValue’, a header for each ‘document’ in the corpus and a header for each preparation step of the corpus in general: 


Fig. 2: Technical mapping of the meta-model and the TEI xml header structure

The attributes of each class are mapped into the corresponding TEI element sets. For example, the attributes date and author correspond to the TEI elements <date>, <author> and <editor> with a specifying attribute @role for “annotator” in the <fileDesc> element. The <publicationStmt> element contains the attributes revision and/or publication history for each class. The classes ‘annotationKey’ and ‘annotationValue’ are realized with the element set of <elementSpec>. With the help of the attribute @corresp, references between the list of annotation keys and values of the whole corpus to each document and to each preparation step, including information about formats and annotation relations such as segmentations of the annotations, are technically implemented. Each TEI header is customized with the help of ODD8. The TEI headers are the technical basis for the uniform display and search of every class and its attributes in the repository. For every corpus, e.g. RIDGES and GerManC, the values for <author> referring to either a distinct annotation layer or a distinct document can be uniformly searched via a faceted search or can be displayed in the corpus view.

The meta-model presented here provides a generic mechanism for the representation of multiply annotated corpora that probably goes beyond the scope of historical corpora alone. Our experience with dealing with a variety of available historical resources has shown how flexible and reliable the model can be in this domain, though work remains to be done in dealing with more relational annotation schemes describing disconnected sources such as annotation between documents in the same or in different corpora. 

References
1. GerManC is freely available at hdl.handle.net/11022/0000-0000-1D32-8

2. GerManC is also available in the standoff format GATE which maps all annotations of the TEI XML and the CoNLL formats.

3. The RIDGES Herbology Corpus is freely available at hdl.handle.net/11022/0000-0000-1CDB-B

4. OMG (2009) OmG unied modeling languagetm (omg uml), infrastructure: www.omg.org/spec/

5. For the sake of brevity, the attributes of the classes are left out in figure 1.

6. All ODDs are freely available at www.laudatio-repository.org/repository/documentation.

7. For the technical implementation of the header in the basis systems of LAUDATIO-Repository with the help of elastic search & co see www.laudatio-repository.org/repository/technical-documentation/

8. Each ODD is freely available at korpling.german.hu-berlin.de/schemata/laudatio/doc/S6/

Burnard, Lou, Rahtz, Sebastian (2004) RelaxNG with Son of ODD. Extreme Markup Languages Proceedings 2004. Montréal, Québec.

Durrell, Martin, Ensslin, Astrid, Bennett, Paul (2207) The GerManC project In Sprache und Datenverarbeitung 31 (2007), pp. 71-80.

Foth, Kilian A. (2006) Eine umfassende Constraint-Dependenz-Grammatik des Deutschen. Technischer Report. Universität Hamburg. Hamburg.

Krause, Thomas, Odebrecht, Carolin, Zielke, Dennis (2013) Wie kann der Zugriff, die Wiederverwendung und langfristige Speicherung von linguistischen Korpora realisiert werden? 35. Jahrestagung der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Sprachwissenschaft (DGfS). 12.-15.03.2013. Potsdam Germany. 

Krause, Thomas, Lüdeling, Anke, Odebrecht, Carolin, Zeldes, Amir (2012) Multiple Tokenization in a Diachronic Corpus. Exploring Ancient Languages through Corpora Conference (EALC). 14.-16.06.2012. Oslo Norway.

Odebrecht, Carolin, Zipser, Florian (2013) LAUDATIO - Eine Infrastruktur zur linguistischen Analyse historischer Korpora. DTA-/CLARIN-D Konferenz und -Workshops: Historische Textkorpora für die Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaften. Fragestellungen und Nutzungsperspektiven 18.-19.02.2013. Berlin Germany.

Odebrecht, Carolin, Krause, Thomas (2013) Metadata in an Infrastructure for Historical Corpora. SFB 732 Incremental Specification in Context - Colloquium 20.06.2013. Stuttgart Germany. http://www.uni-stuttgart.de/linguistik/sfb732/files/abstract_odebrechtkrause.pdf

Schmidt, Thomas, Wörner, Kai (2009) EXMARaLDA - Creating, analysing and sharing spoken language corpora for pragmatic research. Pragmatics 19/4. pp.565-582.

Schiller, Anne, Teufel, Simone, Stöckert, Christine, Thielen, Christine (1999) Guidelines für das Tagging deutscher Textkorpora mit STTS. Technischer Report. Universität Stuttgart, Institut für maschinelle Sprachverarbeitung & Universität Tübingen, Seminar für Sprachwissenschaft.

Zeldes, Amir, Ritz, Julia, Lüdeling, Anke & Chiarcos, Christian (2009), ""ANNIS: A Search Tool for Multi-Layer Annotated Corpora"". In: Proceedings of Corpus Linguistics 2009, July 20-23, Liverpool, UK.","txt","2","",""
"2011","15","Modeling Melville's Reading: Editing Marginalia in TEI, Topic Modeling Reading and Influence","2","I propose to contribute a poster at the Digital Humanities 2014 Convention on my recent initiative with Melville’s Marginalia Online (www.melvillesmarginalia.org). In addition to creating an interactive, reader-friendly digital bibliography of the books Herman Melville was known to have owned, borrowed, and consulted, the editors of the project have been editing digital editions of the surviving books that contain Melville’s marginalia. The next phase for the project is to mark up the marginalia files in TEI P5, as well as thinking of new ways to represent the individuality as well as the totality of Melville’s reading practices. I have taken responsibility for this phase, first by collecting the OCR’d files of Melville’s editions, then by finding a way to mark up the marginalia. One challenge of the project is that it uses the “coordinate capture” tool (created by Matt Cohen at the University of Texas at Austin and the Walt Whitman Archive), which creates XML coordinates corresponding to the image file of each and every aspect of the book (from spine to covers to individual pages). However, these coordinate-captured XML files cannot be manipulated, which complicates the task of marking up the marginalia up in TEI. Furthermore, currently there exists no standard in the TEI Guidelines for marking up marginalia (especially as those kinds of “notes” correspond to specific places in the text while not being written in a linear fashion in most cases). Yet another question remains about Melville’s reading: how can we better understand not only his reading practices, but also quantitatively understand how his reading affected his published work? Countless studies have elucidated Melville’s sources (both with solid research methods and conjecture), but I propose to include a topic model (using Mallet) on Melville’s Marginalia Online that will “read” Melville’s reading in ways that will change the way we think about how the works he read influenced him. No longer must we guess how his reading influenced him; topic modeling will let us read the library of his entire life, and apply that information to his published writings. Gathering data through topic modeling allows Melville scholars a new way of studying literary influence. In the poster session, I look forward to reporting on the TEI markup of the marginalia files in order to show other attendees working on authors’ libraries how best to accomplish this task, as well as to demonstrate a custom algorithm for topic modeling large literary corpora relating to authorial influence.","txt","2","",""
"2012","15","Modelling digital editing: of texts, documents and works","10","Editing is one of the most important activities we have to perform as digital humanists: with the entire literary and historical production facing remediation, the need for a theoretical as well as practical understanding of what it is at stake and what does it mean to create a digital (scholarly) edition is of crucial importance. Many contributions in the past have dealt with the issue of what a text is, what a document is, how they relate to each other and which are the implications of their ontological status with respect to the work they manifest1 2 3456 78 910 1112 to name a few). The topic has been tackled from different points of view: sociological, cultural, psycholinguistic, philosophical, historical and computational. Why, then, is it necessary to return to the same topic once again? Because while some if not most of the previous contributions have touched upon it, none has tried to account for the whole concept of digital editing, and if a model is “a representation of something for purposes of study, or a design for realizing something new” (p. 21) 13, a new purpose of study will require a new model. In order to perform an activity with the help of a computer, in order to digitize a workflow, such an activity (i.e. editing) needs to be modelled, as there is “the fundamental dependence of any computing system on an explicit, delimited conception of the world or ‘model’ of it” (p. 210)14.

The only existing model of text that has been developed explicitly for computational purposes is represented by the so-called OHCO model15, the limitations of which are widely known 16 17 1819 20. However, as it reflects upon the fundamental way of functioning of the most important technology used so far for the production of digital editions, i.e. XML, in spite of its inadequacy, it still represents a fundamental approach for editorial endeavours: if one edits using XML and TEI, then one will have to adopt some sort of model which strongly relates to the OHCO model. But besides all the issues already pointed out by earlier critics, there is a series of facts and entities which are outside the scope of the OHCO model but which are nevertheless of fundamental importance in scholarly editing; namely, what is an edition? What is a work? What is the relationship between an edition and the text it edits, and the work the text represents? What is the function of the reader and of the editor in establishing the text and the edition?

The edition of a text, any text, embodies a model of the work which the text represents. In the same way that a map can be considered a model of the earth built for a specific purpose, an edition of a text can be considered as a model of the text itself, because it represents a selection of the infinite features of a text according to particular point of view, scholarly or not. Selecting also mean simplifying: a model is necessarily a simplification of a real life object, which makes it more apt to analysis and manipulation, In a contribution from 2009 Michael Sperberg-McQueen declared that there are three things to consider when we edit a text (p. 31)21:

There is an infinite set of facts related to the work being edited.
Any edition records a selection from the observable and the recoverable portions of this infinite set of facts.
Each edition provides some specific presentation of its selection.
In saying this he declared an edition to be a model of a work, where the act of selecting features from the uninterrupted continuity of the reality is the defining act of modelling, the purpose of which in turn is to provide a discrete selection of facts to be interpreted. The present research stems from this consideration and proposes a new, comprehensive conceptual model of the editorial domain, which could be called the Digital Editing Model, or DEM.

The conceptual model deals with the following entities:

Documents, i.e. physical objects that contain some sort of information; therefore a book is a document, as is a leaf with some writing on, a stone, and so on. More generally, a document is a physical object that has some text on it, or more formally, a Verbal Text Bearing Object, or VTBO. This definition willingly and knowingly omits non-verbal documents, as the object of the present research is to analyze and model written and verbal texts with the purpose of editing them.[1]
User-function: any type of human interaction with the documents. The entity represents set of functions, more than human beings, such as, for instance, reading, editing, collecting, preserving, transcribing, analyzing etc.
As seen before, documents present an infinite set of facts. A user-function selects a subset of these facts and, according to an organizing principle, groups them into dimensions. As the dimensions that are potentially observable in a document are defined by the user-function’s purpose, consequently it is impossible to draw a stable and complete list of such dimensions; however, for the purpose of exemplification, such a list could include linguistic, semantic, literary, genetic, iconographic, codicological, and palaeographical dimensions.

The interaction of user-functions with documents generates

Document models: the meaning(s) that user-functions give to the subset of dimensions they derive from a document and that they consider interesting. If the subset of dimensions considered by the user includes the verbal content of the document, such a document’s model is defined as a text.
Works: an editorial statement of the fact that a number of documents aim to contain more or less the same verbal content. The sum of all possible texts derived from such documents, in a one-to-one or many-to-one relation, constitute the work.
The model does not necessarily need an author-function, but it may, if the user-editor postulates it. If present, the author-function performs two main sub-functions, one in posse and one in esse, where the latter represents the activities of producing some of the facts present in the documents, especially, but not exclusively, the ones concerning the verbal content of the documents. The function in posse concerns instead the authorial intention, namely what the author-function wanted to produce but did not, or, if it did, the evidence for this is lost. It is in posse because it is unachieved (or perhaps is achieved but with no way of knowing this).

The DEM model sketched out here, will be supplemented by a second one on text transmission (how text migrates from one support to the next), where emerging theories of transcription will also fit very well 22 23242526.  However, these latter theories can also be thought as an instance of the user-function, encompassing the building of texts from the infinite set of facts available from the documents, and therefore are integrated into the DEM. In its full version, DEM will also deal with concepts such as versions and derivative works.

In conclusion the proposed DEM contributes to the elaboration of a set of models required by the renewed work and workflow of digital editing, in dialog with previous scholarly elaborations, providing a holistic and agnostic base for the understanding of the digital editorial endeavour.

 

[1] A similar but more generalized definition is given by Huitfeldt and Sperberg-McQueen, who prefer to speak of ‘marks’ on a document, rather than of ‘verbal text’: ‘By a document we understand an individual object containing marks. A mark is a perceptible feature of a document (normally something visible, e.g. a line in ink)’ 27.

References
1. DeRose, S. J., D. G. Durand, E. Mylonas, and A. H. Renear (1990). What is Text, Really? Journal of Computing in Higher Education 2:1 3-26.

2. Shillingsburg, P. L. (1991). Text as matter, concept, and action. Studies in Bibliography, 44:31–83.

3. Shillingsburg, P. (2006). From Gutenberg to Google: Electronic Representations of Literary Texts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

4. Caton, P. (2013). On the term text in digital humanities. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 28(2):209–220.

5. Gabler, H. W. (2012). Beyond author-centricity in scholarly editing. Journal of Early Modern Studies, 1:15–35.

6. Eggert, P. (2009). Securing the Past: Conservation in Art, Architecture and Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

7. Tanselle, G. Thomas. A Rationale of Textual Criticism Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989. 104 pp.

8. Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. (2009). How to teach your edition how to swim. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 24(1):27–52.

9. Robinson, P. M. (2009). What text really is not, and why editors have to learn to swim. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 24(1):41–52.

10. Robinson, P. M. W. (2013). Towards a theory of digital editions. Variants 10. 105-132.

11. Barthes, R. (1968). La Mort De l'Auteur. Manteia (4e trimestre).

12. Ong, J. Walter (1975). The Writer's Audience is Always a Fiction. PMLA, Vol. 90/1, pp. 9-21

13. McCarty, W. (2005). Humanities Computing. Palgrave Macmillan.

14. McCarty, W. (2004). Modeling: a Study in Words and Meanings. in Companion to the DigitalHumanities. Blackwell.

15. DeRose, S. J., D. G. Durand, E. Mylonas, and A. H. Renear (1990). What is Text, Really? Journal of Computing in Higher Education 2:1 3-26.

16. Huitfeldt, C. (1994). Multi-Dimensional Texts in a One-Dimensional Medium. Computers and the Humanities, 28(4-5). Humanities Computing in Norway. 235-241.

17. Pichler, A. (1995). Transcriptions, texts and interpretation. In Johannessen, K. and Nor- denstam, T., editors, Culture and Value: Philosophy and the Cultural Sciences, pages 690–695. Austrian Ludwig Wittgenstein Society, Wien.

18. Renear, A. H., Mylonas, E., and Durand, D. (1996). Refining our notion of what text really is: The problem of overlapping hierarchies. In Ide, N. and Hockey, S., editors, Research in Humanities Computing. Oxford University Press.

19. Pierazzo, E. and Stokes, P. A. (2010). Putting the text back into context: a codicological approach to manuscript transcription. In Fischer, F., Fritze, C., and Voelgler, G., editors, Kodikologie und Palographie im Digitalen Zeitalter 2 - Codicology and palaeography in the digital age 2, pages 397–430. Books on Demand, Norderstedt.

20. Deegan, M. and Sutherland, K. (2009). Transferred Illusions. Digital Technology and the Forms of Print. Ashgate, Farnham.

21. Sperberg-McQueen, C. M. (2009). How to teach your edition how to swim. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 24(1):27–52.

22. Huifeldt, C., and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen (2008). What is transcription? Literary and Linguistic Computing. 23 (3). 295-310. doi:10.1093/llc/fqn013

23. Huitfeldt, Claus, Yves Marcoux and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen (2010). Extension of the type/token distinction to document structure. In Balisage: The Markup Conference 2010. held August 3-6, 2010 in Montréal, Canada. In Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup C

24. Sperberg-McQueen, C. M.. Claus Huitfeldt, and Yves Marcoux (2009). What is transcription? Part 2. Talk given at Digital Humanities 2009, College Park, Maryland. Slides on the Web at blackmesatech.com/2009/06/dh2009/.

25. Caton, Paul (2013=. Pure transcriptional encoding. Paper given at Digital Humanities 2013, Lincoln, Nebraska.

26. Caton, P. (2013). On the term text in digital humanities. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 28(2):209–220.

27. Huitfeldt, Claus, and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen. (2008) What is transcription? Literary & Linguistic Computing 23.3: 295-310.","txt","2","",""
"2013","15","Modelling digital edition of medieval and early modern accounting documents","10","Accounting documents seem to be are well suited digital reproduction: they contain a significant number of highly structured information which was meant to be calculated already in its original context . Creating a database for executing statistical and numerical analysis of the data seems to be a promising method to analyse these documents. This assumption is not reflected in the practice of critical scholarly editions of accounting books. The digital humanists creating resources of accounting documents have not succeeded to build a common form of representation apart from the preference of spread-sheet style data storage. This approach neglects important information in the original documents which become in particular clear when studying medieval account books:

The recent scholalry edition of the Luxemburg city accounts 1 shows that accounting is close to everyday language and thus an important source for research on the history of a language. A digital resource concentrating on numbers, short descriptions of bookkeeping entries and classifications excludes that information.
Producing an account in the middle ages was a process which included several steps: collecting the information from informal documents into a fair copy, reading the listed transactions to a supervising committee or to a person using the abacus, deleting debit entries with their fulfilment, entering debits for tax or rent collection and updating the entries during money collection while tax collection or in manorial administration. Medieval accounts thus can be a protocol of acts of accounting and controlling.
The layout of medieval accounts changed in time, i.e. for example in administrative accounting the layout developed from protocols in simple text blocks to sophisticated tabular representations2. The early forms of double entry bookkeeping are based on the position of the entry on the page 3. The development of the visual form of accounting documents is part of the research on the history of accounting.
Account books give an insight in everyday life and its economy which can be researched only when the variety of existing entries is transfered into a taxonomy. Medieval and early modern accounts used variety of taxonomies to structure the data. All this can only be accessed by researcher with a thorough encoding of the “content”.
Traditionally this multiple interest in the account books led to a decision on one preferred approach. On paper the text could be printed economically only either as tables or as full transcriptions.

The current state of digital edition theory promises to solve this problem: an edition as a digital resource can include several layers of interpretation and leave the decision on the presentation to the user. But a brief survey done on relevant digital resources 4 shows these possibilities are rarely exploited in full.

The paper discusses some reasons for this situation, in particular the influence of the dominant schools in digital scholarly editing and the resulting models which focus on textual variance, representation of text and documentary edition. Syd Baumann and Kathryn Tomasek have already suggested changes in the de-facto standard for encoding of historical documents the TEI 5. They propose an element to describe transactions by referring to the textual parts describing the business facts. An alternative standard for the encoding of business facts can be found in XBRL6 which offers a flexible methodology and in the “Global Ledger”-module a taxonomy of basic business facts which can be transferred to many historical documents. While the TEI guidelines are good to encode the accounts on the documentary and linguistic level, XBRL seems to offer a good base to model the economic content. A simple bookkeeping ontology would have to include the following facts: gl-cor:entryDetail(gl-cor:account, gl-cor:signOfAmount(bk:i, bk:d), gl-cor:amount(tei:measure(tei:quantity, tei:unit), gl-cor:debitCreditCode), bk:price(tei:measure[x], tei:measure[y]), bk:transaction(bk:when, bk:where, bk:who, what, gl-cor:entryDetail[bk:debit], gl-cor:entryDetail[bk:credit]) which represents the single entry (gl-cor:entryDetail), their organization in bookkeeping (bk:account, gl-cor:debitCreditCode), the central economical informations (amounts, increase/decrease, prices) and the social act of transaction (bk:transaction).

Departing from the theoretical considerations presented by Manfred Thaller at the DH2012 7 the paper tries to develop a RDF-model which integrates the multiple layers how an account book can be conceptualised in a digital scholarly edition (text as image, as trace, as language and as meaning). The model is based on references between an URI for the physical object, the images of the object, the transcription and the bookkeeping facts (see fig. 1).


Fig. 1: conceptual model for stand-off markup of digital scholarly editions

The model can be aligned with upper level ontologies like the CIDOC-CRM 8 as the basic entities relate to linguistic objects (crm:E33, text as language), to images (crm:E38, text as image), to inscriptions/marks (crm:34/crm:37, text as trace) and to facts which can be described as events (crm:E5, business transactions as the meaning of the accounts), although substantial intermediate steps have to be included (e.g. price relations, measurements and monetary values as subclasses of propositional objects, crm:89). It allows like XBRL the inclusion of taxonomies for commodities or for types of transaction.

The model can be serialized with the help of the feature structures in TEI and converted into explicit RDF with simple XSL which includes the transformation of DOM relations (e.g. ‘contains’) into ontology statements (e.g. <list ana=”bk:d”><item ana=”bk:entry”>For <seg ana=”bk:account”>wood</seg> <measure ana=”bk:amount” quantity=”10” unit=”lb”>x lb</measure></item></list>). First experiences in a project to create a digital edition of a whole series of early modern city accounts show that the model can be used efficiently when the encoding of this kind of structures is supported with a TEI customisation which helps the transcribers to replace repetitive and verbose code with simple XML tags (like <r:lb> for <measure type=”currency” unit=”lb”> or <r:e> for <item ana=”bk:entry”> and when repetitive tasks like the transformation of roman numbers can be included in the XSL transformation from customised code to TEI.

The paper will demonstrate the application of the model to several late medieval account books in a TEI serialization9. The integration in the GAMS repository infrastructures10 allows showing possible functionalities of digital editions based on the model. This includes joint operations on the XML text stored in a Fedora Commons repository and the RDF representation stored in a triple store.

References
1. Die Rechnungsbücher der Stadt Luxemburg, bearb. v. Claudine Moulin u. Michel Pauly, z.Zt. 6 Hefte, Luxemburg 2007 - 2012 (Schriftenreihe des Stadtarchivs Luxemburg ...)

2. Mark Mersiowsky: Die Anfänge territorialer Rechnungslegung im deutschen Nordwesten. Spätmittelalterliche 2. Rechnungen, Verwaltungspraxis, Hof und Territorium (zugl. Diss. phil. Münster 1992) , Sigmaringen 2000 (Residenzenforschung 9); Georg Vogeler: Spätmittelalterliche Steuerbücher deutscher Territorien, Teil 1: Überlieferung und hilfswissenschaftliche Analyse, in: AfD 49 (2003), S. 165-295, Teil 2: Funktionale Analyse und Typologie, in: AfD 50 (2004), S. 57-204.

3. Federigo Melis (1950): Storia della Ragioneria. Contributo alla conoscenza e interpretazione delle fonti più significative della storia economica, Bologna; Franz-Josef Arlinghaus: Bookkeeping, Double-Entry Bookkeeping, in: Medieval Italy. An Encyclopedia, hg. v. Christopher Kleinhenz, New York 2004, S. 147-150; Basil S. Yamey: Scientific Bookkeeping and the Rise of Capitalism, in: EHR N.S. 1 (1949), S. 99-113.

4. Die Cameralia des Stadtarchivs Regensburg, Bd. 3: Ausgaben der Stadt Regensburg 1393 - 1394, ed. by Heidrun Boshof (Fontes Civitates Ratisponensis) www.fcr-online.com/editions/c03/index.htm; Die mittelalterlichen Schuld- und Rechnungsbücher des Deutschen Ordens um 1400. Eine synoptische Edition im Internet, ed. by Christina Link u. Jürgen Sarnowsky, Hamburg 2008, www.schuredo.uni-hamburg.de; Les comptes des consuls de Montferrand (1273–1319)2006 (Éditions en ligne de l'École des Chartes, volume16), éd. R. Anthony Lodge 2006 elec.enc.sorbonne.fr/montferrand/; Comptes de châtellenies, http: www.castellanie.net; Comédie-Française Register Project, http: web.mit.edu/hyperstudio/cfr; Open domesday. The first free online copy of Domesday Book, ed. by Anna Powell-Smith, J.J.N. Palmer, Univ. of Hull http: www.domesdaymap.co.uk; The Alcalá account book project, National University of Ireland, Maynooth 2008, http: archives.forasfeasa.ie; Henry III fine rolls Project, King’s College London et al., 2007-2011, http: www.finerollshenry3.org.uk

5. Encoding Financial Records for Historical Research, paper presented ad the TEI-MM 2012 in College Station, http: idhmc.tamu.edu/teiconference/program/papers#encfin; Syd Bauman, Transactionography Customized Documentation, Encoding Historical Financial Records Open Access Library, accessed October 28, 2013, http: omeka.encodinghfrs.org/items/show/5; hitepaper 2012, NEH Ref: HD-51224-11, omeka.encodinghfrs.org/items/show/4

6. eXtensible Business Reporting Language, www.xbrl.org, Global Ledger Taxonomy: www.xbrl.org/gltaxonomy

7. Manfred Thaller: What is a text within the Digital Humanities, or some of them, at least? digital humanities 2012 (Hamburg) www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/beyond-embedded-markup

8. Definition of the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model, ed. by Nick Crofts, Martin Doerr, Tony Gill, Stephen Stead, Matthew Stiff, December 2011. www.cidoc-crm.org

9. Rechnungen des Mittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit, Prototypen, ed. by Georg Vogeler, 2012ff. gams.uni-graz.at/rem

10. Geisteswissenschaftliches Asset Management System [(Humanities Asset Management System], curated by the Zentrum für Informationsmodellierung – Austrian Centre for Digital Humanities gams.uni-graz.at/context:gams/sdef:Context/get?mode=about","txt","2","",""
"2014","15","Monolith: Materialised Bits, the Digital Rosetta Film","10","Introduction
Digital storage systems are like tins. They might have some content but the only evidence are labels, captions or any kind of lettering. In addition maybe the weight of the tin could be taken to judge about its inside but still to get full assurance the tin has to be opened to be able to identify the content correctly. In order to open it an appropriate tool is necessary and another one to take something out of it, something like a fork or a spoon.

A digital storage like a hard drive behaves very similar to that but in case of magnetic recording the data is not only invisible from in and outside the storage, not even can it be detected physically by a human being. Digital data has no appearance that can be touched, we have no sense for it. 

In addition to that any bit stream stored on a data carrier needs to be migrated after a certain time to ensure accessibility and consistency because following three factors endanger the digital archiving process:

The storage media decays over time and it can fail by aging.
Hardware gets incompatible so that accessing the data becomes impossible.
File formats – technical metadata – change and develop over time. Therefore programs to interpret the file content might not be available in future.
Missing contextual metadata make any digital bit stream more or less useless. 
Migration
Each of these possibilities is a major drawback for cultural heritage preservation and each one renders data into digital waste, data that is either lost completely or without meaningful sense. Continuous migration and copy storage content in periodic intervals are today’s best practice to transform binary information into the future. Theoretically migration works very well because digital data can be copied without loss, which is one of the major advantages of any digital code like binary information or our even alphabet. The ability to copy data lossless allows not only the arbitrary replacement of the data carrier, it also allows to increase redundancy by storing multiple copies, as e.g. proposed by LOCKSS1. The down side of migration is the financial effort associated with it. Independent of the specific costs per migration, archiving is getting expensive sooner or later because of the short lifetime of the technology. In addition its dependence on numerous cascaded technologies makes it a fragile process that can cause dramatic data loss if only one of the incorporated components fails.  

Migration can be omitted if the storage media fulfills the following requirements:

It must contain human readable metadata in order to describe the archived object and it's context.
Information on how to recover the original file (the decoding manual) must be part of the metadata. This knowledge is the key to interpret the archived byte stream.
The file format must be well documented (open format) and it must be widely used to ensure its accessibility over time.   
Digital data is stored hardware independent as far as possible. Thus it is not affected by the change of technology.
If a medium claims to be suitable for long-term preservation of digital data it has to fulfill more requirements. Lunt et al.2 identified 7 characteristics, which are particularly interesting to archivists regarding preservation of digital data. The first says, there shouldn’t be active maintenance or migration required to preserve actual data. They continue with: 2) no special storage conditions are necessary to preserve the storage media; 3) a minimum lifetime of at least 100 years, preferably more should be supported; 4) no energy is required to maintain the data; 5) the media is easily transported; 6) the data format is widely adopted; 7) the medium has a large storage capacity.

Bits-on-Film Approach 
Facing those facts the Digital Humanities Lab of the University of Basel has developed a workflow for migration-less preservation of digital data on optical media called “Monolith”. It combines the advantages of photographic material and standard digital imaging technology to create a long-term migration-less archiving system. This is achieved by the hybrid characteristics of the optical carrier. Any arbitrary binary bit stream is put right besides human readable technical, structural, and contextual metadata. Original files of any appropriate format are stored on film as visual 2D-barcodes. Technically spoken every bit of the original bit stream (the file to be stored) is converted into a spot representation on film. A full bit stream then results in a two-dimensional image, an “image of bits“. In other words the logical data-bits are transformed and represented by dye or silver of photographic film. This process can be regarded as a materialization of binary data, which becomes visual and physical. Monolith has no limitation regarding the format of the file to be archived. However, the documentation of the file format must be part of the metadata and therefor it should be an open standard like the widely used PDF-A or image formats like JPEG2000 (3). Metadata can be stored binary or as human readable text information, e.g. encoded and written in letters on film as any of the well-known standards like Dublin Core, METS or others. 

This approach has various advantages: First, and most important, the bit stream on film can be read/captured by any digital camera, there is no special hardware necessary to transform the physical representation of the bits back into logical states within the computer system. This can be compared to the process of seeing. As human beings see letters – in fact digital data – the camera sees signs, spots on film – binary data; Monolith has a visual interface. The decoding of the binary bit stream is well defined because the explanation of the code is an inseparable part of the technical metadata set written on film. Like no other storage media Monolith can not only contain barcodes and text but images – e.g. thumbnails – as well. Besides its technological features the storage film has another advantage. It can be stored the same way as regular archival film. There are no special storage conditions necessary nor does the film need any specific care. Therefore, Monolith can be regarded more as an “engraved stone“ than as a data storage for computer systems. It is a “Digital Rosetta Film“. 

But is the application of optical film for archival purposes reasonable these days? Many companies stopped production high fidelity film material and very likely the quality – not stability – of film will drop in the future. For the representation of photographic images this is of course a major draw back since image quality is directly related to film quality. In case of Monolith this is irrelevant. The only function the film has to fulfill is to separate dots spatially, requirements that are achieved by most photographic materials. The quality of digital originals will not be disturbed by film quality because they are stored as binary data and therefore decay of the material has little impact. In addition any well-known error correction method can be applied. The concept of a binary representation of data is a simple but a very efficient solution and it is the reason why every computer storage system is adapting this concept4. Even if film won't be available in future, for any existing Monolith this means no impact. Not for the sustainability nor for the future ability for data recovery.

All those features show that materialized bits are not only a nice concept to mimic historic documents but also an efficient way to transport digital cultural heritage into the future5. In the presentation we will show how Monolith works and what its advantages are. 

 

 MonolithTM on 35mm color material


Fig. 1: Monolith™ includes all necessary information for future information recovery. Especially contextual metadata and the decoding manual to understand the structure of the bit-pattern.

Conclusion 
Monolith is a solution that has made its way from university to a commercial company. It shows that there is a possibility for an alternative solution for classical digital archiving, that doesn't need to be migrated. The advantages are not only of technical but also of economical nature. Even if costs for plain storage media decrease with time, total costs of ownership for archived digital data increased in the last years continuously and migration is the primary costs driver of archiving. Therefore Monolith can not only be an answer for technological but also for economical challenges on the way of digital information to the future.

References
1. Vicky Reich & David S.H. Rosenthal.LOCKSS (Lots Of Copies Keep Stuff Safe), Presented at Preservation 2000: An International Conference on the Preservation and Long Term Accessibility of Digital Materials, December 7-8, 2000, York, England. Also published in The New Review of Academic Librarianship, vol. 6, no. 1, 2000, pp. 155-161. doi:10.1080/13614530009516806

2. Barry M. Lunt, Matthew R. Linford, Robert Davies (2012), Research on Another Permanent Data Storage Solution, Proc. Archiving 2012, IS&T, pg. 19-21

A list of file formats suited for archiving can be found at www.kost-ceco.ch/wiki/whelp/KaD/index.php.

4. Shaw Rodney, Selected Reading in Image Evaluation, SPSE, ISBN 0-89208-085-X

5. Florian Müller, Peter Fornaro, Lukas Rosenthaler, Rudolf Gschwind (2010) PEVIAR: Digital Originals, ACM Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, Volume 3, Issue 1. ACM 2010","txt","2","",""
"2015","15","Mountains of Text. Analyzing Alpine Literature from the AAC","2","The AAC-Austrian Academy Corpus has already collected and is in the next phase of its development going to collect a considerable number of alpine texts of various kinds from the time between 1848 and 1989. This poster will present a research initiative where the AAC will integrate alpine texts for corpus linguistic research of such a thematic subcorpus, in which the discourse about mountains, that is determined by historical, sociological, cultural and other factors, can be analyzed from various perspectives. Alpine club yearbooks, literature, journals and other related heritage documents will be prepared for analysis. The AAC Alpine collections will follow to some extent the Swiss sister project “textberg.ch”, but with a somehow different research perspective modelled according to the AAC principles. The AAC is a German language corpus of texts from various linguistic domains with around 500 million tokens, operated by the Institute for Corpus Linguistics and Text Technology at the Austrian Academy of Sciences. The question is how corpus research methods based upon a multidisciplinary combination of corpus linguistic and cultural studies can be applied to gain insights into the textual representations of historical collections, in particular alpine texts. “Quantitative corpus linguistics has proofed to be a valuable technique in many domains of philological, sociological and historical research. The digitized and linguistically annotated corpus is therefore an interesting source for studies in many fields and facilitates the investigation of changing patterns of language use, and how these reflect underlying cultural shifts.” (Volk, M. et al.: “Challenges in building a multilingual alpine heritage corpus”, LREC 2010)

The AAC will go beyond a quantitative approach and integrate text studies into its research. The methodology of corpus based text research is determined by corpus linguistic, lexicographic and analytical procedures. The language in significant alpine texts of certain historical periods will be of interest. The historical condition of Austria during the Habsburg monarchy with its cultural and linguistic diversity and the situation at the time of National socialism have to be taken into consideration as historical changes with significant influences on the language.

A special emphasis will be given to the culturally productive relation between the metropolis Vienna and its surrounding alpine regions. The Alpine Regions as cultural topographies are if one considers only the places and place names objects of interest and points of interest worth being investigated by means of a critical analysis. In the texts the place names and the thematic complexes associated with the various places are substantial elements. These places of interest are constituted in the texts as places with a particular language, with particular vernaculars, with particular styles, of typical modes of speaking, of typical cultural settings, with typical protagonists and so on. In this study they will also be treated in comparison with other highly important places, such as Alpine regions outside Austria as well as with Vienna, and so on. In this paper special emphasis will be given to issues of textual representation in connection with linguistic transformation in a broad sense. Investigations into the use of – to give just one example of the research potential – typical idiomatic expressions, into the properties of multi word units in metaphorical constructions of alpine origin, and into fixed forms in particular can be considered as investigations into the properties of figurative language units in general. The analysis of such constructions can be modelled with the help of new methods making use of digitally available sources and techniques. The exemplary online editions of „AAC-FACKEL“ and “Brenner online” of the Innsbruck based journal offer fully searchable databases of the journals with various indexes and search tools in a web interface, where all pages of the original are available as fully searchable digital texts and as facsimile images, all equipped with various indexes and search tools based upon corpus linguistic research parameters.

References
AAC-Austrian Academy Corpus: AAC- FACKEL. Online Version: ""Die Fackel. Herausgeber: Karl Kraus, Wien 1899-1936"". AAC Digital Edition No 1, (Editors-in-chief: Hanno Biber, Evelyn Breiteneder, Heinrich Kabas, Karlheinz Mörth; Graphic Design: Anne Burdick) www.aac.ac.at/fackel.

AAC-Austrian Academy Corpus und Brenner- Archiv: Brenner Online. Online Version: Der Brenner. Herausgeber: Ludwig Ficker, Innsbruck 1910-1954"". AAC Digital Edition No 2, (Editors-in-chief: Hanno Biber, Evelyn Breiteneder, Heinrich Kabas, Karlheinz Mörth; Graphic Design: Anne Burdick) www.aac.ac.at/brenner.

Biber, H. (2009). Hundreds of Examples of Figurative Language from the AAC-Austrian Academy Corpus. In Corpus-Based Approaches to Figurative Language. A Corpus Linguistics 2009 Colloquium, pages 13-20, University of Birmingham, Cognitive Science Research Papers 09-01.

Dobrovol'skij D., Piirainen E. (2005). Figurative Language: Cross-cultural and Cross-linguistic Perspectives (Current Research in Semantics, vol. 13). Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Volk, M. et al. (2010): “Challenges in building a multilingual alpine heritage corpus”, LREC 2010

Volk, M. et al. (2009): “Classifying Named Entities in an Alpine Heritage Corpus”. Künstliche Intelligenz, 4/2009, S. 40–43.","txt","2","",""
"2016","15","National Data Curation and Service Center for Digital Research Data in the Humanities","10","For quite a few years the long-term preservation of digital data and resources  has been an ongoing topic within the IT-industry and archiving community. While the OAIS reference model offers a very reasonable framework for long-term archival of digital data such as digitized images, sound or text documents, the archival of highly structured digital data such as databases still poses a lot of problems. Flattening databases to XML text files has been used successfully to archive the contents of relational databases (RDBMS) 1 2 3 . However this method reduces the accessibility, since the XML-files have usually to be read back into a RDBMS to be used. Todays best practice to keep the usability of structured data as high as possible is to migrate data repositories and it’s software environment (user interfaces , analytical tools etc.) to new technology to ensure its accessibility 4 . Yet, replacing obsolete hardware and software infrastructure is an ongoing labor-intensive process that requires continuous financial effort. In addition, given that online research data is usually constantly being modified to reflect new findings and thus is changing dynamically, referencing it (e.g. for citations) is not straight forward.

Despite these difficulties, the use of digital research data including databases has become very common in humanities. At the same time, the term itself of “data” is not sufficient to describe the resources used and produced by the humanist researchers: collections of digital data, digitized manuscripts, collections of digitized photographs and metadata related to it, as well as new digital resources and objects produced in the digital cultural framework. As long as project funding is available, many of these digital sources are made available to the research community. However, after the funding ceases, most of these digital sources will remain accessible only as long as the hardware and software remains in working order. After some time – typically some years – most data will go offline because of lack of maintenance. Thus, most of the digital sources created within research projects will have a rather short lifetime and are no longer available for the research community after some time. However, these digital sources are a valuable base for possible new projects but it's sustainability is not ensured due to missing fundings.

Given this disappointing situation, the Swiss Academy of Humanities and Social Sciences (SAHSS) - on the behalf of the State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI) - has launched a project to address this situation in the national context of Switzerland. The Digital Humanities Lab of the University of Basel (DHLab) in conjunction with the Universities of Lausanne (Ladhul) and Bern, in association with the Swiss National Archives, participated in a tender and have received the task to establish a solution. In a first two years period, a pilot for a ""National curation and service center for digital data in Humanities"" (DCSC) will be established. Using several test cases of different sizes and complexity from different disciplines, the methods and processes, legal aspects, infrastructure needs, and last but not least, the cost and expenses, have to be evaluated. The proposed DCSC is based on the following premises:

Preserving software in a useable and working condition is still a very difficult task, as illustrated by the recent meeting “Preserving.exe: Toward a National Strategy for Preserving Software” by the American Library of Congress 5 . Thus it would be to difficult and costly to maintain a multitude of different systems for a long time. Emulation of obsolete hard- and software as proposed by R. A Lorie 6 is also very difficult and has its share of problems (for example see 7). Therefore the different digital sources or databases have to be integrated into a minimal number of hard- and software infrastructures. Ideally, only one hard- and software system has to be maintained.
In a first phase the adoption of existing data sources of research projects at or beyond the end of funding will be dominant. In a second step the goal must be that researchers of ongoing or future research projects are escorted through the creation and use of digital sources in order to facilitate the accessibility of the data after the end of funding.
For the exchange with other platforms and infrastructures, the DCSC implements interfaces for import, export and querying of information (as far as not restricted by  legal constraints such as copyright issues and/or protection of personal rights). The adopted digital sources must be accessible through a powerful user interface for search/analysis,  a RESTful web-service or as SPARQL-endpoint in order to integrate the data into other research projects and/or databases. 
The DCSC should encourage new research models in order to allow for optimial use of digital sources and to propose efficient training modules and support for all the new research projects funded by the Swiss National Science Fundation.
International contacts are a key-point for this center, in order prepare Swiss digital Humanities research to be interrelated to international research.
Given the nature of research in humanities, we expect data sources the DCSC has to deal with to be very heterogeneous and consisting mostly of qualitative data (which is possibly linked to digitized objects). We have chosen to use the virtual research environment SALSAH 89 as a technical platform for consolidation of different data sources. SALSAH is RDF/RDFS-based and thus well suited to emulate the basic functionality of RDBMS's, simple databases such as MS-Access, FileMaker etc. SALSAH is currently actively developed by the DHLab.


Fig. 1: The webinterface of SALSAH implements a desktop metaphor within the webbrowser window in order to work with multiple sources simultaneously.


Fig. 2: SALSAH allows a dynamic visualization of the graph-like structure of the RDF-representation of the data.

Within a research project funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation SALSAH is currently being extended with several new important features (expected in 2015):

a ""time machine"" which will allow digital objects to be referenced by permalinks which include the time of referencing. Thus such a permalink will always show the digital object in the state it had at the time being referenced. These permalinks will add true ""citability"" to the SALSAH environment.
SALSAH, which is currently organized as a (technically) centralized system, will be transformed into distributed, self-organizing P2P system. At the same time, an archival system based on DISTARNET 10 will be added to SALSAH to secure the against data loss du to catastrophic events like hardware failure, flooding, fire etc.at any SALSAH location. DISTARENT also uses P2P technology to maintain redundant multiple backups of the data within the network.
Within the DCSC project, SALSAH will be extended to support ""open data""-standards 11  for access and ""linked data"" 12 . However, open access may be restricted by legal reasons (copyright, privacy etc.). SALSAH includes a fine-grained identity and rights management.
SALSAH will be continuously enhanced according to the needs of the researchers using the platform. It is planned to move SALSAH to ""open source"" by the end of 2014.

The main tasks of the DCSC will be threefold:

Maintaining the technological infrastructure and adapting it to the needs of the researchers and changing technology. This task will be located in Basel during the pilot phase, but since SALSAH will become an open source project, other institutions and individuals may contribute to the SALSAH base. However, in our experience open source projects need a powerful ""coordinating institution"" in order to be successful. The DHLab will be available to play this role.
Assistance to the researchers. In Humanities many researchers working with digital sources do not have the technical knowledge to fully exploit the advantages of the digital processes. The DCSC will support the researchers to use digital methods and tools in the best possible way for their research, and encouraging training and education.
To create a report with recommendations on how to proceed and transfer the pilot project into a permanent institution.
It has to be noted that the projects funding goes way beyond a ""normal“ scientific project funding and shows the strong commitment of all involved parties (SAHSS, SERI, Swiss National Science Foundation) to define a persistent national data curation and service center for digital research data in the humanities. The team composited of the University of Basel, Bern and Lausanne and the National Archives demonstrates that as well. The project pilot phase is financed by the SAHSS and the SERI. Since Switzerland is a multilingual nation with a highly federalistic structure, we decided to create the DCSC as a ""virtual"" center where the technological infrastructure currently will be located and maintained in Basel, but all the other tasks will be performed by local ""branch offices"" which are very close to the researches; during the pilot step, Lausanne and Bern are testing this “branch office” or “satellite” model. As soon as SALSAH has the P2P functionality implemented, also the technical infrastructure may be distributed if necessary or desired. Given the DISTARNET archival system, the data is secured against loss without the necessity of the local branches to build an expensive and complicated backup infrastructure.

References
1.  SIARD of the National Archives of Switzerland, www.bar.admin.ch/dienstleistungen/00823/00825/index.html?lang=en

2.  XENA of the National Archives of Australia, xena.sourceforge.net

3.  kopal/koLibRi of the german Kopal-project, kopal.langzeitarchivierung.de/index_koLibRI.php.en

4. The Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (2012): Reference Model for an Open Archival Information System (OAIS) - recommended Practice, CCSDS Secretariat, Space Communication and Navigation Office, 7L70, Space Operation Mission Directorate, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC 20546-001, USA

5. Preserving.exe: Toward a National Strategy for Preserving Software, May 20-21, 2013, Library of Congress, Washington DC, see also www.digitalpreservation.gov/meetings/documents/othermeetings/preservingsoftware2013/Preserving_Exe_Agenda.pdf

6. Lorie R. A. (2001). Long term preservation of digital information. Proceedings of the 1st ACM/IEEE-CS joint conference on Digital libraries, Roanoke, Virginia, United States. 24–28 June 2001. New York, NY: Association of Computing Machinery. pp. 346-352 doi:10.1145/379437.379726

7. Feng Luan, Mads Nygard, Thomas Mesti (2010), A survey of digital preservation strategies, World Digital Libraries, Vol3 (2), IOS Press

8. See www.salsah.org for the generic entry point, www.salsah.org/dokubib for an (simplified) entrypoint for the Documentation Library of St. Moritz, and www.salsah.org/kuhaba for the Kunsthalle Basel.

9. Lukas Rosenthaler (2012), Virtual Research Environments. A New Approach for Dealing with Digitized Sources in Research in Arts and Humanities”, in: Claire Clivaz u.a. (HG.): “Reading Tomorrow. From Ancient Manuscripts to the Digital Era”, Lausanne 2012, S. 661-670, Ebook on www.ppur.info/lire-demain.html

10. Ivan Subotic, Lukas Rosenthaler and Heiko Schuldt, A Distributed Archival Network for Process-Oriented Autonomic Long-Term Digital Preservation, ACM Proceedings of the Joint Conference On Digital Libraries, ACM New York (2013), pp 29-38

11. See Open Knowledge Foundation, okfn.org

12.  See linkeddata.org","txt","2","",""
"2017","15","Navigating the Storm: eMOP, Big DH Projects, and Agile Steering Standards","10","Introduction
In 2011, the Comite de Sages presented “The New Renaissance” to the European commision, stating that “digiti[z]ation is more than a technical option, it is a moral obligation” to the public. The report stresses that the initiative’s goal is to ensure that we “experience a digital Renaissance instead of entering into a digital dark age.” If the lack of adequate, searchable early-modern digital resources can be correctly referred to as a “digital dark age,” then we are undoubtedly seeing the emergence of a “digital renaissance.1” Projects like IMPACT (Improving Access to Text2), eMOP (Early Modern OCR Project), TCP (Text Creation Partnership), and others have emerged in recent years to take up the call to arms issued by the Comite de Sages. However, we need more than the digitization of cultural materials; we need responsible digitization alongside a community engaged in the fight for digital visibility of those materials. And, most importantly, large DH projects need effective and responsible management and collaboration standards. The aim is to adapt and adjust to the changing climate, ultimately steering the project safely into the harbor.

Overview
Many OCR (Optical Character Recognition) and cultural preservation projects are underway that need to be able to adapt their project plans to OCR technology and crowd-sourcing breakthroughs as they occur. In Fall 2012, the Initiative for Digital Humanities, Media, and Culture at Texas A&M University received a $734,000 grant from the Mellon foundation for the Early Modern OCR Project (eMOP)3. eMOP’s objective is to make machine readable, or improve the readability for, 45 million pages of text from two major proprietary databases: Eighteenth Century Collections Online (ECCO) and Early English Books Online (EEBO). Generally, eMOP intends to improve the visibility of early modern texts by making their contents fully searchable. The current paradigm of searching special collections for early modern materials by either metadata alone or “dirty” OCR is inefficient for scholarly research (Mandell, 20134). We intend to publish an open source OCR workflow at grant end in Taverna. This workflow will contain access to an early modern font database, customization guidelines for the Tesseract OCR engine, post-processing and diagnostic algorithms, and crowdsourcing and “scholar-sourcing” (as Brian Geiger has dubbed) correction tools. But the overarching goal of eMOP, a project that blends book history5, digital humanities, textual analysis, and machine learning, is ultimately to foster a community of scholars and institutions interested in the digital preservation of, and access to, these texts. To this end, eMOP has assembled an international team of collaborators from multiple disciplines.

eMOP, however, has faced problems in the implementation of our goals and processes. During Year One, the eMOP team and collaborators quickly realized that the grant document excellently outlined milestones and goals, but it did not provide the level of granularity needed to complete each. We have also realized that progress is continually changing in this field, and if big DH projects do not adjust accordingly, they will end up reinventing the wheel. Active outreach and collaboration with institutions outside the initial grant collaborators proved important. In addition, eMOP is working with proprietary page images and metadata in order to release an open source tool, which has produced its own challenges. In order to succeed in producing a corpus of machine-readable texts and a workflow for future OCR projects, continual outreach and collaboration is needed, yet not always possible due to the restrictions of grant deadlines, funding, and other institutional roadblocks.

Getting Started
This panel considers how big DH projects, with big datasets, big networks of collaborators, and big goals, can adjust and adapt to change. It has long been noted that digital humanities projects lend themselves well to agile6 development models7, specifically the “the philosophy of ‘releasing early and often‘” (Scheinfeldt, 20108). However, these models often break down in the face of multi-institutional and international collaboration, software development, assembling large amounts of data, and what James Smithies and enterprise IT call “transition management,” or planning for “Change” (20119). A digital humanities project, large or small, also “seems to both depend upon collaboration and aim to support it” (Spiro, 200910). Each big DH project must find a practical balance in development management and collaboration methods.

This panel will bring together the eMOP management team at the IDHMC and collaborators from various disciplines and institutions to discuss the reasons why big DH projects need to plan for adaptation, ways in which projects can achieve this flexibility, and how to swiftly change directions.

If eMOP’s goal reflects of the goal of digital humanities at large, i.e. to foster collaboration among various disciplines and cultivate inter-institutional and international relationships that make possible new kinds of humanities research, then this panel provides a microcosm of that endeavor.

Panel Organization
This panel will consist of a brief 5 minute overview of the goals of, methodologies for, and collaborators in the Early Modern OCR Project, and then each speaker will introduce a major directional change or challenge that eMOP has faced, including the resulting solution in 7 minutes or less. Introductions to challenges may include comparisons to other large dh projects (e.g. IMPACT). Discussion of the resulting solution may include a short software/tool demo. The panel organizers will then pose questions to the roundtable to begin an open conversation, leaving the remaining time for discussion amongst panelists and the audience. Discussion will likely focus on how to change directions, rethink decisions, and reconfigure plans when collaborating with multiple institutions and individuals while facing grant deadlines and milestones.

Questions that Panel Organizers may pose:
Discuss future models of big DH project management, especially how essential multi-institution and international collaboration can be.
What can big DH projects learn from the agile vs. traditional software development models?
Discuss best practices in project management, and how they might be modified in order to take in recent technological innovations or respond to challenges.
We know that “failure” (Unsworth, 199711) is important: how can small failures be channeled into big success?
What kinds of cultural practices need to be taken into account when U.S. projects adopt European models, and vice versa?
How can transatlantic collaboration best be orchestrated so that projects benefits from collaborators’ advancements, both technological and social?
Participants
All panelists are committed and eagerly anticipating the discussion of eMOP, large DH projects, and successful and responsible collaboration and development management. 

Apostolos Antonacopoulos is the Director of the Pattern Recognition and Image Analysis (PRImA) research lab at the University of Salford, UK. Dr. Antonacopoulos has been working on issues of pattern recognition, image and document analysis, and historical document digital restoration for many years. In addition to eMOP, he has contributed to the IMPACT and Europeana Newspaper projects, and will discuss how the adoption and customization of software for large cultural preservation projects should be responsive to changing project needs.
Loretta Auvil works at the Illinois Informatics Institute (I3) at the University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign. She has worked with a diverse set of application drivers to integrate machine learning and information visualization techniques to solve the needs of research partners. Prior to working for I3, she spent many years at NCSA on machine learning and information visualization projects and several years creating tools for visualizing performance data of parallel computer programs at Rome Laboratory and Oak Ridge National Laboratory. She will be discussing big DH projects from the perspective of these experiences and her work with eMOP.
Liz Grumbach is Project Manager for the Advanced Research Consortium (ARC) and IDHMC “alt-ac” Research Staff. She is Co-Project Manager for eMOP (Year Two), and will briefly introduce the project (goals and methodologies). She will also end the panel by comparing the current workflow for the eMOP OCRing process with the proposed OCR workflow contained in the grant, summing up the overall changes that each collaborator’s contribution shaped.
Laura Mandell is Professor of English and Director of the IDHMC at Texas A&M University. In addition to being the Lead PI for eMOP, Dr. Mandell previously received a Mellon grant (2010) to investigate how effective the open-source OCR engine Gamera could be trained to read early modern fonts. She will introduce the data management challenges eMOP has faced, demonstrating software and tool solutions created by eMOP graduate students and staff.
Clemens Neudecker serves as Technical Coordinator in the Research section of the Innovation & Development Department of the KB National Library of the Netherlands. He has been working in numerous large-scale national and international digitization / digital humanities projects since the early 2000’s, with a particular focus on OCR (www.impact-project.eu) and scalable workflows (www.scape-project.eu), and will be discussing how this previous knowledge aided the eMOP team.
Todd Samuelson is Assistant Professor at Texas A&M University and the Curator of Rare Books & Manuscripts at Cushing Memorial Library & Archives. Dr. Samuelson is the book history consultant for eMOP. He will discuss font history research roadblocks and demonstrate font creation and identification tools created by eMOP collaborators to solve these issues.
Panel Organizers:
Matthew Christy, Lead Software Applications Developer for the IDHMC and Co-Project Manager for eMOP (Year Two)

Liz Grumbach, IDHMC “alt-ac” Research Staff and Co-Project Manager for eMOP (Year Two)

References
1. European Commission: The Comité des Sages. The New Renaissance: Report of the comité des sages on bringing Europe’s cultural heritage online. By Elizabeth Niggemann, et al. 10 Jan 2011.

2. IMPACT. Annual Report: Project Periodic Report. Netherlands: IMPACT, 2011. Improving Access to Text. 9 Dec 2011. www.impact-project.eu/uploads/media/IMPACT_Annual_report_2011_Publishable_summary_01.pdf. 29 Oct 2013.

3. Mandell, Laura.Mellon Foundation Grant Proposal: ""OCR'ing Early Modern Texts."" Grant Proposal. 30 Jun 2012.

4. Mandell, Laura. (2013) Digitizing the Archive: The Necessity of an 'Early Modern' Period. Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies 13.2: 83-92.

5. Heil, Jacob and Todd Samuelson. (2013) Book History in the Early Modern OCR Project, or, Bringing Balance to the Force. Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies 13.4 (2013): 90-103. Web. 30 Oct 2013.

6. Beck, Kent, et al.Manifesto for Agile Software Development. Agile Alliance. 30 Oct 2013.

7. Martin, Robert Cecil (2003). Agile Software Development: Principles, Patterns, and Practices. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

8. Scheinfeldt, Tom.Stuff Digital Humanists Like: Defining Digital Humanities by its Values. Found History. 2 Dec 2010. www.foundhistory.org/2010/12/02/stuff-digital-humanists-like . 30 Oct 2013.

9. Smithies, James (2011). A View from IT. Digital Humanities Quarterly 5.3. Web. 30 Oct 2013.

10. Spiro, Lisa. Examples of Collaborative Digital Humanities Projects. Digital Scholarship in the Humanities. 1 Jun 2009. digitalscholarship.wordpress.com/2009/06/01/examples-of-collaborative-digital-humanities-project.. 30 Oct 2013.

11. Unsworth, John.Documenting the Reinvention of Text: The Importance of Failure. The Journal of Electronic Publishing 3.2 (1997). Web. 30 Oct 2013.","txt","2","",""
"2018","15","Network Analysis for the History of Religions - The SeNeReKo project","2","The SeNeReKo project is a joint research project of the Center for Religious Studies (Bochum, Germany) and the Center for Digital Humanities (Trier, Germany), funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. The project develops methods for the application of network analysis as a tool for the study of historical religious texts. Informed by theoretical approaches in the study of religion which stress the importance of interreligious contacts for the formation and development of religious traditions, concepts from network theory are used in order to analyse the context and interdependence of religious actors and concepts. Religious traditions are seen as developing face to face of each other, developing their own meaning systems by at the same time recognising and rejecting – or adopting and transforming – meaning systems of “others”.1 The relational framework of network analysis is taken as a methodological tool to operationalise such approaches.

The analytical process consists of two steps: Firstly, networks have to be created on the basis of the textual sources by identifying nodes and their relations. In contrast to applications of network analysis that are only interested in the relations of (historical or literary) social actors,2 the project also takes semantic structures into account. During the first step, methods from computational linguistics (e.g. part-of-speech tagging, lemmatisation, syntax parsing, anaphora resolution) are applied in order to identify relevant terms (nodes) and their relations (edges). Since such tools are not available for the target languages, existing state-of-the-art tools are adapted for these tasks. Building on these linguistic annotations, networks of words (terms/lemmas) are created. For this purpose, a set of tools is built, implementing several existing and newly developed network creation algorithms.3 These tools are compatible to the CLARIN WebLicht infrastructure, using TCF as their data exchange format, and ISOcat for handling linguistic tag sets. They will be made available under an open source license.

Secondly, the resulting networks are analysed using methods from network analysis. During this step, centrality measures and clustering algorithms are applied in order to discover semantic structures.4 Results of these analytical methods are compared to other approaches like Topic Modelling.5

Two independent corpora are used as separate test cases for the development and application of the methodological approach: The Buddhist Pali Canon and a selection of ancient egyptian texts. These diverse corpora are used as a test bed for the development and application of language independent analytical tools. These corpora are available only in project specific formats. In order to have a generic starting point for analysis, they are converted to TEI compliant XML.

The Pali Canon is a huge collection of Buddhist texts in the middle Indic language Pali. It has been composed around the Common Era in Northern India and Sri Lanka and is nowadays available in a digital version.6 The Canon contains a lot of narratives in which the Buddhist authors depict the Buddha and his followers in relation to competing religious groups or individuals. Therefore the Pali Canon is a rich source for the analysis of interreligious dynamics in ancient South Asia. As the Canon is too huge for manual analysis, computational analysis is needed to get a clear picture of the social-semantic structures inherent in these narratives.

The database Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae7 represents an annotated selection of ancient Egyptian texts from different genres and periods. In our case it is used to analyse religious dynamics in the history of Ancient Egypt. An application of network analysis shall open up another perspective for an interpretation of interreligious contacts between Egypt and for instance the Near East. For this purpose the relations between actors,and between actors and concepts are extracted from syntactic and semantic structures.

The project contributes to the development of new analytical tools for the humanities. These should be of use for further research beyond the project. At the same time, significant results are expected for the fields of Egyptology, Indology, and the study of religions. Building on past digitisation efforts, the project allows for new insights based on the computational analysis of the corpora, complementing conventional hermeneutic approaches.

References
1. cf. Krech, Volkhard. (2012). Religious Contacts in Past and Present Times: Aspects of a Research Programme. Religion 42 (2): 191–213. doi:10.1080/0048721X.2012.642572.

2. cf. Gramsch, Robert. (2013). Das Reich als Netzwerk der Fürsten: politische Strukturen unter dem Doppelkönigtum Friedrichs II. und Heinrichs (VII.) 1225-1235.

3. cf. Biemann, Christian, Stefan Bordag, Gerhard Heyer, Uwe Quasthoff, and Christian Wolff. (2004). Language-Independent Methods for Compiling Monolingual Lexical Data. In Computational Linguistics and Intelligent Text Processing, edited by Alexander Gelbukh, 217–28. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 2945. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-540-24630-5_27. Ferrer i Cancho, Ramon, Ricard V. Solé, and Reinhard Köhler. 2004. “Patterns in Syntactic Dependency Networks.” Physical Review E 69 (5): 051915. Ferrer2004. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.69.051915. Paranyushkin, Dmitry. 2011. “Identifying the Pathways for Meaning Circulation Using Text Network Analysis”. Nodus Labs. noduslabs.com/research/pathways-meaning-circulation-text-network-analysis/.

4. cf. Dorow, Beate, and Dominic Widdows. (2003). Discovering Corpus-Specific Word Senses. In Proceedings of the Tenth Conference on European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics - Volume 2, 79–82. EACL ’03. Stroudsburg, PA, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics. doi:10.3115/1067737.1067753. dx.doi.org/10.3115/1067737.1067753.

5. cf. Blei, David M., Andrew Y. Ng, and Michael I. Jordan. (2003). Latent Dirichlet Allocation. J. Mach. Learn. Res. 3: 993–1022.

6. tipitaka.org

7. aaew.bbaw.de/tla","txt","2","",""
"2019","15","Neue Möglichkeiten der Arbeit mit strukturierten Sprachressourcen in den Digital Humanities mithilfe von Data-Mining","2","1. Projekthintergrund: Ziele, Methoden, Ressourcen
Strukturierte Sprachressourcen (annotierte Textkorpora, Baumbanken, Wortnetze) bieten neuartige und attraktive Möglichkeiten, linguistische Fragestellungen an authentischen Sprachverwendungsdaten zu untersuchen und quantitativ auszuwerten (vgl. z.B. McEnery et al. 2006, Lüdeling & Kytö 2008/2009). Infrastrukturprojekte wie CLARIN bieten flexible Werkzeuge an, um aus diesen Ressourcen Daten zu gewinnen und auszuwerten. Für sehr viele linguistische Forschungsfragen müssen die automatisch gewonnenen Ergebnisse allerdings noch weiter bearbeitet werden – gerade wenn die Anwender nicht selbst Softwarelösungen für die Datenauswertung entwickeln können, sehen sie sich mit zeitaufwändigen, manuellen Routinearbeiten konfrontiert. Im Verbundprojekt Korpus-basierte linguistische Recherche und Analyse mit Hilfe von Data-Mining (KobRA) arbeiten Partner aus Informatik, Linguistik und Sprachtechnologie gemeinsam daran, die quantitative Auswertung strukturierter Sprachdaten zu verbessern und zu beschleunigen. Dazu werden im Rahmen korpusbasierter linguistischer Studien, die mit konkreten Forschungsaktivitäten der Projektbeteiligten in Verbindung stehen, Data-Mining-Verfahren (insbesondere Lernverfahren) im Zusammenspiel mit vorhandenen Sprachressourcen erprobt und angepasst. Die Verfahren operieren auf den Suchtrefferlisten bzw. auf großen Korpora und gehen über die reine Suche hinaus, indem sie die Suchergebnisse filtern, sortieren oder strukturieren sowie ggf. die weitere Aufbereitung der Daten für eine konkrete Fragestellung erleichtern. In unserem Vortrag stellen wir den Ansatz des Projekts vor (Abschnitt 2) und berichten über erste Ergebnisse (Abschnitte 3 und 4).

2. Projektarchitektur
Die Data-Mining-Verfahren des Projekts setzen auf der Infrastruktur der Sprachtechnologie-Partner auf. Es gibt einerseits eine Schnittstelle zu den linguistischen Anwendern und andererseits eine interne Schnittstelle zwischen der Data-Mining-Komponente und der Infrastruktur. Das Schaubild in Abbildung 1 verdeutlicht diese Verzahnung.


Fig. 1: Verzahnung und Schnittstellen zwischen den Projektkomponenten

Einige der im Projekt zu entwickelnden Lernverfahren werden direkt auf den Ergebnislisten (inkl. Annotationen und Metadaten) der von der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, dem Institut für deutsche Sprache (Mannheim) und dem Seminar für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Tübingen bereitgestellten Sprachressourcen ausgeführt. Andere Verfahren operieren an der Schnittstelle zwischen der Data-Mining-Komponente und der Korpusinfrastruktur.

Zum Einsatz kommen bislang Verfahren der Klassifikation (z.B. Stützvektormethode (SVM), vgl. Joachims 2002) und des Clusterings (v.a. Topic Models, z.B. Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), vgl. Blei et al. 2003; Tomanek & Morik 2011), die die automatische Bereinigung und Disambiguierung bzw. Klassifikation von Treffern (ggf. auf Basis einer möglichst geringen Menge intellektuell analysierter Treffer, z.B. mithilfe von Active Learning, vgl. Tomanek 2010, Tomanek & Morik 2011) ermöglichen. Um die Nutzer bei der Exploration verschiedener strukturierter Datenbestände zu unterstützen, werden auch innovative Formen der Visualisierung für typische sprachbezogene Forschungsfragen erprobt.

3. Fallstudien zu den Bereichen Lexikographie und Diachronische Sprachforschung
Erste Ergebnisse zum Nutzen von Data-Mining-Verfahren für konkrete korpusbasierte Forschungsvorhaben liegen bereits vor. Im Einzelnen wurden Verfahren für folgende Vorhaben angepasst und evaluiert: 

a) Studien zu deutschen Stützverbgefügen.

b) Studien zur korpusgestützten lexikographischen Beschreibung von Wörtern mit mehreren Lesarten.

Ad a) Stützverbgefüge sind Konstruktionen aus einem prädikativen Nomen und einem semantisch blassen Stützverb wie z.B. Anwendung findenoderzur Anwendung kommen. Im Rahmen eines Forschungsprojekts der Dortmunder Projektleiterin zur diachronen Entwicklung und Textsortenspezifik von Stützverbgefügen wurden erstmals große Korpusbestände aus unterschiedlichen Textsortenbereichen untersucht (vgl. Storrer 2013a). Weil die formbasierte Suche in den Korpora bislang keine Möglichkeit bietet, automatisch zwischen Vollverb- (etw. finden) oder Stützverbverwendungen (Anwendung/Beachtungfinden) zu unterscheiden, mussten die ermittelten Suchtreffer manuell-intellektuell analysiert werden. Die dabei entstandenen annotierten Daten wurden im KobRA-Projekt genutzt, um ein automatisches Klassifikationsverfahren für Stützverben zu lernen. Bisher wurden SVM-basierte Klassifikationsverfahren (Stützvektormethode, vgl. Joachims 2002; als Merkmale wurden Kontextwörter und syntaktische Strukturen berücksichtigt) evaluiert, die aktuell auf Trefferlisten aus dem DWDS-Kernkorpus des 20. Jh. abhängig von Verb und Textsortenbereich eine Genauigkeit (Precision) von zwischen 70 und 87% sowie eine Ausbeute (Recall) von zwischen 36 und 80% erreichen. An einer Verbesserung der Ausbeute wird derzeit noch gearbeitet. Die Klassifikationsverfahren werden für den korpusgestützten Aufbau eines Wikis zu deutschen Stützverbgefügen genutzt.

Ad b) Ausgangspunkt für die Studien zur korpusgestützten lexikographischen Beschreibung von Wörtern mit mehreren Lesarten ist das Problem, dass strukturierte Sprachressourcen momentan noch nicht in semantisch disambiguierter Form vorliegen. Automatische Frequenzerhebungen beziehen sich deshalb immer nur auf Formeinheiten; für die lexikographische Arbeit ist man aber gerade auch an den Frequenzen zu einzelnen Lesarten homographer bzw. polysemer Wörter interessiert (z.B. für das Wort Leiter: Sprossenstiege, Tonfolge, Verantwortlicher/Vorstehender, Energie übertragender Stoff). Um Wörter wie Leiter adäquat beschreiben zu können, müssen korpusbasiert arbeitende Lexikographen bislang sämtliche Treffer zu einem Suchwort sichten (für Leiter: 6895 Treffer im DWDS-Kernkorpus des 20. Jh.); Werkzeuge zur automatischen Disambiguierung wären deshalb sehr hilfreich. Sie könnten auch statistische Analyse- und Visualisierungswerkzeuge verbessern (z.B. Kookkurrenzanalysen, Wortverlaufsdiagramme), die bislang ebenfalls nicht zwischen Lesarten differenzieren. Aus diesem Grund werden im KobRA-Projekt Clusteringverfahren zur Partitionierung von Suchtrefferlisten nach Lesarten eines gesuchten Wortes evaluiert und angepasst. Beim Clustering von Trefferlisten aus dem DWDS-Kernkorpus des 20. Jh. zu den Wörtern Leiter und zeitnah(zeitgenössisch, zeitkritisch vs. unverzüglich) mithilfe von LDA-Topic-Models (vgl. Blei et al. 2003) konnten bislang F1-Werte (gleich gewichtetes Mittel zwischen Genauigkeit (Precision) und Ausbeute (Recall)) zwischen 74 und 78% erreicht werden. Dabei wurde die Partitionierung zunächst lediglich auf Basis der Kontextwörter (Bags-of-Words) vorgenommen. Aktuell wird auch der Nutzen weiterer Merkmale (Wortarten, Syntax, Textsorte, Erscheinungsdatum) erprobt.

4. Fallstudien zum Bereich Varietätenlinguistik / Internetbasierte Kommunikation
Die Kommunikation auf der Grundlage internetbasierter Kommunikationstechnologien und sozialer Medien stellt ein wichtiges neues Teilgebiet der Digital Humanities dar. Bei der interpersonalen Kommunikation in Genres wie Online-Foren, Weblogs, Chats, Twitter oder sozialen Netzwerken finden sich Produkte schriftlicher Sprachverwendung, deren sprachliche Gestaltung an den Bedingungen dialogischer Kommunikation im sozialen Nähebereich orientiert ist. Typische Merkmale der interaktionsorientierten Schreibhaltung (Storrer 2013b), auf die die Orientierung an der Mündlichkeit in der schriftlichen internetbasierten Kommunikation (IBK) zurückgeführt werden kann, sind u.a. Phänomene geschriebener Umgangssprache wie etwa Verschmelzungs-/Allegroformen (haste, biste, willste, machstes, isses, aufm, aufn), Schwa-Elisionen (ich schreib, ich mach, ich sag), die Verwendung umgangssprachlicher Lexik (moin, Maloche) oder dialektal/regional gebundener Aussprachevarianten (Oida wos wüst < Alter, was willst (du); wech < weg) sowie die häufige Verwendung von Einheiten wie Interjektionen und Abtönungspartikeln. Darüber hinaus bilden sich in der schriftlichen internetbasierten Kommunikation sprachliche Mittel aus, die auf die Unterstützung der interaktiven schriftlichen Kommunikation am Nähepol optimiert sind. Typische Beispiele dafür sind Inflektive (freu, lach, grübel, wink, seufz) und Inflektivkonstruktionen (wildsei, malanmerk, bedenkenhab), Emoticons sowie die Nutzung von Verfahren der Graphemiteration (gaaaaaanz schlecht) und der Großschreibung (mathe mündlich? BRUTAL!!!) für die graphische Nachbildung stimmlicher Kommunikationssignale.

Um die Besonderheiten der Schreibformen und sprachlichen Besonderheiten in der internetbasierten Kommunikation empirisch begründbar in einen sprach- und varietätengeschichtlichen Rahmen einordnen zu können, müssen Ausgangsbedingungen geschaffen werden, die einen Vergleich von Phänomenen konzeptioneller Mündlichkeit in internetbasierter Schriftlichkeit und dem Schreibgebrauch in historischen Korpora ermöglichen. Beim Aufbau von IBK-Korpora stellen sich derzeit noch viele Herausforderungen (vgl. z.B. Beißwenger & Storrer 2008, Storrer 2013b: Abschnitt 4), weil Verfahren und Standards, die sich für die Annotation von Textkorpora bewährt haben (Annotationsstandards, Metadatenschemata, Werkzeuge und Tagsets für die linguistische Analyse), nicht ohne Anpassungen für IBK-Korpora übernommen werden können.

Im  KobRA-Projekt werden auf der Grundlage manuell annotierter Trainingsdaten Verfahren zur Klassifizierung und Disambiguierung auf die Behandlung von Phänomentypen (Verschmelzungen, Inflektive, Emoticons) trainiert, die in der Domäne typischerweise auftreten und die von Verarbeitungswerkzeugen, die auf den Umgang mit redigierten Texten trainiert sind, nicht angemessen behandelt werden können. Als Testbett für diese Verfahren dienen Daten aus verschiedenen im Aufbau befindlichen IBK-Korpora, die im Projekt zur Verfügung stehen – u.a. aus dem Wikipedia-Korpus am Institut für deutsche Sprache (Mannheim), dem Projekt „Deutsches Referenzkorpus zur internetbasierten Kommunikation“ (DeRiK, Beißwenger at al. 2013) sowie dem Dortmunder Chat-Korpus (Beißwenger 2013). Die Verfahren sollen in Arbeiten zur Anpassung von Werkzeugen für die automatische Wortartenannotation auf die Verarbeitung von IBK-Daten einfließen. Die Annotation erfolgt auf der Grundlage einer erweiterten Version des STTS-Standards für das POS-Tagging deutscher Sprachdaten, in dessen Erarbeitung die Projektbeteiligten involviert sind (Bartz et al. 2013). Sie ist abgestimmt auf Aktivitäten zur Erarbeitung eines Standards für die Strukturannotation von IBK-Korpora im Rahmen der Text Encoding Initiative (TEI).

References
Bartz, T., Beißwenger, M., Storrer A. (2013): Optimierung des Stuttgart-Tübingen-Tagset für die linguistische Annotation von Korpora zur internetbasierten Kommunikation: Phänomene, Herausforderungen, Erweiterungsvorschläge.Journal for Language Technology and Computational Linguistics (Themenheft „Das STTS-Tagset für Wortartentagging – Stand und Perspektiven“).

Beißwenger, M. (2013): Das Dortmunder Chat-Korpus. Zeitschrift für germanistische Linguistik 41/1, 161–164. (Erweiterte Fassung online: http://tinyurl.com/chatkorpus).

Beißwenger, M., Ermakova, M., Geyken, A., Lemnitzer, L., Storrer, A.(2012): A TEI Schema for the Representation of Computer-mediated Communication.Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative (jTEI), Issue 3, jtei.revues.org/476 (DOI: 10.4000/jtei.476).

Beißwenger, M., Ermakova, M., Geyken, A., Lemnitzer, L., Storrer, A.(2013): DeRiK: A German Reference Corpus of Computer-Mediated Communication. In: Literary and Linguistic Computing. tinyurl.com/derik-llc (DOI: 10.1093/llc/fqt038).

Beißwenger, M. and Storrer, A. (2008): Corpora of Computer-Mediated Communication. In Lüdeling, A. und Kytö, M. (eds), Corpus Linguistics. An International Handbook. Volume 1. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter (Handbücher zur Sprache und Kommunikationswissenschaft / Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science 29.1), pp. 292–308.

Blei, D. M., Ng, A. Y., Jordan, M. I. (2003): Latent dirichlet allocation. Journal of Machine Learning Research 3, pp. 993–1022.

Geyken, A. (2007): The DWDS corpus: a reference corpus for the German language of the 20th century. In Fellbaum, C. (ed), Idioms and collocations. Corpus-based linguistic and lexicographic studies. London: Continuum, pp. 23– 40.

Joachims, T. (2002): Learning to Classify Text Using Support Vector Machines. Dissertation. Dordrecht: Kluwer.

Krenn, B., Erbach, G. (1994): Idioms and support verb constructions. In Nerbonne, J., Netter, K., Pollard, C. (eds), German in Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar. Stanford: CSLI publications, pp. 365–395.

Langer, S. (2004): A linguistic test battery for support verb constructions. Linguisticae Investigationes 27 (2), pp. 171–184.

Lüdeling, A. and Kytö, M.(eds) (2008/9): Corpus Linguistics. An International Handbook. 2 Bände. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter.

Morik, K., Kaspari, A., Wurst, M., Skirzynski, M. (2012): Multi-objective frequent termset clustering.Knowledge and Information Systems 30 (3) (DOI:10.1007/s10115-011-0431-3), pp. 715–738. 

McEnery, T., Xiao, R., Tono, Y. (2006): Corpus-Based Language Studies. An Advanced Resource Book (Routledge Applied Linguistics). London, New York: Routledge.

Storrer, A. (2007): Corpus-based investigations on German support verb constructions. In Fellbaum, C. (ed), Idioms and collocations. Corpus-based linguistic and lexicographic studies. London: Continuum Press, pp. 164–188.

Storrer, A. (2013a): Variation im deutschen Wortschatz am Beispiel der Streckverbgefüge. In Deutsche Akademie für Sprache und Dichtung; Union der deutschen Akademien der Wissenschaften (eds), Reichtum und Armut der deutschen Sprache. Erster Bericht zur Lage der deutschen Sprache. Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, pp. 171–209.

Storrer, A. (2013b): Sprachverfall durch internetbasierte Kommunikation? Linguistische Erklärungsansätze – empirische Befunde. Sprachverfall? Dynamik – Wandel – Variation. Jahrbuch des Instituts für Deutsche Sprache 2013.

Tomanek, K. (2010): Resource-aware annotation through active learning. Dissertation, TU Dortmund.

Tomanek, K., Morik, K. (2011): Inspecting Sample Reusability for Activ Learning. JMLR Workshop and Conference Proceedings 16, pp. 169–181.

Das Verbundprojekt wird vom Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) seit Herbst 2012 im Rahmen des Programms „eHumanities“ gefördert. Informationen zu den Projektbeteiligten und den Ergebnissen unter: http://www.kobra.tu-dortmund.de.

Engl. „support verb constructions“ (vgl. u.a. Langer 2004, Krenn & Erbach 1994, Storrer 2007/2013).

Zu den Korpora im Projekt „Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache“ (DWDS) vgl. Geyken (2007).

Relevant sind hier v.a. die Aktivitäten der Special Interest Group „Computer-Mediated Communication“ (http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/SIG/CMC/); ein erster Entwurf für ein TEI-Schema für die Annotation von Genres internetbasierter Kommunikation ist in Beißwenger et al. (2012) beschrieben.","txt","2","",""
"2020","15","New and recent developments in image analysis: theory and practice","3","1. Introduction - David Robey, Oxford e-Research Centre
The historical concentration on text in humanities computing and the Digital Humanities (DH) partly reflects the technologies that have been available, and partly the majority interests of humanities researchers. Yet much humanities research also depends on scholars’ visual skills, not only in the arts and archaeology, but also in disciplines whose main concern is text, for whom the physical form of texts can be as important as their content. Thus digital textual resources increasingly link to images, thereby greatly increasing their potential scholarly benefits: an outstanding example is Prue Shaw’s recent digital edition of Dante’s Divine Comedy. This panel session is concerned with what one might consider the next stage in the use of image in DH research: the technologies that are increasingly being used for image recognition, enhancement and analysis. Unlike many of the digital text-and-image archives now available, which do little more than accelerate and facilitate humanities research, these enable the production of knowledge that would simply not be accessible by non-digital means.

The panel presents a range of innovative humanities research in progress in these areas of image recognition, enhancement and analysis at Oxford University and UCL London. It includes both practical applications of the related technologies, and a more theoretical approach to the methods deployed. The latter is an area in which the humanities have traditionally been weak. Scholars have usually been reluctant to reflect in any depth on the exact nature of their methods; even during the heady days of humanities theory towards the end of the last century, the focus of interest was much more on high-level concepts, and much less on the details of methodology. Yet this kind of reflection is essential: if the most productive use is to be made of the new technologies for image analysis, and indeed all other forms of digital analysis in the humanities, and if we are to promote their use effectively, we need to be very clear exactly what they help us to do, and how this fits in with the work that scholars have traditionally done.

The panel will begin with a presentation by Charles Crowther, from the Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents at Oxford, of a range of techniques to increase the legibility of different forms of writing in the ancient world—ancient world studies being probably the field in which scholarship depends most on analysing the exact form in which text is preserved, and as a result the field in which the use these technologies is most advanced. This will be followed by an in-depth presentation and discussion by Jacob Dahl, of Oxford’s Oriental Studies Institute, of the use of one particular form of these technologies, Reflectance Transformation Imaging, to advance the study of one of the world's earliest and still undeciphered writing systems, proto-Elamite. The paper by Segolene Tarte, from the Oxford e-Research Centre, will provide the theoretical dimension by identifying the cognitive processes involved in some of research covered by the first two papers, and in other related work. Finally Julianne Nyhan, from the Department of Information Studies at UCL London, moves into a more difficult and experimental area with a review of the use of image recognition for historical research and a brief presentation of a project for the digital study of newspaper photographs in the context of the history of the First World War.

The work that the four papers deal with is highly detailed and specialist, but has potential applications far beyond the fields in which it has been carried out so far: a topic we plan to cover in the panel discussion.

*  *  *

2. Reading Ancient Writing: Technology and Scholarship - Charles Crowther,Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents, Oxford
Much of the evidence that the scholarly community in Classics has available to extend and renew its fields of investigation is fragmentary, difficult to decipher, and tantalising. The use of new technologies opens the prospect of making this evidence more easily and extensively accessible and exemplifies the contribution of DH to scholarly research in a well-defined and coherent context.

In this paper I review the effectiveness of a range of visualisation technologies deployed to increase the legibility of ancient, primarily Greek and Latin, incised and inscribed documentary texts, and consider some directions for future work. The analysis draws perspectives from work in this field at the Oxford Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents (CSAD) over the last 15 years, and presents results from recent and continuing projects undertaken with other presenters in the panel.

I consider two types of text that offer challenges to decipherment that are broadly similar but different in significant respects: wooden and metal writing tablets and inscriptions on stone.

Regular discoveries of incised wooden and metal writing tablets in excavation of Romano-British (and Northern European) sites potentially offer new categories of evidence, but their transcription and decipherment present the constant challenge of separating fine traces of writing from background features and, in many cases, from other palimpsest layers of text. The great majority of the material is relatively new (recovered since 1980) and is still in the early stages of integration into the body of research resources in Ancient History. Successive projects undertaken since 1998 at CSAD, in collaboration with colleagues in the field of medical image analysis in the Department of Engineering Science at Oxford, have resulted in the creation of new techniques for improving the visibility and legibility of writing on wooden tablets, principally by means of a stroke detection method (shadow stereo or phase congruency) and the removal of wood-grain (Brady et al. 2005).

These advances were based on digital scans of the writing tablets made with lights illuminating the surfaces from different angles, calibrated manually. Their application has already resulted in new editions of texts of writing tablets from the Roman fort at Vindolanda (Bowman and Tomlin 2005) and, most strikingly, a Roman legal document found in Frisia in 1914 (Bowman et al. 2009), which forms a case study in the paper offered by Dr. Tarte. Central to this programme of research has been the belief that in order to develop better imaging techniques we need at the same time to explore developments in the representation of semantics, in theories of reading, and in ideas about knowledge representation (Terras 2007; Tarte 2011).

Inscriptions on stone are one of the most characteristic legacies of the culture of the ancient Greco-Roman world, from the beginning of alphabetic writing in the 8th century BC to Late Antiquity. Very large quantities of inscriptions have been recorded – the total number now published exceeds 800,000 – but few have survived intact; stones are frequently broken into fragments and very many have suffered extensive surface damage from abrasion or erosion. Techniques for the decipherment of these damaged texts had not until recently advanced significantly since the beginning of epigraphic studies in the 15th century. The principal traditional means of reading letter traces, by taking paper (or latex) casts of the surface which can be manipulated more easily than the original stone, or by using solutions of charcoal and water to emphasise surface indentations, remain effective, but involve direct action upon the surface of the stone and are now permitted only under controlled conditions and in exceptional cases by museum conservators.

Because the language and formal character of inscribed documents are well understood, small improvements in reading can lead to significant advances in decipherment and interpretation. Two examples may be cited: much of the history of the 5th-century Athenian empire has seemed to turn on the interpretation of a handful of evanescent letter traces on a stele recording an alliance between Athens and Segesta (Chambers et al. 1990); a palimpsest inscription on a basalt stele recovered during the rescue exacavations at Zeugma in the Euphrates valley in 2000 has provided new insights into one of the more remarkable expressions of ruler cult in antiquity (Crowther 2013).

However techniques for recovering text, whether based upon paper casts, illumination with raking light, or, more recently, laser scanning can only improve legibility when there are some remaining topographic traces of the original inscribed text. In this section of the paper I summarise the results of experiments using the microfocus spectroscopy beamline at the Diamond Light Synchrotron in 2010 and 2011, following earlier work at the Cornell High-Energy Synchrotron Source (CHESS), which show that trace elements associated with wear of the inscribing tool and with the pigments used to paint inscribed letters can be detected with high sensitivity and spatial resolution by X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Imaging, even when the stone surface has worn below its original contours (Powers et al. 2005).

XRF imaging, for the moment, requires that text artefacts be brought to a synchrotron source and is ineffective where the surface of the object has been subject to intensive cleaning since Antiquity. In the great majority of cases, analysis of surviving surface traces continues to be the principal method of decipherment. Approaches to incised and inscribed texts, accordingly, converge on the need to recover and interpret surface topography as accurately as possible. The manually calibrated methods of illumination used in previous work at CSAD have now been replaced by Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI), whose application to cuneiform texts and seal impressions is described in the paper by Dr. Dahl.

RTI uses multiple images captured from a fixed camera position to construct a digital model of surface form and reflectance for the object studied. The resulting files enable interactive changes to lighting, image enhancements and automated identification of visual and morphological attributes. RTI has a number of specific advantages for the capture of incised and inscribed documents: non-contact acquisition of surface data, to alleviate the concerns of museum conservators; potential representation of 3D shape characteristics without data loss due to shadows and specular highlights; virtualised surface analysis under any form and distribution of lighting; the possibility of analysing surfaces remotely and ‘re-photographing’ them for dissemination. RTI representations of documentary texts are visually striking and attractive, but current fitting algorithms do not exploit the full potential of the image data captured. In the final section of the paper I report on current work undertaken at CSAD to improve the algorithms and capture processes and their application to a range of incised and inscribed documentary texts.

Selected References
A. K. Bowman, R. S. O. Tomlin, “Wooden Stilus Tablets from Roman Britain”, in Bowman and Brady 2005, 7-14

A. K. Bowman, M. Brady (eds.) Images and Artefacts of the Ancient World (British Academy Occasional Papers, Oxford 2005)

A. K. Bowman, R. S. O. Tomlin, K. A. Worp, “‘Emptio bovis Frisica’: the ‘Frisian ox sale’ reconsidered”, JRS 99, 2009, 156-70

M. Brady, X.-B. Pan, V. Schenk, M. Terras, P. Robertson, N. Molton, “Shadow Stereo, Image Filtering, and Constraint Propagation”, in Bowman and Brady 2005, 15-30

M. Chambers, R. Gallucci, P. Spanos, “Athens’ Alliance with Egesta in the Year of Antiphon”, ZPE 83, 1990, 38-63

C. Crowther, “Inscriptions on Stone”, in W. Aylward (ed.), Excavation at Zeugma. Conducted by Oxford Archaeology (Los Altos, 2013), 192-219

J. Powers, N. Dimitrova, R. Huang, D.-M. Smilgies, D. H. Bilderback, K. Clinton, and R. E. Thorne, “X-ray fluorescence recovers writing from ancient inscriptions”, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 152, 2005, 221-227

S. M. Tarte, “Papyrological Investigations: Transferring Perception and Interpretation into the Digital World”, Lit Linguist Computing 26(2), 2011, 233-247. 

M. Terras, Image to Interpretation. An Intelligent System to Aid Historians in Reading the Vindolanda Texts (Oxford 2007)

Reflectance Transformation Imaging of ancient texts - Jacob Dahl Oriental Studies Institute, Oxford
This paper explores the use of Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) technology in the study and decipherment of ancient texts. RTI is “a computational photographic method that captures a subject’s surface shape and color and enables the interactive re-lighting of the subject from any direction” (definition from http://culturalheritageimaging.org/Technologies/RTI/). It is based on the work of Tom Malzbender (2001, see http://www.hpl.hp.com/research/ptm/index.html).

The camera dome used at the University of Oxford, and built by researchers at the University of Southampton (Earl et al. 2011), uses 76 daylight-LEDs, which are attached to the inside of the plexiglas dome. A high-resolution digital camera is mounted on the top of the dome, looking straight down through a hole. The object is placed on a stage in the centre lifted up to the horizon. The diameter of the camera dome is approximately 1m, allowing for the capture of objects up to 33 cm in diameter. 76 individual raw files are captured each using a different light source and therefore a different light angle. In post-processing the images are joined to create a composite image (model) (Polynomial Texture Mapping (PTM)) where the light-source can be changed by the user.

Using RTI images captured in the Louvre Museum in Paris, researchers at the university of Oxford have been able to significantly advance the study of one of the world's earliest and still undeciphered writing systems, proto-Elamite, mimicking in the classroom the work of the epigrapher in the museum. This method has proven particularly valuable when examining secondary additions to certain signs, lightly impressed signs, alterations to signs, or seal impressions.

Proto-Elamite is the conventional name give to a derived writing system emerging in Iran following the spread of the culture and technological advances of the Late Uruk period in Mesopotamia into Western Iran c. 3500 BC (Dahl 2013a). The writing system is defined by having a high number of singletons, and possibly a high number of scribal errors, perhaps resulting from never having been standardized (Dahl 2002 and Dahl 2013b). A majority of the extant proto-Elamite texts are kept in the Louvre Museum, Paris, and the National Museum of Iran, Teheran. The writing system disappeared after a short use of at most a few centuries, and writing was not used in Iran for the following five centuries or longer.

It has long been realized that deciphering early scripts involves more than merely a linguistic puzzle, that features such as seal impressions, scribal marks, etc. hold valuable information, and that the materiality of writing is therefore more important for the study of early writing then anywhere else (Damerow 2006). Subtle differences in sign forms may be the result of scribal hands, semantic variation, or simply lack of practice (André-Salvini and Dahl in press).

Traditional print-representations of early writing specimens only poorly represent the physicality of the object. Proto-Elamite and other early writing systems are often studied by very small groups of researchers at universities or research institutions across the globe. Previous generations of researchers were confined to either using hand copies of the originals, of varying quality, or consulting the originals in museums far from their home institutions, when attempting to decode the information of these documents. High-resolution, dynamic images of these text artifacts therefore have the potential of transforming the study of early writing by simulating first-hand consultation of the originals, enabling shared research, and bringing together disparate data-sets.

Over the course of the last two years c. 1100 tablets and fragments in the Louvre Museum were imaged with the camera dome (André-Salvini and Dahl 2013a). Results of research facilitated by these images is now being published. For example, the study of RTI images of two tablets in the Louvre Museum (Sb 15229 and 15456) challenged the existing view of the imagery of the seal impression found on both (a couple of humanoid figures as well as animals), and led to a strengthening of the theory that no representations of the human form was allowed in glyptic art of the proto-Elamite period (results later confirmed by collation of originals in the Museum) (Dahl 2014).

The main issue facing a wider application of RTI technology in the study of ancient writing is the size of the files (mostly 256 mb per image, six needed for a cuneiform tablet), and the lack of a suitable on-line viewer. Image size is becoming less of an issue over time, and the issue of an on-line viewer is the focus of at least one ongoing project (http://www.arts.kuleuven.be/info/ONO/Meso/cuneiformcollection and http://portablelightdome.wordpress.com). In the meantime captures taken by the camera dome can be used to produce very high quality static images by blending different views together in an image editor.

Selected References
André-Salvini and Dahl 2013: “L’écriture proto-élamite: la numérisation à l’aide du déchifrement des premières écritures”. In Grande gallerie: le journal du Louvre 2013/2, 28-29.

André-Salvini and Dahl in press: “Le système d’écriture proto-élamite : un point sur le déchiffrement des signes, leur formation et leur usage”. In La recherche au muse du Louvre 2012 (2013).

Dahl 2002: “Proto-Elamite Sign Frequencies.” In CDLB 2002:1 (2002) http://cdli.ucla.edu/pubs/cdlb/2002/cdlb2002_001.html

Dahl 2013a: “Early Writing in Iran”. In Potts, D.T., Oxford Handbook of Iranian Archaeology (Oxford University Press) (2013), 233-262.

Dahl 2013b: “Frühe Schrift im Iran”. In N. Crüsemann et al. Uruk 5000 Jahre Megacity: Begleitband zur Ausstellung ""Uruk--5000 Jahre Megacity"" im Pergamonmuseum--Staatliche Museen zu Berlin (2013), 202-203.

Dahl 2014: “The proto-Elamite seal MDP 16 no 198”. In CDLN 2014:1 <http://cdli.ucla.edu/Pubs/cdln/archives/000028.html>.

Damerow 2006: “The Origins of Writing as a Problem of Historical Epistemology.” In CDLJ 2006:1 (2006) <http://cdli.ucla.edu/pubs/cdlj/2006/cdlj2006_001.html>

*  *  *

Digital Images of Ancient Textual Artefacts. Connecting Computational Processing and Cognitive Processes - Ségolène Tarte, Oxford e-Research Centre
Digital image processing is an expanding domain in the DH that naturally finds its place in the overall 

knowledge and meaning creation process that is the ultimate aim of the study of ancient textual artefacts. The cognitive aspects of this intrinsically interpretative process play a major role in the endeavour and continually interact with the computational processing mobilized by image capture and processing methodologies. In this paper, I aim to present some of the cognitive aspects of the interpretation of textual artefacts that intervene in the analysis of their digital image avatars. To illustrate those cognitive processes, I will present them in the context of “naturalistic” observations  of expert papyrologists and assyriologists working on ancient textual artefacts (observations made following ethnographic methodologies) , and connect them with similar observations made in the controlled settings of laboratory experiments as reported in the cognitive sciences literature. Each example illustrates how one specific cognitive process has been aided by the use of digital image-based technology, and how they are integrated into the interpretation workflow.

It is worth specifying that the processes highlighted here are perceptual in nature, rather than conceptual; however, as they participate in the act of interpretation of textual artefacts, in the act of knowledge creation and sense-making, they definitely qualify as cognitive processes. These cognitive processes are efficient and complementary with the services that digital tools can render. My aim in identifying them is not to attempt to emulate them digitally, but rather to identify where computational processing can provide help and where the upper hand is best left to the experts.

Making the intangible tangible: Artemidorus papyrus (in collaboration with Prof. D’Alessio (KCL), and Dr Elsner (Oxford)). Here the computational processing involved infrared image capture, and, in later work, digital image alignment (of the front and back images) as well as virtual rolling of the papyrus (Tarte, 2012). The virtual rolling was made in order to evaluate the hypothesis that the papyrus fragments needed to be reordered based on traces of inks from the reverse of the papyrus that seemed to have transferred to the obverse by mirror impression while the papyrus was rolled up. Beyond providing a rigorous argument in favour of reordering, the actual process of virtually rolling the papyrus prompted a re-materialization of it. A physical avatar was produced which allowed the researchers to experience for themselves the rolling of the document and thereby ascertain that the ink transfers could have resulted from the roll, confirming the plausibility of the reordering of the fragments. This enacted approach to interpretation, enabled by the upstream image-based technologies that have been mobilized, points to what the neurosciences call embodied cognition, where “Social Meaning is primarily the object of practical concern and not of theoretical judgment… It relies on non-inferential mechanisms, which do not require the explicit use of rationality” (Gallese, 2005, p43). Through a combination of image processing output and enacted engagement with a physical avatar, aspects of the intangible papyrus have been made tangible. 

Making the inarticulate articulate: the Roman stylus wooden tablet known as the ""Frisian Ox"" tablet (in collaboration with Prof. Bowman (Oxford) and Prof. Terras (UCL)). Beyond image capture, here the computational processing involved removing the woodgrain and enhancing the visibility of the scratches that constitute the script (Tarte, 2011). Digital technologies were also used to produce line drawings by means of a drawing tablet that allowed for the tracing of the text over any digital image from the collection that had been captured. One of the cognitive processes that ensued has to do with visual completion. By tracing the letter shapes, experts filled in the gaps where portions of character were absent. This enacted approach to interpretation, enabled by the upstream image-based technologies that have been mobilized, points to the phenomenon the neurosciences call illusory contour: “Detection of an illusory figure shows a precedence of specific global object properties over local attributes ... it is the surface rather than the contour that guides search” (Conci et al., 2007, p1293-4). This in part explains why the expert papyrologists stipulated that the woodgrain removal algorithms applied to the images were not only not very helpful, but also possibly confusing. Through a combination of illusory contour detection and digital tracing of the letters, aspects of the inarticulate text of the tablet have been made articulate.

Making the invisible visible: proto-Elamite tablets from ancient Iran (in collaboration with Dr Dahl (Oxford) – cf paper on this panel). Here the computational processing involved the deployment of an advanced image capture technique known as Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI (Earl et al., 2011)). Through this technique, it is possible to interactively change the position of a unidirectional light source shone onto the artefact, thereby allowing for the accentuation of its physical geography - an enormous asset when dealing with 3D scripts such as proto-Elamite. In effect, what RTI allows is to mobilize depth perception through monocular motion parallax (Rogers and Graham, 1982): RTI supports depth perception, and results in making visible the otherwise invisible.

Making the indiscernible discernible: Selenite curse tablets from Ancient Cyprus (in collaboration with Dr Bodard (KCL) and Prof. Radaelli (Oxford)). Here the crystalline nature of the support makes the texts indiscernible. As mounting evidence in recent bodies of work in the cognitive sciences points to an action-simulation-perception framework (related to embodied cognition), where visualizing the results of an action mobilizes the pre-motor areas of the brain that correspond to the observed action (such as in reading/writing, or in painting (Taylor et al., 2012)), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) images, which reveal disruptions in the crystalline structure of selenite, have the potential to inform the viewer on the ductus and the dynamics of the act of writing, thereby facilitating reading by making the indiscernible dynamics of writing discernible.

In each of these examples I have selected one specific cognitive process that took place. Of course, many others occurred, and each of those cases could have been used to illustrate one or more of the other cognitive processes highlighted here. Further work will explore the interaction of the perceptual and conceptual cognitive processes mobilized in the interpretation of textual artefacts, and how to integrate them in a digitally supported workflow. 

Selected References
Conci, M., Müller, H. J., and Elliott, M. A. (2007). The contrasting impact of global and local object attributes on kanizsa figure detection. Perception & Psychophysics, 69(8):1278—1294.

D’Alessio, G. (2009). On the “Artemidorus” Papyrus. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 171:27—43.

Earl, G., Basford, P. J., Bischoff, A. S., Bowman, A., Crowther, C., Hodgson, M., Martinez, K., Isaksen, L., Pagi, H., Piquette, K. E., and Kotoula, E. (2011). Reflectance transformation imaging systems for ancient documentary artefacts. In Electronic Visualisation and the Arts, London, UK. BCS, The Chartered Institute for IT.

Gallese, V. (2005). Embodied simulation: From neurons to phenomenal experience. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences, 4:23—48. 10.1007/s11097-005-4737-z.

Rogers, B. and Graham, M. (1982). Similarities between motion parallax and stereopsis in human depth perception. Vision Research, 22(2):261 — 270.

Tarte, S. M. (2011). Papyrological Investigations: Transferring Perception and Interpretation into the Digital World. Lit Linguist Computing, 26(2):233—47.

Tarte, S. M. (2012). The digital existence of words and pictures: The case of the Artemidorus papyrus. Historia, 61(3):325—336 (+bibliog. pp 357—61; fig. pp 363—5).

Taylor, J. E. T., Witt, J. K., and Grimaldi, P. J. (2012). Uncovering the connection between artist and audience: Viewing painted brushstrokes evokes corresponding action representations in the observer. Cognition, 125(1):26 — 36. 

Facial recognition and Digital Humanities: new directions? - Julianne Nyhan, Department of Information Studies, UCL
As documentary sources photographs can offer historians new ways to uncover, interrogate, visualise and communicate about the past. In the past new insights into historical questions have been gained through unexpected and often serendipitous observations in historical photographs: for example, the seemingly accidental discovery of the young Hitler in photographs of social-democratic rallies (cf Krumeich 2001).  Recent developments in facial recognition and image analysis techniques (see, inter alia, Wang et al. 2013, Singh et al. 2013 and Vieira et al. 2013) offer historians (and researchers across the humanities and beyond) new ways to think about and analyse visual documentary evidence. The application of facial recognition techniques may well contribute to the establishment of a more systematic basis for the discovery and analysis of actors and social networks in historical photographs, and perhaps for automatically identifying ‘suspect’ photographs. Nevertheless, comparatively little research seems to be ongoing within the DH into the applications of such facial detection, recognition and visual computing techniques.

Automated facial detection has become ubiquitous in day to day life. It is used on public and private CCTV-networks for crime and terror prevention, for example, by preselecting information for screening and at border controls using biometric passports. Digital cameras and mobile phones can auto-detect faces and even smiles on faces (see Deniz, O. et al. 2008), replacing traditional passwords or providing ‘convisual’ information to photographers, like the names of the people in the viewfinder if these people have been photographed before (see, for example, Brown 2011). Social media networks like Facebook or Twitter engage in the batch-tagging of people in photographs, while popular image cataloguing software packages like Google’s Picasa allow automatic graphical indexation of large snapshot collections at home. Automated facial detection, despite still being a relatively new branch of image analysis, has quickly matured and allows the facial indexation of large graphical databases. The result is that graphical information can be searched in ways that have hitherto been impossible.

Nevertheless, within the context of DH, few applications of such techniques can be noticed in the published literature. The paper will start with a review of literature related to image analysis techniques in order to present both the technological state of the art and uses that are being made of image analysis techniques in DH. A review of the literature relating to historians’ methodological engagement with visual documentary sources will also identify existing and new research problems in historical research that facial recognition techniques could be applied to, leading to a discussion of the potentials and drawbacks that facial recognition techniques hold for this kind of research.

In the context of DH, the most substantial research to date is that of Suárez, de la Rosa Pérez and Ulloa (2013), who have applied such techniques to representations of the human face in world literature.  To do so they analysed more than 123,500 paintings from all periods of art history with a face recognition algorithm used in Facebook’s photo-tagging system and automatically identified over 26,000 faces. Using techniques like, among others, the Elastic Bunch Graph Matching (Wiskott et al. 1997), they were able to detect what they term basic features (e.g. information about the position of facial features such as eyes and nose) and extended features (e.g. gender, mood, age range). They conclude that by comparing “the basic features set using graphs and the extended features set using clustering by K-Means method (Sculley 2010) … we are at the perfect position to analyze and characterize each of the groups according to different historical perspectives and cultural questions, for instance, the distinction among styles by giving a minimum set of features that determines its membership” (p, 535) .

From the perspective of facial recognition techniques noteworthy recent developments include the 3D face recognition systems by the University of Bradford’s Centre for Visual Computing, which they state has led to the development of a prototype system that “demonstrates that 3D facial data can overcome many inherent problems in image-based (2D) face recognition. This can be accurate up to the level of differentiating between identical twins” (see University of Bradford 2013). However, for my present purpose it is mostly historical photographs that are under discussion and at the time of writing it is not clear how such a system would work with historical photographs (even if 3D models of the 2D photographs were created using technology such as freely available software platforms like 123D Catch).

To conclude the talk an overview of the initial findings of a project on First World War photographs that we have recently started will be presented. WW1 was the first major war where photography was affordable and routinely used in both official and amateur channels; thus visual documentary evidence from the period is vital to its study. During WW1 Belgian refugees arrived in Britain en masse in what transpired to be the largest ingress of refugees in British history. However, our understanding of who arrived, how they intersected with British and diasporic social networks, how long they stayed, and whether they settled or returned home is limited. One of the historical applications reported on in this paper will be the initial findings of a pilot project that is investigating accuracy rates of facial detection techniques on historical photographs of WW1 Belgian refugees.

References
Brown, Mark. 2011. “Facebook Silently Rolls Out Face Recognition Tagging to the World.”Wired, 08 June 2011 edition, sec. Technology. http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2011-06/08/facebook-face-recognition.

Deniz, O., Castrillon, M, Lorenzo, J, Anton, L, and G. Bueno. (2008)  ‘Smile Detection for User Interfaces’,Advances in Visual Computing, vol. 5359/2008, pp. 602–611

Krumeich, Gerd.  ""Hitler in der Menge,"" in: C. Dipper, A. Gestrich, L.Raphael (eds.), Krieg, Frieden und Demokratie: Festschrift für Martin Vogt zum 65. Geburtstag (Frankfurt, 2001), 137-140.

Singh, Chandan, Ekta Walia, and Neerja Mittal. 2012. “Robust Two-stage Face Recognition Approach Using Global and Local Features.”The Visual Computer 28 (11) (November 1): 1085–1098. doi:10.1007/s00371-011-0659-7.

Suárez, de la Rosa Pérez and Ulloa (2013) ‘Not Exactly Prima Facie: Understanding the Representation of the Human Through the Analysis of Faces in World Painting’ DH Book of Abstracts. 534-6. Nebraska: Centre for Research in the Humanities

University of Bradford, ‘3D Face Recognition For Security Systems’www.visual-computing.brad.ac.uk/case-studies/3d-face-recognition-security-systems (accessed 31/10/2013)

Vieira, Tiago F., Andrea Bottino, Aldo Laurentini, and Matteo De Simone. 2013. “Detecting Siblings in Image Pairs.”The Visual Computer: 1–13. doi:10.1007/s00371-013-0884-3.

Wang, Zhifei, Zhenjiang Miao, Q. M. Jonathan Wu, Yanli Wan, and Zhen Tang. 2013. “Low-resolution Face Recognition: a Review.”The Visual Computer: 1–28. doi:10.1007/s00371-013-0861-x.","txt","2","",""
"2021","15","On automatically disambiguating end-of-line hyphenated words in French texts","9","In printed texts usually a lot of words are separated by a hyphen at line breaks. Such a hyphenation is made if the last word is too long for the current line particularly with regards to a justified text alignment. Whereas in many cases an additional hyphen (soft hyphen) will be appended to the first part of a word, some words already contain a hyphen (hard hyphen) that can be used for the line break. During different steps of automated text processing hyphenation can be hindering if the correct spelling of a word, whether with or without hyphen, is unknown. Just think of applications in which the text shall be annotated automatically or shall receive a different typesetting. In such cases it is desirable to use a self-acting or at least a semiautomatic approach in contrast to make manual decisions for every word's correct spelling, which can be notably time-consuming for long texts.

There is only a sparse amount of comments in the literature how to handle the problem described above, especially in French. Some publications propose to make the decisions manually 12. The documentation of the Oxford Concordance Program 3, which is a software from the 1980s, states that it ""has a facility to request that hyphenated words at the ends of lines should be reconstituted"" but without giving details of the realization of this feature. One trivial procedure, removing all end-of-line hyphens, is used in a paper about tokenization 4. This paper also mentions the use of a dictionary as possibility to reduce the error rate, which is an essential part of our approach discussed later.

Simply joining the separated parts of a word by leaving the hyphen out may solve the problem for most instances in many languages, e.g. English or German. In French however a more complex approach is necessary because the hyphen is frequently used in positions other than the end of a line. Particularly this includes the building of compounds with prefixes, nouns and pronouns as well as numbers that made their way into the written language. Whereas hyphenation in French usually follows well-defined rules nowadays, these rules changed through time and had not been applied consistently. Thus a reliable rule-based approach for disambiguating end-of-line hyphenated words is unlikely.

To solve the challenge we have developed a dictionary-based technique for reversing the hyphenation for a given French text. The approach consists of three steps. First, an internal attribution is computed which determines the number of occurrences for every word of the text under consideration. Thereby only occurrences not separated by a line break are considered. Thus the text itself will become a reference for the correct spelling of a given separated word by comparing the number of occurrences of both possible spellings. The second step is a query in an external dictionary. Again both spellings of the word, whether with or without hyphen, are searched in the given dictionary. The third step merges the information of the two previous steps in order to provide a guess for the correct spelling. Both of the previous steps may have led to either no indication at all, or to an indication for exactly one spelling or to an indication rendering both spellings probable. Thereby 16 cases are possible. Our approach assumes that the spelling with hyphen is correct if the internal attribution returns only the entry for the spelling with hyphen even if the external dictionary says differently. This keeps the consistent spelling of the author or the age of the text. The hyphen is also chosen if the dictionary only provides this spelling and simultaneously the internal attribution either has no entry or has entries for both notations. In all other but two cases the spelling without hyphen is assumed correct. The two exceptions are the cases where the internal attribution contains both spellings and the external dictionary simultaneously provides either no or both entries. In these cases the highest number of occurrences in the internal attribution is decisive. If they are equal the spelling without hyphen is chosen.

As previously mentioned the heuristic “always use the spelling without hyphen” is the obvious way to handle hyphenation in most languages. We tested our approach against this simple heuristic with respect to the number of faulty decisions. For comparison we used a book by Guillaume Raynal in four different editions which were published in 1770, 1774, 1780 and 1820 5 and a dictionary of the ABU : la Bibliothèque Universelle 6 with more than 250,000 entries of common words for the second step.

The slightest relative difference between both techniques occurred in the edition of 1820 which contains 1,339 individual hyphenations of 52,372 words and 7,198 lines. Our approach resulted in 30 wrong guesses (2.240%) instead of 45 (3.368%) made by the heuristic which is a decline by the factor of 1.5. The biggest difference appeared in the edition of 1780 with 1,063 individual hyphenations, 44,078 words and 6,290 lines. While the simple heuristic resulted in 45 faulty decisions (3.814%), our approach nearly cut the number of errors in half to 24 (2.034%). Concerning the editions of 1770 and 1774 the outcome was 6 errors (0.819%) instead of 10 (1.364%), and 14 (1.317%) instead of 23 (2.164%), which is about the same level. The effectivity of our approach becomes apparent if the four editions are considered as one text. Our approach benefits from many words with multiple occurrences in the concatenated text consisting of 155,160 words and 21,551 lines. Only 39 (1.107%) of 3,522 individual hyphenations are reversed incorrectly. In contrast the simple heuristic makes 98 faulty decisions (2.783%).

In summary our approach dominates the simple heuristic regarding the number of wrong spellings without being free of errors itself. This is important if a researcher depends on an automated disambiguation of the end-of-line hyphenated words due to the size of the text or missing expertise for deciding the correct spelling. Furthermore our approach can be helpful to considerably reduce the manual effort scholars have for checking correctness. For the tested text all but one¹ error of our approach occurred for words without any information in the internal attribution and the external dictionary. Thus a researcher can focus on these not reliable cases instead of checking every word separated by a line break. This will reduce the effort to 298 instead of 733 individual hyphenations in the edition of 1770 (40.655%), 222 instead of 1,063 in 1774 (20.884%), 197 instead of 1,180 in 1780 (16,695%), 62 instead of 1,339 in 1820 (4.630%) and 270 instead of 3,522 in the concatenated text (7.666%).

While nearly all errors of our approach occurred for words without information in both the internal attribution and the external dictionary, skipping the second step would result only in slightly increased error rates. In contrast using the external dictionary without an internal attribution would lead to apparently more errors. Both issues may be due to the historic word forms and proper names found in the text. However a large amount of entries in the internal attribution which requires that the text under consideration is relatively large seems to be the important factor for lowering the number of errors and reducing the semiautomatic effort respectively. Keeping this in mind, the approach can easily be extended by filling the internal attribution with larger corpora so that reversing the hyphenation of a relatively small text will benefit from the advantages described above. The same can be done in step two by using multiple external dictionaries.

Acknowledgments
This research was funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) [grant number 01UG1247] as part of the project “Semi-automatische Differenzanalyse von komplexen Textvarianten” under the direction of Prof. Dr. Thomas Bremer, Prof. Dr. Paul Molitor, Dr. Jörg Ritter and Prof. Dr. Hans-Joachim Solms. Also we would like to acknowledge and thank our project collaborator Susanne Schütz.

Notes
¹ This exception is a contradictory case for the word “par-tout” in the edition of 1780 which was guessed falsely with hyphen as it was found 17 times with this spelling in the text but only without hyphen in the external dictionary. The situation is a different one if the four variants of the text are considered in all as the spelling without hyphen was used more often in the other editions than 1780.

References
1. Susan Rennie (2001) The Electronic Scottish National Dictionary (eSND): Work in Progress Literary and Linguistic Computing 16(2):153-160

2. Manfred Kammer (1989) WordCruncher*: Problems of Multilingual Usage Literary and Linguistic Computing 4(2):135-140

3. S. Hockey and J. Martin (1987) The Oxford Concordance Program Version 2 Literary and Linguistic Computing 2(2):125-131

4. Gregory Grefenstette and Pasi Tapanainen (1994) What is a word, What is a sentence? Problems of Tokenization In third International Conference on Computational Lexicography (Complex'94):79-87,Budapest

5. Guillaume Thomas François RaynalHistoire philosophique et politique des établissements et du commerce des Européens dans les deux Indes - book six, in editions 1770 (Amsterdam), 1774 (The Hague), 1780 (Geneva) and 1820 (Paris)

6. ABU : la Bibliothèque Universelleabu.cnam.fr, retrieved 2014-02-28 10:48:28 UTC","txt","2","",""
"2022","15","On Metaphor in Text Visualization Prototypes","9","The content of this presentation develops from previous research and writing on the “Glass Cast,”a prototype for mapping and visualizing complex knowledge networks in which time is crucial, and on “PlotVis,” an interactive visualization resource for displaying XML-encoded fictional narratives that departs from ways of modeling narrative typical of literary pedagogy (see, e.g., Dobson, Michura, Ruecker, Brown, and Rodriguez 2011). Digital humanities scholars (e.g. Zepel 2013) have argued that by thinking about visualization as a tool, we can gain insight into visualization’s purpose in DH scholarship, particularly as a form of “visual thinking.” This perspective on visualization informs the approach we adopt in this presentation. Specifically, we describe aspects of the development of two visualization prototypes, offering a detailed overview of how these prototypes work. We also theorize visualization in terms of the concept of metaphor, examining the implications for visualization of the metaphors implicit  o the respective structures of our experimental prototypes. How does metaphor shape and perhaps even constrain perceptions of the purpose of the two visualization prototypes we discuss? In attending to questions of metaphor and visualization, we contribute to ongoing theorization of the role of visualization, broadly conceived, in digital humanities scholarship, 


Fig. 1: Rendering from 3D Model, ""Glass Cast"" Prototype (Left); Still Image of XMLEncoded Literary Narrative from ""PlotVis"" Prototype (Right).

Elsewhere (Peña and Dobson 2013), we elaborate on the conceptualization of the Glassn Cast as part of an effort to trace the usage of “visual literacy” and related notions through time and across different knowledge domains. As we explain, the aim of this experimental prototype is to represent networks chronologically and to facilitate the examination and exploration of these networks from different views in a three-dimensional visualization environment (see Figure 1). The Glass Cast serves as a tool for tracking the origin and mobilization of concepts across time and through different disciplinary fields, a key challenge in humanities and social sciences scholarship. Enabling the examination of knowledge networks along the lines of time, discipline, and connection between texts and authors required a three-dimensional representation.

In order to facilitate such a display, we adopted the metaphor of the “glass cast,” thinking in particular about those types of casts in which three-dimensional figures have been impressed in the core of geometric shapes such as cylinders and polyhedrons. The use of such a metaphor in the Glass Cast visualization is intended to structure user interactions around the kinds of experience typical of interactions with the artifact from which the interface take its name. Yet the metaphor of the glass cast is also meant to leverage the understanding of the affordances of the prototype for those who interact with it; the Glass Cast namely (but not exclusively) provides not only a general reading of the data that is showcased, but also permits the display of another level of information depending on the side of the prism that faces the reader. Metaphor is thus germane to any understanding of the purposes of the Glass Cast as a scholarly visualization tool.

The Glass Cast aims to showcase abstract relationships between data that are hardly (or impossibly) acquirable from non-visual means, whether because the nature of the data is different and therefore these relationships are not explicit, or otherwise. This property of some visual resources to communicate relationships and the “intellectual skill” required to read or interpret them is what Balchin and Coleman (1966) defined as graphicacy. Shaped through the chosen metaphors, these abstract relationships reveal new layers of information and patterns from either new or already existing data. In the particular case of the Glass Cast, we see this metaphor as a tool to (amongst other possible outcomes) seize the possibilities that the new media gives us to look back and through disciplines in a single artifact. In this context, visualization provides a powerful means of displaying the complex processes through which new disciplines form and at the same time constitutes a rethinking of disciplinarity.

PlotVis, which we developed as part of an interdisciplinary project on reading, writing, and teaching complex fiction, emerged out similar concerns with disciplinarity and, in particular, with disciplinary practices. Specifically, the prototype was designed to augment conventional approaches to teaching the concept of plot in fiction, which have tended to rely on a static visualization known as Freytag’s Pyramid. Unlike this static, linear representation in print media, PlotVis, a digital tool, allows users to model and interact with XML-encoded literary narratives in three dimensions. A number of different metaphors (e.g. the Fibonacci Series, tubes, building blocks, cells, the cabinet of curiosities) dictate the structures of the multiple views that can be used to visualize encoded text (see Figure 1).

Incorporating multiple metaphors into the PlotVis prototype to facilitate a range of views on a single encoded text (or corpus of encoded texts) underscores an important point, which is that the ways in which plot is visualized informs and sometimes constrains a reader’s understanding of the very concept of plot. Ways of modeling narrative that have traditionally relied on the Cartesian graph, wherein time is plotted on the x axis and the fortunes of the hero or the disposition of the action (whether it is ‘rising’ or ‘falling’) is plotted on the y axis, have for example led many readers to expect literary narratives to conform to this sequence of events. Given this consequence of visualization, PlotVis was (like the Glass Cast) developed to radically alter and, importantly, expand user engagement in order to do justice to the complexity of plot as a central concept of literary criticism. This presentation opens up an opportunity to elaborate on the influences of metaphor on visualizations in PlotVis. While  he metaphors serve as tools for displaying different views on the same text, how might PlotVis metaphors structure users’ understanding of the goals of literary criticism?

In conclusion, in the case of both prototypes, we consider how visualization mediates participation within a scholarly discipline and ask, “What does metaphor have to do with this?” By participation, we mean the kinds of scholarly engagement a visualization interface enables and how such engagement might be informed by an interface’s metaphor entailments (see, e.g., Kerr et al., 2013). This presentation thus provides a forum for exploring the relationship not only of metaphor to visualization, but also of visualization to disciplinarity.

References
Balchin, W. G. V., & Coleman, A. M. (1966). Graphicacy should be the fourth ace in the pack Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization, 3(1), 23-28. doi: 10.3138/C7Q0-MM01-6161-731

Dobson, T. M., Michura, P., Ruecker, S., Brown, M., and Rodriguez, O. (2011). Interactiv visualizations of plot in fiction. Visible Language, 45: 169–91.

Kerr, K., Hausman, B. L., Gad, S., & Javen, W. (2013). Visualization and rhetoric: Key concern for utilizing big data in humanities research.

Peña, E., and T. Dobson. (2013). Visualizing knowledge networks: The Glass Cast prototype Paper presented at Research Foundations for Understanding Books and Reading in the Digital Age. New York: September 26-27

Zepel, T. (2013). Visualization in the digital humanities: Tool or ‘discipline’? Retrieved fro http://www.hastac.org/blogs/tzepel/2013/01/09/visualization-digital-humanities-tool-or-%E2%80%98discipline%E2%80%99","txt","2","",""
"2023","15","On Reusability and Electronic Literature","10","1 Writing Longevity
This paper is a return to an open argument: it addresses a critical issue that, as of yet, remains unanswered. Through direct engagement with notable digital writers, we explore issues of reusability and obsolescence in electronic literature. A historical account suggests that closed formats seemingly dominate the elec- tronic literary landscape, contrary to the open culture which writers, publishers and scholars working within this field tend to promote. In order to investigate this matter, we focus our attention on two of the field’s most prominent an- thologies, the Electronic Literature Collection, Volume 1 (2006)[hay, 2006] and Volume 2 (2011)[bor, 2011], curated by the Electronic Literature Organization. Of the 62 works anthologised in Volume 1, an assessment of the 25 pieces con- sidered poems shows that only five can be thought of as open. By “open”, we mean that readers can reasonably access the underlying code. By “open” we do not mean to refer to open access publishing. Our paper is about reusability and access at the level of content creation not consumption, open-source not open access. Thus, in the earlier collection, approximately 20% use an open format. In Volume 2, over half the works use closed formats. By availing of closed-source approaches to publication, the reusability of digital literature is sacrificed, and the works remain at the risk of obsolescence. Furthermore, the open ethos of digital culture is neglected. Non-digital poetry is presented in an open format. The codex is open, developed heuristically over centuries courtesy of a speculative problem-solving feedback loop between author and publisher. The transcribed word has escaped from the monk’s cell. The only time that language is obfuscated is when the addresser wishes to keep the contents of a communication understandable or decodable by a select few. Contrary to the common view that digital art is more open than its predecessors, electronic lit- erature is actually at variance with centuries of open book culture. We are not concerned with commercial or proprietary considerations, but with the notion of “openness”. We do not deny the disseminative qualities of electronic platforms, but focus solely on the openness of the cultural apparatus. Our purpose is not to criticise the ELO or its authors, but to determine why they chose closed platforms, and if issues surrounding reusability, digital preservation, produc- tion and maintenance costs were factored into their creative decisions. To their credit, the ELO and the field’s leading scholars recognised these issues from creative literary practices: “Electronic literature doesn’t come on bound, offset-printed pages. Keeping it on a shelf doesn’t mean that it will be easy, or even possible, to read it in the future. Even putting it into a vault with controlled temperature, light, and humidity won’t ensure its availability.”[Montfort and Wardrip-Fruin, 2004] In recommending approaches to the preservation of electronic literature, Montfort and Wardrip-Fruin encourage authors to avail of open standards: “Those who use open systems and adhere to open standards when creating electronic liter- ature have a much better chance that the format of their literary works will be supported, or decipherable, in the future.”[Montfort and Wardrip-Fruin, 2004] Their warning to authors is based on the reality that closed systems and un- known specifications “are far more difficult to migrate and emulate”, and that such systems are typically controlled by small groups which “may lose interest” or change a “standard without warning, so that older works of electronic lit- erature no longer work on new platforms.”[Montfort and Wardrip-Fruin, 2004] However, Montfort and Wardrip-Fruin also acknowledge that authors do base their selections on artistic considerations: “A closed system may provide im- portant capabilities that are otherwise not available, and some closed systems may be very well suited for the type of literary creation in which authors are interested, so there may be good reasons for authors to use a particu- lar closed system.”[Montfort and Wardrip-Fruin, 2004] Authors doing so must be conscious, they argue, that “such a choice could affect the longevity of their works”[Montfort and Wardrip-Fruin, 2004].Montfort and Wardrip-Fruin’s “Acid-Free Bits: Recommendations for Long Lasting Electronic Literature” is the seminal account of how digital literature should be developed with the threat of obsolescence in mind. In this paper, we hope to build on their work, identify- ing if authors are indeed mindful of such recommendations, and what precisely influences their decisions when it comes to choosing a platform.

2 Methodology
We surveyed contributors from both volumes of the Electronic Literature Col- lection since this provided a list of authors whose work is considered, by the field’s most respected body, of a standard suited to publication under the man- tle of “digital literature”. This allowed us to avail of convenience sampling. We developed a brief questionnaire comprised of open-ended questions, allowing re- spondents the freedom to provide answers that were not shaped or guided by our assumptions. The questions were as follows: 1. When creating those poem(s) included in the ELO Collection, what were your reasons for choosing the tech- nologies that you did? 2. As a writer/artist working with digital media, do you take into account issues relating to reusability? 3. As a writer/artist working with digital media, do you take into account issues relating to obsolescence? 4. As a writer/artist working with digital media, do you take into account issues relating to production and maintenance costs? 5. On the subject of technologies (software and/or hardware) being adopted by digital writers/artists, is there anything else that you would like to add? 6. If you are interested in engaging with us further in relation to your work as a digital author, please pro- vide your name and preferred contact details. You can be assured of anonymity unless otherwise agreed. The research question did not require a measurement or comparison of groups, rather, it sought to elicit the technological motiva- tions of authors. A pluralistic approach to qualitative analysis was used as we were reluctant to be constricted by any one method, potentially missing the importance of certain passages. Repeated readings of the data, combined with a comparison of coding, meant that a more complete understanding could be achieved

3 Findings
A number of thematic axes emerge from our interpretation. One corresponds to author notions about the perceived fragility or stability of digital platforms. Transience and fluidity have clearly come to be associated with digital modes of encapsulation. This is arguably reflected in the subject matter which many of these authors treat; the fragility of memory. As evidenced in our data, associa- tions are made between the ease with which an artefact can be replicated, and the ease with which it might achieve permanence. Authors view the fluidity of digital media as opposed to the fixity of print. This runs counter to the true na- ture of some digital media, particularly closed standards. It is interesting that some authors make what is, particularly in relation to the standards they adopt, something of a false association. It may be a product of authors falling victim to the hyperbolic language that surrounds digital platforms, or, this theme may have emerged because authors focus on the text, rather than the underlying electronic systems. This was supported by explicit responses: “I have always tried to [take into account issues relating to obsolescence]. And yet most of my works are dead now. I think that is the nature of the beast...Now I do only work in HTML/ASCII text so it can be resurrected more easily.” To further test this hypothesis, this paper will present findings as to how digital authors view their work, and whether or not they make a distinction between the literary and paratextual elements of their pieces. Doing so is significant in discerning if author expectations match reality. Another theme to emerge is that of collabo- ration, which has become an important part of the literary process, particularly in relation to electronic works. This can dictate the material aspects of a piece, as authors are restricted to using familiar technologies. Furthermore, we suggest that a lack of reusability – in essence, simple building blocks – may be the cause of this reliance on collaboration. Respondents tended to cite personal reusabil- ity in favour of more communal approaches: several authors revealed that they have their own library of reusable components. Restrictions and constraints that are a product of technical expertise are somewhat unique to this medium, as writers are required to work with, rather than for, the medium. Authors of non-digital literature send their manuscripts to publishers, who in turn produce a book – the author does not necessarily know theworkings of the production process. Literary production on digital platforms requires that authors possess at least an understanding of computing sufficient for communication with their technical collaborators. We are going to present the findings of our interactions with the authors rather than our perspectives – therein lies the novelty.

4 Pragmatism & Virtue
Software development itself can be viewed ethically or pragmatically. That is, some would declare that software development done in the open is measurably better in a practical sense. Others would hold that it is ideally better in the moral sense. Electronic literature may use open or closed formats for distribu- tion. The classic modern examples of this are Web technologies versus products like Adobe Flash. The fact remains that authors may still choose to distribute the source-code for their creations even if the packaging is closed. Furthermore, just because the packaging of the Web is open does not mean that the author has made any concessions to reuse and reusability. Few authors here have placed their materials and code into online repositories and/or code versioning systems. We take both approaches to our assessment. Pragmatically, successful digital phenomena like the Internet, built on open protocols, and Android, built on open source, indicate that this model serves authors and innovators best. Eth- ically, we take virtue theory and apply it to epistemology: considering the act of sharing from a value-neutral position, the virtue (the mean) is openness, the lack of which is secrecy, with “promiscuity” being excess. To contextualise this position, consider non-digital literature, and the level to which its constituent parts are invisible to its readers. We will present our findings to the Digital Humanities community, entering into discussion on the construction of digital literature as typified by the ELO’s contributors, addressing the reusability of such from pragmatic, ethical and literary perspectives.

References
(2006). Electronic literature collection 1. In Hayles, Montfort, Ret- tberg, and Strickland, editors, Electronic Literature Collection Volume One.

(2011). Electronic literature collection 2. In Borràs, Memmott, Raley, and Stefans, editors, Electronic Literature Collection Volume Two.

Aarseth, E. J. (1997). Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Lit- erature. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Book, Whole.

Benjamin, W. (1934). The Work of Art in the Age of Me- chanical Reproduction. Penguin, London.

Hayles, N. K. (2007). Electronic literature: What is it? v1.0.

Heidegger, M. (2010). The question concerning technology. In Krell, D. F., editor, Basic writings: Martin Heindegger. Routledge, London.

Hyde, L. (2012). Common as Air: Revolution, Art, and Owner- ship. Union Books, London.

Manovich, L. (2002). The Language of New Media. The MIT Press. Book, Whole.

Montfort, N. and Wardrip-Fruin, N. (2004). Acid-free bits: Recommendations for long-lasting electronic litera- ture. v1.0.

Wardrip-fruin, N. and Montfort, N., editors (2003). The New Media Reader. The MIT Press.

Williams, S. (2009). Free as in Freedom, volume paperback edition reprint. SoHo Books, Lexington, KY, USA. Book, Whole.","txt","2","",""
"2024","15","Open-Access Cultural Heritage Resources and Native American Stakeholders: A Case Study from Chaco Canyon, New Mexico","2","Digital Archives are typically designed to address the needs of specific audiences. In the case of cultural heritage resources, the stakeholders invested in digital archival resources can be harder to gauge and further complicated by historical, economic, religious, political and legislative issues. In this poster, I present a case study profiling these complexities: an archive of historic or legacy data on the cultural heritage of a sacred Ancestral Pueblo site known today as “Chaco Canyon” (located in northwest New Mexico, U.S.).

The poster is framed in three sections. Part one documents the ways in which academics and cultural heritage professionals tried and failed to engage native communities when initially building the Chaco Digital Initiative. I highlight some of the reasons those efforts were unsuccessful and the ways in which we succeeded by engaging in the process of tribal consultation. I also discuss some of the reasons our project was ultimately accepted if not embraced by various tribal representatives. This case study is presented in the context of current international efforts, such as Mukurtu, to create community-based repositories for cultural knowledge as well as issues of digital repatriation.

In the second part of the poster, I outline the culturally sensitive issues we encountered during the course of the project and the technical and social solutions we used to address them. Such issues include withholding images of human remains from image searches and decisions about how to handle documents containing drawings of human burials. In this section, I briefly describe our engagement in legal disputes and repatriation claims related to the Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation Act passed by the United States Congress in 1990.

In the third part of the poster, I discuss ongoing efforts to engage with descendent communities in ways that allow the Chaco Research Archive (CRA) to be a resource for cultural empowerment. Structural inequalities facing tribal historic preservation offices often hinder their ability to access and utilize resources like the CRA. I outline current efforts to engage in a more active dialogue and outreach activities to facilitate the use of this digital archive by tribal representatives.

To conclude, I summarize the lessons we have learned through the process of building a digital archive devoted to Indigenous cultural heritage and provide recommendations for best practices.","txt","2","",""
"2025","15","Orthography and Biblical Criticism","2","Abstract
Biblical Hebrew exhibits considerable orthographic variability. A single word may be spelled in multiple ways—often within the same book. In this study, we set out to determine if these differences in spelling correspond in any way to scholarly theories regarding the authorship of the Pentateuch. We use a statistical test that is designed for use when there are many features to take into account, each of which occurs only sparsely. Our results indicate that despite the tortuous editing processes and countless generations of hand-copied manuscripts, certain statistically significant correlations between orthography and the hypothesized sources remain.

1 Introduction
The Pentateuch has been attributed to several major sources. We investigate here whether there exists a statistically significant correlation between these postulated sources and variations in spelling in the received Masoretic text.

We consider the source units about which there is broad agreement among Bible scholars, namely, the classic four-source division of the text into J, E, P, and D1, plus the consensual source H. We only considered words occurring in paragraphs for which there is relative agreement among scholars. We also compared genres—narrative and legal—since different genres might employ different conventions. (We ignored poetry with its distinctive language register.)

Regarding orthography, we examined the use of consonants to represent vowels, a practice that has changed over time. The Canaanite languages—Hebrew among them—were generally recorded in alphabetic writing sans vowels. With time, certain characters began to serve double duty, representing vowels, as well as consonants. These letters are known as matres lectionis (“mothers of reading”). The written representation of vowels increased from one century to the next, but it appears there was variation even within a single period.

While matres lectionis proliferated, another process complicated matters. When a word’s pronunciation evolved so that a particular consonant stopped being pronounced, the letter representing that consonant was not always written. For this reason, we classify spellings as either “neological” (reflecting innovative orthography) or “paleological” (conforming to earlier norms).

We have, then, two labelings to work with: 

By source and genre: J, E, E-law, P, P-law, D, D-law, H, or H-law. For simplicity, we will refer to these nine categories as “sources.”
By orthography: paleological or neological. 
We apply a statistical test, Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel (CMH)2, to check whether there is a correlation between the two labelings, that is, whether any particular source is more paleological than others.

2 Possible Approaches to the Statistical Problem
Assume we have two sources, A and B, plus an orthographic classification, and would like to check whether the classifications are correlated.

2.1 The Naïve Approach
A naïve approach is to count the total frequencies of neological and paleological syllables for each one of the sources and then run a χ2 test for the resulting 2×2 table. We believe this approach is not good. If A has a different word distribution than B, it is possible that even when the sources have identical spelling the naïve test would declare the two classifications strongly correlated, simply because one tends to use certain words that are spelled as neological more often. Working with aggregated data is therefore most likely to catch word distribution differences between sources, rather than spelling differences.

2.2 Filtering
Andersen and Forbes3 conducted an extensive automated study of spelling in the Bible. They created 65 classes, based on grammatical form, vocalization and stress. Within each, they used the naïve approach, aggregating all words in a class and checking the χ2 score of the A/B and plene/defective classifications. As they use aggregated data (within each class), they still face the word distribution problem, and in particular their method is vulnerable to words like ððð (lo ̄) that appear frequently and mostly in one form. They tackled this problem with several ad-hoc filters and rules, such as filtering out words that almost always appear only in one form (see, e.g., [1, Chap. 10]). However, on a conceptual level, it seems that whatever set of filters is used, there is still the problem that differences in word distribution between different sources is interpreted as spelling differences. It appears they could not exhibit a conclusive relationship between stress and spelling (see [1, Epilog]), which seems to undermine the rationale behind dividing words into those classes.

2.3 New Approach
Our goal is to identify spelling differences even when each source may have a different distribution of words (e.g., legal texts tend to use legal terminology). The appropriate statistical technique is CMH. The idea is to bypass the language distribution problem by having a 2 × 2 contingency table for each word in the language, describing the number of neological/paleological occurrences of the word in each source. The test combines the data from all the 2 × 2 tables in a way that gives weight to the statistical significance of the data in each table, ignoring the frequencies of the word in each source.

We enumerate events at the finest possible granularity, classifying each syllable of each occurrence of a particular word in the text. For each syllable, we have one stratum (in the statistical sense of stratified data) containing a 2×2 contingency table describing the number of neological/paleological occurrences of that syllable of the word in each source.

This observation, as simple as it is, is conceptually important and is crucial for getting sound statistical data on the problem. As a side effect of using CMH, we avoid ad-hoc filters and rules. 

3 Experimental Design and Results
We have a stratum for each syllable and use the tagging of the biblical text into word senses (Strong number). We consider two sources at a time, computing the following statistics:

the χ2 and p-value of the CMH test;
the validity of the χ2 test with the Rule of 5;
the common odds ratio;
the p=1−α confidence intervals for the logarithm of the common odds ratio, taking α = 0.05.
The p-values and the ln(odds) values for the pairs of sources are tabulated as follows:


The cells with tildes are those that failed to pass the Rule of 5 [3].

In the following table, the number in cell (i, j) tells us how much source i is more likely to be paleological than source j. Roughly speaking, if the cell (i, j) = 0.44, then i uses the paleological form 20.44 ≥ 1 more often then j. If it is zero they have the same frequencies, 20 = 1; if it is negative, source i is less paleological, 2−0.44 ≤ 1.


Thus, D-law appears to be the most neological.

4 Discussion
Our results appear to be of potential interest for several reasons.

For Bible scholars, they suggest that the countless scribes who edited, expanded, and copied the text(s) that eventually crystallized into the Masoretic text did not change enough to obscure the characteristic spelling of individual units. Our findings open the door to new approaches in the critical analysis of biblical texts, as the value of orthography in such contexts has thus far been underestimated.
The simple statistical test we use cannot disentangle the many authors of the Bible. However, it does produce some interesting results, that we hope would be combined with other data to shed light on the fascinating question of how the Bible, as we know it today, evolved. In particular, the observation that Deuteronomic narrative is more neological in spelling than Priestly law may be of some value in the ongoing debate regarding the relative dating of P and D. It is possible that that there is some hidden random variable that strongly affects spelling, which might better explain the results. However, in spite of much effort (e.g., see [1]), such a hidden random variable has not been identified.
Outliers in the analysis may suggest alternate classifications for some linguistic phenomena. The most prominent example for that is the holam syllable פֹּה (po) in the word ציפור (tzi-por). The experts labeled ציפור as paleological and ציפר as neological, while our data seems to indicate the opposite (in D-law there are 2 occurrences of ציפור and none of ציפר, in P-law 2 occurrences of ציפור and 9 of ציפר, though D-law is overall more neological than P-law).
For textual analysis,more generally, this work suggests that the Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel is an appropriate statistical measure, when features are sparse. 
References
1. S. R. Driver (1913). An Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament. Edin- burgh.

2. N. Mantel and J. L. Fleiss (1980). Minimum expected cell size requirements for the Mantel-Haenszel one-degree-of-freedom chi-square test and a related rapid procedure. American Journal of Epidemiology, 112(1):129–134.

3. F. I. Andersen and A. D. Forbes (1986). Spelling in the Hebrew Bible. Biblical Institute Press.","txt","2","",""
"2026","15","Our Marathon: The Boston Bombing Digital Archive","2","In May 2013, graduate students and faculty members at Northeastern University's NULab for Texts, Maps, and Networks began work on Our Marathon: The Boston Bombing Digital Archive (www.northeastern.edu/marathon). Motivated by the interest Northeastern’s students and faculty members displayed in sharing their stories about the 2013 Boston Marathon bombings with one another, Our Marathon is an ambitious endeavor to create a central repository of stories and content related to the event and its aftermath. In the same ways that the September 11 Digital Archive and The Hurricane Digital Memory Bank utilized crowdsourcing to gather material, Our Marathon has reached out to a wide range of individuals (within and beyond the Boston community) to collect stories, photos, social media, and oral histories.

The project is invested in the role stories and community-building play in responding to traumatic events: it encourages members of the public to share the stories they may have already told about the Marathon on sites like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, and it provides a site for individuals to process and to reflect on the event in a variety of genres. Like its archival predecessors, Our Marathon is committed to creating a digital forum that has value to individuals in the immediate present and to researchers and other interested parties in the decades to come. Using the Omeka web-publishing platform, the archive has been attentive to the long-term preservation standards favored by archivists and university librarians, gathering and updating metadata on its items with DublinCore standards in mind. That being said, the project also seeks to convince an audience beyond these academic contexts that the work of digital humanists is also valuable to them.

The ongoing work of building the Our Marathon digital archive has raised several questions that may be of interest to other digital humanists. How do investments in academic and non-academic audiences inform a digital archive’s content, interface, and accessibility? How can digital archivists productively collaborate across disciplines at home institutions, with students and scholars at other academic institutions, with community organizations, and with media partners? What are some of the challenges of creating a digital archive about a traumatic event shortly after its occurrence and within close proximity to many of the communities and areas directly affected by that event? What are the advantages and disadvantages of crowdsourced initiatives? How can digital archives compellingly represent and catalogue material like Facebook statuses and Tweets for both researchers and the public? What steps can digital humanists take to ensure long-term preservation of their digital projects? We also encourage attendees to navigate the archive and to share their own stories with Our Marathon.","txt","2","",""
"2027","15","Pelagios 3: Towards the semi-automatic annotation of toponyms in early geospatial documents","10","Introduction
Since place names form the underlying semantic content of almost all geographic documents, the ability to identify them in texts and images is essential in any attempt to work with, compare or interpret them. For early maps and geographic texts this ability is especially important, because while they rarely conform to standard geometries or schemas, they often provide the earliest attestations to towns, peoples, and other spatially localized phenomena. Tools, infrastructure and resources for collating, aligning, and exploiting toponyms in early maps and geographic documents would therefore have a broad and significant impact across a range of fields, including Archaeology, History, Classics, Genealogy and Modern Languages.

In this paper we showcase early work on the detection of possible toponyms in digitized texts and scanned old maps. It builds upon the successful Pelagios initiative which has been connecting a variety of heterogeneous online resources related to classical antiquity. In contrast, Pelagios 3 will extend its scope to the European, Islamic and Chinese Middle Ages, but focus predominantly on geographic works. These in turn will form a core body of material around which we hope to see a more diverse body of references accumulate in time.

Since our ultimate aim is to enable humanities scholars to annotate and discover places in documents for themselves, we discuss our use and adaption of existing open source tools within a framework that puts a premium on flexible, lightweight and easy to use resources. Moreover, that discussion will be based on two real-case scenarios, in order to demonstrate the strengths of our approach and flag up potential issues that require further attention. 

Mapping places from texts: the Vicarello Goblets
Our first test case tackles the issue of extracting place names from a text. The Vicarello Goblets are a collection of four silver drinking vessels dated to around late third or early fourth century AD, engraved a land itinerary between Gades (modern Cadíz, Spain) and Rome. Each goblet indicates the road stations along the route (varying between 104 and 110 on each goblet), as well as the distances in miles between them. These unusual ‘texts’, the limited range of places that they represent, the easy identification of the majority of locations, along with the fact that there are images and transcriptions available online already, makes the Vicarello Goblets an optimal source for trialling the methodology that we will use on much larger corpora of texts, including travel guides, gazetteers, encyclopaedias and more.

To obtain annotations from the Vicarello Goblets, all the toponyms are matched against places in a URI-based gazetteer, that is, a directory of places which assigns a persistent Web address to each entity, allowing for disambiguation at a global level. The engravings on the Vicarello Goblets already represent ordered lists of toponyms. Therefore we can directly match the lists against the gazetteer based on name similarity, and then disambiguate by taking into account geographic proximity between different places in the list. For further documents which are of a less structured nature (i.e. which contain more free-form narrative text) we are experimenting with a combination of ‘geoparsing’ technologies, including the Edinburgh Geoparser and the Stanford NLP Toolkit. 

Identification is only half the story, however. The data model that we have developed for Pelagios 3 allows for rich item metadata that cleanly differentiates between information about the item and information about the places that relate to it (and how). For instance, toponyms in a document may follow a certain sequence or layout. A simple mashup not only shows the toponyms from the four Vicarello Goblets on a map, but how they relate to one another as an itinerary. An information box at the bottom provides the information about the document itself (Fig. 1), while a small layer menu lets the user switch layers on and off for each individual goblet to allow immediate comparisons. Selecting a place displays a popup with a textual transcription from the Goblets, and metadata drawn from the gazetteer. What is noteworthy about this mashup, however, is not so much the map itself – for which comparable projects already exist – but rather that the map can be automatically generated from a simple Pelagios data file, containing item metadata and annotations in Open Annotation RDF format. Thus the pathway from data production to visualization is both efficient and highly scalable across large numbers of documents.

Extracting places from maps: Ptolemy’s Geographike Hyphegesis
Previous work on toponym recognition in scanned maps focuses on contemporary documents for the simple reason that old maps remain extremely difficult for machines to parse. Our proposal is to automate the identification of potential toponyms in terms of their location, extent and orientation on the map image, so that researchers can then associate the results with items in pre-existing gazetteer lists and ultimately with URI-based gazetteers. The example given here is of Ptolemy’s regional map of Ireland and Great Britain (Fig. 1), digitized by the British Library.

Our first processing phase generates a black-and-white mask image, which isolates and separates “background” from “foreground”. The next phase locates and characterises features – in our case, connected objects – on the foreground image using an algorithm that detects contours. Since toponyms often consist of multiple features, the final phase aims to connect the detected features to groups that most likely represent a single toponym. Fig. 2 shows that for our test case the algorithm detected toponyms with a high success rate, correctly locating 38 of 41 places.

Our initial work with additional (including visually more complex) maps has raised several error scenarios and prompted some initial responses:

Ornament irritation. Symbols and decorative elements that have structures in size and density (and colour) similar to toponyms frequently cause false positive detections. We expect that heuristics concerning the spatial density of matches and amount of overlap between them may be able to alleviate this problem, as these false detections exhibit distinctive clustering behaviour. 
Line bleed. Toponyms that intersect or are located near lines (often borders, graticules or rhumbs), can distort the recognition result. We expect that proper tuning of image processing parameters in the first separation step (such as colour thresholds, or thresholds determining the behaviour of line removal algorithms) may be able to lower the number of such errors, but it is unlikely that they can be avoided altogether. Increasing the efficiency of human verification and correction is essential for addressing this challenge. 
Toponym crosstalk. Especially in the presence of distracting elements such as lines, our algorithm can erroneously lead to toponym bounds that run across two neighbouring toponyms.. As in the case of errors caused by line bleed, it is unlikely that these can be avoided, but metrics based on the morphology of the toponym may help to detect and flag them to a human operator for verification.
Split toponyms. Our current processing approach does not specifically deal with toponyms that are split across multiple lines. An example can be found in Fig. 2, where ""Alvion Insvla Britannica"" is split into two separate toponyms. Once again however, morphology and the spatial proximity of features will allow us to present human operators with potential candidates for merging into single features.
Large area & curvilinear toponyms. Likewise, our heuristics are ill-suited to detect toponyms that cover large areas (e.g. regional toponyms), which are oriented significantly differently from other toponyms on the map, or which run along a curved baseline. Here, we may require a human to explicitly demarcate their bounds, although fortunately the size of such toponyms usually restricts their frequency in a given document. 
While we expect that the amount of manual tuning and intervention will be further reduced by refining the processing workflow, toponym identification on old maps will never be a fully automated process. Therefore, we are also developing user interfaces and graphical tools that help both professional and public users carry out the manual work of aligning imagery to the gazetteers. On the one hand, we are experimenting with ways of re-presenting the user with re-oriented and visually enhanced image fragments so that they can be more easily interpreted. On the other we can use the spatial information in such images, and data from previous annotations, to propose likely candidates for ‘one-click’ annotations, and auto-completion of transcriptions.

Concluding Remarks 
The data produced will provide us with opportunities to visualise both maps and texts in new ways. For instance, corpora of structurally similar documents, such as portolan charts, can be directly compared in terms of the places they refer to, the toponyms used, and their sequence along a coastline, in a similar manner to the itineraries described above. Alternatively, we can also blend out and replace toponyms with either modern or ancient alternatives where known, helping make these important documents easier to interpret for both scholars and public alike (Fig. 3). Most importantly we see this as the firsts steps in drawing new connections between the extraordinarily diverse range of early geospatial documents that have come down to us.


Fig. 1: Mashup showing route of the Vicarello Goblets (http://pelagios.github.io/demos/vicarello-alpha/)


Fig. 2: Part of Ptolemy’s regional map of Ireland and Great Britain. (Ca. 1480 © The British Library Board. Harley MS 7182 ff.. 60v-61.) Toponyms identified automatically and annotated with oriented bounding boxes.


Fig. 3: Original map (left) and map with original toponyms dynamically blended out and replaced with corresponding modern place names.

References
Rainer Simon, Elton Barker, Leif Isaksen. (2012). Exploring Pelagios: A Visual Browser for Geo-Tagged Datasets. In International Workshop on Supporting Users' Exploration of Digital Libraries. Eneko Agirre, Kate Fernie, Arantxa Otegi, Mark Stevenson (Eds.) Cyprus, Paphos, September 27, 2012, pp. 29 - 34.

Schmidt, M. G. (2011), A Gadibus Romam: Myth and Reality of an Ancient Route. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, 54: 71–86.

Elliott, T. & Gillies, S. (2011). Pleiades: An UnGIS for Ancient Geography. Poster presented at Digital Humanities 2011, Stanford University. Available at: http://dh2011abstracts.stanford.edu/xtf/view?docId=tei/ab-192.xml

Grover, C, Tobin, R, Byrne, K, Woollard, M, Reid, J, Dunn, S & Ball, J (2010), 'Use of the Edinburgh geoparser for georeferencing digitized historical collections' In Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical & Engineering Sciences, vol 368, no. 1925, pp. 3875-3889.

http://nlp.stanford.edu/downloads/lex-parser.shtml

See, for example, http://vici.org/

http://www.openannotation.org/

http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/unvbrit/p/001hrl000007182u00060vrb.html

Rainer Simon, Peter Pilgerstorfer, Leif Isaksen, Elton Barker. (2013). Towards Semi-Automatic Annotation of Toponyms on Old Maps. In 8th International Workshop on Digital Approaches in Cartographic Heritage. Rome, Italy, September 19-20, 2013.","txt","2","",""
"2028","15","Photogrammar: Organizing Visual Culture through Geography, Text Mining, and Statistical Analysis","10","The Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information photographic dataset is a collection of over 170,000 monochrome and colour photographs, commissioned between 1935 and 1945 by the government of the United States of America. Offering a unique snapshot of the nation during the period, it serves as an important visual record for scholars and the public­at­large. The FSA­OWI photographic archive has been digitized by United States Library of Congress, and because the photographs were taken on behalf of the United States Government, access to and use of the collection is essentially free and open.

Under the direction of Professor Laura Wexler, (American Studies and Women, Gender & Sexuality Studies, Yale University), the Photogrammar project takes the conditions of this archive (pre­digitized and publicly accessible) as the starting point for a digital, scholarly and open source platform that builds upon, and significantly extends, the Library of Congress’ online collection. The subject of a successful Digital Humanities Start­Up Grant from the United States National Endowment for the Humanities, the project seeks to answer research questions that emerged from scholars at Yale University. Our paper will focus on three Digital Humanities techniques that we have used to analyze the corpus:

Geospatial: Computational derivation of latitude and longitude;

Text Mining: Vector­space analysis to expose thematic similarity;

Statistical Analysis: Contextual inference to “re­discover” missing metadata.

Each of these techniques is associated with significant information gain, relative to the previous state of scholarship on the corpus:

Geographic: The collection is often characterized as being about the dust bowl and rural poverty in the American south during the Great Depression. In fact, by mapping the photographs and analyzing photograph density at the county level by year, the popular characterization of the FSA­OWI does not hold. Rather, the scope of sight was much broader including a large focus on the United States Northeast and Midwest, as well as photographs beyond the continental United States such as the Virgin Islands and Europe.

Text Mining: The 1940s ontology of the collection only allowed a photograph to be classified in one category at once. By looking at latent patterns in the free­form textual descriptions, we are able to surface photographs that participate in multiple and overlapping clusters. In this way, we can discover thematic similarity between the work of several different photographers, active at different times and in different places in the country (and around the world). This approach reflects a more general turn towards ‘latent’ patterns in unstructured data within the archive.

Statistical Analysis: The relatively large scale of the collection (available as both digitized negatives and physical prints) as well as constantly changing organizational systems through the years has unfortunately left a majority of the negatives with minimal documentation. Utilizing latent metadata attached to the photographs, we are able to take individual photographs and to put them back into strips of four and five. In turn, this allowed for us to insert new metadata into the photographs. For example, if a frame with an unknown photographer and location is between photos by John Vachon in Chicago, then we know the unknown frame is by this photographer in this location. We will discuss the statistical methods applied using R.

These three techniques open up new questions about this collection and historic period, and challenge previous scholarship. We believe the Photogrammar project can serve as one example of the general question of how to engage with large­scale digital archives of visual culture. This question is of particular importance for scholars who seek to bring Digital Humanities techniques to “Big Data” collections, whether those curated by libraries, museums, or scholars themselves. We anticipate both similarities — and important differences — with European archives of the same period, including the UK Mass Observation Archive (1937­1960s), and forthcoming collections hosted by Europeana Online.

In addition, we will discuss how this project offers a new, user­friendly way to access a visual archive of this size by sitting at the intersection of public and digital humanities. We will discuss the ways in which we intend to open up the collection to contributions from the public at large, with lessons learned from previous attempts to crowdsource metadata for this collection (Flickr Commons / New York Public Library 20084, Flickr Commons Library of Congress 20095). We will show a prototype of a publically­accessible Geographic Referencer, to allow end users to more accurately and appropriately locate photographs on both current and historic maps. And we will discuss some of the challenges in incorporating crowd­sourced metadata corrections into a historic archive, while preserving the integrity and historic character of a large visual collection. 

References
http://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/fsa/

http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/res/071_fsab.html

http://americanstudies.yale.edu/faculty/laura­wexler 

http://www.flickr.com/photos/nypl/sets/72157610969038056/

http://www.flickr.com/photos/library_of_congress/sets/72157618541455384/","txt","2","",""
"2029","15","Play as Process and Product: On Making Serendip-o-matic","10","Abstract
“Play” is not a foreign concept to the digital humanities nor to the Digital Humanities Conference. Indeed, there have been a number of presentations over the years that focus on the ludic interactions between player and game in virtual worlds; that consider game design; that attempt to preserve experiences of gameplay; that view play as integral for the creation of new texts or interpretation of already existing ones; or that philosophically connect play to pedagogy. There have even been panels that examine the literal mechanics of play in the context of video. But while play has been central to these discussions, it has most often been treated very seriously.

In contrast, this presentation will highlight a project that placed playfulness at the center of its development and of its final project. Serendip-o-matic (serendipomatic.org) is a “serendipity engine” that connects large texts (e.g., entire articles or syllabi) or personal research libraries to digital materials located in libraries, archives and museums around the world. It recreates the surprising discoveries that frequently accompany research. Serendip- o-matic was built in less than five days as part of One Week | One Tool (OWOT, oneweekonetool.org). OWOT is a playful departure from traditional institutes funded by the U.S.’s National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) in that the outcomes are largely determined by its participants rather than by the institute’s organizers. And the team that designed and built Serendip-o-matic decided to place play at the center of its process and final product.

“Play” has been defined as the “free movement within a more rigid structure"". In the context of tool building, a playful process means dodging the rigid structures that so often define the tool development process. A digital humanities “barn-raising” destabilizes the established ways in which digital humanities tool building projects are traditionally formulated, facilitating a playful process. The impending deadline—just. one. week!—and the rapid-fire completion of tasks and decision-making made the building experience intense and challenging. This presentation will discuss the various ways in which the participants chose to frame the experience, from hack days to games to reality TV. Although it was a very real possibility that Serendip-o-matic might fail to launch on time (if at all), the artificial construction of the challenge—as an NEH institute, wherein the main goal was for participants to learn something—made the consequences of such failure less severe. Separated from the responsibilities of daily life, the immersive format of OWOT offered the team the opportunity to take more risks and engage in a playful practice of ideation, conceptualization, and making.

Play can also be a significant method for creating engaging user-experiences in design. This technique has been employed in a variety of user-experience environments, particularly those aimed at engaging the public with humanities and cultural heritage materials, such as the Tate Museum’s “Magic Tate Ball” and the Wellcome Collection’s “High Tea”. The playfulness of Serendip-o-matic is easily visible upon visiting the project’s website. The logo resembles a Rube Goldberg machine, and the colors and iconography throughout the site were chosen and created specifically to evoke the lively nature of the tool itself. The text throughout the site also broadcasts a playful attitude. For example, users are asked not to “select” or “upload” a “document” but instead to simply “grab some text.” Much of the work of the Outreach team during the week was spent crafting this text as well as the name for the tool, with the goal of preserving the playful feel of the entire enterprise.

In this presentation, members of the OWOT team will report on creating a playful digital humanities tool. In addition to discussing the rapid and ludic development atmosphere and the choices made to shape user experience, the presentation will discuss the playfulness that was encoded in the tool’s discovery algorithm, which uses named-entity recognition and text parsing to create a 'magic machine' that queries various collection APIs. We will also outline steps that were taken to create a playful voice throughout the deployment of the tool, including the creation of a mascot for the tool (the “Serendhippo”) and rules for public engagement for the mascot as well as the whole team. We will also report on the challenges of a playful project, one of which includes the consideration of how such playful work should be evaluated in the academy.

In conclusion, we will argue in favor of the benefits for incorporating more “playful work” in the context of academic research and scholarship and the significant role played by the interface and user experience design skills of several team members. As current digital humanities work relies on collaborative environments (including hackathons, maker spaces, maker challenges, etc.), opportunities like One Week | One Tool provide a space for playful work to encourage more creative risk-taking and engaging user-experiences within the context of digital humanities scholarship and practice.

References
Kirschenbaum, M., et al. (2009). “Twisty Little Passages Not So Much Alike: Applying the FRBR Model to a Classic Computer Game.” Digital Humanities 2009. University of Maryland, College Park. 23 June 2009.

Jones, S. E. (2009). “The Social Text as Digital Gamespace: or, what I learned from playing Spore.” Digital Humanities 2009. University of Maryland, College Park. 25 June 2009.

Bonsignore, B., et al. (2011). The Arcane Gallery of Gadgetry: A Design Case Study of an Alternate Reality Game. Digital Humanities 2011. Stanford University. 21 June 2011. Poster presentation.

Lowood, H. and J. McDonough. (2009). “The Open Archival Information System Reference Model vs. the BFG 9000: Issues of Context and Representation in Game Software Preservation.” Digital Humanities 2009. University of Maryland, College Park. 23 June 2009.

Kraus, K., R. Donahue, and M. Winget. (2009). “Game Change: The Role of Professional and Amateur Cultures in Preserving Virtual Worlds.” Digital Humanities 2009. University of Maryland, College Park. 23 June 2009.

McClure, D. W. (2012). “Exquisite Haiku: Experiments with Real-Time, Collaborative Poetry Composition.” Digital Humanities 2013. University of Nebraska-Lincoln. 17 July 2013. http://dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-155.html (accessed 29 October 2013).

Drucker, J. and J. McGann (2002). “Ivanhoe: A Game of Interpretation.” Digital Humanities 2002. University of Tubingen. July 2002. 67.207.129.15:8080/dh-abstracts/view?docId=2002_panel_060_rockwell.xml;query=play;brand=dh-abstracts (accessed 29 October 2013).

Rockwell, G. (2002) “Is Gaming Serious Research in the Humanities?” Digital Humanities 2002. University of Tubingen. July 2002. 67.207.129.15:8080/dh-abstracts/view?docId=2002_panel_060_rockwell.xml;query=play;brand=dh-abstracts (accessed 29 October 2013).

Harris, K. D. (2011). “Pedagogy & Play: Revising Learning through Digital Humanities.” Digital Humanities 2011. Stanford University. 20 June 2011. dh2011abstracts.stanford.edu/xtf/view?docId=tei/ab-242.xml;query=harris%20pedagogy;brand=default (accessed 29 October 2013).

Croxall, B. (2012). “Courting ‘The World’s Wife’: Original Digital Humanities Research in the Undergraduate Classroom.” Digital Humanities 2012. University of Hamburg. 18 July 2012.

McDonald, J. L., A. K. Melby, and H. Hendricks. (2010). “Standards, Specifications, and Paradigms for Customized Video Playback.” Digital Humanities 2010. King’s College London. 10 July 2010.

Salen, K. and E. Zimmerman. (2003). Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals. Cambridge: The MIT Press.

Korhonen H., M. Montola, and J. Arrasvuori. (2009). “Understanding Playful Experiences Through Digital Games.” In proc. of the 4th International Conference on Designing Pleasurable Products and Interfaces, DPPI 2009. research.nokia.com/files/p274%20-%20Korhonen.pdf (accessed 29 October 2013).

The Tate Museum. (2012). “Magic Tate Ball app.” Blogs & Channels. http://www.tate.org.uk/context-comment/apps/magic-tate-ball (accessed 1 November 2013).

Burgoyne P. (2012). “The Magic Tate Ball.” CreativeReview Blog. 15 May 2012. www.creativereview.co.uk/cr-blog/2012/may/magic-tate-ball (accessed 30 October 2013).

Wellcome Collection. ([2010]). High Tea. hightea.wellcomeapps.com (accessed 1 November 2013).

Birchall, D. and M. Henson. (2011). “High Tea Evaluation Report.”museumgames.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/44614076/HighTeaEvaluationReport.pdf (accessed November 1 2013).

Goldberg, R. et al. (2013). The Art of Rube Goldberg: (A) Inventive (B) Cartoon (C) Genius. New York: Abrams ComicArts.","txt","2","",""
"2030","15","Potential Criticism in the Digital Humanities","10","In this paper, I argue that the concept of potential criticism addresses many key challenges and issues involving cultural empowerment processes in the digital humanities. With the proliferation of digital humanities projects that engage with the study and analysis of large sets of digital texts, potential criticism proposes an analytical methodology that has broad applicability across different types of texts, media, and disciplines. At its core, potential criticism is an idea derived from the work of the Oulipo and recombinatory poetics. The Oulipo is an acronym for the Ouvroir de literature potentielle, which roughly translates into English as ""Workshop of potential literature."" The writers and mathematicians of the Oulipo focused on creating new works through the use of constrained writing techniques. Well-known members of the Oulipo include Georges Perec, Italo Calvino, and Raymond Queneau.

But constrained and algorithmic techniques can not only be used to generate new literary works, such methods also can be used to analyze existing texts, as evidenced by the work of the Oulipo's Harry Mathews and his Mathews's Algorithm. Mathews advances the idea that pre-determined and mathematical constraints can be used as a way of both recombining and analyzing existing texts. As Mathews states as the beginning of his essay explaining his algorithm: ""Potential reading has the charm of making manifest the duplicity of texts, be they oulipian or not."" (trans. Shannon Clute). This work has important consequence for cultural empowerment processes in the digital humanities. As we seek to analyze ever-larger bodies of digital texts through our digital humanities projects, we need new methodologies that can extract meaningful data sets for further analysis and discovery.

In our 2011 book, The Maltese Touch of Evil: Film Noir and Potential Criticism (Dartmouth College Press), Shannon Clute and I laid out how the methodology of potential criticism could be used to analyze moving image texts (specifically in our case, films noir). Our method has important implications for the digital humanities, which I will expand upon in this paper. First, we focused on a moving image archive to show how constrained analytical techniques can move beyond the analysis of alphabetic and/or literary texts. Potential criticism can be used on any digital text or medium. Second, echoing the work of Stephen Ramsay who deploys a similar methodology in his book Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism, the results of potential criticism are not an end in and of themselves. These new data sets, revealed through the application of mathematical or algorithmic means, produce new and generative starting points for further investigation and discovery. Furthermore, the resultant data sets are not merely a random remix of a body of texts, they are constrained data sets that reveal potentially new information about the overall corpora itself.

This paper argues for the broader applicability of the concept of potential criticism in the digital humanities. I will highlight two practical demonstrations of potential criticism as a working methodology. First, we used the concept of potential criticism in the Film Annotator's Workbench Project from Indiana University (IU) in conjunction with IU programmer Will Cowan. Cowan's work on this project was funded by the NEH. In this project, which began in 2010, we used pre-existing digital humanities tools (in this case, the Film Annotator's Workbench and Omeka) to demonstrate how the potential criticism methodology can analyze and annotate a large number of films noir. Second, we similarly used the concept of potential criticism as the basis for our new investigations around films noir, which was published in 2011.

The goal of this paper is to share our findings and disseminate our approach to potential and algorithmic criticism. I will contribute my first hand observations from our multi-year investigations into how potential or algorithmic criticism can be used to analyze any kind of digital text and media, especially our work around film and video analysis and annotation. Moreover, I will discuss how potential criticism as a working method can empower certain types of scholarly communities around shared corpora of texts. Both the Film Annotator's Workbench Project and our Maltese Touch of Evil Project operate on the open web through freely available tools to publicly disseminate constrained data sets for other scholars to explore and discover.

In keeping with the theme of this year's DH conference, potential criticism as a practice intentionally encourages scholars to work across disciplinary boundaries to share their insights and ideas in a workshop fashion. In many ways, potential criticism needs to be an open-ended practice that does not presuppose the primacy of any particular hermeneutic method, but rather encourages a variety of approaches in order to reveal the potential information that exists within large bodies of texts. In closing, potential criticism can operate as a method for rapidly testing out new hypotheses that will advance our cultural understanding of large corpora of texts and media. This is one of the benefits, but also one of the key challenges, of potential criticism. Each algorithmically derived data set is novel investigation into a body of texts. Therefore, potential criticism generates its own kind of scholarly archive that requires consideration and development. It is imperative among digital humanities scholars, researchers, and programmers to continue to explore and build new ways of making newly generated data sets readily available to other scholars through the open web. 

References","txt","2","",""
"2031","15","Probing Digital Scholarly Curation through the Dynamic Table of Contexts","2","In this paper, we theorize about the role of the curator – or perhaps it would be more accurate to say “custodian” or even “collection designer” – in preparing electronic texts for use in an online digital environment. This scholarly role is becoming increasingly important to new forms of knowledge dissemination as a result of the growth in aggregating or mashing up existing digital content. The goal of these aggregations is to add value for particular purposes, as seen in initiatives such as the Journal of Digital Humanities, which aims to collect already published materials into quarterly thematic collections, and the related website Digital Humanities Now, which curates weekly the feeds of other digital humanities websites (Digital Humanities Now).

By analogy with the definition of a curator as “The officer in charge of a museum, gallery of art, library, or the like; a keeper, custodian” (“curator,” def. n. 6), the digital scholarly curator performs a similar role with respect to the circulation of digital content, though with a number of significant differences. Gallery or museum curators, for instance, have their own scholarly and professional training and preparation, often with respect to proper handling and display of fine art and other valuable physical objects. There are those who feel that at least some curators should be considered artists themselves (e.g. Ventzislavov). There is also widespread acknowledgment that curators who work with digital materials require a different set of competencies. Melody Madrid, for example, reports a study that resulted in a list of 20, divided into the categories operational and managerial. Digital scholarly curation also harnesses social media technologies (e.g. crowdsourcing, folksonomies) to encourage a new level of user participation in the management and preservation of digital content (Poole). Not quite an editor, but acting as a mediator between the producers of these contents and its audience through such activities as selecting and reframing them, the digital scholarly curator is in a rather unique position. Our discussion considers this role in relation to the Dynamic Table of Contexts (DToC) interface, a generalized tool for the dissemination of digital text that enables the designer of the collection to mediate specifically between the XML encoding of the text and the affordances that such encoding provides in the reading interface (Brown et al.; Dobson et al.).

The Dynamic Table of Contexts (Fig 1) is a joint initiative between the Interface Design research team of the Implementing New Knowledge Environments (INKE) project, the Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory (CWRC), the University of Alberta Press, and the Voyant Tools project. The DToC currently leverages four principal components of a digital text: the actual text of the document, a table of contents, an index, and XML encoding of the document. The goal of the prototype is to provide an online reading environment where the table of contents provides a conventional overview of a book while at the same time incorporating the index terms and XML tags and the text to which they point (Ruecker et al.). The terms and tags can be selected and deselected, providing interactivity between these three means for accessing and navigating the content of the text or collection.


Fig. 1: Dynamic Table of Contexts Interface

The ability to leverage XML markup as part of the navigational interface is a distinguishing feature of the DToC. Customization of that affordance is enabled by what we call the DToC’s “curator mode,” which is distinct from the reading mode in that it allows technically adept superusers to create customized tag lists to serve as navigational aids alongside the index terms, as well as to determine the organization of the table of contents (login is not required, the curated view is expressed through a unique URL). In a print edition, and in particular for anthologies, it is necessary for the editor to decide which of the various alternatives will be used to organize a particular table of contents. For example, a collection of essays might be organized

alphabetically by title
alphabetically by author’s last name
chronologically
by theme
or by some other principle, in order to ensure a certain kind of development or coherence from beginning to end.
A collection of poems, for example, might add organization alphabetically by the first line of the poem, for cases where the poems do not have a title, and other arrangements are also possible, for instance by geographic location, language, or genre. In the case of an instructor preparing a course pack, the arrangement would naturally correspond to the sequence in which the materials will be used in the class. In the history of print, the possibilities for multiple representation of contents were limited.

In addition to the selection and organization of the contents themselves, curators of DToC collections need to make choices with respect to how the encoding works in the interface. Given the more generic and multi-purpose nature of XML encoding, particularly its use to structure a text, curators need to select which tags the DToC interface will display to the reader, and what user-friendly labels to use for those tags. For many purposes (although not all), the structural encoding can be set aside in favor of semantic encoding (when present). For choices among these tags, there is probably some golden mean that’s most appropriate for generic use; the primary benefit of the Dynamic Table of Contexts is to allow variants for more specific uses. Tags that have been rarely used may already be covered by the index, or may be too insignificant to take room on the list. On the other hand, in cases where the tags have been used heavily enough, it may not be useful to include them since it would result in too great a density of hits.

There are also large differences between what kind of curation of tags is required – depending on whether a schema or tagset has instead been applied throughout a collection, such as in the Brown Women Writers Project’s use of the Text Encoding Initiative – as opposed to highly customized versions of the TEI adapted to the needs of a particular text. Finally, the curator is also enabled to label how tags will appear in the interface, so that readers are not asked to decipher cryptic forms such as <biblStruct>, but are instead presented with labels for such tags that are meaningful in the context for which the curated text or collection is being prepared. This functionality is useful in cases where there is a nuanced difference between two similar tags that needs to be conveyed to the readers (Fig 2).


Fig. 2: Dynamic Table of Contents Curator Interface

What this means in terms of the training and qualifications of the DToC curator is that the person needs to hypothesize how the target readers will be dealing with the material, and to use the curatorial functions to customize the view of the text in the DToC interface to meet the anticipated use case(s). In the case of class instructors, to a certain extent the job will be simplified since the course pack has been chosen purposively for the class. In other situations, there may be multiple and possibly conflicting anticipated use cases. The curator also needs to be comfortable enough with XML not only to choose appropriate tags and rename them, but also, if needed, to specify XPath queries to locations in the document that cannot be identified through tag names alone. There will be considerable variation in XML expertise amongst curators, and a previous user study of ours on an earlier version of DToC indicated that a closer relationship to the encoding correlated with more positive experiences of the DToC interface (Dobson et al.).

The paper will frame our understanding of digital scholarly curation in relation to more traditional, historical understandings of curation and representation of contents and will demonstrate the curator mode in the DToC interface. Our previous user studies of the interface found both considerable confusion on the part of users with respect to the role of the encoding or tagging in the DToC (Brown et al.), and, among those who understood it, considerable emphasis on the importance of the XML markup and its ability to shape the reader experience in the interface. As one user said in mousing over the XML Markup pane: “Well, this seems to me the most relevant section, so whoever puts that together is pretty much the wizard in this Oz” (Dobson et al.). Our discussion will incorporate results of the next user study we are conducting on the DToC, with a stress on the curator mode, that will probe these findings which go to the heart of the DToC’s affordances. Our aim will be to gain a fuller understanding of the ways in which users with a range of technical knowledge understand the role of markup in the DToC interface, and their understanding as both readers and curators of the curatorial role. This study will inform our understanding not only of the ways in which reading environments such as the DToC can effectively leverage XML encoding, but more generally of the ways in which the idea of curation is rapidly evolving within the online scholarly environment.

References
Brown, Susan, Brent Nelson, Stan Ruecker, Stéfan Sinclair, Nadine Adelaar, Ruth Knechtel, Jennifer Windsor and the INKE Research Group. “Text Encoding, the Index, and the Dynamic Table of Contexts.” Paper presented at the annual Digital Humanities conference (DH2013), Lincoln, Nebraska. July 16-19, 2013

“Curator.” Def. n. 5. The Oxford English Dictionary. 2013. OED Online. Web. 1 Nov. 2013.

Digital Humanities Now. http://digitalhumanitiesnow.org/

Dobson, Teresa, Brooke Heller, Stan Ruecker, Milena Radzikowska, Mark Bieber, Susan Brown, and the INKE Research Group. “The Dynamic Table of Contexts: User Experience and Future Directions.” Paper presented in the panel “Designing Interactive Reading Environments for the Online Scholarly Edition” at the DH2012 conference, Hamburg, Germany. July 16-20, 2012.

Kholeif, O. The Curator’s New Medium. Art Monthly. February 2013, (363):9-12. Ipswich, MA.

Little, G. Thinking Like Curators. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 2013, 39(2), 123-125. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2013.01.003

Madrid, Melody M. A study of digital curator competences: A survey of experts. The International Information & Library Review, Volume 45, Issues 3–4, December 2013, pp 149-156.

Poole, Alex H. “Now is the Future? The Urgency of Digital Curation in the Digital Humanities.” Digital Humanities Quarterly 7:2 (2013).

Ruecker, Stan and the INKE Research Group. “Introducing the Dynamic Table of Contexts for Scholarly Editions.” Paper presented at the Modern Language Association (MLA) Conference. Los Angeles, CA. Jan 6-8, 2011.

Ruecker, Stan, Susan Brown, Milena Radzikowska, Stéfan Sinclair, Thomas M. Nelson, Patricia Clements, Isobel Grundy, Sharon Balasz, and Jeff Antoniuk. “The Table of Contexts: A Dynamic Browsing Tool for Digitally Encoded Texts.” In The Charm of a List: From the Sumerians to Computerised Data Processing. Ed. Lucie Dolezalova. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009. pp. 177-187.

Ventzislavov, R. (2014), Idle Arts: Reconsidering the Curator. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 72: 83–93. doi: 10.1111/jaac.12058","txt","2","",""
"2032","15","Problems in Encoding Documents of the Early Modern Japanese","9","1. Introduction
As part of its KOTONOHA (meaning ‘words of the language’ in classical Japanese) Project, the National Institute of Japanese Language and Linguistics (NINJAL) is conducting a morphological analysis of Japanese classics. Both the selection and digitization of classic documents are required in order to execute the analysis correctly. Digitization and morphological analysis have been done thus far on the literature of several ages and styles (Ogiso et al., 2012; Ichimura et al., 2012; 2013), and various text corpora have been published. These text corpora are marked up with NINJAL’s original Document Type Definition (DTD). However, some elements are used in common on all corpora but basically are not unified nor standardized. Under this circumstance, it enables structural analysis and string extraction from a single corpus but causes problems with structural comparison and numerical analyses between several corpora. Thus, it is necessary to design and mark up a unified definition from a higher level in order to conduct analyses concurrently.

In the previous study, we examined the possibility of converting classic documents with TEI-compliant XML (Kawase et al., 2013), in particular, by designing a tag-set and strictly structuring an old wood-block printed book from Sharebon’s “Keisei-kai Futasuji-no-michi” (published in 1798, e.g. Fig. 1) as a model case, and sorted out this problem. This work aims to provide further insights into those problems and propose a solution.


Fig. 1: Excerpt image of Sharebon's “Keisei-kai Futasuji-michi” (owned by NINJAL)

2. Significance of Encoding Classic Documents
The reason for choosing Sharebon as a subject is because it is important primary linguistic data from the early modern period (Keene, 1999) and it has the following three features: (1) published in the broad age from the 18th to the first half of the 19th century; (2) uses colloquial words and expressions among conversations between characters; (3) abundantly describes things in Edo (former name of Tokyo) language and Kamigata (Kyoto-Osaka region) language.

Therefore, describing Sharebon in a machine-readable manner has profound significance not only for bringing numerical analysis of unexplained colloquial expressions of the modern period into reality but also for facilitating humanities research in language history and descriptive bibliography. Furthermore, since many texts that have a similar structure to Sharebon were published over the same period of time, this study will offer a common format for archiving coeval literature. 

3. Issues in Encoding Sharebon
In order to analyze the manuscript from a corpus linguistic viewpoint, not only outward mark-ups but also internal mark-ups of both document structure and linguistic structure are required. In general, Sharebon is composed of a combination of three parts: the front matter; the narrative body that contains colloquial expressions and descriptive texts; and the back matter. For instance, in the case of “Keisei-kai Futasuji-michi”, the narrative body is made up of two chapters, ‘Natsu-no-toko’ (Summer Alcove) and ‘Fuyu-no-toko’ (Winter Alcove). Since the composition of this whole document is well accorded with the composition of an orthodox Western manuscript, we may mark up most of the elements in reference to TEI P5: Guidelines (Burnard and Baumanm, 2007). Table 1 shows the list of elements with an explication of their roles used to mark up the document.

The problems incurred in the process of encoding Sharebon can be broadly classified into two matters: (A) text formatting on a #PCDATA (character data) level; and (B) structuring ruby annotations. We will discuss these two matters in more detail in the following sections. 


Fig. 2: List of elements with an explication of their roles to mark up Sharebon

3.1 Text Formatting on #PCDATA
To design and assure a high-quality corpus in terms of linguistic resources, it is necessary to index information about lexical morphemes (e.g. word class, inflected forms, pronunciations) at the body-text level. However, since there are three problems in the sentences of early modern Japanese, it is difficult to conduct morphological analysis properly: (A-1) voice markings called dakuten are missing where they should be; (A-2) corresponding phonetic characters called hiragana and katakana are not unified; (A-3) iteration symbols called odoriji are unmodified.

For example, dakuten makes a phonetic shift from ka, ki, ku, ke, ko (written in hiragana letters as か, き, く, け, こ) to ga, gi, gu, ge, go (rendered as が, ぎ, ぐ, げ, ご). 

3.2 Structuring Ruby Annotations
Such annotations are the small-text characters rendered alongside the base text. In vertical writing, ruby is typically printed on the right-hand side. However, since the three problems exist, it is difficult to mark up both outward information and the linguistic structure simultaneously: (B-1) ruby text carries extended characters (gaiji), damaged and missing characters, and some typographical errors and omissions; (B-2) words of such text and base text are not in one-to-one correspondence; (B-3) There can also be another ruby annotation on the left-hand side simultaneously.

4. Means for Solving the Problem
4.1 Text Formatting on #PCDATA
At NINJAL, for problems (A-1), (A-2), and (A-3), the character level is corrected using the original elements of <vMark>, <kana>, and <odoriji>, respectively (Ichimura et al., 2012; 2013). We accurately describe the text formatting in a uniform way by combining the TEI elements <seg> and <choice> (e.g. Fig. 2).

According to TEI P5: Guidelines (Burnard and Baumanm, 2007), <seg> (arbitrary segment) represents any segmentation of text below the ‘chunk’ level, and <choice> groups a number of alternative encodings at the same point in the text. Distinctions in the corrections of (A-1), (A-2), and (A-3) can be shown by writing @type, holding selectable values from vMark, kana, and odoriji, to the attribute of element <seg>. The original text marked with TEI element <orig> (original form), along with the corrected text (the optimal version for morphological analysis) marked with TEI element <reg> (regularization) are written below the <choice> level.

This description policy preserves both the outward and linguistic structure, even if problems (A-1), (A-2), and (A-3) carry over extended characters or omissions in the original manuscript, and brings morphological analysis into reality as well. 

4.2 Structuring Ruby Annotations
At NINJAL, regarding structuring ruby annotation, since priority is given to morphological analysis, words and characters are encoded using the original defined element <ruby> with an attribute @rubyText (e.g. Fig. 3a). To express this structure with TEI-compliant XML, we can simply substitute the element <ruby> with <w> (word) and the attribute @rubyText with @ana (e.g. Fig. 3b). However, the important ruby text information is described inside @ana as a value, we cannot solve problem (B-1) under this policy. Depending on the technology, CSS, XHTML, and HTML5 platforms might be considered as alternatives in order to structure ruby annotation (Benoit, 2010) (e.g. Fig. 3c).

Here, each <ruby>, <rt>, and <rp> represent inline elements that contain base text with ruby annotation, the superscript which comes over the base text, and ruby parentheses which are used to wrap around opening and closing parentheses <rt>, respectively. However, since the ruby text comes over the #PCDATA level, we cannot solve problem (B-2) under this policy. In addition, we have to solve the above problem and problem (B-3), securing the coexistence of ruby on the right-hand side and left-hand side, simultaneously.


Fig. 3: Examples for encoding ruby annotations


Fig. 4: Examples for ruby annotations on both sides

Imaginably, as shown in Fig. 4a, we will be able to suggest one solution to express the character on base text in a stand-off fashion, in case of the base text carries double ruby on the both sides. However, the above suggestion may work only the character string and both sides of ruby correspond each other. As shown in Fig. 4b, when ruby on either side does not fit or exceed the each target character, this suggestion would be inapplicable.

Currently, we have difficulty in choosing a path that allows specifying both the object outline and structure of Japanese language together; therefore, a new definition over ruby annotation is needed as a means to this end. As shown in Fig. 5, our current solution is to mark up the manuscript in a way which makes it possible to output two types of XML file that specify the information of the object and the structure of Japanese language separately, rather than to fulfill both at the same time.


Fig. 5: Solution for problem (B); exporting two types of XML file

5. Conclusion
In this study, developing a corpus for historical documents in a comprehensive and versatile way was considered the ultimate goal. We devised a tag-set based on the TEI-element, and structured Sharebon’s “Keisei-kai Futasuji-michi” as a model case. We examined the problems of (A) text formatting on #PCDATA level and (B) structuring ruby annotations which were previously unsolved. For problem (A), a concrete policy to bring morphological analysis into reality, by combing the element of <seg> and <choice>, was considered. For problem (B), major difficulties of structuring both outward information and the linguistic structure of Japanese documents at the same time were presented, and problems to solve were pointed out. Especially, ruby annotation is absolutely imperative for Japanese documents. This extra-textual addition is common and employed almost everywhere from historical documents to modern comics for highlighting the pronunciation or meaning of a word. Our future challenge is to examine a compromise that satisfies both structures simultaneously while working out the problems with the TEI Council.

Funding
This work was supported by the collaborative research project “Design of a Diachronic Corpus” and “Study of the History of the Japanese Language Using Statistics and Machine Learning” carried at the National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. 

References
Benoit, G. (2010). Expanding, Facilitating, and Applying Ruby to Explore User Engagement with Encoded Texts, http://web.simmons.edu/~benoit/rc/ruby/ Ruby-Poster.pdf (accessed 15 October 2013).

Burnard, L. and Bauman, S.(2007).TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, Text Encoding Initiative.Arlington, MA: TEI Consortium. http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/P5/ (accessed 15 October 2013).

Ichimura, T., Kawase, A. and Ogiso, T. (2012). Structuring Colloquial Early Modern Japanese Text and Its Issues of Definition, Proceedings of the 96th IPSJ SIG Computers and the Humanities, CH96: 1-8.

Ichimura, T., Kawase, A. and Ogiso, T. (2013). Structuing the Corpus of Share-bon, Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Corpus Japanese Linguistics, 249-258.

Kawase, A., Ichimura, T. and Ogiso, T. (2013). Problems in TEI P5 Encoding on Colloquial Japanese Documents of the Early Modern Period, Proceedings of the IPSJ SIG-CH/PNC/ECAI/CIAS Joint Symposium 2013, 7-12.

Keene, D. (1999). A History of Japanese Literature Volume 2: World Within Walls, Columbia University Press, New York.

Ogiso, T., Komachi, M., Den, Y. and Matsumoto, Y. (2012). UniDic for Early Middle Japanese, Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Language Resource and Evaluation (LREC), 911-915.","txt","2","",""
"2033","15","Problems in Modeling Transactions","9","Introduction
In a paper we presented at the 2012 TEI Members' Meeting[1] and published in the Journal of the TEI[2], we introduced the idea of the ""transactionography"" as a way to model transactions found in historical financial records (HFRs). In this short paper we briefly review transactionography as a model and discuss a few problems that have arisen as we have been testing it.

Transactionography
We have developed a data structure for recording transactions found in historical financial records and linking that data structure with the segments of running prose or apparently tabular information that attest it or refer to it. While this is certainly a labor-intensive approach, we consider it nonetheless one worth serious consideration.

Our model is similar to the TEI P5 models for contextualization, which offer TEI-compliant models for standoff markup of extra-textual information in files such as prosopographies and gazetteers. Thus in the same way that a prosopography maps how a name of a person that appears in running prose refers to said person, a transactionography maps how the financial records that attest a transaction refer to said transaction. That is, there exists a real-world thing or action that is being referred to by the words (or other marks) in a document we are encoding. The transactionography is a separate file that brings together information that is attested in multiple archival documents to describe a series of transactions.

 We noted in our previous paper:

 

Our model of a transaction is perhaps somewhat more inclusive than some dictionary definitions. We think of a transaction as a coherent set of one or more transfers of something of perceived value from one entity to another. A transfer has three main components, which may be summarized as ""what"", ""from whom"", and ""to whom"". Furthermore, the ""what"" is likely to be divisible into a certain amount (that is, a quantity and a unit) of a given commodity. It is worth noting that transfers take place at a certain point in time, even if we don’t know when that time was. Or, at least, transfers are completed at a certain point in time. A transfer may occupy a signiﬁcant duration of time from start to finish. For example, a transaction may be conducted by ground postal service.     

 Some common transaction categories can be identified.

A standard exchange of money for goods is a purchase, consisting of two transfers: e.g., I transfer $2 to the convenience store, and a tiny little bottle of apple juice is transferred from the store to me.
A similar trade that does not involve currency is a barter, for example, trading a large red paper clip for a fish-shaped pen.
A gift is a single uni-directional voluntary transfer; a single uni-directional involuntary transfer is called theft or embezzlement.
A set of transfers among more than two entities may be referred to as a multilateral trade.
To model the ""what"", the TEI <measure> (or <measureGrp>) element seems tailor-made for the purpose. To model the ""when"", the attributes from the TEI att.datable class seem to be quite reasonable: they can handle specific dates, times, date ranges, and particular dates that took place sometime within a range.

 

For representing ""from whom"" and ""to whom"" we have created new attributes, fra= and til= (Norwegian for ""from"" and ""to"") as the attributes from= and to= already occur in TEI, and creditor= and debtor= have different meanings in different contexts.

Problems
Data capture interface
Complex transactions
In our model, a _transaction_ is a series of one or more _transfer_s from one entity to another. (An entity here is a person, an organization, or an account.) This works well for simple purchases, barters, and trades (each of which comprises 2 transfers), as well as gifts and theft (each of which comprises 1 transfer). It also works well for simple multilateral trades. E.g., if Mr. Baxter gives 86.50 USD to Mr. Sheldrake, who gives flowers to Ms. Kubelik, who gives basketball tickets to Mr. Baxter, the transaction comprises three transfers.

 Our model does not yet include a way to handle more complex transactions that involve multiple entities paying and receiving different amounts of cash. Such a transaction might look like this:

 

A pays $2

B pays $4

C gets $3

D gets $3

Our model requires the addition of a fifth entity to hold contributions before distributions can be made. A fictional or temporary account entity could easily be used for this purpose. Colloquially, we might refer to this account as a ""pot"" or ""kitty,"" borrowing terminology from card playing games.A different model, one perhaps in which transfers were listed by person or account rather than by event or date, might solve this problem. E.g., the following models the example above.


(Note that this example is quite simplified, in that whatever C & D give A & B in return for the $6 is not included.) However, this sort of model seems overall more cumbersome in the simpler cases.While we note this as an outlier case that our model handles only clumsily, we question how often it would occur in practice, and thus how much of a burden on the encoder of HFRs it would present.

Services
We noted in our poster presented at TEI 2013[3] that services are a problem, but adding the attribute @service to the TEI <measure> element might solve it. We quote from said poster:

Many historical financial records, however, include or are even primarily about the exchange of money for services (e.g., laundering, room and board, or domestic service). Since these services were more usually performed by women and often recorded by women, study of these types of HFRs is of particular interest to practitioners of women’s history.

In our “transactionography” we have heretofore used the TEI <measure> element, with its @quantity, @unit, and @commodity attributes, to represent that which is transferred from one person or account to another in a transaction. But in the laundry list case, the work performed by the laundress is not a “commodity” but a “service”, the service for which the boarder paid the boardinghouse keeper in this transaction. However, using the <measure> element with existing attributes leads to markup that fails to distinguish the purchase of a garment from paying for the service of laundering it. One possible solution is to add a new attribute, @service. Thus for instance, a line from a laundry list might be marked up as follows:


This solution seems to have broad application. E.g.:


We will not be surprised, however, if there are cases it does not handle well.

Another approach might be to think of ""shirt"" as the unit and ""launder"" as the commodity. This would have the advantage of not requiring the addition of an extra attribute to the <measure> element. And since we have marked the unit as ""count"" in both the examples of framing and shoe shining, these examples might suggest that this latter approach is more elegant than our more verbose use of @service. We wonder, though, whether the programming example might point to a place where the option of greater verbosity constitutes an advantage.Nor does the alternative approach offer a solution to at least two other complexities that occur when we try to formalize references to women’s work in HFRs. We might call these multiplicity and indirection. We quote again from our TEI 2013 poster:

 

By “multiplicity” we mean that the goods or services being transferred are actually a combination of distinct separate goods or services being transferred as a unit. A common example of this is a suit of men’s clothes, which at one point in the twentieth century might have meant either a jacket and trousers or a jacket, a vest, and trousers.

The problem of “indirection” occurs when the goods or services being transferred are referred to indirectly or metaphorically. ...

These two problems can, and often do, occur simultaneously. For example, the reference to “steak” on a restaurant receipt does not refer to a single chunk of uncooked meat as it would on the receipt from a butcher shop. Rather, it refers to the meat, and perhaps some sauce, in addition to the services of cooking the dish and delivering it to the table.

We do not know, at least not yet, which of these approaches is superior. However, we feel they are probably close enough to each other in expressive power and usability that the important thing, as Tommie Usdin points out[4], is for the HFR encoding community to pick one.

Conclusion
We have considered here some problems that have arisen as we have tested the transactionography model. We are aware of numerous projects in which scholars are working with problems related to markup of HFRs, and we have created a website with space for both discussion of these problems and display of proposed solutions. We invite our colleagues to contribute to Encoding Historical Financial Records <encodinghfrs.org> as we continue to explore TEI-conformant models for markup of these abundant archival records.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge C. Michael Sperberg-McQueen for not only finding problems with transactionogrophies, but also allowing us to bounce ideas around.

References
[1] Tomasek, Kathryn and Bauman, Syd (2012), “Encoding Financial Records for Historical Research”. Presented at _TEI and the C{rl}O{wu}D: the Text Encoding Initiative Conference, College Station, TX, November 8–10, 2012.

[2] Tomasek, Kathryn and Bauman, Syd, “Encoding Financial Records for Historical Research”. _Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative_, issue 6.

[3] Tomasek, Kathryn and Bauman, Syd (2013), “Laundry Lists and Boarding Records: challenges in encoding ‘women’s work’”. Poster presented at The Linked TEI: Text Encoding in the Web: the TEI Conference, 2013, Rome, Italy, October 2–5, 2013.

[4] Usdin, Tommie (2002), “When “It Doesn’t Matter” means “It Matters””, presented at Extreme Markup Languages 2002, Montréal QC. conferences.idealliance.org/extreme/html/2002/Usdin01/EML2002Usdin01.html","txt","2","",""
"2034","15","Process Data for Digital Scholarly Editions","10","Introduction
Working on scholarly edition in general can be seen as a chain of working steps. Each step leads to an intermediate result, which other steps may build upon. At the end of this chain stands the published edition as the final result. Traditionally these steps, thus the editorial process, are described in form of methodological guidelines and editorial principles. Digital scholarly editions not only add new aspects like the separation of data and presentation or the chance to include additional materials 1234, they might also change the way we document editorial processes. This seems particularly important for new forms of digital scholarly editions like open source editions5, work in progress editions 6, editions 2.0 7 or social editions8. Such editions are evolving over time, they are possibly incomplete (work in progress), they might have been created in a collaborative way by many editors, or they provide not only canonical texts but also accompanying materials or results from intermediate stages like graphemic transcriptions, pre-normalized texts etc. as raw data for further enrichment and research.

As a consequence it is questionable if traditional ways of documenting how an edition was made are still appropriate. If we want to deal with the fact that digital scholarly editions are no longer static resources but collections of evolving results, we must put a stronger focus on process aspects. For evolving scholarly editions we should consider to understand formal process documentation as an essential part of such editions.

Problems
First we have to define what we mean with editorial processes. Creating a scholarly edition includes a large number of activities like searching, collecting and evaluating sources, other textual witnesses, literature and images, the review of existing and preliminary editorial work, making transcriptions, collations, normalized texts, abstracts, indexes, glossaries. It also implies tasks like dicscrimen veri ac falsi, stylometric, paleographic, prosopographic, and sphragistic research. Some of these tasks have to be done only once, but the majority of editorial activities is either recursive and/or has to be repeated over and over again, e. g. for each charter of a collection.

Documenting such processes seems easy, but if we take a closer look, we find that the documenting of single processes requires a clear and formalized concept of processing steps based on the definition that a process is a directed activity which leads from one state to another. I assume that editorial activities can be separated from each other and can therefore be handled as addressable and formally describable units of action. This is a basic prerequisite for process documentation, because we need distinct entities to refer to. Each process has to be defined with its starting point, a defined ending point and a set of activities which lie in between. This means that we do not only have to describe activities, but we also have to create relations between a specific activity and the data sets which represent the starting and ending points of the activity.

Another issue is how we should describe editorial processes. This includes three basically inseparable sub-questions: (1) what should be documented to what extent (2) how should this be put into practice and (3) which data formats are feasible. The extent of documentation depends on the objectives of an editorial project, but a minimal set should include timestamps, actors (persons or algorithms), a formalized description and possibly an additional free-text description of the action and, as mentioned before, pointers to the initial and resulting data.

The second question deals with the problem that documenting single editorial activities seems to put a massive overhead to editorial work. But for the greater part this data can be generated automatically if we use appropriate working environments.  The question of feasible data formats is twofold: we have to distinguish between process data used within a project and data which becomes a formal part of the edition. The former needs little discussion, as it depends on technical environments. But the latter is still an open problem which requires further discussion and research although some solutions already exist. It seems that graph based models are particularly suitable for the problem 910, but also XML-based standards for process descriptions like PREMIS must be investigated as possibly adaptable models.

The third and most fundamental question is what can we do with this data or more pragmatic: why should we start collecting process data at all? Formalizing editorial processes and the availability of such data has multiple benefits. From a project management point of view this data can be used to get an overview of the project status at any point in time. One can use this data to find out for example how long a task takes on average, which might become important for future project planning. Process data also can be used to trigger actions like sending a message to co-workers if a certain state has been reached or even to move a document automatically along a predefined workflow based chain of tasks. In quality control process data can be utilized to identify systematic errors. 

From a user point of view quality control will become more important with new forms of scholarly editions. If an edition has many contributors, or if an edition has no final result, it is partly up to the user to decide if a particular element of an edition is trustworthy. Peter Robinson has claimed that every act of editing should be attributed to the person who did it, because this allows attribution and trust 11. Process metadata describing when and by whom an element was added or changed can therefore be an important indicator for the reliability.

Open ended and collaborative editions consist of an ever increasing number of representation forms and versions, which constitute multidimensional knowledge spaces. Process data can be used to construct references and therefore contexts between the single components of such a multidimensional scholarly edition 12. Hence, process data can give important directions when users want to leave the paths predetermined by editors.

Approaches
The problem of process planning and process documentation is of course not unique to scholarly editions. One example is software development, where many contributors can work on the same project, continuously creating new and refactoring existing code. This requires the use of software versioning and control system like Apache Subversion or Git for the creation and organization of process metadata which document different versions of files and development branches. In science there is a long tradition of hand written log books with the purpose to keep laboratory work reproducible and transparent. Nowadays these log books are replaced by electronic systems which generate and log great parts of process metadata automatically 13. 

Most advanced in this domain is business process management (BPM) as a discipline of business informatics 14. It is focusing on process optimization which is not the main problem with scholarly editions, but BPM has developed a domain specific terminology, conceptual frameworks, software tools and standards like WfMC, WSFL, XPDL, BPEL or BPMN, which turn out to be very useful for understanding our topic. Concerning the problems they try to solve document related technologies15, especially (enterprise) content management 16 17 seem to be more applicable to digital scholarly editions than BPM. Content management describes the life cycle of a document through a chain of states in an abstract way. Content management systems implement these formalized life cycles by providing states, workflows, users and roles. They are able to keep track of stages and versions, are able to automatically route documents through defined paths and to collect metadata for every stage and action. Enterprise content management must not be confused with web content management, as web content management systems are mostly simplistic, monolithic and proprietary applications, which are not suitable in terms of long time availability.

Conclusion
New open forms of digital editions require a stronger focus on editorial processes. This affects the planning of work, needs support for process specific workflows and requires process specific metadata which has to be seen as an essential part of an edition. Other fields, particularly (enterprise) content management has requirements similar to those of scholarly editions. Upcoming software tools for digital editions should investigate CMS with regard to process aspects and adopt useful features. Special focus has to be put on the development of an appropriate, interchangeable format for edition-related process metadata.

References
1. Sahle, P. (2013). Digitale Editionsformen, Vol. 2: Befunde, Theorie und Methodik. BoD: Norderstedt.

2. Robinson, P. (2013). Towards a Theory of Digital Editions. In: Variants – Journal of the European Society for Textual Scholarship, 10, 105-131.

3. Pierazzo, E (2011). A rationale of digital documentary editions. In: Literary and Linguistic Computing, 26, 463-477.

4. Dahlström, M. (2004). How Reproductive is a Scholarly Edition? In: Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19, 17-33.

5. Bodard, G. and Garcés, J. (2009). Open Source Critical Editions: A Rationale. In: Deegan, M, Sutherland K. (eds.) Text Editing, Print and the Digital World. Farnham: Ashgate, 83-98.

6. Kropač, I. H. (2008). Work in Progress: Vom Digitalisat zum edierten Text. In: Thumser, M., Tandecki, J. (eds.) Editionswissenschaftliche Kolloquien 2005/2007. Toruń: TNT, 167-183.

7. Boot, P. and van Zundert, J. (2011). The Digital Edition 2.0 and The Digital Library: Services, not Resources. In: Bibliothek und Wissenschaft, 44, 141-152.

8. Osborne, R. et al. (2013). eResearch Tools to Support the Collaborative Authoring and Management of Electronic Scholarly Editions. In: Digital Humanities 2013, Conference Abstracts, 334-337.

9. Osborne, R. et al. (2013). eResearch Tools to Support the Collaborative Authoring and Management of Electronic Scholarly Editions. In: Digital Humanities 2013, Conference Abstracts, 334-337.

10. DeFerrari, J. et al. (2002). Managing the Lifecycle of Information. Hamburg: AIIM.

11. Robinson, P (2013). Five desiderata for scholarly editions in digital form. In: Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts, 355-356.

12. Vasold, G. (2014). Progressive Editionen als multidimensionale Informationsräume. In: Ambrosio, S. et al. (eds.) Digital Diplomatics. The Computer as a Tool for the Diplomatist? AfD Beiheft 14, Köln: Böhlau, 75-88.

13. Potthoff, J. et al. (2011). Elektronisches Laborbuch: Beweiswerterhaltung und Langzeitarchivierung in der Forschung. In: Schomburg, S. et al. (eds.) Digitale Wissenschaft. Köln: hbz, 149-156.

14. Vom Brocke, J. and Rosemann, M. (2010). Handbook on Business Process Management. Springer: Berlin.

15. Kampffmeyer U. (2003). Dokumenten-Technologien. Hamburg: Project Consult.

16. DeFerrari, J. et al. (2002). Managing the Lifecycle of Information. Hamburg: AIIM.

17. Cameron, S. (2011). Enterprise Content Management. Swindon: BCS.","txt","2","",""
"2035","15","Producción de contenidos abiertos en museos. Un análisis crítico de los discursos museológicos en el medio digital.","10","1. Introduction
As widespread interest in the Open Data movement has grown in recent years  some museums from all over the world have started to share and provide their digital content with Internet users. These new practices not only involve users’ interest and traffic increase on museums websites but also magnify the institutional transparency which provokes a different conception of the museum authority. Then, we can find different ways of making available to explore and download high resolution photographs or exhibition catalogues as well as more complex procedures as open APIs development in order to allow users to create their own application based on museums data.

This paper seeks to establish the main issues related to museum discourses within the Open Data activities framework. Two case studies were chosen which construct their institutional and public digital identity on data openness. The Smithsonian Cooper-Hewitt Collection and the Rijksmuseum are well recognized by the professional museum community concerned with digital practices. Both museums had obtained important awards at the Museums and the Web 2013 conference as well as  being cited on several blog posts by some of the most relevant museum bloggers.

As L. Manovich argues: ‘The use of software re-configures most basic social and cultural practices and makes us rethink the concepts and theories we developed to describe them’ (2013, 33). This assertion implies a re-configuration of the museum in epistemological terms provoked by digital practices. Taking into account the Foucaultian notion of discourse, it is necessary to analyse both the museum digital content and the institution and professional framework that arrange and define the discourse itself.

The progressive Open Data implementation by institutions - not only by museums- could be interpreted as a sign of democratization even if this openness does not represent a new role for  museum institutions. However, as G. Lovink (2012, 49) states ‘visibility and transparency are no longer signs of democratic openness but rather of administrative availability.’ Then we could understand Open Data mechanisms in museums as just a public service which maintains the museum authority status according to digital age knowledge dissemination dynamics. Thus the question is whether open data is becoming merely a user service or something else?

In terms of open content access, users play an essential role receiving and reusing museum contents. Through open APIs they can elaborate computer mobile or tablet based applications. Eventually this option is oriented to amateurs, owners of specific informatics knowledge. The rise of amateurism and participatory culture argues for the author status dissolution. This is reflected in the reinterpretation of museum institutional authority. The museum is likely to maintain its status while granting more privileges to users.

2. Case Studies
In order to study further this question, two case studies were chosen whose relevant use of Open Data is creating new museum models on the Internet, although the data typology used by them is diverse as well as their public strategy. On one side, the New York Smithsonian Cooper-Hewitt Collection1 has presented a website in beta mode that reflects the physical state of the museum which is being refurbished at the same time. On the other hand, Amsterdam’s new Rijksmuseum website2 has been launched at the same time as the reopening of the museum.

One of the most significant aspects is that both museums have published their database APIs on Github3 allowing users to access the museum collections data or metadata and develop API based applications. The Rijksmuseum digital identity is defined by the appeal of high resolution images of the artworks - which are currently being offered in its own website app Rijksstudio- while the Cooper-Hewitt Collection strength lies in the provisional and documentary nature of its data - which is composed by the objects raw data and metadata- eventually improved by the museum staff as well as wikipedians. The museum become ‘human and fallible’, just like the public.  Moreover, the Smithsonian Cooper-Hewitt Collection website is making an exemplary use of open data including other features as biographical pages enhanced Wikipedia integration, public and open geographic identifiers or information concordances with other institutions.

The applications created by developers in both cases are a reflection of the museums digital strategy and conception. Clearly the Cooper-Hewitt collection apps -or visualizations- tend to be more experimental in contrast to the Rijksmuseum ones which also are similar to other museum applications -developed by the museums themselves- and are based on a definitive database. Likewise, Rijksmuseum apps play with the high quality of the artworks pictures rather than textual data on the  Cooper-Hewitt Collection apps, where developers draw  attention to data visualization or automated Tumblrs. 

Some of the Cooper-Hewitt collection applications best features are its digital work in progress  such as Curatorial Poetry Tumbrl4 , a stream of decontextualized descriptive texts pulled from museum collection meta-data, elaborated by the museum staff, or the visualization by Ruben Abad about the collection colour history5, have been documented on the Cooper-Hewitt Collection Blog. The process of developing apps acquires value by itself and this is reflected on the blog that documents the museum staff working activities. On the other hand, some of the Rijksmuseum apps, such as Faces of the Rijksmuseum6, which uses facial recognition, or Riiksify7, that mix a music playlist with the collection, were developed during the TNW Kings of Code Hack Battle 2012 held in Amsterdam, confirming once again a definition of the amateur user profile who is interested on APIs usage. Referring to P. Gorgels from the Rijksmuseum, they identify several target groups: the culture snacker, art enthusiasts and professionals, then to which group does the amateur/hacker user belong?

Until the launch of the Live API on Github, the Rijsmuseum had shared on the museum website some of the apps developed with its OAI API8 although it is worth noting that the Cooper-Hewitt Collection is going further, publishing on its blog interviews or text written by the developer itself about the elaboration of API based apps. Definitely this action could be interpreted as a sign of openness recognizing the value of users’ contributions. The use of Github, a collaborative revised hosting service for software development projects, reveals the museums interest on hackers/developers behaviour. Also the Github adoption by Rijsmuseum could be a symbol of openness and adaptation and make us to think whether it is the museum or the public who decide to introduce standards.

3. Conclusion
It is clearly evident that these Open Data museum practices can represent  different levels and a wide conception of openness. Although turning back to the introductory points, is the museum institution really breaking their walls thanks to this new trend or they are just building a new ones? In fact, these two cases reveal the existence of new boundaries, the terms and conditions webpage of the Rijsmuseum API, for example, shows how the museum control the use of its data. Therefore, should  users ever obtain the same status as the museum in terms of authority? By extension, are the applications developed by users being valued differently regarding the museums ones? Clearly museums do, in the digital age they still are institutions that decide what is worthy and deserves their recognition. Maybe two case studies hardly can explain the substantial changes that Open Data is bringing about or whether the general public is understanding them as a sign of openness or even if museums are using it as a marketing strategy. However those substantial changes and their new discourses about openness are modelling the museum idea in the digital age.

References
Cairns, S. A museum collection that never ends? Cooper-Hewitt’s new online collection Museum Geek http://museumgeek.wordpress.com/2012/10/03/a-museum-collection-that-never-ends-cooper-hewitts-alpha-online-collection/ (accessed 6 March 2014)

Chan, S., Walter, M., Shelly, K., Solas, N., Barnes, G.Cooper-Lewitt Labs, http://labs.cooperhewitt.org/ (accessed 21 February 2014)

Barthes, R. (1977). The death of the author [La mort de l’auteur] in Image music text translated by Heath, S. London: Fontana Press.

Foucault, M. (1972). Archaeology of knowledge [Archéologie du savoir] translated by A.M. Sheridan Smith, London: Routledge.

Foucault, M. (1970). The order of things: an archaeology of the human sciences [Mots et les choses]. London: Routledge.

Gorgels, P. (2013). Rijksstudio: Make Your Own Masterpiece! In Museums and the Web 2013, Proctor, N. and Cherry, R. (eds). Silver Spring, MD: Museums and the Web. Published January 28, 2013. http://mw2013.museumsandtheweb.com/paper/rijksstudio-make-your-own-masterpiece/ (accessed 10 February 2014).

Lovink, G. (2012). Networks without a cause. A critique of social media, Cambridge: Polity Press.

Manovich, L. (2013). Software takes command, New York: Bloomsbury Academic.

Parry, R. (2013) The Trusted Artifice: Reconnecting with the Museum’s Fictive Tradition Online, in Drotner, K. and Schrøder, K. C. (eds) Museum Communication and Social Media: The Connected MuseumNew York and Abingdon, Oxon.: Routledge, pp. 17-32.

Parry, R. (2010). Museums in a digital age, London: Routledge, 2010. 

Parry, R. (2007). Recoding the museum: digital heritage and the technologies of change, London: Routledge.

Ridge, M.Museums and the machine-processable web http://museumapi.pbworks.com/w/page/21933420/Museum%C2%A0APIs (accessed 21 February 2014)

Waterton, E., Smith, L. and Campbell, G. (2006). The Utility of Discourse Analysis to Heritage Studies: The Burra Charter and Social Inclusion, International Journal of Heritage Studies, 12:4, pp. 339-355. 10.1080/13527250600727000

Wilson, R.J. (2011). Behind the scenes of the museum website, Museum Management and Curatorship, 26(4) London, Routledge, pp. 373-389. 10.1080/09647775.2011.603934

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7. hackbattle.thenextweb.com/index.php/Riiksify (accessed 21 February 2014)

8. archive.is/LYWKG#selection-839.0-839.34 (accessed 14 February 2014)","txt","2","",""
"2036","15","Progress Through Regression. Modeling Style across Genre in French Classical Theater","10","1. Introduction
Considerable scholarship in stylometry has focused on authorship attribution. Such work is based on the assumption that rates of high frequency ""function"" words (in contrast to ""content"" words) are reliable clues to authorship and are largely independent of factors like theme or genre1. More recently, focus seems to have moved beyond the most frequent words to involve all vocabulary appearing in a corpus (2, 3, 4). As many of these words vary strongly by context, factors like theme, genre, literary period or literary form have received greater attention.

This paper makes two contributions. First, we test the hypothesis that authorial style depends on genre and find that this is indeed the case, even when only considering the most frequent words. Second, in light of this result, we argue that adding additional features such as genre to a familiar model of authorship attribution offers a useful and novel way to investigate how authors' writing varies depending on context. We demonstrate how stylistic analysis making use of more articulate probabilistic models might move beyond established but limited models such as principal component analysis and distance-based clustering and achieve a better fit between model and hypothesis.

2. Data
In French literary studies, there is longstanding interest in analyzing the formal and stylistic constraints associated with classical theater (5, 6). Playwrights from this period, such as Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine, figure prominently in early quantitative work in French literary studies, predating the use of digital computers (7, 8). Whereas this pioneering research focused on single texts or a single author's works, today's availability of a wide range of digital texts, of flexible tools, and of vastly increased computing power permits more complex methods of analysis.

We have chosen to work on a corpus of 108 plays in three genres written by eight authors. The plays were produced over a period of roughly five decades (1630-1678) and the authors were selected because they wrote several plays in more than one genre. Table 1 illustrates the distribution of the plays across authors and genres.

comedy	tragi-comedy	tragedy
Corneille, Pierre	9	1	20
Corneille, Thomas	8	0	15
Du Ryer	1	7	6
Molière	7	1	0
Quinault	1	1	3
Racine	1	0	9
Rotrou	1	4	3
Scarron	8	2	0
Totals	36	16	56
All texts are taken from the ""théâtre classique"" collection (9) and have been preprocessed to include only character speeches.10 In order to better explore the variability of writing found among the authors and genres in the corpus, each play has been split into approximately 1,000 word sections. After processing, the corpus used for analysis contains 1,605 sections. Only the most frequent 100 function words in the corpus are retained.11

3. Hypothesis and Method
Our hypothesis is that authorial style varies depending on genre. In order to test this hypothesis, we compare three models that predict the author of a section based on word frequencies and the genre of the section. The first model predicts the author based on word frequencies alone, ignoring information on genre. The second model adds to the first rudimentary information about how likely authors are to appear in each genre. The third model differs from the second in that it predicts the author of a section based on word frequencies for each genre separately. If authorial style varies by genre, then the third model should perform significantly better than the first model.

All three models are multinomial logistic regressions.12 Multinomial logistic regression has been used for authorship attribution before13, but our approach expands on this by examining the use of a non-traditional covariate such as genre. Our aim is to encourage the building of interpretable models in order to understand how variables such as genre influence authorial style.

In statistical terms, the first model includes a global intercept parameter and word frequencies as predictors. The second model adds a genre-specific intercept parameter. The third model differs from the second model by allowing the regression coefficients associated with word frequencies to be different depending on the genre. These models may be expressed symbolically as shown in Fig. 1 (where the text section is indexed by i and softmax_k(a) is the extension of the inverse logistic function to multiple categories).


Fig. 1: Three models of logistic regression

A point estimate for the parameters is obtained by maximizing the likelihood function using numerical methods. Models are fitted using randomly selected sections corresponding to four-fifths of the corpus. Models are then compared by measuring their out-of-sample predictions: an error rate for each model is calculated on the remaining fifth of the play sections, asking the model to predict the sections' authors based on word frequencies and, where applicable, genre information. This procedure is repeated fifty times, each time randomly partitioning the corpus.14

4. Results
The error rates associated with each model are shown in Fig. 2.


Fig. 2: Held-out author classification error rate (100 features)

In 49 out of the 50 trials, model 3 had the lowest error rate. In this corpus and for these authors, there is therefore little doubt that authorial style varies by genre. Table 2 shows the average error rates by model and genre.

 	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3
Comedy	0.24	0.23	0.19
Tragi-comedy	0.25	0.22	0.10
Tragedy	0.17	0.15	0.13 
5. Discussion
The variation of authorial style by genre underlying these results is best illustrated by looking at the frequencies of selected words that depend on both author and genre. For example, a few words are used with consistency across genres by one author but in another author vary considerably depending on genre. Table 3 indicates relative frequencies for three such cases.

 	Pierre Corneille: comedy	Pierre Corneille: tragedy	Thomas Corneille: comedy	Thomas Corneille: tragedy
""est""	22.0	20.9	31.6	24.7
""par""	6.4	6.4	6.3	9.4
""au""	5.1	5.9	6.1	6.3
The auxiliary ""est"" and the preposition ""par"" are both used consistently across genres by Pierre Corneille but with a widely varying frequency between comedy and tragedy by Thomas Corneille, while the opposite behavior is true of ""au"". The preposition ""par"" is associated very frequently, in Thomas Corneilles plays, with causality (reason or effect) linked to emotions or moral principles (par bonté, par la gloire, par le respect). While the auxiliary ""est"" (third person singular present tense of ""être"") has an even more elusive semantic charge, it is mostly associated, in Thomas Corneille's plays, with statements of fact. Both phenomena seem to indicate a greater reliance, by Thomas Corneille, on causal relations and factuality in the tragedies than in the comedies, whereas the same contrasting treatment cannot be observed in Pierre Corneille.

The existence of such variation points to two notable facts. First, and contrary to common understanding, some very frequent function words other than personal pronouns do vary with genre within the work of a given author. Second, whether this is the case does not depend on the word in itself, but may differ from author to author. Therefore, such words are not exclusively or inherently markers of genre. Even when using only the very most frequent function words and even when excluding personal pronouns, then, authorship attribution cannot rule out that some influence from genre also comes into play. 

On a different level, an explanation for the better performance of model 3 over model 1 brings in contextual information from literary history. Tragedies are usually described as being more closely bound to conventions of the ""doctrine classique"" than comedies or tragi-comedies (15, 16). Therefore, the range of vocabulary and the pattern of usage would be expected to be more predictable in tragedy than in other genres. Were this indeed the case, a model might achieve a lower variance in its predictions by considering tragedy separately. This hypothesis is difficult to evaluate as it is difficult to ""hold constant"" authorship; authors tend not to write in equal amounts in different genres.

A critical explanation of model 3's superior predictive performance would point out that the task of predicting an author on the basis of word frequencies might change dramatically depending on the authors being compared. It might therefore be suggested that the better performance obtained by model 3 reflects this fact more than it reflects within-author variation across genre. In response to this criticism, it should be observed that model 3 performs better even when the same authors are being compared; Pierre Corneille and Thomas Corneille dominate numerically the samples from comedies and tragedies. Furthermore, the words shown in table 3 demonstrate that there is variation within an author's style across genres. Model 3 is designed to use this variation to attribute authorship.

6. Conclusion
We offer the following conclusions from this experiment. First, authorial style does appear to vary with genre even when considering only the 100 most frequent words. This suggests that factors such as genre should be systematically taken into account for authorship attribution. Second, logistic regression is a useful method in this context and should be part of the stylometric toolbox as it permits a range of information to be modeled jointly with authorship. Logistic regression could also be used to test for further relevant factors beyond genre, such as form (e.g. verse and prose) or theme (e.g. historical plays vs. religious plays). 

References
Hoover, D. (2004). Testing Burrows’s Delta. LLC 19. 453-475.

Hoover, D. (2004). Testing Burrows’s Delta. LLC 19. 453-475.

Burrows, J. (2007). All the Way Through: Testing for Authorship in Different Frequency Strata, LLC, 22. 27-47.

Rybicki, J. and Eder, M. (2011). Deeper Delta Across Genres and Languages: Do We Really Need the Most Frequent Words? LLC 26: 315-21.

Bray, R. (1927).La formation de la doctrine classique en France. Paris.

Scherer, J. (1951). La Dramaturgie classique en France. Paris: Nizet.

Muller, Ch. (1967). Étude de statistique lexicale: le vocabulaire du théâtre de Pierre Corneille. Paris: Larousse.

Bernet, Ch. (1983). Le Vocabulaire des tragédies de Racine. Analyse statistique. Geneva / Paris: Slatkine / Champion.

Fièvre, P., ed. (2007-2013). Théâtre classique, www.theatre-classique.fr/.

Speaker names, stage directions, dramatis personae, prefaces, metadata and other paratextual elements have been excluded from the analysis. Trailing sections having fewer than 500 words were discarded. Trailing sections having between 500 and 1,000 words were normalized and put in terms of rates per 1,000 words.

Because of the relatively small sample size, three content words that may have an association with a specific genre (""coeur"", ""amour"", and ""yeux"") appeared in the initial list of the top 100 most frequent words. These words were removed from the vocabulary so that the corpus contained only function words.The 100 most frequent graphical words used are: a, ai, au, autre, aux, avec, bien, c, ce, ces, cet, cette, comme, d, dans, de, des, donc, dont, du, elle, en, enfin, est, et, faire, fait, faut, grand, ici, il, j, jamais, je, l, la, le, les, lui, m, ma, mais, me, mes, moi, moins, mon, même, n, ne, non, nous, on, ont, ou, où, par, pas, peu, peut, plus, point, pour, puis, qu, quand, que, quel, quelque, qui, quoi, rien, s, sa, sans, se, ses, si, son, sont, suis, sur, t, tant, toujours, tous, tout, trop, tu, un, une, veux, voir, vois, vos, votre, vous, y, à, être.

Gelman, A., Carlin, J.B., Stern, H.S., Rubin, D.B. (2003) Bayesian Data Analysis. 2nd ed. Chapman and Hall/CRC, 2003, pp. 430-33.

Madigan, D., Genkin, D., Lewis, D.D., and Fradkin, D. (2005). Bayesian multinomial logistic regression for author identification. Bayesian Inference and Maximum Entropy Methods in Science and Engineering, 803, 509-516.

It is worth noting the complexity of the models considered here. Model 3 has 2424 parameters (each genre has an intercept for each author and an 8 by 100 matrix of author-word coefficients). Fitting the model requires maximizing a function with 2424 parameters, something that was challenging a decade ago. To be clear, the maximization is not taxing; it requires roughly 300M of memory.

Bray, R. (1927). La formation de la doctrine classique en France. Paris.

Scherer, J. (1951). La Dramaturgie classique en France. Paris: Nizet.","txt","2","",""
"2037","15","Pushing Back the Boundary of Interpretation: Concept, Practice and Relevance of a Digital Heuristic","10","heureCLÉA (www.heureclea.de) is a BMBF-funded eHumanities project1 which combines the two conceptual perspectives on object annotation that set apart the humanities and the 'hard sciences': strictly rule-based explication of uncontroversial object features as exemplified in the measurement of values, such as length, height, density, etc., versus the hermeneutic response for which observation and emotive engagement from a subjective point of view must go hand in hand in order to facilitate interpretation. These are of course ideal types and the actual practice of annotation in the humanities is situated at their interface, which is heuristics—the methodologically controlled 'art of finding' that goes beyond pure measurement, but whose purpose it is to generate relevant questions rather than conclusive answers. Against this backdrop heureCLÉA aims to implement a digital heuristics module for the text annotation tool CATMA (www.catma.de) so that we may benefit from synergies between the computationally automated and the subjectively motivated, human generated annotation of texts.

1. The heureCLÉA Project
The practical backbone of heureCLÉA are two software developments: HeidelTime, which was developed at Heidelberg University, is a rule-based system for the extraction and normalization of temporal expressions.2 It needs to be significantly modified to cope with the complexity of literary narratives.3 – The CATMA (Computer Aided Textual Markup & Analysis) markup tool was developed at Hamburg University. The current release of CATMA (version 4.0) is open source and provides a robust web based annotation environment for collaborative markup.4 CATMA not only supports intuitive text annotation in a flexible, XML/TEI-compliant format, but also integrates markup with analytical and visualization functions (cf. Fig.1). This enables users to switch ad hoc between text annotation and text analysis in either direction as well as recursively. CATMA thus supports what Burnard referred to as the 'continuous turning of the hermeneutic wheel'5—i.e. the back and forth between formal text analysis and the generation of interpretative hypotheses. In its most recent development phase (called CLÉA)6, CATMA then progressed from a stand-alone desktop application to a web-based solution. This adds yet another conceptual dimension, that of collaborative markup:7 in CATMA researchers can now share, reuse, amend and dispute each other's markup.


Fig. 1: Exploration and Annotation in CATMA

CATMA's overall design is based on the premise that a DH tool should emulate the methodological and social practice of traditional philology as closely as possible. This practice integrates three methodological primitives: analytical/declarative operations, hermeneutic operations, and discursive critique of explications and theories.8 This conceptual high-level design goal also determined our choice between the two competing paradigms of embedded (in-line) markup and external standoff markup, which we regard as methodological rather than technological opposites. Accordingly, embedded markup represent the idea of objective taxonomic universality and the potential immanence of 'truth' in an object. External standoff markup, on the other hand, is based on the acknowledgment of the contingent nature and historical transience of object interpretation. In a contemporary philological perspective, embedded markup therefore constitutes something of a methodological anachronism: for conceptually it resembles the pre-enlightenment model of canonical text exegesis which the modern humanities have long replaced by a critical, self-reflexive hermeneutic approach. Yet this critique is of course of a purely philosophical nature when dealing with pre-interpretive analytical and declarative tasks, such as POS tagging.

However, once higher-level semantics are at stake, these considerations force us to adopt a truly 'hermeneutic' approach to markup.9 Interpretation varies depending on interpreter, context and interpretive theory. Accordingly, even elementary markup produced in order to support higher-level interpretation must still remain transparent as one possible account among many, and users must be able to produce and store ambiguous and indeed even contradictory markup for the same text in a standoff manner. Since rich interpretations are best generated in a discursive practice, it is also necessary to enable the easy sharing and combining of markup generated by different interpreters.

However, while these desiderata can all be considered emulative goals which informed the development of CATMA, their conceptual benefit for the digital humanities at large lies elsewhere. A truly non-deterministic and discursive approach to markup yields diverse annotation data—and that type of data can subsequently be analyzed in order to ""push back"" the boundary separating interpretation and declaration.

What this means is best illustrated by outlining the three components and phases of heureCLÉA (cf. Fig. 2):

1. Narratological Analysis of Temporal Phenomena: In heureCLÉA the identification of the temporal structure of narrative texts is approached concurrently through

(a) manual collaborative annotation with CATMA, and

(b) automated temporal tagging with HeidelTime.

In (a) we draw upon (but do not restrict our taggers to) the narratological taxonomy of Genette10, which is supplemented by a taxonomy suited to capture action and event segmentation. In (b) automated temporal annotations are generated via an UIMA pipeline11 that includes HeidelTime as a rule-based temporal tagger, the TreeTagger12 as a POS tagger, and Morphisto13 for a morphological analysis.

2. Machine Learning Approach towards an Automation of Complex Time Annotation: The next step is the learning of new rules for automated annotation from the manually generated markup. Different methods for the derivation of rules—especially those for typical co-occurrence of temporal expressions—are used. Once integrated into the components of the heureCLÉA UIMA pipeline these rules enable the system to handle more complex annotations. This process is dynamic as growing quantities of markup facilitate more complex modeling strategies based on e.g. distributional approaches (such as Latent Semantic Analysis). Finally, patterns representing typical temporal sequences may be extracted (Sequence Mining).

3. Integration of the Heuristic heureCLÉA Module into CATMA:Once a functional threshold has been passed (i.e.: reliability of automated detection of temporal references of low complexity; performance/robustness) the heureCLÉA UIMA pipeline will be integrated into CATMA as a service. It then provides a 'digital heuristics' for the partially automated, partially interactive generation of temporal markup, and will be tested and evaluated to verify the adequateness of the automatically generated markup (partially through stochastic methods.)


Fig. 2: heureCLÉA's interrelated areas of work

2. The Heuristics/Hermeneutics Divide As a Conceptual Boundary in the Digital Humanities
What is the methodological relevance of this work toward a digital heuristics? The realization that text markup is essentially interpretive per se is anything but new.14 Indeed, the argument about what markup is seems somewhat artificial; it might have sufficed to ask literary scholars what markup is there for: in their view the raison d'être of any object annotation and classification is always interpretation. But is the boundary between a declarative and an interpretive method rigidly defined for the digital humanities?

Some experiences gained in the heureCLÉA project may offer an answer. To begin with, the hermeneutic nature of building time constructs from narratives proves to be only partially owed to the 'fuzziness' of natural language. As a complex symbolic system narrative is also characterized by the intricate coupling of a referential and an indexical semiotics. 'Time' illustrates this: on the surface it is referenced as chronological structure of a particular 'story world'.15 Yet on a deeper level it is also communicated as an implicit processing instruction encoded in the form of temporal deixis and ellipsis, and of linguistic markers for the contraction or expansion of time (viz. a summary vs. a scenic description). This information is termed 'indexical' because it refers back to the instance of utterance (the narrator or narrating character). The reader needs to process that information in parallel with the referential in order to reconstruct two intersecting chronologies—that of the 'story world', and that of the representational discourse which he is trying to reverse engineer. However, the reach of the indexical extends beyond the text-reader-system: as we read we also become subject to the indexical temporality of the 'how' of representation (discours) on an existential level.16 As Ricoeur argues, the reconstruction of temporality on the referential and discursive levels of narrative is indeed how we learn to experience temporality.17

Time is only one of many phenomena of narrative representation and understanding characterized by this triple-layered semiotics—and against this backdrop it becomes clear why hermeneutic text interpretation cannot be automated. The machine is (as yet) not an interpreting agent able to engage reflexively and speculatively with its object. It is confined to a fully explicated, operational definition of 'relevance' in terms of known tasks and objectives. While it can resolve an indexical reference in order to compute, say, chronological order and extension, the interpretation of the existential relevance of that double-encoded message as one which also addresses the interpreting mind will remain beyond its ability for as long as it is not equipped with a concept of 'mind'.

However, the foundational human interpretive operations taking place on the elementary declarative and inferential levels can in part be approximated statistically through recursive routines. This recursive approximation is the functional characteristic as well as the outer boundary of what we term a 'digital heuristic'. By this we mean a computational tool able to support the heuristic operations of analytical identification and categorization of phenomenological primitives that necessarily precede hermeneutic synthesis. These operations form the indispensable basis of any higher-order 'interpretation'. It is in this intersecting terrain of the hermeneutic and the heuristic that the digital humanities might help to ""push back the border"" and question the hegemony of interpretation.

References
1. See dbs.ifi.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php?id=129&L=1.

2. Mazur, P. and Dale, R. (2010). WikiWars: A New Corpus for Research on Temporal Expressions. ""Proceedings of the 2010 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP 2010)"". Massachusetts, pp. 913-922.

3. Ricoeur, P. (1983ff). Time and Narrative (Temps et Récit), 3 vols. trans. Kathleen McLaughlin and David Pellauer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984, 1985, 1988 (1983, 1984, 1985).

4. Burnard, L. (2001). On the Hermeneutic Implications of Text Encoding. In Fiormonte, D. and Usher, J. (eds.), ""New Media and the Humanities: Research and Applications"". Oxford: Humanities Computing Unit, pp. 31-38. Available online in the 1998 version at users.ox.ac.uk/~lou/wip/herman.htm [accessed 20 September 2013].

5. ""CLÉA"" is short for ""Collaborative Literature Éxploration & Annotation"". The accent deguis was added to highlight the diacritical concerns of Non-Anglo literary scholars. The CLÉA development phase of CATMA was generously supported by two Google Digital Humanities Awards (2010, 2011). For further details see www.catma.de/clea.

6. Meister, J. C. (2012). Crowd Sourcing 'True Meaning'. A Collaborative Markup Approach to Textual Interpretation. In McCarty, W. and Deegan, M. (eds.), Collaborative Research in the Digital Humanities. Festschrift for Harold Short. Ashgate Publishers: Farnham, Surrey/Burlington, pp. 105-122.

7. McCarty, W. (1996). Implicit Patterns in Ovid's Metamorphoses. ""Centre for Computing in the Humanities (CHWP 1996)"". projects.chass.utoronto.ca/chwp/mccarty/mcc_8.html (accessed 11 September 2013). First published 1991.

8. Piez, W. (2010): Towards Hermeneutic Markup: an Architectural Outline. ""Digital Humanities 2010. Conference Abstracts"". London: Office for Humanities Communication, Centre for Computing in the Humanities, King’s College London, pp. 202-205.

9. Genette, G. (1972). Discours du récit. In id., ""Figures III"". Paris: Editions Du Seuil, pp. 67-282.

10. Strötgen, J. and Gertz, M. (2010). HeidelTime: High Quality Rule-based Extraction and Normalization of Temporal Expressions. ""Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Semantic Evaluation (ACL 2010)"". Uppsala, pp. 321-324.

11. Schmidt, H. (1994). Probabilistic Part-of-Speech Tagging Using Decision Trees. ""Proceedings of International Conference on New Methods in Language Processing"". Manchester.

12. Zielinski, A., Simon, C., and Wittl, T. (2009). Morphisto: Service-Oriented Open Source Morphology for German. ""State of the Art in Computational Morphology: Workshop on Systems and Frameworks for Computational Morphology (SFCM 2009)"". Zürich, pp. 64-75.

13. See among others Coombs, J. H., DeRose, S. J., and Renear, A. H. (1987). Markup systems and the future of scholarly text processing. ""Communications of the ACM"", 30 (11): 933-47; Buzzetti, D. (2002). Digital Representation and the Text Model. New Literary History, 33 (1): 61-88; Burnard (2001); Piez (2010).

14. Herman, D. (2002). Story Logic: Problems and Possibilities of Narrative. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

15. Genette (1972).

16. Ricoeur, P. (1983ff). Time and Narrative (Temps et Récit), 3 vols. trans. Kathleen McLaughlin and David Pellauer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984, 1985, 1988 (1983, 1984, 1985).","txt","2","",""
"2038","15","Quantifying ""The Thing Not Named"": A Computational Analysis of Willa Cather's ""Unfurnished"" Writing Style(s)""","2","Overview:
Willa Cather enunciated the theoretical foundations of her writing style in her 1922 ars poetica essay “The Novel Démeublé” (Transl. “The Novel Unfurnished”). In this work, Cather calls for a realistic writing style that is rooted in an economy of prose still rich in suggestion and emotions. Cather describes a writing style capable of creating a bare scene where literalness ceases and where readers can detect the presence of what she calls “the thing not named.” Such expositions prompt us to ask questions about what it means to unfurnisha literary piece and to wonder if the writing style Cather described in this seminal essay is present in her own fiction—either throughout her entire fictional corpus, or only after her manifesto.

These questions provide the impetus for our computational study of Cather’s fiction, and the results of our analysis provide insight into the question of how we evaluate whether the author’s production is congruent with the author’s ars poetica. Starting from Cather’s declarations in “The Novel Démeublé,” we defined the criteria for a lexical and syntactical analysis of her fiction. Our analysis indicates that Cather’s writing style remained consistent across her corpus both before and after her stylistic declaration in “The Novel Démeublé,” providing new answers to the long-standing scholarly debate as to whether Cather ascribed to the ideas in the essay.

Methodology:
In this work, we use high frequency words and selected parts of speech to explore whether a chronological shift from a more ornate style to a minimalist style can be detected across a career spanning forty-eight years. Our team utilized over sixty examples of Willa Cather’s fictional work currently housed at the Willa Cather Archive in XML format. The textual data was composed of two “genre sets.” The first set included all of Cather’s novelistic fiction and the second, Cather’s short story fiction. Using R (R Core Team, 2013), our team parsed, tokenized, and POS tagged all of the XML into word and parts of speech frequency tables which could then be studied chronologically and in isolation.

Using this derivative data, our team specifically studied Cather’s use of determiners, adverbs, adjectives, and personal pronouns as a way of measuring Cather’s idea of unencumbered prose. A more “unencumbered” prose, we hypothesized, would be less ornate and utilize fewer of these markers. To facilitate this investigation, we calculated the mean for each selected parts of speech and used those means as a basis for further examining outliers within the long form and short form fiction. Among other things, our team compared the part of speech frequencies between Cather’s long form fiction (Fig 1) and short form fiction (Fig 2) and then specifically analyzed pronouns (Fig 3), determiners (Fig 4), and adverbs within the respective corpora (Fig 5).


Fig. 1: Parts of Speech in Death Comes to the Archbishop with Cather’s Long form fiction (LFF)


Fig. 2: Parts of Speech in Tale of the White Pyramid with Cather’s short form fiction (SFF)


Fig. 3: Use of top five personal pronouns in Tale of the White Pyramid against the mean in Cather’s short form fiction (SFF) and in Death Comes to the Archbishop versus the mean in Long form fiction (LFF)


Fig. 4: Use of top two determiners in Tale of the White Pyramid against the mean in Cather’s short form fiction (SFF) and in Death Comes to the Archbishop versus the mean in Long form fiction (LFF)


Fig. 5: Use of adverbs in Tale of the White Pyramid against the mean in Cather’s short form fiction (SFF) and in Death Comes to the Archbishop versus the mean in Long form fiction (LFF)

For our analysis of the high frequency words, we created a minimum mean threshold and examined those words within a minimum relative frequency across the corpus of 0.5. This threshold had the effect of excluding context sensitive words from the analysis. All of this derivative data was merged with metadata from the texts and then explored and organized using the Euclidian metric as a basis for a hierarchical clustering. The clustering allowed us to investigate the similarities between sixty-six samples of Cather’s fictional writing. A dendogram (Fig 6) shows the results of this clustering.


Fig. 6: Word Frequency Clustering of Entire Fictional Corpus

Conclusion:
Our analysis of Cather’s use of specific parts of speech and high frequency words indicated no significant change in her usage patterns over time. Our results suggest that the style Cather advocated in “The Novel Démeublé” is the style that she employed throughout her career. Despite a generally stable signal over time, though, two outliers emerged: Death Comes to the Archbishop and A Tale of the White Pyramid. The former was a distant outlier within a closed set of her novelistic fiction but was found to be consistent with her shorter fiction. The latter was the sole outlier of the entire corpus, which is not surprising given that Cather wrote it as a student.

References
E. K. Brown (2003) ""Homage to Willa Cather,"" in Willa Cather Critical Assessments, Guy Reyonolds, ed. Mountfield: East Sussex. Vol. I

Maciej Eder“Stylo R Package.”sites.google.com/site/computationalstylistics/stylo

David Hoover (2003), “Another Perspective on Vocabulary Richness,” Computers and the Humanities, 37:15`-178.

Mary Ann O’Farrell (2005), ""Words To Do with Things"", in Willa Cather and Material Culture, Janis P. Stout, ed., University of Alabama Press: Tuscaloosa.

David Oshinksy (2007), “No Thanks, Mr. Nabokov,” New York Times, September 9. www.nytimes.com/2007/09/09/books/review/Oshinsky-t.html?_r=0.

R Core Team (2013). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria, www.R-project.org.

Lionel Trilling (2003), ""Willa Cather,""in Willa Cather Critical Assessments, Guy Reyonolds, ed. Mountfield: East Sussex. Vol. I.

This research began in a class taught by Matthew Jockers and has continued under his direction as a project of the Nebraska Literary Lab.

See: Willa Cather Archive. “The Novel Démeublé” cather.unl.edu/nf012.html. First published in the New Republic, 30 (April 12, 1922): 5-6.","txt","2","",""
"2039","15","Quelle médiation numérique pour le patrimoine bâti ?","10","Résumé :
Dans un précédent projet de recherche et dans le contexte des musées de beaux-arts, nous avons échafaudé l’hypothèse selon laquelle la conception des audioguides de nouvelle génération, appelés « visioguide » (sur Iphone), ne répondait pas assez à la demande du visiteur, lequel souhaite d’abord augmenter son expérience esthétique (H2PTM, 2013). Nous proposons ici un nouveau modèle d’hypertextualisation des applications numériques destinées à la visite du patrimoine bâti, sur tablette de type Ipad, en suivant le modèle de l’abduction proposé par C. S. Peirce. Pour cela, nous comparons deux applications numériques qui correspondent à deux modèles opposés de médiation : par distanciation et par immersion 3d. Quel monde virtuel créer pour une médiation du patrimoine architectural par le numérique ? Quelles compétences sémiotiques l’usager doit-il mobiliser ?

Dans cette communication, nous approfondissons notre recherche sur la médiation apportée par le numérique pour la découverte touristique du patrimoine bâti : visite in situ ou de chez soi pour préparer la visite d’un monument. Dans la perspective des SIC, nous nous posons plusieurs questions : quelles informations architecturales transmettre dans une application pour tablette ? Les commentaires limitent-ils ou enrichissent-ils ce que l’architecte Rasmussen a appelé « l’expérience architecturale » (Rasmussen, 1959) ? Selon l’architecte danois, celle-ci ne peut être réduite à l’observation de plans ou de maquettes, puisqu’il ne s’agit pas tant d’expliquer que d’éprouver l’espace architectural et d’interpréter ses signes. 

Notre hypothèse est de renouveler l’approche du « document monumentaire » (Patrick Fraysse, 2012) en relayant un discours sur l’œuvre bâtie par un discours entre l’œuvre et le public visiteur. Autrement dit, comment mieux restituer le lien intime entre un patrimoine bâti et la vie des hommes via une application numérique interactive ? Nous proposons dans cette communication un modèle innovant pour combiner les enjeux de la médiation par le numérique tantôt centrée sur les propriétés du patrimoine (Pantheon Iview) tantôt sur l’expérience du visiteur (Paris 3d saga).

Nous comparons deux applications numériques répondant à deux modèles opposés de médiation (Flon, 2012) : la « distanciation » avec Pantheon Iview (audioguidage didactique) ou « l’immersion » dans Paris 3Dsaga. Comment ces applications numériques rendent-elles la complexité d’une architecture ? La première application enrichit les connaissances historiques sur le Panthéon de Rome (Pantheon Iview). La seconde présente la ville de Paris comme un « monde » reconstitué à travers les âges (Paris 3dsaga par Dassault systèmes, 2012). 

Les théoriciens de l’école de Constance (Jauss, Iser), ainsi que les théoriciens de la sémiotique (Eco, Mucchielli), ont montré que le sens n’est pas une donnée de départ inhérente à l’œuvre, mais co-construite par le récepteur : comment faire en sorte que le spectateur participe à l’élaboration du sens d’un édifice ? Comment une application numérique constitue-t-elle un interprétant fiable du patrimoine ? Comment donner au visiteur d’un bâtiment des compétences sémiotiques qu’il n’a pas reçues par les programmes éducatifs (Segaud, 1994) ?

Afin de répondre à ces questions, nous nous référons à la conception du signe architectural selon Eco, comme « signe-fonction »

1. La communication architecturale est d’abord une stimulation, un complexe de sensations. Ex. : la vue de l’escalier me dispose à monter / descendre, donc me dispose à un usage fonctionnel ; la forme architecturale (signifiant) rend possible la fonction (signifié). 
2. Les signes architecturaux sont ensuite de l’ordre de la perception ; ils risquent de ne pas être interprétés à cause de nos habitudes (pour monter, nous oublions facilement la fonction de l’escalier) ou par méconnaissance du code architectural, d’où perte du sens. 
Partant de ces postulats, les applications numériques analysées devraient :

a. décrire des signifiants qui à la fois dénotentles fonctions de l’architecture mais surtout connotentdes idéologies (une conception de l’habitation à un moment donné). Ex : la courbe Art nouveau ou l’ogive gothique n’ont pas la même connotation pour déterminer l’objet fonctionnel « fenêtre ».
b. Evoquer le signe-fonction à partir de codesarchitecturaux qui appartiennent au passé (ex. : l’Art nouveau est un code contre la standardisation industrielle fin XIXe s. mais pour les thèses socialistes et progressistes.)
Force est de constater dans les deux applications que le jeu des connotations et l’expression du code architectural font défaut. La simulation architecturale par immersion 3d est bien une stimulation (un ensemble de sensations) dans Paris 3d saga mais il manque des perceptions fines des signes architecturaux. L’approche y est plus historique et synthétique qu’analytique (seulement les étapes de construction de la cathédrale Notre-Dame de Paris ou de la Tour Eiffel). 

Autrement dit, la médiation par le numérique surdétermine le rapport au signifiant visuel (réalité virtuelle dans Paris 3d saga), au détriment du rapport connotatif entre le signifiant et le signifié. Les applications focalisent ensuite sur le référent (la construction dans Paris 3D saga, et le contexte historique dans tout le corpus), au détriment de la signification architecturale. Il s’agit moins d’une médiation semio-cognitive que d’une « ocularisation » stimulante de l’architecture – une médiatisation technologique. Certes, la médiation vise ici à renforcer les connaissances historiques de l’usager par des commentaires contextuels et hypertextuels mais sans visée fonctionnelle. Au final, comprendre est ici plus apprendre l’histoire qu’explorer ou « éprouver » les signes architecturaux au sens de Rasmussen.

Par ailleurs, l’architecture, comme l’ont montré Eco et Rasmussen, est mal appréhendée lorsque :

1. le visiteur n’est pas relié directement à l’espace sensible d’un édifice 
2. lorsque l’analyse du signe architectural n’est pas orientée vers un futur (une étude diachronique des signes
Le premier point est résolu grâce l’immersion 3D et au « gyroscope » dans Paris 3d saga. Le deuxième point reste problématique. Une œuvre d’art architecturale modifie les codes de son époque et programme une évolution des manières d’habiter. Cet aspect est négligé dans les deux applications. Paris 3d saga est une machine à remonter le temps, un feuilleté d’époques successives qui ne montre pas les différences de réception et d’usage d’un monument à travers différentes époques (la fonction « photogommage » dans Paris 3d saga est plus passéiste que visionnaire). Il n’est donc pas aisé pour le visiteur en quête de sens de se poser des questions sur l’architecture en phase d’immersion 3d, sans objectifs de recherche.

Repositionnons dès lors la médiation par le numérique comme une « mise en intrigue » du patrimoine et une « refiguration » du monde sensible du visiteur (Ricoeur, 1985). La refiguration est le troisième temps de la représentation pour le phénoménologue (« mimèsis3 »). Rappelons que le philosophe distingue :

1. Le temps de l’action (l’histoire) = mimèsis 1
2. Le temps de la narration de l’action (récit) = mimesis 2
3. Le temps du lecteur qui renvoie le récit à son propre « monde » et à sa sensibilité = mimèsis 3
Dès lors, une médiation par le numérique autre que celle proposée actuellement dans les processus d’audioguidage devient possible : une visite certes immersive comme dans Paris 3d saga, mais en plongeant l’usager dans un récit-enquête qui serait autant l’interprétant (mimèsis 2) qu’une source de plaisir (mimèsis 3). Un édifice constituant une énigme à résoudre (ex. la fiction possible d’une reconstitution), la médiation patrimoniale devient alors un récit exploratoire. Mais avec quel protagoniste ?

Afin de mieux articuler le signifié et l’éprouvé, afin de mettre en récit le patrimoine bâti, nous proposons de croiser deux modèles de médiation identifiés dans notre corpus : 

1. Pour structurer les informations architecturales, nous proposons d’appliquer le modèle de l’abduction proposé par Peirce : un questionnement « impliquant » au cours d’une enquête herméneutique (méthode du détective pour déchiffrer les signes), à partir d’indices, et selon trois niveaux d’expérimentation :
a. le sensoriel ou l’esthésie (Boutaud, 2007) : la perception de l’espace-temps architectural par l’immersion 3d.
b. le sensible ou l’esthétique : perception du rythme des ouvertures en façade etc.
c. le relationnel ou l’éthique : établir le lien entre le sujet et le bâtiment d’une part, voire la culture et le collectif d’autre part. 
2. En raison de la double performativité qui caractérise les applications (dire l’architecture et organiser une visite), nous distinguons le faire-savoir architectural du « faire-visiter » (organiser la visite). Pour ne pas dissocier les deux, nous proposons un modèle hybride par immersion et identification de l’usager au rôle de l’architecte (position réflexive et sensible).
C’est donc le projet de l’architecte qui constitue le grand oubli de ces applications. Si le visiteur se met à la place fictive de l’architecte, il pourra mieux éprouver le patrimoine bâti, en se posant des questions pertinentes sur le projet d’édification et son idéologie (lien de l’édifice avec son environnement physique et sa culture etc.). 

En conclusion, la mise en récit du patrimoine et du projet de l’architecte favorise une refiguration possible de la réalité virtuelle, une médiation par le numérique différente, en faveur d’un apprentissage sensible de l’architecture. La médiation apportée par l’immersion 3d est relayée par un questionnement abductif et hypertextuel, au choix du visiteur selon sa culture architecturale. Nous retrouvons les principes de base d’un « serious game » pédagogique, aux fins d’une meilleure information sur l’architecture complexe et sur l’organisation même de la visite (en ajoutant la géolocalisation), enfin aux fins d’une meilleure communication entre visiteurs d’un groupe (famille, amis…) qui partageraient leur « expérience architecturale » (Rasmussen) autour d’une même fiction exploratoire.

Comme le suggère Jacques Rancière, aux fins politiques d’une meilleure démocratisation de la culture : « sur un monde, on ne fait pas de théorie, on fait son propre poème » (Ebguy, 2012). On peut donc imaginer de nouveaux aspects à la fois heuristiques et inventifs dans les applications numériques. Chaque récepteur devrait idéalement se réapproprier l’œuvre architecturale comme « vision personnelle du monde » à partir d’une scénarisation, et non comme une vérité historique imposée.

References
Balpe J.-P. (1990), Hyperdocuments, hypertextes, hypermédias, Paris, Eyrolles.

Boutaud J.-J. (2007), « Du sens, des sens. Sémiotique, marketing et communication en terrain sensible », Semen, n°23, 2007 [consulté le 15 mars 2013]. URL : http://semen.revues.org/5011

Ebguy J.-D. (2012), « La mésentente : le philosophe (Jacques Rancière) et le poéticien (Gérard Genette) », in Fabula-LhT, n° 10, « L'aventure poétique », décembre 2012, URL : www.fabula.org/lht/10/ebguy.html, [consulté le 04 janvier 2014].

Eco Umberto (1972),LaStructure absente, introduction à la recherche en sémiotique, Paris, Mercure de France (1ère éd. 1968).

Flon Émilie (2012), Les Mises en scène du patrimoine: savoir, fiction et médiation. Paris : Hermès/Lavoisier .

Fraysse Patrick (2012), « Images du Moyen Âge dans la ville : l'inscription spatiale de médiévalité »Communication et langage, mars 2012, n°171, p. 3-17

Rasmussen Steen Eiler (2002), Découvrir l’architecture, du Linteau éd. (1ère éd. 1959).

Ricoeur Paul (1985), Temps et récit, tome III : Le temps raconté, Paris, Le Seuil.

Segaud Marion (1994), « Compétence esthétique et culturelle architecturale du français ordinaire », in Figures architecturales, formes urbaines, actes du congrès de Genève de l’Association internationales de sémiotique de l’espace, Anthropos, Lausanne, p. 209-220.

Varano Sandro (2010), Un espace de navigation hypermédia dédié au patrimoine culturel bâti. Éditions Universitaires Européennes.","txt","2","",""
"2040","15","Reading Again: Annotating, Editing, and Writing in the Browser. Pedagogy, Design, and Development of Annotation Studio","2","1. Keywords
Annotation, collaboration, pedagogy, critical thinking, writing, close reading, software methodology

2. Pedagogy
“By re-reading and looking for meaning in the text, you start to think critically.”

~ Student, First-Year Writing, Hofstra University, using Annotation Studio

“Within the humanities,” argue Anne Burdick, Johanna Drucker, et al in their 2012 Digital Humanities, “close reading has been a central practice that is premised on careful attention to features contained in a text” (our emphasis)1 Advances in the digital humanities have “opened up new ways of creating meaning through distant reading” (our emphasis), and scholars have debated the significance of each, but the authors of Digital Humanities emphasize a dynamic relation between the two: “Rather than pitting distant reading against close reading, what we are seeing is the emergence of new conjunctions between the macro and the micro, general surface trends and deep hermeneutic inquiry, the global view from above and the local view on the ground” (39). In developing Annotation Studio, a digital pedagogical tool for selecting, commenting on, and sharing texts within a humanities classroom, the research team at HyperStudio, the Digital Humanities Lab at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, have built a simple, practical utensil that enables both close study and distant analysis.  We first presented the tool at its early stages at the 2012 Digital Humanities meeting after we had just received a Start-Up grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH). In this presentation we will discuss the results from the first development phase of Annotation Studio, including classroom integration, assessment research, and iterative software development process now that Annotation Studio has been tested extensively in a range of humanities classes at MIT and elsewhere. We will conclude with future directions for the tool that will be implemented over the next two years, supported by a NEH Digital Humanities Implementation Grant.

Allowing students to engage deeply with a text, Annotation Studio also expands their awareness of their own critical reading, writing, and thinking as taking place in a social, shared space. Social reading, we have found, lends itself to an enhanced experience of writing, as students recognize in the audience for their essays the very people with whom they have read their texts. In this fluid progress from reading to writing, we have seen something new emerge: a distinct sense among students of themselves as editors, as people who manipulate text from the earliest stages of the critical process. This sense of command of a text empowers students to read and write more confidently and with greater pleasure than they have come to expect in a typical humanities classroom.

Although useful in a number of scholarly applications, Annotation Studio shows particular promise for pedagogy, as it enables students to read and read again by selecting text, writing comments, sharing responses with other students, and tagging and sorting annotations for further research and writing. The tool builds on the deep history of marginalia of all kinds, from illuminated texts to private authorial markings to marginal text meant for coterie circulation to the comment features of contemporary word processing.2 Adapting the history of marginalia to the classroom, Annotation Studio makes visible the earliest stirrings of critical thought and leaves a record of the reading process for both writers and readers to return to and absorb.

The pedagogy growing out of Annotation Studio also responds to new theories of media literacy.3  Drawing from Henry Jenkins’ research on online fan communities, we have experimented with the use of shared annotation as a way for students to interact critically and creatively with texts and with each other. Recognizing that authors from the past borrowed from other writers and shared their texts, we have created a digital workspace where students can participate in a fluid relationship with texts from the past. At the same time, given an environment in which such fluid relationships can raise serious questions about intellectual property and theft, we use the digital text as an opportunity for discussion of responsible research, citation, and attribution. Annotation Studio, with its precise marking tools, allows students to see the boundaries between text and margin, between what is theirs and what comes from someone else’s writing.

The use of annotation in a fluid-text environment lends itself as well to critical writing and especially to a sense of the student writer as an editor.4  If the first stage of the writing process involves meticulous marking of a text, the reader is already performing some of the functions of an editor: defining unfamiliar words, glossing historical references and literary allusions, hazarding analysis.  When it comes time to write, the student has already practiced primary marking, research, and interpretation with an audience of peers, the other members of the class. We have found that although students often find critical writing intimidating, they tend to feel less overwhelmed when they have experienced these initial steps and have come to think of themselves as editors more than as writers. Working in Annotation Studio, they get to raise the questions and work out the problems that make a text seem mystifying. Their papers improve as a result of this work, and their imaginations soar.

Since presenting Annotation Studio in 2012, we have developed the pedagogy considerably, as noted above. We have also greatly developed the tool, advanced the partnerships with instructors and developers that sustain it, and performed the assessment necessary for moving ahead.

3. Software Development
As we plan and implement new features in the Annotation Studio web application, we are careful to do so in response to the needs, preferences and demands of instructors and students in humanities classrooms at MIT and at partner institutions. The main features of the tool are all drawn from what those audiences have articulated as functionality they need in their disciplines.

Guided by that approach, we have written Annotation Studio using an agile software development methodology, which accommodates continuous feedback from users and permits refinements based on that feedback.

In addition, we have integrated an open source annotation engine from the Open Knowledge Foundation, called the Annotator, which has an open architecture that has made it possible for us to add functionality specific for the educational context. Further, we have released Annotation Studio itself under an open source license. Engaging in this way with other communities of developers has accelerated progress on our own software, and has made it possible to connect with coders and instructors at other institutions.

The combination of an iterative development process and engagement with other developers has produced an increasingly functional tool, and one which is also increasingly focused on the peculiar needs of the humanities classroom.

In that context, we will describe some architectural and user-facing features of Annotation Studio which will serve to illustrate our approach, including aspects of technical planning and decision-making, our process for selecting, sequencing and implementing features, and our experience collaborating on open source projects as those may be useful to others writing software for Digital Humanities.

4. Conclusion
With its tight integration into classroom practices and use of iterative software development practices, Annotation Studio has proven to be an easy to use yet powerful tool that has helped students practice traditional humanistic skills within a social environment. At the same time, the web application has made the reading process more transparent, not only to the instructor but to the students themselves. Such a renewed focus on close reading opens up exciting new possibilities for engaged forms of writing that have the potential to reflect source texts more deeply. 

References
1. Anne Burdick, Johanna Drucker, Peter Lunenfeld, Todd Presner, Jeffrey Schnapp (2012), Digital Humanities Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press

2. See H. J. Jackson (2001), Marginalia: Readers Writing in Books New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

3. Henry Jenkins, Wyn Kelley, Katie Clinton, Jenna McWilliams, Ricardo Pitts-Wiley, Erin Reilly (2013), Reading in a Participatory Culture: Remixing Moby-Dick in the English Classroom (New York: Teachers College Press).

4. On fluid texts and theories of editing, see John Bryant, The Fluid Text: A Theory of Revision and Editing for Book and Screen Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2002.","txt","2","",""
"2041","15","Reading Between the Lines: Image-to-Segment Relationship Development and Analysis","2","1. Introduction
Crowdsourced transcription has been adopted successfully by institutions large and small in order to unlock cultural heritage data in handwritten documents. In the case of mental health documents, however, public transcription is not an option as the act of transcription involves reading them, which has implications for privacy of patients, doctors, and employees alike, potentially resulting in social repercussions to family and descendants. We are exploring mechanisms to crowdsource the transcription of such privacy-sensitive documents while maintaining the anonymity of individuals named in handwritten records by constraining the context of such mention as well as by exploiting other characteristics of documents. We report our promising initial results and describe our approach for generating structural metadata to identify multi-page units within large registers to improve the granularity of access.

1.1. Collection
Now called the Central State Hospital (CSH) [1], the first mental health institution for African-Ameri- cans in the USA was founded in 1870 near Petersburg, VA. The meticulous records maintained by the custodians of this historically significant institution have are now stored as tiff files at 400 dpi resolu- tion in a folder structure that reflects minimal structural information. The documents include hospital administrative and medical records of all stripes. The early records are handwritten and must be tran- scribed before these can be analyzed to observe patterns in administrative practices, as well as patient care. While the data set contains several types of handwritten cursive documents, including patient rec- ords, we are basing the development on board meeting minutes in order to minimize the risks in case of accidental exposure of these records.


Fig. 1: Cursive document with line breaks using adaptive thresholds.

1.2. Prior work
There is a vast body of literature on off-line handwriting recognition, focuing on methods for automatic character identification and transcription into machine-readable text [2]. Two examples of character recognition work are Tomai et al., [3] who provide a framework for mapping words in a transcript to a word image in a document and Guillevic et al., [4] who provide a character recognition approach to unconstrained, small-lexicon cursive handwriting. However, our corpus is heterogeneous, authored by many individuals, and uses a broad vocabulary.

2. Approach
We are using the Gamera libraries to segment documents for identifying individual words, in an effort to minimize the context available to potential transcribers, much like captchas are used to transcribe old, hard to OCR documents. As each document is different, and the text across lines overlaps in various ways, ruling out the use of bounding box-based methods. We using flexible, self-adjusting thresholds to detect lines. Fig. 1 shows the identified line breaks, with some breaks going through ascenders or descenders within characters in a line based on thresholds detected using document histograms. Additionally, we are using X-Y histogram profiles to identify and mark meeting minutes that span multiple pages (but begin on a fresh page) to improve the access granularity for these documents. Fig. 2 shows the current document structure using solid lines (pages within a register) and the intermediate minute structure superimposed by dashed lines.


Fig. 2: Generation of multi-page document structure

3. Discussion and Future Work
References
By employing a top-down, histogram-based approach to line and word recognition, our methods are adaptable to a large body of handwritten documents that space text at varying distances. In addition, the histograms also enable the generation of structural metadata that improves the access granularity.

The next step is to identify words within each line, where the threshold-based approach will help us locate spaces between inclined words. Transcribing at the word-level will enable us to expose varying levels of documents contexts to potential transcribers, depending upon a computation assessment of privacy sensitivity of content (for example, very short words are less likely to contain individual information). Prevention of identity disclosure in these records is critical due to the stigma associated with treatment for mental health issues. The methods we develop for transcribing handwritten documents will also be applicable to other privacy-sensitive historical records, most immediately, those of similar mental health institutions that followed the CSH.

4. References
The Central State Hospital. http://www.csh.dbhds.virginia.gov/

Cattoni, R., Coianiz, T., Messelodi S., and Modena ,C. M. (1998). 'Geometric Layout Analysis Techniques for Document Image Understanding: a Review' January 1998

Tomai, C. I., Zhang, B. and Govindaraju V. (2002). Transcript Mapping for Historical Handwritten Document Im- ages. Proceedings of the Eighth International Workshop on Frontiers in Handwriting Recognition.

Guillevic, D. and Suen, C. (1995). Cursive Script Recognition applied to the Processing of Bank Cheques.","txt","2","",""
"2042","15","Readings of a photograph: Cognition and Access","9","In the act of interpreting and describing pictures, even in the fundamental process of cognition, there is a strong play of language in the visual field. Critics working in this field have described the same relationship between the word and the image through different phrases: what Foucault refers to as the “seeable” and the “sayable” (1982) is defined by Deleuze as the “display” and the “discourse” (1984) while W.J.T. Mitchell terms as the “showing” and the “telling” (1994). The study of word and image (painting and poetry, literature and the visual arts), their relationship, or the examination of culture using critical devices in each field has been a consistent theme in the literary fields since antiquity. Visuality requires verbal descriptives for interpretation, whether they are spelt out explicitly, or subconsciously attributed in the human mind.

Images, when committed to the digital space, pose new issues regarding cognition. How do we recognise the digital object outside the moment of experiencing it? The digital collection is an assimilation of filenames and to use the digital object, we must first be able to recognise it. An image file may be recognised through the filename extensions (JPEG, TIFF etc.), but to conclusively state that it is the digital image of a photograph cannot be done without first looking at the contents of the digital file. The digital object does not have a tangible form or lineament. Physical photographic artifacts reveal clues to determine different aspects of its source. The different material on which the photographic image is imprinted (glass or paper) can reveal clues towards the origins of the image. Since photography is as much a technological phenomenon as it is fruit of human endeavour, the physical object itself communicates moments of technological change. In the digital medium, however, the photo-ancestry is lost and a new inscription formed. How do we then, perceive the photographic artifact in its computerised form? The question of recognition is central to the argument of reading the digitised image.

How do we, as spectators of the photograph, read the image? The photographic image bears a likeness to its subject (icon) and is a physical extension of it (index). The photograph possesses an evidential force: it cannot be argued that what it captures, through the process of light falling on a photo-sensitive plate, was not there. The readings of a photograph is dependent on the layers of recognition that happen in the process of viewing the image. The recognition of the indexical contiguity is directly related to the spectator’s familiarity of the photographic subject. In the second instance, all images demand a recognition of purpose: this purpose can be the photographer’s own, or it could be one that the photograph creates for itself -- a new life for its subject. The photograph can only depict history in a bounded frame: it is unable to speak. Thus the recognition of purpose of the image provides readings into the contextual framework within which the image is placed. Slaughter Ghat, Cawnpore (BL, Photo 193/20) presents us with a topographical space -- a river bank where several small shrines border upon a lower mud shelf above the river, on the banks of which are tethered two country boats. The intention of the photograph is not to portray a simple country scene (though it might) but to draw our attention to the site of a brutal massacre where hundreds of British refugees were fired upon and killed by rebelling forces in India. The purpose, then, becomes an instrument in the reading of the photograph. Re-enforcing this view, John Berger (1972: 10) writes:

""Every image embodies a way of seeing. Even a photograph. For photographs are not, as is often assumed, a mechanical record. Every time we look at a photograph, we are aware, however slightly, of the photographer selecting that sight from the infinity of other possible sights.""

The third and final instance is that of a recognition of source and this is of significant importance for the archival image. The little that we can articulate about the photographic image is derived from an understanding of the history of the object (the physical photograph). How we proceed to classify the image, place it within numerous other photographs is dependent on how we recognise the photographer, the period, the photographic plate and the photographic process. The history of the object is vital in our attempts to place it within the structures of a digital collection.

The naked digital artifact is wrapped in an envelope of tags and markers in an attempt to locate and describe the object. The categories described within the catalogue are translated in the digital medium as metadata. Metadata standards establish a common understanding of meaning or semantics of data. This aids proper use and interpretation of the data by its owners and users. My paper will explore the formation of metdata through the analysis (a combination of statistical and close-reading) of a body of annotated photographs. I propose to demonstrate means of extracting meaningful metadata which addresses the theoretical issues stated above, in order to place them within established, standardised formats. I will also demonstrate new methods of visualising large image collection through the use of this form of analysis. While my paper will focus on early photography from colonial India (1850-1900), the scalability of such a project will also be a point of consideration in this paper.

References
Berger, John (1971). Ways of Seeing. London: British Broadcasting Corp. Print.

Deleuze, Gilles (1984). Kant’s Critical Philosophy: The Doctrine of the Faculties. University of Minnesota Press

Foucault, Michel (1982). ‘The Subject and Power’, Critical Inquiry, Vol. 8, No. 4 (Summer, 1982). London: The University of Chicago Press, pp. 777-795

Gitelman, Lisa (2006). Always Already New: Media, History, and the Data of Culture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Mitchell, W.J.T. (1994) Picture Theory. London: The University of Chicago Press

Peirce, Charles S. (1940) ‘Logic as Semiotic: The Theory of Signs’, Philosophical Writings of Peirce. Edited by Justus Buchler (New York: Dover, 1955) 

The issue of committing to the digital sphere brings to mind the question of virtual inscription. While we are acutely aware of the way the photographic image is inscribed, digital inscription moves in more mysterious ways. Lisa Gitelman writes: “I have tended to chalk this up to the difference between the virtual and the real, without stopping to ponder what virtual inscriptions ... could possibly be. Like the mysteries surrounding the inscription of recorded sound onto surfaces of tinfoil and then wax at the end of the nineteenth century, the mysteries surrounding the virtual inscription of digital documents are part of the ongoing definition of these new media in and as they relate to history.” (2006: 19)

The term index (devised by the American philosopher Charles S. Peirce) is often used to describe this quality of causal contiguity. Peirce distinguished indexes from icons and symbols, writing that the index ‘refers to the Object that it denotes by virtue of being really affected by that Object’ For more see, Peirce (1955 :102)

The identification of purpose lies outside the photographic frames, through there may be visual clues within the image. The purpose determines the context. 

Amongst collectors, identifying the first (existing) print from the negative is of importance, for value as an object of collection lies, ironically, in the ‘uniqueness’ of the first print. With digital reproductions, it is more difficult to ascertain the lineage of the original photograph.","txt","2","",""
"2043","15","Realizing the democratic potential of online sources in the classroom","10","1.1  Overview 
How might students understand a digitised edition of a major documentary series, created at the height of empire and that is perhaps the largest repository about working people from the mid-19th to the mid-20th centuries? Would differing forms of digitisation affect their understandings of the series? Our research results indicate poorly in answer to the first question and, surprisingly, not at all on the second, because understanding proved to be less a question of form than content. To realise the potential created by the radically democratised access that online sources permit, we first need to understand and respect how 21st century undergraduates see their world. Rather than focusing on form, we need to explain how their experiences as youth in a neo-liberal world on the brink of ecological disaster relate to questions of power, hierarchy and resistance in the past.

1.2 Methodology 
In the preliminary stage individual qualitative and intensive examinations of undergraduate students were carried out using two fundamentally different editions of the same digitalised document. One half used a traditional textually-introduced document, the other accessed the same information through individual optional Google pins distributed throughout the document. This research was then supplemented by in-class experiments and work with graduate students and colleagues.

2.1 Preliminary questions
The dramatic increase in primary source material available online fundamentally transforms teaching and research in the humanities. Material that was until recently only available to hundreds or at best thousands of people at select, often unique, repositories is now virtually available to potentially millions of people. Historical sources are an important part of this completely unprecedented and radical reorientation of archival practice. The sheer scale of this newly democratised access to the sources of humanity’s story is already extraordinary, and as more and more of the archival treasures long-housed in former imperial centres becomes available for research, and importantly for our purposes teaching in classrooms around the world, the potential for challenging Eurocentric conceptions of our past is great indeed. 

This potential will, however, only be realized if our students are equipped with the tools they need to critically analyse these online resources. But is the historical literacy needed to understand a manuscript the same when encountered as a virtual source? Can a student simply transfer the knowledge and skills learnt in supervised archival research to working on the web? Are there different ways of knowing, distinct epistemologies, which are more appropriate to the qualitatively unique ontology of online sources? If so, should we be using the conventions of the digital world to navigate through these virtual sources? (Krug, 2006) How might such techniques affect the necessary respect of the historical distance between a conscientious researcher in the present and the source from the past that she or he is examining? 

When you hold a centuries old artefact in your hands, feel its weight, hear the paper crinkle, notice a stain or perhaps just react to the dust, you sense a connection to the past that is simultaneously humbling and enriching. This experience has been at the heart of research in the humanities for centuries. (A. Burton, 2005 & Steedman, 2005) Can a virtual encounter be as meaningful? (Hayles, 2001 & JDH, 2012) Indeed how useful is to think of these virtual representations as being from the past? Are they for our students anything more than a brief illusory encounter with a largely incomprehensible past? 

Discussion of these wide-ranging and difficult questions, posed as pedagogues of history, led the authors of this paper to engage in an on-going exploration we call “Explaining ourselves.” An urgency fueled our discussions, as increasingly we realized that our undergraduate students see the world in fundamentally different ways than those we taught only a short time ago. So how might they encounter a major documentary series that was created at the height of empire, and is perhaps the largest repository with documentary consistency about working people from the mid-19th to the mid-20th centuries? Close to hand we had the basis for an answer.

2.2 Finding the answers
Memorial University of Newfoundland is a public university with little in the way of endowments. It is the only university in a province that has the highest poverty rates in Canada. Until recently, MUN has been a place where undergraduate teaching was respected. In the early 1970s, young historians raised the necessary funds from the federal government and convinced the local university administration to acquire the bulk of a collection documenting merchant seafarers of the British Empire, held by the Public Record Office in London. (Matthews, 1974) Covering more than a century, the Crew Agreements maintained by MUN’s Maritime History Archive document the workforce of three-quarters of all ocean-going vessels within the British Empire between 1863 and 1939, with declining numbers continuing until the early 1970s. It provides detailed information about the tens of millions of men and women who served aboard the largest merchant marine in history. 

Completion of the major public history initiative More Than a List of Crew (V. Burton, 2011) provided the impetus for our study. By asking how would students read digital editions of these complex, multi-layered documents, she reinvigorated her co-author’s decades-long engagement with the use of computers in the classroom (Sweeny, 1988-2010). 

We developed two digital editions of the same crew agreement. The first had an extensive, multiple- screen-length, textual introduction, analogous to an introduction to a historical document in a scholarly edition in print. The second used Google pins to provide location specific information to help the user navigate the document. We created two sets of colour-coded pins. The first reproduced in bite-size portions the contents of the textual introduction. The second drew attention to any references to a particular individual onboard. A crew agreement from another vessel a decade later involving the same seafarer was also made available for the students to examine. 

We worked with fourteen undergraduate Arts and Science students in individual sessions. We recorded the screen actions for each session. Working alone, students were given up to two hours to familiarize themselves with the document. Half worked with the text edition and half worked with the annotated one. Then the students had two hours to complete two exercises. The first was content-oriented and used a multiple-choice/short answer quiz. The second involved the second crew agreement mentioned above, which was not annotated, but the students could consult the earlier documentation. They were asked to write a brief analytical essay engaging both primary documents. These written assignments were followed up by focused conversations where we asked the students to explain their answers and to identify the problems they had encountered in working with the documents. As we progressed this de-briefing became more effective as we realized the merit of asking students how they would explain these documents to a friend. 

In a second phase of the research we broadened our pool. We asked select graduate students in history and colleagues from our department to participate. Students in a third year historical methods class as well as students in a first year introductory course spent a 50 minute class with the documents after having visited the archives, formally in the first case and virtually in the second. They were then asked for written feedback. 

The results indicated no significant differences in understanding of the documents, both groups fared poorly. Furthermore, students with substantial historical training did not show appreciable differences. Thus, our presumption that form mattered was misdirected. Instead, student comments and their observed navigation practices both strongly suggest their need to engage directly with the documents in ways which use their existing understandings if they are to explore new ways of seeing.

2.3 Where from here?
We need to consciously transcend the form/content divide, if we are to engender in our students both an appreciation of the internal logic of a source and the ability to engage concept and evidence. In this particular case, how a crew agreement embodies the unequal power relationships between seafarers, masters, ship owners and the state would be the most fruitful pedagogical focus. What are they agreeing to and why? Crew agreements, like almost all historical documents, record unequal relations. Young people today live in an increasingly unequal world and this is the key to a progressive pedagogy that opens up our troubled present to our many and varied pasts. Used critically, it might yet allow our students to realize the democratic potential of all those newly accessible documents.

References
Anderson, Steve F. (2011). Technologies of History: Visual Media and the Eccentricity of the Past. Hanover, N.H.:  Dartmouth College Press. 

Berger, John. (2007). Hold Everything Dear: Dispatches on survival and resistance. New York: Pantheon Books.

Booth, A. (2006). “Perspectives on the research-teaching relationship in history.”

www.hca.heacademy.ac.uk/assets/hca/documents/case_Studies/snas/booth.doc

Burton, A. (2005). “Introduction: Archive Fever, Archive Stories”. In Archive Stories, Facts, Fictions and the Writing of History. Durham & London, Duke University Press: 1-24. 

Burton, V. (2011). More Than a List of Crew, www.mun.ca/mha/mlc

Hayles, N. K. (2001). “The Transformation of Narrative and the Materiality of Hypertext.”Narrative 9, 21–39. 

JDH, the editors (2012). “The Difference the Digital Makes.”Journal of Digital Humanities, 2, October.

Krug, Steve. (2006). Don’t Make Me Think: A Common Sense Approach to Web Usability. Berkley: New Riders Publishin

MacDonald, T (1996). Ed. The Historic Turn in the Human Sciences. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 

Jimerson, R. C. (2006). “Embracing the Power of Archives.”The American Archivist, 69,1: 19-23. 

Matthews, K. (1974). “Crew Lists, Agreements, and Official Logs of the British Empire, 1863-1913.”Business History, XVI,1: 78-80. 

Schmidt, H. C. (2012) “Media, Millennials, and the Academy: Understanding the State of Media Literacy within Higher Education.” Journal on Excellence in College Teaching 23.4 (2012): 53–75. 

Steedman, C. (2002) Dust: the archive and cultural history. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.

Sweeny, Robert C.H (1988) Les relations ville/champagne, le cas de bois de chauffage. Montréal: Éditions du MBHP. 

Sweeny, Robert C.H. (1997/8). “The Past in the Present: Part I Epistemological challenges of computer-assisted teaching, Part II, Methodological reflections on computer-assisted teaching.”www.chashcacommittees-comitesa.ca/cchc-cchi/Doc/CHA98_Sweeny.htm

Sweeny, Robert C.H. (2010) Montréal, l’avenir du passé: le 19ième siècle. St John’s: MMS Atlantic.","txt","2","",""
"2044","15","Reconstruction and Display of a Nineteenth Century Landscape Model","10","Introduction
Physical landscape models have been used for hundreds of years as a means of offering people privileged overviews of landscapes, allowing them to effortlessly appreciate spatial relationships between places of interest. The role of digital technology for capturing, preserving and analysing existing models has been demonstrated by Niederoest (2002) using photogrammetric techniques, focussing on the model constructed by Franz Ludwig Pfyffer in the late eighteenth century. This paper will describe the use of digital scanning, processing and 3D printing for exploring a landscape model that no longer exists but where a large number of negative moulds remain. It offers an example of the use of capture and presentation technologies to produce an exhibit from material that would otherwise be inaccessible to audiences. The specific case study is a physical landscape model of the English Lake District created by Thomas and Henry Mayson in 1875 which gave visitors to the town of Keswick, Cumbria an unprecedented view of the landscape they were about to explore. Huge efforts went into creating this model which claimed to faithfully represent the contours and other details of the Ordnance Survey maps which had recently been surveyed but which were not commonly used by the public at that time for recreational purposes. The model is believed to have been displayed until the 1960s but all that now remains are some mouldings created ‘for future use’ (found in storage in 2012) along with some other material including posters, the commissioning letter and some original map sheets (Figure 1).


Fig. 1: Remaining archival material relating to Mayson’s Ordnance Model of 1875.

The Mayson model was larger and more detailed than others displayed at that time and became a popular tourist attraction. A poster advertising the model reads “The model has been constructed mathematically from the Ordnance Survey… Parties visiting this model will see the correct topography of the Lake District, and can thereby readily plan either long or short excursions as time will permit. They will also gain a better idea of the whole of the Lake Country than is to be obtained from any other source”.

Background
Whilst very effective cartographic relief representations were available in the nineteenth century, particularly in alpine regions as described by Collier et al (2003), the majority of visitors to the English Lake District may at best have used a guidebook containing small maps but were unlikely to have had a good appreciation of the landscape setting of the town they were visiting. Physical landscape models have often been used in public settings to help convey a sense of spatial context for visitors, using geographical features such as mountains, lakes, buildings and roads to provide a frame of reference, and Keswick in the nineteenth century was no exception. Whilst some models from this period still exist, including the Flintoft model made in 1834, several of the larger models including that of the Mayson brothers, have been destroyed. In the case of the Mayson model there is an opportunity to reconstruct parts of the model due to the discovery of a set of negative moulds. The use of laser-scanning technology as reported by Terdiman (2012) in relation to the Smithsonian archive clearly offers the fidelity of capture necessary to extract the detail present in the Mayson moulds. In addition to scanning the moulds, digital geo-processing and 3D prototyping will enable us to explore the process of model building and the relationships between the model and the maps on which it is said to have been based. This broader view on the potential for physical fabrication to add richness to digital humanities investigations is seen in Elliot et al (2012) and Sayers et al (2013).

Research challenges
Through the development of a workflow combining scanning, processing and physical fabrication the project explores the technical aspects of physical model building and in particular the relationship between cartographic survey and physical model construction. The historical context of the model as part of the visitor experience, before Ordnance Survey mapping saw popular recreational use, is of particular interest. A great challenge is to apply technology in a creative manner in order to re-present the collection of objects in a form that is appropriate for public viewing, conveying both the fidelity and scale of the original model, but also advancing our understanding of the process of model building and the original context of its use as an informative visitor attraction.

Digital reconstruction
After recovering and cleaning the collection of moulds each item was scanned using a FARO Laser ScanArm V3 and the resulting point clouds tidied within the PolyWorks software. A program was written to convert each point cloud into a form suitable for processing within the ArcGIS Geographical Information System (GIS) package, including the inversion of the vertical dimension. The points were then processed to produce continuous Digital Surface Models from which hillshaded images were derived to assist in locating each mould for the purpose of geo-referencing, as the location and orientation of most of the moulds was not known. From initial processing within the GIS there is some evidence of slight vertical exaggeration when comparing the model against modern elevation data however this will need a full and systematic study and will form part of the ongoing research agenda. Selected tiles were sent to a CMS Athena 5-axis CNC milling machine to produce positive reconstructions of the relevant mould. The generalised workflow is shown in Figure 2.


Fig. 2: Digital Reconstruction workflow.

Designing a new visitor experience
The knowledge gained about the Mayson model both in terms of the process of construction and the context of its display will form part of a public display in Keswick museum from May 2014. The challenge for re-presenting this collection is to convey the detail of the original model, the process through which the original model was made and how this relates to modern forms of survey, mapping and model building, helped by the active involvement of the Ordnance Survey, on whose maps the original model was based. Figure 3 shows some key elements of the display, including an example of an original mould, a 3D fabrication of the scanned data from that original mould with map data projected down onto it (Priestnall et al. 2012) including modern cartographic representations but also the 1860s map (Figure 3, centre), attempting to emphasise the data from which a model has been derived but also how it could be re-presented and re-interpreted (Lorenz, Schofield and Noond, 2006). The scale and context of display of the original model will also be presented (below right) along with a temporary installation featuring ten fabricated tiles distributed around the gallery space in their true to-scale geographical positions to convey the size of the original model.


Fig. 3: Re-presenting the collection

Conclusion
Digital technologies have allowed us to explore a nineteenth century physical landscape model that no longer exists. We have gained an insight into its creation, its detail and accuracy, and the importance of its role in the visitor experience at a time when maps were less commonly used for recreational purposes. We have developed workflows to combine 3D scanning, digital processing, 3D fabrication and projection to produce an exhibit from historical objects that would otherwise be inaccessible to the general public. In this case not only has the technology been of value to preserve a collection but it has enabled us to digitally reconstruct new forms of information from the artefacts that remain. Particular issues arising from the need to apply geographic coordinate information to the scanned objects were handled within a GIS and work is ongoing to compare the historic terrain model with modern digital equivalents. The overall findings resonate with ongoing research into the development of projection-enhanced physical landscape models for public display and their power for promoting an awareness of spatial context in viewers of those models. The techniques could also contribute to more general design guidelines for using technology to promote an awareness of spatial context and to support the process of interpretation and reconstruction where the geographic landscape model is the backdrop but not necessarily the focus of attention.

Acknowledgements
Charlotte Stead and Pat Maskell at Keswick Museum; Nikki Tofts at Helena Thompson Museum; Glen Hart, Head of Research at the Ordnance Survey; Sarah Beardsley, Scott Wheaver and James Hazzledine at the Centre for 3D Design, School of Architecture and the Built Environment, the University of Nottingham; Sally Bowden at the Centre for Advanced Studies, the University of Nottingham; Frank Priestnall; and Ian Conway, School of Geography, the University of Nottingham. This work has been supported by the AHRC Creative Economy Knowledge Exchange Project “Archives, Assets and Audiences”.

References
Collier, P., Forrest, D., and Pearson, A. (2003) The Representation of Topographic Information on Maps: The Depiction of Relief The Cartographic Journal Vol. 40 No. 1, 17–26

Elliot, D., MacDougall, R., and Turkel, W.J. (2012) New Old Things: Fabrication, Physical Computing, and Experiment in Historical Practice, Canadian Journal of Communication Vol 37 (2012) 121-128

Lorenz, K., Schofield, D. and Noond, J. (2006) Showing Seeing : In Search of a Graphic Language for the Digital Reconstruction of Ancient Greek and Roman Sites and Monuments,Digital Resources for the Arts and Humanities Conference, Dartington, UK, 9-12 September 2006.

Niederoest, J. (2002) Landscape as a historical object: 3D Reconstruction and Evaluation of a Relief Model from the 18th Century The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Vol. XXXIV, Part 5/W3

Priestnall, G., Gardiner, J., Durrant, J. and Goulding, J., (2012) Projection Augmented Relief Models (PARM): Tangible Displays for Geographic Information In: Proceedings ofElectronic Visualisation and the Arts (EVA 2012). 180-187

Sayers, J., Boggs, J., Elliott, D., and Turkel, W.J. (2013) Made to Make: Expanding Digital Humanities through Desktop Fabrication, Proceedings of Digital Humanities 2013, University of Nebraska.

Terdiman, D. (2012) Smithsonian turns to 3D to bring collection to the world. CNet. [Accessed November 1st 2013] news.cnet.com/8301-13772_3-57384166-52/smithsonian-turns-to-3d-to-bring-collection-to-the-world","txt","2","",""
"2045","15","Relating texts to 3D-information: A generic software environment for Spatial Humanities","10","1. Introduction
Research in the emergent field of Spatial Humanities, especially in GIS-based approaches, is primarily conducted on a spatial macro-level. Statistical information, such as distributions of archaeological finds or movement and communication patterns is generally mapped to two-dimensional representations of the areas under consideration.12

Humanities research related to spatial contexts is not limited to quantitative scope. Studies in archeology, art history and human geography, to name only a few disciplines, focus on places as small as public spaces and buildings as the stage for liturgical, political and economic practices.3 But important analytical approaches in these fields necessitate three-dimensional representations. Important functional properties of objects in space, such as visibility and accessibility, cannot always be determined by two-dimensional ground plots.

To tackle this shortcoming, the research project Inscriptions in their Spatial Context (IBR) develops research methods and corresponding software tools for Spatial Humanities research on the 3D-geometry of smaller environments like building interiors. Geometric data drawn from geodetic scannings are semantically enriched and connected to scientific textual and visual data. Theoretical foundations as well as the software are being tested in an extensive case study on a medieval church. IBR is a joint research project of the Institute for Spatial Information and Surveying Technology at the FH Mainz - University of Applied Sciences (i3mainz) and the Academy of Sciences and Literature in Mainz. It is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) and brings together experts from the fields of geoinformatics, surveying engineering, digital humanities, art history and epigraphy.

2. Acquisition of geometries
Panoramic photography has become a common technique for merging smaller photographs into one larger image. Not only established software solutions like Google Street View are able to visualize such panoramic images. Also popular scientific applications4 are able to convey the impression of standing at the captured location.

Since images do not represent 3D-information, a measuring campaign is necessary to fulfill the real needs of spatial research. Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) creates high quality point clouds in the range up to several hundred meters.5 Until now, tools for processing this kind of information have been mainly designed for the use in the field of engineering. In the Cultural Heritage domain, as in archeology, TLS is usually used for documentation and modeling only or for 2D-analysis, such as for the extraction of floor plans. Parts of the content of the point cloud data are often neither extracted nor used, but can now be reused with the IBR software.

The “GenericViewer” is an easy to handle web-application which provides typical functions of a panorama viewer and allows the user to identify objects in point clouds and to annotate them semantically. Thereby it is possible to work on 3D-objects in an intuitive way, because the software connects panoramic images with point cloud data.6

The application communicates with two data storage units: A triple store contains all connections between expert data, spatial data and external resources. Another database handles point clouds, panorama images and spatial objects. It is possible to access the user created data via the GenericViewer itself and through a machine-readable interface. Only Javascript and a browser with webGL-support are necessary to use the web application.

3. Semantic enrichment
The GenericViewer integrates a customized version of the website-annotator Pundit.78 Users formulate simple subject-predicate-object-statements over geometries and texts that are stored in the form of OAC-conformant RDF-triplets. Semantic entities can be drawn from generic ontologies like DBpedia and if more specialized vocabularies9 do not suffice, also from project-specific resources.

Physical objects identified in the point cloud are represented by 3D-coordinates, i.e. numerical values. To make them become meaningful objects, some semantic description is necessary. Therefore, geometries can be identified as specimen of a certain type, e.g. a tomb slab, and semantically connected to other textual and geometric resources. The tomb slab, for example, can be tagged as an instance of the class “tomb_slab”, and its inscription can be connected to a corresponding critical edition by the relation “is_edition_of”. If a researcher wants to suggest a sculptor for this object, knowing that this attribution remains merely a hypothesis and that there might be conflicting opinions, that hypothesis can be expressed as such via suitable predicate. Thanks to the OAC format, annotations come to represent a scholarly discourse rather than just a set of semantic descriptions. The annotation repository can be programmatically accessed and queried via a SPARQL-endpoint, thereby enabling quantitative analyses (e.g. how many tomb-slabs are there in the church) and the creation of aggregate resources with new applications and information services on top of it. The goal is to create a 3D-GIS for quantitative as well as qualitative research with a focus on the interconnection of resources and geometric analysis, as an alternative to approaches centered on multimedia presentations.10

4. Case study
The GenericViewer is currently being used experimentally in a case study on the late-gothic parish church Liebfrauenkirche in Oberwesel (Middle Rhine Valley, Germany), using 3D-data that has been gathered in a TLS-campaign. The study investigates inter alia the placement of tombs and memorial inscriptions. It looks at potentially relevant factors like the social division of the congregation room, procession routes, and other places of liturgical practices. Among the research questions are: What does the placement of a tomb say about the social status of the deceased, given social features of the surrounding tombs? How does an inscription text relate to liturgical texts that were read on procession stations in its proximity? Who could actually see an inscription from which position in the church, and do some texts appear to have been directed at certain groups within the congregation room? The evidence relevant to such questions as well as conclusions drawn from the data are connected to the 3D-representation as semantic annotations.

An important textual source in this study is the epigraphic database “German Inscriptions Online” (DIO), which provides critical editions for the inscriptions under consideration. The spatial configuration of the objects bearing inscriptions and liturgical ""key-positions"" like the apse and the chancel have been analysed with respect to visibility patterns. The analytical perspective of Space Syntax11, which has been been successfully employed in earlier works on historic liturgy and interiour church architecture12, seems to be a promising approach. Due to the complexity of the spatial configurations, our approach offers advantages over conventional text-image representations in terms of analysability and confirmability.

The foundational inscription, a glass painting in the apse of the church13, is a case in point. It has been described as a self-assured, even provocative message from the citizenry who build the church to the clergy and especially the bishop. The founders chose the rather exceptional place of the apse windows, because here it was most visible from the choir and the main altar, where the clergy assembled.14 This presupposition was empirically tested in a visibility analysis.

5. Discussion
At the moment, the GenericViewer is usable with TLS-Data only. However, scanning campaigns can be quite expensive, and the geometrical accuracy delivered by this technology is not needed in every case. There are other measurement techniques, e.g. “structure from motion”, that should be supported in future versions.

Visibility is relative to human perception and it is dependent on a variety of factors, many of which can not currently be modelled in our algorithms. Certain aspects of visibility, e.g. the ability to recognize a certain gesture from a distance, still have to be approximated by human experiments.15

How useful the data produced with our software is for a broader scientific community will depend on the choice of semantic resource (users are always faced with a trade-off between specificity and generalizability) and the underlying text-document. Pundit, like many similar annotation tools16, annotates positions in the DOM-tree of HTML-documents. But that means annotating the presentational layer of a text rather than the text itself. Because of that, IBR decided to annotate tree positions in TEI-encoded XML-documents. But not many digital documents in the humanities domain are available in this format, and it is not clear yet how to treat PDF-files.

IBR offers the possibility to contribute to or extend the open source code and to connect third-party applications, analysis tools and ontologies. More informations are available on www.spatialhumanities.de.

References
1. Hernandez, Armando Anaya; Guenter, Stanley P.; Zender, Marc U. (2003): Sak Tz'i', a Classic Maya Center: A Locational Model Based on GIS and Epigraphy. In: Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Society for American Archaeology, Jun., 2003), pp. 179-191.

2. v. Lünen, Alexander and Travis, Charles (ed.): History and GIS. Epistemologies, Considerations and Reflections. Heidelberg [et al.]: Springer, 2013.

3. Ananieva, Anna; Bauer, Alexander; Leis, Daniel; Morlang-Schardon, Bettina; Steyer, Kristina (ed.): Räume der Macht. Metamorphosen von Stadt und Garten im Europa der Frühen Neuzeit. Bielefeld: transcript Verlag, 2013.

4. 3D-viewer of the Romanic dome of Speyer: www.kaiserdom-virtuell.de.

5. Kern, F., Bruhn, K.-Ch., Mehlig, S.: Messtechnik und Inschriftenforschung - Anwendungsbezogene Arbeiten im Projekt ""Deutsche Inschriften Online 3D"". In: Photogrammetrie, Laserscanning, Optische 3D-Messtechnik - Beiträge der Oldenburger 3D-Tage 2012, hg. v. Th. Luhmann, Ch. Müller, S. 22-33.

6. Kern, F., Mehlig, S., Siegrist, B.: Geometrische Qualität von aus Einzelphotos zusammengesetzten Panoramen. In: 29. Wissenschaftliche Jahrestagung der DGPF - Mainz - Geodaten - Eine Ressource des 21. Jahrhunderts (Publikationen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Photogrammetrie, Fernerkundung und Geoinformation e.V., Band 20, 2011), hg. v. E. Seyfert, S. 129-136.

7. Pundit Semantic Annotation Tool: thepund.it.

8. Grassi, Marco; Morbidoni, Christian; Nucci, Michele; Fonda, Simone; Ledda, Giovanni (2012): Pundit: Semantically Structured Annotations for Web Contents and Digital Libraries. In: Mitschick, Annett; Loizides, Fernando; Predoiu, Livia; Nürnberger, Andreas; Ross, Seamus (ed.): Semantic Digital Archives 2012. Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Semantic Digital Archives (SDA 2012), Paphos, Cyprus, September 27, 2012, CEUR-WS.org/Vol-912.

9. Getty Art & Architecture Thesaurus: www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabularies/aat/index.html

10. Corrigan, John (2010): Qualitative GIS and Emergent Semantics. In: Bodenhamer, David J.; Corrigan, John; Harris, Trevor M. ( ed.): The Spatial Humanities: GIS and the Future of Humanities Scholarship. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 76-88.

11. Hillier, Bill: Space is the Machine: A Configurational Theory of Architecture, Cambridge: University Press, 1999.

12. Clark, David L. Chatford (2007): Viewing the Liturgy: A Space Syntax Study of Changing Visibility and Accessibility in the Development of the Byzantine Church in Jordan. In: World Archeology, Vol. 39 No. 1 (Mar. 2007), pp. 84-104.

13. Epigraphic Database “Deutsche Inschriften Online” (DIO): www.inschriften.net. DIO 60-27: www.inschriften.net/rhein-hunsrueck-kreis/inschrift/nr/di060-0027.html.

14. Nikitsch, Eberhard Josef (1996): Ein Kirchenbau zwischen Bischof und Stadtgemeinde. Zur angeblich verlorenen Bauinschrift von 1308 in der Liebfrauenkirche zu Oberwesel am Rhein. In: JbWdtLg 22 (1996), pp. 95–112.

15. Clark, David L. Chatford (2007): Viewing the Liturgy: A Space Syntax Study of Changing Visibility and Accessibility in the Development of the Byzantine Church in Jordan. In: World Archeology, Vol. 39 No. 1 (Mar. 2007), pp. 87.

16. Khalili, Ali ; Auer, Sören; Hladky, Daniel (2012): The RDFa Content Editor – From WYSIWYG to WYSIWYM. In: Proceedings of COMPSAC 2012 – Trustworthy Software Systems for the Digital Society, July 16-20, 2012, Izmir, Turkey, 2012.","txt","2","",""
"2046","15","Remediating 20th-Century Magazines of the Arts: Approaches, Methods, Possibilities","3","1. Panel Proposal
The remediation of historical books and newspapers into the digital environment receives ample attention in today’s academic and library communities, and has become a core feature of major digital humanities projects that have enabled innovative methods of inquiry and new scholarly discoveries. However, despite the establishment of pioneering digital resources such as the Modernist Journals Project and the Modernist Magazines Project, the design and research potential of electronic collections of modernist historical magazines remains an understudied and under-theorized topic.

This panel aims to fill this gap by presenting a series of approaches, methodologies and possibilities inherent in the creation of robust digital collections of 20-th century magazines of the arts. We bring together designers of three collections – the Blue Mountain Project (Princeton University), the AAC- Austrian Academy Corpus (Austrian Academy of Sciences), and Digital Archive of Belgian Neo-Avant-garde Periodicals (or DABNAP, at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts Antwerp) – for a conversation addressing both the conceptual underpinnings as well as the practical applications of their work. This international panel will continue a lively discussion started at a conference at Princeton University in October 2013 on remediating avant-garde magazines. Our goal at DH 2014 will be to illustrate a variety of avenues available for digital curation of historical magazine collections, and to move toward a set of shared guidelines for representing this rich material in the electronic environment and facilitating advanced research.

A discussion of the theoretical and practical issues involved in remediating modernist and avant- garde periodicals is both important and timely. In recent years, as the field of Periodical Studies has cohered as subset of print culture scholarship, researchers have started looking at historical periodicals in new ways and discovering that they fundamentally challenge our conventional understandings of modern culture. The recent publication of the Oxford Critical and Cultural History of Modernist Magazines, a hefty three-volume set of essays that discusses over 500 magazines from Europe and the Americas, underscores the relevance of periodicals for today’s research on modern and modernist culture. If, as Sean Latham and Robert Scholes assert in “The Rise of Periodical Studies,” the flourishing of this field has been enabled and invigorated by the affordances of the digital environment – what is the response of the Digital Humanities community to the continued evolution of Periodical Studies? What are our obligations as designers of collections of digital historical periodicals? How must we build resources that embody, allow, and promote the sophisticated new avenues of scholarly engagement made possible by electronic tools and platforms?

The panelists’ answers to these questions will reflect the scope, methodology, and focus of their projects: Crombez’s DABNAP is concerned with magazine as a performance and art text, Biber’s paper illustrates the corpus linguistics approach, and Wulfman and Ermolaev maintain a Periodical Studies perspective. Each will touch upon the intellectual and technological insights that emerge when we remediate the arts magazine, such as: representation of aesthetic, material, and social features, questions regarding materiality (format, typography, paper, binding, etc.), tracing printing and distribution history, data modeling, linguistic analysis, semantic enrichment and tagging, entity and name recognition, interface design, and application and tool-building.

This panel promises to stimulate a coherent discussion that will be informative to a broad range of digital humanists. By presenting a cross-section of types of collections, the panel will demonstrate the current state of innovative projects on 20-th century arts magazines, and help forge the way for future work.

All panelists have agreed to participate.

2. Paper 1: Magazines of Magazines. Corpus Research Applications for New Digital Editions of Historical Magazines (Hanno Biber)
A magazine can be regarded as a specific container of texts. A corpus can be regarded as a structured and complex collection of texts. The simple questions of how to structure these complex texts in text corpora and how to integrate magazines in corpora and to make them accessible for research purposes is particularly challenging. This paper will present corpus research applications for innovative digital editions of magazines. Therefore, three research aspects have to be considered. First, the methodological parameters of corpus research have to be determined and the applicability of corpus linguistics for the question of designing and building digital text editions of historical magazines has to be examined. Second, the research potential of scholarly digital editions of magazines in the context of a digital humanities framework has to be described. And third, a practical corpus- based methodological approach of magazine studies has to be given by investigating the specific textual qualities of the magazines and the specific language use in the magazines’ texts, which have been annotated and made accessible with the help of corpus linguistics as well as innovative interface design and graphic design principles. The study will present several aspects of these research questions illustrated by text examples and discuss the methodological implications of such corpus-based investigations into the use of language in texts in particular. Literary magazines in particular have specific properties that can be recognized and registered by means of a corpus-based study of language. Therefore the literary magazines subsection of the “AAC-Austrian Academy Corpus” will be used as examples for this type of research. This resource is an ideal basis for a corpus linguistic exploration into the study of literary magazines. Corpus-based text studies can be regarded also as instruments of textual critique, whereby the corpus-based approach allows various ways of philological research and text analysis.

The framework of the “AAC-Austrian Academy Corpus” offers a research platform for corpus linguistics in a very broad sense as well as for corpus-based magazine studies in particular. So far, two model digital editions of magazines have been developed within the AAC for the purpose of analysing large amounts of literary texts with a methodological approach offered by corpus linguistics. The “AAC-FACKEL”[6] and the “Brenner online”[7] editions are two examples of how corpus research initiatives can help to develop new applications in the field of digital humanities, in particular for language studies in the context of literature research as well as for historical studies and for broader issues related to cultural studies. The “AAC-Austrian Academy Corpus” has been established as a corpus research initiative concerned with exploring electronic text corpora and conducting research in the fields of corpus linguistics, text analysis and digital text corpora. More than 500 million running words of text have been scanned, converted into machine-readable text and carefully annotated with structural mark-up. The texts that have been integrated into the AAC are German language texts of historical and cultural significance. The historical period covered is ranging from 1848 to 1989, a period showing historical changes with remarkable influences on the language and the language use. In the context of the subset of the AAC digital editions the language of satire written by Karl Kraus and his use of language in his magazine is of particular interest for a study on language use and in particular for a study on language use based upon the principles of corpus linguistics. Apart from the digital editions of the “Brenner online” and the “AAC-FACKEL”, which has been annotated to a large extent, the AAC magazines corpus holdings provide a great number of reliable resources and interesting corpus based approaches for investigations into the properties of these texts. Several other magazines have been digitized making use of XML-related standards. Both the „AAC-FACKEL“ and “Brenner online” offer fully searchable online editions of the journal with various indexes and search tools in a web interface, where all pages of the original are available as digital texts and as facsimile images. The „AAC-FACKEL“ and “Brenner online” allow new methods of scholarly research and philological analysis of texts that are of crucial importance for the history and study of not only the language but also of the status and the properties of the magazine. The edition interface of the AAC digital editions has several sophisticated search mechanisms and indexes as well as five individual frames synchronized within one single window. The philological principles of scholarly digital editions within the “AAC-Austrian Academy Corpus” are determined by the conviction that the methods of corpus research enable valuable text resources and research tools for linguists and literary scholars. The resource is an interesting text basis for corpus linguistic explorations whereby a corpus-based approach allows new ways of philological research and analysis of magazines.

3. Paper 2: The Blue Mountain Project and the Language of Avant-Garde Magazines (Wulfman and Ermolaev)
Introduction
This paper initiates a dialog with Hanno Biber’s contribution to this panel by suggesting that a magazine is not only a container of texts but a text itself. As Carolyn Ulrich, one of the authors of the influential book, The Little Magazine: A History and a Bibliography, wrote to her co-author Frederick Hoffman, “a magazine is a tricky individual”: tricky in its identity and tricky in its individuality. What is a magazine? Is it a particular issue (a manifestation at a particular point in time – a copy, an issuance, etc.), or is it a title with some sort of identity over time (expressed through editorial consistency, name continuity, etc.)?

To ask these questions is to engage Biber’s research approach to the magazine – specifically, “the applicability of corpus linguistics [to] the question of designing and building digital text editions of historical magazines.” While the methods of corpus linguistics are, without a doubt, of crucial importance to the study of historical magazines, other disciplinary methodologies can compliment lexical analysis by highlighting additional key aspects of this diverse and rich material.

In their 2010 book, Modernism in the Magazines: An Introduction, Wulfman and Scholes critique the conventional distinctions that have, historically, been applied to magazines, especially generic labels such as “little”, “mass”, “literary”, “avant-garde”, etc. They suggest employing a more analytic approach instead, one which entails identifying a set of characteristics that contribute to our understanding of magazines and then clustering them in different ways, much as linguists characterize speech sounds by clustering features into phonemes. The Blue Mountain Project at Princeton University is continuing this line of inquiry, and in this paper we describe our development of a language of magazines, and of a technological infrastructure and set of applications to represent this complex language in a robust digital resource.

An Ontology of Historical Magazines
The Blue Mountain Project, based in the Princeton University Library and funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities, was launched in 2012 as a freely-available electronic resource for art, music, and literary periodicals published in Europe and the United States between 1850-1923. In the first 2-year grant cycle, Blue Mountain is making 34 titles (approximately 95,000 pages) available in French, German, English, Italian, Spanish, Czech, Russian, Polish, Finnish, and Danish.

In the first part of this paper, we present our research on an ontology of historical magazines – that is, a set of concepts with which knowledge of magazines is represented, expressed in a vocabulary that denotes the types, properties and interrelationships of those concepts – that has become the core intellectual infrastructure of the Blue Mountain Project. This ontology differs from the terms of descriptive bibliography developed in the library community such as MARC (MAchine-Readable Cataloging), and from the critical terminology traditionally used by scholars and critics. The purpose of our ontology is to provide a framework on which researchers and scholars may encode and describe historical magazines.

To be sure, some of the concepts do come from the language of descriptive bibliography: title, editor, contributor, and so forth; but others are more nuanced than descriptive bibliography usually expresses. Issuance, for example, is often a complex phenomenon, especially for magazines published internationally, making the concept of an original copy from which a digital edition is derived a vexed one and requiring scholars to rethink narratives of publication. Other concepts, like circulation and price, are tied to data that are difficult to obtain; still others, like readership, are complex concepts whose sub-concepts must be teased apart and identified before they may be used meaningfully.

Other terms in the Blue Mountain ontology come from the languages of typography, book history, and graphic design, and are inspired by Jerome McGann’s notion of the “bibliographic code.” In order to discuss the relationship of content elements in a magazine, for example – such as the relationship of advertisements to articles – one must have a common language for expressing layout. Simple text transcription of a magazine's contents is insufficient for many kinds of research; thus our ontology is based on an understanding of the historical language of page composition (columns, paragraphs, various forms of headings, publication metadata, and so on) that is vital to the useful encoding of magazine structure and the analysis of a magazine's meaning.

Advanced Applications: Blue Mountaineer and Blue Mountain Springs
In the second part of our paper, we present an experimental architecture for encoding and expressing the language of magazines. The Blue Mountain Project has been designed to support a variety of research uses, beyond the now-standard modes of full-text searching and page browsing. To support those uses, we create high- resolution digital images and provide robust library-standard metadata including title, issue and constituent-level MODS (Metadata Object Description Schema) and METS/ALTO (Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard/Analyzed Layout and Text Object) records. In our next phase of work, however, we plan to expose this highly structured data for mining and analysis by means of two new modules: Blue Mountaineer and Blue Mountain Springs.

Blue Mountaineer
The Blue Mountaineer is a set of web applications we will design for exploring Blue Mountain content through visualizations, topic modeling, and other forms of data mining and retrieval. It is intended to showcase the power and utility of a rich XML-encoded database while providing researchers and students with tools they can use in their own investigations. Examples of the type of research Blue Mountaineer will enable include the following:

Social Network Analysis: Users will be able to explore the complex publication webs with tools that enable them to plot graphs of relations among titles, authors, artists, languages, and nationalities using Blue Mountain's rich metadata. They will, for example, be able to see all the issues in which Tristan Tzara and Francis Picabia appeared together.

Data-Driven Timelines and Clusters: Blue Mountain will employ off-the-shelf natural-language processing software such as Apache OpenNLP and the Stanford Named Entity Recognizer, as well as Princeton's own WordNet, to perform first-order named-entity detection on its corpus of magazines. The results of these analyses will be encoded in Blue Mountain's TEI transcriptions, which will make it possible for researchers to discover and visualize sequences and relationships buried deep in the textual data itself. They will be able to compare how two authors use a particular term, for example, or see how the work of a particular artist relates to particular advertisers.

Topic Modeling: The aggregation and clustering of content zones encoded in METS/ALTO make it possible for topic modeling algorithms to perform much more fine-grained analysis of magazines and newspapers than they can perform using unzoned, ""dirty-OCR'ed"" texts. Researchers will be able to study and compare the abstract topics occurring in the work of two authors, for example, or to compare the topics in a magazine's articles with those in its advertising.

Blue Mountain Springs
Information scientists and digital humanities researchers often want to bypass reader-oriented interfaces and access full-text data directly and programmatically for use with external analytic tools. The Blue Mountain Springs module will make Blue Mountain an abundant source of clean data by providing an application programming interface (API) to Blue Mountain's metadata and machine-readable full-text transcriptions. Blue Mountain Springs will support traditional metadata harvesting via OAI-PMH[14], as well as the more elaborate aggregations supported by OAI-ORE[15]. It will enable software clients to access the plain text of Blue Mountain's materials through web-addressable text streams that can be piped directly into visualization and analysis applications.

4. Paper 3: The Document as Event. Analyzing Artist Networks through a Digital Archive of Avant-garde Periodicals (Crombez)
Introduction
In this panel presentation, I would like to highlight the ideas, problems and outcomes of DABNAP, which stands for the ‘Digital Archive of Belgian Neo-Avant-garde Periodicals.’ A considerable collection of forty artist periodicals from the 1950s to the 1980s is being digitized, in order to examine the underlying network of artists and artist groups.

My main interest will be the issue of semantic enrichment of the source documents. To various degrees, semantic enrichment is already common to many scholarly digitization projects. Think, for instance, of marking up personal names and locations in a TEI-encoded document. But for large-scale projects, manual semantic enrichment is often unfeasable. Can automatic procedures, such as named entity recognition (NER), help to mine art periodicals? Furtherwise, can we imagine and develop software that detects not merely names, but also artistic information in vast collections of text?

In order to answer these ambitious questions, I will first develop a new conceptual model (centered on ‘the document as event’), and then highlight the actual context in which this model will be put in practice.

The Document as Event
The archive of back issues from LIFE Magazine (spanning five decades) was a showcase project for Google Books when the initiative started in 2004. Apart from access through browsing or through the ubiquitous search box, the internet company uses basic text analysis to help users navigate the archive. The interface presents a cloud of words and expressions that are characteristic for the issue that the user is currently browsing. For the February 1937 issue, the web archive is happy to inform the user that “Leon Trotsky,” “Reichstag,” “Studebaker,” and “Kleenex” are among the common terms and phrases. But it is obviously blind to the question whether these names belong to people, organizations, places, or brands.

Current digital archives, then, create at least as many problems as they solve. Users prefer to direct their questions to a simple search box. But the limitations of this model for search are obvious to academic users, and have recently led Google itself to introduce the ‘Knowledge Graph’, enriching search results with semantic metadata. The Knowledge Graph or, more generically, semantic enrichment, shows the future direction of digital text collections.

In order to deal with this new conceptual reality behind current and future digitization projects, let me introduce a new conceptual model to think about such document collections.

I would like to conceptualize the document as event, in order to transfer something of the dynamics of the event onto the document, which is commonly conceived of rather statically. A periodical is occasioned by artistic events, such as the publication of new literary works, the exhibition of visual art, or the presentation of a new theatrical performance. However, as a document, it can also be considered to be an ‘event’ in itself. The text functions as a linguistic meeting space for a wide diversity of named entities. This includes names of artists, writers, dramatists, performers, directors and critics; names of museums, galleries, theatres, companies and schools; and titles of books, art works and theatrical productions. In other words, the concept of the document as event serves as a bridge between the literary and art-historical approach to sources as autonomous documents (and hence all too easily viewed as unconnected), and the linguistic approach to sources as text (which all too easily flattens the document).

The DABNAP Collection
The artistic renewal in Belgium since the 1950s, sustained by small groups of artists, led to a first generation of postwar artist periodicals. Titles such as Le surréalisme révolutionnaire, Cobra, De Tafelronde, Het Cahier and Gard Sivik proved decisive for the formation of the Belgian neo-avant-garde in literature and the visual arts.

During the 1960s and the 1970s, happening and socially engaged art (inspired particularly by the Provo movement) took over and gave a new orientation to artist periodicals. Examples include Happening News, Revo, Anar, Milky Way, Total’s, and, on the side of literature, Labris, Yang, Bok, MEP, Heibel, Boemerang, and many others. Finally, the 1970s and 1980s saw the rise of punk-inspired zines, including Force Mental.

The challenges and difficulties of this project lie in dealing with non-standard formats, types of paper, typography, and non-paper inserts. Paper sizes range from the ludicrously large (A2) to the very small (half of A5). Printing techniques include offset, mimeograph, screen printing and photocopy – resulting in extremely diverse kinds of lettering and typography, which often confuses the OCR software that is used to extract text from the scanned pages.

Apart from the technical difficulties of scanning and extracting text from the heterogeneous source documents, further difficulties of the DABNAP project include interface design and handling copyright issues, which will briefly be discussed in the presentation. The main and final difficulty (or rather, ambition) of DABNAP is to process of extracting complex information about artistic events from the text. This will require, first, to expand common procedures for named entity recognition with techniques for recognizing titles and events. In other words, which means are appropriate, and which linguistic tools have to be developed, for the task of recognizing meaningful relationships between names (e.g., that a certain director is the author of a theatre production)?

References
Both large-scale digitization of books (such as Google Books and the Open Content Alliance) as well as small, curated collections (such as ArchBook http://archbook.ischool.utoronto.ca) are transforming reading and research practices in literary studies and book history. Ryan Cordell’s research using data from the Library of Congress “Chronicling America” project is a prime example of new scholarly engagement with historical newspapers (see Cordell’s “Uncovering Reprinting Networks in Nineteenth-Century American Newspapers,” http://www.viraltexts.org).

Modernist Journals Project: http://modjourn.org; Modernist Magazines Project: http://www.modernistmagazines.com.

The 19th century periodical has been more heavily studied; see especially the project, nineteenth-century serials edition (http://www.ncse.ac.uk) and the essays: James Mussell and Suzanne Paylor,“Mapping the ‘Mighty Maze’: The Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition,” Nineteen: Interdisciplinary Studies in Nineteenth- Century Studies, 1 (2005) and Mussell, Paylor, M. Deegan and K. Sutherland, “Editions and Archives: Textual Editing and the Nineteenth-Century Serials Edition (ncse),” in Text Editing, Print, and the Digital World (Farnham: Ashgate, 2009), 137-158.

See Sean Latham and Robert Scholes, “The Rise of Periodical Studies,” PMLA, Vol. 121, No. 2 (Mar., 2006), pp. 517-531. In this article, Latham and Scholes discuss the context of North American academia.

The Oxford Critical and Cultural History of Modernist Magazines: Volume I: Britain and Ireland 1880-1955 (ed. Peter Brooker and Andrew Thacker, Oxford University Press, 2009); Volume II: North America 1894-1960 (ed. Brooker and Thacker, 2012); Volume III: Europe 1880 - 1940 (ed. Peter Brooker, Sascha Bru, Andrew Thacker, Christian Weikop, 2013).

AAC-Austrian Academy Corpus: AAC-FACKEL. Online Version: »Die Fackel. Herausgeber: Karl Kraus, Wien 1899- 1936«. AAC Digital Edition No 1, (Editors-in-chief: Hanno Biber, Evelyn Breiteneder, Heinrich Kabas, Karlheinz Mörth; Graphic Design: Anne Burdick) http://www.aac.ac.at/fackel.

AAC-Austrian Academy Corpus und Brenner-Archiv: BRENNER ONLINE. Online Version: »Der Brenner. Herausgeber: Ludwig Ficker, Innsbruck 1910-1954«. AAC Digital Edition No 2, (Editors-in-chief: Hanno Biber, Evelyn Breiteneder, Heinrich Kabas, Karlheinz Mörth; Graphic Design: Anne Burdick) http://www.aac.ac.at/brenner.

Robert Scholes and Clifford Wulfman, Modernism in the Magazines: An Introduction (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010)

Modernist Journals Project: http://modjourn.org; Modernist Magazines Project: http://www.modernistmagazines.com.

Jerome McGann, The Textual Condition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991)

http://opennlp.apache.org

stanford.edu/software/CRF-NER.shtml

http://wordnet.princeton.edu

http://www.openarchives.org/pmh

http://www.openarchives.org/ore","txt","2","",""
"2047","15","Representation and Absence in Digital Resources: The Case of Europeana Newspapers","10","Within the Digital Humanities, there is a long history of debate and discussion as to how texts are accurately represented in digital form. Arguments as to how texts are encoded in both a logical and semantic sense are a recurring feature of past DH conferences. 

 Yet the intense intellectual focus on the precise details of marking up small corpora or even individual texts has masked the fact that issues related to the representation of large corpora of digitised materials - books, manuscripts, newspapers, records etc. - have been too often ignored.  Libraries, archives, museums and other collection institutions have now been digitising corpora of material for many years, but with a very few exceptions, it is still quite rare for an entire run of primary sources to be digitised and made available online.

This means that there are gaps within the digital record.  Yet it is unusual for online resources to actively demonstrate these gaps; resources may be advertised as a growing corpus, but when searching through or downloading a digital resources there is rarely any indication of what has not been digitised. This skews the sense of the nature of the collection the scholar is working with and erodes trust. 

This problem is compounded by assumptions made by end users that when a search is made in a digital resource, they actually are searching over everything in the original archive.  In most cases, this is far from being the case. 

 This long paper looks at this problem in the context of the Europeana Newspapers project (www.europeana-newspapers.eu), a three year, four million euro project, which is creating full-text for 10m pages of digitised newspapers from 12 libraries across Europe, and also developing an interface to allow for cross searching of over 18m newspaper pages. The final interface, available from the European Library in 2014 (www.theeuropeanlibrary.org), will also provide keyword searching over the OCRd (Optical Character Recognition) text and allow users to compare different newspapers from around Europe published on the same day.

While it is an ambitious project, it is only a drop in the ocean of the overall number of digitised newspapers in Europe (a conservative calculation within the project put the number of digitised newspaper pages in European libraries at 130m ). What appears on the final interface will only be a sample of what actually exists in European libraries. 

 Moreover, other issues - political, economic, legal and technical - mean that the quality and national distribution of newspapers in the project (and therefore represented in the final online interface) are unevenly balanced. For the resource to be trusted by the academic community, this lack of balance must be acknowledged

In terms of the economic and legal issues, the project is integrating newspapers from 12 existing newspapers online libraries, each of which have different business models. These different business models affect the final project interface. The National Library of Turkey and the British Library newspapers operate behind a pay wall, for instance - therefore the final Europeana Newspapers site will not be able to directly show images from their collection.

Other libraries are wary of sharing full-resolution images, with the legitimate fear that the users will no longer visit their own national website. In such cases, only fragments of their newspaper images will appear in the central site. Legal issues are also pertinent; some libraries are unsure of the copyright status of some of their historic newspapers and therefore do not want to commit to allowing another entity to publish them

In addition, there are several technical issues impeding uniform access to the resources. Nearly every digital newspaper collection today contains full-text derived from automatic processing with OCR software. But while some newspaper repositories grant access to the full-text, often the full-text is hidden and only exposed as an index for searching, but not available to the end user for online display or (programmatic) download, or sometimes not even for indexing by Google.

In other cases, full-text is made available, but not for the entirety of the collection, either due to IP issues or because the content holder took a deliberate decision not to show the full-text to the user, often because of the amount of error rate in the OCRd text. Regularly there is no sufficient information provided about the OCR error rate of a particular digital resource, which makes it even harder to assess what amount of the content can realistically be retrieved through a full-text search.

There are also different ways how digital facsimiles are made accessible. Many recent online newspaper portals use the JPEG2000 image file format. The benefit of this is the ability to zoom more or less seamlessly in and out of the digital facsimile. But since JPEG2000 has not been around for a very long time in the digitisation community, many collections that have been digitised in the past are only available in TIF format. This means that zooming can only be provided in a static way on these images, e.g. through different resolution JPEGs. As a result, it is often not possible for researchers to explore these legacy resources in much the same way as they do with recently digitised materials. 

In other cases, digital facsimiles have been produced by capturing existing microfilm copies rather than the original source material, thus the digital versions expose artefacts that were not present in the original paper source, but only introduced in the microfilm. However, this type of provenance is most typically not available to end users who are left alone in their interpretation of the differences in resource presentation and functionality.

Finally, the metadata standards used to describe the digital contents also vary. Not only are there different representations in use for encoding full-text such as plain text, ALTO or TEI. But also descriptive metadata is commonly encoded in different standards, and with different degrees of granularity. While standard bibliographic information such as the title or date of publication are commonly available, more specific information on, for example, a particular article or the names of persons or places occurring in it rarely are. Within the Europeana Newspapers project a subset of 2m pages out of the total 10m will be refined further down to the article level, thus enabling more sophisticated search and retrieval functionality than the remaining 8m pages.

A central point of this paper is that these issues are not just issues for librarians; it is not about showcasing how a digital resource is. Rather it is the urgent need to demonstrate how such issues have a profound effect on the academic community’s engagement with online resources.

If a researcher wants to conduct a comparative analysis of newspapers in Chronicling America (the US historic newspaper site), the National Library of France and the British Library, she will have to use three different interfaces with different levels of content and metadata quality. Moreover, she will also have to grasp the particularities of each of these collections with regard to their quality and completeness and what that entails for her research.

This paper will conclude with some recommendations for how those building digital resources can make their content choices more transparent. Informed dialogue between the cultural heritage organisations and the research communities is required. It calls for creators to tear down the illusion of completeness and help persuade end users that many digital resources are fragmentary things, where the representation of absence is just as important as representation of existence.

References
For a brief summary of the issue see Julia Flanders, ”Collaboration and dissent: challenges of collaborative standards for digital humanities” in Collaborative Research in the Digital Humanities (eds. Marilyn Deegan, Willard McCarty), 2012. The TEI mailing list provides ample evidence of such discussion listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A1=ind1309&L=TEI-L.

For instance, Johanna Drucker in “Performative Materiality and Theoretical Approaches to Interface”Digital Humanities Quarterly (2013, Volume 7 Number 1) and also “Humanities Approaches to Graphical Display”Digital Humanities Quarterly (2011, Volume 7 Number 1)  addresses theoretical concerns relating to the interface but with less focus on its practical representation within online resources. The issue has received much more attention in the world of 3D visualisation, e.g. with the creation of the London Charter (www.londoncharter.org).

See “History, Digitized (and abridged)” for a summary of the extent of digitisation in 2007. www.nytimes.com/2007/03/10/business/yourmoney/11archive.html?pagewanted=all&_r=1.

One of the findings in, Reinventing research? Information practices in the humanities, Research Information Network, 2011, www.rin.ac.uk/our-work/using-and-accessing-information-resources/information-use-case-studies-humanities.

David Nicholas, Ian Rowlands (2007), Google Generation, Paul Huntington www.jisc.ac.uk/whatwedo/programmes/resourcediscovery/googlegen.aspx.

Alastair Dunning, European Newspaper Survey Report, 2012, www.europeana-newspapers.eu/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/D4.1-Europeana-newspapers-survey-report.pdf.

For a comparative study of search ranking of digital newspaper repositories see Digital collections: If you build them, will they visit?, Frederick Zarndt et. al., IFLA WLC2013, Newspaper and Genealogy Section, Singapore, www.ifla.org/files/assets/newspapers/Singapore_2013_papers/day_1-_01_xzarndt_frederick_et_al_digital_collections.pdf.

Jan Hillgärtner (2013), Digitalisierte Zeitungen und OCR: Welche Forschungszugänge erlauben die digitalen Bestände?, 18/03/13, newsphist.hypotheses.org/23.

For a study in the methodology and analysis of digitised newspapers vs. paper copies see  The Digital Turn. Exploring the methodological possibilities of digital newspaper archives, Bob Nicholson, in Media History Vol. 13, Issue 1 2013, Special issue: Journalism and History: Dialogues.

For an example of this issue within the Digging into Data projects see One Culture. Computationally Intensive Research in the Humanities and Social Sciences A Report on the Experiences of First Respondents to the Digging Into Data Challenge,Christa Williford and Charles Henry, (2012) www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub151 and also the aforementioned Reinventing research? Information practices in the humanities.","txt","2","",""
"2048","15","Rethinking HathiTrust Metadata to Support Workset Creation for Scholarly Analysis","2","1. Introduction
The HathiTrust Digital Library includes over 10 million volumes digitized from more than 90 research libraries. The HathiTrust Research Center (HTRC) has been established to help scholars get the most from this massive text corpus by providing cutting-edge tools, services and cyberinfrastructure that enable advanced computational access to the HathiTrust corpus. An immediate objective for HTRC is to allow scholars to collect items together for computational analysis. This has required rethinking the HathiTrust metadata model, inherited from print-based library cataloging traditions. This poster describes the motivation for this work, shortcomings of the current metadata model, and requirements driving the updated model. 

2. Motivation
Humanities scholars regularly create collections in the course of their research – selecting, gathering, and organizing materials from disparate sources to answer specific research questions 12. As scholars increasingly rely on digital sources, they need sophisticated tools for the management and manipulation of “custom collections” of digital texts 3 4 56 7 89.

The HTRC workset creation tools will allow users to formally gather selected subsets of the HathiTrust corpus together for computational analysis. Early user studies 10 suggest several requirements, e.g.: 

Worksets must allow scholars to gather not just the primary constituents of the HathiTrust corpus (books), but also metadata and granular, intra-book content.
Worksets must allow integration of external sources, such as linked datasets, secondary literature, and references, as shown in Figure 1.
Scholars must be able to identify and describe worksets so that they may function as sustainable and reusable scholarly resources. 

Fig. 1: Fig. 1: Creating worksets for scholarly analysis

3. Limitations of MARC-based metadata
Items in the HathiTrust corpus today are described exclusively by MARC. While MARC is the predominant bibliographic metadata standard used in libraries, it is proving inadequate to support the creation of scholarly worksets from large digital repositories such as the HathiTrust.

To begin with MARC can accommodate only a fraction of properties of texts and their contexts that are of interest to scholars. For example, the MARC bibliographic format does not provide fields for describing an author’s gender, nationality, religion or social relationships. In addition, library catalogers rarely use the full expressiveness potential of MARC. The MARC specification defines more than 1,900 fields. However, most bibliographic records contain only a handful of these 11. Table 1 illustrates the use of MARC fields across the 6 million HathiTrust bibliographic records. Additionally fields used vary by class of text. Table 2 illustrates how infrequently subject headings are used in describing fictional works.

 Property	 Percent of Records Having
 Title	> 99% 
Publisher	 87%
Subject -- Topical	 72%
 LC / Dewey Classification Number	 41% / 17%
 Subject -- Geographic	 37%
 Subject -- Temporal 	 10%
 Fiction Literary Form	 5%
 Property	 Percent of Fiction Records Having
 Subject -- Topical	 25%
 Subject -- Geographic	 10%
 Subject -- Temporal	 5%
4. Metadata Design Requirements to Support Workset Creation
With the generous support of the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, the Workset Creation for Scholarly Analysis (WCSA) project, a collaboration between the HTRC and 4 independent research groups (competitively selected from among 15 respondents to a Request For Proposals issued in November 2013), is exploring answers to the following intertwined questions:

Given sparseness of HathiTrust records, can we enrich the corpus metadata by distilling analytics over full text? Could we deploy/modify off-the-shelf tools, for example, to confirm or determine language(s) of the text, temporal coverage, spatial coverage, etc.?
Can we augment string-based metadata with URIs for entities – e.g., names, subjects, place of publication, etc.? If so, HTRC could leverage additional services to meet scholars' needs.
Can we formalize the notion of worksets in HTRC, e.g., defining the necessary elements of a workset? In doing so, how do we balance rigor with extensibility and flexibility? What roles do “data”, “metadata”, “annotations”, “tags”, “feature sets”, and so on, play in the conception, creation, use and reuse of worksets?
In reporting on these questions, we expect to articulate recommendations to move away from a solely MARC-based metadata architecture towards a more RDF-centric metadata architecture relying on multiple library-specific and non-library standards, e.g., MARC, MODS, DC, SKOS, FOAF, schema.org, etc.

References
1. Brogan, M. (2006). Contexts and Contributions: Building the Distributed Library. Digital Library Federation/Council on Library and Information Resources. Retrieved August2, 2010 from www.diglib.org/pubs/dlf106

2. Palmer, C. L. (2005). Scholarly work and the shaping of digital access. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 56(11), 1140-1153.

3. Dempsey, L. (2006). The (digital) library environment: Ten years after. Ariadne, 46. Retrieved February 13, 2013 from www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue46/dempsey/

4. Green, H., Saylor, N.,& Courtney, A. (2013). Beyond the scanned image: A needs assessment of faculty users of digital collections. Digital Humanities 2013, Lincoln, Nebraska.

5. Mueller, M. (2010). Towards a Digital Carrel: A Report about Corpus Query Tools, retrieved September 17, 2013 from panini.northwestern.edu/mmueller/corpusquerytools.pdf

6. Spiro, L., & Segal, J. (2005). The Impact of Digital Resources on Humanities Research, retrieved October 31, 2013 from library.rice.edu/services/dmc/about/projects/the-impact-of-digital-resources-on-humanities-research

7. Warwick, C., Terras, M., Huntington, P., & Pappa, N. (2008). If you build it will they come? The Lairah Study: Quantifying the use of online resources in the arts and humanities through statistical analysis of user log data. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(1), 85-102.

8. Sukovic, S. (2008). Convergent flows: Humanities scholars and their interactions with electronic texts. Library Quarterly 78(3), 263-284.

9. Sukovic, S.(2011). E-Texts in Research Projects in the Humanities. In A. Woodsworth & W. D. Penniman (Eds.) Advances in Librarianship (131-202). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing.

10. Green, H., Fenlon, K., Senseney, M., Bhattacharyya, S., Willis, C., Organisciak, P., Downie, J. S., Cole, T., and Plale, E. (2014). Using collections and worksets in large-scale corpora: Preliminary findings from the Workset Creation for Scholarly Analysis project. Forthcoming paper to be presented at iConference 2014, Berlin, Germany.

11. Moen, William E. & Benardino, P. (2003). Assessing Metadata Utilization: An Analysis of MARC Content Designation Use. 2003 Dublin Core Conference: Supporting Communities of Discourse and Practice — Metadata Research and Application, Seattle, Wash. Retrieved October 31, 2013 from www.unt.edu/wmoen/publications/MARCPaper_Final2003.pdf","txt","2","",""
"2049","15","Rethinking Recommendations: Digital Tools for Art Discovery","9","Automatic discovery and recommendation systems are often designed with one of two audience groups in mind: in academia, the target is the dedicated researcher who actively seeks out particular sources, whereas companies like Amazon or Netflix design recommendations for the casual, passive browser, with convenience as the top priority. Often, however, a user is both browser and researcher in separate tabs; while diving into research in a scholarly database, a user can simultaneously peruse news aggregators or Amazon. For-profit companies often recommend cultural products such as books and movies, but do so with a single goal—increasing the company’s profit. As digital humanists, we should rethink the structure of recommendation algorithms to make them more appropriate for audiences interested in deeper explorations of cultural heritage.

At HyperStudio, we are investigating how digital tools can encourage discovery and serendipity in the humanities, with a focus on art objects and museum collections. For this short paper session, we  propose to share our research on the process of discovery, assessing algorithms used in research and recommendation tools on both scholarship and industry platforms. We will survey existing projects that allow scholars and casual users alike to discover new art. We will also discuss a tool that we are building, tentatively titled ArtX, that empowers users to discover cultural events, exhibitions, and art objects in the Boston area. Informed by our theoretical research into cultural recommendation systems, we are prototyping and testing this tool this spring and will be sharing our results at DH2014.

Recommendation systems are typically divided into two approaches: collaborative filtering and content-based filtering.1 While many digital tools use these in combination, here we outline the approaches and their limitations separately. Content-based filtering approaches, such as traditional tagging systems, look at the properties of the content rather than the user. Whether human- or machine-powered, tagging involves inferring what an object is “about” and how one might search for it, and assigning keywords of names, topics, or entities. The act of classifying culture is by its nature restrictive; when an art object is called “surrealist” or “American,” it is placed in a particular discourse and others are implicitly excluded. Even outside-the-box descriptions such as “hazy” are just different boxes. Artsy’s “Art Genome Project” offers a more nuanced approach to tagging (with gradients from 0 to 100, rather than 0 to 1), but this runs into the same problem.2 When an authoritative institution such as a museum produces tags, the tagging system lacks dynamism. User-generated tagging, or folksonomies, add a dynamic element but require that users actively and continually contribute to building up the tags, a process that is difficult to maintain.

Collaborative filtering attempts to sidestep these limitations, focusing instead on the user and their online behavior, similar users, and social networks. User history-based approaches like Amazon’s maximize efficiency at the sake of variety, assuming that a user has no desire to try something new. Social curation tools such as Curiator, ArtStack, Pinterest and Tumblr allow users to build their own collections and share with others, but they perpetuate what is already popular or the most reblogged. Collaborative filtering may work when shopping for a product, but risks creating a filter bubble for art. It shepherds audiences into identical routes of understanding, stifling productive conversation and undiscovered treasures in the process. At the heart of these approaches is the notion that more personalization leads to higher quality, and that existing networks and canons should be reinforced; these are meaningful signals, but they should not be the only ones.

One alternate approach is to include a serendipitous chance in the discovery process. The role of serendipity in scholarly research has been a growing topic of investigation in recent years.3 Serendipity has historically played a significant role in science, mathematics, and the humanities. As resources are increasingly digitized, an oft-cited lament is the lack of serendipity, yearning for the days when a scholar would go to the library stacks looking for one book and happen upon another that sparks his or her thinking in new directions.

While serendipity is chance-based and cannot be controlled, perhaps it can be engineered. A few existing digital humanities and cultural heritage projects experiment with engineering serendipity. Serendip-o-matic, launched in August 2013, aims to re-incorporate chance into the scholarly research process. On the website, users input a text; the tool identifies key words in the text and responds with primary source images from several online collections. The goal of Serendip-o-matic is to yield happy accidents for a wide range of users, whether students in search of inspiration for a paper topic or scholars looking for materials to enliven a current project.4 Another example is Magic Tate Ball, a mobile application designed by digital studio Thought Den to encourage a general audience to discover works of art in the Tate’s collection. Using GPS location, time of day, weather, and analysis of ambient noise, the application returns an artwork, explaining why this work was selected and providing content that allows the user to learn more.5 Magic Tate Ball enables users to engage with works they would not have sought out otherwise while infusing play in the discovery process.

At HyperStudio, we hope to incorporate a similar sense of serendipity in ArtX. Serendipity has the dual advantage of skirting traditional boundaries and adding a playful element to the user experience, which serves both browser and researcher. As we aim to make meaningful and creative connections between the art objects that comprise our past and the events of the present, we believe we can incorporate both audience groups without sacrificing archival rigor. To do so, we will need a holistic, audience-centered approach to digital curation and recommendation.

To achieve this goal, we plan to start small. Through specific partnerships with museums in Boston, we are building a closed and controlled system that can serve as a testing ground for new models of recommendation. Free from industry demands such as growth and scale, we can perfect our schemas and our assumptions before expanding to other institutions. We are also hopeful about creating a collaborative, open-source approach to art recommendation, particularly given the close secrecy with which proprietary recommendation algorithms are guarded. By encouraging open conversation around the ways we recommend art, we may find unique approaches and ways in which current recommendation systems are insufficient or misleading.

We have many questions and challenges ahead. It will be important to understand our audience: How much control over the discovery process do users want, and how can we best balance the sliding scale between browser and researcher? We expect our primary audience to be Boston-area residents and university communities—a casual but informed audience that bridges aspects of both. We hope to instill a scholar’s depth of interest and rigor in the casual user and we hope scholars too can employ the tool as serendipitous inspiration for their own work. But how transparent can we be about the logic behind our recommendations? How can we scale such a strategy, connecting artworks to books, lectures, music, movements and ideas?

Perhaps most importantly, while we have explained “why serendipity,” we must address the “how.” Serendipity involves more than simply selecting objects at random, but what signals are important? How can we prime a user for the mindset of serendipitous discovery, rather than rote research? Moreover, is it truly serendipitous if we are closely engineering the suggestion? We look forward to addressing these questions, but with care to not create our own faulty algorithms. One of the challenges in this process is to avoid reducing cultural objects to the level of products, and museum audiences to consumers. Looking past the current limitations of discovery will be vital for generating new connections and ideas.

References
1. A.A. Kardan and M. Ebrahimi, A novel approach to hybrid recommendation systems, Information

2. Interview: Matthew Israel on The Art Genome Project, September 21, 2013, Museum Geek, museumgeek.wordpress.com/2012/09/21/interview-matthew-israel-on-the-art-genome-project.

3. Scholarship includes Allen Edward Foster and Nigel Ford, “Serendipity and Information Seeking: An Empirical Study,” Journal of Documentation, 59 (2003): 3, pp. 321-340; Sebastian Chan, “Tagging and Searching – Serendipity and museum collection databases” (paper presented at the annual meeting for Museums and the Web, San Francisco, California, April 11-14, 2007); and Anabel Quan-Haase and Kim Martin, “Digital Humanities: The Continuing Role of Serendipity in Historical Research” (paper presented at the annual meeting for iConference, Toronto, Canada, February 7-10, 2012).

4. One Week | One Tool Team Launches Serendip-o-matic, Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, Friday, August 2, 2013, chnm.gmu.edu/news/one-week-one-tool-team-launches-serendip-o- matic.

5. Ben Templeton (2012), Mobile Culture and the Magic Tate Ball, The Guardian, July 16, www.theguardian.com/culture-professionals-network/culture-professionals- blog/2012/jul/16/mobile-culture-magic-tate-ball-app.","txt","2","",""
"2050","15","Rethinking Text Reuse as Digital Classicists","3","1. Participants
Panel conveners:
Aurélien Berra (Université Paris-Ouest & EHESS)
Matteo Romanello (German Archaeological Institute & King’s College London)
Alexandra Trachsel (University of Hamburg)
Further participants:
Monica Berti (University of Leipzig)
Neil Coffee (University at Buffalo, SUNY)
Annette Geßner (University of Leipzig)
Charlotte Tupman (King’s College London)
2. Description of the panel
2.1 Why rethink text reuse
Text reuse is the meaningful reiteration of text, usually beyond the simple repetition of common language. Such a broad concept can naturally be understood at different levels and studied in a large variety of contexts. This diversity of approaches is to some extent explained by the fact that the phenomenon exists in almost all disciplines of the Humanities, and is crucial in those which focus on texts.

At one end of this spectrum we find the methods developed by computational linguistics. Research projects in this field study text reuse through automatic analyses within large corpora that often come from widely different backgrounds. The approaches range from the automatic detection of allusions and intertextual phenomena, for example in historical texts, to the detection of plagiarism in modern ones 1234. At the other end, the concept also designates a core scholarly activity, connected to most of the “scholarly primitives” 5– this meta-level being obviously our own practice, and having its roots in Antiquity. Furthermore, any kind of citation constitutes an indirect way of transmitting knowledge, either consciously or unconsciously, as well as a rhetorical or narrative device allowing an author to communicate with his audience beyond the level of the linguistic content. As a result, this notion shows how deeply intertwined objectivity and subjectivity are when one handles texts.

Digital approaches often aim at highlighting or defining these complex links between an initial statement and its multiple occurrences (often translations) in later contexts. Indeed, especially when the text reuse of ancient elements in corpora of more recent texts is studied, the fact that the statements are given in translation is an important issue and introduces an additional difficulty. This, however, is not a completely new problem. It can be observed each time that two cultures meet and borrow elements from each others’ cultural heritage. A further notion of text reuse is reached when not only the interconnections between the different reuses of a given textual element are investigated, but also the connections between the contexts in which they occur, whether in the form of unabbreviated quotations or as references within a more conventional citation system.

This panel proposes to gather researchers from different projects focusing on text reuse in order to create an inventory of the possible approaches to and understandings of the notion. Our objective is to highlight the historical dimension of the phenomenon and, ultimately, find some common features that could lead to a more systematic study. Texts are data indeed, but text reuse provides an excellent demonstration that they must be studied also and at the same time as intentional, sophisticated and reflexive cultural products. The emergence of Digital Classics, and of Digital Humanities in general, is an occasion to rethink text reuse and work towards the integration of – or at least foster dialogue and interconnection between – various perspectives.

2.2 Studying text reuse in Digital Classics
A panel on text reuse at the Digital Humanities 2014 Conference seems a very timely initiative, because several projects are currently addressing the question and developing new tools to deal with its different aspects.

The Perseids platform 67 can be mentioned first. As a project of the Perseus Digital Library 8, it aims at creating a collaborative online environment for the edition of a great variety of ancient documents, privileging the requirements of the editing of fragmentarily preserved sources (especially if they are transmitted through quotations) – a specific case of text reuse 9101112. Indeed current digital libraries, like the Perseus Digital Library or the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, have started with the wholly preserved ancient texts and deal with fragmentary works as if they were independent entities at the same level as the others. This clearly creates conceptual difficulties, since we only have indirect access to most of the fragmentarily preserved work: some parts of a lost initial work have been reused in the form of quotations in later texts. This reuse may have left some traces in the rewording of the quotation and therefore it is essential to keep the link to the context in which a given passage has been embedded when editing fragmentarily preserved texts.

One way of addressing this issue has been explored by the Sharing Ancient Wisdoms project 13. The project’s goal was to provide digital editions of several texts belonging to the so-called tradition of wisdom literature, by analysing the quoted sayings or proverbs and creating an ontology allowing to describe their diverse relationships 14. Still another approach must be chosen when the focus is shifted from the edition of a text with many quotations in it, such as those dealt with in the SAWS project, to the edition of a set of quotations that come from different source texts, but belong to one lost work, as is currently being explored in Alexandra Trachsel’s research on Demetrios of Scepsis.

In a complementary fashion, the study of single works of considerable size as webs of quotations should enable us to deal better with the reflexive dimension of encyclopaedic writings. Such a perspective is being built in the Digital Athenaeus project, which will explore the combination of digital and philological means of analysis in the preparation of a new edition of the Deipnosophists – a complex literary construction which sets scholarly discussions and pastimes in the context of an Imperial symposium and thus witnesses to the dynamics of text reuse 15.

Further projects, such as Tesserae 16 or Eumaios 17 move beyond the concept of quotation and focus on more hidden or less acknowledged forms of intertextuality. Tesserae, in particular, is devised to help scholars find previously unexplored intertextual parallels by means of automatic text reuse detection 18. This work has employed small benchmark sets of recognised parallels against which search techniques are measured and methods are improved. But having at hand a large and systematic repertory of already studied loci paralleli is something from which a tool like Tesserae will benefit immensely and that can be built, to a large extent automatically, by extracting from the literature the text passages that were already studied in relation to one another. These parallels are usually signalled in journal articles and other types of secondary sources by means of canonical citations, whose automatic extraction from large corpora of unstructured texts, such as those of JSTOR or the Internet Archive, is a topic that is currently being explored 1920.

The identification and extraction of text reuse is central in eTRACES, a project which just developed a tool named GERTRUDE (Göttingen E-Research Text-Re-Use for Digital Editions). Working on extremely heterogeneous corpora and primarily on German literature written between 1500 and 1900, it actually reflects on and solves similar problems.

All these projects, though they have the concept of text reuse in common, can be distinguished either by the type of corpus they use (texts from Antiquity, German literature, modern scholarly writings) or by their starting point (working on source texts where quotations are preserved, establishing relationships between different works in which the same textual elements occur, or focusing on quoted or reused elements). However, they have accumulated a great amount of knowledge on how to deal with the multiple forms of this cultural practice. The panel therefore aims at bringing together these efforts and should allow each of the projects to benefit from the expertise of the others, so that the solutions already found may be discussed and in the hope that our desiderata may lay the ground for further research.

3. Practical organisation of the panel
Besides the conveners, who will introduce and moderate the discussion, the panel will involve four speakers. After a brief presentation of the participants and of the main issues of the topic (10 minutes), short talks will be given by the four panel participants, illustrating different aspects of text reuse (40 minutes). The remaining time will be devoted to a discussion among all the participants and will be focused on the challenges and desiderata for further projects dealing with text reuse, in Digital Classics and beyond this field (40 minutes).

References
1. Bamman, D., & Crane, G. (2008). The logic and discovery of textual allusion. In: Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage Data (LaTeCH 2008), Marrakesh.

2. Büchler, M. (2013). Informationstechnische Aspekte des Historical Text Re-use. PhD Thesis, Universität Leipzig. Retrieved from nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:15-qucosa-108515.

3. Bamman, D. & Crane, G. (2009). Discovering Multilingual Text Reuse in Literary Texts. Available at www.perseus.tufts.edu/publications/2009-Bamman.pdf

4. Lee, J. (2007). A Computational Model of Text Reuse in Ancient Literary Texts. In Proceedings of the 45th Annual Meeting of the Association of Computational Linguistics, pp. 472–479. Prague, Czech Republic: Association for Computational Linguistics. Retrieved from acl.ldc.upenn.edu/P/P07/P07-1060.pdf.

5. Unsworth, J. (2000). Scholarly Primitives: What Methods Do Humanities Researchers Have in Common, and How Might Our Tools Reflect This? Formal methods, experimental practice. King’s College, London. people.lis.illinois.edu/~unsworth/Kings.5-00/prim

6. Almas, B. & Berti, M. (2013). Perseids Collaborative Platform for Annotating Text Re-Uses of Fragmentary Authors. In F. Tomasi & F. Vitali, eds. DH-Case 2013. Available at dx.doi.org/10.1145/2517978.2517986.

7. Perseids. A collaborative editing plaftorm for source documents in Classics, sites.tufts.edu/perseids

8. Perseus Digital Library, www.perseus.tufts.edu (Accessed on November 1, 2013).

9. Romanello, M., Berti, M., Boschetti, F., Babeu, A., & Crane, G. (2009). Rethinking Critical Editions of Fragmentary Texts by Ontologies. In. S. Mornati, ed., Rethinking Electronic Publishing: Innovation in Communication Paradigms and Technologies - Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Electronic Publishing held in Milano, Italy 10-12 June 2009, pp. 155-174.

10. Romanello, M. (2011). The Digital Critical Edition of Fragments: Theoretical Problems and Technical Solution. In P. Kurras Cotticelli, ed., Linguistica e Filologia Digitale: Aspetti e Progetti, pp. 147–155. Alessandria: Edizioni dell’Orso. Retrieved from eprints.rclis.org/handle/10760/15592.

11. Trachsel, A. (2012). Collecting Fragments Today: What Status Will a Fragment Have in the Era of Digital Philology? In C. Clivaz, J. Meizoz, F. Vallotton, & J. Verheyden, eds., Lire demain – Reading Tomorrow, pp. 415-429 (ebook). Lausanne: Presses polytechniques et universitaires romandes.

12. Berti, M. (2013). Collecting Quotations by Topic: Degrees of Preservation and Transtextual Relations among Genres. Ancient Society, 43, pp. 269–288.

13. Sharing Ancient Wisdoms, www.ancientwisdoms.ac.uk (Accessed on November 1, 2013).

14. Dunn, S., Hedges, M., Jordanous, A., Lawrence, K. F., Roueché, C., Tupman, C. & Wakelnig E (2012). Sharing Ancient Wisdoms: Developing Structures for Tracking Cultural Dynamics by Linking Moral and Philosophical Anthologies with their Source and Recipient Texts. In Digital Humanities Conference, Hamburg, Germany. Available in the Book of Abstracts at www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts, pp. 176-179.

15. Romanello, M., & Berra, A. (2011). The Critical Step in Open Content Greek: Towards a Digital Edition of Athenaeus. In TEI Members Meeting, Würzburg, Germany. Available in the Book of Abstracts at www.zde.uni-wuerzburg.de/tei_mm_2011, pp. 43-47, and philologia.hypotheses.org/512.

16. Tesserae, tesserae.caset.buffalo.edu (Accessed on November 1, 2013).

17. Eumaios: a collaborative website for Early Greek epic, panini.northwestern.edu/AnaServer?eumaios+0+frame.anv (Accessed on November 1, 2013)

18. Coffee, N., Koenig, J.-P., Poornima, S., Forstall, C. W., Ossewaarde, R., & Jacobson, S. L. (2013). The Tesserae Project: Intertextual Analysis of Latin Poetry. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 28(2), pp. 221–228. DOI: 10.1093/llc/fqs033.

19. Romanello, M. (2013). Creating an Annotated Corpus for Extracting Canonical Citations from Classics-Related Texts by Using Active Annotation. In A. Gelbukh, ed., Computational Linguistics and Intelligent Text Processing. 14th International Conference, CICLing 2013, Samos, Greece, March 24-30, 2013, Proceedings, Part I. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 60–76.

20. Romanello, M., Boschetti, F. & Crane, G. (2009). Citations in the Digital Library of Classics: Extracting Canonical References by Using Conditional Random Fields. In Proceedings of the 2009 Workshop on Text and Citation Analysis for Scholarly Digital Libraries. Morristown, NJ, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 80–87.

21. eTRACES, etraces.e-humanities.net (Accessed on November 1, 2013).","txt","2","",""
"2051","15","Revisionism as Outreach: The Letters of 1916 Project","10","The Letters of 1916 Project is the first crowd-sourced digital humanities project in Ireland. The project pivots around one of the most important events in twentieth-century Irish history -- the 1916 Easter Rising -- in which a small group of Irish Volunteers rebelled against the British Army on 24 April, Easter Monday 1916. The Rising was quickly quashed by the British, but the executions of its leaders several weeks later made martyrs of them, and set in motion a series of events that resulted in Irish independence from the United Kingdom in 1922.

The Letters of 1916 project focuses on this tumultuous period. Its goal is to create a crowd-sourced digital collection of letters written for a six-month period before and after the Easter Rising (1 November 1915 – 31 October 1916).

The project includes letters held at institutions (in Ireland and abroad), alongside those in private collections. The collection criteria is extremely broad: it includes any letter written to or from someone in Ireland, or that contains Irish subject matter. 

The ultimate goal is to create a new online resource that will add a novel and heretofore underutilised viewpoint to the events of the period, a confidential and intimate perspective that will form the basis for a revision of our understanding of life in Ireland in the early 20th Century. 

Letters 1916 integrates four distinct theoretical and methodological approaches:

The creation of a thematic research collection
A crowd-sourced public humanities project
Text analysis
Social media for dissemination and outreach
This paper will explore phase I of the project: the sourcing, gathering, and transcribing/encoding of collection. It will also document how the project is being used in the classroom at the Masters level. 

Phase II will transform the transcribed/encoded letters, along with their accompanying images, into a thematic research collection where users will be able to do full text searching, text analysis, view correspondences, view letters temporally and spatially, and engage with thematic exhibitions. The collection is being viewed as a major new resource and as such, will ultimately be deposited at a cultural heritage institution for long-term preservation. 

In her 2009 article Rose Holley made the distinction between social engagement projects, which she defined as ‘giving the public the ability to communicate with us and each other’ via such activities as tagging, commenting, rating, and reviewing, and crowdsourcing which uses social engagement techniques to help a group of people achieve a shared, usually significant, and large goal by working collaboratively together as a group. Crowdsourcing also usually entails a greater level of effort, time and intellectual input from an individual than just socially engaging

The project stops short, however, of a collective editing project. Phase 1 of the project was launched in September 2013 to a great deal of press.[1] The database was pre-populated with some 300 letters from cultural heritage institutions. To date, the project has 1500 letters in its workflow (about 800 publicly available). 

The project, thus far, uses two distinct crowdsourcing methodologies according to the typology developed by Carletti, et al: a) correction and transcription; and b)  complementing collection. Building on the immense success of the Europeana World War 1 Road shows, we invited the public to bring their letters in for scanning at the launch. This model is being replicated, thus far in Ireland and the UK. Moreover, the software allows the pubic to upload their letters from home, create basic metadata, and provide the project with descriptive information. 

At the time of this writing, there are approximately 30 privately-held collections (or letters from small institutions we would have never have thought to reach out to) for letters from this period. The size of individual deposits range from one letter to 90– a correspondence between the donor’s grandmother and grandfather who happened to be courting during 1916. 

The public is also invited to transcribe previously uploaded letters. The response has been so overwhelming that the project team is frequently can barely keep up with demand. The engagement, encouragement, and reaching out to volunteers is a major aspect of the project to be discussed. At present the site does not utilise some of the more traditional features of crowdsourced projects (such as badges and icons) to engage its volunteers. However, other methods have been implemented, such as a volunteer forum, featuring contributors both on the project site and in the more traditional forms of media. 

The project has benefited immensely from previous crowdsourced projects, from its methodological approaches, to its workflow and software. The project utilises WordPress for its front end, and for its content management system a version of Omeka that was modified by University of Iowa libraries (DIY History) to support crowdsourcing projects. It utilises George Mason’s Scripto tool for transcribing, and the Transcribing Bentham’s TEI/XML toolbar for light encoding. In a domain space that has constantly called for the creation of tools, the ability to fairly rapidly and without a great deal of bespoke programming to string together these diverse tools into one unified web presence, may signal a golden age of tool development for our field. 

The Transcribing Bentham toolbar has been an interesting feature which many transcribers have utilised with little instruction. The Transcribing Bentham project designed the toolbar to hide ‘much of the complexity of TEI markup from the transcriber’ (Moyle, 353). An analysis of the markup used in this environment reveals an especially intuitive use of tagging, something the TEI is rarely praised for. Despite the caveat that the toolbar only allows the encoding of 15 out of the TEI’s hundreds of tags, the ease in which individuals with absolutely no experience in textual editing, AML,  or text encoding have been utilizing it may point to new ways to create a more intuitive encoding interface. A downside to the reduced set of tags available is that users, in trying to make sense of the tags available to them, use certain tags, such as <lb> (line break), so ubiquitously that it almost amounts to tag abuse. 

This project is pitting, in many respects, methods typical of thematic research collections-- including the creation of a carefully curated dataset with fully transcribed and proofed documents, and hand-crafted markup and metadata created in accordance with the Text Encoding Initiative Guidelines-- against the less painstaking creation of a full text dataset amenable to text analysis and visualisation as a method of discovery and analysis. Ultimately, in Phase II of the project, we intend to offer readers both views – the traditional reading environment of the thematic research collection along with the analytics available via text analysis and visualisations. But the decisions we make at this stage which will be detailed in this talk will impact what is possible in later phases.  

The social media dimension of finding and engaging  our audience demonstrates just how significantly the environment in which digital humanists operate has changed over the past decade. An analysis of the first month’s tweets reveal an ever expanding network of cultural institutions, individuals, organisations, and traditional media who have passed the message of the project along. A twitter-feed is a feature of the project’s home page and discussions amongst the project team reveal a shifting notion of how to position the project in a web of similar initiatives in Ireland coming broadly under the rubric of The Decade of Commemoration.[2] The project has already been positioned not as a silo, but as an aggregator embracing multiple communities of holders of these precious objects. We share back with individuals and institutions photographs we take, and will eventually share the fully transcribed/encoded texts files. But as we near the centenary of the Easter Rising, we are aware of our responsibility to, one the one hand, maintain the integrity of the project while, on the other, opening our resource more fully to sister initiatives, while respecting copyright and intellectual property promises to our donators.

References
Carletti, Laura, Gabriella Giannachi,  Dominic Price, Derek McAuley, (2012), ‘Digital Humanities and Crowdsourcing’.MW2012: Museums and the Web 2013. Online

Causer, Tim, Justin Tonra, Valerie Walace (2012). ‘Transcription Maximized; Expense Minimized? Crowdsourcing and Editing The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham’. Literary and Linguistic Computing. 27/2 2012. 119-137.

Dunn, Stuart and Mark Hedges. ‘Crowd-Sourcing Scoping Study: Engaging the Crowd with Humanities Research’. Centre for e-Research, Department of Digital Humanities, King’s College London. Online. 

Holley, Rose (2010). ‘Crowdsourcing: How and Why Should Libraries Do It’. D-Lib Magazine. March-April 2010. 16:3/4. Online

Moyle, Martin, Justin Tonra, Valerie Wallace (2011). ‘Manuscript Transcription by Crowdsourcing; Transcribing Bentham’. Liber Quarterly 20:3/4. March 2011.  

Palmer, Carol (2004). ‘Thematic Research Collections’.Companion to Digital Humanities’.  Blackwell. Online. 

Robinson, Peter. (2010). ‘Editing Without Walls’. Literature Compass. Special issue on Scholarly Editing in the Twenty-first Century. 57-61.

Please see letters1916.ie for full press coverage

This shorthand refers to a decade of significant historical events in Ireland 1913-1923 in Ireland, beginning with the Dublin Lockout in 1913 and ending with Irish independence, followed by a Civil War a decade later.","txt","2","",""
"2052","15","Riorganizzare SignWriting per favorire la ricerca linguistica sulle Lingue dei Segni","10","Le Lingue dei Segni (LS) sono lingue utilizzate dalla maggior parte dei sordi del mondo per comunicare tra di loro; si tratta di lingue storico-naturali caratterizzate dall’uso del canale visuo‑gestuale. La loro rappresentazione grafica è una sfida per la ricerca linguistica in quanto le LS non hanno ancora sviluppato un sistema di scrittura condiviso dalla comunità e, al contempo, non possono essere rappresentate adattando un sistema di scrittura nato per le lingue vocali (come l’alfabeto latino o anche l’alfabeto fonetico internazionale) a causa della differenza di canale comunicativo e della conseguente multi‑linearità della lingua. Tale assenza provoca difficoltà nei compiti di notazione (ossia rappresentazione delle forme significanti), annotazione (ossia rappresentazione dei fenomeni linguistici) e successiva analisi di produzioni segnate.

Attualmente, la maggior parte delle analisi delle LS si basa sull’uso delle cosiddette “glosse”, etichette verbali nella lingua vocale del ricercatore che permettono ‑ secondo il loro scopo e il loro grado di complessità ‑ di annotare il significato del segno, le caratteristiche della sua forma significante o anche altre informazioni che lo riguardano. Sebbene possa trattarsi di etichette anche molto precise, rimane difficile – se non impossibile – ricostruire la forma significante delle produzioni segnate attraverso queste etichette: si tratta quindi di soluzioni che permettono l’annotazione ma non la notazione delle LS. La soluzione usata, che aggira il problema della rappresentazione grafica della lingua, è quella di associare temporalmente a tali etichette il video originale, grazie all’uso di software di annotazione linguistica come ELAN1 o ANVIL2.


Segni rappresentati con SW (1) e specifica degli elementi descritti (2):(a) espressione facciale, (b) direzione dello sguardo, (c) movimento e posizione, della testa e del corpo,(d) contatto delle mani, (e) configurazione delle mani, (f) movimento e posizione delle mani e delle braccia

Tra i non molti sistemi esistenti per rappresentare graficamente le LS vi è SignWriting (SW) di V. Sutton3, nato per raffigurare le posizioni ed i movimenti del corpo (in particolare nella danza) e poi applicato alle LS. E’ stato mostrato4 che esso rappresenta una valida soluzione in quanto consente sia la scrittura che la trascrizione di produzioni segnate, mantenendo le caratteristiche delle LS e permettendo una buona leggibilità dei testi così concepiti. Tale strumento può quindi essere utilizzato sia dai ricercatori a fini scientifici che dalla comunità sorda in generale.

Dal punto di vista del sistema grafico, SW è organizzato in 37 811 glifi (unità grafiche minime) che vengono disposti in una vignetta (spazio bidimensionale che rappresenta analogicamente lo spazio segnico tridimensionale) per comporre un segno [Fig. 1]. Ogni glifo rappresenta una componente manuale (configurazione, movimento, coordinazione, etc.) o non‑manuale (espressione del viso, movimento del corpo, etc.) del segno. E’ così possibile rappresentare sia le unità lessematiche5 che le strutture di grande iconicità6 sia segni isolati che segni inseriti in un discorso.

L’ostacolo maggiore incontrato da SW è la sua scarsa diffusione, dovuta in gran parte al numero esorbitante di glifi che lo compongono: tale quantità sarebbe, infatti, sufficiente a scoraggiare anche l’apprendente più volenteroso. E’ stato tuttavia dimostrato[4] che, una volta passata la diffidenza iniziale, è possibile – per soggetti segnanti ‑ cominciare ad utilizzare il sistema in poche ore, grazie ad una forte regolarità di questi glifi. In ogni caso, il numero considerevole di glifi pone problemi anche alla digitalizzazione delle produzioni in SW ed ad un loro riconoscimento automatico, il che si riflette negativamente sulla possibilità concreta di usare SW a scopo di ricerca, per esempio per analizzare il legame tra la forma di un segno ed i fenomeni linguistici. 

Il lavoro qui proposto presenta una radicale riorganizzazione di SW (d’ora in poi chiamata SWricl1) per raggruppare i glifi secondo le loro caratteristiche comuni e per mettere in evidenza quelle regole implicite che permettono un suo facile apprendimento nonostante la quantità di glifi esistenti. A tale scopo si è provveduto a raccogliere i glifi sulla base della loro funzione (configurazione, movimento della mano, direzione dello sguardo…) per poi andare a individuare le caratteristiche che consentono di passare da un glifo prototipico (GP) ad un glifo variazione (GV). Ad esempio, per le configurazioni, sono stati individuati 242 GP e 4 regole di variazione con relativi set di possibilità (mano x 2 possibilità, piano x 2, lato x 3 e rotazione x 8) [Fig. 2]. I GP sono anche stati classificati in modo da evidenziarne le somiglianze, e così, imparando le 4 regole e circa una trentina dei 242 GP, è possibile sfruttare 23 232 GV ossia oltre la metà dei glifi esistenti. La facilità di apprendimento di SW dopo la riorganizzazione con SWricl1 è stata preliminarmente testata su un gruppo di studenti udenti di LS: i risultati sono incoraggianti in quanto, dopo appena 6 ore di formazione, i soggetti erano in grado di orientarsi facilmente all’interno di SWrecl1 (cosa non possibile con la vecchia classificazione) e di comporre e leggere brevi testi scritti in SW.


Ogni glifo prototipo che identifica una configurazione può, per trasformazione,dar vita a 96 glifi variazione basati sulla mano utilizzata et il suo orientamento

Oltre alle implicazioni nell’apprendimento di SW, SWrecl1 mira anche a favorire la sua informatizzazione, sia per permetterne un più facile utilizzo da parte degli utenti sordi e udenti, che per renderlo uno strumento utilizzabile nella ricerca linguistica. A tale scopo è nata la collaborazione tra gli autori ‑ un linguista e due informatici – con l’idea di cercare di risolvere, un passo alla volta, le difficoltà legate alla digitalizzazione del sistema grafico.

In primo luogo, è stato creato SWift (SignWriting Improved Fast Transcriber7), un editor di testi in SW, che permette attraverso una struttura ed un’interfaccia “deaf-centered” (ossia interamente pensata e realizzata in collaborazione con gli utenti sordi) di produrre testi in SW. In SWift l’utilizzo di SWrecl1 ha permesso di rendere più rapido, efficace e “user friendly” lo strumento di ricerca dei glifi che verranno usati dall’udente per comporre il proprio testo.

Nel corso delle loro ricerche su SW, gli autori hanno notato la tendenza degli utenti osservati a comporre prima a mano e poi a ricopiare al computer i testi: ciò ha portato alla necessità di implementare applicazioni di OGR (Optical Glyph Recognition), con caratteristiche diverse dal classico OCR (Optical Character Recognition) in quanto più vicine al riconoscimento di scritture di tipo ideografico. In effetti, OGR deve prendere in considerazione un numero molto elevato di glifi, organizzati in uno spazio grafico non lineare e diposti secondo regole di composizione non rigide. Una volta concluso il suo sviluppo, OGR effettuerà il riconoscimento basandosi esclusivamente sulle caratteristiche geometriche e topologiche dei glifi; si è pertanto resa necessaria ‑ in fase di progettazione ‑ una seconda fase di riclassificazione di SW (SWricl2) basata su queste caratteristiche.

Le applicazioni menzionate, basate su SWricl1 e SWricl2, dovrebbero permettere una facile digitalizzazione di documenti prodotti in SW, il che favorirà la diffusione del sistema grafico presso la comunità sorda. Tuttavia, ciò che preme ai linguisti che usano SW è che esso possa finalmente diventare uno strumento “utilizzabile” per fare analisi sulle forme della LS. La poca integrazione, fino ad oggi, tra SW ed i software di annotazione linguistica più comunemente usati implica, infatti, una seria difficoltà per sfruttare le potenzialità di SW come sistema di notazione delle LS. Integrando SW con ELAN, sarebbe possibile mettere in evidenza le relazioni tra significante e significato, le correlazioni tra forme del segno e strutture linguistiche, etc. ossia tra la notazione e l’annotazione delle LS.

Oltre alla sfida dell’integrazione informatica, si pone un duplice problema legato alla natura stessa di SW: visto il numero elevato di glifi e la scarsa standardizzazione di utilizzo del sistema grafico, è difficile realizzare trascrizioni che permettano poi un effettivo confronto sulle forme. Tale problema è però superabile grazie alla SWricl1 che ‑ mettendo in evidenza le caratteristiche intrinseche ai singoli glifi (caratteristiche trasversali a diversi GP) ‑ permette di collegare tra di loro realizzazioni grafiche diverse di forme segniche simili, o anche caratteristiche identiche in forme segniche diverse.

SWricl1 ed SWricl2 si pongono quindi così come primi passi per un’informatizzazione di SW che dovrebbe permettere lo sviluppo e la diffusione del sistema sia all’interno della comunità sorda che nell’ambito della ricerca linguistica sulla LS.

References
1. ELAN Team. 2002. ELAN - Electronic Linguistic ANnotator. Nijmegen (Netherlands), Max Planck Institute of Psycholinguistics. www.lat-mpi.eu/tools/elan/ [software, disponibile on line].

2. Kipp M. 2000. ANVIL. University of Applied Sciences, Augsburg. www.anvil software.de/index.html [software, disponibile on line].

3. Sutton V. 1995. Lessons in SignWriting: textbook & workbook. Deaf Action Committee for Sign Writing, La Jolla (CA).

4. Bianchini C.S. 2012. Analyse métalinguistique de l’émergence d’un système d’écriture des Langues des Signes: SignWriting et son application à la Langue des Signes Italienne (LIS). Tesi di dottorato, Université Paris VIII & Università degli Studi di Perugia, 512 p.

5. Cuxac C. & Antinoro Pizzuto E (2010). Émergence, norme et variation dans les langues des signes: vers une redéfinition notionnelle. in: Garcia B. , Derycke M. (eds) “Sourds et langues des signes: norme et variations”. Langage et société, 131: 37 53.

6. ELAN Team (2002). ELAN - Electronic Linguistic ANnotator. Nijmegen (Netherlands), Max Planck Institute of Psycholinguistics. www.lat-mpi.eu/tools/elan/ [software, disponibile on line].

7. Borgia F., Bianchini C.S., Dalle P. & De Marsico M. (2012). Resource production of written forms of Sign Languages by a user centered editor, SWift (SignWriting improved fast transcriber). Proc. VIII Int. Conf. LREC: 3779 3784.","txt","2","",""
"2053","15","Scholarly primitives revisited: towards a practical taxonomy of digital humanities research activities and objects","9","1. Introduction
Today we have more information at our fingertips than at any other time in human history. The problem is no longer finding information, the problem is being overwhelmed with the amount of information. This is no different in the realm of the digital humanities.  Information on people, projects, resources, methods, and tools exists in quantity everywhere we look, and yet we still have difficulty finding what we need. This paper will describe a transatlantic effort on the part of DiRT in the United States and DARIAH in Europe to construct a taxonomy of scholarly methods, that can be used not only to organize single collections of DH information and resources but also to allow these collections to interface with each other, creating a web of linked data that can be effectively searched for information across distributed collections. DiRT and DARIAH are not trying to impose a restrictive, monolithic scheme on DH; rather, our goal is to construct a lightweight, basic taxonomy of higher order goals and first-order methods that can be easily expanded in all directions by linking lower order techniques to multiple goals and/or methods to create machine-readable paths among the various resources. In building this taxonomy, we heavily rely on input and feedback from the digital humanities community. Still, at least for the intended use cases, we believe a stable taxonomy has advantages over more open, folksonomy-based solutions.

The taxonomy as it exists now is based upon three primary sources: 1) the arts-humanities.net taxonomy of tools of DH projects, tools, centers, and other resources, especially as it has been expanded by digital.humanities@oxford in the UK and DRAPIer in Ireland; 2) the DiRT collection of digital research tools, re-launched under Project Bamboo in the US but now continuing on after the end of that project; and 3) the DARIAH ‘Doing Digital Humanities’ Zotero bibliography of literature on all facets of DH. These resources were studied and distilled into their essential parts, producing a simplified taxonomy of two levels: 8 top-level goals that are broadly based on the steps of the scholarly research process and a number of general methods under these goals that are typically used by scholars to achieve these research goals. The updating of the taxonomy and the definition of the types of relationships to be described in the resulting ontology will be carried out by a joint working group in the DARIAH-EU and the NeDiMAH projects in Europe, which will conduct large scale desk and field research into scholarly practice to determine how best to describe the relationships between and among the goals, methods, and techniques of scholarly practice.  The future expansion of this organizational system will not be as a hierarchical taxonomy but, instead, as a linked ontology as lower-level techniques are attached to one or more methods, linking all the existing entities in the ontology together. The projects and collections that use this schema will play an important role here: as resources are added to these collections and linked to the taxonomy, the resulting ontology will grow in complexity.  This complexity will be more help than hindrance precisely because it will be a machine-actionable complexity.  Computers will traverse this web of relationships for us, only bringing back results that are closely related to our needs.

This may seem excessively optimistic, but this paper will support these claims by describing three very different types of resources that have used and expanded the taxonomy not only to improve the findability within their own collections but, more importantly, to link to each other in a machine-actionable way. These resources are the DiRT directory of digital tools, the DARIAH ‘Doing Digital Humanities’ bibliography, and the DARIAH-DE service-oriented project portal. A brief description of each of these collections and how they will profit from this taxonomy/ontology follows.

2. DiRT
DiRT (Digital Research Tools, http://dirt.projectbamboo.org) is a longstanding US-based directory for scholars interested in digital tools, which provides basic information about software that can facilitate the research process at different stages. The classification of tools by category has always been fundamental to DiRT: in its earlier incarnation as a wiki, wiki pages each corresponded to a category of tools, and the tools were presented in a list on the page. In 2011, DiRT was rebuilt using the Drupal content management system, which allowed information about each tool to be stored in a structured manner that enables faceted search and browsing. While users can now create complex queries on DiRT (e.g. using operating system and price to narrow their results), tool categories remain the primary way of navigating the site.

With support from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, DiRT is currently undergoing a new phase of development, with the goal of making information about digital tools available outside the DiRT directory itself. Since its inception, DiRT has used its own ad-hoc list of categories. All tools must belong to at least one category, though these categories can be supplemented with user-generated tags. The shortcomings of DiRT’s categories list can be illustrated through the example of OCR tools-- some are classified as “transcription”, others as “conversion”, and while neither is ideal, both are a reasonable approximation given the other options. Replacing DiRT’s former categories with the taxonomy will improve the consistency and quality of the data, and also provide a shared facet that can connect DiRT’s tool data with information provided by other projects, once DiRT’s contents are made available using RDF.

3. 'Doing Digital Humanities' bibliography
Another resource directly connected to the taxonomy is DARIAH-DE's ‘Doing Digital Humanities’ bibliography. The bibliography can be accessed on Zotero (www.zotero.org/groups/113737) or on the DARIAH-DE portal (https://de.dariah.eu/bibliography). Like DiRT, the bibliography is one of the seed activities for the taxonomy at the same time as being one of the already defined use cases, representing the application domain of making medium-sized collections of bibliographic references discoverable. This Zotero-based bibliography offers suggestions for introductory readings as well as more in-depth coverage of research literature in various areas of digital research, teaching and infrastructure planning in and for the humanities. The bibliography is carefully curated collaboratively, is freely accessible, currently has around 800 entries, and is being updated continuously.

Right now, the bibliography is already divided into thematic collections based on the ""goals"" defined in the taxonomy. Each collection, hence, covers one prototypical aspect or goal of the research process in the humanities as it is practiced with digital tools, methods and data. In addition, all entries in the bibliography are discoverable through keywords covering, on the one hand, typical research methods and activities in the humanities, and on the other hand, a wide range of objects of research. The current closed list of keyword represents an early draft version of the taxonomy described here.

Once a first stable version of the taxonomy is available, the bibliography's keyword implementation will be updated. Sharing a keyword system with other projects will make it easier for users to find related resources. And the public documentation of the taxonomy, including concise scope notes for all methods and techniques, will make the bibliography's keyword-based search more transparent and increase its usability.

4. DARIAH-DE portal
A third use case aims to examine the taxonomy as a functional structure for DARIAH-DE’s service-oriented website, the DARIAH-DE-Portal. Launched in a first version in May 2013, it will receive a makeover in the early stage of the upcoming German DARIAH II project scheduled for March 2014 that is based on the taxonomy.

The website is designed to offer a wide range of services concerning Digital Humanities in Germany and addresses both researchers who already work digitally and those seeking information or advice. The services provided are as heterogeneous as the DH landscape. They cover informational aspects on specific research projects, information on DH Centers, Bachelor/Master Programmes and tools as well as their documentation, tutorials and teaching materials. Services offered by DARIAH-DE (like the embedded bibliography mentioned above, the DARIAH-DE Working Papers, or hosting services and a developer’s portal) are complemented by external resources like blogs and a DH-calendar (a cooperation with calenda.org being currently on its way).

The variety of this content leads to multi-purpose requirements that enable a flexible access to information relevant to individual users. This use case meets that challenge by implementing the taxonomy in RDF, thus interlinking content and making it multi-purpose. In that way, the taxonomy will function as a ‘meta-service’ that meets the interests of an active and interlinked community, that visualizes Digital Humanities and promotes its results.

 5. Conclusion
The purpose of this talk is not to convince the audience that we in DiRT and DARIAH have all the right answers.  Instead, it is to continue a conversation about the importance of ontologies for managing the over-abundance of DH information, present our own work on this problem and our approach to gathering and incorporating community feedback, in hopes of spurring further work in this area.

References
Anderson, Sheila; Tobias Blanke; Stuart Dunn. (2010). Methodological Commons: Arts and Humanities E-Science Fundamentals. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 368, no. 1925 (2010): 3779 –3796. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/368/1925/3779.abstract.

Benardou, Agiatis, Panos Constantopoulos, Costis Dallas, and Dimitris Gavrilis. Understanding the Information Requirements of Arts and Humanities Scholarship. International Journal of Digital Curation 5, no. 1 (June 22, 2010): 18–33. doi:10.2218/ijdc.v5i1.141.

Borgman, Christine (2010). Scholarship in the Digital Age : Information, Infrastructure, and the Internet. Cambridge: MIT Press.

CLIR (Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities and Social Sciences). (2006). Our Cultural Commonwealth: The Report of the American Council of Learned Societies Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities and Social Sciences. New York: American Council of Learned Societies, 2006.

Gasteiner, Martin, and Peter Haber, eds. (2010). Digitale Arbeitstechniken für die Geistes- und Kulturwissenschaften. Vienna: UTB. http://www.utb-shop.de/digitale-arbeitstechniken.html.

Reiche, Ruth; Rainer Becker; Michael Bender; Matthew Munson; Stefan Schmunk; Christof Schöch. (2014). Verfahren der Digital Humanities in den Geistes- und Kulturwissenschaften. DARIAH-DE Working Papers Nr. 4. Göttingen: DARIAH-DE (to appear). Preprint: https://dev2.dariah.eu/wiki/download/attachments/2295542/M223_DH-Verfahren.pdf.

Siemens, Ray; John Unsworth; Susan Schreibman, eds. (2004). A Companion to Digital Humanities. Hardcover. Oxford: Blackwell. http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/.

Unsworth, John. (2000). Scholarly Primitives: What Methods Do Humanities Researchers Have in Common, and How Might Our Tools Reflect This? London: King’s College London. http://www3.isrl.illinois.edu/~unsworth/Kings.5-00/primitives.html.","txt","2","",""
"2054","15","Screen Rhetoric and Alternative Scholarship","9","","","2","",""
"2055","15","Seeing Dialogue: Network Visualization of Dramatic Texts","2",">Contexts for Humanities Visualization
Literary scholars are increasingly turning to graphical display of humanistic information as a way to encounter texts in new and engaging ways. Digitally facilitated humanities visualization presents literary critics with opportunities for new insight1, while also opening practitioners to charges of wholesale importation of simplistic scientific methodologies.2 This poster session outlines the rationale, method, and significance of a focused humanities visualization project in order to demonstrate how new techniques of visualization may be undertaken with literary texts to produce new and speculative “aesthetic provocations” in literary studies.3

Materials and Scope
In order to model and theorize how such a project might develop, I am producing a network visualization of the sixteenth-century play Ralph Roister Doister by Nicholas Udall. Using the open-source ""interactive visualization and exploration"" platform Gephi, I map the relationships between characters in the play based upon dialogue. In other words, this project structurally maps dialogue between characters, producing a network visualization that productively reconfigures the play to provoke new analytical responses. Following the example of Franco Moretti’s work with Hamlet, these models prompt new insight into the “deep structures” of literary works. For Moretti, however, “the most important thing of all” about these reconfigurations is that they can be manipulated: “one can intervene on a model; make experiments.”4 [116, italics in original]. With a baseline visualization of dialogue established, I, following Jerome McGann, selectively intervene and “deform” the re-modeled text to continually reconfigure it. Such processes bring us “to a critical position in which we can imagine things about the texts that we didn’t and perhaps couldn’t otherwise know.”5 [116] Motivated by Drucker and Nowviskie’s call to “engage computing to produce new aesthetic provocations,” I use Roister Doister to understand how humanities visualization may reconfigure our approach to literary inquiry.6 

Methods of Production
In order to map the dialogic relationships between these characters in Gephi, I have created each character as a node in the network; these nodes are connected by directional dialogue originating at a particular node and terminating at another. Thus, the main characters Roister Doister and Merygreeke are nodes 1.0 and 2.0, for example. Within Gephi’s data manipulation environment, a line of dialogue from the former to the latter would be mapped visually as a line [or an “edge”] from node 1.0 to node 2.0. Each exchange is recorded as tabled data in Gephi, which is then used to produce visualizations. Visualizations can be produced for any discrete unit of the text, including scene, act, or the entirety of the play. This project produces visualizations of each of these divisions for comparative purposes. Following Moretti and McGann, I have undertaken selective deformations by, for example, removing various characters at different points, thereby revealing their network centrality. Criticism of Roister Doister has, for the most part, focused heavily on the play’s dramaturgical debt to the classical comedies of Terence and Plautus, the extent to which those formal structures were successfully integrated with “native” elements of English drama, and the play’s debts to the miles gloriosus [“braggart-soldier”] tradition of Classical comedy.78 This project is in part an attempt to revitalize an ossified critical conversation as an example of how new techniques can vigorously re-engage old texts. 

Significance of Anticipated Visualizations
Experimentation in visualization of textual works is a timely one. As can be seen from the growing use of the Voyant suite9 of analysis and visualization tools as well as the popular Mapping the Republic of Lettersproject,10 humanities visualization is a growing area of scholarly concern. Elijah Meeks has argued that “the shift from creating, annotating and analyzing archives to modeling systems can have a profound impact beyond the [admittedly high value of] usability of scholarly material developed during a digital humanities project.”11 [italics mine]. When humanities scholars have reached a certain point of visual literacy, we will begin to engage with such models in profoundly important ways. Indeed, these models may “provide a much more nuanced form of knowledge transmission than the raw datasets or interactive and dynamic applications typically presented as the future of digital scholarly media.”12 This project is an effort to explore how these new forms of knowledge transmission and analysis might impact literary inquiry. 

References
1. Manovich, Lev. (2010). What Is Visualization? Poetess Archive Journal 2(1), n. pag.

2. Drucker, Johanna. (2011). Humanities Approaches to Graphical Display. Digital Humanities Quarterly 5(1), n. page.

3. Drucker, Johanna, and Bethany Nowviskie. (2004). Speculative Computing: Aesthetic Provocations in Humanities Computing. Companion to Digital Humanities. In Schreibman, Susan, Siemens, Ray, & Unsworth, John (eds). Oxford, Blackwell. Accessed 03 April 2012. Available at [journals.tdl.org/paj/index.php/paj/article/view/19/58]

4,5. Moretti, Franco. (2011). Network Theory, Plot Analysis. Stanford, Stanford Literary Lab.

6. Drucker, Johanna, and Bethany Nowviskie. (2004). Speculative Computing: Aesthetic Provocations in Humanities Computing. Companion to Digital Humanities. In Schreibman, Susan, Siemens, Ray, & Unsworth, John (eds). Oxford, Blackwell. Accessed 03 April 2012. Available at [journals.tdl.org/paj/index.php/paj/article/view/19/58]

7. Boas, Frederick S. (1933). An Introduction to Tudor Drama. Oxford, Clarendon.

8. Brooke, C. F. Tucker. (1911). The Tudor Drama: A History of English National Drama to the Retirement of Shakespeare. Boston, Riverside.

9. Voyant Tools. (2012). [voyant-tools.org]. Accessed October 2012.

10. Mapping the Republic of Letters: Navigating Big Data from the Early Modern Period. (2012). Available at [republicofletters.stanford.edu].

11. Meeks, Elijah. (2011). More Networks in the Humanities or Did Books Have DNA? Digital Humanities Specialist. Published 6 December 2011. Accessed 17 April 2012.

12. Meeks, Elijah. (2011). More Networks in the Humanities or Did Books Have DNA? Digital Humanities Specialist. Published 6 December 2011. Accessed 17 April 2012.","txt","2","",""
"2056","15","Seeing the Trees & Understanding the Forest","10","“Humanists have always been explorers. They sail not on seas of water but on seas of color, sound, and, most especially, words.” — John B. Smith, 1984

Why is big data such a big deal? Modern digital communications are producing and recording data at a feverish rate, with 90% of the world’s recorded data, most of it unstructured, having been produced in just the last two years (Dragland, 2013). In addition, more traditional texts are being digitized all the time, and Crane (2006) tells us that while the largest academic digital libraries now hold tens of thousands of books, a completed Google Library will likely have more than ten million. To further Smith’s analogy, we are adrift in a sea of data, and we are at risk of floundering.

Front page news events like Edward Snowden’s May 2013 revelations disclosing the secret NSA (America’s National Security Agency) collection and analysis of massive amounts of ostensibly private data both domestically and internationally, are making big data analytics part of the public lexicon.  Major corporations, led by IBM with $1.3 billion in big data revenue in 2012, are scrambling to adopt practices that will allow them to capitalize on the volume of information now being generated.  Global big data related revenues in 2012 were $11.6 billion, and are projected to break $18 billion in 2013 (Kelly et al.).

While one might shudder to think what the NSA will do with all that information, outside of the world of politics and espionage, what can researchers and academics do with the volume of information now, or at least soon to be at our disposal? Matthew Jockers asks, “How do we mine them [texts] to find something we don’t already know?” (University of Nebraska-Lincoln) To utilize such massive corpora and avoid succumbing to the dilemma of what McCormick et al (1987) refer to as “information without interpretation” we need to find the most effective ways for end-users to explore, visualize and interact with big data such that it is both meaningful and understandable, if possible by both the trained and untrained eye. 

Big data analytics and computer-supported visualization offer ways to read collections as our cognitive abilities are stretched to their limit with the sheer volume of data available (Araya, 2003). However, as Franco Moretti has pointed out, what we are reading when we use text mining methods and visualizations are really models of the collections. (Moretti 2013, p. 157) It is important therefore to survey the visual models emerging and question if they can better be designed to suit humanities exploration. In this paper we therefore propose to look at visualization for text mining in the following ways:

Survey text mining visualization in the humanities. Who is using text mining and why? What kinds of visualizations do they find compelling and why?
Identify and Combine commonly presented visualizations for modeling. What visual models could be used for the exploration of large corpora? How could they be combined?  
Model interactive prototypes of different combinations of visualizations for exploration. 
Surveying: In a poster at DH 2013 we presented a framework of text mining tools that are useful in the humanities. Now we will survey the variety of visualizations used to present mining results. We will begin with early discussions of visualization like Smith’s “Computer Criticism” (Style 1978, p. 326), where he notes with agreement Paul de Man’s observation that as late as 1973 there had been no evolution beyond the close reading “techniques of description and interpretation” being used by literary critics since the 1930s or 40s, and suggests “pictorial representation” as one of the potential uses of computer aided text analysis. Brunet in a 1989 article talks about exploiting large corpora and provides a number of examples of visualizations. Our survey will examine advances in practice and understanding in the intervening thirty plus years, leading to contemporary works like Franco Moretti’s Graphs, Maps, and Trees, which, as the title suggests, introduces visual models for literary exploration.

Our survey pays particular attention to recent text mining projects and tools including “The Proceedings of the Old Bailey”, David L. Hoover’s work with cluster analyses at NYU using “MiniTab”, Matt Jockers’ topic modeling work in “Macroanalysis”, the University of Waikato’s “WEKA”, the open-source visualization tool “Gephi”, the UMass machine learning tool “MALLET”, the research tools for textual study reviewed on “TAPoR”as well as some of our own INKE related projects such as “Dynamic Table of Contents”, “CiteLens”, “TextTiles” and “dialR”. 

Identifying and Combining: While we recognize that output will assume a variety of formats including for instance heat maps, topographic plots or scatter plots, our survey suggests that text-mining projects commonly use five principal types of visualization:

1. Dendrograms, showing data clustering within sets
2. Histograms, showing change over time
3. Networkdiagrams, showing how entities are connected within a network
4. Wordclouds, representing topics of words
5. Scatterplots, showing words or parts in an abstract space
Visualizations that are presented in print are typically Spartan, focusing the attention on the results through careful design. All affordances are removed. The same types of visualizations automatically generated from large data sets, however, tend to be too dense to be useful and have to include affordances if meant to be interactive. Simple representative visualizations, like histograms for instance, are insufficient to display complex interrelationships. Dendrograms, especially if you are working with massive data sets, quickly become an illegible mass of inter-connectivity. Word clouds are good at showing the relative frequency of words in a text or topic, but not at comparing one text or topic to another. Network diagrams produce some beautiful results, but suffer from the same difficulties as dendrograms; large data sets quickly lead to illegibility.

“By visualizing information, we turn it into a landscape that you can explore with your eyes, a sort of information map. And when you’re lost in information, an information map is kind of useful.” — David McCandless, 2010

Modeling: Our research now is looking at ways to increase the exploratory power of visualization of large data sets. Used in combination, visualizations can provide otherwise elusive insight and clarity. They can also provide affordances for each other – a histogram can be used to explore a dendrogram. We have developed interactive prototypes using combinations of visualizations, and focusing on not simply allowing, but even encouraging the user to truly explore the (big) data, “function[ing] almost instinctively”, as McCullough (1996) stated, “to serve the process of development”. The more we can encourage users to explore and play with the data, the more likely they are to develop useful insights.


Fig. 1: Combination of a modified dendrogram showing clustering, and a diachronic timeline of 500 philosophy papers.

Figure 1 shows a prototype of a combination of dendrogram and histogram that we developed to visualize the clustering of 500 papers published between 1966 and 2004. The prototype is a combination of a modified dendrogram showing the clusters, and a diachronic visualization displaying the subjects over time. The displayed data is intuitively explorable, and the modified dendrogram is designed to encourage exploration. We developed the R code to prepare the data for interactivity. In Voyant we have developed skins that combine scatter plots and histograms, word clouds and histograms, and network diagrams with other tools. Again, the tools are open for others to recombine.

To conclude, surveying commonly used graphical representations allowed us to identify commonly used visualizations that humanists find useful. To scale these so that they can be used interactively to explore large data sets we have prototyped combinations, where one visualization can be used to explore another and vice versa. The goal is visualizations that help researchers make sense of big data; visualizations that let us explore the forest, not just the trees so that we can draw accurate and appropriate inferences from the data.

References
The Proceedings of the Old Bailey - http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/

Cluster Analysis, Principal Components Analysis (PCA), and T-testing in Minitab - https://files.nyu.edu/dh3/public/ClusterAnalysis-PCA-T-testingInMinitab.html

Jockers, M. Macroanalysis.

Weka 3: Data Mining Software in Java - http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/ml/weka/

Gephi - The Open Graph Viz Platform - https://gephi.org/

Mallet - MAchine Learning for LanguagE Toolkit - http://mallet.cs.umass.edu/

TAPoR - Research Tools for Textual Study - http://tapor.ca/

Dynamic Table of Contents - http://www.ualbertaprojects.info/dyntoc/dyntoc_v3_5/Main.html

CiteLens - http://labs.fluxo.art.br/CiteLens/

TextTiles - http://dev.giacometti.me/textTiles/trunk/

dialR - http://research.artsrn.ualberta.ca/~dialr/drMain.html

Allison, S., Heuser, R., Jockers, M., Moretti, F. and Witmore, M. (2012 ). Quantitative Formalism: An Experiment.Pamphlet 1, Stanford Literary Lab. Print.

Araya, A. A. (2003). The Hidden Side of Visualization. Techné: Research in Philosophy and Technology; Vol 7, No 2, Print.

Brunet, É. (1989). L'Exploitation des Grands Corpus: Le Bestiare de la Littérature Française. Literary and Linguistic Computing, Vol. 4, No. 2, p. 121-134. Print.

Crane, G. (2006). What Do You Do with a Million Books? D-Lib MagazineVol. 12 No. 3, Print.

Dragland, Å. (2013). Big Data, for better or worse. SINTEF.no. 22 May 2013. Web. 27 Oct. 2013.

Jockers, M. (2013). Macroanalysis : digital methods and literary history - University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Chicago & Springfield.

Kelly, J., Floyer, D., Vellante, D. and Miniman, S. (2013). Big Data Vendor Revenue and Market Forecast 2012-2017. Wikibon.org. 19 Feb. 2013. Web. 28 Oct. 2013.

McCandless, D. (2010). David McCandless: The beauty of data visualization. TED Talks. Web Video.  25 Oct.  2013. 

McCormick, Bruce H., DeFanti, Thomas A., and Brown, Maxine D. (1987). Visualization in Scientific Computing. Computer Graphics 21, 6 (November). New York: Association for Computing Machinery, SIGGRAPH, Print.

McCullough, M. (1996).  Abstracting Craft: The Practiced Digital Hand; Cambridge, MIT Press, Print.

Moretti, F. (2013). The End of the Beginning: A Reply to Christopher Prendergast.Distant Reading. London: Verso, p. 137-158. Print.

Risen, J. and Poitras, L. (2013). NSA Gathers Data on Social Connections of U.S. Citizens, New York Times, 28 Sep. 2013. Web, 27 Oct, 2013.

Simpson J.; Rockwell, G.; Sinclair, S.; Uszkalo, K.; Brown, S.; Dyrbye, A.; Chartier, R.. (2013). Framework for Testing Text Analysis and Mining Tools.Poster presented at the Digital Humanities 2013 conference at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Lincoln, Nebraska, USA.

Smith, J. (1978). Computer Criticism.Style. Vol XII, No 4. Print.

Smith, J. (1984). A New Environment For Literary Analysis.Perspectives in Computing 4. 2/3, (1984): 20-31. Print.

Tufte, Edward. (1983). The Visual Display of Quantitative Information; Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press, Print.

University of Nebraska-Lincoln. (2012). By text-mining the classics, UNL prof unearths new literary insights. UNL News Blog. 23 Aug. 2012. Web. 27 Oct. 2013.","txt","2","",""
"2057","15","Semantic Blumenbach: Exploration of text-object relationship with sematic web technologies in the history of science","2","Blumenbach-online, a project of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities, started in January 2010 and aims at both digitizing and presenting the writings and collections of the influential Gottingen physician and naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752-1840), one of the founding fathers of physical anthropology, online. To date, almost half of the textual material (77.000 pages altogether) and roughly a quarter of the collections have been digitized and converted into TEI-encoded texts or entered into a database. It is through an exploration and application of Semantic Web technologies in a spin-off project called ""Semantic Blumenbach"" that we hope to establish robust and powerful methods for presenting and providing heterogeneous machine-readable linked data for Blumenbach-online. 

Two major tasks have been completed so far. The first is carrying out Named Entity Recognition (NER) on the TEI P5 Tite1 encoded full-texts that have been provided to Semantic Blumenbach2 by Blumenbach-online. These texts lacked the semantic markup e.g. for places, persons and objects from the natural history domain. In addition, we had to deal with historical and irregular orthography of multilingual texts from the second half of the 18th century. Currently we are able to recognize precisely (96%) most (96%) of the technical terms that appear in the text using a list-based algorithm. This algorithm is also able to detect binominal entities from the Linnaean taxonomy, even when they appear as separate strings in different parts of the text. For modeling the relationship between entities in the text and metadata in the collection, we use the WissKI Framework for scientific communication (www.wiss-ki.eu) that allows presenting and using data from various sources in a robust and open system, which is both scalable and reusable by other projects. With the help of the Erlangen CRM Ontology3, an OWL-DL 1.0 implementation of the CIDOC CRM4 and a special application ontology, we model the semantic relationships between objects described in TEI-encoded texts and metadata of these objects.5 We particularly focus on place names, persons and special terms from the natural history domain, including the Latin names of animals and geological objects and construct the relationship between both types of data by using our NER to encode reference strings in the TEI text. 

The Erlangen CRM provides a way to classify these objects in a meaningful way and to model the relationship between the occurrence of the objects in the writings of Blumenbach and the University of Göttingen’s collections. With the help of colleagues from the WissKI Project at Erlangen and Nurnberg we have been able to develop new modules for the Drupal-based system to ingest the TEI and triplify the metadata that we created in the texts. Following a policy of Open Access and Linked Open Data, we will test and implement ways to generate and publish results of academic research in a way that it can be reused in other contexts and by other researchers. Finally, we plan to use a full-text search index (Apache solr) to make both texts and object-related data available in a way that allows both triplyfied metadata and XML full-text to be searched efficiently. 

URL: dhfv-ent2.gcdh.de/blumenbach/wisski

Username and password available on request. 

References
1. www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-exemplars/html/tei_tite.doc.html

2. Wettlaufer, Jörg & Thotempudi, Sree Ganesh (2013): Poster - NER in historical Text corpora. Lessons learned so far. 4.-6.03.2013, Mehr Personen – Mehr Daten – Mehr Repositorien, Tagung des Personendatenrepositoriums der BBAW, Berlin. www.gcdh.de/index.php/download_file/view/168/405

3. erlangen-crm.org

4. “CIDOC CRM,” n.d. www.cidoc-crm.org/index.html.

5. C.f. www.tei-c.org/SIG/Ontologies/meetings/m20131003.html","txt","2","",""
"2058","15","Sentiment Analysis for the Humanities: the Case of Historical Texts","10","1. Introduction
In this paper we investigate the possibility to adapt existing lexical resources and Natural Language Processing (NLP) methodologies related to Sentiment Analysis (SA) to the historical domain.

Sentiment analysis aims at the computational treatment of opinion, sentiment and subjectivity in texts .1

Current research in SA mainly focuses on the identification of sentiment and opinions in areas such as social media 2,  news 3  4, political speeches 5 , customer and movie reviews 6 78. To our knowledge, SA in the context of the humanities has been rarely explored 9 10 11.

Many SA tools often take advantage of polarity lexicons, i.e. a lexicon of positive and negative words and n-grams. In a polarity lexicon, each word is associated with its prior polarity, i.e. the polarity of the word out of the context. A SA system uses these lexicons to evaluate the polarity of a whole text, a sentence or a topic within a text. The availability of a sentiment lexicon is thus a crucial step toward the creation and training of any SA application. Unfortunately, the majority of existing SA lexicons are for English (e.g. Harvard General Inquirer 12) while no lexicon for Italian has been developed yet.

The polarity of a word can however be different according to its context of use. A word can be negated and change its polarity (‘ice-cream is good’ vs ‘ice-cream is not good’) or have different usages (‘they fought a terrific battle""’ vs ‘I loved the film, it was terrific!’). To account for these differences, a system must be able to handle the contextual polarity of a word, i.e. the different  polarity of a word according to its syntactic, semantic or pragmatic context 13 1415 16.

Apart from manual annotation or automatic mapping from English, crowdsourcing methodologies can offer a viable solution to collect a polarity lexicon17 and to annotate a large dataset 18.

The need to explore the application of SA to historical texts has emerged thanks to the collaboration between the authors and the Italian-German Historical Institute (ISIG) in Trento. This collaboration is aimed at developing tools that can help historians access and understand textual data through the adoption of NLP methods. In particular, SA has been identified as notably relevant to quantify the general sentiment of single documents, to track the attitude towards a specific topic or entity over time and across a large collection of texts, and to allow specific search based on sentiment. This is crucial, for instance, to research on the history of ideology, evolution of political thought, etc.

The dataset used for our research is the complete corpus of writings of Alcide De Gasperi, one of the founders of the Italian Republic, made of about 3,000 documents and 3,000,000 words.

Using this corpus as a case study, two experiments have been carried out and are described in this paper. The aim of these experiments is the evaluation of i) how existing lexical resources for SA perform in the historical domain and ii) the feasibility of a sentiment annotation task for historical texts either with expert annotators and crowdsourcing contributors.

2. Prior Polarity Experiment
The first experiment on De Gasperi's corpus has been carried out using two existing polarity lexicons, namely SentiWordNet 19 and WordNet-Affect 20, to calculate the prior polarity of lemmas and measure the general sentiment of each document within the corpus. The goal was to test how resources built on contemporary languages can deal with historical texts.

SentiWordNet and WordNet-Affect have the great advantage of being extensions of a well-known resource called WordNet 21. This allowed us to map the word senses (called synsets) with a positive, negative or neutral polarity in SentiWordNet and WordNet-Affect to the corresponding Italian synsets in MultiWordNet 22, in which Italian synsets are aligned with WordNet ones. At the same time, lemmas were automatically extracted from De Gasperi's corpus using the TextPro tool 23: the total of 70,178 lemmas was reduced to 36,304 after excluding lemmas that can’t have a polarity score (e.g. numbers, articles). Each lemma was then automatically associated with the most frequent synset in MultiWordNet and its polarity score: this association covered 14,874 lemmas (40.97%) among which 9,650 were neutral. This process, followed by a manual check of the scores, produced a list of 5,224 lemmas with a polarity score: 449 with an absolute positive score (e.g. 'giubilo'/rejoicing), 576 with an absolute negative score (e.g. 'affranto'/broken-hearted) and the others with an intermediate score.

The general sentiment of each document in the corpus was finally calculated summing up the polarity scores of the lemmas appearing both in the documents and in our list, and visualized through a gauge diagram in the A.L.C.I.D.E. web platform [dh.fbk.eu/projects/alcide-analysis-language-and-content-digital-environment] (Figure 1).


Fig. 1: Document visualization: sentiment and key-concepts

Historians’ evaluation of the results was positive for most of the documents but a more specific need emerged: historians are indeed more interested in the polarity of a specific topic and in its evolution over time, rather than in the global polarity of a document that can give us indications only about the general sentiment conveyed in it. However, as historical texts are complex documents in which several topics can be identified, the global polarity of the document is not enough to identify the polarity of a single topic.

To address these requirements, we performed the experiment presented in Section 3 aimed at annotating SA at the level of topic in De Gasperi's corpus, following a contextual polarity approach.

3. Crowdsourcing Experiment for Contextual Polarity
In order to perform a pilot experiment, we identified two topics which were relevant in De Gasperi's writings, namely ""sindacato'""(trade union) and ""sindacalismo"" (trade-unionism).

A corpus of 525 sentences was automatically extracted from De Gasperi's corpus, where each sentence contained at least one of the two lemmas “sindacato” and “sindacalismo”. The previous and the following sentence were added as a context as well. Each sentence was annotated by two expert annotators, while a third annotation was collected through the crowdsourcing platform CrowdFlower [www.crowdflower.com] after performing a majority voting over 5 judgements.

The two expert annotators were asked to create gold standard data (GS), i.e. a set of sentences on which both annotators gave the same judgements, from a subset of the corpus (60 sentences, 11% of the whole corpus). Both expert annotators and crowdsourcing contributors were then asked to annotate the contextual polarity of the two topics in the sentences with one of the four possible judegments (i.e. positive, negative, neutral, unknown) given a simple set of instructions and some annotation example. 

In addition to the manual annotation, we also calculated the prior polarity for each sentence using the same algorithm applied to the documents and described in Section 2.

1. The feasibility of this task was then evaluated calculating:

2. the accuracy of the crowdsourced annotation over GS (figure 2), i.e. how well non-expert contributors performed the task;

3. the accuracy of the prior polarity for each sentence over GS (figure 2), i.e. how well the Italian prior polarity lexicon performed on the sentences in comparison to the contextual polarity approach;

the inter-annotator agreement (IAA) with the Fleiss's kappa measure (figure 3)24 , i.e. the level of consensus between the annotators. 


Fig. 2: Accuracy scores


Fig. 3: IAA results

The overall accuracy score for the crowd-collected judgements in Figure 2 (68.3%) indicates the general complexity of the task. In particular negative and positive polarities are more difficult to identify (55.5% and 46.6%) than neutral polarity (80%).

Considering the prior polarity scores in Figure 2, we observe that accuracy is always lower than in the crowd annotation setting, except for the positive judgements (86%).

The IAA agreement in Figure 3 confirms that SA is a a challenging task 25 . The highest kappa-score is found if we consider the two expert annotators (0.46), but it is not much higher than the situation in which we consider 3 annotators (0.39) or one of the two experts and the crowd judgement (0.35). In general, the type of documents have a great influence on the agreement scores: past works report that news stories can achieve an agreement of 0.81 26, whereas social media (tweets) can be as low as 0.321 27.

4. Conclusions and Future Works
This paper presented two experiments related to SA and involving a corpus of historical texts. In the first one we created a new Italian lexical resource for sentiment analysis starting from two existing lexicons for English and we applied it to measure the polarity of an entire document using a prior polarity approach. In the second experiment, the use of crowdsourced annotation to obtain contextual polarity of a specific topic was exploited.

The long term goal of our ongoing research is to create a system to support historical studies, which is able to analyze the sentiment in historical texts and to discover the opinion about a topic and its change over time.

In the near future we plan to perform domain adaptation of existing annotation schemes developed for SA 28 29 and of the Italian lexical resource we created. Particular attention will be devoted to a step-by-step evaluation by historians in order to tailor the results of our work to their needs.

References
Pang, B. and Lee, L. (2008). Opinion mining and sentiment analysis, Foundations and Trends in Information Retrieval 2 (1-2) , 1-135.

Basile, V. and Nissim, M. (2013). Sentiment analysis on Italian tweets. Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Computational Approaches to Subjectivity, Sentiment and Social Media Analysis, pp. 100–107, Atlanta, United States.

Wiebe, J., Wilson, T., and Cardie, C. (2005). Annotating Expressions of Opinions and Emotions in Language, Language Resources and Evaluation 39 (2/3) , 164-210.

Amer-Yahia, S., Anjum, S., Ghenai, A., Siddique, A., Abbar, S., Madden, S., Marcus, A. and El-Haddad, M. (2012). MAQSA: a system for social analytics on news., in K. Selçuk Candan; Yi Chen 0001; Richard T. Snodgrass; Luis Gravano and Ariel Fuxman, ed., 'SIGMOD Conference' , ACM, , pp. 653-656.

Somasundaran, S. and Wiebe, J. (2010). Recognizing Stances in Ideological On-line Debates, in Proceedings of the NAACL HLT 2010 Workshop on Computational Approaches to Analysis and Generation of Emotion in Text, pp. 116-124, Los Angeles, CA. Association for Computational Linguistics.

Hu, M. and Liu, B. (2004). Mining and Summarizing Customer Reviews, in Proceedings of the tenth ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining, pp. 168-177 .

Pang, B. and Lee, L. (2004). A Sentimental Education: Sentiment Analysis Using Subjectivity Summarization Based on Minimum Cuts, in Proceedings of the 42nd annual meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics, Barcelona, ES , pp. 271-278 .

Maas, A. L., Daly, R. E., Pham, P. T., Huang, D., Ng, A. Y., and Potts, C. (2011). Learning word vectors for sentiment analysis, in Proceedings of the 49th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies-Volume 1, pp. 142-150.

Cooper, D. and Gregory, I. N. (2011), Mapping the English Lake District: a literary GIS. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 36: 89–108.

Kakkonen, T. and Kakkonen, G.G. (2011). SentiProfiler: Creating Comparable Visual Profiles of Sentimental Content in Texts, in Proceedings of the Workshop on Language Technologies for Digital Humanities and Cultural Heritage, pp. 62–69, Hissar, Bulgaria. www.aclweb.org/anthology/W11-4110.

Mohammad, S. (2011). From Once Upon a Time to Happily Ever After: Tracking Emotions in Novels and Fairy Tales, in Proceedings of the 5th ACL-HLT Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, and Humanities, pages 105–114, Portland, OR, USA. Association for Computational Linguistics. www.aclweb.org/anthology/W11-1514.

Stone, P. (1997). Thematic text analysis: new agendas for analyzing text content, in Carl Roberts, ed., Text Analysis for the Social Sciences, Lawerence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ .

Kim, S. M., and Hovy, E. (2004). Determining the sentiment of opinions, in Proceedings of the 20th international conference on Computational Linguistics.

Wilson, T., Wiebe, J., and Hoffmann, P. (2005). Recognizing Contextual Polarity in Phrase-Level Sentiment Analysis, in Proceedings of the conference on human language technology and empirical methods in natural language processing, pp. 347-354.

Nasukawa, T. and Yi, J. (2003). Sentiment Analysis: Capturing Favorability Using Natural Language Processing, in Proceedings of the Conference on Knowledge Capture (K-CAP).

Socher, R., Perelygin, A., Wu, J. Y., Chuang, J., Manning, C. D., Ng, A. Y., and Potts, C. (2013). Recursive deep models for semantic compositionality over a sentiment treebank, in Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP), pp. 1631-1642.

Mohammad, S. and Turney, P. D. (2013). Crowdsourcing a Word-Emotion Association Lexicon. Computational Intelligence 29 (3) , 436-465.

Pang, B. and Lee, L. (2004). A Sentimental Education: Sentiment Analysis Using Subjectivity Summarization Based on Minimum Cuts, in Proceedings of the 42nd annual meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics, Barcelona, ES , pp. 271-278 .

Baccianella, A. E. S. and Sebastiani, F. (2010). SentiWordNet 3.0: An Enhanced Lexical Resource for Sentiment Analysis and Opinion Mining, in Proceedings of the Seventh conference on International Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'10).

Strapparava, C. and Valitutti, A. (2004). WordNet-Affect: An affective extension of WordNet, in Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, pp. 1083-1086.

Fellbaum, C., ed. (1998). Wordnet, an Electronic Lexical Database, MIT Press.

Pianta, E., Bentivogli, L. and Girardi, C. (2002). MultiWordNet: developing an aligned multilingual database, in Proceedings of the First International Conference on Global WordNet.

Pianta, E., Girardi, C. and Zanoli, R. (2008). The TextPro Tool Suite, in Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'06).

Artstein, R., and Poesio, M. (2008). Inter-coder agreement for computational linguistics. Computational Linguistics, 34(4), 555-596.

Pang, B. and Lee, L. (2008). Opinion mining and sentiment analysis, Foundations and Trends in Information Retrieval 2 (1-2) , 1-135.

Balahur, A., and Steinberger, R. (2009). Rethinking Sentiment Analysis in the News: from Theory to Practice and back. Proceeding of WOMSA.

Basile, V. and Nissim, M. (2013). Sentiment analysis on Italian tweets. Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Computational Approaches to Subjectivity, Sentiment and Social Media Analysis, pp. 100–107, Atlanta, United States.

Wiebe, J., Wilson, T. and Cardie, C. (2005), Annotating Expressions of Opinions and Emotions in Language, Language Resources and Evaluation 39 (2/3) , 164-210.

Di Bari, M., Sharoff, S., and Thomas, M. (2013). SentiML: functional annotation for multilingual sentiment analysis. In Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Collaborative Annotations in Shared Environment: metadata, vocabularies and techniques in the Digital Humanities.","txt","2","",""
"2059","15","Sequence, Tree and Graph at the Tip of Your Java Classes","10","1. Introduction
How to represent texts in computer systems has always been an important topic in Digital Humanities. Tree based formalisms such as SGML 1 and XML (URL: http://www.w3.org/XML/ (checked 2013-10-26)) are useful for many purposes, but problems related to their hierarchical structures are inherent. Various solutions has been presented over the years, from questioning the existence of overlap in textual material 2 through various workaround for overlapping structures 3 (chapter 20) to the abolition of nesting formalisms, as in the example of MECS 4.

In this paper I will focus on three different design principles for text representation systems, namely, linear, hierarchical and graph based. These labels represent concepts similar to Cayless' data types text as stream, text as tree, and text as graph 5. Examples of text modelling tool types focusing on each of these can be found in table 1. In the following I will analyse the relationship between the left and the right sides of the table based on experiences from the development and use of a text modelling tool called GeoModelText (URL: http://sourceforge.net/projects/geomodel/ (checked 2013-10-26)). Description of the development process can be found at the resource page for my PhD project (URL: http://www.oeide.no/dg/dp/ (checked 2013-11-01)). A use case is described in 6.

Type	Text representation system 	Example of modelling tool type 
1 	Linear	Plain text
2 	Hierarchical 	XML encoding 
3 	Graph based 	RDF encoding 
Table 1 caption: Computer based text representation systems and modelling tools.

2. Previous work
In the last 10–15 years, most practical work in text encoding have lived with the nesting structure of SGML and XML. Alternative formalisms, such as MECS, has mostly yielded to the dominant tree based structure. There has, however, been an undercurrent of experiments and theoretical research into other types of solutions. One important example originally intiated in 2002 is LMNL (URL: http://www.lmnl-markup.com/ (checked 2013-10-26)), with its range based annotation 7. A recent attempt to examine text markup under the microscope is pure transcriptional markup8. Both these examples show on-going attempts to get to the core of markup practice and were important in the development of this paper. 

In my own research into semiotic differences between texts and maps I developed a system for computer assisted conceptual text modelling called GeoModelText where all three types from table 1 have the same status. GeoModelText is currently tailor suited to my work. One aim of this paper is to investigate into its usability for other types of research.

Systems for visualising graph networks based on and connected to texts are easily available. What is lacking are systems for manipulating the graph structure as part of interactive text modelling, that is, including the graph structure in the internal editing system. To the degree graph based editing is included in XML editors it tends to be in an indirect sense, e.g., through manipulation of attribute values for ID–IDREF links.

3. GeoModelText
GeoModelText is implemented as a Java application. The text to be analysed is imported from a TEI P5 document. The import results in a DOM structure representing the XML tree of the TEI source. Within the DOM structure the text itself is found in PCDATA segments. During analysis, these segments are used to reconstruct parts of the text as a linear structure; in this view the XML hierarchy is hidden from the user.

An important function of a tree structure is inheritance, where aspects of a parent is inhereted by its children. This is used in the system to migrate responsibility to statements: the person responsible for a paragraph is also responsible for each sentence in the paragraph. One example is relationships between places claimed in the text. The claims are connected to the person responsible for the encapsulating paragraph. The places are referred to by names. In order to build up networks of related places, co-references between occurrences of names must be taken into consideration. For an introduction to co-reference see 9, and 10 for the use of co-reference networks. Thus, in order to establish this graph structure of related places, we need to read the linear text (type 1 in table 1), use inheretence (type 2), and then build up a network of related places and place names (type 3). This network connects strings which can be found at any level of the document structure. The co-reference networks change the document structure as a whole into a graph, as indicated in figure 1.


Fig. 1: The XML tree turned into a graph.

In the graph data structure, each node has a chain of links back to the place in the tree, and thus in the text, on which it is based. In this perspective, type 3 from table 1 is the dominant, but with links to the other types. In the distinction in 11 (p. 75) between hypertextual editions and editions in database format, GeoModelText is primarily a database system, but with aspects of a hypertext system.

4. The hierachy of structures
Everything we have seen in the example above is well known from XML tools, they are commonly used to establish such data structures. However, in the typical XML tool, the status of the three types are presented differently. To take one example: when opening an XML file in the Oxygen XML editor (URL: http://www.oxygenxml.com/ (checked 2013-10-27)) the tree structure is presented at the left of the Oxygen window as a number of expandable folders. This indicates that this structure is the base structure of the document. In the centre window we see the text as a sequence of tokens, with the XML elements shown in different ways or fully hidden at user discretion. Graph structures, e.g., a co-reference network, is only shown indirectly as attribute values.

Thus, type 1 and 2 from table 1 are highlighted at the expense of type 3. In GeoModelText, on the other hand, separate windows give access to data in any of the three types. I do not claim that the graphical user interface of GeoModelText is better than the one in Oxygen; it is not. Rather, I want to make the point that the freedom of the object oriented programmer is not yet offered to the user of markup tools. What a user actually do with markup tools can be expressed in three different layers:

Create a tree model of the text
Formalise that model in TEI/XML
Reificaite the model into the editing tool
With these layers reified into the tool it is more difficult to get rid of, or even see, the straightjacket of the tree structure. While XML is useful for many purposes and is used both as input format and as storage format for GeoModelText, there is still a tendency to under-expose the non-hierarchical structure of the text. This tendency is there even if a number of technices are developed to overcome the problems created by the hierarchical nature of XML.

A radical solution to these problem would be to leave XML, or, more generally, avoid hierarchical markup systems based on context free grammers all together. This was the solution of MECS. However,  this solution generated its own set of problems. In the development of LMNL, the choice was rather to use XML and the XML tools for what it is good for, and only leave the hierachical structure when one needs something else. This is also used as a design principle in GeoModelText. I use XML, both in the form of linearised files and DOM structures, whenever it is useful. But by operating in a programming environment (which is also where Piez finds himself in his work with the LMNL toolchain Luminescent (URL: https://github.com/wendellpiez/Luminescent/ (checked 2013-11-01)), although the langauge is different), I can leave the XML/DOM structure whenever I need to, e.g., to establish tools for capturing and visualising co-references. 

5. The way forward
Sometimes, in the frustration of the hierarchical straightjacket, it is tempting to leave XML as a whole behind. Keeping XML as a part of the information system, adding non-hierarchical modules as needed, is a better way forward for text encoding in general and for TEI specifically. XML is only a straightjacket in certain situations. Luminescent and GeoModelText are two examples of tools pointing towards a future where we can live with the limitations of XML because we are free to leave it whenever we need to. Craig outlines a complementary strategy for improvements of TEI 12.

One central question remains, however. Is it possible to avoid the straightjacket as a user of a premade system, or is it something fundamental in my role as a programmer who gives me the freedom to create input mechanisms as well as visualisations based on all three types from table 1? Can we make tools which give users this freedom? When we create a tree model of a text we are still aware of the choices made, often out of convenience. When using an XML editing tool these choices has been implemented in a structure with a real material existence. The awareness of the straightjacket may be lost in the process from abstract model to editing tool. 

References
1. Goldfarb, C. F. and Y. Rubinsky (1990). The SGML handbook. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

2. Renear, A., E. Myonas, and D. Durand (1996). Refining our Notion of What Text Really Is: The Problem of Overlapping Hierarchies. In S. M. Hockey and N. M. Ide (Eds.), Selected papers from the ALLC/ACH Conference, Christ Church, Oxford, April 1992, pp. 263–280. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

3. TEI Consortium (2013). TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. [2.5.0]. [July 26 2013]. [S.n.]: TEI Consortium.

4. Sperberg-McQueen, C. and C. Huitfeldt (1999). Concurrent document hierarchies in MECS and SGML. Literary and Linguistic Computing 14(1), 29–42.

5. Hugh A. Cayless, Rebooting TEI Pointers. In Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative, 6(2013). URL: jtei.revues.org/907 (checked 2014-03-07) ; DOI: 10.4000/jtei.907

6. Eide, Ø. (2013). Why Maps Are Silent When Texts Can Speak. Detecting Media Differences through Conceptual Modelling. In M. F. Buchroithner, N. Prechtel, D. Burghardt, K. Pippig, and B. Schröter (Eds.), Proceedings from From Pole to Pole. The 26th International Cartographic Conference 2013, Dresden.

7. Piez, W. (2013). Markup Beyond XML. In Proceedings from Digital Humanities July 16–19 2013, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, USA, pp. 343–345. Center for Digital Research in the Humanities.

8. Caton, P. (2013). Pure Transcriptional Markup. In Proceedings from Digital Humanities July 16–19 2013, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, USA, pp. 140–142. Center for Digital Research in the Humanities.

9. Eide, Ø. (2009). Co-Reference: A New Method to Solve Old Problems. In Proceedings from Digital Humanities June 22–25 2009, University of Maryland, USA, pp. 101–103. Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities.

10. Meghini, C., M. Doerr, and N. Spyratos (2009). Managing Co-reference Knowledge for Data Integration. In Y. Kiyoki, T. Tokuda, H. Jaakkola, X. Chen, and N. Yoshida (Eds.), Information Modelling and Knowledge Bases XX. Amsterdam, Washington, D.C.: IOS Press.

11. Buzzetti, D. (2002). Digital Representation and the Text Model. New Literary History 33(1), 61–88.

12. Hugh A. Cayless, Rebooting TEI Pointers. In Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative, 6(2013). URL: jtei.revues.org/907 (checked 2014-03-07) ; DOI: 10.4000/jtei.907","txt","2","",""
"2060","15","Shedding Light on Dickens' Style Through Representativeness & Distinctiveness","2","The present work is an exploration into Dickens' style using the statistical method of Representativeness & Distinctiveness 1 to detect words that Dickens either particularly preferred or avoided compared with other writers of his time. It takes as a starting point research reported on in DigitalHumanities 2012 2, where Tabata used the classification algorithm Random Forests 3 to determine words able to distinguish Dickens' works from both contemporary author Wilkie Collins and a larger set of authors from the 18th and 19th century.

Representativeness & Distinctiveness was originally conceived in the realm of dialectometry, where it has been shown to detect lexical items distinguishing different dialectal areas. In the context of stylometry, the method detects elements for which an author is consistent throughout his own works while also separating him from others. Considering, for instance, a comparison between Dickens and fellow writer Collins on word features using a couple of novels of each writer, one first determines Dickens' representative terms, i.e. those words which he uses consistently either frequently or infrequently over his works. In order to arrive at a combined measure, one then favours those representative terms of Dickens that Collins uses either inconsistently or consistently but with a different frequency over his novels. The remaining group of words are considered to be Dickens' representative and distinctive terms when compared with Collins. Since the analysis is directional, the degree of Representativeness of individual features being different with respect to each author, comparisons are made twice - once from Dickens' to Collins' set and once from Collins' to Dickens' set. This returns two individual author profiles, where features occurring in both profiles are also consistent for both writers.

Thus, Representativeness  & Distinctiveness bears similarities with both Burrow's Delta 4 and Zeta5 in so far as favouring consistent terms that are irregular in the opposing author's set. Additionally, it is also similar to Zeta in being dependent on the other set for the selection of distinctive terms out of the representative ones. However, rather than preselecting words according to different frequency strata, it is used here on the first 5000 most frequent ones.

We compare our results on ""Dickens vs. Collins""  and ""Dickens vs. World"" to the earlier study using Random Forests (RF) classification that was also done on the basis of frequency comparisons. RF is a machine-learning technique based on ensemble learning from a large number of decision trees, hence ""forests"". Each tree is trained on a different subset of the training data and subsequently evaluated on the remainder. At each node a different subset of the total features are considered and selected according to the best split. Individual features' importance is averaged over all trees and similar to our method there is a measure of how useful a particular feature is for classification. Representativeness & Distinctiveness and Random Forests are conceptually similar in that the document space is considered as a set of smaller comparisons between documents and distinguishing features are chosen accordingly. While RF presents the complete process of classification and evaluation, Representativeness  & Distinctiveness, although less straightforward to evaluate, might have advantages in terms of interpretability.Since a gold-standard indicating the most prominent stylistic features of an author is generally not available, we evaluate author profiles over different iterations in cross-validation by testing how well the selected words are able to separate authors in clustering. For this purpose, we retain the shared words of both profiles, since the values for terms in only one author profile might not be consistent in the other author's documents. The next step is then to cluster all documents based on the relative frequency for those shared terms. Based on the ideal clustering result into the two author groups and the present iteration's clustering result, we compute the Adjusted Rand Index 6. The evaluation technique proposed here is intended to measure classification ability of the author profiles and thus also appropriateness of the method responsible for choosing them. Applying it to our representative and distinctive profiles of Dickens and his contemporaries indicates a high degree of separation ability in clustering. Despite using a different method to determine the author profiles, there is a fair overlap of items with the earlier study using Random Forests, which would strengthen the assumption of them being genuine stylistic elements of Dickens and his peers.

References
1. Jelena Prokić, Çağrı Çöltekin, and John Nerbonne (2012). Detecting shibboleths. In: Proceedings of the EACL 2012 Joint Workshop of LINGVIS & UNCLH. EACL 2012. Avignon, France: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 72-80.

2. Tomoji Tabata. (2012). Approaching Dickens' Style through Random Forests. In: Proceedings of the Digital Humanities. Hamburg, Germany.

Leo Breiman (2001). Random Forests. In: Machine Learning, pp. 5–32.

4. Burrows, J. (2002). ‘Delta’: a measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship, Literary and Linguistic Computing, 17 (3). 267–87.

5. Burrows, J. (2007). All the Way Through: Testing for Authorship in Different Frequency Strata. LLC 22: 27-47.

6. Lawrence Hubert and Phipps Arabie (1985). Comparing partitions. In: Journal of Classification 2.1 (Dec. 1985), pp. 193–218.","txt","2","",""
"2061","15","Simulating the Cultural Evolution of Literary Genres","10","The evolution of literary form and style is an emerging area of academic research and offers a valuable case study in cultural evolution generally. Several notable papers have appeared recently. In particular, critic Franco Moretti has offered a number of provocative claims concerning the relationship between genre evolution and demographic changes in the 19th Century reading public:

1. Due to the growth of the reading public, the British novel underwent an abrupt change circa 1820: novels became far more heterogeneous and generically differentiated, aimed at specialized niches rather than readers in general.
2. The average lifespan of genres is ~25-30 years, the same as a human generation. This historical rhythm results from generational turnover in readers.
3. Literary genre evolution is characterized by alternating cycles of divergence and convergence—that is, periods of increasing generic diversity and differentiation followed by periods of decreasing diversity.
Statistician Cosma Shalizi argues in a response, “Graphs, Trees, Materialism, Fishing,” that while Moretti identifies provocative historical patterns, he fails to fully articulate the mechanisms underlying and driving literary genre evolution. 

The objective of this paper is to take up Shalizi’s injunction by building a computational model of possible generative mechanisms driving genre evolution. We consider the following questions:

How do the static characteristics and dynamic behavior of the ‘reading public’ affect literary genre evolution?
How is generic diversity affected by reader diversity? Is there a phase change as the reading public grows?
Under what circumstances will the life cycle of literary genres parallel the life cycle of generations?
We investigate these questions by constructing an agent-based model of two populations: (1) cultural forms (e.g., books); and (2) cultural consumers (e.g., readers). The key attribute of agents in each population is a bit string of user-specified length. For cultural forms, this bit-string represents the morphological features of the work: for instance, in the case of literature, bits represent attributes such as authorial style, length, plot, and theme.[1] For cultural consumers, the bit-string represents an individual’s ideal preference. Each consumer has a tolerance for variation from this ideal represented as an acceptable hamming distance.

Individual cultural consumers are in turn organized into larger preference landscapes, which vary in their levels of structure, entropy, and reader diversity (see diagram).


Once the preference landscape has been constructed at set-up, a genetic algorithm is run on the cultural forms in order to simulate evolution. The fitness of each book is measured by the number of readers it receives in that time period.[1] High fitness books are more likely to survive and reproduce, increasing their influence on the content of the next generation of literary works. Three reproductive mechanisms are used:

Survival: books carry over from generation T to T+1 with no change
Asexual: individual bit-strings from generation T are copied with a user-specified probability of mutation to create a new generation of books at T+1
Sexual: pairs of bit-strings from generation T are spliced in order to create a new generation of books at T+1
While the use of genetic and evolutionary paradigms to describe bibliographic change may at first seem suspect, each of these reproductive strategies has an intuitive interpretation in the context of literary production. Survival corresponds to the case in which market-successful books are simply reprinted. Asexual reproduction corresponds to the case in which successful books spawn similar works with slight variation: that is, authors copy and modify the template provided by recently successful works. Sexual reproduction corresponds to what we might call “genre-crossing”: authors take the features of two successful works and synthesize them in order to produce a new work. The current trend of “mash-up” literature provides a salient example. Best-sellers such as Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter splice the features of already-successful genres (e.g., historical biography and gothic). Lest we dismiss such works as gimmicks, it is worth recognizing that many high-prestige genres emerged through hybridization. Modernist works such as James Joyce's Ulysses self-consciously combined the features of the realist novel with those of the classical epic.  Pastiche, bricolage, and the combination of high and low art were central to postmodern literature, epitomized by William Burrough's “cut-up” novels. Recombination is a widely-used mechanism in literary production. 

The relative proportions of these reproductive strategies are parameterized variables, as is the mutation rate, which represents the probability that any feature of a work will be mutated during either reproduction process. The mutation rate also has an intuitive interpretation in the context of cultural production: it characterizes the average creative experimentalism of a particular cultural field, that is, how far authors are generally willing to depart from established models.

We run simulated experiments in order to determine the impact of various scenarios on literary genre evolution, including (i) variation in reader preference landscapes features, (ii) demographic changes such as population growth and generational turnover, and (iii) feedback between reader preferences and dominant cultural forms.

The results suggest a number of insights about plausible mechanisms driving the evolution of cultural forms generally and literary genre specifically. 

First, generic diversity[1] cannot be explained solely in terms of the characteristics of the reading public: we also need to account for the characteristics of the creative process, in particular, the level of experimentation in the cultural market at a given historical moment, represented in this model by the mutation rate.


Second, contrary to Moretti’s claim, we show that growth in the reading public is not sufficient to guarantee an increase in either reader diversity or generic diversity. In fact, market growth may actually reduce diversity under certain conditions. To determine the effect that growth will have, we need to know whether the preference landscape was initially homogeneous vs. diverse and whether new readers have preferences that are similar to or different from the readers who already populate that market. 


Third, the model predicts that dramatic changes in the preferences of cultural consumers—analogous to ecosystem disruption—lead to increases in creative experimentation (i.e., the cultural mutation rate).

Lastly, we find that the preferences of conformist consumers have a highly disproportionate effect on the level of generic diversity relative to the rest of the consumer population, producing ‘phase change’ dynamics. Genres and cultural product categories tend to form around the preferences of conformist consumers because they have more reliable and predictable tastes.  

Although the model above addresses a set of claims about literary genre, the implementation is intentionally general, relying on abstract feature and preference strings that can represent any cultural product that can be atomized into variable features. Our intention in future research is to calibrate the model against case studies from a variety of cultural markets (literature, film, plastic arts, etc.).

References
Daranyi, P. Wittek, L. Forro (2012). Toward Sequencing ‘Narrative DNA.’ Proceedings Computational Models of Narrative. LREC. Istanbul.

Hughes, J., Foti, N., Krakauer, D., Rockmore, D (2012). Quantitative patterns of stylistic influence in the evolution of literature.'PNAS, May 2012.

Moretti, Franco (2005). Graphs, Maps, Trees. Verso: New York.

Rabkin, E. and Simon, C.  (2008) Culture, Science Fiction, and Complex Adaptive Systems.Biocomplexity at the Cutting Edge of Physics, Systems Biology, and Humanities. Bologna: Bononia University Press.

Shalizi, Cosma (2011). Graphs, Trees, Materialism, Fishing. Reading Graphs, Maps, Trees: Responses to Franco Moretti. South Carolina: Parlor Press.","txt","2","",""
"2062","15","Single Page Apps for Humanists: A Case Study using the Perseus Richmond Times Corpus","9","TEI is good at what it does: static documents rendered in glorious detail. But TEI is old. Its age doesn’t make TEI irrelevant, but it’s important to be conscious of how the way we weave the fabric of the web has changed since TEI was conceived in 1994, and reevaluate some of our assumptions about its use. In this early work, we are exploring this rethinking as part of a larger study within the center on general methods for isolating the complexity frequently associated with XML-based frameworks.

The Richmond Times Dispatch corpus of TEI-encoded newspapers comprises the Confederate newspaper’s Civil War run, 1860 — 1865. It is compelling both in terms of organization and content and amounts to a comprehensive textual index. In addition to the historical allure of its content, the formal properties of the digitized documents made available through the Perseus Collection make the Dispatch an extraordinary raw material for building a rich interactive visual experience that augments the textual one.

The Dispatch is not in need of a new home; the Perseus Collection hosts a perfectly functional version and uses best practices for data encoding and organization. Rather than strive to be the primary resource for the source material, our project uses the source material to explore recent patterns in web development as well as alternative, more visually compelling ways to interact with XML corpora in a web application. The goal is to produce a powerful reading environment that is tailored to its source material to an extent that the generalized project of the Perseus Collection can afford.

With respect to its implementation, our project fits the genre of a ‘single page application’ (SPA). This project demonstrates best practices for implementing this type of software project using a particular suite of tools; as an open source example of an SPA that is considerably more complex than the usual teaching examples for this kind of thing, we hope that our implementation will be useful to other people who are considering using the same tools, and especially to humanists interested in presenting TEI-encoded documents.

The SPA is du juor. We prefer beautiful URLs and smooth transitions. We are less fond of all these big lists cluttering our sidebars and clunky arrays of checkboxes. We don’t expect websites to always be inert collections of documents. We want to be able to control the connective tissues. The web development community has responded to our current expectations with tools to suite them.

The client-side MVC (Model-View-Controller) libraries that have recently emerged have reached a high level of maturity A client-side MVC library codifies conventional solutions to the generic problems posed by web traffic. It provides semantics for describing the interaction layer between data and presentation. The codification of conventions that MVC libraries manifest is exciting. It deeply simplifies matters for those who want to make interactive documents. Humanists who have a grasp of the language and concepts involved will be that much better able to articulate and realize project architectures that delight the contemporary reader.

For instance, our application is built around a client-side router. The router formalizes protocols for state transitions that allow for timely and efficient request management. We rely heavily on the concept of the run loop, which exposes powerful document management techniques and is tightly linked with a client-driven templating engine. We are able to achieve a remarkably clean separation of concerns in a highly condensed space by exploiting the conventional roles organized and implemented by these libraries. And by shifting our application’s emphasis to the client, we have constant access to a unified programming environment, limiting the context-switching required when developing different parts of the application.

In addition to our project’s strong client-focused application architecture, we also demonstrate a data architecture solution to the problems posed by the corpus’ rich TEI markup. To expose the facets embedded in the source XML, the implementation transforms the deeply nested structure inherent into flat relational representations that can be searched efficiently. Furthermore our project demonstrates a novel, pythonic approach to transforming the source XML to browser-ready HTML that is particularly amenable to the constraints of an SPA.

XSLT wasn’t very well suited to our TEI transformation problem. One of the key UI features of our application was the ability to discover and search for special entities such as people and places in the text. By implementing a custom transformer in python, we had the flexibility to both translate the TEI tag names into valid HTML versions and retain the original TEI tag names and attributes as attributes on the HTML element.

In addition to serving content thus transformed as needed, the role of the server in our application is limited to various precomputation and preprocessing tasks that only need to be run whenever the source material changes--a process that is fully automated with Unix batch processing (via cron) in the cloud. Users never notice. Research projects are often quagmired in a chaotic sprawl of one-off scripts; we demonstrate a coherent architectural pattern for orchestrating these preprocessors.

Sometimes the affordances of an SPA make it worthwhile to depart from the original document’s presentation. Content on the web wants a different kind of exposure than a stack of newspapers. You want to be able to find things quickly. You want to be able to highlight and hyperlink, associate and drill down. Once you’ve computed a graph of your stack of newspapers, now you can move laterally, staying in the same section and moving from date to date, just as easily as you could stay on the same date and move top-to-bottom through the articles. We demonstrate a novel, minimalistic navigation scheme for the Dispatch.

If you’re taking full advantage of a Javascript environment to render your XML content, you can use modern libraries to plug in visualizations with simplicity, and furthermore to turn these visualizations into interactive filters for a very powerful browsing experience. Using a cluster of technologies surrounding Mike Bostock’s work, we demonstrate how to integrate a visualization library into an SPA.

And yet we believe that datafication shouldn’t overwhelm the content. You want to be discrete about placing your controls lest you scare the casual user, but they should be powerful. Live feedback from search inputs has come to be a common expectation for user interfaces and the SPA environment makes it easy to architect that. We show one effective way to make your XML live-searchable.

We close with just a few screenshots of the work in progress. It is important to note that this interface is being further refined based on new work Trevor is doing in his new role as a front-end software developer. 


Fig. 1: An early version of the splash page, presenting user interface controls for the issue date, section, and subsection. Selecting a subsection would reveal the list of headlines it contains. The date selectors reload the issue content asynchronously, without reloading the page.


Fig. 2: The early version of the article reader, presenting the text in a modal context. The summary of facets across the top act as toggles for corresponding highlights in the text. You can page through the section content using the controls at the bottom of the modal.


Fig. 3: This screen capture shows the direction taken in the latest development. The URL bar demonstrates stateful client-side routing. The content selection controls have been flattened into a trio of type-ahead controls with pagination buttons for navigating forward and backwards both in the document structure and across documents.

This stuff is fun. The tools are a joy to use. The free/open source community behind it is excellent and innovative. We want to see more humanists building applications, and moving away from consuming and rather heavyweight content management systems such as Drupal. Based on our experience, humanists can learn the tools and frameworks quickly with excellent results to boot. We hope that our implementation of the Dispatch will set a strong example for our (and others’) future DH projects.

References
We note that we are proponents of using XML, especially for its originally intended purposes of self-describing data interchange, which remains tremendously valuable in developing type safe RESTful web services. 

George K. Thiruvathukal is leading a separate and parallel effort to develop the Standoff Markup text editor, standoffmarkup.org,  which is aimed at simplifying the encoding and maintenance of XML texts (without exposing tree-oriented abstractions). This is where we started exploring the use of SPA when it comes to building DH-facing tools in general.

Richmond Times Collection, www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/collection?collection=Perseus:collection:RichTimes.

Single Page Applications original conception, code.google.com/p/trimpath/wiki/SinglePageApplications

Conventionally, a to-do list. See, for instance, todomvc.com.

The Model-View-Controller design pattern (and paradigm) was introduced as part of the Xerox PARC Alto computer, which used the Smalltalk programming language. An excellent historical read about this paradigm can be found at heim.ifi.uio.no/~trygver/themes/mvc/mvc-index.html.

We use Ember.js: emberjs.com. Our technical term for “high level of maturity” is “rock” but we eschew this Americanism for the purpose of a conference paper submission.

We rely throughout on the wonderful lxml library for Python: lxml.de.

Our present implementation is deployed on Heroku, an agile and scalable framework for deploying apps like ours. The overall project is moving to Linode (a dedicated Linux-based cloud hosting provider).

In this we rely on the large-scale application planning features offered by the Flask web framework for python: flask.pocoo.org.

Author of d3js.org among other things.

We have found dc.js (nickqizhu.github.io/dc.js) to be a perfect storm of visualization functionality.

We use the well-known elasticsearch library (www.elasticsearch.org) to achieve an effect like Google’s live search results.","txt","2","",""
"2063","15","Six terms fundamental to modelling transcription","10","Work begun by Huitfeldt and Sperberg-McQueen (2008) and continued jointly with Marcoux (2009, 2010) has given us a powerful and intuitive model of the abstract object T that counts as a successful transcription of an exemplar E.[1] (For convenience I will hereafter refer to these authors collectively as 'HSM' and their work as 'the HSM model'.)[2] Work on the HSM model is ongoing and a comprehensive formal account of the activity of transcription remains some way off, but extrapolating from what HSM have done so far we can begin to determine what is proper to a model of transcription per se, what is complementary to it, and what intra- and inter-model dependencies exist between entities. We can project, as it were, from the existing HSM model a bigger picture; but we stay always within the terms of the HSM model because it is the terms themselves we use for our projection. We thereby also clarify the terms themselves as they are used in the context of the model.

Here I focus on six terms fundamental to the 'bigger picture' and by elucidating these terms in relation to the model I sketch out the scope and composition of that picture: a necessary preliminary to any more detailed modelling to follow. The terms are: SURFACE, MARK, READING, TOKEN-SEQUENCE, EXEMPLAR, and DOCUMENT.

Consider the following scenario. A cave explorer discovers a new chamber and finds inside it three rock faces. One has complex patterns of scratches on it, each of the other two has painted lines on it. In all three cases what the explorer sees looks like writing, but she recognizes none of it. She takes a photograph of the rock face with the scratches and of one face with painted lines, then her camera fails. She pulls out a sketch pad and makes a faithful drawing of the other rock face with paint on it. Later she takes the photographs and drawing to an archeologist, who recognizes that the painted lines are indeed writing, in a language he knows, but that the forms of the characters are older and in many cases different from those in the current orthography of that language. He then makes written copies of the characters he sees in the photograph and drawing, this time using the current character forms to make them easier for other scholars to read. Doubtful about the scratched lines he informs a naturalist friend who visits the cave and confirms that all the scratches have been made by animals sharpening their claws on the rock face.

Now we retrace the conceptual movement of that narrative, introducing the fundamental terms in the appropriate places and using the context to clarify their relation to the HSM model and define them within that scope.

Each rock face is a SURFACE. A SURFACE is a thing: it is perceptible and measurable, and in its normal manner of existence can be returned to. The normal manner of existence of an electronic display, for example, is for a machine that generates it to be switched on and working properly: and while this is the case, we can return to the display.[3] A SURFACE is necessary for transcription; a SURFACE itself depends on nothing within the scope of this discussion. Of all things I describe here, a SURFACE is the closest to being a primitive entity.

Each scratch and painted line on the rock faces is a MARK. A MARK is a thing made upon a SURFACE by some agent. It is perceptible and measurable by contrast to the SURFACE, and therefore dependent upon the prior existence of the SURFACE.

The most complex of all the model-related entities is a READING. I will say it is normative - though not necessary - that READING is motivated. We are a communicative species and we actively look for instances of communication, willing to give the benefit of the doubt in many cases. MARKS are necessary for orthography, therefore the presence of MARKS implies the possible presence of writing. Consequently the presence of MARKS also implies the possible presence of text (here and throughout intended in the sense described in Caton 2013a), and text is written communication. Hence, in the normative case, an understanding of the possible presence of text motivates READING by an agent. In terms specific to the HSM model, READING is the process by which an agent attempts to discover and establish at least one TYPE-SEQUENCE in MARKS on a SURFACE by recognising certain MARKS to be certain TOKENS.

Because (in the normative case) READING is motivated, we must also grant that it may be entirely speculative. That is, it is acceptable that READING commences solely on the basis that MARKS are present on a SURFACE: there does not have to be certainty that at least one of those MARKS has token status.

Recall that our cave explorer could not assign token status to any of the marks she saw. Aware of her ignorance, she took steps (taking photographs and making a drawing) that have an interesting status in the overall picture because they seem to perform transcription without READING and therefore to deny that READING is  necessary  to transcription. But this is illusory. The goal of READING is to establish a TOKEN-SEQUENCE/TYPE-SEQUENCE, and the act of READING attempts this, assigning token status to MARKS where possible. There is no criterion of success for the activity: simply performing it is enough.[4] There doesn't have to be a specific TOKEN-SEQUENCE/TYPE-SEQUENCE at the end of it. 

Instead of 'success', we distinguish three result-states of READING: positive, negative, and zero. A positive result-state means the agent assigns, with a greater-than-zero degree of certainty, token status to at least one MARK. A negative result-state means that the agent, with a greater-than-zero degree of certainty, decides no MARK has token status. A zero result-state means that for every MARK present the agent has zero certainty that it is or is not a token. We shall return to this important point shortly. 

An agent READS at least MARK by MARK (though more usually by groups of MARKS at a time), assigns token status where possible, and thereby constructs a TOKEN-SEQUENCE. A TOKEN-SEQUENCE cannot be empty: it must contain at least one TOKEN. Under any one READING R a TOKEN-SEQUENCE is neither 'right' nor 'wrong': it simply is the sequence under that READING, irrespective of the degree to which it corresponds to any text present on the SURFACE.

The dependence relation here is strictly one way and is of transcription upon the TOKEN-SEQUENCE produced by the READING. If no READING (minimal or informed) takes place,   If there is a TOKEN-SEQUENCE, and if an agent desires to preserve its corresponding TYPE-SEQUENCE in another place by the activity of transcription, then that TOKEN-SEQUENCE assumes the role of EXEMPLAR with respect to the transcription, and in that respect we refer to it as the E-TOKEN-SEQUENCE. The manifestation in another place of the preserved TYPE-SEQUENCE as a TOKEN-SEQUENCE produces a TRANSCRIPTION (as result) and we refer to that sequence as the T-TOKEN-SEQUENCE.[5] Should an agent wish to transcribe this T-TOKEN-SEQUENCE, the sequence would then assume the role of EXEMPLAR with respect to this second transcription. 

The essential insight of the HSM model is that transcription is that the T-TOKEN-SEQUENCE represents and preserves the E-TYPE-SEQUENCE. It should be clear then that with respect to the painted rock faces the cave explorer does perform transcription, despite her inability to consciously assign token status to any of the MARKS. By means of the photograph and the drawing, each E-TYPE-SEQUENCE of the painted MARKS is preserved and manifested in another place as a T-TOKEN-SEQUENCE, perceptible as MARKS on a SURFACE. Transcription is always possible when the READING result-state is either positive or zero. It does not have to happen deliberately, consciously - a transcription can be produced quite by accident. The archaeologist's transcription, unlike the explorer's, comes from positive result-state READING and he produces different T-TOKEN-SEQUENCES from the explorer, but they all represent the same E-TYPE-SEQUENCE.

Transcription is possible from a zero result-state READING, but only possible. The cave explorer's photograph of the scratches, for example, is not a transcription because no TOKEN-SEQUENCE is present on the scratched rock SURFACE and thus there is no E-TYPE-SEQUENCE to preserve.[6]

An act of transcription necessarily involves an EXEMPLAR, but does not necessarily involve a DOCUMENT. In relation to a model of transcription, and the model of READING which is necessary for it, we say that when there is at least one TOKEN-SEQUENCE / TYPE-SEQUENCE on a SURFACE, and the same READING that assigned token status to the MARKS also assigns TEXT status to the TOKEN-SEQUENCE / TYPE-SEQUENCE, then the SURFACE + TEXT combination acquires DOCUMENT status.[7] In a majority of cases an agent READS a SURFACE either certain it is a DOCUMENT or at least believing that highly likely. Hence DOCUMENT is a term frequently used in discussions of transcription, but transcription can take place without any DOCUMENT being present.

Notes
[1] For work responding to and building on the HSM model, see Caton 2009, 2013b.

[2] I must assume the reader's familiarity with the basics of the HSM model, in particular with their use of Peirce's concepts of token and type. Huitfeldt and Sperberg-McQueen 2008 gives the initial exposition; Caton 2013 provides a summary.

[3] I am avoiding the words  'material' and 'persistent' because (for the purposes of this discussion) those adjectives are not yet well enough defined with respect to the digital domain. Despite my expressive clumsiness I hope the reader understands that I am opposing the nature of SURFACE and MARK to the essentially transitory, of-the-moment nature of a phenomenon such as speech.

[4] Obviously this differs from the normal usage, where we expect someone performing the activity of reading to recognize a specific token sequence and consider their reading incorrect if they don't.

[5] Strictly speaking there is no T-TYPE-SEQUENCE prior to the existence of the T-TOKEN-SEQUENCE, only the E-TYPE-SEQUENCE. The T-TYPE-SEQUENCE is a product of the T-TOKEN-SEQUENCE.

[6] Because a negative result-state involves conscious judgement, it is entirely possible for one agent to perform two different READINGS with different result-states: one negative (by looking at MARKS on a SURFACE and deciding that none has token status) and one zero (by also taking a photograph of the MARKS).

[7] Because this ties DOCUMENT to a particular SURFACE it means every DOCUMENT is a unique object and not a 'repeatable symbolic expression' as discussed in Renear and Wickett 2009.  I consider this uncontroversial as a constraint for the purposes of modelling, but I believe it also reflects a core sense of the common usage. Certainly 'document' is often used in an abstract sense, as in 'Magna Carta is an important document', but the signification is strongly tied to the idea of a particular piece of paper (or stone tablet, parchment scroll, email, etc.). 

References
Caton, Paul (2009). “Lost in Transcription: Types, Tokens, and Modality in Document Representation”. Presented at Digital Humanities 2009, University of Maryland, College Park, June 2009.

Caton, Paul (2013a). ""On the term 'text' in digital humanities.""Literary and Linguistic Computing 28 (2): 209-220. doi:10.1093/llc/fqt001

Caton, Paul (2013b). “Pure Transcriptional Markup”. Presented at Digital Humanities 2013, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, July 2013.

Huifeldt, Claus and C. M.  Sperberg-McQueen (2008). ""What is transcription?""Literary and Linguistic Computing 23 (3): 295-310. doi:10.1093/llc/fqn013

Huitfeldt, Claus, Yves Marcoux and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen (2009). ""What is transcription? (Part 2)."" Presented at Digital Humanities 2009, University of Maryland, College Park, June 2009.

Huitfeldt, Claus, Yves Marcoux and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen (2010). ""Extension of the type/token distinction to document structure."" Presented at Balisage: The Markup Conference 2010, Montréal, Canada, August 3 - 6, 2010. In Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2010. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies, vol. 5 (2010). doi:10.4242/BalisageVol5.Huitfeldt01.

Renear, Allen H., and Karen M. Wickett (2009). “Documents Cannot Be Edited.” Presented at Balisage: The Markup Conference 2009, Montréal, Canada, August 11 - 14, 2009. In Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2009. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies, vol. 3 (2009). doi:10.4242/BalisageVol3.Renear01.","txt","2","",""
"2064","15","Small-Scale Big Data: Experimental Literature and Distributed Computing","9","Introduction
This short paper describes how a small-scale implementation of big data text analysis can be used for reading single texts and testing algorithmic processes. By using a small Hadoop cluster, distributed computing methods can be used to parse typographically experimental texts and delineate even minute units of meaning. This experiment takes Ron Silliman’s 26-volume collection entitled The Alphabet (1979-2008) as an object of study because it anticipates and resists quantitative analysis techniques. Silliman describes his brand of “language writing” as a kind of “composition as investigation” that requires active participation of the reader to make meaning.1 The process of running resistant texts through an algorithmic system also exposes the interpretive biases of computational methods of reading poetry. Large scale text analysis can reveal promising texts for further inquiry, but these systems can also be used on a small-scale to complement qualitative human readings with quantitative results. Matthew Jockers has recently warned in Macroanalysis (2013) that “from thirty thousand feet, something important will inevitably be missed. The two scales of analysis, therefore, should and need to coexist.”2 This paper shows how a proximate use of “distant reading” can render a text productively unfamiliar and also show how distributed computing systems can be used to structure highly experimental literary texts.

Background
The core of my method is animated by two observations: First, Google has become a constant touchstone for DH scholarship. The proceedings for the 2013 meeting of DH in Lincoln, Nebraska includes 156 references to Google Search or other Google products, including Anna Jobin and Frederic Kaplan’s attempt to reverse engineer Google’s autocomplete algorithms. 3 However, the scale and sophistication of Google’s systems make them impenetrable for all but the most experienced Google employees responsible for building these proprietary systems. Second, there has been a recent boom in avant-garde or experimental writing that is fuelled by the growing awareness of large scale text analysis. I argue, therefore, that experimental literature has begun to function as a resistant dataset that can test and even react to algorithmic methods. This new experimental corpus thereby engages in a reciprocal critique of both literary and technical systems. My experiment is grounded in contemporary cultural and technological contexts, while seeking to explore the relationship between corporate analysis tools and literary production. The technologies that support this “Big Data Revolution” were developed by many of the most important technology companies in the US, with Google, Yahoo, and Facebook among them. 4 Hadoop was derived from Google’s MapReduce and Google File System white papers. Doug Cutting (Yahoo!) and Mike Cafarella (Google) spun off an open source implementation in 2005 that is now released by Apache. 56 Hive was written by Facebook to streamline the process of writing MapReduce jobs in Java by allowing queries to be written in SQL. A secondary purpose for this research explores the capabilities and weaknesses of proprietary systems from their open source derivatives. 

Implementation
A small-scale implementation of Hadoop and Hive on Amazon Web Services Elastic Map Reduce (EMR) platform is a highly reliable and cost effective means of working with distributed computing methods. As both a pedagogical and rapid experimental tool, EMR automates the networking between data nodes throughout the system and opens the scalability of Hadoop to an extremely broad user base. Hive allows for queries to be written in HiveQL, which does not follow the full SQL-92 standard but rather retains many of the features of MySQL. 7 While the distributed nodes are often virtualized on EMR and the user has no way to determine the full composition of the cluster, the costs remain extremely low and do not require complex discussions with system administrators in a restrictive institutional environment. 8 Hadoop’s speed and flexibility is the result of its very simple order of operations and physical architecture that allows for scaling from just three to potentially thousands of nodes. 9 As the corpus size expands, this system can scale rapidly with only modest additional investment of research funds.

Analysis
The term “distant reading” first articulated by Franco Moretti has come to describe the process of quantitative analysis. 10 It arose out of a very human inability to read all the texts that compose World Literature. A remarkable number of issues emerge from this very simple state of affairs. Firstly, we now have a kind of writing that acts like reading. In other words, the SQL queries used to parse and structure vast strings of data represents a readable trace of reading. Coding commands for this system represents a “composition as investigation."" 11 Secondly, the scalability of these systems allows for machine reading systems to perform human lifetimes worth of reading tasks in mere minutes or hours. The computer’s ability to perform repetitive tasks at speeds also means that the interpretive experience of texts is now outside the domain of human perception. “The Hadoop Distributed File System” white paper described the pace of operations through the “heartbeats” that guide the operations of the distributed machines by explaining how the TaskTracker “can process thousands of heartbeats per second.” 12 Thirdly, this technological moment represents the collapse of the false dichotomy between philosophical, subjective, and speculative analysis, and scientific, objective, empirical analysis. Quantitative methods have the potential to erase the long held doctrine of the “two cultures” that divides the sciences and humanities and presumes that “Intellectuals, in particular literary intellectuals, are natural Luddites.” 13

Conclusion
The use of the word “experimental” carries a strategic significance in this context. It is a word that simultaneously accesses literary, scientific, and technological discourses. My experiment is primarily animated by the “aesthetic provocation” of avant-guard writing.14 Because computation relies upon symbolically stable inputs, making computational sense of non-sense characters becomes a central challenge to overcome in the study of contemporary experimental literature with computational methods; in order to read these non-sense characters, the “stop list"" for this topic model may need to comprise the entire corpus of proper words. Rather than treating literature as strictly quantifiable data that algorithmic analysis can simply glean information from, I propose a methodology that assumes that literary information is profoundly resistant, reactive, and unpredictable. Kenneth Goldsmith claims, in Uncreative Writing (2011), that “digital media has set the stage for a literary revolution.” 15 While Goldsmith is thinking here about distribution methods on the Web, there is little doubt that literature is responding to the technological context into which it is published. It is now time to include the algorithm in this history of the avant-guard.

Acknowledgements
I would also like to thank the generous support of the Electronic Textual Cultures Lab at the University of Victoria and Implementing New Knowledge Environments group. This work is supported by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

References
1. Silliman, Ron (1984). For L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E. The Language Book. Eds. Bruce Andrews and Charles Bernstein. Southern Illinois UP. 14. Print.

2. Jockers, Matthew (2013). Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History. Urbana: U of Illinois P. 9. Print.

3. Broeckmann, Andreas. Digital Culture, Art, and Technology. IEEE Multimedia 12.4 (Oct.-Dec. 2005): 9-11. Web. 8 April 2013.

4. Mayer-Schönberger and Kenneth Cukier (2013). Big Data: A Revolution that Will Transform how We Think Live, Work, and Think. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Print.

5. Shvachko, Konstantin, Hairong Kuang, Sanjay Radia, Robert Chansler (2010). The Hadoop Distributed File System. Symposium on Massive Storage Systems and Technologies and Co-located Events. IEEE: Computer Society. Web. 22nd Oct. 2013.

6. Dean, Jeffrey and Sanjay Ghemawat. (2004) MapReduce: Simplified Data Processing on Large Clusters. USENIX Association OSDI ‘04: 6th Symposium on Operating Systems Design and Implementation. Web. 22nd Oct. 2013.

7. Apache Hive. hive.apache.org/

8. Amazon Elastic MapReduce (Amazon EMR). aws.amazon.com/elasticmapreduce/

9. Apache Hadoop. hadoop.apache.org/

10. Moretti, Franco. Conjectures on World Literature. New Left Review 1 (Jan./Feb. 2000): 54-68. Web. 30 July 2013.

11. Silliman, Ron. (2008) The Alphabet. Tuscaloosa: U Alabama P. 1057. Print.

12. Shvachko, Konstantin, Hairong Kuang, Sanjay Radia, Robert Chansler.The Hadoop Distributed File System. Symposium on Massive Storage Systems and Technologies and Co-located Events. IEEE: Computer Society, 2010. Web. 22nd Oct. 2013.

13. Snow, C.P. (1961) The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. New York: Cambridge UP. 23. Print.

14. Drucker, Johanna (2009). SpecLab: Digital Aesthetics and Projects in Speculative Computing. Chicago: U of Chicago P. xi. Print.

15. Goldsmith, Kenneth (2011). Uncreative Writing. New York: Columbia UP. 15. Print.","txt","2","",""
"2065","15","SNAP:DRGN - Standards for Networking Ancient Prosopographies: Data and Relations in Greco-roman Names","2","The Standards for Networking Ancient Prosopographies (hereafter SNAP) project aims to address the problem of linking together large collections of material (datasets) containing information about persons, names and person-like entities managed in heterogeneous systems and formats. In doing so we must address a number of complex issues:

How do we know whether a person in one large dataset is the same as a person with the same name in another dataset with a different format and metadata?
If person A in one database or network is asserted as being the same as person B in another network, do all the statements asserted about person A in the first database also apply to person B, and if so what status do these assertions have in the new context?
How do we record and integrate the provenance descriptions of both the data and the assertions to create an effective trust network through which we can assess the reliability of a given statement?
How do systems cope with very large amounts of data and how do we visualize the amount of information available?
How do we best manage the shift from human-assertions to computer-guided assertions as the dataset moves from human-manageable to big data systems without losing academic credibility in the processed results?
What academic statements need to be supported to allow the migration of prosopographic and onomastic data silos to interconnected and open data networks?
What lessons can we learn from working with person-like entity networks, when freed from the privacy and related ethical considerations that would affect modern social networks
These are questions of great interest, and difficulty, for Web scientists studying the contemporary world, given the proliferation of social networks, of different accounts, usernames, handles and URLs associated with the users of the Web, and of databases containing personal information about celebrities, authors, creators and historical figures. SNAP will address the more limited, and tractable, problem of datasets containing information about historical names and persons, whether these be onomastica, prosopographies, biographical collections, or merely indices of names from a digital text edition. Specifically, SNAP will take the coherent, geographically and chronologically constrained field of prosopography in the Classical world, in which there is established academic activity, as a delimited and realistically sized pilot project to explore solutions to this problem of networking person datasets. Using a selection of the most significant datasets in this sub-domain, we shall address some of the issues of integrating heterogeneous data at the identity level through access to very large but manageable numbers of entities, with the collaboration of the scholars and scientists responsible for the projects involved.

Initially working with a consortium of three collections of person/name data, SNAP will expand through additional partners and datasets from the academic, heritage, and commercial sectors in the early stages of the project. Assistance for the inclusion of new datasets will be provided by the project team, as part of the mechanism to test and refine the proposed data models, ontologies and schemas. These models build on existing work in the field (see Research Context) as well as being designed specifically for this data type, for compatibility and suitability across differently formatted collections. The model's fitness of purpose will be further tested through building distribution and visualization tools, with Web services (see WP3) on top of them; experimenting with the generation of data through computational techniques to leverage the new connections made for new research questions; and expanding our existing, combined dataset with new entities, identifications and connections drawn from inscriptions. 

The combined datasets that the project will initially be focusing on contain over 400,000 identified person-like entities and a similar number of attestations, name-entities and annotations records. This number will rapidly expand with the creation of the entities and relationships required by the project model and through the addition of new material and datasets. We envision that the project will be working with over one million entities (persons, names, person-like entities) and their associated statements of relationship, reference and description. These records are not only big data in their own terms but represent a significant portion of the personal data available for the domain and period under investigation. As such this project has the capacity to transform the way that we understand and interact with the data and the related scholarship in the area. 

This project will be a proof of concept work; a much larger project will be required to integrate the world of classical prosopography comprehensively, to expand further connections with historical person data from other periods and places, and to test the data models proposed against the more ambitious world of Linked Data as a whole. The project includes a significant time commitment to disseminate and publish the results, both in terms of the ontologies and schemata, guidelines for new projects wanting to participate, and historical articles on information gleaned from this research.","txt","2","",""
"2066","15","Socially-Derived Linking and Data Sharing within a Virtual Laboratory for the Humanities","10","HuNI (Humanities Networked Infrastructure) is a major new digital service for humanities researchers. Developed in Australia, with funding from the NeCTAR (National eResearch Collaborative Tools and Resources) programme, it aggregates data from 28 different cultural datasets from a variety of disciplines, makes them available for external re-use through an API and as Linked Open Data, and provides a set of tools for researchers to work with the data. HuNI is a virtual laboratory application which will be of great value to anyone interested in understanding Australia’s rich cultural heritage. It is also the single largest aggregation of networked humanities data in Australia – a new national data service which is of cultural significance in its own right, and accessible to all. HuNI is planned to go into production in the second quarter of 2014.

We reported on the initial design stage of this project at a previous Digital Humanities conference.1 This new paper will tell the full story of HuNI and will analyse, describe and evaluate its first full public release. It will include a demonstration of the full functionality of the service, and will report on its uptake by researchers and the wider community. We will also discuss the lessons learned from this large-scale project over its two-year lifespan, and the measures taken to ensure the sustainability of the HuNI service beyond the life of the project.

The paper will focus, in particular, on the ways in which HuNI is changing the nature of humanities research in the areas of data sharing, collaboration, community involvement, and the creation of socially linked data. Socially-derived linking of data is one of the key features of HuNI. Researchers are able to make assertions about relationships between entities represented in the aggregated data.  If, for example, they search the data aggregate and identify two entities in their result set which are related in some way, they can add a link between the two records and define the nature of the relationship. The linking statement may be drawn from an existing vocabulary of relationships, or may use free text entered by the user. The virtual laboratory also allows a researcher to assert that two entities are not related, in recognition that this kind of statement is also a key characteristic of humanities research.

To help visualize these social links, each entity has its own network graph, showing up to six degrees of separation, resulting in a growing network of dynamic connections, or the “networked effect”. These “social linking” assertions are visible in the HuNI data aggregate. They may also appear in virtual collections assembled and published by individual users of the HuNi virtual laboratory. These virtual collections can be published for other users to see and re-use. Some links between entities have also been imported from the source datasets as part of the harvesting and ingest process. HuNI users can annotate these links with their own assertions as well.

Crucially, the provenance of all these “social linking” statements is also captured, enabling subsequent researchers to see who made each assertion. HuNI is an aggregate with a sense of its own history, in which researchers can trace how records have changed over time. Humanities research not only involves making connections between entities; it also involves assessing any changes in cultural flows and network relationships through time. So each HuNI record is time-stamped, meaning that researchers will always see the current view of a record, with its related records and assertions, but will also have the option to view how the record has changed since it was first harvested. The provenance information for each record, together with any curated assertions, is captured, so that researchers can see when the records were harvested and by whom. A link to the originating data record at source is also provided in the user interface.

“Social linking” is a crucial feature of the HuNI virtual laboratory. Instead of relying on a pre-coordinated mapping to a detailed ontology, we are relying on researchers and community users to establish most of the connections within the heterogeneous data aggregate. This enables HuNI to capture the different disciplinary perspectives of users, rather than trying to fit all the data into a single normative framework. It also acknowledges the productive differences that both define and link specific domains through a form of generative knowledge transfer. The opportunity to link data socially encourages HuNI users to share their knowledge and research findings in the form of specific assertions, and to discuss these statements with each other. In the paper, we will report on the ways in which this feature is being used by researchers and community users, and the extent to which it is enabling a new approach to data sharing in the humanities.

We acknowledge the contributions of Dr Marco La Rosa (Solution Architect) and Dr Anne Cregan (Semantic Lead and Business Analyst) in developing the HuNI infrastructure.

 

References
Burrows, T. (2012). Designing a national 'Virtual Laboratory' for the humanities: the Australian HuNI project. In Meyer, J. C. (ed), Digital Humanities 2012: Conference Abstracts. held July 16-22 at University of Hamburg. 139-141","txt","2","",""
"2067","15","Speaking in Code","2","Many digital humanities projects are collaborations involving not only traditionally-employed scholars, but also technologists and administrative staff. These groups all have their own traditions of discourse, evolving methodologies, metrics of success, sources of recognition, and avenues for promotion. Any point of difference can become a source of useful and creative energy, or a nexus of misunderstanding and conflict.

The gaps in communication that these differences open can be deep and broad, even among humanities-trained software developers and the scholars with whom they collaborate. Much (not all) knowledge advances in software development through hands-on, journeyman learning experiences and the iterative, often-collaborative development of built objects and systems. Much (not all) knowledge advances in humanities scholarship through fixed and fluid kinds of academic discourse: referential, prosy, often agonistic. Divisions can exist in style and practice, even when the subjects and objects of humanities inquiry are the same. What approaches might bridge the gaps between tacit knowledge exchange and the writing of humanities theory and interpretation? Can we move past an historical moment in the academy, in which the onus seems to be almost entirely placed on archivally and theoretically trained humanities scholars to become tech-savvy digital humanist, in order to build a concomitant sense of momentum, responsibility, and opportunity in our community of DH software engineers? Can we build greater community itself, just by making a space in which such problems are addressed?

In early November 2013, the Scholars’ Lab at the University of Virginia Library hosted an event called “Speaking in Code”—a two-day, high-level summit for approximately 30 advanced humanities software developers. Participants were selected on the basis of their demonstrated experience in digital humanities software development, their interest in advancing solutions to the problems raised by the summit, and the disciplinary and cultural diversity they promised bring to the conversation. The Scholars’ Lab team also made a clear and explicit call for participation by developers who are women, people of color, queer/LGBT, or otherwise under-represented among the ranks of digital humanities programmers, and we were well pleased at the response. (For instance, 12 of our 30 participants identified as women and 4 volunteered that they are LGBT.) Besides the unusual level of gender diversity at the event, we believe it was unique in other ways. Our summit—supported by generous grants from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the UVa Library—was the first focused meeting to address scholarly and social implications of tacit knowledge exchange in the digital humanities.

First-day discussions at “Speaking in Code” (led by Bethany Nowviskie, William J. Turkel, Stéfan Sinclair, Mia Ridge, and Hugh Cayless) addressed core problems and activities in humanities computing. These included: physical and digital embodiment, and our unspoken understandings of them, as made evident in code; how best to take advantage of moments of fruitful rupture between design and development phases in DH work; challenges in crafting humanistic models for the representation and procedural analysis of human language; and methods by which developers and metadata specialists grapple with other kinds of ambiguity, or “messy understandings,” in cultural heritage information. The second day started with concrete project pitches, responding to day-one conversation and offered by participants in lightning rounds. This was followed by work on some of the projects that were pitched, conducted in small groups, with an eye both toward making immediate interventions in the field and seeding longer-term, collaborative undertakings. Our DH 2014 poster will present outcomes from “Speaking in Code.”

The underlying question of our summit was this: how might we—at a moment when scholarly interest in humanities computing is growing by leaps and bounds—bring longstanding technical conversations into more open, inclusive humanities discourse? “Speaking in Code” foregrounded the intellectual dimensions of DH craftsmanship but—importantly, unusually, and we think as a necessary first step to fostering discussion in venues legible and friendly to scholars and developers alike—we started with a meeting organized and conducted on software developers’ own terms.

References
Collins, Harry M. (2010). Tacit and Explicit Knowledge. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Liu, Alan (2012). “ The state of the digital humanities: A report and a critique. ” Arts and Humanities in Higher Education. Feb/Apr 2012 11: 8-41.

Mattern, Shannon (2011). “Revisiting Craft I: Teaching the Connections Between Thinking and Making.” 18 August 2011. <http://www.wordsinspace.net/wordpress/2011/08/18/revisiting-craft-i- teaching-the-connections-between-thinking-and-making/

Mattern, Shannon (2011). “Revisiting Craft II: Tools of Craftsmanship.” 18 August 2011. <http://www.wordsinspace.net/wordpress/2011/08/18/revisiting-craft-2-tools-and-methods- of-craftsmanship/>

Oram, Andy, and Greg Wilson (2007). Beautiful Code: Leading Programmers Explain How They Think (Theory in Practice). O’Reilly Media, Inc..

Polanyi, Michael (1958). Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Polanyi, Michael (1966). The Tacit Dimension. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966. Scholars’ Lab. Speaking in Code. Scholars’ Lab. 2013. Web. 1 Nov 2013. <http://codespeak.scholarslab.org/>

Wardrip-Fruin (2009), Noah. Expressive processing: digital fictions, computer games, and software studies. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press

Wood, Nicola, et al (2009). “A Tacit Understanding: The Designer's Role in Capturing and Passing on the Skilled Knowledge of Craftsmen.” Working Paper, Art and Design Research Centre, Sheffield Hallam University. <http://www.archive.org/details/A TacitUnderstanding>","txt","2","",""
"2068","15","Spectacle vivant et technologie numérique: du laboratoire scientifique au plateau de théâtre","3","de Jean-Paul Fourmentraux

 

Qu’est-ce que « créer » dans un contexte interdisciplinaire hybridant arts, sciences et technologies numériques ? Depuis une dizaine d’années le numérique bouscule les frontières entre des domaines de l’activité artistique qui étaient jusque-là relativement cloisonnés : arts plastiques, littérature, spectacle vivant, musique et audiovisuel. Nombre de projets artistiques en lien avec les technologies informatiques et multimédias mettent en œuvre des partenariats pluridisciplinaires où cohabite le théâtre, la danse, le cinéma ou la vidéo et le son.

La création artistique et la recherche technologique, qui constituaient autrefois des domaines nettement séparés et quasiment imperméables, sont aujourd’hui à ce point intriqués que toute innovation au sein de l’un intéresse (et infléchit) le développement de l’autre. Les œuvres hybrides qui résultent de leur interpénétration rendent irréversible le morcellement des anciennes frontières opposant art et science. La manière inédite dont celles-ci se recomposent amène à s’interroger d’une part sur l’articulation qui, désormais, permet à la recherche et à la création d’interagir, et d’autre part sur la redéfinition des figures de l’artiste ainsi que des modes de valorisation des œuvres spécifiques à ce contexte. Car plus que de transformer seulement les modalités du travail de création, un enjeu tout aussi important de ces partenariats réside dans la nécessaire redéfinition de la (ou des) finalité(s) de ce qui y est produit. La question cruciale devenant alors celle de la clôture de l’œuvre et de ses mises en valeurs entre logiques artistiques (qualité esthétique, projet d’exposition) et technologiques (recherche et développement, transfert industriel). Le suivi d’« affaires » de recherche-création en art numérique (Fourmentraux 2013) révèle en effet des enjeux renouvelés – mutations du travail artistique, redéfinition des modes de production et de circulation des œuvres, outils et stratégies renouvelés de mise en public, en exposition ou en marché  – qui entrainent une transformation des modes d’attribution et de valorisation des œuvres, partagées entre art, science et développement technologique.

Création interdisciplinaire et œuvres frontières
L’histoire des interfaces entre art et science s’est pourtant fondée sur un conflit culturel entre des acteurs dont les qualifications, savoirs et compétences, étaient conçues a priori comme opposées. Dans ce contexte, les efforts de recherche et de création mettent en évidence une même contradiction : d’un côté, l’injonction au progrès, encouragé par ces nouvelles industries culturelles numériques qui favorisent le travail en réseau et prêchent pour la reconnaissance de la « valeur créativité » comme nouvel enjeu économique mondial ; d’un autre côté, le durcissement paradoxal des hiérarchies, voire des conflits, entre mondes de l’art et entreprises technologiques. Nombre de partenariat sont encore dirigés vers la production d’une œuvre d’art, ou d’un outil technologique, compris comme des finalités opposées, en conformité avec un régime de propriété exclusive. La division du travail subordonnait le plus souvent  l’expérimentation artistique au projet industriel, en privilégiant le développement de nouveaux services ou usages de la technologie. Mais de nouvelles institutions entre art et science voient le jour pour mieux accompagner la transformation des pratiques de recherche et de création : Art Science Factory (Paris-Saclay), Programme doctoral SACRe (PSL et Ensad Paris), Ircam (Paris), Iméra (Marseille), Pictanovo, Imaginarium et Fresnoy (Tourcoing), CEA Minatec et Scène nationale de Meylan (Grenoble), Artem (Nancy), Hexagram (Montréal). L’activité artistique en ressort quelque peu transformée, partagée entre des acteurs multiples qui investissent individuellement et collectivement une œuvre-frontière tendue entre des logiques simultanément artistiques (qualité esthétique, enjeu d’exposition) et technologiques (enjeu de recherche et développement, transfert industriel). Les cas de double réussite restent bien sûr encore rares, mais il en existe : qualité des productions artistiques et de leur rayonnement dans le milieu des arts, doublé d'une mise en marché efficace et rentable d'applications ou de procédés technologiques directement issus de la recherche artistique ou de la production d'œuvres culturelles. Dans ce contexte, la production de « valeurs croisées » ne présuppose pas une synergie de l'art et de l'entreprise. Au contraire, évitant les écueils de la fusion ou de l’instrumentalisation, il s’agit d’organiser la relation dans le sens d’un apprentissage réciproque et d'une production multicentrique. 

L’examen de ces croisements de l’innovation artistique et technologique met désormais en jeu une conception coordonnée, un développement agrégé et une valorisation fragmentaire de la production :

Le travail de conception doit y être coordonné dans la mesure où il met en relation les savoirs et savoir-faire hybrides de collectifs hétérogènes : artistes, ingénieurs, chercheurs.
La phase de développement doit agréger ces traductions de buts et d’intérêts en un programme de création homogène visant à garantir l’irréversibilité des résultats.
Mais la valorisation suppose in fine de fragmenter ces résultats pour les redistribuer entre les collectifs et les mondes hétérogènes dans lesquels ils pourront circuler.
Autrement dit, chacun des partenaires - détenteurs de savoirs et de compétences hétérogènes, inscrits dans une culture ou un corps professionnel qui a ses propres valeurs, mais aussi ses instances de désignations et de légitimation spécifiques de ce qu'est le travail, l'œuvre, l'action – y est invité à renouveler le cadre et les modalités de la relation et de l’échange artistique.

En résumé, la recherche-création introduit donc deux critères désormais essentiels :

le travail en équipes interdisciplinaires ;
l’impératif d’un programme de recherche transversal à plusieurs œuvres ou projets artistiques.
L’exigence de « valeurs croisées »
Il s’agit en effet de favoriser une certaine « modularité » de la production, en même temps que des formes alternatives de distribution des activités de création et de leurs résultats.

Trois types de projets phares peuvent être distingués :

les « créations artistiques », qui mènent vers la réalisation d’une œuvre, d’un dispositif ou d’une installation artistique;
les « découvertes technologiques », qui impliquent le développement de logiciels ou d’outils novateurs;
les « contributions théoriques », qui poursuivent une perspective analytique et critique d’accumulation de connaissances.
Ce morcellement du travail créatif engendre donc des modes pluriels de désignation de ce qui fait « l’œuvre commune ». Dans ce contexte, la création ne repose plus sur un schéma hiérarchique qui ferait intervenir une distribution réglée des apports en conception et en sous-traitance, selon des échelles de valeur et de rétribution enrôlant une longue chaîne de travailleurs, au service, à chaque fois, d’un créateur singulier. Le travail de création se voit au contraire distribué sur différentes scènes et entre plusieurs acteurs pour lesquels il est possible de préciser des enjeux de recherche distinctifs, suivant des expertises et des agendas variés. L’enjeu vise ainsi un dépassement du « conflit culturel » caractéristique des modèles antérieurs de convergence « arts - sciences - technologies » entre des acteurs (scientifiques, artistes, industriels, amateurs) dont les qualifications, compétences et finalités étaient a priori conçues comme opposées. Gageons que cet élargissement des issues de la recherche artistique et de la création scientifique permettra une plus grande diversité culturelle. En ce sens que les usagers, mais aussi les amateurs d’arts et de science, y gagneront une meilleure compréhension, à la fois sensible et intelligible, des technologies et de leurs enjeux. À mesure que l’activité de création et d’invention se fait de moins en moins monopolistique : loin de présenter une perte, l’interdisciplinarité permettant d’œuvrer non pas à la fusion mais à la confrontation des idées et des émotions, vers un enrichissement réciproque de l’art et de la science. 

References
Dautrey, J. (2010) (éd.), La recherche en art(s), Paris, MF.

Entre arts et sciences, Culture et Musées, n°19, sous la direction de Bordeaux, M.-.C., Actes Sud, 2012.

Fourmentraux J-P. (2010), Art et Internet, Paris, CNRS éditions.

Fourmentraux J-P. (2011), Artistes de laboratoire, Paris, Hermann.

Fourmentraux J-P. (2012), (dir.) Art et Science, Paris, CNRS éditions - Les Essentiels d’Hermès.

Lévy-Leblond J-M. (2010), La science n’est pas l’art, Paris, Hermann.

Risset J-C. (1998), Art, Science, Technologie, Paris, Rapport de mission MENRT.

Menger P-M. (1989), Les laboratoires de la création musicale. Paris, La Documentation française.

Le Geminoïde F ou les limites du laboratoire
de Izabella Pluta

 

Nous souhaitons analyser dans cette communication le parcours technologique et théâtral du Geminoïde F, robot humanoïde conçu par le roboticien Hiroshi Ishiguro dans son Laboratoire ATR à Osaka et mis en jeu théâtral par le metteur en scène et auteur dramatique Oriza Hirata.

La question du robot s’impose de plus en plus dans le spectacle contemporain qui intègre le dispositif technologique. Les solutions robotiques y apparaissent sous de multiples facettes et des réponses esthétiques : une marionnette électronique, un exosquelette, un bras artificiel ou encore un robot anthropomorphe. Ce dernier peut être alors intégré d’une manière différente et faire partie de la scénographie, du dispositif, ou exercer une fonction performative, en se rapprochant de plus en plus du comédien et de son jeu. Il peut accompagner l’interprète sur le plateau, comme nous le verrons dans le travail scénique de Hirata ou encore être le seul acteur dans l’espace désigné comme l’aire de jeu. Ce dernier cas de figure est exploré par une activité artistique nommé le théâtre robotique, exercé par Chico MacMurtrie et son collectif Amorphic Robot Works ou encore par un tout jeune Clément-Marie Mathieu et sa plateforme Thé-Ro, par exemple.

Le Geminoïde F, à son tour, semble aspirer à un véritable rêve de Pygmalion, car il se rapproche de l’apparence humaine comme aucun autre robot conçu jusqu’à présent ne l’a fait. Il représente une belle jeune femme de 25 ans dont le visage trouve son original en une personne réellement existante dont l’identité est confidentielle. Cet androïde nous trompe par sa peau imitant parfaitement la peau humaine ainsi que par sa mimique dotée du mouvement des lèvres et du clignement des paupières. En effet, le Geminoïde F représente une complexité électronique extrêmement avancée, qui est, pour l’instant, le point culminant des recherches menées par le professeur Ishiguro avec son équipe.

Le Geminoïde F surprend également par son parcours original s’étendant entre le laboratoire scientifique et le plateau de théâtre, parcours qui semble s’élargir encore vers les domaines de l’activité sociale et pédagogique. Du point de vue artistique, le robot fait l’objet d’un projet Android-Human Theatre, conçu par Oriza Hirata, projet qui vise à intégrer le Geminoïde F dans un spectacle vivant et à le placer dans une situation de jeu aux côtés des comédiens professionnels. Soulignons que Hirata est aujourd’hui l’un des metteurs en scène et auteurs japonais les plus connus, qui a affirmé sa place surtout grâce à sa « Théorie du style parlé » au théâtre. Il est également le directeur artistique de la troupe Seinendan et mène un travail pédagogique à l’Université d’Osaka. Il possède une connaissance approfondie du théâtre et apporte clairement, dans le projet Android-Human Theatre, cette position artistique, sans perdre de vue les aspects sociologiques de la place des robots dans la société japonaise.

Hirata commence à collaborer avec le Laboratoire ATR en 2008, lorsqu’il monte un spectacle, Jesuis un travailleur, avec deux robots domestiques wakamaru. Ensuite, en 2010, il monte Sayonara avec Bryerly Long et le Geminoïde F qui marque une étape décisive aussi bien pour l’Android-Human Theatre que pour le théâtre du point de vue de son rapprochement avec la robotique et le déplacement de ses propres paradigmes. Hirata place l’androïde non seulement dans une situation de jeu comme il a fait avec le wakamaru, mais il lui attribue un rôle scénique égal à celui de la comédienne, les deux devenant désormais partenaires interprètes. Ce choix esthétique trouve sa pertinence dans l’histoire racontée dans le spectacle. Il s’agit d’une jeune femme atteinte d’une maladie incurable en phase terminale. Enfermée dans son petit appartement, elle reçoit de ses parents un androïde qui va lui tenir compagnie. Le spectacle, d’une demi-heure à peine, se joue dans un espace épuré avec deux chaises uniquement et se construit sur un rythme apaisé et dans une ambiance intimiste. Le Geminoïde F est là pour réciter des poèmes, mais en même temps, pour assister la jeune femme dans son dernier départ. L’interaction avec l’actrice réelle se fait au niveau langagier uniquement, la voix du robot est doublée par une autre actrice Minako Inoue qui le téléopère également depuis les coulisses. Il est important de dire que le Géminoïde F n’est pas doté de la capacité de marcher ce qui est inscrit d’une manière tout à fait logique dans la dramaturgie du spectacle.

Indépendamment des questions fondamentales pour le théâtre que pose la démarche de Hirata, nous souhaitons nous arrêter également sur le double contexte de celui-ci : scientifique et artistique. Soulignons que nous avons affaire ici à une situation très intéressante : d’une part, un laboratoire scientifique où le robot a été élaboré et où il est toujours perfectionné et, d’autre part, la scène où il trouve « sa deuxième vie », dans le contexte de la mise en scène et de la théâtralité. Le Laboratoire ATR devient cet espace de travail et de recherche scientifique extrêmement avancé. Il devient également le lieu des essais avec le Geminoïde F qui visent à examiner les solutions technologiques intégrées ainsi que sa pertinence comportementale. Cet aspect a également été décrit par Zaven Paré, l’artiste travaillant avec les robots qui s’est rendu à Osaka et a assisté à plusieurs séries de tests. Il décrit les réflexions autour du déroulement des différents tests dans son ouvrage Le jour où les robots mangeront des pommes (coécrit avec Emmanuel Grimaud). Ces témoignages prouvent que l’expérimentation scientifique avec le Geminoïde F transgresse la spécificité du laboratoire technologique en tant que lieu de recherche, car ce dernier devient l’endroit d’une expérience anthropologique, de la performativité et de la théâtralisation. Le robot, les chercheurs et l’artiste-témoin se trouvent à la fois chercheurs mais également acteurs de l’imprévu, de l’improvisation en dehors du protocole de l’expérience scientifique, de la panne, de l’échec, d’une découverte inattendue. A cette transgression du laboratoire dans sa fonction scientifique s’ajoutent les déplacements intéressants qui s’accomplissent sur le plateau du théâtre. Ce dernier, à son tour, devient non seulement l’espace d’une création artistique mais également cet endroit d’expérimentation avec un robot ultracomplexe. Ici, plusieurs questions se posent sur le plan de la compatibilité des éléments et des logiques scéniques avec le fonctionnement et les contraintes techniques du Geminoïde F. Le laboratoire technologique et le plateau de théâtre dépassent finalement leurs fonctions initiales et redéfinissent la notion de laboratoire tant du point de vue scientifique qu’artistique. Ce dernier devient alors un paradigme intéressant à repenser, car d’une part, il convoque l’idée du laboratoire chère au théâtre, et cela depuis un siècle (Hellerau, Bauhaus, Laboratoire Art et Action) ‒ rappelons seulement que, dans ce contexte théâtral, un laboratoire implique un espace clos dédié à un travail approfondi, à une recherche créative où le spectateur est un témoin ponctuel ‒ et, d’autre part, un laboratoire technologique dédié entièrement à la recherche scientifique où le travail progresse d’hypothèse en résultats, et cela à travers de multiples tests soumis à une rigueur et à une pensée analytiques.

Le Geminoïde F constitue ainsi un lien entre les équipes, les différentes fonctions, et permet la rencontre des mondes scientifique et artistique. C’est également une figure qui incite à revoir le paradigme du laboratoire du point de vue de sa mutation récente, due au rapprochement du théâtre et de la technologie. A travers le travail scénique de Hirata, le robot en question s’inscrit dans une expérience très importante consistant en l’attribution d’une fonction actorielle uniquement à un robot humanoïde. Même si Android-Human Theatre est encore une approche fortement expérimentale, Hirata soulève plusieurs interrogations importantes pour la scène et trace ainsi une voie esthétique, sans doute, à suivre.


Fig. 1: « Sayonara » mise en scène : Oriza Hirata, 2010, Phot. Tatsuo Nabu©

References
Dixon Steve (2007), Digital Performance. A History of New Media in Theatre, Dance, Performance Art and Installation, The MIT Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, London,.

Grimaud Emmanuel, Paré Zaven (2011), Le jour où les robots mangeront des pommes, Paris, Editions PETRA.

Pluta Izabella (2012), « La performance de la machine ou comment les cyborgs et les robots jouent sur la scène », Ligeia. Dossier sur l’art, Nos 117-120, juillet-décembre, pp. 169-185.

Pluta Izabella (2013), « Robots sur scène. (En)jeu du futur », Jeu. Revue de théâtre, No 149 : Mémoires en jeu, décembre, pp. 145-148.

Arts de la scène et Big Data : conception et développement du logiciel Rekall
de Clarisse Bardiot

 

Apparu à la fin des années 2000, le Big Data est devenu en moins de temps qu’il n’en faut pour le dire le roi des superlatifs au royaume du numérique. Le marketing, mais aussi l’analyse des risques, ou encore l’épidémiologie sont directement concernés. La culture également. Ainsi, Lev Manovich consacre depuis 2005 ses recherches aux « cultural analytics »[1]. D’après lui, « la numérisation de grands ensembles d’artefacts issus du passé et l’essor des réseaux sociaux dans les années 2000 permettent de renouveler l’étude des processus culturels »[2]. Les études de cas concernent autant l’ensemble des œuvres de Mondrian ou de Rothko que les jeux vidéos ou encore l’évolution graphique des couvertures de Time Magazine depuis sa création. L’enjeu est ni plus ni moins de reconsidérer ce que nous entendons par « culture » ainsi que les méthodologies qui sont appliquées à ce champ.

Au théâtre, le Big Data en est officiellement à ses débuts. La première conférence explicite sur le sujet a eu lieu le 9 novembre 2013 dans le cadre du colloque de l’American Society of Theatre Research. Intitulée « Big Data and the Performing Arts », elle est le fait de Doug Reside, conservateur dans le département arts de la scène à la New York Public Library. La conférence concerne essentiellement les archivistes et les chercheurs, lesquels sont confrontés au Big Data des collections et des fonds d’archives numérisés, ou encore aux disques durs des artistes dont ils doivent identifier, archiver et analyser les milliers de données.

La création du logiciel Rekall s’inscrit dans ce contexte et tente de répondre à ces problématiques, ainsi qu’à celles des artistes confrontés à l’obsolescence des technologies numériques. Rekall est un environnement open-source pour documenter, analyser les processus de création et simplifier la reprise des œuvres. Il permet d’agréger un nombre infini de documents de différentes natures autour d’une création. Ce projet est né dans le champ des digital performances, soit des œuvres scéniques à composantes technologiques.

Rekall est né d’une prise de conscience de différents acteurs (artistes, techniciens, programmateurs, chercheurs) concernant les difficultés liées aux technologies numériques employées dans les arts de la scène (notons que face à des problématiques similaires, le champ de la musique contemporaine a tenté d’apporter des réponses, par exemple via les programmes Mustica et Caspar). Les composantes technologiques des digital performances, qu’elles interviennent pendant le processus de création (captations vidéo d’improvisations, simulations de mise en scène et de scénographies sur divers logiciels…), ou pendant la représentation (capteurs, dispositifs de téléprésence, images et sons modifiés en temps réel…), renouvellent la question de la documentation des arts de la scène : quelle est la nature des nouveaux documents produits par/pour ces spectacles, comment les analyser, faut-il conserver les programmes informatiques spécifiquement conçus et les rendre accessibles (lisibles) en fonction de l’évolution des programmes et du matériel, dans quelle mesure le hardware et le software doivent-ils être documentés, comment effectuer une captation de ces œuvres ?

Aujourd’hui, toutes les régies techniques sont numériques, et une partie du processus de création a largement lieu via les ordinateurs et les réseaux : échanges de mails, traitements de texte, rendez-vous à distance via des dispositifs de téléprésence (voix sur IP), images et vidéos numériques pour rassembler des idées, des pistes de travail, usage des réseaux de partages d’images pour mettre à disposition des documents visuels pour l’ensemble de la compagnie, croquis effectués sur tablette numérique, etc. Dans ce contexte, l’obsolescence rapide des technologies devient extrêmement problématique, à la fois pour les artistes qui doivent pouvoir continuer à faire tourner leurs spectacles, et pour les chercheurs qui souhaitent en analyser les processus de création. Les documents numériques sont des traces essentielles pour retracer l’histoire des arts de la scène à l’époque contemporaine.

Rekall s’inscrit dans la lignée de recherche menées à l’IRCAM, à la fondation Daniel Langlois, à la Fondation Pina Bausch ou encore par l’équipe de William Forsythe (projet Motion Bank). Sans rentrer dans les détails, il existe différents outils d’annotation vidéo utilisés dans d’autres contextes : Advene, AmiGram, Anvil, ELAN, On the mark, SSI, Vcode/VData… Pourtant, aujourd’hui, un outil tel que Rekall n’existe pas sur le marché, qu’il s’agisse d’un logiciel gratuit ou payant. Cela n’exclue pas des tentatives qui s’approchent de cette démarche, comme le travail remarquable réalisé par William Forsythe, Maria Palazzi et Norah Zuniga Shaw, mais qui ne s’applique qu’à une seule œuvre.

Rekall est un logiciel qui permet de documenter les digital performances, en prenant en compte le processus de création, la réception et les différentes formes d’un spectacle. Il s’adresse à la fois aux artistes, aux techniciens et au grand public. Simple d’usage et rigoureux (en particulier dans les méthodes d’indexation et la gestion des métadonnées), Rekall permet de nombreux usages, au-delà des digital performances et des arts de la scène. Pour réaliser ce projet, des structures culturelles (le Phénix scène nationale Valencienne, Le Fresnoy, MA scène nationale Montbéliard), une société (Buzzing Light – Guillaume Marais et Guillaume Jacquemin) ainsi que des institutions (Pictanovo, Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication) se sont associés. Le projet a été initié et conçu par Clarisse Bardiot, en collaboration avec Buzzing Light et Thierry Coduys.

Rekall offre une vision synthétique de la quantité, de la qualité et de l’organisation des documents entre eux, tout en étant au plus près de la démarche propre à chaque artiste, à chaque compagnie. Il permet à la fois de rendre compte des technologies utilisées dans le spectacle et d’en offrir une description pour éventuellement proposer une alternative avec d’autres composantes. Il nous semble en effet primordial de garder la trace la plus précise possible des composantes technologiques, parce qu’elles sont également porteuses de dimensions esthétiques et historiques, tout en offrant la possibilité de décrire les effets de ces mêmes composantes, dans la lignée de la réflexion sur les médias variables.

Le fonctionnement de Rekall s’articule essentiellement autour des documents de création : croquis de scénographies, commentaires audio, description d’éléments techniques, vidéos, textes, carnets de notes, conduites techniques, patches, captures d’écran de logiciels spécifiques, partitions, photographies, mails… Il permet également d’articuler plusieurs strates temporelles : celle du processus de création (éclairer par exemple les recherches menées pour tel aspect du spectacle), de la représentation elle-même (voire de ses différentes versions dans le cas d’un work in progress), et de sa réception (par exemple en ajoutant des commentaires audio de la compagnie sur son propre travail, ou bien de spectateurs, ou encore la revue de presse).

L’accumulation des documents est un élément clé pour l’efficacité de fonctionnement de Rekall. En effet, c’est en analysant ces documents, en les mettant en relation les uns avec les autres et en les plaçant dans des contextes soigneusement choisis (multidimensionnels, temporels ou non) que Rekall parvient peu à peu à révéler la nature de l'œuvre.

Afin de recueillir tous ces documents de travail, il est essentiel que Rekall se trouve au cœur du processus de création. La majeure partie des documents doivent être naturellement implémentés sans représenter une charge de travail supplémentaire pour les artistes, c'est pourquoi une grande partie de Rekall est dédiée à l'organisation des documents de création pendant le processus créatif. Il permet à tous les protagonistes intervenant au cours du processus de création de travailler sur une plateforme commune et compartimentée.

Cette structure ouvre alors un spectre de possibilités analytiques extrêmement important. En partant du principe qu'une œuvre est définie par ses documents de création (devenus documents d'exploitation pour certains), Rekall se base sur les métadonnées présentes dans chacun de ces documents pour en extraire des informations cruciales (auteur, date de création, lieu de création, etc.) qui seront ensuite utilisées par les outils d’analyse et de représentation de l’information, afin de révéler des comportements créatifs, des usages ou d’autres informations insoupçonnées.

Au vu de la masse d'informations que représente une œuvre, il apparaît évident qu'une solution d'export ciblé est nécessaire afin de n'inclure dans différents packages que les documents utiles à l'usage souhaité (pédagogie, exploitation, critique, etc.). Connaissant la nature de chaque document, Rekall permet de configurer simplement ces exports, qui auront également le mérite de valoriser l'œuvre (documents à jour, présentation soignée, etc.).

Rekall est actuellement en version alpha. La béta est prévue pour mars/avril 2014. La collaboration avec des équipes artistiques dans cette phase d’expérimentation est essentielle. C’est pourquoi nous nous appuyons sur la collaboration de deux équipes artistiques, en théâtre (Jean-François Peyret) et en danse (Mylène Benoit), en résidence au Phénix scène nationale Valenciennes et au Fresnoy. Ces équipes sont d’une part associées à la conception du logiciel et d’autre part les premiers utilisateurs. Des réunions de travail avec les différents intervenants (techniciens, régisseurs, metteur en scène, chorégraphe, éclairagiste, vidéaste) font partie du processus de conception et développement de Rekall, afin d’ajuster régulièrement le cahier des charges et les spécifications aux besoins des futurs utilisateurs.


Fig. 2: Rekall - Étude chronologique du processus de création. Etude de cas : Re : Walden, mis en scène par Jean-François Peyret ; axe vertical : année du calendrier ; couleur : type de document ; texte : auteur du document ; axe horizontal : timeline de l’œuvre

References
International Journal of Performance Arts & Digital Media (2013), « Choreographic documentation », vol. 9, n° 1.

Performance Research (2007), « Digital Resources », 11:4.

DeLahunta Scott et Hennermann Célestine (éd.) (2013), Motion Bank. Starting Points & Aspirations, Francfort, Motion Bank / The Forsythe Company.

DeLahunta Scott et Zuniga Shaw Norah (2007), « Constructing memory : Creation of the choreographic resource », in Performance Research, 11:4, pp. 53-62.

« Media Visualization: Visual Techniques for Exploring Large Media Collections », in Kelly Gates (éd.), Media Studies Futures, Blackwell, 2012.

Manovich Lev (2013), Software Takes Command, Bloomsbury Academic.

Navas Eduardo (2012), « Modular Complexity and Remix: The Collapse of Time and Space into Search », in AnthroVision 1.; version revue et corrigée in softwarestudies.com, 4/19/2013.

Rinehart Richard (2007), « A System of Formal Notation for Scoring Works of Digital and Variable Media art », Leonardo - Journal of the International Society for the Arts, Sciences and Technology, The MIT Press, Volume 40, n° 2, pp. 181-187.

lab.softwarestudies.com

lab.softwarestudies.com/2008/09/cultural-analytics.html

A ce sujet, cf. Art Press 2« Les enjeux de la conservation des arts technologiques », n°12, janvier 2009.

Cf notamment les projets de recherche internationaux Mustica et Caspar. Une partie de ces recherches, notamment sur la conservation des patch, est retranscrite dans ce texte : Bonardi, Alain et Barthélémy, Jérôme (2007), « Le Patch comme document numérique : support de création et de constitution de connaissances pour les arts de la performance », in Le Document numérique dans le monde de la science et de la recherche, Actes du 10ème Colloque International sur le Document Numérique (CIDE), INIST, Nancy, p. 168.

Cf. programme de recherche DOCAM sur la documentation et la conservation des arts médiatiques, ainsi que Bardiot, Clarisse (2006), 9 Evenings, Theatre & Engineering, site Internet de la Fondation Daniel Langlois www.fondation-langlois.org/flash/f/index.php?NumPage=571

synchronousobjects.osu.edu","txt","2","",""
"2069","15","SpokenWeb: Developing a Comprehensive Web-Based Digital Spoken Word Archive for Literary Research","2","","","2","",""
"2070","15","Spreading DiRT: extending the Digital Research Tools directory","2","1. Background
The DiRT (Digital Research Tools, dirt.projectbamboo.org) directory is a longstanding resource for scholars interested in digital tools and methodologies, providing basic information about software that can facilitate different stages of the research process. DiRT was originally designed as a wiki, where a single wiki page contained information about all tools in a given category. In 2011, under the auspices of Project Bamboo, DiRT was completely rebuilt using the Drupal content management system, which allowed for data to be stored in a structured manner. This enabled more complex searching and browsing options (such as allowing the user to limit results based on criteria like platform or cost), and provided individual profile pages for each tool, which could then serve as a locus for specific comments, or be referenced in other tool profiles. For instance, if a profile page indicates that Neatline is a suite of add-on tools for Omeka, a link to Omeka appears on the Neatline tool profile page, and vice versa.

2. Current development project
One of the biggest limitations of DiRT has been the fact that its contents-- the product of a considerable amount of volunteer work-- have only been available via DiRT’s own web interface. Creating and curating the tool listings on DiRT is largely a manual process. A steering and curatorial board takes an active role in shaping the ongoing development of the site and ensuring data quality, but individual contributions by users make up a large portion of the data. DiRT is currently undergoing a new phase of development, supported by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, with the goals of making DiRT data available to others who want to incorporate information about tools into other projects, resources and environments, and also expanding the content provided by DiRT to more clearly situate the tools in the contexts of the projects, research workflows, and pedagogical activities that use them. This poster will demonstrate the accomplishments of the current development project and include information about opportunities to get involved with the project, by trying the DiRT API and plug-ins, or contributing to tool reviews and documented workflows.

3. Areas of work
The poster will also highlight the progress made on developing a DiRT plug-in for Commons In A Box (CBOX), an open source scholarly networking platform created by the City University of New York and used by the Modern Language Association (MLA), the regional NYC Digital Humanities group, and an increasing number of projects and organizations that could benefit from integrated access to information about tools. The CBOX plug-in will:  

provide users with the ability to display information about their DiRT site activity (e.g. tool contributions and edits, reviews, and tool usage information) on their Commons profile;
provide an interface for searching DiRT within the CUNY Academic Commons, for use by groups with an interest in digital humanities;
provide a link to DiRT to facilitate access for inputting new tools.
The poster will also illustrate other areas of development including:

Use of the DiRT API and the API for the DHCommons project directory to augment DiRT tool profiles with information about what projects are using a particular tool
Guidelines and examples of best practice for writing tool reviews, with potential pedagogical applications (e.g. providing a framework for instructors who want to assign students to write reviews of digital research tools, which could then be refined for ultimate publication on DiRT)
Guidelines and examples of best practice for documenting workflows or “recipes” that combine multiple tools in the DiRT registry to achieve some research objective.
Adoption of the taxonomy of research methods jointly developed between DiRT and DARIAH-DE, to replace the previous ad-hoc set of tool categories. DiRT will serve as one of three initial test cases for this taxonomy, which has benefitted from extensive public feedback.
Documentation for how to develop custom tool lists (e.g. tools to be used in a particular class, or tools that are particularly relevant for the disciplines that a subject specialist librarian supports) that pull from the information stored in DiRT, and display that information on other sites.
References
Babeu, Alison (2006). Rome Wasn’t Digitized in a Day”: Building a Cyberinfrastructure for Digital Classicists. CLIR reports, August 2011.Borgman, Christine L. “The Digital Future Is Now: A Call to Action for the Humanities.” Digital Humanities Quarterly 3, no. 4 (Fall 2009). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/4/000077/000077.html.Unsworth, John. Our Cultural Commonwealth: The Report of the American Council of Learned Societies Commission on Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities and Social Sciences. American Council of Learned Societies. http://acls.org/uploadedFiles/Publications/Programs/Our_Cultural_Commonwealth.pdf.","txt","2","",""
"2071","15","STAK - Serendipitous Tool for Augmenting Knowledge: Bridging Gaps between Digital and Physical Resources","10","The book as a research tool is not obsolete, but it is being augmented by surrounding clouds of data. Web research lacks access to analog and archival sources, while those who access physical materials often do so in isolation from other information resources. Despite the relevance of the physical library for humanities research, its once uncontested position has been challenged by the vast, easily accessible resources available on the Internet. Kemman et al. (2013) found that even among humanities scholars in the Netherlands and Belgium, general search systems are predominant (e.g., Google and JSTOR)1 . Within these systems, searching with simple keywords is the primary search strategy employed by users, while more advanced search strategies are uncommon. The physical library, then, no longer exists in a vacuum; rather, the browsing experience is constantly being augmented by scholars’ perceptions and expectations of the virtual information that supplements the information contained in the physical copies of books. Library users accustomed to working in digital environments are eager to have additional information such as keywords, tables of contents, links to other literature, and thematic suggestions at their fingertips. Yet, humanities scholars rarely critically examine the intricate relation between the physical and digital protocols of information storage, access, and organization.

To examine the relation between the physical library and online resources, we conducted a series of user studies in which we employed a head-mounted compact action video camera to record the experiences of participants as they navigate the physical space of the library 2. Two important findings emerge from this work. First, participants report that physical stacks are better suited for facilitating the discovery of new resources than the catalog. As one participant reported, “I feel that if I’m looking up a topic and I go to the shelf for videogame studies, I’ll find books that I hadn’t seen in the catalog, but in the general field; even if I lose track of a single book, I’ll find another in the general area; this happens to me constantly.” Second, our user studies have shown that going to the physical library to search and browse for books is still an important and rewarding component of students’ research.

The careful organization of information in libraries and archives, together with the tangible, physical presence of analogue documents, has given humanist scholars a level of comfort in their primary research space. These scholars allude time and again to the chance encounter with information as a welcome digression within the library stacks, so much so that this phenomenon has become a normal, even anticipated aspect of their research process 345. While serendipity is an elusive concept, a number of models have recently been proposed that decompose the phenomenon into specific facets. Not all models of serendipity emphasize the same facets; however, the majority of models tend to stress the relevance of “noticing” or discovering novel information as a central component to serendipity. This component is also central to the work of humanists as they navigate stacks, archives, and even digital environments.

One of the first models of serendipity, proposed by Erdelez (2004), underscored the shift in attention that occurs when a person is solving a problem or engaged in a foreground activity and then suddenly encounters unrelated information 6. In this model of information encountering, noticing novel information is central to any kind of engagement with information. Similarly, in their model of serendipity in everyday chance encounters, Rubin et al. (2011) describe how the act of noticing is central to any discovery of new resources 7. Likewise, Makri and Blandford’s (2012) study demonstrates that new mental connections or insights result from encountering novel, unexpected information 8. This finding has been sustained by our own initial user studies, in which participants consistently reported finding additional, unexpected information when searching for a specific book in the stacks.

Humanist scholars in general note the importance of serendipity, with Hoeflich (2007) comparing them to “ancient mariners” who “set out on voyages of discovery hopeful of finding new lands of milk and honey” (p. 813). For Hoeflich, Walpole’s two-part definition of serendipity as a union of accident and ability was missing a third part: opportunity. Hoeflich notes the importance of the tactile aspects of archival documents, arguing that significant qualities of historical artifacts can be lost when reproduced in a different medium. The loss of serendipity is often perceived as resulting from the move to digital environments, and away from deep engagement and interactions with physical books, manuscripts, and archival records, as Martin and Quan-Haase (2013) have shown 9. They found that serendipity was central to the work of historians, because the encounter with a single key resource on library shelves or in archives could significantly affect the outcome of their research. The historians interviewed by Martin and Quan-Haase noted that they tend to limit their use of digital environments to quick searches, browsing subject headings, and fact-checking until they can recreate experiences of chance encounters with material that is similar to that experienced in library stacks or archival collections.

Bess Sadler, Manager, Software Engineering Team at Stanford Library, spoke about what she believes is missing from the process of library discovery in a blog post adapted from her keynote for ACCESS 2012. Sadler (2012) writes about what keeps scholars motivated to work, how they consider library browsing a pleasurable part of their research process, and that she believes there is ""something missing"" from the virtual library collection. She states, “I think we’re still falling short of a full replacement for physical browsing. I think we’re still falling short of providing the kind of emotional, physical, and spatial sensory experience that shelf browsing, at its best, can provide” 10. Sadler’s call for change is pertinent to any scholar who has benefitted from research in a library setting. She came to this conclusion after conducting a study with graduate students in the humanities and social sciences, in which she noticed their love of browsing physical stacks, and their inability to conduct their research in the same way in a virtual environment. Even since Sadler’s talk, there have been several attempts by digital humanists to remediate the chance encounter or serendipitous experience (serendip-o-matic.com, mechanicalcurator.tumblr.com)

We will describe our own attempts to reconcile the physical and digital library spaces through the creation of a dedicated mobile app, STAK (Serendipitous Tool for Augmenting Knowledge). Built upon Greenspan’s web-based geolocative StoryTrek authorware 1112, this web app will be grounded in both the theoretical models of serendipity research and in user tests conducted with digital humanities scholars. STAK will use a combination of RFID and wifi triangulation to detect a researcher’s location in the library stacks with fine-grained precision. After determining the user’s proximity to specific subject headings, it will automatically retrieve full-text excerpts on the same subject from networked databases, along with reviews, relevant titles by nearby authors, and different works drawn from both open-source and proprietary databases, sorting these hits on-the-fly by type and relevance. The app will link to live datasets that refresh dynamically, putting vast repositories of research networks into the user’s hand, wherever she may be. STAK will bring the shelves to life by providing ready access to the growing clouds of virtual data that surround physical texts, effectively annotating the library’s physical holdings of books, journals, manuscripts, prints, blueprints, microfiche, films and videos.

We will describe the results of our intermediate tests, in which we ask users to perform library search tasks using a simulation of the proposed STAK browser app while wearing a head-mounted action camera and speaking aloud (though softly) about their user experiences. Our test app (Figure 1) is designed to simulate the function of STAK without relying on actual geolocation by retrieving online information from a constrained dataset relevant to the user's pre-determined location in the stacks. Each test is followed up with post-test interviews in which we ask users to elaborate on their experiences of STAK's perceived functionality, accuracy, and user interface design.

We will detail how these tests are allowing us to develop a user model and search algorithms based on the following three questions:

Why is the library the perfect setting for serendipitous discovery? What makes this setting so conducive to the chance encounter?
How do the serendipitous experiences of library users reflect the findings of previous models of this phenomenon?
How does the physical, controlled environment affect the possibility of chance encounters of information?
The attempt by digital humanists to replicate serendipity cannot rely on online sources alone. We need to bridge existing notions of humanities research and its inherited practices with current information resources and digital tools. When fully implemented, STAK will allow users to combine their physical and digital navigational tactics in a single search environment. Books, no longer the end point of the research process, become the fiducials that allow access to a wider cloud of information.


Fig. 1: Figure 1 - Simulated STAK Browser App

References
1. Kemman, M., Kleppe, M., & Scagliola, S. (2013). Just Google it - digital research practices of humanities scholars. Cornell digital libraries. doi: arxiv.org/abs/1309.2434

2. Quan-Haase, A., Greenspan, B., & Martin, K. (2013). Look Around: Linking Bits to Books. In HASTAC. Toronto. Retrieved from hastac2013.org/schedule-2/brian-greenspan/

3. Duff, W. M., & Johnson, C. A. (2002). Accidentally Found on Purpose: Information-Seeking Behavior of Historians in Archives. The Library Quarterly, 72(4), 472–496. doi:10.2307/40039793

4. Hoeflich, M. H. (2007). Serendipity in the stacks, fortuity in the archives *. Law Library Journal, 99(4), 813–827.

5. McClellan III, J. E. (2005). Accident, luck, and serendipity in historical research. Proceedings Of The American Philosophical Society, 149(1), 1 – 21. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/4598905

6. Erdelez, S. (2004). Investigation of information encountering in the controlled research environment. Information Processing & Management, 40(6), 1013–1025. doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2004.02.002

7. Rubin, V. L., Burkell, J., & Quan-Haase, A. (2011). Facets of serendipity in everyday chance encounters: a grounded theory approach to blog analysis. Information Research, 16(3). Retrieved from informationr.net/ir/16-3/paper488.html

8. Makri, S., & Blandford, A. (2012). Coming across information serendipitously – Part 1: A process model. Journal of Documentation, 68(5), 684–705. Retrieved from www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=17051067

9. Martin, K., & Quan-Haase, A. (2013). Are e-books substituting print books? Tradition, serendipity, and spportunity in the adoption and use of e-books for historical research and teaching. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology. 64(5), 1016-1028.

10. Sadler, E. (Bess). (2012). Brain Injuries, Science Fiction, and Library Discovery. Solvitur ambulando. Retrieved February 10, 2013, from www.ibiblio.org/bess/?p=248

11. Greenspan, B. (2011). Songlines in the Streets: Story Mapping with Itinerant Hypernarrative. In R. Page & B. Thomas (Eds.), New Narratives: Theory and Practice (pp. 153–169). Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press.

12. Khaled, R., Barr, P., Greenspan, B., Biddle, R., & Vist, E. (2011). StoryTrek: Experiencing Stories in the Real World. In Proceedings of Mindtrek. Tampere, Finland.","txt","2","",""
"2072","15","Starting the Conversation: Literary Studies, Algorithmic Opacity, and Computer-Assisted Literary Insight","10","1. Probing questions of literary interpretation with computer-aided text analysis
Thirty-seven years after Milic (1966) rejected the untenable fear of many literary scholars that “the study of literature may become mechanical if it is processed by a computer” (4), Ramsay (2003) observes that while computers can successfully pursue “empirical validation of ‘impressionistic’ or ‘serendipitous’ critical readings” (173), such uses “have not penetrated the major journals of literary study,” and that, “in general, our methods are perceived as some sort of positivistic last stand” (168). Wanting computer-assisted text analysis to have a prominent place in the “wider community of humanist scholars” (2003: 173), Ramsay argues that all literary interpretation is more arbitrary than scholars acknowledge (2003: 170), and that interpretation “must present its alternative text as a legitimate counterpart—even a consequence—of the original” (Ramsay 2011: 56). But, à la McGann (2001), “[a] true critical representation does not accurately (so to speak) mirror its object; it consciously (so to speak) deforms its object” (173). Reading Machines echoes this: “The critic who endeavors to put forth a “reading” puts forth not the text, but a new text” (Ramsay 2011: 16). How we put forth “new” texts, McGann argues, deeply depends on our “idiosyncratic relation to the work” (116). Computers help us explore these idiosyncrasies by expanding the number of deformed texts we can produce; reading these “new” texts brings us “to a critical position in which we can imagine things about the text that we didn’t and perhaps couldn’t have otherwise known” (McGann 2001: 116).

Ellis & Favat (1966) also employ rearrangement-as-interpretative procedure and provide a useful counterpoint to McGann and Ramsay by emphasizing that computers merely “enhance” what literary critics already do (1966: 637). Ellis & Favat use the “opportunity for the different examination and reordering of [Huckleberry Finn]” (637) to ask questions about Huck’s speech regarding the relation of “death” and “family” by generating concordances (630-33), but concordances have been used since at least the 13th century. What is new, Ellis & Favat contend, is that the critic can now “ask questions that previously he could have only wished to ask” (638) because the computational efficiency of evidence-gathering allows us to pursue questions previously pragmatically impossible (637). Yet Ellis & Favat suggest that certain kinds of reordering are not valid: “The fact that the computer has aided the scholar does not mean that this critical procedure has been violated” (637). Understanding what would constitute a violation positions us to better appreciate what is new in Ramsay’s algorithmic criticism. When does “the different examination and reordering of data” and the “grouping of [text]” cease to be valid “evidence” (637)?

2. Algorithmic criticism as literary chatbot
Ramsay’s textual analysis, grounded in deformance, is a mechanism for destabilizing linguistic and cultural assumptions when reading texts. Although deformance has been a source of contention (Hoover 2005, 2007), many new DH scholars seem to underestimate its importance and implications. We argue that the practice of deformance arises, in part, from a broader conception of the humanities that emphasizes multiplying possible solutions and facilitating interesting and unpredictable discussions rather than finding particular solutions. Thus Ramsay insists that literary criticism should aim not to arrive at the meaning, but to ask “how do we ensure that [a text] keeps on meaning?” (2003: 170). He reaffirms this eight years later: “conclusions are evaluated not in terms of what propositions the data allows, but in terms of the nature and depth of the discussions that result” (2011: 9), echoing McGann’s claim that “the critical and interpretative question is not ‘what does a poem mean?’ but ‘how do we release or expose the poem’s possible meaning?’” (2001: 108). More recently, surprised by the difference in the words used by male and female speakers in The Waves, first discussed in Reading Machines (2011), Ramsay asks,

Do we imagine that such further experiments would resolve long-standing questions about gender and language? Do we really want those questions resolved? That last question may seem slightly perverse, but I believe that, in the end, what is most distinct about humanistic inquiry is its resistance toward final answers. It is the goal of the seminar to answer questions,but mostly by proposing them more fruitfully. The humanities wants for itself a world that is more complex than we thought . . . We are in search of a conversation[.] (2012: 11-12)
Ramsay’s question is “how successful the algorithms were in provoking thought and allowing insight” (Ramsay 2003: 173), and he is ultimately “more concerned with evaluating the robustness of the discussion that a particular procedure annunciates” (Ramsay 2011: 17). Unfortunately, emphasizing the “robustness of the discussion” that a deformed text promotes may de-emphasize the algorithms used to generate it. Yet if the algorithm that deforms the original text is to facilitate our interpretive insights, knowing what the algorithm does seems crucially important.

3. Continuing the conversation: getting algorithms out of the black box
Deformance, like computational stylistics, necessarily focuses our attention on certain narratives of meaning, drawing our attention to specific words, phrases, images, and patterns at the expense of others. Lotaria in Calvino’s If on a Winter’s Night a Traveler (1979) “reads” a novel by looking at the words that appear 19 times—namely, “blood, cartridge, belt, commander, do, have, immediately, it, life, seen, sentry, shots, spider,” and so forth—and observes that “it’s a war novel, all action, brisk writing, with certain underlying violence” (182). She answers the literary equivalent of a factual question using a simple and relatively transparent method. However, when Ramsay lists the most characteristic words used by characters in The Waves in order to “participate in [a] literary critical endeavor beyond fact-checking” through the use of the tf-idf algorithm (Ramsay 2011: 10), the resulting “deformed text” he discusses cannot be reproduced by the procedure he describes. This is partly because he does not use the precise tf-idf equation he presents, but (more importantly) because of some interpretative decisions that are by no means obvious. Our point, however, is less to quarrel with Ramsay’s decisions than to interrogate his method.

Ramsay (2011) does not explain the exact algorithm that produces his menonly and women-only words, but they are simple enough to identify. Rather than 90 men-only and 14 women-only words, however, we found 117 and 10. The mismatches are caused mostly by Bernard’s final retrospective chapter, which Ramsay has (quite reasonably) omitted from his analysis (though he confirms by email that he should have noted this). Re-analyzing without the final chapter reveals a few remaining discrepancies. For example, Ramsay lists “banker” and “Brisbane” as men-only words, but they appear in Neville’s and Bernard’s monologues only as imagined quotations from Louis. Discussing this kind of decision, we suggest, could deepen and engage a conversation about The Waves.

More significantly, Ramsay’s provocative lists of 90 men-only and 14 womenonly words rest problematically on the amounts of text by the two genders. Even without the final chapter, there are about 35,000 words by the men and only 20,000 by the women, a discrepancy that “explains” the preponderance of male-only words. To “prove” this one could simply cut each male monologue to the length of its corresponding female monologue. (Corresponding how? Matching longest to longest, shortest to shortest? Why?) We chose a different “deformation,” randomizing the monologue lines and cutting each monologue to the length of the shortest, equalizing each character’s contribution. (Why?) This deformed text produces 31 women-only and 29 men-only words. Ramsay is right that the algorithm merely begins the argument, but the “provocative” revelation that the men share more words than the women seems deceptively and inappropriately provocative: it rests merely on the lengths of the monologues. (Why are the male monologues longer?) The nature of the male and female words remains provocative and suggestive for a conversation about gender in The Waves:


But our deformation’s doubling of women-only words raises interesting questions, and warns against over-interpreting the lists. Obviously, men use some of our women-only words in the parts we left out, a problem exacerbated by the rarity of these only-words: the highest frequency above is 4. All this suggests a reconsideration of the initial decision to use tf-idf in the first place.We use this opportunity to argue both that it is imperative that text analysis researchers carefully outline their procedures so that others can reproduce the original results and that more attention be given by the community at large to reexamining earlier results. Framing literary questions algorithmically is beneficial because stating our assumptions in computable terms may reveal our own hidden assumptions about the text we are examining, our assumptions regarding literary interpretation, or both. However, transforming our own literary methods into algorithms is always somewhat imperfect: foregrounding these interpretative decisions rather than hiding them allows the critical conversation to continue in a more valuable fashion by incorporating the difficulties of the algorithm into the act of literary interpretation itself.

References
Ellis, A. and Favat, F. (1966). “From Computer to Criticism: An Application of Automatic Content Analysis to the Study of Literature.” In Stone, P., Dunphy, D., Smith, M., and Ogilvie, D. (ed.), The General Inquirer: A Computer Approach to Content Analysis. Cambridge: MIT Press, 628-38.

Hoover, D. (2007). “The End of the Irrelevant Text: Electronic Texts, Linguistics, and Literary Theory.” DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly 1(2).

————. (2005). “Hot-Air Textuality: Literature after Jerome McGann.” TEXT Technology 2: 71-103.

McGann, J. (2001). Radiant Textuality: Literature after the World Wide Web. New York: Palgrave.

Milic, L. (1966). “The Next Step.” Computers and the Humanities 1(1): 3-6. Ramsay, S. (2012). “Textual Behavior in the Human Male.” (Revised March 2012 transcript, 14 pages.) Journal of Digital Humanities 1(1): 32.

————. (2011). Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

————. (2003). “Toward an Algorithmic Criticism.” Literary and Linguistic Computing 18(2): 167-74.","txt","2","",""
"2073","15","Student Collaborators in Digital Humanities Outreach and Advocacy: Strategies and Examples from the IDHMC at Texas A&M University","9","Our paper explores the role of student participants in outreach and advocacy for digital humanities centers. Although discussion of undergraduates in digital humanities generally focuses on classroom research activities (Croxall 2013), we define “student participant” broadly, including students who are employed by, or complete internships within, a digital humanities center. Because student participants are highly responsive to outreach efforts, and can themselves support outreach by serving as advocates for the center (and digital humanities scholarship in general) during their student years and beyond, cultivating student participants allows centers to enhance existing outreach efforts, so much so that the benefits for students and the center may justify refocusing energy and resources to better support student engagement. At the same time, digital humanities centers must address institutional barriers and ethical concerns that emerge when students are involved in research. Our talk will provide examples of the rationale and strategies that the IDHMC (Initiative for Digital Humanities, Media and Culture) is developing to strengthen student involvement in digital scholarship. Recognizing that funding and other factors create obstacles to student involvement, we are working towards a flexible model that can be adapted to suit local circumstances.

Although discussions of “outreach” for the digital humanities often focus on publicizing projects (see Brennan 2013), centers are expected to perform generalized outreach to promote the center and its work and to make research, tools, and training available to academic and general audiences (Nowviskie 2011). While these forms of outreach are important, they create considerable demands upon staff (Nowviskie 2010; Ramsay 2010) and are limited in their reach and effectiveness. Bringing traditional humanities scholars into digital humanities scholarship is time and labor intensive, and projects and tools often target specific audiences, leaving out constituencies that are institutionally or strategically important for the center’s growth. Student participants both supplement and extend these forms of outreach. 

Focusing outreach efforts on student participants may be more effective than targeting humanities faculty who are not already engaged in digital scholarship. Unlike faculty, whose interest in new technologies is constrained by multiple factors (Wiberly and Jones 2000; O’Donnell 2009), students have time to invest in learning new technologies and approaches and are less invested in traditional disciplinary paradigms. Before graduation, student participants enhance outreach by bridging disciplinary and institutional divisions and communicating their digital humanities interest to other students and faculty. After graduation, student participants may still contribute by incorporating digital tools and collaborative practices into their professional activities, serving as intermediaries between the center and external partners, and continuing to participate in scholarship through crowdsourcing or other means. 

The IDHMC uses grant funding to support student involvement in the classroom and as employees, and is hoping to secure funding for a pilot internship program. In 2012, through an internal (Tier One Program) grant, Laura Mandell developed an interdisciplinary, stacked (undergraduate and graduate) course that involved students in designing the IDHMC’s Humanities Visualization Space (HVS). That course has now become a permanent offering. But to reach more students from multiple disciplines, the IDHMC invests in student learning beyond targeted digital humanities classes. Mandell’s eMOP (Early Modern OCR Project) Mellon grant includes graduate and undergraduate student workers who have made important contributions to the project and to the digital humanities community (Torabi, Durgan and Tarpley 2013). Most recently, Mandell, Ives and Earhart targeted multiple forms of student engagement in an internal grant in support of the development of ARC (Advanced Research Consortium, idhmc.tamu.edu/projects/arc/) and the HVS. To infuse digital humanities scholarship in the wider curriculum, this grant funds the creation of workshops and class activities that faculty can integrate into existing classes, as well as a research competition for students who have used the ARC data and the HVS in their projects (we will provide links to these materials in our presentation). Finally, IDHMC is piloting an unpaid undergraduate internship program (idhmc.tamu.edu/blog/2013/06/21/idhmc-undergraduate-internships/) through which students can work on any IDHMC affiliated project. Through employment and internships, we are drawing students from departments that do not offer DH coursework or research opportunities, increasing our impact on campus while creating valuable learning experiences for a variety of students. 

To pursue these goals, we continually navigate institutional and disciplinary barriers, including faculty resistance, administrative and curricular roadblocks, and funding issues. The difficulties inherent in adding new courses to the official curriculum make other means of outreach to students especially attractive and valuable. We hope that we will be able to offer stipends to future interns, perhaps ultimately creating something like DePauw’s ITAP (Information Technology Associates Program), an internship program in which liberal arts undergraduates are given a year of technical training and then placed in academic or administrative internships. Programs such as ITAP demonstrate that incorporating undergraduate students into digital humanities research and outreach is a strategy that is neither limited to digital humanities centers such as IDHMC or to research universities, nor dependent upon external grant funding (though there is no doubt that the necessity of finding some source of funding for student researchers is a challenge across the board). Such a strategy does, however, require acceptance of a capacious definition of what “counts” as digital humanities, and resistance to the idea that a valuable student experience can only be obtained through exposure to the kinds of digital humanities work that require heavy institutional investment in equipment and staff support. Ideally, students working at IDHMC will experience a variety of modes of digital humanities research, from digital archives (such as the Cervantes Project), to tool development (via the OCR testing and development that is part of eMOP), to academic instances of social media (the Anachronaut Facebook game for OCR correction), to humanities data visualization. Students working at smaller institutions with fewer resources will not have as many options as we do, but the necessity of limiting hands-on experience to certain kinds of projects does not prevent faculty from exploring other forms of digital scholarship through other means, including collaborative arrangements with other institutions that offer different digital humanities emphases. Regional or national partnerships that facilitate digital project information sharing (something as simple as having faculty involved in a project Skype in to a class) are one way to expand student involvement beyond a single institution’s resources and expertise; over time, more intensive collaborations – a “spring break” research experience at another institution, for example -- might be developed. More important still is providing the kind of digital humanities acculturation that Geoffrey Rockwell and Stefan Sinclair describe, which students learn to “work in interdisciplinary teams, apply digital practices to the humanities, manage projects, [and] explain technology and build community” (Rockwell and Sinclair 2013). The goal of acculturation is one that can be pursued in many ways and across many institutional structures. For the purposes of outreach, it is extremely valuable given its relevance to students’ career paths.

While we work to develop a funded internship program, we offer independent studies to all interns so that they receive formal academic credit for their work. As a general practice, we encourage all affiliated students to present or publish their work and we include them in our own presentations and publications (Ives et al; Earhart; Mandell 2013). We also feature student contributors in publicity for IDHMC and its projects. While many of these practices are (or should be) universal, articulating them is important, both to insure a positive experience for students and to equip them to serve as advocates for IDHMC and digital humanities generally.

The overall goal of our work with students is to enact the values of digital scholarship formulated by Lisa Spiro: openness, collaboration, collegiality and connectedness, diversity, and experimentation (Spiro 2012). We want to instill an ethical perspective that is both specific to digital humanities and generalizable to students’ future careers. Expanding upon studies that emphasize collaboration and cross-disciplinary learning within the classroom (Norcia 2008), we aim at, in Julia Flanders’ words, fostering “a professional academic ecology” that illuminates “the diversity of working roles that contribute to the production of scholarship” (Flanders 307). Our focus on multiple forms of student participation allows us to define the ethos of collaboration broadly, emphasizing respect for and recognition of contributions across disciplinary boundaries as well as educational/professional roles (student, employee, faculty, staff). Successful outreach can be defined in many ways, but the most meaningful measure may well be the extent to which students carry this ethos with them when they leave IDHMC.

References
Brennan, Sheila. (2013). “Four P’s of Digital Project Outreach.” Lot 49. 1 August 2013. www.lotfortynine.org/2013/08/four-ps-of-digital-project-outreach/

Croxall, Brian, et al. (2013) “The Future of Undergraduate Digital Humanities.”  17 July 2013. dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-292.html

Earhart, Amy.  “Alex Haley’s Malcolm X: ‘The Malcolm X I Knew’ and notecards from The Autobiography of Malcolm X,” an introduction and edition, forthcoming in Scholarly Editing.

Flanders, Julia. (2012) “Time, Labor, and “Alternate Careers in Digital Humanities Knowledge Work.” Debates in the Digital Humanities. Ed. Matthew Gold. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota P. 292-308

IDHMC Undergraduate Internships (21 June 2013). idhmc.tamu.edu/blog/2013/06/21/idhmc-undergraduate-internships

Information Technology Associated Program. www.depauw.edu/it/ita

Ives, Maura; Del Hierro, Victor; Kelsey, Bailey; Smith, Laura Catherine and Christina Sumners. (2013) “Encoding the Discipline: English Graduate Student Reflections on Working with TEI.”  Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative: Selected Papers from the 2012 TEI Conference. Issue 6, December 2013. jtei.revues.org/88

Mandell, Laura. (2013). Rev. of Debates in Digital Humanities, ed. Matthew K. Gold, in Information and Culture: A Journal of History, with Matthew Davis, Tess Habbestad, Jacob Heil, Shawn Moore, Laura Perrings, and Katayoun Torabi. 19 March 2013. www.infoculturejournal.org/book_reviews/idhmc_gold_DebatesDH

Mandell, Laura, et al. (2012) Mellon Foundation Grant Proposal: ""OCR'ing Early Modern Texts."" 30 June 2012. <http://idhmc.tamu.edu/projects/Mellon/eMOPPublic.pdf>.

Mandell, Laura, Maura Ives, and Amy Earhart. (2013) “ARC: Research and Student Engagement in the Digital Humanities.”  Strategic Development Fund Proposal, TAMU. 1 April 2013. 

Nowviskie, B. (2011) “Are You our New Head of Outreach and Consulting?” Scholar’s Lab blog. 23 February 2011. www.scholarslab.org/announcements/head-of-outreach-consulting/

Nowviskie, B. (2010) “Eternal September of the digital humanities.” 15 October 2010. nowviskie.org/2010/eternal-september-of-the-digital-humanities 

eMOP (Early Modern OCR Project). emop.tamu.edu.

Norcia, M.“Out of the Ivory Tower Endlessly Rocking: Collaborating across Disciplines and Professions to Promote Student Learning in the Digital Archive.” Pedagogy 8(1): 91-114. muse.jhu.edu/journals/pedagogy/v008/8.1norcia.pdf.

O’Donnell, James. (2009) “Engaging the Humanities: The Digital Humanities.”  Daedalus 138.1 Winter 2009: 99-104.

Ramsay, Stephen. (2010)  “Centers of Attention.” 27 April 2010. dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-292.html

Rockwell, Geoffrey and Stefan Sinclair (2012). “Acculturation and the Digital Humanities Community. “  Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics. Ed. Brett D. Hirsch. Open Book Publishers. openbookpublishers.com/htmlreader/DHP/chap07.html

Spiro, Lisa (2012). “ ‘This is Why we Fight’: Defining the Values of the Digital Humanities.” Debates in the Digital Humanities. Ed. Matthew Gold. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota P. 16-35. dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/

Stephen E. Wiberley, Jr. and William G. Jones (2000). “Time and Technology: A Decade-Long Look at Humanists’ Use of Electronic Information Technology,” College & Research Libraries 61 (Sept. 2000): 421-431.

Torabi, Katayoun, Jessica Durgan, and Bryan Tarpley (2013).  “Early Modern OCR Project (eMOP) at Texas A&M University: Using Aletheia to Train Tesseract.” Paper presented at DocENG 2013, 11 September 2013. www.doceng2013.org/programme","txt","2","",""
"2074","15","Stylometry of Collaborations: Dickens, Collins and their collaborative writings","10","1. Introduction
The Victorian author Charles Dickens was among the first publishing entrepreneurs to run mass- produced weekly/monthly magazines on a successful commercial basis.  He employed many ‘salaried staff　writers’ (Nayder, 2002), who had to write under anonymity, including Elizabeth Gaskell, Adelaide Anne Proctor et al., in Household Words and All the Year Round, the journals ‘conducted by’ Dickens (Stone, 1968; Thomas, 1982; Allingham, 2011).

On the other hand, Dickens collaborated with his younger contemporary Wilkie Collins on a number of stories, typically for the Christmas Numbers of his journals. While some of their collaborative pieces were written with the assistance of other staff writers, four works are known to have been co-authored by Dickens and Collins alone (Nayder, 2002): The Frozen Deep (1857), The Lazy Tour of Two Idle Apprentices (1857), The Perils of Certain English Prisoners’ (1857), and No Thoroughfare (1867). The four collaborations can be seen as betokening what appears to be a ﬁrm presence of Collins, a foothold he had gained, in the Dickens circle by the time he and Dickens launched into the joint works beginning in 1857.

These collaborative writings vary in design and style from one another as well as in theme and setting. In some cases, one chapter can be read as radically different from another due in large to the varying proportion of contribution by each of the duo: some chapters were written either Dickens or Collins alone, while there are other chapters that were jointly written although the extent of collaboration has yet to be identiﬁed quantitatively.

In order to provide new insight to the nature of collaborative authorship, the present study applies s series of stylometric techniques: (1) Craig’s extension of Burrows’s Zeta test for reliably extracting author markers from a large number of candidate words; (2) Cluster analysis based on Burrows’s Delta distance measure (Burrows, 2002) to compare the collaborations with the canonical works of Dickens and Collins; and (3) Rolling Delta (Eder, Kestement and Rybicki, 2013) in an effort to detect authorial takeovers or to estimate the extent of contribution by each of the two authors in their collaborative writings.

2.   Single authorship and mixed authorship
Although the lack of byline makes it difficult to determine the authorship of Christmas numbers for Dickens’s periodicals, the account book in the office of Household Words helps identify many of his collaborators (Thomas, 1982). Table 1 shows bibliographic details for the four collaborative works between Dickens and Collins.

The Frozen Deep was originally written as a drama in three acts. Collins drafted the manuscript and Dickens heavily revised it. The script of the drama remained unpublished until 1866, when Collins altered it single-handedly, getting rid of Dickens’s hand. After Dickens’s death, Collins adapted the play as a novella for use in his public reading tour in 1874 (Brannan, 1966). No Thoroughfare was also written first as a drama and then rewritten into a novella form.

When the collaborative pieces are divided into smaller units like a chapter or act, eight units (including The Frozen Deep) are of single authorship, with the remaining six units being a case of mixed authorship.


Fig. 1:

3. Testing the authorship of collaborative chapters
The following experiments draw on a Dickens corpus comprising 22 texts and a Collins corpus with the same number of texts as a basis of reference, with which we compare the style of the collaborative chapters (see Tables 3 and 4 in Appendix for details). The ﬁrst round of analysis is to run Craig’s version of Burrows’s Zeta test in order to extract Dickens markers as well as Collins markers. The vast majority of authorship attribution studies have relied on n most common words in the corpus/text in question (Burrows, 2002/2005; Eder, 2010; Eder & Rybicki, 2009; Hoover, 2003/2004; Rybicki, 2009; to name but a few). The recent works by Craig & Kinney (2009) and Hoover (2010; 2011; 2013), on the other hand, have demonstrated Zeta’s strong power of differentiation between two sets of text samples. Other keywords extraction techniques include the use of Log-likelihood ratio (Dunning, 1993) criticised by Tabata (2012) for being prone to burstiness (and for its tendency to produce too many false-positives); Mann-Whiney U test (Kilgariff, 2001); t-test (Hoover, 2010); bootstrap test (Lijffijt et al., 2012); Random forests (Tabata, 2012), and so forth. The particular strength of Craig’s version of Zeta analysis is its simplicity and effectiveness well documented in Hoover’s studies mentioned above.  A Zeta distinctiveness ratio for the word i is calculated in the following formula:


Fig. 2:

where N(x) = Total number of text-segments in the corpus x; DF(x)i = Document (or Segment) frequency for the word i in the corpus x; N(y) = Total number of text-segments in the corpus y; N(y) – DF(y)i  = Document (or Segment) frequency negative for the word i in the corpus y.

The R package stylo (a suite of tools for stylometric analyses) (Eder, Rybicki, and Kestmont, 2013) includes the function oppose() with an option to calculate Zeta scores. In the present case, each text was sliced into 10,000-word segments with rare occurrence threshold set to 2 so as to exclude hapax legomena and ﬁltering threshold set to 0.5 to extract strongly discriminating words (thus only words(i) with Zeta(i) < 0.5 or Zeta(i) > 1.5 are picked up). The procedure detected 122 authorial markers: 61 Dickens markers and 61 Collins markers as listed in Table 2.


Fig. 3:

When the marker words were fed into a cluster analysis, the resulting dendrogram (Fig. 1) clearly differentiated the two authors in the distinct clusters.  The marker words are also sensitive enough to show sub-patterns: both in Dickens and Collins clusters, the texts written in their early career ﬂock together (Dickens’s texts in the 1830’s and Collins’s texts published in the 1850’s). Dickens’s early works branch close to the sketches/travelogues as opposed to fictions.


Fig. 4: Cluster analysis: Dickens versus Collins (Distance: Burrows’s Delta)

Fig. 4 is a cluster dendrogram with the collaborative pieces included in the analysis. The prominent feature of this result is that:

1. The single-handed chapters/acts ﬁt in well with the author’s cluster (Chapters 1 and 3 of The Perils of Certain English Prisoners perch in the topmost sub-cluster together with the Overture and Act 3 of No Thoroughfare, whereas The Frozen Deep and Act 2 of No Thoroughfare are found as the nearest neighbours to each other, with Chapter 2 of The Perils placed in the Collins cluster.
2. The co-authored chapters/acts form slightly distant sub-clusters in each of the two author’s main clusters
4.Letting the Delta roll through to find dynamic shifts in style
Although the result of cluster analysis, being in consonant with the bibliographical details given in Table 1, helps conﬁrm the effectiveness of style markers found through a Zeta test, it inevitably tells us about the limitation of the procedure that captures only a static snapshot of stylistic similarity or difference between texts. Language is never monolithic throughout a text. Language in ﬁction varies wildly from narratives to dialogue, or vice versa. Language in ﬁction is indeed quite mobile.

We need, therefore, a technique to capture dynamic style change. If the collaborated chapters can be sliced into consecutive segments of n words with a partial over- lapping so that we can roll through to focus upon a certain stretch of text like a moving camera rather than take the entire text/chapter in one snapshot, it will be possible to detect subtle fluctuations of style between one stretch and another as well as to pinpoint where one author takes over from another, etc. Eder, Rybicki, and Kestemont’s Rolling Delta was developed exactly for this purpose.

Figure 5 shows a result of Rolling Delta run with a window size set to 3,000 words, a step size of 300 words, using 100 most common words as variables. The whole text of The Perils of Certain English Prisoners is cut into consecutive 3,000 word-segments, with each segment compared with the centroids of Dickens and Collins, respectively.


Fig. 5: Rolling Delta: The Perils of Certain English Prisoners and the centroids of Dickens and Collins

What strikes us is that the two major intersections (marked with green vertical lines) roughly correspond to the chapter boundaries in the text, a result that illustrates how the technique is capable of pinpointing possible authorial takeovers.


Fig. 6: Rolling Delta: The collaborated chapters of the Lazy Tour (The thicker line indicates Dickens’s centroid)

Fig 6 displays Delta polygons of the four collaborated chapters of the Lazy Tour of Two Idle Apprentices. Of particular interest is that a remarkably similar pattern holds throughout the four diagrams: it is always Dickens who takes the lead at the outset of a chapter. He runs quarter or halfway (at most) into each chapter before passing over to Collins. The series of Rolling Delta plots seem to reﬂect an interesting nature of collaboration as well as the unequal partnership (Nayder, 2002) between Dickens and Collins: Dickens always takes initiative, sets a keynote for the whole chapter, which Collins takes over and continues the rest of chapters, a typical relationship between a master and his disciples. 

References
Allingham, P. V. (2011). A Comprehensive List of Dickens’s Short Fiction, 1833-1868. The Victorian Web. [Online] (Last accessed 31 October 2013.) http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/dickens/pva/5.html

Brannan, R. L. (1966). Under the Management of Mr. Charles Dickens: His Production of ""The Frozen Deep"". Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.

Burrows, J. (2002). Delta: a Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. LLC, 17. 267-287.

Burrows, J. (2005).  Who wrote Shamela?  Verifying the Authorship of a Parodic Text, LLC, 19/4: 453–475

Burrows, J. (2007). All the Way Through: Testing for Authorship in Different Frequency Strata, LLC, 22/1: 27–47.

Craig, H. and A. Kinney (eds.)  (2009).  Shakespeare, Computers, and the Mystery of Authorship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Dunning, T. (1993).  Accurate methods for the statistics of surprise and coincidence, Computational Linguistics, 19/1: 61–74.

Eder, M. (2010).  Does Size Matter?  Authorship Attribution, Small Samples, Big Problem, Digital Humanities 2010 Conference Abstracts, King’s College London, 132–5.

Eder, M. and J. Rybicki (2009). PCA, Delta, JGAAP and Polish Poetry of the 16th and the 17th Centuries: Who Wrote the Dirty Stuff?, Digital Humanities 2009 Conference Abstracts, University of Maryland, College Park, 242–4.Eder, M., J. Rybicki, and M. Kestemont (2013) Computational Stylistics [Online] (Last accessed 31 October 2013.) https://sites.google.com/site/computationalstylistics/home

Eder, M., M. Kestemont and J. Rybicki (2013). Stylometry with R: a suite of tools. Digital Humanities 2013 Conference Abstracts. University of Nebraska–Lincoln, NE, 487–9.

Hoover, D. L. (2003). Multivariate Analysis and the Study of Style Variation, Literary and Linguistic Computing, 18/4: 341–360.

Hoover, D. L. (2004). Testing Burrows’s Delta, Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19/4: 453–475. Hoover, D. (2010). Teasing out authorship and style with t-tests and Zeta.  Digital Humanities 2010 Conference Abstracts, King’s College London, 168–70.

Hoover, D. (2011).  The Tutor’s Story: a case study of mixed authorship.  Digital Humanities 2012 Conference Abstracts, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 149–51.

Hoover, D. (2012). The rarer they are, the more they are, the less they matter. Digital Humanities 2012 Conference Abstracts, Hamburg University, Hamburg, 218–21.

Hoover, D. (2013). Almost All the Way Through — All at Once. Digital Humanities 2013 Conference Abstracts, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, NE, 223–6

Kilgariff, A. (2001). Comparing Corpora. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 6 (1): 1–37.

Lane, M. (1956). Introduction. In The Oxford Illustrated Dickens, Christmas Stories. Oxford: OUP

Lijffjt, J., T. Sälly, and T. Nevalainen (2012) Chi-square test considered harmful: Better methods fo testing the signiﬁcance of word frequencies, A paper presented at ICAME 33, 30 May–3 June 2012, Leuven, Belgium.

Nayder, L. (2002).  Unequal Partners:  Charles Dickens, Wilkie Collins, and Victorian Authorship. Ithaca/London: Cornell UP.

Rayson, P. and R. Garside (2000).  Comparing Corpora Using Frequency Proﬁling, Proceedings of the Workshop on Comparing Corpora, Held in Conjunction with the 38th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2000), 1–8 October 2000, Hong Kong.  1–6. Available online at http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/computing/users/paul/phd/phd2003.pdf.

Rybicki, J. (2009). Translation and Delta Revisited: When We Read Translations, Is It the Author or the Translator that We Really Read?, Digital Humanities 2009 Conference Abstracts, University of Maryland, College Park, 245–7.

Rybicki, J.and M. Eder (2011). Deeper Delta across genres and languages: do we really need the most frequent words?, Literary and Linguistic Computing, 26/3: 315–321.

Stone, H. (ed.) (1968). Charles Dickens’ Uncollected Writings from “Household Words” 1850–1859. 2 vols. Bloomington: Indiana UP.

Tabata, T.Approaching Dickens’s Style through Random Forests, Digital Humanities 2012 Conferenc Abstracts, University of Hamburg, Germany, 388–91.

Thomas, D. A. (1982). Dickesn and the Short Story. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.","txt","2","",""
"2075","15","Stylometry, Network Analysis, and Latin Literature","2","St Jerome, early-Christian writer and translator of the Bible, claims that he had a dream in which the God accused him: “You are a Ciceronian, not a Christian!”, because he had paid too much attention to the beauty of the Ciceronian style. St Jerome’s dream reflects Christian antiquity’s general attitude to classical literature: pagan texts were claimed to be generally dangerous, and thus they were rarely imitated. Centuries later, Renaissance humanists “discovered” the classical authors again, and they intended to purge Latin of medieval traces. There was no clear answer how to restitute the Latin style, though. The discussion about the ways of imitation, known as the Ciceronian Quarrel, was the single most important literary debate of the Renaissance (DellaNeva, 2007)1. Arguably, all these changes in the attitude to classical literature were followed by style changes measurable with stylometric methods.

While computational stylistics has been usually associated with authorship attribution, recent research shows that the same methods can be used in a much broader context of literary study. Namely, the underlaying idea of tracing similarities between (anonymous) texts can be extended to map textual relations in large-scale approaches to literature. Additionally, they are supported by the seminal concepts of “computation into criticism” (Burrows, 1987)2, “distant reading” (Moretti, 2013)3 and “macroanalysis” (Jockers, 2013)4.

In the present study, stylometric techniques are combined with network analysis to reveal the strongest similarities between analyzed texts on the one hand, and some deeper or less obvious relations, usually filtered out by standard nearest neighbor methods, on the other (Eder, forthcoming)5. Consensus network visualizations (cf. Fig. 1) attempt to overcome drawbacks of Cluster Analysis and other explanatory multidimensional techniques. Firstly, these methods are highly dependent on the number of features (e.g. word frequencies) analyzed, secondly, they are not suitable to visualize large datasets. The technique applied in this study counts frequencies of frequent words in a corpus, computes distances (differences) between samples, and for each sample identifies its nearest neighbors (i.e. the samples that turned out to be the most similar). Next, neighboring samples are turned into connected nodes of a network. The above procedure is repeated many times, in each iteration a different range of frequent words is analyzed. Finally, particular networks produced for each iteration are combined into a single consensus network.

A few dozens of ancient, medieval, and early modern Latin texts (prose and poetry) were harvested from different open-access databases, and analyzed using consensus networks. The research problems to be undertaken included: (1) an analysis of style variation in the classical Latin prose of the Augustan Age and the Silver Age (Cicero, Caesar, Tacitus, Livy, Suetonius, Apuleius, etc.). The aim was to identify which features of language are author-dependent, and which are affected by the literary epoch; (2) an investigation of the Renaissance “restitution” of classical Latin (in a Ciceronian flavor), as opposed to medieval Vulgar Latin as introduced by early Christian writers (Bolgar, 1954)6. This was focused on the question of the extent to which the Renaissance humanists succeeded in imitating the style of Cicero, and whether they truly overcame the medieval vulgar style (as they claimed to have done). Last but not least, (3) an examination of the problem of “Attic” prose and the anti-Ciceronian movement of the late Renaissance and early Baroque, based on the analysis of the style of Justus Lipsius, Erasmus and other writers: Puteanus, Moretus, Fredro etc. (Croll, 1924, 1996; Salmon, 1980; Tunberg, 1999)78910. The questions were as follows: is the trace of Seneca’s and Tacitus’ style indeed noticeable in this modern “Attic” way of writing? Did the “Attic” authors really escape from Ciceronianism in style?

One of the stylometric consensus networks is shown in Fig. 1. It visualizes the textual similarities between 55 poetic texts, in order to assess the question of sequels in Latin poetry. Highlighted texts include Maffeo Vegio’s continuation of the Aeneid, Thomas May’s Supplementum Pharsaliae, and John of Garland’s Integumenta super Ovidium Metamorphoseos, in comparison with their ancient counterparts written by Virgil, Lucan, and Ovid, respectively. One can clearly notice that both Vegius and May were quite successful in imitating the classical authors, while Garlandus’s traces to Ovid are significantly weaker.


Fig. 1: Sequels in Latin poetry: network of 55 poetic texts. Imitated poems marked in blue, their followers marked in red

Other networks were produced for prose. Standard network analysis procedures were applied, and the data were visualized using consensus networks. Instead of expected chronological patterns, the results revealed some other interesting regularities.

Analyzing Latin style with stylometric methods, one should remember that the medieval authors relatively often cite the Bible and related sources, while the humanists’ treatises are full of explicit and/or implicit quotations from classical literature. More importantly, the humanists consciously tried to avoid medieval vocabulary in favor of words that were used at least once by Cicero. For that reason, a stylometric comparison of medieval and early modern Latin brings some additional issues, intensive text re-use being one of the most important (Eder, 2013). Some of these issues will be discussed in detail.

References
1. DellaNeva, J. (2007). Ciceronian Controversies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

2. Burrows, J. (1987). Computation into Criticism: A Study of Jane Austen’s Novels and an Experiment in Method. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

3. Moretti, F. (2013). Distant Reading. London: Verso.

4. Jockers, M. (2013). Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History. Champaign: University of Illinois Press.

5. Eder, M. (2014). Visualization in stylometry: some reliability issues (forhcoming).

6. Bolgar R. R. (1954). The Classical Heritage and its Beneficiaries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

7. Croll M. W. (1924). Muret and the History of “Attic” Prose. PMLA, 39: 254–309.

8. Croll M. W. (1996). “Attic” prose in the seventeenth century. In: Style, Rhetoric and Rhythm. Ed. by J. M. Patrick and R. O. Evans. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 51–101.

9. Salmon, J. H. M. (1980). Cicero and Tacitus in Sixteenth-Century France. The American Historical Review, 85: 307–31.

10. Tunberg, T. O. (1999). Observations on the style and language of Lipsius’s prose: a look at some selected texts. In: Tournoy, G., Landsheer, J. de, and Papy, J. (eds), Iustus Lipsius: Europae lumen et columen. Leuven: Cornel University Press, pp. 169–78.

11. Eder, M. (2013). Mind your corpus: systematic errors in authorship attribution. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 28(4): 603–14.","txt","2","",""
"2076","15","Supporting ""Distant Reading"" for Web Archives","10","In a recent essay on the stock footage libraries amassed by Hollywood studios in the first half of the 20th century, Rick Prelinger—moving image archivist at the Internet Archive—laments that “archives often seem like a first-aid kit or a rusty tool, resources that we find reassuring but rarely use”  (Prelinger 2012). Although he doesn’t single them out by name, web archives are particularly vulnerable to this charge. User studies, access statistics, page views, and other metrics have in recent years told a consistent story: web content that has been harvested and preserved by collecting institutions, universities, and other organizations often lies fallow, and like Prelinger’s rusty tool may be notable more for its latent potential than for having served any real purpose (Hockx-Yu 2013; Kamps 2013; Huurdeman et al 2013).  While the reasons for neglect are myriad, this paper focuses on one: the lack of tools to support a wide range of interactions with the content. We describe initiatives underway at the University of Maryland to partially redress the problem and highlight the need for qualitative user studies.

The Internet Archive’s Wayback Machine is perhaps the best-known and most widely available tool to browse captured content. Both the Internet Archive’s main public site and Archive-It, its subscription-based web archiving service, replicate the experience of viewing web pages on the live web, thus reifying a “close-reading” experience. First developed in the mid-1990s, the software came of age at the same time digital humanities scholars were building the first generation of web collections aimed at providing high-resolution digital facsimiles of literary and artistic works by Blake, Rossetti, Dickinson, Whitman, and others. The emphasis on accurate rendering and display is thus a hallmark of both the Wayback Machine and many early DH projects, the latter of which likewise self-identify as “archives,” albeit archives on a dramatically smaller scale. 

Although the capabilities offered by the Internet Archive and other commercial services are significant, we believe considerable technical advances are needed if web archives are to fulfill their promise as tools of analysis as well as preservation.  Within the field of DH, the big data vistas offered by scholars such as Matt Jockers and Ted Underwood provide both inspiration and models on which to base these efforts (Jockers 2013). Unlike the boutique digitization initiatives that characterize the early wave of DH archives of the 1990s and early 2000s, which were often devoted to the works of a single author, the new macroanalytic approaches are premised on mass-digitization of print heritage. The paradigm they embody, moreover, is not digitization in the service of verisimilitude—reproductions that show exact fidelity to their originals—but rather digitization that produces terabytes’ worth of intermediary copies that can be cleaned, normalized, segmented, tokenized, mined, and visualized to yield new insights about the cultural record writ large. Such a paradigm disrupts the usual data-information-knowledge continuum by taking the unitary wholes of creative expression—the “cooked” novels or poems or historical documents in print—and temporarily degrading them to a “raw” data state so that they can be analyzed at scale to make higher-order knowledge claims. 

We believe that the technical infrastructure to support macroanalytics or “distant reading” on web archives today is inadequate. Existing tools were built before the coming of age of “big data” technologies and provide wobbly foundations on which to build analytical tools that scale to petabytes of data. As an example, the open-source Wayback Machine is implemented as a monolithic stack primarily designed to scale “up” on more powerful servers and expensive network-attached storage. Its architecture captures the ethos of “state-of-the-art” software engineering practices of the late 1990s. Not surprisingly, the field has advanced by leaps and bounds in the last decade and a half. In the 2000s, Google published a series of seminal papers describing solutions to its data management woes, which involve analyzing, indexing, and searching untold billions of web pages. Instead of scaling “up” on more powerful individual servers, the strategy entailed scaling “out” on clusters of commodity machines (Barroso et al., 2013). Before long, open-source implementations of these Google technologies were created, bringing the same massive data analytic capabilities to “the rest of us.” These systems form the foundation of what we know as “big data” today, and provide the backbone of data analytics infrastructure at Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and many other organizations. Three key systems are:

The Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS), which is a horizontally-scalable file system designed to store data on clusters of commodity severs in a fault-tolerant manner (Ghemawat et al. 2003). The largest known HDFS instance (by Facebook) holds over 100 petabytes.
Hadoop MapReduce, which is a simple yet expressive programming model for distributed computations that works in concert with data stored in HDFS (Dean and Ghemawat, 2004). MapReduce models analytical tasks in two distinct phases: a “map” phase where computations applied in parallel, followed by a “reduce” phase that aggregates partial results.
HBase, which is a distributed store for semi-structured data built on top of HDFS that allows low-latency random access to billions of records. Google’s Bigtable (Chang et al., 2006), from which HBase descended, powers Gmail, Google Maps, as well as the company’s indexing pipeline.
Modern big data technologies provide a technical path forward and an accompanying research agenda that does for web archives what macroanalytics or so-called “distant reading” has begun to do for digitized corpora in DH. As a first step in this effort, we are developing Warcbase, an open-source platform for storing, managing, and analyzing web archives built on the three technologies discussed above. The platform provides a flexible data model for organizing web content as well as metadata and extracted knowledge. We have built a prototype application that provides functionality comparable to the Wayback Machine in allowing users to browse different versions of resources in a web archive (typically as WARC or ARC files). Since Warcbase takes advantage of proven open-source technologies, we are confident of the infrastructure’s ability to scale in a seamless and cost-effective manner.

Yet Warcbase is only the beginning. We believe that our prototype—and, more generally, the technologies described above—will provide new capabilities that support innovative uses of web archives. Responsive full-text search on massive collections of web pages, one of the first items on a scholarly wishlist, is within reach: the tools exist in various open-source projects, awaiting integration. Longitudinal analyses of web pages such as tracking the frequency of person or place names become possible if we integrate off-the-shelf natural language processing tools. Yet another possibility is topic modeling on a massive scale; a separate project at the University of Maryland has built Mr.LDA, an open-source Hadoop toolkit for scalable topic modeling (Zhai et al., 2012). To provide a hint of what’s possible, we have been working with Congressional archives from the Library of Congress to explore topic modeling and large-scale visualizations of archived content, the results of which we will share during the conference presentation.

Why are large web archives so underused? It is surely not due to a lack of culturally significant material. Valuable content, ripe for exploration, ranges across topics such as electronic literature, alternate reality games, digital tools for human rights awareness, the Arab Spring uprising, and Russian parliamentary elections, to name just a few. Restrictive access regimes are partially to blame, but that alone does not provide a sufficient explanation. We believe that the issue, to a large extent, is a technological form of circular reasoning: scholars do little because the right tools don’t exist, and tool builders are hesitant to build for non-existent needs and users.  Progress is necessary to understand the essential activities, methods, and questions of researchers. Interviews with current web archive users are a start, but breakthroughs will require deep collaborations between scholars and technologists. The end goal is a comprehensive set of tools for researchers in the digital humanities and beyond to analyze and explore our digital cultural heritage. 

References
Archive-It: Web Archiving Services for Libraries and Archives. archive-it.org

Barroso, Luiz Andre, Jimmy Clidaras, and Urs Holzle. (2013). The datacenter as a computer: an introduction to the design of warehouse-scale machines (second edition). Morgan & Claypool Publishers. 

Chang, Fay, Jeffrey Dean, Sanjay Ghemawat, Wilson C. Hsieh, Deborah A. Wallach, Michael Burrows, Tushar Chandra, Andrew Fikes, and Robert Gruber. (2006). “Bigtable: A distributed storage system for structured data.”Proceedings of the 7th USENIX Symposium on Operating System Design and Implementation (OSDI).

Dean, Jeffrey and Sanjay Ghemawat. (2004). “MapReduce: Simplified data processing on large clusters.”Proceedings of the 6th USENIX Symposium on Operating System Design and Implementation (OSDI).

Ghemawat, Sanjay, Howard Gobioff, and Shun-Tak Leung. (2003). “The Google File System.”Proceedings of the 19th ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles (SOSP).

Hockx-Yu, Helen. (15 February 2013) “Scholarly use of web archives.” files.dnb.de/nestor/veranstaltungen/2013-02-27-scholarly-use-of-web-archives_public.pdf

Huurdeman, Hugo, et al. (2013). “Sprint methods for web archive research.”WebSci 2013 Proceedings of the 5th Annual ACM Web Science Conference:182-190.

Jockers, Matthew. (2013). Macroanalysis: digital methods and literary history. Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois P. 

Kamps, Jaap. (1 August 2013). “When search becomes research and research becomes search.”SIGIR'13 Workshop on Exploration, Navigation and Retrieval of Information in Cultural Heritage (ENRICH). Dublin, Ireland. www.slideshare.net/jaap.kamps/sigir-workshop-enrich13

Moretti, Franco. (2013). Distant reading. London: Verso.

Moretti, Franco. (2007). Graphs, maps, trees: Abstract models for literary history. London; New York: Verso.

Prelinger, Rick. (2012). “Driving through Bunker Hill.” In Kraus, K. and Levi, A. (Eds.). Rough Cuts: Media and Design in Process. MediaCommons: The New Everyday. mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/tne/pieces/driving-through-bunker-hill

Zhai, Ke, Jordan Boyd-Graber, Nima Asadi, and Mohamad Alkhouja. (2012). “Mr. LDA: A flexible large scale topic modeling package using variational inference in MapReduce.” Proceedings of the 21th International World Wide Web Conference (WWW).

The term “distant reading” was coined by Franco Moretti in Graphs, Maps, Trees (2007) and has undergone further elaboration in his newest book (2013). See the “Works Cited” section for full bibliographic information.","txt","2","",""
"2077","15","Supporting cross-media analyses by automatically linking multiple collections","2","Introduction
Analysing media coverage across several types of media-outlets is a challenging task for Humanities researchers. Up until now, the focus has been on newspaper articles: being generally available in digital, computer-readable format, these can be studied relatively easily. Analyses of visual material like photos or television programs are however rarely undertaken. This poster presents the results of the PoliMedia project that aimed to showcase the potential of cross-media analysis by linking the digitised transcriptions of the debates at the Dutch Parliament with three media-outlets: 1) newspapers in its original format and lay-out of the historical newspaper archive at the National Library, 2) radio bulletins of the Dutch National Press Agency (ANP) and 3) newscasts and current affairs programmes from the Netherlands Institute for Sound and Vision (Kleppe et al., 2014; Kemman & Kleppe, 2013). The PoliMedia search user interface allows researchers to search through the debates and analyse the related media coverage via www.polimedia.nl. The main research question that can be addressed using PoliMedia is: What choices do different media make in the coverage of people and topics while reporting on debates in the Dutch parliament since the first televised evening news in 1956 until 1995? An advantage of PoliMedia is that the coverage in the media is incorporated in its original form, enabling analyses of both the mark-up of news articles as well as the photos in newspapers. PoliMedia demonstrates the application of Linked Open Data in the Digital Humanities: not only was a search interface developed for scholars, the data was published online and made publicly available via a SPARQL endpoint at data.polimedia.nl. This enables researchers to build customised tools that can support their specific research.


Fig. 1: Screenshot of the PoliMedia search results page

Method
The basis of PoliMedia lies in the minutes of the Dutch parliament from 1814-1995, containing circa 2.5 million pages of debates with speeches that have been OCR’d and thus allow full-text search. The minutes have been converted to structured data in XML form in previous research (Gielissen & Marx, 2009). For each speech (i.e. a fragment from a single speaker in a debate), we extract information to represent this speech; the speaker, the date, important terms (i.e. named entities) from its content and important terms from the description of the debate in which the speech is held. This information is then combined to create a query with which we search the archives of the newspapers, radio bulletins and television programmes. Media items that correspond to this query are retrieved, after which a link is created between the speech and the media item, using semantic web technologies (Juric, Hollink, & Houben, 2013). In order to navigate these links, a search user interface was developed, based on a requirements study with five scholars in history and political communication. During development, an initial version of this interface was evaluated in an eye tracking study with 24 scholars (Kemman, Kleppe, & Maarseveen, 2013).


Fig. 2: Screenshot of the PoliMedia debate page

Results 
From an evaluation of a set of links to newspaper articles, it was found that the recall of the algorithm is approximately 62%, with a precision of 80% (Juric et al., 2013; Kleppe et al., 2014). However, no links to television programmes could be made. At this point we can make no conclusions about whether this was due to the size of the television dataset, the lack of full-text search or due to lack of suitability of the linking algorithm. Linking to television programs thus remains a question for future research. The combination of a search interface and a SPARQL endpoint resulted in PoliMedia becoming the finalist of the Semantic Web Challenge 2013 en winning the first prize in the LinkedUp Veni Competition.1 The poster presentation will be accompanied with a live demo of the system via www.polimedia.nl.

References
Gielissen, T., & Marx, M. (2009). Exemelification of parliamentary debates. In Proceedings of the 9th Dutch-Belgian Workshop on Information Retrieval (DIR 2009) (pp. 19–25).

Juric, D., Hollink, L., & Houben, G. (2013). Discovering links between political debates and media. In The 13th International Conference on Web Engineering (ICWE’13). Aalborg, Denmark. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-39200-9_30

http://challenge.semanticweb.org/2013/finalists.html & http://blog.okfn.org/2013/09/17/linkedup-open-education-veni- competition-the-winners/

Kemman, M., & Kleppe, M. (2013). PoliMedia - Improving Analyses of Radio, TV & Newspaper Coverage of Political Debates. In Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries (pp. 401–404). Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-40501-3_46

Kemman, M., Kleppe, M., & Maarseveen, J. (2013). Eye Tracking the Use of a Collapsible Facets Panel in a Search Interface. In Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries (pp. 405–408). Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-40501-3_47

Kleppe, M., Hollink, L., Kemman, M., Juric, D., Beunders, H., Blom, Oomen, J., Houben, G.-J. (2014). PoliMedia - Analysing Media Coverage of Political Debates By Automatically Generated Links to Radio & Newspaper Items. In M. D’Aquin, S. Dietze, H. Drachsler, M. Guy, & E. Herder (Eds.), Proceedings of the LinkedUp Veni Competition on Linked and Open Data for Education. Geneva, Switzerland: CEUR-WS.","txt","2","",""
"2078","15","Sustainability?! Four Paradigms for Humanities Data Centers","2","Introduction
The Digital Humanities are about creating knowledge. Methods and tools, formats and data structures are designed to generate valuable digital research data and accessible resources. However, these products of scholarship are created within the framework of temporary projects. So what happens when projects come to an end? What about sustainability and future accessibility of results which were produced on cost of public money? One common and obvious answer of our times concerning the questions raised above might be ‘long-term preservation’. The archiving of digital data has been under research for many years now and will lead to the establishment of generic methodological and technical solutions as well as institutionalized data archives. But is this really the full answer to the questions posed? Typically, the goal of research projects in the humanities is not only generating ‘records’, ‘data objects’ or ‘collections’ that follow standardized models and formats and are thus easily stored together and reused by others. Rather, research in the humanities is characterized by individual, local approaches and data models that lead to very specific databases and, more importantly, publications with their own logic of presentation, access and usability.

Data, Resources, and Data Centers
Within the humanities, there is an important difference between ‘data’ and ‘resources’. This distinction has to be taken into account: often data is usable only within its context and is made accessible by specific web presentations. But who will take care of these ‘resources’ in the long run? On the one hand, long-term maintenance for sometimes idiosyncratic ‘living systems’ cannot be ensured by individual scholars - not even by academic research departments. On the other hand, nonspecific libraries and archives - including data archives - cannot be expected to provide knowledge on data models and standards that are specific within the humanities. For this data, as well as for the particular ‘resources’, a dedicated research data management is needed as well as workflows and business models for the perpetuation of the presentational systems. A comprehensive solution to these problems must be built upon institutions that can make a permanent commitment. These institutions could be called ‘data centers for the humanities’ and can be attached to other institutions like libraries, archives, computing centers, academic departments or faculties - or digital humanities centers.

Four Paradigms for Humanities Data Centers
These data centers have to provide special research data management for humanities research projects - ideally right from the beginning - to ensure archivability, accessibility, reusability, maintainability and visibility for a long time. The wide range of their tasks and goals can be described in analogy to four paradigms which we already know from our traditional research and information ecosystem:

1.) Archive paradigm. Research data has to be archived in order to be permanently preserved and secured. As pure ‘data’, as ‘bits and bytes’, research products in the humanities are not very specific and may thus be stored in generic data archives on which a data center may rely as part of the more basic infrastructure. Here, the integrity of the data has to be ensured, data may be converted into different formats, and data objects may be delivered for reuse when needed.

2.) Library paradigm. A library maintains a descriptive catalog of its holdings, cares for unique call numbers and keeps data ready for direct access. In terms of digital infrastructures this means caring for metadata, persistent identifiers and technical interfaces (such as APIs), and the integration of data and metadata into dedicated portals that allow browsing and searching.

3.) Museum paradigm. The common use case of digital output in the humanities is not to harvest or to integrate third party data via APIs. Rather, it is to consult the digital publication that is approachable and readable for humans. Digital research objects have to be presented. Often very special websites and portals are created within research projects and have to be kept alive. As in museums, important holdings are presented in a permanent exhibition. But the exhibition may also be changed, reconfigured and redone over the course of time as well.

4.) Workshop paradigm. Digital libraries evolve to virtual research environments. More and more, the presentation of digital objects and active work on the data coincide. When research platforms pass over from a project to a data center, the work should not have to stop. In an ideal world a data center will also maintain current research environments and keep them alive and working. With either generic or dedicated tools and interfaces, a data center will provide important components for the ongoing editing, enrichment and processing of digital research data.

From Theory to Practice
The issues raised here have to be addressed on a methodological and a theoretical level. But the problem of short term projects that become orphaned and whose data is at risk is acute. Therefore, the University of Cologne founded a Data Center for the Humanities in 2012. This paper will report on the theoretical background, further concepts and plans as well as the first practical steps that have already been taken.

References
Ball, A. (2012). Review of Data Management Lifecycle Models (version 1.0). REDm-MEDProject Document redm1rep120110ab10. Bath/UK: University of Bath. opus.bath.ac.uk/28587.

Blanke, T., M. Hedges(2013). Scholarly Primitives. Building Institutional Infrastructure for Humanities e-Science. In: Future Generation Computer Systems. 29/2. 654-661. linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0167739X11001178.

Büttner, S., H.-C. Hobohm, and L. Müller (eds) (2011). Handbuch Forschungsdatenmanagement. Bad Honnef: Bock+Verchen.

Burrows, T. (2011). Sharing Humanities Data for e-Research. Conceptual and Technical Issues. In: Sustainable data from digital research. Humanities perspectives on digital scholarship. Proceedings of the conference held at the University of Melbourne. 12-14th December 2011. Sydney: Custom Book Centre. ses.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/2123/7938.

Data Center for the Humanities (DCH). www.dch.uni-koeln.de.

Hügi, J., R. Schneider (2013). Digitale Forschungsinfrastrukturen in den Geistes- und Geschichtswissenschaften. Genf: Haute école de gestion de Genève.

Molloy, L. (2011). Oh, the Humanities! A Discussion About Research Data Management for the Arts and Humanities Disciplines. In: JISC MRD - Evidence Gathering 2011. mrdevidence.jiscinvolve.org/wp/2011/12/16/oh-the-humanities-a-discussion-about-research-data-management-for-the-arts-and-humanities-disciplines/.

Neuroth, H., S. Strathmann, and A. Oßwald et al (eds) (2012). Langzeitarchivierung von Forschungsdaten. Eine Bestandsaufnahme. Boizenburg: Werner Hülsbusch.

Sahle, P., S. Kronenwett (2013). Jenseits der Daten: Überlegungen zu Datenzentren für die Geisteswissenschaften am Beispiel des Kölner ‘Data Center for the Humanities’ In: LIBREAS. Library Ideas. 23. http://libreas.eu/ausgabe23/09sahle/.

Van den Eynden, V., L. Corti, and M. Woollard et al (2011). Managing and Sharing Data 2011: Best Practice for Researchers. Colchester: UK Data Archive. www.data-archive.ac.uk/media/2894/managingsharing.pdf.

M. Thaller et al (2011). DA-NRW: a distributed architecture for long-term preservation. Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Semantic Digital Archives. www.danrw.de/wp-content/uploads/paper13.pdf.

UK Data Archive. www.data-archive.ac.uk.

See discussion on Digital Medievalist Mailing List. Subject How to make your data live forever (and maybe your project). 21-06-2013. www.digitalmedievalist.org/index.html.

There are different data management lifecycle models. An overview is given in A. Ball (2012). Review of Data Management Lifecycle Models (version 1.0). REDm-MEDProject Document redm1rep120110ab10. Bath/UK: University of Bath. opus.bath.ac.uk/28587/.","txt","2","",""
"2079","15","Swiss Voice App: A smartphone application for crowdsourcing Swiss German dialect data","9","1 Introduction
The spatial variability found in dialects is an essential indexical property that is highly salient to listeners in everyday language situations: at social events, for example, one often hears conversations of the type “I have trouble localizing your dialect – where do you come from?”. Although listeners are typically unaware of the underlying linguistic mechanisms involved, they are actively engaging in perceptual dialectology (cf. Preston 1989, Clopper & Pisoni 2004) and they seem keenly aware of dialectal variation. It is interesting then that different language speaking groups seem to recognize dialects of their language with different degrees of accuracy. Leemann & Siebenhaar (2008) and Guntern (2011) show that naïve Swiss German listeners can accurately recognize a speaker’s dialect with a recognition rate of 86% and 74% respectively. However, Clopper & Pisoni (2005) report identification rates of only 30–50% for American and British English dialects; Kehrein, Lameli & Purschke (2011) report similar recognition rates for German dialects. Recent studies show that dialect recognition is possible via the mobile application Dialäkt Äpp (Leemann & Kolly, 2013; Kolly & Leemann, in review).

This contribution describes work in progress: Voice Äpp, currently in development at the University of Zurich, is a follow-up project on Dialäkt Äpp. The main purpose of both smartphone apps is to identify users’ dialects on the basis of the dialectal variants of 16 words. Dialäkt Äpp users provide their pronunciation through tapping on the corresponding variant on the smartphone screen. However, the new Voice Äpp asks users to pronounce the word and uses automatic speech recognition (ASR) to identify users’ pronunciation variants. The ASR training for Voice Äppis partly based on acoustic data crowdsourced through Dialäkt Äpp.Voice Äppfurther aims at illustrating the individuality in users’ voices by providing a multidimensional profile of their voice. The launch of Voice Äppis planned in December 2014.

Several research teams are interested in creating similar applications for other languages, using the frameworks put forth by Dialäkt Äpp and Voice Äpp: Mobile applications that recognize regional varieties of the entire German-speaking area, of American English, of British English, and of Italian, are currently under development.

2 Crowdsourcing data with Dialäkt Äpp
In 2013 we launched the iOS application Dialäkt Äpp, which capitalizes on the Swiss public interest in dialectology (Leemann & Kolly, 2013). We provided a functionality that, on the one hand, allows users to localize their own Swiss German dialect by indicating their pronunciation of 16 words (see Figure 1). Given the task to predict Swiss German dialects, a model was built by phoneticians who devised a set of maximally predictive words (i.e. maps from the Linguistic Atlas of German-speaking Switzerland: Sprachatlas der Deutschen Schweiz (SDS, 1962–2003)) that capture dialectal differences between localities. On the other hand, users can record their own dialect and listen to recordings of other users, thus discover the Swiss dialectal landscape. Figure 1 shows three screens of the application: the choice of dialectal variants for the word Donnerstag‘Thursday’, the identified localities as a list and on a map (Bern being the best hit in this example) and the distribution of users’ recordings covering German-speaking Switzerland.


Fig. 1: Screens of Dialäkt Äpp: (1) choice of dialectal variants with buttons; (2) result provided as a choice of five best hits and their corresponding positions on a map; (3) users’ recordings (one pin per locality)

Dialäkt Äpp was launched on March 22, 2013, and has been downloaded over 58’000 times (as of February 28, 2013). The data recorded by this application contains (a) (written) choices of pronunciation for 16 words by each user who localized his/her dialect and (b) audio data for the same 16 words by each user who chose to record his/her voice. For (a), the corpus contains data from over 42’000 subjects (58% males, 42% females). Most users are from the cantons (and capitals) of Zurich, Bern, Basel, Luzern, Aargau, and St. Gallen. 64% of the users’ pronunciation variants still correspond to the local variant recorded by the SDS (1962–2003) in the 1940’s and a large number of users report that the localization of their dialect by the application is very close to their dialectal origin. For (b), the corpus counts 38’477 recorded variants stemming from a total number of 2’633 iOS devices (which corresponds roughly to the number of speakers; 54% males, 46% females). The geographical distribution of users corresponds to that of the data presented in (a).

The data elicited by Dialäkt Äpp has great potential for dialectological as well as forensic phonetic research. It can be used to create new dialect maps and compare them to the maps published in the SDS (1962–2003), thus to track sound change in progress. A number of maps have already been created (for the words Apfelüberrest‘apple core’, Bett ‘bed’, schneien‘to snow’, Tanne‘pine tree’, and tief‘low’). Preliminary analyses show that phonetic isoglosses, as illustrated in maps like Bett(quality of /e/) and Tanne (quanity of /n/) are congruent with data from the SDS (1962–2003) (Kolly & Leemann, in review). The data can also be used to compare dialects at the acoustic phonetic level: For example, preliminary results show differences in speaking rate between the Bern dialect and the Zurich dialect (Leemann, Kolly, & Dellwo, accepted). Furthermore, this corpus can be used to create population statistics for a variety of phonetic parameters, which is desirable for forensic phonetic voice comparison (cf. Nolan et al., 2009).

3 Development of Voice Äpp
Voice Äpp has two major aims:

- To use ASR techniques to localize users’ dialects

- To provide users with a multidimensional profile of their voice

3.1 ASR-based dialect localization
The novelty of this new project is to use ASR techniques instead of multiple choice buttons. Some difficulties can be expected as the ASR approach is not error-free, especially through a mobile application: recording conditions may vary a lot due to the distance from the microphone, noisy environments etc. However, the high-resolution microphones of smartphones, iPhones in particular, should facilitate the ASR task. Furthermore, identifying dialects, where small variation has to be taken into account, is not the initial purpose of ASR systems; the speech recognition domain aims at normalizing such variation and at being rather dialect- or speaker-independent. In addition to this, the number of possible pronunciation variants for each word is important. For example, the word Bett ‘bed’ only counts two variants in the SDS (/bet/ and /bεt/) whereas Augen ‘eyes’ has eleven dialectal pronunciation variants. Theß latter is highly discriminant – but the ASR task is more difficult. The algorithm will have to be modified since the voice recognition approach is not as reliable as the selection with buttons.

In order to achieve this, an ASR system is trained with two corpora: (a) the Dialäkt Äpp corpus described in 2 and (b) the TEVOID corpus (Dellwo, Leemann, & Kolly, 2012). Corpus (a) contains about six hours of speech of over 2’600 speakers, covering a dense net of local dialects in German-speaking Switzerland. Each recording is an isolated word from a set of 16 words. Corpus (b) contains two hours and 45 minutes of speech of 16 Zurich German speakers. Each recording is either a spontaneous or a read sentence. While the second corpus has been segmented by hand, the first one needs data preparation and verification as it was collected without control of linguistic content nor acoustic environment.

So far, encouraging results are obtained with limited training data. After ASR training with five variables from the Dialäkt Äpp corpus, dialect word recognition has reached accuracies of 92% (Bett‘bed’), 90% (Kind ‘child’, Apfelüberrest‘apple core’), 85% (Tanne‘fir tree’), 79% (fragen‘to ask’). These accuracies may increase with larger amounts of training data, which is currently being worked on. 

3.2 Multidimensional voice profile and infotainment content
The second function of the Voice Äpp is a voice profile provided to the user. Based on a sentence recorded in their dialect, users learn about characteristics of their own voice in a playful way. A number of menus allow users to explore different aspects of speech, e.g. pitch, speech rate, articulation, auditory and visual perception.

Pitch: The fundamental frequency (f0) of the users’ sentence is calculated and displayed in a histogram representing the distribution of the f0 of all the previous users.

Speech rate: The speech rate of the users’ sentence is calculated and displayed in comparison to the previous users’ speech rate.

Articulation: Users learn about sounds and their articulation. Upon clicking on an IPA symbol a sagittal cut is shown and the sound is played. In an interactive sagittal cut users move the position of the articulators and hear the corresponding vowel sound.

Auditory perception: Users can listen to what their sentence would sound like to a person with a hearing impairment/a cochlear implant.

Visual perception: Users are shown a video illustrating the McGurk effect (MacDonald & MacGurk, 1978) and the Cocktail Party Effect (Handel, 1989). Both effects illustrate that visual cues can be crucial for speech perception.

4 Conclusion
Voice Äpp should be as interactive as possible, allowing users to learn about the individual features of their dialect and their voice in a playful way. As shown by Dialäkt Äpp, a mobile application such as Voice Äpp is interesting for the user as well as for the researcher: by providing appealing content to the user, we gain large amounts of data. This crowdsourced data can be used to create population statistics, for example for analyses of speech prosodic features. In particular, Voice Äpp creates real time f0 and speaking time statistics, which represents a novelty for e.g. the field of forensic phonetics.

Acknowledgements
The project Swiss VoiceApp – Your voice. Your identity is funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF); funding scheme: Agora; grant number: 145654.

References
Clopper, C.G., & D. Pisoni (2005). Perception of dialect variation. In: Pisoni, D., R.E. Remez (Eds.), The Handbook of Speech Perception, Oxford: Blackwell, 313–337. 

Dellwo V., Leemann, A., & Kolly, M.-J. (2012). Speaker idiosyncratic rhythmic features in the speech signal. Proceedings of Interspeech2012. 9.-13.9.2012, Portland (OR), USA.

Ferragne, E., & Pellegrino, F. (2007). Automatic dialect identification: A study of British English. In: Speaker classification II. Berlin/Heidelberg, Springer: 243–257.

Guntern, M. (2011). Erkennen von Dialekten anhand von gesprochenem Schweizerhochdeutsch. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik 78/2: 155–187. 

Handel, S. (1989): Listening. An Introduction to the perception of auditory events. MIT Press.

Kehrein, R., Lameli, A., & Purschke, C. (2010). Stimuluseffekte und Sprachraumkonzepte. In: Anders, C., Hundt, M., Lasch A. (Eds.). “Perceptual dialectology”. Neue Wege der Dialektologie. Berlin/New York, de Gruyter: 351–384. 

Leemann, A., & Kolly, M.-J. (2013). Dialäkt Äpp. https://itunes.apple.com/ch/app/dialakt-app/id606559705?mt=8.

Kolly, M.-J. & Leemann, A. (in review). Dialäkt Äpp: Communicating dialectology to the public – crowdsourcing dialects from the public. To appear in: Leemann, A., Kolly, M.-J., Schmid, S., & Dellwo, V. (Eds.). Trends in Phonetics in German-speaking Europe, Bern/Frankfurt: Peter Lang.

Leemann, A., Kolly, M.-J., & Dellwo, V. (accepted). Crowdsourcing regional variation in speaking rate through the iOS app ‘Dialäkt Äpp’. To appear in: Proceedings of Speech Prosody 2014,20.–23.05.2014, Dublin.

Leemann, A., & Siebenhaar, B. (2008). Perception of Dialectal Prosody.Proceedings of Interspeech 2008.

MacDonald, John, & MacGurk, Harry (1978). Visual influence on speech perception processes. Perception & Psychophysics 24/3: 253–257.

Nolan, F., McDougall, K., de Jong, G., & Hudson, T. (2009). The DyViS database: style-controlled recordings of 100 homogenous speakers for forensic phonetic research. The International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law 16/1: 31–57.

SDS Sprachatlas der deutschen Schweiz. (1962-2003). Bern (I-VI), Basel: Francke (VII-VIII).","txt","2","",""
"2080","15","SyMoGIH project and Geo-Larhra: A method and a collaborative platform for a digital historical atlas","9","The aim of this paper is to highlight the need for digital atlases in historical research and to present the data model and the collaborative platform we have developed in order to produce a historical geographic information system (HGIS), the Geo-Larhra, which is suitable for producing a new digital historical atlas.

1. Background and purposes
At its beginning the project explored the possibilities of integrating geographical and historical data into the same digital research platform. Several reasons fuelled this project. The main issue that arose was how to obtain base maps to represent a specific historical time. Traditionally, printed historical maps and atlases provide spatialized maps usually connected with relevant historical dates. This chronological selection documents major historical events for a specific geographic area (e.g. the political borders of European Countries after the Congress of Vienna, 1815). More rarely, maps are provided by century (1600, 1700, etc.) and significant elements in the chronological development or specific changes in tight spaces do not appear. Moreover, there exists a limited range of digital historical maps, particularly with regard to freely accessible shapefiles (commonly used geospatial vector data format), and they often do not take into account the diachronic changes in political or administrative territories. The conclusion was clear, the advance of digital history needs a project for realizing a new digital historical atlas, enhanced by researchers working collaboratively in a coherent, easy-to-use environment.

Drawing on different successful experiences in historical atlases (e.g. A vision of Britain through time, Euratlas, Digitaler Atlas zur Geschichte Europas seit 1500, HGIS Germany, China Historical GIS), we have devised a method for modeling geohistorical data to process the evolution of territories. This work is an application of the SyMoGIH method, the MOdular SYstem for Historical Information Management (Beretta, Francesco / Vernus, Pierre (2012)). Against this background, the historical atlas will be available to historians participating in the SyMoGIH project but it will also be accessible to a larger public through the web site, www.geo-larhra.org, offering a basic mapping service online as well as downloadable resources. Geo-Larhra includes a gazetteer, a catalog of vector layers plus the digital historical atlas. In this paper we will describe the underlying data model and the principles and workflow of our collaborative approach.

2. Method and data model
To build such a collaborative historical atlas, we needed to develop a generic data model allowing the processing of any type of place and taking into account any kind of temporal evolution due to the toponymical, typological or spatial extent changes. To address the issue of multi-dimensional evolution, the team of the SyMoGIH project has developed a generic data model independent of any research problem [see the documentation on our website: www.symogih.org/?q=documentation]. In our model, we distinguish between the identification of places and their spatial representation.

The identification of places is carried out in the traditional way using a gazetteer: a place is identified by its name or names, a type and a geographical location in form of a point or a bounding box (cf. Hill, Linda L., 2006). Each place is identified by a uniform resource identifier (URI).

The processing of spatial representation on the contrary is the most novel part of our method : we have introduced a distinction between the form of a place at a given time, that we call a “concrete time-specific form” or simply a “concrete form”, and the more or less accurate geometries (i.e. geo-referenced vector data) representing this form at different scales. The evolution of the place's form is first described and documented by historical information collected collaboratively by the historians participating in the project. The geometries are then produced by the GIS specialists according to the collected information. This modeling process and data production workflow is more flexible and suitable for historical research than the traditional method in GIS, which links data directly to geometries. By using SQL and spatial queries it is possible to output the shape of places and territories at a given date with a temporal scale which is currently accurate to the day. This method leads to a synthesis between combining the traditional practice of historical databases, the use of historical atlases and GIS methods. Geo-Larhra is intended to be a resource to address both of these needs : providing historically accurate base maps and allowing historians to make spatial analysis taking into account temporal evolution.

Our philosophy is based on a collaborative and open approach aimed at enriching and developing the historical atlas. The collaboration of historians and GIS specialists is carried out on several levels : they collect historical and geographical information from sources, maps and historical atlases ; they produce historical data in the collaborative database platform ; they produce geometries using the collected historical and geographical data. Digital maps are finally created and they can be successively added to, following the same workflow, if new or more precise information is collected. The paper will give some concrete examples of this collaborative approach.


Fig. 1: Screenshot of the historical atlas : www.geo-larhra.org

3. The platform
Technological choices for the project encountered strong constraints resulting from the collaborative aspect and the generic system and multiple uses for which it was intended. The software architecture has been constructed using the triptych PostgreSQL, Post-GIS and QGIS. The DBMS PostgreSQL provides several advantages. It is a free and open source, and useful to establish the precise management of users’ rights. The PostGIS extension is easily interfaced with other management database tools to query, analyze and visualize data (GIS software, statistical analysis, GIS web server). Geo-historical data are published with the TinyOWS map-server which provide WMS (Web Map Service) and WFS-T (Web Feature Service) in QGIS or OpenLayers.

4. Future prospects
To date, the data model presented in this paper seems to fit historians’ needs perfectly. However our team must now improve the ease of use of the platform accessed by scholars concerned by spatial analysis who would contribute to this project. We have already started to publish the gazetteer on the web and we provide some shapefiles, extracted from the historical atlas of the Italian peninsula territories, which was our first data set created according to this method. Our longer-term perspective is to expand the geographical area of the atlas with the help of international partners.

References
Beretta, F., Vernus, P. (2012). ""Le projet SyMoGIH et la modélisation de l'information : une opération scientifique au service de l'histoire"", Les carnets du LARHRA, 1, 81-107

Beretta, F., Butez, C. (2013). Conception et usage du système d'information géo-historique de SyMoGIH. Partie 2 : Exemple d’application : conception de l’atlas historique numérique et analyses de données attributaires de l’Italie du Risorgimento Géomatique Expert, n° 92, Mai-Juin 2013, pp. 48-54.

Butez, C., (2013). Conception et usage du système d'information géo-historique de SyMoGIH. Partie 1: Naissance et conception d'un système d'information géo-historique collaboratif Géomatique Expert, n° 91, Mars-Avril 2013, pp. 30-35.

Ell, P.S., Gregory, I. N. (2007). Historical GIS : technologies, methodologies, and scholarship, Cambridge/New York , Cambridge University Press

Gregory, I. N. (2003). A place in history : a guide to using GIS in historical research, Oxford, Oxbow Books

Hill, L. L. (2006). Georeferencing : the geographic associations of information, Cambridge Mass, The MIT Press","txt","2","",""
"2081","15","Taco: A Metadata System for Hierarchical Structured Data Collections","2","1. Introduction
Today, any modern file system offers the possibility to create hierarchical nested folder structures with an arbitrary depth. This leads often to large accumulations of data, where the only regulative element is the hierarchy of folders. Such a directory structure represents meta information about the data it contains, but because this information is not bound to specific datastreams of bits, it is often not included into traditional metadata formats which are used to describe data stored in files 1. Taco (short for „Tags & Components“) is a metadata system which allows to assign metadata directly to the folders of a file system.

1.1. Overview
Tags are community-specific, predefined attribute-value pairs of a specific data type, while a component is a collection of tags, contextually affiliated with each other. Such a component can then be assigned to a folder, describing the content of the folder as a whole. It doesn't matter how deep or where exactly in the file system hierarchy the folder is located. The metadata is stored as key-value pairs in plain text files. These files can be converted to any other metadata format or exported via OAI-PMH2. After the creation of the Taco components, a harvester parses the whole hierarchy recursively and indexes all assigned metadata components. The assignment of components to folders is optional, with one exception: At the root level of the projects file system hierarchy, a „header“ component is mandatory. It represents the top-most entry point for a specific project. It contains general information like owner, contact information and a description about the whole project. It is used as an anchor for all other components: all non-header components can be seen in relation to the header.

The Taco System does not prohibit the use of common metadata formats like CMDI for describing individual file(s) – optionally, these file-based metadata formats can be included into the Taco system.

The Taco system consists of three parts (Figure 1): (I) TacoEdit, a desktop application for assigning components to folders, (II) TacoHarvest, a harvesting application which collects the components inside a folder hierarchy and stores them in a (relational) database and (III) TacoBrowse, a web application that provides simple access to that database. All three parts are built around predefined and community-specific tags and components.


Fig. 1: The three parts of the Taco System

2. The Taco System
2.1. The Editor
TacoEdit is a user-friendly desktop application. It loads the predefined tags and components and offers an overview of the project's data set, starting with the current project's root folder. From here, the user can create new and edit existing components underneath the root directory.


Fig. 2: The TaCo Editor Application

2.2. Harvesting & Indexing
After the user has created metadata components, the second part of the tool chain can be applied to the folder hierarchy. It scans the folder recursively and extracts the metadata, compiling a tree of metadata components which typifies the whole metadata of a project. This tree of metadata can be exported to a number of XML based metadata formats like CMDI or odML 4 . In addition, TacoHarvest can automatically generate a relational database schema from the predefined list of components and insert the specific metadata via SQL commands. This database is the basis for the third part of the tool chain, TacoBrowse.

2.3. Browsing & Exploring
TacoBrowse is a web application. It can be used to access the database which was created by TacoHarvest. It offers convenient „wizards“ to perform semi-automated search requests to the database. The result of such a request is always one or several folders, represented by the assigned metadata components and its content in form of files and other folders. The user has the choice to either display the metadata component or the files, stored in the result folder(s).

3. Use Cases
The Taco System was originally designed for the Max Planck Institute for Ornithology. Here, it will be used to assign metadata to a very large collection of projects and files (ca. 70 millions files), stored in a migrating file system. The Taco System is designed to be independent of a specific research discipline and can be used wherever data is stored in a hierarchical way. This applies not only in natural sciences, but also to many humanity disciplines which are dealing with large collections of texts, images, videos or other digital content.

4. Conclusion
The Taco System is a complete software solution for assigning, editing and querying metadata assigned to folders in a file system hierarchy. With the current implementation, it is possible to search for tags or components in relation to a project's root directory, represented by the metadata header. In upcoming versions, it will be possible to define explicitly relations between the components and include these into the queries.

References
1. Schmidt, Ingrid (2004). Modellierung von Metadaten. In: Henning Lobin; Lothar Lemnitzer: Texttechnologie. Perspektiven und Anwendungen. Stauffenburg, Tübingen, ISBN 3-86057-287-3, S. 143–164.

2. Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting: www.openarchives.org/pmh/

3. Broeder, D., Schonefeld, O., Trippel, T., Van Uytvanck, D., and Witt, A. (2011). A pragmatic approach to XML interoperability the component metadata infrastructure (CMDI). In Balisage: The Markup Conference 2011, volume 7.

4. Grewe J., Wachtler T. and Benda J. (2011). A bottom-up approach to data annotation in neurophysiology. Front. Neuroinform. 5:16. doi: 10.3389/fninf.2011.00016","txt","2","",""
"2082","15","Taking a Global Perspective on the Skills and Competencies Important to Digital Scholarship","2","Despite the significance of digital technologies to contemporary culture, scholars across the mainstream academy have been slow to publish “discipline-based scholarship produced with digital tools and presented in digital form”(Ayers, 2013). In part, this dearth results from many researchers lacking (or lacking access to) required skills (a learned capability, such as programming expertise) and competencies (a more abstract ability in a particular domain, such as transdisciplinary collaboration). While some centers and programs excel at supporting digital scholarship, many institutions are trying to determine what skills are needed to produce such work and how to cultivate them (Sehat and Farr, 2009). Our benchmarking study thus examines how leading digital scholarship (DS) programs around the world define and nurture skills and competencies. With the support of the Mellon Foundation, we are conducting site visits and gathering data at four locations in the United States, one in Canada, two in Europe, and three in the BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa). As a result of this research, we hope to help institutions create strategies for supporting digital scholarship, inform the development of educational and professional development programs, and contribute a global perspective to the ongoing discussion about DS training. Although this study is necessarily constrained to approximately ten sites, we hope that it provides the foundation for further work. 

Through benchmarking, we aim to understand the key workforce-related factors instrumental to a center’s, department’s or program’s success. In order to consider a range of methodological approaches and foster cross-disciplinary inquiry, we define digital scholarship broadly as creating, producing, analyzing, and/or disseminating scholarship using new technologies, with an emphasis on digital and computational techniques. Digital scholarship includes both creating and analyzing “born digital” content and bringing new meaning to digitized content, such as through textual analysis. Our study looks at digital scholarship not only in the humanities, but also in the social sciences. We are investigating both physical centers and distributed DS services and activities, which are often, but not always, located in a university library. In addition, we are examining to what extent cultural, institutional, disciplinary and national contexts influence what skills are important. 

This poster will serve as an interim report on the study, outlining its goals, methods, and initial high-level observations. In selecting sites, we are considering criteria such as what research services they offer, staff expertise, numbers of different kinds of staff, reputation, and record of innovative, successful projects, as well as the program’s involvement with significant professional development and/or educational programs. We aim for geographical, cultural and disciplinary diversity. During our site visits, we are conducting semi-structured interviews with key faculty, graduate students, research staff, and administrators, asking questions such as what skills matter most to their work and how ideally to develop them. We are also gathering benchmarking data such as the skills of staff, the center’s support for professional development, and its approaches to developing digital scholarship.

By the time of the conference, we expect to have completed at least six of our site visits, including to locations in the United States, Canada, China, and Europe. Thus we will share general patterns emerging from the study, including the preliminary core skills and competencies that we have identified. We will also explore how centers develop these skills, such as by providing dedicated time for exploratory research and development work, hosting visiting scholars, enabling staff to teach, supporting training and conference travel, and fostering a “learning culture.” We will discuss the challenges in conducting the study, including identifying “best in class” digital scholarship programs in a global context, ensuring diversity in what centers and programs are represented, coordinating visits, and deciding what kind of data is important to collect and how best to capture that data. Through our interactive poster session, we will solicit feedback on our work to date and identify opportunities to expand our research.

References
Ayers, Edward L. (2013) “Does digital scholarship have a future?”EDUCAUSE Review, vol. 48, no. 4 (July/August 2013)

Sehat, Connie Moon, and Erika Farr. (2009) The Future of Digital Scholarship: Preparation, Training, Curricula. Report of a Colloquium on Education in Digital Scholarship, April 17–18, 2009. Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources, 2009. www.clir.org/pubs/archives/SehatFarr2009.pdf.

Zorich, Diane (2008). A Survey of Digital Humanities Centers in the United States. Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources. http://www.clir.org/pubs/abstract/pub143abst.html.","txt","2","",""
"2083","15","Taking manuscripts apart, and putting them together","2","Introduction
Our poster will demonstrate recent work on generating visualizations of codex manuscript structure, and visualizations of reconstructed historical manuscripts known through palimpsest. Next steps, presented at DH2014, will include linking the visualization to digital images of the manuscript pages, and work to parse more complex collation formulas. The purpose is to enable scholars and students to consider the manuscript, as a physical object, in ways not otherwise possible.

Taking manuscripts apart
We have started our collation visualization proof-of-concept work using the collation formulae from The Digital Walters TEI manuscript description files.1 They use a simple subtraction-only system that describes the manuscript as it exists now, but makes no claims for how it came to be that way. This distinguishes it from other manuscript collation formulae, which typically distinguish between leaves added and leaves deleted.2 In the Walters formula added folios are treated as half a sheet, of which the other half has been removed. For example, a manuscript with a leaf added between the second and third quires, and with a leaf removed in the middle of the fourth quire, would be described using this formula:

1(8), 2(10, -1), 3(8), 4(10, -6)

Quire 1 has eight leaves. Quire 2 has nine leaves, with the last leaf added (=the conjoin of the last leaf noted as missing). Quire 3 has eight leaves. Quire 4 has nine leaves, with the sixth leaf missing.

Although it lacks the description found in other formulas developed for manuscripts and printed books, it has the benefit of being simple to parse - perfect for a proof-of-concept.

We find all of the collation formulas in the Digital Walters manuscript descriptions (not all of them include a formula), and then parse the formulas to generate a simple XML file describing the number of quires, number of leaves in each quire, and any ""missing"" leaves.

<quires>

  <quire n=""1"" leaves=""8""/>

  <quire n=""2"" leaves=""10"">

    <less>1</less>

  </quire>

  <quire n=""3"" leaves=""8""/>

  <quire n=""4"" leaves=""10"">

    <less>6</less>

  </quire>

</quires>

 We then use this file to generate a set of SVG files, one for each quire. Leaves marked with <less> are currently indicated using outline, which existing leaves are indicated using dark lines.


Fig. 1: Sample quire, missing the first leaf

At this point in the project (October 2013), we have the building blocks we need to begin constructing interactive collation visualizations for the manuscripts in The Digital Walters. Below, we will outline next steps for the project.

Putting manuscripts together
Our work with reconstructing palimpsest manuscripts is within the context of the Sinai Palimpsest Project and was initially presented at the TEI Member's Meeting and Conference, Rome 2013.3 The situation with the Sinai palimpsests is complex. Manuscripts were erased (the ink scraped off) and the pages re-used in other manuscripts. In some cases, fragments from several different historical manuscripts have been stitched together to create new leaves. Some fragments have been re-used more than once, resulting in layers of palimpsest.


Fig. 2: A sample folio from Sinai Arabic NF 8, consisting of four fragments from different historical manuscripts, stitched together for form a new folio.

We are developing a system using TEI to describe both historical manuscripts (the manuscripts from which the palimpsests originated) and the extant manuscripts (the manuscripts as they exist now, with parts of historical manuscripts distributed through them), and linking the two together while also creating visualizations of the historical manuscripts. We are interested not only in reconstructing individual palimpsest folios, but also in reconstructing complete manuscripts (as has already been done for the so-called Archimedes Palimpsest)4. This is the point at which our work taking manuscripts apart and our work putting manuscripts together overlaps: creating visualizations of the physical structure of both existing and historical manuscripts.

Poster session and next steps
At DH2014 we will present our most recent work on both taking manuscripts apart, and on putting them back together. Our poster will highlight the methods we use: how we describe our data, what we use to process the data, and visualization practices. We will also be prepared to demonstrate the methods in real time, particularly the process for translating a collation formula into a visualization.

Next steps will focus on expanding the collation visualization approach to more descriptive collation formulas5

, linking the collation visualization to digital images of the manuscript folios, and presenting the collation visualizations within an interface that would act as a workspace for scholars.

References
1. The Digital Walters, www.thedigitalwalters.org/Data/WaltersManuscripts/ManuscriptDescriptions/

2. Clemens, R. and T. Graham (2007), Introduction to Manuscript Studies (Cornell University Press), pp. 130-131

3. Emery, D. and D. Porter, (2013), ""TEI and the Description of the Sinai Palimpsests"" presented at The Linked TEI: Text Encoding in the Web, TEI Conference and Member's Meeting 2013, Rome, Italy. digilab2.let.uniroma1.it/teiconf2013/program/papers/abstracts-paper#C140

4. Netz, Reviel et al.The Archimedes Palimpsest Volume 1: Catalogue and Commentary (Cambridge University Press, 2011)

5. Bowers, Fredson. (1962). Principles of Bibliographic Description. New York: Russell & Russell.","txt","2","",""
"2084","15","TEI Customization for enconding paratexts in spanish printed books (XV-XVIII)","2","1. Introduction
1.1. Overview
El propósito de este póster es proporcionar una demostración del proyecto de etiquetado y edición digital con TEI de los paratextos en obras impresas de escritoras españolas desde el siglo XV al XVIII de BIESES (www.bieses.net). La información contextual que aportan los paratextos sobre sus autoras, el contexto de producción, las motivaciones que impulsaron su escritura, su recepción o su proceso de edición exigen una visión dinámica de la obra literaria mediante su representación digital, no como un producto hecho (work) sino como un acto de producción de sentido (act) que se reactualiza en cada cultura o época y en cada lector (""text in performance"" [Bryant, 2002]1).

1.2. Methodology
Partiendo de la experiencia de toda una serie de proyectos de investigación dedicados a la escritura femenina (Brown University Project, African American Women Writers of the 19th Century, British Women Romantic Poet, 1789-1832, Women writer Resource Pages, UNiversidad de Chicago, The Orlando Project, Victorian Women Writers Project, Indiana UNiversity, Emory Women Writer Project)2, estamos fijando esquemas de etiquetado, a partir de un thesaurus de ""valores"" aplicados a los atributos que definan la posición de las escritoras en el campo literario, sus actitudes ante la escritura y las valoraciones que sus contemporáneos vierten en estos textos preliminares o epilogales.

El codificado de este tipo de textos invierte el esquema tradicional de TEI, que privilegia el desarrollo del ""body"" frente al ""front"" y ""back"", dado que los paratextos ocupan un espacio ""marginal"" en la obra literaria: portada, preliminares (antes del cuerpo de la obra) y epílogo (después del cuerpo de la obra); además de otro tipo de informaciones paratextuales que se pueden intercalar en el cuerpo del texto y otro tipo de glosas o anotaciones marginales, que también hay que codificar.

2. Getting Started
En nuestro proyecto prescindimos del ""body"", que queda reducido a un enlace a un texto digitalizado o a una breve mención del inicio o final de la obra literaria en cuestión, y codificamos únicamente los textos reservados a los módulos del ""front"" y ""back"" [Burnard-Rahtz 2004: 5-8]3.

Por analogía de temas e intereses seguimos muy de cerca el modelo de customización [Bauman y Flander 2004]4 de Women Writer Project (Brown University), que usa el ""ODD language"" (véase: www.wwp.brown.edu)5.

En esta primera fase la customización se está centrando en la eliminación de elementos inncesarios y en la definición y establecimiento de valores para atributos, centrados en la caracterización de los enunciadores de estos textos (escritoras y destinatarios) y en las valoraciones sobre el proceso de escritura. A medida que el proceso de customización avance puede resultar necesario cambiar la estructura interna de algunos elementos para representar la realidad textual de los paratextos.

Por todo ello creeemos que, siguiendo los modelos citados de proyectos que ya tiene una amplia andadura, la customización a través de TE IODD que proponemos para los paratextos de obras literarias españolas escritas entre el el siglo XV-XVIII, centrada en los elementos de front y back puede resultar interesante para otros investigadores y proyectos que atiendan a la literatura femenina de este período.

References
1. Bryant, Jonh (2002), The fluid Text: A Theory of Revision and Editing for Book and Screen, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press

2. digital.lib.ucdavis.edu/projects/bwrp/; meet.tge-adonis.fr/projet/roles-et-pouvoirs-des-femmes-au-xvie-siecle-dans-la-france-de-louest; webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/vwwp/welcome.do;jsessionid=9135BDD19390863752F291EAEA63E22E y https://wiki.dlib.indiana.edu/display/vwwp/Home; www.womenwriters.nl/index.php/Prefaces; womenwriters.library.emory.edu/; www.artsrn.ualberta.ca/orlando/; www.wwp.brown.edu/http://digital.nypl.org/schomburg/writers_aa19/

3. Lou Burnard y Sebastian Rahtz, Relax NG with Son of ODD, Extreme Markup Languague, 2004: citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.124.7139&rep=rep1&type=pdf

4. Bauman, Syd y Flander, Julia, Odd customizations, Extreme Markup Languague, 2004: conferences.idealliance.org/extreme/html/2004/Bauman01/EML2004Bauman01.html

5. www.wwp.brown.edu/research/publications/guide/html/customization.html","txt","2","",""
"2085","15","Text Mining Plato's Dialogues","9","","","2","",""
"2086","15","TextGrid: Creating, publishing and archiving digital editions and other data from the arts and humanities via a Virtual Research Environment and its repository","2","Today, scholarly digital editions represent one of the core application areas of the Digital Humanities. Virtual Research Environments (VREs) enable and support the creation, publication, and long-term archiving of such data. Answering an increasing demand for digital and collective research features in the humanities, the joint project TextGrid, funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research has, since its start in 2006 and in continuous exchange with the research community, developed a VRE that aims at mapping the entire research process. 

Whereas the TextGrid Laboratory (TextGridLab)  contains a versatile open source software for editing and generating digital sources collaboratively in a protected virtual environment, and allowing for a differentiated user rights management, the TextGrid Repository (TextGridRep) offers an open, XML/TEI-based long-term research archive, in which both the text and image data generated with the TextGridLab, as well as external digital objects, can be published, browsed, explored, analysed, cited, and archived. 

A crucial factor of a VRE’s success and impact is the use of both technological and semantic standards. The TextGrid architecture supports, amongst common metadata standards, the markup language XML together with the well-established markup data format TEI. They reflect international standards for the sustainable, searchable and reusable mark-up of humanistic sources, especially of digital editions. A differentiated user rights management facilitates collaborative work on a shared project in a non-public environment. Tools, data, and methods can be used mutually, regardless of the operative system, software equipment, or location. 

In addition to the tools and services available in the TextGridLab, the TextGridRep provides the user with the possibility to save, publish, and search a variety of digital resources such as XML/TEI encoded texts, images and databases, therefore supporting the creation of Linked Open Data. Thus, both core components of the VRE, the TextGridLab and the TextGridRep, are aligned for an optimal interaction, interlinkeage, and workflow between and with one another.

Beyond the creation of resources, TextGrid ensures the persistent availability of and access to research data as well as optimal interconnectivity, supporting international standards. Collaborative research is facilitated by e.g. the annotation of images; further annotation features are currently evaluated. 

Thus, TextGrid facilitates the creation of digital editions, from the provision and creation of primary data in XML to published and citable research data; data that can also be made available in an external online portal, or be exported into a print-ready document (PDF).

As of today, TextGrid has approx. 1.500 registered users and approx. 40 research projects from a broad spectrum of humanistic disciplines ranging from philology, cultural studies, medieval studies, jewish and ecclesiastical history to linguistic and musicological studies. Amongst them are single scholars and medium-scale research groups such as ""Theodor Fontane's notebooks"", as well as large, long-term projects like “Johann Friedrich Blumenbach – online” or “IDIOM – Interdisciplinary Dictionary of Classic Mayan”. 

The poster will display how a complete scholarly workflow can be mapped via a VRE like TextGrid – from collecting and generating primary data through enriching it with metadata and XML/TEI, and finally publishing it in a portal and/or a repository, following sustainable standards and thus allowing for citation, long-term accessibility, further interlinking and scholarly re-use. In this scope, the poster will not only focus on text-based research data, but will also explore technologies allowing for a web based annotation, viewing and publishing of image formats such as Digilib.



References
http://www.textgrid.de/en/

https://www.textgrid.de/en/registrationdownload/download-and-installation/

http://www.textgridrep.de/

http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml

http://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/303691.html

http://www.blumenbach-online.de/index.php?id=2&L=1

http://www.iae.uni-bonn.de/forschung/forschungsprojekte/laufende-projekte/idiom-dictionary-of-classic-mayan/idiom-english-project-description

http://digilib.berlios.de/","txt","2","",""
"2087","15","The Ancient Coins of Thrace: A Numismatic Web Portal","9","Project Summary
In the field of numismatics there have been many attempts to create overarching reference works for ancient Greek and Roman coins, with different degrees of success. Challenges include the sheer amount of coins to be documented and the difficulty of accessing them, being spread throughout the world. A virtual collection however opens up new possibilities and promises to come closer to this aim through collaboration and linked data.

The Ancient Coins of Thrace concentrates on coins originating from a specific ancient region (Thrace—today's Bulgaria, northern Greece, and European Turkey) digitally collected from around the world. A web portal of this character is quite unique within the numismatic community. The project hopes to provide a method which others can emulate, perhaps leading to a group of online resources which together accomplish that which a printed edition could not. Funding comes from a three year DFG (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) grant. The project is located at the BBAW (the Berlin Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities) and is currently starting its second year. Its main partner is the Bode Museum Coin Cabinet, part of the Berlin State Museums.

The project has two goals. The first is the virtual collection itself: a web portal where ancient Thracian coins can be found. This is accomplished in three ways.

The BBAW: The academy has its own extensive collection-- numbering almost 33,000 plaster casts of about 16,500 Thracian coins. The coin data is being entered into the project data base along with scans of the plaster casts.
Cooperation with museums and institutions: The project's first and main partner is the Bode Museum Coin Cabinet. They are providing data and photos from about 4,000 Thracian coins. Other museums and institutions have expressed themselves as ready partners, such as the ANS (American Numismatic Society).
Individual entry: This is one of the project's more special features. Users will be able to register on the web portal and enter their own Thracian coins. This is especially for smaller museums that do not yet have data bases or for private collectors. Smaller museums would then have an online presentation of their Thracian coin collection.
The second goal is research-oriented: it involves the typification of Thracian designs (the pictures on coins) and legends (the texts on coins), together creating the 'type' of a coin. Through standardized design descriptions and legends, the identification of dies2 is greatly furthered. All coins found in the portal will thus be linked to these standardized descriptions, and as a result dies can be identified and given a fixed number. This is an essential step for numismatic research.3

What challenges arise from such an undertaking?
Digital standards: One important focus of the project is implementing and promoting numismatic digital standards. To this purpose nomisma IDs4 are used for all relevant fields, and lists are being sent to nomisma for new IDs for those which do not yet exist. The nomisma data base standards (NUDS) were also used wherever possible. Such standards are essential for data exchange but will only become truly useful when implemented by other institutions. The Bode Museum Coin Cabinet is participating by entering nomisma IDs for Thracian coins. The ANS, being the main partner of nomisma, have nomisma IDs for their coin data as well. It is hoped through example to encourage the use of these standards in other numismatic data bases.

Import and web interfaces: the original concept for the portal was to import coin data from other institutions into its own data base. This is currently the method in process for the ca. 4,000 coins from the Bode Museum Coin Cabinet. The Bode Museum is however a very involved partner, working actively and closely for a successful import. One could raise the question if perhaps web interfaces—something like windows into different Thracian coin collections—might not be a more practical solution for other institutions. It must not be forgotten, however, that all coin data must still be linked to its standardized description. Such questions are still being discussed.

Individual entry: This rather special feature of the web portal brings its own difficulties. Accessing collections which are not yet in data bases and involving these members of the numismatic community is essential to the project. Holding very high standards for coin data (both in terms of the numismatic research and digital standards) is however equally important. A very strict entry mask could alleviate difficulties but does not offer a final solution. It remains to be seen how much reworking the individually entered coins will require.

Data model: The data model is complex and its conception took time. Yet the even greater challenge was translating numismatic research goals into the language of data modeling. In other words—as an initial step before creating the data model—the challenge of understanding the aims of the research, the relationships between numismatic concepts, and how the research process itself would enfold.

Conclusion
The Ancient Coins of Thrace strives to create a web portal that offers easy access to Thracian coins, that provides a typification of design and legend, and that furthers numismatic digital standards. It hopes to be of use to museums, private collectors, students and researchers. Because many aspects of the project are relatively new for the field of numismatics (such as a regional based web portal, individual coin entry, and linked data with nomisma IDs), it is certain that these efforts could be improved with time and experience. At the conference we wish to share our progress and developments thus far, receive feedback, and exchange ideas with other projects.

References
1. See Robert Bracey's article 'Online Numismatic Databases – A Review' (2012) for a good overview of what's currently out there: www.academia.edu/2335397/Online_Numismatic_Databases_-_A_Review

2. 'Metal piece engraved with the design used for stamping the coin.' en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_numismatics

3. 'Research needs the die, not the exemplar' (Die Wissenschaft braucht den Stempel, nicht das Exemplar) wrote Mommsen in an expertise „über den wissenschaftlichen Werth … einer Gesammtpublikation der antiken Münzen“ 1887. Cited by H.-M. Kaenel, Schweizer Münzblätter 2004, here p. 85, see also idem., Theodor Mommsen. Zur wissenschaftlichen Edition antiker Münzen. Gutachten aus dem Jahre 1886, SNR 81, 2002, 7–20, here p. 9.

4. 'Nomisma.org is a collaborative project to provide stable digital representations of numismatic concepts according to the principles of Linked Open Data. These take the form of http URIs that also provide access to reusable information about those concepts, along with links to other resources.' nomisma.org/","txt","2","",""
"2088","15","The Annotated Star: A Collaborative Digital Edition of Rosenzweig's Star of Redemption","2","For the Digital Humanities Conference 2014, we propose to present a poster discussing our project, “The Annotated Star”: a collaborative, dynamic edition that combines the traditional critical edition with the potential of digital technologies.1 The poster will draw on our international collaboration developing an open-source, web-based text annotation interface and explore the practical and theoretical implications of our collaborative editing and computer-aided quote-mining of Franz Rosenzweig’s (1886-1929) philosophical-theological monograph Star of Redemption (1921). Drawing on a host of interdisciplinary, interfaith and stylistic sources from the German and Jewish cultural tradition, religious texts, and the natural sciences, Rosenzweig’s writings not only serve as an exceptional model - in form as well as in content - for the future of digital textual collaboration.2 Even more so, as we hope to demonstrate, the digital editing of Rosenzweig’s text also serves as the impetus for a discussion over how computer technologies can help us rethink, reposition and enhance the traditional hermeneutic task of close and critical reading in the digital age. 

The poster and our presentation will center on the two key aspects of our project. First, they will outline our construction of an online, collective annotation graphical user interface, designed to allow users to upload their own comments, links, and annotations to the digitized text. At first based on Rosenzweig’s Star of Redemption, such a website will be easily adaptable for other base texts and will link, display, and organize digitized versions of the reference texts from which the base text quotes. The finished site will store previously marked annotations, allow for user input, and display linked texts, as the following screenshots illustrate: 


Fig. 1: Prototype Screenshots of the GUI

Such a platform enables and stores collaboratively defined, hyper-textual linkages between Star of Redemption and, for instance, Goethe’s Faust or Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason – if not for any text within, or even beyond, the humanities. Yet the parallel display of texts enabled by digital technology does not supplant our traditional understanding of close reading, but rather enhances close reading, while visualizing the processes of textual reference and reassembly that serve at its foundation.

Second, our poster and presentation will discuss our implementation of an automatic text re-use detection tool, which we are currently using to detect textual overlaps between Star of Redemption and the growing canon of digitized literature, philosophy and the natural sciences. With this tool we hope to use information technologies to unearth moments in which Rosenzweig quotes from sources without citing them and, thus, to provide automated data for the collaborative website discussed above. As our poster explores, the upshot of the project is the discovery of new references in Star of Redemption and, with them, a deeper understanding of the rich layers of philosophical, Rabbinic, literary and cultural commentary hidden yet ubiquitous in Rosenzweig’s text. Furthermore, it would allow us to revisit, reformulate and re-map the networks of intertextuality and textual re-use that, at their core, inform our hermeneutic and humanistic questions in the present.

Ultimately, we hope to provide more than just a demonstration of a collective critical edition of Rosenzweig’s Star of Redemption, more, too, than an open-source annotation and editing tool. Rather, by looking at how developments in digital technologies and the Digital Humanities aid in our understanding of a text key to both German and Jewish Studies, it provides us the opportunity to address questions central to the evolving field of the Digital Humanities. Our poster on the “Annotated Star,” in other words, will explore how the digital revolution redefines and simultaneously solidifies the task of humanistic scholarship. Perhaps most importantly, it also explores and seeks to engender discussion around numerous philosophical concepts – such as Rosenzweig’s ideas on truth and collaboration, translation and language – that enable us to think critically through the new possibilities the Digital Humanities offer for humanistic scholarship and inquiry.

References
1. For the history and typology of dynamic textual editing, see Ray Siemens et al., Towards Modeling the Social Edition, in Literary and Linguistic Computing, (2012): 445-61, especially 446-9.

2. Peter E. Gordon, Rosenzweig and Heidegge (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), Mara Benjamin, Rosenzweig’s Bible (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), the contributions to the Rosenzweig Yearbook, vol 2: Criticism of Islam, ed. Martin Brasser (Freiburg: Karl Alber, 2007).","txt","2","",""
"2089","15","The Arabic Papyrology Database","2","1. Pecularities of the Arabic Writing System
The Arabic writing system in general and the writing conventions in papyri in particular require special display formats. As in most Afro-Asiatic writing systems, short vowels are not represented by letters, but there exist vocalisation marks (harakāt), written above or below the letters . Further, one-letter-words and the article are written together with the following word and the clitical pronouns are attached to the preceding word. In transliteration these words are separated by a hyphen. Finally, 15 letters (al-ḥurūf al-muʿjamah) are distinguished by diacritical pointing from letters with the same basic form 1. However, these dots are only occasionally found in early Arabic documents. Most modern editions of early and classical Arabic texts do not account for these pecularities of the Arabic writing system and normalize the texts according to modern orthographical rules without using vowel-signs. While this established practice may be appropriate for literary texts, a more elaborate procedure is needed for documentary texts.

2. The Data
There are two main groups of premodern Arabic documents: Inscriptions and papyri in the broder sense. The second group consists of about 150‘000 documents written on different material such as papyrus, parchment or paper during the period from the 7th to the 16th centuries, of which about 2‘500 have been edited 2. Another 10‘000 unpublished documents are described or mentioned in papyrological publications. All these documents provide information on almost every aspect of Islamic history. Despite their importance, they still do not receive a high level of attention in historical research 3.

3. Methodology
Two leading ideas were at the beginning of the Arabic Papyrology Database (APD) [www.ori.uzh.ch/apd]: On one hand it should be a research tool which makes metadata and full texts of all edited documents easily accessible, and on the other it should overcome the limitations of printed editions. As already mentioned, modern editions present the texts in a normalized form according to modern Arabic orthography. Some high quality edition describe the diacritical pointing and vocalisation marks in the critical apparatus, and a limited number of editions provide word indices in transliteration.

For the APD a entirely new approach of organizing Arabic text was developed. Instead of the single text level approach used in print and in other database projects, the APD presents texts in five levels. This approach is unprecedented in the entire field of Arabic studies. On the the first level only diacritical dots found in the document are written and all observations of gaps, deleted texts and redundant words are indicated by sigla and brackets [orientw.uzh.ch:8080/apd/requisits3c.jsp]. On the second level these marks are removed and the text is broken into single words. On the third level missing diacritical dots are added, as it is common in text editions. On the fourth level vowel marks are added in providing a full phonological representation. On the fifth level the text is latinised with segmentation of the elements written together in Arabic script [orientw.uzh.ch:8080/apd/requisits2.jsp]. Further, each element of the fifth level is connected to a lexicon and a list of grammatical forms. The levels of text are hierarchically organized, and variant readings and remarks are attached to their appropriate level. Search is not only possible along each level, but othogonal searchs across levels for the corresponding or neighbouring word in another level can be carried out as well.

4. State of the Project
The APD was initiated by Andreas Kaplony and Johannes Thomann at Zurich University in 2004. Today it is a joint project of the Universities of Zurich, Munich (LMU) and Vienna. The APD was online and freely accessible from its beginning. A PhD project by one of its collaborators was based on the APD 4, and another research project would have been impossible without the advanced search capabilities across text levels in the APD 5. At present, 1563 full text documents are available, and during the next two years the remaining edited documents will be entered into the APD. There are mutual references in the APD and the Trismegistos database, and soon texts of the APD will be imported by the Papyrus Navigator, made possible by the XML export engine of the APD in EpiDoc format.

References
1. Gacek, A. (2009). Arabic Manuscripts: A Vademecum for Readers. Leiden: Brill.

2. Sijpesteijn, P. M. (2005). Checklist of Arabic Papyri. Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists. 42: 127–166. Updated version (last accessed 1 November 2013): www.aoi.uzh.ch/islamwissenschaft/forschung/isap/isapchecklist.html

3. Sijpesteijn, P. M. (2009). Arabic Papyri and Islamic Egypt. The Oxford Handbook of Papyrology. Oxford: University Press, pp. 452–472.

4. Grob, E. M. (2010). Documentary Arabic Private and Business Letters on Papyrus: Form and Function, Content and Context. Berlin: de Gruyter.

5. Kaplony, A. (2008). What Are Those Few Dots For? Thoughts on the Orthography of the Qurra Papyri (709-710), the Khurasan Parchments (755-777) and the Inscription of the Jerusalem Dome of the Rock (692). Arabica 55 (1): 91–112.","txt","2","",""
"2090","15","The CENDARI Project: A user-centered 'enquiry environment' for modern and medieval historians","2","1. Introduction
The Digital Humanities remains an exotic garden to many historians. While software developers have focused on sophisticated analytical tools that require large datasets and pointed research questions, historians often consider themselves unready to use such tools or regard them as superfluous once they have gathered and organized sufficient research data. To many, digitization projects seem too narrowly conceived to represent disciplinary breakthroughs, in part because they typically neglect archival sources. Moreover, immense national and institutional asymmetries exist in efforts to further digital history.

The CENDARI project overcomes some of these constraints. On the most basic level, it is integrating data and metadata from archives, libraries, and museums across Europe relevant to the project’s two historical domain test cases: Medieval culture and World War I. In order to further transnational and comparative research, and to overcome entrenched historiographical and digital asymmetries, the project includes eastern and southern European repositories (‘hidden archives’ to many historians) along with the more visible western European institutions.1 

From a computer science perspective, the relevant data is dizzyingly heterogeneous in terms of languages, formats, level of granularity, completeness, encoding standards, annotation schemes, etc. Therefore CENDARI has implemented a capacious approach to data integration and curation based on the concepts of ‘data space’ and ‘blackboard’. This will produce a flexible and interactive digital ecosystem, underpinned by various ontologies, that enables collaborative research using a variety of digital tools. Cooperation with the European digital humanities infrastructure DARIAH will ensure the ecosystem’s sustainability.

Historians will be able to access data by pursuing their own research projects through a dynamic user interface. While the enquiry environment is focused on the initial, exploratory phases of research, it will go beyond “search and retrieval.” Historians will be able to analyze data with the help of sophisticated data mining and visualization tools; they will be able to upload their own research to a personal research space, and they will be able to curate and exchange data with other researchers through annotations, tags, semantic links, and other tools. Project partners have developed this enquiry environment based on interactive participatory design sessions, domain specific “use cases”, and two domain-specific “prototype projects,” all designed to integrate the user’s perspective while the research infrastructure is built.

CENDARI incorporates archival data, and creates a research space where users can see projects through from finding and organizing sources to analyzing and sharing data with sophisticated tools. The project overcomes the national ‘siloes’ of digitization efforts and historical inquiry. Perhaps above all, it may help open digital history to the majority of professional historians, representing a major breakthrough in digital cultural empowerment.

1.2. Methodology
Approach to data

How can CENDARI help users answer questions they did not know they wanted to ask, and how can these users then be helped to record and share the process and results of those questions? The CENDARI project offers a unique opportunity to demonstrate “serendipity through heterogeneity”. There is already an enormous number of web-based tools and projects which offer the web browser digital access to archives and collections. CENDARI will not attempt to become a “big data” repository for all of them. Instead, the project should recognize that the value of scholarship is in the interlinking of different concepts, objects, collections and content to highlight insights that are not otherwise obvious. This is among the primary goals of the project: to foster serendipity in research processes as well as to support auditable, traceable research trails.

CENDARI data are heterogeneous in the origin of their sources, formats, metadata profiles, type of content they hold, methods of acquisition or creation and distribution rights pertaining to them. In some cases, data will be stored within CENDARI, such as data produced within the context of the CENDARI Archival Directory (as metadata manually edited or coming from a particular repository with links to the original sources); in other cases these will have a more transient character, e.g. if based on a search results retrieved from external system.

A design goal of the CENDARI data infrastructure is to build an interoperable data platform, overcoming various data siloes and leveraging the potential of already existing platforms and their existing data services “below the level of work.”2 Additionally, CENDARI aims to reach a more detailed level of data granularity as the basis for real scholarly work and employ services that support knowledge discovery, organization and sharing.

We address the aspect of infrastructure development that embraces data diversity, i.e. the “data soup,” and takes an incremental approach to the data integration, based on the concept of Dataspaces,3 SOA4 and an adapted “Blackboard” model approach5, while employing information extraction, NLP tools and statistical methods in order to build infrastructure components for historical research.

Approach to the Virtual Research Environment

Researcher involvement was seen as a key element in all aspects of the technical development. The partners in charge of defining the system architecture and designing the User Interface (UI) employed several methods, such as video brainstorming sessions for the creation of mockups, for understanding the user requirements and methodological needs of the target users: World War I historians and medievalists. Project historians also analyzed their own research methods, and began communicating them to technical specialists, by creating a number of scenarios drawing on concrete research inquiries. The two most detailed of these were selected to serve as “prototype projects” that constituted both real research endeavors and a means of defining the technical functionalities of the enquiry environment. 

The iterative design process revealed strong user interest in a VRE centered on an advanced note-taking environment with links to the CENDARI data space, continuously enriched by historians’ notes. This result came from the conjunction of interesting findings: all the historians take notes, either on paper, in digital form, or both. From their notes, they try to resolve people (who is that person?), places, dates, artifacts, events, and organizations, among other entities. This resolution leads them to search for related entities (e.g. the family of that person, the archive holding information related to that event), until they reach a point where they have a clearer picture of a situation, or they give up for lack of information. Relating entities is a complex task not well supported by existing digital environments. Historians would like to search in their colleagues’ notes for hints, but are opposed to sharing their own notes by fear of being “scooped”. To avoid the problem, the VRE allows searching in entities contained in notes without disclosing the contents of the notes in their entirety. Brainstorming with historians revealed that they would accept sharing the entities only (with some control). Therefore, note-taking from multiple historians weaves a network of entities, creates a resource that facilitates connecting information, and allows asking appropriate colleague historians for help.

Our primary design goal is a technology that does not interrupt historians’ workflow. We propose a smooth and on-demand integration of intelligent tools, like the entity recognizer, so the researcher has full control of his project.

In order to make the VRE easy to learn, our design mimics the traditional historian’s physical workspace. Based on the participatory design insights, the VRE aims to interpret the affordances of the historian's personal library, note taking, entity highlighting, annotations or work organization to digital tools. The notion of “affordance” here implies that the appearance of the tool reveals a part of its functionality to the user. Once the researcher is able to accelerate his working rate in VRE, we enrich the workflow with individualized visualizations based on the user scenario' s queries. Our design approach is based on the researcher's daily routine. We use an agile software development methodology to allow quick adaptation of the system to historians’ needs. 

In an era in which the digital can drive much scholarly innovation, this note-taking environment meets and serves the needs of historians, who generally keep a traditional research diary or notebook. At the same time, it seems to foster new research approaches and new attitudes towards the organization and use of archival sources. Seen from a user/researcher‘s perspective, the note-taking environment could therefore be an interesting platform for both organizing existing data and notes, and for envisaging new research directions. The concept of selective sharing represents a new opportunity for experiencing research work in a selected and collaborative environment which, when properly understood and used, might boost the potential of archival work accomplished across different countries.

References
1. In this, digitization initiatives have generally reflected supply and opportunity rather than demand. See Melissa Terras, “Digitization and digital resources in the humanities” in Claire Warwick, Melissa Terras, and Julianne Nyhan, eds., Digital Humanities in Practice (London, 2012).

2. P. Edwards, S. Jackson, G Bowker and C Knobel, Understanding Infrastructure: Dynamics, Tensions and Designhdl.handle.net/2027.42/49353, last accessed 21 May 2013.

3. Norbert Antunes, Tatiana Malyuta, and Suzanne Yoakum Stover, A Data Integration Framework with Full Spectrum Fusion Capabilities, Presented at the Sensor and Information Fusion Symposium, Las Vegas, NV, August 2009, 2-3.

4. Krafzig, Dirk; Karl Banke, Dirk Slama: Enterprise SOA: Service-Oriented Architecture Best Practices, (New Jersey, 2004), ISBN 978-0-13-146575-6.

5. Lee D. Erman, Frederick Hayes-Roth, Victor R. Lesser, and D. Raj Reddy. The Hearsay-II speech-understanding system: Integrating knowledge to resolve uncertainty. Computing Surveys, 12(2):213–253, June 1980. See also www.thecepblog.com/2008/07/20/a-brief-introduction-to-blackboard-architectures/, 20.07.2008.","txt","2","",""
"2091","15","The Changing Canon of Beauty: Facial Attractiveness in the Representation of Human Faces in World Painting","10","1. Introduction
The face and its proportions have always captured our attention and produced fascination. Even newborns have been reported to dedicate more time to attractive faces than others1. How these proportions are meant to be the guidelines that define facial beauty, has been an object of study since the times of Plato. However, absolute approaches, such as Hogarth's serpentine line2, the Vitruvius' ""well-shaped man""3, divina proportiones, or mathematically based ratios such as golden, Fibbonacci, or 1:1.6, have proven insufficient to explain how beauty actually works4. As Francis Galton said5, ""The general expression of a face is the sum of a multitude of small details, [...]."" We can now afford to extend this concept and say that the attractiveness of a face is also the sum of a varied set of distinct features. Recent research on evolutionary psychology and neuroaesthetics suggest the same. Beauty of unknown faces seems to include aspects from averageness, symmetry, sexual diphormism, pleasant expressions, and youthfulness6789. 

In this study we take state-of-the-art research results on attractiveness and beauty and extrapolate them to the analysis of faces in world painting. We first collected a data set of over 120,000 paintings, and applied industry standard face recognition algorithms to extract facial traits. Furthermore, based on meta-analysis of symmetry and averageness10, we established clues on whether faces across time could be considered more beautiful, and when these trends occur.

2. Method
2.1 Data-set
The data-set was obtained from pintura.aut.org, a nonprofit organization working on autism11. The whole set of 120,000 images of paintings was narrowed down to 25,000 images by removing the paintings with no faces. The number of faces found is about 47,000. The distribution of the number of faces per paintings follows a power-law that fits into the Pareto principle.

For the current study only 5,800 faces were taken into account: frontal faces no smaller than 150 pixels in height, with pitch and yaw angles between 10º and -10º with respect to the vertical line, and with valid information for at least the following traits: eyes, nose, mouth, height, width, and center of the face. Face rotation or roll was fixed geometrically. Our analysis covers the period between 13th and 19th centuries.


Fig. 1: Distribution of the number of male and female faces per century

2.1. Averageness
For each century an average male and female face has been computer-generated (see Figure 2), in addition to a non-gender-specific one that combines both genders. In order to produce this averaged composite face, we first centered the faces according to the center point given by the face recognition algorithm. Faces were then resized to make them fit into a PNG canvas of 500 by 500 pixels at 300dpi resolution, and given a height of 200 pixels (faces with height lower than 150 pixels were excluded to avoid blurred pixelation of the average face). This process was achieved by using affine and projective 2D transformations12 from the original painting to the desired canvas. Every face standardized by size was converted into a 3D numerical matrix representing each of the layers of the RGB color model. A regular statistical mean was then calculated over the set of faces of each century in order to obtain the average value for each pixel. Once the average matrix was calculated, it was converted back into a PNG image.


Fig. 2: Average 20th Century female face from 1058 faces (left), and male from 1017 faces (right).

Resulting quality and averageness of the composite rely on the number of faces used in each century for generating the averaged face. The same face recognition algorithm used in the data-set is then applied to averaged composites. This allows us to measure the averageness of a face as the difference between its symmetry and the symmetry of the average face for that particular period. Averageness refers to the degree to which a given face resembles the majority of faces. In our study averageness values go from the most average, 0, to the least, 1.

2.2 Symmetry
Calculation of symmetry is commonly based on Grammer and Thornhill's early work 13 . Their method makes use of 12 different points (one more for averageness): 2 for each eye, 2 for the nose, 2 for the mouth, 2 for the cheekbones, and the last 2 for the jaw. With those, they create lines for each pair and calculate their midpoints. In a perfect symmetrical face, all midpoints must lie on the same vertical line. Although we did not work with those 12 points, our algorithm still used 3 points for the mouth (left, center, and right), 1 for each pupil, and 1 for the nose. This number of traits proved enough for symmetry calculation; therefore, even though our methodology is slightly different from the one proposed by Grammer and Thornhill, the main idea remains unchanged.


Fig. 3: (a) Example of face and detected points for eyes, nose, mouth and center. (b) Vertical line, H, to divide the face into two hemifaces, and numerated points for all the features. (c) Lines for calculating distances between midpoints and hemiface line.

Additionally our algorithm also gave us the centroid or geometric center of all detected features (Figure 3a), which can be taken as the center of the face. From it, we can set a straight line that splits the face into two sides or hemifaces. Figure 3b shows points 1 to 6 (P1 for left eye, P2 for right eye, P3 for nose, P4 for mouth center, P5 for left mouth corner, and P6 for right mouth corner), as well as the line H, that we assume to be the axis of face symmetry. We now trace segments: D1 between P1 and P2, and D2 between P5 and P6 (Figure 3c). For these segments we calculate the midpoints M1 and M2. Symmetry is now obtained as the sum of the distances in pixels of M1, M2, P3 and P6 with respect to the line H. Only lateral symmetry is therefore estimated. For perfect symmetrical faces this value adds to zero; all symmetry values are normalized between 0 and 1.

3. Results
Figures 4 and 5 summarize the averages calculated per century for averageness and symmetry values, respectively.


Fig. 4: Distribution of average values of averageness per century for female and male faces conforms to their own gender-specific averageness (solid lines), and to the combined averageness with both genders (dashed lines).

Figure 4 shows the distribution of averageness for male and female faces compared to their gender specific averaged composite. In dashed lines we can also see the same distribution but in regards to non-gender-specific average face. A quick two-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov test allows us to see that there is no significant difference between the two male distributions (p=0.92) and the two female ones (p=0.51).

For male faces, we observe that the levels of averageness are low in the 13th Century, but then begin to decrease until the 17th Century, which leads to a gradual increase until the 20th Century. Averageness, difference between faces and the averaged composite face of each century, can give clues on how similar faces are to each other. Therefore, the peak seen in the 17th Century may be explained by the recovery of the Greek style in Neoclassicism where the faces depicted were following the same pattern, resulting in a closer distance for each one to the average face.


Fig. 5: Distribution of average values of symmetry per century for male faces (blue), female (magenta), and both (dashed gray).

Average values of symmetry per century are shown in Figure 5 for male, female, and both. We see that most symmetrical female faces were found in the 15th Century and male faces in the 18th Century. After that, all faces rapidly become asymmetrical during the 19th and 20th Century. This might be explained by the then new art styles, such as Rococo, that rejected the concept of symmetry from previous styles, such as Baroque and Neoclassicism.

4. Discussion and Further Research
As reported by previous studies (e.g. ), there might be a link between averageness and attractiveness evaluations, which suggests that the more average the face, the more attractive it is perceived to be. Therefore, representations closer to the mean tendency of a population are preferred rather symmetry. Extrapolating these ideas to our results (see Figure 4): male faces were more attractive in the 17th Century; unlike female faces, that experimented a decrease in averageness for the same period, hence, so did their perceived beauty.

Results from the symmetry analysis seem to support the same trend: faces were more symmetrical, and allegedly more attractive, between the 14th and 17th Century. These results would be further supported by means of rating experiments. We have found differences between genders that merit more research.

Finally, while the purpose of this study was to establish when faces were seen as more attractive, some researchers have noticed a weak link between beauty and health that should be explored in the future. Skin tone in relation to attractiveness is also a topic that seems to be gaining more interest in the last years.

References
1. Grammer, Karl, and Randy Thornhill (1994). Human («Homo sapiens») facial attractiveness and sexual selection: The role of symmetry and averageness. Journal of comparative psychology 108.3: 233.

2. Hogarth, William (1772). The analysis of beauty. Printed by W. Strahan for Mrs. Hogarth.

3. Pollio, Vitruvius (1867). De architectura. Teubner.

4. Etcoff, Nancy (2011). Survival of the prettiest: The science of beauty. Random House Digital, Inc..

5. Etcoff, Nancy (2011). Survival of the prettiest: The science of beauty. Random House Digital, Inc.

6. Thornhill, Randy, and Steven W. Gangestad (1999). Facial attractiveness. Trends in cognitive sciences 3.12: 452-460.

7. Rhodes, Gillian, and Leslie A. Zebrowitz (2002). Facial attractiveness: Evolutionary, cognitive, and social perspectives. Vol. 1. Ablex Publishing Corporation.

8. Berry, Diane S. (2000) Attractiveness, attraction, and sexual selection: Evolutionary perspectives on the form and function of physical attractiveness. Advances in experimental social psychology 32: 273-342.

9. Etcoff, Nancy (2011). Survival of the prettiest: The science of beauty. Random House Digital, Inc..

10. Rhodes, Gillian (2006). The evolutionary psychology of facial beauty. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 57: 199-226.

11. pintura.aut.org/ Accessed on Oct 31st, 2013.

12. Schneider, Philip, and David H. Eberly (2002). Geometric tools for computer graphics. Morgan Kaufmann.

13. Grammer, Karl, and Randy Thornhill (1994). Human («Homo sapiens») facial attractiveness and sexual selection: The role of symmetry and averageness. Journal of comparative psychology 108.3: 233.

14. Gombrich, Ernst Hans, and Ernst Hans Gombrich (1995). The story of art. Vol. 15. London: Phaidon.

15. Rhodes, Gillian (2006). The evolutionary psychology of facial beauty. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 57: 199-226.

16. Komori, Masashi, Satoru Kawamura, and Shigekazu Ishihara (2009). Averageness or symmetry: which is more important for facial attractiveness?. Acta psychologica 131.2: 136-142.

17. Wade, T. Joel (1996). The relationships between skin color and self-perceived global, physical, and sexual attractiveness, and self-esteem for African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology 22.3: 358-373.

18. Hill, Mark E. (2002). Skin color and the perception of attractiveness among African Americans: Does gender make a difference?. Social Psychology Quarterly: 77-91.

19. Swami, Viren, Adrian Furnham, and Kiran Joshi (2008). The influence of skin tone, hair length, and hair colour on ratings of women's physical attractiveness, health and fertility. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 49.5: 429-437.","txt","2","",""
"2092","15","The Chimeria Platform: User Empowerment through Expressing Social Group Membership Phenomena","10","1. Introduction
Computational modeling of social categories can be found in a wide range of digital media works. For example, within computer role-playing games (RPGs), racial categorization is often used to style the visual appearance of a player’s avatar or trigger different canned reactions when conversing with a non-player character (NPC). In social media, users might join groups based on shared taste or categorize each other into groups such as “colleagues” or “family members” using privacy settings. However, in most such systems, category membership is determined in a top-down fashion. Members are often slotted into single, homogeneous groups, with no possibility for hybrid identities, identities that exist at the margins of groups, or identities that change over time. Taken holistically, such approaches have many limitations. These deficiencies are particularly visible when trying to accurately model the nuance of social category membership in the real world.

Our Chimeria platform (hereafter Chimeria) addresses this deficiency. It create more nuanced social categorization models in two primary ways: (1) by modeling the underlying structure of many social categorization phenomena with our Chimeria engine; and (2) by enabling users to build their own creative applications about social categorization, using the engine as a backbone. Drawing on theories from sociolinguistics (Polyani, 1989), cognitive science (Lakoff, 1987), and sociology of classification (Bowker and Star, 1999), the underlying engine allows for the movement of individuals within, between, and across social categories. It also allows for members to be more central to a group than others, to assimilate or naturalize in relation to a hegemonic group, and to claim membership in multiple groups. In this paper, we discuss the components of Chimeria and two sample applications built with it.

2. The Chimeria Authoring Platform

Chimeria supports authoring narratives of group membership in any social identity domain through a data-driven approach. Chimeria is divided into three components (Figure 2). 


Fig. 1: The Chimeria Platform

Chimeria Engine: A mathematical model of users’ degrees of membership across multiple categories. It provides the functionality to calculate, modify, and simulate changes to these memberships and serves as the logical processing component of the system. It models users’ category memberships as gradient values in relation to the membership values of more central members (Harrell, 2010; Bowker and Star, 1999; Lakoff, 1987). This enables more representational nuance than binary statuses of member/nonmember. Narratives processed by Chimeria are authored using a GUI or in the XML file format with a narrative structure as described in (Harrell et al., 2013).
Chimeria Application Interface: A visual interface for user interaction and for experiencing the narratives related to the category membership changes driven by the Chimeria Engine. It provides freedom and flexibility over the aesthetic and visual components of narratives. The interface can take on multiple forms (e.g., a text-only interface or a 3D virtual environment).1 The separation between the back-end (the Chimeria Engine) and the front-end (Chimeria Application Interface) provides the flexibility to go through the same narrative trajectory in relation to membership shifts but with varying visual appearance.
Chimeria Domain Epistomologies: An “epistemology” is an ontology that describes cultural knowledge and beliefs (Harrell, 2013). In Chimeria, they are the knowledge representations describing the categories being modeled. The data utilized by Chimeria to present these categories to users include both author-contributed (e.g., artworks or narratives) and data-driven (e.g., an API call to YouTube to query for a video) assets.
3. Chimeria Application Domains
To better illustrate the capabilities of the components within our system we describe two very different narratives created using Chimeria: 1) a fictional social networking application which models social categories in the domain of musical preferences (Harrell, 2013); and 2) a computer role-playing game (RPG) scenario which models a conversational narrative between the player and a non-playable character (NPC).

3.1 Chimeria: Musical Identity Social Network
In Chimeria: Musical Identity Social Network, the Chimeria Engine models category membership based upon musical preferences that are automatically constructed from a user’s set of music “likes” (binary indications of positive valuation) on a social network profile. These “likes” constitute a set of musical artists from which we extrapolate, using commercially available musical classification data, moods (e.g., cheerful, gloomy, etc.), themes (e.g., adventure, rebellion, etc.) and styles (e.g., film score). This provides the context for non-binary group membership and passing (the “ability of a person to be regarded as a member of social groups other than his or her own...generally with the purpose of gaining social acceptance,” Renfrow, 2004). Each user’s set of moods, themes and styles, then impacts the generated narrative in fundamental ways. We construct a conversational narrative on a social network structured by a model of conversation from sociolinguistics (Polanyi, 1989).

The Chimeria Application Interface consists of a procedurally generated photowall: a dynamic collage of photos representing the user’s musical taste preferences. A feed of recent updates, posts, and invitations appear in an adjacent vertical timeline (see Figure 2). The system reacts to the user by generating interaction events from computer-controlled users who make up the user’s social circle within the system.


Fig. 2: A screenshot of the Chimeria: Musical Identity Social Network application interface

Figure 3 presents a screenshot of Chimeria: Musical Identity Social Network. Using musical preferences from the user’s Facebook music likes or by manual entry, a hybrid real/fictitious narrative experience progresses over time. A series of dynamically generated posts by the user’s friends (non-player characters) comment on the user’s membership within one or more musical affinity groups (i.e. “You’re a raucous rock fan now?” or “Want to hear some airy jazz music?”). The user may “like,” “dislike,” or simply ignore these posts, resulting in group membership changes illustrated by alterations to a self-updating “photowall.” Some friends might question newly discovered interests, while others might pass judgment on prior affiliations. The resulting narrative may describe passing or assimilating as a member of a new group, reinforcing a prior group affiliation, or even being marginalized in every group. Some groups are deemed oppositional, privileged, or marginalized relative to others. 


Fig. 3: The Chimeria Platform Applied to Musical Identities in a Social Network

3.2 Chimeria: Gatekeeper
Chimeria: Gatekeeper models a common RPG scenario – a player trying to gain access to the inside of a castle. Within this sample application, we demonstrate the power of the Chimeria Engine for enhancing this scenario by modeling more complex, adaptive, and nuanced conversations between PCs and NPCs, overcoming limitations identified in other videogames (Harrell et al., 2014). Figure 4 shows a preliminary visual design from Chimeria: Gatekeeper.


Fig. 4: Chimeria: Gatekeeper preliminary scenario visual design

Drawing on the work of Erving Goffman (Goffman, 1963), Chimeria: Gatekeeper attempts to model the effect of stigma on conversation. Within the scenario, the PC is initialized to the ‘discredited’ category and the NPC to the ‘accepted’ category. The accepted category is prototypically defined as the Brushwoods race – short, plain-spoken, and wearers of rough spun clothing. The discredited category is prototypically defined as the Sylvanns race – tall, well- spoken, and wearers of fine clothing.2 To gain access to the inside of the keep, the player has to convince the guard that she or he is among the accepted category, in effect “passing” as a member of the category that has been instantiated as “accepted” (Harrell et al., 2014).

User actions and responses (e.g., slouching to adopt the posture of a prototypical Brushwood or displaying fine Sylvann clothing) incrementally shift the NPCs model of the PCs membership with respect to the categories, bringing the player closer to gaining access to the keep or to being rejected. Internal thoughts of the PC emphasize trade-offs between gaining utilitarian access to the keep and the loss of self-identity that can occur in trying to pass. The guard’s responses of approval or disapproval respond accordingly to chosen actions. A transcript of a run-through of Chimeria: Gatekeeper is shown in Figure 5.

Using Goffman's notion of impression management, we handle alternatives to the common trajectory of intentionally passing by considering other player decisions such as voluntary disclosure of stigma and slipping (trying to pass as a member of an accepted category, but failing). The modeling of passing and social categorization membership in Chimeria: Gatekeeper seeks to capture the stakes and power relationships often at play in real world social interactions. 


Fig. 5: Chimeria: Gatekeeper sample run-through

4. Conclusion
In this proposal, we have presented Chimeria, a platform for creating and analyzing narratives related to social group membership. By modeling character identities in a dynamic and nuanced fashion, we explore complex identity phenomena. By modeling social identity phenomena related to categorization, we use Chimeria to suggest how to better critically examine and express how identities are negotiated using digital media systems.

References
1. We have additionally implemented a small demo showing the applicability of Chimeria to a 3D game interface built in Unity.

2. We implement both “abstract” categories such as ‘accepted’ or ‘discredited’ and “concrete” categories that can instantiate them. This enables a great degree of flexibility for changing social dynamics within different contexts in games or different games altogether.

Bowker, G. C., & Star, S. L. (1999). Sorting Things Out: Classification and Its Consequences. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.

Goffman, E. (1963) Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Harrell, D. F. (2010). Toward a Theory of Critical Computing: The Case of Social Identity Representation in Digital Media Applications. CTheory. http://www.ctheory.net/articles.aspx?id=641 (accessed March 3, 2014). Harrell, D. F. (2013) Phantasmal Media: An Approach to Imagination, Computation, and Expression. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Harrell, D. F., Kao, D., & Lim, C. U. (2013). Computationally Modeling Narratives of Social Group Membership with the Chimeria System. In Proceedings of the 2013 Workshop on Computational Models of Narrative. pp. 123-128).

Harrell, D. F., Kao, D., & Lim, C. U., Lipshin, J., Sutherland, A., Makivic, J., and Olson, D. (2014). “Authoring Conversational Narratives in Games with the Chimeria Platform.” In Proceedings of Foundations of Digital Games 2014. Ft. Lauderdale, FL, USA, Apr 3 – Apr 7.

Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Linde, C. (1993). Life Stories: The Creation of Coherence. Oxford, U.K.:Oxford University Press.

Liu, H. (2007). Social Network Profiles as Taste Performances. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13: 252–275.  

Polanyi, L. (1989). Telling the American Story: A Structural and Cultural Analysis of Conversational Storytelling. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 

Renfrow, D. G. (2004). A cartography of passing in everyday life. Symbolic Interaction 27(4):485-506.","txt","2","",""
"2093","15","The Cryptic Novel: A Computational Taxonomy of the Eighteenth-Century Literary Field","10","Overview
This project employs machine learning and other text-mining based clustering techniques to study the relationship between taxonomic systems for categorizing prose fiction in the eighteenth century. Our goal is to challenge narratives of the so-called “rise” of the novel (Watt, 19571; McKeon, 19872; Richetti 19993) that trace a continuity between the prose fiction that emerged in the eighteenth-century and the novel as a fully realized critical object in the late nineteenth century. Our project instead uses statistical modeling methods to theorize an alternate history for the novel: not, as proposed in Franco Moretti’s Graphs, Maps, Trees4, as a history of genres, but instead as a history of genre labels--that is, a history formed by the interaction between paratextual, self-identified literary labels that circulated in the eighteenth-century marketplace and the texts that they defined. Our project, which is currently in its final stages at Stanford University’s Literary Lab, bridges the historical and computational to enact a form of literary history that puts pressure on traditional theories focused on charting the rise of the novel. The project is deeply invested in using digital and statistical methods to excavate the nuances in the ways in which eighteenth-century genres evolved. Instead of analyzing texts via contemporary genre categorizations, we recover the relationship between the self-applied taxonomy of eighteenth-century prose fiction and the lexical and semantic features of the texts themselves to recuperate a historically-determined literary field that has been largely overlooked (or noted and elided) by modern criticism. Drawing from a corpus of 2,385 digitized texts from the Eighteenth Century Collections Online (ECCO) database, we ask how new computational methods can aid us in uncovering what kinds of work self-identified genre labels in titles (specifically “story,” “history,” “tale,” “letters,” “romance,” “life,” “adventure,” and “novel”) accomplished within the literary marketplace of the long eighteenth-century, and how that kind of work is distinct from critically- or retroactively-designated genres (“gothic,” “jacobin,” “epistolary,” “historical,” “it-narrative,” “oriental tale.”)

Aims
Our project seeks to answer a series of critical questions about the taxonomic systems of eighteenth-century fiction using computer generated models. Do generic labels formally differentiate separate kinds of writing in a useful way (such that a “novel” is lexically, semantically or formally different from a “romance”) or do they merely function as signals within the marketplace itself, so that there is no textual or formal differences between a “tale” or a “story” beyond mere marketplace convention? How does the relationship between different genre labels change over time, and how can it assist us in understanding the evolution of titles as a representative labeling system? This approach takes advantage of recent advances in probabilistic modeling to recover the meaning of labels that have been homogeneously condensed under the rubric of novel; it simplifies the complexity of the word “novel,” with all its attendant genres and subgenres, to make the field that “novel” inhabits more complex. Developing from these research questions, our method-driven aims are: (1) to detect and assess large-scale trends in the development of and relation between genre labels across time (2) to isolate formal differences in the corresponding full texts identified under these categorical labels, and (3) to compare these differences to a corpus of texts categorized according to modern genre designations.

Methods and Narrative 
In the early stages of our project, we began with an exploratory approach to our data, using statistical, unsupervised learning techniques to identify word patterns and clusters within the texts, prior to classifying the texts’ content onto the label categories. Our initial approach sought to determine if some underlying structure existed among these texts that we could then map onto a taxonomic system, such as genre, or in our case, title labels. Using a series of clustering techniques built off of different feature sets (most frequent words, most distinctive words, etc), we found that the assumptions that provided the foundation for our project were vindicated: not only did the titles under each label cluster together based on the Most Frequent Words in each text, but there were intriguing differences between clusters. For instance, though a coherent cluster of “history” is present from the first quarter of the century, definitively clustered labels “novel” and “romance” don’t emerge until later in the century. These differences opened our research to a new set of concerns, such as the relative stability of each category, or the ways in which the labels individually and collectively change across time. Indeed, a major finding of this phase was the dramatic influence time itself had over every other variable we considered. Such a finding strengthened the presence of a literary-historical component of our research and prompted us to pay closer attention to the divisions of time we were employing.

In our current work, we have employed supervised learning techniques and machine classification to specifically interrogate the relationship between text and label: which labels have a high level of cohesion, and thus predictability, and which labels are less cohesive, and were perhaps more tolerant of formal deviation and experimentation? To answer this question, we employed a discriminant function analysis to determine if texts could be reliably algorithmically classified into their labels, treated in our analysis as a taxonomic system. These results were validated through a leave-one-out cross validation to determine the strength of our predictive model. . The results confirmed the findings of the PCA: our model performed better than chance, categorizing each of our labels, on average, 75% correctly. Another dimension of our study was to investigate differences on a label-by-label basis: what does it mean, textually, that a “life” is harder to algorithmically classify than a “romance”? Did difficulties in categorization have anything to do with the textual heterogeneity within the labels themselves? These questions prompted us toward another set of analyses designed to evaluate the self-similarity of each label. We divided each text in our corpus into ten equal parts, measuring the distance from each part to the other in a matrix that, when averaged, resulted in a distance score for each. The findings from this activity helped to both clarify and complicate the story that was emerging regarding labels over the course of the century.

Our most recent work has taken us in a more broadly comparative direction: to examine the textual and larger structural differences between our current corpus of texts, classified according to generic labels, and another corpus we have compiled from modern, genre-focused bibliographies. Using the same techniques of machine learning and self-similarity, we have started to interrogate the logics by which generic labels organize and describe the literary field of the eighteenth century in ways we have yet to discover.

Results
Our initial results proved the value and worth of studying this type of paratextual literary categorization. The temporalization of data allowed by our method lets us observe, first, the simultaneous dominance and differentiation of “novel” and “tale” at the end of the century, leading us to speculate, as Anthony Jarrells (2012)5 has, on twin “rises” of genre in this century as opposed to one rise; that is, the eighteenth-century appears to be as much a story of the rise of “novel” as it is of the rise of “tale.” The result of our machine learning classifications and self-similarity form a compelling argument for the ways in which, throughout the eighteenth-century, the field of prose fiction underwent a transformation through the processes of both differentiation and consolidation. From these results, we argue that the novel can be viewed as merely one branch, rather than the single formal end to which all eighteenth-century prose fiction trends. Other important results, observed from our PCA charts, indicate a general movement across all generically-labelled texts from the usage of words that indicate exteriority (such as “law,” “city,” “army,” “money,” “order,” and “public”) to words that indicate interiority (such as “lover,” “marry,” “imagine,” “woman,” “write” and “read”). In the final stages of the project, we are working to apply similar computational tools to genres conventionalized by modern criticism -- such as the Gothic novel or Oriental tale -- to examine how such categorizations relate to self-applied genre labels.  Preliminary results indicate that, after sampling our texts and controlling for time period and author, generic labels classify with a success rate comparable to texts designated as such by critics. The question then becomes not whether genre labels organize more successfully than conventional genres, but whether and how they organize differently--if generic labels can tell us something about the trajectory and organization of formal literary history that genre cannot. Our presentation will include a more detailed discussion of our methods and results and of the implications of the latter for traditional teleological narratives of eighteenth-century prose fiction

References
1. Watt, Ian (1957). The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson, Fielding. London: Chatto and Windus.

2. McKeon, Michael (1987). The Origins of the English Novel: 1600-1740. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP

3. Richetti, John (1999). The English Novel in History, 1700-1780. London: Routledge.

4. Moretti, Franco (2004). Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for Literary History. New York: Verso

5. Jarrells, Anthony (2012). After Novels: Short Fictional Forms and the Rise of the Tale. The Oxford History of the Novel in English. 12 vols. Vol. 2. Eds. Peter Garside and Karen O'Brien. Oxford: Oxford UP.","txt","2","",""
"2094","15","The CWRC-Writer Bridge: from Coder to Writer, XML to RDF, DH to Mainstream","2","Matt Kirschenbaum argues that “the story of writing in the digital age is every bit as messy as the ink-stained rags that would have littered Gutenberg’s print shop or the hot molten lead of the Linotype machine” (Schuessler) but the digital humanities community has paid surprisingly little attention to the interfaces that have impacted digital writing, particularly with respect to the tools that enable text encoding or markup. The field has been founded on an understanding of the value of text markup for encoding, preservation, and interoperability. DH projects employ markup consistently in major text-oriented DH applications ranging from linguistics through the production of critical editions to the production of born-digital scholarship and scholarly journals. Yet DH scholars tend to use alternative tools such as mainstream word processors for extensive scholarly writing. Even for submissions to our annual conference, we do not require our community to submit in the form of TEI-encoded texts, even though months are invested annually preparing the book of abstracts for submission. By contrast, submissions to most conferences in the scientific community are routinely produced by the submitting scholars in LaTeX, minimizing the production costs of publishing the submissions (Gauduel 2006). Furthermore, there has been little extension of awareness into the broader scholarly community of the value of XML in general and the TEI in particular, and consequently little uptake beyond the DH community itself.

This is not because humanities scholars cannot use markup. The pervasive use of wikis, blogging software, and social networking sites that allow limited markup indicate that the principles of markup, at least as they relate to on-screen rendering in HTML, are easily acquired. However, such contexts are conducive neither to an understanding of the nuances and procedural affordances of complex markup nor of how it can structure an entire document; the markup is simply an isolated means to a presentational end. So there is still a considerable gulf between the knowledge base of the mainstream scholarly community and that of the DH community. This situation is exacerbated by the fact that use of XML still demands that users acquire and install editing software that is divorced from the usual contexts of scholarly production and because such packages require a degree of setup that is daunting. Furthermore, the interfaces of XML editing programs tend to be far removed from those with which mainstream scholars are familiar. That of the oXygen XML editing package, for instance, is closer to the look and feel of a Java editor, a programming environment, than it is to a WYSIWYG writing environment. Such applications are not conducive to use by humanities scholars, whose main activities are writing and editing. Members of the DH community have vocally opposed the concept of WYSIWYG XML editors on the grounds that they would undermine a writer’s understanding of the function of markup, although this is not a technical consideration: oXygen’s libraries have been designed to support the production of interfaces that can allow “non technical users to encode information in XML without actually knowing anything about the underlying XML format” (Bina 2013). There thus exists a tension between the requirements of technically adept super-users, who want power from their tools, and the basic usability of editing interfaces with respect to writing, one that has been there from the early days of markup editors (Karney 1995).

The CWRC-Writer is the centerpiece of an online research environment, the Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory (CWRC), designed to support research on the study of writing in and about Canada. It aims at a user base of mainstream literary scholars, and recognizes the gap in knowledge between that community and digital humanists with respect to best practices for digital resource production. The CWRC-Writer is meant to work with the Collaboratory’s other online tools to help bridge that gap by facilitating the production of born-digital scholarship and primary text editions in XML. CWRC will provide an online repository to house digital objects for members of its research community. These will range from bibliographical records, granular chronology entries, profiles of authors and other historical persons, prosopographic data and other entity records, and transcriptions of primary texts, as well as other document types, images, audio and video, although the emphasis remains on writing. CWRC encourages collaboration, whether or not scholars work together formally on a specific project. The CWRC infrastructure supports sharing, reuse, and continual enhancement of scholarly materials, as well as open-access dissemination. Thus one of the most common use cases we anticipate is that someone who is using CWRC for their research sees an error or an opportunity for enhancement within an existing object. We want to make it as easy as possible for that scholar to correct the OCR error, add missing bibliographical information, clarify an ambiguity, or smooth out some infelicitous language. The scholar should not need to download specialized software, but rather move easily from a reading interface to a production interface within the same browsing environment, adding further value to the scholarly resource quickly and easily, in keeping with the realization that we need to overcome siloage between applications (Bradley and Hill 2011).

This is our main use case. Nevertheless, we do have amongst our user community serious textual editors who plan to create digital editions. Our assumption has always been that for heavy-duty markup or transformations one would need to go outside the CWRC-Writer environment to a full-featured XML editor. These advanced users are understandably testing the CWRC-Writer interface from the perspective of their full range of needs. Moreover, since we began publicizing development of the CWRC-Writer, we have received expressions of interest from members of the DH community who want to consider it for use in TEI editing projects, as components of library-based DH tool suites, or for teaching XML. The possible use cases for CWRC-Writer are thus situated along a spectrum ranging from the production of born-digital content or primary text editions from scratch, in which case much of the technical demands of markup application need to be performed within CWRC-Writer itself, through to the quick fixing of errors or editorial revision of existing documents. This spectrum can be elaborated, so that the poles of these two use cases are aligned with the degree of complexity of the interface and indeed of functionality of the editor itself, and the level of expertise expected of the user.

Interface Complexity Expert users Production from scratch	
 

 <------------------->	Interface Simplicity Novice users Quick edits/fixes
Simplicity is also relative and contextual. While the CWRC-Writer does not support advanced XML features, its interface has considerable complexity as a result of its integration with other aspects of the Collaboratory. It is more complicated, for instance, than the newly launched DHwriter designed to facilitate the production of abstracts for the DH conference. Because CWRC aims to support interoperability and discoverability by using Linked Open Data entities for authority control, the interface is complicated by the fact that the editor combines the application of XML markup with the annotation of documents with RDF entities. To make this blended approach as seamless as possible, we have mapped our RDF specifications for named entities onto the equivalent tags within supported XML schemas. Thus users identifying a person’s name within a text are simultaneously applying a <persName> tag, if the document is using a TEI schema, as well as creating an RDF Open Annotation object. This increases the challenge of interface design in a number of ways. For instance, there are some basic conceptual confusions with respect to terminology, since there are two types of “tagging” available within the editor, sometimes operating in tandem and sometimes not. Tagging means different things within technical vocabularies and mainstream folksonomic contexts, so it is a balancing act to bridge from popular literacies to the CWRC-Writer environment while also retaining sufficient accuracy of terminology to help develop digital humanities literacies. The resulting confusion has emerged as a theme in our user testing to date and brings home the extent to which the CWRC-Writer emerges from an expanded understanding of annotations and their potential to support new paradigms of interoperative and interactive digital scholarly environments (Bradley 2012; Grassi 2013).

We last reported on the CWRC-Writer editor in a pre-alpha state, since which it has undergone numerous development iterations and substantial user testing. By DH2014 we will have conducted our most extensive user testing on the beta version, with users ranging from novices to DH experts. Our aim is not only to improve the functionality of the system as an editor, but to try to understand how the interface works as a writing and encoding environment for various types of users, including asking respondents to compare the interface experience to other writing environments, both Web- and PC-based.

The poster will thus do the following:

Provide two computers on which people can test the CWRC-Writer;
Summarize the major affordances of the editor and the concepts behind it;
Summarize the results of the user testing.
The testing results will allow us to situate the CWRC-Writer as a tool within the current editing landscape, along the spectrum outlined above, and to evaluate the use cases for which the CWRC-Writer is best suited. The poster will facilitate dialogue regarding the relationship amongst text encoding, Semantic Web technologies, and mainstream scholarly writing processes. The testing results will provide insights into the tensions in interface design between expert vocabularies and best practices, on the one hand, and mainstream vocabularies and scholarly pragmatics on the other. We hope to make a contribution to “ways of seeing” (Kirschenbaum 2004) markup environments and relation to digital scholarly production on the Web.

References
Bina, George (2013). “Customizing a General Purpose XML Editor: oXygen's Authoring Environment.” Proceedings of the International Symposium on Native XML User Interfaces, 2013. http://www.balisage.net/Proceedings/vol11/html/Bina01/BalisageVol11-Bina01.html

Bradley, John (2012). “Towards a Richer Sense of Digital Annotation: Moving Beyond a ‘Media’ Orientation of the Annotation of Digital Objects.” DHQ 6.2 (2012).

Bradley, John and Timothy Hill (2011). “When WordHoard Met Pliny: Breaking Down of Interaction Silos Between Applications.” Digital Humanities 2011, Stanford University, June 19– 22, 2011. http://pliny.cch.kcl.ac.uk/docs/Stanford-Poster.pdf

Brown, Susan (n.d.). “Scaling Up Collaboration Online: Towards a Collaboratory for Research on Canadian Writing.” International Journal of Canadian Studies. Forthcoming.

Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory. www.cwrc.ca CWRC-Writer. https://github.com/cwrc/CWRC-Writer DHwriter. dhwriter.org

Gaudeul, Alexia (2006). “Do Open Source Developers Respond to Competition?: The (La)TeX Case Study.” (March 27, 2006). Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=908946 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.908946

Grassi, Marco, Simone Fonda, and Franceso Piazza (2013). “Pundit: augmenting web contents with semantics.” Literary and Linguistic Computing 28.4 (2013).

Karney, James (1995). “Author/Editor.” PC Magazine 7 February 1995. 153ff.

Kirschenbaum, Matthew G. (2004). “‘So the Colors Cover the Wires’: Interface, Aesthetics, and Usability.” A Companion to Digital Humanities, ed. Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens, John Unsworth. Oxford: Blackwell. http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/

Rockwell, Geoffrey, Susan Brown, James Chartrand, and Susan Hesemeier. (2012). “CWRC- Writer: An In-Browser XML Editor.” Digital Humanities 2012 Conference, Hamburg, July 16–22. Digital Humanities 2012 Conference Abstracts. Hamburg University.

Schussler, Jennifer (2011). “The Muses of Insert, Delete and Execute.” New York Times, 25 December 2011.","txt","2","",""
"2095","15","The Development of The Dickens Lexicon Digital and its Practical Use for the Study of Late Modern English","2","Our project to create The Dickens Lexicon Digital is based on the index cards which the late Dr. Tadao Yamamoto (1904-91) compiled. Dr. Yamamoto first conceived a plan for the compilation of the Dickens Lexicon, and published Growth and System of the Language of Dickens: An Introduction to A Dickens Lexicon in 1950, as an introduction to the Dickens Lexicon. In 1953 he was awarded the Japan Academy Prize for this work. In order to compile the Dickens Lexicon he collected the materials not only from all of Dickens’s works but also from his letters and speeches. Unfortunately, in 1991 he died without seeing his vision accomplished.

The project for the Dickens Lexicon was organized in 1998 by a research group of 20 (presently 22) scholars. Our ultimate aim has been to compile the Dickens Lexicon from approximately 60,000 cards, which Dr. Yamamoto elaborately drew up and left to us, believing that even if the work was not issued in his lifetime, his pupils and successors would be able to publish it at some future date. 

Our Dickens Lexicon is neither book-based nor document-based, but is rather designed as a web-based reference resource. Users will be able to search and retrieve lexical data (an idiom, definition, source, quotation, and notes), stored in the original card-database of approximately 60,000 indexed entries, without the need to install extra software (apart from a web browser) on their computer. Some of the types of information on Dickensian idioms should prove quite valuable for non-native researchers of English in particular, as certain idiomatic expressions in English which are common to native-speakers of English may be not noticed as idioms, or not understood as ironical or collapsed idioms. 

Fig. 1 shows a result of the retrieval of idioms beginning with the verb “do” in a test version of The Dickens Lexicon Digital. The 199 examples in Fig. 1 are ordered alphabetically but can also be listed in the chronological or alphabetical order of the titles. Moreover, as Fig. 1 illustrates, if you want to know more information about the idiom “do the honours of the house,” clicking on the idiom will return a definition drawn from the Oxford English Dictionary or any other dictionary, the text and the context where the idiom is used, comments by Dr. Yamamoto and relevant notes from reference materials referring to the idiom.


Fig. 1: A test version of The Dickens Lexicon Digital

The lexicon will also be implemented with a multifunctional information retrieval system. In addition to the indexed entries, the lexicon will make it possible to retrieve frequency information on lexical items (from single words to phrases, including multi-word units) drawing upon the full corpus of Dickens’ texts, and an additional set of almost comprehensive 18th- and 19th-centuryfictional texts. A range of functions including concordance display, sort capability, distribution charts, and statistical data with t-score and MI-score and log-likelihood ratios will be available in a user-friendly interface. Therefore, a close scrutiny of idioms appearing in the Dickens Lexicon, incorporating this multifunctional information retrieval system, will not only make us more aware of the ways idioms represent an important facet of Dickens’ usage of English (compared with those in almost comprehensive 18th- and 19th-century fictional texts), but will also provide greater insight into the characteristic structure of idiomaticity in the English language. 

The Dickens Lexicon is expected to be released as The Dickens Lexicon Digital, an Internet website with a multifunctional search engine. It will be able to contribute a range of research topics including the following:

(1)A study of the language and style of Charles Dickens.
(2)A comparative study of idiomatic expressions between Dickens and other writers in the 18th and 19th centuries. 
(3)A chronological research of idioms.
research into the language and style of 18th- and 19th-century fictional texts.
(5)A research into the history of the English language.
(6)An interdisciplinary research between information science and language study.
The Dickens Lexicon Digital is scheduled to be available on the web by March 2017, although it will be partially functional and available on the web in May 2014.

References
Imahayashi, Osamu, Masahiro Hori, Akiyuki Jimura, and Tomoji Tabata (2008) ""The Dickens Lexicon Project.""ERA, Vol.25, The English Research Association of Hiroshima, 43-53.

Yamamoto, Tadao (1950 [2003]). Growth and System of the Language of Dickens: An Introduction to A Dickens Lexicon. Hiroshima, Japan: Keisuisha.

Yamamoto, Tadao (1954) ""A Memoir of the Joint Research for the Compilation of the Dickens Lexicon,"" Anglica, Vol. 1, No. 5, 438-51.","txt","2","",""
"2096","15","The DigiPal Framework for Script and Image","2","An on-going challenge in palaeography is, as Albert Derolez expressed it, how arguments about ancient and medieval handwriting can be ‘as clear and convincing to their reader as to their author’. 1 Derolez suggested greater use of quantitative evidence, and his suggestion has since been embraced by groups working on automated or semi-automated identification of scribal hands or styles of handwriting.2 Such methods are almost entirely statistical, using image processing techniques to extract metrics and to apply those in supervised or unsupervised ways. However, these methods have very rarely been used by palaeographers who are naturally oriented towards symbolic or semantic (i.e. verbal) approaches. Indeed some palaeographers have rejected quantitative methods on principle, such as Armando Petrucci who has argued that they ‘cannot simply exist’ (non può semplicemente esistere) in a fluid and human context like handwriting. 3 4 More sympathetic scholars have still raised questions about trust in what they see as ‘black boxes’, asking how to validate these more automated methods, how to test the assumptions underlying them, and how these approaches can be convincing to an audience which cannot reasonably be expected to understand them. 56 Some few have therefore taken an alternative, more symbolic or semantic approach, looking to the computer not to provide ‘answers’ but instead to allow manipulation and exploration of material in a more intelligible, if less conclusive, manner. 7 8 9 This reflects a wider argument that the computer should not be used to provide answers for Humanities researchers, but rather should suggest, stop short, and allow people to construct knowledge and understanding through active manipulation and visualisation. 10 11 However, such symbolic approaches are rare and have also gained no acceptance in the past.

This challenge to provide ‘clear and convincing’ palaeographical descriptions has been taken up by DigiPal, a four-year project funded by the European Research Council (FP7 Grant Agreement No. 263751). One early outcome has been a formal model for describing handwriting, the first of its kind and which is already changing palaeographical descriptions.12 Since then, the model has been generalised and implemented in an open-source web-based framework. Instead of relying on image processing or automated methods, team members manually annotate images with highly structured descriptions.13 The framework is being used in DigiPal for eleventh-century English Vernacular minuscule, but also for ‘ScandiPal’ on twelfth-century Latin from Norway and Sweden, ‘SephardiPal’ on fifteenth century Hebrew from the Iberian Peninsula, RIM on early medieval coins, and ‘Models of Authority’ on twelfth-century Scottish charters. It has also been extended to decoration, thereby helping Art Historians who have faced similar difficulties in their own descriptions and arguments. The existing DigiPal site currently presents records of all the (approximately) 1,200 known surviving examples of eleventh-century writing in Old English, along with images and structural annotations of more than half of them. This is useful not only for palaeographical research but also for teaching, as students or the interested public can (for example) look at a page of handwriting from the area where they live in England, or highlight letters on the page to help them learn to read the documents. Examples from the site are shown below.


Fig. 1: Annotations of Insular d, f and g in an example image of a manuscript page. Screenshot of http://digipal.eu/digipal/page/362/


Fig. 2: Examples of letters with descenders written by 'Eadwig Basan', a scribe of Christ Church Cathedral, Canterbury. Screenshot of http://digipal.eu/digipal/search/?terms=Eadwig+Basan&view=list&basic_search_type=graphs&component=descender


Fig. 3: Interface for describing letterforms (available to team members only). Screenshot of http://digipal.eu/digipal/page/80/allographs/

The project has already received substantial attention. In the eleven months since its launch, the new prototype has received over 15,000 visits, with over 45,000 page views and 9,000 ‘unique’ visitors; it has been referred to in at least eleven blogs, including those by the British Library14 and the Bishop of Huntingdon 15; it has been cited in at least five scholarly articles (excluding those by the project team) 1617 181920; and it is being used for teaching in the UK and abroad. This strongly suggests that the project has achieved an important goal in being accessible to palaeographers, medievalists and the public in a way that other approaches have not.

The proposed poster will present the model for describing handwriting and decoration, as well as further details about the framework, its models and implementations. A live demonstration will be available not only of the DigiPal system but also ScandiPal and SephardiPal, two projects which are not publicly visible because of limitations in image rights. The framework is available already for download from GitHub 21, and we are very happy to discuss its customisation for other projects.

References
1. Derolez, A. (2003). The Palaeography of Gothic Manuscript Books (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp. 7–8.

2. Hassner, T. et al. (2013). Computation and Palaeography: Potentials and Limits. Dagstuhl Manifestos 2: 14–35. doi:10.4230/DagMan.2.1.14

3. Costamagna et al. (1995 and 1996). Commentare Bischoff. Scrittura e Civiltà 19: 325–48 and 20: 401–7.

4. Pratesi, A. (1998). Commentare Bischoff: un secondo intervento. Scrittura e Civiltà 22: 405–8.

5. Stokes, P.A. (2012). Palaeography and the ‘Virtual Library’. In Nelson, B., and Terras, M. (eds). Digitizing Medieval and Early Modern Material Culture. Arizona: Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies. 137–69.

6. Sculley, D. and Pasanek, B.M. (2008). Meaning and Mining: The Impact of Implicit Assumptions in Data Mining for the Humanities. Literary and Linguistic Computing 23(4): 409–24. doi:10.1093/llc/fqn019

7. The Cuneiform Digital Palaeography Project (2009). www.cdp.bham.ac.uk/ (last accessed 3 March 2014).

8. Stokes, P. A., et al. (2011–14). DigiPal: Digital Resource and Database of Palaeography, Manuscripts and Diplomatic. London: King's College. digipal.eu/ (last accessed 3 March 2014).

9. ManCASS (2005). C11 Database of Scripts and Spelling. Manchester: University of Manchester. web.archive.org/web/20090520145856/http://www.arts.manchester.ac.uk/mancass/c11database/ (last accessed 3 March 2014).

10. Chang, D. et al. (2009). Visualizing the Republic of Letters. Stanford: Stanford University. www.stanford.edu/group/toolingup/rplviz/papers/Vis_RofL_2009 (last accessed 3 March 2014).

11. Clement, T. et al. (2009). How Not to Read a Million Books. Waltham, MA: Brandeis University. people.brandeis.edu/~unsworth/hownot2read.html (last accessed 3 March 2014).

12. Stokes, P.A. (2012). Modelling Medieval Handwriting: A New Approach to Digital Palaeography. In DH2012 Book of Abstracts. Ed. J.C. Meister et al. Hamburg: University of Hamburg. 382–85. www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/modeling-medieval-handwriting-a-new-approach-to-digital-palaeography (last accessed 3 March 2014).

13. Stokes, P.A. (2013). 'What, No Automation?' Some Principles of the DigiPal Project. In DigiPal: Digital Resource and Database of Palaeography, Manuscripts and Diplomatic. London: King's College. digipal.eu/blog/what-no-automation-some-principles-of-the-digipal-project/ (last accessed 4 March 2014).

14. Harrison, J. (2013). Have you used DigiPal Yet? Medieval Manuscripts Blog. London: British Library. britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/digitisedmanuscripts/2013/05/have-you-used-digipal-yet.html (last accessed 3 March 2014).

15. Thompson, David (2013). The Return of the Palaeographers!! Bishop's Blog. bpdt.wordpress.com/2013/06/07/the-return-of-the-palaeographers/ (last accessed 3 March 2014).

16. Lowe, K. (2012). From Quill to T-PEN: Palaeography, Editing and their E-Futures. Literature Compass 9:12. 1004–1009. doi:10.1111/lic3.12014

17. Lee, S.D. (2012). Anglo-Saxon Studies and Digital Technologies: Past, Present and Future. Literature Compass 9:12. 996–1003. doi:10.1111/lic3.12015

18. Varila, M. (2013). Graphetic Variation within One Scribal Hand as Evidence of Manuscript Production. Studia Neophilologica (Advanced Access). doi:10.1080/00393274.2013.834107

19. Faulkner, M. (2012). Rewriting English Literary History 1042–1215. Literature Compass 9:4. 275–91. doi:10.1111/j.1741-4113.2011.00867.x

20. McCarty, W. (2012). The PhD in Digital Humanities. In B.D. Hirsch, ed., Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics. Cambridge: Open Book. 33–46. www.openbookpublishers.com/reader/161 (last accessed 4 March 2014).

21. Noël, G., et al. (2012–14). Digital Resource and Database of Paleography, Manuscripts and Diplomatic. GitHub. github.com/kcl-ddh/digipal (last accessed 3 March 2014).","txt","2","",""
"2097","15","The Digital Alchemist: A Mixed Reality Exploration of Jonson's Alchemist as Site-Specific Theatre","2","Introduction
The Digital Alchemist (DA) is an interdisciplinary project currently in development that is dedicated to presenting both scholars and a general audience with tools for understanding Ben Jonson’s The Alchemist as a piece of site-specific theatre (digitalalchemist.weebly.com/). Our aim is for the DA to provide a framework for the development of multi-dimensional digital environments that explore works of literature in the historical contexts of their original production.

The Alchemist and Site-Specificity
Jonson’s The Alchemist is an ideal piece for exploring the relationships between place and performance. The narrative of the play is set entirely within London’s Blackfriars district, where Jonson himself lived, and where the play was first performed in the Blackfriars Theatre. Using a variety of digital technologies, we are able to recreate aspects of what it would have been like to see the play in its original context, as well as articulate the argument for understanding The Alchemist as a piece of site-specific theatre.

The term site-specific is most often used in relationship to visual arts such as sculpture, although more recently performance studies has claimed the term as well [Kaye (2000); Pearson and Shanks (2001); Wilkie (2012)]. Work in other fields on the concepts of space and place has also provides relevant connections to the topic of site-specificity and locative artifacts: from cultural studies [de Certeau, M. (1984);  Bachelard, G. (1994); Auge, M. (1995), Kwon, M. (2002)], literary studies [Bly, M. (2007); Hopkins, D.J. (2007); Howard, J. (2009)], architecture [Tuan, Y. (1977)], design [Charitos, D. (2009)], and media studies [MacIntyre, B. et. al. (2004); Bolter, J. D. et. al (2006)]. Across all of these engagements with the concept of site, a deep interconnection between place and content is emphasized. Sculptor Richard Serra has provided what continues to be a key definition for site-specific art: “Site-specific works deal with the environmental components of given places. The scale, size, and location of site-specific works are determined by the topography of the site, whether it be urban or landscape or architectural enclosure” [Serra in Kwon (2002), 12]. A site-specific work, then, is one that is created specifically for a particular location, and whose content is determined by the space it will occupy. 

A close examination of Jonson’s The Alchemist and supporting historical documentation suggests this work includes a deep connection between place and content, and was likely intended to be understood by its contemporary audiences as site-specific. The play was written for the Blackfriars Theatre, and the action of the play was set in the Blackfriars district as well, in a house near to the theatre itself. This positioning is unique in the early modern theatrical world: while many plays were written to be performed in the Blackfriars Theatre, The Alchemist is one of only a small handful that is also set in that environment. Literature scholar R. L. Smallwood explains that Jonson’s “[...] temporal and locative immediacy is carefully built into the play. The audience within the play and the audience in the theater are one and the same” [157]. Despite these and other strong textual ties to site, the fact that the site of the play’s original setting and performance no longer exists creates a disruption in the relationship between the play and the site. The DA seeks to address this disconnect.

The Problem of Representation: Site, Authenticity and Simulation
Even though this project is developed around the concept of site-specificity, there is a problem in determining exactly what constitutes a “site.” This problem of the shifting nature of the term has been explored by Kaye in depth. However, this problem becomes magnified in the case of The Alchemist in the context of creating a map of the Blackfriars site based on the pertinent historical documentation contained in the Loseley manuscript archive. This archive includes documents spanning nearly two hundred years (1489-1682), during which the Blackfriars changed in many significant ways. Nevertheless, some important aspects of the site persist even today: most of the district’s original streets are in their original locations [Whitfield, P. (2007); Barber, P. (2012)], and a few of them--most notably Playhouse Yard--reference topographical features that have long since vanished.

Because of the problematic nature of determining “the site,” the DA must contend with a kind of temporal-specificity that parallels site-specificity: if The Alchemist was written for a particular place in London, so too was it written for a particular time. We can never completely replicate an environment, or fully recapture the audience experience of the original production. It is possible, however, with the use of digital media,  to simulate the environment in a way that engages contemporary audiences with the site-specific nature of the play. 

Additionally, the use of digital technology itself results in complex negotiations around the concepts of aura and authenticity. This question of aura becomes especially interesting in the case of work that combines the physical and digital, as in augmented or mixed reality [Bolter, J. D. et. al (2006)]. As opposed to virtual reality, mixed and augmented reality systems maintain a connection to the physical. This connection can provide the possibility for a differently embodied form of experience, which includes elements of a reproductive technology experience, and is “both immediate and mediated” [Bolter 29], thus highlighting both the presence of site (or a site’s remains) as well as the absence of site.

Solution(s): Multi-nodal Experience Design
The DA addresses the problematic nature of site-specificity in a site that no longer exists by providing multiple experiences, addressing different aspects of the play and the remaining traces of the site. These multiple nodes provide different kinds of access for multiple audiences. Each of these nodes provides a means for audiences to engage and interact with the archive itself in different ways depending on participant interest. For example, scholars will be able to explore the original documents along with their connections to Jonson’s text, while participants in an augmented reality experience will be able to interact with a version of the play unlike any previously staged. These different experiences are not mutually exclusive, and in fact compelling connections are revealed by participating in more than one, although this is not required.

Conclusions
Moving forward, we plan to conduct user testing to solicit feedback on the each node of the project, and develop a framework that could be applied in practice to create similar explorations of other literary works that also demand attention to site-specificity. Future objectives include collaborations with colleagues in a variety of fields, such as architectural history and palaeography, to expand our design such that the content is accessible for a range of interdisciplinary uses.

References
Auge, M. (1995). Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity. London and New York: Verso.

Bachelard, G. (1994).The Poetics of Space. Boston: Beacon Press.

Barber, P. (2012). London: A History in Maps. London: The British Library.

Benjamin, W. (1968). “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction.” In Walter Benjamin: Illuminations. Trans. H. Zohn. pp. 155-200. New York: Schocken Books.

Bly, M. (2007). “Playing the Tourist in Early Modern London.” PMLA, 122:1, pp. 61-71. 

Bolter, J. D., MacIntyre, B., Gandy, M., Schweitzer, P. (2006).  “New Media and the Permanent Crisis of Aura.” Convergence, 12:1, pp. 21-39. London: Sage Publications.

Charitos, D. (2009). “Precedents for the Design of Locative Media.” In Future Interaction Design II. Eds. P. Saariluoma and H. Isomaki. pp. 141-156.  London: Springer.

de Certeau, M. (1984). The Practice of Everyday Life. Trans. S. Rendall. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Hopkins, D.J. (2007). City/Stage/Globe: Performance and Space in Shakespeare’s London. London and New York: Routledge.

Howard, J. (2009). Theater of a City: The Places of London Comedy, 1598-1642. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Kaye, N. (2000). Site-Specific Art: Performance, Place and Documentation. London and New York: Routledge.

Kwon, M. (2002). One Place After Another: Site-Specific Art and Locational Identity. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.

MacIntyre, B., Bolter J. D., Gandy, M. (2004). “Presence and the Aura of Meaningful Places.”Presence, October 2004, pp.13-15.

Pearson, M., Shanks, M. (2001). Theatre/Archaeology. London and New York: Routledge. 

Smallwood, R. L. (1981). “Here, in the Friars’: Immediacy and Theatricality in The Alchemist.” Review of English Studies. 32:126. 

Tuan, Y. (1977). Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Whitfield, P. (2007). London: A Life in Maps. London: The British Library.

Wilkie, F. (2012). “Site-specific Performance and the Mobility Turn.” Contemporary Theatre Review, 22:2, pp. 203-212. London: Routledge.","txt","2","",""
"2098","15","The dog that didn't bark: A longitudinal study of reading behaviour in physical and digital environments","10","1. Introduction
The following proposal presents the results of a longitudinal study of reading in both digital and physical environments carried out as part of the INKE project, by researchers at the UCL Centre for Digital Humanities from 2009-2013. Our aim was to understand how different digital devices and physical, printed publications are used, and integrated into reader behaviour. It took place at a time of rapid change in the technology of reading in digital environments: the Kindle, iPad, and other tablet computers were launched, and quickly became popular, during the period of the study. We might hypothesise, therefore, that such a period would usher in the transformation of the reading experience, and wholesale move from paper to digital devices and ebooks which had been predicted in the literature.12 Our study of reading behaviour provides evidence against which to test such claims. 

1.1. Research context
Reading has been studied by cognitive scientists (see for example the journal Scientific Studies of Reading); those interested in literary reading 3 ; and in how children learn to read (for example the very widely cited study by Wagner et al. 1997) but the way in which we integrate reading into our lives and behaviour is relatively little understood. Two different broad types of reading may be observed: reading to gather information, and immersive reading. The first, described by Vandendorpe as ergative reading, is used to find information in printed texts or digital documents. This is, he argues, well suited to digital environments, which make information seeking faster and more efficient. 4

Immersive reading is a complex interaction with a text, which we may read for pleasure, or which literary scholars may study and read closely such as novels or poetry. This is more difficult to study, entailing understanding of complex language, extended narrative, rhetorical devices etc. 5 Yet, contrary to Vandendorpe’s predictions, it remains as common as ergative reading: millions of people engage in such an activity every day, and many of them use digital devices, such as tablets. Yet, arguably, such technologies do little more than mimic the affordances of the printed book, and some users still find it hard to read long documents in any form other than paper. Thus it is still unclear whether digital environments offer significant advantages to readers of long, complex narratives, as compared to print.

Our study was therefore aimed to understand how users carry out both kinds of reading; what kind of device they use for which tasks; what they enjoy and what frustrates them about such devices; and what features and affordances they would like to see in new digital environments. The results of our study provide an enhanced understanding of reading behaviour, at a time of remarkable technological change, and aims to evaluate the effects of such rapid developments on readers and their views about reading.

2. Methodology
This study was intended to capture change over a lengthy period of time and is, as far as we are aware, unprecedented, in terms of a study of adult readers, although there are numerous longitudinal studies of reader development in children: recent examples include studies by Nation and Hulme,6 and  Oakhill and Cain. 7 Its longitudinal nature is important: while other studies have been carried out into the practice of digital reading (for example, Gerlach and Buxmann's study) 8, they provide  snapshot of a user population. We argue that only by repeating the same task over several years is it possible to determine how, and whether, reader behaviour changes in response to different technologies. It was a cross-sectional study: the research activity remained the same over the course of the project, but we did not track one user group over the study period. 9 

We chose to study a group of Masters students at the UCL Department of Information Studies, because they were adult, needed to read widely as part of their course, and were, typically, from a background in the humanities, thus we hoped they would also be likely to read for pleasure. We also integrated the study into the teaching and learning of the Electronic Publishing module, as a way of introducing the students to the practice of action research, and enquiry-based learning early in their course. Thus the study benefited not only our research, but also the student learning experience. Each group also included a significant number of non-UK students, many of them non-native speakers of English: this therefore allowed us to determine whether nationality or native language had any effect on reading behaviour.

 Each participant was asked to keep a diary of their reading for a week. We asked them to note the time period in which they read, where they were, what technology they were using (making it clear that printed books, newspapers and magazines are reading technologies), and to note any problems they encountered or other reflections that they might have. Diary studies provide information about behaviour patterns, and attendant problems when using different technologies, and we have previously used them to study of field archaeologists’ use of digital technologies 10. We then held a group discussion session, in which the students reported back on their experiences, and responded, firstly in small groups, then in plenary discussion, to a series of questions about reading in different physical and digital environments. This allowed us to capture their views, and suggest a series of requirements and affordances for future digital reading devices.  The reading diaries were then collected and content analysis techniques used to identify patterns in the data. As the study progressed, themes were compared with data from previous years to identify change over time

3. Findings
We found that our users had a very complex, almost instinctive, understanding of the affordances of different reading devices and environments. They had a wide repertoire of contexts for reading; physical setting such as the bus to work, the office, the sofa or, of course, in bed; or devices, such as phones, cereal packets, free newspapers, computer monitors, printed books, and, with growing frequency as the study progressed, tablets and e-readers. They typically read for relatively short periods, and moved frequently from one device or context to another, choosing print or digital media depending on their task; physical setting; whether they were on their own, or with colleagues; and the technologies available; rather than having dogmatic preferences for one type of device or environment over another.

 Despite the rapid development of tablet and e-reader technologies, we were surprised to find that their views about design and requirements changed relatively little. While appreciating the potential of tablets for information seeking, and for storage and fast retrieval of a large number of books or documents, users still felt an emotional attachment to the book as an object. There was also no significant difference between the behaviours and views expressed by students of different nationalities. Users were well aware of the affective aspects of books, such as the feeling of paper under the hands, and its flexibility and warmth, as opposed to the cold, uninviting feeling of plastic or metal, and valued attractive book design, and the distinctive smell of newsprint or rare books. Despite the numerous experiments with annotation, navigation and bookmarking technologies in digital environments, users also expressed a strong preference for annotating physical copies, and valued the ability to flip through pages of a printed book as a way of orientating themselves.

 As the study progressed more of our users seemed comfortable with reading long documents, including entire novels, in digital form, but it appears that those who do so are heavy users of tablets or e-readers, perhaps as a result of being early adopters. Surprisingly large numbers of respondents still prefer to read in print, and many of these are relatively light users of digital devices. Many of these users reported that it was difficult for them to feel the sense of flow- that is being absorbed in the narrative, and unaware of the device on which it is being read- when using digital devices as opposed to reading in print. It is difficult, at this stage, to tell whether the ability to read at length on a tablet is something acquired through practice, and enthusiasm for this medium, or whether users who are unenthusiastic about digital reading do not persist, and thus never acquire the habit of use and resulting enjoyment of flow. 

4. Conclusion
The particular significance of our study results not only from individual findings, some of which others have also noted, 11, but in the fact that, despite our initial hypothesis, we found a remarkably stable set of behaviours and user requirements irrespective of rapid technological change. Users understand the advantages of digital reading devices, but still value the tactile, visual and affective aspects of the printed book. It appears that the printed book is not as easily modelled in, or replaced by, digital environments, as had once been thought: doing so remains a significant challenge for future scholarship.

References
1. Nunberg, G. (ed.) (1996) The Future of the Book. Berkley, University of California Press.

2. Birkerts, S. (1995) The Gutenberg Elegies: The fate of reading in an electronic age. London, Faber.

3. Miall, D.S., Kuiken, D. (2002). A feeling for fiction: Becoming what we behold. Poetics, 30, 221-241.

4. Vandendorpe, C. (2011) Some Considerations About the Future of Reading. Digital Studies/Le Champ Numerique, 2, 2 (www.digitalstudies.org/ojs/index.php/digital_studies/article/view/186/250)

5. Warwick, C. (2004) Print Scholarship and Digital Resources. In Schreibman, S., Siemens, R., Unsworth, J. (Eds.) A Companion to Digital Humanities (pp. 366- 382). Oxford, Blackwell.

6. Nation, K. and Hulme, C. (2011) Learning to read changes children’s phonological skills: evidence from a latent variable longitudinal study of reading and nonword repetition. Developmental Science, 14, 4: 649–659

7. Oakhill, J., and Kain, C. (2012) The Precursors of Reading Ability in Young Readers: Evidence From a Four-Year Longitudinal Study. Scientific Studies of Reading, 16, 2.

8. Gerlach, J., Buxmann, P. (2011) Investigating the acceptance of electronic books- The impact of haptic dissonance on innovation adoption. ECIS 2011 Proceedings. Paper 141. aisel.aisnet.org/ecis2011/141

9. Ruspini, E. (2002) An Introduction to Longitudinal Research methods. London, Routledge. Chapter 1.

10. Warwick, C., Terras, M., Fisher, C., Baker, M., O'Riordan, E., Grove, M., Fulford, M., Clarke, A., Rains, M. (2009) iTrench: A study of user reactions to the use of information technology in field archaeology. Literary and Linguistic Computing 24, 2: 211-224.

11. Jabr, F. (2013) The Reading Brain in the Digital Age: The Science of Paper versus Screens. Scientific American, April 11, 2013 www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=reading-paper-screens&&goback=.gde_104765_member_233183076#%21","txt","2","",""
"2099","15","The Early Modern OCR Project (eMOP): Fostering Access to Early Modern Cultural Materials","2","1. Introduction
The Initiative for Digital Humanities, Media, and Culture at Texas A&M University received a $734,000 grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation in 2012 to make machine readable 45 million pages of data1. By partnering with Gale and Proquest, eMOP will combine open source OCR (Optical Character Recognition) software and book history in order to improve the accuracy of

OCR for early modern (1473-1800) texts2. The Early Modern OCR Project (eMOP) aims to publish an open source OCR workflow, improve the visibility of early modern texts by making them fully searchable3, and form a community of scholars and institutions interested in the digital preservation of these texts4. Our goal is to foster collaboration among various disciplines, and, in doing so, cultivate inter-institutional and international relationships that make possible new kinds of humanities research.

2. Poster Description
Our workflow (see images below for two early drafts of our workflow, subject to change) blends the disciplines of book history, digital humanities, textual analysis, and machine learning in order to create a corpus of keyed texts that are far more correct than is now possible with the current set of tools. These keyed texts will improve access to early modern texts that are currently only searchable through “dirty” OCR or metadata alone. The open source OCR workflow will contain, among other things, access to an early modern font database, customization guidelines for the Tesseract OCR engine, post-processing and diagnostic algorithms, and crowdsourcing correction tools.


Fig. 1: Two versions of the eMOP workflow from October 2012 and February 2014, respectively.

In addition to presenting a detailed and accurate representation of our OCR workflow for early modern texts, we intend to present the following aspects of eMOP: 

Information on how to obtain the open source code for all of the tools, software, and workflows that eMOP has produced. 
How our tools and software can be used by individual scholars, instructors, and institutions in the classroom, for an OCR project, or for personal research. 
3. Demonstration Description
We intend to go beyond presenting an overview of the project; instead our poster and demonstration will communicate the concrete solutions found and software available to address the ""OCR problem"" from a Digital Humanities perspective. To this end, we will demo our our five crowdsourcing and scholar-sourcing correction tools for conference attendees. These demonstrations of the tools will be operating in production with our eMOP OCR output of the EEBO ECCO datasets (45 million pages).

The Franken+ tool, developed by Bryan Tarpley at Texas A&M, enables the creation of an “ideal” typeface using glyphs identified in scanned images of documents from the early modern period. Franken+ also exports these typefaces to a training library for the open-source OCR engine Tesseract5.
Aletheia Layout Editor (ALE), developed by PRImA at the University of Salford, is a crowd-sourced correction tool for re-drawing regions on problematic OCR’d pages, such as Title pages, multi-columned texts, image-heavy documents, and more.
The TypeWright software, developed by Performant Software Solutions and 18thConnect, enables users to correct the “dirty” OCR of an entire early modern document, and our partnership with ECCO allows 18thConnect to release fully corrected documents to their scholar-editors in plain text and TEI-A formats.
The Cobre tool, developed by Dr. Anton DuPlessis and Cushing Memorial Library at Texas A&M, enables scholar-experts to compare, re-order pages, and annotate the metadata for multiple printings of documents in the eMOP dataset. 
The Anachronaut tool, developed by a team of undergraduates and Dr. Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna at Texas A&M, is a Facebook game that uses the power of Facebook (and many layers of user confidence testing) to correct single words and phrases.
References
1. Mandell, Laura. Mellon Foundation Grant Proposal: ""OCR'ing Early Modern Texts."" Grant Proposal. 30 Jun 2012.

2. Heil, Jacob and Todd Samuelson.Book History in the Early Modern OCR Project, or, Bringing Balance to the Force. Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies 13.4 (2013): 90-103. Web. 30 Oct 2013.

3. Mandell, Laura.Digitizing the Archive: The Necessity of an 'Early Modern' Period. Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies 13.2 (2013): 83-92.

4. European Commission: The Comité des Sages.The New Renaissance: Report of the comité des sages on bringing Eu rope’s cultural heritage online. By Elizabeth Niggemann, et al. 10 Jan 2011.

5. Katayoun, Torabi, Jessica Durgan and Bryan Tarpley.Early modern OCR project (eMOP) at Texas A&M University: using Aletheia to train Tesseract. Proceedings of the 2013 ACM symposium on Document Engineering. New York: ACM, 2013.","txt","2","",""
"2100","15","The Inherited Self: Reappraising Literary Cultural Heritage through Digital Methods","2","This project proposes new approaches to cultural heritage by developing new methods of working with digital texts and by defining appropriate research questions. Our goal is to find ways of turning literature, especially prose fiction, into a site of dynamic research in the humanities and social sciences, rather than merely a passive digital repository.

Our point of departure is the view of cultural heritage as largely intended, or willed, to convey a specific collective memory and identity. This perspective in turn strongly affects the construction of individual identity. From this the project elaborates two main conclusions: 1) In order to fully understand our cultural heritage, it is essential to analyse it against the self-understanding of the cultures that produced it — evading or by-passing the structures of literary canon-formation. 2) Focussing on the issue of identity is an efficient way of developing methodology and performing analysis.

The project is designed to

Benefit from a corpus of specially-prepared material where questions of canon formation can be explored through marginalized and forgotten literary works
Develop new methods of working with the specific forms of cultural heritage embodied in electronic text databases
Develop new perspectives and methods through interdisciplinary exchange and cooperation on these text databases.
Although the primary material of the pilot project is Swedish, all parts of the project are planned to be generalizable, scalable and relevant to other literary traditions. The main material of the investigations consists of three corpora: The literary works of August Strindberg (based on recently-finalized scholarly editions), the literary works of Selma Lagerlöf (all first editions, established and proofread in collaboration with the scholarly edition), and all original Swedish prose fiction that was first published in the years 1800, 1820, 1840, 1860, 1880 and 1900.

These three corpora offer an apposite opportunity to compare and collate results: Strindberg and Lagerlöf are both canonized, fairly contemporary but entirely different authors: one male and intensely occupied with the societal issues of his day, the other female and developing her own kind of “saga” style, interested in social issues but in a more indirect way. While Strindberg and Lagerlöf belong to Sweden’s most renowned and internationally famous authors, the Swedish Prose Fiction database has been constructed in order to evade canonical selection. Comprising all publications that match the criteria, it offers ways into both mainstream works and those that have been entirely marginalised.

As this project arises from the view of culture as an issue of identity, and of cultural heritage as the performative expression of collective memory and identity, the research questions focus on issues of identity: both collective and individual. Since fiction’s main means of portraying problems and ideas is the individual character, the studies start out with the individual in order to reach conclusions also about collective identity. The research questions include issues of identity in connection to ethnicity, society, gender and consumption patterns.

The project thus explores and develops different forms of materials, techniques, methods and co-operations, which are to result in new combinations of quantitative and qualitative analysis. In particular, we aim at refining methods of “distant reading”, as once proposed by Franco Moretti (Moretti, 2005, 2006), into new approaches that focus on content and context (cf. Jockers, 2013). We use the new tool for sub-corpus topic modeling (STM) designed by Peter Leonard (Leonard and Tangherlini, 2013), which makes it possible to extract topics from a particular work and run against larger materials. We also plan to enhance topic modeling further by adding Named Entity Recognition (NER) and sentiment analysis (cf. Liu, 2010, Maas et al., 2011) to existing systems. NER has been refined, adapted and extended in connection with this project in Kokkinakis and Oelke, 2012, Oelke et al. 2012, Kokkinakis and Malm 2011, 2013; cf. Yang et al., 2011.

At the poster presentation, we will demonstrate materials and techniques on lap-tops. 

References
Jockers, M. (2013).Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Kokkinakis, D. and Malm, M. (2011). Character Profiling in 19th Century Fiction. In Workshop: Language Technologies for Digital Humanities and Cultural Heritage in conjunction with the Recent Advances in Natural Language Processing (RANLP). Hissar, pp. 70-77.

Kokkinakis, D. and Oelke, D. (2012). Men, Women and Gods: Distant Reading in Literary Collections – Combining Visual Analytics with Language Technology. In Proceedings of the Advances in Visual Methods for Linguistics (AVML). University of York.

Kokkinakis D. and Malm M. (2013). A Macroanalytic View of Swedish Literature using Topic Modeling. In Proceedings of the Corpus Linguistics. Andrew Hardie and Robbie Love (eds), Lancaster: UCREL, pp. 144-147.

Leonard, P. and Tangherlini, T. (2013). Trawling in the Sea of the Great Unread: Sub-Corpus Topic Modeling and Humanities Research. Poetics, 41: 725-749.

Liu, Bing. (2010). Sentiment Analysis and Subjectivity. In Indurkhya, N. and Damerau, F. J. (eds), Handbook of Natural Language Processing. Boca Raton, Fla: CRC Press, pp. 627-659.

Maas, A. L., Daly, R. E., Pham P. T., Huang, D., Ng, A. Y. and Potts, C. (2011). Learning Word Vectors for Sentiment Analysis. In Proceedings of the 49th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL). Portland, pp. 142-150.

Moretti, F. (2005). Graphs, Maps, Trees. Abstract Models for Literary History. London: Verso.

Moretti, F. ed. (2006). The Novel. History, Geography, and Culture 1-2. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Oelke, D., Kokkinakis, D. and Malm, M. (2012). Advanced Visual Analytics Methods for Literature Analysis. In Language Technology for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, and Humanities (LaTeCH), an EACL Workshop. Avignon: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 35-44.

Yang, T., Torget, A. T. and Mihalcea, R. (2011). Topic Modeling on Historical Newspapers. In Proceedings of the 5th ACL-HLT Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, and Humanities. Portland: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 96-104.","txt","2","",""
"2101","15","The Landscapes of Casta Paintings: Depictions of Social Anxieties in XVIII Century New Spanish Art","10","1. Introduction
Casta painting was one of the most popular non-religious artistic genres in New Spain (present day Mexico) during the XVIII century. They come in series of up to sixteen scenes, each one showing an interracial couple and their offspring usually carrying out daily activities in everyday settings. In these paintings, artists depicted the three main ethnic groups making up Mexico’s colonial population: Españoles, Indios, and Negros, and the process of mestizaje. Produced mostly in Mexico City and Puebla, Casta paintings reached a peak in production between 1770 and 1780, disappearing at the beginning of the 19th century as the War of Independence began and a generalized rejection of colonial structures took hold. In New Spanish society casta referred to race, both in biological and social terms 1. This notion was the basis of a caste system that pervaded New Spanish life at the time; a form of colonial control informing the kind of jobs people could do, where they could live, the civil liberties they had, and whether they paid taxes. According to Edward Long, the caste system had three general purposes: “first, to guarantee that each race occupy a social niche assigned by nature; second, to offer the possibility of improving one’s blood through the right pattern of mixing; third, to inhibit the mixture of Indians and Blacks, which was deemed the more dangerous to the Spanish social order” 2. Blood mending–a process that was believed to make the offspring of interracial couples return to a pure European bloodline–was in the Spanish elite’s eyes a way to assert their prominence. A control mechanism serving colonial concerns, blood mending was commonly staged in Casta paintings and, along with hierarchical and structured serialization, appears to suggest an ordered and stable social system 3.

Critics have suggested that Casta paintings served as souvenirs–postcards–of the new world and, thus, showed a functioning and harmonious society 4. As a matter of fact, Magali Carrera has stated that “as visualizations of race, Casta paintings stabilize the ambiguity and complexity of physical race by locating the meanings of race in the confluence, interactions, and mediations between and among physical, social, and economic spaces” 5. Because of the composition and titles of Casta paintings, much literature has focused on their function as documents cataloguing the existence of the main races and the many resulting combinations –upwards of fifty according to Nicolás León 6. We take the painting’s titles as metadata rooted in the hegemonic perception of the groups depicted and explore their inconsistencies; for example, how in thecasta system ‘casta’ simultaneously refers to both a specific mix like ‘Barcino’ or ‘Coyote’ and to the whole set of possible mestizaje instances. For Margarita de Orellana, the proliferation of terms and the representation of many castas showed the discontinuity of the mestizaje phenomenon. Furthermore, by dividing and fragmenting it, the complexity of mestizaje was over simplified 7. The fact that many of Casta paintings were commissioned by and for Spanish patrons, and even meant to be sent to Europe 8, explains the intent to reduce the complexity of mestizaje and to show the stability of life in the Americas. Moreover, the notion of blood mending in the caste system, observable in the paintings, sought to put an end to “the widely held notion in Europe that everybody in the Americas was hopelessly mixed” 9. We argue that by artificially emphasizing the division of castas, these paintings sought to reassure the Spanish who feared their demise in New Spanish society, but ultimately failed to do so.

2. Overview and Methodology
In this study we challenge the hierarchical catalogue view embedded in Casta paintings. Instead of looking at castas in their rigid classifications, we have examined them as a group making up the larger and more complex figure of the mestizo. In that sense, we take casta as a group category referring to all mestizos resulting out of Español, Indio, and Negro. We base this assertion following Octavio Paz for whom, “among all the groups making up New Spain’s populations, mestizos were the only ones embodying that society, its true children… Furthermore, they were those who made it not only new, but another” (our translation) 10. In addition, instead of looking at particular series we have built a database with descriptions of over two hundred paintings. Painting description included extracting a total of 618 characters and marking them by casta (as assigned to them in the paintings’ title), gender, as “parent” or “child”, and the activity they are doing. Casta painting critics have often pointed out that far from being a harmonious reflection of the caste system, they highlight the tensions and complexities underlying it. We build upon this through an extensive data approach and analysis. We believe this global approach has the capacity to show how, far from pacifying Spanish fears and concerns, Casta paintings confirm them and suggest prevalent mestizaje and the loss of Spanish prominence.

3. Results
Data analysis has shown that the majority of the characters depicted in Casta paintings are either Españoles or Indios, followed by Mulatos and Mestizos (Fig. 1). Most interesting is a composite view of casta and gender in which Español males are the most represented group throughout and are present in almost half of the paintings we have described. The second largest group is Indio females, present in over seventy paintings (Fig. 2). The recurrence of Español male and Indio females signals the basis of racial mixing resulting in the particular figure of the Mestizo, which can be extrapolated as the general view of casta as any of the mixes.


Fig. 1: Overall casta frequency.


Fig. 2: Casta frequency by gender.

A look at the offspring sheds much light into the issues of blood mending and Spanish prominence. When we look at the offspring as separate castas, it is indeed the Español children who are most recurrent. The division of castas, thus, fulfills the objective of showing Spanish prominence among the interracial diversity. Furthermore, as there are no couples composed of both Español father and mother, the presence of Español offspring highlights the possibility of blood mending through the right combinations (Fig. 3). In contrast, when we look at offspring after casta grouping, the outlook is quite different. In Fig. 4, we show the proportion of two non-mixed offspring (Español and Indio as there are no Negro offspring in the corpus) and the two biggest casta groups (Mestizo and Mulato). This grouping highlights how, even though the Españoles are the larger minority, their prominence quickly dwindles in comparison to casta children. Fig. 5 reinforces the sweeping presence of mixed-race offspring in comparison to the Español. Our data on the offspring depicted suggest not only that blood mending and a return to whiteness are rather marginal, it also highlights that further mixing is the standard depicted in Casta paintings.


Fig. 3: Overall offspring casta frequency.


Fig. 4: Main castas and casta grouping.


Fig. 5: Español, Indio, Negro and Castas outloook.

Additionally, we have identified forty activities being depicted in Casta paintings, and explored the three most recurrent ones in detail: carrying and holding children (Fig. 6), portrait posing (Fig. 7), and working (Figs. 8 and 9). We have looked at these activities with regards to casta frequency. In terms of carrying and holding a child, females are seen to be the ones who carry out this activity the most; however, it is actually Indio women who have the highest frequency. For the males, it is seen that Español take charge and hold children over Español women, and over every other male. Español males are most frequently depicted as portrait posing, which sets them apart from the other characters in the corpus for their lack of association with different types of labour. In contrast, when we look at work activities, such as sewing, selling, shoe mending, and making pulque, it is Indios and Negros who have the highest frequency of working depictions. In ratio terms, almost 40% of Indios and almost 50% of Negros are shown carrying out a work activity. These results indicate that the Español characters were represented as prosperous figures, though largely passive, especially when compared to Indios, Negros, Mestizos, and Mulatos who are shown being in charge of most of the basic economic activities.


Fig. 6: Holding and carrying children by casta and gender frequency.


Fig. 7: Posing by casta frequency.


Fig. 8: Working by casta frequency.


Fig. 9: Percentage by casta of working individuals.

4. Conclusions
By taking a general castaapproach, this study argues that the notions of blood mending and Spanish prominence that informed and even produced Casta painting are fragile. These two principles of the caste system in place in New Spain at the time are consistent only as long as castas are seen individually. Conversely, when viewed as a group, castas not only outnumber the Español, Indio and Negro characters, they also signal that miscegenation was the standard. Furthermore, the contrast between the depiction of the Españoles’ apparent prominence through non-laborious activities and the frequency of representations of Indio, Negro, Mulato, and Mestizo characters working, suggests an economic tension revealing a loss of Spanish relevance in the changing social landscape. Finally, Casta paintings not only fail at remedying the Spanish elite’s anxieties, but, rather, stage the inevitability of miscegenation and even anticipate the demise of Spanish colonial rule.

References
1. Carrera, Magali. Locating Race in Late Colonial Mexico. Art Journal 57.3 (1998). Web. p. 38.

2. Katzew, Ilona. Casta Painting: Images of Race in Eighteenth-century Mexico. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004. Print. p. 49.

3. Guzauskyte, Evelina. Fragmented Borders, Fallen Men, Bestial Women: Violence in the Casta Paintings of Eighteenth-century New Spain. Bulletin of Spanish Studies 86.2 (2009). Print. p. 176.

4. García Sáiz, María Concepción. Las castas mexicanas: Un género de pictórico americano. Milan: Olivetti, 1989. Print. p. 42.

5. Carrera, Magali. Locating Race in Late Colonial Mexico. Art Journal 57.3 (1998). Web. p. 45.

6. Léon, Nicolás.Las castas. Artes de Mexico 8 (1998). Print. p. 79.

7. De Orellana, Margarita.La Fiebre De La Imagen En La Pintura De Castas. Artes de Mexico 8 (1998). Print. p.58.

8. Katzew, Ilona.Casta Painting: Identity and Social Stratification in Colonial Mexico. New world orders: cata painting and colonial Latin America. University of Texas Press (1996). Print. p.13.

9. Katzew, Ilona. Casta Painting: Images of Race in Eighteenth-century Mexico. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004. Print. p.49.

10. Paz, Octavio. Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, o, Las trampas de la fe. Barcelona: Seix Barral, 1982. Print. p.42.","txt","2","",""
"2102","15","The Layered Text. From Textual Zoom, Text Network Analysis and Text Summarisation to a Layered Interpretation of Meaning","10","Introduction
In her article describing a night performance with a dancers troupe 1, Rambo Ronai proposes a ""layered account"" combining different perspectives, that of a dancer, wrestler, ethnographer and writer reflecting upon Derrida's concepts of ""mimesis"" and ""under erasure"", and the metaphor of drawing/writing as a way to express the ""layering process"" of live experience. Starting also from ethnographical observation and Ryle's notion of ""thick description"", Geertz 2 considers the interpretation process as founded upon ""piled-up structures of inference and implication"" and the detection in the observed object of a ""stratified hierarchy of meaningful structures"", like the ""twitches, winks, fake-winks, parodies, rehearsals"", etc. in the twitching/winking scenario or the Jewish, Berber and French ""frames of interpretation"" in Cohen's story.

Our proposal relies on the hypothesis that a ""layered"" representation of an electronic text can bring into light some aspects related to the production and circulation of meaning in the reading/interpretation and writing process. The study refers to models and methods like textual zoom, text network analysis and text summarisation and proposes a combined approach for structuring the text on ""layers of meaning"".

  Textual zoom, z-text
The model of z-text 3 was inspired by Neal Stephenson’s 4 fictional construct, a primer whose content expands itself in its interaction with the reader. A z-textual layout supposes a hierarchical structure of z-lexias (after Barthes’ lexia5, a unit of reading and analysis), i.e. potentially extensible units, disposed on levels of detail, along with the Z-axis. The processes of reading and writing z-lexias are called z-readingand z-writing. A parentz-lexia consists in a fragment which has engendered descendants, i.e. has been expanded on the subsequent levels of the representation, like zl1 and zl3 in Fig. 1. Each zoom-in operation performed by the reader replaces a z-lexia visible on the roll (the display device on the topmost plane) with its next-level children (if any), while a zoom-out substitutes all the displayed children with their previous-level parent (if any). The zooming mechanism entails a back and forth movement through the layers of text and the dynamic projection of z-lexias on the displaying device.


Fig. 1: Z-text model

The ""tri-dimensional space"" of a z-text can be turned multidimensional if the same z-lexia is expanded and then explored by different types of magnifying glass, i.e. following different points of view or perspectives (sometimes contradictory, like in Pavić's Khazar controversy viewed through the lens of the red, green or yellow books).

Figure 2 presents a z-textual layout of Barthes's S/Z. The representation starts with a fragment from Balzac's Sarrasine on the first level. New details are added gradually on each level:

the “units of reading”(lexias) and the attached interpretation codes, HER, SYM, SEM, etc. (level 2);
the description of the interpretation method and its codes, as a way to understand the plurality of text defined as a ""galaxy of signifiers""  (level3);
more insight into the ""step by step"" analysis of text ""working back along the threads of meanings"", the ""weaving voices"" made apparent by the five codes, and the evaluation process echoing the writing practice and allowing us to distinguish the ""readerly"" and the ""writerly"" (level 4);
emphasis on the idea of enclosing the text in a fixed structure versus providing it with a ""structuration"", on considering the text as a process rather than a product, and on the reversibility of the writerly text, proved in the example by actually turning Balzac's Sarrasine into Barthes's S/Z (level 5). 

Fig. 2: Layers of meanings in Barthes's S/Z

The process can continue with the reader's interpretation on Barthes's interpretation of Balzac, the zoom-in, zoom-out mechanism allowing to move back and forth from the initial text to an interpretation (or interpretation of interpretation, ...) of it, through different layers of meaning involving variable degrees of details.

Text network analysis
The z-textual layout of S/Z was based on the assumption that Barthes's analysis contains in itself a certain stratification on levels of signification that can allow the gradual transformation of one text into the other. The levels texts were made up by fragments, not necessarily contiguous as in their original form, but following a certain hierarchical logic (e.g., level 1 - Sarrasine; level 2 - SEM, HER, ...; level 3 - codes explained, etc.).   

Further analysis consisted in the use of TexTexture7, a visualisation tool based on the concepts of text network analysis and  betweenness centrality 8. The five files, corresponding to z-text levels (Fig.3), were processed via the TexTexture online service, each file representing a gradual enrichment of the Sarrasine text with Barthes's analysis as described above. 


Fig. 3: TexTexture. S/Z z-textual layout

Figure 3 shows the most influential concepts in the texts, i.e. the words with the highest value of betweenness centrality (measuring how often a node appears between any other nodes in the network). The most influential contexts are also displayed as determined by nodes with high degree of connectivity (number of edges).  While high degree nodes can be influential within a given context, high values of betweenness centrality characterizes words supposed to function as shifting points between different clusters of meaning.

A left to right scan of the five columns denotes a certain dynamics in the transition from the Balzacian text to its Barthesian interpretation. Thus, from a first level description of the party salon, the emphasis shifts to a more analytic perspective articulated around the interpretation codes (sem, act, sym) and terms like antithesis and fantastic, resonant with the already highlighted ghost, dance, moon on the previous level. More details on the interpretation procedure added on the third, fourth and fifth levels bring about meaning circulation through nodes like code, signifier, unit, lexia (level1 to 3)  through text,voice, structuring, signifier (level1 to 4) and finally to code, text, signifier, structure, evaluation (level 1 to 5), elements that seem to approximate the different layers of meaning embedded in the z-textual layout.

Text summarisation
Text summarisation, extractive 9 or abstractive 10 techniques, represents another point of interest for our inquiry. For instance, studies like 11, 12, 13, 14 making use of graph-based models in order to encode the structure of a text and to compute the most salient sentences/fragments to be included in the summary, or tools for variable summarisation, like 15, 16allowing to generate summaries covering a given percentage from the initial text.

Towards a layered interpretation of meaning
Our proposal consists in a theoretical approach combining textual zoom, text (network) analysis and gradual summarisation for the detection of key elements and the representation of layers of meanings in a text. The combined construct, at this point defined only at a conceptual level, may enclose potential functionalities such as:

highlight the most influential concepts/contexts in the text and their ranks computed according to particular relevance criteria (e.g. betweenness centrality or other);
propose candidate sentences to be included on different levels of summarisation, possibly based on a certain rank order (for instance, starting with lower or higher rank constituents on the lower levels);  
assist the user in building further summarisation levels by gradually adding remaining constituents, until the whole text is covered;
integrate the levels of summarization into a z-text layout that can be eventually explored by zoom-in and zoom-out.
The structure can be considered (in a kind of ""deformative"" interpretation 17 or close/distant reading scenario) in order to explore the layers of meanings ""hidden"" in a text. Our hypothesis is that words and sentences may appear in disparate places throughout the text, but from an interpretative or writing perspective they may belong to the same conceptual or symbolic level. Grouping these fragments on layers of meaning may bring new light on the process of text production and understanding.

Similar with the S/Z experiment, we may imagine, for instance, a ""step by step"" passage from the analyzed text to deeper analytic levels (like in Auerbach's 18 reflections on the representation of reality in Western literature, starting from a close reading of Odysseus's Scar, or in Greenblatt's 19 new-historicist analysis of Midsummer leading to a reconstruction of the historical-cultural context having inspired it). Other examples can deal with the variable degree of proximity/distance of the reader to a textual object (as in Shakespeare's Venus and Adonis or in a hypothetical ""behaviorist"" narrative progressively enriched with characters' psychology), the gradual movement from simple to complex, intuitive to abstract in pedagogical or philosophical scenarios (e.g. Wittgenstein's 20Tractatus), as well as the ""layered"" representation of a growing text - from a few initial paragraphs to a full-fledged story, resulted from a writing process.

A layered interpretation of meaning may be aligned, besides Rambo Ronai's and Geertz's theses, with Iser's 21 assumption on the process of ""anticipation and retrospection"" implied by the act of reading , and Schor's 22 absorbed (or absent) detail and its capacity to “persist and inform in absence” . Every layer of meaning carries a potential both for retrospection and anticipation, acting, in an absence/presence scenario, as a bridge between the already-said and what is about to be articulated.

The presentation will include both theoretical aspects and a demo on the proposed topic. 

References
1. Rambo Ronai, C. (1999), The Next Night Sous Rature: Wrestling With Derrida's Mimesis, Qualitative Inquiry 1999 5: 114, pp. 114-128.

2. Geertz, C. (1973), The Interpretation of Cultures, Basic Books, New York, pp. 6-9.

3. Vasilescu (Armaselu), F. (2010), Le livre sous la loupe : Nouvelles formes d'écriture électronique, Ph.D. Thesis, Papyrus, University of Montreal Institutional Repository, papyrus.bib.umontreal.ca/xmlui/handle/1866/3964;jsessionid=5DEBDCDB0FDA32C06644880B79A9B941.

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10. Genest, P-E., Lapalme, G. (2011), Framework for Abstractive Summarization using Text-to-Text Generation, Proceedings of the 49th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Portland, Oregon, 24 June 2011, pp. 64–73, aclweb.org/anthology//W/W11/W11-1608.pdf.

11. Mihalcea, R. (2005), Language Independent Extractive Summarization, Proceedings of the ACL Interactive Poster and Demonstration Sessions, pages 49–52, Ann Arbor, June 2005. c2005 Association for Computational Linguistics.

12. Mihalcea, R. and Tarau, P. (2004), TextRank – bringing order into texts. In Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP 2004), Barcelona, Spain.

13. Barzilay, R. and Elhadad, M.(1997), Using Lexical Chains for Text Summarization, In Proceedings of the ACL Workshop on Intelligent Scalable Text Summarization.

14. Ganesan , K., Zhai, C.X., Han, J. (2010), Opinosis: A Graph-Based Approach to Abstractive Summarization of Highly Redundant Opinions, Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Computational Linguistics (Coling '10), sifaka.cs.uiuc.edu/czhai/pub/coling10-opinosis.pdf.

15. Text Compactor, Free Online Automatic Text Summarization Tool, textcompactor.com.

16. Microsoft Word, AutoSummary Tools.

17. McGann, J. (2004), Radiant Textuality: Literature after the World Wide Web, Palgrave Macmillan.

18. Auerbach, E. (2003), Mimesis. The Representation of Reality in Western Literature. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford, 1953, 2003.

19. Greenblatt, S. (2004), Will in the World. How Shakespeare became Shakespeare, New York–London, W.W. Norton & Company.

20. Wittgenstein, L. (1999), Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, Translated by C.K. Ogden, Dover Publications, Inc., Mineola, New York.

21. Iser, W. (1974), The Implied Reader, The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London.

22. Schor, N. (2007), Reading in Detail: Aesthetics and the Feminine, first edition, 1987, Routledge, New York, London, p. 72.","txt","2","",""
"2103","15","The MAAYA Project: Multimedia Analysis and Access for Documentation and Decipherment of Maya Epigraphy","9","1. Introduction
Archaeology and epigraphy have made significant progress to decipher the hieroglyphic writings of the Ancient Maya, which today can be found spread over space (in sites in Mexico and Central America and museums in the US and Europe) and media types (in stone, ceramics, and codices.) While the deciphering goal remains unfinished, technological advances in automatic analysis of digital images and large-scale information management systems are enabling the possibility to analyze, organize, and visualize hieroglyphic data that can ultimately support and accelerate the deciphering challenge.

We present an overview of the MAAYA project (http://www.idiap.ch/project/maaya/), an interdisciplinary effort integrating the work of epigraphists and computer scientists with three goals:

(1) Design and development of computational tools for visual analysis and information management that effectively support the work of Maya hieroglyphic scholars; 
(2) Advancement of the state of Maya epigraphy through the coupling of expert knowledge and the use of these tools; and 
(3) Design and implementation of an online system that supports search and retrieval, annotation, and visualization tasks.
Our team approaches the above goals acknowledging that work needs to be conducted at multiple levels, including data preparation and modeling; epigraphic analysis; semi-automated and automated pattern analysis of visual and textual data; and information search, discovery, and visualization. In this abstract, we concisely describe three ongoing research threads, namely data sources and epigraphic analysis (Section 2), glyph visual analysis (Section 3), and data access and visualization (Section 4). We provide final remarks in Section 5.

2. Data sources and epigraphic analysis
The project focuses on Maya hieroglyphic inscriptions produced within the Yucatan Peninsula, inside the northern Maya lowlands, which encompasses sites within the Mexican states of Yucatan, Campeche, parts of Quintana Roo and a northern-most portion of Belize (see Fig. 1). Our research targets the three Maya Books (Codices) produced inside the Yucatan peninsula during the Postclassic period (1000-1521 AD). The first one is the Dresden Codex, housed at the University Library of Dresden, Germany.  For this data source, our project relies on published facsimiles (Förstemann, 1880; Codex Dresden, 1962; Codex Dresden, 1989) and on high-resolution, open-access images provided by the SLUB. The Codex Madrid is stored at the Museo de América in Madrid, Spain, and for its study, our project relies on published facsimiles and line drawings (Codex Madrid, 1967; Villacorta and Villacorta, 1976). For the Paris Codex, the project relies on published facsimiles and images provided online by the Biblioteque Nationale de France.


Fig. 1: Map indicating main archaeological sites under study by our project.

Codex pages were usually divided by red lines or t'ols (Fig. 2). Each of these t'ols is further subdivided in frames relevant to the specific dates, texts and imagery depicted. Frames contain several glyph blocks organized in a grid-like pattern with columns and rows, calendric glyphs, captions, and iconographic motives. Briefly stated, t'ols are ""segmented"" into their main constituent elements (Fig. 2). Images are post-processed and from these, high-quality, scale-independent vectorial images of the individual hieroglyphs and iconography are generated in three modes: (a) grayscale/color, (b) binary, and (c) reconstructed forms (marked in blue), which are based on epigraphic comparison of all available similar contexts (Figs. 3-4)

 

Fig. 2: Page 47c (44c) of the Dresden Codex framing main individual constituent elements (by Carlos Pallán based on SLUB online open source image)

The process of annotating the Codices entails an analysis comprising the following steps: (a) identification of individual signs on (Thompson, 1964) catalog, i.e. T0588:0181; (b) identification of individual signs on (Macri and Vail, 2008) catalog, i.e. SSL:ZU1; (c) identification of individual signs on (Evrenov et al., 1961) catalog, i.e. 400-010-030; (d) identification of signs on (Zimmermann, 1956) catalog, i.e., Z0702-0060; (e) transcription, specifying phonetic values for individual signs as syllables (lowercase bold) or logograms (uppercase bold), i.e. K'UH-OK-ki; (f) transliteration, conveying reconstructed Classic Maya speech (words) formed by the combination of individual signs, i.e. k'uhul ook); (g) morphological segmentation, a division into morphemes for later linguistic analysis), i.e. k'uh-ul Ok; (h) morphological analysis, assigning each of the previous segments to a definite linguistic category, i.e. god-ADJ step(s)/foot; (i) English translation: ""Divine step(s)/foot"". Taken together, the processing steps within this workflow provide the ground for more advanced multimedia analyses (Fig. 5).  


Fig. 3: Process to generate vectorial representations of the Dresden Codex: a)color/grayscale; b) binary; c) reconstructed (blue) forms (by Carlos Pallán based on SLUB online open source images)


Fig. 4: Vectorial representations of the Madrid Codex, Page (T'ol) 10b, Frame 1: a) color/grayscale; b) binary; c) reconstructed (blue) forms (by Guido Krempel based on (Codex Madrid, 1967))


Fig. 5: Multivariable fields used to annotate textual contents of Dresden Page (T'ol) 47c (44c) (by Carlos Pallán)

3. Visual analysis of glyphs
Modeling Maya glyph shape is challenging due to the complexity and high intra-class variability of glyphs. We are developing methods to characterize glyphs for visual matching and retrieval tasks. In previous work, we proposed a shape descriptor based on visual bags-of-words (HOOSC: Histogram-of-Orientations-Shape Context) and used it for isolated glyph retrieval (Roman-Rangel, 2011). We are pursuing two research lines to extend our current capabilities.

Improved shape representations. Three directions are being considered: (1) the improvement of bag representations to retrieve syllabic glyphs. In particular, we developed a method to detect visual stop-words (Roman-Rangel, 2013a), and a statistical approach to construct robust bag-of-phrases (Roman-Rangel, 2013b); (2) the use of neural-network architectures like auto-encoders (Ngiam, 2011) that automatically build representations from training data. These approaches represent an alternative to handcrafted descriptors like the HOOSC, and provide a principled way to quickly adapt representations to different data sources (codex vs. monument glyphs); (3) the use of representations based on the decomposition of glyphs into graphs of segments, from which shape primitives can be extracted. This representation might be more suitable than histogram-based descriptors like HOOSC at identifying which strokes of a shape are discriminative, potentially allowing comparisons with so-called diagnostic features provided by epigraphers (Fig. 6).


Fig. 6: Three glyph instances of the same sign. Right: one diagnostic features and variant.

Co-occurrence modeling. We are exploring ways to exploit the fact that glyphs do not occur in isolation within inscriptions but in ordered groups (glyph-blocks) (Fig. 2). To this end, we are studying options to build models relying on glyph co-occurrence statistics or further accounting for the glyph spatial position within the blocks. We plan to investigate how such information can be used in a retrieval system to improve performance and to help scholars deal with unknown or damaged glyphs. This has several dimensions like query types (e.g. single glyphs with known identity of other glyphs within the block), and contextual combination of shape similarity with text metadata.

4. Data access and visualization 
Our work in this direction focuses on visualization of and effective access to image databases with archaeological value. We are developing a repository that will serve further goals within the project. This database stores visual elements of the Madrid, Dresden, and Paris codices. It is complemented with an online system, shown in Fig. 7, which allows for capturing and annotation of codices. More specifically, the repository contains relevant information regarding the composition of the codices, such as hierarchical relations between components and bounding boxes of glyphs. Therefore, it allows to query visual elements at different levels of semantic structure, i.e., page, t'ol, glyph-block, individual glyph, etc. The repository will also allow to query and study statistics of the Mayan writing system, e.g., hieroglyph co-occurrences.


Fig. 7: Snapshot of the online tool that feeds the database with imagery data and its corresponding annotations, i.e., codex name, t'ol, glyph-block reference, Thompson and Macri and Looper catalogs.

The second research line is the advancement of visualization techniques, and more precisely, the development of techniques that will allow exploring the feature space of a number of visual shape descriptors used to represent Mayan hieroglyphs for retrieval purposes. By relying on these visualization methods, our goals are detecting, understanding, and interactively overcoming some of the drawbacks associated with the shape descriptors currently in use (Vondrick, 2013).

5. Conclusions
We presented an overview of the MAAYA project’s work-in-progress on epigraphic analysis, automatic visual analysis, and data access and visualization. Our close integration of work in computing and epigraphy is producing initial steps towards the design of computing methods tailored for epigraphy work; and can create opportunities to revisit findings in Maya epigraphy under the light of what computer-based methods can reveal (e.g., data-driven analyses of glyph diagnostic features.) At the same time, several of our machine learning, computer vision, and information retrieval methods are applicable to other problems in digital humanities. We would be interested in investigating applications of these methodologies to other sources of Cultural Heritage materials.

Acknowledgments.
We thank the support of the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) and the German Research Foundation (DFG). We also thank all the members of the team (Rui Hu, Gulcan Can, April Morton, Oscar Dabrowski, and Peter Biro) for their contribution.

References
Codex Dresden (1962). Codex Dresdensis: Maya Handscschrift der Sächsischen Landesbibliothek Dresden.  Edited by the Sächsische Landesbibliothek Dresden from Prof. Dr. phil. habil. Eva Lips. Akademie-Verlag GmbH. Berlin. (Issue 626 from 700 printed.)

Codex Dresden (1989). Die Dresdner Maya-Handschrift. Sonderausgabe des Kommentarbandes zur vollständigen Faksimile-Ausgabe des Codex Dresdensis. Akademische Druckerei- und Verlags-Anstalt, Graz 1989,  including Helmut Deckert: Zur Geschichte der Dresdner Maya-Handschrift and Ferdinand Anders: Die Dresdner Maya-Handschrift.

Codex Madrid (1967). Codex Tro-Cortesianus. Museo de América Madrid. Facsimilar Edition 1967      Moderated by Francisco Sauer and Josepho Stummvoll. Introduction and Summary by F. Anders. Akademische Druck- und Verlaganstalt Graz- Austria.

Evrenov, E.B., Kosarev, Y. and Ustinov, B.A. (1961). The Application of Electronic Computers in Research of the Ancient Maya Writing. USSR, Novosibirsk.

Förstemann, E.W (1880). Die Maya-Handschrift der königlichen Bibliothek zu Dresden, hrsg. von Ernst Wilhelm Förstemann. - Leipzig : Verlag der Naumann'schen Lichtdruckerei, 1880.

Macri, M. and Vail, G. (2008). The New Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs, Volume Two: The Codical Texts. University of Oklahoma Press, 308 pp.  

Ngiam, J. (2011). Unsupervised feature learning and deep learning tutorial. http://ufldl.stanford.edu/wiki/index.php/UFLDL Tutorial.

Roman-Rangel, E., Pallan, C., Odobez, J.-M. and Gatica-Perez, D. (2011). Analyzing Ancient Maya Glyph Collections with Contextual Shape Descriptors, Int. Journal of Computer Vision, Special Issue on e-Heritage, Vol. 94, No. 1, pp. 101-117, Aug. 2011.

Roman-Rangel, E. and Marchand-Maillet, S. (2013). Stopwords Detection in Bag-of-Visual-Words: The Case of Retrieving Maya Hieroglyphs. International Workshop on Multimedia for Cultural Heritage (MM4CH), at International Conference on Image Analysis and Processing.

Roman-Rangel, E. and Marchand-Maillet, S. (2013). Bag-of-Visual-Phrases via Local Contexts.  Workshop on Recent Advances in Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (RACVPR), at Asian Conference on Pattern Recognition. 

Thompson, J. E. S. (1964). A Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs. University of Oklahoma Press. Available online at: http://www.famsi.org/mayawriting/thompson/index.html

Villacorta, J. A. and Villacortax, C. A. (1976)  Códices Mayas (reproducidos y desarrollados por). Sociedad de Geografía e Historia de Guatemala, Guatemala, C.A. (second edition.) 

Vondrick, C., Khosla, A., Malisiewicz, T., Torralba, A. (2013). HOGgles: Visualizing Object Detection Features.International Conference on Computer Vision.

Zimmermann, G. (1956).  Die Hieroglyphen der Maya Handschriften. Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiet der Auslandskunde, Band 62- Reihe B, Universität  Hamburg.

SLUB: Sächsischen Landes- und Universitätsbibliothek Dresden

http://digital.slub-dresden.de/werkansicht/dlf/2967/1/cache.off

http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8446947j/f1.zoom.r=Codex%20Peresianus.langDE

http://digital.slub-dresden.de/werkansicht/cache.off?id=5363&tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=2967&tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D=47

http://digital.slub-dresden.de/werkansicht/cache.off?id=5363&tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=2967&tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D=47","txt","2","",""
"2104","15","The MiCLUES system: Dynamic, rich contextual support for museum visits","2","Introduction
Attracting visitors and maintaining their interest can be difficult to achieve for smaller, specialist museums. Constraints on physical space can create high-density displays which, although good for exposing collections, can make coherent interpretation difficult. Audio or written guides can help but substantial effort is required to generate and maintain them. Their effectiveness is simultaneously hindered by the reduced capacity of concentration that visitors have while standing in a gallery, so the amount of information that can be transmitted through written labels, panels, and audio guides is very limited (Museums Association, 2013). Audio guides are also fairly rigid in the structures and routes they impose owing to the time needed for audio recording and the need to match this with the collection’s physical organization. In addition, they allow a solely linear approach to each object (a single story briefly illustrating the item).

Recent work has developed more flexible digital approaches. For example, the Musée de la Musique, Paris (Cité de la Musique, 2013) and the Grassi Museum für Musikinstrumente der Universität Leipzig (Universität Leipzig, 2013) have developed online access to their collection records, and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston has a digital guide incorporating video, audio, and commentary with the ability to save “favourites” from an online catalogue (Museum of Fine Arts Boston, 2013). The QRator project (Gray et al., 2012) used QR codes to link exhibits to online discussions. Our work shares similar goals to QRator in enhancing the visitor experience. It differs in that our focus is on creating contextualised trajectories through the gallery rather than conversational engagement around the exhibits.

The Museum of the Royal College of Music (RCM) (see Figure 1) was established in 1894 and holds over 1,000 musical instruments, including the earliest surviving keyboard stringed instrument, the earliest known baryton, and the earliest known guitar. It is regularly open to the public, and is visited every year by ca. 5,000 visitors including students and teachers. It is moving to digitise its collection to make it more widely available. This creates exciting opportunities to improve the experience of visitors to the museum itself, through bespoke applications running on smart devices (e.g. Android phones). The RCM galleries currently lack any kind of audio guide or support to the visitor, apart from textual printed labels. 


Fig. 1: The RCM Museum (Photo: Chris Christodoulou © RCM)

This poster presents work in progress to provide rich technologically-supported experiences for Museum visitors, offering more meaningful and informative access to the collection and encouragement to further visits. It will also allow the physical space to be used efficiently without harming the interpretive value of the objects on display.  The aim is to produce a method that is theoretically and experientially grounded and that can be applied in a wide range of contexts.

Theoretical Approach
Our solution is underpinned by Benford et al.’s conceptual framework of mixed-media performance trajectories (Benford et al., 2009) to design the pathways through the collection.  Among other things, the framework allows the formalization of roles, transitions, traversal between physical and virtual experiences, and an episodic structure in the formation of canonical (author-defined), participant (the actual route), and historic (reflective) trajectories (Benford et al. 2009; Fosh et al. 2013). Fosh et al. (2013) present the first proactive (rather than analytical) use of the framework, using it for sculpture garden design. In that instance there was a single canonical trajectory through the experience and low object density. We intend to support a number of canonical pathways (that we term “curated”) through higher density displays. Using this framework will enable us to soundly and explicitly address problems found previously in interactive exhibits e.g. multiple interactive features overwhelming visitors (Allen & Gutwill, 2004). Having a clearly defined trajectory will establish an appropriate prioritization and visiting sequence so that even densely populated galleries can be interpreted clearly.

Essentially the pathways offer a guided navigation through the “mesh” of museum resources, artefacts and information, grounded in the physical space of the museum itself, with the physical exhibits as landmarks on the journey.  Curated pathways appropriate to the RCM Museum might include musical curiosities, early music, the art of musical instruments (decoration), chronologies, occasions, military music, and unusual materials. By joining parts of the physical and virtual collections into a single tour, visitors benefit from being able to access parts of the collection not physically presented at the time of the visit, and museum staff can benefit from monitoring the demand for such exhibits through their occurrence in popular pathways, bringing them out for physical display in response. The museum’s display strategy can thus be informed by user activity at a fine-grained level.

Pathways may be curated by museum staff (canonical trajectories), planned by visitors in advance through a web interface (also canonical but defined by the user) and downloaded to a device, crowd-sourced (visitors could publish pathways for others to download; a kind of historic trajectory) or produced by context-aware recommender-systems. Museum activity can be fed back to visitors through the projection systems currently used to display a slideshow. Heatmap visualisations and pathways followed over a recent period of time could be displayed instead, offering a live “trajectory view” of the collection.

Visitors may, of course, deviate from their planned pathway, e.g. in response to noticing a nearby interesting exhibit, and a guiding system should be capable of adapting to this (i.e. designing for human nature rather than in spite of it (Adams et al., 2004)). Our solution will offer options for returning to the original pathway, not just directly, but through small, thematically-coherent routes (e.g. historical, geographical, stylistic) to provide a richer, user-driven experience of the collection. Semantic metadata will be needed to do this and new algorithms will be developed to search this metadata and deliver the new pathway in real time. One key technical problem is thus the automated, dynamic, real-time design of “micro-trajectories”.

Evaluation of the technology will involve museum visitors trying the prototypes and being surveyed on their experiences. 

Technological Solutions
We are designing a smart-device app called MiCLUES (Musical instrument Collection articuLation for User-driven Exploration with Smart-devices) with two key features:

To guide visitors through thematic pathways in the collection, allowing serendipitous diversion and thematically-oriented return to the original path.
To give access to digitised forms of the collection elements (including those in storage), extending the context in which the physical and digital artefacts are presented through recorded performances (both historical and modern), documents, animations, and images to provide a rich, dynamic, portable context for a visit. 
Connections between artefacts (digital or otherwise) can be drawn at the time of the visit, allowing for the collection to be expanded without requiring costly re-provisioning of the guide itself. Text to speech systems may also alleviate the need to pre-record some or all of the text. Since the software can be made widely available through app stores, the volume (and thus cost) of devices to be maintained by the museum is reduced as visitors can use their own.

To determine where visitors are on their pathways, location tracking will be needed: initially, we plan to use QR codes by each artifact to provide landmarks. These are non-invasive and have been shown to work well in the museum context by the QRator project (Gray et al., 2012) and recent developments in the musical instrument department of the Galleria dell’Accademia in Florence. In the latter case, the codes refer to pages in the online database of text, images, and sound files connected with the object concerned.  Although quick to implement and inexpensive, QR codes are poor for accessibility since, for example, visually impaired visitors may not be able to see or scan them and thus may be prevented from using the app. Alternative approaches (e.g. RFID tags) more amenable to tactile interfaces will be explored after the initial prototype is complete to create more accessible ways of following a pathway through the collection. Content in the databases will be encoded to be amenable to screen readers and other assistive technology following appropriate guidance e.g. (Royal National Institute of Blind People, 2005). Other methods of visitor location tracking (e.g. human observation (Guy et al., 2010)) are less appropriate for reasons of practicality, complexity and cost.

Conclusion
This work is developing rich, interactive guides for a specialist museum collection, adopting recent theoretical advances in human-computer interaction to design appropriate trajectories and support these through software capable of redesigning them on the fly. The poster will present the underlying theoretical considerations, practical issues, the app design, and progress gained with early prototypes.

Acknowledgements
This work is primarily supported by Share Academy (an Arts Council England funded programme) and partially supported by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council [grant number EP/G060525/2]. At this stage no data has been produced.

References
Adams, M., Luke, J. & Moussouri, T. (2004). Interactivity: Moving beyond terminology. Curator: The Museum Journal, pp. 155–170.

Allen, S. & Gutwill, J. (2004). Designing with multiple interactives: Five common pitfalls. Curator: The Museum Journal, pp. 199–212.

Benford, S., Ginnachi, G., Koleva, B., Rodden., T. (2009). From Interaction to Trajectories: Designing Coherent Journeys Through User Experiences. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2009). Boston, Massachusetts.

Cité de la Musique, Paris. (2013). Mediatheque: Collections du Musee. Available at: http://mediatheque.cite-musique.fr/masc/?url=/clientbooklineCIMU/toolkit/p_requests/default-collection-musee.htm [Accessed October 25, 2013].

Fosh, L., Benford, S. & Reeves, S. (2013). See Me, Feel Me, Touch Me, Hear Me: Trajectories and Interpretation in a Sculpture Garden. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2013). pp. 149–158. 

Gray, S., Ross, C., Hudson-Smith, A., Terras., M., Warwick, C. (2012). Enhancing Museum Narratives with the QRator Project: a Tasmanian devil, a Platypus and a Dead Man in a Box. Proceedings of Museums and the Web 2012. San Diego, CA. Available at: http://www.museumsandtheweb.com/mw2012/papers/enhancing_museum_narratives_with_the_qrator_pr.

Guy, G., Dunn, S. & Gold, N. (2010). Capturing Visitor Experiences for Study and Preservation.Proceedings of Digital Humanities 2010. London, UK. pp. 160-163. Available at: http://dh2010.cch.kcl.ac.uk/academic-programme/abstracts/papers/html/ab-716.html

Museums Association (2013). Exhibition Labels. Available at: http://www.museumsassociation.org/museum-practice/exhibition-labels [Accessed October 25, 2013].

Museum of Fine Arts Boston (2013). MFA Guide. Available at: http://www.mfa.org/visit/mfa-guide [Accessed October 25, 2013].

Royal National Institute of Blind People (2005). RNIB guidelines for producers and commissioners of audio guides: making PDA guides accessible for blind and partially sighted people, Available at: www.rnib.org.uk/professionals/Documents/guidelines_audio_guides.doc.

Universität Leipzig (2013). The Museum of Musical Instruments. Available at: http://mfm.uni-leipzig.de/en/dasmuseum/Geschichte.php [Accessed October 25, 2013].","txt","2","",""
"2105","15","The Open Philology Project at the University of Leipzig","2","The Open Philology Project (OPP) at the University of Leipzig aspires to re-assert the value of philology in its broadest sense and has been designed with the hope that it can contribute to any historical language that survives within the human record. It includes three different yet interdependent tasks:

(1) Open Greek and Latin Project (OGL): OGL is currently collecting and scanning editions of classical texts in an effort to build the largest and most comprehensive open-source library of classical philology to date, concurrently contributing to the expansion of Google Books. Where existing corpora of Greek and Latin have generally included one edition of a work, the OGL corpus is designed to manage multiple, copyright-free editions and translations.

The digitization workflow involves OCR, correction and encoding in EpiDoc-compliant XML. The large volume of data we aim to generate requires significant computational power and task management, thus entreating a partnership with two Data Entry companies who carry out each operation under the supervision of the Leipzig team. While performed by our contractors, OCR correction is facilitated and partly automated thanks to a proofreading tool jointly developed by Leipzig, Mount Allison University and the CNR (Bruce Robertson of Mount Allison University, Canada, and Federico Boschetti of the CNR, Italy) Works currently under conversion include, amongst others, the Patrologia Latina, the Patrologia Graeca, the Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca.

Moreover, Leipzig has established international collaborations aiming at creating open-source, curated collections and electronic editions of Greek and Latin literature. Editorial projects include the Digital Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorumproject, Digital Athenaeus, and Bibliotheca Aeschylea. Furthermore, collaborations with Croatia, Bulgaria and Georgia will yield machine-actionable versions of translations of classical literature in these languages, thus opening-up research into less-explored textual heritage.

(2) Historical Languages e-Learning Project (eLP): the development of dynamic textbooks that use richly annotated corpora to teach the vocabulary and grammar of texts that learners have chosen to read, and at the same time engage users in collaboratively producing new annotated data. eLPis developing computationally customized learning materials for historical languages, beginning with Ancient Greek. The text selected for the pilot is the Pentecontaetia, part of Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War. Users learn through active engagement with the text and through the contribution of their own annotations. Future work will extend the system to accommodate other corpora.

At the core of eLP lies increasing the accessibility and enjoyability of the morphosyntactic and semantic annotation of text (e.g. treebanking), including that deriving from the OGL corpus. The creation of such a richly annotated and searchable text repository will serve a variety of purposes, including research in philology, Natural Language Processing (NLP), historical linguistics, and second language acquisition (SLA).

The production of automated queries to support this dynamic, customized, and localized interface relies upon the backend storage of complex textual data. The chosen graph model meets the broad requirements of the e-Learning application while retaining features of the real world objects represented by the data. The absence of schemas within graph databases enables extensibility, while maintaining a stable experience for users through the use of REST APIs.3 The web interface takes the data and adapts its presentation to individual needs and access devices. HTML5, CSS3, and responsive technologies provide an appropriate experience to users regardless of how they access the system, while templating systems allow for resources that are structurally accessible via any first language.

(3) Open Publications and Data Revenue Models: OPP is establishing a new model of scholarly publication in a born digital environment. Such a task is accomplished through Perseids, which is a collaborative platform for annotating TEI XML documents in Classics, including inscriptions and manuscripts. The main publication model within the OPP is the Leipzig Open Fragmentary Texts Series, whose goal is to establish open editions of ancient works that survive through quotations and re-uses in later texts. Such editions are fundamentally hypertexts and the effort is to produce a dynamic infrastructure for a full representation of relationships between sources, quotations, and annotations about them.

With open data meaning by definition free access for all users, the OPP team has already begun thinking of ways for it to be financially sustainable for years to come. The team intends to devise business models to sustain and maintain distributed open source learning and discourse. The core principle is to move away from charging for monopoly access to data, to charging instead for services that allow users to identify, analyze and then contribute to increasingly complex open data, with services for faculties, students and for the interested public set at recognized and affordable price points.

References
Bruce Robertson of Mount Allison University, Canada, and Federico Boschetti of the CNR, Italy.

Digital Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum (DFHG): www.dh.uni-leipzig.de/wo/open-philology-project/the-leipzig-open-fragmentary-texts-series-lofts/digital-fragmenta-historicorum-graecorum-dfhg-project; Digital Athenaeus (with the University of Nebraska and the Perseus Digital Library), Bibliotheca Aeschylea (with researchers based in Leipzig and in Italy).

For more information about REST APIs, see: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representational_state_transfer (Accessed: 4 March 2014).","txt","2","",""
"2106","15","The opportunistic librarian: A Leuven confession","9","Quite a lot of ink has been spilled, or, at least, quite a lot of keys have been hammered on the definition and the history of Digital Humanities. This has also led to a, sometimes heated, debate on “who’s in” and “who’s out”. Regardless of whether all parties concerned are entitled to call themselves “digital humanists”, the consensus nevertheless seems to be that Digital Humanities are in essence a collaborative activity (see, e.g., Siemens 2009 1 and Spiro 2013 2), involving academic staff, students, computer programmers, librarians, project coordinators, administrative staff, and others. It is clear that academic librarians should get involved, not only because they are “as much a part of the (Digital Humanities) plan as faculty are” (Pannapacker 2012 3), but also because they should take to heart the goals for practitioners of Digital Humanities as they were identified by Lisa Spiro (Spiro 2011 4; see also Vandegrift and Varner 2013 5), namely: to provide wide access to cultural information, to enhance teaching and learning, to transform scholarly communication, to enable the manipulation of data, and to make a public impact. Even in a minimal, unambitious definition of the mission of any research library, several of the named goals should form its core business, its heart and soul, and its reason for being. And although the ways in which research libraries have translated these goals into actual activities may have changed considerably during the past decades, the essence still remains the same: at the very least, these libraries aim to provide access to cultural and scholarly information and to enhance teaching and learning at universities and beyond; and are condemned to either continue to do so in the digital age or to become obsolete (Verbeke 2013 6).

Naturally, the exact nature and form of the contribution of the university library and its staff to Digital Humanities projects at a particular academic institution will differ, depending on who else is already involved, on the available staff and infrastructure, on the wishes and willingness of faculty and administration, and on the ambitions and priorities of the institution in question. Possibilities range anywhere from providing basic information about existing tools for Digital Humanities research and teaching as well as the organization of training sessions so that academic staff and students learn how to use these tools, to the creation of library-based skunkworks – or semi-independent, research-oriented software prototyping and makerspace labs (see, especially, Nowviskie 2013 7). Whatever the exact form, however, it seems natural for research libraries and their information professionals to focus on a contribution which is identical or very similar to the roles which are traditionally expected of them anyway, such as discovery and dissemination of data and knowledge, data management, digitization and preservation (Showers 2012 8 and Vandegrift 2012 9). Of the latter, William Kretzschmar and William Gray Potter even stated – not without a sense for drama – that “collaboration with the university library is the only realistic option for long-term sustainability of digital humanities projects in the current environment. … If digital humanities projects stand still, they will indeed die, and the library is the only part of our institutional structure that can keep them moving enough to save them” (Kretzschmar and Gray Potter 2010 10).

This short paper not only evaluates the recent scholarship on the role of libraries and their staff in Digital Humanities projects, but also documents the efforts of the University Library at KU Leuven (Belgium) in general, and the Arts Faculty Library in particular, to maintain, in a Digital Humanities context, its role as an important partner in research. It discusses the various initiatives to transform the ways in which the libraries concerned have supported learning and teaching for decades, and presents various projects to which staff members of the library contribute. Examples include efforts to develop OCR applications for early printed Dutch and Latin texts, the creation of virtual research communities for international projects involving KU Leuven faculty, the building of an integrated reference database and collaborative platform for the study of Patristic, Medieval and Byzantine texts, and a strong involvement in Europeana and Linked Data initiatives. Finally, this short paper also briefly presents the current state of the plans to found a Digital Humanities Library Lab @ Leuven (DH3L), offering a frank discussion of the common challenges (see, especially, Posner 2013 11) encountered over the past months and the ways in which faculty, administration and library staff at KU Leuven have tried to overcome them. 

References
1. Siemens, Lynne. (2009). It’s a Team If You Use ‘Reply All’: An Exploration of Research Teams in Digital Humanities Environments. Literary and Linguistic Computing 24 (2): 225–233. doi:10.1093/llc/fqp009.

2. Spiro, Lisa. (2013). Group and Method: Collaboration in the Digital Humanities.digitalscholarship.wordpress.com/2013/04/10/group-and-method-collaboration-in-the-digital-humanities/.

3. Pannapacker, William. (2012). No DH, No Interview. The Chronicle of Higher Education, July 22. chronicle.com/article/No-DH-No-Interview/132959/.

4. Spiro, Lisa. (2011). Why the Digital Humanities?digitalscholarship.files.wordpress.com/2011/10/dhglca-5.pdf.

5. Vandegrift, Micah, and Stewart Varner. (2013). Evolving in Common: Creating Mutually Supportive Relationships Between Libraries and the Digital Humanities. Journal of Library Administration 53 (1): 67–78. doi:10.1080/01930826.2013.756699.

6. Verbeke, Demmy. (2013). Digital Humanities En de Wetenschappelijke Bibliotheek van de Toekomst. Bladen Voor Documentatie / Cahiers de La Documentation 67 (1): 13–16.

7. Nowviskie, Bethany. (2013). Skunks in the Library: A Path to Production for Scholarly R&D. Journal of Library Administration 53 (1): 53–66. doi:10.1080/01930826.2013.756698.

8. Showers, Ben. (2012). Does the Library Have a Role to Play in the Digital Humanities?infteam.jiscinvolve.org/wp/2012/02/23/does-the-library-have-a-role-to-play-in-the-digital-humanities/.

9. Vandegrift, Micah. (2012). What Is Digital Humanities and What’s It Doing in the Library? In the Library with the Lead Pipe. www.inthelibrarywiththeleadpipe.org/2012/dhandthelib/.

10. Kretzschmar, William A., and William Gray Potter. 2010. “Library Collaboration with Large Digital Humanities Projects.” Literary and Linguistic Computing 25 (4): 439–445. doi:10.1093/llc/fqq022.

11. Posner, Miriam. 2013. “No Half Measures: Overcoming Common Challenges to Doing Digital Humanities in the Library.” Journal of Library Administration 53 (1): 43–52. doi:10.1080/01930826.2013.756694.","txt","2","",""
"2107","15","The potential of open computer-mediated communication channels to facilitate collaboration in geographically disbursed collaborations","9","1. Introduction
1.1. Overview
 

Digital Humanities (DH) is becoming an increasingly global community of practice 1 with international initiatives such as centerNet 2, Global Outlook::Digital Humanities 3, the Alliance of Digital Humanities Organizations (nd), the Digging into Data Challenge (2013) and many others.  With advances in telecommunications and information technology, these types of collaborations are no longer bound by geography.  However, as documented elsewhere, challenges stemming from geographical distance must be managed to ensure that teams are work together successfully.  One of the primary challenges is finding ways to facilitate communication and coordination across distance and time (Olson & Olson, 2000; Siemens, 2010b; Siemens & Burr, 2013). Skype and other internet-enabled tools provide some potential to accomplish this; however, little knowledge exists on the best way to use these tools within a geographically dispersed collaboration. This paper will contribute to this discussion with an examination of the experiences of a DH lab using an open communication channel through Skype to connect team members located in different sites.

As Olson and Olson (2000) outline, despite advances in information and telecommunications technology, distance between members still impacts on a team’s functioning at the task and personal levels.  As they suggest and confirmed by others (Kennedy, Vozdolska, & McComb, 2010; Kraut, Galegher, & Egido, 1987), some amount of social presence or visible awareness of others is needed to allow for the sharing of advice, feedback and support among each other and the teams as a whole. Team members build on this social presence to task coordination.  For co-located teams, face-to-face formal meetings and informal interactions in common rooms and around the proverbial coffee pot is the primary way to create and reinforce social presence. (Belanger & Allport, 2008; Kennedy et al., 2010; Warkentin & Beranek, 1999).  For dispersed teams, the challenge to the creating this awareness exists because fewer channels and fewer personal cues in the communication exist.  Without these, individuals are less likely to pay attention to each other (Short as cited in Warkentin & Beranek, 1999).  Less personal forms of communication such as email tends to produce an “out of sight, out of mind” effect.  (Hiltz as cited in Warkentin & Beranek, 1999).  So, the question is how might computer-mediated communication like an open audio and video communication channel, through something like Skype, overcome distance and sustain social presence so that the team can achieve its tasks?

1.2. Methodology
 

This project grew from the desire of a DH lab that wanted to connect members who were split between two locations.  As one initiative, the lab wanted to experiment with an open audio and video communication channel between the two offices.  Using Skype, cameras and monitors would be installed and operating during work hours, allowing for communication between the two sites.  

In order to understand the effectiveness of this communication channel in facilitating task and personal relationships, lab members were interviewed on two occasions.  The interview questions focused on the participants’ understanding and experiences of this type of technology to facilitate collaboration between geographically disbursed sites (Marshall & Rossman, 1999; McCracken, 1988).  The first round occurred before the cameras and monitors were installed (pre interviews).  The second happened after the communication channel had been in place for several weeks (post interviews).

1.3 Findings
 

At the time of writing this proposal, final data analysis is being completed, but clear patterns are emerging and, after final analysis, these will form the basis of my presentation.

 

As found in the pre interviews, these participants had little to no experience with this type of communication channel and were not sure what to expect.  At the same time, they could see its potential for increased collaboration because they would be able to see their colleagues who located elsewhere and could more instantly communicate, much like if the person was seated next to them.  While some participants expressed some concerns about privacy, as a whole, they were more curious about the ways in which the communication channel would actually work.  Some of the questions focused on the location of the monitors and cameras, hours of operation, camera sight lines, and the ways in which communication would be facilitated.  Overall, they were intrigued and excited to see how this open communication would work and support the lab’s work.

 

After the cameras and monitors had been in place for several weeks, the lab members relayed that they became quickly accustomed to the presence of the cameras and monitors.  In fact, when asked, they had difficulty recalling the day that when these were installed and the communication channel was opened.  As several noted, the cameras and monitors were perceived to be “just there”.   In terms of challenges, noise was an issue from the outset.  The microphones amplified all sounds that caused much distraction.  As a result, the microphones were turned off after several days.  Participants also noted that uneven coverage of team members due to camera placement.  Some were very visible while others sat outside the sightlines.

 

Despite this, the participants were very positive about the experience and the benefits produced.  Many noted that this open communication channel reinforced the feeling of collaboration by providing an “extension of the existing space” and a “hole in the wall” to the other members.  As a result, the lab felt less divided by distance.  The interviewees noted several benefits.  First, because they could constantly see each other, members were reminded of the presence of those in the other office.  In some cases, those in the other office might come join conversations that they had seen on the monitor.  Second, an opportunity was created to model professional and academic work habits, such as reading, writing, thinking and discussing, which reinforced these for the others.  And while the lab is a professional space, the participants also had a sense of play with each other.  They would wave at each other and make visual jokes.

1.4 Conclusion
While this paper reports on the experiences on a small DH lab, it suggests potential for other geographically dispersed collaborations.  Open audio and video communication channels can create the sense of social presence by reminding members that they are part of larger efforts, even working at a distance.  These tools also complements the other well-established online ones, such as basecamp, github, email, and others, as well as face-to-face meetings for project coordination and decision-making (Ruecker, Radzikowska, & Sinclair, 2008; Siemens, 2010a; Siemens & Burr, 2013; Siemens, Cunningham, Duff, & Warwick, 2011).

References
1. Siemens, L., & Burr, E. (2013). A trip around the world: Accommodating geographical, linguistic and cultural diversity in academic research teams. Linguistic and Literary Computing, 28(2), 331-343.

2. centerNet. (nd). About Retrieved October 6, 2011, from digitalhumanities.org/centernet/about/

3. Global Outlook::Digital Humanities. (2013). Global Outlook: Digital Humanities, October 28, 2013, from www.globaloutlookdh.org","txt","2","",""
"2108","15","The Problem of Time and Space: The Difficulties in Visualising Spatiotemporal Change in Historical Data","10","The Problem of Time and Space: The Difficulties in Visualising Spatiotemporal Change in Historical Data
Proposal for Digital Humanities 2014 Conference

1 November 2013

 

Tomás Ó Murchú, MPhil Digital Humanities, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland

Professor Séamus Lawless, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland

 

Visualisations take advantage of the fact that the human eye has the ability to identify patterns and structures in images that computers are yet to match. Visualisations do this by exploiting features of the human cognitive processing system1. While much of our communication is done through words, we are connected to our environment primarily through vision. This has resulted in our visual perception having evolved to actively seek meaningful patterns in what we see2. Using a digital visualisation system in combination with flexible human cognitive capabilities, such as pattern finding, is far more powerful than an unaided human cognitive process3. Visualising historical data in relation to the information’s geographic and temporal attributes can help uncover hidden links and relationships within the data. However traditional spatiotemporal methods for visualising change are often insufficient for providing a spatial and temporal framework within which historical data can be explored. Historians (especially since they normally do not possess the required skillset themselves) have had to live with, or at best modify, existing tools from other disciplines. Because of this they have been channelled down spatiotemporal visualisation routes that are frequently a poor fit for their research.

This paper takes murder information that has been extracted from the 1641 Depositions (testimonies documenting the experiences of witnesses of the 1641 Irish rebellion)4 as a case study in creating a spatiotemporal visualisation using historical data. An existing online example that uses the data in an interface with Google Maps is taken as a starting point (downsurvey.tcd.ie/1641-depositions.php). 


Fig. 1: Murder information from the 1641 Depositions

Using the same data from the 1641 Depositions, a spatiotemporal visualisation is created to illustrate the difficulties in using historical information for this process.


Fig. 2: Spatiotemporal Visualisation for the 1641 Depositions

This paper will investigate the problems associated with traditional spatiotemporal visualisations of historical data. It will examine our own comprehension of time and space and how understanding their vagueness, ambiguities and uncertainties are important when it comes to visualising and modelling changes in their components.

Most historical data has a spatiotemporal element to it. This could involve the movement of people over a temporal period within a specific area or the changing area of a political entity over time.  As these changes are normally recorded in written texts, historical spatiotemporal data can often exhibit a high degree of uncertainty. Texts are descriptive and by their very nature are vague and open to various interpretations. This qualitative nature of historical documents means that creating a spatiotemporal visualisation involves overcoming obstacles where descriptions of spatial areas or temporal periods are often vague or uncertain. The problem of ambiguity and uncertainty in data is an issue that visualisations do not deal with particularly well5.  When analysing spatial and temporal data historians need to be conscious of the uncertainties present within the data. Some of these ambiguities may not be immediately apparent and will require detailed analysis to identify.

In historical data there are several reasons why uncertainty occurs. Historians often use data that was intended for a different end use than the analysis that they are trying to accomplish. Trying to convert the data into something usable for a spatiotemporal visualisation inevitably leads to a degree of data compromise. The entities, times and spatial areas mentioned in texts were often meant purely as descriptions related to a specific event so are frequently only vaguely defined. Sometimes the historical sources are transcriptions or translations of lost documents and uncertainties may have occurred due to the transcription or translation process. Similarly, as sources may be transcriptions of oral depositions, cultural, educational and linguistic differences between the transcriber and deponent may cause misinterpretations.

How spatiotemporal data is modelled for spatiotemporal visualisations is an important factor when dealing with historical information. Data models are the conceptual core of an information system. Models should be designed to deal with uncertainties and to create meaningful visualisations of changes over time. Modelling the data includes defining data object types, relationships, operations and rules to maintain database integrity6. The data model needs to support the processes that the system will be required to carry out. When modelling spatiotemporal data, a further consideration is the fact that territorial structures and units change over time. The issue of situating (and thus visualising) the data within the correct spatial area at the correct moment in time needs to be effectively managed by the data model.

For historians trying to visualise spatiotemporal information, a data model needs to be able cope with uncertainty and changes over time. Additionally trying to create links between vague concepts in a visualisation is fraught with uncertainty. The data structure supporting the visualisation can be too rigid to show anything other than a few select relationships. One method to try and reduce and manage uncertainty in modelling historical data is to use what is known as fuzzy logic and fuzzy set theory. The aim of fuzzy logic is to provide a means to cope with ambiguous entities without losing a record of the ambiguity7.  This is achieved by using assessment rules that the researcher pre-defines and makes transparent so that they can be easily understood and evaluated by other researchers. Fuzzy logic and fuzzy set theory can be used for linguistic variables thus making it suitable for the modelling of textual sources. If used properly it can handle vague and uncertain linguistic labels such as ‘slightly’, ‘close to’ or ‘very’ (as in ‘is very old’). These linguistic variables are present everywhere in written and spoken communication but computers have difficulty in recognizing their correct application.

Modelling qualitative spatiotemporal information provides many challenges. The computational nature of traditional visualisation systems mean that information needs to be categorised into set groups. Historians often resist such demands as they feel that some vital characteristics or attribute inherent in the language describing it will be lost when they do not fit precisely a particular category8. The context in which an entity is described can be as important as the attributes of the entity itself. A death in a source text may be described as a murder by one witness, an accident by another or an act of self-defence by another. Trying to categorise it or by assigning it neutral label such as ‘unnatural death’ robs the entity of all meaning in a historical context. Extracting data from historical textual sources by computational means is likely to miss out on much key contextual data. Domain experts understand that there is meaning present in descriptions that can defy conventional numerical and computational approaches.

Overcoming uncertainties and vagueness in the Deposition texts proved challenging for existing spatiotemporal visualisation tools. In a text such as the 1641 Depositions, the multitude of ways dates are represented causes huge difficulties in linking particular events to the date they occurred. Phrases such as ‘at the beginning of lent of that year’ and ‘two months hence’ abound.  Representing all these different time periods on the same visualisation is very difficult. There may also be overlaps between the periods of time with one text identifying a particular event on a particular day while another text in the canon identifying the exact same event but it occurring somewhere in the period of a month. Similarly, identifying places in the Depositions is also problematic with many places referred to in uncertain terms. General terms such as ‘near’, ‘close to’ or ‘in the region of’ are used extensively in the texts. Anglicizations of Gaelic place names in the Depositions are inconsistent and often do not correlate to modern spellings.

Finally, future work on how Linked Data and the Semantic Web may have the ability to help historians to overcome spatiotemporal visualisation limitations is considered. The paper concludes that new tools and data models are required to effectively visualise spatiotemporal historical information.

References
1. Keller, Tanja, and Sigmar-Olaf Tergan (2005). Visualizing knowledge and information: An introduction. Knowledge and information visualisation p. 5.

2. Nöllenburg, Martin. (2007) Geographic visualization. Human-Centered Visualization Environments p. 257.

3. Keller, Tanja, and Sigmar-Olaf Tergan. (2005) Visualizing knowledge and information: An introduction. Knowledge and information visualization p. 5.

4. www.1641.tcd.ie

5. Amar, Robert A., and John T. Stasko (2005). Knowledge precepts for design and evaluation of information visualizations. Visualization and Computer Graphics, IEEE Transactions p. 433.

6. Yuan, May. (1996) Temporal GIS and spatio-temporal modelling. Proceedings of Third International Conference Workshop on Integrating GIS and Environment Modelling p.1.

7. Owens, J.B. and Coppola, Emory J. (2012) Fuzzy Set Theory (or Fuzzy Logic) to Represent the Messy Data of Complex Human (and other) Systems. White Paper Presented to the US National Science Foundation p.2.

8. Owens, J.B. and Coppola, Emory J. (2012) Fuzzy Set Theory (or Fuzzy Logic) to Represent the Messy Data of Complex Human (and other) Systems. White Paper Presented to the US National Science Foundation p.2.","txt","2","",""
"2109","15","The Proportional Sizes of Genres in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century English-Language Books","2","This poster represents the first stage of a larger project on automated genre classification in a collection of a million volumes (the HathiTrust collection of English-language books 1700-1950). Much existing work on genre classification has focused on fine distinctions between subgenres of fiction1 or poetry.2 But in mapping a large digital library, ""genre"" is a term that has a range of different meanings appropriate to different scales of analysis.3 Before we can even attempt to make subtle discriminations between, say, ""the sensation novel"" and ""detective fiction,"" we need to create a simpler map of the collection that identifies sections of each volume broadly as ""prose fiction"" or ""drama,"" or for that matter as ""publishers' ads"" or a ""library bookplate."" At the University of Illinois, we've developed an automated workflow that we feel does this initial mapping accurately enough for distant reading. The technique was described at the IEEE Big Humanities workshop in October, 2013,4 with a brief illustration, but we haven't yet presented results across a broad range of genres. That's what this poster will do.

 In an ideal world, structural features of a volume would be coded manually with TEI. But since large digital libraries collect plain text rather than TEI, mining large collections will initially require an automated strategy. Our strategy involves training an ensemble of classifiers to recognize genres and aspects of volume structure at the page level. For instance, we train classifiers to recognize ""prose fiction"" and ""drama,"" but also ""tables of contents,"" ""bookplates,"" ""date due slips,"" and ""publishers' ads."" By themselves these classifiers can achieve reasonable accuracy, but we've also found it useful to pair them with another level of machine learning: a hidden Markov model trained on page sequences that implicitly learns about the larger-scale patterns that organize page-level features into volumes. (For instance, indexes are more likely to follow nonfiction than fiction, and not at all likely to precede fiction.)


Fig. 1: Tenfold cross-validation of page-level classification. The top seven rows are F1 measures for individual genres; the bottom two rows reflect macro- and micro- averaged F1 measures for all genres. Green bars indicate raw classification accuracy before smoothing; blue bars reflect gains from hidden Markov smoothing.

A preliminary tenfold cross-validation of this technique is presented in Figure 1. This was based on relatively modest training data (101 volumes); by the time we present in Lausanne we expect to be able to increase the size of the training set by an order of magnitude, and significantly increase accuracy. But even with an F1 metric in the range of 85-90%, the technique is accurate enough to illuminate the broad outlines of book history, revealing roughly what proportion of the collection is devoted to nonfiction, or fiction, or (as illustrated in Fig. 2) publisher's advertisements. Here we've focused specifically on publishers' advertisements in volumes of fiction, and graphed their prevalence as a percentage of words in the fiction corpus.


Fig. 2: The yearly percentage of words devoted to publishers' advertisements, in 5000 volumes of fiction selected randomly from a larger corpus of 32,200.

In the poster we will include a streamgraph visualizing the relative sizes of major literary genres across time (for instance, verse drama, lyric poetry, narrative poetry, prose fiction), as well as smaller graphs that visualize the history of particular structural features within volumes (for instance, for the prose footnotes that occupy a great deal of space in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century volumes of poetry).5

References
1. S. Allison, R. Heuser, M. Jockers, F. Moretti and M. Witmore. (2011) Quantitative Formalism: An Experiment, Stanford Literary Lab Pamphlet Series. [Online]. Available: litlab.stanford.edu/?page id=255

2. B. Yu. (2008) An Evaluation of Text Classification Methods for Literary Study, in Literary and Linguistic Computing, Vol. 23 (2008): 327-343.

3. M. Santini. (2004) State-of-the-Art on Automatic Genre Identification, Information Technology Research Institute Technical Report Series, ITRI, University of Brighton, Jan. 2004.

4. T. Underwood, M. L. Black, L. Auvil, and B. Capitanu (2013). Mapping Mutable Genres in Structurally Complex Volumes. Proceedings of IEEE Big Data 2013. arxiv.org/abs/1309.3323

5. This poster reflects work by Shawn Ballard, a graduate student in English at the University of Illinois, who may be added as co-author in the final version. The project has also been supported by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, the National Endowment for the Humanities, and the American Council of Learned Societies.","txt","2","",""
"2110","15","The Rowling Case: A Proposed Standard Analytic Protocol for Authorship Questions","10","1. Introduction
One of the marks of a ""mature science""1 is the development of ""standards"" of analytic practice, based on shared ""key theories, instruments, values, and metaphysical assumptions""2 that scholars work with.  This concept has been incorporated into US Law as a mark of reliable evidence.3   One of the weaknesses of authorship attribution is the absence of such standards of practice. For example, fifteen years ago Rudman estimated4 that more than 1000 different feature sets had been proposed for this task. This of course creates controversy about the appropriateness of methods and even the possibility of cherry-picking feature sets to a specific task to get a desired answer.

The solution demanded by Daubert is the use of a specific analytic technique, with standards controlling its operation and an established error rate.   We offer a relatively simple protocol for such analysis in the hopes that it may provide a base for the eventual development of such a standard.  We illustrate the application of our protocol with three case studies from the recent literature.

2. Methodological Overview
These cases involve the early writings of Edgar Allan Poe5, the anonymized case of an asylum seeker (cited as ""Bilbo Baggins"")6, and, more famously, the pseudonymous author of The Cuckoo's Calling7, revealed to be J.K. Rowling of Harry Potter fame.  All three cases share several characteristics which may therefore be regarded as ""typical""; unlike many literary studies of authorship, these are ""verification"" problems in which there is really only one candidate author of interest, and therefore available samples. No information is readily available to exclude anyone plausible from authorship (unlike, for example, the Federalist Papers, where scholars readily accepted that authorship was confined to the small group of Hamilton, Madison, and Jay).   In each case, the candidate author was an established writer and a baseline of writings by that candidate could be easily obtained and validated.

Previous work has shown89 that authorship attribution can be performed with relatively high accuracy using a variety of methods.  Typical performance on small, closed-class problems is around 80% accuracy.1011 Using a ensemble methods such as ""mixture-of-experts"" can boost performance above the baseline of any individual method.  Our proposed protocol, then, is to solve this verification problem by running a number of independent studies as elimination tests against an ad-hoc distractor set, to see whether any features set can definitively eliminate the author of interest.   Using multiple independent tests provides strong protection both against false acceptance and false rejection errors.

3. Protocol Details
3.1 Ad-hoc distractor set
Most stylometric methods formally choose the most likely author from among a fixed and finite set of candidates based on similarity of writing.  While this set is normally chosen based on authors who may actually have had the opportunity to write the disputed document, this is not a formal requirement.   From the point of view of stylistic similarity, any two authors or documents can be usefully compared.   Koppel et al.12 noted that randomly chosen authors from the same general field and genre would work as well given repeated measures: ""The known text of a snippet’s actual author is likely to be the text most similar to the snippet even as we vary the feature set that we use to represent the texts. Another author’s text might happen to be the most similar for one or a few speciﬁc feature sets, but it is highly unlikely to be consistently so over many different feature sets.""  Juola [6] applied the same technique, using newspaper articles scraped from the Web as a baseline against which to compare Baggins' writing.  

3.2 Multiple independent elimination tests
The key insight here is that, quoting Koppel, any given wrong author ""is highly unlikely to be consistently [similar] over many different feature sets.""  This insight can be formalized mathematically as follows:

If a technique is X% accurate, the chance of it being wrong is (1-X).  (I.e an 80% chance of being right yields 20% chance of being wrong).  
If two independent techniques are X% accurate, the chance of them both being wrong is (1-X)^2.
If K different techniques are each X% accurate, the chance of them all being wrong is (1-X)^K, which becomes arbitrarily small as K increases.
Thus using multiple independent analyses will reduce the chance of false acceptance error to as small a value as desired.

Similarly, false rejection errors can be handled by using a relaxed acceptance criterion, and essentially treating the top few candidates as ""successful.""  This again can be demonstrated rigorously.   If our technique is 80% accurate among a set of distractor authors, there is a 20% chance that the most similar author will not be the correct one.  But in this case (and with suitable independence assumptions), there will also be an 80% chance that the most similar author among all other authors studied will be the correct one (by assumption), and hence only a 4% chance that the correct author will not be among the top two in the original set.  (This chance drops to 0.8% for the top 3.)  Thus we can say with high probability that any author not among the top few most similar has been eliminated as a plausible candidate author.  

3.3 The proposed protocol formalized
We can thus formalize the proposed authorship analysis protocol as follows:  Gather an ad-hoc collection of three to five authors other than the author of interest.   Run a number of independent tests of different feature sets to determine which author is most similar to the questioned document on that specific feature.  (JGAAP13  14  provides a huge number of feature sets from which to choose, and is designed to be extensible to enable people to add additional sets of interest).   Any author not in the two or three most likely candidate authors is eliminated as a potential author.   If, after enough experiments have been run, the only author not eliminated is the author of interest, his or her authorship of the questioned documents is deemed confirmed.

3.4 An example (Rowling)
The Galbraith/Rowling case is instructive.  In this case, I was provided a distractor set of three authors, all contemporary female British crime writers, so their writings would be comparable to ""Galbraith's.""  Tests were run on four separate feature sets: word lengths, character 4-grams, word pairs, and the 100 most frequent words.   Of the four authors, only Rowling was not eliminated by at least one feature set.  

We can determine the likelihood of error as follows:  Assuming that Rowling was not the author, the probability of her appearing in the top half (top 2 of 4) in any list of candidate authors would be 50%; thus she would have one chance in 16 (approximately 6%) chance of not being eliminated through this procedure.

4. Discussion and Conclusions
Perhaps obviously, there are some caveats to the proposed protocol.  The most key is, of course, the implicit assumption of independence.   Is it is reasonable to believe that the distribution of word lengths is independent of their use of common function words?   More importantly, can this belief be validated empirically and justified theoretically?   Similarly, there are some numbers in the protocol that may need tightening -- is three to five distractor authors enough?  Are five better than three?  Can these numbers be justified?   We will discuss this further but invite commentary on this point.

It should also be clear that this paper does not ipso facto establish a mandatory standard for authorship studies.   We invite discussion and even competing proposals, in addition to further studies to establish not only what other protocols might be more accurate, but also which ones are easier to apply, or even more likely to generate useful information (beyond simple authorship). One key aspect of this proposal is that it relies primarily on rank-order statistics and does not take into account the degree of variation; a more sophisticated protocol might use parametric statistics for greater power, at the possible cost of increased complexity. 

From a practical standpoint, however, this protocol may represent a substantial maturation of the field.  Not only have we used it ourselves, but it has also been used by third parties [5].  The results have been validated by reference to independent ground truths (Rowling acknowledged authorship on July 12, 2013.15)   The results have even been accepted in courts of law.  We are thus confident that the proposed protocol will provide a relatively clear-cut way to reduce controversy regarding stylometric authorship attribution and increase its uptake and credibility.  

References
1. Kuhn, Thomas S (1996). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. 3rd ed. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

2. ""Thomas Kuhn (2013). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. plato.stanford.edu/entries/thomas-kuhn/ (Accessed 31 October 2013).

3. Daubert v. Merrell(1993) Dow Pharmaceuticals, 509 U.S. 579

4. Rudman, Joseph (1998). The state of authorship attribution studies: Some problems and solutions, Computers and the Humanities, vol. 31, pp. 351–365.

5. Collins, Paul (2013). Poe's Debut, Hidden in Plain Sight? New Yorker Blog, 7 October. www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/books/2013/10/edgar-allan-poe-earliest-stories-language-software-investigation.html

6. Juola, Patrick (2013), Stylometry and Immigration: A Case Study. Journal of Law & Policy vol 21., pp. 287-298, 2013.

7. Juola, Patrick (2013). Rowling and ;Galbraith': An Authorial Analysis. Language Log posting, 16 July 2013. languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=5315

8. Juola, Patrick (2008), Authorship Attribution. Delft: NOW Publishing.

9. Juola, Patrick (2012), Large-Scale Experiments in Authorship Attribution. English Studies 93.: 275-283.

10. Juola, Patrick (2012). An Overview of the Traditional Authorship Attribution Subtask. Proceedings of PAN 2012, Rome, Italy.

11. Juola, Patrick and Efstathios Stamatatos (2013). Overview of the Author Identification Task. PAN/CLEF 2013, Valencia, Spain.

12. Moshe Koppel, Jonathan Schler, Shlomo Argamon & Yaron Winter (2012). The “Fundamental Problem” of Authorship Attribution, English Studies, 93:3, 284-291.

13. Juola, Patrick (2009), JGAAP: A System for Comparative Evaluation of Authorship Attribution. Proceedings of the Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science 1.

14. Juola, Patrick. (2012). JGAAP 5.3.0: A System for General Purpose Text Classification Experiments. EACL 2012 Workshop on Computational Approaches to Deception Detection, Avignon, France.

15. Richard Brooks (2013). Whodunnit? JK Rowling’s secret life as wizard crime writer revealed. Sunday Times article of July 14.","txt","2","",""
"2111","15","The Scholarly 3D Toolkit: Annotation, Publication, and Analysis of 3D Scenes alongside Imported Humanities Data","10","New advances in online game engines have made it possible to easily view 3D virtual environments from any web browser, but the full potential of 3D humanities research has gone unrealized because of the difficulty in connecting important 3D findings to the work of traditional scholars grounded in texts. This presentation will discuss the current development and show demonstrations of the Scholarly 3D Toolkit, (S3DT) a plug-in for the Unity game engine designed to help better interface 3D historical reconstructions with other data. The work of a team lead by James Coltrain, S3DT will provide simple interfaces that allow creators to link their 3D scenes to sources and documents, and to dynamically import and view traditionally indexed digital humanities data from databases, spreadsheets, or GIS programs. The result will allow users to view multiple layers of data plotted within a single online 3D environment, showing markers for events, personal connections, documents, images, and annotations from multiple users, all in time and space. S3TD will allow for greater and more sophisticated interdisciplinary analysis, helping scholars studying three dimensional spaces to contextualize models of architecture, urban structures, and natural topography using texts and other spatial data. By comparing existing digital humanities findings with 3D scenes that show scale, light, and texture, the platform will allow for more complex and nuanced investigations of past spaces. Along with a discussion of the project’s progress and the theoretical questions at play, this presentation will show early demos of a test case for the platform. These will include a richly annotated high quality 3D reconstruction of Fort Stanwix, an 18th-century historic site and National Monument, with an existing database constructed by Nebraska undergraduates of over 400 letters, maps, and plans.

S3DT will build upon the achievements of previous digital humanities projects by expanding the options scholars have for working in 3D spaces. Earlier platforms have allowed for the real-time display of annotated 3D models, but some could not stream live in a browser, and most allowed creators little in the way of customization.i Extremely important work has been done with diverse and creative applications of historical GIS, and S3DT will allow for those established types of analyses to be brought into the third dimension. ii More recently, some scholars have made use of online game engines like Unity to achieve some of the goals set forth in the S3DT project, including the use of advanced real time graphics in an online environment. iii However, these projects have not resulted in open, customizable platforms, and none allow for the importation of new 3D content. S3DT will build upon previous work in Unity by connecting 3D scenes from multiple creators to the layered viewing of all kinds of outside humanities data.

The practical tools in S3DT also make many previously difficult modes of spatial analysis quicker and more accessible. S3DT scenes can show spaces changing over time with numerous iterations and nuance, and also display multiple interpretations of the same structure side by side as competing arguments. With 3D objects linking to multimedia sources, users can now better understand the interpretive leaps creators made, and which pieces of fragmentary evidence scholars privileged in creating coherent 3D spaces, information that also facilities efficient peer review. The ability to display different types of data can also promote public outreach in addition to academic collaboration, letting universities, museums, archives, historic sites, and even individual visitors contribute to the same online 3D spaces. The design of the S3DT plug-in for Unity will allow for open analysis of 3D scenes, while protecting scholars’ data for future use. The plug-in does not interfere with the traditional workflows for 3D content creation, and also stores all textual and multimedia data in standard MySQL databases. As a result, neither scholars’ 3D models nor their annotations or data will become stuck in the S3DT if creators find better future platforms for presentation.

S3DT will consist of a two part plug-in for Unity. The first part, within the Unity Editor, will allow creators to add notes and metadata to imported 3D objects, and prepare them for publishing. The second, is a web template which will allow for the viewing and manipulation of published scenes, as well as the live importation and plotting of new data layers from outside sources. Below is a typical workflow for S3DT along with key features at each step. This presentation will conclude with early demonstrations of many features from both parts of the plug-in.

I. 3D Content Creation
Creators begin by modeling and texturing a 3D scene in their typical workflow in a 3D suite such as 3D Studio Max, Maya, or Blender. When they have finished, they export their 3D models to industry standard formats (ex. .obj or .fbx) . They then download and install the Unity Editor and the accompanying S3DT plug-in. Finally they load their 3D scene into the Unity Editor.

II. S3DT Plug-in for Unity Editor

With their models loaded into the Unity editor, creators will use the S3DT plug-in to prepare them for publication. This includes creating an object hierarchy, denoting nested neighborhoods, complexes, buildings, rooms, architectural features, and sub-features, each as defined by the creator. Once the objects are defined, creators can enter metadata for each scene object in any fields they like. In particular, creators will be able to enter time sensitive information, such as the dates for the object's creation, alteration, damage, and destruction. Creators will also be able to enter links to sources used in their interpretation of the reconstructed object, as well as notes about their specific decisions.

Next creators will publish their scene. In the process each published scene is exported as two parts, a Unity 3D file formatted for web display, and a matching MySQL database containing all metadata and links to sources and annotations.

III. S3DT Plug-in for Browsers

The S3DT web browser plug-in consists of a Javascript library and web template for loading and displaying published S3DT scenes on the web. Most projects will use a customized version of the web template, but the Javascript library is available for projects that are integrated into existing sites or for which creators desire a higher level of customization.

The S3DT browser plug-in has a simple user interface consists of the following:

The Main Window displays the published Unity scene in real-time 3D.
The Timeline consists of a scalable time line with a slider to control time position and markers corresponding to time sensitive events plotted in the scene.
The Layers List shows all the elements in the scene, organized by package. Each layer has a collapsible view that expands to show the entire object hierarchy as defined by scene creators in the S3DT Unity Editor plug-in. Any additional content or data loaded into the 3D scene will appear in the layers list as a new layer, including published S3DT packages, maps, images, collections of user annotations, collections of plotted events, GIS data, etc. Users will be able to toggle the visibility and opacity of any layer or any object within a layer hierarchy.
The Tools Window features a set of utilities users can use to manipulate or analyze the scene. These will include:
Advanced Search - Allowing customizable complex searches bases on any metadata field or object attribute.
Groups - Allows users to group objects from any layer together into a new layer.
Edit Object Metadata - If enabled, allows users to add to or edit metadata for scene objects. Annotate -Allows users to leave comments live in the scene, either attached to scene objects or in freestanding 3D space.
Camera Tools - Allows users to place custom cameras, define camera paths and animate them, and to take and save camera snapshots.
Import Data - Allows users to import data with geographic information from outside sources including SQL, Excel, KML, and ARCGIS. Also allows users to choose and customize marker appearances based on imported data, or upload their own.
Create Exhibits - A set of sub-tools will allow users to connect camera views, and animations over time and space with HTML text for guided tours and other exhibits. Created exhibits will load into the layers view.
Map and Image Import- Allows users to import maps and images into the live scene, and to align maps to existing terrain or images to camera views. Imported maps and images can then load into the layers view.
References
VSIM https://idre.ucla.edu/gis-visualization/vsim; Rome Reborn http://romereborn.frischerconsulting.com; CDI Second Life projects http://wt-dc19-prod.astate.edu/a/centers-programs-and-institutes/cdi/projects.dot .

Anne Kelly KnowlesPast time, past place: GIS for history;David J. Bodenhamer, John Corrigon, and Trevor M. HarrisThe Spatial Humanities; Spatial History Project http://www.stanford.edu/group/spatialhistory/cgi-bin/site/index.php; Hypercities http://hypercities.com/ ; Neatline http://neatline.org/about/ ; World Map Project http://worldmap.harvard.edu/.

lab, UCLA Experimental Technologies Center http://etc.ucla.edu/research/projects/romelab/ ; Hadrian's Villa Simulation http://idialab.org/nsf-funded-virtual-simulation-of-hadrians-villa/ ; Digital Pompeii http://classics.uark.edu/DigitalPompeii.html; Simulated Environment for Theater, http://humviz.org/set/index.html.","txt","2","",""
"2112","15","The SMART-GS Project: An Approach to Image-based Digital Humanities","2","Introduction: Difficulties in Working with Handwritten Manuscripts 
Some of historically important manuscripts, especially those written in the modern age, are hard to read due to their authors' unclear handwriting. Transcription processes for these manuscripts tend to be more time-consuming, eventually decreasing historians' productivity. When manuscripts are written in East-Asian languages such as Japanese, which have a vast number of characters, transcriptions are even harder. Because historians of the modern age face the challenge of studying a large number of documents, these difficulties can be crucial to them. 

SMART-GS, a system for image-based historical studies, has been developed by Japanese historians and developers since 2006 to help historians work on such manuscripts, and has been successfully applied to six historical research projects1. It is written in Java, and runs on Windows, OS X, and Linux. Its source code is distributed on sourceforge.jp under the GPL 2.0 license2. In this paper, we will discuss the approach the SMART-GS project has taken, and its applications to historical studies of handwritten documents. 

Project Background
SMART-GS was originally developed by Susumu Hayashi for his study of the history of 19th century mathematics. It was first built for helping the analysis of the mathematical notebooks of the prominent mathematician David Hilbert. These notebooks consist of short notes, each expressing Hilbert's mathematical ideas. In order to identify the time of writing of the notes, Hayashi developed a system that supports image-and-text markup, one-to-many links between markups, search of handwritten texts, and so on. Later the system, named SMART-GS, turned out to be applicable to other historical studies and has been adopted so far by six research programs for the analysis of handwritten manuscripts. 

There are a number of applications and web services which look similar to SMART-GS, such as Image-Markup-Tool3 and T-PEN4. However, they are mainly aimed at creating transcriptions or annotations for archival purposes, whereas SMART-GS is designed for a different purpose: to streamline historians' work flows, making them more productive.

Supported Features
One of the most basic features of SMART-GS is its markup system for texts and images. SMART-GS can markup an image region in various ways: selecting it with a rectangle or polygon shape, putting comments on it, drawing an arrow from one region to another, and so on (See Fig. 1). This markup information will be stored in an XML file separately from the original images. Therefore a user only has to exchange a small XML file to share his or her project with others; provided they have the same image files. In addition, it's possible to create a bidirectional and one-to-many link between any two markups. This feature enables users to make correspondences between an image region and its transcribed text. 


Fig. 1: Markups for image and text

For deciphering illegible words in manuscripts SMART-GS features an image search function. Using this feature users can easily find a word or phrase that has a similar shape to the query image (See Fig. 2). Also, SMART-GS supports adaptive-repetitive search, in which users can recursively increase the relevance of search results.


Fig. 2: Search results for an image query ""Scheler"", a German philosopher's name

For team-based projects SMART-GS offers resource sharing through the Internet. Metadata added on documents and their revision histories can be uploaded to and saved in the subversion-like version control server HCP (Humanities Cyber Platform), so that the project members can work together on the same documents (further cloud collaboration support is planned). 

Conclusion
Historical studies based on handwritten texts generally require considerable time and experiences. SMART-GS' features such as image-and-text markup, image search, and project sharing through the Internet, can streamline historians' workflows so that they can focus on the analysis of the content in the manuscripts. 

Currently we are implementing two other features into SMART-GS: a built-in TEI editor and automatic mass transcription function. Since at present SMART-GS only supports relatively simple HTML markup for texts, the semantic richness of TEI will bring more power of expression to its markup and link system. The automatic mass transcription will be realized as an application of SMART-GS' image search function. This feature will make it much more efficient to transcribe texts to which OCR is not applicable.

References
1. SMART-GS was for the first time presented in Hayashi, S. (2007). SMART-GS Project: a tool for seaching, marking up, and linking historical documents. A talk delivered in the 3rd international symposium of Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research Areas ""Japanese Technological Innovations"". sts.kahaku.go.jp/tokutei/intforumprogram_No2.php (Japanese)

2. en.sourceforge.jp/projects/smart-gs/

3. tapor.uvic.ca/~mholmes/image_markup/

4. t-pen.org/TPEN/","txt","2","",""
"2113","15","The social pleasure of the text: Applying digital humanities methods to reception studies","10","How do readers use social media to express the value and the pleasure that the experience of reading holds for them? And, given the rapidity with which corpora gathered from social media are growing, what kinds of methods are most useful for analysing this kind of (big) data so as to cast light on the phenomenology of reading experiences? This paper seeks to answer these questions by presenting the findings of a project on developing methods for analysing and evaluating literary engagement in digital contexts, funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council under the auspices of the Cultural Value Project.1 It will report on what can be learnt from the large amount of user-generated data available on microblogging services and social network sites about the value that reading brings to the lives of individuals and communities, and will offer an evaluation of the various analytical tools and methods available to scholars working on reading and reception studies who wish to include born-digital data in their research.

Work in reception studies is increasingly focusing on the ways that an understanding of the significance of individual reading experiences can be enriched by attending to occasions when readers join with others to express opinions about a text, and work together to construct its meaning. Scholars have argued that it is in fact in these acts of public negotiation of meaning – for example book group discussions – that readers can be observed doing the private cognitive work of textual engagement, as their interpretations change in the act of articulating their response in a social context.2 The fact that the rich textual data available on social media is often generated by readers in conversation with friends or acquaintances, in contexts quite different to interviews with researchers or questionnaires which might prompt a higher level of self-editing, makes it even more compelling to work with.3 The obvious advantage of working with this sort of born-digital material is that it lends itself to analysis using the growing number of tools and methods being developed within digital humanities, which have the power to integrate textual and geospatial information, and to identify lexical trends in time-stamped data. Such computational methods not only offer scholars the opportunity to analyse much larger bodies of text than is ordinarily possible for individual researchers to examine through close reading, but also to draw on, and discover patterns in, temporal and geospatial metadata.

Data for this project was gathered from two different social media platforms, the microblogging platform Twitter and the book collection website LibraryThing.4 For the Twitter data, searches were performed for literary prizes (for example Man Booker Prize and Nobel), author names (for example [Eleanor] Catton and [Alice] Munro), and hashtags commonly used to signal reading-related tweets (for example #goodreads and #mustread). For the LibraryThing data, the results of the Twitter searches were used to suggest particular books to investigate, so as to enable a comparison of the way readers discussed books on the two platforms. The numerical review scores and the text of user reviews of these books were stored in a database, along with metadata about the user. While some interesting work on literary value has already been done by scraping data from Amazon,5 LibraryThing was selected for this project as it is a platform where readers gather primarily to share information voluntarily about books in ways not (directly) linked to commercial activity. Moreover, it is also possible to link some of this information to users’ reported geographic location, something which cannot be done with Amazon data.

Various digital methods were then applied to the resulting datasets: thematic analysis using methods from corpus linguistics, analysis of trends in word usage over time using a burst detection algorithm, and geospatial analysis.

1) Thematic analysis
Analytical techniques from corpus linguistics were employed to identify patterns of unusually prominent words, phrases and grammatical constructions. The textual data gathered were tagged with the CLAWS part-of-speech tagger,6 and the concordance program AntConc7 was then used to identify the most frequent words, determine their statistical significance as compared to a reference corpus, find the terms that most commonly collocated with them, and carry out other analytical procedures. Sub-corpora were separated out by hashtag and geographical location, and analysed individually.

2) Temporal analysis
As all the Twitter data and a significant proportion of the LibraryThing data is time-stamped, it presented an opportunity to analyse trends over time, something that can be done with burst detection analysis in order to gauge how influential particular words or hashtags have been over time.8 The Sci2 tool9 was used to perform burst detection, and to visualise the results as temporal bar graphs. Terms that “burst” into prominence were then fed back into the corpus linguistic analysis, for example in order to examine the collocation patterns around them, and to attend to the context in which they initially appeared.

3) Geospatial analysis
The software package ArcGIS was used to create a GIS database including layers derived from the Twitter and LibraryThing data, to see where particular geographical patternings in the search terms and hashtags occurred. (While not all tweets or contributions to LibraryThing have georeferences attached to them, a large enough number do to make this form of analysis worthwhile.) These data were then layered against census data (such as level of educational attainment or socioeconomic status) aggregated at the output area level, in order to enable semantic patterns in the articulation of reading-related tweets and posts to be considered alongside the demographic features of the places where they were articulated.

The paper will set out the advantages offered by thematic, temporal and geospatial analyses, and suggest the components of cultural value which are best addressed by each, while also considering how these different forms of analysis may be productively combined.

References
1. www.ahrc.ac.uk/Funded-Research/Funded-themes-and-programmes/Cultural-Value-Project/

2. Daniel Allington and Bethan Benwell (2012), Reading the Reading Experience: An Ethnomethodological Approach to ‘Booktalk’, in From Codex to Hypertext: Reading at the Turn of the Twenty-first Century, ed. by Anouk Lang (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2012), pp. 217–233.

3. Rhiannon Bury, Ruth Deller and Adam Greenwood (2013), From Usenet to Tumblr: The Changing Role of Social Media, Participations 10, 299–318.

4. https://twitter.com/; www.librarything.com/.

5. Ed Finn (2011), Becoming Yourself: The Afterlife of Reception, Pamphlets of the Stanford Literary Lab 3. 15 Sept 2011. litlab.stanford.edu/?page_id=255. 1 Nov 2013.

6. ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/claws/.

7. www.antlab.sci.waseda.ac.jp/software.html.

8. Jon Kleinberg b(2002), Bursty and Hierarchical Structure in Streams, Proceedings of the Eighth ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, KDD ’02 (New York: ACM, 2002), pp. 91–101.

9 sci2.cns.iu.edu.","txt","2","",""
"2114","15","The Stanford Literary Lab Transhistorical Poetry Project Phase II: Metrical Form","10","To date, most studies that foreground quantitative analyses of literature have focused exclusively on prose writing (the novel in particular) rather than poetry (Stanford Literary Lab 2011, Clement 2008). In part, this state of affairs is due to poetry’s highly figurative language and complex communicative intent, which poses acute problems for text mining and similar quantitative analyses that rely on lexical and semantic meaning and whose methodological origins lie in the “hard” sciences (Pasanek and Sculley 2008, Bei 2008). Poetry, however, offers a unique subject for quantitative analysis, independent of lexical and semantic meaning, that is largely absent from prose works: meter. The practice of scansion is an ancient study that precedes the advent of the English language. It has, nevertheless, always consisted mainly of counting, sorting, and indexing words and word components, endeavors to which quantitative analysis is especially attuned. Despite this apparent sympathy between metrics and quantitative analysis, however, the algorithmic detection of the complexities of meter remains outside of the current capabilities of the Digital Humanities. The irregularity of stress, syllabic schemes, and the rule-bending nature of poetic diction runs counter to the binary presence/absence process of most computational analysis. 

In the second phase of the Stanford Literary Lab’s multi-year ongoing project to create a system for detecting the formal features of poetry, we have focused our attention on the question of meter. Using a new method that combines a series of rule-based analyses with an iterative probabilistic-based classification algorithm, we can now detect, with a high degree of accuracy, both the meter and line length of individual poems. We have trained our algorithm to recognize individual metrical feet, such as iambs, dactyls, anapests, trochees, and spondees, and to combine these identifications with a signal-processing approach to the entire poem to classify the overall metrical scheme of any given poem. We have trained and tested our algorithm on a corpus of over 300,000 English language poems from the late medieval period to the twentieth century. Moreover, we have also applied our algorithm to multi-lingual corpora: in our presentation we will demonstrate how our methods are effective on German and French, as well as English poetic forms. 

This project builds upon the first phase of our project, presented to the Alliance of Digital Humanities Organizations conference in Lincoln, Nebraska, which successfully sought to recognize the syllabic scheme patterns in poetic lines. The overarching goal of our project as a whole is perhaps simple to state, but challenging to execute: we seek to create a program that can automatically identify poetic forms. In other words, we are in the process of designing a program that can read any number of poems and tell us their exact syllable count, meter, rhyme scheme, use of traditional forms (e.g., sonnet, ballad, sestina), etc.  Success in creating such a program would represent an important tool for scholars in the Digital Humanities, and would offer the ability to:

1) Create an inventory of all poetic forms, traditional and untraditional.

2) Trace the history of poetic forms, including:

 - variation among poetic forms (e.g., Which forms were most popular in a given period? Were some periods more formally diverse than others? How does form diversity change over time?)

 - variation within poetic forms (e.g., How do the forms themselves change over time? Are sonnets more metrically rigorous in one era than another?)

3) Better understand the relationship between form and meaning by relating analyses of scansion with those of lexical and semantic meaning.

4) Provide distant readings to help generate and/or support new close readings.

In constructing such a program, we break down the task of recognizing metrical schemes into the simpler, but by no means simple, components of recognizing: 1) Syllable Scheme; 2) Beat Scheme; 3) Rhyme Scheme; 4) Metrical Scheme; and then 5) matching any combination of these categories to a tradition name (e.g., sonnet, heroic couplets, rhyme royale, etc.) if one exists to describe it. 

We began by designing a program that could accurately detect the number of syllables in a given line of poetry (item 1 above) because we believed it would be the most straightforward element to analyze. We additionally realized that if we limited our sample according to metrical foot, then syllable count would present a shortcut toward detecting a rough approximation of meter. For example, if we started by analyzing only iambic poems (as recognized by human readers), and our syllabifier counted 9-11 syllables in each line of a given poem, then we could have reasonable assurance that the poem was written in pentameter. A similar process could be applied to other metrical patterns. In training our syllabifier, we purposely limited our sample to poems composed from roughly the late sixteenth century to the late nineteenth century because metrical forms were most stable and recognizable in this period. 

Building upon this earlier success, we have combined our ability to recognize syllabic scheme with a complex approach to meter that has, at present, an over 80% success rate in correctly classifying meter. Our presentation will discuss how our algorithm was built, the specific challenges that we faced (e.g., elision, extrametrical syllables, feminine endings, foreign words, and other features of meter that are commonly acceptable in the practice of poetics but that our program had difficulty overcoming), and we will present the results of our application of this technique to a large, multi-lingual corpus that shows the historical shape of various metrical forms important to European poetry from the sixteenth to the late nineteenth century. Our initial analysis, using only syllabic scheme, revealed a number of significant and unexpected observations, including the fact that the use of pentameter peaked around the middle of the seventeenth century and has been on the decline ever since, as well as the fact that the use of tetrameter has been reciprocally on the rise since the early eighteenth century and is today equally as popular as pentameter. In this second phase, we expand the results of this analysis to show the historical prominence of the sonnet and heroic couplet forms, the transnational inheritance of metrical form and the history of iambic pentameter in English poetry. 

We believe that what we have achieved with this work so far will aid in future quantitative and digital work on poetry, a lacuna that represents a critical problem for the use of digital humanities in the study of literature, given the enormous significance of the poetic tradition within literary studies. We also believe, moreover, that our program has application well beyond the study of poetry and could help to analyze and detect metrical schemes in song, drama, and prose as well, generating topics of analysis that likely would remain undetected without quantitative analysis.","txt","2","",""
"2115","15","The Story of Stopwords: Topic Modeling an Ekphrastic Tradition","10","Introduction
This paper will argue that removing high-frequency, low-semantic weight words from topic models of poetry corpora improves the coherence of Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topics and addresses reasonable concerns by some literary scholars that removing such language undercuts the methodology’s value as a mode of literary inquiry.  Exposing technical and theoretical decisions made while topic modeling 4,500 English language poems, this paper demonstrates how words such as “look” and “saw” remain influential and semantically present in document to topic distributions. Finally, it suggests that literary scholars will need a different hermeneutic approach to topic models of poetic corpora that better accounts for ambiguity and figures of speech. 

Background
Ekphrasis—poems to, for, and about the visual arts—offers a wealth of opportunities to ask familiar humanities questions about canon-formation, literary tradition, and genre definition, and at the same time affords avenues for the advancement or refinement of methods and tools in the field of digital humanities.  The story of the ekphrastic tradition, and women’s relationship to that tradition, is in many ways the story of data collection and curation.  In his influential essay on the genre, W. J. T. Mitchell radically shifts critical studies of poetic engagements with images away from metaphorical comparisons by arguing that ekphrasis activates historical and ideological oppositions between the linguistic and spatial arts as a staging of anxieties about “otherness.”1 Mitchell goes on to explain that the “treatment of the ekphrastic image as female other is commonplace in the genre” (164). 

To date, Mitchell’s theorization of ekphrasis as social contest remains a powerful influence on our critical approaches to how the genre operates because it pushed beyond previous studies that simply compared the two arts formally.  Mitchell’s “cannon,” however, consists of four poems, all by male poets: Wallace Stevens’s “Anecdote of a Jar;” William Carols Williams’s “Portrait of a Lady,” John Keats’s “Ode on a Grecian Urn;” and Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “On the Medusa of Leonardo Da Vinci in the Florentine Gallery.”  Though recent scholars--such as Elizabeth Loizeaux2, Jane Hedley3, and Barbara Fischer4—have challenged the limitations of Mitchell’s model, two challenges have stymied its revision: identifying genre conventions as succinct and intuitive and surveying a much larger collection of ekphrastic examples.

Literary scholars respond to questions of genre by creating models.  For example, when Mitchell describes the “suturing of gender stereotypes” onto the “interworkings of ekphrasis,” he does so by creating a model he calls the ekphrastic triangle.  Mitchell’s triangle stages a relational exchange between a poet/speaker,  a feminized art object and the reader, in which the speaker instructs the reader to “look” and “see,” cautions him against silence and stillness, and confides a desire to ravish the feminized image. This presentation demonstrates that ekphrasis's re-deployment of multiple discourses expands our model of ekphrasis as a network  by situating individual poems among multiple, ongoing, and constantly changing discourses within the topic model.

Opportunity
Computational tools, such as topic modeling, have the potential to help literary scholars redefine the limits of reading distance, not because they read better than humans but because computers compute better than humans.  Soon after he first coined the phrase “distant reading,” Franco Moretti claimed that distance is a “condition of knowledge”—one limit of many.5 6 Leveraging the strengths of technology to broaden the reach, scale, and scope of our exposure to ekphrastic poetry improves our capacity to view the ekphrastic tradition on a much larger scale. Although the history of ekphrasis—as the hostile, gendered contest between speaking male subjects and silent female objects—seems particularly inhospitable territory for women poets, many acclaimed poems by women in the 20th century participate in the genre, including Elizabeth Bishop's ""Poem,"" Anne Sexton's ""Starry Night,"" Jorie Graham's ""San Supolcro"" and Elizabeth Alexander's ""The Venus Hottentot."" Topic modeling’s generative, probabilistic, and non-semantic methods offer a promising opportunity to revise our critical understanding of ekphrasis.  Removing words such as ""see,"" ""look,"" and ""say"" from ekphrastic poems offers opportunities to refocus our critical lens on other language patterns that have been overlooked by human pattern recognition due to the high frequency of ""look"" and ""see"" throughout the ekphrastic canon.

Methods
This paper asks: if we can discern salient questions about the ekphrastic tradition that computer reading is designed to address, how might we respond to Adrienne Rich’s call for “re-vision,” whereby learning to see what we already know differently is an act of survival?  Since we know that computers are not the same kind of readers that humans are, it is important to be aware of the “conditions” that shape the ways computers and humans read.  Questions that require attention to quantity, scope, and scale are particularly suited to computation, and computation helps adjust the aperture on the lens that a scholar can have of a corpus of texts.  The challenge, however, is to continue to refine our understanding of what questions might be most fruitfully asked with an awareness of computational and human conditions.  

In the study of ekphrasis, for example, interpretive stress is placed on high-frequency words that, in prose, hold relatively little semantic weight--particularly words such as ""look"" and ""see.""  Distinct for its highly concentrated language, poetry places an increased degree of significance on even the poet's ""smallest"" word choices.  Preprocessing texts for topic modeling in Mallet strips documents of upper and lower case letters, removes line breaks and enjambments, deletes high-frequency words, including articles, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, and common verbs--like ""is,"" ""are,"" and ""were""--and turns documents into strings of sequential words that no longer bear the same syntactical relationships they once did.  Given this, how can a methodology that requires radical decomposition of a poem's linguistic meaning offer valuable insights into exploring texts? For example, heavy with subtext, the first line of Robert Browning's ""My Last Dutchess"" would be removed in its entirety from the text of the poem through preprocessing using the default stop list available in Mallet.7  If the computer doesn't value such words, could the model it produces still be useful to someone interested in ekphrasis? 

To determine whether or not LDA could still produce models that would be useful to the study and revision of the ekphrastic tradition, four experiments were performed on a dataset of 4,500 English language poems using four different preprocessing techniques: 1.) removing no words before creating the model 2.) removing only 50% of the Mallet stopwords 3.) removing all the Mallet stopwords except a small group that relate to ekphrastic conventions (eg. look, see, saw, seen) and 4.) removing all the words on the suggested Mallet stoplist. After preprocessing, each dataset was treated identically, producing 40 topic models. This paper addresses the decision process for assembling each list and points to where the lists can be found online.

Discoveries
Contrary to expectation, the model with the greatest topic key word distribution coherence was the model with the most stopwords removed.  Although ekphrastic poems beseech their readers to ""look"" and to ""see"" more clearly, the ekphrastic poems themselves surface more coherently in models where the words ""see,"" ""look,"" and ""still"" are removed.  Like ghosts in the model, similar topics focused on looking and describing form even when specific words referring to the activity are no longer present, and the model's prediction of topical distribution more accurately reflects human estimation of the numbers of ""ekphrastic"" versus ""non-ekphrastic"" poems were included in the dataset to begin with.  In fact, topics in the lightly edited stoplist test are reflected in the model where all stopwords are removed, but the list of most likely words associated with each topic is less coherent in the former than the latter's keyword list.  

Using specific examples of topics created with models using various stopword lists, this paper tells the story of ekphrasis as it is told through stopword filters, as topical coherence rises, the questions one might ask about the corpus changes. Concentrating on terms such as ""still,"" ""look,"" and ""see,"" this paper will demonstrate how LDA identifies topics where issues of vision, description, and color become refined as the words that directly refer to the act of observation are removed.  Visualizations of relationships between poetic topics and topic word and document distributions will also reveal the ways in which latent patterns of words that have been removed from the corpus can still be evident in topic formation.

Copies of the model keyword distribution lists and document to topic distributions are available by request.

Conclusion
This paper uncovers the complementary theoretical and methodological decisions required in order to approach questions of tradition and canon formation with topic modeling corpora of poetry.  An act of critical ""deformance,"" topic modeling uncovers differences between Keats' ""still unravish'd bride of quietness"" and Carol Snow's ""Positions of the Body"" even without many of the words that scholars have argued were critical identifying features of the genre.  Such discoveries prompt us to return to close readings of ekphrastic poems with new questions about the conventions of a genre evident in Western letters since Homer's first description of Achilles' shield in the Illiad.

References
1. Mitchell, W.J.T. (1994). Ekphrasis and the Other. Picture Theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Print.

2. Loizeaux, Elizabeth. Twentieth Century Poetry and the Visual Arts. (2008). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP. Print.

3. Hedley, Jane, Nick Halpern, and Williard Spiegelman. (2009). In the Frame: Women's Ekphrastic Poetry from Marianne Moore to Susan Wheeler. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press. Print.

4. Fischer, Barbara K. (2006). Museum Meditations: Reframing Ekphrasis in Contemporary American Poetry. 1st ed. New York: Routledge. Print.

5. Moretti, F. (2000). Conjectures on World Literature. New Left Review 1. newleftreview.org/II/1/franco-moretti-conjectures-on-world-literature

6. Moretti, F. (2005). Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History. Verso.

7. McCallum, Andrew Kachites. (2002). Mallet: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit. Web. 31 May 2013.","txt","2","",""
"2116","15","The SyMoGIH project : Sharing and publishing historical and geographical data in a standard, open and interoperable way","2","1. The SyMoGIH project and linked data
The SyMoGIH project has created an open modular platform for storing geo-historical information. The benefit of the platform is to allow researchers to share their data and texts in a collaborative environment. Up to now, about fifty students and scholars are contributing or contributed to the information collection, and ten research projects are using the platform to store data concerning different domains, such as intellectual, economic, social, institutional or religious history. The richness and heterogeneity of the shared information requires a generic data model which was designed with Merise (ERD) modeling method (cf. Beretta, Vernus 2012) and implemented in a relational postgreSQL database, to which users can connect via a user friendly AJAX web application (cf. Beretta, Vernus & Hours 2012). In parallel, we have recently proposed an environment using eXist-db to share XML/TEI encoded texts. The semantic annotation of named entities and knowledge units (i.e. informations) that we find in the texts is achieved by linking the semantic tags to the resources defined in the relational database.

In carrying out the latter, we realized the importance of identifying the database objects using URIs. In addition to the websites we offer for publishing the different datasets related to specific projects (for instance www.patronsdefrance.fr), we also created a generic website to deliver to the public the whole of our authority files and the knowledge units which the participating scholars decided to make public (www.symogih.org). As a first step, this website provides dereferencing of our URIs in form of a web page with the description of the resource (e.g. www.symogih.org/resource/Actr195 for Johannes Kepler) but it raises the issue of providing dereferencement in form of RDF data and, more widely, of connecting our data to those produced elsewhere. For this purpose, we made an ontology that suits our needs. 

2. From a project-specific ontology to a generic semantic model for historians
The generic nature of the SyMoGIH data model allows to easily transpose it to an OWL DL ontology. This project-specific ontology is designed to publish our data and it is based on four main classes : Object, KnowledgeUnit, Role and Sourcing (cf. Image 1). An Object can be a person, a place, a concept, a bibliographical object, etc. and can be linked to a KnowledgeUnit through a Role. A superclass AssociatedObject gathers Objects and KnowledgeUnits: this allows a KnowledgeUnit to be associated to another one as if it was an object. KnowledgeUnits are divided in two subclasses: an Information expresses knowledge as it is constructed by the historian using critical method and extracting it from different sources; a Content reproduces knowledge as it was meant by one and only one source, even if we know the source is wrong about an event date or circumstances. In both cases, Sourcing provides the origin of each knowledge unit. Specific KnowledgeUnits' and Roles' types appear as instances of the KnowledgeUnitType and RoleType classes: this means that the ontology is versatile, can be gradually expanded and virtually handles any type of knowledge.


Fig. 1: Classes and properties of the Symogih ontology (An instance like “Johannes Kepler (1571-1594)” belongs to the class http://symogih.org/ontology/Actor)

The SyMoGIH ontology bears close resemblance to similar ontologies elaborated by historians and scholars interested in the development of prosopographical databases, particularly the “factoïd” data model developed in King's College Department of Digital Humanities, London (Bradley/Pasin, 2013) and the “Aspekte” data model developed by the Personendaten-Repositorium (http://pdr.bbaw.de/) (Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften). Although independently conceived, the SyMoGIH ontology shows also close similarities to the Simple Event Model ontology (van Hage et al. 2011) and the TemporalEntity in CIDOC-CRM (Doerr, 2003). This convergence of different semantic models treating time-related information has recently risen a discussion between their designers about the definition of a common ontology for publishing and sharing data produced by historical research.

3. Publishing and querying linked data
Pending the achievement of this very important discussion, we used our ontology to create an RDF view on our collaborative database. The implementation uses D2RQ1 to create a SPARQL endpoint by means of a term map realized according to the RDB2RDF principles2 that rewrites the database structure according to the SyMoGIH ontology. To increase the SPARQL endpoint performance and allow more sophisticated queries, we periodically dump the available data from D2RQ to an OpenLink Virtuoso triple store3 and we use OntoWiki4 for a visual presentation of the dataset. This project is still in experimental phase: at the moment, we are manually interlinking our resources with the one's found in DBPedia, IDRef5, etc. and we are testing federated queries to visualize and compare informations coming from different datasets. We are also testing semi-automatic interlinking with other data providers, like DBPedia or GND6. This will allow us not only to publish our data on the semantic web but also to compare the quality of available datasets and enrich them, offering new interesting perspectives to researchers in history (cf. Meroño-Peñuela et al 2013).

References
Beretta, F., & Vernus, P. (2012). Le projet SyMoGIH et la modélisation de l’information: une opération scientifique au service de l’histoire. Les Carnets du LARHRA, (1), 81–107. (http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00677658)

Beretta, F., Vernus, P., & Hours, B. (2012). Le Système modulaire de gestion de l’information historique (SyMoGIH): une plateforme collaborative et cumulative de stockage et d’exploitation de l’information géo-historique. Presented at the Digital Humanities 2012 in Hamburg (http://larhra.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/iDocuments/SyMoGIH/Poster_SYMOGIH3_jpg.pdf). 

Michele Pasin and John Bradley (2013), Factoid-based prosopography and computer ontologies: Towards an integrated approach, Literary and Linguistic Computing Advance Access published June 29, 2013.

Doerr, M. (2003). The CIDOC CRM - An ontological approach to semantic interoperability of metadata. AI Magazine, 24, 2003. 

Meroño-Peñuela, A., van Erp, M., Breure, L., Scharnhorst, A., Schlobach, S., & van Harmelen, F. (2013). Semantic Technologies for Historical Research: A Survey.Semantic Web journal. 

van Hage, W. R., Malaisé, V., Segers, R., Hollink, L., & Schreiber, G. (2011). Design and use of the Simple Event Model (SEM). Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web, 9(2), 128–136. doi:10.1016/j.websem.2011.03.003 

Vernus, P. (2009). ANR Système d’information: “Patrons et patronat français - XIXe - XXe siècles” (SIPPAF). Retrieved from http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00474109 

http://virtuoso.openlinksw.com/

http://www.idref.fr/autorites/autorites.html

http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/rdb2rdf/r2rml/

http://d2rq.org/

http://pdr.bbaw.de/

http:// www.patronsdefrance.fr

http://www.loa.istc.cnr.it/DOLCE.html

http://symogih.org/ontology/Actor

http://www.dnb.de/EN/gnd","txt","2","",""
"2117","15","The Telltale Hat: LDA and Classification Problems in a Large Folklore Corpus","10","Introduction
Classification is a vexing problem in folkloristics. Indexing collections that often include tens of thousands of records is essential, but neither fully manual nor fully automated methods are adequate. In this work, we combine human notions of genre and topic classification with computational classifiers and topic analysis to produce an indexing that is both appropriate for scholarly goals and robust in the presence of ambiguity.

Traditional scholarly indexes have been limited by time and technology. Although broad genre classifications such as “ballad”, “folktale”, and “legend” are well established, these formal classifications are coarse and do little more than sort the materials into large, internally diverse groupings. Most standard classification schemes assign each record to a single classification and do not allow for cross-genre classification (e.g., a ballad and a legend about the same murder will be in different categories).1234 The inadequacy of these classification schemes has significantly constrained research on verbal folklore, particularly because such categorizations are often the only available topic index for any given collection.

New unsupervised machine learning methods offer scalability but lack human intelligence. Clustering algorithms partition a corpus into groups of documents that are similar. Topic modeling is more flexible, allowing each document to express multiple automatically detected themes. But such methods usually rely on simple bag-of-words representations that miss aspects of a text that are clear to readers familiar with the corpus. In addition, patterns found by algorithms may be statistically valid but uninteresting to scholars. 

We explore the problem of classification in a large corpus (~35,000 records) of nineteenth-century Danish folklore and suggest possible solutions to these problems through classification and topic-modeling strategies that combine human labels with machine learning. We consider two classification schemes for the collection: in the first, each document receives one label, whereas the second assigns multiple labels to each document.

One label per story
The original collector assigned each story to exactly one of 36 labels, but we are most interested in “borderline” stories that could fit in many classes. These “liminal” stories not only reveal the challenges to classification that arise when a system can only accommodate a single label—as in the original index—but also help researchers to discover stories that are anomalous. 

An excellent example of such an anomalous story appears in our target corpus, Danske sagn [Danish Legends]:5

DS_I_056:

Per Overlade was out one evening shooting hares. It was up on Kræn Møller’s field. Kræn was in the process of moving his farm, and the old farm had not been completely disassembled yet, and Per intended to hide amid the old frame that was still standing and shoot a hare or two. But when he gets there, he sees an old man who is sitting in there with a red cap on who nods to him. Per gets scared and doesn’t dare go in there, and so he doesn’t catch any hares.

Originally labeled as a story about “mound dwellers/hidden folk,” the story could just as easily be classified in several other categories: poaching, household guardian spirits (nisse, suggested by the old man’s red hat), and law breaking, to name but three. The story also touches on shifting agricultural practices and the significant reorganization of the Danish landscape in the early 1800s, when farms were routinely dismantled and moved out onto the newly reapportioned fields.

Where else could the editor/archivist have placed this story? To answer this question, we train a Naïve Bayes classifier by estimating a word-frequency histogram for each label. We then measure the similarity of a document to each of the resulting histograms, taking care to remove the word counts for the “query” document from the histogram for its original label. For many stories, the “true” label is the closest, but not in this case. Its top five labels in order are:

ID	Story label
 36	Our forbears' way of thinking and spiritual life
 35	Outdoor life 
 29	Witches and their sport 
 27	Being in league with the Devil 
 1	Mound dwellers/hidden folk
Although the first assignment is so broad as to be of little use—emphasizing the inadequacy of the original index—the association of the story with topic 35 highlights its affinity to stories about hunting and poaching, while topic 29 indicates the story's connection with hares—animals most commonly associated with witches.

Additionally, we can use this classification scheme to initialize a 36-topic model, creating one topic per original label. We assign each word token to the same topic as the label of its document. We then resample topic assignments for each word token in turn. Given the topic assignments of the tokens in a document, we can rank the topics for that document. After one sweep through the entire corpus, the “Mound dwellers” topic still accounts for more than 80% of the tokens in the story of Per Overlade, but after 10 sweeps, only 21% of the words remain in that topic. “Our forebears' way of thinking” and “Being in league with the Devil” instead account for a greater proportion, with the “Devil” topic triggered by words about shooting hares. Overall, the original topic class now accounts for the majority of tokens in 74% of the stories in the collection.

As we increase the number of sweeps through the corpus, the relationship between the topics of the model and the original labels becomes attenuated. At 100 sweeps, the majority of tokens remains in the original class for only 39% of the stories. In our sample story, the prominent topics are “From the time of villeinage”, “Wiverns and small creepy-crawlies”, “Our forebears' way of thinking”, and “Death portents”. Words about shooting and hares are now assigned to the “Wiverns” topic, indicating that we should be careful in using these labels. The “Death portents” topic is represented by the words forskrækket (scared) and sidder (sitting). 

Finding anomalous stories is not simply a question of precision and recall: the very fact that a story is “missed” in a given classification makes it particularly interesting. One of the jobs of the folklorist is to reconstruct the imaginary boundaries of the belief world, so stories that question or test those boundaries are the ones that are most important. Computationally cross-validating a traditional human-generated index, as described above, is an effective way to discover such liminal cases.

Multiple human-generated labels
We can also construct computational story classifiers when editors assign more than one label to each document. Human experts have catalogued a subset of the documents in our target corpus by assigning multiple labels to each document from a modern ontology that includes aspects of stories such as people, locations, and events. We would like to know how these labels map to the words in the documents, but simply counting the words in every document assigned to a label may result in noisy histograms. To improve our ability to interpret the results, we use a labeled topic model to learn which words are associated with which labels.

Multiple labels add complexity but allow us to make stronger assumptions. Since each document has more than one label, we cannot easily translate these labels into word-level assignments as in the previous experiment. On the other hand, we can be reasonably certain that the absence of a label implies that it is not relevant. Similar to LabeledLDA6, we can therefore estimate word-topic assignments under the constraint that words can only be assigned to one of the labels for the document, or to a “Background” label that can absorb frequent words not related to any label. We then re-estimate topic-word distributions given these assignments, and repeat the process as needed.

To evaluate the resulting word distributions, the original creator of the ontology marked individual words that are highly relevant to each label. At each stage of the algorithm, we have a ranked list of words for each label. Given relevance assignments, we can compute mean average precision (MAP) for the model at each stage. Under the initial noisy distributions, MAP for precision up to rank 20 is .26. After the first iteration, MAP increases to .33, but then begins falling in subsequent iterations, indicating that the model may be overfitting.

Consistent differences in ranking quality provide insight into labels. We are more successful at finding words related to concrete themes such as people, animals, and objects. More abstract labels, such as story resolutions and actions or events, were mostly unsuccessful. But there are exceptions: we identified no words related to the label “Farmer”, despite the fact that this is a very common label, while events such as “Disease” and “Death” identified many specific words.

Conclusion
We demonstrate that classification and topic modeling methods can be used to improve existing manual annotations in a collection of Danish folklore. We find that incorporating human labels into machine learning methods—even when the labels are noisy or incomplete—produces indexes that have the benefits of both scholarly domain expertise and data-driven analysis. We believe that these results are applicable for many corpora both in digital humanities and the wider document analysis community.

References
1. Uther, Hans-Jörg. (2004). The Types of International Folktales: A Classification and Bibliography, Based on the System of Antti Aarne and Stith Thompson. FF Communications. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia.

2. Grundtvig, Svend, Axel Olrik, Hakon Grüner-Nielsen, Karl-Ivar Hildeman, Erik Dal, Iørn Piø, Thorkild Knudsen, Svend Nielsen, and Nils Schiørring, eds. 1966–1976 [1853–1976]. Danmarks gamle Folkeviser. 12 volumes. Copenhagen: Universitets-Jubilæets Danske Samfund (Akademisk forlag).

3. Taylor, Archer. (1934). An Index to ""The Proverb"". FF Communications 113. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, 1934.

4. Christiansen, Reidar T. (1958). The Migratory Legends. FF Communications 175. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia.

5. Kristensen, Evald Tang. (1892). Danske sagn, som de har lydt i folkemunde. Århus and Silkeborg: Århus Folkeblads Bogtrykkeri.

6. Ramage, Daniel, David Hall, Ramesh Nallapati, and Christopher D. Manning. (2009). Labeled LDA: A Supervised Topic Model for Credit Attribution in Multi-Labeled Corpora. Proceedings of the 2009 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing. 248-256.","txt","2","",""
"2118","15","The Workspace for Collaborative Editing","10","The Workspace for Collaborative Editing is a project funded by the AHRC (UK) and DFG (Germany) between September 2010 and December 2013. It has the goal of creating an online workspace to support the production of the Editio Critica Maiorof the Greek New Testament by teams based in Birmingham, Münster and Wuppertal and collaborators dispersed all over the world.1 The edition has been in progress since the 1990s, but the obsolescence of key tools and encodings have led to this ambitious project to connect all the different stages of the editorial process through online interfaces and shared databases. 

The production of a critical edition involves the identification and selection of manuscripts to be included, the acquisition of images, the creation of full-text electronic transcriptions (which are themselves published as separate electronic editions, linked to the electronic apparatus, enabling further research in related fields), the automatic comparison of these transcriptions to generate a critical apparatus of all variant readings, the editing of this apparatus by scholarly editors to filter out ‘noise’ and prepare the data for analysis using genealogical tools, the addition of evidence from early translations and biblical quotations and the publication of the material in electronic and printed form.

The aim of the Workspace project has been to adopt existing standards and open-source solutions in order to create a lightweight architecture capable of being easily renewed and updated, so that both the data and software created may be reused by other projects. The result is an open-source browser-based environment written in Python and Javascript. The core software consists of a MongoDB database and the asynchronous web application framework MAGPY. Data is stored in JSON and made available via a RESTful interface. On top of this is a layer of applications which call the relevant data objects for the individual editing processes. The goal of transparency at every level of the editing process means that a record is kept of each object at each stage of the process, and any modifications introduced are treated as additional records rather than replacing existing data.2

The Greek New Testament provides a very specific use-case, with a large amount of data already created and highly developed editorial principles. In addition, ongoing work by existing editorial teams offers the opportunity for immediate testing in real-life situations. Developing in these circumstances can be a challenge, with the evolution of guidelines, changes of editorial practice and 'creeping featurism'. The system needed to make existing legacy data compatible with the much more detailed XML encoding developed by the project and cater for as many known and potential scenarios as practicable. The dispersed team of editors was often called upon to codify their procedures and reach a common mind on problems presented by live data, including agreeing changes in policy. As a result, the creation of the Workspace has proceeded hand in hand with the development of different stages of the edition as a whole. 

The two principal areas in which the Workspace meets a pressing need are the development of a transcription editor, which produces and allows the editing of valid XML in a WYSIWYG environment, and a collation editor which enables the scholarly creation of a critical apparatus. Both of these are browser-based, in order to enable dispersed collaborators to work with differing operating systems and contribute directly to the central data store.

The Transcription Editor has been created by team members at the Trier Center for Digital Humanities and released as open-source at the end of the project.3 Its basis is the platform independent TinyMCE package.4 A set of options for mark-up was then developed through a series of menus and shortcuts (cf. Figure 1). The aim is to allow student and volunteer transcribers not familiar with XML to work in an environment which matches as closely as possible the format of the transcriptions already published in the system. The mark-up in the browser uses HTML encoding. An export function converts this into XML matching the specifications developed by the project.5 Likewise, an import function is required in order to support the editing of existing transcriptions. Some of the problems include the encoding and display of paratextual information, normally located in the margins of a manuscript. The dialogue box for entering this information has to have the same functionality as the main transcription interface for recording unclear or supplied text, corrections and so on. The concept has therefore been developed of the “editor-within-an-editor” which makes this possible. A problem with the import of existing transcriptions is the sequence within which elements were nested within the XML. As a result, it has been necessary to establish a system of tag sequences supported by the editor. The standalone nature of the Transcription Editor and its use of an agreed set of TEI encoding means that it can be installed as a plug-in to different environments, including the New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room (NTVMR 2.0)6 as well as the Workspace for the production of the critical edition.


Fig. 1: The Transcription Editor in the NTVMR environment. Based on the selection different menu options for breaks, corrections, deficiency, ornamentation, abbreviations, marginals, notes and punctuation are offered. Mouseovers and different colours help the users to identify different structures.

The Collation Editor provides an interface to the CollateX engine developed by the INTEREDITION project, the successor to the COLLATE program by Peter Robinson.7 This software performs one of the most mechanical and error-prone tasks in an edition, namely the comparison of all witnesses in each variation unit to build up a critical apparatus. Each file is aligned using an algorithm taking into account not just spelling variations, additions, omissions and substitutions, but also transpositions within each block of text. However, the output still requires considerable input from scholars in order to clean up the raw data for publication as a critical apparatus. The first stage is regularisation, the elimination of insignificant variations such as spelling errors. The variant readings are set out underneath a base text, with the witnesses attesting each reading visible in a mouseover box (see Figure 2). An interface built using the redips drag-and-drop library allows editors to drag-and-drop the readings for regularisation onto the correct form.8 For each regularisation, a dialogue box requires users to state the scope of the regularisation and also its nature. Once this is completed, the regularisation is marked in grey and a rule is saved to the database. The ‘recollate’ button sends the data back through CollateX, preferring the regularised token to the original form where present. This means that a different configuration of readings may appear in each column, as the data is cleaned up and a better match is made by the collation algorithm. The second stage involves setting the length of each variant unit, again implemented through a user-friendly drag-and-drop interface for combining or splitting neighbouring columns. One of the dangers with this interface is changing the overall sequence of words in a manuscript by combining different units and repositioning readings. A checking mechanism has therefore been developed which warns the user as soon as the sequence of any manuscript has been disrupted. On some occasions, the data is best displayed as two units of different lengths. By right-clicking on the relevant reading, it can be sent to a line below as an “overlapping variant”, which can then be combined and manipulated like the other columns. One further complication is that an overlapping variant such as a lengthy transposition of words may also contain a reading which should cited in the main sequence. The system therefore makes it possible to duplicate such readings. The final stage is the ordering of variant readings within each unit and assigning the appropriate reading identifier. From here, the apparatus can be output in a number of forms, such as a positive or negative plain text apparatus, an XML encoded apparatus, or a set of values for incorporation into a database for phylogenetic analysis. The information added in the regularisation dialogue box makes it possible to generate automatically the lists of original forms for orthographic variants and erroneous readings which are printed in an Appendix in the Editio Critica Maior.


Fig. 2: The regularisation interface with the dialogue box displayed.

The presentation will briefly demonstrate the Workspace, especially the two interfaces described above. We will discuss some of the problems encountered during its development, along with their solutions. Although the scope of the original project was specifically to support an edition of the Greek New Testament, a pilot project to customise the environment for an edition of Avestan texts will be outlined: from here, we hope that it will be possible to develop the Workspace for use with other textual traditions.

 

 

References
For the history of the ECM project, see Klaus Wachtel, Editing the Greek New Testament on the Threshold of the Twenty-first Century” Literary and Linguistic Computing 15 (2000), 43–50; D.C. Parker and Klaus Wachtel, The Joint IGNTP/INTF Editio Critica Maior of the Gospel of John: its goals and their significance for New Testament scholarship, presented at the Annual Meeting of SNTS, August 2-6, 2005, Halle. epapers.bham.ac.uk/754/.

2. For documentation, see zeth.github.io/magpy/index.html. The source code may be downloaded from github.com/zeth/magpy.

3. sourceforge.net/projects/wfce-ote/

4. www.tinymce.com/

5. H.A.G. Houghton, The Electronic Scriptorium: Markup for New Testament Manuscripts, in Claire Clivaz, Andrew Gregory and David Hamidovic (edd.), Digital Humanities in Biblical, Early Jewish and Early Christian Studies, Leiden: Brill (2013), pp. 31–60; the latest version of the specifications is at epapers.bham.ac.uk/1727.

6. ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/en_GB/transcribing

7. P.M.W. Robinson (1994), Collate: Interactive Collation of Large Textual Traditions, Version 2. Computer Program distributed by the Oxford University Centre for Humanities Computing, Oxford. The history of Collate is described by Robinson in a 2007 blog post at: www.sd-editions.com/blog/?p=15. For CollateX, see www.interedition.eu/. The source code is available from collatex.net/.

8. www.redips.net/javascript/drag-and-drop-table-content/","txt","2","",""
"2119","15","TheofPhilo. A prototype for a Thesaurus of Philosophy","9","1. Introduction
Our paper aims at presenting TheofPhilo-Thesaurus of Philosophy, the prototype of a digital multilingual thesaurus in the field of Philosophy. With ‘thesaurus’ we mean a concept-based collection of terms1 that we are building by means of philosophical texts and dictionaries.

The purpose of TheofPhilo is to test potentials and limits opened by the interaction between digital tools and devices (such as digital archives and libraries) and the long tradition of historical and lexicological studies of the Istituto per il Lessico Intellettuale Europeo e Storia delle Idee (www.iliesi.cnr.it), which developed the thesaurus. The work on the prototype implied the cooperation of experts in History of philosophy, Linguistics and Computer science, and has been conceived in the frame of the semantic web. We are currently testing the collection of terms and building up an ontology finalized to semantic enrichment and to information retrieval of the digital resources uploaded in the portal Daphnet. Digital Archives of PHilosophical Texts on the NET (www.daphnet.org).

The plurality of languages coexisting in the portal lead us to design a multilingual collection of terms, in order to enable scholars, students, teachers and other interested users to search within the large quantity of texts in Daphnet and – this being an important added value – to make queries by using one owns mother tongue. TheofPhilo is not a dictionary of philosophy and it does not offer definitions of philosophical terms: we want it to be a useful map to enrich texts and to retrieve information.

TheofPhilo itself could be an interesting object of research as, once completed, it will allow a linguistic analysis of the philosophical terminology structured according to the criteria we are adopting (see § 3). For this reason we intend to carry out a parallel work on this tool, developing a linguistic and an historical-philosophical study on the collection of terms we have selected.

2. The content
The Daphnet portal, implemented within the project AGORA. Scholarly Open Access Research in European Philosophy (www.project-agora.org)23, consists of two Open Access platforms, Ancient and Modern Philosophy. The first one contains (a) the transcription of the collection of Presocratic thinkers originally edited by H. Diels and W. Kranz, with the Italian translation edited by G. Giannantoni; (b) the transcription of the Socratis et Socraticorum Reliquiae by G. Giannantoni; (c) the volume Vita e opinioni dei filosofi (the editorial collection is by R. D. Hicks, H. S. Long and M. Marcovich, the Italian translation is by M. Gigante); (d) the Opera Omniaof Sextus Empiricus (ed. by H. Mutschmann). The second platform,Modern Philosophy, gives access to a number of Latin, Italian, French and German texts which are considered representative of the philosophical thinking of the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. It includes works by Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, Giordano Bruno, René Descartes, Immanuel Kant, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, John Locke, Baruch Spinoza and Giambattista Vico. Daphnet also presents an OJS platform dedicated to secondary sources, the Daphnet Digital Library, containing a wide selection of articles published in the journal Elenchos. Rivista di studi sul pensiero antico (Bibliopolis, Napoli), in Lexicon Philosophicum. Quaderni di Terminologia filosofica e storia delle idee, and in the volumes dedicated to the proceedings of the international conferences organized by CNR-ILIESI. In addition to these critical essays, the portal presents the monograph by Emidio Spinelli, Questioni Scettiche: letture introduttive al pirronismo antico (Lithos, 2005) and the brand new online journal Lexicon Philosophicum: International Journal for the History of Texts and Ideas(www.lexicon.cnr.it).

The set of lexical items extracted from texts and multilingual philosophical dictionaries (see § 3) includes Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs and Adverbs, both monorhematic and multiword expressions. Fig. 1 shows a query’s result, namely for the French philosophical subject ‘abduction’. The software presents the interlinguistic equivalents available in the five languages implemented so far (Latin, Greek, Italian, French, and English). Fig.2 shows another example, related to the multiword expression ‘harmonie préetablie’, that is presented in TheofPhilo both as autonomous lexeme included in the alphabetical list and in the box related to its belonging terms (Fig. 3). As result, from the expression ‘harmonie préetablie’, it is possible to reach the box related to the belonging lexeme ‘harmonie’ and viceversa.


Fig. 1: Philosophical Subject ‘abduction’


Fig. 2: Philosophical Subject 'harmonie préetablie’


Fig. 3: Philosophical Subject 'harmonie’

The complexity of terminological relations -caused by the complex and often problematic interchanges between cultures and languages during the history of philosophical thought- emerges not always so plainly as in the cases just presented. Fig. 4 shows the results of the query made for ‘acte’, which presents a large variety of equivalent terms. We can manage and control the large number of terms by using MySQL technology.


Fig. 4: Philosophical Subject ‘acte’

3. Tools and procedures
The ontology456 built to represent the content, is structured according to the following four categories: Persons (philosophers, scholars); Relevant Concepts (philosophical subjects, relevant events); Relevant Subjects (geographical entities, philosophical themes, philosophical schools, quotations, titles); Sources (secondary and primary sources).

 TheofPhilo’s specific purpose is to populate the sub-category of the philosophical subjects by two typologies of relations: interlinguistic equivalence and intralinguistic semantic relations.

 From the procedural point of view, the work was carried out according to the following phases: digitization in Excel format of the multilingual entries systems lemmatized in N. Abbagnano’s Dizionario di Filosofia (Torino 1998) and in A. Lalande’s Vocabulaire technique et critique de la philosophie (Paris 1983); merging of the Greek and French philosophical subjects selected for the semantic enrichment experiments; acquisition of relevant French and Greek terminology using S. Maso’s Lingua Philosophica Graeca (Milano-Udine, 2010), in which relevant Greek philosophical terms are presented along with their Latin, Italian, English, French and German equivalents; acquisition of Latin, Italian and English equivalents. In the last phase, in order to enrich the interlinguistic equivalences, we used the following lexicographical sources: A. Bailly, Dictionnaire Grec- Français, Édition revue par L. Séchan et P. Chantraine, Paris 1950 (16th ed.); J. M. Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, Gloucester, Mass. 1960 (2nd ed.); B. Cassin, Vocabulaire Européen des Philosophie, Tours 2004; Enciclopedia filosofica, Roma 1979 (2nd ed.); L. Rocci, Vocabolario Greco-Italianο, Perugia 1993 (37th ed.); Liddell-Scott, Greek- English Lexicon, Rev. by H. S. Jones, Oxford 1968 (9th ed.); T. Sanesi, Vocabolario Italiano-Greco, Pistoia-Siena 1916 (12th ed.).

 Currently the philosophical subjects are being implemented in a relational MySQL database created and managed by Dr. Ada Russo. This technology guarantees a more efficient data management, helps to control interlinguistic relation (equivalence), and supports the acquisition of Latin, Italian and English Subjects. At present the number of terms consists of 4549 (1006 Greeks, 948 French, 909 Italian, 895 English, 791 Latin), but it will increase, we in fact intend to implement also Spanish and German philosophical terminology.

 In order to build the ontology, we have been using Pundit (http://thepund.it), a semantic web annotator created by Net7 (www.netseven.it) and employed in the semantic enrichment and semantic interlinking activities in the frame of the AGORA project. Conceived in the increasingly wider context of the semantic web technologies for encoding, managing and enriching digital object, Pundit allows to produce semantic annotations, whose semantics is machine-processable. Each annotation consists of a RDF triple, which is a statement made up of a subject (S), a predicate (P) and an object (O)8; according to this technology you could create, for example, a triple that states: “Sextus Empiricus (S) is the author of (P) Pyrrhoneae Hypotyposes (O)”.

 Among the variety of annotations, the most useful to our purposes are those implying triples which connect:

A textual fragment to a philosophical subject, such as: “The selected text fragment (S) DealsWith (P) the Greek philosophical subject to alethes (O)” (Fig. 5) or “The selected text fragment (S) Defines (P) the Greek philosophical subject ataraxia (O)” (Fig. 6). According to its project’s goals, CNR-ILIESI team preconfigured the following properties (the inverse properties in brackets):
Defines (IsDefinedBy);
IndirectlyDefines (IsIndirectlyDefinedBy);
IsAnExtensionalInstanceOf (IsExtensionallyInstantiatedBy);
IsAnIntensionalInstanceOf(IsIntensionallyInstantiatedBy);
DealsWith (IsDealtWithBy).
A philosophical subject to another philosophical subject.While the interlinguistic equivalents are already available in TheofPhilo (see §2 and related figures), the intralinguistic relations will be implemented during the next phase of our work. RDF triples will be created considering philosophical subjects both as Subject and as Object of each triple and connected by the following properties (the inverse properties in brackets):
IsSynonymOf (HasSynonym);
IsHomonymOf (HasHomonym);
IsHyperonymOf (HasHyperonym);
IsHyponymOf (HasHyponym);
IsCo-HyponymOf (HasCo-Hyponym);
IsAntonymOf (HasAntonym).

Fig. 5: Annotation Text to Subject with the RDF property DealsWith


Fig. 6: Annotation Text to Subject with the RDF property Defines

4. Conclusions
TheofPhilo is a tool still in its pilot phase and work at its implementation is in progress. However, once completed the semantic annotation activity, it will enable users to access texts dealing with the subject the query was made for, according to the specific language chosen by the user. TheofPhilo will also allow scholars to deepen their research, making queries on the texts, according to both interlinguistic and intralinguistic relations. Furthermore, TheofPhilo will be considered as a large corpus of philosophical -interweave- terms (around 5000 at present) and  it will be analysed from both linguistic and historical-philosophical approach. 

References
1. Magris, M. et al. (2002). Manuale di terminologia. Hoepli, Milano.

2. Tardella, M. (2013). Agora. Scholarly Open Access Research in European Philosophy, Blityri. Studi di storia delle idee sui segni e le lingue, II (1): 167-174.

3. Marras C. and Lamarra A. (2013). Scholarly Open Access Research in Philosophy: Limits and Horizons of a European Innovative Project, Proceedings of Digital Humanities International Conference 2013 (University of Nebraska-Lincoln 7/13-15/2013). dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-316.html (date accessed: 10/31/2013).

4. Garshol, L. M. (2004), Metadata? Thesauri? Taxonomies? Topic Maps! Making sense of it all,6. www.ontopia.net/topicmaps/materials/tm-vs-thesauri.html#N773 (date accessed: 10/31/2013).

5. Grenon P. and Smith B. (2009), Foundations of an ontology of philosophy, Synthese (2011): 185–204.5.

6. Gruber, T. R. (1993). A translation approach to portable ontology specification, Knowledge Acquisition, 5 (2):4. 199-220

7. Andrews, P. et al. (2011). A classiﬁcation of semantic annotation systems, Semantic Web Journal, 0 (2011): 1-27.7. www.semantic-web-journal.net/sites/default/files/swj123_0.pdf (date accessed: 10/31/2013).

8. Grassi, M. et al. (2013). Pundit: augmenting web contents with semantics. Literary and Linguist Computing, 288. (4): 640-659 (date accessed: 02/20/2014).","txt","2","",""
"2120","15","Topotime: Representing historical temporality","10","Topotime: Representing historical temporality
Historical analysis within any discipline depends in part upon establishing chronologies (Sewell 2005), but historical data are problematic. The spreadsheets and database systems used for representing and computing over digital chronologies do not handle vague or otherwise uncertain data well. How does one encode “for 6 months before the war,” “around 1832,” or “during harvest seasons in her youth?” And when dates for events lasting days or months are given only in years, how can we calculate contemporaneity? What if our data include both precise dates and vague date ranges with varying granularity?

To date, historical researchers and digital humanities application developers have managed temporal uncertainty in ad hoc fashion, normally with one or two date fields using the ISO-8061 standard (e.g. YYYY-MM-DD) for the Gregorian calendar—most would say with less than optimal results. Meanwhile, researchers in computer science, geographical information science, and other fields have done considerable work on some challenges in temporal representation, including uncertainty and qualitative temporal reasoning. (cf. Kauppinen et al 2010;  Holmen & Ore 2009; Crescioli, D’Andrea Niccolucci 2000; Plewe 2002). Some of those results, which often demonstrated only in small exemplars, can be brought to bear on humanists’ requirements. However, we must make explicit our desiderata for temporal representation and computation in order to make headway towards fulfilling them.

In light of this, we have initiated the Topotime project, with these initial goals: 1) a specification for computable digital representations of the kinds of temporal entities typically found in historical texts, and some relationships between them; 2) one or more graphical timeline layout programs to parse and render data written in that form; 3) software tools to facilitate the encoding process, and to transform data in two stages—converting spreadsheet exports to the flexible and human-readable data format, JSON-LD, then parsing and transforming those JSON data files into “temporal geometries” for calculations of distance, similarity, and topological relations. In this paper, we briefly outline the draft Topotime specification as it stands, and the software development progress we have made so far.

The goals as set out above are admittedly ambitious. Temporal entities found in historical texts and records include a wide range of scales and imprecision, and refer to many calendars and modes of temporal reasoning. We have begun what will be a long-term iterative process of enumerating examples  and fine-tuning a data model to handle them, written in JSON.

Two perspectives
We are approaching this work from two directions in parallel to meet requirements for both drawing timelines and for calculating temporal relations. These are not mutually exclusive and parsers for both cases have considerable overlap of functionality and comparable complexity; generalities in formal representation that are useful in both cases are emerging. For example, both parsers convert various date expressions to Julian dates for calculations. There are also distinct differences, for example between the data objects best suited for efficiently drawing time bands, dots, and arrows on a timeline, and the temporal geometries referred to earlier.

The basic elements of Topotime
A Topotime data file describes a PeriodCollection. Each Period is of a class (either Event, HistoricalPeriod, or Lifespan) and has temporal extents described by one or more typed timespans (tSpan). PeriodCollections have Projection definitions which include atom (granularity, such as day or year), origin(day zero on the reference calendar, in Gregorian date terms), and scale (used for timeline rendering). Periods must have a unique id, a source attribution, and a label for graphical display. They can also have any number of optional properties (attributes), although Topotime software does not handle these directly. A PeriodCollection can also include a set of asserted relations, both between periods and between periods and places. These are distinguished from those purely temporal relations between Period timespans, which can be calculated and may be incidental.

Timespans

Fig. 1: Timespan with fuzzy interval bounds, as a probability function. This event likely ended by D (~0.7) and certainly by G.

When describing the “when” of an occurrence we ordinarily mean that it took place either throughout some timespan, or for some time during it. Someone born in 1723 was not born for the entire year! In Topotime, a tSpan describes temporal extents and throughout is the default; some time during is noted by adding a (“during”: True) statement, and a duration, e.g. (“d”: “1d”) for a duration of a birth day. In both cases (throughout and during), date ranges describe bounds with a required start (“s”) and optional latest-start (“ls”), earliest-end (“ee”), and end (“e”). This conforms to a pattern commonly seen in graphical representations, from Joseph Priestley’s 18th century timelines to the popular Simile Timeline software[3], and the recent formalizations cited earlier. In this way, timespans can be represented as having either fixed or “fuzzy” bounds[4]. The result is a “temporal geometry” such as pictured in Figure 1. The shapes of the curves between s-ls and ee-e can be articulated more completely by adding “sls” and/or “eee” arrays, as shown, reflecting an author’s understanding of the probabilities over the course of those sub-spans. 

Time values for s, ls, ee, and e can be either a day, a month, or a year, and can be qualified by operators for “before” (<), “after” (>), and “about” (~). They can also be pointers to other Period timespans or parts thereof. For example, “>38.s” refers to “after the start of Period 38 in this collection.” Omission of a referent part (e.g. >38 or <38) is taken to mean either its end (“e”) in the first case or its “s” in the latter.

Topotime recognizes not only date ranges with fixed or fuzzy bounds, but durations, cyclical timespans (regularly recurring ranges), and multi-spans (arbitrary discontinuous spans) as well. Examples of notation for these are listed in Table 1.

Table 1 - Timespan notation in Topotime, partial listing

fixed range (throughout)	{""s"": ""1901-04-01"", ""e"": ""1963-01-12""}A lifespan: born April 1, 1901; died Jan 12, 1963
fuzzy range (throughout)	{""s"": ""1923-03-21"", ""ls"": ""1923-06-20"", ""e"": ""1930-10-01"", ""ee"": ""1930-12-31""}Employed from spring of 1923 to late 1930.
fixed range (during)	{“s”:”1934”, “during”: True, “d”: “4m”}Traveled in Spain for 4 months in 1934
fuzzy range (during)	{""s"": ""1923-03-21"", ""ls"": ""1923-06-20"", ""e"": ""1930-10-01"", ""ee"": ""1930-12-31"", “during”: True, “d”: “~6m”}Hospital stay for about 6 months during studies
cyclical	{""s"": ""1951-05-01"", ""e"": ""1999-05-01"", ""cduration"": ""18m"", ""cstep"": ""4y""}US Presidential campaign seasons in late 20th century
multi-part	[{""s"": ""1901-01-01"", ""ls"": ""1901-02-02"", ""ee"": ""1919-01-01"", ""e"": ""1920-05-05""}, {""s"": ""1931-01-01"", ""ls"": ""1935-02-02"", ""ee"": ""1961-01-01"", ""e"": "">12""}]intermittently as specified, until after Period #12
duration	{""s"": "">1"", ""duration"": ""2m""}tSpan for Period beginning after Period 1, lasting 2 months
Period relations
Meronomic (parts)

Purely temporal relationships between Periods (overlap, adjacency, containment) can be calculated from tSpans geometrically. But there are more relationships we routinely assert and represent, for example part-of. We might say, “these 18 events occurring at these times, or in this order, were part-of that larger event”—e.g. a lifespan, war, or political campaign. Another scholar’s chronology for the same composite event might include an entirely different set of sub-events. We may wish to model The Bronze Age as an historical period having spatial-temporal parts such as “Late Bronze Age Southern Levant” and “Bronze Age – Malta.” A Topotime relation consists of a subject, predicate and object (at minimum) in the following form:

{“subj”: 23, “pred”: “has-part”, “obj”: 14}

Among other things, Topotime part-of relations enable rendering sub-events within parent containers on timelines.

Time and place

Events and other occurrences are wholly bound to places. Parenthetically, we would argue that places may be best characterized by what has occurred in them. Certainly historical periods are often defined geographically, or are relevant only in particular regions. Some are equally geographic and temporal constructs, e.g. “Pre-dynastic Egypt” (4500-2950 BC), or “The Neolithic Levant.” “Song Dynasty in the Third Imperial Period” is relevant in China and neighboring places, but not elsewhere.

Furthermore, simple and complex events all have spatial extension we often want to display on a map alongside a timeline. Period locations in Topotime can be specified with a single spatial location expressed in a standardized format (GeoJSON or WKT), and with an optional name in this form:

{“subj”: 23, “pred”: “has-location”, “obj”: {“name”: “Venice“, “geom”: “POINT (45.4375, 12.3358)”, “geomType”: “WKT” }

Standards for specifying Places in data objects like these for gazetteers are now emerging, thanks to the coordinating efforts of projects like Pelagios and national historical GIS  projects Great Britain Historical GIS and the China Historical GIS.

Participation

Periods having “class”: “Lifespan” can be asserted to participate-in other kinds of periods, such as Event and HistoricalPeriod.

Looking ahead
Topotime is an open source software development project. We know that many further challenges exist for representing not simply time, but temporality in digital humanities works. Our goal has been to help initiate what will hopefully be an ongoing collaborative process with some concrete steps and functioning software. We are hopeful this work will contribute to the development of interoperable gazetteers of place and period, temporal extensions of the popular GeoJSON format, and improved capabilities for timeline visualizations.

References
Crescioli M., D’Andrea A., Niccolucci F. (2000). A GIS-based analysis of the Etruscan cemetery of Pontecagnano using fuzzy logic, in G.R. Lock (ed.), Beyond the Map: Archaeology and Spatial Technologies, Amsterdam, lOS Press, 157-179.

Holmen, J., and Ore, C. (2009). Deducing event chronology in a cultural heritage documentation system. In CAA 2009 Proceedings retrieved 29 Jul 2013 from www.edd.uio.no/artiklar/arkeologi/holmen_ore_caa2009.pdf

Kauppinen,T. Mantegari,G., Paakkarinen, P., Kuittinen,  H., Hyvonen, E., Bandini, S. (2010). Determining relevance of imprecise temporal intervals for cultural heritage information retrieval.International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 68 (2010) 549–560 

Plewe, B. (2002). The Nature of Uncertainty in Historical Geographic Information. Transactions in GIS, 6(4): 431-456.

Sewell, W. (2005). Logics of History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

dh.stanford.edu/topotime; github.com/ComputingPlace/Topotime

JavaScript Object Notation for Linked Data (json-ld.org).

www.simile-widgets.org/timeline

Note that the term “fuzzy” means indeterminate and probabilistic here; this does not correspond with its meaning in fuzzy set theory, as percent membership in a set.","txt","2","",""
"2121","15","Towards a Semantic Network of Dante's Works and Their Contextual Knowledge","9","1. Introduction
In the field of digital humanities, scholars are increasingly producing digital editions of texts and manuscripts. The representation of knowledge included in literary texts is a complex issue, requiring rich vocabularies, also called ontologies, for representing the many different aspects that are investigated by scholars. In literature, there are many ontologies that focus on different aspects of textual information but one single ontology representing all these aspects does not exist.

The “Towards a Digital Dante Encyclopedia” project is a three years Italian National Research Project, started in 2012, that aims at building a prototypical digital library endowed with services supporting scholars in creating, evolving and consulting a digital encyclopedia of Dante Alighieri and of his works. The digital library is based on a semantic representation of Dante’s works and of the knowledge embedded in them in RDF language 1, a language recommended by the Web Consortium for the representation of knowledge. In RDF, every piece of knowledge is represented as a triple (subject predicate object), and a set of triples form an RDF graph, generally called semantic network, in order to highlight the formal linguistic nature of the representation. The services being developed address several tasks carried out by the scholars building the encyclopedia, starting with the visualization of references to primary sources (i.e., other authors’ works which Dante referred to his own works), their types and their distribution both in time and in the works of Dante. The overall goal is to shed light into the cultural context in which Dante wrote his works and into the development of Dante’s reference library over time.

This part of the project is divided in several phases. The first phase regards the creation of an ontology for the knowledge embedded in scholarly commentaries to Convivio 2, the philosophical treatise which we choose as initial case study. In the second phase, the ontological model is generalized to represent the knowledge embedded in the scholarly commentaries to other Dante’s works. In the third phase, Dante’s works along with their attached commentaries are inserted into the digital library, as part of the semantic network being built. In the fourth phase, the primary sources referenced by Dante in his works, as reported by the commentaries, are inserted into the digital library, following the same semantic approach. In the last phase, services are developed, as web applications that allow scholars to browse the semantic network of Dante’s work, of primary sources, or of references linking the former to the latter. The references will be visualized in an intuitive way through tables and charts, highlighting their distribution in Dante’s work and over time.

We present the structure of the semantic network, as it currently stands and indicate how it will be further developed. Furthermore, we highlight the benefits brought by the visualization service of primary sources to scholars.

2. Ontology for the representation of convivio
In order to detect the primary sources used by Dante to write his Convivio, we relied on the most recent and updated commentary to the text, that of Gianfranco Fioravanti (Mondadori, in the press), and created an ontology for representing the relevant knowledge carried by this commentary. In particular, our ontology represents:

the passage of Dante’s text (e.g., “Sì come dice lo Filosofo nel principio della Prima Filosofia”) to which a quotation from a source refers;
the correspondent book, chapter and paragraph of Dante’s text
the author of the work referenced in the commentary (e.g., Aristotle);
the title of the work referenced in the commentary (e.g., Metaphysics);
the thematic area of the work referenced in the commentary (e.g., Aristotelianism).
In order to create an ontology for the semantic representation of the above information, we investigated several existing ontologies (e.g. CIDOC-CRM 3, FRBR 4 , FaBiO 5, SKOS 6), and we chose the classes and properties that we considered the most appropriate to represent the above information. Furthermore, we added our own classes and properties for the representation of the categories of knowledge that were not addressed by the existing ontologies. Then, we transformed the initial commentary into an RDF graph structured according to the ontology 7.

On the basis of our ontology, we are approaching the remaining phases of the “Towards a Digital Dante Encyclopedia” project. To such aim, we are using the ontology developed so far in order to represent other works of Dante (e.g. De Vulgari Eloquentia, Monarchia) as well as the knowledge carried by commentaries to them. At the same time, we are collecting the primary sources of Dante’s work in a digital format, for insertion into the semantic network underlying the digital library. Our diachronic analysis, in fact, aims at representing the evolution of Dante’s knowledge about primary sources.

3. The model population
In order to enrich our RDF graph, as we have done for Convivio, we are collecting information for other Dante’s works. In particular we are focusing on (i) the text of the work along with the attached commentaries; (ii) the primary sources referenced in the notes. We are currently storing the RDF triples generated according to our ontology both for the notes and the primary sources. We are relying on the Virtuoso [8] technology for storing and accessing large RDF graphs.

It is important to note that the works of Dante, as well as most of their primary sources, exist in some digital format. However, to the best of our knowledge, there is no semantic representation that integrates this information into a unique body of knowledge, expressed through a formal ontology. We do not expect the knowledge base that we build to give a coherent view of Dante’s works. The knowledge in it may, and in general will be incoherent and incomplete, and our ontology is flexible enough to allow both.

The creation of the semantic network is a very time-consuming and knowledge-intensive process. It requires researching the most appropriate ontologies for representing all aspects, and in several cases it requires developing a new ontology to fill the gaps of existing ones. Once the ontology is created, the works of Dante, the primary sources, and the knowledge embedded in them will have to be expressed in this ontology, and this is also a technically demanding task. But the benefits are enormous. The digital representation of the knowledge can support scholars in several conceptually simple but time-consuming tasks, allowing them to focus on the more intellectual aspects of their work. The semantic network will be usable for a wide variety of purposes, which go well beyond the specific services built by our project. It will constitute a backbone that can be enriched with other knowledge about Dante and the historical events, people, artistic movements, etc. that have come across Dante and as such contribute to form the context in which Dante’s life and art took place. In this sense, creating the semantic network is the most important achievement of our project. Our project will build only one part of this network, but will also lay the bases for the extensions and enrichments that will complete what we have started.

4. Why this unified archive will be important tu study the culture of Dante
The importance of the archive and tools described above in order to study how the culture of Dante developed in time is obvious. The fact of gathering the current information on the primary sources used by Dante in his works, and the fact of having this information available in digital format, will improve and make more efficient the research of primary sources by the scholars. Having all the information dispersed on paper books, in fact, makes impossible a systematic overview of the culture of Dante and a well-ordered perception of how it was gradually set up in time. On the contrary, the automatic visualization of data about primary resources, according to different parameters (in chronological order, or by type of source, or by author, by work, etc.), will allow to explore the dynamics of the multi-faceted culture of Dante in relation to the diverse and often conflicting stages of his biography and to study the evolution in time of Dante’s cultural background.

References
1. Manola F., Miller, E. (2004). RDF Primer. W3C Recommendation 10 February 2004. Available at: www.w3.org/TR/rdf-primer/

2. Alighieri, Dante. (1987). Convivio, a c. di P. Cudini, Milano, Garzanti

3. Doerr, M. (2003). The CIDOC CRM - an ontological approach to semantic interoperability of metadata. AI Magazine, vol. 24(3), 75-92

4. Tillett, B. (2004). What is FRBR? A conceptual model for the bibliographic universe. Library of Congress Cataloging Distribution Service, vol. 25(5), 1-8.

5. Peroni, S., and Shotton, D. (2012). FaBiO and CiTO: Ontologies for describing bibliographic resources and citations. J. Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web.

6. Alistair, M., Matthews, B., Wilson M., amd Brickley, D. (2005). SKOS Core: Simple knowledge organisation for the Web. In Proceedings of Dublin Core Conference.

7. Bartalesi, V., Meghini, C., Locuratolo, E., Versienti, L. (2013). A preliminary study on the semantic representation of the notes to Dante Alighieri's Convivio. In Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Collaborative Annotations in Shared Environment: metadata, vocabularies and techniques in the Digital Humanities (DH-CASE '13). ACM, New York, NY, USA.","txt","2","",""
"2122","15","Towards an Archaeology of Text Analysis Tools","10","How have text analysis tools in the humanities been imagined in the past? What did humanities computing developers think they were addressing with now dated technologies like punch cards, printed concordances and verbose command languages? Whether the analytic functionality is at the surface, as with Voyant Tools, or embedded at deeper levels, as with the Lucene-powered searching and browsing capabilities of the Old Bailey, the web-based text analysis tools that we use today are very different from the first tentative technologies developed by computing humanists. Following Siegfried Zieliniski's exploration of forgotten media technologies, this paper will look at three forgotten text analysis technologies and how they were introduced by their developers at the time. Specifically we will:

Discuss why is it important to recover forgotten tools and the discourse around these instruments,
Look at how punch cards were used in Roberto Busa’s Index Thomisticus project as a way of understanding data entry,
Look at Glickman’s ideas about custom card output from PRORA, as a way of recovering the importance of output,
Discuss the command language developed by John Smith for interacting with ARRAS, and
Conclude with a more general call for digital humanities archaeology. 
Zieliniski and Media Archaeology
Siegfried Zielinski, in Deep Time of the Media, argues that technology does not evolve smoothly and that we therefore need to look at periods of intense development and then look at the dead ends that get overlooked to understand the history of media technology. In particular he shows how important it is to look at technologies that are not in canonical histories as precursors to “successful” technologies, because they provide insight into the thinking at the time. A study of forgotten technologies can help us understand opportunities and challenges as they were perceived at the time and on their own terms rather than imposing our prejudices. From the 1950s until the early 1990s there was just such a period of technology development around mainframe and personal computer text analysis tools. The tools developed, the challenges they addressed, and the debates around these technologies have largely been forgotten in an age of web-mediated digital humanities. For this reason we recover three important mainframe projects that can help us understand how differently data entry, output and interaction were thought through before born- digital content, output to wall-sized screens, and interaction on a touchscreen. 

Busa and Tasman on Literary Data Processing 
The first case study we will present is about the methods that Father Busa and his collaborator Paul Tasman developed for the Index Thomisticus (Busa could hardly be considered a forgotten figure, but he's often referred to metonymically as a founder of the field, with relatively little attention paid to the specifics of his work and his collaborations). Busa, when reflecting back on the project justified his technical approach as supporting a philological method of research aimed at recapturing the way a past author used words, much as we want to recapture past development. He argued in 1980 that, “The reader should not simply attach to the words he reads the significance they have in his mind, but should try to find out what significance they had in the writer’s mind.” (Busa 1980, p. 83) Concordances could help redirect readers towards the “verbal system of an author” or how the author used words in their time and away from the temptation to interpret the text at hand using contemporary conceptual categories. Concording creates a new text that shows the verbal system, not the doctrine.

Busa’s collaborator Paul Tasman, however, presents a much more prosaic picture of their methodology that focuses on data entry using punch cards so you can actually get concordances of words. He published a paper in 1957 on “Literary Data Processing” in the IBM Journal of Research and Development that focuses on how they prepared their texts accounting for human error and other problems. Tasman writes, “It is evident, of course, that the transcription of the documents in these other fields necessitates special sets of ground rules and codes in order to provide for information retrieval, and the results will depend entirely upon the degree and refinement of coding and the variety of cross referencing desired.” (p. 256) This case study takes us back to a forgotten set of problems (representing text using punch cards) which led to more mature issues in text encoding. In the full presentation we will look closely at the data entry challenges faced by Busa’s team and how they were resolved with the card technology of the time. 

Glickman and Stallman on Printed Interfaces
The second case study we will look at is the development of the PRORA programs at the University of Toronto in the 1960s. PRORA was reviewed in the first issue of CHUM and with the publication of the Manual for the Printing of Literary Texts and Concordances by Computer by the University of Toronto Press in 1966 is one of the first academic analytical tools to be formally published in some fashion. What is particularly interesting, for our purposes, is the discussion in the Manual of how concordances might be printed. Glickman had idiosyncratic ideas about how concordances could be printed as cards for 2-ring binders so that they could be taken out and arranged on a table by users. He was combining binder technology with computing to reimagine the concordance text. Today we no longer think about output to paper as important to tools, and yet that is what the early tools were designed to do as they were not interactive. We will use this case study to recover what at the time was one of the most important features of a concording tool – how it could output something that could be published for others to use. 


Fig. 1: Example of PRORA output from the Manual

Smith and Interaction
One of the first text analysis tools designed to support interactive research was John Smith’s ARRAS. In ARRAS Smith developed a number of ideas about analysis that we now take for granted. ARRAS was interactive in the sense that it was not a batch program that you ran for output. It could generate visualizations and it was explicitly designed to be part of a multi-tasking research environment where you might be switching back and forth between analysis and word processing. Many of these ideas influenced the interactive PC concordancing tools that followed like TACT. In this paper, however, we are not going to focus on all the prescient features of ARRAS, but look at the now rather dated command language which Smith was so proud of. Almost no one uses a command language for text analysis any more; we expect our tools to have graphical user interfaces that provide affordances for direct manipulation. If you need to do something more than what Voyant, Tableau, Lucene, Gephi or Weka let you do, then you learn to program in a language like R or Python. John Smith by contrast, spent a lot of time trying to design a natural command language for ARRAS that humanists would find easy to use and this comes through in his publications on the tool (1984 & 1985). Command languages were, for a while, the way you interacted with such systems and attention to their design could make a difference. Smith tried to develop a command language that was conversational so humanists could learn to use it to explore “vast continents of literature or history or other realms of information, much as our ancestors explored new lands.” (Smith 1984, p. 31) Close commanding for distant reading. 

Conclusions
In the 2013 Busa Award lecture Willard McCarty called us to look to our history and specifically to look at the “incunabular” years before the web when humanists and artists were imagining what could be done. One challenge we face in reanimating this history is that so much of the story is in tools, standards and web sites – instruments difficult to interrogate the way we do texts. This paper looks back at one major thread of development - text analysis tools – not for the entertainment of outdated technology, but recover a way of thinking about technology. We will conclude by discussing other ways back including the need for better documentation about past tools, along the lines of what TAPoR 2.0 is supporting, and the need to preserve tools or at least a record of their usage. 

References
Busa, R. (1980). ""The Annals of Humanities Computing: The Index Thomisticus."" Computers and the Humanities. 14(2): 83-90.

Glickman, Robert Jay, and Gerrit Joseph Staalman. Manual for the Printing of Literary Texts and Concordances by Computer. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1966.

Liu, Alan. (2012) “Where is Cultural Criticism in the Digital Humanities.” In Debates in the Digital Humanities. Ed. Matthew K. Gold. University of Minnesota Press. Liu’s essay is online at <http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/part/11>.

Smith, J. B. (1978). ""Computer Criticism."" STYLE XII(4): 326-356.

Smith, J. B. (1984). ""A New Environment For Literary Analysis."" Perspectives in Computing 4(2/3): 20-31.

Smith, J. B. (1985). Arras User's Manual: TR85-036. Chapel Hill, NC, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Tasman, P. (1957). ""Literary Data Processing."" IBM Journal of Research and Development 1(3): 249-256.

Zieliniski, Siegfried. (2008) Deep Time of the Media: Toward an Archaeology of Hearing and Seeing by Technical Means. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.","txt","2","",""
"2123","15","Towards visualizing linguistic patterns of deliberation: a case study of the S21 arbitration","9","1. Introduction
This paper reports on the interdisciplinary project VisArgue which is concerned with the automatic linguistic and visual analysis of political discourse with a particular focus on the concept of deliberative communication 12345. According to the theory of deliberative argumentation, stakeholders participating in a multilog, i.e. a multi-party conversation, should justify their positions truthfully and rationally and should eventually defer to the better argument. 

Automatically measuring the deliberative quality of a multilog calls for an identification of linguistic cues that shed light on issues such as objective vs. subjective argumentation, invocation of the common good or democratic notions as part of the argument. Notions such as speaker stance, speaker belief/certainty are also immediately relevant, as is an analysis of rhetorical devices known to trigger conventional implicaturs 6. In short, a promising way of arriving at an operationalization of the indications for the deliberative quality of a multilog is a linguistic analysis of the linguistic cues present in the multilog.  

 This paper presents on-going work on analyzing strategies for argumentation via automatic means, using public data from a German arbitration. In addition to a thorough linguistic analysis of the relevant parameters, we provide a computational implementation that automatically annotates the corpus with respect to pragmatically relevant features.  This implementation combines a rule-based system that reflects deep linguistic analysis with a visual analysis system that also provides results with respect to more shallow natural language processing methods such as keyword identification, topic modeling, and standard calculations with respect to length of utterances, amount and type of turn-taking, etc.

2. Data
In Germany, the method of deliberative discourse has been increasingly applied to the resolution of large-scale public conflicts since the early 1990s. One recent well-known example is the public arbitration process on ""Stuttgart 21"" (S21), a new railway and urban development  project in the city of Stuttgart. In response to massive public criticism of the project, a public arbitration procedure was established. The data for our initial investigation are the transcribed minutes of the S21 arbitration process, which consist of nine days of sessions, each lasting for around seven hours, with a total of about 70 different speakers. The transcripts consist of spoken German conversation between mediator, experts, project supporters and opponents and are converted into an XML-readable format in order to facilitate later processing and annotation. Based on the information contained in the web transcripts, the XML trancripts are annotated with speaker information and the general topic of the session. Overall, the transcripts contain around 265.000 tokens in 1330 utterances. 

In order to arrive at a more fine-grained analysis of the discourse, all utterances have to be split up into elementary discourse units (EDUs) 7. Although there is no consensus in the literature on what EDUs are, in general, each DU is assumed to describe a single event (e.g., 8). In the case at hand, we approximate this by treating all lexical items between two punctuation marks as belonging to one DU, a method that is commonly assumed in discourse parsing.

3. Linguistic background
A central aspect of our work is a linguistically motivated operationalization of features that indicate the deliberative quality of a multilog, important parameters being the realization and the communicative function of arguments in the discourse as well as speaker stance and speaker belief. We have decided to initially focus on just two of the relevant linguistic parameters found in German: the interaction between causal discourse connectors and modal particles. 

  Causal discourse connectors (e.g., da, weil, denn, zumal 'because (of)/due to/as') generally introduce a justification of a speaker's statement (e.g., 9). These connectives and the justification they indicate can be extracted automatically. However, the precise shade and force of the argument being made, including speaker stance and speaker belief are modulated in spoken German by a heavy use of modal particles (e.g., 1011).  For instance halt or eben indicate a conventional implicature that the speaker believes the argument to refer to an immutable constraint imposed by the outside world, exemplified in (1). The particle ja in (2), in contrast, signals that the speaker assumes that the content of the argument is part of the common ground of the multilog participants.           

 

 (1) [...] weil halt      in  dem  Bereich  die   meisten   Autos   unterwegs    sind.           

 [...] as    HALT    in  Art    area      Art   most       car.Pl    underway    be.3.Pl           

 '[...] because most cars are underway in this area.' (Dr. Heiner Geissler, S21, Nov. 4th 2010)                    

 

 (2) [...]  da  Sie                  ja     gesagt           haben,       dass  [...]            

 [...]  as   Pron.2.Sg.Pol   JA    say.Past.Part   have.Inf     that     [...]             

 '[...] as you JA said that [...]' (Tanja Gönner, S21, Nov. 4th 2010)             

 

3.1. Ambiguity
Ambiguity presents a serious problem for the automatic extraction and identification of both causal connectors and modal particles. For example, especially da 'as' presents a challenge for automatic processing, because of its multi-functional usage as either the temporal or locative pronoun 'there' or as a connector meaning 'because'. However, such ambiguities can be largely resolved by taking linguistic factors such as the position of the connector, its neighboring elements and the general structure of the carrier sentence into account. In (3), we schematize the identification rule for the German causal connector da 'as'.

 

 (3) IF da not followed by verb AND

              da not preceded by a particle or another causal connector AND            

 final verb is an infinitive THEN                 

 da is a causal connector.

 

  The same procedure is followed with respect to modal particles such as eben, which can be a focus particle, a temporal adverbial meaning 'just', or a modal particle that indicates the speaker's resigned acceptance of a fact due to an immutable constraint 12. 

3.2. Inference rules
While these two dimensions are by themselves important for the interpretation of a given discourse, the additional benefit for measuring deliberation results from a combination of the two dimensions. Taking the example in (1), the inference rule in (4) yields the annotation in Figure 1.

(4) IF causal connector found AND causal connector followed by particle denoting immutable constraint THEN annotate the DU start tag with <DiscRel=""justification"" CI=""immutable_constraint""> 


Fig. 1: Annotation of example (1).

On the other hand, the rule in (5) deals with the combination of the causal connector da and the modal particle ja, rendering the annotatation of example (2) in Figure 2.         (5) IF da is used as causal connector AND                da is followed by particle denoting common ground THEN                    annotate the DU start tag with <DiscRel=""justification"" CI=""common_ground"">.


Fig. 2: Annotation of example (2).

These inferences, which perform context-sensitive linguistic annotation of discourse units, help to interpret the whole discourse and shed light on the way speakers and listeners interact, incorporating detailed linguistic knowledge about syntax and discourse pragmatics.

Despite the comparatively small corpus, it is nevertheless difficult to see overall patterns of  argumentativity at a glance, while still maintaining a detailed view on single annotations. In order to overcome this drawback, we introduce a  visualization system which encodes those annotations visually and makes the patterns more accessible. 

4. Visualizing argumentativity
The visualization of linguistic patterns has been shown to shed light on a number of phenomena, from theoretically motivated topics like phonological patterns 13 and lexical semantic change 1415 to machine learning issues with respect to clustering 16. The goal of visualizing the structure of argumentativity across the discourse is twofold: First, patterns of argumentation that have been identified through the linguistic inference rules can be analyzed in their context. Second, the distribution of arguments over the course of the conversation may reveal additional knowledge on the deliberative quality of different parts of the overall discourse.

 Figure 3 shows a visualization of parts of the S21 arbitration session on Nov. 4th 2010, each sentence occupying one line, each speaker turn contained in a grey square. The bars marked in yellow represent discourse units containing justifying statements. The tool is interactive in that the user can zoom in and out of the discourse and can investigate the relevant discourse units in detail without loosing the overall distribution. A detailed view on the data is shown in Figure 4.


Fig. 3: Visualization of justifying statements in the S21 arbitration on November 4th, 2010.


Fig. 4: Detailed visualization of justificational discourse units.

5. Summary and future work
This paper presents an approach of operationalizing the notion of deliberation using discourse connectors and modal particles in order to shed light on the way arguments are exchanged and how speakers and listeners relate to them. By using a visualization approach, the annotated data can be inspected over the whole discourse, allowing for an interpretation of the role that argumentativity plays in the arbitration. In the future, we will incorporate more linguistic cues that are relevant for deliberative communication and also deal with multiword instances that are relevant on a number of levels. With  the increasing number of annotation levels, the visualization will be extended to show the interactions between different levels, allowing for more insights into discourse structure and eventually deliberation.

Acknowledgements
We thank Mennatallah el Assady, Manuel Hotz and Rita Sevastjanova for their help with implementing the discourse visualization and the German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) for their funding under the eHumanities research grant 01UG1246.

References
1. Habermas, Jürgen. (1981). Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns. 2 Bände. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.

2. Habermas, Jürgen. (1992). Faktizität und Geltung: Beiträge zur Diskurstheorie des Rechts und des demokratischen Rechtsstaates. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.

3. Dryzek, John S. (1990). Discursive Democracy: Politics, Policy and Political Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

4. Bohman, James. (1996). Public Deliberation: Pluralism, Complexity and Democracy. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

5. Gutmann, Amy and Dennis Thompson. (1996). Democracy and Disagreement — Why moral conflict cannot be avoided in politics, and what should be done about it. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

6. Potts, Christopher. (2012). Conventional implicature and expressive content. In Claudia Maienborn, Klaus von Heusinger, and Paul Portner, eds., Semantics: An International Handbook of Natural Language Meaning, Volume 3, 2516-2536. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

7. Marcu, Daniel. (2000). The Theory and Practice of Discourse Parsing and Summarization. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press

8. Polanyi, Livia, Martin van den Berg, Chris Culy, Gian Lorenzo Thione, David Ahn. (2004). Sentential Structure and Discourse Parsing. Proceedings of the ACL2004 Workshop on Discourse Annotation.

9. Prasad, Rashmi, Nikhil Dinesh, Alan Lee, Eleni Miltsakaki, Livio Robaldo, Aravind Joshi & Bonnie Webber. (2008). The Penn Discourse Treebank 2.0. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2008). Marrackech, Morocco.

10. Zimmermann, Malte. (2011). Discourse Particles. In P. Portner, C. Maienborn und K. von Heusinger (eds.), Semantics. (Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft HSK 33.2). Berlin, Mouton de Gruyter. 2011-2038.

11. Karagjosova, Elena. (2004). The Meaning and Function of German Modal Particles. Saarbrücken Dissertations in Computational Linguistics and Language Technology.

12. Min-Jae Kwon (2005). Modalpartikeln und Satzmodus. Untersuchungen zur Syntax, Semantik und Pragmatik der deutschen Modalpartikeln. Dissertation, LMU Muenchen.

13. Mayer, Thomas, Christian Rohrdantz. (2013). PhonMatrix: Visualizing co-occurrence constraints of sounds. In Proceedings of the 51st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, pages 73-78.

14. Rohrdantz, Christian, Annette Hautli, Thomas Mayer, Miriam Butt, Daniel A. Keim and Frans Plank. (2011). Towards Tracking Semantic Change By Visual Analytics. In Proceedings of the 49th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, pages 305–310.

15. Rohrdantz, Christian, Andreas Niekler, Annette Hautli, Miriam Butt and Daniel A. Keim. (2012). Lexical Semantics and Distribution of Suffixes - A Visual Analysis. In Proceedings of the EACL 2012 Joint Workshop of LINGVIS & UNCLH, pages 7-15.

16. Lamprecht, Andreas, Annette Hautli, Christian Rohrdantz and Tina Bögel. (2013). A Visual Analytics System for Cluster Exploration. In Proceedings of the 51st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, pages 109-114.","txt","2","",""
"2124","15","Tracing Workflow of a Digital Scholar","10","This paper presents findings of an Andrew W. Mellon Foundation-funded project conducted at Penn State University in the period April 2012-June 2013. The project explored scholarly workflow of the Penn State faculty across the sciences, humanities, and social sciences, focusing on the integration of digital technologies at all stages of a research lifecycle—from collecting and analyzing data, over managing and storing research materials, to writing up and sharing research findings. The study also examined scholars’ attitudes towards the use digital technologies in their research practice, as well as the level of institutional support available to them in developing and implementing digital research skills. This paper harvests a comparative multidisciplinary perspective of our study in order to explore specificities of humanities scholars’ digital workflow, providing a ground to identify and develop a software and service architecture that supports those practices. Therefore, while focusing on current findings, the paper briefly highlights the future trajectory of our study, as well as planned next steps regarding technological initiatives aimed at addressing management of digital scholarly workflow in humanities scholarship.
The study was comprised of two research phases, each of which focused on a specific set of research questions and goals. The first phase included a web-based survey that consisted of twenty-five questions, which, in addition to demographic information, included queries about data searching, storing, citing, sharing, and archiving practices, as well as about scholars’ experiences in using digital research tools and resources. A total of 196 faculty (59% female / 41% male) completed the survey, most of them tenured faculty, with fixed-term (non-tenure track) faculty, and tenure-track faculty following. The Humanities tended to have older respondents (over 40 years of age), while the sciences and social sciences faculty skewed lower in age.
The second phase of the study included a set of face-to-face ethnographic interviews. A total of twenty-three scholars volunteered to participate in the interviews, and they were equally divided along the lines of disciplinary profiles, academic ranks, and gender: 13 were faculty in the humanities and social sciences (HSS) and 10 in the sciences; 11 were tenure-track and 12 tenured faculty; 13 were female and 10 men. The interviews were semi-structured and, on average, lasted an hour. The interviewees were audio-recorded and then transcribed by a professional transcriptionist. The interview transcripts were first coded into broader categories (nodes) by two independent coders.
We then proceeded with focused coding, where the categories into which the data were originally coded had additionally been refined for relevant patterns, themes, and topics.
The results of our study show that digital technologies have different roles and levels of integration at various phases of scholarly workflow. For instance, digital tools are actively used for finding, storing, and archiving research materials. This finding is true across disciplines, although certain disciplinary differences can be traced. For instance, while the majority of respondents across disciplines (92%) actively store research materials important to them, humanities scholars reported the highest percentage of lost and inaccessible research files; predominantly (27%), inaccessible files resulted from failing to migrate research materials from obsolete to contemporary digital formats. Similarly, while searching for information electronically is a standard, daily practice of our respondents regardless of their disciplinary background and/or level of technical proficiency, humanities scholars commonly prioritize the Penn State library catalog as their search and access points, while scholars in the sciences prioritize Google Scholar. Our results also show, however, that across disciplines, the path towards finding information commonly starts with Google Search and Google Scholar, especially for scholars engaged in discovery search, which reaffirms results of other recent studies indicating the increasing prevalence of commercial over academic services for scholars’ information search (see: Nicholas et al., 2011; Kortekaas, 2012)
The results of our study further show that, in the phases of data collecting and analysis, the use of digital technologies significantly differs across disciplines. Our respondents in the science commonly noted that their work would be impossible without digital technologies, and scholars in the social sciences indicated digital tools and methods becoming ‘a new normal’ in their data gathering and analysis practice. Contrary to this, respondents in the humanities, with a few exceptions, implied the lack of digital technology use in those phases of their research process. Parallel with this, however, they indicated awareness of digital tools and methods that could facilitate their analytical practice, suggesting the lack of available training and time as key impediments to developing literacies needed for mastering those tools.
Disciplinary differences were evident in the activities of data sharing and communication, particularly in the use of social media. With regard to data sharing, two thirds (63%) of scholars in the sciences indicated that they actively share their research data, while a nearly identical percentage of the humanities scholars (69%) indicated opposite practice. Yet we found that in addition to disciplinary differences, differences in academic standing also influence data sharing practices of our respondents, with tenure- track faculty being more protective of their data than tenured scholars. We further observed widespread use of digital technologies in scholarly communication across disciplines, with a noticeable difference being frequent social media use among the humanities scholars, and nearly non-existent use among respondents in the sciences.
Annotating and reflecting emerged as research phases where the use of digital technologies is most idiosyncratic, that is, based on scholars’ personal preferences rather than the level of technical skills or availability of digital tools. With regard to citation, the use of citation management programs was somewhat higher in the sciences than in the HSS (55 % vs. 30 %), but the overall level of digital technology use in this research activity was lower than in other phases of the research workflow.
Conceptually, our results illustrate various ways in which integration of digital tools in one phase of the research processes influences other segments of the workflow. For example, scholars’ full reorientation on electronic search and access produces an abundance of collected materials, requiring adjustments in researchers’ storing, organizing, and archiving practices. As some of our respondents observed, integration of digital tools into their search activities resulted in a complete breakdown of their systems for organizing information, developed for print-based materials. Therefore, while implementation of digital tools into one phase of the workflow might be rewarding, it might also become a challenge in other phases of the workflow. This is particularly relevant in the perspective of tool development, implying that digital research tools should be designed to support a continuous research workflow instead of separate and disconnected activities.
Our findings also suggest that in a workflow of a digital scholar technical rather than traditional methodological expertise shapes interconnectedness among phases of the workflow. In our study, greater level of workflow interconnectedness was observed among scholars in the sciences, who tend to be more technologically savvy than scholars in the humanities and social sciences. This, as well as our previously mentioned study findings, indicates a significant scope of disciplinary differences with regard to the use of digital technologies in scholarly work. Broadly conceived, these disciplinary differences can be conceptualized as inherent and acquired. As an example of inherent disciplinary differences we could understand data privacy requirements, which widely differ across disciplines and, as our findings show, significantly determine the type and level of digital technology use. Acquired differences on the other hand can be observed in a set of habits and assumptions rooted in a particular community of practice. Technical architecture of digital research tools needs to support specific disciplinary needs in ways that address both inherent and acquired disciplinary differences. Data storage and management, for instance, has been identified as a dire problem across disciplines, but with distinctive disciplinary needs.
The next phase of our study (2014-2016) will be devoted to developing a digital research tool for humanities scholarship using Zotero as a test platform, in collaboration with George Mason University. Based on the results of the first phase of our study, we will focus on unifying several phases of the research workflow, and facilitating elements such as better integration of finding and archiving into the scholar’s online path. Discovery must be better finessed for the end user, and search and retrieval should be fully integrated into an interface that also allows annotation, organization, and archiving of research materials. Also, since the loss of information among the humanities scholars is significant, there is a need to build into the research workflow easy strategies for users to self-archive their work in storage services that are inherent to the individual or the institution. Optimizations to connect the institutional repository within Zotero, as well as expose references and metadata within uploaded PDFs will be explored. 
","txt","2","",""
"2125","15","Tracking Semantic Drift in Ancient Languages: The Bible as Exemplar and Test Case","10","Language changes. On this everyone would agree. But how can we track this ever-changing phenomenon? If we focus on modern languages, the task is easier since we have native speakers whom we can ask, “How is this usage different than this other one?”  But in the case of historical languages, and especially those spoken and written millennia ago, this task becomes much more difficult. How is it possible for us to create, or at least simulate, in ourselves the language proficiency of a society that has been dead for hundreds or thousands of years? And if we cannot rely on native proficiency, how can we track systematic language change and, thus, come to a better understanding of the language and texts of any particular period. The pioneering work most closely associated with John Sinclair gives us our best answer: Trust the Text!1  We have millions of words of, e.g., Greek, ranging over a time-span of 3000 years from Homer to the present day.2 What we need are methods that can help us to harness this huge amount of information. David Bamman and Gregory Crane have already begun working in the field of historical word-sense variation in Latin.3  Relying on translation equivalents, they were able to successfully track word sense variation in Latin in a 389-million word corpus. By their own admission, however, this method has the drawback of requiring “large amounts of parallel text data”4 in translation. In contrast, the method proposed here, comparison of co-occurrence patterns in two or more corpora, which has been applied in many other fields (see below), only requires simple, plain-text input in a single language.
The first theoretical foray into computational analysis of co-occurrence patterns came in 1955 with Warren Weaver’s article “Translation.”5 Starting from the recognition that the sense of any word is ambiguous if examined in isolation, he asserts, “But if one lengthens the slit in the opaque mask, until one can see not only the central word in question, but also say N words on either side, then if N is large enough one can unambiguously decide the meaning of the central word.”6  The necessary corpora and computational power to realize Weaver’s theory, however, only came much later.  Computational analysis of co-occurrence patterns on large-scale corpora began with the COBUILD project, which set out to build “the very first dictionaries to be based completely on corpus data” and, in doing so, systematically tracked collocations, defined as “the high-frequency words native English speakers naturally use with the target word.”7  Since then, co-occurrence analysis has been used in several fields in which word-sense disambiguation is necessary, such as speech recognition,8 machine translation,9 and topic modeling,10 and it is the basis for the field of distributional semantics.11
In this paper, I will present my application of co-occurrence analysis to the problem of historical word-sense variation, what I call in my title “semantic drift.”  I have chosen to carry out these experiments using as my two corpora the Greek Old Testament (the Septuagint) and the Greek New Testament for several reasons: the texts are easily available in digital form, have been deeply researched and, thus, deeply annotated, exist in multiple translations that can be used to benchmark methods and to test results, are of great interest to millions of people around the world, and, finally, because they are the most influential texts in the history of western civilization, the research can be easily extended to other corpora and, with more difficulty, even into other contemporary languages such as Latin, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Coptic, to name just a few.  The presentation will have two primary foci: the method and exemplary results. 
The method consists of the following steps.  First, I tokenized the texts and calculated co-occurrence counts for every word in an 8-word window.12  Using these co-occurrence tables, I calculated the statistical significance of each collocate word to each node word using the log-likelihood measure as described by Manning and Schütze.13 Log-likelihood was chosen primarily because it deals very well with sparse data and can be easily interpreted without recourse to, e.g., chi-squared tables.14  The former is important because most data in language is quite sparse and I was reluctant to eliminate a large amount of my data simply because the chosen method could not deal well with it.15  Ease of interpretation was important because, instead of using the measure as a means of hypothesis testing, in which I would expect to get a yes or no answer, I used it as hypothesis weighting, i.e., to measure how much more likely one thing is than another.  My purpose is not to decide if two words certainly form a set collocation but, instead, to measure the strength of collocation, ranging from strong repulsion to strong attraction, and compare this range with the ranges of other node words to find relationships.  Having calculated the statistical significance of these relationships, I used the cosine similarity16 measure to determine the strength of relationship, first, of every word in the Old Testament with its counterpart in the New Testament (e.g., θεός (God) in the Old Testament to θεός in the New Testament) and, second, of every word in the Old Testament with every other word in the Old Testament and the same for the New Testament.  These results allow me to discover which words’ senses have changed the most (comparison of Old Testament to New Testament) and how they have changed (comparison of the words most similar to, e.g., θεός in the Old Testament with those most similar to θεός in the New Testament).

Fig. 1: Results based on the differences in cosine similarity measure between θεός (God) and the list words. Those on the left are nearer to θεός in the OT, on the right to θεός in the NT.
After relying purely on computational methods to this point, the final results of my research come through qualitative analysis of the comparisons described in the previous paragraph.  The two tables above show the 20 words most closely associated with θεός (God) in the Old Testament and the New Testament based on the differences between the cosine similarity scores in each testament between θεός (God) and the words in the list.  The colors have been added by me to highlight what I see to be related words in each list.  What we see on the left is that God in the Old Testament is more closely related to words concerning ruling (in yellow: “Solomon”, “command”, “anointed”, “Benjamin”), violence (red: “destroy utterly”, “to lay hold of”, “to drive away”, “to strike”), agriculture (brown: “field”, “cattle”), and the Exodus (green: “captivity”, “foreign”).  While in the New Testament, God is more closely related to (evil) rulers (yellow: “Satan”, “Pharisees”, “centurion”, “Pilate”), servants of God (dark purple: “Peter”, “Christ”, “apostle”, “Paul”, “disciple”), and words that relate the servants to God (light purple: “to believe”, “faith”, “gospel”, “grace”, “love”). So, by classifying the words most closely related with θεός (God) in each of the testaments, we are able to determine not only that the portrayal of God had changed from the Old Testament to the New Testament, but also to see how it changed (move from a ruler who leads and makes war to a patron who offers to and receives favors from clients) and to guess at the probable historical cause (change from an independent monarchy to a Roman province).  In the second part of this paper, salient examples, such as that described above for God, will be used to demonstrate the effectiveness of this method.
The final section of the paper will be a look forward at how this method could be extended to other corpora and even other languages, allowing us to tell the stories of language development with more precision and so, ultimately to understand historical texts better.
References

1. John McHardy Sinclair (2004). Trust the text : language, corpus and discourse. London: Routledge.
2. The Thesaurus Lingua Graece collection claims to contain 105 million words of Greek “from Homer (8 c. B.C.) to the fall of Byzantium in AD 1453 and beyond.” Thesaurus Lingua Graece. n.d. 1 November 2013. www.tlg.uci.edu.
3. David Bamman and Gregory Crane (2011). Measuring Historical Word Sense Variation.www.perseus.tufts.edu/publications/bamman-11.pdf. 30 October 2013.
4. Bamman and Crane, 1.
5. Warren Weaver (1955). Translation.www.mt-archive.info/Weaver-1949.pdf. 30 October 2013.
6. Weaver, 8.
7. www.mycobuild.com/about-cobuild.aspx
8. www.mycobuild.com/about-cobuild.aspx
9. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_translation#Disambiguation
10. Mark Steyvers and Tom Griffiths (2007). Probabilistic Topic Models.psiexp.ss.uci.edu/research/papers/SteyversGriffithsLSABookFormatted.pdf. 30 October 2013.
11. This field was pioneered especially by J.R. Firth and Zellig Harris in the 1950s. See especially Zellig S. Harris, „How Words Carry Meaning.“ 1986. Language and Information: The Bampton Lectures, Columbia University, 1986. Lecture. 1. November 2013. www.ircs.upenn.edu/zellig/3_2.mp3 and John Rupert Firth. ""A synopsis of linguistic theory 1930-1955."" Selected Papers of J.R. Firth, 1952-1959. Ed. F.R. Palmer. Harlow: Longmans, 1968. 168-205.
12. Léon, p. 14, footnote 15.
13. Christopher Manning and Hinrich Schütze (1999). Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. 172-175.
Manning and Schütze, 172. On the topic of log-likelihood and spare data, see Ted Dunning. „Accurate Methods for the Statistics of Surprise and Coincidence.“ March 1993. ACL Anthology: A Digital Archive of Research Papers in Computational Linguistics. 1. November 2013. acl.ldc.upenn.edu/J/J93/J93-1003.pdf
15. Dunning, 61.
16. Manning and Schütze, 299-303.
","txt","2","",""
"2126","15","Trading Consequences: A Case Study of Combining Text Mining & Visualisation to Facilitate Document Exploration","10","1. Introduction

This paper reports on interdisciplinary work carried out as part of Trading Consequences 1, a two-year Digging into Data project 2.  The focus of the project is to mine large quantities of historical documents, extract information on commodity trading in the nineteenth century British World and visualise the mined output in dynamic and interesting ways, thereby bringing archives alive in ways that authors of original documents would have never imagined. The Trading Consequences interface is aimed at historians studying commodities and their environmental consequences. Their studies have tended to focus on a manageable number of commodities (e.g. William Cronon's research on beef, lumber and wheat 3).  The Trading Consequences Project aims at identifying global trends in commodity trading for many different natural resources, raw materials or lightly processed goods by correlating information extracted for one commodity with that of others or showing all commodities relevant to particular locations and dates.
In this paper, we first present an overview of this collaborative project that involved environmental historians, text mining, database experts and visualization researchers. We then report on lessons learned from a workshop where we collected feedback from historians and geographers after they interacted with the interface prototype in a series of exercises. This feedback informed the further adaptation of the underlying technologies for historical research.
 
2. Trading Consequences

The Trading Consequences system encompasses three main technical components: a text mining system, a database and a web-based user interface with dynamic visualisations (Fig. 1). The data analysed using this system is comprised up of several nineteenth century British and Canadian text collections 4. These sources amount to over 11 million pages and over 7 billion analysed word tokens.

Fig. 1: System architecture.
2.1 Text Mining

The text mining (TM) tools are developed by the Language Technology Group at the University of Edinburgh. We adapted an existing pipeline built on LT-XML2 and LT-TTT2 to process historic text 5. The TM component is made up of a series of linguistic processing steps which build up the linguistic properties of the language in a given text.  A pre-processing stage includes tokenisation, sentence-splitting, part-of-speech tagging and lemmatisation to determine words and sentences, identify their syntax and compute canonical forms of word tokens. All of this information aids down-stream TM processes.  The next steps are named entity recognition and grounding. This means that mentions of locations, commodities and dates are automatically identified in the text and grounded to unique identifiers in existing knowledge databases.  We ground location mentions to GeoNames identifiers and their corresponding latitude/longitude values 6. We use an adapted version of the Edinburgh Geoparser for this geo-referencing process 7.  Commodity mentions are grounded to DBpedia 8 concepts in a semi-automatically constructed commodity lexicon developed in this project 9. Finally, date mentions are grounded to year, month and date attributes.  The last TM step identifies relations between commodity, date and location mentions to identify the relevance of commodities in space and time. The extracted and enriched TM output is stored in a relational PostGreSQL database set up and hosted by EDINA 10 for subsequent querying and visualisation.
2.2 Interactive Visualisations

The strength of information visualisation is to make abstract concepts and relations within data visible and explorable 11. In the context of Trading Consequences we aim at providing visualisations of the mined data to:
- enable open-ended explorations of the document corpus beyond target search 12, i.e., supporting visual querying along spatial, temporal, and conceptual dimensions, and
- highlighting trends within a range of document data, for instance, relations between different commodity types.
While the first approach facilitates the discovery of related documents in ways that common text-based search interfaces cannot, the second approach can lead to new insights or research questions based on collection sizes that exceed possibilities of traditional research methods in the humanities. Our visualizations are web-based to make them easily accessible worldwide (see [1]). The implementation is based on JavaScript (D3.js and jQuery) and PHP.
In this paper we briefly describe the Trading Consequences visualisation tool and how it was experienced by environmental historians as part of a workshop. Inspired by 13, our visualisation consists of three interlinked representations (Fig. 2): a map showing the geographic context in which commodities were mentioned, a vertical tag cloud showing the 50 most frequently mentioned commodities, and a bar chart representing the temporal distribution of documents within the collection. A ranked document list provides direct access to the relevant articles.

Fig. 2: Interlinked visualisations provide an overview of the document collection.
Interaction with one visualisation acts as a filtering mechanism and adjusts the data shown in the other visualisations. For instance, zooming into the map adjusts the tag cloud to only include commodities mentioned in relation to visible locations; the bar chart only shows documents that include these commodity/location mentions (Fig. 3). Particular time frames can be selected to further filter the document corpus; the other visualisations are updated accordingly (Fig. 4).

Fig. 3: Specifying the location adjusts the other visualisations.

Fig. 4: Specifying a time frame adjusts commodities and locations shown in the tag cloud and map.
Lastly, historians can specify commodities of interest, either by textual query or by selecting commodities from the tag cloud. All visualisations adjust, with the tag cloud showing commodities related to the selected ones. An additional line chart presents the frequency of mentions of selected commodities across time (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5: Specifying particular commodities of interest further adjusts the visualisation.
3. Feedback from Historians

To gain expert feedback on our approach of combining text mining with visualisations to facilitate research in environmental history, we conducted a half-day workshop where we introduced our visualisation prototype to historians. The workshop was held at the Canadian History & Environment Summer School 2013 with over 20 environmental historians participating 14. At the workshop, we asked historians to explore the visualisation tool in small groups (Fig. 6). To promote engagement with the different visualisations and to fuel discussions, the explorations were guided by a number of open-ended tasks, such as querying for commodities of interest or focusing on a geographic area. 
Some historians immediately started to focus on the Vancouver Island area where the workshop took place. Others experimented with commodities and locations related to their own research. In general, these first exploration periods were about verifying familiar facts to assess the capabilities of the visualisation and the trustworthiness of the underlying data. The historians quickly understood the general purpose and high-level functionality of the visualisations and were able to start their explorations immediately. There was some confusion, however, about lower level details. For instance, the meaning of the size and number of clusters in the map was unclear (e.g. do they represent number of documents, or number of commodity mentions?). Observing changes in the visualisations while adjusting parameters helped, but our observations highlight that clear labelling and tooltips are crucial for visualisations in the context of digital humanities, not only because these are a novel addition to traditional research methodologies, but also because they can be easily misinterpreted. The meaning of visual representations needs to be clear in order to make visualisations a valid research tool.

Fig. 6: User workshop at CHESS 2013.
Workshop participants found the meta-level overviews of the visualisations valuable as these can aggregate information about the document corpus beyond human capacity. In the short time of the workshop, historians made (sometimes surprising) discoveries that sparked their interest to conduct further research. While it is unclear if these discoveries withstand more detailed investigation (there is still some noise in the data), this shows that visualisation has the potential to support exploration and insight in the context of history research.
A large part of the discussions focussed on what kind of insights can be gathered from the visualisations. Some historians pointed out that the visualisations represent the rhetoric around commodity trading in the 19th century: they show where and when a dialogue about particular commodities took place, rather than providing information about the occurrence of commodities in certain locations. This raises the question of how we can clarify what kind of data the visualisations are based on to avoid misinterpretation.
4. Conclusion

In general, we received positive feedback about our approach of combining text mining and visualisation to help research processes in environmental history. Historians saw the largest potential in the amounts of data that can be considered for research but also in the open-ended character of the explorations that the visualisations support in contrast to common database search interfaces. Other types of visualisations were suggested to help analyse and discover relations and patterns in the data, something that we are currently developing.
Our future research will explore how our approach integrates into research processes in environmental history and how it can produce profound outcomes. This will involve controlled experiments including directed and open-ended tasks.  We will also conduct long-term studies to evaluate the discoveries and limitations that historians encounter when using our tools. The wide-ranging feedback from the workshop was crucial in helping the computer science team members understand priorities and research methodologies of environmental historians. Expert feedback is an important component of interdisciplinary research in digital humanities.
References

1. Trading Consequences: tradingconsequences.blogs.edina.ac.uk/
2. Digging Into Data: www.diggingintodata.org/
3. William Cronon (1992). Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West. W.W. Norton, New York.
4. Data collections: tradingconsequences.blogs.edina.ac.uk/about/the-corpus/
5. LT-XML2: www.ltg.ed.ac.uk/software/ltxml2; LT-TTT2: www.ltg.ed.ac.uk/software/lt-ttt2
6. GeoNames: www.geonames.org/
7. Claire Grover, Richard Tobin, Kate Byrne, Matthew Woollard, James Reid, Stuart Dunn, and Julian Ball (2010). Use of the Edinburgh Geoparser for georeferencing digitised historical collections. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A.
8. DBpedia: dbpedia.org. We accessed DBpedia via the SPARQL endpoint (dbpedia.org/OnlineAccess), most recently on 16/12/2013, corresponding to DBpedia version 3.9.
9. Ewan Klein, Beatrice Alex and Jim Clifford (2014). Bootstrapping a historical commodities lexicon with SKOS and DBpedia, In: Proceedings of the LaTeCH 2014 workshop at EACL 2014.
10. EDINA: Jisc-designated centre for digital expertise & online service delivery; edina.ac.uk/
11. Stuart K. Card, Jock D. Mackinlay, Ben Shneiderman (eds.) (1999). Readings in Information Visualization: Using Vision to Think. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, Chapter 1, pp. 1-34.
12. Gary Marchionini (2006). Exploratory search: From finding to understanding. Communications of the ACM 49, 4, 41–46.
13. Marian Dörk, Sheelagh Carpendale, Christopher Collins and Carey Williamson (2008). VisGets: Coordinated Visualizations for Web-based Information Exploration and Discovery. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, 14(6), pp. 1205-1212.
14. CHESS 2013: 70.32.75.219/2013/04/12/cfp-canadian-history-and-environment-summer-school-2013-vancouver-island/
","txt","2","",""
"2127","15","Transcribo: A Graphical Editor for Transcribing and Annotating Textual Witnesses. Preparing a Historical-Critical Edition of Arthur Schnitzler's Works.","2","Transcribo is a graphical editor for transcribing and annotating textual witnesses, which is being developed at Trier Center for Digital Humanities and Bergische Universität Wuppertal for the project Arthur Schnitzler: Digitale historisch-kritische Edition (Werke 1905–1931 . While it will be available as an independent stand-alone version, it forms the basis of the project's virtual edition platform which significantly expands its functionality.
Project and Requirements

Funded by the Nordrhein-Westfälische Akademie der Wissenschaften and collaborating with Deutsches Literaturarchiv Marbach, our long-time project aims to create a digital critical edition that makes available both printed works and Schnitzler's estate in an up-to-date and philologically dependable form.
Next to the edited text, the focus will be equally on the materiality and the genetic dimension of the work, which involves various methodological challenges. Along with the complexity and sheer size of the underlying material (> 12000 pages to transcribe) it became obvious very soon that the objectives were not to be attained with existing software solutions (being mostly optimized for the reworking of existing transcripts).
Transcribo was therefore developed from scratch for the efficient creation of large amounts of differentiated, deeply annotated transcriptions, which is reflected in its entire layout.
Transcribo: Features and Interface

The graphical user interface is centered around the digital facsimile, usually the scanned physical witness. This facsimile is duplicated, so that the original can always be viewed unobstructed, while all processing steps take place on the slightly grayed duplicate. This arrangement accommodates the use of multiple monitors and particularly saves a time-consuming jumping back and forth between the image and editor window. Thus, selections in rectangle or polygon shape can be drawn topographically precisely above the graphic and the transcribed text can be entered directly. This also simplifies, if desired, to proceed in a non-linear way and create the transcripts in any order, for instance to treat graphically related, but spatially separated locations in one step.Furthermore, an OCR (with optional image optimization such as contrast and color adjustment) is integrated for the detection of typescripts, providing a raw transcription for the editors to build upon
In doing so, it is essential that any recorded unit can be commented and that philologically and genetically relevant phenomena can be annotated in a uniform way. This is achieved by context menus with a wide and project-specific choice of options. So far, this includes different variants of corrections and changes inserted by author or editors, the labeling of unsafe readings or unidentified graphs, the marking of graphical elements or global attributes of witness and writing instruments. This selection can be extended at will and will be adapted to the textual requirements over the entire course of the project.
Also, transcribed units can be combined into sequences, whether to document comprehensive semantic or genetic correlations such as combined changes or, in case of extensive overrides and insertions, to mark the resulting textual order.
 Since each facsimile is a separate unit, no cross-page connections can be documented in the stand-alone version of the software, a shortcoming that is remedied by its connecting to a database system.

Fig. 1: Transcribing and annotating a manuscript
Transcribo and FuD: Extending the Reach

At this point, however, a basic methodological problem arises: The superposition of a semantic, genetic, and material-documentary perspective creates different levels of description which overlap and intersect. Such configurations are very cumbersome to handle by exclusively XML-based data structures or software solutions. This is one of the reasons why the developers refrained from letting the users work directly in an XML environment. Instead, the program is based on an internal data structure, the complexity of which is attenuated by the graphical interface, while the results can be exported at any time to XML/TEI.
Moreover, it allows for a seamless integration into an existing environment, the Research Network and Database System “FuD”[i].
Transferring the content into a centralized database system and associated infrastructure further expands the capabilities. The existing options for annotation can thus be extended to sequences of any size, independently of given material or logical units. Furthermore there are already proven tools for the managing of metadata and marking of related motifs. Also, auxiliary functions such as a graphematic search can be implemented: if an editor is uncertain about a specific transcription, all previously recognized graphical equivalents to a given sequence of letters can be displayed. As outlined in our last year’s contribution, further program modules are currently being developed which allow the visualization and the comparison of writing stages.
References

www.arthur-schnitzler.de (will go online on Nov. 15th, 2013).
For details, see also: dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-412.html.
Forschungsnetzwerk und Datenbanksystem: fud.uni-trier.de.","txt","2","",""
"2128","15","Transcriptional implicature: a contribution to markup semantics","10","We may see, in a TEI transcription of an old book, the lines:
 
<pb n=""[iii]""/> <p>Quaestiones, quae ad mathematicae fundamenta pertinent, etsi hisce temporibus a multis tractatae, satisfacienti solutione et adhuc carent.
 
What do they mean? How do we know what they mean? Can we model their meaning formally?
Formalizing the meaning of arbitrary natural-language utterances remains intractable today. But markup languages, being formally defined artificial languages, appear more approachable. So we may be able to explain what the <pb> and <p> elements mean, even if the sense of the Latin eludes formalization. Some propose to explicate the meaning of markup by specifying, for each construct in a markup vocabulary, a sentence schema in a natural language, with blanks to be filled in with data from the document 1; others make a similar proposal but allow sentence schemata in formal languages like first-order predicate logic as well 2. This appears straightforward, although far from trivial, for metadata 3and perhaps even for born-digital texts, but how shall the meaning of <p> be formalized in a markup language which defines it as containing a transcription of a text block in a manuscript? What does it mean for a document to be a transcription of another document? Can we formalize that?
Earlier work has explored the nature of the similarity between transcripts and their exemplars. Perhaps it consists simply in their containing the same sequence of characters? This can be formalized but proves disappointing, partly because it omits text structures like division into paragraphs and partly because it offers no way of describing disagreements among transcribers about how to read the exemplar, or which character distinctions (e.g. i/j, u/v, s/ſ) to retain and which to level. It is also wrong: few transcripts have exactly the same character sequence as their exemplar 4. Later work extends the analysis from characters to higher-level textual structures and models transcriber agreement and disagreement explicitly 5 6. (Paul Caton has built on this idea to propose pure transcriptional markup as an approach to the problems of transcription semantics 7.) By treating higher-level constructs as tokens of higher-level types and using the sentence schemata mentioned earlier, we believe one can formalize the meaning of tokens (characters, words, and XML elements like <p> and <pb> alike) in transcriptions.
Clearly, however, the meaning of tokens in a transcription depends on the transcription conventions adopted, which vary. There is hardly any universal transcription practice: for every generalization we find exceptions 8 9 1011 . Is everything in the exemplar transcribed? Not when deletions and irrelevant material are excluded. Does everything in the transcription reproduce some word or character in the exemplar? Not when line breaks are marked explicitly with vertical bars, or notes are added. Many scholarly editions account for variations like these in an explicit statement of transcription practice. Such statements typically describe ways in which practice varies from the usual practice, but rarely the ways in which it exemplifies normal practice. In any community of scholarship, some common practice is typically felt to be so obvious that it needs no mention or explanation.
One job of formalization is to make explicit practices and assumptions otherwise passed over in silence.
We propose a notion we shall call transcriptional implicature, denoting a set of rules which apply by default but which may be overridden in particular cases, analogous to the rules of conversational implicature proposed by H. P. Grice as a way of explicating the logic of everyday conversation12. The operational definition of transcriptional implicature for a given community is “the set of rules no one in the community bothers to mention explicitly”.
Different communities of transcription practice have different sets of tacit assumptions and thus different rules of transcriptional implicature. Is there a common core of transcriptional practice shared by all communities? Maybe; it's an empirical question. A serious answer would require detailed study of a wide variety of communities of practice. We postulate, however, that the transcriptional implicature of any community of practice can be described with reference to some default set of rules for transcriptional implicature.
The transcriptional practice of any given project is commonly documented by listing its deviations from the transcriptional implicature of the relevant community. If that transcriptional implicature can (as postulated) be described as a set of deviations from the default transcriptional implicature, then it follows that any project's transcription practice can be described with reference to the default transcriptional implicature, by merging the two lists of differences.
We propose to identify this hypothetical default transcriptional implicature with the rules outlined below. In the formalizations, “T” denotes a transcript, “E” its exemplar.
Adopting the extended use of the type/token distinction mentioned above, the default transcriptional implicature can be summed up in a single rule:
1. A transcript and its exemplar have the same type. Formally:
type(T) = type(E)
In interesting cases, E will have a complex type consisting of some structure of smaller types (which in turn consist of smaller ones still), instantiated by a complex token which similarly consists of smaller tokens. It is a consequence of (1) that:
2. There is a one-to-one correspondence between the tokens of a transcript and the tokens of its exemplar, such that every pair of corresponding tokens have the same type.  
Formally, this is a second-order statement, but we can approximate it using the following first-order sentence, which assumes a function tokens which maps from a document to the set of tokens contained in that document, and the relations RET (mapping from tokens(E) to tokens(T)) and RTE (the other way round).
(∀ t1 : tokens(E))    (∃1 t2 : tokens(T))      (t2 = RET(t1)) ∧ (∀ t1 : tokens(T))    (∃1 t2 :tokens(E))      (t2 = RTE(t1)) ∧ (∀ t1 : tokens(E), t2 : tokens(T))    (t2 = RET(t1) ⇔ t1 = RTE(t2)    ∧ type(t1) = type(RET(t1)))
It is easier to relate variations in transcription practices to the default transcriptional implicature if we paraphrase (2) as a conjunction of simpler rules (3) - (6):
3. For every token in the exemplar there is exactly one corresponding token in the transcript.
(∀ t1 : tokens(E)) (∃1 t2 : tokens(T)) (t2 = RTE(t1))
Applied to the example with which this document begins, this means: each token in the exemplar maps to a token in the transcript. We can infer that the sentence quoted does not contain the word non, because otherwise non would appear in the transcript.
4. For every token in the transcript there is exactly one corresponding token in the exemplar.
(∀ t1 : tokens(T)) (∃1 t2 : tokens(E)) (t2 = RET(t1))
Applied to the example: each token in the transcript maps to some token in the exemplar. We can infer that the exemplar contains some token corresponding to the word Quaestiones in the transcript.
5. The relations identified in rules (3) and (4) are inverses: that is, for every pair of tokens t1 in the exemplar and t2 in the transcript, if t2 corresponds to t1 as described in rule (3), then t1 corresponds to t2 as described in rule (4).
(∀ t1 : tokens(E), t2 : tokens(T)) (t2 = RET(t1) ⇔ t1 = RTE(t2))
6. In every pair of corresponding tokens, the two tokens are tokens of the same type.
(∀ t1 : tokens(E)) (type(t1) = type(RET(t1)))
Applied to the example: we can infer that the token in the exemplar which corresponds to the word Quaestiones in the transcript is itself a token of the same word type.
We observe that many, perhaps all, variations in transcription practice can be classified by which rule they override.
Silent expansion of abbreviations and normalization of spelling exclude some individual characters in E and T from the scope of rules (3) and (4); those rules typically still apply to words and higher-level tokens.
Expansion of abbreviations in brackets can preserve the character-level mapping, but introduces characters in T which are exceptions to rule (4), since they lack corresponding characters in E. The use of vertical bars (|) in T to record line breaks in E is also an exception to rule (4).
Omission of selected material (deleted words, additions from a second hand, ...) modifies rule (3) by identifying tokens in E which are not represented in T.
Both transcriptions which distinguish archaic allographs (i/j, u/v, s/ſ) and those which level non-graphemic distinctions obey rule (6), but they read the document with different type systems.
The principle of charity (“in cases of doubt assume E is correct”) can also be interpreted as a further elaboration of rule (6).
The full paper will explore these and further ways in which the practice of transcription can deviate from the default rules of transcriptional implicature as we proposed to define them, and show how the variations in practice can be described formally.
References

1. Marcoux, Yves (2006). A natural-language approach to modeling: Why is some XML so difficult to write? Paper given at Extreme Markup Languages, Montréal. Proceedings of Extreme Markup Languages 2006. On the Web at conferences.idealliance.org/extreme/html/2006/Marcoux01/EML2006Marcoux01.html.
2. Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., Claus Huitfeldt, and Allen Renear (2001). Meaning and interpretation of markup. Markup Languages: Theory & Practice 2.3: 215–234. On the Web at cmsmcq.com/2000/mim.html
3. Wickett, Karen M., and Allen Renear (2009). A first order theory of bibliographic objects. Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 46.1: 1–8. On the Web at onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/meet.2009.1450460378/full (subscription required).
4. Huitfeldt, Claus, and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen (2008). What is transcription? Literary & Linguistic Computing 23.3: 295-310.
5. Sperberg-McQueen, C. M.. Claus Huitfeldt, and Yves Marcoux (2009). What is transcription? Part 2. Talk given at Digital Humanities, College Park, Maryland. Slides on the Web at blackmesatech.com/2009/06/dh2009.
6. Huitfeldt, Claus, Yves Marcoux, and C. M. Sperberg-McQueen (2010). Extension of the type/token distinction to document structure. Paper presented at Balisage: The Markup Conference 2010, Montréal, Canada, August 3 - 6, 2010. In Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2010. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies, vol. 5. doi:10.4242/BalisageVol5.Huitfeldt01. On the Web at www.balisage.net/Proceedings/vol5/html/Huitfeldt01/BalisageVol5-Huitfeldt01.html.
7. Caton, Paul (2013). Pure transcriptional encoding. Paper given at Digital Humanities 2013, Lincoln, Nebraska.
8. Carter, Clarence E. Historical editing. Bulletins of the national archives, Number 7. [Washington, DC]: National Archives and Records Service, August 1952. National Archives publication number 53-4.
9. Tanselle, G. Thomas (1989). A Rationale of Textual Criticism Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 104 pp.
10. Vander Meulen, David, and G. Thomas Tanselle (1999), A system of manuscript transcription Studies in Bibliography 52: 201-212.
11. Robinson, Peter, and Elizabeth Solopova (2006), Guidelines for Transcription of the Manuscripts of The Wife of Bath's Prologue. 18 March 2006. On the Web at www.canterburytalesproject.org/pubs/transguide-MI.pdf.
12. Grice, H.P. (1975). Logic and Conversation, Syntax and Semantics, vol.3 edited by P. Cole and J. Morgan, Academic Press. Reprinted as ch.2 of his Studies in the Way of Words (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), pp. 22–40.
","txt","2","",""
"2129","15","Treasure Challenge: an archaeological video conferencing journey","9","In 2014, the British Museum's department of Learning, Volunteers and Audiences will launch an innovative video conferencing activity: “Roman Britain Treasure Challenge” developed in collaboration with the Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS) and the Department of Britain, Europe and Prehistory. This new activity will bring archaeology to life within primary schools in the United Kingdom from the British Museum's Samsung Digital Discovery Centre (SDDC)3, a dedicated facility for families and school children to utilise digital technology to enrich their visit. This collaboration between departments is the first of its kind for a digital educational activity in such a venerable institution and could open new avenues for researchers, curators and education practitioners. The activity will reach out to schools that may not have visited or be able to visit the actual site of the British Museum, thus facilitating their participation and broadening scope for interaction with audiences.
Building on the digital experience gathered through the delivery of ICT and through the use of the PAS’s innovative and award winning website; curatorial and scientific staff and the world leading SDDC’s museum educational programmes, a new activity has been formulated: Roman Britain Treasure Challenge. This schools session will be aimed at teaching Key Stage 2 children (between the ages of 7 to 11) a variety of life and ethical skills based around the amazing discovery of the Frome Hoard of 52,503 late Roman coins (Bland, Booth & Moorhead 2010) and the working of the legal processes of the Treasure Act (DCMS 1996). The Frome hoard has been acquired by Somerset Museum, and it is now partially on display in their new galleries, whilst the remainder of the hoard is still housed within the British Museum. The department of Conservation and Science’s team of conservators are working on stabilising, cleaning and providing preventative care for many of the coins, before they are returned to Somerset for display.
The Portable Antiquities Scheme has been recording small finds of archaeological discoveries in England and Wales since 1997 and its database (accessed online) has records for over 930,000 objects discovered by the general public whilst pursuing their hobbies (for example gardening, walking or metal-detecting) or going about their daily life. These Open Data provided through this system is now providing the basis for a wide variety of research (over 380 projects are now using these data) and innovative visualizations have been produced; for example see the recently released Lost Change application. The close ties between the British Museum’s departments have made it possible to collaborate on this activity. Images, raw data and video footage are combined within a predefined framework to create a structured learning environment.
The Roman Britain Treasure Challenge session begins with a discussion based around the question ‘What do you think of when you hear the word treasure?’ Typically this leads to descriptions that, for example include words such as ‘gold’ and ‘how much is it worth?’ (A phrase that is very alien to an archaeologist!) The session aims to dispel this perception, to challenge pre-conceived ideas of Treasure and impress on the young, what is archaeologically important. The session then proceeds through a very brief introduction to the fact that there is a Treasure Act (created in 1996 and replacing the old law of Treasure Trove), a legal definition of Treasure (note the capital T as Treasure is a concept) and a strict procedure that is followed to determine if a find is Treasure. In 2012, 969 cases of Treasure were reported to the British Museum’s Treasure Registrar and 26 in Wales (DCMS 2013); therefore this process is one that could conceivably be experienced by session participants in the future, if they were lucky enough to discover Treasure.
Within the session, children are given simple, but structured tasks based around the discovery process; for example choosing who will comprise the excavation team, formulating and delivering a security strategy and researching the coins to determine which period the hoard is likely to be from (using replica coins posted to the school in advance). Taking the example of choosing the excavation team further; this is part of a wider activity to choose three teams; the excavation and discovery team, protecting the artefacts team and a research and display team. The list of possible candidates include people such as the finder, an archaeologist, the PAS Finds Liaison Officer, an illustrator, conservators and the museum director. Using an information sheet and knowledge gleaned from previous discussions the children (in their own class teams) must make the decision of who to allocate to each team. Who is vital for each stage of the artefacts journey? Who must not be left behind? It is dependent on the children to use knowledge gained during the session, discussion within the group and decision making skills to ensure that best people are tasked with the care of the Frome Hoard.
The session also includes a hands-on element as part of its interactivity. The school teacher is given a choice between two activities based around the study of coins (or numismatics); they can either decipher and interpret the inscription on a paper or digital representation of a coin from the hoard or replica handling coins are sent to the school and the children have to examine them and attempt to place them on to a timeline in either date or issuer (usually an Emperor) order.
The session uses a variety of ICT equipment including a dedicated equipment trolley which has been configured with new equipment and set up uniquely for this session with the video conferencing equipment and other equipment such as a ‘visualiser’ for close up viewing of real Roman coins from the Museum’s handling collection (provenance is known for these.). The participating schools will use their own ICT equipment in either their ICT suites or within classrooms. This leads to a fully-fledged activity which will bring the archaeological process to life using presentations, audio-visuals (such as pre-recorded video using trained actors and archaeologists), replica and real coins and a trained museum educator to deliver the session. Using images that the PAS has disseminated via Flickr and also through its own database, children can take home information about museum and archaeological content to display in their school, or at home and easily query our resources in external contexts (for example one can search via post code or upon their local environs).
This paper will discuss how this activity was developed over the previous year (drawing inspiration from the National Space Centre’s educational programmes7, and further afield) with specific reference to teaching methods, curriculum suitability, equipment selection (in conjunction with the SDDC's commercial contracts that ties us to using Samsung manufactured and branded equipment), archaeological practice and the legal aspects of the Treasure Act (1996). It will show how some intrinsically complex situations are broken down for the younger audience, how some practical choices had to made to enable the activity to be executed. It will also discuss whether this initiative could be seen as a success, whether it could be replicated in other museums or archaeological facilities, whether it could be delivered to different audiences (for example with community archaeology groups or university students) and approximately how much staff time and budget was expended on development (some costs cannot be calculated as services are provided as ‘in-kind’).
This paper will also discuss how this type of session is evaluated and subsequently improved via feedback from participants (children and teachers) and observation from British Museum staff and Portable Antiquities Scheme employees. It will also show how this improvement process impacts on both staff and delivery time in a hectic term time schedule (planned months in advance.) This type of activity is a new venture for the British Museum, at the time of writing this abstract, it is not known how successful this session will have been; presenting the results will be a challenge to the authors and the proposed content will be subject to change.

References

Bland, R., Booth, A. & Moorhead T.S.N.M. (2010) “The Frome Hoard” London: British Museum Press
Department for Culture, Media & Sport (DCMS), (1996) “The Treasure Act 1996 Code of Practice (2nd Revision) England and Wales” London: HMSO
Department for Culture, Media & Sport (DCMS), (2013) “Reported Treasure Finds 2011 & 2012 Statistical Release” London: HMSO
http://www.britishmuseum.org/whats_on/events_calendar/event_detail.aspx?eventId=994&title=Roman%20Britain%20treasure%20challenge&eventType=School%20digital%20session
http://finds.org.uk
http://www.britishmuseum.org/learning/samsung_centre.aspx
http://tracemedia.co.uk/lostchange
http://flickr.com/finds
http://finds.org.uk/database
http://education.spacecentre.co.uk/virtualclassroom/video-conferencing
","txt","2","",""
"2130","15","Tuning the Word Frequency List","10","One recent trend in computational stylistics and authorship attribution has been to “tune” the word list for better results. T-tests can identify words with statistically significant differences in frequency between two authors; they remain an excellent method for one-on-one problems (Burrows 1992; McKenna and Antonia 1996; Hoover 2010). Eder and Rybicki (2011) use elegant methods to identify “sweet spots” in the word frequency spectrum by testing a range of numbers of the most frequent words (MFW). They also progressively remove words from the top of the spectrum, eliminating the function words favored by so much previous work. Personal pronouns have been removed to minimize differences in point of view and the numbers of male and female characters (Hoover 2002). The word list has been “culled” by removing words that are frequent because of high frequencies in one text (Hoover 2003, 2004; Burrows 2005). Rybicki and Eder (2011), Jockers, Witten, and Criddle (2008), and Rybicki and Heydel (2013) have culled words absent from any or many texts. Burrows’s Zeta and Iota select words consistently used by one group and avoided by another, ignoring frequency. These tuning methods vary in effectiveness with the number, size, date, genre, and language of the texts, and with the number of authors involved.
I propose here a transparently motivated form of tuning with a strong a priori plausibility: selecting unevenly distributed words, using the coefficient of variation (CoV). This dispersion measure is defined as Stdev/Ave. Freq.*100, expressed as a percentage of the average frequency. Consider the following four words, with statistics from 21 novels and short fiction by Willa Cather and Edith Wharton: 
Word Ave.  Stdev  CoV  # Texts  Rank 
magnificent  0.0034  0.0064  192%  5  3374 
longing  0.0034  0.0107  316%  5  2427 
generally  0.0036  0.0059  163%  7  2994 
father  0.0368  0.0600  163%  14  332 
Magnificent and longing both appear in 5 texts with similar average frequencies but very different Stdev, CoV, and rank: longing varies much more in frequency than does magnificent. Generally and father show that the Stdev is too closely tied to the average frequency to measure dispersion here: low-frequency words tend to have small Stdev’s. For the 21 texts above, among the 17,000 word types, only 1 of the 100 largest Stdev’s comes from a word ranking 1,000 or higher. The frequencies and Stdev’s of father are about 10 times those of generally, so both have the same CoV, which is thus a fairer measure of variability than the Stdev.
Unfortunately, simply analyzing words with the highest CoV is unworkable. The Stdev tends to be lower for less frequent words, but rare words and those occurring in a small number of texts have very large CoV’s. For the 21 texts above, 9,000 of the 17,000 word types appear in only one text and share the largest CoV (447%), regardless of their frequency. Some character names in long texts rank as low as 63rd, but 7,200 are hapax legomena. Furthermore, only 300 of the words with the 12,000 largest CoV’s appear in more than two texts. The need to identify words used fairly frequently and in many texts but with widely varying frequencies suggests combining Rybicki-style culling with the CoV in a method I call CoV Tuning. Now, some experiments. First, consider the Cather/Wharton set above, containing 3 Wharton novellas and 7 stories and 11 Cather stories. Standard cluster analysis (Ward linkage, squared Euclidean distance, standardized variables) correctly groups all texts in analyses based on 990 and 900MFW and fail at 400MFW only for Wharton’s “The Hermit and the Wild Woman.” (The seemingly peculiar choice of 990MFW arises from a limitation in my statistics program, Minitab.) All other analyses based on the 100-800MFW show at least 3 errors, including that same story.
I tuned the word list by sorting the 1,500MFW on the CoV. The words with largest CoV’s, mainly character names, appear in only one text, so I re-sorted the words on the number of texts they appear in, retained only words appearing in 7 or more texts, then re-sorted on the CoV and retained the 1,000 most variable words (MVW). Cluster analysis using CoV Tuning is very effective: all 7 analyses based on the 400-990MVW correctly group all the texts. Retaining words appearing in at least 5, 6, or 8 texts is slightly less effective. T-testing the 1,500MFW and retaining only the 352 words with p < .05 gives perfect groupings using all 352 words and decreasing numbers of them, down to the two words with the highest T value, the classic authorship pair, till and until. Thus, for two-author problems, the t-test is clearly superior. Figures 1-2 show standard and CoV Tuned analyses. 

Fig. 1: Standard, 800MFW

Fig. 2: CoV Tuned, 800MVW
Now consider some difficult multi-author problems for which t-test tuning is unavailable. First I tested a set of 43 late 19th and early 20th century novels by 15 American authors, 2-3 novels each. Errors for at least 3 authors occur in all analyses using the standard method. Using CoV Tuning retaining only words found in 34 or more texts, analyses of the 900 and 700MVW have just 1 error, and analyses of the 500, 600, 800, and 990MVW have 2. Minimums of 22 and 38 texts give weaker results. Figures 3-4 show standard and CoV Tuned analyses, respectively. 

Fig. 3: Standard, 700MFW

Fig. 4: CoV Tuned, 700MVW
Turning to a different genre and shorter texts, I tested 25 pieces of literary criticism by 14 authors, 9 authors with 2 texts each, 1 with 3 texts, and 4 with 1 text (see Hoover 2001 for details). I made this problem more difficult by dividing the texts into 33 sections of about 4,000 words. The standard method works well here, correctly grouping all sections by 12 of the 14 authors in analyses of the 600, 700, 800, and 990MFW and 13 authors at 900MFW. I used CoV Tuning on this word list using whole texts, retained words found in 7 or more texts, and then tested the 4,000-word sections. The improvement over the standard method is less dramatic here: the 600MVW succeeded for just 10 authors, the 700 for 12 authors, and the 800, 900, and 990 for 13. Minimums of 5, 6, or 8 texts are less effective. 
Finally, I assembled a set of 40 late 19th and early 20th century novels by 20 authors, 2 novels each, intentionally selecting authors and texts known to be difficult to attribute. Standard cluster analysis correctly groups the texts by only 12 of the 20 authors, from 990 to 600MFW. I used CoV tuning on the word list as above, retaining only words found in at least 28 texts. Here, CoV Tuning matches the results for the standard method for the 700 and 800MVW, but correctly groups 13 authors for the 600MVW and 14 for the 900 and 990MVW. A minimum of 33 texts is less effective. Figures 5 and 6 show standard and CoV Tuned analyses. 

Fig. 5: Standard, 700MFW

Fig. 6: CoV Tuned, 700MVW
More testing will be required to determine whether CoV Tuning gives consistently superior results on most sets of texts, and an automatic method for selecting the optimum limit to set on the minimum number of texts in each analysis is needed. However, CoV Tuning already seems to be a potentially valuable method of combining the information about word frequency that has long been the focus of authorship attribution and computational stylistics with the information about consistency of use on which recent methods like Zeta, Iota, and Full Spectrum analysis (Hoover 2013) are based. 
References

Burrows, J. F. (1992). “Not Unless You Ask Nicely: The Interpretative Nexus Between Analysis  and Information."" LLC 7 (2): 91-109.Burrows, J. F. (2005). “Who Wrote Shamela? Verifying the Authorship of a Parodic Text.” LLC 20 (4): 437-450.
Hoover, D. L. (2003). ”Statistical Stylistics and Authorship Attribution: An Empirical Investigation.”  Literary and Linguistic Computing 16(4) 2001: 421-444.Hoover, D. L. (2003). “Multivariate Analysis and the Study of Style Variation.” LLC 18(4), 2003: 341-60.
Hoover, D. L. (2004). ”Testing Burrows’s Delta.” LLC 19 (4): 453-475.
Hoover, D. L. (2010). “Authorial Style,” in Dan McIntyre and Beatrix Busse (eds), Language and Style: Essays in Honour of Mick Short, New York: Palgrave: 250-71.
Hoover, D. L. (2013). “The Full-Spectrum Text-Analysis Spreadsheet,” in Digital Humanities 2013, Lincoln, NE: Center for Digital Research in the Humanities, University of Nebraska: 226-29.
Jockers, M. L., D. M. Witten, and C. S. Criddle. (2008). “Reassessing Authorship of the Book of Mormon Using Delta and Nearest Shrunken Centroid Classification,” LLC 23 (4): 465-491.
McKenna, C. W. F., and A. Antonia. (1996). “‘A few simple words’ of Interior Monologue in Ulysses: Reconfiguring the Evidence.” LLC 11 (2): 55-66.
Rybicki, J., and M. Eder. (2011). “Deeper Delta Across Genres and Languages: Do We Really Need the Most Frequent Words?” LLC 26: 315-21.
Rybicki, J., and M. Heydel. (2013). “The Stylistics and Stylometry of Collaborative Translation: Woolf’s Night and Day in Polish,” LLC, first published online May 27, 2013. 
","txt","2","",""
"2131","15","Two Irish Birds: A Stylometric Analysis of James Joyce and Flann O'Brien","10","It has long been argued that Brian O’Nolan, operating under the pseudonym of Flann O’Brien, is a disciple of James Joyce. This paper examines the stylometric similarities between the two authors, particularly in relation to At Swim­Two­Birds and, to a lesser extent, The Hard Life, which we demonstrate are stylistically the most Joycean novels from O’Brien’s oeuvre. Emerging from a wider analysis of modernist writers (O’Sullivan, 2014), we will outline the results of a series of quantitative enquiries focused specifically on Joyce and O’Brien, before offering a number of literary interpretations.
rien’s At Swim­Two­Birds, despite considerable critical acclaim, was initially ill­received as a product of its “Joycean undertones”, commentators “tend[ing] to condemn the work as inferior imitation” (Hopper, 1995: 46). Seán Ó Faoláin remarked that the novel had “a general odour of spilt Joyce all over it”, while the New Statesman branded it as “dull” on account of its “long passages in imitation of the Joycean parody” (ibid.). Asbee, while critical of the The Hard Life, accepts that some comparisons can be drawn between it and Joyce’s collection of short stories, Dubliners (Asbee, 2001).
The relationship between O’Brien and Joyce remains a concern for scholars. Hopper argues that “O’Brien is usually lumped in with Joyce” as a result of “their historical and cultural proximity”, but that this is “an assumption which is unfair to both writers” (Hopper, 1995: 14). Stylistically, O’Brien’s novels are littered with parodic tributes to Joyce (O’Grady, 1989). Indeed, while O’Brien demonstrated “repeated efforts to escape his influence” (Dotterer, 2004: 59), “At Swim had everything in the world to do with James Joyce” (Taaffe, 2004: 253). Some critics maintain that the “omnipresence of Joyce ... was to be expected” on account of O’Nolan’s shared affiliation with University College Dublin (ibid.: 249). While Joyce may have been a “talismanic figure” at UCD (ibid.: 249), O’Brien’s Joycean parodies are not always interpreted as positive. Taaffe suggests that O’Brien’s “attitude towards the elder writer ... is equivocal, at the very least” (ibid.: 253), while McMullen argues that “At Swim­Two­Birds enters into dialogue not with James Joyce alone” (McMullen, 1993: 63). Dotterer aptly summarises this debate: “Critical comparison with Joyce has been frequent, as have analytical comparisons of their fiction, but less often has an awareness of this link to Joyce been seen as central and persistent in Brian O’Nolan’s formation of his own work. This link with James Joyce was one O’Nolan embraced, at times begrudgingly or unwillingly, but always out of some inner artistic and psychic necessity” (Dotterer, 2004: 54).
By offering a fresh appraisal based on quantitative methods, this paper identifies the specific points at which O’Brien’s Joycean parodies are most prominent, so that literary interpretations can be focused, with computational precision, on the relevant passages.
Methodology & Results

A number of multivariate stylometric methods were used in this study. Cluster Analysis provided a preliminary insight into the dataset, identifying main groupings. Since Cluster Analysis is very sensitive to the number of features (most frequent words) analysed, the next step involved generating Bootstrap Consensus Trees, or dendrograms averaging numerous single Cluster Analysis trees. We measured the 100 most frequent words, expanding this range from 100 to 1000 in intervals of 100 in order to produce a number of virtual dendrograms combined into one consensus plot. The distance measure in all the tests was derived from Burrows’s Delta (Burrows, 2002; Hoover, 2004). Finally, to identify (possible) peculiarities in sequential development of the analyzed texts, we used Rolling Delta (Rybicki et al., 2013), which forms an authorial signature based on one set of texts, and then applies that fingerprint to another text. Authorial signatures are then plotted over the text in question, with stylistic similarity indicated through proximity to the baseline. The aforementioned methods were applied using the R package “stylo” (Eder et al., 2013).
Initially, a cluster analysis was generated using a selection of English language Irish modernists. Using the 100 most frequent words, with 100% culling, it was interesting that O’Brien’s At Swim­Two­Birds clustered with Joyce’s texts:

This prompted further exploration, so the Bootstrap Consensus Tree, a more robust measure of style, was conducted. As can be seen, O’Brien’s novels continued to cluster with Joyce:

With our cluster analysis and bootstrapping confirming the common belief that O’Brien’s style was strongly influenced by Joyce, we adopted Rolling Delta (Rybicki et al., 2013) as a means of pinpointing specific passages of interest within the relevant corpora. The most significant findings are as follows:
Rolling Delta analysis, Ulysses:

Rolling Delta analysis, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

Rolling Delta analysis, Dubliners: 

As evidenced above, there are a number of places in these texts where O’Brien’s authorial signature is particularly clear. Thus, we can identify these sections as areas of a distinct crossover between the style of the two authors. O’Brien­like idiom of At Swim­Two­Birds emerges, quite strongly, in two sections of Ulysses, and in several sections of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Interestingly, The Hard Life is stylometrically similar to Dubliners throughout, consistently more so than any of Joyce’s other texts. Specific locations within the texts were identified using the following command in BASH:
awk '{for(i=N;i<M;i++) print $i}' RS= ulysses.txt
which prints everything between the Nth and Mth word in the file.
Literary Interpretations

These results contribute significantly to scholarship surrounding Joyce and O’Brien in that they offer a clear picture of where the style of both authors are most similar. Below, we will give specific focus to correlations between At Swim­Two­Birds, Ulysses and A Portrait, as well as The Hard Life and Dubliners.
At Swim­Two­Birds

Our Rolling Delta analysis demonstrates significant similarities between the style of At Swim­Two­Birds and the “Oxen of the Sun” and “Eumeaus” episodes in Ulysses. Interestingly, “Oxen” and “Eumeaus” are stylistically distinct in that they both offer parodies based on language: in “Oxen” the parody is centred around various literary figures, in “Eumeaus”, the focus is on the bourgeois. Incidentally, “Oxen” and “Eumeaus” are among the few episodes in which Stephen and Bloom appear together. Thus, two interpretations present themselves: firstly, that the results of our analysis can be attributed to O’Brien’s imitation of the Joycean parody, of which “Oxen” and “Eumeaus” are archetypal. Joyce’s exaggerated style in “Oxen” parodies the chronological progression of the English literary canon from Early English to Twentieth Century slang. Very much a Menippean satire, At Swim is intensely parodical, and like “Oxen”, draws upon a wide range of sources from “high” modernist works to correspondence with a horse racing pundit.
Alternatively, the presence of Stephen and Bloom may be accountable for the results, the product of their distinct correlation with the At Swim characters. “Oxen of the Sun” is the first episode in which Stephen and Bloom appear together, while they are also both present in “Eumaeus”. O’Brien’s unnamed protagonist in At Swim has long been considered a revival of Joyce’s artist, personified in the figure of Stephen Dedalus, hence possibly Stephen’s presence in these passages is a key. However, in both episodes, Bloom’s consciousness seems more prominent, while the earlier episodes, where Stephen features more heavily, show little proximity to O’Brien’s style. We could conclude from this that connections between the young artists in At Swim and Ulysses are more symbolic than stylistic. An exception to this finding potentially exists in the Portrait, where the style of At Swim­Two­Birds is very similar to the final sections of Joyce’s first novel, which are dominated by a maturing Stephen who appears more assured in his positions and moral development. Much has been said on the nature of Stephen’s progression from A Portrait to Ulysses; our findings would suggest that O’Brien’s student has more in common with the Stephen who is looking to “fly by those nets” (Joyce: 231) than with the Stephen we encounter in Joyce’s epic. A triad of stylometric connections emerges at this juncture. Firstly, in “Eumeaus” Joyce presents a parody of bourgeois attempts at sounding cultured. Besides, a stylistic similarity may be connected with the ironic distance with which Joyce writes Stephen in later parts of the Portrait and “Eumeaus”. Thus, from the perspective of style, we can conclude that O’Brien offers a similar treatment of the bourgeoisie in At Swim­Two­Birds. Another interpretive possibility is connected with W.B. Murphy and Skin­the­Goat Fitzharris, two storytellers in “Eumaeus”, weaving fantastic tales in rambling style, which may find parallels in At Swim. In fact, stylistic similarities between these Ulyssean episodes and O’Brien’s novel may be due to their polyphonic (in the Bakhtinian sense) texture rather than affinities between styles of particular heroes. It is hoped that a more detailed stylometric positioning of similar passages, combined with their close reading, will verify the above hypotheses.
The Hard Life

O’Brien’s tendency to present an archetypal Dublin dialect across many of his novels is another possible explanation for his close proximity to Joyce’s style. Clune argues that it was O’Brien’s Ulster Irish that “sharpened his ear for Dublin dialect” and let him “capture the precise nuances of Dublin speech. He himself claimed that Joyce had the edge on him in this, but there are those who disagree, who argue that only a non­Dubliner could have ‘caught’ his Dubliners so precisely, pinning them down ‘phrase by phrase’ as he put it himself” (Clune, 1986: 6). Indeed, “Dublin dialogue has a special relish for Brian O’Nolan”, and he praised Joyce for the “supernatural skill” which he wrote such (Mays, 1974: 246). Thus, it is perhaps unsurprising that both writers’ affection for Dublin dialect results in their styles being so similar.
While most of O’Brien novels were centred around Dublin, it is The Hard Life which is closest to Dubliners. Published 47 years after Joyce’s collection, the proximity of O’Brien’s style to that of Dubliners demonstrates that O’Brien, though not a Dubliner himself, mastered a style long dominated by Joyce. This is counter to much of the novel’s criticism, which accuses O’Brien of being the overt protégé, too conscious in his attempts at achieving the ideal Joycean parody. Asbee suggests that comparisons between The Hard Life and Joyce’s work is “almost insulting” (Asbee, 2001). While O’Brien may be charged with repeated imitation of Joyce, our analysis illustrates, and this paper will discuss in the context of stylometry, why, in some instances, he cannot be dismissed as having failed in his attempts.
References

Asbee, S. (2001). Flann O'Brien. Boston: Twayne Publishers.
Burrows, J. (2002). ‘Delta’: a measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 17(3): 267–87.
Clune, A. (1986). Flann O’Brien: twenty years on. The Linen Hall Review, 3(2): 4–7.
Dotterer, R. L. (2004). Flann O’Brien, JamesJoyce, and ‘The Dalkey Archive’. New Hibernia Review / Iris Éireannach Nua, 8(2): 54–63.
Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J. (2013). Sylometry with R: a suite of tools. In: Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts. Lincoln (NE): University of Nebraska­Lincoln, pp. 487–89.
Hoover, D. L. (2004). Testing Burrows’s delta. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19(4): 453–75.
Hopper, K. (1995). Flann O’Brien: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Post­modernist. Cork: Cork University Press.
Joyce, J. (1996). A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. London: Penguin Books.
Mays, J. C. C. (1974). Brian O’Nolan and Joyce on art and on life. James Joyce Quarterly, 11(3): 238–56.
McMullen, K. (1993). Culture as colloquy: Flann O’Brien’s postmodern dialogue with Irish tradition. Novel: A Forum on Fiction 27(1): 62–84.
O’Grady, T. B. (1989). High Anxiety: Flann O’Brien’s Portrait of the Artist. Studies in the Novel, 21(2): 200­208.
O’Sullivan, J. (2014). Modernist frequencies: A computational stylistics approach to national Modernisms. In: MLA 2014: Conference Proceedings. Chicago, forthcoming.
Rybicki, J., Kestemont, M. and Hoover, D. L. (2013). Collaborative authorship: Conrad, Ford and rolling delta. In: Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts. Lincoln (NE): University of Nebraska­Lincoln, pp. 368–71.
Taaffe, C. (2004). ‘Tell me this, do you ever open a book at all?’: portraits of the reader in Brain O’Nolan’s ‘At Swim­Two­Birds’. Irish University Review, 34(2): 247–60.","txt","2","",""
"2132","15","Two new tools for multimodal editions","9","1. Introduction

From the earliest e-Text centers at Oxford1 and the University of Virginia 2, through the development of the TEI in the late 1980s3, to the publication of image-based editions in projects like The William Blake Archive 4, digital editing projects have long been a core activity of the Digital Humanities. Until very recently, though, the limitations of reliably available technology and complicated intellectual property laws have kept all but the most adventurous editors from venturing beyond the media of text and image to multimodal editions that incorporated video and audio recordings. Over the past year, however, the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts has released two new digital editing projects: an online tool for producing editions of dance video and a mobile app for publishing multimodal, variorum editions of musical theater libretti. This paper will examine both projects and what they imply for the future of critical edition building in the 21st century.
2. Antecedents

Although most digital editions produced by digital humanities scholars have presented only text and image, over the past two decades, a few pioneers attempted to produce multimodal texts of various kinds. In the 1993s the Voyager Company produced a series of Hypercard and CD-ROM based multimodal editions (such as a Companion to Beethoven’s 9th Symphony) 5. A 2002 project led by Janet Murray produced a critical digital edition of the film, Casablanca 6.  More recently, the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities, Music Theatre Online, produced with an NEH Digital Humanities Startup grant by the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities, linked several libretti of the 2008 musical Glory Days to mp3 files from live performances7.  Although each was an interesting experiment that advanced the field of digital editing, the Voyager CD-ROMs were never financially successful 8 , copyright restrictions prevented the widespread release of Murray's Casablanca edition, and Music Theater Online never found a large audience.
Over the last five years, though, several new technologies have emerged which have made the production and dissemination of multimodal editions much easier. The now widely adopted, video-and-audio-friendly HTML 5 specification and code libraries like Popcorn.js have made it much easier to embed and control audio and moving image recordings on web pages without relying on external plugins like Adobe's Flash or Microsoft's Shockwave. Cloud-based streaming services with public APIs such as Rdio9 and YouTube10 allow digital editors to make use of content hosted by third parties (making rights clearance less of a concern). Further, the ever accelerating migration of users from desktops and laptops to mobile devices and their app-based ecosystem makes it possible to publish these editions on hardware that has become a comfortable technology for long-form reading (thereby overcoming some of the ergonomic obstacles that prevented wide-spread adoption of many earlier digital editions).
3. Our projects


Fig. 1: Two video synchronized and shown together

Fig. 2: The editing environment
In October of 2013, the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts released a collection of over 1000 hours of video of dance performance via a new web-based collections portal. In addition, we released a web-based video editor, based on the JavaScript library Popcorn.js, which allows users to synchronize different videos of the same event (or work) together to be watched side-by-side (thereby creating a kind of multimodal variorum edition) [see figure A].  The tool also allows segments of multiple videos from various sources (e.g. NYPL Archives and YouTube) to be edited together into a playlist and annotated (either with text or additional videos) to create a video critical edition [see figure B]. The individual elements of any ""edition"" created with this tool will only be played in locations where rights agreements allow (for instance, in one of the 88 branches of New York Public Library), but any publicly viewable content and textual annotations can be seen anywhere in the world.

Fig. 3: Libretto: The Android App
In February of 2014, the Library will also release an NEH-funded eBook app (provisionally titled Libretto) for Android operating systems capable of presenting variorum editions of texts linked to audio recordings. Readers will be able to switch among variant versions of the same text, and (through an implementation of the new ePub 3.0 ebook standard) click portions of the text to hear associated audio (e.g. music associated with lyrics in an opera libretto) [see figure C].  In most cases, the music should be bundled with the text, but, in cases where obtaining a license to redistribute the music proves impossible, the editor may link the reader to an online store (such as Amazon.com) to purchase recordings which will automatically be synched to the text based on timestamps included in the editorial metadata.
4. Analysis

It is our hypothesis that scholarly users of the multimodal editions created for these environments will find the multichannel approach we have taken useful. However, relatively little research has been done in exactly this context. The Voyager company's CD-ROMS and the Casablanca edition were similar, but designed only for desktops and optical media, and so represented a different experience than we hope to provide with both our mobile eBook reader and the web-based video editor. However, by July, the video editing tool will have be public for nine months and Android app will have been public for about five.  During this period we will track usage of both, and in this short paper will report on the response of both editors and “readers” of these new tools for multimodal editions and what it suggests for the scholarly editors of the future.
References

1. IT Services, 13 Banbury Road. The University of Oxford Text Archive. Text. ota.ahds.ac.uk/Web. 28 Oct. 2013.
2. About The Etext Center | University of Virginia Library Digital Curation Services.www.digitalcurationservices.org/digital-stewardship-services/etext Web. 28 Oct. 2013.
3. TEI guidelines. www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/P5/.
4. The William Blake Archive Homepage.www.blakearchive.org/blake/ Web. 28 Oct. 2013.
5. Brown, Geoffrey. Developing Virtual CD-ROM Collections: The Voyager Company Publications. International Journal of Digital Curation 7.2 (2012): 3–20. www.ijdc.net. Web. 28 Oct. 2013.
6. Here’s Looking at Casablanca. National Endowment for the Humanities. Accessed October 28, 2013. www.neh.gov/humanities/2005/septemberoctober/feature/here%E2%80%99s-looking-casablanca.
7. Music Theatre Online.mith.umd.edu/mto Web. 28 Oct. 2013.
8. Reid, Calvin. Voyager Shakeup: In Wake of Stein’s Exit, It’s up for Grabs. Publishers Weekly, November 18, 1996. General OneFile.
9. Rdio - Welcome to the Rdio API. Accessed October 28, 2013. developer.rdio.com.
10. YouTube JavaScript Player API Reference - YouTube — Google Developers. Accessed October 28, 2013. developers.google.com/youtube/js_api_reference.
","txt","2","",""
"2133","15","Uncertain about Uncertainty: Different ways of processing fuzziness in digital humanities data","9","1 Introduction

The GeoBib project is constructing a georeferenced online bibliography of early Holocaust and camp literature published between 1933 and 1949 (Entrup et al. 2013a). Our immediate objectives include identifying the texts of interest in the first place, composing abstracts for them, researching their history, and annotating relevant places and times. Relations between persons, texts, and places will be visualized using digital maps and GIS software as an integral part of the resulting GeoBib information portal.
The combination of diverse data from varying sources not only enriches our knowledge of these otherwise mostly forgotten texts; it also confronts us with vague, uncertain or even conflicting information. This situation yields challenges for all researchers involved – historians, literary scholars, geographers and computer scientists alike. While the project operates at the intersection of historical and literary studies, the involved computer scientists are in charge of providing a working environment (Entrup et al. 2013b) and processing the collected information in a way that is formalized yet capable of dealing with inevitable vagueness, uncertainty and contradictions. In this paper we focus on the problems and opportunities of encoding and processing fuzzy data.
2 The uncertainty about uncertainty: How to model and represent it

The data collected in our project concerns such different entities as texts, persons and places and is compiled from different sources and different scholarly perspectives. The project is entirely interdisciplinary: besides literary scholars and historians, also geographers and computer scientists are involved. Students and researchers from literary and historical studies are our target audience for whom the resulting online platform shall provide an attractive research tool. Hence, the collected data does not only lie in the intersection of research interests of these fields, but extends to the sum of these interests. The platform is supposed to help answer questions that arise in the field of literature, e.g. finding texts concerned with certain places in a given time period, but also to support historians in finding possible eye witness reports of the crimes of Nazi Germany. Accordingly, information of various kinds is collected with the intention of supporting such diverse use cases. The different scholarly perspectives also determine the amount and kind of data we collect, and their information needs can hardly be covered by a single formalism or predefined ontology. We need a flexible yet coherent formalization that is adaptable to our objectives.
Our workflow and approach to collecting data is one of divide et impera: Instead of proposing one format that does it all, we distinguish between different kinds of information depending on the entities concerned. Information collected on the authors of the holocaust texts and relevant places is stored in a user friendly MediaWiki system, while information on these texts is stored in TEI/XML files. Both systems are interconnected and geographical references are integrated as well (cf. Entrup et al. 2013b). The resulting information portal will be backed by an object-relational database.
2.1 Persons and places: Capturing FUZZY information in a Wiki System

Within the field of prosopography the combination of different, possibly contradicting sources is a well-known problem. Pasin and Bradley (2013) offered insights on how such alternative views on historical events could be described using an underlying ontology. Software libraries intended to support processing of prosopographic data are also being developed (e.g. Barabucci and Zingoni, 2013). The GeoBib project collects information and short biographies of authors – a task that bears resemblance to prosopographic research. Many of those authors only published one text. Researching their personal information often leads to ambiguous results, such as different names used, differing information on birth or death dates as well as other personal data.
We extended the MediaWiki system that we use to collect information on persons and places with a set of templates that help to ensure that such information is added in a coherent way, while allowing the data to be vague or apparently contradictory. The Wiki allows the editors to add uncertain information into proposed fields, so that, for instance, different names can be added to one person. Furthermore, the short biographical texts we compose for most of the authors can be used to communicate dissent between different sources.
2.2 TEI/XML: Encoding uncertainty in literary annotations 

Literary texts, and as such especially autobiographies and memoires, are not collections of historical facts arranged in an exact chronology. Especially the early Holocaust texts are emotionalizing (cf. Feuchert, 2012, Hickethier 1986) and “conveying the experience made with the National Socialist terror system in a literary, or better, literarised way” (Feuchert, 2012, p. 218). But even apparently factual accounts of events carry a certain degree of vagueness, which leads both historians and literary scholars to interesting research questions, and poses a challenge for data modeling and database design.
Vagueness already occurs when collecting formal metadata. For each holocaust text under consideration we try to identify the first published edition. Yet looking at some more widely known texts of that era, we find multiple editions that differ in such basic information as publisher, year of publication, editor, or even the title. Such phenomena are familiar to those concerned with bibliographic information. Special care is required when formalizing such inconsistent data. In our collection of TEI/XML files, every single edition is represented by one XML file. These files contain the bibliographic information in the TEI header, and they are linked to the corresponding other editions.
TEI provides the @cert attribute for indicating (un)certainty of information given in an XML node. While this strategy allows us to indicate possible vagueness in a machine-readable way, we also need to find ways of communicating this uncertainty to the human user of our information portal. For that purpose, uncertainty regarding the plot or the history of reception of a literary work is captured in literary annotations, i.e. running text, which is an effective and straight-forward way of communicating uncertainty to human readers. In this context, we also allow adding <note> elements to be used by our editors for supplying small texts that will be presented to the user describing the kind of uncertainty involved (cf. Bradley and Short, 2005). The combined use of both elements allows conveying uncertainty to the human user while keeping it encoded in a machine-readable (or machine-traceable) way.
2.3 Modeling Uncertainty in a Database

The GeoBib information portal will rest on a PostgreSQL database (Scherbaum 2009) [4], where we use object relations for the description of certainty and note elements. Our first example represents a person (see Figure 1a). There are three different names associated with the entity: a birth name, the name after her wedding, and a pseudonym.

Fig. 1: Exemplary database entries for a person : a) person entity model

Fig. 2: Exemplary database entries for a person : b) simplified perso object

Fig. 3: Exemplary database entries for a person : c) related alternative/additional information
While a person entity has certain fields that can be filled in (see Fig. 1b), we use object relations (Fig. 1c) to add alternative information and related values of certainty and/or a note.
The second example describes a literary work with an uncertain year of publication. A relational database would require intermediate tables for all attributes of one entity, which may have uncertainties and/or notes attached (cf. Bradley and Short, 2005). In an object relational database using one special entity is sufficient in such a case.

Fig. 4: Work entity and related certainty field ""pub_date""
As shown in Fig. 2, the table includes the object ID, the table name, the relevant column name, and the alternative content. Each dataset may contain a certainty attribute and/or a note. The certainty field is defined, in accordance with TEI, as either {high, medium, low, unknown} and the note field is a text that will be presented to the user and is meant to explain the uncertainty[6]. In the example above (Fig. 2) a year of publication is given but its certainty is marked as “low”. Such relations can be added for every field of every entity in the database.
3 Discussion and Outlook: Surely more uncertainty

We have just presented our approach of encoding uncertainty in our database. Such information can be used, for instance, to rank search results or to increase recall on certain queries and parameter settings. But we still see more challenges ahead: The encoded uncertainty has to be communicated effectively to the human user. Accordingly, the visualization of uncertainty, and especially the presentation of search results based on uncertain or divergent information will be among our next concerns. A similar problem of visualizing uncertainty arises in the forthcoming georeferencing and geotagging: Literary texts are no geographical maps. They constitute themselves in their geographical space but might encode this information in a way hard to decipher (cf. Reuschel et al., 2013). Fictional place names can sometimes be identified with actual places on a map, but sometimes it is impossible to do so. Geographical locations may be referred to by metaphors, old or forgotten names, local identifiers or nicknames. Such informal references frequently remain geographically imprecise and require interpretation (cf. Hill, 2006, p. 28f). The textual material that our editors provide could also be used to test and improve automatic methods of geographical relation extraction (e.g. Blessing and Schütze, 2010). Still, automatic georesolving is hindered by the limited (historical) coverage of contemporary gazetteers, spelling changes and changing administrative boundaries (Tobin et al., 2010, p. 8). Such limitations also pertain to prisons and camps, those places of high interest in our domain, whose exact geographical locations have to be reconstructed manually before adding them to our databases.  
4 Acknowledgements

Funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, BMBF) from July 2012 to June 2015 (FKZ: 01UG1238A-B).
References

Barabucci, Gioele and Jacopo Zingoni (2013). PROSO: prosopographic records. In: Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Collaborative Annotations in Shared Environments: metadata, vocabularies and techniques in the Digital Humanities, DH CASE ’13. September 10 2013, Florence, Italy <doi:10.1145/2517978.2517982>
Blessing, Andre and Hinrich Schütze (2010). Self-annotation for fine-grained geospatial relation extraction. In: Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Computational Linguistics pp. 80-88. dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1873781.1873791
Bradley, John, and Harold Short (2005). Texts into Databases: The Evolving Field of New-Style Prosopography. In: Literary and Linguistic Computing, 20 (2005), 3–24 <doi:10.1093/llc/fqi022>
Entrup, Bastian, Maja Bärenfänger, Frank Binder and Henning Lobin(2013a): Introducing GeoBib: An Annotated and Geo-referenced Online Bibliography of Early German and Polish Holocaust and Camp Literature (1933–1949). Digital Humanities 2013, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, 16-19 July 2013. dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-229.html
Entrup, Bastian, Frank Binder and Henning Lobin (2013b): Extending the possibilities for collaborative work with TEI/XML through the usage of a wiki-system. In: Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Collaborative Annotations in Shared Environments: metadata, vocabularies and techniques in the Digital Humanities, DH CASE ’13. September 10 2013, Florence, Italy. <doi:10.1145/2517978.2517988>.
Feuchert, Sascha (2012). Fundstücke: Bemerkungen zu Darstellungskonventionen und paratextuellen Präsentationsformen früher Texte deutschsprachiger Holocaustliteratur. In: Günter Butzer / Joachim Jacob (Hg.): Berührungen. Komparatistische Perspektiven auf die frühe deutsche Nachkriegsliteratur. München: Wilhelm Fink 2012, pp. 217-230.
Hickethier, Knut (2006). Biographie, Autobiographie, Memoirenliteratur. In Ludwig Fischer (eds), Literatur in der Bundesrepublik bis 1967. München 1986, pp. 574–584.
Hill, Linda L. (2006). Georeferencing. The Geographic Associations of Information, Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Pasin, Michele, John Bradley (2013). Factoid-based Prosopography and Computer Ontologies: towards an integrated approach. In: Literary and Linguistic Computing (2013). <doi:10.1093/llc/fqt037>
Reuschel, Anne-Kathrin, Barbara Piatti and Lorenz Hurni (2013). Modelling Uncertain Geodata for the Literary Atlas of Europe. In: K. Kritz et al. (eds.) Understanding Different Geographies. Lecture Notes in Geoinformation and Cartography, <doi:10.1007/978-3-642-29770-0_11>
Scherbaum, Andreas (2009). PostgreSQL – Datanbankpraxis für Anwender, Administratoren und Entwickler. Open Source Press. München, 2009.
Tobin, Richard, Claire Grover, Kate Byrne, James Reid and Jo Walsh (2010). Evaluation of georeferencing. In: Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Geographic Information Retrieval, GIR '10, Zurich, Switzerland, <doi:10.1145/1722080.1722089>
As of December 2013 the GeoBib project has identified and collected bibliographical information on 670 texts of early Holocaust and camp literature and produced 130 annotation documents so far. These include references to 620 authors, 550 locations, 230 camps and 45 ghettos.
See for instance svario.it/factoid
German original: „Bereits seit 1933 sind, vor allem im Ausland, Texte erschienen, die Erfahrungen mit dem nationalsozialistischen Terrorsystem literarisch oder besser: literarisiert vermitteln“ (Feuchert, 2012, p. 218)
http://www.postgresql.org/about/
We do not use the PostgreSQL entity parameter “WITH OIDS”, because of the high memory requirements (cf. Scherbaum 2009, p. 161f). Our OID (object identifiers) are composed of the entity id and name. 
Alternatively, the note field could also contain additional information.
","txt","2","",""
"2134","15","Unhappy? There's an App for That: Digital Happiness, Data Mining, and Networks of Well-Being","10","The content of well-being and the means for increasing it, at both individual and societal levels, are fundamentally utopian concerns. Consequently, positive psychology, the science of human flourishing, is an essentially utopian project: it intervenes in what it considers an unsatisfactory present and attempts to create (and educate for) something better. Its explicitly activist and pragmatic agendas recently have been bolstered by the explosion of research into what I term “digital happiness.” In his 2011 book Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-Being, leading positive psychologist Martin Seligman briefly outlines “positive computing” as using technological means and methods (such as data mining, social networking, and personalized apps) to “go beyond the slow progress in positive education to disseminate flourishing massively” (94).1 Digital happiness proponents have taken up this call fervently, and positive psychologists, data analysts, coders, and policy makers regularly invoke the utopian possibilities of both technology and happiness as they collaborate for salvation on a grand scale: the H(app)athon Project hacks happiness in order to “save the world”2; video gamers and virtual reality developers (in Jane McGonigal’s words) create their products to “change the world”3; computer scientists offer their “Hedonometer” to measure, and therefore “improve or understand” well-being more completely;4 and the newly launched social network “Happier” will help “you feel freaking awesome.”5
Digital happiness initiatives are a fascinating site of inquiry because they combine the close reading and personal tracking aspects of the the quantified self movement with the large scale data mining, aggregating, and visualization efforts associated with the digital humanities, “distant reading” (Moretti),6 and “network sense” (Mueller).7 Fueled by algorithms for happiness and subjecting qualitative phenomena to quantitative analysis (in ways reminiscent of Jeremy Bentham’s “felicific calculus” and the “mathematically infallible happiness” in Yevgeny Zamyatin’s classic dystopian novel, We8), these initiatives track and triangulate individual internal emotional states, networked virtual data and connections, and real social relations and policies. In this paper, I first provide an overview of these varied attempts to assess and maximize well-being using big data, sentiment analysis, crowdsourcing, social networking, the quantified self, and biometrics, positioning their rhetoric and ideology within the larger discourses of self-help, positive psychology and utopian studies. I then critically interrogate these projects’ utopian aspirations, analyzing their aims and methods for instantiating different ways of being and living, of creating both the happy individual and the good society in the image of (and from the) raw data of individuals’ emotions.
I ask what digital happiness methods, tools, applications, and findings teach us about what we should desire (and not desire), what we should value (and not value), what type of people we should be (and not be), and what type of actions we should take (and not take). Throughout the paper, I am in dialogue with Sara Ahmed’s notion of happiness as performative and normative in The Promise of Happiness(2010), and I highlight “not only what makes happiness good but how happiness participates in making things good” (13) and how “happiness shapes what coheres as a world” (2).9  In doing so, I not only critique digital happiness initiatives on an ideological level but also on technical and methodological levels. In particular, I interrogate happiness/well-being apps' use of both active and passive data to fuel their algorithms; the methods of quantification, semantic analysis, and natural language processing in studies using social media to assess/analyze/improve happiness, well-being, and life satisfaction; how people interact with the technology that is tracking their happiness, and how these users often skew their responses in public, networked settings in order to present versions of their best selves to others. Ahmed has argued that happiness's methods of self-reporting “both presumes the transparency of self-feeling (that we can say and know how we feel), as well as the unmotivated and uncomplicated nature of self-reporting. If happiness is already understood to be what you want to have, then to be asked how happy you are is not to be asked a neutral question” (5). In addition to this problem, already embedded within the positive psychology methodology, digital happiness assumes the transparency and translatability of language/texts and affect/emotions, and undertheorizes how the dynamics of a digital networked space change the way we communicate and connect with others. Digital happiness proponents advocate their work as contributing to the creation of a more utopian future, and argue it is democratic because it is tracking raw data from the people themselves. But the questions of what raw data is assessed and who determines the metrics raise crucial questions about the type of vision these digital happiness experts put forth. 
This paper also contextualizes my work on “digital happiness” within the larger discourses of both the self-help genre and positive psychology, and demonstrates how digital happiness showcases the competing tensions of individual improvement and social justice, apolitical progress and politically engaged action, and descriptive reporting and prescriptive advice in both. In doing so, I highlight positive psychology’s “discursive and political labor” (Yen 76).10  Particularly troubling is positive psychology’s conceptualization of its own politics and pedagogy, which teach us to be certain types of people in pursuit of the good life without consideration that its notion of the “good” is not morally universal but inextricably bound to the discipline’s ideological assumptions, cultural contexts (in particular, American individualism), and a particular interpretation of what is “positive,” valuable, and desirable. 
I argue that, while digital happiness research’s use of big data and crowdsourcing partially tempers the rampant individualism that dominates positive psychology’s vision of the good life, its notions of the quantified self glorify the desirability of self-monitoring, normalcy, and discipline in the Focualdian sense, which is a hallmark of much of the self-help genre (and positive psychology more generally). Self-help “render[s] social relations of power invisible and non-negotiable” and “counsels subjects to sculpt a meaningful life without addressing or questioning the horizon of social relations and the contexts of social power” (Rimke 65). Instead of serving as outlets for potential change, “[p]ractices of self-help are thus connected to the management and government of populations” (Rimke 72).11 Similarly, self-help catches its users “a cycle of seeking individual solutions to problems that are social, economic, and political in origin” (McGee 177).12 Therefore, its aggregated view of subjective well-being still sidesteps the important work of defining the ideological content/function of happiness and addressing its role in maintaining structural inequality. 
This paper argues that positive psychology and, by extension, many digital happiness projects that are built on its values/methods, is inherently conservative, in the sense that it does not actively encourage radical possibility and transformation. While it is useful to identify and nurture the strengths that we already have, to reflect on experiences and create a positive meaning/communicate a positive message for them, and to derive satisfaction and pleasure from our activities/connections, these techniques run the risk of functioning remedially and driving us to become more complacent with “what is.” This limiting of possibility is one of the most troubling aspects of positive psychology’s work. As Levitas (2013) reminds us, the refusal to limit possibility is an essential part of the utopian project: “Utopia also entails refusal, the refusal to accept that what is given is enough. It embodies the refusal to accept that living beyond the present is delusional, the refusal to take a face value current judgements of the good or claims that there is no alternative” (17).13
I enact this utopian “refusal,” by arguing that positive psychology and digital happiness together create and endorse descriptions of and prescriptions for happiness and well-being that are quickly forming a unified front, a standardized, monolithic discourse that limits possibility. These fields matter, immensely, particularly because research on subjective well-being is being institutionalized prior to (or in some cases, in spite of) conversations about its assumptions, values, goals, and consequences. Therefore, this paper opens up a crucial conversation about what gets excluded in current discussions of well-being and digital happiness projects' assessment and promotion of it. 
                                                                                                   
References

1. Seligman, Martin E. P. (2011). Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-Being. New York: Free Press. Print.
2. The H(app)athon Project.happathon.com/
3. McGonigal, Jane (2011). Reality is Broken: Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World. New York: Penguin.
4. Hedonometer.www.hedonometer.org/index.html
5. Happier.www.happier.com/
6. Moretti, Franco (2005). Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History. London: Verso. Print.
7. Mueller, Derek (2012). Views from a Distance: A Nephological Model of the CCCC Chairs' Addresses, 1977-2011. 'Kairos' 16.2 (Spring 2012). www.technorhetoric.net/16.2/topoi/mueller/
8. Zamyatin, Yevgeny. (1924). We. New York: EOS, 1999. Print.
9. Ahmed, Sara (2010). The Promise of Happiness. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Print.
10. Yen, Jeffrey. (2010) Authorizing Happiness: Rhetorical Demarcation of Science and Society in Historical Narratives of Positive Psychology. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology 30.2: 67–78.
11. Rimke, Heidi Marie (2000). Governing Citizens Through Self-help Literature. Cultural Studies 14.1: 61–78.
12. McGee, Micki (2007). Self Help, Inc.: Makeover Culture in American Life. New York: Oxford University Press. Print.
13. Mueller, Derek (2012). Views from a Distance: A Nephological Model of the CCCC Chairs' Addresses, 1977-2011. 'Kairos' 16.2 (Spring 2012). www.technorhetoric.net/16.2/topoi/mueller/","txt","2","",""
"2135","15","User-friendly lemmatization and morphological annotation of Early New High German manuscripts","2","In the humanities the study of ancient texts with multiple conveyed records is confronted with the problem to explicate the relationship among the records and to identify their commonalities and differences. The interdisciplinary project SaDA aims at that task. SaDA stands for ""Semiautomatic difference analysis of complex text variants"" 1. It is a BMBF funded project in which germanists, romanists and computer scientists work together. One focus of the project lies on the manuscript ""Wundarznei"" by Heinrich von Pfalzpaint of the 15th century, of which eleven records are known. The goal is to compare the variants and to display them in a critical edition and an on-line edition with synopsis and critical apparatus. Subject of this work is the philological preparation of the variants.
The way from variants to a critical edition starts with the transcribed manuscripts in Early New High German (ENHG). For a comparison the identification of corresponding words in the variants is crucial. But the German language in this stage lacks a common orthography, which leads to very different spellings of the same word in different variants. Actually, every newly discovered record reveals further spellings. Consequently, a prerequisite for text comparison is the mapping of word forms to signatures, by which corresponding word forms can be found. To get suitable signatures, the word forms are annotated with lemmata and additionally with part-of-speech tags and morphological data such as grammatical case, genus and numeral. The morphological data enables us to map one text more precisely to another text, if they are variants. Using precise query methods, e.g. for the state of certain phoneme building, other texts of this language stage could be dated, localised, dialectal determined or fitted into German language history. Such richly annotated texts are valuable witnesses for studies of ENHG and are therefore planned to be used for open research questions. To this end, accuracy of the annotation data has high priority.
 The annotation process is very tiresome, repeatedly lemmata have to be looked up in lexica and grammatical attributes have to be determined. The manual effort is quite high. In the project SaDA software solutions are developed which support humanists by supporting as many procedures as possible and finally reducing the effort drastically. In this work we present the tool Lemmano, which helps to annotate ENHG texts quickly and intuitively.
 From a computer scientists perspective several challenges arise in such a tool. At first the transcriptions have to be evaluated. They consist of UTF-8 encoded text files written by the transcriber. A special notation is used to mark details of the manuscript, such as information about peculiar spellings, diacritics, punctuation, transcribers comments, word separations or relationships between fragments of composed words. The notation follows rules, which have been developed by germanists from Bonn, Bochum and Halle for the encoding of old German texts in a readable and concise manner. A software for evaluating such transcriptions should be able to check the conformance to the transcription rules and to mark errors precisely. Primarily it has to identify the words of the text while recognising noted details such as diacritics, word separations and fragments of composed words. Once recognised a second challenge arises with the annotation of the words. For this task several automatic approaches exist. One approach uses grammatical rules, by which natural language processing tools recognise sentences, segments and phrases, which enables them to conclude part-of-speech tags and lemmata for the words. A second approach is based on lexica by looking up every word form and choosing the listed lemma and morphological data. A third approach is based on probabilities. Here, an annotation tool is trained using annotated exemplary texts. The tool learns word forms with their annotations depending on neighboured words. Once trained it can determine the lemma and annotation for known words in unknown texts with a certain probability.
 All these approaches have a major disadvantage: their results are defective because of the complexity and variability of the human language. A further drawback related to ancient manuscripts is their little tolerance for deviating spellings or spelling errors in words, which leads to a drastic decrease of their hit rate. These disadvantages combined with our high demands and unsteady orthography in ENHG manuscripts inhibit their use for the ""Wundarznei"".
 Lemmano's answer is therefore a semiautomatic approach: it presents high-quality suggestions for the current word form to the user by looking for similar word forms in lexica and taking their associated annotations, still allowing the manual annotation of every single word. In contrast to the automatic approaches the choice for the correct lemma and morphological data is made by the user. The user interface is intuitively usable and is designed for massive throughput.
 After the import and the check for conformance to the transcription rules the transcribed texts are presented easily readable and without transcription notation in their original line structure. Diacritics and encoded special characters are displayed using appropriate unicode characters. For every word, the user can open a dialogue by a mouse click or pressing the enter key where she can insert, modify and save annotation data. She can either enter all data from scratch or accept or modify a suggestion. The suggestions are computed with the help of lexica available to the tool. For a word form to be annotated the tool searches for ""similar"" word forms in the lexica, uses their associated annotations and presents them to the user after grouping and sorting.
 Let us go into some details using the example of Heinrich von Pfalzpaint's ""Wundarznei"". There are eleven records known to exist, of which ten are available. The spelling of words in these variants varies that much, such that it is hard to uniquely map them to word forms in lexica. This problem has been addressed previously, for example by 2 and 3 resulting in tools used in 4. These approaches derive weighted replacement rules learnt by given training data consisting of pairs of original and normalised word forms. Using these rules a list of proposed word forms can be generated for a word form. Lemmano handles this problem similarly, but uses static instead of learnt replacement rules. Lemmano replaces letter combinations in a word by known equivalent letter combinations. For a given word form, a list of variants is created by replacing letter combinations by known equivalent letter combinations. For example, the word form ""pffeyl"" leads to the variants ""pfeil"", ""pffeil"", ""pfejl"", ""pffejl"", ""pfeyl"", ""pffeyl"". This approach generally leads to hits in a lexicon which we have extracted out of the ""Bonner Korpus"" 5, an annotated ENHG corpus. To further increase the quality of results Lemmano learns all annotations entered by the user and stores them in a separate lexicon. After annotating a certain amount of text, in more than 60% of the cases the annotation list which is suggested to the user contains the right entry in the first position and in more than 80% in the first or second position.

Fig. 1: Annotation dialogue for a word form.
Figure 1 shows the annotation dialogue for a word form which is a fragment of a composed word. On the left in the dialogue box there is the list of suggested annotations consisting of lemma, part-of-speech tag and morphological data. 
The manual annotation process can be done quickly, because the user can enter all data with the keyboard. For example selecting words in the text, opening the annotation dialogue and selecting from the suggestion list can be done without losing time with switching between keyboard and mouse. The input fields for lemma, part-of-speech tag and morphological attributes are equipped with auto completion functions, which propose more suitable entries with every entered character. In many cases a word form can be annotated with few keystrokes. The enter key on a word form opens the dialogue, the arrow keys select an entry from the suggestion list, the tab key switches to the input fields to modify or enter new data and a further hit on enter saves the annotation.
In the process of annotating the manuscripts of the ""Wundarznei"" Lemmano proved itself as a big help. Being a web based tool multiple users can annotate simultaneously and benefit from the learnt annotations of all users.
In the ongoing project, Lemmano is being enriched with further functionality for marking commonalities and differences between variants and with functionality for displaying them as synopsis or critical apparatus. For the identification of corresponding text passages in the variants it uses the annotation data. To this end flexibility of Lemmano has to be extended on the sentence structure, such that text passages with equal content can be found at different places in the manuscripts, even with strong deviations in orthography and grammar.
References

1. Project SaDA, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg. (2013). www.informatik.uni-halle.de/ti/forschung/ehumanities/sada (accessed 28 October 2013).
2. Reynaert, Martin. (2011). Character confusion versus focus word-based correction of spelling and OCR variants in corpora. International Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition (IJDAR) June 2011, Volume 14, Issue 2, pp 173-187.
3. Hauser, Andreas W., Schulz, Klaus U. (2007). Unsupervised Learning of Edit Distance Weights for Retrieving Historical Spelling Variations. Finite State Techniques and Approximate Search. Borovets, Bulgaria.
4. EU IMPACT. Improving Access to Text. (2008-2011). www.impact-project.eu (accessed 28 October 2013). Project funded by European Commission.
5. Diel, Marcel and Fisseni, Bernhard and Lenders, Winfried and Schmitz, Hans-Christian. (2002). XML-Kodierung des Bonner Frühneuhochdeutschkorpus, Universität Bonn. www.korpora.org/Fnhd (accessed 28 October 2013).
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"2136","15","Using Computer Vision to Improve Image Metadata","10","Introduction

We are approaching a golden age in the study of visual art and photographs. Many museums, libraries, and universities have digitized large portions of their collections and have made the images, and associated metadata, available for study.  This process has been a major boon to art historians, collectors, and other researchers. Instead of calling individual items one at a time in library reading rooms or digging through old, expensive, incomplete, and often out-of-print art catalogs, a researcher can simply type a query into a library or museum database and retrieve large sets of images.  However, while the rate of digitization has lately increased, this has, at times, come at the expense of detailed cataloging.   Even before the era of mass digitization, catalogers struggled to identify certain works of art (sometimes due to a lack of collaboration between institutions).  Today, simple digitization is often faster and cheaper than expert cataloging, and so many works of art and photos appear in repositories with limited metadata using inconsistent schema or vocabularies1.  The result is that while there are more works of art online than ever, it is still difficult for researchers to find the images they seek.  However, advances in automated fuzzy image recognition may allow researchers to discover relevant content even when available metadata is limited.  In this paper, we will examine two test cases--photographs of theatrical performance with unidentified actors, and mis-attributed Japanese woodblock prints--to demonstrate how image search algorithms can be used both to locate content and help researchers understand it better.
Overview of the test cases

Woodblock prints

In December of 2012, John Resig (Visiting Researcher at Ritsumeikan University and creator of the jQuery JavaScript library) released Ukiyo-e.org: a database of Japanese woodblock print images with metadata harvested by traversing the publicly-accessible digitized collections of prints at the targeted institutions.  The images were copied and saved to a separate server for faster access (a technique which avoids overburdening the institutions by loading the images directly from their websites).  The information on the website is organized broadly by artist and time period on the homepage, but is primarily designed to be used as a search engine allowing users to search both by text and by images.  The database currently contains over 213,000 prints from 24 institutions collected from from late 2011 to late 2012.   
One of the most important features of the Ukiyo-e.org2 website is its ability to do real-time analysis on the images it holds for comparison and searching.  There is frequently disagreement among major institutions regarding the attribution, dating, titles, and other information associated with a print.  Because of this incongruous metadata, it becomes virtually impossible to find similar prints among multiple institutions.  The one piece of information that is never under contention, however,  is the image of the print itself.  The image that is presented by most institutions usually includes a full, straight-on photograph of the print (or prints, if it’s a diptych, triptych, or similar).  By ignoring the metadata provided by the institutions and comparing only the actual contents of the images, it is possible to find similar-looking prints at different institutions.
Theater Photographs

Along with works of art, many libraries and archives have recently begun to publish large sets of photographs, often depicting unidentified people.  In some cases, the lack of any additional information makes identification of the faces in the photographs all but impossible.  However, images from performing arts collections often feature well-documented events with widely recognizable people appearing alongside lesser known figures.  A rehearsal shot of a musical comedy, for instance, might feature a star in front of a chorus of anonymous extras.  Metadata for such photographs may identify the star, and the title of the piece in which he or she is performing if it is known, but the supporting cast is generally left unidentified. 
In early 2012, Doug Reside, Digital Curator for the Performing Arts at New York Public Library, began a series of experiments to attempt to identify these performers.  Over 90,000 theater photographs are now available on the Library’s website with varying degrees of metadata3.  In most cases, the work being presented is identified.  Information about the cast and crew of these productions often can be harvested from other online databases such as Playbill Vault4, the Internet Broadway Database5, and DBPedia6.  Given infinite time, a human investigator could theoretically identify many of the anonymous people in the Library’s photographs by finding all instances of the face in any online photograph, and then using additional datasets to determine the most likely name associated with it.  An otherwise anonymous person, might, for instance, be identified in a newspaper photograph or in a headshot in theater program.  Similarly, it might be possible to identify an otherwise anonymous actress if the shows in which her face appears uniquely match her resume as constructed from published cast lists.
Methodology

Both test cases would benefit from computer vision algorithms capable of searching a corpus of images for a set of very similar (but not necessarily identical) images.  Although research in this area began decades ago, implementations capable of comparing thousands to millions of images from various sources simultaneously have only emerged very recently7. The general availability of this technology, however, has been mixed. Tools such as imgSeek8 have made rudimentary image comparison technologies available for use in Open Source projects, but at present commercially-available tools with public APIs (such as TinEye’s MatchEngine9) provide faster image analysis with a greater level of clarity.  Neither tool, however, is exactly suited for facial recognition, which requires the ability to identify a face pictured at different angles, under different lighting, in front of varying backgrounds, and at varying sizes (depending on the distance of the subjects for the camera).  
The MatchEngine tool, while a commercial service, is well suited for finding images that are close matches of one another, or even partial matches embedded inside a larger image (as in the case of triptychs).  Like imgSeek, MatchEngine was able to find images by upload and quickly process newly-added images.  Resig tested both MatchEngine and imgSeek during the development of Ukiyo-e.org and found that MatchEngine was much better at finding exact matches, ignoring differences in color, and finding prints (or portions of prints) inside other print images.
With an effective image similarity engine it became possible to develop many new tools to aid woodblock print researchers.  Using the tools available on Ukiyo-e.org, researchers can now look for a print not just by a title, description, or artist name (there is generally little agreement on the metadata between institutions) and instead find a print by providing just a photo.  Additionally, scholars who are researching the manipulation and reuse of the physical woodblocks over time can now more easily locate prints that are derived from the same block but have different imagery.  Finally, a tool has been constructed to automatically provide institutions with corrections for their metadata, made possible by finding similar prints and then automatically comparing their associated metadata, looking for differences.  All of these tools are able to provide unprecedented improvements to researchers, scholars, and institutions.
The theater photographs work is at a somewhat earlier stage in its development. The project’s early experiments with face recognition in the computer vision library OpenCV 10 identified the location of faces within a photograph reliably, but could not be used to suggest whether a face in one photograph belonged to the same person as a face in another.  More promising has been the OpenBR11 library from MITRE Corporation which, after “registering” a library of photographs, can quickly return a set of photographs from the library containing faces that most closely match one depicted in a new photograph.  For faces displayed at similar angles and under similar lighting, it performs relatively well, but when the angle changes and additional faces appear in the picture, mistaken identification is more common than success.
Nonetheless, the mistaken identifications are sometimes usefully provocative.  False positives reveal similarities among physical characteristics, costumes, and makeup that may not be obvious.  For instance, a search using a photograph of young Roddy McDowall as Mordred in the original 1960 Broadway production of Camelot returned (with 100% certainty): Steve Lawrence in a 1967 production of Golden Rainbow, a headshot of actress Sybil White, and a photograph of George C. Scott in Plaza Suite.  To the most observers, these faces bear relatively little resemblance, however, to the face recognition algorithm, which looks mostly at the shape and position of the eyes12, the faces appeared identical.  As earlier investigations by Jerome McGann have revealed13, this “deformance” of the image by the algorithm may reveal new ways of interpreting the objects.  Are there any other similarities (not just visual) among the performers (or the characters they are portraying), that may not have been noticed without the provocation of the algorithm.  What do these “fail cases” suggest about the casting practices or makeup design on the mid-20th century Broadway stage?
This paper explores both the promising successes and provocative failures of image analysis tools for humanities research, and suggests future avenues of research the technology makes available to scholars.
References

1. Park, Jung-Ran.Metadata Quality in Digital Repositories: A Survey of the Current State of the Art. Cataloging & Classification Quarterly 47, no. 3–4 (2009): 213–228. doi:10.1080/01639370902737240.
2. ukiyo-e.org
3. digitalcollections.nypl.org
4. www.playbillvault.com
5. www.ibdb.com
6. dbpedia.org/About
7. Google, Yahoo, and Microsoft all provide image search engines that are capable of searching millions of images.
8. www.imgseek.net
9. services.tineye.com/MatchEngine
10. opencv.org
11. openbiometrics.org
12. J. Klontz, B. Klare, S. Klum, A. Jain, M. Burge.Open Source Biometric Recognition, Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications and Systems (BTAS), 2013.
13. Jerome McGann and Lisa SamuelsDeformance and Interpretationwww2.iath.virginia.edu/jjm2f/old/deform.html (augmented version also available in New Literary History 30 (winter, 1999), 25-56
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"2137","15","Using digitized newspaper archives to investigate identity formation in long-term public discourse","9","This paper analyzes how digitized newspaper databases can be used in historical research on identity formation in public discourse. It discusses a new semantic text mining tool, Texcavator, which is currently being developed in the Dutch research program Translantis: Digital Humanities Approaches to Reference Cultures.1The paper presents a case study which combines the Texcavator tool with the publicly available Delpher2 and with traditional historical methods in order to analyze identity formation of health risk groups in Dutch public discourse in the twentieth century. In particular, it focuses on the construction of the identity of people with excess body weight. Although the case is built around the Texcavator and Delpher mining tools and the newspaper database of the Dutch national library, the paper aims to investigate techniques to combine close and distant reading that can be transferred to other tools and repositories as well.
Newspapers are valuable sources in historical research. Until recently, however, investigating them was cumbersome and time-intensive. The repositories of digitized newspapers now available in many countries solve many practical problems and offer wonderful opportunities, but they also introduce methodological problems of their own. (Bingham 2010; Nicholson 2013) Bob Nicholson has recently shown how digitalization enables us to approach newspapers bottom-up instead of top-down, but he stresses the difficulty of creating useful keyword searches for doing this. (Nicholson 2013, 66–67) Adrian Bingham has also pointed this out, and has furthermore highlighted the danger that keyword searches (as well as other text mining techniques) pluck individual articles out of their original context, ignoring their position on the page, surrounding articles, and illustrations. (Bingham 2010, 230) Furthermore, Johanna Drucker has indicated that digital humanities scholars often aim to reduce complexity and remove ambiguity, while these are two values humanities research has to cherish, not avoid. (Drucker 2009, 5–7; Collini 2012, 65–84) 
This paper takes such warnings into account and shows how these problems are being addressed by researchers working with the digitized newspaper database of the Dutch national library, thereby offering more concrete versions of the rather general solutions (e.g., ‘we should not forget the article’s context’) that are often suggested. At present, this database contains over 10 million pages from more than 200 newspapers and periodicals published between 1618 and 1995.3It can be approached in two ways: through Texcavator (in development, not yet publicly available) and through the national library’s Delpher tool (publicly available).
The paper discusses a specific use case in which both tools are combined and used alongside traditional historical methods: researching identity formation in public discourse. It focuses on the identities of (health) risk groups, groups of people that are classified as ‘at risk’ with help of (health) risk factor classifications like the body mass index (BMI). For example, nowadays, people with a BMI above 25 are classified as ‘at risk’ because of their high body weight. This classification and the construction of this group is not a necessary outcome of biomedical research on the human body; instead it is historically contingent, strongly rooted in culture and practice. (Hacking 2007a, 2007b) The construction of these risk groups and the formation of their identity takes place for a significant part in public discourse. Digitized newspapers are valuable sources to study this identity formation: they provide a good entry into public discourse and typically span long time periods, enabling researchers to analyze the fluctuations in the identity of these groups (e.g., fluctuations between whether or not they are seen as (and see themselves as) ‘ill’).
The paper presents the first results of the investigation of the identity construction of the risk group ‘overweight people’ between 1890 and 1990. It focuses in particular on newspaper advertisements in the first part of this period — a choice based on distant reading of the corpus with help of Texcavator. The paper discusses how Texcavator and Delpher have been used, focusing in particular on the interaction between close and distant reading necessary to do this type of research.  It shows how the direct connection between Texcavator and Delpher makes sure the researcher is constantly only one or two mouse clicks away from viewing the single articles in their original context — on the page, including illustrations, within the full issue of the periodical, as if going through newspapers on microfilm (or, depending on the size of the computer screen, leaving through them on broadsheet). Furthermore, it shows how Texcavator’s built-in visualization tools (time lines with number of articles diagrams, word clouds, named entity recognition) can be used to go back and forth between distant and close reading in order to build sophisticated queries that can easily be refined and modified within the tool.
In this way, the paper shows the challenges but also the new heuristic possibilities of doing historical research in digital repositories of newspapers.
www.translantis.nlOn Texcavator see Huijnen et al. 2013; on Delpher see www.delpher.nl. Delpher has replaced the earlier, no longer available tool Lucene.delpher.kb.nl
References

Bingham, A. (2010).The Digitization of Newspaper Archives: Opportunities and Challenges for Historians, Twentieth Century British History, 21: 225–231.
Collini, S. (2012). What Are Universities For? London: Penguin.
Drucker, J. (2009). SpecLab: Digital Aesthetics and Projects in Speculative Computing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Available at <http://public.eblib.com/EBLPublic/PublicView.do?ptiID=448540>.
Hacking, I. (2007a). Kinds of People: Moving Targets. Proceedings of the British Academy, 151: 285–318.
Hacking, I. (2007b). Where Did the BMI Come From. In: Bodies of Evidence: Fat Across Disciplines. Cambridge: Centre for Research in the Arts, Social Sciences and Humanities, University of Cambridge.
Huijnen, P., Laan, F., de Rijke, M.,  Pieters, T. (2013). A Digital Humanities Approach to the History of Science: Eugenics Revisited in Hidden Debates by means of Semantic Text Mining. In: Wierzbicki, A., Jatowt, A., Nadamoto, A., Leidner, J. (eds.), SocInfo 2013 Workshop Proceedings, 1st International Workshop on Histoinformatics,  Cham et al: Springer.
Nicholson, B. (2013). The Digital Turn. Media History, 19: 59–73.
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"2138","15","Using Social Network Analysis to Reveal Unseen Relationships in Medieval Scotland","9","Introduction

This short paper will describe the on-going research being conducted jointly by Kings College London and the University of Glasgow to understand the social networks of the medieval Scottish elites from the years from 1093 to 1286. This paper will start with a description of social networks and the concepts of social network analysis. It will then move on to describe some of the uses social network analysis has been put to in historical research. This will be followed by a description of the People of Medieval Scotland database which provides the data for this research. Finally, the social network analysis techniques used in this research will be described and the preliminary results will be discussed.
Social Network Analysis

Social networks are defined and measured as connections among people, organisations, political entities (states and nations) and/or other units. Social network analysis is a theoretical perspective and a set of techniques used to understand these relationships (Valente 2010, pg. 3). Christakis and Fowler (2010, pg. 32) say that the science of social networks provides a distinct ways of seeing the world because it is about individuals and groups and how the former becomes latter.
Valente (2010, pgs. 3 – 7) says that relationships matter because relationships influence a person’s behaviour above and beyond the influence of his or her attributes. A person’s attributes does influence who people know and spend time with: their social network. Valente quotes Borgatti et al (2009), “one of the most potent ideas in the social sciences is the notion that individuals are embedded in thick webs of social relations and interactions”. The reason that social networks are so important is because human beings are ultra-social animals that create social networks (Haidt, 2006). Christakis and Fowler (2010, pg. 214) add that human beings just don’t live in groups, they live in networks. Valente argues the traditional social science approach of using random sampling is not adequate for measuring network concepts because random sampling removes individuals from the social context that may influence their behaviour. Valente explains that one primary reason social network research has grown in recent decades is that scholars have become dissatisfied with attributes theories of behaviour. Many attribute theories have not explained why some people do things (e.g. quit smoking) while others do not.  Social network explanations have provided good explanations in these cases.
Use of Social Network Analysis in History

The seminal work in using social network analysis in historical research is Padgett and Ansell’s (1993) research on the rise of the Medici in renaissance Florence. Their work showed that the rise of the Medicis came from their ability, especially the ability of Cosimo de Medici, to take advantage of the gaps in connections in the social network which the Medicis were able to bridge to take political control of Florence. Since then, the use of social network analysis in historical research has been steadily increasing.
Using Social Network Analysis with the People of Medieval Scotland Database

The People of Medieval Scotland (PoMS) database holds data on all known people between 1093 and 1314 mentioned in over 8600 contemporary documents. This was funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council in the United Kingdom. The current research is part of the Transformation of Gaelic Scotland project funded by the Leverhulme Trust. This exploratory research has the goal of understanding the role of social networks among the elite of medieval Scotland. It also has the goal of exploring the appropriateness of social network analysis techniques for this data set, and perhaps for other similar collections
The first technique used was 2 mode networks. In 2 mode networks, two sets of actors are dealt with. This method comes from the pioneering work of Davis et al (1941). In this research, the two sets of actors are legal documents called charters and the people who witness them. As a result, you will see links between witnesses and charters but not among the witnesses and charters. This becomes even more useful by the affiliation technique. Here the software is asked to create a 1 mode network or a network with only one set of actors by connecting witnesses who have witnessed the same charter together. The software can also keep track of how many times a particular witness has witnessed a charter with every other witness. The theory is that the more often two witnesses witness charters together, the more probable there is an actual social relationship between the two people. Therefore, as the number of charters witnessed together rises, the more probable the resulting network is an actual map of the social relationships. 
Other techniques used include:
2 mode network with witnesses by locations to identify geographically clustered witnesses
Ego networks where the focus is on all the people connected to a selected person and the interconnections among these people
Directed network of grantors and beneficiaries. This network is directed because the direction is always from the grantor to the beneficiary.
Using cluster analysis and structural equivalence to see if witnesses can be clustered by the similarity of their network connections
Using network models of diffusion of innovations to track how charter innovations spread
Findings so far

This work is still very preliminary but some interesting findings have appeared from the use of social network analysis. One good example of this is Duncan II, Earl of Fife. Historians knew he was a very prominent noble in Scotland but social network analysis revealed a possible further role he played in Scotland. 
Duncan has witnessed more than 20 charters with 27 people while William del Bois, the chancellor whose role is to manage charters, has only done that with 15 other witnesses.  Also, Duncan has witnessed more than 40 charters with 7 people while William has done the same with only 2 other witnesses. However, Duncan has witnessed charters with 630 other witnesses while William, the chancellor, has witnessed charters with 479 other witnesses. Overall, William has witnessed 213 charters while Duncan has witnessed 210 charters. So the question is why does Duncan, Earl of Fife have so many more connections than anyone else? There is no definitive answer to this question yet but the leading hypotheses centre on Duncan’s possible role in the government, taking advantage of his brokerage opportunities and enhanced social skills.
The grantor/beneficiary network showed that those who gave the most grants were kings, popes, bishops and senior noblemen such as earls. Those who received the most grants were mainly ecclesiastical institutions such as abbeys, priories and cathedrals. In addition personas such as Saint Cuthbert and the Blessed Virgin Mary received large number of grants. However, none of this was very surprising given the nature of medieval Scottish society.
Ego networks for a number of people have been generated. We have compared these ego networks by density, brokerage opportunities and how often the ego acts as a bridge inside the network. No general trends have been discovered yet. We have also looked at turning Burt’s (1992) work on its head by looking not at brokerage opportunities but at the interconnections to determine the characteristics of their social networks. As of now, this has not been completely successful.
It is too soon at this date to report findings on using network models on the diffusions of innovations. However, we see this as an exciting prospect as it will allow the tracking of how charter innovations spread or did not spread throughout medieval Scotland. Historians have identified several charter innovations to investigate and we hope to report on this at the conference.  
The 2 mode witness by location network did not work because of bad location data in the database which is now being corrected. But, the biggest data issue in using social network analysis with this data is that the People of Medieval Scotland database has only legal documents in it and does not have the marriage, baptismal and tax records that Padgett and Ansell (1993) used. These additional records would allow us to confirm relationships that can be inferred especially from the 2 mode network analysis.
Summary

In summary, while this research is still preliminary, it has shown the power of social network analysis to bring a new perspective to old data. Duncan II, Earl of Fife is an example of this. While the historians knew Duncan was very prominent in his time, they had no idea that he might have a possible role in running the Scottish government during the reign of William I. The use of network models of the diffusion of innovations to see how charter innovations did or did not spread in medieval Scotland is another example where this technique will allow us to show the mechanism of how these innovations spread.
Borgatti, S. P. and A. Mehra, D.J. Brass and G. Labianca (2009) “Network Analysis in the Social Sciences”, Science, Volume 323, pp. 892 – 895
Burt, R. (1992) Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition London: Harvard University Press. 
Christakis, Nicholas and James Fowler (2010) Connected: The Amazing Power of Social Networks and How They Shape our Lives. London: Harper Press
Davis, Allison, Burleigh B. Gardner and Mary R. Gardner (1941) Deep South: A Social Anthropological Study of Caste and ClassChicago: University of Chicago Press
Haidt, Jonathan (2006) The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom.New York: Basic Books
Padgett, John and Christopher Ansell (1993) “Robust Action and the Rise of the Medici, 1400 – 1434”,American Journal of Sociology Volume 98, Issue 6, pp. 1259 – 1319 
Valente, Thomas W. (2010) Social Networks and Health: Models, Methods and Applications. Oxford: Oxford University Press
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"2139","15","Validating Computational Stylistics in Literary Interpretation","10","0. Introduction

Quantitative analysis of literary texts is now well established in authorship attribution. There are continuing lively discussions of method, and the understanding of how classification works best with language continues to evolve, but there are some successes to point to, and most literary scholars accept that when experts disagree on an attribution, a statistical approach can be helpful. The great advantage for quantitative work in this area is that methods can be tested with texts of known origin, so that calibration and validation can be done. Practitioners and traditional scholars can share confidence in rigorous studies with good sampling, controls and validation of various kinds.
There is also the potential for computational stylistics to make a contribution in stylometry beyond authorship attribution and in the wider area of literary interpretation. However, here the problem of validation is acute. If a surprising finding emerges from a quantitative study, how can we tell a chance result, or an artefact of method, from a well-founded finding? How do we judge the robustness of the results and the degree to which conclusions may be generalized? How do we relate analyses based on thousands of long texts to the established understanding of areas of culture based on the intensive study of a few works? The best first options in moving beyond authorship may be other areas of classification, where validation is still possible, like chronology and genre study, but the bigger challenge and greatest rewards will be in interpretation in the wider sense.
This panel approaches the question of validation in computational stylistics beyond authorship attribution through case studies in a variety of languages and literary traditions. Each of the case studies concerns computational stylistics beyond authorship attribution, discusses issues of validation, robustness, and/or interpretation, and offers some considerations of the wider questions of method which arise. The panel will combine brief presentations of the use cases exemplifying the larger issues with ample time for discussion among the panelists and with the audience.
1. Fotis Jannidis & Hugh Craig: Statistical complexity in the language of lowbrow and highbrow novels in German and English

In this study we apply Shannon Entropy and Jensen-Shannon Divergence (Lin, 1991; Rosso et al., 2009) to the language of the novel, using one German and one English corpus from the nineteenth century, and one English corpus from the late twentieth century. We focus on the way low-brow and high-brow novels score on the two measures. We rely on classifications from standard literary histories for the novels and explore the statistical results with close readings of selected passages.
Figure 1 is a graph of Jensen-Shannon Divergence and Shannon Entropy in the more modern English corpus. The novels from the Booker Prize shortlist have generally higher scores on both measures than the other identified groups of low-brow novels (with a p-value of 0.0007 for the t-test on JSD). 

Fig. 1: Jensen-Shannon Divergence and Shannon Entropy scores for 376 novels in the BNC
The pattern for the nineteenth-century corpora is different. In the early- to mid-Victorian English novels, works by Charles Dickens have low scores on both Entropy and Divergence, despite his canonical status. In the 1860-90 German corpus, some popular novels, for example those by Johanna Spyri, author of the famous Heidi books, also have low scores on Entropy and Divergence, but some works by popular authors like Marlitt span the highest to the lowest range of divergence, revealing a hitherto unnoticed variety of styles (the t-test didn’t show a significant difference between the groups). Under some circumstances Entropy, which has been judged not to be a useful measure for author-attribution studies (Hoover, 2003), and Jensen-Shannon Divergence seem to be useful to distinguish between lowbrow and highbrow novels, but it is yet unclear under which circumstances. In the paper we will discuss the overall relationship between the information-theory metrics as applied to language and classifications of the novels in terms of market sectors, relying on standard measures of statistical significance to validate our claims. 
2. Maciej Eder: Bootstrap consensus network: towards a robust visualization in stylometry

Stylometric methodology, developed to solve authorship problems, can easily be extended and generalized to assess different questions in literary history. Explanatory multidimensional methods, relying on distance measures and supported with visualization techniques, are particularly attractive for this purpose. However, they are very sensitive to the number of features (usually: frequent words) analyzed. Even worse, they are either unable to fit dozens of texts on a single scatterplot (e.g. Multidimensional Scaling), or highly dependent on the choice of a linkage algorithm (e.g. Cluster Analysis). The technique introduced in this study combines the concept of network as a way to map large-scale literary similarities (Jockers, 2013), the concept of consensus (Lancichinetti and Fortunato, 2012), and the assumption that textual relations usually go beyond mere nearest neighborship. 

Fig. 2: Two algorithms of mapping textual relations
Particular texts can be represented as nodes of a network, and their explicit relations as links between these nodes. The procedure of linking is twofold. One of the involved algorithms (Fig. 2, top) computes the distances between analyzed texts, and establishes, for every single node, a strong connection to its nearest neighbor (i.e. the most similar text), and two weaker connections to the 1st and the 2nd runner-up (i.e. two texts that get ranked immediately after the nearest neighbor). The second algorithm (Fig. 2, bottom) performs a large number of tests for similarity with different number of features to be analyzed (e.g. 100, 200, 300, …, 1,000 MFWs). Finally, all the connections produced in particular “snapshots” are added, resulting in a consensus network. Weights of these final connections tend to differ significantly: the strongest ones mean robust nearest neighbors, while weak links stand for secondary and/or accidental similarities. Validation of the results – or rather self-validation – is provided by the fact that consensus of many single approaches to the same corpus sanitizes robust textual similarities and filters out apparent clusterings. The idea discussed in this paper can be applied to map large literary corpora (see the contribution by Jan Rybicki, below).
3. Jan Rybicki: Validating a large bootstrap consensus network in literary history

Over five hundred English novels from Swift to Rowling were used to produce a bootstrap consensus network of most-frequent-word frequencies, using a pseudo-bootstrapped cluster analysis from 100 to 1,000 most frequent words with the stylo package (Eder et al., 2013) for R and visualized with GEPHI’s Force Atlas 2 layout algorithm (Bastian et al., 2009). The resulting graph yielded the usual strong authorship signal, but the overall shape exhibited a number of features that make sense in the context of traditional literary history. 

Fig. 3: Bootstrap consensus network of over 500 English novels
The overall shape of the resulting network (Fig. 3) is reminiscent of the earlier-observed “stylistic drift” phenomenon (Burrows, 1994) in its general chronological order and observes certain topographic rules. The texts are roughly ordered from top (early) to bottom (late), with three avenues of transition from the top-most 18th-century writings to late Victorians and modernists: Americans Melville and Hawthorne; Dickens; and the mid-Victorian female writers, with some notable outliers. Most of the latest texts in this set gravitate towards the bottom area of the graph.
With the impact of spelling variation minimized by 100% culling (a procedure by which all words that do not appear in each of the studied texts are rejected from the analysis), this is a clear indication that distant reading by most-frequent-words frequencies can mirror the evolution of literary style over hundreds of texts and hundreds of years and open new perspectives for close reading. After all, the application of statistics to literature is remarkable in that its results can be validated not by statistical means alone, but also, and perhaps above all, by traditional literary history, classification and interpretation.
4. Christof Schöch: Validating and interpreting Principal Component Analysis: A Case-Study from the Analysis of French Enlightenment Plays

This case study investigates issues of validation and interpretation of stylometric results with regard to authorship, genre, date and form, based on a collection of 120 French plays from the French Enlightenment period. Preliminary analyses using Cluster Analysis have suggested that besides authorship, categories like genre (tragedy or comedy) and form (verse or prose) are important stylistic signals in this collection.
To verify this observation, PCA (Jackson, 2003; Diana & Tommasi, 2002) was performed on different subsets of plays. In a subset of 19 comedies in either verse or prose written by five authors between 1712 and 1760, PCA shows strong effects for form (verse or prose) but results appear to vary for different settings (particularly, number of frequent words).
To test the salience of the effects for form and the robustness of the results, the contribution of several variables to the first three principal components was calculated for different settings. More precisely, F-measures of ANOVA tests were calculated for author, form and date in relation to PC1 to PC3 for PCAs based on 5-200 most frequent words.

Fig. 4: F-scores for author, form and data on PC1 to PC3
Figure 4 shows how PC1 is dominated by “form”, with an extremely high F-score, while “author” and “date” hardly contribute. In PC2, form does not play any role, but “author” and also “date” do. Considering its reduced scale, it appears that PC3 does not show any clear trends. 
That the effect for “form” is so concentrated in one major component comes as a surprise, especially because similar effects have not been observed in other domains, such as Early Modern English Drama (Hugh Craig, paper in preparation). However, given the striking robustness of the results, the interpretation of the PCA can proceed with confidence. Further application domains of this method are stylometric investigations of variables such as genre, theme or literary period.
5. Mike Kestemont: Learning Deep Representations of Characters in Literary History

One of the most exciting movements in current Machine Learning is “Deep Learning” (Bengio, 2009). In this field, people attempt to leave the idea of “hand-crafted” features. Older, so-called “shallow” learning techniques – commonly used in stylometry – heavily depend on a researcher’s, typically strongly biased, representation of a problem and will not attempt to optimize or even correct this representation. In “Deep Learning”, the idea is that one should not only learn how to solve a problem, given some input information, but additionally, how the input information is best represented in order to solve the problem. To achieve this, researchers send data through a layered structure of units (“neural network”). At each subsequent layer in this network architecture, the representation of the original input information grows increasingly abstract.

Fig. 5: Country and Capital Vectors Projected by PCA. (Copyright: Mikolov et al. for Google Inc.)
Recent research has demonstrated that Deep Learning yields extremely valuable problem representations. In distributional semantics, for instance, it yields an extremely powerful vector-space model of words. This contribution will survey how such vector spaces have recently been used for advanced analogical reasoning. In a series of breakthrough papers, Mikolov et al. (e.g. 2013) have shown that these models (see Fig. 5) can be used to answer complex questions like: “What is to king, like woman is to man?” (answer: “queen”), or “What is to Warsaw, like France is to Paris?” (answer: “Poland”). I will discuss how this kind of representational learning could be applied to modeling characters from literary history. The main idea is that we should be able to easily answer questions about the archetypical relationships between characters: Who is to Romeo, like Isolde is to Tristan?”. I will argue that this approach offers an exciting new framework to study the “meaning” of literary personas (cf. Bamman et al. 2013) and their cross-novel interrelations.
References

Bamman, D., Brendan O’Connor, B. and Smith, N. (2013). Learning Latent Personas of Film Characters. ACL 2013, Sofia, Bulgaria. 352-361.
Bastian M., Heymann S. and Jacomy M. (2009). Gephi: an open source software for exploring and manipulating networks. International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media.
Bengio, Y. (2009). Learning Deep Architectures for AI. Foundations and Trends in Information Retrieval 2: 1-127. 
Burrows, J. F. (1994). Tiptoeing into the infinite: testing for evidence of national differences in the language of English narrative.Research in Humanities Computing, 2: 1-33.
Diana, G., and Tommasi, Ch. (2002). Cross-validation Methods in Principal Component Analysis: A Comparison. Statistical Methods and Applications 11/1: 71-82.
Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J. (2013). Stylometry with R: a suite of tools. Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts. Lincoln: University of Nebraska-Lincoln, pp. 487-89.
Hoover, D. (2003). Another perspective on vocabulary richness. Computers and the Humanities, 37: 151-78.
Jackson, J.E. (2003).A User’s Guide to Principal Components. Hoboken: Wiley.
Jockers, M. (2013). Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History. Champaign: University of Illinois Press.
Lancichinetti, A. and Fortunato, S. (2012). Consensus clustering in complex networks. Scientific Reports, 2: 336: 1-7.
Lin, J. (1991). Divergence measures based on the Shannon entropy. IEEE Transactions in Information Theory, 37(1): 145-51.
Mikolov, T., Yih W. and Zweig, G. (2013). Linguistic Regularities in Continuous Space Word Representations. Proceedings of NAACL-HLT 2013, Atlanta, Georgia, 746-751.
Rosso, O., Craig, H., and Moscato, P. (2009). Shakespeare and other English Renaissance authors as characterized by Information Theory complexity quantifiers. Physica A, 388: 916-26.
","txt","2","",""
"2140","15","Visualization As a Bridge to Close Reading: The Audience in The Castle of Perseverance","2","Visualization As a Bridge to Close Reading: The Audience in The Castle of Perseverance

1. Introduction

In thinking of visualizations and how they can help bridge the gap between traditional close readings of texts and digital projects, Matthew Kirschenbaum asks, ""What patterns would be of interest to literary scholars? … How would we evaluate the effectiveness of our visualizations, or the software in general?  Is it succeeding if it surprises us with its results, or if it doesn’t?""1  Many scholars have noted the importance of approaching a visualization project with an appropriate amount of scholarly attention, and it is my intention to show how the activity of creating a visualization of a text and the visualization itself can highlight areas of the text which would benefit from a traditional close reading.234  The text I have chosen for this visualization-prompted close reading is The Castle of Perseverance, a 15th century morality play which takes the form of a locus-and-platea play.  Creating a visualization of the network of characters within the play leads us to inquire into the role of the audience of the play, both the original audience of medieval spectators and contemporary readers or watches of the play.

The Castle of Perseverance stage plan, Macro MS folio 191v.
2. Tool

The tool I have chosen for the visualization is Gephi, an open-source graphic visualization software.  Gephi is ""an interactive visualization and exploration platform for all kinds of networks and complex systems, dynamic and hierarchical graphs.""5  I have two main reasons for this choice.  The first is that Gephi is a relatively easy program to work with, while also being quite powerful and allowing a nuanced approach to the visualization process.  The second reason for this choice is the set of algorithms which come with Gephi, two of which I will be using in my visualizations.  One measures ""Betweenness Centrality,"" a measure of the size of the network and the average path length between nodes, in this case characters, in the network.  The second algorithm measures modularity and identifies community groups within the network.  Different critical approaches to visualizing will affect the ways in which these two algorithms interpret the data and the resulting visualization will lead to different conclusions.
3. Theoretical Issues

One of the benefits of creating a visualization of the network within a play is that ""nothing ever disappears.  What is done, cannot be undone … The past becomes the past, yes, but it never disappears from our perception of the plot.""6  In the case of The Castle of Perseverance, however, this permanence of action that exists in a visualization can cause some problems.  Medieval morality plays, by nature, are heavily didactic and often address the audience directly.  In The Castle of Perseverance, over 800 lines, more than one-fifth of the play, are directed at the audience.  Throughout the play, the audience is addressed both directly and indirectly, ""all the men that in this werld wold thryve"" (521), ""Lordyngys"" (1425), and ""all men"" (3694) to give but a few examples.7  Should a visualization of the network of characters in a play include the audience of that play?  They have no speaking role and would certainly not be included in any list of dramatis personae.  Leaving the audience out of the network leads to the network which appears in figure 2.

Fig. 1: The Castle of Perseverance network, without the audience as a node.
If we are troubled by leaving out such a large portion of the play and create a network which includes the audience, the result is figure 3.

Fig. 2: The Castle of Perseverance network with the audience included as a node.
The interesting difference between these visualizations is the members of the various communities as identified by Gephi.  In figure 2, Humanum Genus, the mankind figure, is grouped with the bad angle and most of the seven deadly sins.  In figure 3, however, Humanum Genus is grouped with the good angle and the seven virtues; this is also how the play ends, with Humanum Genus asking for God’s mercy and ascending to heaven.  The audience in some way, according to the communities identified by Gephi, is a factor in Humanum Genus ending the play in God’s grace.  These two maps of the network within The Castle of Perseverance cause us to turn back to the text for a close reading of the ways in which the audience appears as a character through the efforts of the dramatic characters of the play.
References

1. Kirschenbaum, M.Poetry, Patterns, and Provocation: The Nora Project. The Valve. January 12, 2006. Web. October 31, 2013.
2. Jessop, Martyn (2008). Digital Visualization As a Scholarly Activity. Literary and Linguistic Computing 23.3: 281-193. Print.
3. Rieder, Bernhard and Theo Rohle (2012). Digital Methods: Five Challenges. Understanding Digital Humanities. Ed. David M. Berry. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Print. 67-84.
4. Scully, D. and Bradley M. Pasanek (2008). Meaning and Mining: The Implicit Assumptions in Data Mining for the Humanities. Literary and Linguisting Computing 23.4: 409-424. Print.
www.gephi.org
6. Moretti, Franco. (2011). Network Theory, Plot Analysis. Stanford, Stanford Literary Lab.
7. Eccles, Mark (1969). The Macro Plays. London: Oxford University Press. Print.","txt","2","",""
"2141","15","Visualization of Historical Knowledge Structures: An Analysis of the Bibliography of Philosophy","2","Bibliography is among the oldest forms of knowledge organization, both documenting knowledge artifacts and arranging them into specialized subject categories. Extant bibliographies date back to the 15th century, with more appearing in the 18th and 19th centuries with the rise of trade presses.1 Though the  bibliographic form was eclipsed in the late 20th century by digital systems, print bibliographies offer important insights into the history of knowledge production, especially for works that no longer exist. More importantly, bibliographers' choices of inclusion, exclusion, and subject headings provide unique insight into how works were received in different times and places—and in ways that do not rely on current, anachronistic understandings of disciplines and their topologies.
The potential for datamining these massive bibliographic efforts across five centuries has gone untapped in several senses. First, one might examine statistical patterns in publication dates and topics—akin to the ""distance reading"" method described by Moretti.2 Second, one might analyze geospatial relationships between text and locations, noting when an idea sprouted in a certain area, how long it took to spawn a translation elsewhere, or whether successive versions of the same text signal continued interest in and adoption of certain ideas. Third, one might exploit the associative connections between texts organized under the same subject headings, using those links to examine the intellectual structure of a field, its expansion (or contraction) over time, and its division into new (sub)fields. All of these analyses would be enriched by analyzing multiple bibliographies across different places and times, forming a field of ""comparative bibliography"" within the digital humanities3.
Philosophy is a prime candidate for this analysis both because extensive research exists on the history of the bibliography of philosophy4 and because philosophy once contained nearly all branches of knowledge (the exception being modern science), with other fields splitting off from philosophy from the Renaissance period to the present. General bibliographies of philosophy date back to the 15th century, though Johann Jacob Frisius’s 1593 bibliography5 may be regarded as the pioneer of the form, which was followed for several centuries by larger compendia. As Jasenas notes, these successive bibliographies reveal shifts in knowledge structures over time: ""philosophy has always been in a state of flux, with differing conceptions of scope and interest prevailing at different times. In classical antiquity philosophy encompasses almost all fields of knowledge; but later many of them gradually became separated from philosophy as independent disciplines. Consequently, the history of the subject is largely colored by the continuing tendency to re-define and emphasize special areas of interest formerly included in larger definitions” ([4] p. 41). A variety of historical classifications is presented in Figure 1.

Fig. 1:
Though there is noticeable overlap between these classifications (e.g., the inclusion of the trivium and quadrivium over several centuries), the differences are also telling, both in terms of the position of subjects within bibliographers' taxonomies and the presence or absence of certain subjects (e.g., medicine, agriculture, law) in one bibliography as compared to others. Jasenas attributes these differences to the influence of past bibliographers, the importance of the subject as perceived by the bibliographer (e.g. Spach’s inclusion of ethics), and the university curriculum familiar to each bibliographer—all interesting fodder for a comparative analysis of the field. 
The last of these general bibliographies of philosophy came in 1905 with Benjamin Rand’s massive compilation6, which catalogs over 67,000 books and journals. It has been succeeded only by smaller subject bibliographies. Rand's work drew on past efforts by dozens of bibliographers and contains over 700 subject headings, including 600 entries for specific philosophers' writings and secondary criticism about them. Bynagle notes that ""Rand has been criticized, in his own time and since, for omitting certain topics (e.g., philosophy of history and philosophy of language) and for other shortcomings. However, the magnitude of his effort is generally acknowledged and acclaimed, and its product remains even now of some value, particularly for its nearly exhaustive coverage of nineteenth-century authors.""7
Using Rand's bibliography, this poster presents statistical, geospatial, and network visualizations of the history of philosophy. This data is obtained from a digitized version of Rand's bibliography, which is parsed to extract structured information about each work and its subject heading. The main research questions of the poster are: (1) the emergence of particular topics across time and space (see Figure 2), (2) transmission of ideas as measured through publication location and version information, and (3) the topical shifts in the field over time as reflected by Rand's subject classification of texts.

Fig. 2: An interactive geospatial visualization of publications over time, as well as two frequency charts: one showing of the total number of publications over time and another with publications separated by region. Data on Aristotle, Hume, and Kant is displayed.
References

1. Schneider, G. (1934). Theory and History of Bibliography. Translated by Ralph Robert Shaw. New York: Scarecrow Press.
2. Moretti, F. (2005). Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History. Verso.
3. For an example in archaeology, see Maximillian Schich, César Hidalgo, Sune Lehmann, and Juyong Park. (2010). ""The Network of Subject Co-Popularity in Classical Archaeology, Bollettino di Archeologia On-line I, 49–57.
4. Jasenas, Michael. (1973). A History of the Bibliography of Philosophy. New York: Georg Olms Verlag Hildesheim.
5. Frisius [Fries], JohannJacob. Orationes de officio vitae ministrorum Ecclesiae et de eorumdem concordia. Tiguri: Apud C. Froschouerum, 1593.
6. Rand, Benjamin. Bibliography of Philosophy, Psychology, and Cognate Subjects. Vol. III of Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology. Edited by James Mark Baldwin. New York: Macmillan, 1901–05
7. Hans E. Bynagle (1997). Philosophy: A Guide to the Reference Literature, 2nd ed. Englewood, Colo. Libraries Unlimited, Inc. pp. 87–88.
","txt","2","",""
"2142","15","Visualization, Interactivity and Contextualization as Digital Cultural Empowerment: Ancient Egyptian Architectural Terminology Online","2","Working in an international setting, such as the international archaeological community in Egypt, brings to the fore that the communication is by definition multi-lingual and, secondly, that international understanding is faced with serious problems of translation. Even if English is used as the modern lingua franca, the different associations connected to terms, based on the various meanings of the terminology in the mother tongue, can cause serious misunderstandings. This is particularly true for communications in which detailed and specialized terminologies are involved. Even in languages that are reasonably close, such as English, French and German, similar sounding terms have developed into a different range of meaning, thus adding to the confusion: a non-native speaker assumes to know the meaning of a term which has the same root, while in reality that meaning does only partly overlap, or diverges completely. The situation becomes even more complex when languages from quite different families, such as Arabic, are included. A translation conveys only part of the term, without touching upon all the linked associations and unspoken meanings. The Arabic term “athar”, for instance, is uses as a translation for “antiquities” or “monuments”, while the core meaning is “remnants” and thus does not convey the strong associations with Greek and Latin antiquity and a world of scholarly and cultural tradition going back to the renaissance that the English term carries with it. Added to that are the very real sensitivities of using the language of former colonizing powers to describe a country’s cultural heritage.

The multi-lingual scholarly environment of Egyptian archaeology requires a broad knowledge of specialized terminology, much of which is related to ancient Egyptian architecture. Architectural terms are often used indiscriminately and confusingly. English, French and German terminology leans heavily on jargon developed by the long tradition of the study of Greek and Roman buildings, such as temples, civic establishments, theatres and other monumental structures. Arabic communications on architecture either use loan words from English, French or Italian, or adopt terms from Islamic architecture, dating to much later periods and a different cultural setting.

Digital Humanities enable an approach that provides possibilities of conveying information in alternative ways. Architectural terminology can and should be understood in its physical, temporal and cultural context. By linking terms to a range of specific buildings they are embedded in place and time. Furthermore, the use of images, colors and interactive interfaces, enables visual learning and avoids lengthy definitions that often obfuscate, rather than clarify. Each multi-lingual equation of terms merits an in-depth discussion and could be the subject of a little conference, but that defies the practical purpose of providing a workable resource to enhance communication.   

A cooperation between the German Archaeological Institute Cairo and the University of California, Los Angeles, takes a practical, contextual, visual approach to clarifying architectural terms. Although the function of terminology is partly to enable a certain degree of generalization, studying architecture in its cultural context enables research that teases out temporal and regional differences and developments as well. Furthermore, by including a wide range of building types, including pyramids and workmen’s huts, the entire range of building types common in a particular era and region are taken into account.

The multi-lingual terminology uses photographs and drawings of actual building parts, rather than stylized reconstruction drawings to enable this contextual approach. The drawings and photographs of building parts and architectural details are linked to georeferenced plans of specific ancient buildings. Thus architectural terms in four languages (English, Arabic, German, and French) are illustrated within their architectural and cultural context.

The viewer developed to present the terminology is GIS-based and provides not only the building context, but also the geographical context for the building parts under discussion. The building plans are presented in three different forms: actual state, reconstruction and a plan indicating different building phases. In addition elevations, cross sections and architectural details are added, based on existing publications and ground checking in the field. A team of Egyptian architects create AutoCAD drawings of the selected buildings, and is involved in field checking and photography. An interactive interface enables the user to virtually “step into the plan” by knowing the exact location location, direction, angle and tilt of photographs incorporated in the system. This will enable the user to orient him/herself in the building. It is not the same as being physically present in the actual building, but it avoids the complete divorce of the visual realm from the bodily context.

The result is a freely available web resource which empowers users from various cultural backgrounds and different disciplinary training.  The Ancient Egyptian Architecture Online (Aegaron) project  provides users with vetted architectural drawings and a very practical and accessible way of comparing architectural, archaeological, historical and egyptological concepts.

References
dai.aegaron.ucla.edu","txt","2","",""
"2143","15","Visualizing Computational, Transversal Narratives from the World Trade Towers","10","I. Introduction

Following the attacks of September 11, 2001, interviews were conducted with first responders to the World Trade Towers. Each of those 503 interviews describes one witness account of the event – skyscrapers collapsing, choking dust, chaotic communications, fatal desperation. Although focused on individual narratives, each interview corresponds to a larger sequence of events: two massive violations of the right to life that took place in New York City. Given this larger frame, a documentation source dense relative to the event's spatiotemporality, and the evocative, idiosyncratic nature of testimony, we developed a method to computationally elicit and visualize the narratives running across the corpus. This paper describes the work's narratological theory, the visualization developed to facilitate the identification and exploration of transversal narratives, and our analysis of the World Trade Center (WTC) Task Force Interviews.
II. Fabula and witness testimony

As testimony, for 1, is centered on the body, and the body is contingent with the witness, our analyses focused on the fabular, raw events of the narrative as a foundation for crossdocument coreference. Narrative testimonies like these are, to 2, speech acts in the public sphere that serve to solidify a collective memory. Witnessing, consequently, is historiography dependent upon comprehensible dramatic unity as put forward in 3. Narratology indicates that the four primary elements of fabula are events, actors, time, and location 4. This corresponds to the events model proposed by 5 for human rights violations reporting. Accordingly, we extracted information from the WTC corpus corresponding to these elements, enalbling the decontextualization of information from existing narration, the identification of conflicting, factually questionable accounts, and the visualization of transversal narratives.
III. Applied narratology

The semi-automated information extraction pipeline described in necessitated a method for spatio-temporal interpolation based on keyframing. Events appearing in many narratives, such as the collision of Flight 175 into Tower 2, become key moments for emploting fabula. Given a sufficient number of these events, and of geocodable locations, absolute referents for intermediary material can be interpolated with an accuracy sufficient for correlation. Lookups to gazetteers provided absolute keyframe data. 
For extracted Storygrams (computed fabula) of person-place-time without absolute reference, a dramaturgical sequence numbering system was used to emplot all events in the order in which they occurred. These sequence numbers were used to provide interpolated time for events between keytimes. Quotations were used for the named and unnamed entities. Gazetteers were developed to provide absolute values for key times and locations; the global timing list contained 11 events, of which 8 were used. The location list comprised 2,151 names indicating 1,399 unique locations. Many locations lacked a geocodable referent. In those cases, we interpolated the data to suggest a likely location. Recognition of Storygram elements enabled cross-document coreference of implicit entities. Correlation of personal and global data, when visualized, revealed narratives running transversely throughout the corpus.
IV. Narrative visualization

Many tools can visualize temporal aspects of events, notably timeviz.net 7, and Google charts. Spatial visualization is dominated by mapping tools like Google Maps and Earth, Open Street Maps, ArcGIS, and MapBox. Tools like Google Earth visually animate changes over time. Animations are cognitively demanding, requiring viewers to track changes frame-by-frame. Irregular intervals make this task more problematic.
Multiple interactive 2D synchronous views for time and location are an alternative to animations; operations like zooming, panning, and filtering in one view automatically updates the remaining views. Color and shape are other ways to represent event information. Jern et al. use color coding to link temporal data with spatial data 8. Color meaning is culturally dependent, so it is not reliably intuitive. In addition, color palettes have to be constrained to allow for visual disambiguation, thereby forcing the system to artificially bin events to a number of discrete color values. Event type diversity should dictate design, not the number of recognizable color options. Shapes present their own challenges 9. Events can also be shown using a 3D space like Kachina Cube 10.The cube base on the X-Y plane contains a map and the Z-axis represents time. Though 'details-on-demand' techniques can be applied to the visualization, this approach suffers from generic 3D problems like glyph cluttering and scalability. Also, it is often hard in 3D UIs to compare data points in two dimensions (X-Y and Z).
V. Storygraph and narrative

To visualize the narratives and address the issues above, we developed a 2D integrated spatiotemporal visualization called Storygraph 11. Storygraph, an extension of parallel coordinates 12, has two parallel vertical axes and an orthogonal horizontal axis. Our novel application adapts this information-rich visualization technique for the presentation of explicit and implicit narrative. The vertical axes represent latitude and longitude and the orthogonal axis represents time. A map location, such as a city or street corner, is represented as a line segment linking the parallel axes. Events occurring at a location are represented by a point on the location line as shown in Figure 1. This technique shows, in 2D, the scope of a corpus, the relative frequency of documentation at all locations in the corpus, and patterns like co-occurrence in time, co-occurrence at location, or co-occurrence in time and location – one of the unique properties of Storygraph.
Storygraph also facilitates Storylines: linear connections emphasizing the movement of people through the spatiotemporal context of the corpus. Storylines are polyline segments chronologically connecting entities at location. In our implementation, we use dotted lines for storylines to mark the uncertain space between observations.
VI. Visualizations of transversal narratives of 9/11

We applied our visualization to the WTC corpus comprising 17,000 question and answer pairs aimed to elicit first-person narratives of the event. To feed the data into the Storygraph, named and unnamed entities were extracted. This semi-automated process involved much manual verification due to the ambiguity in the natural language.
Gray lines in Storygraph in Figure 1 indicate locations. Each red point shows one Storygram. Black vertical bars indicate global events: the collapse of Tower 1 and Tower 2, the period when people were seen leaping from the towers. The horizontal funnel layout of the points, with the mouth to the left axis, indicates that documentation shows people converging from a wider geographic area to the narrow area around Ground Zero. In essence, Figure 1 shows first responders converging on the scene of two terrorist attacks.

Fig. 1: Storygraph showing all the events extracted from the narratives of the firefighters.
Figure 2 uses the same data to show Storylines of four emergency personnel as they move throughout the spatio-temporal corpus domain. Four features in Figure 2 are of particular importance. First, the geographic domain is highly constrained and covers an area from Staten Island to Central Park. Second, with just 10-20 extracted fabula, a sense of the path of these individuals through the event emerges. The chaotic jumble of points in the period from 8:39 AM to 9:30 AM corresponds to the event's most chaotic moments. Third, the lines of Firefighters Loutsky and Smith stabilize at two locations as they move from emergent crisis to emergency care. And finally, there is the blue storyline of Chief Ganci, which ends at 10 : 12 at 40.71, −74.01, approximately 16 minutes prior to the collapse of WTC Tower 1. Chief Ganci, the highest ranking uniformed fire officer in FDNY, died in that collapse. What Storygraph enables is the identification and organization of fragments from others' statements to reveal the story of what happened to Ganci that day.

Fig. 2: Storylines of three firefighters and one EMT.
VII. Next steps: violations taxonomy and the South Africa truth and reconciliation corpus

Extensions of this work will begin with analysis of South Africas Truth and Reconciliation Proceedings. Over a two-year period, the TRC collected 7,000 amnesty applications and 22,000 witness statements describing 34 years of abuses occurring nationwide. This material will expand our techniques to larger geographic contexts, more diverse time frames, elements of a second-language, and a much wider range of rights violations. As each mass violation event has a particular violations ecology 13, one challenge for violations researchers is to identify the emblematic subset of violations. Currently, we are working on methods for the automatic correlation of a violation description to a taxonomy of violations 14. This method will help classify the narrative events in the context of particular violations within each narrative and further our work in entity resolution. It will also expand our methods into what Salway and Herman refer to as top-down, hypothesis-driven, and bottom-up, data-driven, methods 15. Additional visualization elements currently under development include UI tweaks to automatically generate a colorspace, and analytic affordances allowing for the drilling down from Storygrams to the original source document fragments.
References

1. Felman, S. (1995) Education and crisis, or the vicissitudes of teaching. In Trauma: Explorations in memory, C. Caruth, Ed. JHU Press, pp. 13 – 60.
2. Torchin, L. (2012) University of Minnesota Press.
3. White, H. The structure of historical narrative (2010). In The fiction of narrative: Essays on history, literature, and theory, 1957–2007. JHU Press.
4. Bal, M. (1997) Narratology: Introduction to the theory of narrative. University of Toronto Press.
5. Ball, P.D. (1996) In Who did what to whom?: planning and implementing a large scale human rights data project, American Association for the Advancement of Science Washington, DC.
6. Miller, B., Shresta, A., Derby, J., Olive, J., Umpathy, K., Li, F., and Zhao, Y. Z. (2013) Digging into human rights violations: Data modelling and collective memory. In IEEE Big Data 2013 (10 2013).
7. Aigner, W., Miksch, S., Müller, W., Sschumann, H., and Tominski, C. (2007) Visualizing time-oriented data systematic view. Computers & Graphics 31, 3, 401–409.
8. Jern, M., and Franzen, J. (2006) ”geoanalytics” - exploring spatio-temporal and multivariate data. In Proceedings of Tenth International Conference on Information Visualization (july 2006), pp. 25 –31.
9. Fry, B. (2000) Organic information design. Master’s thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA.
10. Ohno, S., Saito, S., and Inaba, M. (2010) A platform for mining and visualizing regional collective culture. In Culture and computing. Springer, pp. 188–199.
11. Shresta, A., Miller, B., Zhu, Y., and Zhao, Y. (2013) Storygraph: extracting patterns from spatio-temporal data. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGKDD Workshop on Interactive Data Exploration and Analytics (New York, NY, USA), IDEA ’13, ACM, pp. 95–103.
12. Inselberg, A. (1985) The plane with parallel coordinates. The Visual Computer 1, 2, 69–91.
13. Cross, N., and Jarvis, H. (1999) CGDB: Cambodian Genocide Data Bases. Input Manual for CBIB: CGP Bibliographic Database. Documentation Center of Cambodia, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
14. Dueck, J., Guzman, M., Verstappen, B., and Huridocs. (2001) Micro-thesauri: a tool for documenting human rights violations, vol. 12. and distributed by Huridocs Advice and Support Unit/Secretariat 48 chemin du Grand-Montfleury CH-1290 Versoix Switzerland Tel. 41.22. 755 5252, fax 41.22. 755 5260 Electronic mail: huridocs@ comlink. org Website: www. huridocs. org.
15. Salway, A., And Herman, D. (2011) Digitized corpora as theory-building resource: New methods for narrative inquiry. In New Narratives: Stories and Storytelling in the Digital Age, R. Page and B. Thomas, Eds. U of Nebraska Press.
","txt","2","",""
"2144","15","Visualizing Global News","10","Fig. 1: Elizabeth Losh and members of Software Studies Initiative explore media visualization of 113 ￼video public addresses by U.S. President Barack Obama. Visualizations are available at http://lab.softwarestudies.com/2011/09/digging-into-global-news.html
Television news often serves as the first, most vivid draft of history and shapes the conventions of political speech and civic participation around the world, but undertaking systematic analysis of large digitized corpora of broadcast news video archives and even smaller corpora of government information videos in the public record presents a number of technical, methodological, and institutional challenges. Although a deeper understanding of how the news is represented in moving images promises to improve access to historical records, participation in public dialogue, and education at all levels, large corpora of video news programs are considerably more difficult to catalog, mine, and visualize than text news collections. Furthermore, new forms of dissemination, annotation, and commentary made possible by the Internet are rapidly transforming video news consumption on a global scale. At the same time, traditional newspapers of record are incorporating more multimedia content, so new computational methods such as video search will become increasingly necessary for researchers working with all news collections. By collaborating with archivists and computer scientists, it is possible to analyze visual rhetoric in very large video collections using media visualization
“Visualizing Global News” studies how excerpts from large collections of political speech videos with historically significant personages are remixed into even larger collections of news broadcasts. It applies new techniques in search and visualization to aid both humanities researchers and the greater public interested in exploring the visual details, aesthetic features, and narrative context of source footage that is reused in news broadcasts. The project focuses on materials from four political figures who appear in video news from 2001 to 2011 and tags and visualizes a rich set of intersecting corpora: newscasts from the US program Democracy Now!, the Qatar news channel Al Jazeera English, the top-rated Dutch news show NOS Journaal. This video corpus contains over 30,000 separate news programs, and over 2,000 videos of political speeches.
As participants in the Digital Media Analysis, Search and Management (DMASM) international workshops, we are well aware of the technical problems plaguing automatic systems and that even distinguishing foreground objects from backgrounds can be challenging. Nonetheless, the MediaMill technology has performed well in the yearly TRECVID benchmark competition, and ImagePlot can create compelling visualizations working with key frames. Our presentation aims to provide a policy overview of the opportunities and challenges of DH with global video news archives. Currently the “big data” problem of identifying heterogeneous sources in moving image archives has been largely funded by corporations interested in protecting intellectual property and state entities interested in surveillance. Without digital humanities scholars playing a larger role and generating research questions that merit publication, the most vivid aspects of the historical record are likely to remain under-theorized and analyzed without large- scale comparative study across nations and periods. 

Visual rhetoric has a long tradition in the humanities that includes analysis of symbolic objects in portraits of world leaders or the choreography of their oratorical performances. However, contemporary news broadcasts present historical figures in the public record in increasingly visually complex ways that use massive collections of heterogeneous and frequently unsourced footage, motion graphics, and digital effects.
In this project we use new computational and visualization techniques to foster new forms of humanities scholarship and public access to historical records. Political figures produce memoirs, letters, editorials, and other forms of written discourse, but the speeches they compose are also performed and thus can be analyzed as much more than written texts. Now that the speeches of contemporary political leaders are recorded and archived, humanists have a rich record of public rhetoric to analyze that includes facial expression, bodily gesture, vocal performance, and frequently the use of sets and props. In the era of digital video new editing and compositing techniques are also part of the “official version” of a given speech, and portions of these speeches may be further edited and composited when they appear as part of news broadcasts. Broadcasters may adopt (or reject) signature visual styles that brand their programs and even signal their political orientation, and these markers of visual rhetoric can be mapped over time or represented comparatively (Manovich, 2011b). Scholars in the fields of rhetoric, performance studies, history, journalism, film and media studies, and civic education can compare and contrast visual and verbal political messages and changes over time in large video collections.
While a transcript of a given speech may give humanities scholars information about word use and specific references to people, places, and events, much of the rhetoric of the news is actually nonverbal. For example, the use of slow motion, freeze frame, or replay techniques may change the meaning of a given rhetorical moment. Visual arguments in news programs are now often advanced by compelling editing, dazzling information graphics, or aesthetic choices that privilege aspects such as warm lighting or patriotic color schemes. At the same time, the size of digital collections of video news is growing rapidly in response to a number of trends: 1) cable television and satellite television, which spawned the twenty-four-hour news cycle, have become international phenomena, 2) television stations now create web-only content to draw Internet viewers to their programs online, 3) newspapers are incorporating multimedia content and interactive features in archives that once only indexed print news, and 4) bloggers and vloggers involved in citizen journalism have participated in a dramatic expansion of the scope and scale of independent media.
The difficulty of humanities news analysis is exacerbated by the fact that a typical television news program is actually “database cinema” (Manovich 2005) composed of many different kinds of source footage, including studio shots of anchors, field reporting, tock footage, video news releases, government public relations materials, and witness journalism from cell phones and mobile devices. Source clips may not be attributed much less tagged with date, location, individuals shown, or person/organization behind the camera (Losh 2008, Gregory 2010), and the meaning of objects or gestures in the frame, as evidence of the intention or motivation of particular political actors, can be controversial (Losh 2011).
The UCSD project team created visualizations with the official digital video archive from the Obama administration at WhiteHouse.gov that focused on the collection of “Weekly Addresses” directly addressing an imagined American Internet viewer that includes extensive discussions about current events that range from repeated occurrences (economic boosterism, holiday celebrations, etc.) to one-time disasters and tragedies (the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, the shootings at Fort Hood, etc.). UCSD has also examined a significant subset of videos in the WhiteHouse.gov archive that are addressed to audiences abroad as part of U.S. public diplomacy campaigns, which are sometimes also remixed into global news broadcasts. Even a country with a relatively small population or one that is not usually considered critical to U.S. interests, such as Côte d'Ivoire, may have a designated Obama direct address. This dataset allows those studying the visual rhetoric of international relations to work with a particularly rich and dense corpus that includes acknowledgement of cultural exchanges and national holidays. For example, historians studying U.S. Iranian relations in the twenty first century could look closely at three separate annual addresses recorded by Barack Obama that were intended to go directly to the people of Iran on the occasion of Nowrūz, the Persian new year. Each address is fundamentally different in tone and diction, as the U.S.-Iranian diplomatic relationship seems to deteriorate, as well as in shot composition and White House location.
Media created by a sitting U.S. president are always historically significant, but media created by Barack Obama -- the first test case area in this project -- are especially interesting to humanities researchers. In addition to scholarship done by rhetoricians, historians, political scientists, and performance studies and communication scholars, Barack Obama has also generated significant scholarly attention worldwide from those who study American popular culture, race relations, religion, gender, class, civic participation, digital culture, and globalization. The volume of scholarly publication of peer-reviewed books and articles about Obama and the large number of conferences, panels, and talks reflect the potential importance of this collection to scholarly discourse.
The Obama official video corpus has also been significant for the international press, which often uses content from the weekly addresses and other WhiteHouse.gov speeches and public statements in news broadcasts shown worldwide. Researchers at UCSD have noted the presence of material from the official Obama corpus in global broadcasts that include shows from the BBC, PressTV in Iran, Al Arabiya in the United Arab Emirates, ABS-CBN in the Philippines, and many others. The expense of maintaining news bureaus abroad is an obvious reason to rebroadcast free HD footage, but stations often add their own visuals and editorial commentary. For example, the Indian television network NDTV cropped official U.S. government footage from “President Obama’s Statement on Credit Downgrade” and added its own corporate branding along with a skeptical digital banner that read “Obama Assures But Dow Plunges.” 

Fig. 3: UCSD visualization of White House government records footage of an Obama speech to the Iranian people (top) and visualizations of how the same speech appears in Democracy Now! (middle) and Al Jazeera English (bottom). To create these visualizations, the UCSD team first used open source software to automatically detect shot boundaries in the video, and then applied media visualization tools to create a grid of images where each image is the first frame of each UCSD visualization of White House government records footage of an Obama speech to the Iranian people (top) and visualizations of how the same speech appears in Democracy Now! (middle) and Al Jazeera English (bottom). To create these visualizations, the UCSD team first used open source software to automatically detect shot boundaries in the video, and then applied media visualization tools to create a grid of images where each image is the first frame of each shot.
Working with a large set of news archives from different sources will also allow us to develop possible answers to a number of critical research questions for archivists: How can we build systems that allow users to compare historical world events from different national or political perspectives? How can we connect one nation’s collections to the collections of others, and how will those connected collections benefit users? Given the capabilities of new search tools, how can we best improve cataloging processes, which currently depend on costly manual input, to make collections broadly usable and accessible? How can we begin to trace the re-use and re-contextualization of primary materials, in particular, news materials?

Fig. 4: President Obama's 2009 Nowruz address to the Iranian people as excerpted by the TV news program Democracy Now! Each frame represents one shot of the program. The frames are arranged in the order of shots (left to right, top to bottom). Shot 19 (third column, third row) is the excerpt from President Obama'a video address.

Fig. 5: President Obama's 2009 Nowruz address excerpted by Al Jazeera TV broadcast. Each frame represents a sequential shot of the program. Shots 5 and 6 (first row) are excerpts from President Obama's video address.
References

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Douglass, Jeremy (2009, January). Computer visions of computer games: Analysis and visualization of play recordings. Workshop at Media Arts, Science, and Technology (MAST) 2009: The Future of Interactive Media. University of California, Santa Barbara.
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Jamieson, Kathleen (1988). Eloquence in an Electronic Age: the Transformation of Political Speechmaking. New York: Oxford University Press.
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Lévy, Maurice & European Commission (2011). The New Renaissance. Brussels: European Commission.
Losh, Elizabeth (2008). Government YouTube: Bureaucracy, surveillance, and legalism in state sanctioned online video channels. In Geert Lovink & Sabine Niederer (Eds.), Video vortex reader (pp. 111-124). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Institute of Network Cultures.
Losh, Elizabeth (2009). Virtualpolitik: An electronic history of government media-making in a time of war, scandal, disaster, miscommunication, and mistakes. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Losh, Elizabeth & Alexander, Jonathan (2010). 'A YouTube of one's Own?': 'Coming out' narratives as rhetorical action. In Christopher Pullen & Margaret Cooper (Eds.), LGBT identity and online new media (pp. 23-36). New York, NY: Routledge.
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"2145","15","Visualizing Homelessness","2","This poster presentation asks the question: How can data visualization techniques facilitate new analyses of homelessness?
  The project originates with a partnership between the Edmonton Pipelines research group at the University of Alberta, Canada, and Homeward Trust, a “community-based, comprehensive housing organization that provides leadership and resources toward ending homelessness in Edmonton [Alberta].” 1Since 1999, Homeward Trust has produced a bi-annual “Homeless Count” – a one-day snapshot of homelessness in the city.  The 10 “Counts” produced to date, alongside the city of Calgary’s, represent the largest number of homeless counts conducted in any Canadian city. The data are collected manually (by volunteers), compiled into spreadsheets, and a hard copy research report is produced. Importantly, this report then becomes a key tool for policy makers, social service agencies, and all levels of government. 
  Homeward Trust approached the Pipelines team in 2012 to ask for assistance in producing alternate format reports, in order to more fully use and understand the data they were collecting.  They were most immediately interested in mapping their data, which fits with the expertise of the Pipelines team, but over the course of our collaboration, they’ve become increasingly interested in how they can use other forms of visualizations to fulfill their mandate.
  This poster is the result of our collaboration.  It includes: 1) an outline of the methodology used by Homeward Trust to produce  “The Count,” including their rationale for it its known limitations; 2) a number of experimental visualizations of the data, including heatmaps and infographics; 3) a series of arguments about what we can learn about homelessness based on these visualization techniques; and 4) some proposals for future research, including supplemental data gathering techniques and historical comparison, in order to more fully avail ourselves of the possibilities that the visualization techniques make possible for community-based research and action.
  To date, Homeward Trust has relied on conventional communication techniques to share its results.  It produces a narrative report of approximately 40 pages that provides a narrative summary of the data, and a series of graphs and tables (bar graphs, pie charts etc.) that conventionally represent demographic data.  The content of the graphs and tables are also conventional given the dataset: what percentage of homeless people are men? Are aboriginal? Are within certain age ranges?  Certain attributes are also cross-referenced, so the count provides an account of, for example, gender broken down by age or by type of homelessness (but not both).  Overall, it is a robust piece of work produced with very few resources, but the written report is the only public record of the research and the data.  
  The visualizations that our team has produced are able to ask very different questions and produce different results.  By producing heatmaps, for example, we are able to ask whether particular age or ethnicity groups tend to gather in particular areas and not others. In identifying those areas, we can begin to hypothesize what particular affordances a specific location might offer to a particular demographic.  Similarly, by geo-locating the data and overlaying it with known social service agencies, we’re able to analyze whether homeless people tend to congregate around those services designed for them.  If so, which ones? Again this allows us to hypothesize about why that might be the case (or not, as the case may be). Given the extent of the dataset, we can also track these dynamics over time to see how these populations have moved over the course of more than a decade.  We can even make inferences about whether particular forms of urban renewal and development push homeless populations out of their traditional comfort zones.
  These serve as a few examples of how specifically geo-located visualizations can assist us in interpreting the data.  Beyond the geo-spatial models, however, we are also producing infographics, both static and dynamic, as further means of facilitating access to the data.  The static infographics are being purposefully designed as educational tools to be used by Homeward Trust in their outreach activities with the broader population.  For example, the infographic that displays the basic demographic information deliberately uses human figures as icons in order to remind its audience of the humanity of the subject at hand; similarly, a second infographic asks its users to ""how many homeless people are like me?"" and allows users to input their own age, gender, ethnicity etc. and to see themselves reflected in the homeless population.  Lastly, a graph database, currently under construction, will allow us to visualize many more relations and combinations than the static infographics are able to portray, and will facilitate exploration of the data by both service providers and the general public.  
At the first stages of this project, we are limiting our approach to one year's data (2012).  The next stage will be to broaden our reach to the historical data sets and to begin to formulate comparisons across time.
References

1. Homeward Trust. 2012 Edmonton Homeless Count. www.homewardtrust.ca/images/resources/2013-01-22-11-53FINAL%20%202012%20Homeless%20Count.pdf","txt","2","",""
"2146","15","Visualizing theatrical heritage: Computer modelling as a tool for researching the theatre history of the Low Countries","2","1. Introduction

In an article, published in 1981, the British theatre scholars C.M. Fogarty and Thomas Lawrenson wrote that the “reconstruction is perhaps the approach in theatre scholarship which comes closest to seizing the essence of the art of theatre.""1 Fogarty and Lawrenson referred to reconstructions of historical performances. However, in my poster presentation I will present a different kind of reconstruction: virtual reconstructions of early modern theatre buildings. More specifically, I intend to illustrate how computer models can help theatre and literature historians to better understand and present the vanished theatrical heritage of the Low Countries (present-day Belgium and the Netherlands).
2. Background

Computer modelling and virtual reconstructions are not new. Since John Golder’s experimental reconstruction of the seventeenth-century Théâtre du Marais (Paris),2 a handful of theatre scholars have, with the help of the computer, reconstructed and visualized historical theatres, with much attention going to early modern (1500-1800) theatres 3. Nevertheless, despite the advances in computer modelling and despite 3D modelling software becoming more accessible, such an approach has not been attempted for the early modern theatre history in the Low Countries, even though the approach has a number of potential advantages.
The Low Countries have a rich and dynamic early modern theatre history, including many amateur theatre societies, Chambers of Rhetoric, court theatres, and commercial theatres. Furthermore, the rise and fall of certain theatre evolutions is strongly linked to the tumultuous economic evolutions of the region’s cities. Theatre buildings are an externalization of both these theatrical and economic/urban evolutions. Nevertheless, present-day theatre historiography tells us very little about what these theatre buildings looked like. The economic decline and the lack of world-renowned playwrights have played a role in that, but the lack of (easy to interpret) iconographic evidence is at least as problematic. Often only a combination of information from indirect archival sources, the plays written for these theatres, and ambiguous iconographic material, will tell us more about these places of theatrical performance. Computer models are excellent receptacles for this information, for testing hypotheses and even for studying rejected designs.
The poster presentation will be based on the experiences and results of ongoing research at the University of Antwerp (Literature Department). Part of this research initially focused on creating models of the early modern theatres of Antwerp. Later the research was expanded to include theatres from Ghent (Belgium) and Amsterdam (the Netherlands). So far fourteen theatres or locations of theatrical performances have been reconstructed. I will illustrate my poster with a number of images of these models.
3. Aspects

The poster presentation will include information on the following aspects:
Methodology & data:What sources are available (i.e. what data/input do we have)? What can these sources tell us (i.e. what value does the data have)? What software could be used?
Output: What types of reconstructions can be used, i.e. what can these virtual models look like? I will show both more realistic and visually attractive textured reconstructions on the one hand (fig.1), and more abstract and less hypothetical grey-scale isometric images on the other (fig.2).
Advantages: I wish to address some of the advantages of computer modelling in the field of the theatre history of the Low Countries. For example: virtual reconstructions allow us to show what is lost (both to academic peers and to a general audience); they facilitate any discussion of the theatres; they are “sophisticated tools in primary research—the historians’ usual labor of unravelling what the sources do and do not reveal about a performance”;4 the models help students to dive right into the theatrical heritage, etc.5
Next steps: I wish to list a number of potential next steps. These include the creation of a database with standardized, comparable models. But also the reconstruction of less obvious theatrical buildings (e.g. a twentieth-century Dutch synagogue which was later transformed into a community centre/theatre).

Fig. 1: Grand Théâtre, Antwerp, 1711

Fig. 2: German Theatre, Amsterdam, ca.1795
References

1. C.M. Fogarty and Tom Lawrenson (1981), The lessons of the reconstructed performance, Theatre Survey 22, 141-159. Also see: • Robert K. Sarlós (1989), Performance reconstruction: the virtual link between the past and the future, in Thomas Postlewait & Bruce A. McConachie (eds.), Interpreting the Theatrical Past. Essays in the Historiography of Performance. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press), pp. 198-247.
2. John Golder. (1984) The Théâtre du Marais in 1644: a new look at the old evidence concerning France's second public theatre, Theatre Survey 25, pp.127-152.
3. David Thomas (1999), The design of the Théâtre du Marais and Wren's Theatre Royal, Drury Lane: A computer-based investigation, Theatre Notebook 53:3, pp. 127-145; Christa Williford (2001), Computer Modelling Classical French Theatre Spaces: Three Reconstructions, in Philip Tomlinson (ed.), French ‘Classical’ Theatre Today. Teaching, Research, Performance (Amsterdam: Rodopi), pp. 155-164; Frank Mohler (1999a), The Survival of the Mechanized Flat Wing Change: The Court Theatres of Gripsholm, Cesky Krumlov, and Drottningholm, in Theatre Design & Technology (1999a): 6-56; Frank Mohler (2004), The Chateau Theatre in Litomysl and the Scenery of Josef Platzer, in Theatre Design & Technology (2004): 24-31.
4. David Thomas (1999), The design of the Théâtre du Marais and Wren's Theatre Royal, Drury Lane: A computer-based investigation, Theatre Notebook 53:3, pp. 127-145; Christa Williford (2001), Computer Modelling Classical French Theatre Spaces: Three Reconstructions, in Philip Tomlinson (ed.), French ‘Classical’ Theatre Today. Teaching, Research, Performance (Amsterdam: Rodopi), pp. 155-164; Frank Mohler (1999a), The Survival of the Mechanized Flat Wing Change: The Court Theatres of Gripsholm, Cesky Krumlov, and Drottninghol, in Theatre Design & Technology: 6-56; Frank Mohler (2004), The Chateau Theatre in Litomysl and the Scenery of Josef Platzer, in Theatre Design & Technology: 24-31.
5. Richard Beacham (1999, ‘Eke out our performance with your mind’: reconstructing the theatrical past with the aid of computer simulation, in Terry Coppock (ed.), Information Technology and Scholarship. Applications in the Humanities (London: The British Library), pp. 131-154; Frank Mohler (1999), Computer Modelling as a Tool for the Reconstruction of Historic Theatrical Production Techniques, Theatre Journal 51:4, pp. 417-431.","txt","2","",""
"2147","15","What is Modeling and What is Not?","3","In A Companion to Digital Humanities1, Willard McCarty cites Nelson Goodman in saying that the term 'model' can be used to denote ""almost anything from a naked blonde to a quadratic equation"". Indeed the terms 'model' and 'modeling' seem almost painfully polysemous. Nevertheless within Digital Humanities we cannot ignore the terms or the concepts behind them—the notions are inextricably linked to what is one of the core objectives of humanities computing2, namely to render humanities data computationally tractable3 and processable45 to enhance our abilities for analysis. 
In light of the renewed debate on modeling in Digital Humanities6 this panel proposes to investigate how humanists currently understand the role and meaning of modeling, and how we may arrive at an understanding of the term appropriate for humanities research and pedagogy.
McCarty stated a decade ago that the humanities lack a disciplined way of talking about modeling7 which makes it extremely difficult to define the properties and uses of appropriate models for humanities research. Modeling is a commonplace implicit activity in digital humanities, yet our modeling activities are almost never explicitly discussed as such, and it is rarely pointed out that many of our results are in fact models: charts, probabilistic methods, interfaces to the information we structure in databases. This implicitness is attested by our language use. We do not speak of ""modeling an analogy"" or of ""modeling a chart"". We ""make"" or ""create"" them as concrete representations of an implicit and abstract model.
Yet, given the concrete applications and results that can already be seen within the humanities, modeling needs to be a humanities praxis to the same extent as it already is in other scientific fields such as biology and physics. As the social sciences –more specifically the ethnography practices in Science & Technology Studies for instance– show us, praxis by definition can be studied and interrogated for its properties by observing and following its practitioners8. This panel provides a first step in such observant interrogation. 
In the computational domain modeling can be delineated in a narrow mathematical sense where model theory9 defines Turing complete languages as models or instantiations of logic constructed from formulas (i.e. syntax or rules) and signatures (i.e. vocabulary or objects). Thus, computer languages are themselves mathematical models of logic. They provide a layer of expressive logic that in turn allows us to compositionally model data, objects and their relations10. Analogous to the statement made by Peter Robinson about interfaces11, we can argue that such a composition or model expresses an intellectual argument about the real world entities and relations they mimic, capture, or simulate—an intellectual argument that is made on several levels through the computational model and that eventually is communicated to an observer (or user) by way of its interface.
In recent years we find most notably the application of modeling in order to create maps, graphs, trees1213, analogies, diagrams, charts, simulations14, and stylometric analyses15, as well as in discourse analysis, topic modeling, and narrative modeling16. If the successful computational analytical models are quantitatively and statistically founded, does that mean that humanities modeling must necessarily be anchored in the somewhat narrowly defined models that are generally associated with quantification and computer science
More generally, must the concepts of ‘model’ and ‘modeling’ appropriate for Digital Humanities be bound solely by parameters of the mathematical foundations of binary logic? Modeling as activity and concept applies more widely to the humanities than merely in its computational applications. Is it possible to turn around the dynamic of the computational 'stack', so that rather than having mathematics drive humanities computability, the properties of humanistic problems and the data behind them might drive models of computation? We can argue that the goal of any computational approach within the humanities is to render computable the complexity, the abstraction, the ambiguity, the subjectivity, and multiplicity of perspective of the humanities17. Similarly: how do we encompass aspects of modeling present in simulation and (serious) gaming18 of which the humanistic aspects seem to transcend the narrow mathematical connotation of ‘model’? And how does modeling relate to the continuing history of developing and redeveloping digital humanities tools that–rather than merely representing infrastructure–creates a record of intellectual theorizing humanistic computational models?19 How do we break out of the mathematical sandbox defined by first-order logic to do justice to the modalities of humanities? Does this require completely new models for data, logic, and representation? Does it require a general theory of modeling? Even a new symbolic language inspired by the humanities?
This panel brings together some of the most visible practitioners of computational methods within the humanities who have captured analytic models in software code, as well as some of the most influential figures of what might be called 'tacit modeling theory in digital humanities'. We invite them to consider the characteristics of humanities modeling and how those contrast with computational modeling and mathematical modeling, so as to determine what idiosyncrasies modeling might have in a humanities domain. Do these idiosyncrasies allow us to delineate a computationally tractable vocabulary at all? To investigate these questions the panel will discuss and reflect on matters such as…
How do we address the role of modeling and models in the humanities?
How do we ensure that existing mathematical logic does not confine our ability to represent and manipulate humanistic evidence?
What benefits does a definition of modeling appropriated for the humanities hold?
What would a symbolic language for the humanities look like?
What are the standards of evaluation in modeling and do we need specific ones in the Humanities?
What is a useful vocabulary to talk about modeling in a humanities sense?
Panelists

Joris van Zundert (Chair) is in charge of methodological research at the Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands. Next to his research in computational humanities he is interested in exchanges between digital humanities and science and technology studies (STS).
Tara L. Andrews has implemented a digital workbench for the fully computational stemmatic analysis of text traditions (http://www.digitalbyzantinist.org/2012/09/announcing-stemmaweb.html). As an assistant professor of digital humanities she is currently developing and teaching a curriculum that emphasizes modeling and algorithmic approaches to humanistic analysis
Johanna Drucker vehemently called attention to the properties of humanities data that are normally neglected by mathematical and conventional computational models and analyses. She has argued that all data are in fact capta and that naïve approaches to statistics are at risk of defining all data as intrinsically quantitative
Fotis Jannidis is developing a white paper on modeling in digital humanities, a version of which will be included in the new edition of the Companion to Digital Humanities. He is a  member of the TEI consortium–most notably as the Chair of the Genetic Edition Encoding Special Interest Group. TEI can be designated the only de facto standard for text structure modeling and encoding
Mike Kestemont specializes in stylometry and together with the Computational Stylistics Group (https://sites.google.com/site/computationalstylistics/home) has developed ""Stylo"", a software package in the R statistical programming language. He is an expert of statistical models expressed through computer algorithms and applied to literature stud
Geoffrey Rockwell conceptualized a number of highly visible tools for text analyses (e.g. Voyant: http://voyant-tools.org). He is finalizing a book demonstrating amongst others how the hermeneutic and theoretical aspects of text analysis models in the form of tool development transcends mere IT mathematics and infrastructure.
Michael Sperberg-McQueen is a markup specialist by profession and was co-editor of the Extensible Markup Language (XML) specification, chair of the XML Schema working group, as well as heavily involved with the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI)
Ted Underwood works at the interface of literary history and machine learning and is particularly interested in using Bayesian statistics to develop models that reason about uncertainty in a principled way. He maintains an influential blog on his experiences in computational humanities (http://tedunderwood.com/).  
Organization of the panel

The primary selection criterion for the panelists is their expertise, but care has been taken to balance the panel as much as possible for age, gender, field, and region. The panel session will be organized as follows
The Chair will introduce the panel’s topic, discussion questions, and the panelists (10 minutes);
Each of the panelists will give a definition of modeling as a 1 minute provocative pitch (10 minutes);
An open forum between the panelists and the audience follows (60 minutes);
A circular setting of seats with panelists distributed among the attendees will be used to enhance audience participation in the discussion;
The panel discussion will be audio recorded, concise conclusions will be published to the web.
Further Reading

Checkland, P. & Holwell, S., 1998. Information, Systems, and Information Systems: Making Sense of the Field. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Davis, M., 2012. The Universal Computer: The Road From Leibniz to Turing. New York: CRC Press.
Mahoney, M.S., 2011. Histories of Computing. T. Haigh (ed.),Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Hayles, K.N., 2012. How We Think: Digital Media and Contemporary Technogenesis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Ramsay, Stephen, 2011. Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism (Topics in the Digital Humanities). Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
References

1. Schreibman, Susan, Raymond George Siemens, and John M. Unsworth (2004). A Companion to Digital Humanities. Wiley-Blackwell.
2. Unsworth, J., (2002). What Is Humanities Computing And What Is Not? G. Braungart, P. Gendolla, & F. Jannidis, eds. Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie, 4. Available at: computerphilologie.digital-humanities.de/jg02/unsworth.html (Accessed July 8, 2013).
3. Mccarty, W. (2005). Humanities Computing, New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
4. Unsworth, J., (2002). What Is Humanities Computing And What Is Not? G. Braungart, P. Gendolla, & F. Jannidis, eds. Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie, 4. Available at: computerphilologie.digital-humanities.de/jg02/unsworth.html (Accessed July 8, 2013).
5. Orlandi, T., The Scholarly Environment of Humanities Computing, A Reaction to Willard McCarty’s talk on The computational transformation of the humanities. Available at: rmcisadu.let.uniroma1.it/~orlandi/mccarty1.html (Accessed May 7, 2012).
6. Flanders, J. & Jannidis, F., (2012). Panel Discussion: Data Models in Humanities Theory and Practice, Providence (US). Available at: youtu.be/lHJmPT-VjPE (Accessed November 1, 2013).
7. McCarty, W., (2004). Modeling: A Study in Words and Meanings. In S. Schreibman, R. Siemens, & J. Unsworth, eds. A Companion to Digital Humanities. Oxford: Blackwell. Available at: www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/.
8. Kaptelinin, V. & Nardi, B.A., (2006). Acting with technology: activity theory and interaction design, Cambridge, MA, USA/London UK: MIT Press.
9. Rautenberg, W., (2009). A Concise Introduction to Mathematical Logic 3rd ed., Available at: page.mi.fu-berlin.de/raut/logic3/announce.pdf.
10. Forbus, K.D., (2008). Qualitative Modeling. In F. van Harmelen, V. Lifschitz, & B. Porter, eds. Handbook of Knowledge Representation. Foundations of Artificial Intelligence. Amsterdam, Boston, Heidelberg etc.: Elsevier, pp. 361–394.
11. Robinson, P., (2013). Five desiderata for scholarly editions in digital form. In Digital Humanities Conference 2013. Lincoln (NB, USA). Available at: dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-314.html.
12. Moretti, F. (2007). Maps, Graphs, and Trees: Abstract Models for Literary History. London: Verso.
13. Jockers, M. (2013). Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History. University of Illinois Press.
14. Mccarty, W. (2005). Humanities Computing, New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
15. Hoover, D.L., (2012). The Excel Text-Analysis Page: A Collection of Microsoft Excel © spreadsheets with macros, in the service of text-analysis. Available at: files.nyu.edu/dh3/public/The%20Excel%20Text-Analysis%20Pages.html (Accessed October 14, 2013).
16. Meister, J.C. & Gertz, M., (2013). heureCLÉA, collaborative literature exploration & annotation. heureCLÉA | Tools. Available at: heureclea.de/tools/.
17. Drucker, J., (2011). Humanities Approaches to Graphical Display. Digital Humanities Quarterly, 5(1). Available at: digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/5/1/000091/000091.html (Accessed August 24, 2012).
18. Bogdanovych, A., Cohen, A. & Roper, M., (2009). The City of Uruk: Virtual Instituions in Cultural Heritage. In Proceedings of the HCSNet 2009 Workshop on Interacting with Intelligent Virtual Characters. HCSNet 2009 Workshop on Interacting with Intelligent Virtual Characters. Sydney. Available at: www-staff.it.uts.edu.au/~anton/Publications/HCSNet09.pdf.
19. Ramsay, S. & Rockwell, G., (2012). Developing Things: Notes toward an Epistemology of Building in the Digital Humanities. In Debates in Digital Humanities. University of Minnesota Press. Available at: dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/11.","txt","2","",""
"2148","15","What remains to be done - Exposing invisible collections in the other 6500 languages and why it is a DH enterprise.","9","Introduction

In a recent overview of issues in the digital humanities, Manfred Thaller notes the importance of: “(1) access to the information needed to tackle a research question, (2) the analysis of that information by tools reflecting the methodological requirements of the specific discipline and research problem and (3) the publication of the new information gained by the analytical process.” (Thaller 2012:11)1
For most of the world's 7000 languages there are few records available via the internet. Efforts to increase the documentation of these small languages have led to the development of tools and repositories over the past decade. I suggest that Thaller’s desiderata are reflected in the language documentation activities of the creation of archives, metadata systems and the ability to locate, store, retrieve and re-use language records. The network of language archives represented by the Open Language Archives Community (OLAC) has adopted a common metadata system that each archive serves for OLAC’s aggregation, allowing more specific searches than can be provided by google, for example. However, not all digital language archives currently provide metadata to OLAC, rendering their collections invisible to the aggregated search. While their webpages may be accessible to web- searches, they do not allow the targeted search by language that is the focus of OLAC’s aggregator. Other repositories (including many institutional repositories—national libraries and archives, mission archives and so on) have language content that is not noted in the collection’s catalog, and the catalog may not be available for web-harvesting. Finally, there are collections still held by their creators and not in a repository at all.
This paper discusses two approaches to making collections of primary language material locatable and accessible. While the methods are generalisable to any discipline, this paper describes an index of records of language material for collections that have no such metadata and for which no other mechanism is foreseeable. The first approach builds a traceable index of a researcher’s discoveries in existing repositories, for example, a state library or archive, using established aggregation services. The second is a survey that aims to locate and digitise smaller collections that are currently outside established institutions, typically still in the care of the researcher.
The language index

The language index provides metadata in an Open Archives Initiative-compliant form, allowing records2 to be found in generic language searches3. Not all repositories can provide metadata using ISO-639-3 language codes, so it is useful to provide a mechanism whereby researchers can build this resource as they discover new material. In general, repositories are just unaware of standards rather than being reluctant to share data, hence the need for them to either change their metadata system (which is unlikely) or for an index of the kind described here, that points to their collections.
The paper will demonstrate the index as it is currently implemented in the catalog of the Pacific and Regional Archive for Digital Sources in Endangered Cultures (PARADISEC), and will discuss the issue of persistence of the links provided and future possible alternatives to exposing collections that are otherwise invisible to aggregation.
The survey

In an effort to locate what I have called invisible collections I launched a survey4 in 2012 asking respondents to identify language collections that needed to be either (or both) digitised or described using OLAC’s service. I tried to keep the questions as simple and easy to answer as possible. In this paper I will report on the findings of this survey, in particular noting that they point to the need for training; for simple metadata entry tools; for standards-compliant metadata repositories; and for recognition of collections of primary material as a form of scholarly output.
The survey questions were as follows:
1. Do you know of recordings of small or endangered languages that are not yet digitised? These could be in personal collections or in established repositories that do not plan to digitise their collections. If so, please provide as much detail as you can about the number and type of recordings (reel to reel, cassette, DAT etc), the content, and the state of their current storage. Can you provide information about who to contact about these collections?
2. Do you know of collections whose catalogs are not available through federated searches (that is, they are only available if you visit their website and not anywhere else on the web) and for which we could provide a reference to make it easier to find them? 
3. Do you know of repositories of manuscripts that have received little attention from linguists but which are likely, in your opinion, to have linguistic records in them? These may include, for example, missionary archives or State administrative archives.
4. Please include your name and contact email so we can follow up with you if necessary (email addresses will not be added to any lists). (Please indicate if you allow us to publish an anonymised version of your response).
The survey form was publicised among linguistic networks. It is now nominated as a future activity of the international network of language archives, DELAMAN5 which should ensure wider coverage. As a first step, it has revealed an interesting variety of collections, each with characteristics that are significant for the effort of making such collections available. At a time when funding for digitisation is difficult to obtain, it is important to recognise that unique cultural heritage recordings such as these are at risk of being lost. A summary of some responses and an observation about the broader significance of each is given below.
(1) 22 tapes of a Sudanese language held in Washington DC by a retired linguist – how to get them digitised and where to store them then? 22 tapes are sort of manageable. There are also a large number of notes that need to be scanned. For a retired researcher it may not be easy to access the equipment needed to do this work.
(2) Several hundred cassettes in a Solomon Islands language, particularly valuable as they are recorded by a speaker, so capturing lots of natural speech. Digitising such a collection is a serious undertaking needing significant funds.
(3) The tapes are in Stockholm, stored in a box but the recorder is based in Chicago and is still an active academic. A basic problem of access of the collector to their own material.
(4) Colorado, USA, a dozen reel-to-reel and two dozen cassette tapes with a senior linguist concerned to make the collection safe and not being sure what to do.
(5) Tapes were deposited with a national Cultural Centre in a small Pacific country that may or may not have the resources to look after them. It does not publish its catalog (if it actually has one) so it is not clear if these tapes need to be digitised or not, or what conditions may be placed on access to them.
(6) A recent MA in Linguistics at one of the PARADISEC consortium universities, tapes stored in boxes. Paper transcripts may have been thrown out. Shows lack of communication even within our own departments.
(7) A collection of [language] tapes stored in a Harvard University repository which may not prioritise digitising it (but could if funding were made available).
(8) Researchers who have small collections, less than twenty tapes, and digitise them themselves by connecting a tape player to a digital recorder. Problem of methods used in digitisation, may damage the tape and not result in the best digital file.
One reason that these collections are not digitised is clearly the lack of importance placed by academia on the re-use of primary research materials. If it were an acknowledged research output to create archived and accessible collections of primary data, counting towards promotion and tenure, then it is more likely that cases like those listed above would no longer occur. It is clear that much remains to be done to extend the reach of digital language archives, assisting in locating legacy collections, describing and digitising them, connecting with source communities/individuals, creating a means for online annotation (crowdsourcing) and of valuing the collections (both monetarily or academically). I conclude by discussing an online service for providing small metadata snippets pointing to these otherwise invisible collections. This paper presents these efforts based around the digital archive Pacific and Regional Archive for Digital Sources in Endangered Cultures (PARADISEC).
References

Thaller, Manfred (Ed.). (2012). Controversies around the Digital Humanities. Historical Social Research Vol. 37 (2012), No. 3.
www.language-archives.org/item/oai:paradisec.org.au:JL1-link
www.language-archives.org/item/oai:paradisec.org.au:JL1-link
www.paradisec.org.au/PDSCSurvey.html
www.delaman.org","txt","2","",""
"2149","15","What we make of Code: The Role of Programming in the Digital Humanities","2","1. Introduction
Digital Humanities remains something of an embryonic field; precise definitions of its multifaceted aspects still very much open to debate. The role of software development has proved problematic, with scholars divided on the level with which digital humanists should be actively engaged with programming. Using both quantitative and qualitative methods, this paper seeks to present a diverse range of perspectives from within the Digital Humanities community, all of which address the question: ""To be a digital humanist, do you need to be building things?""

By surveying active members of our community, this paper will present findings on development practices within DH scholarship, specifically in relation to what technologies are being used, how they are being deployed, and what geographical and cultural differences, if any, exist. In taking such an approach, this paper will not seek to offer a novel definition of the field of Digital Humanities, but rather, present some objective findings on relevant attitudes in relation to development within DH projects. In doing so, this paper will present the first complete and specific study of the role of software development and programming in the Digital Humanities, developed through the responses of researchers, teachers and practitioners from across the community. Our preliminary findings have indicated that traditional understandings about technical competencies among digital humanists do not bear out, and that commonly held paradigms need revisiting. Presumptions surrounding technical competencies and attitudes, particularly in relation to age and formal qualifications, do not hold true.

This issue was raised by Stephen Ramsey at the 2011 MLA. Ramsey remarked in his paper, “Who’s In and Who’s Out”,1 that “Digital Humanities is not some airy Lyceum. It is a series of concrete instantiations involving money, students, funding agencies, big schools, little schools, programs, curricula, old guards, new guards, gatekeepers, and prestige. It might be more than these things, but it cannot not be these things.” He then puts forward the question, “Do you have to know how to code?” His answer is clear: “I’m a tenured professor of digital humanities and I say ‘yes.’ So if you come to my program, you’re going to have to learn to do that eventually.” This paper is will present the results of the first survey to invite members of the community to give their attitudes on code and its necessity to scholars who describe themselves as digital.

2. Methodology & Initial Findings
Our study avails of a mixed method approach, with our 96 participants, all of which were identified as being actively engaged in the Digital Humanities, responding to a series of quantitative and qualitative questions. The purpose of these questions was to establish, firstly, the level to which Digital Humanities scholars were actively engaged in programming, and secondly, how they view the importance of any such engagement. Questions were divided between two general types: those which asked respondents to give their views on the relevant issues, and those which challenged users to explain their understanding of generic technical details. The purpose of the latter was to help discern if Digital Humanities scholars could demonstrate a fundamental understanding of some of the key terms associated with programming. Before analysing responses as a complete set, we filtered respondents by demographic information that we considered to be of interest, specifically age and gender.

2.1 Age
We were curious to filter respondents by age in an effort to explore any correlations between the practices of scholars and what is often perceived as “generational differences”. The commonly held notion of digital natives suggests that a new generation of scholars is transforming the academy as a result of their increasing familiarity with technology. Our results demonstrate that this is a naïve assumption, with the responses from our 25-35, 35-50 and 50+ age range offering some interesting points of comparison. We only had two respondents in the 18-25 category.

In particular, when asked if “software development is an element of Digital Humanities scholarship”, we found that the majority of respondents over 50 “strongly agreed” that such was the case, as outlined in Figure 1. This contrasts with the other two groups, the majority of which only “agreed” with the aforementioned statement.


When asked to indicate “the type of development practices with which they are most frequently engaged”, as shown in Figure 2, the majority of the 50+ group stated that they do most of the programming themselves, while the majority of the remaining groups either contribute an equal amount to collaborative developments, or have other individuals do the bulk of the project’s coding.


Our findings suggest that the sense that established scholars are more entrenched in traditional views is naïve. The general expectation is that younger scholars, as a result of their perceived familiarity with technology, may be more inclined to take on the development aspects of projects themselves. Our findings demonstrate that the opposite is the case, with the 50+ group being the most self-sufficient in relation to more technical activities. There are some interesting interpretations on academic culture that will to be teased out on this point. These findings could arguably be the product of younger scholars having come up in an interdisciplinary environment and having a genuine appetite for collaboration, with the older generation indicating that they prefer a “traditional”, more isolated approach to research. Alternatively, digital natives may not be as technically proficient as many commentators suggest. Technological ubiquity has led to a new generation of scholars who are increasingly familiar with consumer electronics and intuitive graphical interfaces, but our results suggest that these scholars are avoiding more complex technical challenges. This is perhaps supported by a question later in the survey, which finds that of the 25 – 35 age group, the majority of respondents admitted that they did not consider themselves technically proficient. These results might also be representative of a changing academic culture, whereby students are demanding increasing supports from their institutions. In the relevant qualitative portions, it was clear that this age group connected “learning” to “privilege”, in the sense that technical expertise were reserved for scholars with access to appropriate support from their universities. The older groups, conversely, cited the need for scholars to pursue independent development of their technical skills.

2.2 Gender
There were few distinctions between respondents based on gender, the only significant separation being in relation to the use of software development as an element of one’s work. Considerably more males claim that software development is an aspect of their work, and furthermore, consider themselves technically proficient. This survey, of course, is no indication that this is actually the case, although there were a higher proportion of male respondents possessing formal qualifications in technical subjects. It would be worth comparing these results with data from wider technical disciplines and industries, to see if they are merely a symptom of a wider situation.

2.3 Collaboration
When all respondents were taken as a single set, the key themes to emerge from both the qualitative and quantitative data was collaboration. Most significant in this respect was arguably the way in which respondents with technical expertise expressed a conscious desire to understand the requirements of Humanities scholars, and vice versa. This was somewhat surprising, as the expectation was such that collaborators from across differing fields would have a vested interest in their own areas. As can be seen from Figure 3, respondents possessing formal qualifications in Computer Science agreed that they have a responsibility to understand Humanities scholarship, while Humanities scholars expressed the belief that they should further develop their technical understanding so as to better communicate with collaborators. These results are arguably a product of the sample group, which was comprised of scholars who considered themselves as working within the Digital Humanities. However, what it demonstrates nonetheless is that there is a genuine desire for collaboration within the discipline, and that this desire is supported by an awareness of differing expertise, requirements and mindsets.


2.4 Leadership
It is clear from the activities of respondents that digital projects are being managed by Humanities scholars. Of those respondents that stated they had worked on a digital initiative, the majority did so in a project management capacity, as illustrated in Figure 4.


This is a positive finding, as it suggests that technology is being used to support the agendas of the Arts and Humanities, rather than dictating what such agendas might be.

References
1. stephenramsay.us/text/2011/01/08/whos-in-and-whos-out/","txt","2","",""
"2150","15","What's in a Discipline? Research Practices, Use of Tools and Content in the Humanities and Social Sciences - The web-based questionnaires of EHRI and Europeana Cloud.","2","This poster reports on work conducted during 2010-2012 in the context of EHRI – the European Holocaust Research Infrastructure, as well as work in progress in the context of Europeana Cloud - Unlocking Europe’s Research via the Cloud. Its purpose is to investigate any differentiations between the research practices of humanists and social scientists as identified within the User Requirements work conducted in the context of those two EU Research Infrastructure Projects (Benardou et.al. 2013, Benardou et.al. 2010), by demonstrating the points of divergence and convergence of humanists and social scientists with regard to their scholarly research activities in a concise and illustrated format.
In the context of EHRI the Digital Curation Unit, “ATHENA” R.C. (DCU) was responsible for the identfication, modeling and formalization of the requirements of EHRI users – largely text-based humanists but also social and political scientists. To this end, DCU identified and analysed scholarly research practices and focused on the use of archival materials in the area of Holocaust Studies, as well as scholarly research practices in the digital domain and how these might support and enhance research in Holocaust Studies, in order to create a set of data and functional requirements based upon the analysis of scholarly research practices. The quantitative part of this research, complementary to a series of semi-structured interviews with Holocaust researchers, consisted of an online questionnaire survey which covered the relative use of different kinds of digital and analog resources, the perceived importance of specific information activities used by researchers (covering the span from information seeking to collaboration, including entry points), perceptions towards sharing and trustworthiness of resources, computer/device use and work location, and demographic/control variables such as country of residence, researcher status, expertise in archival research methods etc. 82,28% of the respondents of this survey were Humanists, predominantly historians, while the rest came from the Social Sciences.
Within Europeana Cloud, DCU is leading the Workpackage responsible for the improvement of the understanding of digital tools, research processes and content used in the Humanities and Social Sciences, thus informing the development of tools and content strategy in Europeana Cloud. To this end, amongst other user-centred approaches such as a series of Expert Fora, DCU designed a Research Communities Web Survey to analyze digital research practices, tools and content to gather evidence-based data from the Humanities (75,38%) and Social Sciences research community (24,62%), focusing in particular on the potential use of content from Europeana and The European Library.
Humanistic and Social Sciences have by and large been perceived as two associated fields for which often the study of scholarly work adopts related if not identical strategies. Significant examples include the work of Ellis’ team, who identified six common processes across disciplines spearheaded by qualitative work, fuelled by grounded theory research on research communities across the Social Sciences and the Humanities. Moreover, in a more recent study of the University of Washington (2005) on the use of digital sources, researchers in these two disciplines were perceived as comparable with regards to their approaches and the methods they adopted. In this light, similarities rather than discrepancies were stressed.  Such an approach is indeed largely reasoned, given the fact that the Humanities and Social Sciences broadly share methods and objects, and are obviously closer to each other when compared to, e.g., the Physical Sciences. However, many scientific papers on research information behaviour have differentiated the two fields. For instance, an interesting survey conducted by the British Academy on e-resources for research in the Humanities and Social Sciences (2005) stresses the different research approaches across the two fields. On discussing the questionnaire and the recorded answers, the authors distinguish the views expressed by humanists and social scientists, thus reaching conclusions on their distinct characteristics with regard to digital content.
It seems therefore interesting to investigate research activities in the Humanities and Social Sciences separately yet comparatively, in order to define whether there could be any reasonable ground for differentiation in the design and implementation of future infrastructures. To this end, we will be looking into issues addressed in both EHRI and Europeana Cloud online questionnaires, such as the use of specific tools and services, the research activities in which the users engage, the content as well as the properties of the resources favored by the users and the degree of agreement regarding specific statements concerning the overall research process, in an attempt to trace, identify and highlight similarities and differences on issues of workflow, concurrency, microactivities relating to information seeking behavior, aiming at mapping out research practices at such granular level as to gather detailed information on current research practices among different user groups engaged in the Humanities and Social Sciences, which could act as a reference point and information resource for the formulation of data requirements and functional specifications for future infrastructures.
References

Bass, A.,  Fairlee J., Fox K. & Sullivan J. (2005). The Information Behavior of Scholars in the Humanities and Social sciences. University of Washington.
Benardou, A., Constantopoulos P. & Dallas C. (2013). An Approach to Analysing Working Practices of Research Communities in the Humanities. International Journal of History and Arts Computing, 7.1-2, 105-127.
Benardou A., P. Constantopoulos, C. Dallas & D. Gavrilis (2010). Understanding the information requirements of arts and humanities scholarship: Implications for digital curation. International Journal of Digital Curation5, no. 1
Ellis, D. (1993). Modeling the information-seeking patterns of academic researchers: A grounded theory approach. The Library Quarterly, 63(4), 469-486. 
Jones, K., and Bennett, R., “E-resources for research in the Humanities and Social sciences: A British Academic Policy Review”, British Academy, April 2005, pp. 1-116.","txt","2","",""
"2151","15","When Kidnapping is but One Risk: Digital Studies Challenge Scholarly and Regional Cultures","10","Contrasting digital studies programs in the United States and Middle East highlight the impact of digitization, open access and digital collaboration on not only users’ cultures in these and other areas, but also the traditional scholarly culture. Early Islamic and Christian manuscripts offer invaluable opportunities to understand and analyze the transfer of mathematics, science and history through ancient texts. Digitization, online scholarship and open sharing offer opportunities for broader access to manuscripts that are at increased risk in some libraries in the Middle East, with free access for citizens and scholars. This open access empowers digital study by scholars and the public in the region and around the globe, while challenging traditional proprietary manuscript research and institutional traditions of protected access and exclusive study. These digital studies also empower communities of the Middle East – Christian and Islamic – to access their cultural history and artifacts, while highlighting the vulnerability of collections and the need to protect and preserve the digital data.
In 2009, teams of scholars and technical personnel began three major manuscript digital scholarship initiatives:
The Walters Art Museum began digitization and online cataloging of Islamic and Western texts for free access, with the support of three successive National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) grants.1
An integrated team of scientists, engineers, scholars and technical experts used privately funded spectral imaging to reveal the medical undertext of the Syriac Galen Palimpsest for free access in support of ongoing studies.2
St. Catherine’s Monastery in the Sinai Desert allowed the first large-scale spectral imaging of almost 200 palimpsests from the Monastery library by the Early Manuscripts Electronic Library (EMEL) for scholarly study, under Monastery access controls with support from Arcadia.3
These programs have had to address institutional, cultural and social challenges associated not just with the open study and access to large amounts of data, but amidst cultural upheaval and revolutions. The intellectual property requirements of the owners and institutions also reflect different cultures – from that of a private owner and institution eager to share their collections with the world, to an ancient monastery contemplating how to transition their 1400-year tradition of protecting manuscripts held for centuries within their walls.
Hosting Christian, Islamic and secular texts online highlights the challenges faced in addressing the cultural requirements of different religious and nonreligious traditions – not to mention the challenges of capturing, transferring and accessing data in a hostile region amidst kidnappings and multiple revolutions.4 This also poses significant challenges with ongoing global transitions within scholarship and institutions:
Institutions grappling with shifts from restricted pay-for-access models – based on physical protection of manuscripts – to free-access models with system maintenance costs.
New generations of scholars capitalizing on digital access with cataloging/data integration tools, while others with limited technical expertise need mediated access with technical support.
Scholars and institutions struggling with loss of control of their perceived patrimony and/or raison d'être.
The Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, supported by the NEH, is continuing its program to digitize their collection of medieval manuscripts.5 This started with digitization of their Islamic Manuscripts and continues by language and manuscript type with their Western Manuscripts.6 All data is hosted at thedigitalwalters.org, with new data uploaded regularly.7 The data includes “complete sets of high-resolution archival images of manuscripts from the collection of the Walters Art Museum, along with machine-readable TEI P5 descriptions and technical metadata, released for free under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license8 for anyone who wants to use them.” A workflow with virtual cataloging of the manuscripts from the posted images ensures this information is captured in the metadata. Scholars provide cataloging information for each codex and leaf, which is then entered under their name into the digital record of the manuscript. Uses of the data range from the Stanford University Mirador viewer study tool and online Searchworks catalog9 to the World Digital Library10, as well as Flickr11 – where images are used by global members to support a variety of interests. The manuscripts have been downloaded by institutions around the globe, including in the Middle East.
The under text of the Syriac Palimpsest proved to be Galen’s medical treatise On the Mixtures and Powers of Simple Drugs in a linguistic transition from Greek to Arabic. The bound manuscript is an eleventh-century liturgical text that is also very important for the study of the hymns in its upper text.12 The private owner made all the image data and metadata available for free access at digitalgalen.net13, with license for use under Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported Access Rights.14 This has enabled transcriptions and studies of the Galen text15, as well as an integrated study of herbals in ancient medicine with analyses of Galen’s work in the context of other texts. It served as a catalyst for the “Floriental studies” by a group of technically savvy scholars who are analyzing works ranging from early cuneiform writings to Galen.16 With this open access, Dr. Grigory Kessel of Philipps-Universität Marburg was able to compare images of the Galen Palimpsest with other Syriac texts and find an additional four missing leaves. Two of these have now been spectrally imaged and are now freely available online1718, while the search continues for more.
With the open access and collaboration that has developed around humanities data, including from the privately owned Galen Palimpsest and public Walters Art Museum manuscript collection, Archbishop Damianos and the monks of St. Catherine’s Monastery are assessing the potential and challenges of digital technology. They currently retain full control of the research data collected by EMEL with UCLA support, and a subset of the data is planned for public web release under the auspices of the Monastery.19 The Archbishop noted in a project workshop in October 2013: “Digitization offers opportunities for continued preservation of the data on various diverse geographical servers around the globe in the event of a catastrophe.”20 This is highlighted by the political situation in Egypt. The Archbishop also cited the importance of combining digitization and scientific/scholarly study, but with income for the monastery from digital images. To meet the Monastery’s wishes, access for initial scholarly study of the data is limited to a team of 20 eminent scholars in the 10 ancient languages found in the palimpsest undertexts, with information shared in an open-source cataloging tool. This changes the study methods of a generation of scholars who have traditionally conducted long-term, in-depth studies of texts with sole access. Currently this requires balancing the requirements for limited scholarly access with those for preservation and accessibility.
Each of these programs is addressing the impact that freely accessible data sharing is having on scholarly study. The integration of technologies and work processes to enhance digital scholarship and collections requires the following capabilities:
Virtual collaboration with dynamic online cataloging to host and update scholarly findings and shared research with user-friendly tools. Global teams of scholars digitally capture their latest findings and research in standardized catalogs of the Walters’ Art Museum and St. Catherine’s Monastery manuscripts.
Broadly accepted standards for integration of data and metadata to ensure digitization of and online access to dispersed collection objects. This supports the digital reunification of diaspora manuscripts, such as the Galen Palimpsest originally from St. Catherine’s Monastery.
Licensed Access to allow appropriate control over global sharing and access, while offering confidence to institutions and scholars that their intellectual property will be protected. This allows the monks of St. Catherine’s to share data from manuscripts they have protected for centuries21, yet flexibility for institutions to ease into broader access – as demonstrated by the Walters’ shift to less restrictive Creative Commons licenses.
Integrated teams of scholars and technical experts ensure scholarly needs are addressed in development of technology and data management. Embedding technically savvy scholars with each of these project teams has ensured analytical and academic research needs are addressed in all project phases, from data and metadata collection through hosting and access to the data.22 Open data pose challenges for an older generation of scholars who have traditionally held onto data until they complete their studies, while empowering a newer generation of scholars capable of collaborating with this data, including in conjunction with other data and tools.23 Including more technically facile scholars and students on project teams also provides support for the generation of scholars who lack needed technical skills to access and study digital data with appropriate technical tools.24
More important than the cloistered challenges posed by traditional academia are the challenges of preserving the cultural information and patrimony of communities at risk in the Middle East. These three projects highlight the new opportunities digitization and digital scholarship offer for research and analysis around the globe. This is especially true in the Middle East, where they contribute to understanding of long-standing Christian and Islamic communities and traditions. These traditions and cultures are at risk from secular, religious, economic and social conflict, as are the manuscripts that have supported their development. With data hosted in the United States, the Middle East or elsewhere, free data access and proliferation help ensure preservation of the cultural patrimony, while also supporting communication within and across cultures.

Fig. 1: Galen Syriac Palimpsest Leaf 166r-171v Pseudocolor Image
References

1. D. Emery, M.B. Toth, and W. Noel, The convergence of information technology and data management for digital imaging in museums, Museum Management and Curatorship, 24: 4, 337 — 356 (2009)
2. S. Bhayro, R. Hawley, G. Kessel, and P. E. Pormann, Collaborative Research on the Digital Syriac Galen Palimpsest, Semitica et Classica 5 (2012), pp. 261-264
3. Father Justin Sinaites (St. Catherine's Monastery), M. B. Toth , Spectral Imaging at the Library of St. Catherine's Monastery Reveals Ancient Texts, Library of Congress, Nov 19, 2012 www.loc.gov/preservation/outreach/tops/ancient_text/ancient_text.html, 30 Oct, 2013
4. M. Shrope, In the Sinai, a global team is revolutionizing the preservation of ancient manuscripts, Washington Post, Magazine, www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/in-the-sinai-a-global-team-is-revolutionizing-the-preservation-of-ancient-manuscripts/2012/08/30/1c203ef4-ca1f-11e1-aea8-34e2e47d1571_story.html, 9 September, 2012
5. National Endowment for the Humanities, Making Medieval Modern - Digitizing medieval manuscripts at the Walters Art Museum, Division of Preservation and Access Featured Project, www.neh.gov/divisions/preservation/featured-project/making-medieval-modern, 9 April, 2012
6. Walters Art Museum, The Walters Art Museum Receives $265,000 NEH Grant to Digitize Over 100 Flemish Manuscripts, Press Room, thewalters.org/news/pressdetail.aspx?e_id=365, 30 Oct, 2013
7. Walters Art Museum, The Digital Walters, www.thedigitalwalters.org/, 30 Oct, 2013
8. Creative Commons, Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en, 30 Oct, 2013
9. C. Haven, Walters Art Museum manuscript collection makes a virtual move to Stanford, Stanford Report, news.stanford.edu/news/2013/may/walters-digital-repository-050913.html, 9 May, 2013
10. World Digital Library, Institution: Walters Art Museum, www.wdl.org/en/search/?institution=walters-art-museum, 30 Oct, 201
11. Walters Art Museum, Walters Art Museum Illuminated Manuscripts, Flickr, Photostream, www.flickr.com/photos/medmss/with/5790214510/, 30 Oct, 2012
12. S. Bhayro, P. E. Pormann, and W. I. Sellers, Imaging the Syriac Galen Palimpsest: Preliminary Analysis and Future Prospects, Semitica et Classica 6 (2013), pp. 299-302
13. The Digital Galen Syriac Palimpsest, digitalgalen.net, 30 Oct, 2013
14. Creative Commons, Attribution 3.0 Unported License, creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/, 30 Oct, 2013
15. S. Bhayro and S. Brock, The Syriac Galen Palimpsest and the Role of Syriac in the Transmission of Greek Medicine in the Orient, Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 89 Supplement (2012/2013), Ancient Medical and Healing Systems: Their Legacy to Western Medicine (ed. R. David), pp. 25-43
16. R. Hawley, Floriental - From Babylon to Baghdad: Toward a History of the “Herbal” in the Near East, European Research Council, ERC-2010-StG-263783, 2010
17. The Digital Galen Syriac Palimpsest, MS 172, digitalgalen.net/Data/Syriac_MS_172r, 30 Oct, 2013
18. The Digital Galen Syriac Palimpsest, SyrNR Frg65, digitalgalen.net/Data/SyrNF-Frg65_001r_50-001/, 3 Jan, 2014
19. Universität Wien, Sinai Palimpsest Project: Alte Schriften neu entdecken, 17 Oct. 2013, medienportal.univie.ac.at/uniview/veranstaltungen/detailansicht/artikel/sinai-palimpsest-project-alte-schriften-neu-entdecken/, 30 Oct, 2013
20. Universität Wien, The Sinai Palimpsests Project – International Workshop, 25-27 Oct. 2013, medienportal.univie.ac.at/fileadmin/user_upload/medienportal/uni_view/PDF/PDF-Einladungen_allg/Program.pdf, 30 Oct, 2013
21. The Digital Galen Syriac Palimpsest, SyrNF-Frg65 001r, digitalgalen.net/Data/SyrNF-Frg65_001r_50-001/LICENSE.txt, 5 Feb, 2014
22. M. B. Toth, Integrating Technologies and Work Processes for Effective Digital Imaging, Proceedings of the Eikonopoiia Symposium on Digital imaging of Ancient Textual Heritage, Helsinki, Finland, Oct. 2010, pp. 198-210
23. F.G. France, W. Christens-Barry, M.B. Toth, K. Boydston, Advanced Image Analysis for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage, 22nd Annual IS&T/SPIE Symposium on Electronic Imaging, San Jose Convention Center, California, Jan (2010)
24. S. Bhayro, R. Hawley, G. Kessel, and P. E. Pormann, The Syriac Galen Palimpsest: Progress, Prospects and Problems, Journal of Semitic Studies 58 (2013), pp. 131-148","txt","2","",""
"2152","15","Where is my Other Half?","10","1. Introduction

One of the most challenging issues in the analysis of large collections of historical manuscripts or handwritten fragments is the ""joining"" of fragments, either piecing together torn parts of a mutilated folio – which may have disintegrated because of wear and tear over the ages – or reconnecting two or more folios originating from the same original manuscript, but which have since been separated and dispersed to diverse locations – perhaps on account of trading activities between institutions. A striking case in point is the Cairo Genizah, discovered towards the end of the nineteenth century in the attic of an old synagogue in Cairo, which contains more than 320,000 fragments (deriving from tens of thousands of individual documents, almost all in Hebrew characters – though not necessarily in the Hebrew language) spanning a thousand years of writing and copying. Various parts of the Genizah finds are currently located in more than sixty university collections and public libraries spread out on different continents all over the world. Until just recently, a Genizah researcher holding half a page in hand and seeking its other half, did not have any resources with which to achieve that goal beyond erudition, a few catalogs, a gifted memory, and a fair measure of luck.
In recent work 1, we described an automated scheme for image analysis and processing that culminates in enabling the computer to compare two images and compute a similarity score based solely on the individual handwriting style. A series of benchmarks and tests convinced us of the reliability and utility of this metric. Moreover, many hundreds of ""joins"" of interest to humanities scholars have already been identified 2. Here, we describe the design and implementation of a follow-up plan devised to integrate the matching scheme into a coherent and efficient system that can help scholars find the best candidates for potential joins for any given fragment. A system with somewhat similar goals for processing and joining fragments of frescoes is described in 3.
2. Joins and Jigsaws

The following steps have been implemented:
A – The basic idea is to match each of the Genizah fragments with one another so as to obtain a similarity score for each pair of  fragments. We used a combination of local descriptors (SIFT) and learning techniques (OSS 4, SVM, and others). Out of an estimated total number of 320,000 fragments, about 230,000 fragments were available to us, represented by 450,000 digital images, with two images per fragment (recto and verso). For every fragment, a numerical signature vector was computed, encapsulating aspects of its writing style. With a specially designed software component that measures the readability of every fragment, we eliminated from this scenario most fragments with poor legibility, those that most likely would not contribute true joins but rather would deteriorate the effectiveness of the system. These included blank or almost-blank pages, illegible or very dark texts, minute fragments, etc. After eliminating these problematic items, we were left with a total of 158,000 fragments to be compared with one another. That gave a total of 12.4 billion pairs that needed to be measured for similarity, a huge number indeed. Some twenty different similarity scores were computed and stored for each pair. These were generated by using four different algorithms to represent the handwriting style of each document and by using different similarity measures between documents. The different similarity scores can be ""stacked"" together to achieve higher accuracy.
B – Twenty CPU's from the Computing Lab of the Blavatnik School of Computer Science at Tel Aviv University ran together continuously for 37 days (the equivalent of some 18,000 computing hours), and the task was accomplished. This computer run is probably one of the most intensive ever implemented in a digital humanities context, in terms of computing resources. Four terabytes of output were generated in the process.
C – An efficient and compressed database was built to preserve these results in a structure that is easy to manipulate within a reasonable on-line response time. For each fragment, the top 300 similar fragments were precomputed.
D – A simple program, Propose Joins, was then integrated in the operational software of the Genizah website, available at http://www.jewishmanuscripts.org. Any user can input an image number, and the system will respond immediately by giving a list of the best 100 candidates that might qualify as joins for the given fragment, sorted from most similar to least, accompanied by the actual images of these candidates. See Fig. 1. A user can then mark some images as worthy of further investigation as potential joins, passing them over to a second program, called ""Jigsaw Puzzle"", described below.
It is our assumption – backed up by Genizah researchers' expressed attitudes – that a competent user would not mind spending an hour or so examining these images, even if he or she does not end up finding any join in the set, since this is the only way to systematically look for such a join were there indeed any. Our experience shows, in fact, that if there is a join in the Genizah world for the given fragment, it will be found – almost always – in this set.
E – The Jigsaw Puzzle program displays the additional images designated by the user together with the original image on the screen, each image already restricted to the fragment's physical contour, and, using the mouse and a few tabs, a user can magnify or reduce each of them, move any image, rotate it by any angle in any direction, ""flip"" the image over to display the verso (say) of the fragment instead of its recto, calibrate the images at their original proportions in order to check if the geometric features and the running text of the various pieces indeed fit neatly into a join. See Figs. 2-4. If a join is found, it may be incorporated in the website for all users to be made aware of it, with the identifying scholar's name inscribed as the join's composer.
F – To make the system even more user-friendly and intuitive to researchers, even if they are not completely at ease with computers, a large 42"" touch-screen was installed in the Genazim lab, as a prototype, with an attached PC on which the website and the software were installed, all completely transparent to the user. See Fig. 5. Using a virtual keyboard, the user approaches the system by inputting an image number, receives back the images of the 100 best potential candidates, marks some of the relevant ones, passing them over to Jigsaw, where they can be easily manipulated – moved, rotated, flipped, calibrated – by just touching the screen with one's fingers, much like what one is used to doing nowadays with smartphones, and as naturally as one might arrange a jigsaw puzzle spread out on a table. See Fig. 6.
Discussion

We expect the overall scheme, with all the steps detailed above, to be of relevance in many other similar contexts, although, admittedly, the Genizah case is rather unusual in its scope and complexity. The join-matching tool is quite sophisticated and is constantly undergoing improvement. The jigsaw tool is relatively simple but has already proved very appealing to scholars. We are currently applying the join tool, more or less as-is, to other corpora, including the Dead Sea scrolls and papyri 5 and Tibetan manuscripts and xylographs. Other potential applications include the 2,000,000 images of 70,000 pre-1900 Taiwanese deeds and court papers from the Taiwan History Digital Library 6 and Yad Vashem’s now publicly available Holocaust archives (www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/resources/index.asp). Furthermore, we hope to make the jigsaw tool more widely available. In addition, we have begun to use machine-learning tools based on the same signature vectors to help answer palaeographical questions for such corpora 789.
We are still left with the major problem of trying to reconstruct the original state of the entire Genizah collection, that is, to find, once and for all, the entire network of true joins in this collection, with a reasonable level of completeness and precision, and to do this efficiently and in a relatively short time. A crucial step in achieving this goal is to find effective methods for recognizing and eliminating large quantities of false joins and non-joins, even if that may be at the cost of losing a few correct ones. This is currently a topic of intense investigation, involving elements of graph theory, clustering techniques, data mining and related methodologies.

Fig. 1: After the user gave the system the i.d. number of the fragment being studied, the system responds by displaying that image on the left side, and 100 suggested joins, sorted by decreasing order of similarity, on the right.

Fig. 2: The given fragment and two of the suggested joins.

Fig. 3: Two fragments have been “glued together” by the Jigsaw program; the third is on its way.

Fig. 4: The final join (verso).

Fig. 5: The large touch screen mounted on a specially designed chassis, showing the fragment at hand together with 2 suggested joins.

Fig. 6: One of the authors (Y.C.) using the Jigsaw program to manipulate the suggested join.
References

1. Wolf, L., Littman, R., Mayer, N., German, T., Dershowitz, N., Shweka, R. and Choueka, Y. (2011). Identifying Join Candidates in the Cairo Genizah. International Journal of Computer Vision, 94(1): 118-135.
2. Shweka, R., Choueka, Y., Wolf, L. and Dershowitz, N. (2011). ""Veqarev otam ehad el ehad”: Zihuy ktav yad vetseruf qit'ei hagnizah beemtsa'ut mahshev (Identifying Handwriting and Joining Genizah Fragments by Computer), Ginzei Kedem, vol. 7, pp. 171-207. (In Hebrew.)
3. Brown, B. J., Toler-Franklin, C., Nehab, D., Burns, M., Dobkin, D. P., Vlachopoulos, A., Doumas, C., Rusinkiewicz, S. and Weyrich, T. (2008). A System for High-Volume Acquisition and Matching of Fresco Fragments: Reassembling Theran Wall Paintings. Proceedings SIGGRAPH 2008, ACM Trans. Graph., 27 (3).
4. Wolf, L., Hassner, T. and Taigman, Y. (2009). The One-Shot Similarity Kernel. IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV), Kyoto, Japan, pp. 897-902, Sept. 2009.
5. Bearman, G. (2008). Imaging the Dead Sea Scrolls for conservation purposes. SPIE Newsroom, December 29, 2008.
6. Hsiang, J., Chen, S.-P. and Tu, H. C. (2009). On Building a Full-Text Digital Library of Land Deeds of Taiwan. Proceedings of Digital Humanities 2009, College Park, MD, June 2009, pp. 85-90.
7. Ben-Shalom, I. (2013). Automatic Paleographic Grouping by Script Styles and Scribal Identity in Large Medieval Collections. M.Sc. thesis, Tel Aviv University, Nov. 2013.
8. Dershowitz, N. and Wolf, L. (2013). Automatic Scribal Analysis of Tibetan Writings. Abstracts of the 13th Seminar of the International Association of Tibetan Studies, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, July 2013.
9. Wolf, L., Dershowitz, N., Potikha, L., German, T., Shweka, R. and Choueka, Y. (2011). Automatic Paleographic Exploration of Genizah Manuscripts. In: Kodikologie und Paläographie im Digitalen Zeitalter 2 - Codicology and Palaeography in the Digital Age 2, Fischer, F., Fritze, C. and Vogeler, G., eds., Schriften des Instituts für Dokumentologie und Editorik, vol. 3, Norderstedt: Books on Demand, Germany, pp. 157-179.","txt","2","",""
"2153","15","Who is we? The social media project: Día de las humanidades digitales/Dia das humanidades digitais","9","The last few years have seen intense debates in the digital humanities community not only in its definition but also its configuration. Several scholars have pointed out that the community is predominantly made up of scholars from a handful of mainly Englishspeaking countries and that linguistic and geographic diversity is sorely lacking. Questions related to ethnicity, gender, race, language and class have been raised within the DH community, as it seeks to find a more global and inclusive organization model. One of the main issues of course, is attempting to integrate with groups of scholars that have not necessarily identified themselves yet as a community or do not even know that DH exists.
Spanish and Portuguesespeaking countries, some with long traditions already in humanidades digitales/humanidades digitais, have hosted a number of DH events and activities in the last few years, including several conferences and seminars, and recent attempts to build formal networks and associations in these two languages have sought to address concerns regarding international representation and visibility. Therefore the first step in this networkbuilding exercise was to find those who identified themselves as “humanista digital” (Galina and Priani, 2011). As Isabel Galina (2013) pointed out in her keynote presentation at the DH2013 conference: “behind this problem of defining digital humanities (what we are and what we do) there is an additional now ineludible problem ‘who is we?’”
The DíaHD/DiaHD (Día de las humanidades digitales/Dia das humanidades digitais) initiative aimed to answer this question. Coordinated by a group of digital humanities organizations and institutions in Spain (Humanidades Digitales Hispánicas), México (RedHD), Portugal (Faculdade de Ciencias Sociais e Humanas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa) and Brazil (Humanidades Digitais, Universidade de São Paulo), with the support of centerNet, the event sought to identify and bring together the work of Spanish and Portuguesespeaking digital humanists in Europe and Latin America. The proposal of DíaHD was based on the model of the international centerNetsponsored project Day in the Life of the Digital Humanities (DayofDH,digitalhumanities.org/centernet/initiatives/), in which digital humanists all over the world are invited to participate in “a social research project designed to document ‘just what do computing humanists really do?’"" (Rockwell et all, 2012). Even though the starting point of the project was effectively almost a direct translation of Day of DH, including the basic question: ‘¿Qué es lo que hacen realmente los humanistas digitales?’/ 'O que fazem os humanistas digitais?', we could not avoid the context in which the project was launched. Behind the question ‘What do digital humanists do?’ we also wanted to know ‘who is this we?’ and ‘where is this we?’. This dual aspect of identification and localization broadens the outlook of DiaHD as a social research project, which then becomes a “process of reflection of what we have created and how it fits in with the socalled global DH community” (Galina, 2014).
II. Execution of the Project

On June 10th 2013 the Día de las humanidades digitales/Dia das humanidades digitais took place. The event was managed by two working groups: the international organization group, formed by representatives of the institutions involved, and the local organising group, formed by members of the technological staff of the Facultad de Filosofía y Letras de la UNAM, which managed the technical infrastructure. We were fortunate to count on the generous advice of the creators of the original Day in the Life of Digital Humanities, including Geoffroy Rockwell.
Outreach and other activities related to being more inclusive are time consuming. It is important to note that multilingualism requires additional effort both in developing the tool (invitations and instructions for participating) as well as the more qualitative analysis of the data. This DiaHD selected only two languages but we are well aware that others could have been added. If DH is to be successful in expanding the extra effort required should be considered. However, as we believe DíaDH has shown, this relatively small effort pays off considerably in our ability to broaden our definition of ‘we’.
III. Answering the questions

The original Day in the life of Digital Humanities was conceived as an individualistic approach to the activities of digital humanists: “The motif [of DayofDH] suggests the documentation of a subject's ‘real’ life, emphasizing the ordinary aspects of their environment over the extraordinary” (Rockwell et all, 2012). As our project was closely based on DayofDH, we expected that the participants might respond in the same way, as persons documenting the ordinary aspects of their lives. One of the most important results of our experiment was the manner in which the community decided to answer the question ¿Qué es lo que hacen realmente los humanistas digitales? / O que fazem os humanistas digitais? Whereas one part of the community, many with previous experience of participating in the Day in the life of Digital Humanities, followed the model of documenting everyday life, another group chose a different approach to answering the question: they decided to create collective blogs to document the work of their institutions or projects. One relevant example of this is the blog devoted to the humanidades digitais group in Brazil. What does this differing reception of our original invitation signify, and is it meaningful in defining the “we” in Spanish and Portuguesespeaking digital humanities? Does the “we” have a less individualistic nature in some regional and cultural contexts?
For DiaHD 95 blogs were created, out of which 70 were actively used. Of this 57 of the blogs were written in Spanish, whereas 13 were written in Portuguese. As the invitation was based on language and not by region, the geographical location of the authors was not restricted to Spanish and Portuguesespeaking countries. We had authors from Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Great Britain, Mexico, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and United States. As far as participating countries was concerned, Spain was the most active with 29 blogs, followed by Mexico with 16, Portugal with 8, and Brazil and USA (both 5). This means that the project integrated researchers from different academic cultures and most likely with different notions of what DH is. We can see this contrast in the blogs created: 37 blogs were collective, and represent projects, magazines, labs, etc. (only 2 of them were located in a non Spanish and Portuguesespeaking countries) and 33 were personal blogs.
These results seem to indicate that there are a number of scholars involved in DH projects in what are traditionally underrepresented regions and languages in the DH community. As a social media project, DíaDH points towards the fact that by developing tools in other languages other than English and directly targeting other communities by not relying only on traditional DH communication channels, it is possible to incorporate the experiences of digital humanists that do not usually participate.
V. Conclusions

As a result of a preliminarily observation we might point that the absence of a consolidated, consensual and collective profile for Spanish and Portuguesespeaking digital humanities communities is relevant to understanding why many of the participants in DíaHD/DiaHD preferred an institutional voice to a personal one. This may imply, also, a segmentation in the Spanish and Portuguesespeaking DH community: some, with previous involvement in the international DH community, identifying themselves as researchers with a specific DH focus, while others prefer to identify DH with work in specific projects, and to maintain their professional identity as a distinct entity. As DH is a field whose definition has largely emerged from a North Atlantic tradition, and responds to a concrete subset of global academic culture, it is clear that there is much work to be done in negotiating the development of the field in other academic traditions, each with their own cultural and practical models. DíaHD/DiaHD not only focused debate on one area of nonAnglophone DH; it also led to a number of practical initiatives continuing the development of Spanish and Portuguesespeaking digital humanities, including the mapaHD project (mapahd.org) and the Portuguesespeaking association, AHDig (ahdig.org), an initiative that came about as a direct consequence of the participation of Portuguese and Brazilian researchers at DiaHD.
References

Dacos, Marin. (2013) “La stratégie du Sauna finlandais” in Blogo Numericus, May 2013. blog.homonumericus.net/article11138.html
Fiormonte, Dominico. (2012) “Towards a Cultural Critique of Digital Humanities”, Historical Social Research – Historische Sozialforschung, Special Issue, no.141, HSR vol.37 2, p.5976.www.cceh.unikoeln.de/files/Fiormonte_final.pdf
Galina, Isabel y Priani, Ernesto, Is There Anybody out There? Discovering New DH Practitioners in other Countries at Digital Humanities Conferences 2011dh2011.stanford.edu/wpcontent/uploads/2011/05/DH2011_BookOfAbs.pdf
Galina, I (2014). Geographical and linguistic diversity in the Digital Humanties, Literary and Linguistic Computing, Oxford Journals, 29(3)
McPherson, Tara (2912). “Why are the Digital Humanities so White?”,in Debates in the Digital Humanities, University of Minnesota Press
Geoffrey Rockwell et all (2012), The Design of an International Social Media Event: A Day in the Life of the Digital Humanities. Digital Humanities Quarterly, Volume 6 Number 2,www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/6/2/000123/000123.html
Dacos, 2013, Fiormonte 2012 and McPherson, 2012
Primer Encuentro de Humanistas Digitales de la RedHD (may 17-18 2012), workshops in Lisbon (November 2011 and June 2013), conference at University of Navarre in May 2013 (www.unav.edu/congreso/humanidadesdigitales), HDH conference (hdh2013.humanidadesdigitales.org), 1st seminar USP, Brazil (October 2013).
RedHD, HDH, AHDig (Associação das Humanidades Digitais)
Digital Humanities conference 2013,dh2013.unl.edu
dhd2013.filos.unam.mx
Humanidades Digitaisdhd2013.filos.unam.mx/humanidadesdigitaisusp. Other examples of this collective and institutional response are Mexican projects like “Proyecto de investigación sobre métrica y oralidad áurea” of the Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárezdhd2013.filos.unam.mx/vozyverso/ o the blog, “‘Libros de Baubo’: bitácora de trabajo”dhd2013.filos.unam.mx/librosdebaubo. In Spain the blog of the “Red Internacional CHARTA”dhd2013.filos.unam.mx/charta/2013/06/10/redinternacionalcharta/ and the project on “el repertorio métrico digital castellano”dhd2013.filos.unam.mx/remetca. In the case of United States we have “The Littera Project”
dhd2013.filos.unam.mx/thelitteraproject/, and in Portuguese, “máquinas & manuscritos”
dhd2013.filos.unam.mx/maqman.
An initiative led by Silvia Gutierrez and Élika Ortega which began in Gutierrez’s blog
dhd2013.filos.unam.mx/sigutierrez/
","txt","2","",""
"2154","15","XML-Print. Typesetting arbitrary XML documents in high quality","10","Introduction/Motivation

Also in the age of electronic publishing print publications often remain the points of reference. While many humanities' projects finally build on XML and in particular TEI 1 and embrace electronic publications, they still want or need to target print publications as one or even the main form of sharing the results of their scholarship with the community. Paper remains the principal scholarly format accepted in many circles and in spite of all activities on long-term digital archiving 23, it remains a central medium to disseminate and conserve patrimonial content over the decades and centuries.However, how can you combine an XML-based workflow with the need to publish high-quality, multilingual print output respecting the often arcane typesetting requirements of scholarly texts in humanities publishing and notably in the realm of critical editions? While there are commercial 45 and free 6 78 products out there that can help for some parts of the job, they are too expensive or too difficult to use in most humanities projects. This was the starting point of the DFG-funded XML-Print, an Open Source project that tackles the typesetting requirements for multilingual critical editions while offering a user-friendly frontend.XML-Print has already been presented to the DH community in two well-received short papers 910 on specific aspects of the project's progress and technical challenges. In this long paper we present the project’s overall results.
Typesetting Features

XML-Print consists of two components:
an interactive graphical user interface (GUI) based on Eclipse, to define the rules for typesetting the XML texts in direct interaction with the source XML text
a command-line typesetting engine, written from bottom up in F#, to actually transform the XML text into pdf for print 
Normally scholars will interact with the GUI to map their XML structures on layout rules. The typesetting engine is then transparent to them. However, more automated workflows can integrate the engine directly. In section 5 we present examples for both scenarios. Beyond most standard typesetting functionalities of XSL-FO 1112 XML-Print supports in particular the following three requirements specific for publishing in humanities scholarship:
Columns

A page always consists of different rectangular regions to add header/footer, marginals and the main text. However, this main text is often not limited to a one-column layout, but rather flows in multiple columns. As XSL-FO lacks in this requirement, XSL-FO+ adds a special interface to set-up arbitrary complex column-layouts, even mixed on one page. Each column has its own width and writing direction (left-to-right vs. right-to-left) allowing even “exotic” layouts to be applied within XML-Print.
Cross references

When using cross-references we must use placeholders, not only in the main text, but also for the header and footer of a page, where page number and sectioning information are commonly used, and for apparatus’ entries, where typographic information like referenced line numbers can change during the editorial process.

Fig. 1: Two user-defined reference systems for an edition
XML-Print incorporates a concept of “reference fields” to define structural and typographic elements to be counted. This way the user can even combine these two types, e.g. for having a global line count and a local one being reset at a specific XML structure. In addition the corresponding “title” of an reference field can as well be made available.
Apparatuses

Based on reference fields users can define “referencing schemas” to be used in apparatuses. Predefined typographic elements like a global page, column and line numbering can be combined with user-defined fields, arbitrary fixed strings and special characters, e.g. a non-breakable space.As the concrete output of the schema might depend on previous apparatus’ entries, exceptions with regard to repeated items, e.g. same chapter, can be formulated as well.
General Architecture and Technologies

Standards

Modern functional programming languages reusing established frameworks and libraries allow to build a high-quality, multilingual typesetting engine generating archiving-ready PDF/A-1 13  much faster than even a decade ago. With a comparatively small development team we have been able to meet the project’s major objectives within the funding period.
 XML-Print builds on Open Standards, especially on XML as the input language, XSL-FO to express formatting and XSLT to transform data from XML to XSL-FO. The project has extended XSL-FO to cover features such as apparatus and advanced referencing not currently supported by the specification (XSL-FO+).For the typesetting engine the project uses the .NET functional language F# 14, running on the cross-platform Open Source .NET implementation mono. To handle OpenType 15 fonts and generate pdf we have settled on the Open Source library iText 16 that exists for both .NET and Java. We contributed to the library's support for some of advanced OpenType features such as “real” small caps and aspects of bidirectional scripts.
Algorithms

A major advantage of functional programming languages is the lack of mutable variables and states. Algorithms are commonly more compact and easier to parallelize without mutable variables to share across multiple threads. The XML-Print backend for example parallelizes the parsing of certain XSL-FO elements and the rendering of chapters respectively page sequences. 
 Initially the rendering module was mainly based on the iText library. Now we are replacing all iText algorithms by our self-developed algorithms. They are specialized on the requirements of XML-Print and so are more efficient and easier to extend. We also decided to develop an own line-breaking algorithm. Going beyond the algorithm by Knuth and Plass 17, we take advantage of today’s hardware capacities.
 The line breaking algorithm creates a tree structure for all possible line combinations of an entire paragraph. The best path in this tree structure is calculated by taking several characteristics into account, e.g. interword spaces, hyphenations, etc. The final implementation will be parallelized and produce a tree structure with “cross-connected” nodes, i.e. nodes that represent identical paragraph sections are reduced and replaced by additional arcs, thus increasing the efficiency by avoiding redundant line combinations. Figure 1 illustrates the process of line breaking. Each node represents a possible line. The numbers at the arcs represent the processing order. Equal numbers on the same level mean a parallelized section. The bolded path represents the final paragraph, consisting of the nodes Line_1^2, Line_2^5, Line_3^2 and Line_4^4.

Fig. 2: Line breaking algorithm
Graphical User Interface

XML-Print addresses beginners as well as expert users. For the latter the GUI has to offer enough details while the former should not be overwhelmed by too many information at first. To achieve this goal XML-Print categorizes functionality and provides a basic and an expert layer.

Fig. 3: GUI for XML-Print
We face, however, one inherent problem. To guarantee a high-quality output the typesetting incorporates a rich repertoire of typesetting logic and features which the user expects to appear somewhere in the graphical user interface. It is not always possible to shield users from these inherent complexities, while mapping all possible options onto GUI elements.
Apart from defining formats and declaring ""mappings"" between XML elements and corresponding formats, the GUI offers several possibilities to modify aspects of typesetting, from preprocessing the XML source to altering the PDF output format, from configuring the page size to influencing hyphenation.
Use Case Examples

Edition “Kurt Schwitters: Wie Kritik zu Kunst wird”

During the starting phase of the XML-Print project, staff members of the editorial project “Kurt Schwitters: Wie Kritik zu Kunst wird” 18 already used recent version of the software to proofread their XML transcriptions. At a later stage, formats and mappings for critical and commentary apparatus were added.
Dictionaries: The “Trierer Wörterbuchnetz”

The “Deutsche Wörterbuch von Jacob und Wilhelm Grimm” is a digitized version of the leading German Dictionary with more than 300.000 entries stored as XML inside a database. The pdf is a byproduct, creating pdf files on the fly is the only effective approach. The XML-Print typesetting engine was wrapped via a simple webservice interface, allowing remote access. Decoupling typesetting engine and GUI improves on flexibility and scalability, as it adds the options of cluster-processing and batch processing to the standard interactive processing. 
Outlook

To ensure the long-term viability of the project beyond the end of funding in May 2014 XML-Print integrates with TextGrid 19 to complement the current stand-alone mode. In parallel we build up a community on SourceForge http://sourceforge.net/projects/xml-print/, reaching even now more than 50 monthly downloads on average.Further development of XML-Print is also intimately linked to the needs of its customers, especially the critical editions using it, evolving in response to specific requirements.XML-Print is there to play a key role in creating, sharing and preserving our digital and non-digital textual cultural heritage and humanities digital resources on one of the most durable media yet known to humankind – paper.
References

1. Burnard, Lou, and Syd Bauman. (2007). TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Text Encoding Initiative.
2. Hedges, M, A Jordanous, S Dunn, C Roueche, Marc Wilhelm Küster, Thomas Selig, M Bittorf, and W Artes. (2012). New Models for Collaborative Textual Scholarship. In 6th IEEE International Conference on Digital Ecosystems Technologies (DEST), 1–6. doi:10.1109/DEST.2012.6227933.
3. Neuroth, Heike. (2009). Nestor Handbuch.
4. Global Publishing Solution. (2013). 3B2 (Aka APP, Arbortext Print Publisher). 2013 ed. Accessed November 29. www.3b2.com/3b2/.
5. Adobe- 2013. Desktop Publishing (DTP), Digital Publishing | Adobe InDesign CC, www.adobe.com/lu_de/products/indesign.html, accessed: 29-Oct-2013.
6. Knuth, D E. 1986. The TEXbook (Computers & Typesetting Volume a).
7. Apache Foundation. (2013). Apache FOP - a Print Formatter Driven by XSL Formatting Objects and an Output Independent Formatter. Xmlgraphics.Apache.org. xmlgraphics.apache.org/fop/.
8. Lamport, Leslie. (1986). LaTeX: User's Guide & Reference Manual. Addison-Wesley 1986.
9. Burch, Thomas, Martin Sievers, Marc Wilhelm Küster, Claudine Moulin, Roland Schwarz, and Yu Gan. (2012). XML-Print: an Ergonomic Typesetting System for Complex Text Structures. In Abstracts of Digital Humanities 2012, 375–379. Hamburg. www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/HamburgUP_dh2012_BoA.pdf.
10. Küster, Marc Wilhelm, Thomas Selig, Lukas Georgieff, Martin Sievers, and M Bittorf. (2013). XML-Print: Addressing Challenges for Scholarly Typesetting. In Abstracts for Digital Humanities 2013, 269–272. Lincoln, NE. dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/files/downloads/DH2013_conference_abstracts_print.pdf.
11. Berglund, Anders, ed. (2006). Extensible Stylesheet Language (XSL) Version 1.1. W3C. www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xsl11-20061205/.
12. Pawson, D. (2002). XSL-FO: Making XML Look Good in Print.
13. ISO, and ISO TC 171 SC 2. (2005). ISO 19005-1:2005 Document Management -- Electronic Document File Format for Long-Term Preservation -- Part 1: Use of PDF 1.4 (PDF/a-1). 19005. 1st ed. ISO.
14. Smith, Chris. 82012). Programming F# 3.0. 2nd ed. O'Reilly Media. www.amazon.de/Programming-F-3-0-Chris-Smith/dp/1449320295.
15. Microsoft, Adobe. 2009. “Microsoft Typography - OpenType Specification.” Microsoft.com. 21.09.2009. www.microsoft.com/typography/otspec/default.htm. Accessed 2013-10-29.
16. “iText Core | iText Software.” 2013. “iText Core | iText Software.” Itextpdf.com. itextpdf.com/product/itext. Accessed: 2013-10-29.
17. Stanford University. Computer Science Dept, D E Knuth, and M F Plass. (1980). Breaking Paragraphs Into Lines.
18. Kocher, Ursula, and Isabel Schultz. (2013). Wie Kritik Zu Kunst Wird: Kurt Schwitters' Strategien Der Produktiven Rezeption. Avl.Uni-Wuppertal.De. www.avl.uni-wuppertal.de/forschung/projekte/wie-kritik-zu-kunst-wird.html.
19. TextGrid Konsortium. (2010). TextGrid: Über TextGrid.www.textgrid.de/ueber-textgrid.html.","txt","2","",""
"2155","15","Z-Axis Scholarship: Modeling How Modernists Wrote the City","10","Introduction

“Humanities on the Z-axis” is an interdisciplinary research project that works across modernist studies, geospatial humanities, and desktop fabrication. Through a combination of techniques in three-dimensional (3D) fabrication, geospatial mapping, speculative computing, and pattern analysis, z-axis research expresses the geospatial narratives of modernist novels by geo-referencing them and then using that geo-data to transform base layers of maps from the modernist period. The output of the research includes warped, 3D maps of cities (e.g., Paris and Dublin) central to modernist literary production. These maps can be viewed as 3D models on a screen or as physical prototypes in hand, and they are currently being transformed using geo-data drawn from novels by Djuna Barnes, James Joyce, and Jean Rhys. Ultimately, they show how modernist authors wrote the city, and findings suggest they contradict existing research in modernist studies about how, exactly, cities are expressed in modernist novels.
Research Problems

This project addresses two specific research problems that currently exist across geospatial humanities and modernist studies. First, in fields such as digital humanities, geospatial mapping techniques (Moretti 2005) and data visualizations (Bostock 2012) tend to produce isomorphic cartographies or flat representations of data (Drucker 2011), even when literature resists this type of representation. One consequence of these flat or isomorphic approaches is that they tend to ignore the importance of subjective experience to literary criticism (in particular) and the humanities (in general). Second, and related to the first point, mapping techniques in geospatial humanities research can too easily be applied across literary periods without regard to the historical, material, or formal differences between texts, especially when something like Google Maps or Google Earth is the core technology. As a result, geospatial methodologies do not always persuasively correspond with the literary period, aesthetics, and textual particulars under examination.
In response to these problems, z-axis research tailors mapping practices to suit the needs of literary periods. For instance, modernist literature deliberately resists isomorphic representations of geographic space (Vidler 2000). It also frequently treats the city as a medium, which is represented through fiction. Consequently, we argue that modernism not only calls for speculative, non-isomorphic modes of geographical expression (i.e., deformed maps) but also techniques that engage geographic representation directly (i.e., by distorting a map's base layer instead of ""pinning"" data on top of it). Additionally, the z-axis methodology involves a ""text-first"" workflow wherein the specificities of the text practically dictate the mapping method and, by extension, the aesthetics of the transformed, 3D maps.
Research Questions

Z-axis research currently asks the following research questions of geospatial humanities and modernist studies:
How and to what extent do geospatial approaches to modernist novels benefit from distinct methods of analysis? With what implications on existing geospatial methods in digital humanities?
How do modernist authors write the modernist city? Through 3D maps, how can we compare multiple, literary versions of the same modernist city, using the same base map?
How can traditions in speculative computing (Drucker and Nowviskie 2004; Drucker 2009) and deformance (Samuels and McGann 1999) be applied to geospatial analysis and the modernist novel (Nowviskie et al. 2013)?
In modeling and fabrication practices, to what degree (if at all) do 3D-printed maps afford interpretations that screen-based maps do not? Where visual expression is concerned, how do we put screen and print into conversation, and to what effects on the trajectories of scholarly communication?
Literature Review

Many geospatial projects in digital humanities are largely two-dimensional and rely significantly on isomorphism. In the case of modernist cities, projects such as Walking Ulysses (2012) and WatsonWalk (2012) pin events to flat base maps. While the Scholars’ Lab at the University of Virginia is working on “social and spatial maps of modernist correspondence,” projects of this sort are rare in the field. Building on these initiatives, z-axis research uses historical maps as a medium for expressing social and cultural currents in the modernist city.
At the same time, many writers interested in modernity have documented the constructed character of modernist geographies. Henri Lefebvre (1974) unpacks the social production of urban space, arguing that discrete social and spatial practices are embedded in different cities. Elsewhere, Foucault’s heterotopias (1984) and Marc Augé’s (1992) non-spaces chart the social construction of space as it ruptures geographic locales, producing overlapping and contradictory spaces. Embedding the social and political nature of modern cities into their narrative, many modernist novels construct the city or treat it as a medium. In his work on cartographical rhetoric in Ulysses, Jon Hegglund argues that the very act of mapping within the text is seen as a way of knowing. Richard Zeikowitz (2005) and Deborah Parsons (2000) similarly analyze the construction of feminist cityscapes in Jean Rhys's works, while Amy Wells-Lynn (2005) reveals the way Djuna Barnes and other female modernists “construct new Parisian geographic and literary female spaces” (79).
When combined, geospatial research in both digital humanities and modernist studies suggests that specific mapping approaches to literary modernism underscore the importance of socially constructed, geographic space. Here, work in speculative computing (Drucker and Nowviskie 2004; Drucker 2009) and deformation (Samuels and McGann 1999) provides precedent when blending computation with humanities inquiry.
Method and Workflow

When studying modernist novels, the current workflow for z-axis research is bifurcated into two processes. The first process involves geo-referencing plain-text versions of modernist novels, and includes the following steps: 1) use VueScan software to produce high-resolution scans (600 dpi) of the text; 2) run the text through ABBYY FineReader to render it machine-readable; 3) where necessary, correct the text; 4) geolocate the narrative of the text in XML (if a character appears in a certain location while imagining or talking about another location, then the location is tagged as the place where the narrative occurs); 5) conduct a word-count to see how many words are nested in certain geographic locations; 6) record these numbers in a spreadsheet; and 7) divide the number of words per location by the total number of words in the text to produce a ratio.
The second process mobilizes the geo-data and ratio from the first process to transform historical maps in 3D. It includes the following steps: 1) use a high-quality scanner to digitize an archival map; 2) use Photoshop to convert the scanned archival map into a displacement map; 3) apply the displacement map to a flat subdivided mesh using Autodesk’s Mudbox, then scale the plane along its z-axis to render details from the displacement map as changes in elevation (figures 1-3); 4) procedurally apply the bulge function for each area indicated by the data model, warping the three-dimensional map along its z-axis (figures 4, 5), with differences in warping determined by the geo-data ratio; 5) use MeshLab to determine if the Mudbox model is watertight; if it is not, then automatically correct errors if they are not glaring; and 6) print the model using a desktop 3D printer.





Findings

One of the key findings of this research is the articulation of a methodology and workflow for expressing the geospatial narratives of modernist novels through transformance and speculative computing. Additional, related findings suggest that, contrary to an abundance of modernist scholarship (e.g., Hegglund 2003), James Joyce's Ulysses does not provide an isomorphic representation of Dublin. Instead, the novel presents a biased version of the city, privileging specific geographic areas over others. What’s more, in the case of modernist novels about Paris, constructions of the city are highly contingent upon constructions of sexuality, especially when Barnes's Paris is compared with that of Rhys. That is, the sexual politics of literary Paris dramatically influence how and what parts of it are represented in texts from the 1920s and '30s. Finally, where comparisons between screen and print media are concerned,  findings suggest that the latter not only affords tactile engagements lacking in the former but also bypass many visual design problems, including tendencies to squeeze too much complex information into a single frame or window. More generally, our findings suggest that the humanities can be empowered through the material transformation of scholarly communication, including evocative objects and publications in 3D.
Acknowledgements

This research has been conducted at the Electronic Textual Cultures Lab and the Maker Lab in the Humanities at the University of Victoria with support from the Modernist Versions Project (MVP) and Implementing New Knowledge Environments (INKE). The research is supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC).
References

Augé, Marc (1997). Non-Lieux: introduction à une anthropologie de la surmodernité. Paris: Le Seuil.
Barnes, Djuna (1995). Nightwood: The Original Version and Related Drafts. Ed. Plumb, Cheryl J. Normal, IL: Dalkey Archive Press.
Bostock, Mike (2012). ""D3.js: Data-Driven Documents.""d3js.org.
Declan, Kiberd (2009). Ulysses and Us: The Art of Everyday Living. London: Faber and Faber.
Drucker, Johnanna (2009. SpecLab: Digital Aesthetics and Projects In Speculative Computing. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
---. “Humanities Approaches to Graphical Display.” (2011) Digital Humanities Quarterly. 5.1.
Drucker, Johanna and Bethany Nowviskie. ""Spectulative Computing: Aesthetic provocation in Humanities Computing."" A
Companion to Digital Humanities (2004.  ed. Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens, John Unsworth. Oxford: Blackwell.
Foucault, Michel and Jay Miskowiec (1986). ""Of Other Spaces."" Diacritics 16.1 (Spring 1986). 22-27.
Joyce, James (1922). Ulysses. Paris: Shakespeare & Co.
Kraus, Kari. (2009) “Conjectural Criticism: Computing Past and Future Texts.” Digital Humanities Quarterly 3.4 (Fall 2009): n. pag.
Hegglund, Jon (2003. “Ulysses and the Rhetoric of Cartography.” Twentieth Century Literature. 49.2. 164-192.
Lefebvre, Henri (1991. The Production of Space. Trans. Donald Nicholson-Smith. Oxford: Blackwell.
Moretti, Franco (2005). Graphs, maps, trees: abstract models for a literary history. London: Verso.
Nowviskie, Bethany. Neatline. LLC.
Parsons, Deborah (2000). Street Walking the Metropolis: Women, the City, and Modernity. Oxford: Oxford UP.
Ramsay, Stephen and Geoffrey Rockwell (2012. ""Developing Things: Notes toward an Epistemology of Building in the Digital Humanities."" Debates in the Digital Humanities. Ed. Matthew K. Gold. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 75-84.
Rhys, Jean. Good Morning, Midnight (1970). New York: Harper & Row. First published in 1939.
Rhys, Jean (1969). Quartet. London: Andre Deutsch. First published in 1928.
Seidel, Michael (1976). Epic Geography: James Joyce’s Ulysses. Princeton UP: 1976.
Vidler, Anthony (2000). Warped Space. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
Wells-Lynn, Amy (2005). “The Intertextual, Sexually-Coded Rue Jacob: A Geocritical Approach to Djuna Barnes, Natalie Barney, and Radclyffe Hall.” South Central Review 22.3 (Fall 2005). 78-112.
Zeikowitz, Richard (2005). “Writing a Feminine Paris in Jean Rhys’s ‘Quartet.’” Journal of Modern Literature. 28:2. 1-17.","txt","2","",""
"2156","16","'""Everything on Paper Will Be Used Against Me"": Quantifying Kissinger'","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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            <p>Fixed in the public consciousness by countless appearances and interviews, and intimately associated with a wide range of affairs of state during the 1970s, including the US invasion of Cambodia, withdrawal from Vietnam, ‘opening to China’, détente with the Soviet Union, and the Watergate affair, the public persona of former national security advisor (1969–1975) and US secretary of state (1973–1977) Henry A. Kissinger has consistently fascinated historians.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> A decidedly emotional champion of dispassionate ‘realpolitik’, a Cold Warrior and ‘secret swinger’,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> questions about Kissinger’s fascinating paradoxes and internal contradictions have been a significant focus of the study of ‘Kissingerology’ (Hanhimaki 2003).
            </p>
            <p>Trying to understand what at first glance can appear to be apparently incompatible motives and behavior, historians soon encounter a second problem—one of scale. A classic ‘big data’ catch-22, the extensive and vast array of documents, diplomatic cables, transcripts, and other correspondence available for study greatly complicates the task of historically situating and interpreting Kissinger. This deluge of information is an increasingly common frustration for historians of the 20th century, and as larger and larger archives of human cultural output are accumulated, scholars are beginning to adapt, develop, and employ tools, methods, and interpretive frameworks from fields like computational linguistics, visual design, and textual studies that can overcome ‘information overload’ and facilitate new historical interpretations of ‘big data’ archival collections. </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
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                        <figure>
                            <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.361833333333333cm"" height=""9.156347222222223cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
                        </figure>
                    </cell>
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                <row>
                    <cell>A topic model of the DNSA Kissinger ‘memcons’. In this force-directed diagram, the documents are distributed according to their weight in the topic model and colored according to their former classification status. Formerly ‘Top Secret’ documents are colored blue, ‘Secret’ documents are colored yellow, and ‘Confidential’ are colored magenta. The size of the circles represents the number of participants.</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>As detailed on the website http://www.quantifyingkissinger.com, this project is an historical interpretation of the DNSA (Digital National Security Archive)’s Kissinger Collection, using techniques like data visualization, topic modeling, sentiment analysis, and word frequency and collocation analysis to facilitate a mix of ‘distant reading,’ ‘networked reading’, and ‘close reading’. The DNSA’s Kissinger Collection is a small but substantial subset of the vast volume of material generated by the Nixon administration, a collection comprising over 18,000 declassified meeting memoranda (‘memcons’) and teleconference transcripts (‘telcons’) detailing Kissinger's correspondence during the period 1969–1977, including a wide range of extremely useful archivist-supplied metadata (e.g., date, classification status, origin, etc.) that facilitates more detailed and nuanced explorations into the text analytics.</p>
            <p>Faced with the seemingly impossible task of truly understanding a man who appears to embody a host of mutually exclusive dichotomies, historians who grapple with some of the more paradoxical aspects and events of Kissinger’s policies and persona often seek to explain inconsistencies and/or emotionality as either a logical failure of his political philosophy or as irrational divergence from an otherwise ubiquitous, calculating rationality. Countering the decentralized, ‘accidental’ view of emotionalism in most of the historiography, historian Barbara Keys’ ‘The Emotional Statesman’ places Kissinger’s emotionality in the center of her analysis, arguing that it was often the rhetorical and political flexibility emotionality offered that led Kissinger to such behavior. </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
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                            <graphic n=""1002"" width=""15.949083333333334cm"" height=""7.20725cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
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                    <cell/>
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                <row>
                    <cell>Figure 1. Scatter plot graph: Frequency of words found in colocation with the word ‘laughter’ in the Kissinger memcons, in order of frequency (x-axis), by colocation (Mutual Information) score (y-axis).</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Exploring Kissinger’s ‘predispositions’ towards a Soviet-preponderant worldview as a ‘natural’ emotional reaction resulting from his intense personal relationship with Soviet ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin (as detailed by Keys), the project’s word collocation analysis of the phrase ‘[laughter]’
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> surfaces evidence of the unique and complex nature of their friendship. To Keys, this relationship was a compelling emotional factor in Kissinger’s seeming unwillingness to view the Vietnam War as anything other than a Cold War conflict, one that nevertheless served an emotional purpose: reinforcing a sense that matters remained in his and Dobrynin’s capable hands to resolve no matter how arduous and unpleasant the peace talks with North Vietnamese envoy Le Duc Tho became. 
            </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic n=""1003"" width=""14.79373611111111cm"" height=""8.764763888888888cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
                        </figure>
                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Figure 2. Force-directed diagram: ‘Bombing’ word correlation/collocation in telcons (yellow) and memcons (blue). Words colorized by hand relate to Vietnam (green) and other countries in Indochina (red).</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>In addition to analyzing the impact of Kissinger’s social relationships on his geopolitical outlook and outcomes, the project examines also his attitudes towards matters of secrecy and violence. A number of word collocation analyses reveal patterns suggestive of a highly selective, event-driven use of the ‘private’ telcons (which Kissinger expected to remain within his possession after his departure from the White House) versus a more diffuse, persistent use of the official, redacted memcons—as, for example, when both the word ‘bombing’ and one of a number of names for various countries in Indochina were found. </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
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                            <graphic n=""1004"" width=""15.379347222222222cm"" height=""8.233833333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
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                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Figure 3. Line/scatter plot graph: Frequency of ‘[Cc]ambodia’ and ‘bombing’ word collocation with collocation distance) on a timeline.</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>The initial text analysis data averages word frequencies irrespective of the timeline, and more detailed word frequency analysis along a timeline facilitated a ‘networked reading’ approach
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> in which documents are identified for closer reading and subsequent analysis through the text analysis data, and related according to commonalities in date, word frequency, topic weight, and/or subject and participant metadata. 
            </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic n=""1005"" width=""14.709069444444445cm"" height=""6.057194444444445cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""block""/>
                        </figure>
                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Figure 4. A selected ‘network’ of a group of conversations and memos from 1970 in which ‘[Cc]ambodia’ and ‘bombing’ are found in collocation, connected by participant. Edges are labeled with the date of each individual’s participation.</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>A complete historical understanding must by necessity include this sort of close reading of relevant documents, but a few interesting bits of possible evidence from the project’s distant and networked reading already call for further analysis: hints of ‘triangular diplomacy’ written in the proximity of graphed nodes relating to negotiations over Indochina with the Soviet Union and China, and clustering of various ‘secrecy’ topics highly suggestive of a classification scheme based upon both national security priorities and/or those of Henry Kissinger himself. Topic clusters in the model represent SALT Negotiations between the USSR and the US, Nixon’s journey to China, the Paris Peace Talks to end the war in Vietnam, the OPEC oil embargo, crises in the Mideast and shuttle diplomacy, the coup in Greece and subsequent invasion of Cyprus by Turkey, and the Rhodesian Bush War. </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic n=""1006"" width=""16.245416666666667cm"" height=""9.015236111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.png"" rend=""block""/>
                        </figure>
                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Figure 5. A section of the topic model visualization of the ‘memcons’. In this force-directed diagram, the documents are distributed according to their weight in the topic model and colored according to their former classification status. Formerly ‘Top Secret’ documents are colored blue, ‘Secret’ documents are colored yellow, and ‘Confidential’ are colored magenta.</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>The examinations of this project have not been limited to historiographical inquiries of Kissinger’s foreign policy, nor to his personal/emotional motivations. By combining computational and emotional history approaches, insights about the man and the geopolitical focus of the administration he served emerge—new avenues for understanding themes of seduction, secrecy, humor, and violence. Beyond detailing and exploring existing field conversations about former US secretary of state Henry Kissinger, the project has begun to surface deeper understandings and new questions—about how this new kind of distant knowledge is formed, and the possible ramifications for historical research in general. This application of computational techniques to the study of 20th-century US diplomatic history has generated useful finding aids for researchers, provided essential testing grounds for new historical methodologies, provoked new questions, and prompted new interpretations of Kissinger and the individuals with whom he corresponded. </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. Kissinger was the only official ever to hold both offices simultaneously, from 22 September 1973 to 3 November 1975.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">LIFE</hi> magazine, 28 January 1972
                <hi rend=""bold"">, </hi>https://books.google.com/books?id=D0AEAAAAMBAJ&amp;pg=PA70.
            </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. As well as related (but different) search and wildcard phrases like ‘[laughs]’, ‘[laugh*],’ etc.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">4. An approach described by Dr. Lisa Marie Rhody.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>Hanhimaki, J. (2003). ‘Dr. Kissinger’ or ‘Mr. Henry’? Kissingerology, Thirty Years and Counting*. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Diplomatic History,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">27</hi>(5) (November).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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"2157","16","_CATview_ - Supporting The Investigation Of Text Genesis Of Large Manuscripts By An Overall Interactive Visualization Tool","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>_CATview_ - Supporting The Investigation Of Text Genesis Of Large Manuscripts By An Overall Interactive Visualization Tool</title>
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                        <surname>Pöckelmann</surname>
                        <forename>Marcus</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>marcus.poeckelmann@informatik.uni-halle.de</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Medek</surname>
                        <forename>André</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>andre.medek@informatik.uni-halle.de</email>
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                        <surname>Molitor</surname>
                        <forename>Paul</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>paul.molitor@informatik.uni-halle.de</email>
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                        <surname>Ritter</surname>
                        <forename>Jörg</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>joerg.ritter@informatik.uni-halle.de</email>
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            <p>Manuscripts that went through many editions being revised, augmented, or shortened from time to time are of special interest for historians, sociologists, and philologists. Identifying the text passages that have been changed and presenting them in a synoptic view or in critical editions plays a central role in these fields. In order to support the investigation of text genesis, appropriate information technology tools should be available. In addition to flexible and effective implementations for comparing variants of a manuscript (e.g., see Medek et al., 2015), the text differences found by such tools should be visualized in an appropriate way, allowing scholars to effectively navigate and explore the differences. With the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Colored &amp; Aligned Texts view</hi> (
                <hi rend=""italic"">CATview</hi>) we present such an interactive visualization tool in this paper. Starting with a general map of the text witnesses’ aligned segments, scholars can search, find, and zoom to specific text passages of interest, which are colored according to their grade of revision or highlighted as striking, depending on the user settings. In collaboration with a synoptic presentation of the text variants, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CATview</hi> is a useful add-on both for web-based editions and frameworks for the editing process.
            </p>
            <p>Motivation of the Work</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">CATview</hi> is motivated by an ongoing investigation of Abbé Raynal’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Histoire philosophique et politique des établissements et du commerce des Européens dans les deux Indes</hi>, a text about the negative influence of European civilization during the colonization of the East and West Indies. The first edition was published in 1770 (Amsterdam). After the manuscript was forbidden, Raynal released expanded editions in 1774 (The Hague) and 1780 (Geneva). A last edition appeared post mortem in 1820; Book 6, for instance, consists of 52,372 words whereas the edition of 1770 features 28,451 words.
            </p>
            <p>The work is part of the project SaDA—Semi-automatic Difference Analysis of Complex Text Variants
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF). The visualization tool presented in this paper is embedded in an overall framework for text comparison that acts according to the following workflow. First, each of the given witnesses of a text is divided into segments, either paragraphs or sentences. Then, fingerprints of the segments are computed, allowing an assignment between them—that is, an alignment of the segments. Finally, the aligned segments are compared in detail and presented in a synoptic manner with apparatus.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">CATview</hi> is an additional component built on top of this workflow to lighten the navigation within the synopsis and facilitate the investigation of text differences by preparing the collected data in a clear manner.
            </p>
            <p>Previous Work</p>
            <p>The visualization of text differences and structure with aspects of navigation is already handled by several web-based tools. One example is the navigation bar of the Perseus Digital Library.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> It illustrates the text structure by a set of iconic bars, e.g., for books, sections, or verses. The individual bars are divided into segments whose lengths indicate the lengths of the text passages they represent and to which they are linked.
            </p>
            <p>The histogram view of Juxta
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> exceeds the pure aspect of navigation. This small pop-up dialog allows scholars exploring ‘the overall rate of change across the witnesses’
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> of a manuscript, but only works for the comparison of one specific witness against others.
            </p>
            <p>In Ben Fry’s remarkable visualization of ‘On the Origin of Species’ (2009), the text structure is abstracted for an overall view, and multiple witnesses’ revisions are visualized by colors. This is done in a fixed animation. At any point merely the latest revision is shown for each word. The text itself will pop up as dialog above the mouse cursor without a steady representation. Thus, the text cannot be searched, and frequent mouse moving is necessary for reading longer portions. Besides control elements for the animation there is no user interactivity such as zooming or further options to manipulate the presentation.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Features of </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic bold"">CATview</hi>
            </p>
            <p>In the first place, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CATview</hi> illustrates the aligned segments in a tabular manner. Each text witness is represented by one row. Their segments are abstractly represented as rectangles. If two segments of different witnesses are aligned by step 2 of the workflow described above, they share the same column. The differences of the aligned segments found in the following step are visualized in an aggregated form by the intensity of the rectangles’ color. To lighten navigation, the rectangles are also links that will scroll the synoptic view to the corresponding segment when clicking on a rectangle. On the other hand the current position within the synopsis is represented in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CATview</hi> with a marking. Additional markings to highlight search results and further information with respect to the alignment can be displayed.
            </p>
            <p>Illustrating the Alignment</p>
            <p>The presentation of the alignment in a tabular manner helps in reviewing the overall structure to see patterns of revisions (Figure 1). It is also useful to evaluate the alignment in order to improve the underlying algorithms as it calls attention, e.g., to falsely aligned segments. To see more details, the user can zoom in and out with the mouse wheel and slide the currently selected excerpt by dragging it with the mouse (Figure 2). Thereby, the option to change the order of the rows—i.e., the witnesses—and a consecutive numbering of the columns lighten the orientation. This basic functionality allows easy identification of relevant portions of text that have been added or removed during the authors’ revisions. Figure 2 illustrates this feature: one paragraph was added to witness H20 (which denotes the 1820 edition) between the aligned paragraphs at columns 59 and 61, where paragraphs of all four witnesses are aligned.</p>
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            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CATviews</hi>’ general map of aligned paragraphs for the four witnesses of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Histoire des deux Indes</hi> (book 6).
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.998597222222223cm"" height=""2.3777222222222223cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. A smaller excerpt of the alignment seen in Figure 1 by using the built-in zoom.</p>
            <p>Coloring of Rectangles</p>
            <p>The intensity of colors assigned to individual rectangles denotes the degree of similarity between the corresponding aligned segments and can be determined, for instance, by the ratio of the segments’ number of differences to the amount of text. The color ranges from a standard light blue, which indicates similarity, up to a strong dark blue for rather extensive revisions of the text. This additional information effectively helps locating hot spots of revisions. Figures 3 and 4 show 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CATview</hi> with enabled colors for two levels of zooming.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.998597222222223cm"" height=""2.3777222222222223cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. The general map of Figure 1 automatically enriched by colors for the paragraphs, based on the aggregated information gathered by a detailed difference analysis.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""16.998597222222223cm"" height=""2.3777222222222223cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. An excerpt of Figure 3 on a higher zooming level: columns in light blue express a strong similarity between the aligned paragraphs, whereas the dark blue at the columns 47, 51, and 54 indicate a strong difference. In column 54 a major revision first appeared in witness of 1780 with siglum H80.</p>
            <p>Benefits of Additional Markings</p>
            <p>Another feature of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CATview</hi> is to connect rectangles of different witnesses with a line if the corresponding segments are supposed to be similar but cannot be aligned due to a conflicting data situation. This situation occurs if the alignment is blocked by an assignment of other segments, e.g., in case of transposed or merged segments. The additional lines lighten the identification of such cases for a closer look.
            </p>
            <p>Furthermore, the tool can display search results by highlighting single rectangles or full columns that contain the search phrase with a colored background. This feature helps in effectively estimating the distribution of a subject within all witnesses. Figure 5 illustrates the described markings.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""16.998597222222223cm"" height=""2.3777222222222223cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 5. Additional markings in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CATview</hi>: the bar at column 54 indicates the current scroll position in the corresponding synoptic view. Search results for the key word ‘Colomb’ (French for ‘Columbus’) are highlighted by a colored background (columns 43, 45, 47, 48, 58, 59, 61, and 62). The lines from 45 to 47 show paragraphs supposed to be similar that could not be aligned, as in H80 Raynal split paragraph 47 of H74 into two paragraphs (45 and 47) and added an additional paragraph in between.
            </p>
            <p>Other Planned Features</p>
            <p>There are further features currently under discussion. The height of rectangles could present the size of the corresponding segments, displaying the original page numbers for each witness on higher zooming levels could lighten the orientation, and multiple aligned segments could be aggregated on lower zooming levels, to name a few.</p>
            <p>Technical Remarks</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">CATview</hi> is designed for web applications and implemented in JavaScript as a Singleton Object. Thereby the functionality of the JavaScript libraries D3.js
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> and jQuery
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> is used to generate and manipulate the SVG-Image, which contains the graphical elements described above. A publication of the finalized tool as open source is planned.
            </p>
            <p>Summary</p>
            <p>In this paper we present an interactive visualization tool, a useful add-on for web-based editions and frameworks for the editing process, to effectively navigate and explore the differences of multiple text variants in a graphical overview. Despite its relative simplicity, our tool named 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Colored &amp; Aligned Texts view</hi> (
                <hi rend=""italic"">CATview</hi>) has universal applications in the field of text comparison according to the available data. Starting with a general map of the text witnesses’ aligned segments, scholars can search, find, and zoom to specific text passages of interest, which are colored corresponding to the grade of revision or highlighted as striking, depending on the user settings. In collaboration with a synoptic representation of the text, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CATview</hi> effectively supports scholars in the investigation of differences between several variants or the full genesis of a text, as well as improving the underlying algorithms for text comparison.
            </p>
            <p>Funding</p>
            <p>This research was funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) [grant number 01UG1247] as part of the project Semi-automatische Differenzanalyse von komplexen Textvarianten, under the direction of Professor Dr Thomas Bremer, Professor Dr Paul Molitor, Dr Jörg Ritter, and Professor Dr Hans-Joachim Solms.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. SaDA—Semi-automatische Differenzanalyse von komplexen Textvarianten, http://www.informatik.uni-halle.de/sada.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. Perseus Digital Library, http://www.perseus.tufts.edu.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. Juxta—Compare–Collate–Discover, http://www.juxtasoftware.org.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">4. Juxta Commons, http://www.juxtacommons.org.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">5. D3—Data-Driven Documents, http://d3js.org.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">6. jQuery—Write Less, Do More, http://jquery.com.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fry, B.</hi> (2009). On the Origin of Species: The Preservation of Favoured Traces. http://www.benfry.com/traces.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Medek, A., Pöckelmann, M., Bremer, T., Solms, H. J., Molitor, P. and Ritter. J.</hi> (2015). Differenzanalyse komplexer Textvarianten: Diskussion und Werkzeuge. In Henrich, A. and Heyer, G. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Datenbank-Spektrum, Themenheft ‘Informationsmanagement für Digital Humanities’</hi>.
                    </bibl>
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"2158","16","‘Nothing That Is Not There and The Nothing That Is’: Tracking the Digital Echoes between Churchyard and Theatre in Shakespeare’s London","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>‘Nothing That Is Not There and The Nothing That Is’: Tracking the Digital Echoes between Churchyard and Theatre in Shakespeare’s London</title>
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                        <surname>Dabbs</surname>
                        <forename>Thomas Winn</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Aoyama Gakuin University, Tokyo, Japan</affiliation>
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            <p>This talk considers one of the ways in which various digital tools can be used in an integrated fashion to map the public reception of new print and drama during the Elizabethan period. Using the final line from Wallace Stevens’ ‘The Snow Man’ as a prompt, the paper extolls the virtue of using digital technology to make new assumptions about human consciousness in historic times and places that were once ‘there’ even if they are currently or ostensibly ‘not there’. This paper also acknowledges the limits of digital reconstruction and its use in interrogating the past. Indeed, finding nothing may mean that there is nothing to be found. </p>
            <p>The thesis forwarded here is that the stage plays that were performed in Elizabethan public amphitheatres were inundated with formally crafted echoes, not only of recent print, but also the public reception of recent print. This public reception is most immediately apparent within the St Paul’s precinct in the City of London and would be next to impossible to re-create without the search capabilities of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">EEBO-TCP</hi>,
                <hi rend=""italic""> ESTC</hi>,
                <hi rend=""italic""> Lost Plays Database</hi>, and other digital platforms. When reconstructing the relationship between stage performances and the public reception of printed work, we are able to see how a publicly performed play—say, one about the tragic outcomes of Romeo and Juliet—echoed recent public discourse and action in early modern London, discourse and action that was fueled by new print. 
            </p>
            <p>In particular, the cultural environment of Paul’s Cross Churchyard, at that time located on the northeast side of St Paul’s cathedral, is ground zero for this public discourse community. This area of the cathedral is lost to history, not there anymore, but with the digital reconstructions of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Virtual Paul’s Cross Project</hi>, it can now be visualized again. The churchyard featured the Paul’s Cross pulpit, and this unique public space echoed with Reformed church sermons from the beginning of the Elizabethan period. Bookshops increasingly flanked this area during the Elizabethan period, making the churchyard the center of the book-selling industry before and during Shakespeare’s time. Controversial and often dramatic sermons from Paul’s Cross echoed religious print held by these enclosing bookshops and, in turn, were at times formed into print editions and sold from the same stores. 
            </p>
            <p>Decades ago, it was speculated that Paul’s Cross, with its surrounding bookshops, was a physical prototype for the Elizabethan public amphitheatres that appeared nearby before and during Shakespeare’s time. The challenge of this particular project is to examine another prototype—that is, the prototype of consciousness that developed in the churchyard and that made popular amphitheatre performances possible and indeed helped to sustain the public theatre for a period. The key to drawing the public to the theatre was to stage plays that echoed popular print and public discourse, specifically in the Paul’s Cross Churchyard and in the cathedral nave, Paul’s Walk. </p>
            <p>From the records that remain of lost Elizabethan plays before Shakespeare, those plays that are not there but that in some ways are, we can find clues to indicate the relationship between churchyard culture and public theatres. From information that can quickly be accessed at 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Lost Plays Database</hi>, it is abundantly clear that Elizabethan dramatists before Shakespeare drew from popular stories and themes that were on sale in courtyard bookshops in order to craft plays for the early public amphitheatres. From the 1590s onward, an increasing number of plays were preserved in print, and of course from these editions we can link specific references echoed within amphitheatre performances more acutely to courtyard culture. For instance, through 
                <hi rend=""italic"">EEBO-TCP</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ESTC</hi> searches, the relationship between churchyard and public stage can be established quickly and with more certainty.
            </p>
            <p>Shakespeare’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Romeo and Juliet</hi> follows from the set formula for drawing dramatic titles from popular print editions in Paul’s Cross Churchyard. Looking more closely at the text, in Shakespeare’s version, Mercutio in particular makes a number of seemingly haphazard references that have kept textual scholars busy and sometimes vexed for ages. With digital searches, Mercutio’s references, for instance, to the names of classical and romantic heroines in lyric poems, the further references to sword fighting and to Tybalt’s continental pretentions, can all be directly linked to print editions held in churchyard bookshops and to the presumed reception of these editions among young gallants even within the church precinct. These links occur in many cases no more than two or three years before the performance of the play, first at the Theatre playhouse and then at the Globe. The there-ness of such relationships become uncertain when we attempt to link Mercutio’s description of Tybalt to what we know about the behavior of young gallants in the St Paul’s precinct, although such considerations are intriguing. Digital searches also tempt us to hear the echoes of Thomas Nashe’s satiric attacks on Robert Green in Mercutio’s character. The attempt to use digital searches and re-creations to determine the extent that Tybalt might be a caricature of an actual person, though, might quickly lead us into the nothing that is really not there.
            </p>
            <p>Current search methodologies and visual re-creations could be supplemented by small digital platforms that mine and input information and that eventually give us the ability to access bookstore and other information quickly. Among several suggestions for a small data digital effort that would not require the enormous amount of data input that burdens larger efforts would be a project that makes a searchable database of the ownerships, leases, and primary holdings of select courtyard bookshops specifically during the 1590s. This type of resource would be enormously helpful to scholars and editors, particularly if the database could be corroborated with references to popular discourse and to stage plays that were performed during or close to that decade. </p>
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"2159","16","“…a writer essential to the others…” ∗: further reflections towards a methodology and case study of a potential exemplar of Shakespeare’s hand in annotations to an edition of the Eirenarcha (c1605?)","3","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Cohen</surname>
                        <forename>Hart</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>h.cohen@uws.edu.au</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Short</surname>
                        <forename>Harold</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Department of Digital Humanities, Kings, London, UK</affiliation>
                    <email>h.short@uws.edu.au</email>
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                        <surname>Cohen</surname>
                        <forename>Gerald</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Independent Scholar, Montreal Quebec Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>cohens@videotron.ca</email>
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            <p>Introduction</p>
            <p>The panel will offer 3 papers that focus on different aspects of a research project relating to the analysis of handwritten annotations found in an original but unrecorded edition of Lambarde’s Eirenarcha (1605?). The engagement with this material brings to the fore questions of methodology in the ideas and affordances provided within digital research and scholarship.</p>
            <p>Title: “…a writer essential to the others…” 
                <hi rend=""superscript"">∗</hi>: further reflections towards a methodology and case study of a potential exemplar of Shakespeare’s hand in annotations to an edition of the Eirenarcha (c1605?)*
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">*</hi>(McMillin, Scott, (1987). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Elizabethan Theatre and the ""Book of Sir Thomas More""</hi>. Cornell University Press. P. 159.)
            </p>
            <p>The full sentence reads: “What can be said about the authors’ identities strengthens these assertions but is not necessary to them: let Munday, Chettle and Shakespeare be collaborators on the original version [of Sir Thomas More] let Dekker, Heywood and perhaps Chettle be the revisers a decade later; 
                <hi rend=""italic"">let Hand C be present on both occasions – a writer essential to the others;</hi> [our emphasis] and these names fit easily into the pattern of theatrical characteristics.”
            </p>
            <p>ABSTRACT</p>
            <p>“…a writer essential to the others…” 
                <hi rend=""superscript"">∗</hi>: further reflections towards a methodology and case study of a potential exemplar of Shakespeare’s hand in annotations to an edition of the Eirenarcha (c1605?)
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Gerald Cohen</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Paper 1 develops the research set out in Cohen &amp; Cohen (SAA: 2013).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> Our subsequent digitization of the full text of a copy of the Eirenarcha reveals further annotations, marginalia and other markings, all of which seem to add support, in the form of palaeographic and literary evidence, to our initial provisional attribution of the entire corpus of markings to Shakespeare. These include:
            </p>
            <p>1. Marginalia: ‘H3 the law in Latin’ – referencing ‘Justicer’ and ‘Jusitciar,’ which appear in print lower down on the page (ref. King Lear);</p>
            <p>2. Marginalia: ‘Night Watches’ (ref. Hamlet, Much Ado);</p>
            <p>3. Faintly marked: a poem excerpt from Martial: (ref. King Lear); Inter raucos ultimus Rogatores, Ores caminae panis improbibuccas. And ranged last among the roaring rogues, In vaine a morsel may he begge of bread, so bad, as hungry dogs disdaine to byte.</p>
            <p>4. Annotation: ‘Testymonyal of a Roge 190 193’ – the Testimonial reads: “…and he is limited to be at 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Sale</hi> aforesaid, within tenne daies, now next ensuing at his peril.” (ref. King Lear);
            </p>
            <p>5. Annotation: [beside ‘sermo Iosuae ad Achan’] ‘the Chapter [ie, 7, in print,</p>
            <p>below]: 19 Verse’ (ref. King Lear);</p>
            <p>6. Underlined: ‘shoale’ (ref. Macbeth);</p>
            <p>7. Underlined: ‘Common duetie in Charitie’ (ref. King Lear);</p>
            <p>8. Marked in margin: ‘burning in the hand’ (ref. Richard II);</p>
            <p>9. Marked in margin: ‘The grace and dispensation of the prince may not be strained beyond the words.’ (ref. Merchant of Venice).</p>
            <p>10. 
                <hi rend=""color(1F2327)"">Ink smudge near ‘if a common Player of Interludes (other than as belong to a</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(1F2327)"">Baron) has wandered abroad’.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>As the growing preponderance of evidence appears to tip the attribution of these annotations toward William Shakespeare of Stratford, it may be reasonable (even at this early stage) to speculate on some direct implications for critical research. Based on this potential evidence, Part I of this paper will bring to the fore heretofore unexplored dimensions and characterizations of Shakespeare’s literary and dramatic technique, focussing specifically on one structural element, viz., Shakespeare’s apparent selection, adaptation, and staging of choice legal-lexical items contained in this unrecorded copy of Lambarde’s Eirenarcha. Inasmuch as the source text (the Common Law) comprises material firmly rooted in the living social context of Shakespeare’s day, I will present </p>
            <p>arguments touching upon Shakespeare’s assumed broader purpose of furthering legal equity.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Associate Professor Hart Cohen </hi>
            </p>
            <p>Building on Cohen &amp; Cohen (SAA: 2013), the second paper reflects on the potential for modelling a database approach to the textual analysis of the seminal text in the research case. This section begins with a reflection on the evolution of medium theory, its concern with the technical and material properties of different media and its ability to amplify memory and experience (McLuhan: 1964). The emergence of digital technologies introduces re-mediation (Bolter and Grusin: 2000) and in this way opens up questions about the incorporation of texts into new contexts of audiences, narratives and distribution. The impact of the digital has now outstripped the initial projections of re- mediation with a quantified data model for both culture and the self. Mediation has adapted to a different form of memorialisation and this has foregrounded the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">interface </hi>(Galloway: 2012) defined as “…traces of the past coming to appear in an ever expanding present…” My intention is to bring this kind of analysis to the annotations, marginalia and markings found in this volume of the Eirenarcha. These materialisations are beyond textual representations in the usual sense but rather are the media of sensation – what Parikka refers to as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">geo-media</hi> – where the materiality is like stored energy whose “…intensities, affordances and tendencies are not just passive, waiting for the activity of form(ing) by the human…” (Parikka 2012:84).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> In our earlier paper, I referred to Stephen Greenblatt’s use of the concept of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">energia (</hi>ενέργεια)
                <hi rend=""italic"">,</hi> and his further development of this concept into 
                <hi rend=""italic"">socia</hi>l energy to characterise the motivated and contingently made works of Shakespeare. In combining Parikka’s new materiality of media with the social energy referred to by Greenblatt, this may lead the way to a methodology that is a non- representational form of mediation – something more akin to algorithmic and database determinations of the annotations and markings found on this edition of the Eirenarcha. The layers of mediation are located at the interface, where the new temporalities and the affordances of digital infrastructure open the text to its own materialities.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Professor Harold Short</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The third paper will develop the Digital Humanities context as the most appropriate one to further develop the analysis of this research case. Digital Humanities is broadly conceived as a collaborative space between computational methods developed in fields such as computer science and the arts and humanities disciplines.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> Its history goes back several decades, but recognition of its potential and importance has been growing rapidly in recent years. Shakespeare scholars have been very active in this arena for a long time, and there is no reason to doubt their continuing engagements and the importance of their work, both for Shakespeare studies and for the digital humanities.
            </p>
            <p>The most visible work to date, and arguably the most influential, has been to do with online scholarly editions and an increasingly wide range of support and contextual materials, including not only facsimiles of source material and scholarly commentaries and essays, but also tools for retrieval and analysis that encourage</p>
            <p>and enable any user, whether academic or pursuing general interests, to engage</p>
            <p>with Shakespeare in new and previously unimaginable ways. Foremost among these</p>
            <p>are such sites as Michael Best's Internet Shakespeare Editions
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> and the Folger Digital Texts
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> but there are numerous others. There has also been an increasing engagement with performance, and projects such as The MIT Global Shakespeare Project
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> seek to include a range of photographic and video materials in what is made available online to the researcher. The British Universities Film &amp; Video Council's International Database of Shakespeare on Film, Television and Radio gives primacy to records of performance. The number of websites and the range of materials offered appear to increase almost daily!
            </p>
            <p>Another major strand of digital Shakespeare scholarship has been in the field of stylometry and authorship attribution. Among many others, one prominent scholar in this field is Hugh Craig of Newcastle, New South Wales, who has published extensively on his work over many years using statistically-­‐based analytical methods developed by and in collaboration with John Burrows. 
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The research presented in this session fits comfortably within the general tradition of scholarly digital research in Shakespeare studies, and also draws to some extent on the methods developed by scholars such as Craig and Burrows, particularly in the development and use for analytical purposes of databases (corpora) of texts written by Shakespeare and his contemporaries. As, however, with the case of Koppelman and Wechsler and their copy of John Baret’s Alvearie
                <hi rend=""superscript"">8</hi>, additional methods are needed, for example detailed paleographic analysis.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">9</hi> Here we are adapting methods developed in a somewhat different field of humanities research – Anglo-­‐Saxon manuscript studies. The DigiPal Project at King’s College London
                <hi rend=""superscript"">10</hi> developed methods based on high resolution scans of manuscripts and the creation of
            </p>
            <p>databases of individual character forms as well as character groups, along with</p>
            <p>analytical tools to aid detailed comparisons to be made. DigiPal is a very recent project – completed mid-­‐2014 – and represents an important new approach to digital scholarship. The demonstration of its relevance in a different scholarly context takes it a stage further.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> Cohen G., and Cohen H., (2013) “…a writer essential to the others…” 
                <hi rend=""superscript"">∗</hi>: further
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> Parikka, J., (2012) What is Media Archaeology? Polity: Cambridge.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> McCarty, W, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities Computing</hi>, Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, chapter 3 ‘Discipline’ pp.114-­‐157, and esp. diagram p. 119.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi>
                <ref target=""http://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/"">http://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/</ref>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi>
                <ref target=""http://www.folgerdigitaltexts.org/"">http://www.folgerdigitaltexts.org/</ref>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi>
                <ref target=""http://globalshakespeares.mit.edu/"">http://globalshakespeares.mit.edu/#</ref>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi> Craig DH, Kinney AF, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare, Computers and the Mystery of Authorship</hi>, Cambridge University Press, 2009
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""superscript"">8</hi>
                <ref target=""http://shakespearesbeehive.com/"">http://shakespearesbeehive.com</ref>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""superscript"">9</hi> As suggested by Michael Witmore and Heather Wolfe:
            </p>
            <p>
                <ref target=""http://collation.folger.edu/2014/04/buzz-"">http://collation.folger.edu/2014/04/buzz-­‐</ref>or-­‐honey-­‐shakespeares-­‐beehive-­‐raises-­‐questions
            </p>
            <p>10 http:/ 
                <ref target=""http://www.digipal.eu/"">jwww.digipal.eu</ref>
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"2160","16","'88milSMS', A New Digital Corpus Resource Of French Text Messages: Why We Chose To Exclude Full Transcoding And Standardised Tagging.","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Panckhurst</surname>
                        <forename>Rachel</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Praxiling UMR 5267 CNRS, Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier France</affiliation>
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                    <term>mediated electronic discourse.</term>
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            <p>In 2011, six academics gathered over 90,000 authentic text messages in French from the general public, in compliance with French law.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> The SMS ‘donors’ were also invited to fill out a sociolinguistic questionnaire (http://sud4science.org; Panckhurst et al.
                <hi rend=""italic"">,</hi> 2013). The project is part of a vast international initiative titled sms4science (http://www.sms4science.org/; Fairon et al., 2006; Cougnon and Fairon, 2014; Cougnon, 2015) that aims to build a worldwide database and analyse authentic text messages. After the sud4science SMS data collection, a pre-processing phase of checking and eliminating any spurious information and a three-step semi-automatic anonymisation phase were conducted (Accorsi et al., 2014; Patel et al., 2013). Two extracts were transcoded into standardised French (1,000 SMS) and annotated (100 SMS). The finalised digital resource of 88,000 anonymised French text messages, the ‘88milSMS’ corpus, the extracts, and the sociolinguistic questionnaire data are currently available for all to download, via a user free-of-charge licence agreement, from the Huma-Num web service (http://88milsms.huma-num.fr; Panckhurst et al., 2014). 
            </p>
            <p>Why decide to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">exclude</hi> full transcoding and annotation tagging phases? 
            </p>
            <p>Transcoding ‘raw’ text messages into ‘standardised’ French means that morpho-syntactic parsers and other natural language processing tools can ultimately analyse them. Checking spelling and grammar facilitates comprehension, but 
                <hi rend=""italic"">no</hi> supplementary information should be ‘injected’. What if a texter tries to simulate a certain form of oral French, for instance, by using an apostrophe, or through agglutination (‘j’sais’ = ‘je sais’, ‘chuis’ = ‘je suis’)? Should these items be transcoded or not? What about punctuation, often absent in text messages? Should one re-introduce this systematically? Researchers may have differing theoretical viewpoints. 
            </p>
            <p>Another issue is tagging the corpus. After much scientific debate about previous experiences with other sms4science members, eight tags were chosen for ‘88milSMS’: TYP(ography), MOD(ificiation), GRA(mmar), BIN(ettes, smileys/emojis), ABS(ence), LAN(guage), ORT(hography, spelling), DIV(erse). Like the previous transcoding phase, annotation is a source of theoretical disagreement. To highlight this, it may be difficult to decide which tag to use, and double tagging may be necessary: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Bone journé</hi>. The ‘scriptor’ may have voluntarily modified the two words (‘Bonne journée’ [have a nice day]) or may have lacked spelling knowledge. So should ‘MOD’ and/or ‘ORT’ be used? In another example, in the statement, ‘Il es rentrer a 22h30 et jai eu ldroii au: jsui fatiguer, jai mal a la tete jvai me coucher’ (He came home at 10:30pm and I got to hear: I’m tired, I have a headache, I’m going to bed), ‘rentrer’ (‘Il est rentré’) could be either a grammatical mistake (GRA), or the scriptor may have preferred using an ‘r’ (MOD) instead of pressing the ‘e’ to access the acute accent (on a smartphone). It is extremely difficult to provide satisfactory standardised tagging. 
            </p>
            <p>We decided to limit the processing to two extracts. Our (rare) choice to exclude full transcoding and tagging is a theoretical position: annotation is far from neutral. It is directly linked to an interpretative framework. A true consensus on how to standardise the transcoding and annotation does not exist, owing to differing/varying theoretical, (pluri)disciplinary, and scientific stances. We believe that no additional mark-up initiatives should be imposed upon researchers (other researchers disagree; see Chanier et al., 2014); it seems more relevant to let them conduct their own annotation bearing their specific scientific questioning in mind, without being trapped within a unique theoretical framework. </p>
            <p>The 88milSMS resource will provide inspiration for many years to come. Our corpus can be used to analyse contemporary mediated electronic discourse, build knowledge on SMS writing forms (Panckhurst, 2009), and let algorithms learn from this: alignment methods for facilitating automatic transcoding are currently being explored (Lopez et al., 2014), as are methods for classifying ‘unknown’ items for use in automatically identifying lexical ‘creativity’ within 88milSMS and also to improve electronic dictionary approaches. The resource also sheds light on ‘corpus-driven’ and ‘corpus-based’ approaches (Panckhurst 2013; Panckhurst et al., 2015). XML encoding means that the resource will be eligible for long-term archiving with the CINES (https://www.cines.fr/). Perhaps in the future, people will look back and explore these ‘snapshot’ resources and understand more about the evolution of scriptural practices and usages in the 21st century.</p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. Many thanks to my colleagues, Catherine Détrie, Cédric Lopez, Claudine Moïse, Mathieu Roche, Bertrand Verine; our 13 students, who all contributed to sud4science; Nicolas Hvoinsky, legal expert (CIL); and MSH-M, CNRS, and DGLFLF for funding.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Accorsi, P., Patel, N., Lopez, C., Panckhurst, R. and Roche, M.</hi> (2014). Seek&amp;Hide: Anonymising a French SMS Corpus Using Natural Language Processing Techniques. In Cougnon, L.-A. and Fairon, C.
                        <hi rend=""italic""> (eds), SMS Communication. A Linguistic Approach.</hi> Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 11–28.
                        <lb/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chanier, T., Poudat, C., Sagot, B., Antoniadis, G., Wigham, C. R., Hriba, L. Longhi, J. and Seddah, D.</hi> (2014). The CoMeRe Corpus for French: Structuring and Annotating Heterogeneous CMC Genres. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">JLCL (Journal of Language Technology and Computational Linguistics), </hi>special issue on Building and Annotating Corpora of Computer-Mediated Discourse: Issues and Challenges at the Interface of Corpus and Computational Linguistics, http://www.jlcl.org/2014_Heft2/Heft2-2014.pdf, 1–31.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cougnon, L.-A.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Langage et sms. Une étude internationale des pratiques actuelles.</hi> Presses universitaires de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cougnon, L.-A. and Fairon, C.</hi> (eds). (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">SMS Communication. A Linguistic Approach.</hi> John Benjamins, Amsterdam.
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fairon, C., Klein, J.-R. and Paumier S.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">SMS pour la science. Corpus de 30.000 SMS et logiciel de consultation.</hi> Presses universitaires de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve; Manual + CD-Rom, http://www.smspourlascience.be/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lopez, C., Bestandji, R., Roche, M. and Panckhurst, R.</hi> (2014). Towards Electronic SMS Dictionary Construction: An Alignment-Based Approach. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings, LREC (Language Resources and Evaluation Conference), </hi>Reykjavik, Iceland, 26–31 May 2014, pp. 2833–38.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Panckhurst, R.</hi> (2009). Short Message Service (SMS): typologie et problématiques futures. In Arnavielle, T. (coord.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Polyphonies, pour Michelle Lanvin</hi>, Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier, pp. 33–52.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Panckhurst, R., Détrie, C., Lopez, C., Moïse, C., Roche, M. and Verine B</hi>. (2013). Sud4science, de l’acquisition d’un grand corpus de SMS en français à l’analyse de l’écriture SMS. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Épistémè—revue internationale de sciences sociales appliquées,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>, Des usages numériques aux pratiques scripturales électroniques: 107–38.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Panckhurst, R., Détrie, C., Lopez, C., Moïse, C., Roche, M. and Verine, B.</hi> (2014). 88milSMS. A Corpus of Authentic Text Messages in French. Produced by the University Paul-Valéry Montpellier and the CNRS, in collaboration with the Catholic University of Louvain, funded with support from the MSH-M and the Ministry of Culture (General Delegation for the French Language and the Languages of France) and with the financial participation of Praxiling, Lirmm, Lidilem, Tetis, Viseo, 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>http://88milsms.huma-num.fr/, ISLRN: 024-713-187-947-8.</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Panckhurst, R., Roche, M. and Lopez C.</hi> (2015). Données authentiques: un grand corpus de SMS en français. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings, SHESL-HTL 2015 Colloquium,</hi> Corpus et constitution des savoirs linguistiques, Paris, 30–31 January 2015, pp. 33–35.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Patel, N., Accorsi, P., Inkpen, D., Lopez, C. and Roche, M.</hi> (2013). Approaches of Anonymisation of an SMS Corpus. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of CICLING (Conference on Intelligent Text Processing and Computational Linguistics),</hi> LNCS, University of the Aegean, Samos, Greece, 24–30 March 2013, Springer Verlag, pp. 77–88.
                    </bibl>
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"2161","16","A 3D Model Of The Venetian Galeazza","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Cavinato</surname>
                        <forename>Alessandro</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>EPFL, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>alessandro.cavinato@epfl.ch</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Geissmann</surname>
                        <forename>Beat</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>EPFL, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>beat.geissmann@epfl.ch</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Vandevelde</surname>
                        <forename>Konrad Robert</forename>
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                    <affiliation>EPFL, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>konrad.vandevelde@epfl.ch</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Dalang</surname>
                        <forename>Olivier</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>EPFL, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>olivier.dalang@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Rodighiero</surname>
                        <forename>Dario</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>EPFL, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>dario.rodighiero@epfl.ch</email>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>3D modeling</term>
                    <term>CAD</term>
                    <term>Galeazza</term>
                    <term>Render</term>
                    <term>Venice</term>
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                    <term>data modeling and architecture including hypothesis-driven modeling</term>
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            <p>During its thousand-year life span, the Republic of Venice played a leading role in Mediterranean commercial activity, with a trading empire that spanned from the lagoons of the northern Adriatic Sea to the shores of Syria and Lebanon. The secret of the Venetian domain on the eastern Mediterranean was certainly the power of the Serenissima’s fleet, provided with ships that were efficient in commerce and battle. Among the most successful vessels of the Venetian fleet is the Galeazza, which represents the masterpiece of the shipping technology of the 16th and 17th centuries, and is the symbol of the Venetian domain on the Mediterranean Sea during this period. </p>
            <p>In order to explain the secrets of the Galeazza’s success, we built a detailed CAD model of this ship, including interior and exterior design. The completion of the model allowed us to produce realistic renderings of the galleass, as well as to obtain quantitative results that might be appealing to naval experts and the digital humanities community. In this poster we show the steps that we have followed to develop the 3D model, as well as some renderings of different parts of the galleass. Moreover, we report the quantitative result estimated with CAD and naval simulation software. Finally, we offer an interactive live demonstration where users will have the chance to explore the 3D model and have a taste of life on such a ship.</p>
            <p>Materials and Methods</p>
            <p>In order to model the Galeazza in detail, we gathered information from history books specializing in the Venetian nautical field. In particular, we found eleven detailed drawings that served as the primary source of information for the construction of the main structure of the ship (Associazione Navimodellisti Bolognese, n.d.), as well as other books about the history and the evolution of the Venetian galleass during the different epochs of the Republic of Venice (Ercole, 2008; 2010). </p>
            <p>With this documentation we started the modeling procedure, which has been carried out entirely in Rhino 3D. This software allowed us to model the main components of the ship by extruding the 2D profiles that were reported on the eleven drawings of the Galeazza .</p>
            <p>Once all the main components were modeled, we started the assembly process by combining together all the 3D objects. We could deduce the exact position of each piece by looking at the plans of the galleass and at the original ancient drawings contained in Penzo (2000). Once the main shape of the ship was defined, we could start to embellish the model with more specific components and, at the same time, model the interior of the ship. The information that we needed for this step was gathered after an extensive inspection of the ancient drawings contained in Penzo (2000) and Ercole (2010).</p>
            <p>In parallel with the modeling of the last parts, we started the rendering process. In order to produce a final result as realistic as possible, we selected each piece of the galleass and consulted the literature to identify the material it was made of. The proper texture was applied with Maxwell Render, allowing for a great level of detail, especially in the reflectance and light scattering of the different surfaces.</p>
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            <p>Figure 1. Complete CAD model of the Galeazza.</p>
            <p>Results</p>
            <p>Besides the realistic renderings, the detailed CAD model of the ship allowed us to come out with quantitative results that might be useful for further studies in maritime history. We performed computations of the center of gravity and waterline position by exploiting a naval simulation tool called Orca3D. Thus, by analyzing the distribution of weights, we could estimate the arrangement of the ballast, the placement of the ammunition magazine, the displacement and the total amount of potable water that was carried during a trip. Finally, we estimated the internal volumes that could be used as warehouse to store cannonballs, merchandise, food, and weapons. These results might be useful not only to comprehend the properties of the galleass itself but also to investigate the characteristics that led to the success of the Venetian fleet on the Mediterranean Sea.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Associazione Navimodellisti Bolognesi.</hi> (n.d.). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">1351—GALEAZZA VENETA l.f.t. 71,50 m–1:50</hi>, http://www.anb-online.it/navi-mercantili-e-navi-antiche/dagli-inizi-della-navigazione-al-1800-circa/1351-galeazza-veneta-l-f-t-7150-m-150/?lang=en.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ercole, G.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Duri i banchi.</hi> Gruppo Modellisticio Trentino.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ercole, G.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Galeazze, un sogno veneziano. </hi>Gruppo Modellistico Trentino.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""http://netwar.wordpress.com/2007/08/15/the-battle-of-lepanto/"">http://netwar.wordpress.com/2007/08/15/the-battle-of-lepanto/</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""p15397"">http://www.shipstamps.co.uk</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Penzo, G.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Navi Veneziane.</hi> Lint.
                    </bibl>
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"2162","16","A Closer Look: Developing Mobile Applications to Reveal Hidden Meanings of Art","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Downing</surname>
                        <forename>Laura Kathryn</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Glasgow School of Art, United Kingdom; Trinity College Dublin</affiliation>
                    <email>downing.laura@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Lawless</surname>
                        <forename>Séamus</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Trinity College Dublin</affiliation>
                    <email>seamus.lawless@scss.tcd.ie</email>
                </author>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
                </address>
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                    <term>art</term>
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                    <term>Bulgaria</term>
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                    <term>art history</term>
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            <p>Art is immensely complex by its very nature. Conceptual meanings and storied existences make art objects and cultural heritage sites valuable learning tools. Yet the very essence that transforms these precious materials from mere objects to fascinating, priceless cultural heritage artifacts often cannot be understood by present-day viewers through observation alone. Art objects are reliant on external sources to communicate their messages and meanings for them, to reveal their hidden stories to the world. The transformative potential of digital mobile technology as a new means to engage global public audiences with art and cultural heritage sites is changing the nature of how ongoing visitor learning problems are addressed. 
                <hi rend=""color(252525)"">Museums are now developing mobile applications to provide more in-depth and interactive learning experiences, which help users generally become more comfortable interacting with art and expand museums’ audiences to include entirely virtual visitors from around the globe. Mobile applications can build meaningful context around art resources using the vast expert knowledge held by museums while allowing users more control over their learning as they develop their own understanding and personal relationships with art (Hartig, 2013; Lewis, 2013). </hi>
            </p>
            <p>This paper will investigate how mobile applications designed to reveal hidden meanings of art effectively enhance user learning processes for understanding art. This paper will present the findings from a critical state-of-the-art survey conducted on five illustrative location-generic mobile applications produced by leading international art museums that focus on revealing hidden meanings in art within informal learning contexts that would most likely take place off-site from the museum. State-of-the-art practices, outstanding best-practice examples, as well as current design weaknesses will be discussed. Additionally, this paper will also present a new prototype mobile application about Bulgarian Orthodox art, which was created from a series of requirements that were derived from the state-of-the-art survey results. </p>
            <p>Mobile applications are constructivist learning tools by nature because of their focus on contextual learning, making connections and building relationships, and allowing the learner to control their own learning process (Hein 1991; 1999; Ravenscroft in Sharples et al., 2000, 7). Location-generic mobile applications allow users to learn outside traditional space and time constraints and are most effective and broadly appealing in informal, relaxed learning situations (Kukulska-Hulme, 2013). 
                <hi rend=""color(252525)"">The adaptability of mobile devices’ abilities to present practically limitless multimedia information from numerous information sources, voices, and perspectives is also transforming learning possibilities (Helal et al., 2013). One could speculate that being able to study works of art on a mobile device anywhere, in private, can have a transformative positive impact on learning through intimately interacting with digitized works of art, especially for audiences unable to view them in person as well as those who may feel intimidated going to museums because they are less comfortable, knowledgeable, or familiar with art.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The surveyed mobile applications reveal the often deceptively complex and subtle nature of the artistic process and enhance visual details of art objects that would otherwise go unnoticed to the untrained eye or are physically inaccessible because they are hidden or no longer exist. Numerous histories and other fascinating tidbits of knowledge are also given new life by being reintroduced to broad audiences. </p>
            <p>These objectives are commonly carried out by strategically combining new digital visual content with archival information to illustrate the human and nuanced nature of the myriad stories underpinning works of art. Museum practices are also becoming more transparent through digital methods, which helps raise the public profile of museums as research and educational institutions. Digital technology provides innovative and cost-effective methods for museums to publish research and explain curatorial, art conservation, and other behind-the-scenes practices with broad public audiences and create new ways of learning unlike ever before. </p>
            <p>Synthesized results indicate the most pedagogically successful guides presented the content in such a way that the works of art came to life in the mind: art topics became stories; paintings became settings; and artists, subjects, and museum workers became characters in a vivid narrative explored in the diverse content of the application. One could speculate these are the stories that the user will remember long after the digital experience is over. Survey results indicate that when users control their learning environment and are guided to actively uncover hidden layers and meanings of art in an interactive environment, it helps users actively learn about art objects’ individual histories and significance while encouraging users to develop their own personal meanings and relationships with art. Housen (2014) and Yenawine (1997) emphasize these are equally important to objective understandings of art. </p>
            <p>Complex spatio-temporal concepts that would be difficult to otherwise explain to general audiences are easily understood through digitally enhanced methods. Interactive design capabilities of mobile devices, including sophisticated native multimedia and multisensory features, allow the user to manipulate, construct, compare, augment, and respond to the environment in a fluid continuum in both physical and virtual space. Survey results indicate that giving the user the ability to watch works of art transmogrify as a direct result of their actions and being able to see them in extremely close detail helps the user better understand the nuanced beauty, the emotional resonance, the personal artistic touches that demonstrate the deceivingly sophisticated nature of these works. These digitally enhanced features uniquely enhance users’ critical visual investigative and comparison abilities, which are critical for constructing meanings of art (Alexander and Goeser, 2013; Housen, 2007; 2014; Isaacson et al., 2011; 2012; Rubino, 2011, 9). 
                <hi rend=""color(252525)"">In some cases content created for mobile devices provides opportunities for better user-driven visual analysis and personal study of art objects than what is publicly viewable in the galleries or anywhere else. This makes them universally appealing for everyone, from those only casually interested in art, to students and educators, and even professionals, including curators, conservators, and other researchers. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>Results of the state-of-the-art survey suggest the challenging nature of designing mobile applications because of the delicate balance that must be achieved between a number of factors in a dynamic digital environment. Weaknesses in content, design, and navigation in several mobile applications indicate their negative influence on learning and user experience. </p>
            <p>* * *</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Where Heaven Meets Earth: A Visual Guide for Understanding Bulgarian Orthodox Art </hi>is the first known attempt to help new audiences learn about Bulgarian Orthodox art with a mobile application. It exemplifies a practical solution to a common interpretive problem that many museums and historic sites face: providing sufficient didactic and innovative interpretive material to its visitors without interrupting the aesthetic experience on site. It is location generic by design, so it can also be used to prepare or reflect on a site visit or exclusively by virtual visitors who may never have the chance to physically visit a Bulgarian Orthodox heritage site. It was developed based on a set of requirements that were derived from the formative results of the state-of-the-art survey, and it is an example of a low-cost and efficient method of producing an educational mobile application featuring extensible design without advanced technical skills.
            </p>
            <p>According to Avgerinou and Pettersson’s Theory of Visual Literacy, each person’s ability to interpret art is constrained by one’s reasoning skills along with one’s existing knowledge, context clues, and readily available resources, because the visual language, symbols, and prescribed meanings encoded within works of art are culturally specific and therefore not universally understood (2011). Generally speaking, the Christian Eastern Orthodox religion and its artistic traditions, which the Bulgarian Orthodox Church is a part of, are not well understood by audiences outside countries where it is a dominant religion. Many tourists come to Bulgaria without much knowledge of Orthodox art, but are eager to learn more about it. However, most religious sites in Bulgaria do not have didactic and interpretive information available to help visitors understand and interpret the rich visual iconographic language and layers of symbolic biblical and cultural meanings that are hidden within Orthodox art because they are foremost working churches and monasteries. Without didactic information available on-site, many visitors cannot fully engage, understand, and appreciate the artistic and religious value of Bulgarian Orthodox art or its significance in broader Christian, Bulgarian, Balkan, Slavic, world religions, and global cultural heritage. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Where Heaven Meets Earth</hi> provides mostly basic explanatory historic, artistic, and identification information for pre-literate Orthodox art audiences, which they can then use to construct more informed objective and personal meanings of Bulgarian Orthodox art (Yenawine, 1997). 
            </p>
            <p>The paper will conclude with a list of actionable recommendations collated from research, the survey, and lessons learned during the mobile application development process to help practitioners get started on their first mobile application project. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Alexander, J. B. and Goeser, C.</hi> (2013). Transforming the Art Museum Experience: Gallery One. In Proctor, N. and Cherry, R. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Museums and the Web 2013: Proceedings.</hi> Silver Spring, MD: Museums and the Web.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Avgerinou, M. D. and Pettersson, R.</hi> (2011). Toward a Cohesive Theory of Visual Literacy. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Visual Literacy,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>(2): 1–19.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hartig, K.</hi> (2013). Communicating the Museum: From Digital Strategy to Plan of Action—Two Years Down the Road. In Proctor, N. and Cherry, R. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Museums and the Web 2013: Proceedings.</hi> Silver Spring, MD: Museums and the Web.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hein, G.</hi> (1991). Constructivist Learning Theory: The Museum and the Needs of People. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Museum and the Needs of the People. CECA International Committee of Museum Educators Conference</hi>, Jerusalem, 15–22 October 1991.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hein, G. E.</hi> (1999). Is Meaning Making Constructivism? Is Constructivism Meaning Making? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Exhibitionist, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(2): 15-18.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Helal, D., Ancelet, J. and Maxson, H.</hi> (2013). Lessons Learned: Evaluating the Whitney’s Multimedia Guide. In Proctor, N. and Cherry, R. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Museums and the Web 2013: Proceedings.</hi> Silver Spring, MD: Museums and the Web.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Housen, A.</hi> (2007). Art Viewing and Aesthetic Development: Designing for the Viewer. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">From Periphery to Center: Art Museum Education in the 21st Century.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Housen, A.</hi> (2014). Aesthetic Development. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Visual Thinking Strategies.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Isaacson, A., et al.</hi> (2011). Enhancing Group Tours with the iPad: A Case Study.” AAM, 5 August. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Isaacson, A., et al.</hi> (2012). Enhancing Group Tours with the iPad: 2012 Updates and Discoveries. AAM, 12 October.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kukulska-Hulme, A.</hi> (2013). Limelight on Mobile Learning: Integrating Education and Innovation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Harvard International Review, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">34</hi>(4): 12–16.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lewis, A.</hi> (2013). What Do Visitors Say about Using Mobile Devices in Museums? Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 13 March, http://www.vam.ac.uk/blog/digital-media/museum-visitors-using-mobile (accessed 30 March 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rubino, I.</hi> (2011). iPads for Museums: Serving Visitors and Professional Communities. Powerhouse Museum, Sydney, Australia. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sharples, M., et al.</hi> (2007). A Theory of Learning for the Mobile Age. In Andrews R. and Haythornthwaite, C. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Sage Handbook of eLearning. </hi>London: Sage, pp. 1–23.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Yenawine, P. </hi>(1997). Thoughts on Visual Literacy. In Flood, J., Heath, S. B. and Lapp, D. (eds),
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Handbook of Research on Teaching Literacy through the Communicative and Visual Arts</hi>. Macmillan, New York.
                    </bibl>
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"2163","16","A Collaborative Interdisciplinary Knowledge-Base for the Art Conservation Community","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Hunter</surname>
                        <forename>Jane</forename>
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                    <affiliation>The University of Queensland, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>j.hunter@uq.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Odat</surname>
                        <forename>Suleiman</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>The University of Queensland, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>s.odat@uq.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Drennan</surname>
                        <forename>John</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>The University of Queensland, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>j.drennan@uq.edu.au</email>
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            <p>Due to increasing access to sophisticated analytical techniques, painting conservation has evolved into a highly interdisciplinary research area that requires the integration of knowledge and ‘big data’ about art history (artists, artistic techniques, art provenance), the physical and chemical properties of paint and pigments, the chemical processes associated with treatment and cleaning methods, and advanced high-resolution characterization techniques. The ultimate aim is to determine the precise cause of the degradation or discoloration that is occurring in a particular artwork or across a set of paintings and the optimum methods for treating and preventing it.</p>
            <p>The challenge is that the data and information required by art conservators to inform decision making are highly heterogeneous and distributed across databases, scholarly publications, and the Web. Expertise is also distributed across art galleries, conservation centres, and universities around the globe. Although it is possible to find some concentrated authoritative collections of information on the Web (e.g., 
                <anchor xml:id=""OLE_LINK1""/>
                <anchor xml:id=""OLE_LINK2""/>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Institute of Conservation</hi>, Smithsonian Museum Conservation Institute [MCI], Getty Conservation and Research Institutes, CAMEO materials database, and Forbes Pigment database), the information is often embedded within databases or is highly unstructured data hidden in textual documents. Relevant information may exist, but it is difficult to find, extract, re-use, interpret, correlate, or compare.
            </p>
            <p>For example, it is very difficult for art conservators to find other past examples of conservation issues that most closely match the problem they are trying to solve. Moreover, the experimental data underpinning publications that describe the long-term effects of different environmental conditions (humidity, temperature, UV light) on different paints and pigments is not accessible, verifiable, or re-usable. Typically, the raw data (FTIR, spectrographs, X-ray diffraction images, SEM/TEM images) associated with the analysis of a particular painting or paint samples are not available even if described within a related publication. Our community of conservators, curators, and scientists want a Web-based search interface that provides answers to questions such as</p>
            <p> • What is the best way to treat zinc oxides occurring in paintings by Rover Thomas?</p>
            <p> • What are the factors that cause or accelerate the occurrence of lead soaps in paintings by R. Godfrey Rivers?</p>
            <p> • What is the best solvent for removing varnish from the painting ‘Epiphany’?</p>
            <p>In order to answer such questions, a broad range of provenance information, characterisation data, publications, and experimental results need to be aggregated and synthesized. Hence, a key objective of the Twentieth Century in Paint project
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> was to investigate the IT infrastructure and services required to provide decision support tools to an online network of art conservators (APTCAARN—the Asia Pacific Twentieth Century Conservation Art Research Network). An initial analysis of the user requirements of APTCAARN members identified a growing demand for the following:
            </p>
            <p> • An online repository where experiments and experimental results can be described, stored, shared, and discussed.</p>
            <p> • A search interface that provides seamless access to publically available databases about paints and pigments.</p>
            <p> • Tools to enable the extraction of structured data from publications about art conservation issues.</p>
            <p> • A SPARQL query interface that supports querying across all of the above.</p>
            <p>This paper will describe the architecture, ontology, repository, and services that constitute the Art Conservation Knowledge-base. It will describe the OPPRA (Ontology for the Preservation of Art) ontology, the experimental data capture interface and archive, the mapping tools (that map external databases to OPPRA), and the GATE pipeline (that integrates a Named Entity Recognition [NER] tool for tagging concepts and named entities within paint conservation publications, with a Relation Extraction classifier for identifying OPPRA-based relations between named entities) to extract structured data from a corpus of key publications on art conservation. We will also give a demo of the ontology-based federated search interface, designed to support the queries described above. Finally, the results of evaluating the system both from a user endpoint and empirically will be presented.</p>
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            <p>Figure 1. Modelling and extracting structured data from a publication about experiments on lead soaps in a painting by Van Gogh.</p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. http://www.20thcpaint.org/.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hunter, J. and Odat, S.</hi> (2011). Building a Semantic Knowledge-Base for Painting Conservators. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">2011 IEEE 7th International Conference on e-Science</hi>. IEEE, pp. 173–80.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Odat, S., Groza, T. and Hunter, J.</hi> (2014). Extracting Structured Data from Publications in the Art Conservation Domain. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, doi:
                        <hi rend=""citation_doi"">10.1093/llc/fqu002.</hi>
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"2164","16","A Computational Bibliography Of Two Plays From The Shakespeare Folio","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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            <p>The 1623 Shakespeare Folio may well be the most important single book we have for the study of literature in English. It contains 18 plays that do not survive anywhere else, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Macbeth</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Twelfth Night</hi>, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Julius Caesar</hi> among them, and includes what are generally held to be superior texts of 18 plays by Shakespeare that had already been printed, or at least valuable alternative texts for them. 
            </p>
            <p>Establishing sound texts for the plays continues to occupy the attention of a large group of scholars worldwide, with new editions appearing every few years. Where multiple varying early texts exist, choices must be made, but this can only be done if we understand the patterns of transmission that gave rise to them—their bibliography. This remains a problem because the plays were printed in a marketplace where copyright was vested in printers rather than authors, and was in any case not well developed, and no one in the chain extending from authors to book buyers was concerned with keeping records for posterity. Work on these problems goes back to the 18th century, and we now know a lot about theatres, companies, writers, printers, booksellers, and book buyers in general, but in the form of general tendencies, not hard-and-fast rules, and rarely enough about particular cases. Here we are compelled to rely on scanty documentary evidence, extended with ingenious speculation, guided by general knowledge of the practices of the day, and on close scrutiny of particular passages. </p>
            <p>The paper will introduce a new line of evidence about the bibliography of these plays from computational stylistics. The methods are comparative and cumulative, subject to the checks against bias and the estimates of underlying reliability provided by statistical models. This provides ways of arbitrating between existing explanations, and some entirely new perspectives as well, such as systematically comparing degrees of likeness between versions. </p>
            <p>The oldest and perhaps still dominant theory about the place of the Folio in the Shakespeare textual constellation is that the compilers of the volume, John Heminges and Henry Condell—close associates of Shakespeare, and both mentioned in his will—were able to collect fair-copy authorial manuscripts of the plays for their venture. Heminges and Condell in the preface to the Folio contend that earlier versions were nothing but ‘diuerse stolne and surreptitious copies, maimed, and deformed by frauds and stealthes of iniurious impostors’, whereas in their volume, Shakespeare’s works are ‘offer’d to your view cured, and perfect of their limbes; and all the rest, absolute in their numbers as he conceived them’.</p>
            <p>Many scholars have followed Heminges and Condell’s lead on the illegitimacy of quarto versions of the plays, arguing that these texts derive from actors or audience members reconstructing dialogue from memory or from shorthand notes. Others have proposed that the non-Folio versions are distinct early authorial versions, pirated manuscript copies, acting versions as opposed to the reading versions printed in the Folio, or versions by other dramatists later adapted by Shakespeare for the Folio version. In this paper I focus on two of the Folio plays with earlier printed analogues, applying computational-stylistic methods to test rival theories about the nature of the Folio text and its relationship to earlier versions.</p>
            <p>In applying computational stylistics to bibliographical questions in Shakespearean drama the study follows a chapter by Arthur F. Kinney (2009) and a book by Lene B. Petersen (2010). Kinney showed that changes between the Folio and Quarto versions of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">King Lear</hi> in uses of some alternative forms such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">which</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">that</hi> were persistent and consistent, indicating close and purposeful revision, most likely authorial. This finding supports the most significant proposal in Shakespeare textual studies of the past 50 years, the separation of Quarto and Folio versions of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">King Lear</hi> into an early and revised state, challenging the earlier view that these were two partial witnesses to a single lost original (Taylor and Warren, 1987). Petersen aims to show patterns in some quartos that reflect memorial reconstruction, such as simplification, repetition, and transposition, but as reviews have pointed out, she fails to account for the inherent variability of her data and only rarely offers results that pass significance tests (Egan et al., 2012).
            </p>
            <p>Henry VI, Part 3</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Henry VI, Part 3</hi> is one of the more extreme cases of uncertainty in the Shakespeare canon. We have a prima facie likelihood that Shakespeare was at least one of the authors, given that the play is included in the Folio—titled unequivocally 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mr William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, &amp; Tragedies</hi>—but scholars continue to disagree on internal, stylistic grounds about whether he wrote the whole of it, or if only part, which part, and who were his fellow authors. 
            </p>
            <p>As well as the Folio we have an early Octavo edition from 1595, which is different enough from the Folio version to have led some scholars to suggest that it is in fact by a different author, and should be regarded as a source for the Folio rather than an alternative version. Another group of scholars has argued that the Octavo is a memorial reconstruction of the play by actors, whereas the Folio derives from authorial ‘foul papers’ or working drafts. The latest Arden edition casts doubt on both the memorial construction and the foul papers theories, finding that neither of the two texts altogether fits its proposed category (Cox and Rasmussen, 2001, 176). </p>
            <p>I will present findings that the 1595 Octavo is by the same author or authors as the 1623 Folio version, but the nature and extent of the differences vary greatly from act to act, with the two versions of Act IV in particular being as far apart as any two versions of an act of any of the Folio-Quarto pairs tested to date. The first two components of a Principal Component Analysis with very common words as variables and a large background set of plays in segments as observations will be used to establish a two-dimensional space as a basis for calculating distances between different versions of the same act. </p>
            <p>Hamlet</p>
            <p>Up to the early 19th century, only one Quarto of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Hamlet</hi> was known, the one printed in 1604, but in 1823 a second separate printing was discovered, from 1603, half as long as Q2 (1604) but with a hitherto unknown scene and many alternative readings. The consensus view is that this is a memorial reconstruction of the play, but an older view that Q1 represents a much earlier authorial version of the play is revived in a recent book by Terri Bourus. She argues the case from stage history, printing history, and comparative readings of the various versions. 
            </p>
            <p>Computational stylistics offers an opportunity to bring some entirely different evidence to bear. Competing views put the date of composition of Q1 in the late 1580s or the late 1590s. Stylistic analysis is effective in classifying plays by date over this sort of span; the language of the drama changed quickly in this period, consistently and collectively, to the point that plays can be reliably assigned between half-decades separated by a half-decade (Craig, 2013). In later plays, words like 
                <hi rend=""italic"">very</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">most</hi> are suddenly more common, as is the indefinite article, and words like 
                <hi rend=""italic"">doth</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">hath</hi>, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">thou</hi> forms retreat. In this paper I will show the results of dating classification tests with function-words data, lexical-words data, and word n-grams. 
            </p>
            <p>A late 1580s date for Q1 would undermine the idea that 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Hamlet</hi> is part of the moment of transformation in Shakespeare’s drama in 1599–1600, which is central to a number of accounts of his development and of the development of early modern culture more generally (Shapiro, 2005; Bloom, 1998; Kermode, 2000). A late 1590s dating would lend weight to the idea that an earlier lost version of the Hamlet story existed but by a different author, possibly Thomas Kyd. 
            </p>
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        <back>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bloom, H.</hi> (1998). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare and the Invention of the Human</hi>. Riverhead Books, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bourus, T.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Young Shakespeare’s Young Hamlet: Print, Piracy, and Performance</hi>. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cox, J. D. and Rasmussen, E.</hi> (eds). (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">King Henry VI, Part 3</hi>. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Arden Shakespeare</hi>, 3rd series. Methuen Drama, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Craig, H.</hi> (2013). ‘The Date of 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sir Thomas More</hi>’. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare Survey,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">66</hi>: 38–54. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Egan, G., et al.</hi> (2012). ‘VI. Shakespeare’. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Year’s Work in English Studies,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">91</hi>: 328–507.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kermode, F.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare’s Language</hi>. Allen Lane, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kinney, A. F.</hi> (2009). ‘Transforming King Lear’. In Craig, H., and Kinney, A. F. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare, Computers, and the Mystery of Authorship</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 181–201.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Petersen, L. B.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare’s Errant Texts: Textual Form and Linguistic Style in Shakespearean ‘Bad’ Quartos and Co-Authored Plays</hi>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shakespeare, W.</hi> (1623). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mr William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, &amp; Tragedies</hi>. London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shapiro, J.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">1599: A Year in the Life of William Shakespeare</hi>. Faber, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Taylor, G. and Warren, M. </hi>(eds). (1987). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Division of the Kingdoms: Shakespeare’s Two Versions of ‘King Lear’</hi>. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 
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"2165","16","A Digital Humanities GIS Ontology: Tweetflickertubing James Joyce's ""Ulysses"" (1922)","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Charles Bartlett</forename>
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                    <term>literary studies</term>
                    <term>data modeling and architecture including hypothesis-driven modeling</term>
                    <term>ontologies</term>
                    <term>text analysis</term>
                    <term>text generation</term>
                    <term>virtual and augmented reality</term>
                    <term>internet / world wide web</term>
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                    <term>bibliographic methods / textual studies</term>
                    <term>interdisciplinary collaboration</term>
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                    <term>visualisation</term>
                    <term>social media</term>
                    <term>crowdsourcing</term>
                    <term>mobile applications and mobile design</term>
                    <term>maps and mapping</term>
                    <term>spatio-temporal modeling</term>
                    <term>analysis and visualisation</term>
                    <term>agent modeling and simulation</term>
                    <term>media studies</term>
                    <term>data mining / text mining</term>
                    <term>English</term>
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        <body>
            <p>This Digital Humanities GIS (DHGSI) model cross-pollinates literary and social media practices to engage in a participatory, performative, and augmented reality survey of the relations between James Joyce’s novel 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses</hi> (1922) and digital eco-system productions of dialogical and social space (Goodchild, 2009; Sieber, Wellen, and Yuan 2011; Priem, 2011; Young and Gilmore, 2013; Graham and Zook, 2013; Lin, 2013). Joyce famously boasted that the aim of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses </hi>(which kaleidoscopically relates the urban journeys of student Stephen Dedalus and advertising salesman Leopold Bloom on 16 June 1904) was ‘to give a picture of Dublin so complete that if the city one day suddenly disappeared from the earth it could be reconstructed out of my book’ (Budgen, 1972, 69). The model integrates a 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses</hi> schema outline with live geo-spatially enabled Twitter, Flickr, and YouTube posts to map the language operating in a Bloomsday-generated digital eco-system to re-create the discourse of a virtual Joycean Dublin during the annual celebration of the novel. Consequently the ‘Joycean’ neologism 
                <hi rend=""italic"">tweetflickertubing</hi> was coined to describe the ontological shift indicated by the HGIS model’s methodology. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Creating the Model</hi>
            </p>
            <p>In 1920 Joyce drafted a schema outlining 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses’</hi> eighteen Homeric episodes for the Italian critic Carlo Linati, to whom he wrote, ‘in view of the enormous bulk and the more than enormous complexity of my damned monster-novel it would be better to send . . . a sort of summary-key-skeleton schema’ (Ellman, 1974, 187). The schema’s grid designates episode title, time, color, people, science/art, meaning, technic, organ, and symbols. To create the model an Excel spreadsheet (Figure 1) was populated with this data and geo-coded according to GPS-designated decimal degree locations of the 18 Homeric episode sites in Dublin. These sites were identified through the 1904 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Thom’s Map of Dublin</hi>, Ian Gunn and Clive Hart’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">James Joyce’s Dublin: A Topographical Guide</hi> (2004), and GIS ‘ground-truthing’ methods, and checked against the ‘what’s here’ function of the Google Maps app. 
            </p>
            <p>Site centroids were approximately identified to concrete locations described in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses </hi>because the various characters’ movements and locations within the novel (such as the Wandering Rocks episode) occur simultaneously and at multiple sites within and beyond the geographical and temporal boundaries distinguishing each episode in the schema. The Excel database was imported into Google Fusion and visualized through its Google Maps function. The database was also converted to a CSV file and imported into the ArcGIS Online platform and integrated with a live social media map layer. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
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            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1: Fragments of the Carlo Linati schema, Google Fusion map, and Excel/CVS Geo database. </p>
            <p>Surveying Bloomsday Digital Ecosystem </p>
            <p>Surveys were taken on 16 June 2014 at hourly intervals, based upon the chronology from the Linati schema, and were divided into two categories: local (Dublin) and global, weighed by the indices of site and time, respectively. Several keywords—such as ‘James Joyce’, ‘Ulysses’, and ‘Bloomsday’, as well as character and episode names from the novel—were tested in the model’s Twitter, Flickr, and YouTube search engines. ‘Bloomsday’ received the highest number of hits and became the main survey keyword. </p>
            <p>The local survey focused on activity around Homeric episode sites in Dublin, and found that Davy Byrne’s Pub on Duke Street and Joyce’s Martello Tower associated with the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Lestrygonians</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Telemachus</hi> episodes attracted the most posts. Tweet postings did not, however, correspond with the chronology of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses’ </hi>narrative outlined in the schema, illustrating that social media activity aggregated around site location rather than novelistic time. A Tweeted image (Figure 2) captures throngs of people in funny hats assembled around Byrne’s pub, and it seems that Joyce’s identification of the ‘Oesophagus’ as the body organ symbol for this episode was indeed apt. The National Library site was originally geo-coded as the centroid of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Lestrygonians</hi> episode; however, survey results suggest that perhaps because of the social gravity indicated by the number of social media posts, the centroid should be re-located to the site of the pub, illustrating the iterative process integral to Neogeographical mapping practices. In the case of the global survey, Tweets blossomed across Europe, the Middle East, Asia, Australia-Pacific, North America, and Latin America during the entire chronology of the Linati schema. ‘Orphan’ Tweets (corresponding outside of the hourly periods not included in the schema) were placed either in preceding episode time slots or in the Penelope episode—whose time indices encompass ‘Infinity’ (see Bloomsday Tweet Schema in poster). 
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""10.36813888888889cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Live social media map integrated with the Linati schema geo-database. </p>
            <p>Surveys taken before, on, and following Bloomsday 2014 illustrate that Flickr and YouTube postings with time lags, and reflecting activity over the course of a year, exhibited the most aggregated social media activity. However, over the course of the 16 June 2014 survey, it became apparent that dominant social media ecosystem activity on Bloomsday occurred in Twitter. The following verbal snapshot reflects a parsing of language activity (see Bloomsday Tweet Schema in poster) articulated in this digital eco-system: ‘People in Dublin are wearing funny hats because it is Bloomsday and elderly ladies are getting rowdy in Davy Byrne’s Pub; a wedding anniversary is observed in Glasnevin, North Dublin, while a Spanish tweeter celebrates with a Domino’s Pizza and the latest 
                <hi rend=""italic"">X-Men</hi> film. Individuals in Dublin, Paris and Washington D.C. resolve to again attempt to read 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses</hi>, and a tweeter in Uruguay mentions Bloomsday to her Irish boyfriend, who asks if the day has anything to do with flowers. A few literary minded types post Joycean lines from the novel, while two individuals from Dublin get suited up in Edwardian clothes to face the day; one tweeter reflecting on the day after the night before, asks if Bloomsday was a joke brought up in a drinking session. A tweeter from Mexico City advertises online translations of Joyce’s “lascivious” letters to his wife Nora Barnacle. The celebration of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses</hi> converges with perhaps a larger global event to provoke a Dublin tweeter to state that there is “Nothing like a combo of World Cup and bloomsday to hear people who don’t like either Joyce or football talk about both”. One wry observation from the Bronx asks if “Bloomsday is Paddy’s Day for posh people?” And two more tweets from the USA proclaim “I’m pretty sure Joyce would love hashtags”, and “To paraphrase Laurie Anderson: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses</hi>? Never read it”’. 
            </p>
            <p>A corollary can be made between Joyce’s writing technique in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses</hi> and the use of language in this Twitter-based digital ecosystem. Joyce’s stream-of-consciousness technique mimicked the various ways in which the human mind ‘speaks’ to itself, through complex fluid patterns, random interruptions, incomplete thoughts, half words, and tangents (Norris and Flint, 2000, 126). Tweets, limited to a certain number of characters, reflect Joyce’s technique by conveying both focused and random thoughts, and illuminate Graham and Zook’s (2013, 78) contention that the ‘digital dimensions of places are fractured along a number of axes such as location, language, and social networks with correspondingly splintered representations customized to individuals’ unique sets of abilities and backgrounds’. The DHGIS model illuminates how literary and historical tropes can aid in contextualizing and mapping social media activity through the creation of interpretive schemas to study interactions between language, behaviour, time, and place. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">DHGIS Implications </hi>
            </p>
            <p>Re-conceptualizing J. B. Harley’s observation that ‘text’ is a better metaphor for maps than the mirror of nature through the lens of the digital humanities, it can be seen that HGIS-generated ‘maps are a cultural text. By accepting their textuality we are able to embrace a number of different interpretative possibilities’ (1989, 4). The DHGIS model enabled digital inter-textual relationships between 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses</hi>, the Linati schema, and the dialogical and social space reflected in the Bloomsday social media eco-system. Subsequently, digital humanities methodologies of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">deformance</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ergodicity</hi> were applied as interpretative techniques. By translating one ontological form of discourse to another, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">deformance </hi>applies 
                <hi rend=""italic"">scientia</hi> to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">poeisis</hi> and seeks to explain unitary and unique phenomena (such as the language activity in the Bloomsday social media ecosystem) rather than establish a set of general rules or laws (McGann and Samuels, 1999). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ergodicity</hi> involves an interactive type of labor between the GIS practitioner/author/coder, reader/viewer, and mapping subject to create the potential multiple narrative paths composing a digital text. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ergodic </hi>applications of GIS create non-linear narratives that converge and disrupt both quotidian and epochal chronologies of time and space. As a literary tool, this DHGIS model synchronizes the resulting layers of images, words, and vectors into contrapuntal, multi-dimensional digital narratives, providing the means to ‘reconnect the representational spaces of literary texts not only to material spaces they depict, but also reverse the moment’ (Staley, 2007; Thacker, 2005, 63). Lastly, DHGIS, digital, spatial, and heohumanities modelling techniques, integrated with radical statistics holds the potential to engage Qualitative &amp; Critical GIS / GIScience studies with reflexive epistemologies to address the situatedness and positionality of Big Data as it relates to sustainability initiatives, smart city planning, transport and public health, disaster preparedness, and social and regional conflict (Cope and Elwood, 2009; Aitken and Craine, 2009; Bodenhamer et al., 2010; Dear et al., 2011; Meir, 2011; Elwood et al., 2012; Kwan and Schwanen, 2012; Leventala, 2012; Kitchin, 2014; Travis, 2014). 
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Aitken, S. and Craine, J.</hi> (2009). Into the Image and Beyond: Affective Visual Geographies and GIScience. In Elwood, S. A. and Cope, M. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Qualitative GIS: A Mixed-Methods Approach</hi>. London: Sage. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bodenhamer, D., Corrigan, J. and Harris, T. M.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Spatial Humanities.</hi> Indiana University Press, Bloomington. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Budgen, F.</hi> (1972). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">James Joyce and the Making of ‘Ulysses’.</hi> Oxford University Press, Oxford. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bulson, E.</hi> (2001–2002). Joyce’s Geodesy. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Modern Literature,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(2): 80–96. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cope, M. and Elwood, S. A.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Qualitative GIS: A Mixed-Methods Approach</hi>. Sage, London. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dear, M., Ketchum, J., Luria, S. and Richardson, D.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Geohumanities: Art, History, Text at the Edge of Place.</hi> Routledge, New York. 
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ellman, R.</hi> (1974). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses on the Liffey.</hi> Faber &amp; Faber, London. 
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">Elwood, S. Goodchild, M. and Sui, D.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">(2012). Researching Volunteered Geographic Information: Spatial Data, Geographic Research, and New Social Practice.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">Annals of the Association of American Geographers, </hi>
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                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">(2): 1–20.</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Goodchild, M.</hi> (2009). NeoGeography and the Nature of Geographic Expertise. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Location Based Service,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(2): 82–96.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Graham, M., and Zook, M.</hi> (2013). Augmented Realities and Uneven Geographies: Exploring the Geo-Linguistic Contours of the Web. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Environment and Planning A,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">45</hi>: 77–99. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gunn, I. and Hart, C.</hi> (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">James Joyce’s Dublin: A Topographical Guide</hi>. Thames and Hudson, London. 
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Harley, J. B.</hi> (1989). Deconstructing the Map. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cartographica,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">26</hi>(2): 1–20. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kitchin, R.</hi> (2014). Big Data, New Epistemologies and Paradigm Shifts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Big Data and Society,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>: 1–12. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kwan, M.-P. and Schwanen, T.</hi> (2012). Critical Space-Time Geographies. In Schwanen, T. and Kwan, M.-P. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Environment and Planning A</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">44</hi>(9): 2043–48.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Leventala, S.</hi> (2012). A New Geospatial Services Framework: How Disaster Preparedness Efforts Should Integrate Neogeography. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Map &amp; Geography Libraries: Advances in Geospatial Information, Collections &amp; Archives,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(2): 134–62. 
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lin, W.</hi> (2013). Situating Performative Neogeography: Tracing, Mapping, and Performing ‘Everyone’s East Lake’. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Environment and Planning A,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">45</hi>: 37–54.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">McGann, J. and Samuels, L.</hi> (1999). Deformance and Interpretation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Literary History,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>(1): 25–56. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meir, P.</hi> (2011). New Information Technologies and Their Impact on the Humanitarian Sector. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Review of the Red Cross,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">93</hi>(884): 1239–63.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Norris, D. and Flint, C.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Introducing Joyce</hi>. Icon Books, Cambridge. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Priem, J.</hi> (2011). As Scholars Undertake a Great Migration to Online Publishing, Altmetrics Stands to Provide an Academic Measurement of Twitter and Other Online Activity. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Impact of Social Science</hi>, http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2011/11/21/altmetrics-twitter/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sieber, R. E., Wellen, C. C. and Yuan, J.</hi> (2011). Spatial Cyberinfrastructures, Ontologies, and the Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">108</hi>(14): 5504–9. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Staley, D. J.</hi> (2007). Finding Narratives of Time and Space. In Sinton, D. S. and Lund, J. J. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Understanding Place: GIS and Mapping Across the Curriculum</hi>. Redlands: Esri Press, pp. 35–48.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thacker, A.</hi> (2005). The Idea of a Critical Literary Geography. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Formations,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">57</hi>(6): 56–73. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Travis, C.</hi> (2014). Transcending the Cube: Translating GIScience Time and Space Perspectives in a Humanities GIS. Special Issue on Space-Time Research in GIScience. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Geographical Information Science, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(5): 1149–64.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Young, J. C. and Gilmore, M. P.</hi> (2013). The Spatial Politics of Affect and Emotion in Participatory GIS. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Annals of the AAG, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">103</hi>(4): 808–23. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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                        <surname>Jänicke</surname>
                        <forename>Stefan</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Leipzig University, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>stjaenicke@informatik.uni-leipzig.de</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Geßner</surname>
                        <forename>Annette</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Göttingen Centre for Digital Humanities, University of Göttingen, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>annette.gessner@gmail.com</email>
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            <p>Motivation</p>
            <p>A Variant Graph is a data structure that can be used to model the similarities and differences among various editions of a text (Schmidt et al., 2009). Last year we presented a set of design rules for Variant Graphs (Jänicke et al., 2014) that are implemented by the web-based tool TRAViz.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> Figure 1 shows a Variant Graph for 24 different English translations of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Genesis 1:1</hi>.
            </p>
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            <p>Figure 1. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Genesis 1:1</hi> in 24 English translations.
            </p>
            <p>Designing the graph that way, the humanist is able to analyze similarities and differences among various text editions on verse level. Although TRAViz can also be utilized for larger text entities such as sections or chapters, the resultant visualizations are hardly readable, and an analysis of the Variant Graphs becomes a laborious task. Therefore, TRAViz remains a close reading visualization tool only to be used when the user has a specific research question for a desired text part, such as the analysis of numerous different translations of the Sixth Commandment, commonly recited as, ‘You shall not kill’ (Jänicke et al., 2015). Research questions like, ‘For which Bible books are the various translations most similar?’ or ‘For which chapters of book X do the rather similar translations A, B, and C differ most and why?’ cannot be answered with TRAViz. As Moretti suggests, such kind of questions require distant reading approaches to be answered (2005). This paper proposes a visualization that offers a distant view on Variant Graphs calculated for each Bible verse in order to support the humanists in detecting and analyzing occurring patterns on higher text hierarchy levels (the entire Bible, books, chapters) as provided by TRAViz (verses).</p>
            <p>The Bible Corpus</p>
            <p>The Bible is a very good use-case for the purpose of designing a distant reading visualization for Variant Graphs. First, it is a very influential and well-known text, which supports easy evaluation of results. Second, its structure includes a four-level hierarchy that makes views of varying distance on the text possible: the whole Bible (level 1) consists of books, each book (level 2) is divided into chapters, and each chapter (level 3) is composed of verses. Each verse (level 4) can be visualized utilizing a close reading visualization like TRAViz, but all other hierarchy levels require a distant reading solution.</p>
            <p>The Bible corpus of our project consists of 24 English Bible translations spanning a period from the 14th (Wycliffe Bible) to the 21st centuries (e.g., Catholic Public Domain Version). It includes editions in Middle and Modern English, a great variety of translation dependencies (e.g., editions based on the King James Version) as well as a diversity of translation motivations (e.g., simplified language in the Bible in Basic English). The versatility of the corpus allows for a multitude of research questions to be asked by the humanists of our project. One of their use-cases is outlined below.</p>
            <p>Visualization Design</p>
            <p>Figure 2 shows a screenshot of the system that our humanists work with. Arranged in columns, the top panel lists all available Bible editions either sorted by year of publication or in alphabetical order. On demand, the user is able to compose a desired set of editions by clicking the corresponding checkboxes. Below the Bible editions, the humanist is able to tweak the visualization dependent on the given research question. In particular, the user can</p>
            <p> • Define a threshold value for the majority of editions.</p>
            <p> • Either highlight text passages that are similar or dissimilar to a certain extent from the predefined majority.</p>
            <p> • Adjust the percentage of words that need to be similar or dissimilar regarding the majority to highlight a text passage.</p>
            <p>The bottom panel visualizes a ‘(dis-)similarity fingerprint’ for all 24 editions of the Bible on level 1; the user can interactively navigate between the various hierarchy levels. Each Bible book receives a rectangular block with its width reflecting the number of chapters. According to the configuration in this example, a tiny rectangle for a chapter of an edition is drawn in its assigned color,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> if at least 50% of its contained words differ from the majority of at least 10 editions. The resultant pattern reflects, e.g., three salient editions for the New Testament, which reveals individual translation styles: the Wycliffe Bible (1380, dark yellow) is the only translation in Middle English, whereas the God’s Word Translation (1995, blue) and the Bible in Basic English (1949, light green) aim to be understood very easily nowadays and, thus, choose to deviate from other editions that tend to be more antiquated and sophisticated in language and style.
            </p>
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            <p>Figure 2. Distant reading of 24 Bible editions.</p>
            <p>A Use Case</p>
            <p>Concentrating on similarity (80% similarity, majority of seven) highlights Bible editions that are very similar in almost all chapters of all books (Figure 3). Most of these editions are based on the King James Version, which is known as the most influential translation (Ryken, 2011). But surprisingly, albeit claiming to be ‘as exact a translation as possible’
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> in Modern English from the original languages Hebrew and Greek, the Darby Bible (1890, light blue) is also highlighted as very similar. 
            </p>
            <p>To determine the role of the Darby Bible, we remove all Bible editions not (apparently) connected to the King James Version. Now, clicking the book 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Matthew</hi> and highlighting dissimilarity (50% dissimilarity, majority of seven), we detect a cluster of derivations for verses 16–18 of chapter 7 (Figure 4). As implied on the book-level, the chapter-level confirms the Darby-deviations by highlighting the corresponding passages in the individual verses based upon a majority of four (Figure 5).
            </p>
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            <p>Figure 3. The whole Bible (level 1) visualizing similarity.</p>
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            <p>Figure 4. Dissimilarity of selected editions in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Matthew </hi>(level 2).
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""16.52411111111111cm"" height=""7.9551388888888885cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 5. Dissimilarity of selected editions in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Matthew 7</hi> (level 3).
            </p>
            <p>Indeed in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Matthew 7:16</hi> (Figure 6), Darby and some other editions differ in word order (but not so much in the translations); among others he chooses the elder word ‘ye’ instead of ‘you’ and as the only translation he writes ‘a bunch of grapes’ instead of ‘grapes’ and instead of ‘figs of thistles’ he writes ‘thistles figs’ (?). In 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Matthew 7:17</hi> (Figure 7) and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Matthew 7:18</hi> (Figure 8), the main structure of the sentence remains in Darby, but some words are translated differently: instead of ‘bring forth’, Darby uses the word ‘produce’ (followed by World English Bible [2000, brown] and A Voice in the Wilderness [2004, purple]), the word ‘nor’ instead of ‘neither’ (followed by A Voice in the Wilderness), and when fruit are described, Darby uses the not morally associated adjective ‘bad’ instead of ‘evil’, and ‘worthless’ instead of ‘corrupt’.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""16.52411111111111cm"" height=""6.111875cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 6. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Matthew 7:16</hi> (level 4).
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1007"" width=""16.467666666666666cm"" height=""5.443361111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image7.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 7. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Matthew 7:17</hi> (level 4).
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1008"" width=""16.439444444444444cm"" height=""5.4980416666666665cm"" url=""Pictures/image8.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 8. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Matthew 7:18</hi> (level 4).
            </p>
            <p>All in all, with this setting, even when choosing passages marked as dissimilar, the close view confirms what the distant view implied, which is, how close the Darby Bible sticks to the other editions concerning word order, language, and most of the words themselves. Most deviations are single words that are substituted by synonyms or something similar.</p>
            <p>Nevertheless, the Darby variations tend to be the very obvious ones, next to those of A Voice in the Wilderness, but rarely seem to change the meaning of the text in a significant way. Thus, it seems that the Darby Bible, which tried to translate the ancient languages as exactly as possible, may have had a significant impact on later translations based (not only) on the King James Version.</p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>In contrast to projects dealing with a rather small number of text editions on a close reading basis,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> the presented novel technique provides a distant reading of Variant Graphs for a potential high number of editions. Just reading 24 translations of the Bible would require a huge amount of time, and comparing those editions would take even longer. Being able to see similarity and dissimilarity on various text hierarchy levels enables the user not only to save time by directing to passages that could be of interest, but it can even raise new and worthy research questions. This way of visualizing bears even the potential to cause serendipity by showing relations that have not yet been seen.
            </p>
            <p>In the future, we plan to provide an Open Source library to enable the application of the visualization for other hierarchically structured texts. Visualizing the (dis-)similarity between various editions of Homer’s epics could be one of the interesting examples. Being an important work for philologists, we could also extend the visualization to display the occurring transposed verses.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Acknowledgements</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The authors like to thank the Baker Publishing Group for the permission to include the God’s Word Translation in our database. This research was funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. http://www.traviz.vizcovery.org/.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">2. The fixed edition order simplified the crucial task of selecting colors. Following the suggestions made by Harrower et al. (2003), we defined a set of 24 varying colors ordered by alternating hue and saturation intensity, so that visually similar colors are not placed next to each other.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">3. According to the introduction to the 1890 edition, which can be found online at</p>
            <p>http://www.ccel.org/bible/jnd/darby.htm#2.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">4. Other projects also provide solutions for the visualization of textual variance. CollateX (http://collatex.net/), primarily focused on developing alignment algorithms for text editions, uses the GraphViz library (http://www.graphviz.org/) to visualize rather small texts analogous to TRAViz. Some web-based platforms allow reading of parallel texts in the browser. Juxta Commons (http://juxtacommons.org/) shows variant patterns between two texts, and with Versioning Machine (http://v-machine.org/), multiple editions are displayed next to each other. Both tools support only close reading for a small number of text editions.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Harrower, M. and Brewer, C. A. </hi>(2003). ColorBrewer.org: An Online Tool for Selecting Colour Schemes for Maps. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cartographic Journal,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">40</hi>(1): 27–37.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jänicke, S., Geßner, A., Büchler, M. and Scheuermann, G. </hi>(2014a). 5 Design Rules for Visualizing Text Variant Graphs. In
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Proceedings of the Digital Humanities 2014</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jänicke, S., Geßner, A., Franzini, G., Terras, M., Mahony, S. and Scheuermann, G.</hi> (2015). TRAViz: A Visualization for Variant Graphs. To appear in 
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">,</hi> 2015.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F. </hi>(2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History. </hi>Verso.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ryken, L. </hi>(2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Legacy of the King James Bible: Celebrating 400 Years of the Most Influential English Translation. </hi>Crossway.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, D. and Colomb, R. </hi>(2009). A Data Structure for Representing Multi-Version Texts Online. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Human-Computer Studies,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">67</hi>(6): 497–514.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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"2167","16","A Longitudinal Analysis of Knowledge Integration in Digital Humanities Using Co-citation Analysis","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Tang</surname>
                        <forename>Muh-Chyun</forename>
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                    <affiliation>National Taiwan University, Taiwan, Republic of China</affiliation>
                    <email>muhchyun.tang@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Cheng</surname>
                        <forename>Yun-Jen</forename>
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                    <affiliation>National Taiwan University, Taiwan, Republic of China</affiliation>
                    <email>yjcheng0314@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Chen</surname>
                        <forename>Kuang-hua</forename>
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                    <affiliation>National Taiwan University, Taiwan, Republic of China</affiliation>
                    <email>khchen@ntu.edu.tw</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hsiang</surname>
                        <forename>Jieh</forename>
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                    <affiliation>National Taiwan University, Taiwan, Republic of China</affiliation>
                    <email>hsiang@csie.ntu.edu.tw</email>
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                    <term>digital humanities</term>
                    <term>co-citation analysis</term>
                    <term>interdisciplinarity</term>
                    <term>cohesion</term>
                    <term>diversity</term>
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                    <term>bibliographic methods / textual studies</term>
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            <p>Although digital humanities continues to expand and become more inclusive, little is known about the extent to which its published knowledge is integrated. A longitudinal co-citation analysis of publications in digital humanities was conducted to examine the degree of cohesion of its published knowledge over time (1989–2014). The measurement of cohesion was performed at source and individual article levels. The results show that, while the publications in digital humanities continue to grow, its diversity and coherence, two hallmarks of interdisciplinarity, remain robust. Betweenness centrality was used to identify the nodes that contribute most significantly to the cohesion of the source and individual networks.</p>
            <p>* * *</p>
            <p>One crucial aspect of Interdisciplinarity is the integration of different bodies of knowledge into a coherent enterprise (Rafols and Meyer, 2010; Porter et al., 2007). As an emerging field that draws research interests from multiple fields, DH provides a fertile ground for the study of whether and how different bodies of knowledge are integrated. The cognitive integration of concepts, theories, methods, and/or results from diverse fields is considered as the hallmark of interdisciplinary research. Such knowledge integration is much easier to observe at the micro level, where the diversity of authorship and cited references present within an individual article are often taken as evidences of interdisciplinarity. The level of integration at the macro level, which can be measured by the degree of interconnectedness among published works within a field, is not as readily accessible. While research initiatives in DH often share the common methodological outlook, there is little empirical study regarding whether DH as a research field has consolidated or remained fragmented. Taking a bibliometrics approach, this study aims to fill the gap. We used a co-citation network to examine the degree of interdisciplinarity in the published knowledge in DH. Three types of bibliographic elements resulting from the co-citation network were examined: keywords, publication sources, and individual articles. Social network analytical methods were applied to measure the diversity and interconnectedness of these elements, as well as the most prominent actors in these networks. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Data Collection Procedures </hi>
            </p>
            <p>The publications of DH were identified by both keywords search and journals with an explicit digital humanities orientation. Keyword search with Scopus resulted in a set of 1,967 articles and book chapters. As publications in DH do not necessarily have those keywords, a complementary set of articles was created by retrieving all the articles published in the six journals published by the members of 
                <hi rend=""color(2E2E2E)"">the Alliance of Digital Humanities Organizations (ADHO). </hi>The union of the two sets constitutes the target set (N = 2509) from which article co-citation networks were formed and analyzed. 
            </p>
            <p>To generate the co-citation networks, pair-wise matching of all the articles’ received citations has to be conducted. This is done by using Google Scholar’s citation tracing function. The citations received by every article in our target set were identified and downloaded; then pair-wise matching was performed to identify shared citation. To study the co-citation network over time, a five-year overlapping time slice was used to divide our target set into 22 co-citation networks. </p>
            <p>Results</p>
            <p>Figure 1 shows the growth of articles and number of nodes in the co-citation networks over time. The graph indicates that the interests in DH took off in early 2000 and has continued to grow to this date. Notice also that there is a significant gap between the number of total articles and nodes in the co-citation network in our target set, indicating a large proportion of isolates in the whole network. 
                <lb/>
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
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                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""8.016875cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. The growth of publications and size of the co-citation network over time.</p>
            <p>We used author assigned keywords as the representation of subjects treated in the articles. The keywords thus extracted were then normalized manually. Gini index was then applied to measure the balance of the subjects covered in our target set over time. High Gini index of the keyword distribution signals the existence of few dominant keywords. Figure 2 shows a gradual rising of Gini indexing over time, which might be interpreted as a gradual consolidation of research efforts. Yet notice that even with the gently rising slope, the degree of concentration remains low at below .35, which suggests rather disperse research interests in DH. </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""6.441722222222222cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Gini index of keyword distribution over time. </p>
            <p>Figure 3 shows the long-term trend of cited articles remained in the giant component. A jump of the percentage of nodes in the giant component can be observed in the early 2000s; it then gradually levelled off. The dip in recent years might be more likely due to the citation window for recent publications than a sign of disintegration. Another two measures, average geodesic distance and clustering coefficient that often associate with the ‘small world’ phenomenon, also showed similar patterns. Figure 4 shows a rather short average distance between nodes in the giant component, hovering around 4. The cluster coefficient stayed steadily high at 60 percent, indicating dense local clustering, which, coupled with the short average distance, fit a typical small-world model. </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""5.723819444444445cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Percent of nodes within the giant components.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""6.196541666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. Clustering coefficient.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""6.554611111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 5. Average geodesic distance.</p>
            <p>Another way to assess the cohesion or integration of a network is through degree centralization, as it measures the degree to which network cohesion is hinged on particular focal importance (Borgatti et al., 2013). High degree centralization signals inequality of node importance. Figure 6 traces the trends of degree and betweenness centralization of nodes in the co-citation main component over time. Both degree and betweenness centralization leveled off gradually from their peaks in the mid-1990s, when the idea of DH was first introduced by a few seminal works. The degree concentration, however, has since declined gradually, which echoes our previous findings, suggesting the presence of many local clusters that represents a wide variety of specialized interests. </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""7.9551388888888885cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 6. Degree and betweenness centrality of the giant components over time. </p>
            <p>Among all the centrality measure, betweenness centrality is arguably the most closely related to network cohesion. Table 5 ranked the top 40 sources in our target set by their betweenness centrality, accompanied by their degree centrality. Of particular interest are the sources able to achieve high betweenness centrality despite relatively low degree centrality as they play a significant ‘bridging’ role in the network that contributes the most to the network cohesion. </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <p>Table 1. Top 40 sources with highest between centrality. </p>
            <p>We visualized the source co-citation network using MDS where the distance between nodes signifies the similarity of their co-citation profiles (Figure 7). The size of the nodes represents betweenness centrality, while different colors group frequently co-cited sources using fraction algorithm. </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1008"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""9.596941666666666cm"" url=""Pictures/image8.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 7. MDS representation of source co-citation profiles. Stress value = 0.417.</p>
            <p>To identify individual works that contribute most to the cohesion of the network, we performed the betweenness centrality on the article co-citation network. The works that have a particularly strong bridging character relative to their degrees were highlighted.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1009"" width=""15.735652777777778cm"" height=""25.200680555555557cm"" url=""Pictures/image9.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Table 2. To 40 works with highest betweenness centrality.</p>
            <p>Discussion and Conclusion </p>
            <p>In this study we applied social analytical methods to measure the degree of knowledge diversity and cohesion of the bibliographic elements extracted from the article co-citation network. The results show that the degree of knowledge diversity is high, as demonstrated by the evenness of the keyword distribution, as well as the presence of publication sources from diverse disciplines. It was shown that DH has gradually evolved into a diverse yet cohesive area of research, where, despite high degree of local research interests, the reachability remains high globally. 
                <lb/> A longitudinal approach allows us to observe the evolving of the knowledge integration and the shifting of research topics in an area of research. There are obviously also several limitations to our study. First, even though we have tried to be inclusive in our selection to target set, some of the important works are inevitably missed, especially those published in non-English languages. Using Google Scholar as the source of co-citation data also entails inherent bias. Currently our interpretation of the visualization of the field is quite preliminary due to the lack of domain knowledge in DH. In the future, author co-citation network will also be constructed, which, with the help of expert inputs, will help us better interpret the sub-domains and their relationships in DH. 
            </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>Borgatti, S. P., Everett, M. G. and Johnson, J. C. (2013).
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Analyzing Social Networks</hi>. SAGE.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Porter, A. L., Cohen, A. S., Roessner, J. D. and Perreault, M. (2007). Measuring</bibl>
                    <bibl>Researcher Interdisciplinarity.
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scientometrics,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>72(1): 117–47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Rafols, I. and Meyer, M. (2010). Diversity and Network Coherence as Indicators of Interdisciplinarity: Case Studies in Bionanoscience.
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scientometrics</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>82(2): 263–87.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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                        <surname>Kuhn</surname>
                        <forename>Jonas</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Stuttgart, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>jonas.kuhn@ims.uni-stuttgart.de</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Reiter</surname>
                        <forename>Nils</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Stuttgart, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>nils.reiter@ims.uni-stuttgart.de</email>
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<p>This position paper advocates joint efforts towards establishing a modular architecture for ""deep"" analytical approaches to DH collections such as text corpora. The core idea is to augment a typical DH project agenda with an element of <i>project-independent and interdisciplinary</i> bootstrapping, aiming to identify analytical subtasks beyond standard processing steps, which can be used as building blocks across different complex DH modeling processes (adopting McCarty's (2005) concept of modeling as a transition through temporary, provisional stages). Our discussion focuses on text-oriented DH projects.</p>
<p>The guiding hypothesis is that despite the fundamentally different characteristics that the overall models may have across projects and disciplines, they can be broken down into modular steps many of which can be shared and/or developed in a joint effort. E.g., the detection of persona mentions (e.g., <i>the teacher</i>) in texts is a non-trivial task that is a necessary pre-step for, among others, social network extraction or intertextual relation detection. This task is related to standard Natural Language Processing (NLP) tasks (Named Entity Recognition, coreference resolution), but it targets no inherently linguistic category and a proper treatment requires insights from the humanities disciplines (here literary studies, but similar concepts underly network analysis in history/political science). We envisage a collaborative bootstrapping process of refining a persona identification module, taking into account its applicability in different higher-level research questions.</p>
<p>Inspired by a well-established experimental methodology from computational linguistics, annotated test data and evaluation metrics should be fixed as operational prototype specification -- possibly starting with a temporary initial specification, whose role in the overall module structure is subsequently adjusted through bootstrapping. Such specifications foster the exploration of technical modeling alternatives on the computational side and provide the basis for critical reflection (cf. Gibbs, 2011) of the analytical possibilities and limitations on the humanities side, which can subsequently lead to revised characterizations.</p>
<p>Although the goal of re-usable cross-disciplinary modules is very obvious -- from an engineering point of view -- a typical pattern in many DH venues focuses on the application and one-time adjustment of tools, thus underexploiting the true potential of modularization in DH projects. Some prominent interdisciplinary projects building service-oriented architectures have failed to connect with scholars (cf. Dombrowski, 2014), and experience shows that one of the hardest interdisciplinary challenges is to establish a mutual understanding about the strengths and limitations of some modeling component -- yet, when this has been achieved systematically, the potential for further developments is enormous.</p>
<p>To reach an effective sharing of modeling components, methodological commonalities have to be identified across projects and the adequacy of an approach has to be assessed in a replicable fashion: we argue that a simple, but effective way for this is to highlight the relevant (and only the relevant) dimensions in reference annotations for some dataset(s) -- even if some related dimensions are yet ill-understood. This way of thinking is natural to computational linguists, but takes some getting used to for humanities scholars: The initial ""sharable"" version of a subtask appears trivial and/or insufficiently justified from theory. Our plea is to set these reservations aside and engage in a cyclic process advancing towards a modular toolbox of deeper and more complex notions.</p>
<p>Ideally, this will lead to growing collections of shared reference datasets highlighting particular expectations for submodules; a project with slightly novel working assumptions may well add datasets with deviant characteristics (as long as decisions are well-documented at the meta-level). Methodologically, a rich collection covering a broad, interleaved space is the most helpful and may feed ""shared task"" initiatives for computational modeling (which have been highly influential, e.g., at the Conference on Natural Language Learning). Based on such data collections, methodological innovations can be tested systematically across projects and disciplines.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The Issue</head>
                <p>At first glance, the situation seems to be perfect: Independently developed tools and models from NLP (integrated, e.g., by European infrastructure initiatives like CLARIN and DARIAH) can be applied to DH text corpora, facilitating the scaling up of research methods beyond the classical ‘analogous’ approach. This scenario comes with a rewarding division of labor: NLP developers can provide and adapt tools; trained scholars in the humanities have full competence to apply the analytical machinery in their research.</p>
                <p>Often, however, project constellations are different: Available methods require non-trivial adjustments, data preprocessing poses considerable challenges, and/or analytical questions are addressed for which no tools are available. Although such constellations bear great potential for innovative ideas, practical issues often dominate the collaborative work. The time-consuming preprocessing and tool adjustment steps are often not publishable in the computational communities, and if the adjustments are successful, leading to new algorithmic approaches to scholarly questions, often most of the funding period has passed, so there is no time to work out and advertise the general methodological contribution. </p>
                <p>Any predominantly content-oriented characterization of a collaborative DH project (otherwise surely the best justification of an agenda) walks a thin line of sacrificing methodological generality to respond to specific issues. Somewhat unfortunately, aspects that make a project interesting and challenging from a humanities perspective (exploration of new corpora / taking a different perspective than previous work) act against the objectives of systematic method development, which has to emphasize replicable results and modularization. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Addressing the Methodological Bottleneck</head>
                <p>We argue that the potential in advanced computational models and modular task definitions is underexploited in DH. So far, our considerations seem to imply that only dedicated mid- to long-term DH projects can overcome this status quo. However, we’d rather draw a different conclusion that works for smaller projects in a lively community: Rather than characterizing a DH project’s analytical questions top-down and relative to the specific data situation-which implies that the actual implementation cannot happen until after preprocessing and adaptation-characteristic methodological facets are anticipated early on, using prototypical manual annotation of reference data for 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">preliminary</hi> specification. Ideally, such specifications are based on reference data that are considered well-understood in the humanities disciplines and have known structural properties. 
                </p>
                <p>Incidentally, this is the workflow that is behind NLP modules that are now broadly applied: Early linguistic corpus annotation activities in the 1980/90s (which to this date provide the training data, e.g., for part-of-speech tagging and parsing tools) had to make theoretically loaded, controversial decisions, and a long and methodologically diverse process followed. Few people would have anticipated the usefulness of syntactic parsing tools, well beyond NLP standard tasks (and syntactic theoreticians would probably have vetoed many design decisions if they had been in charge).</p>
                <p>It is important to note that we do not assume that all ‘modules’ are working fully automatically. The collection of building blocks developed in the DH community may well include manual validation and hermeneutic interpretation steps. This ensures that the method-driven, modularization-friendly agenda that we advocate bears no implication about the characteristics of the composite DH model for a particular project. But for the non-computational building blocks, comparison and critical exchange across disciplines is just as helpful.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Discussion</head>
                <p>To some ears, our proposal may sound like a blunt attempt of computational linguistics to superimpose its purely method-oriented view on humanities scholars, who take their ultimate incentive from questions about content and interpretation. We have no intention to question established DH methodologies. Yet from conversations we had with researchers from a broad range of text-oriented DH initiatives, the picture arises that there is a great interest in tools solving problems similar to NLP problems, but so far there is no established methodological framework within DH for critically reflected development of such tools. The researchers we talked to tend to agree that community efforts towards a sharing of reference datasets and insights about the use of modular components for higher-level questions would be a very good complementation of the established DH methodology.</p>
                <p>Seeing the specification of partial tasks for computational modeling as a cyclic, collaborative effort also avoids the detachment of scholars in the role of a mere ‘user’ of custom-tailored tools. Instead the DH scholar is 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">empowered</hi> to influence crucial properties of the improved model by reacting to experiences from earlier stages.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Notes</head>
                <p rend=""footnote text"">1. We acknowledge that this paper has been inspired by various methodological discussions about DH (including the Dagstuhl Seminar on 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Computational Humanities</hi> in July 2014 and the Leipzig workshop ‘Informatik und die Digital Humanities’ on 3 November 2014), involving a considerable number of researchers.
                </p>
                <p rend=""footnote text"">2. We consciously picked a sample task for which the beginnings of the methodology have already been established: Jannidis et al. (2015) present ongoing work on an approach for persona detection that expands the established Named Entity recognition framework. Bamman et al. (2014) is an example of advanced modeling in computational linguistics that takes literary characters into account. Reiter (2014) presents an approach to discover structural similarities over narrative texts that builds on the detection of characters/personae.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bamman, D., Underwood, T. and Smith, N.</hi> (2014). A Bayesian Mixed Effects Model of Literary Character. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 52nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics</hi>, pp. 370-79. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dombrowski, Q.</hi> (2014). Whatever Happened to Project Bamboo? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(3): 326-39.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gibbs, F.</hi> (2011). Critical Discourse in Digital Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jannidis, F., Krug, M., Reger, I., Toepfer, M., Weimer, L. and Puppe, F.</hi> (2015). Automatische Erkennung von Figuren in deutschsprachigen Romanen. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Conference Presentation at Digital Humanities im deutschsprachigen Raum</hi>, Graz, February 2015.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCarty, W.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities Computing</hi>. Palgrave, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reiter, N.</hi> (2014). Discovering Structural Similarities in Narrative Texts Using Event Alignment Algorithms. Doctoral dissertation, Heidelberg University.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                        <surname>Uesaka</surname>
                        <forename>Ayaka</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Doshisha University, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>ayaka.u26@gmail.com</email>
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                        <surname>Murakami</surname>
                        <forename>Masakatsu</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Doshisha University, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>mamuraka@mail.doshisha.ac.jp</email>
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                    <term>Authorship problem</term>
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                    <term>Principal component analysis</term>
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            <p>Saikaku Ihara (c. 1642–1693
                <hi rend=""bold"">)</hi> is one of the most famous writers of the Edo period (1603–1868) in Japan.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> After publishing the maiden works of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kousyoku ichidai otoko</hi> (The Life of an Amorous Man, 1682), he became the leading author of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ukiyozoushi</hi>,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> which was a realistic literature from the Edo period. Saikaku’s works are known for their significance in developing Japanese novels today (Emoto and Taniwaki, 1996). 
            </p>
            <p>It is said that he wrote 24 works in 10 years. However, with the exception of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kousyoku ichidai otoko</hi>, those achievements have not been fully verified, due to some doubts in their authorship. For instance, Saikaku only wrote 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kousyoku ichidai otoko</hi>, while the other works were written by either Saikaku’s student Dansui Houjyou (1663–1711) or a collaboration of Dansui and Saikaku (Mori, 1955).
            </p>
            <p>Saikaku researchers have tried to identify his works by investigating their history, content, format, and so on. However, it remains unclear which works are really written by Saikaku. Accordingly, we decided to use a quantitative approach to inspect Saikaku’s authorship problems, because the potential of quantitative analysis of textual data has dramatically advanced. That method can provide new knowledge about the authorship problem of Saikaku’s works. Moreover, this research will be a good example in using a quantitative approach for the Japanese classical literature research domain because the quantitative approach is not common in that domain. </p>
            <p>Purpose of This Study</p>
            <p>In this paper, we focus on Saikaku’s posthumous works because many of Saikaku’s researchers have raised questions about their authorship. Saikaku’s posthumous works were edited and published from 1693 to 1699 by his student Dansui (Table 1). Therefore, there are claims that Dansui may have modified Saikaku’s work. </p>
            <p>We have compared Saikaku’s posthumous works and other Saikaku works for differences (Uesaka and Murakami, 2013; 2014). If we try to resolve the authorship problems of Saikaku, Dansui is the most suspect writer of Saikaku’s work; therefore, Dansui’s text should be analyzed also.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Database of Saikaku’s Works</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Since Japanese morphological analyzers are not applicable for early modern Japanese texts (Ogiso et al., 2013), we developed a database of Saikaku’s works with his researchers, who are editors of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Shinpen Saikaku Zenshu</hi> (Shinpen Saikaku Zenshu Henshu Inkai, 2000). Figures 1 and 2 show a page from the book. Moreover, we used Dansui’s database for an analysis, which was developed by Banno and Mizutani, who are Saikaku and Dansui researchers, based on 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Shinpen Saikaku Zenshu</hi>. In this research, we use 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Shikidou otsuzumi</hi> (1687), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Chuya youjin ki</hi> (1707), and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Budou hariai okagami</hi> (1709)
                <hi rend=""italic"">,</hi> because these works’ digital text and database were finished developing. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
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            <p>Figure 1. Saikaku’s publication.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""2.9280555555555554cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Table 1. Saikaku’s posthumous works.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""9.639652777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Modern form of Japanese language.</p>
            <p>Table 2 shows a list of works in our database and the number of words in each work. According to our database, there are 583,934 words contained in 24 of Saikaku’s works and 55,504 words contained in three of Dansui’s works.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""11.811cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Table 2. Work name and the number of words.</p>
            <p>Table 3 is a part of the database from Saikaku’s works used for this analysis. Since Japanese sentences are not separated by spaces, we added spaces between the words in all of the sentences. In addition, information was added for the analysis. </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""5.499805555555556cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Table 3. Database of Saikaku’s works.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Analysis and Results</hi>
            </p>
            <p>We compared Saikaku’s works (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kousyoku ichidai otoko</hi>, which has been verified to be a work of Saikaku, and five posthumous works) to Dansui’s three works (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Shikidou otsuzumi</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Chuya youjin ki</hi>, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Budou hariai okagami</hi>) using principal component analysis (PCA). PCA reduces the dimensionality of a dataset consisting of a large number of interrelated variables, while retaining as much as possible of the variation present in the dataset (Jolliffe, 2002). When applied to the frequencies of high-frequency items in texts, PCA often successfully reveals the authorial structure in a dataset (Kestemont et al., 2013).
            </p>
            <p>At first, we examined the appearance rate of the seven principal grammatical categories: nouns, particles, verbs, auxiliary verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and adnominal adjectives. Grammatical categories were the basic information for authorship attribution. The study of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Tale of Genji</hi> (Murakami, 2002) and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Sandai hiho bonsyoji</hi> (Itou and Murakami, 1992) adopted the stylometry research using grammatical categories, and these help to identify the author. 
            </p>
            <p>Figure 3 shows the results of the analysis on grammatical categories, using the PCA with a correlation matrix. The horizontal axis shows the importance of the first principal component, and the vertical axis shows the second. The proportion of variance of the first principal component is 0.4031, while it is 0.29088 for the second; the cumulative proportion up to the second principal component is 0.69398. In this figure, indicating differences are revealed by PCA, Saikaku’s works are on the lower left and Dansui’s works on the upper middle.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <p>
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                    <hi style=""color:red; font-size: 14pt; font-weight:bold;"" rend=""ERROR"">�</hi>
                    <note place=""margin"" type=""conversion"" resp=""#teitodocx"">
                        <hi rend=""docxError"">unable to handle picture here, no embed or link</hi>
                    </note>
                    <hi style=""color:red; font-size: 14pt; font-weight:bold;"" rend=""ERROR"">�</hi>
                    <note place=""margin"" type=""conversion"" resp=""#teitodocx"">
                        <hi rend=""docxError"">unable to handle picture here, no embed or link</hi>
                    </note>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Kousyoku ichidai otoko</hi>
                    <hi style=""color:red; font-size: 14pt; font-weight:bold;"" rend=""ERROR"">�</hi>
                    <note place=""margin"" type=""conversion"" resp=""#teitodocx"">
                        <hi rend=""docxError"">unable to handle picture here, no embed or link</hi>
                    </note>Saikaku’s works
                    <hi style=""color:red; font-size: 14pt; font-weight:bold;"" rend=""ERROR"">�</hi>
                    <note place=""margin"" type=""conversion"" resp=""#teitodocx"">
                        <hi rend=""docxError"">unable to handle picture here, no embed or link</hi>
                    </note>Dansui’s works
                </p>
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            <p>Figure 3. The PCA results (these circles drawn on the figure are 95% confidence ellipse).</p>
            <p>Next, we examined the appearance rate of the eight principal particles: ‘no’ (の), ‘ni’ (に), ‘wo’ (を), ‘te’ (て), ‘ha’ (は), ‘to’ (と), ‘mo’ (も), and ‘ba’ (ば). Particles have a high appearance frequency and do not relate to the contents of a work. That kind of information identifies an authorship attribution very well (Murakami, 1994).</p>
            <p>Figure 4 shows the results of the analysis on the appearance rate of the eight principal particles using the PCA. The proportion of variance of the first principal component is 0.3688, while it is 0.29204 for the second; the cumulative proportion up to the second principal component is 0.66084. In this figure, indicating differences are revealed by PCA; Saikaku’s works are on the lower right, and Dansui’s works are on the upper left. From these results, the second principal component identifies Saikaku’s works and Dansui’s works. </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <p>
                    <graphic n=""10011"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""16.002cm"" url=""Pictures/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <hi style=""color:red; font-size: 14pt; font-weight:bold;"" rend=""ERROR"">�</hi>
                    <note place=""margin"" type=""conversion"" resp=""#teitodocx"">
                        <hi rend=""docxError"">unable to handle picture here, no embed or link</hi>
                    </note>
                    <hi style=""color:red; font-size: 14pt; font-weight:bold;"" rend=""ERROR"">�</hi>
                    <note place=""margin"" type=""conversion"" resp=""#teitodocx"">
                        <hi rend=""docxError"">unable to handle picture here, no embed or link</hi>
                    </note>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Kousyoku ichidai otoko</hi>
                    <hi style=""color:red; font-size: 14pt; font-weight:bold;"" rend=""ERROR"">�</hi>
                    <note place=""margin"" type=""conversion"" resp=""#teitodocx"">
                        <hi rend=""docxError"">unable to handle picture here, no embed or link</hi>
                    </note>Saikaku’s works
                </p>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. The PCA results (these circles drawn on the figure are 95% confidence ellipse).</p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>We conduct the analysis of Saikaku’s works and Dansui’s works using a quantitative approach. This result revealed that Saikaku’s works and Dansui’s works differ in grammatical categories and particles (Figures 3 and 4).</p>
            <p>However, the possibility remains that Dansui modified a greater or lesser proportion of the work. Thus, we need to consider this issue from other perspectives and using other works and variables.</p>
            <p>Acknowledgments</p>
            <p>We would like to thank Professor Banno Hidekatsu and Professor Mizutani Takayuki for their help on our research.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. In the late 18th century there was a Saikaku revival, inspiring Santo Kyoden and other fiction writers. Saikaku is generally considered the greatest fiction writer of the Edo period, and his works have influenced many modern Japanese writers (Shirane, 2004).</p>
            <p>2. The term 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ukiyozoushi</hi> refers to a vernacular fictional genre that originated in the Kyoto-Osaka area and spanned a 100-year period from the publication in 1682 of Ihara Saikaku’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kousyoku ichidai otoko</hi> to the late 18th century (Shirane, 2004).
            </p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Emoto, Y. and Taniwaki, M.</hi> (1996). 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Itou, Z. and Murakami, M.</hi> (1992). 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kestemont, M., Moens, S. and Deploige, J. </hi>(2013). Collaborative Authorship in the Twelfth Century: A Stylometric Study of Hildegard of Bingen and Guibert of Gembloux. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities,</hi> http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqt063.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mori, S.</hi> (1955). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Saikaku to Saikaku bon</hi>. Motomoto sha.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Murakami, M.</hi> (1994). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shingan no kagaku-keiryou bunkengaku nyumon</hi>. Asakura shoten. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Murakami, M.</hi> (2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bunka wo hakaru–bunka keiryougaku josetsu–</hi>. Asakura shoten.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ogiso, T., Ichimura, T. and Kono, T.</hi> (2013). Preliminary Study of Morphological Analysis of Early Modern Japanese. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The 4th Workshop of Corpus Japanese Language,</hi> National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics, pp. 145–50.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shinpen Saikaku Zenshu Henshu Inkai.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shinpen Saikaku Zenshu</hi>. Bensei shuppan.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shirane, H.</hi> (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology, 1600–1900.</hi> Columbia University Press, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Uesaka, A. and Murakami, M.</hi> (2013). Authorship Problem of Japanese Early Modern Literatures in the Seventeenth Century. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013,</hi> pp. 449–51.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Uesaka, A. and Murakami, M.</hi> (2014). A Quantitative Analysis for the Authorship of Saikaku’s Posthumous Works in the Seventeenth Century. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014</hi>, 547–49.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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            <p>Visual communication design employs the unique languages of visualization and imagery for making sense and telling compelling stories. This poster will tell the story of a digitally facilitated design research network and a symposium held at the University of Western Sydney, Australia. The objective of the poster is to showcase research-based design practice that contributes to change initiatives across sectors of society and culture, with relevance to Western Sydney. It will outline the key design components that supported the formation of a network of researchers interested in amplifying the change agency of visual communications design. </p>
            <p>In brief, the poster tells a story about how design compellingly tells stories to support and model change. A keynote speaker, Italian information designer Angela Morelli, described her practice as info-graphic digital storytelling that doesn’t simply transform data into meaningful information but engages audiences in knowledge about which they care. Considered in the context of Donald Schön’s (1983) reflective practitioner, Morelli’s challenge is to develop storytelling as an effective genre for the translation of research into visualization and for exploring visualization 
                <hi rend=""italic"">as</hi> knowledge. The symposium enabled participants to share research methods and their own design practices such as visualization strategies, storyboards, information graphics, fieldwork, and mapping techniques used to generate meaningful dialogues and knowledge about supporting community change. 
            </p>
            <p>The poster aims to provide a snapshot of six components that gave birth to and support this network. </p>
            <p>1. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A research symposium event.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Initiating Change by Design (ICD) was an interdisciplinary postgraduate research symposium that aimed to explore the unique capacity for research-based design to contribute to change initiatives across many sectors of society at a time when we face the unprecedented challenges of a climate-changed future and a matching demand for creative thinking. It was particularly focused on Western Sydney, as a contested biophysical, social, and cultural landscape with a rapidly developing urban fringe. ICD gathered a small group of international and local practice-based and theoretical design researchers, and postgraduate students to discuss their projects and share methodological approaches that can be brought to social change in the Western Sydney region. </p>
            <p>2. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Workshop brief.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Participants enrolled in workshops that addressed the question: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">How can design activate public engagement in the commons in Riverlands, Western Sydney? </hi>The focus of this brief was on how visual communications design may be brought to the project of making and sharing the commons—
                <hi rend=""italic"">commoning</hi> in Gibson-Graham et al.’s (2013) terms—in Riverlands, Sydney. 
            </p>
            <p>The brief sought to explore what and where the commons are in Western Sydney, and how they are seen and negotiated by communities both inside and outside of the region. One of the most regionally distinctive and important commons in Western Sydney is its rivers. A map of Western Sydney is veined by extensive river systems. The Nepean and Hawkesbury Rivers, Parramatta River, and South Creek catchment traverse the region and exist in relation to extensive parklands and recreational areas. Equally, Western Sydney is layered by social and cultural landscapes that may not be as apparent to the naked eye. At present Western Sydney is defined by its relation to the Sydney CBD and often, intentionally or not, in a subordinate role. A further binary exists between the famous harbour and coastline and the rivers, which have their own unique ecologies (and are bereft of the cooling sea breezes enjoyed by coastal cities). In fact, there are myriad binaries that delineate Western Sydney as an imagined and experienced environment. ICD Workshop groups were invited to consider recoding Western Sydney as ‘Riverlands, Sydney’. </p>
            <p>3. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Engagement with UWS design students and the award-winning Rabbit Hole studio to brand the event and build a website presence.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>We collaborated with Rabbit Hole coordinators to create a brief in keeping with the intent of ICD to harness the unique language of the image for making sense and creating ‘new knowledge’. The resulting designs were carefully considered and commensurate with the intent of the event, enabling a collaborative opportunity at the nexus of research and teaching. </p>
            <p>4. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The identification of community partners with which to engage in conversation about regional and community change.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Existing and potential partners were asked a range of questions about how they see the current problems and future opportunities for the region. Their responses supported the relevance and value of the brief and the role of visual communications design in envisioning possible futures for ‘the Riverlands’. </p>
            <p>5. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Online host site for research network, resources, and community partners</hi>: http://icd2014.wordpress.com/symposium/.
            </p>
            <p>6. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Online journal publication</hi>: Special issue of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Global Media Journal</hi> (Australian edition). 
            </p>
            <p>The journal includes the research outputs of the network, such as peer-reviewed articles from keynote speakers, academic articles from postgraduates, interviews, transcripts, and commentaries on the workshops. As a materialization of the research network, it intends to capture the unique nature of design research and the dynamic process of the workshops in an online publication that includes visual essays, information design, and video, in order to bring this design special issue to life. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">Gibson-Graham, J. K., Cameron, J. and Healy, S.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)""> (2013). </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">Take Back the Economy: An Ethical Guide for Transforming Our Communities.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)""> University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">Schön, D. A. (</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">1983).</hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space"">
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)""> </hi>
                        </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)""> Basic Books, New York. </hi>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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                        <surname>Liu</surname>
                        <forename>Jyi-Shane</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Natioanl Chengchi University, Taiwan, Republic of China</affiliation>
                    <email>jyishane.liu@gmail.com</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ning</surname>
                        <forename>Ke-Chi</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Natioanl Chengchi University, Taiwan, Republic of China</affiliation>
                    <email>floater.xkernel@gmail.com</email>
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                        <surname>Huang</surname>
                        <forename>Tze-Jung</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Natioanl Chengchi University, Taiwan, Republic of China</affiliation>
                    <email>4happistar@gmail.com</email>
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            <p>Human social life is a repository of symbols in various forms to mark, celebrate, and glorify social groups (Durkheim, 1976). Following the development of modern nationalism, national symbols are devised to identify attachment to specific territories and forge a national unity of particular ethnic and cultural heritage (Smith, 1999). The political, cultural, and ideological identity of an independent country is mostly proclaimed by three symbols: the national flag, the national anthem, and the national emblem (Firth, 1973; Geisler, 2005). The universal adoption of these ethno-cultural identity signifiers provides a great research opportunity to understand the global and regional characteristics of group symbolism in humanity (Butz, 2009; Elgenius, 2011).</p>
            <p>In this paper, we study the similarity and divergence of symbolic elements in ethno-cultural identity with a focus on national emblems. We apply the data analytic method of social network analysis to a total of 205 national emblems such that relational characteristics of symbolic elements and human communities are examined at multiple levels of composite granularity. We conduct exploratory functionalities of the symbolic analytic framework. The results indicate the potential of fruitful discovery in deciphering symbolism in humanity. As a case of application, this study shows the value of digital humanities research in complementing traditional methods of sampled observation and subjective induction.</p>
            <p>National Emblems and Data Model </p>
            <p>A national emblem is an abstract or representational pictorial pattern that signifies the history, myth, or value of a nation and is regarded as one of the core national symbols. This pictorial pattern is designed to reflect and project a nation’s image with a layout of elementary entities in a set of colors. Every nation and state in the modern world has adopted a national emblem—sometimes also called a great seal or an official coat of arms—of its own for both domestic and international use, such as on the cover of a national passport. Compared to national flags, national emblems, in most cases, seem to contain more elements that encode rich anthropological and ethnic features. For example, the national flag of France (see Figure 1a), is a tri-color layout featuring three vertical bands in blue, white, and red, while the coat of arms of France (Figure 1b) is designed with stronger historical and cultural ingredients and attached with vivid symbolic meaning.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""10.676819444444444cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1a. French national flag.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""7.9375cm"" height=""9.022291666666666cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1b. French national emblem.</p>
            <p>A national emblem is a graphical form of expression that encodes information both at the syntactic and semantic levels. At the syntactic level, we observe the surface forms of the elementary entities and the colors. The French national emblem is composed of entities such as an ax, a rod, an oak branch, a laurel branch, a lion’s head, an eagle’s head, a shield, and a monogram, in yellow (golden) and brown. These elementary entities symbolize justice, wisdom, victory, and name at the semantic level. We retrieve descriptive data of the national emblems of a total of 205 countries from Wikipedia. Each record includes the syntactic data of elementary entities with colors and the semantic data of symbolic meaning. The syntactic data of entities are further aggregated into class and meta-class to provide a three-level granularity of data analysis. For example, ‘ax’ and ‘sword’ at the entity level are aggregated into ‘weapon’ at the class level and ‘man-made objects’ at the meta-class level. Similarly, individual countries are also aggregated into region and continent levels. Table 1 outlines the three levels of data classification, the corresponding data size, and partial data content. </p>
            <p> Table 1. Syntactic Data Model of National Emblems</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Data Type</cell>
                    <cell>Data Level</cell>
                    <cell>Data Size</cell>
                    <cell>Data List</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Symbolic Element</cell>
                    <cell>Meta-class</cell>
                    <cell>6</cell>
                    <cell>animal, plant, natural/physical objects, human, man-made objects, human ideas</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>Class</cell>
                    <cell>32</cell>
                    <cell>amphibian, quadruped, bird, celestial body, crop, tree, text, weapon, . . . , etc.</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>Entity</cell>
                    <cell>308</cell>
                    <cell>eagle, lion, sun, moon, star, rice, torch, ribbon, knight, dragon, diamond, . . . , etc.</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Color</cell>
                    <cell>—</cell>
                    <cell>9</cell>
                    <cell>black, white, grey, red, blue, green, yellow, orange, brown</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Human Community</cell>
                    <cell>Continent</cell>
                    <cell>5</cell>
                    <cell>Africa, Asia, America, Europe, Oceania</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>Region</cell>
                    <cell>20</cell>
                    <cell>East Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, Western Asia, North America, Central America, . . . , etc.</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>Country</cell>
                    <cell>205</cell>
                    <cell>Malaysia, Cambodia, Venezuela, Finland, Niger, Oman, Fiji, . . . , etc.</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Applying Social Network Analysis </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Affiliation Network Model</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Social network analysis is a data analytic model that encodes relations among a set of entities and reveals the structural characteristics of their interaction pattern (Wasserman and Faust, 1994). For the national emblem data, social network analysis provides a systematic mechanism to explore and analyze the ideological and cultural relations among human communities. The current study focuses on syntactic data and separates the syntactic variables of symbolic element and color. In network modeling, we construct affiliation networks consisting of a set of symbolic elements (or colors) and a set of human communities. A symbolic element (or color) is linked to a community based on membership in national emblem composition. For dual perspectives, this two-mode bipartite network can also be projected or reduced to two one-mode networks (Newman, 2001; Zhou et al., 2007). One is the element (or color) co-membership network where elements are connected to each other when they share membership of a national emblem composition. The other one-mode network is the community affinity network, where ties represent mutual adoption of the same element (color) in national emblems. All ties in either two-mode or one-mode networks are valued by occurrence frequency to reflect the strength of the relationship. </p>
            <p>Network Indicators </p>
            <p>Social network can be analyzed at different levels for inspecting the embedded relations among entities. Among the many proposed network measurements, we adopt a set of core indicators to observe the essential characteristics of similarity and divergence of self-projected ideology and values among global human communities. The calculation of these network indicators and the network visualization are done with Gephi, a network analysis software package developed by Gephi Consortium. </p>
            <p> • Node level: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Degree centrality</hi> measures the extent to which a node is involved in extensive relationship. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Betweenness centrality</hi> estimates how much a node lies on the paths between any two other nodes. Node ranking by both centrality indicators helps classify a node’s location as core, peripheral, or intermediary in the network. 
            </p>
            <p> • Sub-group level: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Modularity</hi> is a clustering measurement that detects sub-groups where there are more intensive links between nodes within than among the rest of the network (Newman, 2006). This indicator may be useful in identifying families of ideological elements and human communities at different levels. 
            </p>
            <p>Analytical Results</p>
            <p>The integration of a flexible analytical framework of social network analysis and the size and depth of the emblem symbolic data obviously provide a wide horizon of relational characteristics. For example, based on the syntactic data model of Table 1, we can construct two affiliation networks, color-human_community, and symbolic_ element-human_community, one at 1 x 3 and the other at 3 x 3 composite granularity levels. Each affiliation network can also be projected into two one-mode networks. This will result in a total of 36 networks that encode different aspects and various granularities of relational information. Limited by the space of this paper, we demonstrate two distinct analytic functions and present the results of a few interesting discoveries. </p>
            <p>Discovery by Observation</p>
            <p>We first observe how the nine primary colors are used in national emblems across the world. Figure 2a shows the color-country affiliation network where the size of color nodes is proportional to its degree (frequency of use by country). The top three colors are yellow (149), white (133), and red (129), followed by blue (107), green (73), and black (41). All other colors are significantly minor. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""12.320763888888889cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2a. Overview of color-country affiliation network.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""10.138833333333332cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2b. Unique and strong association of color-region.</p>
            <p>Next we examine the color and region relations and apply the modularity measurement to approximate the separation of cohesive sub-groups (Barber, 2007). As shown in Figure 2b, several unique associative patterns between region and color are identified that provide interesting information. For example, the color blue is a common symbol of Northern Europe, Western Europe, and the Caribbean, while the color green uniquely represents Western Asia and East Africa. This analytic observation based on systematic data exploration can complement traditional symbolism research in sociology and anthropology (Kolsto, 2006; Podeh, 2011).</p>
            <p>For entity-country affiliation, it is observed that a total of 308 unique element entities are used 1,624 times in 205 national emblems with a long-tailed distribution. The top 10 entities are listed in Table 2 and account for 38.2% of occurrence frequency. When the one-mode entity co-membership network is constructed, several cohesive subgroups are identified. One of the interesting patterns of entity association is shown in Figure 3, with shield, eagle, lion, cross, crown, and spear as members of the primary core, and seems to indicate a strong European flavor. </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <p>Table 2. Symbolic element distribution.</p>
                        <table rend=""rules"">
                            <row>
                                <cell>Rank</cell>
                                <cell>Entity</cell>
                                <cell>Freq.</cell>
                                <cell>Perc.</cell>
                            </row>
                            <row>
                                <cell>1</cell>
                                <cell>ribbon</cell>
                                <cell>110</cell>
                                <cell>6.8%</cell>
                            </row>
                            <row>
                                <cell>2</cell>
                                <cell>shield</cell>
                                <cell>109</cell>
                                <cell>6.7%</cell>
                            </row>
                            <row>
                                <cell>3</cell>
                                <cell>motto</cell>
                                <cell>97</cell>
                                <cell>6.0%</cell>
                            </row>
                            <row>
                                <cell>4</cell>
                                <cell>star</cell>
                                <cell>64</cell>
                                <cell>3.9%</cell>
                            </row>
                            <row>
                                <cell>5</cell>
                                <cell>sun</cell>
                                <cell>51</cell>
                                <cell>3.1%</cell>
                            </row>
                            <row>
                                <cell>6</cell>
                                <cell>lion</cell>
                                <cell>44</cell>
                                <cell>2.7%</cell>
                            </row>
                            <row>
                                <cell>7</cell>
                                <cell>nation name</cell>
                                <cell>43</cell>
                                <cell>2.6%</cell>
                            </row>
                            <row>
                                <cell>8</cell>
                                <cell>eagle</cell>
                                <cell>36</cell>
                                <cell>2.2%</cell>
                            </row>
                            <row>
                                <cell>9</cell>
                                <cell>crown</cell>
                                <cell>34</cell>
                                <cell>2.1%</cell>
                            </row>
                            <row>
                                <cell>10</cell>
                                <cell>mountain</cell>
                                <cell>33</cell>
                                <cell>2.0%</cell>
                            </row>
                        </table>
                    </cell>
                    <cell/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                </row>
            </table>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""14.109347222222222cm"" height=""12.063491666666666cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. A sub-group of entity co-membership with European flavor.</p>
            <p>Discovery by Query</p>
            <p>Another way to decode the embedded information from the various affiliation networks is to conduct a focused exploration for specific questions. Suppose we start with the questions of how regions share the use of similar symbolic elements and what the overall diversity is across regions. An entity-region affiliation network may provide partial answers with appropriate granularity. Results of applying network indicators are shown in Table 3, where 20 regions are divided into nine subgroups based on common use of symbolic entities. Several families of regions emerge that reveal different aspects of similarity and divergence in symbolic expression of humanity. Sub-group 1 share a common cultural heritage, even though North America is geographically separated from other members. Members of sub-group 2 are both geographically distant and culturally independent. This grouping presents an interesting phenomenon and calls for further investigation. Sub-groups 3, 4, and 5 seem to be both geographically and culturally connected, while the remaining sub-groups are more isolated from others. Figures 4a and 4b show the entity-region networks of sub-groups 1 and 2.</p>
            <p>Table 3. Regional grouping by common use of symbolic entities.</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <p>Sub-</p>
                        <p>group</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>Region(s)</cell>
                    <cell>Core Entity</cell>
                    <cell>Degree Centrality</cell>
                    <cell>Betweenness Centrality</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>1</cell>
                    <cell>Southern Europe, North America, Western Europe, Central Europe</cell>
                    <cell>ribbon</cell>
                    <cell>18</cell>
                    <cell>2313.8</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>shield</cell>
                    <cell>18</cell>
                    <cell>2174.9</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>eagle</cell>
                    <cell>15</cell>
                    <cell>1310.0</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>spear</cell>
                    <cell>12</cell>
                    <cell>1032.0</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>olive</cell>
                    <cell>11</cell>
                    <cell>972.4</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>2</cell>
                    <cell>South Asia, Northern Europe, North Africa</cell>
                    <cell>star</cell>
                    <cell>18</cell>
                    <cell>2344.3</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>motto</cell>
                    <cell>16</cell>
                    <cell>1930.7</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>lion</cell>
                    <cell>17</cell>
                    <cell>1831.2</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>moon</cell>
                    <cell>12</cell>
                    <cell>990.1</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>sword</cell>
                    <cell>12</cell>
                    <cell>927.9</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>crown</cell>
                    <cell>13</cell>
                    <cell>819.9</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>3</cell>
                    <cell>
                        <p>Southeast Asia, Central Asia, </p>
                        <p>East Asia</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>sun</cell>
                    <cell>16</cell>
                    <cell>1838.7</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>nation name</cell>
                    <cell>15</cell>
                    <cell>1736.1</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>mountain</cell>
                    <cell>13</cell>
                    <cell>1280.2</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>wheat</cell>
                    <cell>10</cell>
                    <cell>609.3</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>river</cell>
                    <cell>9</cell>
                    <cell>512.4</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>4</cell>
                    <cell>
                        <p>West Africa, </p>
                        <p>East Africa, Central Africa</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>flag</cell>
                    <cell>13</cell>
                    <cell>1250.8</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>palm (tree)</cell>
                    <cell>10</cell>
                    <cell>875.9</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>ship</cell>
                    <cell>10</cell>
                    <cell>734.9</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>helmet</cell>
                    <cell>9</cell>
                    <cell>656.6</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>5</cell>
                    <cell>Western Asia, Eastern Europe</cell>
                    <cell>sea</cell>
                    <cell>10</cell>
                    <cell>737.0</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>arrow</cell>
                    <cell>7</cell>
                    <cell>368.3</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>oak</cell>
                    <cell>8</cell>
                    <cell>357.9</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>horse</cell>
                    <cell>7</cell>
                    <cell>270.1</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>6</cell>
                    <cell>Caribbean, Oceania</cell>
                    <cell>chain</cell>
                    <cell>7</cell>
                    <cell>375.9</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>stripe</cell>
                    <cell>5</cell>
                    <cell>194.8</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>7</cell>
                    <cell>Central America</cell>
                    <cell>triangle</cell>
                    <cell>6</cell>
                    <cell>260.2</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>cogwheel</cell>
                    <cell>6</cell>
                    <cell>258.1</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>8</cell>
                    <cell>Southern Africa</cell>
                    <cell>man</cell>
                    <cell>6</cell>
                    <cell>357.9</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>rifle</cell>
                    <cell>4</cell>
                    <cell>130.9</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>sheep</cell>
                    <cell>4</cell>
                    <cell>77.5</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>9</cell>
                    <cell>South America</cell>
                    <cell>bow</cell>
                    <cell>5</cell>
                    <cell>270.1</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>ax</cell>
                    <cell>5</cell>
                    <cell>241.2</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>coffee</cell>
                    <cell>5</cell>
                    <cell>185.2</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Discussion and Conclusion </p>
            <p>Symbolism is a fundamental form of humanity expression. While a national emblem forms an integral context of correlated symbolic elements, we believe that a single symbolic element is itself a unit of idea expression and can be examined by an objective data analysis. It is the interpretation of analytic results that needs to take into account the contextual information. In this proposal, our purpose is to show the methodological process of analyzing the inter-relations among symbolic elements while cautiously refrain from making conclusive interpretation. 
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Through the co-occurrence of the lexical and geographical presence of the emblem symbols, we utilize social network analysis as an effective tool to reveal the emergent information. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>This study demonstrates the great potential of employing a data analytic framework for explorative discovery in sociology and anthropology. 
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Our approach helps unlock the less than obvious information in the symbol-location relationship by presenting a lexical-based concept in a non-linear fashion, opening it up for interpretations that are not so readily available via standard appearance of materials. Furthermore, it allows the lexical-based concept to speak in its multiplicity. </hi>The initial results seem to provide rich implications for better understanding global humanity’s similarities and divergences. Our future work includes interdisciplinary research with sociologists and/or anthropologists for more in-depth investigation and interpretation, as well as an extension to analyzing the relations of symbolic semantic meaning in national emblems. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""13.830652777777777cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4a. Entity-region network of sub-group 1.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1007"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""13.179777777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4a. Entity-region network of sub-group 2.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Barber, M. J.</hi> (2007). Modularity and Community Detection in Bipartite Networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Physical Review E,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">76</hi>(6): 066102.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Butz, D. A.</hi> (2009). National Symbols as Agents of Psychological and Social Changes. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Political Psychology,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>(3): 779–804.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Durkheim, E.</hi> (1976). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life</hi>. 2nd ed. George Allen and Unwin, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elgenius, G.</hi> (2011). The Politics of Recognition: Symbols, Nation-Building and Rival Nationalism. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Nations and Nationalism,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(2): 396–418.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Firth, R.</hi> (1973). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Symbols: Public and Private</hi>. George Allen and Unwin, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Geisler, M. E.</hi> (2005). What Are National Symbols—and What Do They Do to Us? In Geisler, M. E. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">National Symbols, Fractured Identities: Contesting the National Narrative</hi>. Middlebury, VT: Middlebury College Press, pp. XIII–XLII.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kolsto, P.</hi> (2006). National Symbols as Signs of Unity and Division. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ethnic and Racial Studies,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(4): 676–701.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Newman, M. E.</hi> (2001). Scientific Collaboration Networks. II. Shortest Paths, Weighted Networks, and Centrality. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Physical Review E,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">64</hi>(1): 016132.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Newman, M. E.</hi> (2006). Modularity and Community Structure in Networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">103</hi>(23): 8577–82.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Podeh, E.</hi> (2011). The Symbolism of the Arab Flag in Modern Arab States: Between Commonality and Uniqueness. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Nations and Nationalism,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(2): 410–22.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smith, A. D.</hi> (1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Myths and Memories of the Nation</hi>. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wasserman, S. and Faust, K.</hi> (1994). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications</hi>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zhou, T., Ren, J., Medo, M., and Zhang, Y. C.</hi> (2007). Bipartite Network Projection and Personal Recommendation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Physical Review E,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">76</hi>(4): 046115. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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"2172","16","A System for the Textual Inheritance Relation of Chinese Historical Classics ""Comprehensive Mirror"", ""Grand Tortoise"" and ""Standard Histories""","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Pang</surname>
                        <forename>Wai-Him</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Macao</affiliation>
                    <email>b96129@csie.ntu.edu.tw</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hsiang</surname>
                        <forename>Jieh</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>National Taiwan University, Taiwan, Republic of China</affiliation>
                    <email>jhsiang@ntu.edu.tw</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Tu</surname>
                        <forename>Hsieh-Chang</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>National Taiwan University, Taiwan, Republic of China</affiliation>
                    <email>hsieh.chang@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Chen</surname>
                        <forename>Lihua</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Academia Sinica, Taiwan</affiliation>
                    <email>lhchen101@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
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                    <term>textual inheritance</term>
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                    <term>Zizhi Tongjian</term>
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            <p>In Chinese historical writings, an event may be recorded in different classics and paraphrased in others. How an event was written also reflected the view of the historian (Zhou, 1986). In order to check different versions of the same event, a scholar needs to spend a great deal of time collecting all related writings from different books. This paper describes an automated method to establish the inheritance relationship of texts in different classics about the same event. </p>
            <p>The historical writings studied in this paper are Zizhi Tongjian (ZT, 資治通鑑, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Governance</hi>), Cefu Yuangui (CY, 冊府元龜, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Grand Tortoise in the Imperial Treasury of Books</hi>), Zhengshi (ZS, 正史, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Standard Histories</hi>), and Tongjian Jishi Benmo (JB, 通鑑紀事本末, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Narratives from Beginning to End in the Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Governance</hi>). While these four epics cover about the same period in Chinese history, they represent four most important yet different styles of Chinese historical writings. ZT, written by Sima Guang (1019–1086) in 1084, considered among the greatest Chinese historiographical achievements, is in chronological style and covers the time from 403 BC to AD 959, the end of Wudai.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> CY, compiled by Wang Qinruo in 1013, covers the same period as ZT and was organized in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">leishu </hi>style.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> Although CY is four times as large as ZT, it is held in much less esteem (Sung, 2010). ZS is the collection of Standard Histories, one from each dynasty. Standard Histories are written in the Biographies and Monographs style (紀傳體). ZT used 19 Standard Histories, from Shiji (史記) to Wudaishi (五代史). CY used 17. In 1173 Yuan shu (1131–1205) transformed ZT into an event-based book, JB, by compiling ZT into 239 events. JB opened the door of a third Chinese history-writing style, Narrative of Events (紀事本末體). 
            </p>
            <p>Our studies try to build a system to study the textual inheritance relation of these four tomes. After processing the texts (such as identifying entries and aligning dates), we then extract keywords from them. This is done by combining the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Pointwise Mutual Information </hi>method (Pang et al., 2014) with a dictionary (Shi and Shen, 1994). This results in the following number of names extracted: 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Person names</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Location names</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Office titles</hi>
            </p>
            <p>ZT 18,893 10,085 13,888 </p>
            <p>CY 12,351 8,625 8,952 </p>
            <p>ZS 15,975 10,484 10,846 </p>
            <p>Estimating textual inheritance requires the comparison of texts, for which we used two different algorithms. Since CY followed the text closely when copying from ZS, we used the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">longest common subsequence </hi>method (Nakatsu et al., 1982) to find the textual inheritance from ZS to CY. ZT, on the other hand, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">paraphrased </hi>from ZS. In this case we employ the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">inverse document frequency</hi> (Salton et al., 1983) method, using common keywords to find similar texts. We discovered that of the 69,906 entries of CY (71,047 including the prefaces), approximately 13,662 (~20%) are taken from ZS. Of the 21,854 paragraphs in ZT, approximately 7,369 (~34%) have similar texts in ZS. Furthermore, about 2,477 paragraphs (~11%) of ZT have similar entries in CY. What might also be interesting is that although JB recompiled the original paragraphs of ZT into 239 events, it has actually only used 16,374 paragraphs, roughly 75% of the material of ZT. 
            </p>
            <p>We have built a digital archive system containing these four corpuses. In addition to full-text search and retrieval, we have provided functions such as post-query multifacet analysis, text inheritance analysis, term frequency and co-occurrence analysis, relevance factor of a term to a query, and prefix-suffix analysis. The system is flexible enough to host other similar corpuses easily.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Chinese history classics often contain several million words. Digital archive systems provide a way to view and compare these classics that would not have been possible before. The method presented in this paper explores the important relation of textual inheritance in historical writings. It should provide a new way for scholars to study how Chinese history writings were constructed, how events were formulated and described by different historians, and the development of Chinese historiography. </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. It was based on 19 Standard Histories of previous dynasties and referenced 322 other historical writings (Du, 1993, 3:79).</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. An ancient Chinese form of reference books, with a classification of knowledge each of whose subjects is attached with related entries copied from older books.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. We have indeed used the same shell to create context discovery retrieval systems for scores of corpuses. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Du Weiyun.</hi> (1993). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Chinese Historiography</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nakatsu, N., Kambayashi, Y. and Yajima, S.</hi> (1982). A Longest Common Subsequence Algorithm Suitable for Similar Text Strings. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Acta Informatica,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(2): 171–79. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pang, W., Liu, S.-G., Tu, H. C., Weng, G. A. and Hsiang, J.</hi> (2014). Automated Name-Extraction in Chinese Classics: Applying PMI Segmentation to Zizhi Tongjian. In Hsiang, J. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities and Craft: Technological Change</hi>, Taipei: NTU Press, pp. 139–66. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Salton, G., Fox, E. and Wu, H.</hi> (1983). Extended Boolean Information Retrieval. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CACM,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">26</hi>(11): 1022–36. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shi, T. and Shen, Z. H.</hi> (1994). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Grand Dictionary of Zizhi Tongjian</hi>. Jilin People’s Press. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sung, C.-F.</hi> (2010). Between Tortoise and Mirror: Historians and Historiography in Eleventh-Century China. Ph.D. thesis, Harvard University. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zhou Zhenfu.</hi> (1986). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Writing Techniques of Ancient Writers</hi>. People’s Press, Beijing.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2173","16","Accidental Discovery, Intentional Inquiry: Leveraging Linked Data to Uncover the Women of Jazz","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Pattuelli</surname>
                        <forename>M. Cristina</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Pratt Institute, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>mpattuel@pratt.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Miller</surname>
                        <forename>Matthew</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>New York Public Library, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>matthewmiller@nypl.org</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hwang</surname>
                        <forename>Karen</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Pratt Institute, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>khwang3@pratt.edu</email>
                </author>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>Linked Open Data</term>
                    <term>Digital Archives</term>
                    <term>Gender Studies</term>
                    <term>Jazz History</term>
                    <term>Knowledge Representation</term>
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                    <term>archives</term>
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                    <term>sustainability and preservation</term>
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                    <term>encoding - theory and practice</term>
                    <term>gender studies</term>
                    <term>metadata</term>
                    <term>data modeling and architecture including hypothesis-driven modeling</term>
                    <term>music</term>
                    <term>ontologies</term>
                    <term>philosophy</term>
                    <term>digitisation</term>
                    <term>resource creation</term>
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            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">We only see what we have interest in. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>—Paul Nougé, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Birth of the Object (The Subversion of Images)</hi>, 1929–1930
            </p>
            <p>In this paper we discuss the heuristic capabilities that the process of creating cultural heritage linked data may afford and the potential of integrating linked open datasets to facilitate and augment arts and humanities research. More specifically, we address the paths to a linked data-driven investigation in the history of women in jazz. The research context is provided by Linked Jazz (linkedjazz.org), an evolving project that experiments with applying linked open data principles and techniques to cultural heritage materials. The project currently uses oral histories from digital archives of jazz history as the main source of named entities to be represented as linked open data. Interview transcripts are processed through open-source applications developed in-house that employ automated and manual methods for name extraction, matching, and quality control. A linked open dataset has been created that includes over 9,000 proper names of musicians as well as the personal and social relationships connecting them. The dataset supports the creation and visualization of interactive social graphs for representing the highly interconnected community of jazz musicians (Pattuelli et al., 2013).</p>
            <p>While the Linked Jazz tools and data services are intended to support data discovery and analysis, the development process itself has proven conducive to research inquiry by revealing unanticipated paths to discovery and engagement with heritage data. One of the initial steps in producing the dataset for Linked Jazz involved creating a directory of proper names to be leveraged in automated text analysis and extraction activities. To this end, a domain-specific vocabulary of personal names was built by extracting and filtering data from the US version of DBpedia. In line with linked open data best practices, existing URIs were reused whenever possible. As an RDF export of Wikipedia data, DBpedia is the largest and most popular hub of linked open data and thus encompasses an extensive array of jazz artist entries, including less prominent figures. For further refinement and consolidation, the names were mapped to VIAF, the international aggregation service of bibliographic name authorities including LC/NAF, the Library of Congress Name Authority File. While VIAF is widely used to disambiguate proper names and enrich the vocabulary with their variant forms, including nicknames and stage names, it contains only name instances derived from bibliographic records, a smaller subset of the pool that can be found in DBpedia. Through automated analysis of interview transcripts, names of musicians mentioned in the text were identified and matched to corresponding names in our directory. Instances occurred when names were recognized in the transcripts but did not have a corresponding match in our inventory. This was mostly due to the lack of an entry in Wikipedia, the source of DBpedia data. When needed, alternative linked open data sources were manually searched, including the music-specific encyclopedia MusicBrainz (https://musicbrainz.org).</p>
            <p>When names were not found in any of the available sources, URIs had to be minted using the Linked Jazz namespace, e.g., http://linkedjazz.org/resource/Lynn_Grissett.</p>
            <p>Based on the random sample of 54 interview transcripts we have processed to date, a total of 219 name instances were newly coined. The tallying of minted URIs showed that 25 out of 219 minted URIs referred to women, and 18 of those women were involved in the jazz scene in various capacities, from less prominent jazz musicians to people otherwise involved in the music industry (producers, managers, educators, etc.). While these individuals were mentioned in our collection of oral histories, they were missing from major encyclopedic knowledge bases, such as Wikipedia and MusicBrainz, as well as from massive repositories of bibliographic name authorities such as LC/NAF and VIAF. </p>
            <p>The bare data encoding, which is provided by the URI syntax, revealed aspects of the data worthy of further investigation. An obvious finding was that women make up only a tiny percentage of the entities with new identifiers (11%). Even a cursory glance at the entire Linked Jazz dataset shows a significant discrepancy in the ratio between female and male jazz musicians. The missing URIs confirm this trend, but also suggests that the morphology of linked data can serve as a fertile clue and provide threads to new lines of inquiry through the lens of linked open data. </p>
            <p>These accidental findings have triggered a new stream of development strategies aimed at supporting research in gender representation, an understudied area of jazz (Placksin, 1982; Tucker, 2000). By looking for patterns of the missing data, performing cross-references against interview mentions and conducting data analysis through different data facets including gender, roles, or professional relevance, we expect to be able to expand the array of questions that can be asked of the data.</p>
            <p>We are currently working to associate additional properties, starting with gender and instrument(s) played, to the person entities in the Linked Jazz dataset. This is achieved through data mashups with suitable sets of data from external sources. A key tenet of linked open data development, the integration of heterogeneous datasets is enabled by the design of RDF, a unifying data framework that relies on common modeling constructs such as URIs (Hendler, 2011). Data integration is the strategy that our project has adopted to add new layers of semantics to our set of triples and thus offer new opportunities for analysis and discovery. A dedicated RDF ontology is being developed to harmonize heterogeneous semantics and ease the process of integrating data. The ontology is created by expanding the set of predicates from the Linked Jazz dataset with predicates from selected data sources, resulting in a cohesive and expressive conceptual model. The data enrichment offered by mashing up datasets will bring together a wide range of information from temporal and spatial data (e.g., time periods, dates, events, geographic locations, etc.) to music-specific data (e.g., professional roles, instruments, recordings, music venues, etc.), opening up unanticipated strains of inquiry. A visual representation of a data integration use case is shown in Figure 1. It is based on a test of mashups centered on Ella Fitzgerald.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""15.213541666666666cm"" height=""13.096875cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p> Figure 1. Data integration use case.</p>
            <p>Three domain-specific databases will be leveraged to perform mashups: (1) Columbia University’s J-DISC,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> (2) Steve Albin’s BRIAN,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> and (3) Carnegie Hall’s performance archive database.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> The first two are open-source jazz discography databases
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> that provide granular information including session details with songs, tracks, dates, locations, and artist contributions from the composer to the sideman. The third contains rich and detailed information including types of performer (e.g., singer, instrumentalist, conductor, etc.).
            </p>
            <p>As a condicio sine qua non, however, we have to associate the attribute 
                <hi rend=""italic"">gender</hi> to the jazz musician names throughout the Linked Jazz dataset. Unfortunately, this won’t be a straightforward integration task as gender information, limited to binary 
                <hi rend=""italic"">male</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">female</hi>, is only recorded in J-DISC, which includes fewer than half of the artists present in BRIAN (and only 313 female jazz musicians). To supplement J-DISC data, we would need to make use of Wikipedia data via DBpedia. Specifically, we will leverage Wikipedia categories 
                <hi rend=""italic"">women</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">female</hi> as they are the only gender-related qualifiers applied to the jazz domain. The symmetric categories 
                <hi rend=""italic"">men</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">male</hi> are not specified, but assumed. 
            </p>
            <p>The heuristic capability inherent in the syntax of linked data and the data enrichment derived from knitting together linked open datasets have the potential to shed light on underrepresented contributors to the history of jazz and offer new perspectives to arts and humanities inquiry.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. http://jdisc.columbia.edu.</p>
            <p>2. http://www.jazzdiscography.com/Brian/.</p>
            <p>3. http://www.carnegiehall.org/PerformanceHistorySearch/#!.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">4. More specifically, Steve Albin’s BRIAN is an application that allows users to create and publish their own discographies.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hendler, J.</hi> (2011). The Semantic Web from the Bottom Up. In Batcherer, T. and Coover, R. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Switching Codes: Thinking through Digital Technology in the Humanities and the Arts</hi>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 125–39.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pattuelli, M. C., Miller, M., Lange, L., Fitzell, S. and Li-Madeo, C.</hi> (2013). Crafting Linked Open Data for Cultural Heritage: Mapping and Curation Tools for the Linked Jazz Project. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Code4Lib Journal, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>, http://journal.code4lib.org/articles/8670.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Placksin, S.</hi> (1982). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">American Women in Jazz: 1900 to the Present—Their Words, Lives, and Music</hi>. Wideview Books, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tucker, S.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Swing Shift: ‘All-Girl’ Bands of the 1940s</hi>. Duke University Press, Durham, NC.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                        <surname>Berghold</surname>
                        <forename>Jared</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Intersect, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>jared@intersect.org.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hammond</surname>
                        <forename>Jeremy</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Intersect, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>jeremy@intersect.org.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Cassidy</surname>
                        <forename>Steve</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Macquarie University</affiliation>
                    <email>steve.cassidy@mq.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Estival</surname>
                        <forename>Dominique</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney</affiliation>
                    <email>D.Estival@uws.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Burnham</surname>
                        <forename>Denis</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney</affiliation>
                    <email>Denis.Burnham@uws.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Sefton</surname>
                        <forename>Peter</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney</affiliation>
                    <email>P.Sefton@uws.edu.au</email>
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                    <term>human communication sciences</term>
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                    <term>agile</term>
                    <term>virtual laboratory</term>
                    <term>software development</term>
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                    <term>archives</term>
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            <p>This paper explores the interactions between software engineers and researchers in developing large-scale digital humanities platforms. In particular, we focus on how a diverse, cross-discipline group contributed to the development and deployment of the Alveo
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> virtual laboratory (Cassidy et al., 2014). We present an overview of how the tool works, its impact through transforming methodologies within the language sciences, and a summary of what digital technologies underpin its framework. We show the process of the Agile methodology
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> in a humanities context, good practice for scoping and implementation of highly technical features, and how stakeholder consultation is key to successful software development processes. 
            </p>
            <p>Alveo is an online system designed specifically for research in Human Communication Science (HCS). Human Communication Science encompasses the areas of speech science, speech technology, computer science, language technology, behavioural science, linguistics, music science, phonetics, phonology, and sonics and acoustics. HCS research depends upon datasets (collections) of speech, music, text, video, sounds, and specialised tools by which to search, analyse, and annotate these data. Alveo provides a platform to access these datasets and use the specialised tools. The Alveo system consists of two major components: a data discovery interface and workflow engine. These work independently, but are compatible so that one feeds into the other.</p>
            <p>The data discovery interface gives both a Graphical User Interface (GUI) and an Application Programming Interface (API) that allow for browsing and searching of data, viewing collections and their metadata, and previewing and downloading documents (text documents, audio files, video files, images, etc.). The data discovery interface supports the creation of stable ‘item lists’ that can be shared with other users and transferred to third-party tools for analysis. The workflow engine uses Galaxy,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> a scientific workflow platform originally developed by Penn State University for data-intensive biomedical research. Alveo uses Galaxy to provide its users with easy access to a variety of tools for analysing and manipulating human communication datasets. The innovation of the Galaxy component is that it allows for workflow construction independent of data. For example, a researcher builds a workflow that uses PsySound for an acoustic analysis combined with an independent (but linked) analysis using the ParseEval tool on the same language data. The workflow can then be reused on different collections (or selected subsets), shared with collaborators or archived for publication. 
            </p>
            <p>The technical complexity of the project is seen in the range of components that underpin the system. These include: Hydra framework comprised of Blacklight
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> to provide a discovery interface and Apache Solr
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> for search; JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) and JSON-LD formatted metadata to build human-readable text to transmit data; and Sesame framework
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> for storing and accessing metadata that is compliant with the Resource Description Framework (RDF) specifications. A core part of the engineering contribution was to evaluate these technologies, and provide advice and consultancy so that outcomes of the project were achieved with maximal functionality but without undue overheads. 
            </p>
            <p>During the development of the digital laboratory we utilised work practices adhering to the Agile software development process. Specifically, we used the Scrum software development framework.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi> Scrum is an iterative and incremental process that encourages close collaboration with clients, daily face-to-face communication between team members, and a flexible approach to changing requirements. During the development phase of Alveo, team members met with the major stakeholders on a weekly basis. Meetings alternated between demonstrating the latest version of the system (resulting from the previous two-week period of development) and planning work for the next two weeks. Ad hoc communication with stakeholders took place on an almost daily basis via email, video conference, and an online issue tracking system. By collaborating closely with stakeholders during the development process, there was a greater likelihood that the resulting software system would meet the needs and expectations of those stakeholders. 
            </p>
            <p>We argue that large digital projects have better outcomes when software engineers work not 
                <hi rend=""italic"">for</hi> but 
                <hi rend=""italic"">with</hi> humanities scholars (Teehan and Keating, 2010; Dombrowski, 2014; Bradley, 2009). The contribution of software engineers to digital humanities projects is not only to implement a digital or computational solution to a problem but to also be highly engaged with the discipline, to introduce options and advice, and to react rapidly and flexibly to changing requirements at all stages along a project timeline. 
            </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. http://alveo.edu.au/.</p>
            <p>2. http://agilemethodology.org/.</p>
            <p>3. https://usegalaxy.org/.</p>
            <p>4. http://projectblacklight.org/.</p>
            <p>5. http://lucene.apache.org/solr/.</p>
            <p>6. http://rdf4j.org/.</p>
            <p>7. https://www.scrum.org/Resources/What-is-Scrum.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bradley, J.</hi> (2009). What the Developer Saw: An Outsider’s View of Annotation, Interpretation, and Scholarship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Paths for Computing Humanists,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cassidy, S., Estival, D., Jones, T., Burnham, D. and Berghold, J.</hi> (2014). The Alveo Virtual Laboratory: A Web-Based Repository API. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">9th Language Resources and Evaluation Conference (LREC 2014)</hi>, Reykjavik, Iceland, 26–31 May 2014.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dombrowski, Q.</hi> (2014). What Ever Happened to Project Bamboo? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(3): 326–39, doi:10.1093/llc/fqu026.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Teehan, A. and Keating, J. G.</hi> (2010). Appropriate Use Case Modeling for Humanities Documents. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(4): 381–91, doi:10.1093/llc/fqq026.
                    </bibl>
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"2175","16","An Efficient Collaborative Web-based Working Environment For The Creation Of A Digital Sanskrit Dictionary","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Heße</surname>
                        <forename>Sascha</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>sascha.hesse@informatik.uni-halle.de</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Einicke</surname>
                        <forename>Katrin</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>katrin.einicke@indologie.uni-halle.de</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ritter</surname>
                        <forename>Jörg</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>joerg.ritter@informatik.uni-halle.de</email>
                </author>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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            <p>We present an efficient web-based collaborative working environment for the creation of a new digital Sanskrit dictionary, making it possible to abstract from the structured representation of a dictionary entry and instead focus on content decisions when adding new entries through a convenient input mask. </p>
            <p>***</p>
            <p>Sanskrit is, among other things, the liturgical language of Hinduism. With its textual transmission dating back to the 2nd millennium BC and written records in the form of inscriptions dating back as far as the 1st/2nd century AD, Sanskrit texts make up one of the richest cultural and intellectual archives of the pre-modern Asian world. At the end of the 19th century Böhtlingk and Roth published their groundbreaking Sanskrit dictionaries (Böhtlingk, 1855–1875; 1879), creating an indispensable tool in indological research and laying the foundation for modern lexicographical Sanskrit studies. They have since never been superseded. The only comprehensive effort to create an addendum based on the same scientific standards was made by Schmidt (1928). Since then a large number of significant scientific advances in Sanskrit lexicography have since been made. While the portfolio of dedicated large-scale dictionaries is manageable (Böhtlingk, 1855–1875; 1879; Apte, 1957–1959; Grassman, 1873; Monier-Williams, 1899) and largely accessible for research (Kapp and Malten, 1997), the exact opposite holds true for the enormous amount of individual lexicographical accomplishments that have been made over the course of generations. This cumulative knowledge, published in different forms and places (glossaries, specialized dictionaries, articles in journals and anthologies), evades targeted access by being scattered both temporally and editorially, making it nearly impossible to obtain an extensive overview of the current progress of studies of Sanskrit vocabulary and its semantics. In consequence, one has to largely rely on the state of knowledge from 1928 when translating Sanskrit texts. This deficit will most certainly cause indological research to qualitatively fall behind other philologies over time. To counteract this process, a systematic scientific revision of the accumulated advancements made in Sanskrit lexicography since 1928 is urgently needed.</p>
            <p>Our project, Nachtragswörterbuch des Sanskrit (NWS), aims at creating a digital Sanskrit dictionary whose lemmatic content consists of about 150 publications, containing an estimated 11,000 pages worth of scientific collections of Sanskrit vocabulary. The goal is to make this content available in a single digital dictionary with uniform presentation and structure by systematically analyzing each lexicographic collection with academic expertise. This includes identifying, extracting, and transferring relevant content into a new and unified lemmatic structure without adding further information. A transcription is decidedly not part of our project. We identify the key challenges that we have to overcome as follows. </p>
            <p>First and arguably the biggest challenge is the sheer amount of content. Due to the scientific assessment of the source material on a per-entry basis, an automated approach can be ruled out. Instead, our main priority is to make this workflow of identifying, extracting, and transferring lexicographic content into our dictionary as convenient and efficient as possible by providing a tailored working environment for the indologists on our team. The second challenge is due to the fact that the content of our dictionary consists of various different sources. In order to avoid duplication of information we include only the first (oldest) occurrence of duplicate content. Reviewing the source material by date of publication is one necessity for this; however, the challenge lies in being able to access the live state of the dictionary in order to look up previously entered content under the same headword, keeping in mind that this content may not necessarily have been entered by the same person but could have come from anyone on our team. This brings up the next challenge, which is the fact that multiple users will be working on the dictionary, quite possibly at the same time, needing access not only to the content they are working on themselves but to the whole dictionary in its current state.</p>
            <p>To address these challenges and meet the necessary requirements we opted for a web-based collaborative working environment, enabling us to provide an up-to-date version of the dictionary to all team members. The most important feature of this working environment is the ability to add new entries to the dictionary using a tailor-made web input mask (see Fig
                <anchor xml:id=""Illustration-1""/>ure 1). This allows abstracting from the internal deep structured database representation of a dictionary entry and instead working with a specialized user interface. This allows the indologists on our team to focus on the content as well as the actual lemmatic structure instead of how to represent that structure internally. Furthermore we exploit the fact that publications are predominantly being reviewed one at a time from front to back. Using that knowledge we can prevent the need to input repetitive information by automatically filling in certain input elements in the web mask when entering consecutive entries. Whenever we can’t automatically deduce information with certainty, we try to anticipate the input by offering context-sensitive suggestions that update themselves while the user is typing. Using this feature is an invaluable resource when working with scribal abbreviations of Sanskrit texts, which in our case already amount to over 2,400 in total. By starting to type any part of an unabridged Sanskrit texts name one can effectively search for the corresponding abbreviation and accept the correct suggestion only by using a couple of keystrokes. The same feature is also used in different contexts, e.g., when choosing among more than 250 literary references or when entering cross-references. While convenience features are certainly the most notable when using our working environment on a daily basis, another important aspect is the added benefit of automatically validating new entries before they are added to the dictionary.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The most difficult part during development proved to be making the input mask adaptable enough to support the full range of expressiveness of the underlying deep structure of a dictionary entry, while offering a clear, intuitive, and uncluttered user interface. We achieve this by using an approach where the user starts with a basic form, dynamically adding new structural elements whenever needed. This allows for arbitrarily complex entries when needed but provides a minimalistic view by default. While this approach works just fine for the overall structure of the dictionary entry, a different method is needed when it comes to tagging single words or even just characters of a text inside an input field. To this end we developed a feature that allows tagging parts of texts inside an HTML text input field in a way best described as analogous to using a highlighter. By making a text selection using the mouse or keyboard, the user can then tag the selection by using a hotkey combination or clicking a button in a floating context-sensitive toolbar. As Sanskrit is predominantly written in Devanagari, transliteration support including automatic Unicode normalization is another feature built into the input mask. Furthermore, by allowing each user to view dictionary entries in their textual representation and flag them as correct or give a written opinion on why they are incorrect, proofreading becomes a group effort. </p>
            <p>The structured content of our dictionary is being stored in a relational database whose schema we derived from a subset of the TEI-P5 guidelines on encoding dictionaries.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> Exporting to TEI conform XML is therefore possible. Furthermore we use the Ruby on Rails framework to generate different textual representations from the structured database content. This allows us to use a singular data source but have different textual representations of our dictionary entries without duplication of content. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""14.499166666666667cm"" height=""9.313333333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <p rend=""Figure"">
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Figure 1. A screenshot of the input mask for new entries shows the autocompletion feature, the floating highlighter toolbar, as well as the personalized bookmarks menu in the top right.</hi>
                </p>
            </figure>
            <p>Results</p>
            <p>Development of this working environment initially took six months. We started testing our environment under live circumstances in June 2014. What was initially supposed to be a test phase ended up being the beginning of the use of our working environment in production. We have since iteratively integrated new and improved existing features. At the time of writing this, our team of four indologists has been successfully using this environment to review more than 30 sources, creating a total of nearly 10,000 dictionary entries. Looking at the time frame of our project, we are more than confident that this modern working environment will contribute to the timely completion of our digital Sanskrit dictionary. </p>
            <p>Future Work</p>
            <p>In the future we plan on integrating the content of the Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> into our dictionary, creating a unified digital Sanskrit dictionary. Furthermore, additional Sanskrit publications could be reviewed and integrated into the NWS as required, creating an even more comprehensive lexicographic Sanskrit resource. The possibility to realize such a project has been established with the development of this working environment. 
            </p>
            <p>Funding</p>
            <p>This research was funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) as part of the Kumulatives Nachtragswörterbuch des Sanskrit project, a cooperation between the Martin-Luther-University Halle and the Philipps-University Marburg under the direction of Prof. Dr. Walter Slaje, Prof. Dr. Jürgen Hanneder, Prof. Dr. Paul Molitor, and Dr. Jörg Ritter. </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. All literary references and citations are being checked for consistency. We’re currently not using a routine to check the whole entry for typing errors.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. Text Encoding Initiative. P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, Section 9–Dictionaries.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Apte, V. S.</hi> (1957–1959). The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Prasad Prakashan, Poona.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Böhtlingk, O.</hi> (1855–1875). Sanskrit-Wörterbuch. Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften, St. Petersburg. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Böhtlingk, O.</hi> (1879–1889). Sanskrit-Wörterbuch in kürzerer Fassung. Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften, St. Petersburg. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grassmann, H.</hi> (1873). Wörterbuch zum Rig-Veda. Brockhaus, Leipzig. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kapp, D. B. and Malten, T.</hi> (1997). Report on the Cologne Sanskrit Dictionary Project. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">10th International Sanskrit Conference</hi>, Bangalore, India.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Monier-Williams, M. </hi>(1899). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European languages.</hi> Clarendon Press, Oxford. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, R.</hi> (1928). Nachträge zum Sanskrit-Wörterbuch In Kürzerer Fassung von Otto Böhtlingk. Harrassowitz Verlag, Leipzig.
                    </bibl>
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                        <forename>Susan</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Guelph, Canada; University of Alberta, Canada; Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory</affiliation>
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                        <surname>Antoniuk</surname>
                        <forename>Jeffery</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Alberta, Canada; Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory</affiliation>
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                        <surname>Brundin</surname>
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                        <surname>Simpson</surname>
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                    <affiliation>University of Alberta, Canada; INKE Research Group</affiliation>
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                        <surname>Ilovan</surname>
                        <forename>Mihaela</forename>
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            <p>A lack of interoperability between digital resources for humanists, whether big or small, plagues our research community. The challenge of the ‘Million Books’ problem identified by Gregory Crane (2006) and the opportunity of examining aspects of humanistic phenomena that appear, as Alan Liu (2012) puts it, ‘only at scale’ are lures that drive the digital humanities community forward in developing new tools and exploring emerging modes of enquiry for large datasets. Yet only a small handful of well-funded projects are actually in a position to investigate such phenomena due in part to restrictions on the use of commercially held large data collections but at least as much on the lack of interoperability and barriers to aggregation between open collections, many of which originate in the digital humanities community. This ‘multivarious isolation’, identified by Rebecca Frost Davis and Quinn Dombrowski (2011), stems from a number of intellectual, institutional, and social factors, but a 2011 Research Information Network report found that the biggest obstacle for researchers in our century was incompatible data structures and disparate and scattered data sources. If digital research in the humanities is to be significantly advanced, this problem must be addressed.</p>
            <p>This paper describes the approach to this challenge taken by the Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory (CWRC) (Brown, 2011), a virtual research environment hosting and supporting a range of projects, including ‘seed’ projects with existing data in a wide range of formats. CWRC aims to bridge the gap between the digital humanities community and humanities scholars who lack an understanding of best practices and standards, as well as bridging diverse datasets (Brown, 2011; 2013). We describe the approach to interoperability built into the Collaboratory’s systems and argue that such an approach based on linked data principles supports scaling up beyond the Collaboratory to form a basis for interoperability across disparate and distributed projects with overlapping content. The resulting interoperability is in some senses quite rudimentary, but at the same time constitutes a step towards a more robust ecology of interlinked resources.</p>
            <p>Core to the approach of developing the Collaboratory such that it facilitates interoperability is the entity-based nature of the architecture, as expressed in entity records, entity schemas, and an entity management system. The approach is similar to that employed by the Humanities Networked Infrastructure (HuNI) project, which brings together a large collection of diverse datasets from various Australian providers (Burrows, 2013), and that of the New Zealand Electronic Text Collection’s Entity Authority Tool Set (EATS) (Norrish, 2007). Entity records in the context of CWRC have two purposes: to enable Semantic Web–type linked open data processes and to facilitate traditional authority control and information retrieval in a digital repository. In order to achieve these two purposes, CWRC entities are structured as elemental, atomic units of information, and, specifically, they are modeled as proper noun–named entities in four classes: persons, organizations, places, and titles (works). The core characteristics that are common to all four types of entities are an indication of the preferred or authoritative name, variant names if any, and important administrative data such as record creation date, contributing project or projects, and an access condition statement. Entity schemas are used to model and govern the creation of entity records to ensure consistency among the entities; this is achieved by defining required elements and attributes, content types associated with each element, and the nesting hierarchy of elements. The CWRC XML entity schemas consist of a custom CWRC omnibus entity schema that models the person, organization, and place entities, and the Library of Congress’ MODS schema, which models the title entities; the omnibus entity schema was influenced by concepts from several existing schema standards, including EAC-CPF, FOAF, GeoNames, ISAAR (CPF), MADS, and MODS. Following the codified approach of authority records, the CWRC entity types parallel the Library of Congress person, organization, geographic name, and title name authority files, and the entities’ core structure contains the standard three components of an authority record: authoritative form, cross-variant forms, and administrative notes. These entity records provide the basis for a linked data entity within the Resource Description Framework (RDF), with a dereferencable uniform resource identifier (URI) and associated RDF triples that translate the information about that entity from the schema, as well as some of the information about that entity from elsewhere in CWRC, into an open Semantic Web dataset for use within and beyond the Collaboratory (Simpson and Brown, 2013).</p>
            <p>With the exception of the use of MODS records for bibliographical entities, the CWRC entity schema is deliberately minimalist, more so than the EATS data model for instance, serving as an authority list that brokers between different data formats used by various projects about entities, rather than requiring all projects within CWRC to adopt the same standard for recording detailed information about those entities. For instance, the Lesbian and Gay Liberation in Canada (2015) project led by Constance Crompton and Michelle Schwartz is recording prosopographical information using the Text Encoding Initiative, while the Orlando Project (2015) has a rich bespoke XML schema for encoding prosopographical information, while bibliographical or editing projects may use MODS or METS or EAD. The CWRC approach allows the same person as described by documents using a range of schemas to refer to a common, minimalist entity, while permitting divergent representational practices and individual project autonomy. It also allows us to preserve and make somewhat interoperable existing digital datasets that we can only partially remediate, and to bring together XML materials with materials in other media. The CWRC entities thus facilitate the collocation of a wide range of resources that reference that entity. Rather than acting as receptacles for prosopographical information, they act as authority records across CWRC, but connect using linked data principles to other authoritative and often more detailed records from individual projects, facilitating information retrieval and aggregation. The approach facilitates linking into the Semantic Web more generally; indeed CWRC entities beyond those harvested from our seed projects will only be minted if users cannot locate a linked data identifier for that entity amongst trusted linked data entity collections such as the Virtual International Authority File.</p>
            <p>This pragmatic approach to entities is complementary with, and indeed promotes, a number of existing standards, bridging datasets through a set of linked data that will support interoperability and leverage that bridging into conformity with Semantic Web standards. As Joris van Zundert has argued, the idea of uniformly behaving humanist scholars is a pipe dream; furthermore, he argues, ‘any meaningful humanities research . . . cannot be entirely governed by standards’ (2012, 173). CWRC’s strategy focuses on building interoperability from how scholars with a range of technological expertise and different degrees of willingness to engage with complex standards actually work, not how we think they should work in the best of all possible worlds.</p>
            <p>The paper will demonstrate the user experience that stitches together the entity architecture with other components of the Collaboratory to enable users to incorporate relatively technical tasks into their workflow. The entity management system provides a user interface to create and edit entities, as well as mechanisms to perform entity extraction on source documents and global merging of these extracted entities into the CWRC common pool of core named entities. The centerpiece of CWRC’s interoperability strategy is a web-based XML and RDF Editor called CWRC-Writer (Brown et al., 2014; Rockwell et al., 2012). It aims to integrate the activities of correcting, writing, formatting, and editing a text with managing references to entities so as to minimize the additional work required for disambiguation, merging, and management. Tagging an entity within CWRC-Writer creates XML tags such as persname, orgname, or title, as well as equivalent RDF annotations employing the Open Annotation data model (2013), a practice that makes the project importantly about links rather than simple tagging (Hendler, 2011). Having the user provide the entity linking up front means that the act is informed by their knowledge of the material, and integrating it into the writing interface minimizes the additional time required to enhance the information. The immediate payoff to users will be the creation of links between their materials. This section of the paper demonstrates how entity tagging works within CWRC-Writer and shows our progress towards the cross-project aggregation of materials that entity tagging will support.</p>
            <p>To further support the essential role of entities within the Collaboratory, we are exploring implementing, where possible, supplementary technologies and practices. These include support for the construction of a semiautomated named entity recognition (NER) tool (Barbosa et al., 2012), developing Semantic Web capability through ontology development, the exposure of data through a publicly accessibly triplestore (Brown and Simpson, 2013), and pursuing synergies with other linked data projects in the humanities. </p>
            <p>The Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory employs entities to showcase the benefits of interoperability while providing immediate benefits to researchers. Our conclusion will touch on the ways in which this approach provides a foundation on which to build more advanced services in the future.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Barbosa, D., Brown, S., Home, M. and Moroz, A.</hi> (2012). On Semi-Automatic Tools for Annotating Scholarly Material. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Canadian Society for Digital Humanities Annual Meeting at the Congress of the Humanities and Social Sciences</hi>, University of Waterloo / Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario, 26 May–2 June 2012.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brown, S.</hi> (2011). Don’t Mind the Gap: Evolving Digital Modes of Scholarly Production across the Digital-Humanities Divide. In Coleman, D. and Kamboureli S. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Retooling the Humanities: The Culture of Research in Canadian Universities</hi>. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, pp. 203–31, http://hdl.handle.net/10402/era.25382 (open access preprint version).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brown, S.</hi> (2014). Scaling Up Collaboration Online: Towards a Collaboratory for Research on Canadian Writing. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Canadian Studies,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">48</hi>: 233–51.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brown, S., Brundin, M., Chartrand, J., Knechtel, R., MacDonald, A., Rockwell, G. and Sellmer, M.</hi> (2014). The CWRC-Writer Bridge: From Coder to Writer, XML to RDF, DH to Mainstream. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Conference Abstracts 2014</hi>, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland, 7–12 July 2014, http://dharchive.org/paper/DH2014/Poster-782.xml.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brown, S., and Simpson, J.</hi> (2013). The Curious Identity of Michael Field and Its Implications for Humanities Research with the Semantic Web. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE, Big Data 2013, Humanities and Big Data Workshop</hi>, Santa Clara, CA, 6–9 October 2013, pp. 77–85, doi:10.1109/BigData.2013.6691674.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, T.</hi> (2013). A Data-Centred ‘Virtual Laboratory’ for the Humanities: Designing the Australian Humanities Networked Infrastructure (HuNI) Service. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Crane, G.</hi> (2006). What Do You Do with a Million Books? 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Davis, R. F. and Dombrowski, Q.</hi> (2011). Divided and Conquered: How Multivarious Isolation Is Suppressing Digital Humanities Scholarship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">National Institute for Technology in Liberal Education</hi>, http://www.nitle.org/live/files/36-divided-and-conquered.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hendler, J.</hi> (2011). Why the Semantic Web Will Never Work. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">8th Extended Semantic Web Conference (ESWC)</hi>, Heraklion, Crete, 29–30 May 2011, http://videolectures.net/eswc2011_hendler_work/.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lesbian and Gay Liberation in Canada.</hi> (2015). http://www.lglc.ca/.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Liu, A.</hi> (2012). The State of the Digital Humanities: A Report and a Critique. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Arts and Humanities in Higher Education,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">11(</hi>1): 1–34, http://ahh.sagepub.com/content/early/2011/11/30/1474022211427364.full.pdf+html.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Norrish, J.</hi> (2007). EATS: An Entity Authority Tool Set. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Australia New Zealand Digital Encyclopedias Group Meeting</hi>, Sydney, 7–8 December 2007.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Open Annotation Data Model. </hi>(2013). http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Orlando Project.</hi> (2015). http://www.ualberta.ca/orlando.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Research Information Network.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reinventing Research? Information Practices in the Humanities.</hi> Research Information Network Report, April, http://www.rin.ac.uk/system/files/attachments/Humanities_Case_Studies_for_screen_2_0.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rockwell, G., Brown, S., Chartrand, J., and Hesemeier, S.</hi> (2012). CWRC-Writer: An In-Browser XML Editor. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Conference Abstracts 2012</hi>, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany, 16–22 July 2012,
                        <ref target=""http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/cwrc-writer-an-in-browser-xml-editor/""> http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/cwrc-writer-an-in-browser-xml-editor/</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Simpson, J. and Brown, S.</hi> (2013). From XML to RDF in the Orlando Project. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Conference on Culture and Computing 2013</hi>, Kyoto, Japan, 16–18 September 2013, pp. 194–95, doi:10.1109/CultureComputing.2013.61.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zundert, J. van.</hi> (2012). ‘If You Build It, Will We Come?’ Large-Scale Digital Infrastructures as a Dead End for Digital Humanities.’ 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Historical Social Research–Historische Sozialforschung,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>(3): 165–86.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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                        <forename>Elisabeth</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Universität Leipzig, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>elisabeth.burr@uni-leipzig.de</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Potapenko</surname>
                        <forename>Elena</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Universität Leipzig, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>potep@rz.uni-leipzig.de</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Kovacs</surname>
                        <forename>Pascal</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Universität Leipzig, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>pascal_kovacs@yahoo.de</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Concepción Durán</surname>
                        <forename>Arámis</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Universität Leipzig, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>acduran@uni-leipzig.de</email>
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                <head>From Leipzig into the Romania</head>
                <p>In our poster we present a digital working environment that has been built at Leipzig University in the framework of a project on the Neogrammarians and their influence on Romance linguistics. </p>
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Project</hi>
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                    <p>The Neogrammarians were a group of young linguists, mostly based at the University of Leipzig, who in the late 19th century proclaimed the creation of a new school. This so-called 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Leipziger Schule</hi> (Leipzig School) had a significant impact on linguistics in general. As their so-called Manifesto gave rise to the ‘Lautgesetzestreit’ (debate about the laws of sound change), which divided linguists all over Europe, the Manifesto together with texts written by its critics and defenders were chosen for digitalisation and annotation. At the same time, documents that would allow the positioning of the Neogrammarians were to be collected and integrated into the project. Scholarly works about the Neogrammarians and their importance for Romance linguistics were to be exploited with respect to questions like ‘Who are the members of the Leipzig School?’, ‘What is seen as their contribution to Romance linguistics?’, ‘Which Romance linguists were influenced by this school?’ etc. As the results of the project were to be presented to the public as soon as they became available, a website was to be set up.
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                    <head>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">(Digital) Pedagogy as Such Was Not Enough</hi>
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                    <p>The project started in 2007. During the following semesters we had to recognise, however, that text encoding and data modelling as such would not allow our students to understand the rationale behind such an activity (see also Rehbein and Fritze, 2012, 48). Furthermore, it became clear that environments like Moodle would not allow our students to gain experiences of what work on one and the same project over years really means and how their individual contribution could form an organic whole with the contributions of others. </p>
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Web-Portal—A Collaborative Environment </hi>
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                    <p>The situation changed when we could actually start to think about building an environment that would allow us to integrate research, teaching, and learning as well as to present the results to the public. The most central aspect of this environment is TEI-Markup, because it integrates our sources with the information handling of the Portal. </p>
                    <p>In our poster we will not only explain the four levels where TEI-Markup plays an important role—texts, ontology, citations, and sources—but also demonstrate the administration of the sources (Figure 1):</p>
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                    <p rend=""Bildunterschrift"">Figure 1. Administration of sources.</p>
                    <p>the filtering of sources for relevant information and its extraction (Figure 2): </p>
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                    <p rend=""Textkörper_Einzug"">Figure 2. Administration of extracts from sources.</p>
                    <p>and the ordering of such extracted information into knowledge domains and the setting up of relations between them (Figure 3):</p>
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                    <p rend=""Textkörper_Einzug"">Figure 3. Visualisation of knowledge domains and their relations.</p>
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                <head>Conclusion and Future Perspectives</head>
                <p>As this environment not only provides our students with the possibility </p>
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                    <item> • To mark up texts collaboratively according to the TEI guidelines, </item>
                    <item> • To use this markup to link these texts with the information handling of the Web-Portal, </item>
                    <item> • To order the information extracted from different types of sources into knowledge domains, and</item>
                    <item> • To model the knowledge which is thus being created with respect to the research question, </item>
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                <p>but also to exploit the markup and the information gathered for the writing of new TEI-compliant scholarly texts and to publish them in the Web-Portal (Figure 4):</p>
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                <p rend=""Textkörper_Einzug"">Figure 4. Scholarly texts written by the students.</p>
                <p>we feel confident that this environment shows a possible way of how learning to do digital humanities and doing digital humanities research can be integrated, and thus the ‘antagonistic distinction between teaching and research’ that Hirsch talks about (2012, 5), can be overcome.</p>
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                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliographie_Absatz"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brier, S.</hi> (2012). Where’s the Pedagogy? The Role of Teaching and Learning in the Digital Humanities. In Gold, M. K. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 390–401.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliographie_Absatz"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hirsch, B. D.</hi> (2012). &lt;/Parentheses&gt;: Digital Humanities and the Place of Pedagogy. In Hirsch, B. D. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics.</hi> Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, pp. 3–30.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliographie_Absatz"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mahony, S. and Pierazzo, E.</hi> (2012). Teaching Skills or Teaching Methodology? In Hirsch, B. D. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics.</hi> Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, pp. 215–25.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliographie_Absatz"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rehbein, M. and Fritze, Ch.</hi> (2012). Hands-On Teaching Digital Humanities: A Didactic Analysis of a Summer School Course on Digital Editing. In Hirsch, B. D. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics.</hi> Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, pp. 47–78. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliographie_Absatz"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rockwell, G. and Sinclair, S.</hi> (2012). Acculturation and the Digital Humanities Community. In Hirsch, B. D. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics.</hi> Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, pp. 177–205.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliographie_Absatz"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Warwick, C., Terras, M. and Nyhan, J.</hi> (eds). (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities in Practice.</hi> Facet Publishing, London.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                        <surname>Bornet</surname>
                        <forename>Cyril</forename>
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                    <affiliation>DHLAB, EPFL, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>cyril.bornet@epfl.ch</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Kaplan</surname>
                        <forename>Frédéric</forename>
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                    <affiliation>DHLAB, EPFL, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>frederic.kaplan@epfl.ch</email>
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                    <term>simulation humaine</term>
                    <term>daniel de roulet</term>
                    <term>J48</term>
                    <term>reading</term>
                    <term>analytics</term>
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            <p>Not all readers finish the books they start reading. Electronic media allow us to measure more precisely how this ‘drop-off’ effect unfolds as readers are reading a book. A curve showing how many people have read each chapter of a book is likely to be progressively going down: the more we advance in the book, the less readers got to this point. This article is an initial study about the shape of these ‘drop-off’ reading curves. </p>
            <p>The data we analyse were gathered from readers of a series of novels of different length written by one single author. During the last twenty years, Daniel de Roulet wrote a nine-book saga about the interleaving stories of two families over a time range of seventy years. In 2014, for the publication of the concluding tenth book, he decided to release an alternative retelling that constituted of a reordering of all the 297 chapters, forming a coherent saga titled 
                <hi rend=""italic"">La simulation humaine</hi>. This new saga was made available free of charge to the general public in the form of a website
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> and a mobile iOS
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> and Android
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> app. It has been composed in a way that is readable from one end to the other. This creates the possibility of reading nine chosen subsequences, each one making for a self-standing story. Each possible reading path is characterised by its number of chapters and is also given a title, as shown in Table 1 below.
            </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Story title</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Number of chapters</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Une fleur de cerisier</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Sur les barricades</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Les liquidateurs</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Air Force One</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">4</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Fukushima au début</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">5</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Le pucelage d’un Helvète</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">10</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">L’ingénieur et la fillette</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">30</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Fissions</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">33</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">La réalité, mais digitale</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">38</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">La simulation totale</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">174 to 297</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Table 1. Stories of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">La simulation humaine</hi> and their respective sizes, in chapters.
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.ygkneqnob28w""/>Methodology
            </p>
            <p>Formally, the collected data are very similar to state-of-the-art website analytics. Every time a chapter is loaded, it is possible to know the precise date, time, and type of device used. Additionally, each reader is uniquely identified using a browser session and a cookie on the website, or a device identifier on the mobile app. </p>
            <p>Over a period of eight months, a total of 7,000 chapters were read, out of which approximately half were not relatable to regular readers (be it search-engine queries or users refusing to be tracked). For this study, we thus kept the subset of data where at least two chapters were related to the same person. We also left out the paths presenting clear test patterns (for instance, paths consisting of multiple repetitions of the same chapters) or no overall significant reading time. In all, we considered 310 unique reading paths.</p>
            <p>Each path is represented by a chain of tuples (
                <hi rend=""italic"">c</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">,t</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>), with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">c</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi> being a chapter and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi> the time the reader spent on it (that is, the interval in seconds between start of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">c</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">c</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>
                <hi rend=""subscript"">+1</hi>). Given the average reading speed of an educated adult (Kershner et al., 1964) and the relative homogeneity of our corpus, we marked transitions as ‘skipped’ when the said time interval was less than 60 seconds, thus considering the chapter as not having been read. We then aggregated the total number of read chapters and plotted them according to their respective stories’ orderings, resulting in one 
                <hi rend=""italic"">reading curve</hi> for each story.
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.bvpr9wn1dld""/>Characterisation of Reading Curves
            </p>
            <p>All reading curves are expected to start with a strong drop-off effect, corresponding to the considerable number of readers who merely peek at the start of the story, but don’t finish it. Of course, this effect is especially noticeable in the context of digital and mobile content (‘Localytics Indexes’, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Q3 </hi>2014).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi>
            </p>
            <p> The classic ‘drop-off’ reading curve is characterised by an exponential drop-off as illustrated in Figure 1. In our samples, this phase was shown to typically last for the first three or four chapters of the story. Then the rate of the monotonic drop-off can vary depending on the attractiveness of the texts. Figure 1 shows two examples, one with a very high drop-off rate and another one where this effect is present but less important. Notice that not only is the drop lower in the second case but the effect also wears off earlier.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""10.16cm"" height=""8.290277777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Two examples of exponential drop-offs with different rates/slopes.</p>
            <p>More interestingly, some ‘drop-off reading curves’ are also characterised by a plateau that occurs typically once the first chapters are passed. This could be because readers who reach a certain point in the book are convinced to go on till the end. Figure 2 shows an example of this plateau characterised by an almost null drop-off rate once chapter 6 is passed. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""14.162263888888889cm"" height=""8.674805555555556cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. An example of a curve with a plateau in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">La réalité, mais digitale</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>In some cases, the drop-off reading curves show unexpected gaps in the reading plateau. This case could typically be attributed to readers who skipped one or several chapters (hence resulting in low reading times that were filtered out of our data), but then resumed reading later on in the same story. This ‘skimming gap’ could thus be interpreted as a mild sign of boredom, not sufficiently strong to stop the reading but significant enough to speed it up. This phenomenon can be seen in Figures 2 and 3.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""14.569722222222222cm"" height=""10.662708333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. A skimming gap in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">L’ingénieur et la fillette</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>Moreover, some other stories never achieve the plateau stage and continuously lose readers as the chapters go by. In the example shown in Figure 4, this decrease also features a couple of stop points, which could possibly be interesting starting points to investigate why the subsequent drops occur. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""13.299722222222222cm"" height=""8.052152777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. Continuously decreasing readers in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Fissions</hi>. 
            </p>
            <p>From Reading Curves to Chapters Classification</p>
            <p>These simple examples show the potential richness of drop-off curves among the various reading analytics curves. Two reading regimes can be identified from this initial study: the immersion mode, characterised by very small drop-off rate, and the critical mode, characterised by dropping and skimming behavior.</p>
            <p> We segmented the chapters of our corpus using these two categories and trained a machine learning classifier to try to identify key features to predict whether a chapter is immersive or leading to a potential drop-off. We decided to use an implementation of a J48 pruned tree, given the generally good scores obtained by this method in computational linguistics (Pedersen, 2001; Youn and McLeod, 2007) and general purposes classification (Omid, 2011). A visual representation of the resulting tree is shown in Figure 5.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""10.567458333333333cm"" height=""5.822597222222222cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 5. J48 tree predictor for critical and immersion reading modes.</p>
            <p>This structure yields a 95% correct classification in a 10-fold cross validation on our dataset, which makes it overall a pretty accurate predictor. It basically confirms our empirical observations on the general shape of the reading curves, putting the start of the immersion phase latest after the fourth chapter. Interestingly, it also hints that using shorter chapters in the critical phase could hasten the immersion process. Furthermore, this result shows that the other features characterising the chapters—such as their position in the saga, length in words, or presence of main characters—had no significant influence on the drop-off rate prediction. </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.3xat71iezjwi""/>Conclusion and Further Works
            </p>
            <p>We are aware that these preliminary results may be highly linked to the studied corpus and not generalizable. However, the concepts and tools that we proposed in this article could well be extended or adapted to look at more general reading patterns, with or without the active participation of the authors of the texts to be analysed.</p>
            <p> As more people read 
                <hi rend=""italic"">La simulation humaine</hi>, we expect to collect more analytics and be able to refine our results, as well as confirm or falsify our hypotheses with deeper quantitative analyses. Additionally, we’ll aim to propose tools that may detect critical reading phases, suggest improvements to the author, and predict drop-offs for new stories.
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.c3q20rj8tvh""/>Acknowledgements
            </p>
            <p>This research was made possible by a very precious and close collaboration with Daniel de Roulet, Swiss architect, computer scientist, and author. This research is supported by the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Fondation Jan Michalski pour l’Ecriture et la Littérature</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.hng21f96kaze""/>Notes
            </p>
            <p>1. http://www.simulationhumaine.com.</p>
            <p>2. http://appstore.com/la-simulation-humaine.</p>
            <p>3. http://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.simulationhumaine.app.</p>
            <p>4. http://www.localytics.com/resources/app-indexes-q3-2014/.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Alter, A.</hi> (2012). Your E-Book Is Reading You. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Wall Street Journal</hi>, 19 July, http://online.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304870304577490950051438304.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kershner, A. M.</hi> (1964). Speed of Reading in an Adult Population under Differential Conditions. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Applied Psychology,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">48</hi>: 25–28, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0047157.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Omid, M.</hi> (2011). Design of an Expert System for Sorting Pistachio Nuts through Decision Tree and Fuzzy Logic Classifier. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Expert Systems with Applications,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">38</hi>: 4339–47, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2010.09.103.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pedersen, T.</hi> (2001). A Decision Tree of Bigrams Is an Accurate Predictor of Word Sense. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Association for Computational Linguistics</hi>, pp. 1–8, http://dx.doi.org/10.3115/1073336.1073347.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reading, Literacy &amp; Education Statistics.</hi> (n.d.). http://www.readfaster.com/education_stats.asp#literacystatistics.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Roulet, D.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ecrire la mondialité: Essays.</hi> Baconnière, Genève.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Youn, S. and McLeod, D.</hi> (2007). A Comparative Study for Email Classification. In Elleithy, E. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Advances and Innovations in Systems: Computing Sciences and Software Engineering</hi>. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 387–91, http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4020-6264-3_67.
                    </bibl>
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                        <forename>Ning</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Beihang University, China, People's Republic of</affiliation>
                    <email>wangningmaya@126.com</email>
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                        <surname>Hu</surname>
                        <forename>Jiajia</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Beijing Normal University, China, People's Republic of</affiliation>
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            <p>Hanzi (Chinese writing) is well known as a representative of an ideographic system. That means each Chinese character was formed according to a word’s meaning, which is called the character’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">original meaning</hi>. Hanzi is also known as the oldest writing system still in daily use. The earliest confirmed evidence of the Chinese script yet discovered is inscriptions on oracle bones from the Shang dynasty (1600–1100 BC). During the long course of development, the shapes and styles of Chinese characters have undergone great changes, which can be divided into five main stages: oracle bone inscription, bronze inscription, small seal script, clerical script, and regular script. Among them, the variation between small seal script and clerical script was the greatest, which is called the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">clerical change</hi>. Those scripts before the clerical change classified as ancient scripts, while scripts after the clerical change are classified as modern scripts. The clerical change is so great that people today, without teaching, cannot recognize ancient scripts or understand why a Chinese character was formed in that fashion. 
            </p>
            <p>Figure 1 shows the evolution process of the Chinese character ‘
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""0.3351388888888889cm"" height=""0.4074583333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>’. The ‘
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""0.35983333333333334cm"" height=""0.5750277777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>’ is the oracle bone inscription of ‘
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""0.3351388888888889cm"" height=""0.4074583333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>’. It is composed of two ‘
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""0.2875138888888889cm"" height=""0.5997222222222223cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>’ which looks like as well as means ‘right hand’. So ‘
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""0.35983333333333334cm"" height=""0.5750277777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>’ means ‘friendship’ clearly by ‘hand in hand’. However, it is difficult today for people to explain why ‘
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""0.3351388888888889cm"" height=""0.4074583333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>’ means ‘friendship’ just through its shape in regular script.
            </p>
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                <pb/>
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                <graphic n=""1007"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""6.4911111111111115cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.jpg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. The evolution of Chinese character ‘
                <graphic n=""1008"" width=""0.3351388888888889cm"" height=""0.4074583333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>’.
            </p>
            <p>The traditional method of teaching a Chinese character’s original meaning and its evolution is to list all the shapes of this character in different stages, as Figure 1 shows. It is today, thanks to modern multimedia and virtual technology, possible to show the process vividly, as a video of Chinese character ‘
                <graphic n=""1009"" width=""0.3351388888888889cm"" height=""0.4321527777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>’ shows.
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""10010"" width=""14.109347222222222cm"" height=""17.423694444444443cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>The evolution of Chinese character ‘
                <graphic n=""10011"" width=""0.3351388888888889cm"" height=""0.4321527777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>’; see http://pan.baidu.com/s/1c0dCHBM.
            </p>
            <p>As mentioned before, the clerical change, the variation between seal script and clerical script, is complicated. So a teaching system is proposed to illustrate the process of clerical change by using computer morphing technology. Based on ‘Structure Study of Chinese Characters’, Chinese characters are made up of components, and a component comprises strokes (see Figure 2). As a result, the change between the different styles of a Chinese character can be analyzed by the change of strokes. Based on the correspondence between strokes of a character in different styles (see Figure 3), a morphing process can be generated automatically by computer algorithms, like a video for the Chinese character ‘
                <graphic n=""10012"" width=""0.3351388888888889cm"" height=""0.4074583333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>’ shows. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""10013"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""6.4911111111111115cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.jpg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. The structure of the Chinese character ‘
                <graphic n=""10014"" width=""0.3351388888888889cm"" height=""0.4074583333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>’.
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""10015"" width=""14.605cm"" height=""7.055555555555555cm"" url=""Pictures/image7.jpg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. The correspondence between strokes of ‘
                <graphic n=""10016"" width=""0.3351388888888889cm"" height=""0.4074583333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>’ in different styles.
            </p>
            <p>Same color means correspondence.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""10017"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""5.452180555555556cm"" url=""Pictures/image8.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>The clerical change of Chinese character ‘
                <graphic n=""10018"" width=""0.3351388888888889cm"" height=""0.4074583333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>’; see http://pan.baidu.com/s/1kTonLbD.
            </p>
            <p>Hanzi has a long history and rich content. Learning Chinese characters may be very difficult for native students as well as foreign students. What we want to do is to make the learning process more interesting and understandable by using modern multimedia and virtual technology. This multidisciplinary project required the use of various computer technologies and abundant knowledge of Chinese characters and culture. The initial goal of this project is the animation of top 500 most commonly used Chinese characters, to show their original meanings and evolution.</p>
            <p>This paper is supported by National Key Technology Research &amp; Development Program of China No.2014BAK18B01).</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sun, L., Liu, M., Hu, J. and Liang, X. </hi>(2014). A Chinese Character Teaching System Using Structure Theory and Morphing Technology. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PLoS ONE,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(6): e100987.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wang, X., Liang, X., Hu, J. and Sun, L.</hi> (2012). Stroke-Based Chinese Character Completion. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">8th International Conference on Signal Image Technology and Internet-Based Systems 2012. </hi>SITIS 2012r: 281–88. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Yu, B., Liang, X., Hu, J. and Sun, L. </hi>(2012). Statistical Structure Modeling and Optimal Combined Strategy-Based Chinese Components Recognition. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">8th International Conference on Signal Image Technology and Internet-Based Systems 2012. </hi>SITIS 2012r: 238–45.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Yue, P., Liang, X., Hu, J. and Guo, Ch. </hi>(2012). Knowledge-Based 2D Morphing System for Chinese Characters of Different Styles. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">25th Annual Conference on Computer Animation and Social Agents</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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"2180","16","Applying a Combined Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis Method to Evaluate the Translatorship of the Fourth Division of the Chinese Translation of the Dīrgha-āgama","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>Applying a Combined Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis Method to Evaluate the Translatorship of the Fourth Division of the Chinese Translation of the Dīrgha-āgama</title>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hung</surname>
                        <forename>Jen-Jou</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Dharma Drum Institute of Liberal Arts, Taiwan, Republic of China</affiliation>
                    <email>jenjou.hung@gmail.com</email>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>Translatorship attribution</term>
                    <term>Chinese Translation of the Dīrgha-āgama (Taishō 1)</term>
                    <term>Variable Length N-gram</term>
                    <term>Principle Component Analysis</term>
                    <term>Zhu Fonian</term>
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                    <term>stylistics and stylometry</term>
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            <p>The issue of doubtful and wrong attributions of the great number of Chinese canonical texts that were translated from Indian originals during the Eastern Han dynasty (25–211 C.E.) to the Tang dynasty (618–907 C.E.) has been much debated in the field of Sinological and Buddhist studies over the last few decades, e.g., by Zürcher (1991), Harrison (1993), and Nattier (2008). Scholarship has increasingly become aware of the fact that the authorship—or, more precisely, translatorship—of the early Chinese translations recorded in the canonical catalogues and in a number of historical records is quite often unreliable.</p>
            <p>Although not strictly speaking a case of suspicious translatorship attribution, the content of the fourth division of the Chinese translation of the Indian Dīrgha-āgama (長阿含經, Taishō 1) appears at odds with the rest of the Dīrgha-āgama collection, and scholars of early Buddhist texts have reasons to suspect that this section may have been attached to the rest of the collection at a later stage. The Dīrgha-āgama is a collection of early Buddhist discourses, preserved, in addition to the Chinese version transmitted by the Dharmaguptaka school, in Pali and Sanskrit. The Pali and Sanskrit recensions were transmitted, respectively, by the Tharavāda and (Mūla-)Sarvāstivāda schools. In terms of content, Taishō 1 closely corresponds to its Pali counterpart, the Dīgha-nikāya, and the extant Sanskrit version. There is, however, a major structural discrepancy between the Chinese translation and its parallels, in that the Chinese translation has four main divisions, instead of three. The fourth division is actually a single discourse, DĀ 30 (世記經), in five fascicles, which in terms of content is also out of place in a collection of early Buddhist discourses. In view of the activity record of the main translator of Taishō 1, Zhu Fonian (竺佛念) (Nattier, 2010; Anālayo, 2013; Hung, 2013), it seemed worthy investigating whether the redactor responsible for the addition was Zhu Fonian.</p>
            <p>To investigate this hypothesis, we apply quantitative translatorship analysis methods to analyze the text. The main idea of methods based on quantitative approaches to translatorship analysis is to check whether different texts have similar (translation) style, i.e., similar vocabulary usage pattern(s). After quantitative analysis, we study the translation phrases that have been identified by the algorithm in detail. This qualitative form of analysis is necessary to seek the confirmation of our judgment based on the quantitative testing result. Thus our analysis combines quantitative testing with a qualitative approach to the data.</p>
            <p>Research Method</p>
            <p>The digital text of Taishō 1 is taken from the CBETA 2011 corpus.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> The Taishō 1 collection consists of 22 fascicles and contains 30 different discourses. The discourse in question is the last discourse, DĀ 30, which, as mentioned above, consists of the last five fascicles of Taishō 1. For our analysis, we remove from the available digital text the entire markup, front and back matter, as well as all the headings added by the editors. 
            </p>
            <p>In order to extract significant and meaningful units, which are then used as stylometric measurements, the Chinese sentences are first tokenized with Variable Length N-gram algorithm (abbreviated as VL-ngram, cf. Hung et al., 2009). VL-ngram is an enhanced form of traditional n-gram extraction algorithms. In the VL-ngram algorithm, instead of using fixed-length grams, we first generate all possible grams from our texts—i.e., all bi-grams, tri-grams, quad-grams, and so on—up to the longest possible n-gram. Then we remove all non-significant grams from the features set. To do so, we define an arbitrary number of documents, referred to as the ‘document threshold’, within which a gram must appear as a threshold to merit inclusion in the features set. With the proper setting of the document threshold, we are able to avoid the problem of selecting too many content-related words for inclusion in the features set, which would bias the analysis toward content analysis rather style analysis.</p>
            <p>Afterward, we use Principle Component Analysis (PCA) on the extracted profiles. The PCA is a statistical procedure that transforms a number of possibly correlated variables into a smaller number of uncorrelated variables called 
                <hi rend=""italic"">principal components</hi>. We then plot the values of first and second components in 2-d charts and check whether the translation style of the disputed part of, for example, a scriptural collection or a single work is consistent with that of other parts in the same collection or work. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Analysis Results</hi>
            </p>
            <p>In the discussion below, ‘F17’ refers to the first 17 fascicles of T 1, and ‘L5’ to the last five fascicles of T 1. Figure 1 shows the analysis result with D, the document threshold, set to 4. In Figure 1, all of the five points in L5 lie in the fourth quadrant. In contrast, the points in the F17 group are spread across the remaining three quadrants. This result shows that the five fascicles in L5 have a similar style but behave very differently compared to the fascicles in the F17 group. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""12.70176388888889cm"" height=""8.89cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>Figure 1. PCA result of T 1 with D = 4.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""12.70176388888889cm"" height=""8.89cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the PCA result with D set to 6 and 8, respectively. The results of these two experiments are very similar to those shown in Figure 1.</p>
            <p>Figure 2. PCA Result of T 1 with D = 6.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""12.70176388888889cm"" height=""8.89cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. PCA Result of T 1 with D = 8.</p>
            <p>In the subsequent analyses, we raise the value of D to 10, 12, and 14 and perform PCA analysis again. The following Figures 4–6 illustrate the result of PCA analyses with three different settings of D.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""12.70176388888889cm"" height=""8.89cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. PCA Result of T 1 with D = 10.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""12.70176388888889cm"" height=""8.89cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 5. PCA Result of T 1 with D = 12.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""12.70176388888889cm"" height=""8.89cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 6. PCA Result of T 1 with D = 14.</p>
            <p>To our surprise, from Figures 4, 5, and 6, we notice that the difference between L5 and F17 starts to decrease. When D is set to 14, all points in L5 are enclosed by points in the F17 group, and there is no longer a clear boundary between the L5 and F17 groups. In fact, the results show that the L5 and F17 groups share a very similar pattern of usage of translation phrases, as if they choose the translation phrases from the same pool.</p>
            <p>Because the five fascicles of DĀ 30 belong to the same narrative and are very similar in content, part of our analysis is biased by the high content similarity of DĀ 30. That is, the difference in the preliminary result is very possibly from difference in content, rather than from diverse translation styles. To remove content-dependent conditions of analysis, we examine the constitution of the first and second components, and identify a number of most distinctive grams of DĀ 30. We find out that many of the resulting grams are topic-related. We remove these grams from the features set, and perform the analysis once again. The analysis results are illustrated in Figures 7 and 8 below.</p>
            <figure>
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            </figure>
            <p>Figure 7. PCA Result with D = 6, with removing grams that are highly related to the topic of DĀ 30.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1008"" width=""12.70176388888889cm"" height=""8.89cm"" url=""Pictures/image7.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 8. PCA Result with D = 8, with removing grams that are highly related to the topic of DĀ 30.</p>
            <p>In Figures 7 and 8, the points of F17 and L5 are actually clustering so as to belong to a single group. This evidence confirms the previous observation that F17 and L5 are very different in content but very similar in style. At this point, the results become consistent and show no difference between DĀ 30 and the remaining 17 fascicles. This means that in terms of translation style, no significant differences between the first 17 and the last five fascicles have been detected.</p>
            <p> More evidence to support this observation comes from the constitution of the first and second components. Then we notice that there are many long strings that appear both in DĀ 30 and in the remaining 17 fascicles. Notably, as shown in Table 1, some of these strings are very rarely or not at all found outside of T 1. Further, most of them are not constrained to a specified topic. Such a situation is likely to occur when the texts were translated by the same translator or translation team. Also, most of the matched long strings are used in narrative descriptions and clichés that commonly occur in many other early Buddhist discourses. However, these strings are largely only used in T 1. We therefore believe this demonstrates that F17 and L5 are indeed by the same translator, Zhu Fonian.</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Text String</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fasc. in F17</hi>
                    </cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Fasc. in L5</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Occurr. (excl. T 1)</hi>
                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">所以者何？我今如來．至真．等正覺，亦說此</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">13</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">19, 22</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">邪婬、兩舌、惡口、妄言、綺語、貪取、嫉妬、邪見</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">7, 15</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">18</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">生死已盡，梵行已立，所作已辦，更不受有</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">5, 9</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">22</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">4 (T 190: 1; T 212: 3)</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">盡壽不殺、不盜、不婬、不欺、不飲酒</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">3, 7, 11, 13, 15, 17</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">20</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1 (T 125)</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">遠塵離垢，得法眼淨，猶如淨潔</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">13, 15</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">20</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">剃除鬚髮，服三法衣，出家修道</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1, 6, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">19</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">身行不善，口行不善，意行不善</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">6, 8</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">22</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">2 (T 1548: 2)</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">苦聖諦，苦集、苦滅、苦出要諦</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">2, 3</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">20</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Table 1. Significant long strings used in both the F17 and L5 groups.</p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. CBETA (Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association) is a mature, curated digital edition of the widely used Taishō edition of the Buddhist canon.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Anālayo.</hi> (2013). Two Versions of the Mahādeva Tale in the Ekottarika-āgama: A Study in the Development of Taishō No. 125. In Dhammadinnā (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Research on the Ekottarika-āgama (Taishō 125).</hi> Taipei: Dharma Drum Publishing Corporation, pp. 1–70.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Harrison, P.</hi> (1993). The Earliest Chinese Translations of Mahāyāna Buddhist Sūtras: Some Notes on the Works of Lokakṣema. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Buddhist Studies Review,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(2): 135–77.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hung, J., Bingenheimer, M. and Wiles, S.</hi> (2009). Quantitative Evidence for a Hypothesis Regarding the Attribution of Early Buddhist Translations. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(1): 119–34.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hung, J.</hi> (2013). The Second Version of the Mahādeva Tale in the Ekottarika-āgama: Quantitative Text Analysis and Translatorship Attribution. In Dhammadinnā (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Research on the Ekottarika-āgama (Taishō 125)</hi>. Taipei: Dharma Drum Publishing Corporation, pp. 107–32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nattier, J.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Guide to the Earliest Chinese Buddhist Translations: Texts from the Eastern Han</hi>東漢
                        <hi rend=""italic"">and Three Kingdoms</hi>三國
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Periods.</hi> International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka University.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nattier, J.</hi> (2010). Re-Evaluating Zhu Fonian’s Shizu duanjie jing (T309): Translation or Forgery? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">13</hi>: 231–58.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zürcher, E. </hi>(1991). A New Look at the Earliest Chinese Buddhist Texts. In Koichi Shinohara et al. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">From Benares to Beijing: Essays on Buddhism and Chinese Religion in Honour of Prof. Jan Yün-hua</hi>. Mosaic Press, pp. 277–304. 
                    </bibl>
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"2181","16","Approaching Textuality with the Metaphor of the Digitized Workset","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Bhattacharyya</surname>
                        <forename>Sayan</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Illinois, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>sayan@illinois.edu</email>
                </author>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Downie</surname>
                        <forename>J. Stephen</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Illinois, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>jdownie@illinois.edu</email>
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            <p>While much of digital humanities considers the affordances provided by computational tools, a less noted and more serendipitous consequence of its emergence is the availability of new metaphors for rethinking perennial philosophical questions. The concepts underlying the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">workset</hi>, a notion that has emerged out of the Workset Creation for Scholarly Analysis project of the HathiTrust Research Center, provide such a metaphor.
            </p>
            <p> The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">workset</hi> is a collection, typically scholar-built, consisting of a select subset of digitized texts from a larger digital library’s collection (Fenlon et al., 2014). Important for our argument in this paper is the property of worksets that they need to be both stable and dynamic simultaneously. On the one hand, the workset must be coherently stable for the purpose of citability; if the researcher has performed computational analysis on the workset and published the result thereof, then the integrity of the content of the workset at the moment of that analysis needs to be maintained citably for the purpose of reproducibility of results. On the other hand, since the workset itself is a part of a larger digital library, individual elements of the workset are, conceptually speaking, pointers to the corresponding elements held in the library’s collection; those pointed-to elements in the library are mutable or dynamic—for example, the scanned-and-OCR-ed copy of a pointed-to volume in the larger digital library may, at a later point in time, be replaced by a different OCR-ed copy because the latter is of better quality, and a pointer to a volume may end up pointing to null because the library may have had to remove access to the pointed-to volume in response to a takedown notice from a publisher. We argue that this simultaneous, and antagonistic, demand on a workset, of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">citability as well as mutability</hi>, is a useful (though imperfect) metaphor for the contradictory qualities that text itself embodies. Additionally, we argue that the analogy between the notion of a workset and the notion of text itself, by providing a common unifying framework with which to think about such activities as editorial scholarship and anthology building, can help problematize the distinction between seemingly disparate aspects of textuality.
            </p>
            <p> Bernard Cerquiglini has pointed out that not only did the modern idea of a text as standard and definitive, in which ‘every written word’ is a reflection of a supposedly immutable originary authorial intention, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">not</hi> have a strong counterpart in antiquity (1999, p. 4), but also that, at least for the first two centuries after the first written works in French started to appear, there was, in mediaeval France, an especially heightened incidence of variance in the written text: ‘in the Middle Ages, literary work was a variable’ (1999, 32); according to Cerquiglini, this suggests that, especially in any nascent literature, variance 
                <hi rend=""italic"">is</hi> the natural condition of existence of written texts (1999, 21). Elements of the text were mutable, though mutability of text declined over time with progressively wider dissemination of the technologies of textual production and, especially, of printing. Members of the Prague School (Bogatyrëv and Jakobson, 1982, 42) and Russian formalists such as Vladmir Propp (Propp, 1958, 1) have pointed out that this quality of variance has been retained in the genre of the folktale and its retellings. At the same time, as Propp also demonstrated in the case of Russian, functions in folktales serve ‘as stable, constant elements’, their number is ‘limited’, and their sequence within folktales often tend to be ‘identical’ (20). Thus, a folktale, in spite of the variance that its constituent elements might exhibit, nevertheless has a typically stable and easily recognizable structure. A folktale, arguably a seminal embodiment of the textual condition, is thus—if one were to employ the terminology associated with a workset—both a 
                <hi rend=""italic"">mutable</hi> and a 
                <hi rend=""italic"">citable</hi> object. The analogy breaks down in one respect: a folktale’s structure is 
                <hi rend=""italic"">narrative</hi>, that is, a 
                <hi rend=""italic"">relational </hi>order obtains between the constituent elements of its text, whereas a workset (in its essential implementation) does not necessarily have any notion of internal ordering—one of the reasons why the metaphor is not perfect.
            </p>
            <p> We argue that this interesting, though imperfect, analogy between worksets and text may be useful, by foregrounding the notion of mutability, in approaching the long-standing debate among literary theorists and computation/information-oriented philosophers regarding notions of textuality. For example, the view from computation/information-oriented philosophy, influenced by technologies such as TEI, is that ‘text is an ordered hierarchy of content objects’—the so-called OHCO thesis (Renear, 1997, 118); a typical view of literary theorists such as Jerome McGann, on the other hand, is that texts, especially poetic texts, 
                <hi rend=""background(white)"">are ‘recursive structures built out of complex networks of repetition and variation’, and hence cannot be accommodated within the OHCO paradigm (Hockey et al., 1999). David Golumbia diagnoses this disagreement in perspective as irreconcilable (2009, 107), while Patrick Sahle notes how the onto-epistemological peculiarities of the OHCO paradigm help the articulation of some among various pluralistic textual concepts more than others (2013, 396)—versioning being among the latter (Schreibman, 2002). We argue that the emphasis on mutability imposed by thinking of text in terms of the metaphor of the workset is an instance of how a computationally inspired framework can accommodate variation. The variation and mutability in the workset paradigm is diachronic, whereas the variation that McGann refers to is synchronic; we argue that any synchronic variation is representationally equivalent to a set of diachronic variations.</hi>
            </p>
            <p> The workset metaphor provides a way to conceptualize the notions of the two different kinds of editorial scholarship—editing of a single text, and the creation of an edited anthology of multiple texts—within the terms of a common framework. In a 1995 essay, Gunter Martens argues that ‘text’, in the editorial sense, should be understood and interpreted as a process unfolding in time, ‘so that the “text” is understood and interpreted as an historical process’ (1995, p. 195). Martens’ subject is the writer sitting in front of a piece of paper, writing, rewriting, and changing the text. Editorial scholarship, Martens argues, must produce neither the beginning point nor the endpoint of that process, but the process itself as it unfolds over time, that is, as the text mutates. Clearly, such an editorial practice is impossible to create, except as a utopian ideal, within the paradigm of printed editions, but it can be accomplished relatively easily using the conceptual idea of worksets. The historical process that the text embodies can be conceptually approximated by the same underlying mechanisms in a workset that provide support for its mutability. In addition, if we consider this idea of text as process also in its 
                <hi rend=""italic"">social</hi> dimension, then different versions of a text (as, for example, a book going through various editions, with its textual content undergoing corresponding modifications as the social context of the book changes), constitute mutations over time, and can be accommodated within the conceptual notion of the workset. 
            </p>
            <p> We can stretch this idea further. Different translations of a book, or even a sequence of books in which one book shows a strong influence of another, can arguably be considered as constituting a chronological process of mutation of the same ‘text’—a text mutating through different versions of itself. If we stretch the notion of ‘version’ even further, then at the very limit of the notion of ‘version’, one could arguably consider books sharing a common theme as different ‘versions’ of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">same</hi> book. The study by Fenlon et al. (2014) of how scholars organize their worksets reveals that scholars often have their workset constituted around a common theme. Such a workset built around thematic commonality is akin to an anthology of different texts, rather than to different versions of the same text. However, we will show that the difference between different versions of the same text, and an anthology of thematically similar texts, is a slippery difference. What conventionally distinguishes a collection of texts as versions of each other from an anthology of similarly themed material thrown together is a corresponding distinction between the implicit notions of temporally mediated causality and spatial synchrony. We will show how the ‘isGatheredInto’ property, proposed by Wickett et al. (2014) to mediate between part-of and member-of types of relationships (and to subsume them both), can provide a way to conceptually unify these twin, but seemingly disparate, ideas of versions-maintenance and thematized collectability (operationizable as the editorial/textual-critical practice of variorum creation, and the curatorial practice of anthology making, respectively). The first of these ideas/practices concerns temporality, and the second concerns spatiality. Such a unification is an illustration of how the consideration of systems that, from an engineering point of view, satisfy a requirement (in this case, the requirement of meeting the simultaneous and oppositional demands of citability and mutability) can 
                <hi rend=""italic"">also</hi> be helpful, by means of the application of the same principles, in thinking about the metaphysics of textuality, within the context of which literary theorists have noted a similar unification of temporal ‘play’ and spatial ‘structures’ (McGann, 2001, 178). 
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bogatyrëv, P. and Jakobson, R</hi>. (1982). Folklore as a Special Form of Creativity. In Steiner, P. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Prague School: Selected Writings, 1929–1946. </hi>Austin: University of Texas Press, pp. 32–46. (Originally published as Bogatyrëv, P. and Jakobson, R. [1929]. Die Folklore als eine besondere Form des Scaffens. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Donum natalicum Schrijnen</hi>. Nuijmege, pp. 900–913.)
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cerquiglini, B.</hi> (1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">In Praise of the Variant: A Critical History of Philology.</hi> Betsy Wing (trans.). Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. (Originally published as 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Éloge de la variante: Histoire critique de la philologie</hi>. Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1989.) 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">Fenlon, K., Senseney, M., Green, H., Bhattacharyya, S., Willis C, and Downie, J. S.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)""> (2014). Scholar-Built Collections: A Study of User Requirements for Research in Large-Scale Digital libraries. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">Association for Information Science &amp; Technology (ASIS&amp;T)</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">, annual meeting, Seattle, WA, 31 October–4 November 2014.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">Golumbia, D.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)""> (2009). </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">The Cultural Logic of Computation</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hockey, S., Renear, A. and McGann, J.</hi> (1999). What Is Text? A Debate on the Philosophical and Epistemological Nature of Text in the Light of Humanities Computing Research. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">P</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">roceedings of the 1999 Joint Annual Conference of the Association for Computers and the Humanities and the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing (ACH-ALLC ’99)</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">, Charlottesville, VA, 9–13 June 1999, http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/ach-allc.99/proceedings/hockey-renear2.html</hi>.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Martens, G.</hi> (1995). What Is a Text? Attempts at Defining a Central Concept in Editorial Theory. In 
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">Bornstein, G., Pierce, G. B. and Gabler, H. W. (eds), </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">Contemporary German Editorial Theory.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)""> Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press</hi>, pp. 209–31.
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                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">McGann, J.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)""> (2001). </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">Radiant Textuality: Literature after the World Wide Web</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">. Palgrave</hi>, New York.
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                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">Propp, V.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)""> (1958). </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">Morphology of the Folktale</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">. Scott, L. (trans.), Pirkova-Jakobson, S. (ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics. (Originally published in Russian as </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">МОРФОЛОГИЯ СКАЗКИ</hi>, 1928.)
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">Renear, A.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">(1997). Out of Praxis: Three (Meta)theories of Textuality. In Sutherland, K. (ed.), </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">Electronic Text: Investigations in Method and Theory.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)""> Oxford University Press, Oxford.</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">Sahle, P.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">(2013). </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">Digitale Editionsformen. Zum Umgang mit der Überlieferung unter den Bedingungen des Medienwandels. Teil 3: Textbegriffe und Recodierung. [Preprint-Fassung].</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)""> PhD thesis, Universität zu Köln, http://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/5013/1/DigEditionen_3_online.pdf</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">Schreibman, S.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">(2002). Computer-Mediated Texts and Textuality: Theory and Practice. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">Computers and the Humanities,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">36</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">(3): 283–93.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">Wickett, K. M., Doerr, M., Meghini, C., Isaac, A., Fenlon, K. and Palmer, C.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)""> 2014. Representing Cultural Collections in Digital Aggregation and Exchange Environments. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">D-Lib Magazine, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">20</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">(5/6) (May/June), http://www.dlib.org.dlib.may14/wickett/05wickett.html</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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"2182","16","Archaeology in the Digital Age: From Paper to Databases","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Melanie-Becquet</surname>
                        <forename>Frederique</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>LATTICE-CNRS, France</affiliation>
                    <email>frederique.melanie@ens.fr</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ferguth</surname>
                        <forename>Johan</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>LATTICE-CNRS, France</affiliation>
                    <email>jferguth@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Gruel</surname>
                        <forename>Katherine</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>AOROC-CNRS, France</affiliation>
                    <email>katherine.gruel@ens.fr</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Poibeau</surname>
                        <forename>Thierry</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>LATTICE-CNRS, France</affiliation>
                    <email>thierry.poibeau@ens.fr</email>
                </author>
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                <edition>
                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>Archaeology</term>
                    <term>information extraction</term>
                    <term>databases</term>
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                    <term>archaeology</term>
                    <term>archives</term>
                    <term>repositories</term>
                    <term>sustainability and preservation</term>
                    <term>metadata</term>
                    <term>natural language processing</term>
                    <term>ontologies</term>
                    <term>semantic analysis</term>
                    <term>text analysis</term>
                    <term>knowledge representation</term>
                    <term>internet / world wide web</term>
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            <p>Research units in archaeology often manage large and precious archives containing various documents, including reports on fieldwork, scholarly studies, and reference books. These archives are of course invaluable, recording decades of work, but are generally hard to consult and access. In this context, digitizing full text documents is not enough: information must be formalized, structured, and easy to access, thanks to friendly user interfaces.</p>
            <p>The situation at AOROC, a research unit of Ecole normale supérieure specializing in archaeology, is precisely the one described in the previous paragraph: several decades of research are contained in documents that are hardly accessible, even for people working in the lab. The situation is such that researchers may produce studies largely overlapping with previous work, which remained unknown because of poor accessibility.</p>
            <p>A partnership has thus been established between AOROC and LATTICE—another research unit specializing in digital humanities and natural language processing—to digitize and structure a part of these documents. A pilot study concerned a collection of texts covering excavations related to the Gaul period (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Cartes Archéologiques de la Gaule</hi> [Provost, 1988–]), resuming excavations made in an area encompassing a large part of modern France from the Iron Age to the medieval period, 800 BC to AD 800. One hundred twenty-eight volumes have been published so far, each volume corresponding to one French department; some departments are covered by several volumes. The pilot study concerned three of these volumes, along with other types of documents so as to ensure the genericity of the developed solution. The idea is, of course, not just to digitize and transfer documents online but also to extract key information so as to feed structured databases (Poibeau et al., 2013). The result should be accessible using a standard but powerful query language. 
            </p>
            <p>A first step consists in recognizing the structure of the documents, which mainly consist of notices, each notice corresponding to a specific ‘municipality’ (the structure is not formally encoded in the source documents and may vary from one document to the other). Specific zones inside the notices have to be recognized (see Figure 1). This step can be done by specific programs but also needs some manual cleaning. In our opinion, the most interesting part concerns advanced natural language processing techniques used for information extraction. These include</p>
            <p> • Named entity recognition (i.e., the recognition of proper names, location, dates, etc.).</p>
            <p> • Technical term extraction (i.e., all archaeological terms). </p>
            <p> • Entity linking (i.e., the recognition of the different variants of a same term or entity and its connection to the same type of object in the database). </p>
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            <p>Figure 1. A typical notice with key information to be recognized.</p>
            <p>Different tools have been used, like TreeTagger (http://www.cis.uni- muenchen.de/~schmid/tools/TreeTagger/) for part-of-speech tagging, Yatea (https://metacpan.org/release/Lingua-YaTeA) for technical term extraction, and TyDI for terminology structuration (http://ciam.inra.fr/logiciels/node/195). In-house solutions have been developed for document structure, namely entity recognition, and entity linking. All the modules are parameterized so that they can be easily adapted to new sources of data. These tools are based on up-to-date natural language processing techniques and have obtained excellent results in recent benchmarks like Semeval (Ruiz and Poibeau, 2015).</p>
            <p>The result of the project made it possible to automatically feed a structured database based on the textual content analysis. Documents are now accessible online with full text facilities, structured indexes, and ontologies (see Figure 2). It is thus possible to interrogate the database with queries dealing with a specific location, a specific series of objects, or a given period of time. </p>
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            <p>Figure 2. The original published text, along with some structured outputs after analysis. </p>
            <p>This work can be compared to other initiatives with a similar goal. In archaeology, one can cite archaeological archiving bodies such as the ADS (http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/), tDAR (http://www.tdar.org/about/), or OpenContext (http://opencontext.org/), among others. Research on interoperability between archaeological databases includes, among many others, Binding et al. (2008), Doerr (2003), Jordal et al. (2004), and Vlachidis and Tudhope (2012). Our project is different since it is designed from the outset to deal with texts in different languages, especially French, Germanm and English, with a cross-linguistic perspective. One of the major research issues is the maintenance of an international terminology referring to complex notions that can vary from one country to the other. The system should be flexible enough to be able to match related concepts (even if they vary slightly from one source to the other), but relevant enough so as to provide only relevant information. This goal involves a permanent dialogue between experts of the domain and the maintenance of an up-to-date terminology. The tools and interfaces developed within the project should help to keep this goal a reality as much as possible. </p>
            <p>Acknowledgements</p>
            <p>This work has received support of Paris Sciences et Lettres (program ‘Investissements d’avenir’ ANR-10-IDEX-0001-02 PSL*) and of the laboratoire d’excellence TransferS (ANR-10-LABX‑0099). The project has been realised during the PEPS CNRS-PSL EITAB 2013–2014. </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Binding, C., May, K. and Tudhope D.</hi> (2008). Semantic Interoperability in Archaeological Datasets: Data Mapping and Extraction Via the CIDOC CRM. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries</hi>. LNCS 5173. Berlin: Springer, pp. 280–90. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Doerr, M.</hi> (2003). The CIDOC Conceptual Reference Module: An Ontological Approach to Semantic Interoperability of Metadata. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">AI,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>(3): 75–92. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jordal, E., Holmen, J. and Olsen, S. A.</hi> (2004). From XML-Tagged Acquisition Catalogues to an Event-Based Relational Database. In Niccolucci, F. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Beyond the Artefact—Proceedings of CAA2004</hi>. Archaeolingua, pp. 81–85. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Poibeau, T., Saggion, H., Piskorski, J. and Yangarber, R.</hi> (eds). (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Multi-Source, Multilingual Information Extraction and Summarization. </hi>Theory and Applications of Natural Language Processing. Springer, Berlin. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Provost, M.</hi> (ed.). (1988–). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cartes archéologiques de la Gaule.</hi> FMSH editions, 128 vols. published to date. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, Paris.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ruiz, P. and Poibeau, T.</hi> (2015). Entity Linking Combining Open Source Annotators via Weighted Voting. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Semeval 2015.</hi> Boulder.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vlachidis, A. and Tudhope, D.</hi> (2012). A Pilot Investigation of Information Extraction in the Semantic Annotation of Archaeological Reports. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Metadata, Semantics and Ontologies Archive,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(3): 222–35. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2183","16","At the Crossroads of Data and Wonder: Algorithmic Approaches to Fairy Tales on Television","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>At the Crossroads of Data and Wonder: Algorithmic Approaches to Fairy Tales on Television</title>
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                        <surname>McDonald</surname>
                        <forename>Jarom Lyle</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Brigham Young University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>jarom_mcdonald@byu.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Rudy</surname>
                        <forename>Jill Terry</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Brigham Young University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>otheraccount@gmail.com</email>
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                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>intermedial fairy tales</term>
                    <term>television</term>
                    <term>algorithmic criticism</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>audio</term>
                    <term>video</term>
                    <term>multimedia</term>
                    <term>folklore and oral history</term>
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            <p>Folktales and fairy tales are very often figured, in literary studies, as texts with sociohistorical and ideological force; for example, a given study might theorize how a particular discourse of fairy tales replicates gender roles, how fairy tales in American life support a Disnified culture industry, and so on. But significantly, fairy tales have also long been studied as data objects; since the 19th century, they have been conceptualized and categorized in terms of genre, origins and historic-geographic distribution, and form and structure—in essence, there is a strong sense that fairy tale scholarship depends on the cataloging of tales into various systems of ontological understanding. </p>
            <p>In addition to existing in the written records and datatables of cataloguers, fairy tales are quite often associated with many other forms of transmission and dissemination. Certainly, it is common to encounter fairy tales (in many forms) in the context of oral storytelling, but tales also have been performed as plays and ballets, turned into cinematic or televised productions, illustrated in picture books and collections, and in our modern consumer culture, made into toys, dolls, video games, and other products. While the status of tales as texts has been long studied, these different medial iterations of tales have received less attention from scholars trained in literary studies and folklore programs. Yet it’s in this space, beyond the literary representation of fairy tales, where our modern comprehension of their power becomes most fully realized, existing and replicating in a way that Werner Wolf has described as ‘intermedial’. Intermediality, according to Wolf’s conceptualization, encourages attention to semiotic modes (speaking, writing, visually representing) and technological channels (printing presses and books; cameras, projectors, and films; broadcast stations, television sets, and TV shows) (2011). This notion of seeing narrative progress along various media channels is an instantiation of what Marie-Laure Ryan advocates. Ryan has suggested that the studying of narrative occurs best across media because narrative study that is focused only on language leaves out the nuances of different communicative modes and the technologies and social relationships that make such communication possible (2004). In other words, our premise is that studying intermedial forms of fairy tales help us better comprehend how these tales continue to work from telling to telling.</p>
            <p>When it comes to folklore studies, the natural attraction to ontology and catalogue makes the digital humanities an attractive scholarly cohort, and a subfield often labeled ‘digital folklore’ is gaining traction. Because of the inherent ability of digital analysis methodologies to cross media (or deal with texts that exist in multiple media at once), it makes sense that, if we want to study intermedial fairy tales as a new entry point into these texts, then the crossroads of the computational (or ‘data-driven’) and the narrative is the space for fairy tale scholarship in the 21st century. Timothy R. Tangherlini has encouraged the use of algorithmic approaches to help better navigate the complex intermedial spaces of folklore narrative; leveraging the term ‘computational folkloristics’ (as distinct from digital folklore), Tangherlini states the importance of generating ‘algorithmic methods to assist in the interpretation of relationships or structures in the underlying data’ (2012). Indeed, Tangherlini’s efforts in helping give rise to the study of folklore through computational methods is the launching point for our project in looking at intermedial fairy tales;
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> given the rich history of structural, ontological-based (or perhaps more appropriately termed, for our purposes, metadata-based) approaches to fairy tale study, the power of exploring fairy tales in intermedial spaces, and the concept of applying paradigmatic methodologies from the digital humanities as an analytical tool for analyzing fairy tales today, we have begun to identify relationships between tales, media, history, geography, production and reception, and scholarly and popular audiences in a new light. 
            </p>
            <p>For the bounds of this proposal (which is one piece of a recently awarded SSHRC collaborative grant to look at intermedial fairy tales), we are concerned with the occurrence of fairy tale storytelling in a very specific intermedial space—that of modern American television. For the past 85 years, fairy tales have found their way into television broadcasts in numerous ways, whether it be quick allusions to fairy tales to advance otherwise non–fairy tale narratives; spectacular retellings of tales as live events or made-for-TV ‘specials’; fairy tale contexts for particular episodes of traditional, procedural television; longer-running arcs of serialized shows; or even premises for entire shows constructed on fairy tale tropes. We have begun with a teleography—a metadata-rich bibliography of television fairy tales compiled by Kendra Magnus-Johnston and recently published in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Channeling Wonder: Fairy Tales on Television</hi>. With over 1,000 data points (individual episodes or TV specials related to a fairy tale in some way), our project will approach this metadata in ways similar to how historical fairy tale scholars have: looking for patterns in terms of narrative similarity, common genre, chronological proximity, and so forth, but doing so with tools and experiments that leverage data processing and visualization methods that have become significant paradigms in digital humanities scholarship.
            </p>
            <p>Our goal in beginning with data modeling is to reposition the existing teleography as a sort of intermedial fairy tale corpus that can be mined and analyzed visually, spatially, and temporally. Through automated text parsing, processing, and categorization; aggregating information both from the teleography as well as from other sources (semantic repositories of linked data such as Freebase.org and other relational datasources such as the crowdsourced website and API thetvdb.org); and generation of our own dynamic dataset (serialized in various forms—tabular CSV and JSON right now), the scholars and students involved in this phase of the project have been better positioned to comprehend the scope of the fairy tale data and metadata, and identify the types of interactions and relationships that might be exposed by different types of visualizations. In many ways, this sort of data structuring is a reimagining of the work done by Antti Aarne and Stith Thompson (of the Aarne-Thompson classification system) or by Hans-Jorg Uther’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ATU Catalogue</hi>; in fact, our data model, mastered in a MongoDB instance and published out to a web app, uses a fairy tale’s ATU number as a unique identifier, supplementing missing tales as needed (the current state of the searchable, filterable teleography web app is available at http://fttv.byu.edu/#datatable). This preliminary data work has already demonstrated ways that the medium of television has gone far beyond the traditional animal, magic, and folktales of the ATU ontology; we have found it useful to incorporate into our data such literary “fairy tales” as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Peter Pan</hi> or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Wizard of Oz, </hi>Hans Christian Andersen tales such as ‘The Ugly Duckling’, ‘The Little Mermaid’, and ‘The Snow Queen’, or more abstract references such as ‘princess-ness’, ‘grimm-ness’, and so forth. Our plans for the underlying data source are lofty, as we are continually working to incorporate more and more occurrences of fairy tales on television as well as to augment the data with more metadata, such as broadcast dates, actors involved, broadcast and cable channels where they occur, and so forth.
            </p>
            <p>Of course, given that our goal is to approach the study of fairy tale narratives in an intermedial space, we aren’t satisfied with just developing our own indexed data source; rather, we have begun to analyze its structured form by generating a collection of visual representations of the data (see http://fttv.byu.edu/#visualizations). With everything from simple histograms, charted occurrences of fairy tales on TV over time, and force-directed or matrix-based network graphs built with d3.js (that can juxtapose different metadata variables with our expanded ATU tale-type ontology), we are recognizing new patterns and insights about the tales themselves as well as about the medium in which they’ve appeared. For example, one student, seeing the highest frequency of fairy tale appearances in American television to be ATU 510A (Cinderella), is now investigating the relationship between the narrative of the servant-turned-princess and the national discourse of American exceptionalism. Another is looking at the rise of reality television as a replacement for the traditional fairy tale story, while a third is exploring the many references in a single television series (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Fractured Fairy Tales</hi>, snippets of tale retellings which appeared in 91 different episodes of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show</hi>) as an entry point for understanding commodity capitalism and self-valuation during the late 1950s–early 1960s. 
            </p>
            <p>Cristina Bacchilega has suggested that modern treatment of fairy tales expresses the evolution of human hopes and fears (1997); television’s ability to appropriate, repurpose, or refigure tales confirms this. Combining multiple tales to tell new stories is also leading scholars to look at intertextuality between fairy tales.</p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. As far as we can tell, there have not yet been any computational approaches to intermedial fairy tale analysis. There are a few projects in which scholars have sought to apply digital humanities methodologies to traditional fairy tale texts such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Grimm’s Fairy Tales</hi>; notable among these are Declerck et al., who describe a TEI-based markup format and a tool for semiautomated markup of fairy tale text (2011), and Weingart and Jorgensen, who use algorithmic analysis of European Fairy Tales to discuss conceptualizations of the body (2013).
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bacchilega, C.</hi> (1997). 
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">Postmodern Fairy Tales: Gender and Narrative Strategies</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Declerck, T., Scheidel, A. and Lendvai, P.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">Proppian Content Descriptors in an Integrated Annotation Schema for Fairy Tales.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">Language Technology for Cultural Heritage: Selected Papers from the LaTeCH Workshop Series</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">, Springer, pp. 155–70.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Greenhill, P. and Rudy, J. T.</hi> (eds.). (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Channeling Wonder: Fairy Tales on Television</hi>. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, MI.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ryan, M.-L.</hi> (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">Narrative across Media: The Languages of Storytelling</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tangherlini, T., Abello, J. and Broadwell, P.</hi> Computational Folkloristics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">Communications of the ACM,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">55</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">(7) (2012): 60–70.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Weingart, S. and Jorgensen, J.</hi> Computational Analysis of the Body in European Fairy Tales. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">28</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">(3) (2013): 404–16.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">Wolf, W.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">(2011). (Inter)mediality and the Study of Literature. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">13</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">(3) (2011), </hi>
                        <ref target=""http://dx.doi.org/10.7771/1481-4374.1789"">
                            <hi rend=""background(white)"">http://dx.doi.org/10.7771/1481-4374.1789</hi>
                        </ref>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                    <affiliation>Georgia State University, United States of America</affiliation>
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            <p>Automated comparison of narrative structure facilitates narrative stylometry, cross-document co-reference, and the alignment of events in the retellings of stories from different perspectives. With attention to the second and third outcomes, we introduce a method for the unsupervised population and comparison of graph representations of narrative texts. Populated with extracted story elements drawn from documents, graph substructure similarity analysis techniques are used to measure the similarity of narrative order across stories and for the similarity of character function across those stories. Designed to scale, our first application of this method is against a test corpus of 10 variations of the Aarne-Thompson type 333 story, ‘Little Red Riding Hood’. Preliminary experiments correctly coreferenced differently named entities from story variations and indicated the relative similarity of events in different iterations of the tale despite their appearing in differing order. Next steps include heterogeneous corpora, non-fiction corpora, and more precise comparison.</p>
            <p>* * *</p>
            <p>Navigating graphs of sentence-level grammars has been an achieved goal of natural language processing (NLP), at least in English, since the development of the Penn Treebank and the success of statistical parsers in the mid-1990s (Magerman, 1995). Adapting sentence-level approaches to the problem of higher-level analysis such as cross-document correlations of narrative remains an open challenge. The goal of this research is to advance our prior work in narrative information extraction (Miller et al., 2013) and visualization (Shrestha et al., 2013) for narrative similarity assessment, event alignment, and cross-document coreference.</p>
            <p>Analytical problems of core interest to humanities scholars are not bound to sentential units. They focus on semantics, representation, ideology, influence, pragmatics, narrative—problematics that frequently bridge, fracture, and co-referentially scatter throughout documents and corpora. Discourse analysis (Jørgensen and Phillips, 2002) and textTiling (Hearst, 1997) are two methods used to circumvent sentential boundaries by segmenting documents into logical blocks. As with latent semantic analysis (Dumais, 2004), these blocks can then be characterized in ways that facilitate comparison, extending sentential navigation to macro-level structures. Our position builds on tree-based textual analysis to argue that comparison of the graph representations of narrative documents using techniques from graph theory advances both NLP and humanistic inquiry. This work scales as extraction, lookup, and comparison operate unsupervised. Identifying events described in a document, producing a graph of actors and locations implicated in those events, and comparing the underlying matrices facilitate various types of cross-document narrative analysis. Graph similarity measures provide our primary comparison method to highlight similarities, as exemplified in Figure1.</p>
            <p>Additionally, condensing narrative texts in a manner consistent with narratological theory enables testing of narratological schema. Formal analysis of narrative has been a relatively successful aim of many.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.204847222222224cm"" height=""10.269361111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Side-by-side comparison of two simplified iterations of the ‘Little Red Riding Hood’ fairy tale. Linked location, time, and agent units are shown, with red edges indicating change between tellings.</p>
            <p>Structuralist topologies developed by the Russian formalists such as Propp (1968), and later work by Genette (Genette and Lewin, 1983), Bal (1997), and others, yielded many complementary top-down models for organizing narrative. These schema distinguish between fabula and discourse, or events to be retold and the manner in which retelling takes place. Narrative, broadly defined, is the ordering of fabula by discourse. Discourse order is the relationship between the temporality of events and their representation as part of a narrative (Genette and Lewin, 1983). This structural perspective serves humanists well when analyzing single narratives or small corpora.</p>
            <p>Computational models developed from formalist approaches have been the subject of compelling experiments. Like work by Finlayson (2012) on analogical story merging and Fisseni on story comparison (Fisseni and Löwe, 2014), our work presents a bottom-up method to help test formalist top-down narratological schema. Unlike theirs, our work implements unsupervised comparison of narrative graphs, a proxy of narrative structure, across a corpus.</p>
            <p>Narrative graphs facilitate (1) stylometric comparison, (2) clustering of documents according to their event-relationship characteristics, (3) cross-document co-reference, and (4) alignment of event descriptions across narratives. To test three and four, we implemented a method as described below.</p>
            <p>Method</p>
            <p>Computation of similarity between the substructure of the graphs required extraction of entities, creation of the graph, and finally comparison.</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
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                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">lrrh</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">wolf</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">grandmother</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">woodcutters</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">forest</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">gm house</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">lrrh</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
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                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
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                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">wolf</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
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                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
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                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
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                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">forest</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">gm house</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                </row>
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            <p>Table 1. Adjacency matrix created from one version of ‘Little Red Riding Hood’. An edge in the graph or 1 (in the adjacency matrix) between two entities signifies that these entities interacted within the given set of events.</p>
            <p>1. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Extraction. </hi>Events were automatically marked in the narratives using the NLP tool, EVITA (Saurí et al., 2005). EVITA increments event tag ID numbers; that sequence proxies discourse order. Sequential narrative discourse order generated from EVITA was used since fiction frequently lacks dates and timestamps—necessary features for temporal taggers like SUTime and GUTime. Entity extraction and classification were accomplished using the Stanford Named Entity Recognizer (NER). Each graph includes elements corresponding to event name, event type, actor, location, and discourse order. Extracted events from a given story contain the following information: document 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ID</hi>, event 
                <hi rend=""italic"">verb</hi>, event 
                <hi rend=""italic"">verblemma</hi>, event 
                <hi rend=""italic"">verbhypergram</hi>, event 
                <hi rend=""italic"">type</hi>, entity 1, entity 
                <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi>, entity 1 type, entity 
                <hi rend=""italic"">n </hi>type, event 
                <hi rend=""italic"">number</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>2. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Graph creation.</hi> Based on changes in topic, the set of events 
                <hi rend=""italic"">E </hi>was divided into 
                <hi rend=""italic"">k </hi>parts. A sub-graph 
                <hi rend=""italic"">G </hi>was created for each event set, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">e</hi>
                <hi rend=""subscript"">0 </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">&lt; e</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">x </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">&lt; e</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">k </hi>and was represented as an adjacency matrix as shown in Table 1. An adjacency matrix is a common way of internally representing graphs for computation such that an element 
                <hi rend=""italic"">a</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">ij </hi>in the matrix equals 1 if there is an edge between 
                <hi rend=""italic"">i</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic superscript"">th </hi>and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">j</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic superscript"">th </hi>nodes in the graph and 0 otherwise. In our case, the adjacency matrix represents the entity::entity relation as mentioned in the narrative for the set of events 
                <hi rend=""italic"">e</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">x</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>3. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Similarity analysis.</hi> Many domain-specific algorithms to compute similarity have been developed. Most are based on neighborhood analysis. In this paper, we propose our own similarity analysis method inspired by the work of Blondel et al. (2004).
            </p>
            <p>We begin by modeling each narrative as a 3
                <hi rend=""italic"">D </hi>matrix where the first two dimensions represent the adjacency matrix and the third dimension represents the discourse order of the sets of events. Following this model, given two matrices, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i,j,k </hi>and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">B</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">p,q,r</hi> , for comparison, we construct a 3
                <hi rend=""italic"">D </hi>matrix, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">X</hi>, of dimensions 
                <hi rend=""italic"">p</hi>×
                <hi rend=""italic"">q </hi>×
                <hi rend=""italic"">φ </hi>where 
                <hi rend=""italic"">φ </hi>is the smallest of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">k </hi>and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">r</hi>, initialized to all 1s. We then proportionally shrink the larger timeline to match the smaller one so that 
                <hi rend=""italic"">k </hi>= 
                <hi rend=""italic"">r</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>For each 
                <hi rend=""italic"">φ</hi>, as in the HIT-inspired algorithm (Fackler, 2005) proposed by Kollias et al., we compute
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">X </hi>← 
                <hi rend=""italic"">BXA</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic superscript"">T </hi>+ 
                <hi rend=""italic"">B</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic superscript"">T </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">XA</hi> (1)
            </p>
            <p>and normalize 
                <hi rend=""italic"">X </hi>after each iteration. The even iterations converge to a final similarity matrix. To simplify and speed this process, we use the Kronecker product and the vec(.) operator. This results in
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">x </hi>← (
                <hi rend=""italic"">A</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(252525)"">⊗</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">B </hi>+ 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic superscript"">T </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(252525)"">⊗</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">B</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic superscript"">T </hi>)
                <hi rend=""italic"">x</hi> (2)
            </p>
            <p>where 
                <hi rend=""italic"">x </hi>= 
                <hi rend=""italic"">vec</hi>(
                <hi rend=""italic"">X</hi>). These sets of equations give a similarity score frame per scene, which is then aggregated to produce a final similarity score.
            </p>
            <p>Discussion</p>
            <p>For the purposes of testing our methodology, we used 10 of the 58 known iterations of the Aarne-Thompson type 333 story (ATU333), ‘Little Red Riding Hood’ (Lang, 1891; Grimm and Grimm, 1812; Wratislaw, 1889; Schneller, 1867; Ashliman, 2007; Marelles, 1895; Potter, 1908; Bates, 1883; Thurber, 1983; Carter, 1993; Tehrani, 2013). The purpose of using this corpus was to strengthen the possibility of narrative overlap and focus the method on fine-grain distinctions between re-tellings. The primary purpose of the current work is to test our method’s detection of event and character similarities and differences across a given corpus; however, we do not anticipate that our method is dependent on such homogeneous data. By utilizing categories of variables associated with elements of the fabulaic and discourse levels of narrative, we anticipate our method will function similarly with larger, more heterogeneous corpora.</p>
            <p>Via this method, 1,384 events were extracted across 10 story iterations. Numbering 8,450 tokens, including titles and authorship information, the overall density of extracted events to tokens is high. Contrasted to event detection methods reliant on temporal expressions (SUTime identified two events), this density of event detection provides a good basis on which to compare narrative structure. Generalizing event types from specific verb tokens to hypergrams of those verbs (e.g., event 41 from Carter, 1993): ‘armed’ lemmatized to ‘arm’ hypergrammed to ‘supply’) generally retains the function of each event within the story, but abstracts sufficiently to allow for variation such as is introduced by translation to not prevent the recognition of correspondences. The automatically produced matrices for this work are exemplified by Table 2.</p>
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                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">undergo,EVENT104</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">grandmother</cell>
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                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">perceive,EVENT105</cell>
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                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">lrrh</cell>
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                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">perceive,EVENT107</cell>
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                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">undergo,EVENT108</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">grandmother</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">wolf</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">lrrh</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">bed</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">seize,EVENT109</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">grandmother</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">wolf</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">lrrh</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">bed</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">undergo,EVENT110</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">grandmother</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">wolf</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">lrrh</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">bed</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">consume,EVENT111</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">grandmother</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">wolf</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">lrrh</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">bed</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Table 2. Eight matrix layers from 3
                <hi rend=""italic"">D</hi> stack of event matrices.
            </p>
            <p>Table 2 shows eight layers from the 3
                <hi rend=""italic"">D </hi>event matrix stack. It, and the following list, a one-line extract, highlight the generalized form and granular detail of the events this method extracts: 10; prospered; prosper; change state; OCCURRENCE; child, grandmother’s house; person, location; 45. The stack and list correspond to the ‘Oh, grandmother, what big ears you have!’ to ‘[a]nd with that he jumped out of bed, jumped on top of poor Little Red Cap, and ate her up’ sequence from Lang (1891).
            </p>
            <p>Results of functions (1) and (2) on the adjacency matrices are exemplified below in Table 3. Column headings correspond to entities from Grimm and Grimm (1812) for event 3, and row headers correspond to entities from Lang (1891) for event 4. Table 3 shows that the measure of similarity between Little Red Riding Hood (‘lrrh’) and Little Red Cap (‘lrc’), is 0
                <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi>32. Although low, that score was calculated only based on entity-entity connections, the sequence of those connections, and event hypergrams. These preliminary results are encouraging, as the correlation between those characters is high relative to all correlations found. More importantly, as shown by the diagonal symmetry of the measures, the correlation between events is high relative to correlations between that event and others within the stories. Overall correlation between event 3 from one variation and event 4 from another variation suggests that this method can align scenes across variations of the same ATU. Table 4 shows the potential for this method to align characters from different versions based upon their position within the story.
            </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">lrc</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">wolf</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">grandmother</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">huntsman</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">home</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">woods</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">gm house</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">lrrh</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.32</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.25</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.25</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.32</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">wolf</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.32</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.25</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.25</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.32</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">grandmother</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">woodcutters</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">home</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">forest</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.32</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.25</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.25</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.32</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">old woman’s house</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Table 3. Character similarity across ‘Little Red Riding Hood’ and ‘Rothkppchen’.</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">lrrh</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">wolf</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">gm</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">wc</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">home</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">forest</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">owh</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">lrc</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.67</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.76</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.31</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.14</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.14</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.48</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.37</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">wolf</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.79</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.94</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.42</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.14</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.14</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.56</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.5</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">gm</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.35</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.47</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.31</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.16</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.37</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">hunts</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.23</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.28</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.18</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.26</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">home</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">woods</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.48</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.53</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.16</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.14</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.14</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.48</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.16</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">gmh</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.39</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.52</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.34</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.16</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">.42</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Table 4. Character alignment across all events for iterations Lang (1891) and Grimm and Grimm (1812) of ATU 333.</p>
            <p>Table 4 sums all event matrices for two variations of the tale. Version 1 occupies the columns (Little Red Riding Hood, Wolf, Grandmother, Woodcutters, Home, Forest, and Old Woman’s House) and version 2 the rows (Little Red Cap, Wolf, Grandmother, Huntsman, Home, Woods, Grandmother’s House). Name-independent character alignment is demonstrated by the 0
                <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi>96 correspondence between the two wolves. Interestingly, the event matrix suggests that certain characters function dissimilarly between variations: most notably, Grandmother. The corresponding value between the Grandmother characters is only 0
                <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi>31, suggesting that they share some event associations but not as many as are held by other cross-document pairings. That assessment is accurate as, in version 1, the story concludes upon the wolf’s consumption of both Little Red Riding Hood and Grandmother. In story version 2, both survive to boil a second hungry wolf.
            </p>
            <p>Conclusion and Further Work</p>
            <p>This preliminary work resulted in a viable method for automated narrative stylometrics across iterations of stories, for narrative alignment, and for the cross-document coreference of characters bearing different names but similar story functions. The extraction and matrix comparison methods are implemented and tested. Our next stage of this research is to refine the comparison algorithm, apply it to a corpus of dissimilar narratives, explore the fit of structuralist models of narrative to non-fiction, and assess the method’s ability to cluster stories by narrative similarity.</p>
            <p>Acknowledgements</p>
            <p>This work is supported in part by NSF award 1209172.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
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            </div>
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            <p>AXES—Access for Audiovisual Archives is a research project developing tools for new and engaging ways to interact with audiovisual libraries, integrating advanced audio and video analysis technologies. This poster and demo will showcase the system that is developed for academic researchers and journalists. The tool allows them to search and retrieve video segments through metadata and audio analysis, as well as visual concepts and similarity searches. </p>
            <p>Background</p>
            <p>In the near future, audiovisual material is perhaps the biggest wave of data that will become available for academic researchers (Smith, 2013). This type of material has a big value for the digital humanities as it is multilayered: a single document can provide information regarding language, emotions, speech acts, narrative plots, and references to people, places, and events. This richness provides interesting data for various disciplines and holds the promise of multidisciplinary collaboration between, e.g., computer sciences, social sciences, and the humanities (Ordelman et al., 2014). </p>
            <p>However, the use of audiovisual data by scholars in the humanities and the application of digital methods for analysis are still in their infancy for several reasons. One of them is the lack of useful systems that help academic researchers search through the large amounts of audiovisual data (De Jong et al., 2011). Given the multimodal nature of audiovisual data, different types of techniques are required to provide access to the data. The overall aim of the research project AXES—Access for Audiovisual Archives is to develop tools that allow novel ways of using digital audiovisual libraries, helping users to discover, browse, navigate, search, and enrich archives.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> Within the project, three systems are developed. In this poster and demonstration we will show the AXES RESEARCH system that was developed to cater the needs of humanities scholars and journalists. 
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            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">AXES RESEARCH System </hi>
            </p>
            <p>Building on several requirements studies amongst humanities scholars (Kemman et al., 2014; 2013a; 2012) and journalists (Kemman et al., 2013b), the AXES RESEARCH system is an advanced search and retrieval system that combines various technologies from computer vision such as face, object, and place recognition; similarity searching; and automatic speech recognition, making it easier for the user to find relevant material, not dependent on available metadata (Van der Kreeft et al., 2014). The strength of the system is a combination of different technologies working in the background. </p>
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            <p>Figure 1. The AXES RESEARCH start interface provides users with a simple search interface and shows their recently viewed videos and queries. </p>
            <p>The following key search technologies are used in the AXES RESEARCH system: text/spoken words search, visual search, and similarity search. </p>
            <p>Text Search / Spoken Words Search</p>
            <p>All metadata of the audiovisual programs and its spoken words are stored and indexed. Spoken words are provided in the form of a transcript originally provided with the audiovisual data or are automatically produced by Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR). </p>
            <p>Visual Search </p>
            <p>The system uses text-based queries to look for visual objects. This is done in conjunction with an external search engine and uses on-the-fly methods (Parkhi et al., 2012). If a user makes a text search for ‘Brandenburg gate’, the query is sent to a search engine like Google or Bing that produces a sample of the top-n images. From the results, a model is created and used to detect similar objects in the archive. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""8.678333333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. AXES RESEARCH thumbnail view of visual search results. Results can also be viewed in detailed view. </p>
            <p>Generally, the system supports three types of visual search: visual categories (Parkhi et al., 2012), faces (Simonyan et al., 2010), and specific places or logos (Fernando et al., 2013). Furthermore, the user can also search for events. The system recognizes events based on multimodal input, including audio and visual features (Revaud et al., 2013). </p>
            <p>Similarity Search </p>
            <p>Instead of entering keywords, a search can also be based on internal or external images, also known as content-based image search (Smeulders, 2000). A similarity search can be done by using one or more images, either a keyframe shown from returned results, or an image uploaded by the user, comparable with the query by image technique as implemented at Google Images.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Results: User Testing </hi>
            </p>
            <p>A total of 78 participants were involved in the evaluation sessions of AXES RESEARCH. Overall, participants were very interested in the system that assists them in research practices. In general, the look and feel of the prototype was appreciated, and users concluded that the functionalities of integrating video and audio, including similarity search, worked. User input and suggestions for enhancement served to improve the coming versions of the AXES system that will focus on home users. </p>
            <p>Conclusion </p>
            <p>AXES RESEARCH offers academics a novel way of exploring audiovisual content. They can take advantage of a powerful system, without the need to be involved in all the technical intricacies, allowing them to incorporate audiovisual materials in their research practice, which is currently rarely done given the absence of a system like AXES RESEARCH that helps them search through large amount of audiovisual data. </p>
            <p>Acknowledgment </p>
            <p>This work is supported by the EU FP7 programme as EU Project FP7 AXES ICT-269980. </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. www.axes-project.eu.</p>
            <p>2. www.images.google.com.</p>
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                <listBibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Jong, F., Ordelman, R. and Scagliola, S.</hi> (2011). Audio-Visual Collections and the User Needs of Scholars in the Humanities: A Case for Co-Development. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on Supporting Digital Humanities (SDH 2011)</hi>, Copenhagen, Denmark, 17–18 November 2011. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fernando, B. and Tuytelaars, T.</hi> (2013). Mining Multiple Queries for Image Retrieval: On-the-Fly Learning of an Object-Specific Mid-Level Representation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ICCV</hi>, Sydney, Australia, 3–6 December 2013. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kemman, M., Kleppe, M., Beunders, H.</hi> (2012). Who Are the Users of a Video Search System? Classifying a Heterogeneous Group with a Profile Matrix. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">13th International Workshop on Image Analysis for Multimedia Interactive Services</hi>, Dublin, Ireland, 23–25 May 2012.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kemman, M., Kleppe, M. and Maarseveen, J.</hi> (2013a). Eye Tracking the Use of a Collapsible Facets Panel in a Search Interface. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries</hi>. Berlin: Springer, pp. 405–8, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-40501-3_47. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kemman, M., Kleppe, M., Nieman, B. and Beunders, H.</hi> (2013b). Dutch Journalism in the Digital Age [El Periodismo Holandés En La Era Digital]. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Icono 14, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(2): 163–81, doi:10.7195/ri14.v11i2.596.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kemman, M., Kleppe, M. and Scagliola, S.</hi> (2014). Just Google It. In Mills, C., Pidd, M. and Ward, E. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Digital Humanities Congress 2012</hi>. Sheffield, UK: HRI Online Publications.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ordelman, R., Kemman, M., Kleppe, M. and De Jong, F.</hi> (2014). Sound and (Moving Images) in Focus: How to Integrate Audiovisual Material in Digital Humanities Research. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""color(2E2E2E)"">Lausanne, Switzerland, 6–12 July 2014,</hi> http://dharchive.org/paper/DH2014/Workshops-914.xml.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Parkhi, O. M. et al.</hi> (2012). “On-the-Fly Specific Person Retrieval.” In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">13th International Workshop on Image Analysis for Multimedia Interactive Services</hi>, Dublin, Ireland, 23–25 May 2012.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Revaud, J., Douze, M., Schmid, C. and Jégou, H.</hi> (2013). Event Retrieval in Large Video Collections with Circulant Temporal Encoding. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR)</hi>, June 2013, Portland, OR. 
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Simonyan, K., Parkhi, O. M., Vedaldi, A. and Zisserman, A.</hi> (2013). Fisher Vector Faces in the Wild. British Machine Vision Conference, Bristol, UK, 9–13 September 2013.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smeulders, A. W., Worring, M., Santini, S., Gupta, A. and Jain, R.</hi> (2000). Content-Based Image Retrieval at the End of the Early Years: Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Transactions,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>(12): 1349–80. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smith, J. R.</hi> (2013). Riding the Multimedia Big Data Wave. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 36th International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval—SIGIR ’13</hi>. New York: ACM Press, doi:10.1145/2484028.2494492.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van der Kreeft, P., Macquarrie, K., Kemman, M., Kleppe, M. and McGuinness, K.</hi> (2014). AXES-RESEARCH: A User-Oriented Tool for Enhanced Multimodal Search and Retrieval in Audiovisual Libraries. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">2014 12th International Workshop on Content-Based Multimedia Indexing (CBMI)</hi>, IEEE, Klagenfurt, Austria, 18–20 June 2014, 1–4, doi:10.1109/CBMI.2014.6849852.
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                </listBibl>
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"2187","16","Beyond Boundaries: Digital Humanities, Life Sciences and IT research","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Clivaz</surname>
                        <forename>Claire</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Lausanne (CH), Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>claire.clivaz@unil.ch</email>
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            <p>Within the epistemological explorations of the digital humanities, one of the profound phenomena is the parallel movement of institutional infrastructure development and moving boundaries between various academic fields. At times these movements develop with synergism, at other times in isolation; occasionally they are in conflict. Using a specific case at the University of Lausanne in Switzerland as a starting point, this paper seeks to illustrate and explore how digital humanities and life sciences interact epistemologically. The aim is to demonstrate the impact of research infrastructure on the epistemological reconfiguration of academic knowledge, and vice versa. Thus one may regard such an idea in Foucault’s terms: ‘words’ and ‘things’ are interrelated.</p>
            <p>At the beginning of 2015, a new step for DH developments was taken at the University of Lausanne. Collaborations on diverse modes have been developed between the DH team and their bioinformatics colleagues—namely, applications for common projects at Swiss and international levels (research infrastructure, data-life-cycle management, DH applications); publication of a new editorial form, the eTalks;
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> a common day of training and education on data visualization.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> Finally we have enrolled two part-time IT and DH postdocs to create an exchange of knowledge between common projects: one has a doctorate in archeology with a good knowledge of databases, and the other a doctorate in bio-IT bioinformatics with a strong interest in DH. There is much to be learned from the 25-year-old experiment at the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (SIB)
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> that could shed greater light on the digital humanist turn.
            </p>
            <p>Indeed, the digital humanities adventure started in Switzerland at the University of Lausanne in 2010, with the encouragement of the vice-rector research, Philippe Moreillon, a professor in medicine stating that DH would probably follow an evolution similar to the path taken by bioinformatics. This statement sounded perhaps slightly opaque to certain ears at that time, yet it has become increasingly clarified and useful with regards to elements related to the development of DH at UNIL and in Switzerland. Thus, the digital humanists at the UNIL have begun discussions with the SIB and its IT bioinformatics competence center, VITAL-IT.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> In a 2014 lecture in Lille,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> I drew some common points between the developments of bioinformatics and digital humanities. Ioannis Xenarios, director of VITAL-IT, has rewritten Claire Warwick’s definition of the digital humanities
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> for bioinformatics, replacing a few words: ‘Bioinformatics is an important multidisciplinary field, undertaking research at the intersection of digital technologies and biology/medicine. It aims to produce applications and models that make possible new kinds of research, both in the biology/medicine and in computer science and its allied technologies. It also studies the impact of these techniques on knowledge representation, data mining technologies, knowledge-base, archives and digital culture’.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi>
            </p>
            <p>At a national level, Switzerland has started an innovative long-term program of at least eight years (2013–2020). The program, Scientific Information: Access, Processing and Safeguarding,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">8</hi> will attempt to coordinate all the efforts and strategies regarding computing academic challenges. Within this program, all fields are invited to build the new digital world of science. The title of the program, adopted for the years 2017–2020, clearly relates IT services and information to fundamental research: ‘
                <hi rend=""italic"">Service et information numérique: un nouveau lieu de la recherche</hi>’. One of the main themes of this program is ‘data-life-cycle management’, a perspective encompassing entire cycles from the production of primary data to final publications. Currently, it is unknown whether a common protocol of ‘data-life-cycle management’ for humanities and life sciences is possible and adequate: surely it deserves to be investigated. Such data management rationalization efforts might sound uncommon to certain digital humanist ears and minds, but even a milestone DH work such as Franco Moretti’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Graphs, Maps and Trees </hi>(2005) is deeply inspired by IT research and what is traditionally referred to as ‘hard sciences’. Not only is this true of its content, but also in its genealogy. Indeed, it was preceded by another Italian book, by Giulio Barsanti, using the same aforementioned title, which explains the emergence of modern sciences: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">L’Albero, la scala, la mappa</hi> (1992).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">9</hi> This genealogy will be examined in this paper.
            </p>
            <p>To better understand what is at stake in such transformations in a specific university and country, we have to look back. Until now, funds for fundamental research and research infrastructure were separate in Switzerland. It is the legacy of what was referred to in 2012 as a ‘blind spot in modernity’ (see Clivaz, 2012, 32): the underestimated influence of writing material on ideas and concepts, as thoroughly demonstrated by Roger Chartier (1995, for example). The climax of printed culture has led to such a situation, as one can observe in the posture adopted by William Osler. In 1919, this famous Canadian physician and professor often described as the ‘father of modern medicine’ (see Fins, 2008),
                <hi rend=""Footnote_anchor""> </hi>was invited to make a presidential address before the Classical Association at Oxford (Osler, 1919).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">10</hi> He spoke about ‘the old Humanities and the new science’, honoring the classical medical heritage of Hippocrates and Galen, and underlining the role of the humanities as ‘the hormones’ of intellectual life: ‘the men of your guild secrete materials which do for society at large what the thyroid gland does for the individual’ (Osler, 1919, 3). With a deep attachment to humanities, this lecture deplored the fragmentation of knowledge: ‘Specialism, now a necessity, has fragmented the specialties themselves in a way that makes the outlook hazardous’ (Osler, 1919, 5). Yet at the very same time, he belonged to this ‘specialism‘ trend with respect to his work; all his thinking appears congruent with a child of the maximal stage of printed culture. This famous lecture was followed by an exposition (Warner, 2014) of Osler’s rare books; he was a book lover (Osler, 1901). It is evident that the following decades of the 20th century saw the life sciences and humanities increasingly separated, and since then, knowledge has become like a broken mirror. Such a genealogy will be further examined, and will contribute, along with all the previous elements mentioned, to a consideration of the role of the digital humanities and IT research in life sciences within the epistemological knowledge turn we are currently facing. When the boundaries between research and infrastructures throughout all the fields are overcome, a new world can emerge.
            </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. etalk.vital-it.ch/rites-funeraires; etalk.vital-it.ch/dh; etalk.vital-it.ch/mooser (all accessed 1 March 2015).</p>
            <p>2. http://edu.isb-sib.ch/course/view.php?id=195.</p>
            <p>3. http://www.isb-sib.ch/.</p>
            <p>4. See 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://www.isb-sib.ch/</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://www.vital-it.ch/</hi>: ‘Vital-IT is a bioinformatics competence center that supports and collaborates with life scientists in Switzerland and beyond. The 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">multi-disciplinary team</hi> provides expertise, training and maintains a high-performance computing (HPC) and storage infrastructure, so as to help develop, maintain and extend life science and medical research’.
            </p>
            <p>5. Claire Clivaz, Panorama institutionnel des Digital Humanities à partir du cas suisse: vers la dissémination Digital Humanities?, http://publi.meshs.fr/ressources/panorama-institutionnel-digital-humanities/@@video.</p>
            <p>6. See http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh/courses.</p>
            <p>7. Ibid. </p>
            <p>8. See http://www.swissuniversities.ch/en/organisation/projekte-und-programme/suk-p-2-wissensch-information-zugang-verarbeitung-speicherung/; national strategy English summary: http://www.swissuniversities.ch/fileadmin/swissuniversities/Dokumente/EN/UH/SUK_P-2/SUK_P-2_NationaleStrategie_20140403_EN.pdf. The CUS P2 program is presided over by Prof. Dr. Martin Täuber (rector of the University of Bern), and directed by Dr. Roland Dietlicher (ETHZ) and Gaby Schneider (University of Basel).</p>
            <p>9. Thank you to my sociologist colleague Franco Panese for this reference.</p>
            <p>10. Thank you to the DARIAH colleague who provided me this reference in September 2014 in Rome, and whose name I have unfortunately forgotten.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Barsanti, G.</hi> (1992). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">L’Albero, la scala, la mappa</hi>, Sansoni, Florence. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chartier, R.</hi> (1995). Lecteurs dans la longue durée: du codex à l’écran [Readers in the long run: From codex to screen]. In Chartier, R. (dir.)., 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Histoire de la lecture: un bilan des recherches</hi> [History of reading: A research account]. Paris, IMEC éd., Éd. de la maison des sciences de l’homme, pp. 271–83.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clivaz, C.</hi> (2012). Common Era 2.0 : Mapping the Digital Era from Antiquity and Modernity. In Clivaz, C., Meizoz, J., Vallotton., F. and Verheyden, J. (eds), with Bertho, B., 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reading Tomorrow: From Ancient Manuscripts to the Digital Era. </hi>Lausanne: PPUR, 2012, ebook, pp. 23–60.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fins, J. J.</hi> (2008). ‘Humanities Are the Hormones’: Osler, Penfield and ‘Neuroethics’ Revisited. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">American Journal of Bioethics,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(1) (2008): 5–8.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Graphs, Maps, and Trees</hi>. London, 2005. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold color(2B2E34)"">Osler, W.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(2B2E34)""> (1901). Books and Men.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic color(2B2E34)"">Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold color(2B2E34)"">144</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(2B2E34)"">: 60–61.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Osler, W.</hi> (1919). The Old Humanities and the New Science. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">British Medical Journal,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2 </hi>(5 July): 1–7.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Warner, J. H.</hi> (2014). The Fielding H. Garrison Lecture: The Aesthetic Grounding of Modern Medicine. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bulletin of the History of Medicine,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">88</hi>(1): 1–47, 21.
                    </bibl>
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"2188","16","Beyond Potomology And Place - (Re) Imagining Narratives Of Journeys And Non-Places Along The Oxus River","10","","","1","",""
"2189","16","Beyond Pragmatics: Disciplinary Profits of Interdisciplinary Approaches","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Gius</surname>
                        <forename>Evelyn</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Hamburg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>evelyn.gius@uni-hamburg.de</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Jacke</surname>
                        <forename>Janina</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Hamburg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>janina.jacke@uni-hamburg.de</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Meister</surname>
                        <forename>Jan Christoph</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Hamburg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>j-c-meister@uni-hamburg.de</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Bögel</surname>
                        <forename>Thomas</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Heidelberg University, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>thomas.boegel@informatik.uni-heidelberg.de</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Strötgen</surname>
                        <forename>Jannik</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Heidelberg University, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>jannik.stroetgen@informatik.uni-heidelberg.de</email>
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            <p>While the mutually beneficial role of interdisciplinarity in DH projects is often highlighted, the impulse to rethink one’s own discipline-centered dogmas and theory as a result of such cooperations is seldom addressed. In heureCLÉA,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> a DH project involving a team of literary scholars and a team of computer scientists and machine learning specialists, both parties have encountered this phenomenon. In the following, we would like to demonstrate how interdisciplinary incompatibilities are brought to attention in the DH context, and how this realisation can help to improve a participant theory—in our example, the theory of narrative.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">The Setting: heureCLÉA</hi>
            </p>
            <p>heureCLÉA’s goal is to develop a ‘digital heuristic’: a discovery tool that supports literary scholars in analysing narrative texts. We focus on the generation of automated annotations concerning 
                <hi rend=""italic"">temporal</hi> aspects of novels, short stories, etc.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> By automatically identifying time-related phenomena, our digital heuristic-tool shall provide bottom-up support for hermeneutic analyses.
            </p>
            <p>Three steps lead toward this goal:</p>
            <p> 1. A small corpus of short stories is manually and collaboratively annotated with the help of a narratological tagset for temporal phenomena.</p>
            <p> 2. These annotations are then analysed and modelled in a computational approach that combines rule-based NLP methods with machine learning procedures.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi>
            </p>
            <p> 3. Once the automatically generated output meets defined performance criteria, the digital heuristic is implemented as a functional module in the text analysis platform CATMA.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi>
            </p>
            <p>This looks straightforward, but as soon as the first manual annotations were discussed in phase 2, we encountered problems that point to fundamentally different, discipline-specific approaches to text annotation. </p>
            <p>The Problem: Interdisciplinary Incompatibilities</p>
            <p>To begin, heureCLÉA’s markup ‘philosophy’ is consciously non-prescriptive:
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> we do not enforce inter-annotator agreement. Instead, we invite human annotators to consider their annotation practice as an interpretive activity rather than a taxonomy-ruled declaration of objective phenomena. This approach is supported by CATMA, our web-based platform for collaborative text annotation.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi> Accordingly, our annotators made different and even contradictory interpretive decisions when tagging certain text segments. 
            </p>
            <p>From a computer science point of view, this renders parts of the relevant CATMA markup data 
                <hi rend=""italic"">noisy</hi>, i.e., too ambiguous to allow for reliable statistical ML-analysis and prediction. The literary studies’ perspective onto such annotator disagreement, however, is quite the opposite.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">8</hi> Rather than constituting a methodological obstacle, substantially different interpretations of texts derived from incompatible analyses are regarded as a natural consequence of the polyvalence of literary texts (cf. Jannidis et al., 2003), or to phrase it provocatively: by definition, a non-ambiguous text triggering uniform high-level interpretations lacks aesthetic quality (cf. Jakobson, 1979/1960). Of course, such judgement hinges on the definition of ‘high-level’—the interpretation of a text’s philosophical message will certainly fall into this category. But what about statements concerning more formal, seemingly uncontroversial characteristics of narrative, such as their temporal construction both in terms of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">what</hi> (story) and the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">how </hi>(discourse) of narration?
            </p>
            <p>Two examples:</p>
            <p> 1. Standard narratological taxonomy uses the category of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">order</hi> to identify whether a series of events is narrated in its original temporal order, or whether the chronologies of events and narration differ. The following passage was annotated as a 
                <hi rend=""italic"">prolepsis</hi>, i.e., ‘flash forward’, by some annotators: ‘Maybe you expect me there at The Post Inn. Then we go to Ammerland together. It’s going to be a grand trip’ (Wedekind, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Vaccination</hi>, our translation).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">9</hi> But not everybody agreed: a second group of annotators did not detect a deviation from the chronological representation of events. 
            </p>
            <p> 2. The second example concerns the analysis of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">duration</hi> or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">speed</hi> of the narration: how long does it take to report events in relation to how long it takes for these events to happen? The following passage was sometimes annotated as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">scene</hi>, i.e., very slow narration, and sometimes as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">summary</hi>, i.e., very fast narration: ‘I have gazed outside all night, and methought this was how death must be like, or the after-death: over there and outside an infinite, hollowly roaring darkness. Will a thought, a notion of mine linger and weave on there and eternally hark to the intangible roaring?’ (Mann, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Death</hi>, our translation).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">10</hi>
            </p>
            <p>From an ML perspective these interpretive variances produced 
                <hi rend=""italic"">noisy </hi>annotation data—but how about the humanist’s view: Isn’t this the hallmark of aesthetic 
                <hi rend=""italic"">originality</hi>? Are conflicting annotations not indicative of a semantic richness owed to a narrators’ ability to evoke, e.g., polyvalent temporal orders? If so, the phenomenon would indeed have been adequately encoded 
                <hi rend=""italic"">in nuce</hi> by conflicting manual annotations on the inconspicuous level of narrative form.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">11</hi>
            </p>
            <p>To test this hypothesis, we attempted to reconcile the two different annotation-centered methodological perspectives—that of the computer scientist and that of the literary scholar—by taking a decision-tree-inspired look at the human-generated annotation: What exactly had triggered the diverse output? Where were the choice points?</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">The Solution: Improving Narratological Theory via NLP-Parametrisation </hi>
            </p>
            <p>Revisiting examples of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">noisy </hi>narratological annotation from a humanities perspective, we eventually realised that some did 
                <hi rend=""italic"">not</hi> result from genuine high-level polyvalence of literary texts. Instead, they could be traced back to one of two shortcomings—methodological and/or theoretical:
            </p>
            <p>Ill-Defined Concepts</p>
            <p>Some base-level narratological concepts proved simply ill-defined. Consider example one: The usual definition of the concept 
                <hi rend=""italic"">prolepsis</hi> (flash forward) does not specify whether temporal lookaheads must concern ‘actualized’ events in the fictional world. The annotation of the passage from example 1 thus varies according to how one defines the modal parameter ‘actualized’ vs. ‘hypothetical’. Problems of this kind were resolved by simply ‘pre-parametrising’ the relevant narratological categories so that previously non-explicit theoretical premises were now formally included in the category definition as functional parameters. This usually results in narrower definitions and, respectively, more consistent—less 
                <hi rend=""italic"">noisy</hi>—annotations. As for the definition of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">prolepsis</hi>, we confined this to ‘actualized’ anticipations. Accordingly, example 1 does 
                <hi rend=""italic"">not </hi>contain a prolepsis, for the future events in question—the meeting at the Post Inn, the journey together—are purely hypothetical. 
            </p>
            <p>Undetected Dependencies</p>
            <p>Other contradictory annotations were traced back to opaque dependencies between specific base-level narratological concepts and over-arching theoretical assumptions in narratological theory
                <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi> In a computational view, such non-explicit premises function as hidden parameters. This finding explains our second example: the analysis of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">duration</hi> depends on the underlying notion of what constitutes an 
                <hi rend=""italic"">event</hi>. If only specific occurrences in the fictional ‘outside world’ are considered an event, then the narration speed in example 2 is low. Since only the protagonist’s thoughts are reported here, nothing ‘happens’ empirically in the fictional world; it is only the narration that progresses. If, on the other hand, thoughts are considered events, too, then the narration speed is, of course, very high: a whole night of ‘gazing and thinking’ is narrated in just a few sentences!
            </p>
            <p>To address such cases where annotation variance stemmed from non-explicated theoretical premises, we adopted a less deterministic approach: such incompatible markup decisions are now accepted on condition that their underlying assumptions are explained in the markup. Annotators must, for example, document their notion of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">event</hi> when analysing 
                <hi rend=""italic"">duration</hi>. High-level parametrisation of this type will be implemented in the heuristic module by offering the users to choose their own parameters. Automated markup suggestions will then be adapted to these choices. From a technical perspective, this is realised using transparent machine learning models (such as Decision Trees)—in contrast to less transparent models (e.g., Support Vector Machines). Transparency is reflected in the possibility of being able to retrace and visualise the concrete decision process, i.e., factors that are involved in the prediction, which not only allows for an adaptation of the underlying model based on user-input (so-called interactive or feedback-driven machine learning) but also facilitates a reasoning and discussion over the changes to the model due to user input.
            </p>
            <p>Conclusion and Outlook</p>
            <p>These examples demonstrate how interdisciplinary DH collaboration, apart from the defined project goals, can also yield more general theoretical and methodological insights. Methodological incompatibilities observed in the pragmatic domain can motivate one of the partner disciplines to optimize its elementary taxonomic definitions, and even stimulate theoretical revisions, as the example of inconsistent human annotation and the introduction of pre-parametrisation and flexible parametrisation of categories demonstrates. </p>
            <p>DH-collaborations are particularly well suited to yield such benefits beyond the pragmatic: on the one hand, we practice the humanities’ hermeneutic approach, a methodology and epistemology that are phenomenological, synthesis-oriented, and historically contingent; on the other hand, we employ the formal approach of computational analysis and mathematical modelling, which strives for an abstract, fully parametrised representation and analysis of data structures and processes. </p>
            <p>This methodological bifurcation is not a question of enduring a life in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">two cultures</hi> (
                <hi rend=""italic"">sensu</hi> C. P. Snow, cf. Snow [1993]); it is the fundamental and highly productive dialectic of DH’s epistemology and practice.
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.aiehjvqk3sbu""/>Notes
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""Fußnotenzeichen"">1. </hi>heureCLÉA is funded by the German Ministry for Education and Science (BMBF) as part of the eHumanities initiative. For further project details, see www
                <ref target=""http://www.heureclea.de/"">.</ref>heureclea
                <ref target=""http://www.heureclea.de/"">.</ref>de. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""Fußnotenzeichen"">2. </hi>While this paper only addresses narrative theory as a beneficiary discipline, we have also experienced cases demonstrating the opposite constellation. For an illustration of the benefits that the interdisciplinary approach has brought for NLP, see Gius and Jacke (2015) as well as Bögel et al. (2015).
            </p>
            <p>3. In addition to rather basic aspects like 
                <hi rend=""italic"">tense</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dates</hi>, we are concerned with more complex temporal phenomena that are constitutive of all types of narrative representation: every narrative features a story, and this story is presented in a specific way. The more complex temporal phenomena with which we are concerned all refer to the temporal relation between story and representation. This relation can be analysed with regards to three aspects: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">order</hi> (when did an event happen? when is it told?), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">frequency</hi> (how often does it happen? how often is it told?), and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">duration</hi> (how long did it take to happen? how long did it take to tell about it?); cf. Genette (1972).
            </p>
            <p>4. For first results concerning automated annotation, cf. Bögel et al. (2014).</p>
            <p>5. Cf. www.digitalhumanities.it/catma.</p>
            <p>6. heureCLÉA—like its markup tool CATMA—is based on the methodological premise of ‘hermeneutic markup’, as described in Piez (2010). </p>
            <p>7. For CATMA, see www
                <ref target=""http://www.catma.de/"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://www.catma.de/"">catma</ref>
                <ref target=""http://www.catma.de/"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://www.catma.de/"">de</ref>.
            </p>
            <p>8. For a more theoretical-methodological discussion of this divergence, cf. Gius and Jacke (2015).</p>
            <p>9. ‘Vielleicht erwartet ihr mich dort im Gasthof zur Post. Dann fahren wir zusammen nach Ammerland. Das wird eine prächtige Tour’ (Wedekind, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Die Schutzimpfung</hi>).
            </p>
            <p>10. ‘Ich habe die ganze Nacht hinausgeblickt, und mich dünkte, so müsse der Tod sein oder das Nach dem Tode: dort drüben und draußen ein unendliches, dumpf brausendes Dunkel. Wird dort ein Gedanke, eine Ahnung von mir fortleben und -weben und ewig auf das unbegreifliche Brausen horchen?’ (Mann, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Der Tod</hi>).
            </p>
            <p>11. For a more detailed exploration of the phenomenon, see Meister (2003), who explores the resulting combinatorial potential of incrementally more complex and polyvalent action-constructs in Goethe’s novella cycle 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Unterhaltungen deutscher Ausgewanderten</hi>. 
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
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                    <term>resource creation</term>
                    <term>and discovery</term>
                    <term>GLAM: galleries</term>
                    <term>libraries</term>
                    <term>archives</term>
                    <term>museums</term>
                    <term>interdisciplinary collaboration</term>
                    <term>cultural studies</term>
                    <term>English</term>
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            <p rend=""No Spacing"">The National Library of Wales (NLW) has been an enthusiastic adopter of digitization and networked technologies since the late 1990s as a means of opening up the nation’s cultural heritage. The digital plays a key role in the Library’s core strategic aim of ‘Knowledge for All’, not only to provide greater access to resources online, but also to enhance our potential impact and help us engage more effectively with our users, both existing and future (NLW, 2014). To address the challenges of delivering effective, usable, and sustainable digital resources, the Library established its own Research Programme in Digital Collections in 2011 to contribute to the development of a more coherent digital agenda.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> Adding value and impact to the Library’s digital content and the institution as a whole lies at the heart of what the Programme is seeking to achieve. It can no longer be assumed that digital resources, once built, will be used (Warwick et al., 2008). Attempts have therefore been made to examine potential barriers to the adoption and use of such resources and to better understand issues surrounding their sustainability.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> It is within this context that the Programme operates. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">The Programme’s main areas of focus include developing an understanding of the use, value, and impact of the Library’s existing digital content; identifying ways of enhancing this content for research, teaching, and community engagement; and developing new digital content that addresses specific research and educational needs. This work is being realised through collaboration with partner libraries, museums and archives, cultural heritage organisations, universities, and other key stakeholders that cross institutions, collections, and disciplinary traditions, both nationally and internationally, with the aim of bringing tools, methods, and content together to create digital resources that are seamless and open. This paper will examine the work currently ongoing at the Library as part of its digital programme and, in particular, its attempts to foster collaboration in the creation and development of improved environments that enable more effective use, re-use, and linking of its digital content.</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Historical Digital Texts</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">The creation of digital text, and especially historical digital text, is hugely challenging. The issues posed by the original text, including issues such as legibility and physical condition, are often exacerbated by attempts to process and subsequently analyse these texts digitally and will inevitably have implications for research. Such issues are demonstrated by problems of accuracy with the underlying OCR in the Library’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Welsh Newspapers Online </hi>project
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi>—a free, searchable digital archive of over 100 historic newspapers of Wales, both Welsh- and English-language, dating from 1804 to 1919 in the Library’s holdings—which are often caused by blemishes and imperfections on the pages of the original. As Tim Hitchcock has recently argued, underlying issues of the design and structure of digital texts can be hugely problematic for research and algorithm-based searching (2013). Re-use and analysis of such content must, therefore, incorporate these concerns. As such, engaging expert users and curators of the material in the creation of a digital resource and the development of discovery and analysis tools is key. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Collaboration and Co-Creation</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">A collaborative approach was used by the Library in Cymru1914.org,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> a JISC-funded project to digitize primary sources relating to the Welsh experience of the First World War and its impact on all aspects of Welsh life, language, and culture. The project has virtually unified fragmented and often difficult-to-access materials from the libraries, archives, museums, and special collections of Wales to form a consolidated digital collection of interest to researchers, students, and the public on life in Wales during this significant period of change. The project was developed as a process of co-creation: a collaboration between the Library; the libraries, archives, museums, and special collections of Wales; and researchers of the literature, history, language, and politics of the period. Their input was used to inform the selection of content, the development of the user interface, and the testing of functionality. This model of active collaboration reunites curatorial and scholarly roles, redressing concerns regarding the gradual segregation of these roles in the current academic and cultural heritage landscapes (Schnapp and Presner, 2009). Such approaches also work towards further embedding digital resources in the life cycle of scholarly research, thus increasing its value, impact, and sustainability in the long term. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">The Library is also looking to explore new collaborative opportunities to enhance its existing digital content through the application of crowdsourcing approaches (Dafis et al., 2014). The Library’s first collaborative crowdsourcing project, Cymru1900Wales,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> a classification project to gather the place names of Wales from the georeferenced Ordnance Survey maps of 1900, has been an opportunity for the Library to experiment with crowdsourcing and enable greater engagement with new and remote audiences. These possibilities are being developed through a co-supervised PhD with the University of Wales to assess the feasibility of such approaches for the transcription of the Library’s online collection of Welsh wills and to build virtual communities around the content. There is already significant interest in the wills, especially in family and local history circles. Crowdsourcing is an opportunity for the Library to use this interest in a positive way to add value to its collections and the institution itself, and to engage the community in its work. Such an approach gives the Library the opportunity to build closer links with its users across the world and to encourage connections between academia and the public. It is a way of allowing the public to meaningfully experience and understand their pasts, which, in essence, is the cultural heritage sector’s primary objective (Owens, 2012). 
            </p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Analysis and Linking of Content</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Users are becoming more demanding in their expectations of what digital resources can deliver. For these demands to be met and to ensure maximum usage, particularly within scholarship, environments must be created that allow for content to be analysed in more effective and complex ways. This includes resources that facilitate both close and distant readings of texts, allowing for the exceptional to be studied alongside large-scale aggregations of data (Moretti, 2005). The Library has experimented with simple visualisation tools, such as n-grams, giving researchers the opportunity to analyse patterns and trends on larger scales than would be possible in a non-digital environment. The possibilities of linked data are also under consideration as a means of transcending collection boundaries. Enabling links to be more easily made between documents within and across collections in this way would remove the data from its Welsh silo and allow it to be more easily incorporated into a broader, more international context. This would see the Library becoming a truly global institution for and of the Welsh and other Celtic peoples. </p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">In keeping with its commitment to providing free and open access, NLW is also in the early stages of facilitating more advanced analysis of its digital content by opening up some of its raw data for others to download and interrogate for their own research purposes. These datasets will come from some of the Library’s biggest collections, including the newspapers, and it will be available during 2015.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Conclusion</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">This paper will demonstrate that cultural heritage organisations, such as the Library, are frequently spaces in which research and development in the digital humanities can be nurtured and encouraged, and where collaboration with colleagues within and beyond the humanities and the academy can take place. NLW projects, such as Cymru1914.org, have shown the value in building better connections and partnerships with libraries, archives, and museums, along with researchers and the public more generally. This has enabled the development of digital resources that allow for data to be used and reused, that encourage meaningful engagement with different user communities, and that permit digital outputs to be repurposed for new and unforeseen purposes. We must look to build collaborations that will facilitate the integration of tools and data, and the disassociation of text and data from its platform or delivery mechanism, thus ultimately liberating digital resources and scholarship, and ensuring that our work does more than merely replicate print culture digitally.</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Acknowledgement</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">The authors would like to thank Professor Lorna M. Hughes for her assistance in writing this proposal.</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Notes</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. NLW Research, www.llgc.org.uk/research. </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. University College London, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The LAIRAH Project: Log Analysis of Internet Resources in the Arts and Humanities</hi>, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/infostudies/LAIRAH/
                <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">. Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">TIDSR: Toolkit </hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">for</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">the</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic""> Impact </hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">of</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Digitised</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarly</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic""> Resources</hi>, 
                </hi>http://microsites.oii.ox.ac.uk/tidsr/welcome
                <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">. </hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. Welsh Newspapers Online, http://welshnewspapers.llgc.org.uk/en/home. </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">4. Cymru1914: The Welsh Experience of the First World War, http://cymru1914.org/. </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">5. Cymru1900Wales, http://www.cymru1900wales.org/. </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">6. The data, when available, will be accessible from 
                <ref target=""http://data.llgc.org.uk"">http://data.llgc.org.uk</ref>
                <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">.</hi>
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dafis, L., Hughes, L. and James, R.</hi> (2014). What’s Welsh for ‘Crowdsourcing’? Citizen Science and Community Engagement at the National Library of Wales. In Ridge, M. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Crowdsourcing our Cultural Heritage</hi>. Ashgate, pp. 139–59. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hitchcock, T.</hi> (2013). Confronting the Digital: Or How Academic History Writing Lost the Plot. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cultural and Social History,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(1): 9–23, http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/147800413X13515292098070.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History</hi>. Verso.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">NLW.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Knowledge for All: National Library of Wales Strategic Plan 2014–2017</hi>. http://www.llgc.org.uk/fileadmin/fileadmin/docs_gwefan/amdanom_ni/dogfennaeth_gorfforaethol/corff_strat_KnowledgeforAll_2014_2017S.pdf. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Owens, T.</hi> (2012). Crowdsourcing Cultural Heritage: The Objectives Are Upside Down. http://www.trevorowens.org/2012/03/crowdsourcing-cultural-heritage-the-objectives-are-upside-down/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schnapp, J. and Presner, T.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Digital Humanities Manifesto 2.0</hi>. http://www.humanitiesblast.com/manifesto/Manifesto_V2.pd
                        <hi rend=""Hyperlink""> </hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""person_name"">Warwick, C</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">., </hi>
                        <hi rend=""person_name"">Terras, M</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">.,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space"">
                            <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        </hi>
                        <hi rend=""person_name"">Huntington, P</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space"">
                            <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">and </hi>
                        </hi>
                        <hi rend=""person_name"">Pappa, N</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>(2008). If You Build It, Will They Come? The LAIRAH Study: Quantifying the Use of Online Resources in the Arts and Humanities through Statistical Analysis of User Log Data.
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>
                        </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(1): 85–102, 10.1093/llc/fqm045.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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                    <affiliation>King's College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>bobcgallagher@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Roach</surname>
                        <forename>Rebecca</forename>
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                    <affiliation>King's College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>rebecca.roach@kcl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Apperley</surname>
                        <forename>Thomas</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of New South Wales, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>t.apperley@unsw.edu.au</email>
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                    <term>surveillance</term>
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                    <term>gaming</term>
                    <term>online culture</term>
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            <quote>We are witnessing a rise in the politicization of absence- and presence-oriented themes such as invisibility, opacity, and anonymity, or the relationship between identification and legibility, or the tactics of nonexistence and disappearance, new struggles around prevention, the therapeutics of the body, piracy and contagion, informatic capture and . . . data mining.</quote>
            <quote>—Alexander R. Galloway, Black Box, Black Bloc</quote>
            <p>Taking Galloway’s essay as its point of departure, this panel draws together three papers that work to unpack the idea of ‘the black-boxed self’, addressing some of the ways in which selfhood is understood, articulated, and monetized in an age when networked digital devices are transforming politics, medicine, play, and creative endeavour—not to mention academic research.</p>
            <p>Indeed, we propose that much of the most interesting work proceeding in the humanities today can be understood in terms of the attempt to engage, imagine, or theorize black-boxed selves of one kind or another. We might think, here, of the intentionally opaque or illegible selves addressed in Nicolas de Villiers’ elaboration (2012) of the strategies of ‘opacity’ deployed by those seeking to queer normative models of subjectivity and biography, or of anthropologist Gabriella Coleman’s work (2014) on the amorphous hacker collective Anonymous and their bids to evade online surveillance and censorship; of attempts to render one’s own body less cryptic, whether through the kinds of life-writing analysed by those working in the medical humanities or nascent practices of digital self-quantification and ‘personal informatics’ (see Whitehead, 2013; Schull, 2014); or of research into the ‘data images’ of users captured by technologies like Microsoft’s Xbox 360, a blockbusting videogame console that pioneered modes of covert user surveillance (Cybulski, 2014).</p>
            <p>Like these projects, our papers adopt a multidisciplinary approach, variously taking their cues from literary theory, phenomenology, the medical humanities, media archaeology, platform studies, and affect theory, and drawing too on the new tools and tactics available to scholars working on and with digital media. Between us we address a range of media and practices, from videogaming and Twitter fiction to YouTube roleplay and digital sousveillance. By addressing developments in these specific fields, our panel aims to broach broader questions regarding the ways in which emergent forms of digital black boxing are shaping identity work and self-expression today.</p>
            <p>References</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Coleman, G.</hi> (2014). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy: The Many Faces of Anonymous. </hi>Verso, London.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Cybulski, A. D.</hi> (2014). Enclosures at Play: Surveillance in the Code and Culture of Videogames. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Surveillance &amp; Society,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">12</hi>(3): 427–32.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">De Villiers, N.</hi> (2012). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Opacity and the Closet: Queer Tactics in Foucault, Barthes, and Warhol.</hi> University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Galloway, A. R.</hi> (2011). Black Box, Black Bloc. In Noys, B. (ed.), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Communization and Its Discontents: Contestation, Critique and Contemporary Struggles.</hi>
                </hi>London: Minor Compositions / AK Press, pp. 237–49.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Schull, N. D.</hi> (2014). Time on Device: Slot Machine Design and the Turn Away from Risk in Gambling. Lecture at McGill University, Montreal. 10 April 2014.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Whitehead, A.</hi> (2013). The Medical Humanities: A Literary Perspective. In Bates, V., Bleakley, A. and Goodman, S. (eds), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Medicine, Health and the Arts Approaches to the Medical Humanities.</hi> Hoboken, NJ: Taylor and Francis, pp. 107–27. 
            </p>
            <p>Paper 1</p>
            <p>ASMR Culture and the Reading of the Black-Boxed Self</p>
            <p>Gallagher, R.</p>
            <p>King’s College London</p>
            <p>Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR) is a term used by online communities of people who claim to experience states of euphoric, even orgasmic, cranial ‘tingling’ when exposed to certain sensory stimuli. These communities have coalesced via online platforms where participants describe their ASMR experiences and swap media that ‘trigger’ them, typically videos rich in ambient sounds; soft, deliberate speech; meticulous activity, and/or stylized gestures. These sites and practices have in turn spawned a class of ‘ASMRtists’ who produce videos catering to those with the condition, their content ranging from whispered recitations of Eliot’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Waste Land</hi> to role-plays that see them posing as dentists, witches, or librarians.
            </p>
            <p>Perhaps inevitably, the claims made for ASMR (from inducing ecstasy to ameliorating anxiety and insomnia to reversing hair loss) and the dubiously pseudo-scientific discourse that has evolved around it have occasioned scepticism. Here, however, I want to suspend the question of whether ASMR is ‘real’, reasoning that, whether we grant the condition medical legitimacy or not, ASMR 
                <hi rend=""italic"">culture</hi> offers a fascinating lens on the immemorial problem of opening up the ‘black box’ of the individual body to render somatic states and physiological phenomena shareable, and on the ways in which the networked black boxes inhabiting our desks, pockets, and living rooms now factor into this problem.
            </p>
            <p>In short, I am willing to risk ‘black boxing’ ASMR—accepting that, whatever its medical status, the concept now functions as an ‘intermediary’ in a variety of broader conceptual, technological, cultural, and corporeal networks (Latour, 2005, 39)—in order to address what the phenomenon tell us about both the construction of the self and the nature of humanistic research in the era of data mining, search engines, and social media. Galloway argues that ours has become a ‘cybernetic societ[y]’ in which black-boxed systems are not just pervasive but paradigmatic, and that, as a consequence, any account of contemporary culture and politics must address the terms upon which ideas and entities are allowed to appear and disappear; in response, I consider the conditions of ASMR’s appearance, paying particular attention to the fact that the phenomenon is essentially coeval (as term, concept, and claimable identity, if not as experience) with the host of developments connoted by the term ‘Web 2.0’. With the move from a text-centric to a multimodal web, the proliferation of webcams and microphones, and the emergence of blogging platforms, social networks, and content aggregators has come the ability, if not the imperative, to connect, express, sharem and generally ‘Broadcast [One]self’. By demonstrating that the social web can also be a platform for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">diagnosing</hi> oneself, ASMR raises questions about the culture of the Web, and about how we ‘read’ cultural phenomena that seem to resist traditional scholarly approaches, exemplifying an era in which ‘unveil[ing] and decod[ing]’ may have run their course as critical strategies (Galloway, 2011, 243).
            </p>
            <p>My paper responds by identifying three modes of reading that, although I elaborate them in relation to ASMR, might equally serve to illuminate other online cultures. The first involves reading contextually—meaning, in the case of ASMR, drawing on media archaeology and the cultural history of nosology. The former insists that ‘the history of the media is not the product of a predictable and necessary advance from primitive to complex apparatus’ and that ‘instead of looking for obligatory trends, master media, or imperative vanishing points, one should be able to discover individual variations’ (Zielinski, 2006, 7); the latter, meanwhile, teaches us that conditions like green sickness, neurasthenia, and spermathorrea did not have to be real to have very real effects and authorising contexts (e.g., Rosenman, 2003), just as various conditions currently considered medically legitimate were once dismissed or relegated to the status of psychosomatic disorder (Fletcher, 2004). Both point to the importance of considering how online ASMR culture evokes (and sometimes invokes) other media and moments, not to erase differences but to bring specificities into keener focus.</p>
            <p>The second mode of reading involves attending to the terms upon which media texts are instrumentalized. This means reading cultural artefacts in relation to the strategies by way of which they are integrated into and made to facilitate web users’ everyday activities. ASMR video archives tend to tag material as either ‘intentional’ (that is, created for the express purpose of eliciting ASMR) or ‘unintentional’ (material that happens to be conducive to the desired state); ASMRtists’ works can, in turn, elicit suspicion, hilarity, curiosity, and distaste when experienced out of context. If this raises issues of ‘context collapse’ (boyd and Marwick, 2011) indicative of the way media become unmoored from their original circumstances and purposes online, it also raises question of cultural value; from an ASMR perspective, QVC presenters’ demonstrations of kitchenware, fan-made videogame ‘Let’s Play’ videos, and readings of modernist poetry can prove equally valuable means of accomplishing the ‘affective labour’ of modulating moods and physiological states (Andrejevic, 2011, 89). In this respect, ASMR culture asks us to think about the fate and function of cultural artefacts on the Web. Primed by Galloway, we might characterize its approach to cultural artefacts as cybernetic rather than hermeneutic: media become ‘inputs’ judged in terms of their ability to elicit particular affective ‘outputs’ rather than texts to be decoded. Networked digital devices, meanwhile, become tools for modulating and maintaining moods and atmospheres, creating ‘bubbles’ of pleasure, comfort, and belonging within environments otherwise experienced as empty or oppressive. Swapping media, testimonies, theories, and tips, ASMR ‘sufferers’ prompt us to consider the emergence of what Lauren Berlant (2011) calls ‘genres of the present’—discursive formats and cultural practices that enable their exponents to retain a sense of continuity and community in a sociocultural landscape increasingly characterised by anxiety, precarity, and flux. </p>
            <p>Finally, I propose reading cultural projects in terms of the use they make of the Web’s affordances. From this perspective, we can see ASMR culture as the product of an Internet seeking to transcend text, and it was surely Web 2.0’s move to foster the creation and dissemination of audiovisual content that allowed the varieties of acoustic (rather than, say, haptic or olfactory) experience that ‘sufferers’ recount to come to prominence. At the same time, however, ASMR culture points to the continuing privilege afforded language on a web where even nonverbal content is found and filed by way of text (the gradual rise of image- and speech-based search technologies notwithstanding). Looking back at the blogs and forums across which a discourse of ASMR developed, we can see how the project of forging a common vocabulary was both enabled and constrained by the structures, features, and implicit logics of different online platforms. Blogs’ ‘tag clouds’, for example, now operate as records of participatory etiology at work, showing how certain terms and themes ballooned as consensus built behind them while others were doomed to remain outliers. We see, too, how the ASMR community continues to pursue both personal experiences and public recognition of the condition by making imaginative use of familiar tools. Thus, Reddit’s ‘upvote’ system, conventionally used as an all-purpose measure of appreciation or interest, is, on the r/asmr ‘subreddit’, recast as a means of gauging the efficacy of different media as triggers and so refining the definition of the condition. By introducing new usage conventions, the ASMR community has refunctioned the website’s interface as a tool of definition and quantification. Turning the same black box to innovative new ends, this strategy offers a microcosmic hint as to how other black-boxed systems might be made to yield new and strange cultural outputs.</p>
            <p>References</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Andrejevic, M.</hi> (2011). Social Network Exploitation. In Papacharissi, Z. (ed.), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A Networked Self : Identity, Community and Culture on Social Network Sites. </hi>London: Routledge, pp. 82–101.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Berlant, L.</hi> (2011). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Cruel Optimism.</hi> Duke University Press, Durham, NC.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">boyd, D. and Marwick, A. E.</hi> (2011). I Tweet Honestly, I Tweet Passionately: Twitter Users, Context Collapse, and the Imagined Audience. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Media &amp; Society,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">13</hi>: 114–33.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Fletcher, C.</hi> (2004). Dystopothesia: Emplacing Environmental Sensitivities. In Howes, D. (ed.), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Empire of the Senses: The Sensual Culture Reader.</hi> Oxford: Berg, pp. 380–98.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Galloway, A. R.</hi> (2011). Black Box, Black Bloc. In Noys, B. (ed.), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Communization and Its Discontents: Contestation, Critique and Contemporary Struggles.</hi>
                </hi> London: Minor Compositions / AK Press, pp. 237–49.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Latour, B.</hi> (2005). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory.</hi> Oxford University Press, Oxford.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Rosenman, E. B.</hi> (2003). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Unauthorized Pleasures: Accounts of Victorian Erotic Experience.</hi> Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Zielinski, S.</hi> (2006). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Deep Time of the Media: Toward an Archaeology of Hearing and Seeing by Technical Means.</hi> MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
            </p>
            <p>Paper 2</p>
            <p>Literature, E-Health, and the Black-Boxed Self</p>
            <p>Roach, R.</p>
            <p>King’s College London</p>
            <quote>It is thus today no longer a question simply of the enemy’s black box, but the black boxing of the self, of any node contained in a network of interaction. The enemy’s machine is not simply a device in a German airplane, it is ourselves: a call center employee, a card reader at a security checkpoint, a piece of software, a genetic sequence, a hospital patient. The black box is no longer a cipher waiting to be unveiled and decoded, it is a function defined exclusively through its inputs and outputs. </quote>
            <quote>—Galloway, 2011, 243</quote>
            <p>Alexander R. Galloway’s mention of a hospital patient falls at the end of a list, a seemingly casual example among many of the black boxing of the self in contemporary society. It is, however, the patient who forms the basis of this talk, the central figure in an argument that considers the import of Galloway’s notion for the medical humanities today. As e-health becomes a central and mushrooming area for health care, medical research, and patient experience, it is as well that the medical humanities reflect on their own involvement with the digital. Galloway’s description of the ‘black-boxed self’ seems to me a useful place to begin teasing out some of the issues around representations of pain, illness, and the body in an online setting. Explicitly interdisciplinary in its discussion of research in e-health, the medical humanities, life writing, literary studies, and the digital humanities, I use two case studies as a means of focusing my discussion.</p>
            <p>The first, Jennifer Egan’s 2012 tweeted story ‘Black Box’, explores, against the explicit backdrop of government spying, the fusing of technologies of surveillance with the human body. In this piece of serialized digital literature, the female speaker’s body has become the black-box recorder in a theatre of war, complete with ‘universal data port’ and devices implanted in the ear and eye, under the hairline, and between the toes. Fusing body and technology, Egan’s story also emphasizes the ‘Disassociation Technique’, a process for dividing the self from bodily experience and pain. Black boxed though the body may be, Egan seems to suggest the possibility of a self outside of and distinct from the confines of that box. </p>
            <p>Illuminating contemporary anxieties around surveillance, digital technologies, and the human body, Egan’s story posits a troubling relationship between aesthetics and the biodigital. Technical advances here become a nightmare perpetuation of female objectification, and even the form of the fiction, a series of tweets purportedly offering the narrator’s stream of consciousness, seems perilously close to the serialized outputs of a sousveillance device. While Egan’s story offers an important example of the ambivalence often characterising literary responses to digital advances and the black-boxed self, the denunciation of such technologies and associated conceptualisations is often much less straightforward within a medical setting. </p>
            <p>Take the example that forms my second case study: epilepsy, and its online, social media, and app provision. The most common serious brain condition worldwide, epilepsy affects 50 million people, with around 80% of patients living in developing countries (WHO, 2012). A chronic condition identified by a tendency to experience seizures, people with epilepsy regularly experience the black boxing of themselves. The event that not only identifies their condition but also frequently stigmatises them in society is (in most forms of the condition) inaccessible to the individual. </p>
            <p>In addition, while earlier medical approaches emphasized the diagnosis and location of seizure origin in the brain, this has been largely superseded by a black-boxed approach. Managing symptoms, with continued self-monitoring by patients, is now the focus of much epilepsy medicine. This turn has led, not only to research attention being focused on how patients with epilepsy access information, advice, and support via the Web (known to improve well-being) but also to the development of numerous apps designed to aid self-management (Hoch et al., 1999; Shegog et al., 2013; Walker et al., 2012; Koenig et al., 2007; Wicks et al., 2012). These include those that track medications and symptoms, to those that monitor heart rate and breathing, alerting carers if unusual activity suggests that a seizure might be occurring. </p>
            <p>On the one hand, then, the monitored subject becomes the quintessential black box, reduced to a series of inputs and outputs, with any sense of interiority rendered problematically disrupted or inaccessible. On the other hand, such technologically aided self-management can markedly improve the patients’ experience of their condition, reducing hospital admissions and some of the dangers associated with (clonic-tonic) seizures. Furthermore, this sousveillance offers the subject a form of technologized narrative that might capture those events lost to consciousness. Can, in fact, the black boxing of the self offer the subject a new and potentially useful form of life writing? </p>
            <p>In reflecting on these issues, I turn to the medical humanities, itself part of a response to the behaviourist understanding of the self (that also models the black box) so dominant in medicine at mid-century. Over the last 30 years, scholars such as Arthur Frank (2013), Arthur Kleinman (1988), Rita Charon (2006), and Kathryn Montgomery (2006) have developed the field of so-called illness narratives. Attending to the ways in which individuals experience, understand, and represent their illnesses, this scholarship has had a significant impact not only on scholars interested in thinking about relations between literature and medicine but also with medicine itself and the generalized move towards patient-centred care. Attempting to respond to and resist the conceptualization of the patient as a series of symptoms or outputs, the behaviourist black box is (theoretically at least) repudiated in favour of narrative-sensitive medicine that is conscious of the individual experience (Vaccarella 2011).</p>
            <p>Yet in the increasingly technologized world of medicine, within the burgeoning field of e-health, how precisely such illness narratives might operate in an online setting becomes a complex question. What, for example, does it mean to tell an illness narrative via sousveillance? Drawing on semi-structured interviews conducted for a qualitative study into epilepsy patients’ self-representation online and on recent work in digital life writing and the medical humanities (O’Riordan, 2011; Waldby, 2000; McLellan, 1997; Arthur, 2009; Zuern, 2003; McNeil, 2012), this paper will reflect on the particularities of writing (epilepsy) lives online. </p>
            <p>References</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Arthur, P. L.</hi> (2009). Digital Biography: Capturing Lives Online. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A/B,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>(1): 74–92.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Charon, R.</hi> (2006). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Narrative Medicine: Honoring the Stories of Illness.</hi> Oxford University Press, New York.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Egan, J.</hi> (2012). Black Box. Tweeted 23 May 2012+, @NYerFiction. Also available at New Yorker Online, 4 June 2012, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/06/04/black-box-2.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Frank, A. W.</hi> (2013). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Wounded Storyteller: Body, Illness, and Ethics.</hi> 2nd University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Galloway, A. R.</hi> (2011). Black Box, Black Bloc. In Noys, B. (ed.), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Communization and Its Discontents: Contestaton, Critique, and Contemporary Struggles. </hi>New York: Minor Compositions, pp. 237–49. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Hoch, D. B., Norris, D., Lester, J. E. and Marcus, A. D.</hi> (1999). Information Exchange in an Epilepsy Forum on the World Wide Web. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Seizure: The Journal of the British Epilepsy Association,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(1): 30–34.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Kleinman, A.</hi> (1988). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Illness Narratives: Suffering, Healing, and the Human Condition. </hi>Basic Books, New York.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Koenig, S. A., Dobson, P., Longin, E., Michalec, D., Gerstner, T. and Taylor, J.</hi> (2007). Internet-Based Knowledge Management Database for Children and Adults with Epilepsy: A Possible Model Project for Evidence-Based Medicine in the Future. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Seizure: The Journal of the British Epilepsy Association,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">16</hi>(8): 703–8.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">McLellan, F.</hi> (1997). ‘A Whole Other Story’: The Electronic Narrative of Illness. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Literature and Medicine,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">16</hi>(1): 88–107.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">McNeil, K., Brna, P. M. and Gordon, K. E.</hi> (2012). Epilepsy in the Twitter Era: A Need to Re-Tweet the Way We Think about Seizures. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Epilepsy and Behavior,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(2): 127–30.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Montgomery, K.</hi> (2006). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">How Doctors Think: Clinical Judgment and the Practice of Medicine. </hi>Oxford University Press, Oxford.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">O’Riordan, K.</hi> (2011). Writing Biodigital Life: Personal Genomes and Digital Media. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">34</hi>(1): 119–31.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Shegog, R., Bamps, Y., Patel, A., Kakacek, J., Escoffery, C., Johnson, E. K. and Ilozumba, U. O.</hi> (2013). Managing Epilepsy Well: Emerging E-Tools for Epilepsy Self-Management. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Epilepsy and Behavior,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(1): 133–40.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Vaccarella, M.</hi> (2011). Narrative Epileptology. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Lancet,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">377</hi>: 460–61.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Waldby, C.</hi> (2000). Virtual Anatomy: From the Body in the Text to the Body on the Screen. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Medical Humanities,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(2): 85–108.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Walker, E. R., Bamps, Y., Burdett, A., Rothkopf, J. and Dilorio, C.</hi> (2012). Social Support for Self-Management Behaviors among People with Epilepsy: A Content Analysis of the WebEase Program. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Epilepsy and Behavior,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(3): 285–90.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">WHO.</hi> (2012). Epilepsy
                <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi> Factsheet No. 999, http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs999/en/ (accessed 1 September 2014).
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Wicks, P., Kleininger, D. L., Massagli, M. P., de la Loge, C., Brownstein, C., Isojärvi, J. and Heywood, J.</hi> (2012). Perceived Benefits of Sharing Health Data between People with Epilepsy on an Online Platform. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Epilepsy and Behavior,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(1): 16–23.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Zuern, J.</hi> (ed). (2003). Online Lives. Special issue of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Biography,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">26</hi>(1): v–xxv.
            </p>
            <p>Paper 3</p>
            <p>Gestural Excess, Gaming Style, and New Regimes of Surveillance</p>
            <p>Apperley, T.</p>
            <p>University of New South Wales</p>
            <p>Motion gaming was popularized through the release of the Wii in 2006. The wireless Wiimote operated through a combination of a motion sensor and an infrared pointer, as well as the more traditional buttons, directional pad, and trigger. Similar devices were incorporated into the other major consoles: Sony released the PlayStation Move, a motion-sensing controller for the PlayStation 3, in 2010; the add-on Kinect was also released in 2010 for the Microsoft Xbox 360. The Kinect introduced the ‘natural’ user interface to commercial gaming. It is a ‘controller-less’ device that uses a 3D camera advanced enough to allow motion capture and facial recognition. The technologies combine to create a computer interface that can be used intuitively, through a combination of motions, movements, and gestures that are recognised by the Kinect. This device allows people to play games—and use other media—on the Xbox 360 and Windows PC through movement and voice alone, making it the contemporary gaming technology that is most intimately linked to the body. The product is incredibly popular; in the 60 days following its release the Kinect sold 8 million units, becoming the world’s ‘fastest selling consumer electronics device’ (Moses, 2011). </p>
            <p>These platforms make use of ‘gestural excess’ (Freeman et al., 2012; Simon, 2009), the labour that is produced by the body at the location of play, but is not registered by the digital game as an input. In this gestural excess there is a nascent, but precarious, sense of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">style</hi> that formerly dissipated into everyday life, but is now indexed by popular visual culture. Gestural excess includes movements made unconsciously and those that are made deliberately as an act of ‘style’. Gesture and gestural excess in gaming have existed since the technologies’ inception—and indeed some gestures were possibly inherited from technological precursors like pinball (Huhtamo, 2005) and video art (Wilson, 2004; 2008). However, subsequent to the mass popularity of the Wii, the body of the gamer and gestural excess are increasingly understood by the digital games industry—and in the popular imagination—as an integral part of gaming. New forms of control in gaming that are based on ‘natural’ user interfaces using motion sensing, touch, and voice seem to offer a new potency for gesture. Buttons, for example, rarely mimic ‘natural’ actions or gestures (Parker, 2008; Shinkle, 2008, 908), and it is the limited recognition of human input by systems for which the player essentially remains a black box that establishes the possibility of gestural excess; it doesn’t matter how hard or fast that the button is hit. The ‘natural’ user interface, which operates through an ‘intuitive’ recognition of gesture, signals the possibility for the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">recuperation </hi>of gestural excess. This possibility is considerably enhanced by the shift toward motion-sensing gaming, which has vastly increased the capacities for gesture to be accurately tracked, recorded, and incorporated into play. 
            </p>
            <p>However, while motion gaming offers new possibilities for expression, it also is subject to new regimes of surveillance. This shift is largely centred around gestural excess, the movements and gestures made during play that have no effect on the algorithmic or representational processes of the game, but in advertising materials are ‘represented as the very source of fun and pleasure in the game’ (Simon, 2009, 11). The significance of gestural excess is that it is not registered by the gaming technology; it is in no way programmed or coded (Simon, 2009, 12–13). Yet once gestural excess and the body are acknowledged as significant sites, and rendered spectacular and public, they are vulnerable to new forms of surveillance (Berenhausen, 2007; Millington, 2009), not just by members of the public, but through the ever-increasing accuracy of the black-boxed technologies of gaming themselves.</p>
            <p>Gestural excess opens new possibilities for the body to be incorporated into game play. Gestural excess always operates outside, but in relation to, computational processes, and as these processes become more efficient, and domestic motion-sensing technologies like the Xbox Kinect become more ubiquitous, the operational spaces of gestural excess will become increasingly limited. This is because the smooth operation and everyday implementation of the ‘natural’ user interface that uses the body as a controller 
                <hi rend=""italic"">requires</hi> that gestural excess is understood as a glitch. Thus, the growing significance of motion-sensing controllers suggests both an 
                <hi rend=""italic"">opening and immanent foreclosure</hi> for bodily expression in gaming through gestural excess.
            </p>
            <p>References</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Behrenhausen, B. G.</hi> (2007) Toward a (Kin)aesthetic of Video Gaming: The Case of Dance Dance Revolution. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Games and Culture,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(4): 335–54.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Freeman, D., Hilliges, O., Sellen, A., O’Hara, K., Izadi, S. &amp; Wood, K.</hi> (2012). The Role of Physical Controllers in Motion Video Gaming. In 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Conference Proceedings of DIS 2012—In the Wild</hi>, Newcastle, UK, 23–25 June 2012, http://research.microsoft.com/pubs/168081/msrc_props.pdf.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Huhtamo, E.</hi> (2005). Slots of Fun, Slots of Trouble: An Archaeology of Arcade Gaming. In Raessens, J. and Goldstein, J. H. (eds), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Handbook of Computer Game Studies</hi>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 3–25.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Millington, B.</hi> (2009). Wii Has Never Been Modern: ‘Active’ Video Games and the ‘Conduct of Conduct’. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Media &amp; Society,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(4): 621–40.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">Moses, A.</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">(2011). Microsoft Kinect World Record: Selling Faster Than iPhone, iPad,</hi>
                <hi rend=""apple-converted-space"">
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)""> </hi>
                </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">Sydney Morning Herald</hi>
                <hi rend=""apple-converted-space"">
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)"">, 11 March, </hi>
                </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">http://www.smh.com.au/digitallife/games/microsoft-kinect-world-record-selling-faster-than-iphone-ipad-20110310-1bokr.html.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Parker, J. R.</hi> (2008). Buttons, Simplicity and Natural Interfaces. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Loading . . . ,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(2), http://journals.sfu.ca/loading/index.php/loading/article/view/33/30.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">Shinkle, E.</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)""> (2008). Video Games, Emotions, and the Six Senses.</hi>
                <hi rend=""apple-converted-space"">
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)""> </hi>
                </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">Media, Culture &amp; Society, </hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">30</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">(6): 907–15.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Simon, B.</hi> (2009). Wii Are Out of Control: Bodies, Game Screens and the Production of Gestural Excess, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Loading . . . ,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(4): 1–17, http://journals.sfu.ca/loading/index.php/loading/article/view/65/59.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Wilson, J.</hi> (2004). Games, Video Art, Abstraction and the Problem of Attention. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Convergence,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(3): 84–101.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">Wilson, J.</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">(2008). ‘Participation TV’: Videogame Archaeology and New Media Art. In</hi>
                <hi rend=""apple-converted-space"">
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)""> </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Swalwell, M. and Wilson, J. (eds), </hi>
                </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">The Pleasures of Computer Gaming: Essays on Cultural History, Theory and Aesthetics</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, pp. 94–117.</hi>
            </p>
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            <p>Thousands of resources in dozens of Australian Indigenous languages are becoming available online through the Living Archive of Aboriginal Languages (www.cdu.edu.au/laal). Many of these resources were developed in bilingual school programs in remote schools across the Northern Territory over several decades, and more materials continue to be added from other communities and languages of this region. This archive provides access to a wealth of written and illustrated texts in endangered languages, many of which were developed from stories told by community elders detailing ancestral knowledge and life, as well as everyday life and contemporary stories, primers, translations from English, instructional materials, memoirs and other genres. These texts are useful as an academic resource for various domains, such as linguistics, anthropology, education, history, natural sciences, Indigenous knowledges, environmental studies, and visual arts. They are also (re)finding their place in the cultural lives of Aboriginal people living on traditional lands, now that there are only a handful of officially sanctioned bilingual programs. The coming to life of this archive opens up significant questions in the field of digital humanities, around postcolonial digital archiving, the curation and uses of cultural heritage materials, the documentation of endangered languages, and studies of the appropriation by Indigenous peoples of digitising technologies for their own ancestral knowledge and culture work. 
                <lb/> The creation of the Living Archive has involved the digitisation of thousands of small books, the identification and collation of metadata, the development of a simple interface for search and browse, and efforts to locate the original storytellers and illustrators to seek permission to make these materials public on an openly accessible website (Bow et al., 2014). While the archive serves as an infrastructure for research and other academic work, one challenge was to design a web interface that would also meet the needs of Indigenous community members. The use of a map interface to allow navigation by place or language, and the presentation of books by cover image, both allow the site to be navigated with minimal or no textual input. Standard search and browse functionality, including full-text search, allows more conventional text-based interaction with the materials. User testing included Indigenous users who provided a useful perspective on the website as well as the content and potential uses of the archive. The engagement of the traditional owners of the materials and content has been a key component of developing a generative, agentive archive, rather than simply a storage place for materials. 
            </p>
            <figure>
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            </figure>
            <p>Screenshot from the Living Archive of Aboriginal Languages website, www.cdu.edu.au/laal.</p>
            <p>The process of bringing the archive to life has involved carefully articulating and enhancing how its liveliness brings communities together with their schools, old people with young, and students and researchers from around the world with knowledge authorities in the communities of origin. It has been important to maintain careful consideration of traditional approaches to ownership of knowledges in terms of negotiating copyright and intellectual property, while balancing ethical issues around privacy and open access. Most of the books were produced for use in schools and contain no secret or sacred knowledge. Copyright for the objects belongs to the organisations that produced them, rather than individuals—for example, copyright for materials produced by schools with bilingual programs belongs to the NT government, which has licensed the digitisation and online display of their materials. Beyond this, however, the project team chose to seek the approval of the original creators of the materials. Identifying and locating these people has been a particular challenge for the project, but was considered important to recognise their moral rights and also involve them (or the families of those who had passed away) in the renewed digital life of their stories and illustrations. </p>
            <p>To maximise the discoverability of the materials and access to them, additional points of entry to the archive have also been developed. In response to a request for offline access, a mobile app (LAAL Reader)
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> now allows users to download materials in bulk (for example, from a specific community or language) for storage on local devices to enable their use offline. Schools in southeast Arnhem Land have created libraries on school iPads for classroom use of the materials in local languages using this app. Efforts to ensure interoperability and reusability have involved use of software-independent formats and open-source tools, and long-term security is being negotiated with other archives in case of major disaster. The metadata is available for harvesting through OAI-PMH protocols and accessible through the National Library of Australia’s Trove database; related XML protocols make the materials discoverable through the Open Language Archives Community (OLAC) and the Australian National Data Service (ANDS).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> One of the challenges of making the data accessible and interoperable has been the use of ISO 639-3 standards for identification and naming of languages, which do not conform to local classification and nomenclature. A dual-level representation of language names was formulated to balance conformity to an international standard and accurate representation of community preferences for language names. 
            </p>
            <p>Networking with users and potential users is helping the project team to identify various research questions and uses of the archive in different contexts. For example, working with ANU’s Centre of Excellence for the Dynamics of Language to include materials from the Living Archive in a larger corpus of Australian and Papuan languages will facilitate new avenues of inquiry in data mining and corpus analysis. The archive is included in various academic programs, such as training for Aboriginal Education Support workers through the Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education, and the Bachelor of Indigenous Languages and Linguistics degree at the Australian Centre for Indigenous Knowledges and Education. Proposals for research projects are included on the project’s accompanying web site, including evaluation of the site in terms of its usability for educational purposes, the use of resources on the archive for developing language learning programs, and collaborative activities with language owners on the use and revitalisation of stories in communities where language is no longer embedded in the curriculum. The project also maintains a social media profile, in an effort to engage a range of different users in schools, remote communities, and academic contexts.</p>
            <p>The extension of the archive includes the development of an API to give appropriate authorities a ready way of curating, extending, and customising their collections. This will allow for enhancements under the authority of original story owners, such as correcting or extending metadata, associating audio and video materials, and creating appropriate categories and themes for the existing materials. Workshops in communities are training and equipping people to engage with the archive, promoting intergenerational knowledge transmission and collaboration within schools and community groups. Such engagement and its outcomes can inform further research activities in the wider domain of digital humanities.</p>
            <p>The documentation of endangered languages has much to offer the field of digital humanities (Drude et al., 2012). The Living Archive project provides authentic data from minority languages in danger of extinction, on which research techniques and tools developed for major world languages can be tested and extended. The development of computational and statistical methods of analysis, annotation, markup, glossing, and the like can support and enhance the work of language documentation and conservation—for example, by automating some of the manual processes of extracting metadata and improving optical character recognition of minority languages. Data mining, textual analysis, and topic modelling can enhance the content of the archive and provide data for novel research questions for many different disciplines. Besides supporting academic research, such activities should also involve members of the communities where these languages are still important—in collaborative work, skills development, and furthering opportunities to develop digital means of documenting and preserving their linguistic and cultural heritage. </p>
            <p>The affordances of such a body of literature are yet to be fully explored, and situating the archive within the context of digital humanities exposes it to new research contexts, which should be negotiated under the authority of the appropriate story owners. Curation and storage of cultural material is a contested space, with a number of constraints on access and ownership. This project is negotiating these cultural, technical, and epistemological challenges in its attempt to create a Living Archive rather than simply a storage facility or resting place for these valuable materials.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. https://www.cdu.edu.au/laal/reader-app/.</p>
            <p>2. Trove: http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/188836876?q&amp;versionId=205468516; OLAC: http://www.language-archives.org/archive/espace.cdu.edu.au; ANDS: http://researchdata.ands.org.au/living-archive-of-aboriginal-languages/316817#.</p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bow, C., Christie, M. and Devlin, B.</hi> (2014). Developing a Living Archive of Aboriginal Languages.
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language Documentation &amp; Conservation,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> 
                            <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>:
                        </hi> 345–60, http://hdl.handle.net/10125/24612.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Drude, S., Trilsbeek, P. and Broeder, D.</hi> (2012). Language Documentation and Digital Humanities: The (DoBeS) Language Archive. Presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2012</hi>, Hamburg, http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/language-documentation-and-digital-humanities-the-dobeslanguage-archive.1.html
                        <hi rend=""color(444444)"">.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                    <affiliation>University of Alberta, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>john.simpson@ualberta.ca</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Brown</surname>
                        <forename>Susan</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Alberta, Canada; University of Guelph, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>sibrown@ualberta.ca</email>
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                        <surname>Smith Elford</surname>
                        <forename>Jana</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Alberta, Canada</affiliation>
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                        <surname>Murphy</surname>
                        <forename>Shawn</forename>
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                        <surname>Brundin</surname>
                        <forename>Michael</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Alberta, Canada</affiliation>
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                        <surname>Warren</surname>
                        <forename>Robert</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Carleton University; University of Guelph, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>rwarren@math.carleton.ca</email>
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                    <term>Visualization</term>
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                    <term>Semantic Web</term>
                    <term>Ontologies</term>
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                    <term>interface and user experience design</term>
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            <p>In 2012 Google indexed an estimated 46 billion web pages (staticbrain, 2014). Although the Web of linked data was only 3/10,000s this size in the same period (Simpson and Brown, 2014), 15.9 million pages is not an insignificant number (Cheng et al., 2013). Furthermore, as an emerging and burgeoning technological field, we can be certain that these numbers have grown significantly since then. With such a vast amount of data in these two Webs, the increasingly pressing concern is how to understand what is contained within them, particularly when it comes to seeing relationships within the content of each. This remains a problem even with linked data and, when warranted, the ontologies that connect such data, even though such data was built to make relationships explicit and available for exploration. This is a problem that others have articulated as well. For instance, Loskyll et al. ask, ‘How can one represent huge collections of knowledge (e.g. ontologies with over 10 million concepts) as browsable trees in a scalable manner and with a clear user interface?’ (2009, 385). While part of the solution would include appropriately curating the original data, this is not feasible with large datasets, and thus a solution must be borne by improved visualization tools and techniques. While there is a clear interest in using visualizations to navigate this information, there is no generally agreed-upon method to aid in this task. Should we render information that would otherwise need to be inferred ‘actually explicitly visible’ (Howse et al., 2011, 259), provide ontologists with an ‘effective solution’ for understanding ‘relations between existing concepts’ (Kocbek et al., 2013, 34), or any number of other purposes? Balancing these concerns remains a challenge despite the fact that visualizations have played an important role in assisting the retrieval and dissemination of both qualitative and quantitative information for centuries (Tufte, 2006; 2001). In this paper, we ask, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">What features should a Semantic Web visualization tool have to maximize the discovery of new knowledge?</hi>
            </p>
            <p>This paper answers this question in two stages: it provides a review and evaluation of 30 existing Semantic Web–related visualization tools, and it reports on the production of a completed network visualization tool that is now entering the user testing phase. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Review of Linked Data and Ontology Visualization Tools</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Before reviewing the features of the network visualization tool we have produced, we will summarize the results of a review of 30 existing tools or techniques that target visualizations of either linked data or ontologies. While it is the case that surveys of visualization tools for linked data and ontologies have been carried out before,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> since 2007 there have been none that we know of and none conducted on this scale. The list of tools or techniques that are included in our review is displayed in Table 1.
            </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <p>CropCircles</p>
                        <p>(Wang and Parsia, 2006)</p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Cytoscape</hi> http://www.cytoscape.org/
                        </p>
                        <p>D3 (Data-Driven Documents)</p>
                        <p>http://d3js.org/</p>
                        <p>Gephi </p>
                        <p>http://gephi.org/</p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Google Visualization API with RD</hi>F 
                        </p>
                        <p>http://data-gov.tw.rpi.edu/wiki/How_to_use_Google_Visualization_API </p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">GraphViz</hi> http://www.graphviz.org
                        </p>
                        <p>HyperTree</p>
                        <p>(Bingham and Sudarsanam, 2000)</p>
                        <p>http://kinase.com/tools/HyperTree.html</p>
                        <p>InfoVis ToolKit </p>
                        <p>http://philogb.github.com/jit/</p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">IsaViz </hi>http://www.w3.org/2001/11/IsaViz/
                        </p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Jambalaya</hi> (Storey et al., 2001)
                        </p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">KC-Viz</hi> (NeOn Toolkit Plug-in) 
                        </p>
                        <p>(Motta et al., 2011) http://neon-toolkit.org/wiki/KC-Viz</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>
                        <p>Knoocks</p>
                        <p>(Kriglstein and Wallner, 2010)</p>
                        <p>http://enomisk.net/knoocks/</p>
                        <p>LodLive</p>
                        <p>http://en.lodlive.it/</p>
                        <p>NeOn Toolkit </p>
                        <p>http://neon-toolkit.org/wiki/Main_Page</p>
                        <p>Networkx</p>
                        <p>http://networkx.github.io/ </p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">OntoViz </hi>http://protegewiki.stanford.edu/wiki/OntoViz
                        </p>
                        <p>Prefuse</p>
                        <p>http://prefuse.org/</p>
                        <p>ProcessingJS</p>
                        <p>http://processingjs.org/</p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Protégé</hi> VOWL Plugin (Lohmann et al., 2014
                            <ref target=""http://protege.stanford.edu/"">)</ref>
                        </p>
                        <p>http://protege.stanford.edu/</p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Protovis </hi>http://mbostock.github.com/protovis/
                        </p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">RDF Gravity </hi>http://semweb.salzburgresearch.at/apps/rdf-gravity/ 
                        </p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">RDF2SVG (Rhizomik)</hi> http://rhizomik.net/html/redefer/rdf2svg-form/ 
                        </p>
                        <p>Redland</p>
                        <p>http://librdf.org/</p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">SIMILE Exhibit / Exhibit 3.0</hi> http://simile-widgets.org/exhibit/ 
                        </p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>
                        <p>Sp
                            <ref target=""http://www.cs.umd.edu/hcil/spacetree/"">
                                <hi rend=""bold"">aceTree</hi>
                            </ref>
                        </p>
                        <p>(Plaisant et al., 2002)</p>
                        <p>http://www.cs.umd.edu/hcil/spacetree/</p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Spicy Nodes </hi>http://www.spicynodes.org/
                        </p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Tableau Public </hi>http://www.tableausoftware.com/public
                        </p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Tom Sawyer Software </hi>http://www.tomsawyer.com/home/index.php
                        </p>
                        <p>TopBraid Composer </p>
                        <p>http://www.topquadrant.com/product/TB_Composer.html</p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Visual Browser </hi>http://nlp.fi.muni.cz/projekty/visualbrowser/
                        </p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Visual DataWeb (RelFinder, SemLens, gFacet, and tFacet) </hi>http://www.visualdataweb.org/tools.php 
                        </p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Voyage RSS Reader</hi> http://rssvoyage.com/
                        </p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Welkin </hi>http://simile.mit.edu/welkin/
                        </p>
                        <p>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Wiki Map Project </hi>http://ickn.org/wikimaps/
                        </p>
                        <p>Yago</p>
                        <p>http://www.mpi-inf.mpg.de/yago-naga/yago/index.html</p>
                    </cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Table 1. Linked data and ontology visualization tools.</p>
            <p>A New Visualization Tool</p>
            <p>In 2014, Lohman et al. pointed out, ‘While several visualizations for ontologies have been developed in the last couple of years, they either focus on specific ontology aspects or are hard to read for non-expert users. The silver bullet would be an ontology visualization that is equally comprehensive and comprehensible. It must be printable but also provide intuitive ways to interactively explore ontologies’ (395). While the focus of this comment is clearly on ontologies, the same is true of visualizations for linked data in general. This is just one set of criteria that a so-called silver-bullet visualization tool ostensibly should have. Others include key concept extraction, a rich set of navigation and visualization mechanisms, flexible zooming into and hiding of specific parts of an ontology, history browsing, saving and loading of customized ontology views, essential interface customization support, such as graphical zooming, font manipulation, tree layout customization, clear representations of hierarchy and predicates, and the availability of multiple geometrical views (Motta et al., 2011; Sivakumar and Arivoli, 2011). Clearly, there are a lot of expectations to be met.</p>
            <p>In constructing a new visualization tool for ontologies and linked data, our primary goal was a general one: build an interactive visualization tool that can be used by non-expert users to explore linked data. Of course, such general goals are often riddled with complexities when put into practice, and that was certainly the case here as we worked to address many of the criteria felt to be important by other developers (see above) as well as within our own team. The result has been the tool illustrated in Figure 1, which we are tentatively referring to as HuVis (short for Humanities Visualizer). As the figure makes clear, the interface of the tool is broken out into three areas: a central stage; a tabbed command construction history, documentation, and configuration window on the right; and a text-viewing area on the left that displays text to which the triples are linked.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.51cm"" height=""7.831666666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. The HuVis tool in action.</p>
            <p>In the center of the display are all the entities of the dataset arranged in a circle around a central visualization stage. Entities, represented as nodes, are colour-coded by type and may be dragged onto the stage or reshelved in the ring by dragging with the mouse. When dragged to the stage, all the nodes immediately connected within the pre-loaded linked dataset to the added entity are also added. Nodes may be removed from consideration by dragging them to a discard area, here shown by the small circle of blue dots in the lower right of the figure. To aid users with navigation, the default display of labels is limited to those attached to nodes that are either in the center stage area or those within the range of the mouse pointer. A circular area around the mouse pointer also acts as a magnifying glass, making it easy to differentiate entities even if they are crowded into the display area.</p>
            <p>The command panel in the upper right of the display is a powerful tool for controlling the content of the visualization. With just a few clicks, users may execute commands to display or hide groupings of nodes from the stage area and control the display of those entities. Such selections may be made in conjunction with direct selections of elements in the stage area or outer ring, based on entity type, or based on the predicates by which entities are connected. Other features, such as general instructions for the tool (the Help function) and the controls for the layout of the stage area (Settings), are available in the same window through a tab interface.</p>
            <p>In the top left of the window is the ‘snippet display’. This area shows portions of the text from which the links in the center display area have been drawn. Snippets are revealed by clicking on a link between the two nodes. These snippets are important so that scholars may examine the criteria by which the connections that they are seeing are justified. </p>
            <p>Conclusions</p>
            <p>Our paper will report on the results of the user testing conducted in early 2015. We will share our insights, as well as a set of recommendations for ontology and linked-data visualization based on the results of this study.</p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. The review by Katifori et al. (2007) in particular has been highly influential in terms of ontology visualizations.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bingham, J. and Sudarsanam, S. </hi>(2000). Visualizing Large Hierarchical Clusters in Hyperbolic Space. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cheng, G., Liu, M. and Qu, Y. </hi>(2013). NJVR: The NanJing Vocabulary Repository. In 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Howse, J., Stapleton, G., Taylor, K. and Chapman, P.</hi> (2011). Visualizing Ontologies: A Case Study. In Aroyo, L., Welty, C., Alani, H., Taylor, J., Bernstein, A., Kagal, L., Noy, N. and Blomqvist, E. (eds), 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Katifori, A., Halatsis, C., Lepouras, G., Vassilakis, C. and Giannopoulou, E.</hi> (2007). Ontology Visualization Methods: A Survey. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kocbek, S., Kim, J., Perret, J. and Whetzel, P. L.</hi> (2013). Visualizing Ontology Mappings to Help Ontology Engineers Identify Relevant Ontologies for Their Reuse. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ICBO</hi>, pp. 34–39. http://bionlp.dbcls.jp/redmine/attachments/download/145/kocbek_icbo%20camera.pdf.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kriglstein, S. and Wallner, G.</hi> (2010). Knoocks: A Visualization Approach for OWL Lite Ontologies. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CISIS 2010: 4th International Conference on Complex, Intelligent and Software Intensive Systems</hi>, pp. 950–55, doi:10.1109/CISIS.2010.55.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lohmann, S., Negru, S. and Bold, D.</hi> (2014). The ProtégéVOWL Plugin: Ontology Visualization for Everyone. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Semantic Web</hi>. ESWC 2014 Satellite Events. New York: Springer, pp. 395–400, http://2014.eswc-conferences.org/sites/default/files/eswc2014pd_submission_19.pdf.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Loskyll, M., Heckmann, D. and Glahn, C.</hi> (2009). Visualization of Spatial Knowledge with Ontology Trees and Adaptable Search Result Grids in the Era of Web3. 0. In Tochtermann, K. and Maurer, H (eds), Know’09, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">9th International Conference on Knowledge Management and Knowledge Technologies</hi>, Graz, Austria, pp. 385–90, http://dspace.learningnetworks.org/handle/1820/2060.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Motta, E., Mulholland, P., Peroni, S., d’ Aquin, M., Gomez-Perez, J. M., Mendez, V. and Zablith, F.</hi> (2011). A Novel Approach to Visualizing and Navigating Ontologies. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Semantic Web</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ISWC 2011</hi>. Springer, pp. 470–86, http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-25073-6_30.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Plaisant, C., Grosjean, J. and Bederson, B. B.</hi> (2002). SpaceTree: Supporting Exploration in Large Node Link Tree, Design Evolution and Empirical Evaluation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">INFOVIS 2002: IEEE Symposium on Information Visualization</hi>, pp. 57–64, doi:10.1109/INFVIS.2002.1173148, ftp://ftp.cs.umd.edu/pub/hcil/Reports-Abstracts-Bibliography/2002-05html/2002-05.pdf.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Simpson, J. and Brown, S.</hi> (2014). Inference and Linking on the Humanist’s Semantic Web. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">INKE, Building Partnerships to Transform Scholarly Publishing</hi>. Whistler, British Columbia.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sivakumar, R. and Arivoli, P. V.</hi> (2011). Ontology Visualization Protégé Tools: A Review. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Advanced Information Technology,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(4), https://idc-online.com/technical_references/pdfs/information_technology/ONTOLOGY%20VISUALIZATION.pdf.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Staticbrain.</hi> (2014). http://www.statisticbrain.com/total-number-of-pages-indexed-by-google/ (accessed 1 March 2015).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Storey, M., Musen, M., Silva, J., Best, C., Ernst, N., Ferguson, R. and Noy, N.</hi> (2001). Interactive Visualization to Enhance Ontology Authoring and Knowledge Acquisition in Protégé. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Protégé: Workshop on Interactive Tools for Knowledge Capture</hi> (K-CAP-2001), http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.22.8402.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tufte, E. R.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Visual Display of Quantitative Information.</hi> 2nd ed. Graphics Press, Cheshire, CT.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tufte, E. R.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Beautiful Evidence.</hi> Graphics Press, Cheshire, CT.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wang, T. D. and Parsia, B.</hi> (2006). CropCircles: Topology Sensitive Visualization of OWL Class Hierarchies. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Semantic Web</hi>, pp. 695–708.
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                        <forename>James</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Canterbury, New Zealand</affiliation>
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                        <surname>Millar</surname>
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                        <surname>Thomson</surname>
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            <p>The UC CEISMIC Digital Archive (Millar et al., n.d.) was developed to store and make publically available digital content produced during the course of a major earthquake sequence, which hit the Canterbury region in the South Island of New Zealand between 2010 and 2012. The project was presented at DH2012, Hamburg, when its key assets had just gone live (Smithies, 2012). This report on the current state of the archive is the most significant to be made at a digital humanities conference since then. It will report on governance, ethics, and technology but, more importantly, reflect on lessons learned and outline plans for the next decade of operation. </p>
            <p>The Canterbury earthquake sequence has been described as a truly ‘large-scale’ event. It included a devastating 6.3 magnitude tremor on 22 February 2011 that resulted in 185 deaths and caused significant damage to large portions of the city. Over 12,000 aftershocks followed, including 31 greater than magnitude 5 on the Richter scale. Recovery is ongoing, with portions of the inner city only recently opened to the public. Significant infrastructure renewal and building remediation and construction are expected to continue across the city and surrounding areas for another decade (Johnston, 2014). The University of Canterbury, where the UC CEISMIC team is based, is planning for over 1,000 construction workers to be on campus during 2015 to repair earthquake damage and build a significant new science and engineering block. </p>
            <p>The UC CEISMIC project has been positioned by the University of Canterbury as one of four flagship projects targeted to lead the way towards recovery, and leads a consortium of 11 national organizations that has recently expanded to include scientific as well as cultural heritage agencies. The archive currently stores 80,000 public items with a further 15,000 either embargoed or in process, ranging from audio and video interviews to images and official reports. Tens of thousands more items await ingestion. Significant lessons have been learned about data integration in post-disaster contexts, including but not limited to technical architecture, governance, ingestion process, and human ethics. Team members have recently gained access to almost 1 million historic tweets, which will be subject to computationally intensive analysis (Williford and Henry, 2012). </p>
            <p>The depth and breadth of the CEISMIC project, and the innovative work it has prompted, are directly attributable to it being a digital humanities project. The archive was modeled on the Center for History and New Media’s September 11 Digital Archive
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> and conceived, designed, and built by digital humanists. Its operational program office is staffed and managed by humanities and digital humanities graduates. Its core values are derived from principles instilled in all DH graduates: civic responsibility, the value of our digital cultural heritage, deployment of technology to enable research, use of open-source tools, the importance of craft skills and tacit knowledge, the importance of communication and community engagement, and our responsibility to future generations. It presents an excellent model for digital humanities teams faced with the problem of archiving significant post-disaster events. 
            </p>
            <p>The archive has implemented a technical architecture optimized to resolve issues with data integration in post-disaster contexts (Spennemann, 1999). The system relies on a bespoke research-oriented repository built using open-source tools and hosted at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand. It sits on virtualized university infrastructure, including access to New Zealand’s national High Performance Computing (HPC) infrastructure and REANNZ high-speed broadband research network. Tiered backup and recovery stores all content on both high-availability disk and off-site tape storage. DigitalNZ, a unit within the New Zealand National Library, performs national metadata aggregation (Oldman et al., 2014). This allows the archive to leverage an extensive range of existing government IT infrastructure; although over 75% of CEISMIC content is hosted at the University of Canterbury, content is contributed from a wide range of government agencies. The federation is bonded at a technical level through DigitalNZ’s modified Dublin Core schema, with each contributing archive responsible for adding additional metadata if possible (Sugimoto et al., 2002). Access is provided through one key and two subsidiary websites, a mobile app, and two Application Programming Interfaces (APIs). Long-term preservation has been outsourced to New Zealand’s National Digital Heritage Archive (NDHA), a government agency responsible for preserving key national digital assets for the long term. </p>
            <p>Unusually for a digital humanities project, CEISMIC has grown to become a significant ‘enterprise’-level undertaking, with a mature portfolio of services, relationships with peak government agencies from the chief executive level down, integration into the university’s project and technical change management functions, and strategic concerns that intersect not only with university but local and national government policy. Because of its vocal advocacy for digital cultural heritage archiving in the immediate post-disaster context, the project is positioned as a possible future repository of earthquake-related big data of radical size and scope (Spennemann, 1999). It is recognized as one of the success stories of the national earthquake experience; it reflects the development of post-disaster social capital in fundamental terms (Aldrich and Meyer, 2014). </p>
            <p>Despite this, the CEISMIC project is well known as a community-focused effort with minimal staff and resources, struggling to attract external funding and move key operational staff from temporary to permanent contracts. Although there is awareness of the project at the ministerial level across multiple government departments, the scale of the CEISMIC ecosystem has made it difficult to secure a single business owner outside the research community. This tension is perhaps typical of many digital humanities projects: at once creative and vibrant, and under threat. </p>
            <p>Despite this, and unlike other digital humanities post-disaster projects (Rivard, 2012), the intention is to keep the CEISMIC project operational for several decades into the future. This is a perhaps radical aspiration that contrasts with the more modest goals of similar projects, but it offers interesting perspectives for the global community. New Zealand has a particular set of cultural values (and institutional characteristics) that make projects like CEISMIC possible. Lack of state boundaries, a small digital GLAM sector, and a tradition of cultural innovation and inter-disciplinary cooperation combine to allow the CEISMIC ecosystem to grow. Unlike other cyber-infrastructure projects, the archive has exceeded its initial goals and is implementing strategies that appear capable of securing it a long-term future. Again, this was due to the application of digital humanities values rather than computer science and engineering values, and achieved because it evolved from the bottom up, rather than being imposed (even with the benefit of significant funding) from the top down (Dombrowski, 2013). For these reasons it presents the global digital humanities community with a useful model that encompasses design, development, ethics, governance, and community engagement. </p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, September 11 Digital Archive, http://911digitalarchive.org.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Aldrich, D. P. and Meyer, M. A.</hi> (2014). Social Capital and Community Resilience. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">American Behavioral Scientist</hi>, 1 October. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dombrowski, Q.</hi> (2013). What Ever Happened to Project Bamboo? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH2013</hi>, Lincoln, NE, 19 July 2013. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Johnston, L.</hi> (2014). Transforming the Social Contract for Natural Hazards Risk Management in New Zealand: Influences and Outcomes of Governance and Land Use Decisions Following the Canterbury Earthquakes. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Third International Conference on Urban Disaster Risk Reduction, </hi>Boulder, CO, 28 September 2014. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Millar, P., Smithies, J., Thomson, C., et al.</hi> (n.d.). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">UC CEISMIC Digital Archive</hi>. http://www.ceismic.org.nz. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Oldman, D., Doerr, M. d., Jong, G. d., Norton, B. and Wikman, T.</hi> (2014). Realizing Lessons of the Last 20 Years: A Manifesto for Data Provisioning and Aggregation Services for the Digital Humanities (A Position Paper) System. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">D-Lib Magazine,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">20</hi>(7/8) (July). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rivard, C. J.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Archiving Disaster: A Comparative Study of September 11, 2001 and Hurricane Katrina</hi>. PhD thesis, University of California, Santa Cruz. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smithies, J.</hi> (2012). Digital Archives and Disaster Recovery: The Role of the Digital Humanities in Post-Earthquake Christchurch. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH2012</hi>, Hamburg, 20 July 2012. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Spennemann, D. H. R.</hi> (1999). Cultural Heritage Conservation during Emergency Management: Luxury or Necessity? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Public Administration,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>(5): 745–804. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sugimoto, S., Baker, T. and Weibel, S. L. </hi>(2002). Dublin Core: Process and Principles. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Libraries: People, Knowledge, and Technology</hi>. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 11–25. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Williford, C. and Henry, C.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">One Culture. Computationally Intensive Research in the Humanities and Social Sciences: A Report on the Experiences of First Respondents to the Digging Into Data Challenge</hi>. Council on Library and Information Resources, June.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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            <p>This paper will present the prototype of EMNON, the Early Modern Network Of Networks, an open-access research resource using social network analysis in tandem with digital visualization techniques to enable modern scholars to access, explore, and participate in the reconstruction of the social network of scholars working in Europe and America between 1500 and 1750 whose intellectual discoveries fuelled literary and historical developments throughout this period. I will discuss how EMNON expands on the work of Findlen et al. (2008–), Elson, Dames, and McKeown (2010), and Piper (2014) by pioneering the combination of NodeXL and VisualEyes to create digital visualizations of different facets of the Early Modern Network Of Networks. In using digital techniques to re-discover early modern social networks, EMNON aims to enable our modern global knowledge network to re-engage with our early modern counterparts in an interactive digital environment, so that we reach new understandings of how social relationships drove intellectual change in this period on a global scale. </p>
            <p>Critical Background for the Project</p>
            <p>Findlen et al. (2008–) are using network analysis to reconstruct correspondence networks, whilst Elson, Dames, and McKeown (2010) used these techniques to investigate social networks of fictional characters. Turkel’s (2011) use of network analysis examining the NiCHE community is a representative example visualizing a modern knowledge network, whilst Klein’s (2012) engagement with Protovis to explore familial interactions documented in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Papers of Thomas Jefferson</hi> provides insight into the utility of network analysis in animating historical social dynamics. One of the most exciting recent applications of network analysis in literary studies has been Piper’s (2014) research creating network graphs visualizing a variety of connections between the literary works of J. W. Goethe. In treating the texts themselves and their lexis as network nodes, Piper’s work is closely aligned to the approach used by EMNON in which not only people but also specific intellectual terms act as nodes within network diagrams. 
            </p>
            <p>Work conducted by the Centre for Early Modern Mapping, News, and Networks and the Centre for Early Modern Exchanges provides crucial early-modern-specific critical contexts. Ahnert’s 6 Degrees of Francis Bacon is a reference point, though EMNON differs from this in reconstructing a very specific early modern network of logicians and their readers. Aranda’s prosopographical study of scientific networks in Spain is also a useful comparison, as, like EMNON, he uses archival research to trace early modern intellectual relationships linking people with one another via the ideas that they promulgated. Likewise, Suzanne Sutherland’s research (2000–) exploring and visualizing the correspondence network of Athanasius Kircher via Palladio offers crucial blueprints for effective data collection and analysis from early modern manuscript materials in particular. These projects are allies with my work in transforming textual data into network visualizations, and by the time of DH 2015 it is my hope to have live dynamic network mapping capabilities on the EMNON website to provide a new approach for this kind of work. I concur that James Secord’s (2004) concept of ‘knowledge in transit’ is key to my project, and I will engage with his.</p>
            <p>EMNON’s Approach: Aims and Method</p>
            <p>Logic was the fundamental ‘
                <hi rend=""italic"">ars artium, scientia scientiarum</hi>’ (art of arts, science of sciences) in the early modern period, providing the tools for creating all forms of written expression and textual analysis, and governing the selection of subject matter and the structuring of discourse. A plethora of logic textbooks were produced across Europe and America from 1500 to 1750, and these texts were used ubiquitously in schools and universities in this period to teach students to read, analyze texts, and write new works. Howell (1956), Kneale and Kneale (1962), and recently Mack (2011) have employed traditional approaches to establish a bibliographic printing history of this field. EMNON expands on this work to contend that intellectual developments in this fundamental ‘art of arts’ were propelled by an extensive global knowledge network of scholars working throughout Europe and America. These scholars operated in diverse confessional, geographic, chronological, and linguistic contexts, and yet it is through their intellectual exchanges and friendships that the early modern ‘art of arts’ evolved. 
            </p>
            <p>Whilst much work is being done using tools specifically designed for historical network analysis, there is a notable lacuna of engagement with software designed to tackle the social elements of social network analysis. EMNON is innovative in highlighting the importance of the sociability of early modern knowledge networks by using software explicitly created for the analysis of social networks via social media, NodeXL. This open-source graphing software enables complex multi-faceted analysis of relationships in a large dataset. NodeXL’s flexible, extendible format allows EMNON to visualize relationships between people and ideas in the early modern network in numerous different ways. In conjunction with the use of NodeXL to reconstruct social relationships within the early modern network of networks, EMNON also engages with the open-source tool VisualEyes developed at the University of Virginia, and used experimentally by Bill Ferster et al. to visualize Jefferson’s travels to England. EMNON is among the first projects to adopt VisualEyes as a tool for the visualization and animation of historical social networks, and in this paper I propose to discuss the benefits of doing so, furnishing examples from the prototype EMNON website, which will be live at DH2015. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Data Collection</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Working in rare book libraries for five years, I transcribed 1.5 million words from logic textbooks and literary works from 1550 to 1700.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Sources include publications by writers and thinkers involved, their manuscript discussions of early modern logic with one another, correspondence, marginalia, pedagogical exercises, university class lists, and records of book loans from private libraries, which combine to illuminate distinctive edges connecting people and ideas in the network.</p>
            <p>EMNON at Work: Examples</p>
            <p>In this paper I wish to show several examples of the utility of using NodeXL and VisualEyes in creating dynamic visualizations that capture the intricate layers of connectivity in a social network. In this proposal I wish to furnish some brief examples to illustrate the early results of the efficacy of these dual approaches, creating graph-based visualizations of the Early Modern Network Of Networks, and animated visualizations of this data bringing digitized primary source materials about this subject to life. </p>
            <p> The following example documents the birth, genealogy, and migration of the logical term ‘procatarctic’. This term refers to an ‘external’ logical cause, and was coined and adopted by a very specific but diffuse network of scholars whose links had not been appreciated prior to their documentation and discovery within EMNON’s NodeXL graphs. Bartholomaeus Keckermann first uses the term ‘procatarctic’ in 1600. He identifies Galen as the intellectual progenitor of this word, and this engenders two of the first critical connections in the ‘procatarctic’ network: almost half a century earlier, also writing on ‘external cause’, Petrus Ramus references the same part of Galen in his 1543 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Dialecticae Libri Duo</hi>, although without adopting this terminology. This small triadic relationship between two of the titans of early modern logic had been 
            </p>
            <p>unappreciated until discovered via NodeXL’s graph visualizations as follows:</p>
            <p>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""7.858125cm"" height=""7.768825cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>Figure 1. NodeXL visualizes a triadic relationship in EMNON.
            </p>
            <p>Yet the network of intrigue does not end with these three nodes. The term was promulgated through a subset of scholars working in Europe in the 17th century, from English Puritans Zachary Coke and John Milton to Dutch scholars Burgersdijck and Heereboord, who passed the torch to English Presbyterian dissenting academies via Samuel Jones and Charles Morton. Morton in turn used this term and its corresponding logical precepts to teach pupils including Daniel Defoe at the dissenting academy at Newington Green in the 1670s and 1680s, before immigrating to the Massachusetts Bay Colony where he introduced it to students at Harvard and later Yale. NodeXL enables users of EMNON to visualize this network in many different ways, including chronologically (Figure 2) and as a web of influence (Figure 3).</p>
            <figure/>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">Figure 2: A chronological graph of usage. Figure 3: A graph showing the web of influence and connections between users of this term.</p>
            <p>Alongside these graph representations, EMNON is pioneering the application of the VisualEyes software to bring this early modern social network to life. </p>
            <p>VisualEyes enables me to animate the spread of ideas through the early modern network, displaying its results in video format with multiple different available views. For example, Figure 4 is a still from EMNON’s moving map, which has traced the geographic spread of the same term ‘procatarctic’ as it moved through Europe and eventually to America:</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""16.324791666666666cm"" height=""12.217419444444445cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. EMNON uses VisualEyes to create a moving map tracing the geographic spread of the term ‘procatarctic’.</p>
            <p>In this paper I will also showcase the ways in which EMNON uses the interactive capabilities of VisualEyes to allow users an enriched engagement with this early modern social network. For instance, Figure 5 illustrates what happens if a user clicks on one of the ‘clickable’ waypoints on EMNON’s moving map tracking ‘procatarctic’:</p>
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                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""10.431144444444444cm"" height=""7.672916666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 5. Interactive map whose ‘clickable’ labels display pictures and text about that particular user of the term ‘procatarctic’.</p>
            <p>VisualEyes enables users to discover multiple pages of additional information about any of the waypoints on EMNON’s moving map, including digitized primary materials and research resources. VisualEyes also has its own graphing capabilities that EMNON can draw upon to enable users to visualize specific subsets of the extensive early modern social network that it documents (Figure 6):</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""10.4775cm"" height=""7.249583333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>Figure 6. Concept map showing the nexus of users of the term ‘procatarctic’.</p>
            <p>In pioneering the use of NodeXL and VisualEyes in the context of historical network analysis, EMNON aims to bring the early modern global knowledge network to life so that, in turn, a network of modern scholars can make new discoveries about the accomplishments, trials, and tribulations of the Early Modern Network Of Networks on a pan-European and transatlantic scale.</p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. Thanks to the following institutions for fellowships that enabled this research: the Rare Book and Manuscript Library at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign for the John ‘Bud’ Velde Fellowship, the International Society for the History of Rhetoric for their fellowship award, and the University of St. Andrews for their Russell Trust Award.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ahnert, R.</hi> (2012–). Six Degrees of Francis Bacon. http://sixdegreesoffrancisbacon.com/page/2. 
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Klein, L. F.</hi> (2012). Social Network Analysis and Visualization in ‘The Papers of Thomas Jefferson’. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH2012</hi>, http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/social-network-analysis-and-visualization-in-the-papers-of-thomas-jefferson.1.html.
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Development of Logic</hi>. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mack, P.</hi> (2011). 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">NodeXL.</hi> (n.d.). http://nodexl.codeplex.com/. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Piper, A.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Blue Periods: On Aging and Writing</hi>. http://txtlab.org/?p=278. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Secord, J.</hi> (2004). Knowledge in Transit. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">95</hi>(4) (December): 654–72.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sutherland Duchacek, S. and Gorman, M. J.</hi> (2000–). Athanasius Kircher at Stanford. http://web.stanford.edu/group/kircher/cgi-bin/site/. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Turkel, W. J.</hi> (2011). Social Network Analysis and Visualization. http://williamjturkel.net/2011/08/02/social-network-analysis-and-visualization/. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">VisualEyes.</hi> (n.d.). http://viseyes.org/. 
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"2198","16","Capturing Virtual Verse: A Needs Assessment for Access and Preservation of Online-Only Literature","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Harriett Elizabeth</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>green19@illinois.edu</email>
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                <author>
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                        <surname>Fleming-May</surname>
                        <forename>Rachel</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Tennessee at Knoxville, United States of America</affiliation>
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            <p>Digital tools have transformed the small press and little magazine literary publishing industry in fundamental ways. Poet Sandra Beasley (2009) observed, ‘As glossy magazines die by the dozen and blogs become increasingly influential, we face the reality that print venues . . . are rapidly ceding ground to Web-based publishing’ (1). Online literary journals, e-zines, and print publications’ websites have enabled literary works to disseminate beyond cultural, ethnic, and nationalistic boundaries, and have broadened the possibilities for incorporating these works into research and education efforts. </p>
            <p>But while online literary publishing has expanded the availability of literary works, discovery and documentation of online-only or ‘born-digital’ literature is extremely limited: Many online-only works can only be accessed by browsing individual publications or searching for specific works or authors. Furthermore, increasing numbers of print journals publish some works only on their websites, but these works are typically not indexed in the same manner as those published in the publications’ print issues.</p>
            <p>In light of this issue, the authors launched a year-long investigation into access and discoverability of online-only literature, with a focus on online-only poetry, with support of an Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS) National Leadership Planning Grant. This long paper discusses the analyzed results of surveys and interviews conducted with creative writing faculty, literary publishers, and librarians, and examines how digital publishing and electronic literature have transformed the research environments and professional practices of literary publishers and scholars alike.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Background</hi>
            </p>
            <p>N. Katherine Hayles (2007) defines electronic literature as ’digital born’, a first-generation digital object created on a computer and (usually) meant to be read on a computer’. Online literary magazines descended from the zine culture of the mid-20th century, as photocopiers and mimeograph printing gave way in the 1990s to desktop computer publishing, and digital media already was being utilized in works of hypertext fiction and electronic literature created beginning in the 1980s (Wright, 2001; Hayles, 2007). Existing initiatives for documenting electronic literature include the Electronic Literature Organization’s ELO Directory (http://directory.eliterature.org/) and its Preservation, Archiving, and Dissemination study; the ELMCIP Electronic Literature Knowledge Database (http://elmcip.net/knowledgebase); the Australian Directory of Electronic Literature and Text-based Art repository (ADELTA); nt2 of Canada; as well as the work of the Consortium for Electronic Literature (CELL). </p>
            <p>Despite these cataclysmic changes in the literary landscape, relatively little has been written about the impact of digital technologies and changing information behaviors in the literary arts. Paling conducted a series of studies examining uses of information technologies by literary publishers and writers, and also proposed a possible metadata schema for organizing literary works (Paling and Nilan, 2006; Paling 2008; Paling and Martin 2011; Paling 2011). Stevens and McCord (2005) also examined the preservation of e-zines and correlative factors for stability of e-zines. Green (2014) also recently explored the publishing behaviors of creative writing faculty members via a citation analysis of print and digital literary magazines. </p>
            <p>But this is the first study to comprehensively explore the needs for access, curation, and preservation of online literary publishing via direct engagement with writers and publishers on the impact of digital technologies on research and professional practices in the literary arts.</p>
            <p>Data and Methodology</p>
            <p>This study examines poetry exclusively published on web-based media—ranging from static text on simple web pages to complex multimedia works—and for the purposes of this study is termed ‘online-only poetry’. The authors chose to focus on poetry, as it is one of the most prolific genres published on the Web, and the technologies used to create online poetic works are diverse and used for other literary genres as well. </p>
            <p>To collect data input from stakeholders, the authors utilized a mixed methods approach of three online surveys and a subsequent series of nineteen individual interviews. The surveys and interviews were conducted with the three primary stakeholder groups identified by the authors: creative writing faculty, humanities librarians, and literary publishers. The respondent pool was gathered via several methods: For faculty, the authors identified institutions with graduate programs in creative writing with the Association of Writers and Writing Programs’ database; for literary publishers, the authors used the Poets &amp; Writers Magazine Database to identify online journals and their editors; and the librarians were solicited via the listserv for the Literatures in English section of the Association of College and Research Libraries.</p>
            <p>The authors received a total of nearly 200 responses to the surveys: approximately 960 writing faculty members in creative writing programs and departments were surveyed, with a response rate of 12.5%; approximately 152 humanities librarians were surveyed with a response rate of 58%; and approximately 945 literary journal editors and publishers were surveyed with a response rate of 13.4%. These response rates are on par with standard response rates to surveys. In follow-up interviews, the authors conducted seven interviews with creative writing faculty and professional writers, five with journal editors and publishers, and seven interviews with librarians. The surveys and interviews queried all respondents about their experiences in discovery, access, use, and preservation of online-only poetry, as well as publication practices with online journals and engagement with students, colleagues, and library users around online poetry.</p>
            <p>Analysis</p>
            <p>In the analysis of the survey and interview data, a significant number of writers and publishers observed that their poetic works had far broader accessibility, exposure, and impact from online publications than in print, and that online access had transformed their own reading practices as well. For example, survey respondents were asked to report on their online behavior regarding discovering and reading poetry, two activities that the authors regarded as connected but distinct for purposes of the survey. Respondents indicated that they visit the Web to read poetry with great frequency: 71% indicated they did so either daily (36%) or weekly (35%). Virtually all survey respondents (99%) reported using the Internet to read poetry, even if they were among the respondents who preferred print or expressed skepticism about the overall quality of work published online. As one publisher noted, ‘Publishing online permits greater access to, and for, a reading and writing audience. Not only due to the immediacy of publication release, but to the global nature of the Internet itself’. </p>
            <p>The overarching goal of this study was to determine the need for, and interest in, an index to online-only poetic works. While our findings indicated enthusiasm for this prospective tool, the survey and interview revealed several issues related to its design and construction. One common concern was the curation of online poetry to indicate quality standards such as peer review; as one respondent noted, ‘We must be careful to retain as high standards for online publishing as we do for print’. Another major identified need was for features and functionality that would enable users to find and collect works by various criteria, or as one respondent put it, ‘It would be divine if there were something like Pandora for poetry!’ Respondents suggested metadata fields for categories such as genre, geographic location, and time period written, and they also indicated a desire to use the index to create and curate their own collections of digital poetry. Another notable need was for digital preservation of online-only poetry. </p>
            <p>Suggested solutions to the access and preservation of born-digital poetry included a searchable index of online-only poetry, mobile phone apps, and an API feed of metadata, as well as potential collaborations with the organizations and stakeholders, such as the Electronic Literature Organization. But ultimately, most respondents did not see sharp divisions between the print and digital cultures of literary publishing. One respondent noted, ‘I want poetry online to help readers remember the page. In my best-case imaginings, online journals and podcasts get better, and print journals get better, and the online ones make it easy to get to the work and also remind people of other formats in which to experience it’.</p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>One of the most notable results of the study was how literary culture long has navigated between the printed page and digital networks in ways that foreshadowed how many humanities scholars today intertwine digital tools and archival materials. As one poet noted,</p>
            <p>Scholars I’ve met who specialize in digital media seem to be very invested in the idea of the opposition. . . . For me it is about an expanded set of artistic tools, presences, venues: diversity and range. It is not about *reducing* the range of these experiences to a digital experience.</p>
            <p>This perspective on the experimental approach to the use of digital technologies in creative works reveals the expanding role of digital content in contemporary literary culture. This study shows how this transformation reveals a new avenue of humanities data curation that engages scholars, information professionals, and publishers equally in the essential work of making digital literature accessible to all. </p>
            <p>Funding</p>
            <p>This work was supported by the Institute for Museum and Library Services [grant number LG-51-12-0499-12].</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Beasley, S.</hi> (2009). From Page to Pixels: The Evolution of Online Journals.
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Poets &amp; Writers</hi> (May/June): 1–5, http://www.pw.org/content/page_pixels_evolution_online_journals.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Green, H. E.</hi> (2014). Literature as a Network: Creative-Writing Scholarship in Literary Magazines. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">portal: Libraries and the Academy, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>(2): 217–38. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hayles, N. K.</hi> (2007). 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Paling, S.</hi> (2008). Technology, Genres, and Value Change: Literary Authors and Artistic Use of Information Technology. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">59</hi>(8): 1238–51. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Paling, S.</hi> (2009). Mapping Techno-Literary Spaces: Adapting Multiple Correspondence Analysis for Literature and Art. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>(2), http://www.informationr.net/ir/14-2/paper401.html. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Paling, S.</hi> (2011). Developing a Metadata Element Set for Organizing Literary Works: A Survey of the American Literary Community. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Knowledge Organization, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">38</hi>(3): 262–77. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Paling, S., and Martin, C. </hi>(2011). Transformative Use of Information Technology in American Literary Writing: A Pilot Survey of Literary Community Members. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">62</hi>(5): 947–62. 
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                    <bibl>Paling, S. and Nilan, M. (2006). Technology, Genres, and Value Change: The Case of Little Magazines.
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">57</hi>(7): 862–72.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stevens, J.</hi> (2004). Long-Term Literary E-Zine Stability: Issues and Access in Libraries. 
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Technical Services Quarterly,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>(1): 21–32.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stevens, J. and McCord, S.</hi> (2005). Long-Term E-Zine Stability: A Predictive Model. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>(3): 29–45.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sukovic, S.</hi> (2008). Convergent Flows: Humanities Scholars and Their Interactions with 
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                    <bibl>Electronic Texts. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">78</hi>(3): 263–84.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wright, F. A.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">From Zines to Ezines: Electronic Publishing and the Literary</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Underground</hi>. Doctoral dissertation. Retrieved from ProQuest, UMI Dissertations Publishing (3034433): 8–10.
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                </listBibl>
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                        <surname>Walsh</surname>
                        <forename>John</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Indiana University</affiliation>
                    <email>jawalsh@indiana.edu</email>
                </author>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Terras</surname>
                        <forename>Melissa</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University College London</affiliation>
                    <email>m.terras@ucl.ac.uk</email>
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                <head>Background and Technical Infrastructure</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ</hi>’s technical design was constrained by a set of higher-level goals and needs. As an early open-access journal of digital humanities, the journal had an opportunity to participate in the curation of an important segment of the scholarly record in the field. This meant that it was more than usually important that the article data be stored and curated in a manner that would maximize the potential for future reuse. In addition to mandating the use of open standards, this aim also strongly indicated that the data should be represented in a semantically rich format. Of equal concern was the need for flexibility and the ability to experiment with both the underlying data and the publication interface, throughout the life of the journal, without constraint from the publication system. Both of these considerations moved the journal in the direction of XML, which would give us the ability to represent any semantic features of the journal articles we might find necessary for either formatting or subsequent research. It would also permit us to design a journal publication system, using open-source components, that could be closely adapted to the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ</hi> data. At the journal’s founding, several alternative publishing platforms were proposed (including the Open Journal System), but none were XML-based and none offered the opportunity for open-ended experimentation that we needed.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ</hi>’s technical infrastructure is a standard XML publishing pipeline built using components that are familiar in the digital humanities. Submissions are received and managed through OJS through the copyediting stage, at which point articles are converted to basic TEI using OxGarage (http://www.tei-c.org/oxgarage/). Further encoding and metadata are added by hand, and items from the articles’ bibliographies are entered into a centralized bibliographic system that is also XML-based. All journal content is maintained under version control using Subversion. The journal’s organizational information concerning volumes, issues, and tables of contents is represented in XML using a locally defined schema. The journal uses Cocoon, an XML/XSLT pipelining tool, to process the XML components and generate the user interface. 
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                <head>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ</hi>’s Evolving Data and Interface
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                <p>As noted above, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ</hi>’s approach to the representation of its article data has from the start been shaped by an emphasis on long-term data curation and a desire to accommodate experimentation. The specific encoding practices have evolved significantly during the journal’s lifetime. The first schema developed for the journal was deliberately homegrown and was designed based on an initial informal survey of article submissions and articles published in other venues. Following this initial period of experimentation and bottom-up schema development, once the schema had settled into a somewhat stable form we expressed it as a TEI customization and did retrospective conversion on the existing data to bring it into conformance with the new schema. At several subsequent points, significant new features have been added to the journal’s encoding: for example, explicit representation of revision sites within articles (for authorial changes that go beyond simple correction of typographical errors), enhancements to the display of images through a gallery feature, and adaptation of the encoding of bibliographic data to a centralized bibliographic management system.
                </p>
                <p>These changes to the data have typically been driven by emerging functional requirements, such as the need to show where an article has been revised or the requirements of the special issue on comics as scholarship. However, they also respond to a broader set of requirements that this data should represent the intellectual contours of scholarship rather than simply interface. For example, the encoding of revision notes retains the text of the original version, identifies the site of the revision, and supports an explanatory note by the author describing the reason for the revision. Although 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ</hi>’s current display uses this data in a simple manner to permit the reader to read the original or revised version, the data would support more advanced study of revision across the journal. Similarly, although our current display uses the encoding of quoted material and accompanying citations in very straightforward ways, the same data could readily be used to generate a visualization showing most commonly quoted passages, quotations that commonly occur in the same articles, and similar analyses of the research discourse. The underlying data and architecture lend themselves to incremental expansion.
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                <head>Analysis</head>
                <p>The approach 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ</hi> has taken offers several significant advantages and also some corresponding disadvantages. The most important advantages are
                </p>
                <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • The autonomy the journal has to control all aspects of its own data modeling and interface.</p>
                <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • The high value of the resulting data, from a historiographic perspective.</p>
                <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • The ease of long-term curation of the data, including continuing evolution of our modeling decisions.</p>
                <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • The ease of long-term evolution of the publication infrastructure, including migration to other XML-based systems as needed.</p>
                <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • The scalability of a template-based infrastructure: with the system in place, each article requires no incremental work in styling or design; all effort goes towards consistent representation of semantically valued features.</p>
                <p>These advantages all carry a burden of cost and effort: autonomy and control necessarily entail responsibility for maintaining appropriate levels of expertise and undertaking the labor necessary to build and revise technical systems. Because our article work flow includes some hand encoding in TEI, our managing editors need to be better trained and more expert than if they were simply formatting articles in Word and exporting PDF. However, there are also some less obvious tradeoffs. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ</hi>’s publication model gains its efficiencies and scalability through an emphasis on uniform handling of repeated features, but this means that it is comparatively difficult to accommodate individual authorial requests for special handling. These entail not only extra effort at the time of publication but also the long-term prospect of special attention during the future data curation activities and updates to the interface and publication system. Authors familiar with content management systems such as WordPress or Scalar are accustomed to being able to exercise a significant level of control over the formatting and behavior of their text and accompanying media such as images and video. Long-term data curation is a less visible feature of such publishing systems. 
                </p>
                <p>Even more interesting and challenging are the special cases that entail semantically distinctive features. Although such submissions are rare, they have provided some valuable test cases in which the data being represented is not a straightforward ‘article’ but some other rhetorical mode: commented program code, dynamic HTML that provokes reader interaction, an article in the form of a comic book. In handling these cases, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ</hi> has sought to find ways to accommodate the distinctive form of the original piece while also giving it a proxy presence within the standard 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ</hi> XML archive, so that its content can be searched and analyzed as part of the larger 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ</hi> corpus of DH scholarship. As these cases accumulate, the editors seek to identify repeated needs that could become part of the regular 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ</hi> feature set. 
                </p>
                <p>In the full version of this paper, we will consider in greater detail the role of authorial design in digital humanities publication, and the possible convergences between XML-based systems like 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ</hi> and content-management based systems like Scalar.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Future Directions</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ</hi> is now completing a multiyear project to centralize its bibliography, and the next step will be to develop interface features that exploit this data. We are also in the planning stages of a project to explore internationalization of the journal through a series of special issues dedicated to individual languages. In both cases, these amplifications of the journal represent natural extensions of the journal’s existing architecture, and although both are substantial projects, they are made feasible by the investment already made in strongly modeled data and an extensible publication infrastructure. In the fuller version of this paper, we will discuss both of these developments in greater detail.
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"2200","16","Change, transition and governance: Lessons from a long-term, large scale DH collaboration","9","","","1","",""
"2201","16","Character Network Analysis of Émile Zola's Les Rougon-Macquart","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Rochat</surname>
                        <forename>Yannick</forename>
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                    <affiliation>EPFL, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>yannick.rochat@epfl.ch</email>
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            <p>In this work, we use network analysis methods to sketch a typology of fiction novels based on characters and their proximity in the narration. We construct character networks modelling the 20 novels composing 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Les Rougon-Macquart</hi>, written by Émile Zola. To categorise them, we rely on methods that track down major and minor characters relative to the character-systems. For that matter, we use centrality measures such as degree and eigenvector centrality. Eventually, with this analysis of a small corpus, we open the stage for a large-scale analysis of novels through their character networks. 
            </p>
            <p>Character Network Analysis </p>
            <p>A character network is a model of a novel’s plot focusing on a single dimension among the different types of narrative entities—that is, the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">character</hi> or, at the level of the whole novel, the character-system: 
            </p>
            <p>[. . .] the arrangement of multiple and differentiated character-spaces—differentiated configuration and manipulations of the human figure—into a unified narrative structure. (Woloch, 2003, 14])</p>
            <p>Characters are represented in the network by nodes. The relations among them are determined on the basis of their proximity in the narration: if two characters appear side-by-side more often than a given threshold, then a link (i.e., an edge) is created between them in the network (Rochat, 2014). If two characters never appear close together, or not significantly enough according to the defined threshold, then they are not linked in the character network. </p>
            <p>As examples of existing research, Franco Moretti explored the narrative importance of a character by comparing some features of a character network before and after deletion of the said character (Moretti, 2011), while Mac Carron and Kenna (2012) extracted the structures of three mythological works (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Beowulf</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi>, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Táin</hi>) and compared them one to another and to real social networks, concluding that they were ‘discernable from real social networks’ and eventually proposing to rank them ‘from the real to the fictitious’ (5). 
            </p>
            <p>Les Rougon-Macquart</p>
            <p>The novels constituting 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Les Rougon-Macquart</hi> were published between 1871 and 1893, starting with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">La Fortune des Rougon </hi>and ending with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Le Docteur Pascal</hi>. They cover a historical period going from 1852 to 1870. In these, Zola arranged a society of fictional and real characters in dissimilar ways, once focusing on a single character, and at other times dividing the attention between a few complementary protagonists, along with other characters recurring from one novel to another: 
            </p>
            <p>I wish to explain how a family [. . .] conducts itself in a given social system. [. . .] I shall endeavour to discover and follow the thread of connection which leads mathematically from one man to another. (Zola, 1967 [E. A. V. Merton, trans.])</p>
            <p>In his study of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Les Rougon-Macquart</hi>’s character-systems, Philippe Hamon writes that some novels have a main protagonist, while others have more than one protagonist: 
            </p>
            <p>Polyfocalisation of the system on a few heroes—rather than unfocalisation, which alternately shares the ‘hero spots’ of the system—polyfocalisation of which 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Pot-Bouille</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">La Bête Humaine </hi>and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">La Débâcle</hi> are the best examples, processes issued from a network made of marked ‘nodes’ and interstitial light layers, which take distance from a fixed ‘pyramid-like’ hierarchy (a hero, secondary and marginal characters, etc., according to a non-adjustable scale) of classic works. (Hamon, 1998, 320, my translation)
            </p>
            <p>We propose a mathematical formalism to study these questions in the section on typology. The index of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">centralisation</hi> measures how centralised the network is, i.e., how much more central the most central character is compared to all the other characters, ‘central’ being an open concept thus far. Then, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">coreness</hi> highlights who the characters at the center of the narration are.
            </p>
            <p>The Index </p>
            <p>In order to construct the character networks, we consider an index built on the whole series (Zola, 1967, 1795–884), for which the indexer detailed his/her choices. It is a table compiling the occurrences of characters, from which we extract the co-occurrences that lead to the determination of the sets of edges. Contrarily to an automatic extraction process, we can rely here on the professional work of scholars, which provides exact positions at a page-level by disambiguating characters cited by nicknames, pronouns, or multiple names. </p>
            <p>The index contains supplementary information, from which we use the novel names (characters frequently appear in more than one novel) and the characters’ descriptions to distinguish characters with the same name—for example, the six different characters named ‘Rose’. </p>
            <p>Eventually, we transformed the index into a table composed of 40,768 entries, each one of them having three attributes: name of character, name of novel, and page. The table contains 1,343 unique characters and 7,290 unique pages. </p>
            <p>The Networks </p>
            <p>The table is then divided into 20 smaller tables, each one corresponding to a novel. We apply the method developed in Rochat (2014) to include co-occurrences on overlapping pairs of pages in order to take characters appearing in the same sentence but on different pages into account when creating the edges, since they need to be linked together. We build bipartite networks from these tables, with one set of nodes composed of the characters and the other set composed of the pages. Then we compute the graph projections on the sets of characters to obtain the characters’ networks, shown in Figure 1 (see Fruchterman and Reingold, 1991, for the layout algorithm). </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""14.534444444444444cm"" height=""18.80834722222222cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. The character networks of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Rougon-Maquart</hi>’s 20 novels.
            </p>
            <p>The character networks show significant diversity (Table 1). The number of nodes (i.e., the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">order</hi>) varies from 16 to 88, and the number of edges (i.e., the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">size</hi>) from 68 to 1,181. Works like 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Le Rêve</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">La Faute de l’Abbé Mouret</hi> feature few characters and relations: this is consistent with their intimate subjects. In comparison, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Pot-Bouille</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Au Bonheur des Dames</hi>, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Germinal</hi> feature many characters and relations: they are composed of a rich crowd along with narrative events involving many characters. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""5.3922083333333335cm"" height=""7.985125cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Table 1. Basic network properties. </p>
            <p>The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">density</hi> of a network is the ratio of the number of existing edges by the number of all possible edges. Low density implies that the characters are sparsely connected, while high density means that the characters are more intricately connected to each other. In our case, this property can be used for categorisation, since large (
                <hi rend=""italic"">La Débâcle</hi>) and rather small (
                <hi rend=""italic"">La Fortune des Rougon</hi>) character networks obtain small density values. However, large density values can also be attained by large (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Germinal</hi>) as well as the small (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Le Rêve</hi>) character networks.
            </p>
            <p>Typology Based on Major vs. Minor Characters </p>
            <p>In this section, we develop two ways to categorise character networks by exploiting the distributions of major and minor characters. The first one consists in studying 
                <hi rend=""italic"">centralisation</hi>, a global measure based on the centrality measures of all the characters, while the second one measures the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">coreness</hi> of the network—that is, the size of a particularly dense subgraph that we view as a core of protagonists of the network.
            </p>
            <p>Centralisation </p>
            <p>Centrality is a wide concept mathematically expressed by families of measures reflecting particular properties of the network under study. For example, degree is one of them. Here, we use in particular betweenness centrality: it measures how much a character acts as an intermediary at the level of the network. Betweenness centralisation is the global network measure based on betweenness centrality: we sum the differences between the maximal betweenness score and each node’s betweenness score, and then divide it by the theoretical maximal sum (Freeman, 1979). A centralisation index returns a value located between 0 and 1: a value close to 0 means that there is no node playing a central role (e.g., a ring graph), while a value close to 1 implies that there is a centralised structure (e.g., a star graph). </p>
            <p>We observe the scores in Table 2: most of the networks have low betweenness centralisation. However, those that rank first are significantly more centralised: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">L’Oeuvre, L’Argent, Le Docteur Pascal</hi>, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Son Excellence Eugène Rougon</hi> have one and only one protagonist (the main character of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">L’Argent</hi> appears on every page), and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">La Débâcle</hi> is the story of two men at the front and their strong friendship.
            </p>
            <p>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""8.071555555555555cm"" height=""8.568972222222222cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>Table 2. Centralisation scores.
            </p>
            <p>Coreness </p>
            <p>In order to delimit the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">core</hi> of the network (in opposition to the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">periphery</hi>), we consider the notion of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">k-core</hi> (Seidman, 1983; Csardi and Nepusz, 2006), that is, the maximal induced subgraph with all its nodes having a degree equal or superior to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">k</hi>. Normalised by its respective network order, the highest possible 
                <hi rend=""italic"">k</hi> value in a network is a measure of how compact the main group of characters is. We call it 
                <hi rend=""italic"">coreness</hi>. 
            </p>
            <p>Results are shown in Figure 2, plotted with the networks’ orders. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">La Faute de l’Abbé Mouret</hi>’s character network is composed of a very dense component consisting of more than half the total number of characters. We remark that among the three ‘polyfocalised’ novels noticed earlier by Hamon, two of them (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Pot-Bouille </hi>and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Germinal</hi>) have high values of coreness, meaning that the central and prominent characters are well connected among them among themselves and act as interchangeable figures. However, for the third one, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">La Débâcle</hi>, the coreness is low, suggesting that having strong protagonists in a sparser network diminishes the strength of the core of protagonists. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""14.534444444444444cm"" height=""14.534444444444444cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Coreness.</p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>In this work, we have shown a descriptive approach to compare character networks. Our results show that it is possible to discriminate them. By iteration, the comparison of character networks leads to the analysis of large numbers of character networks.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Csardi, G. and Nepusz, T.</hi> (2006). The igraph Software Package for Complex Network Research. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">InterJournal Complex Systems,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1695</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Freeman, L. C.</hi> (1979). Centrality in Social Networks I: Conceptual Clarification. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social Networks,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(3): 215–39. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fruchterman, T. M. and Reingold, E. M.</hi> (1991). Graph Drawing by Force-Directed Placement. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Software: Practice and Experience,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(11): 1129–64.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hamon, P.</hi> (1998). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Le personnel du roman: Le système des personnages dans les Rougon-Macquart d’Émile Zola</hi>. Librairie Droz. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mac Carron, P. and Kenna, R.</hi> (2012). Universal Properties of Mythological Networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Europhysics Letters, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">99</hi>(2) (July): 28002.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2011). Network Theory, Plot Analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Left Review,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">68</hi> (April). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rochat, Y.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Character Networks and Centrality.</hi> Ph.D. thesis, University of Lausanne. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Seidman, S. B.</hi> (1983). Network Structure and Minimum Degree. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social Networks,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>(3): 269–87. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Woloch, A.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The One vs. the Many: Minor Characters and the Space of the Protagonist in the Novel</hi>. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zola, É.</hi> (1967). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Les Rougon-Macquart</hi>. Gallimard.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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                        <surname>Terras</surname>
                        <forename>Melissa</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>m.terras@ucl.ac.uk</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Graham-Matheson</surname>
                        <forename>Helen</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>helen.graham-matheson.12@ucl.ac.uk</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Furlong</surname>
                        <forename>Gillian</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>g.furlong@ucl.ac.uk</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Wright</surname>
                        <forename>Steven</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>steven.wright@ucl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Makin</surname>
                        <forename>Katy</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>k.makin@ucl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Gibson</surname>
                        <forename>Adam</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>adam.gibson@ucl.ac.uk</email>
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            <p>Many collections of medieval manuscripts are now being digitised and showcased online, but in order to do so, a complete pipeline of identification, cataloguing, imaging, and delivery is needed, which can be prohibitively expensive and time consuming. Teams seldom have all the skill sets in place to deal with the identification of complex historical texts. It is also rare to attempt any advanced imaging techniques to aid the reading of manuscript material. We report here on an interdisciplinary collaboration to analyse fragments of unknown medieval manuscript material held in UCL Special Collections. We demonstrate that a centre for digital humanities can provide the catalyst to undertake such a small, yet intensive, digitization project within an institutional context, and, working in joint collaboration, can aid in the process of digitization, communicate with a wider online audience to help with identification of material, and promote interdisciplinary working to prepare material for further research in heritage science. </p>
            <p>The Collection </p>
            <p>UCL Special Collections,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> one of the foremost university collections of manuscripts, archives, and rare books in the United Kingdom, hosts fine collections of medieval manuscripts, early printed books, and archival material. A collection of 157 medieval manuscript fragments have been in the possession of the Library for decades, but have never been fully described and are generally unknown to the wider community. They were purchased in the early 20th century in an initiative led by a professor of German studies at UCL, Robert Priebsch, who had long been trying to secure a group of manuscripts for palaeographic study (Munby, 1960, 38). Money was raised by subscription amongst UCL staff (Munby, 1960), and it is thought that this collection was purchased at auction in Bonn in 1921; unfortunately relevant records did not survive the war (Munby, 1960, 42). Although mentioned briefly in a catalogue of UCL’s holdings in the 1930s (University College, London and Coveney, 1935), the manuscripts are yet to be fully described and researched. Mostly originating from Germany, they have been found to contain rare examples of early musical notation as well as legal, religious, medical, and other texts from a range of dates (mainly 10th–14th centuries), styles, and different languages (including Latin, German, Hebrew, English, French, and Greek). Consistent with having been used in bindings for later printed works, the majority of the fragments have significant damage, most usually remnants of, or loss of text removed by, adhesive. They are variously cut, torn, and faded, with pest damage and various accretions. 
            </p>
            <p>Digital Humanities and Digitisation </p>
            <p>Although most effort in the digital humanities is focussed on the production, analysis, and visualization of text, there is a growing interest in the community towards digital imaging. Digitisation can produce adequate scholarly surrogates of historical documents (Terras, 2008). However, improvements in digital image processing and analysis have allowed the development of a number of techniques that can reveal a greater wealth of information about the originals, beyond traditional digitisation technologies (MacDonald, 2006). Scholars have been able to image, analyse, and recover more information from historical texts, primarily using a technique called multispectral imaging (Chabries et al., 2003; Salerno et al., 2007; Tanner and Bearman, 2009). Over the past few years, UCL has been building up its expertise in cultural and heritage imaging, working on a range of projects that involve developing and analyzing capture methods for primary historical texts (for example, see Pal et al., 2014; MacDonald et al., 2013; Giacometti et al., forthcoming). </p>
            <p>We conceived the Fragment Project as the inaugural scholarly programme of the recently opened UCL Multi-Modal digitisation suite,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> a facility for teaching and research in digitisation technologies jointly supported by UCL Faculty of Arts and Humanities,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> UCL Faculty of Engineering Sciences,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> and UCL Library Services
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> coordinated by UCL Centre for Digital Humanities,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> completed in September 2013. In working together on the digitisation of the manuscript fragments, we aimed to make the fragments available to a wider scholarly audience for the first time, help in their identification and classification, but also to categorize the physical properties of this set of primary source material held locally in UCL Special Collections, so that we can use the fragments in our research aimed at developing new imaging techniques for recovering text in deteriorated historical manuscripts. 
            </p>
            <p>The UCL Medieval Manuscript Fragment Project </p>
            <p>This project was given a small amount of seed funding from both the Library and UCL Centre for Digital Humanities (totaling £3000) to allow the classification, identification, digitization, and cataloguing of the collection. The first phase of the programme, undertaken between November 2013 and April 2014, involved surveying all fragments in the collection, to identify—where possible—the language, content, and date of the fragments, and to quantify the physical condition of each (for example, Cracks, Flaking, Fading, Abrasion, Ink Water Solubility, Loss, Ink Offset, etc.). We were lucky to employ, part time, a recently finished PhD student with wide-ranging linguistic and palaeographic expertise to undertake this overview. Fifty detailed descriptions of selected fragments were produced and used as the basis for a full archive catalogue, which was produced in accordance with international standards using CALM software.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi> Two hundred seventy-nine high-resolution images of the collection were produced. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
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            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. An example of a fragment identified and digitized. Thirteenth-century leaf from a hymnal, parchment. Text in a gothic script in two columns interspersed with musical notation in a German gothic ‘hufnagel’ style on a 4-line stave with C marked. UCL Library Services Special Collections MS.</p>
            <p>Although we were successful in identifying the source of most of the fragments (which are varied: a fragment of St Paul’s Second Epistle to the Romans, a miniscule portion of the Greek play 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Medea</hi> from the 4th or 5th century AD, a Gregorian chant based on Psalm 65), the digital humanists in our group also encouraged the use of social media to connect with a wider community of scholars (UCL does not have a music department, and we had no expertise in our team to help with identification of the music fragments). Others have had success in the identification of medieval fragments via crowdsourcing (Erwin, 2013), so we turned to the hive mind. Liaising with groups such as the Plainsong and Medieval Music Society on Facebook (https://www.facebook.com/groups/108654282490212/) and Musicologie Médiévale (http://gregorian-chant.ning.com/) allowed us to communicate with other manuscript experts and gain further insights, identification, and classification.
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""11.468805555555555cm"" height=""25.200680555555557cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Successful outreach via social media to aid in further identification of</p>
            <p>fragments.</p>
            <p>Many of our fragments are now online and can be seen at bit.ly/uclmedievalfragments. This phase of the programme will have several additional benefits for teaching, research, and public engagement. The manuscripts will be showcased in exhibitions and disseminated online, forming a unique set of teaching and research materials. However, the innovative approach of this activity is in being able to prioritise which manuscripts will be most useful to focus efforts on, in order to help read damaged and deteriorated texts via advanced multi-modal imaging techniques, and at the time of writing we are moving into the final phase of the project, quantifying best practice in using multispectral imaging on damaged and abraded text. We now have a range of locally held, categorized medieval fragments with which to work as we perfect our techniques before visiting other archives to image historically important manuscripts.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""11.994444444444444cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. MS FRAG/MUSIC/15, an antiphonal featuring Gregorian chants. Text and square musical notation in black with 4-line staves ruled in red. Only 40% of text legible: an example of a fragment we can work on with multispectral imaging to improve legibility of the text.</p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>Framing the project as a digital humanities one opened up access to financial and physical resources provided by UCL Centre for Digital Humanities, gave easy access to institutional infrastructure for setting up and maintaining digital projects (such as data backup for digitisation), allowed identification and employment of staff to aid in the surveying and identification of the fragments, aided in reaching out to a wider online community to help identify fragments of unknown provenance, and allowed a large part of the digitization of the collection to be carried out. In doing this work we are now prepared to undertake novel imaging research with the collection (demonstrating the groundwork that is necessary before undertaking advanced cultural heritage imaging). It should be stressed that we could not have undertaken this project without the full support of the Library, whose own investment allowed refining of the collected data, cataloguing, mounting of the digitized material into the institutional content management system, and further digitization. By pooling resources and expertise, we have undertaken identification, cataloguing, and digitization of a collection, for a mere few thousand pounds, whilst preparing for a more advanced phase of imaging research. The project demonstrates, then, that centres for digital humanities, working in equal collaboration with institutional partners, can provide complementary resources and expertise to support complex digitization processes, whilst this mutual relationship can lead to future novel research endeavors.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/special-collections.</p>
            <p>2. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh/facilities/digitisation-suite.</p>
            <p>3. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/ah.</p>
            <p>4. http://www.engineering.ucl.ac.uk/.</p>
            <p>5. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/.</p>
            <p>6. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh.</p>
            <p>7. http://www.axiell.co.uk/calm.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chabries, M., Booras, S. W. and Bearman, G. H.</hi> (2003). Imaging the Past: Recent Applications of Multispectral Imaging Technology to Deciphering Manuscripts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Antiquity, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">77</hi>(296): 359–72. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Erwin, M.</hi> (2013). Crowdsourcing the Arcane: Utilizing Flickr (and Google) to Describe Medieval Manuscript Fragments. Updated transcript of talk given at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Society of Southwest Archivists Annual Meeting</hi>, Austin, TX, http://micahcapstone.wordpress.com/2013/06/01/crowdsourcing-the-arcane-utilizingflickr-and-google-to-describe-medieval-manuscript-fragments/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Giacometti, A., Terras, M. and Gibson, A.</hi> (forthcoming). Objectively Evaluating Text Recovery Methodologies for Multispectral Images of Palimpsests. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Heritage in the Digital Era</hi>, 15th issue dedicated to Computer Vision in Cultural Heritage.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">MacDonald, L. W.</hi> (2006). Digital Heritage: Applying Digital Imaging to Cultural Heritage. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">MacDonald, L., Giacometti, A., Campagnolo, A., Robson, S., Weyrich, T., Terras, M. and Gibson, A.</hi> (2013). Multispectral Imaging of Degraded Parchment. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computational Color Imaging, Lecture Notes in Computer Science,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7786</hi>: 143–57.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Munby, A. N. L.</hi> (1960). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Dispersal of the Phillips Library.</hi> University Press, Cambridge, http://books.google.com/books?id=91e5AAAAIAAJ.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pal, K., Schuller, C., Panozzo, D., Sorkine-Hornung, O. and Weyrich, T.</hi> (2014). Content-Aware Surface Parameterization for Interactive Restoration of Historical Documents. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computer Graphics Forum (Proc. Eurographics),</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">33</hi>(2).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Salerno, E., Tonazzini, A. and Bedini, L.</hi> (2007). Digital Image Analysis to Enhance Underwritten Text in the Archimedes Palimpsest. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IJDAR</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(2–4): 79–87.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tanner, S. and Bearman, G.</hi> (2009). Digitizing the Dead Sea Scrolls. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IS&amp;T Archiving 2009, Final Program and Proceedings</hi>, pp. 119–23.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Terras, M.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Images for the Information Professional</hi>. Ashgate, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">University College, London and Coveney, D. K.</hi> (1935). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Descriptive Catalogue of Manuscripts in the Library of University College, London</hi>. Printed for University of London, University College.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                    <term>libraries</term>
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            <p>This poster will discuss a collaborative assignment given to Dr. Mark Sample’s DIG 350–History and Future of the Book class, in its first iteration of being taught. The course was offered through the Digital Studies Department in fall 2014 at Davidson College, a small, private liberal arts college in North Carolina in the United States. </p>
            <p>As part of their coursework, the 10 enrolled undergraduate students were asked to come up with speculative designs of a ‘technologically enhanced mobile library’, with assistance from the college’s associate archivist, Caitlin Christian-Lamb. This project was born out of collaboration between Sample and Christian-Lamb, after discussing a shared interest in experimental literature, mobile libraries, literacy, and community-building. The assignment was worth 10% of each student’s grade, and when planned by Sample and Christian-Lamb, included a series of discussions on libraries, archives, and mobile capabilities to set the table for students’ free-form exploration of possible designs. The concept of the technologically enhanced mobile library as described to the class was a combination community bookshelf, literacy outreach module, and experimental book-based playground of sorts, with many of the core elements and purposes left to students to define and expand upon. The example mobile library design given was of a bicycle with bookshelves attached, tracked by GPS and with its changing collections monitored by weekly photographs uploaded to a website or Twitter account. A possible research use would be to gather statistics on literacy and reading rates of local schools, and then place the mobile library near school buildings, advertise its services, and reevaluate whether this had an effect on the amount that students read, or increased levels of literacy.</p>
            <p>However, prior to the first discussion, out of curiosity Christian-Lamb asked the students to take the Pew Research Internet Project’s Library User Quiz, and was surprised that find that, although the majority of the students fell into the Pew-defined ‘Library Lovers’ and ‘Information Omnivores’ groups, the group data indicated that a smaller percentage than the general public felt that libraries promoted literacy or that a local public library closure would have a major impact on the community as a whole. Based on these results, the first project discussion instead veered in the direction of libraries as public intellectual commons, the role of librarians and archivists, and what values library services are designed to fill. Subsequent class discussions elaborated ideas of libraries and archives as social justice centers; idealized possible libraries; libraries as playful, creative spaces (and the relationship of libraries to makerspaces); and Little Free Libraries and other DIY collections.</p>
            <p>Possible outputs for the assignment included designs of a technologically enhanced mobile library; opinion papers or blogs on whether these mobile libraries should exist and what their functions should be, or on the place of mobile community-aimed technologies at an academic, nonpublic library setting; models or interactive websites; games based on the topic of mobile libraries; or any other free-form product approved by the instructors. In addition to illustrating the student outputs and future research possibilities, this poster will share the resources curated for class discussion on libraries, archives, makerspaces, and their community values, as well as demonstrating one example of an experimental pedagogy and the ways in which open, synergistic exploration of preconceived notions on behalf of the students and instructors resulted in a better product than the original assignment.</p>
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                    <term>Contemporary Irish Literature</term>
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            <p>Ireland’s literary communities are thriving. In the face of mounting economic pressures, the island continues to host a relatively substantial volume of prestigious publications dedicated to contemporary literature, all of which are seemingly committed to a high standard of literary quality. Some of Ireland’s most acclaimed contemporary authors are engaged with these journals as editors, with an increasingly wide spectrum of genres and modes being catered to. Ireland is a nation rich in literary tradition, but this is a varied tradition, comprising something of a riot of aesthetics, forms, and ideologies. However, unlike larger countries, it is feasible to identify Ireland’s most prestigious journals, and having done so, produce a whole range of literary extrapolations through the use of computational methodologies. This paper takes a number of Ireland’s longest-running and most prestigious literary journals, and using a variety of computational methods, conducts a series of macro-analytical explorations designed to identify the key trends across its dynamic literary community. In choosing literary journals, I am focusing on a sector that continues to thrive, both nationally and indeed globally (Harmanci, 2011). More importantly, journals and periodicals are reflective of a region’s literary grass roots, in that they largely comprise authors who are an active part of the artistic community. Thus, they arguably provide a more accurate indicator of local and national trends than one would find in an analysis of novels or standalone collections.</p>
            <p>Methodology and Results</p>
            <p>This study brings together a unique dataset, containing digitised editions of some of Ireland’s longest-running and most respected literary periodicals. Specifically, this dataset includes complete or nearly complete collections of each of the canonical 
                <hi rend=""il"">journals</hi> for contemporary 
                <hi rend=""il"">Irish</hi> writing. While a major analysis has been conducted and is still under way, for the sake of brevity only a sample of my findings are presented here. The journals have been analysed using a variety of approaches to textual analysis, as well as topic modeling. In this particular instance, I have elected to outline the results of a subset of my stylometric and textual analyses, as well as my initial topic models. For the purposes of this abstract, I am focusing on the online issues of two of Ireland’s leading contemporary journals, Poetry Ireland’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Poetry Ireland Review</hi>, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Southword</hi>, published by the Munster Literature Centre. The final study will incorporate the results of several other analyses relevant to this exploration of contemporary Irish writing and use a wider dataset.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Cluster Analysis of</hi> Poetry Ireland Review 
                <hi rend=""italic"">and </hi>Southword
            </p>
            <p>Editorial influences on style are explored using multivariate stylometric methods packaged in Stylo (Eder et al., 2013). In this instance, what is of interest is whether there is a clear stylistic separation between the submissions being accepted to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Southword</hi> and the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Poetry Ireland Review</hi>. A cluster analysis, using Delta (Burrows, 2002; Hoover, 2004) and 100 features, demonstrates a clear separation between the styles found in each journal (see Figure 1).
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""12.329583333333334cm"" height=""9.505372222222222cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Cluster analysis of Poetry Ireland Review and Southword.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Principal Component Analysis</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Principal component analyses of the journals suggests that content is temporally comparable (see Figure 2), but also editorially separable, an issue that will be delineated in greater detail in the presentation.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""11.43cm"" height=""7.447177777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. PCA of Poetry Ireland Review and Southword.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Distinctive Markers in </hi>Poetry Ireland Review
                <hi rend=""italic""> and </hi>Southword
            </p>
            <p>A list of the most distinctive words from each journal is generated using Craig’s Zeta (Hoover, 2008; Burrows, 2007), with a text slice length of 5,000, text slice overlap of 1,000, and an occurrence and filter threshold of 2 and 0.1. Unlike Delta, Zeta is a mode of classification, the results of which demonstrate a sample of the ‘unique’ words from each journal (see Table 1). </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Poetry Ireland Review</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Southword</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                        <p>humour</p>
                        <p>criticism</p>
                        <p>oxford</p>
                        <p>dolmen</p>
                        <p>revolution</p>
                        <p>role</p>
                        <p>perception</p>
                        <p>mythology</p>
                        <p>extent</p>
                        <p>stated</p>
                        <p>speak</p>
                        <p>shall</p>
                        <p>original</p>
                        <p>desire</p>
                        <p>pain</p>
                        <p>myth</p>
                        <p>development</p>
                        <p>described</p>
                        <p>fact</p>
                        <p>critical</p>
                        <p>awareness</p>
                        <p>celtic</p>
                        <p>passion</p>
                        <p>importance</p>
                        <p>hearing</p>
                        <p>given</p>
                        <p>matter</p>
                        <p>sight</p>
                        <p>culture</p>
                        <p>historical</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                        <p>father</p>
                        <p>sitting</p>
                        <p>walked</p>
                        <p>minutes</p>
                        <p>revival</p>
                        <p>across</p>
                        <p>distance</p>
                        <p>passed</p>
                        <p>drove</p>
                        <p>completing</p>
                        <p>prisons</p>
                        <p>sandwiches</p>
                        <p>seated</p>
                        <p>shouts</p>
                        <p>angled</p>
                        <p>knocks</p>
                        <p>sideways</p>
                        <p>clock</p>
                        <p>camera</p>
                        <p>cigarette</p>
                        <p>beer</p>
                        <p>pipes</p>
                        <p>pressing</p>
                        <p>shit</p>
                        <p>splash</p>
                        <p>corners</p>
                        <p>trousers</p>
                        <p>muddy</p>
                        <p>crowded</p>
                        <p>meal</p>
                    </cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Table 1. Most distinctive words from Poetry Ireland Review and Southword.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Topic Modeling in </hi>Poetry Ireland Review
                <hi rend=""italic""> and </hi>Southword
            </p>
            <p>Topic modeling is a form of probabilistic modeling designed to ‘uncover the hidden thematic structure in document collections’ (Blei, n.d.; 2012). Non-negative Matrix Factorisation was used to conduct the analysis, a fragment of which has been provided (see Table 2).</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell cols=""3"" rend=""DH-Default"">love time home mr high deep remember war lost died</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell cols=""4"" rend=""DH-Default"">poetry poems poem work irish poet book poets language verse</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell cols=""3"" rend=""DH-Default"">life great things made find part power don sense human</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell cols=""3"" rend=""DH-Default"">black day heart half world trees hair silence dream garden</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell cols=""2"" rend=""DH-Default"">night light dark sea water sun green room air sky</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell cols=""3"" rend=""DH-Default"">white man dead time back red blood head leaves bed</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">na ar de ag la mo agus tuairisc se el</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell cols=""3"" rend=""DH-Default"">god long face eyes words death hands place earth hand</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell cols=""3"" rend=""DH-Default"">clarke house years young back church found small ll great</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell cols=""4"" rend=""DH-Default"">good people man women world Heaney poet political woman life</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Table 2. Topic models in Poetry Ireland Review.</p>
            <p>Interpretations</p>
            <p>A number of interesting peculiarities have emerged from this study. The fact that there is a consistent stylometric separation of the journals suggests that there is a clear style associated with each journal, which I suggest can be attributed to editorial contexts. To my knowledge, this is the first study that offers quantitative evidence of editorial influences. The topic models are also significant, in that they present some fascinating thematic axes. In 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Poetry Ireland Review</hi>, we see the alignment of Heaney with gender and politics, and dreams with nature. 
            </p>
            <p>In my presentation, I will present the complete set of results from this macro-analysis, as well as the most significant findings from this study, which in an Irish context is the very first of its kind. Key findings and interpretations in relation to literary trends—editorially, temporally, and otherwise—will be presented and discussed. I believe this study of interest to the international literary community, not only because of the global interest in Irish writing, but also because many of these findings may well be generisable, or comparable, across differing literary and cultural contexts. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. M. </hi>(2012). Probabilistic Topic Models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communications of the ACM,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">55</hi>(40): 77–84.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. M. </hi>(n.d.). Topic Modeling. http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~blei/topicmodeling.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J. </hi>(2002). ‘Delta’: A Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(3): 267–87.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J. </hi>(2007). All the Way Through: Testing for Authorship in Different Frequency Strata. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>(1): 27–47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J. </hi>(2013). Sylometry with R: A Suite of Tools. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts</hi>. University of Nebraska, Lincoln, pp. 487–89.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Harmanci. R. </hi>(2011). Literary Journals Thrive, on Paper and Otherwise. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New York Times</hi>, 7 April, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/08/us/08bcculture.html?_r=0
                        <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. L. </hi>(2004). Testing Burrows’s Delta. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">19</hi>(4): 453–75.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. L. </hi>(2008). Quantitative Analysis and Literary Studies. In Schreibman, S. and Siemens, R. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Literary Studies</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 517–33.
                    </bibl>
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                        <surname>Kretzschmar</surname>
                        <forename>William</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Georgia</affiliation>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Juuso</surname>
                        <forename>Ilkka</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Oulu</affiliation>
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                    <term>cellular automaton</term>
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            <p>In two previous papers at DH we have presented work in progress on computer simulation of language diffusion. In this paper, we offer the results from our completed research program, highly suggestive findings about how the process of linguistic change may operate.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""HTML_Typewriter"">Computer simulation is the only practical way to model linguistic diffusion. We have successfully simulated diffusion with a cellular automaton, which uses update rules with respect to the status of its neighboring locations to determine the status (whether a linguistic feature is used or not) at a given location. As shown in Figure 1, each target cell may become live (if dead) if a certain number of neighbors is live, whether from the eight neighbors immediately next to the target, or alternatively from the 24 neighbors in the first and second rows around the target. The same calculation takes place for a target cell to stay live if it is already live.</hi>
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                <hi rend=""HTML_Typewriter"">Figure 1. Cellular automaton (green target cell, evaluated by status of eight first-order neighbors, or 24 first- and second-order neighbors).</hi>
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            <p>
                <hi rend=""HTML_Typewriter"">All locations in a matrix are evaluated, and then the new status for each one is displayed all at once (one generation). Throughout hundreds of generations we can watch regional distributional patterns emerge. In so doing we model human interactions, as speakers talk or write to each other and change their behavior based on that of their neighbors. We validate our results by comparison to actual linguistic data from survey research: we always observe clustered patterns in the survey, and we know that our simulation is successful if similar clusters emerge from the cellular automaton, as shown in Figure 2, the status of our simulation after 1,000 generations with a random factor of .01% (one decision overturned randomly in 10,000). This sort of clustered behavior is characteristic of complex systems (Kretzschmar, 2009), as they are studied in physics, evolutionary biology, economics, and other fields, where nonlinear (or ‘fractal’) distributions of variants regularly emerge at every level of scale in scale-free networks.</hi>
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                <hi rend=""HTML_Typewriter"">Figure 2. Simulation after 1,000 generations.</hi>
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            <p>
                <hi rend=""HTML_Typewriter"">The cellular automaton is not the only form of simulation that could be applied to speech, but it is perhaps the simplest. Stanford and Kenny (2013), for example, employed an agent-based model to model chain-shifts, where ‘agents’ could move between locations to spread a linguistic feature, whereas in a cellular automaton the location of each cell is fixed. The Stanford and Kenny model, however, uses numerous unvalidated assumptions about how information is shared and about how agents move. Similarly, Baxter et al. (2009), Blythe and Croft (2009), and Ellis and Freeman-Larsen (2009a) all create more complex simulations that do achieve results but lack validation. Our cellular automaton shows that the complexity of agent movement or other similar parameters in such simulations may not be necessary as well as being unvalidated. After extensive testing of possible rule sets in our two-dimensional model, only one rule set produces stable, clustered results of the kind we always observe from real data (2,3,4 live neighbors to become live, 5,6,7,8 neighbors live to stay live). And this rule set, with suitable adjustment by social weighting and a small random factor, is sufficient to produce results that match the clustered patterns that arise in real survey data.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>After substantial experience with the computer simulation, we have observed a number of characteristics that are highly suggestive for how the complex system of speech may operate in actual human populations of speakers:</p>
            <p> 1. While we have only ever found one rule set that produces clusters, the Bailey set (2,3,4/5,6,7,8, for N=1), other rule sets may be useful, such as proportional rules 90/10, 75/25, and 60/40 that all produce estimates of ‘Where people say X’. The Bailey set, however, eventually produces stable clusters of locations on the grid that match the kind of clustering we observe in Density Estimation statistical processing from the same data.</p>
            <p> 2. The relative ages of locations (how many consecutive generations a location has been live) always occur in a nonlinear distribution, with the most one generation old, then many two generations, then small numbers of older locations. This suggests that the persistence of features, not just use of features, is important in language diffusion. Persistence is what accounts for the creation of long-term stable clusters of locations.</p>
            <p> 3. Inclusion of a random factor overturning decisions from the rules up to .06% (six decisions in 10,000) slows down the process of cluster formation, but more than .06% randomness throws the simulation into a chaotic (everchanging) condition where no stable clusters form. This suggests that proximity, not random decisions by speakers, controls language diffusion. However, inclusion of a small random factor preserves nearly all of the long tail of infrequent responses in the nonlinear distribution after 1,000 generations, and so it is necessary to include random decisions by speakers in order to achieve the nonlinear distributions we know to exist in survey data.</p>
            <p> 4. Inclusion of a social factor also creates clustered behavior (N=2, 25% social weighting). Clusters appear in different places for the social groups defined by characteristics such as age or level of education. Clusters also appear in different places for the same social groups depending on different social information in different seeds, where social information proportional to original survey speakers is added randomly to empty matrix cells. Social ‘proximity’ is thus important to the creation of nonlinear clustering in scale-free networks.</p>
            <p> 5. When variants fill the grid, they rapidly increase in number of locations up to about 4,000 locations (c. 50%), then hit a plateau where the number of locations only rises very slowly. Persistence in the plateau stage produces stable clusters. The simulation thus has a life cycle for all surviving variants: constant motion across the grid, smaller temporary clusters for up to 250 iterations as a variant builds density across the grid, and (in addition to smaller temporary clusters) larger stable clusters after a variant reaches 50% density, a process that make take 1,000 iterations. This suggests that features in actual speech may also show a life cycle, e.g., common use across wide areas, temporary small areas in which particular features become very common for a time, and stable, potentially large areas in which features are persistent for long periods.</p>
            <p> 6. Running the simulation across all the variants does not produce the A-curve of values that we see in the survey data, so the A-curve in the survey data does not arise merely from the effects of proximity. However, we can create a separate array that represents what speakers remember in their
                <hi rend=""italic""> active </hi>speech, while allowing the rules to run across all the variants represents what is available to speakers in their 
                <hi rend=""italic"">passive</hi> speech. As shown in Figure 3, this ‘active memory’ array does show an A-curve across all surviving variants when a small random factor is included, which acts on all variants but preserves many low-frequency variants that would otherwise die out. This suggests that the operation of the complex system preserves variants across wide areas in passive understanding of language, but that active use of language involves common use of a smaller number of variants per speakers with a nonlinear preservation of variants across the whole population; this active use of language is what a survey normally elicits. The simulation thus addresses individual human cognitive capacity.
            </p>
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            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">Figure 3. Chart of ‘active memory’ for simulation with random factor of .01% after 1,000 generations (see ‘active’ and ‘enforced active’ tallies at right).</p>
            <p>Our use of a simple cellular automaton in a successful simulation suggests how we might better understand the survey and other data we have already collected, and also suggests how we might do a better job of collecting additional empirical data about language in future. The simulation indicates that we should use care in creation of overly complicated simulations when a simpler one will do.</p>
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                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""HTML_Typewriter"">
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Baxter, G., Blythe, R., Croft, W. and McKane, A.</hi> (2009). Modeling Language Change: An Evaluation of Trudgill’s Theory of the Emergence of New Zealand English. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Language Variation and Change</hi>
                            <hi rend=""italic"">,</hi>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>: 257–96.
                        </hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""HTML_Typewriter"">
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Blythe, R. and Croft, W.</hi> (2009). The Speech Community in Evolutionary Language Dynamics. In Ellis and Larsen-Freeman 2009b, pp. 47–63.
                        </hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""HTML_Typewriter"">
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Ellis, N. and Larsen-Freeman, D.</hi> (2009a). Constructing a Second Language: Analyses and Computational Simulations of the Emergence of Linguistic Constructions from Usage. In Ellis and Larsen-Freeman 2009b, pp. 90–125.
                        </hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""HTML_Typewriter"">
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Ellis, N. and Larsen-Freeman, D.</hi> (2009b). 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Language as a Complex Adaptive System</hi>. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford.
                        </hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kretzschmar, W.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Linguistics of Speech</hi>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kretzschmar, W.</hi> (In press). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language and Complex Systems</hi>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stanford, J. and Kenny, L.</hi> (2013). Revisiting Transmission and Diffusion: An Agent-Based Model of Vowel Chain Shifts across Large Communities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language Variation and Change,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>: 119–53.
                    </bibl>
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"2206","16","Concepts Through Time: Tracing Concepts In Dutch Newspapers Discourse (1890-1990) Using Word Embeddings","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Wevers</surname>
                        <forename>Melvin</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Utrecht, The Netherlands</affiliation>
                    <email>m.j.h.f.wevers@uu.nl</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Kenter</surname>
                        <forename>Tom</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands</affiliation>
                    <email>tom.kenter@uva.nl</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Huijnen</surname>
                        <forename>Pim</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Utrecht, The Netherlands</affiliation>
                    <email>p.huijnen@uu.nl</email>
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                    <term>word embeddings</term>
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                    <term>digital cultural history</term>
                    <term>Americanization</term>
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            <p rend=""Normal1"">In this paper, we use a new technique, called Concepts Through Time (CTT), to trace concepts in newspaper discourse. CTT makes use of sequential semantic spaces to follow semantic shifts of concepts diachronically. The semantic spaces are based on the extensive digitized newspaper corpus of the Dutch National Library.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> As part of our approach, concepts are modeled as words related to each other in a semantic space. A key aspect of CTT is that the vocabulary used in the debate on a concept may change over time. In fact, the set of words used to discuss a particular concept might not show any overlap at all between different periods of time. As such, our method bears a resemblance to the rhizomatic structure as described by philosopher Gilles Deleuze. The conceptual implication of this method approximates the traditional scholarly methods of conceptual history. We test our method through three case studies: consumerism, globalization, and economic models. These domains are inextricably linked to the manifestation of modernization and Americanization within Dutch public discourse throughout the 20th century.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> Tracing the genealogy of these manifestations helps us rethink the variety of meanings of modernization and Americanization in the Netherlands during this period. Essential to the development and success of this method is that, for every step of the process, decisions have been motivated from both the perspective of computational linguistics and cultural history. This approach makes this research project a genuine collaborative digital humanities effort.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Traditionally, the field of conceptual history has tried to combine micro and macro perspectives by studying the emergence and transformation of concepts, ideas, and thoughts over larger periods of time. Historians have increasingly used digital tools for the purposes of conceptual history. However, researchers in these studies regularly employed pre-defined and ahistorical definitions of concepts. Full-text search and n-gram viewers, for example, require a workable definition of a concept or a range of words that cover the subject in order to, subsequently, analyze them within certain contexts and periods.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> The necessity of pre-defining terms is a serious drawback of working with these tracking tools. The research done in this way runs the risk of ahistoricity. The same goes for top-down approaches, in which a specific language model allows for the recognition of specific semantic information, such as entities via Named Entity Recognition (Grover et al., 2008; van Hooland et al., 2013) or via word classification lists (Klingenstein et al., 2014). Topic modeling approaches partly circumvent this limitation by modeling groups of words rather than single words. Topic modeling tools such as Mallet and TMT allow users to find topics in a corpus of texts without having to provide the algorithm with any prior information.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> With approaches such as ‘Topics over Time’, researchers could also track topics diachronically (Wang and McCallum, 2006). Other research projects have used topic models to develop contextualized dictionaries that helped, e.g., to define the concept of ‘strikes’ in 20th-century Netherlands (Bogers and Van den Bosch, 2008) or the Chicago School of ‘neoliberalism’ in postwar Germany (Wiedemann et al., 2014). 
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The methods described above all share the limitation that concepts—whether defined by hand or automatically—are static. Either the user provides a fixed list of words or a fixed list of topics is inferred from the data in these topic-tracking approaches. However, historians commonly use texts to get a grip on the continuities and discontinuities throughout time. This involves the recalibration of their hermeneutical framework as they go along—that is, the list of words they work with. We propose that digital tools should also be able to provide argumentative evidence for such a methodology in constructing historical narratives.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">For this purpose, we introduce a new technique, called CTT (Concepts Through Time), that aims to resolve the deficiencies of earlier methods. The technique is explicitly developed to account for historical changes in the semantics of concepts, thereby approximating the way historians traditionally have worked within conceptual history. CCT enables historians to trace concepts over large periods without having to manually select appropriate terms for the entire time span and without being dependent on a fixed set of topics. This allows for a greater sensitivity to semantic changes and an increased interactive heuristic approach to concepts within their discursive context.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi>
                <lb/> Methodologically, CTT is based on word embeddings, as inferred by a neural network trained on a large body of data, to monitor semantically related words. These are created using word2vec (Mikolov et al., 2013), a computational technique that does not depart from a top-down model of language. Rather, a semantic space is inferred from the input data. Word2vec uses a continuous bag-of-words or a skip-gram architecture in order to produce a multi-dimensional word-vector space. This space contains semantic and linguistic regularities that can be used for the analysis of discourse (Baroni et al., 2014; Wijaya and Yeniterzi, 20111). A positional shift within the vector space can been established as an indicator for chronological shifts on a semantic and syntactic level—for example, in the use of the words ‘gay’ and ‘cell’ (Kim et al., 2014).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi> This is not done using traditional means of analysis, such as part-of-speech tagging, but by merely observing the geometry in the vector space. However, the authors who have provided the mentioned examples have worked with single words of which the common meaning has shifted almost diametrically. We will be looking at clusters of words and shifts of meaning both large and small.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The data we use to trace concepts are the circa 500,000 newspaper issues between 1890 and 1990 that are available in the Dutch National Library’s digitized newspaper archive. We train subsequent semantic model spaces in which we trace groups of terms, rather than individual words, diachronically and synchronically by keeping track of semantic relations between terms per period. For this approach, no pre-established and fixed topic sets are needed. We will use a single seed set of terms, merely as an entry point into the cluster to then find semantically related words within the semantic model. We will automatically update the set of related words over time, utilizing the subsequent semantic spaces. A key aspect of this procedure is that the original seed words might disappear from the cluster of words over time. </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The way our word embedding technique clusters words holds surprising similarities with philosopher Gilles Deleuze’s notion of the rhizomatic structure (Deleuze, 1987).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">8</hi> Important features of this structure are that it allows for multiple entry and exit points, and that the semantic meaning of a concept is determined through its ‘relations of exteriority’ (DeLanda, 2006, 10–11). Translated to our approach, the meaning of a term can be considered in terms of the geometric relation in a semantic space.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">9</hi> Starting from this theory, we aim to focus on the stabilization and destabilization of relational vectors between words, i.e., the emergence and disappearance of words within a subset, as well as the shifting position of words in relation to one another. The latter could be the effect of forces within the cluster or changing vector relations outside of the cluster. We argue that the semantic space allows us to analyze ‘the processes that historically produce the identity of a given whole, but also the processes [coding and decoding] that maintain that identity through time’ (DeLanda, 2006, 10). Using this approach, we hope to determine words central to a topic and avoid concept drift caused by ambiguous words. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The development of this tool stems from a close collaboration between information retrieval experts and cultural historians. Every single technical or methodological choice has been motivated such that it complied with both sound computational linguistic research and critical historical methods. Consequently, we have high hopes of the applicability of this technique in historical research. We will evaluate our approach through three historical use cases in the context of the historiographical debates on modernization and Americanization in the Netherlands.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">10</hi> In the first case, we will trace popular consumer goods, such as cigarettes, alcohol, and fast food. This case study sets out to show which consumer goods appeared in newspaper discourse in specific periods. Moreover, it might show us in what wider discursive contexts these consumer goods were discussed—e.g., as luxury goods or as unhealthy products. The second use case maps out businesses in newspaper discourse. This might shed light on processes of globalization in which local businesses are substituted by multinationals. The final use case deals with the notion of efficiency. The concept was introduced in the Netherlands after the First World War (Bloemen, 1988); we will trace the genealogy of this concept to see whether it was already present in earlier discourse without being denoted as ‘efficiency’. In our final paper, we will show a formalization of the search strategies used to trace concepts through time. Furthermore, we will reflect on the representativeness of the newspaper archive as well as the applicability of the method to other corpora. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Notes</p>
            <p rend=""Footnote"">1. This collection includes over half a million newspapers for the 1890–1995 period. See www.delpher.nl.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. This paper is part of the research project Translantis, which looks into the role of the United States as a reference culture in Dutch public discourse. Therefore, the chosen case studies are related to issues of Americanization within the field of consumer society and economy. </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. Collaboration between computational experts and humanities scholars is an elemental part of the digital humanities. See Burdick et al. (2012), pp. 15–17.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">4. This method was adopted to study eugenics by Huijnen et al. (2014).</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">5. For an explanation of topic modeling, see Blei and Lafferty (2009). For uses of topic modeling in historical research, see Newman and Block (2006); Mimno (2012); Blevins (2010); Wittek and Ravenek (2011).</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">6. The importance of context for historical research is eloquently expressed in Snickars (2012).</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">7. In Kim et al.’s paper, the authors show how ‘gay’ has shifted from the connotation with an emotion to sexuality, and ‘cell’ has shifted from the denotation of a prison cell to the cellular phone. </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">8. For a clear description of rhizomatic thinking and assemblage theory, see ‘Assemblage Theory’ (2010). An interesting implementation of Deleuze’s notion of assemblage and rhizome has been performed by DeLanda (2006).</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">9. Michel Foucault makes a similar point when he argues that the meaning of an expression cannot be simply deduced from syntactic and semantic meaning. Rather, one should look into the conditions in which expressions appear and change—in his words, ‘by the analysis of the relations between the statement and the spaces of differentiation, in which the statement itself reveals the differences’. See Foucault (2012) .</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">10. These use cases stem from the Translantis research project. See 
                <hi rend=""Hyperlink.1"">www.translantis.nl</hi> and van Eijnatten et al., 2013.
            </p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""footnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">‘Assemblage Theory’.</hi> (2010). Texas Theory Wiki, Assemblage Theory, http://wikis.la.utexas.edu/theory/page/assemblage-theory. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""footnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baroni, M., Dinu, G. and Kruszewski, G.</hi> (2014). Don’t Count, Predict! A Systematic Comparison of Context-Counting vs. Context-Predicting Semantic Vectors. http://anthology.aclweb.org/P/P14/P14-1023.xhtml.
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                    <bibl rend=""footnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. M. and Lafferty, J. D.</hi> (2009). Topic Models. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blevins, C. </hi>(2010). Topic Modeling Martha Ballard’s Diary. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Historying,</hi> 1 April, http://historying.org/2010/04/01/topic-modeling-martha-ballards-diary/.
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2008 ACM Conference on Recommender Systems</hi>. ACM, pp. 287–90, http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1454053.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burdick, A., et al.</hi> (eds). (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities</hi>. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">DeLanda, M.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A New Philosophy of Society: Assemblage Theory and Social Complexity</hi>. Continuum, London.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Deleuze, G.</hi> (1987). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 6–23.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Foucault, M.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Archaeology of Knowledge [1974]</hi>. Random House, London. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grover, C., et al.</hi> (2008). Named Entity Recognition for Digitised Historical Texts. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">LREC</hi>, http://ltg.ed.ac.uk/np/publications/ltg/papers/bopcris-lrec.pdf.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Huijnen, P., et al.</hi> (2014). A Digital Humanities Approach to the History of Science. In Nadamoto, A., et al. (eds), 
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing, </hi>29 November, http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2013/11/29/llc.fqt067.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wiedemann, G., Niekler, N., et al.</hi> (2014). Document Retrieval for Large-Scale Content Analysis Using Contextualized Dictionaries. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Terminology and Knowledge Engineering 2014</hi>, http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01005879/.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wijaya, D. T. and Yeniterzi, R.</hi> (2011). Understanding Semantic Change of Words over Centuries. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2011 International Workshop on DETecting and Exploiting Cultural diversiTy on the Social Web.</hi> ACM: 35–40, http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2064475.
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                </listBibl>
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"2207","16","Conceptualizing DH for Multiple Audiences: Folkvine and Chinavine","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Janz</surname>
                        <forename>Bruce</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>U of Central Florida, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>bbjanz@gmail.com</email>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>multiple audiences</term>
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                    <term>folk art</term>
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                    <term>philosophy</term>
                    <term>project design</term>
                    <term>organization</term>
                    <term>management</term>
                    <term>user studies / user needs</term>
                    <term>asian studies</term>
                    <term>creative and performing arts</term>
                    <term>including writing</term>
                    <term>digitisation - theory and practice</term>
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            <p>Understanding audiences is crucial to the design of digital humanities projects, and understanding that there may be more than one audience and designing for that should be part of the initial discussion for DH design. Past that, though, we need better theorization of the phenomenon of the audience in the digital humanities. My examples will be two DH projects I have been involved with. Folkvine (http://folkvine.umbc.edu/) and Chinavine (http://chinavine.org/) both collect and make available folk arts, the first in Florida and the second in China. The goal for both of these projects has been to serve multiple audiences. Both approached the question of multiple audiences slightly differently. Awareness of multiple audiences could lead to a more reflexive and reflective attitude for designers and for the audiences. It could be less about consumption of digital content and more about rethinking the presentation of self and community. My attempt to introduce hermeneutics here is to move past the notion that questions of audience are just questions of usability or reception. DH projects create a world between the architects, subjects, and users; this is an attempt to interrogate one aspect of that world.</p>
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"2208","16","Construction of the Corpus of Toraakira-bon Kyōgen","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>ICHIMURA</surname>
                        <forename>Taro</forename>
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                    <affiliation>National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>tichimura@ninjal.ac.jp</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>WATANABE</surname>
                        <forename>Yuki</forename>
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                    <affiliation>National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>ywatanabe@ninjal.ac.jp</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>KONO</surname>
                        <forename>Tomoaki</forename>
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                    <affiliation>National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>tkouno@ninjal.ac.jp</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>OGISO</surname>
                        <forename>Toshinobu</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>togiso@ninjal.ac.jp</email>
                </author>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>historical corpus</term>
                    <term>Late Middle Japanese</term>
                    <term>Noh comedy</term>
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                    <term>corpora and corpus activities</term>
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            <p>As part of the Corpus of Historical Japanese, we are constructing a corpus of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> books. In this corpus, we annotated both document structure information and morphological information for language study.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kyōgen</hi> is a form of traditional Japanese comic theater. It developed alongside 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Noh</hi> in the Muromachi period (1337–1573). The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Okura Toraakira-bon</hi> books are old script books, written by Okura Toraakira in 1642. As 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> uses an older form of the Japanese language, i.e., the language of the Muromachi period, these 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> books thus constitute important documents for researching colloquial language of the time. 
            </p>
            <p>Thus, we built the corpus as an original text in Otsuka (2006) that was the latest commentary of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Okura Toraakira-bon</hi> books and reflected the original well. They consist of 237 plays and 57 notes (approximately 270,000 words).
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Information on the Document Structure</hi>
            </p>
            <p>In 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> scripts, like in Western ones, we find lines to be spoken by the actors that were written in colloquial style, stage directions that were written in a literary style. To study the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> scripts linguistically, it is necessary to distinguish the lines from the stage directions.
            </p>
            <p>We studied tags and document type definitions for the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> scripts (Table 1; see also Ichimura et al., 2012; Kobayashi et al., 2013) with reference to TEI P5 (TEI Consortium, 2007) and encoded them in XML files (Figure 1). 
            </p>
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            </figure>
            <p>Table 1. Main tags.</p>
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                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""14.234583333333333cm"" height=""6.535208333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
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            <p>Figure 1. XML.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""popupw"">In the process, an issue about the notation arose. Because we used printed books that reflect the notation of the original manuscript,</hi> we were forced
                <hi rend=""popupw""> to increase the notation pattern in morphological analysis.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""popupw""> 1. Three-letter words.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""popupw""> 2. Whether to have a dot mark for a voiced sound or not.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""popupw""> 3. Signs of the repetition.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""popupw"">To solve this problem, we revised and marked them according to the following policy.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""popupw"">1. We replaced the katakana with hiragana letters (Figure 2).</hi>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""13.096875cm"" height=""5.423958333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Revision of katakana. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""popupw"">2. We replaced a kana character containing a kana with a dot mark when it was clear that it was pronounced by a voiced consonant (Figure 3).</hi>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""13.096875cm"" height=""5.423958333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Revision of the kana scripts with the dot mark.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""popupw"">3. We replaced the signs for one character with the character applied to it. However, we did not replace signs for more than two characters, because their repeated range was wide and occasionally it spanned beyond a sentence (Figure 4).</hi>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""13.070416666666667cm"" height=""5.23875cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. Revision of the repetition marks.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Morphological Information</hi>
            </p>
            <p>In order to use it for language study, the corpus needs to be annotated to associate information to words.</p>
            <p>In addition, significance can be obtained from morphological information. In written Japanese, there is no space between words like English, which was the case for early modern Japanese texts as well. In addition, Japanese has three kinds of letters or characters used in writing. Furthermore, in early modern times, spellings had not been fixed, which are fixed in contemporary Japanese (Figure 5).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""14.208125cm"" height=""1.4234583333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>This makes it even more difficult to identify a desired word. To solve these problems, we used a morphological analysis system, and automatically annotated all words in the text with morphological information.
                <hi rend=""popupw"">
                    <hi rend=""italic"">K</hi>
                </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">yōgen</hi>
                <hi rend=""popupw"">texts were analyzed with a high degree of accuracy (an approximate 96% precision rate).</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""popupw"">In this process, for each word, we gave the word information ‘lemma’, which unified notation and the conjugations of a word. Thus we came to be able to search the variation in various notations and conjugations of the desired word at a time.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Utility Value of this Corpus</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The data are displayed on the search tool named 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Chū-nagon</hi> (Figure 6).
            </p>
            <p>Using both morphological information and document structure information, we can search single words or series of words, including form variations, with the speakers and type of text. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1007"" width=""14.458597222222222cm"" height=""10.606263888888888cm"" url=""Pictures/image7.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 6. Search result on 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Chū-nagon</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>We will be able to study the language of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> in a more sophisticated manner.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> In addition, we can analyze what kind of expression was used by a certain character, or how the person was characterized in the drama.
            </p>
            <p>NINJAL
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> have already constructed the corpus of early middle Japanese (for the Heian period, or the years 794–1185) and early modern Japanese (for the Meiji period, 1868–1912). Now that we have constructed the high annotated corpus of early modern Japanese, we will be able to study the Japanese language from classical times to the present age diachronically using a computer.
            </p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. For example, when a user searches a series of words ‘おりやらします’, the examples and speakers are displayed as a list, and the person will notice that almost all the speakers of ‘おりやらします’ are women. Then the user will understand that this series of words is female language of the early modern Japanese.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. NINJAL is an abbreviation for the National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ichimura, T., Kawase, A. and Ogiso, T.</hi> (2012). Structuring Colloquial Early Modern Japanese Text and Its Issues of Definition. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 96th IPSJ SIG Computers and the Humanities, CH96</hi>, pp. 1–8.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kobayashi, M. and Ichimura, T.</hi> (2013). Structuring the Corpus of 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Toraakira-bon Kyogen</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Corpus Japanese Linguistics,</hi> pp. 323–32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics.</hi> (2009). Center of Corpus Development, NINJAL. http://www.ninjal.ac.jp/corpus_center/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ogiso, T., Ichimura, T. and Kouno, T.</hi> (2013). Preliminary Study of Morphological Analysis of Early Modern Japanese. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Corpus Japanese Linguistics,</hi> pp. 145–50.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Otsuka, M.</hi> (2006). Okura toraakira noh kyogenshu: honkoku chūkai. 1. Seibundo shuppan, Osaka.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">TEI Consortium.</hi> (2007). TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, Text Encoding Initiative. http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/P5/ (accessed 19 February 2015).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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                    <affiliation>University of Roehampton, UK</affiliation>
                    <email>Arianna.Ciula@roehampton.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Eide</surname>
                        <forename>Øyvind</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Universität Passau, Germany</affiliation>
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                <head>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Semiotic Framework</hi>
                </head>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">Kralemann and Lattmann (2013, 3399–400) claim that models should be understood in the semiotic theory put forward by Peirce, with three main classes of signs: symbols, icons, and indexes. They claim that models are icons because the dominant relation with the original objects they represent is one of similarity.
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> Different shades of iconic similarity between sign and object as theorized by Pierce correspond to three kinds of models in Kralemann and Lattmann:
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi>
                </p>
                <p rend=""Normal1""> • 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Image-like</hi> models—for example, photographs where single qualities such as forms and shapes are seen as similar to the original objects.
                </p>
                <p rend=""Normal1""> • R
                    <hi rend=""bold"">elational</hi> or 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">structural</hi> models—that is, diagrams where the ‘interdependence between the structure of the sign and the structure of the object’ (Kralemann and Lattmann, 2013, p. 3408) enables the modeller to make inferences about the original by manipulating its model
                </p>
                <p rend=""Normal1""> • 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Metaphor-like </hi>models, which represent attributes of the original by a specific quality of their own not recognised by convention or habit.
                </p>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">Models do not act as signs in virtue of themselves. What establishes the model as a sign is the interpretative act of a subject, whether as creator or reader. The practical act of modelling connects the model to its interpretation, that is, to its specific semantic content in a given social and institutional context (Kralemann and Lattmann, 2013, 3402–3). The modeller’s judgement depends on his or her presuppositions connected to ‘theory, language. or cultural practice’ (Kralemann and Lattmann, 2013, 3417). It is evident that Kralemann and Lattmann reiterate the concept of models as middle ground between theory and objects.
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> The relationship of iconicity between the model and the object being modelled is partly externally determined (it relies on the similarity between the model and the object) and partly internal (it depends on theory, conventions, prior knowledge). Based on this duality they stress, on the one hand, the subjectively determined dependency of models on prior knowledge and theory and, on the other, their independence from these in light of the specific conditions of the objects being modelled.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.1kojomm9vayy"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Modelling in Digital Humanities</hi>
                </head>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">In this paper we take previous research (Ciula and Eide, 2014; Marras and Ciula, 2014) one step further by mapping Kralemann and Lattmann’s trichotomy of models as icons to digital modelling exercises in historical research. The prototypical cases we chose are a starting point to investigate how such models relate to the cultural objects they represent. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic n=""1001"" width=""12.029722222222222cm"" height=""6.662208333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
                </figure>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">Figure 1. Models representing objects in context.</p>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">If we accept Kralemann and Lattmann’s argument it follows that by modelling we link models to qualities and relationships already existing in the objects being modelled. Such linking is based on choices that are made for a certain end, informing and motivating the act of modelling. Models are created in actual scholarly situations of production and use and cannot be seen as decontextualised operations. A model is partially arbitrary in that the same inferences drawn by manipulating one model could have been reached in other ways—for instance, using a different model.</p>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">In this framework, models operate as sign functions. To understand their epistemic role, we need to look at both how they come to be (context) and how the similarity relation with the object is realised. By analysing the association of syntactic attributes of the source object with the attributes of the model we focus indeed on the contextual elements. However, these need to be complemented with the analysis of the specific sign-function in which production and use of models is enacted, as indicated in Figure 1. Three examples will be used to analyse the three types of sign-functions in a DH context:</p>
                <p rend=""Normal1""> • 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Image-like models. </hi>We will use an example from digital palaeography research (Ciula 2005; 2009), where the abstract model letter acts as an image-like model of the samples it was algorithmically generated from. What we can learn about the objects of analysis (the medieval handwritten letterforms) depends on the features being selected in the modelling process. However, the inferential power of the model is mainly based on a strong sensorial similarity between model and object. 
                </p>
                <p rend=""Normal1""> • 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Relational models.</hi> As an example we will use models of landscapes described in historical sources (Eide, 2013). The inferential power of the model relies on the common relational structure between object and model. What new we can know about the object of analysis very much depends on the correspondence between the structuring of the textual expressions in the modelling process and the structure of the map model. 
                </p>
                <p rend=""Normal1""> • 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Metaphor-like models.</hi>
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> We will use the example of network models used to capture information about references to persons in historical sources. These do not only tie specific textual passages to real-world historical entities, they also form parts of networks of co-references (Eide, 2009). The association of a fishing tool (the net) to describe relationships between people is metaphorical. The inferential power of the model leverages on a deep cognitive similarity between the model and the object. It can generate unexpected connections between the objects it represents, which exist ‘only’ metaphorically in a network.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic n=""1002"" width=""12.005027777777778cm"" height=""8.027458333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
                </figure>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">Figure 2. Image-like model. Morphological features of segmented letter forms are modelled into an average morphing letter. Inferences on the manuscript handwriting are based on the analysis of the morphing letter-models in virtue of a ‘sensuous resemblance’.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic n=""1003"" width=""12.005027777777778cm"" height=""8.50723611111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
                </figure>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">Figure 3. Relational model. Relational textual expressions are modelled into geometrical relations. Inferences on space as expressed in the text are drawn in virtue of the corresponding spatial structure in the map.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic n=""1004"" width=""12.005027777777778cm"" height=""8.267347222222222cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
                </figure>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">Figure 4. Metaphor-like models. Person names and their relationships as referred to by a document are modelled, respectively, into entities (nodes) and into properties connecting them (links). Assertions of co-reference are also modelled into properties connecting entities. Thus the net is now used to model social relations as well as assertions about people.</p>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">Common for all three types of models is the inferential power operating at the interplay between their ‘intrinsic structure’ and their ‘extrinsic mapping’ (Kralemann and Lattmann 2013, 3409). Indeed, the features being selected in the modelling process are influenced by contextual elements of different kinds, including hypothesis, scholarly methods and conventions, sample selection, and the technologies being used. However, the epistemic power of the model relies more on extrinsic aspects (sensorial similarity) and less on intrinsic aspects in image-like models, while it depends very much on intrinsic aspects (cognitive similarity) and less so on extrinsic aspects in the case of metaphor-like models (Elleström, 2013).</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.4coaygwt8x3o"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head/>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">In the paper we will focus on some aspects highlighted in Kralemann and Lattmann’s theory with respect to the role of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">context </hi>in modelling acts and the nature of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">representational relation</hi> between objects and models through practical examples. We believe that these two foci are where modelling practices in DH meet with this semiotic framework in productive ways. 
                </p>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">We will address the questions outlined in the introduction by contextualising this framework with specific examples of image-like, relational, and metaphor-like modelling with respect to source-based digital humanities. Prior knowledge is a sine qua non to create models in the first place and to use them as interpretative tools with respect to the objects they are signs of (Ciula and Eide, 2014). The relationships between modelling processes and interpretative outcomes are neither mechanical nor directly causal; however, the type of similarity on which modelling relies shapes the interpretative affordances of those ‘anchor’ models. Modelling processes bring about investments and burdens with respect to our knowledge of the objects we model. In particular, models as signs relate to the interpretation of those objects in different ways, from the immediacy of visual similarity on the image end of the iconic continuum to the deep cognitive similarity on the metaphorical end.</p>
                <p>
                    <anchor xml:id=""h.89yg17to6y8i""/>
                    <pb/>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Notes</head>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">1. By source-based modelling we mean the creation and use of models representing some kind of historical sources and cultural artefacts, such as documents and manuscript pages, together with any of their relevant components and their structure.</p>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">2. We do not dwell in this paper on the complexities around the cognitive concept of similarity.</p>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">3. The distinction between the three types of icons is not meant to be clear-cut. We follow Elleström (2013) in seeing these types as grades of a continuum rather than separate categories.</p>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">4. Past research concerned with the experimental or techno-sciences recognise models including computational models as mediators between theory and objects of analysis (e.g., Winsberg, 2003; Morrison, 2009). This is in line with sign-vehicles functioning as mediators between denotational and connotational qualities, between thing and meaning (MacEachren, 2004, p. 246).</p>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">5. In Kraleman and Lattman these models are claimed to be based on semiotic similarity, but this appears categorically misleading to us, so we privilege the concept of metaphor taken from Peirce.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal2"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Buzzetti, D.</hi> (2002). Digital Representation and the Text Model. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">33</hi>: 61–88.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal2"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ciula, A.</hi> (2005). Digital Palaeography: Using the Digital Representation of Medieval Script to Support Palaeographic Analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Medievalist,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(1),
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                    <bibl rend=""Normal2"">http://www.digitalmedievalist.org/journal/1.1/ciula/.</bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ciula, A.</hi> (2009). The Palaeographical Method under the Light of a Digital Approach. In Rehbein M., Sahle, P. and Schaanm T. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Kodikologie und Paläographie im digitalen Zeitalter / Codicology and Palaeography in the Digital Age</hi>. Norderstedt: BoD, pp. 219–35, 
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">http://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/volltexte/2009/2971/</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal2"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ciula, A. and Eide, Ø.</hi> (2014). Reflections on Cultural Heritage and Digital Humanities: Modelling in Practice and Theory, DATeCH ’14. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the First International Conference on Digital Access to Textual Cultural Heritage</hi>, Madrid, Spain, May 2014, pp. 35–41, http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2595207&amp;CFID=389568956&amp;CFTOKEN=79273864.
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                    <bibl rend=""Normal2"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eide, Ø.</hi> (2009). Co-Reference: A New Method to Solve Old Problems, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities—Book of Abstracts</hi>, Maryland, pp. 101–3.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal2"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eide, Ø.</hi> (2013). Why Maps Are Silent When Texts Can Speak: Detecting Media Differences through Conceptual Modelling, From Pole to Pole. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 26th International Cartographic Conference</hi>, Dresden, August 2013, 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal2"">http://www.icc2013.org/_contxt/_medien/_upload/_proceeding/31_proceeding.pdf.</bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal2"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elleström, L.</hi> (2013). Spatiotemporal Aspects of Iconicity. In Elleström, L., Fischer, O. and Ljungberg, C. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Iconic Investigations</hi>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 95–117.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal2"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Frigg, R. and Hartmann, S.</hi> (2012). Models in Science. In Zalta, E. N. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</hi>, Fall 2012 ed. Stanford, CA: Stanford University,
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal2"">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/models-science/.</bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">Jannidis, F. and Flanders, J.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)""> (eds). (2012). </hi>Knowledge Organization and Data Modeling in the Humanities: An Ongoing Conversation. Workshop at Brown University, Providence, RI, March 2012, http://datasymposium.wordpress.com.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kralemann, B. and Lattmann, C.</hi> (2013). Models as Icons: Modeling Models in the Semiotic Framework of Peirce’s Theory of Signs, 
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                        <hi rend=""bold""> 190</hi>(16): 3397–420.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">MacEachren, A. M.</hi> (2004). How Maps Work: Representation, Visualization, and Design. Guilford, New York.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mahr, B.</hi> (2009). Information Science and the Logic of Models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Software and Systems Modeling</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8:</hi> 365–83.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Marras, C. and Ciula, A.</hi> (2014). Circling around Texts and Language: Towards ‘Pragmatic Modelling’ in Digital Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities—Book of Abstracts</hi>, Lausanne, Switzerland, July 2014, pp. 255–57.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCarty, W.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities Computing</hi>. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Morrison, M.</hi> (2009). Models, Measurement, and Computer Simulation: The Changing Face of Experimentation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Philosophical Studies,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">143</hi>(1): 33–57.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Winsberg, E.</hi> (2003). Simulated Experiments: Methodology for a Virtual World. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Philosophy of Science</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">70</hi>: 105–25.
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            </div>
        </back>
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            <p>Stephen Crane (1871–1900), best known for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Red Badge of Courage,</hi> is widely considered an innovative writer of great promise. He died at the age of twenty-eight, having completed five novels, a large number of short stories, some journalism and war correspondence, and two books of poetry. He left behind 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The O’Ruddy</hi>, an unfinished picaresque novel later completed by Robert Barr (see Hoover, 2010, for an analysis) and several unpublished stories and sketches (some of them unfinished). Considerable uncertainty surrounds the genesis of some of his posthumously published and unpublished fiction.
            </p>
            <p>Crane’s adult life was unconventional and, for the times, rather scandalous. In 1896 he met Cora Taylor, ‘the madam of a pleasure resort, the Hotel de Dream’ (Wertheim, 1997). They traveled together as journalists and then moved to England, living as man and wife, though they never married. Crane contracted tuberculosis shortly after this and died in 1900. After his death, Cora, calling herself ‘Mrs. Stephen Crane’, tried to sell some her own fiction and some of his unpublished fiction, and she is known to have finished at least one of his stories, ‘The Squire’s Madness’ (Bowers, 1969). Opinions differ about how much she had to do with several other stories (Bowers, 1969; Wertheim, 1997; Gilkes, 1960). A contemporary source reported that ‘Mrs. Crane has taken upon herself the labor of completing seven or eight short stories that her husband left unfinished’ (‘The Lounger’, 1901, 199). One biographer puts the number at ‘half a dozen’ (Berryman, 1962, 259). She may also have had a hand in ‘The Ideal and the Real’ and ‘Brer Washington’s Consolation,’ two controversial stories with racist and pro-slavery themes that remained unpublished until 1978 (Linder, 1978, 2). Stephen also apparently had a hand in some of Cora’s work (under her pseudonym, Imogene Carter) as one of the first female journalists (Gilkes, 1960; Berryman, 1962). Finally, a late money-making project of Crane’s, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Great Battles of the World</hi>, was researched and partly written by Kate Lyon (the mistress of the writer Harold Frederic), though the full extent of her contribution is unclear (Wertheim, 1997, 136).
            </p>
            <p>Given this rather confused situation, it seems worthwhile to apply modern methods of authorship attribution to the questions surrounding the authorship of at least the following stories:</p>
            <p> ‘The Man from Duluth’ </p>
            <p> ‘The Surrender of Forty Fort’</p>
            <p> ‘The Battle of Forty Fort’</p>
            <p> ‘A Self-Made Man’</p>
            <p> ‘A Man by the Name of Mud’</p>
            <p> ‘At the Pit Door’</p>
            <p> ‘An Illusion in Red and White’</p>
            <p> ‘Manacled’</p>
            <p> ‘A Desertion’</p>
            <p> ‘The Ideal and the Real’</p>
            <p> ‘Brer Washington’s Consolation’</p>
            <p>The situation regarding the war correspondence and the war sketches partly by Kate Lyon seems too problematic for solution, as the amount of journalism by Cora or Cora and Stephen is quite small, and there seems to be insufficient additional writing by Kate Lyon for comparison. Crane’s reputation rests on his fiction, however, so that the stories seem the important focus, and there is at least a modest amount of Cora’s own writing to compare with Stephen’s. </p>
            <p>Although she was not very successful in selling her own fiction after Stephen’s death, at least ‘What Hell Might Be’ (a short prose poem), ‘Cowardice’, and ‘The Red Chimneys’ were known to have been published (Gilkes, 1960; Wertheim, 1986). After some frustrating searching, I acquired e-texts of all of them. ‘The Lavender Trousers’, ‘Elbridge Carter’s Dream’, and ‘An Old-World Courtship’ were never published, but the manuscripts for these stories exist in the Stephen Crane Collection at Columbia University (they are discussed briefly by Gilkes [1960], who apparently read them in manuscript), and I have used OCR and manual transcription to produce e-texts of them (I am grateful to Columbia University Library for access to this material). Another story, ‘José and the Saints’, was reportedly unpublished and the manuscript lost (Gilkes, 1960, 277–78), but a contemporary source reports that she ‘found a ready market’ for it (‘The Lounger’, 1901, 199), and I have since discovered that it was published in 1902 and is available online. Together, these texts should be sufficient for an attempt to unravel the authorship of Stephen’s final stories. (I also collected two pieces of non-fiction by Cora for comparison—‘Arundel Castle’ and ‘The 17th Regiment of Light Dragoons’—but preliminary testing showed that Cora’s non-fiction is so distinct from her fiction that it is inappropriate for inclusion.)</p>
            <p>Before attempting to measure Cora’s participation in Stephen’s late fiction, some aspects of this problem require further comment. Stephen’s fiction is quite varied in setting and theme, and contains several groups of more or less closely related stories. More than a dozen stories are set in the fictional Whilomville (loosely based on Port Jervis, New York, where Crane spent part of his childhood). Ten are loosely based on camping experiences of Crane and some friends northwest of Port Jervis. Six are set in Cuba, four concern an infantry regiment in the fictional country of Spitzbergen, and others have Mexican or western settings. Some are satiric, some comedic, some serious, and many treat war in some way. The one story we know Cora completed for Stephen, ‘The Squire’s Madness’, is a parody of a Gothic tale. Given this range of settings and subject matter, it seems important to select stories for testing against the questionable pieces so as not to privilege Stephen or Cora inappropriately. Cora’s seven independent stories are varied as well: besides the brief prose poem mentioned above, two take place at least partly in Mexico, two are set in England (one is a ghost story), one is set in Stephen’s Whilomville, and one is a maudlin story of an affair followed by a suicide. (This is an extreme form of problems identified in Hoover [2004] and, more thoroughly, in Eder and Rybicki [2013].) Fortunately there is an excellent resource in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Stephen Crane Encyclopedia</hi> (Wertheim, 1997) to aid in this effort.
            </p>
            <p>My analysis is not yet complete, but Figure 1 shows some preliminary results, based on eight late Stephen Crane stories and the eight available Cora Crane stories, balanced as well as possible by kind and length. Here, I have divided the stories into sections of about 1,500 words to reduce the effect of size differences.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""12.991041666666666cm"" height=""8.360833333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Cora Crane vs Stephen Crane: 800mfw, 1,500-word sections.</p>
            <p>Cora’s stories all cluster separately from Stephen’s late stories (initial testing showed a fairly strong chronological development in Crane’s fiction, so I selected stories only from the last four years of his life). ‘What Hell Might Be’ is an outlier almost certainly because it is only 423 words long, as testing in 600-word sections confirms. An analysis based on the 900mfw separates all the sections correctly, and less accurate results, such as the one shown in Figure 2, based on the 800mfw, also suggest that they are distinct enough that it should be possible to detect even relatively small amounts of Cora’s writing in Stephen’s late fiction, if it exists. (One of the two texts by Cora that appears in the left cluster of Stephen’s texts is her half of ‘The Squire’s Madness’.)</p>
            <figure>
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            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Cora Crane vs late Stephen Crane: 800mfw, 600-word sections.</p>
            <p> As a first attempt at evaluating Cora’s contribution to Stephen’s late fiction, I tested the same eight stories against the eleven texts of questionable authorship mentioned above, with the results seen in Figure 3. </p>
            <figure>
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            <p>Figure 3. Cora vs Stephen and 11 questionable texts: 400mfw, 1,500-word sections.</p>
            <p>The presence of all but one of Cora’s stories in the central cluster, the correct clustering of the two parts of ‘The Squire’s Madness’, and the presence of only one of Stephen’s stories, ‘At the Pit Door’, in Cora’s cluster do not support the idea that she had much to do with the posthumous stories. (‘At the Pit Door’ is a lighthearted sketch about a line outside a theatre; no typescript or manuscript exists.) Furthermore, the appearance of the two racist stories published in 1978 as an outlying cluster suggests that their very heavy dialect make them quite distinct. An analysis of the same texts divided into smaller sections of approximately 1,000 words is shown in Figure 4.</p>
            <figure>
                <p>
                    <pb/>
                    <graphic n=""1004"" width=""16.51cm"" height=""10.31875cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </p>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. Cora vs Stephen and 11 questionable texts: 500mfw, 1,000-word sections.</p>
            <p> This analysis generally supports the previous one. Here only Cora’s ‘Elbridge Carter’s Dream’ clusters with Stephen’s texts, and only Stephen’s ‘An Illusion in Red and White’ and ‘Manacled’ cluster with Cora’s texts. (Crane’s publisher already had both of these stories in January 1900, five months before Crane’s death [Bowers, 1969].) The two racist stories remain outliers. Dropping the two outliers and retesting in 600-word sections gives the results in Figure 5, which tell much the same tale. Here one section each of Cora’s ‘José and the Saints’ and ‘Elbridge Carter’s Dream’ cluster with Stephen, but none of Stephen’s and none of the questionable texts join the Cora cluster. The eleven questionable sections that form a cluster to the left of Cora’s cluster have often been suggested as having possible contributions from Cora, but they are all set in 18th-century Pennsylvania, and one, ‘Ol’ Bennet and the Indians’, was published before Crane’s death.</p>
            <p>Dividing the same set of texts into sections of approximately 500 words and performing t-tests on all the words with a frequency of three or more yields only 101 significant words (p &lt; .05). Repeating the analysis in Figure 5 using only these words correctly clusters all the sections except one (from ‘Elbridge Carter’s Dream’), and suggests only one section of ‘A Desertion’ and all the sections of the two racist stories as being by Cora. Preliminary Delta testing lends some equivocal support to these attributions and weakly suggests the possibility of Cora’s hand in ‘At the Pit Door’, ‘An Illusion in Red and White’, ‘The Man from Duluth’, ‘A Desertion’, and ‘A Self-Made Man’. A demonstration that Cora was a major contributor to Stephen’s posthumous fiction would have been a more exciting result, but the weakness and inconsistency of the attributions of sections of the stories of questionable authorship to Cora suggests that any part she played was a relatively minor one.
                <pb/>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""16.51cm"" height=""10.133541666666666cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </p>
            <p>Figure 5. Cora vs Stephen and nine questionable texts: 400mfw, 600-word sections.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Berryman, J.</hi> (1962). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Stephen Crane</hi>. World Publishing Company, Cleveland, OH.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bowers, F.,</hi> ed. (1969). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Works of Stephen Crane</hi>. University of Virginia Press, Charlottesville.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2013). Do Birds of a Feather Really Flock Together, or How to Choose Training Samples for Authorship Attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(2): 229–36.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gilkes, L.</hi> (1960). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cora Crane: A Biography of Mrs. Stephen Crane.</hi> Indiana University Press, Bloomington. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. L.</hi> (2004). Testing Burrows’s Delta. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">19</hi>(4): 453–75.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. L.</hi> (2010). Authorial Style. In McIntyre, D. and Busse, B. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language and Style: Essays in Honour of Mick Short</hi>. New York: Palgrave, pp. 250–71.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Linder, L. D.</hi> (1978). ‘The Ideal and the Real’ and ‘Brer Washington’s Consolation’: Two Little-Known Stories by Stephen Crane? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">American Literary Realism, 1870–1910, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(1): 1–33.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">‘The Lounger’.</hi> (1901). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Critic,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">38</hi>(1). Good Literature Publishing Company.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wertheim, S.</hi> (1986). Cora Crane’s Thwarted Romance. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Columbia Library Columns, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">36</hi>(1): 26–37.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wertheim, S.</hi> (1997). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Stephen Crane Encyclopedia</hi>. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2211","16","Creating Linked Data within Archival Description: Tools for Extracting, Validating, and Encoding Access Points for Finding Aids","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>Creating Linked Data within Archival Description: Tools for Extracting, Validating, and Encoding Access Points for Finding Aids</title>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Gracy</surname>
                        <forename>Karen F.</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>School of Library and Information Science, Kent State University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>kgracy@kent.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Zeng</surname>
                        <forename>Marcia Lei</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>School of Library and Information Science, Kent State University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>mzeng@kent.edu</email>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>Linked data; semantic analysis; archival description</term>
                </keywords>
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                    <term>archives</term>
                    <term>repositories</term>
                    <term>sustainability and preservation</term>
                    <term>encoding - theory and practice</term>
                    <term>natural language processing</term>
                    <term>semantic analysis</term>
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            <p>In current archival information systems, useful linkable information is embedded in narrative descriptions known as finding aids. While the finding aid excels at providing contextual information to understand the nature and scope of archival collections, the format of the genre is characterized by large text blocks in which many types of information are intermingled and unlabeled. In the blocks of histories of records and the scope notes for collections, dozens or even hundreds of names of persons, organizations, places, and events, as well as topical terms can be found. While these text blocks in finding aids are full-text-searchable and amenable to natural language processing techniques, the lack of semantic distinction among the different entities and topics hinders efficient and effective information retrieval and restricts the ability of information systems to create the links that would gather widely dispersed information about the same person, organization, or thing into one place. </p>
            <p>Because of these challenges of converting archival descriptions to archival linked data, the Linked Open Data—Libraries, Archives and Museums (LOD-LAM) research group at the School of Library and Information Science, Kent State University (http://lod-lam.slis.kent.edu/index.html) has been exploring various automated and semiautomated ways to enrich archival description with semantic tagging. This process involves (1) the identification of name entities and topical terms from finding aids, (2) extraction of these entities and terms and processing them using semantic analysis services, (3) validating the names of each extracted identity, and then (4) encoding the entities and topics that can be validated within the finding aids with Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs).</p>
            <p>In a pilot study, the LOD-LAM research group developed a software program that facilitated the first and second steps mentioned above of this multistep process, as reported in the NKOS Workshop in 2014 DL Conference (Gracy et al., 2014). The Semantic Analysis Method (SAM) Tool first obtains the archival descriptions by one of three methods: copying and pasting text from a finding aid document, upload of an individual PDF file, or batch upload of multiple PDF files. Then, the SAM Tool sends the file or files to a semantic analysis service, such as OpenCalais (http://viewer.opencalais.com/). These services generate semantically tagged output in the JSON format, which the SAM Tool then converts to a CSV file. The resulting CSV database can then be viewed as a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. The CSV files can be used in the OpenRefine tool (openrefine.org) to validate the names and topical terms against various controlled vocabularies, such as the Library of Congress Name Authority File, the Library of Congress Subject Headings, and the Getty vocabularies. As a continuing study, additional functionality that the research group will be exploring in the next year will be automated methods to embed those validated entities and topics in finding aids, connect those entities to the same entities in other data sources, and enhance finding aids with information found in those other sources.</p>
            <p>Similar to OpenCalais, other semantic analysis tools are available, with free or demo versions that allow the performance of the first few tasks (the identification of name entities and topical terms from finding aids, extraction of these entities and terms, processing them using semantic analysis services, validating the names of each extracted identity). The APIs can be tested (after obtaining the keys) as well. Some of the tools have more functions, such as semantic reasoning, categorization, and fact mining, in addition to text mining and entity name extractions. Visualization of the relationships between entities and on geographic maps are other functions of these tools. In this poster, research team members Zeng and Gracy will present the results of experiments to test the performance of several semantic analysis engines in identifying and extracting entities and topical terms, including OpenCalais, MachineLinking (http://www.machinelinking.com/wp/), Cogito Intelligence (http://www.intelligenceapi.com/), and Zemanta (http://www.zemanta.com/api/). The research findings include the comparison of functions, the core functions identified through the study, and the estimated values added to extracting, validating, and encoding the access points for finding aids. </p>
        </body>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gracy, K. F., Davidson, S. and Zeng, M. L.</hi> (2014). Semantic Analysis Method (SAM): A Tool for Identifying Potential Access Points in Unstructured Text. Paper presented at the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">13th European Networked Knowledge Organization Systems (NKOS) Workshop, Digital Libraries 2014 Conference</hi>, London, 11–12 September 2014.
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"2212","16","Creating Time Capsules for Colonial Botanical Drugs in the Early Modern Low Countries","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>Creating Time Capsules for Colonial Botanical Drugs in the Early Modern Low Countries</title>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Zervanou</surname>
                        <forename>Kalliopi</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Utrecht University, The Netherlands</affiliation>
                    <email>k.a.zervanou@uu.nl</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Klein</surname>
                        <forename>Wouter</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Utrecht University, The Netherlands</affiliation>
                    <email>W.Klein@uu.nl</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Van den Hooff</surname>
                        <forename>Peter</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Utrecht University, The Netherlands</affiliation>
                    <email>P.C.vandenHooff@uu.nl</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Bron</surname>
                        <forename>Marc</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Utrecht University, The Netherlands</affiliation>
                    <email>mbron@yahoo-inc.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Wiering</surname>
                        <forename>Frans</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Utrecht University, The Netherlands</affiliation>
                    <email>F.Wiering@uu.nl</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Pieters</surname>
                        <forename>Toine</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Utrecht University, The Netherlands</affiliation>
                    <email>T.Pieters@uu.nl</email>
                </author>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>history of botany</term>
                    <term>history of pharmacy</term>
                    <term>ontologies</term>
                    <term>linked data</term>
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                    <term>historical studies</term>
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            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The History of Medicinal Plants from the New World Case Study</head>
                <p rend=""List Paragraph"">As proof of concept for semantic interoperability, our work focuses on cultural heritage data relating to the history of medicinal plants in the Low Countries roughly from the moment that natural drug components from the New World started penetrating Europe until the introduction of chemical and synthetic drugs in the nineteenth century (i.e., 1550–1850). The resulting system aims at enabling a historian to investigate the trajectories of colonial drug components in the Low Countries, and the patterns of correspondence, trade, and knowledge exchange that lie underneath it. Our case study is meant to provide the aggregated data required for new information to surface, which an individual researcher is unable to produce by means of traditional historical research alone.</p>
                <p rend=""List Paragraph"">The factors leading to the adoption of a given drug component are revealing of the dynamics of the medical market at that historical period of time. Recent research showed that drug adoption has only partly to do with therapeutic qualities. Equally important are non-medical factors such as public acceptance, marketing, and availability (Pieters, 2004; Gijswijt-Hofstra et al., 2002; Friedrich and Müller-Jahncke, 2009). A special focus on the trajectories of individual drugs has proven itself a valuable research method in this respect. For colonial botanical drugs in the early modern period, several publications have paved the way for this novel approach in the history of tropical medicine (e.g., Vöttiner-Pletz [1990] on guaiacum, used to treat syphilis; Foust [1992] on rhubarb; Jarcho [1993] on Peruvian bark).</p>
                <p rend=""List Paragraph"">Another interesting aspect of our case study relates to the circulation of knowledge and goods in the early modern period with particular attention to exotic botany and pharmacy in the Netherlands (as in, e.g., Wilson, 2000; Schiebinger and Swan, 2005; Cook, 2007; Dauser et al., 2008; Dupré and Lüthy, 2011; Snelders, 2012; Van Gelder, 2012). Knowledge about the vicissitudes of individual drugs across time and place may enrich current debates about the circulation of knowledge and goods. Moreover, sequenced data about colonial drugs may reveal trajectory patterns and the mechanisms of trade and exchange in the early modern period. </p>
                <p rend=""List Paragraph"">These aspects of our case study make it thus an excellent ground for digital research methods experimentation and a resource for other humanities areas, such as pharmacy, ethno-botany, philosophy, and science of the Enlightenment period, and socio-economic studies of the respective colonial trade period. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Creating Time Capsules
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi>
                </head>
                <p rend=""List Paragraph"">Our data sources are of two main categories: structured database data, referring to linguistic, pharmaceutical, and botanical data, such as the Dutch Chronological Dictionary and the Economic Botany Database; and unstructured free text corpora collections, such as pharmacopoeias, medical books, and other Early Dutch text corpora. The complete list of our current data sources is illustrated in Table 1.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic n=""1001"" width=""10.530416666666667cm"" height=""6.297083333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
                    <head>Figure 1. Time capsule architecture overview.</head>
                </figure>
                <p rend=""List Paragraph"">An important consideration and challenge in our database data lie in their various formats (relational database, Excel tables, etc.) and in our text data (OCR errors and transcribed data in Latin or Early Dutch). Most importantly, a serious issue lies in the spelling and semantic variation of both drug component as well as plant names and in the ambiguity of their taxonomic classification, which introduces fuzziness into our data classification. For example, a drug ingredient may or may not originate from a certain plant, which may or may not belong to a given plant taxonomy class and may or may not correspond to a given contemporary name.</p>
                <p rend=""List Paragraph"">For the semantic integration of our data, we adopt a linked-data approach whereby our data sources are first converted into RDF and then linked to our Historical Drug Components Ontology, so as to enrich existing information of the respective KB, as illustrated in Figure 1. In order to address the issues associated with variation, we incorporate historical lexicon resources, and we further enrich these by application of automatic spelling variation detection (Reynaert, 2014). The issue of uncertainty in our data classification is currently addressed by adopting a fuzzy classification approach, whereby an ambiguous instance may be classified into more categories—e.g., a name can be an instance of both a plant concept and a drug component concept. Finally, our structured data sources are used as a resource in detecting relevant information about drug components and their potential use in text documents. The resulting semantic annotations in these historical text corpora are in turn also converted into RDF and automatically linked to our structured sources, so that original historical written evidence is provided to the researchers. </p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell cols=""2"">
                            <hi rend=""bold color(FFFFFF)"">Structured Data</hi>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell cols=""2"">
                            <hi rend=""italic bold"">Botanical, pharmaceutical, historical, and image resources</hi>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>Ontology of Historical Drug Components</p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Historical drug components information found in historical pharmaceutical sources</hi>
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>National Museum for the History of Pharmacy</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>Economic Botany Database</p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Metadata of objects in the Economic Botany Collection</hi>
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>Naturalis Biodiversity Center</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>BRAHMS</p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Metadata for 1.2 million records of plant collections</hi>
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>Naturalis Biodiversity Center</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>Snippendaalcatalogus</p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Inventory of plants of the Snippendaal’s 1646 Amsterdam botanic garden</hi>
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <p>Hortus Botanicus Amsterdam</p>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>IrisBG</p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Current information about the plants of the Amsterdam botanic garden, including pictures</hi>
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <p>Hortus Botanicus Amsterdam</p>
                            <p>http://dehortus.gardenexplorer.org/</p>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>Dutch Nature Images Collection</p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Images of flora and fauna in the Netherlands and the Dutch Antilles</hi>
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Netherlands Institute for Sound and Vision—Stichting Natuurbeelden</hi>
                            </p>
                            <p>http://www.natuurbeelden.nl/</p>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>RADAR</p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Geographical and research data about botanical macro remains collected during archaeological excavations on Dutch territory</hi>
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>Cultural Heritage Agency (RCE)</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell cols=""2"">Lexical resources</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>PLAND</p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Plant names in various Dutch dialects, including sources, dates, locations, and name distributions</hi>
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <p>Meertens Institute</p>
                            <p>http://www.meertens.knaw.nl/pland/</p>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>Chronological Dictionary</p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Historical/etymological Dutch dictionary including first observed sources and dates </hi>
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <p>Meertens Institute</p>
                            <p>http://dbnl.org/tekst/sijs002chro01_01/</p>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>GiGaNT</p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Diachronic Dutch lexicon (6th century–present), including spelling variations, proper names, and morpho-syntactic information</hi>
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <p>Institute for Dutch Lexicology (INL)</p>
                            <p>http://www.inl.nl/onderzoek-a-onderwijs/projecten/gigant</p>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell cols=""2"">Free-text data</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>Looted Letters</p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Transcriptions and metadata of c. 3,500 letters, taken as loot from Dutch ships during the Anglo-Dutch wars (1652–1805)</hi>
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <p>Meertens Institute</p>
                            <p>http://www.gekaaptebrieven.nl/</p>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>Letters as Loot</p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Linguistically analysed subset of c. 1,000 letters from the Looted Letters collection</hi>
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <p>Institute for Dutch Lexicology (INL)</p>
                            <p>http://brievenalsbuit.inl.nl/</p>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>CKCC corpus</p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Transcriptions and metadata of c. 20,000 letters from the correspondence of 17th-century scholars in the Netherlands</hi>
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <p>Huygens ING (and partners)</p>
                            <p>http://ckcc.huygens.knaw.nl/</p>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>DBNL corpus</p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Subset of DBNL 16th- to 19th-century texts, including literary, medical, biographical, and other texts </hi>
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <p>DBNL–National Library of the Netherlands (KB)</p>
                            <p>http://dbnl.org/index.php</p>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>Pharmacopoeias</p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Collection of scanned images of apothecary data</hi>
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>Google Books</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p rend=""List Paragraph"">Apart from data aggregation, our time capsules should allow for information re-contextualisation. This issue is partially addressed by our semantic data integration, thus providing the researcher with different but related information sources and aspects (botanical, linguistic, historical). Another important aspect in contextualisation lies in making explicit the relation of data to space and time, thus allowing the virtual spatio-temporal ‘reconstruction’ of the knowledge transfer trajectories. For this purpose, we exploit a combination of spatio-temporal information in our data sources with spatio-temporal reasoning using OWL-Time (W3C, 2006) and SOWL (Batsakis and Petrakis, 2011), an ontology framework for representing and reasoning over spatio-temporal information in OWL. </p>
                <p rend=""List Paragraph"">In the current version of our system, our structured and free-text sources are being processed and integrated, while a demo interface is gradually developed for querying the aggregated data. Our next steps include the development of an exploratory search interface and visualisations of data overviews. A particular challenge lies in the development of a user-friendly web interface for querying our RDF data using SPARQL (W3C, 2013). Future work finally includes the application of our system to a different case study and different types of data (text and images), so as to test its portability and its functionality in a different domain.</p>
                <p rend=""List Paragraph"">Notes</p>
                <p rend=""endnote text"">1. From the early ’70s until his death in 1987, Warhol selected items from correspondence, newspapers, gifts, photographs, and other material and preserved them in sealed boxes, which he marked with a date or title. These so-called time capsules provide a unique view into Warhol’s private world, as well as an enlightening window on the interrelatedness of culture, media, politics, economics, and science in the 1970s and 1980s. </p>
                <p rend=""footnote text"">2. http://www.timecapsule.nu/.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Batsakis, S. and Petrakis, E. G. M.</hi> (2011). SOWL: A Framework for Handling Spatio-Temporal Information in OWL 2.0. In Bassiliades, N., Governatori, G. and Paschke, A. (eds), 
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                        <surname>Van Hyning</surname>
                        <forename>Victoria</forename>
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                        <surname>Wolfe</surname>
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                        <surname>Tonra</surname>
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                        <surname>Fraistat</surname>
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            <p>Session Topic</p>
            <p>Crowdsourcing in the digital humanities has reached a tipping point. Digital projects are more likely than ever to integrate participatory components into funding proposals, development plans, and scholarly objectives. A recently funded National Endowment for the Humanities (USA) Digital Humanities Startup Grant is typical: ‘The development of software tools that would facilitate citation and annotation of music notation and capture information about multiple participants’ contributions to collaborative digital projects. As an initial case study, the project would focus on an existing effort to compile a critical edition of Nicolas Du Chemin’s ‘Chansons Nouvelles’.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> Similarly, the Arts &amp; Humanities Research Council (UK) awarded over £4 million in 2014 to various projects under its ‘Digital Transformations in Community Research Co-production’ scheme; many of these are focused on participatory creation of textual materials. 
            </p>
            <p>This trend is paralleled by an increased focus on the part of digital humanists. In her DH 2010 keynote ‘Present, Not Voting’, Melissa Terras helped focus digital humanists’ attention on the topic when she noted, ‘Crowdsourcing—the harnessing of online activity to aid in large-scale projects that require human cognition—is becoming of interest to those in the library, museum and cultural heritage industry, as institutions seek ways to publicly engage their online communities, as well as aid in creating useful and usable digital resources’.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> Described in the context of the Transcribe Bentham project, Terras framed crowdsourcing Bentham, and participatory resource creation in general, as a lens through which to discuss a variety of issues in digital humanities writ large, including our dual dependencies on primary sources and technology, legacy data, sustainability, money, serendipity, impact factors, and many more.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> Her talk ends with a call for robust, ‘proactive’ self-reflection to better understand the place of digital humanities in wider academic practices. 
            </p>
            <p>Our panel responds to that call. From 2011 to 2014, there have been a number of papers, posters, and workshops on individual crowdsourcing projects at Digital Humanities conferences (including a keynote in Nebraska). Despite this, there has, to our knowledge, never been a singular session or panel devoted to crowdsourcing the creation of textual data. Given the importance of such data to digital humanities research in general, as well as its increasing prevalence in funded projects, a sustained, focus discussion is more necessary than ever. This panel brings together a number of high-profile projects and initiatives to discuss the difficulties and affordances of engaging the public in co-creation of text-based scholarly materials. We will touch on the technical (developing infrastructure systems to facilitate public and collaborative work), the social (how best to work with user communities through effective feedback and communication), and the theoretical (what are the implications for scholarly practice as we now understand it when ‘scholarly’ work is distributed amongst divergent groups?). Our objective is to present a cross-section of current crowdsourcing projects in the humanities that will, collectively, allow us to move forward in conscientiously developing best practices for participatory textual creation in digital humanities.</p>
            <p>Presentations</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">1. Notes Towards a Participatory Humanities</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Powell, D.</p>
            <p>Increasingly, academic communities faced with intractable amounts of data are turning to collaborative and participatory methods like crowdsourcing to catalogue, digitise, and effectively leverage their holdings. This includes the vast amount of handwritten and print material held by libraries and archives that has so far been inaccessible to scholarly inquiry on account of overall scale or individual difficulty. Institutions like the New York Public Library, the US National Archives, the British Library, and the University of Oxford are actively seeking to leverage public involvement to catalogue, transcribe, and otherwise process their holdings into usable form. Whether focused on restaurant menus, daily reports from World War I soldiers, or the expansive manuscripts of Jeremy Bentham, harnessing the cognitive surplus of the interested crowd has become a paramount concern for digital humanists and cultural heritage professionals. This presentation will contextualise this panel as a whole by providing a high-level overview of current and past crowdsourcing projects in the humanities that deal mostly or exclusively with the creation of textual content. It will also outline the structure of the panel from a pragmatic perspective. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">1.1 Crowdsourcing the Text: Contemporary Approaches to Participatory Digital Resource Creation</hi>
            </p>
            <p>According to Wikipedia and the
                <hi rend=""italic""> New York Times Magazine</hi>, technology critic and author Jeff Howe coined the term ‘crowdsourcing‘ as a portmanteau of ‘crowd’ and ‘outsourcing.’
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> In harnessing the undefined public, individuals and organisations can accomplish tasks with less investment, time, and attention. Although initially very much applied to the private sector, it has increasingly found a place in academia, in cultural heritage institutions, and in a variety of attempts to create scholarly knowledge. Archivists, librarians, cataloguers, humanists, and digital humanists have been especially quick to argue that crowdsourcing methods can be harnessed to enable the digitisation of large amounts of print and manuscript material that present unique challenges to traditional humanist processes. These difficulties often stem from the sheer scale of holdings to be digitised or from the lack of computationally tractable versions of documents (e.g., handwriting that cannot be read via optical character recognition). Crowdsourcing is popularly seen as a way to overcome the first difficulty by harnessing large numbers to undertake small tasks that add up to a greater product. It can overcome the second by the complex decision-making and intuitive decision-making power of large numbers of human brains. In both cases, users become co-creators of academic content that is, after crowd processing, viable for use by academic researchers.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi>
            </p>
            <p>A number of recent projects have attempted to crowdsource textual information. This overview will draw on specific examples from the following: </p>
            <p> • Transcribe Bentham (University College London)</p>
            <p> • What’s on the Menu? (New York Public Library)</p>
            <p> • Papers of the War Department, 1784–1800 (Center for History and New Media)</p>
            <p> • Citizen Archivist (US National Archives)</p>
            <p> • Australian Newspapers Online / Trove (National Library of Australia)</p>
            <p> • Smithsonian Digital Volunteers Transcription Center (USA)</p>
            <p> • Family Search Indexing (FamilySearch.org)</p>
            <p> • Wikisource (Wikimedia Foundation)</p>
            <p> • Zooniverse (University of Oxford)</p>
            <p> • Early Modern Manuscripts Online (Folger Shakespeare Library) </p>
            <p> • Crowd Consortium (multinational)</p>
            <p>Of particular interest here is how we as digital humanists, as editorial actors tasked with preserving and often remediating cultural materials, deal with issues of oversight, authority, quality, and credit. Projects like those listed above, as well as those like 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A Social Edition of the Devonshire Manuscript</hi>, prompt us to consider what happens when crowdsourcing is applied to primary source materials as a way to render them computationally acceptable. What is the role of the humanist in a collaborative world where text overflows the bounds of the academy? How can we ensure scholarly quality, effective public engagement, and cost efficiencies in the new landscape of textual work? 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">1.2 Panel Organisation</hi>
            </p>
            <p>This panel has evolved out of a number of discussions under way in the digital humanities, scholarly editing communities, and the GLAM fields, all centred on better understanding how the unique content of the traditional humanities—primarily textual in nature—can best be integrated with the open-source approaches evident in contemporary digital practices. Part of this introductory presentation will provide a succinct overview of the pragmatics of the panel as outlined here. </p>
            <p>Panel participants include personnel from Zooniverse (https://www.zooniverse.org/) at the University of Oxford; researchers from King’s College London studying the applicability of collaborative methods to scholarly editing (http://dixit.uni-koeln.de/esr.html#c18485); researchers involved with the development of the Transcribe Bentham (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/transcribe-bentham/) and Ossian Online (http://demo.ossianonline.org/) projects; developers and humanists from the Folger Shakespeare Library (http://www.folger.edu/) involved in building crowd transcription environments; and digital humanists involved with the Crowd Consortium Initiative (http://www.crowdconsortium.org/), funded by the Institute of Museum and Library Services and dedicated to exploring effective crowdsourcing techniques in the GLAM fields. All panelists are engaged in the study of development of various digital humanities tools, projects, and initiatives devoted to understanding crowdsourcing in relation to textual artefacts. The individual presentations fall into three major categories: introduction, case studies, and a roundup of collective insights. Our final presentation—Engaging the Public: Best Practices for Scholarly Crowdsourcing—will move us directly into wider audience discussion during the open-forum section of our session. </p>
            <p>The panel will be organised as follows:</p>
            <p> • The panel chair (Daniel Powell) will introduce the panel and provide a high-level overview of crowdsourcing cultural heritage materials in the short presentation ‘Notes Towards a Participatory Humanities’ (10 minutes).</p>
            <p> • Panelists will each present their short paper (10 minutes each; 40 minutes total).</p>
            <p> • The projects, theory, and pragmatics brought up during individual presentations will be discussed in an open forum between panelists and audience members (30 minutes).</p>
            <p> • The panel chair will summarise major points from the panel, reflect on ways forward, provide contact information, and close the panel (10 minutes).</p>
            <p>The names and affiliations of panel participants are as follows:</p>
            <p> • Neil Fraistat, Maryland Institute of Technology in the Humanities, University of Maryland, Crowd Consortium (USA)</p>
            <p> • Victoria Van Hyning, Zooniverse, University of Oxford (UK)</p>
            <p> • (Chair) Daniel Powell, King’s College London, Electronic Textual Cultures Lab, University of Victoria (UK, Canada)</p>
            <p> • Justin Tonra, National University of Ireland Galway, Ossian Online (Ireland)</p>
            <p> • Heather Wolfe, Early Modern Manuscripts Online, Folger Shakespeare Library (USA)</p>
            <p>We are amenable to a panel chair who is not also a presenter but were unable to find anyone who could commit to attending DH 2015 in Sydney. It was suggested by some of those we approached that an Australian involved with Trove or the Newspaper Digitisation Project would be an ideal moderator. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">1.3 Conclusion</hi>
            </p>
            <p>This individual presentation will serve as an introduction to the overall panel, pressing questions in the field, and an argument for the relevance of examining crowdsourcing text in digital humanities contexts. It will also cover the pragmatics of organisation and the structure of the panel. As such, it is not designed to share original scholarly work, but rather to contextualise the other participants’ presentations so that we might all, together, work towards such insights. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">2. Unlocking Textual Corpora with Zooniverse</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Van Hyning, V.</p>
            <p>This presentation will argue that crowdsourced transcription has the power to unlock and render accessible textual corpora that would otherwise remain inaccessible, unedited, and unknown. A number of efforts in this area are taking place under the aegis of Zooniverse (Zooniverse.org), the world-leading academic crowdsourcing organisation based at the University of Oxford and the Adler Planetarium in Chicago. Zooniverse began with a single crowdsourcing project called Galaxy Zoo (galaxyzoo.org/), which was launched in July 2007 by Dr Chris Lintott, now professor of astrophysics at the University of Oxford, and Dr Kevin Schawinski, who was an astronomy graduate student at the time. The goal was to process some one million images of galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey into two types: spiral and elliptical, a task that would have taken one person a minimum of three years of round-the-clock effort to complete. The several-thousand-strong crowd of volunteers who participated not only completed the task in a matter of months, but each image was classified an average of 38 times, as opposed to once, and thus rendered excellent quality data for each image.</p>
            <p> The success of Galaxy Zoo led to the foundation of the Zooniverse in Oxford and the development of over 30 new projects in astrophysics, biology, climate science, and the humanities, including in the fields of music, papyrology, and the history of World War I. Zooniverse now has over 1.18 million registered users and partners with over 400 academic researchers, librarians, and archivists around the world. Following the successful generation of high-quality data by the crowd, Galaxy Zoo cultivated a science team that have published more than 40 papers. The complete list of Zooniverse papers from across all projects is available at zooniverse.org/publications.</p>
            <p> Over the past seven years, the developers and researchers involved in Zooniverse have accrued extensive experience in creating user interfaces that facilitate lay participation in the sciences and humanities. Projects have evolved from the basic classification tasks required in Galaxy Zoo to more complex and demanding tasks such as text transcription. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">2.1 Building a Zooniverse for the Humanities</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Zooniverse now supports a number of crowdsourcing projects related to textual transcription, driven by a volunteer base of more than 40,000 registered users. These range from character-by-character transcription of ancient Greek papyri in the Ancient Lives project (ancientlives.org/) to word-by-word transcription in the Shakespeare’s World project, part of the Early Modern Manuscripts Online initiative that will be discussed in greater detail by my fellow panelist Dr Heather Wolfe (Folger Shakespeare Library). The line-by-line transcription approach applied to the sketchbooks and personal papers of artists from Tate Britain (Secret Lives of Artists) will be examined, as well as projects that require tagging and partial text transcription, as in Old Weather (oldweather.org/), concerning ships’ logs; Notes from Nature (notesfromnature.org/), an entomology project; and Operation War Diary (operationwardiary.org/), about WWI British field diaries from the Western Front.</p>
            <p>This paper will outline the benefits and challenges of each transcription method deployed at Zooniverse, and reveal what our team has learned from designing, implementing, and sustaining each project. It will suggest how these findings might inform future crowdsourcing initiatives both at Zooniverse and elsewhere. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">2.2 Case Studies </hi>
            </p>
            <p>Zooniverse transcription projects vary widely in scope, content-area focus, and implementation; this talk will consider the following ‘citizen science’ and ‘citizen humanities’ projects and their use of crowdsourced transcription:</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold""> • Ancient Lives</hi>: Character-by-character transcription of approximately 500,000 Ancient Greek papyri fragments; a collaboration between the Imaging Papyri Project, the Oxyrhynchus Papyri Project, the Egypt Exploration Society, Zooniverse, and the University of Oxford. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold""> •</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Old Weather</hi>: Transcribing millions of weather entries from ship’s logs; a collaboration between the National Archives and Records Administration (USA), the National Archives (UK), the Met Office (National Meteorological Services, UK), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA, USA), the National Maritime Museum (UK), the University of Oxford, and a number of others. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold""> •</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Notes from Nature</hi>: Transcription of etymological specimen labels from over 200 institutions, including the University of California at Berkeley, the South Eastern Regional Network of Expertise and Collections (SERNEC) project—a collaborative collection from 222 herbaria across the southeastern United States—the Natural History Museum of London (NHML), Zooniverse, and Vizzuality, to name only a few. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold""> •</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Operation War Diary</hi>: A collaboration between the Imperial War Museum (London), the National Archives at Kew (London), and Zooniverse. A tagging and transcription project that is designed to capture data for the Kew catalogues and for a second crowdsourcing project called Lives of the First World War based at the Imperial War Museum. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold""> •</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Secret Lives of Artists</hi> (in production): A line-by-line transcription project of artists’ letters, diaries, and sketchbooks—a partnership between Tate Britain and Zooniverse designed to capture full text transcriptions that will eventually be incorporated into the museum’s online archives catalogue. Multiple users will perform each transcription, and these transcriptions will be automatically compared to one another and to gold-standard data to determine consensus. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold""> •</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Shakespeare’s World</hi> (in production): A word-by-word transcription project that will enable users to acquire palaeography skills and the ability to transcribe early modern manuscript material in the Folger Shakespeare Library collection. Multiple users will perform each transcription, and these transcriptions will be automatically compared to one another and to gold-standard data to determine consensus.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">2.3 Conclusion</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Each project offers compelling and potentially reusable models of crowdsourced transcription and volunteer engagement that might interest researchers from disciplines and specialties across the digital humanities and the GLAM fields (galleries, libraries, archives, museums). Each of these projects consist of collections of anywhere between 50,000 and 1.5 million images, numbers that make traditional academic consideration—whether in terms of editing, cataloguing, or researching—at best impractical and at worst impossible. Within the Zooniverse, volunteers tackle work that would not be undertaken otherwise, typically because it would take an individual researcher or a small group of researchers decades to accomplish. </p>
            <p>Well-structured academic crowdsourcing projects enable researches to ask a consistent question or questions of a large body of data, and thus make both qualitative as well as quantitative analyses in their research. For example, in the first seven months of Operation War Diary, users tagged and transcribed nearly 60,000 pages of material. This is roughly the equivalent of one academic researcher’s full-time effort for five years. The data generated by the crowd has shed new light on troop movement and experiences of life on the front, including armament, recreation, and soldiers’ physical and socio-psychological experiences of the First World War. Studied through the lens of large datasets—especially textual ones that may exist only through collaborative production—even a well-studied topic such as the First World War can be seen in a new light. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">3. Strategies for Effectively Crowdsourcing Transcription: Findings from Early Modern Manuscripts Online</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Wolfe, H. </p>
            <p>What happens when you attempt to crowdsource an activity that was previously only the bastion of specialised scholars? That’s exactly the problem faced by the Early Modern Manuscripts Online project (EMMO) at the Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington, DC. Funded by a generous grant from the Institute of Museum and Library Services for three years, EMMO’s goal is to transcribe and encode all of the early modern English manuscripts at the Folger and make them freely available as a searchable corpus of texts. Our hope is that the availability of such texts, previously only available to scholars trained in the study of English secretary hand, will shift primary research from a print-centric view of English history, literature, religion, and politics to a much more nuanced understanding of how texts circulated. We also envision that this corpus will be invaluable for data mining and a wide variety of other research agendas and questions.</p>
            <p> </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(2D2D2D)"">3.1 Strategies for Effectively Crowdsourcing Text</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Currently in its second year of development, EMMO is beginning to experiment with a variety of formats for rapidly training our potential crowds in English secretary hand and basic editorial conventions before letting them loose on digitised images of manuscripts. In this talk, I will report and reflect on our experiences with four interrelated strategies for effectively crowdsourcing textual transcription: </p>
            <p>• Online transcription sprints.</p>
            <p>• Pedagogical partnerships.</p>
            <p>• Intensive palaeography workshops.</p>
            <p>• Transcribathons at university libraries.</p>
            <p> </p>
            <p>3.1.1 Beginners</p>
            <p>EMMO relies on both expert and beginner crowds, and there are different demands for each. Our beginner crowds—initially unknown to us, and most likely unfamiliar with secretary hand and with the orthography and abbreviations of early modern England—are most likely unwilling to sit through an intensive multi-level online tutorial before being allowed to transcribe. Zooniverse has been instrumental in helping us develop an online learning environment that minimises initial investment while making resources such as abbreviation and letterform guides readily available and easily accessible. Because our beginner crowd has never worked with early modern handwriting before, we have a ranking system for our digital images of manuscripts that allows us to direct easier examples to true beginners, and a hidden ‘test’ that allows the most accurate transcribers to play a larger role in vetting transcriptions. Transcriptions of each page image are made four times, at which point the transcriptions are collated so that errors can be highlighted and corrected by sending them out for further transcriptions or for correction by our super-users. Because we imagine that some veteran crowdsourcers will have no interest in transcription at all but are nonetheless interested in the project’s overall goals, we have also created non-transcription tasks that include creating bounding boxes around individual words. </p>
            <p>We encounter other beginner crowds at transcribathons. These four- to 12-hour events can take place anywhere, but we have so far held them in university libraries. We typically offer prizes and incentives for our volunteers, as well as mini-training sessions at particular times throughout the transcribathon. Individuals can work on their own laptops or on teams, and we occasionally project ‘stumpers’ on the screen so that everyone can participate simultaneously. Because we are working with people with a variety of skill levels and time commitments, we design the transcribathons to meet multiple needs and interests.</p>
            <p> </p>
            <p>3.1.2 Experts</p>
            <p>Our expert crowds, largely based at universities, tend to have an interest in the time period and, in some cases, familiarity with secretary hand. We have developed an in-house module called Dromio for transcriptions made by communities at the Folger, in partner classrooms, and amongst an international group of palaeography contacts. Dromio is a TEI transcription/collation tool that pulls images from our digital image database and allows users to transcribe and encode them. The transcription window is a small box that sits on top of a zoomable page; it also includes buttons for our TEI tagset as well as for common early modern abbreviations. The transcriptions and editorial notes can be viewed in HTML or XML, and the names of the transcriber and the encoder are included in the metadata
                <hi rend=""color(2D2D2D)"">. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>So far we have used Dromio for an advanced palaeography seminar that brought together 16 experienced palaeographers for an intensive week of transcribing some of the Folger’s most difficult and perplexing manuscripts, and we will be using it again in summer 2015 for an intensive week of introductory palaeography. EMMO has hired a full-time palaeographer and has a full cadre of interns and volunteers who use Dromio for transcription. We have been approached by professors from history and English departments who want to introduce students to primary resources in the classroom, and who are currently designing classes that incorporate specific Folger manuscripts. Dromio will be released as open-source software at the end of our grant, and we hope that the release will encourage other special collections to contribute to EMMO. Because accuracy is quite important for semi-diplomatic transcriptions, we are particularly interested to compare efficiencies in our partner Zooniverse to our in-house platform Dromio as we embark on the next phase of EMMO.</p>
            <p> </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(2D2D2D)"">3.2 Conclusion</hi>
            </p>
            <p>As indicated above, the Folger is approximately a year into this project. By the time of DH 2015, we will have had the opportunity to hold a number of additional workshops and transcribathons, as well as time to think through an analysis of our different strategies. This will allow us to make recommendations during this panel, based on our successes and failures. In particular, we will be in a unique position to comment on both transcribing difficult-to-parse manuscript content and on an integrated approach to managing and training volunteer communities. It is quite difficult for the ‘man on the street’ to transcribe English secretary hand with no training; combining such training with community management oriented towards producing effective transcriptions of difficult content can be seen as a sort of ‘best case’ litmus test for the efficacy of these models of knowledge co-creation. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">4. Crowdsourcing Texts of Many Dimensions: Transcribe Bentham and Ossian Online</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Tonra, J.</p>
            <p>This paper analyses the theoretical and practical implications of crowdsourcing two different kinds of text: transcriptions and annotations. Two projects that adopt the model for these respective purposes are Transcribe Bentham and Ossian Online. They exhibit differing motivations for choosing this model, and aim to crowdsource tasks whose requirements and biases place particular demands and restrictions on participants. As a consequence, the accuracy of the term ‘crowdsource’ must be questioned for more subjective tasks that require the generation of original intellectual content. Collaboration plays a central, though differently focused, role in both forms of crowdsourcing, and investment in infrastructure and in the engagement of a community of volunteers is a constant imperative in this type of endeavour.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">4.1 The Complexity of Crowdsourcing Texts</hi>
            </p>
            <p>4.1.1 Motivations for Crowdsourcing Text</p>
            <p>The motivations for these two projects’ adoption of the crowdsourcing model give an immediate sense of their typological distinction, and of the particular challenges and opportunities for each. Transcribe Bentham mounted a crowdsourced transcription initiative to produce manuscript transcriptions for the print edition of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham</hi> in a more economical manner than could be achieved by existing editorial staff (Causer et al., 2012, 121). The purpose of Ossian Online is to pilot an interdisciplinary model of scholarly collaboration by facilitating crowdsourced annotation and interpretation of a key 18th-century literary work. Specifically, Ossian Online aims to provide an experience of collaborative and interdisciplinary knowledge creation while testing the value of the crowdsourcing model to more subjective tasks in the workflow of the scholarly edition.
            </p>
            <p>4.1.2 Bias and the Crowdsourced Task</p>
            <p>The tasks that are required of the crowd in Transcribe Bentham and Ossian Online occupy different positions on the spectrum that runs from microtasking to macrotasking (Walsh et al., 2014, 382f.). Participants in Transcribe Bentham ‘transcribe Bentham’s manuscripts into a text box and, using a customized toolbar, encode the features of the manuscripts in Text Encoding Initiative (TEI)–compliant Extensible Mark-up Language (XML)’ (Causer et al., 2012, 120). The crowd, in this instance, engage in microtasking to solve problems of ‘the sort that would be difficult to solve computationally’ (Walsh et al., 2014, 382): transcription of manuscripts cannot (yet) be automated (though tranScriptorium is engaged in addressing this issue), nor can the encoding of structural features of Bentham’s manuscripts such as additions and deletions. Transcription is a largely objective process, but the addition of markup to the text moves into the realm of the subjective. Despite Transcribe Bentham’s explicit invitation to encode more objectively identifiable structural features of the manuscript, several volunteers considered this assignment more subjective, and ‘an aggravation to an already demanding task’ (Causer and Terras, 2014, 67). At its core, the fundamental and most successful work of Transcribe Bentham was objective: ‘a transcript of Bentham’s writing rather than original intellectual content’ (Causer and Wallace, 2012, 58).</p>
            <p>In addition to presenting accurate texts and a critical edition of the Ossian poems published between 1760 and 1773, Ossian Online includes a tool for crowdsourcing annotation and interpretation of the texts. Ossian has previously been the subject of critical attention from a variety of traditional disciplinary and national perspectives, but despite the profound intercultural nature of the work, scholarship on the subject has been confined within disciplinary and national boundaries. In creating a virtual space for sharing intercultural and interdisciplinary perspectives on Ossian, the project aims to generate fresh debate and new knowledge through a synthesis of these disciplinary insights. The aspiration of generating new knowledge based on the specific skills of participants is a characteristic of macrotasking: a crowdsourcing endeavour involving more complex ‘open-ended, socially negotiated tasks [that] may go further than processing information’ (Walsh et al., 2014, 383). </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">4.1.3 Demands and Restrictions on Participation</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The particular tasks required of the crowd in Transcribe Bentham and Ossian Online are related to the practices of scholarly editing but demand very different competencies. Transcription of manuscripts, in principle, demands little beyond literacy. Of course, some familiarity with palaeography and of the conventions of preparing transcripts for scholarly editing will hasten the process. But the basic act of recognising and reproducing text is not particularly specialised, demanding, or subjective. The demographics of Transcribe Bentham volunteers and the extent of their work thus far bear this out (Causer and Wallace, 2012, 39–52).</p>
            <p>The kinds of contributions invited by Ossian Online—critical interpretation born of close reading informed by disciplinary knowledge—demand a more specialised contributor and inevitably call into question the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">crowd</hi> in crowdsourcing. Transcribe Bentham has already identified this fallacy, describing its experience as more accurately one of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">crowd-sifting</hi>: ‘beginning with the traditional open call associated with crowdsourcing, and then encouraging the emergence of a self-selecting, smaller number of individuals with the skills, desire and time to complete a complex task on a regular basis’ (Causer and Terras, 2014, 72–73).
            </p>
            <p>Recent examples of crowdsourced interpretation offer different approaches to the task, while sharing a noticeable emphasis on 
                <hi rend=""italic"">constraint</hi>. Prism, a tool for collaborative interpretation of texts, allows users to highlight portions of text that correspond to sets of previously defined interpretive categories (
                <hi rend=""italic"">sound</hi> or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">sense</hi> in Poe’s ‘The Raven’, for example). Meanwhile, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">An Inquiry into the Modes of Existence</hi> (AIME) is an augmented digital book containing sections of glossary, documentation, and interpretive contribution in parallel with the text of Bruno Latour’s book of the same title. Freely accessible on the Web, contributions to AIME are restricted to a hierarchy of contributors, collaborators, and mediators, all of whom have been approved by the project. Constraint in contributors is matched by constraint in contribution: the project has identified and defined 15 topics (or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">values</hi>) that will shape the contributions. Their content is also prescribed: a contribution ‘subjects the Inquiry to the trials for which is was designed’, and is explicitly ‘not a comment [. . .] nor is it like editing a wiki or reviewing’.
            </p>
            <p>Transcription and annotation occupy different practical and ideological positions within the process of scholarly editing. Both are part of a tradition that the social edition, and its ‘embrace [of] social networking and commensurate tools’ (Siemens et al., 2012, n.p.), promises to inform and extend. Transcription, though mechanical and value-neutral, is an essential part in establishing and presenting an accurate text. Annotation can span a subjective range from demonstrable empirical observations about the texts (the information of critical apparatus), through contextual or documentary information, to literary-critical commentary. The more subjective and specialised the task, the more necessarily the crowd becomes circumscribed. The creators of Prism are correct in their view that ‘Reading [. . .] does not end with the identification of the words on a page’ (380) and that crowdsourcing can contribute to interpretive encounters with texts. However, the more that interpretation is prescribed, the greater the obligation to qualify the use of the term 
                <hi rend=""italic"">crowdsourcing</hi>, or to define precisely the model of collaborative interpretation.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">4.2 Conclusion: Collaboration and the Crowd?</hi>
            </p>
            <p>If the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">crowd</hi>, in its multitude and anonymity, is to be edged out of crowdsourcing in cases of macrotasking such as contributing interpretive annotations, it begs the question of why interpretation should be sought from a dispersed group. One of the fundamental reasons is the recognition that certain types of creativity and innovation are enabled by collaboration. The Internet has, since its origins in ARPANET, been a medium that facilitates dispersed academic collaboration and the development of research networks. More specifically, Ossian’s appeal to a broad range of academic disciplines is evident in the research produced by such fields as literature, history, Irish studies, Scottish studies, Celtic studies, romanticism, antiquarianism, textual studies, and book history. Ossian Online entices these existing disciplinary perspectives into dialogue with one another to enable the creation of new knowledge and better understanding and appreciation of an important cultural artefact. Such a practice inevitably unearths consonance and dissonance, and AIME’s treatment of the latter is instructive. The project creates a database of ‘crossings’ that occur ‘when there is a clash between two [interpretive] values’. On this principle, and a related understanding that heightened activity may occur at provocative or polysemic portions of the text, Ossian Online will visualise the scale of user engagement across the span of the text—thus mapping the extent of collaborative annotation and the particular interpretive concerns of the crowd.
            </p>
            <p>4.3 References</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Barr, R. A. and Tonra, J.</hi> (eds). Ossian Online. National University of Ireland, Galway.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Causer, T. and Terras, M.</hi> (2014). ‘Many Hands Make Light Work. Many Hands Together Make Merry Work’: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Transcribe Bentham</hi> and Crowdsourcing Manuscript Collections. In 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Crowdsourcing Our Cultural Heritage</hi>. Farnham: Ashgate, pp. 57–88.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Causer, T., Tonra, J. and Wallace, V.</hi> (2012). Transcription Maximized; Expense Minimized? Crowdsourcing and Editing 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham</hi>. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">27</hi>(2): 119–37. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Causer, T., and Wallace, V.</hi> (2012). Building a Volunteer Community: Results and Findings from 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Transcribe Bentham</hi>. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(2).
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Latour, B.</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">An Inquiry into the Modes of Existence</hi>. Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Praxis Program Team.</hi> (n.d.). Prism, Scholars’ Lab.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Siemens, R., Timney, M., Leitch, C., Koolen, C. and Garnett, A.</hi> (2012). Pertinent Discussions Toward Modeling the Social Edition: Annotated Bibliographies. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(1).
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Transcribe Bentham.</hi> (n.d.). The Bentham Project, University College London.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">tranScriptorium.</hi> (n.d.). tranScriptorium Consortium.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Walsh, B., Maiers, C., Nally, G., Boggs, J. and Praxis Program Team.</hi> (2014). Crowdsourcing Individual Interpretations: Between Microtasking and Macrotasking. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(3): 379–86.
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">5. Engaging the Public: Best Practices for Scholarly Crowdsourcing</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Fraistat, N. </p>
            <p>For the community engaged in leading crowdsourcing projects, as well as developing tools and applications to enable them, an important next step is to assemble our collective knowledge. What do we know at present about the parameters and potential scalability of crowdsourcing infrastructures, content, and tools? Who are the key players, and what are the major projects? What is the evidence of success in these projects? How can we best address the new challenges inherent in relying on ‘crowdsourced’ research resources? How can we establish standards for evaluating and incorporating user-generated contributions to crowdsourced projects? This talk will discuss the findings and results of a crowdsourcing workshop to be held at the University of Maryland in May 2015 in the context of key points made by other presenters in the roundtable.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">5.1 Reports and Findings from Engaging the Public</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Made possible by funding from NEH, IMLS, and the Sloan Foundation, Engaging the Public: Best Practices for Scholarly Crowdsourcing aims to culminate and then broaden the conversation about crowdsourcing begun in two face-to-face regional meetings (20 attendees each) and two webinars that are taking place through the auspices of Dartmouth’s 2014 IMLS-funded National Forum in Crowdsourcing for Libraries and Archives: Creating a Crowdsourcing Consortium (CCLA). Through this two-and-a-half-day capstone event, we will be bringing together 50 scholars from several disciplines and representatives from 10 funding agencies in order to consolidate the earlier work of CCLA and seek to advance a truly cross-disciplinary agenda for the future of scholarly crowdsourcing. We will also be seeking to support crowdsourcing efforts among digital humanities groups, museums, libraries, and archives by linking their work to computer science and social science communities and forging a collective consortium. </p>
            <p>Throughout the workshop, our central concern will be on the question of how institutions might best adopt and employ crowdsourcing strategies for increasing public engagement, integrating data from contributors into existing collections, and increasing knowledge in the humanities and related domains. In obtaining support for the workshop from three different funders, each with their own distinct communities to bring into the conversation, we hope to ensure a rich cross-disciplinary dialogue and send a very public signal about the importance of these emerging practices, thereby increasing the overall impact of the workshop. </p>
            <p> At its most fundamental level, the workshop has as its central question, ‘How might institutions best adopt and employ crowdsourcing strategies for increasing public engagement, integrating data into existing collections, and increasing knowledge in the humanities and other disciplines?’ Under this broad umbrella are a number of pressing questions that will guide the workshop, including,</p>
            <p> • What is a crowdsourcing platform, and why is it important? </p>
            <p> • What advantages does crowdsourcing offer, and under what conditions does it fulfil those promises? </p>
            <p> • How might institutions best adopt and employ crowdsourcing strategies for use in collecting metadata, transcribing historic material, integrating data into existing collections, and increasing user engagement?</p>
            <p> • Which types of institutions would benefit most from the use of crowdsourcing (e.g., libraries or archives with recently digitised collections, ones in danger of losing funding or closing due to lack of community involvement or patronage, etc.)? </p>
            <p> • Can crowdsourcing strategies be used to increase public engagement in the physical spaces of cultural heritage institutions? </p>
            <p> • How can crowdsourcing activities best be used in the classroom? </p>
            <p> • How will material and crowdsourced data be collected, stored, and made accessible? </p>
            <p> • How can interfaces such as games be effectively designed not only as data collection and processing tools but also as powerful means to motivate and mobilize the public?</p>
            <p> • How can funders best support scholarly crowdsourcing?</p>
            <p>In pursuing such questions, the workshop has the following aims: </p>
            <p> 1. Expand the conversation about best practices in engaging the public across the humanities and with the sciences.</p>
            <p> 2. Begin to establish standards for evaluating and incorporating user-generated contributions in research and in national collections. Determine what metadata and provenance are needed to preserve and contextualize public contributions.</p>
            <p> 3. Establish guiding principles that can inform the implementation of crowdsourcing efforts.</p>
            <p> 4. Collect ‘lessons learned’ from prior experiences with crowdsourcing and from the analyses of such work in the social sciences, including cutting-edge information and best practices in the field. Summarize lessons learned in an accessible way for the humanities, with accompanying principles, strategies, and best practices gathered into a useful visual brief.</p>
            <p> 5. Help establish a national consortium among these groups to examine collectively how tools and platforms to date can change the ways in which museums, libraries, archives, and research projects based elsewhere can use crowdsourcing technology to enhance collections and user experiences.</p>
            <p> 6. Provide a means for program officers from major funders to deepen their understanding of the current state of the art as well as the opportunities and challenges of crowdsourcing and to engage with the crowdsourcing community.</p>
            <p> 7. Produce a livestream feed and podcasts of keynote and panels, as well as a detailed written report documenting the proceedings and findings of the workshop.</p>
            <p> 8. Move findings and podcasts to CrowdConsortium.org, a group web presence, that will serve to house these best practices documents, reports, links to top research, and open-source, sharable resources for stakeholders interested in crowdsourcing.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">5.2 Conclusion</hi>
            </p>
            <p>This presentation will report on the key outcomes achieved during the workshop as a point of departure for larger group discussion of both the current state of the art (partly represented by the other presenters in the roundtable) and the future of scholarly crowdsourcing.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""Footnote"">1. See NEH Grant HD51836, Enhancing Music Notation Addressability, awarded to the University of Maryland in March 2014, 
                <hi rend=""Hyperlink.0"">http://www.neh.gov/divisions/odh/grant-news/announcing-20-digital-humanities-start-grant-awards-march-2014</hi>. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""Footnote"">2. See the abstract for her talk in the compiled abstracts from DH 2010, http://dh2010.cch.kcl.ac.uk/academic-programme/abstracts/papers/pdf/book-final.pdf. </p>
            <p rend=""Footnote"">3. See Melissa Terras’ blog for a full transcript, as prepared, of her keynote, 
                <hi rend=""Hyperlink.1"">http://melissaterras.blogspot.co.uk/2010/07/dh2010-plenary-present-not-voting.html</hi>. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""Footnote"">4. See ‘Crowdsourcing’ on Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowdsourcing) and an ‘On Language‘ column by William Safire from 2009 (http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/08/magazine/08wwln-safire-t.html?_r=3&amp;ref=magazine&amp;).</p>
            <p rend=""Footnote"">5. Mia Ridge, writing on her Open Objects blog, has a highly useful FAQ page that addresses more thoroughly the relationship of crowdsourcing to academic work; see http://openobjects.blogspot.co.uk/2012/06/frequently-asked-questions-about.html. </p>
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            <p>DARIAH-DE is the German contribution to the ESFRI project DARIAH-EU—Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities. DARIAH-EU
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> is a European Digital Humanities Network and infrastructure funded by the European Commission, which has several national subordinate projects—for example, DARIAH-DE, funded by national research agencies such as the BMBF in Germany.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> DARIAH-DE supports researchers in the humanities working with digital resources and methods in building a digital infrastructure for research tools and data services, as well as coordinating and (if necessary) further developing existing study and training courses in the digital humanities. The central objective of DARIAH-DE is to enable the interoperability of tools and research data. Following internationally valid and accepted standards and policies, DARIAH-DE aims to ensure the long-term preservation and future use of research data. One of DARIAH-DE’s main activities is to build a research data repository for the arts and humanities based on a distributed and generic infrastructure. 
            </p>
            <p>This repository will be made available to associated research projects such as EHRI—the European Holocaust Research Infrastructure—as well as individual researchers and projects who want their data to be stored in an easily accessible, persistent, citable long-term archive. A main focus is, therefore, accommodating different project and researcher needs. To achieve this, DARIAH-DE is working together with TextGrid.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> TextGrid is a virtual research environment, consisting of the modular software TextGridLab and the repository TextGridRep. The DARIAH-DE Repository is based on the code used in the TextGrid Repository and will be implemented with a number of services tailored for DARIAH-DE’s specific uses, such as an AAI (Authorisation and Authentification Infrastructure). Recently the DARIAH-DE AAI and the DARIAH-DE Storage API
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> for saving data on a bit preservation level were merged such that the storage layer is distributed and synchronized between the participating computing centres. This way the infrastructure is ensured to not only work as storage space for static data—that is, thus be publicly accessible and citable for the long term—but in addition gives the option of storing dynamic data—optionally secured by AAI and constantly updated through regular use. 
            </p>
            <p>The data can be accessed through APIs to render it reusable by other tools and services such as the DARIAH-DE Collection Registry, which contains information about arbitrary data repositories and their collections. The Generic Search developed in DARIAH-DE crawls and indexes the collection registry’s collections and provides easy access and retrieval, while the DARIAH-DE Schema Registry provides XML-schemas for mapping and metadata crosswalks. </p>
            <p>DARIAH-DE provides not only a repository but a central component of a distributed research infrastructure. The DARIAH-DE project shows how all those services, APIs, dynamic and static repositories, and clients are integrated into a digital humanities network of research data and researchers in the digital humanities, using different workflows and approaches for working with and publishing research data, all based on the data stored in the DARIAH-DE Repository. And all of the developed and used services and tools are reusable in different project contexts. </p>
            <p>In addition to the poster presentation at DH 2015 in Sydney, scientific experts and developers will perform a multimedia demonstration of the data ingest, with a specific focus on the humanities scientists’ options to archive, provide, and reuse research data and how to model the necessary workflows and processes. In particular it will be shown how researchers can ingest data into the repository, but also how different research tools get access and ingest them after they analyse or enrich them. </p>
            <p>More information about the German project DARIAH-DE and the European project DARIAH-EU can be found at https://de.dariah.eu/ (German) and at https://www.dariah.eu (English). </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. http://www.dariah.eu/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. Federal Ministry of Education and Research, http://www.bmbf.de/en/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. http://textgrid.de/en/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">4. DARIAH Storage API—A Basic Storage Service API on Bit Preservation Level, http://handle.gwdg.de:8000/11858/00-1734-0000-0009-FEA1-D.</p>
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"2215","16","Data Aesthetics, Old and New.","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Lemos Morais</surname>
                        <forename>Renata</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Deakin University, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>renata.morais@deakin.edu.au</email>
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                    <term>new aesthetic</term>
                    <term>data aesthetic</term>
                    <term>network culture</term>
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                    <term>internet / world wide web</term>
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            <p>Two years ago, a New Aesthetic was announced by Bruce Sterling in a widely circulated and debated text published on 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Wired</hi> magazine: ‘An Essay on the New Aesthetic’. This aesthetic is, for him, as significant as any of our past avant-gardes: ‘the New Aesthetic is one thing among a kind: it’s like early photography for French Impressionists, or like silent film for Russian Constructivists, or like abstract-dynamics for Italian Futurists’ (Sterling, 2012). New Aesthetics can also be understood as a ‘collaborative attempt to draw a circle around several species of aesthetic activity—including but not limited to drone photography, ubiquitous surveillance, glitch imagery, streetview photography, 8-bit net nostalgia’ (Battles, 2008). It is concerned with documenting a contemporary phenomenon of ‘eruption of the digital into the physical’ (Sterling, 2012). A new language and sensibility have been identified in the intersection of humans and their machines, one that is related directly to the visual coding and translation of machinic interferences, glitches, and noise to the augmented field of human perception, which is enabled by pervasive digital media. 
            </p>
            <p>As in the case of any avant-garde, the New Aesthetic was first identified and presented by a cluster of young artists, led by James Bridle, a British computer programmer and designer who coined the term and developed the concept by doing content curation in his Tumblr page, http://new-aesthetic.tumblr.com/. He refuses to identify the New Aesthetic with a movement, however, stating that it ‘may be considered a work, a conversation, a performance, an experiment, and a number of other things (although, please, not a movement)’ (Bridle, 2013). Despite all his efforts to refuse being labeled as the founder of an artistic current, his Tumblr page became a classic contemporary work of digital curation as an art form. It basically is a gathering point of images and information about instances in which the digital becomes physically embodied, trying to raise awareness of the physical reality of information networks, together with 3-D printed objects or sculptures reminiscent of pixelated works. The objects portrayed point toward the material embodiments of data networks, ranging from satellites and drones to cellphones.</p>
            <p>The power of observation is here more important than the power of creation. The various technological affordances present in digital media are reshaping our relation to the material world, creating the conditions for the emergence of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">immaterial physicality</hi>: ‘a transfer instantiating the immaterial in a physical form, a “print-out” whose tangibility then becomes the operative dimension in asserting the presence of an immaterial, digital, “information space”’ (Betancourt, 2013). The informational structure and logic of computational code ‘leaks’ into visual/digital culture, which is then translated into sensuous matter, pregnant with immaterial physicalities. 
            </p>
            <p>Whenever the New Aesthetic is mentioned, particularly in reference to the work of James Bridle, we are faced with a direct engagement with the cultural and political outputs of digital networks: their noise, visual identity, clear and/or obscure applications, and agendas. What is artificial blends with what is natural in such an intimate way that the New Aesthetic becomes a perfect example of Donna Haraway’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">naturecultures</hi>: collective expressions created and distributed by a network of post-cyborg agents living in a world of pervasive and invisible prosthetics, in which machinic species are equivalent to the material-semiotic assemblages of biological bodies. If ‘the machinic and the textual are internal to the organic and vice versa in irreversible ways’ (Haraway, 2003, 15), then so is their aesthetic. The work of James Bridle is iconic in regards to a New Aesthetic that represents the technological properties of the digital by accumulating virtual traces of material networks. By documenting and curating various examples of immaterial physicalities and bringing the ‘digital’ into the ‘physical’ in an automated and mechanic way, data aesthetics shape reality according to the fluid possibilities of the virtual, organically and meticulously. This article examines the inner workings and cultural implications of data aesthetics, and the ways in which digital curation and network dynamics become tools for a critical engagement with the world, connecting us to our physical landscapes in an unprecedented way, while redefining our perception and experience of time and space.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Battles, M.</hi> (2012). But It Moves: The New Aesthetic and Emergent Virtual Taste. Metalab, 14 April, http://metalab.harvard.edu/2012/04/but-it-moves-the-new-aesthetic-emergent-virtual-taste/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Betancourt, M.</hi> (2013). Automated Labor: The ‘New Aesthetic’ and Immaterial Physicality. CTheory. Theory beyond the Codes: tbc048, May, http://www.ctheory.net/articles.aspx?id=717.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bridle, J.</hi> (2013). The New Aesthetics and Its Politics. Booktwo.org, 12 June, http://booktwo.org/notebook/new-aesthetic-politics/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Haraway, D.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Companion Species Manifesto: Dogs, People, and Significant Otherness</hi>. Prickly Paradigm Press, Chicago.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sterling, B.</hi> (2012). An Essay on the New Aesthetic. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Wired</hi>, 4 February, http://www.wired.com/2012/04/an-essay-on-the-new-aesthetic/. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2216","16","Data Revisualization as Critical Humanities Practice: Reinterpreting 19th Century Data with Modern Tools","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                        <forename>Benjamin</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Northeastern University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>bmschmidt@gmail.com</email>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <term>Data Visualization</term>
                    <term>United States History</term>
                    <term>Humanities Data Analysis</term>
                </keywords>
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                    <term>historical studies</term>
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            <p>Data visualization is a rhetorical form of increasing importance, both inside the digital humanities and in arenas of public discourse from journalism to advertising. This paper will argue that the act of revisualizing and representing information whose historical importance was consolidated through visualization offers a useful opportunity for humanists. It lets them fruitfully contribute to and intervene in the professional practice of data visualization, while building new methods of visualization that are specifically grounded in historical reflection on the self-presentation and failures of visualization in a wider historical context. It will do so by constructing 
                <hi rend=""italic"">revisualizations</hi> of influential historical data from the US Bureau of the Census. This data was first visualized in atlases published between 1870 and 1920 that remain some of the most widely influential works in the history and present practice of data visualization and thematic mapping. Revisualization reveals the elisions, illusions, and labor at the heart of these canonical works.
            </p>
            <p>In the world of data analysis and visualization itself, a recent process of canon formation has made historical visualization a fundamental part of the field’s self-conception and acts as an inspiration (Tufte, 1983).
                <anchor xml:id=""sdfootnote1anc""/>
            </p>
            <p>Inside the digital humanities, the grounding of data visualization as a historically situated practice is somewhat muted. Martin Jessop (2008) and John Theibault (2012) have called for better situating practices of data visualization as historical practices themselves.
                <anchor xml:id=""sdfootnote2anc""/> On the one hand, there is deep interest in data visualization as a deliverable for digital humanities projects in which humanists implement out-of-the-box practices of visualization
                <anchor xml:id=""sdfootnote3anc""/> (‘Palladio Project’, 2014) and take the representation and augmentation of historical visualizations for digital modes of presentation as an end goal (Fletcher, 2014).
                <anchor xml:id=""sdfootnote4anc""/>
            </p>
            <p>On the other hand, scholars such as Lauren Klein have called for situating these advances in the history of data visualization; still others, such as Johanna Drucker (2011), call for an authentically humanistic form of data visualization that will register uncertainty among the power relations involved in categorical enforcement.
                <anchor xml:id=""sdfootnote5anc""/>
            </p>
            <p>The practice of data revisualization bridges the divide between enthusiastic application of other tools and critical reflection on the elisions inherent in visualization. This talk will investigate a self-consciously critical practice of data visualization through the re-analysis and re-visualization of two deeply influential cartographic data visualizations produced by the US Bureau of the Census between 1870 and 1920. One shows shifting population densities in recent decades of US history. It was widely discussed across American society, including providing the impetus for the single most influential article in the historiography of the United States, Frederick Jackson Turner’s frontier thesis
                <anchor xml:id=""sdfootnote6anc""/> (Turner, 1894). The other shows the ‘center of population’ for the population as a whole and for the white and Negro subsets of it. These maps, and the census atlases they come from, are well known both among practitioners of data visualization and scholars of the 19th-century American state (Dandison, 2012; Kinnahan, 2008; Hannah, 2000).
                <anchor xml:id=""sdfootnote7anc""/>
            </p>
            <p>This paper will investigate and deconstruct these maps in two ways:</p>
            <p>1. Through the use of archival sources from the National Archives, the paper will better contextualize the maps as products of state construction. The center-of-population maps, for example, are described internally by the Census Bureau in terms that highlight the extreme difficulty of calculating the mean rather than the median of population. Employment records and extraordinary quantities of saved paperwork at the Census Bureau bear this out. These files can help explain the rhetorical origins of data visualization in practices of the state that emphasize the extraordinary labor invested in created data visualization as a way of constituting authority. Archival records also help to clarify the way that these records were used in the early 20th century by other members of the national polity, from advertisers interested in demonstrating the centrality of their state to newspaper editors fearfully tracking the Negro population’s move north after the Great War.</p>
            <p>2. Through revisualization of the historical data using the D3 framework for JavaScript, the paper will investigate the elisions in the original data as well as the ways that different choices can open up different perspectives on the data. For example, while Turner treated the closing of the frontier as an objective fact, this analysis will show how it was only possible through an aggressively imposed set of assumptions about population distributions that even the Census Bureau itself abandoned 10 years later, leading a (mostly ignored) restoration of the frontier on official documents.</p>
            <p>The challenges this poses for data visualization make possible useful interventions in the wider community of data visualization. For example, to adequately represent the shifting frontier line, in all its incarnations, requires extending default svg path behavior to enable smooth transitions in ways that are broadly useful for digital humanities mapping projects mapping with D3.</p>
            <p>The strictly national character of this history will usefully intersect with the global themes of the conference, because they highlight the fundamental but frequently repressed connection between data visualization and explicitly state-centered ways of seeing. The census data is doubly so; it both relies on state-focused data and historically served to consolidate a nation-centered identity. Yet recent scholarship has tended to focus on the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">scientific</hi> provenance of data visualization, despite the earlier emergence of both specific forms like the choropleth and the widespread dominance of what Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison called ‘trained judgment’ as a way of seeing data in state circles decades before their hegemony in scientific circles (2007).
                <anchor xml:id=""sdfootnote8anc""/>
            </p>
            <p>In contrast to these state-oriented, bureaucratic forms of organization, this paper will propose a model of humanities visualization as an interpretive, authorial practice that aims to open questions of data integrity and visual design rather than mask them through interactivity. As a single-author visualization project, it will address the ways that claims for the inevitability of collaboration in digital humanities can serve as a backdoor for the introduction of statist forms of argumentation.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dandison, B.</hi> (2012). A Handsome Atlas: Historical Maps, Old Charts, and Vintage Data Visualization. http://www.handsomeatlas.com/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Daston, L. and Galison, P.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Objectivity</hi>. Zone Books, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Drucker, J.</hi> (2011). Humanities Approaches to Graphical Display. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>(1), 
                        <hi rend=""Definition"">http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/5/1/000091/000091.html</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Drucker, J.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Graphesis: Visual Forms of Knowledge Production</hi>. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fletcher, W. L.</hi> (2014). Atlas of the Historical Geography of the United States. http://dsl.richmond.edu/historicalatlas/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hannah, M. G.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Governmentality and the Mastery of Territory in Nineteenth-Century America</hi>. Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography 32. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jessop, M.</hi> (2008). Digital Visualization as a Scholarly Activity. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(3) (September 1): 281–93, doi:10.1093/llc/fqn016.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kinnahan, T. P.</hi> (2008). Charting Progress: Francis Amasa Walker’s Statistical Atlas of the United States and Narratives of Western Expansion. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">American Quarterly,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">60(</hi>2): 399–423, doi:10.1353/aq.0.0012.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meirelles, I.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Design for Information: An Introduction to the Histories, Theories, and Best Practices behind Effective Information Visualizations</hi>. Rockport Publishers, USA. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">‘Palladio Project’.</hi> (2014). http://hdlab.stanford.edu/projects/palladio/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Theibault, J.</hi> (2012). Visualizations and Historical Arguments [in English]. In Dougherty, J. (ed.).,
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Writing History in the Digital Age</hi>, 23 March, http://writinghistory.trincoll.edu/evidence/theibault-2012-spring/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tufte, E. R.</hi> (1983). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Visual Display of Quantitative Information</hi>. Graphics Press, Cheshire, CT.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Turner, F. J.</hi> (1894). The Significance of the Frontier in American History. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Annual Report of the American Historical Association, 1893</hi>. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, http://archive.org/details/1893annualreport00ameruoft, pp. 197–228. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2217","16","Detection of People Relationship Using Topic Model from Diaries in Medieval Period of Japan","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>Detection of People Relationship Using Topic Model from Diaries in Medieval Period of Japan</title>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Yamada</surname>
                        <forename>Taizo</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>The University of Tokyo, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>t_yamada@hi.u-tokyo.ac.jp</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Inoue</surname>
                        <forename>Satoshi</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>The University of Tokyo, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>inoue@hi.u-tokyo.ac.jp</email>
                </author>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>Japanese history</term>
                    <term>LDA</term>
                    <term>Topic model</term>
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                    <term>historical studies</term>
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            <p>Analysis of relationships between persons is an important element for historical study. Traditionally, the analysis is processed by a historical researcher manually, because reading comprehension of historical materials and historical background are needed for the analysis. However, the analysis is based on subjective judgment, and finding a relationship that is yet unknown by the analyst is difficult. Furthermore, manual analysis cannot cope with a large amount of historical materials. We consider that a method for objective and automatic analysis is required.</p>
            <p>In this study of analysis between persons, we introduce a method for detecting relationships between persons from historical materials. In the method, we detect co-occurrence for each text in historical materials as a relationship between persons. The score that indicates the co-occurrence is calculated according to the topics that are latent and hidden in the text. For the detection of the latent topic, we use LDA (Latent Dirichelt Allocation; Blei et al., 2003) as a topic model. In the study, LDA assumes that text has one or more latent topics, a topic has one or more personal names, and the topic is hidden in the text. The latent topic is calculated by personal name co-occurrence. When the latent topics are calculated, the following two output results can be obtained: relationships between texts and latent topics, and relationships between latent topics and personal names. Using LDA, a text can be shown by topic content ratio. By the process, because appearance of personal name can be indicated by allocation of the latent topics, relationship between personal names can be calculated objectively and automatically.</p>
            <p>Since LDA is required for the vector of the personal name in the study, we introduce a personal extraction method from text of historical materials. The method is which personal name can be extracted according to sequence pattern matching, because we have no dictionary for the historical personal name, and morphological analysis against text of Japanese medieval material is very difficult. The sequence pattern means string sequence, which seems to personal name appearances. We prepare training data that includes patterns of personal name and non-personal name and test the data created by random sampling from texts. We confirm test data with the training data on whether the terms extracted by the sequence pattern are personal names. When the prediction failure pattern appears, the failure pattern is added into the set of the sequence pattern in correspondence with personal name, and then pattern matching is processed again. The precision of the personal name extraction can be improved until about 0.95 by performing the feedback several times. For the pattern matching, we use SVM (Support Vector Machine). Currently SVM is one of most superior supervised learning techniques.</p>
            <p>We prototyped text search systems where a user can search text of ‘上井覚兼日記’ (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Uwaikakken nikki</hi>), which is a diary (1574–1586) from the Japanese medieval period written by ‘上井覚兼’ (Uwai kakken), who is a senior statesman of ‘島津家’ (Shimadu family) of Japan. For the historical study of Kyushu (which is a local area of Japan) or 島津家 in the medieval period, the diary is one of the important historical materials and a Japanese national treasure. The diary is held by the Historiographical Institute (HI), the University of Tokyo, and the text data is listed in the database of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Full-Text Database of the Old Japanese Diaries</hi> published by HI. In the system, a user can obtain search results by traditional text search, a personal name in the text, and a personal name related to the personal name. The system can also show a graph indicating the relationship between personal names. Due to the presentation of related personal names, the system uses the detection method of relationship between personal names. And the system uses our personal name extraction method for presentation of a personal name.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>Blei, D. M., Ng, A. Y. and Jordan, M. I. (2003). Latent Dirichlet Allocation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Machine Learning Research, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3 </hi>(March): 993–1022. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2218","16","Developing a Sustainable Model in Mutual Cultural Digital Heritage","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Nonja Ivonne</forename>
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                        <surname>Ensor</surname>
                        <forename>Jason Donald</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>j.ensor@uws.edu.au</email>
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            <p>Since 2013 the Migrant, Mobilities, and Connection project has consisted of a complementary and interlinked program of research and development between Curtin University (History of Migration Experiences, Sustainability Policy Institute, Perth), the University of Western Sydney (Digital Humanities Research Group), and the Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands (Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, The Hague). The backbone of both programs is informed by a digital framework that reconstructs the life courses of migrants through correlating data from both countries within the context of mutual cultural heritage policies and research objectives. The goal is to reconstruct a history that simultaneously intersects with Australia and the Netherlands through accessing or digitizing birth documents; death lists; shipping lists; passport requests; health clearances; alien registration; citizenship papers; school and business records; diaries and letters previously held only in state, regional, national, and international archives; consulates; and other governmental organizations. Indeed, our pilot study involves 51,525 emigration registration records from the National Archives, The Hague, which contain pre-migration demographic facts for over 180,000 Dutch emigrants over the period 1946–1982. This includes ‘hard facts’ on composition of family, dates of birth, addresses, religion, marital status, date of arrival, carriers, port of entrance, and emigration scheme, and ‘soft facts’ on profession.</p>
            <p>Migration is, by its very nature, a mutual heritage activity since all migrants leave documentary traces of their past in memory institutions from their country of origin or home, and move records of their present and future into archives and libraries of the receiving or host society. By maintaining, managing, using, and highlighting this heritage, we can foster a critical reflection on our shared pasts and acknowledge, integrate, and build awareness of the migration experience. This includes drawing attention to the right of dual belonging, the desire to find common ground and contribute to home and hostland identities, and the need to build knowledge about events that induced individuals—and refugees in particular—to leave their land. This paper will tease out the project’s progress within the context of how to best negotiate mutual heritage records in digital forms and enable access to the intersecting and interdependent histories they represent.</p>
            <p>Like any form of data migration, which conventionally involves the process of transferring data between storage types, formats, and computer systems, here we have the additional load of mapping old and new datasets into meaningful assemblages that ‘talk’ to each other. This includes not only the differences between the Australian and Dutch provenance of data but also the information that exists digitally and information that is yet to be digitized. How, for example, do we join data in the Australian domain with data in the Dutch domain, or information that is embedded in dusty community-based storage attics with names on the ‘Welcome Walls’ at the Fremantle Maritime Museum in Perth and the Australian National Maritime Museum in Sydney? We bump up against these issues because the solutions are not easy and require a step change in how we conceptualise the digital repatriation of mutual cultural heritage materials. </p>
            <p>While much digital research in the library and information field deals with the explosion of user-generated content online, which creates new challenges and opportunities for libraries as custodians of data as well as objects, our project is faced with the exact opposite issue: not the problem of struggling to decide what data to collect and document from the ever-growing content generated by new media environments, but rather the equally tremendous volume of untapped cultural heritage materials and the infeasibility of libraries to collect and save it. Furthermore, from a digital humanities research point of view and with regards to the current spatial turn, around this arises a challenge over whether the ascendance of humanities-focussed GIS mapping techniques that emphasize the stories of a place and their geo-located attachment to said places—otherwise known as sited narratives or histories—can be meaningfully utilised in the context of mutual cultural heritage, in which the human subjects carry the inheritance of two or more worlds with them throughout their life courses.</p>
            <p>Migrating People, Migrating Data</p>
            <p>This short paper is part of two interlinked short papers that discuss the archival, custodial, and digital challenges that impact the discovery, collection, preservation, and content management of material and immaterial traces from the past that the Netherlands shares with Australia. (The other short paper is ‘Ruptured Life Courses: Institutional and Cultural Influences in Transnational Contexts’ by Marijke van Faassen and Rik Hoekstra.) In partnership with key institutional and community stakeholders, our pilot study on mobility between these two countries is about developing new understandings of the experience and representation of migration and how this has shaped an evolving sense of Dutch-Australian heritage—and with it, the consequences for the formation of cultural identities. </p>
            <p>The deliberate play in the short papers’ linking theme, ‘Migrating People, Migrating Data’, is to signal the thematic content of the parent project, Migrant, Mobilities, and Connection—that is, the sociocultural material traces that append to the historical activity of people moving from one region to settle in another, in which the movement of bodies through space combines with information about their mobility through time. At the same time, it is also to signal the technical and conceptual challenges surrounding the consolidation of different data sources (both hard copy and digital) from a prior generation of technology to successive generations. For example, many Dutch community groups in both countries are actively collecting documents, artefacts, photographs, and maps to pass on to future generations. However, few have developed sustainable workflows to ensure the sustainability of their ‘collections’, and rarely are they familiar with cataloguing and metadata conventions that help describe an item’s provenance, role, and position in the world. Planning for digital preservation therefore is uneven, leading to concerns about a ‘digital gap’ in a community’s history. Mitigating the deleterious effects then of information loss and fading human recollection is an issue central to both the continued accessibility of cultural heritage materials and the digital preservation of historical knowledge beyond technology format lifetimes. </p>
            <p>Project Members</p>
            <p>Dr Nonja Peters, Curtin University and University of Western Sydney</p>
            <p>Professor Paul Arthur, University of Western Sydney</p>
            <p>Dr Marijke van Faassen, Huygens ING</p>
            <p>Dr Rik Hoekstra, Huygens ING</p>
            <p>Dr Jason Ensor, University of Western Sydney </p>
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            <p>‘What Is Digital Humanities? [. . .] NB: Refresh the page to get a new definition’.</p>
            <p>—Jason Heppler, http://www.whatisdigitalhumanities.com</p>
            <p>Answers to the question ‘What is DH?’ abound. One needs only skim several recent editions to gain a preliminary, wayfaring-like 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""29j2u26jar"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Ingold, 2007)"",""plainCitation"":""(Ingold, 2007)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":277,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/7T8VJI4S""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/7T8VJI4S""],""itemData"":{""id"":277,""type"":""book"",""title"":""Lines: A Brief History"",""publisher"":""Routledge"",""number-of-pages"":""200"",""edition"":""1"",""source"":""Amazon.com"",""ISBN"":""0415424275"",""shortTitle"":""Lines"",""author"":[{""family"":""Ingold"",""given"":""Tim""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2007"",6,16]]}}}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?> sense of the discursive horizon and its temporality (see 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""2hmomrqkm9"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Berry, 2012; Burdick, Drucker, Lunenfeld, Presner, & Schnapp, 2012; Gold, 2012; Hockney, 2004)"",""plainCitation"":""(Berry, 2012; Burdick, Drucker, Lunenfeld, Presner, & Schnapp, 2012; Gold, 2012; Hockney, 2004)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":840,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/4PT2C2BC""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/4PT2C2BC""],""itemData"":{""id"":840,""type"":""book"",""title"":""Understanding Digital Humanities"",""publisher"":""Palgrave Macmillan"",""publisher-place"":""Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire ; New York"",""number-of-pages"":""336"",""source"":""Amazon.com"",""event-place"":""Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire ; New York"",""abstract"":""The application of new computational techniques and visualisation technologies in the Arts and Humanities are resulting in fresh approaches and methodologies for the study of new and traditional corpora. This 'computational turn' takes the methods and techniques from computer science to create innovative means of close and distant reading. This book discusses the implications and applications of 'Digital Humanities' and the questions raised when using algorithmic techniques. Key researchers in the field provide a comprehensive introduction to important debates surrounding issues such as the contrast between narrative versus database, pattern-matching versus hermeneutics, and the statistical paradigm versus the data mining paradigm. Also discussed are the new forms of collaboration within the Arts and Humanities that are raised through modular research teams and new organisational structures, as well as techniques for collaborating in an interdisciplinary way."",""ISBN"":""9780230292659"",""language"":""English"",""author"":[{""family"":""Berry"",""given"":""David M.""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2012"",3,13]]}}},{""id"":838,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/NGBT8FP4""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/NGBT8FP4""],""itemData"":{""id"":838,""type"":""book"",""title"":""Digital Humanities"",""publisher"":""The MIT Press"",""publisher-place"":""Cambridge, MA"",""number-of-pages"":""152"",""source"":""Amazon.com"",""event-place"":""Cambridge, MA"",""ISBN"":""9780262018470"",""language"":""English"",""author"":[{""family"":""Burdick"",""given"":""Anne""},{""family"":""Drucker"",""given"":""Johanna""},{""family"":""Lunenfeld"",""given"":""Peter""},{""family"":""Presner"",""given"":""Todd""},{""family"":""Schnapp"",""given"":""Jeffrey""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2012"",11,16]]}}},{""id"":848,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/IBAUSE8A""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/IBAUSE8A""],""itemData"":{""id"":848,""type"":""book"",""title"":""Debates in the Digital Humanities"",""publisher"":""Univ Of Minnesota Press"",""publisher-place"":""Minneapolis"",""number-of-pages"":""504"",""source"":""Amazon.com"",""event-place"":""Minneapolis"",""abstract"":""Encompassing new technologies, research methods, and opportunities for collaborative scholarship and open-source peer review, as well as innovative ways of sharing knowledge and teaching, the digital humanities promises to transform the liberal arts—and perhaps the university itself. Indeed, at a time when many academic institutions are facing austerity budgets, digital humanities programs have been able to hire new faculty, establish new centers and initiatives, and attract multimillion-dollar grants. Clearly the digital humanities has reached a significant moment in its brief history. But what sort of moment is it? Debates in the Digital Humanities brings together leading figures in the field to explore its theories, methods, and practices and to clarify its multiple possibilities and tensions. From defining what a digital humanist is and determining whether the field has (or needs) theoretical grounding, to discussions of coding as scholarship and trends in data-driven research, this cutting-edge volume delineates the current state of the digital humanities and envisions potential futures and challenges. At the same time, several essays aim pointed critiques at the field for its lack of attention to race, gender, class, and sexuality; the inadequate level of diversity among its practitioners; its absence of political commitment; and its preference for research over teaching.Together, the essays in Debates in the Digital Humanities—which will be published both as a printed book and later as an ongoing, open-access website—suggest that the digital humanities is uniquely positioned to contribute to the revival of the humanities and academic life.Contributors: Bryan Alexander, National Institute for Technology in Liberal Education; Rafael Alvarado, U of Virginia; Jamie “Skye” Bianco, U of Pittsburgh; Ian Bogost, Georgia Institute of Technology; Stephen Brier, CUNY Graduate Center; Daniel J. Cohen, George Mason U; Cathy N. Davidson, Duke U; Rebecca Frost Davis, National Institute for Technology in Liberal Education; Johanna Drucker, U of California, Los Angeles; Amy E. Earhart, Texas A&M U; Charlie Edwards; Kathleen Fitzpatrick, Pomona College; Julia Flanders, Brown U; Neil Fraistat, U of Maryland; Paul Fyfe, Florida State U; Michael Gavin, Rice U; David Greetham, CUNY Graduate Center; Jim Groom, U of Mary Washington; Gary Hall, Coventry U, UK; Mills Kelly, George Mason U; Matthew Kirschenbaum, U of Maryland; Alan Liu, U of California, Santa Barbara; Elizabeth Losh, U of California, San Diego; Lev Manovich, U of California, San Diego; Willard McCarty, King’s College London; Tara McPherson, U of Southern California; Bethany Nowviskie, U of Virginia; Trevor Owens, Library of Congress; William Pannapacker, Hope College; Dave Parry, U of Texas at Dallas; Stephen Ramsay, U of Nebraska, Lincoln; Alexander Reid, SUNY at Buffalo; Geoffrey Rockwell, Canadian Institute for Research Computing in the Arts; Mark L. Sample, George Mason U; Tom Scheinfeldt, George Mason U; Kathleen Marie Smith; Lisa Spiro, National Institute for Technology in Liberal Education; Patrik Svensson, Umeå U; Luke Waltzer, Baruch College; Matthew Wilkens, U of Notre Dame; George H. Williams, U of South Carolina Upstate; Michael Witmore, Folger Shakespeare Library."",""ISBN"":""9780816677955"",""language"":""English"",""author"":[{""family"":""Gold"",""given"":""Matthew K.""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2012"",1,9]]}}},{""id"":830,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/7QEEGPB5""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/7QEEGPB5""],""itemData"":{""id"":830,""type"":""chapter"",""title"":""The History of Humanities Computing"",""container-title"":""A Companion to Digital Humanities"",""collection-title"":""Blackwell Companions to Literature and Culture"",""publisher"":""Blackwell Publishing Professional"",""publisher-place"":""Oxford"",""edition"":""Hardcover"",""event-place"":""Oxford"",""URL"":""http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/"",""ISBN"":""1405103213"",""author"":[{""family"":""Hockney"",""given"":""Susan""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2004"",12]]}}}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?>. In such volumes, DH as stabilized institutional entity looms in the distance of a ‘present-future’ 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""27p4e84298"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Derrida, 2006, p. 48)"",""plainCitation"":""(Derrida, 2006, p. 48)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":991,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/BCEDF8DD""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/BCEDF8DD""],""itemData"":{""id"":991,""type"":""book"",""title"":""Specters of Marx: The State of the Debt, The Work of Mourning & the New International"",""publisher"":""Routledge"",""publisher-place"":""New York; London"",""number-of-pages"":""288"",""edition"":""1 edition"",""source"":""Amazon.com"",""event-place"":""New York; London"",""abstract"":""Prodigiously influential, Jacques Derrida gave rise to a comprehensive rethinking of the basic concepts and categories of Western philosophy in the latter part of the twentieth century, with writings central to our understanding of language, meaning, identity, ethics and values. In 1993, a conference was organized around the question, 'Whither Marxism?’, and Derrida was invited to open the proceedings. His plenary address, 'Specters of Marx', delivered in two parts, forms the basis of this book. Hotly debated when it was first published, a rapidly changing world and world politics have scarcely dented the relevance of this book."",""ISBN"":""9780415389570"",""shortTitle"":""Specters of Marx"",""language"":""English"",""author"":[{""family"":""Derrida"",""given"":""Jacques""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2006"",5,1]]}},""locator"":""48""}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?>. It seems that DH scholars face a set of futures and move (multi-)linearly toward freedom from a ‘turtlenecked hairshirt’ of one form or another 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""735qfe1na"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Bogost, 2010)"",""plainCitation"":""(Bogost, 2010)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":929,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/P3XDDAAX""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/P3XDDAAX""],""itemData"":{""id"":929,""type"":""webpage"",""title"":""The Turtlenecked Hairshirt"",""container-title"":""bogost.com"",""genre"":""blog"",""abstract"":""Fetid and Fragrant Futures for the Humanities"",""URL"":""http://bogost.com/writing/blog/the_turtlenecked_hairshirt/"",""author"":[{""family"":""Bogost"",""given"":""Ian""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2010"",1,9]]},""accessed"":{""date-parts"":[[""2014"",7,25]]}}}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?>.
            </p>
            <p>Recently, however, a non-linear window has opened. Raley 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""2e4eslslj2"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Raley, 2014)"",""plainCitation"":""(Raley, 2014)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":851,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/VBTT6924""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/VBTT6924""],""itemData"":{""id"":851,""type"":""article-journal"",""title"":""Digital Humanities for the Next Five Minutes"",""container-title"":""differences"",""page"":""26-45"",""volume"":""25"",""issue"":""1"",""source"":""CrossRef"",""DOI"":""10.1215/10407391-2419991"",""ISSN"":""1040-7391, 1527-1986"",""language"":""en"",""author"":[{""family"":""Raley"",""given"":""R.""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2014"",1,1]]},""accessed"":{""date-parts"":[[""2014"",6,18]]}}}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?> frames DH as a discursive construction, as a site of potential. That is, while ‘semantic battles about the institutional identity of the digital humanities are a symptom of a discipline [. . .] fixated upon making a permanent space for itself” 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""608tgad96"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Raley, 2014, p. 40)"",""plainCitation"":""(Raley, 2014, p. 40)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":851,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/VBTT6924""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/VBTT6924""],""itemData"":{""id"":851,""type"":""article-journal"",""title"":""Digital Humanities for the Next Five Minutes"",""container-title"":""differences"",""page"":""26-45"",""volume"":""25"",""issue"":""1"",""source"":""CrossRef"",""DOI"":""10.1215/10407391-2419991"",""ISSN"":""1040-7391, 1527-1986"",""language"":""en"",""author"":[{""family"":""Raley"",""given"":""R.""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2014"",1,1]]},""accessed"":{""date-parts"":[[""2014"",6,18]]}},""locator"":""40""}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?>, DH may be productively conceived of as a troubling mediator through which scholars can imagine ‘potentials—not what is, but what might have been [. . .], as Geoffrey Rockwell suggests, “what could be”’ 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""13njiigvl7"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Raley, 2014)"",""plainCitation"":""(Raley, 2014)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":851,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/VBTT6924""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/VBTT6924""],""itemData"":{""id"":851,""type"":""article-journal"",""title"":""Digital Humanities for the Next Five Minutes"",""container-title"":""differences"",""page"":""26-45"",""volume"":""25"",""issue"":""1"",""source"":""CrossRef"",""DOI"":""10.1215/10407391-2419991"",""ISSN"":""1040-7391, 1527-1986"",""language"":""en"",""author"":[{""family"":""Raley"",""given"":""R.""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2014"",1,1]]},""accessed"":{""date-parts"":[[""2014"",6,18]]}}}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?>. Within this formulation, the present-future orientation of the DH discourse tilts.
            </p>
            <p>In this short paper, I will not attempt a concrete answer to the question ‘What is . . . ?’ Rather, grounded in my own disciplinary situation within a department of informatics, I will ask another question. By considering the temporality and materiality of the ‘digital’ as it applies to the humanities’ textual objects I ask, ‘How long is the “now” in which the potentials of DH reside?’ </p>
            <p>A Digital Discourse</p>
            <p>As Foucault 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""tiftetvea"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Foucault, 1982, p. 126)"",""plainCitation"":""(Foucault, 1982, p. 126)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":243,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/PET2ZRDK""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/PET2ZRDK""],""itemData"":{""id"":243,""type"":""book"",""title"":""The Archaeology of Knowledge & The Discourse on Language"",""publisher"":""Vintage"",""number-of-pages"":""256"",""edition"":""Reprint"",""source"":""Amazon.com"",""ISBN"":""0394711068"",""author"":[{""family"":""Foucault"",""given"":""Michel""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""1982"",9,12]]}},""locator"":""126""}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?> noted, ‘The positivity of a discourse [. . .] characterizes its unity throughout time’, but the ‘
                <hi rend=""italic"">a priori</hi> of positivities is [. . .] itself a transformable group’. It follows, then, that the durability of ‘digital’ comes into question as the violent 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""28eilcvrcj"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Derrida, 1998)"",""plainCitation"":""(Derrida, 1998)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":270,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/WSDH8NZB""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/WSDH8NZB""],""itemData"":{""id"":270,""type"":""book"",""title"":""Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression"",""publisher"":""University Of Chicago Press"",""number-of-pages"":""128"",""edition"":""1"",""source"":""Amazon.com"",""ISBN"":""0226143678"",""shortTitle"":""Archive Fever"",""author"":[{""family"":""Derrida"",""given"":""Jacques""}],""translator"":[{""family"":""Prenowitz"",""given"":""Eric""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""1998"",10,15]]}}}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?> signifier by which DH distinguishes itself from humanities; as discursive entity, it is subject to change even as it effects change. The presence of the digital modifier, a nebulous source of techno-adjectival power, sketches the uncomfortable mutation of a known category (i.e., humanities), established across hundreds of years of practice. (NB: This is closely related to Alan Liu’s notion of ‘alien’ 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""2qn75uij8l"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Liu, 2009)"",""plainCitation"":""(Liu, 2009)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":886,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/34GPU97I""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/34GPU97I""],""itemData"":{""id"":886,""type"":""article-journal"",""title"":""Digital Humanities and Academic Change"",""container-title"":""English Language Notes"",""page"":""17-35"",""volume"":""47"",""author"":[{""family"":""Liu"",""given"":""Alan""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2009""]]},""accessed"":{""date-parts"":[[""2014"",7,8]]}}}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?>]). But how far in time does a mutation reach?
            </p>
            <p>Referential clarity dissolves with the digital modifier as new textual materialities arise and exert influence not only over ‘text that might yet be’, but also texts that already are. At some point, the ‘alien’ of the digital modifier becomes resident across tenses; the digital materiality so emphasized in ‘DH’ yields a potentially pervasive change to the materiality (and therefore interactivity) of the humanities’ textual objects, the products of inscription (see 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""2ddo8cpl72"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Derrida, 1998; Flusser, 2011)"",""plainCitation"":""(Derrida, 1998; Flusser, 2011)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":270,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/WSDH8NZB""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/WSDH8NZB""],""itemData"":{""id"":270,""type"":""book"",""title"":""Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression"",""publisher"":""University Of Chicago Press"",""number-of-pages"":""128"",""edition"":""1"",""source"":""Amazon.com"",""ISBN"":""0226143678"",""shortTitle"":""Archive Fever"",""author"":[{""family"":""Derrida"",""given"":""Jacques""}],""translator"":[{""family"":""Prenowitz"",""given"":""Eric""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""1998"",10,15]]}}},{""id"":465,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/VV8XAUJH""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/VV8XAUJH""],""itemData"":{""id"":465,""type"":""book"",""title"":""Does Writing Have a Future?"",""publisher"":""Univ Of Minnesota Press"",""number-of-pages"":""208"",""source"":""Amazon.com"",""ISBN"":""0816670234"",""author"":[{""family"":""Flusser"",""given"":""Vilem""}],""translator"":[{""family"":""Roth"",""given"":""Nancy Ann""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2011"",2,24]]}}}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?>. As will be seen through a discussion of inscription, a shift toward digital textual materiality fundamentally transforms the archive of textual study 
                <hi rend=""italic"">across</hi> the tenses. In the context of digital inscription, the ‘now’ of DH extends spectrally across the ‘present-future’ and the ‘present-past’ 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""1lhtl47gap"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Derrida, 2006, p. 48)"",""plainCitation"":""(Derrida, 2006, p. 48)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":991,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/BCEDF8DD""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/BCEDF8DD""],""itemData"":{""id"":991,""type"":""book"",""title"":""Specters of Marx: The State of the Debt, The Work of Mourning & the New International"",""publisher"":""Routledge"",""publisher-place"":""New York; London"",""number-of-pages"":""288"",""edition"":""1 edition"",""source"":""Amazon.com"",""event-place"":""New York; London"",""abstract"":""Prodigiously influential, Jacques Derrida gave rise to a comprehensive rethinking of the basic concepts and categories of Western philosophy in the latter part of the twentieth century, with writings central to our understanding of language, meaning, identity, ethics and values. In 1993, a conference was organized around the question, 'Whither Marxism?’, and Derrida was invited to open the proceedings. His plenary address, 'Specters of Marx', delivered in two parts, forms the basis of this book. Hotly debated when it was first published, a rapidly changing world and world politics have scarcely dented the relevance of this book."",""ISBN"":""9780415389570"",""shortTitle"":""Specters of Marx"",""language"":""English"",""author"":[{""family"":""Derrida"",""given"":""Jacques""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2006"",5,1]]}},""locator"":""48""}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?>.
            </p>
            <p>(Digital) Inscription</p>
            <p>The etymological roots of inscription (the Latin 
                <hi rend=""italic"">scribere</hi>, to scratch) demonstrate the physicality of the mark, the intentional exertion of force upon a substrate 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""66mv333p4"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Flusser, 2011, p. 11)"",""plainCitation"":""(Flusser, 2011, p. 11)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":465,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/VV8XAUJH""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/VV8XAUJH""],""itemData"":{""id"":465,""type"":""book"",""title"":""Does Writing Have a Future?"",""publisher"":""Univ Of Minnesota Press"",""number-of-pages"":""208"",""source"":""Amazon.com"",""ISBN"":""0816670234"",""author"":[{""family"":""Flusser"",""given"":""Vilem""}],""translator"":[{""family"":""Roth"",""given"":""Nancy Ann""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2011"",2,24]]}},""locator"":""11""}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?>. Inscription results in the removal of the substrate’s embodied noise, its openness and naturally unbounded potential relations to the objects and agents of its ecology. Thus, inscription constitutes a transformation—both the transformation of object into the written-textual and the entrance of a text into the archive it partly constitutes. It represents the point at which a ‘present’ is materially embodied for future remembering, ‘readied for future use’ 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""npi566p2s"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Farge, Scott-Railton, & Davis, 2013, p. 6)"",""plainCitation"":""(Farge, Scott-Railton, & Davis, 2013, p. 6)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":662,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/MVKFHE6Q""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/MVKFHE6Q""],""itemData"":{""id"":662,""type"":""book"",""title"":""The allure of the archives"",""source"":""Open WorldCat"",""ISBN"":""9780300180213 0300180217 1299841317 9781299841314"",""language"":""English"",""author"":[{""family"":""Farge"",""given"":""Arlette""},{""family"":""Scott-Railton"",""given"":""Thomas""},{""family"":""Davis"",""given"":""Natalie Zemon""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2013""]]}},""locator"":""6""}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?>. One might further envision inscription as the precursor to textuality, to the ‘woven’ structure of interrelated inscriptions 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""1skcndlktp"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(McKenzie, 1999, p. 13)"",""plainCitation"":""(McKenzie, 1999, p. 13)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":957,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/FRTU2IBN""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/FRTU2IBN""],""itemData"":{""id"":957,""type"":""book"",""title"":""Bibliography and the Sociology of Texts"",""publisher"":""Cambridge University Press"",""publisher-place"":""Cambridge, U.K. ; New York"",""number-of-pages"":""140"",""source"":""Amazon.com"",""event-place"":""Cambridge, U.K. ; New York"",""abstract"":""D.F. McKenzie shows how the material form of texts crucially determine their meanings. He demonstrates that as works are reproduced and reread, they take on different forms and meanings. This is true of all forms of recorded information, McKenzie claims, including sound, graphics, films, landscape and new electronic media. The bibliographical skills first developed for manuscripts and books can, he shows, be applied to a wide range of cultural documents. This book offers a unifying concept of texts that seeks to acknowledge their variety and the complexity of their relationships."",""ISBN"":""9780521644952"",""language"":""English"",""author"":[{""family"":""McKenzie"",""given"":""D. F.""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""1999"",10,13]]}},""locator"":""13""}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?> in a forward-facing present tense.
            </p>
            <p>In the increasing invisibility 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""26m7lb7jqc"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Weiser, 1991)"",""plainCitation"":""(Weiser, 1991)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":938,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/PFU48JKM""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/PFU48JKM""],""itemData"":{""id"":938,""type"":""article-journal"",""title"":""The Computer for the 21st Century"",""container-title"":""Scientific American"",""page"":""94-104"",""volume"":""265"",""issue"":""3"",""source"":""www.nature.com"",""DOI"":""10.1038/scientificamerican0991-94"",""ISSN"":""0036-8733"",""language"":""en"",""author"":[{""family"":""Weiser"",""given"":""Mark""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""1991""]]},""accessed"":{""date-parts"":[[""2014"",7,31]]}}}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?> of physical inscription that occurs under the influence of the digital modifier, or indeed the presence of analogous ‘writing on’ or ‘writing upon’, wherein meaning is apparently added without the removal of substrate, such marking still connotes absence. The inscription, as either metaphor or actuality, is the marked’s categorical entrance into the archive
                <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi> The inscription is simultaneously the mark of the archive and the space in which the archive symbolically resides. It is the textuality of the humanities, whether digital or not. As such, the archive of humanities, modified by a digital transformation in the method and mode of inscription, is itself transformed. In this transformation the temporal boundaries of the DH discourse become hazy. The present tense of digital textuality colonizes the pre-digital; the epoch of ‘potential memory’ 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""1b7ggagukh"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Bowker, 2008)"",""plainCitation"":""(Bowker, 2008)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":145,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/WMPKCTBS""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/WMPKCTBS""],""itemData"":{""id"":145,""type"":""book"",""title"":""Memory Practices in the Sciences"",""publisher"":""The MIT Press"",""number-of-pages"":""280"",""source"":""Amazon.com"",""ISBN"":""0262524899"",""author"":[{""family"":""Bowker"",""given"":""Geoffrey C.""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2008"",2,15]]}}}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?> re-contextualizes extant texts bounded in pre-digital inscription; the ‘digital’ modifier troubles potential pasts as much as it does potential futures. That which has been woven in one materiality is potentially unraveled. Closed work risks openness 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""12gg6d2m65"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Eco, 1989)"",""plainCitation"":""(Eco, 1989)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":471,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/8U9Z5ZHU""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/8U9Z5ZHU""],""itemData"":{""id"":471,""type"":""book"",""title"":""The open work"",""publisher"":""Harvard University Press"",""publisher-place"":""Cambridge, Mass."",""source"":""Open WorldCat"",""event-place"":""Cambridge, Mass."",""ISBN"":""0674639758 9780674639751 0674639766 9780674639768"",""language"":""English"",""author"":[{""family"":""Eco"",""given"":""Umberto""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""1989""]]}}}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?>; woven inscription risks Barthesian fragmentation. The present-future of the digital acts upon the present-past.
            </p>
            <p>Pervasive Distance</p>
            <p>A basic tenet of philology frames the problem of temporality in digital inscription. According to McGann (2014, 44), the philological method necessitates ‘examin[ing] original materials 
                <hi rend=""italic"">in situ</hi> [. . .]. Surrogates, digital or otherwise, may serve the work at some point, but they cannot substitute for those first hand visits’. But such a statement becomes problematic when the alien becomes resident, when digital (re)inscription colonizes pre-digital inscription. When the potential invisibility of the digital renders pre-digital texts fallaciously 
                <hi rend=""italic"">always already</hi> digital, the boundaries of text, the difference between original and surrogate, blur. In the event of such a potentiality, one must ask, ‘To what extent can an interpretive knowledge product derived from analysis facilitated by digital transformation refer to anything but itself, to anything but the pervasive present of the digital modifier?’ An analysis of Moretti’s first acknowledgement of ‘distant reading’ will clarify.
            </p>
            <p>The textual-technical 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dispositifs</hi> that give rise to such methods as ‘distant reading’ render a representational metaphor that filters the texts that they are (theoretically) intended to render transparent. Moretti 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""ftu6qgei9"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Moretti, 2000)"",""plainCitation"":""(Moretti, 2000)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":1080,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/7WD7JBF3""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/7WD7JBF3""],""itemData"":{""id"":1080,""type"":""article-journal"",""title"":""Conjectures on World Literature"",""container-title"":""New Left Review"",""collection-title"":""II"",""page"":""54-68"",""issue"":""1"",""ISSN"":""0028-6060"",""journalAbbreviation"":""NLR"",""author"":[{""family"":""Moretti"",""given"":""Franco""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2000"",2]]}}}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?> calls for ‘a return to that old ambition of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Weltiliteratur</hi>’ in order to study the ‘planetary system’ of literature (54). In the move from canon to planetary system, a question of scale becomes immediately apparent. How does one move from the closeness of reading to a distant, telescopic view? The answer is scaffolding: 
            </p>
            <p>The study of world literature will somewhat have to reproduce this ‘page’—which is to say: this relationship between analysis and synthesis—for the literary field. But in this case, literary history will quickly become very different from what it is now: it will become ‘second hand’: a patchwork of other people’s research, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">without a single direct textual reading</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>(
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""2p1ppfispc"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Moretti, 2000, p. 57)"",""plainCitation"":""(Moretti, 2000, p. 57)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":1080,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/7WD7JBF3""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/7WD7JBF3""],""itemData"":{""id"":1080,""type"":""article-journal"",""title"":""Conjectures on World Literature"",""container-title"":""New Left Review"",""collection-title"":""II"",""page"":""54-68"",""issue"":""1"",""ISSN"":""0028-6060"",""journalAbbreviation"":""NLR"",""author"":[{""family"":""Moretti"",""given"":""Franco""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2000"",2]]}},""locator"":""57""}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?>)
            </p>
            <p>‘Direct textual reading’ is bypassed via scaffolding, the construction of a sociotechnical vantage from which to view the whole ‘planetary system’. The ‘planetary system’ 
                <hi rend=""italic"">becomes</hi> text by way of digital re-inscription. The scaffolding provides the context for knowledge production by way of extending the now-resident digital alien of DH to pre-digital texts. But the scaffolding is more than just context; it is the context 
                <hi rend=""italic"">and </hi>the knowledge produced, an artificial hypotext referring to itself through the spectrality of digital inscription. It is the sociotechnical assemblage by which linearity can be assigned to ‘a device, a trope, a limited narrative unit’ 
                <?biblio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {""citationID"":""1t8qmi2b5d"",""properties"":{""formattedCitation"":""(Moretti, 2000, p. 61)"",""plainCitation"":""(Moretti, 2000, p. 61)""},""citationItems"":[{""id"":1080,""uris"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/7WD7JBF3""],""uri"":[""http://zotero.org/users/390303/items/7WD7JBF3""],""itemData"":{""id"":1080,""type"":""article-journal"",""title"":""Conjectures on World Literature"",""container-title"":""New Left Review"",""collection-title"":""II"",""page"":""54-68"",""issue"":""1"",""ISSN"":""0028-6060"",""journalAbbreviation"":""NLR"",""author"":[{""family"":""Moretti"",""given"":""Franco""}],""issued"":{""date-parts"":[[""2000"",2]]}},""locator"":""61""}],""schema"":""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json""} ?>, but an assemblage that bears an a priori relationship to the otherly inscribed texts it analyzes. It has only itself as its object of study and must methodologically account for itself.
            </p>
            <p>A digital method like distant reading must interpret itself; it is the contemporary tendency to rely on the prima facie validity of pervasive, computerized, and disembodied representationalism that lurks behind the knowledge productive phenomena of DH (and big data) that deserves interpretation. Moreover, it is in this growing invisibility of the digital that Foucault’s historical a priori of the inscribed humanities archive becomes a 
                <hi rend=""italic"">pervasive a priori</hi>: an artificial and invisible scaffolding presenting with the appearance of an ‘always already’ materiality that retroactively transforms the archival materialities of the past.
            </p>
            <p> In order to approach the question of the ‘now’ in which DH potentials reside, one must first reflexively interpret DH itself. The emergence of DH represents an opportunity to read the potentials of the digital, not to merely read digitally—to critique through a process of abduction the potential development of a pervasive a priori. In considering DH as discursive site of potentials as Raley (2014) suggests, one begins to see unexpected implications of the ‘digital’ modifier for the analysis of cultural objects across time. The future of ‘digital’ in the humanities is of great consequence to the past.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
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    </text>
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                <title>Digital Corpus and Toolset for Performing Text Analysis on Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures</title>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hung</surname>
                        <forename>Jen-Jou</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Dharma Drum Institute of Liberal Arts, Taiwan, Republic of China</affiliation>
                    <email>jenjou.hung@gmail.com</email>
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            <p>The success of Buddhism in China can be partly attributed to the great number of texts translated from Indian languages during the Eastern Han dynasty to the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE). The vast amount of Buddhist texts that were translated from both Sanskrit and other Indian languages between the 2nd and the 11th centuries not only had a far-reaching cultural impact on Chinese society but also made itself felt on Chinese language in terms of syntactic and lexical patterns of change. </p>
            <p>Over the years, scholars have leveraged traditional text-critical methods to research language change in Chinese as evinced in the corpus of Buddhist texts. Philologists have investigated doctrinal, literary, and linguistic aspects in order to ascertain the authorship, dating, authenticity, and so forth of these texts. It has been found that many of the authorship or translatorship attributions of early Chinese sutras are unreliable. </p>
            <p>Traditional philology has its limits, however, and the advantages of qualitative, computational approaches to the analysis of Buddhist texts are increasingly explored. Digital philology as a branch of the digital humanities, with its application to Buddhist materials, stands to open new horizons for research. For European languages, text analysis has been a very successful field. As for Chinese Buddhist texts, a digital version of the Taishō edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon is freely available through the efforts of the Chinese Buddhist Electronic Texts Association (CBETA). The availability of such a corpus in digital form enables researchers to apply statistical methods or artificial intelligence algorithms to text analysis. However, this type of research is only rarely applied to the study of Chinese Buddhist texts. We believe there are two main issues behind the present under-exploitation of these resources.</p>
            <p>First, the design of the CBETA XML markup is mainly aimed at providing a correct and comfortable display of the text on the computer screen rather than preparing the text for future possible uses for the sake of quantitative analysis. Second, the performance of quantitative analysis on digital texts still requires high-level skills in computer programming and advanced statistical knowledge, which creates a high barrier for scholars in the humanities who are now attempting to navigate these tools. In order to assist researchers we develop various resources for the computational analysis of the CBETA corpus. The main tasks include:</p>
            <p>1. Creation of a ‘text-analysis friendly’ version of the CBETA corpus.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> This dataset has following features:
            </p>
            <p> • The markup is compliant with TEI P5.</p>
            <p> • All information that is not critical for corpus analysis has been taken out—e.g., critical apparatus, markup of menu items, etc.</p>
            <p> • The representation of text structures has been simplified and unified; only the &lt;div&gt; element with ‘type’ attribute is allowed for representing the text structure.</p>
            <p> • Each textual block is wrapped with an &lt;ab&gt; element with a type attribute, which is used to distinguish text block with different types (prose, verse . . .). </p>
            <p> • Every non-Unicode character is assigned a unique code point in the Unicode private-use area (‘undisplayable’ is not a good category; you can display everything, of course).</p>
            <p>2. As an alternative to the XML format, we created the N-gram statistic dataset.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> The dataset is generated by transforming the XML file into plain text format and removing all punctuation from the text. Then the long text strings are cut with fixed lengths to generate n-grams, and the occurrences of each gram are calculated. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.51cm"" height=""6.715125cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>3. We developed an online tool called the ‘Buddha N-gram Viewer’.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> This tool allows users to visualize the overtime occurrences of phrases in Chinese Buddhist texts. It also provides detailed lists of the matches of phrases in the text, which enables the researcher to trace the text back to the original source and look it up there.
            </p>
            <p>Figure 1. Occurrences of ‘Thus have I heard’ as ‘如是我聞’ and ‘聞如是’ in the Buddha N-gram Viewer.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""8.6995cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>Figure 2. Nirvana as ‘泥洹’ and ‘涅槃’ in the third fascicle of the 長阿含經 (the Chinese translation of the Dīrgha-āgama; T 1).</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""Footnote"">1. The dataset is available at https://github.com/ddbc/CBETA_TAFxml.</p>
            <p rend=""Footnote"">2. The dataset is available at https://github.com/ddbc/CBETA-ngram.</p>
            <p rend=""Footnote"">3. The tool is available at http://dev.ddbc.edu.tw/BuddhaNgramViewer/.</p>
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                    <affiliation>Institute for Advanced Technology and Public Policy, California Polythechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, United States of America</affiliation>
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                        <surname>Prinzivalli</surname>
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                        <surname>Durst</surname>
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            <p>One would think in one of the most advanced industrialized countries in the world, in the state most renowned for technological innovation, an average citizen can easily find out what was said in a public session by his or her elected representative. Surprisingly this is not the case in California in 2014. In the California State Legislature, important legislative decisions on pending bills occur in committee hearings. The videos of these hearings are publicly available,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> but California is one of the many US states that do not transcribe or close-caption them. The committee hearings contain a treasure trove of information,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> but it takes extraordinary time and effort to find relevant information in the hours upon hours of raw, untranscribed, and unindexed footage. The ability to access and search transcripts of legislative committee hearings is a great resource for political insiders, media, government watchdog organizations, and interested citizens. It is one way to enable public accountability of elected officials (as well as government officials and lobbyists participating in the hearings) for the things they said at these hearings, and, more importantly, for the effects of the hearings on the state’s legislation. 
            </p>
            <p>We present our contribution to government transparency: the Digital Democracy (DD) platform. The goal of the project is to provide automated, inexpensive, timely, accurate, and informative knowledge extracted from legislative hearing sessions. </p>
            <p>The Digital Democracy System Design </p>
            <p>The Digital Democracy platform obtains data about the legislative committee hearings: the video archives, the information about the state legislature, and so on. Figure 1 shows the design of the DD system. The main source of information for the DD platform is the Cal Channel
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> video archive of legislative sessions, a service provided courtesy of cable TV companies that operate in California. In addition, the DD platform obtains information on the nature of legislative sessions (bills, legislators, committees), political contributions, registered lobbyists, and financial disclosures from a variety of existing online databases provided by the state of California or by good government organizations. The information is stored in the Digital Democracy database (DDDB), from which it is delivered to the end users and used for analytical tasks.
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                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""13.837708333333333cm"" height=""5.3445833333333335cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>Figure 1. Digital Democracy system architecture. </p>
            <p>Access to the information and the knowledge stored in the DD database is provided through a variety of means. The beta version of the DD platform uses a web portal
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> as the means of accessing the data and interacting with the system. Mobile applications and social media plugins, complete with alerting mechanisms, are planned for the future. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Users and Use Cases </hi>
            </p>
            <p>We consider three core categories of users of the platform: (a) individual citizens, interested in legislative affairs; (b) media and watchdog organizations observing and covering legislative sessions; and (c) legislators and their staff. For the first category of users, the key use case is the ability to find all committee hearings associated with a specific bill, watch the hearings and read transcripts, and search for the things a specific lawmaker (e.g., representing their district) said in those hearings. The second group of users is interested in searching the database for specific topics and being able to listen to and watch the portions of committee hearings related to the topics of their interest. Finally, the third category of users wants to use the DD platform to find specific moments during committee hearings where important decisions were made or important words were said. </p>
            <p>The Beta Site</p>
            <p>In 2014 we piloted the beta site
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> for the project. The site provided the basic navigation and search functionality for a collection of California legislative committee hearings from the 2013–2014 session. Users could search hearing transcripts, browse hearings and bills discussed at them, and look up information about the hearing participants. Screenshots of the beta site depicting results of the hearing transcript search and a hearing page are shown in Figure 2. 
            </p>
            <p>Evaluation</p>
            <p>We conducted a beta test of the Digital Democracy site from March to July of 2014. The beta testers (public officials, their staffers, journalists, political activists) had access to about 30 committee hearings, primarily devoted to the discussion of California’s state budget. Tables 1, 2, and 3 and Figure 3 summarize the results of the beta test.</p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>The Digital Democracy platform is a research and reporting tool providing popular access to an aspect of the political discourse that was hitherto not available. We find that Digital Democracy is well received and useful, but has the potential to be much more. As we continue building the new features for our upcoming releases, we take into consideration the additional recommendations and feedback we receive from our beta testers.</p>
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                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Do you feel that the ability to search legislative hearing videos using the Digital Democracy tool would be useful?</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">If you were able to search and clip a video to share on social media, would you find this feature useful?</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">If you were able to run analytics to identify trends in speaker statements, speaker interactions, voting records, and donor data, would you find this feature useful?</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">During the beta test, did you find the Digital Democracy site easy to navigate?</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">During the beta test, did you ever have problems with the video not playing correctly?</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">YES</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">27</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">23</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">24</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">23</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">3</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">NO</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">6</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">3</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">5</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">23</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">NO RESPONSE</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">2</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">3</cell>
                </row>
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            <p>Table 1. Tester feedback on usefulness of Digital Democracy features and potential features.</p>
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            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""8.269111111111112cm"" height=""6.291791666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
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            <p>Figure 2. Screenshots of the Digital Democracy beta site.</p>
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                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Searching Keywords in Transcripts</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Searching Speakers</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Searching Issues/Topics</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">More Complex Analytical Searches</cell>
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                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">EXTREMELY USEFUL</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">22</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">20</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">19</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">13</cell>
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                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">5</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">7</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">6</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">11</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">NOT USEFUL</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">2</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">2</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">2</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">3</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">NO RESPONSE</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">2</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">2</cell>
                </row>
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            <p>Table 2. Tester feedback on usefulness of search functionality.</p>
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                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""11.281833333333333cm"" height=""6.261805555555555cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
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            <p>Figure 3. How users would use Digital Democracy data.</p>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">In Free-Form Feedback</hi>
                    </cell>
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                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">8</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">‘This looks to be an extremely useful tool. I thought the site was easy to navigate and the links to video and text were seamless and really helpful’</hi>.
                    </cell>
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                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Suggested an Improvement</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">7</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">‘
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">Creating an alphabet list, at the top of the “browse speakers” feature in addition to the already present features, would allow for ease if searching by speaker’</hi>.
                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Wanted to See More</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">7</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">‘I 
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">think this is a great start for a test. Look forward to seeing it grow with the inclusion of other subject areas (ie. energy, transportation, justice system, etc).’</hi>
                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Had Difficulties</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">2</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">‘
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">Actually, the site never loaded at all. I could not give any real assessment as a result. But I would very much be interested in this kind of material being available and searchable’</hi>.
                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Wanted to Collaborate</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">‘
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">Would be interested in discussing how we integrate our services’</hi>.
                    </cell>
                </row>
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            <p>Table 3. Types of user feedback in free-form responses. </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>. http://www.calchannel.com/recentarchive/.</p>
            <p>2. As evidenced by the firsthand experience of the first author, who served in both the California State Assembly and the California State Senate.</p>
            <p>3. http://www.calchannel.com.</p>
            <p>4. http://www.digitaldemocracy.org.</p>
            <p>5. http://www.digitaldemocracy.org.</p>
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                    <affiliation>Dunhuang Academy, Dunhuang, China</affiliation>
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                        <surname>Wang</surname>
                        <forename>Eugene</forename>
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                        <surname>Downie</surname>
                        <forename>J. Stephen</forename>
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            <p>We are proposing a panel consisting of four panelists with complementary professional and scholarly expertise to create a forum to engage with the digital humanities community concerning the unique resources being created as part of the Digital Dunhuang project. The Mogao Caves at Dunhuang, a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site, are a splendid treasure house of art from ancient China (Fan, 2004; Fan and Yongzeng, 2007). Digital Dunhuang, an ongoing project funded by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation under the auspices of the Dunhuang Academy, is creating a permanent digital archive and content delivery system for all caves and murals at the Dunhuang site. It incorporates existing and future digitization work into a powerful platform for digital asset management, digital preservation, and delivery of multi-terabytes of content. This panel session will encourage as much audience participation as possible to initiate an ongoing and vibrant dialogue with digital humanists in order to plan future developmental pathways for the Digital Dunhuang project. The ‘Real Dunhuang’ aspect of our panel title is intended to emphasize the fact that the Digital Dunhuang project incorporates much more than text as it strives to digitally capture, preserve, and then share the physical realities of the Dunhuang Caves and their cultural heritage treasures. The panelists, their affiliations, and their topics are listed below.</p>
            <p>Presentations</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">1. Introducing the ‘Real’ Dunhuang and the Digital Dunhuang Project</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Jian Wu, Dunhuang Academy</p>
            <p>Dunhuang was a centre of commerce along the Silk Road in ancient times. During the 1,000 years after AD 366, with the spread of Buddhism, Buddhists including monastics, the rich and the powerful, as well as ordinary people, with the help of master painters, constructed the famous artworks of the Mogao Caves at Dunhuang. In 1987 the Mogao Caves became one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The Mogao Caves contain large numbers of masterpieces of Buddhist art spanning a period of 1,000 years and covering a variety of genres. Currently there are 735 existing caves, 492 of which house about 45,000 square meters of murals. There are also more than 2,000 sculptures at the Mogao Caves. The unique artistic style of Dunhuang art is not only the amalgamation of Han Chinese artistic tradition and styles assimilated from ancient Indian and Gandharan customs but also an integration of the arts of the Turks, ancient Tibetans, and other Chinese ethnic minorities. As evidence of the evolution of Buddhist art in China, as well as historical records of artistic exchanges between China, Central Asia, and India, the Mogao Caves are of unmatched historical value and provide invaluable reference for studying the complex art history of ancient China and the world.</p>
            <p>The relatively dry climate in and surrounding Dunhuang contributes a lot to the preservation of the Mogao Caves. However, damage has been caused to murals and sculptures due to the special nature of rock caves, the special materials used in painting murals, as well as other factors such as erosion, infiltration of rain, seasonal floods, and earthquakes. Some of the damage is even devastating. With the development of local tourism, more and more tourists are entering the caves, which makes protecting the caves even more challenging.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">2. Digital Dunhuang: Digitally Capturing, Preserving, and Enhancing Real Dunhuang</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Peter Zhou, University of California, Berkeley</p>
            <p>Dunhuang Academy has been devoted to the protection of the Mogao Caves since its founding in 1944 (originally called the Dunhuang Art Research Institute). The protection measures since the 1990s include slowing down the degeneration of murals with a variety of protection techniques, as well as looking for digital tools to preserve the caves. With support from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, Dunhuang Academy is currently undertaking the Digital Dunhuang project with cooperation from home and abroad. We are working on digitizing the three-dimensional structures of murals, sculptures, and caves of all the 492 caves, and also working on constructing a digital database of the Mogao Caves resources. The Digital Dunhuang project not only enables permanent preservation of the significant cultural heritage but also provides a platform of sharing it with a larger audience, including scholars all over the world, which will definitely have a profound influence (Zhou, 2011).</p>
            <p>Digital Dunhuang has called on the expertise of a number of institutions over the years, including the Dunhuang Academy, Zhejiang University, the Getty Conservation Institute, and Northwestern University, to name just a few (Lu, 2011; Xu et al., 2011). Compared with other digital humanities projects such as the International Dunhuang Project: The Silk Road Online (IDP; http://idp.bl.uk/), which is a consortium of linked digital collections of primarily Dunhuang manuscripts on the Internet, Digital Dunhuang is a multi-faceted platform for current and future content development, providing long-term preservation of large files of varying format, whether textual or representational (images), pertaining to either conservation or archaeological work carried out at the site and related records, and delivering high-resolution images and a virtual museum experience to the users around the world (Kenderdine, 2013).</p>
            <p>2.1 A Growing World-Class Digital Humanities Resource</p>
            <p>Over 400 caves are to be photographed (including individual and stitched images), and the Digital Dunhuang database is designed to incorporate a wide range of data types (Wu, 2011). These include complete archeological and conservation data and files, documentation for a large number of artifacts, Dunhuang manuscripts, and scholarly publications. The ultimate goal of Digital Dunhuang is to store the totality as well as minutia of the Dunhuang Caves’ digital content; preserve those digital surrogates, reconstructions, files, and digital assets perpetually; and provide a research platform for digital humanities scholarship (Tadic and Zhou, 2012). The size and scope of the project are quite significant. Some exemplary statistics include the following:</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • 92 caves already photographed (with approximately 400 more to go).</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • 14,000 square meters of murals captured.</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • 600,000 raw images.</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • 70 terabytes of data.</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • 87 caves with complete QuickTime Virtual Reality.</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • 42,000 negatives scanned.</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • 20 years of climate monitoring data on 87 caves.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""9.246305555555555cm"" height=""13.945305555555555cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Dunhuang scientists preparing to digitally scan cave for 3D modelling.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">3. Explicating the Potentials of Digital Dunhuang on Scholarship and Teaching</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Eugene Wang, Harvard University</p>
            <p>In-depth research of the Dunhuang Caves requires sustained and long-term immersion in caves. Humidity control in the caves and other conservation concerns make it unlikely for the caves to be infinitely available for unlimited access. Thus, the project makes a significant contribution to scholarship and education by making the caves available in a time-independent manner both for current and future scholars and students. Furthermore, unlike scroll paintings, the murals and sculptures in the Dunhuang Caves are deeply embedded in the visual program, encompassing all the walls and ceilings of the caves. Reproductions on printed pages never quite convey or deliver the complex spatial orientation and inter-relatedness of wall paintings. The Digital Dunhuang project is making it possible to create a truly immersive experience of the Dunhuang Caves. Mapping digital files of murals onto the spatial grid of a cave creates a reconstituted digital cave that allows the viewer to enter and contemplate the murals in their intended spatial orientation. Moreover, high-definition scans of murals enable students of the Dunhuang Caves to scrutinize details in physically inaccessible spots that even a real-time viewer in the cave cannot see clearly.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""15.14475cm"" height=""15.120055555555556cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Example 3D rendering of cave interior paintings.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">4. Enhancing the Impact of Digital Dunhuang on Digital Humanities Scholarship</hi>
            </p>
            <p>J. Stephen Downie, University of Illinois</p>
            <p>The Digital Dunhuang project has the potential to reinvigorate and reconceptualize Dunhuang and Silk Road scholarship. However, notwithstanding the growing domestic and international interest in Dunhuang remains, there is a noticeable lack of an integrated system to incorporate all content for perpetual curation and preservation for Dunhuang research, both in and outside of China. A range of scholarly projects in recent years have explored different aspects of the Dunhuang artifacts, and the Digital Dunhuang project is now exploring mechanisms by which to unite them with its ongoing digitization work. Both Open Annotation Collaboration (http://www.openannotation.org) (van Hooland and Verbough, 2014) and Linked Open Data (http://linkedata.org or http://lodlam.net) (Cole et al., 2013) as possible incorporation technologies. The project is also exploring a range of data curation practices and options to ensure that its data remain usable and accessible in perpetuity. Because many options are available to help integrate and curate data resources related to Dunhuang studies, the Digital Dunhuang project hopes to use the opportunity of this proposed panel to solicit the advice and expertise of the panel participants. In this way, the Digital Dunhuang project can better meet the needs of the digital humanities community.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cole, T. W., Gerber, A., Sanderson, R. and Smith, J.</hi> (2013). Using Open Annotation. In
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts</hi>. Lincoln, NE: Center for Digital Research in the Humanities, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, pp. 11–13, http://dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/workshops-003.html
                        <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fan, J.</hi> (ed.). (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">World Cultural Heritage: Dunhuang Grottoes</hi>. China Travel and Tourism Press, Beijing.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fan, J. and Yongzeng, L.</hi> (eds). (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Appreciation of Dunhuang Grottoes</hi>. Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House, Nanjing.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kenderdine, S.</hi> (2013). ‘Pure Land’: Inhabiting the Mogao Caves at Dunhuang. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Curator: The Museum Journal, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">56</hi>: 199–218, doi:10.1111/cura.12020.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lu, D.</hi> (2011). The Research and Application of Conservation and Utilization in Mogao Grottoes Aided by Computer: Exploration and Practice. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the International Conference on Cultural Heritages and Digitization</hi>. Dunhuang: Dunhuang Academy, pp. 12–27.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tadic, L. and Zhou, P.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Dunhuang: A Repository System of Dunhuang Murals and Digital Resources: Functional Requirements.</hi> Dunhuang: Dunhuang Academy.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Hooland, S. and Verbough, R.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Linked Data for Libraries, Archives and Museums: How to Clean, Link and Publish Your Metadata</hi>. Facet Publishing, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wu, J.</hi> (2011). Dunhuang Captured in Images: New Visual Dunhuang Created with Scientific and Artistic Technologies. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the International Conference on Cultural Heritages and Digitization</hi>. Dunhuang: Dunhuang Academy, pp. 28–34. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Xu, L., et al.</hi> (2011). Reconstruction of Spatial Information of Mogao Grottoes Mural Image Based on Laser Point Cloud. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the International Conference on Cultural Heritages and Digitization</hi>. Dunhuang: Dunhuang Academy, pp. 270–82.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zhou, P.</hi> (2011). The Development of a Repository System of Dunhuang Murals and Digital Resources for Dunhuang Studies. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the International Conference on Cultural Heritages and Digitization</hi>. Dunhuang: Dunhuang Academy, pp. 317–23.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2223","16","Digital Evidence in the Jury Room: the Impact of Tablets on Communication and Decision","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
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                        <surname>Gelb</surname>
                        <forename>Karen</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
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            <p>One of the most onerous responsibilities a citizen may have to perform is jury duty: listening in silence to days, even months, of people talking at you, then trying to reach an unanimous decision with a group of strangers. This task violates the normal rules of communication: the decision-makers do not engage with the speaker; they are forbidden from any form of personal enquiry; rather than being experts they are chosen precisely because they have no knowledge of the subject; and further, confronted with a confusing set of facts, they are expected to make a simple decision. </p>
            <p>Into this complicated communication task enters digital evidence. Criminal trials that were once characterised by oral testimony in the form of eyewitness statements and confessions now include displays of scientific diagrams, photographs, interview transcripts, witness statements, intercepted phone calls, and video evidence. For more complex trials, courts typically give jurors a DVD containing some of this evidence to take into the jury room. The next step in the process of digital transformation, under active consideration by courts, is giving jurors individual copies of digital evidence on a tablet. </p>
            <p>Having information on a tablet may improve both individual and group processes. For individual jurors, technological aids can prompt juror memory, and enhance comprehension and engagement; for the jury as a whole it may improve the thoroughness of the deliberation. Providing each juror with his or her own copy of the evidence may encourage critical discussion and healthy debate among jurors, which in turn can challenge prejudices and lead to fairer outcomes. Combining oral discussion with visual display could produce the jury with an efficient way of managing cognitive load. Alternatively, giving jurors tablets could increase prejudice against the accused, undermining the right to a fair trial, making visually memorable images more significant, and inhibiting the free flow of debate as individual jurors are diverted from their collective task. Because courts have been unsure which of these two scenarios is more likely, there has been some hesitation about giving jurors tablets. Empirical research will therefore assist in making the relevant policy decisions.</p>
            <p>This paper reports on an experimental study at the University of Queensland using 106 mock jurors and a written scenario, with six-person juries deliberating for 15 to 30 minutes with visual evidence provided to them either on paper or iPads. The study shows that jurors who deliberated with iPads were significantly more likely to find the accused guilty than those who deliberated with paper. Before deliberation both groups had virtually identical conviction levels, but after deliberation the ‘paper’ group had shifted twice as far as the ‘iPad’ group. Explanations for this include undue weight given to prosecution evidence amongst the tablet users, less attention to group processes, greater willingness to disagree, and less pressure to reach a compromise. The paper reports on a subsequent, more elaborate study with an expanded scenario and evidence list, plus collaboration software that allows the jurors to post images to a shared screen in the jury room. Collaboration technologies are of considerable interest to digital humanities scholars. This study tests how a one-to-many display facilitates collaboration in the highly constrained jury deliberation process. These constraints include deliberating as a single group, complying with judicial directions about the weight to be given to different pieces of evidence, and chairing of discussion by a single foreperson. </p>
            <p>The study is funded by the Canadian Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council as part of the Cyberjustice consortium based at the University of Montreal and headed by Karim Benyekhlef. The study has been developed by a team including David Tait (Digital Humanities Group, University of Western Sydney), Christian Licoppe (Paris Tech), Meredith Rossner (LSE), and Blake McKimmie (University of Queensland). The cyberjustice consortium brings together scholars from several countries with an interest in the impacts of emerging technologies on justice processes. </p>
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"2224","16","Digital Humanities as Catalyst for Digital Art History: The Slade Archive Project","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <affiliation>University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>m.terras@ucl.ac.uk</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Bruchet</surname>
                        <forename>Liz</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>l.bruchet@ucl.ac.uk</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Malik</surname>
                        <forename>Amna</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>amna.malik@ucl.ac.uk</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Collins</surname>
                        <forename>Susan</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>sladedirector@ucl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Beavan</surname>
                        <forename>David</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>d.beavan@ucl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Volley</surname>
                        <forename>Jo</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>j.volley@ucl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Giacometti</surname>
                        <forename>Alejandro</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>King's College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>alejandro.giacometti@kcl.ac.uk</email>
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            <p>The Slade School of Fine Art,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> an internationally leading art school based at University College London, has an intriguing but underused archive relating to students and staff, and their teaching, artworks, and experiences. The Slade Archive Project, jointly undertaken by the Slade and UCL Centre for Digital Humanities,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> is an interdisciplinary, highly iterative, exploratory research collaboration, investigating how digital tools and techniques can open up the archive to the public and increase engagement with its contents. We demonstrate that collaborative work with a centre for digital humanities informs and enhances the use and understanding of digital methods available to art historians—a field that has not, to date, made much use of computational research methods—and encourages and supports new archival research methods. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">The Slade and Its Archive</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Since 1871 the Slade School of Fine Art has educated and trained generations of world-renowned artists.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> The Slade has an extensive archive, including papers, photographs, class lists, student records, audio recordings, films, prospectuses, death masks, and other artefacts, providing rich evidence of the culture and activities of the college. However, this archive is difficult to access, and no attempt has been made to present it to a wider audience. Over time, the archive has been consolidated and dispersed across the university, with records now held by UCL Art Museum,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> UCL Records Office,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> UCL Library Special Collections,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> and within the art school itself. Cataloguing is incomplete, and the documentation systems are not interoperable. 
            </p>
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            <p>Figure 1. The main body of the Slade Archive, held at UCL.</p>
            <p>The art school is both the context and the subject of the archive: any project derived from this archive will be, at least in part, art historical in nature. However, the archive is also of great interest to alumni, family historians, filmmakers, and authors who request access and want to contribute because of an interest in the personal histories 
                <hi rend=""italic"">beyond </hi>their conventional scholarly value. In this complex web of priorities, interdependencies, and responsibilities, digital technologies can provide the means to engage with archival content in unprecedented ways. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Digital Humanities and Art History</hi>
            </p>
            <p>There has been curiously little research that applies digital methods within an art historical context (beyond simple digitisation of collections). Although scholars are starting to question the relationship of digital methods to art history (Rodriguez Ortega, 2013) and are exploring new tools (Rodriguez et al., 2012), these are not yet embedded into art historical methods. The John Paul Getty Trust has been urging art historians to utilize more digital technologies (Dobrzynski, 2014), but it has been suggested that the digital needs of art historians can be successfully met only through the work of many support organizations (Long and Schonfeld, 2014): we have undertaken to do this in the Slade Archive Project, which is inherently collaborative. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">The Slade Archive Project as Digital Humanities Collaboration</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The Slade Archive Project was launched in summer 2012 as a joint initiative driven by a shared curiosity of what could be done with the unique archive materials within the digital space. At the outset, our small team
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi> working from different areas of specialization had yet to learn what the archive even held. The project was conceived as a flexible and collaborative frame under which various sub-projects could be developed, driven by the specific research interests of those working at the Slade and the wider university, and by available resources or discreet funding opportunities. UCL’s provision of seed funds
                <hi rend=""superscript"">8</hi> for the initial scoping study of the archive gave us permission to work speculatively, to explore the archive in part by testing ways in which we might activate it, and the consequences and opportunities of doing so. 
            </p>
            <p>Framing the project as a digital humanities one opened up access to resources maintained by UCL Centre for Digital Humanities (such as the multi-modal digitisation suite
                <hi rend=""superscript"">9</hi>), gave access to institutional infrastructure for setting up and maintaining digital projects, and allowed us to embed activities in teaching delivered as part of the MA/MSc in digital humanities.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">10</hi> Digital activities across the life span of the project are many and varied, and have included establishing a digital presence for the archive
                <hi rend=""superscript"">11</hi> (branding, hosting, and guiding social media activities to encourage public engagement), crowdsourcing the identification of individuals within annual class photographs
                <hi rend=""superscript"">12</hi> (prototyping a platform to allow the identification of individuals within digitised historical photographs), publishing archived oral history interviews
                <hi rend=""superscript"">13</hi> (providing guidance on digitisation), and mapping the diaspora of Slade students (using GIS to geographically plot their career pathways). 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""8.320263888888888cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. We digitised a selection of Slade class photographs and, using our own prototype face recognition and crowdsourcing software created by using cheap, off-the-shelf tools,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">14</hi> asked alumni to help us identify individuals. Visitors to the website can also add comments and add their recollections, and draw connections between students, tutors, and their historical context. 
            </p>
            <p>Another subproject is the Transnational Slade project
                <hi rend=""superscript"">15</hi> in which we identify international students who studied at the Slade in the 1950s, in order to trace the impact they went on to have internationally after graduation. The 1950s were a key period of change between Britain and its former colonial territories, and art historically it was a time when modernism began to enter the work of artists who would play a more visible role in the Independence movements of their countries in South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East (Dadi, 2010; Enwezor and Achebe, 2001). Yet how art school education has affected the history of art in different parts of the world has not been fully explored. We again used crowdsourcing identification of those within archival photos and gathered input on encounters, memories, and understandings of both the context of the Slade in the 1950s and the international students who were in attendance. This research has already resulted in new art historical understandings: we now know that approximately 10% of students at the Slade during the 1950s came from outside the United Kingdom, which shows how important international students were to its culture and the resulting diaspora. The online audience engaging with this aspect of our project have provided new accounts, information, and archival material that have helped us understand further the Slade’s role in international art contexts, particularly in Sudan and Pakistan. 
            </p>
            <p>In undertaking this research through the public dissemination, display, and crowdsourcing of otherwise dispersed and inaccessible archives, we are, as curator Matthew Teitelbaum wrote in 1996, ‘learning in public’ (40). As tasks and roles once associated with different professional and disciplinary arenas overlap, our range of activities have expanded beyond the familiar art historical activities of researching in and extracting from the archive, to encompass the collaborative, digitally iterative, and publicly situated work of ‘enabling, making public, educating, analysing, criticizing, theorizing, editing, and staging’ (Weski et al., 2012, 8). The digital aspects of the project provided the means to approach, refine, and choose ways in which to interrogate and understand the nature of the archive, whilst challenging conventional epistemological and disciplinary frames as it brings methods, practices, and theories together in new configurations (Cook, 1997). </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Conclusion</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The Slade Archive Project, as well as enabling us to explore what digital technologies can do to support, encourage, and expand research and outreach activities centred around a world-leading art school’s archive, allows us to conceptually rethink the remit and scope of such archival projects, and the role that digital humanities centres have in fostering and exploring new research techniques within traditional humanities disciplines. Involving digital humanities in this essentially art historical pursuit enabled us to articulate questions that incorporate disciplinary concerns (for instance, the writing of art historical narratives, or the validity of our crowdsourcing efforts), alongside questions of how the archive not only 
                <hi rend=""italic"">connects </hi>people, but how people connect and contribute to the archive, and by extension, to our scholarly pursuits. The Slade Archive Project is, then, a practical example of the collaborative endeavour necessary to embed digital methods in art history research, as described hopefully by Long and Schonfeld (2014), and demonstrates the role that a digital humanities centre can have in helping colleagues exploring different aspects of their research. Employing the staff, expertise, and resources of a digital humanities centre does not suggest the need for some overarching authoritative digital humanities role to override the knowledge of archivists, curators, artists, and art historians. Rather it asks if and how the integration of digital humanities methods into the art historical landscape might add to our already rich disciplinary toolkit, and remind us of what we already know from our respective practices, in order to assist us in critically navigating our project together, where new convergences of the museum, the academy, the library, the archive, and the digitised spaces between continue to form new configurations of risk and opportunity in art historical research. 
            </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/slade.</p>
            <p>2. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh.</p>
            <p>3. Famous alumni include Gwen and Augustus John, Stanley Spencer, and Ben Nicholson around the turn of the 20th century and early 1900s; Richard Hamilton and Eduardo Paolozzi in the 1940s; and Derek Jarman, Paula Rego, Euan Uglow, and Craigie Aitchison in the 1950s and 1960s. More recent Turner Prize–winning alumni include Martin Creed, Rachel Whiteread, Antony Gormley, and Douglas Gordon. </p>
            <p>4. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums/uclart. </p>
            <p>5. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/about/records-office. </p>
            <p>6. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/special-collections.</p>
            <p>7. Those listed as authors represent the core project team, but we would also like to thank Emma Chambers, Stephen Chaplin, Alexandra Eveleigh, Andrea Fredericksen, Gill Furlong, Colin Penman, Gemma Romain, Frederic J. Schwartz, Tony Slade, Alan Taylor, and Robert Winkworth for their input.</p>
            <p>8. The Slade Archive Project was funded initially in 2012 by a UCL internal small research grant in the Arts and Humanities faculty, and then with a small research grant in 2013 from UCL Grand Challenges for the Transnational Slade component, which gave resources to employ a part-time research assistant and to carry out basic digitisation of specific items in the collection. In addition, sponsorship from the Andor Charitable Trust allowed digitisation of archived oral history recordings.</p>
            <p>9. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh/facilities/digitisation-suite. </p>
            <p>10. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh/courses/mamsc.</p>
            <p>11. http://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/slade-archive-project/.</p>
            <p>12. http://sladearchive.github.io/. </p>
            <p>13. https://soundcloud.com/slade-archive-project.</p>
            <p>14. Digitised class photos of the Slade Archive are processed through a face recognition algorithm using OpenCV (Bradsky, 2000). This process produces a location mapping of all recognised faces on the larger images. This information was used to crop image portraits of each person recognised by the algorithm and created a static HTML page for each face identified. With the help of the D3 library (Bostock et al., 2011), we also built an interactive visualisation that highlights each portrait within the class photo. We then asked the public to help identify the sitters using the Disqus (https://disqus.com) commenting system, which has been integrated into each portrait page. Periodically, we collected the public’s comments and integrated the names of the people identified into the visualisation. Our prototype gathered a surprising amount of the public’s interest, partly with the help of some media attention (Weaver, 2013). </p>
            <p>15. http://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/slade-archive-project/category/transnational-slade/.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bostock, M., Ogievetsky, V. and Heer, J.</hi> (2011). D3: Data-Driven Documents. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics (Proc. InfoVis)</hi>. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bradsky, G.</hi> (2000). The OpenCV Library. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dr. Dobb’s Journal of Software Tools</hi>.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cook, T.</hi> (1997). What Is Past Is Prologue: A History of Archival Ideas since 1898, and the Future Paradigm Shift. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Archivaria,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">43</hi> (Spring): 17–63. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dadi, I.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Modernism and the Art of Muslim South Asia</hi>. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dobrzynski, J. H.</hi> (2014). Modernizing Art History. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Wall Street Journal</hi>, 28 April, http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304518704579519632304010744.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Enwezor, O. and Achebe, C.</hi> (2001).
                        <hi rend=""italic""> The Short Century: Independence and Liberation Movements in Africa, 1945–1994.</hi> Prestel, Munich. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Long, M. and Schonfeld, R. C.</hi> (2014). Supporting the Changing Research Practices of Art Historians. Ithaka S+R Research Publication, 30 April, http://www.sr.ithaka.org/research-publications/supportingchanging-research-practices-arthistorians? utm_content=bufferbe57e&amp;utm_medium=social&amp;utm_source=twitter.com&amp;utm_campaign=buffer#s thash.hyLuOcuz.dpuf 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rodríguez, N., Baca, M., Albrezzi, F. and Longaker, R. </hi>(2012). The Digital Mellini Project: Exploring New Tools and Methods for Art-Historical Research and Publication. Paper presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2012 Conference</hi>, Hamburg, Germany, http://www.dh2012.unihamburg. de/conference/programme/abstracts/the-digital-mellini-project-exploring-new-tools-methods-for-arthistorical- research-publication/. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rodriguez Ortega, N.</hi> (2013). Digital Art History: An Examination of Conscience. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Visual Resources,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi> (1–2): 129–33. 
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Teitelbaum, M.</hi> (1996). Notes on the Meeting of Cultures. In Watson, S., White, P., and Hill, T. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Naming a Practice: Curatorial Strategies for the Future. </hi>Banff: Banff Centre Press, pp. 40–44.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Weaver, M.</hi> (2013). Slade Art School Puts Old Class Pictures Online to Find Past Pupils. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Guardian</hi>, 25 December, http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2013/dec/25/slade-art-school-photos-online-past-pupilsalumni-london. 
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Weski, T., von Bismarck, B., and Schafaff, J. </hi>(eds.) (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cultures of the Curatorial</hi>. Sternberg Press, New York. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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                        <forename>Ludmil</forename>
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                    <affiliation>New Bulgarian University, Bulgaria</affiliation>
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                        <surname>Curry</surname>
                        <forename>Joanne</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>j.curry@uws.edu.au</email>
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                        <surname>Ivanov</surname>
                        <forename>Stanislav</forename>
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                    <affiliation>New Bulgarian University, Bulgaria</affiliation>
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                        <surname>Simoff</surname>
                        <forename>Simeon</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>s.simoff@uws.edu.au</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Zareva</surname>
                        <forename>Desislava</forename>
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                    <affiliation>New Bulgarian University, Bulgaria</affiliation>
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            <p>Our paper presents an ongoing project aiming to create a close-to-work 
                <hi rend=""italic"">virtual ambience </hi>and tо develop interactive research tools for digital humanities (DH), implementing the traditional experience of arts and humanities into a dynamic interface for cultural information retrieval. The approach, discussed in this paper, offers a humanitarian perspective to human-computer interaction and interface design. The project develops the ‘expressive medium’ and ‘exploratory laboratory’ view of DH (Svensson, 2010). Three aspects are highlighted concerning the deployment of an exploratory laboratory as an educational vehicle for expanding the knowledge of information and communications technology (ICT) students in humanitarian areas. The educational aspects include: 
            </p>
            <p>1. Complementing essentials of global experience on the ‘big arena’ of real professional interaction where business actions require the mastership of culturally rich ‘mixed mode’ interaction. Global experience here is considered to be</p>
            <p> (a) Professional experience to work in a distributed global environment, as well as </p>
            <p> (b) Extension of mental models to interact intuitively focused at the ‘big picture’ of real life, in real teams and real markets. </p>
            <p>2. Perceived sensitive channels of cross-cultural background impacting interaction, which are the dynamic mechanisms enacting our practical solutions and business procedures. </p>
            <p>3. Disclosing the hot spots of a multidisciplinary interconnectedness and applying associatively a methodological sensibility to various historical and cultural key aspects of modern phenomena. </p>
            <p>This DH initiative is implemented within the framework of UWS PX (Professional Experience) projects for ICT students. The PX projects create an engaged learning environment in which students address real problems and form collaborative student teams; these teams are provided with initial requirements by a ‘client’; through the interaction with the ‘client’ and participatory agile software development with the ‘client’, students develop a shared concept and implement it as a computing system. </p>
            <p>This is the formal vehicle, where an interdisciplinary team of lecturers in the humanities and in information technology from NBU Sofia acts as a ‘client’ for UWS PX student teams during the last four years. Due to geographical distance they communicate and co-create only by using virtual channels of interaction. </p>
            <p>The development of a shared concept requires ICT students to focus on a selected variety of sensitive profiles innate to the areas of arts and humanities. They have to immerse into the multilingual reality of southeastern (SE) Europe (6000 BC–AD 1000) where ‘national mindsets’ and spoken languages were not a barrier for communication on the commercial routes. Since 2011 a shared understanding of a multifaceted cultural focus at various times and geographical areas has been developed which is to be accessed on a map/timeline (Duridanov et al., 2013).</p>
            <p>The paper presents the outcomes of a four-year collaborative work focusing on the development of an integrated associative environment, aiming to educate the so-called digital natives or Millennium users—terms used to denote youngsters who grow up with digital technologies and interact with them intuitively from an early age. </p>
            <p>The associative environments that we build up within the series of projects are computer-generated environments based on the idea of human perception and spontaneous associations in everyday life; they are intended for the use of collaborative research and participatory learning. The main managing principle to be highlighted is a ‘spontaneous protocol’ (Duridanov and Zareva, forthcoming), which requires the user to click continuously or hold on a website as a ‘second home’, to change roles within ‘game strategies’ as well as levels of knowledge. The whole procedure of creating associative environments should be considered as an organically developed sensibility. We intend to disclose the ‘hidden mechanisms’ of how digital natives and digital immigrants interact and construct a Web 2.0 ambience on educational ground. </p>
            <p>The vision of the project is to build a DH educational environment as an open-source ‘virtual library’ equipped with access and analysis tools. It borrows and extends the idea from the movie 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Disclosure</hi> (1994) (Duridanov and Simoff, 2007; 2008; Duridanov et al., 2013). The so-called library is the core, which expands gradually into an ‘educational center’, where students have online access and interfere in a noncommercial way, play and develop ‘virtual scenarios’ and ‘associative ambiences’. The center will be hosted by New Bulgarian University Sofia (Duridanov et al., 2013) and will continue to develop the ‘infrastructure’ with further collaborative projects between both universities, with the participation of other research units as well. 
            </p>
            <p>The following components of an integrated environment have so far been developed: </p>
            <p> (A) A digital library, allocated in a 3D animated ambience (using Second Life), emulates a four-folded access to a ‘systematic catalog’ which appears on two websites as walls of an octagonal room securing linguistic and geographic/historic access (via map with a timeline). The fourth access to religious rituals of everyday life will succeed touching a word (via linguistic access), a location (via geographical map), or a historic moment (on the timeline below the map). The four-folded access is extracted from the methodological works of the late Prof. Ivan Duridanov, where the names of gods, tribes, mountains, rivers, and cities in ancient SE Europe have been proved to be ‘interconnected’ and create an ‘associative environment’ whose ‘windows’ could be opened to enter a past moment of cultural history or location within that moment. The main problem to be solved here was the accessing of multilingually presented names in PDF documents. The implementation of Latin alphabet as a ‘standard language’ on STICKY NOTES had to be replaced by opening the page via accessing a FAVOURITE, because of the too long ‘opening duration’ of a document (Duridanov et al., 2013). Presentation of some of the outcomes can be viewed as follows: </p>
            <p> Part 1: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7CQx_10wq9</p>
            <p> Part 2: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rbealR7f1JA</p>
            <p> Part 3: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IFUaGetbl2o </p>
            <p> (B) A geographical map with a timeline presented here is to be accessed via a website with a ‘double window’ to a mind map of a historical moment or a geographical location to disclose visually the above-mentioned ‘associative links’ that at first appear as ‘hidden knowledge’ to the student. The main problem to be solved was here the ‘designing’ of rivers extracted from the scientific documents. Presentation of some of the outcomes can be viewed at http://youtu.be/jf5imrPoZHU and http://youtu.be/k2p7U7YvMPY.</p>
            <p> (C) Virtual environment for cultural reenactment. Here were tested two 3D animation programs (Blender, 3D Unity) to approach easily an Orphic ritual of everyday life focused on the initiation of 12 figurines into an ‘inside knowledge’ by a priestess. The Thracian ritual selected by NBU classical scholars highlights a very modern way (it could be said) to access the ‘secrets’ of knowledge applied in ancient times. Therefore the selection of 3D animation appears be an intrinsic part of an agile development of a participatory learning ambience having modern educational value, because it visualizes the ‘hidden point of view’ of a participant as well as that of a visitor. The process and the outcomes of this work will be demonstrated during the presentation. </p>
            <p>Methodologically the project follows an agile development strategy to cope with the unpredictability. The methods face three problematic fields: </p>
            <p> (a) Innovative ‘infrastructure’ of associatively developed participatory learning in a virtual environment. </p>
            <p> (b) Communications between the two project teams proceed only ‘virtually’ and develop a cross-cultural attitude. </p>
            <p> (c) ‘Mind navigation’ proceeds intuitively to structure a ‘mental merger’ between the traditionally opposed areas of informatics on the one side and arts and the humanities on the other side. This means a complete revision of familiar semantic notions, i.e., a ‘code breaking’ procedure that has been negotiated explicitly step-by-step for ‘both sides’, not only at the very same beginning. Here is to be stressed the introduction of an interdisciplinary ‘mixed approach’ enacting constraints of arts and humanities (classical studies, linguistics, history, social psychology, and archaeology) into an ICT strategy for students and research fellows of all areas. </p>
            <p>The main results are to be conceived on three levels: </p>
            <p> • ‘Fusion’ of various segments of disrupted knowledge. </p>
            <p> • Development of close to market professional know-how and behavior sensibility.</p>
            <p> • Project management milestones developed as integral parts of an integrated Open Source Educational Center for the so-called digital natives. </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Duridanov, L., Curry, J. and Ivanov, S.</hi> (2013). Virtual Environments as an Education Tool for Digital Natives. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the National Conference on Education in the Information Society</hi>, http://sci-gems.math.bas.bg/jspui/bitstream/10525/1991/1/EIS2013-book-p10.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Duridanov, L. and Simoff, S.</hi> (2007). The Hearing Dimension of 3D Virtual Worlds: Unexploited Opportunities. In Hongladarom, S. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computing and Philosophy in Asia</hi>. Cambridge Scholars Pub, http://philpapers.org/rec/SIMCFT.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Duridanov, L. and Simoff, S.</hi> (2008). ‘Inner Listening’ as a Basic Principle for Developing Immersive Virtual Worlds. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Heidelberg Journal of Religions on the Internet, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(1), http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/8299/1/Duridanov.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Duridanov, L. and Zareva, D.</hi> (forthcoming). Spontaneous Protocol: A Dynamic Interface of Education ‘Technology’. In Velev, D. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Application of ICT and Statistics in Economics and Education</hi>, Sofia, http://icaictsee-2014.unwe.bg.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Svensson, P.</hi> (2010). The Landscape of Digital Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>(1), http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/4/1/000080/000080.html. 
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"2226","16","Digital Media Literacy in Indonesian Youth: Building Sustainable Democratic Institutions and Practices","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Fiona</forename>
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            <p>As the world’s third-largest democracy, Indonesia has experienced fundamental changes since the country progressed from a repressive authoritarian to a democratic regime in 1998. Competitive, direct elections have been held four times; freedom of speech and assembly are legally protected; and citizens have a lively and outspoken public sphere. Freedom House, the U.S.-based non-governmental organization, labels Indonesia as a free and democratic country (Antlov and Wetterbeg, 2011, 3). Indonesia’s Ministry of Communication and Informatics reports that there were 82 million Internet users in 2014, and Indonesia has the eighth-highest number of Internet users in the world (Kominfo, 2014). The Internet is perceived as a media that can potentially promote greater democracy due to it being a freer and more open form of communication compared to traditional media, therefore opening more opportunities for freedom of speech and other communicative functions than traditional media communication.</p>
            <p>Bennett (2008, 9) argues that the future of democracy is in young people’s hands. It is crucial for young people to learn how to use digital media in order to develop civic and political actions. Democracy and participation in public culture require not just a willingness to consume information but a willingness to create, share, and use information. Internet use has increased rapidly in Indonesia, particularly among Indonesian youth (Kominfo, 2014). This provides an opportunity to use Internet and social media to enhance democracy in Indonesia. Nugroho, Putri, and Laksmi (2012, 7) found that the Internet has encouraged space for citizens to communicate without restriction. Also, Indonesian citizens can create their own public sphere and engage freely with others by blogs, social media, and micro-blogging. Digital media literacy is an important life skill that is increasingly necessary to develop democracy in Indonesia; therefore, this research aims to investigate whether young Indonesian people have been able to understand and meaningfully use digital media to support democratic institutions and practices.</p>
            <p>There will be two stages in this research. In the first phase, the focus group method will be suitable for researching Indonesian youth’s digital media literacy and capacity to use digital media to support democracy. I will conduct two focus group discussions to identify and compare their digital media practices. The first focus group will be conducted with young Indonesian urban men and women, middle class, ages 18 to 25 (as university/college students), and Internet heavy users (defined as using the Internet a minimum of once a day (ACMA, 2009a, 6). The second focus group will be conducted with a group of the same background as Group 1 but with a different Internet habit, namely Internet medium users, defined as using the Internet one to seven times a week (ACMA 2009a, 6). Both focus groups will be recruited from faculties of politics/communication in the top 10 university/colleges in Jakarta, and respondents will be drawn from leadership positions in campus organisations (student union/guild). Focus group discussion topics will include how the student makes responsible choices and accesses online information, and also how the student analyses and creates information in a variety of digital media forms. The second phase, semi-structured interviews, will be conducted relating to the digital media practices of young Indonesian urban men and women, middle class, ages 18 to 30, active members in non-profit organizations or the community as a leader or participating on a committee, Internet heavy user and living in Indonesia’s capital, Jakarta. The findings will measure the role of digital media literacy to enhance democracy in Indonesia.</p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">ACMA (Australian Communication Media Authority).</hi> (2009a). Australia in the Digital Economy Report 2: Online Participation. http://www.acma.gov.au/webwr/aba/about/recruitment/online_participation_aust_in_digital_economy.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">ACMA (Australian Communication Media Authority).</hi> (2009b). Digital Media Literacy in Australia: Key Indicators and Research Sources. http://www.acma.gov.au/theACMA/the-acma-digital-media-literacy-resources.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Antlov, H. and Wetterbeg, A.</hi> (2011). Citizen Engagement, Deliberative Spaces, and the Consolidation of a Post-Authoritarian Democracy: The Case of Indonesia. http://www.icld.se/pdf/ICLD_wp8_printerfriendly.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bennett, L.</hi> (2008). Changing Citizenship in the Digital Age. In Bennett, W. L. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Civic Life Online: Learning How Digital Media Can Engage Youth</hi>, 1-24, doi: 10.1177/1748048514524119.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kominfo.</hi> (2014). Kemkominfo: Pengguna Internet di Indonesia Capai 82 Juta (Ministry of Communication and Information: Internet Users in Indonesia Reached 82 Million). http://kominfo.go.id/index.php/content/detail/3980/Kemkominfo%3A+Pengguna+Internet+di+Indonesia+Capai+82+Juta/0/berita_satker#.VDSDcBB8C3p (accessed 1 September 2014).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nugroho, Y., Laksmi, S., Amalia, M., Santi Widyartini, M., Cox, D. and Miles, I.</hi> (2011). Citizens in @ction: Collaboration, Participatory Democracy, and Freedom of Information: Mapping Contemporary Civic Activism and the Use of New Social Media in Indonesia. http://www.cdi.manchester.ac.uk/newsandevents/documents/Citizensinaction-MIOIR-HIVOSFinal_Report.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">Nugroho, Y., Putri, D. and Laksmi, S.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">(2012).</hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space"">
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)""> </hi>
                        </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Mapping the Landscape of the Media Industry in Contemporary Indonesia. Report Series: Engaging Media, Empowering Society: Assessing Media Policy and Governance in Indonesia through the Lens of Citizens’ Rights. http://www.cipg.or.id/uploads/books/D02-MediaIndustry-CIPG-Hivos-MAN_FULL_FINAL_rev.pdf.</hi>
                    </bibl>
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"2227","16","Digital Musical Industry and Identity in Melanesia","3","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Webb-Gannon</surname>
                        <forename>Camellia Bell</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>c.webb-gannon@uws.edu.au</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Webb</surname>
                        <forename>Michael</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>The University of Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>michael.webb@sydney.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Dick</surname>
                        <forename>Tom</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Southern Cross University, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>tom.dick@scu.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Stern</surname>
                        <forename>Monika</forename>
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                    <affiliation>CNRS, France</affiliation>
                    <email>monika.stern@pacific-credo.fr</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Crowdy</surname>
                        <forename>Denis</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Macquarie University, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>denis.crowdy@mq.edu.au</email>
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                    <term>Melanesia</term>
                    <term>music</term>
                    <term>digital media</term>
                    <term>justice</term>
                    <term>identity</term>
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                    <term>audio</term>
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                    <term>including writing</term>
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            <p>This panel discusses and embodies three key ideas expressed in ‘A Manifesto for Music Technologists’, an online declaration emerging from Microsoft Music New England’s 2014 symposium ‘What is Music Technology For’ (http://www.musictechifesto.org/?page_id=2), and applies these ideas to the contemporary digitalization of music in Melanesia. Specifically, the panel explores the ways in which music technology is contributing to the creation and imbrication of new Melanesian identities—political, economic, and sociocultural—and to the disintegration of the traditional notion of a Melanesian music ‘industry’. It attends to the ways in which music digitalization at once contributes to improved justice for Melanesians in these areas (for example, in politics and culture), and undermines justice in others (for instance, in the music economy). </p>
            <p>The first idea from the manifesto that we examine is that ‘music technologies create possible futures and offer new ways to inhabit the present and past. Their changes presage changes in culture, signaling trends yet to come. They are thus sites of struggles over money, membership, power, and prestige. Technological change is inseparable from economic, cultural and political change’. Crowdy discusses the ‘musical poverty’ in Melanesia that stems from the dissolution of the commercial music industry, which traded in cassette tapes and ‘linked [industry] to [music] creators in terms of sales and royalties’. He examines how different economic possibilities are simultaneously opening up for musicians with the development of new smartphone apps (which he is currently creating and will be trialing with the other panelists in an action research project), which will allow musicians to create and distribute music for payment using their own mobile phones. Dick and Stern explore how ancient oral narrative traditions in Vanuatu are interfacing with music technology, anchoring present changes and networks in the past. They look at the role that identity factors such as gender and location (urban or rural) affect Ni-Vanuatu musicians’ access to and interaction with digital technology, and examine what these changes to traditional musical cultures in Vanuatu might mean for the future of Vanuatu’s music ‘industry’. Webb and Webb-Gannon discuss a developing Melanesian regional approach to music and technology by documenting and analyzing Melanesian trends in creating, posting, and commenting on YouTube music and visual content, as well as proclamations of a regional identity through music that shakes off longstanding negative stereotypes of Melanesians and invites the world to see Melanesians as empowered, political, and proud of where they are situated globally.</p>
            <p>The second point from the manifesto that we take up in this panel is the notion that ‘meaningful innovation bridges multiple perspectives—yet the music technology field remains predominantly white, male, and tends toward assumptions that its user base is Western and able-bodied. . . . Meaningful innovation happens when fields intersect—yet those who work in music technology are too often siloed in distinct fields within universities, industry, startups, journalism, hobbyist and fan subcultures’. The panelists—three ethnomusicologists (one specializing in music technology), a peace and conflict analyst, and a cultural events producer-facilitator—will discuss their diverse academic research in an effort to actively bring together multiple perspectives on the innovation and justice-related change that music digitalization is bringing about in Melanesia. The panel not only features research from different disciplines/professions but it uses music case studies from the non-Western world (Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, West Papua, Solomon Islands) to examine what characteristics of music from these places are locally or nationally distinctive and can be identified as being of the region. It also highlights music created by Melanesian women, considering whether the digitalization of such music contributes to greater agency in the region for women musicians and listeners alike.</p>
            <p>Third, we attend to the idea and call to action in the manifesto that ‘music technologies make worlds. Let us make better worlds. Let music technology do good, serve public interest, foster belonging, justice, collaboration and sharing, enable greater access to positive musical experiences and personal connections, and create durable objects and practices’. Webb and Webb-Gannon survey the online music movement for a Free West Papua, examining how non–West Papuan Melanesians are using new media such as YouTube to advocate through song for West Papua’s right to self-determination, and the ways West Papuans are using YouTube to record musical messages of resistance for the world. Dick and Stern assert that young Ni-Vanuatu musicians are bridging two worlds: a traditional world of music with deep endogenous cultural significance and a globally connected world inviting musicians to share with and imbibe other music cultures. Balancing or merging these to create better cultural worlds for Ni-Vanuatu musicians and listeners is a delicate undertaking, as Dick and Stern attest. Crowdy turns his attention to the durability of music technology objects. Warped-sounding cassettes are no longer a lucrative commodity for musicians or producers; digital music products in the form of piratable SD card libraries have contributed to performer poverty. But Crowdy sees the mobile phone, with its potential for music creation and distribution, as the hope of Papua New Guinean musicians’ economic future, at least until the arrival of superior technology that allows sweeter-sounding worlds to be constructed.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">1. The Impact of Gender and Local Identity on Vanuatu’s Digital Music Industry</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Tom Dick</p>
            <p>Southern Cross University </p>
            <p>Monika Stern</p>
            <p>Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)</p>
            <p>In Vanuatu, where new technologies are overlaid on social structures built on thousands of years of oral tradition, story and voice are important concepts. Musical exchanges are deeply embedded in the archipelago’s traditional culture, and alongside the old circulation systems of musical knowledge, the Internet and mobile phones have created new networks for the circulation of music. In the new millennium Vanuatu has experienced considerable development in digital technologies, with the arrival of the Digicel mobile telephone company in 2008. In the first decade of the new millennium, mobile phone ownership rose from less than 1 percent to more than 50 percent of the population. The possibilities for digital storage have made the mobile phone an indispensable tool for young musicians.</p>
            <p>This paper explores how music and technology are converging in Vanuatu. Today, the nascent music industry in Vanuatu is a site of many conflicting forces. Young Ni-Vanuatu men, and to a lesser extent women, are engaging with global media, as evidenced by the internationalization of the urban Fest’Napuan festival and action around this annual event, and the emergence of two provincial ‘sister’ events. The dynamic of locality on identity provides a lens to explore the ways that digital technology is shaping the future of the Vanuatu music ‘industry’. How are the modes of distribution and dissemination of music changing? In particular, the authors explore the possible synergies between the emerging practice of transmedia production and the importance of story for Ni-Vanuatu musicians. Does the participatory culture of transmedia storytelling resonate with the way musicians in different parts of Vanuatu are representing themselves domestically and internationally? Are Ni-Vanuatu musicians idiosyncratic transmedia producers? The authors examine the situation of young musicians in different Banks islands in Vanuatu, looking at how they use music to express identity with the resources available to them, and ways in which global elements are being co-opted and appropriated by local ones.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">2. Mobile Phones and Musical Impoverishment in Papua New Guinea</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Denis Crowdy</p>
            <p>Macquarie University</p>
            <p>In many places around the world, mobile phones and associated communication networks are widely used for distributing and listening to music. As smartphones become more commonplace, the range of activities and possibilities surrounding such mobile music expands. This paper probes the impact of the smartphone through a number of case studies from Papua New Guinea, a nation where rapid growth in mobile telecommunications has occurred since 2007. This has coincided with the rapid growth of home studios that create music featuring an increase in the use of synthesised and sequenced instruments over guitars and ukuleles, previously important instruments in contributing to local popular music styles. The commodity status of music has also changed as a result of digital production and sharing, and is related to similar changes occurring in music industries elsewhere. What was once considered a commercial music industry with a clear commodity—the cassette, linked to the creators in terms of sales and royalties—is now a more dispersed amateur activity. Indeed, it is possible to see locally recorded music as essentially free media fuelling commodification in other areas such as phones, network bandwidth, digital media hardware, and advertising, for example. While this is similar to developments in many other parts of the world, disparities in income, wealth, and basic infrastructure intensify concerns about economic justice in Papua New Guinea and speak to issues recently explored in ethnomusicology around musical poverty and impoverishment. Observations from the case studies described have been used to design an applied ethnomusicology project involving the development of music production applications for mobile phones and collaboration between a number of scholars and organisations focusing on Melanesia; the paper concludes with a discussion of this activity.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">3, 4. Music, Video, and the Internet as Means to Increasing Political and Cultural Participation and Engagement in Melanesia</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Michael Webb</p>
            <p>University of Sydney</p>
            <p>Camellia Webb-Gannon</p>
            <p>University of Western Sydney</p>
            <p>In his renowned post-colonial critique of the ways outsiders have portrayed the Pacific Islands and its inhabitants, Epeli Hau‘ofa commended paying attention to local expertise, to ‘images, sounds and movements that speak to us, that speak of us in our place and our time’ (Hau‘ofa, 2008). This paper has two parts, which together provide an overview and a specific instance of how digital technology appears to be contributing to the fulfillment of Hau‘ofa’s desire for Islanders. Increasingly, images, sounds, and movements are being created and employed by indigenous innovators to project new senses of identity and belonging across Melanesia. The paper considers how communities and individuals are gaining access in various ways to the tools and resources required to create and launch new digital music and video products that have in recent years begun circulating on the Internet, and which have the potential to significantly increase political and cultural engagement and participation in the region as well as contribute to the reshaping of senses of belonging in the world. We believe that at present we are only witnessing the beginning of a trend that will likely blossom as technologies become more affordable and widely available in the southwestern Pacific region. Part One of this paper, by Michael Webb, provides an introduction and overview—an analytical survey of the kinds of musical products that Melanesians are authoring that communicate a desire for their perspectives to be seen and heard. It examines the technologies that Melanesians are employing to create and promote new local, national, and regional music forms, and discusses the types of interactions taking place on Internet forums between musicians, promoters, and listeners. This first part assesses the social and cultural-political implications of the digitalization of new popular Melanesian music for its producers and intended consumers. Part Two of the paper, by Camellia Webb-Gannon, offers a case study of Melanesia-wide identification through music, dance, and video, with the West Papuan desire for political independence. It examines songs and accompanying video content created by non–West Papuan Melanesians professing solidarity with West Papuans, and music written and performed by West Papuans proclaiming their affinity with other Melanesian peoples. The message of such music, the paper argues, is strategic on a number of levels. At an international level, it links West Papuans to Melanesian culture and politics, thereby distancing it for listeners from Indonesian sovereignty claims. Regionally, it is also an attempt by non–West Papuan musicians to rally support in their respective Melanesian countries for West Papuan self-determination, and represents an effort by West Papuan musicians to do the same. Locally, it buoys West Papuans’ morale, which energizes the struggle. The digitalization of West Papua–related solidarity music has enabled members of the West Papuan diaspora to experience solidarity virtually, with, for example, West Papuan political prisoners recording musical messages of support for diaspora leaders, which have been uploaded to YouTube. It has also allowed traditional treasured protest songs to be preserved for posterity, and has provided West Papuan musicians with access to the music of other ‘black’ political struggles—styles such as reggae and hip-hop that serve as models for their own new expressions and aspirations. The social justice impact of this solidarity music and the technologies it is utilising form the analytical core of this case study. </p>
            <p>Reference</p>
            <p>Hauʻofa, E. (2008).
                <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">We Are the Ocean: Selected Works</hi>. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 
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"2228","16","Digital Network Analysis of Dramatic Texts","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Trilcke</surname>
                        <forename>Peer</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Göttingen, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>trilcke@phil.uni-goettingen.de</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Fischer</surname>
                        <forename>Frank</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Göttingen Centre for Digital Humanities, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>frank.fischer@zentr.uni-goettingen.de</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Kampkaspar</surname>
                        <forename>Dario</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Herzog August Library Wolfenbüttel, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>kampkaspar@hab.de</email>
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                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
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            <p>The project ‘Digital Network Analysis of Dramatic Texts’ follows in the tradition of structural analysis approaches in the literary studies (Titzmann, 1977) and is aimed at advancing them in recourse to established methods like Social Network Analysis (Wasserman and Faust, 1998). The project also enhances these elder approaches through automated data acquisition and analysis in order to handle much larger corpora and to be able to generate comprehensive relational data to analyse structural transformations in the history of literature.</p>
            <p>As theoretical foundation we used a network-analytic conceptualisation of dramatic interaction (first ideas in Moretti, 2011; critical reading and theoretical reconceptualisation in Trilcke, 2013; also a detailed research summary). In continuation of concepts of dramatic configuration (Marcus, 1973; Pfister, 1977; Pohlheim, 1997), we resorted to a basic operationalisation according to which an ‘interaction’ takes place if two characters are listed as speakers within a given segment of a text (usually a ‘scene’).</p>
            <p>For our first automation purposes, we considered ‘interaction’ as ‘scenic co-presence of two speakers’. Based on this concept of relations, network data is extracted automatically—both the global networks of ‘interactions’ of the plays (density, average degree, connectedness, etc.) and data that characterises individual actors (degree and various other centrality indices). The workflow we created also allows the collection of data on a meso-level (e.g., identification of clusters) and includes visualisations of the extracted network data, which in turn contributes to the analysis of the structural transformation in the history of literature.</p>
            <p>Corpora of Dramatic Texts</p>
            <p>For the automated analysis of theatre plays, a reliable and sufficiently large (German-language) corpus was needed. The following corpora were reviewed:</p>
            <p> • Deutsches Textarchiv / German Text Archive (DTA): 54 dramatic texts.</p>
            <p> • Wikisource: 50 dramatic texts.</p>
            <p> • Projekt Gutenberg-DE: 641 dramatic texts.</p>
            <p> • TextGrid Repository: 690 dramatic texts.</p>
            <p>The DTA corpus has the best quality of TEI markup, but so far only incorporates few texts. The latter also applies to the German-language branch of Wikisource. The Gutenberg-DE archive is problematic due to the poor markup it provides (just some basic XHTML). Thus, only the TextGrid Repository (containing basic TEI markup) was really applicable.</p>
            <p>First, we extracted all dramatic texts from the repository, 690 texts altogether that are marked as ‘drama’ in the ‘genre’-field of the metadata. Most of them are German plays from about 1500 to 1930, plus a dozen translations of Greek tragedies and some Shakespeare plays.</p>
            <p>Acquisition of Network Data</p>
            <p>As an intermediate step, we created a list of relations between all the persons appearing in a play for each of the 690 TEI files and wrote them into a CSV file, one of the standard formats for the storage of network data. To extract the speaker data, usually two separate steps are required: The recognition of the individual segments of a play and the recognition of individual speakers.</p>
            <p>To facilitate the following work, the script first splits the files. For each level recognised in the document tree, a subdirectory is created containing all the individual parts of the TEI files, along with the respective index files. Different kinds of outputs are generated this way: for one, a detailed register of all &lt;speaker&gt; tags, but also all the &lt;rs&gt; and &lt;person&gt; tags. To obtain unambiguous reference targets, ID numbers are assigned (also facilitating later interventions, if erroneously assigned names must be manually corrected). Furthermore, co-occurrence lists are created. In the bottom directory, the occurrence of all speaker pairs in all files are counted. In the upper directories, the values of all subdirectories are added.</p>
            <p>In addition to the recognition of the structure, the correct assignment of names is one of the bigger challenges. Ideally, all &lt;speaker&gt; tags would contain a @who attribute to provide a unique ID for each character. If this is not the case (or if &lt;rs&gt; or &lt;person&gt; tags were used instead), the script has to analyse the textual content of the tag. Possible misspellings (due to the transcription or the original) and grammatical changes have to be considered. For instance, in Lessing, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Nathan the Wise</hi> V/1, we encounter different sorts of Mamalukes, be it ‘A Mamaluke’, ‘The Mamaluke’, ‘A second Mamaluke’, or just ‘Second Mamaluke’. In this case, some linguistic knowledge about adjectives is enough to rule out mistakes when assembling the lists of relations. But there are more complicated cases when automatising this process, e.g., if multiple characters speak up at once (‘All’).
            </p>
            <p>In addition to trying to clarify these cases automatically, there is still the possibility of manual intervention in cases of doubt. Here, the generated index files with unique IDs will be of help. For an upcoming version of the script, it is intended to provide a simple GUI to allow easy editing in such cases.</p>
            <p>Data Analysis and Visualisation</p>
            <p>The data analysis was done by using the igraph package via Python (3.4.x). It was used for both the visualisation of the graphs and the calculation of the network data.</p>
            <p>For a first visualization, we fed the graph data into a spring-embedding method (Fruchterman-Reingold), which tries to arrange related nodes closer together (clustering). A first impression of the entire corpus is provided in Figure 1. It comprises nearly 700 plays from 2,500 years of theatre history, starting chronologically at the top left with the ancient Greeks ranging to the bottom right and the second quarter of the 20th century.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""15.875cm"" height=""11.43cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>The visualised graphs (a ‘distant reading’ of its own) also suggested that most of the calculated CSV had at least minor flaws in them due to ambiguous markup. These findings contributed to the error handling in the previous step (Acquisition of Network Data).</p>
            <p>Some basic network calculations were done on the basis of the 12 (completed) theatre plays by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. Corresponding diagrams are show in Figure 2.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""15.980833333333333cm"" height=""11.482916666666666cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Conclusions</p>
            <p>The extracted (and adjusted) network data will serve as a basis for further statistical calculations and also be made publicly available. Our research focus will now shift to implementing further calculation tools for the network analysis of theatre plays (e.g., to calculate the betweenness centrality to determine the importance of individual characters in a network). We will also work on enhancing the network data (quantify speech units, include stage presence of non-speaking persons, etc.) and try to build multiplex networks that not only capture the ‘interactions’, but also consider parental or instrumental relations.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Marcus, S.</hi> (1973). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mathematische Poetik.</hi> Athenäum-Verlag, Frankfurt.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2011). Network Theory, Plot Analysis. Stanford Literary Lab Pamphlets 2, http://litlab.stanford.edu/LiteraryLabPamphlet2.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pfister, M.</hi> (1977). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Das Drama. Theorie und Analyse.</hi> Fink, Munich.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pohlheim, K. K. </hi>(ed.). (1997). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Die dramatische Konfiguration.</hi> Schöningh, Paderborn.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Titzmann, M.</hi> (1977). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Strukturale Textanalyse. Theorie und Praxis der Interpretation.</hi> Fink, Munich.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Trilcke, P.</hi> (2013). Social Network Analysis (SNA) als Methode einer textempirischen Literaturwissenschaft. In Ajouri, P., Mellmann, K. and Rauen, C. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Empirie in der Literaturwissenschaft.</hi> Münster: Mentis, pp. 201–47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wasserman, S. and Faust, K.</hi> (1998). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications.</hi> Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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"2229","16","Digitalization of Shoso-in Monjo and Extraction of Knowledge","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>GOTO</surname>
                        <forename>Makoto</forename>
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                    <affiliation>The National Institutes for the Humanities, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>goto@nihu.jp</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>NAITO</surname>
                        <forename>Motomu</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Knowledge Synergy Inc. Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>motom@green.ocn.ne.jp</email>
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            <p>We have been conducting research on digitalization methods for the restoration of Shoso-in Monjo since 2002. Shoso-in Monjo is a collection of historical documents from 8th-century Japan, comprising approximately 15,000 documents in total.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> It is the largest group of historical documents from ancient Japan or East Asia, and is highly valuable data. However, because of the historical background of Shoso-in Monjo, the documents have become disorganized compared to their original, 8th-century state. A “restoration” to this original state is necessary in order to conduct research using Shoso-in Monjo. To resolve this issue using computers, we reconstructed a virtual Shoso-in Monjo and created a comprehensive, all-encompassing database of the scattered Shoso-in Monjo information. We called this database the Shoso-in Monjo Database: ‘SOMODA’.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi>
            </p>
            <p>We conducted a markup of the Shoso-in Monjo textual data using XML (eXtensible Markup Language), thus structuring the database, and linked image data and index information. Thereby, we created a system through which any information from the Shoso-in Monjo can be acquired.</p>
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            <p>Figure 1. The main page of SOMODA.</p>
            <p>SOMODA does not just display complete texts or images; it is a system containing various information derived from data that was restored, and a system through which this information can be viewed simultaneously. We developed the latter database in 2007.</p>
            <p>After considering how SOMODA ought to be developed from now on—that is, approximately seven years after the database was first created—we concluded that it is necessary to simplify the data search and information discovery model of Shoso-in Monjo along with enabling cooperation with many databases, thereby ensuring effective information discovery based on knowledge data. We therefore adopted an ISO standard Topic Maps as an ontological method and applied it to the SOMODA data. In the next section, we report our findings.</p>
            <p>Characteristics of the Topic Maps</p>
            <p>Topic maps are defined as follows by ISO 13250 Topic Maps Data Model. ‘Topic maps is a technology for encoding knowledge and connecting this encoded knowledge to relevant information resources. Topic maps are organized around topics, which represent subjects of discourse; associations, representing relationships between the subjects; and occurrences, which connect the subjects to pertinent information resources’.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Furthermore, it is possible to assign Subject Identifiers to topics to identify/differentiate subjects within a topic map. Internationalized Resource Identifiers (IRI) are used as Subject Identifiers. Subject Identifiers that have been made public are called Published Subject Identifiers (PSI). By using PSIs, it is possible to accurately identify/differentiate subjects based on unique IRIs, without being troubled by issues such as synonyms, homonyms, and polysemy, which are difficult to resolve on the Web today.</p>
            <p>Based on this, it will be possible to assign academic IDs one by one to the Shoso-in Monjo on the Web while enabling a high level of cooperation with other digital archives (see Figure 2).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""14.892513888888889cm"" height=""9.3345cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>Figure2. The ontology of Shoso-in Monjo topic map
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">The Generated Shoso-in Monjo Topic Map</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Based on these characteristics, we created a topic map for the Shoso-in Monjo as described below.</p>
            <p>First, based on the historical particulars of, and changes to, Shoso-in Monjo, we noted the relationship between the state of the Shoso-in Monjo today and the structure of the 8th-century original. At present, Shoso-in Monjo has a layered structure of association: Series (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Shozoku</hi>), Sub Series (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Chitsu</hi>), Volume (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kan</hi>), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dankan </hi>(the smallest unit of paper remaining from the original 8th-century documents), page. We created a representation of this layered structure. Next, we noted the original structure as being the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Chobo</hi> (the original Documents)—
                <hi rend=""italic"">dankan</hi> (the broken piece of Documents)—page. We then assigned PSIs to each page and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dankan</hi>, making higher-level use of the Shoso-in Monjo digital data possible. This will become the foundational information for the Shoso-in Monjo topic map as a whole.
            </p>
            <p>We next extracted information on personal names in ancient Japan from existing dictionaries. Additionally, we affixed associations regarding the social status, occupation, and location to the personal names based on existing research articles on Japanese history. Then we affixed associations with the ‘pages’ in the Shoso-in Monjo in which these personal names appear. This allows one to understand what kinds of people are described in the Shoso-in Monjo and in what kinds of historical records they appear.</p>
            <p>Third, we extracted information relating to East Asian scriptures and sutras from existing dictionaries. We then noted the version, anthology, and author of the sutra. Further, we affixed associations between the titles of these sutra and the places in which they actually appear within historical records. Through this, the relationship between book titles and publications as entities can be understood.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">The Usefulness of the Shoso-in Monjo Topic Map</hi>
            </p>
            <p>We anticipate that the Shoso-in Monjo topic map will be useful in the following ways.</p>
            <p> • Connecting personal names in the Shoso-in Monjo with sutra titles.</p>
            <p> • Discovery of semantic information that may not be found using a conventional search model, such as whether a given person had anything to do with a unique scripture at a sutra-copying place.</p>
            <p>For instance, the relationships between the holders of annotated editions of sutras at a given time during the 8th century and their locations have been visualized in Figure 3, using the topic map we generated as the source. Based on this, information such as what kinds of texts a set of annotated editions belonging to a given monk are and whether there is any bias regarding the authors of these annotated editions can be understood. Further, by adding information on the location and time, information can be obtained on whether the holder of an annotated edition or the location of the edition changes with time. This will become an important source of information for analysing how the monks of the 8th century studied sutras.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">
                    <graphic n=""1003"" width=""15.989652777777778cm"" height=""11.615208333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>Figure 3　Affixing associations between the whereabouts of sutras and the holders of records using the topic map*1: PageID *2: Sutras Name *3: Name of Monk *4: Current Node *5: Position
                </hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">
                <hi rend=""italic"">Connecting registers and sutras/personal names</hi>. The Shoso-in Monjo had a history of causing problems for research due to its exceedingly complicated structure, which made it difficult to see the big picture. The Shoso-in Monjo database created up to 2007 is what resolved this issue. However, it was not suited for viewing multiple materials relating to a specific keyword at once. That has been resolved and it has become possible to mechanically analyze whether, for instance, a given sutra appears in a specific register (document).
            </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">
                <hi rend=""italic"">Connecting personal names with each other. </hi>Many personal names can be seen in the Shoso-in Monjo. Accordingly, it will be possible to analyze whether particular connections exist between personal names or between occupations. Based on this, it is possible that the personal relationships that have hitherto been only vaguely identified within the Todaiji sutra-copying center—the focus of the writings in the Shoso-in Monjo—will become clear.
            </p>
            <p>In the future, we can expect that large amounts of research information/knowledge beyond what has already been described will be organically connected to the historical records of the Shoso-in Monjo within the Shoso-in Monjo topic maps.</p>
            <p>Challenges and Prospects</p>
            <p>The development of the database created in this study has only just begun, and there are the following challenges.</p>
            <p>1. Processing complex time transitions. While the Shoso-in Monjo is a collection of documents from a relatively short period—that is, the mid-8th century—there are still some temporal changes; within those temporal changes, there are also changes to the ontological structure. How these changes are processed will be investigated from now on. Further, while the contents of the Shoso-in Monjo texts are from the 8th century, it is necessary to take up to the Meiji Period into consideration in order to include subsequent changes in complex historical record structures. How to respond to this kind of circumstance will be a challenge hereafter.</p>
            <p>2. Establishing appropriate topics. While the first step is inputting information on personal names and scriptural titles based on historical records, inputting more abstract research knowledge/information is desirable if one is to achieve the original goals of the topic map. It will be necessary to constantly consider the extent to which establishing these topics conforms to the goals of Shoso-in Monjo research.</p>
            <p>At present, we have obtained permission to make secondary use of the index appended to the research papers of the Shoso-in Monjo, and our next plan is to put it to practical use.</p>
            <p>In the future, we believe it will be necessary to extend the research of the Shoso-in Monjo outward by further brushing up on ontology and creating links to historical records from the same period as the Shoso-in Monjo, such as the Shoku Nihongi, and to databases on Buddhist sutras.</p>
            <p>Using this system, it will be possible to develop materials for an even higher level of research in history and humanities in Japan.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. A detailed explanation about Shoso-in Monjo in English appears at Bryan Lowe and Chris Mayo, Guide to Shoso-in Research, https://my.vanderbilt.edu/shosoin/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. See Shoso-in Monjo Database SOMODA, http://somoda.media.osaka-cu.ac.jp/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. ISO 13250-2: Topic Maps—Data Model, http://www.isotopicmaps.org/sam/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">4. Shoso-in Monjo Topic Map, http://www.somoda.jp (scheduled to open in 2015).</p>
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"2230","16","Digitisation and Automatic Classification of Indian Folktales through MAIF","9","","","1","",""
"2231","16","Digitisation, Processing, Dissemination: Charting the Ecology of the New Scholarly Edition","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Martinez</surname>
                        <forename>Merisa Ariel</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Borås; Digital Scholarly Editions Initial Training (DiXiT) Network</affiliation>
                    <email>merisa.martinez@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Kelly</surname>
                        <forename>Aodhán</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Antwerp; Digital Scholarly Editions Initial Training (DiXiT) Network</affiliation>
                    <email>aodhan.kelly@uantwerpen.be</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Powell</surname>
                        <forename>Daniel</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>King's College London; University of Victoria; Digital Scholarly Editions Initial Training (DiXiT) Network</affiliation>
                    <email>daniel.j.powell@kcl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
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                    <term>textual criticism</term>
                    <term>critical digitization</term>
                    <term>publication and dissemination</term>
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                    <term>publishing and delivery systems</term>
                    <term>digitisation</term>
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                    <term>and discovery</term>
                    <term>scholarly editing</term>
                    <term>text analysis</term>
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            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Contexts</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Digital scholarly editing is in a state of flux, as workflows and channels of scholarly communication face disruption via newer technologies, models of creation, and patterns of consumption and re-use. This poster situates the digital scholarly edition (DSE) as a ‘textual locus’ for intellectual activity, where editing is a distributed, iterative web of processes, each with an effect on the surrounding digital ecosystem. We reconsider how 
                <hi rend=""italic"">critical digitisation</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">collaborative creation</hi>, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dissemination and reuse</hi> might intersect to produce a unique lifecycle for the DSE. It is a provocation and a thought experiment; as such, it eschews technical specifications for broader, systematic critiques of shifts in knowledge and edition building.   
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Critical Digitisation</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Digitisation has been trivialized as a mechanical preamble to the analytical work undertaken by scholarly editors.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> We assert that 
                <hi rend=""italic"">critical</hi> digitisation forms an integral part of the emergent ecosystem of the DSE, requiring informed decision-making, advanced technical and financial competencies, subject specialisations, and a keen awareness of use (and re-use) cases for digitised materials. Publications in critical technology studies and science and technology studies have argued that engagement in digital materiality—and with digital tools themselves—is anything but value-neutral; the work of Bruno Latour, N. Katherine Hayles, and Donna Haraway, among many others, has recently begun to inform discourses surrounding (digital) humanities practices.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> Digitisation is always critical, with judgments made or consciously avoided during the selection of materials, to production, to presentation, preservation and beyond (see Terras, 2008). Critical digitisation is, therefore, an integral layer of the editing process that drastically affects the affordances, values, and potential reuse of materials throughout the lifecycle of digital scholarly editions.  
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Collaborative Creation</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Digital connectivity—and the communities of practice it engenders—re-shapes how editions are produced from the ground up. Wikipedia and crowdsourcing projects like Transcribe Bentham and the Letters of 1916 suggest outlines for this new way of constructing knowledge. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A Social Edition of the Devonshire MS</hi> has explicitly attempted to model large-scale collaborative editing, prompting debate among scholarly editors and digital humanists.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> Despite the contentious nature of this discussion, the DSE may continue to become a more social, collaborative, and multivariate network. The open-source community, especially those groups devoted to tool building and knowledge construction, is a powerful articulation of how the technologically facilitated social production of intellectual content may fruitfully develop, given a vibrant community of interest. Such a community might be deeply invested, active for significant periods of time, and most importantly, radically open to participation from everyone, not just experts. Content might be available for copying, alteration, and redistribution, because when scholarly editions can be copied with a click of a button, the isolated edition of the past becomes untenable. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Dissemination and Usage Environments</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">New media has dramatically blurred the delineation between scholars and readers, producers and users. As scholarly communication increasingly moves from clearly defined channels of production, distribution, and use toward overlapping loci of intellectual activity, this tendency becomes more apparent. DSEs are accordingly disseminated and reused in increasingly iterative fashions, with users often having access to a DSE across a multitude of platforms while it is still a work in progress—not least because digital editions rarely constitute something that could be considered a ‘finished product’. This allows for broader pedagogical and societal impact as new audiences, remixers, and use cases open up. Users accessing such a work in progress can exert influence over future iterations of the publication through feedback or even user-centric design processes. Social approaches to production such as crowdsourcing, social annotation, and pedagogical exercises in creating editions have made users a valued part of the production process. Participation in these editorial processes is arguably a very pure form of scholarly dissemination, to the extent that production and dissemination might blur together when such transformed relationships occur in digital environments. In this poster we address ways to map and account for such transformed relationships in dissemination and the digital environments where these activities take place.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>The ways that humanists study, create, and remediate textual materials through digital scholarly editions is changing. The digital ecosystem we envision explores how technical, cognitive, and social developments fundamentally affect what a DSE is or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">can be</hi>. For inasmuch as the edition is a site of intellectual activity among the interested publics, academics, and librarians, it is also a site of production, deeply intertwined with its foundational materials and the ways it is disseminated and read.
            </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. For a discussion arguing against digitisation as critical process, see Lavagnino (2009). For the opposing viewpoint, see Dahlström et al. (2012). For a discussion of the relationship between cultural heritage professionals and digital humanists, see, for example, Sula (2013). </p>
            <p>2. For an overview of STS, see ‘An Extremely Brief History of Science and Technology Studies’ (2014). For another example of discourse-shaping discussions of critical analysis, see Liu (2012). As a field, the digital humanities largely ignores debates raised by new media and information science professionals who approach technology as completely imbricated in socio-cultural contexts. For example, see Winner (1980). </p>
            <p>3. For the edition itself, see the Wikibooks-mounted project, http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/The_Devonshire_Manuscript. For critical work relating to the project, see Siemens et al. (2012). For arguments against the idea of collaborative editing, see Robinson (2013). See also Bordalejo (2013).</p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">‘An Extremely Brief History of Science and Technology Studies’. </hi>(2014). The Society Pages, University of Minnesota, http://thesocietypages.org/cyborgology/2014/07/30/an-extremely-brief-history-of-science-technology-studies/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bordalejo, B.</hi> (2013). What Is Meant by Editing in the Phrase ‘Social Editing’? Presentation from the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">2013 Social, Digital, Scholarly Editing Conference</hi>, https://www.academia.edu/4125893/What_is_Meant_by_Editing_in_the_Phrase_Social_Editing.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dahlström, M., Hansson, J. and Kjellman, U.</hi> (2012). As We May Digitize: Institutions and Documents Reconfigured. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Liber Quarterly,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(3), 10-1-113640, http://liber.library.uu.nl/index.php/lq/article/view/8036/8403.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lavagnino, J.</hi> (2009). Access. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>(1) (April), 10.1093/llc/fqn03, http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/1/63.full.pdf+html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Liu, A.</hi> (2012). Where Is Cultural Criticism in the Digital Humanities? In Gold, M. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/20. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Robinson, P.</hi> (2013). Why Digital Humanists Should Get Out of Textual Scholarship. Keynote Address from the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">2013 Social, Digital, Scholarly Editing Conference</hi>, https://www.academia.edu/4124828/SDSE_2013_why_digital_humanists_should_get_out_of_textual_scholarship.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Siemens, R., Timney, M., Leitch, C., Koolen, C. and Garney, A.</hi> (2012). Toward Modeling the Social Edition: An Approach to Understanding the Electronic Scholarly Edition in the Context of New and Emerging Social Media. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">27</hi>(4):445–61, dx.doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqs013, http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/4/445.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sula, C.</hi> (2013). Digital Humanities and Libraries: A Conceptual Model. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Library Administration, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">53</hi>(1), 10.1080/01930826.2013.756680, http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01930826.2013.756680.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Terras, M.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Images for the Information Professional. </hi>Ashgate, Surrey.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Winner, L.</hi> (1980). Do Artifacts Have Politics? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Daedalus, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">109</hi>(1), http://innovate.ucsb.edu/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/Winner-Do-Artifacts-Have-Politics-1980.pdf.
                    </bibl>
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"2232","16","Digitizing Slow and Deliberate: The Victorian Short Fiction Project","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Thorne-Murphy</surname>
                        <forename>Leslee</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Brigham Young University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>leslee_thorne-murphy@byu.edu</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Browne</surname>
                        <forename>Jeremy</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Brigham Young University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>jeremy_browne@byu.edu</email>
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            <p rend=""CM2"">The field of the digital humanities is built on the back of the archive. Researchers and the public have access to ever-growing online compilations of important texts (e.g., Dalmau and Courtney, 2011; Allori and Kaborycha, 2013), physical artifacts (e.g., Hunter et al., 2014; Streiter and Goudin, 2014), and lived experience (e.g., McGrath and Peaker, 2014). The power that these digital repositories afford—access to vast amounts of primary sources, processing tools to make sense of them, etc.—has redefined scholarship in the humanities. </p>
            <p rend=""CM2"">We should ask ourselves, however, what the process of creating sweeping digital collections leaves out. That is, as we move to automate the processes of digitization (e.g., Lenkiewics and Drude, 2013; Lombardi, 2014), do we risk losing aspects fundamental to the human experience? If Mark Algee-Hewitt (2013) is correct that distant reading is three-fourths interpretive, if the materiality of the original text is key to understanding its contents (Lavin, 2013), then a close experience with literary artifacts supports effective distant reading. Automated digital archiving—while undisputedly valuable to certain researchers—potentially shortchanges students and budding scholars. </p>
            <p rend=""CM8"">This paper describes the student-centric production of the Victorian Short Fiction Project (VSFP). Grown organically from a paper-based compendium of student research to a wiki of more than 160 articles, the VSFP conscientiously objects to removing the human experience from the curating process, even in the digital age. Two principles guide VSFP procedures: First, we prioritize quality of experience above speed of delivery. Second, the VSFP nurtures new scholars whose interaction with both the printed and digital text is integral to their development. </p>
            <p>The VSFP is a pedagogical project. Students in Victorian literature classes at Brigham Young University select a 19th-century periodical from the Special Collections library. They then choose a short story published in that periodical; prepare a digital transcription of the story, including an introduction and annotations; and post their work to the VSFP. </p>
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            <p rend=""CM2"">Figure 1. The VSFP homepage.</p>
            <p rend=""CM2"">Though short fiction is plentiful in Victorian literature, scholars have typically downplayed its significance, looking instead to French and American fiction for the genesis of the genre (e.g., Killick, 2008; Korte, 2003; Orel, 1986). The VSFP creates a unique opportunity for undergraduate students to contribute to an area of inquiry in professional literary scholarship. It includes little-known fiction by Charles Dickens, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, and Joseph Conrad, just to name a few authors. And we have fiction by a host of authors whose work has been all but forgotten, which makes the VSFP valuable for understanding the wider development of the short story during the century. </p>
            <p rend=""CM2"">By embedding the students’ experience with the digital humanities within a traditional literary classroom experience and within a scholarly conversation in a literary field, they learn to see the digital humanities as a natural part of their academic studies, and as a relevant part of their career preparation. However, anyone familiar with the practices of the digital humanities will realize that building a digital collection of short fiction one student-prepared text at a time is, quite frankly, appallingly inefficient. The typical procedure would be to set up a system of culling all short fiction from Victorian-era periodicals and digitizing them en masse. </p>
            <p rend=""CM8"">What would be lost in a typical process is exactly the rationale that gave rise to the VSFP in the first place. We need to nurture a new generation of digital humanists, not just by employing them as student workers on our large projects, but by showing them how the digital humanities is inextricably linked to the rest of their field. One student’s comments are representative of how students appreciate such connections: </p>
            <p>I learned how to work in an electronic environment, and that knowledge is invaluable in today’s electronically mediated world. Also, knowing that the material I was going to post would be public motivated me to fastidiously ensure that the work was a polished representation of my writing and researching abilities. Overall, this project was one of, if not the most influential educational activity I’ve taken part in as a student here at BYU. I was able to research lesser known material which contributed to the sense of accomplishment I felt. I had the sense that I was actually contributing to the discourse within literary studies and not simply churning out another banal paper or project, and at the same time I also feel that the knowledge I gained from the project is valuable because it is not a topic that the whole of literary studies is familiar with, and I can therefore feel a sense of ownership for what I’ve done and feel pleased with the effort I put into it.</p>
            <p rend=""CM4"">Note the aspects that the student pinpoints as particularly valuable: digital literacies, personal ownership, and legitimate participation in a community of practice. We know from constructivist theory and research that these qualities contribute to better performance (Ennis et al., 1999) and early professionalization of novices (Lave and Wenger, 1991). Other student comments reinforce the professionalizing aspects of the project. Students are motivated to do their best work because they know it will outlast the class. </p>
            <p rend=""CM2"">There is another aspect of student responses that deserves attention. Students often express a sense of sheer wonder at the process of bringing archival materials to a 21st-century audience. As one student put it, “The project made me interested in spending time in the archives. . . . And doing the project made me realize how valuable books are, and how I need to take much better care of books than I do. They are really priceless and need to be taken care of if I want them to last for the next hundred years.” Another student observed, “[I]t was just impressed on me even more how great it is to be able to look at the original text and how much more you learn from a publication b[y] looking at that original copy. For example, for my journal, the format of it and the way it was illustrated and even the way it smelled was enriched by reading and made its audience seem more real.” Ironically, the tactile experience of working with the archival holdings makes this digital project even more rewarding and beneficial for the students. </p>
            <p rend=""CM4"">As the field of the digital humanities charges bravely on in the construction of new knowledge, as we increase our understanding of the human experience by applying computation methods to centuries-old disciplines, we must not lose appreciation for the essential—yet often unacknowledged—physical aspects of that experience. We must be attentive to the balance between creation of or from digital content and the curation and appreciation of source artifacts, especially as we cultivate a new generation of scholars. Such awareness may serve as content knowledge that will influence our interpretation of digital representations. </p>
            <p rend=""CM2"">The VSFP will continue its deliberate efforts by posting approximately 20 new articles each year with the hope of influencing future literary scholars. Meanwhile, we are beginning the process of seeking NINES certification so that this digital repository will be of increased value to researchers of Victorian literature. </p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Algee-Hewitt, M.</hi> (2013). Romancing the Novel: A Computational Taxonomy of the Eighteenth-Century Literary Field. Invited presentation at Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, November.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM6"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Allori, L. and Kaborycha, L.</hi> (2013). Opening Aladdin’s Cave or Pandora’s Box? The Challenges of Crowdsourcing the Medici Archives. Paper presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH 2013</hi>, Lincoln, NE, July. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM5"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dalmau, M. and Courtney, A</hi>. (2011). The Victorian Women Writers Project Resurrected: A Case Study in Sustainability. Paper presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH 2011</hi>, Palo Alto, CA, June. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM6"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ennis, C. D.</hi> (1999). Creating a Culturally Relevant Curriculum for Disengaged Girls. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sport, Education, and Society, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>: 31–49. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM6"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hunter, J., Macarthur, J., Van der Plaat, D., Gosseye, J., Muys, A., Macnamara, C. and Bannerman, G.</hi> (2014). Extracting Relationships from an Online Digital Archive about Post-War Queensland Architecture. Paper presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH 2014</hi>, Lausanne, July. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Killick, T.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">British Short Fiction in the Early Nineteenth Century: The Rise of the Tale</hi>. Ashgate, Aldershot.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Korte, B.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Short Story in Britain: A Historical Sketch and Anthology</hi>. Francke, Tubingen.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM5"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lave, J. and Wenger, E.</hi> (1991). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation</hi>. Cambridge University Press, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM5"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lavin, M.</hi> (2013). Representing Materiality in a Digital Archive:
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Death Comes for the Archbishop </hi>as a Case Study. Paper presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH 2013</hi>, Lincoln, NE, July.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lenkiewicz, A. and Drude, S. </hi>(2013). Automatic Annotation of Linguistic 2D and Kinect Recordings with the Media Language for Elan. Paper presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH 2013</hi>, Lincoln, NE.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM5"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lombardi, T.</hi> (2014). Mining the Cloud of Witness: Inferring the Prestige of Saints from Medieval Paintings. Paper presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH 2014</hi>, Lausanne, July.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McGrath, J. and Peaker, A.</hi> (2014). Our Marathon: The Boston Bombing Digital Archive. Paper presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH 2014</hi>, Lausanne, July. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Orel, H.</hi> (1986). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Victorian Short Story: Development and Triumph of a Literary Genre</hi>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM6"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Streiter, O. and Goudin, Y.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Creating a Digital Tombstone Archive: From Fieldwork to Theory Formation</hi>. Paper presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH 2014</hi>, Lausanne, July. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2233","16","Disciplinary Impact: The Effect of Digital Editing","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Pierazzo</surname>
                        <forename>Elena</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Université Stendhal Grenoble III, France</affiliation>
                    <email>elena.pierazzo@kcl.ac.uk</email>
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                    <term>digital humanities - nature and significance</term>
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            <p>In 2003 Peter Robinson asked ‘where we are with electronic scholarly editions, and where we want to be’; more than 10 years later we may ask a similar question: Where are we, and where do we want to go? Rather than asking exactly this, however, I would like to address the question from a different angle—namely, what has been the impact of the digital in scholarly editing in more than 20 years of practice, and in which ways may this impact the future? This approach will allow us also to reflect in general on the impact of the digital in humanities disciplines more generally, by considering textual scholarship as a case study. </p>
            <p>A first caveat on this analysis: textual scholarship is not really a discipline. One could call it an inter-discipline or a super-discipline: we edit, and do so with similar approaches, within many of what we consider to be the traditional disciplines, such as, for instance, history, English, French, German, theology, philosophy, and art history. Most disciplines in fact have to deal with old documents, and therefore they have to edit them to study and make them available for scholarship. In spite of the many national and disciplinary differences, there are similarities in all the approaches adopted; furthermore, all of these disciplines have been affected by the impact of the digital. </p>
            <p>Within the past 20 years, all scholarly editions have in a sense become digital: all editions are in fact prepared on a computer; some use a very basic nonspecific setup such as word processor and standard image viewers; others are prepared with the help of sophisticated ad-hoc software, using markup and various combinations of scripts and algorithms. Let us consider the former case first. One cannot overestimate the impact of the availability of affordances such as copy and paste, digital images, and emails on the work and workflow of a textual scholar; these possibilities are transformational on the one hand, but they do not question the substantial heuristics of the textual scholarship—or not a great deal. The same cannot be said for those editors who have experimented with more innovative digital methods such as automatic collation, text encoding, and phylogenetics, among others; instead, the engagement with these methodologies brings into question some of the most established heuristics of textual editing, and it is claimed here that such innovations are building a methodological divide within textual scholars. Let us consider, for instance, automatic collation: this requires the editor first to transcribe all the witnesses of a given textual tradition in order to be able to compare them, a practice substantially unknown to traditional textual scholarship where collation is conducted by transcribing only one witness in full and then recording only the variants of other witnesses in various ways. Automatic collation is not an editorial method per se, but it is one first, necessary step of phylogenetic as well as other editorial digital methods (Andrews and Macé, 2013). The transcription of all witnesses is indeed a costly activity, and perhaps it is not the most exciting either, resulting in a much more detailed collation with respect to the one done manually; both aspects of this constitute a problem for the textual scholarship community: the transcription is stigmatized because it is resource-thirsty, and the (over)accurate collation because it does not distinguish between ‘proper’ errors, innovation, readings, and orthographic variants, with the risk, it is feared, of the reconstruction of an unreliable genealogical network of relations (Howe et al., 2012). According to Andrews (2013), however, the problem for traditional editors is not as much that variants and errors are not distinguished, but the fact that they refuse to consider that with the new digital method they might not need to be distinguished, since they refuse to consider the change in the heuristic of the discipline as worth having. A similar case happens with text encoding: while the use of text encoding is a new introduction to editing as a result of digital methods and it does seem to bring a different approach to the way we understand and edit texts (Cummings, 2008; Price, 2008), it is also refused as ‘too techie’, and the requirement for editors to learn the TEI seems beyond the reach of editorial work (Bree and McLaverty, 2009). </p>
            <p>In spite of this skepticism and drawback that have so far prevented the majority of textual scholars from embracing digital methods, new generations of textual scholars are indeed trained in digital tools and are therefore understanding and editing texts in these new ways. Universities, research centres, and various networks organize one event after the other, where mostly graduate students and young researchers are trained in the use of TEI, collation tools, and other formalisms. One example of this trend is represented by the ‘Marie Curie’ DiXiT ITN; within this network, 12 Early Stage Career Researchers (PhD students, more or less) and five Experienced Researchers (postdoc) are being intensively trained in all aspects of digital editing. The network offers courses every six months for the whole duration of their fellowship; furthermore, such trainings have been offered openly also to people outside the DiXiT Network. Once the experience of DiXiT is over, the impact of these 17 researchers (to which we have to add all the external participants in the training and camps) in the academic market for textual scholarship could be very strong: we are talking about small numbers, but in a super-discipline such as textual scholarship that counts only handfuls of practitioners within each national and disciplinary community, that effect could be really transformational. It will also be interesting to see in future years how many of these newly trained digital editors will remain for the longer term in the traditional disciplines where they began, or if, because of this digital experience, they will end up more on the digital humanities job market instead. A survey of the career plans and aspirations of the DiXiT fellows conducted for this paper might give us some indications.</p>
            <p>What could be the consequences of this situation at a disciplinary level? The methodological gap (people who engage with digital methods and people who do not) will be magnified and enhanced by a generational gap; the result of this situation could bring textual scholarship to the breaking point. This is what happened in the field of linguistics: the impact of digital technologies has transformed the methods and heuristics of linguistics beyond recognition, to the point that a new label had to be created: computational linguistics. Is this the scenario that we envisage for digital editing? A similar disciplinary divide seems to be happening within paleography (Stokes, 2009) and doubtless can be also observed for, say, musicology and history, to name a few. </p>
            <p>As I have argued elsewhere (Pierazzo, 2015, forthcoming), digital editing is not a new discipline—not yet, at any rate. It is certainly evident that in digital scholarly editing there are at least as many elements of continuity as there are of innovation. The innovative elements are truly transformative, involving as they do formats, methods, roles, heuristics, and hermeneutics of editing. Yet the purpose of editing remains the same—that is, the presentation of historical documents in ways that are meaningful for a group of users according to a documented and sharable methodology. For this, we may conclude that digital scholarly editing is a radical evolution (but not revolution) of print-based editing, as if in a Darwinian pattern of evolution a few steps have been jumped all at once. However, what is interesting to ask here is if the elements of continuity will be enough to keep the discipline together, so to speak, or will the innovative methods otherwise continue to widen the divide between traditional and digital? The answer to this question depends on the willingness of the traditional disciplines to engage with the new methods, but also from the attitude of digital humanists/editors to keep the dialog open with them. This is ultimately one of the biggest challenges of the digital humanities of the next few years: the relationship with the traditional humanities and their more or less peaceful coexistence. The paper will therefore present an analysis of the impact of the digital within scholarly editing using measurable indicators obtained by surveying the field, outlining patterns and trends that may help us assessing the consequences of such an impact. Such indicators include the number of early career researchers attending annual training events such as the DHSI and MMSDA, the number of digital-oriented papers at conferences like the ESTS and the STS in the past five years, and, in contrast, the number of print editions published by print publishers such as Cambridge University Press, Oxford University Press, Brepols, and Brill during the same period.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Andrews, T. L.</hi> (2013). The Third Way: Philology and Critical Edition in the Digital Age. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Variants,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>: 61–76. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Andrews, T. L. and Macé, C. </hi>(2013). Beyond the Tree of Texts: Building an Empirical Model of Scribal Variation through Graph Analysis of Texts and Stemmata. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computin</hi>g
                        <hi rend=""italic"">, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(4): 504–21. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bree, L. and McLaverty, J. </hi>(2009). The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Jonathan Swift and the Future of the Scholarly Edition,. In Deegan, D. and Sutherland, K. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text Editing, Print and the Digital World</hi>. Aldershot: Ashgate, pp. 127–36. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cummings, J. </hi>(2008). The Text Encoding Initiative and the Study of Literature. In Siemens, R. and Schreibman, S. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Literary Studies</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 451–76. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Howe, C. J., Connolly, R. and Windram, H. F.</hi> (2012). Responding to Criticisms of Phylogenetic Methods in Stemmatology. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Studies in English Literature, 1500–1900,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">52</hi>(1): 51–67. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pierazzo, E. </hi>(2015, forthcoming). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarly Editing: Theories, Methods, and Models</hi>. Ashgate, Aldershot. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Price, K. M.</hi> (2008). Electronic Scholarly Editions. In Siemens, R. and Schreibman, S. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Literary Studies</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 434–50. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Robinson, P. M. W.</hi> (2003). Where We Are with Electronic Scholarly Editions, and Where We Want to Be. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computerphilologie</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>, 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>http://computerphilologie.tu-darmstadt.de/jg03/robinson.html. </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stokes, P. A.</hi> (2009). Computer-Aided Palaeography, Present and Future. In Rehbein, M. Sahle, P. and Schaßan, T. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Kodikologie und Paläographie im Digitalen Zeitalter—Codicology and Palaeography in the Digital Age</hi>, unter Mitarbeit von Bernhard Assman, Franz Fischer und Christiane Fritze. Schriften des Instituts für Dokumentologie und Editorik 2, Norderstedt, pp. 313–42, urn:nbn:de:hbz:38-29782.
                    </bibl>
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"2234","16","Discourse, Design and Disorder: Digital Models for an Aesthetic Literary Theory","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Algee-Hewitt</surname>
                        <forename>Mark Andrew</forename>
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            <p>As quantitative textual analyses are based primarily on words, which are lexical objects that, by definition, carry meaning and information, these methods should offer a clear path that leads from analysis to interpretation. If two groups of texts are well differentiated by author (Burrows, 2003), genre (Jockers, 2013), or period (Hughes et al., 2012) based on word correlations or frequencies, it is reasonable to assume that those words that differentiated them should offer us a straightforward approach to understanding why 
                <hi rend=""italic"">those</hi> words in particular separated 
                <hi rend=""italic"">these</hi> texts. Yet this is not the case in most digital humanities findings. In authorship attribution, for example, high-frequency words are valued because they are “content-free” and thus are used ‘unconsciously’ by an author (Burrows, 2003).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> Even when content-laden words are used as the features, it is often the case, as in the Stanford Literary Lab’s first pamphlet, ‘Quantitative Formalism’, that some complex mixture of proportions of many words does the work at separating something like genre (Allison et al., 2011). All too often, reading these kinds of lists of words gets us no closer to understanding 
                <hi rend=""italic"">why</hi> two corpora are separated into groups. Even topic modeling, which promises results based on interpretable ‘topics’, only adds to this complex problem because the clusters of words that underlie the model are often only subjectively ‘named’ by the analyst.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi>
            </p>
            <p>At the root of this problem is the way in which much digital humanities work treats words as feature sets, rather than objects with interpretable weight. This has done much to uncover hidden structural (or stylistic) features of textual corpora, but has required an interpretive leap, from data to metadata, to explain these structures. The actual features that articulate the differences between texts are not easily integrated into the interpretive process. Instead, they establish the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">fact</hi> of a differentiation whose 
                <hi rend=""italic"">meaning</hi> is often explained by extratextual or a priori knowledge. In this paper, I argue that we can begin to mitigate this interpretative gap by deriving more complex, higher-order, quantitative metrics through which we can compare textual corpora. The two metrics I develop in this paper, heterogeneity and redundancy, are both based in frequency data, but 
                <hi rend=""italic"">meaningfully </hi>translate word frequencies into metrics whose relationship to the features is quantitative but whose relationship to the text as a whole is qualitative—that is, they are metrics that can be derived quantitatively, but that offer information that is immediately relatable to the texts and that can be used to interpret the results in a way that is not only quantitatively rigorous but also grounded in a theoretical method for understanding textual or informational difference.
            </p>
            <p>Heterogeneity</p>
            <p>The first metric that I develop in this project draws a connection between the quantitative analysis of texts and literary theory by way of Mikhail Bakhtin’s theory of heteroglossia. In ‘Discourse in the Novel’, Bakhtin proposes that we understand the novel as a genre of accumulation and mixture resulting in a heterogeneous object of multiple and overlapping language (Bakhtin, 1981). While poetry is dominated by a single, unitary voice, prose writing, particularly novelistic prose, is defined by a ‘diversity of voices’, according to Bakhtin: the more ‘novelistic’ the text, therefore, the more competing voices there should be and the less like the rest of the text any one part becomes. While it is useful to parse the distinction between prose and poetry, we can also operationalize the theory of heteroglossia to understand differences between and within different type of writing by measuring the ‘distance’ between the different parts of a text, thereby calculating how internally diverse it is. For this measurement, I divide the text into equally sized chunks and calculate the distance (using both a Euclidean distance metric and a Kullback-Leibler divergence) between every part and every other part. By combining these internal distances into a single score and scaling them logarithmically to account for text length, I am able to derive a single number that represents the amount of linguistic diversity between different parts of the text.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> Texts with a high degree of diversity, or heterogeneity, between their parts would be made up of more internal ‘voices’ following Bahktin. As I show in this paper, this metric of heterogeneity not only separates different kinds of writing, but also writing of different periods, or by different authors or even by different genres. And because the metric is a direct measure of internal diversity, the ways that groups of texts are separated by this metric offers critical information about those groups of texts: texts with a low heterogeneity score are mono-vocal: their patterns of language do not vary across the text. Texts with a high heterogeneity score are highly diverse among their constituent parts and depend upon variety, rather than repetition, to engage their readers.
            </p>
            <p>Redundancy</p>
            <p>The second metric I describe in this paper is based on Claude Shannon’s work in information theory. While metrics of entropy (or information loss) are common in measuring textual differentiation (the Kullback-Leibler divergence is one such metric), the measure of entropy in these cases is made 
                <hi rend=""italic"">between</hi> texts and offers only a way to characterize how different two texts are based on their shared word frequencies. The two interventions that I make in this paper are (a) to measure redundancy, the opposite of the informational entropy described by Shannon, and (b) to make this measurement 
                <hi rend=""italic"">within</hi> rather than 
                <hi rend=""italic"">between</hi> texts. By slightly altering Shannon’s formula for redundancy (1963) I offer a way to calculate the redundancy of a text that is scaled to the possible combinations of words within the text, rather than the possible combinations of words across the language (as it is traditionally calculated). This again allows me to calculate a single number based on word frequencies (in this case, bigram probabilities) that speaks directly to the information content of the text itself. In other words, the redundancy metric that I describe in this paper not only offers a way to classify different kinds of texts based on their score, but in doing so, it also describes how likely each text is to use repeated word combinations or if a text can be characterized by its tendency to combine words in new ways. This measurement therefore, reveals important information about how the text communicates with the reader that allows me to both describe differences between texts and, more importantly, characterize these differences based on features that are legible at the level of the text. 
            </p>
            <p>By combining these two metrics, heterogeneity and redundancy, both of which offer data on how repetition and variety functions within groups of texts, this paper demonstrates how these higher-order features can be used reliably to describe surprising differences between corpora that are uninterpretable through standard digital humanities analyses. In this paper I apply this new combination of metrics to two case studies in long 18th-century literature: genre and canonicity. As I demonstrate how these metrics together can differentiate between different kinds of writing, for example—poetry, prose, and nonfiction (Figure 1) as well as between canonical and noncanonical writing (Figure 2), I simultaneously articulate a theory of how the information content of the texts and their internal repetitions can help explain these groupings. This work also reveals a clear historical pattern among these different groups that is not apparent in any other quantitative analysis of the corpora that I use. These two ways of understanding textual difference therefore not only provide new information on literary history and criticism, but they also offer a way to bridge the gap between the quantitative calculation of clusters and the meaning behind these clusters. Despite their apparent simplicity (both redundancy and heterogeneity use a single number to describe a text), I argue that their actual complexity and their derivation from literary theory and information theory, respectively, allow us to understand the texts that they describe with a much greater nuance and in more critical detail than what we would be able to do from reading the texts, let alone deriving the clusters of the texts directly from word frequencies. What I argue that these two measurements provide is a quantitative aesthetic theory: one that articulates both a quantitative and theoretical way of understanding how texts are grouped and, more importantly, the critical significance of and meaning behind these historical, generic, and textual formations.</p>
            <p>Figures</p>
            <figure>
                <p>
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                    <hi style=""color:red; font-size: 14pt; font-weight:bold;"" rend=""ERROR"">�</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""docxError"">unable to handle picture here, no embed or link</hi>
                    </note>p = &lt;2.2e--16
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            <p>Figure 1. Difference between eighteenth-century genres derived from heterogeneity scores.</p>
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            <p>Figure 2. Change in redundancy over time in canonical (blue) and noncanonical (red) texts.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. This method, particularly the dependence upon ‘content-free’ words, was critiqued by Hoover (2009) in ways that echo the concerns that I raise here.</p>
            <p>2. There are notable exceptions to this, particularly studies that begin with a predefined list of meaningful terms and use their frequencies only to differentiate between texts. This is most evident in spatial humanities work that uses predefined geographic names to differentiate between texts (Wilkens, 2011). </p>
            <p>3. This measure is related to the Type-Token ratio, a standard metric of lexical diversity within a document, but where the Type-Token ratio measures lexical diversity across the entire document, the metric of heterogeneity that I propose here compares diversity 
                <hi rend=""italic"">between</hi> rather than 
                <hi rend=""italic"">within</hi> segments of the text, measuring, for example, the degree to which the ending of a text is like the beginning, or the middle.
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Allison, S., Heuser R., Jockers M., Moretti F. and Witmore W.</hi> (2011). Quantitative Formalism: An Experiment. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary Lab Pamphlet</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>, 15 January. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bakhtin, M.</hi> (1981). Discourse in the Novel. In Holquist, M. (ed.), Emerson, C. and Holquist, M. (trans.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Dialogic Imagination</hi>. Austin: University of Texas Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (2003). Questions of Authorship: Attribution and Beyond. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computers and the Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>(1): 5–32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D.</hi> 2009. “Word Frequency, Statistical Stylistics and Authorship Attribution.” In 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Archer, D.</hi> (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">What’s in a Word-list? Investigating Word Frequency and Keyword Extraction.</hi> London: Ashgate, pp. 35–52. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hughes, J., Foti, N., Krakauer D. and Rockmore D.</hi> (2012). Quantitative Patterns of Stylistic Influence in the Evolution of Literature. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PNAS</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">109</hi>: 7682–86. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History</hi>. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shannon, C. and Weaver, W.</hi> (1963). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Mathematical Theory of Communication</hi>. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wilkens, M.</hi> (2011). Canons, Close Reading, and the Evolution of Method. In Gold, M. K. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
                    </bibl>
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"2235","16","Discovering and Rediscovering Full Text: Unearthing and Refactoring","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Kerry</forename>
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                    <affiliation>The University of Queensland, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>k.kilner@uq.edu.au</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Fitch</surname>
                        <forename>Kent</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>The University of Queensland, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>kent.fitch@gmail.com</email>
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            <p>AustLit contains thousands of full text items ranging from seminal works of 19th- and early-20th-century Australian literature through collections of early science and speculative fiction, to a large corpus of children’s literature, alongside selected criticism and scholarship. In addition, AustLit bibliographical records link outwards to tens of thousands of full text items available online. </p>
            <p>This paper presents the results of a project undertaken by the AustLit team in 2014 and 2015 to totally refactor the existing AustLit full text corpus, including a massive expansion of the corpus by identifying and harvesting literary texts published in newspapers in the period covered by the National Library of Australia’s (NLA) database of digitised newspaper available through Trove.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi>
            </p>
            <p>A number of different formats and digitisation protocols have been used over the past 14 years to build a corpus of works that has the potential to support a range of different use cases. That potential had not been met until the total restructure of the AustLit database and content management system over the past two years provided an opportunity to look again at the material we have and the way we deliver that material to researchers and readers. A major factor in AustLit’s future plans to deliver full text is the NLA’s newspapers database. It offers a valuable opportunity to build our corpus and advance knowledge about the place of literature in culture and reading practices across the 19th and early 20th centuries. Newspapers were the primary form of transmission for literature during the period covered by the NLA’s database; the possibility of identifying and unlocking the literary content in the database thus allows us to support new research into reading culture.</p>
            <p>This paper will present the refactored full text system AustLit developers have created to expand utility, readability, and research opportunities. It will also discuss an innovative method of identifying and harvesting poetry from the NLA’s newspapers database. </p>
            <p>In July 2014, AustLit contained just over 10,500 links to poems identified within the NLA’s Digitised Newspapers collection. Each of these links had been manually created by a combination of inspired searching for words from a known poem, searching for known literary columns, and systematic browsing through each page of each issue of nominated newspaper titles across specific date ranges. </p>
            <p>One of AustLit’s many new research projects is the Colonial Newspapers and Magazines Project, undertaken by researchers at UNSW, Canberra. This project is creating a literary ‘map‘ of Australia’s colonial period by collecting and recording information about the reading habits of Australians before 1900 and linking these findings into AustLit’s data structures. This huge task has been begun by concentrating on three specific years in the 1800s, and whilst producing accurate and near-complete results, the only feasible method of browsing every page of selected titles is extremely labour intensive. </p>
            <p>Hence, we started exploring an automated approach to identifying at least some relevant content. As a starting point, we noted the effectiveness of Ted Underwood’s genre identification approaches on 17th- and 18th-century texts digitised by HathiTrust.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> We used his vocabulary information to produce two vocabulary frequency lists: one of all words and one of words found in works of poetry. 
            </p>
            <p>We first trained using a naive Bayesian classifier with the ‘all’ and ‘poetry’ vocabulary frequencies, and ran the trained classifier on a training set of newspaper articles identified as poetry and on another set whose genre was unknown. </p>
            <p>The known poetry article list was derived from the 10,500 articles linked to as poetry in AustLit. The unknown set was generated by randomly selecting articles from NLA’s digitised newspapers. We found that whilst providing a useful signal, vocabulary alone was not sufficient to reliably classify articles as poetry or not-poetry. Examination of classification failures led us to explore additional signals to add to our classification heuristics: </p>
            <p> • Text justification.</p>
            <p> • Variations in length of successive lines. </p>
            <p> • Apparently rhyming lines. </p>
            <p> • Presence of digits in OCRed text. </p>
            <p> • Presence of a small number of ‘marker’ words. </p>
            <p>Our initial results correctly classified just over 80% of articles associated with AustLit poetry links as poetry. Manual examination of the articles not identified (false negatives) revealed that the vast majority were articles containing a small amount of poetry set within a sea of prose. A significant other group where written using a vocabulary not typical of poetry (words such as ‘proclamation’, ‘neutrality’, and ‘precautions’, which pushed the classifier towards rejection as poetry), and there was another large group of articles with such poor OCR that few words were accurately identified. An error in AustLit linking to the incorrect article was also identified. </p>
            <p>We then measured the effect on the classifier of automatically correcting the OCR of articles and found it gave only slight improvements to false positives and negatives, because the predominant reasons for rejection of a known poetry article as non-poetry were not related to correctable OCR. </p>
            <p>We then implemented the following set of refinements to the classifier, which lifted our successful classification rate to over 85% whilst keeping ‘false positives’ below 1%:</p>
            <p> • Improved rhyming detection heuristics.</p>
            <p> • Used article metadata to exclude advertisements. </p>
            <p> • Internal article segmentation in an attempt to identify ‘islands’ of poetry contained in predominantly prose articles. </p>
            <p> • Use of cues from social tagging and commenting. </p>
            <p>We aim to harvest what appears to be vast numbers of poems published in Australian newspapers during the 19th and early 20th centuries and to deliver that full text to AustLit users within an enhanced discovery and reading environment. This project also allows AustLit to expand a project that has neither the funding nor the research staff to build on the initial 10,500 manually created records and links into the newspapers database. While the creation of nuanced, human-derived records is no longer possible for the colonial newspapers project, the hope is that this method will provide it with a data boost by building the AustLit full text corpus and record store with greatly reduced human input, thereby enabling the analytical research into the period’s reading and publishing culture. </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. http://trove.nla.gov.au.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. See http://tedunderwood.com/2012/07/27/getting-everything-you-want-from-hathitrust/.</p>
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                        <surname>Chen</surname>
                        <forename>Kai</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Fribourg, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>kai.chen@unifr.ch</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Seuret</surname>
                        <forename>Mathias</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Fribourg, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>mathias.seuret@unifr.ch</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Würsch</surname>
                        <forename>Marcel</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Fribourg, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>marcel.wuersch@unifr.ch</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Liwicki</surname>
                        <forename>Marcus</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Fribourg, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>marcus.eichenberger-liwicki@unifr.ch</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ingold</surname>
                        <forename>Rolf</forename>
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            <p>According to the latest panel discussions at the Historical Image Processing (HIP 2013)
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> and Document Analysis Systems (DAS 2014)
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> conferences, historical documents are among the most challenging types of documents for automatic processing. This is due to the vast variety of challenges they pose to document image analysis (DIA) systems. In the pipeline of automatic DIA, layout analysis is an important prerequisite for further stages, such as optical character recognition and information retrieval. Layout analysis aims at splitting a document image into regions of interest and especially distinguishing text lines from other regions.
            </p>
            <p>For automatic layout analysis methods, an essential prerequisite is the ground truth (GT), i.e., existing labels (text line, decoration, etc.) annotated by human experts for the corresponding regions. An example of historical document image
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> and its ground truth are shown in Figure 1. The importance of GT is twofold: first, automatic methods could learn knowledge represented by GT from the experts, and then predict the layout of unseen images. Second, it is used to assess the performance of an automatic method by the accuracy of the prediction of the method against the GT. However, the generation of GT is time-consuming.
            </p>
            <p>We propose a novel web-based interface called 
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIAWI</hi>, in order to assist the user to semi-automatically generate ground truth for large numbers of historical documents. The name 
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIAWI</hi> stands for a Web-based Interface for Document Image Analysis of DIVA group (Document, Image and Voice Analysis).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIAWI</hi> incorporates two parts: automatic processing and manual editing. In the automatic processing part, the system automatically draws polygons representing text lines for which manual generation of GT is quite time-consuming. In parallel or sequentially, the user can manually edit the polygons by modifying them or directly drawing new polygons. 
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIAWI</hi> greatly accelerates the generation of GT. It is robust to generate GT for historical document images of a diverse nature.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""13.701888888888888cm"" height=""6.618111111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""13.749513888888888cm"" height=""6.642805555555555cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>(a)
            </p>
            <p>(b)</p>
            <p>Figure 1. (a) An image example and (b) its ground truth. In (b), the cyan, blue, red, green, and purple polygons represent the regional contours of the page, text block, text lines, decorations, and comments, respectively.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">State of the Art</hi>
            </p>
            <p>In recent years, several tools for GT generation have been developed. Aletheia (Clausner et al., 2011) is an advanced system to generate GT for printed materials such as newspapers. It aids the user with a top-down method using split and shrink tools as well as a bottom-up method to group elements together. WebGT (Biller et al., 2013) is a web-based system for GT generation for historical document images. It provides a semi-automatic strategy enabling instant interaction between the user and the system. The Java-based 
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIA</hi> tool (Chen et al., 2015) was developed by our group. It provides a user-friendly user interface to generate GT. The tool has been proven effective and flexible by performing a real task of GT generation. Other state-of-the-art tools include AGORA (Ramel et al., 2006), PixLabeler (Saund et al., 2009), TRUEVIZ (Lee et al., 2003), and GEDI (Doermann et al., 2010).
            </p>
            <p>Compared to the state of the art, the novelty of 
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIAWI</hi> is twofold. First, the high level of automation greatly reduces the human effort. The user needs to do only a few simple modifications after the automatic processing. Second, 
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIAWI</hi> doesn’t require the user to install any software. It works on all modern browsers, e.g., Firefox, Chrome, and Internet Explorer.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">System Overview</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ground Truth Representation</hi>
            </p>
            <p>As it is shown in Figure 1(b), we define five types of regions of interest: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">text line, text block, decoration, comment,</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">page</hi> (Chen et al., 2015). The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">text line</hi> is the type of region where the main text is written. The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">text block</hi> incorporates text lines and document background between text lines. The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">decoration</hi> represents decorative elements such as figures, drop capitals, and decorative initials. The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">comment</hi> represents the annotations and inserted text in the margins. Finally the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">page</hi> outlines only the document part within the scanned image. The contours of the five regions are represented by polygons. All information—including the polygons, the document name, and the name of the author who generated the GT—are saved in XML files of the PAGE format (Pletschacher and Antonacopoulos, 2010), a widely used image representation framework for layout analysis. Furthermore, the GT also has the potential to be exported to the widely used TEI-P5 format for manuscript description
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">System Workflow</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIAWI</hi> is now publicly accessible at http://diuf.unifr.ch/diva/divadiawi/. A screenshot of 
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIAWI</hi> is shown in Figure 2. 
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIAWI</hi> integrates automatic processing and manual editing. The workflow is illustrated in Figure 3 and detailed below.
            </p>
            <p>Among the five region types, the regions of text lines cost most of the working time for GT generation.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> The automatic processing of 
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIAWI</hi> is developed to accelerate the GT generation specifically for text lines. The user needs to manually draw a rectangular polygon representing a text block that contains some text lines. As soon as the rectangular polygon is drawn, the automatic processing starts. We use Gabor filters, widely used for text extraction (Jain and Farrokhnia, 1991; Raju et al., 2004), to detect regions of text lines from the rectangle. After being detected, text lines are represented by polygons and are then drawn. The automatic processing performs well on our datasets. Most of the regions of text lines are properly outlined. However, there are still some minor mistakes. In small areas where two adjacent text lines intersect or are very close to each other, the two text lines are wrongly grouped into a single line in some cases. In addition, for some strokes lightly written near the boundary of a text line, automatic processing fails to detect them. Thus manual modification follows.
            </p>
            <p>The manual editing has two modes: manual drawing and manual modification. Since automatic processing specifically deals with text lines, the user needs to manually draw regions of the page, text blocks, decorations, and comments. The user can select the shape (polygon or rectangle) and region type to draw. The drawn polygons and rectangles have different colors depending on their region types. After drawing, the user can modify polygons or rectangles by dragging a vertex to a new position. A new vertex can also be added to a polygon. In addition, a polygon can be deleted. Finally, an XML file storing the GT of the page is generated.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""15.996708333333334cm"" height=""7.815791666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. A screenshot of DIVADIAWI.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""12.846402777777778cm"" height=""6.129513888888889cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. System workflow of 
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIAWI</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""13.92061111111111cm"" height=""3.125611111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""block""/>(a)
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""13.82536111111111cm"" height=""3.6653611111111113cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>(b)</p>
            <p>
                <graphic n=""1007"" width=""13.848291666666666cm"" height=""3.7359166666666668cm"" url=""Pictures/image7.png"" rend=""block""/>(c)
            </p>
            <p>
                <graphic n=""1008"" width=""13.97cm"" height=""3.9317083333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image8.png"" rend=""block""/>(d)
            </p>
            <p>Figure 4. The process to draw polygons of text lines by automatic processing and manual modification. (a) A part of original image. (b) Rectangular polygon of text block drawn. manually by the user. (c) Polygons of text lines obtained by automatic processing. (d) Final result obtained by manual modification.</p>
            <p>Evaluation</p>
            <p>IAM Historical Document Database (IAM-HistDB)
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi> is used for the evaluation. The database contains a variety of historical document images, which are color or gray, single-column or double-column, and date from different centuries.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIAWI</hi> works well on the database. Thanks to the automatic processing, it greatly accelerates the GT generation. We show an example to draw polygons of text lines on a color image
                <hi rend=""superscript"">8</hi> in Figure 4. Most pixels within regions of text lines are included in the polygons obtained by automatic processing (see Figure 4[c]). However, the result of this step is still not perfect. For example, the bottom part of the big character ‘G’ in the first text line is very close to the second text line, leading automatic processing to fail to separate them. The problems could be solved by manually dragging the problematic vertexes of the polygons to proper positions (see Figure 4[d]). In general, with the automatic processing, the user needs to do only a few simple manual modifications for each text line. This manual work is much less effort than completely manual editing from scratch. 
            </p>
            <p>System Usability Scale (SUS; Brooke, 1996), a measurement to assess the global performance of system usability, is used to assess 
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIAWI. </hi>Researchers from the humanities and computer sciences are both invited to participate in the assessment. Quantitative evaluation details will be provided in the full paper.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Conclusions and Future Work</hi>
            </p>
            <p>We propose
                <hi rend=""allcaps""> D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIAWI</hi>, a web-based interface for the GT generation for historical document images. 
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIAWI</hi> is efficient to accelerate the GT generation, thanks to the integration of automatic processing and manual editing. It is robust to work on different kinds of historical document images from the IAM-HistDB.
            </p>
            <p>In the future we will keep improving 
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">IVA</hi>
                <hi rend=""allcaps"">DIAWI</hi>. For example, automatic processing could be better designed to even decrease errors. Techniques to automatically outline other region types—e.g., page and text block—could also be applied. 
            </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. Workshop on Historical Document Imaging and Processing, 2013, http://www.cvc.uab.es/~vfrinken/hip2013/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. 11th IAPR International Workshop on Document Analysis Systems, 2014, http://das2014.sciencesconf.org/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. Saint Gall DB: Cod. Sang. 562, Abbey Library of St. Gall (SG30).</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">4. http://diuf.unifr.ch/main/diva/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">5. http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/MS.html.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">6. In a process of manual GT generation of 100 document pages, about 80% of the time was spent on text lines.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">7. http://www.iam.unibe.ch/fki/databases/iam-historical-document-database.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">8. Parzival DB: Cod. 857, Abbey Library of St Gall (PAR23).</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Biller, O., Asi, A., Kedem, K., El-Sana, J. and Dinstein, I.</hi> (2013). WebGT: An Interactive Web-based System for Historical Document Ground Truth Generation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">12th International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition</hi>, pp. 305–8.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brooke, J.</hi> (1996). SUS—A Quick and Dirty Usability Scale. Usability Evaluation. In Jordan, P. W., Weerdmeester, B., Thomas, A. and McLelland, I. L. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Industry</hi>. Taylor and Francis.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chen, K., Seuret, M., Wei, H., Liwicki, M., Hennebert, J. and Ingold, R.</hi> (2015). Ground Truth Model, Tool, and Dataset for Layout Analysis of Historical Documents. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of SPIE 22nd Document Recognition and Retrieva XXII, </hi>vol. 9402.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clausner, C., Pletschacher, S. and Antonacopoulos, A. </hi>(2011). Aletheia—An Advanced Document Layout and Text Ground-Truthing System for Production Environments. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition</hi>, pp. 48–52.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Doermann, D., Zotkina, E. and Li, H.</hi> (2010). GEDI—A Groundtruthing Environment for Document Images. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ninth IAPR International Workshop on Document Analysis Systems (DAS 2010)</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jain, A. K. and Farrokhnia, F.</hi> (1991). Unsupervised Texture Segmentation Using Gabor Filters. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pattern Recognition,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>(12): 1167–86.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lee, C. and Kanungo, T.</hi> (2003). The Architecture of TRUEVIZ: a Groundtruth/Metadata Editing and Visualizing Toolkit. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pattern Recognition,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">36</hi>(3): 811–25.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pletschacher, S. and Antonacopoulos, A.</hi> (2010). The PAGE (Page Analysis and Ground-truth Elements) Format Framework. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Conference on Pattern Recognition,</hi> pp. 257–60.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Raju, S. S., Pati, P. B. and Ramakrishnan, A. G.</hi> (2004). Gabor Filter Based Block Energy Analysis for Text Extraction from Digital Document Images. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">First International Workshop on Document Image Analysis for Libraries,</hi> pp. 233–43.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramel, J. Y., Busson, S. and Demonet, M. L.</hi> (2006). AGORA: The Interactive Document Image Analysis Tool of the BVH Project. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Second International Conference on Document Image Analysis for Libraries, </hi>pp. 145–55.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Saund, E., Lin, J. and Sarkar, P.</hi> (2009). PixLabeler: User Interface for Pixel-Level Labeling of Elements in Document Images. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition,</hi> pp. 646–50.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                        <surname>Liwicki</surname>
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            <p>This paper presents an open-source web service providing researchers in all fields with state-of-the-art computational methods for several Document Image Analysis (DIA) steps. Research on automatic DIA focuses mainly on developing and refining automatic processing steps, e.g., text line extraction, binarization, and layout analysis. While many state-of-the-art methods perform satisfactorily, the algorithms applied to obtain the results are not easily accessible for other researchers. Just making the source available online is not sufficient, as it typically requires a cumbersome installation of required libraries and reading long manuals about the usage. Our approach is to directly make the methods available as web services that can be accessed via RESTful HTTP requests, the current state of the art in online web communication. Thus, the resulting services can be integrated easily into document processing workflows by any software engineer without specific knowledge of the mathematical and algorithmic details of DIA. We will build on standards for result presentation, such as the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI)
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> and the International Image Interoperability Framework (IIIF).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">State of the Art</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Our research is motivated by the availability of many different web-based tools for researchers with a humanist background wanting to do document image analysis (e.g., 
                <hi rend=""italic"">SALSAH</hi> [Schweizer and Rosenthaler, 2011], Transcribe Bentham [Causer and Wallace, 2012], or the Genizah project [Wolf et al., 2011]). Most of these tools were either developed to solve a specific task or lack the inclusion of (semi)-automatic methods. Several projects using web services for DIA have been proposed in recent years. One such example is the Document Analysis and Exploitation (DAE; Lamiroy and Lopresti, 2011) that provides different algorithms as web services and allows for workflow creation. Our aim is to expand this research with a focus on making the algorithms available for researchers with only little computer science knowledge by providing them also with simple web interfaces as showcases building on the web services and demonstrating how to use them to integrate computational methods into their research. 
            </p>
            <p>Methodology</p>
            <p>We propose an open-source framework for providing algorithms to the public. For this we designed a RESTful web service architecture exposing all information using the JavaScript Object Notation (JSON). The intention is to include a wide assortment of services for different tasks:</p>
            <p> • Image processing and enhancement in order to make the desired content more easily visible or to make the processing of further automatic analysis simpler. Those methods include, for example, binarization methods (Otsu 1979), Laplacian of Gaussian (LoG), Difference of Gaussian (DoG).</p>
            <p> • Document layout analysis methods allowing automatic extraction of texts, text lines, or images. These methods include pixel- (Wei, 2013) and interest point– (Garz et al., 2011) based approaches.</p>
            <p> • Optical Character Recognition (OCR) to support the transcription of the documents.</p>
            <p> • Methods for palaeographic analysis, such as script identification (Ghosh et al., 2010), writer identification (Fiel et al., 2013), and water mark analysis.</p>
            <p> • Methods for feature extraction and feature selection, so that computer scientists can directly work on extracted meta-information without any specific knowledge in DIA. For example, the following methods are included: Local Binary Patterns (LBP; Nicolaou et al., 2014), Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT; Lowe, 1999), Gabor features (Chen et al., 2010), standard feature search algorithms, as well as several feature selection methods (Wei et al., 2014).</p>
            <p> • Machine Learning algorithms: Support Vector Machines (SVMs), k-nearest neighbor algorithm (k-NN), Gaussian Mixture Models (GMMs).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi>
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""8.606013888888889cm"" height=""5.363986111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>Evaluation metrics for the automatic assessment of results and to allow computer science researchers to compare their systems. There we will build on the standards laid out in DAE
                <anchor xml:id=""Ref402634392""/>.
            </p>
            <p>Figure 1. Conceptual overview of the proposed D
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services framework. Access to the provided methods and tools would all be standardized using HTTP requests and JSON as input/output format.
            </p>
            <p>Besides a large set of own implementations we will integrate several open-source software like Tesseract
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> and OCROpus.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> This enables fast integration of many available image processing algorithms that have been in development for years and proven to produce reliable results.
            </p>
            <p>A high-level overview of the proposed framework is provided in Figure 1. Access to the provided tools and algorithms would be standardized across all possible end-user applications using simple HTTP requests and JSON as input/output format. For accessing the methods we will follow the proposed URL format for RESTful services.</p>
            <p>The current state of D
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services is available at http://divaservices.unifr.ch. Using GET requests allows for browsing the available services. We are in the process of developing a web front-end that will allow for automated prototype creation of all available algorithms in order to allow for experimenting with them.
            </p>
            <p>Since we only provide algorithms, creating specific workflows is left to developers designing client applications and can therefore be designed targeting the specific need of end users. At a later stage we aim at directly implementing some of the more common workflows directly into D
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services.
            </p>
            <p>As proof of concept
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> a simple histogram-based line segmentation method was exposed using the proposed framework. This service was then integrated into the D
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>D
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">ia</hi>WT, a web-based interface that allows for the creation of transcriptions. The user interface of the D
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>D
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">ia</hi>WT is shown in Figure 2.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""11.410597222222222cm"" height=""4.928305555555555cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Overview of the DivaDiaWT. The original image is displayed on the left side, transcriptions on the right side. Transcriptions can be displayed in Layout mode, where they are aligned with the original image. </p>
            <p>The line segmentation service is used on a user-marked region and automatically extracts lines from there. In Figure 3 a user created a box using his mouse around a region that he wants to have automatically processed into text lines. The result of the automated text line segmentation is shown in Figure 4. </p>
            <p>We have set up a web server on which we run our RESTful web services. When the user wants to automatically segment a text area, a POST request is made to the server containing the following JSON:</p>
            <p>{</p>
            <p> ""url"": ""http://www.e-codices.unifr.ch/loris/bbb/bbb-0360/bbb-0360_001r.jp2/full/pct:25/0/default.jpg"",</p>
            <p> ""top"": ""300"",</p>
            <p> ""bottom"": ""500"",</p>
            <p> ""left"": ""190"",</p>
            <p> ""right"": ""750""</p>
            <p>}</p>
            <p>Listing 1. Example of a JSON sent together with the POST request for automatic line segmentation. The url points to the source image; the four location values mark the region within the image that the user selected.</p>
            <p>[</p>
            <p> {</p>
            <p> ""bottom"": ""180"",</p>
            <p> ""left"": ""95"",</p>
            <p> ""right"": ""469"",</p>
            <p> ""top"": ""156""</p>
            <p> },</p>
            <p> { …}</p>
            <p>]</p>
            <p>Listing 2. The JSON the server sends back to the client application containing all bounding boxes of the detected text lines.</p>
            <p>The web service downloads the image and processes the region marked by the user. This can lead to several detected text lines, and the server responds with a JSON file containing the bounding box of each detected text line:</p>
            <p>[</p>
            <p> {</p>
            <p> ""bottom"": ""180"",</p>
            <p> ""left"": ""95"",</p>
            <p> ""right"": ""469"",</p>
            <p> ""top"": ""156""</p>
            <p> },</p>
            <p> { …}</p>
            <p>]</p>
            <p>The D
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>D
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">ia</hi>WT parses this information and presents it as shown in Figure 4. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""12.292541666666667cm"" height=""2.779888888888889cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. The user marked a box (visible as grey shaded area) that should be automatically divided into text lines using an algorithm provided by D
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""12.292541666666667cm"" height=""2.684638888888889cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. The result of the automated segmentation process. </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. http://www.tei-c.org. </p>
            <p>2. http://www.iiif.io. </p>
            <p>3. See 
                <?biblio ADDIN CSL_CITATION { ""citationItems"" : [ { ""id"" : ""ITEM-1"", ""itemData"" : { ""author"" : [ { ""dropping-particle"" : """", ""family"" : ""Ma"", ""given"" : ""Huanfeng"", ""non-dropping-particle"" : """", ""parse-names"" : false, ""suffix"" : """" }, { ""dropping-particle"" : """", ""family"" : ""Doermann"", ""given"" : ""David"", ""non-dropping-particle"" : """", ""parse-names"" : false, ""suffix"" : """" } ], ""container-title"" : ""Document Recognition and Retrieval"", ""id"" : ""ITEM-1"", ""issued"" : { ""date-parts"" : [ [ ""2003"", ""12"" ] ] }, ""page"" : ""124-135"", ""title"" : ""Word level script identification for scanned document images"", ""type"" : ""paper-conference"" }, ""uris"" : [ ""http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=33a69a5c-4bd9-4d26-9085-f81c60ff39b5"" ] } ], ""mendeley"" : { ""formattedCitation"" : ""(Ma and Doermann 2003)"", ""plainTextFormattedCitation"" : ""(Ma and Doermann 2003)"", ""previouslyFormattedCitation"" : ""(Ma and Doermann 2003)"" }, ""properties"" : { ""noteIndex"" : 0 }, ""schema"" : ""https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"" }?> for an overview of classification algorithms in script identification.
            </p>
            <p>4. http://code.google.com/p/tesseract-ocr. </p>
            <p>5. http://github.com/tmbdev/ocropy. </p>
            <p>6. Code of the proof of concept is available at https://github.com/lunactic/Diva-WebService.</p>
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"2238","16","DPRR: Digitizing the Prosopography of the Roman Republic","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Mouritsen</surname>
                        <forename>Henrik</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Department of Classics, King's College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>henrik.mouritsen@kcl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Bradley</surname>
                        <forename>John</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Department of Digital Humanities, King's College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>john.bradley@kcl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Rathbone</surname>
                        <forename>Dominic</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Department of Classics, King's College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>dominic.rathbone@kcl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Robb</surname>
                        <forename>Maggie</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Department of Classics, King's College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>maggierobb@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
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                <edition>
                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>Roman Republic</term>
                    <term>structured prosopography</term>
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                    <term>classical studies</term>
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            <p>Rome’s remarkable development from a modest Italian city-state into the ruler of a Mediterranean empire arguably happened because of its highly competitive aristocratic elite during the time of the Roman Republic (500 BC to 31 BC). The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Digitizing the Prosopography of the Roman Republic</hi> project
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> at King’s College London (Department of Classics, and Department of Digital Humanities [DDH]) aims to enhance the understanding of this story through the development of a digital prosopographic database of these elite individuals, and believes that through its availability online a host of old questions from Roman Republic history as well as many new ones will be made feasible to explore. Through the database one will be able to see an individual’s career patterns, connections with their families and links between families, and evidence for the process of how families got themselves into the elite group.
            </p>
            <p>The name of the project is significant in that, unlike other prosopographies that DDH has undertaken, this one draws heavily on several existing print and digital prosopographies that are already in existence, and we believe that it is in the bringing together of data from these hitherto separate resources that new insights will become available. Of the prosopographical work available, Broughton’s study of office-holders (1951–1952, supplement 1986) remains the standard work. However, DPRR has arranged that more recent prosopographical work by Nicolet (1966–1974), Rüpke (2005), Zmeskal (2009), and others will also be included. Underpinning all of this is the monumental 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft </hi>(Pauly et al., 1893–) which dates from the late 19th century and continues to provide the basis against which historical identity of individuals is argued even today. Indeed, the way to represent not only the combined data from these quite different sources in a single structure, but also to deal with their disagreements, is one of the issues the project will be exploring.
            </p>
            <p>The project will draw on the experience of the Department of Digital Humanities at KCL through its use of its highly successful ‘factoid’ design for structured prosopography (Bradley and Short, 2005; Pasin and Bradley, 2013), which has been already successfully applied to several other structured prosopographies in which DDH was a partner, including 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England</hi> (PASE),
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Prosopography of the Byzantine World</hi> (PBW),
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> and more recently the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">People of Medieval Scotland</hi> (PoMS),
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> People of Northern England (PoNE),
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> and the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Making of Charlemagne’s Europe</hi>,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> although the secondary-source nature of the material for DPRR will necessitate some modifications to the factoid principles.
            </p>
            <p>DPRR expects to become a key resource for scholars interested in the classical world at the time of the Roman Republic, and will thus be participating in the various linked data initiatives currently under way in the digital classics field. In particular, as an online resource, DPRR will be contributing URIs for its various individuals, and expects to make available the data it holds about its individuals using linked data conventions such as RDF. In this regard, it hopes to participate in the continuing work of the SNAP:DRGN
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi> project, and to work with the broader LAWDI
                <hi rend=""superscript"">8</hi> community. In addition, the factoid model for data often opens up the data for network analysis techniques such as Social Network Analysis (SNA). DPRR also intends to explore what SNA potential might be found in its data, drawing on the experience DDH has had with applying SNA techniques to the factoid model of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">People of Medieval Scotland</hi> dataset.
            </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. Funded by the UK’s AHRC.</p>
            <p>2. http://www.pase.ac.uk.</p>
            <p>3. http://www.pbw.kcl.ac.uk/.</p>
            <p>4. http://www.poms.ac.uk/.</p>
            <p>5. http://www.pone.ac.uk/.</p>
            <p>6. http://www.charlemagneseurope.ac.uk/.</p>
            <p>7. http://snapdrgn.net/.</p>
            <p>8. http://wiki.digitalclassicist.org/Linked_Ancient_World_Data_Institute.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bradley, J. and Short, H.</hi> (2005). Texts into Databases: The Evolving Field of New-Style Prosopography. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">20</hi>(Suppl. 1): 3–24.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Broughton, T. and Robert S.</hi> (1951). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Magistrates of the Roman Republic</hi>. In De Lacy, P. H. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Philological Monographs</hi>. Vol. 1: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">509–100 BC</hi>; Vol. 2: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">99–31 BC</hi>; Vol. 3 Supplement. Atlanta: Scholars Press ed. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nicolet, C.</hi> (1966–1974). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">L’Ordre équestre à l’époque républicaine (312–43 av. J.-C.).</hi> Paris. 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pasin, M. and Bradley, J.</hi> (2013). Factoid-Based Prosopography and Computer Ontologies: Towards an Integrated Approach. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, June 29, doi:10.1093/llc/fqt037.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pauly, A., Wissowa, G. and Kroll, W.</hi> (eds). (1893–). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Real-Encyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaf: </hi>Stuttgart and Munich.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rüpke, J.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Fasti sacerdotum: die Mitglieder der Priesterschaften und das sakrale Funktionspersonal römischer, griechischer, orientalischer und jüdisch-christlicher Kulte in der Stadt Rom von 300 v. Chr. bis 499 n. Chr</hi>. 3 vols. Wiesbaden. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zmeskal, K.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Adfinitas. Die Verwandtschaften der senatorischen Führungsschicht der römischen Republik von 218 - 31 v. Chr</hi>. Passau.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2239","16","DREaM: Distant Reading Early Modernity","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>DREaM: Distant Reading Early Modernity</title>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Wittek</surname>
                        <forename>Stephen</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>McGill University, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>stephen.wittek@mcgill.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Sinclair</surname>
                        <forename>Stéfan</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>McGill University, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>stefan.sinclair@mcgill.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Milner</surname>
                        <forename>Matthew</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>McGill University, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>matthew.milner@mcgill.ca</email>
                </author>
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                <edition>
                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>early modern</term>
                    <term>eebo</term>
                    <term>voyant</term>
                    <term>topic modeling</term>
                    <term>distant reading</term>
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            <p>Our proposed paper will provide an overview of the theory and methodology driving the creation of Distant Reading Early Modernity (DREaM), a digital humanities project that has made a massive corpus of early modern texts amenable for use with macro-scale analytical tools. Key focus areas include the technical challenges deriving from non-standardized spelling, the philosophy of our tutorial program, the argument for our approach to the early modern archive, and the potential benefit to early modern scholarship of distant reading techniques. </p>
            <p>From Microfilm Library, to EEBO, to EEBO-TCP, to DREaM </p>
            <p>The foundational work for DREaM began in 1934, when Eugene B. Power used parts of two movie and still cameras to create one of the world’s first microfilm bookcameras, a device he used to photograph thousands of texts in British libraries (Anderson and Power, 1990). In 1998 Power’s microfilm library became the basis for Early English Books Online (EEBO), a database that comprises the images for some 125,000 texts from 1475 to 1700, and has profoundly expanded the horizons of early modern research.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> To date, approximately one-third of the documents on EEBO are available as transcribed, full-text editions. Researchers for the EEBO Text Creation Partnership (EEBO-TCP) are currently working to transcribe the remaining 85,000 documents, which are as yet only available as digitized microfilm images.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Although completion of the transcription work is still at least 10 years in the future, the prospect of a full-text library of all documents from the first 225 years of English print points to the need for some careful re-thinking about the relation between scholarship and archival sources. As it now stands, the EEBO-TCP corpus amounts to 8.02 gigabytes of XML-encoded text and contains nearly 45,000 documents, for a grand total of well over a billion words (1,155,264,343 by our count). Confronted by the sheer expanse of a corpus several magnitudes larger than anything one could hope to read in a lifetime, early modern scholarship must now work to incorporate digital methodologies that enable a bird’s-eye view of large corpora, an approach that Franco Moretti has dubbed ‘distant reading’ (Moretti, 2007). DREaM has begun the work of making such a view possible. </p>
            <p>Unlike EEBO, DREaM enables batch downloading of custom-defined subsets rather than obliging users to download individual texts on a one-by-one basis. In other words, it functions at the level of ‘sets of texts’ (sometimes called 
                <hi rend=""italic"">worksets</hi>) rather than ‘individual texts’. Examples of subsets one might potentially generate include ‘all texts by Ben Jonson’, ‘all texts published in 1623’, or ‘all texts printed by John Wolfe’. A user-friendly interface makes subsets available as either plain text or XML-encoded files, and gives users the option to automatically name individual files by date, author, title, or combinations thereof (this file naming flexibility can be useful when interoperating with other tool suites). 
            </p>
            <p>The ability to generate custom-defined subsets is important because it allows researchers to explore the early modern canon with distant reading techniques, and to capture otherwise intractable data with visualizations such as graphs, charts, or other forms of graphic representation. On this note, another key feature of DREaM is that it allows users to transfer specially tailored subsets directly to the analytic interfaces of Voyant Tools (voyant-tools.org), a suite of textual visualization tools that collectively constitute the leading platform for open-access digital humanities research.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> In fact, DREaM is actually implemented within Voyant Tools (version 2.0, not yet released, which provides much better support for very large text collections). DREaM thus provides a compelling example of a bridge between massive full-text repositories (that typically provide faceted searching) and more specialized analytic and visualization environments. By enabling simple transference between the EEBO-TCP archive and Voyant, DREaM has significantly expanded the range and sophistication of technologies currently available to researchers who wish to gain a broad sense of printed matter in early modern England. 
            </p>
            <p>Notably, however, DREaM does not aim to replace EEBO, or to supplant conventional forms of research. Rather, our goal is to simply add a new item to the scholar’s toolbox, and to increase transferability between distant reading methodologies and more fine-grained forms of analysis. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Negotiating the Complexities of Non-Standardized Spelling</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Standardized spelling had yet to emerge in early modernity: writers had the freedom to spell however they pleased. To take a famous example, the name ‘Shakespeare’ has 80 different recorded spellings, including ‘Shaxpere’ and ‘Shaxberd’. As one might imagine, variance on this scale presents a serious challenge for large-scale textual analysis. How is it possible to track the incidence of a specific word, or group of words, if any given word could have an unknown multiplicity of iterations? </p>
            <p>To address this problem, we enlisted the assistance of VARD 2, a tool that helps to improve the accuracy of textual analysis by finding candidate modern form replacements for spelling variants in historical texts.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> As with conventional spellcheckers, a user can choose to process texts manually (selecting a candidate replacement offered by the system), automatically (allowing the system to use the best candidate replacement found), or semi-automatically (training the tool on a sample of the corpora). 
            </p>
            <p>After some preliminary training, we ran the TCP-EEBO corpus through VARD using the default settings (auto normalization at a threshold of 50%). Rather than using the ‘batch’ mode—which proved unreliable for such a big job—we wrote a script that normalized the texts on a one-by-one basis from the command-line. This process took about three days on a commodity machine. VARD normalized 80,676 terms for a grand total of 44,909,676 changes overall. </p>
            <p>A careful check through the list resulted in 373 term normalizations that we found problematic in one way or another. The problematic normalizations amounted to 462,975 changes overall, or only 1.03% of the total number of changes. These results were satisfactory: our goal was not to make the corpus ‘perfectly normalized’ (an impossibility, not least because perfection is debatable in this context), but, more pragmatically, to make it generally normalized, which is the best one can reasonably expect from an automatic process. On this point, it is important to note that VARD encodes a record of all changes within the output XML file, so scholars will be able to see if the program has made an erroneous normalization. </p>
            <p>Some of the problematic VARD normalizations seem to have derived from a dictionary error. For example, ‘chan’ became ‘champion’ and ‘ged’ became ‘general’. In other instances, the problematic normalizations were ambiguous or borderline cases that we preferred to simply leave unchanged. Examples include ‘piece’ for ‘peece’, and ‘land’ for ‘iland’. There were also cases where the replacement term was not quite correct: ‘strawberie’ became ‘strawy’ rather than ‘strawberry’, and ‘hoouering’ became ‘hoovering’ rather than ‘hovering’. We fixed as many of these kinks as we could by making adjustments to the VARD training file and running the entire corpus through the normalization process a second time. </p>
            <p>Of course, it is not difficult to imagine scenarios wherein a researcher may prefer to work with original spellings rather than normalized texts. With such projects in mind, we have kept both normalized and non-normalized versions of the EEBO-TCP corpus. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">The DREaM Tutorial Program</hi>
            </p>
            <p>As noted above, one of the central objectives of DREaM is to create an interface that will maximize user-friendliness, allowing scholars with a minimal level of technical expertise to quickly and efficiently create subsets tailored for whatever specific research question they wish to pursue. We are building DREaM for our own research, but we also have a much broader pedagogical perspective in mind. To meet this objective, we have launched a pilot tutorial program, currently under way, that will teach scholars how to use DREaM, but will also point to ways in which DREaM could more effectively serve the demands of scholarly investigation. </p>
            <p>In a series of tasks that build toward the production of a short case-study report, pilot users must articulate a detailed research question and provide a description of their argument. In addition to establishing a valuable feedback loop for the project, this assignment aims to nudge new users toward a more comprehensive, more practical understanding of how macro-scale textual analysis can complement scholarly practice. The key conceptual challenge, as we see it, hinges on new users’ ability to understand, and learn to negotiate, the gap between distant reading and more conventional means of engaging archival sources. </p>
            <p>Our pool of pilot users derives from the membership of our parent project, Early Modern Conversions, a five-year interdisciplinary research initiative that has brought together a team of more than 100 scholars, partners, and graduate student associates from universities in Canada, the United States, England, New Zealand, and Australia.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> Early Modern Conversions provides a propitious testing ground for DREaM because it is at the vanguard of early modern research, and because it entails a rich diversity of disciplinary approaches. Our presentation for DH2015 will report on the results of the tutorial program and on the progress of the project overall. 
            </p>
            <p>Screenshots </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""12.230805555555555cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. The DREaM interface. Search fields in the middle of the screen enable users to define a subset of EEBO-TCP texts by keyword, year, author, and publisher. Below the search field, an ‘Export’ button opens a dialogue box that offers the option of sending the subset directly to Voyant-tools.org, or downloading it as a ZIP archive. Users may also choose to download subsets as either plain text or XML-encoded files. A drag-and-drop mechanism (bottom) enables automatic naming of files within a subset by date, author, title, or combinations thereof. </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""8.651875cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. A sample subset transferred to Voyant Tools. Beginning in the top left corner, one sees a word cloud representing the frequency of keywords in terms of font size. At a glance, it shows that the highest frequency words in the subset are ‘good’ and ‘come’. Below the word cloud, there is a summary that lists statistics for basic categories such as word count, vocabulary density, word frequency, etc. In addition, the summary lists words that have a notably high frequency for each year: ‘Rome’ and ‘death’ appeared with particular frequency in 1594, while ‘virtue’ and ‘envy’ stood out in 1612. Moving to the bottom left corner, one sees an ordered list of frequencies for each word in the corpus accompanied by a thumbnail graph that tracks the frequency of words over the 40-year delimitation. At a glance, the tool shows a significant spike for the word ‘knight’ in 1624. In the middle of the screen, a ‘Corpus Reader’ tool enables users to drill down into the corpus to examine the context for particular terms. </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. See http://eebo.chadwyck.com.</p>
            <p>2. See http://eebo.odl.ox.ac.uk/e/eebo/.</p>
            <p>3. See http://voyant-tools.org.</p>
            <p>4. See http://ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/vard/about/.</p>
            <p>5. See http://earlymodernconversions.com.</p>
        </body>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Anderson, R. and Power, E. B.</hi> (1990). The Autobiography of Eugene B. Power, Founder of University Microfilms. UMI, Ann Arbor, MI.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2007). Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for Literary History. Verso, London.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2240","16","Electronic Literature and the Politics of Process","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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            <p>Critics have long examined the ‘multimodal capacity of electronic literature’ (Page and Thomas, 2011, 2). The material semantics of electronic literature are not inherently new, but rather a rejuvenation of established literary practices exemplified by the material modernists and other such movements to have sought control over the paratextuality of a literary work. Yet new media does deliver rejuvenation through enhanced paratextual potential. Materiality, and in turn paratextuality, is concerned with experience: it governs the reception of a work and the ways in which its audience might interact with it. In this paper I will engage with works of electronic literature in an attempt to delineate how some of the field’s most prominent authors and practitioners have used the manipulability of digital paratext for artistic purposes. </p>
            <p>Electronic Literature as Avant-Garde</p>
            <p>When an author selects a digital medium, there are ideological considerations that cannot be ignored—they are making a statement about the aesthetic they desire and what that aesthetic represents. In this respect, we see how it is that electronic literature is very much connected to concepts of the avant-garde, so much so that its works are often criticised as being overtly experimental. Responding to Andrew Gallix’s challenge that electronic literature sacrifices literary quality, Grigar accepts that ‘the hybridity of the forms and technological innovation that artists bring to their work result in a high level of experimentation that may at first obfuscate literary content’ (n.d.), but she is quick to point out that obfuscation should not deny the digital’s claim to the mantle of literary. If electronic literature serves as little more than a jolt in literature’s long history, then surely it has achieved the very thing that literature sets out to achieve? Perhaps electronic literature is more valuable ideologically than it is semantically or aesthetically, but having such political value is in itself a very literary trait. Grigar raises another interesting point in that same article, referring to electronic literature’s brief moment within the spotlight of the press, back when it still held its ‘shock of the new’. She offers this as a rebuttal to the claim that electronic literature, once popularised within the media, has since been relegated to a tertiary note on specialised blogs. On the contrary, electronic literature may no longer be a media darling, but it has found itself a place within the academy, and within the focus of respected authors and critics from across the digital humanities. </p>
            <p>In this sense, electronic literature’s ability to disrupt the status quo has faded, but it has traded the ease by which it can shock for an ability to achieve problematisation through defamiliarisation—so much so, that electronic literature has become self-reflective to the point where it is now querying its most essential of properties: being born digital. </p>
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            <p>Figure 1. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Closed Room, Soft Whispers</hi>, by Jacob Garbe. From Pathfinders Exhibit, MLA 2014 convention, Chicago, January 2014.
            </p>
            <p>The Pathfinders Exhibit at the 2014 MLA convention presented a selection of early electronic literature, alongside some more recent pieces. Many of the works on show displayed a new iteration in the juxtaposition between literature and technology, in that digital and physical materiality had been fused beyond hardware and software. What Strickland achieves with her hybrid 
                <hi rend=""italic"">V: WaveSon.nets/Losing L’una</hi>, for example, has been taken to its conclusion: electronic literature is moving, diachronically, at an immense pace, its authors beginning to deconstruct the very boundaries that they themselves put up. 
            </p>
            <p>When code is open access, the reader can pierce the veil in a manner rarely seen before. Readers, and indeed authors, have insights into the worlds of their precursors and contemporaries. Authors in this field began by swerving away from the page, but now they are, while perhaps not swerving away from the digital, certainly seeking its convergence with other, seemingly disparate, materialities. It is re-creation of the re-created, a tension that has been consciously instigated in an effort to achieve further defamiliarisation of that which is already defamiliar. This is precisely what Pressman labels as ‘digital modernism’, a movement that, she argues, interrogates ‘cultural infrastructures, technological networks, and critical practices’ (2014, 10), and in doing so, ‘offers a surprising counterstance to this privileging of newness’ (1). </p>
            <p>The Politics of the Screen</p>
            <p>Within the electronic literature community, there is a marked reaction against the intentions of software’s function. Authors in this realm practice perverse engineering, where a tool is not modified for literary purposes but rather adapted, at a surface level, so that it satisfies some authorial desire. Flash, for example, was never intended for literary purposes, but it is at the very heart of the first two volumes within the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ELO Collection</hi>. The exploitation of computer systems is fundamental to contemporary electronic literature in that the majority of works are produced using technologies that were designed for some other purpose. This act, the manipulation of hardware and software for literary purposes, is a fundamental aspect of the movements that promote and produce much of this work. Reducing the process of writing electronic literature to a purpose-built intuitive graphical user interface would be akin to creating a program that structured the metre for nondigital poetry. In this sense, electronic literature is the product of exploited technologies; it is expression through manipulation. This presents an interesting reversal of Adorno and Horkheimer’s view, with technology becoming an instrument in the problematisation of those structures that they argue it enforces. Ideological arguments cannot always account for an author’s technological selections, but there are many instances where both the form and tools adopted for a work of electronic literature are inherently ideological, if not overtly political.
            </p>
            <p>In exploring the influence of digital materiality and the politics of e-lit processes and practices, I will look at 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Flight Paths </hi>(see Figure 2), by Kate Pullinger and Chris Joseph, as well as Mark Marino’s ‘a show of hands’, a piece inspired by the 2006 immigration reform in Los Angeles.
            </p>
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            <p>Figure 2. ‘Previous Contributions’, from 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Flight Paths</hi>, by Kate Pullinger and Chris Joseph. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Electronic Literature Collection</hi>, Vol. 2. Electronic Literature Organization, February 2011, collection.elitarture.org.
            </p>
            <p>Conclusions</p>
            <p>While we cannot separate ideology from any literature, we can see that electronic forms are married to the politics of process. Each of these works has meaning in its materiality, considerably more than would typically be the case, even amongst the foremost of the material modernists. While Yeats was able to embed the esoteric in his bindings, the screen permits semantic permeations throughout a work as a whole. Even concrete poets, with typographic arrangements, are restricted by the surface of the page. I do not want to represent the page as a media with particularly negative limitations: all forms have limitations that can at times be just as readily considered strengths. Concrete poetry, like the cover of a Yeatsian edition, is manifested as a permanent entity. There is no such permanence in the electronic environment, where works of art, when reduced to substance, are merely the graphically rendered representations of bits and bytes. This impermanence offers something authors that is not found in other forms, and as has been seen, it allows them a freedom of ideological expression that is very much bound to materiality. Process is also essential. Traditionally, authors collaborate with publishers to see their literature produced in book form. I think it fair to assume that the majority of writers do not actually possess a working knowledge of how it is that manuscripts are transformed into physical books. That is not to say that nondigital writing practices are without process, but that process plays a more significant role in the digital arena, where authors must be familiar with processes of production if they are to write. Even where collaboration exists, an understanding of how technology can—and cannot—manipulate the linguistic content of a piece must be possessed. It is not simply about words on the surface but rather about the surface and the underlying code that dictates part of the reader experience. Garbe did not just write 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Closed Room, Soft Whispers</hi>, he 
                <hi rend=""italic"">made</hi> it: he composed the surface-level text, he wrote the underlying code, and he built the wooden box. Marino captured his own images; he worked directly with the platform that presents his narrative. In this respect, the politics of the screen are, unlike the page, materially layered, with authors being as much makers as they are writers.
            </p>
            <p>Throughout this paper, I will use these works of electronic literature to delineate how contemporary juxtapositions of traditional and modern literary practices have presented authors with hyper-paratextuality, and their engagement with such is significant. It is easier for an author to put down words on a page than it is, for example, to learn Python and produce a generative poem. Thus, it is always significant when an author chooses digital encapsulation for expression. This act, the selection of an electronic rather than nondigital medium, is an authorial statement from which immediate conclusions can be drawn. The significance of the influence exerted by digital paratextuality may be questioned on the basis that much of that which makes it digital sits behind the interface, but the recognition of digitality is in itself influential. Authors do not complicate the process of writing with additional technical requirements on a whim. </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grigar, D.</hi> (n.d.). Electronic Literature: Where Is It? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Electronic Book Review.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Page, R. and Thomas, B.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Narratives: Stories and Storytelling in the Digital Age.</hi> University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pressman, J.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Modernism: Making It New in New Media.</hi> Oxford University Press, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pullinger, K. and Joseph, C.</hi> (n.d.). Flight Paths. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Electronic Literature Collection,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2241","16","Element Detection in Japanese Comic Book Panels","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Kuboi</surname>
                        <forename>Toshihiro</forename>
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                    <affiliation>California Polytechnic State University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>tkuboi@calpoly.edu</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Khosmood</surname>
                        <forename>Foaad</forename>
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                    <affiliation>California Polytechnic State University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>foaad@calpoly.edu</email>
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                    <term>translation</term>
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            <p>Comic books are a unique and increasingly popular form of entertainment combining visual and textual elements of communication. This work pertains to making Japanese comic books more accessible. Specifically, this paper explains how we detect elements such as speech bubbles and character eyes present in Japanese comic book panels. Some possible applications of the work presented in this paper are automatic detection of text and its transformation into audio or into other languages. Automatic detection of elements can also allow reasoning and analysis at a deeper semantic level than what’s possible today.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> We present our process for speech bubble detection in this paper.
            </p>
            <p rend=""heading 3"">Background</p>
            <p>A page in a comic book consists of multiple panels, in which the scenes of the comic are depicted. Each panel has multiple elements, including text and graphics. Text in comic books is typically enclosed in speech bubbles. We use elements as a term broader than ‘object’.</p>
            <p>Prior works by others have focused on separating text and graphics in documents (Wong et al., 1982), but not on comic book panels. Our work is important for the digital humanities community because we cover an art form that the community has not covered before.</p>
            <p rend=""heading 3"">Approach</p>
            <p>We use a heuristic-based expert system, implemented by the authors, and machine learning for detecting elements present in images. Figure 1 shows a block diagram of our speech bubble detection pipeline. The images are segmented by the image processing system, which segments an image into regions and extracts candidate regions that are likely to contain elements of interest, which are text. Components of connected black pixels are profiled into text and non-text. Then the statistics of the candidate regions are computed, and the statistics are used to formulate the heuristics. Some of the statistics used include whether the region is enclosed by black pixels and the percentage of the area of the image the region occupies. The regions are classified whether they are elements of interest by the expert system based on the heuristics.</p>
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            <p>Figure 1. The Speech Bubble Detection pipeline.</p>
            <p>We use Naive Bayes and Maximum Entropy from NLTK (NLTK Project, 2014), and support vector machine (SVM) from WEKA (Hall et al., 2009) as our learning algorithms to detect speech bubbles because of their performance and ease of use. We compute statistics of the speech bubble candidate regions in the images. For example, we compute the number of black pixels as well as the ratio between black pixels and white pixels in the regions. We also compute the size of the region in terms of the percentage of the area of the image the region occupies, and the horizontal and vertical range of the region. We use the information as the features on which the machine learning algorithms are trained. Some of the features used are heuristic-based features inspired by the expert system. Those features are binary features, such as whether the size of the region falls within a certain range, as well as whether the region is enclosed by the edges of black pixels. We allow gaps between edges that are smaller than 3 pixels wide. We also compute the vertical and horizontal distribution of the black pixels as histograms of black pixel counts and use them as features. In total, 58 features are used.</p>
            <p>We use supervised learning and semi-supervised learning methods. In supervised learning, each candidate region is labeled as either positive or negative by humans. A positive sample means the region is a speech bubble. In semi-supervised learning, not all the training data used is hand labeled. Some of the training data is produced by the system itself. In our approach, unseen samples labeled by the trained machine learning system are added to the training data. </p>
            <p rend=""heading 3"">Speech Bubble Detection</p>
            <p>Two hundred forty-three panels from 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Doraemon</hi>, a popular Japanese comic book—which amount to the total of 804 samples—are used to evaluate the expert system and the machine learning system. Each panel contains zero, one, or multiple speech bubbles. 
            </p>
            <p>Table 1 shows the performance of the expert system on the panels. The expert system achieves 95% accuracy with 91.3% precision, 97.7% recall, and the F-score of 0.944. Since the possible applications of our work require no speech bubbles lost in the process, high recall is more important than high precision.</p>
            <p>Table 1. The performance of the expert system.</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>Accuracy</cell>
                    <cell>Precision</cell>
                    <cell>Recall</cell>
                    <cell>F-score</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Expert</cell>
                    <cell>0.95</cell>
                    <cell>0.913</cell>
                    <cell>0.977</cell>
                    <cell>0.944</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>The same 243 panels used in the evaluation of the expert system are used for evaluation of the machine learning system. The 804 samples are divided in a 2-to-1 ratio into 539 training sets and 266 test sets. The Max Entropy is trained multiple times (10 and 20 iterations) before tested on the test sets. Table 2 shows the performance of the three algorithms averaged over 5 runs. </p>
            <p>All three algorithms produce results comparable to that of the expert system. Notably, the Maximum Entropy does very well in terms of recall, scoring above 0.98, which is better than the score of the expert system. Among the machine learning algorithms the SVM produces the best result. Whether the region is enclosed by the black edges is one of the best discriminators.</p>
            <p>Table 2. The performance of the machine learning algorithms.</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>Accuracy</cell>
                    <cell>Precision</cell>
                    <cell>Recall</cell>
                    <cell>F-score</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Naive Bayes</cell>
                    <cell>0.908</cell>
                    <cell>0.897</cell>
                    <cell>0.889</cell>
                    <cell>0.892</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Max Ent (10 iter.)</cell>
                    <cell>0.934</cell>
                    <cell>0.881</cell>
                    <cell>0.981</cell>
                    <cell>0.928</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Max Ent (20 iter.)</cell>
                    <cell>0.928</cell>
                    <cell>0.863</cell>
                    <cell>0.985</cell>
                    <cell>0.920</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>SVM</cell>
                    <cell>0.943</cell>
                    <cell>0.900</cell>
                    <cell>0.973</cell>
                    <cell>0.935</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>In our semi-supervised learning experiment, the machine learning algorithms are trained on the training sets, which include samples labeled by the machine learning algorithms themselves as well as the samples manually labeled. In order to assign more weight on the manually labeled samples than on the machine labeled samples, we duplicate the manually labeled samples in the training sets. </p>
            <p>Although the performance is not as good as that of the supervised learning, all three algorithms produce results comparable to that of the expert system. Especially the Maximum Entropy and SVM do very well in terms of recall, beating the expert system. The performance of the Naive Bayes improves as more correctly labeled training data are included in the training sets.</p>
            <p>Since different algorithms tend to err on different samples, we also experiment with an ensemble machine learning method, in which multiple classifiers are combined to arrive at final classifications. We experiment with two variations of the ensemble method: The Ensemble AND, in which a sample is classified as positive if both of the classifiers agree that a sample is positive, and the Ensemble OR, in which a sample is classified as positive if at least one of the two classifiers agree that a sample is positive.</p>
            <p>Among our ensemble classifiers, the Ensemble AND of the SVM and the Maximum Entropy with 20 iterations performs best with the F-score of 0.941, as shown in Table 3. </p>
            <p>Table 3. The performance of the ensemble classifiers.</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>Accuracy</cell>
                    <cell>Precision</cell>
                    <cell>Recall</cell>
                    <cell>F-score</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>SVM AND Max Ent (20 iter.)</cell>
                    <cell>0.947</cell>
                    <cell>0.928</cell>
                    <cell>0.955</cell>
                    <cell>0.941</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Figure 2 shows a result of our image segmentation process. All the text in the original image on the left is segmented and assigned the same color (red). All the other connected black pixels are grouped as non-text components. Note that black pixels that are very close in the original image are connected by a process called RLSA smoothing (Wong, 1982).</p>
            <figure/>
            <p>Figure 2. An example of segmentation of text.</p>
            <p>Figure 3 shows some of the images produced as the result of the speech bubble detection. The first image from the left shows that all speech bubbles are correctly detected. The second image from the left is an example of the false negatives. The speech bubble in this image is missed because the edge of the bubble is broken and the gaps between the edges are more than 3 pixels wide. The third image from the left shows a case of the false positives. The lens of glasses are identified as speech bubbles because the eye contained in the lens has similar black pixel count and size to text. The fourth image from the left contains another example of the false positives. It is a false positive because the text is not contained in a speech bubble. It is identified as a speech bubble because the text is completely surrounded by edges. The machine learning system makes more mistakes than the expert system. However, the machine learning system sometimes correctly detects speech bubbles on which the expert system makes mistakes.</p>
            <figure/>
            <p>Figure 3. Examples of the images produced as the result of speech bubble detection.</p>
            <p rend=""heading 3"">
                <anchor xml:id=""h.6z1wxw69a92l""/>Conclusion
            </p>
            <p>We are able to implement an expert system that detects the elements very accurately and a machine-learning system that does the same job as well as the expert system. The main disadvantage of the expert system is that the heuristics need to be modified when new samples are added. With machine learning, we let the machine learn from the examples by itself. We have demonstrated that machine learning can be successfully applied to a very difficult task, such as element detection in comic book panels, and they can do the task as well as the expert system. </p>
            <p rend=""heading 3"">Future Work</p>
            <p>An interesting future goal is to be able to detect even more elements in each panel. If the machine could detect all the elements present in the panels, the scenes depicted in the panels could be described automatically. </p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. Readers interested in more details of our work can read our full-length paper at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270546570_ELEMENT_DETECTION_IN_JAPANESE_COMIC_BOOK_PANELS and also access our code at https://github.com/tkuboi/ComicbookElementDetection.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hall, M., Frank, E., Holmes, G., Pfahringer, B., Reutemann, P. and Witten, I. H.</hi> (2009). The WEKA Data Mining Software: An Update. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">SIGKDD Explorations,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">NLTK Project.</hi> (2014). NLTK 3.0 documentation. http://www.nltk.org.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wong, K. Y., Casey, R. G., and Wahl, F. M.</hi> (1982). Document Analysis System. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IBM Journal of Research and Development,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(6): 647–56.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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"2242","16","ElfYelp: Geolocated Topic Models for Pattern Discovery in a Large Folklore Corpus","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Broadwell</surname>
                        <forename>Peter Michael</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>UCLA, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>broadwell@library.ucla.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Tangherlini</surname>
                        <forename>Timothy R</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>UCLA, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>tango@humnet.ucla.edu</email>
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                    <term>geospatial search</term>
                    <term>topic modeling</term>
                    <term>text mining</term>
                    <term>mapping</term>
                    <term>computational folkloristics</term>
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                    <term>geospatial analysis</term>
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            <p>Folklore, by its very nature, is deeply linked to place. This link is particularly strong in legends (Gunnell, 2008; Tangherlini, 1994; Lefebvre, 1974). Consequently, being able to discover the correlation between places mentioned in legends and the topics those legends address offers folklorists a powerful method for exploring the complex relationship between storytelling and place. By projecting these correlations into a historically accurate cartographic viewing environment, ‘ElfYelp’ affords researchers an opportunity to explore large, complex cultural archives through a geographically tuned lens.</p>
            <p>Early folklorists were intrigued by the possibility of discovering geographic correlations between traditional stories and the places where they were found (Krohn, 1926). These early studies imagined that the mapping of cultural artifacts could help locate the ‘origin’ of those forms, an approach critiqued by C. W. von Sydow (von Sydow, 1948). One of its main failings was the mobility of peoples: where something was collected had little to do with where it originated. Von Sydow’s rebuff had the unfortunate collateral effect of leading many folklorists to abandon cartographic endeavors and to adopt the equally flawed assumption that folkloristic phenomena are evenly distributed across the landscape. With the advent of relatively easy-to-use GIS software and accurate, machine-actionable historical gazetteers, there is now a renewed interest among folklorists in the power of maps.</p>
            <p>In this new cartographic method, maps are used to discover latent geographic patterns in the overall corpus, allowing researchers to explore how storytellers have conceptualized the landscape through narrative. For example, are there places in the landscape that are home to more supernatural creatures than others? Discovering patterns leads to important second-order questions: Do certain areas, rich in a set of topics, have topographic or structural features that lead to these associations? Are there political, social, or economic events in these areas that might help explain these patterns?</p>
            <p>Project Overview and Related Approaches</p>
            <p>In the current work, we extend our preliminary research into geo-semantic browsing of Danish folklore (Broadwell and Tangherlini, 2014) by developing a tool to discover and compare different regions’ topic ‘fingerprints’. Our results are further enhanced via a more sophisticated labeling of the Kristensen collection (Broadwell et al., 2014; Kristensen, 1980) and a refined method for the interpolation of geographic regions.</p>
            <p>This work builds upon emergent methods in computational data mining and spatial search to support micro-targeted marketing and location-aware search and recommendation services. Sizov’s proposal to generate ‘folksonomies’ of geolocated photograph captions in social media (Sizov, 2010) led to Yin et al.’s technique of ‘Latent Geographical Topic Analysis’ (LGTA), which establishes a ‘location-text joint model’ for geo-LDA (Yin et al., 2011). This model assigns a probability for each topic (based on Gaussian spatial distributions) that any point on the map might ‘generate’ a text containing that topic in some proportion. A refinement to this approach uses polygonal regions that avoid topic overlap as much as possible (Kling et al., 2014). Considerable modifications of these techniques are necessary to address folklore questions. The insistence of the latter approach on avoiding topic overlap, for example, works against the goals of folklorists, since many interesting research questions are based on overlap, such as: Do areas that have a high concentration of ‘ghost’ stories also have high concentrations of ‘wise minister’ stories?</p>
            <p>Data Processing and Analytical Methods</p>
            <p>In our data, each of the 20,431 Danish legends in the target corpus is treated as a locus of place/content co-occurrence. We resolved place references in the stories to approximately 1,750 distinct latitude/longitude pairs via historical gazetteers (DigDag, 2008). Several content-based attributes are associated with each story: a vector of prominent keyword frequencies as well as vectors of 36 high-level and 772 fine-grained categories assigned by the collector and his assistants. We regularized the inconsistencies of the high-level index by using it to train a Naive Bayes classifier that we then applied to the full corpus (Broadwell et al., 2014). To reduce sampling bias from the collector’s habits, we aligned historical census data with administrative records to calculate the population densities for the approximately 2,000 parishes in Denmark, which we used to normalize the co-occurrence matrices by population.</p>
            <p>To map the aggregated co-occurrence frequencies of a given story attribute to geographic locations, we calculated the spatial ‘decay’ of the observed z-values based on the standard deviational ellipses for five sample storytellers (Tangherlini, 2010). This model of story ‘decay’ is predicated on an idea of how far a storyteller’s stories might ‘reach’ into the surrounding community. We favor a simple Kriging approach to interpolating between observed points given the decay radius, rather than merely layering Gaussian curves to create ‘hot spots’; importantly, Kriging has the potential to take into account landscape features such as hills and marshes that may impede the ‘reach’ of stories (Cressie, 1993).</p>
            <p>Comparing the maps of the original indices to those of the alternative NB classifier reveals hidden geographical affiliations in the collection, much as the differing story labelings between these two classifiers highlighted interesting ‘borderline’ stories (Broadwell et al., 2014). For example, the alternative index assigns more stories mentioning the area around Breum Kilde to the ‘Witches’ category. Previous studies have linked this area to several stories containing oblique references to witchcraft that were not reflected in the collector’s high-level index; these references likely derive from the location’s historical associations with a Catholic monastery that was also the site of the last witch burning in Denmark (Tangherlini, 2000) (see Figure 1).</p>
            <p>Yet story labels like those described above, as well as standard topic modeling, do not use as a formative basis the idea that folklore topics may exhibit affinities for particular geographical regions. To explore this aspect of folklore, we employed a version of LGTA that finds a specified number of geographical regions and assigns a set of ‘geo-topics’ to each region in varying proportions; the geo-topics are themselves built from term vectors associated with each story. Story labels based on the 772-label secondary indexing scheme proved particularly effective in constructing geo-topics.</p>
            <p>Building co-occurrence matrices of places to topics, labels, and keywords also enables the comparison of arbitrary locations. Ranking a location’s associated attributes allows the identification of regions that share similar ranked lists of topics (e.g. witches, cunning folk, animal disease) via a standard vector comparison algorithm (cosine similarity). LGTA provides such a ranking for geo-topics; for other region features such as keyword co-occurrence counts, we use a weighting system similar to the term frequency-inverse document frequency (TF-IDF) scores commonly used for web searches (Broadwell and Tangherlini, 2012).</p>
            <p>Experiments</p>
            <p>To test the usefulness of our models, we devised two experiments. The first asks, ‘Where are the elves?’ A population density–corrected Kriging map reveals various regions that have a high concentration of stories labeled as ‘elf stories’ by the original collector or the Naive Bayes classifier, or regions that have ‘elf’ geo-topics high in their topic ranking (Figure 2). Consulting a base layer of historically accurate maps allows the user to interrogate the landscape surrounding these areas and ask, ‘What else is here?’ (streams, woods, etc.). Similarly, the population density maps provide a second set of considerations: Do people situate elves in places that are less populated? Finally, the experiment allows a user to consider other areas that have similarly high concentrations of elf stories. Are there certain landscape features that may help explain why certain storytellers associated a particular place and similar places with a specific type of threat? </p>
            <p>A second experiment inverts the problem, asking, ‘What do I find here?’ A user draws an arbitrarily large bounding box on the map, and the system returns a ranking of keywords and geo-topics for that geographic area (Figure 3). It also identifies similar regions, based on the ranked list of topics. The underlying premise is that areas for which certain topics appear highly ranked will share features, be they environmental, institutional, or demographic (or a combination of all three). As such, this approach can help stimulate research questions: Are there types of places that were related, in the minds of storytellers, with certain types of stories?</p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>ElfYelp provides a productive research environment for interrogating the relationship between storytelling and the concept of place. The tool, which we believe can be a key component of a ‘folklore macroscope’ (Tangherlini, 2013; Börner, 2011), raises more questions than it answers, but in so doing allows for the sustained exploration of how people use stories to comment, construct, and negotiate concepts of space and place.</p>
            <p>Figures</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""14.832541666666666cm"" height=""9.202208333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. The ElfYelp geo-LDA interface, showing the geo-topics and most prominent labels of a region (highlighted) historically associated with witches.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""15.024805555555556cm"" height=""8.55486111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2: A comparison of the place co-occurrence maps for stories assigned to the ‘Ellefolk’ (Elves) category by Tang Kristensen and his assistants (left) and by a Naive Bayes classifier (right). Simple Kriging was used to interpolate the z-values between the observed locations.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""14.784916666666666cm"" height=""10.447513888888889cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Rankings of Naive Bayes story classifications for the specified region according to the ElfYelp 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Spøgelsesskop</hi> (‘spooks-scope’) interface.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Börner, K.</hi> (2011). Plug-and-Play Macroscopes. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communications of the ACM,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">54</hi>(3): 60–69.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Broadwell, P. M., Mimno, D. and Tangherlini, T. R.</hi> (2014). The Tell-Tale Hat: Reverse Engineering a Folklore Expert. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Digital Humanities 2014</hi>, 7–12 July 2014, Lausanne.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Broadwell, P. M. and Tangherlini, T. R.</hi> (2012). TrollFinder: Geo-Semantic Exploration of a Very Large Corpus of Danish Folklore. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Workshop on Computational Models of Narrative</hi>, 26–27 May 2012. Istanbul.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Broadwell, P. M. and Tangherlini, T. R.</hi> (2014). Forthcoming. WitchHunter: Tools for the Geosemantic Exploration of a Danish Folklore Corpus, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of American Folklore</hi>, special issue on computational folkloristics.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cressie, N.</hi> (1993). Statistics for Spatial Data. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">DigDag: The Digital Atlas of Denmark’s Historical-Administrative Geography.</hi> (2008). http://digdag.dk.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gunnell, T. (ed.)</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Legends and Landscape.</hi> University of Iceland Press, Reykjavik.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kling, C. C. et al.</hi> (2014). Detecting Non-Gaussian Geographical Topics in Tagged Photo Collections. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 7th ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining</hi>, 24–28 February 2014, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kristensen, E. T.</hi> (1980). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Danske sagn som de har lydt i folkemunde.</hi> Nyt Nordisk Forlag, Copenhagen. Originally published 1892–1908.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Krohn, K.</hi> (1926). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Die folkloristische arbeitsmethode.</hi> Aschehoug, Oslo.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lefebvre, H.</hi> (1974). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">La production de l’espace.</hi> Éditions Anthropos, Paris.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sizov, S.</hi> (2010). GeoFolk: Latent Spatial Semantics in Web 2.0 Social Media. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 3rd ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining</hi>, 3–6 February 2010, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tangherlini, T. R.</hi> (1994). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Interpreting Legend: Danish Storytellers and Their Repertoires. </hi>Garland Publishing, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tangherlini, T. R.</hi> (2000). ‘How Do You Know She’s a Witch?’: Witches, Cunning Folk, and Competition in Denmark. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Western Folklore,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">59:</hi> 279–303.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tangherlini, T. R.</hi> (2010). Legendary Performances: Folklore, Repertoire, and Mapping. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ethnographia Europaea,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">40:</hi> 103–15.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tangherlini, T. R.</hi> (2013). The Folklore Macroscope: Challenges for a Computational Folkloristics. The 34th Archer Taylor Memorial Lecture. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Western Folklore,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">72</hi>(1): 7–27.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">von Sydow, C. W.</hi> (1948). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Selected Papers on Folklore.</hi> Rosenkilde and Bagger, Copenhagen.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Yin, Z., et al.</hi> (2011). Geographical Topic Discovery and Comparison. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on the World Wide Web</hi>, 28 March–1 April 2011,
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Hyderabad.</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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                        <surname>Thieberger</surname>
                        <forename>Nick</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Melbourne, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>thien@unimelb.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Tuohy</surname>
                        <forename>Conal</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Melbourne, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>conal.tuohy@gmail.com</email>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <addrLine>Locked Bag 1797</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>Aboriginal languages</term>
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                    <term>corpora and corpus activities</term>
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            <p>This paper discusses a project that is encoding archival vocabularies of Australian Indigenous languages recorded by Daisy Bates (White, 1985; McGregor, 2012) in the early 20th century. With this material we aim to create new research outcomes by exploring the text using novel techniques. We advocate a methodology in which primary research materials should be citable and accessible so that derived analyses can be verified and the primary data enriched by the process of research. This work will allow identification of the languages represented by these vocabularies and the internal variation in those languages. It will also make the data searchable for the first time, and linkable to other datasets, with the long-term goal of creating rich records for Australian Aboriginal languages, and, at the same time, embedding research practice in established international methodologies. This is the first application of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) to Indigenous-language material in Australia, and one of the few uses of the TEI with Indigenous languages that we know of (see Czaykowska-Higgins et al., 2014). </p>
            <p>Some 23,000 pages of these manuscripts at the National Library of Australia were digitised as TIFF images from a microfilmed copy and named according to NLA conventions, and 4,300 pages have so far been keyboarded, geocoded, and TEI encoded. These pages represent three kinds of material: (1) a handwritten questionnaire, containing some 2,000 prompt words and sentences; (2) a typescript version of each questionnaire; and (3) other manuscript pages. We have identified over 150 speakers and on the order of 40 languages in the collection. One of the outcomes of the project will be to determine the relationships between these wordlists and later sources, and to identify more securely what languages are represented.</p>
            <p>The Barr Smith Library has been producing pdf/text versions of some of these manuscripts that increases their availability,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> and the collection has been in the public domain since the 1950s. It has been used in various projects, including Native Title claims, but, in general, the knowledge gained by these processes is not reflected in the collection itself. The promise offered by new DH methods is that any enrichment of the sources should then be reflected in them. We acknowledge that Indigenous people have a strong interest in the Bates vocabularies, but, given the number of speakers involved, the many descendants they would now have, the geographic spread of the sources (covering most of Western Australia), and the resources available to us, we are unable to consult widely in the way that, for example, the Laves project did, working as it was with archival material from a single geographical area (as reported in Henderson, 2008).
            </p>
            <p>The TEI texts will remain the repository of the full data model of the project, representing the corpus of texts in a number of different dimensions. At one level, the TEI texts will constitute a set of facsimile editions by linking page facsimile images to the textual transcriptions of those images. At another level they will include explicit markup of person, language, and place names, to provide further points of entry to the data, and allow linking to external authority files (where possible). This multi-dimensional data model will be built up step by step and encoded in the TEI corpus by a combination of careful manual markup and the application of algorithmic methods. </p>
            <p>The manual data-entry work was initially restricted to a typographical encoding of the texts simply as two-column tables with headings. The right-hand column of these tables, generally containing a comma-separated list of Indigenous words, was then marked up by an automated XSLT transformation. This naturally leads to an iterative data cleaning workflow based on a software development ‘build’ process, in which a time-consuming batch process crunches through the documents, gradually enhancing them, performing automated validation checking, and generating visualisations for manual review. We found these data visualisations a potent force for quality assurance. It is easy to spot interpretive errors made by the automated parser, and that correction can feed back, either as a refinement of the automated process or as a manual correction of the document markup, leading to a gradual improvement in the data quality.</p>
            <p>The dataset exists in a number of forms: a paper archive; a set of photographic images in TIFF format, and derived JPEGs; a set of TEI transcriptions that encodes the text and the tabular layout of the forms; and links to the JPEG page images. A gazetteer of places is maintained as a spreadsheet. The workflow is managed via a spreadsheet, and the source files are stored in a bitbucket repository.</p>
            <p>One important requirement is the ability to track the provenance of the individual words. A dataset of this scale and type has scope for numerous transcription errors, and it must be possible for a reviewer to query any word, to see the manuscript from which it came, and to view images of the source materials to establish the context in which the term appeared, and thus to check that the contextual metadata in the TEI is correct.</p>
            <p>The solution is to begin by building a model of the texts, rather than attempting to directly model the lexicographic knowledge they contain. The model of the texts can then be enriched with the lexicographic knowledge in the form of embedded metadata, and from this a simplified model can then be derived to serve the purpose of linguistic computation. We build the data model by parsing the text, but rather than parsing the text and populating a data model, we embed the parsed version into the text in the form of XML markup. This makes the interpretive act explicit—something that can be questioned and altered. We classified each word as either English or Indigenous, and hyperlinked each to the English to which it corresponds. Given the size of the encoding task, it was essential to minimise the amount of manual work, and reduce the scope for human error, by automating the markup process as much as possible.</p>
            <p>This XSLT script parses the lists into distinct words and inserts the appropriate hyperlinks to relate each Indigenous word to the English word or words to which it corresponds. Some Indigenous words have multiple corresponding English words, separated by commas or sometimes semicolons:</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Ankle</cell>
                    <cell>Kan-ka, jinna werree, balgu</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Occasionally, the word ‘or’ is used at the end of a list:</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Blood</cell>
                    <cell>Ngooba or yalgoo</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Sometimes the right-hand column contains additional English language glosses—generally to indicate a narrower or otherwise related term, usually written in parentheses, following the corresponding Indigenous word, e.g.,</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Kangaroo</cell>
                    <cell>Maloo (plains), margaji (hill)</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Sometimes an additional English gloss is written before the corresponding Indigenous term and separated with an equal sign (or hyphen):</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Woman, old</cell>
                    <cell>Wîdhu; old man = winja</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>An XSLT script is easily able to handle all these cases and rapidly produce markup that is semantically correct. However, as the forms were filled out by many different people, inevitably there are some inconsistencies in the text, which can lead the XSLT script into error. Sometimes, for instance, the Indigenous words are in brackets rather than the English words, or the text is written in a more explanatory style, which is not amenable to parsing with a simple script:</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Bandicoot</cell>
                    <cell>
                        <p>Jiriwardu, bardari and bira - two species like a bandicoot.</p>
                        <p>Bardari - like a bandicoot, only with long ears and nose.</p>
                    </cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>In these exceptional cases the easiest thing to do is apply some human intelligence and mark up the text by hand. To support this ‘markup by exception’ style of work, the automated markup XSLT is programmed to simply pass over any text that already contains the TEI &lt;term&gt; and &lt;gloss&gt; markup. </p>
            <p>If we find something that looks odd through an analysis of the lexicographic data, how are we able to check whether it is a genuine language oddity or the result of an error? It is essential to be able to track the linguistic data back to the archival source, and that means maintaining links from the derived data that point back to the source questionnaires, and that in turn means having a data model that is able to accommodate all aspects of the data. </p>
            <p>The value of the TEI is that it can link those aspects together in a single set of source files. Then the ‘normalised’ version can be extracted as needed from the fully modelled data. </p>
            <p>A number of issues will be explored as we develop this project, including the possibility of automated regularising of orthographic differences between word-lists, further permitting comparison of similarities via a Levenshtein distance measure. As the underlying material is in a reusable format, it will be possible to publish electronic editions of the manuscripts and output sets of word-lists for use in schools, and to do comparative analysis of the vocabularies to infer relationships and locations (as in Nash, 2002, and more recently Embleton et al., 2013). We have used XSLT to extract a graph database in RDF-XML format from the TEI source data, and we use SPARQL to query this derived dataset to produce visualisations, and to expose it as Linked Data. </p>
            <p>Funding</p>
            <p>This work was funded by a research grant from the Faculty of Arts at the University of Melbourne and supported in part by ARC grants DP0984419 and FT140100214.</p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/handle/2440/69252.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Czaykowska-Higgins, E., Holmes, M. D. and Kell, S. M.</hi> (2014). Using TEI for an Endangered Language Lexical Resource: The Nxaʔamxcín Database-Dictionary Project. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language Documentation &amp; Conservation,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>: 1–37, http://hdl.handle.net/10125/4604.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Embleton, S., Uritescu, D. and Wheeler, E. S.</hi> (2013). Defining Dialect Regions with Interpretations: Advancing the Multidimensional Scaling Approach. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(1): 13–22.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Henderson, J.</hi> (2008). Capturing Chaos: Rendering Handwritten Language Documents. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language Documentation &amp; Conservation,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(2): 212–43, http://hdl.handle.net/10125/4347.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McGregor, W.</hi> (2012). Daisy Bates’ Documentations of Kimberley Languages. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language and History,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">55</hi>(2): 79–101.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nash, D.</hi> (2002). Historical Linguistic Geography of South-East Western Australia. In Henderson, J. and Nash, D. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language in Native Title</hi>. Canberra: AIATSIS Native Title Research Unit, Aboriginal Studies Press, pp. 205–30.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">White, I.</hi> (ed.). (1985). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Native Tribes of Western Australia</hi>. National Library of Australia, Canberra.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2244","16","Enriching the HuNI Virtual Laboratory with Content from the Trove Digitized Newspapers Corpus","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Burrows</surname>
                        <forename>Toby Nicolas</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Western Australia, Australia; King's College London</affiliation>
                    <email>toby.burrows@uwa.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Davidson</surname>
                        <forename>Alwyn</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Deakin University</affiliation>
                    <email>alwyn.davidson@deakin.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Cassidy</surname>
                        <forename>Steve</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Macquarie University, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>Steve.Cassidy@mq.edu.au</email>
                </author>
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                <edition>
                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>HuNI</term>
                    <term>GATE</term>
                    <term>named entity recognition</term>
                    <term>digitised newspapers</term>
                    <term>Trove</term>
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            <p>HuNI (Humanities Networked Infrastructure) is an innovative virtual laboratory that takes a new approach to the problems of integrating and linking data in the humanities and creative arts. It aggregates data from thirty Australian datasets, using a Data Model based on six core entity types. HuNI users are able to construct their own links between the individual entities in the HuNI service. This ‘social linking’ function is accompanied by the ability to create and annotate collections of entities, as well as to import and export data. </p>
            <p>The initial HuNI project, funded by an Australian government grant under the NeCTAR programme (2012–2014), was completed with the launch of the HuNI service in October 2014. More than 730,000 entity records were included in this initial version of HuNI. The research community served by HuNI spans the humanities and creative arts in Australia, and includes researchers across literature, cinema and media studies, history, linguistics, Aboriginal studies, and art (Verhoeven and Burrows, 2014).</p>
            <p>This paper will report on a project to extend the scope and content of HuNI, using the corpus of digitized newspapers assembled by the National Library of Australia and made available as part of its Trove service (http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper). This Trove corpus contains 13.7 million pages and 133.8 million articles, from more than 700 newspapers published between the earlier 19th century and the mid-1950s (Sherratt, 2014). An extensive crowdsourcing project has been running for several years, aimed at correcting the OCR files for the corpus.</p>
            <p>The project, being carried out during 2014 and 2015, has two main objectives:</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> 1. Testing and evaluating solutions and methods for carrying out Named Entity Recognition against the OCR files in the Trove digitized newspapers corpus.</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> 2. Exporting the information about entities identified from Trove so that they can be incorporated into the data aggregate that forms the basis for the HuNI service. </p>
            <p>This work has the potential to expand HuNI’s content significantly. It extends HuNI’s data, for the first time, to entities derived from full-text digital resources. It is enabling the HuNI team to evaluate the usefulness of the Trove corpus for this purpose and is serving as a pilot for the development of an ongoing production service of this kind.</p>
            <p>The project is being carried out with the assistance of a grant for the Microsoft Azure for Research programme. The project is using the Azure cloud service to store a copy of the OCR files for the Trove newspaper corpus. It is also deploying the GATE software on Azure in order to test its capabilities against the Trove newspaper corpus. GATE is a full-lifecycle open-source solution for text processing, developed at the University of Sheffield and widely used around the world (Cunningham et al., 2011). GATE is already available as a packaged Virtual Machine for cloud deployment, and the project is extending that cloud deployment to Azure. </p>
            <p>In the paper, we will report on the initial results derived from the use of GATE to identify named entities in the Trove newspapers corpus. This will include a discussion of the issues encountered, an evaluation of the results obtained, and an assessment of the effectiveness of the overall process. We will also discuss the methods being developed for packaging up these results for ingest into HuNI. This will include demonstrating and evaluating the pipeline for this process and showing how entity records added to HuNI can be used to link back to their occurrence in the Trove corpus.</p>
            <p>The paper will also discuss the remaining work to be carried out during this project. The final stage of the project will involve deploying Azure’s own Machine Learning tools against the Trove corpus. It will then be possible to compare the results obtained from Azure Machine Learning with those obtained through the use of GATE. Progress towards the deployment of a production service for adding Trove entities to HuNI will also be discussed.</p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cunningham, H., et al.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text Processing with GATE (Version 6).</hi> GATE, Sheffield.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sherratt, T.</hi> (2014). Digitised Newspapers and the Varieties of Value. Presented at the Europeana Newspapers workshop, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Newspapers in Europe and the Digital Agenda for Europe</hi>, London, http://www.slideshare.net/wragge/digitised-newspapers-and-the-varieties-of-value.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Verhoeven, D. and Burrows, T.</hi> (2014). Digital Scholarship in the Humanities and Creative Arts: The HuNI Virtual Laboratory. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">EDUCAUSE Review Online,</hi> May/June.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2245","16","Entity Relationship Model for READ","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>Entity Relationship Model for READ</title>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>McCrabb</surname>
                        <forename>Ian</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University Of Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>ian@prakas.org</email>
                </author>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>data model</term>
                    <term>philology</term>
                    <term>entity model</term>
                    <term>system design</term>
                    <term>workbench</term>
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                    <term>corpora and corpus activities</term>
                    <term>databases &amp; dbms</term>
                    <term>metadata</term>
                    <term>data modeling and architecture including hypothesis-driven modeling</term>
                    <term>ontologies</term>
                    <term>publishing and delivery systems</term>
                    <term>software design and development</term>
                    <term>text analysis</term>
                    <term>asian studies</term>
                    <term>philology</term>
                    <term>bibliographic methods / textual studies</term>
                    <term>translation studies</term>
                    <term>English</term>
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            <p>This presentation will précis the underlying entity relationship model of the Research Environment for Ancient Documents (READ) and will outline some of the research methods enabled by the platform.</p>
            <p>The READ project commenced in 2013 with development support from a consortium of universities (Ludwig Maximillian University, Munich, the University of Washington, Seattle, and the University of Lausanne), which, together with the University of Sydney, are involved in the study and publication of ancient Buddhist documents preserved in the Gāndhārī language that originate from Afghanistan and Pakistan. READ leverages 10 years of development on gandhari.org by Stefan Baums and Andrew Glass—the site that currently supports the Gāndhārī Dictionary, Bibliography and Catalog, as well as a comprehensive textual corpus. READ model and UI design are nearing completion, and development is on track for delivery in late 2015.</p>
            <p>READ has been designed as a comprehensive multi‐user research workbench and publishing platform for ancient Sanskrit and Prakrit texts: manuscripts, inscriptions, coins, and other documents. READ is based on open-source software and built-to-open standards. It provides an extensible entity model, TEI support, and a published API for integration with related systems.</p>
            <p>This presentation will focus on design aspects as encapsulated in the entity relationship model (ERM). An ERM is an abstract way of describing a relational database, most often represented as a flowchart accompanied by precise descriptions of each entity. This approach allows one to model the entities and their relationships and determine the most effective and flexible way of structuring the data to support authoring, storage, maintenance, analysis, reporting, and publishing.</p>
            <p>The design approach has been to build a comprehensive set of entities, mapped to real-world objects, in order to seamlessly model both physical and textual domains. The underlying design principle is atomisation of data to its smallest indivisible components and the linking and sequencing of these entities.</p>
            <p>As an illustration, in the physical realm, manuscripts or other inscribed 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Items</hi> have 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Parts</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Fragments,</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Surfaces</hi>. 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Images</hi> of these 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Surfaces</hi> are segmented to provide a fixed reference system, a 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">BaseLine</hi> much like the grid laid out at an archaeological excavation. These 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Segments</hi> are then sequenced into 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Spans</hi> across a 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Surface</hi>. 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Surfaces</hi> can then be aligned and the 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Spans</hi> sequenced into complete 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Lines</hi>. The mapping between physical and textual is where 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Syllables</hi> are identified with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">akṣara</hi> (the graphical unit of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kharoṣṭhī</hi> script these texts are rendered in) 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Segments</hi>. 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Syllables</hi> (deconstructed into 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Graphemes</hi>) are sequenced into 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Tokens</hi> (words or compounds) that are ultimately sequenced up through textual divisions into full 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Editions</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>The philological process model adopted is one of defining each entity by applying classifying metadata and progressively sequencing these entities from the smallest upwards. This approach allows for attribution and annotation at every entity to record scholarly contribution at the finest level of granularity. Different editors’ interpretations of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">akṣara</hi>
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Segments</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Syllable</hi> assignation, and 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Token</hi> grammatical deconstruction are all attributed, and multiple versions of all entities exist in parallel to support the publishing of any number of alternative editions.
            </p>
            <p>In summary the design approach rests on a small number of basic principles:</p>
            <p> 1. By designing entities and their relationships to reflect real-world objects in the domain, one can flexibly map system functions to actual philological processes. </p>
            <p> 2. By completely atomizing physical and textual objects, one can flexibly sequence these components into higher-level entities.</p>
            <p> 3. The application of metadata and progressive sequencing of entities from the smallest component upwards through scale supports flexibility and granularity.</p>
            <p>The technology stack includes PostgreSQL with backend development in PHP and UI development using JQuery—all mainstream open-source development environments. A conventional software architecture has been adopted with</p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""OLE_LINK1""/>
                <anchor xml:id=""OLE_LINK2""/> • A data storage system built on a relational database where entities are realized as tables with constraints and triggers to implement model logic and integrity.
            </p>
            <p> • A storage abstraction layer implemented as server side libraries to expose entities and entity aggregates needed to support the web services.</p>
            <p> • A variety of services including import, export, index, query, and data management. Services are being implemented as using Ajax for complex interactive UI functions.</p>
            <p> • A JavaScript User interface using JQuery frameworks.</p>
            <p> • A JavaScript API to provide access to libraries and core services to allow for system extensions and integration.</p>
            <p>A great deal of work has been undertaken on the design and development of a comprehensive system ontology. The ontology provides standardized terms for both physical and textual domains—everything from object shapes, mediums, and types to grammatical categories such as declension and conjugation values. These standard terms manifest as constraints within the system and ensure data consistency and quality.</p>
            <p>The system ontology has been designed to be extensible and configurable to allow READ to encompass alternative schema and new research objectives. Users can develop their own term sets within the ontology to address their own research questions. For example, my research encompasses the development of a metadata model for the analysis of formula structures in relic inscriptions, others wish to address syntactical structures, and still others questions of metre.</p>
            <p>A practical example of the flexibility in the ontology is the support for languages other than Gāndhārī. READ has been designed from the ground up to support all languages that have Sanskrit as their primordial. Branching in the system ontology allowing for alternative grammatical deconstructions enables READ to be easily configured for Sanskrit or Pali corpora—indeed, any Prakrit language.</p>
            <p>Fundamental to the design of READ is support for the import and export of TEI. The method adopted has been the development of services to export a complete XML rendition of stored data with XSLT transformation to EpiDoc TEI specifications. Import is the same process in reverse.</p>
            <p>A highly sophisticated parser was developed to read the existing corpus of transcriptions from gandhari.org as text strings and shred these into READ database entities maintaining linkages. This parser can be finessed for other corpora that might currently only exist in unstructured formats like Word. Fundamental to READ’s design is support for import of existing datasets and export as XML and specifically TEI.</p>
            <p>Indeed READ is positioned as a workbench for ancient documents, complementary to TEI-based textual repositories such as SARIT and integrated with existing Sanskrit dictionaries. Whatever format existing transcriptions were developed in, these can be consumed, elaborated upon, analyzed, and then published as research output in TEI or pdf. The data remains open-source and can be exported as a full XML archive.</p>
            <p>In summary, READ has been designed to function as</p>
            <p> • A linked repository of images, transcriptions, translations, metadata, commentary, and bibliographic records.</p>
            <p> • A content management system encompassing multiuser editing, maintenance, and version control.</p>
            <p> • A collaboration platform with comprehensive access and visibility control to support draft development, workgroup collaboration, and public presentation.</p>
            <p> • A research workbench with access to a dictionary, corpus of texts, catalogs, glossaries, concordances, and bibliography.</p>
            <p> • A publishing platform for individual transcription renditions or full scholarly editions, both print-ready and online.</p>
            <p> • The kernel of an integrated research network interfacing with related dictionaries, repositories of parallel texts, GIS, data visualization, image rendering, and palaeographic analysis systems.</p>
            <p>READ enables a very granular data structure, and whilst the level of elaboration is dependent upon the research requirement, deriving the most benefit entails an initial investment in the application of metadata at each level of sequenced entities. The dividend is that this enables a range of automated analysis outputs that support palaeographic, phonological, grammatical, orthographical, and morphological research in addition to the opportunities opened up for formulae and syntactical analysis.</p>
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"2246","16","Exploration of Billions of Words of the HathiTrust Corpus with Bookworm: HathiTrust + Bookworm Project","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Auvil</surname>
                        <forename>Loretta</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Illinois, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>lauvil@illinois.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Aiden</surname>
                        <forename>Erez Lieberman</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Baylor College of Medicine and Rice University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>erez@erez.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Downie</surname>
                        <forename>J. Stephen</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Illinois, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>jdownie@illinois.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                        <forename>Benjamin</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Northeastern University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>bmschmidt@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Bhattacharyya</surname>
                        <forename>Sayan</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Illinois, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>sayan@illinois.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Organisciak</surname>
                        <forename>Piotr</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Illinois, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>organis2@illinois.edu</email>
                </author>
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                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>text analysis</term>
                    <term>visualization</term>
                    <term>HTRC</term>
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                    <term>databases &amp; dbms</term>
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            <p>Humanities scholars are traditionally concerned with close reading of a relatively small number of texts. Yet, as new textual resources such as the Google Books project and the HathiTrust Digital Library (HTDL) emerge, there is an increasing need for tools that analyze textual resources at scale. HTDL is the largest nonprofit digital book collection in the world, containing a total of 13,026,050 volumes in over 100 languages. The goal of this project is to integrate the HTDL corpus, processed at the HathiTrust Research Center (HTRC) (Downie et al., 2012), with the Bookworm platform for text analysis, developed at the Cultural Observatory. </p>
            <p> Bookworm is an open-source platform that enables real-time analysis of repositories of digitized texts. Bookworm greatly extends the type of analysis that was popularized by the Google Ngrams Viewer (Michel et al., 2011), making it possible to slice and dice the data in an arbitrary corpus, in real time, using a greatly enhanced set of content-based and metadata-based features. </p>
            <p> This poster will demonstrate initial results of this project (HT+BW)—in particular, a functional Bookworm interface displaying text data from HTRC. The HT+BW will greatly increase the value of the HTRC because it will assist humanities scholars and students in their effort to delve deeper into the HathiTrust corpus and to explore more complex, multifaceted research questions. At the same time, this project will continue to develop Bookworm as an open-source platform tool, not only for HTRC, but also as a potential portal for all libraries with extensive digital content. This collaboration includes the University of Illinois, Indiana University, Rice University, Baylor College of Medicine, and Northeastern University. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Implementing Analytics at Scale</hi>
            </p>
            <p>One of our goals for this collaboration is to implement a greatly enhanced open-source version of the Bookworm text analysis and visualization tool designed to assist scholars to meet the challenges posed by the massive scale of the HT corpus. The enhanced Bookworm will enable many important new features—for instance, enabling scholars to better customize sets of text for their personal analyses (HTRC worksets), and to identify new HTRC texts to add to their corpora in real time. We will also be improving the APIs used by Bookworm to leverage a Solr index, an index used by many libraries and digital archives. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Identify Valuable Metadata Formats for Humanities Scholars</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The effort to curate and deploy metadata is essential to any digital library effort, especially given the painstaking effort of cataloging by librarians. We have identified certain metadata fields that will be useful for examination of HTRC data. For instance, many raw MARC fields (year of publication, country, language) have been added. Some fields can be easily computed: page counts and word counts. Still other fields, such as author gender, can be recovered with high reliability by analysis of author names and comparison with external data repositories. We expect that the following metadata fields will be integrated into the HathiTrust Bookworm: Class, Subclass, Fiction, Genre, Language, Issuance, Author Gender, Page Count, Word Count, Publication Country, and Publication State. Thus, by combining the HathiTrust data with Bookworm analytics, scholars of English literature can study word frequencies in English novels, regional historians can limit their search to publishers from particular places, and historians of science can compare chemistry texts to those in biology. The use of facets can serve as an easy means for testing hypotheses that could previously have been probed only with extensive research. See Figure 1 showing the usage of the term ‘freedom’ with facets of ‘Genre’ in ‘government publication’ and ‘periodical’.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.197791666666667cm"" height=""7.332486111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. The HTRC Bookworm showing the usage of the term ‘freedom’ when faceting ‘Genre’ by ‘government publication’ and by ‘periodical’ for the Non-Google digitized Public Domain corpus from HathiTrust.</p>
            <p> Textual data at a massive scale shifts the landscape of possibilities for the analysis of text corpora, allowing exploration to expand from the syntactic questions that linguistic corpora have excelled at answering, to capturing subtle cultural trends that underlie changes in the usage frequency of words or phrases. The goal of the HT+BW project is to create a tool that can help scholars realize this enormous potential.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Downie, J. S., Plale, B., Kowalczyk, S., MacDonald, R. H., Poole, M. S. and Unsworth, J. M.</hi> (2012). HathiTrust Research Center: Expanding the Frontiers of Large-Scale Text Analytics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceeding of 2nd Annual Conference of the Japanese Association for Digital Humanities</hi>, 15–17 September 2012, University of Tokyo.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Michel, J.-B., Shen, Y. K., Aiden, A. P., Veres, A., Gray, M. K., Pickett, J. P., . . . and Aiden, E. L.</hi> (2011). Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Science</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">331</hi>(6014): 176–82. 
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                    <affiliation>Natural Language Processing Group, University of Leipzig, Germany</affiliation>
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                        <surname>Österling</surname>
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            <p>This paper addresses exploratory search in large collections of historical texts. By way of example, we apply our method to a collection of documents comprising dossiers of the former East German Ministry for State Security and classical texts. The bases of our approach are topic models, a class of algorithms that define and infer themes pervading the corpus as probability distributions over the vocabulary. Our topic-centered visual metaphor supports exploring the corpus following an intuitive methodology: First, determine a topic of interest; second, suggest documents that contain the topic with ‘sufficient‘ probability; and third, browse iteratively through related topics and documents. Our main focus lies on providing a suitable bird’s-eye view onto the data to facilitate an in-depth analysis in terms of the topics contained.</p>
            <p>* * *</p>
            <p>When dealing with large collections of digitized historical documents, very often only little is known about the quantity, coverage, and relations of contained topics. In order to get an overview of the topics covered, an interactive way to explore the data is needed that goes beyond simple ‘lookup’. The notion of exploratory search has been coined by 
                <?biblio ADDIN PAPERS2_CITATIONS <citation><uuid>614BA154-38B9-44B4-845F-7F12C3EC5681</uuid><priority>0</priority><publications><publication><uuid>AA07F8EE-8B67-4AA3-8DDF-0D59F4DB8D0C</uuid><volume>49</volume><doi>10.1145/1121949.1121979</doi><subtitle>From Finding to Understanding</subtitle><startpage>41</startpage><publication_date>99200604001200000000220000</publication_date><citekey>Marchionini:2006bl</citekey><type>400</type><title>Exploratory Search</title><number>4</number><subtype>400</subtype><endpage>46</endpage><bundle><publication><publisher>ACM</publisher><title>Communications of the ACM</title><type>-100</type><subtype>-100</subtype><uuid>F23FBD16-F4EC-4097-BB5E-BBC9ABA9E02A</uuid></publication></bundle><authors><author><firstName>Gary</firstName><lastName>Marchionini</lastName></author></authors></publication></publications><cites></cites></citation>?> to cover such cases.
            </p>
            <p>Consider a large corpus of documents. Typically, we know the source and the broader scope of such corpora, but not necessarily the content of individual documents. One classical option to explore this data is based on keyword search. While this approach is useful when the user ‘knows’ what she is looking for, an iterative exploration of the corpus is not possible. Our approach is a structured one. We provide the user with a bird’s-eye view of the data. She then identifies topics of interest and finds the documents related to them. Additionally, documents can also be related to other topics, a connection that helps to reveal new and interesting insights previously unknown. We are also able to identify different contexts, i.e., topics, in which specific terms appear. Especially when working with historical texts, this might help to reveal new aspects of known concepts.</p>
            <p>Topic modeling 
                <?biblio ADDIN PAPERS2_CITATIONS <citation><uuid>87D87CAA-344F-42B7-940C-3760714AC947</uuid><priority>1</priority><publications><publication><number>4</number><startpage>71</startpage><subtitle>Text Mining: Classification, Clustering, and Applications</subtitle><title>Topic models</title><uuid>2D13442E-D924-4088-9B19-63E6C7F73A48</uuid><subtype>-1000</subtype><publisher>CRC Press</publisher><type>-1000</type><citekey>Blei:2009ub</citekey><publication_date>99200900000000000000200000</publication_date><authors><author><firstName>David</firstName><middleNames>M</middleNames><lastName>Blei</lastName></author><author><firstName>John</firstName><middleNames>D</middleNames><lastName>Lafferty</lastName></author></authors><editors><author><firstName>Ashok</firstName><middleNames>N</middleNames><lastName>Srivastava</lastName></author><author><firstName>Mehran</firstName><lastName>Sahami</lastName></author></editors></publication></publications><cites></cites></citation>?> has become one of the main tools for unsupervised text analysis and for gaining insight into corpora via exploratory search and analysis by identifying semantic classes of words in the corpus, coined ‘topics’. An introduction on how topic modeling can help humanists in their research is given in 
                <?biblio ADDIN PAPERS2_CITATIONS <citation><uuid>43CFE8AD-492B-41CC-83A4-ADD8EC53DA7A</uuid><priority>2</priority><publications><publication><volume>2</volume><number>1</number><title>Topic Modeling and Digital Humanities</title><uuid>E3DE6C46-ABB4-4EBB-A84A-3DE833C7B7CE</uuid><subtype>400</subtype><type>400</type><citekey>Blei:2012ud</citekey><publication_date>99201201001200000000210000MT_FUZZY_MONTH_01_WINTER</publication_date><bundle><publication><title>Journal of Digital Humanities</title><type>-100</type><subtype>-100</subtype><uuid>1C9667CB-06D1-4769-B7CB-219398551600</uuid></publication></bundle><authors><author><firstName>David</firstName><middleNames>M</middleNames><lastName>Blei</lastName></author></authors></publication></publications><cites></cites></citation>?>. 
            </p>
            <p>However, little effort has been made to develop methods to use the outcome of these models in applications 
                <hi rend=""italic"">visually</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>Traditional linguistic approaches such as the vector space model 
                <?biblio ADDIN PAPERS2_CITATIONS <citation><uuid>1514FCF4-B2E7-43B5-AD23-F24DA5074370</uuid><priority>3</priority><publications><publication><volume>24</volume><publication_date>99198800000000000000200000</publication_date><number>5</number><startpage>513</startpage><title>Term-Weighting Approaches in Automatic Text Retrieval</title><uuid>6CC5EE37-8B0F-483D-9C47-75924F6B8EF8</uuid><subtype>400</subtype><endpage>523</endpage><type>400</type><citekey>Salton:1988p4433</citekey><url>http://www.google.de/search?client=safari&amp;rls=en-us&amp;q=Term-weighting+approaches+in+automatic+text+retrieval&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;redir_esc=&amp;ei=ycmDTKOTC8qmOJzSkfUO</url><bundle><publication><title>Information processing &amp; management</title><type>-100</type><subtype>-100</subtype><uuid>CA1FDD1F-3C91-4D1B-B307-CFD118401177</uuid></publication></bundle><authors><author><firstName>Gerard</firstName><lastName>Salton</lastName></author><author><firstName>C</firstName><lastName>Buckley</lastName></author></authors></publication></publications><cites></cites></citation>?> translate documents into high-dimensional feature vectors (typically in combination with, e.g., the tf-idf 
                <?biblio ADDIN PAPERS2_CITATIONS <citation><uuid>AC410B7F-559F-4B02-8816-B0A751055699</uuid><priority>4</priority><publications><publication><uuid>00E2A96C-A2F9-42E0-8E64-4D0CE15C1C30</uuid><volume>28</volume><startpage>11</startpage><publication_date>99197200001200000000200000</publication_date><url>http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=1649768&amp;show=abstract</url><citekey>Jones:1972vw</citekey><type>400</type><title>A statistical interpretation of term specificity and its application in retrieval</title><publisher>MCB UP Ltd</publisher><number>1</number><subtype>400</subtype><endpage>21</endpage><bundle><publication><title>Journal of documentation</title><type>-100</type><subtype>-100</subtype><uuid>72DA469A-C667-46A3-B725-353F44267388</uuid></publication></bundle><authors><author><firstName>Karen</firstName><middleNames>Sparck</middleNames><lastName>Jones</lastName></author></authors></publication></publications><cites></cites></citation>?>] term weighting). Visualizing such high-dimensional structures is a research field on its own. Established approaches include projective techniques, like the Text Map Explorer 
                <?biblio ADDIN PAPERS2_CITATIONS <citation><uuid>F8A0E3CE-B6D9-4789-9C1E-FD55BE98F6BC</uuid><priority>5</priority><publications><publication><publication_date>99200600001200000000200000</publication_date><startpage>245</startpage><doi>10.1109/IV.2006.104</doi><title>Text Map Explorer: a Tool to Create and Explore Document Maps</title><uuid>E97F8F5E-FB19-4150-A99B-D537229631EF</uuid><subtype>400</subtype><publisher>IEEE</publisher><type>400</type><endpage>251</endpage><url>http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1153927.1154683&amp;coll=DL&amp;dl=GUIDE&amp;CFID=481038063&amp;CFTOKEN=25042524</url><bundle><publication><title>Tenth International Conference on Information Visualisation (IV'06)</title><type>-100</type><subtype>-100</subtype><uuid>5199EC1A-235E-4D3E-A74E-B3076956D340</uuid></publication></bundle><authors><author><firstName>F</firstName><middleNames>V</middleNames><lastName>Paulovich</lastName></author><author><firstName>R</firstName><lastName>Minghim</lastName></author></authors></publication></publications><cites></cites></citation>?>, Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) 
                <?biblio ADDIN PAPERS2_CITATIONS <citation><uuid>A98EB46A-4362-47B2-B113-FDF89A7C2B39</uuid><priority>6</priority><publications><publication><publication_date>99197800001200000000200000</publication_date><number>no. 11</number><subtitle>Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences</subtitle><startpage>93</startpage><title>Multidimensional Scaling</title><uuid>BB656566-DCB1-4522-8220-294B537F0437</uuid><subtype>0</subtype><publisher>SAGE Publications</publisher><type>0</type><citekey>joseph1978multidimensional</citekey><url>http://books.google.de/books?id=ZzmIPcEXPf0C&amp;dq=mulitdimensional+scaling&amp;hl=&amp;cd=4&amp;source=gbs_api</url><authors><author><firstName>Joseph</firstName><middleNames>B</middleNames><lastName>Kruskal</lastName></author><author><firstName>Myron</firstName><lastName>Wish</lastName></author></authors></publication></publications><cites></cites></citation>?>, Sammon’s mapping 
                <?biblio ADDIN PAPERS2_CITATIONS <citation><uuid>8B0D531C-1C38-4DA1-AD18-E80CE4EC6750</uuid><priority>7</priority><publications><publication><type>400</type><publication_date>99196900001200000000200000</publication_date><title>A nonlinear mapping for data structure analysis</title><url>http://tsrenderer.googlecode.com/svn/trunk/doc/papers/01671271.pdf</url><subtype>400</subtype><uuid>71CF8445-4813-4BBD-B83E-F8CA525E6F61</uuid><bundle><publication><title>IEEE Transactions on Computers</title><type>-100</type><subtype>-100</subtype><uuid>A10A0DDD-B0BB-417F-B5D6-07BD1680C5C2</uuid></publication></bundle><authors><author><firstName>J</firstName><middleNames>W</middleNames><lastName>Sammon</lastName></author></authors></publication></publications><cites></cites></citation>?>, and neuro-computational algorithms like Self Organizing Maps (SOM) 
                <?biblio ADDIN PAPERS2_CITATIONS <citation><uuid>B5006DF5-88E2-4BB0-8A1E-061A3872A70D</uuid><priority>8</priority><publications><publication><publication_date>99200101011200000000222000</publication_date><startpage>501</startpage><title>Self-Organizing Maps</title><uuid>8224AFAB-0E22-4B35-ABB7-4615E9C2A0EB</uuid><subtype>0</subtype><publisher>Springer Science &amp; Business Media</publisher><type>0</type><url>http://books.google.de/books?id=e4igHzyfO78C&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=kohonen+self+organizing+maps&amp;hl=&amp;cd=1&amp;source=gbs_api</url><authors><author><firstName>Teuvo</firstName><lastName>Kohonen</lastName></author></authors></publication></publications><cites></cites></citation>?>. 
            </p>
            <p>Compared to the algorithms used in this paper, the insights obtained from a pure vector space model are rather limited. In fact, we reduce the dimensionality of the space in which documents are defined from the size of the vocabulary to a number of semantic classes (topics) that appear across documents. </p>
            <p>Topic Models</p>
            <p>A topic model is a Bayesian hierarchical probabilistic model. It defines an artificial generative process for document generation, describing how the actually observable data (the words in the documents) get into their place. In a topic model, this is controlled by two latent factors: the topics themselves and the documents’ topic proportions. A topic is defined as a probability distribution over the word simplex—i.e., in every topic each word has a certain probability, and the probabilities in each individual topic sum to 1. The set of words with the highest probability is assumed to describe the individual topics thematically. The second factor, the document topic proportions, is again a set of probability distributions (one for each document) defined over the topic simplex. Every topic gets some probability in a document, and their probabilities sum to 1. Simply put, the words that we see in a document are then generated by first finding a topic through the document’s distribution over topics and then finding a word from the chosen topic. Both choices are random draws from their respective distributions. During inference, we reverse this process in order to get approximations for the governing latent factors that best give rise to the observed words—that is, we want to find the setting of the latent factors for which the observed words are highly likely. In most cases, the outcome of such models is presented as a set of sorted word lists for each topic, topic similarity is being neglected, and only hand-picked topics are selected as examples. </p>
            <p>Visualization Approach</p>
            <p>Visualization is our method of choice to inspect the knowledge uncovered from the data. However, the model outcome is obviously inappropriate for direct visualization. Without using thresholds, presenting entire probability distributions as sorted lists of words and values is not very handy and quickly results in information excess and cluttered visualizations. Even working with thresholds does not immediately lead to parameter settings that are independent of the input data, e.g., how many words are actually necessary to obtain a reasonably good impression of a topic found by the model. That is, depending on the semantic quality of words and topics, a flexible level of detail is necessary to identify meaningful information in a topic, i.e., in a distribution over words. On the other hand, the amount of information relevant for each element of the topic model is assumed to be rather small. Therefore, the visual implementation of these elements should focus on the pivotal parts of the distributions, while increasingly disregarding irrelevant parts. In the end, the relations between the input documents, the latent topics found by the model, and the actual probabilities of a topic’s keywords are the elements containing interesting insights about the data.</p>
            <p>We present an interactive visual analysis tool to find and display these relations. Our approach is closely related to that of 
                <?biblio ADDIN PAPERS2_CITATIONS <citation><uuid>AE131A8D-06F7-4ACF-9330-9504E484B22C</uuid><priority>9</priority><publications><publication><publication_date>99201200000000000000200000</publication_date><title>Visualizing Topic Models</title><citekey>Chaney:2012vr</citekey><type>400</type><subtype>400</subtype><uuid>F600BB14-AD13-4F1E-972E-BB58262103DA</uuid><bundle><publication><title>Sixth International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media</title><type>-100</type><subtype>-100</subtype><uuid>26630F73-0EBC-4B20-AEFC-618C2952C2A4</uuid></publication></bundle><authors><author><firstName>Allison</firstName><lastName>Chaney</lastName></author><author><firstName>David</firstName><middleNames>M</middleNames><lastName>Blei</lastName></author></authors></publication></publications><cites></cites></citation>?>, who also attempt to directly visualize the output of topic models. However, their approach generates a set of static websites that can be browsed to explore the dataset, providing a lightweight but largely text-based application to solve the visualization tasks. There exists an overview over the different topics, but each topic is described by the three most probable words only. There is no possibility to further investigate a topic 
                <hi rend=""italic"">and</hi> to keep track of the others. As a framework for our visualization we chose OpenWalnut.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> This framework primarily aims at medical imaging but is highly modular and can be easily reused to fit our requirements.
            </p>
            <p>We define the following distinct exploration tasks that a topic model is fit to execute:</p>
            <p> 1. 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Examining a topic.</hi> Examining a single topic is difficult because it is a probability distribution. In the visualization, this information helps the user to quickly identify key words and their relative importance for a topic. 
            </p>
            <p> 2. 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Overview of the Topics.</hi> This task visually summarizes the set of latent topics found by the topic model. 
            </p>
            <p> 3. 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Finding Different Semantics of Polysems and Homonyms.</hi> One advantage of topic models is the automatic disambiguation of semantic meanings of words into topics. 
            </p>
            <p> 4. 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Identifying Documents Covering a Topic.</hi> This task is at the core of exploratory analysis: Having identified a topic of interest, explore a set of documents covering it. 
            </p>
            <p> 5. 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Finding Related Topics of a Document.</hi> Inspect topics related to a document, or, in a transitive way, documents related to these topics. 
            </p>
            <p>We present visual implementations for these tasks to provide the user with interactive means to browse through relations between documents, topics, and words. This way, the user uncovers expected or (more interestingly) unexpected facts that eventually lead to interesting documents. Using smooth level-of-detail transitions and by interacting with topic distribution charts, the user freely navigates through the data by concatenating single exploration tasks—following focus-and-context concepts and an intuitive methodology: overview first, details on demand.</p>
            <p>Experiments</p>
            <p>We report use cases of fitting topic models to two different datasets. One of the datasets is the series of publications ‘The GDR through the Eyes of the Stasi: The Secret Reports to the SED Leadership’ (German: ‘Die DDR im Blick der Stasi. Die geheimen Berichte an die SED-Führung’) that reveal the Stasi’s
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> specific view of the GDR, containing references to real and perceived oppositional conduct as well as to economic and supply problems. 
            </p>
            <p>The second dataset is the ECCO-TCP,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> a set of classical literature and non-fiction texts.
            </p>
            <p>In Figures 1 through 5 we pictorially describe how the defined exploration tasks are met using our visualization. Note that we omitted the application’s control panel in Figures 1–3 for spatial reasons.</p>
            <p>
                <hi style=""color:red; font-size: 14pt; font-weight:bold;"" rend=""ERROR"">�</hi>
                <note place=""margin"" type=""conversion"" resp=""#teitodocx"">
                    <hi rend=""docxError"">unable to handle picture here, no embed or link</hi>
                </note>Figure 1. Visually solving task 1, the examination of a specific topic. (left) A topic covering several classical drama authors and their work from the ECCO-TCP dataset. (right) A topic covering Communist Party propaganda in connection with the youth from the Stasi files dataset.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi style=""color:red; font-size: 14pt; font-weight:bold;"" rend=""ERROR"">�</hi>
                <note place=""margin"" type=""conversion"" resp=""#teitodocx"">
                    <hi rend=""docxError"">unable to handle picture here, no embed or link</hi>
                </note>Figure 2. Visually solving task 2, giving an overview over the topics. (left) Example topics from the ECCO-TCP dataset. (right) Examples from the Stasi files data set.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">
                    <hi style=""color:red; font-size: 14pt; font-weight:bold;"" rend=""ERROR"">�</hi>
                    <note place=""margin"" type=""conversion"" resp=""#teitodocx"">
                        <hi rend=""docxError"">unable to handle picture here, no embed or link</hi>
                    </note>Figure 3. Visually solving task 3, resolving polysems and homonyms. (left) Different usages of the term ‘greeks’ in the ECCO-TCP dataset. Usages in connection with religion, literature, science, and politics are apparent. (right) Usages of the term ‘untersuchungen’ (Eng.: investigations) from the Stasi files dataset. The term is used in connection with the ever suspicious Stasi (topics dealing with addresses, name, Berlin, ‘wohnhaft’ etc. but also with investigations of accidents in factories (‘veb’ meaning ‘Peoples-owned enterprise’) and the state railroad (‘reichsbahn’).
                    <graphic n=""1006"" width=""19.49273611111111cm"" height=""6.9991111111111115cm"" url=""Pictures/image9.png"" rend=""block""/>
                </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi style=""color:red; font-size: 14pt; font-weight:bold;"" rend=""ERROR"">�</hi>
                <note place=""margin"" type=""conversion"" resp=""#teitodocx"">
                    <hi rend=""docxError"">unable to handle picture here, no embed or link</hi>
                </note>Figure 4. Solving task 4, finding documents related to topics. (left) Documents from the ECCO-TCP dataset that are related to the topic about ‘indians‘, ‘cape‘, ‘anchor‘, ‘spaniards‘, etc.; the documents are mainly travel reports and reports from English colonies. (right) Documents from the Stasi dataset related to the topic about problems in medical care in the former GDR. The documents are mainly statistical reports, one about the unions’ evaluation to the problem and the planned departure of a physician.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1009"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""9.039930555555555cm"" url=""Pictures/image17.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>
                <hi style=""color:red; font-size: 14pt; font-weight:bold;"" rend=""ERROR"">�</hi>
                <note place=""margin"" type=""conversion"" resp=""#teitodocx"">
                    <hi rend=""docxError"">unable to handle picture here, no embed or link</hi>
                </note>Figure 5. Solving task 5, finding topics related to a document. The selected document reads ‘The analyst: or, a discourse addressed to an infidel mathematician. Wherein it is examined whether the object, . . . and inferences of the modern analysis are more distinctly conceived, or more evidently deduced, than religious mysteries . . . By author of The minute philosopher‘ and has been found by first selecting the ‘science‘ topic (experiments, velocity, fluid, organs, magnitude, etc.). A second topic contained by this document has typical words like Jesus, saviour, spiritual, salvation, etc., as would be expected considering the document’s title.
            </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. http://www.openwalnut.org.</p>
            <p>2. Literally, Stasi abbreviates ‘STAatsSIcherheit‘, i.e. State Security.</p>
            <p>3. The Eighteenth Century Collection Online Text Creation Partnership, available at http://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/ecco/.</p>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Munoz</surname>
                        <forename>Angeles</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Nottingham, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>amcivantos@gmail.com</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Blum</surname>
                        <forename>Jesse</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Nottingham, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>jesse.blum@nottingham.ac.uk</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Goulding</surname>
                        <forename>James</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Nottingham, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>james.goulding@nottingham.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Shipp</surname>
                        <forename>Victoria</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Nottingham, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>victoria.shipp@nottingham.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Robinson</surname>
                        <forename>Joanna</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Nottingham, United Kingdom</affiliation>
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                    <term>sustainability and preservation</term>
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                    <term>interface and user experience design</term>
                    <term>metadata</term>
                    <term>software design and development</term>
                    <term>information architecture</term>
                    <term>GLAM: galleries</term>
                    <term>libraries</term>
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            <p>This paper presents the socio-technical implications of designing and deploying an interactive, community-driven, and community-contributed archive. </p>
            <p>In 2015 the Theatre Royal Nottingham (UK) will be celebrating its 150th anniversary, having first opened its doors in September 1865. This is a major landmark for Nottingham and the ideal time and catalyst to explore the venue’s past and engage the city and its residents with its performance heritage. At present, there is a large amount of records available related to the history of the Theatre Royal Nottingham. However, an archive has not been developed yet, and there is the need of establishing a system to organise the records and ultimately make them accessible to the public and the researchers interested in exploring them. This archive will allow understanding, preserving, and enriching the history and the integrity of the Theatre Royal, and constructing the memory of the building by creating a bridge between information and the community. </p>
            <p>Building an archive is considerably expensive, and it requires a significant amount of time and human effort (Poole, 2010). The maintenance of the archive resources in the long term implies additional investments, and therefore sustainability becomes a key issue. It is then vital to ensure that such effort in financial resources, time, and research is balanced with the public and community engagement. In the research library and archive sector, it is reported that at least £130 million of UK public money has been spent in digitisation in a decade (Bültmann et al., 2005). Despite the significant expenditure, it is hard to find ‘evidence of use’ of the digitised resources (Warwick et al., 2008), and research shows that about one-third of the digital resources in the humanities are not accessed (Warwick et al., 2006). </p>
            <p>To improve the balance between available digital resources and access by the public, cultural institutions are progressively exploring alternative paths of involvement of their audiences in the use and appropriation of their on-site and online assets. In this framework, models of public participation have been identified (Simon, 2010), and crowdsourcing-based initiatives have been classified (Carletti et al., 2013; Oomen and Aroyo, 2011) to provide insights into the nature of those emerging relationships. The participatory culture—nurtured by the Web 2.0 expansion—has amplified the scope for diverse collaborations between organisations and the public and, at the same time, raised audiences’ expectations to have an active role and to become ‘prosumers’ (producer and consumer), rather than simply consumers of cultural activities.</p>
            <p>The technological infrastructures are at the core of those new collaborations. The value of involving the public in the design and development of interactive systems is widely acknowledged, and a rich literature on participatory design has been produced by the Human-Computer-Interaction research community. However, it is essential to acknowledge that participation goes beyond the involvement of the participants as informants in design. Participation is an ongoing engagement and should aim for learning and long-term empowerment of the people involved (Dearden and Rizvi, 2008). Community participation in the design of interactive systems can represent the first step to assure a dynamic and permanent commitment in the deployment. </p>
            <p>With this sociotechnical scenario in mind, we launched a participatory design process involving the Theatre Royal audiences to elicit their relationships with the archival materials, as well as suggestions for the development of the interactive system. Three focus groups were planned and designed to investigate audience engagement with physical and digital archival resources, and to inform the design of an online archive. When the Theatre Royal opened the call for interest, almost 150 people expressed their intention to participate in the focus groups. This overwhelming and unexpected response was interpreted as a clear sign of the will of the people to be involved actively in the ‘life’ of the Theatre. Due to logistic constraints (e.g., time, space, budget), we were able to involve 38 people in the three events targeted, respectively, at theatregoers under 26 years old, theatregoers over 26 years old, and nontheatregoers. </p>
            <p>In the three focus groups, we addressed two main questions: </p>
            <p> 1. How do we design and promote audience engagement with cultural resources? </p>
            <p> 2. How do we design interactive systems entailing the collaboration between cultural institutions and their public? </p>
            <p>For the focus groups, intersubjective meaning-making tasks were designed to experiment how to engage the different target groups with the physical and the digital resources. Different levels of engagement were observed during the three events. Engagement was observed in terms of spontaneous or incited interaction with other people and/or the archive, time spent interacting, and additional interactions not expected and/or requested by the facilitators. Based on our observations, four critical activities were also identified to create, manage, and display a collaborative online archive: </p>
            <p> 1. Developing a suitable database structure.</p>
            <p> 2. Digitising the archive and storing data in a suitable format.</p>
            <p> 3. Interface development.</p>
            <p> 4. Curating experiences. </p>
            <p>Through a rapid prototyping technique, Chronopticon, a timeline prototype, was also developed in response to the public feedback on the design of an interactive system for the Theatre. </p>
            <p>The focus groups revealed that there is space and interest both to design on-site and online interactive experiences, thus offering alternative and personalised ways to access archives. There is also scope to develop innovative tools designed for audience engagement, as well as co-constructed with the public. The design of the database and the framing of the community participation seem to represent the critical factors to focus on and to curate. When initiating a co-created project, it is central to ensure the long-term public engagement with the resource, as well as its maintenance. Involving the community beginning with the first phases seems to be a potential solution to address the sustainability concerns. Besides that, the experience and knowledge of local communities constitute an important part of the sense-making process of archive materials. </p>
            <p>In this paper, we present the results of this pilot project, and recommendations to translate the findings into future actions to design and develop a community-driven and community-contributed archive. </p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bültmann, B., R. Hardy, A. Muir, and C. Wictor.</hi> (2005). Digitised Content in the UK Research Library and Archives Sector. JISC/CURL. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Carletti, L., McAuley, D., Price, D. and Giannachi, G. </hi>(2013). Digital Humanities and Crowdsourcing: An Exploration. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Damodaran, L. and Olphert, W.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Informing Digital Futures: Strategies for Citizen Engagement.</hi> Springer, Dordrecht. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dearden, A. and Rizvi, H.</hi> (2008). Participatory IT Design and Participatory Development: A Comparative Review. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 10th Anniversary Conference on Participatory Design 2008 (PDC ’08),</hi> Bloomington, IN, 30 September–4 October 2008, pp. 81–91. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Holley, R.</hi> (2010). Crowdsourcing: How and Why Should Libraries Do It? 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Oomen, J. and Aroyo, L.</hi> (2011). Crowdsourcing in the Cultural Heritage Domain: Opportunities and Challenges. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Communities and Technologies</hi>, Brisbane, 29 June–2 July 2011. New York: ACM.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Poole, N.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Cost of Digitising Europe’s Cultural Heritage. </hi>Comité des Sages of the European Commission. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Roberts, S. and Carletti, L.</hi> (2012). Digital Engagement and the History of Advertising Trust Ghostsigns Archive. History Workshop Online. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Simon, N.</hi> (2010). The Participatory Museum. http://www.participatorymuseum.org/read/. 
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Culture and E-Tourism: Technologies, Applications and Management Approaches.</hi> IGI Global Publishing, pp. 139–57.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi> (1): 85–102.
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                        <surname>Montague</surname>
                        <forename>John</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Alberta, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>jmontagu@ualberta.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Simpson</surname>
                        <forename>John</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Alberta, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>john.simpson@ualberta.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Rockwell</surname>
                        <forename>Geoffrey</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Alberta, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>geoffrey.rockwell@ualberta.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ruecker</surname>
                        <forename>Stan</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Illinois Institute of Technology, USA</affiliation>
                    <email>sruecker@id.iit.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Brown</surname>
                        <forename>Susan</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Alberta, Canada; University of Guelph, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>sibrown@ualberta.ca</email>
                </author>
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                    <term>philosophy</term>
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            <p>How can topic model visualizations aid in the exploration of large datasets? The standard method for visualizing topic models involves a two-stage process that begins with the use of a tool specifically designed to construct topic models on a specified corpus. MALLET (McCallum, 2002), a command line tool that implements the Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) algorithm described by Blei et al. (2003), provides output in the form of text files that can be shared directly with other tools and seems to be the default tool of choice for the first stage. Regardless of the topic modeller used, its output is then passed to a separate tool for the second stage in the production of the visualization. These separate tools are either general visualization tools or topic model specific visualization tools. The use of general visualization tools is attractive because it typically requires a lower technical competency and allows the user to leverage skills they already have, but general tools provide fewer targeted affordances for exploration. Still, despite the existence of at least a dozen tools that have been used to visualize topic models, it remains the case that none of them are particularly well suited to exploring large datasets comprising thousands or millions of entries in a corpus distributed over a wide range of time and with a correspondingly large set of candidate topics produced by topic modelling. </p>
            <p>This paper provides a solution to this problem by describing a tool that has been designed specifically to address this problem and that is now entering production. Before describing the tool and providing a short demonstration of its functionality, we summarize the current landscape of topic model visualizations and provide recommendations based on various use-cases. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Topic Modelling Visualizations</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The visualization methods used across these tools can be fruitfully categorized using a set of modified categories drawn from work done by Katifori et al. (2007) on ontology visualizations: </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Traditional charts </hi>(Bar, line, pie, scatterplot, etc.): D-VITA (Gunnemann et al., 2013); Tableau (Sharkey and Ansari, 2014); ParallelTopics (Dou et al., 2011); NIPS (Iwata et al., 2008); MetaToMATo (Snyder et al., 2013).
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Network graphs</hi>: Gephi (Chen et al., 2013); Topicnet (Gretarsson et al., 2012). 
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Zoomable tools</hi>: an unnamed tool by Chaney and Blei (2012). 
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""bold"">2D matrix</hi>: Serendip (Alexander et al., 2014); Termite (Chuang et al., 2012).
            </p>
            <p>The variety of visualization techniques being pursued are evidence of the difficulties related to displaying relevant information from topic modelling, as each visualization method has been developed or chosen with a particular application in mind. The tools that particularly focus on exploring the underlying data and revealing connections are Serendip and MetaToMATo, neither of which is a graph-based visualization, and both of which become overwhelmed by large datasets. Gephi is a general-purpose graph-based visualization tool that has been used to visualize large datasets (Munster, Jockers), but the images it produces are static and it does not easily lend itself to sharing information derived from topic models. Drawing on lessons from a review of all these tools, but Serendip, MetaToMATo, and Gephi in particular, the tool we report on constructing is targeted at exploration using graph-based visualizations of topic models on large corpuses. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Topic Modelling Philosophy Journals</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Motivation for this project has been brought about in part by work done over the past year with a corpus of philosophy journals acquired from JSTOR (Simpson et al., 2014). While investigating this corpus we made use of chart-based visualizations with R after preprocessing with MALLET. While there was much to be learned from the changing prevalence of particular topics over time, there were also a number of things that the visualizations were not able to tell us. In particular, our first visualizations made it difficult to easily see connections between the different topics, to see relations between the different journals, and to have this information present itself with increasing detail as required for the investigation. This challenge arose in large part because the dataset covered 27,536 journal articles from 10 different journals published between 1876 and 2008. Datasets of this size and diversity are becoming increasingly common, and so we moved to pursue a tool capable of visualizing the results of topic modelling. Not finding a suitable one for the exploration of large datasets, we set about designing a new one. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Visualizations in 3D</hi>
            </p>
            <p>MacEachren et al. (1994) suggest that all visualizations are meant to principally perform one of the following tasks: clearly present previously discovered information, analyze a particular dataset, combine multiple datasets, or explore data for knowledge discovery. It is the last category on which our visualization research team has been particularly focused: visualizations that allow the user to not simply understand or analyze a dataset, but to explore it in hopes of uncovering new information. </p>
            <p>As Lauren Frederica-Klein says in her 2013 digital humanities start-up grant application for the Interactive TOpic Model and MEtadata Visualization (TOME) project
                <hi rend=""italic"">, </hi>regarding Wise et al.’s Galaxies visualization, ‘By forcing all thematic differences into a single two-dimensional presentation, information is inevitably lost’. In an effort to minimize this information loss, we are now creating an exploration tool for the purpose of experiencing a topic-modeled corpus in 3D space, using the free, open-source JavaScript framework 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Famo.us</hi>. 
            </p>
            <p>The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Famo.us </hi>framework is designed to help ‘create smooth, complex UIs for any screen’, and will provide us some substantial benefits, first and foremost being that its CSS-like styling code is relatively straightforward to learn and implement. Additionally, using physics-based animations, three orientation axes, and opacity control, it is capable of rendering a touch-screen manipulable, three-dimensional environment, the interactivity afforded by which is something we believe will help greatly foster user exploration. As explained by Card et al. (1999), ‘This additional [3rd] dimension projects from the viewpoint toward infinity, creating a large visible workspace’, a decidedly beneficial quality when visually exploring a large dataset. 
            </p>
            <p>Chuang et al. (2012) describe the illegible results of experimenting with topic modelling visualizations where text is displayed directly in the visualization matrix. To reduce the volume of unwanted information, our design implements Healey’s (1996) notion of ‘knowledge discovery’, allowing the user to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">filter </hi>unwanted data, and what Petre and Green (1992) describe as ‘secondary notation; the use of layout and perceptual cues which are not formally part of the notation (elements such as adjacency, clustering, whitespace, labeling and so on)’. Like Healey, we believe this will help ease any display or perception bottleneck and afford the user a unique opportunity to discover and explore unknown trends and relationships in the data. The user will customize the visibility of elements of the dataset and secondary notation by adjusting a series of controls to make alterations to the sensitivity of, for instance, clustering algorithms, labeling, or the visibility of edges in a network. 
            </p>
            <p>Since any single visualization is fundamentally limited in its ability to communicate very complex relationships, like Andrew Goldstone’s DfR browser (2013), and Snyder et al.’s Metadata and Topic Model Analysis Toolkit (MetaToMATo) (2013), our concept merges multiple visualizations into what Snyder et al. term ‘a single faceted browsing paradigm for exploration and analysis of document collections’. Word clouds generated via topic modelling, histograms, line graphs, and network diagramming are all experienced via a zoomable user interface (ZUI). Snyder et al. (2013) explain that ‘effectively exploring and analyzing large text corpora requires visualizations that provide a high level summary’. Figure 1 shows how the viewer will be able to move from that high-level summary, ‘flying’ deeper and deeper into the data, simultaneously experiencing multiple visualizations from unique vantage points, and, as espoused by Chuang et al. (2012), ‘drilling down’ into additional layers of information as desired. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""9.539111111111112cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. As the user navigates deeper into the dataset, more and different relationships are revealed. </p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Alexander, E., Kohlmann, J., Valenza, R., Witmore, M. and Gleicher, M.</hi> (2014). Serendip: Topic Model-Driven Visual Exploration of Text Corpora, https://graphics.cs.wisc.edu/Papers/2014/AKVWG14/Preprint.pdf. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. M., Ng, A. Y. and Jordan, M. I.</hi> (2003). Latent Dirichlet Allocation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Machine Learning Research, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>: 993–1022. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Card, S. K., Mackinlay, J. D. and Shneiderman, B.</hi> (1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Readings in Information Visualization: Using Vision to Think</hi>. Morgan Kaufmann, San Francisco.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chaney, A. J.-B. and Blei, D. M. </hi>(2012). Visualizing Topic Models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Sixth International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media</hi>, Dublin, Ireland, 4–7 June 2012, http://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/ICWSM/ICWSM12/paper/download/4645%26lt%3B/5021. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chen, A. T., Sheble, L. and Eichler, G.</hi> (2013). Topic Modeling and Network Visualization to Explore Patient Experiences. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Visual Analytics in Health Care</hi>, Washington, DC, 16 November 2013, http://ruby.ils.unc.edu/~atchen/pubs/Chen_Sheble_Eichler_VAHC2013.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chuang, J., Manning, C. D. and Heer, J.</hi> (2012). Termite: Visualization Techniques for Assessing Textual Topic Models. Capri Islands, Italy, http://vis.stanford.edu/files/2012TermiteAVI.pdf. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dou, W., Wang, X., Kraft, T. and Ribarsky, W</hi>. (2011). Identifying Topical Trends in Social Media with Topic Modeling. University of North Carolina, Charlotte. http://vialab.science.uoit.ca/textvis2011/papers/textvis%202011-dou.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Frederica-Klein, L.</hi> (2013). TOpic Model and MEtadata Visualization Project (TOME), digital humanities startup grant application. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Goldstone, A.</hi> (2013). drfbrowser: Take a MALLET to Literary History, http://agoldst.github.io/dfrbrowser/web. 
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology</hi> (TIST), 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(2): 23. 
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                        <hi rend=""italic color(333333)"">Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Graphics Theory and Applications and International Conference on Information Visualization Theory and Applications</hi>, Barcelona, pp. 461–70, http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~mwybrow/papers/jiaoivapp2013.pdf. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Katifori, A., Halatsis, C., Lepouras, G., Vassilakis, C. and Giannopoulou, E.</hi> (2007). Ontology Visualization Methods Survey. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ACM Computing Surveys,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">39</hi>(4) (2 November): 10–es, doi:10.1145/1287620.1287621. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">MacEachren, A. M., Bishop, I., Dykes, J., Dorling, D. and Gatrell, A.</hi> (1994). Introduction to Advances in Visualizing Spatial Data. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Visualization in Geographical Information Systems.</hi> London: John Wiley &amp; Sons, pp. 51–59.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCallum, A. K.</hi> (2002). MALLET: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit. http://mallet.cs.umass.edu. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Petre, M. and Green, T. R. G.</hi> (1992). Learning to Read Graphics: Some Evidence That ‘Seeing’ an Information Display Is an Acquired Skill. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Visual Languages and Computing, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>: 55–70. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sharkey, M. and Ansari, M.</hi> (2014). Deconstruct and Reconstruct: Using Topic Modeling on an Analytics Corpus. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">LAK Workshops</hi>, http://ceurws. org/Vol1137/ lakdatachallenge2014_submission_1.pdf. 
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Simpson, J., Rockwell, G. and Sinclair, S.</hi> (2014). The Epidemiology of Ideas. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Canadian Society for Digital Humanities Annual Conference</hi>, Brock University, May 2014. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Snyder, J., Knowles, R., Dredze, M., Gormley, M. and Wolfe, T.</hi> (2013). Topic Models and Metadata for Visualizing Text Corpora. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the NAACL HLT 2013 Demonstration Session</hi>, Atlanta, 10–12 June 2013, pp. 5–9.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2250","16","Extracting Key Phrases for Suggesting Annotation Candidates from Japanese Historical Document","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>Extracting Key Phrases for Suggesting Annotation Candidates from Japanese Historical Document</title>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Sato</surname>
                        <forename>Takafumi</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Ritsumeikan University、Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>is0069kh@ed.ritsumei.ac.jp</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Goto</surname>
                        <forename>Makoto</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>The National Institutes for the Humanities, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>m-goto@digitalhistory.jp</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Kimura</surname>
                        <forename>Fuminori</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Ritsumeikan University、Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>fkimura@is.ritsumei.ac.jp</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Maeda</surname>
                        <forename>Akira</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Ritsumeikan University、Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>amaeda@is.ritsumei.ac.jp</email>
                </author>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>Annotation Suggestion</term>
                    <term>Historical Documents</term>
                    <term>Web-based System</term>
                    <term>Machine Learning</term>
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                    <term>natural language processing</term>
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            <p>Recent progress in digitizing historical documents has made it easier to work with the documents by enabling use of annotations and text analysis (Nagasaki et al., 2011). Di Donato et al. developed a system for annotating digitized historical documents (2013). Systems for analyzing historical documents focus on annotating not only text but also various kinds of objects such as images and figures and constructing an interface to facilitate annotating. </p>
            <p>In the field of history and humanities, thorough annotation for a target document is carried out as research. However, efficiently annotating text in historical documents is not an easy task. Moreover, deciding which text should be annotated is challenging. Therefore, automatically suggesting annotations would be an invaluable resource for researchers. </p>
            <p>We have been developing a system in which researchers can collaboratively annotate digitized Japanese historical documents. A team of Japanese historical researchers are currently annotating ‘Todaiji Yoroku’, a Japanese historical document written in the 12th century. However, progress has been slow because annotating requires specialized knowledge, and collaborative annotating involves a time-consuming process of face-to-face discussions and consensus among researchers. We aim to facilitate collaborative annotating through a web-based interface that enables annotation of the same document by multiple users simultaneously (Sato at al., 2014).</p>
            <p>We developed a method for extracting key phrases from Japanese historical documents, and it will be used in our system for automatically suggesting annotations. We define a key phrase as a personal name, the name of a temple, or a Buddhist term.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""14.989527777777777cm"" height=""11.248319444444444cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Outline of proposed method.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""13.453180555555555cm"" height=""10.103555555555555cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Flow of proposed method.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Proposed Method</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Figure 1 shows the outline of our proposed method, and Figure 2 illustrates the flow of the proposed method. Patterns of characters surrounding existing annotations are found in an annotated text by using support vector machine (SVM), and key phrases are extracted from a non-annotated text by utilizing these patterns. One of the unique characteristics of the proposed method is that the estimated word segmentation is used as a feature during the learning process. The ability to segment words is particularly important for analyzing ancient Japanese because the Japanese writing system does not use spaces between words, and automatic extraction of words from text in ancient Japanese is especially challenging.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Word Segmentation</hi>
            </p>
            <p>In the word segmentation process, sentences are divided into words. In Japanese, there are three kinds of scripts: cursive Japanese syllabary (hiragana), angular Japanese syllabary (katakana), and Chinese characters (kanji). ‘Todaiji Yoroku’ was written as a transcription of classical Chinese into classical Japanese. In the transcriptions from classical Chinese into classical Japanese, hiragana characters were inserted into original sentence written in classical Chinese in order to adapt to Japanese syntax. The cursive Japanese syllabary is often used, particularly for postpositional particle of auxiliary verbs. Therefore, we can assume that most nouns consist of only Chinese characters. The boundary between Chinese characters and hiragana characters can possibly be regarded as segmentation. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Key Phrase Extraction</hi>
            </p>
            <p>In the key phrase extraction process, patterns of characters surrounding key phrases are found by using SVM. SVM is applied to words that are found by the word segmentation process to learn where patterns of characters appear around key phrases and to attach tags to them. Key phrases are extracted by utilizing the results of SVM by referring to the attached tags and presented as suggested annotations.</p>
            <p>Experiment</p>
            <p>We conducted an experiment to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed method for extracting key phrases from the text of ‘Todaiji Yoroku’ by using existing annotations as the training data. We used 5-fold cross-validation. We achieved a 75% precision rate. Even though we have not yet closely examined whether the obtained results are appropriate as annotation suggestions, many of the extracted key phrases that were not judged as relevant were actually good annotation suggestions. This means that the proposed method should be an effective tool for suggesting annotations. </p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>We developed a method for extracting key phrases from digitized Japanese historical documents. We believe that automatically suggesting annotations will be an effective tool for annotating historical documents. We are planning to evaluate the appropriateness of key phrases extracted by the researchers using our method who are actually studying and annotating ‘Todaiji Yoroku’.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Di Donato, F., Morbidoni, C. and Fonda, S.</hi> (2013). Semantic Annotation with Pundit: A Case Study and a Practical Demonstration. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Collaborative Annotations in Shared Environment: Metadata, Vocabularies, and Techniques in the Digital Humanities </hi>(
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH-CASE’13</hi>), Florence, Italy, 10 September 2013.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nagasaki, K., Tomabechi, T. and Shimoda, M.</hi> (2011). Toward a Digital Research Environment for Buddhist Studies. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Book of Abstracts of Digital Humanities 2011</hi>, Stanford, CA, 19–22 June 2011, pp. 342–43.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sato, T., Goto, M., Kimura, F. and Maeda, A.</hi> (2014). Developing a Collaborative Annotation System for Historical Documents by Multiple Humanities Researchers. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Science and Information Technology 2014 (ICCSIT2014)</hi>, Barcelona, Spain, 22–24 December 2014. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2251","16","Feminism and the digital: towards a database of Argentine women artists","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>Feminism and the digital: towards a database of Argentine women artists</title>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Gluzman</surname>
                        <forename>Georgina Gabriela</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Universidad de San Andrés, Argentine Republic</affiliation>
                    <email>georginagluz@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <editionStmt>
                <edition>
                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
                <address>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
                </address>
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                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""keywords"">
                    <term>database</term>
                    <term>women artists</term>
                    <term>Latin America</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>art history</term>
                    <term>gender studies</term>
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            <p rend=""CM4"">Digital humanities are slowly beginning to take shape in Argentina, hand in hand with the country’s economic growth in the last decade. So far, the most important digital efforts have been undertaken by researchers from the fields of literature and history.</p>
            <p>But what happens when digital humanities meet art history in the Argentine context? A few digital art history projects have been active since the 2000s, funded by several governmental institutions and private museums. However, most of them are repeating the art historical canon, maintaining a narrative organised around styles and masterpieces, while obliterating the careers of women in art.</p>
            <p rend=""CM2"">Gender studies in art history are still thin on the ground in Argentina. In scholarship terms, research focused on women artists is very recent, having begun in the 1990s. There is much to do ahead, fostering the investment of undergraduate students, museums’ staffs, and the public.</p>
            <p rend=""CM2"">So what happens when digital humanities meet feminist efforts in art history? This paper aims to discuss and present a digital humanities project that has developed from my doctoral dissertation research. This project will attempt to encourage visitors to contribute information on women artists, helping to destabilise art historical narratives and to encourage the interest in women artists from Argentina. MArEAr (Spanish for ‘making dizzy’) hopes to make widely available the information collected for my doctoral dissertation, which will encompass the careers of women artists from the 1880s to the 1920s. These artists are not featured in survey books and are also absent from many encyclopedias. Their works are scattered in museums and private collections. They are, even today, little-known names not connected to any work visible in museums’ galleries.</p>
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"2252","16","Finding the Same Artworks from Multiple Databases in Different Languages","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>Finding the Same Artworks from Multiple Databases in Different Languages</title>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Kimura</surname>
                        <forename>Taisuke</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>College of Information Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>is0013hh@ed.ritsumei.ac.jp</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Batjargal</surname>
                        <forename>Biligsaikhan</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Kinugasa Research Organization, Ritsumeikan University, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>biligsaikhan@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Kimura</surname>
                        <forename>Fuminori</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Kinugasa Research Organization, Ritsumeikan University, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>fkimura@is.ritsumei.ac.jp</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Maeda</surname>
                        <forename>Akira</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>College of Information Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>amaeda@is.ritsumei.ac.jp</email>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <editionStmt>
                <edition>
                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
                </edition>
            </editionStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
                <address>
                    <addrLine>Locked Bag 1797</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
                </address>
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                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""keywords"">
                    <term>multilingual record linkage</term>
                    <term>Japanese arts</term>
                    <term>Ukiyo-e</term>
                    <term>GLAM</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>databases &amp; dbms</term>
                    <term>metadata</term>
                    <term>multilingual / multicultural approaches</term>
                    <term>GLAM: galleries</term>
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        <body>
            <p>This paper discusses a method for identifying the same artworks across multiple databases by using textual metadata written in different languages. As more and more libraries, museums, galleries, and archives are making their collections available online, it is essential to develop methods for accessing these vast and valuable collections of cultural heritage easily and thoroughly. </p>
            <p>We aim to identify the same artworks whose metadata are in different languages since most existing methods, such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">record linkage</hi> (Fellegi and Sunter, 1969) and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">duplicate detection</hi> (Bilenko and Mooney, 2003; Elmagarmid et al., 2007) use mainly one language.
            </p>
            <p>We have developed a method for identifying the same Ukiyo-e prints in databases in English and Japanese (Batjargal et al., 2014). This method is particularly useful since the Japanese traditional woodblock printing—
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ukiyo-e</hi>—involves engraving, and many copies or variants of each particular work were made from the same woodblock. Most of these copies and variants were scattered around the world in the 19th century and are now stored in museums and galleries in many countries. Most of the metadata in these databases are available only in English or in the native language of each country. Titles are mostly written either as the transliteration of the original Japanese title or a translation into another language. Table 1 shows examples of metadata in databases that contain Ukiyo-e in their collections and the languages in which the titles are written.
            </p>
            <p>One effective approach for identifying the same artworks in multiple image databases is to use image similarity calculations. Ukiyo-e.org
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> (Resig, 2013) provides a highly efficient method for identifying the same Ukiyo-e prints. The method exclusively uses image similarities rather than textual data to identify Ukiyo-e prints. Our textual-metadata-based method and image-similarity-based approach both have advantages and disadvantages. One of the advantages of our method is not having to harvest all the data from the databases beforehand. Furthermore, artifacts other than prints might not be suitable for identification using two-dimensional image similarities. It is better to combine both methods to obtain the most accurate results.
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Original Ukiyo-e print</hi>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>Title</cell>
                    <cell>Database</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic n=""1001"" width=""3.571875cm"" height=""2.6458333333333335cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                        </figure>
                        <p>神奈川沖浪裏</p>
                        <p>(original title in Japanese)</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>
                        <p>神奈川沖浪裏</p>
                        <p>(original title in Japanese)</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>The Edo-Tokyo Museum</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>
                        <p>Kanagawa oki nami ura </p>
                        <p>(transliteration)</p>
                        <p>The great wave off shore of Kanagawa
                            <lb/>(in English)
                        </p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>The Library of Congress</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>
                        <p>The great wave off Kanagawa</p>
                        <p>(in English)</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>National Gallery of Victoria</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>
                        <p>• La grande vague</p>
                        <p>• Sous la grande vague au large de Kanagawa</p>
                        <p>• Sous la vague au large de Kanagawa</p>
                        <p>(in French)</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>French Photo Agency</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>
                        <p>De grote golf bij Kanagawa</p>
                        <p>(in Dutch)</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>Netherlands State Museum</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>
                        <p>De grote golf bij KanegawaFugaku Sanjrokkei</p>
                        <p>(in Dutch)</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>Centre Céramique</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>
                        <p>• Große Woge</p>
                        <p>• Der Fuji hinter der großen Woge</p>
                        <p>• Die Welle</p>
                        <p>(in German)</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>Bildarchiv Foto Marburg</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Proposed Method</hi>
            </p>
            <p>We extended our previous method that identifies the same artworks by comparing transliterated Japanese titles with their English translations, both of which are written in the same script, i.e., Latin, by utilizing intermediate representations such as transcriptions or transliterations (Batjargal et al., 2014). In this paper, we aim to identify the same artworks by comparing original Japanese titles with their translations in other European languages. Our method utilizes proper nouns in a title as key elements for matching, and it uses translations of other words to further improve the matching accuracy. If a given word in the title is not a proper noun, we perform a literal translation using bilingual dictionaries—that is, all the words excluding the proper nouns are translated. The similarity degree is based on the weighting of matching words among titles in different languages. The similarity degree increases as matching words are found in the titles. In addition to the weighting of matching words, the partial string matching score is considered in the similarity calculation.</p>
            <p>Figure 1 illustrates how the same artworks are identified from databases in different languages. First, the metadata elements are (1) translated as explained above. Then, the artworks are (2) filtered on the basis of the artist name by using our previous method that identifies uses artists’ various notations and aliases. Our previous method is capable of providing multilingual integrated access to diverse Ukiyo-e databases by generating links to miscellaneous Linked Data resources dynamically from the returned results using authority data. It allows users to access additional data about a certain artwork in multiple databases regardless of the languages and formats of each database (Batjargal et al., 2013). The proposed method then (3) calculates the similarity degree, and the artworks that have higher scores are (4) treated as the same as the given artwork just after obtaining the artworks from multiple databases. </p>
            <p>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""14.986cm"" height=""12.989277777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""14.986cm"" height=""12.989277777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>Although this method has been tested only on Ukiyo-e databases, it does not depend on a particular type of art. Since this method requires only bilingual dictionaries as the language resource, it can be applied to other languages easily.
            </p>
            <p>Experimental Evaluation</p>
            <p>We have conducted preliminary experiments to evaluate the proposed method in finding the same artworks in multiple databases in different languages. In the experiments, 45 Japanese titles of the artist Katsushika Hokusai’s Ukiyo-e prints in the Edo-Tokyo Museum were checked against the 437 English titles in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, where each title has at least one identical record. The proposed method has achieved 86.7% accuracy in finding the same artworks between Japanese and English by successfully identifying 39 prints out of 45 (see Table 2). Further evaluations against other languages are under examination.</p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""Ref339031523""/>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Condition</cell>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Success rate</hi>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>Accuracy</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Finding the same artworks between Japanese and English from multiple databases</cell>
                    <cell>39 of 45</cell>
                    <cell>86.7%</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <figure>
                <p rend=""Figure Caption"">
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Table </hi>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">.</hi> A preliminary experimental result of the proposed method
                </p>
            </figure>
            <p>Summary </p>
            <p>We developed a method for identifying the same artworks across multiple databases using textual metadata written in different languages. The proposed method is useful for both humanities researchers and database administrators. It provides researchers with easy and efficient ways of finding the same artworks in other databases regardless of the language. For database administrators, aggregating multiple metadata of the same artwork from various databases makes it possible to correct and/or enrich the existing metadata records to improve the quality of their database. The proposed method can be used to link the same or similar artworks across different databases, and it will contribute to enriching the Linked Open Data in the field of humanities (Batjargal et al., 2013).</p>
            <p>Our future work includes extending the proposed method to other humanities disciplines and conducting evaluations against other languages.</p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. http://ukiyo-e.org/.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Batjargal, B., Kuyama, T., Kimura, F. and Maeda, A.</hi> (2013). Linked Data Driven Multilingual Access to Diverse Japanese Ukiyo-e Databases by Generating Links Dynamically. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi> 28(4) (December): 522–30. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Batjargal, B., Kuyama, T., Kimura, F. and Maeda, A.</hi> (2014). Identifying the Same Records across Multiple Ukiyo-e Image Databases Using Textual Data in Different Languages. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Digital Libraries 2014: ACM/IEEE Joint Conference on Digital Libraries </hi>(
                        <hi rend=""italic"">JCDL 2014</hi>)
                        <hi rend=""italic""> and International Conference on Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries </hi>(
                        <hi rend=""italic"">TPDL 2014</hi>), London, 8–12 September 2014.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bilenko, M. and Mooney, R.</hi> (2003). On Evaluation and Training-Set Construction for Duplicate Detection. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the KDD-03 Workshop on Data Cleaning, Record Linkage, and Object Consolidation</hi>, Washington, DC, August 2003, pp. 7–12.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elmagarmid, A., Ipeirotis, P. and Verykios, V.</hi> (2007). Duplicate Record Detection: A Survey. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">19</hi>(1) (January): 1–16.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fellegi, I. P. and Sunter, A. B.</hi> (1969). A Theory for Record Linkage. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Statistical Association,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">64</hi>(328) (December): 1183.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Resig, J.</hi> (2013). Aggregating and Analyzing Digitized Japanese Woodblock Prints. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">3rd Annual Conference of the Japanese Association for Digital Humanities</hi>, Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto, Japan, 19–21 September 2013.
                    </bibl>
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"2253","16","Following the Stars (Under the Stars): Mapping The Film Circuits of Inter-War Outdoor Picture Gardens in Western Australia","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Courtney</surname>
                        <forename>Angela</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Indiana University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>ancourtn@indiana.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Courtney</surname>
                        <forename>Michael</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Indiana University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>micourtn@Indiana.edu</email>
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            <p>In his 2011 exploration of using GIS and the film history, Klenotic discusses his realization of the potential that GIS technologies offer for his work in film history: </p>
            <quote>GIS has enabled me to think more carefully about cinema history as a history of spatial relations, and it has helped me to rethink the modalities in which historical evidence can be examined, assembled, interpreted, stored and presented to the public; modalities that are impossible to describe and explain in writing alone. (Klenotic, 2011, 58)</quote>
            <p>Our project, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Following the Stars: Mapping the Film Circuits of Inter-War Outdoor Cinemas in Western Australia</hi>, seeks not only to map the geographical proliferation of outdoor cinemas but also to re-create the exhibition history of films in Western Australia between the two world wars, creating a visual representation of film exhibition. Based in large part on Ina Bertrand’s now-aged Cinemaweb database, we have compiled a list of roughly 125 outdoor cinemas in operation between the end of the First World War and the beginning of the Second. Ranging widely in design and intent, these spaces offered outdoor film exhibition opportunities for many far-flung rural communities as well as for the urban populations on the Perth environs. In light of recent interest in mapping the movies by such projects as the Australian Cinemas Map
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> and the Cinemas and Audiences Research Project (CAARP),
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> this project addresses a particular type of cinema space during the pretelevision era in which outdoor cinemas were particularly popular.
            </p>
            <p>Some of these spaces were purposely built ‘picture gardens’ such as the still-operating Sun Pictures
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> designed specifically for film exhibition outside. Others, however, were developed through opportunistic convenience, adding a fence and deckchairs on a lawn behind a hotel, or projecting outside from an indoor cinema during summer nights when the weather cooperated. Many of these venues operated as part of a larger circuit (Goldfield Pictures, Hoyts, Nulsen’s West Touring Talkies, the Salvation Army Biorama Company, and more). 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Following the Stars </hi>is developing maps of the circuits that we are re-creating using Omeka and the Neatline plugin via research conducted through Cinemaweb and the invaluable newspaper resources in Trove, in addition to months of months of fieldwork locating and researching cinemas or former sites. The project also features a timeline of film exhibited and develops a narrative of the history of this type of film exhibition in western Australia. 
            </p>
            <p>Data used in developing the project include venue names, locations, and years of operation; circuit operators and routes; film titles and dates shown; sources; images of cinemas both currently and historically when available; and lengthy bibliographies upon which the project is based.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. See http://auscinemas.flinders.edu.au/.</p>
            <p>2. See http://caarp.flinders.edu.au/.</p>
            <p>3. See http://www.broomemovies.com.au/sun-pictures.html.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cinemaweb.</hi> (n.d.). www.ammpt.asn.au/CinemaWEB/SITE/ (not functional as of time of publication). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Klenotic, Jeffrey.</hi> (2011). Putting Cinema History on the Map: Using GIS to Explore the Spatiality of Cinema. In Maltby, R., Biltereyst, D. and Meers, P. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Explorations in New Cinema History: Approaches and Case Studies</hi>. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell; ProQuest ebrary (accessed 19 October 2014).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Trove: Digitised Newspapers.</hi> (n.d.). https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper.
                    </bibl>
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"2254","16","From Crowdsourcing to Knowledge Communities: Creating Meaningful Scholarship Through Digital Collaboration","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <author>
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                        <surname>Wolfenstein</surname>
                        <forename>Gabriel</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>gkw@stanford.edu</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Frank</surname>
                        <forename>Zephyr</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>zfrank@stanford.edu</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Heuser</surname>
                        <forename>Ryan</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>heuser@stanford.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Young</surname>
                        <forename>Kerri</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Historypin, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>kerri.young@historypin.org</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Stanhope</surname>
                        <forename>Nick</forename>
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                    <email>nick.stanhope@shiftdesign.org.uk</email>
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            <p>Over the last three years, Stanford University’s Center for Spatial and Textual Analysis (CESTA) has jointly led a research project in partnership with Historypin to examine the potential for leveraging crowdsourced information about photographic, map, and textual content for humanities research. The project was funded by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation and sought to study elements of user interface, user interaction, community engagement, and collaborative partnerships.</p>
            <p>Our work mirrors the findings of others utilizing crowdsourcing in cultural heritage, in that there is an important distinction within the realm of crowdsourcing between more straightforward knowledge gathering and more complex and collaborative tasks and processes that revolve around what we termed ‘knowledge communities’: small networks of neighbors or enthusiasts representing a group of people that could be systematically organized to share and participate in research for a common aim. Engaging with these communities often requires longer time frames than simpler task-driven crowdsourcing may allow, and is necessarily much more collaborative than extractive. Furthermore, there are important social benefits for the institutions and communities alike that fulfill the new missions of 21st-century cultural heritage and academic institutions.</p>
            <p>Throughout our research, we found that not only will there be a much more collaborative future among academic humanists, memory institutions, and knowledge communities, but that only through such collaborations can some questions relative to the humanities be explored.</p>
            <p>In this presentation, we summarize the methodology of the project and present key learnings and examples that we hope will assist academic and cultural heritage institutions that are interested in engaging with knowledge communities. In addition, we will provide a way to practically approach such projects with realistic expectations and ideas for successful implementation.</p>
            <p>Methodology</p>
            <p>In this section we describe in some detail the methodology used in each of the three projects and the different approaches and communities we were working with. We had three sub-projects: the Year of the Bay, Living with the Railroads, and the Emotions of London. Together, these projects allow us to offer a much broader range of findings and practices than we could have with a single one.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Crowdsourcing and Knowledge Communities</hi>
            </p>
            <p>We’ve seen that digital-transcription projects on the humanities side, or ‘citizen science’ on the scientific side, tend to blend a combination of ‘crowd’ and ‘community’ (Clauser and Wallace, 2012). In the former, loosely associated individuals perform autonomous and relatively simple tasks, while the latter often requires collaboration and a more social and coordinated element (Haythornthwaite, 2009). In Living with the Railroads and Year of the Bay, we were not dealing with questions of transcription or necessarily easily defined tasks, but rather more complex questions of contextualization and even contribution with a specific goal in mind, still meeting definitions of crowdsourcing but leaning toward more complex tasks requiring an engaged community (Dunn and Hedges, 2012). In both projects, there was a collaborative approach between the participating institutions and the individual participants toward a common aim, however broadly defined—be it exploring the human and ecological history of the bay or tracing western expansion through life around the railroads. This also speaks to the potential for strengthening and measuring community ties through this work, which Nick Poole and Nick Stanhope describe as a new approach not only to digitization, ‘but of a new role for museums as places of engagement and participation in which the disciplines or curatorship, digitisation, collections management and documentation are shared with the user in a joint effort to develop shared cultural capital’ (Poole and Stanhope, 2012).</p>
            <p> As these projects progressed, it was helpful for us to understand and define the various communities we were increasingly in partnership with, not as users or as a crowd, but as ‘knowledge communities’. Whether they were local residents or history enthusiasts who were knowledgeable about their area, or in some cases obsessed with solving a history mystery that was presented to them, or who had specific topical knowledge about details pertaining to one railroad line, these small networks of neighbors or enthusiasts represented a group of people who could be systematically organized to share and participate in research for a common aim. After two years of working with specific individuals and groups of individuals, we came to see this as an important distinction within the realm of crowdsourcing, and an approach that is most importantly collaborative in intent and design rather than extractive and focused on the needs of an institution or a researcher. This approach has also been termed community-sourcing (Sample Ward, 2011).</p>
            <p>Literature on crowdsourcing generally supports the process (which remains frustratingly variably defined) on the basis of whether some sort of utilitarian goal is met: entries are added (Wikipedia), materials are transcribed (Transcribe Bentham), data is classified (Galaxy Zoo). In this, understandings of crowdsourcing, both definitional and in terms of results, remain wedded to a market model. Can you get data or analysis? Can you get it more quickly or more cheaply? These are the primary questions. The question that motivated our project—whether crowdsourcing can be useful to humanities researchers pursuing humanities projects—found a very different answer, though utilitarian goals remain. Our three sub-projects engaged three different types of crowds: the amorphous public of people interested in the Bay Area, the expert community of train enthusiasts, and the paid community of Amazon Mechanical Turkers. All three were, unsurprisingly, only partially successful in terms of the research questions initially posed. There is usable and interesting data (images and metadata uploaded to Historypin for the first two, analysis of literary passages as to emotionality in the latter). But it isn’t perfect, and in some cases doesn’t quite meet the goals of the various PIs. But the conclusions we have drawn thus far ask us—and, by extension, other researchers—to look beyond the data to the process itself.</p>
            <p>There is increasing segmentation of crowdsourcing approaches in cultural heritage (Ridge, 2014), with great import for the academy as well as memory institutions. Crowdsourcing offers academic humanists a different way of engaging the public, especially in collaboration with non-academic organizations. We suggest that, if researchers have flexibility in their projects, building or collaborating with knowledge communities can result in original research, and an engagement with the community that is typically missing from university-based research. Without this flexibility, crowdsourcing possibilities become more limited, though still possible, as our work with the Turkers demonstrated.</p>
            <p>Furthermore, we feel that museums, libraries, archives, and academic institutions alike increasingly embrace the opportunities they have to positively impact communities, not just in terms of cultural programming, but also as partners in strengthening a range of societal measures (Van Thoen, 2014). Meaningful engagement of knowledge communities can have a range of outcomes in addition to the traditional measurements of crowdsourcing for the institutions as well as the communities, such as increasing interest in and sense of ownership of institutions, strengthening community ties and associational life, and decreasing isolation among frequently marginalized sectors of society such as seniors (Thomson and Chatterjee, 2013).</p>
            <p>Practical Applications</p>
            <p>This section will be presented in detail, as it’s the heart of the practical takeaways for institutions interested in engaging knowledge communities. These are broken into three sections, including (a) design and expectations; (b) methods of engagement; and (c) skills, training, and technology. </p>
            <p>Future Research</p>
            <p>Here we will look at key areas of future research that we’ll be pursuing to continue our work in this field.</p>
            <p>Acknowledgements</p>
            <p>We have so many people to thank for their roles in this project over the last year that it’d be impossible to name them all. The Crowdsourcing for Humanities Research project was funded by a grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation and led by Zephyr Frank at Stanford University, who served as the principal investigator. You can see all of the people who worked on the project on our behind-the-scenes blog,
                <ref target=""http://crowdsourcingthehumanities.blogspot.com""> </ref>http://crowdsourcingthehumanities.blogspot.com. We’d also like to thank the growing community of practitioners and scholars sharing their experience in this rapidly evolving field, not all of whom are cited below.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clauser, T. and Wallace, V.</hi> (2012). Building a Volunteer Community: Results and Findings from Transcribe Bentham. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(2), http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/6/2/000125/000125.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dunn, S. and Hedges, M.</hi> (2012). Crowd-Sourcing Scoping Study: Engaging the Crowd with Humanities Research. AHRC report, http://crowds.cerch.kcl.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Crowdsourcing-connected-communities.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Haythornthwaite, C.</hi> (2009). Crowds and Communities: Light and Heavyweight Models of Peer Production. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 42nd Hawaiian Conference on System Sciences</hi>, Waikola, Hawaii, IEEE Computer Society, pp. 1–10.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Poole, N. and Stanhope, N.</hi> (2012). The Participatory Museum. Collections Trust, http://www.collectionstrust.org.uk/past-posts/the-participatory-museum (modified 3 July 2014).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ridge, M.</hi> (2014). Crowdsourcing Our Cultural Heritage: Introduction. In Ridge, M. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Crowdsourcing Our Cultural Heritage</hi>. Ashgate, pp. 1–13.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sample Ward, A.</hi> (2011). Crowdsourcing vs Community-Sourcing: What’s the Difference and the Opportunity? http://amysampleward.org/2011/05/18/crowdsourcing-vs-community-sourcing-whats-the-difference-and-the-opportunity/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thomson, L. and Chatterjee, H.</hi> (2013). UCL Museum Wellbeing Measures Toolkit. AHRC and University College London, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums/research/touch/museumwellbeingmeasures/wellbeing-measures/UCL_Museum_Wellbeing_Measures_Toolkit_Sept2013.pdf. (See also UCL Museums and Collections, Touch and Wellbeing, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums/research/touch.)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Thoen, L.</hi> (2014). Museums Make You Happier and Less Lonely, Studies Find. Freelancers Broadcasting Network, https://www.freelancersunion.org/blog/2014/03/26/museums-good-for-you-happier-community/.
                    </bibl>
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                    <term>transcription</term>
                    <term>video</term>
                    <term>synoptic edition</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>interface and user experience design</term>
                    <term>software design and development</term>
                    <term>text analysis</term>
                    <term>concording and indexing</term>
                    <term>English</term>
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        <body>
            <p>The open-source GPL-licensed TXM software provides a classical toolbox for text analysis and mining composed of a versatile and efficient full text search engine, text reading and browsing, video playing, sub-corpus and partition building, co-occurrence analysis, factorial analysis, and clustering. It is available as a desktop application for Windows, Mac, or Linux, as well as a web portal software for a server accessed through a web browser (Heiden, 2010). The TXM platform can be downloaded for free at http://sf.net/projects/txm.</p>
            <p>An originality of TXM is the ability to apply analytic tools on a large spectrum of encoding formats from XML-TEI encoded sources to basic raw text, through a high-level user GUI in a desktop software or as a web portal.</p>
            <p>This poster will introduce the recent integration of processing capabilities for two very different modalities of textual data into TXM:</p>
            <p> • Written texts associated with their facsimile-scanned images or media files through pagination.</p>
            <p> • Speech transcriptions associated with their recordings—video or audio media files—through synchronization.</p>
            <p>Each textual modality is managed through the unique pivot XML-TEI TXM source format designed for TXM.</p>
            <p>The poster will demonstrate a live session of</p>
            <p> • Navigation between KWIC concordances and the synoptic display of text editions with facsimile and critical edition containing the occurrence of pivots in the online TXM portal version (see Figure 1).</p>
            <p> • Navigation between KWIC concordances and playing the video excerpts corresponding to the occurrence of pivots in the desktop version (see Figure 2).</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""15.164152777777778cm"" height=""11.773958333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Browsing the ‘Quest del saint Graal’ manuscript edition online in a TXM portal. Lower part: A KWIC concordance of the ‘“Lancelot” word followed by a verb’ pattern. Upper part: A synoptic view of the edition of the ‘Queste del saint Graal’ manuscript, composed from left to right of the facsimile image and of three different levels of diplomatic editions, with the sixth concordance hit highlighted in pink in each diplomatic level. The browser used in this screenshot is Firefox. The ‘Queste del saint Graal’ edition can be accessed in a TXM portal at http://txm.bfm-corpus.org/?command=documentation&amp;path=/GRAAL. </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""15.151805555555555cm"" height=""11.243027777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Browsing the video and the transcription of dialogs of a physics course in college in TXM desktop version. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Lower part:</hi> A KWIC concordance of the ‘“lumière” word followed by a verb’ pattern. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Upper part: </hi>A synoptic view of the edition of the transcription of dialogs of a physics course in college (Tiberghien et al., 2012) on the right and the video recording of the course on the left, with the third hit of the concordance highlighted in pink. The desktop TXM used in this scenario is the Linux version.
            </p>
            <p>The demonstration will be based on the desktop version of TXM and on the portal version of TXM.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heiden, S.</hi> (2010). The TXM Platform: Building Open-Source Textual Analysis Software Compatible with the TEI Encoding Scheme. In Otoguro, K. I. R. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">24th Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information and Computation</hi>, Institute for Digital Enhancement of Cognitive Development, Waseda University, 4–7 November 2010, pp. 389–98.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tiberghien, A., et al.</hi> (2012). Partager un corpus vidéo dans la recherche en éducation: Analyses et regards pluriels dans le cadre du projet ViSA. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Education &amp; Didactique</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(March): 9–17, www.cairn.info/revue-education-et-didactique-2012-3-page-9.htm
                        <hi rend=""color(1F1F1F)"">.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space"">
                            <hi rend=""color(1F1F1F)""> </hi>
                        </hi>
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                        <surname>Hayward</surname>
                        <forename>Nicholas John</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Center for Textual Studies and Digital Humanities, Loyola University Chicago, United States of America; Department of Computer Science, Loyola University Chicago, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>ancientlives@gmail.com</email>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <term>virginia woolf</term>
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                    <term>framework</term>
                    <term>textual studies</term>
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                    <term>corpora and corpus activities</term>
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                    <term>literary studies</term>
                    <term>publishing and delivery systems</term>
                    <term>digitisation</term>
                    <term>resource creation</term>
                    <term>and discovery</term>
                    <term>scholarly editing</term>
                    <term>software design and development</term>
                    <term>text analysis</term>
                    <term>french studies</term>
                    <term>information architecture</term>
                    <term>content analysis</term>
                    <term>bibliographic methods / textual studies</term>
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            <p>The Woolf Online project,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> which recently completed its second phase of development at Loyola University Chicago’s Center for Textual Studies and Digital Humanities, in collaboration with the Department of Computer Science, sought to address the following fundamental questions about the nature and development of literature:
            </p>
            <p> • How does a literary text come into being?</p>
            <p> • What kinds of influence are at work upon the writer during the process of initial composition, and thereafter?</p>
            <p>The Woolf Online project sought to investigate various ways in which different recoverable histories of a particular text could be used to illuminate the process of its composition. By recording the history of a particular text—its cultural, political, and autobiographical contexts and their interaction—visually we began to answer some of the following important questions:</p>
            <p> • How is textual history related to other histories of a text?</p>
            <p> • What use does literary criticism make of textual and contextual histories?</p>
            <p>Publication of Digital Scholarly Editions</p>
            <p>As part of the development of the Woolf Online project, we developed an extensible development and publication framework called Mojulem,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> for editing, publication, and visualisation of digital scholarly editions. We are now continuing this development with the Verne Digital Corpus,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> which focuses upon the work of Jules Verne, including original French language editions and their myriad, often questionable, English language translations. Mojulem allows us to build on the concept of ‘knowledge sites’, as suggested by Peter Shillingsburg,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> supplementing a core publication framework with modules/plugins such as OCR, editors, and image viewers. 
            </p>
            <p>Mojulem also enables us to host multiple projects within one installed framework, thereby enabling cross-project research, where applicable, and the option to aggregate specified data. Development of Mojulem, with the Woolf Online project and Verne Digital Corpus as examples of the current ongoing working environments, initially followed the need for four underlying core structures. These structures include CorPix, CorTex, CorCode, and CorForm, which are detailed as follows. </p>
            <p>CorPix</p>
            <p>Manuscripts and printed texts materially unite the iconic and lexical, the autographic and allographic,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> whereas all digital representations separate these constituent elements into images and transcriptions. With Mojulem projects, the common default display reunites the image and transcription by mapping the one to the other at the pixel level. CorPix software currently includes eHinman,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> Transparent,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi> TransparentOCR, Magnify, and Zoom. For example, pixel-level positioning and coordinate fixing is an inherent feature of both Transparent and TransparentOCR, within both editor and visualisation tools. eHinman is a digital adaptation of the original Hinman collator, and enables fade from the image of a page from one copy to another, thereby enabling a visual collation of multiple copies. Transparent is used within both the visualisation and editing stages of a project’s development, enabling editor and user alike to view the image as the primary entry consideration for the project.
            </p>
            <p>CorTex</p>
            <p>The CorTex is the stable resource containing the merged or compacted plain text transcriptions of the variant expressions of a work. It stores all information about text and variations, ready to be extracted for display of variation amongst versions; it is not necessary to recompute them. The CorTex is the entity to which all standoff properties (markup, annotations, links, etc.) point and on whose stability the system depends. It is the source of each version’s text and variation from other texts. The stability and endurance of the CorTex is protected by multiplying duplicate copies locked with a digital signature, which verifies for each user that a CorTex copy is viable. Analysis of the CorTex variable forms provides statistical feedback to guide the production of a conflated text—for example, with the English language translations of a given Verne edition. Whilst these statistical results are no guarantee of an ultimately correct translation, they offer a conflated text with the highest viable agreement amongst the provided collated texts. Textual disagreements are currently resolved by assigning probability values, a higher value defining a greater probability of accuracy and agreement amongst the collated texts. Using such probability results, we are currently able to filter problematic passages in each translation to conflate a text with the highest probability of agreement amongst the translations per edition. </p>
            <p>These results can then be provided for further research and assessment, and act as a suitable starting guide for further analysis of the conflated text, and translation in the example of Verne’s texts.</p>
            <p>CorCode</p>
            <p>CorCode is the add-on value of analysis, argument, and explanation. Mojulem stores markup separately, as standoff properties, applying it as the user invokes it for the rendering of a specific item’s image or text within a given visualisation, such as a transparent view of a page of the Initial Holograph Draft of ‘To the Lighthouse’.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">8</hi> To do this, Mojulem includes an editor that saves text and encoding separately, and filters for converting legacy, code-embedded transcriptions, including TEI-encoded documents, into separate forms with markup analysed into properties, and filters for reversing this process. 
            </p>
            <p>CorForm</p>
            <p>A CorForm
                <hi rend=""superscript"">9</hi> is a CSS stylesheet, containing special formatting rules, used to transform the overlapping properties of the CorCode into HTML. Each CorCode has a default CorForm, but other CorForms can be used in combination or as alternatives. Since a CorTex may have many CorCodes, and each CorCode many CorForms, structuring or formatting of the text can be attained by specifying some combination of already available resources, or by supplying new ones.
            </p>
            <p>The CorPix, CorTex, CorCode, and CorForm are aggregated for a project within the Mojulem framework. Each such item is identified by a unique key, which is used as an index into the repository or database.</p>
            <p>In addition to the initial four cores, identified above, we have begun development of CorAssess, allowing effective assessment and analysis of Cor data for the Verne translations and conflated English language texts.</p>
            <p>CorAssess</p>
            <p>CorAssess works in tandem with the CorTex to provide analysis of statistical and end results relative to the conflated text output. CorAssess allows us to visualise where text has been conflated based upon resolved disagreements, the points of disagreement and resultant probabilities between collated texts per edition, and variance between collated texts, and also visualise alternative resolution patterns relative to variation distance for given points of disagreements in the conflated text. With Verne texts, for example, we will be able to visualise conflation decisions and offer alternatives for given decisions and disagreements, where applicable, in our conflated English language translations.</p>
            <p>Why Verne?</p>
            <p>After Woolf Online, we chose to focus upon the corpus of Jules Verne, including original French language editions and English language translations. We have begun collecting, collating, and preparing digitised copies of as many digitised editions as extant online. We have also been digitising early editions to provide an ever-growing dataset of Verne material. </p>
            <p>The nature of early English language translations of Verne’s editions is a continuing source of frustration for those interested in the works of Jules Verne. His early categorisation as predominantly a children’s author in English language countries, unlike the publishing by Hetzel, coupled with early restricted access to original French language editions, simply compounded the issue.</p>
            <p>The corpus of Jules Verne offers an interesting opportunity for literary and contextual analysis coupled with data processing and automated analysis. The myriad existing digitised English language translations, including US and British variant editions, often more prevalent than their counterpart—the original French editions in our current digitised corpus—allows us to examine the development of those texts by comparing agreements, disagreements, omissions, and continuing revisions in said translations since a novel’s first edition. We are hoping to use this analysis to filter the noise of years of collective translations to collate a unified English translation for each French language edition.</p>
            <p>We will then be offering a comparison of French language edition against a filtered, collated English language edition. This will allow further consideration of the requisite merits of the English language translation directly juxtaposed to the original French language edition.</p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>The development and combination of the initial four cores, CorPix, CorTex, CorCode, and CorForm, within the modular and adaptable framework Mojulem, allowed the second phase of the Woolf Online project to begin to approach the fundamental questions about the nature and development of literature, as briefly outlined in the introduction. With the addition of CorAssess, we are now beginning to address additional issues with the publication, transmission, and development of texts. We are also testing, and proving, the viability of Mojulem beyond the Woolf Online project.</p>
            <p>The corpus of Jules Verne provides a particularly fascinating opportunity to test these cores and provide a resultant conflated, English language translation per extant French language edition. </p>
            <p>This paper will briefly introduce the Mojulem framework and its initial four cores, grounded in the example of the Woolf Online project, and detail the ongoing developments to augment this work with the above new work on the corpus of Jules Verne, and the ongoing Verne Digital Corpus.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. Project site is available at 
                <ref target=""http://www.woolfonline.com/"">http</ref>
                <ref target=""http://www.woolfonline.com/"">://</ref>
                <ref target=""http://www.woolfonline.com/"">www</ref>
                <ref target=""http://www.woolfonline.com/"">.</ref>woolfonline
                <ref target=""http://www.woolfonline.com/"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://www.woolfonline.com/"">com. </ref>
            </p>
            <p>2. Our current test framework for the Woolf Online project, as of 3 November 2014, can be viewed at 
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/"">http</ref>://
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/"">dhdev</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/"">ctsdh</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/"">luc</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/"">edu</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/"">projects</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/"">edfu</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/"">/</ref>.
            </p>
            <p>3. Initial development project site is available at 
                <ref target=""http://www.scifidocs.com/"">http</ref>
                <ref target=""http://www.scifidocs.com/"">://</ref>
                <ref target=""http://www.scifidocs.com/"">www</ref>
                <ref target=""http://www.scifidocs.com/"">.</ref>scifidocs
                <ref target=""http://www.scifidocs.com/"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://www.scifidocs.com/"">com</ref>
                <ref target=""http://www.scifidocs.com/"">/</ref>.
            </p>
            <p>4. P. L. Shillingsburg, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">From Gutenberg to Google: Electronic Representations of Literary Texts </hi>(Cambridge University Press, 2006).
            </p>
            <p>5. Nelson Goodman noted this distinction to separate art forms with a unique authentic form—for example, painting and sculpture—from art forms that are performative with multiple copies, including writing and music.</p>
            <p>6. An earlier stand-alone example can be viewed at 
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">http</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">://</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">dhdev</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">ctsdh</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">luc</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">edu</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">/</ref>testing
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">imaging</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">ehinman</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">-</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">dep</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">v</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/imaging/ehinman-dep/v6/"">6/</ref>.
            </p>
            <p>7. A test example page of the Initial Holograph Draft can be viewed at 
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">http</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">://</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">dhdev</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">ctsdh</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">luc</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">edu</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">projects</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">edfu</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">/?</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">node</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">=</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">content</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">/</ref>image
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">gallery</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">project</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">=1&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">parent</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">=2&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">taxa</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">=6&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">content</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">=353&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">pos</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=353&amp;pos=21"">=21</ref> and transcription = 
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">http</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">://</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">dhdev</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">ctsdh</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">luc</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">edu</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">projects</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">edfu</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">/?</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">node</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">=</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">content</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">text</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">transcriptions</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">project</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">=1&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">parent</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">=2&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">taxa</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">=6&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">content</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">=5136&amp;</ref>pos
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5136&amp;pos=21"">=21</ref>. 
            </p>
            <p>8. For example, Image = 
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">http</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">://</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">dhdev</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">ctsdh</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">luc</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">edu</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">projects</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">edfu</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">/?</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">node</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">=</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">content</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">image</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">gallery</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">project</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">=1&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">parent</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">=6&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">taxa</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">=24&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">content</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">=385&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/image/gallery&amp;project=1&amp;parent=6&amp;taxa=24&amp;content=385&amp;pos=49"">pos</ref>=49 and transcription = 
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">http</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">://</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">dhdev</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">.</ref>ctsdh
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">luc</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">edu</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">projects</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">edfu</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">/?</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">node</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">=</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">content</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">text</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">transcriptions</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">project</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">=1&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">parent</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">=2&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">taxa</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">=6&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">content</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">=5164&amp;</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">pos</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/projects/edfu/?node=content/text/transcriptions&amp;project=1&amp;parent=2&amp;taxa=6&amp;content=5164&amp;pos=49"">=49</ref>.
            </p>
            <p>9. An earlier TEI-derived stand-alone example of this concept, using material from the Malory project, can be viewed at 
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">http</ref>://
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">dhdev</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">ctsdh</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">luc</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">.</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">edu</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">testing</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">tei</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">/</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">teiparser</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">_</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">full</ref>
                <ref target=""http://dhdev.ctsdh.luc.edu/testing/tei/teiparser_full/"">/</ref>.
            </p>
        </body>
    </text>
</TEI>","xml","1","https://github.com/ADHO/dh2015/blob/master/xml/HAYWARD_Nicholas_John_From_lighthouse_to_the_moon__a_gu.xml",""
"2257","16","From Mapping the Republic of Letters to Humanities +Design Research Lab: Creating Visualization Tools for Humanistic Inquiry","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
<TEI xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
    <teiHeader>
        <fileDesc>
            <titleStmt>
                <title>From Mapping the Republic of Letters to Humanities +Design Research Lab: Creating Visualization Tools for Humanistic Inquiry</title>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Coleman</surname>
                        <forename>Catherine Nicole</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>cncoleman@stanford.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Caviglia</surname>
                        <forename>Giorgio</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>giorgio.caviglia@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Comsa</surname>
                        <forename>Maria</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>mcomsa@stanford.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Braude</surname>
                        <forename>Mark</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>braude@stanford.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Edelstein</surname>
                        <forename>Dan</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>danedels@stanford.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ceserani</surname>
                        <forename>Giovanna</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>ceserani@stanford.edu</email>
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            <p>What does it mean to build visualization tools that support the research process in the humanities? In this paper we will trace the evolution of our thinking about data-driven tools beginning with case studies in early modern intellectual history and eventually including a wide range of projects from classics, social history, performance studies, and other fields. We will give concrete examples of how individual tools were designed and whether those tools ultimately failed or succeeded to provide scholars with a means to gain insights into historical data. Through these examples, this paper argues for the role of an open design process in the development of visualization tools for humanities research that brings designers, developers, and scholars into deep collaboration to build nuanced and rigorous tools for humanities research. </p>
            <p>Mapping the Republic of Letters</p>
            <p>Mapping the Republic of Letters was formed on the assumption that intellectual history is one of the fields that stands the most to gain from the influx of big data. By combining metadata from library catalogues and large-scale digitization projects, the project seeks to maximize the transformative effect of all this information. The cartographic, chronological, and network visualizations ultimately produced allow researchers to examine some of the big questions that intellectual historians have long struggled with: How do intellectual networks function? How interconnected are they? How independent are these networks from other social networks? </p>
            <p>The 2009 Digging Into Data Challenge grant award launched an active tool development phase in the Mapping the Republic of Letters (MRofL) project at Stanford. In partnership with DensityDesign Research Lab in Milan, the team began to engage in a tool design process in response to concrete research questions. The data—based on individuals and their correspondence, travel, and publications—were multidimensional and qualitatively rich. It became clear that historians who wish to bring data visualization tools to bear on the study of the past face a number of challenges. Many available tools had a steep learning curve and were ultimately of limited help for humanists. These tools rest on assumptions about the completeness and empirical value of data that often do not hold true for humanities research. Historical data can be incomplete and messy: statistical analysis can be a helpful to a limited extent, but interpretation at the most fundamental level is required to uncover meaning. Humanists also ask questions about the data that cannot be answered by numerical analysis. We needed tools that help us filter, contextualize, compare, and see the gaps in our data. </p>
            <p>Humanities + Design</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(262626)"">Humanities + Design, a research lab founded in 2012 by Dan Edelstein, Paula Findlen, and Nicole Coleman, emerged directly out of lessons learned and opportunities for humanities data analysis discovered through MRofL. The mission of the lab is to produce, through the lens of humanistic inquiry, new modes of thinking in design and computer science to serve data-driven research in the humanities. We believe that humanistic inquiry, grounded in interpretation, has much to contribute to the development of technologies if they are to help us reveal ambiguity and paradox, allowing human-scale exploration of complex systems. In the laboratory environment, theoretical and methodological discussions happen side by side with hands-on work with digital materials. Humanities scholars and students, designers, engineers, and computer scientists engage together in ongoing tool design as defined by the specific needs of participating humanities projects.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Palladio Project</p>
            <p>The award of the 2012 NEH Implementation Grant for Networks in History allowed the lab to pursue the development of visualization techniques and rich interaction with data that supports ‘thinking through data’ rather than using prescribed algorithms for data analysis. Palladio is a web-based demonstration application that allows any researcher to upload, visualize, and explore complex and multidimensional data, directly in a web browser. 
                <hi rend=""color(262626)"">It has been </hi>designed for humanistic inquiry, with a special focus on historical research. 
                <hi rend=""color(333333)"">The Palladio visualization system combines a primary view (for example, Map, Network Graph, and Tabular views) with filters to make it easy to query a dataset. </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(262626)"">There is no need to create an account, nor do we store any data</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(262626)"">. </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(262626)"">Researchers can save and shared the work they have done in the browser as a Palladio Project. Palladio’s TimeLine and TimeSpan filters encourage filtering and sorting temporal data, and allows the filtering of two or more discontinuous time periods. A Facet filter is also particularly useful when exploring multidimensional datasets and drilling down to specific aspects of one’s data. Using case studies (examples listed later in this document) we will discuss how scholars have used Palladio, highlighting those instances when uses of the tool diverged from our expectations or led us toward new insights that we incorporated (or plan to incorporate) in future versions.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Open Design</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(444444)"">The development of Palladio has been an iterative process. We have been eliciting and incorporating feedback from the academic community concerning Palladio’s current and potential features and uses. Most specifically, we have engaged in sustained discussion with a small and inter-disciplinary group of scholars, known as Open Design Contributors. Our paper will offer insight into this design process and the ways that it has directly influenced current and future iterations of Palladio, as well as other tools.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Summary</p>
            <p>The core innovation of our project is the design of visualization techniques that emphasize the contextualization and interpretation of data in cases where we lack the metrics for useful quantitative analysis. The two other key innovations both involve the leveraging of novel technologies that are particularly important to the study of cultural heritage data: we use new flexible data models to let individual scholars create and apply their own data categorizations, and we use open linked data sources to reconcile datasets against established authority files, in order to link entities across datasets and thereby explore networks across collections.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Additional Case Studies to Be Discussed</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Case Study: Toward More Complex Ways of Displaying Travel</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kate Elswit, Lecturer in Theatre and Performance Studies at the University of Bristol, ‘Ballet, Digital History, and the Cold War: Visualizing the Labor of Dance Touring’</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Dance scholar Kate Elswit has been using Palladio in her research on the labor of dance touring. She writes, ‘Such [visualization] techniques enable us to feel the passage of time differently.’ Following discussion with Elswit and other scholars interested in tracing travel routes, we have been thinking about how to display point-to-point travel in ways that go beyond simple flight-path-like visualizations. How to account for the differences in traveling at night rather than in the day? How to represent different levels of comfort, safety, and efficiency in travel?</p>
            <p>Case Study: Questions of Scale and Incomplete Data</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Molly Taylor-Poleskey, PhD Candidate, Department of History, Stanford: Food Culture in Brandenburg-Prussia</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Taylor-Poleskey uses a large base of manuscript sources detailing the yearly consumption of one of the palaces of Prince-Elector Friedrich Wilhelm of Brandenburg-Prussia. She argues that the elector’s cultural agenda helped transform his territories over the course of his reign from dilapidated and war-torn to stable and powerful. To support her argument, she wants to see how tastes and consumption patterns changed over time, to consider how such changes might reveal the court’s aesthetic values and cultural ambitions. Creating visualizations in Palladio have helped her analyze what proportions of different foods or food groups were consumed. We have worked with Taylor-Poleskey toward creating visualizations that privilege the display of relative magnitude, and that are especially sensitive to working in different registers and scales. As some of the years in the sources she studies have incomplete or missing data, her use case has also aided us in thinking about how best to work with and represent incomplete data in ways that are not misleading or overly simplistic.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Case Study: Toward New Palladio Data-Visualization Iterations</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Office of the Historian, US State Department, Foreign Relations of the United States</hi>
            </p>
            <p>We will share results from our ongoing work with Thomas Faith at the Office of the Historian at the US Department of State, with whom we have been working toward the goal of producing an integrated version of Palladio that would function as a visual browser for extant online data concerning the foreign relations of the United States. The State Department project is one of many we are working on, as we look to help other researchers to implement customized versions of Palladio that can be used as search, analysis, and visualization exploratory tools within extant large-scale research projects.</p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
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                        <surname>Stutzmann</surname>
                        <forename>Dominique</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Institut de Recherche et d'Histoire des Textes (CNRS), France</affiliation>
                    <email>dominique.stutzmann@irht.cnrs.fr</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Bluche</surname>
                        <forename>Théodore</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>A2iA, France</affiliation>
                    <email>tb@a2ia.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Lavrentev</surname>
                        <forename>Alexei</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>ICAR, Interactions, Corpus, Apprentissages, Représentations (ENS de Lyon – UMR 5191), France</affiliation>
                    <email>alexei.lavrentev@ens-lyon.fr</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Leydier</surname>
                        <forename>Yann</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>LIRIS Laboratoire d’Informatique en Image et Systèmes d'information (INSA de Lyon – UMR 5205)</affiliation>
                    <email>yann@leydier.info</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Kermorvant</surname>
                        <forename>Christopher</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Teklia, France</affiliation>
                    <email>kermorvant@teklia.com</email>
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                    <term>corpora and corpus activities</term>
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                    <term>digital humanities - nature and significance</term>
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                    <term>digitisation</term>
                    <term>resource creation</term>
                    <term>and discovery</term>
                    <term>scholarly editing</term>
                    <term>software design and development</term>
                    <term>text analysis</term>
                    <term>xml</term>
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            <p>Written texts are both abstract and physical objects: ideas, signs, and shapes, whose meanings, graphical systems, and social connotations evolve through time. Beyond authorship and writer identification or palaeographical dating of textual witnesses, the materiality of text and the connexion between the ideas and their written instantiations are a matter of cultural history, historic semiology, and history of communication and representations. In the context of large, growing digital libraries of texts and digitized medieval manuscripts, the question of the cultural significance of script and the ‘dual nature’ of texts may at last be addressed. </p>
            <p>Several research projects, interfaces, and software allow for a closer text-image association during the editing process (TILE,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> T-PEN,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> MOM-CA
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi>) and for data visualisation (Mirador,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> DocExplore
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi>), with interoperable annotations schemas (SharedCanvas
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi>). But in most cases, the finest granularity is at line-level with an alignment being done by hand on small amounts of text (a few pages).
            </p>
            <p>In this paper, we present a new method, derived from Handwritten Text Recognition, to automatically align images of digitized manuscripts with texts from scholarly editions, at the levels of page, column, line, word, and character. During the Oriflamms project funded by the French National Research Agency and Cap Digital,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi> it has been successfully applied to two datasets: ‘
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Graal</hi>’ (130 pages, 13th c. manuscript, online edition at http://catalog.bfm-corpus.org/qgraal_cm) and ‘
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Fontenay</hi>’ (104 pages, 12th–13th c. charters). Partial results of alignment at word and character level are online: http://oriflamms.a2ialab.com/Charsegm/. 
            </p>
            <p>Our contention is that such an alignment method is the only way to gain access to new questions on a large-scale basis and massively transfer the results of traditional humanities and textual scholarship into digital humanities. The automation causes not only a change of scale (larger corpora) but also a change in granularity (page-by-page or line-by-line alignment to word and character alignment). It avoids the tedious task of drawing boxes by hand around characters and allows a systematic analysis of the data. It outmatches the preceding attempts made to more closely associate both aspects of text and also opens perspectives on automated transcription.</p>
            <p>Methodology</p>
            <p>Text-image alignment from existing transcripts is a newly opened, specific challenge. It has relevance for the humanities, as scholars work with a large set of already transcribed texts from manuscripts (handwritten texts). In other fields, the priority was given to pure (handwritten) text recognition. OCR-free methods have been proposed by our team (Leydier et al., 2014) and others (Hassner et al., 2013), which requires a precise transcript at line level, with either lesser results or no metrics on evaluation. In the present method, we use Handwritten Text Recognition (HTR), which aims to automatically transcribe the image of a handwritten text (‘text image’) into an electronic text, and implement it as an alignment method.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">‘Forced Alignment’: From HTR (Handwritten Text Recognition) to Handwritten Text Segmentation</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Most of the current HTR models are based on the Hidden Markov Model (HMM) associated with a sliding window approach to segment the input image. These models may produce a precise character segmentation of the ‘text image’ as a by-product. When the transcript of a line image is known, the HMM focuses on the retrieval of characters’ positions and forces the output to correspond to the actual sequence of characters (so-called forced alignment). If only the whole document transcript is available, and not the positions or transcript of the words or lines, we can use line detection methods and map the transcripts to the detected lines. Such methods also relax the annotation effort needed to produce character segmentation.</p>
            <p>A method to automatically segment and annotate handwritten words from line images using forced alignments was proposed by Zimmermann and Bunke (2002). The problem has then shifted to mapping the whole transcription of historical documents to segmented words or lines (Kornfield et al. 2004). When the word or line segmentation is not known, a global forced alignment of the full transcript is possible, as proposed by Fischer et al. (2011), or at different levels (word, line, sentence, page), as proposed by Al Azawi et al. (2013). Our model is similar to the last one, but is based on both on A2iA proprietary image processing libraries and on Kaldi, an open-source toolkit for speech recognition, which has been adapted for the task of text-image alignment. This system adds yet another level of complexity since it also deals with abbreviations and handwritten cursive text with no blank space between the letters, for which the character segmentation cannot easily be found. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Proposed Method for Handwritten Text Character Segmentation</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The character segmentation results of an incremental process (Figure 1): (1°) we convert the image to gray scale and remove black borders; (2°) we apply a text line segmentation algorithm, adapted from Zahour et al. (2007) to the full page; (3°) we keep the pages with a correct number of detected lines; (4°) we assign the line transcript to the line images and use them to train a first Hidden Markov Models based on Gaussian Mixture Models (GMM-HMM) recognizer, which is (5°) used to align the line transcription with the line images as described in Bluche et al. (2014). (6°) Based on this result, we train a new recognizer. This process is repeated until all text lines are correctly transcribed. Afterwards, we train a final text recognizer based on deep neural network HMMs. This model is trained with a discriminative criterion and yields better transcription results and segmentation accuracy than the standard GMM-HMM (example of forced alignment at word and letter level in Figures 2a and 2b).</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Evaluation of Alignment Accuracy (</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic smallcaps"">Graal</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">, </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic smallcaps"">Fontenay</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">)</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Two methods were applied to evaluate the automatic alignment at word level. First, a tabular view is used to validate/reject each occurrence of a word, evaluate average accuracy, and spot problematic lines. Then a complete validation is performed by a palaeographer line by line. The accuracy is computed by the distance in pixel between the automatic segmentation and the ground-truth word boundaries (distribution in Figures 3 and 4). In 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Graal, </hi>95% and 89%, respectively, of the left and right boundaries are correct with a 10px (0.84mm) tolerance. In 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Fontenay</hi>, the results are 91.8% and 89.4%, respectively, with a 30px (3.58mm) tolerance and 85% and 74.4%, respectively, with a 15px (1.79mm) tolerance, less than half of the average character width (23px, i.e., 1.94mm in 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Graal</hi> and 45px, i.e., 5.37mm in 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Fontenay)</hi>: this is a great achievement.
            </p>
            <p>The alignment was also performed at a character level on 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Graal</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Fontenay</hi>. The immense number of characters makes the validation difficult. Samples show a very high accuracy rate for complex graphic structures (e.g., 100% for st-ligature), but further tools are needed to measure the accuracy. The results of evaluation partly depend on the validator’s skills in reading ancient scripts.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Evaluation of Transcription Accuracy (</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic smallcaps"">Graal</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">)</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The HTR-based system was also tested for recognition and evaluated according to the word and character error rate criterion (WER/CER) by splitting the corpus into a training set (101 pages) and a test set (29 pages). For the recognition, we used a lexicon of 7,005 unique words and 4gram statistical language model estimated on the train set. The standard GMM-HMM achieved 23.0% WER and 6.9% CER, whereas the hybrid deep neural network HMM achieved 19.0% WER and 6.4% CER—that is, more than 80% of words and 93% of characters are accurately recognised.</p>
            <p>Granularity and Scalability</p>
            <p>This method unlocks a new level of granularity and allows modelling of different letterforms (‘allographs’, e.g., s/ſ/S). In 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Graal</hi>, palaeographers provided the analysis of the graphical chain, and the system had to choose between identified possible solutions (Figure 5). In 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Fontenay</hi>, the system had to create several character models without any previous knowledge, resulting in allograph clustering. 
            </p>
            <p>Even at this fine level of granularity, this system is scalable to large corpora. 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Graal </hi>includes 130 pages, 10,700 lines, 114,268 words, and more than 400,300 characters; 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Fontenay</hi> includes 104 pages, 1,341 text lines, 22,276 words, and more than 99,900 characters. In comparison, the historical databases ‘Saint-Gall’ and ‘Parzival’ comprise, respectively, 60 pages, 1,410 text lines, 11,597 words; and 47 pages, 4,477 text lines, and 23,478 words. The four-year DigiPal project produced a database encompassing 61,372 manually annotated images of letters, without text transcriptions. 
            </p>
            <p>The system is furthermore robust (book hands and diplomatic scripts), and the data format is fully TEI compliant.</p>
            <p>Human in the Loop: Evaluation, Verifiability, and Ergonomics</p>
            <p>In interdisciplinary research, humanities and computer sciences scholars must articulate their respective systems of proof and uncover underpinnings and pre-assumptions, in order to produce efficient systems that present data in a way that scholars on all sides can understand, evaluate, and trust (Stutzmann and Tarte, 2014). During this research, we observed many times that the so-called ground-truth was not 100% accurate or did not correspond to what the system was expected to produce (e.g., transposed words are edited in the order one should read them, while the alignment can only match the words in their order on the line), so that we had hesitations and explored new paths. This is a challenge for future developments: large resources will all contain inaccuracies or not automatable information. Likewise, some inconsistencies in evaluation may appear. Increasing the interactivity of software tools is a solution, not only to overcome shortcomings of strictly automatic approaches, but also to correct the ground-truth and improve the tools and the data models. Therefore, this project also developed a user-friendly software (Leydier et al., 2014). Agile development and interoperability concern software creation, but also corpus enhancement, to use humanist, computer scientist, and machine competences at their maximum. The alignment was performed in three person-months. This is obviously less than by manually drawing boxes around words (or even letters). Our tools and system open a large-scale, standardized, interoperable approach of historical scripts. The human in the loop is part of an interdisciplinary work and process, avoiding tautological approaches and allowing better results, user-friendly tools, and a better understanding on all sides. </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. http://mith.umd.edu/tile/.</p>
            <p>2. http://t-pen.org/.</p>
            <p>3. http://www.mom-ca.uni-koeln.de/mom/home.</p>
            <p>4. http://showcase.iiif.io/viewer/mirador/.</p>
            <p>5. http://www.docexplore.eu/.</p>
            <p>6. http://iiif.io/model/shared-canvas/1.0/index.html.</p>
            <p>7. http://www.agence-nationale-recherche.fr/projet-anr/?tx_lwmsuivibilan_pi2[CODE]=ANR-12-CORP-0010.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""Heading_1_Char"">
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Figures</hi>
                </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""13.447888888888889cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. HTR-alignment.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""8.65011111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2a. Forced alignment at word level.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""8.678333333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2b. Forced alignment at character level.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""12.204347222222221cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Graal </hi>alignment accuracy (number of occurrences / correction on left or right boundaries, in pixels).
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""15.942027777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">Fontenay</hi> alignment accuracy (number of occurrences / correction on left or right boundaries, in pixels).
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""1.4375694444444445cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 5. Modelling allographs and graphical connexions.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Al Azawi, M., Liwicki, M. and Breuel, T. M.</hi> (2013). WFST-Based Ground Truth Alignment for Difficult Historical Documents with Text Modification and Layout Variations. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the SPIE</hi>, Burlingame, CA, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Document Recognition and Retrieval, </hi>vol. 20 (4 February), doi:10.1117/12.2003134.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bluche, T., Moysset, B. and Kermorvant, C.</hi> (2014). Automatic Line Segmentation and Ground-Truth Alignment of Handwritten Documents. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Conference on Frontiers in Handwriting Recognition</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">DigiPal: Digital Resource and Database of Manuscripts, Palaeography and Diplomatic.</hi> (2011–2014). London. http://www.digipal.eu/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fischer, A., Frinken, V., Fornés, A. and Bunke, H.</hi> (2011). Transcription Alignment of Latin Manuscripts Using Hidden Markov Models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Workshop on Historical Document Imaging and Processing</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hassner, T., Wolf, L. and Dershowitz, N.</hi> (2013). OCR-Free Transcript Alignment. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kornfield, E. M., Manmatha, R. and Allan, J.</hi> (2004). Text Alignment with Handwritten Documents. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">First International Workshop on Document Image Analysis for Libraries</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Leydier, Y., Eglin, V., Bres, S. and Stutzmann, D.</hi> (2014). Learning-Free Text-Image Alignment for Medieval Manuscripts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Conference on Frontiers in Handwriting Recognition</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stutzmann, D. and Tarte, S.</hi> (2014). Executive Summary. In Hassner, T., Sablatnig, R., Stutzmann, D. and Tarte, S. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Palaeography: New Machines and Old Texts</hi> (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dagstuhl Reports), </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>(7): 112–34, 112–14, 132.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zahour, A., Likforman-Sulem, L., Boussellaa, W. and Taconet, B.</hi> (2007). Text Line Segmentation of Historical Arabic Documents. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zimmermann, M. and Bunke, H.</hi> (2002). Automatic Segmentation of the IAM Off-Line Database for Handwritten English Text. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">16th International Conference on Pattern Recognition</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Musei e Memoriali della Shoah, così come celebrazioni e commemorazioni della Shoah, trovano nel ricordo dei nomi delle migliaia di vittime dello sterminio nazista, uno dei principali motivi della loro esistenza. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Nel corso degli ultimi decenni, a partire almeno dagli anni ’80, parallelamente all’intensificarsi della ricerca storica e storiografica sulla Shoah, si sono moltiplicati anche i luoghi dedicati ai nomi delle vittime: non più solo monumenti </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">ad memoriam</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">collocati in luoghi geografici significativi per la storia e la memoria della Shoah, ma anche </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">memorial books </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">e, più di recente, memoriali virtuali. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">La ricerca sui nomi delle vittime è ancora un campo di ricerca fluido: grafie dei nomi così come dati anagrafici e biografici sono soggetti a revisioni dovute talvolta alla scoperta di nuove fonti documentarie, talvolta all’intervento diretto di discendenti delle vittime in grado di correggere le informazioni esistenti e più spesso di fornirne di nuove, prima mancanti. Da questo punto di vista il web appare dunque come il luogo più idoneo e congeniale alla pubblicazione dei nomi: sia per la sua intrinseca flessibilità, sia per l’alto numero di visitatori che è in grado raggiungere. Il principale limite di tutte queste pubblicazioni, incluse quelle sul web, deriva dalla loro dispersione e impossibilità di connessione dei dati disponibili. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Il segnale forte di questo limite è arrivato nel 2010 con l’avvio del progetto europeo EHRI—European Holocaust Research Infrastructure</hi>
                <hi rend=""superscript color(222222)"">1</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)""> che ha come obiettivo la creazione di una infrastruttura internazionale per gli archivi sulla Shoah e la condivisione, tramite un unico punto di accesso, delle fonti e delle informazioni per la storia della Shoah (Speck et al., 2014). </hi>
            </p>
            <p>Stato della Ricerca </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Lo stato attuale delle pubblicazioni dei nomi delle vittime della Shoah si caratterizza per la duplicazione dei nomi e l’assenza di collegamenti fra di essi. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">La vastità del fenomeno persecutorio nazista, la difficoltà di reperimento di fonti documentarie utili e al contempo la diversità delle fonti di volta in volta disponibili, hanno portato alla costruzione di numerosi elenchi, basati su criteri ogni volta diversi: la nazionalità delle vittime (come è nel caso della Germania o della Grecia o del Belgio o ancora dell’Austria), oppure il luogo di residenza al momento dell’arresto (come nel caso dell’Olanda), il paese da cui è avvenuta la deportazione (come nel caso della Francia o dell’Italia), il campo nazista di internamento (Auschwitz, Mauthausen, etc.). </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Lo scopo principalmente commemorativo di queste liste ha fatto sì che per lungo tempo non sia stata presa in sufficiente considerazione la questione degli spostamenti— ovvero delle migrazioni e fughe di ebrei che hanno caratterizzato tutto il periodo che va dal 1933 al 1945—e con esso il connesso fenomeno della duplicazione dei dati relativi alle medesime persone. I nomi di ebrei, per esempio, nati in Germania, emigrati in Francia, fuggiti in Italia e deportati dall’Italia in Francia e infine ad Auschwitz, si ritrovano in almeno quattro banche dati diverse (quella tedesca, quella francese, italiana e quella di Yad Vashem) ciascuno associato ad informazioni che variano a seconda delle fonti documentarie utilizzate. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">La tecnologia Linked Open Data, da questo punto di vista, sembra offrire importanti opportunità e strumenti per il superamento di tale situazione. Essa consente l’individuazione univoca dei nomi, la riconciliazione dei nomi stessi presenti in banchedati diverse presenti nel web, e rende unitili operazioni di migrazione, estrazione di dati, creazione di nuovi repositories. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">I Lod per la Descrizione della Shoah</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">La Fondazione CDEC di Milano, principale istituto per la storia della Shoah in Italia, ha avviato a partire dalla fine del 2012 un progetto di lungo periodo per la creazione di una LInked Data Digital Library. Primo obiettivo del progetto era la pubblicazione delle risorse d’archivio per la storia e la memoria della Shoah in Italia. A questo scopo, la prima necessità emersa è stata quella di integrare in un unico repository descrizioni archivistiche e catalografiche, documenti digitalizzati e banche dati autonome create ciascuna per differenti scopi. La seconda esigenza è stata quella di individuare degli elementi di raccordo e quindi di accesso alle diverse fonti informative. Tali elementi sono stati individuati nei nomi di persona—sui quali è stata imperniata l’intera struttura archivistica dell’istituto sin dalla sua nascita—e in particolare quelli contenuti nel database sulle vittime della Shoah in Italia—che è diventato poi il perno dell’intero processo di integrazione e pubblicazione dei dati. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">I caratteri propri di questo database verranno illustrati nel corso dell’intervento al fine di presentare non solo uno dei momenti chiave dello sviluppo del progetto, ma anche e soprattutto per dimostrare come grazie alla rappresentazione concettuale delle informazioni disponibili, sia stato possibile ripensare l’approccio stesso ai nomi, considerati cioè non più a partire dalle funzioni svolte o esperienze vissute dal soggetto (deportato, partigiano, autore, fotografo) ma dal loro rappresentare un Soggetto, ovvero un’entità reale ed unica. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">La costruzione di un ontologia sul dominio specifico ‘Shoah’ ha costituito il naturale completamento del lavoro sui nomi: le classi e le proprietà che ne sono alla base hanno permesso infatti la realizzazione di una rete concettuale in grado di ricondurre ad una singola entità ‘Persona’, informazioni distribuite su più sistemi informativi. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">L’ontologia definita (cfr. versione beta http://cdec.opendams.org/lod/shoah/shoah.rdf), grazie alla sua naturale flessibilità, consentirà la progressiva modellazione nel tempo di altre specifiche porzioni di dominio (non considerate nel progetto iniziale) e con essa lo sviluppo di una costruzione bottom--‐up decentralizzata, come suggerito dalle metodologie Linked Data. Al momento l’ontologia comprende 9</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">classes</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">, 27 </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">object properties</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">e 26 </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">datatype properties</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">; sono stati creati indici sui nomi dei campi di concentramento e sterminio nazisti, sui luoghi di raccolta e detenzione, sui convogli e gli eccidi avvenuti in Italia prima della deportazione. Attraverso la creazione di IRI univoche per tutte le risorse del dominio, è stato possibile ricondurre tutte le informazioni a ‘nodi’ univocamente riconosciuti nel dominio senza la proliferazione di informazioni. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Nello sviluppo complessivo del progetto, un ruolo chiave è stato svolto dall’introduzione di una piattaforma di lavoro trasversale e comune ai vari settori dell’Istituto, in grado di soddisfare le esigenze specifiche di lavoro di ciascun settore. Tale piattaforma è stata realizzata seguendo le raccomandazioni del W3C sulle Linked Data Platform</hi>
                <hi rend=""superscript color(222222)"">2</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)""> ed è conforme all’ontologia creata. Attraverso questa piattaforma oggi tutti i dipartimenti del Centro—specializzati ciascuno in diverse aree di attività di conservazione e ricerca—possono lavorare a partire da un unico elenco di Persone, con informazioni biografiche univoche e, attraverso le IRI univoche, collegare tali Persone a descrizioni archivistiche, catalografiche, documenti digitalizzati. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Il progetto ha cercato di sperimentare tutti i vantaggi legati alle tecnologie semantiche per la pubblicazione del patrimonio culturale (su questo tema si veda ad esempio [Coyle, 2013; Edelstein et al., 2013; Summers and Salo, 2013]) e a tal fine è stato realizzato un test di </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">interlinking</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">tra i dati CDEC relativi ai deportati e i dati pubblicati dall’Archivio Centrale dello Stato secondo le medesime teconologie (http://dati.acs.beniculturali.it) nel Fondo archivistico ‘A4 Bis , internati stranieri e spionaggio 1939–1945’, della Direzione Generale di Pubblica Sicurezza del Ministero degli Interni. Assumendo come valide le sole connessioni che hanno dimostrato una totale sovrapposizione di nome, cognome, data e luogo di nascita, è stato possibile riconciliare circa un centinaio di nomi completando da una parte il profilo biografico su queste persone e aprendo, dall’altra, molte altre criticità legate alla presenza di varianti linguistiche dei nomi di persona e di luogo. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Consapevoli delle criticità legate all’</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">interlinking</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">automatico da cui possono scaturire ‘sameAs’ scorretti (si vedano ad esempio Halpine et al. [2009] e Glaser and Halpine [2012]), il </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">testbed</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">di interconnessione con un dataset esterno è stato molto efficace poiché ha attribuito una maggiore certezza al dato pubblicato e parallelamente ha ampliato il grafo di conoscenza di partenza. Questa interconnessione tra risorse è possibile e semplice attraverso le tecnologie LOD che sono oggi a disposizione, ma necessita senz’altro di un accurato controllo manuale. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Un ulteriore vantaggio legato alla pubblicazione LOD riguarda il </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">reasoning</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">dei dati esposti attraverso il quale è possibile inferire nuova conoscenza dedotta dalla struttura dei dati utilizzata per la rappresentazione; il </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">reasoning</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">applicato sulle relazioni familiari, ad esempio, è in grado di far emergere inconsistenze ed errori di cui altrimenti non si avrebbe conoscenza e allo stesso tempo può aiutare nella ricostruzione virtuale degli alberi genealogici. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">Conclusioni e Sviluppi Futuri</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Gli sviluppi futuri legati a questo progetto sono diversi e molto ambiziosi: se da una parte l’obiettivo principale di creazione di una piattaforma comune per il lavoro interno del Centro è stato realizzato con successo, dall’altra si sono aperte numerose strade che si vorrebbe investigare per capire quanto questo modello sia riutilizzabile su una più ampia scala. I numerosi istituti e centri di ricerca dedicati alla storia della Shoah sparsi in Europa, negli Stati Uniti, in Israele, potrebbero essere il principale banco di prova e sperimentazione del modello messo a punto, nonchè soggetti attivi di una collaborazione decentralizzata. I vantaggi sarebbero molteplici, a cominciare dalla possibilità di ottenere dati più precisi sul numero effettivo delle vittime attraverso la riconciliazione di nomi duplicati o triplicati. La rintracciabilità in un unico punto di accesso, di informazioni provenienti da più fonti, spesso sconosciute, consentirebbe inoltre l’arricchimento della conoscenza non solo dell’identità anagrafica delle persone ma anche delle loro personali biografie. Laddove vi sia la disponibilità dei dati, la tecnologia linked data consentirebbe inoltre la ricostruzione virtuale dei nuclei famigliari distrutti o dispersi. Il carattere proprio dell’ontologia, da un lato, e la natura del processo descritto dall’altro, lasciano intravedere inoltre possibilità di applicazione dell’ontologia stessa per la descrizione di fenomeni simili. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. Ehri Project: http://www.ehri-project.eu/project-description.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. http://www.w3.org/TR/ldp/.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coyle, K.</hi> (2013). Library Linked Data: An Evolution. http://leo.cineca.it/index.php/jlis/article/view/5443/7889.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Edelstein, J., et al.</hi> (2013). Linked Open Data for Cultural Heritage: Evolution of an Information Technology. http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/catalog/ac%3A168445. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Glaser, H. and Halpine, H.</hi> (2012). The Linked Data Strategy for Global Identity. http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/333924/3.hasCoversheetVersion/IC-16-02-Lnkd.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Halpine, H., et al.</hi> (2009). When owl:sameAs Isn’t the Same: An Analysis of Identity in Linked Data. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Semantic Web Conference,</hi> pp. 305–20.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Speck, R., Blanke, T., Kristel, C., et al. </hi>(2014). The Past and the Future of Holocaust Research: From Disparate Sources to an Integrated European Holocaust Research Infrastructure. http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1405/1405.2407.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Summers, E. and Salo, D.</hi> (2013). Linking Things on the Web: A Pragmatic Examination of Linked Data for Libraries, Museums, and Archives. Library of Congress, http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1302/1302.4591.pdf. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2260","16","Function word stylistics and interpretation: Elizabeth Cary's Mariam","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Connors</surname>
                        <forename>Louisa</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Newcastle, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>Louisa.Connors@newcastle.edu.au</email>
                </author>
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            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Introduction</hi>
            </p>
            <p>This paper describes the results of a computational study of Early Modern Tragedy with particular reference to Elizabeth Cary’s 1613 closet play, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Tragedy of Mariam</hi>. Critical responses to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mariam</hi> are contradictory and this paper explores the extent to which a function word study can provide insights that complement or clarify criticisms arising from more orthodox approaches. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Theoretical Framework</hi>
            </p>
            <p>This paper suggests that Langacker’s Cognitive Grammar provides a theoretical framework to support an interpretive application of computational stylistics. Cognitive Grammar is aligned with other functional approaches to linguistics and appears to provide a theoretical explanation at the linguistic level for the results that are produced in a function word study, providing: </p>
            <p>• a framework for the types of authorship studies that have dominated computational </p>
            <p>stylistics; and </p>
            <p>• a way of extending the results in a more interpretive context. </p>
            <p>Key to this paper is Langacker’s view of function words, which he argues “make a semantic contribution to the constructions they appear in, even though this contribution may be fairly schematic” (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Theoretical</hi> 19). This is through the role function words play in the construal of meaning. 
            </p>
            <p>This paper considers 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mariam</hi> in the context of other plays from the period. The study 
            </p>
            <p>includes a total of 60 plays printed between 1580 and 1641. Within this group of 60 there </p>
            <p>are 12 closet plays and 48 plays written for the commercial stage. As well as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mariam</hi>, the set of texts includes the other eleven closet tragedies associated with the “Sidney Circle”. The only other female-­‐authored text in the group, Mary Sidney’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Antonius</hi>, is a translation, as is Thomas Kyd’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Cornelia</hi>. 
            </p>
            <p>The Sidnean closet tragedies have been described as “strikingly alike, and strikingly unlike any other dramas in English” (Witherspoon 179). Their known authorship, along with their formal similarity, makes these plays an interesting set for non-­‐authorship study. Critical responses to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mariam</hi> are divided on several key questions including ideas about women’s speech, notions of performance and privacy, and how closet drama relates to early modern literary and dramatic culture. Much of the criticism is strongly biographical in its approach, reading the play in the context of Cary’s conversion to Catholicism in 1626 and related conflicts. 
            </p>
            <p>Mimetic readings are further encouraged by the existence of a biography of Cary by one of her daughters. Although biographically informed arguments of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mariam</hi> have been developed in more complex ways, Cary’s textual engagement is typically considered in terms of ideological and personal constraints as a text that is about a woman’s right to freedom of conscience within the bounds of marriage. It is then suggested by analogy that these claims extend to relationships between subjects and rulers, drawing on the common Early Modern metaphors of state as a commentary on the failings of patriarchal systems of government. 
            </p>
            <p>Results of these analyses, however, are somewhat conflicting. Suggestions that the play is the most stageable of the closets sit uncomfortably alongside claims that the play is</p>
            <p>rejection of female performativity in favour of interiority. Closet drama is acknowledged as a specifically political form and male-­‐authored closet texts are commonly seen as reflecting Jacobean anxieties over the relation between monarch and advisor and engaging with the</p>
            <p>‘advice’ genre. This is not, however, the case with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mariam.</hi> One study, by William Hamlin, resists the tendency to consider 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mariam</hi> in terms of constraints on agency and reads it instead as an exercise in moral philosophy that explores the problem of doubt and epistemological uncertainty. Given the diversity of critical responses to Mariam, the application of computational stylistics seemed to offer a way to contribute something new to this body of criticism.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Method and Results</hi>
            </p>
            <p>As a first step a discriminant analysis on the basis of the frequency scores of 241 function words was carried out to see what sorts of differences, if any, would be picked up between the two groups of plays.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> The discriminant analysis used 563, 2000 word segments (104 from closet plays and 459 from stage plays). Step-­‐wise leave-­‐one-­‐out analysis was used to cross-­‐validate the results. A step-­‐wise discriminant analysis used only 38 function words from the full list to identify 100 per cent of the segments correctly as either a closet segment or a stage segment. Figure 1 graphs the discriminant scores and shows the groups
            </p>
            <p>separating into two distinct sections, both of which represent something close to separate normal curves.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""15.682736111111112cm"" height=""8.741833333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1: Histogram of discriminant scores for public and closet play segments from 60 tragedies in 200 word segments</p>
            <p>
                <hi style=""color:red; font-size: 14pt; font-weight:bold;"" rend=""ERROR"">�</hi>
                <note place=""margin"" type=""conversion"" resp=""#teitodocx"">
                    <hi rend=""docxError"">unable to handle picture here, no embed or link</hi>
                </note>
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> The list of function words is based on an existing list used by the Centre for Literary and Linguistic Computing at the University of Newcastle.
            </p>
            <p>These results were subjected to a range of further tests to exclude the possibility of artefact playing a role in the delineation of closet or non-­‐closet status. In all cases, the results showed that discriminant analysis continues to find evidence of a difference between closet and non-­‐closet plays on the basis of function words, even when the test is not ‘told’</p>
            <p>whether the segment in question is a closet segment or a stage segment.</p>
            <p>As a way of understanding how Cary’s play relates to other plays from the period, the texts were subject to a Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Given that 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mariam</hi> conforms very closely with the formal requirements of neo-­‐classical tragedy, is constrained by an adherence to a strict rhyme scheme, and that Cary would have been subject to a restrictive set of gendered cultural assumptions concerning authorship and publication, the identification of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mariam</hi> as more like a play for the stage than any of the other Sidnean texts was a surprising result (Figure 2).
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""15.919097222222222cm"" height=""8.092722222222223cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2: Principal component analysis for 60 tragedies in 4000 word segments for 100 most frequently occurring function words</p>
            <p>The stage texts with which 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mariam</hi> bears the closest relationship appear to be Jonson’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Sejanus</hi> (1603) and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Catiline</hi> (1611), as well as Marston’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Wonder of Women</hi> (1606), Chapman’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Revenge of Bussy D’Ambois</hi> (1613) and Goffe’s, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Courageous Turk</hi> (1632). Jonson’s two texts draw heavily on classical dramatic traditions but were first performed at the Globe and so are treated as plays for the public stage in this study, although they have been described as “even more classical, though less specifically Senecan than the School of Pembroke” (Lucas 112).
            </p>
            <p>In order to identify the function words that occur most frequently in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mariam</hi> in comparison to the other texts in the study, a table of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">z-­‐</hi>scores was produced. Table 1 lists the fifteen highest z scores for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mariam</hi> grouped by word class.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""15.889111111111111cm"" height=""5.907263888888889cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Table 1: Fifteen highest 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mariam z</hi>-­‐scores -­‐ 241 function words in 60 tragedies
            </p>
            <p>Discussion</p>
            <p>The study aims to link particular variables that are identified as markers for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mariam</hi> with a specific rhetorical strategy. The paper argues that Cary’s use of auxiliary verbs, modal auxiliaries and conjunctions can linked to Hamlin’s reading of the text, especially the notion of epistemological uncertainty, the consideration of issues from multiple perspectives, and the struggle to achieve emotional stability and a position of psychological strength and stability.
            </p>
            <p>Using Cognitive Grammar as a framework, the paper argues that Cary’s use of function words operates a structural level to reinforce the themes explored in the play. Auxiliary verbs function to control the extent to which the reader engages emotionally with the text and control how the elements of a sentence being profiled relate to the conception of reality that is being discussed. Cary’s frequent recourse to particular auxiliary forms points to conditional constructions and is a grammatical sign that the counterfactual space is in focus (Fauconnier, ""Mental Spaces"" 357-­‐8).</p>
            <p>At a fundamental level, the modals that are selected as significant in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mariam</hi> reveal the type of internal conflict with which the characters are engaged: they struggle with difficult moral questions about conscience, duty, and integrity as well as challenges to their autonomy. In terms of conjunctions, the effect is one of “mental juxtaposition” (Langacker, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Investigations</hi>
            </p>
            <p>354) relating to cognitive phenomena associated with notions of “dynamicity, fictivity, and mental spaces” (Langacker, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Investigations</hi> 354). Cary’s use of conjunctions, like her use of modals and auxiliaries, can be linked to features of the genre in which she is writing, and to the lack of equilibrium that characterises the internal world of the characters who employ these forms.
            </p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>Through a computational stylistic analysis, the contradictory readings associated with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mariam</hi> begin to make sense. The text is the most theatrical of the closets, but many other features signal a strategic alignment with classical conventions and literary/philosophical discourses typically associated with closet texts. The idea of contradiction is present at a very basic linguistic level and is central to understanding the inconsistencies identified by scholars working in more orthodox traditions. Computational Stylistics provides an insight into the text as a work of moral philosophy, highlighting the way the variables function to
            </p>
            <p>construct the world of the play and the readers as interpreters, providing subtle clues about the uncertainty and doubt that prevails in the text and in the world.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>Fauconnier, G. 2007. Mental Spaces. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">In:</hi> GEERAERTS, D. &amp; CUYCKENS, H. (eds.) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Oxford Handbook of Cognitive</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Linguistics.</hi> Oxford: Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Hamlin, W. M. 2003. Elizabeth Cary's Mariam and the Critique of Pure Reason. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Early Modern Literary Studies</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>[Online], 9. Available: 
                        <ref target=""http://extra.shu.ac.uk/emls/09-"">http://extra.shu.ac.uk/emls/09-­‐</ref>1/hamlcary.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Langacker, R. W. 1987. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Foundations of Cognitive Grammar: Theoretical Prerequisites,</hi> Stanford, California, Stanford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Langacker, R. W. 2009. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Investigations in Cognitive Grammar</hi>, Walter de Gruyter. Lucas, F. L. 1973. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Seneca and Elizabethan Tragedy,</hi> New York, Gordon Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Witherspoon, A. M. 1968. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Influence of Robert Garnier on Elizabethan Drama,</hi> New York, Phaeton Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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"2261","16","Game of Thrones for All: Model-based Generation of Universe-appropriate Fictional Characters","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Parker</surname>
                        <forename>Matthew</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>California Polytechnic State University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>themparker@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Khosmood</surname>
                        <forename>Foaad</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>California Polytechnic State University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>foaad@calpoly.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Pickett</surname>
                        <forename>Grant</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>California Polytechnic State University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>gpickett@calpoly.edu</email>
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            <p>Providing rich narrative assets for games featuring interactive storytelling is both difficult and expensive. Of particular concern to us is the problem of believability for non-player-characters (NPC) in video games and interactive worlds. In addition to art and voice assets, which can be substantial, a good NPC requires narrative assets such as universe-appropriate character background, life history, personality, speech mannerisms, and behavioral peculiarities. </p>
            <p>In this paper, we discuss our tool for generating NPCs for use in Interactive Fiction (IF) projects. The tool is intended to assist IF authors with NPC creation. Discussed are the two parts of our character creation process: the statistical model-based generator and the translator for interfacing with a game engine. A user study of 40 subjects is conducted to assess utility of this tool for IF authors, based on the system generating characters from the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Game of Thrones</hi> universe. Most subjects indicate that the system would be useful for IF authors. The results are positive and demonstrate that such a technique could work for creating believable characters in an interactive fiction context.
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.blheym417tkk""/>Creating Narrative Assets
            </p>
            <p>Traditionally, interactive entertainment character narratives, including all possible dialogue, is developed by the project writing staff. There are no quality tools for automated mass character creation and realistic procedural vocalization. Therefore, the process yields limited content and often limited ranges of expression. This limitation in character expression is a limitation on the potential of video games as a storytelling medium. The most popular solution in games where characters are critical is to only flesh out certain key characters with whom the player is supposed to interact. Generally these NPCs have names and can be engaged in conversation. Most traditional role-playing games take this route. They tend to create a small, set number of ‘named’ characters that have responses to player action and a large number of generic characters (e.g., ‘commoners’) who all have identical or formulaic responses to the situation. These other characters in the world are left as nearly blank husks, having at most a few lines of general response and not interacting with the player in any meaningful way. </p>
            <p>To make NPCs interesting requires a large budget and is out of reach of all but the most well-funded studios. The most basic character for an independent low-budget 2D fighting game can cost upwards of $150,000 USD (Plunkett, 2012). The salaries of relevant staff are constantly growing: $102,000 USD average for a video game writer, with voiceover artists averaging $128,000 USD in the United States.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> Another solution is to limit the amount of exposure that a player has to other characters. This can be done at the expense of player experience. Large crowds (such as busy city scenes or other large gatherings) become off limits or are moved into the scenery. As a result the game world can come to feel very empty and small, even if the scenery is incredibly expansive. Lankoski and Bjork (2007) address this problem in their examination of character believability in the context of a character from 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>Presented here is a procedural method to create unique characters with diverse personalities that can then be imported into a game and interact with the player—in this case, an Inform 7 work of interactive fiction. Inform 7 is an English-like declarative programming language and development environment for interactive fiction.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> It was chosen because it could provide a proof of concept with many characters without requiring visual representations of characters. What results is a pool of characters with diverse personalities and detailed experiences that should be depended upon to act as more realistic extras, complete with personal histories, ambitions, and relationships.
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.czz87wmo3zzc""/>Related Work
            </p>
            <p>While there are a wide variety of rudimentary character generators for pen-and-paper-type games available online, these focus on specific rule sets,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> with application to role-playing games. Bayesian networks have been explored in natural language generation research, but almost none specifically for large-scale personality or character generation. Corradini’s group sets out to focus on creating a single realistic depiction of a very specific character, in this case, Hans Christian Anderson (Corradini et al., 2005). Lebowitz goes a long way toward establishing a story generation system for creating believable worlds and descriptions by emphasizing the need for consistency and coherency (Lebowitz, 1984). Kienzle et al. (2007) demonstrate the use of a generational model to create variety in NPC character action, with the emphasis on in-game abilities rather than personality or social interaction. Merrick also focuses on behavior, discussing a technique for making persistent non-player characters (such as those in massively multiplayer games) more realistic by having them change and react to changes in the environment over time (Merrick and Maher, 2006). Lankoski and Bjork (2007) examine what makes a character believable in the context of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Elder Scrolls</hi> video game series and role-playing games in particular. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.otbpq5lxtcjr""/>System Overview
            </p>
            <p>Our system is broken into two largely independent portions. The first part generates the features of the characters. In order to establish realistic characters, it was necessary to implement a Bayesian Belief Network of different character features and events and use these to build a person structure from which language describing the character could be generated. The second step in the character representation process is to translate the features and stories that the character has experienced into a format that a player can interact with. </p>
            <p>Character Model and Generator</p>
            <p>The first nondeterministic trait to be generated per character is the location where the character is from. In the universe of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A Song of Ice and Fire</hi> this is very important to cultural and political identity. The location distribution is limited to broader geographical regions. This is primarily because, being a fictional universe, there is no reliable way to estimate the populations of smaller regions without more evidence (Various, 2012). The names generated come from a list of the characters (in this case, male) in the novels. The list itself includes about 1,400 individual characters.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> These names are then chosen at random (some combination of the first and the second) and assigned to the character. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""8.830536111111112cm"" height=""7.500938888888889cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. How the ‘profession’ event interacts with the rest of the model.</p>
            <p>The next set of traits to be created for a character are those that are present from birth. These are physical traits (blue-eyed, tall, strong, short, etc.) and a limited number of psychological traits (such as level of intelligence and initial temperament) as well as social class.</p>
            <p>Stochastic Life Events</p>
            <p>The next step in creating a realistic character is to give it a series of life events to build a story arc for the individual. For the purpose of this generator, the character’s life has been broken into nine different life event categories ranging from early childhood trauma to marriage to late life-changing events. Not all of these event categories will happen to everyone (some have less than a 50% of occurring) while others (like profession) are guaranteed for everyone. Each event category has a range of possible outcomes. Initially, the probability of each of the events in the category is the same, but each event has a number of potential influencing traits and a corresponding multiplier that changes the distribution (after normalizing) of the event list. The influences can cascade across multiple events.</p>
            <p>Translator and Game Interface</p>
            <p>The translator takes the Bayesian model for the character and transforms it into usable Inform 7 code. The conversations that the users have with the characters generated through the generator and translator are facilitated by one of the many extensions available to the Inform 7 IDE, Conversation Framework
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> by Eric Eve. This framework allows the user to ask the character about specific topics from within the interactive experience.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""9.154583333333333cm"" height=""7.249688888888889cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. User distribution of familiarity with the Game of Thrones universe (5= ‘most familiar’).</p>
            <p>User Study</p>
            <p>All 40 participants in the study are computer science undergraduate students at California Polytechnic State University (Cal Tech). About two-thirds of the participants are from the Interactive Entertainment Engineering class, and have experience with Inform 7 and interactive fiction authoring due to having completed class projects. The overall familiarity with Inform 7 is around 
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""7.875763888888889cm"" height=""6.441722222222222cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>80 to 85%. Tutoring and supervision are offered for all participants.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""7.896930555555556cm"" height=""6.1718472222222225cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Believable background and conversation scores (5=most believable). X axis represents portion of users. 40 subjects were surveyed.</p>
            <p>The participants are then asked a series of questions about their familiarity with the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Game of Thrones</hi> (or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Song of Ice and Fire</hi>) universe, the believability of their character in the context of the universe, whether they would use this character in one of their own works, and how helpful they thought this generation method could be making realistic secondary characters for interactive fiction.
            </p>
            <p>People find the generated characters to have a believable backstory. The average score was a 3.7 out of 5 in that area. The best result from the generator was that 54% of the people polled would be willing to use the character unedited in a work of interactive fiction. The rest stated that they would use the character with some editing. None of the people polled responded that they would not use the generated character in any form.</p>
            <p>When asked about their willingness to use the unaltered generated character as a non-major character, the generator received an average score of 4.1 out of 5. The average score for using an unedited version of the generated character as a major player in a work of interactive fiction was a 2.3. This was foreseen as the generator was never meant to supplant major characters driving a main plotline but as more complex NPCs meant to provide context and exposure. When looking at individuals who had a higher than average (4 or 5) familiarity with the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Game of Thrones</hi> universe, the number of people willing to use the character unedited went down a small amount to 50%, but those who did say they would use the character gave the primary character the same average score (2.3) while giving the non-major character a significantly higher score at an average of around 4.5. Finally, when asked the question ‘Do you think this kind of character generation can be helpful to interactive fiction authors?’ the average score was a 4.23.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""8.913833333333333cm"" height=""14.433022222222222cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. Subject responses to ‘Are you willing to use this character in your own story?’ (5= ‘most willing’). 40 subjects surveyed.</p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.2hrs4q1kjroq""/>Notes
            </p>
            <p>1. http://www.indeed.com/salary/q-Video-Game-Writer-l-United-States.html.</p>
            <p>2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inform.</p>
            <p>3. See, for example, http://www.pathguy.com/cg35.htm.</p>
            <p>4. http://www.namenerds.com/uucn/listofweek/icefire.html.</p>
            <p>5. Ibid.</p>
            <p>Sample Output</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Sample translated code to create character ‘Josmyn’ in Inform 7</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Sample game playthrough with same character</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                        <p>The quizzing table is the Table of ComplexNPC0 Answers.</p>
                        <p>Table of ComplexNPC0 Answers </p>
                        <p>subject response rule response table suggest </p>
                        <p>...</p>
                        <p>adolescence -- Table of ComplexNPC0 adolescence 3</p>
                        <p>Table of ComplexNPC0 adolescence</p>
                        <p>response</p>
                        <p>‘A couple of friends and I went on a fun adventure’.</p>
                        <p>‘I became more diligent in my adolescent years’.</p>
                        <p>‘I traveled between Oldtown and Volantis as a cabin boy’.</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                        <p>&gt;greet Josmyn</p>
                        <p>Greetings</p>
                        <p>(You could ask him about himself, home, life, class, childhood or adolescence.)</p>
                        <p>&gt;ask about adolescence</p>
                        <p>A couple of friends and I went on a fun adventure.</p>
                        <p>&gt;ask about adolescence</p>
                        <p>I became more diligent in my adolescent years.</p>
                        <p>&gt;ask about adolescence</p>
                        <p>I traveled between Oldtown and Volantis as a cabin boy.</p>
                    </cell>
                </row>
            </table>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Corradini, A., Mehta, M., Bernsen, N.-O., and Charfuelan, M. (2005).</hi> Animating an Interactive Conversational Character for an Educational Game System. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces, IUI ’05</hi>, New York, pp. 183–90.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kienzle, J., Denault, A., and Vangheluwe, H.</hi> (2007). Model-Based Design of Computer-Controlled Game Character Behavior. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ACM/IEEE 10th International Conference on Model Driven Engineering Languages and Systems</hi>, October 2007.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lankoski, P. and Bjork, S.</hi> (2007). Gameplay Design Patterns for Believable Non-Player Characters. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Situated Play</hi>, University of Tokyo, September 2007.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lebowitz, M.</hi> (1984). Creating Characters in a Storytelling Universe. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Poetics,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">13</hi>(3): 171–94.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Merrick, K. and Maher, M. L.</hi> (2006). Motivated Reinforcement Learning for Non-Player Characters in Persistent Computer Game Worlds. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2006 ACM SIGCHI International Conference on Advances in Computer Entertainment Technology, ACE ’06</hi>, New York: ACM.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Plunkett, L. (n.d.). It Will Blow Your Mind to See How Much It Costs to Add One New Character to a Fighting Game. Kotaku.com (accessed February 2012).</bibl>
                    <bibl>Various (2012). A Forum of Ice and Fire: How Many People Live in Westeros? In Each Kingdom? westeros.org (accessed January 2012).</bibl>
                </listBibl>
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                        <surname>Weidman</surname>
                        <forename>Sean G.</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Pennsylvania State University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>sgw143@psu.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>O'Sullivan</surname>
                        <forename>James</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Pennsylvania State University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>josullivan@psu.edu</email>
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                <head>Methodology and Results</head>
                <p>Craig’s Zeta (Hoover, 2008; Burrows, 2004) was the primary methodology deployed, as was the case in Hoover’s original study. Our Zeta analysis was conducted using Stylo (Eder et al., 2013), with a text slice length of 2,000, text slice overlap of 1,000, and an occurrence and filter threshold of 2 and 0.1, respectively. Initially, we produced standard most frequent wordlists using Delta, with a list of stopwords applied. Comparing these results, we saw little separation between the genders. Zeta, as a measure designed to detect distinctive words, yielded more fruitful data. When comparing authors from across all periods, our results confirm Hoover’s in that there are some stereotypical words that do emerge. On the female side, most notable are ‘household’, ‘smile’, and ‘mother’, while on the male side, ‘country’ and ‘famous’ stand out. ‘America’ is also present in the distinctive male words. The male words are arguably reflective of a dataset that contains slightly more male American authors than it does female American authors—suggesting that Hoover is also correct to point towards nationality as a further potential classifier—but the difference is not so great that it should yield significant skewing. However, while there is a clear presence of stereotypical markers, there is also some significant crossover between authors. This is less pronounced across different periods, but when author sets are considered as a whole (see Figure 1), the macro-separation is not as pronounced as in Hoover’s findings.</p>
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                <p>Figure 1. All authors.</p>
                <p>As suggested by Hoover, we also analyze authors chronologically, comparing male and female authors across their respective periods. Once again, there are substantial correlations with Hoover’s wordlist, with stereotypes appearing in all sets, across all periods. But, as noted, the crossover between genders fluctuates throughout periods, with contemporary authors sharing the greatest similarities (see Figures 2, 3, and 4). This would suggest that gender distinctions between authors fluctuate across literary epochs. </p>
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                <p>Figure 2. Victorian authors.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic n=""1003"" width=""11.380611111111111cm"" height=""8.79298611111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
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                <p>Figure 3. Modernist authors.</p>
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                    <graphic n=""1004"" width=""11.209513888888889cm"" height=""8.743597222222222cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
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                <p>Figure 4. Contemporary authors.</p>
                <p>Our methodological implications do require brief commentary. A Zeta analysis introduces its own inherent limitations, forming as it does a list of words preferred and avoided by one dataset (e.g., female literature) insofar as they relate to another dataset (e.g., male literature). In Delta, the data speaks for itself, whereas in Zeta we use a mode of classification, so the separation we receive is partly a result of our dataset preparation. Rather than the data establishing its own distinctions, we (in a way) privilege and impose the gender split in our separation of the male and female datasets. There are literary and mathematical justifications for this, but it is worth acknowledging, and certainly worth discussing in the context of a gender-specific study. However, taking into account the data from our Delta analysis, the results of which turned up inconclusive, the subsequent Zeta can be seen to merely refine an already existent pattern. That being said, this particularity is something we will focus on further as we fine-tune our analysis for presentation. In doing so, we will computationally compare results across all of the lists, including Hoover’s, to see if any correlations may have been missed in this initial stage, which will ultimately allow us to conduct a closer analysis of the distinctive gender markers.</p>
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                <head>Conclusions</head>
                <p>Worth noting is that the ongoing dispute in literary studies concerned with gender and writing style is wide and varied, and the scope of our research does not immediately affect the debates of gender theory or the potentiality of a distinct form of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">écriture feminine</hi>. In the parameters of such literary discourses, however, our project does provide a quantitative means to approach an overwhelmingly qualitative discussion. Specifically, our preliminary analyses lend evidence to the claims that such gender differences are evident in writing across periods, but that these differences are less distinguishable depending on the period in question.
                </p>
                <p>Studies that have included multiple genres or mediums in their stylistic analyses and text classifications have concluded that stylistic features often depend more heavily upon genre than gender (Herring and Paolilo, 2006; Janssen and Murachver, 2004; Argamon et al., 2003). Yet what these studies have consistently shown is that gender and genre both seem to reveal stylistic and thematic qualities historically associated with male and female language application. Our goal in limiting the mode of our corpus to fiction novels (and novel-length collections of short stories) is to refine the results of prior studies with more generalized scopes (e.g., Koppel et al., 2002; Argamon et al., 2003) and place similar conclusions within a periodized context, ideally providing ample opportunity for literary application.</p>
                <p>While we follow in the methodological footsteps of such studies, we have shifted the focus of our investigation away from style, in the macro-analytical sense, to period and its relation to gender-differentiable terminology. A number of projects (Argamon et al., 2003; Burrows, 2004; Schler et al., 2005; Pennebaker, 2011) have concluded that the use of function words—pronouns (taken customarily as female markers) and determiners and prepositions (taken customarily as male markers)—provide a reliable basis for gender identification in writing. None of them, markedly, has sufficiently addressed the issue of modernity and the evolution of language and its changes over time, though Hoover has suggested that this is the way forward. Our research separates from such work in that we aim to do just that: distinguish how gender differences have evolved over and between selections of specified, canonical literary periods, focusing on distinct, rather than functional, word choices. Admittedly, this is a first step, and akin to Hoover in his initial study, we acknowledge the need for a larger corpus and more refined dataset—this, of course, is the constant nature of the computational beast. But we can at least view this is a next step. </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Argamon, S., Koppel, M., Fine, J. and Shimoni, A. R.</hi> (2003). Gender, Genre, and Writing Style in Formal Written Texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(3): 321–46.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J. </hi>(2004). Textual Analysis. In Schreibman, S., Siemens, R. and Unsworth, J. (eds),
                        <hi rend=""italic""> A Companion to Digital Humanities</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J. </hi>(2007). All the Way Through: Testing for Authorship in Different Frequency Strata. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>(1): 27–47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J. </hi>(2013). Sylometry with R: A Suite of Tools. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts</hi>, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, pp. 487–89. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Herring, S. C. and Paolilo, J. C. </hi>(2006). Gender and Genre Variation in Weblogs. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Sociolinguistics,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(4): 439–59. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. L. </hi>(2008). Quantitative Analysis and Literary Studies.’ In Schreibman, S. and Siemens, R. (eds),
                        <hi rend=""italic""> A Companion to Digital Literary Studies</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 517–33.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. L. </hi>(2013). Textual Analysis. In Price, K. M. and Siemens, R. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary Studies in the Digital Age</hi>. Modern Language Association of America, http://dlsanthology.commons.mla.org/textual-analysis/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Janssen, A. and Murachver, T. </hi>(2004). The Relationship between Gender and Topic in Gender-Preferential Language Use. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Written Communication,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>: 344–67.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koppel, M., Argamon, S. and Shimoni, A. R.</hi> (2002). Automatically Categorizing Written Texts by Author Gender. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(4): 401–12.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pennebaker, J. W. </hi>(2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Secret Life of Pronouns: What Our Words Say about Us.</hi> Bloomsbury, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schler, J., Koppel, M., Argamon, S. and Pennebaker, J. </hi>(2005). Effects of Age and Gender in Blogging. Symposium paper for 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">American Association for Artificial Intelligence</hi>.
                    </bibl>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Neyt</surname>
                        <forename>Vincent</forename>
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                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""keywords"">
                    <term>automatic collation</term>
                    <term>modern manuscripts</term>
                    <term>digital scholarly editing</term>
                    <term>genetic criticism</term>
                    <term>Samuel Beckett</term>
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            <p>Writing is often inspired by external source texts. Including an author’s personal library is a crucial aspect of mapping creative invention at work, which is the aim of genetic criticism. In the field of genetic criticism (the study of modern manuscripts), Raymonde Debray Genette made a useful distinction between endogenesis (the part of a composition process that involves the writing of draft versions) and exogenesis (the part of the genesis that relates to external source texts—for instance, when an author consults an encyclopedia or makes notes on a book s/he is reading). Most digital genetic editions focus on the endogenesis, but it is also possible to incorporate the exogenesis. In the context of digital scholarly editing, the combination of these two aspects of a work’s genesis involves a form of digital editing that takes into account at least three approaches: (1) a documentary, (2) a textual, and (3) an intertextual approach. </p>
            <p>Recent developments in genetic editing (notably including the work of the TEI) have increasingly drawn due attention to the importance of the ‘document’, rather than the ‘text’, as the core of the edition. In the meantime, the textual and intertextual aspects should not be neglected, though, especially if one considers the collation of versions as a central element in any scholarly edition. </p>
            <p>The specific challenge faced by scholarly editors collating modern manuscripts is the complexity of the documents. Autograph manuscripts typically contain numerous cancellations, substitutions, and additions, which complicate the comparison. To examine the possibility of digital collation of modern manuscripts, this paper studies the case of the Beckett Digital Manuscript Project (www.beckettarchive.org), a project that is made possible thanks to an ERC Grant (‘CUTS: Creative Undoing and Textual Scholarship’) and whose digital infrastructure is developed as part of the Marie Curie ITN ‘DiXiT’ (Digital Scholarly Editions).</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Documentary Approach</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Modern manuscripts (notes, sketches, drafts) are not ‘texts’ but ‘protocols for making a text’, as Daniel Ferrer describes them in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Logiques du brouillon: Modèles pour une critique génétique</hi> (2011). This has consequences for scholarly editing, as Hans Walter Gabler notes in ‘The Primacy of the Document in Editing’, because ‘it is documents that we have, and documents only. In all transmission and all editing, texts are (and, if properly recognised, always have been) constructs from documents. For to edit texts critically means precisely this: to construct them’ (2007, 199). As a consequence, the inclusion of digital facsimiles has almost become a sine qua non in digital scholarly editing. This trend has been a considerable help in making modern manuscripts more accessible, especially when the facsimiles are accompanied by a transcription. But if this transcription is conceived in terms of a document-oriented approach, it often treats every word as a separate ‘island’ (linked to a particular set of coordinates on the facsimile), not as part of a syntactic entity. This is where a textual approach becomes useful.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Textual Approach</hi>
            </p>
            <p>In addition to the documentary approach, a textual approach can make modern manuscripts more accessible by offering a plausible interpretation of the ‘protocol’ (to employ Ferrer’s term). If a word is crossed out and an alternative is written above the line, the chronology of these writing acts can—in many cases—be reconstructed, and this editorial interpretation can be usefully employed to feed into the alignment table of the collation software. In collaboration with the Huygens ING Institute (The Hague), we integrated the automated collation software tool CollateX in the Beckett Digital Manuscript Project (BDMP) and developed a model to incorporate all of these writing acts into the collation (Haentjens Dekker et al., 2014), to be included in a next version of CollateX. </p>
            <p>In the meantime, a new bout of intense collaboration between the lead developers of the BDMP and CollateX (using the existing version 1.5 of CollateX) has resulted in a working alternative to this theoretical model. Deleted and added words are fed into the algorithm with an added property declaring them as such, collated against the text of other witnesses and visualized in the resulting alignment table in the same way as they are visualized in our transcriptions. Complex substitutions can push the software to its limits, and to that end corrective mechanisms were developed to guide the automatic collation to produce improved results.  </p>
            <p>Intertextual Approach</p>
            <p>In addition to the documentary and textual approaches, a digital genetic edition may also be expected to map the relations between endo- and exogenesis. To that end, it is possible to integrate a writer’s personal library. But in many cases, only a fraction of what an author has ever read is still extant. In addition to the ‘extant’ library (based on digital facsimiles of the marginalia in the books preserved in Beckett’s apartment in Paris), the BDMP therefore tries to reconstruct and integrate a ‘virtual’ library (based on Beckett’s reading notes in notebooks). Exogenesis defines the contours and the specific form of intertextuality that will be discussed in the paper. </p>
            <p>* * *</p>
            <p>These three approaches enable users to compare (1) the digital facsimiles of modern manuscripts with the transcriptions, (2) the multiple versions of the drafts (by means of a digital collation tool to mark the variants), and (3) the author’s manuscripts with the source texts to which they refer or allude. Working with these three dimensions, the paper proposes a model for digital scholarly editions that map the interaction between endo- and exogenesis, formulating a set of criteria for the inclusion of various types of source texts to address the issue of a virtual library’s boundaries as one of the main challenges of exogenesis in digital editions. </p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Debray Genette, R.</hi> (2007). Génétique et poétique: le cas Flaubert. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ITEM,</hi>
                        <lb/>http://www.item.ens.fr/index.php?id=187284.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ferrer, D.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Logiques du brouillon: Modèles pour une critique génétique</hi>. Seuil, Paris.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gabler, H. W.</hi> (2007). The Primacy of the Document in Editing. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ecdotica,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>: 197–207.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Haentjens Dekker, R., Van Hulle, D., Middell, G., Neyt, V., and Van Zundert, J.</hi> (2014). Computer-Supported Collation of Modern Manuscripts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi> http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1093/llc/fqu007.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shillingsburg, P.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">From Gutenberg to Google: Electronic Representations of Literary Texts</hi>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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"2264","16","Geo-Language Games: An Agent-Based Model of the Role of Terrain in Language Diversity","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>Geo-Language Games: An Agent-Based Model of the Role of Terrain in Language Diversity</title>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hendery</surname>
                        <forename>Rachel Marion</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>r.hendery@uws.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Magee</surname>
                        <forename>Liam</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>l.magee@uws.edu.au</email>
                </author>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>language change</term>
                    <term>agent based modelling</term>
                    <term>simulation</term>
                    <term>linguistic diversity</term>
                    <term>mapping</term>
                </keywords>
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            <p>One of the enduring questions in the field of linguistics is why some regions are linguistically diverse, while others remain or become relatively homogeneous. For example, New Guinea is home to 13% of the world’s languages, while having only 0.1% of the world’s population and 0.4% of the land area (Nettle and Romaine, 2000, 80). It has often been assumed that terrain plays a role in the different amounts of diversity in different regions, as near-impassable terrain means that population movement results in isolated groups without further contact, while flat terrain without significant obstacles or easily traversable bodies of water lead to continual long-term contact between different language groups (cf. Marck, 1986; 2000). In recent years the impact of terrain on the diversity of New Guinea languages has been overshadowed by research on other proposed factors, such as economic, social, cultural, and linguistic structural predictors (cf. Pawley, 2007; Currie and Mace, 2009; Lupyan and Dale, 2010; Greenhill, 2014). None of the existing research, however, fully accounts for the diversity question. With recent advances in the accessibility of mapping technology, 3D rendering, and satellite imagery, the time is ripe to consider terrain as a possible factor in language change models.</p>
            <p>Agent-based modelling (ABM) represents a useful approach for considering the plausibility of terrain as one determinant of linguistic diversity. Agent-based models assume one or more computer-based autonomous, linguistic, reactive, proactive, and intentional agents who interact with each other and their environment (Wooldridge and Jennings, 1995; Gilbert and Troitzsch, 2005). Given an initial set of states distributed across a group of agents, and a finite set of rules, these interactions can then show interesting emergent patterns over time (Axelrod, 1997). As both Axelrod (1997) and Epstein (2008) argue, agent-based models can be useful as much for their explanatory as for their predictive value—as sorts of ‘thought experiments’ (Axelrod, 1997, 4) for elucidating how complex phenomena might emerge from simple assumptions. Increasingly, ABMs have been applied to social phenomena such as economic systems (Farmer and Foley, 2009), political cooperation and decision-making (Axelrod, 1997), urban development (Batty, 2007), social networks (Macy and Willer, 2002)—and language change (Steels, 1997). </p>
            <p>However, agent-based modelling remains an underexplored—if tantalising—approach to understanding models of language change. As one example, Parkvall et al. (2013) proposed an agent-based model for the evolution of creoles in which agents follow extremely simple rules about talking to each other and updating their lexicon to ‘learn’ new words from each other during interactions. They tested this model for various combinations of founder languages, and found that it successfully predicts the lexifier language in the resulting creole. </p>
            <p>The idea behind such a simulation is not to include 
                <hi rend=""italic"">all </hi>possible factors in language change but to pare them down to the minimum needed to get a realistic outcome. This shows us which elements are most important in language change. Elements that have been considered in previous agent-based simulation of language change include social networks (Troutman et al., 2008), genetic predisposition of the agents to language learning (Baronchelli et al., 2012), and diversity of founding population (Parkvall et al. 2013), but to our knowledge, no one has included geographical factors.
            </p>
            <p>Here we present a model of language change in two sample regions: Palmerston Island (Cook Islands) and a range of terrain types in Papua New Guinea using a GIS-based agent-based model. In the first case the terrain is extremely flat, with no rivers or other potential obstacles to divide groups. The only terrain effects that could affect language change are the relative density of bushland that makes certain paths across the island easier to traverse than others. People are therefore more likely to encounter those who live near those paths than those who live in the denser bushland. In Papua New Guinea, on the other hand, we consider hilly terrain, rivers, and swampland as well as bush, so that population movement is much more constrained. </p>
            <p>We argue relatively simple ABMs can represent complex emergent patterns typical of language differentiation among these relatively geographically proximate groups.</p>
            <p>We build upon existing work with a web-based ABM framework, Fierce Planet (Magee, 2012; 2014). The affordance of this framework over more established ABM frameworks such as NetLogo, Repast, and CORMAS (e.g., Bajracharya and Duboz, 2013) is the relative accessibility of simulations; these can be easily deployed and shared with other researchers and communities. We adapt that framework for three-dimensional rendering using WebGL and Three.js, and import geographical models for both locations. For Papua New Guinea, we import DEM models developed by USGS. For Palmerston Island we construct a DEM model using World Machine since it is too small and low-lying to be picked up by satellite. </p>
            <p>Both height and foliage act as cost-based constraints on the movement of members of different tribal groups. As a general rule, this constrains interactions between groups, while reinforcing bonding ties within groups. Our model shows that, given a common linguistic origin, over time geographical constraints act as a factor in the gradual divergence of dialect and language between two groups. This is especially so when one or both groups are exposed to exogenous influences. We also model a range of alternative scenarios, where connections between groups become easier or more difficult due to alterative pathways between them. </p>
            <p>We make two contributions with our paper. First we demonstrate how linguistic diversity can be partially but plausibly explained by longitudinal accumulation of linguistic and other social interactions within versus between groups. We show that geographical influences can shape this accumulation. Second we show how complex geographic ABMs can be developed using current web standards. This facilitates broader engagement with the assumptions and algorithms of ABMs, and encourages critique and feedback from other researchers and the public.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Axelrod, R. M.</hi> (1997).
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Complexity of Cooperation: Agent-Based Models of Competition and Collaboration</hi>. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bajracharya, K. and Duboz, R.</hi> (2013). Comparison of Three Agent-Based Platforms on the Basis of a Simple Epidemiological Model (WIP). In
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Symposium on Theory of Modeling &amp; Simulation-DEVS Integrative M&amp;S Symposium</hi>. Society for Computer Simulation International, p. 7.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baronchelli, A., Chater, N., Pastor Satorras, R. and Christiansen, M. H.</hi> (2012). The Biological Origin of Linguistic Diversity.
                        <hi rend=""italic""> PLOS One,</hi> 7.10:e48029. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Batty, M.</hi> (2007).
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cities and Complexity: Understanding Cities with Cellular Automata, Agent-Based Models, and Fractals</hi>. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Currie, T. E. and Mace, R.</hi> (2009). Political Complexity Predicts the Spread of Ethnolinguistic Groups. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">106</hi>: 7339–44. 
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Epstein, J. M.</hi> (2008). Why Model? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation,</hi> 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(4): 12.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Farmer, J. D. and Foley, D.</hi> (2009). The Economy Needs Agent-Based Modelling. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Nature,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">460</hi>(7256): 685–86.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gilbert, N. and Troitzsch, K.</hi> (2005).
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Simulation for the Social Scientist</hi>. McGraw-Hill International.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Greenhill, S.</hi> (2014). Demographic Correlates of Language Diversity. In Bowern, C. and Evans, B. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics</hi>. Routledge, London.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lupyan, G., and Dale, R.</hi> (2010). Language Structure Is Partly Determined by Social Structure. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PLoS One,</hi> 5.1: e8559.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Macy, M. W. and Willer, R.</hi> (2002). From Factors to Actors: Computational Sociology and Agent-Based Modeling.
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Annual Review of Sociology,</hi> pp. 143–66.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Magee, L.</hi> (2012). Simulating a ‘Fierce Planet’: A Web-Based Agent Platform and Sustainability Game. In
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2012 SpringSim Poster &amp; Work-In-Progress Track,</hi> Society for Computer Simulation International, Orlando, FL, 26–29 March 2012, 9.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Magee, L.</hi> (2014). Fierce Planet: Sustainability Priming through Online Gaming and Simulation. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Marck, J.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Topics in Polynesian Language and Cultural History</hi>. Pacific Linguistics, Canberra.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nettle, D. and Romaine, S.</hi> (2000)
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World’s Languages: The Extinction of the World’s Languages</hi>. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Parkvall, M., Jansson, F. and Strimling, P.</hi> (2013). Simulating the Genesis of Mauritian.
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Acta Linguistica Hafniensia</hi>,
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">45</hi>(2): 265–73.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pawley, A.</hi> (2007). Why Do Polynesian Island Groups Have One Language and Melanesian Island Groups Have Many? Patterns of Interaction and Diversification in the Austronesian Colonization of Remote Oceania. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Migrations Conference, </hi>Porquerolles, France, 
                        <ref target=""http://www.vjf.cnrs.fr/lacito/colloque/diaporamas/Pawley.pdf"">http://www.vjf.cnrs.fr/lacito/colloque/diaporamas/Pawley.pdf</ref>.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Steels, L.</hi> (1997). The Synthetic Modeling of Language Origins.
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Evolution of Communication</hi>,
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(1): 1–34.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Troutman, C., Clark, B. and Goldrick, M.</hi> (2008). Social Networks and Intraspeaker Variation during Periods of Language Change. 
                        <hi rend=""Heading_1_Char"">
                            <hi rend=""italic"">University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics,</hi>
                        </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>(1): art. 25.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(2): 115–52.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2265","16","Global Perspectives on Digital Humanities Expertise","3","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <affiliation>Rice University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>lisamspiro@gmail.com</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Cawthorne</surname>
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                    <affiliation>West Virginia University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>jcawthor@gmail.com</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Lewis</surname>
                        <forename>Vivian</forename>
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                    <affiliation>McMaster University, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>lewisvm@mcmaster.ca</email>
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                        <surname>Wang</surname>
                        <forename>Xuemao</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Cincinnati, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>wang2xm@ucmail.uc.edu</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Fraistat</surname>
                        <forename>Neil</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Maryland, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>fraistat@umd.edu</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hsiang</surname>
                        <forename>Jieh</forename>
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                    <affiliation>National Taiwan University, Taiwan</affiliation>
                    <email>jieh.hsiang@gmail.com</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Siemens</surname>
                        <forename>Ray</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Victoria, Canada</affiliation>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ma</surname>
                        <forename>Feicheng</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Wuhan University, China</affiliation>
                    <email>fchma@whu.edu.cn</email>
                </author>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Spence</surname>
                        <forename>Paul</forename>
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                    <affiliation>King's College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>paul.spence@kcl.ac.uk</email>
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            <p rend=""heading 3"">1. A Global Benchmarking Study of Expertise in Digital Scholarship</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Cawthorne, J. </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">West Virginia University</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Lewis, V. </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">McMaster University</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Spiro, L. </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Rice University </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Wang, X.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">University of Cincinnati</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">There is increasing awareness of the geographical and linguistic diversity of digital humanities (Russell, 2014), but insufficient knowledge of what shape expertise takes around the world. Supported by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, we conducted a global benchmarking study to understand the skills and competencies necessary for digital scholarship. We interviewed faculty, research staff, administrators, and graduate students at leading digital humanities and digital social science organizations in eight countries/regions, asking about the expertise important to their work, how they acquired this expertise, and how the organization nurtures it. This panel brings together leaders of five organizations that we visited to offer their perspectives on the human dimensions of digital scholarship. </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">We will begin the panel by giving a 10-minute summary of key findings and lessons learned. Through our site visits, we witnessed different models for supporting digital scholarship, including centers, labs, departments, and networks. We learned that many organizations face common challenges in recruiting and retaining staff and examined strategies for contending with such challenges, including facilitating a community of practice and offering dedicated research time. We hope that our study will contribute to a deeper understanding of the diversity of digital scholarship. </p>
            <p>Brief presentations by leaders of DH organizations will provide examples of this diversity. Each DH center leader will give an approximately five-minute talk, raising a few key questions or provocations. The rest of the session will be devoted to discussing these contributions and engaging with questions and comments from the audience.</p>
            <p rend=""heading 3"">2. Fellows No More: DH Centers and Post-Project-Centered DH </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Fraistat, N.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">University of Maryland</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The digital humanities center has been a crucial institution for helping humanists develop digital competencies, primarily through offering fellowships for project development. The fellowship/project model, still prevalent in today’s centers, originally was based on the widespread model that humanities centers used so successfully: fellows received a year off from teaching to work on a book project, in return for which they would be resident at the center.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">As transferred to DH centers, especially the University of Virginia’s Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities (IATH) in the early 1990s, the ‘fellows model’ was extraordinarily successful and influential. It served well to meet the needs of a historical moment in which the great majority of humanists were uninterested at best and suspicious at worst of digital scholarship. We are now in quite a different moment, when there is widespread interest among humanities faculty and students in developing digital competencies. The fellowship model now constitutes an over-investment in the few at the expense of the many. Rather than developing digital competencies in faculty fellows, it has often resulted in faculty relying almost completely on the competencies of center staff without developing any new ones of their own. This, in turn, leads to all sorts of problems in the life of the project once a fellowship period has ended. I will turn to our experience at the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities (MITH) to argue that DH centers need to think beyond the ‘fellow’ and the ‘project’ as the best means for developing these competencies, discussing our DH Incubator program as one means of doing so.</p>
            <p rend=""heading 3"">
                <anchor xml:id=""h.coca2gglmdte""/>3. Building Digital Archive Systems for Scholarly Use 
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Hsiang, J. </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">National Taiwan University</p>
            <p>In 2007, computer scientists founded National Taiwan University’s Research Center for Digital Humanities (RCDH). RCDH focuses on creating archives of Chinese language materials (which pose research challenges) as well as building the system methodology and tools for scholarly use of digital archives. This differs from the model where a humanist brings her problem and data to a DH center and develops solutions with technologists.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Our emphasis on system design grew out of observing humanities scholars’ frustration in using digital archive systems, which are based on the conventional precision/recall model. Since historical research can be construed as a study of contexts, a digital archive system for historians should provide an environment for exploring relationships as well as retrieving documents.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Developing such a methodology required understanding how historians use a digital system. We built a digital archive, observed how historians used it, and developed new features based on their feedback. After two years of iteration, we revised the Taiwan History Digital Library to their liking. Through this process, we developed a new methodology: digital archive systems with context discovery. Using this methodology, we have built 33 digital archive systems that host about 4 million metadata records, 30 million images, and 400 million Chinese words, as well as over 20 tools designed for specific collections. They are widely used by historians working with Chinese materials.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">We view a good scholarly digital archive system as an ongoing, close collaboration among system builders, domain experts (in our case, historians and anthropologists), and data curators. RCDH draws its staff mainly from the fields of computer science, library science, geology, history, and anthropology. The ability to work with people from different disciplines is our top priority. We also conduct workshops and provide scholarships to attract young scholars to use our systems and provide feedback. </p>
            <p rend=""heading 3"">4. Reflections toward Building Collaborative, Methods-Centred Community in the Digital Humanities </p>
            <p>Siemens, R. </p>
            <p>University of Victoria</p>
            <p>Discussion around establishing the Electronic Textual Cultures Lab (ETCL) at the University of Victoria, before I took up its Canada Research Chair in Humanities Computing in 2004, pointed in several directions. One was that U Victoria already had a small research computing support unit. Another was that the fellows model of IATH, MITH, King’s College London, and elsewhere was demonstrating success in building champions of a digital approach to humanities teaching and research as well as internationally significant research interventions. Further, the field was starting to reap considerable benefit from the early investment made by groups at Toronto, Princeton, Oxford, and elsewhere in training institutes, instilling computational skills in local constituents and enabling those from elsewhere to participate. In the context of such considerations, the most important decision we made in establishing ETCL was to view the end of what we were doing not so much as a creating a physical entity as creating something viewed in terms of its function and facilitative potential—including, but beyond, any single physical space.</p>
            <p>From that focus away from a physical/institutional imprint flowed many other decisions that have shaped the growth of digital humanities at the University of Victoria. The extant support group continued providing local humanities-specific support, at the same time as ETCL assumed a broader mandate across teaching, research, and service activities, with cross-disciplinary local, regional, national, and international impact understood. Further, the Digital Humanities Summer Institute (DHSI) was embraced locally not only as a venue for on-site training but also as an international meeting point for understanding DH-pertinent tools, techniques, and technologies; our undergraduate minor in DH, joint with computer science, builds on this, as does our recent DHSI-based graduate certificate in DH, offered in partnership with the DH Training Network and beyond. So, too, with projects such as Implementing New Knowledge Environments, a network of researchers at over 20 institutions working with a similar number of invested research partners—having a centre in ETCL, but ultimately comprising spaces across the larger research community. This approach also facilitated embracing more than one physical locus for community- and practice-based work, the most significant being the MakerLab and the shared sense of enterprise between it and ETCL.</p>
            <p>My contribution will focus on these elements, and this approach, toward building collaborative, methods-centred community in the digital humanities.</p>
            <p rend=""heading 3"">5. Digital Humanities Center of Wuhan University </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Ma, F. </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Wuhan University</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The Digital Humanities Center of Wuhan University (DHWU) focuses on knowledge service, knowledge networking, semantic technologies for cultural resources, ontology, semantic publishing, information retrieval, etc. DHWU researchers come from diverse disciplines, including library and information science, computer science, natural language processing, GIS, literature, and art. Most have rich experience in interdisciplinary research. As a virtual research center, DHWU plays a key role in scientific communication. To strengthen researchers’ academic abilities, DHWU holds workshops and seminars in which they can share research achievements and collaboration experience, inspire new ideas, and establish partnerships. </p>
            <p rend=""heading 3"">6. Digital Humanities as an Academic Department</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Spence, P.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">King’s College London</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Digital humanities has a long tradition at King’s College London, but its evolution from a service centre to a research active unit was formalized in 2001–2002 when it was granted status as an academic department (DDH) within what is now a Faculty of Arts &amp; Humanities. Over the years, DDH has lived through many debates about the best model to facilitate innovative but sustainable engagement between the humanities and digital culture, and the result has been a unit that corresponds more closely to the makeup of sister departments within the Faculty. This includes a stronger emphasis on teaching (DDH operates or co-manages four MA programmes, a PhD programme, and is now launching an undergraduate programme in digital culture), in addition to its historic strengths in performing funded research. This greater diversification has strengthened the department but has also presented challenges in career development, academic progression, and credit. I will explore the opportunities and tensions in the formal academic departmental model from a DH perspective, focusing on how growth can be driven by arts and humanities students’ increasing appetite for a close engagement with digital technology, which is theoretically grounded but also provides hands-on experience, and how this in turns influences the academic fabric necessary to sustain it.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">Russell, I. G. (2014). Geographical and Linguistic Diversity in the Digital Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing, </hi>28 March, doi:10.1093/llc/fqu005.
                    </bibl>
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"2266","16","Gradient-domain Noise for Realistic Degradations in Historical Documents Images","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Seuret</surname>
                        <forename>Mathias</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Fribourg, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>mathias.seuret@unifr.ch</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Eichenberger</surname>
                        <forename>Nicole</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Fribourg, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>nicole.eichenberger@unifr.ch</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Liwicki</surname>
                        <forename>Marcus</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Fribourg, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>marcus.eichenberger-liwicki@unifr.ch</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ingold</surname>
                        <forename>Rolf</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Fribourg, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>rolf.ingold@unifr.ch</email>
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                    <term>historical document image processing</term>
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                    <term>image processing</term>
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            <p>We developed a novel method for adding realistic degradations to color document images in order to generate large sets of training data for computational processing. We extract and process patches of real noise from degraded documents and paste them into the target document image using the gradient domain in order to achieve independence from the hue of the document. We will describe the novel algorithm and present an expert’s opinion on the data generated.</p>
            <p>* * *</p>
            <p>Historical documents suffer from different kinds of damages during their conservation, caused by either constant use (e.g., stains, fingermarks, ink strokes or spots, scratches, degradation of ink by abrasion), by inappropriate storage conditions (such as mildew caused by humidity), by historical catastrophes like wars, or by the material itself (such as ink corrosion). These damages can affect the readability of the manuscripts and also pose a severe challenge for digital processing of such documents.</p>
            <p>Developing robust digital processing algorithms requires machine learning, which relies on huge amounts of realistic training data, i.e., large sets of document images together with their corresponding ground truth (which refers to the expected labeling of the document). The high cost of ground-truthing limits the number of available training and testing documents. This motivates the development of methods that artificially add noise to existing ground-truthed documents in order to increase the number of available training documents.</p>
            <p>Fischer et al. (2013) presented a method to generate training samples by deforming binarized text lines. They showed that the accuracy of text recognition could be increased by up to 3.23% by their method.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""11.297708333333333cm"" height=""5.662083333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
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            <p>Figure 1. An document image sample (left) and its degraded version (right).</p>
            <p>Kieu et al. (2012) have presented a local noise generation method for historical document gray-scale images. They evaluated their method with optical characters recognition (OCR) software and found a linear relation between the quantity of the noise and the recognition error rate. Several other methods have been developed, but they all work either on the red, green, and blue values of images, or on binary (black-and-white) images.</p>
            <p>Methodology</p>
            <p>The main novelty of our method is, contrary to previous work, to work in the gradient domain of color images, i.e., using the difference of values between pixels, and to use patches of real degradations from existing document images.</p>
            <p>To insert degradation patches in the gradient domain, we first compute the gradients of the document image and of the degradation patches, then paste the gradients of the degradations on the gradients of the document image, and finally reconstruct the document image from its modified gradients. This method is illustrated in Figure 1. Working in the RGB color space would lead to inconsistencies if the document from which we extracted the degradations does not have a very similar background color as our target document image. Working in the gradient domain to avoid this is the main novelty of our method.</p>
            <p>Our method is inspired by the Poisson image editing method presented by Pérez et al. (2003). First, we compute the horizontal and vertical gradients of the image. Then we apply the degradations on these gradients. Finally, we construct the result image from the modified gradients.</p>
            <p>Scholar’s Point of View</p>
            <p>From a manuscript scholar’s point of view, the method for adding synthetic noise presents advantages and disadvantages regarding its verisimilitude. One advantage is that the inserted patches are based on real degradations appearing in historical documents; thus, they represent realistic historical degradations. This method provides a rather realistic impression for small-sized details of a manuscript page. However, the overall impression of an entire page looks less realistic, because the degradation patches are spread repeatedly, following a uniform random distribution over the page, and can easily be recognized as artificially added. Thus, the gradient method is appropriate for simulating degradations such as stains, scratches, and ink spots, which mostly overlap the script or the background, but doesn’t have a direct impact on the script (as, for example, abrasion and humidity do). It works best on small-scale details.</p>
            <p>Discussion</p>
            <p>Our method can be used to generate document images to train machine learning algorithms. The settings of the software that we developed are easy to manipulate by non–computer scientists. However, precautions have to be taken in order to clarify that the resulting degraded documents do not represent the actual state of the real historical document. As future work, we will compute statistics about the position of the degradations while extracting patches in order to generate more realistic distribution models.</p>
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                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Fischer</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">,</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)""> A., </hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Visani</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">,</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)""> M., </hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Kieu</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">, </hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">C. V. </hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">and </hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Suen</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">,</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)""> C. Y.</hi>
                        </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">(2013). Generation of Learning Samples for Historical Handwriting Recognition Using Image Degradation. In </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on Historical Document Imaging and Processing</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">, pp. 73–79.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Kieu</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">, </hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">C. V., </hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Visani</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">,</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)""> M., </hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Journet</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">, N., </hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Domenger</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)""> J.-P.</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">and</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Mullot</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">,</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)""> R.</hi>
                        </hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space"">
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)""> </hi>
                        </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">(2012). A Character Degradation Model for Grayscale Ancient Document Images. In </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">21st International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR),</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)""> pp. 685–88.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pérez, P., Gangnet, M. and Blake, A.</hi> (2003). Poisson Image Editing. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG),</hi> pp. 313–18.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2267","16","Grove - Creating An Ecology of Flows","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <affiliation>UWS, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>kate.richards@uws.edu.au</email>
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            <p>Media artists are increasingly concerned with creating intense audience experiences or immersive works that are opportunities for participants to engage with spaces, mobility, and embodiment. This research paper asks what it is to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">move</hi> audiences in mediated environments and offers understandings and insights into creating media art for audiences now attenuated to intense embodied experience in everyday life. Along with illustration of a practice-led component—an installation called 
                <hi rend=""italic"">grove</hi>—this research paper provides an emphasis on different key concepts for analysis of current and future media art installations. Through the artwork 
                <hi rend=""italic"">grove</hi> and by analysis of other exemplars, the research argues for a schematic sequence by which a participant can engage with an ecology. 
            </p>
            <p>Specifically the research argues for the centrality of movement in perception and in participant engagement in mediated environments by drawing on current and attenuated theories of affordance and affect. It explains how we perceive 
                <hi rend=""italic"">through</hi> movement—that is, difference and change—in always changeful environments that can be understood as ecologies, comprising flows of information that afford us stimulation across multiple modalities. Movement is core to triggering affects, the precursors to feelings, actions, and cognitions. This research paper hypothesises that to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">move</hi> an audience in media art installations is to afford them opportunities for affective actions and reactions in a dynamic environment with which they are one—in short, an ecology. Over time, ‘moving’ experiences become significant events, accumulating and predisposing us to similar responses. 
            </p>
            <p>The hypothesis was explored in the creation of a major work called 
                <hi rend=""italic"">grove</hi>, a 10m x 10m installation comprising a dynamic light array in the form of a grove of moving, programmed lights, set in a moat of reflective darkness. Documentation of the installation will be used in the paper. The grove itself is animated by the moving lights in a 25-minute sequence that engages light with light, exploring their characters, diameters, effects, and colour, and which also plays on the grove’s terrain molded from black rubber crumb, criss-crossed by paths of glittery salt. The choreography of light-as-media is rhythmic and gently changeful, exploring the inherent materiality of light, its ‘faktura’—reflectivity, transparency, colour, volume—and their 
                <hi rend=""italic"">others</hi>: absorption, opacity, and void. Like all groves, the installation space is literally and metaphorically animated and made sacred by light. 
            </p>
            <p>The installation aimed to provide audiences with an immersive and contemplative space of refuge from the urban hubbub. Accordingly, it drew on minimalist aesthetics. Light is the medium; its materiality and variables provide the means to animate it. There is no content per se, other than the signification of the metaphor of the grove. By eschewing content and ostensible interactivity and with its minimalist palette (of light and its antonym, darkness), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">grove</hi> invites visitors into a quiet ecology in which to dwell and be immersed in these core registers of visual and spatial perception: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">grove</hi> affords audiences a sense of interiority. 
            </p>
            <p>The research demonstrates how 
                <hi rend=""italic"">grove</hi> and other media arts installations can be analysed and interpreted as heterotopia—bounded spaces where time, inclusion, and sense of place are altered. The research argues that heterotopia provides a historic and cultural framework for understanding the capacity for changed relations within 
                <hi rend=""italic"">and</hi> between audiences. By drawing on contemporary theories of heterotopia as sites of flow, this research provides a nuanced argument for media arts installations as ecologies of flows of opportunities for perception, and embodied and affective engagement. In short, this practice-led research hypothesises that to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">move</hi> an audience is to afford them affective responses in an ecology of flows with the audience as interdependent participants in that system, integrated across various sensory modalities and physiological scales. The research also explores the rich cultural metaphor and metonymy of the grove, a bounded yet semi-permeable space full of potential aesthetic delights—an archetypal soft architecture that draws one in and offers a reflection space of high cultural value.
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Gorbachev</surname>
                        <forename>Oleg</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Ural Federal University, Russian Federation</affiliation>
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                    <term>historical demography</term>
                    <term>databases</term>
                    <term>census data</term>
                    <term>Urals in 18-20 c</term>
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                    <term>databases &amp; dbms</term>
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            <p>New computer technologies are rapidly changing the information base of historical research. The most significant progress is observed in historical demography. International projects aimed at creating the Big Data Base (IPUMS-USA, NAPP, Mosaic, Viennese Database on European Family History Church books, Demographic Database Umeå, and others) help establish a new research paradigm that eliminates the national boundaries of research practices and allows conduct of cross-national analysis of family history, birth and mortality rates, nuptiality, and migrations. Accessibility of the Big Data Base, its flexible interface, different modes of search, sampling, and data processing enable researchers to model their own resource with regard to the aims and targets of a specific research project. As a result, not only the information environment of Russian science changes dramatically, but also its methodology and research technologies. </p>
            <p>The first experience of creating databases containing mass historical data goes back to the early 1980s. The process was enhanced by the establishment of Association ‘History and Computer’, founded in 1992. The most interesting results were achieved in the sphere of historical demography. In the 1990s–2000s the following large-scale projects were realized: in St. Petersburg State University, a group of historians supervised by Prof. S. G. Kashenko built up a database drawing on the register books of Olonets 
                <hi rend=""italic"">guberniya</hi> of the 18th to early 20th centuries. Somewhat later, the same source was used by historians led by Prof. V. V. Kanishev, from Tambov State Technical University. Census records (
                <hi rend=""italic"">revizskie skazky</hi>) and census records of homesteads (
                <hi rend=""italic"">podvornye opisi</hi>) became the object for modelling databases for several 
                <hi rend=""italic"">uezds</hi> of Penza 
                <hi rend=""italic"">guberniya</hi> in the 18th and 19th centuries (Research of Historical Demography of the Russian Empire, 2013). Another centre for creating historical demographic databases was Altai State University. This is where the remaining records of the first general Russian population census of 1897 were found. They were used as a foundation for a database that was further expanded by adding the data of parish records. 
            </p>
            <p>Therefore, several regional centres gave rise to a new trend in historical demography that can be called ‘Digital Historical Demography’. The peculiar feature of this trend is that digital resources are based on primary historical sources. All projects were focused on specific locations—that is, they researched specific settlements, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">uezds</hi> of Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries. Since the databases were developed for specific research projects, they were not made widely accessible to historians, except for the information and reference system created under the supervision of Prof. V. N. Vladimirov. It was called Historical Occupation Studies and included the database Population of Barnaul in the 19th to Early 20th Centuries, based on register books, consolidated records of the first general Russian population census of 1897, and other large-scale resources. Among the most interesting recent projects is Database of Demographic Indices in the Regions of Russia and Other Countries, which has been developed by the National Research University Higher School of Economics since 2011. 
            </p>
            <p>In 2014 the research laboratory International Centre of Demographic Studies of Ural Federal University started developing its network resource, Ural Historical Digital Archive. The project’s main target is to create a multipurpose digital resource, based on archival materials. The resource is to take the form of a database and full-text selection of digitized library and archival documents, maps, photographs, and image documents (e-archive) on regional history. The first stage (2014–2015) includes building up the following databases: (1) based on register books of several parishes in Ekaterinburg Diocese of 1800–1918; (2) based on All-Russia Census of Members of the Russian Communist Party of 1922–1924; (3) database All-Soviet Census of 1959, Sverdlovsk Region; (4) database Population of Cities and Rural Settlements of the Middle Urals in the 19th to 21s Centuries; and (5) database Subpolar Census of 1926/27. At the next stage (2016–2017) it is planned to extend the archive by digitizing and providing archeographic description of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">revizskie skazky</hi> of Perm 
                <hi rend=""italic"">guberniya</hi>—census records of homesteads and books. 
            </p>
            <p>The project developers have chosen to abide to the following principles: </p>
            <p> 1. Orientation towards primary large-scale historical sources (population census records, register books, and others), containing personal information.</p>
            <p> 2. All-inclusive coverage of all existing documents and records.</p>
            <p> 3. Application of the data format that provides storage, import, and integration of diverse resources and their collective use</p>
            <p> 4. Openness and accessibility of the resource for the international academic community. </p>
            <p>Taking into account the fact that the documents stored in Russian archives—for example, original census report forms—can be incomplete and fragmentary, it is necessary to formalize and digitize all the preserved diverse document complexes on the Ural history of the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries. </p>
            <p>As practice shows, it is possible to overcome scientific isolation of researchers spread across the world. Historian-demographers from a number of countries have been successfully realizing the European Historical Population Samples Network (EHPS-Net) project, aimed at developing general-format Intermediate Data Structure (IDS) for over 20 demographic databases. If the Ural Historical Digital Archive gets included into the EHPS-Net environment, it will become possible to compare the Russian demographic processes with European and world ones, and determine their peculiarities and future prospects. Integration with the IDS will enable Russian researchers to study the natural population change as well as distinctive features of ethno-confessional communities.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Research of Historical Demography of the Russian Empire at the Department of Source Studies of Russian History, St. Petersburg State University.</hi> (2013). Newsletter of Association ‘History and Computer’, no. 41 (December): 137–41.
                    </bibl>
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"2269","16","How about Tools for the whole range of scholarly activities?","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Bradley</surname>
                        <forename>John</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Department of Digital Humanities, King's College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
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            <p>The production of digital tools and the debate about how they fit with the humanities has a long history. Much of it has the character of frustration. Many digital tools have been built, but almost all them have had little or no effect upon the humanities as a whole. This has been a theme of mine for many years (see Bradley 2005; 2009), but the phenomenon has certainly been noted by many others. Edwards reports that Martin Mueller conducted a distant reading of the titles of monographs and articles in scholarly journals to measure mainstream interest in what he terms ‘literary informatics’ and concluded that it remains a niche activity with ‘virtually no impact on major disciplinary trends’ (Edwards, 2012, 216). The 2005 Summit on Digital Tools at the University of Virginia reports, ‘Only about six percent of humanist scholars go beyond general purpose information technology and use digital resources and more complex digital tools in their scholarship’, and I suspect that no one thinks that the number is much higher today. More recently, in an article titled ‘Building Better Digital Humanities Tools,’ Gibbs and Owens note that ‘despite significant investments in the development of digital humanities tools, the use of these tools has remained a fringe element in humanities scholarship’ (Gibbs and Owens, 2012, abstract). </p>
            <p>Gibbs and Owen present a User Experience (UX) perspective drawn largely from interviews of humanist scholars, and tool builders will definitely benefit from many of the observations that they make. However, I believe that the challenge is more fundamental than trying to find out what potential users say they want. If we are looking for a sea change in humanities scholarship driven by the uptake of our tools, we should, instead, remember two innovators who both achieved one through their innovations and who understood the limitations of the UX user-oriented perspective. Henry Ford is reputed to have said, ‘If I had asked people what they wanted, they would have said faster horses’, and Steve Jobs claimed, ‘It’s really hard to design products by focus groups. A lot of times, people don’t know what they want until you show it to them’ (Ott, 2013). Perhaps a perspective on why digital tools for humanists are not being taken up needs to go outside of a set of (albeit valuable) UX observations.</p>
            <p>So, if the UX perspective is not the whole story, what else is there? Here I take a different approach, centered on the way many DH toolmakers think of the word ‘tool’, and attempt to broaden this idea of tool to fit it better with more of what goes on in the humanities, and therefore to make digital tools more influential there. My contention is that we need a more fundamental rethinking of tools and their function.</p>
            <p>I start with Ramsay and Rockwell’s observation that ‘Digital artifacts like tools could . . . be considered as “telescopes for the mind” that show us something in a new light’ (Ramsay and Rockwell, 2012, 79). The striking thing about this metaphor is that it draws parallels with a particular kind of tool—the scientific instrument. One way of seeing the assumptions that come loaded with this categorization is to look into the history of the conception of the telescope itself as a tool within science: something Malet (2005) reviews in his discussion of the early conceptualisation of telescopes in the 16th and 17th centuries. As a tool for ‘knowing’ and ‘discovery’—as something that revealed problems rather than solving them, opening discussions rather than closing them (238)—Malet claims that it became evident that, like this kind of humanities-oriented digital tool, the telescope needed to find a theoretical basis for what it did. Malet tells us of the evolution of this thinking over the 16th and 17th centuries—beginning with a view of the telescope as being essentially theoretically transparent: first as a kind of intimate extension of the eye (Malet, 2005, 245) or a kind of prosthesis for human vision (260) but eventually, starting with Kepler, to see the need for a theoretical basis that drew on optics and perspective, as to why materials seen through the telescope could be taken to have veracity (261). Of particular relevance to us is that Malet makes evident the separation of a theoretical basis for the telescope (drawn from optics and perspective) from a theoretical basis for what it revealed (such as the moons around Jupiter, or the lunar craters).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> How did these two very different research domains successfully connect with the telescope? DH toolmakers need a similar discussion: How does the theoretical basis of text analysis tools actually successfully connect and enrich discussions in the very different theoretical world of modern literary criticism?
            </p>
            <p> Although viewing humanities digital tools as analogues of scientific instruments is one paradigm, there are others, and we see alternatives in James Feibleman’s (1967) classification scheme for (nondigital) tools. The closest category he has to Malet’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">tools for knowing</hi> is his ‘tools for receptors’: the class of tools that ‘like spectacles, telescopes and vibrating membranes[,] extend the receptors’ in humans, allowing us to observe things that otherwise we cannot, or only with difficulty, experience. But Feibleman reminds us that there is a more familiar use of the word 
                <hi rend=""italic"">tool</hi> than this—tools like spades or bicycles that ‘extend the effectors’, the parts of humans that allow us to make things, things like holes in the ground or trips to the grocery store (Feibleman, 1967, 330). These kind of tools in fact fit more naturally with the more conventional use of the word 
                <hi rend=""italic"">tool</hi>, as is implied with ‘woodworking tools’ or ‘gardening tools’. Once this is noticed, we can see, perhaps, that Steve Jobs’ early classification of computers as ‘bicycles for the mind’ (see Popova, 2011) involves a very different sense of the potential of digital tools than we find in Ramsay and Rockwell’s seemingly parallel phrase ‘telescopes for the mind’. 
            </p>
            <p>The DH has had a significant history of tool making of this kind, too. One thinks of TuStep (2014) (for the making of sophisticated academic publications), for example, and Zotero (for the making of bibliographies), and we can see in the significant uptake of Zotero that the right tool, solving the right problem, can have a significant impact. The consideration of this kind of tool opens up a different perspective on issues, including on questions such as the UX’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ease of use</hi>. Are woodworking tools, or a good violin, ‘easy to use’? Do they produce results easily? If not, why is this 
                <hi rend=""italic"">not </hi>a reason that they have failed to find a user community? In fact, these tools help us to better understand the place of expertise in tool use, and its significance in the process of producing, in the hands of a master, good things from tools—an idea one can see in TuStep as well.
            </p>
            <p>A third category of tools that brings significant relevant insights is ‘tools for cognition’—tools that are meant to help us think better. An extended and useful description of the idea of cognitive tools (although for the related field of tools to facilitate learning) appears in Kim and Reeves (2007), and they, in turn, make frequent reference to the idea of cognitive tools from its original definition by Netchine-Grynberg (1995). Tools for cognition are interesting because they combine characteristics of both Feibleman’s tools for receptors and effectors in potentially powerful ways. Whereas tools for effectors allow us to better execute ideas we already have in our head to produce something external to it, and tools for receptors take things outside our heads and put new ideas in our heads, tools for cognition—because the product they produce are ideas in our heads, too—form a kind of positive feedback loop, perhaps of the kind characterised by Jerome McGann as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">autopoietic</hi> systems (McGann, 2004, 200).
            </p>
            <p>Kim and Reeves use mathematical notation as an example of a tool for cognition. Mathematical notation not only serves to communicate ideas (tool for effectors), but is used by the person working on a problem to help him or her struggle with his or her research: scientists put mathematical fragments in their notebooks to help them think. Perhaps mathematics is not the right tool for humanities scholarship, but scholarly writing can act as a tool for cognition, too: many scholars write notes for this same purpose. Indeed, my Pliny environment (Bradley, 2008) is meant to explore how a tool to support the writing of fragments, as scholarly notes, might help humanities research.</p>
            <p>Scholarship in the humanities involves an interconnection of tasks that could benefit from both Feibleman’s tools for receptors and effectors, and in the task of working with the materials, involving cogitative work that tools for cognition could support. Perhaps a discussion that engages with these three kind of activities might move us better to understanding where digital tools could fit with the humanities?</p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. For various reasons, this issue is even more evident in the history of the microscope. See Hacking (1981).</p>
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        <back>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bradley, J.</hi> (2005). What You (Fore)See Is What You Get: Thinking about Usage Paradigms for Computer Assisted Text Analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text Technology,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>(2): 1–19, http://texttechnology.mcmaster.ca/pdf/vol14_2/bradley14-2.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bradley, J.</hi> (2008). Pliny: A Model for Digital Support of Scholarship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Information,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(1 [26])
                        <hi rend=""italic"">, </hi>http://journals.tdl.org/jodi/article/view/209/198.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bradley, J.</hi> (2009). What the Developer Saw: An Outsider’s View of Annotation, Interpretation and Scholarship. In Siemens R. and Shawver, G. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Paths for Computing Humanists: A Volume Celebrating and Recognizing Ian Lancashire</hi>. Digital Studies / Le champ numérique, 1(1) (13 May), http://www.digitalstudies.org/ojs/index.php/digital_studies/article/view/143/202.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Edwards, C.</hi> (2012). The Digital Humanities and Its Users. In Matthew, G. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 213–32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Feibleman, J. K.</hi> (1967). The Philosophy of Tools. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social Forces, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">45</hi>(3) (March): 329–37, DOI:10.2307/2575191, http://www.jstor.org/stable/257519.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gibbs, F. and Owens, T.</hi> (2012). Building Better Digital Humanities Tools: Toward Broader Audiences and User-Centered Designs. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">6(</hi>2), http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/6/2/000136/000136.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hacking, I.</hi> (1981). Do We See through a Microscope? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pacific Philosophical Quarterly,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">62</hi>: 305–22.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kim, B. and Reeves, T.</hi> (2007). Reframing Research on Learning with Technology: In Search of the Meaning of Cognitive Tools. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Instructional Science,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">35</hi>: 207–56, DOI:10.1007/s11251-006-9005-2.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Malet, A.</hi> (2005). Early Conceptualizations of the Telescope as an Optical Instrument. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Early Science and Medicine,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(2): 237–62, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4130312.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McGann, J.</hi> (2004). Marking Texts of Many Dimension. In Schreibman, S., Siemens, R. and Unsworth, J. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Humanities</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 198–217.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Netchine-Grynberg, G.</hi> (1995). The Functionality of Cognition According to Cassirer, Meyerson, Vygotsky, and Wallon: Toward the Roots of the Concept of Cognitive Tool’. In Lubek, I., Hezewijkvan, R., Pheterson, G. and Tolman, C. W. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Trends and Issues in Theoretical Psychology</hi>. New York: Springer, pp. 207–13.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ott, G. C.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Why Steve Jobs Didn’t Listen to His Customers</hi>. http://www.helpscout.net/blog/why-steve-jobs-never-listened-to-his-customers/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Popova, M.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Steve Jobs on Why Computers Are Like a Bicycle for the Mind</hi>. Brain Pickings, http://www.brainpickings.org/2011/12/21/steve-jobs-bicycle-for-the-mind-1990/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S. and Rockwell, G.</hi> (2012). Developing Things: Notes toward an Epistemology of Building in the Digital Humanities. In Gold, M. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 75–84.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Summit.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Summit on Digital Tools for the Humanities: A Report on the Summit on Digital Tools</hi>. University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 28–30 September 2005.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">TuStep.</hi> (2014). TuStep Text Processing Tools. http://www.tustep.uni-tuebingen.de/tustep_eng.html.
                    </bibl>
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                        <forename>Janelle Auriol</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Victoria, Canada</affiliation>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>McLean-Fiander</surname>
                        <forename>Kim</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Victoria, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>krdmf@uvic.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Newton</surname>
                        <forename>Greg</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Victoria, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>gregster@uvic.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Holmes</surname>
                        <forename>Martin</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Victoria, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>mholmes@uvic.ca</email>
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                    <term>graphics</term>
                    <term>collation</term>
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                    <term>encoding - theory and practice</term>
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            <p>To document unprecedented editorial interventions to a map, we adapted for graphical editing the existing TEI mechanisms for handling textual-critical apparatus. The historical map underlying The Map of Early Modern London was originally printed in seven sheets that cannot be cleanly joined because of differences of scale and missing information. To create a coherent and navigable graphical user interface for georeferenced data, we skewed, resized, and shifted the sheets, and interpolated new conjectural material. To document our emendations and interpolations, we treat each graphic witness and reconstruction as a TEI &lt;surface&gt; element linked to a &lt;witness&gt; in &lt;listWit&gt;. We use the &lt;zone&gt; element to identify areas, then create an apparatus based on these definitions, treating the idealized map as the lemma, and the other related &lt;surface&gt;s and &lt;zone&gt;s as readings. We use custom values for the intervention @type, @resp for persons/roles responsible, and @source to document supporting evidence. </p>
            <p>Background</p>
            <p>Most GIS projects use maps to display georeferenced data. Theoretically, any georeferenced surface will suffice, with the latitude and longitude coordinates serving to pin the data to the surface, but historical GIS projects sometimes wrestle with a historical map or map-like object. Locating London’s Past
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> has georeferenced and georectified
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> the Rocque map of London to display data from 1660 to 1800. The Map of Early Modern London (MoEML)
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> is a literary GIS project that takes an even earlier map-like object as the site’s main interface.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> The Agas Map of 1560s London, a hybrid genre combining plan, bird’s-eye view, and landscape, does not lend itself well to georeferencing and georectification and is in many ways an inconvenient surface for displaying data, historical or literary. However, when MoEML took shape in 1999 as an early experiment in digital humanities, the goal was to mark up a digital surface and identify all its features—a procedure very much like annotating a text. As the project has matured, we have come to conceive of the Agas Map not just as one of a number of graphical user interfaces (GUI) that permit exploration and visualization of MoEML gazetteer data but also as an editable text in its own right. 
            </p>
            <p>These two treatments of the map demand the coherence and navigability that make a GUI an effective skin for data,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> and the application of the rigorous editorial principles and practices that inform MoEML diplomatic transcriptions and editions. We conceive of our structured composite of map witnesses as an ‘edition’. This edition includes our ‘copytext’ in the form of the 2013 digital scans we took as our starting point, as well as a reconstructed ‘reading text’ that meets the criteria of coherence and navigability. Users can compare the two ‘texts’ to see where they differ, but we also plan to document all emendations to the copytext, which include skewing, resizing, shifting, and most importantly, interpolating new material drawn by a graphic artist based on our historical research. In textual critical terms, we aim to produce a thorough textual apparatus documenting our editorial process. As a Text Encoding Initiative project, MoEML records editorial emendations using TEI markup. The TEI Guidelines provide mechanisms for handling critical apparatus in textual work.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> We have repurposed those mechanisms for graphical editing in order to document our textual interventions to a map. 
            </p>
            <p>The Map</p>
            <p>Creating a single unified Agas Map ‘surface’ for MoEML was a multi-step process. For copytexts, we had imperfect textual witnesses and surrogates (print and digital) of those witnesses. First printed in ca. 1561, the Agas Map of Tudor London survives in three 1633 copies of an altered Jacobean version: one in the London Metropolitan Archives (LMA); one at the National Archives, Kew; and one at the Pepys Library, Cambridge. We gain a possible glimpse of the earlier Tudor map through an unreliable 18th-century witness, George Vertue’s 1737 pewter-plate version that shows houses where the 1633 witnesses depict the Royal Exchange (opened in 1571), and the Elizabethan arms instead of the later Stuart arms. In 1905 the London Topographical Society (LTS) used the LMA witness to create new lithographs of seven true-to-size sheets. Around 1981, in association with the Guildhall Library, publisher Harry Margary reproduced facsimiles of the LTS sheets.</p>
            <p>Because the LTS and LMA maps were originally printed in seven sheets, any attempt to produce a single map requires stitching. We have stitched together freshly scanned (in 2013) hi-res images of the Margary sheets. These sheets, like their LTS and LMA predecessors, do not match along their edges. Previous attempts to stitch the sheets together, including our own 2006 stitching, have normally involved simply joining sheets along their edges. This practice produces a number of jarring and confusing areas on the map where streets do not line up, buildings are chopped off in the middle, or whole strips appear to be missing, as in this image of the join running through the Smithfield area (Figure 1). </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""19.27225cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Infelicities along the sheet boundaries.</p>
            <p>The gap makes it difficult to ‘read’ the map in this area. Furthermore, when a site belongs properly in the gap between sheets where data appears to be missing, there is no zone on the surface to which we can point in order to locate the site in London’s topographical space.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi>
            </p>
            <p>We therefore decided to create an ‘idealized text’ of the map. We allowed ourselves to make changes both minor (skewing, stretching, and redrawing sections and lines) and major (adding in significant missing buildings, and filling empty space with plausible content based on historical evidence) to create a new artifact that satisfies the need for a continuously legible surface. This lengthy process involved careful historical research, consultations of other maps, contributions by a graphic artist, and many hours of altering lines on the computer. The result is shown in Figure 2 below.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""6.4311388888888885cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Idealized reconstruction of the Agas Map showing repaired join in the Smithfield area.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Documenting Our Editorial Interventions</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Such substantive interventions must be carefully documented. First, we must be able to identify source documents (witnesses). TEI P5 provides straightforward mechanisms for identification of witnesses. Each distinct object (each Margary sheet, each historical map, each fragment created by the graphic artist, and our complete idealized reconstruction) can be encoded as a TEI &lt;surface&gt; element, as in TEI Example 1, where each &lt;surface&gt; is identified by a unique @xml:id, given Cartesian coordinates (where the x,y coordinates of the upper-left corner are always 0,0), and associated with a graphic object (a .jpg in these cases).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""16.282458333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>TEI Example 1. TEI elements for a Margary sheet and for the constructed ideal map.</p>
            <p>In one case, a single Margary sheet contains two ‘pages’, the top left piece and the bottom left piece (although they are arranged horizontally). We can deal with this sheet by creating a single &lt;surface&gt; with two &lt;zone&gt;s, as in TEI Example 2, where each &lt;zone&gt; is given a unique @xml:id and defined by its four pairs of x,y coordinates on the &lt;surface&gt;:</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""8.60425cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>TEI Example 2. A single Margary sheet containing two segments of the map.</p>
            <p>Each of these primary &lt;surface&gt;s and &lt;zone&gt;s can be linked to &lt;witness&gt; elements in a witness list. TEI Example 3 shows that each &lt;witness&gt; has a unique @xml:id and a prose description.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""20.81388888888889cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>TEI Example 3. Witness information is linked to &lt;surface&gt;s and &lt;zone&gt;s through the @facs attribute.</p>
            <p>Second, we need to define ‘areas of interest’ on these surfaces, also using &lt;zone&gt; elements in the &lt;surface&gt; element. For each of the other witnesses, we can define a &lt;zone&gt; on the &lt;surface&gt; of the idealized map to which the witness attests, as in TEI Example 4, where we indicate which part of the ideal map corresponds to the witness with the @xml:id of ‘w_margary_top_2’:</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""8.563680555555555cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>TEI Example 4. A &lt;zone&gt; on the idealized map corresponding to a cleaned-up version of one of the Margary sheets.</p>
            <p>We can now create an apparatus based on these definitions, treating the constructed idealized map as the lemma, and the other related surfaces and zones as readings. In TEI Example 5, we use the &lt;lem&gt; and &lt;rdg&gt; elements to link one of the Margary sheets to a &lt;zone&gt; on the idealized map. The @type attribute allows us to declare the relationship between stemma and lemma:</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1007"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""7.930444444444444cm"" url=""Pictures/image7.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>TEI Example 5. An apparatus entry linking one of the Margary sheets to its corresponding &lt;zone&gt; on the idealized map.</p>
            <p>We can now document the interpolation of missing material. In Figure 3, we see that, because of a bad join, much of a significant building, Durham House, is missing.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1008"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""22.714022222222223cm"" url=""Pictures/image8.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Durham House is missing along this join.</p>
            <p>Figure 4, including TEI code, shows the supplied image of Durham House in the idealized map; the people responsible are identified through pointers to &lt;respStmt&gt; elements that identify them and their role in this work (editor, researcher, artist), and several sources supporting the emendation are listed, including a 17th-century floor plan for the building and another map. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1009"" width=""8.6106cm"" height=""22.9616cm"" url=""Pictures/image9.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. The insertion of Durham House, with (simplified) TEI encoding that documents it.</p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>In a literary forum, taking a textual-critical approach to a graphical text is unprecedented. Normally, one would expect to see a lag between developments in textual theory and a Text Encoding Initiative response, since new conceptions of textuality stretch the capacities of the TEI. However, our new model for editing graphical texts uses existing TEI markup to document textual interventions. Our innovative use of the TEI textual apparatus captures in great detail the nature of an editorial change, the person(s) responsible, and the supporting evidence. Our next challenge is to generate the apparatus for collating emendations to this map-like text.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Locating London’s Past: A Geo-Referencing Tool for Mapping Historical and Archaeological Evidence, 1660–1800</hi>. See http://www.history.ac.uk/projects/research/locating-london, and the project itself at
            </p>
            <p>http://www.locatinglondon.org/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. See ‘Mapping Methodology’, http://www.locatinglondon.org/static/MappingMethodology.html.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. Janelle Jenstad, ed., The Map of Early Modern London, mapoflondon.uvic.ca, 2006–present.</p>
            <p>4. See MoEML’s description of the Agas Map at http://mapoflondon.uvic.ca/map.htm.</p>
            <p>5. See JISC Digital Media’s Graphical User Interface Design: Developing Usable and Accessible Collections, at</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">http://www.jiscdigitalmedia.ac.uk/guide/graphical-user-interface-design-developing-usable-and-accessible-collection.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">6. See chapter 12 of the TEI Guidelines, ‘Critical Apparatus’, at 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/TC.html</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>7. The scope of this paper does not allow for detailed discussion of how we encode our location files in order to point locations to specific zones on the Agas Map. We record the correct point, line, or polygon on the Agas Map using facsimile, surface, graphic, and zone elements. See ‘The Facsimile Element’ in Landels et al., ‘Understand MoEML’s Website and Document Structure’, http://mapoflondon.uvic.ca/website_structure.htm#website_structure_location_docs.</p>
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                        <surname>Biddala</surname>
                        <forename>Sandeep Reddy</forename>
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                    <affiliation>International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad (IIIT-H), India</affiliation>
                    <email>biddala.sandeepreddy@gmail.com</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Singh</surname>
                        <forename>Navjyoti</forename>
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                    <affiliation>International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad (IIIT-H), India</affiliation>
                    <email>navjyoti@iiit.ac.in</email>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <term>CinemaScope</term>
                    <term>Hypergraph</term>
                    <term>Cinema</term>
                    <term>Data Model</term>
                    <term>Annotation.</term>
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                    <term>archives</term>
                    <term>repositories</term>
                    <term>sustainability and preservation</term>
                    <term>audio</term>
                    <term>video</term>
                    <term>multimedia</term>
                    <term>film and cinema studies</term>
                    <term>metadata</term>
                    <term>data modeling and architecture including hypothesis-driven modeling</term>
                    <term>ontologies</term>
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            <p>Digital film archives in addition to preserving cinema should also accommodate and provide for the computation of its cinemas by means of the metadata provided to represent the content in them. The provision for the computation of cinema could lead to various applications like semantic search, automatic genre clustering and classification, special visualization tools, and robust comparisons of movies.</p>
            <p>This paper describes a data model for storing the metadata of a film in an archive based on a discrete theory of cinema that has been in development for the past four years based on Indic theories and other theories of drama and film (Muni, 1996). This theory reduces cinema to a hypergraph composed of tags that assume its full form only with collaborative tagging and extensive visual and textual computing. A system called CinemaScope is also being developed based on this data model which uses HypergraphDB as its database and is being designed and developed to be a semiautomated annotation database system.</p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.6pngm6hadp9c""/>Overview of Theory
            </p>
            <p>Cinema is ontologically a three-tier structure:</p>
            <p> 1. Spatio-temporal flow controlled play of light and sound.</p>
            <p> 2. Mere-temporal ‘flow’, which is visually created by a play of 25 fps.</p>
            <p> 3. Trans-temporal content, which is embedded in a ‘flow’.</p>
            <p>Cinema concludes in a thematic unity. Unit of a discrete contiguum of cinema is punctuation. Idea of punctuation is inspired by Leibnizian distinction between ideal point and actual point on the one hand and continuum and discrete contiguum on the other (Leibniz, 2013). Punctuation is a form of an actual point that tells apart two recognizable and non-identical discernible contents. It has a structure &lt;entity1|entity2, relational context&gt; or graphically &lt;node1|node2, edge&gt;. </p>
            <p>There are three classes of punctuations based on the three tiers of ontology of cinema:</p>
            <p> 1. Temporal punctuation. </p>
            <p> 2. Vectorial punctuations between embedded content.</p>
            <p> 3. Mereological punctuations between vectorial contents and the thematic conclusion of cinema.</p>
            <p>This way the form of punctuation constitutes discrete contiguum of cinema, which is computationally reducible to a giant graph that tells truth about cinema as art. </p>
            <p>Ontologically there are categories of discrete content that are embedded in punctuated units of flow like shot and episodes. Some of the categories form the content part of the cinematic narrative (like locale, characters, events, and actions) while the rest (camera work, editing, re-recording) form the expressive part of it (Chatman, 1978). Forces operative on these entities as vector punctuations create kinetics of cinema toward thematic conclusion. The motion in films is through the movement of story or plot from the beginning to the conclusion. Such a motion towards theme is punctuated by points of events and points of considerations. It is through the sequence of events that connection to the theme is established. These events are punctuated with points of considerations. Story can be rendered as sequence of the points of events, and under each event there are several considerations (Dhananjaya, 2004). There are scalars between the sequences of cinema that are merely informative and do not account for the motion of the plot.</p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.jm7whto785mz""/>Overview of Data Model
            </p>
            <p>In Hochin (2006) and Hochin and Tatsuo (2000), a data model called Directed Recursive Hypergraph Data Model (DRHM) has been described in which the content of multimedia is reduced to nodes and edges of a hypergraph. In Radev et al. (1999a; 199b), the structural and behavioral aspects of data that form multimedia information systems have been modelled as a graph-based object-oriented model, and a possible data model for film is shown. These approaches suggest that a graph-based data model for cinema based on the discrete theory of cinema proposed in the previous section would best represent it. Punctuation or point &lt;node | node, edge&gt; can be seen as triple of tags. This will make possible computing of the discrete contiguum of cinema as a graph. Also there are complex relations between the various entities of cinema which is best represented by hyperedges.</p>
            <p>The graph data model should accommodate the various ontological entities and their punctuations, the mereological punctuations as well as the vectors between episodes and the considerations between events. The partial data model for the cinematic hypergraph described is represented in the form of Venn diagram as shown in Figure 1.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""9.246305555555555cm"" height=""7.186083333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.jpg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Venn diagram of cinematic hypergraph—data model.</p>
            <p>Architecture of CinemaScope</p>
            <p>The architecture of the tagging system we propose for CinemaScope is a web-based collaborative one. The annotation schema for the hypergraph data model in theory captures the whole graph. But in practice manual tagging, which is required for the annotating the themes, considerations, meanings, and vectors of cinema, reveals only a sub graph of the original graph. This is because the graph also contains codes and conventions (which are many times dependent on the individual viewer’s perspective) that regulate the narratives and enrich their pure meaning. It is therefore essential that the tagging of the cinema be made social so that most of the graph is captured. The high-level architecture of CinemaScope is given in Figure 2.</p>
            <p>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""13.62075cm"" height=""10.304638888888888cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>.
            </p>
            <p>Figure 2. Basic architecture of CinemaScope.</p>
            <p>Methodology of CinemaScope</p>
            <p>The database for the system is built on both relational database and graph database (HyperGraphDB). The relational database is used to store all the direct information about the cinema, like its cast, basic plot structure, related files (like script and subtitles), and other relevant information. The graph database is used to graph the tags which have a graphical relation between them. HypergraphDB is a graph-based as well as an object-oriented database with a Java-based API that allows objective modelling of all categories of tags. For example, ontological categories are modelled as follows:</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(000088)"">public class</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">OntologicalEntity{</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(000088)"">private</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">String</hi> entityName
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">;</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(880000)"">//Entity Name</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(000088)"">private</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">Map</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">&lt;</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">String</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">,</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">Object</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">&gt;</hi>attributesNameAndType 
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">=</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(000088)"">new</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">HashMap</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">&lt;</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">String</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">,</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">Object</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">&gt;();</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(880000)"">//Contains the attributes with their names and values</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(000088)"">public void</hi> setEntityName
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">(</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">String</hi> entityName
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">){</hi>
            </p>
            <p>//Setting The entity Name</p>
            <p>}</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(000088)"">public</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">String</hi> getEntityName
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">(){</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(000088)"">return</hi> entityName;
            </p>
            <p>}</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(000088)"">public</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">Object</hi> getAttributeValue
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">(</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">String</hi> attribute
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">){</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(000088)"">return</hi> attributesNameAndType
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">.</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(000088)"">get</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">(</hi>attribute
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">);</hi>
            </p>
            <p>}</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(000088)"">public void</hi> fillAttribute
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">(</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">String</hi> value
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">){</hi>
            </p>
            <p>/*Code for filling the attributes*/</p>
            <p>}</p>
            <p>}</p>
            <p>The pre-processing stage involves identification of shots, episodes, and the tagging of basic ontological entities. The pre-processing step cannot be completely automated owing to the limitations of current vision and audio processing algorithms. But this stage of the annotation can be aided with a number of supporting files and techniques. For example, movie screenplays and subtitles that are freely available on the Internet help in giving hints of annotation to the user. Even the processes that are completely automated require manual intervention and editing. There are various shot transition detection methods (Boreczky and Rowe, 1996) along with techniques for identification of camera properties like depth, movement, and angle (Benini et al., 2010). The camera properties identified are dependent on the definitions used in the methods, and they are not completely accurate. The tagging system should provide options for manually editing and supervising the shots and camera properties.</p>
            <p>Film scripts and subtitles aid in the tagging of ontological entities by supplying hints. The script is first aligned with the subtitles for time stamps based on the work of Ronfard and Theung (2003). A basic version of this has been implemented based on the work of Larissa Munishkina et al. (2013). An example hint given by the system for the film 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Ark</hi> is as follows:
            </p>
            <p>E.g. Scene #1 (0:00–2:15)</p>
            <p> Characters: Indiana Jones, Baranaca</p>
            <p> Locale: High Jungle, Peru</p>
            <p> Things: Gun, Idol</p>
            <p> Events: Shooting, Running</p>
            <p>The Collaborative or Social tagging follows the pre-processing step, and it helps in the creation of tags and links in cinema. The user is given the provision of defining the relations, which is made possible by the use of HyperGraphDB. Hertzum et al. (2002) suggests that collaboration of film archives should facilitate different archives in identifying a common ground on which to base a collaborator and in acknowledging the distinctiveness of each archive. The architecture of CinemaScope allows identifying a common ground, in terms of pre-processing tags as well as distinctiveness, by allowing the users of different background to provide interpretations and considerations of the story in terms of vectors, relations, and links (each with a different label).</p>
            <p>The various relations added by the user and the tags obtained from the pre-processing stage build up the graph, which could later be used for various applications like searching. For example, the following code snippet answers semantic queries like ‘Find all the camera properties used when character is holding the whip’:</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">HyperGraph</hi> graph 
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">=</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(000088)"">new</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">HyperGraph</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">(</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">HyperGraphLocation</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">);</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">List</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">&lt;</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">CameraTemporalRelations</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">&gt;</hi> cameras 
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">=</hi> hg
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">.</hi>getAll
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">(</hi>hg
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">.</hi>type
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">(</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">CameraTemporalRelations</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">));</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">List</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">&lt;</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">CharacterThingTemporalRelations</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">&gt;</hi> CTR 
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">=</hi> hg
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">.</hi>getAll
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">(</hi>hg
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">.</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(000088)"">and</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">(</hi>hg
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">.</hi>type
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">(</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(660066)"">CharacterThingTemporalRelations</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">.</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(000088)"">class</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">),</hi> hg
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">.</hi>eq
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">(</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(008800)"">""spatial_relation""</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">,</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(008800)"">""hold""</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">),</hi> hg
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">.</hi>eq
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">(</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(008800)"">""thing_name""</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">,</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(008800)"">""whip""</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(666600)"">)));</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.u2e32glmo8qr""/>Summary
            </p>
            <p>The paper describes the discrete theory of cinema and explains the hypergraph data model of cinema. The paper also describes CinemaScope, a semi-automated web-based collaborative film archive based on the hypergraph data model for annotating the film. This project is different from other movie annotation projects (ANSWER, 2009; Jewell et al., 2005); Lombardo and Damiano, 2010), which fail to capture the flow of cinema and make the computational representation of cinema in a database very descriptive and computationally infeasible.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.51cm"" height=""9.278055555555556cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Prototype of CinemaScope annotation system.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">ANSWER Annual Report.</hi> (2009). http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/ict/content-knowledge/docs/answer-annual-report-2009.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Benini, S., Canini, L. and Leonardi, R.</hi> (2010). Estimating Cinematographic Scene Depth in Movie Shots. Multimedia and Expo (ICME), 2010 IEEE International Conference.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boreczky, J. S. and Rowe, L. A.</hi> (1996). Comparison of Video Shot Boundary Detection. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Electronic Imaging,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>(2) (April): 122–28.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chatman, S.</hi> (1978). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film</hi>. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dhananjaya.</hi> (1100). Dasarupaka, Dr. Keshavrao Musalgaunkar. Hindi Dasarupaka, 2004.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hertzum, M., Pejtersen, A. M., Cleal, B. and Albrechtsen, H.</hi> (2002). An Analysis of Collaboration in Three Film Archives: A Case for Collaboratories. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CoLIS4: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Conceptions of Library and Information Science.</hi> Libraries Unlimited, pp. 69–83.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hochin, T.</hi> (2006). Graph-Based Data Model for the Content Representation of Multimedia Data. Knowledge-Based Intelligent Information and Engineering Systems. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lecture Notes in Computer Science,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">4252</hi> (1182–90).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hochin, T. and Tatsuo T.</hi> (2000). A Directed Recursive Hypergraph Data Model for Representing the Contents of Multimedia Data. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Memoirs of the Faculty of Engineering, Fukui University, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">48</hi>: 343–60.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jewell, M., Lawrence, K., Tuffield, M., Prugel-Bennett, A., Millard, D., Nixon, M. and Shadbolt, N.</hi> (2005). OntoMedia: An Ontology for the Representation of Heterogeneous Media. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of SIGIR Workshop on Multimedia Information Retrieval.</hi> ACM.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Leibniz, G. W.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Labyrinth of the Continuum: Writings on the Continuum Problem 1672–1686</hi>. Translated, edited, and with an introduction by Richard T. W. Arthur. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lombardo, V. and Damiano, R.</hi> (2010). Narrative Annotation and Editing of Video. Interactive Storytelling. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lecture Notes in Computer Science,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">6432</hi>, 62–73.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Muni, B.</hi> (1996 [300 BC]). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Nāṭya śāstra</hi>. With Abhinavagupta’s Commentary; with Hindi Commentary by Dwivedi Parasnath. Sampurnanand Sanskrit Mahavidyalaya, Varanasi.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Munishkina, L., Parrish, J. and Walker, M. A.</hi> (2013). Fully Automatic Interactive Story Design from Film Scripts. Interactive Storytelling. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lecture Notes in Computer Science,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8230</hi>: 229–32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Radev, I., Pissinou, N. and Makki, K.</hi> (1999a). Film Video Modeling. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of IEEE Workshop on Knowledge and Data Engineering Exchange, KDEX 99</hi>, Chicago, IL, November 1999.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Radev, I., Pissinou, N., Makki, K. and Park, E. K. </hi>(1999b). Graph-Based Object-Oriented Approach for Structural and Behavioral Representation of Multimedia Data. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management</hi>, Kansas City, MO, 2–6 November 1999, pp. 522–30.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ronfard, R. and Thuong, T. T.</hi> (2003). A Framework for Aligning and Indexing Movies with Their Script. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of ICME</hi>, Baltimore, MD, 6–9 July 2003.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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"2272","16","Identifying Classical and Written Vernacular Chinese Language: A Statistical Study based on Texts from New Youth Magazine (1915-1922)","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Ho</surname>
                        <forename>Li-hsing</forename>
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                    <affiliation>National Tsing-hua University, Taiwan, Republic of China</affiliation>
                    <email>lillianlhho@gmail.com</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Yue</surname>
                        <forename>Ching-Syang Jack</forename>
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                    <affiliation>National Chengchi University, Taiwan, Republic of China</affiliation>
                    <email>csyue@nccu.edu.tw</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Cheng</surname>
                        <forename>Wen-huei</forename>
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                    <affiliation>National Chengchi University, Taiwan, Republic of China</affiliation>
                    <email>wenhuei_cheng@yahoo.com.tw</email>
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                    <term>Stylistic Analysis</term>
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                    <term>New Youth magazine</term>
                    <term>Function Words Analysis</term>
                    <term>Species Diversity</term>
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            <p>The year 2015 marks the 100th anniversary of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Youth</hi> magazine (1915–1922), the single most influential periodical in the history of modern Chinese literature and language. It was in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Youth</hi> that the progressive writers advocated to replace classical Chinese with written vernacular as the standard of modern written Chinese language. At first, just like other literati in late the Qing and the early republic, they wrote most of their arguments on language changing in classical Chinese. The dramatic shift of language happened after the May Fourth movement in 1919, and the practice of writing vernacular in every genre spread from the magazine to other publications across the country, finally changing the landscape of written Chinese for good. For a century, scholars have emphasized the importance of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Youth</hi> but failed to answer questions such as how long it took for the literati as well as the general public to accept the use of a new written standard and exactly how the new standard spread. Teaching computers to distinguish between classical and written vernacular Chinese may make it possible to bring in more digitized texts from that period to study and find the answers. 
            </p>
            <p>In this study, we adapt the concept of statistical learning theory and propose two types of quantitative analysis, supervised learning and unsupervised learning, to explore the writing style of classical Chinese and modern Chinese. These two types of methods differ in whether the researchers provide keywords. The unsupervised methods, unlike the supervised methods, are data-driven and determine keywords based on the data attribute and pattern. Since there is no standard operating procedure for applying the unsupervised methods, we will apply the idea of species diversity to determine the keywords. </p>
            <p>Supervised learning has long been used in linguistics to differentiate authorship via keywords, and we choose 10 function words each for classical and modern Chinese as the keywords. Together with a proposed dispersion measure G* index, we can evaluate the trend of function words used in volumes 1 and 11 of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Youth</hi> magazine. For example, the following graph (Figure 1) shows the trends of G* indices for 20 function words chosen. Note that, if the G* curve of a function word is always under the diagonal line, then the frequency of this word is increasing. On the other hand, the G* curve of a function word over the diagonal line indicates that the word frequency is decreasing. In other words, the function words of classical Chinese become infrequent while those of modern Chinese become more common in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Youth</hi> magazine. 
            </p>
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            <p>Figure 1. G* curves of 20 function words (black line: classical Chinese; red line: modern Chinese).</p>
            <p>For the unsupervised learning, we will focus on comparing species (or vocabulary) richness, unevenness, and sentence structure. We use numbers of words and vocabularies to measure the richness. There are quite a lot of unevenness measures, such as Gini’s index, entropy, and Simpson’s index, and they are often used for measuring the statistical dispersion. The analysis of sentence structure includes its length and the punctuation in a sentence. We will use an example to demonstrate our approach by judging the species richness and unevenness. Table 1 shows the related statistics of 11 volumes of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Youth</hi> magazine. The number of words is increasing from volume 1 to volume 11, but the number of vocabularies shows a decreasing pattern. This indicates that the species diversity becomes lower. The unevenness measures reveal similar information, and earlier volumes have higher species diversity. Note that a smaller value of Simpson’s index (and a larger entropy value) indicates higher species diversity. Based on these analyses, it seems that later volumes have lower species diversity and people can read the articles without recognizing many words, which matches the purpose of the May Fourth Movement.
            </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Volume</cell>
                    <cell>Words Count</cell>
                    <cell>
                        <p>Vocabularies</p>
                        <p>Count</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>Simpson Index</cell>
                    <cell>Entropy</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>1</cell>
                    <cell>248,833</cell>
                    <cell>4,379</cell>
                    <cell>0.004568</cell>
                    <cell>6.654036</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>2</cell>
                    <cell>291,848</cell>
                    <cell>4,344</cell>
                    <cell>0.004500</cell>
                    <cell>6.649539</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>3</cell>
                    <cell>290,038</cell>
                    <cell>4,227</cell>
                    <cell>0.004954</cell>
                    <cell>6.541824</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>4</cell>
                    <cell>305,020</cell>
                    <cell>4,298</cell>
                    <cell>0.004172</cell>
                    <cell>6.539378</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>5</cell>
                    <cell>343,519</cell>
                    <cell>4,125</cell>
                    <cell>0.004672</cell>
                    <cell>6.461579</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>6</cell>
                    <cell>389,407</cell>
                    <cell>3,848</cell>
                    <cell>0.005749</cell>
                    <cell>6.348547</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>7</cell>
                    <cell>586,942</cell>
                    <cell>3,850</cell>
                    <cell>0.006053</cell>
                    <cell>6.328604</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>8</cell>
                    <cell>461,731</cell>
                    <cell>3,753</cell>
                    <cell>0.006035</cell>
                    <cell>6.320355</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>9</cell>
                    <cell>437,748</cell>
                    <cell>3,745</cell>
                    <cell>0.005574</cell>
                    <cell>6.322103</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>10</cell>
                    <cell>342,778</cell>
                    <cell>2,980</cell>
                    <cell>0.005700</cell>
                    <cell>6.177278</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>11</cell>
                    <cell>489,223</cell>
                    <cell>3,093</cell>
                    <cell>0.005712</cell>
                    <cell>6.212699</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Table 1. Descriptive statistics for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Youth</hi> magazine.
            </p>
            <p>In addition, we will apply the measures in this study and use them to classify an article for whether it belongs to the group of classical or modern Chinese. First, the articles from all 11 volumes of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Youth</hi> magazine are identified manually into the groups of classical or modern Chinese. Next, we use cross-validation to determine feasible classification functions (and the best one, if possible). We separate the articles in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Youth</hi> magazine into two sets: training data and testing datasets. The training data are used to select important variables and construct the classification function, and this function is used to determine the labels of the testing data. We then calculate the classification error (or prediction error) of the testing data, and the function with the smallest error is treated as the best model. The process of cross-validation is often repeated several times (e.g., 1,000 times) to reduce the influence of chance. Usually we choose the classification function with the smallest average prediction error from 1,000 replications. Also, we can check the important variables in the classification function and examine possible interpretations of these variables. We expect the interpretations are helpful in differentiating the styles between classical Chinese and modern Chinese. 
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"2273","16","Identifying Synonymous Word Groups in the Synoptic Gospels: A Quantitative Analytical Approach","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Murai</surname>
                        <forename>Hajime</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>h_murai@valdes.titech.ac.jp</email>
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                    <term>factor analysis</term>
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            <p>This paper is concerned with comparative analysis of the Synoptic Gospels, or, more specifically, the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">synoptic problem</hi>. In order to examine the synoptic problem scientifically, average synonymous word groups were first extracted based on the interrelationship between words in the Greek New Testament and various translations thereof. In the next step, those synonymous word groups were used as parameters for factor analysis. Thirty-four factors were identified, most of which pertain to theological concepts. Factor scores were then used to identify the major themes of each Synoptic Gospel. The major theme of Matthew was identified as ‘justice’; of Mark, ‘miracles’ and ‘salvation’; and of Luke, ‘missionaries’ and ‘what disciples should do’.
            </p>
            <p>* * *</p>
            <p>The so-called 
                <hi rend=""italic"">synoptic problem</hi> pertains to the complexity involved in editing the first three New Testament Gospels (the Synoptic Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke), largely due to the similarity in content between them. The similarities and differences between these texts have been analyzed extensively in the field of Bible studies using traditional humanities’ methodologies, though descriptive statistics were utilized in some cases (Rosché, 1960). In such studies, the synoptic problem has been mainly divided into two themes: the first regards how the texts are edited, and the second regards the differences between the texts. In other words, there exists both diachronic (process of editing) and synchronic (differences in the texts) research into the synoptic problem in the field of Bible studies.
            </p>
            <p>However, with the rapid development of information technologies, it has become easier to quantitatively analyze texts, and in the digital humanities field, the Bible has become one of the major research targets. Regarding the synoptic problem, for example, Miyake et al. (2005) were able to automatically extract similar parts of the Synoptic Gospels and created Natural Language Processing–based synoptic tables. In another project, Murai (2007) quantitatively extracted background theological focus points about the editorial process based on relationships between similar text parts. Until now, however, such quantitative research into the synoptic problem has largely focused on the diachronic problem. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Research Aim</hi>
            </p>
            <p>In light of this research gap, it is necessary to analyze the synoptic problem synchronically using quantitative methodologies. Although superficial differences between the texts, such as word or phrase frequency, have been analyzed manually since the 19th century, no quantitative analysis has been conducted into the differences between theological concepts.</p>
            <p>One of the major difficulties in analyzing theological concepts is the diversity of expressions and words used in the original Greek New Testament. The same theological concept is expressed using many different words. Therefore, the relationship between synonymous words should be identified in order to conduct intertextual analysis of theological concepts. Moreover, because several theological concepts are mixed in each pericope (small story) in the Bible, it is necessary to use some methodology to separate out these concepts.</p>
            <p>For the reasons outlined above, theological concepts cannot be extracted directly simply by counting the words. Therefore, in this research, the first step is to develop synonymous word groups and then to develop highly related word groups in the Synoptic Gospels by factor analysis of frequently appearing words. The resultant groups of highly related words would include theological concepts that are composed of co-occurring words.</p>
            <p>Method and Results</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Identifying Synonymous Word Groups</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The nuance of word meaning in the Bible has been frequently contended in the field of Bible studies. There are numerous hypotheses and interpretations regarding the meanings of the original Greek words, so it is difficult to propose a neutral thesaurus for the biblical Greek. Therefore, in this research, an average of several interpretations was used to extract synonymous word groups. </p>
            <p>The average interpretation of word relationships between the original Greek and subsequent translations was extracted. In order to identify the relationship between the original text and translations, the Asymptotic Correspondence Vocabulary Presumption Method (ACVPM) was used (see Murai, 2010). This method enabled the extraction of multiple word relationships for each word in order to form a bipartite network of original and translational words (see left network of Figure 1). Based on this network, two original words are connected when they share a corresponding translational word; in this way, a network of original words can be created (see right network of Figure 1) that signifies the relationships between original Greek words (Murai, 2013). Moreover, this method enables to compare characteristics of translational languages and background ideologies (Murai, 2012).</p>
            <p>A separate network of original words can be constructed from each translation of the Bible. If many different networks of original words have a common edge between some two original words, it suggests that the two words are very similar in meaning. Therefore, by combining networks from several translations, and by extracting strong edges, average synonymous word groups are extracted as partial connected graphs of that network (Figure 2).</p>
            <p>In this research, four English translations (the New Jerusalem Bible, the New King James Version, the New Revised Standard Version, and the New American Bible) and four Japanese translations (the Colloquial Japanese, the New Japanese, the Franciscan Japanese, and the New Interconfessional Translation) of the New Testament were analyzed and edges were extracted when more than four translations had that edge in common. Using this method, 224 similar word groups were obtained.</p>
            <figure>
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            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. An example of extracting a network of original Greek words from a bipartite network of original and translational words.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""11.482916666666666cm"" height=""5.953125cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. An example of creating combined networks and extracting stronger edges.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Factor Analysis of the Synoptic Gospel</hi>
            </p>
            <p>In previous research, several methods have been used to extract concepts from texts—for example, LSA (Latent Semantic Analysis) or the Topic Model (Hoffman, 1999). Because LSA is used to analyze specific words, it is not suitable for whole text analysis. While the Topic Model enables the extraction of an arbitrary number of topics from target texts with a high degree of accuracy, it does not indicate the number of essential topics. Therefore, in this research, factor analysis, which allows indication of the number of essential topics, was used to extract factors composed of synonymous word groups from the Synoptic Gospels. </p>
            <p>For this stage of the research, pericopes were adopted as the units of analysis. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke each contain 145 pericopes, while the Gospel of Mark contains 81 pericopes. From these, 175 synonymous word groups were selected, comprising those that appeared in more than 10% of all pericopes. The parameters used for factor analysis were the frequencies of those synonymous word groups in each pericope. The rotation method used was promax. According to the results of Parallel Analysis, 34 factors were identified, and the cumulative contribution ratio of those 34 factors was 0.785. The names of obtained factors and synonymous word groups with greater than 0.5 factor loadings are shown in Table 1. In Table 1, synonymous word groups are represented by one of the included Greek words.</p>
            <p>The largest factors concern ‘the salvation of sinners’. These are followed by factors concerning ‘the beginning and the end’, ‘bread in the wilderness’, ‘journey to Jerusalem’, ‘hypocrisy of the Pharisees’, and ‘parables’. Apart from Factor 12 (‘numeral’), all identified factors were related to important theological concepts.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""13.0175cm"" height=""14.049375cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Table 1. Factor names and synonymous word groups.</p>
            <p>In order to compare the major themes of the Synoptic Gospels, characteristic factors were identified based on factor scores. The average factor scores in each Gospel are shown in Table 2. In Matthew, Factors 6 (‘hypocrisy of the Pharisees’), and 23 (‘good and evil’) are found to be influential, which may allow us to consider the major theme of Matthew’s Gospel to be justice. In Mark, Factors 4, 8, 10, 13, 16, 17, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26, 27, 30, and 31 are influential, which may lead to the conclusion that Mark’s major themes are miracles (‘bread in the wilderness’, ‘exorcism’, ‘resurrection’, and ‘awe of people’) and salvation (‘parables of sower’, ‘leading to faith’, ‘salvation for the people’). In Luke, Factors 2, 5, 9, 11, 14, 19, and 29 are influential, so the major theme of Luke may relate to missionaries (‘travel to Jerusalem’, ‘missionary’) and what disciples should do (‘thanks by sinners’, ‘announcements to Maria’, ‘the lord and servant’).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""14.896041666666667cm"" height=""12.488333333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Table 2. Average factor scores in each Synoptic Gospel.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Conclusion and Future Work</hi>
            </p>
            <p>In this research, average synonymous word groups were extracted using a quantitative method. These word groups were used to extract theological concepts from the Synoptic Gospels by utilizing factor analysis in a falsifiable way. Moreover, the theological differences between the three Synoptic Gospels were identified based on the average factor scores in each text. Unlike conventional exegetic methods, these results are reproducible, and third-party evaluation is possible because they are based on scientific methodology.</p>
            <p>For future work, detailed analysis and consideration of obtained factors should be conducted. In addition, other books of the Bible should be analyzed and compared in order to understand the theological concepts of the Gospels and the Bible.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hofmann, T.</hi> (1999). Probabilistic Latent Semantic Analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">SIGIR 99 Proceedings of the 22nd Annual International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval</hi>, Berkeley, CA, 15–19 August 1999, pp. 50–57.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Miyake, M., Akama, H., Nakagawa, M. and Makoshi, N.</hi> (2005). The Computed Synoptic Table-Tele-Synopsis for Biblical Research, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of ACH/ALLC 2005</hi>, Victoria, BC, 15–18 June 2005, pp. 152–54.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Murai, H.</hi> (2010). Extracting the Interpretive Characteristics of Translations Based on the Asymptotic Correspondence Vocabulary Presumption Method: Quantitative Comparisons of Japanese Translations of the Bible. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Japan Society of Information and Knowledge, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">20</hi>(3): 293–310.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Murai, H.</hi> (2012). Semantic Networks between Texts in Different Language Based on the Asymptotic Correspondence Vocabulary Presumption Method. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Information Processing Society of Japan Symposium Series,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2012</hi>(7): 61–68.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Murai, H.</hi> (2013). Exegetical Science for the Interpretation of the Bible: Algorithms and Software for Quantitative Analysis of Christian Documents. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Software Engineering, Artificial Intelligence, Networking and Parallel/Distributed Computing Studies in Computational Intelligence</hi>, Vol. 492. Springer International Publishing, pp. 67–86.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Murai, H. and Tokosumi, A.</hi> (2007). Network Analysis of the Four Gospels and the Catechism of the Catholic Church’. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Advanced Computational Intelligence and Intelligent Informatics,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(7): 772–79.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rosché, T. R.</hi> (1960). The Words of Jesus and the Future of the ‘Q’ Hypothesis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Biblical Literature,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">79</hi>(3): 210–20. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2274","16","Implementing and Sustaining a DH Infrastructure – “The HUMlab Experience”","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Mähler</surname>
                        <forename>Roger</forename>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>sustainability</term>
                    <term>supporting processes</term>
                    <term>knowledge sharing</term>
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            <p>To curate processes within the digital humanities, an elaborate infrastructure of technology, supporting processes, physical spaces, competences, and human attitudes is needed, which can be challenging to create and sustain in the academia of humanities. In this poster we will share our experiences, good as well as bad, and how we have tackled the challenges of working within the digital humanities. </p>
            <p>The physical spaces of HUMlab are open and accessible, where technicians, students, and researchers from a wide variety of fields can meet and collaborate. The spaces in HUMlab have been designed with the aim of creating an appealing and attractive ‘meeting place’ with a technological infrastructure that breaks interdisciplinary barriers. The codesign of digital research methodologies and tools also functions across the disciplines and joins knowledge from different fields. </p>
            <p>The supporting processes, and the way they are executed, emphasise collaboration, knowledge sharing, and joint venture. The project model used in software development is based on an agile approach that has been adapted to the special needs and demands of academia and research within the humanities. Supporting workflows have been specified and implemented (e.g., stakeholder discussion, project initialization) with tollgates and templates. The real challenge is to create formalized workflows that promote new ideas, quality, creativity, innovation, and individual development. </p>
            <p>An open mindset is required to achieve and sustain interdisciplinarity and collaboration on equal terms. The working process must allow mistakes and encourage new ideas. Part of the challenge is to build trust and share knowledge in a dialogue that translates scholarly needs with technology to give added values. </p>
            <p>Technology plays an important part of HUMlab (e.g., a multitude of screen scapes), but even more important is the critical attitude towards the technology and how it is used. It is vital to understand the underlying epistemology of different technologies, and the methods and tools, and to have transparency on how they are applied in order to achieve certain (research) objectives. </p>
            <p>A real challenge is to sustain the numerous competences needed within the fields of digital humanities and humanities computing (especially when you don’t know the needs of the next collaboration). At HUMlab, this is done by so-called pet projects (freedom to work with personal projects), focus projects (small projects to expand knowledge in certain areas, and to step out of your ‘comfort zone’), assigned fields of interest (personal responsibility to sustain knowledge for a specific fields), and a competence matrix at an organizational level that is based on HUMlab’s needs and vision for the future, but also dynamic and flexible and adapting to an ever-changing world. </p>
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                        <surname>Jannidis</surname>
                        <forename>Fotis</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Universität Würzburg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>fotis.jannidis@uni-wuerzburg.de</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Pielström</surname>
                        <forename>Steffen</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Universität Würzburg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>pielstroem@biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Schöch</surname>
                        <forename>Christof</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Universität Würzburg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>christof.schoech@uni-wuerzburg.de</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Vitt</surname>
                        <forename>Thorsten</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Universität Würzburg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>thorsten.vitt@uni-wuerzburg.de</email>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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            <p>Since John Burrows first proposed Delta as a new stylometric measure (Burrows, 2002), it has become one of the most robust distance measures for authorship attribution (Juola, 2006; Stamatatos, 2009; Koppel et al., 2009). It has been shown to render very useful results in different text genres (Hoover, 2004a) and languages (Eder and Rybicki, 2013). Nowadays, Delta is widely used not the least because there is the free 
                <hi rend=""italic"">stylo</hi> package in R (Eder et al., 2013). There have been several proposals to improve Delta (Hoover, 2004b; Argamon, 2008; Eder et al., 2013; Smith and Aldridge, 2011; Kestemont and Rybicki, 2013). In the following, we report on a series of experiments to test these proposals using collections of novels in three languages. Our results will show that one of Hoover’s and one of Argamon’s measures show good results, but are outperformed in general by Burrows’ Delta and by Eder’s Delta. Most notably, the modification of Delta proposed by Smith and Aldridge shows a remarkable improvement of the results in all languages and has the advantage of providing a stable increase of performance up to a specific point, unlike the other measures, which are very sensitive to the amount of most frequent words (mfw) used. These results also allow discussion of some of the theoretical assumptions for the success of these measures, even if we are still far away from providing a ‘compelling theoretical justification’ (Hoover, 2005) for their success.
            </p>
            <p>Material and Methods</p>
            <p>Text Collections</p>
            <p>We built three collections of novels (English, French, German), each consisting of 75 texts: 25 authors, each represented with three novels. The collection of British novels contains texts published between 1838 and 1921 coming from Project Gutenberg (www.gutenberg.org). The collection of French novels contains texts published between 1827 and 1934 originating mainly from Ebooks libres et gratuits (www.ebooksgratuits.com). The collection of German novels consists of texts from the 19th and the first half of the 20th centuries, which come from the TextGrid collection (http://www.textgrid.de/Digitale-Bibliothek).</p>
            <p>Text Distance Measures</p>
            <p>Argamon (2008) proposed three variants of Delta, each one improving on one aspect of Burrows’ Delta. </p>
            <p>He argues that Burrows’ Delta inherently assumes that the distribution of a particular word across multiple texts follows the multivariate Laplace distribution, but it uses the standard deviation as a normalization factor, which only makes sense for a Gaussian distribution. Quadratic Delta assumes a multivariate Gaussian distribution of the words. Linear Delta, on the other hand, adjusts the normalization to take into account the calculation of spread for a Laplace distribution. Like Burrows’ Delta, both variants are based on the (implausible) assumption that the frequencies of the words are independent. The third variant, Rotated Delta, rotates the frequency differences into a space where they are maximally independent. It also assumes a Gaussian distribution. An analysis of the word frequency distribution in our English test set shows indeed that the normal distribution represents the data much better than the Laplace distribution (Figure 1a). The same is true for German high-frequency words (Figure 1b). We should therefore expect Rotated Delta to perform best, and Quadratic Delta to yield better results than Linear Delta or Burrows’ Delta. Eder’s Delta slightly increases the weights of frequent words and is meant to perform better with highly inflected languages. It should perform better for German and French than for English. Smith and Aldridge replace the Manhattan distance used by Burrows with cosine based on findings in text mining that the latter shows greater reliability with large word vectors (Smith and Aldridge, 2011). Their experiments show an impressive improvement for English texts.</p>
            <p>We implemented these measures in Python, using the output of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">stylo</hi>, where a parallel implementation existed, as a benchmark (see the appendix for the formulas).
            </p>
            <p>Evaluating Distance Measures</p>
            <p>In order to provide useful performance indicators for these measures for authorship attribution, we concentrated on the question of how well a particular distance measure allows distinguishing between a situation where two compared texts are written by the same author from a situation where two texts are from different authors. Besides relying on the Adjusted Rand Index as a well-known but rather abstract measure for clustering quality (Everitt et al., 2011, 264f.), we also established a simple algorithm to count clustering errors representing the researcher’s intuition of correct clustering. In order to obtain another more subtle performance indicator independent of any clustering algorithm, we grouped the calculated distance scores into two sets: ingroup comparisons containing distances between texts actually written by the same author, and outgroup comparisons. The larger the difference between the ingroup distances and the outgroup distances, the better a distance measure is assumed to perform. After evaluating several potential performance indicators (for example, t-values, or using proportions of distribution overlap) in terms of how well they correlate with the number of clustering errors, we settled on the simple difference of z-transformed means because it showed the best correlation with the clustering error measure.</p>
            <p>Results and Discussion</p>
            <p>Most interestingly, we could not only confirm the findings of Smith and Aldridge on our English texts, but also show that Cosine Delta outperforms all other measures on our three collections (Figures 2–4). Equally important, it proves to be more stable with increasing mfw size. While Burrows’ and Eder’s Delta usually show a peak around 1,000–1,500 mfw, and then behave a bit erratically on longer word vectors, Cosine Delta reaches a plateau at 2,000 and stays there (Figure 5). As Smith and Aldridge argue, based on their very different data, that using word vectors longer than 500 words doesn’t improve the performance, we assume that this number is a function of the corpus size.</p>
            <p>Our empirical tests did not substantiate Argamon’s theoretical arguments. Eder’s variant didn’t show consistently better results with more highly inflected languages like German and French and performed similarly to Burrows’ Delta. Both Quadratic Delta and Rotated Delta perform much worse than should be expected on theoretical grounds. And Linear Delta, although being among the top-five distance measures, seems to be an improvement over Burrows’ Delta only under special circumstances. Argamon’s modifications were based on correct assumptions about the kind of distributions Delta is working on, but nevertheless those algorithms did not perform better, something that points to the operation of factors not yet understood. The fact that those algorithms consistently perform differently in different languages and that these differences cannot, or at least only partially, be explained by the degree of inflection (Eder and Rybicki, 2013), adds to this enigma at the moment. There is almost no other algorithm in stylometry we know as much about as Delta, and yet there is still no theoretical framework that can explain its success.</p>
            <p>Future Work</p>
            <p>We tried to assemble corpora similar in genre, time, etc., but there is the real possibility that the variation we attribute to the languages is really only one between the specifics of the corpora. So it is important to test the robustness of our findings using different corpora. Another line of future investigations is the testing of more variations of Delta, using Cosine Delta as a starting point. Also, a systematic study of how the length of the mfw list determines Cosine Delta’s performance in relation to the size of the texts and the corpora could allow the automatic choice of the best parameters. And last but not least we have to analyze the connection between the performances of some variants of Delta and specifics of different languages in order to gain a deeper theoretical insight into the working of Delta in general.</p>
            <p>_____</p>
            <p>The python script implementing these distance measures can be found at </p>
            <p>https://github.com/fotis007/pydelta.</p>
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            <p>Figure 1. Empirical distribution of word frequencies compared to idealised Gauss and Laplace distributions. Indicated for the three most frequent words in the English (a) and German (b) dataset.</p>
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            <p>Figure 2. Performance of distance measures on English texts. Indicated in terms of both the difference between z-transformed means of ingroup (same author) and outgroup distances, as Adjusted Rand Index (higher values indicate better differentiation), and in terms of clustering errors (lower values indicate better differentiation). Distance measures are sorted according to their maximum performance in all test conditions.</p>
            <figure>
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            <p>Figure 3. Performance of distance measures on French texts. For a detailed explanation, see Figure 2. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""16.271875cm"" height=""14.075833333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>Figure 4. Performance of distance measures on German texts. For a detailed explanation, see Figure 2. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""16.430625cm"" height=""11.377083333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>Figure 5. Difference between z-transformed means of ingroup and outgroup distances as a function of word list length. Indicated for selected delta measures on the German text collection.</p>
            <p>Appendix: Text Distance Measures</p>
            <p>Most delta measures normalize features first and then apply a basic distance function.</p>
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                    <cell rend=""Compact"">–</cell>
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                    <cell rend=""Compact"">Bray-Curtis distance</cell>
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                    <cell rend=""Compact"">Chebishev Distance</cell>
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                                            <mrow>
                                                <mi>i</mi>
                                            </mrow>
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                                        <mo>(</mo>
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                                        <msup>
                                            <mrow>
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                                        <mo>-</mo>
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                                            <mrow>
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                                            <mrow>
                                                <mi>i</mi>
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                                        </msub>
                                        <mo>(</mo>
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                                        <mi>ʹ</mi>
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                                        <mo>(</mo>
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                                            <mo>(</mo>
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                                            <mo>-</mo>
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                                                <mrow>
                                                    <mi>i</mi>
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                                            <mo>(</mo>
                                            <mi>D</mi>
                                            <mi>ʹ</mi>
                                            <mo>)</mo>
                                            <mo>∣</mo>
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                                        <mrow>
                                            <mo>∣</mo>
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                                                <mrow>
                                                    <mi>f</mi>
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                                                <mrow>
                                                    <mi>i</mi>
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                                            <mo>(</mo>
                                            <mi>D</mi>
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                                            <mo>∣</mo>
                                            <mo>∣</mo>
                                            <msub>
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                                                    <mi>f</mi>
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                                                <mrow>
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                                            <mo>(</mo>
                                            <mi>D</mi>
                                            <mi>ʹ</mi>
                                            <mo>)</mo>
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                                        <msub>
                                            <mrow>
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                                            <mrow>
                                                <mi>i</mi>
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                                        </msub>
                                        <mo>(</mo>
                                        <mi>D</mi>
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                                        <mo>-</mo>
                                        <msub>
                                            <mrow>
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                                            <mrow>
                                                <mi>i</mi>
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                                        </msub>
                                        <mo>(</mo>
                                        <mi>D</mi>
                                        <mi>ʹ</mi>
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                                        <msub>
                                            <mrow>
                                                <mi>f</mi>
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                                            <mrow>
                                                <mi>i</mi>
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                                        <mo>(</mo>
                                        <mi>D</mi>
                                        <mo>)</mo>
                                        <mo>+</mo>
                                        <msub>
                                            <mrow>
                                                <mi>f</mi>
                                            </mrow>
                                            <mrow>
                                                <mi>i</mi>
                                            </mrow>
                                        </msub>
                                        <mo>(</mo>
                                        <mi>D</mi>
                                        <mi>ʹ</mi>
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                                <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">+</mo>
                                <mn xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">1</mn>
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                                    <mrow>
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                                <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">-</mo>
                                <mover xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                    <mrow>
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                                <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">P</mi>
                                <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">=</mo>
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                                    <mrow>
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                                <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">≥</mo>
                                <mn xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">0</mn>
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                                <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">,</mo>
                                <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">N</mi>
                                <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">=</mo>
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                                <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">&lt;</mo>
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                                        <mo>(</mo>
                                        <mi>D</mi>
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                                        <mo>-</mo>
                                        <msub>
                                            <mrow>
                                                <mi>μ</mi>
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                                            <mrow>
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                                    </mrow>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <msub>
                                            <mrow>
                                                <mi>σ</mi>
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                                <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">,</mo>
                                <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML""> </mo>
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                                <mi mathvariant=""normal"" xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">e</mi>
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                                <mi mathvariant=""normal"" xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">i</mi>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Argamon, S.</hi> (2008). Interpreting Burrows’ Delta: Geometric and Probabilistic Foundations. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(2): 131–47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (2002). ‘Delta’—A Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(3): 267–87.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J. </hi>(2013). Stylometry with R. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts</hi>. Lincoln: University of Nebraska-Lincoln, pp. 487–89.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2013). Do Birds of a Feather Really Flock Together, Or How to Choose Training Samples for Authorship Attribution. 
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                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Everitt, B., et al. </hi>(2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cluster Analysis</hi>. 5th ed. Chichester.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D.</hi> (2004a). Testing Burrows’ Delta. 
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D.</hi> (2004b). Delta Prime? 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">19</hi>(4): 477–95.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. </hi>(2005). Delta, Delta Prime, and Modern American Poetry: Authorship Attribution Theory and Method. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2005 ALLC/ACH Conference, </hi>http://tomcat-stable.hcmc.uvic.ca:8080/ach/site/xhtml.xq?id=73.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Juola, P.</hi> (2006). Authorship Attribution. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(3): 233–334.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koppel, M., Schler, J. and Argamon, S.</hi> (2009). Computational Methods in Authorship Attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">60</hi>(1): 9–26.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rybicki, J. and Eder, M. </hi>(2011). Deeper Delta across Genres and Languages: Do We Really Need the Most Frequent Words? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">26</hi>(3): 315–21.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smith, P. and Aldridge, W.</hi> (2011). Improving Authorship Attribution: Optimizing Burrows’ Delta Method. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Quantitative Linguistics, </hi>
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stamatatos, E.</hi> (2009). A Survey of Modern Authorship Attribution Methods. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">60</hi>(3): 538–56.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                    <affiliation>Heidelberg University, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>decker@asia-europe.uni-heidelberg.de</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Henriot</surname>
                        <forename>Christian</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Lyon, France</affiliation>
                    <email>christian.henriot@univ-lyon2.fr</email>
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            <p rend=""western"">Factors adversely affecting the sustainability of digital collections have multiplied during the last decade. Many early implementations were inextricably connected with online projects, making them vulnerable to rapid technical evolution and ensuing obsolescence. There has been considerable research effort directed at decoupling Internet presentation from collection management and at exploiting network-distributed and virtualized collection deployment. Further, contemporary collection ecosystems have adopted internationally recognized metadata standards to gain a level of independence from deployment technologies. However, these trends have only shifted the focus of concern to the stability of such standards themselves: little research attention has focused on the portability of metadata infrastructure, which continue to evolve rapidly and grow in complexity. The proliferation of metadata definition activities and frequent revision of standards has made it difficult to develop implementation roadmaps, and standards has also become tainted by the competing interests of territorial industry associations and government agencies. Additionally, research funding by collections remains committed predominantly to new metadata development work, with only marginal consideration of long-term migration as standards evolve.</p>
            <p>A related and potentially more serious problem arises from the growing recognition that 
                <hi rend=""italic"">annotation</hi> metadata must be structured independently of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">object</hi> metadata. As early as 1992 Bearman observed, ‘Descriptive standards for libraries and archives have historically been much more thorough in specifying how to describe the things within a collection than in specifying how to describe the context surrounding those things’. By 2009 the Open Annotation Collaboration was more specific, claiming, ‘The importance of annotating as a scholarly practice [and] limitations of existing tools supporting annotation of digital content has had a retarding effect on the growth of digital scholarship’.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> While progress has been made in sustainability of collection deployments and of object metadata, significant benefits and long-term effectiveness of annotation metadata—set out comprehensively in Lee’s ‘Framework for Contextual Information in Digital Collections’ paper (2011)—remain on the horizon. Even if standards-based metadata elements have been employed in creating a digital collection, there is little alternative today but to incorporate annotation information ad hoc into the ‘miscellaneous’ mechanisms provided by object metadata containers. This practice leads to both difficulty of use of annotation in research projects and the frequent loss of investment in annotation when collections must be migrated to new deployment technologies or metadata standards. The Open Annotation Data Model (OADM)
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> Phase III US roll-out commenced in April 2013,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> with Europe following a few months later, and OADM remains the leading activity addressing the ‘creation, capture and preservation of contextual information’. However, OADM is natively RDF-based,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> and its effective integration with predominately XML-based collection ecosystems is currently challenging. Only after development of annotation tools that overcome this hurdle can sustainable metadata standards enter widespread use that address annotation as well as object metadata in a coherent manner. Significantly, such a breakthrough will itself create pressure for re-implementation of existing digital collection metadata solutions. Effective long-term accessibility of annotation metadata, even by current standards-based schemes, will require redistribution of annotation in existing collections and its encoding using structured annotation methodologies such as OADM. In turn, this will influence the future development of standards for object metadata encoding.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(212121)"">Gains in both accessibility and sustainability made through adoption of metadata standards are therefore contingent, for a multiplicity of reasons, on periodic re-implementation of collection metadata infrastructures as standards evolve. Strategies requiring human intervention on a per-asset basis to achieve this rapidly become untenable in large collections—even in the absence of funding restrictions. Developing alternate strategies to enable collections repeatedly to migrate metadata infrastructures is critical, not only to remain compliant with emerging standards, but also to gain the real functionality benefits sought from structured annotation by Bearman and Lee and, ultimately, for long-term sustainability. This paper presents progress with techniques for automating the transformation of metadata in response to evolution of standards—thereby making such migration possible. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>Our approach arose in collaboration between the University of Westminster (UOW), the University of Heidelberg (UHEI), and the Institut d’Asie Orientale CNRS-Lyon (IAO-CNRS) on managing collections of contemporary Chinese imagery. In particular, after developing software migration tools for reclaiming existing digital collections at UOW that had become difficult to maintain because of obsolescence of support technologies, we elected to create new collections compliant with the VRA Core4 standard.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> This was achieved by building a mapping-driven exporter for our NoSQL migration platform (
                <hi rend=""italic"">freizo</hi>),
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> which generated VRA asset-by-asset. In this way, the results of the transformation could be viewed using the collection management interface and the exporter mapping updated to tune the VRA profile that was implemented—providing an iterative transformation cycle that, when approved, could be applied to the complete legacy collection. The resulting test collection—of Mao-era posters—was transferred to the UHEI Tamboti
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi> collection ecosystem to validate its VRA implementation. We report subsequent creation of a VRA-compliant digital collection combining the assets of both the UOW and UHEI poster collections. During this work, however, we noted the necessity of representing annotation (relatively mature in the case of the UOW collection, which was based on reclamation of an Internet project dating from 2001) within VRA description containers. The transformation approach enabled us to produce multiple versions of the poster collection automatically—implementing different annotation solutions in order to support research into linking both annotation tools and virtual research instruments with the collection. Consideration of potential response to VRA Core4 being superseded by future versions was also evaluated in terms of revision of the transformation mapping. 
            </p>
            <p>Parallel work in collaboration with IAO-CNRS, concerning historic photographs of Shanghai—part of the large-scale Virtual Cities
                <hi rend=""superscript"">8</hi> project initiated by IAO—had highlighted similar concerns about sustainability of annotation using VRA description mechanisms. IAO has developed a range of innovative virtual research instruments able to exploit extensive geo-location information, which forms part of the annotation of this collection. Creating a VRA version of the collection using 
                <hi rend=""italic"">freizo</hi> transformation created potential vulnerabilities when interfacing the virtual research tools to the VRA collection; such tools might cease to operate correctly in the event of VRA Core4 being superseded were geo-location information to be encoded in miscellaneous VRA description containers. In contrast, we report results with an OADM-based annotation solution implemented using IIIF annotation extensions generated through an alternate 
                <hi rend=""italic"">freizo</hi> transformation of the collection.
            </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. http://www.openannotation.org/about.html (accessed 23 February 2015).</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. 
                <ref target=""http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core/"">http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core/</ref> (accessed 23 February 2015).
            </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. 
                <ref target=""http://www.openannotation.org/phaseIII.html"">http://www.openannotation.org/phaseIII.html</ref> (accessed 23 February 2015).
            </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">4. 
                <ref target=""http://www.w3.org/RDF/"">http://www.w3.org/RDF/</ref> (accessed 23 February 2015).
            </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">5. 
                <ref target=""http://chinaposters.westminster.ac.uk/zenphoto/"">http://chinaposters.westminster.ac.uk/zenphoto/</ref> (accessed 23 February 2015).
            </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">6. http://www.data-futures.org/freizo.html (accessed 23 February 2015).</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">7. 
                <ref target=""http://www.asia-europe.uni-heidelberg.de/de/hra-portal.html"">http://www.asia-europe.uni-heidelberg.de/de/hra-portal.html</ref>
                <hi rend=""color(212121)""> (accessed 23 February 2015).</hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">8. 
                <ref target=""http://www.virtualshanghai.net/Photos/Albums"">http://www.virtualshanghai.net/Photos/Albums</ref> (accessed 23 February 2015).
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bearman, D. A.</hi> (1992). Documenting Documentation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Archivaria</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">34</hi>: 33–49.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lee, C. A.</hi> (2011). A Framework for Contextual Information in Digital Collections. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Documentation, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">67</hi>(1): 95–143, doi:10.1108/00220411111105470.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2277","16","In The Spotlight: Digitization And The Keith/Albee Vaudeville Theater Collection","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Justin Lee</forename>
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            <p>In 2014 the National Endowment for the Humanities awarded the University of Iowa Libraries a $300,000 grant to fund a project for the stabilization and preservation of a series of vaudeville theater scrapbooks from the Keith/Albee Vaudeville Theater Collection, housed in the University of Iowa Special Collections and University Archives. This collection is among the largest collections of materials related to the vaudeville era in the United States. The 150 scrapbooks document in great detail the Keith/Albee theater in Providence, Rhode Island, from the 1890s to the 1930s, encompassing newspaper clippings and programs as well as detailed managers’ reports. These scrapbooks give a rare glimpse into the full context of the vaudeville era, looking into not only the performances but also the business side of vaudeville, giving researchers a full historical understanding of the topic. Unfortunately, the physical state of these materials has been deteriorating for some time, causing some of the volumes to be restricted from usage, a major blow to such a heavily used collection.</p>
            <p>The ultimate goals of the three-year Keith/Albee project are primarily the stabilization, digitization, and online accessibility of all collection materials. It involves the full attention of a conservator and digital librarian, both hired solely for this project. Newly purchased equipment, including a digital reprographic system and Capture One software, will be in use for it, requiring additional training for the project staff. Additionally, complex workflows have been put into place involving the interdepartmental collaboration of a number of different actors. This includes contributors from the special collections, preservation/conservation, cataloging/metadata, and digital publishing departments. </p>
            <p>A comprehensive digitization project of this size has been rather unprecedented for the University of Iowa Libraries. At the end of the three-year project, the entire contents of the Keith/Albee Collection are expected to be available to the public for online access. Those researching the early history of film and early-20th-century entertainment will be assisted greatly by the digital access to this collection. It will also encourage and accelerate future research on the history of vaudeville theater. The importance of vaudeville theater in the history of modern entertainment cannot be understated. While it was chiefly an American entertainment, its influence spread worldwide, especially on the early film industry. This collection is rare and invaluable in its detail and completeness in documenting vaudeville and its decline over several decades. While there are a number of vaudeville collections in the United States, the Keith/Albee Theater Collection is one of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">the</hi> premier vaudeville archives due to this detail and abundance of behind-the-scenes information, fleshing out the history of this important entertainment. 
            </p>
            <p>Overall, a careful amount of planning has been put into place in the implementation of this project. However, there have been a number of different issues involving the stabilization and digitization of the collection scrapbooks. Many of these issues are related to the size and fragility of the collection materials. The conservation librarian has taken many steps to stabilize and improve the condition of the collection, but many careful precautions still need to be taken during the digitization process, especially due to the fact that some of these scrapbook pages are flaking and falling apart upon even the most delicate of handling. Additionally, the overlapping and layered nature of some scrapbook pages has created a challenge for the digitization and online presentation of some of these items. The limited options available in content management systems such as CONTENTdm have created problems for the presentation of complex scrapbooks in an accessible online format. Because of these issues, it has become a challenge to present these scrapbooks in a fully accessible form that also accurately represents the material. A final issue involves keeping this project on target for the entire three-year period, maintaining a consistent level of output in which to complete the project on time. This could prove challenging with possible future unforeseen circumstances within the project and its respective workflows. Some of the above issues have been resolved in interdepartmental meetings on the Keith/Albee digitization project. However, other issues are still currently in discussion. Since this is a recently started three-year project, while we anticipate a number of future challenges, with close interdepartmental collaboration we anticipate the outcome to ultimately be successful. </p>
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"2278","16","Infrastructure Requirements For A UNESCO World Heritage Archival Infrastructure","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <affiliation>Curtin University, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>nzerik@gmail.com</email>
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                <head>Creating Public Accessible Virtual Heritage Models</head>
                <p>Why is this necessary? Hal Thwaites (2013) wrote in ‘Digital Heritage: What Happens When We Digitize Everything’:</p>
                <p>In the very near future some critical issues will need to be addressed; increased accessibility to (and sharing of) heritage data, consistent interface design for widespread public use and re-presentations of work, the formalization of a digital heritage database, establishment of a global infrastructure, institutionalized, archival standards for digital heritage and most importantly the on-going curation, of work forward in time as the technology evolves so that our current digital, heritage projects will not be lost to future generations. We cannot afford to have our digital heritage disappearing faster than the real heritage or the sites it seeks to ‘preserve’ otherwise all of our technological advances, creative interpretations, visualizations and efforts will have been in vain.</p>
                <p>So there is an international need to collate and store digital heritage models of heritage sites (Reinhard, 2013). We also lack a way to provide access to the models, sites, and paradata, which the London Charter (Denard, 2009) defines as ‘information about human processes of understanding and interpretation of data objects’). Although there are charters such as the London Charter and the Seville Charter, as there are few publicly accessible models (Barsanti et al., 2014), there is also no shared standardised evaluation data, and many scholars have complained about user experience issues and a scarcity of suitable pedagogical material (Economou and Pujol, 2008). </p>
            </div>
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                <head>Technical Obstacles</head>
                <p>A serious technical obstacle is the absence of a shared, secure, feature-rich format for 3D models (Koller et al., 2009). International efforts to remedy the above issues include work by 3D Icons 
                    <hi rend=""underline"">(</hi>3D HOP) in CIDOC CRM, Europeana, Smithsonian Institute X3D BETA, Fraunhoefer (X3DOM ON GITHUB), Ariadne, CARARE, EU EPOCH, and V-MUST. 
                </p>
                <p>Long-term, we wish to investigate how 3D models can be better linked to library and archival systems of literature and multimedia that communicate important historical and cultural aspects of the simulated heritage site. Current journals that feature papers and 3D models typically lack integration with text resources, and they also have limited interactivity and immersion (Elsevier). A second long-term aim is to develop evaluation mechanisms to understand how the viewed and downloaded heritage models and simulations are used. Choosing a format that is robust, durable, well-supported, free, highly interactive, cross-platform, and easy to create or export to or export from is a serious challenge.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>In Australia</head>
                <p>This is also an Australian problem. CSIRO (CSIRO, 2014) have released a report, stating, ‘Australia’s cultural institutions risk losing their relevance if they don’t increase their use of digital technologies and services’. Michael Brünig (Mansfield et al., 2014) has stated that the Australian GLAM industry is worth 2.5 billion Australian a year, roughly only a quarter is digitalized, and there are 629km worth of archival material. Brünig notes there is a shift to open-access models and greater collaboration with the public, but that we need to explore new approaches to copyright management that stimulate creativity and support creators. We also need to build on aggregation initiatives such as the Atlas of Living Australia, standardise preservation of born-digital material to avoid losing access to digital heritage, and exploit the potential of Australia’s Academic and Research Network (AARNet) and the National Broadband Network (NBN) for collection and collaboration. </p>
                <p>There is another problem. Australian heritage includes large rock art sites, and the Gigapixel photographs, panoramas, and 3D data require a large amount of storage and new ways of navigating via online databases. There are 19 UNESCO World Heritage listed sites in Australia, including some of the oldest rainforests and one-third of the world’s protected marine areas. So we have vast and remote natural landscapes where pre-tour visits are expensive, 3D models and landscapes are not part of ICOMOS reports, and the Australian Burra Charter only recently reflects 3D. Of course there are also copyright, contestation, and forbidden knowledge issues that require legal experts and indigenous consultants.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Current Status</head>
                <p>For the presentation of this short paper I will discuss the above issues, our data management plan, and our communication with UNESCO to tackle these problems. Our research development unit will support the venture with funding for postdoctoral scholars and postgraduate students. I have proposed to UNESCO that our group will collate and archive the related heritage data, provide training material that can be developed and expanded by others, and recommend ways in which 3D models can be better linked to scholarly articles and related digital material and can be included in classroom teaching. We have linkages and ongoing relationships with other relevant universities in Australia and the wider Asian area, and organisations in Europe like DARIAH, NeDiMAH, and Europeana Cloud, and have an understanding from iVEC Curtin for storage of the initial models and related assets, but we are interested in talking to organisations about longer-term storage. The first task is to survey and develop a library of heritage models using a robust data management plan. However, a secondary task is to develop strategies to encourage scholars to submit to an agreed format, and then develop a workflow to provide models suitable for dissemination and general learning. </p>
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        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Barsanti, S. G., Remondino, F., Fenández-Palacios, B. J. and Visintini, D.</hi> (2014). Critical Factors and Guidelines for 3D Surveying and Modelling in Cultural Heritage. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Heritage in the Digital Era,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>: 141–58.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">CSIRO.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Australian Museums Must Innovate or Risk Becoming ‘Digital Dinosaurs</hi>’. http://www.csiro.au/Portals/Media/Australian-museums-risk-becoming-digital-dinosaurs.aspx.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Denard, H.</hi> (2009). The London Charter for the Computer-Based Visualization of Cultural Heritage. London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Economou, M. and Pujol, L. </hi>(2008). Educational Tool or Expensive Toy? Evaluating VR Evaluation and Its Relevance for Virtual Heritage. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Heritage: New Media and Cultural Heritage</hi>. London: Routledge, pp. 242–60.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elsevier.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Three-Dimensional U3D Models in Online Journal Articles</hi>. http://www.elsevier.com/about/content-innovation/u3d-models.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koller, D., Frischer, B. and Humphreys, G.</hi> (2009). Research Challenges for Digital Archives of 3D Cultural Heritage Models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(3) (December): art. 7.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mansfield, T., Winter, C., Griffith, C., Dockerty, A. and Brown, T.</hi> (2014). Innovation Study: Challenges and Opportunities for Australia’s Galleries, Libraries, Archives and Museums. Australian Centre for Broadband Innovation, CSIRO and Smart Services Co-operative Research Centre.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reinhard, A.</hi> (2013). Publishing Archaeological Linked Open Data: From Steampunk to Sustainability. http://dlib.nyu.edu/awdl/isaw/isaw-papers/7/reinhard/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thwaites, H.</hi> 2013. Digital Heritage: What Happens When We Digitize Everything? In Ch’ng, E., Gaffney, V. and Chapman, H. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Visual Heritage in the Digital Age.</hi> London: Springer.
                    </bibl>
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                        <surname>Medek</surname>
                        <forename>André</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>andre.medek@informatik.uni-halle.de</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ritter</surname>
                        <forename>Jörg</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>joerg.ritter@informatik.uni-halle.de</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Molitor</surname>
                        <forename>Paul</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>paul.molitor@informatik.uni-halle.de</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Kösser</surname>
                        <forename>Sylwia</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>sylwia.koesser@germanistik.uni-halle.de</email>
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            <p>In this paper we present an intuitive and interactive visualisation of comparison results on Early New High German manuscript records supporting the scholar to determine clusters of similar records. Based on detailed comparison results generated by the framework LAKOMP, an easily accountable similarity graph is dynamically generated. By selecting portions of text and manuscript records of interest, the scholar can explore the commonalities and divergences by witnesses linked to the graph elements. </p>
            <p>* * *</p>
            <p>Philologists studying the genetic origin of texts with multiple available records face the challenge of identifying genetically close records. To the end, for every two records the witnesses for similarities or divergence have to be listed. Done manually, a pair-wise comparison of records is a tedious task that would vastly benefit from automatic tool support. Here we present such tool support for Early New High German manuscripts. Searching for similarities and divergences between manuscripts of this stage of the German language is a particular challenge because of the lack of a common orthography. Actually, our tool is a semiautomatic multistage approach that leads to an interactive similarity graph that represents the similarities of records in an intuitive and transparent way. This graph gives an overall view of the relationships between the different records. Together with the possibility to ‘jump’ to the witnesses for similarities, it allows philologists to confirm or confute previously formulated hypotheses about the clustering of records. This similarity graph is based on witnesses for similarities of records identified by our framework LAKOMP (Medek et al., 2014; 2015) that is being developed in the interdisciplinary project Semi-automatic Difference Analysis of Complex Text Variants (SaDA), in which Germanists, Romanists, and computer scientists develop software tools for supporting philological text comparison projects. Existing tools for comparing multiple text records such as Juxta (Juxta, 2014) or collateX (Dekker and Middell, 2011) do offer visualisations for their comparison results also, but lack a good scalability for large amounts of texts and do not make use of annotation data such as lemmata, which is crucial for comparing Early New High German manuscripts. </p>
            <p>We present our approach through the example of the 15th-century manuscript ‘Wundarznei’ by Heinrich von Pfalzpaint, a forefather of plastic surgery and one of the most famous surgeons in the late Middle Ages. While the original manuscript has been lost, 11 manuscript records written by different copyists in the 15th and 16th centuries are known. One of these records is presumed lost; the other 10 records are available to science and are now subject to a detailed comparison by Germanists at the Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg. Figure 1 shows a facsimile of a page of one of these records. Besides the detailed listing of differences among the records for corresponding text passages as critical apparatus, a goal of the text comparison is the grouping of records according to their similarities. </p>
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            <p>Figure 1. A facsimile of the manuscript Dresden 292 of the ‘Wundarznei’. Source: SLUB Dresden/Handschriftensammlung, Signature: [Mscr.Dresd.C292, fol. 151v].</p>
            <p>Approach </p>
            <p>A prerequisite for visualising similarities is a detailed comparison of the records. For an automatic comparison of the manuscripts of the ‘Wundarznei’, a particular challenge arises due to the lack of a common orthography in Early New High German. Because of very different spellings of the same word form even within a single record, an automatic identification of word forms is not possible. A founded identification de facto requires manual intervention of the philological researchers for nearly every word in the manuscript records. We meet this problem by using lemmata of the word forms instead of the word forms themselves for the comparison of the records. An appropriate semiautomatic tool for lemmatisation of Early New High German manuscripts is integrated in our framework LAKOMP 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">(</hi>Medek et al., 2014)
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">.</hi> It offers the philologist an intuitive, user-friendly, and very fast interface to enter lemmata for all word forms of a text.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> Currently, it is applied in multiple philological projects. 
            </p>
            <p>After the lemmatisation of the manuscripts, the comparison is done in two steps, covering two levels of detail. In the first step, corresponding text passages among the records are identified. For this purpose, the records are split into small segments, e.g., sentences or parts of sentences. These segments are aligned in a tabular manner such that corresponding segments of different records are placed next to each other. In this table, each column contains consecutive segments of a record identified by its siglum. Figure 2 shows an excerpt of an alignment resulting from the first comparison step computed in LAKOMP using an alignment algorithm that is based on fingerprints of the segments and was developed within our project.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi>
            </p>
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                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.271875cm"" height=""6.905625cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Alignment of corresponding text passages. Here segmentation and alignment can be modified. Words marked in dark grey lack annotation data such as lemma or morphological data. A click on a word opens the annotation dialogue.</p>
            <p>In a second step, the corresponding segments are compared in detail on word level, resulting in a fine-grained alignment as shown in Figure 3. Here, each line contains a segment (as defined above) of a record. As a result, corresponding words of different records are placed in the same column. Every column in a word-level-based alignment in which two records have an entry is called a witness for the similarity of these two records. Counting the witnesses for each pair, the scholar obtains an objective measure to judge the genetic proximity of records. Pairs of records having a lot of witnesses are genetically closer to each other than pairs with only few witnesses. This information can be displayed graphically. An intuitive presentation is a similarity graph, in which each record is represented by a node. The similarities between two records are represented by an edge between their nodes. For each edge, a weight is determined by the witnesses, , e.g., by simply using the number of witnesses or by categorizing the witnesses and prioritising the numbers per category. Having annotation data such as part-of-speech tags, witnesses of word type noun can be weighted heavier than those of type conjunction. Highly weighted edges are drawn stronger and shorter than others, leading to a closer proximity of nodes. Figure 4 shows a similarity graph generated by LAKOMP applied to a large portion of the ‘Wundarznei’. As it is very crucial for scholars to understand the relation between a visualisation and the underlying data, LAKOMP allows interactive exploration and manipulation of the graph in a web browser. Current technology for dynamic web content by jQuery (jQuery, 2014) and visualisation by D3.js (D3, 2014) allow respectable and sophisticated renderings. Moving the mouse on an edge, the number of witnesses leading to this edge is displayed. By clicking on an edge, a list of all witnesses for this edge is presented, allowing the user to directly jump to the word-level-based alignments that contain the witnesses. Additionally, scholars can select the text passages and the records for which the similarity graph should be drawn. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.007291666666667cm"" height=""9.577916666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Detailed comparison of records.</p>
            <p>Preliminary Results </p>
            <p>In the case of the ‘Wundarznei’, Germanists are furthermore interested in finding groups of records, such that close records share a group. Until now, the existence of two groups has been assumed, group A containing the records with sigla H, Bu, D3, E, Br, and group B containing the records with sigla B8, B9, D2, P, St. However, the similarity graph shown in Figure 4, generated for a section of the text over all 10 available records, shows the existence of two clusters. Each cluster is a subset of one of the assumed groups, but the three records St, E, and P cannot be assigned to exactly one of these groups with certainty, either because of shared similarities to multiple groups or because of missing text in the considered section. The generated similarity graphs are fundamental for discussions of assumed groups, being an objective measure to support or reject assumptions by the clusters found. </p>
            <p>Funding</p>
            <p>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""18.185694444444444cm"" height=""14.299847222222223cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>This work was funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) [grant number 01UG1247] as part of the project Semi-automatische Differenzanalyse von komplexen Textvarianten under the direction of Professor Dr. Thomas Bremer, Professor Dr. Paul Molitor, Dr. Jörg Ritter, and Professor Dr. Hans-Joachim Solms. 
            </p>
            <p>Figure 4. A similarity graph with edges linked to witnesses.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. LAKOMP also supports the annotation with part-of-speech tags and morphological data, which can also be used for comparing the records.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. There are existing alignment algorithms used in statistical machine translation such as those implemented in tools like Giza++ (Liang et al., 2006) or Berkeley Aligner (Denero, 2007). These approaches compute alignments of two texts on the word level but require a huge training corpus providing pairs of corresponding sentences among the text variants. We did not use them because of their limitation to an alignment of two text variants at once, which leaves the problem of a generalization to more text variants unsolved. Another issue is their expensive training phase, which requires manually created training data for each pair of text variants.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dekker, R. H. and Middell, G.</hi> (2011). Computer-Supported Collation with CollateX: Managing Textual Variance in an Environment with Varying Requirements. In Maegaard (ed.)., 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Supporting Digital Humanities</hi>, Conference Proceedings, Copenhagen, 17–18 November 2011. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Plain Text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Denero, J.</hi> (2007). Tailoring Word Alignments to Syntactic Machine Translation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 45th Annual Meeting of ACL.</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">D3.</hi> (2014). D3—Data-Driven Documents. http://d3js.org. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">jQuery.</hi> (2014). jQuery—Write Less, Do More. http://jquery.com.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Juxta.</hi> (2014). Juxta—Compare—Collate—Discover. http://www.juxtasoftware.org.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Plain Text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Liang, P., Taskar, B. and Klein, D.</hi> (2006). Alignment by Agreement. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings on Human Language Technology Conference of the North American Chapter of the ACL</hi>, pp. 104–11.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Medek, A., Pöckelmann, M., Bremer, Th., Solms, H. J., Molitor, P. and Ritter, J.</hi> (2015). Differenzanalyse komplexer textvarianten: Diskussion und werkzeuge. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Datenbank-Spektrum</hi>, Themenheft ‘Informationsmanagement für Digital Humanities’, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">15</hi>(1) (March): 25–31, http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs13222-014-0173-y.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Medek, A., Ritter, J., Molitor, P., Kösser, S. and Leipold, A.</hi> (2014). User-Friendly Lemmatization and Morphological Annotation of Early New High German Manuscripts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities, DH2014</hi>, Lausanne, 7–12 July 2014.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">SaDA.</hi> (2014). Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg: SaDA—Semi-automatische Differenzanalyse von komplexen Textvarianten. http://www.informatik.uni-halle.de/sada.
                    </bibl>
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                        <forename>Markus</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Universität Stuttgart, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>markus.John@vis.uni-stuttgart.de</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Koch</surname>
                        <forename>Steffen</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Universität Stuttgart, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>steffen.Koch@vis.uni-stuttgart.de</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Heimerl</surname>
                        <forename>Florian</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Universität Stuttgart, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>florian.Heimerl@vis.uni-stuttgart.de</email>
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                        <surname>Müller</surname>
                        <forename>Andreas</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Universität Stuttgart, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>andreas.mueller@ims.uni-stuttgart.de</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ertl</surname>
                        <forename>Thomas</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Universität Stuttgart, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>thomas.ertl@vis.uni-stuttgart.de</email>
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                <author>
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                        <surname>Kuhn</surname>
                        <forename>Jonas</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Universität Stuttgart, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>jonas.kuhn@ims.uni-stuttgart.de</email>
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            <p>Information visualization plays an important role in analyzing and understanding large amounts of quantitative data, a task getting evermore important in our age of big data. The increasing volumes of digital data sources being created and the growing use of quantitative methods for their analysis in the digital humanities additionally motivates the application of information visualization approaches in this particular discipline. It is no surprise that visualization techniques, including network visualization, trees, and all kinds of diagrams and charts, rise in popularity in the digital humanities as an elegant means to convey knowledge and insights buried deep inside large heaps of quantitative data. </p>
            <p>Information visualization does not have to stop at the stage of creating static images, which it is still largely used for. Adding interaction can be a game changer in many respects. Visual representations are often not authoritative, since they were created based on quantitative data, which in turn may have been derived through automatic processing steps. Such automatic processing can be a source of uncertainties and errors that are then reflected in visual representation. Even with an entirely noiseless data source, such as manually prepared data, inadequate mappings to visual representations may lead to misinterpretations. For those two reasons, uncritical interpretation of such visual representations is likely to cause problems.</p>
            <p>Interaction can be used to let users navigate to the data sources of visualizations and make the methods abstracting this data more transparent for users to understand and control their accuracy and validity. For text documents as the data source, interaction helps to bridge the gap between distant and close reading, to use Moretti’s terminology (2005).</p>
            <p>Thinking further along these lines, the next logical step would be the introduction of facilities for updating, steering, and improving the analytic processes through interactive feedback on the visual representation. With the mentioned interaction methods achieving a new level of control, the development of a visual analytics approach offering such possibilities comes into reach.</p>
            <p>In the following we illustrate our effort towards this goal for the analysis of text documents with approaches developed in the context of the project ePoetics—Corpus Analysis and Visualization of German Poetics Towards an ‘Algorithmic Criticism’.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi>
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            <p>Interactive Visualization Concepts</p>
            <p>We developed two interactive visualization methods to support literary analysis with the help of advanced navigation concepts. Both visualize text documents at different levels of abstraction, including the distribution of various details. These include search terms, available annotations, and automatically extracted information, e.g., named entities or derived concepts. With the simultaneous depiction of overview and detail, visually emerging patterns can be readily perceived and the reason for their occurrence can be identified quickly.</p>
            <p>While the approaches were developed with the goal of offering both overview and detail at the same time, they differ in their scope of application. The first one provides a multi-level visual abstraction of a single literary work (Koch et al., 2014). It supports researchers in analyzing text from different ‘distances’, acknowledging the inherent hierarchical structure of a document. The second approach offers just two abstraction levels but is designed to let researchers compare an aspect of interest between different texts (John et al., 2014).</p>
            <p>Data</p>
            <p>The ePoetics project aims at analyzing and visualizing a digitized collection of very specific historic documents, namely 20 selected German poetics from the years 1770 to 1960 (Richter, 2010). Poetics are secondary sources including discussions and criticism of literary texts that can be regarded as one of the building blocks of modern literary studies. The corpus was digitized through a double-keying process, and layout, structure, and contained literary concepts were manually annotated. </p>
            <p>Approaches </p>
            <p>The multi-level visualization approach enables a researcher to browse and inspect documents based on the inherent structure of the document, e.g., chapters, subchapters, pages, and lines (Figure 1). It encompasses several views to show abstractions of the text, results of search requests, and annotations appropriate to the user’s needs. These views can be attached to each level, as is most adequate for the task at hand. The hierarchical visualization and the navigation concept are based on the SmoothScroll approach (Wörmer and Ertl, 2013). It provides analysts with means to navigate through the visualization and to keep track of the current position across all aggregation levels. </p>
            <p>As an interactive visual approach to literary text analysis, it combines the concepts of distant and close reading. Analysts are provided with a complete overview of the document and visual representations of different levels of abstraction that depict aggregated information about text passages of different lengths.</p>
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            <p>Figure 1. Schematic representation of a three-layer SmoothScroll view. The left layer displays a coarse view of the entire text document, the right layer a detailed but clipped view of individual lines. Highlights indicate which portion of the less detailed layers correspond to the section visible on the detail layer (see Koch et al., 2014).</p>
            <p>Several abstract views can be attached to each layer, including word clouds, bar charts, and pictograms. The word clouds highlight prominent concepts and serve as a summarization of a text passage. Exploring these concepts may lead to further analyses and is conducive to the development of new hypotheses and ideas. Bar charts show the number of occurrences of annotations—e.g., persons, quotes, or search terms in a section of the text—while pictograms display the location on a small multiple of the respective page. This gives users an overview of the distribution annotations and helps them to find passages for further analysis. An additional feature is to display facsimiles of the original pages. This gives the analysts immediate access to all non-textual information. This may include handwritten text or pictures, which will typically look different when converted to a digital text format.</p>
            <p>The approach assists in literary text analysis with a flexible combination of different visual abstractions that can be adapted to summarize all the information that is important for the task at hand. An analysis example is shown in Figure 2. In the depicted configuration, the term ‘Wallenstein’ (3rd word cloud) arouses the analyst’s interest. After selecting ‘Wallenstein’ the bar charts and pictograms show the distribution of this term and let her navigate quickly to all relevant text passages. In this case, additional literature related to ‘Wallenstein’ is of particular interest to the analyst. As all citations are automatically identified and highlighted on multiple levels of abstraction, she can easily find and analyze them, and thus quickly gain a valuable resource for further studies.</p>
            <p>Figure 2. Emil Staiger’s ‘Grundbegriffe der Poetik’ divided into layers, showing chapters (word clouds), subchapters (bar charts and pictograms), pages (pictograms), lines of text, and scanned images of the actual pages.</p>
            <p>The second approach we want to discuss is designed to support and expedite the analysis of multiple texts in parallel. The implementation is depicted in Figure 3. Three selected text sources are displayed next to each other as a ribbon. Users can select text passages for analysis, which open up a text box for the document at the corresponding position. Green bars show the position of the selected annotations. The selected text passages are placed next to each other for easy comparison. The scrollbars allow navigation through the documents. For further analysis, users can search for arbitrary terms whose distribution is displayed as orange bars on the ribbons.</p>
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            <p>Figure 3. Three selected texts are displayed. Each of the sources has a scale indicating the page number of the original documents to the left, a ribbon showing the position of the selected annotations (green bars), and another for the search results (orange bars).</p>
            <p>The focus + context technique of this approach supports a smooth switching between distant and close reading of scholarly sources. It allows the comparison of text passages across different documents to contrast and compare texts from, e.g., different authors or different periods of time. The overview visualization enables the comparison of multiple documents on an abstract level with respect to the distribution annotations and terms chosen by the analyst, while the text boxes allow for free navigation through the single texts and make it easy to find interesting passages for comparison.</p>
            <p>Future Work</p>
            <p>The approaches have been evaluated through expert feedback that suggests that they are both effective for literary analysis. For future work, we are planning a comprehensive study of their effectiveness compared to existing text analysis approaches and are aiming at examining different analysis strategies accommodated by the approaches.</p>
            <p>As previously mentioned as a general goal, we are currently working towards a comprehensive analysis approach, including automatic processing of text and other data that can be steered and adapted interactively according to users’ needs. We have already conducted multiple experiments to include such methods into our approaches, and we plan to extend these techniques for various new applications.</p>
            <p>We believe that the analysis of other types of text and literary works can benefit considerably from the visualization and interactive techniques developed in the ePoetics project.</p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. ePoetics (www.epoetics.de) is an ongoing research collaboration between the University of Stuttgart and the Technical University Darmstadt funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF).</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">John, M., Heimerl, F., Müller, A. and Koch, S</hi>. (2014). A Visual Focus+Context Approach for Text Comparison Tasks. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of</hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space"">
                            <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>
                            <hi rend=""italic"">VisLR</hi>
                            <hi rend=""italic""> Workshop, LREC 2014</hi>. 
                        </hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koch, S., John, M., Wörner, M. and Ertl, T</hi>. (2014). VarifocalReader—In-Depth Visual Analysis of Large Text Documents. In
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space"">
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics,</hi>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">20</hi>(12), IEEE
                        </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(030303)"">, pp. 1723–32. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F. </hi>(2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History.</hi> Verso Books.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Richter, S</hi>. (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A History of Poetics: German Scholarly Aesthetics and Poetics in International Context, 1770–1960.</hi> De Gruyter.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wörner, M. and Ertl, T.</hi> (2013). SmoothScroll: A Multi-Scale, Multi-Layer Slider. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computer Vision, Imaging and Computer Graphics—Theory and Applications,</hi> Communications in Computer and Information Science 274, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 142–54.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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"2281","16","Interrogating Our Collections; Interrogating Ourselves","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Denoon</surname>
                        <forename>Louise</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>State Library of NSW, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>louise.denoon@sl.nsw.gov.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Edmonds</surname>
                        <forename>Elise</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>State Library of NSW, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>elise.edmonds@sl.nsw.gov.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Franks</surname>
                        <forename>Rachel</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>State Library of NSW, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>rachel.franks@sl.nsw.gov.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Neville</surname>
                        <forename>Richard</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>State Library of NSW, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>richard.neville@sl.nsw.gov.au</email>
                </author>
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                <edition>
                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <addrLine>Locked Bag 1797</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>Access</term>
                    <term>Curation</term>
                    <term>Digitisation</term>
                    <term>Library</term>
                    <term>World War I</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>archives</term>
                    <term>repositories</term>
                    <term>sustainability and preservation</term>
                    <term>GLAM: galleries</term>
                    <term>libraries</term>
                    <term>archives</term>
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            <p>The State Library of NSW is custodian for a suite of extraordinary collections documenting the heritage of Australia and Oceania. In an age where technology has become entrenched in everyday life, the Library is working to transition digitisation of these collections from ‘a special project’ to ‘business as usual’. In this way the Library seeks to ensure collections are more meaningful to more people.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Interrogating Our Collections</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Increased access to collections is highlighted here through the lens of the Library’s diaries from World War I. Commemorations of the war have generated significant community enthusiasm for learning about the history of this conflict, particularly the personal stories of Australian servicemen and women. In response to increased interest in the diaries, and associated materials, the Library embarked on a project to transcribe (in 2008) and digitise (in 2013) over 1,100 diaries. An important, resource-intensive, and parallel project was the upgrading of the provenance history of the diaries and a close examination of their copyright status (which is varied). Considerable work was also undertaken to enhance descriptive metadata (including authority records)—the very foundation of subsequent data-sharing projects linking these diaries to other data repositories.</p>
            <p>This has facilitated significantly easier access to the collection and simultaneously presents opportunities to interrogate this material in new ways, including patterns that might be revealed from a geo-location analysis. There are also options for general crowdsourced tagging and high-level interactions with the diaries, to track individual word usage and assist in unpacking broader themes around grief and loss or post-traumatic stress disorder. Such research will enable the identification of trends that are there—anticipated and unanticipated—but also those trends that we might expect but are missing.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Interrogating Ourselves</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Interrogating a collection such as this demands that the Library interrogate its own practices. How do we curate collections and subsequently allow for easy navigation of content in an increasingly digital world? For the State Library of NSW, another key question is how do the neat and polished presentations of digitised material convey the complexity of the Library’s holdings? The World War I diaries, for example, are in sharp contrast to the symmetrical war service records—formatted information on standardised index cards—of those who served. The diaries, which like many collections have their own peculiarities, are very much a suite of personal objects with differences between volumes, including binding type, paper type, handwriting styles, and the inclusion of sentimental objects such as flowers and postcards, while some diaries have been taken apart and mounted into albums. This has generated critical conversations around not only which collection should be digitised but also how much detail from each collection needs to be captured (core content only or core and peripheral content?) to meet the needs of researchers and maximise the potential of the digital environment.</p>
            <p>Additionally, the Library needs to ask how it structures meaningful relationships to avoid being simply a cipher of content. How do we manage the risk of privileging certain kinds of content? In a space where datasets are made available with a ‘take it and play’ philosophy, how do we measure interaction with, and scholarly outputs from, materials made available? Indeed, all libraries need to ask questions that support the future of data collection and data use. Decision making needs to be transparent and produce results that align collections with digital humanities researchers; especially those looking to distribute content in a less labour-intensive, mediated way.</p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>Digitisation is a great equaliser, democratising knowledge, yet this has the potential to merely change repositories from onsite to online. Collecting institutions can be fantastic interpreters of their often unique collections and need to maintain this role. They also need to be prepared to share, as research projects can be enhanced through the combination of new data sources such as transcriptions and geo-coding and traditional metadata, all of which have resource implications. The authors argue that the questions asked of the World War I materials held by the State Library of NSW can also be asked of some of the other collections for which the Library is a custodian. Moreover, potential to explore these collections within a digital humanities framework needs to be examined, and new opportunities explored: What would happen, for example, if war images were put through facial recognition software? Of particular importance, alongside the creation of new knowledge, is the generation of new ways of storytelling and how traditional research can intersect with creative practice to produce different ways of seeing and understanding. </p>
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"2282","16","Inversed N-gram viewer: Searching the space of word temporal profiles","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Buntinx</surname>
                        <forename>Vincent</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>EPFL (École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne), Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>vincent.buntinx@epfl.ch</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Kaplan</surname>
                        <forename>Frédéric</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>EPFL (École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne), Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>frederic.kaplan@epfl.ch</email>
                </author>
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                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>inversed n-gram viewer</term>
                    <term>n-gram viewer</term>
                    <term>temporal profiles</term>
                    <term>words frequencies</term>
                    <term>curves fitting</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>corpora and corpus activities</term>
                    <term>information retrieval</term>
                    <term>natural language processing</term>
                    <term>semantic analysis</term>
                    <term>text analysis</term>
                    <term>linguistics</term>
                    <term>media studies</term>
                    <term>data mining / text mining</term>
                    <term>English</term>
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        <body>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Studies based on the visualization and analysis of temporal profiles of words using a so-called n-gram approach have been popular in recent years (Michel et al., 2011; Delahaye and Gauvrit, 2013). However, most of the studies so far discuss the case of remarkable words that are mainly found due to the researcher’s intuitions for finding ‘interesting’ curves using the n-gram viewer. In this paper, we investigate how we could inverse the problem and automatically explore the space of temporal curves in search for words. For instance, we could be interested in asking the system to retrieve all curves ‘similar’ to a given one. This would entail the definition of a method to describe temporal profiles and classify them according to a predefined distance.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""15.889111111111111cm"" height=""9.923638888888888cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Figure 1. Four examples of curves: (1) The word ‘1889’ is very popular in the year 1889 but ceases to be as interesting quickly after; (2) the term ‘olympique’ is very popular every four years; (3) the term ‘informatique’ keeps getting more popular over time; (4) the term ‘URSS’ is very popular only between 1950 and 1990.</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">The study presented in this paper uses a database of 4 million articles covering a period of 200 years and is composed of digitized facsimiles of ‘Le Journal de Genève’ and ‘La Gazette de Lausanne’. Each article has been OCRed and indexed in an SQL database. For each indexed word, the yearly temporal profile showing the relative number of word occurrences in the corpus has been pre-computed. We designed an n-gram viewer that allows for the simultaneous comparison of up to four words. In order to compare these curves with one another and therefore be able to retrieve ‘similar’ curves automatically in the database, we need to find a simple way of describing them. The problem could be approached in a very general manner (how to describe an unknown curve by approximating it on a given decomposition base) or could take into account the fact that we are dealing with temporal profiles that could be described by a given limited number of archetypical curves. The second option implies having some a priori knowledge about the kind of curves one might encounter but has the advantage of allowing for a very compact description of general curves using a family of possible profiles. We choose this second option in this paper. </p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">The first step of our curve analyzer is to associate a given curve to a preexisting curve family. This can be done in a hierarchical manner. At this stage of our research, we decompose curves into four basic families: ‘Dirac’ curves (with a single peak), periodic curves (with regular peaks of popularity), monotonic linear curves (either increasing or decreasing) and ‘square’ curves (associated with a predefined period). It is clear that these four families do not cover the entire spectrum of possible curves but they do provide a possible starting point for investigating the space of ‘remarkable’ curves. To determine if a given curve can be reasonably approximated by one of the four families, we carry out a sequence of tests, starting with the periodicity of the curve. To evaluate whether a curve is periodic we simply compute its Fourier transform and automatically check for hidden periodicity. If the curve is detected to be periodic we extract the period and try to fit a ‘comb’ function as defined by the following formula:</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">
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                                                        <mo>-</mo>
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                                                <mi>o</mi>
                                                <mi>d</mi>
                                                <mi>u</mi>
                                                <mi>l</mi>
                                                <mi>o</mi>
                                                <mi> </mi>
                                                <mi>t</mi>
                                                <mo>=</mo>
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                                    <mtr>
                                        <mtd>
                                            <mrow>
                                                <maligngroup/>
                                                <mi>b</mi>
                                                <mo>,</mo>
                                                <mi> </mi>
                                                <mi> </mi>
                                                <mi> </mi>
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                                                <malignmark/>
                                                <mi>i</mi>
                                                <mi>f</mi>
                                                <mi> </mi>
                                                <mi>x</mi>
                                                <mo>≥</mo>
                                                <mi>m</mi>
                                                <mi> </mi>
                                                <mi> </mi>
                                                <mi>a</mi>
                                                <mi>n</mi>
                                                <mi>d</mi>
                                                <mi> </mi>
                                                <mi> </mi>
                                                <mfenced separators=""|"">
                                                    <mrow>
                                                        <mi>x</mi>
                                                        <mo>-</mo>
                                                        <mi>m</mi>
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                                                </mfenced>
                                                <mi> </mi>
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                                                <mi>o</mi>
                                                <mi>d</mi>
                                                <mi>u</mi>
                                                <mi>l</mi>
                                                <mi>o</mi>
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                                                <mi>t</mi>
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                    </mml:math>
                </formula>The fitting is done using Particle Swarm Optimization method (PSO) (Trelea, 2003), and the quality of the fitting with the theoretical curve is measured using the classical least squares error (minimizes the sum of squared 
                <ref target=""http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Errors_and_residuals_in_statistics"">residuals</ref>).
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""18.690166666666666cm"" height=""5.847291666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Figure 2. Temporal profile (blue) of the word ‘olympique’ with fitted curve (green) and Fourier transform (right).</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Using the model, the extracted period becomes a way of comparing periodic curves with one another. Figure 3 shows different curves sorted by periodicities.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""13.821833333333334cm"" height=""8.623652777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Figure 3. Temporal profile (blue) of the words ‘olympique’, ‘fifa’, ‘recensement’, and ‘halley’ with fitted curve (green).</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">For each curve, the sum of the squared 
                <ref target=""http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Errors_and_residuals_in_statistics"">residuals</ref> between the actual curve and the fitted curve is calculated, which then represents the error of the comparison between them. This measure is used to optimize the fitting and allows for determining the category the actual curve belongs to when the optimization is done for all predefined categories of curves. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">For ‘peaks’ we try to fit the curve with a classical model used in the analysis of ‘fads’ (e.g., the use of this model in the context of the analysis of Internet Memes [Bauckhage et al., 2013]) by using the Fréchet curve (Alves and Nevers, 2010) as defined by the following formula:</p>
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                                                <mi> </mi>
                                                <mi> </mi>
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                                                <mi> </mi>
                                                <mi> </mi>
                                                <mi>e</mi>
                                                <mi>l</mi>
                                                <mi>s</mi>
                                                <mi>e</mi>
                                                <mi> </mi>
                                                <mi> </mi>
                                                <mi> </mi>
                                                <mi> </mi>
                                                <mi> </mi>
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                                            </mrow>
                                        </mtd>
                                    </mtr>
                                </mtable>
                            </mrow>
                        </mfenced>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula>
            </p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Using this model, fitted curves can be described using the position and value of the peak, allowing optimization with only one degree of freedom. These three parameters can be used to compare curves with one another as shown in Figure 4.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""12.611805555555556cm"" height=""11.814527777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Figure 4. The year 1889 is much like 1906 using the fitted Fréchet curves. The years 1848 and 1940, because of their historical significance, have rather different parameters despite the fact that they belong to the same family. For the years 1900 and 1914, the error of fitting is higher, meaning that they might belong to a different category of curves.</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">The same approach can be conducted with linear monotonic curves and ‘squared’ curves. </p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">We believe that inversing the problem of n-gram visualization by enabling automatic search in a space of curves could profoundly transform research in this area, going beyond the intuitive search for remarkable curves. It is likely that many different levels of information, combining semantics and grammatical constraints with historical contexts, are implicitly coded in n-gram temporal profiles.</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Understanding how to classify and study these curves is important for harnessing the power of this set of statistical tools. The solution based on families of simple archetypical curves briefly described in this article is certainly not the only way of approaching this question but constitutes an initial attempt to demonstrate the potential of this overall research goal. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Bauckhage</hi>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">, C., </hi>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Kersting</hi>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">, </hi>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">K. and </hi>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Hadiji</hi>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">.</hi>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">F.</hi> (2013). Mathematical Models of Fads Explain the Temporal Dynamics of Internet Memes. International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media, Cambridge, MA, 8–11 July 2013.
                        </hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Delahaye, J.-P. and Gauvrit, N.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Culturomics: Le numérique et la culture</hi>. O. Jacob, Paris. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Fraga</hi>
                            <hi rend=""bold""> Alves, M. I. and </hi>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Neves</hi>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">, C.</hi> (2010). Extreme Value Distributions. In Lovric, M. (ed.), International Encyclopedia of Statistical Science. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 493–96,
                        </hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">doi
                        <hi rend=""italic"">:10.1007/978-3-642-04898-2.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Michel, J.-B., et al.</hi> (2011). Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Science,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">331</hi>(17), doi:10.1126/science.1199644.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Trelea</hi>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">, I. C.</hi> (2003). The Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm: Convergence Analysis and Parameter Selection. Information Processing Letters, 
                            <hi rend=""bold"">85</hi>(6): 317–25, ISSN 0020-0190, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0020-0190(02)00447-7.
                        </hi>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2283","16","Issues And Challenges In Digitizing Sanskrit Manuscripts","9","","","1","",""
"2284","16","Ivanhoe: A Platform for Textual Play","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Chawla</surname>
                        <forename>Swati</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Virginia, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>sc2wt@virginia.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ferguson</surname>
                        <forename>Andrew</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Virginia, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>af3pj@virginia.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Grayburn</surname>
                        <forename>Jennifer</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Virginia, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>jng3au@virginia.edu</email>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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            <p>As members of the 2014–2015 Praxis Program cohort at the UVA Scholars’ Lab, we set ourselves the task this year of updating Ivanhoe—the digital platform for roleplaying and textual intervention first formulated by Jerome McGann, Johanna Drucker, and Bethany Nowviskie. In its initial conception, the idea of Ivanhoe as a space for creative interaction and intervention grew out of ‘dissatisfaction with the limitations inherent in received forms of interpretation’; the players ‘wanted to develop a more imaginative form of critical methodology, a form closer in spirit and method to original works of poetry and literature’ (McGann and Drucker, 2003).</p>
            <p>This concretized thought experiment has seemed ideal for use in classroom curricula (McGann et al., 2004) that draw increasingly on notions of play and games for pedagogical outcomes (Willett et al., 2009). Play, generally, tends to be defined by what it is not: play is not work. Yet, over the past century, scholars and instructors have recognized and embraced play as a vital component of the learning process (Patton, 2014). As a result, games and play have been theorized and applied to curricula as a way to engage students in high school and college. While theory behind play education seems well-established, however, there is a strong disconnect between that theory—what we as educators believe we are doing—and what college students understand and internalize. In fact, by requiring such interactions, it seems that we eliminate the spontaneity and self-motivation so effective in play and ultimately induce student confusion, frustration, and anxiety (Ludewig and Ludewig-Rohwer, 2013). As we evaluated our goals for the purpose and design of Ivanhoe, we found ourselves wrestling with the classic question of digital classroom tools: How to make a program that students engage with by choice, rather than by force?</p>
            <p>In response to this question, we find ourselves investigating how textual intervention plays out in communities with long-running histories of sustained roleplay: tabletop and paper gaming, alternate history-making, fan fiction sites, and others. This has moved us away from concentrating on designing for classroom use alone (with its implicit inequalities of available resources, educational opportunity, and so on), and towards a more flexible tool designed to allow for textual creativity by a wide range of interactive, interpretive communities. By focusing on accessibility and ease of use across platforms—improving the desktop version on which Ivanhoe presently resides, but also making better use of WordPress’s mobile functionality—we aim to produce an updated Ivanhoe capable of fostering textual play as something sought out as its own end, rather than for the purpose of earning badges or engaging in other methods of gamification.</p>
            <p>At present, we envision such a resource as building on the presently available WordPress theme designed by the previous year’s Praxis group, keeping its emphasis on sustained roleplay and mutual commentary. However, we also look to draw on social media tools such as Yikyak and Snapchat that value anonymity, ephemerality, and asynchronous response time. This flexibility provides space for players to negotiate their roles and the conditions of their participation in a variety of emergent communities of play. As time allows, we hope also to incorporate improved functionality, with the capacity to incorporate not only a variety of media but also scripts, stylesheets, and other interactive elements—while maintaining a simple learning curve so that the platform can be used by players of any computing experience level.</p>
            <p>At the DH 2015 conference, we propose to demonstrate Ivanhoe in both static and dynamic formats—the former as a demonstration of sessions already played within Ivanhoe, showing the capabilities of the platform; the latter as a interactive play session that will run for the duration of the conference. Through this new build, we aim to realize the playful spontaneity inherent in the early Ivanhoe sessions of McGann, Drucker, Nowviskie, et al., while opening up the possibility of participation beyond the small groups of the classroom to a vastly expanded base of users.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ivanhoe.</hi> (n.d.). http://ivanhoe.scholarslab.org.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ludewig, A. and Ludewig-Rohwer, I.</hi> (2013). Does Web-Based Role-Play Establish a High-Quality Learning Environment? Design versus Evaluation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Issues in Educational Research,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(2): 164–79.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McGann, J. </hi>(in collaboration with J. Drucker and B. Nowviskie). (2004). Ivanhoe: Education in a New Key. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Romantic Circles</hi>. December, http://www.rc.umd.edu/pedagogies/commons/innovations/IVANHOE.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McGann, J. and Drucker, J.</hi> (2003). The Ivanhoe Game. http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/jjm2f/old/IGamehtm.html. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nowviskie, B.</hi> (2009). Sketching Ivanhoe. June 5. http://nowviskie.org/2009/sketching-ivanhoe/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Patton, R. M.</hi> (2014). Games That Art Educators Play: Games in the Historical and Cultural Context of Art Education. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Studies in Art Education,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">55</hi>(1): 241–52. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pill, S.</hi> (2014). Game Play: What Does It Mean for Pedagogy to Think Like a Game Developer? 
                        <hi rend=""italic color(474747)"">Journal of Physical Education, Recreation &amp; Dance,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">85</hi>(1) (January): 9–15.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rao, D. and Stupans, I.</hi> (2012). Exploring the Potential of Role Play in Higher Education: Development of a Typology and Teacher Guidelines. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Innovations in Education and Teaching International,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">49</hi>(4) (November): 427–36.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Willett, R., Robinson, M. and Marsh, J.</hi> (eds). (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Play, Creativity, and Digital Cultures. </hi>Routledge, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wills, S., Leigh, E. and Ip, A</hi>. (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Power of Role-Based E-Learning: Designing and Moderating Online Role Play. </hi>Routledge, New York. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2285","16","Kapital: An Interactive Fiction Game","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Milstein</surname>
                        <forename>Dana</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Yale University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>dana.milstein@yale.edu</email>
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                    <term>audio</term>
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                    <term>games and meaningful play</term>
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                    <term>programming</term>
                    <term>digital humanities - pedagogy and curriculum</term>
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            <p rend=""CM5"">Japanese publisher East Press published a manga edition of Karl Marx’s multivolume 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Das Kapital</hi> in 2007, and in that same year released 507,000 copies. Several scholars have written on (and created) the practice of transposing difficult philosophy or classic literature into graphic novels and comic books. However, what happens when the manga themselves are transposed into a more interactive art form? 
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">Visual novels are interactive fiction games that incorporate game play and are usually centered on dialogue, non-linear narratives, and multiple perspectives. In this presentation I immerse the audience in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kapital</hi> using Ren’Py, a visual novel engine based on simplified Python scripting. (Please see the game’s information site here: http://campuspress.yale.edu/marxifg/.)
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">Session Audience</p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">Teaching and learning professionals / faculty / instructional designers, frontline practitioners.</p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">Session Description</p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">The focus of this presentation is to immerse our audience in game play of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kapital</hi>. I anticipate that audience participation will serve as experiential learning for the visual novel as a serious game, and will therefore lead to a robust discussion about the merits and pitfalls of this learning approach. For learners of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kapital</hi>, I am concerned that long philosophical documents that hold importance for current cultural issues are, nevertheless, inaccessible to the majority of students because they are dense, weighty, and of astronomical length. I endeavor through gameplay to have players embodied in the philosophy, to learn theory through doing, and to react in ways that will reveal that they are able to make appropriate decisions using their new knowledge base. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM2"">Value of Serious Games and Interactive Fiction for Higher Education</p>
            <p> 1. This is a method for promoting literacy of and exposure to inaccessible philosophical texts whose ideologies are vogue in culture and criticism. </p>
            <p> 2. The form of the visual novel is gaining popularity and will find some use value in education (is it serious game, edutainment, or literary?). </p>
            <p> 3. The issues of digital learning—to code in Python, techniques for storyboarding, and translation issues—are paramount. Increasingly, IT will need to develop these types of games, offer workshops to support student and faculty learning of programming, and mentor groups in project management and theories of game design. </p>
            <p rend=""CM2"">Learning Outcomes</p>
            <p> 1. Understand and apply critical concepts from 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kapital</hi>.
            </p>
            <p> 2. Engage in and comprehend the structure and form of the visual novel.</p>
            <p> 3. Identify the process for designing an IF game.</p>
            <p> 4. Envision use value for the genre in learning environments.</p>
            <p rend=""CM2"">Of interest to the presentation is the unique collaborative background for this project: The presenter is partnering as a staff-faculty member with undergraduate student Alex Lew to create 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kapital</hi>. They have successfully presented the game design, history, and practice in two conferences, including the inaugural presentation of Yale’s Performance Studies Working (fall 2014), and in the first session of the INKE (Implementing New Knowledge Environments) Conference (Chicago, 2014). They have also submitted this proposal to Educause 2015 for joint presentation of the interactive demo. 
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"2286","16","KinDigi Social: A Mobile-centered Social Annotation Platform for the Kindai Digital Library","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hashimoto</surname>
                        <forename>Yuta</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Kyoto University, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>yhashimoto1984@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Araki</surname>
                        <forename>Yasuyuki</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>National Diet Library, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>ya-araki@ndl.go.jp</email>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>digital collections</term>
                    <term>online collaboration</term>
                    <term>open annotation</term>
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                    <term>historical studies</term>
                    <term>interface and user experience design</term>
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            <p>The Kindai Digital Library (KDL) is an online collection of out-of-copyright books published in Japan in the 19th and 20th centuries run by the National Diet Library (NDL) of Japan.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> It offers full access to images scanned from books previously only available in the NDL. As of November 2014, the total number of volumes in the collection has grown to around 360,000. Although digitized text of the scans is not available due to the technical difficulties of applying OCR to old Japanese type fonts, the collection has been a precious resource for studies of the history of modern Japan since its start in 2003.
            </p>
            <p>KinDigi Social is an online platform for social annotation of digitized books in KDL; it offers iOS and Android clients to browse books in the KDL collection and provides a set of features to create and share annotations and tags, allowing users to exchange and discuss historical knowledge and ideas concerning the books. The project is one of the experimental projects supported by the NDL Lab, an R&amp;D section of NDL,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> and is going to be available at http://kindigi-social.org/ by the spring of 2015. In this paper, we will discuss the aims, methods, and implementation of the KinDigi Social platform.
            </p>
            <p>Aim of the Project</p>
            <p>The past several years saw growing interest in the use of social media for humanities studies in the digital humanities world. Possibilities of online collaboration for research in the humanities have been discussed on various occasions and put into practice in a number of research projects (Siemens et al, 2012; Barr and Tonra, 2014). Our research attempt is to apply the methodologies and techniques suggested by the results of those studies to the KDL. The need for such an attempt becomes clear when we see the numerous references and comments on books in the KDL made by professional and amateur historians not only in their academic papers but also in their blogs and social media posts (search ‘kindai.ndl.go.jp’ on Twitter, for instance). Although this sort of user-generated content is often quite valuable in that it can provide better understandings of the historical context of books, it has been left scattered over the Web and has not been archived for later references, which has resulted in a great loss of intellectual resources. Thus KinDigi Social aims to be a platform that aggregates and accumulates such annotations, and enables interdisciplinary discussion and collaboration among scholars for the purpose of further knowledge creation.</p>
            <p>Methods</p>
            <p>KinDigi Social allows its users to create annotations on both image region parts of a book and on the text itself. Each annotation accepts replies from other users so that idea-exchanging and discussion can take place. It is also possible to label each annotation with Twitter-like hashtags. On the other hand, the mere capacity to create annotations is not enough to build a sustainable social medium that will keep driving engagement of users and that can endure long-term use as an archive of historical knowledge; there are difficulties concerning user interfaces, information sharing, archiving and reuse of user-generated content, among other issues. Therefore we took the following three additional measures:</p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Mobile first development:</hi> Since currently the KDL doesn’t offer a user interface optimized for mobile devices, its users need to keep their eyes on PC displays to read the books held in the KDL. The loss of productivity derived from the limitations of this user interface cannot and should not be ignored. Although a desktop client is also planned for KinDigi Social, we have especially focused on building a rich mobile client that enables users to access the KDL almost anywhere using their iPads or other mobile devices, and provides them the same user experience gained from the use of mobile readers such as the Amazon Kindle (see Figure 1). One large problem with displaying scanned book images on mobile devices is their size; the images from the KDL have margins surrounding the actual books. For this we developed a lightweight image analysis library that automatically detects edges in a book image and removes unnecessary margins from it (see Figure 2). The code is open-source and available on Github.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi>
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Support for real-time collaboration:</hi> As the recent success of social media shows, real-time communication between users is indispensable for their continual engagement. In order to support this kind of collaboration, KinDigi Social implements the following Twitter-like system: user activities, such as the creation of an annotation, will immediately prompt a notification sent to the user’s ‘followers’ through their social feeds, for real-time responses and information sharing (see Figure 3). Likewise it is possible to ‘watch’ any book in KDL just like a GitHub repository so that the user will get a notification when an annotation is created on a book. This system also contributes to forming loosely bound clusters of users. For those who do not want to make their annotations public, support for private annotations is also planned.
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Data modeling following the Open Annotation specification:</hi> As a description model of user-generated annotations, KinDigi Social implements the Open Annotation Data Model, an RDF-based framework designed for modeling annotations on web content whose specification has been developed by a W3C community group (Hunter, 2010).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> It provides controlled and machine-friendly vocabulary for modeling not only annotations but also replies from other users, folksonomy tags, and links to other resources. The adoption of the Open Annotation framework makes it possible to store and serialize user-derived content in an interoperable and reusable way for their long-term preservation and for secondary uses such as text analysis.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.007291666666667cm"" height=""11.990916666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. The iOS client of KinDigi Social running on an iPad.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.007291666666667cm"" height=""11.045472222222223cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. An example of the automatic detection of book edges.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""14.118166666666667cm"" height=""17.485430555555556cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. An example of social feed of user activities.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""16.007291666666667cm"" height=""11.075458333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. System architecture of KinDigi Social platform.</p>
            <p>Implementation</p>
            <p>As shown in Figure 4, KinDigi Social is a server-client system. The web server is written in Ruby on Rails and is hosted on a physical server in the NDL Lab where it retrieves scanned images and the bibliographic metadata of books in the KDL through the APIs provided by the NDL. It also exchanges JSON messages with its iOS and Android clients through its REST API. The mobile clients are built with HTML5 using the Apache Cordova framework,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> so that a single source code will generate distributions for different platforms. 
            </p>
            <p>Annotation data generated by users is at first stored in a relational database (PostgreSQL), and is regularly converted and dumped into an RDF database and made public through its SPARQL endpoint. In this way annotation data can be easily retrieved and processed by standard semantic web technologies. We chose a relational database as a primary method of data storage purely for performance and maintenance reasons.</p>
            <p>The user authentication is done via OAuth 2.0 protocol; users need to use their Facebook or Twitter account to log in to KinDigi Social (Authentication via OpenID is also planned). This implementation is intended to make it easy to connect with other social media platforms and to prevent vandalism by anonymous users. </p>
            <p>Conclusion and Future Directions</p>
            <p>Our basic standpoint is that every historical digital collection should behave like a living organism; it should continue to grow, absorbing its users’ knowledge and ideas and connecting to other historical resources. The online collaboration of scholars enhanced by real-time and mobile computing, and the standardized archive system built with Open Annotation model will contribute to the transformation of currently static digital collections into such dynamic organisms.</p>
            <p>Although our project is still in its very early stages and we first need to evaluate how KinDigi Social can contribute to humanities research based on digital resources, a possible extension of our project would be to include support for multiple digital archives, and collections other than the KDL. A prime candidate is the digital archive administered by the Japan Center for Asian Historical Records (JACAR),
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> which holds the official documents of the Japanese Cabinet dating from the period prior to World War II. If it were possible to search the annotations created in both the KDL and JACAR seamlessly with a single query, that would greatly benefit studies of the history of modern politics in Japan, and we therefore hope to offer this functionality with our project.
            </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. Kindai Digital Library. http://kindai.ndl.go.jp/?__lang=en.</p>
            <p>2. NDL Lab, http://lab.kn.ndl.go.jp/cms/.</p>
            <p>3. Kindai-cropper (a github repository). https://github.com/yuta1984/kindai-cropper.</p>
            <p>4. Open Annotation Data Model, http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core/.</p>
            <p>5. Apache Cordova, http://cordova.apache.org/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">6. Japan Center for Asian Historical Records, http://www.jacar.go.jp/english/index.html.</p>
        </body>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Barr, R. A. and Tonra, J.</hi> (2014). Crowdsourcing Annotation and the Social Edition: Ossian Online. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH2014</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hunter, J., et al.</hi> (2010). The Open Annotation Collaboration: A Data Model to Support Sharing and Interoperability of Scholarly Annotations. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2010: Conference Abstracts</hi>, pp. 175–78.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Siemens, R., et al.</hi> (2012). Toward Modeling the Social Edition: An Approach to Understanding the Electronic Scholarly Edition in the Context of New and Emerging Social Media. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">27</hi>(4): 445–61. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                        <forename>Ryan</forename>
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                        <surname>Algee-Hewitt</surname>
                        <forename>Mark</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University</affiliation>
                    <email>malgeehe@stanford.edu</email>
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                        <surname>Bender</surname>
                        <forename>John</forename>
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            <p rend=""Normal1"">The disciplines now maintained in universities have changed sharply since the 18th century, when they were still largely theological. However, the 18th century’s academies and encyclopedias set the stage for this transformation. How can the digital humanities help us understand and articulate such changes in the disciplinary structure within systems of knowledge?</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Specifically, our project is designed to use methods of network analysis and visualization to explore commonalities and differences between the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi> (1751–1772), Diderot’s landmark encyclopedia of the 18th-century Enlightenment, and the Wikipedia of today. One of Diderot’s powerful innovations was a pervasive system of cross-references, networking the many thousands of articles into a navigable system. Wikipedia is built upon a similar system, both hyperlinking its articles together and recommending related articles under the heading of ‘See also’. Our project wagers that a juxtaposition of these cross-reference networks allows us to historicize the particular structures of knowledge interconnectedness as manifested in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi> and in its modern Wikipedia descendant. Our results show that, perhaps unintuitively, cross-references more commonly ‘cut across’ demarcations of Enlightenment-born disciplines in Diderot’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi> than in Wikipedia.
            </p>
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                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.51cm"" height=""11.959166666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p rend=""Normal1"">Figure 1. The article cross-reference network of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi>. Each node is an article; each edge, or link, indicates a cross-reference between them. Articles without cross-references are not displayed here. The network was visualized in the software Gephi and colored by its network modularity algorithm with default settings.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Although 65 times larger than the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi>, Wikipedia, like Diderot’s encyclopedia, works within categories and operates by selection.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> One covert but powerful principle of selection within Wikipedia is that of modern disciplines. Although Wikipedia is not specifically organized by disciplines, they figure powerfully. Just one specific instance is that of the well-known article on the ‘philosopher’ in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi>, assigning the broadest possible intellectual role to the kind of man of letters Diderot signified by the term. In Wikipedia, by contrast, ‘philosopher’ is specifically about practitioners of the modern formal discipline of philosophy.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Below, we compare these two encyclopedias by combining interpretive readings of cross-reference networks drawn from particular articles (Experiment 1) with a large-scale computational approach (Experiment 2). For the digitized text of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi>, we turned to ARTFL, a comprehensive database of thousands of 18th-century French texts, including all 74,000 articles in Diderot’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi> (‘ARTFL 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi> Project’, n.d.). Mark Olsen and other researchers involved in the project have computationally identified and hyperlinked the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">renvois</hi>, or cross-references, embedded in its articles (‘Renvois Navigation’, n.d.)
                <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi> Gilles Blanchard and Mark Olsen have published on the relationship between the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi>’s ‘tree of knowledge’ and its 
                <hi rend=""italic"">renvois</hi>, as two distinct models of knowledge organization, showing which parts of the tree are more strongly connected via cross-references than others. In this project, we juxtapose and compare the cross-reference networks of two encyclopedias created more than two centuries apart, in order to make visible and better understand the historicity of knowledge networks.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Experiment 1: Case Studies of Key Article Networks</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">First we drew up a list of articles on a wide range of topics that reflected a diversity of disciplines and that contained a large number of cross-references in both encyclopedias. These articles include, for instance, ‘philosopher’, ‘commerce’, ‘agriculture’, ‘nature’, and ‘existence’. For each selected article, we created a network linking it to all of the articles it cross-references; then we repeated this process only once for each of the cross-referenced articles. The resulting network is a directed cross-reference network with a depth of 2. For this experiment, we considered as cross-references all 
                <hi rend=""italic"">renvois</hi> of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi> article, and all links under ‘See also’ in the corresponding English Wikipedia article.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.51cm"" height=""16.51cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Figure 2. An article cross-reference network, centered on the article ‘commerce’ in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi>, emanating two levels deep.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.51cm"" height=""16.51cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Figure 3: An article cross-reference network, centered on the article ‘commerce’ in the English Wikipedia, emanating two levels deep.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">For example, one of the most striking comparisons we’ve found is the article on ‘commerce’. The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi> links ‘commerce’ to such diverse topics as art, navigation, and agriculture at the first level, and poetry, mathematics, and construction at the second (Figure 2). Wikipedia’s version of ‘commerce’, by contrast, is tightly disciplinary (Figure 3). At the first level of cross-references, nearly all of the headings are from business, trade, and manufacture. At the second level, at the furthest reach from the core of economics, we have ‘shoplifting’ and ‘classical liberalism’. Clearly, when it comes to ‘commerce’, the unannounced, implicitly defined discipline adhered to by Wikipedia is business management—no room for categories such as tolerance, winter, magnetism, the military, or poetic theory.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">In these case studies, we see over and over again an increase in disciplinarity of the sort we see in ‘commerce’—but also a move to technical practices more generally, some of which are disciplinary, some of which are commercial, and some of which are institutional abstractions.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Experiment 2: Large-Scale Network Comparison</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">A potential objection to these English Wikipedia examples lies in our translation of 18th-century French concepts into 21st-century English. The translation of the words from French to English potentially introduces some inconsistencies. With this in mind, we move from particular article networks to a big-data approach, comparing the overall citational structure of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi> to that of the French Wikipedia (hereafter 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Wikipedie</hi>). Although the French version is about a third smaller than the English, it is still 20 times larger than the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi>. In order to compare it to the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi>, therefore, we reduced both to the subset of headwords appearing in both encyclopedias. This left us with about 16,000 articles. Because the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Wikipedie</hi> is smaller than its English equivalent, and less likely to have maintained ‘See also’ sections, we decided to consider as cross-references all of the hyperlinks in each article. This is a departure from our earlier practice (see note 2).
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">For every possible pair of the remaining articles, we calculated the shortest path between them, in the cross-reference networks of both the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi> and the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Wikipedie</hi>. Then we looked at which links in each network were the most traversed among all of the shortest paths taken. By shortest path, we mean the smallest number of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">renvois</hi> necessary to reach a second article from a first. These most traversed links are, literally, structurally central to each system of knowledge: if one were navigating either encyclopedia by its cross-references, these would be the connections that you would be most likely to cross. In network theory, this type of centrality is known as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">betweenness centrality</hi>.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Our study of these central links showed a significant difference in the types of relationships so central for the two encyclopedias.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> By classifying them in terms of their analogical relationship, we discovered important differences in the way in which the two cross-reference networks are structured. In the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi>, these relationships are most often characterized by a ‘structuring’ or ‘governing’ analogy (Figure 4). For instance, ‘langue’ is governed by ‘gammaire’, ‘terre’ by its ‘axe’, ‘destin’ by ‘Dieu’, ‘religion’ by ‘foi’, and ‘justice’ by ‘droit’.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> In each case, the two concepts are distinct in kind, but they are brought together by a type of relationship in which the first concept depends on the second to give it order and form.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <p rend=""Normal1"">
                    <graphic n=""1004"" width=""6.601355555555555cm"" height=""5.734927777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
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            <p rend=""Normal1"">Figures 4 (left) and 5 (right): Links with greatest betweenness centrality, in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi> (left) and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Wikipedie</hi> (right) networks, respectively. Here, nodes consist only of articles present in both encyclopedias, and edges only the cross-references between them.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">In the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Wikipedie</hi>, none of the most important links are characterized by this type of analogy (Figure 5). Instead, the most frequent type of relationship is one of membership between two concepts of the same kind. For example, an ‘ecclesiastique’ is a member of the ‘clerge’; ‘vin’ is a type of ‘esprit’; ‘addition’ is a type of ‘arithmetique’.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> Although the governing relationships in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi> place the entries in large conceptual hierarchies, the taxonomic relationships in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Wikipedie</hi> point to disciplinary relationships, where knowledge is interrelated along an axis of specialization and depth. Compared with the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi>, the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Wikipedie</hi> is less likely to make the metaphysical connection between arithmetic and, for example, logic; instead, it connects arithmetic to its constituent parts: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. We believe this juxtaposition of cross-reference practices and network structures reveals a notable shift toward disciplinarity in modernity, made visible by a combination of computational and hermeneutic methods.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Conclusion</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">From our research, then, it appears that the broad inclusivity of Wikipedia is, if anything, more deeply disciplinary than even the planned knowledge system of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi>. It is worth wondering about how powerfully Wikipedia is driven by formal disciplines despite its largely informal surface structure. We are finding that where Wikipedia is not more clearly disciplinary, many articles still move toward a greater level of abstraction and institutional formation than in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Notes</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">1. The English Wikipedia contains 4.6 million articles. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Size_of_Wikipedia (accessed 2 November 2014).</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">2. In this experiment, we decided to leave aside the interlinear hyperlinks within most Wikipedia articles, because we believe they more poorly reflect the intentional editorial decisions of Diderot and his collaborators in making the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">renvois</hi> than do the cross-references contained under the ‘See also’ section. We decided to use the English Wikipedia in this experiment because, as the largest Wikipedia, it has received the most editorial attention and is most likely to contain the ‘See also’ section.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">3. For this experiment, we annotated the type of analogy evident in the top-15 most central links from the shortest-path traversals of both encyclopedias’ cross-reference networks.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">4. English translation: For instance, language is governed by grammar, Earth by its axis, destiny by God, faith by religion, and justice by right.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">5. English translation: For instance, a clergyman is a member of the clergy; wine is a type of spirits; addition is a type of arithmetic. </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">‘ARTFL Encyclopédie Project’.</hi> (n.d.). Morissey, R. and Roe, G., eds. University of Chicago, https://encyclopedie.uchicago.edu/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blanchard, G. and Olsen, M.</hi> (2006). Le Système De Renvoi Dans L’Encyclopédie: Une Cartographie Des Structures De Connaissances Au XVIIIe Siècle. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Recherches Sur Diderot Et Sur L'Encyclopédie,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">31–32</hi>: 45–70.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">‘Renvois Navigation’.</hi> (n.d.). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ARTFL Encyclopédie Project</hi>. Morissey, R. and Roe, G., eds. University of Chicago, https://encyclopedie.uchicago.edu/content/renvois-navigation.
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                    <term>encoding - theory and practice</term>
                    <term>geospatial analysis</term>
                    <term>interfaces and technology</term>
                    <term>data modeling and architecture including hypothesis-driven modeling</term>
                    <term>semantic web</term>
                    <term>maps and mapping</term>
                    <term>data mining / text mining</term>
                    <term>English</term>
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            <p>This talk concerns itself with the binarization of British and German Western Front maps during the Great War and their modelling using Linked Open Data (LOD) ontologies. Through the use of image processing algorithms, the scanned images of British and German trench maps were binarized into vector representations that allow us to compare each actor’s perception of the other as well as infer military intelligence activities by tracking the provenance of toponyms. </p>
            <p>* * *</p>
            <p>As with many armed conflicts, the initial intentions and plans of the belligerents were quickly changed when the outcomes of their actions were unsatisfactory. All sides expected a war of maneuver using the classical arms of previous conflicts: infantry, cavalry, and artillery. Commanders from the previous centuries would have been comfortable with the pre-war planning of both sides. However, terrain and innovations in artillery and small arms rate of accurate fire constrained the parties to a war of attrition where movement was no longer possible. Military thinking moved from planning large strategic maneuvers to limited tactical engagements that required local planning.</p>
            <p>Having to deal for the first time with large numbers of tactical situations requiring good maps, the different groups of belligerents began looking for mapping solutions. The British Expeditionary Forces fighting on Belgian and French soil benefited from Belgian cartographic knowledge from the onset that was then augmented from other French sources (Jack, 1920). The Germans were faced with the problem of invading a hostile country with uncooperative officials and having to build a mapping system from the ground up using opportunistically captured material (Boelcke, 1920; Hinks, 1919; Great Britain War Office, 1917) as well as previous large-scale maps.</p>
            <p>This talk will cover the geometry and cartography of the 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">Battle of Vimy Ridge</hi> in 1917 as a case study using both British and German cartographic material. 
            </p>
            <p>Merging Geometries</p>
            <p>The military maps were created from an amalgam of Belgian and French sources augmented by field surveys and aerial photography. Overlaying these maps allows us to determine what each belligerent believed about his opponent at that point in time. In some cases, friendly trench details were omitted from maps to avoid leaking information in case of capture. However, what trenches are shown represent an armies’ ability to keep track of its own operational activities.</p>
            <p>Several editions of each map exist, and some instances of these dated editions survive and have been scanned in digital form. We binarize trench representations by separating the colour of the trench from the image while using Thiessen polygons. Registration of the digitized map is done using OpenCV’s implementation of 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">Hough Line</hi> Transform driving a web service implementation previously described in Warren and Evans (2014). 
            </p>
            <p>Multiple Linked Open Data vocabularies were used to record this information, including GeoSparql (OGC, 2012), 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">NeoGeo,</hi> and W3C geo:Points. By recording the individual points within the polygon in a manner similar to that of Linked Geo Data (Stadler et al., 2012), we are able to annotate individual locations within the polygon. This effectively creates polygons formed by a series of geo:Points that can each record not only the shape of the trenches but also calculated positional errors, linkages to other trenches, and trench width.
            </p>
            <p>Depending on the specific type of trench, its width could be anywhere from two feet, six inches to one foot, six inches, depending on the application, and the depth about five feet, six inches (Great Britain War Office, 1914). The depth information is not recorded in the maps, but the width of the trench is sometimes traced from aerial photography, which allows for the measurement of high-traffic trenches. When the scaled trench trace exceeds the minimum one-foot, six-inch width, the width calculated from the pen trace on the map is used instead.</p>
            <p>A recent improvement brought about by GeoSPARQL is the differentiation between Feature and Geometry. The Geometry is the materialized physical location of the Feature (thing), and the separation between thing and location allows for greater flexibility, for example, in stating the existence of a place without necessarily defining where it is. It also allows us to link different representations of the same trench across maps by assigning the same trench (Feature) multiple Geometries as represented in multiple source documents at different times.</p>
            <p>This also allows us to reduce redundant information by merging similar geometries across maps where no change has occurred. Small variations in locations (due to wear and tear as well as minor survey errors) occur, and these are taken into account by the merging process by calculating the theoretical accuracy of both map scales against each other. For large variations of friendly trenches, the change can be assumed to be a change in the layout of the trench, while for large variation in the observed enemy trench, the change is assumed to be done through a better intelligence estimate. Comparing both these sets of trench geometries over time is a means of obtaining a quantitative measure of the quality of both military operation and intelligence activities.</p>
            <p>Toponyms and Intelligence</p>
            <p>The toponyms used on the maps varied greatly, and translated Belgian and French town names were generally used when known. Other visually prominent features such as farms, woods, or isolated trees (e.g., 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">The Lone Tree</hi>) were named on an ad-hoc basis based on local events or the cultural baggage of the unit involved in the survey work (e.g., 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">Regina Trench</hi>).
            </p>
            <p>A common practice for all sides was to re-use their opponent’s toponyms when these were known for printing on maps issued to frontline officers. For example, 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">Prinz Arnolf Graben</hi>, a trench near modern-day 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">Beaumont-Hamel, France,</hi> is shown on 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">British maps</hi> using the 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">German Army name</hi> and spelling. This was done for both frontline tactical purposes and making the navigation of enemy trenches easier during an attack or raid. The re-use of names also marks a turning point in British and German attitudes to military intelligence. Intelligence is no longer seen as a cloak-and-dagger craft involving shady individuals but as a core component of military operations. At the onset of the war, cavalrymen still carried a sketch board onto which they were supposed to draw enemy dispositions for a commander’s review. By 1916, the information flowed from frontline operations back to the printing sections that created maps on an as-needed basis for local tactical use.
            </p>
            <p>Through the use of algorithmic methods the language of trench names is isolated and their source identified across different maps. Within this specific application, this allows us to cross-reference the same trench across the maps of multiple belligerents while establishing the source, or earliest known use, of the toponyms. Previous recording of the name of things, or gazetteers, tended to record objects as a single name, occasionally with a localization (Chasseaud, 2006). Through the use of the SKOS eXtension for Labels (
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">SKOS-XL</hi>) vocabulary, we improved on this by adding label-specific provenance, which allows the tracking of the original owner of the name. This recording of the nomenclature provenance can be used as a proxy that identifies the intelligence processes of the belligerents.
            </p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>These military maps are an important source of historical locations that have been long forgotten or whose importance has changed over time. Through the binarization of scanned trench maps, the locations of smaller engagements can be extracted and the location of named features can be placed in a modern context. Some of these features, such as the location of former ammunition dumps, remain important to this day.</p>
            <p>In closing this presentation, the use of the semantic web will be reviewed in managing a historical gazetteer of geometries, features, and names during the Great War on the Western Front. The careful tracking of provenance information will be explained, and the novel use of existing semantic web standards allows for the discovery of both the quality of the cartographic work done by both sides and the cultural influences between belligerents.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""bibitem"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boelcke, S.</hi> (1920). Die engländer und das deutsche kriegsvermessungswesen. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">66</hi>(6–9).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""bibitem"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chasseaud, P.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Rats Alley: Trench Names of the Western Front, 1914–1918</hi>. Spellmount.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""bibitem"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Great Britain War Office.</hi> General Staff. (1914). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Notes on Field Defenses</hi>. His Majesty’s Stationery Office.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""bibitem"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Great Britain War Office.</hi> General Staff. (1917). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Handbook of the German Army in War, January, 1917</hi>. n.p.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""bibitem"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hinks, A. R.</hi> (1919). German War Maps and Survey. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Geographical Journal,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">53</hi>(1): 30–40.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""bibitem"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jack, E. M.</hi> (1920). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Report on Survey on the Western Front, 1914–1918</hi>. His Majesty’s Stationery Office, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""bibitem"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">OGC.</hi> (2012). OGC GeoSPARQL—A Geographic Query Language for rdf Data. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Open Geospatial Consortium</hi>, Technical Report OGC 11-052r4, September.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""bibitem"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stadler, C., Lehmann, J., Höffner, K. and Auer, S.</hi> (2012). Linkedgeodata: A Core for a Web of Spatial Open Data. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Semantic Web Journal,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(4): 333–54.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""bibitem"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Warren, R. and Evans, D.</hi> (2014). Translating Maps and Coordinates from the Great War. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Terra Cognita Workshop at ISWC 2014</hi>, Riva Del Garda, Italy, October 2014. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2289","16","Libraries and Digital Humanities Special Interest Group","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>UCLA, U.S.A.</affiliation>
                    <email>zoe@library.ucla.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Courtney</surname>
                        <forename>Angela</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Indiana University Libraries, U.S.A.</affiliation>
                    <email>ancourtn@indiana.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Galina</surname>
                        <forename>Isabel</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México</affiliation>
                    <email>igalina@unam.mx</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Gehrke</surname>
                        <forename>Stefanie</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Biblissima, France</affiliation>
                    <email>stefanie.gehrke@biblissima-condorcet.fr</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Stensrud Høsøien</surname>
                        <forename>Hege</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>National Library, Norway</affiliation>
                    <email>hege.hosoien@nb.no</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Potvin</surname>
                        <forename>Sarah</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Texas A&amp;M University Libraries, U.S.A.</affiliation>
                    <email>spotvin@library.tamu.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Stäcker</surname>
                        <forename>Thomas</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Herzog August Library, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>staecker@hab.de</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Worthey</surname>
                        <forename>Glen</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Stanford University Libraries, U.S.A.</affiliation>
                    <email>gworthey@stanford.edu</email>
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                    <term>Libraries</term>
                    <term>Digital Libraries</term>
                    <term>Librarians</term>
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                    <term>digital humanities - institutional support</term>
                    <term>GLAM: galleries</term>
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            <p>SIG Conveners</p>
            <p> Zoe Borovsky, UCLA Libraries, USA</p>
            <p> Angela Courtney, Indiana University Libraries, USA</p>
            <p> Isabel Galina
                <hi rend=""italic"">,</hi> Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
            </p>
            <p> Stefanie Gehrke, Biblissima, France</p>
            <p> Hege Stensrud Høsøien, National Library, Norway</p>
            <p> Sarah Potvin, Texas A&amp;M University Libraries, USA</p>
            <p> Thomas Stäcker, Herzog August Library, Germany</p>
            <p> Glen Worthey, Stanford University Libraries, USA</p>
            <p>We propose a poster introducing the ADHO Special Interest Group for Libraries and Digital Humanities that allows for both presentation and live discussion. The poster will present the main objectives motivating the SIG proposal, illustrate its history as an international effort, and afford the conveners an opportunity to circulate and discuss the SIG proposal face-to-face with supporters and potential members among international conference attendees. For those DH attendees not directly involved in library work, the poster will be primarily an introduction to the importance of, and issues related to, DH work in libraries internationally.</p>
            <p>Mission and Rationale</p>
            <p>The ADHO 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Libraries and DH SIG</hi> aims to foster collaboration and communication among librarians and other scholars doing library-related digital humanities work. By establishing this SIG, ADHO serves its mission and provides the connective tissue between ADHO organizations and emerging DH initiatives within organizations of professional librarians such as the Association of College and Research Libraries (part of the American Library Association) and the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA). We believe that creating these connections will lead toward more informed ‘dual citizenship’—that is, of librarians connected to, participating in, and supported by both library- and DH-oriented professional organizations, in league with fellow DH-oriented librarians around the world. By fostering such dual citizenship, librarians and libraries will be well positioned to identify opportunities to initiate and engage with digital humanities projects and scholarship, as well as to collectively address the challenges we face. These challenges include, for example, (a) advocating for financial support, release time, training opportunities, technical infrastructure, and resources to undertake their digital humanities projects; (b) addressing the changing notions of ‘service’ and ‘research’ in light of the collaborative nature of much digital humanities work; and (c) promoting a culture of digital humanities scholarship in the library.
            </p>
            <p> The mission of the ADHO 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Libraries and DH SIG</hi> will be to
            </p>
            <p> • Offer advice and support to these new and emergent associations of librarians engaged in digital humanities pursuits—either projects of their own making or in collaboration with nonlibrarian digital humanists.</p>
            <p> • Advocate for initiatives of interest and benefit to libraries as well as digital humanities (e.g., the ‘Collaborators’ Bill of Rights’ white paper, the Digital Public Library of America, the ‘Best Practices for TEI in Libraries’ guidelines, and other tools and best practices related to library-based DH).</p>
            <p> • Document how librarians and library-based units meet these challenges.</p>
            <p> • Provide information about available resources and opportunities (e.g., training, funding) that encourage collaboration between DH scholars in a variety of roles, especially in libraries.</p>
            <p> • Showcase the work of librarians engaged in the digital humanities.</p>
            <p> • Promote librarians’ perspectives and skills to the rest of the DH community.</p>
            <p>An initial goal of the SIG will center on developing working relationships within and across international library-oriented organizations such as the ACRL DH Interest Group, the Digital Library Federation, the TEI in Libraries Special Interest Group, the Society for American Archivists, the Association for Information Science and Technology, the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions, and others.</p>
            <p>Activities</p>
            <p>In terms of concrete activities, the SIG would, when possible, coordinate or collaborate with librarian organizations to accomplish the following: </p>
            <p> • Researching and documenting existing librarian-led DH projects and DH organizations in which librarians are active partners (e.g., the TEI Consortium SIG on Libraries).</p>
            <p> • Organizing conference sessions—ones for librarians at DH conferences, and others focused on DH at conferences intended primarily for librarians (such as ALA, ACRL, ARLIS, DLF, etc.).</p>
            <p> • Organizing workshops, training events, and conference sessions aimed at promoting librarians’ involvement in the general DH community and showcasing library-led projects. </p>
            <p>Membership is open to anyone with an interest in the issue. Currently, 130 people have actively expressed an interest in joining this SIG, but we believe the potential membership to be substantially greater worldwide. One concrete benefit of presenting a poster at DH2015 will be community outreach, with the aim of reaching these potential members.</p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>A related public Zotero group on the topic of DH in libraries is maintained at https://www.zotero.org/groups/adho_library_sig. </p>
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"2291","16","Linked Open Data and the First World War","3","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Warren</surname>
                        <forename>Robert</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Dalhousie University, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>rwarren@math.carleton.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ridge</surname>
                        <forename>Mia</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Open University, UK</affiliation>
                    <email>mia.ridge@open.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Rose</surname>
                        <forename>Kathryn</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Memorial University, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>kathrynr@mun.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Charles</surname>
                        <forename>Valentine</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Europeana Foundation, The Netherlands</affiliation>
                    <email>valentine.charles@europeana.eu</email>
                </author>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>Linked Open Data</term>
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                    <term>GLAM</term>
                    <term>interoperability</term>
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                    <term>GLAM: galleries</term>
                    <term>libraries</term>
                    <term>archives</term>
                    <term>museums</term>
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            <p>Linked Open Data and the First World War </p>
            <p>Panel Organizer: Rob Warren, Big Data Institute, Halifax, Canada (rhwarren@dal.ca)</p>
            <p>The year 2014 marks the centenary of the First World War. This war is arguably the first ‘industrial’ war, and as a consequence, one of the first where extensive documentation is available. This abundance of scanned documents requires GLAM organisations (galleries, libraries, archives, and museums) to make them available in a format that is both searchable and discoverable. Given the breadth and depth of the data available, this is not a trivial problem.</p>
            <p>Besides rich commemorative events and lowering the cost of access to primary sources for scholars, this digital availability of large archival collections enables the creation of interlinked datasets about the people, events, and places of the Great War. This centenary also coincides with the availability of Semantic Web technologies and opportune funding that has allowed archival institutions to make their document collections available through the Web.</p>
            <p>This event is a follow-up to an initial ‘birds of a feather’ session and dinner at 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">LODLAM2013</hi> in Montreal, Canada. That event was primarily institutional in nature, and we propose that this panel should build on the momentum generated by presenting ‘in use’ cases for different projects and issues in creating Linked Open Data about the Great War.
            </p>
            <p>We believe that this panel has value in both its timeliness as a commemoration event and as a test case of what distributed researchers, archivists, and librarians can achieve using Linked Open Data. The area is much hyped but still needs a reference test case that can show the value.</p>
            <p>Some of the issues that the panellists will discuss:</p>
            <p> 1. Support for the recording of differing viewpoints about events by reconciling the underlying elements of agreement and framing an effective debate. </p>
            <p> 2. How to support the recording of partially unknown, imprecise, and uncertain information by providing URI for their existence, reference, and discussion. </p>
            <p> 3. Linked Open Data allows for the separation of terms that represent the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">thing</hi> from other properties, such as the name, location, shape, or even identity. This is an opportunity to localize information for consumption across cultures and languages. 
            </p>
            <p>Speakers</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Lasting Remembrance: Newfoundland, Labrador, and War</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Kathryn Rose (kathrynr@mun.ca) and Dean Seeman (dseeman@mum.ca), Memorial University, St-Johns, Canada</p>
            <p>Kathryn Rose is the History Liaison Librarian at Memorial University of Newfoundland and has been working to create a unified representation of the library’s holding about the Royal Newfoundland Regiment. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">‘Small Ontologies, Loosely Joined’: Developing Linked Open Data for the First World War</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Mia Ridge (mia.ridge@open.ac.uk), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.</p>
            <p>Mia is a research fellow with the CENDARI project at Trinity College Dublin. She is chair of the Museums Computer Group (MCG) and a member of the Executive Council of the Association for Computers and the Humanities (ACH). She maintains a 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">wiki</hi> of museum, gallery, library, archive, archaeology, and cultural heritage APIs for machine-readable open cultural data.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mapping the Western Front: Using British and German Coordinates Systems to Cross-Reference Archival Resources</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Rob Warren (rhwarren@dal.ca), Big Data Institute, Halifax, Canada</p>
            <p>Rob Warren is a postdoctoral fellow at the Big Data Institute and adjunct professor in mathematics and statistics at Carleton University. His research interests focus on Linked Open Data, social network analysis, knowledge discovery in databases and ontologies. An engineer by training, he had previously held research posts in industry, government, and academia both in North America and in Europe. He is a researcher on the 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">Muninn Project,</hi> which is one of the two largest Linked Open Data projects on the First World War and part of the 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">Linked Data Cloud</hi>. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Europeana 1914–1918, User-Generated Content, and Linked Open Data</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Valentine Charles (Valentine.Charles@europeana.eu), Europeana Foundation, The Hague, The Netherlands</p>
            <p>Valentine Charles is a Data Research &amp; Development coordinator for Europeana. She is responsible for advising, sharing knowledge and communicates Europeana's scientific coordination and R&amp;D activities. She is also coordinating the further development and adoption of the Europeana Data Model (http://pro.europeana.eu/edm-documentation) (EDM). Valentine is also Co-Chair of the Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI) Technical Board and Community Specification Committee (http://dublincore.org/about/technicalBoard/).</p>
            <p>Panel Organization</p>
            <p>The panel will consist of a series of talks, each 10 minutes in length with a five-minute question period. A break will take place 45 minutes into the panel for coffee or necessities as presented in Table 1. </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Time</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Description</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">15 minutes</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1st presentation and questions</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">15 minutes</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">2nd presentation and questions</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">15 minutes</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">3rd presentation and questions</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">10 minutes</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Break and informal chat</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">15 minutes</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">4th presentation and questions</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">20 minutes</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Group panel and discussion</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Table 
                <anchor xml:id=""BMtable_sched""/>1. Timetable for panel.
            </p>
            <p>The last presentation will be a 20-minute discussion panel of all of the speakers. To stimulate discussion, each panellist will be asked to respond to a series of prepared questions and/or respond to challenges from the audience.</p>
            <p>1. Lasting Remembrance: Newfoundland, Labrador, and War</p>
            <p>Kathryn Rose and Dean Seeman</p>
            <p>Memorial University</p>
            <p>St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada</p>
            <p>kathrynr@mun.ca, dseeman@mun.ca</p>
            <p>http://www.library.mun.ca/nlwar.html</p>
            <p>The Memorial University of Newfoundland project Lasting Remembrance: Newfoundland, Labrador, and War, integrates historical GIS data with archival resources, digital images, digitized newspapers, and historical information about the Newfoundland Regiment during the First World War. The project will assist scholars, students, and community members in their discovery and understanding of primary and secondary sources related to Newfoundland and Labrador’s First World War experience. It will provide scholars with unprecedented access to unique NL resources and will equip faculty with a valuable teaching tool.</p>
            <p>This project is one of the first major digital humanities projects that the library has undertaken. Four years ago, the library started to prepare information and investigate challenges inherent in making our data speak to other data by making it available in linked data format. The project has already taken significant historical and archival research and converted it to structured data as the initial basis of the resource.</p>
            <p>There are three components to the portal. One component contains a map of the Newfoundland and Labrador communities, as they existed during the Great War, which directs users to digitized newspapers and biographies of servicemen from those communities. Memorial University Libraries has a very strong collection of provincial daily newspapers, and has spent considerable energy and resources focusing on the digitization of issues published during the war years.</p>
            <p>The second component will commemorate the individual soldiers who joined the Royal Newfoundland Regiment. The database will eventually contain records for all servicemen, including members of the Regiment, the Navy, and women who served overseas as nurses and members of the Voluntary Aid Detachment. Entries include references to their biographies, service, battles fought, decorations, and the cemetery where the soldier was buried.</p>
            <p>The third component is a timeline function that includes a textual timeline and an interactive, map-based, visual timeline. Using ESRI’s ArcGIS technology, users can follow the Royal Newfoundland Regiment through the war as they move between theatres, front, and trenches. Events and areas noted on the map will offer users the opportunity to draw on descriptive essays written by faculty, related media, archival sources, and library holdings at Memorial. We hope to be able to include a crowdsourcing component so that end-users can enrich the content of the portal.</p>
            <p>The platform allows users to browse events and resources on a global scale, enriching this exploration with historical-spatial context not often present in lectures or textbooks. Students will be able to watch the progress of the war in a time-lapsed global view of battles and shifting alliances, seeing where Newfoundlanders and Labradorians traveled during periods of war and how these events impacted communities throughout the province.</p>
            <p>This presentation will further consider how this information being collected, curated, and stored will connect with other information on the Web. The presentation will contextualize this process in terms of progression towards linked data production and participation. Additional issues will be addressed, including the conversion of our data to URIs, sources to use for existing URIs, and whether to create our own URIs for entities not represented in these sources. The benefits of linked data in terms of this project will be discussed: Is the ideal of our data interoperating with other data in a linked data context worth the effort and infrastructure, or is a localized research tool sufficient?</p>
            <p>2. ‘Small Ontologies, Loosely Joined’: Developing Linked Open Data for the First World War</p>
            <p>Mia Ridge</p>
            <p>Trinity College Dublin</p>
            <p>Dublin, Ireland</p>
            <p>mia.ridge@open.ac.uk</p>
            <p>The centenary of the outbreak of the First World War has seen a vast number of related historical records digitised and published online and an increase in the number of people interested in researching the lives of ancestors who were affected by the Great War. While the availability of data varies hugely between combatant countries, many military records are limited to the date, place, and battalion or regiment in which a particular soldier enlisted. The task of finding and interpreting World War I records can be daunting for the novice researcher, who must find a way to learn about military hierarchies, unit movements, and engagements before beginning to understand the experience of a particular soldier in the war.</p>
            <p>Linked Open Data (interrelated datasets published on the open web (World Wide Web Consortium, n.d.) could underpin the development of tools to support historians. This paper reports on a short-term project (September–December 2014) undertaken during a visiting Research Fellowship under the First World War strand of the CENDARI project, which aims to provide historians with tools for contextualising and sharing their research (Cendari, n.d.; Cendari WP6 Team, 2014). The Fellowship project aimed to create tools to provide more context for a given battalion or regiment name by providing information on related higher military units (brigades, divisions, armies, and theatre of war) and the related places and activities in which they were engaged.</p>
            <p>However, the project quickly uncovered the lack of structured, openly available datasets online that would support such a tool. There are several reasons for this. The development of machine-readable datasets (through application programming interfaces, or APIs) is often promised as part of a museum’s, library’s, and archive projects’ published WWI records, but sometimes fails to appear. The amateur historians and special interest groups that have created much pre-existing material on WWI do not have the skills or access to infrastructure that would allow them to link their data to formal linked data vocabularies. Those few projects that have published their ontologies (models of concepts or relationships) for WWI are often highly context-specific, developed following close reading of historical sources and designed to meet the needs of particular projects (Gruber, 1995; Törnroos et al., 2013). Once relevant ontologies have been found, it is often difficult to obtain the contextual information that would enable other researchers to assess an ontology against their own requirements. Is this an inherent property of linked open data platforms, or can it be ameliorated with more thoughtful documentation? In 2009 David Weinberger wrote, ‘A system that is composed of lots of small ontologies loosely joined and multiple ontologies covering the same fields in different ways will capture more knowledge and be more robust than single ontologies that cover huge fields’. To what extent does the state of linked open data about World War I confirm or problematise this statement?</p>
            <p>This paper reports on the success (or otherwise) of an attempt to develop a linked open dataset of information about Allied battalions in World War I through a combination of collaboratively developing an ontology for modelling military units, the close reading of a range of historical sources, and crowdsourcing the task of populating the resulting ontology. It will discuss the tools currently available for designing and populating ontologies and consider the impact of the chosen platform on the project and collaborators. Is it possible to capture the deep knowledge of citizen historians about often highly specialised aspects of military history and World War I with technologies currently available? In many ways, the creation of ontologies to describe WWI is a process of turning closely read ‘little data’ into ‘big data’. If each of these specialised ontologies focus on a particular aspect of WWI history, can they be linked to each other in ways that respect the historical contingency and ‘messiness’ of their original sources and research questions? And why have so few ‘official’ WWI projects in museums, libraries, and archives published the authority files or simple lists of names that underlie their projects as structured data for re-use by other projects, when it could be a relatively simple task? What tools are required to support the publication of the specialised ontologies that would help link individual WWI projects into a wider ‘cloud’ of linked open data about the First World War? Finally, what tensions and expectations between the neat world of computer science and ’big data’, and the untidy, small, localised, specialised practices of history are revealed or concealed when turning small pieces into big data?</p>
            <p>References</p>
            <p>Cendari. (n.d.). First World War. Cendari: Collaborative European Digital Archive Infrastructure, 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://www.cendari.eu/research/first-world-war-studies/</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>Cendari WP6 Team. (2014). Guidelines for Ontology Building. Cendari: Collaborative European Digital Archive Infrastructure.</p>
            <p>Gruber, T. R. (1995). Toward Principles for the Design of Ontologies Used for Knowledge Sharing? 
                <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Human-Computer Studies,</hi> 43(5–6): 907–28, doi:10.1006/ijhc.1995.1081.
            </p>
            <p>Törnroos, J., Mäkelä, E., Lindquist, T. and Hyvönen, E. (2013). World War 1 as Linked Open Data. Submitted for review at 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Semantic Web—Interoperability, Usability, Applicability, </hi>
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://www.semantic-web-journal.net/content/world-war-1-linked-open-data</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>Weinberger, D. (2009). The Dream of the Semantic Web. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">KMWorld Magazine</hi>, March, 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://www.kmworld.com/Articles/News/News-Analysis/The-dream-of-the-Semantic-Web-52764.aspx</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). (n.d.). Linked Data. 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://www.w3.org/standards/semanticweb/data.html</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>3. Mapping the Western Front: Using British and German Coordinates Systems to Cross-Reference Archival Resources</p>
            <p>Rob Warren</p>
            <p>Big Data Institute</p>
            <p>Halifax, NS, Canada</p>
            <p>rhwarren@dal.ca</p>
            <p>http://rdf.muninn-project.org/</p>
            <p>The Western Front is one of the well-known locations of the Great War, where several armies engaged in trench warfare over the course of several years.</p>
            <p>Mapping was still at its infancy in this age, with cavalrymen still carrying a sketch board onto which they were supposed to record enemy dispositions as they skirted and flanked enemy lines. Maps, if available at all commercially, would be at a very large scale, recording only major features or towns. With the fighting now occurring within entrenched positions, British and German high commands both needed small-scale maps with which to coordinate operations.</p>
            <p>The British enjoyed the advantages of defending a friendly country and obtained a set of official plates from the Belgian government in exile. From this, they extended the projection into France on an as-needed basis. The British General Staff Geographic Section grew organically from elements of the British Ordnance Survey, which meant that a group of specialists was available to produce maps standardized across all British and Dominion units. While some baffling errors remain unexplained, an imperial grid was used over a metric map, and the trench map proved to be useful tool to the British and Dominion forces.</p>
            <p>The Germans were handicapped by having to create a mapping system from scratch using whatever cartographic material was captured or confiscated. Further, each German Army had to fend for itself in terms of mapping material for its area of operation, which resulted in three different mapping systems being in use, including one coordinate system that was occasionally used backwards by a neighbouring army. Eventual support through the general staff does not seem to have helped the situation, nor were the initial map sets extended past immediate tactical necessities, which may be indicative of the mindset of the General Staff. </p>
            <p>This paper explores the notion of place, feature, and geometry in the context of the Great War using Linked Open Data. In previous works (Warren and Evans, 2014a; 2014b; Warren and Liu, 2014), the translation of obsolete military coordinates through APIs (application program interfaces) was previously covered. We review here their use as an efficient and effective means of indexing archival documents about the war. Most war diaries, operations orders, and dispatches in British and Dominion records refer to locations using both named features and coordinates. This permits the geo-referencing of each statement within a document to find the current location in question while segmenting the document according to different spatial components. This allows for distant reading of documents by the location of interest instead of as a linear document.</p>
            <p>This geo-referencing also allows for the translation from one coordinate system to another, linking the archival sources of different organisations together through features referenced instead of topic or keyword. Currently most of the data being referenced in this way deals with British and Canadian units, owing to the limited amount of German Army documentation available digitally.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""13.761861111111111cm"" height=""6.972652777777777cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 
                <anchor xml:id=""BMfig_muninn""/>1. All known geo-referenced points within the 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">Muninn SPARQL endpoint</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>To visually explain the scale of the problem, Figure 1 plots of all of the locations within the Muninn database. As the database deals with multiple units, countries, and theatres of war, not all of this information is of interest to scholars, and the absolute amount of data that is not relevant to the scholar’s needs increases. Thus, the ability to index information geographically enables us to reduce the cost of this search for relevancy.</p>
            <p>Unlike modern longitude and latitude references, the coordinate system of the British Army was hierarchical, and the length of the coordinate determined the precision of the location being given. This feature of the coordinate system in use further provides a means of searching for a particular location within documents of the Great War since through a Linked Open Data interface the specification of a large area coordinate, such as 36C.S, would contain coordinates 36C.S.22 and 36C.S.24 and retrieve documents referencing both locations.</p>
            <p>It is interesting to note that this effectively clusters the information contained within documents by providing a relative importance to different locations within the battlefield according to each document being inspected. The talk will feature examples based on the battles of Regina trench and Vimy Ridge.</p>
            <p>References</p>
            <p>Warren, R. and Evans, D. (2014a). From the Trenches—API Issues in Linked Geo Data. In 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Linking Geospatial Data Workshop</hi>, World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), London, March 2014. 
            </p>
            <p>Warren, R. and Evans, D. (2014b). Translating Maps and Coordinates from the Great War. In 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Terra Cognita Workshop at ISWC 2014,</hi> Riva Del Garda, Italy, October 2014.
            </p>
            <p>Warren, R. H. and Liu, B. (2014). Language, Cultural Influences, and Intelligence in Historical Gazetteers of the Great War. In 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Big Data 2014 (IEEE BigData 2014)</hi>, Washington, DC, October 2014.
            </p>
            <p>4. Europeana 1914–1918, User-Generated Content, and Linked Open Data</p>
            <p>Valentine Charles</p>
            <p>Europeana Foundation</p>
            <p>The Hague, The Netherlands</p>
            <p>Valentine.Charles@europeana.eu</p>
            <p>http://www.europeana1914-1918.eu/</p>
            <p>Europeana 1914–1918
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> is an ongoing project that gathers and digitizes European resources on the First World War. Our cultural heritage material comes partly from national collections (the Europeana Collections 1914–1918 project
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi>) and institutional film archives (the European Film Gateway 1914–1918 project
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi>). It is also being contributed by citizens from all over Europe, who contribute their own stories and objects during history road shows organized by the Europeana Foundation, the University of Oxford, and local partners such as libraries and museums. To date, the Europeana 1914–1918 portal gathers over 350,000 items, and almost 12,000 user-contributed stories. The portal also aims to provide an integrated access to resources coming from New Zealand, Australia, Canada, and America, through the APIs of DigitalNZ, Trove, Canadiana, and DPLA, respectively.
            </p>
            <p>This presentation will explain how we have started to tackle the non-trivial problems of providing such integrated access on top of highly heterogeneous resources. Europeana 1914–1918 items are of a very different nature (films, pictures, postcards, shells, Bibles . . .). They also come from different countries, which imply that the definitions (meta-data) are in many European languages. To provide a streamlined search and browsing experience, the partners of the Europeana 1914–1918 project have created a small, controlled, multilingual vocabulary that gathers the main topics of interest they could identify, like ‘Western front’, ‘propaganda’, and ‘trench life’. The creation of the vocabulary has been facilitated by the availability of the Library of Congress headings as linked data.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> The partners can start gathering concepts and English label data by re-using what LoC made available, and completing it by adding translations in the main languages used by the projects. These concepts are then used for browsing through the collections, while the semantic and multilingual data are used in the search engine for completion of user queries, especially their translations in other languages. Such semantic and multilingual auto-completion allows users to find in a trustful way objects that they would have missed otherwise. 
            </p>
            <p>The exploitation of the vocabulary largely relies for its availability on a semantic repository service, which Europeana has deployed using the OpenSKOS concept server.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> Europeana 1914–1918 has served as a prototype for introducing in the more general Europeana portal some enhancements that are inspired from leading semantic web-based digital heritage projects. On the other hand, as with other Europeana objects, the items of Europeana 1914–1918 benefit from the open access settings via the main Europeana API.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> They also undergo a semantic enrichment process that is applied to all meta-data aggregated in Europeana. For example, items are connected to related places with the corresponding co-ordinates by means of enrichment with the data made available in the GeoNames
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi> Linked Open Data service. 
            </p>
            <p>We will continue similar efforts, connecting our data to other semantic resources made available in the Linked Open Data cloud, notably connecting to datasets that can make the Europeana 1914–1918 collections better serve the needs of researchers.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://www.europeana1914-1918.eu/en.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>2. 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://pro.europeana.eu/web/europeana-collections-1914-1918.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>3. 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://www.europeanfilmgateway.eu/1914.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>4. 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://id.loc.gov</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>5. 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://openskos.org/</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>6. 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://pro.europeana.eu/api</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>7. 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://geonames.org/</hi>.
            </p>
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                        <forename>Edward</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Brigham Young University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>edward_stratford@byu.edu</email>
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            <p>Long before the Silk Road arose from Han Dynasty China, a ‘tin road’ supported an eastern flow of this rare metal from Central Asia to the Aegean basin. Like the Silk Road, the ancient tin road operated as a relay trade where goods were transferred between groups along segments of the route. The basics of the Old Assyrian trade are well understood (Veenhof and Eidem, 2008). From their home city Aššur, on the Tigris in northern Iraq, the Assyrian traders trucked the tin and textiles to the central plateau of modern Turkey, where they sold the goods through dozens of cities across the plateau. But aspects of the commercial organization are still debated (Larsen, 2007; Stratford, 2014). This paper describes a nascent project that applies network analysis to an Old Assyrian corpus to characterize commercial organization. </p>
            <p>Approximately 23,000 Old Assyrian documents exist (written in cuneiform on clay tablets), most written between 1900 and 1850 BCE. These documents, excavated from the site of Kültepe at intervals since 1884, are stored at more than a dozen European, North American, and Turkish museums. Researchers have transcribed, photographed, and/or catalogued roughly half of them, though fewer have been translated into modern languages. </p>
            <p>Working from these transcriptions and catalogues, Dr. Edward Stratford selected 538 documents that concerned a merchant named Pušu-ken and his associate, Salim-ahum. Dr. Stratford translated the documents from transcriptions, photographs, and tablets, using the University of Chicago’s Online Cultural and Historical Research Environment (OCHRE) to record the text and its associated metadata. </p>
            <p>Recent attempts to model Old Assyrian commercial networks (Bamman et al., 2014) have shown promise, but several non-trivial barriers limit the accuracy of these models. First, previous analyses have analyzed co-occurrence on a document-by-document basis. Each document, in fact, describes many ‘occurrences’, such as financial transactions, commercial orders, payment disputes, etc. A more accurate analysis would define associations in terms of interactions between individuals rather than co-occurrence within documents. </p>
            <p>The second barrier to an accurate analysis of Old Assyrian trade records is the confusion caused by individuals who share informal appellations (see also Bodard et al., 2014). For example, more than 100 individuals in Old Assyrian texts named Aššur-malik can be distinguished by their patronymic designations (e.g., Aššur-malik, son of Al-ahum). However, patronymics were not normally used in Old Assyrian correspondence. Experts familiar with the corpus must rely on context clues—geography, known associates, and specific roles—to deduce the identity in question. </p>
            <p>Despite its tremendous utility, OCHRE’s ability to link names to individual persons—and thereby distinguish between two individuals with the same name—is still in development. Jeremy Browne worked with Stratford to develop a prototype database and interface to extract names from the corpus and help Stratford quickly map instances of names to specific individuals. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Building the Database and Preliminary Analysis</hi>
            </p>
            <p>This prototype relational database began with a single table to store the translated text segmented into over 2,000 occurrences. Browne wrote routines that extracted from the occurrences almost 1,000 unique non-English words, which Stratford classified as names, places, or technical terms (e.g., 
                <hi rend=""italic"">minas</hi>). The names—which are pertinent to this project—were stored in a new data table, while places and technical terms were set aside for future use. The routines that recorded names also recorded the association between names and occurrences. 
            </p>
            <p>At this point Browne and Stratford could perform a preliminary analysis of the corpus. (Remember, this analysis only considers names, not individuals, within occurrences. The ongoing labor to disambiguate individuals from common names is described below.) Nearly half (287 out of 606, or 47%; see Figure 1) of the names found in the corpus only occur once. While these names represent ‘dead-end’ nodes in the commercial network, they can reveal the importance of the one or more names with which they co-occur. </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
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                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""9.525cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
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            <p>Figure 1. A histogram of name-frequency in the corpus. </p>
            <p>Visualizing the entire network via Gephi and Elijah Meeks’ GexfD3 library proved problematic because of Pušu-Ken’s and Salim-ahu’s super-degree-centrality. Because the entire corpus was selected based on the documents’ association with those individuals, they are connected to virtually every name in the database by one or two links. Removing Pušu-Ken and Salim-ahu from the dataset revealed a much clearer preliminary picture of the network (see Figure 2). The ring of dots around the periphery represents names and occurrences who only co-occur with Pušu-ken and/or Salim-ahu, but the dots appearing in the intra-space may be very informative. </p>
            <p>This analysis may provide hints as to which names represent multiple individuals. For example, Figure 3 highlights the subnetwork of Buzuliya, a name whose two occurrences are otherwise geodesically isolated. It is unlikely that one lightly connected person took part in such disparate events, so Buzuliya likely represents two individuals. </p>
            <p>Figure 4 displays the constellation of occurrences in which the name Lamassi occurs. It is tempting to apply the above criteria here and conclude that this name cannot represent a single individual. However, Lamassi was the name of Pušu-Ken’s wife, who one would expect to occur in a diverse set of interactions. Despite the variety of occurrences in which this name appears, we must be cautious in blindly applying such heuristics. </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
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            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. The commercial network sans Pušu-Ken. </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
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            <p>Figure 3. Indication that the name 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Buzuliya </hi>refers to two people. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""12.010319444444445cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. Lamassi’s subnetwork. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Name Disambiguation Interface</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The database was expanded with the addition of a persons table that contained patronymic designations compiled by Stratford. Browne wrote routines that attempted to match these patronymics to names extracted from the corpus. If a given name in a patronymic was not found in any other patronymic, the system would link that name and all of its associated occurrences with that patronymic. Also, if a name only occurred once in the corpus, and no patronymic contained that name, then the name was added as its own patronymic, and its occurrence was linked to that new patronymic. </p>
            <p>These procedures accounted for almost 300 of the 606 names found in the corpus. As the Old Assyrian expert, Stratford must comb through the remaining names. To assist Stratford, Browne created an AJAX-based web form. The interface presents two select boxes: a box above displaying the names in the corpus, and a box below displaying the known patronymics. There is also a small form at the bottom to add new patronymics to the data table (see Figure 5). </p>
            <p>When the user clicks on either a name or a patronymic, the text from its associated occurrences appears on the right. For names, the occurrences appear with the name highlighted in blue. The user may click on any of the occurrences displayed for the selected name, and link them to the selected patronymic. </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
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            <p>Figure 5. The name disambiguation interface. </p>
            <p>Stratford will disambiguate homonymous individuals, and, by the end of 2014, he and Browne should have more detailed and accurate analyses of this 4,000-year-old commercial network to share. It is possible that, as happened with Jackson’s (2014) analysis of medieval Scottish charters, previously unknown connections and communities will be revealed. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Moving On</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Besides the individual-disambiguated network analysis, Browne and Stratford plan to map specific business transactions and assets to further characterize Old Assyrian commerce and society. Methods that Suen, Luenzel, and Gil (2013) used to analyze an array of media may be adapted to uncover nuances between various types of transactions. The OCHRE metadata for the original clay tablets describe features of handwriting style, so there is an opportunity for ‘transcriptionship’ attribution. Ongoing spectral analyses of the clay tablets may reveal the place of transcription as well. Finally, Stratford and Browne are investigating various metadata standards such as SNAP:DRGN (Bodard et al., 2014) to allow OCHRE and the prototype database to interoperate with other such corpus systems. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bamman, D., Anderson, A. and Smith, N.</hi> (2013). Inferring Social Rank in an Old Assyrian Trade Network. Paper presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH 2013</hi>, Lincoln, NE.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bodard, G., Depauw, M. and Rahtz, S.</hi> (2014). SNAP:DRGN—Standard for Networking Ancient Prosopographies: Data and Relations in Greco-Roman Names. Poster presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH 2014</hi>, Lausanne.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jackson, C.</hi> (2014). Using Social Network Analysis to Reveal Unseen Relationships in Medieval Scotland. Paper presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH 2014</hi>, Lausanne.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Larsen, M. T. </hi>(2007). Individual and Family in Old Assyrian Society. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Cuneiform Studies,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">59</hi> (January): 93–106. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stratford, E. </hi>(2014). ‘Make Them Pay’: Charting the Social Topography of an Old Assyrian Caravan Cycle. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Cuneiform Studies,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">66</hi> (January): 11–38. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Suen, C., Luenzel, L. and Gil, S.</hi> (2013). Extraction and Analysis of Character Interaction Networks From Plays and Movies. Paper presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH 2013</hi>, Lincoln, NE.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Veenhof, K. R. and Eidem, J.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mesopotamia: The Old Assyrian Period</hi>. Academic Press, Fribourg. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2293","16","Local Music Repertoire and the Digitization of the International Music Industry: An Empirical Analysis, 1994 - 2013","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Patrik</forename>
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            <p>In some of the countries where there has been a rapid increase in the use of online music distribution technologies, analysts have reported declining sales of local music repertoire (e.g., Nordgård, 2013). The analysts are concerned about such tendencies since local music repertoire accounts for a sizable share of an average country’s total recorded music sales (e.g., IFPI, 2012). This paper searches for empirical evidence that may confirm these reports in a number of music markets in North America, Europe, and Australasia. The paper makes a contribution to the literature on the digital transformation of the music industry since it combines and analyses data sources that previously have not been used in this context and gives a new perspective on changing user consumption practices in the music industry. The paper also examines the variation of geographic diversity over time among international acts that become commercially successful in the countries covered by the study.</p>
            <p>In order to measure local repertoire share (LRS) and international repertoire concentration (IRC), weekly singles chart data is collected for seven countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In total, data on more than 270,000 chart items, 50,000 tracks, and 30,000 acts have been mined, processed, and analysed. By combining the chart data with location data from the music technology company the EchoNest, it is possible to attach country information to more than 93% of the data points included in the study. The local repertoire share (LRS) for each country is calculated for each year by dividing the number of chart items by local acts with the total number of chart items during that year. The IRC for a certain country during a certain year is calculated as the Herfindahl-Hirschman index, where the size of the total ‘market’ is defined as the number of chart items by international acts. The index is then calculated based on each country’s share of that ‘market’.</p>
            <p>Figure 1 shows how average local repertoire share varies over time. It shows that LRS remained relatively stable from the beginning of the period until the turn of the millennium. It then increased from approximately 30% and peaked at about 40% in 2006. From 2007 onwards, LRS has decreased and has been relatively stable at 33% since 2011.</p>
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            <p>Figure 1. Local repertoire share is flat until the turn of the millennium, increases during ’00–’06, and
                <lb/>then decreases during ’07–’13.
            </p>
            <p>The second variable (IRC) is presented in Figure 2, which shows that the geographic concentration within international repertoire (IRC) remained relatively stable until the turn of the millennium. It then increased until 2009, and finally decreased towards the end of the period.</p>
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            <p>Figure 2. International repertoire concentration is relatively flat until the turn of the millennium, increases during the ’00–’09 period, and finally rapidly declines.</p>
            <p>There are similarities between how LRS and IRC vary over time. The paper notes that after an initially relatively stable period that ended at the turn of the millennium, music consumers listened more to music performed by local acts, and the international music that nevertheless was able to reach the charts came from a shrinking number of countries. A previous study (Wikström, 2013) has examined this period (1999–2006) based on another type of data, and showed that the increasing local repertoire share was a consequence of record companies’ changing marketing strategies. In 1999, the recorded music industry entered a period of rapidly declining sales (primarily caused by online piracy), which put severe pressure on record companies’ financials and required a number of music companies to reduce their marketing budgets and to increase their risk aversion (Wikström, 2009). An efficient way for a record company to reduce marketing budgets is to focus on a limited number of countries and to reduce the number of artists that are given the support required to promote their music beyond their local markets. As a consequence of this change, local artists’ relative commercial success increased and the number of countries with the capability to export acts internationally decreased (as illustrated by Figures 1 and 2). </p>
            <p>From 2006 onwards, music listening patterns changed once again. Music listeners returned to music performed by international acts (Figure 1) and somewhat later they also increasingly listened to international acts from a growing range of countries (Figure 2). While the dynamics during the first phase can be explained by music companies’ changing marketing strategies, one has to look elsewhere in order to explain the dynamics during this period.</p>
            <p>By 2006, the Internet and online piracy certainly had affected the music industry during a number of years. Revenues from recorded music sales had shrunk by more than 30%, but while this in many ways had severe consequences for a number of industry players, the fundamental structures for promotion and distribution of recorded music largely remained untouched:</p>
            <p>First, music promotion in 2006 still was confined to traditional channels, primarily broadcast radio and television, meaning that music promotion was still structured by national boundaries (see, e.g., Wikström, 2009). Almost a decade later, in 2014, Facebook and particularly YouTube have significantly weakened these structures and have emerged as the most important tastemakers in the music industry—especially among younger music listeners (see, e.g., Chmielewski, 2013). This is a fundamental transformation of how music is promoted by producers and discovered by fans. National boundaries certainly still matter, but to a much lesser extent than in the past, and the cost of promoting an act to an international market has diminished.</p>
            <p>Second, even though there were a number of legal online music retailers available for music consumers in 2006 (e.g., Apple’s iTunes), the recorded music market was still dominated by physical distribution (IFPI, 2007), which means that there were still significant barriers that made it difficult for a music listener to discover new music without significant costs. In 2014, music services such as SoundCloud, YouTube, Spotify, Deezer, etc., make music instantly available and allow music listeners to make treks into musical territories that are far away from their own musical backyard. More than half of the global recorded music market is online, and in some of the countries in this study (such as Norway and Sweden), the digital market share is closer to 80% (Figure 3).</p>
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                    <hi style=""color:red; font-size: 14pt; font-weight:bold;"" rend=""ERROR"">�</hi>
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            <p>Figure 3. Digital market share in the seven countries.</p>
            <p>The paper combines the reasoning above with theories of cultural globalization (e.g., Kraidy, 2005; Mirrlees, 2013) and theories of cultural distribution via a low-friction network-based medium such as the Internet (e.g., Elberse, 2008; Salganik and Watts, 2009). The paper is able to provide empirical evidence that is able to confirm the observations about declining local music repertoire sales as promotion and distribution of music move online. The paper also shows that, at the same time this happens, international repertoire concentration declines as well. In other words, the music industry has become increasingly international in its character: Local audiences may listen less to local acts, but overseas opportunities open up for acts from countries that previously were unable to launch their music internationally.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chmielewski, D. C.</hi> (2013). How YouTube and Music Companies Reach Generation C. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Los Angeles Times</hi>, 15 October, http://articles.latimes.com/2013/oct/15/business/la-fi-ct-youtube-mraz-20131009.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elberse, A.</hi> (2008). Should You Invest in the Long Tail? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Harvard Business Review,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">86</hi>(7/8): 88–96.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">IFPI.</hi> (2007; 2012; 2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Recording Industry in Numbers</hi>. International Federation of the Phonographic Industry, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kraidy, M.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Hybridity, or the Cultural Logic of Globalization.</hi> Temple University Press, Philadelphia, PA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mirrlees, T.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Global Entertainment Media: Between Cultural Imperialism and Cultural Globalization.</hi> Routledge, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nordgård, D.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Rapport fra Nordgård-utvalget. </hi>Oslo: Norwegian Ministry of Culture, http://www.regjeringen.no/upload/KUD/Kunstavdelingen/ Rapporter_Utredninger/ Rapport_Nordgardutvalget.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Salganik, M. J. and Watts, D. J.</hi> (2009). Web-Based Experiments for the Study of Collective Social Dynamics in Cultural Markets. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Topics in Cognitive Science,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(3): 439–68.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wikström, P.</hi> (2009). The Adaptive Behaviour of Music Firms: Introducing the Music Industry Feedback Model. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Media Business Studies,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(2): 67–96.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wikström, P.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Music Industry: Music in the Cloud.</hi> Polity, Cambridge, UK. 
                    </bibl>
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"2294","16","Making Digital Aural History","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <affiliation>MONASH UNIVERSITY, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>alistair.thomson@monash.edu</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>BRADLEY</surname>
                        <forename>KEVIN</forename>
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                    <affiliation>NATIONAL LIBRARY OF AUSTRALIA</affiliation>
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            <p>Digital technologies are facilitating a renaissance of large-scale oral history projects (Gallwey, 2013; Thomson, 2007). Big oral history projects enjoyed a heyday in the 1970s and 1980s. They were often led by sociologically trained historians who sought to create interview samples of sufficient size and diversity to enable ‘the larger insights or generalizations’ that we might gain by finding patterns across many interviews. But large oral history projects ‘receded from view’ by the 1990s as funding dried up for the expensive task of producing and transcribing multiple interviews (Armitage and Gluck, 2006). Just as important, as Armitage and Gluck acknowledge, was the redirection of researcher energy to the cultural or narrative ‘turn’ in oral history (and in history more generally), in which oral historians focused on the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">meanings</hi> of oral narratives and mostly found it easier, and cheaper, to find and interpret those meanings if they worked with a small number of interviews. 
            </p>
            <p>Twenty-first-century technologies have made large oral history projects feasible and attractive again, by offering new tools for creating, managing, and accessing large collections of interviews. Digital technologies are transforming the creation, preservation, presentation, and use of oral history, whilst generating methodological challenges and stretching old ethical dilemmas in new directions (Boyd, 2011; 2013; Frisch and Lambert, 2011; Lambert and Frisch, 2013; Larson, 2013; High, 2010; Zembrzycki, 2013. See also the resources and essays on the Oral History in the Digital Age website, http://ohda.matrix.msu.edu/). </p>
            <p>The Australian Generations Oral History Project, an ARC-funded collaboration between university historians, the National Library of Australia, and ABC Radio National, has pioneered digital technologies for oral history (see http://artsonline.monash.edu.au/australian-generations/). A team of nine researchers and 25 interviewers has recorded 300 life history interviews with 50 people born in each decade from the 1930s to the 1980s. We have produced 1,221 hours of digital audio recordings that are searchable via TROVE, the NLA’s aggregation and discovery system, and which will be available for online research, subject to consent agreements, by anyone, anywhere, forever. </p>
            <p>Our presentation will focus on how we are preserving and documenting our interviews, and presenting and interpreting them through writing in online formats that integrate aural material. We consider the opportunities and challenges posed by an internationally cutting-edge timed summary system linked to hundreds of hours of digital audio recordings and searchable online via TROVE (Bradley, 2014); an interviewer Google site that collected interviewer discussion forum postings about each of 300 life history interviews and offers an essential finding aid to the interviews; a ZOTERO database that combines the different types of data produced by the project, which grows as researchers add notes about each interview and which will, in due course, be available to future researchers; and an aural history book that enables readers/viewers to listen to interview extracts as they read them, and to discover the aural meanings of recorded interviews. Each technological innovation has posed significant ethical issues, which we will examine in our presentation (for example, each interviewee completes an NLA Rights Agreement that specifies conditions for use of their interview, but in some cases we have closed interviews that interviewees wish to place online because of contents that are potentially defamatory or that reveal illegal activity).</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Armitage, S. H. and Gluck, S. B.</hi> (2006). Reflections on Women’s Oral History: An Exchange. In Perks, R. and Thomson, A. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Oral History Reader</hi>. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, p. 74.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boyd, D.</hi> (2011). Achieving the Promise of Oral History in a Digital Age. In Ritchie, D. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Oxford Handbook of Oral History</hi>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 285–302.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boyd, D.</hi> (2013). OHMS: Enhancing Access to Oral History for Free. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Oral History Review,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">40</hi>(1): 95–106. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bradley, K.</hi> (2014). Built on Sound Principles: Audio Management and Delivery at the National Library of Australia. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IFLA Journal.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Frisch, M. and Lambert, D.</hi> (2011). Case Study: Between the Raw and the Cooked in Oral History: Notes from the Kitchen. In Ritchie, D. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Oxford Handbook of Oral History</hi>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 333–48.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gallwey, A.</hi> (2013). The Rewards of Using Archived Oral Histories in Research: The Case of the Millennium Memory Bank. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Oral History,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">41</hi>(1): 37–50.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">High, S.</hi> (2010). Telling Stories: A Reflection on Oral History and New Media. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Oral History,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">38</hi>(1): 101–12.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lambert, D. and Frisch, M.</hi> (2013). Digital Curation through Information Cartography: A Commentary on Oral History in the Digital Age from a Content Management Point of View. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Oral History Review,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">40</hi>(1): 135–53.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Larson, M.</hi> (2013). Steering Clear of the Rocks: A Look at the Current State of Oral History Ethics in the Digital Age.
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Oral History Review,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">40</hi>(1): 36–49.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thomson, A.</hi> (2007). Four Paradigm Transformations in Oral History. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Oral History Review,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">34</hi>(1): 49–70.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zembrzycki, S.</hi> (2013). Bringing Stories to Life: Using New Media to Disseminate and Critically Engage with Oral History Interviews. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Oral History,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">41</hi>(1): 98–107.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>This link will take you to all the Australian Generation interviews that are accessible online through the National Library catalogue: http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Search/Home?lookfor=my_parent:%22(AuCNL)5973925%22&amp;iknowwhatimean=1&amp;filter[]=access_type:%22All%20online%22.</bibl>
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                        <surname>BELL</surname>
                        <forename>JOHNNY</forename>
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                    <affiliation>MONASH UNIVERSITY, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>johnny.bell@monash.edu</email>
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            <p>Making Histories is a level 2 History undergraduate unit taught as a collaboration between historians at Monash University and curators at Museum Victoria. Students research their own history project, drawing upon the Museum’s rich collection or their own family or local history resources of images, documents, and recordings. They develop a history project proposal based on primary and secondary research, write a film script based upon their research, and produce a three-minute digital video history. Students present their work at a Showcase event at Museum Victoria, which includes family members whose history they may have researched, and curators who may add their video histories to the Museum’s online collection. For student video histories produced in 2014, see https://vimeo.com/groups/makinghistory/albums/10825. For the Museum Victoria Making History website, a resource for both school and university students, see http://museumvictoria.com.au/discoverycentre/websites/making-history/. </p>
            <p>After the Showcase event the final assessment for the unit is a class test for which students have known the question from the first day: What have you learnt about making history from making history? Thus the students not only develop a range of historical skills; they are also encouraged to become reflective practitioners and to better understand the processes and issues of historical research and production (see Cullen, 2009; Curthoys and McGrath, 2009; Gunn and Faire, 2011). Initial research using the exams suggests that the students have developed a wider understanding of what constitutes history (intimate personal histories as well as big-picture history), and that histories are always constructed though not fictional. More specifically, while they develop expertise in historical writing through the production of their research proposal, they also develop the sort of transferable skills—like succinct writing for an audience and digital video production—that are now essential tools of the trade in public history and indeed in many professions.</p>
            <p>The course draws upon the methodologies of digital storytelling (see Lambert, 2013; Burgess and Klaebe, 2009). Digital storytelling offers tremendous potential for historical pedagogy and for the production and dissemination of student history research. Students are engaged by the opportunity to make histories that many people will view, unlike the essays they write for one or two examiners. They are excited by seeing their own families and localities as sites of history; they enjoy gathering family photos, documents, and interviews; they see their histories in new light as they research the secondary literature on their topic; they bring extraordinary digital skills to the classroom but adapt and develop them to historical production; and they feel immense satisfaction and pride as they realise that they are history makers and not just history consumers (for historians’ use of digital storytelling see Benmayor, 2008; Coleborne and Bliss, 2011; Coventry et al., 2006). Though the three-minute digital story seems worryingly short for many students when they start the course, the time length and format does work well within the limits of a single-semester course when students have to conduct original research 
                <hi rend=""italic"">and</hi> produce a history video.
            </p>
            <p>In this paper we argue, however, that the digital storytelling model advocated by Joe Lambert and others can also be a limited and problematic approach to historical research and production, because it does not require extensive research or critical thinking, and because the storytelling model and emotive intentions that underpin standard approaches to digital storytelling frame good stories that are not necessarily good histories (see Poletti, 2011). In this presentation we assess the opportunities and challenges of teaching historical skills and understandings through the production of digital video history, drawing upon our own experiences of teaching the course and student reflections upon their own learning. We argue that digital storytelling can be adapted for history research and production but with important provisos and qualifications: topics need to be underpinned with deep and extensive research; intimate stories need to be connected to larger historical forces and issues; the analysis and evocation of emotion needs to be developed with both intellectual rigour and due care.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Benmayor, R.</hi> (2008). Digital Storytelling as a Signature Pedagogy for the New Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Arts and Humanities in Higher Education,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(2) (June): 188–204.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burgess, J. and Klaebe, H.</hi> (2009). Digital Storytelling as Participatory Public History in Australia. In Hartley, J. and McWilliam, K. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Story Circle: Digital Storytelling around the World</hi>. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 155–66.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coleborne, C. and Bliss, E. (</hi>2011). Emotions, Digital Tools and Public Histories: Digital Storytelling Using Windows Movie Maker in the History Tertiary Classroom. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">History Compass,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(9) (September): 674–85.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coventry, M., Felton, P., Jaffee, D., O’Leary, C. and Weis, T., with McGowan, S.</hi> (2006). Ways of Seeing: Evidence and Learning in the History Classroom. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of American History,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">92</hi>(4): pp. 1371–77, introductory abstract.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cullen, J.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Essaying the Past: How to Read, Write, and Think about History</hi>. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, UK.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Curthoys, A. and McGrath, A.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Writing Histories: Imagination and Narration</hi>. Monash University ePress. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gunn, S. and Faire, L.</hi> (eds). (2011). Research Methods for History. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lambert, J.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Storytelling: Capturing Lives, Creating Community</hi>. Taylor and Francis.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Poletti, A.</hi> (2011). Coaxing an Intimate Public: Life Narrative in Digital Storytelling. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Continuum: Journal of Media and Cultural Studies,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(1): 73–83.
                    </bibl>
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"2296","16","Mapping and Modeling Centuries of Literary Geography across Millions of Books","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>Mapping and Modeling Centuries of Literary Geography across Millions of Books</title>
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                        <surname>Wilkens</surname>
                        <forename>Matthew</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Notre Dame, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>mwilkens@nd.edu</email>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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            <p>The ways in which geographic space is used in literature and in other textual materials is a topic of keen interest to researchers in the humanities (Dimock, 2006; Fetterley and Pryse, 2003; Giles, 2011; Heise, 2010; Hsu, 2010; Thacker, 2005). Yet until recently, it has been impossible to study the problem at scales beyond a handful of books or, occasionally, somewhat more broadly via bibliographic metadata and other paratextual information (Ogborn, 2012). The newest work in the field, however, uses natural language processing techniques in combination with geographic information systems to extract and analyze geographic references directly from large textual collections, a development that enables much more comprehensive treatment of historical and contemporary materials (Blevins, 2014; Cooper and Gregory, 2011; Wilkens, 2013). Nevertheless, there remain difficulties in applying such methods to truly large textual corpora (Rupp et al., 2014) and in making sense of the data they generate to answer properly literary, historical, and cultural questions. The present work describes the application of computational georeferencing to the 12 million volumes (approximately 2 trillion words) of the multilingual, international HathiTrust corpus of digitized texts, as well as a preliminary use of the generated data to analyze the relationships between patterns of literary attention and demographic and economic factors in the United States between 1800 and 2010. The findings are novel in the size of the underlying dataset, in their incorporation of modern and contemporary in-copyright texts for large-scale computationally assisted literary analysis, and in their use of statistical modeling to assess the social conditions shaping literary production. </p>
            <p>Georeferencing of the source material is performed in two steps. First, named entities are identified in each volume of the HathiTrust corpus via the HathiTrust Research Center’s non-consumptive data capsule infrastructure (Borders et al., 2009; Zeng et al., 2014). The capsule infrastructure allows research code to be executed safely against the full corpus, including in-copyright volumes, without the threat of leaking reconstructable texts. The NER algorithm is adapted from Stanford’s linear-chain conditional random field method (Finkel et al., 2005; Lafferty et al., 2001) using language-specific training data for English, French, German, Spanish, and Chinese as appropriate at the page level. For English-language texts, a second, period-specific language model is used for volumes published before 1900. Identified location strings are then associated with detailed geographic information via Google’s geocoding API, tuned to the country of source publication. Disambiguation is performed in limited cases according to co-occurrence patterns in gold-standard texts. Overall accuracy (
                <hi rend=""italic"">F</hi>
                <hi rend=""subscript"">1</hi>) approaches 0.8, but varies by language, historical period, OCR quality, and other factors. 
            </p>
            <p>Locations are then aggregated and mapped at the national and city levels, optionally consolidating by era of publication, source country and language, and/or source genre. This process produces cartograms of the types shown in figures 1 and 2. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""8.408458333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Log-scale nation-level aggregated locations in 19th-century U.S. fiction. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""6.588125cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. City-level locations in the same dataset. </p>
            <p>These figures are useful because they provide an unprecedented overview of geographic usage in a corpus that, while still subject to limitations, approaches comprehensive representation of formally published literary output in recent centuries. Notable features include a heavy preponderance of locations in Europe, the eastern United States, and the Mediterranean rim, reflecting the composition of the corpus, as well as, more interestingly, a posited undercurrent of historical and cultural conservatism within literature that leads its distribution of geographic attention to lag significantly changes in economic output, population centers, and other social structures. </p>
            <p>The observation concerning literary-geographic conservatism leads to the second area of investigation, an attempt to assess the viability of predictive modeling of geographic attention as a function of socioeconomic variables in the United States (and, in work not reported here, elsewhere in the world). Historical data are drawn from U.S. Census Bureau records, including state- and county-level measures of population, literacy rates, educational attainment, manufacturing output, agricultural production, racial and ethnic composition, immigration history, newspaper publishing activity, and so on. These data are then used to build a predictive generalized additive model of geographic attention by performing penalized regression analysis against the geolocation results reported above. The results for a limited case are shown in Figure 3, though one is less interested in ‘predicting’ geolocation results already in hand than in identifying outlier cases (geographic locations that are under- or over-represented relative to the model’s expected values) and evaluating the significance of the various socioeconomic factors as predictors of literary attention. A two-dimensional geonormalized plot of the prediction data in the same case is shown in Figure 4. </p>
            <figure>
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            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Observed vs. fitted state-level location counts in U.S. fiction. Adjusted 
                <hi rend=""italic"">R</hi>
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> = 0.76. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""12.36486111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. Predicted geographic location intensity in the same dataset. White = high; red = low. </p>
            <p>In the example shown here, which considers 19th-century U.S. fiction, significant predictors of geographic attention include total population, non-white and immigrant population, and degree of urbanization. Surprisingly insignificant as independent predictors are literacy rates, per capita newspaper publication, and manufacturing output. Three classes of locations are especially prominent in the model: cities, battle sites, and in the second half of the century, far Western locations. These facts may ultimately be assimilable within established critical narratives about the trajectory of American fiction in the 19th century, but note that they align badly with both the regionalist and Puritan hypotheses (Fetterley and Pryse, 2003; Bercovitch, 1975), while being perhaps better suited to hemispheric and transatlantic views. In any case, the results suggest a particular need to revisit issues related to urbanization and westward expansion in the period. </p>
            <p>For lack of space, I’ve presented here only one brief example. But these methods are straightforwardly extensible to the other periods and national contexts included in the HTRC data. In recent decades, for instance, literary-geographic attention (in all studied languages) has once again lagged urbanization outside the Western world and correlates only weakly with economic growth, facts that align in interestingly imperfect ways with intensifying critical consideration of neoliberal tendencies in contemporary fiction. The French and British cases show striking similarities in the degree to which their domestic attention is allocated to their capital cities, though with different development curves in response to industrialization and with different allocations of foreign attention structured by their lingering colonial investments. </p>
            <p>The results presented in this paper represent some of the largest-scale computational humanities work carried out to date. It has been made possible in part by the generous support of the American Council of Learned Societies, the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the HathiTrust Research Center, and the University of Notre Dame Office of the Vice President for Research. Dr. Michael Clark provided substantial help with the statistical modeling work. Vienna Wagner, Angela Lake, and Jessen Baker performed much of the work to develop period-specific English-language NER training data. </p>
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        <back>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bercovitch, S.</hi> (1975). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Puritan Origins of the American Self</hi>. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blevins, C.</hi> (2014). Space, Nation, and the Triumph of Region: A View of the World from Houston. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of American History,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">101</hi>(1): 122–47. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Borders, K., Vander Weele, E., Lau, B. and Prakash, A.</hi> (2009). Protecting Confidential Data on Personal Computers with Storage Capsules. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 18th USENIX Security Symposium</hi>. Montreal: USENIX Society, pp. 367–82. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cooper, D. and Gregory, I. N.</hi> (2011). Mapping the English Lake District: A Literary GIS. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">36</hi>(1): 89–108. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dimock, W. C.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Through Other Continents: American Literature across Deep Time</hi>. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fetterley, J. and Pryse, M.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Writing Out of Place: Regionalism, Women, and American Literary Culture</hi>. University of Illinois Press, Urbana. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Finkel, J. R., Grenager, T. and Manning, C.</hi> (2005). Incorporating Non-Local Information into Information Extraction Systems by Gibbs Sampling. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2005)</hi>, pp. 363–70.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Giles, P.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Global Remapping of American Literature</hi>. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heise, T.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Urban Underworlds: A Geography of Twentieth-Century American Literature and Culture</hi>. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hsu, H.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Geography and the Production of Space in Nineteenth-Century American Literature</hi>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lafferty, J., McCallum, A. and Pereira, F. C. N.</hi> (2001). Conditional Random Fields: Probabilistic Models for Segmenting and Labeling Sequence Data. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Machine Learning</hi>. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann, pp. 282–89. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ogborn, M.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Geographies of the Book</hi>. Ogborn, M. and Withers, C. W. J. (eds). Ashgate. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rupp, C. J., Rayson, P., Gregory, I., Hardie, A., Joulain, A. and Hartmann, D.</hi> (2014). Dealing with Heterogeneous Big Data When Geoparsing Historical Corpora. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Big Humanities Data</hi>. Bethesda, MD: IEEE Computer Society Press. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thacker, A.</hi> (2005). The Idea of a Critical Literary Geography. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Formations,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">57</hi>: 56–73. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wilkens, M.</hi> (2013). The Geographic Imagination of Civil War–Era American Fiction. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">American Literary History,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(4): 803–40. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zeng, J., Ruan, G., Crowell, A., Prakash, A. and Plale, B.</hi> (2014). Cloud Computing Data Capsules for Non-Consumptive Use of Texts. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 5th ACM Workshop on Scientific Cloud Computing</hi>. New York: ACM, pp. 9–16. 
                    </bibl>
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"2297","16","Mapping Notes And Nodes: Building A Multi-Layered Network For A History Of The Cultural Industry","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Heuvel</surname>
                        <forename>Charles van den</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Huygens Institute, Netherlands</affiliation>
                    <email>charles.van.den.heuvel@huygens.knaw.nl</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>van Bree</surname>
                        <forename>Pim</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>LAB1100, Netherlands</affiliation>
                    <email>pim@lab1100.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Kessels</surname>
                        <forename>Geert</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>LAB1100, Netherlands</affiliation>
                    <email>geert@lab1100.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Álvarez Francés</surname>
                        <forename>Leonor</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Leiden University, Netherlands</affiliation>
                    <email>l.alvarez@hum.leidenuniv.nl</email>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>historical networks research; data-integration; visualization; creative industry;</term>
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                    <term>art history</term>
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                    <term>cultural studies</term>
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            <p>In August 2014, for the first time in its history, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Science</hi> included an article of an art historical nature. Art historian Maximilian Schich (2014), together with a team of experts on network theory, modeling, simulation, and visual analytics, mapped cultural migration on a global level by aggregating data of Freebase.com, the General Artist Lexicon, and the Getty Union List of Artists’ Names. Mauro Martino (2014) made an animated visualization in which the dynamics in the birth and death locations of more than 150,000 artists and scientists on a global level can be followed over a period of 2,000 years in a five-minute movie. We agree with some of the critique that the predominantly American–North European nature of the dataset, its focus on artists, and its scope on birth and death dates are too limited to map cultural migration on a global level. It should be complemented with data about the roles and interactions of various actors such as painters, comissioners, cultural agents, scholars, academies, etc., and about the artefacts they produced. However, the article in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Science</hi> describes an interesting experiment in which a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods were tested that are needed for any global history. Moreover, as the title explains, the authors did not claim other than to provide ‘a network framework of cultural history’. 
            </p>
            <p>In this paper we discuss the outcomes of another experiment that might be used to complement and enhance this global network framework gradually both with ingests of other cultural data and overlays of manually created networks of micro-histories. In a private-public project known as Mapping Notes and Nodes in Networks (Álvarez Francés and van den Heuvel, 2014), a small interdisciplinary team experimented for nine months for two days per week with the software application Nodegoat to create multilayered networks of actors and documents that are potentially relevant for the history of the creative industry in Amsterdam and Rome in the Early Modern Period.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1 </hi>The project started with the integration of three complementary, but heterogeneous (meta)datasets: the full text searchable Biographical Reference Works of the Huygens Institute for the History of Netherlands; ECARTICO, a comprehensive database that allows analysing and visualising data concerning painters, art consumers, art collectors, art dealers, and others involved in the cultural industry of Amsterdam and the Low Countries in the Early Modern Period; and finally HADRIANUS, a database of Dutch artists and scholars from the Middle Ages up the 20th century who stayed in Rome, developed by the Royal Netherlands Institute in Rome. Researchers who heard of the initiative offered their own sets. Frits Scholten and Arjan de Koomen provided the data about the migration of Dutch sculptors throughout Europe that their students had assembled in the project Sculptors on the Move. Susanna de Beer, with a small group of students, developed in her Mapping Visions of Rome project a typology of descriptions of Rome in humanist poetry. We embraced this rather arbitrary selection of sources to complement our three initial datasets, because it reflects the main research question of the Mapping Notes and Nodes project: ‘How can we assess which information is relevant when integrating reused completed datasets with those in development?’ Despite initiatives such as the Internet Archive or Library Alexandria 2.0 we claim that full data integration of digitized sources and digital-born data on a global level is impossible. Therefore, strategies are needed that can bring together top-down and bottom-up approaches and enable handling hybrid forms of data integration in continuous flux. For that reason in this project the emphasis was not on quantitative analyses but on a qualitative approach to allow scholars to connect and complement these divergent datasets and to create and visualize networks to see and interact with connections that they might not do otherwise. To this end, it was decided to develop a viewer for Nodegoat that visualises the co-presence of historical actors (nodes) and (meta-)data of sources and documents (notes) in Amsterdam and Rome in partially overlapping, multilayered networks (see Figure 1).
            </p>
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                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.49588888888889cm"" height=""9.154583333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>Figure 1. Network of persons with both relations in Rome and in Amsterdam and their interrelations.</p>
            <p>The assumption is that the co-presence of artists, artisans, scientists, art agents, ambassadors, patrons, sponsors, and entrepreneurs at a certain location in a given time period allows for recognizing potential networks, while contextual topical information (introduction letters, guest lists, audiences, commissions, contracts, artefacts) enable users to assess whether there were actually contacts between these persons. When new data is added, the overlap of the multilayered networks changes, resulting potentially in new answers and other questions. The building of hybrid networks implies perhaps a less systematic research of the history of the creative industry of Rome and Amsterdam, but at the same time both practical and theoretical arguments support this more explorative approach. First of all, this approach seems to reflect the way (digital) humanists assemble information on the basis of rather pragmatic criteria such as time, money, and availability of data. If complete data integration is impossible, a tool that on the basis of metadata enables assessing the likelihood that one combination might lead to better results than another could at least support prioritizing the digitization program necessary for research. The second, theoretical argument is that the proposed incremental approach with changing perspectives on data in flux stands closer to hermeneutic methods (Capurro, 2010). Such methods appeal to many humanities scholars who try to give sense to data from multiple perspectives in continuous processes of reinterpretation (Akker et al., 2011). For that reason we chose a couple of cases that could demonstrate the multidimensional relationships from data about the cultural industry of Amsterdam and Rome from different perspectives. Since the Ecartico database provides visualizations of the places where artists lived in Amsterdam, we decided to map the geolocations of Dutch artists in Rome as well, using inventories of the parochial archives by Hoogerwerff (Tamminen, 1943).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.49588888888889cm"" height=""9.154583333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>Figure 2. Location of the ‘Bentvueghels group’ with pop-up of artists living in the same house.</p>
            <p>This mapping reveals a very high concentration of Dutch artists living three or four together in one house, almost from door to door in just a couple streets (see Figure 2). This tight community of artists, known as the Bentvueghels, worked and partied together in Rome between approximately 1620 and 1720. </p>
            <p>However, we did not only look at relations between artists. Other cases show networks of actors in the creative industry from the perspectives, respectively, of a Dutch pharmacist and a Dutch engineer in Rome. Pharmacist Hendrik Raef, alias Corvinus (ca. 1554/1567–1639), probably provided pigments to painters and was a member of the Bentvueghels group. The Dutch civil engineer Cornelis Meijer (1629–1701) created on commission of three successive popes constructions against floods and to make the Tiber navigable. These constructions are hard to link to the creative industry, but that is different for the commissions he gave to several Dutch and Flemish artists in Rome to make engravings after his designs (see Figure 3). </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.49588888888889cm"" height=""9.154583333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Network of people and academies (nodes) and artefacts (notes) around engineer Cornelis Meijer.</p>
            <p>Given the possibility to indicate the nature of relationships as well, we also mapped his competitors. Another case looks into the Dutch contacts of Italian engineers who on behalf of Cosimo III, grand duke of Florence (1629–1701), were involved in espionage of Dutch industries and fortifications. While these cases demonstrate relationships between different actors (the nodes) in overlapping networks, other reveal links from the perspective of the artefacts or contextual documents (notes). For instance, the above-mentioned typology of descriptions of Rome in poems of humanists is linked to categories in ICONCLASS to compare these associations with the classification of visual depictions of the Eternal City and its monuments (see Figure 4).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""16.49588888888889cm"" height=""9.378597222222222cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>Figure 4. ICONOCLASS numbers connecting depictions and descriptions of monuments in Rome.</p>
            <p>The combination of incomplete, heterogeneous digitized, and manually added data will result in much fuzziness and uncertainties in interpretations of the history of the cultural industry of Amsterdam and Rome. In order to assist the user in assessing the quality of data, the producer hereof can annotate them with levels of uncertainty. Although this experiment for a multilayered network of actors and documents was set up around some cases relevant for the history of the creative industry of Amsterdam and Rome, its features of digital hermeneutics to deal with overlaps, multiple perspectives, fuzziness, and uncertainties in data have a much larger potential to enhance existing network frameworks developed for global history.</p>
            <p>Acknowledgements</p>
            <p>The authors are indebted for the data and expertise of Marten-Jan Bok and Harm Nijboer (University of Amsterdam-Ecartico); Marieke van den Doel and Arthur Westeijn (Royal Netherlands Institute in Rome-Hadrianus); Susanna de Beer and Petrie van der Heijden (Leiden University); Hans Brandhorst and Etienne Postumus (Mnemosyne-Iconclass); Arjan de Koomen (UvA) and Frits Scholten (Rijksmuseum; VU University Amsterdam); Sebastiaan Derks and Ronald Sluijter (Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands) Alette Fleischer (independent researcher—Corvinus and Bentvueghels); and Erin Downey (Temple University Philadelphia: Patronage Guistiniani and Bentveughels). </p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. Charles van den Heuvel was main applicant and p.i. of the Mapping Notes and Nodes in Networks project. Leonor Álvarez Francés was embedded researcher in LAB1100, the studio of Pim van Bree and Geert Kessels that developed the described features for this project in Nodegoat. Ingeborg van Vugt and Simone Wegman (Leiden University) worked as interns on this project at the Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Akker, C. v. d., et al.</hi> (2011). Agora Digital Hermeneutics: Online Understanding of Cultural Heritage. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Web Science (WebSci’11)</hi>, Koblenz, Germany, 14–17 June 2011, http://www.cs.vu.nl/~guus/papers/Akker11a.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Álvarez Francés, L. and Heuvel, C. v. d. </hi>(2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mapping Notes and Nodes in Networks: Exploring Potential Relationships in Biographical Data and Cultural Networks in the Creative Industry in Amsterdam and Rome in the Early Modern Period.</hi> Report: Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) Public Private Partnership Project:
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>https://www.huygens.knaw.nl/mapping-notes-and-nodes-in-networks/?lang=en, and for the viewer, http://mnn.nodegoat.net/viewer.</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Capurro, R.</hi> (2010). Digital Hermeneutics: An outline. http://www.capurro.de/digitalhermeneutics.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Martino, M. </hi>(2014). http://www.nature.com/news/humanity-s-cultural-history-captured-in-5-minute-film-1.15650; http://youtu.be/4gIhRkCcD4U.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nodegoat.</hi> (n.d.). http://nodegoat.net/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schich, M., et al.</hi> (2014). A Network Framework of Cultural History. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Science,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">345</hi>, 558–62,
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>DOI:10.1126/science.1240064.</bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tamminen, M. </hi>(1943). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Nederlandse kunstenaars te Rome 1600–1725. Uittreksels uit de parochiale archieven door G.J. Hoogewerff,</hi> The Hague.
                    </bibl>
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"2298","16","Mapping the Contours of the New Aesthetic, Opening Considerations for Digital Rhetoric","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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            <p>In May 2011, designer and digital futurist James Bridle introduced the world to the idea of the New Aesthetic, a kind of emerging art and cultural critique that called attention to our acts of mediation, to the underlying systems and protocols that produce particular computational visualizations, and to the human viewpoints that frame those considerations. For Bridle, the New Aesthetic revealed the increasingly blurred distinctions ‘between “the real” and “the digital”, the physical and the virtual, the human and the machine’ (2012, n.p.), and it made us increasingly aware of a kind of ‘network vision’ manifest when the digital spills into the real—what William Gibson has called ‘eversion’ (2007). To this point, the ‘digital spill’ of New Aestheticism has been predominantly marked by the novelty of pixelated representation (Terrett, 2012)—8-bit graphics (and their overt pixelated qualities) manifesting in cultural spaces, screen glitches, down-sampled satellite imagery, and the blurry-squared edges of render ghosts. But for Bridle, the pixelated imagery serves merely as a kind of visual shorthand, a surface orientation. What the New Aesthetic points to, however, is the underlying systems that produce those pixelated representations, the media in which they are being undertaken (and of which they are reflective), and the human-technology assemblages that allow us to make sense of these things. </p>
            <p>As such, Bridle’s year-long curatorial exercise on the New Aesthetic tumblr was more than just a collection of images and artifacts suggestive of an aesthetic of the network itself. Rather, the New Aesthetic oriented us to a moment of contact between what Lev Manovich has labeled ‘Turing-land’ and ‘Duchamp-land’ (1996). It brought together new media art and contemporary art, offering a series of convergences wrought with the dangling threads of the socio-politico-techno-cultural structures that underlie our ubiquitous human-technology assemblages. In so doing, the New Aesthetic helped us attune to design and making practices that sit between new media and contemporary art, as well as attuning to many rooted outside these frameworks (ranging across a variety of industry practices). </p>
            <p>With this impact on design and/or our making activities, it should come as no surprise, then, that the field of rhetoric studies would have interest in the practices and purposes (if not emerging paradigm) of the New Aesthetic. For rhetoric has always been concerned with making, with the ways in which we produce discourse and/or artifacts for particular audiences, of particular moments in time, space, culture, etc. And rhetorical scholars, particularly those connected to digital rhetoric, have been increasingly concerned with our acts (and artifacts) of mediation, the systems (computational, cultural, communicative, etc.) that produce or allow for particular types of material and digital utterances and engagement, and, perhaps most importantly, the human-technology assemblages at the center of digital making and what those assemblages mean for rhetorical activities in the 21st century (both within the narrowed lens of digital rhetoric and in the general sense of communication, identification, persuasion, engagement, and the like). As such, if the New Aesthetic can be marshaled toward providing structures or explanatory models that could easily map (into) emerging rhetorical/humanistic practices, then it would have much to offer a range of critical and creative inquiry practices, from those practices featured in targeted subfields like digital rhetoric studies to larger umbrella structures like the digital humanities. </p>
            <p>The problem here is that New Aestheticism actually resists the very kind of codification needed for it to be ‘marshalled’ anywhere. This is in keeping with aesthetic turns in general (cf. Rogoff, 2012), but for Bridle, the ‘resistance’ to application is less a matter of avoiding New Aesthetic tropes, and instead is due to the fact that the New Aesthetic is an ongoing process of critical engagement, born of a networked culture, taking place in/on/of networked worlds, and mirroring certain conditionalities of the network itself—which, in Bridle’s view (2013), renders it resistant to codification. Bruce Sterling performatively makes this point in his ‘An Essay on the New Aesthetic’, where he offers over 30 ‘is’ statements trying to grasp and situate New Aestheticism—ranging from ‘The New Aesthetic is a native product of a modern network culture’ to ‘It is rhizomic’ to ‘the New Aesthetic is really a design fiction’ (n.p.). Aside from offering glimpses of the potential qualities of the New Aesthetic and, perhaps more importantly, helping mainstream the New Aesthetic by publishing his essay in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Wired</hi>, Sterling’s articulation comes up short in providing a kind of conceptual whole to what the New Aesthetic is or may become. And it most certainly does not provide a set of tropes for employing the New Aesthetic (as hermeneutic or heuristic). 
            </p>
            <p>This is perhaps what has made the New Aesthetic so valuable. It generated a lot of interest and critique not because it offered any prescriptive tropes, but rather because it was more significantly concerned with attunement, digital attunement—i.e., with attuning us to the circulating intensities of representation, mediation, and enactment central to our hybrid cybernetic/human cultures (what Manovich would call ‘computer culture’, Beth Coleman ‘x-reality’, and N. Katherine Hayles ‘mixed reality’). In this view, the New Aesthetic isn’t meant to be a revolutionary aesthetic like the aesthetic movements of yore (Dadaism, Futurism, Cubism, etc.), but rather an awareness-aesthetic—one oriented towards opening us to what McLuhan has referred to as ‘the numbed stance of the technological idiot’ (1994/1964, 18). </p>
            <p>But for all of its promise as an awareness-aesthetic, no one has been able to articulate what the attunements of New Aestheticism are or how they might inform larger conversations and practices in the digital arts, digital humanities, digital rhetorics, or digital literacies. Part of this tension stems from Bridle’s own hesitation to codify the New Aesthetic, preferring that it reflect the unstabilized and unfixable tenets of the network paradigm from which it emerges—an emergent aesthetic stemming from ‘a new natural order’ (i.e., the network) (Bridle, 2011). While I agree with Bridle’s not wanting to arrest what is, by all indications, an ongoing performance, a process of critical engagement and critique, the many works on the subject (his own as well as the many other commenters: ranging from Bruce Sterling and Catherine David to Joanne McNeil and Ian Bogost) provide enough for us to begin to map temporary contours of the New Aesthetic—a snapshot (perhaps snapchat) of our fleeting, yet-ever-present New Aesthetic moment. </p>
            <p>This presentation, then, will attempt to articulate these contours without arresting them. It will work to situate these gestural shapes in relation to rhetorical and mediating practices (from hyperrhetoricity to hypermediacy), and attempt to leverage them in order to foster a frame of engagement that may help us make sense of the increasingly blurred lines between screen-mediated and non-screen-mediated experiences. It will do this in three parts: one, it will identify the conceptual purview of the New Aesthetic (history and trajectory); two, it will introduce and respond (in brief) to key criticisms lobbied at New Aestheticism; and three, it will articulate four contours of the New Aesthetic and explore those contours in relation to current digital rhetoric / digital making practices, with particular attention on issues of design (functional and experiential), representation (particularly the leveraging of metaphors from our engineered devices), and mediation (small-screens practices and mediated being). As the limitations of the talk prevent full development of these concepts and applications, the talk will be designed to showcase the key frames, contextualize their impact, and demonstrate their possibilities as a way to invite further questions, criticisms, and creative responses. </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bridle, J.</hi> (2011). Waving at the Machines. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Web Directions South 2011 </hi>(Keynote), Sydney, 5 December, http://www.webdirections.org/resources/james-bridle-waving-at-the-machines/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bridle, J.</hi> (2012). #sxaesthetic. Booktwo.org, 15 March, http://booktwo.org/notebook/sxaesthetic/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bridle, J.</hi> (2013). The New Aesthetic and Its Politics. Booktwo.org, 12 June, http://booktwo.org/notebook/new-aesthetic-politics/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coleman, B.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Hello Avatar: Rise of the Networked Generation</hi>. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gibson, W.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Spook Country</hi>. Putnam’s, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hayles, N. K.</hi> (2010). Cybernetics. In Mitchell, W. J. T. and Hansenk, M. B. N. (eds),
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Critical Terms for Media Studies</hi>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 144–56. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manovich, L.</hi> (1996). The Death of Computer Art. Rhizome, 23 October, http://www.rhizome.org/discuss/view/28877.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manovich, L.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Language of New Media</hi>. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McLuhan, M.</hi> (1994/1964). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man</hi>. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rogoff, I.</hi> (2008). Turning. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">e-flux journal</hi>, http://www.e-flux.com/journal/turning/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sterling, B.</hi> (2012). An Essay on the New Aesthetic. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Wired</hi>, 2 April, http://www.wired.com/2012/04/an-essay-on-the-new-aesthetic/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Terrett, B.</hi> (2012). SXSW, the New Aesthetic and Commercial Visual Culture. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Noisy Decent Graphics</hi>, 14 March, http://noisydecentgraphics.typepad.com/design/2012/03/sxsw-the-new-aesthetic-and-commercial-visual-culture.html.
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                        <forename>Ryan</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University</affiliation>
                    <email>heuser@stanford.edu</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Algee-Hewitt</surname>
                        <forename>Mark</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University</affiliation>
                    <email>malgeehe@stanford.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Tran</surname>
                        <forename>Van</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Stanford University</affiliation>
                    <email>vant@stanford.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Lockhart</surname>
                        <forename>Annalise</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University</affiliation>
                    <email>ajlock@stanford.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Steiner</surname>
                        <forename>Erik</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University</affiliation>
                    <email>ebs110@stanford.edu</email>
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            <p>Digital literary geography (DLG) has already made possible important discoveries into the geographic patterns of large-scale corpora of fiction. For instance, Matthew Wilkens has shown that the rise of literary regionalism, argued to have taken place in response to the Civil War, does not actually manifest in a large corpus of American fiction published in the surrounding decades. For Wilkens, this methodology—counting how often place-names appear in texts—can effectively operationalize a text’s ‘geographic investment’ with particular places (Wilkens, 2013, 804).</p>
            <p>We find the concept of geographic investment as foundational to DLG as patterns, according to Barbara Piatti, were to the emergence of literary geography. Early maps, such as William Sharp’s 1904 map of the chief localities of Walter Scott’s novels, ‘succeeded to visualise a couple of important aspects’ of the emerging field, namely ‘the distribution of fictional settings (“gravity centers” vs. “unwritten regions”)’ (Piatti et al., 2009, 181). At the same time, we believe that a key challenge for DLG will be to demonstrate its ability to further qualify and differentiate what is meant by ‘investment’. It seems important to understand, for instance, that the rise of mentions of India in 19th-century British novels is predominantly due to their frequent appearances in off-hand explanations of the origin of someone’s wealth or some imported good (Jockers et al., 2012). Similarly, it seems essential for DLG to develop methods by which it can articulate a range of ways in which place-names operate in fiction, visualizing distinct modes of attention both historically and geographically.</p>
            <p>This paper presents a visualization and interpretation of the geographic investment with real London places in 18th- and 19th-century English-language fiction.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> It also attempts to visualize two distinct qualifications of this investment. We have applied emerging techniques in crowdsourcing to derive from a consensus of readers two pieces of information regarding the way in which a place-name was invoked in a fictional passage. Was it the setting of the passage, or simply mentioned? Was the emotion of fear, or happiness, associated with the place in the passage?
            </p>
            <p>In addition to narrative setting, we take emotion to play an important role in a project such as this, balanced between questions of literary form and social geography. In the affect-theoretical work of Sianne Ngai, emotions act ‘as a mediation between the aesthetic and the political in a nontrivial way’ (Ngai, 2004, 3). In their polarity between positive engagement and negative withdrawal, happiness and fear can be felt in the tone in which places are invoked in fiction. Mapping these tonal associations reveals one emotional spectrum along which fiction affectively mediated its relationship to London throughout two centuries of urbanization, industrialization and the rise of urban poverty, literacy, the bourgeoisie, and the novel.</p>
            <p>Experiment 1: Geographic Investment</p>
            <p>Method</p>
            <p>We developed a list of locations in London to search for in a corpus of texts, through a combination of computational toponym discovery (using the Named Entity Recognizer of the Stanford NLP toolkit) and research into historical gazetteers and maps of London. From this list, 161 places were chosen for all experiments presented in this paper.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> We read random passages mentioning each of the place-names, identifying ten passages per half-century in which the place-name actually referred to the London place we assumed it to. These passage annotations also supplied a statistic on the likelihood of a particular name to refer to a place. For instance, in fiction from 1750 to 1800, ‘Bond Street’ seems to refer to the street about 100% of the time, while the ‘Tower’ to the Tower of London about 90% of the time. These likelihoods are multiplied against the total count of each place-name across all fiction from a given half-century, and visualized in the following map.
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""15.134166666666667cm"" height=""12.55888888888889cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Map 1. Fiction’s geographic investment with London, 1700–1900. The four tiles, read left to right, represent a fictional geography of the works published in the four half-centuries of 1700–1900, respectively. Circles represent discrete places in our corpus—streets, buildings, squares—while polygons represent wider spaces such as districts or neighborhoods. The depth of color, and the size of circle, reflect the same data: the overall likelihood for fiction of the period to mention that place.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <p>Interpretation</p>
            <p>We find a ‘gravity center’ of fictional attention to London spaces, located in the City and West End, that is surprisingly stable across two centuries of dramatic urban expansion. Comparing the distribution of fictional attention to population by London borough across the 19th century, we find that the most frequently mentioned boroughs—the City, Westminster, and Camden—are those that least correlate with population change.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> All three decline in relative population while remaining stable in their dominance of relative fictional attention. The responsiveness of literary representation to social change has always remained a contentious question for literary theory: here, we find not responsiveness, but a kind of ‘stuckness’, a tendency to continually reinvest London places already imbued with centuries of public meaning.
            </p>
            <p>Experiment 2: Crowdsourcing Emotional Investment</p>
            <p>Method</p>
            <p>We used the Amazon crowdsourcing platform, Mechanical Turk, to derive a consensus of readers’ annotations to overlay onto the foregoing map. For each place in each half-century, we gave ten passages to twenty readers each. All twenty annotated whether the highlighted place-name acted as the setting of the passage. Ten annotated whether the emotion of fear was associated or experienced in the place; ten for happiness.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> Averaging these annotations per place per period produced the following two maps.
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""15.134166666666667cm"" height=""13.335cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Map 2. Likelihood of narrative setting. The four tiles, read left to right, represent a fictional geography of the works published in the four half-centuries of 1700–1900, respectively. Circles represent discrete places in our corpus—streets, buildings, squares—while polygons represent wider spaces such as districts or neighborhoods. The depth of color, and the size of circle, reflect the same data: the overall likelihood for fiction of the period to act as the setting of a passage. 
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""12.241388888888888cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Map 3. Emotional polarity in fiction. The four tiles, read left to right, represent a fictional geography of the works published in the four half-centuries of 1700–1900, respectively. All places are now represented as geographic polygons. The color scale, from green to red, represents the likelihood of a place to be associated with happiness, subtracted by its likelihood to be associated with fear, in the fiction of that period. Gray areas are not likely to be associated with either (neutral).</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <p>Interpretation</p>
            <p>We observe a spatial bifurcation in fiction’s emotional representations of London places: locations in the City, South, and East are more likely to be associated with fear than locations in the West and North. We test this observation by modeling the spatial patterns in the likelihoods of narrative setting, fear, and happiness, with the spatial patterns of four social-geographic data: the location of the place, whether in the City, or South, East, North, or West of it; the function of the place, whether Prison, Church, Square, etc.; the age of the place, whether deriving from the Roman and medieval eras or from the Tudor era onward; and finally, the social class of the place, as measured using remote sensing techniques applied to its immediate vicinity on Booth’s 1889 map of income classes in London. These four independent data are treated as factors in an odds ratio in order to measure the extent to which they statistically affect the likelihood for setting, fear, and happiness. The significant odds ratios (&gt;1.4) are visualized in the following network.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""15.204722222222221cm"" height=""4.445cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Factors influencing setting, fear, and happiness.</p>
            <p>Emotional representations of fear and happiness articulate two distinct geographies of London. Prisons, hills (which have prisons associated with them), pre-modern buildings, and places in the City are more likely be associated with fear. Parks, churches, squares, theatres, modern buildings, places in the West, and places around which Booth had indicated upper-class residents lived are more likely to be associated with happiness. Interestingly, the only factor making both emotions more likely is a factor of narrative form: whether the passage was embodied in the place through its narrative setting. We interpret these results further and argue for the relevance of DLG in articulating nuanced geographies of literary history.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. Our corpus derives from the Literary Lab’s fictional corpus, and includes 5,000 works of English-language fiction published between 1700 and 1900. </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. Places were chosen if appearing with a minimum frequency of 0.2% of the total occurrences of London places in any half-century of fiction from 1700 to 1900. In addition, the name of each London district identified on Booth’s 1889 map of London was included to ensure sufficient spatial representation of parts of the South and East of London.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. Population data was retrieved from UK census data on historical population in London by borough: data.london.gov.uk/datastore/package/historic-census-population. The ‘West End’ is spatially represented in the data by the contemporary borough of Westminster.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">4. Our process of quality control was as follows. We applied statistical techniques to determine whether readers behaved, on average, more like other readers than would random chance. In borderline cases, manual inspection was made to determine whether the data was unlikely to have been entered sincerely, in which case we excluded it from our analysis.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M. L., with Allen, B., Blevins, C. and Heuser, R.</hi> (2012). A Geography 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>of Nineteenth-Century English and American Literature. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social Science History Association, 37th Annual Meeting</hi>, Vancouver, British Columbia, 2 November 2012.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ngai, S.</hi> (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ugly Feelings</hi>. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Piatti, B., Bär, H. R., Reuschel, A.-K., Hurni, L. and Cartwright, W.</hi> (2009). Mapping Literature: Towards a Geography of Fiction. In Cartwright, W., Gartner, G. F., and Lehn, A. (eds),
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Cartography and Art</hi>. Berlin: Springer, pp. 179–94.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wilkens, M.</hi> (2013). The Geographic Imagination of Civil War–Era American Fiction. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">American Literary History,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(4): 803–40.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Williams, R.</hi> (1977). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Marxism and Literature</hi>. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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            <p>This poster will present an analysis of relationships and knowledge-sharing in the first Futures Initiative course, Mapping the Futures of Higher Education: Teaching, Learning, and Research in the Age of Google, offered at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York (CUNY) in spring 2015. Graduate students enrolled in this course are from widely different backgrounds and teach courses throughout New York City across levels and disciplines. In order to facilitate a collaborative, peer-driven learning environment among this diverse group, the Futures Initiative has deployed a sophisticated web-based technology. </p>
            <p>The Mapping the Futures website (http://futures.gc.cuny.edu) utilizes a specialized version of Commons In A Box (CBOX), a software project based on WordPress and developed by CUNY and the Graduate Center. As an open-source platform, CBOX offers community and collaboration tools in a single installation package, with low barriers to entry for students, who have various levels of technical proficiency. The site is equipped with multi-site functionality in addition to groups and forums to allow each student to engage online with his or her own course, as well as the larger network of collaborators across campuses. Within the first few weeks, the site’s network includes over 200 users, 20 sites, and 15 groups, many of which are highly active. </p>
            <p>This poster will be exploring and evaluating this online cross-campus community through data visualizations and analysis. As a Futures Initiative fellow with a background in both the humanities and the computer sciences, as well as an educational background both at CUNY and abroad, I will be exploring the efficacy of the course through its online community network and suggest ways in which aspects of its collaborative and digital pedagogy model may be expanded upon by the global higher education community. I will also consider how the Mapping the Futures site may be a scalable and adaptable digital model, working without geospatial limitations, to facilitate peer-driven and collaborative learning.</p>
            <p>The classroom sessions, led by Futures Initiative director and pioneering digital humanist Cathy N. Davidson and former Graduate Center president William Kelly, are designed to support graduate student-instructors to innovate in their own classrooms. As an interdisciplinary course, with students from humanities as well as STEM fields, it employs a number of digital and collaborative pedagogic approaches to re-envision the methodologies and structure of higher education in the 21st century, many of which are being housed on the Mapping the Futures site. In an effort to harness CUNY’s unique networked structure, in which graduate students teach at a wide array of colleges throughout the city, the course and its site leverage a multiplier effect through an intrinsic embedded flow that can disperse throughout the system. Two professors working with a dozen graduate students and 368 undergraduate students can create profound effects toward refactoring pedagogical assumptions and innovating both in the classroom and online. This first course will proliferate by fivefold through subsequent iterations in the coming semester, thus expanding the student outreach and prompting profound reverberations throughout the system. </p>
            <p>The physical network of CUNY, the largest urban university in the United States, is echoed in the course’s site, with its linked network of course websites, discussions, documents, and reflections. Students are developing geographic information systems as part of their coursework, approaching it from various skill levels and through diverse methods. This visualization work, which joins identity with a map, is an important means of cultivating the community across campuses. This provides several instantiations of the students’ interconnectedness across disciplines and campuses, through virtual, physical, networked, and temporal mapping. The virtual map is symbolic of the online site that hosts this GIS work, providing a platform to connect students across geospatial realities.</p>
            <p>As a public-facing course intending to encourage iterations and cross-institutional collaboration, all meeting sessions are also posted on the Mapping the Futures website as blogs, videos, and publicly editable online documents. This transparency encourages evaluation, research, and community engagement. The inaugural Futures Initiative course will be completed along with its final public presentation in May 2015. CUNY and the Futures Initiative will be creating additional instances of this course over time, beginning with five more courses in 2015–2016, to foster a wider spread of innovative pedagogies within higher education that develops from the bottom up and offers support from the top down.</p>
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"2301","16","MARKUS: a Fundamental Semi-automatic Markup Platform for Classical Chinese","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Hou Ieong</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Leiden University, The Netherlands</affiliation>
                    <email>brent.ho@gmail.com</email>
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            <p rend=""Normal1"">The approach of digital humanities has widely interested many humanists from all disciplines. We can see it in the new methodologies introduced at DH2014 in Lausanne, where more than 700 registered participants gathered from around the world. However, digital humanities are still new practices and, in many cases, unachievable practices for many humanists. In the international workshop ‘New Perspective on Comparative Medieval History: China and Europe, 800–1600’, which took place in Oxford in January 2014, one discussion about ‘Isn’t the Siku Quanshu (Database) Enough?’
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> reflected a common but critical debate between two groups of humanists. Scholars are satisfied with large commercial text databases, and they question why their colleagues invest their research time in data preparation (for example, encoding research texts in TEI) for computational analysis rather than read through the entire search results returned by databases. In the specific case of encoding texts in TEI, scholars often find themselves spending years doing manual encoding before computational analysis can be applied, despite the fact that the TEI standard has already saved a lot of work in schema design. We propose that in addition to defining a standard schema for encoders, efforts must be made to develop semi-automatic markup tools to speed up the tagging process.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1""> In this paper we will introduce MARKUS, a semi-automatic markup platform that is designed to automate the markup process of different kinds of named entities in the domain of classical Chinese (historical) texts. In particular, we focus on the possibility of providing an infrastructural but low-cost and thus sustainable markup service that is solely built upon JavaScript and HTML5, both extremely basic and well-supported technologies.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1""> MARKUS was developed as a tool to speed up the tagging process for the Communication and Empires project (http://chinese-empires.eu), which applied the TEI-markup approach to a corpus of 112 notebooks of the Song dynasty of historical China. We manually tagged quotes, interlocutors, authors, titles, and topics for each entry of five notebooks following the TEI standard. However, based on the above tagging experience, we realized that if we wanted to analyze all the people mentioned in the texts, it would be simply impossible to manually tag them within the limited time of the project; every hour we could only finish approximately six to seven tags manually. This labor-intensive tagging process is a common barrier for humanists researchers interested in putting the digital humanities approach into practice. Therefore, MARKUS aims to be an infrastructural, user-friendly, openly available, and sustainable markup service for Sinologists to overcome this barrier of encoding texts. </p>
            <p rend=""Normal2"">MARKUS currently provides three markup functions to help its users to tag classical Chinese texts: automated markup, keyword markup, and manual markup. Instead of providing a centralized and powerful (often complicated) web application, we try to make the service easy to operate by separating each markup function into different single web pages as a single task (Figure 1). In the meantime, all the web pages still share consistent interface design (Figure 2). Users can focus on a single task at a time while still following our step-by-step workflow to accomplish the entire tagging process.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""10.186458333333333cm"" height=""7.487708333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
                <head>Figure 1. The step-by-step workflow interface.</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""14.472708333333333cm"" height=""10.16cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
                <head>Figure 2. All markup functions follow a consistent interface design.</head>
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            <p rend=""Normal2"">The workflow starts with uploading a text file to MARKUS (step 1). After the text is loaded, the user can use the automated markup function (step 2.a) to scan all named entities known to the system. Then the user can choose to apply keyword markup (step 2.b) to scan and tag texts against a list of terms or a regular expression given by the user. At the last step (step 2.c), the user can verify and refine all the markups manually. </p>
            <p rend=""Normal2"">The automated markup function of MARKUS is currently capable of identifying commonly needed types of named entities in Chinese historical research. MARKUS is built in with 355,000 personal names, place names, temporal references, and official titles based on the results of other digital projects, namely the China Biographical Database (CBDB; http://isites.harvard.edu/icb/icb.do?keyword=k16229) and the China Historical GIS (CHGIS; http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~chgis/). Named entities for more specific research interests—for example, terms collected in the Buddhist Studies Authority Database Project (http://authority.ddbc.edu.tw/)—will be incorporated. </p>
            <p rend=""Normal2"">MARKUS uses a color-coding scheme to display markups according to their tags. MARKUS also associates tagged texts with their sources by an identifier defined in the sources in order to provide better interoperability between projects. For example, MARKUS associates a personal name with its CBDB person ID, so that users can link to CBDB to get more information about the person. </p>
            <p rend=""Normal2"">The built-in lists of named entities only covers the basic needs of Sinologists. Alternatively, MARKUS allows users to upload their own lists of terms and to write regular expressions to tag texts with observable patterns. After the automated and/or the keyword markup, users can validate, add, or remove markups manually while reading through the text. A range of online reference tools and dictionaries (CBDB, CHGIS, ZDICT,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> and Wikipedia) have been integrated into the interface to assist the reading and validating process. We also provide a batch edit function to speed up the process of removing or adding a tag throughout the text in a batch. The markup result can be saved as a MARKUS file or exported as a HTML or a TEI file. Users can also further choose to export all the tags along with the passage identifiers to a tabular file (CSV, HTML table, or Excel file) to conduct further statistical, temporal, spatial, and social network analyses. 
            </p>
            <p> MARKUS is still in its early development stage. More functionality, such as visualizing the markups in charts, maps, or a timeline, will be added to provide an infrastructural markup service for Sinologists. MARKUS is freely accessible via http://dh.chinese-empires.eu/beta, and the source code will be released at the end of the project. </p>
            <p>In order to make MARKUS as sustainable as possible, we chose to develop MARKUS as a non-centralized web application with the most basic technologies. It is solely written in JavaScript and HTML5 without any server side scripts,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> meaning it can be hosted in any free web hosting service, even those with the most basic facilities. It is then quite possible to provide the MARKUS service for a long term without any funding. However, this also limits the computing power that MARKUS can provide. During the upcoming development phase, while MARKUS is still funded, we plan to extend MARKUS to include more advanced markup functionalities such as applying machine learning and text mining techniques for automatic markup. It will require a dedicated server to provide higher computing power and online storage for uploaded texts, which will lead MARKUS toward a server-side implementation.
            </p>
            <p>Funding</p>
            <p>This work was supported by the Arts &amp; Humanities Research Council and the National Endowment for the Humanities.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. Siku quanshu is a one of the largest digital corpora of classical Chinese texts for Chinese cultural studies. It has been digitized as a commercial database. The discussion has been depicted in a blog post by Hilde De Weerdt with her view on this common debate (De Weerdt, 2014).</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. ZDIC (http://www.zdic.net/) is an online Chinese dictionary.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. MARKUS requires HTML5 web worker (http://www.w3.org/TR/workers/) and File (http://www.w3.org/TR/FileAPI/) API to provide a better user experience in heavy computation process and file loading/saving functions. JQuery (http://jquery.com) and Bootstrap (http://getbootstrap.com) are the major JavaScript libraries used in MARKUS.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Weerdt, H.</hi> (2014). Isn’t the Siku Quanshu Enough? Reflections on the Impact of New Digital Tools for Classical Chinese. http://chinese-empires.eu/blog/isnt-the-siku-quanshu-enough-reflections-on-the-impact-of-new-digital-tools-for-classical-chinese/.
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                        <forename>Ethan</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Michigan State University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>watrall@msu.edu</email>
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                    <term>archaeology</term>
                    <term>digital heritage</term>
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                    <term>archaeology</term>
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            <p rend=""CM5"">The spaces and places we inhabit and interact with on a daily basis are composed of layers of cultural activity that are, quite literally, built up over time. While museum exhibits, historical and archaeological narratives, and public archaeology programs can communicate this heritage, they do not generally allow for rich, place-based, and individually driven exploration by the public. In addition, public heritage programs rarely explore the binary nature of material culture, the preserved record of human activity, and heritage: the presented information about the heritage in question and the process by which scholarly research has reached those conclusions. In short, the scholarly narrative of material culture, heritage, and archaeology is often hidden from public understanding. Further, traditional public heritage programs often ﬁnd it difﬁcult to support rich and vibrant multivocality. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">In recent years, mobile devices as well as the development and maturation of augmented reality (broadly construed) have offered both platforms and models for mobile heritage applications to at least partially address these issues (Casella and Coelho, 2013; Haugstvedt and Krogstie, 2012; Davies et al., 2013). Mobile applications such as the Museum of London’s Streetmuseum Londinium (http://www.museumoﬂondon.org.uk/Resources/app/StreetmuseumLondinium/home.html), Florida Public Archaeology Network’s Destination: Civil War (http://www.ﬂpublicarchaeology.org/civilwar/), Histories of the National Mall (http://mallhistory.org/), and the CHESS Acropolis Museum mobile application (http://www.chessexperience.eu) successfully facilitate public interaction with heritage and archaeology in a place-based context. Unfortunately, most mobile heritage applications do not support multivocality, nor do they expose and explore the scholarly narrative of the process by which cultural, heritage, and archaeological information was uncovered and information was generated. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">It is within this context that this paper will introduce and explore mbira (http://mbira.matrix.msu.edu). Developed at Michigan State University’s MATRIX: The Center for Digital Humanities &amp; Social Sciences (http://matrix.msu.edu) in collaboration with the Cultural Heritage Informatics Initiative (http://chi.anthropology.msu.edu), mbira is an open-source platform that is purpose built to address critical shortcomings in many mobile heritage applications. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">
                <hi rend=""bold"">‘Space and Landscape as Museum’</hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">Based on the metaphor of ‘space and landscape as museum’, mbira lets users create mobile experiences in which locations and areas are organized into curated exhibits displayed within a rich, interactive map interface. Each exhibit location contains information and rich media (video, audio, and imagery) about that location as well as the narrative about the associated scholarly work (excavation, survey, historical and heritage research, etc.). </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">
                <hi rend=""bold"">Cloud-Based Content Management </hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">mbira projects are created and managed using a cloud-based digital repository platform (discussed below). All content (exhibits, locations, and location content) are added, edited, and updated from within an open-source digital repository platform. When app creators or editors add new project content or edit existing project content, changes dynamically appear in the project’s public native mobile app or mobile website. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">
                <hi rend=""bold"">A Constellation of Open-Source Tools </hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">mbira leverages a series of open-source software and tools, both existing and purpose built, with which individuals, projects, organizations, and institutions can use to author, deploy, and sustain mobile heritage experiences: </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">
                <hi rend=""bold"">KORA.</hi> Developed by MATRIX: The Center for Digital Humanities and Social Sciences, KORA (http://kora.matrix.msu.edu) is a self-installed, open-source digital repository platform. KORA serves as the backbone for the mbira platform—managing all underlying content and data management and delivery. KORA, originally developed with funding from the National Science Foundation Digital Library Initiative, IMLS, and NEH, has several strengths in relation to other digital repository platforms. Designed for small and medium-sized cultural heritage institutions with limited technological resources, KORA facilitates data ingestion, data export, data preservation, and data management. KORA also facilitates easy delivery of complex digital objects (i.e., groups of objects of different media displayed together for a speciﬁc use) through a robust RESTful API. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">
                <hi rend=""bold"">mbira plugin. </hi>The mbira plugin (which is installed on top of the KORA digital repository platform) is the core authoring environment in the platform’s constellation of open-source tools. The mbira plugin facilitates the creation of mobile projects and their associated exhibits, as well as all locations and areas (and their associated content). The mbira plugin allows creators and editors to manage all social aspects of their mobile applications. In addition, the plugin lets users manage all of the device-speciﬁc deployments of their mobile heritage experience (iOS, Android, mobile web). 
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">
                <hi rend=""bold"">Mobile templates.</hi> mbira includes elegantly designed (and well-documented) native mobile (iOS and Android) and mobile-web stock templates that individuals, projects, or institutions can use as is or modify as they see ﬁt. While the templates are designed primarily for those with minimal programming experience, they can also serve as a project jump-start for more seasoned developers. The templates are built speciﬁcally to dynamically display content (exhibits, places, spaces, explorations) authored in the mbira plugin. As with all of the other components of the mbira platform, the mobile templates are available to users for free under an open-source license. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">Data Portability </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">Project administrators can easily export data from their mbira installation (KORA + mbira plugin) as structured data (XML and JSON) for the purposes of backup, preservation, and migration. Data can also be imported from other CMSs and digital repository platforms into an mbira installation. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">
                <hi rend=""bold"">Strongly Social and Multivocal</hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">The mbira platform allows heritage professionals, projects, and institutions to create mobile experiences in which users can interact with one another and domain experts around heritage places and spaces. The mbira platform also includes tools to recognize the expertise and experience of community members, thereby adding a critical dimension of multivocality to mobile heritage experiences. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">Building Sustainable Mobile Heritage Experiences </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">Beyond addressing the aforementioned issues with current models of mobile heritage experience design, one of the core goals of the mbira platform is to empower individuals, projects, organizations, and institutions to build more sustainable mobile projects. All of the tools in the platform (as well as associated technical documentation) are speciﬁcally designed to lower the oftentimes signiﬁcant technical barrier associated with building mobile experiences. The result is that individuals, projects, organizations, and institutions without existing technical expertise are not forced to contract with potentially costly third-party vendors to develop their mobile projects. The fact that all of the tools in the mbira platform are free and designed to run on the open web further reduces the cost associated with deploying and maintaining mobile projects. Because all of the tools in the mbira platform are available under an open-source license, those with existing technical experience are able to copy, modify, adapt, and redistribute the source code without any ﬁnancial or signiﬁcant copyright barriers. Finally, mbira’s cloud-based content management model means that individuals, projects, organizations, and institutions can easily add new content, thereby extending the effective life of their mobile heritage projects. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""CM5"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Casella, G. and Coelho, M.</hi> (2013). Augmented Heritage: Situating Augmented Reality Mobile Apps in Cultural Heritage Communication. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference on Information Systems and Design of Communication (ISDOC ’13)</hi>. New York: ACM, pp. 138–40, DOI=10.1145/2503859.2503883, http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/2503859.2503883.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM2"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Davies, C. J., Miller, A. H. D. and Allison, C.</hi> (2013). Mobile Cross Reality for Cultural Heritage. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Heritage International Congress (Digital Heritage), 2013</hi>, Marseilles, 28 October–1 November. Vol. 1. IEEE, pp. 331–38. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM5"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Haugstvedt, A.-C. and Krogstie, J.</hi> (2012). Mobile Augmented Reality for Cultural Heritage: A Technology Acceptance Study. In Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR), 2012 IEEE International Symposium, 5–8 November 2012, pp. 247–55, doi:10.1109/ISMAR.2012.6402563.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM5"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lombardo, V. and Damiano, R.</hi> (2012). Storytelling on Mobile Devices for Cultural Heritage. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(1–2): 11–35. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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                        <surname>Algee-Hewitt</surname>
                        <forename>Mark Andrew</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>malgeehe@stanford.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Frank</surname>
                        <forename>Morgan</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>emdfrank@stanford.edu</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Fredner</surname>
                        <forename>Erik</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>fredner@stanford.edu</email>
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                        <surname>Porter</surname>
                        <forename>J.D.</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>jdporter@stanford.edu</email>
                </author>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Walser</surname>
                        <forename>Hannah</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>walser@stanford.edu</email>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
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                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>virality</term>
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                    <term>corpus</term>
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            <p>In this poster, we outline a working methodology and present preliminary results from a new project in Stanford’s Literary Lab. The goal of this project is to measure a contemporary novel’s potential ‘virality’. This project is the result of a research partnership the Literary Lab made with a publishing company to analyze a corpus of more than 43,000 ebooks from across the 20th and 21st centuries.
                <anchor xml:id=""h.98vdqjlrw2yn""/>
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            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Why ‘Virality’?</hi>
            </p>
            <p>From a literary critical perspective, we have chosen to study the phenomenon of virality in order to approach broader questions of genre, reader reception, and the spread of popular fiction (Latour, 2005). We believe that a study of virality will also identify some formal characteristics associated with popular contemporary fiction, as well as a subset of formal characteristics that do 
                <hi rend=""italic"">not</hi> correlate with popularity. Answering these questions will provide some key information for making historically situated claims about the nature of pop fiction in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, especially as it relates to the rise of the Internet and the changing nature of novel reading.
            </p>
            <p>As an object of quantitative analysis, virality poses an interesting challenge. Going into this project, we had no assurances that there exist formal features that correlate with viral texts. Virality may simply be a phenomenon that exists at the level of social networks or, even more broadly, ‘culture’. Moreover, it is undeniable that when a text goes viral it does so at least in part outside of the bounds set by its covers and spine. After all, a copy of a book is usually sold before it is read. The ambitious goal of our study is to identify formal markers at the level of the text that correlate with the larger social enactment of virality.</p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.lyg0c5etgpp""/>Definition
            </p>
            <p>As it is usually used in reference to digital media, ‘virality’ refers to the tendency of a piece of content to be ‘shared rapidly and widely among Internet users’.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> Unfortunately, this definition cannot be mapped directly onto novels. There are a number of technical and cultural factors that preclude the possibility of using the standard definition of virality for our project. First and foremost, viral Internet content is generally shared as a hyperlink. Readers access the link through any number of digital communication tools, including email, social media, and so on. There are also qualitative and quantitative differences between clicking on a link and choosing to read a book, such as time commitment (most viral Internet content is short; most novels require hours to read) and monetary investment (most viral content is free; most novels aren’t). Most importantly, this born-digital notion of virality suggests a direct person-to-person spread of information—clicking on a link someone tweeted or posted on your wall, for example. The closest analogue to this notion of virality would be lending a friend a book that you recommend. But the limits of this analogy are immediately apparent: A link can be viewed by as many people as the server can handle at once, while an ink-and-paper novel only serves one reader at a time.
            </p>
            <p>Moreover, we argue that viral novels do not always have a one-to-one relationship between recommender and new readers, though that certainly can be the case. Like extremely viral Internet content, viral novels become visible at multiple levels of mainstream culture: social media, television, radio, references in conversation, reading in public, and so forth. While the mechanism is difficult to describe with precision, there’s a platitude that expresses the feeling associated with viral novels: ‘Everyone’s reading it’.</p>
            <p>For the purposes of our project, we have defined viral texts as those works that achieve rapidly accelerating high sales without viral content antecedents. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Harry Potter and the Sorceror’s Stone</hi> would be a prime example. However, by our definition, the second 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Harry Potter </hi>book in the series would 
                <hi rend=""italic"">not</hi> be considered viral, since its popularity stemmed in part from the first book’s virality. The same goes for sequels in other viral series, such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Hunger Games</hi>. The restriction we have imposed on content antecedents also applies to character series, such as Dan Brown’s Robert Langdon books, including 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Angels and Demons</hi> (which was not initially viral) and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Da Vinci Code</hi> (a highly viral sequel to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Angels and Demons </hi>that bolstered its sales long after 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Angels and Demons</hi> was released).
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.bl1f6aoq57fu""/>Research Questions
            </p>
            <p>Our overarching questions in this project include the following:</p>
            <p> • What does it look like when a book ‘goes viral’? How does sales performance change relative to the book’s earlier sales? How does sales performance change relative to the book’s projected in-genre sales?</p>
            <p> • Are there formal features shared across viral texts? Are these features constrained by genre?</p>
            <p> • How does a single text operating within an established genre go viral? For example, why did 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Twilight</hi> significantly outperform other romances with vampires in 2005?
            </p>
            <p> • Is there a set of lexical or syntactic similarities between viral texts that transcends genre or audience?</p>
            <p>Building on methods formalized during the course of the Literary Lab’s previous projects—most recently in ‘Between Canon and Archive’ and previously in projects like ‘Quantitative Formalism’—this study will operationalize and quantify multiple aspects of virality suggested in the above research questions.</p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.yzfn49jsqpll""/>Data
            </p>
            <p>To assess sales performance, we use Nielsen BookScan, which provides in-depth point-of-sale data at major book retailers going back to 2001. For books sold from 1994 to 2001, we use the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New York Times</hi>’ best seller list, which provides relativistic sales performance (i.e., the number-one book on the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">NYT</hi> best seller list outsold number two, but the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">NYT</hi> does not quantify that differential).
            </p>
            <p>For BISAC codes and other means of categorizing novels in our corpus, we use data provided by the publishing company as well as Library of Congress data for novels not provided by the publisher.</p>
            <p>Our corpus was constructed using novels from the publisher’s corpus, as well as ebook versions of viral novels not published by our partner organization.</p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.nar0adaayu3p""/>Corpus Characteristics
            </p>
            <p>The texts under consideration in this study were originally published between 1994 and 2014. We decided to limit the study to this time period because it includes the transition from traditional brick-and-mortar bookselling to the rise of Amazon (which opened in 1994) as the dominant bookseller. This time period also encompasses the rise of the ebook, another market dominated by Amazon.</p>
            <p> We have created several corpora for testing hypotheses related to specific genres, including viral and nonviral comparison versions of each genre corpus. Our nonviral corpora include works that showed average sales performance relative to other works within the same BISAC designation. The ‘one-off’ nature of many viral novels precludes the possibility of constructing a sufficiently large viral corpora to accurately represent certain subgenres.</p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.pyrl23nmtz4l""/>Research Methodology
            </p>
            <p>To begin this project, we created a corpus of what we have termed ‘ultraviral’ novels. These works achieved extraordinary success—often but not always from first-time authors—and were sufficiently popular to have movie adaptations made. (In the case of some of the more recent novels, movie adaptations have been optioned and are still in progress.)</p>
            <p>The table below shows the novels in our ultraviral corpus, each of which meets the definitional requirements we outlined above:</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Title</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Author</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Release Date (US)</hi>
                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default background-color(FFFFFF)"">The Horse Whisperer</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Nicholas Evans</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">6/15/1995</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Left Behind: A Novel of the Earth’s Last Days</hi>
                    </cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Tim LaHaye, Jerry Jenkins</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">12/31/1995</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default background-color(FFFFFF)"">Cold Mountain</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Charles Frazier</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">6/15/1997</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone</hi>
                    </cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">J. K. Rowling</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">9/1/1998</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Life of Pi</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Yann Martel</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">9/1/2001</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default background-color(FFFFFF)"">The Lovely Bones</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Alice Sebold</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">6/15/2002</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">The Da Vinci Code</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Dan Brown</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">4/1/2003</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">The Kite Runner</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Khaled Hosseini</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">5/29/2003</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Time Traveler’s Wife</hi>
                    </cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Audrey Niffenegger</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">6/15/2003</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Eragon</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Christopher Paolini</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">8/26/2003</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Twilight</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Stephenie Meyer</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">10/5/2005</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Water for Elephants</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Sara Gruen</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">5/26/2006</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Diary of a Wimpy Kid</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Jeff Kinney</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">4/1/2007</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">The Shack</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">William Young</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">5/1/2007</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Stieg Larsson</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">6/15/2008</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">The Hunger Games</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Suzanne Collins</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">9/14/2008</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Divergent</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Veronica Roth</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">4/25/2011</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Fifty Shades of Grey</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">E. L. James</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">6/20/2011</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Gone Girl</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Gillian Flynn</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">6/1/2012</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">The Goldfinch</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Donna Tartt</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">9/23/2013</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Our research team read these novels to develop hypotheses about their shared features. Initial hypotheses identified worldbuilding, accessible vocabulary, a proliferation of questions, and the fusion of multiple distinct genres in a single work (e.g., a novel that is both a coming-of-age and fantasy story) as potential sites of virality at a formal level.</p>
            <p>We are currently testing our ultraviral corpus against comparison corpora with average sales performance. Acknowledging that we cannot be sure we know what to look for across such a heterogeneous sample united by an external factor, we are running a bevy of tests on the ultraviral corpus to identify any extant similarities or patterns. These tests include assessments of age of acquisition for vocabulary; average lengths of sentences, paragraphs, chapters, and books; part-of-speech tagging; and type-token ratio analysis. Later phases of research will include topic modelling and an assessment of narration-to-dialogue ratio. Past research on popular fiction at Stanford has also suggested that virality correlates with a relatively high level of information density when compared with other texts in the same genre (Archer, 2014). We will test this information density hypothesis with our various corpora.</p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. ‘Virality’, Oxford Dictionaries, http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/virality.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Archer, J.</hi> (2014). Reading the Bestseller: An Analysis of 20,000 Novels
                        <hi rend=""italic"">. </hi>PhD dissertation, Stanford University
                        <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Latour, B.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reassembling the Social</hi>. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2304","16","Medium data method for cultural studies: the case of gender studies in Russian National Corpus.","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Bonch-Osmolovskaya</surname>
                        <forename>Anastasia</forename>
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            <p>The main aim of the paper is to show how the data of the Russian National Corpus can be used to explore nonlinguistic objects. The National Corpus is created as a well-balanced, marked-up text collection оf almost 300 million documents of different ages (18th–21st centuries), followed with rich metadata. Being one of the best national linguistics corpora it can also be regarded as a store of cultural memory and social reflection. Then the quantitative analysis of the change of frequency of some conceptually important lexeme or qualitative analysis of its various contexts in different periods can lead us to some new analysis of cultural trends and social processes, focusing primarily on their reflection in social consciousness.</p>
            <p>It should be emphasized that though some lexical change can be explained by extralinguistic reasons, the study is based on texts that are not thematically connected with this reason. For example, we observe an abrupt increase of the use of lexeme ‘woman’ in the second half of the 19th century, which surely should be associated with the first wave of emancipation in Russian society. But these are not manifestos, but mostly novels that are being analysed. The frequency increase for ‘woman’ in the 1850s signals a change in readers’ interest. This change and its connection with social processes and events are the objects of investigation with the methods of corpus analysis, distant reading, and culturomics.</p>
            <p>The paper doesn’t claim to make some profound sociocultural research, but the main focus will be on methodology. I will introduce the medium data approach and will argue that it can be used for cultural research, and that it allows solving some of the well-known problems of big-data analyses in textual data. First I will observe the culturomics approach and the benefits of National Corpus use instead of Google Books. Second I will concentrate on one case of medium data cultural research: gender naming in the 19th and 20th centuries in Russia and the Soviet Union. I will show how context analyses can shed light on unexpected data emission, and how competition of lexemes reflects changes of social consciousness.</p>
            <p>Culturomics was first declared as a new scientific method in a 2010 paper in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Science</hi> magazine titled ‘Quantitative Analyses of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books’ by a group of scientists headed by Jan-Baptiste Michelle. Though very influential and inspiring, the method also has been widely criticized. The two main problems of the method mentioned most often are the trivial results and the dirty, nonreliable data. The methodological problems of culturomics research seem to be the other side of its benefits: the big textual data only allows comparing the queries known in advance. We can observe the effect of censorship by the decrease in Mark Chagall mentions, but we have no instrument to compare the change of semantic context of Chagall’s mentions that accompanied the beginning of content restrictions. That means that we can notice how the political changes are reflected in culture, but we still lack the instrument to explore these processes thoroughly.
            </p>
            <p>In contrast to the influential trend of Big Data, I propose a concept of nedium data. Medium data is the amount of data that allows for quantitative and qualitative studies. The main characteristics of the medium data are</p>
            <p> • The reliability of sources, which metadata can be filtered manually.</p>
            <p> • The sufficiency of the data amount for reliable statistical measures.</p>
            <p> • The possibility of additional semantic mark-up.</p>
            <p>The medium data concept serves to oppose the current practices where computational methods tend to ignore the complexity of the humanitarian sphere. I argue that the quality of the research can benefit much from the contamination of statistical and computational methods, with expert manual analyses possible only with very pure, precise data of not a tremendous amount. Although the primary data filtration will in this case be a matter of the researcher’s responsibility, this situation really doesn’t differ much from any natural science case, when the researcher has to provide the specific conditions of the experiment.</p>
            <p>Though the Russian Natural Corpus is much smaller than the Google Books corpus, its dataset surely has some advantages. First, every document has rich metadata. This allows counting not only the edition date but also the creation date, which can be quite important for studying the Soviet period, as its published texts can demonstrate a significant lexical bias due to censorship. Second, the mistakes of object recognition are very rare in RNC. The morphological mark-up, which plays an important role in a morphologically rich language such as Russian, is diverse and multivariate in RNC, while it is limited to POS-tagging in Google n-grams. The complex morphological mark-up gives an opportunity to make distant queries, which are targeted to represent syntactic relations. For example, the query that consists of the verb ‘to steal’ plus the noun in the accusative extracts the change of consumption needs for different periods (what people steal in different times is what they actually need). Their comparison can inspire some new level of social and cultural research. The textual collection and the markup of the Russian National Corpus thus give us an example of the medium dataset that can be used not only for language investigation but also for social research. </p>
            <p>How can we benefit from a medium dataset? The research can focus not only on frequency change but also on qualitative context variation. It is not the words themselves but the semantic concepts (synsets, that are different in every period) that are being studied. Medium data allow disambiguation of semantic polysemy, which is usually impossible with big datasets and sometimes can cause damaged results. The semantically close contexts can be merged into classes that enable more transparent and still reliable analyses. The most significant difference between culturomics and medium data can be formulated as follows. Culturomics research results in an overall graphic that often demonstrates quite trivial dependencies. The medium data method allows for treating the graphics not as a diagnosis but as symptom, which serves as an impulse for further research.</p>
            <p>Finally I will focus on one model case of the medium data method. I will compare the frequency of the words ‘man’ and ‘woman’ in the 19th and 20th centuries. The comparison of two frequency graphs shows that the word ‘woman’ is much more frequent than the word ‘man’ in the both centuries. Is it that women are more often written about? Or are men referred to with some other lexical means? If we compare the two words ‘muzhik’ and ‘baba’, which in the 19th century are used as gender terms of low class, we get the opposite picture: males are more frequent than the females. The answer can be drawn out of the context analyses. The reference of males in general is rarely direct in the 19th century, but mostly implicit together with some specific lexical means, characterizing age, social, or professional status. This contrasts much with female references, for which the gender idea is much more important than the social occupation. I will also follow the changes in male and female word usage that take place in Soviet and post-Soviet epochs. </p>
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"2305","16","Mining and Discovering Biographical Information in Difangzhi with a Language-Model-based Approach","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Liu</surname>
                        <forename>Chao-Lin</forename>
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                    <email>chaolinliu@gmail.com</email>
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                        <surname>Wang</surname>
                        <forename>Hongsu</forename>
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            <p>We present results of expanding the contents of the China Biographical Database [1] by text mining historical local gazetteers, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">difangzhi</hi>地方志.[2] The goal of the database is to see how people are connected together, through kinship, social connections, and the places and offices in which they served. The gazetteers are the single most important collection of names and offices covering the Song through Qing periods. Although we begin with local officials, we shall eventually include lists of local examination candidates, people from the locality who served in government, and notable local figures with biographies. The more data we collect, the more connections emerge. The value of doing systematic text mining work is that we can identify relevant connections that are either directly informative or can become useful without deep historical research. Academia Sinica is developing a name database for officials in the central governments of the Ming and Qing dynasties.[3]
            </p>
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            <p>Problem Definition and Main Findings</p>
            <p>Figure 1 shows a scanned page from a 
                <hi rend=""italic"">difangzhi</hi>,[4] and Figure 2 shows the text of the shown image. As Figure 1 shows, traditional Chinese texts do not have spaces between words or employ punctuation. This feature makes the processing of literary Chinese texts much more difficult than handling alphabetical languages and modern Chinese. The circles in Figure 2 serve as a general delimiter, representing the end of a line, the end of a page, a space, or a transition in text formatting—for example, placing two lines of text in a single column in column 2 of Figure 2.
            </p>
            <p>We would like to algorithmically extract the information about local officials, such as Li Chang 李常in Figure 2. We are interested in the alternative names, such as the style name (
                <hi rend=""italic"">zi </hi>字) and pen name (
                <hi rend=""italic"">hao</hi>號), birthplace, entry method, serving office, service time, and so forth. In this abstract, we focus on how we identify a person’s name, style name, and the dynasty. For example, we wish to extract the record Song宋as dynasty, Li Chang李常 as person name, and Gongze公擇 as style name after handling the text in Figure 2. 
            </p>
            <p>Local gazetteers record various types of information about local areas; we selected those that are related to local government officials. Not counting the circles in the texts, the current study employed 83 text files containing 901,302 Chinese characters. </p>
            <p>We extracted 1,260 records from the files and compared them with the biographical data in CBDB. Table 1 gives an analysis of the results, where a circle indicates a match; a cross indicates a mismatch. Among the 1,260 records, 562 match the dynasty, personal name, and style name of some CBDB records, and 544 (43.2%) match only dynasty and name.</p>
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                <pb/>
            </p>
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            <p>Methods</p>
            <p>Figure 3 shows the main procedure for extracting the records. In addition to the gazetteers, we used files of previously known names, addresses, entries, offices, and reign period titles from CBDB to annotate the texts.[5] In this study, we also consider the dynasties for names, offices, and reign periods. </p>
            <p>We need to consider the ambiguities of a word when annotating the texts. For instance, ‘Li Chang’ 李常 was a person name in the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, and the four-character office title ‘Guan-cha tui-guan’ 觀察推官 was an office in the Tang and Song dynasties. In addition the second and third characters ‘cha tui’ 察推also represent an office in the Song and Yuan dynasties. Hence, as illustrated in Figure 4, we could generate at least 16 possible label sequences for the following string T1 in Figure 2.</p>
            <p>T1: 李常字公擇南康建昌人自宣州觀察推官發運使</p>
            <p>We sift the label sequences by adopting the principle of favoring longer words[6] and by disambiguating with contextual constraints. In T1, we do not consider ‘cha tui’ 察推 an office for the Song dynasty because the four-character sequence is a longer match for the same dynasty. In addition, it is reasonable to require that all labels in a sequence must be 
                <hi rend=""italic"">consistent</hi> with the same dynasty. Hence, among the 16 sequences, only ‘李常-觀察推官’ for Song and ‘李常-察推’ for Yuan could survive. 
            </p>
            <p>Since there are no known tools for parsing literary Chinese, we employ the concept of language models (Manning and Schütze, 1999) to analyze the texts. We computed, collected, and counted the frequencies of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">consistent sequences </hi>of six labels.[7]
            </p>
            <p>Aiming at extracting personal names and style names for government officials, we focused on the consistent sequences that have at least one &lt;NAME&gt; label. We then identified and preferred subsequences that include more different labels. We show four such 
                <hi rend=""italic"">filter patterns</hi> below.
            </p>
            <p>P1: &lt;NAME&gt;&lt;ADDRESS&gt;&lt;REIGN PERIOD&gt;&lt;ENTRY&gt;</p>
            <p>P2: &lt;NAME&gt;&lt;ADDRESS&gt;&lt;ENTRY&gt;&lt;REIGN PERIOD&gt;</p>
            <p>P3: &lt;NAME&gt;&lt;NAME&gt;&lt;ADDRESS&gt;&lt;ADDRESS&gt;</p>
            <p>P4: &lt;NAME&gt;&lt;ADDRESS&gt;&lt;ADDRESS&gt;&lt;ADDRESS&gt;</p>
            <p>Finally, we selected the consistent sequences that contained the filter patterns and extracted original text segments that corresponded to the consistent sequences. The string T1 was extracted from the text in Figure 2 because it could be annotated with the sequence &lt;NAME&gt;&lt;ADDRESS&gt;&lt;ADDRESS&gt;&lt;ADDRESS&gt;&lt;OFFICE&gt;&lt;OFFICE&gt;, which contained P4. The &lt;NAME&gt; label is for ‘李常.’ At the annotation stage, our programs did not recognize ‘Gongze’ 公擇as a Style Name for ‘Li Chang’ 李常 because ‘Gongze’ 公擇was not included in the CBDB name list. One of the two annotated results is listed below.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">&lt;NAME Song&gt;李常&lt;/NAME&gt;字公擇&lt;ADDRESS&gt;南康&lt;/ADDRESS&gt;&lt;ADDRESS&gt;建昌&lt;/ADDRESS&gt;人自&lt;ADDRESS&gt;宣州&lt;/ADDRESS&gt;&lt;OFFICE Song&gt;觀察推官&lt;/OFFICE&gt;&lt;OFFICE Song&gt;發運使&lt;/OFFICE&gt;</hi>
            </p>
            <p>To extract ‘Gongze’ 公擇as a Style Name from T1, we parsed the text segment with a low-level grammar pattern for the task. Specifically, a two-character string that appears after the sequence of a &lt;NAME&gt; label and the character ‘字’ (Style Name) and before an &lt;ADDRESS&gt; label was extracted as the Style Name for the &lt;NAME&gt;. With such syntactic rules, we discovered that ‘公擇’ is a Style Name for ‘李常,’ and obtained two records (Song,李常,公擇) and (Yuan, 李常,公擇).</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <p>
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                    <pb/>
                </p>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""15.920861111111112cm"" height=""8.09801388888889cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Results, Evaluation, and Applications</p>
            <p>We compared the extracted records with the combinations of dynasty, name, and Style Name in CBDB, and Table 1 shows the results. The two records that we just obtained would belong to type 2, because ‘Gongze’ 公擇 is not known to CBDB. All extracted records of type 2 provide opportunities of finding Style Names that were new to CBDB. However, they should be confirmed by asking a domain expert to check the original text segments, which is an operation facilitated by our software platform.</p>
            <p>Extracted records of type 1 do not provide new information if we are just interested in names and Style Names. Certainly, we are more ambitious than this, and type-1 records are instrumental. They help us find the beginnings of the paragraphs that contain extra information about the owners of the type-1 records. T1 is the beginning of the second paragraph in Figure 1. This paragraph contains extra information about ‘李常’ that we can explore to enhance the contents of CBDB. The third paragraph in Figure 1 and many following paragraphs start with statements that we could identify with the filter patterns. </p>
            <p>Records of types 3 through 7 make up only about 12.2% of the 1,260 extracted records. Similar to type-2 records, these records do not match any records in CBDB perfectly. After inspecting the original text segments, we will be able to tell whether these mismatches are new discoveries or incorrect extractions. </p>
            <p>Discussion</p>
            <p>The reported work represents an extension of our work for CBDB that was reported in Bol et al. (2012). In the previous work, experts manually designed regular expressions for specific text patterns. Now, based on prior information about named entities, we are able to compute and analyze the label sequences for the local gazetteer texts to learn useful filter patterns for automatically extracting desired information. We can apply the reported mechanism to extract birthplaces, service periods, offices, and other basic information, as we just did for extracting names and Style Names. In addition, by identifying key opening statements for paragraphs that contain biographical data, the reported procedure opens a new door for algorithmically extracting information about personal career and social networks. We are working toward learning the document structures of local gazetteers.</p>
            <p>Our work is related to automatic grammar induction in computational linguistics. Hwa (1999) learns grammars with data that were manually annotated with syntactic information, and we automatically annotated data with named entities. Klein and Manning (2005) employed advanced techniques to learn hierarchical grammars for Penn treebank sentences, which may be quite challenging in the case of literary Chinese. </p>
            <p>Additional responses to reviewers’ comments are available at http://www.cs.nccu.edu.tw/~chaolin/papers/dh2015blw.online.pdf.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. The China Biographical Database (CBDB; http://isites.harvard.edu/icb/icb.do?keyword=k16229) is a collaborative project of Harvard University, Peking University, and Academia Sinica. CBDB is an online relational database with biographical information about approximately 328,000 individuals as of October 2013, primarily from the 7th through the 19th centuries. The data is meant to be useful for statistical, social network, and spatial analysis as well as serving as a kind of biographical reference.</p>
            <p>2. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Difangzhi</hi>—see http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature/Terms/difangzhi.html.
            </p>
            <p>3. http://archive.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/ttsweb/html_name/search.php.</p>
            <p>4. When written in the vertical style, Chinese paragraphs begin from the right side of a page.</p>
            <p>5. Here, ‘names’ include either official names or any alternative names. ‘Addresses’ refer to location names. ‘Entries’ (入仕方式), e.g., ‘進士’ and ‘舉人’, include different ranks and ways of becoming a government official via the Civil Service Examinations (‘科舉’). ‘Offices’ (官職, government positions) include posts in the government. ‘Reign period names’ (年號), e.g., Kangxi 康熙, are names of time periods under a particular emperor. </p>
            <p>6. This so-called favoring the longer term 長詞優先principle is commonly adopted when segmenting (or tokenizing) Chinese text strings (cf. Gao et al., 2005).</p>
            <p>7. Technically speaking, we are analyzing a 6-gram language model.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bol, P. K., Hsiang, J. and Fong, G. </hi>(2012). Prosopographical Databases, Text-Mining, GIS and System Interoperability for Chinese History and Literature. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">2012 International Conference on Digital Humanities</hi>, Hamburg, Germany, 19 July 2012.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gao, J., Li, M., Wu, A. and Huang C.-N.</hi> (2005). Chinese Word Segmentation and Named Entity Recognition: A Pragmatic Approach. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computational Linguistics,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">31</hi>(4): 531‒74.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hwa, R.</hi> (1999). Supervised Grammar Induction Using Training Data with Limited Constituent Information. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 37th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics</hi>, Stroudsburg, PA: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 73‒79.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Klein, D. and Manning, C. D. </hi>(2005). Natural Language Grammar Induction with a Generative Constituent-Context Model. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pattern Recognition,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">38</hi>: 1407‒19.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manning, C. D. and Schütze, H.</hi> (1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing</hi>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, chap. 6.
                    </bibl>
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                    <affiliation>Michigan State University, United States of America</affiliation>
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                        <surname>Smiley</surname>
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                        <surname>Miller</surname>
                        <forename>Sara</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Michigan State University, United States of America</affiliation>
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                    <term>data literacy</term>
                    <term>humanities data</term>
                    <term>information literacy</term>
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                    <term>digital humanities - institutional support</term>
                    <term>teaching and pedagogy</term>
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            <p>Academic libraries have long supported, collaborated on, and led digital humanities (DH) research. Evidence of engagement can be found in acquisition and preparation of objects of inquiry amenable to computational analysis, tool development, and data and platform management and preservation. While investment in these activities varies, recent entrants and long established institutional participants share in common a commitment to delivery of library-led DH instruction. Library-led DH instruction expands the breadth and depth of DH research capacity on campus and provides a space in which to spread awareness of data and services that can drive DH research forward. Despite widespread provision by librarians, there exists little critical engagement with the pedagogical challenges librarians face in designing and delivering DH instruction. </p>
            <p>As librarians do not typically lead credit-bearing courses, the modes of instruction typically employed by librarians occur via one-shot instruction (e.g., disciplinary faculty requests workshop for class) or a workshop series wherein attempts to sequence content (e.g., data gathering workshop, data cleaning workshop, data visualization workshop) are necessarily loosely joined, given an audience that is not fixed by course enrollment and/or an institutional predilection for enabling target audiences to drop in and drop out of a sequence. Given format and audience constraints it becomes tempting to focus on tools at the cost of disciplinary relevance, let alone missing out on the pedagogical possibilities latent in tools rendered as vectors for enacting theories, methods, and ways of thinking about the world (Lincoln, 2014; Padilla, 2014; Vinopal, 2014). </p>
            <p>Basic word frequency analysis of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Library Administration </hi>issue on digital humanities and the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dh+lib</hi> response reveals that out of a corpus of more than 43,000 words, pedagogical terms are minimally represented: pedagogy (7), education (12), teaching (15), learn (20). While this might appear to indicate low commitment to pedagogy, the terms work (208), service (207), and support (135) all fall within the top 15 word frequencies (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Library Administration</hi>, 2013; Coble, 2013).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> It is likely that pedagogical activities are contained within these more general terms, yet painting with such broad strokes does little to assist the librarian aiming to plan, implement, and deliver effective DH instruction. In order to take steps toward remedying this need, two digital humanities librarians, an information literacy librarian, and a data services librarian from Michigan State University applied for and received a DH Pedagogies Microgrant from the Association for Computers and the Humanities to explore development of a model for guiding design of a library-led DH pedagogy. 
            </p>
            <p>On 17 October 2014 the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Library-Led DH Pedagogy: Modeling Paths Toward Information and Data Literacy</hi> symposium brought together disciplinary faculty and librarians from across the state of Michigan to discuss and test an approach to designing library-led DH pedagogy that draws on the draft Association of College and Research Libraries 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Framework for Information Literacy in Higher Education, </hi>the Data Information Literacy (DIL) program competencies, and disciplinary learning expectations (ACRL, 2014; Data Information Literacy, 2014; History Discipline Core, 2012). This approach encourages a move toward library-led DH instruction supported by updated information literacy concepts (interacting with the information ecosystem), leverages advances in data information literacy research (how to work with research data, e.g., metadata, data management, and data curation competencies), and increases relevancy through orientation to disciplinary learning expectations (how to interpret, analyze, and make sense in a manner befitting practice by a disciplinary community). The process of alignment was supported by presentations and discussions that brought the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Framework </hi>and DIL Competencies into contact with disciplinary practice. This process was further supported by engaging disciplinary faculty and librarians in group-based activities. Each group designed learning outcomes and created model lesson plans predicated on a single or multidisciplinary audience. Mixed disciplinary faculty and librarian participation in project activities was by design, given a framing that assumes DH pedagogy is best understood as an interdisciplinary as well as interprofessional community of practice (Nowiskie, 2014). 
            </p>
            <p>This paper frames and describes the variety of attempts made to implement a pedagogical model for library-based DH instruction that aligns the draft 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Framework for Information Literacy in Higher Education, </hi>the Data Information Literacy program competencies, and disciplinary learning expectations. The model lesson plans produced over the course of the symposium are intended to help guide library development of DH instruction that optimally cultivates information and data literacies and, where appropriate, maintains disciplinary relevance (Carlson et al., 2011; Calzada Prado and Marzal, 2013). The paper concludes by discussing additional findings that surfaced during the course of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Library-Led DH </hi>symposium, such as the challenge of teaching to single vs. multidisciplinary audiences; advances an approach for designing DH pedagogy in a library context; and reflects upon the use of the library-led DH pedagogy model at Michigan State University during the spring 2015 semester. 
            </p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. Hirsch (2012) took a similar approach to indicate the paucity of DH pedagogy engagement in general.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">ACRL Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education Task Force.</hi> (2014). Draft Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education, Part 1, 1 February, http://acrl.ala.org/ilstandards/wpcontent/ uploads/2014/02/Framework-for-IL-for-HE-Draft-1-Part-1.pdf. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Calzada Prado, J. and Marzal, M. A. </hi>(2013). Incorporating Data Literacy into Information Literacy Programs: Core Competencies and Contents. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Libri,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">63</hi>(2) (January), doi:10.1515/libri-2013-0010.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Carlson, J., Fosmire, M., Miller, C. and Nelson, M. S.</hi> (2011). Determining Data Information Literacy Needs: A Study of Students and Research Faculty. Purdue Libraries Faculty and Staff Scholarship and Research, 1 January, http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/lib
                        <hi rend=""underline"">_</hi>fsdocs/23. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coble, Zach.</hi> (2013). Make It New? A Dh Lib Mini-Series—The Ebook. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dh Lib</hi>, 28 June, http://acrl.ala.org/dh/2013/06/28/make-it-new-a-dhlib-mini-series-the-ebook/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Data Information Literacy.</hi> (n.d.). http://wiki.lib.purdue.edu/display/ste/Home (accessed 28 May 2014).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hirsch, B.</hi> (ed.). (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles, and Politics.</hi> Open Book Publishers, United Kingdom.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">History Discipline Core.</hi> (2012). A Statement from the AHA’s Tuning Project. October, http://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/october-2012/history-discipline-core.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic bold"">Journal of Library Administration.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">53</hi>(1), doi:10.1080/01930826.2013.756676. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lincoln, M. D.</hi> (2014). Tool Trouble: Thoughts Differences, 25 April, http://matthewlincoln.net/2014/04/25/tool-trouble.html. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nowiskie, B.</hi> (2014). Asking for It. 8 February, http://nowviskie.org/2014/asking-for-it/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Padilla, T.</hi> (2014). Tooling: Paths toward Sparking Interest and Curiosity in DH, 27 April, http://www.thomaspadilla.org/2014/04/27/tooling/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vinopal, J.</hi> (2014). Biases and Errors in Our Tools: How Do You Cope? Reflections of a Newcomer to Textual Analysis. 2 March, http://vinopal.org/2014/03/02/biases-and-errors-in-our-tools-how-doyou- cope-reflections-of-a-newcomer-to-textual-analysis/. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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                        <surname>Cheema</surname>
                        <forename>Muhammad Faisal</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Leipzig University, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>faisal@informatik.uni-leipzig.de</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Blumenstein</surname>
                        <forename>Judith</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Leipzig University, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>blumenst@rz.uni-leipzig.de</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Scheuermann</surname>
                        <forename>Gerik</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Leipzig University, Germany</affiliation>
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            <p>Motivation</p>
            <p>A common task nowadays is the retrieval of information using search engines such as Google. Often, the results of a usual keyword search are not satisfying, and the user is forced to reformulate the query in order to improve the quality and to increase or reduce the number of search results.</p>
            <p>When searching ancient texts for passages related to a specific topic, humanities scholars encounter similar problems. Considering 
                <hi rend=""italic"">epilepsy</hi> as an example, the traditional keyword search for the corresponding Latin term 
                <hi rend=""italic"">morbus comitialis</hi> (‘disease of the assembly’) yields incomplete results. Operating a truncated search for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">morb* comiti*</hi> extracts more but less accurate results. It also yields false positives like a passage from Titus Livius (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ab urbe condita libri</hi> 41,18,16) containing both the words 
                <hi rend=""italic"">morbus</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">comitia</hi> but in a political context only. A further issue regarding the mentioned example is the existence of texts that relate to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">epilepsy</hi> but don’t use the corresponding terms explicitly (e.g., Lucretius, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">De rerum natura</hi> 3,487ff). Here, the disease is paraphrased via occurring symptoms such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">spuma</hi> (‘foam’) and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">concidere</hi> (‘collapse’). Furthermore, searching for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">epilepsy</hi> only by the term 
                <hi rend=""italic"">morbus comitialis</hi> is incomplete because there are many different terms denoting the disease. Therefore, a simple keyword search is inadequate in finding appropriate results.
            </p>
            <p>The prior goal of the eXChange
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> project is to extract more and more accurate results by extending the traditional keyword search with a so-called concept search. For this purpose, we develop a concept editor that supports the scholars in modeling their ideas of concepts. Using these concept models, we operate a concept search on ancient corpora and adequately rank the results, such that texts supporting the modeled concept are ranked higher. The significance of our concept modeling methodology is to empower the humanities scholar to construct concepts using her expert knowledge, and iteratively refine the model after analyzing the search results. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Related Work</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Besides the aforementioned traditional keyword search, more sophisticated approaches have evolved over time. A 
                <hi rend=""italic"">semantic search</hi> (Guha et al., 2003) takes the contextual meaning of a term into account by automatically considering synonyms, word variation, and so on, whereas a 
                <hi rend=""italic"">concept search</hi> (Giunchiglia et al., 2009) automatically retrieves data that is conceptually similar to the formulated query. These search strategies can be supported with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">topic maps</hi> (Park et al., 2002) or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">concept maps</hi> (Novak et al., 2006), where certain topics and relationships can be modeled in a graph structure. Based upon reference texts such as glossaries, thesauri, and classification systems, these models can be automatically generated for modern languages. Appleford introduced human-generated 
                <hi rend=""italic"">topic profiles</hi> that consist of various allowed and disallowed terms forming a Boolean query (Appleford et al., 2013).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> The major difference of our suggested concept modeling compared to existing techniques is that concepts in information retrieval are formulated primarily using existing semantic knowledge from thesauri, topic maps, semantic networks, and so forth. Our suggested concept modeling allows the scholar to express her understanding of the concept model without the need of any semantic knowledge. 
            </p>
            <p>Teevan argues that even with a perfect search engine, a poorly constructed search question may not lead to the right answer, so the user needs to be provided with a directed search system (Teevan et al., 2004). This becomes quite relevant in case of ancient corpora that comprise a particular complexity and uncertainty, which leads to a potential evolution of concepts in ancient times. Also, the sparse presence of reference texts for ancient languages requires a semiautomated generation of concepts. For this task, we present a new methodology to assist humanities scholars in searching ancient texts by empowering them with a directed search environment in the form of a concept editor (discussed in the next section), where a scholar can model a concept using simple graph building tools. This was also a requirement of the collaborating humanities scholars as they wanted full control over the search process, which an automated search system fails to provide. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">The Concept Editor </hi>
            </p>
            <p>Figure 1 shows a screenshot of the concept editor
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> containing the concept 
                <hi rend=""italic"">fever</hi>. Various shapes are provided for concept modeling. Initially, the scholar defines the main concept 
                <hi rend=""italic"">fever</hi>, drawn in blue. Other shapes representing subconcepts or terms can be drawn via drag&amp;drop to support structuring the concept in a meaningful way. 
            </p>
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                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.22248611111111cm"" height=""8.817680555555556cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>Figure 1. Concept editor.</p>
            <p>The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">fever</hi> concept consists of the subconcept 
                <hi rend=""italic"">fever symptoms</hi>, which is connected to related Latin terms, and the subconcept 
                <hi rend=""italic"">fever labels</hi>, listing all known Latin terms used to describe fever. The editor provides four ways of connecting a shape to its predecessor discriminated by color. Green shapes support the given concept while red shapes are contradictory. Saturated colors represent definite knowledge of the scholars, whereas light shades represent assumptions. According to the model, texts containing the terms 
                <hi rend=""italic"">febris</hi> or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">febrire</hi> (‘to have fever’) were most likely used to address the concept 
                <hi rend=""italic"">fever</hi>. Terms like quartana may denote fever (‘quartan’) but also serve to name other things. Thus, they are colored in lighter shade.
            </p>
            <p>Each term shape is connected to all possible spellings and word-forms contained in the database. A popup on demand provides a list and tagcloud that allow one to observe and select terms related to the corresponding concept. Figure 2 shows the selected word-forms for the term 
                <hi rend=""italic"">quartana</hi>. As 
                <hi rend=""italic"">fever</hi> in Latin is female, other gender forms of the adjective 
                <hi rend=""italic"">quartanus</hi> can be excluded. By taking advantage of language-specific grammar rules, it will help the scholar to avoid irrelevant results. 
            </p>
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                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.437680555555556cm"" height=""7.644694444444444cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Selecting word-forms.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.51cm"" height=""11.669888888888888cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>Figure 3. Concept 
                <hi rend=""italic"">epilepsy</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The current model for the concept 
                <hi rend=""italic"">epilepsy</hi> is shown in Figure 3. It also contains subconcepts for labels and symptoms. Most of the Latin terms denoting epilepsy are represented by two single words (e.g., 
                <hi rend=""italic"">morbus comitialis</hi> or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">morbus maior</hi>). The subconcept 
                <hi rend=""italic"">symptoms</hi> is further subdivided, showing, e.g., 
                <hi rend=""italic"">the affected parts of the body</hi>. The unlikely symptom 
                <hi rend=""italic"">fever</hi> is imported as a contradictory subconcept, so all 
                <hi rend=""italic"">fever</hi>-related terms represent a contradictory relation to the concept 
                <hi rend=""italic"">epilepsy</hi>. Additionally, potential causes of epilepsy (e.g., 
                <hi rend=""italic"">vinum</hi> [‘vine’]) are given, and a list of contradicting political terms reduces the relevance of political texts for which the term 
                <hi rend=""italic"">comitialis</hi> is common.
            </p>
            <p>After the concept is built, it is stored for persistence and forwarded to a concept search module. The selected word-forms and spellings of all terms are the basis for the search. For each text of the corpus, we compute a relevancy rank according to the proximity to the given concept. Each occurring ‘green term’ increases the rank of a text, and each occurring ‘red term’ decreases it. Finally, the result list contains all texts ordered by decreasing relevance.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Preliminary Results</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The results of the search for the concept 
                <hi rend=""italic"">epilepsy</hi> are partially consistent with the humanities scholar’s expectations. So, texts of authors popular for their medical works are highly ranked, e.g., 
                <hi rend=""italic"">De medicina</hi> by Aulus Cornelius Celsus and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Naturalis historia</hi> by Pliny the Elder. Furthermore, a very low rank is calculated for the unrelated political text 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ab urbe condita libri</hi>, written by the Augustan chronicler Titus Livius—one of the top results of the traditional keyword search.
            </p>
            <p>The appearance of two texts with a high rank is surprising for the scholars: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">De re coquinaria</hi> by Apicius on cuisine and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">De re rustica</hi> by Columella on agriculture. That these texts appear among the results may be due to the term 
                <hi rend=""italic"">vinum</hi>. First, it can be assumed that it refers to epilepsy, but a detailed examination of the respective passages is required to find out if it occurs in remarks on epilepsy or, say, outline the relationship between nutrition and health (dietetics).
            </p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>The benefit and potential of the presented concept search system compared to the traditional keyword search are not only in their multifacetedness but also the enabled persistence of the modeled concepts. Depending on the accuracy of search results, the scholar can iteratively improve results, either by adding or excluding terms from concepts. Retaining the control on the search and the ability to steer the search into a desired direction, now supported by the concept editor, was a major concern of the scholars.</p>
            <p>Often, digitized ancient fragments are neither associated with an author nor with a certain title. This complicates their automated classification as authors are often related to specific genres. Based upon the modeling of generic concepts (e.g., the concept 
                <hi rend=""italic"">political terms</hi>), the potential genres of unclassified texts could be hypothesized.
            </p>
            <p>As a side benefit of the concept modeling, we automatically collect and store the modeled hierarchies and relationships between (sub)concepts. Slightly enhancing the scholar’s modeling capabilities, we might be able to assemble thesauri for ancient languages in the future.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. Digital Humanities project, eXChange: Exploring Concept Change and Transfer in Antiquity, http://exchange-projekt.de/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. Operating on social web sources, one is able to discover occurrences that match the given profile while dropping text passages that contain any of the disallowed terms. We consider that excluding text passages due to a disallowed term may result in the loss of important text passages.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. The web-based concept editor is written in JavaScript and uses the libraries mxGraph (https://jgraph.github.io/mxgraph/) and jQuery (http://jquery.com).</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">4. In the current status, the search algorithm works on whole texts only. In the future, we will provide a list of text passages with a high density of related terms to further facilitate the scholar’s workflow. Furthermore, we will provide a transparent view of the results in the form of visual statistics illustrating the reasons for the ranking of a single text passage and the distribution of a concept’s related terms in general.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Appleford, S. and Thatcher, J.</hi> (2013). Using the Social Web to Explore the Online Discourse and Memory of the Civil War. In
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Proceedings of the Digital Humanities 2013</hi>, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, 16–19 July 2013.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Giunchiglia, F., Kharkevich, U. and Zaihrayeu, I.</hi> (2009). Concept Search. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Semantic Web: Research and Applications</hi>. Berlin: Springer, pp. 429–44.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Guha, R., McCool, R. and Miller, E.</hi> (2003). Semantic Search. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on World Wide Web</hi>, Budapest, 20–24 May 2003, pp. 700–709.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Novak, J. D. and Cañas, A. J.</hi> (2006). The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and How to Construct and Use Them. Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Park, J. and Hunting, S., with Foreword by Engelbart, D. C.</hi> (2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">XML Topic Maps: Creating and Using Topic Maps for the Web.</hi> Addison Wesley Longman, Boston.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Teevan, J., Alvarado, C., Ackerman, M. S. and Karger, D. R.</hi> (2004). The Perfect Search Engine Is Not Enough: A Study of Orienteering Behavior in Directed Search. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems</hi>, Vienna, Austria, 24–29 April 2004, pp. 415–422.
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                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""keywords"">
                    <term>Maria Edgeworth</term>
                    <term>network analysis</term>
                    <term>genre</term>
                    <term>novel</term>
                    <term>romanticism</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>literary studies</term>
                    <term>networks</term>
                    <term>relationships</term>
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                    <term>English</term>
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            <p>Maria Edgeworth (1768–1849), a once-neglected Anglo-Irish novelist of the Romantic period, is becoming increasingly popular in academic circles. She was an innovative novelist, especially in her use of Irish dialect, witty dialogue, and social analysis.</p>
            <p>Today, scholars tend to divide her novels into two main categories: (1) her ‘national tales’, which take place predominately in Ireland, and explore the Irish national character and the social structure of the Irish countryside; and (2) her ‘domestic novels’, which take place predominately in England, and explore issues of gender, race, and history in the daily lives of English aristocrats (Butler, 1972; Ferris, 2002; Hollingworth, 1997; Kelly, 1989; Voss-Clesly, 1979).</p>
            <p>At first glance, this distinction is compelling, but it also underemphasises similarities between these groups of novels. Her books share common themes, such as an interest in education and historical progress, and a sound approach to her fiction would study both the similarities and differences between her ‘English’ and ‘Irish’ novels.</p>
            <p>Methods</p>
            <p>We can use a new technique—character network analysis—to model the dramatic structure of Edgeworth’s novels, and consider similarities and differences across this common generic distinction. Character network analysis was first introduced to literary scholars by Franco Moretti (2011; 2013), though sociologists had earlier experimented with literary applications of the technique (Stiller et al., 2003).</p>
            <p>Here I apply this technique to three of Edgeworth’s ‘national tales’ and three of her ‘domestic novels’. The raw data was collected by hand, in the form of adjacency matrices for each chapter. Each character constituted a ‘node’ in the network. If they addressed another character in the novel, then an ‘edge’ was drawn between them. Each edge was given a ‘weight’ equal to the number of chapters in which the two characters speak to one another. This data was processed in R using the iGraph package (R Team, 2013; Csardi, 2013). Network diagrams were produced using Gephi (Bastian et al., 2009).</p>
            <p>Results</p>
            <p>Statistical analysis reveals important similarities between the two genres in this small corpus. First, three different measures of ‘centrality’ were calculated: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">degree centrality</hi> (which measures how many edges are connected to each node), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">betweenness centrality</hi> (which how many nodes are connected to one another through a given node) and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">strength</hi> (which is identical to betweenness centrality, but takes account of the ‘edge weights’) (Wasserman and Faust, 1994). Every novel had one character who topped every centrality measure, except for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Helen</hi> (Table 1). All six novels are 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Figurenromane</hi>, with a single central protagonist. Second, a community detection algorithm was run, which tended to sort the characters in all the novels into different households (Figures 1–6, displayed on poster) (Blondel et al., 2008). All the novels, whether ‘domestic’ or ‘Irish’, depict the world as a network of noble households.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""6.35cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>But character network analysis also reveals significant differences between the ‘national tales’ and ‘domestic novels’. Four measurements were taken of the overall structure of the six novel networks: the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">density</hi> (the proportion of possible edges that are present in the network), the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">transitivity</hi> (the probability that A and B will be connected if they are both already linked to C), the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">betweenness centralisation</hi> (which measures how much greater the ‘betweenness’ of the most central node is compared to all other nodes), and the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">degree centralisation</hi> (which performs the same calculation, but on the basis of degree centrality) (Wasserman and Faust, 1994). On these four measurements, significant differences between the two categories of novel emerged (Table 2).
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""6.806847222222222cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>The novels that were set in England or had female protagonists had higher average 
                <hi rend=""italic"">density</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">transitivity</hi>, suggesting that the ‘domestic novels’ depict smaller, more tightly knit communities, with more interactions between the different minor characters. The novels that were set in Ireland or had male protagonists had higher 
                <hi rend=""italic"">betweenness</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">degree centralisation,</hi> suggesting that in these novels, which feature more travel, the protagonist is more important for connecting the different regions in the network. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Harrington</hi> is an interesting case, being the only novel set in England with a male protagonist. An individual value plot suggests there is a complex interaction of setting and gender in this small corpus (Figure 7, displayed on poster).
            </p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>Character network analysis is a promising technique, because it produces intuitive results that are easy to reconcile with traditional methods. When we visualise the novels as network diagrams, we can immediately grasp an important similarity between Edgeworth’s ‘national tales’ and ‘domestic novels’: the presence of a dominating protagonist and the network of noble households. When we quantify the novels using statistical analysis, we can start to unpick different factors that are difficult to perceive on a close reading: particularly the hidden structural differences between male and female protagonists, which would bear further scrutiny.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bastian, M., Heymann, S. and Jacomy, M.</hi> (2009). Gephi: An Open Source Software for Exploring and Manipulating Networks. Paper presented at the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media</hi>, San Jose, CA, 17–20 May 2009.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blondel, V. D., Guillaume, J.-L., Lambiotte, R. and Lefebvre, E.</hi> (2008). Fast Unfolding of Communities in Large Networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Butler, M.</hi> (1972). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Maria Edgeworth: A Literary Biography</hi>. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Csardi, G.</hi> (2013). iGraph Package: Network Analysis and Visualization (Version 0.6.6). Vienna: CRAN, http://igraph.sourceforge.net.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ferris, I.</hi> (2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Romantic National Tale and the Question of Ireland</hi>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hollingworth, B.</hi> (1997). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Maria Edgeworth’s Irish Writing: Language, History, Politics</hi>. Macmillan, Basingstoke.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kelly, G.</hi> (1989). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">English Fiction of the Romantic Period, 1789–1830</hi>. Longman, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2011). Network Theory, Plot Analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Left Review, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">68</hi>: 80–102. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2013). ‘Operationalizing’: or, The Function of Measurement in Modern Literary Theory. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Left Review, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">84</hi>: 103–19.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">R Team.</hi> (2013). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing, http://www.R-project.org/
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stiller, J., Nettle, D. and Dunbar, R.</hi> (2003). The Small World of Shakespeare’s Plays. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Human Nature, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>(4): 397–408.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Voss-Clesly, P.</hi> (1979). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Tendencies of Character Depiction in the Domestic Novels of Burney, Edgeworth, and Austen: A Consideration of Subjective and Objective World</hi>. Institut für Anglistik &amp; Amerikanistik, Universität Salzburg, Salzburg.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wasserman, S. and Faust, K.</hi> (1994). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications</hi>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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                        <surname>Lincoln</surname>
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                    <affiliation>University of Maryland, United States of America</affiliation>
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            <p>Histories of early modern European artistic printmaking have often taken a decidedly nationalistic approach. Giorgio Vasari included an entire chapter contrasting the achievements of Italian, Netherlandish, and German printmakers in the 1568 edition of his 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Vite</hi> (Vasari, 1996, 80; Gregory, 2012). In the north, Haarlem-based art theorist Karel van Mander framed printmaking as a quintessentially Dutch medium, using his 1604 biography of the virtuoso engraver Hendrick Goltzius to rhetorically mirror Vasari’s elevation of Michelangelo in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Vite</hi>, thus arguing that engraving could rival the finest masterpieces of painting and sculpture that Italy had to offer (Miedema, 1994, 385–406; Melion, 1991, 22–23). Modern canonical narratives often focus on the emergence of particular regional or national artistic printmaking communities, such as that in the northern Netherlands around the turn of the 17th century, when Haarlem printmakers Claesz Jansz Visscher, Esaias van de Velde I, and Willem Buytewech began to experiment with new graphic styles that diverged from more conventional international trends, and also turned increasingly towards ‘native’ subject matter, such as views of the Dutch countryside and cityscapes. Scholars have connected this turn in style and content to the coalescing of a Dutch national identity during the course of the revolt against Spain between 1568 and 1648 (Freedberg, 1980; Levesque, 1994)
            </p>
            <p>Less well understood is the role that changing production practices, especially international collaboration, may have played in these shifts. Woodcuts and engravings—and, to a lesser extent, etchings—generally required the collaboration of artistic designers, plate cutters, printers, and distributors (Riggs and Silver, 1993). The sheer quantity and variety of prints from this period, and the number of individual printmakers and publishers involved, challenge traditional models of art historical argumentation. Newly available digitized museum databases offer the chance to analyze large-scale changes in the organizational patterns and artistic strategies of reproductive printmakers and publishers in the Netherlands, and of Europe at large, during the 16th and 17th centuries. This paper draws on the British Museum’s large database of European prints between 1550 and 1750 to infer a dynamic network model of European artistic print production in this period. The group-external / group-internal index of the regional/national groups of printmakers constituting this larger network offers a useful metric for describing the shifting balance of regional/national versus international print production in Europe in this period. The results of this study suggest the importance of structural incentives, under-analyzed in the current literature, that guided the development of regional artistic print production.</p>
            <p>Data and Methodology</p>
            <p>This study draws on the digital records of the British Museum’s collections, published as Linked Open Data using the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (Oldman et al., 2014). The database describes 53,462 dated prints (including woodcuts, etchings, and engravings) produced between 1550 and 1750. The British Museum has classified at least one associated creator for each of these prints, and assigned a production role such as ‘published by’, ‘print made by’, and ‘made after’. From these dated objects and associated production data, it is possible to construct a dynamic network structure, where designers, engravers, and publishers are interconnected based on the prints they produced. Date properties on edges (print production dates) and nodes (artist life dates) make it possible to derive subsets of the network at different points in time. Using the 
                <hi rend=""Verbatim_Char"">igraph</hi> package for R, I wrote an analysis script that created 10-year slices of the network using a rolling window (Csardi and Nepusz, 2006).
            </p>
            <p>To evaluate the dynamics of domestic vs. international interaction, I implemented an R version of the group-external / group-internal index. The E-I index measures the coefficient of group-external to group-internal ties for 
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <mi mathvariant=""normal"" xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">N</mi>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula>classes of nodes (
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
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                        </msub>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">=</mo>
                        <mfrac xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
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                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi mathvariant=""normal"">n</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi mathvariant=""normal"">i</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                </msub>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <msub>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi mathvariant=""normal"">n</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi mathvariant=""normal"">e</mi>
                                    </mrow>
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                                <mo>+</mo>
                                <msub>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi mathvariant=""normal"">n</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi mathvariant=""normal"">i</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                </msub>
                            </mrow>
                        </mfrac>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula>) where 
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi mathvariant=""normal"">n</mi>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi mathvariant=""normal"">e</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula> represents all 
                <hi rend=""italic"">external</hi> links from one class of node to another in a different class, and 
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi mathvariant=""normal"">n</mi>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi mathvariant=""normal"">i</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula> represents all 
                <hi rend=""italic"">internal</hi> links between nodes in the same class (Krackhardt and Stern, 1988, 127–29; Hanneman and Riddle, 2005, 128–32; Matos et al., 2014, 15). A positive coefficient thus indicates that members of one nationality made a majority of their connections to artists outside that nationality, while a negative coefficient indicates a majority of domestic connections.
            </p>
            <p>Results</p>
            <p>Figure 2 shows the E-I trend for the six largest regional/national groups of printmakers. The Dutch, French, and English networks all have positive E-I values at 1550, meaning that all these networks were mostly connected to foreign actors. Each of these national networks seems to have experienced their own relatively swift shift towards a majority of domestic connections in the following centuries. While the Netherlands exhibits a sharp inward turn around 1575–1580, the French printmaking network had a more gradual inward turn that was already under way by 1550, but took a particularly sharp negative (i.e., inward) turn between 1600 and 1640. The English network also experienced a sharp turn, but as late as 1650, almost 75 years after the Dutch turn. Conversely, Flemish, German, and Italian printmakers initially connected mostly inwardly, only later shifting towards majority-external connections around the turn of the 17th century.</p>
            <p>Discussion</p>
            <p>The recurring pattern of sudden shifts from majority-external connections to majority-internal connections in the Dutch, Flemish, French, and English printmaking networks is striking, and suggests the pivotal effect of historical incidents on print production. For example, the Dutch inward shift around 1570 may have been partly due to the Spanish capture of Antwerp, which precipitated a massive exodus from the city, particularly of Protestants fleeing religious persecution. This migration infused the Dutch provinces with new wealth and talent, and it was recognized even by contemporaries that this wave powered the consumption side of the paintings market, and introduced innovations on the production side of that market. (On the effect of the Flemish migration into the Northern Netherlands, see Montias, 1982, 73; 1987, 459; Vries, 1991, 265; Sluijter, 2009.) However, it also seems to have had an effect on the organization of printmaking. In addition to an influx of new talent and demand generated by a surge in immigration, printmakers may also have adjusted their behavior as conflict made it more difficult to conduct the international business of printmaking, from the early transmission of contracts and drawn designs to the large shipments of finished impressions required for a successful printmaking business. With avenues to international collaboration cut off, and an increasing amount of domestic demand in centers like Haarlem and Amsterdam, the Dutch printmaking network underwent a rapid reorganization in the working relationships among Dutch printmakers to favor more domestic connections than before.</p>
            <p>However, these shifts did not occur at the same time across Europe. It seems little coincidence that the regional networks that are primarily inward-connecting in the mid-16th century (Flanders, Italy, and Germany) also had some of the longest printmaking traditions, dating back to the late 15th century (Landau and Parshall, 1994). The medium of printing demanded a set of artistic and technical skills, not to mention a set of social connections and financial capital, that presented a barrier to new entrants into the printmaking world. Designers needed to learn what aesthetic effects and compositions would translate well to the printed medium. Printmakers had to learn how to render painted or drawn lighting and color effects with graven lines. Print distribution presented yet another hurdle to new entrants to the market. Publishers needed a large pool of both financial as well as social capital: in addition to purchasing rolling presses and paper, they also had to coordinate with artists as well as with distributors and buyers in domestic markets and at the international book fairs. In the aggregate, these requirements presented a barrier not only to individuals but also to regions and countries. Germany and Italy, the respective origins of woodcut printing in the north and the south in the late 15th century, were able to make mostly internal connections through the 16th century. They would gradually receive an increasing number of foreign connections, as Dutch, French, and English artists sought to connect to expert printmakers. Over time, these externally dependent regions would begin to cultivate more native talent, knowledge, and physical resources, as experienced printmakers trained new students and transitioned from making prints to establishing their own publishing firms. It seems that once a critical mass of designers, printmakers, and publishers had developed within a country, these national networks shifted quickly, rather than gradually, towards increased domestic production. Congruent trends in other countries suggest that it was not the effects of one specific conflict alone that powered the Dutch shift towards more domestic printmaking; it is more accurate to say that war 
                <hi rend=""italic"">catalyzed</hi> the organizational transformation that had already been made possible, and indeed inevitable, by longstanding international collaboration. This more rigorous and specific measurement of organizational changes will allow art historians to enrich our current histories of style and genre in printmaking, and more robustly characterize the relationship of artistic trends to historical ones.
            </p>
            <p>Figures</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""17.882305555555554cm"" height=""6.046611111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Visualization of a small affiliation network inferred from four different print impressions.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""18.566694444444444cm"" height=""15.712722222222222cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Comparative plot of the group-external / group-internal index of French, English, Dutch, German, Italian, and Flemish artists between 1550 and 1750.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Melion, W. S.</hi> (1991). 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Montias, J. M.</hi> (1982). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Artists and Artisans in Delft: A Socio-Economic Study of the Seventeenth Century</hi>. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Montias, J. M.</hi> (1987). Cost and Value in Seventeenth-Century Dutch Art. 
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Riggs, T. and Silver, L</hi>. (1993). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Graven Images: The Rise of Professional Printmakers in Antwerp and Haarlem, 1540–1640</hi>. Mary and Leigh Block Gallery, Northwestern University, Chicago.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sluijter, E. J.</hi> (2009). On Brabant Rubbish, Economic Competition, Artistic Rivalry, and the Growth of the Market for Paintings in the First Decades of the Seventeenth Century. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Historians of Netherlandish Art,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(2), 
                        <hi rend=""Link"">http://www.jhna.org/index.php/past-issues/volume-1-issue-2/109-on-brabant-rubbish</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vasari, G.</hi> (1996). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lives of the Painters, Sculptors and Architects</hi>. D. Campbell, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vries, J. d.</hi> (1991). Art history. In Freedberg, D. and Vries, J. d. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Art in History, History in Art: Studies in Seventeenth-Century Dutch Culture</hi>. Santa Monica, CA: Getty Center for the History of Art &amp; the Humanities, pp. 249–71.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2310","16","Morphological Analysis of Japanese Kyōgen Text","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>Morphological Analysis of Japanese Kyōgen Text</title>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>OGISO</surname>
                        <forename>Toshinobu</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>togiso@ninjal.ac.jp</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>KONO</surname>
                        <forename>Tomoaki</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>tkouno@ninjal.ac.jp</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>ICHIMURA</surname>
                        <forename>Taro</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>tichimura@ninjal.ac.jp</email>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <editionStmt>
                <edition>
                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
                </edition>
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            <publicationStmt>
                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
                <address>
                    <addrLine>Locked Bag 1797</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""keywords"">
                    <term>historical corpus</term>
                    <term>Late Middle Japanese</term>
                    <term>morphological analysis</term>
                    <term>Kyogen</term>
                </keywords>
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                    <term>corpora and corpus activities</term>
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            <p>As part of the corpus of historical Japanese, we are constructing a corpus of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> books. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kyōgen </hi>is a comic Japanese theatrical form that developed alongside 
                <hi rend=""italic"">noh</hi> in the Muromachi period (1337–1573). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ōkura-ryū</hi> (Ōkura school) is one major school of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi>, and the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ōkura Toraakira bon</hi> books are their oldest script books, written by Okura Toraakira in 1642; however, these 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> preserve an older form of the Japanese language than those of the other schools, reflecting the language of the Muromachi period, and as a result they constitute important documents for research into the colloquial language of the time. Therefore, we have begun to construct a corpus of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> based on the text of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ōkura Toraakira bon</hi> books, which consist of 237 plays (approximately 270,000 words).
            </p>
            <p>This corpus requires textual annotation for morphological information, such as part-of-speech, lexeme, and pronunciation information. Initially, we used an existing morphological analysis system to automatically annotate morphological information for all words in the text. However, this system could not analyze the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> texts with sufficient precision because of difference of the linguistic characteristics.
            </p>
            <p>Therefore, we decided to develop a new electronic dictionary for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> text based on UniDic, an existing electronic dictionary for morphological analysis of Japanese (http://sourceforge.jp/projects/unidic/). We used two approaches: expansion of the entries in the existing UniDic, and annotation of a new 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> corpus as training data for morphological analysis.
            </p>
            <p>UniDic for Kyōgen</p>
            <p>Starting from the existing UniDic, we extended word entries to address the problems of lexical, morphological, and orthographic differences. UniDic is structured with layered entries in order to treat words flexibly depending on the purposes of researchers. Figure 1 exemplifies the structured word indexes of UniDic. The Lemma layer treats words at abstract lemmatized level, like the entries in a general dictionary. The Form layer distinguishes allomorphs and different conjugations. Specification of conjugations is held in this layer. Finally, the Orthography layer is prepared to distinguish orthographic variants.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""8.942916666666667cm"" height=""7.62cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of UniDic.</p>
            <p>We added new entries to each level in this structure, approximately 6,000 in all, to reflect these lexical, morphological, and orthographic differences.</p>
            <p>To remedy the issues of morphological and syntactic differences between contemporary Japanese texts and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> texts, we manually annotated a corpus of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> containing 100,000 words in order to produce training and test corpora.
            </p>
            <p>MeCab is a morphological analyzer based on the conditional random field (CRF) analytical method that achieves state-of-the-art performance in contemporary Japanese morphological analysis. MeCab can automatically learn feature weights for UniDic from an annotated corpus of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> to build a morphological analyzer.
            </p>
            <p>Evaluation</p>
            <p>Using a dedicated dictionary (UniDic for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kyōgen</hi>), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> texts can now be analyzed with a high degree of accuracy. We evaluated the performance of UniDic for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kyōgen</hi> using test data consisting of 10,000 words of randomly sampled sentences (10% of the annotated corpus). The evaluations were carried out on four levels. Level 1 covered the accuracy of word segmentation. Level 2 covered the accuracy of part-of-speech tagging for items correct at Level 1. Level 3 covered the accuracy of lemmatization for items correct at Levels 1 and 2. Finally, Level 4 covered the accuracy of distinction between allomorphs for items correct at all other levels. Table 1 shows the performance of UniDic for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kyōgen</hi> at each of the four levels.
            </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                        <p>Level 1</p>
                        <p>Segmentation</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                        <p>Level 2</p>
                        <p>POS-tagging</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                        <p>Level 3</p>
                        <p>Lemmatization</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                        <p>Level 4</p>
                        <p>Allomorphs</p>
                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">F-measure</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.9881</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.9629</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.9567</cell>
                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.9536</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Table 1. Accuracy of UniDic for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kyōgen</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>The accuracy for lemmatization, which is the one most often used by linguists, is approximately 96%. This number is only slightly inferior in comparison with the accuracy of the morphological analysis dictionary for contemporary Japanese (approximately 98%). Using UniDic for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kyōgen</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kyōgen</hi> texts can now be analyzed with a high degree of accuracy.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Den, Y., Nakamura, J., Ogiso, T., and Ogura, H.</hi> (2008). A Proper Approach to Japanese Morphological Analysis: Dictionary, Model, and Evaluation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 6th Language Resources and Evaluation Conference</hi>, pp. 1019–24.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Den, Y., Ogiso, T., Ogura, H., Yamada, A., Minematsu, N., Uchimoto, K. and Koiso, H.</hi> (2007). The Development of an Electronic Dictionary for Morphological Analysis and Its Application to Japanese Corpus Linguistics (in Japanese). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Japanese Linguistics</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>: 101–23.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kudo, T.</hi> (2012). MeCab: Yet Another Part-of-Speech and Morphological Analyzer. https://code.google.com/p/mecab/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kudo, T., Yamamoto, K. and Matsumoto, Y.</hi> (2004). Applying Conditional Random Fields to Japanese Morphological Analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2004 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing</hi>, pp. 230–37.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ogiso, T., Ichimura, T. and Kono, T.</hi> (2013). Preliminary Study of Morphological Analysis of Early Modern Japanese (in Japanese). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Japanese Corpus Linguistics, </hi>pp. 145–50.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ogiso, T., Komachi, M., Den, Y. and Matsumoto, Y.</hi> (2008). UniDic for Early Middle Japanese: A Dictionary for Morphological Analysis of Classical Japanese. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 8th Language Resources and Evaluation Conference</hi>, pp. 911–15.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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"2311","16","Multimedia and E-learning Based Approach to Indian Heritage Texts: The Case of Srimadbhagavadgita","9","","","1","",""
"2312","16","Multiple Views and Modes of Engagement with a Repository of Digital Texts","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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            <titleStmt>
                <title>Multiple Views and Modes of Engagement with a Repository of Digital Texts</title>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Wittern</surname>
                        <forename>Christian</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Kyoto University, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>cwittern@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
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                <edition>
                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
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                    <addrLine>Locked Bag 1797</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
                </address>
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                <p>Converted from a Word document </p>
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                    <term>Paper</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""subcategory"">
                    <term>Long Paper</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""keywords"">
                    <term>Digital repository</term>
                    <term>collaboration</term>
                    <term>user interaction</term>
                    <term>research infrastructure</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>digitisation</term>
                    <term>resource creation</term>
                    <term>and discovery</term>
                    <term>user studies / user needs</term>
                    <term>asian studies</term>
                    <term>philology</term>
                    <term>English</term>
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        <body>
            <p>Digital representations of texts depend on a specific interface that exposes them to the reader. These interfaces are what enables the reader to interact with the text, but at the same time they do limit these interactions to the specific functions that the designers implemented. </p>
            <p>While working on a digital repository of premodern Chinese texts (described most recently in Wittern, 2014), some of our most pressing questions were, ‘To what requirements of the readers do we want to cater?’ and ‘How can we design the interaction with the repository in a way that allows all users to feel comfortable and do what they want?’, or ‘How can the repository enable and support the research questions of its users?’ and ‘How can we enable the researchers to collaborate and cooperate?’</p>
            <p>It was quite clear that no one interface would be able to accommodate all these needs. We therefore designed the system from the beginning as a house with many windows, all of which allow peeks into different, sometimes overlapping parts of its interior, that is, our repository of texts. At the moment, three windows to different rooms have been realized and will be discussed below. </p>
            <p> 1. The stack room, the place where the collection is held; the material held here is open access.</p>
            <p> 2. The reading room, a place where items from the collection can be requested and read; this room is open to the general public.</p>
            <p> 3. The researchers’ office (of which every researcher has its own separate one)—items here include those checked out from the stacks and additional items acquired privately by the researcher; access is limited to the owner (and administrative staff).</p>
            <p>The poster will show how the functionality of these rooms is mapped to different interfaces/applications to access the digital repository.</p>
            <p>The Researchers’ Office </p>
            <p>The office of a researcher is where interaction with the texts happens in long, uninterrupted stretches of time (ideally); this is the place for close reading, annotating the texts, or writing a commentary to the text and possibly translating it. </p>
            <p>To support this mode of work, a specialized mode of the versatile editor 
                <hi rend=""OrgCode"">Emacs</hi> has been developed. It offers not only access to the digital repository but includes a wide range of additional tools for working with the text, including reference works, note-taking, publication, and analysis, as well as support for reproducible research and research notebooks.
            </p>
            <p>A researcher can also bring his own texts and tools into interaction with the digital archive, and this in fact blurs the line between working with texts in the archive and texts available locally to the researcher: a digital copy of the text is available to the researcher with all of the same possible interactions that are available to the researcher with his own texts. Furthermore, access to the archive being merely one of the many functions of the interface to be called upon when necessary, it allows a much tighter integration with the workflow of the researcher than a separate dedicated desktop application or even a web application. </p>
            <p>The Reading Room</p>
            <p>The reading room is open for visitors and used for quick lookup in material that might not be central to the task at hand; it is also used for the discovery of new material. </p>
            <p>For the digital repository, this is realized as a web application that provides basic search and discovery functionality and allows the browsing of catalogs and texts. Over time, more tools will be added, and a transition path (or a dual-use scenario) to the desktop-based 
                <hi rend=""OrgCode"">Emacs</hi> environment will be developed. However, the exact development path has not yet been determined and will depend on the experience of the users interacting with the current system. The reading room is accessible at http://www.kanripo.org. 
            </p>
            <p>The reading room also serves as a reception room for visitors who might advance to the researchers’ office. It allows them to see what kind of material and tools are available, and thus to gauge if the necessary investment of time is likely to pay off. </p>
            <p>The Stack Rooms </p>
            <p>This is where the material available in the reading room and researchers’ office is held. The stack room is the repository of the texts held in https://github.com/kanripo.</p>
            <p>Researchers may also donate texts curated by themselves to the repository, or fork and branch existing texts to gain write access to them. Interaction with the stack room is possible through 
                <hi rend=""OrgCode"">Emacs</hi> or through a dedicated web front-end. 
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Domnik, C., et al.</hi> (2014). Org Mode for Emacs—Your Life in Plain Text. http://orgmode.org.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rawal, V.</hi> (n.d.). Reproducible Research Papers Using Org-mode and R: A Guide. https://github.com/vikasrawal/orgpaper.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wittern, C.</hi> (2013). Towards an Architecture for Active Reading. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarly and Research Communication, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(4): 1–11, http://www.src-online.ca/index.php/src/article/view/59.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wittern, C. </hi>(2014). Kanripo and Mandoku: Tools for Git-Based Distributed Repositories for Premodern Chinese Texts. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014 Book of Abstracts</hi>, pp. 408–9. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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"2313","16","Music Score Representation of Poetry Reading: Can Prosody Be Studied by Analyzing the Author's Voice?","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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            <titleStmt>
                <title>Music Score Representation of Poetry Reading: Can Prosody Be Studied by Analyzing the Author’s Voice?</title>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Yamamoto</surname>
                        <forename>Takeo</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Graduate School of Literature and Sociology, The University of Tokyo, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>ty@tylab.org</email>
                </author>
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                <edition>
                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""keywords"">
                    <term>poetical prosody</term>
                    <term>analysis of recorded voice</term>
                    <term>music score generation</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>audio</term>
                    <term>video</term>
                    <term>multimedia</term>
                    <term>literary studies</term>
                    <term>prosodic studies</term>
                    <term>english studies</term>
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        <body>
            <p>I propose to study prosody of modern poems by analyzing recordings of their authors’ voice reciting their poems and producing forms similar to a music score. An example is shown in Figure 1. In the following, such a notation will simply be called the music score of a poetry reading. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""13.188597222222223cm"" height=""25.200680555555557cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.jpg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1.</p>
            <p>First I will review developments in three partly overlapping areas related to this study: relationship of poetry recitation to prosody, studies of recorded voice, and prosody of free verse. Then I will describe the computer-assisted method for producing the music score by analyzing recorded voice. Some influential papers have asserted that prosody can’t be studied by analyzing the voice. I will discuss their arguments and show some results indicating that, for many modern poets, analyzing their voice can be an effective way of studying their prosody. </p>
            <p>Until about half a century ago, linguists, prosodists, psychologists, and sometimes poets actively participated in prosodic studies using human reading of poems. In the mid-1910s, Patterson developed a device called a ‘voice recorder’ that seems to have been a voice amplitude recorder, and poet Amy Lowell used this equipment to measure, in effect, time between stressed syllables in readings of her own and others’ poems. In 1956, Seymour Chatman analyzed recordings of eight people, including the poet himself, reading Frost’s ‘Mowing’. However, those studies were severely attacked by critics W. K. Wimsatt Jr. and Monroe C. Beardsley (1959). They believed that there is an ‘abstract metrical pattern’ in a poem that cannot be studied by analyzing a performance or a set of performances: ‘There are many performances of the same poem—differing among themselves in many ways. A performance is an event, but the poem itself, if there is any poem, must be some kind of enduring object’ (587). Shortly afterwards, linguist Roman Jakobson (1960) concurred, stating that ‘meter, or in more explicit terms, verse design, underlies any single line or, in logical terminology, any single verse instance’ and ‘A variation of verse instances within a given poem must be strictly distinguished from the variable delivery instances’ (365–66). After this, according to Paul Kiparsky (2010), ‘Generative metrics has turned Jakobson’s distinction into an exclusion: Delivery (recitation and text-setting) is not considered to be in the province of metrics’ (slide 6). Among literary prosodists, too, not many have ventured into serious analysis of poets’ recorded voice. </p>
            <p>In the 1970s, however, Reuven Tsur started to radically change the notion of ‘prosody’. He has formulated an extensive ‘Cognitive Poetics’, encompassing phonology, prosody, and philosophy. More recently, Paul Kiparsky has proposed to expand metrics into ‘broad metrics’, which includes ‘delivery’ (2010). Among literary prosodists, Harvey Gross (1964) has used T. S. Eliot’s recordings for the analysis of his prosody. Poet and scholar Charles Bernstein edited the important book 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Close Listening</hi> (1998a), wherein Bernstein stressed the importance of performance (vocal and print) in prosody. More recently, Marjorie Perloff and Craig Dworkin edited another important book, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Sound of Poetry / The Poetry of Sound</hi> (2009).
            </p>
            <p>In the related area of sound study, Jason Camlot (2003), Derek Furr (2010), and Matthew Rubery (2011) have been studying audiobooks and other collections of recordings. Recently, an inter-disciplinary area of ‘voice studies’ seems to be forming.</p>
            <p>Although Wimsatt and Beardsley expressed hope that traditional metrical analysis would be applicable to modernist and later poems, it turned out to be difficult. Several prosodists, including Derek Attridge (1995) and Alan Holder (1995), have been developing prosody for non-metrical verse. Literary critics Helen Vendler (2007) and Marjorie Perloff (2009) have also analyzed prosody in several modernist and, in the case of Perloff, postmodernist poems with non-metrical rhythms, sometimes listening to the poet’s recorded voice. </p>
            <p>I hope the method described in the following will be usable in the above fields of study. First, the recorded voice is analyzed by using a combination of Wavesurfer and PRAAT speech-analysis software packages. The reason for using two rather similar packages is to take advantage of the user-friendly human interface of Wavesurfer and also the superior pitch analysis and scripting capabilities of PRAAT. The human operator first segments the recorded voice data into syllables and silent/breathing segments, and inputs them into Wavesurfer. The data is imported to PRAAT, and the human operator inputs stress pattern (whether the syllable is heard as stressed or not) and also the line number, in the poem, to which the syllable belongs. After this the analysis is almost automatic, and the following data are obtained from PRAAT: the starting time and duration of each syllable or silence, and the vocal power (loudness) for a short time segment. A perl program was written to convert this into an input program for LilyPond, a software for producing scores. The average over the syllable duration of fundamental formant f0 is taken as the pitch, which determines the position of the note. The duration is converted to the note length (assuming MM=120). The longtime average of power is converted into dynamics. A stressed syllable can be represented by an accent mark next to the note, by a colored note, or both. The resultant music score of poetry recitation will be shown, synchronized with the voice, at the conference.</p>
            <p>The music score obtained as above is, of course, only an approximation of the original recorded voice. It is known that ‘pitch’ is a psychological quantity and does not always correspond to f0. Also, f0 of talking/reciting voice usually changes continually, and its average over a time segment is not an accurate representation. The perception of a stress on a particular syllable is also known to be a psychological (physically difficult to measure) phenomenon, and its presence or absence is sometimes quite difficult to judge, and can be controversial. However, by using music score notation for representing the human voice reciting poetry, much relevant information (not only the stress pattern) is conveniently concentrated in a small space, facilitating discussion.</p>
            <p>The above-mentioned arguments by Wimsatt and Beardsley (1959) and by Jakobson (1960) rely on two assumptions. First, they assume that poetry reading is a performance, and a performance can change arbitrarily and cannot be trusted, even if the performer is the author. Second, they assume that for a poem there is one correct ‘absolute meter’ or ‘verse instance’, which is, in Wimsatt and Beardsley’s terms, ‘something that can be read and studied with the help of grammars and dictionaries and other linguistic guides . . . The meter is something which for the most part inheres in language precisely at that level of linguistic organization which grammars and dictionaries and elementary rhetoric can successfully cope with’ (588). So it can and should be elucidated easily, without going so far as to study any ‘performance’. </p>
            <p>To see if the first assumption holds, I have studied stress patterns in multiple recordings of the same poem by poets such as W. B. Yeats, Robert Frost, William Carlos Williams, Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, Kenneth Rexroth, W. H. Auden, Allen Ginsberg, and Galway Kinnell. I also analyzed stress patterns of non-authors reading works of those poets and compared them with the author’s reading. The result indicates that the author’s stress pattern is quite stable over years (though there are exceptions), while non-author readers (including poets) tend to read the poem in quite different stress patterns (especially in modern poems that do not have classical metric patterns) from the author’s and from each other’s. That stands to reason, as the stress pattern perhaps is one of the important characteristics in composing a poem, even when (or perhaps the more when) the poem does not have classical meter. In other words, for many authors, the stress pattern may be too important to change arbitrarily (though sometimes change may occur due to the change of heart of the author). On the other hand, the reader often fails to guess the author’s intended rhythm (or find another rhythm) in a modern poem. In short, the first assumption does not seem to hold, at least for many poets reading their own poems. </p>
            <p>The second point, the assumption of the presence of one ‘absolute meter’ per poem, is difficult to apply to modern poems such as free verse and syllabic verse. For them, modern prosody and sound/voice studies will be able to contribute much, although as Bernstein notes, quoting Peter Quartermain, ‘The poet’s voicing of a poem should not be allowed to eliminate ambiguous voicings in the text; nor should the author’s performance of a poem be absolutely privileged over that of other readers and performers’ (11). </p>
            <p>The method of analyzing the voice of the poet and the other readers given in this paper will, I hope, contribute to those studies. Relevant software developed in this study (perl programs and PRAAT scripts) will be made available to researchers in the near future.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bernstein, C.</hi> (ed.). (1998a). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Close Listening: Poetry and the Performed Word.</hi> Oxford University Press, Oxford.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bernstein, C.</hi> (1998b). Introduction. In Bernstein, C. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Close Listening: Poetry and the Performed Word.</hi> Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 3–26.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bernstein, C.</hi> (1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">My Way: Speeches and Poems.</hi> University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boersma, P. and Weenink, D.</hi> (n.d.). PRAAT: Doing Phonetics by Computer, http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/praat/.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Camlot, J.</hi> (2003). Early Talking Books: Spoken Recordings and Recitation Anthologies, 1880–1920. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Camlot, J.</hi> (2012). The Sound of Canadian Modernisms: The Sir George Williams University Poetry Series, 1966–74. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clement, T. E.</hi> (2008). ‘A Thing Not Beginning and Not Ending’: Using Digital Tools to Distant-Read Gertrude Stein’s 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clement, T., et al.</hi> (2013). Sounding for Meaning: Using Theories of Knowledge Representation to Analyze Aural Patterns in Texts. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Furr, D.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Recorded Poetry and Poetic Reception from Edna Millay to the Circle of Robert Lowell. </hi>Palgrave, New York.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gross, H.</hi> (1964). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sound and Form in Modern Poetry: A Study of Prosody from Thomas Hardy to Robert Lowell.</hi> University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Holder, A.</hi> (1995). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Rethinking Meter: A New Approach to the Verse Line.</hi> Yale University Press, Cranbury, NJ.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jakobson, R.</hi> (1960). Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics. In Sebeok, T. A. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Style in Language. </hi>New York: Wiley, pp. 350–77.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kiparsky, P.</hi> (2010). Meter and Performance. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lowell, A.</hi> (1920). Some Musical Analogies in Modern Poetry. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2000). Conjectures on World Literature.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nienhyus, H.-W. and Nieuwenhuizen, J.</hi> (n.d.). LilyPond: Music Notation for Everyone, http://www.lilypond.org/index.html.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Perloff, M.</hi> (2009). Introduction: The Sound of Poetry. In Perloff, M. and Dworkin, C. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Sound of Poetry / The Poetry of Sound</hi>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 1–9.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Perloff, M. and Dworkin, C. </hi>(eds). (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Sound of Poetry / The Poetry of Sound</hi>. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Quartermain, P.</hi> (1998). Sound Reading. In Bernstein, C. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Close Listening: Poetry and the Performed Word.</hi> Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 217–30.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rubery, M.</hi> (ed. and intro.). (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Audiobooks, Literature, and Sound Studies</hi>. Routledge, New York.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sjölander, K. and Beskow, J.</hi> (2000). Wavesurfer—An Open Source Speech Tool. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of ICSLP 2000, 6th International Conference on Spoken Language Processing</hi>, Beijing.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tsur, L.</hi> (1977). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Perception-Oriented Theory of Metre</hi>. Porter Israeli Institute for Poetics and Semiotics, Tel Aviv. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tsur, L.</hi> (1992a). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Toward a Theory of Cognitive Poetics.</hi> North-Holland, Amsterdam.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tsur, L.</hi> (1992b). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">What Makes Sound Patterns Expressive? The Poetic Mode of Speech Perception</hi>. Duke University Press, Durham, NC.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tsur, L.</hi> (2012a). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Playing by Ear and the Tip of the Tongue: Precategorial Information in Poetry.</hi> John Benjamins, Amsterdam.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tsur, L.</hi> (2012b). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Poetic Rhythm: Structure and Performance, an Empirical Study in Cognirive Poetics</hi>. Sussex Academic Press, Brighton.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vendler, H.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Our Secret Discipline: Yeats and Lyric Form</hi>. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wimsatt, W. K., Jr., and Beardsley, M. C.</hi> (1959). The Concept of Meter: An Excercise in Abstraction. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PMLA,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">74</hi>(5): 585–98.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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"2314","16","Myths on Maps","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <affiliation>University of Victoria, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>gregster@uvic.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Bowman</surname>
                        <forename>Laurel</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Victoria, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>lbowman@uvic.ca</email>
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                    <term>XML</term>
                    <term>maps</term>
                    <term>myth</term>
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                    <term>classical studies</term>
                    <term>geospatial analysis</term>
                    <term>interfaces and technology</term>
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                    <term>resource creation</term>
                    <term>and discovery</term>
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            <p>What we commonly refer to as ‘Greek myth’ was initially the product of local oral traditions that celebrated regional heroes and their adventures. The amalgamated texts passed on to us retain much of the sources’ geographical information, allowing us to geo-locate events and characters mentioned by the texts. The Myths on Maps project (http://myths.uvic.ca/) was started in 2009 by Dr. Laurel Bowman as an experimental geographical information system (GIS) with the expressed goal of presenting to a modern audience the geographical connections between people, places, and events that the original tellers and audiences found self-evident. </p>
            <p>While projects exist to provide information on ancient places (e.g., Pleiades gazetteer of ancient places; 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://pleiades.stoa.org/</hi>), and others make available repositories of searchable texts (e.g., Perseus Digital Library, 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/</hi>), our aim is to bring text and geography together to produce a GIS tightly integrated with our growing collection of texts and standoff data.
            </p>
            <p>Technology</p>
            <p>Given the initial intent of describing relationships, Myths on Maps was originally conceived as a traditional SQL database, using PHP to query the database and render the online portion of the application. After nearly two years of frequent, iterative adjustments to the database schema, it became evident that the project needed to look at other, more flexible methods of storage and retrieval. At that point we settled on an XML/XQuery-based architecture, relying on the eXist XML database (
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://exist-db.org/</hi>) to replace the cumbersome SQL system. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">The Application </hi>
            </p>
            <p>By creating three separate views of our texts and data, Myths on Maps provides users with the flexibility to scope inquiries rather than rely on proscribed discovery methods. The Reader view offers an unencumbered view of the text itself, but includes an interactive discovery layer that allows readers to explore characters, groups, places, and events as they progress through the text. The Data viewer allows users to quickly drill down to the character, place, or event they are looking for. Functionally speaking, the Map view is text-agnostic, focusing more on the standoff data. Searches of the map display the myths pertaining to a site, a character, the character’s relationships with other characters, journeys, the texts recording the myths, and relationships between the texts themselves. </p>
            <p>XML Collections </p>
            <p>The English texts used by the project were taken initially from the Perseus project and subjected to further XML encoding, connecting mentioned places, people, and events to our standoff data collection. At the time of writing, we have completed Apollodorus’ Library and Epitome, and are currently completing Homer’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi> (expected publication date, summer 2015). The project’s growing collection of standoff data consists of over 2,200 characters, nearly 600 places, more than 300 groups, and approximately 2,800 events. All textual data produced by the project is published under a Creative Commons license and is freely available to scholars for their own use. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">The Future </hi>
            </p>
            <p>So far, we have chosen particularly geographically dense texts, beginning with Apollodorus’ Library and continuing with Homer’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi>. Our next targets include Pausanias’ 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Description of Greece</hi>, followed by Pindar’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Odes</hi>, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Metamorphoses of Ovid</hi>. The ultimate aim of the project is to map all major Greek and Roman myths, insofar as their geographic locations and that of their authors are known or noted. 
            </p>
            <p>Given the broad scope of the project, we also hope to be able to develop academic partnerships that will help expand the range of available texts through the contribution of texts encoded using project guidelines.</p>
            <p>Planned features include more sophisticated search and filter functionality, the ability to visualize journeys, and greater user control over the creation and export of custom maps. We are also developing a responsive, mobile version of the site.</p>
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"2315","16","Negotiating The Issues Of Encoding And Producing Traditional Scripts On Computers – Working With Unicode","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Anderson</surname>
                        <forename>Deborah</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>UC Berkeley, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>dwanders@sonic.net</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Morey</surname>
                        <forename>Stephen</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Centre for Research on Language Diversity, La Trobe University, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>s.morey@latrobe.edu.au</email>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>Unicode</term>
                    <term>character encoding</term>
                    <term>South and Southeast Asia</term>
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            <p>Over the past 30 years, developments in computing mean that almost every script and writing system ever created can be coded on a computer and used on Facebook, mobile phones, and in emails, and large numbers of documents can be encoded, searched, and archived in a range of different scripts.</p>
            <p>In South and Southeast Asia, there are a large number of different scripts, some used by quite small communities. In India, for example, there are around 11 official scripts, with states like Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Gujarat, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu having their own unique scripts. Speakers of Tai languages, in particular, have long had a range of different scripts in use among languages that are quite similar, so, for example, the script used by Shan people in eastern Myanmar is quite distinct from that of the Khün in the eastern part of Shan state, and also different from but intelligible with the Khamti script in western Myanmar, and the various scripts used by Tai people in Northeast India.</p>
            <p>Since the earlier part of this century, a great effort has been made to encode all of these scripts in Unicode, a standard that allows for the encoding of symbols used in writing that can be demonstrated to be in use, or to have been in use in the past. However, negotiating a script into Unicode is a complex issue, involving considerable technical expertise and knowledge of script encoding principles, things that are difficult enough for an academic linguist but virtually impenetrable for members of the speech communities.</p>
            <p>Combining our expertise in both script encoding and in linguistics, we will raise issues of community involvement in the process by means of several case studies.</p>
            <p>1. The decisions to encode different forms of letters used in different scripts, such as Burmese on one hand and Tai varieties in Northeast India on the other, on the same encoding point so that they cannot both appear in platforms like Facebook (Hosken, 2014b). </p>
            <p>Below is an example, from an 1821 Tai Phake manuscript called Mahosatha, telling one of the former lives of the Buddha (Jataka). This shows the stark differences in glyph shapes of the characters. The top line is in the Burmese script (Pali language), then shifts to Tai in the second line. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""6.4558333333333335cm"" height=""2.910416666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Background: In Unicode, the glyphs for the letters in the Burmese (‘Myanmar’ in Unicode) script were based on their use in the Burmese language, whose 32 million speakers dwarfs the Tai language communities of India (such as Phake with 2,000 speakers). The Myanmar script was published in Unicode in 1998, and the minority users were not consulted in the encoding then, so the default glyphs represent those of the Burmese language, not the Tai languages. </p>
            <p>Update: The request (Hosken, 2014b) to Unicode to disunify the characters for Tai (Aiton and Phake) from Burmese was discussed in August 2014, with experts calling in to the Unicode Technical Committee meeting. However, no consensus was reached, so the topic was dropped for the time being. As a result, users on Facebook can’t show a mixture of Burmese and Tai-based languages on the same FB page with the expected glyph shapes. </p>
            <p>2. The difficulties that the Assamese community find with the naming of letters used only in Assamese, such as ‘Bengali letter Ra with middle diagonal U+09F0’, a letter not used at all in Bengali but found in Assamese with the pronunciation [wɔ] (Hosken, 2012).</p>
            <p>Background: The name of the script ‘Bengali’ was already the name of the script in Unicode 1.1 (1993). Due to stability policies, script names cannot be changed. </p>
            <p>Update: The controversy reached the point of being discussed in the newspapers in 2012. In response to users, the Unicode Consortium made a few changes to incorporate ‘Assamese’ in the chapter on Bengali and the names list in 2012, but clearly there remains some confusion for Assamese users. </p>
            <p>3. Problems for users posed by the Unicode New Tai Lue encoding model, which does not allow users to type the characters in visual order (Hosken, 2014a), the model adopted by the scripts used in neighboring countries of Thailand and Laos.</p>
            <p>Update: As the result of the request to change the encoding model by Hosken (2014a) and feedback from a public review issue posted on this issue (Unicode Consortium, 2014a), Unicode decided to change its encoding model in the next version of Unicode, Unicode 8.0, which will be released in the summer of 2015.</p>
            <p>The talk will conclude with suggestions on ways to improve the interaction between linguists, speech communities, and the Unicode standards committee. For example, conveying technical details over email and the phone can become problematic both for the user community and the Unicode Technical Committee (such as how to represent Tai languages on Facebook, above, 1). One strategy that has been successful is to bring a Unicode expert to the users (or to a linguist who works with the users) or to bring an expert to the Unicode committee. However, this involves hurdles, such as finding funding for travel.</p>
            <p>The urgency for supporting the requirements of small language communities is based on the increasingly widespread use of mobile devices and social media. Why should minority language users in South and Southeast Asia be limited in their electronic communication, so that they have to rely on script-style of the larger language community, instead of having their own preferred style displayed?</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Funding</hi>
                <lb/>This work was supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities [grant 
                <hi rend=""color(222222)"">PR-50205</hi> to Deborah Anderson] and the Australian Research Council [Future Fellowship grant FT 1001006614 to Stephen Morey].
            </p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hosken, M.</hi> (2012). Proposal for Minor, Non-Character, Additions to UCS Addressing Concerns from Assamese. Working Group Document, UTC L2/12-350, 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2012/12350-assamese.pdf.</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hosken, M.</hi> (2014a). Proposal to Change the Encoding Model of New Tai Lue. Working Group Document, UTC L2/14-090, http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2014/14090-new-tai-lue.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hosken, M.</hi> (2014b). Proposal to Disunify Khamti Letters from Myanmar (Revision 2). Working Group Document, UTC L2/14-108R2, http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2014/14108r2-khamti_disunify.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Unicode Consortium</hi>. (2014a). Proposed Encoding Model Change for New Tai Lue. Public Review Issue #281, http://www.unicode.org/review/pri281/pri281-background.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Unicode Consortium</hi>. (2014b). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Unicode Standard 7.0.0</hi>. Mountain View, CA: Unicode Consortium, http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode7.0.0/.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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                    <affiliation>University of Pittsburgh, United States of America</affiliation>
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                        <surname>Thorsen</surname>
                        <forename>Elise</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Pittsburgh, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>enthorsen@gmail.com</email>
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                        <surname>del Rio Riande</surname>
                        <forename>Gimena</forename>
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                    <affiliation>SECRIT-CONICET</affiliation>
                    <email>gdelrio.riande@gmail.com</email>
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                        <surname>Martínez Cantón</surname>
                        <forename>Clara</forename>
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                    <affiliation>UNED</affiliation>
                    <email>cimartinez@flog.uned.es</email>
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                        <surname>González Blanco-García</surname>
                        <forename>Elena</forename>
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                    <affiliation>UNED</affiliation>
                    <email>elenagbg@gmail.com</email>
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                        <surname>Pue</surname>
                        <forename>A. Sean</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Michigan State University</affiliation>
                    <email>pue@msu.edu</email>
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                        <surname>Teal</surname>
                        <forename>Tracy K</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Michigan State University</affiliation>
                    <email>tkteal@msu.edu</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Brown</surname>
                        <forename>C. Titus</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of California, Davis</affiliation>
                    <email>ctb@msu.edu</email>
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            <p>Papers</p>
            <p>Enabling the Automated Identification and Analysis of Meter and Rhyme in Russian Verse</p>
            <p>David J. Birnbaum, University of Pittsburgh, and Elise Thorsen, University of Pittsburgh</p>
            <p>Making Visible the Invisible: Metrical Patterns, Contrafacture and Compilation in a Medieval Castilian Songbook</p>
            <p>Gimena del Rio Riande, SECRIT-CONICET; Clara Martínez Cantón, UNED; and Elena González Blanco-García, UNED</p>
            <p>Using Bioinformatic Algorithms to Analyze the Politics of Form in Modernist Urdu Poetry</p>
            <p>A. Sean Pue, Michigan State University; Tracy K. Teal, Michigan State University; and C. Titus Brown, University of California, Davis</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Panel Organizer</hi>
            </p>
            <p>David J. Birnbaum, University of Pittsburgh, djbpitt@gmail.com</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Panel Synopsis</hi>
            </p>
            <p>This panel presents new primary research results in the formal study of poetry and poetics that have been made possible by the development and use of innovative digital technologies. The research questions underlying the presentations are varied, as are the linguistic and cultural traditions (early modern and modern Russian, medieval Spanish, and Urdu [in comparison with Hindi/Sanskrit and Persian/Arabic]). What unites the three presentations is (1) a focus on using digital technologies to create humanities knowledge that would not otherwise be possible; (2) the development of innovative methodologies that are able to address those research questions; and (3) the building of new digital tools that make it possible to address new research needs.</p>
            <p>Our panel responds to the following specific areas of emphasis noted in the original call for paper:</p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities research enabled through digital media, data mining, software studies, or information design and modeling. </hi>The focus of our panel is on new types of research results that are made possible by the development of original digital tools and methods. In this sense, the research results are foremost, but the projects that produce that research are methodologically innovative, and the research results would not have been attainable without that innovation.
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Creation and curation of humanities digital resources. </hi>The creation of plain-text poetry archives is relatively straightforward: the text can be generated through OCR or by repurposing digital files originally created to produce print editions. The creation of structured poetry archives is also relatively straightforward: the general hierarchical structure of poetry is represented by pseudo-markup layout in plain-text editions, and is amenable to autotagging with the aid of regular-expression parsing. The creation of poetry archives with metrical and rhyme annotation, however, is difficult because it requires linguistic knowledge, and the presentations on this panel describe new technologies that were developed in order to (1) facilitate the machine-assisted creation of these types of metrically annotated poetic corpora, and (2) undertake original research about formal metrical practice on the basis of large digital corpora.
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Social, institutional, global, multilingual, and multicultural aspects of digital humanities . . . For the 2015 conference, we particularly welcome contributions that address ‘global’ aspects of digital humanities including submissions on interdisciplinary work and new developments in the field. </hi>Our panel includes three research reports from three diverse poetic traditions: early modern and modern Russian, medieval Spanish, and Urdu (in comparison with Hindi/Sanskrit and Persian/Arabic). The projects that produced these research results have operated independently, but within their highly varied cultural contexts they address similar types of research questions.
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Digital humanities in pedagogy and academic curricula. </hi>The projects that contribute to our panel, which were designed to create new research knowledge in the humanities, were developed in many cases with attention to pedagogical and curricular concerns. For example, some portions of the development for these projects was carried out in the context of digital humanities courses, with undergraduate and graduate students making contributions to authentic humanities research as a way of learning to be digital humanists.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">1. Enabling the Automated Identification and Analysis of Meter and Rhyme in Russian Verse</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Birnbaum, D. J. and Thorsen, E. </p>
            <p>Quantitative metrics, and particularly the statistical study of meter and rhyme, has been a core research methodology in Russian verse theory and scholarship at least since the early 20th century, both among Russian scholars (e.g., Belyj, 1929; Taranovski, 1953; Gasparov, 1984) and abroad (e.g., Shaw, 1993; Scherr, 1986; Friedberg, 2011). Until recently, the methods have had to rely largely on the laborious human identification and tagging or recording of all individual stress and rhyme phenomena, which have then served as input into the (often computer-assisted) statistical analysis of synchronic patterns and diachronic trends in meter and rhyme. Not only is this sort of manual effort at corpus preparation not scalable, but more often than not the raw data underlying published scholarship have not been shared, which means that the results cannot be replicated and the conclusions cannot be verified. Almost the entire corpus of Russian classical verse is now freely accessible on the Internet in authoritative scholarly digital editions, and computational tools could therefore be used to relieve scholars of the human labor previously needed to prepare and collect the data necessary for studies in quantitative versification, and to perform the analysis. To the extent that the data preparation and analysis proceed algorithmically, intermediate results can be saved and examined, and the entire process can be replicated and verified.</p>
            <p>The principal limitation to using available poetic texts for this purpose has been that the place of stress in words, which in Russian is not predictable without linguistic knowledge and which is not part of standard orthographic practice, must be known before the orthographic representation can be converted algorithmically to a useful phonetic representation, which is, in turn, a prerequisite for identifying meter and rhyme automatically. To address this need, the authors have built a network of tools, all freely available as web services, that automate this process as much as possible. The system begins with a full-text dictionary of Russian, consisting of approximately 100,000 headwords with all inflected forms, including information about the place of stress, which can be accessed through an API to add stress information to Russian-language texts in natural, native orthography. The stressed texts can be used for other purposes (such as in readers for language learners), but our principal goal was that they could then serve as input into API-driven web services that are capable of producing descriptive statistics and visualizations of the metrical patterns in individual poetic texts and in corpora. These integrated resources thus serve as a workstation for the formal and quantitative exploration of Russian versification in a way that is consistent with current best practice for research data management. All web services are publicly accessible, and all data and other materials are available under a Creative Commons license.</p>
            <p>There are other tools and services that address some of the same issues as our system, but none that enables users to process their own texts by means of a convenient pipeline of API-enabled web services that can convert corpora of texts in native Russian orthography into tagged output, descriptive statistical reports, and visualizations. Furthermore, our innovative two-pass methodology enables us to use regularities in the poetic structure to compensate for lacunae in the dictionary; the ambient meter that emerges on a first pass in the case of metrically regular poetry can be used, in a second pass, to infer the place of stress for words that either are not in the dictionary or return ambiguous results. The feedback portion of our system that corrects for lacunae and ambiguities does presuppose largely regular metrical and rhyme patterns, which means that this component of the system performs most reliably, effectively, and usefully with the largely regular syllabotonic verse that dominates Russian poetry from the beginning of the 19th well into the 20th century. We also note, in response to early reader comments, that although the Russian National Corpus (RNC) provides a poetry subcorpus that purports to be able to return metrical information, in fact the RNC output merely layers the predetermined dominant metrical scheme of a poem on top of the text without regard to actual linguistic stress phenomena, which means that the output is of no value for determining which potential (metrical) stresses are realized (linguistically) and which were not.</p>
            <p>Our conference presentation will illustrate the use of the system to answer types of research questions that are common in Russian versification studies, involving synchronic and diachronic properties and regularities of poets, periods, and forms and styles of poetry. In particular, metrical analyses have produced the concept of ‘semantic halo’, a term coined by Mikhail Gasparov to describe intertexual meanings conventionally associated with a given meter. This is an observation enabled by a form of close reading performed numerous times, and because these observations of verse have by necessity been made by counting by hand, sample sizes have thus far been limited. The poetic canon is small enough that counting manually is feasible; however, scansion by hand could not begin to account for the large body of amateur and pulp poetry written from the mid-19th century onward, or the extent to which this poetry does or does not reflect conclusions drawn from analyses of major 19th- and 20th-century poets.</p>
            <p>While the obscurity of most of these authors means their works remain undigitized, there is an ever-growing body of poetry published digitally. For example, there are more than 30,000 poems self-published by members of the online journal 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Poeziia.ru</hi>. A corpus of this size offers the opportunity to elucidate the relationship of the larger population of those who consume and produce poetry with the poetic canon and contemporary critically acclaimed poets. With large-scale data about the use of meter, rhythm, and characteristic vocabulary, our research questions address the extent to which metrical semantic halos operate in this corpus and the extent to which they reflect patterns of readership and influence from the canon. What kinds of semantic halos are rarified phenomena, and which are more universally accepted as verse norms?
            </p>
            <p>References</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Belyj, A.</hi> (1929). Ritm kak dialektika i ‘Mednyj vsadnik’. Federacija, Moscow.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Friedberg, N.</hi> (2011). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">English Rhythms in Russian Verse: On the Experiment of Joseph Brodsky. </hi>Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs 232. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Gasparov, M. L.</hi> (1984). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Očerk istorii russkogo stixa. Metrika, ritmika, rifma, strofika.</hi> Nauka, Moscow.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Scherr, B. P.</hi> (1986). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Russian Poetry: Meter, Rhythm, and Rhyme.</hi> University of California Press, Berkeley.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Shaw, J. T.</hi> (1993). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Pushkin’s Poetics of the Unexpected: The Nonrhymed Lines in the Rhymed Poetry and the Rhymed Lines in the Nonrhymed Poetry. </hi>Slavica, Columbus, OH.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Taranovski, K.</hi> (1953). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ruski dvodelni ritmovi.</hi> Srpska akademija nauka, Belgrade.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">2. Making Visible the Invisible: Metrical Patterns, Contrafacture, and Compilation in a Medieval Castilian Songbook</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Del Rio Riande, G., Martínez Cantón, C. and González Blanco-García, E. </p>
            <p>ReMetCa, Digital Repertoire on the Metrics of the Medieval Castilian Poetry (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Repertorio Métrico Digital de la Poesía Medieval Castellana</hi>) is an online, free-access digital tool designed to undertake simultaneous complex searches on the metrical and rhyming patterns of Medieval Castilian poetry (starting from the late-12th-century epics to the poetry of the 16th-century Castilian 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Cancioneros</hi>). ReMetCa is part of the corpus of online digital resources on Medieval Romance poetry, alongside such others as the ones related to Galician-Portuguese (MedDB, The Oxford Cantigas de Santa Maria Database), French (BedTrouveres, Nouveau Naetebus), and Occitan and Catalonian poetry (BedT, Corpus des Trobadours). The research project that sustains ReMetCa aims to integrate traditional studies of philology (especially those pertaining to metrics) with digital humanities, revising and classifying the Castilian corpus in a hybrid digital framework that embeds TEI-Verse module tags in a relational database that works altogether with a controlled vocabulary on Medieval Castilian poetry.
            </p>
            <p>One interesting case of study that illustrates the topic of the panel is our digital approach to the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Cancionero de Baena</hi>, a large songbook containing almost 600 poems transcribed and compiled in the first half of the 15th century by Juan Alfonso de Baena, scribe of the court of King Juan II of Castile. The data retrieved from the tagging and classification of the metrical and rhyming patterns of a large section of Baena’s songbook—the one regarding the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">antiquiores </hi>or the eldest poets, and those that composed their texts mainly in the second half of the 14th century—yielded interesting results in the area of the Hispanic studies devoted to metrics. On the one hand, we discovered that the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">antiquiores </hi>composed a large part of their poems using a pattern almost unknown by their predecessors, the Galician-Portuguese troubadours: the octosyllabic 
                <hi rend=""italic"">octava </hi>(eight-lined stanza, lines of eight syllables that may sometimes be isometric or heterometric). This pattern was shaped in a body of four stanzas (
                <hi rend=""italic"">glosa</hi>) with rhymes structured in a singular pattern (
                <hi rend=""italic"">rimas singulares</hi>) and words stressed on the penultimate syllable (
                <hi rend=""italic"">rima grave </hi>or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">femenina</hi>). Furthermore, we were able to identify some groups or cycles of poems composed on the basis of the metrical and rhyming imitation or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">contrafacture </hi>(→ 4x8@8) (Spanke, 1928; Marshall, 1980; Rossell, 2000).
            </p>
            <p>It was the theoretical organization of the XML markup as a discursive system (Jockers and Flanders, 2013), which we used to shape an ontology framework (available at http://www.purl.org/net/remetca and http://datahub.io/dataset/remetca-ontology), that in practice helped us to move from the descriptive to the connotative dimension, thus making visible the invisible. Apart from using the expected TEI-verse attributes such as @met for our schemes based on the number of syllables of each line and on the number of lines (e.g., 8,8,8,8), and @rhyme for the rhyming structure of the stanzas (e.g., abba), there were some new attributes that did not exist in the TEI-Verse module and that we decided to add to our XML schema: @asonancia, an attribute that indicates the two possible values of the rhyming typology: ‘asonante’ (which means that only vowel sounds are repeated) and ‘consonante’ (which means that every sound after the stressed syllable is repeated); @unisonancia, which takes the values of ‘unisonante’ or ‘singular’ and shows whether the same rhyming scheme (e.g., abba) is repeated in different stanzas or not; and @isometrismo, which states whether all the stanzas have the same number of syllables (isométrico) or not (heterométrico). It was the joint work of all these attributes that retrieved the metrical and rhyming patterns and led us to those new results. In addition to this, the whole analysis of the corpus resulted in an unexpected fact: Juan Alfonso de Baena may have organized and compiled the texts of the different poets in his songbook guided not only by chronological order but also following metrical patterns and types of stanza.</p>
            <p>With the help of our digital tool we will illustrate possible contrafactures, common metrical and rhyming patterns, and cycles of poems in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">antiquiores</hi>’ corpus, and give an account of more complex definitions. The examples will also serve as an opportunity to cast our eyes again on the macro-microanalysis (Jockers, 2013; Jockers and Flanders, 2013; Liu, 2014) and data-text (Marche, 2012) debates in the field of literary studies and the concepts of close-distant reading (Moretti, 2013; Latour, 2014) and relate them to a subject of study that is interested in formal patterns (and not as much in content) and acquires new meaning when compared through large corpora: metrics.
            </p>
            <p>References</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Asperti, S., Zinelli, F., et al.</hi> (n.d.). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">BedT, Bibliografia Elettronica dei Trovatori</hi>. www.bedt.it.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Brea, M., et al.</hi> (n.d.). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">MedDB: Base de datos da Lírica profana Galego-Portuguesa</hi>. http://www.cirp.es/bdo/med/meddb.html.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">González-Blanco, E., et al.</hi> (n.d.). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ReMetCa: Repertorio Métrico Digital de la Poesía Medieval Castellana</hi>. www.remetca.uned.es.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M. L.</hi> (2013). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History</hi>. University of Illinois Press.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M. L. and Flanders, J.</hi> (2013). A Matter of Scale. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1106&amp;context=englishfacpubs.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Latour, B.</hi> (2014). Opening plenary, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014 (DH2014)</hi>, http://dh2014.org/videos/opening-night-bruno-latour/.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Liu, A.</hi> (2014). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Laws of Cool: Knowledge Work and the Culture of Information</hi>. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Marche, S.</hi> (2012). Literature Is Not Data: Against Digital Humanities. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Los Angeles Review of Books</hi>, http://www.lareviewofbooks.org/article.php?id=1040&amp;fulltext=1.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Marshall, J. H.</hi> (1980). Pour l’étude des 
                <hi rend=""italic"">contrafacta </hi>dans la poésie des troubadours. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Romania </hi>CI, pp. 289–335.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2013). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Distant Reading</hi>. Verso, London.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Parkinson, S., et al.</hi> (n.d.). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Oxford Cantigas de Santa Maria Database</hi>. http://csm.mml.ox.ac.uk/.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Rossell, A.</hi> (2000). Intertextualidad e intermelodicidad en la lírica medieval. In Bagola, B. (ed.), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">La Lingüística española en la época de los descubrimientos: Actas del Coloquio en honor del profesor Hans-Josef Niederehe, Tréveris 16 a 17 de Junio de 1997</hi>. Hamburg: Helmut Buske, pp. 149–56.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Seláf, L.</hi> (n.d.). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Le Nouveau Naetebus. Répertoire des poèmes strophiques non-lyriques en langue française d’avant 1400</hi>. www.nouveaunaetebus.elte.hu.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Spanke, H.</hi> (1928). Das öftere Aufreten von Strophenformen und Melodien in der altfranzösichen Lyrik. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Zeitschrift für französichen sprache und Literatur,</hi> 51, pp. 73–117.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">3. Using Bioinformatic Algorithms to Analyze the Politics of Form in Modernist Urdu Poetry</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Pue, A. S., Teal, T. K. and Brown, C. T.</p>
            <p>This paper has two aims. First, it shows how the authors—a humanist and two computational biologists—adapted graph-based algorithms used in genome assembly and multiple sequence analysis to scan the meter of Urdu poetry. Second, applying these techniques to modernist free-verse poetry of the early 1940s, the paper argues that data-rich analysis of poetic meter offers humanistic insights into the politics of literary form.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">3.1 Adapting Bioinformatic Algorithms to Scan Classical Urdu Poetic Meters</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">3.1.1 Metrical Overview</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The meter of Urdu poetry is quantitative, based on length rather than qualitative stress. The traditional theory of prosody, called 
                <hi rend=""italic"">’urūz</hi>, describes these meters following the metrical system devised for Arabic by al-Khalīl Ibn Ah-mad of Basra (b. 718 CE). The meter can be described as moraic, consisting of ‘long’ and ‘short’ metrical ‘syllables’ arranged, in classical poetry, into metrical feet in particular combinations. Pronunciation plays a primary role in determining these metrical syllables, though orthography must also be taken into account in certain situations. The determination of ‘long’ and ‘short’ syllables follows particular rules. There is also considerable flexibility, as certain word-final long vowels can be long or short, metrical syllables can be formed across word boundaries, and additional short syllables can be inserted at particular locations (Pybus, 1924; Pritchett and Khaliq, 1997; Deo and Kiparsky, 2011). 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">3.1.2 Interdisciplinary Analogy</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The authors found a productive analogy, which reached across their respective disciplines, between the workflow of computational scansion and the central dogma of biology. In this sequential transfer of information, DNA 
                <hi rend=""italic"">replicates </hi>and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">transcribes </hi>into messenger RNA (mRNA), which 
                <hi rend=""italic"">parses </hi>into RNA codons, and finally 
                <hi rend=""italic"">translates </hi>into particular proteins.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""11.98386111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Interdisciplinary analogy.</p>
            <p>Computational scansion involves a similar process. The first stage is the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">replication </hi>of the Urdu text into its transliterated form, which shows additional information about the source text, most notably short vowels, required for metrical scansion. Next, in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">transcription </hi>the transliteration converts into metrical components, such as consonants, short vowels, and long vowels. Through 
                <hi rend=""italic"">parsing</hi>, the metrical components are grouped into short and long metrical syllables. Finally, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">translation </hi>renders those grouped components as a particular scansion, which can be described as a combination of long (=) and short (-) metrical syllables divided into feet or as a meter (
                <hi rend=""italic"">bahr</hi>) named according to traditional Urdu prosody.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">3.1.3 Adapted Graph Theory</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Urdu meter is combinatorially explosive, leading quickly to hundreds or thousands of possibilities. The authors adapted graph theory, commonly used in ‘next generation’ sequence analysis and genome assembly, in the transcription, parsing, and translation stages of this workflow.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""18.70427777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Transcription graph.</p>
            <p>During 
                <hi rend=""italic"">transcription</hi>, the transliteration is tokenized, and each token assigned a class, e.g., ‘consonant’ or ‘short vowel’. A Depth-First Search (DFS) through a directed graph determines metrical components from these tokens. Nodes correspond to tokens to be consumed. Certain edges contain constraints that must be met before reaching a terminal node, corresponding to a classified metrical component.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""11.283597222222221cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Parsing graph of a subset of classical meters.</p>
            <p>The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">parsing </hi>and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">translation </hi>stages utilize another graph, traversing which metrical components are consumed. Again, there are constraints on the edges, here to prevent certain invalid metrical combinations. This graph can consist of only acceptable, standard meters based on genre, or it can be adapted to allow for variations, as described below in the specific application to free verse. Multiple acceptable scansions may exist. The common meter can be found by requesting a union of the multiple sets of the lines’ scansions.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""15.994030555555556cm"" height=""2.014361111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. A single classical meter.</p>
            <p>In adapting the algorithms designed for classical Urdu poetry to address free-verse poetry, the authors also took a cue from bioinformatics, employing a score-based progressive algorithm commonly used in multiple sequence alignment, which seeks patterns despite frame shifts, substitutions, and mismatches to determine the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">parsing </hi>graph appropriate for particular free-verse poems.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""11.98386111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 5. Sequence alignment and free verse.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">3.2 Metrical Analysis and the Politics of Modernist Literary Form</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Urdu poetry can usually be understood by speakers of the closely related, and mutually intelligible, South Asian language of Hindi, even while it retains a distinct vocabulary and meter as well as script. As noted above, poetry in Urdu is built primarily on the meters of Persian/Farsi, which took on the prosody of Arabic, thereby participating in a translingual Muslim poetic tradition. Borrowing moraic meters from poetry in the early-modern Braj Bhasha and classical Sanskrit, Hindi poets aligned themselves with the poetry of the Hindu devotional tradition (Dalmia, 1997; King, 1994; Rosenstein, 2002). In the 20th century, many Urdu poets were eager to modernize a literature criticized as foreign or too closely associated with the so-called misrule of the erstwhile Mughal Empire. They chose between retaining the treasured and melodious form of the Urdu and Indo-Persian ghazal, or looking away from that form and toward either English models or the meters embraced by Hindi (Pritchett, 1994). In the effort of anti-colonial nationalist movements to establish India and Pakistan in 1947, the choice of meter took on a political meaning: writers addressed different publics through the sound of their poetry. To some adherents of the ‘Two-Nation Theory’, which argued that Indian Muslims were a separate and distinct nation, the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">āhang </hi>(poetic melody) of Indo-Muslim civilization was external to the Indian soundscape. Other writers, including advocates of secular nationalism, insisted that Urdu poetry fell within a shared and distinct ‘Hindustani’ literary culture that embraced both Hindu and Muslim elements.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""3.4678055555555556cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 6. Free-verse meter (abstracted from classical meter in Figure 4).</p>
            <p>Among the latter group of authors was Sana Ullah Dar ‘Miraji’ (1912–1949), who is often described as the progenitor of a modernist Hindustani literary culture that moves beyond older Persian forms to embrace South Asian folk culture (Patel, 2002). Hindustani displaced the Persian of the Mughal Court as the official language of colonial north India. It is commonly understood as both the origin language of contemporary Urdu and Hindi and a still-existing language of common address with a primarily indigenous vocabulary (Cohn, 1996; Lelyveld, 1993). To describe Miraji’s poetry as Hindustani is to evade casting his allegiance to either of the nations founded just before the poet’s death. His most prominent critics prize how Miraji’s poetry defies the solidification of language and nation; they base their claim primarily on the poet’s choice of vocabulary common to both languages.</p>
            <p>By applying the computational techniques described above, this paper explores how the poet negotiates these language politics less in terms of word choice than in the sound of his poetry. It argues that Miraji’s innovative uses of meter are both fully transparent to his audiences and lie outside of the ideological construct of Hindustani as a ‘composite’ language. </p>
            <p>The paper examines the metrical variation in Miraji’s free-verse poetry by pitching its analysis at a formal level independently from the linguistic register. It shows how, in addition to abstracting from classical Urdu poetry, as did his modernist contemporaries, Miraji also attempted to provide an indigenous meter borrowed from poetry written before Hindi and Urdu audiences were separated by religious community. He does so by translating into Urdu prosody poetic forms from Braj Bhasha, which require certain combinations of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">guru </hi>(heavy) and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">laghu </hi>(light) metrical syllables, and by adapting into free verse the so-called Hindi meter associated most strongly with the 18th-century Urdu poet Mir Taqi Mir. This paper argues that meter itself carries meaning, and examines the rhythmic quality of language, which is among the most prized aspects of poetry in the Indian Subcontinent.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">3.3 Source and Data Dissemination</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Along with the data, the source code for metrical parsing and visualizations will be available at http://github.com/seanpue/dh2015.</p>
            <p>3.4 References</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Cohn, B.</hi> (1996). Command of Language and the Language of Command. In 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India</hi>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 16–57.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Dalmia, V.</hi> (1997). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Nationalization of Hindu Traditions: Bhāratendu Hariśchandra and Nineteenth-Century Banaras</hi>. Oxford University Press, Delhi.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Deo, A. and Kiparsky, P.</hi> (2011). Poetries in Contact: Arabic, Persian, and Urdu. In Lotman, M. and Lotman, M.-K. (eds), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Frontiers in Comparative Prosody</hi>. Bern: Peter Lang, pp. 147–72.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">King, C. R.</hi> (1994). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">One Language, Two Scripts: The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth-Century North India</hi>. Oxford University Press, New York.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Lelyveld, D.</hi> (1993). Colonial Knowledge and the Fate of Hindu-stani. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Comparative Studies in Society and History,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">35</hi>(4) (October): 665–82.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Patel, G.</hi> (2002). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Lyrical Movements, Historical Hauntings: On Gender, Colonialism, and Desire in Miraji’s Urdu Poetry</hi>. Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, CA.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Pritchett, F. W.</hi> (1994). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Nets of Awareness: Urdu Poetry and Its Critics</hi>. University of California Press, Berkeley.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Pritchett, F. and Khaliq, K. A.</hi> (1997). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Urdu Meter: A Practical Handbook</hi>. South Asian Studies. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Pybus, G. D.</hi> (1924). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Urdu Prosody and Rhetoric</hi>. Rama Krishna and Sons, Lahore.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Rosenstein, L.</hi> (2002). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Poetry in Hindi</hi>. Permanent Black, New Delhi.
            </p>
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            <p>The emerging technologies have recently challenged the libraries to reconsider their role as a mere mediator between the collections, researchers, and wider audiences (Sula, 2013), and libraries, especially the nationwide institutions like national libraries, haven’t always managed to face the challenge (Nygren et al., 2014). In the Digitization Project of Kindred Languages, the National Library of Finland has become a node that connects the partners to interplay and work for shared goals and objectives. In this paper, I will be drawing a picture of the crowdsourcing methods that have been established during the project to support both linguistic research and lingual diversity. </p>
            <p>The National Library of Finland has been executing the Digitization Project of Kindred Languages since 2012. The project seeks to digitize and publish approximately 1,200 monograph titles and more than 100 newspapers titles in various, and in some cases endangered Uralic languages. Once the digitization has been completed in 2015, the Fenno-Ugrica online collection will consist of 110,000 monograph pages and around 90,000 newspaper pages to which all users will have open access regardless of their place of residence. </p>
            <p>The majority of the digitized literature was originally published in the 1920s and 1930s in the Soviet Union, and it was the genesis and consolidation period of literary languages. This was the era when many Uralic languages were converted into media of popular education, enlightenment, and dissemination of information pertinent to the developing political agenda of the Soviet state. The ‘deluge’ of popular literature in the 1920s to 1930s suddenly challenged the lexical orthographic norms of the limited ecclesiastical publications from the 1880s onward. Newspapers were now written in orthographies and in word forms that the locals would understand. Textbooks were written to address the separate needs of both adults and children. New concepts were introduced in the language. This was the beginning of a renaissance and period of enlightenment (Rueter, 2013). The linguistically oriented population can also find writings to their delight, especially lexical items specific to a given publication, and orthographically documented specifics of phonetics. </p>
            <p>The project is financially supported by the Kone Foundation in Helsinki and is part of the Foundation’s Language Programme. One of the key objectives of the Kone Foundation Language Programme is to support a culture of openness and interaction in linguistic research, but also to promote citizen science as a tool for the participation of the language community in research. In addition to sharing this aspiration, our objective within the Language Programme is to make sure that old and new corpora in Uralic languages are made available for the open and interactive use of the academic community as well as the language societies. Wordlists are available in 17 languages, but without tokenization, lemmatization, and so on. This approach was verified with the scholars, and we consider the wordlists as raw data for linguists. Our data is used for creating the morphological analyzers and online dictionaries at the Helsinki and Tromsø Universities, for instance.</p>
            <p>In order to reach the targets, we will produce not only the digitized materials but also their development tools for supporting linguistic research and citizen science. The Digitization Project of Kindred Languages is thus linked with the research of language technology. The mission is to improve the usage and usability of digitized content. During the project, we have advanced methods that will refine the raw data for further use, especially in the linguistic research. How does the library meet the objectives, which appears to be beyond its traditional playground? </p>
            <p>The written materials from this period are a gold mine, so how could we retrieve these hidden treasures of languages out of the stack that contains more than 200,000 pages of literature in various Uralic languages? The problem is that the machined-encoded text (OCR) contains often too many mistakes to be used as such in research. The mistakes in OCRed texts must be corrected. For enhancing the OCRed texts, the National Library of Finland developed an open-source code OCR editor that enabled the editing of machine-encoded text for the benefit of linguistic research. This tool was necessary to implement, since these rare and peripheral prints did often include already perished characters, which are sadly neglected by the modern OCR software developers, but belong to the historical context of kindred languages and thus are an essential part of the linguistic heritage (van Hemel, 2014). </p>
            <p>Our crowdsourcing tool application is essentially an editor of Alto XML format. It consists of a back-end for managing users, permissions, and files, communicating through a REST API with a front-end interface—that is, the actual editor for correcting the OCRed text. The enhanced XML files can be retrieved from the Fenno-Ugrica collection for further purposes.</p>
            <p>Could the crowd do this work to support the academic research? The challenge in crowdsourcing lies in its nature. The targets in the traditional crowdsourcing have often been split into several microtasks that do not require any special skills from the anonymous people, a faceless crowd. This way of crowdsourcing may produce quantitative results, but from the research’s point of view, there is a danger that the needs of linguists are not necessarily met. Also, the remarkable downside is the lack of shared goal or the social affinity. There is no reward in the traditional methods of crowdsourcing (de Boer et al., 2012). Also, there has been criticism that digital humanities makes the humanities too data-driven and oriented towards quantitative methods, losing the values of critical qualitative methods (Fish, 2012). </p>
            <p>And on top of that, the downsides of the traditional crowdsourcing become more imminent when you leave the Anglophone world. Our potential crowd is geographically scattered in Russia. This crowd is linguistically heterogeneous, speaking 17 different languages. In many cases languages are close to extinction or longing for language revitalization, and the native speakers do not always have Internet access, so an open call for crowdsourcing would not have produced appeasing results for linguists. Thus, one has to identify carefully the potential niches to complete the needed tasks. </p>
            <p>When using the help of a crowd in a project that is aiming to support both linguistic research and survival of endangered languages, the approach has to be a different one. In nichesourcing, the tasks are distributed amongst a small crowd of citizen scientists (communities). Although communities provide smaller pools to draw resources, their specific richness in skill is suited for complex tasks with high-quality product expectations found in nichesourcing. Communities have a purpose and identity, and their regular interaction engenders social trust and reputation. These communities can correspond to research more precisely (de Boer et al., 2012). Instead of repetitive and rather trivial tasks, we are trying to utilize the knowledge and skills of citizen scientists to provide qualitative results.</p>
            <p>In nichesourcing, we hand in such assignments that would precisely fill the gaps in linguistic research. A typical task would be editing and collecting the words in such fields of vocabularies where the researchers do require more information. For instance, there is lack of Hill Mari words and terminology in anatomy. We have digitized the books in medicine, and we could try to track the words related to human organs by assigning the citizen scientists to edit and collect words with the OCR editor. </p>
            <p>From the nichesourcing’s perspective, it is essential that altruism play a central role when the language communities are involved. In nichesourcing, our goal is to reach a certain level of interplay, where the language communities would benefit from the results. For instance, the corrected words in Ingrian will be added to an online dictionary, which is made freely available for the public, so the society can benefit, too. This objective of interplay can be understood as an aspiration to support the endangered languages and the maintenance of lingual diversity, but also as a servant of ‘two masters’: research and society. </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Boer, V., et al.</hi> (2012). Nichesourcing: Harnessing the Power of Crowds of Experts. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management</hi>. Lecture Notes in Computing Science 7603. Berlin: Springer, pp. 16–20. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fish, S. </hi>(2012)
                        <hi rend=""bold"">. </hi>Mind Your P’s and B’s. The Digital Humanities and Interpretation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New York Times</hi>, 23 January 2012, http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/23/mind-your-ps-and-bs-the-digital-humanities-and-interpretation/?_r=0.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nygren, T., Foka, A. and Buckland, P. I.</hi> (2014). The Status Quo of Digital Humanities in Sweden: Past, Present and Future of Digital History
                        <hi rend=""italic"">. H-Soz-Kult</hi>, 23 October 2014, http://hsozkult.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/forum/id=2402&amp;type=diskussionen.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rueter, J.</hi> (2013). Open-Source Morphological Parsers for Uralic Minority Languages. Presentation at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Finnic Languages, Culture, and Genius Loci</hi>, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia, 7 March 2013. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sula, C. A.</hi> (2013). Digital Humanities and Libraries: A Conceptual Model. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Library Administration, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">53</hi>(1): 10–26, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01930826.2013.756680.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">van Hemel, W. </hi>(2014). OCRUI: Interface for the Correction of OCR Text Material. Presentation at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">OCR Webinar</hi>, National Library of Finland, Helsinki, 5 March 2014, http://blogs.helsinki.fi/fennougrica/2014/03/06/webinar-recap/. 
                    </bibl>
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                    <affiliation>Pennsylvania State University</affiliation>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hswe</surname>
                        <forename>Patricia</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Pennsylvania State University</affiliation>
                    <email>phswe@psu.edu</email>
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                        <surname>Long</surname>
                        <forename>Christopher P.</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Pennsylvania State University</affiliation>
                    <email>cplong@psu.edu</email>
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            <p>Computational approaches to text analysis have revolutionised the ways in which scholarly research is being conducted. A number of tools exist that help scholars, from a variety of disciplines, analyse textual data, whether literary, historical, or otherwise, using scientific methodologies. However, many of these tools are either proprietary, present a steep learning curve, or are constructed without much transparency, often leaving users with results whose means of production they do not understand. This poster will outline the development of a tool that is intuitive and completely free and open-source, so that scholars in literary studies, and indeed the broader humanities, can leverage computational methods and big data analytics in their research.</p>
            <p>Nocht</p>
            <p>Nocht (trans.: to reveal, uncover), is developed, primarily, in Python, so that it is flexible, scalable, and cross-platform. It has been developed in accordance with the following principles:</p>
            <p> • It offers users a low-barrier means of using computational approaches to text analysis.</p>
            <p> • It is designed and developed in a humanities / arts / social sciences context.</p>
            <p> • It is completely open-source, removing the ‘black-box’, closed-code issues.</p>
            <p> • It brings together existing libraries and code-sets, acting as a ‘script portal’ of sorts.</p>
            <p>At present, Nocht supports the following methodologies, though with some limitations:</p>
            <p> • Wordcount and most frequent wordlists.</p>
            <p> • Word / wordlist frequency plotting.</p>
            <p> • Syntax and sentence analysis.</p>
            <p> • Sentiment analysis.</p>
            <p> • Topic modeling.</p>
            <p> • Zeta analysis.</p>
            <p>It is hoped that Nocht will further contribute to our field’s ongoing commitment to open and sustainable research tools, complementing highly regarded projects like Voyant
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> and Stylo (Eder et al., 2013). Its name is an obvious tribute to the former, which has for so long been one of our field’s fundamental tools. It is hoped that Nocht will add further to the DH toolkit, as well as complement the ongoing work of Voyant’s creators in leveraging the iPython architecture. 
            </p>
            <p>From a technical perspective, Nocht is scalable and robust, and satisfies the needs of a wide range of scholars, many of whom wish to conduct this form of research but lack the expertise or resources to do so. In this respect, it enables scholars, both emerging and established, to engage with cutting-edge analyses across a variety of disciplines. In many cases, it draws on a series of existing libraries and proven methodologies, such as NLTK
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> and matplotlib,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> and so acts as a set of original scripts as well as a portal to existing tools. A complete technical overview of the project’s features, as well as the components utilised in its modular development, will be provided at the session. 
            </p>
            <p>Discussion</p>
            <p>This poster proposes to introduce Nocht to the field, discussing possible future development directions, as well as issues to date. Some of the disciplinary particularities identified by Gibbs and Owens (2012), such as our need to enhance the usability of our tools, will be addressed. The tension between having an intuitive interface and the need for scholarly tools to produce verifiable results is particularly clear in this project. While there is a long-established requirement that such tools be user-friendly (Krug 2005), one might argue that this must be balanced with a commitment to avoiding ‘black-box’ projects; usability does not necessarily equate to understanding. </p>
            <p>Measuring the value and success of development projects also remains problematic for scholars and practitioners working across the digital humanities. Schreibman and Hanlon’s survey (2010) finds that the majority of respondents were satisfied that their tools had been ‘successful’, enabling themselves and others to further their research. However, respondents also outlined that they had measured this success from a ‘controlled list’. As our methods continue to gain prominence beyond the core digital humanities community, we must find new metrics through which we can reliably measure the impact of our tools, not just in terms of user volumes, but in relation to the quality of research output. As a project that has sacrificed some aspects of usability and marketability in favour of broad functionality and a commitment to open principles, perhaps to its detriment, Nocht is an ideal catalyst for this debate. It is a small development with limited financial support, so it will be interesting to see if projects of this scale have a future in our discipline.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. See Stéfan Sinclair and Geoffrey Rockwell, http://voyant-tools.org/.</p>
            <p>2. Natural Language Toolkit, http://www.nltk.org/.</p>
            <p>3. matplotlib, http://matplotlib.org/.</p>
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        <back>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2013). Stylometry with R: A Suite of Tools. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts</hi>, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, pp. 487–89.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gibbs, F. and Owens, T.</hi> Building Better Digital Humanities Tools: Toward Broader Audiences and User-Centered Designs. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(2).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Krug, S.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Don’t Make Me Think! A Common Sense Approach to Web Usability</hi>. 2nd ed. New Riders Press, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schreibman, S. and Hanlon, A. M.</hi> (2010). Determining Value for Digital Humanities Tools: Report on a Survey of Tool Developers. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>(2).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2319","16","Non-hegemonic Interoperability: Towards a Global Conversation in Digital Performance Research","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Miguel</forename>
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                    <affiliation>National University of Singapore, Singapore</affiliation>
                    <email>m.escobar@nus.edu.sg</email>
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            <p rend=""CM5"">Current models of interoperability discussed in the digital humanities are premised on standardization (Grassi et al., 2013; Doerr, 2003). Working toward this level of interoperability is a praiseworthy objective that requires enormous amounts of effort. However, the problem of standardization is that it does not reflect the multiplicity of perspectives that characterize humanistic practice throughout the world. In other words, standardization often supports a hegemonic view of the humanities. Addressing this limitation is a pressing challenge for the digital humanities, which have been criticized for their lack of linguistic diversity (Galina, 2014) and for not representing oppositional, non-hegemonic views of culture (Koh and Risam, 2013; McPherson, 2012). </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">This paper suggests that the existing technology stack of semantic web applications (such as OWL ontologies and SPARQL endpoints) can be used to develop a non-hegemonic approach to interoperability in digital humanities projects. The paper focuses on theatre and performance studies but presents conclusions that are applicable to other areas of humanistic inquiry. </p>
            <p rend=""CM1"">Shared Conceptualizations?</p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">An ontology is often defined as a ‘formal, explicit specification of a shared conceptualization’ (Gruber, 1993). The ideal of a shared conceptualization is well suited to areas of science where collective efforts are aimed at constructing universal knowledge models. This explains the rapid adoption of ontologies such as the Gene Ontology Consortium (GOC), since ‘much of biology works by applying prior knowledge (“what is known”) to an unknown entity’ (Stevens et al., 2000). </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">This teleological epistemology might be ill-fitted to describe the work of scholars in the humanities. The humanities are historical and interpretive, and newer conceptual models do not disprove previous ones. Previous knowledge is not aggregated and falsified. Rather, knowledge production is the result of interpretation and disagreement. Coordinated efforts to find shared vocabularies in the humanities are laudable efforts. However, they do not take into account the atmosphere of ‘sophisticated disagreement’ (Strine et al., 1991) that is intrinsic to many aspects of humanistic practice. In the humanities, concepts are often ‘essentially contested’, as argued by W. B. Gallie (1964). </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">The essentially contested nature of concepts in the humanities is not just a methodological fine point. A multi-vocal debate in the humanities is a necessary recognition of non-normative subject positions. The progressive recognition of alternative views has been one of the main developments in the study of the humanities. As argued by Edward Said (2004), this is probably one of the main contributions from the humanities to the current world. </p>
            <p rend=""CM1"">Failed Inclusivity in Theatre and Performance Studies</p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">This paper aims to suggest ways in which semantic web technologies can be used in the development of a global, inclusive dialogue in the field of theatre and performance studies. In order to trace the contours of a truly inclusive digital scholarship in these areas, it is important to consider the criticism launched against previous attempts to create an international dialogue in theatre and performance. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">In the 1960s and 1970s intercultural theatre was presented as a creative methodology that had the potential to include and represent multiple perspectives on theatre. However, critics such as Rustom Bharucha (1993) have identified a contradiction in intercultural discourse. Although it aims to represent a set of varied perspectives, it is still premised on an essentially Western view of the world. Likewise, Paul Rae (2011) shows that most academic discourse on intercultural theatre is conducted in English and that few Western interculturalists are multilingual. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">Another example comes from performance studies and the idea of a ‘broad-spectrum approach’ (Schechner, 1988). The broad-spectrum approach aims to consider a multiplicity of practices (such as theatre, rituals, political protests, and performance art) as part of a continuum rather than as distinct categories. However, this approach betrays an Anglophone perspective. When translated into other languages, the term “performance” does not cover the same semantic space and cannot be applied to the same range of practices considered in the spectrum (Taylor, 2003). </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">The previous examples demonstrate how interculturalism and the broad-spectrum approach can be criticized for their lack of cultural and linguistic diversity. However, this argument can also be can be extended to other non-hegemonic perspectives not always represented in official histories and conceptualizations of theatre and performance. How to work towards this goal and avoid the pitfalls of these previous attempts? </p>
            <p rend=""CM1"">
                <hi rend=""bold"">An ‘Essentially Contested’ Ontology?</hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">This paper suggests that semantic web technologies can offer a possible way of ensuring a multi-vocal dialogue in theatre and performance studies. Instead of setting up standards and controlled vocabularies, the semantic web stack can be used to make data available from a multiplicity of sources (for example, with SPARQL endpoints). </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">The Web Ontology Language (OWL) can be used to specify different (even contrasting) models of intercultural theatre and different versions of a broad-spectrum classification. Perhaps different scholars and institutions can make their data and schema available by setting up independent SPARQL endpoints. Rather than trying to collapse or merge these ontologies, federated data models can be used to show a multiplicity of perspectives (cultural or otherwise). </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">Creating ontologies and linked data is becoming increasingly easy with the use of free software such as Stanford University’s Protegé and the Open Link Virtuoso Universal Server. Nevertheless, this solution has its problems. Scholars would require technical knowhow and server space. However, the entry bar for this public, global debate is perhaps much lower than the one set by the publishers regulating the previous exchanges on interculturalism and on broad-spectrum approaches to the study of performance. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">Following Lins Ribeiro’s notion of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">non-hegemonic globalization</hi> (2009), I would like to propose the concept of a non-hegemonic interoperability that would still use the semantic web stack. As Lins Ribeiro notes, non-hegemonic globalization movements also make use of established networks—for example, environmental NGOs that benefit from the same global communications network as the official institutions that support a capitalist globalization. Likewise, free or open-source tools developed for the semantic web applications can be used to foster an global, inclusive dialogue on theatre and performance research. 
            </p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""CM6"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bharucha, R.</hi> (1993). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Theatre and the World: Performance and the Politics of Culture</hi>. Routledge, New York. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM4"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Doerr, M.</hi> (2003). The CIDOC Conceptual Reference Module: An Ontological Approach to Semantic Interoperability of Metadata. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">AI Magazine,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>(3): 75.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM4"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Galina, I. </hi>(2014). Geographical and Linguistic Diversity in the Digital Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(3): 307–16.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM5"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koh, A. and Risam, A.</hi> (eds). (2013). Open Thread: The Digital Humanities as a Historical ‘Refuge’ From Race/Class/Gender/Sexuality/Disability? Postcolonial Digital Humanities: DHPoco, http://dhpoco.org/blog/2013/05/10/open-thread-the-digitalhumanities-as-a-historicalrefuge-from-raceclassgendersexualitydisability/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM5"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gallie, W. B.</hi> (1964). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Philosophy and the Historical Understanding.</hi> Schocken, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM5"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grassi, M., et al.</hi> (2013). Pundit: Augmenting Web Contents with Semantics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(4): 640–59. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM6"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gruber, T. R.</hi> (1993). A Translation Approach to Portable Ontology Specifications. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Knowledge Acquisition,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>(2): 199–220. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM6"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lins Ribeiro, G.</hi> (2009). Non-Hegemonic Globalizations: Alter-Native Transnational Processes and Agents. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Anthropological Theory,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(3): 297–329. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM5"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McPherson, T.</hi> (2012). Why Are the Digital Humanities So White? Or Thinking the Histories of Race and Computation. In Gold, M. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 139–60. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM6"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rae, Paul.</hi> (2011). In Tongues: Translation, Embodiment, Performance. In Van Der Putten, J. and Ricci, R. (eds). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Translation in Asia: Theories, Practices, Histories</hi>. Manchester: St Jerome Publishing, pp. 153–66. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM6"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Said, E.</hi> (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanism and Democratic Criticism</hi>. Columbia University Press, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM6"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schechner, R.</hi> (1988). Performance Studies: The Broad Spectrum Approach. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Drama Review,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">32</hi>(3).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM6"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stevens, R., et al. </hi>(2000). Ontology-Based Knowledge Representation for Bioinformatics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Briefings in Bioinformatics, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(4): 398–414.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM5"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Strine, M. S., Long, B. W. and Hopkins, M. F.</hi> (1991). Research in Interpretation and Performance Studies: Trends, Issues and Priorities. In Phillips, G. and Wood, J. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Speech Communication: Essays to Commemorate the 75th Anniversary of the Speech Communication Association</hi>. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Taylor, D.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Archive and the Repertoire: Performing Cultural Memory in the Americas</hi>. Duke University Press, Durham, NC. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2320","16","Novels in Context: A TEI Database of Primary Resources for Teachers, Students, and Scholars","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Howe</surname>
                        <forename>Tonya</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Marymount University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>thowe@marymount.edu</email>
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                <hi rend=""color(333333)"">In this poster presentation, I hope to share the (evolving) product of a recent grant to create a free and open-source database of curated, excerpted, and annotated primary source materials useful for the study and teaching of the 18th-century novel in English. The Novels in Context (NiC) project combines my interests in DH with my scholarship in 18th-century studies while creating a pedagogical opportunity for student-faculty research and publication. The goal of the NiC project is, most immediately, to provide an agile and accessible alternative to (1) the costly and proprietary Eighteenth-Century Collections Online, (2) the single print anthology on the subject, and (3) the free but scattered and often unreliable resources available on the Internet. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(333333)"">NiC is built on TEI-formatted XML in an eXist database, an open-source native XML platform. To ensure that the project remains free and ethically unencumbered by proprietary concerns, all the texts are transcribed and marked up individually and page images secured through library collections holding first editions. The XML is both structural and critical, including key themes and topics—this is primarily in anticipation of the time when NiC can incorporate MALLET topic modeling and other modes of visualization. The project will incorporate an editorial board to publish user contributions more broadly, including student-faculty collaborations. In the long term, I hope to create a portable platform that instructors can use to generate coursepacks of quality, reliable material (headnotes, reading questions, and so on) that could potentially stand in for the ubiquitous, proprietary, and costly textbook, engaging students in a broader conversation about intellectual property and the public good. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(333333)"">NiC is currently in the working prototype phase, and a copy of the current build is available for technical collaboration on GitHub (</hi>https://github.com/tonyahowe/NiC
                <hi rend=""color(333333)"">); I am also eager to find collaborators among the world of coders, scholars, and teachers of literature.</hi>
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"2321","16","Old Traces, New Links: Representation of Taiwan Baotu in OpenStreetMap","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Jheng-Peng</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan; National Taiwan University of Technology and Science, Taipei, Taiwan, Taiwan, Republic of China</affiliation>
                    <email>marchuang41@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Liu</surname>
                        <forename>Hao-Syong</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan</affiliation>
                    <email>kumahl@gate.sinica.edu.tw</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Liao</surname>
                        <forename>Hsiung-Ming</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan</affiliation>
                    <email>veevee@gate.sinica.edu.tw</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Chuang</surname>
                        <forename>Tyng-Ruey</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan</affiliation>
                    <email>trc@iis.sinica.edu.tw</email>
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                    <term>digital reproduction</term>
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                    <term>digital archive</term>
                    <term>OpenStreetMap</term>
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                <head>What Is Old Is New Again</head>
                <p>There are various approaches to digital reproductions of old artifacts. One typical approach, for example, is to make a careful scan of a rare book to preserve the book’s look and feel in high-resolution images. Other approaches, however, aim to extract as much as information from the artifacts in order to be processed by machines. Such an approach will instead convert (manually, automatically, or by a mix of manual and semi-automatic procedures) the content of a book into pure text so that it can be indexed and text-mined by computers. The digital representation of an old book is its computer text. Such a representation opens up opportunities for further reuse (e.g., audio books, hyperlinked pages, machine-translated scripts, etc.). </p>
                <p>When working on old maps, researchers can take the latter approach: One can strike to retrace the contours and elements depicted in the maps and convert them into interlinked digital objects. Old routes in ancient atlases become road networks in online maps supported by GIS (Geographic Information Systems). We can then make travel plans as if we were living in the past by using information extracted from the old maps. The routes, however, can be calculated with the help of computer algorithms. A well-known autography can be taken apart and its essentials re-created by repurposing modern-day social network services. Researchers and students can now indulge in an interactive chronology of the people, social circles, and events described in the book.</p>
                <p>This short paper is a preliminary report of our experience in using OpenStreetMap to digitize and put online a small portion of Taiwan Baotu. OpenStreetMap is both a grassroots, collaborative effort in global map-making, and a reliable web map service that is free for all to use (Ramm et al., 2011; Haklay and Weber, 2008). We modify and reuse the software behind the OpenStreetMap’s web map service and apply it to geospatial data digitized from old maps. We hope that what we do will come to exemplify a new approach to represent and repurpose old maps; we aim to create online resources from ancient maps where old traces become new links. Further, the links can be collaboratively added and forged when such online resources are shared and reused.</p>
                <p>Note that OpenStreetMap has also been adapted for other purposes. In many of these cases, datasets from elsewhere are overlaid over OpenStreetMap, and it becomes convenient to browse them as themed annotations attached to a certain geographic area of interest. Often the online OpenStreetMap service is used as the source of the background map; this necessarily generates a modern map of the area (Amat et al., 2014). Such an overlaying method is frequently applied to other web mapping services as well, so that online maps enriched with collections of cultural objects (in the forms of digital images, web links, etc.) can be viewed and shared by many (Presner et al., 2014). In this work, instead, we give new lives to old maps so that they can be the background maps, be interacted with, and be enriched with other datasets. However, as OpenStreetMap depends on the use of precise geospatial coordinates, our approach is accordingly limited in its applicability to ancient maps that cannot be recoded using modern coordinate systems.</p>
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            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Why Taiwan Baotu?</head>
                <p>The Taiwan Baotu is a set of 457 topographic maps covering a major part of Taiwan. Each map is 1:20000 scaled. It was produced in 1904 when Taiwan was under Japanese rule. The collection was first published in 1906; another edition with redacted place names was released in 1920. Taiwan Baotu was derived from the output of an island-wide land survey, but had also incorporated other types of geographic information. The maps illustrate administration areas with their detailed boundaries. They contain place names, as well as land-use, transportation, landmark, and other information about Taiwan in the early 1900s.</p>
                <p>At Academia Sinica, Taiwan Baotu was previously scanned as high-quality images. These images are available as online services from which they can be used together with other map images. Like most web-based map collections, they are delivered as map tiles to user browsers to be examined. Intrinsic details in Taiwan Baotu, such as administrative boundaries and place names, are not available as machine-processable datasets. Parts of the Taiwan Baotu had also been digitized using GIS software package. The traced contours of the maps are stored as layers of vector data (in the Shapefile format, to be exact). As such, they can be visualized and analyzed by various GIS software, but such activities cannot be easily performed and coordinated over the Web.</p>
                <p>As we have been participating in a multidisciplinary project relating to the Taijiang Inner Sea Area (Tainan, Taiwan), we aim to represent Taiwan Baotu as a web of interlinked resources upon which researchers can further enrich and collaborate with one another. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>OpenStreetMap as Infrastructure</head>
                <p>OpenStreetMap is a mass collaboration on mapping the world as it is now. We aim to learn from its success and use its technical infrastructure to represent the Taijiang Inner Sea Area as it was in the past. OpenStreetMap probably is best known for its practices and tools for collaborative map-making. In our work, we have not used much of the collaborative part of OpenStreetMap but rely on its underlying sub-system for map rendering, tile serving, and overlapping. To represent Taiwan Baotu in OpenStreetMap, we first took as input an existing collection of Shapefile layers. We renewed, merged, and converted these layers into new datasets following the OpenStreetMap data format. </p>
                <p>An OpenStreetMap system is built upon a collection of open-source software packages: a database for storing map data, a rendering system for converting data into map tiles, and a tile server. The tile server responds dynamically to a user’s request for the map of a certain area and of a particular scale. OpenStreetMap software is released under free/open-source software (FOSS) licenses; everyone can freely use and modify the software to serve one’s needs (as long as the software license is respected). This means that the experiments we have done with Taiwan Baotu with OpenStreetMap can be reproduced and validated by others; the experience can be shared in the research community (which is not true if proprietary software or a proprietary service is used). </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Taiwan Baotu in OpenStreetMap</head>
                <p>Our current work focuses on Redrawing Taiwan Baotu, converting map data for use in OpenStreetMap, and providing an interactive layer on top of Taiwan Baotu in OpenStreetMap. These can be applied to any historical maps with definite geospatial coordinates.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic n=""1001"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""8.598958333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
                </figure>
                <p>Figure 1. Redrawing maps in QGIS.</p>
                <p>First, QGIS is chosen as the tool to redraw the historical maps (see figure 1). The redrawing is actually an iterative process: Feedback from the OpenStreetMap end will trigger editing at the QGIS end, and the data modified with QGIS is again fed to OpenStreetMap for visualization and verification. The result is saved in the ESRI Shapefile format.</p>
                <p>Second, we convert datasets from the Shapefile format to the OpenStreetMap format. We developed a program to do the conversion automatically; we also provided a web form for people to upload and convert Shapefile datasets so as to try to bridge the various gaps between the researchers and the programmers. There are several existing conversion programs, which are unable to perform this job because our datasets contain Chinese characters. Our program supports Unicode and is able to import the result directly into the OpenStreetMap database after a map dataset is converted. Once the dataset is converted, it becomes readable and editable by simple text editors. Then the OpenStreetMap service will convert map datasets into map tiles that are then sent to display in user browsers.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic n=""1002"" width=""14.393333333333333cm"" height=""8.09625cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
                </figure>
                <p>Figure 2. A comparison of a paper map and its digital representation in OpenStreetMap.</p>
                <p>Finally, we built an interactive map of Taiwan Baotu on which users can contribute data on top of the visualized map. Figure 2 shows paper and digital maps of Taiwan Baotu in the same screen. We use this platform to review the quality of the redrawn map: one can compare the difference between the paper map and the digital map. We also provide a platform for users to connect external data to the historical map on display.</p>
                <figure>
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                </figure>
                <p>Figure 3. Attaching external information to a historical map.</p>
                <p>The external data is usually a URL to an article, an image, or a video accessible over the Internet. We provide a form for users to fill in the URL of an external resource that is related to a location on map (see Figure 3).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Openness in Research and Scholarship</head>
                <p>Our method represents a workable and reproducible approach for the digital representation of historical maps where intrinsic map details are kept and opened up for reuse. As we keep much information in the maps in digital and interactive forms, these historical maps become more helpful for the historians, researchers, teachers, students, and others who are interested in the maps and wish to contribute to the development of digital humanities. Recent research and observation about research data sharing and reuse (of which maps are but one category) shows that open scholarship is the norm. Formal and informal scholarly communication (sharing and reusing map data offer one example) is converging, and open access to data is a paradigm shift (Amat et al., 2014). Our methods are small but concrete steps to open up historical maps for better sharing and reuse.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Amat, G., Fernandez, J., Arranz, Á. and Ramos, A.</hi> (2014). Using OpenStreetMaps Data and Tools for Indoor Mapping in a Smart City Scenario. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">17th AGILE International Conference on Geographic Information Science</hi>, Castellón, June.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Borgman, C. L.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarship in the Networked World: Big Data, Little Data, No Data</hi>. Oliver Smithies Lecture, Balliol College, Oxford, June. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Haklay, M. and Weber, P.</hi> (2008). OpenStreetMap: User-Generated Street Maps. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Pervasive Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(4) (October–December): 12–18. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Presner, T. S., Shepard, D. and Kawano, Y.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">HyperCities: Thick Mapping in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramm, F., Topf, J. and Chilton, S.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">OpenStreetMap: Using and Enhancing the Free Map of the World</hi>. UIT Cambridge. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                        <surname>Quamen</surname>
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                    <affiliation>University of Alberta, Canada</affiliation>
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                        <surname>Bouchard</surname>
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                    <email>matt.bouchard@gmail.com</email>
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                        <surname>Keenan</surname>
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            <p>Every spring, fans of the National Football League gather around televisions and websites to watch their favourite teams draft the most promising young players from the college and university ranks. A few decades ago, the NFL Draft was a closed-door affair held in a nondescript hotel conference room, but today the annual draft fills New York City’s Radio City Music Hall to capacity and the spectacle attracts as many television viewers as baseball’s World Series (Kaboly, 2013). It has even prompted a recent Hollywood movie: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Draft Day</hi>, starring Kevin Costner. What sabermetrics and the movie 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Moneyball</hi> did for baseball is now clearly happening to football as well (Lewis, 2004). The NFL draft is a pop culture extravaganza that gives DH specialists the ability to take their data analytics and data visualizations outside academia. 
            </p>
            <p>The weeks and months leading up to the draft are filled with a flurry of mock drafts and finely-tiered player rankings from professionals and amateurs alike. Regardless of the format, however, fans hang on every new post as pundits like Mel Kiper, Mike Mayock, Gil Brandt, Rob Rang, and Nolan Nawrocki update their respective lists on a weekly—and sometimes even daily—basis. But how do the pundits fare? How accurately do these experts predict the top-ranked players whom teams will covet most highly? </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Methodology</hi>
            </p>
            <p>This project uses correlation analysis and data visualization to measure the accuracy of NFL draft pundits. Given that NFL teams’ individual ‘draft boards’ are top-secret affairs, the only accessible data are from the pundits themselves. But because the draft itself functions like a marketplace—the more highly valued players will be selected first—we can use a simple tool like Pearson’s correlation coefficient (colloquially known as ‘Pearson’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">r</hi>’) to calculate how accurately a pundit’s ranking of top players matches the draft’s actual progression. Calculating and graphing Pearson’s
                <hi rend=""italic""> r</hi> at every draft pick yields not only a clear visualization of the best and worst pundits, but also how their accuracy increases or decreases as the draft progresses. 
            </p>
            <p>This poster evaluates the performances of 32 different pundits in last year’s 2014 NFL draft. Although the draft itself consists of 256 selections distributed across seven rounds, not all pundits rank enough players to cover all seven rounds. A few pundits predict only the top 32 players—the elite players to be chosen in the first round—while a few sources grade 500 or even 1,000 players. As our visualizations progress from round to round, then, many pundits drop off the charts, but the results are telling. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Results</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Although our goal was merely to measure pundits’ accuracy, these visualizations allow us to learn much more about the culture surrounding the NFL draft and about how top-secret data move through invisible channels. Visualizing multiple rounds of the draft clearly shows which pundits work independently and which have some access to one of the two official NFL scouting consortia, called BLESTO and National (Business Arena Sports, 2013; 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Finding Giants</hi>, 2014). Because official scouting information from those two consortia is private and secret, we can only infer the circuits of communication through which these lists move, but the fact that information is ‘leaked’ every year is irrefutable because we can see exactly where it surfaces. By Round 7, our visualizations even allow us to deduce which specific pundits have allegiances to which consortium. 
            </p>
            <p>In short, the results are these: </p>
            <p> • The most high-profile television pundits—ESPN’s Mel Kiper and NFL Network’s Mike Mayock—are independents who, despite their enormous popularity, have only middle-of-the-pack accuracy. Like most independent pundits, their accuracy severely plummets about 80 or 85 picks into the draft. Still, they are the most accurate of the independents. </p>
            <p> • It’s in Round 3 (about pick 100) that the independents are clearly separated from the pundits who have closer access to organizations of professional NFL scouts. Lists generated by those organizations surface in otherwise relatively quiet and low-profile venues such as news organizations like CBS Sports and data aggregators like Drafttek. </p>
            <p> • By Round 7, few independent or amateur scouts remain. The remaining pundits’ scores converge here into two very distinct groups, and our conclusion is that these pundits have access to either of the two private lists used by the NFL teams themselves. Given that pundit Rob Rang was sued in 2011 by National Scouting for violating copyright on their draft data (Business Insider, 2013), we can deduce that the pundits that cluster near Rang have access to the player rankings provided by National Scouting whereas the other group most likely represent BLESTO. </p>
            <p>References</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Brandt, G.</hi> (2014). Hot 100 + 25: Johnny Manziel, Jadeveon Clowney Lead Draft Class. Nfl.com, 24 April, http://www.nfl.com/news/story/0ap2000000343420/article/hot-100-25-johnny-manziel-jadeveon-clowney-lead-draft-class.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Business Arena Sports.</hi> (2012). NFL Scouting Foundation—Blesto &amp; National, 2 November, http:// www.businessarenasports.com/ba-blog/nfl-scouting-foundation-blesto-national. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Business Insider.</hi> (2013). Football Blogger Might Get Away with Publishing ‘Secret’ Player Grades, 16 January, http://www.businessinsider.com/copyright-claim-against-rob-rang-dropped-2013-1. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic bold"">Draft Day</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">.</hi> (2014). Dir. Ivan Reitman. Starring Kevin Costner. Summit Entertainment. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic bold"">Finding Giants.</hi> (2014). Television series. NFL Network. 30 September, http:// nflcommunications.com/2014/09/22/nfl-networks-original-series-finding-giants-provides-insidelook- into-scouting-building-the-new-york-giants/. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Kaboly, M.</hi> (2013). NFL Draft Has Become Must-See Television, 7 April, http://triblive.com/sports/steelers/3763292-74/draft-nfl-espnfiaxzz3H91nu3zA. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Kiper, M.</hi> (2014). Big Board: Top 100 Prospects. http://insider.espn.go.com/nfl/draft2014/story/_/id/ 10890085/2014-nfl-draft-jadeveon-clowney-tops-mel-kiper-final-big-board-top-100- prospects. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Lewis, M.</hi> (2004). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Moneyball</hi>. W.W. Norton, New York. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Mayock, M.</hi> 2014 NFL Draft: Mike Mayock’s Top 100 Prospects. http://www.nfl.com/news/ story/0ap2000000346744/article/2014-nfl-draft-mike-mayocks-top-100-prospects. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic bold"">Moneyball</hi>. (2011). Dir. Bennett Miller. Starring Brad Pitt. Columbia Pictures. 
            </p>
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                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""15.254111111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>Figure 1. </p>
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                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""19.76084722222222cm"" height=""19.709694444444445cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p> Figure 2.</p>
            <p>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""18.617847222222224cm"" height=""18.642541666666666cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </p>
            <p>Figure 3.</p>
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                        <surname>Verbert</surname>
                        <forename>Katrien</forename>
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                    <affiliation>KU Leuven, Belgium</affiliation>
                    <email>katrien.verbert@cs.kuleuven.be</email>
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            <p>Recent computing developments have created several visualization techniques and tools for building interactive visualizations that can be used to explore data in new ways. These techniques and tools play a central role in many novel digital humanities applications, ranging from social network visualizations to 3D models of historic buildings. </p>
            <p>In this paper, a wide range of visualizations that have been presented at the digital humanities conference 2014 (DH2014) is analyzed. The research contribution of this paper is twofold. First, an analysis of prominent research in this domain is presented, focusing on the following research questions: </p>
            <p> • RQ1: Which visualization techniques are used by current prototypes and systems? </p>
            <p> • RQ2: Which interaction techniques are supported by current prototypes and systems? </p>
            <p> • RQ3: How are visual approaches to digital humanities research evaluated?</p>
            <p> Second, based on an analysis of existing applications that were presented at DH2014, opportunities for future research in this area are outlined. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Analysis of Visual Approaches in the Digital Humanities </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">RQ1: Which visualization techniques are used by current prototypes and systems? </hi>Out of all DH14 contributions, 58 presentations report on significant work on the use of visualizations. Fifteen techniques for different data types are deployed 74 times (see Figure 1): 
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">1-dimensional: </hi>Word clouds (four occurrences) and histograms (three occurrences) are used to represent 1-dimensional data. Word clouds and histograms are, for instance, used to understand the main themes. 
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">2-dimensional: </hi>Scatterplots (one occurrence) and timelines (four occurrences) are typical examples of data that are represented on two dimensions. 
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Multi-dimensional: </hi>3D models are used by 12 out of 58 applications. In most cases, these 3D models render historic buildings to support virtual exploration. Geographic maps are also commonly used (13 occurrences). In all cases, a third variable is represented in addition to longitude and latitude data to support data analysis. The size of a dot on a map and different colors are, for instance, used to represent the number of occurrences of entity types in their geographic context. Parallel coordinates and infographics have the potential to represent more than three dimensions—but are not used often. An example of the use of parallel coordinates is represented in Figure 3 and enables exploration of correlations or trade-offs between more than two variables. 
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Relations: </hi>Most common are uni- or bi-directional relations represented by graphs. Graphs are present in 23 out of 58 prototypes. Other relations are less common and include hierarchical relations represented by trees, relations between sets represented by a cluster map, Sankey diagrams, matrices, and heatmaps. 
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Animations: </hi>Three out of 58 applications employ animation techniques to enhance understanding of complex data. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
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                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""13.402027777777779cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
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            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""OLE_LINK1""/>Figure 1. Visualization techniques used by work presented at DH14.
            </p>
            <p>RQ2: Which interaction types are supported by current prototypes and systems? </p>
            <p>For analyzing the level of interactivity, Yi et al.’s classification (2007) of interaction types was used. Out of the 58 presentations, 35 visualizations are interactive. Twenty-three presentations represent a static visualization, or a visualization at a conceptual level without specifying the level of interactivity. Of interest for this analysis are the 35 visualization prototypes that implement interaction. Figure 2 presents the interaction types that are supported: </p>
            <p> • The most common interaction type is 
                <hi rend=""italic"">abstract/elaborate </hi>that enables users to show more or less detail in a visualization. An example is a drill-down operation in a tree representation that allows the user to examine a particular sub-tree. A zooming operation to see part of a geographic map in more detail is another interaction technique that is supported by many prototypes. Another common example is a tool-tip interaction technique that provides detailed information when a mouse cursor hovers over a data item. These interactions have been defined as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">details-on-demand </hi>operations. Abstract/elaborate interactions are supported by 35 out of 58 prototypes that implement visualizations. 
            </p>
            <p> • A second common interaction type is an 
                <hi rend=""italic"">explore </hi>operation. Such operations enable the user to see a different subset of the data in the visual representation. A typical explore operation is a panning action that enables the users to see a different part of a graph representation or a different part of a geographic map. Thirty-four out of the 35 interactive prototypes support this type of interaction. 
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Filter </hi>interaction techniques enable the user to change the set of data items that is presented based on specific conditions. Data items not satisfying the condition are hidden or shown differently. Sliders to specify a range of dates and check boxes to filter categorical data are typical examples. Some visualizations use input boxes to filter data elements such as names through keyboard interaction. Fifteen out of 35 interactive prototypes provide filter operations. Such interactions are key when working with large datasets and enable users to refine research questions on the fly. 
            </p>
            <p> • One prototype uses an 
                <hi rend=""italic"">encode </hi>interaction technique to enable users to show a different representation. Figure 3 presents an example of a visualization that enables users to select a different representation technique (table, graph, etc.) to analyze data. 
            </p>
            <p> • To the best of our knowledge, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">reconfigure </hi>interactions that enable users to see a different arrangement, such as different variables on the X- and Y-axis of a scatterplot, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">connect </hi>interactions, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">select/focus </hi>interactions to mark information are not supported. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""14.109347222222222cm"" height=""7.125222222222222cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Interactions supported by DH14 applications. </p>
            <p>RQ3: How are visual approaches to digital humanities research evaluated? </p>
            <p>Most contributions presented at DH14 present proof-of-concept prototypes that implement research ideas in prototypes or full systems. These prototypes or systems are then used by the authors to answer specific research questions. Only four out of 58 applications have been evaluated in case studies to assess their value for other researchers. In these case studies, applications have been made available to target users who have used the applications to conduct a research task. Such case studies provide valuable insight into the usefulness and usability of different visualization and interaction techniques. </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
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                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""12.537722222222222cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Visualization to interpret biographies (Booth and Martin, 2014)</p>
            <p>Conclusion </p>
            <p>In this paper, visualization and interaction techniques in visual applications presented at DH14 have been analyzed. From this analysis, a few take-away messages and opportunities for future research can be highlighted: </p>
            <p> 1. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Visualization techniques (RQ1). </hi>DH applications employ a wide variety of visualization techniques. An earlier study by Montague et al. (2014) identified 
                <hi rend=""italic"">trees, histograms, graphs, word clouds,</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">scatter plots </hi>as key visualization techniques to support text mining analysis. Results of our study identify a broader range of visualization techniques that have been applied successfully in digital humanities prototypes, beyond the scope of text analysis. Our analysis indicates that 
                <hi rend=""italic"">graphs</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">geographic maps,</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">3D models </hi>are the most prominent techniques. Trees, histograms, word clouds, and scatter plots are also employed, although less often. In general, our analysis identifies a wide variety of techniques that have been used successfully, including advanced multidimensional techniques such as parallel coordinates. 
            </p>
            <p> 2. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Interaction techniques (RQ2). </hi>A subset of 35 out of 58 applications employs interaction techniques to enable users to drive the analysis. Most common are 
                <hi rend=""italic"">abstract/elaborate </hi>techniques that enable users to retrieve details on demand. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Explore </hi>interactions are also common in interactive prototypes. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Filter </hi>operations are key when dealing with large data collections and enable retrieval of a subset of the data that is relevant. Such interactions are supported by 15 prototypes. Other interactions that enable users to choose different data types (
                <hi rend=""italic"">reconfigure</hi>) or different representation methods (
                <hi rend=""italic"">encode</hi>) are not used often: such techniques are more advanced, and can play a role in interactive interfaces that support data analysis from different perspectives. The use of such techniques to steer visual data analysis processes constitutes a further line of research. 
            </p>
            <p> 3 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Evaluation (RQ3). </hi>Our analysis indicates that case studies that evaluate the usefulness and usability of visualization techniques to support digital humanities are still rare. Four out of 58 prototypes have been evaluated in significant case studies. Whereas such case studies have been identified as key to gain insight into actual use of visualization techniques, only a limited number of research contributions report on insights derived from such studies. Results of our own work indicate that case studies are key to identifying suitable visualization and interaction techniques: a cluster map technique to represent relations turned out to be complex for novice users, whereas a traditional Venn diagram was more successful in a case study that we conducted with researchers. Similar experiments are needed to gain insight into the merits and drawbacks of representation and interaction techniques, and how they can be successfully deployed in useful applications. 
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Booth, A. and Martin, W. </hi>(2014). An XML Schema to Interpret Networked Biographies: Reading Mid-Range. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Digital Humanities 2014</hi>, http://dharchive.org/paper/DH2014/Paper-823.xml.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">DH2014. </hi>(2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014 Conference</hi>. http://dh2014.org/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Montague, J. J., Rockwell, G., Ruecker, S., Sinclair, S., Brown, S., Chartier, R., Frizzera, L. and Simpson, J. </hi>(2014). Seeing the Trees and Understanding the Forest. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Digital Humanities 2014</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Yi, J. S., ah Kang, Y., Stasko, J. T. and Jacko, J. A. </hi>(2007). Toward a Deeper Understanding of the Role of Interaction in Information Visualization. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">13</hi>(6): 1224–31. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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                        <surname>Antonijevic</surname>
                        <forename>Smiljana</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Illinois Institute of Technology, United States of America</affiliation>
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            <p>This paper addresses organizational practices and activities of digital humanities centers (DHC). The paper draws on an ethnographic study conducted from 2010 to 2013. Through case studies, surveys, interviews, and observations, the study explored how scholars engage with and think about digital research tools and methods, analyzed teams developing digital research tools, and observed organizational practices related to DHCs. The fieldwork was carried out at twenty-three educational, research, and funding institutions in the United States and Europe, and it involved 258 participants including researchers, faculty, students, administrators, librarians, software developers, policymakers, and funders. </p>
            <p>DHCs emerged as an academic organizational unit in the 1980s (Fraistat, 2012), representing ‘key sites for bridging the daunting gap between new technology and humanities scholars’ (Terras, 2012, 281). Over the past three decades, the number of DHCs grew, yet not as intensely and widely as humanists’ engagement with digital technologies (Zorich, 2008).</p>
            <p>DHCs analyzed in this study were founded from the early 1990s up to the present time. All centers are affiliated with research-intensive universities, have a dedicated space, and employ between five and fifteen staff members, mostly traditionally trained humanists with advanced computational skills. </p>
            <p>A significant difference among the analyzed DHCs distinguished the bottom-up versus top-down initiatives. In the top-down initiatives, university administrators sought to establish hubs of scholarly innovation, yet often without a clear sense of what that innovation entailed. For instance, one DHC featured new glass walls as a visually transparent boundary between the print and the electronic materials, while flexible workspaces with high-end technologies were designed to adjust to user needs. But while design, ergonomic, and technical features were meticulously considered, the goals for the center were given less attention: </p>
            <quote>That’s really a big question for us, what kind of services we want to offer. Are people going to know what to do? Are they going to come in, sit down, and check e-mail? [director of a DHC]</quote>
            <p>Another campus of the same university launched its DHC simultaneously, but the initiators were humanities scholars rather than the administrators. They began with a university-wide dialogue, which included humanities faculty and students, information technologists, librarians, and other stakeholders. These early conversations and comprehensive planning helped identify organizational strategies and design possibilities consistent with their goals, resulting in a well-defined mission for the new unit. </p>
            <p>A number of the analyzed DHCs aspire to support humanists’ general research and to gradually introduce scholars to digital tools and methods. These centers target the widest spectrum of humanists rather than those already versed in or inclined to using digital tools, thus bridging the critical gap between more and less technologically advanced scholars. Yet, with such a diverse user community, they sometimes struggle to profile their activities. Humanists’ interest in digital tools and methods varies as much as their skills, and addressing such a spectrum of proficiencies and needs is anything but straightforward. Some DHCs thus adopt a more precisely defined approach when establishing goals and characterizing their potential user base. However, parallel functioning of DHCs within the same institution, differentiated according to the funding sources and the target user-base, often increases fragmentation of work and user confusion.</p>
            <p>Considering the hesitation toward digital scholarship that traditionally trained humanists sometimes hold, DHCs’ outreach often involves two preparatory steps: (1) making humanists aware that they already rely on digital technologies and (2) explaining that DHCs are offering digital tools and methods rather than imposing them. The perception of digital tools and methods as ‘data crunching’ and incompatible with humanistic hermeneutics contributes to lower uptake of these technologies among humanists. DHCs play a considerable role in breaking down the complexities of those shifting epistemic practices and values. One part of the task is familiarizing humanists with the epistemological and methodological elements of the transition towards digital scholarship. Another component depends on making the transition manageable to grasp and adopt:</p>
            <quote>And I think we’ve been able to break that down into smaller steps that people can make without dumbing it down, without making it seem trivial, but really emphasizing the real shift in thinking that’s happening in the humanities, and supporting that with the technical side. [codirector of a DHC]</quote>
            <p>This study showed that humanists favor and best learn in practice, when instruction is closely related to their area of study and when it unfolds organically, through collaboration with peers or graduate students. Instead of skill-based training, humanities education in digital scholarship needs a comprehensive framework encompassing epistemological, methodological, technical, and sociocultural aspects of digital knowledge production. Furthermore, in their outreach activities, DHCs frequently stumble upon the scholars’ lack of time: </p>
            <quote>These are very busy people, and they are ultimately making choices between do they go and pay attention to our offer of a demonstration about digital tools, or do they spend that hour focusing on their own research questions. We’re competing with natural priorities in a scholar’s life. [director of a DHC]</quote>
            <p>It is therefore vital that education in digital scholarship becomes administratively recognized as part of scholars’ professional development included in their paid time and activity, as well as in their promotion dossiers.</p>
            <p>DHCs often employ hybrids—traditionally trained humanists who also have good computational skills. They are seen as a necessary link between ‘the two cultures’, who can adeptly translate epistemological and methodological concepts and approaches. ‘Smart organizations will have more of me’, remarked the head of the research and development team at one of the centers, a historian with good programming skills. The advantage of speaking both ‘programese’ and ‘scholarese’, as this interviewee put it, is the capacity to help humanists grasp digital tools and methods while helping programmers understand humanities work. </p>
            <p>DHCs have found an efficient way of employing hybrids through engaging humanities graduate students, usually early adopters of technology. Graduate students who participated in the study liked working at DHCs. It allowed them to advance their research skills and to build expertise through participation in important research and decision-making activities. The reversal of instructional roles, in which students were teaching teachers, facilitated students’ understanding of some of the didactic principles motivating them to develop their own pedagogic strategies.</p>
            <p>Hybrids as a type of scholarly workforce are linked to the concept of alternative academic careers. Participants in this study described alternative academic paths as intentional career choices scholars make. Although this choice allows scholars to continue working in their preferred field, the transition is nonetheless perceived as difficult and consequential: ‘You can’t just yank somebody out of the faculty and out of years or decades of training without some accounting for how they conceive of themselves as a scholar,’ said an associate professor of English. From the administrative point of view, thinking about people’s time and labor is an important issue DHCs need to engage with, because the inherited systems of classifying employees are not well suited to digital scholarship.</p>
            <p>Traditional organizational systems are not only inefficient for addressing contemporary issues of academic labor and knowledge production; they are also potentially detrimental to the future of scholarly work: </p>
            <quote>If we can’t get this generation of graduate students comfortable with alternate modes of work, not feeling like they are failures if they don’t get a tenure-track position, and seeing good career paths for themselves within the DH, we’re going to lose that generation of scholars. [professor of history]</quote>
            <p>Among the respondents, two related but disparate theories of the future of DHCs emerged. One suggests that digital tools and methods will progressively become a standard part of humanities research; DH should thus be seen as a transitional moment in the humanities disciplines rather than as a distinct field. Another approach held that the need for innovative work and thinking with technology in the humanities would never cease. Although the use of digital tools and methods will become increasingly mainstream, there will always be a need for research groups on the frontier of innovation. Scholars and administrators both mused about whether DHCs will be needed in the future, or whether digital scholarship will blend into existing disciplinary and departmental structures. Overall, the respondents agreed that we will see a wave of interest in DHCs, some of which will persist, while others will peak quickly, only to fade away. </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fraistat, N.</hi> (2012). The Function of Digital Humanities Centers at the Present Time. In Gold, M. K. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 181–91. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Terras, M.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Quantifying Digital Humanities</hi>. http://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/dh/2012/01/20/infographic-quantifying-digital-humanities/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zorich, D. M.</hi> (2008). Digital Humanities Centers: Loci for Digital Scholarship. In CLIR, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Working Together or Apart: Promoting the Next Generation of Digital Scholarship</hi>. Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources, pp. 70–78, http://www.clir.org/pubs/resources/promoting-digital-scholarship-ii-clir-neh/zorich.pdf. 
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                        <surname>Alex</surname>
                        <forename>Beatrice</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>balex@inf.ed.ac.uk</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Grover</surname>
                        <forename>Claire</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>grover@inf.ed.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Zhou</surname>
                        <forename>Ke</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Yahoo Labs, London</affiliation>
                    <email>zhouke.nlp@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hinrichs</surname>
                        <forename>Uta</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of St. Andrews, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>uh3@st-andrews.ac.uk</email>
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            <p>This paper reports on interdisciplinary work carried out for the Palimpsest project, focusing on mining literary works set in Edinburgh, a UNESCO City of Literature.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> The project’s aim is to use text mining to scour accessible literary works and find those mentioning Edinburgh or places within it. We ground ‘loco-specific’ passages of text by identifying their latitudes and longitudes, so that scholars and the public can both geographically explore their fictional city. Palimpsest is a collaboration between literary scholars studying the use of place in literature and computer scientists working on text mining and information visualisation. Through a range of maps and accessible visualisations, users are able to explore the spatial relations of the literary city at particular times in its history, in the works of specific authors, or across eras and writers.
            </p>
            <p>We present an overview of the project workflow and describe the assisted curation process adopted. It involves automatic retrieval and ranking of accessible literature according to its loco-specificity followed by manual selection of ranked documents, resulting in a set of literary works identified as set in Edinburgh. We report on the fine-tuning of the retrieval and ranking prototype based on literary scholar annotators’ feedback.</p>
            <p>Palimpsest</p>
            <p>Figure 1 shows the Palimpsest workflow. The input data is made of five literary document collections amounting to approximately 380,000 works, most of which are out of copyright, as well as a small set of modern books from authors who are well known for their literature being set in Edinburgh (incl. Irvine Welsh, Alexander McCall Smith, and Muriel Spark). The out-of-copyright collections are varied in content and contain literary fiction and nonfiction genres. The data is first indexed using Indri 5.6
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> and ranked using a set of 1,633 Edinburgh place name queries.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> We use the Indri inference network language model-based ranking approach (Strohman et al., 2005). The ranking score of a document is increased given certain metadata information (including a set of favoured Library of Congress codes and subject terms) or down-weighted for ambiguous Edinburgh place names. We combine the score for genre in the metadata with the location query retrieved from the content of the book. The output of the document retrieval component is a set of ranked Edinburgh-specific candidate documents per collection.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""12.962819444444444cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>This data was loaded into a web-based annotation tool for manual curation. All Edinburgh place names occurring in the document and snippets surrounding them were displayed to aid in the annotators’—three literary scholars from the School of Literature at the University of Edinburgh—decision making. The subset of works which were manually curated as Edinburgh-specific are further processed by text mining, which geo-references place names by grounding them to their latitude/longitude coordinates using the Edinburgh Geoparser (Grover et al., 2010)
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> and in particular the Edinburgh gazetteer that is being developed in Palimpsest. The output (geo-referenced location mentions and snippets) is stored in the Palimpsest database, which is accessible via web-based visualisations.
            </p>
            <p>Assisted Curation</p>
            <p>By assisted curation we refer to the process of semiautomatically curating a set of Edinburgh-specific literature from all accessible literature. Related endeavours have relied on the collection of titles, or passages, by a few individuals or via crowdsourcing (e.g., Edinburgh Reads
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> run by Edinburgh Libraries or Global Bookmap
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi>). The idea for Palimpsest arose out of an initial prototype that visualises a small set of extracts manually collected by literary scholars at the University of Edinburgh.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi> Such an approach results in high-quality data with the disadvantage of missing less well-known but potentially interesting works. In Palimpsest we consider the entire pool of accessible literature accessible to determine a subset of highly ranked Edinburgh-specific candidates automatically using location-based document retrieval. The aim is to uncover a large range of Edinburgh-specific literature, not only famous and well-read titles. Assisted curation by means of text mining alone has shown encouraging results in other domains (e.g., Kristjansson et al., 2004; Alex et al., 2008). We combine text mining and information retrieval for assisted curation and show how user feedback can improve the technical stages to this process.
            </p>
            <p>The manual annotation of the ranked candidates to select actual Edinburgh-specific literature was done using the annotation tool displayed in Figure 2. All ranked documents are displayed on the left-hand panel, listing the title of each work, the author and publication date if available, a link to the original source document, and a list of location mentions identified within the book. When clicking on a title, additional information appears in the right-hand panel, including a graph showing occurrences of place names within a document and snippets containing Edinburgh place names. Based on this information and by following the link to the original source, the annotators can determine a work as being Edinburgh-specific or not, enter further comments, and identify the start and end content pages of a document. When clicking the submit button, a document annotation is saved to the database and disappears from the panel on the left.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""12.220222222222223cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>An item can be annotated using the annotation scheme shown in Figure 3. We consider documents annotated as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">yes</hi> or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">yes (except)</hi> as Edinburgh-specific within Palimpsest.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">8</hi> The scheme was developed by the annotators while working on an initial ranking of HathiTrust documents.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">9</hi>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""15.215305555555556cm"" height=""3.9775694444444443cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>We used the HathiTrust collection (253,350 documents) to develop the retrieval and ranking component. This resulted in 20,542 ranked candidate documents containing one or more Edinburgh place names. Over a period of two weeks, the annotators curated the ranked documents in order. This resulted in 1,710 annotated documents, of which 200 were considered Edinburgh-specific literature.</p>
            <p>Initially, the annotators reacted enthusiastically to the annotation and discovered several works set in Edinburgh of which they were unaware (e.g., 
                <hi rend=""italic"">John and Betty’s Scotch History Visit</hi> or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Noctes Ambrosianae</hi>). As they worked through the documents, however, they lost trust in the ranking. They noticed relevant documents appearing far down the list and sometimes had to go through many documents to find a positive example. They also recorded a list of ambiguous place names (
                <hi rend=""italic"">High Street </hi>or
                <hi rend=""italic""> Trinity</hi>) mostly referring to other locations as well as a list of words in titles suggesting nonliterary content (
                <hi rend=""italic"">catalogue </hi>or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dictionary</hi>). Finally, they observed that most Edinburgh-specific documents contain a reference to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Edinburgh</hi> or a variant.
            </p>
            <p>Improving the Ranking</p>
            <p>Based on this feedback, we then fine-tuned the retrieval component. We used the set of 1,710 annotated works as an evaluation set to determine the effect of a modification. There is a body of research on using relevance judgments for improving information retrieval, a good summary of which appears in Manning et al. (2008). We tested the initial ranking (baseline), the following three measures and their combination:</p>
            <p> (a) Down-weighting ambiguous place names identified by the annotators.</p>
            <p> (b) Removing documents containing nonliterary title words (
                <hi rend=""italic"">catalogue</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dictionary</hi>, etc).
            </p>
            <p> (c) Ensuring that 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Edinburgh</hi> or one of its variants (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Embra</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Edinburrie</hi>, etc.) occurs in the work.
            </p>
            <p>Figure 4 shows that down-weighting of ambiguous place names (a) resulted in a small improvement in average precision (MAP) (Baeza-Yates and Ribeiro-Neto, 1999). Filtering documents with nonliterary title words (b) had the highest increase in MAP. The condition of Edinburgh or a variant to appear in the document (c) decreased MAP slightly. However, it resulted in a large decrease in the number of ranked documents, reducing the workload of the annotators significantly. We therefore consider measure (c) to be beneficial as well. When combining all three measures, the retrieval component yielded an improved MAP score of 0.1684 (compared to the baseline MAP of 0.1307), and the workload of documents to be curated was reduced by 60%.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""15.215305555555556cm"" height=""5.559777777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>The assisted curation process undertaken in Palimpsest attempts to keep the user in the loop during iterative technical development. We received useful feedback from the literary scholars on issues that appeared as they curated documents and considered their suggestions in changing the underlying methods for ranking Edinburgh-specific literature. Our results show that document retrieval performance improved and curation workload was reduced as a result. The improved method was subsequently applied to all document collections, which resulted in very positive feedback from the curators, reporting that the ranking improved considerably.</p>
            <p>Acknowledgements</p>
            <p>Palimpsest is funded by the AHRC (Digital Transformations in the Arts and Humanities—Big Data, PI: Prof. Loxley). We would like to thank Dr Anderson, Dr Otty, and Dr Thomson, who were in charge of the curation, and Dr Harris-Birtill, who helped with the data processing for the annotation tool.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. 
                <ref target=""http://palimpsest.blogs.edina.ac.uk/"">http://palimpsest.blogs.edina.ac.uk/</ref>.
            </p>
            <p>2. 
                <ref target=""http://sourceforge.net/projects/lemur/files/lemur/indri-5.6/"">http://sourceforge.net/projects/lemur/files/lemur/indri-5.6/</ref>.
            </p>
            <p>3. This includes entries appearing in at least three of five resources used to construct the Edinburgh gazetteer (OpenStreetMap, OSLocator, Royal Commission for Ancient Historic Monuments of Scotland, Historic Scotland, QuatroShapes of Edinburgh areas).</p>
            <p>4. 
                <ref target=""https://www.ltg.ed.ac.uk/software/geoparser"">https://www.ltg.ed.ac.uk/software/geoparser</ref>.
            </p>
            <p>5. 
                <ref target=""http://yourlibrary.edinburgh.gov.uk/fictionmap"">http://yourlibrary.edinburgh.gov.uk/fictionmap</ref>.
            </p>
            <p>6. 
                <ref target=""http://www.mappit.net/bookmap/"">http://www.mappit.net/bookmap/</ref>.
            </p>
            <p>7. 
                <ref target=""http://palimpsest-eng.appspot.com/"">http://palimpsest-eng.appspot.com/</ref>.
            </p>
            <p>8. We excluded poetry, but we annotated it (
                <hi rend=""italic"">prob. not</hi>) to be able to work on it in future.
            </p>
            <p>9. HathiTrust: 
                <ref target=""http://www.hathitrust.org/"">http://www.hathitrust.org</ref>.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""Ref286864043""/>
                        <anchor xml:id=""Ref286864414""/>
                        <anchor xml:id=""Ref286870641""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Alex, B., Grover, C., Haddow, B., Kabadjov, M., Klein, E., Matthews, M., Roebuck, S., Tobin, R. and Wang, X.</hi> (2008). Assisted Curation: Does Text Mining Really Help? In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Biocomputing 2008: Proceedings of the Pacific Symposium on Biocomputing</hi>, pp. 556–67.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baeza-Yates, R. and Ribeiro-Neto, B.</hi> (1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Modern Information Retrieval.</hi> Addison Wesley Longman, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grover, C., Tobin, R., Byrne, K., Woollard, M., Reid, J., Dunn, S. and Ball, J.</hi> (2010). Use of the Edinburgh Geoparser for Georeferencing Digitised Historical Collections. 
                        <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">368</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">(1925): 3875–89.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""Ref286864944""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kristjansson, T. T., Culotta, A., Viola, P. and McCallum, A.</hi> (2004). Interactive Information Extraction with Constrained Conditional Random Fields. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">Proceedings of the 19th National Conference on Artificial Intelligence</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">, San Jose, CA. AAAI Press, pp. 412–</hi>18.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manning, C. D., Raghavan, P. and Schütze, H.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Introduction to Information Retrieval</hi>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Strohman, T., Metzler, D., Turtle, H. and Croft, W. B.</hi> (2005). Indri: A Language-Model Based Search Engine for Complex Queries, CIIR Technical Report, ext. version.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2326","16","Patterns of Novelty in Literary Data","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Higgins</surname>
                        <forename>Devin Cook</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Michigan State University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>higgi135@mail.lib.msu.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Padilla</surname>
                        <forename>Thomas George</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Michigan State University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>tpadilla@mail.lib.msu.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hintze</surname>
                        <forename>Arend</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Michigan State University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>ahintze@me.com</email>
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                    <term>Information Theory</term>
                    <term>Novelty</term>
                    <term>Literary Studies</term>
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                    <term>literary studies</term>
                    <term>text analysis</term>
                    <term>interdisciplinary collaboration</term>
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            <p>In addition to forming a piece of the lasting and living embodiment of the cultural heritage of humanity, literature also constitutes a form of data. The features of this data are precisely what define the ‘literary’ as such. In order to ‘understand the structural continuity of the step from information to literature and back again . . . [and] to grasp the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">non</hi>uniqueness of literature in an absolute structural sense’, that is, to specify a difference of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">degree</hi> rather than 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kind</hi> between literature and other forms of data, it is necessary to isolate and define the features of the literary band of the data spectrum with nuance at a granular level.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi>
            </p>
            <p>To isolate and define features of literary data, the authors have employed several information-theoretical techniques to analyze literary text and find distinguishing patterns. An algorithm developed to study the information novelty in DNA sequences has been applied to strings of arbitrary text. Previously used to quantify information generated by Twitter users on a daily basis, the algorithm has been adapted here to measure information novelty patterns across fictional texts.</p>
            <figure>
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            <p>Figure 1. Novelty pattern expressed in 375 texts.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""5.2740277777777775cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Novelty pattern in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Moby-Dick</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>The graphs above (Figures 1 and 2) measure the proportion of novelty (
                <hi rend=""italic"">y</hi>-axis) over intervals of 10,000 characters (
                <hi rend=""italic"">x</hi>-axis) within each text, moving from beginning to end. Novelty is determined by the percentage of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi>-length character segments that have not previously appeared in a given text. This measurement stands distinct from a measure of lexical diversity wherein a count is given for unique words that occur in a text. The novelty measure accounts for the totality of combinations of characters in a given text rather than counting unique words. In the case of the graphs above, where 
                <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi>=5, novelty declines over the duration of texts according to a pattern of exponential decay. Fitting curves to novelty patterns allows us to make quantitative and comparative claims about patterns of information. The r-squared value in Figure 2 indicates that nearly 80% of the novelty data is explained by the exponential function used to describe the curve (in red).
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""6.566958333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Novelty in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Yet other texts resist curve-fitting, displaying information patterns that are highly variable and erratic. Figure 3 represents the novelty pattern for Joyce’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man</hi>, in which the exponential function can only account for approximately 38% of the recorded variation—wild swings in the data that are unexpected, perhaps, in one of Joyce’s less experimental works. (The r-squared value for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses </hi>was 52%.)
            </p>
            <p>The novelty measure is not only useful when looking at patterns over individual works but as a way of assessing linguistic ingenuity, or fluctuating historical trends in literary authorship, by studying the works over time of a single author, or of many authors across historical epochs. Figure 4 depicts novelty across three novels by Virginia Woolf (in chronological order), in which spikes of novelty are visible at the start of each new work (at approximately the 75 and 175 points along the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">x</hi>-axis).
            </p>
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                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""6.566958333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. Novelty across three novels by Virginia Woolf.</p>
            <p>The significance or not of ‘novelty’ in regard to literary studies is a question for debate that our poster will address. Recent work on patterns of information has shown that the concept of novelty (describing a formation that is new only from a particular perspective) is strongly linked to the concept of innovation (describing one that is new to all perspectives) (Tria et al., 2014). Tying novelty to innovation allows us to go further in building arguments about the role that novelty measurement could play in building an image of the particular form of data known as literature.</p>
            <p>Our poster will present visualizations of key findings as we continue to investigate literary data, via an algorithm designed to detect patterns of novelty. The poster would also work well as a live demonstration, during which texts could be fed to the algorithm ‘live’ as the audience circulates and poses questions.</p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. Terence Turner, quoted in Hayot (2014).</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hayot, E.</hi> (2014). What Is Data in Literary Studies?
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>http://erichayot.org/ephemera/mla-what-is-data-in-literary-studies/.</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tria, F., et al.</hi> (2014). The Dynamics of Correlated Novelties. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Nature,</hi> http://www.nature.com/srep/2014/140731/srep05890/full/srep05890.html.
                    </bibl>
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"2327","16","Perseids And Arethusa: Building Tools That Build Digital Humanists","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Almas</surname>
                        <forename>Bridget</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Tufts University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>bridget.almas@tufts.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Beaulieu</surname>
                        <forename>Marie-Claire</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Tufts University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>Marie-Claire.Beaulieu@tufts.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Höflechner</surname>
                        <forename>Gernot</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Leipzig University, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>1986gh@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
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                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>software methodology</term>
                    <term>close reading</term>
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                    <term>digital humanities - nature and significance</term>
                    <term>teaching and pedagogy</term>
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            <p>Can a methodology that allows students, scholars, and teachers to use tools as we build them contribute to the development of those individuals as ‘digital’ humanists? Over the last year as we have been developing the Perseids Platform and the Arethusa Annotation Framework, we have been actively engaging the users at every step of the process and releasing features for them to work with well before the tools are fully finished. Despite the challenges this introduces for the developers as well the users, we have found that using tools mid-development opens a window into exactly how the tools let users manipulate and shape the data. The process also allows both students and researchers to understand their role in the creation, curation, and annotation of texts through the scientific process of creating and using the data. This process has also exposed the critical role the humanist plays as product designer and tester of the tools we develop to support the research and publication process—or, as Stephen Ramsay says, as ‘builders and makers’ (2011).</p>
            <p> The Perseids platform is a collaborative editing environment built from a loose coupling of open-source tools and services.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> Two core values in the development of the platform have been (1) to reuse existing tools wherever possible and not reinvent the wheel and (2) to put the data first, creating data that are reusable and that can be preserved through the use of stable identifiers and serialized according to standard formats. (Data in this case mean all of our texts, annotations, and related objects.) While we aim to produce prototype disseminations of the data created on the platform as web-servable digital editions, this focus on the data, and the reuse of existing tools, has put production of a seamless user interface and polished presentation of output as a lower priority. We also have adopted an Agile
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi>-inspired development methodology, which requires us to release new features for use early and often. Although up until now we have been following this methodology more in spirit than to the letter, as the number of people involved in the project continues to grow, we will begin to incorporate some of the official practices, particularly the use of user stories to drive our development.
            </p>
            <p> The result is that the end users see much of the ‘inner wiring’ of the tools. For example, in IMGSPECT,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> our image-to-text mapping tool, students identify regions of interest on an image and map them to the text of the transcription. This tool creates stable identifiers (in the form of CITE URNs
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi>) for the region of interest and creates a template TEI transcription for the word or characters represented in the image that references the URN of the region of interest in the @facs attribute of the TEI markup element. Although ultimately we plan for automatic population of the underlying TEI XML file for the entire transcription from the image annotations, currently users have to copy the template markup into their file manually. While the value of such extra work is not always obvious, the process affords an opportunity for the students to experience all the steps involved in building a dataset. In particular, the process emphasizes the need to both justify editorial choices in transcribing a text and to create data that conforms to the current best practices and can therefore be reused by others. In doing so, students are using new technology while following the most traditional scholarly principles. Indeed, producing good data that are sharable, interoperable, and can form the basis for sound interpretation is the goal of all scholarship. In this way, working with Perseids allows students to put the highest standards of scholarship into practice and to enter the worldwide conversation about the production of knowledge. By exposing the URNs that link the text to the image, we allow them to see that what they are doing is producing data that not only justify their choices in their own edition but also allows others to reuse this data.
            </p>
            <p> Arethusa
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> is a framework for linguistic annotation and curation that provides a highly configurable, language-independent, extensible infrastructure for close reading, annotation, curation, and exploration of open-access digitized texts. Arethusa is back-end independent, but it has been developed in collaboration with the Perseids project and integrated with Perseids to provide an annotation interface for morpho-syntactic analyses. Going forward, Arethusa will also act as a broker between the Perseids back-end and various other front-end annotating and editing activities, including translation alignments, entity identification, and text editing. Many of the design requirements for the Arethusa morpho-syntactic annotation environment were directly informed by unanticipated scholarly and pedagogical uses of its precursor tool, the Alpheios Treebank Editor.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> Alpheios exposed the XML of both the treebank annotations it worked with and the configuration files that defined the tag sets available for use. The ability to work with these XML structures allowed the users to see the direct interplay between the data and the tools used for editing them, pushing the limits of the Alpheios interface. As design on the new Arethusa interface started, we actively engaged these users in testing and designing the new features they had asked for. This is not necessarily a novel approach; in Thomas and Solomon (2014), the RoSe project team noted that engaging students in this way greatly improved the usability of their system. However, in addition to the benefits afforded by the tool, we also found that this process developed the humanist users’ analytical skills and experiences, forcing them to evaluate questions such as whether the features they were requesting merited changes in existing standard linguistic representations of morpho-syntactic annotations, and implications on interoperability. It also required them to consider the division of responsibility between user interface functionality and representation of the data manipulated by the interface. The ability to edit the underlying data directly provoked questions about data integrity, as the morpho-syntactic annotations are just one component of a larger publication that includes TEI XML transcriptions, translation alignments, and other annotations. 
            </p>
            <p> From a pedagogical standpoint, integrating students into the development efforts has meant that professors and pupils both had to be comfortable with using a technology that is in constant evolution. For this reason, we favor a hands-on approach that focuses on the tasks to be accomplished by the students rather than general instruction about the tools or about digital humanities. In this we agree with Mahoney and Pierazzo, who write, ‘What we should be teaching under the umbrella of the “digital humanities” are not skills—although they too play their part—but new methodologies and new ways of thinking’ (2012, 245). For example, students in an intermediate Greek class were given step-by-step instructions about how to transcribe a Greek inscription as an XML document rather than a lecture about XML, even though they had never been introduced to it. The instructions gave basic XML markup indications, such as &lt;w&gt;, &lt;l&gt;, and &lt;lb&gt;. The professor and students accomplished each task simultaneously so that the students could refer to the on-screen demonstration as they transcribed their own text. After each step, students saved their work and visualized the concrete result of their edits in the preview screen. They were thus able to measure their progress and to gain an immediate understanding of the effect of their work. This approach has been put into practice when using Perseids in classes such as classical mythology, intermediate Greek, medieval Latin, and many others. We have found it to be productive, as it empowers the students to work with the software from the very beginning and to start to feel comfortable with it quickly. The approach has also offered great opportunities to gather feedback from the students and to keep developing the tools in order to make them more intuitive and user-friendly. We will use a study currently under way at Tufts University during the spring 2015 semester to further evaluate the outcomes on and for the students using and participating in the platform.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi>
            </p>
            <p> Finally, the ability to work directly with the data has led the Perseids and Arethusa users to think differently about the process of publication. Giuseppe Celano, a scholar who was an integral member of the Arethusa development process, has been exploring the possibilities for sharing treebanking analyses in the form of open micro-publications, realizing that ‘through Perseids, every scholar is provided a free platform allowing a micro-publication which is fully shareable, and so anyone is given the chance to be not only the user but also the contributor of a publication’.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">8</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/.</p>
            <p>2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agile_software_development.</p>
            <p>3. https://github.com/PerseusDL/imgspect.</p>
            <p>4. http://www.homermultitext.org/hmt-doc/cite/.</p>
            <p>5. http://sosol.perseids.org/tools/arethusa/app/#/.</p>
            <p>6. https://github.com/alpheios-project/treebank-editor.</p>
            <p>7. This is a continuation of the work described in Krohn and Crane (2014).</p>
            <p>8. Email correspondence, September 27, 2014.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Krohn, A. and Crane, G.</hi> (2014). Technology and Greek in the Translation Course,. Presentation at the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Classical Association Annual Conference,</hi> University of Nottingham, 
                        <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://dl.tufts.edu/catalog/tufts:sd.0000170</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mahony, S. and Pierazzo, E.</hi> (2012). Teaching Skills or Teaching Methodology? In Hirsch, B. D. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics</hi>, Open Book Publishers, pp. 216–25
                        <ref target=""http://openbookpublishers.com/htmlreader/DHP/chap08.html"">
                            <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">,</hi>
                        </ref>
                        <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://openbookpublishers.com/htmlreader/DHP/chap08.html.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S.</hi> (2011). On Building.
                        <ref target=""http://stephenramsay.us/text/2011/01/11/on-building/"">
                            <hi rend=""Internet_Link""> </hi>
                        </ref>
                        <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://stephenramsay.us/text/2011/01/11/on-building/</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thomas, L. and Solomon, D.</hi> (2014). Active Users: Project Development and Digital Humanities Pedagogy. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CEA Critic, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">76</hi>(2) (July): 211–20, DOI:10.1353/cea.2014.0014.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2328","16","PhiloLogic4 And The Android PhiloReader Apps: Toward Building A Full-Featured PhiloLogic API","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Cooney</surname>
                        <forename>Charles M.</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>ARTFL, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>chu.cooney@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Gladstone</surname>
                        <forename>Clovis</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>ARTFL, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>clovisgladstone@gmail.com</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Shandruk</surname>
                        <forename>Walter</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>ARTFL, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>waltms@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Morrissey</surname>
                        <forename>Robert</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>ARTFL, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>rmorriss@uchicago.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Roe</surname>
                        <forename>Glenn</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>The Australian National University</affiliation>
                    <email>glenn.roe@anu.edu.au</email>
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            <p>The ARTFL Project would like to submit a proposal for a short paper on the development of an API for PhiloLogic4, our next-generation corpus query and text retrieval platform for digital humanities databases, and to demonstrate Android PhiloReader Apps that we are building to interact with that API.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi>
            </p>
            <p>A primary goal of the PhiloLogic4 project has been to allow ARTFL or any digital humanities group using this software to develop a variety of results display and user interfaces with ease.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> For example, the databases ARTFL has already released in beta form under PhiloLogic4 for traditional browser access have features such as frequency sidebars for query results, links within those sidebars for faceted browsing, and dynamic Time Series reports.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> ARTFL’s PhiloReader Apps extend and exemplify this fundamental design goal. They take advantage of PhiloLogic4’s simple set of query parameters and flexible results object formatting to enable text search and retrieval on handheld devices. 
            </p>
            <p>ARTFL intends these apps to serve as a lighter-weight alternative to web browser apps for interacting with the PhiloLogic4 installations of text databases on our main production servers. The interface has been designed with a focus on the reading functionality that PhiloLogic4 already offers in its web incarnation. Users can conduct word and/or metadata search from a toggling drawer with the aim of finding and reading text sections.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> Word search results can be returned in concordance and frequency reports. Any metadata value can serve as a frequency report option, though the most common are word use by title, by date, by author, and even by speaker in collections of plays. More intensive text analysis would require the search form accessible through a web browser. 
            </p>
            <p>Functionally, the Android code interacts with PhiloLogic4 databases simply by sending search queries and then displaying the results that PhiloLogic4 sends back over the network. Those results, like all the data the PhiloLogic4 API passes both internally and externally, are formatted as JSON objects. From the search terms the user enters, the app builds a query URI compliant with the PhiloLogic4 API, which includes parameters such as number of results per page and metadata values, as well as a parameter that calls specifically for a JSON object (‘&amp;format=json’). For basic concordance and bibliographic searches, the URI currently points at the main script PhiloLogic4 uses to handle all interaction from web browsers (‘dispatcher.py’).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> For example, a basic concordance query for ‘sun’ from the Shakespeare app has this URI: 
            </p>
            <p>http://artflsrv02.uchicago.edu/philologic4/shakespeare_demo/dispatcher.py?report=concordance&amp;q=sun&amp;method=proxy&amp;title=&amp;start=1&amp;end=25&amp;pagenum=25&amp;format=json </p>
            <p>For the web version of PhiloLogic4, the dispatcher directs calls for secondary queries, like frequency searches and table of contents requests, to scripts that run behind the scenes. In order to minimize extra coding on the server side, the app calls those CGI scripts directly for these same queries. A frequency by title search for ‘sun’ from the app points to the frequency generation code to get PhiloLogic4’s internal JSON object: </p>
            <p>http://artflsrv02.uchicago.edu/philologic4/shakespeare_demo/scripts/get_frequency.py?report=concordance &amp;q=sun&amp;method=proxy&amp;title=&amp;frequency_field=title&amp;format=json </p>
            <p>The JSON object of a concordance result, for example, can contain chunks of the search result, bibliographic metadata, and a PhiloLogic id used for linking into larger sections of the text. The Android code renders the JSON into a string array and displays search results in a listview.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> The user can then select individual list items to get larger text sections. The Android code submits a second query to the PhiloLogic4 database for that specific text object which is, again, returned as JSON and also contains navigational links to the previous and next sections of the text. This full-text JSON is rendered for the user to read inside a webview.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi> We use a webview to display text objects in order to apply the same CSS formatting rules that we use for web versions. The PhiloReader also allows users to bookmark text objects for easy access in later sessions by retaining its PhiloLogic object pointer. 
            </p>
            <p>At the time of writing this proposal, we have succeeded in developing a functional API and Android code to work with it as proof of concept. Going forward, we will continue to work to make the API as generic and simple to use as possible, and fully RESTful compliant. </p>
            <p>Our ultimate goal is to allow other development teams to pick and choose any subset of PhiloLogic4 functionality through the API to build their own interfaces. For instance, developers could integrate concordance search functionality into a traditional desktop app under Windows or MacOS, or into a web environment like Drupal or Django. Developers could also use the API to plug frequency or collocation reports into modern visualization tools like d3.js. And since the API always returns pointers to original text objects, any new interface will be able to have links from results display into fuller document context. </p>
            <p>ARTFL chose Android Java as the initial development language for the apps because of existing in-house capability. At the time of the conference, we will make available a skeleton version of our Android code for other groups to adapt or simply examine to see how we interact with the API. In the coming months we intend to have parallel apps developed for iPads, though we are not certain they will be ready in time to present at DH. Nevertheless, ARTFL believes these Android apps demonstrate the ease and flexibility of using the PhiloLogic4 API to develop new ways of interacting with text databases. </p>
            <p>Screenshots</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""14.2875cm"" height=""22.86cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Search for term ‘sun’ in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Romeo and Juliet</hi> in the Shakespeare database. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""14.2875cm"" height=""22.86cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Full-text view from 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Romeo and Juliet </hi>with search term ‘sun’ highlighted.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""14.2875cm"" height=""22.86cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>Figure 3. Frequency by title search results for ‘flay’ in ECCOTCP.</p>
            <p>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""12.329583333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </p>
            <p>Figure 4. JSON object of frequency by title search results for ‘flay’ in ECCOTCP, http://artflsrv02.uchicago.edu/philologic4/ecco_tcp_demo/scripts/get_frequency.py?report=concor dance&amp;q=flay&amp;method=proxy&amp;title=&amp;author=&amp;frequency_field=title&amp;format=json.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. At the time of writing, we have built demonstration apps around the ECCOTCP text collection and the MONK project’s Shakespeare’s Plays data. Versions of these apps can be downloaded from http://artflsrv02.uchicago.edu/downloads/app_download/.</p>
            <p>2. For general background on PhiloLogic4, see Allen, T., Gladstone, C. and Whaling, R., PhiloLogic4: An Abstract Query TEI System, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative, </hi>5 (June 2013). Development is ongoing; code resides at https://github.com/ARTFLProject/ PhiloLogic4.
            </p>
            <p>3. See http://artflproject.uchicago.edu/.</p>
            <p>4. See the ‘Screenshots’ section for images of the interface and an example of a PhiloLogic4 JSON object.</p>
            <p>5. These calls that the app makes to the dispatcher script are subject to change as we continue to refine the API. Eventually, we might choose to bypass the dispatcher, as we do for frequency and table of contents calls from the app, and instead communicate with CGI scripts exclusively.</p>
            <p>6. ListView is Android terminology for a layout that displays a vertically scrollable list. See http://developer.android.com/guide/topics/ui/layout/listview.html.</p>
            <p>7. Again, Android terminology for a view that displays web pages. See http://developer.android.com/reference/android/webkit/WebView.html.</p>
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                        <surname>Martinez-Ortiz</surname>
                        <forename>Carlos</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Netherlands eScience Center</affiliation>
                    <email>c.martinez@esciencecenter.nl</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Buschenhenke</surname>
                        <forename>Floor</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands</affiliation>
                    <email>floor@woordheks.nl</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>van Dalen-Oskam</surname>
                        <forename>Karina</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands; University of Amsterdam, Netherlands, The</affiliation>
                    <email>karina.van.dalen@huygens.knaw.nl</email>
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                        <surname>Koolen</surname>
                        <forename>Marijn</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Amsterdam, Netherlands, The</affiliation>
                    <email>marijn.koolen@uva.nl</email>
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            <p>Globalization is a current theme in literary studies. Are authors writing increasingly for a global audience, with novels that appeal to readers in many countries, through shared ‘global’ cultural knowledge—e.g., references to concepts with which people around the globe are familiar? The Beyond the Book project aims to investigate whether we can measure how ‘international’ a novel is in its references to cultural knowledge. This could be useful in predicting the international appeal of novels and help publishers choose titles for translation that may appeal to readers in different markets. </p>
            <p>Although many potential factors contribute to a publisher’s or editor’s decision to translate a novel, we wish to know if textual aspects are a factor, and if so, to what extent. As a first step, we focus on the named entities in a set of Dutch novels, including novels that have been translated from Dutch to English. </p>
            <p>We link the named entities to English Wikipedia articles and use the Wikipedia edit history to measure the relative contribution of Dutch Wikipedians to each entity as a proxy for how specific the cultural references are to Dutch readers. </p>
            <p>The main research questions addressed are</p>
            <p> • How can we use named entities in novels as representations of cultural references? </p>
            <p> • How can we measure the relation between cultural references and international appeal? </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">The Translation Market </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">The World Book Market </hi>
            </p>
            <p>From UNESCO’s Index Translationum database, which charts worldwide book translations, Heilbron (2010) finds a four-level structure: around 55 to 60% of all translations are from English, around 10% from German and French, 13% for each of seven or eight other languages, and the rest are translations from ‘peripheral’ languages (including Dutch). For peripheral languages, translations from other languages are common, whereas in English-speaking countries, translations make up only a small fraction (around 3%) of the book market. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""12.310405555555555cm"" height=""9.559083333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Dutch Book Market </hi>
            </p>
            <p>Import </p>
            <p>Across all genres, in the Netherlands only about 34% of translated books come from languages other than English (UNESCO Index, up to 2006). This percentage fluctuates over time: the report ‘Publishing Translations in Europe: Trends 1990–2005’ by the Mercator Institute, which provides data for the Dutch market for translated fiction, states that 72.6% of all translations are from English.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Export </p>
            <p>The Dutch export market is very different from the import market. For spreading Dutch novels, Germany is the ‘gate market’ that opens up the possibility of translation into other peripheral markets in Europe (Heilbron, 2010). From the roughly 200 translations receiving funding from the Letterenfonds per year, 60 are adult fiction, and German takes up about 30% of those; English, only 17%. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""12.310405555555555cm"" height=""10.511463888888889cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2.</p>
            <p>The Decision Makers </p>
            <p>Franssen and Kuipers (2011) asked 23 Dutch editors how they decide which foreign titles to purchase for the domestic market. When editors assessed the text, they were purely focussed on ‘universal’ manuscript quality, not international appeal. We found in our interviews with 12 Dutch decision makers that, when looking to sell international translation rights for Dutch novels, a translation into English is deemed the most desirable of all. Hence, we focus on translations to English. </p>
            <p>Methodology </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Technical Pipeline </hi>
            </p>
            <p>This section describes the necessary steps to go from the full text of a novel to a meaningful measure of relative interest from a country in that novel. </p>
            <p>Identify Words of Interest </p>
            <p>The full text of a novel is split into arbitrarily sized units (e.g., a paragraph), which are processed using Semanticizer (Meij et al., 2012), to produce a list of Named Entities (NEs). These NEs represent the terms (
                <hi rend=""italic"">w</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>) that have a high probability of being used as links to other Wikipedia pages, if the given text was an article in Wikipedia. Each of these link-terms has a probability of being a link associated with it 
                <hi rend=""italic"">P</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">link</hi>(
                <hi rend=""italic"">w</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>); link-terms are filtered by their probability, and terms with probability below a certain threshold are discarded. The frequency of an NE in a given text 
                <hi rend=""italic"">F</hi>(
                <hi rend=""italic"">w</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>) represents the relative importance of that NE. 
            </p>
            <p>Country Interest </p>
            <p>Next, the relative interest from a country in each link-term is determined. This is estimated on the basis of the number of edits from a given country to the Wikipedia page corresponding to the NE. The English version of Wikipedia is used for this study, since it contains edits from many countries, including the Netherlands. Each Wikipedia article is built from contributions of several users over time. The interest in a particular topic is gauged by the number of contributors from a specific country. It is possible to determine the country of origin of the contributor, either by IP address (recorded for anonymous contributors) or by analysing the geographical categories the contributor belongs to (e.g., Wikipedians in the Netherlands). </p>
            <p>This proposed methodology has limitations. Contributions from ‘bots’ (i.e., contributions made automatically by programs) need to be ignored. Registered users can state their nationality on their user profile, but not all users provide such information. The fraction of unknown contributions is treated as an uncertainty 
                <hi rend=""italic"">C</hi>(
                <hi rend=""italic"">w</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>). For instance, if 70% of the contributions to a given page are from known sources, then the interest from a given country can be assessed with a 0.7 confidence. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""11.43cm"" height=""7.62cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3.</p>
            <p>Each country provides a different volume of contributions to Wikipedia. Thus, country contributions on a specific topic must be normalized by that country’s contributions to the whole English Wikipedia. The interest of a given country on a particular NE 
                <hi rend=""italic"">I</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">Q</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic""> (w</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">)</hi> is then the normalized percentage of contributions from that country to the Wikipedia article for the NE in question.
            </p>
            <p>To illustrate these steps, the following graphs show the percentages of contributions from various countries to the English Wikipedia,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> the expected and observed contribution percentages to the English Wikipedia article on ‘ice hockey’, and the relative country contributions to the ‘ice hockey’ article.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""11.43cm"" height=""7.62cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""6.154208333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 5.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""6.085416666666666cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 6.</p>
            <p>Integrate over Complete Novel </p>
            <p>The relative importance 
                <hi rend=""italic"">R </hi>of a given NE 
                <hi rend=""italic"">w</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi> for country 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Q </hi>is calculated as follows: 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1007"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""2.402416666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>where 
                <hi rend=""italic"">J</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">Q</hi>(
                <hi rend=""italic"">w</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>) is the weighted interest of country 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Q </hi>on the word: 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1008"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""2.8663194444444446cm"" url=""Pictures/image8.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>And the interest from that country for a whole novel can be calculated as the average interest of the identified NEs in the novel: </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1009"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""3.3866666666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image9.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Where 
                <hi rend=""italic"">N </hi>is the total number of NEs in the novel. 
            </p>
            <p>Experiments </p>
            <p>For the experiments, 492 Dutch (mostly literary) novels are used, all published between 1933 and 2008. Of these, 318 have been translated into other languages, but only 27 have been translated into English (based on data from WorldCat).</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The following features are determined:</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1""> • The 
                <hi rend=""bold"">number of translations </hi>to English.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1""> • The 
                <hi rend=""bold"">number of entities</hi> in four categories: person, location, organization, and miscellaneous.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1""> • The relative 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Dutch contribution</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(333333) background(white)"">to Wikipedia articles on entities in each category.</hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The correlations between the number of English translations and the two features per entity category are shown in the figure below:</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""10010"" width=""9.921875cm"" height=""6.535208333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image10.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 7.</p>
            <p>There is a weak correlation (0.38) between a Dutch novel getting translated into English and its number of miscellaneous entities (events, buildings, etc.). These can be interpreted as cultural references that readers from different countries may be familiar with. The number of locations has a positive but very weak correlation with getting translated, while the number of person, location, and organisation names has a very small negative correlation. </p>
            <p>The number of translations to English is weakly correlated with the relative contribution from Dutch Wikipedians to the entities in the miscellaneous category. These results suggest that novels that get translated from Dutch to English contain many references to Dutch culture. The locations in translated novels have a relatively low Dutch contribution, which suggests that their settings are perhaps more international. I
                <hi rend=""background(white)"">t is intriguing </hi>that the international appeal of these novels may lay just as much in their ‘Dutchness’ as in their ‘global’ references. 
            </p>
            <p>Conclusions </p>
            <p>The aim of this paper is to investigate the role the text of a novel plays in determining whether it gets translated. </p>
            <p>Cultural references seem to contribute to a novel’s chances of getting translated. The classic writers’ adagium, ‘Show, don’t tell’, may actually work; cultural references provide concrete, familiar details that anchor the story to the ‘real world’. Their realism could lead to a greater appeal for readers. </p>
            <p>These are preliminary findings. The current set of books is very small, and the methods are crude. The next steps will be to refine our methods by incorporating more textual features, look in more detail at how they relate to translation decisions, and apply our methods to a larger set of novels, in different genres and languages. </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. There are gaps in the available data of 1993–1999, so the picture is not entirely accurate.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. See http://stats.wikimedia.org/wikimedia/squids/SquidReportPageEditsPerLanguageBreakdown.htm.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Franssen, T. and Kuipers, G.</hi> (2011). Overvloed en onbehagen in de mondiale markt voor vertalingen. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sociologie,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7(</hi>1) (2011): 67–93.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heilbron, J.</hi> Structure and Dynamics of the World System of Translation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">UNESCO International Symposium on Translation and Cultural Mediation</hi>, Paris, 22–23 February 2010. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meij, E., Weerkamp, W. and Rijke, M. de.</hi> (2012). Adding Semantics to Microblog Posts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">WSDM 2012: Fifth ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining</hi>, Seattle, WA, 8–12 February 2012, pp, 563–72, http://ilps.science.uva.nl/biblio/adding-semantics-microblog-posts.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Publishing Translations in Europe: Trends 1990–2005.</hi> (2010). Making Literature Travel Series, Literature across Frontiers. Mercator Institute for Media, Languages, and Culture, Aberystwyth University, Wales. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Dalen-Oskam, K. Does, J. de., Marx, M., Sijaranamual, I., Depuydt, K., Verheij, B. and Geirnaert, V.</hi> (2014). Named Entity Recognition and Resolution for Literary Studies. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computational Linguistics in the Netherlands Journal,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>: 473–80. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vertalingendatabase, Letterenfonds</hi> [Dutch Institute for the Promotion of Dutch Literature Abroad]. (2014). https://letterenfonds.secure.force.com/vertalingendatabase/zoeken.
                    </bibl>
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"2330","16","Press F6 to Reload: Games Studies and the future of the Digital Humanities in India","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Ray Murray</surname>
                        <forename>Padmini</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Stirling, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>p.raymurray@gmail.com</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Mukherjee</surname>
                        <forename>Souvik</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Presidency University, Kolkata</affiliation>
                    <email>prosperoscell@gmail.com</email>
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                    <term>South Asia</term>
                    <term>India</term>
                    <term>videogames</term>
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                    <term>digital humanities - nature and significance</term>
                    <term>interface and user experience design</term>
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            <p>As the digital humanities gathers global impetus, with recent initiatives such as Global Outlook: DH and Around DH in 80 Days, seeking to extend the reach of the discipline beyond Anglo-American institutional portals (both virtual and architectural), it might be an appropriate moment to reflect upon what indigenous digital humanities forged in an Indian context might look like. What might it mean to have an Indian homegrown digital humanities? Why is it even a necessity? One obvious answer would include the assumed digital divide between the Western world and the developing world, but also we would argue, in response to the need for a ‘poor theory’—a term Ngugi wa Thiong’o coined in a 2012 essay—a theoretical framework that endeavours to ‘accord dignity to the poor as they fight poverty’. He elaborates: ‘Poor theory and its practice imply maximising the possibilities inherent in the minimum’.</p>
            <p>To those of us working in an Indian context, this is all too familiar, being borne out in practice by the Indian practice of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">jugaad</hi>, the endeavour of creating ingenious solutions by yoking disparate technologies or parts together. In recent years, this form of informal iterative working has been gaining recognition in the West, often drawing parallels to hacking. The semantic differences of the two words, however, deserves close attention, alerting us to philosophical differences that are consequences of that digital divide. To ‘hack’ contains within it both the meaning of subverting the authority of proprietary systems through some sort of destructive action as well as to come up with a quick solution, whereas the aim of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">jugaad</hi> is almost always constructive, often unaware of the capitalist systems it undermines, and truly born out of necessity. The practice and theoretical shape of the digital humanities thus far, almost exclusively determined by wealthy institutions in the global North, has failed to make space for such circumstantial necessity, and it is only with the Maker/DIY movement in the West that an alternative paradigm has been forged. The concept of minimal computing, for example, dwells on the dichotomy of choice versus necessity built on the understanding that computing resources in the developing world are not necessarily high performance, and that much can be done by streamlining low-cost single-board computers such as the Raspberry Pi for use in these contexts.
            </p>
            <p> The inevitable lacunae formed by the absence of this awareness in the Western academy has meant that the discipline has been remarkably tone-deaf to the noise made by cultural criticism in the mainstream humanities post ’68—as Tara McPherson writes in a 2013 essay: </p>
            <p>Much of the work in the digital humanities also proceeded as if technologies from XML to databases were neutral tools. Many who had worked hard to instill race as a central mode of analysis in film, literary, and media studies throughout the late twentieth century were disheartened and outraged (if not that surprised) to find both new media theory and emerging digital tools seem indifferent to those hard-won gains. </p>
            <p>However, as the discipline matures, Alan Liu advocates that digital humanists should become sharper critics of ‘how the digital humanities advances, channels, or resists today’s great postindustrial, neoliberal, corporate, and global flows of information-cum-capital’. We believe that the local flavours of such analyses, as well as the particularities of our relationship with technology in India as exemplified by the philosophy of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">jugaad</hi> mentioned earlier, necessitates a particularly Indian approach to this area of critical thinking and doing. 
            </p>
            <p>If, as digital humanists, our aims are to create resources that help us perform the act of cultural criticism and to study the objects of such criticism, we must accept that our vision is necessarily circumscribed by cultural specificity and particularity. These concerns operate both at the level of content and interface: for example, much humanities work in Indic languages has been, until relatively recently, impeded by the lack of optimised character recognition software. Katharina Reinecke’s seminal work on how national culture influences our perception of good design has shown how, for instance, Google struggled to get a foothold in the Korean market, as Korean users preferred much more colourful and graphically populated interfaces. This demonstrates how international technology players can be disadvantaged by their failure to tailor their offerings to local tastes and visual habits. </p>
            <p>Our research into gaming in India endeavours to demonstrate how these local tastes, habits, and practices are shaped by global forces, but how local context still uniquely shapes digital culture—however homogeneous that culture itself might be—and how questions of access, infrastructure, economic and government policy, technological obsolescence, relevance, and lag might all contribute to more nuanced understandings of what it might mean to practice games studies and the digital humanities in the global South. </p>
            <p>The Indian market is growing exponentially, especially with the undeniable popularity of mobile gaming. While India has long been considered a destination for outsourcing animation and visual effects work for games made abroad, the local industry is beginning to take shape. Indeed, the nascent, emergent Indian videogame industry with its growing player base is a marker of how digital technologies are shaping contemporary culture in this developing nation. However, videogames based on original intellectual properties created in India are still few and far between. Commentators have assumed that industry expertise combined with visual vibrancy, narratives rooted in myth and legend, and the multimodal richness of a certain sort of India, embedded in ethnic otherness, could result in a watershed moment for the industry. Indeed, in 2009, eminent game designer and commentator Ernest Adams felt that India’s lack of progress in the field could be rapidly compensated for by relying on adaptations of grand epic narratives such as the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mahabharata </hi>or the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ramayana</hi>. 
            </p>
            <p>While this promise is yet to be fulfilled, predictions have been heady and optimistic—with KPMG forecasting a growth of 17 billion INR by 2017, and NASSCOM (India’s flagship computing association) anticipating an eight-fold surge in casual gamers over the 2010–2015 period, with the vast majority (approximately 60%) playing on mobile, approximately 38% on PC, but a paltry 0.3% on console. However, there has been almost no academic research on the business of selling games, game design and how it might be shaped by its Indian origins, nor any rigorous analysis regarding the kind of games that are being enjoyed and played in the country. </p>
            <p>To this end, we undertook an online (via surveymonkey.com) and offline survey of game developers and gamers, across sociocultural and linguistic communities in India (covering platform reach, importance of storytelling, gaming practices, problems of accessibility). SPSS, MAXQDA 10, and Wordle were the tools used to yield quantitative and qualitative data analyses of the total of 185 responses, which mostly came from major Indian urban centres. The paper will showcase our findings, which include a range of anecdotal responses to open-ended questions as well as empirical data. The scope can certainly be enlarged, and the final paper will reveal how the data sample is indicative.</p>
            <p>Our research on videogames very usefully addresses the conference’s theme of ‘global’ digital humanities as it is possibly the most international of contemporary media forms, and as our data demonstrates, individual engagement with such a phenomenon is always mediated through its local context but inextricable from its global condition—and we feel these are significant revelations for the future of storytelling, narrative, and digital cultures.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Adams, E. W.</hi> (2009). The Promise of India: Ancient Culture, Modern Game Design. Keynote Address, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">NASSCOM Animation and Gaming Summit 2009,</hi> Hyderabad, India, 7 November 2009, http://www.designersnotebook.com/Lectures/India/india.htm.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Liu, A.</hi> (2012). Where Is Cultural Criticism in the Digital Humanities? In Gold, M. K. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 490–510.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McPherson, T.</hi> (2012). Why Are the Digital Humanities So White? or Thinking the Histories of Race and Computation. In Gold, M. K. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 139–60.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reinecke, K.</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bernstein, A.</hi> (2013). Knowing What a User Likes: A Design Science Approach to Interfaces That Automatically Adapt to Culture. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">MIS Quarterly,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>(2): 427–53.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thiong’o, N. w.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Globalectics: Theory and the Politics of Knowing</hi>. Reprint ed. Columbia University Press, New York.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2331","16","Progressive philology with TXM: from 'raw text' to 'TEI encoded text' analysis and mining","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>Progressive philology with TXM: from 'raw text' to 'TEI encoded text' analysis and mining</title>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Heiden</surname>
                        <forename>Serge</forename>
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                    <affiliation>ENS de Lyon, France</affiliation>
                    <email>slh@ens-lyon.fr</email>
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                    <term>open-source</term>
                    <term>text analysis</term>
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                    <term>encoding - theory and practice</term>
                    <term>natural language processing</term>
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                    <term>text analysis</term>
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            <p>A typical text analysis workflow combines the following two stages:</p>
            <p> • Preparing data. Philological methodology establishes the base text, critical apparatus, and some analytical information like text metadata (author, date, domain, etc.) to be able to compare domains, authors, etc. with respect to the text’s content (word forms or word lemma frequency, n-gram frequency, etc.).</p>
            <p> • Processing. Analytic methodology provides the framework to analyze a corpus or sub-corpus of texts with the help of word patterns search and display (concordances) or count (frequency lists) and comparison tools (factorial analysis, clustering).</p>
            <p>It is convenient to characterize the relation between the data and the processing stages as contractual. That contract is based on the encoding conventions of the digital representation of texts interpreted by the software to manipulate and display them through interfaces.</p>
            <p>Simple conventions (like Unicode character encoding of raw text) can correspond to file formats directly interpreted by the software; more elaborate ones (like XML-TEI encoded text) correspond to guidelines that need tuning to be processable by software. This article presents a text analysis workflow implemented in the TXM analysis software in which the data/processing philological contract complexity can be progressively adapted to the needs of the user, balancing costs of encoding with interests in processing and analysis. It will also introduce the delegation model to call external tools (like ‘natural language processing’ [NLP] software as lemmatizers) to automatically enrich encoded texts on the fly while importing them into the platform for analysis.</p>
            <p>The TXM Analysis Software</p>
            <p>The open-source GPL-licensed TXM software implements an analytic methodology articulating those stages. It provides an import framework that allows reading of corpus sources at various levels of encoding and a classic toolbox for text analysis and mining, composed of a versatile and efficient full text search engine, text reading and browsing, sub-corpus and partition building, co-occurrence analysis, factorial analysis, and clustering. It is available as a desktop application for Windows, Mac, or Linux, as well as a web portal software for a server accessed through a web browser (Heiden, 2010). The TXM platform can be downloaded for free at http://sf.net/projects/txm.</p>
            <p>Importing Corpora into TXM at Progressive Levels of Encoding</p>
            <p>Starting from raw text corpora, the first level of contract is simple and has a low encoding cost barrier: texts may have properties (called metadata) that can be used to compare them or their properties, and words are defined by their character constituents. The text format provides all information needed explicitly to the software.</p>
            <p>To analyze a corpus at such a level of encoding, TXM provides the Unicode ‘TXT+CSV’ import module. The CSV in the name expresses the possibility to associate metadata to each text through an external CSV table file. That table encodes the metadata of each text on a separate line, as in the following excerpt of the Brown corpus metadata table defining the ‘type’ and ‘reference’ metadata (Francis and Kucera, 1964):
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi>
            </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>id</cell>
                    <cell>type</cell>
                    <cell>reference</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>a01</cell>
                    <cell>PRESS: REPORTAGE</cell>
                    <cell>Sample A01 from The Atlanta Constitution</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>a02</cell>
                    <cell>PRESS: REPORTAGE</cell>
                    <cell>Sample A02 from The Dallas Morning News, February 17, 1961, sec. 1</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>a03</cell>
                    <cell>PRESS: REPORTAGE</cell>
                    <cell>Sample A03 from Chicago Daily Tribune</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>a04</cell>
                    <cell>PRESS: REPORTAGE</cell>
                    <cell>Sample A04 from The Christian Science Monitor, May 11, 1961, p. 1</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>a05</cell>
                    <cell>PRESS: REPORTAGE</cell>
                    <cell>Sample A05 from The Providence Journal</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p rend=""Tableau"">
                <hi rend=""italic"">Table 1. Brown corpus metadata (the ‘id’ column encodes text identifiers, ‘type’ the genre, and ‘reference’ the source).</hi>
            </p>
            <p>When it comes to TEI encoded texts, the contract is more complex and fuzzy, especially because the TEI provides guidelines for encoding but not as prescriptive as a format can do. One can typically use several different ways to encode a particular text component. This is needed for scholars to adopt the technology: it provides ways to encode texts we haven’t read yet, for which we haven’t established the base text or the critical apparatus yet. For a given project, the TEI encoding practice should be much more specific and documented because scholars need to share the same conventions to cross-validate their philological work. In such a context, it is possible to tune the software based on the conventions documentation to import the specific TEI sources and build the necessary corpus model to process it.</p>
            <p>To analyze a corpus at such a level of encoding, TXM provides pre-tuned TEI import modules for each documented TEI practice—for example, the ‘XML-TEI BFM’ import module for texts encoded according to the BFM corpus TEI encoding practice (Heiden et al., 2010).</p>
            <p>To analyze a corpus encoded with an unknown TEI practice, TXM provides the generic ‘XML/w+CSV’ import module. That module provides a simple way to adapt any XML or TEI encoding through an XSLT transformation stylesheet into the ‘XML-TEI TXM’ format designed for the TXM corpus model.</p>
            <p>TXM is available with a library of several XML and TEI adaptation stylesheets: https://sourceforge.net/projects/txm/files/library/xsl.</p>
            <p>The ‘XML/w+CSV’ import module is part of the progressive TXM import framework, which is built on a concentric format model (every format is based on the format of lower-outer level): Unicode TXT &lt; XML &lt; TEI &lt; XML-TEI TXM:</p>
            <p>Figure 1. TXM progressive import framework workflow. </p>
            <p>In that framework, import modules can take a corpus at any level of encoding passing through the final TXM pivot ‘XML-TEI TXM’ format before compilation by the software (search engine indexes, text edition, etc.).</p>
            <p>The corpus model of TXM is composed of the following:</p>
            <p>• Each corpus consists of a set of 
                <hi rend=""bold"">texts</hi> with properties called ‘metadata’ (author, title, date, genre . . .).
            </p>
            <p>• Each text is composed of nested optional internal 
                <hi rend=""bold"">structures</hi> that have properties.
            </p>
            <p> • Each text is composed of a sequence of 
                <hi rend=""bold"">words</hi> that can have properties. Words can be embedded in any textual structure.
            </p>
            <p>Each text has an HTML edition built during the import process. Some 
                <hi rend=""bold"">textual planes</hi> can be built on demand, such as separating comments or notes from content body, etc.
            </p>
            <p>For each import encoding level, some corpus model elements can be built, or not:</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau""/>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">TXT</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">XML</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">TEI</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">Text units</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">files</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">files</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">files</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">Metadata</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">CSV</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">CSV</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">teiHeader</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">Structures</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">n/a</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">all</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">TEI specific</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">Words</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">raw</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">&lt;w&gt;?</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">&lt;w&gt;?</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">Textual planes</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">n/a</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">front XSL</cell>
                    <cell rend=""Contenu_de_tableau"">TEI specific</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>For each import level, a file corresponds to a text unit. TXT level cannot provide either internal structures encoding for texts or planes and tokenizes words from their ‘raw’ character constituents. XML level provides TXT level processing and can optionally encode some or all words with a &lt;w&gt; tag; all other tags are interpreted as text structures, and a front XSL can filter out some elements on the fly. TEI level provides XML level processing, text metadata are taken from the TEI header, and every tag has specific semantics related to structures or planes.</p>
            <p>Within such an import framework, the scholar can adapt the encoding effort to the level best suited for the elements she wants to be able to manipulate in the analysis software. A typical progression is to start with raw text (TXT) and progressively encode more information (sometimes based on findings made with the analysis tools). When entering the XML level, the first elements encoded are very often some specific structures (e.g., sentence, paragraph, or section) or words (e.g., compounds or entities) and page breaks to control text edition pagination with respect to the sources and concordance references (e.g., page number).</p>
            <p>NLP Annotation at Word Level</p>
            <p>As any level of encoding supposes the processing of words (implicitly or explicitly encoded), TXM integrates the possibility to call external NLP tools working on words to automatically enrich the sources through a delegation model. In that model, tools and their parameters are first declared once. Then, for each import module, they can be automatically called as many times as needed on a representation of the texts compatible with their processing (texts are converted to the format needed by each tool), and the result of their processing is reinjected back into the sources. As an example, TXM automatically annotates words with their lemma and morphosyntactic category with the TreeTagger software. In that model, the quality of the automatic encoding is delegated to external tools.</p>
            <p>In the case of XML type sources, if a word is already encoded with some properties (typically by using a &lt;w&gt; element), the NLP annotation is just added to the initial encoding.</p>
            <p>Adding systematic word level annotation can be difficult to keep compatible with original XML encoding. This is why TXM provides stand-off and inline ways to store word annotations into a TXM-specific TEI extension scheme called ‘XML-TEI TXM’. That representation can be exported to other tools or re-imported in any TXM.</p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>We presented the TXM progressive import framework allowing the scholar to choose the right level—and effort—of encoding needed for the analysis of its sources. TEI level encoding is not mandatory to use the tool, simple raw text can be analyzed, and XML encoded sources provide a lot of useful services for analysis, but TEI provides the best reference target level of encoding as a language to establish a contract between philological and analytic work.</p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. The sample BROWN corpus can be downloaded from the TXM software website, http://sourceforge.net/projects/txm/files/corpora/brown.</p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Francis, W. N. and Kucera, H.</hi> (1964). A Standard Corpus of Present-Day Edited American English, for Use with Digital Computers. Department of Linguistics, Brown University, Providence, RI. Revised, 1971; revised and amplified, 1979. See also https://sourceforge.net/projects/txm/files/corpora/brown.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heiden, S.</hi> (2010). The TXM Platform: Building Open-Source Textual Analysis Software Compatible with the TEI Encoding Scheme. In Otoguro, R., Ishikawa, K., Umemoto, H., Yoshimoto, K. and Harada, Y. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">24th Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information and Computation</hi>, November 2010, Sendai, Japan, Institute for Digital Enhancement of Cognitive Development, Waseda University, pp. 389–98.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heiden, S., Guillot, C., Lavrentiev, A. and Bertrand, L.</hi> (2010). Manuel d’encodage BFM / XML-TEI, Version 4.0, BFM–Base de Français Médiéval [En ligne]. Lyon: ENS de Lyon, Laboratoire ICAR, http://bfm.ens-lyon.fr/IMG/pdf/Manuel_Encodage_TEI.pdf.
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"2332","16","Proposal for Creation of ""Research Profile"" of Photo Archives Using Digital Book Format","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Togiya</surname>
                        <forename>Norio</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Kansai University, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>ntogiya@kansai-u.ac.jp</email>
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                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>historical photograph</term>
                    <term>archive</term>
                    <term>digital book</term>
                    <term>epub</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>archives</term>
                    <term>repositories</term>
                    <term>sustainability and preservation</term>
                    <term>art history</term>
                    <term>audio</term>
                    <term>video</term>
                    <term>multimedia</term>
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            <p>In recent years, digital/analog archives for photographs have been created in various places, and photos from different time periods and regions have been exhibited.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> However, one faces several challenges when trying to use the original photo materials as data.
            </p>
            <p>The first challenge is that it is very difficult to precisely determine the specifics of the subject of the photographs, such as people, buildings, time period, etc., due to there not being enough descriptions in writing, as the photographs are iconographic materials. </p>
            <p>The second challenge is that it is rare for the inherited photographs to remain intact, and they are often damaged after natural disasters, wars, disagreements, etc. Therefore, it is necessary to grasp the information about their history and state of preservation. In addition, as a third point, in the analysis of photo materials it is rare that the frequency with which a particular subject is expressed has been quantified before the analysis, so in many cases the target analysis is performed from a subjective impression. However, in an objective analysis, it is desirable that the analysis is based on main quantitative data, such as frequency of the subject (Togiya and Kawashima, 2013). For this reason, in photo materials, it is necessary to provide basic data, such as frequency with which the particular subject is expressed.</p>
            <p rend=""FIT見出し1"">Outline of the Research Project</p>
            <p>In this study, we propose basic elements and an implementation plan for a ‘Research Profile’ of the photo documentation in order to objectively use photographic materials as academic materials. First, the ‘Research Profile’ of the photo archive proposed in this study includes the following three elements:</p>
            <p> 1. Documentation on provenance and original condition (related documents, footage of interviews with old warehouse owners, visual material of the old warehouse space, distribution of the material, and a graph showing inheritance status).</p>
            <p> 2. Materials that became a rationale for the content of the material for cataloging purposes, such as video interviews, official records and discussions by experts (video and online discussion data), personal information of the subjects, genealogical data, information on the buildings, etc.</p>
            <p> 3. Frequency with which names that can be recognized are expressed in the subject, frequency with which multiple subjects are expressed together in the photo documentation group.</p>
            <p rend=""FIT本文"">Figure 1 is a diagram showing the actual configuration of the screen shown in the previous section ‘Research Profile’. Video and audio materials that contain detailed information about the corresponding material are stored in the profile after publishing the photo material of interest. These are stored in EPUB format, and text, voice, and images are integrated and stored in one set of files, enabling access with various e-book viewers.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""15.190611111111112cm"" height=""10.22526388888889cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p rend=""FIT本文"">Figure 1. The sample of research profile consisted of photo, movie, and graph.</p>
            <p rend=""FIT本文"">Summary</p>
            <p rend=""FIT本文"">The main point in this presentation is that since the number of photo archives is expected to increase in the future, it is important to collect data that can be browsed and analyzed from a more objective viewpoint and open it to the public as a ‘Research Profile’. In addition, another feature is that data, such as provenance information, interviews with witnesses, and discussions with experts—which became a reference at time of cataloging and until now was out of focus—can be systematically collected as objective data on quantitative analysis of the subject, and can be aggregated and published as material for scientific use. Additionally, these texts, pictures, audio, still images, and other media are aggregated in e-book format, and by using tablets, etc., they can be viewed in one set of files, browsed, and viewed in parallel in PC photo archive format or paper book format. Furthermore, persistent management is possible by storing them in an e-book format into e-book deposit systems, which are becoming popular these days.</p>
            <p rend=""FIT本文"">By making public ‘Research Profiles’ of photo archives, like the one in this study, it will be possible to use photo materials more objectively as scientific materials. An awareness that the testimony of the people involved in the photo is ‘documentation’ will develop, which will provide a base for developing the budding ‘Photograph Material Science’ in the future. </p>
            <p rend=""FIT本文"">Note</p>
            <p rend=""FIT本文"">1. Library of Congress: Prints &amp; Photographs Online Catalog, http://www.loc.gov/pictures/;</p>
            <p rend=""FIT本文"">Smithsonian American Art Museum Photograph Archive, http://americanart.si.edu/research/programs/archive/.</p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""FIT本文"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Togiya, N. and Kawashima, T.</hi> (2013). Research to Clarify the Interrelationships between Family Members through the Analysis of Family Photograph. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Monthly, </hi>no. 27 (October), http://www.dhii.jp/DHM/dhm27-1.
                    </bibl>
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"2333","16","Prototyping A Workset Builder Using Semantic Technologies","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Jett</surname>
                        <forename>Jacob</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>jjett2@illinois.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Senseney</surname>
                        <forename>Megan</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>mfsense2@illinois.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Maden</surname>
                        <forename>Chris</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>crism@illinois.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Fallaw</surname>
                        <forename>Colleen</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>mfall3@illinois.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Downie</surname>
                        <forename>J. Stephen</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>jdownie@illinois.edu</email>
                </author>
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                    <term>data modeling</term>
                    <term>HathiTrust corpus</term>
                    <term>RDF</term>
                    <term>semantic technologies</term>
                    <term>triple store</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>corpora and corpus activities</term>
                    <term>data modeling and architecture including hypothesis-driven modeling</term>
                    <term>semantic analysis</term>
                    <term>information architecture</term>
                    <term>digital humanities - facilities</term>
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            <p>The HathiTrust Digital Library comprises more than 4.7 billion pages (12.6 million volumes) of digitized content. The HathiTrust Research Center (HTRC) is a collaborative research initiative led by the University of Illinois and Indiana University engaged in developing an array of tools to connect digital humanities researchers with materials of interest within the HathiTrust corpus. This poster discusses the activities of the Workset Creation for Scholarly Analysis (WCSA) project, an initiative of the HTRC. Part of the primary mission of the WCSA initiative is the development and evolution of worksets that include selected subsets of the HathiTrust corpus for use in computational analysis. To test how well semantic technologies fit the workset concept we have implemented a prototype RDF-based triple-store that allows scholars to directly engage with the metadata describing their worksets and the bibliographic entities. </p>
            <p>A key component to this work is the development of an underlying formal conceptual model that effectively represents descriptive information about worksets, including provenance, curatorial intent, and other useful metadata, in a manner that facilitates the scholarly process of selecting, grouping, and citing research data collections. The prototype has been designed to (1) comply with standards established by the Linked Open Data and semantic web communities and (2) allow scholars the maximum amount of flexibility when gathering their research data collections together, permitting them to intermingle resources from external corpora with those contained within the HathiTrust Digital Library.</p>
            <p>Discussion</p>
            <p>As a majority (~66%) of the HathiTrust corpus remains under copyright, HTRC web services are being built primarily to provide “nonconsumptive” research. Under the nonconsumptive paradigm, the full contents of the copyright-restricted digitized books are never exposed to users, so scholars rely upon descriptive metadata about volumes within the corpora to assemble worksets. As depicted in the simplified workflow visualization in Figure 1 (below), scholars will then be able to submit their worksets to a number of analytics tools, both provided by the HTRC and developed by themselves. These processes will result in a number of data products that can be leveraged by the scholar in a number of ways, including as research materials that can be included in new worksets.</p>
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            <p>Figure 1. HTRC scholarly workflow.</p>
            <p>Scholars require infrastructure that allows them to gather together masses of heterogeneous research materials (Varvel and Thomer, 2011), facilitates interoperability across datasets (Henry and Smith, 2010), and supports working with materials at arbitrary levels of granularity (Fenlon et al., 2014). These requirements have been a driving force in the development of our prototype and its underlying conceptual and data models. We built our prototype RDF-based workset builder (a graph visualization is depicted in Figure 2) using the open-source version of OpenLink’s Virtuoso Triple Store.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> Development of the prototype triple store has been continually informed by our ongoing partnerships with four project teams engaged in separate but related prototyping projects
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> to enrich the metadata in the HathiTrust corpus. Through these interactions, the project team encountered the need to accommodate several additional use cases surrounding the selection of materials for worksets and methods for directly enriching bibliographic metadata describing the entities that constitute worksets. 
            </p>
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            <p>Figure 2. Graph representation of the WCSA Workset model.</p>
            <p>In collaboration with the Oxford 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ElEPHãT</hi> project, we have explored extensions and adaptations to the bibliographic metadata that describes volumes within the HathiTrust corpus that will facilitate the deduplication process for scholars as they gather research materials, enabling them to remove redundant resources from their worksets more efficiently. We are also working with a team at the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities to explore the best way to leverage annotations of bibliographic metadata. This latter case exploits the RDF-based Open Annotation standard
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> as a means for enriching bibliographic metadata without making direct changes to values already recorded within the original MARC metadata records. 
            </p>
            <p>Future Work</p>
            <p>We are currently engaged in exploring additional extensions to the prototype’s underlying data model in order to more fully address the need for more fine-grained units of analysis, as identified by Fenlon et al. (2014). The need to consider page-level rather than volume-level content has already informed the use of new metadata description entities that better characterize pages of digitized content as bibliographic artifacts. Utilizing previous work on arbitrary segmentation of web-based resources (Sanderson, Ciccarese, and Van de Sompel, 2013), we are currently formalizing methods by which finer grained sub-page features—paragraphs, sentences, and other page fragments—can reliably be identified and exploited as workset members in their own right. Complementary methods for identifying and leveraging literary forms such as music and poems, among others, are also under development.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. http://virtuoso.openlinksw.com.</p>
            <p>2. http://worksets.htrc.illinois.edu/worksets/?p=101.</p>
            <p>3. http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core/.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fenlon, K., Senseney, M., Green, H., Battacharyya, S., Willis, C. and Downie, J. S</hi>. (2014). Scholar-Built Collections: A Study of User Requirements for Research in Large-Scale Digital Libraries. Paper for presentation at the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">77th ASIS&amp;T Annual Meeting,</hi> Seattle, WA, 31 October–5 November 2014.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Henry, C. and Smith, K.</hi> (2010). Ghostlier Demarcations: Large-Scale Text Digitization Projects and Their Utility for Contemporary Humanities Scholarship. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Idea of Order: Transforming Research Collections for 21st-Century Scholarship</hi>. Council on Library and Information Resources, pp. 106–15.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sanderson, R., Ciccarese, P. and Van de Sompel, H.</hi> (2013). Designing the W3C Open Annotation Data Model. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 5th Annual ACM Web Science Conference,</hi> Paris, 2–4 May 2013.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Varvel, V. E. J. and Thomer, A.</hi> (2011). Google Digital Humanities Awards Recipient Interviews Report (CIRSS Report No. HTRC1101). Center for Informatics Research in Science and Scholarship, Graduate School of Library and Information Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL.
                    </bibl>
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"2334","16","Psst! An informal approach to expanding the linguistic range of the Digital Humanities.","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Ortega</surname>
                        <forename>Elika</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>CulturePlex Lab, University of Western Ontario</affiliation>
                    <email>elikaortega@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Gil</surname>
                        <forename>Alex</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Columbia University</affiliation>
                    <email>colibri.alex@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>O'Donnell</surname>
                        <forename>Daniel Paul</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Lethbridge</affiliation>
                    <email>daniel.odonnell@uleth.ca</email>
                </author>
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                    <term>go::dh</term>
                    <term>multilingualism</term>
                    <term>whispering</term>
                    <term>translation</term>
                    <term>best practices</term>
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            <p>Global Outlook::Digital Humanities (GO::DH) is a Special Interest Group (SIG) of the Alliance of Digital Humanities Organisations (ADHO). Its purpose is to help break down barriers that hinder communication and collaboration among researchers and students of the digital arts, humanities, and cultural heritage sectors across political, economic, and regional boundaries (Global Outlook::Digital Humanities, 2013).</p>
            <p>The origins of GO::DH lie in Melissa Terras’ infographic ‘Quantifying Digital Humanities’ (Terras, 2012). This posting contained a map showing the distribution of physical centres in the digital humanities (as defined by members of ADHO communities) across the globe. Its most striking feature, however, were the absences: apart from a thin band of centres across the Northern Hemisphere and in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, the majority of the world appeared as ‘empty space’. While digital work in the humanities was being conducted by researchers, teachers, and scholars in these areas, it remained for the most part invisible to researchers in the ‘Global North’ associated with the largest international digital humanities societies and organisations. There was a literal disconnect between researchers in these (largely mid- and low-income economic) ‘unknown’ regions and those appearing on the map (for the most part found in high-income regions): the researchers were simply not part of the same digital, academic, and social networks. Although the digital humanities as we define it is, relative to the humanities more broadly, a highly international and collaborative endeavour, it remains the case that our internationalisation and collaborative activity are primarily conducted on an East-West basis among a relatively small number of generally contiguous, high-income economies (O’Donnell, 2012; see also Fiormonte, 2012; Galina, 2013).</p>
            <p>The GO::DH approach to breaking down these barriers is extremely practical: the organization develops complementary strengths, interests, abilities, and experiences of its membership through special projects, events, activities, and publicity (Priego and O’Donnell, 2013; Priego and Gil, 2013). Its core activities are discovery, community-building, research, and advocacy. It helps its members learn more about digital work in the arts, humanities, and cultural heritage sectors; it acts to foster collaboration and cooperation across regions and economies; it coordinates research on and in support of the use of technology in these areas across the globe; and it advocates for a global perspective on work in this sector.</p>
            <p>This paper discusses in particular approaches that the SIG has taken in the last two years towards promoting multilingualism within the digital humanities, primarily through the ‘whisper campaign’ (first rolled out at DH2014). It concludes with information on the translation toolkit currently under development by authors.</p>
            <p>The Whisper Campaign</p>
            <p>The whisper campaign from DH2014 in Lausanne is one of the more prominent GO::DH initiatives. This project, which came together very quickly in the weeks leading up to the conference, involved the distribution of buttons to conference attendees on which they could write languages they were able to interpret for others.</p>
            <p>The model for this project came from the 2012 INKE conference in Havana, Cuba (INKE, 2012). Although the language of the conference was English, and although most participants at the conference could work in English to a greater or lesser degree, the conference organisers also decided to promote an informal system through which those with stronger English skills could help those with weaker ones. When speakers who preferred to speak in Spanish presented, the same system was used, with Spanish speakers in this case translating for Anglophone attendees.</p>
            <p>Two members of the GO::DH executive in attendance at that conference, Alex Gil and Daniel Paul O’Donnell, were quite taken with this model and began to wonder whether this could be used in other DH contexts. The need for such an approach was further confirmed at DH 2013, when several members of GO::DH saw examples of presenters or conference attendees struggling with questions or answers in English.</p>
            <p>The final push for the whisper campaign came in the form of an unconference session on multilingualism led by Élika Ortega at DHSI2014 in which participants were asked to come up with ideas on how to ‘knit an exchange network of DH scholarship in various languages’ (Ortega, 2014). In his concluding keynote, Gil argued that the initiatives proposed at this workshop would help ‘open language to the community, where a translation of the website or any forum post depends on the community itself’ (Gil, 2014). In a subsequent discussion on the GO::DH mailing list, O’Donnell suggested that ‘most people find it easier to receive information in weaker languages than produce it’, while Isabel Galina proposed using the (then) upcoming DH2014 meeting as an opportunity to put together a concrete plan of action: ‘Maybe somewhere where you can sign up and say, “I am willing to help out with the following languages” or “I need help in this language”? A volunteer system for helping out in sessions that require it?’ (Global Outlook::Digital Humanities, 2014).</p>
            <p>With some buttons ordered by Ortega and some felt-tipped markers, the project was implemented for less than $200. While there were relatively few examples of ad hoc translation at DH2014 (though there were a large number of volunteers), the greater impact is seen in its influence on subsequent meetings: organisers at the Society for the History of Authorship, Reading, and Publishing (SHARP) meeting and OurMarathon project, for example, have sought to either incorporate the same model or use it to inspire efforts to make sure their practice is open to languages other than English. We will also be offering the service again at DH2015.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">The Translation Toolkit</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The success of the whisper campaign—both in practical terms at DH2014 and in its wider effect at bringing multilingual issues to the fore—has inspired members of the executive to develop a ‘translators toolkit’. This is a collection of tips for best practices and tools that have been compiled with help from the broader DH community. Examples of these practices include promoting the use of multilingual slides during presentations, allowing presenters and attendees to request live translation (via the whisperers themselves), creating multilingual posters, matching multilingual chairs to multilingual sessions, and compiling a multilingual glossary of DH terms. Ultimately, the initiative could lead to the creation of a directory of whisperers and multilingual reviewers.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clavert, F.</hi> (2013). The Digital Humanities Multicultural Revolution Did Not Happen Yet, 26 April, http://www.clavert.net/the-digital-humanities-multicultural-revolution-did-not-happen-yet/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dacos, M.</hi> (2013). [globaloutlookDH-L] Presentation and Concrete Propositions, 27 January, http://listserv.uleth.ca/pipermail/globaloutlookdh-l/2013-January/000188.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fiormonte, D.</hi> (2012). Towards a Cultural Critique of the Digital Humanities. In Thaller, M. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Controversies around the Digital Humanities</hi>. Köln: Published jointly by QUANTUM and Zentrum für Historische Sozialforschung, pp. 59–76. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Galina, I.</hi> (2013). Is There Anybody Out There? Building a Global Digital Humanities Community. Humanidades Digitales, http://humanidadesdigitales.net/blog/2013/07/19/is-there-anybody-out-there-building-a-global-digital-humanities-community/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gil, A.</hi> (2014). The (Digital) Library of Babel. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">@elotroalex</hi>, http://elotroalex.webfactional.com/digital-library-babel/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Global Outlook::Digital Humanities.</hi> (2013). About page. http://www.globaloutlookdh.org/about/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Global Outlook::Digital Humanities.</hi> (2014). DHSI Unconference Session on Multilingualism in DH. Email correspondence of participants in the ADHO DH Global Outlook Community, 18–20 June 2014.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">INKE (Implementing New Knowledge Environments).</hi> (2012). Havana Gathering 2012, http://inke.ca/projects/inke-conference-2012-havana/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">O’Donnell, D. P.</hi> (2012). In a Rich Man’s World: Global DH? Dpod Blog, 2 November, http://dpod.kakelbont.ca/2012/11/02/in-a-rich-mans-world-global-dh/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">O’Donnell, D. P.</hi> (2013). [globaloutlookDH-L] A Revolution Yet to Happen, 30 April, http://listserv.uleth.ca/pipermail/globaloutlookdh-l/2013-April/000319.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ortega, É.</hi> Whispering/Translating during DH2014: Five Things We Learned | Readers of Fiction. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Readers of Fiction</hi>, 21 July, http://lectoresdeficcion.blogs.cultureplex.ca/2014/07/21/dhwhisperer/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Priego, E. and Gil, A.</hi> (2013). Global Perspectives: Interview with Alex Gil. 4Humanities, http://4humanities.org/2013/01/interview-with-alex-gil/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Priego, E. and O’Donnell, D. P.</hi> (2013). Bringing Diversity of Experience Together: An Interview with Daniel O’Donnell. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">4Humanities</hi>, May, http://4humanities.org/2013/05/interview-daniel-o-donnell/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Terras, M.</hi> (2012). Quantifying Digital Humanities. http://melissaterras.blogspot.ca/2012/01/infographic-quanitifying-digital.html.
                    </bibl>
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"2335","16","Publish: Whatever The Price? A French Study On Structuration Of Costs During Publishing Process In Digital Humanities","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Corne</surname>
                        <forename>Emmanuelle</forename>
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                    <affiliation>CNRS, member of BSN7 group, France</affiliation>
                    <email>emmanuelle.corne@cnrs-dir.fr</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Gremillet</surname>
                        <forename>Anne-Solweig</forename>
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                    <email>anne-solweig.gremillet@univ-paris3.fr</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Contat</surname>
                        <forename>Odile</forename>
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                    <affiliation>CNRS, member of BSN7 group, France</affiliation>
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            <p rend=""Commentaire1"">In 2009 the French Ministry of Higher Education and Research created a facility, the Digital Scientific Library (Bibliothèque Scientifique Numérique [BSN]), to provide national-level support for the scientific and technical information sector and to inform on a variety of issues. A part of the work of BSN is focused on the various aspects of the publishing process, considering good practice policies and direct and indirect costs related to the activity. </p>
            <p rend=""Commentaire1"">This article presents the BSN as an emerging facility and, more specifically, describes the protocol and results from a survey implemented by the ‘publishing’ group focused on the costs associated with publishing in human and social sciences from the perspective of actors actively involved in developing editorial added-value. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">The Digital Scientific Library, a Facility for French Public Digital Sciences Research Institutions</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Publishing articles in scientific journals is expensive for French public institutions for a number of reasons, from financing the editorial process and production, to purchasing libraries and providing access to researchers. The issue of making publicly funded scientific publications available in Open Access form has increasingly become the subject of heated debates.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi>
            </p>
            <p>In addition, since 2012 and with the long-term perspective of Horizon 2020, national and European financial institutions have both included in their recommendations the use of Open Access publication (recommendations by the European Commission in July 2012 and the Horizon 2020 December 2013 release), and the French Ministry of Higher Education and Research clearly positioned itself on the subject with its declaration in 2013, ‘Scientific information is a common asset that must be available to all’ (Fioraso, 2013). Among the priority actions outlined by the Ministry of Research to achieve this goal are the following three proposals: to develop 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Green Open Access</hi>, to provide support for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Gold Open Access</hi>, and to promote the development of a third road emphasizing innovation and sustainability. 
            </p>
            <p>The BSN publishing group is tasked with implementing scalable recommendations, adaptable to changes in the state of the art within the sector, editorial practices, usage, and market demands. The long-term objective of the group is to produce a sustainable scientific digital guide outlining:</p>
            <p rend=""Paragraphe de liste""> • Best practices promoting innovative content use, dissemination, and preservation.</p>
            <p rend=""Paragraphe de liste""> • Conditions for access to make the greatest number of research results available, ideally in Open Access form.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">The Survey of Editorial Costs for Humanities and Social Science Journals</hi>
            </p>
            <p>This survey, conducted by the BSN publishing group, is designed to collect the most recent information available representing a diverse range of situations related to editorial costs for research journals, for all disciplines, for a comprehensive and up-to-date assessment. The objective is to identify common parameters of different journals related to their operations and editorial financing and to provide a set of realistic and adaptable guideline recommendations for journals targeting Open Access publication. To achieve this, it is necessary to identify all manufacturing costs for scientific journals and differentiate shares of the public and private sectors in terms of financial support, contributing to increasing editorial value or providing support for production, dissemination, and distribution, for both printed and digital works. The main question is: What is the cost of producing a scientific article, and what is the cost to transition to Open Access?</p>
            <p>The survey began with 10 qualitative interviews with journal managers or managing editors to produce detailed descriptions of the scientific and financial operations of their journals and to discuss how they viewed Open Access publishing (or issues related to the process of transitioning to Open Access). These first interviews allowed us to understand the stages of the editorial chain and provided information on the time and cost required for each necessary task within that chain for more than 15 journals. To complement and support these first results, a quantitative survey with 66 questions was then sent out, between July 2014 and November 2014, to 300 people working for university publishers or French research centres for which a part of their activity is dedicated to publishing double-blind peer-reviewed scientific journals. In the end, both cumulative surveys helped to collate results for 50 French humanities and social science academic journals.</p>
            <p>Conclusion and Discussion</p>
            <p>This work was commissioned by the publishing group at the Digital Scientific Library (BSN) joined in the process of observation and revaluation of balances by clarifying the French publishing landscape for sustainable academic publishing committed to the goal of making all scientific productions available through Open Access by the year 2020. However, up to now, very little has been known about the economics of scientific journals, and consequently, public policy makers lacked the necessary information needed to develop informed policies for publishing.</p>
            <p>We want to emphasize that, despite what we see in some of the calculations and graphics presented, switching to Open Access with APC could not be calculated by substituting the cost per article, as the APC for an article is covered by public support. This would have made our analysis of scientific editorial production purely financial when the issues are much more complex.</p>
            <p>This survey on publishing costs of HSS journals shows the following:</p>
            <p rend=""Paragraphe de liste""> • Cost analysis is an unfamiliar prism of perspective for most public actors involved in producing journals. It was urgently needed, particularly in the context of reports with commercial publishers.</p>
            <p rend=""Paragraphe de liste""> • Academic journal producers and research units develop all scientific content up to the stage of page layout within their public institutions before delivering it to a private publisher who handles distribution and commercial sales, with the revenues rarely returned to the public institution.</p>
            <p rend=""Paragraphe de liste""> • Paying salaries for editorial work represents the most important cost involved in publishing articles in HSS journals.</p>
            <p rend=""Paragraphe de liste""> • Costs paid for by the private publisher (printing, distribution) represent less than costs supported by public sector funds (salaries for editorial work).</p>
            <p rend=""Paragraphe de liste""> • The role of the private publisher is often limited to managing distribution, particularly in the context of emerging digital production and distribution. This is not to reduce the usefulness or effectiveness of this function. To the contrary, we now know that the highest costs are spent in the earlier stages of the publishing process, and this cost—which is often hidden or ignored—shows that the state invests heavily in the process of publishing journals, which has a direct consequence: this investment must be recognized, and the state as an investor should be given rights to the production it finances.</p>
            <p rend=""Paragraphe de liste""> • Cost distribution between public and private funding is essential to the relationship between the public sector and private operators.</p>
            <p rend=""Paragraphe de liste""> • The need exists for a French or even European infrastructure to better coordinate public and private contributions.</p>
            <p rend=""Paragraphe de liste""> • The issue of empowering researchers with technical skills in digital humanities elicited very different responses and merits further investigation in a follow-up study.</p>
            <p>This survey did not examine purely scientific costs, such as issues of authors’ remuneration and work done by reviewers and editors overseen by researchers, but this issue was central to our discussions with journal managers. The first results of this survey will, hopefully, be a source of ideas and reflection for practical ways to approach Horizon 2020 in France and for prospects of further enlargement in Europe.</p>
            <p>Our discussions with professionals in the industry showed us that issues surrounding scientific editorial production in humanities and social sciences in France are approximately on par with those in Spain and Portugal (Medici, 2014). It would appear that the necessary conditions have been met for building common foundations for good practice guidelines in Europe, and perhaps the future possibility of developing editorial costs within the Dariah infrastructure (Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities).</p>
            <p rend=""Commentaire1"">Authors’ Note</p>
            <p rend=""Commentaire1"">This article compiles the main conclusions of a collective work conducted by the publishing group of the Digital Scientific Library handled by the French Ministry of Higher Education and Research. We want to thank all stakeholders in this group and the institutions they represent for their involvement, their careful proofreading, and their support: Marin Dacos (Openedition), Domique Roux (University Presses of Caen), Emmanuelle Corne (Foundation for the Sciences of Man), Céline Vautrin (College of France Publications), Jacques Lafait (Nanosciences Institute of Paris), Sylvie Steffann (CNRS-Inist), Jean-François Lutz (University of Lorraine), Annie Leblanc (French Atomic Energy Commission), and Sébastien Respingue-Perrin (University Library of Evry Val d’Essonne, Couperin).</p>
            <p rend=""Paragraphe de liste"">Note</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. ‘We have seen the Open Access culture developing for several years; we now need to consider how this affects the economics of scientific publication’ (Chartron, 2006).</p>
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        <back>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Paragraphe de liste"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chartron, G.</hi> (2006). Une économie renouvelée de la publication scientifique. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Perspectives documentaires en éducation,</hi> no. 62.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Paragraphe de liste"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fioraso, G.</hi> (2013). L’information scientifique est un bien commun qui doit être disponible pour tous. Discours lors des 5e journées Open Access, le 24 janvier 2013, http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/cid66992/discours-de-genevieve-fioraso-lors-des-5e-journees-open-access.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Paragraphe de liste"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Médici.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Actes des 5e journées du réseau métier de l'édition scientifique publique (Médici)</hi>, Strasbourg, Parlement européen, 7–9 avril 2014, http://www.cnrs.fr/dist/z-outils/documents/Medici.pdf.
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"2336","16","Punched-Card Humanities: Roberto Busa and IBM in Historical Context","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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            <p>It’s the canonical founding story of the digital humanities: In November 1949, the Italian Jesuit scholar Father Roberto Busa came to IBM headquarters at 590 Madison Avenue in New York to meet with the founder and head of the company, Thomas J. Watson Sr. He was seeking technical and financial support for the project of mechanizing the building of a massive lemmatized concordance to the works of St. Thomas Aquinas. Drawing on Father Busa’s own papers, recently accessioned in Milan, as well as IBM archives and other sources, I aim to uncover the historical complexities behind the founding story, the history behind the myth. In this paper, based on a book in progress, I’ll look at a few details of that 1949 meeting between Father Busa and Watson using the metaphor of the exploded-view diagram—like those used by engineers, descended from examples in the notebooks of Leonardo, for example—suspending and zooming in on constituent details of the meeting and the meanings each detail invokes, in order to understand the story as part of a larger history of computing in the 1940s and 1950s, and as part of the prehistory of the digital humanities. </p>
            <p>In a paper delivered at DH 2014, Geoffrey Rockwell and Stefan Sinclair briefly consider Father Busa’s work with IBM, along with other examples of ‘the period of technology development around mainframe and personal computer text analysis tools, that has largely been forgotten with the advent of the web’ (2014). They advocate a media-archaeology approach (they cite Zieliniski, 2008; I’d add Parikka, 2012) as a way to begin to ‘understand how differently data entry, output and interaction were thought through’ in the mainframe era (2014). I share those goals. In my case, I’ll also draw on the related approach known as platform studies, examining specific calculating and computing platforms available to Father Busa and his collaborator at IBM, Paul Tasman—including the ‘bootstrapped’ systems they configured for punched-card processing, which soon included early tape-drive stored-program computers. The affordances of these platforms led to the inclusion in Father Busa’s research agenda on the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Index Thomisticus</hi> of similar work on the newly discovered Dead Sea Scrolls in the later 1950s. I’ll look at relationships between the layers in each platform: hardware, software, human agents, history, and culture. My central question is how specific technologies afford and constrain cultural practices, including the academic research agendas of humanities computing and, later, digital humanities.
            </p>
            <p>My point of departure is a seemingly insignificant detail: a poster Father Busa says he carried into the CEO’s office that read, ‘The difficult we do right away; the impossible takes a little longer’. In his telling, the poster becomes a rhetorical device for persuading IBM to collaborate. I show that in the 1940s, at least for Watson, it would also have been closely associated with the SeaBees, the U.S. Navy Construction Brigade, and its famous ‘can-do’ philosophy, and, thus, with the wide context of the postwar period of reconstruction and of the role of technology in the new era, including IBM’s own complicated history in Europe. Just months before the meeting with Father Busa, IBM had created its World Trade Corporation, and, significantly, it was to this international subsidiary and the technical head of it, Paul Tasman, that Father Busa’s project was assigned. The collaboration belongs in that wider historical context, as well as the more specific context of the particular punched-card machines Busa and Tasman went on to use for the initial experiments in machine-generated indexes and general ‘language engineering’, the results of which were first published in Busa (1951). I’ll look at how the punched cards continued to be used for years, even in hybrid (and transatlantic) workflow systems that, at one point, included punching, sorting, and collating the cards in Italy, then bringing them to New York for transfer to and sequential processing on the magnetic tapes of the room-sized IBM 705. (Publicity photos from the era show Father Busa sitting at the control console of the 705, its tall tape drives in the background.) </p>
            <p>I’ll also consider one example of an ‘adjacent possible’ platform (Johnson, 2014, 156), a road not taken, as it were: the SSEC, the first publicly recognized large-scale calculator (and about the status of which as a stored-program 
                <hi rend=""italic"">computer</hi> there has been a history of debate). Father Busa would have had to walk past this big machine on his way to the fateful meeting, a kind of pre-mainframe, operating out in public, on display in the custom-designed showroom on the street level of 590 Madison Avenue, on the corner of 57th Street, and he would perhaps have seen the plaque mounted there with Watson’s words, dedicating it to science, education, and government, and the exploration of ‘the consequences of man’s thought to the outermost reaches of time, space, and physical conditions’. The machine was in newsreels, a 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Vogue </hi>magazine spread, newspapers (one cross-marketing ad with Shell Oil included a cartoon depicting it as a colossal female ‘Oracle on 57th Street’), and was even used in an early cold-war Hollywood film noir, which cast IBM engineers and operators as extras, all during the years Father Busa was demonstrating his system for linguistic analysis using the available punched-card machines. The example of the SSEC likely led to Busa’s interest within a few years in using the 705 (in a line that replaced the SSEC in IBM’s public showroom starting in 1952, just when Busa and Tasman were demonstrating their techniques at IBM). Despite the movies and other representations of the popular imagination, fueled by publicity campaigns, the ‘questions’ posed to the ‘oracles’ that were early 1950s computers were, of course, in the form of mathematical calculations, and the data to be processed was for the most part numbers, not natural language. But according to Tasman, the development of Information Retrieval at IBM, including the standard KWIC (Key Word In Context) protocol, grew out of Father Busa’s early experiments (1968).
            </p>
            <p>The whole campaign around the SSEC, in terms of its mode of publicity and its computing aims, bears a striking resemblance to the most recent IBM campaign this past season (Fall 2014), at a different showroom, down at Astor Place in New York, with another personified machine, but this time one that 
                <hi rend=""italic"">does</hi> answer natural language questions by recourse to very deep data to which it applies artificial intelligence in the form of cognitive computing. Watson, named for the founder and first CEO, is in part descended from Father Busa’s project, started in that CEO’s office, and on the kind of research it represented, its processing of language instead of numbers, and eventually (and perhaps at first accidentally), its focus on viewing a text-base in the way a database would later be viewed—as a store of information to be mined, analyzed, retrieved effectively, and even rearranged algorithmically in order to reveal patterns or answer new questions. At mid-century, the SSEC may have been (literally) the poster-child for these aspirations for computing, but it was the ‘humanistic’ work with punched-card machinery, like the experiments of Father Busa and Paul Tasman, trying at first just to sort words more efficiently, only later learning they could engage in more sophisticated text analytics, that marked a significant swerve that would eventually lead into these larger aspirations—not to mention to what came to be known as the digital humanities. It’s in that more complicated sense that the prehistory of the digital humanities, at least one prehistory, is punched-card humanities.
            </p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bogost, I. and Montfort, N.</hi> (n.d.). Platform Studies. http://platformstudies.com.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Busa, R.</hi> (1951). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Varia Specimina Concordiatarum: A First Example of Word Index Automatically Compiled and Printed by IBM Punched Card Machines. </hi>Fratelli Bocca, Milan.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Busa, R.</hi> (1980). The Annals of Humanities Computing: The 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Index Thomisticus. Computers and the Humanities,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>(2): 83–90.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Johnson, S.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">How We Got to Now: Six Innovations That Made the Modern World.</hi> Riverhead Books, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Parikka, J.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">What Is Media Archaeology? </hi>Polity, Cambridge, UK.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rockwell, G. and Sinclair, S.</hi> (2014). Past Analytical: Towards an Archaeology of Text Analysis Tools. Paper delivered at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH 2014</hi>, Lausanne, http://dharchive.org/ paper/DH2014/Paper-778.xml.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tasman, P. (</hi>1957). Literary Data Processing. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IBM Journal of Research and Development,</hi> (
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1)</hi>3: 249–56.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tasman, P.</hi> (1958). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Indexing the Dead Sea Scrolls, by Electronic Literary Data Processing Methods. </hi>IBM World Trade Corporation, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tasman, P.</hi> (1968). Oral History. IBM Archives, Somers, NY, accessed 2014.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zieliniski, S.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Deep Time of the Media: Toward an Archaeology of Hearing and Seeing by Technical Means.</hi> MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. 
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                        <forename>Dana</forename>
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            <p>Both the challenge and the pleasure of poetry analysis originate in nocuous and polysemous ambiguity: Different readers interpret linguistic expressions in a poem based on different contexts. The layers of ambiguity grow exponentially when a reader applies semiotic analysis to a poem to examine linguistic expressions for modalities, paradigms, syntagmatic structures, rhetorical tropes, intertexual elements, and semiotic codes. Poetry scholars might argue, in fact, that to eliminate nocuous and polysemous ambiguity would diminish the poem and defeat the purpose of poetic interpretation.</p>
            <p>To date, ambiguity analysis generally manifests itself in domains like requirements gathering documents, where ambiguity can lead to misinterpretation, lost money and time, and poor or stunted project outcomes. Approaches that attempt a probabilistic prediction of ambiguity in such documents can be useful for indicating ambiguity when writing these texts, so that authors can be reminded to clarify their writing where it 
                <hi rend=""italic"">might </hi>be necessary. In poetry analysis, however, it may be less useful for interpretation purposes to probabilistically predict which expressions are ambiguous or not. Orthography petrifies meaning in poetry, some argue; nevertheless, a poem may be infused with multiple meanings by virtue of ambiguities created through wordplay and rhetorical devices that can be discerned only through close reading and puzzle solving to decode the linguistic expressions and structures.
            </p>
            <p>We are curious to discover if reducing ambiguity will limit poetic analysis and what new types of questions may emerge as a result of disambiguation. To that effect, in this presentation we aim to present three facets of what we hope will become a large project on quantifying ambiguity:</p>
            <p> a. 
                <hi rend=""underline"">Method as Applied to Research in the Humanities</hi>: This algorithmic tool will be further refined to provide a mechanism to quantify the ambiguity of a given text by analyzing its lexical and syntactic ambiguity to produce a number that represents the overall ambiguity of the text. As well as gamifying the process of communicating unambiguously (by enabling the dynamic scoring of the author’s progress as she writes), the tool enables the ambiguity of diverse texts to be objectively compared and opens new avenues for text comparison and analysis. Furthermore, the tool should identify ambiguity 
                <hi rend=""italic"">within </hi>a text by quantifying the ambiguity of individual words and phrases inside the text. An immediate application of this will be to produce an extension that will highlight terms or phrases in a text in colors representing their ambiguity, providing an ‘ambiguity map,’ the equivalent of a ‘heat map’ (see Chen and Wang, 2012) for ambiguity within texts:
            </p>
            <p>Figure 1. Sample output of the tool in current prototype.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""7.727597222222222cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p> b. 
                <hi rend=""underline"">Critical Assessment of the Application</hi>: Application of the tool to William Blake’s ‘The Sick Rose’. Initially, we set our ambitions too high—to apply the tool to what many consider the most difficult poem in the world due to its high level of ambiguity, Mallarmé’s ‘Coup de dés’ (CDD). Obstacles arose because of the structure and variants in the Littré Dictionary (which Mallarmé used to write the poem), which made it difficult to apply the algorithm in its current form. CDD’s length and visual formatting also render it too difficult to parse manually in order to compare it to the algorithm’s output. Therefore, we decided to work with William Blake’s ‘The Sick Rose’, for its brevity, morphological simplicity, and its ambiguity (scholars refer to it as one of Blake’s ‘gnomic triumphs’ [Bloom, 1987]). We anticipate that this 34-word poem will be more manageable both for the algorithm to analyze, so that we can manually code the poem and compare our effort to the algorithmic output, and to build a proof-of-concept multimodal dictionary with word processor. 
            </p>
            <p> c. 
                <hi rend=""underline"">Impact in Formulating and Addressing Research Questions</hi>: An outcome of our analysis is the realization that dictionaries (whether those used by the poet or current dictionaries used by readers of poetry) provide definitions that may themselves be ambiguous, primarily due to circularity (for example, the definition of a word in a dictionary may contain a word, the definition for which contains the original word), but also due to the general effect of nocuous or polysemic ambiguity in the dictionaries themselves. Additionally, by hand coding one poem we will show that a computer-aided coder (e.g., a special word processor) would greatly speed up the task of specifying the semantics of a text. Therefore, we intend to build and showcase a multimodal dictionary for the poem, which we will discuss in conjunction with a proposed, longer-term project to build a type of word processor that enables authors to specify the meanings of words in-line while writing a poem or to mark up a poem post-hoc. 
            </p>
            <p>As dictionaries often provide multiple meanings for a single word, the proposed new dictionary will provide identifiers for concepts as well as linking terms to those concepts (in much the same way that WordNet does [see Miller, 1995]), enabling authors to use the word processor to specify the concept they are referring to when they use a term or phrase (rather than simply including a multi-meaning term in their text), and minimizing the ambiguity of their writing. The dictionary will require all concepts to be defined using data (images, audio, video, other sensor data), semantic primitives / semantic primes, or some combination of these, thus ensuring that the definitions in the dictionary are minimally ambiguous (Wierzbicka, 1972). In order to eventually enable 
                <hi rend=""italic"">semantic </hi>ambiguity to be quantified, the dictionary will also not limit the referrers that may refer to concepts to only terms or phrases but will allow any text to link to a concept. This effort aligns with current ambiguity analysis theory, where authors state that ambiguity can be avoided by using controlled languages (Fuchs and Schwitter, 1996; Gause and Weinberg, 2011), style guides (Kovitz, 1998; Ryser and Glinz, 2000), and lexicons (Chantree et al., 2006) In this section, we also address concerns that creating a lexicon of domain-specific terminology, even for a 34-word poem, will be a sizeable task. If time permits, we hope to solicit feedback from the audience on the proposed word processor, which would enable authors to create texts with minimal ambiguity by enabling them to specify the meanings of words and phrases as they type (in much the same way as predictive text software works). The word processor would also enable deterministic semantic analysis (in contrast to the mainstream approaches to semantic analysis, which are, for the most part, probabilistic [see Hoffman, 2001]) by capturing a machine-readable version of the meaning of the text being written. 
            </p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blake, W.</hi> (1789). The Sick Rose. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Songs of Innocence and Experience</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bloom, H.</hi> (ed.). 1987. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Introduction to William Blake’s Songs of Innocence and of Experience</hi>. New York: Chelsea House, pp. 1–28. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chantree, F., Kilgarriff, A., de Roeck, A. and Willis, A.</hi> (2005). Disambiguating Coordinations Using Word Distribution Information. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Recent Advances in Natural Language Processing (RANLP)</hi>, Borovets, Bulgaria. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chantree, F., Nuseibeh, B., de Roeck, A. and Willis, A.</hi> (2006). Identifying Nocuous Ambiguities in Natural Language Requirements. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 14th IEEE International Conference</hi>, Minneapolis, Minnesota. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chen, L. and Wang, Y.</hi> (2012). Heat Map Displays for Data from Human Abuse Potential Crossover Studies. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Therapeutic Innovation and Regulatory Science,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">46</hi>(6) (November): 701–7.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Empsom. W.</hi> (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Seven Types of Ambiguity</hi>. Random House. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fuchs, N. and Schwitter, R.</hi> (1996). Attempto Controlled English (ACE). In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Controlled Language Applications</hi>. Leuven, Belgium.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gause, D. and Weinberg, G.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Exploring Requirements: Quality before Design</hi>. Dorset House, New York. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Harrison, A.</hi> (1963). Poetic Ambiguity. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Analysis,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(3) (January). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoffman, T.</hi> (2001). Unsupervised Learning by Probabilistic Latent Semantic Analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Machine Learning, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">42</hi>: 177–96. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kovitz, B. L.</hi> (1998). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Practical Software Requirements: A Manual of Content and Style.</hi> Manning, Greenwich, CT. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Miller, G.</hi> (1995). WordNet: A Lexical Database for English. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communications of the ACM,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">38</hi>(11): 39–41. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Norvig, P.</hi> (1998). Interpretation under Ambiguity. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Poesio, M.</hi> (1996). Semantic Ambiguity and Perceived Ambiguity. In Van Deemter, K. and Peters, S. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Semantic Ambiguity and Underspecification</hi>. Stanford, CA: Center for the Study of Language and Information. CSLI Lecture Notes 55. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Resnik, P.</hi> (1999). Semantic Similarity in a Taxonomy: An Information-Based Measure and Its Application to Problems of Ambiguity in Natural Language. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>: 95–130. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rogers, R.</hi> (1973). On the Metapsychology of Poetic Language: Modal Ambiguity. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Psychoanalysis,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">54</hi>(1): 61–74.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ryser, J. and Glinz, M.</hi> (2000). Scent—A Method Employing Scenarios to Systematically Derive Test Cases for System Test. Technical Report 2000.03, University of Zurich, Switzerland. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schull, F., Rus, I. and Basili, V.</hi> (2000). How Perspective-Based Reading Can Improve Requirements Inspections. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Computer,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">33</hi>(7) (July): 73–79.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wasow, T., Perfors, A. and Beaver, D.</hi> (2003). The Puzzle of Ambiguity. In Orgun, O. and Sells, P. (eds). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Morphology and the Web of Grammar: Essays in Memory of Steven G. Lapointe</hi>. CSLI Publications. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wierzbicka, A.</hi> (1972). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Semantic Primitives</hi>. Athenäum, Frankfurt.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2338","16","Quantitative Methods in Historiography: A Survey","10","","","1","",""
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            <p>Popular biographies of Queen Luise of Prussia (1776–1810, r. 1797–1810) written in the second half of the nineteenth century uniformly adhere to what Wulf Wülfing has called a ‘stations of the cross’ structure (Wülfing, 1984). Independent of whether the biography focuses on her domestic life, her personal character and temperament, or her influence at court, it relates and pays homage to canonical moments in Luise’s life story: her childhood encounter with Goethe’s mother, her presence at the coronation of the last Holy Roman Emperor, her meeting with her future husband, and several instances of informal, uncourtly conduct upon becoming princess. Biographies written for a variety of intended audiences (the German people, young Germans, young ladies, etc.) all adhere to the same narrative thread. While biographies on the same subject might be expected to follow a similar time line, popular treatments of Luise’s life and times tend to treat the same set of life anecdotes using the same language (Askey, 2013). While Luise’s function as a secular Prussian saint is one reason for the similarity of these biographies, another is their grounding in the same foundational texts. After Luise’s death in 1810, two biographies written by members of the Prussian court reached the public. King Friedrich Wilhelm III’s court pastor, Ruleman Friedrich Eylert, published 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Charakter-Züge und historische Fragmente aus dem Leben des Königs von Preussen Friedrich Wilhelm III </hi>(Characteristics and Historical Fragments form the Life of King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia), a multivolume court history that contained over one volume of information on Queen Luise. And Luise’s lady in waiting, Countess Sophie Marie von Voss, published 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Neunundsechzig Jahre am preussischen Hofe; aus den Erinnerungen der Oberhofmeisterin Sophie Marie Gräfin von Voss </hi>(Sixty-Nine Years at the Prussian Court: The Memories of the Senior Lady in Waiting Countess Sophie Marie von Voss)
                <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi> This poster will introduce a digitization and textual analysis project that brings court and popular biographies into conversation with one another. 
            </p>
            <p> While the court biographies are available digitally, most of the popular biographies, especially those for children, are not. Libraries in the nineteenth century did not generally collect children’s literature, and so my personal collection of around a dozen Luise biographies for young readers will be digitized. Our team at the Sherman Centre for Digital Scholarship will OCR the biographies, experimenting with ABBYY, OmniPage, and Tesseract to achieve optimal results with the notoriously difficult German 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Fraktur</hi> typescript. Once the corpus of official court and popular biographies has been created, we will perform standard text mining on the body of texts for young people to confirm or refute personal close readings. Our text mining queries will focus on the frequency of selected key terms relating to Luise’s life story, as well as the frequency of certain gendered textual markers (such as the word 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Gemüt</hi>—temperament, or words associated with clothing or fashion). The information gleaned from text mining will contribute to a scholarly discussion not only on the queen but on exemplarity, female childhood, and the gender discourse of the public sphere in the long nineteenth century. 
            </p>
            <p> The final step involves running subsets of the popular biographies (for the general public, for young people) and the court biographies through a comparison engine such as Juxta to determine adherence or deviation from a supposed ur-text. In the context of my previous work on Queen Luise and her literary function as exemplar for young German women, my hopes for the comparison step of the process are quite high. I use Voyant and Juxta to focus on specific language tokens that provide insight into gender norms and expectations, references to Luise’s physicality, and the development of nationalist discourse (apparent where the queen’s use of French at the court is set against her domestic use of German). </p>
            <p> The poster will illustrate the resource creation process (digitization and OCR of Fraktur texts, accessibility of that corpus for other scholars) as well as the first stages of textual analysis using the corpus. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Askey, J.</hi> (2013). Good Girls, Good Germans: Girls’ Education and Emotional Nationalism in Wilhelminan Germany. Camden House, Rochester, NY. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eylert, R.</hi> (1844). Charakter-Züge und historische Fragmente aus dem Leben des Königs von Preußen Friedrich Wilhelm III: Gesammelt nach eigenen Beobachtungen und selbstgemachten Erfarhungen; wohlfeile Ausgabe für das Volk. Heinrichshofenschen Buchhandlung, Magdeburg.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Voß, S.</hi> (1876). Neunundsechsig Jahre am Preußischem Hofe: Aus den Erinnerungen der Oberhofmeisterin Sophie Marie Gräfin von Voß. Dunker und Humbolt, Leipzig.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wülfing, W.</hi> (1984). ‘Die Heilige Luise von Preußen: Zur Mythisierung einer figure der Geschichte in der deutschen Literatur des 19. Jahrhunderts’: Bewegung und Stillstand in Metaphern und Mythen: Fallstudien zum Verhältnis von elementarem Wissen und Literatur im 19. Jahrhundert. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta. 
                    </bibl>
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                        <forename>David L.</forename>
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            <p>The use of rare n-grams in authorship attribution has generated considerable recent commentary and polemic. Vickers argues for the expansion of Thomas Kyd’s canon on the basis of 3- to 6-grams not found elsewhere in plays produced during his lifetime but shared by Kyd’s and some anonymous plays (2008). Although Jackson (2008) challenged his method, Vickers has repeated and expanded his claims (2009), arguing that Middleton did not adapt 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Macbeth</hi> (2010) and that Shakespeare added about 2,600 words to Kyd’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Spanish Tragedy</hi> (2012). He has also produced a wide-ranging polemical dismissal of computational stylistics in general and the most frequent words in particular (2011). For responses to Vickers’ flawed critique, see Burrows (2012) and Antonia et al. (2014). Here I test his method on Victorian drama.
            </p>
            <p>I have shown that the method is not reliable for similar-sized corpora of late-19th-century novels and modern American poetry (Hoover, 2011; 2012). Vickers has been insufficiently systematic and has not checked his method adequately on texts of known authorship. The huge number of individually rare n-grams ensures that many otherwise unattested n-grams show matches between any authorial corpus and many individual texts, whether those texts are by the same author or not. However, given that authorship attribution methods vary in accuracy with texts of various genres and lengths, it seems important to test Vickers’ method on drama, using a corpus that mimics the shape and size of his corpus of early modern plays. (Plays seem to present special difficulties for authorship attribution because they typically consist almost entirely of the spoken dialogue of multiple characters.)</p>
            <p>Vickers emphasizes the unusual nature of the London drama scene in the late 1500s—where plays were being produced very rapidly and often collaboratively by a relatively small number of authors—as a reason to expect repeated n-grams to be especially appropriate as authorship markers (2008). He also usually limits his search for repeated n-grams to a restricted corpus of 55 to 75 plays produced during the productive lifetimes of his candidate authors. This initially seems reasonable, but it also inflates his chances of success and underestimates the likelihood of random matches not resulting from common authorship. Consider that ‘We know the titles of 1,500 plays performed between 1590 and 1642, of which only a few hundred survive . . .’ and that ‘the names of barely a dozen dramatists survive’ (Vickers, 2008, 13). Given these facts, rare n-grams found in one author’s often small and/or problematic corpus and an anonymous play but not in a restricted and incomplete reference corpus seem a dangerous indicator of authorship. We cannot know how many of these n-grams occurred in lost plays. Rare n-gram matches can support attributions or suggest the common authorship of anonymous plays, but they cannot provide the conclusive proof that Vickers seeks, claims, and uses to assert the unreliability of probabilistic methods based on frequent words or n-grams.</p>
            <p>The small corpus and the uncertainty of dates, authorship, and collaboration, combined with substantial spelling variation, suggest that many early modern authorship questions are beyond confident solution. As noted above, rare n-grams have not proven effective for 19th-century fiction or modern American poetry, but extending the test to drama will provide a better comparison with Vickers’ method. I created a corpus of Victorian drama that mirrors his 55-play corpus (Vickers, personal communication) but without its drawbacks. I selected authors with enough plays available to match the authorial corpora of the nine known authors in Vickers’ corpus, and tried to match the lengths of the plays as closely as possible. For example, below are the seven plays by Henry Byron I use to match Vickers’ seven plays by Marlowe (sizes approximate):</p>
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            <p>I also selected nine plays by nine additional authors to match Vickers’ nine anonymous plays. (None of my plays is a collaboration or is of uncertain authorship, as some of Vickers’ unfortunately are, but about half my authors were involved in collaborations.) To overcome the limitations of Vickers’ corpus, I collected 20 more plays by 10 authors (one to three plays each), for testing. I used WordSmith Tools (Scott, 2012) to collect the 3- to 6-grams appearing at least twice in the 75 plays (about 173,000; n-grams appearing only once obviously cannot show matches). For my first test, I removed Buckstone’s six plays from the 55-play corpus, leaving 49 as the reference corpus. I tested a four-play Buckstone corpus against his two other plays and the 20 remaining plays by others by deleting all 3- to 6-grams present in the reference corpus (leaving 37,000), and then deleting all those absent from the Buckstone corpus. I calculated the number of matches between the remaining 6,500 Buckstone n-grams and the 22 test plays. The two remaining Buckstone plays have 363 and 241 n-gram matches with his corpus that are not found in the reference corpus (Vickers’ test). The 20 other plays have 59 to 254 such matches, and two have 241 or more, showing that plays by other authors can equal or outscore those by a candidate author. The results for Taylor (also with a six-play corpus, testing a four-play corpus against the remaining two Taylor plays and the 20 test plays) are worse: nine plays have more matches with Taylor than one of his own plays does. Although Vickers reports raw numbers of matches, as I have just done, the variation in length among his plays and mine makes this seem unwise, so Figures 1 and 2 graph the numbers of matches divided by text length for the Buckstone and Taylor tests above. Two other plays outscore both of Buckstone’s test plays, and three outscore the other (Figure 1). For Taylor, the results are a bit better, with only one play outscoring one of Taylor’s (Figure 2). These results do not, however, suggest a conclusive method.</p>
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            <p>Figure 1. N-grams absent from the reference corpus with matches between the Buckstone corpus and 22 plays.</p>
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            <p>Figure 2. N-grams absent from the reference corpus with matches between the Taylor corpus and 22 plays.</p>
            <p>I created a larger reference corpus for further testing by collecting 45 more plays, for a total of 100—86 in 14 authorial corpora of two to 17 plays each, and 14 by 14 authors not otherwise represented in the corpus. To mirror the case of the 2,600 words added to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Spanish Tragedy</hi>, I also collected two more full plays and 15 sections of 2,600 words by the 14 authors of the 86 plays (including at least one for each of the 13 authors with at least three plays), and eight sections of 2,600 words by eight additional authors. The goal was to test what might have happened had the corpus of early modern plays been larger and to see how sections by authors from outside the corpus compare to authors’ sections by authors in the set. 
            </p>
            <p>I again collected all the 3- to 6-grams appearing twice or more in the entire corpus (206,000), removed the Buckstone authorial corpus, and treated the remaining plays in authorial sets as the reference corpus. I deleted the n-grams found in the reference corpus, then retained only those found in a 6-play Buckstone authorial corpus and checked for matches between Buckstone and the remaining texts. I did the same for Taylor. The results can be seen in Figures 3 and 4.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""10.475736111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. N-grams absent from the reference corpus with matches between the Buckstone corpus and 39 other texts.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""10.313458333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. N-grams absent from the reference corpus with matches between the Taylor corpus and 40 other texts.</p>
            <p>The Buckstone test succeeds, with all three of the 2,600-word sections of his test play as well as the entire play showing more matches with Buckstone than any of the other texts do, though it does not make a strong case for the certainty Vickers claims. The Taylor test fails badly: the whole Taylor play only barely outscores one other text, and the 2,600-word section trails behind 15 other texts. Tests on two of the other five authors with at least a six-play corpus are clearly successful, and tests on two fail badly. Clearly, in a real authorship test, this method will often produce strong erroneous attributions.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Finally, I tested twenty-one 2,600-word sections against all seven authors with at least a six-play corpus and against a composite ‘author’ comprising six plays by six authors (from among the original 20 test plays). Seven sections are by the seven authors and the remaining 14 by other authors; obviously, none is by the composite author. As Figure 5 shows, the tests for Bernard’s and Taylor’s sections fail; Bernard’s corpus is outscored by four other authors, including the composite one, and Taylor’s is outscored by two. The Phillips and Poole tests are very successful, and the correct author has the highest proportion of matches for the remaining three authors, but none of those cases is clearly distinguishable from the results for tests on sections not by any of the seven authors. And it is quite disconcerting that the composite author often scores first or second. Furthermore, these results are artificially successful because I limited each authorial corpus to exactly six plays. When larger authorial corpora are tested, the largest often outscores most or all of the other authors for most sections, showing the importance of the size of each author’s corpus to this method. As welcome as a conclusive method for authorship attribution would be, especially for relatively small amounts of text, the rare n-grams method seems unlikely to provide it.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""12.902847222222222cm"" height=""25.200680555555557cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 5. N-grams absent from the reference corpus with matches between the eight authors and twenty-one 2,600-word sections of plays by 21 authors. </p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. Because of the unusual nature of the rare n-grams test, it is difficult to compare results using other methods. However, in a Delta test on authors in Vickers’s 55-text corpus, including only the seven authors with three or more texts and testing 30 texts as if they were unknown (21 whole plays and nine sections of about 2,600 words by one of the authors in the set), 23 texts are correctly attributed to their authors. Among the seven failures are four of the nine short sections. Curiously, there are three errors for Buckstone in the Delta tests, but none for Taylor, reversing the results of the rare n-grams test.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Antonia, A., Craig, H. and Elliott, J. </hi>(2014). Language Chunking, Data Sparseness, and the Value of a Long Marker List: Explorations with Word N-grams and Authorial Attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">LLC,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(2): 147–63.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J. F. </hi>(2012). A Second Opinion on ‘Shakespeare and Authorship Studies in the Twenty-First Century’. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare Quarterly, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">63</hi>(3): 355–92.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. L. </hi>(2011). Delta, Zeta, and Iota: An Ngrammatical Investigation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language Individuation: A Symposium in Honour of John Burrows</hi>, University of Newcastle, Australia, 4–8 July 2011.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. L. </hi>(2012). The Rarer They Are, the More There Are, the Less They Matter. Lecture, University of Hamburg, 19 July 2012.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jackson, M. P. </hi>(2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Research Opportunities in Medieval and Renaissance, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">47</hi>: 107–27.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Scott, M. </hi>(2012). WordSmith Tools version 6. Liverpool: Lexical Analysis Software.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vickers, B.</hi> (2008). Thomas Kyd, Secret Sharer. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Times Literary Supplement,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>: 13–15.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vickers, B.</hi> (2009). The Marriage of Philology and Informatics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">British Academy Review,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>: 41–44.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vickers, B.</hi> (2010). Disintegrated: Did Thomas Middleton Really Adapt Macbeth? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Times Literary Supplement,</hi> 28 May, 13–14.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vickers, B.</hi> (2011). Shakespeare and Authorship Studies in the Twenty-first Century. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare Quarterly,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">62</hi>: 106–42.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vickers, B.</hi> (2012). Identifying Shakespeare’s Additions to 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Spanish Tragedy </hi>(1602): A New(er) Approach. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>: 13–43.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2342","16","Recording Historical Connections In The Dictionary Of Sydney.","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>Recording Historical Connections In The Dictionary Of Sydney.</title>
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                        <surname>Wallace</surname>
                        <forename>Stewart McAdam</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Melbourne; University of Sydney</affiliation>
                    <email>stewart.wallace@unimelb.edu.au</email>
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                    <term>relationships</term>
                    <term>semantics</term>
                    <term>data-modelling</term>
                    <term>dictionaries</term>
                    <term>encyclopedias</term>
                    <term>history</term>
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                    <term>archives</term>
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                    <term>ontologies</term>
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            <p>This paper will outline the approach taken to encoding historical information in the Dictionary of Sydney project and, in particular, will assess five years of use of one of its core data structures—known to the project as ‘Factoids’.</p>
            <p>The Dictionary of Sydney (http://dictionaryofsydney.org/)</p>
            <p>The Dictionary of Sydney project arose from an initiative at the City of Sydney Council in 2004–5. A trust was set up to support and manage the establishment and operation of the Dictionary, and it was subsequently the subject of an Australian Research Council linkage grant from 2005 to 2010 involving the University of Sydney, the City of Sydney, the State Library of NSW, the State Archives of NSW, and the University of Technology Sydney (UTS). The author was project manager of the ARC project from 2006 to 2010 and has worked intermittently with the Dictionary since.</p>
            <p>The Dictionary was ‘born digital’ and aimed to create a flexible repository of information on the history of the area now encompassed by ‘Greater Sydney’. A website, intended to be only the first of various digital products, went live in 2009. The Dictionary continues to operate with the backing primarily of the City of Sydney Council and some other institutional and philanthropic support.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Text and Data Structures</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The use of the term ‘Dictionary’ was debated and somewhat at odds with similar initiatives more often titled ‘Encyclopaedias’ (Te Ara [n.d.]; Encyclopedia of Chicago [2005]). The Dictionary was always intended to include narrative entries of varying length and was by no means expected to be confined to a list of defined terms or to be simply a gazetteer of names and labels (as ‘Dictionary’ might have implied). However, the obvious potential for a strong set of terms and labels to link and aggregate digital resources (text, multimedia, and maps) encouraged an approach that integrated narrative text and structured data.</p>
            <p>This gave rise initially to two distinct sets of terms encompassing Entities (‘things’) and more abstract Subjects. The emphasis in all these deliberations was on simplicity and ease of use rather than the final word in academic rigour. So, in assessing useful categories of urban Entities, listings on popular directory websites such as Sensis (2014) and even those at the back of street directories were consulted along with more scholarly efforts at categorisation. Hierarchies were kept shallow, with generally no more than three levels.</p>
            <p>The final list of Entity types was Artefacts, Buildings, Events, Natural Features, Organisations, People, Places, and Structures. Digital resources were identified as Entries, Maps, and Multimedia, and the Dictionary’s set of components was completed with Subjects, Contributors, and Roles.</p>
            <p>By the time of writing, at least 50,000 of these elements have been created (alongside over a million words in Entries), and several years of experience and practice has been built up.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Linking Entities and Defining Roles—The ‘Factoids’</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The Entities provided a solid framework to which could be attached various digital resources. This ensured that the Dictionary was not ‘entry-centric’ and could have multiple Entries attached to a single Entity—important in ensuring that the Dictionary was 
                <hi rend=""italic"">not</hi> confined to a single interpretative voice but instead did justice to the many opinions and discourses that a complex urban history demands.
            </p>
            <p>There remained requirements that Entities alone did not satisfy:</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • Linking entities.</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • Consistently recording location spatial and temporal extent.</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • Recognising that the ‘role’ of Entities can change (e.g., a building used for different purposes over time).</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • Handling different names (Mark Foys aka The Downing Centre, Pyrmont Bridge aka Anzac Bridge).</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • Finer-grained categorisation where the eight basic Entity types were not adequate.</p>
            <p>There was reluctance to define different data structures for different Entities, thereby leading to a complex and inflexible relational ‘database of everything’. It was also recognised that the Dictionary could not (and should not) take over the role of every specialist information source; for example, the Dictionary might record the location, designer, builder, and perhaps function of a bridge and key dates, but it could be left to an engineering heritage resource to record—for the true aficionado or expert—the materials used, the number of rivets, the exact dimensions and load-bearing characteristics, etc.</p>
            <p>The recognition of the temporal element and the need to record change also significantly influenced the data structure used to handle these requirements. The key element for encoding change was the Role. Different Entities could take on different Roles over time—a Building might be a gaol, then a cultural centre, and then a residential block; a Place might be a quarry and then a park; a Structure might be a railway viaduct and then an elevated park. Roles could be created flexibly as needed (with due attention to duplication and ambiguity).</p>
            <p>Roles could similarly describe relationships, most obviously between People (spouse, child, mentor) and between People and Organisations (member, CEO). A Person could be assigned a Role to indicate a profession—a doctor—or a position—a doctor 
                <hi rend=""italic"">at</hi> a hospital. In this sense, some relationships were transitive (requiring a source and target on either side of the Role), others intransitive (only requiring a source). Some relations are clearly directional—e.g., child-of—and some are symmetrical—e.g., spouse-of.
            </p>
            <p>A single data structure called a ‘Factoid’ (an unsatisfactory term and only used internally) was fashioned to handle all these requirements. The structure was as follows:</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Field</cell>
                    <cell>Purpose</cell>
                    <cell>Example</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Source</cell>
                    <cell>An Entity</cell>
                    <cell>Francis Greenway</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Role</cell>
                    <cell>Describes the relation or adds information</cell>
                    <cell>Architect</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Target</cell>
                    <cell>A ‘target’ Entity</cell>
                    <cell>Hyde Park Barracks</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Type</cell>
                    <cell>The type of Entity (see below)</cell>
                    <cell>Position</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Target-text</cell>
                    <cell>A text substitute for the target Entity where it is not appropriate to create it as a full record</cell>
                    <cell/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Start date</cell>
                    <cell>Date on which the Role commenced</cell>
                    <cell>1819</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>End date</cell>
                    <cell>Date on which the Role ended</cell>
                    <cell>1822</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Location</cell>
                    <cell>A geo-spatial encoding (point, line, or polygon)</cell>
                    <cell/>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>The Type field was used to distinguish Factoids created for different purposes and to group them meaningfully. The types were as follows:</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Type</cell>
                    <cell>Purpose</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Name </cell>
                    <cell>for recording different names that Entities had over time</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Sub-type </cell>
                    <cell>used to subtype the main Entity types, e.g., Hostel as a sub-type of Building</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Milestones </cell>
                    <cell>key events for an Entity—birth, death, construction, demolition, opening</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Occupation </cell>
                    <cell>normally held by People, e.g., architect</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Position </cell>
                    <cell>an occupation applied to a specific Entity, e.g., architect of Hyde Park Barracks</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Relationships </cell>
                    <cell>most commonly between People—brother, spouse, mentor, etc.</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Property </cell>
                    <cell>recording occupation or ownership</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Time-Space </cell>
                    <cell>a special type of Factoid used only to record ‘existence’ and location, commonly used for Natural Features and Places</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Factoids can be seen on most Entity pages on the Dictionary website:</p>
            <p>Figure 1. 
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""14.848416666666667cm"" height=""18.268597222222223cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>The Entity page for Hyde Park Barracks with four groups of Factoids.
            </p>
            <p>Factoids in Use</p>
            <p>The Factoid is one of many attempts to encode this sort of historical information (HEML [n.d.]; Vicodi [2002–4]; CIDOC-CRM), and it is reflected in other initiatives such as the Humanities Networked Infrastructure (Huni, 2014).</p>
            <p>The Factoids have been in use now for over five years. This provides a valuable opportunity to assess their utility in a real-world, growing resource. This paper will report the results of an assessment undertaken with the Dictionary of Sydney staff in the first quarter of 2015, and an analysis of the use of the Factoids in the Dictionary and through a comparison with recent developments in historical encoding.</p>
            <p>Areas to be assessed will include the following:</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • Limits the expressivity of the Factoid structure—At what point does the information being encoded become too complex and need to revert to narrative description?</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • Has the original structure of the Factoid been amended or new types added?</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • Has custom and practice developed around the use of the Factoid that was not originally anticipated?</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • Has the Factoid (as defined in the Dictionary of Sydney) been deployed in any other projects?</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • Has the Factoid had advantages in processes not originally envisaged (e.g., fact/error-checking)?</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • How has the divide between useability and rigour been navigated—Has the Dictionary’s position as a public (rather than academic) history project influenced this process?</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • The Dictionary Factoids are not referenced or attributed—Has this affected their credibility or reliability?</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • Who has been able to contribute Factoids effectively, and how has the process been managed and quality-controlled? Have amateurs contributed or only professional staff? (Reference may be made here to emerging models for managing ‘cyber-infrastructure’ such as that proposed by Lynch [2014]).</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • What challenges and/or opportunities do the Factoids present for sustainability and preservation of the data they contain?</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • Has it been possible to link the Factoids to other data standards?</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • ‘Factoid’ was a term of convenience for the Dictionary but it has been used in other areas, such as prosopography—Has its use in other disciplines influenced its use in the Dictionary?</p>
            <p>While it may not be possible to cover all these questions in depth, an assessment of the Factoids in practice may provide useful insights into the utility of data structures of this sort for digital humanities projects.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Encyclopedia of Chicago.</hi> (2005). http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">HEML.</hi> (n.d.). http://heml.mta.ca/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Huni. </hi>(2014). https://huni.net.au.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lynch, T. J.</hi> (2014). Social Networks and Archival Context Project: A Case Study of Emerging Cyberinfrastructure. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(3).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sensis.</hi> (2014). http://www.sensis.com.au/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Te Ara—The Encyclopedia of New Zealand.</hi> (n.d.). http://www.teara.govt.nz/en.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vicodi.</hi> (2002–4). www.vicodi.org/.
                    </bibl>
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                        <surname>Bode</surname>
                        <forename>Katherine</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Australian National University, Australia</affiliation>
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                        <surname>Lamond</surname>
                        <forename>Julieanne</forename>
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                    <email>julieanne.lamond@anu.edu.au</email>
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                        <surname>Reid</surname>
                        <forename>Mark</forename>
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            <p>This panel brings together leading book historians and digital humanists to explore the dynamic and complex interface between the two fields. Book history is increasingly recognised as playing an important role in the development of digital humanities (DH). Alan Liu describes book history as a Levi-Straussian ‘trickster figure’ for the field​​, uniting DH’s commitment to older humanities disciplines, and the value of the old itself, with more recent interest in emergent media and design (2013, 410). Elsewhere he points to the way book historians ‘increasingly compare, and not just contrast, earlier writing/reading practices to their digital successors’ (2012, 16), and the potential of this approach to enhance understandings of DH as well as the digital age to which it responds. As Matthew Kirschenbaum and Sarah Werner (2014) argue more recently, key methodologies of DH—cataloguing, counting, sorting, and mapping—have long been part of the book historian’s toolkit. Mass digitisation has highlighted the need for textual and scholarly editing; book history skills must also be brought to bear in examining the limits and nature of the data (both text corpora and metadata) that is being digitised and analysed as part of DH projects.</p>
            <p>At the same time, the digitisation of the media landscape in which books are produced and read has profound implications for book history as a discipline, both in terms of its methodologies and the nature of its objects of inquiry. Kirschenbaum and Werner position this shift as ‘a series of material interventions in established systems of reading, writing, and publication, interventions that take shape and define themselves in relation to the affordances of other, more familiar media, the printed page not least among them’ (408). The digital turn has refocused our attention on the materiality of the objects with which book historians work, but as digital archives become increasingly important both to digital humanities and the humanities more broadly, it is more important than ever that we think about how best to represent and study material sources in this changed scholarly landscape.</p>
            <p>Despite what would seem to be a natural affinity between these disciplinary formations, Kirschenbaum and Werner suggest, the </p>
            <p>big data trend in the humanities is not one that has spoken to book historians. It has been the tool of literary and linguistic scholars, something prized by researchers interested in text, rather than textual production. But ignoring what digital tools can offer the study of book history cuts us off from opportunities to further develop our knowledge of how books are made and used. (410) </p>
            <p>There is, however, an emerging body of scholarship working at the intersection of these two interdisciplinary fields, as evidenced, for example, by the success of projects such as the Australian Common Reader, the French Book Trade in Enlightenment Europe, the Reading Experience Database, Dissenting Academies Online, and What Middletown Read. These projects have been brought together by the AHRC-funded international research network on ‘Community Libraries’, a group of over 80 scholars, librarians, and archivists from across the Americas, Europe, and Australia driven by a shared interdisciplinary interest in the dissemination, circulation, and reception of books in the past.</p>
            <p>The network was founded to share approaches and stimulate conversation about how library historians are harnessing the analytical power of digital methodologies to deepen and complicate our understanding of past reading communities and the social impact of print, both in quantitative and qualitative terms. Historical library records lend themselves particularly well to large-scale digital analysis, providing rich seams of data on book collecting, lending practices, borrowing habits, and membership patterns. Individual projects such as the Dissenting Academies Online’s Virtual Library System or What Middletown Read encourage a more holistic approach to historic library records, shaped not by the researcher’s own specialist and disciplinary interests but by the research demands of the user. However, surviving records are rare and can hardly be considered representative; as Priya Joshi suggests, ‘The conclusions one could draw from a single library’s circulation would need to rest closest to the regional, class and social history of that library only and could probably not be applied too widely before becoming irrelevant’ (2002, 52). There is an urgent need, therefore, for library historians to think about how to connect together digital research on libraries of different types, in different places, and at different times, lending greater statistical meaning to the collection patterns and borrowing figures available for individual institutions. Since libraries are inseparable from other elements of the ‘communications circuit’ influentially outlined by Robert Darnton (1982), digital research into library history must also connect with scholars working on wider aspects of historic print production, distribution, and reception—including those interested in the book trade, reading habits, ephemeral print, and the newspaper press.</p>
            <p>This panel seeks to develop the potential revealed by the Community Libraries network for collaboration across national and disciplinary contexts in creating and making use of DH projects and methods for addressing questions about the circulation and reception of print culture. It brings together leading scholars working at the intersection of DH and book history: Mark Towsey will introduce the work of the Community Libraries network, together with the network’s plans for a digital Atlantic Union Catalogue; Sydney Shep will discuss 19th-century typographical journals and global communication networks, William Colenso and the Victorian Republic of Letters, and the New Zealand Reading Experience Database; Katherine Bode will explore the ‘world’ of serial fiction in 19th and early-20th-century Australian newspapers digitised by Trove; Simon Burrows will outline the aims and ambitions of the French Book Trade in Enlightenment Europe project and how its historical-bibliometric digital tools might be developed for wider use among book history projects; Julieanne Lamond and Mark Reid will show the potential for mapping the circulation of popular fiction in the Australian Common Reader database; and Glenn Roe will discuss reconstructing the 18th-century commonplace book using the Eighteenth Century Collections Online (ECCO) dataset.</p>
            <p>Panel Organisation</p>
            <p>The panel will consist of six papers (five given by one contributor each, one shared between Lamond and Reid), each reflecting on how the speakers’ projects are opening up new perspectives and possible answers to the research questions posed below. This will be followed by a full 30-minute discussion, with the aim of motivating debate about how book history and DH are feeding into each other, and illuminating the key theoretical and methodological challenges they currently face.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Research Questions</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The panel will draw on this vibrant body of research to address the following questions:</p>
            <p> • What does book history have to offer DH and vice versa?</p>
            <p> • What challenges does DH pose to existing projects and approaches?</p>
            <p> • How can DH approaches expand the scope of book-historical enquiry, especially across national boundaries and in new transnational and translocal arenas?</p>
            <p> • What is the relationship between the digital, the physical, and the material in both disciplines: as Kirschenbaum and Werner ask, what is ‘the value [of] digital tools and . . . theories of the digital for complicating and reconfiguring our notions of textual “materiality” and dissemination’ (409)?</p>
            <p> • How can DH approaches to large datasets (text mining, data visualization, etc.) inform book history’s understanding of authorship practices by way of large-scale approaches to national and transnational literary cultures?</p>
            <p> • How best can we bring together these two methodological approaches, and how can methodological debates in each expand our understanding of the humanities?</p>
            <p>Speakers</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Katherine Bode</hi> is senior lecturer in literary and textual studies in the Centre for Digital Humanities Research at the Australian National University.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Simon Burrows</hi> is professor of history at the University of Western Sydney.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Julieanne Lamond</hi> is lecturer in English in the School of Literature, Languages and Linguistics at Australian National University.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mark Reid</hi> is research fellow in the Research School of Computer Science and Engineering at Australian National University.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Glenn Roe</hi> is lecturer in digital humanities in the Centre for Digital Humanities Research at the Australian National University. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Sydney Shep</hi> is reader in book history and the printer at Wai-te-ata Press, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mark Towsey</hi> is senior lecturer in modern British history at the University of Liverpool, and a British Academy Mid-Career Fellow for 2014–2015.
            </p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Darnton, R.</hi> (1982). What Is the History of Books? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Daedalus,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">111</hi>(3): 65–83.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Joshi, P.</hi> (2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">In Another Country: Colonialism, Culture and the English Novel in India.</hi> Columbia University Press, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kirschenbaum, M. and Werner, S.</hi> (2014). Digital Scholarship and Digital Studies: The State of the Discipline. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Book History,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(1): 406–58.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Liu, A.</hi> (2012). The State of the Digital Humanities: A Report and a Critique. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Arts and Humanities in Higher Education,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(1–2): 8–41.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Liu, A.</hi> (2013). The Meaning of the Digital Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PMLA,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">128</hi>(2): 409–23. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2344","16","Remembering books: A within-book topic mapping technique","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Organisciak</surname>
                        <forename>Peter</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>organis2@illinois.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Auvil</surname>
                        <forename>Loretta</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>lauvil@illinois.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Downie</surname>
                        <forename>J.Stephen</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>jdownie@illinois.edu</email>
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            <p>Applying clustering techniques in modeling text collections is effective for surfacing high-level themes at scales that humans cannot match with close reading. Within-book topic modeling is more difficult to perform, due to noise inherent to small frame sizes and the expectation that a single book can simply be read. In this work, we argue that this form of text analysis is effective as a research aid, presenting a method and tools to visualize the progression of topics through the course of a long text. </p>
            <p>This approach focuses on improving human readability of machine-modeled topics and is notable for (a) a sliding-frame topic inference technique that smooths noise and (b) a visualization approach that uses sorting and filtering to help focus attention on clearer topics and their narrative order. </p>
            <p>The goal is to use topic modeling as an aid to a reader’s understanding of a work as well as the ability to communicate that understanding. In particular, it appears to have promise as a mnemonic tool, helping past readers recollect plot points and progression. As this work progresses, it will explore better ways of surfacing important topics and measuring the quality of its visualizations. To this end, a tutorial and scripts have been released, enabling researchers and instructors to evaluate this technique for their own uses. </p>
            <p>Data </p>
            <p>This study was performed using the extracted features dataset from the HathiTrust Research Center (HTRC). HTRC is the research arm of the HathiTrust, developing tools for research access—and particularly large-scale access—to the holdings in the HathiTrust Digital Library. For our purposes, the HTRC’s feature extraction dataset is used less for its breadth than its features. The extracted features dataset includes page-level feature information, including part-of-speech tagged token counts with headers and footers removed. Our approach will work similarly on any clean text documents with page-level information or comparably sized sections—for example, blocks of TEI marked-up sections or paragraphs. </p>
            <p>Approach </p>
            <p>This study’s method for within-book topic modeling is notable for its approach to training and inference: where the training data is composed of individual page texts, the data it is inferred against is a sliding frame of pages. This lends a coherence to the resulting topic models by offering clean input data while assuming that actual occurrences of topics in a book occur in broader spans of text. We take a conservative view of what a theme in the text is when training, and a liberal view when inferring. </p>
            <p>While pages are succinct for training, most of the time they are a physical artifact, disconnected from the content of the book. Language also deviates from page to page: inferring their topics in groups of pages allows for themes at that point in the book to emerge more clearly. Since we do not know where topics start and end, nor can we reliably assume that any particular part of a book is about any one topic, we use a sliding frame of groups of pages. </p>
            <p>Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) is used in this approach (Blei et al., 2003). LDA is a generative mixture modeling approach used to estimate probability distributions over correlated data. When used with text unigrams as features, these distributions are often interpreted as ‘topics’. One can think of a topic distribution as a word generator, outputting different words with varying frequencies. A topic about ‘Valentine's Day’, for example, is more likely to generate the terms ‘love’ and ‘February’ than one would normally see in the English language; to guess how likely a document is to be about Valentine’s Day, we can look at the likelihood of the Valentine’s Day topic generating the particular words in the document. </p>
            <p>In training a generative model, it is ideal to have each input document represent a minimal number of concepts. While LDA is robust at differentiating different components of a training document, a clearer input improves the possibility of coherent clusters. For this reason, training a classifier on a large chunk of text such as a book can lose the nuance of the various themes within that text. For this study, we train on individual pages of a work. This page-level information is offered in the HTRC Feature Extraction dataset, and modeled using the LDA functionality of the MALLET toolkit (McCallum, 2002). </p>
            <p>After a work is modeled against its pages, the resulting topic distributions are then applied to infer the most probable topics of sliding frames of pages in the same work. For example, for a frame size of 5, the work is processed into sections representing pages 1–5, pages 2–6, 3–7, and so on. Figure 1 demonstrates the difference in readability that the sliding frame allows. </p>
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            <p>Figure 1. Example of topic for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Anne of Green Gables </hi>inferred without (top) and with (bottom) sliding page frame. 
            </p>
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            <p>In pursuing a technique for aiding an individual’s understanding and recall of a work, inferring coherent within-book themes is only as important as their presentation. For this reason, this study pursued visualization of within-book topic models with sorting and filtering. </p>
            <p>Figure 2. Topics in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Tess of the D’Ubervilles</hi>, shown with a sliding frame of 10 pages. Every third of 30 topics shown, to demonstrate topic sorting with brevity. 
            </p>
            <p>For sorting, topics are tagged by their most representative page, and subsequently visualized in chronological order of these pages. This sorting technique has proven to be effective at showing their progression through a work.</p>
            <p>Not all topics are equally insightful. Particularly, there are usually a few topics that serve as catch-alls: attracting probability mass for difficult-to-assign terms. These ‘noise topics’ serve a useful function, but not for an individual’s analysis or understanding. We attempted to identify these topics and filter them through a number of methods, so that they could be ignored in visualization. This included looking at high-variance distributions, distributions with high peakedness, and topics with disproportionately large pieces of the overall probability mass. Unfortunately, each of these techniques would filter out some useful topics, so we thus far have not found a filtering approach that is worth performing. Instead, the sorting performed at visualization leads with the most likely ‘noise topics’, making them easy for a person to visually assess and ignore if necessary. </p>
            <p>Figure 2 demonstrates topic visualization for topics seen in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Tess of the D’Ubervilles </hi>by Thomas Hardy. For brevity, only every third topic is shown, showing the sorting progression and the grouping of potential but not necessarily noisy topics at the start. In addition, vertical lines are included to denote the ‘phases’ in the book, allowing a comparison of topics to parts of the book. For example, Phase the Second clearly contains most of the discussion around the protagonist’s birth and subsequent loss of her child, and the language representative of this topic does not recur again in the book. 
            </p>
            <p>Next Steps </p>
            <p>The code for this project is available online.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> As this is a work-in-progress, we hope this tool encourages others to use it and provide feedback. Thus far, this study has pursued qualitative improvements based on the judgments of the authors. As we move forward, we hope to evaluate this approach against the satisfaction of domain experts, compared to previous techniques. 
            </p>
            <p>Additionally, the goal of filtering uninteresting or noisy topics is still interesting, even if our given approach was not tractable. A more deliberate approach might be more effective in the future; specifically, human judges will be asked for their opinions on the most insightful topic distributions. This will allow us to compare their responses to a number of statistical metrics about the distribution, potentially building a classifier for useful topics. </p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">HTRC-Book-Models</hi>, Github, https://github.com/organisciak/htrc-book-models.
            </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. M., Ng, A. Y. and Jordan, M. I.</hi> (2003). Latent Dirichlet Allocation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Machine Learning Research, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi> (2003): 993–1022. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCallum, A. K.</hi> (2002). MALLET: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit. http://mallet.cs.umass.edu.
                    </bibl>
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"2345","16","Renderings: Translating Literary Works in the Digital Age","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Marecki</surname>
                        <forename>Piotr</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Jagiellonian University, Poland</affiliation>
                    <email>piotr.marecki@ha.art.pl</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Montfort</surname>
                        <forename>Nick</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Massachusetts Institute of Technology, US</affiliation>
                    <email>nickm@nickm.com</email>
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                    <term>archives</term>
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            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A"">The point of departure for this paper is the Renderings project 
                <hi rend=""Łącze_internetowe"">(http://trope-tank.mit.edu/renderings/</hi>) established in 2014 and developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in a lab called the Trope Tank. The project is described as concentrating on translations of highly computational and otherwise unusual digital literature into English. Its members ‘not only employ established literary translation techniques, but also consider how computation and language interact. Literary and computational experts worldwide participate’. The current team includes Nick Montfort (the initiator and leader of the project), Patsy Baudoin, Andrew Campana, Sally Chen, Aleksandra Małecka, Piotr Marecki, and Erik Stayton. During the project’s first year, 13 translations or bilingual works, by 12 authors, have been produced in the following languages: Chinese (1), French (3), German (1), Japanese (4), Polish (2), and Spanish (2). The translated works are 
            </p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A""> • Automation (2013) by Andrew Campana.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A""> • Contemporary Japanese Poetry Generator (2012) by Shinonome Nodoka.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A""> • Dizains (1985) by Marcel Bénabou.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A""> • Hallelujah (2012) by ni_ka.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A""> • MAZ—Mutantist Autonomous Zone (2014) by Mathias Richard.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A""> • Poem 21 (1988) by Amílcar Romero.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A""> • Poet (2003) by Michał Rudolf.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A""> • Sample Automatic Poem (2009) by Féliz Remirez.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A""> • Seika no Kôshô (2013) by Andrew Campana.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A""> • Shanshui by Sally Chen.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A""> • Speeches (1993) by Marek Pampuch.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A""> • Tötan das Gedich (1997) by Johannes Auer.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A""> • Triolets by Paul Braffort.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A"">The programming languages of the original works include Basic, Perl, and Java Script. They were selected to represent the wide variety of genres of electronic literature and creative computing, and the productions of cultures/literatures not currently well known in this dominantly English-language field. Thus, the first Renderings set of works includes genres characteristic of specific cultures, such as Japanese ‘monitor poetry’ (a blog that bursts of flowers, hearts, and other graphics dense enough to obscure the screen), a Polish generator of communist speeches, electronic ‘landscape poetry’ from China, and electronic OULIPO texts (France). The selected works also present different approaches to computation in literature. The project itself thus has the aim of describing the experiences of the margins of digital culture and exploring the hitherto overlooked fringes of the digital heritage.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A"">The Renderings is not the first project exploring translations of electronic literature. There have already been translations of Michael Joyce’s, Stuart Moulthrop’s, Nick Montfort’s, and Stephanie Strickland’s works from English into other languages. In addition, the Electronic Literature Organization was a co-sponsor of the conference Translating E-Literature in 2012 in Paris. The Renderings project continues these threads, but focusing on the direction from other languages into English, its goal being to give English-speakers access to works from other traditions. The project involves also meetings and brainstorming with literary translators: Robert Pinsky, Marc Lowenthal, John Cayley, and David Ferry.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A"">Translating digital works written in code requires the translator to face new challenges in addition to those tackled by the regular translator of literature. It is a type of translation akin to the translation of experimental, conceptual or constrained works. It is not rare that the task requires the translator or translators to reinvent the work in a new linguistic and cultural context, and sometimes also another programming language. The history of literature is already familiar with similar cases, like the translations of works of the French OULIPO group; for instance, Georges Perec’s La dispariton, which is written without the most frequently occurring vowel of the French language, has been be rendered in other languages with the omission of the most frequent vowel in the language of the translator, e in English but a in Spanish.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A"">In the case of highly computational digital works there are additional difficulties and challenges, first and foremost, the formal and material properties of the code of the program. If we assume after Noah Wardrip-Fruin that a digital work has three layers: the input, process and output, the task of translation will be operated mostly on the first two layers: the input and process. It will require establishing a lexicon, determining the input data, which may differ given the discrepancies between grammars (inflection, declension, genre) and translating the process, that is the lines of code responsible for producing a given output. Noah Wardrip-Fruin explains to humanities scholars analyzing digital works that they focus mainly on the output level, which he considers a superficial approach. It seems that the work of the translator of a digital work is the ideal activity for performing what this scholar calls ‘expressive processing’. Translating a highly computational work without the knowledge of its inner workings and operation on all the three levels of analysis should not occur. For instance, the novel World Clock, written by Nick Montfort in Python, has 165 lines of code in its original English version. Its Polish translation has an additional 60 lines of code. Indeed it is not unusual for the output of the translated work to be the result of processes different than in the original code. An important category for the translation of digital works is collaborative work, in a team including a translator and a programmer, where translation and programming competences overlap and complete.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A"">The translation of a digital work is not only a matter of language, but also requires awareness of the code and the platform for which it was designed. Especially in the case of older works, the translator has to consider porting the work to a platform more accessible to the contemporary reader. The textual generator Poet was written in Perl in 2003 and archived online as a .pl file. It will be thus available to those readers who know how to run the program in the terminal and are willing to download and execute it. Given the goals of the project, it seemed justified to port the program to Java Script in order to publish it online, to provide easier access to readers on the Web. In such a case the translator has to preserve as many aspects of the program’s functioning as possible in the original programming language. Yet another aspect connected to this problem is the change of platform. Platform consciousness and platform description are described according to the methodology developed by Nick Montfort and Ian Bogost in books from the Platform Studies series published by MIT Press. It is a method that ‘investigates the relationships between the hardware and software design of computing systems and the creative works produced on those systems.’ And so when describing the generator of communist speeches translated and published online as part of the Renderings project, an important aspect of its historical, formal and material analysis will be the consideration of the consequences of the fact that it was first written in a popular programming language for the Amiga.</p>
            <p rend=""Bez formatowania A"">The presented paper describes a phenomenon belonging to the broadly understood discipline of creative computing and studies the work of the translator as taking place both in code and language, drawing from the methodology developed by the fields of code studies, platform studies and expressive processing. </p>
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                        <surname>Kirk</surname>
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                        <surname>Whitelaw</surname>
                        <forename>Mitchell</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Faculty of Arts &amp; Design, University of Canberra</affiliation>
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            <p>This paper highlights shared methods, questions, and challenges between research through design (RTD) and digital humanities (DH) through the discussion of an archival research project. In DH, debates continue (Gold, 2012) regarding the impact of digital technologies on epistemology, methodology, and our professional identities as researchers, scholars, academics, and teachers. Our reading of this debate is that there is a tripartite relationship at work between the kind of work we should call DH (and aspire to produce); the nature of knowledge, research, and scholarship (particularly with reference to the role of artefacts produced); and issues of disciplinary orientation or professional identity. We could phrase these as the what, how, and who of DH and, of course, RTD. The discussion of our project is in no sense intended to provide an exclusive answer to those questions, but to give one snapshot of what DH and RTD look like when they come together. </p>
            <p>RTD emphasises artefact-led, practice-based research with an emphasis on developing design methods, conceptual frameworks and theories, as well as products (Gaver, 2012). Its speculative orientation and emphasis on making with digital materials aligns it well with some currents of thought in DH (see, e.g., Drucker, 2009). Indeed, Joanna Drucker has pointed to a shared ground with design, generally noting that ‘all forms of design share a propositional orientation that is well-suited to the challenges that come with designing new structures, for design asks, “What if?”’ (Burdick et al., 2012). At the same time she warns that ‘the cultural authority of digital technology is still claimed by the fields that design the platforms and protocols on which we work. These are largely fields in which quantitative, engineering, and computational sensibilities prevail’. We wish to qualify Drucker’s claim by noting a series of more detailed concordances with RTD of a particular propositional, speculative, and explorative orientation. We note that despite Drucker’s valid concerns for the positivist outlook of some design research contexts, within the field of human-computer interaction (despite its background and reputation for some as computing engineering’s heartland), and interaction design, a vibrant dialogue is being sustained concerning the role of designed artefacts in knowledge production (Bowers, 2012), their responsiveness to the values of users (see, e.g., Vines et al., 2013), and the state of critique and criticality (Bardzell and Bardzel, 2013), all of which are directly relevant to DH. In the following paragraphs we will describe aspects of an ongoing project, positioned as DH with roots in RTD methodology. Through it we will position our work in relation to the tripartite relationship we identified between what digital humanities research looks like, what role its artefacts play, and what kind of people do it. </p>
            <p>Our project is, typically for digital humanities research, based around an archive. Bloodaxe Books is a small but internationally significant publisher of contemporary poetry, whose archive, consisting mostly of edited manuscripts, was purchased by Newcastle University, UK, in 2013. Our role within a research project as artists and Interaction Designers was to create exploratory and provocative interactions with the archive both online and in physical space. This is the ‘what’ of our project. </p>
            <p>The interfaces we designed for the archive respond to its formal and textual specificities, and this flexible and responsive mode of engagement is typical of RTD processes. We think that this kind of approach is well aligned with a view of the role of DH as one that expands the ground of research processes as well as simply augmenting their methods with new tools and techniques. In our project we began with loose research questions (as described above) that were refined alongside the project. Our treatment of the archival material was to be informed by the experience of 30 project participants, each of whom was conducting personal, creative research in the archive. Inspired by previous research through design work, we conceived of a ‘cultural probes’ (Gaver et al., 2004) activity to gain insight into the way the archive was being used by our project participants and to uncover some of the things they found interesting about the materials themselves, the better to inform our ‘what’. Our activity used a bookmark-like insert completed and left by participants in the archive boxes themselves to act as a conversation ‘backchannel’ for participants. A trial of this activity revealed a number of interesting features of the archive that focused our interests and informed future designs. Particularly our later work with archival Marginalia and our related interest in the temporality of the archive was significantly informed by this process. When Drucker asks, ‘Have the humanities had any impact on the digital environment?’, one answer is in exactly this kind of enquiry, which has at least a 10-year history in design research. The probing activity described above was user-focused, not in the sense of a formal ‘requirements’ analysis but as a kind of critically sensitizing activity. For instance, in the final interface three particular areas of our design responded to questions and issues raised by the participants and our literary research colleagues: ‘Shapes’
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> allows users of our interface to sketch—with the mouse—the shape of a poem and receive matches from the archive. ‘Data’ mashes our own metadata with British Library and Wikipedia data to explore wider the context of the archive.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> ‘Words’
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> uses text mining techniques and word distancing to produce network graphs of correspondences between documents and relationships to themes (e.g., flowers, death).
            </p>
            <p>In practice-based research processes, an inevitable question arises concerning the status of the artefact as a bearer or disseminator of knowledge, and researchers in (Ramsay and Rockwell, 2012) and out (Ingold, 2013) of DH have noted the problems this causes for the place of such work within academia. In other words, our ‘how’ is about how we treat the things we make, how we evaluate their contribution and ensure that they are productive. Our perspective, as writers of both code and research papers, is that there is knowledge in both objects and commentary but that the relationship between them should be negotiated honestly and delicately. In our project we adopted a fast prototyping cycle in which we made a series of early visualisations and web interfaces to the digitized material publically available and invited criticism and feedback. We also made a feature of both our ongoing design work and the cataloguing and digitization taking place in the library by producing a Twitter feed of computationally extracted archival marginalia connected live to the work of the archivist and digital assistant and a drawing robot, the Marginalia Machine, which publically re-draws these same editorial notes. </p>
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            <p>Figure 1. Screen grab from the @BloodaxeArchive Twitter bot.</p>
            <p>These artefacts acted as kinds of a ‘boundary object’ (Star and Griesemer, 1989), around which we and our colleagues in the library and the English Department could discuss future iterations of design work. Their production afforded what we might call the ‘unimagined interactions’ characteristic of this kind of speculative prototyping. In our project, as is common in RTD, the artefacts were a part of a methodology for integrating facets of our research, working with our colleagues and participants and of course improving future designs. Despite this pivotal function for the ‘things’ (Brown, 2001) of our research, we recognise the value of reflection, in written or other forms, for future work. John Bowers proposes the ‘annotated portfolio’ (Bowers, 2012) as one approach to communicating the value of our work to ourselves and others. We note that however much artefacts articulate a position, their situatedness in a world of stuff means that they will always be poly-vocal. This is both their strength (when we wish to explore) and their weakness (when we want to be specific). </p>
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            <p>Figure 2. Detail of the Marginalia Machine.</p>
            <p>Finally we observe that in the picture of the digital humanities researcher as one who can ‘research, write, shoot, edit, code, model, design, net-work, and dialogue with users’ (Burdick et al., 2012), RTD shares a problem educating, finding, and hiring such people. We further note that the role of a designer, even one with such competencies, in a DH project remains problematic for a number of reasons. If we wish to pursue successful interdisciplinary research, then we must decide to what degree our research questions will be common with our collaborators or distinct. One model for the latter sees a humanities researcher provide a problem for a computer scientist to work with—for instance, the development of a corpus analysis tool. The computer scientist produces technical innovation while the humanist integrates the tool into the research. In our project, however, the designer, coming from a humanities background himself, brought his own questions to bear on the material, which were informed by art history, philosophy, and the cultural history of design. A challenge for such designers is how to meaningfully collaborate with other humanities researchers without, first, denigrating their own research questions and competencies to a second-tier status, and second, ignoring the nuance and depth of good humanities research. Strategies for the successful avoidance of these two pitfalls, we feel, should be the focus of future discussion of this relationship. </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. http://bloodaxe.ncl.ac.uk/explore/#/shapes.</p>
            <p>2. http://bloodaxe.ncl.ac.uk/explore/#/data.</p>
            <p>3. http://bloodaxe.ncl.ac.uk/explore/#/words.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bardzell, J. and Bardzel, S.</hi> (2013). What Is Critical about Critical Design? In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of CHI 2013</hi>, Paris, 27 April–2 May 2013, ACM Press, pp. 3297–306.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bowers, J.</hi> (2012). The Logic of Annotated Portfolios: Communicating the Value of ‘Research Through Design’. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Designing Interactive Systems</hi>. ACM Press, pp .68–77.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brown, B.</hi> (2001). Thing Theory. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Critical Inquiry,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(1): 1–22. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burdick, A., Drucker, J., Lunenfeld, P., Presner, T. and Schnapp, J. </hi>(2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital_Humanities</hi>. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Drucker, J.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">SpecLab</hi>. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226165097.001.0001.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gaver, W.</hi> (2012). What Should We Expect from Research through Design? In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of CHI 2012</hi>, Austin, TX, 5–10 May 2012. ACM Press, pp. 937–46.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gaver, W., Boucher, A., Pennington, S. and Walker, B.</hi> (2004). Cultural Probes and the Value of Uncertainty. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Interactions</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(5): 53–56. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gold, K.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. University of Minnesota Press, http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ingold, T.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Making: Anthropology, Archaeology, Art and Architecture</hi>. Routledge: London.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S. and Rockwell, G.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Developing Things: Notes toward an Epistemology of Building in the Digital Humanities</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/11.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Star, S. L. and Griesemer, J. R.</hi> (1989). Institutional Ecology, ‘Translations’ and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley’s Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907–39. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social Studies of Science,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">19</hi>(3): 387–420, doi:10.1177/030631289019003001.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vines, J</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">., Clarke, R., Wright, P., McCarthy, J. and Olivier, P.</hi> (2013). Configuring Participation: On How We Involve Users in Design. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2013 ACM SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems</hi>, Paris, 27 April–2 May 2013, pp. 429–38.
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                        <forename>Marijke</forename>
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            <p>The focus for this project is the life courses of migrants. It is acknowledged that the life courses of all migrants have a rupture at the point of migration. As a result, the lives of migrants differ structurally from the lives of most other people, as their life courses are divided in a period before and a period after migration. Our central research question is about the questions of continuities and discontinuities in life, habits, and lifestyles. As people migrated from the Netherlands to Australia in the post–World War II period, we consider the influences of both the sending and receiving states, the emigrants’ institutions of both countries, their own communities, and the churches on their enrollment for migration. It is a largely unexplored question whether and up to what extent these influences were continued or taken over by new agents after their migration and contributed to the way their lives were shaped in their new country (Green, 2005, 263–65; Green and Weil, 2007, ix; Schrover and Van Faassen, 2010, 4; see also Elich, 1987). </p>
            <p>The backbone for the research program is the development of a database that seeks to capture and aggregate data on the life courses of the migrants. The Dutch National Archives hold an archive with some 50,000 emigrant cards, corresponding to ca. 180,000 persons (as the cards register an emigrant unit, usually consisting of a family) or about 90 percent of all emigrants to Australia from 1945 to the mid-1980s (http://www.gahetna.nl). The Australian National Archives also have a collection of files about the same people, who for Australia were immigrants. These cards and files contain the core facts of the migrants’ life courses. Both collections are made accessible by databases. Explorative research has made it clear that it is possible to link the Dutch and the Australian records (http://resources.huygens.knaw.nl/emigratie). The database in development combines records from the Netherlands and Australia and in this way demonstrates a resource with data relating to the life courses of virtually all Dutch-Australian emigrants from 1945 to 1980. This makes it possible to link and understand aspects of migration that could previously only be studied separately. The actual parent project, Migrant, Mobilities and Connection, started in 2014 and is still in an exploratory phase. Results are preliminary. </p>
            <p>Life courses are not a new field of study, having long drawn the attention of historians and social scientists alike (Maas et al., 2008, 7–8). However, studying lives has tended to either focus on the micro level or on the macro level. The micro historical approach is mostly qualitative as it works out case studies for individuals; the macro historical method is serial in nature and distinguishes patterns in the lives of groups of people. An important example is the Historical Sample of the Netherlands (HSN) that contains a representative sample of all persons born in The Netherlands between 1812 and 1922, corresponding with ca. 77,000 people (http://www.iisg.nl/hsn). However, the HSN only contains information about the facets of life of the people who are contained in its database. The Migrant, Mobilities and Connection database of life courses (the ‘backbone’ of both projects) is suitable for similar research as the HSN, but that is only the starting point. As it has links to the actual Dutch and Australian files, it is possible to study groups of migrants in much more depth than only the records in a database would allow. The organization of the research around a new, comprehensive dataset (that will be enriched by digitized policy and case files in anonymized form) and using the computer-assisted heuristics of the digital humanities make it possible to connect the micro and the macro approaches into what we would call 
                <hi rend=""italic"">serial qualitative research</hi>. This method makes it possible to find patterns while keeping access to the details, to make representative selections for case studies, and to generalize and quickly test representative coverage of the findings from in-depth case studies.
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            <p>For all conceivable groups and selections it is possible to investigate the life courses of each member in detail. In this way it becomes possible to identify social networks of and around the migrants and follow their evolution as they migrated from a Dutch setting to the environment of their new homes in Australia. As the social networks evolved, it is possible to identify the different influences on their development. In this way we can combine pattern recognition of diverging lives and Dutch community formation and forms of assimilation in Australia with the pressures from the social context (Tilly, 2011; Brettell and Hollifield, 2014, 14–19; White and Houseman, 2002). We can research which institutions were involved and what their influences were on the lives of the emigrants both during their time in the Netherlands and after their emigration to Australia. The institutions include the Dutch and Australian governments, both consular services, but also the church, employers, and trade unions (Van Faassen, 2014, 79–121, 162–68).</p>
            <p>Another question is how did the cultural background of the people, such as the places of provenance and their religion, contribute to the lives they led in their new country? This is complemented by the medical history and group differences that are made possible by medical records archives kept at the Australian National Archives (privacy regulations permitting).</p>
            <p>The emigrant files also contain links to heritage institutions containing cultural heritage. The additional materials enrich the life courses and extend the fields of analysis. For example, the same people who are in life courses are also on the member lists of Dutch immigrant associations. Previously it was only possible to study the cultural lives in the Dutch Australian immigrant societies as a whole, but the life courses backbone links them to the people involved and their contributions.</p>
            <p>It is our objective to complement the research project by a cultural heritage project that uses the same life courses backbone as its structuring device for building a site for the Dutch-Australian community. Its members will be invited to identify their families in the life course and to enrich its contents by contributing all sorts of personal materials like photos, pictures, diaries, letters, and memorabilia. It is the intention that the site contributes to the community formation as its members may exchange experiences and come into contact with one another and with their Dutch past (Official Report, 2012). The community site is an objective per se, but can also contribute to the research project, as the materials of the community members may be used for further research into the Dutch-Australian experience and the memories of and the (changing) image of their former homeland. </p>
            <p>Last but not least: reconstructing such a backbone dataset of life courses of migrating people and embedding it in both their communities could serve as a template for other countries as well. In order to be able to test this template statement, our research project has a comparative perspective, building on the work already done on German migrants by the Australian digital historian Dr Kristy Kokegei (Kokegei, 2012).</p>
            <p>Theme: ‘Migrating People, Migrating Data’</p>
            <p>This short paper is part of two interlinked short papers that discuss the archival, custodial, and digital challenges that impact the discovery, collection, preservation, and content management of material and immaterial traces from the past that the Netherlands shares with Australia. (The other short paper is ‘Developing a Sustainable Model in Mutual Cultural Digital Heritage’ by Nonja Peters.) In partnership with key institutional and community stakeholders, our pilot study on mobility between these two countries is about developing new understandings of the experience and representation of migration and how this has shaped an evolving sense of Dutch-Australian heritage and, with it, the consequences for the formation of cultural identities. </p>
            <p>The deliberate play in the short papers linking theme of ‘Migrating People, Migrating Data’ is to signal the thematic content of the parent project, Migrant, Mobilities and Connection—that is, the socio-cultural material traces that append to the historical activity of people moving from one region to settle in another, in which the movement of bodies through space combines with information about their mobility through time. At the same time, it is to also signal the technical and conceptual challenges surrounding the consolidation of different data sources (both hard copy and digital) from a prior generation of technology to successive generations. For example, many Dutch community groups in both countries are actively collecting documents, artefacts, photographs, and maps to pass on to future generations. However, few have developed sustainable workflows to ensure the sustainability of their ‘collections’, and rarely are they familiar with cataloguing and metadata conventions that help describe an item’s provenance, role, and position in the world. Planning for digital preservation therefore is uneven, leading to concerns about a ‘digital gap’ in a community’s history. Mitigating the deleterious effects, then, of information loss and fading human recollection is an issue central to both the continued accessibility of cultural heritage materials and the digital preservation of historical knowledge beyond technology format lifetimes. </p>
            <p>Project Members</p>
            <p>Dr Nonja Peters, Curtin University and University of Western Sydney</p>
            <p>Professor Paul Arthur, University of Western Sydney</p>
            <p>Dr Marijke van Faassen, Huygens ING</p>
            <p>Dr Rik Hoekstra, Huygens ING</p>
            <p>Dr Jason Ensor, University of Western Sydney</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brettell, C. B. and Hollifield, J. F.</hi> (eds). (2014) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Migration Theory: Talking across Disciplines</hi>. 3rd ed. Routledge, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Standaard1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elich, J. H.</hi> (1987). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Aan de ene kant, aan de andere kant. De emigratie van Nederlanders naar Australië, 1946–1986</hi>. Eburon, Delft.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Standaard1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Green, N. L.</hi> (June 2005). The Politics of Exit: Reversing the Immigration Paradigm. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Modern History,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">77</hi>: 263–89.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Standaard1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Green, N. L. and Weil, F.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Citizenship and Those Who Leave: The Politics of Emigration and Expatriation</hi>. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kokegei, K. A.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Australian Immigration and Migrant Assimilation</hi>. Ph.D. thesis, University of Adelaide.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Standaard1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Maas, I., van Leeuwen, M. H. D. and Mandemakers, K.</hi> (eds.). (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Hondervijftig jaar levenslopen. De Historische Steekproef Nederlandse Bevolking</hi>. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Standaard1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Official Report by the CIE on the Australian-Dutch Heritage Day 14 June 2012, The Hague.</hi> (2012). http://www.heritage-activities.nl/sites/default/files/content/Report%20Australian-Dutch%20Heritage%20Day%20The%20Hague%202012.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Standaard1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schrover, M. L. J. C. and Van Faassen, M. </hi>(2010). Invisibility and Selectivity: Introduction to the Special Issue on Dutch Overseas Migration in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Century. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">TSEG,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(2): 3–31.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tilly, Ch.</hi> (2011). Transplanted Networks. In Yans-McLaughlin, V., 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Immigration Reconsidered</hi>: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">History, Sociology, and Politics</hi>. Oxford Scholarship Online, DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195055108.001.0001.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Plain Text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Faassen, M. </hi>(2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Polder en Emigratie. Het Nederlandse emigratiebestel in internationaal perspectief, 1945–1967. </hi>Huygens ING, Den Haag.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">White, D. and Houseman, M.</hi> (2002). The Navigability of Strong Ties: Small Worlds, Tie Strength and Network Topology. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Complexity,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(1): 72–81. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2348","16","Scaling Up Digital Public History: Lessons Learned From The Find & Connect Web Resource Project","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Michael Alastair</forename>
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                        <surname>Tropea</surname>
                        <forename>Rachel</forename>
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            <p>16 November 2014 marks the fifth anniversary of the Australian government’s apology to Forgotten Australians and Former Child Migrants. When then–prime minister Kevin Rudd stood in the Great Hall of Australia’s Parliament House in 2009, he moved a motion of apology to the approximately 500,000 people who were placed in orphanages, children’s homes, and other institutions in Australia in the 20th century. In that speech was a line committing to ‘a national database that will collate and index existing state identified records into a national searchable data base, accessible to state and other care leaver services and also directly to care leavers themselves’ (Prime Minister, 2009).</p>
            <p>The resulting three-year National Find &amp; Connect Web Resource Project (http://www.findandconnect.gov.au/) concluded in November 2014. Though work on the web resource will continue (at a substantially reduced level) for some time, this milestone provides a significant opportunity to examine one of the largest publicly funded digital history projects in Australia. In this paper, senior members of the project team will reflect on what worked and what could have been done differently—on success stories and lessons learned.</p>
            <p>In preparation for funding the proposed ‘national database’ the government undertook a scoping study, looking at activities around the country. Some states did have existing guides to institutions and archival records, but these were static, point-in-time print documents. By contrast, in Victoria researchers from the University of Melbourne and Australian Catholic University were already working digitally, as part of the Australian Research Council–funded project Who Am I? The Archive as Central to Quality Practice for Current and Past Care Leavers (Forgotten Australians). A significant component of the project was the Pathways dataset and web resource, which documented the history of child welfare, collections of records, and key resources (including publications and images) in Victoria from the 1840s to the present (O’Neill et al., 2012; McCarthy and Evans, 2012). As noted by the government in September 2010, ‘It is important that the website design is based on sound principles which will stand the test of time and cater to the complexity of the content and search functions’, and that ‘No other example of a specialised website designed to cater for care leavers, with the search functionality and archival integrity of Pathways, was identified in Australia or overseas during the scoping study’ (Department of Families, 2010).</p>
            <p>Following a tender process, the core Who Am I? project team was entrusted with expanding the Pathways model nationally. In this paper, we will explore how the project team scaled up a local, relatively contained state-based resource produced as part of a research project to produce a national, government-funded resource utilised by Forgotten Australians and Former Child Migrants and their families, as well as support services, advocacy groups, governments, record holders, past providers, researchers, and the general public.</p>
            <p>The Find &amp; Connect web resource covers the history of out-of-home ‘care’ for children and young people spanning eight states and territories and nationally (each jurisdiction with its own legislation and context) and more than 150 years, with a primary focus on 1920–1989. At the time of writing, the resource consists of nine underlying databases and more than 1.5 million words of scholarly content, presented to the general public through more than 16,000 web pages. The content has been created and curated by 25 core staff (with assistance from many others) including archivists, historians, and technology staff, overseen by three senior academics from the University of Melbourne (Associate Professor Gavan McCarthy and Professor Cathy Humphreys) and the Australian Catholic University (Professor Shurlee Swain).</p>
            <p>With regard to technology, the data collected is structured as a nonhierarchical network of entities and relationships, utilising international standards for the description of entities, archival resources, publications, and digital objects while also extending those standards where required to meet the needs of the project. Over the course of three years, archivists collaborated with technology staff to develop capability in rendering, indexing, and visualising content, including standardised XML (McCarthy et al., forthcoming). Underpinning all this, the technology base of the eScholarship Research Centre was expanded to ensure more robust preservation of data and support high-availability web services.</p>
            <p>Challenges emerged in a number of key areas:</p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Technology</hi>: Some of the underlying tools were utilised due to their informatic strength and proven capability; however, legacy issues created problems when working as part of a distributed national team and development of the underlying technology was not as rapid as initially hoped.
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Web design and usability</hi>: In attempting to present complex historical narratives and networked information models to nonspecialist audiences, the team uncovered a range of usability and design issues. Some of these have been largely overcome while others require further work (Jones and O’Neill, 2014).
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Resourcing</hi>: The balance of archivists to historians to technology staff was planned and budgeted from the outset, based on a projected understanding of the project and its parameters. Some of these early decisions put limits on what was possible later in the project.
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Scalability</hi>: Some of the processes and practices around content development, editing, quality assurance, and informatics that produced high-quality results for the Who Am I? project were put under significant strain when working at scale.
            </p>
            <p>Despite these challenges, the project has achieved notable success, including substantial visitor numbers, very positive feedback from stakeholders and the community, markedly improved results in usability testing, and the fostering of communities of practice around the country with an enhanced awareness of the issues facing the sector. In terms of scholarship, the project has researched and documented the history of institutions providing out-of-home ‘care’ across the country, and the records and resources related to those institutions, in more detail than ever before; and this information has been captured and stored in sustainable, extensible ways for the benefit of researchers and the community at large.</p>
            <p>Our experience also has findings relevant to public history and digital scholarship more broadly. The team’s long, iterative approach to content development and interest in sustainability and persistent citability was distinctly different from most other government websites and online content development projects. Conversely, historians working around the country found their practice and priorities were influenced and shaped by an unfamiliar immediacy and regularity of feedback on their work (much of which was first made publicly accessible while still just a work-in-progress) from users and the large, multi-disciplinary project team of which they were a part.</p>
            <p>Historians and archivists also met regularly with users and stakeholders in the project, and this ongoing engagement in a sometimes charged, politically active space meant academic freedom was tempered by the need to negotiate language, representation, and content with individuals, groups, and governments.</p>
            <p>In this long paper, senior members of the Find &amp; Connect web resource team will explore the success of the project, reflect on the challenges encountered, and raise some of the implications for public and digital history more broadly. They will conclude by outlining their hopes for the Find &amp; Connect web resource in the future, and the ways it could be linked more effectively to other digital initiatives within Australia and internationally.</p>
            <p>The Find &amp; Connect Web Resource Project is funded by the Australian government’s Department of Social Services (previously the Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs).</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs.</hi> (2010). Find and Connect Service—Scoping Study, Commonwealth of Australia, September, https://www.dss.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/find_connect_scoping_study.pdf, iv, 32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jones, M. and O’Neill, C.</hi> (2014). Identity, Records and Archival Evidence: Exploring the Needs of Forgotten Australians and Former Child Migrants, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Archives and Records,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">35</hi>(2), DOI:10.1080/23257962.2014.951032.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCarthy, G. J. and Evans, J.</hi> (2012). Principles for Archival Information Services in the Public Domain. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Archives &amp; Manuscripts,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">40</hi>(1): 54–67, DOI:10.1080/01576895.2012.670872.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCarthy, G., Smith A. and Jones, M.</hi> (Forthcoming). Looking beyond the Archive: Utilising Encoded Archival Context in a Broader Societal Context. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Archival Organisation</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">O’Neill, C., Selakovic, V. and Tropea, R. </hi>(2012). Access to Records for People Who Were in Out-of-Home Care: Moving beyond ‘Third Dimension’ Archival Practice. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Archives &amp; Manuscripts,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">40</hi>(1): 29–41, DOI:10.1080/01576895.2012.668841.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Prime Minister.</hi> (2009). Transcript of Address at the Apology to the Forgotten Australians and Former Child Migrants—Great Hall, Parliament House—16 November 2009. http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/110625/20091116-1801/www.pm.gov.au/node/6321.html.
                    </bibl>
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"2349","16","Sea Stacks: Contemporary Atlantic Canadian Books for Children and Youth","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <affiliation>Dalhousie University, Canada</affiliation>
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            <p>Research over the past two decades has amply demonstrated the importance of literature to the formation of both regional and national cultural identity, particularly in the face of mass-market globalization of children’s book publishing in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, as well as the predominance of non-Canadian content from television, movies, books, magazines, and Internet media (Egoff and Saltman, 1990; Diakiw, 1997; Nodelman, 1997; Pantaleo, 2000; Baird, 2002; Nodelman, 2008; Reimer, 2008; Edwards and Saltman, 2010). John Sorfleet notes, ‘It is this independent local perspective—what one can term a sense of one’s own place or home ground—which is most important to any understanding of the raison d’être of children’s literature in Canada and other relatively young nations’ (Sorfleet, 2003, 220). In 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Picturing Canada: A History of Canadian Children’s Illustrated Books and Publishing</hi>, Gail Edwards and Judith Saltman note that some of the pastoral trends in representations of home spaces found in many Atlantic Canadian picturebooks perpetuate ‘a deeply embedded Romantic view of childhood’ (Edwards and Saltman, 2010, 195) and raise important questions about publishing trends and educational mandates in relation to regional representation for young audiences. 
            </p>
            <p>Despite the richness of literary traditions in Atlantic Canada, local children and youth are not consistently exposed to their own regional literature in classrooms or school libraries. A 2009 survey of public school teachers and school library staff in K–12 classrooms in the Atlantic Provinces conducted by the researcher revealed that while 94.6% of respondents indicated that they felt it was theoretically important to include regional authors and illustrators in their classrooms, only 48.2% reported that they had actually done so in the previous year, and only 19.6% stated that they felt well informed about Atlantic Canadian books for youth. One respondent commented, ‘It is important for children to see that there are many people in their own geographical area that write, illustrate and publish literature. I find this encourages young writers and lets them see that this is a viable profession to pursue’. Another respondent noted that ‘children need to see the connections of where they live to the rest of the world. Sometimes children know more about other places than where they live’. When asked about their knowledge of Atlantic Canadian children’s books, respondents expressed the need for a web-based resource listing regional authors, illustrators, titles, and themes as well as information about curriculum links. One teacher stated, ‘I would love to have a list of local authors on a reference website I could go to to search for books related to what I am teaching at any given time. [At the moment] I don’t know who the authors/illustrators are and what their books are called. I would have to have time to do research to find out, and I don’t have that time’. This study clearly demonstrated that, although information on some well-known regional authors is available on the Internet, this information is scattered, inconsistently organized, and erratic in currency, completeness, quality, and authority. Furthermore, teachers and school library staff do not have the time to search out information on a variety of widely dispersed sites and strongly expressed the need to have it collected and organized in a single, easy-to-use, comprehensive, and authoritative online resource. </p>
            <p>The Sea Stacks website (www.seastacks.lib.unb.ca), an inter-university collaborative research project, directly addresses the currently under-exposed and under-valued state of contemporary Atlantic Canadian literature for children and young adults by creating an authoritative web-delivered resource devoted to this literature. On the basis of research that emphasizes the significance of regional books in the establishment of cultural identity, this project will ultimately provide a current, complete, and authoritative information resource devoted to regional literature, the framework for which is already in place along with 25 profiles funded by a one-year SSHRC standard research grant. The Sea Stacks site documents the current state of this literature through profiles containing biographical information, bibliographies of primary texts and secondary sources, textual analysis, and video interviews with selected authors and illustrators, specifically exploring ‘regional’ themes in their work. Most importantly, the site encourages researchers to analyze and theorize issues in contemporary English-language Atlantic Canadian literature for children and youth: its searchable database allows users (scholars, teachers, librarians, parents, youth) to gather thematically related books together in ways they may not have done before. The Sea Stacks website has been the catalyst for the upcoming (July 2015) Thomas Raddall Symposium at Acadia University in Wolfville, Nova Scotia, which will be devoted to an analysis of ‘Child, Youth, and Place in Atlantic Canadian Literature’ (http://english.acadiau.ca/tl_files/sites/english/resources/RaddallCFP%20extension-10.pdf). Thus, this proposed poster describes the role of the Sea Stacks site in exploring traditional research questions and in opening up new research questions and avenues of inquiry.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baird, J.</hi> (2002).
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">English Language Canadian Literature in High Schools.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space"">
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                        </hi>The Canada Council for the Arts, http://www.canadacouncil.ca/grants/publishing/doc01-e.asp#overview.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Diakiw, J.</hi> (1997). Children’s Literature and Canadian National Identity: A Revisionist Perspective.
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                            <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>
                        </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Canadian Children's Literature, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">87</hi>: 36–49. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Edwards, G. and Saltman, J.</hi> (2010).
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Picturing Canada: A History of Canadian Children’s Illustrated Books and Publishing.</hi> University of Toronto Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Egoff, S., and Saltman, J.</hi> (1990).
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The New Republic of Childhood: A Critical Guide to Canadian Children’s Literature in English.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>Oxford University Press, Toronto.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Howard, V.</hi> (2012). The Sea Stacks Project: Enhancing the Use of Regional Literature in Atlantic Canadian Schools.
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Partnership: The Canadian Journal of Library and Information Practice and Research,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(1): n.p.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nodelman, P.</hi> (1997). What’s Canadian about Canadian Children’s Literature? A Compendium of Answers to the Question.
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Canadian Children’s Literature,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">87</hi>(3): 15–35.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nodelman, P.</hi> (2008).
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Hidden Adult: Defining Children’s Literature.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pantaleo, S.</hi> (2000). Grade 3 students explore the question: ‘What’s Canadian about Canadian children’s literature?’ 
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">English Quarterly, </hi>
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                        <forename>Erik Malcolm</forename>
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            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Images and Written Language</head>
                <p rend=""Normal text new para"">Yet visualisation is at least as old as written language. The earliest symbols are artistic rather than literary. Historically, the distinction between text and symbol has been blurred, from early European languages to Asian languages and as part of world history in general 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Tang</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>24</RecNum><DisplayText>(Tang, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>24</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425213998"">24</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Web Page"">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Tang, Didi</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>China Discovers Some Of The World&apos;s Oldest Writing</title><secondary-title>Huff Post</secondary-title><short-title>China Discovers Some Of The World&apos;s Oldest Writing</short-title></titles><dates><year>2013</year><pub-dates><date>10 July</date></pub-dates></dates><work-type>Newspaper</work-type><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/07/10/china-oldest-writing_n_3574624.html</url></related-urls></urls><language>English</language></record></Cite></EndNote>?>. Even today, language is geographically influenced 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mark</Author><Year>1989</Year><RecNum>25</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mark et al., 1989)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>25</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425213998"">25</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Conference Proceedings"">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mark, David M</author><author>Gould, Michael D</author><author>Nunes, Joan</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Spatial language and geographic information systems: Cross-linguistic issues (El Lenguaje Espacial y Los Sistemas de Información Geograficos: Temas Interlinguisticos)</title><secondary-title>Conferencia Latinoamericana sobre el Technologia de los Sistemas de Información Geográficos (SIG)</secondary-title></titles><pages>25-29</pages><dates><year>1989</year></dates><pub-location>Venezuela</pub-location><urls><related-urls><url>http://downloads2.esri.com/campus/uploads/library/pdfs/5815.pdf</url></related-urls></urls><custom2>1989</custom2></record></Cite></EndNote>?>. One can include cave paintings; they reveal the long-term association between image, space, and meaning 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Viegas</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>26</RecNum><DisplayText>(Viegas, 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>26</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425213998"">26</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Electronic Article"">43</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Viegas, Jennifer</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Music and art mixed in the Stone Age</title><secondary-title>ABC Science: News in Science</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>ABC Science: News in Science</full-title></periodical><section>Thursday, 3 July 2008</section><dates><year>2008</year></dates><publisher>ABC</publisher><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2008/07/03/2293114.htm</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>?>
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE ?>
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA ?>Brown, 2012). In some prehistoric caves the paintings are apparently spatial pointers to reverberant spaces (and reverberation apparently indicates spirituality) while some archaeologists believe Lascaux cave paintings are maps of the stars (see 
                    <ref target=""http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/871930.stm"">http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/871930.stm</ref>). In Australia, traditional Aboriginal paintings are visualisations of mythical knowledge as well as environmental resources; they are cultural schemas and ‘totemic maps’ 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lewis</Author><Year>1976</Year><RecNum>37</RecNum><DisplayText>(Lewis, 1976, McDonald and Veth, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>37</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425314180"">37</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Journal Article"">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lewis, David</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Route Finding by Desert Aborigines in Australia</title><secondary-title>J. Navigation</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>J. Navigation</full-title></periodical><pages>21-38</pages><volume>29</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>1976</year></dates><isbn>0373-4633</isbn><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1017/S0373463300043307</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite><Cite><Author>McDonald</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>23</RecNum><record><rec-number>23</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425213998"">23</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Journal Article"">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>McDonald, Jo</author><author>Veth, Peter</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The Archaeology of Memory: The Recursive Relationship of Martu Rock Art and Place</title><secondary-title>Anthropological Forum</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Anthropological Forum</full-title></periodical><pages>367-386</pages><volume>23</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2013</year><pub-dates><date>2013/12/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>0066-4677</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00664677.2013.843444</url></related-urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1080/00664677.2013.843444</electronic-resource-num><access-date>2014/02/03</access-date></record></Cite></EndNote>?>. 
                </p>
                <p rend=""Normal text new para"">Textual Literacy</p>
                <p rend=""Normal text new para"">To improve public access to digitalised material 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Warwick</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>13</RecNum><DisplayText>(Warwick et al., 2012, Kirschenbaum, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>13</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425213998"">13</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Edited Book"">28</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Warwick, Claire</author><author>Terras, Melissa M.</author><author>Nyhan, Julianne</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Digital humanities in practice</title></titles><keywords><keyword>Digital media</keyword><keyword>Humanities -- Technological innovations</keyword><keyword>Libraries -- Special collections -- Electronic information resources</keyword><keyword>Information technology -- Social aspects</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2012</year></dates><pub-location>London</pub-location><publisher>Facet Pub. : in association with UCL Centre for Digital Humanities</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Kirschenbaum</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>15</RecNum><record><rec-number>15</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425213998"">15</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Blog"">56</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kirschenbaum, Mathew G.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Digital Humanities</title><secondary-title>academic room</secondary-title></titles><volume>2014</volume><dates><year>2010</year></dates><pub-location>Online</pub-location><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.academicroom.com/topics/what-is-digital-humanities</url></related-urls></urls><custom1>University of Maryland</custom1></record></Cite></EndNote>?> we also need to tackle the problem of literacy, digital literacy, and digital fluency 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Resnick</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>16</RecNum><DisplayText>(Resnick, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>16</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425213998"">16</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Generic"">13</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Resnick, Mitchel</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Rethinking learning in the digital age</title></titles><dates><year>2002</year></dates><publisher>The Global Information Technology Report: Readiness for the Networked World. Oxford University Press</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>?>. Multimedia, visualisations, and sensory interfaces can communicate across a wider swathe of the world’s population. And although literacy is increasing, technology is further wedging a fundamental divide between those who can read and write and those who cannot 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>UNESCO</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>17</RecNum><DisplayText>(UNESCO, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>17</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425213998"">17</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Web Page"">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>UNESCO</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Literacy for all remains an elusive goal, new UNESCO data shows | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization</title></titles><dates><year>2014</year><pub-dates><date>2014/01/29/03:31:29</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single-view/news/literacy_for_all_remains_an_elusive_goal_new_unesco_data_shows/back/9597/#.Uuh1O3lm5UO</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>?>. Yet developing visual literacy is still nascent, even though more and more people read by viewing graphical interfaces, and text-based interfaces cause serious problems for people with low levels of literacy 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Medhi</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>35</RecNum><DisplayText>(Medhi et al., 2011, Chaudry et al., 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>35</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425313647"">35</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Journal Article"">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Indrani Medhi</author><author>Somani Patnaik</author><author>Emma Brunskill</author><author>S.N. Nagasena Gautama</author><author>William Thies</author><author>Kentaro Toyama</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Designing mobile interfaces for novice and low-literacy users</title><secondary-title>ACM Trans. Comput.-Hum. Interact.</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>ACM Trans. Comput.-Hum. Interact.</full-title></periodical><pages>1-28</pages><volume>18</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>1073-0516</isbn><urls></urls><custom1>1959024</custom1><electronic-resource-num>10.1145/1959022.1959024</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Chaudry</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>36</RecNum><record><rec-number>36</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425313863"">36</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Conference Proceedings"">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Chaudry, Beenish M</author><author>Connelly, Kay H</author><author>Siek, Katie A</author><author>Welch, Janet L</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mobile interface design for low-literacy populations</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the 2nd ACM SIGHIT international health informatics symposium</secondary-title></titles><pages>91-100</pages><dates><year>2012</year></dates><publisher>ACM</publisher><isbn>1450307817</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>?>.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Non-Text-Based Media Are Part of Digital Humanities</head>
                <p rend=""Normal text new para"">Archives are not just text, and the digital humanities 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">are</hi> collaborative and interwoven. Even the book itself is a material, embodied experience. Literature itself is linked to both the image 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Theibault</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>20</RecNum><DisplayText>(Theibault, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>20</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425213998"">20</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Book Section"">5</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Theibault, John</author></authors><secondary-authors><author>Dougherty, Jack</author><author>Nawrotz, Kristen</author></secondary-authors></contributors><titles><title>Visualizations and Historical Arguments by John </title><secondary-title>Writing History in the Digital Age</secondary-title><tertiary-title>Digital Culture Books</tertiary-title></titles><volume>(Spring 2012 version)</volume><section>Part 5</section><dates><year>2012</year></dates><pub-location>Online</pub-location><publisher>University of Michigan Press</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>?> and to materiality 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Rudy</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>21</RecNum><DisplayText>(Rudy, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>21</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425213998"">21</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Journal Article"">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Rudy, Kathryn M.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Kissing Images, Unfurling Rolls, Measuring Wounds, Sewing Badges and Carrying Talismans: Considering Some Harley Manuscripts through the Physical Rituals they Reveal</title><secondary-title>Electronic British Library Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Electronic British Library Journal</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2011</year><pub-dates><date>2011</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.bl.uk/eblj/2011articles/article5.html</url></related-urls></urls><research-notes>p4 Manuscripts made as private devotional prayer books often reveal that their owners handled and kissed them as part of rituals.</research-notes></record></Cite></EndNote>?>; the materiality of Icelandic sagas and runic inscriptions are considered by various scholars to be essential properties 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Jesch</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>22</RecNum><DisplayText>(Jesch, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>22</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425213998"">22</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Journal Article"">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Jesch, Judith</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Runes and Words: Runology in a Lexicographical Context (plenary paper)</title><secondary-title>Futhark, International Journal of Runic Studies, Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Runes and Runic Inscriptions, &apos;Runes in Context&apos;</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Futhark, International Journal of Runic Studies, Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Runes and Runic Inscriptions, &apos;Runes in Context&apos;</full-title></periodical><pages>77-100</pages><volume>4</volume><keywords><keyword>James E. Knirk and Henrik Williams</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2013</year><pub-dates><date>August 2010</date></pub-dates></dates><pub-location>Oslo Norway</pub-location><urls><related-urls><url>https://www.academia.edu/5644959/Runes_and_words_runic_lexicography_in_context</url></related-urls></urls><custom1>Online</custom1><research-notes>More recenly, younger scholars in paricular have been invesigaing he ways in which he whole runic objec “means” (Sern 2009, Bianchi 2010), showing how he decoraion, design and layou o runesones in paricular conribue o he meaning o he inscripions, making hem muli-modal objecs. I mysel have argued (Jesch 1998) ha he maerialiy o runesones is as much a par o heir meaning as heir exualiy. </research-notes></record></Cite></EndNote>?>. Humanities is/are not merely multimodal but also embodied experiences. The objects in and on which the humanities are described, critiqued, and preserved are more than just holders for text; they are essential artefacts that give researchers essential clues in the interpretation of text and author. Material objects are not merely brute objects; they are symbolic as well, inscribed into the lived and symbolic world 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>McDonald</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>23</RecNum><DisplayText>(McDonald and Veth, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>23</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425213998"">23</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Journal Article"">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>McDonald, Jo</author><author>Veth, Peter</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The Archaeology of Memory: The Recursive Relationship of Martu Rock Art and Place</title><secondary-title>Anthropological Forum</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Anthropological Forum</full-title></periodical><pages>367-386</pages><volume>23</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2013</year><pub-dates><date>2013/12/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>0066-4677</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00664677.2013.843444</url></related-urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1080/00664677.2013.843444</electronic-resource-num><access-date>2014/02/03</access-date></record></Cite></EndNote>?>. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Scholarly Arguments</head>
                <p rend=""Normal text new para"">Research labs that call themselves visualisation labs include Kings College Visualisation Lab (
                    <ref target=""http://www.kvl.cch.kcl.ac.uk/dhi.html"">http://www.kvl.cch.kcl.ac.uk/dhi.html</ref>), Wired! Lab Digital Art History and Visual Culture (http://www.dukewired.org/), AliVE—Applied Laboratory for Interactive Visualization and Embodiment (
                    <ref target=""http://www.cityu.edu.hk/scm/alive/"">http://www.cityu.edu.hk/scm/alive/</ref>), and the founder of CAVE VR, EVL—Electronic Visualization Laboratory (https://www.evl.uic.edu/). The name also appears in conferences and in journals—for example, the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Visualization and Computer Animation</hi>
                    <hi rend=""st"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">. </hi>Can they all be wrong?
                    </hi>
                </p>
                <p rend=""Normal text new para"">The above labs and journals suggest that visualisation can also be the development of a simulation rather than the depiction of data or a model. These laboratories may produce high-resolution graphical models to represent archaeological data, but they can also produce simulations to test hypotheses. Beat Schwendimann 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth=""1""><Author>Schwendimann</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>17</RecNum><DisplayText>(2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>17</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""9rza2zz57fferkewr285ep0ipsdp0205zwvz"" timestamp=""1395993144"">17</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Blog"">56</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Schwendimann, Beat</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>What is the difference between a simulation and a model? [Updated]</title><secondary-title>Proto-Knowledge-Turning disconnected information into knowledge through visualizations</secondary-title></titles><volume>2014</volume><dates><year>2010</year><pub-dates><date>unknown</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>http://proto-knowledge.blogspot.com.au/2010/12/what-is-difference-between-simulation.html</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>?> explains the distinction succinctly: 
                </p>
                <quote>A model is a product (physical or digital) that represents a system of interest. A model is similar to but simpler than the system it represents, while approximating most of the same salient features of the real system as close as possible . . . [while] . . . a simulation is the process of using a model to study the behavior and performance of an actual or theoretical system. . . . While a model aims to be true to the system it represents, a simulation can use a model to explore states that would not be possible in the original system. </quote>
                <p rend=""Normal text new para"">By creating a simulation rather than a model, we can test hypotheses. So, yes, I am also arguing that games can be considered to be visualisations, of the designer’s mental model of the game world. Games (with examples like 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Papers, Please; September 12;</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Space Refugees</hi>) are persuasive 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">and</hi> rhetorical simulations.
                </p>
                <p rend=""Normal text"">Earlier definitions don’t appear to understand the persuasive and rhetorical nature of visualisations, perhaps because they wish to use them as value-neutral tools. For example, McCormick et al. 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth=""1""><Author>McCormick</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>140</RecNum><DisplayText>(1987)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>140</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""dfv5fvt9gfesfnevaabxdte1s2s9pvvftxt2"" timestamp=""1396588688"">140</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Journal Article"">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>McCormick, B., DeFanti, T. &amp; Brown, M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Visualization in Scientific Computing</title><secondary-title><style face=""italic"" font=""default"" size=""100%"">Computer Graphics</style></secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Computer Graphics</full-title></periodical><volume>21</volume><number>6</number><edition>November 1987</edition><dates><year>1987</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>?> defined visualisation as ‘to form a mental image of something incapable of being viewed or not at that moment visible’ . . . (Collins Dictionary) . . . ‘a tool or method for interpreting image data fed into a computer and for generating images from complex multi-dimensional data sets’. This definition invalidates visualisations that predate the large use of data, does not attempt to explain the mental model and process behind the visualisation, and believes visualization must focused on image generation.
                </p>
                <p rend=""Normal text""> More interestingly, Kosara 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth=""1""><Author>Kosara</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>28</RecNum><DisplayText>(2007)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>28</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425301395"">28</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Conference Proceedings"">10</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kosara, Robert</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Visualization Criticism – The Missing Link Between Information Visualization and Art</title><secondary-title>Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Information Visualisation (IV)</secondary-title></titles><pages>631–636</pages><dates><year>2007</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url>http://kosara.net/papers/2007/Kosara_IV_2007.pdf</url></related-urls></urls><access-date>2015</access-date></record></Cite></EndNote>?> posited three interesting criteria for visualisation: it must be based on (nonvisual) data, produce an image, and the result must be readable and recognizable. He added this interesting subcriteria: ‘In addition to readability, a visualization has to be made with the intent to communicate data three steps: realizing that data is being visualized by the image, understanding what is being visualized, and how the display is to be read’. Unfortunately he also tried to create a simple spectrum ranging from practical visualisations to sublime/artistic visualisations. I believe he has conflated two quite different concepts, at least according to Kantian aesthetics. But he has come closer to a more useful and generic definition: visualisation should reveal the process behind the output.
                </p>
                <p rend=""Normal text"">But where is visualisation as a research tool in its own right? Can’t visualisation actually 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">create</hi> new research questions or at least prove difficult to answer questions? Examples in my field, virtual heritage, include a photo-realistic model which showed colours not actually visible in the ruins of the remaining temple 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Chalmers</Author><Year>1996</Year><RecNum>34</RecNum><DisplayText>(Chalmers and Stoddar, 1996)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>34</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425310109"">34</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Book Section"">5</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Chalmers, A.</author><author>Stoddar, S.</author></authors><secondary-authors><author>Higgins, T.</author><author>Main, P.</author><author>Lang, J.</author></secondary-authors></contributors><titles><title>Photo-Realistic Graphics for Visualising Archaeological Site Reconstructions</title><secondary-title>Imaging the Past: Electronic Imaging and Computer Graphics in Museums and Archaeology </secondary-title></titles><pages>85-93</pages><volume>114</volume><number> British Museum Occasional Paper 114 </number><dates><year>1996</year></dates><pub-location>London</pub-location><publisher> British Museum Press</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>?>, computer modelling to deduce the astronomical function of ancient Roman obelisks (http://idialab.org/virtual-meridian-of-augustus-presentation-at-the-vaticans-pontifical-academy-of-archeology/), or digital data-driven maps to create historically derived visual descriptions of ancient Roman journeys (
                    <ref target=""http://orbis.stanford.edu"">http://orbis.stanford.edu</ref>/). There have also been more general humanities-orientated papers arguing that visualisation can be reflective and critical 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE ?>
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA ?>
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA ?>(Dörk et al., 2013; Jessop, 2008; Robichaud and Blevins, 2011). 
                </p>
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                <head>Summary</head>
                <p rend=""Normal text new para"">Visualization is an extremely significant aspect of digital humanities, and writers such as Burdick et al. 
                    <?biblio ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth=""1""><Author>Burdick</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>18</RecNum><Pages>SG2-3</Pages><DisplayText>(2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>18</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=""EN"" db-id=""ssrsxpde9w95akeevf2ps99xaw25vdf0d0sp"" timestamp=""1425213998"">18</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=""Book Section"">5</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Burdick, Anne</author><author>Drucker, Johanna</author><author>Lunenfeld, Peter</author><author>Presner, Todd</author><author>Schnapp, Jeffrey</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A Short Guide to the Digital Humanities</title><secondary-title>Digital Humanities</secondary-title></titles><dates><year>2012</year></dates><pub-location>Cambridge USA</pub-location><publisher>MIT Press</publisher><urls><related-urls><url>http://jeffreyschnapp.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/D_H_ShortGuide.pdf</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>?> agree, but we need to improve our understanding and communication of visualisation as being part of the humanities not just now but also historically, before the advent of computer data. 
                    <anchor xml:id=""Toc253175985""/>And to recap: historically text has not lived in a hermetically sealed hermeneutic well all by itself. A world with literature but without the arts is intellectually and experientially impoverished. Critical thinking and critical literacy extend beyond the reading and writing of text. Visualization can make scholarly arguments relevant to the humanities. Therefore non-text-based research should figure more prominently in digital humanities readers and monographs.
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            <p>Reading on a screen should be as simple and beautiful of an experience as reading a book. Similarly, interacting with metadata should be as intuitive as interacting with the text itself, no matter what device a user accesses it with. Segetes is a simple, developer-friendly framework for creating and curating networked texts in web applications that can share seamlessly between each other and have the potential to create decentralized networks. The first application built with the Segetes framework includes the poetry of Vergil and is available at 
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            <p>Segetes’ project is twofold: first, to discover and extract metadata for source texts with its open-source modules—including grammatical structures, scansion, textual allusion, entity abstraction, related media, and a concordance of citations for line-specific related criticism—and second, to provide easy access to this data via a web interface, RESTful web service, or document exports as JSON-LD or XML. The Segetes framework is built to be as useful and streamlined as possible for developers at all skill levels and allows researchers to customize the data model and define schemas as necessary. </p>
            <p>Segetes seeks to simplify user interactions and strives for clarity within intricacy in complex metadata. It accomplishes this by allowing users to toggle quickly between the most minimal view possible—the text only, without distractions—and the view for complex metadata related to each paragraph of prose or line of poetry. The primary endpoint of the API is the paragraph or line—and most facets of metadata reference this unit as a whole; thus, the data model provides ease of search and ordering by this base unit to make developing new views, applications, and components as easy as possible. </p>
            <p>As networked texts continue to change the way that users read and study, Segetes seeks to make sharing data an integral and creative force that drives the formation of archives. Automated import and export modules remove obstacles between developers and their data and enable researchers to share it easily. These modules attempt to learn and predict features (such as section breaks and line numbers) about imported texts, and other modules for entity recognition, and calculating text reuse may be used to extract and aggregate other relevant metadata. The export data models rely on and extend current Schema.org, TEI, and Dublin Core standards for annotating metadata and utilize CITE architecture URNs where applicable to offer the most useful and sharable data model possible. Segetes recommends that applications built with its framework and modules contribute back to the community by publishing their datasets, whether as JSON-LD, XML, or another data format, on a larger collaborative data-sharing platform such as DataHub. </p>
            <p>Similarly, each Segetes application offers robust webhooks for networking resources and updates between other Segetes applications that it is linked with. Text search and reuse, disambiguating shared entities, publishing updates, and sharing media are all made easy with in-network texts. In this way, applications developed and curated by individual researchers or teams of researchers and developers may network with each other and create decentralized archives of information, benefiting from sharing resources such as named entities and media, while distributing the burden of editing, data cleaning, hosting, and application development. </p>
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            <p>Senga is a Web-based participatory curation system designed for the general public. The Senga interface consists of four steps—search, collect, order, and share—to make an image sequence called a tour. We claim that these steps mimic the basic process of curation, so a tour can be considered as an exhibition. Senga is a type of crowdsourcing system similar to crowd annotation, but the uniqueness of Senga is in context-dependence, meaning that an interpretation of an image depends on the neighborhood of an image sequence. Through the analysis of more than 2,500 tours created on Senga since its release in 2007, we showed that it has potential to be used by curators to draw new ideas for the exhibition. We conclude the paper by proposing the mathematical model of exhibitions with a preliminary result on analyzing state transition diagrams and on synthesizing tours. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">What Is Senga? </hi>
            </p>
            <p>‘Senga’ (Japanese for ‘thousand images’)
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> is a web-based participatory curation system that allows users to make a ‘tour’ of images and publish it on the Web as an exhibition. Senga is based on the idea of fragmentation and recombination of digitized books. We have digitized more than 200 academically relevant books about the Silk Road (Digital Archive of Toyo Bunko Rare Book
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi>), but the academic atmosphere around those books was a barrier to the general public accessing the wealth of cultural heritage information inside the book. Our original motivation was to crop attractive parts of the book to make a collection of image fragments so that users could later collect and recombine them into a new collection for their purposes. Providing image fragments, however, is a common idea exemplified in the British Library’s million photographs at Flickr commons or the Mechanical Curator (Baker, 2013). Our contribution is in designing an interface to make a ‘tour’ of image collection. 
            </p>
            <p>Figure 1 shows four steps to make a tour on Senga—namely, search, collect, order, and share. A user first sets a theme, searches images by various criteria, collects appropriate images, orders them in a meaningful way, and shares them as a tour. We claim that these steps mimic an exhibition’s curation process, and a tour is a basic form of an exhibition. Hence we call Senga a participatory curation system for sharing exhibitions online. </p>
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            <p>Figure 1. Overview of Senga and four steps (search, collect, order, and share) to make a tour. </p>
            <p>Context-Dependent Annotation </p>
            <p>Senga can be regarded as a crowdsourcing system similar to crowd annotation. In crowd annotation, a user is asked annotate images with tags (Oomen et al., 2014) and named entities,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> and we call it context-independent annotation because metadata description is not affected by how we view the image. On the contrary, Senga deals with context-dependent annotation such as ambiguous or creative interpretations. For instance, a red rectangle is red if it is contrasted with other colors, but is a rectangle if contrasted with other shapes. An ambiguous situation also offers a chance for the exploitation of creative interpretations and contextualization. Senga asks a user to think about the meaning of an image in contrast with other images, which raises users’ interest to look into images. 
            </p>
            <p>Motivation to Participate </p>
            <p>Senga does not offer a clear goal, however, and users of Senga are expected to find their own goals. After the release of Senga in August 2007 (Kamida and Kitamoto, 2007), we held several outreach events for the general public to use Senga and observed how they understand the concept of the system. The biggest challenge seems to be setting a goal from a pool of images on the interface, or in other words, setting the theme of a tour. Some people quickly decided on a theme and looked intrinsically motivated for improving the quality of the tour. An interesting observation is that the capability of goal-setting does not depend on age; even small kids can quickly find their themes, while some adults got lost and could not concentrate on making the tour. Since October 2011, Senga was permanently installed at Toyo Bunko Museum in Tokyo so that museum visitors can freely use it. To increase the value in the museum, we added the mechanism of extrinsic motivation, namely a free souvenir. A tour made in the exhibition room can be picked up at the museum shop after communicating with the staff to print their tours on postcards. Here a postcard serves as a tool to make a path to the museum shop and keep memories of the museum until the next visit. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Analysis of User-Generated Tours </hi>
            </p>
            <p>Basic Statistics </p>
            <p>As of 14 October 2014, Senga produced 2,579 tours. The system provides 3,772 image fragments, and 3,335 images (88%) appear at least in one tour. To analyze the collection of tours from the viewpoint of an exhibition, we first define an ‘exhibition’ as ‘an activity for the general public to arrange artifacts or events with an intention’ (Kawaguchi, 2009 [author’s translation]). This definition suggests that the most important factor of exhibition is ‘intention’, so we focus on two factors—arrangement and title—that are related to the intention of a tour. We check the arrangement and the title for intention and judge if both are consistent. Finally we mark a tour ‘creative’ as long as the arrangement and the title suggest interesting or unique ideas. Evaluation of 2,579 tours was performed by one woman who is not a domain specialist. Such subjective evaluation should be performed by multiple people, but evaluation by a single person is at least consistent and can be used as a good starting point for a preliminary evaluation. As a result, 34% of the tours were judged intentional and consistent, and 6% of the tours (most of them intentional and consistent) were judged creative. In contrast, 41% of the tours were judged intentional but not consistent. </p>
            <p>Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches </p>
            <p>The first research question is why we have more inconsistent tours than consistent ones. Our hypothesis is that this difference originates in two different approaches to making tours: top-down and bottom-up approaches. In a top-down approach, the theme of a tour is defined in the beginning, so the title could be easily given. On the other hand, in a bottom-up approach, a user starts from collecting images and later tries to give a title that best describes the collection. This is not an easy task for image collections without explicit themes, so a typical solution is to give a title not related to the content, such as the date of the visit. The result suggests a hypothesis that the bottom-up approach is slightly more popular than the top-down approach, which is probably opposite the habit of professional curators. </p>
            <p>Variety of Contexts </p>
            <p>The second research question is to measure the variety of contexts at an image level. Figure 2 shows the analysis of image sequences in tours to count images that come just before or just after the target image. Here the leftmost image is the target image, and other images to the right are ordered according to the number of appearances in the neighborhood. In (a), the target image was used in the context of a colorful pattern, but in (b), the target image was used in the context of either animal, pairing, or circular. Multiple interpretations emerged through the comparison of multiple images, but this level of variety is limited to a local context. </p>
            <figure/>
            <p>Figure 2. Variety of contexts for a single image.</p>
            <p>Creativity of Users </p>
            <p>The third research question is to characterize users’ creativity at a tour level. Figure 3 shows an example of creative tours. The first tour has the title ‘couple’, suggesting that the intention is to arrange face images in alternating directions. This interpretation, left or right, is the most important meaning in this tour, but it may have no value in single-image annotation. The second tour has the title ‘fashion show’, suggesting that the intention is to arrange well-dressed people. These creative user-generated tours offer new interpretations for a global context and show potential for the professional curator to draw new ideas for their exhibitions. </p>
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            <p>Figure 3. Creative tours: (a) couple, (b) fashion show. </p>
            <p>Mathematical Model of Exhibition </p>
            <p>The final challenge is to represent the collection of tours using a mathematical model to enable deeper analysis. If we assume that an exhibition has meaningful context over a local image sequence in the neighborhood, the exhibition can be mathematically represented as a Markov chain. Here an image is a node, and transition from one image to another is a directed edge between nodes. The union of nodes and edges from all tours constructs a graph structure of all tours. This graph represents collective contexts that Senga has produced, and the analysis of this graph structure leads to the collective analysis and synthesis of tours. Figure 3 shows the state transition diagram of a Markov chain for (a) intentional and consistent tours and (b) others, visualized by Gephi 0.8.2beta (Bastian et al., 2009). Specific shapes depend on the layout algorithm, but it looks as if (a) has more structure than (b), and this impression could be validated by quantitative analysis of the graph. </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
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            <p>Figure 4. State transition diagrams from (a) creative and consistent tours, (b) other tours. </p>
            <p>The graph can also be used for synthesis. An example is a random walk on the graph that generates a synthetic tour. Frequency of state transitions is first converted into probability, and a self-avoiding random walk
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> generates an image sequence as a tour. Figure 5 shows an automatically generated tour. It starts from a pattern image and gradually shifts toward Buddha and finally people, and it gives locally consistent state transitions. 
            </p>
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                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""15.030097222222222cm"" height=""4.60375cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>Figure 5. Automatically generated tour using self-avoiding random walk. </p>
            <p>Conclusion </p>
            <p>The paper introduced a participatory curation system, Senga, and proposed a mathematical model of exhibition for analysis and synthesis. Future research challenges include detailed analysis of the mathematical model to characterize creativity. </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. Senga Silk Road, http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/senga/.</p>
            <p>2. Digital Archive of Toyo Bunko Rare Books, http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/.</p>
            <p>3. Your Paintings Tagger, http://tagger.thepcf.org.uk/.</p>
            <p>4. Eric W. Weisstein, ‘Self-Avoiding Walk,’ from MathWorld—A Wolfram Web Resource, http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Self-AvoidingWalk.html.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baker, J.</hi> (2013). The Mechanical Curator. Digital Scholarship, http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/digital-scholarship/2013/09/the-mechanical-curator.html. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bastian, M., Heymann, S. and Jacomy, M.</hi> (2009). Gephi: An Open-Source Software for Exploring and Manipulating Networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kamida, R. and Kitamoto, A.</hi> (2007). Senga: A Participatory Archive Based on the Collection and Rearrangement of Images and the Sharing of Slideshows. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IPSJ SIG Computers and the Humanities Symposium 2007</hi>, pp. 339–46 (in Japanese).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kawaguchi, Y.</hi> (ed.). (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Politics of Exhibition</hi>. Suiseisha (in Japanese). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Oomen, J., Gligorov, R. and Hildebrand, M.</hi> (2014). Waisda? Making Videos Findable through Crowdsourced Annotations. In Ridge, M. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Crowdsourcing Our Cultural Heritage</hi>. Ashgate.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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                    <term>server farms</term>
                    <term>digital memory</term>
                    <term>materiality</term>
                    <term>digital media</term>
                    <term>globital memory</term>
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                    <term>digital humanities - nature and significance</term>
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            <p>Social media sites and mobile phones are routinely used to capture, create, store, and share personal memories (Keightley and Schlesinger, 2014; van Dijck, 2010). As our ownership of digital devices and our use of social media sites increases, our capacity to amass personal memories grows and our need for external memory storage expands. Data centers—also referred to as server factories and data warehouses—are the fixed sites that are increasingly used to store personal memories that have been uploaded to social media and other cloud-based services. This makes data centers among the most important infrastructural installations for the production and maintenance of global connection and for what we refer to elsewhere and in this paper as ‘globital memory’ (Reading 2010; 2015). </p>
            <p>The number of data centers has been steadily growing for more than a decade, and one of the drivers for this growth is the uptake of cloud-based services. One data market research company estimates that ‘the number of data centers being built around the world will continue growing until it peaks at 8.6 million in 2017’, while the amount of data center space worldwide ‘will grow from about 1.58 billion square feet total in 2013 to 1.94 billion square feet in 2018’ (International Data Corporation 2014). Despite these quite remarkable growth trends, our knowledge of data centers is often obscured by business rhetoric and commercial secrecy. Very few of us know where our personal data is being stored, who it is being shared with, or the territories through which it moves when we or others seek to access or retrieve it (Blum, 2012; Mosco, 2014). </p>
            <p>Beneath the surface and fuelling the growth of data centers is commercial discourse suggesting that digital memory is far more reliable and has a greater capacity when compared to our human memory. The company Memolane, for example, promised to capture ‘your entire online life in one timeline, making it easy for you to travel back in time and re-live great memories. Whether you’d like to re-discover your holiday of a lifetime, re-live that great party last week or get all nostalgic about when the kids were little, now with Memolane it’s easy to keep the memories alive’ (Memolane, 2011). Given these claims, it is ironic that this personal memory storage company collapsed just a few years after it began, and the digital memories people stored on its service were erased on only short notice (Memolane, 2014). Digital memory—as we can see from this example and many others—is far from infallible.</p>
            <p>The expansion and vulnerabilities of cloud services and remote digital storage industries raise important questions about their political economy and impacts. Recent research in the humanities has highlighted the environmental and social impacts of data centers, particularly in the US and European context (Reading and Notley, 2015; Hogan, 2015; Carruth, 2014; Kitchin, 2014; Maxwell and Miller, 2012; Parikka, 2011). However, there remain many gaps in this limited academic literature, particularly when it comes to examining social and personal impacts in relation to individual and collective memory. In addressing this gap, this paper asks what our ‘globital memory’ means and looks like to data center users and to the different actors that play a role in the data center industry.</p>
            <p>The globital memory field, which seeks to understand the synergetic combination of digitisation with globalisation, is an emergent concept within the field of memory studies. Globital memory is best understood as a cultural field that involves uneven struggles by memory agents to mobilise and secure assemblages of memory with memory capital through connective and mobile technologies. The memory ‘assemblage’ has multiple nonlinear trans-medial trajectories and connectivities that may be uneven and contradictory; these trajectories traverse conventional communicative binaries that have framed many understandings of cultural and mediated memory, such as body-machine, analogue-digital, public-private. Memory assemblages within the globital memory field are a composition of things and bodies with utterances and expressions. The assemblage’s mobilities and securities may be analysed in particular domains across six trajectories that include its transmedialities, velocity, extensity, valency, viscosity, and modality (Reading, 2010). </p>
            <p>Since the data center is now one of the key domains through which digital memory assemblages are mobilised and securitised, in this paper we seek to analyse how globital memory involves the movement of assemblages of data through fixed points, which in turn serve to enable the multiple trajectories and transmedialities within the globital memory field. </p>
            <p>To explore this issue, we examine discursive artifacts that illuminate the complex corporate rhetoric that serves to define digital memory, and we compare this with the material realities of data centers. Extending this analysis, our research then asks: What do data center users and workers expect of the data center and cloud service companies that store our personal memories, and how does this correspond to practices and codes of conduct? To analyse the space of server farms, we examine the rhetoric and reality around the development of Western Sydney as a ‘data centre technology hub’ for Australia. In particular, this pilot research, part of a larger research project, analyses the commercial rhetoric surrounding a single large data center situated in Western Sydney. The analysis draws on examples from news reports as well as stories by local business networks and from the company itself. This is rearticulated through examples of on-the-ground experiences and imaginaries of people in the region in Western Sydney gathered through online discussions as well as a discussion group and pilot interviews with Western Sydney residents whose everyday lives and knowledge practices are experientially situated within the new technology hub in Western Sydney. </p>
            <p>We argue that, in part, public understanding of our role as memory agents within globital memory is largely determined by metaphors and rhetoric that serve to create digital imaginaries. To see how these imaginaries work, we ask: How do we experience personal memory when it is no longer contained within us or nearby us, but rather is stored remotely in data centers? When we send our data to these places, do we see the physical spaces they inhabit, including the companies and their workers who ‘watch over’ our personal memories? What do we expect of these people and companies, and how does this correspond to their motivations and codes of conduct? Or are the behaviors of these intermediaries mostly rendered invisible to us because, for example, we just don’t care or because these actors are concealed by opaque, vague, or misleading corporate rhetoric?</p>
            <p>By analysing the discursive rhetoric that exists in relation to globital memory within the grounded context of the emergence of data centers in Western Sydney, this paper offers original empirical material framed through new theoretical insights linking in much-needed ways work within memory studies, media studies, and the digital humanities. By connecting commercial rhetoric with on-the-ground, everyday knowledge and memory practices, the paper highlights the contradictions and frictions that exist between corporate and digital memory rhetoric and the material realities of data centers.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blum, A.</hi> (2012). Tubes: A Journey to the Center of the Internet. Harper Collins, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Carruth, A.</hi> (2014). The Digital Cloud and the Micropolitics of Energy. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Public Culture,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">26</hi>: 339–64.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hogan, M.</hi> (2015). Facebook Data Storage Centers as the Archive’s Underbelly. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Television &amp; New Media,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">16</hi>: 3–18.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">International Data Corporation.</hi> (2014). Press Release: IDC Finds Growth, Consolidation, and Changing Ownership Patterns in Worldwide Datacenter Forecast. 10 November, http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS25237514
                        <hi rend=""color(333333)"">.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Keightley, E. and Schlesiger, P.</hi> (2014). Digital Media—Social Memory: Remembering in Digitally Networked Times. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Media Culture and Society,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(6): 745–47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kitchin, R.</hi> (2014). The Data Revolution: Big Data, Open Data, Data Infrastructures and Their Consequences. Sage, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Maxwell, R. and Miller, T.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Greening the Media.</hi> Oxford University Press, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McKinsey Global Institute.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Global Flows in a Digital Age.</hi> McKinsey and Company.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Memolane.</hi> (2011). About. http://wwwmemolane.com, accessed via the Internet Wayback Machine, http://web.archive.org/web/20110114090631/http://www.memolane.com/about.html
                        <hi rend=""Hyperlink""> </hi>(accessed 5 February 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Memolane.</hi> (2014). Thanks for the Memories. http://wwwmemolane.com, accessed via the Internet Wayback Machine, http://web.archive.org/web/20140126134109/http://blog.memolane.com/ (accessed 5 February 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mosco, V.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">To the Cloud: Big Data in a Turbulent World.</hi> Paradigm Press, Boulder, CO.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Parikka, J.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Medianatures: The Materiality of Information Technology and Electronic Waste. </hi>Open Humanities Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Reading, A. (2010). Globalisation and Digital Memory: Globital Memory’s Six Dynamics. In Neiger, M., Meyers, O. and Zandberg, E. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">On Media Memory: Collective Memory in a New Media Age. </hi>Basingstoke: Palgrave/Macmillan, pp. 241–52.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reading, A.</hi> (2015). The Journalist as Assembler: The Globital Memory Field, Non-Memory, and the Shooting of Osama Bin Laden. In Zelizer, B. and Tenenboim, K. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Memory and Journalism</hi>. Palgrave, pp. 164–78.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reading, A. and Notley, T.</hi> (2015 in press). Bringing the Cloud to Earth. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Continuum: Journal of Media and Cultural Studies.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Dijck, J.</hi> (2010). Flickr and the Culture of Connectivity: Sharing Views, Experiences, Memories. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Memory Studies,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>(4): 401–15. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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                        <surname>Nagasaki</surname>
                        <forename>Kiyonori</forename>
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                    <affiliation>International Institute for Digital Humanities, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>nagasaki@dhii.jp</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hackett</surname>
                        <forename>Paul</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Columbia University</affiliation>
                    <email>ph2046@columbia.edu</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Muller</surname>
                        <forename>A. Charles</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Tokyo</affiliation>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Tomabechi</surname>
                        <forename>Toru</forename>
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                    <affiliation>International Institute for Digital Humanities, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>tomabechi@dhii.jp</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Shimoda</surname>
                        <forename>Masahiro</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Tokyo</affiliation>
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                    <term>digitisation</term>
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            <p>It is the case with Buddhist studies—as with most other fields in the humanities—that various types of digital resources have been developed. So far, there have been several core digital resources based on traditional series of Buddhist scriptures, indexes, and dictionaries, which had been published within the long era of paper media. It is, in fact, efficient to use such traditional research tools in order to connect the digital resources with existent secondary sources. In this context, digitization makes us aware of what we have been depending upon; it also helps to reveal issues that have been inherent in our work, even during the era of paper media. We will describe the significance of digitization for Buddhist studies from this viewpoint through a recent case in the SAT Database (SAT DB) (Nagasaki et al., 2013). </p>
            <p>The SAT DB is a web service that delivers an integrated research environment for Buddhist studies based on a corpus of digital classical Chinese Buddhist scriptures. The SAT DB has connected with several academic and cultural resources such as the Digital Dictionary of Buddhism, a parallel corpus of the Buddhist scriptures translated into English, and several bibliographical databases and character databases—all linked by implementation of convenient interfaces. The web services are accessed over 300,000 to 500,000 times per month. The SAT DB has recently been linked text by text with several other digital resources, such as the Buddhist Canons Research Database (BCRD)
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> and some other digital repositories. We will briefly describe the BCRD below.
            </p>
            <p>The BCRD is the only comprehensive index to Tibetan Buddhist canonical materials, providing cross-references between primary materials and detailed publication information to secondary literature, while incorporating hyper-text links to online resources. Standard library cataloging systems provide bibliographic information at the ‘item’ level (a monograph, a serial, etc.) only. This level of cataloging information is inadequate for classical collections such as the various Buddhist canons. To illustrate by example, the Tibetan Buddhist canon consists of approximately 5,000 individual works of varying authorship; an individual recension of the Buddhist canon is typically represented in standard library catalogs by either one or two bibliographic records. All other relevant details for accessing individual works are relegated to secondary reference literature. The same holds true for the vast majority of subsequent commentarial literature that has often been published in large collections grouped thematically or by author.</p>
            <p>The BCRD has compiled complete documentation for the Tibetan Buddhist canon, as well as another cross-linked 3,500 post-canonical works. It also provides the raw bibliographic resources to enable advanced research by fully documenting previous research and to provide constantly updated bibliographic references to print and digital resources in multiple languages. Such a project benefits a broad range of scholars in the humanities by providing detailed and accurate reference information otherwise not readily available, and in a quick and concise manner.</p>
            <p>In addition, the BCRD provides full-text searching of the entire Tibetan Buddhist canon (15 million syllables). At the present time, it has more than 700 active users and deploys cutting-edge techniques of Natural Language Processing to enable intelligent searching and precise identification of search results. As a result, user feedback has been enormously positive, and users have described the resource as ‘revolutionary’ and ‘a huge advance . . . [and] enormously beneficial to scholars in the field’.</p>
            <p>The linkage between the BCRD and the SAT DB has been made possible based mainly on a corresponding catalogue (Ui et al., 1934) that was a milestone in the paper media—that is, the two present resources are connected with the past resource. It has streamlined the workflow of browsing corresponding scriptures across the Chinese and the Tibetan, which had been important and inevitable but needed complex procedures in order to explore transition of various aspects of Buddhism. Moreover, each separate database project is now relieved from having to do the various works of building mutual databases. It will also be useful to explore further issues in both corresponding scriptures and to improve earlier catalogues. </p>
            <p>The SAT DB also has begun to gather URLs of digital images of primary resources of Buddhist scriptures, such as manuscripts and woodcut printings, which are published in various cultural data repositories. We have tentatively obtained approximately 600 URLs and have uncovered several problems. In the case of secondary resources, the SAT DB has already provided a stable linking service by semi-automatic search by use of Web API in several search engines of journal articles. However, in this case, we were not able to use some popular convenient methods such as Web API due to the fact that the metadata in each repository are not unified and the contents cannot be retrieved by texts. Our collection must be done by manually checking each image. In Japanese cultural web resources, at least two integrated search engines are enabled, but neither provides enough search function for our usage. HathiTrust
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> and gallica,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> from which we gathered URLs, are also not sufficient. In the case of HathiTrust, the names of scriptures are not yet regularized with our databases. In the latter, as it includes various fragments of manuscripts of the scriptures, we need to identify the location of them one by one in order to provide convenient usage. So far, we have targeted the repositories of HathiTrust, gallica, the National Diet Library of Japan (NDL),
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> the University of Waseda, the University of Ryukoku, Ritsumeikan University, the National Institute of Japanese Literature, and so on (see Figures 1 and 2). As the targets will increase further, we should check URLs continuously. Meanwhile, we should analyze each repository and design appropriate metadata for our database and disseminate these for efficient interoperability according to several standards, because some repositories lack publication data, some lack a method of writing, and some don’t include format of metadata. Moreover, we released a Web API to provide our link data so that other providers can avoid reinventing the wheel. Thus, it will also be useful to provide a model case for interoperability of Eastern cultural resources. 
            </p>
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            <p>Figure 1. The dialog to link with other resources.</p>
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            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. The relationship of digital repositories via SAT DB and BCRD.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. http://www.aibs.columbia.edu/databases/New/index.php.</p>
            <p>2. http://hathitrust.org/.</p>
            <p>3. http://gallica.bnf.fr/.</p>
            <p>4. National Diet Library Digital Collection, http://dl.ndl.go.jp/?__lang=en.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nagasaki, K., Tomabechi, T. and Shimoda, M.</hi> (2013). Towards a Digital Research Environment for Buddhist Studies. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(2): 296–300.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ui, H., et al.</hi> (eds). (1934). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Complete Catalogue of the Tibetan Buddhist Canons.</hi> Sendai, Japan.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2355","16","Social Media Data: Twitter Scraping on NeCTAR","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Hutchinson</surname>
                        <forename>Jonathon</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>The University of Sydney</affiliation>
                    <email>jonathon.hutchinson@sydney.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hammond</surname>
                        <forename>Jeremy</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Intersect, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>jeremy@intersect.org.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Martin</surname>
                        <forename>Fiona</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>The University of Sydney</affiliation>
                    <email>fiona.martin@sydney.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Yazbek</surname>
                        <forename>Daniel</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Intersect, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>daniel@intersect.org.au</email>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <term>twitter</term>
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            <p>The rapid growth in social media communications research in the last five years has seen the assembly of complexly connected datasets of a scale and scope previously rare in humanities scholarship, highlighting the sociocultural intricacies of follower networks (see Weller et al., 2013). Big data inquiry of social media has also been driven by the emergence of publicly accessible, integrated aggregation, indexing, query, and visualisation approaches (Hansen et al., 2011; Burnap et al., 2013). Indeed, the big data moment has challenged humanities researchers to develop innovative methodologies to extrapolate new social knowledge, and brought humanists and computer scientists together in the pursuit of robust eResearch infrastructure and workflows to support these objectives.</p>
            <p>This paper explores a novel social media network analysis (SMNA) research methodology, which resulted in the development of a Twitter visualisation tool for the NeCTAR research cloud. It explores the workflow issues of using large-scale eResearch infrastructure for digital humanities research, and discusses the results of the research program on social media network mapping. In doing so, the authors demonstrate the complexities of interdisciplinary humanities and computer science research collaboration, while revealing new insights made possible through eResearch partnerships.</p>
            <p>SMNA as a methodology requires the development of an integrated workflow using National eResearch Collaboration, Tools and Resources (NeCTAR) as the computing service to host both a Twitter scraper and a network visualisation tool. We used the native Twitter application programming interface (API) to maximise flexibility, minimise costs, and reduce reliance on commercial third-party data providers. The workflow included scripting an automated ‘clean-up’ phase so that hundreds of thousands of raw tweets could be gathered and indexed in a useful format. Analysing the characteristics of social networks across large datasets is computationally taxing, and to solve this problem we set up an interactive visualisation program, Gephi, in the NeCTAR cloud environment. </p>
            <p>During the discovery and implementation phases of the project we made the following key observations. In Australia, there has been significant investment in eResearch infrastructure, including large-scale storage, data discovery, and high-performance and cloud computer systems. However, these services often have imposing barriers to entry for humanities researchers, who either lack the technological skills, desire, or established collaborative networks to apply these methodologies to their field of research (Meyer and Dutton, 2009). Moreover, eResearch assemblages are generally constructed by computer or physical scientists, who may be unfamiliar with the philosophies and theoretical perspectives of social scientists, and so it is not always clear that these technologies can immediately address the humanities’ ‘big data’ problems (Meade et al., 2013). However, in constructing the NeCTAR-based Twitter research infrastructure and pursuing an extended collaborative approach, the yield from the original research corpus provided more unique and novel results than either discipline could deliver alone. Traditionally, computer science researchers have sought interdisciplinary collaborations in the natural sciences and engineering to find appropriate research problems that balanced scale, complexity, and solvability. The materialisation of big data as a research concern within the humanities now gives software engineers new real-world applications of their techniques, a process that is key to the computer science discipline’s evolution (Hopcroft et al., 2011).</p>
            <p>The research presented in this paper demonstrates that early methodological discussions between humanists and computational specialists strengthened the research design, producing collaboratively designed research questions, while avoiding the high knowledge barriers to lay eResearch entry (Goggin et al., 2014). For example, in this research context, which drew on the expertise of University of Sydney media researchers and NSW Intersect’s computer scientists, a series of new research questions emerged while interrogating the initial social mapping results. The development of a novel computational research workflow emerged from the humanities scholars’ interest in understanding the languages, norms, or rules of communication activities within the Twitter social media platform. Following that research focus, the computer scientists explored a deeper understanding of the relationships between individual users, and the positive and negative communicative sentiment expressed in users’ interactions. The collaboration required significant mutual investment in exploring each research contributor’s agencies and abilities, and ongoing calibration of the research design.</p>
            <p>The resulting workflow and research tool have enabled a rigorous interrogation of the communication activities of complex follower networks within the Twitter platform, and the evolution of a methodology that addresses ethical concerns about big data research raised by boyd and Crawford (2012) along with Ess (2014). It will also underpin the development of an automated research tool that can be rolled out across a number of humanities research projects, and within virtual lab environments.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">boyd, d. and Crawford, K.</hi> (2012). Critical Questions for Big Data: Provocations for a Cultural, Technological, and Scholarly Phenomenon. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Information, Communication, &amp; Society, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">15</hi>(5): 662–79.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bradley, J.</hi> (2009). What the Developer Saw: An Outsider’s Ciew of Annotation, Interpretation and Scholarship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Paths For Computing Humanists,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold color(141412)"">Burnap, P., Rana, O. and Avis, N.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(141412)""> (2013). Making Sense of Self-Reported Socially Significant Data Using Computational Methods.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic color(141412)"">International Journal of Social Research Methodology, Computational Social Science: Research Strategies, Design and Methods,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold color(141412)"">16</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(141412)"">(2).</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ess, C.</hi> (2014). At the Intersections between Internet Studies and Philosophy: ‘Who Am I Online?’ 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Philosophy &amp; Technology, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(3): 275–84.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Goggin, G., Dwyer, T., Martin, F. and Hutchinson, J.</hi> (2014). Finding Mobile Internet Policy Actors in Big Data: Methodological Concerns in Social Network Analysis. Paper presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Australasian Association of the Digital Humanities, Expanding Horizons, </hi>Perth, Australia, 18–21 March 2014.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hansen, D. L., Shneiderman, B. and Smith, M. A.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Analyzing Social Media Networks with NodeXL: Insights from a Connected World</hi>. Morgan Kaufmann.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hopcroft, J. E., Soundarajan, S. and Wang, L</hi>. (2011). The Future of Computer Science.
                        <hi rend=""italic""> International Journal of Software Informatics, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">5(</hi>4): 549–65, http://www.ijsi.org/1673-7288/5/i110.htm.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meade, B., Manos, S., Sinnott, R., Fluke, C., van der Knijff, D. and Tseng, A.</hi> (2013). Research Cloud Data Communities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">THETA: The Higher Education Technology Agenda 2013,</hi> Hobart, Tasmania, 7–10 April 2013, http://eprints.utas.edu.au/16326/1/THETA_2013_Meade_16326.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meyer, E. T. and Dutton, W. H.</hi> (2009). Top‐Down e‐Infrastructure Meets Bottom‐Up Research Innovation: The Social Shaping of e‐Research. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Prometheus,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">27</hi>(3).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Weller, K., Bruns, A., Burgess, J., Mahrt, M. and Puschmann, C.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Twitter and Society.</hi> Peter Lang Publishing, New York. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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                        <forename>Nadia</forename>
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                    <email>nadiaparask@gmail.com</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Alexandropoulos</surname>
                        <forename>Timos</forename>
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                    <term>corpora and corpus activities</term>
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                    <term>interdisciplinary collaboration</term>
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                    <term>creative and performing arts</term>
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            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">The Problem of Sonification</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Kramer Gregory (1994), in his book 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Auditory Display: Sonification, Audification, and Auditory Interfaces</hi>, defines sonification as ‘use of non-speech audio to convey information or perceptualize data’. 
            </p>
            <p>In our digital age we can store, edit, and examine almost all qualities and quantities as data. Sound itself can be considered as a pure stream of information able to be modulated, transformed, and analyzed in a lot of different ways. </p>
            <p>The success of sonification occurs when the sound reveals one or more qualities of data or data reveals one or more qualities of sound. Thus, this kind of materialization of data is an interdisciplinary act that involves the proper analysis of data as well as the structure of sound. </p>
            <p>While technology provides us with a wide variety of tools, the core of the problem still exists. As this kind of interdisciplinary knowledge is hard to be combined, there aren’t enough available tools that help artists to escape from an arbitrary mapping of data to sound qualities. This leads to arbitrary results both for the artist and the listener as the sonification process doesn’t take advantage of either the auditory perception properties or sound’s advantages in temporal, amplitude, and frequency resolution. As a result, in most cases, sonification fails its purpose, which ‘is to encode and convey information about an entire data set or relevant aspects of the data set’ (Hermann et al., 2011). </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Sound and Linguistics</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Sonic Materialization of Linguistic Data is a series of works and a research project aiming to provide sound artists with the tools for the proper linguistic analysis of the mined data. </p>
            <p>In our age of constant connectivity, social media—and especially the text-based Twitter platform—can be considered as a monitor corpus that evolves perpetually and is in a process of constant change. In order to create new structures and transform this chaotic stream of data into new material—in our case, sound—it needs to be organized according to its different kind of properties, namely here, its linguistic aspects
                <hi rend=""bold"">. </hi>With our Sonic Materialization of Linguistic Data work, we provide different software modules that can perform real-time linguistic analysis of data and output the result for sonification purposes. 
            </p>
            <p>Our software consists of different kind of modules from which the user can choose only one or a combination of more. Here we present the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Stress Module</hi>. The program enables the user to aggregate data from different hashtag [#] feeds on Twitter in real time. The incoming data is being processed according to their linguistic features and in particular stress. The algorithm performs a series of tasks and extracts the stressed syllables of the aforementioned data. The output is a phonetic transcription code that represents each phoneme of the input Twitter feed. The encoded outputted list of data also includes suggestions for the sonic mapping that occurs from data’s linguistic features and the sound’s nature. For instance, the strong syllables are a numerical output that represents a longer sound event (time envelope), whereas the weaker syllables are a numerical representation of a briefer sound event. Similar kinds of optional mapping can also affect other sound features, such as pitch, timbre, ADSR envelopes, modulation, etc. 
            </p>
            <p>Stress, which can be considered as a prosodic feature, manifests itself in the speech stream in several ways. Stress patterns seem to be highly language dependent, considering that there is a dichotomy between stress-timed and syllable-timed languages. In stress-timed languages, primary stress occurs at regular intervals, regardless of the number of unstressed syllables in between, whereas in syllable-timed languages syllables tend to be equal in duration and therefore are inclined to follow each other at regular intervals of time. According to Halliday, ‘Salient syllables occur in stress-timed languages at regular intervals’ (1985, 272). Strong syllables bear primary or secondary stress and contain full vowels, whereas weak syllables are unstressed and contain short, central vowels. </p>
            <p>Particularly in English, which is a stress language, speech rhythm has a characteristic pattern that is expressed in the opposition of strong versus weak syllables. Stressed syllables in English are louder, but they also tend to be longer and have a higher pitch. Despite the fact that stress can be also influenced by pragmatic factors such as emphasis, our project aims to capture the natural stress pattern of English in order to extract meaning from sound patterns, too, as they will be delineated by the phonetic structure of natural language. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Presentation</hi>
            </p>
            <p>For the presentation of the project we are proposing a poster with the description of how exactly the software works and what its aim is. We also would like to include a pair of headphones and a small screen (or projector) in order to have the data analysis and the sonification process in real time for the audience to experience. </p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Halliday, M. A. K.</hi> (1985). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">An Introduction to Functional Grammar</hi>. Arnold, London. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold color(242424)"">Hermann, T., Hunt, A. and Neuhoff, J. G.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(242424)""> (eds). (2011). </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic color(242424)"">The Sonification Handbook</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(242424)"">. </hi>Logos Verlag Berlin, Berlin.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kramer, G.</hi> (1994). Auditory Display: Sonification, Audification, and Auditory Interfaces. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Santa Fe Institute Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Proceedings Vol. XVIII</hi>. Addison Wesley, Reading, MA. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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                        <surname>Allison-Cassin</surname>
                        <forename>Stacy</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>York University, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>sacassin@yorku.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Suhonos</surname>
                        <forename>MJ</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Ryerson University, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>mjsuhonos@ryerson.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ruest</surname>
                        <forename>Nick</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>York University, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>ruestn@yorku.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>St. Onge</surname>
                        <forename>Anna</forename>
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                    <affiliation>York University, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>astonge@yorku.ca</email>
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            <p>Big data, ubiquitous computing, and the quotidian nature of the digital point to the ways metadata touches all aspects of human life, making it increasingly clear that the quality of metadata and the number and strength of linkages surrounding an object in a library collection is vital. Content discovery is dependent upon the data, search interface, and algorithms that allow us to locate material, causing an awareness of the power of the knowledge structures that underlie these systems more crucial than ever, especially given that these structures are masked by the seemingly silent processing of machines (Kittler, 1999; Lessig, 2006; Olson, 2002). Despite this reality, library bibliographic control, as the professional practice of creating metadata for library collections, continues to be walled and trained along root-tree hierarchies. Nontextual materials are forced within systems that are conceptualized for text-based print resources. Linked Open Data (LOD)—as a form of structured metadata that allows for dynamic interlinking of data across the Web, creating an active web of relationships, rather than a static set of documents and as a technology created for the Web—is a way to rewire these entrenched systems.</p>
            <p>Objectives</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(060606)"">The primary goal of this project is to create a series of experimental, rhizomatic digital networks through the development of LOD prototypes of archival material related to the Mariposa Folk Festival. These prototypes will surface the multitude of relationships and contextual information normally silent in library catalogues and conceptualize this data in a fundamentally different way by activating the rich possibilities of Semantic Web technologies. Models currently being explored for the prototypes include the sonification of the network, and a network conceptualized around ideas of memory, narrative, and time. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>Harmony and Dissonance</p>
            <p>Much of the literature on LOD has focused on the harmonization of data as a means to create semantic relationships on the Web. Open standards provide ‘a common framework that allows data to be shared and reused across application, enterprise, and community boundaries,’ and shifts the Web from being a web of documents to a web of data (W3C, 2013) by connecting discrete pieces of data rather than links between pages (Lange and Pattuelli, 2014). Information encoded as linked data interoperates with other data coded the same way, making for a rich integration of information from various data sources, allowing the Web to function like a giant database. This results in more comprehensive and accurate search results than current federated search systems (Byrne and Goddard, 2010). 
                <hi rend=""apple-converted-space""> </hi>The use of standardized vocabularies and schemas creates harmony within an information system, but this comes at a cost. Voices that do not fit within the system must be left out. We are grappling with the implication of these choices and the difficult issue of creating specialized schemas in an environment that prizes standards above all else. 
            </p>
            <p>An increasing number of organizations are making LOD available, but there remains a dearth of projects putting this data into action, particularly coming from the academic library sector in Canada. With no standard, out-of-the-box mechanisms for creating and working with LOD, many in the community, while aware of the supposed benefits, are unsure of how to get there (Lampert and Southwick, 2013), leading to increasing calls for the library community to begin to prototype and experiment (Jordan et al., 2014; Salo, 2013; Singer, 2009), and leading Askey et al. (2013) to challenge libraries to be open to failure. Experimentation and divergent thinking is vital to innovation in a sector that is slow to change. </p>
            <p>The Case for Music</p>
            <p>Music, as a sounding art that takes place in time, is not easily captured in the manner of textual or image-based documents, making it challenging to align with practices based on the creation of textual metadata. Musical works give rise to numerous possible instantiations in various media, such as recordings, scores, and moving images, making connecting all these resources challenging (Smiraglia, 2001). Additionally there are complex interpersonal relationships of mixed authorship. A single performance may have a composer, lyricist, performers, and others, such as audio engineers. Because musical objects have a dense network that is often invisible in library systems, it is an ideal case for LOD experimentation.</p>
            <p>The Mariposa Folk Festival is an internationally recognized Canadian music festival that began in the summer of 1961 and continues to be a key venue for the promotion of traditional music. York University holds the archives of the Mariposa Foundation. In 2009 York University Libraries received a grant from the Canadian federal government to digitize and provide public access to live sound recordings and other archival documents to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the Mariposa Folk Festival. Numerous questions related to the challenges of copyright, metadata, and cultural memory from this project are being explored.</p>
            <p>Methodology</p>
            <p>We are making use of practice-based research approaches as well as theoretical methods to extend the theory and practice of library systems. This can be thought of as a ‘feedback loop’ where theorizing and prototyping perform a continuous loop, and the generation of questions is the focus over the mobilization of a final, polished product.</p>
            <p>The initial period involves the development of the conceptual models and the dataset necessary for the deployment of the prototypes. Once the existing metadata have been mapped, the team will begin to build in enhancements using standard schemas and ontologies. Much of the time in the first phase is focused on developing metadata, mapping, and cleanup, with the possible extensions to the York Digital Library’s Islandora platform. </p>
            <p>The prototypes are the focus of the second phase. They are intended to extend technical capacity and theoretical ideas around information and mediation. If LOD is to fundamentally change the way information is navigated on the Web, then we must work to change not only the structures of the data but the conceptual models in which they are deployed.</p>
            <p>Challenges and Implications</p>
            <p>An early challenge that has developed is that much of the existing data requires checking and correction. We have reduced the size of the dataset to ensure detailed and clean metadata. This smaller grouping of documents is being grouped around a theme and time period. As much as LOD is promising, a great deal of manual work is still required.</p>
            <p>The real work of this project is around the development of the conceptual models, in particular trying to approach the network from the idea of the sonic and the implications of ‘sound’ on the network idea and attempting to move away from the hegemonic ‘nodes and edges’ approach to LOD. </p>
            <p>Copyright has previously proved challenging and remains a challenge for this project. Rather than choosing to not include sound documents, we are attempting to leverage community relationships, link to alternate sources, and find solutions. </p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>This talk outlines our initial steps in creating Linked Open Data network prototypes. While we are at the initial stages of the LOD implementation, our work builds upon years of praxis and expert knowledge of library and archival descriptive practices, archival preservation, repository software, and library systems. We will discuss our plans for our LOD networks and other means of pushing the boundaries on what is considered library discovery.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Askey, D., Jordan, M., Steeves, C. and Suhonos, M. J.</hi> (2013). IT Experimentation, Innovation, and Failure. Panel discussion at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Access 2013,</hi> St. John’s, Canada, 23–26 September 2013.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Byrne, G., and Goddard, L.</hi> (2010). The Strongest Link: Libraries and Linked Data. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">D-Lib Magazine</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">16</hi>(11/12), doi:10.1045/november2010-byrne.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jordan, M., Sahadath, C. and Suhonos, M. J.</hi> (2014). Linked Open Data and Libraries: When? or NOW! BCLA Conference, Vancouver, BC.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kittler, F.</hi> (1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Gramophone, Film, Typewriter</hi>. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lampert, C. K., and Southwick, S. B.</hi> (2013). Leading to Linking: Introducing Linked Data to Academic Library Digital Collections. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Library Metadata</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">13</hi>(2–3): 230–53, doi:10.1080/19386389.2013.826095.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lange, L. and Pattuelli, M. C.</hi> (2014). Linked Jazz: Building with Linked Open Data. EDUCAUSE Review Online, 30 June 2014, http://www.educause.edu/ero/ article/linked-jazz-building-linked-open-data.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lessig, L.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Code: Version 2.0</hi>. Basic Books, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Olson, H. A.</hi> (2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Power to Name : Locating the Limits of Subject Representation in Libraries</hi>. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Salo, D.</hi> (2013). Soylent Semantic Web Is People! (with notes). Slideshare slides presented at the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">SWIB (Semantic Web Im Bibliotheken; Semantic Web in Libraries)</hi>, Hamburg, Germany, 26 November 2013, 
                        <hi rend=""Hyperlink.0"">http://www.slideshare.net/cavlec/soylent-semantic-web-is-people-with-notes.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Singer, R.</hi> (2009). Linked Library Data Now! 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Electronic Resources Librarianship</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(2): 114–26, doi:10.1080/19411260903035809.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smiraglia, R. P.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Nature of ‘a Work’: Implications for the Organization of Knowledge</hi>. Scarecrow Press, Lanham, MD.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">W3C Semantic Web Activity Homepage</hi>. (n.d.). 
                        <hi rend=""Hyperlink.0"">http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/ (accessed 13 October 2014).</hi>
                    </bibl>
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                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Rossiter</surname>
                        <forename>Ned</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
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            <p rend=""HTML Preformatted"">Arguably the relational database has had greater impact on the transformation of organizational cultures and the world economy than the Internet. The materiality of data centres coupled with the computational analytic potentials of databases has produced models of this world without historical precedent. Key here is the question of scale. The knowledge once derived from the transitional technologies of cabinets of curiosities (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Wunderkammer</hi>), demographic registries, and Foucault’s ‘great tables’ in the 17th and 18th centuries—later systematised into various epistemic instruments that included Diderot’s encyclopaedia, the periodic table, the museum, and Linnaeus’ taxonomies—were all coincident with the rise of populations governed as statistical subjects. Such instruments can today be understood as proto-databases, foreshadowing what Gernot Böhme (2012) has called our present era of ‘invasive technification’.
            </p>
            <p>The advent of the relational database in the early 1970s marks a particular turning point, we argue, in the ductility and malleability of knowledge concerning technical operations and the governance of society at large. At this point information becomes in a new sense purely programmable, and available for, among other things, forms of ad hoc knowledge production. The logical interrogation of subjects is literalised with the advent of ‘structured English query language (SEQUEL)’ in 1974, which presents as its very first example a resulting ‘relation describing employees’ featuring the barely fictional cast of ‘Jones’, ‘Smith’, and ‘Lee’ (Chamberlin and Boyce, 1974). Thereafter the relational model and its lingua franca, SQL, make possible for the first time entirely new fields of data science: data mining, informatics, business intelligence, real-time analytics. This in turn has led to a technological shift in the processing and logistical operations of modern institutions, with transformative effects in the apparently mundane fields of report writing, insurance assessment, credit checks, and policy development. What were once specialised arts become template-driven forms of analysis and institutional processes designed for replication. Here, knowledge rubs up against the politics of parameters. New uses of data become a constant in the social life of institutional settings, laden with a politics that remains for the most part implicit as it is pervasive. The durability of knowledge practices is coextensive with the persistence of parameters. Political existence contracts into the embodiment of Quine’s dictum: to be is to be the value of a variable. </p>
            <p>By the early 1980s, the increasing reliance of all institutions on the relatively hypostatised 
                <hi rend=""italic"">form</hi> of the database reinforces and reinflects early-20th-century theories of institutionalism. For Weber, the institution was a necessarily constrained artefact of capitalist modernity. In the early eighties, DiMaggio and Powell (1983) revisited the ‘iron cage of bureaucracy’, reconceiving the modern institutional form as an ‘isomorphic’ entity with shared common procedures, structures, and operational norms while at the same time capable of adaptation to geographic, commercial, and industry-specific conditions. We argue that this isomorphism is recognisable by new institutionalist theorists in part due to its historical coincidence with the ubiquity and relatively enduring quality of the enterprise database, already emerging as a necessary part of modern institutional infrastructure. In the same way, the onset of flexible modes of capital accumulation was not a transformation independent of emergent developments in computational architectures. For example, the logistical world of ‘supply chain capitalism’ (Tsing, 2009) has become increasingly governed by the dual and interconnected processes of real-time computationally and just-in-time modes of production and distribution. The agility of the modern institution is, then, contingent upon the combinatory possibilities of relational databases that operate at ever increasing scales. The capacity for institutions to adapt to regimes of flexibilization is augmented, rather than replaced, by novel non-relational systems. 
            </p>
            <p>This twin model of data-and-institutional organization extends to the governance of logistical populations. One key example can be found in the recent challenges faced by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, which in 2014 confronted a very public institutional crisis of legitimacy based on a perception of computational failure. This crisis was precipitated by the multiplication of sites and points of data agglomeration: the ‘monopoly of knowledge’ enjoyed by the ABS for many years has now become rivalled by a diversity of institutional actors who also have considerable computational capacity to produce knowledge that bears upon how economies and populations are understood. The era of distributed computing, of virtualised clusters of machines and software that can co-operate to resolve queries over structured data on heterogeneous network and computational topologies, have been paralleled by questions of the sovereignty of singular guardians of population data. Since the 2000s, an array of new paradigms for arranging, connecting, and querying data—the Semantic Web, Linked Data, service-oriented architectures (SOA), and software-as-a-service (SaaS)—continue to bring into question claims over institutional legitimacy.</p>
            <p>In the Australian context, the cutbacks in the operating budget of the ABS from successive governments needs to be seen in the context of the marketization of grey literature enabled by computational processes. This is not only a case of the state increasingly outsourcing a once-sacrosanct responsibility to private service providers. The multiple diffusions and aggregations of population data throughout a heterogeneous computational and institutional network means that the ‘database’ is no longer physically or conceptually containable within the borders of a single institution. The increasing dependency by policy makers on the generation of numbers by machines is symptomatic of the automation of decision making. Such is the institutional over-reliance on the pure power of computation. No matter how many manual double-checks and regulatory procedures may constitute the repertoire of techniques deployed to guard against the sort of institutional risk exposed by the ABS debacle, the scale and distribution of computational calculation in the production of knowledge will most likely result in an increasing jostling for legitimacy among institutional actors seeking government contracts related to policy development. Implicit in this jostling is a challenge to assumptions of ‘closed worlds’ and non-monotonicity that accompany the traditional relational database form and, by association, the single institution that manages such infrastructure. Rival claims, multiple perspectives, and contradictory or indeterminate datasets form the new territory of informational contestation. The case of the ABS offers an optic through which to view the emergence of such struggles.</p>
            <p>Our claim is that this is less a story about decentralization and privatization of government within a neoliberal paradigm (although these are without doubt key forces), and more an instance of the technical logic of databases and distributed computing resulting in an unsettling of modern institutional authority. The relatively short history of the relational database has been mirrored, early on, by a recognition of the homologous or isomorphic character of the institutions that deploy them—and, more recently, by a sense that this isomorphism has itself ‘morphed’ or adapted into outright competition in the economy of data. Our central interest in this paper is to consider the role of the database as a technology of governance and the scramble of power as it relates to a capacity to model the world and exert influence upon it. What are the implications for public institutions as they relate to the supply of knowledge on national populations when the technologies of insight have become distributed and increasingly unaccountable across a range of actors? And what affordances does this present for the disruption of parametric politics, or the establishment, at the very least, of alternative parameters though which political life can be constituted?</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">Böhme, G.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space"">
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)""> (2012). </hi>
                        </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">Invasive Technification: Critical Essays in the Philosophy of Technology.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Shingleton, C. (trans.). Bloomsbury, London.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">Chamberlin, D. D. and Boyce, R. F.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">(1974). SEQUEL: A Structured English Query Language. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">Proceedings of the 1974 ACM SIGFIDET (now SIGMOD) Workshop on Data Description, Access and Control</hi>
                        <hi rend=""apple-converted-space"">
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">. ACM</hi>
                        </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">, pp. 249–64.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">DiMaggio, P. J. and Powell, W. M.</hi> (1983). The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">American Sociological Review, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">48</hi>(2): 147–60.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tsing, A.</hi> (2009). Supply Chains and the Human Condition. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Rethinking Marxism,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(2): 148–76. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2359","16","Steampunk and Nineteenth-Century Digital Humanities","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Roger Todd</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Washington State University, United States of America</affiliation>
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            <p>This poster presentation will share some of my insights regarding the use of the steampunk aesthetic to inspire retro-computing projects under the umbrella of 19th-century digital humanities. Nineteenth-century DH turns to forms of material programming using microprocessors to construct gadgets inspired by Victorian narrative and design. As part of their enthusiasm regarding the aesthetic, steampunk fans have constructed everything from small Stirling engines using the steam from a teacup to the massive three-story Victorian home on tank-treads lovingly named the Neverwas Haul by attendees to the Burning Man festival. </p>
            <p>For me, 19th-century digital humanities appeals to Garnet Hertz and Jusi Parikka’s notion of zombie media, the idea that programmable microprocessors can help resurrect seemingly dead media and revive them for study within the digital humanities. I am currently working with a $17,000 internal seed-grant to develop steampunk projects for the digital humanities, and I am in the design stage for a retro-computing project for an NEH Digital Humanities startup grant that will examine how to develop a functioning computer using only the technological affordances of the 19th century. My poster will illustrate the designs of my retro-computing project, and the novels and histories that help me to imagine its look and feel. It will also call for examining the 19th century as a resource to emphasize what Kari Kraus calls the conjectural side of the digital humanities: one that focuses on futures and alternate histories as alternatives to the technological present. I am eager to find collaborators as well as scholars willing to help me envision where I might go next with this project.</p>
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"2360","16","Succession: Generative Techniques, Speculative Interpretation and Digital Heritage","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Mitchell</forename>
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                    <term>archives</term>
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            <p rend=""Normal1"">
                <hi rend=""italic"">Succession</hi> (http://mtchl.net/succession) is a web-based work that uses combinatorial techniques to provide an engine for investigating the complex fields of meaning latent in digital cultural collections. This paper introduces this practice-led research project and investigates the potential of combinatoric generative techniques for imaginative, interpretive meaning-making with digital cultural collections.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">
                <hi rend=""bold"">Context, Aims, and Approach</hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Digitisation is turning out corpora that rapidly exceed human interpretive scope: the Internet Archive recently published some 2.6 million machine-extracted images to the Flickr Commons (Miller, 2014). Techniques for dealing with non-text collections at scale are developing, such as Manovich’s work on macroscopic analyses (2012). Another emerging strand of practice takes a more poetic and playful approach, offering serendipitous samples and chinks of algorithmic insight. Tim Sherratt’s Trove News Bot tweets archival news articles based on daily headlines (Sherratt, 2013); the British Library’s Mechanical Curator posts random images from the library’s digitised books (Baker, 2013). Sherratt’s Eyes on the Past (2014) harvests faces from digitised newspapers and has their eyes peer out through the interface, inviting investigation. These approaches reflect an emerging interest in collections as active sites of meaning-making and experimentation with how we might encounter such collections in an everyday digital environment.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">
                <hi rend=""italic"">Succession</hi> addresses the industrial and pre-industrial heritage of Newcastle-Upon-Tyne and surrounds, reflecting my encounters with the city during an extended visit, and the thoughts (and affects) on energy, history, industrialisation, and capital that the place provoked. Newcastle was a key Roman settlement, later one of the crucibles of the Industrial Revolution, now finding its way in a ‘de-industrial’ Britain (Chakrabortty, 2011). While the work is highly localised, it reads this place as a cypher with far wider implications. The work’s title draws a term from ecology, alluding to continuous and ongoing change and adaptation. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Succession</hi> aims to mine the city’s industrial past in order to fuel consideration of our possible futures. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">In practice the work is a web application that draws on a corpus of some 2,000 image records harvested from the Flickr Commons and combines these elements into new composites (or ‘fossils’). Each fossil comprises five randomly selected source images arranged, composited, and potentially repeated. Sources are cited; thus, while composites often radically obscure, transform, or juxtapose their elements, the sources and their attendant contexts remain navigable and intact. Composites may be saved, acquiring a permalink to become a new citable online object. The generative process of composition is performed live, in the browser; each viewer will encounter a series of unique composites. The system allows for around 2.5x10
                <hi rend=""superscript"">15</hi> combinations of elements (ignoring spatial and blending variations). At a rate of one per second, it would take around 8 million years to show all permutations.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Generative Digital Humanities</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Schnapp and Presner called for a ‘generative digital humanities’ in their 2009 manifesto; here ‘generative’ means hands-on, makerly, productive, and integrative. This project fits their proposal for a DH that is ‘qualitative, interpretive, experiential, emotive [and] generative in character’. I use ‘generative’ more specifically to describe formal and computational techniques; as such, my approach also reflects Berry’s call (2011) for DH to focus on the attributes of computation and their implications for knowledge. The work described here aims to be generative in both senses: a computational system that provokes experiential, interpretive modes of encounter with digitised history and culture. This is what Drucker and Nowviskie (2004) term 
                <hi rend=""italic"">speculative computing</hi>: ‘speculative approaches to digital humanities engage subjective and intuitive tools’ while enlisting computation for augmentation, rather than simply automation. A speculative DH pursues computation that is ‘dynamic and constitutive’, ‘creating programs that have emergent properties’.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">As Drucker and Nowviskie show (2004), generative procedures have long been used in the arts to augment and extend thought, creating aesthetic and conceptual provocations. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Succession</hi> uses combinatorics, the procedural combination of specific formal elements. Permutation gives combinatorics a form of quantitative leverage: small sets of elements proliferate into vast numbers of possible outcomes. When the permuted elements are symbolic or textual, combinatorics becomes a machine for knowledge or meaning. Ramon Lull’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ars Magna </hi>(1305) permuted divine principles into sets of theological assertions; these conceptual machines marked out domains of knowledge for investigation (see Gardner, 1958). In the 1960s, poets Brion Gysin and Raymond Queneau used combinatorics to pursue unforeseen or inconceivable meaning using fixed and finite textual means. Bill Seaman’s ‘recombinant poetics’ seeks ‘emergent meaning’ within digital arrays of textual and audiovisual elements (2001). Ross Gibson and Kate Richards’ 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Life after Wartime</hi> applies combinatorics to an archive of 1940s crime-scene photographs, showing how a generative ‘story engine’ can prompt speculative interpretations of digital heritage (Richards, 2006).
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Authored Spaces and Generative Artefacts</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">
                <hi rend=""italic"">Succession</hi> consists of two related domains common to any computational generative process. The first is the generative system: the set of source elements, rules, and procedures that make up the work; the second is the field of actual and potential digital artefacts produced by that system. These two domains have distinct characteristics and specific discursive modes, as outlined below.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Bill Seaman describes his combinatoric generative system as an ‘authored electronic space’, emphasising that it is expansive, but not arbitrary (2001, 426). Similarly, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Succession</hi>’s space is authored, in part through its corpus: sources were selected for content relevance, as well as visual potential. The content base grew and was pruned around the conceptual focus in a slow process of subjective evaluation, exploratory search, and tangential investigation. In Seaman’s words, this authorship seeks out a ‘resonant unfixity’ (Seaman, 2002).
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">In 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Succession</hi> the rules for compositing elements are also authored, tailored around the idiosyncrasies of the sources and the poetic aims of the work. Layered composition is both formal machine and metaphor: to address a city built on coal it seemed necessary to combine and compress, to obscure while at the same time hopefully intensifying the energy latent in those sources. Thus the image blending modes are biased to overlay dark elements; this treatment resonates with the engraved illustrations in the Internet Archive and British Library collections. Process and corpus (algorithm and data) are interdependent. Where (default) Cartesian space is inert, extensive, and homogeneous, here authored space is co-constituted by an active assemblage of media, concepts, and computational processes.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""15.917333333333334cm"" height=""11.324166666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>Figure 1. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Succession</hi> composite 1413513552860 (see http://mtchl.net/succession/#/saved/1413513552860).
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">This saved composite in Figure 1 shows how the generated artefacts can also operate as what Drucker and Nowviskie (2004) call ‘aesthetic provocations’ while enlisting the contexts and referents of their source elements in speculative juxtapositions. This composite is dominated by a 1993 photograph of Wearmouth Colliery in its final week of operation—a poignant image of the last days of Newcastle coal. But a spectral water-bird (from Gould’s 1837 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Birds of Europe</hi>) seems about to splash down in those desolate puddles. Faintly in the background is the bustling River Tyne itself, circa 1880, and on the left of frame appears a carriage destined for Newcastle’s Metro system, under development in the mid-1970s. Almost imperceptible at bottom left is the HMS
                <hi rend=""italic""> Opal</hi>, a torpedo destroyer, under construction at the Sunderland shipyards in 1915. So this composite encompasses not only 150 years of urban history but a latent portrait of 20th-century capital, the rise and (UK) fall of extractive industry, war, urbanism, and pre-Industrial naturalism and the non-human lives it records.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">This example shows how formal and visual transformations inflect narrative or historical interpretations, and thus that these generative artefacts are not simply bundles of citations but speculative visual propositions. Layering emphasises simultaneity and atemporal juxtaposition rather than chronology: Gould’s duck, about to dive into the colliery puddles, or perhaps swimming on the 1880s Tyne? Faded traces evoke the presence of the lost; visual collisions prompt an interpretive search for coherence, patterns of connection in the authored space of the system.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Thus generative systems like 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Succession</hi> can be both prompts for interpretation and humanistic ways of speaking in themselves. In addressing complex topics (or ‘wicked problems’) such as extractive industry, capital, and urban change, it seems necessary to respond in kind. Generative techniques provide a way to speak complex multitudes, as well as an engine for unforeseeable combinations, the seeds of something new. Seaman terms this ‘unfixity’; Gibson calls it a ‘restlessness’ that prompts imagination through ‘artful imbalances and implied possibilities for completion or patterning’ (Gibson, 2006). This active imagination is essential, Gibson argues, in understanding and potentially altering ‘the continuous tendencies that are making us as they persist out of the past into the present’. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Generative systems have a long history as formal tools for generating (and navigating) large fields of potential meaning in the arts. This paper argues that such systems are also relevant in the digital humanities. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Succession</hi> draws on networked digital heritage to create a ‘restless’ generative system that produces speculative propositions anchored in specific historical contexts, shaped by specific authorial themes and metaphors. It shows how generative techniques can support the creation of new composite cultural objects, and how these composites can use historical fragments to speak richly to the complexity of our present moment.
            </p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baker, J.</hi> (2013). The Mechanical Curator. Digital Scholarship Blog, http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/digital-scholarship/2013/09/the-mechanical-curator.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Berry, D.</hi> (2011). Digital Humanities: First, Second and Third Wave. stunlaw, http://stunlaw.blogspot.com.au/2011/01/digital-humanities-first-second-and.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chakrabortty, A.</hi> (2011). Why Doesn’t Britain Make Things Any More? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Guardian</hi>, 17 November, http://www.theguardian.com/business/2011/nov/16/why-britain-doesnt-make-things-manufacturing?CMP=twt_gu.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Drucker, J. and Nowviskie, B.</hi> (2004). Speculative Computing: Aesthetic Provocations in Humanities Computing. In Schreibman, S., Siemens, R. and Unsworth, J. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Humanities</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 431–47, http://digitalhumanities.org:3030/companion/view?docId=blackwell/9781405103213/9781405103213.xml&amp;chunk.id=ss1-4-10&amp;toc.depth=1&amp;toc.id=ss1-4-10&amp;brand=9781405103213_brand.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gardner, M.</hi> (1958). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Logic Machines and Diagrams</hi>. McGraw-Hill, New York, http://archive.org/details/logicmachinesdia227gard.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gibson, R.</hi> (2006). Places Past Disappearance. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Transformations,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">13</hi>, http://www.transformationsjournal.org/journal/issue_13/article_01.shtml.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manovich, L.</hi> (2012). How to Compare One Million Images? In D. M. Berry (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Understanding Digital Humanities</hi>. Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 249–78.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Miller, R.</hi> (2014). Millions of Historic Images Posted to Flickr. Internet Archive Blogs, http://blog.archive.org/2014/08/29/millions-of-historic-images-posted-to-flickr/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Richards, K.</hi> (2006). Life after Wartime. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Canadian Journal of Communication,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">31</hi>(2), http://cjc-online.ca/index.php/journal/article/view/1729.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schnapp, J. and Presner, T.</hi> (2009). The Digital Humanities Manifesto 2.0, http://jeffreyschnapp.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/Manifesto_V2.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Seaman, B.</hi> (2001). Oulipo | vs | Recombinant Poetics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Leonardo,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">34</hi>(5): pp. 423–30.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Seaman, B.</hi> (2002). Interview with Yvonne Spielmann, http://www.fondation-langlois.org/html/e/page.php?NumPage=386.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sherratt, T.</hi> (2013). Conversations with Collections. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Discontents</hi>. http://discontents.com.au/conversations-with-collections/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sherratt, T.</hi> (2014). Eyes on the Past. http://eyespast.herokuapp.com/.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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                        <forename>Katherine</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Texas A&amp;M University Libraries, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>k-weimer@library.tamu.edu</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Wrisley</surname>
                        <forename>David Joseph</forename>
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                    <affiliation>American University of Beirut</affiliation>
                    <email>dw04@aub.edu.lb</email>
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            <p>It is a truism now to say that digital academic research has evolved through forms of collaborative, interdisciplinary practice. Fitzpatrick has argued that scholars must rethink their approach to digital texts and objects to be able to assess their quality and impact (2011). Professional associations have stepped forward in recent years providing guidance for the evaluation of scholarship in non-traditional formats. </p>
            <p>The Modern Language Association’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Guidelines </hi>(2012) describe a review process, yet without evaluative factors. The NINES/NEH Summer Institute report (2011) gives general questions for review. As Nowviskie (2012) notes, review of digital textual scholarship is often based on a comparison to a print equivalent, an obviously inadequate metaphor for dynamic visual interfaces. Furthermore, the visual arguments of such projects can be accompanied by textual content that falls within specialized subject domains, and yet peer-review bodies such as MESA, 18th Century Connect, and NINES do not give explicit guidance for the spatial element of projects. The ADHO GeoHumanities SIG founded in Lincoln, Nebraska, in 2013 would be an ideal place to provide support for peer review. 
            </p>
            <p>With an eye for the complexities of authorship, collaboration, and attribution, a starting point for the specificities of spatial research might be UNL’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Best Practices</hi> (2014), a document that provides a high-level overview of design principles, navigation, and testing, as well as dynamic content and multimedia. Both Drucker’s claim (2013) that our theoretical notions should be reflected in our interfaces and Rumsey’s outline of future discussion of spatio-temporality (2009) are other important starting points. Whereas the humanities have been mostly influenced by the linguistic and visual turns, Rumsey argues that they ‘have not given priority to critical spatial reasoning’. Are the basic concepts of ‘spatial literacy’ such as location, scale, adjacency, distance, and projection (Unwin, 2010) so ubiquitous as to be self-evident, or should geohumanities projects be explicit about their treatment of such concepts? 
            </p>
            <p>The moment for this conversation is a timely one, with the numbers of geohumanities projects on the rise. Our hope is that the poster format will allow us to engage directly with a wide variety of practitioners in Sydney to collect community input. We will begin with vernacular descriptions of spatiality in a digital environment in order to construct a set of questions for guiding reviewers of geohumanities projects. Sample questions include the following:</p>
            <p> • Are spatial concepts (position, representation, transformation) linked explicitly to the data model?</p>
            <p> • How are the infrastructural layers used in this project made explicit (geoserver, map layers, gazetteer)? Is reused data appropriately cited?</p>
            <p> • Does this project rely upon existing infrastructure, or has a significant part of the project consisted in the building of infrastructure (e.g., for historical GIS)?</p>
            <p> • Is an authoritative gazetteer used? To what extent is it linked to open data?</p>
            <p> • What kinds of analysis are facilitated by the map interface? How has the factor of time been accommodated?</p>
            <p> • How are searches contrived? Spatially? Tabularly? Textually?</p>
            <p> • How has the relation between spatial and textual representation been expressed?</p>
            <p> • If the project has involved the creation of a tool, is the code for it published and open?</p>
            <p> • Is the spatial data of the project published and open?</p>
            <p> • What aspect of the project is the strongest critical intervention (infrastructure, data model, theory)? </p>
            <p>A final element of our poster will comprise a short ‘trial’ review of a few exemplary geohumanities projects, with our notes on how well they satisfy our review criteria. We hope to learn from the standards that the following project communities have made explicit: the Orbis Project (Stanford), the Early Modern Map of London (Victoria), and the Mapping the Lakes project (Lancaster). Since both the forms of scholarship and of peer review itself are changing, we intend to comment briefly on what modes of open peer review might look like for the case of the explicitly visual environment of geohumanities research. </p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Drucker, J.</hi> (2013). Performative Materiality and Theoretical Approaches to Interface. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(1). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fitzpatrick, K.</hi> (2011). Peer-Review, Judgment, and Reading. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Profession, </hi>123–201. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Modern Language Association.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Guidelines for Evaluating Work in Digital Humanities</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">NINES/NEH Summer Institute.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Guidelines for Promotion and Tenure Committees in Judging Digital Work</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nowviskie, B.</hi> (2012). Evaluating Collaborative Digital Scholarship (or, Where Credit is Due). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Digital Humanities, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(4), http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/1-4/evaluating-collaborative-digital-scholarship-by-bethany-nowviskie/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rumsey, A. S.</hi> (2009). Scholarly Communication Institute 7: Spatial Technologies and the Humanities. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarly Communication Institute, Reports on Summer Institutes</hi>, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, 28–30 June 2009. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Center for Digital Research in the Humanities.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Best Practices for Digital Humanities Projects.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Unwin, D.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Numbers Aren’t Nasty: A Workbook of Spatial Concepts.</hi> TeachSpatial, http://www.teachspatial.org/spatial-concepts-workbook-Unwin. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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                        <surname>Algee-Hewitt</surname>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Davis</surname>
                        <forename>Chelsea</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>cmdavis1@stanford.edu</email>
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                        <surname>Droge</surname>
                        <forename>Abigail</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>adroge@stanford.edu</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Eccles</surname>
                        <forename>Tasha</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>eccles@stanford.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Eidem</surname>
                        <forename>Laura</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>lmeidem@stanford.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Frank</surname>
                        <forename>Morgan</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>emdfrank@stanford.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Fredner</surname>
                        <forename>Erik</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>fredner@stanford.edu</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Porter</surname>
                        <forename>J.D.</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>jdporter@stanford.edu</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Shephard</surname>
                        <forename>Andrew</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>washep@stanford.edu</email>
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                        <surname>Walser</surname>
                        <forename>Hannah</forename>
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            <p>As a textual phenomenon that seems to rely exclusively on the affective states of an audience, suspense would appear to be well outside of the quantifiable aspects of literature that are available to digital humanities study. Even while suspense can be understood as a genre of writing, this generic label is relegated to a relatively small group of texts, ignoring the way that many other genres—for example, horror, science fiction, mysteries, and thrillers—also make use of the same phenomenon. Compounding these difficulties, suspense is also a descriptive category that can be applied at the intertextual level (works can be ‘suspenseful’) as well as at the intratextual level (certain parts of works can be ‘suspenseful’). Finally, suspense can also manifest itself as an epiphenomenon of narrative: disentangling the ‘momentum’ of narrative propulsion from the existential suspense of genre fiction further complicates studies attempting to isolate the origins of suspense effects.</p>
            <p>Recent work, however, has suggested that careful digital parsing of narrative might provide clues to the origins of this effect. Richard Doust’s study ‘Narrative Structures: The Case of Suspense’ (2010) argues that if narrative units can be digitally coded, then their pattern can reveal the mechanisms of suspense. While very promising, this work relies extensively on precoded (and thus predefined) narrative units, restricting its generalizability across time and genres. Yet the promise of this work is tantalizing. If it is possible to locate lexical or semantic features that are related to the experience of suspense, we would not only gain a much deeper understanding of what suspense is, but we would also be able to investigate narrative processes at the scale of corpora in a way that current digital humanities work cannot. Moreover, such an analysis would also offer a potential bridge between the often rigidly formalist approaches characteristic of quantitative textual analysis and the primarily subjective domain of the reader’s affective experience.</p>
            <p>In this paper, ‘Suspense: Language, Narrative, Affect’, a collaborative project by members of the Stanford Literary Lab, we seek to unpack the transhistorical and transgeneric commonalities of suspense literature. Our goal is to isolate lexical and narrative features that, within the right context, create the potential for the experience of suspense. Drawing on previous narratological and psychological studies, our contention is that suspense, as a psychological affect, occurs in the negotiation between the reader and the text (for example, Brewer and Lichtenstein, 1982; Jose and Brewer, 1984; Carroll, 2001; Beecher, 2007; Smuts, 2008). That is, we argue that there are textual effects that create the potential for the experience of suspense, which are only realized by a reader encountering the text within a specific context.</p>
            <p>As part of our goal in this paper is to trace these textual features both across time and across genres that are, to varying degrees, ‘suspenseful’, we have assembled a corpus of 216 texts from between 1780 and 2013 that were unanimously deemed suspenseful by the project group. These texts not only belong to the genre of ‘suspense literature’, but also to a variety of genres for which suspense is an important component, including Gothic fiction, detective fiction, sensation literature, science fiction, and horror. As a control, we also created a corpus of 107 ‘unsuspenseful’ texts sampled from the same time period. To explore both the textual and affective components of suspense we apply a set of innovative digital humanities methods to uncover textual features shared by suspenseful texts (or suspenseful episodes within texts) combined with collaborative social psychological work to explore how these textual features impact reader experience. Through this project we investigate the following questions: (1) Is, in fact, the experience of suspense common among a group of readers? (2) Are there lexical features that are shared by suspenseful narratives or narrative episodes? (3) Do these features form identifiable patterns within narratives that are common among our historically and generically diverse corpus? In this paper, we present the results of these first three phases of investigation.</p>
            <p>Expert Tagging</p>
            <p>Before we could begin investigating the specific textual features that were common among suspenseful narrative episodes, we first sought to confirm that a group of readers could reliably and independently come to a consensus in identifying suspense within a narrative. To this end, our first experiment was to use the project participants (eight PhD candidates in English literature) as a group of expert readers who could tag short stories for the effects of suspense and whose consensus we could reliably measure. Would a group of readers with similar educational backgrounds agree on the suspenseful and unsuspenseful parts of a narrative? Our corpus for this project was 13 short stories: each story was divided into discrete narrative units (roughly corresponding to a paragraph), and each unit was rated by each reader as to how suspenseful it was. Not only did this process demonstrate a remarkable consensus among the project participants, but it also revealed a number of narrative patterns of suspense whose commonalities suggest potential categories of suspenseful narratives (Figures 1 and 2). We are currently in the initial stages of a collaboration with members of the Stanford psychology department that will expand this tagging experiment to a diverse group of participants with different educational, disciplinary, and cultural backgrounds.</p>
            <p>Distinctive Lexical Elements</p>
            <p>With the results of the tagging experiment, we then turned to the question of whether the sections of the test corpus that were hand tagged by the group as highly suspenseful shared lexical features, as well as features that were distinctive of our suspenseful corpus compared to our nonsuspenseful corpus. For both, we identified the most distinctive words, the set of words that appeared significantly more often in either suspenseful passages or novels as compared to nonsuspenseful passages or novels. These words not only gave us a set of features through which we could identify potentially highly suspenseful passages in nontagged texts but also suggested some important lexical aspects of suspense. For example, words having to do with movement on a vertical axis (descend, ascend, lower, raise, etc.) were associated with suspenseful episodes and suspenseful texts. We also employed a part of speech tagger to identify the parts of speech that were most indicative of suspense and found a disparity between the number of adjectives that appear in nonsuspenseful texts versus suspenseful texts.</p>
            <p>Narrative Patterns</p>
            <p>In the final stage of this project we sought to use our intertextual results to study the narrative patterns of suspenseful texts. Is there a pattern of groups of words, or semantic fields, within a narrative that is indicative of that narrative’s potential to create the effect of suspense? To identify these semantic clusters of words, we ran a latent dirichlet analysis, or topic model, on our suspenseful corpora and combined these results with the distinctive words we identified in part 2 of our project. These gave us discrete meaningful fields whose presence and absence we could trace across the narratives of texts in our corpus. To help identify how the patterns formed by these clusters of words helped create the experience of suspense, we also tagged the highly suspenseful (and highly unsuspenseful) passages in small group of novels from our corpus. By plotting the scaled average of our semantic fields within a moving window across the text on the same graph as our tagged suspenseful passages, we can observe, for the first time, the interaction between textual features and the suspense effect. As we were interested in semantically meaningful clusters of words, as well as potentially parts of speech, we plotted both within these graphs (see Figures 3 and 4).</p>
            <p>As a complementary measure of investigation, we explored how a text’s reading level varies throughout the course of its plot, and how this metric correlates with suspense. To do this, we applied Age-of-Acquisition (AOA) norms
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> to our texts using a simple dictionary method. This AOA dataset contains 30,000 words, each with a score that corresponds to the mean age at which respondents have reported learning (or acquiring) the word. Once applied to our texts, we computed a moving average of this score to examine how AOA fluctuates in suspenseful plots, and we observed that the suspenseful moments correlate with a drop in AOA—that is, the more suspenseful an episode, the lower its reading level. 
            </p>
            <p>Through these three avenues of investigation, our paper explores how specific lexical features—including semantic clusters of words, parts of speech, and Age of Acquisition scores—operate within the narrative of texts to create the potential for the experience of suspense. As our study combines this digital humanities work with the methodologies of social psychology, it allows us, for the first time, to explore simultaneously the formal features of a text that are distinctive of suspenseful texts and how these features interact with readers to create the experience of suspense itself. Not only, therefore, do we offer a new way of understanding suspense as a critical narrative process that jointly operates between trackable textual features and the context in which they are encountered, but we also suggest a new avenue through which the formal and quantitative research of digital textual analysis can be combined with other fields of study to gain a holistic understanding of the aesthetic experience of reading.</p>
            <p>Figures</p>
            <figure>
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            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Expert reader tagging of passages for suspense in Poe’s ‘Pit and the Pendulum’.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.51cm"" height=""6.9991111111111115cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Expert reader tagging of passages for suspense in Saunders’ ‘The Falls’.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""18.104555555555557cm"" height=""5.228166666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Moving average of most distinctive ‘suspense’ (red) and ‘nonsuspense’ (blue) words in Mary Shelley’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Frankenstein</hi> (1818); red and blue bands mark locations of passages tagged for high or low suspense, respectively.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""17.219083333333334cm"" height=""17.219083333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. Semantic fields in Stoker’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Dracula</hi>: bands mark passages tagged as highly suspenseful.
            </p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. Dataset made available by Kuperman, Stadthagen-Gonzalez, and Brysbaert (2012).</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">Barthes, R.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)""> (1975). Introduction to the Structural Analysis of Narrative.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">New Literary History</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">6</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">(2) (Winter): 237–72.</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bernardo, A. B. I. and Gerrig. R. J. </hi>(1994). Readers as Problem-Solvers in the Experience of Suspense. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Poetics</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>(6) (1994): 459–72.
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                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">Beecher, D.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)""> (2007). Suspense.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">Philosophy and Literature</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">31</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">(2): 255–79.</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">Brewer, W. and Liechtenstein, E.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)""> (1982). Stories Are to Entertain: A Structural-Affect Theory of Stories. Center for the Study of Reading: Technical Report 265. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">Carroll, N.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)""> (2001). The Paradox of Suspense. In </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">Beyond Aesthetics</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</hi>
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">Doust, R.</hi> (2010). Narrative Structures: The Case of Suspense. Probation Report for the Open University, 12 December
                        <ref target=""QQ2-2-1""> </ref>2010, http://www.richarddoust.eu/suspense/sqdf.html#QQ2-2-1.
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                        <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">Jose, P. and Brewer, W.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">(1984). Development of Story Liking: Character Identification, Suspense, and Outcome Resolution.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">Developmental Psychology, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">20</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">(5): 911–24.</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kuperman, V., Stadthagen-Gonzales, H. and Brysbaert, M.</hi> (2012). Age-of-Acquisition Ratings for 30 Thousand English Words. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Behavior Research Methods</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">44</hi>, 978–90. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Levine, C.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Serious Pleasures of Suspense: Victorian Realism and Narrative Doubt</hi>. University of Virginia Press, Charlottesville. 
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rabkin, E. S.</hi> (1973). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Narrative Suspense</hi>. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smuts, A.</hi> (2008). The Desire-Frustration Theory of Suspense. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">66</hi>(3) (Summer): 281–90.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Todorov, T.</hi> (1977). The Typology of Detective Fiction. In Howard, R. (trans), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Poetics of Prose</hi>. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, pp. 42–52.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Truffaut, F. with Scott, H. G.</hi> (1984). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Hitchcock</hi>. Rev. ed. Simon &amp; Schuster, New York.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vorderer, P., Wulff, H. J. and Friedrichsen, M.</hi>, eds. (1996). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Suspense: Conceptualizations, Theoretical Analyses, and Empirical Explorations</hi>. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2363","16","Susurrant: A Tool for Algorithmic Listening in Networked Soundscapes","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Johnson-Roberson</surname>
                        <forename>Chris A</forename>
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                    <email>chris.johnson.roberson@gmail.com</email>
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                    <term>networks</term>
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                    <term>machine learning</term>
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                    <term>audio</term>
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                    <term>multimedia</term>
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                    <term>internet / world wide web</term>
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            <p>Many methods for computational analysis of audio have been developed in the fields of music information retrieval and machine learning. Typically used for copyright protection and music recommendation, such methods can also be used to analyze audio artifacts embedded in a specific online community.</p>
            <p>Susurrant, an open-source tool I am currently developing, enables exploratory data analysis on a corpus of digital audio accompanied by textual and social network metadata. (Such a corpus can be derived from a music-centered social media platform like SoundCloud.) This tool utilizes probabilistic topic modeling, a family of techniques for inferring latent variables (‘topics’) that could have generated the observed data (Blei, 2012).</p>
            <p>Sonic features (both rhythmic and spectral content) and the text of user tags and comments are analyzed jointly in a single model. The result is a kind of auditory concordance for the corpus, linked directly to associated textual features. This builds upon work using topic models to identify latent sources in audio (Hoffman et al., 2009)
                <hi rend=""HTML_Cite"">,</hi> model musical influence (Shalit et al., 2013), and analyze shared taste in online communities (Dietz, 2009).
            </p>
            <p>Susurrant is meant to help researchers gain a new perspective on their audio corpora. It facilitates what Wendy Hsu terms ‘augmented empiricism’, a combination of ethnography and computational analysis that aims to ‘[document] social and cultural processes with empirical specificity and precision’ (Hsu, 2014). In this short paper, I will give a brief demo of the software (available at www.susurrant.org) and suggest ways that it might be useful for other scholars working with sound.</p>
            <p>Methodology</p>
            <p>Susurrant comprises several components: a database for storing audio metadata with textual data and social network graph, a script for semi-automated data collection, and a browser-based application that provides both visual and auditory display of analysis results. For the most part, these components make use of existing software packages such as the Neo4j graph database, the Essentia feature extraction library (Bogdanov et al., 2013), and the machine learning library MALLET (McCallum, 2002); thus, the visualization interface constitutes the bulk of this work’s contribution.</p>
            <p>The browser-based visualization/sonification of the corpus lets one listen to a resynthesized version of the variables characterizing each audio ‘topic’ along with representative audio samples and user comments. In another mode, it displays the subsets of the social network most closely associated with each topic, enabling comparison of the distributions of different sonic features across the community.</p>
            <p>I present a case study using an initial corpus of audio files and user commentary downloaded from SoundCloud. This corpus consists of music played in nightlife spaces that cater to queer and trans people of color, and is an integral part of my ethnographic work on queer of color nightlife and its online mediation. I will show how I am using this software to analyze sound in a specific social and cultural context.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Theoretical Implications</hi>
            </p>
            <p>As well as offering a software package to facilitate multimodal analysis, this work can contribute to the theorization of ‘algorithmic listening’, a term for modes of computational analysis that have mostly been used in commercial applications but could readily be put to other uses.</p>
            <p>We are already surrounded by algorithms that listen. For the most part, these algorithms act as censors (as in YouTube’s Content ID system) or as recommendation engines (like those of Pandora, Clear Channel’s iHeartRadio, or SoundCloud). They rely on massive data stores and computing resources that are inaccessible to the end user, stripping away context and rendering their operations opaque even as they come to shape more and more of what we hear.</p>
            <p>Instead, Susurrant captures a cross-section of meaningfully related sounds as they exist within a specific interpretive community. It analyzes audio and textual features together and presents them in an integrated fashion to the researcher, ensuring that important contextual details are retained. Further, it helps us understand how an algorithm ‘hears’, when we listen to the variables learned by the model together with the original samples from which they were inferred.</p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>The tool provides a novel means for exploratory data analysis of sound. By using sonic as well as textual data, this method calls attention to the aspects of sounds that have significance within an interpretive community and allows for exploration along different axes than those provided by extant platforms. I welcome dialogue about ways to improve this tool and extend it for other use cases.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. M.</hi> (2012). Probabilistic Topic Models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communications of the ACM,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">55</hi>(4), 77–84, http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2133826.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bogdanov, D., Wack, N., Gómez, E., Gulati, S., Herrera, P., Mayor, O., et al.</hi> (2013). ESSENTIA: An Audio Analysis Library for Music Information Retrieval. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Society for Music Information Retrieval Conference (ISMIR’13)</hi>, pp. 493–98.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dietz, L.</hi> (2009). Modeling Shared Tastes in Online Communities. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">NIPS Workshop on Applications for Topic Models: Text and Beyond</hi>. http://www.umiacs.umd.edu/~jbg/nips_tm_workshop/8.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoffman, M., Blei, D. and Cook, P. R.</hi> (2009). Finding Latent Sources in Recorded Music with a Shift-Invariant HDP. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Digital Audio Effects</hi>, Como, Italy, http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.154.845&amp;rep=rep1&amp;type=pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hsu, W. F.</hi> (2014). Digital Ethnography toward Augmented Empiricism: A New Methodological Framework. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(1), 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/3-1/digital-ethnography-toward-augmented-empiricism-by-wendy-hsu/.</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCallum, A. </hi>(2002). MALLET: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit. http://mallet.cs.umass.edu.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shalit, U., Weinshall, D. and Chechik, G.</hi> (2013). Modeling Musical Influence with Topic Models. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 30th International Conference on Machine Learning</hi>, Atlanta, 16–21 June 2013, pp. 244–52. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2364","16","Taking Stylometry to the Limits: Benchmark Study on 5,281 Texts from “Patrologia Latina”","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Eder</surname>
                        <forename>Maciej</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Pedagogical University, Krakow, Poland; Institute of Polish Language, Polish Academy of Sciences</affiliation>
                    <email>maciejeder@gmail.com</email>
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            <p>In the era of large-scale stylometry—which is about to come—some basic but difficult methodological questions have not been answered yet. Certainly, the most important one is whether a given method, reasonably effective for a collection of, say, 100 texts, can be scaled up to assess thousands of texts without any significant side effects. When one deals with historical corpora, however, this question becomes much more complex, since several additional factors have to be taken into consideration. Spelling variation, insufficiently trained NLP models, corpora a priori unbalanced—these are the obvious issues. However, one should also take into account less obvious yet equally important factors that make any stylometric investigations nontrivial, to say the least. These include editorial corrections, punctuation introduced by modern scholars, hidden plagiarism and/or text reuse problems, innumerable authorship issues, and many other sources of potential stylometric ‘noise’ (Eder, 2013). </p>
            <p>In the present study, some of the above issues will be undertaken. The benchmark, however, will be focused on one aspect of text classification only, namely authorship attribution. Other stylistic layers—e.g., genre recognition and topic distinction—will be addressed in a follow-up study.</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>Dataset</item>
            </list>
            <p>The complete collection of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Patrologia Latina</hi> that was used in this study, and that will be soon made available in the form of a carefully prepared corpus with morphosyntactic annotation (A. Guerreau, 2014, pers. comm.), gives us a great opportunity to test some of the above assumptions and possible drawbacks of the state-of-the-art stylometric methods. The aforementioned collection consists of 5,821 texts by over 700 authors—the Latin Church Fathers. It covers a time span of over 1,000 years (2nd–13th centuries). Even if the texts represent a few genres, the collection is thematically very consistent: for obvious reasons, theology overwhelms other topics. At the same time, however, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Patrologia Latina</hi> is a pre-Internet example of a big-yet-dirty text collection, published in the years 1844–1855; the goal was to publish all the available material in a relatively short period of time, with the assumption that particular volumes would be gradually replaced by carefully prepared critical editions. 
            </p>
            <p>The above factors make the electronic collection of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Patrologia Latina</hi> a relatively difficult benchmark corpus, close to real-life attribution cases. Since the number of texts to be analyzed is very high, one cannot inspect them manually and/or emend the transcription. Also, one cannot reliably exclude all external quotations, passages copied from other sources, and similar intertextual links; the same applies to any instances of (hidden) mixed authorship. In this case big data means big noise. On the other hand, however, being large and noisy, the collection is a perfect case for massive authorship attribution test, and particularly for exploring the ‘needle in a haystack’ attribution scenario (Koppel et al., 2009). Moreover, 
                <anchor xml:id=""docs-internal-guid-b27a9871-65fe-efe2-52""/>since the texts are supplemented with grammatical codes (lemmata and POS-tags), it gives us a unique opportunity to test the attributive performance of lemmatized vs. nonlemmatized corpus, POS-tag 
                <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi>-grams vs. MFWs, and so forth. Last but not least, the corpus is supplemented with consistent metadata—the authors’ names are easily retrievable, as well as genre, chronology, and the length of particular texts.
            </p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>Preselection of Texts</item>
            </list>
            <p>The collection of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Patrologia Latina</hi> contains a few dozen texts known to be anonymous, as well as several works of uncertain authorship. For obvious reasons, these texts were excluded from the analysis. What should be emphasized, however, is the fact that the authorship identification of the remaining works is as reliable as the 19th-century scholarship on the Church Fathers. To give an example: the treatise 
                <hi rend=""italic"">On the Spectacles</hi> (
                <hi rend=""italic"">De spectaculis</hi>), for centuries attributed to St. Cyprianus and published under the name Pseudo-Cyprianus in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Patrologia Latina</hi>, is nowadays assumed to have been written by Novatianus. In the whole collection of over 5,000 texts, there must be a good share of similar, yet still undiscovered, mismatches.
            </p>
            <p>The corpus was further reduced to contain only those texts that had at least 3,000 tokens, since sample length is known to be a major issue in attribution (Eder, 2014). For the sake of supervised text classification, which requires at least two texts per author to carry out the attribution test, further culling was performed—the authors of fewer than three works have been filtered out. After all the reductions, the corpus consisted of 1,665 works by 197 authors.</p>
            <p>Since the number of authors is one of the most important factors affecting the performance of attribution methods (
                <anchor xml:id=""docs-internal-guid-b27a9871-668c-011d-43""/>Luyckx and Dealemans, 2011), two smaller corpora have been prepared as well. The first consisted of a randomly chosen subset from the entire 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Patrologia Latina</hi> (10% of texts) and further abridged to meet the criteria of 3,000 tokens and known authorship (resulting in 81 texts by 15 authors); the second corpus was based on a 5% subset from the original collection, further reduced according to the same rules (22 texts by five authors after culling). The experiments discussed in this paper have been performed on the big corpus, and then replicated using the two smaller subcorpora.
            </p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>Method of Benchmarking</item>
            </list>
            <p>A standard procedure of supervised classification has been applied. Namely, the input dataset was divided (randomly) into two groups: a ‘training set’ containing two texts per each author, and a ‘test set’ for all the remaining samples. Then the stage of ‘guessing’ was applied, which was aimed to examine if the samples from the second group were correctly linked to their actual authors as represented in the training corpus. </p>
            <p>A great number of independent controlled experiments have been performed for every combination of different parameters: three types of style markers (most frequent words, POS-tags, lemmata) in two variants (with and without punctuation), three levels of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi>-grams (1-grams, 2-grams, 3-grams), at five levels of culling (0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%), for twenty different vectors of the most frequent features (100, 150, 200, 250, . . . , 1,000), and for six classifiers. The classifiers were as follows: support vector machines, nearest shrunken centroids (Jockers et al., 2008), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">k</hi>-Nearest Neighbor classifier, naïve Bayes, classic Delta (Burrows, 2002), and a home-brew classifier available in the stylometric package ‘stylo’ (Eder et al., 2013) under the name Eder’s Delta. For each test, 20-fold cross-validation was performed.
            </p>
            <p>To compute such a big number of stylometric tests—the total number of experiments exceeded 30,000—a tailored version of the R package ‘stylo’ was used, supplemented by a few high-performance packages, e.g., ‘multicore’ or ‘ff’. Even still, it took several weeks to complete the task on a 6-processor Xeon machine equipped with 16 Gb of RAM.</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>
                    <anchor xml:id=""_DdeLink__466_1065144304""/>Results
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>The outcome of a vast majority of tests was disappointing: attribution accuracy was unexpectedly poor. First suspicion that the number of almost 200 authorial classes was responsible for this effect turned out to be unfounded when smaller subsets of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Patrologia Latina</hi> were scrutinized. The results were obviously better, but still unsatisfactory. For the subset of 81 texts by 15 authors, the optimal attributive success achieved was as high as 50% for the most effective set of input parameters (Figures 1 and 2). This surprisingly weak authorial signal in the corpus of medieval Latin deserves further investigation. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""9.322152777777777cm"" height=""9.322152777777777cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Performance of four methods of classification tested on the Most Frequent Words (grey lines in the background represent ca. 600 remaining combinations of style-markers, n-grams, classifiers, etc.).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""9.322152777777777cm"" height=""9.322152777777777cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Performance of four methods of classification tested on bi-grams of frequent words including punctuation marks.</p>
            <p>Massive stylometric experiments allowed a systematic comparison of particular parameters’ performance. It turned out that the most accurate classifier was nearest shrunken centroids (especially when applied to long vectors of features), then came support vector machines. Eder’s Delta outperformed the classic Burrowsian measure in almost every instance; both 
                <hi rend=""italic"">k</hi>-nearest neighbor classifier and naïve Bayes occupied the tail of the ranking. When it comes to the style-markers (features) examined, some counterintuitive results could be observed as well. Frequencies of Most Frequent Words (MFWs)—that is, the type of style markers routinely used for authorship attribution—proved to be suboptimal (Figure 1), while the best performance was achieved using frequent word bi-grams, or combinations of two adjacent words including punctuation (Figure 2). Lemmata and POS-tags followed a similar pattern: they were more accurate when combined into bi-grams including punctuation. 
            </p>
            <p>Although it has been shown that punctuation generally increases attribution accuracy (Baayen et al., 2002), this statement must be considered suspicious in the context of ancient/medieval Latin. It is a fact commonly accepted that Latin originally had no punctuation—it was introduced by early modern scholars (Reynolds and Wilson, 2013 [1978]). Apparently, then, it should always be avoided as an authorial style discriminator. On the other hand, however, Latin punctuation is not a randomly scattered artifact, but it inescapably follows the rules of language. Even if artificial, it reveals some linguistic characteristics of analyzed texts, like in the Platonic cave, in which vague shadows reflect some actual phenomena. Interestingly, punctuation was a stronger style discriminator than a more explicit indicator of syntax, such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi>-grams of POS-tags.
            </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baayen, H., van Halteren, H., Neijt, A. and Tweedie, F.</hi> (2002). An Experiment in Authorship Attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">JADT 2002: 6es Journées internationales d'Analyse statistique des Données Textuelles</hi>. St. Malo, pp. 29–37.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (2002). ‘Delta’: A Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(3): 267–87.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M.</hi> (2013). Mind Your Corpus: Systematic Errors and Authorship Attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(4): 603–14.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M.</hi> (2014). Does Size Matter? Authorship Attribution, Small Samples, Big Problem. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>, doi:10.1093/llc/fqt066.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2013). Stylometry with R: A Suite of Tools. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts</hi>. University of Nebraska–Lincoln, pp. 487–89.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M. L., Witten, D. M. and Criddle, C. S.</hi> (2008). Reassessing Authorship of the ‘Book of Mormon’ Using Delta and Nearest Shrunken Centroid Classification. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(4): 465–91.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koppel, M., Schler, J. and Argamon, S.</hi> (2009). Computational Methods in Authorship Attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">60</hi>(1): 9–26.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Luyckx, K. and Daelemans, W.</hi> (2011). The Effect of Author Set Size and Data Size in Authorship Attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">26</hi>(1): 35–55.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reynolds, L. D. and Wilson, N. G.</hi> (2013 [1978]). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scribes and Scholars: A Guide to the Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature</hi>. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
                    </bibl>
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"2365","16","Tales Of A Discipline In The Digital Age: Information Practices And Needs In Art History","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Kamposiori</surname>
                        <forename>Christina</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>christina.kamposiori.11@ucl.ac.uk</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Warwick</surname>
                        <forename>Claire</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Durham, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>c.l.h.warwick@durham.ac.uk</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Mahony</surname>
                        <forename>Simon</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
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                    <term>art history</term>
                    <term>information behaviour</term>
                    <term>user requirements</term>
                    <term>digital scholarship</term>
                    <term>digital humanities</term>
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            <p>This poster explores the impact that the digital age has had on the information behaviour of art historians. As the rapid technological advancements and the proliferation of digital resources in recent years have greatly affected scholarly practices in the arts and humanities, there is a rising need to study the informational and methodological behaviour of scholars in order to create functional information systems that enhance scholarship in the area. Therefore, our goal is to focus on the scholarly workflow in the field of art history as a way of identifying the information needs of its scholars nowadays. For that purpose, we will look at the information practices of art historians throughout the various stages of the research lifecycle—from the formulation of the research subject to the dissemination of results. Moreover, we will list the digital tools and services that scholars in the field use during these stages as well as the challenges they face.</p>
            <p>Our proposed poster reports the results of research conducted for the first author’s PhD thesis, ‘Personal Research Collections: Examining Research Practices and User Needs in Art Historical Research’, at the UCL Centre for Digital Humanities, London, under the supervision of Professor Claire Warwick and Simon Mahony. This study used semistructured, in-depth interviews with 20 art historians at different career stages, as well as observation of their physical and digital personal collections in order to identify the particular needs they have when they build them. Actually, scholars’ personal collections of resources served as a departure point for examining the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">what, where, why,</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">how</hi> of art historians' information practices in the digital age. 
            </p>
            <p>Being at the core of the scholar’s workspace, personal collections play a significant role in the scholarly workflow; gathering various resources for research and teaching in art history can either constitute a solution to the many problems scholars often face (Grindley, 2006, 6), such as copyright issues, or facilitate other research activities (Palmer et al., 2009, 17–18; Kamposiori et al., 2013, 6; Long and Schonfeld, 2014, 23–24), such as writing or publishing. But what are the stories behind the building of these collections? What can they tell us about the information practices and needs of art historians at different stages of research? </p>
            <p>Looking, for example, at the initial stages of a project where scholars use online resources for discovering the necessary information, our research showed that art historians nowadays tend to turn either to Google for checking ‘what is available out there’ or to resources they trust and they have always found useful, including digital libraries and museums’ digital collections. Yet we found that many scholars still had to deal with various problems when they went about looking for material—problems ranging from copyright issues and limited availability of resources in particular areas of study to the sometimes low quality of digital resources. Thus, easier access to quality information through, for instance, a ‘hub’ containing all the necessary information for useful resources in specific areas, like modern art history, was often one of their foremost wishes. </p>
            <p>Furthermore, thinking about the later stages of research, the effective organisation and management of the gathered information was often a prerequisite for analysing the research data and constructing the scholarly argument. For instance, in the case of a digital art historian, digital archiving was considered a mandatory step before the analysis of data extracted from particular mailing lists; due to the ephemeral nature of this kind of information, if not archived, it would have been very difficult to find again. Hence, a tool that would make such a process easier would significantly facilitate this scholar’s research workflow.</p>
            <p>What can we learn from examining the practices and needs as well as the challenges a group of scholars such as art historians face at the various stages of the research lifecycle? Moreover, and most importantly, how can we apply those lessons in building digital infrastructures that truly support research and teaching in the digital age? By outlining some of our results related to the aforementioned questions, we aspire that our poster will stimulate discussion around user requirements in art history, and thus it will be of particular interest to researchers or other professionals who are building tools and services for scholars in the arts and humanities. </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grindley, N.</hi> (2006). What’s in the Art-Historian’s Toolkit? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Methods Network Working Paper, AHRC ICT Methods Network</hi>, http://www.methodsnetwork.ac.uk/resources/wkp01.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kamposiori, C., Warwick, C. and Mahony, S.</hi> (2013). Building Personal Collections: Supporting the Information Practices of Art Historians in the Digital Age. Working paper presented at the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cultural Heritage, Creative Tools and Archives Workshop</hi>, National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen, 26–27 June 2013, http://chcta.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/cultural-heritage-creative-tools-archives_merged.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Long, M. and Schonfeld, R. C.</hi> (2014). Supporting the Changing Research Practices of Art Historians. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ITHAKA S+R</hi>, http://www.sr.ithaka.org/research-publications/supporting-changing-research-practices-art-historians.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Palmer, C. L., Teffeau, L. C. and Pirmann, C. M.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarly Information Practices in the Online Environment: Themes from the Literature and Implications for Library Service Development.</hi> Graduate School of Library &amp; Information Science (GSLIS), Center for Informatics Research in Science &amp; Scholarship (CIRSS). Dublin: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, OCLC Research, www.oclc.org/programs/publications/reports/2009-02.pdf
                        <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">.</hi>
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"2366","16","Talking About Programming in the Digital Humanities","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Rockwell</surname>
                        <forename>Geoffrey</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Alberta, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>geoffrey.rockwell@ualberta.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Sinclair</surname>
                        <forename>Stéfan</forename>
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                    <affiliation>McGill University</affiliation>
                    <email>stefan.sinclair@mcgill.ca</email>
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                    <term>History of DH</term>
                    <term>Programming</term>
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                    <term>programming</term>
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            <p>In the first months of the HUMANIST discussion list a discussion erupted around the value of programming languages in humanities computing courses. Do computing humanists need to know how to program, or is learning expert use of applications enough? What is the point of learning to program? (McCarthy, 1987). This discussion can be traced back at least as far as the 1986 ACH/Sloan Workshop on Teaching ‘Computers and the Humanities’ Courses, where participants discussed ‘most vigorously of all whether programming should be taught, or only package programs’ (Sperberg-McQueen 1986). The issue has really never gone away as it is about disciplinary formation or ‘what it is we want our students to learn, the nature of the world into which we are sending them, and the relationship both of technology and (more fundamentally) the algorithmic approach to problem-solving’ (McCarty, 1987, 1–2). Based on a reading and analysis of a substantial collection of historical documents (journal articles, association newsletters, books, Listservs, etc.) in this paper we will examine how the humanities computing community discussed programming and how that discussion reflects changing views of the field over time. Specifically we will</p>
            <p> • Outline a three-part history of programming in the digital humanities starting with a concording phase when programming was not important to using computers.</p>
            <p> • Discuss the turn toward teaching programming as a way of teaching computational thinking.</p>
            <p> • Look at how the emergence of the Web changed the discussion. We will argue that as the Web became important, scripting skills suitable for building websites replaced older programming languages and it became possible to imagine the digital humanities being defined by the ability to program. </p>
            <p> • Conclude with some reflections on how the case for programming has been made more recently. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Humanities Computing as Concording</hi>
            </p>
            <p>I’ve tried to stay free of programming. I’m perfectly innocent of any knowledge of any programming language and I feel I must remain that way if I am going to continue to function as a scholar in literature; my heartfelt advice to any of you younger people embarking on this whole venture is to do the same—to ask programmers to do for you what they know how to do and what would be costly and painful for you to learn—to learn to talk their language but not to get involved in programming research or machine research. I know the best of you will not take this advice and will, therefore, break new barriers and so on, but I persist in offering it. (Parrish, 1969, 24–25) </p>
            <p>Programming in the early concording years of computing in the humanities was something often left to specialists. Stephen Parrish, who was general editor of the Cornell Concordance Series, saw himself as a ‘scholar in English literature who drifted laterally into the making of concordances’ (1969, 16). He stayed away from programming as a distraction from scholarship. This meant that concording ‘required an organized, teamwork approach, characterized by a substantial budget and a university computing centre’ (McCarty, 1993, 52–53). Parrish is not the only one to worry about programming distracting scholars, and in the presentation we will discuss other examples as a way of teasing out how programming was not considered of scholarly value. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Programming and Reasoning</hi>
            </p>
            <p>By the 1980s, things had changed and programming had become important, as can be seen in the way programming was included in a majority of courses. Surveys like Joseph Rudman’s ‘Teaching Computers and the Humanities Courses: A Survey’ (1987) report 175 courses teaching a programming language while 131 were ‘Applications Only’. In that survey, the most popular languages taught were BASIC (in 75 courses reporting), Pascal (30 courses), Prolog (15 courses), Lisp (13 courses), and SNOBOL (10 courses). What is impressive is the number of responses that indicated they had some sort of course for humanities students. We often assume that computing in the humanities is a recent, post-advent-of-the-Web thing, but given the number of courses, the discussions on HUMANIST, and articles in journals like 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Computing and the Humanities</hi>, it is clear that programming was becoming an acceptable activity, especially for those in support staff positions. 
            </p>
            <p>Despite the popularity of programming languages like BASIC and Pascal for courses, the languages about which humanists wrote in the 1980s tended to be languages like SNOBOL and Icon—all languages that were good for string (text) manipulation, as can be seen in the attention they received in books for teaching programming to humanists like John Abercrombie’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Computer Programs for Literary Analysis</hi> (1984)
                <hi rend=""italic"">,</hi> Susan Hockey’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">SNOBOL Programming for the Humanities</hi> (1985)
                <hi rend=""italic"">,</hi> and Alan Corré’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Icon Programming for Humanists</hi> (1990)
                <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi> Then there are the discussions on HUMANIST and reviews of languages like Mark Olsen’s self-explanatory ‘Beyond SNOBOL: The Icon Programming Language’. 
            </p>
            <p>As an aside, one could argue that SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language) and later XML (Extensible Markup Language) are also forms of programming—meta-languages with which one can create descriptive languages with which to rigorously describe texts for scholarly electronic editions. These were popular in humanities computing, especially after the Text Encoding Initiative began to provide guidelines for the encoding of texts in the late 1980s. How many humanists were first introduced to computing in the humanities when asked to develop a DTD (Document Type Definition) and encode a text? </p>
            <p>It is interesting that many of the discussions about programming in the 1980s and early 1990s circle around the teaching of it and that this issue is reported as contentious. No one believed that the ability to program was essential for a computing humanist, in part because so many couldn’t, but proponents of programming argued for it to be taught as way of teaching computational reasoning or problem solving. They also argued that there were social and ethical issues that could be understood through learning computing. You learned to program so as to understand what the computer could do or to be able to talk to programmers. In the presentation we will look at summative discussions of the issue like McCarty’s (1987) and a lovely balanced essay by Nancy Ide, ‘Computers and the Humanities Courses: Philosophical Bases and Approach’ that came out of the 1986 ACH/Sloan Workshop. We will also speculate as to why there was this shift towards including programming and arguing for its importance. Whatever the reasons, the discourse had changed and computing humanists were beginning to take an interest in programming and teaching it. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Programming the Web </hi>
            </p>
            <p>The emergence of the Web changed the languages that humanists were likely to use for programming and, we will argue, made it possible to make programming a defining skill for digital humanists. Moreover, learning to program for the Web provided a more appealing and transferable skillset; web and application development became normalized and desirable. Because the Web provided such a convenient way to show and distribute digital research, it changed which programming languages received attention or were taught. We can see the shift in these histograms of word frequencies in the HUMANIST Archives. The string processing languages popular in the late 1980s taper off and are replaced with languages like PHP with which one can build dynamic websites. </p>
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            <p>Figure 1. Two graphs showing the frequency of programming languages in the annual archives of the HUMANIST Discussion Group Listserv, produced with Voyant Tools. </p>
            <p>Now programming (and other web skills) went from being about teaching reasoning to being a skill students and humanists could actually use to create humanities products, i.e., websites. Programming became creative and expressive. There was also a convenient on-ramp as students could start creating HTML pages and then learn to use scripting languages like PHP that enhanced the web site until you knew enough to code a scholarly web site. </p>
            <p>We will further argue that once web development wasn’t something that digital humanists would necessarily be amateurs at, then it could become a defining skill, and a source of some pride. Digital humanists finally had something that they could be good at and a set of competencies unique to the digital humanities. Digital humanists like Stephen Ramsay could provocatively say, ‘Do you have to know how to code? I’m a tenured professor of Digital Humanities and I say “yes”’ (Ramsay 2011). This led to the ‘hack vs. yack’ discussion that followed about programming and other forms of building (see Nowviskie [2014] for more general context). </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Conclusions: Programming in the Humanities and Disciplinary Formation </hi>
            </p>
            <p>This paper traces the ways programming has been discussed in the digital humanities. We believe that the role of programming was important to the way the field of humanities computing (and later digital humanities) conceived of itself. This is not surprising given the importance of programming to computing in general, but it is interesting to follow the particular ways programming was discussed as the discipline emerged. </p>
            <p>We will end the paper by theorizing, or at least speculating, about where programming in digital humanities is going. One direction (already well under way) is towards software studies and the studying of programmed artifacts as works of human art and expression worthy of the humanities. Matthew Kirschenbaum in a fine essay for the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Chronicle of Higher Education</hi> talks about ‘procedural literacy’. 
            </p>
            <p>All programming entails world-making, as the ritual act of writing and running Hello World reminds us. . . . </p>
            <p> Ultimately what’s at stake is not the kind of vocational computer literacy I was taught as an undergraduate, but what a growing number of practitioners in the digital humanities (and related disciplines, like digital art or game studies) have begun to call procedural rhetoric, or procedural literacy. (Kirschenbaum, 2009) </p>
            <p>Another direction is data science. The opportunities for new insights through large-scale text mining, or what Moretti (2007) calls distant reading, have made programming languages like R attractive. There is a return to text processing languages, but now languages that can analyze large corpora or visualize results.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ide, N. M.</hi> (1987). Computers and the Humanities Courses: Philosophical Bases and Approach. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computers and the Humanities,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(4): 209–15. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kirschenbaum, M.</hi> (2009). Hello Worlds. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Chronicle of Higher Education,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">55</hi>(20): B10, http://chronicle.com/article/Hello-Worlds/5476. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCarty, W.</hi> (1987). HUMANIST So Far: A Review of the First Two Months. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ACH Newsletter, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(3): 1–3. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCarty, W.</hi> (1993). Handmade, Computer-Assisted, and Electronic Concordances of Chaucer. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CCH Working Papers,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>: 49–65. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for Literary History</hi>. Verso, London. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nowviskie, B.</hi> (2014). On the Origin of ‘Hack’ and ‘Yack’. http://bit.ly/1ttih76.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Olsen, M.</hi> (1987). Beyond SNOBOL: The Icon Programming Language. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computers and the Humanities,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(1): 61–66. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Parrish, S. M.</hi> (1969). Concordance-Making by Computer: Its Past, Future, Techniques, and Applications. In Burelbach, F. M. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings: Computer Applications to Problems in the Humanities; A Conversation in the Disciplines</hi>, Conference at State University College, Brockport, NY, 4–5 April 1969, pp. 16–33. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S.</hi> (2011). On Building. http://stephenramsay.us/text/2011/01/11/on-building/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rudman, J.</hi> (1987). Teaching Computers and the Humanities Courses: A Survey. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computer and the Humanities, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(4): 235–43. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sinclair, S. and G. Rockwell.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Voyant Tools</hi>. http://voyant-tools.org/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">Sperberg-McQueen, C. M.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)""> (1986). Report on ACH/Sloan Foundation Workshop on Teaching ‘Computers and the Humanities’ Courses. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">ACH Newsletter,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold color(222222)"">8</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">(4): 1–2.</hi>
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                        <surname>Ensom</surname>
                        <forename>Tom</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Department of Digital Humanities, King's College London; Collection Care Research, Tate</affiliation>
                    <email>tomensom@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hedges</surname>
                        <forename>Mark</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Department of Digital Humanities, King's College London</affiliation>
                    <email>mark.hedges@kcl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Laurenson</surname>
                        <forename>Pip</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Collection Care Research, Tate</affiliation>
                    <email>Pip.Laurenson@tate.org.uk</email>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""keywords"">
                    <term>software-based art</term>
                    <term>digital preservation</term>
                    <term>art conservation</term>
                    <term>technical description</term>
                    <term>digital forensics</term>
                </keywords>
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                    <term>archives</term>
                    <term>repositories</term>
                    <term>sustainability and preservation</term>
                    <term>art history</term>
                    <term>data modeling and architecture including hypothesis-driven modeling</term>
                    <term>GLAM: galleries</term>
                    <term>libraries</term>
                    <term>archives</term>
                    <term>museums</term>
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            <p>The term ‘software-based artwork’ refers to art where software is the primary artistic medium. 
                <hi rend=""background(white)"">Although software-based artworks might all be characterised as having code at their core, there is great variation in their constituents and form—ranging from arrays of material and hardware components installed in a physical space, to born-digital works created in 3D engines. </hi>Such works form complex systems, exhibiting a range of dependencies on changing hardware, software, interfaces, and technological environments. Software-based artworks may involve proprietary software or bespoke elements coded by the artist, and many exhibit particular behaviours, such as responding to a visitor or searching for keywords on the Internet. Such characteristics raise significant challenges for the long-term preservation of these artworks. This paper presentation will report on the early stages of the development of a documentation-centric approach to these challenges. These new strategies have potentially wider applications in digital preservation and might be applied to other complex digital objects, such as commercial software, video games, and scientific simulations. 
            </p>
            <p>Our primary research aim is to address how software-based artworks are to be described and represented for the purposes of preservation, understanding, and access. Up until recently, there has been little consensus regarding preservation strategies or established methodologies for identifying the characteristics or significant properties to be preserved. Appropriate strategies will typically be dependent on the specifics of each artwork; for example, in some cases it may be essential to preserve the code, in others the behaviour may be the crux of the work. There are a diversity of design approaches and implementation platforms used, and thus a variety of factors that can affect their sustainability, making it essential to capture detailed technical information about the components of an artwork and the digital environments in which they are created, curated, and stored. It is also increasingly important to provide a sense of what these works are like even when they are not on display (or for those unable to visit). We examine how to describe and represent a software-based artwork from various perspectives, ranging from that of a broad viewing audience to those involved in making decisions about the conservation and display of an artwork. Foundational in this is the development of a detailed documentation model for 
                <hi rend=""background(white)"">the management of these decisions,</hi> based on the preservation ecosystem concept. This approach considers the artwork a living object in a changing environment, shifting the focus of decision-making from the object to its dependencies. Preliminary work in the development of an ecosystem model for software-based artworks will be reported on
                <hi rend=""color(FF0000) background(white)"">.</hi> This work also draws upon museum practice in relation to cataloguing, and emerging standards of practice within conservation for creating technical documentation. As well as identifying the technical information that could or should be included in a hypothetical catalogue entry, we examine whether the nature and content of current conservation-focused technical studies need to be rethought. Part of this work will involve the creation of detailed technical entries for a number of software-based artwork case studies. 
                <hi rend=""background(white)"">The particular artworks to be examined include a broad range of different types of software-based artwork, including those in the Tate collection and a number of Internet-disseminated works. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>Closely linked to the work outlined above is a secondary research aim: an exploration of what might constitute technical art history for software-based artworks. Technical art history is an evolving field that focuses on the material choices of the artist, the processes involved in creation, and the relationship of these to the meaning, history, and context of the work. Research in this field has up until now been largely framed around artworks that use traditional artistic materials such as paint (e.g., analysis of chemical composition), and so we examine the potential of digital analytical techniques to gather analogous information for software-based artworks. </p>
            <p>In addressing both of the aforementioned research aims, this research draws on a number of fields. Existing techniques from areas such as digital forensics and software engineering provide ways by which software can be analysed and documented for purposes of appraisal and preservation. Particular avenues of interest include 
                <hi rend=""background(white)"">automated metadata generation, runtime and network analysis, disk imaging and analysis, and the use of software decompilers.</hi> An initial exploration into the value of analytical tools that enable the behaviour and live environment of software to be captured and described will be reported on. 
            </p>
            <p>In digital preservation this research shares a number of synergies with areas of current interest to the community, such as analytical approaches to describing complex digital objects and the modelling of technological and semantic change. This research represents the first detailed technical study of software-based art to be based on the use of such analytical methods applied to the software, systems, and media on which they were developed and presented. The knowledge created by this research feeds directly into the refinement of the conservation, risk-assessment, and cataloguing methods used to support Tate’s current and future collection of software-based art, and will potentially be of great interest to many other institutions and individuals collecting similar kinds of work. It also represents a significant contribution (in both theoretical and practical terms) to research in digital preservation in a cultural heritage context, and is likely to be of interest to many other areas of research within the digital humanities.</p>
            <p>This work is the result of a Collaborative Doctoral Partnership between King’s College London and Tate, funded by the AHRC, and builds in part on work by research teams from both institutions engaged in the four-year EU-funded research project PERICLES (2013–2017). </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Biermann, J., Ludwig, J., Carter, A., Waddington, S. and Gill, A.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PERICLES Deliverable D5.1: Initial Report on Preservation Ecosystem Management</hi>, http://www.pericles-project.eu/uploads/files/PERICLES_D5_1_1-Preservation_Ecosystem_Management_V1_0.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Corubolo, F., Eggers, A., Hasan, A., Hedges, M., Darányi, S., Waddington, S. and Kontopoulos, S.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PERICLES Deliverable D4.1: Initial Version Environment Information Extraction Tools</hi>, http://www.pericles-project.eu/uploads/files/PERICLES_WP4_D4_1-Initial_version_environment_information_extraction_tools-V1_0.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Enge, J. and Lurk, T.</hi> (2013). Operational Practices for a Digital Preservation and Restoration Protocol. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Preserving and Exhibiting Media Art: Challenges and Perspectives</hi>. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, pp. 270–81.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Engel, D. and Wharton, G.</hi> (2014). Reading between the Lines: Source Code Documentation as a Conservation Strategy for Software-Based Art. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Studies in Conservation,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">59</hi>(6): 404–15, doi:10.1179/2047058413Y.0000000115.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Falcão, P.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Developing a Risk Assessment Tool for the Conservation of Software-Based Artworks</hi>. MA thesis, http://www.academia.edu/6660777/Developing_a_Risk_Assessment_Tool_for_the_conservation_of_software-_based_artworks_MA-Thesis.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kirschenbaum, M., Ovenden, R., Redwine, G. and Donahue, R.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Forensics and Born-Digital Content in Cultural Heritage Collections</hi>. Council on Library and Information Resources, Washington, DC, http://drum.lib.umd.edu/handle/1903/14722.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Laurenson, P.</hi> (2013). Old Media, New Media? Significant Difference and the Conservation of Software-Based Art. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Preserving and Exhibiting Media Art: Challenges and Perspectives</hi>. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, pp. 73–96.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Matthews, B., McIlwrath, B., Giaretta, D. and Conway, E.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Significant Properties of Software: A Study</hi>, http://www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/programmes/preservation/spsoftware_report_redacted.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rinehart, R. and Ippolito, J.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Re-collection: Art, New Media, and Social Memory</hi>. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Cummings</surname>
                        <forename>James</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Oxford, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>James.Cummings@it.ox.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Rahtz</surname>
                        <forename>Sebastian</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Oxford, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>Sebastian.Rahtz@it.ox.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Pytlik Zillig</surname>
                        <forename>Brian</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Nebraska - Lincoln</affiliation>
                    <email>Brian.pytlikzillig@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Mueller</surname>
                        <forename>Martin</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Northwestern University</affiliation>
                    <email>martinmueller@northwestern.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Turska</surname>
                        <forename>Magdalena</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Oxford, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>Magdalena.Turska@it.ox.ac.uk</email>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>TEI</term>
                    <term>Text Encoding</term>
                    <term>XML</term>
                    <term>Data Modelling</term>
                    <term>Processing Models</term>
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            <p>TEI Simple is a Mellon-funded project developing a customisation and extension of the Guidelines of the Text Encoding Initiative. Its intent is to create a highly constrained and prescriptive subset of the TEI suitable for a straightforward representation of standard early modern and modern books and a processing model documentation for easy web presentation. The project will also develop a mapping to non-TEI ontologies, and a method of indicating the status and richness of a digital text. The outputs from TEI Simple will be integrated into the TEI infrastructure and supported by the TEI Technical Council. The project runs from September 2014 to July 2015. As DH2015 is scheduled near the end of this project, it is an ideal location to both announce the project to the wider DH community while simultaneously reporting on the status of the outputs. </p>
            <p>The project is directed by Sebastian Rahtz (University of Oxford), Brian Pytlik Zillig (University of Nebraska-Lincoln), and Martin Mueller (Northwestern University). Other project staff include Magdalena Turska (DiXiT Project / University of Oxford), Lou Burnard (consultant), and James Cummings (University of Oxford). The Advisory Committee consists of Pip Willcox (Bodleian Library, Oxford), Suzanne Haaf (Deutsches Textarchiv, Berlin), Matthias Goebel (University of Gottingen), and James Cummings (University of Oxford). </p>
            <p>All of the work for the project is undertaken openly through a public github repository: https://github.com/TEIC/TEISimple. </p>
            <p>TEI Simple Objectives </p>
            <p>TEI Simple has the following high-level objectives: </p>
            <p> 1. Definition of a new 
                <hi rend=""italic"">highly constrained </hi>and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">prescriptive </hi>subset of the TEI Guidelines suited to the representation of early modern and modern books. The degree of detail supported will be sufficient to encompass, at a minimum, the current practices of the TCP’s EEBO, ECCO, and Evans collections plus those of other major European initiatives such as Text Grid or the German Text Archive (DTA) and the Consortium Cahiers in France. 
            </p>
            <p> 2. Developing and implementing processing rules for TEI Simple and creating a notation (as an extension to TEI’s ODD metalanguage
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi>) for specifying such rules, referencing web standards such as XPath, CSS, and XSL FO. 
            </p>
            <p> 3. Formal mapping of the elements used by TEI Simple to the Conceptual Reference Model of the International Council of Museums (CIDOC CRM), allowing for full interoperability with the Europeana Data Model, in order to facilitate the participation of projects in the Europeana repositories. </p>
            <p> 4. Definition and implementation of machine-readable descriptions of the encoding status and richness of TEI texts, providing ‘TEI Performance Indicators’, which help to document expectations for the encoded text. </p>
            <p> 5. Full integration of TEI Simple into the TEI Guidelines and infrastructure with ongoing maintenance by the TEI Technical Council. </p>
            <p>More information concerning each of these objectives is detailed below. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">TEI Simple Subset</hi>
            </p>
            <p>This subset of TEI Simple attempts to remove ambiguity for both encoders and developers. While simple does not necessarily mean ‘small’, nor does it mean ‘simplistic’, the decision was made to base the selection of elements on TEI texts from a set of large archives or text collections. This included</p>
            <p> • Text Creation Partnership: Evans, ECCO, EEBO (including the unreleased phase 2).</p>
            <p> • Oxford Text Archive: All TEI P5 files. </p>
            <p> • Deutsches Textarchiv.</p>
            <p> • Documenting the American South. </p>
            <p> • CESR. </p>
            <p> • OBVIL: corpus critique. </p>
            <p>The decision was also made to concentrate primarily on the &lt;text&gt; element, not the metadata stored in the &lt;teiHeader&gt;. The constraining of TEI elements, and limiting of encoding options, meant that the 546 (as of TEI P5 version 2.7.0) elements could be limited to 104 (at time of writing) not including &lt;teiHeader&gt; elements. It is anticipated that the current list of elements may change over the course of development of TEI Simple, but the elements selected were noticed to generally fall into a particular set of categories: </p>
            <p>castlist &lt;actor&gt;, &lt;castGroup&gt;, &lt;castItem&gt;, &lt;castList&gt;, &lt;role&gt;, &lt;roleDesc&gt; </p>
            <p>character &lt;g&gt; </p>
            <p>editorial &lt;abbr&gt;, &lt;add&gt;, &lt;addSpan&gt;, &lt;am&gt;, &lt;choice&gt;, &lt;corr&gt;, &lt;del&gt;, &lt;desc&gt;, &lt;ex&gt;, &lt;expan&gt;, &lt;gap&gt;, &lt;handShift&gt;, &lt;orig&gt;, &lt;reg&gt;, &lt;sic&gt;, &lt;space&gt;, &lt;subst&gt;, &lt;supplied&gt;, &lt;unclear&gt; </p>
            <p>interpretation &lt;author&gt;, &lt;date&gt;, &lt;foreign&gt;, &lt;hi&gt;, &lt;measure&gt;, &lt;name&gt;, &lt;num&gt;, &lt;q&gt;, &lt;quote&gt;, &lt;ref&gt;, &lt;rs&gt;, &lt;seg&gt;, &lt;time&gt; </p>
            <p>linguistic &lt;c&gt;, &lt;pc&gt;, &lt;s&gt;, &lt;w&gt; </p>
            <p>pictures &lt;figDesc&gt;, &lt;figure&gt;, &lt;graphic&gt; </p>
            <p>structure &lt;ab&gt;, &lt;address&gt;, &lt;addrLine&gt;, &lt;anchor&gt;, &lt;back&gt;, &lt;body&gt;, &lt;bibl&gt;, &lt;cb&gt;, &lt;cit&gt;, &lt;div&gt;, &lt;floatingText&gt;, &lt;formula&gt;, &lt;front&gt;, &lt;fw&gt;, &lt;group&gt;, &lt;head&gt;, &lt;item&gt;, &lt;l&gt;, &lt;label&gt;, &lt;lb&gt;, &lt;lg&gt;, &lt;list&gt;, &lt;listBibl&gt;, &lt;milestone&gt;, &lt;note&gt;, &lt;p&gt;, &lt;pb&gt;, &lt;sp&gt;, &lt;speaker&gt;, &lt;spGrp&gt;, &lt;stage&gt;, &lt;text&gt; , &lt;TEI&gt;, &lt;teiCorpus&gt;, &lt;title&gt; </p>
            <p>table &lt;cell&gt;, &lt;row&gt;, &lt;table&gt; </p>
            <p>titlepage &lt;publisher&gt;, &lt;pubPlace&gt;, &lt;docAuthor&gt;, &lt;docDate&gt;, &lt;docEdition&gt;, &lt;docImprint&gt;, &lt;docTitle&gt;, &lt;imprimatur&gt;, &lt;titlePage&gt;, &lt;titlePart&gt;</p>
            <p>wrapper &lt;argument&gt;, &lt;byline&gt;, &lt;closer&gt;, &lt;dateline&gt;, &lt;epigraph&gt;, &lt;opener&gt;, &lt;postscript&gt;, &lt;salute&gt;, &lt;signed&gt;, &lt;trailer&gt; </p>
            <p>We aim to link this simple taxonomy to the distinctions made in Patrick Sahle’s ‘Text Wheel’, and investigate the relationship of this to default behaviour in the Processing Model. </p>
            <figure>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">
                        <graphic n=""1001"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""9.8452cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
                    </hi>
                </p>
            </figure>
            <p>In addition, TEI Simple has customised the available attribute values for a number of attributes. It has removed the @rend and @style attributes, preferring to use @rendition to document the appearance of the original object. In this attribute it uses a closed list of values that its implementations know about in the form of a private URI of ‘simple’: (e.g., ‘simple:bold’). </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">TEI Simple Processing Model</hi>
            </p>
            <p>A ‘cradle to grave’ processing model is at the heart of the TEI Simple project. The TEI Simple processing model offers a bridge across the divide between encoders and developers: the aim is to lower the access barriers to working with TEI-encoded texts in various web environments. </p>
            <p>The TEI Simple project has developed a notation by which a TEI profile records the intended processing for documents meeting that profile. The TEI Simple Processing Model notation provides a way to document the intended output rending in the TEI customisation profile (TEI ODD file). This is done by means of a proposed &lt;model&gt; element for use in the context of TEI ODD at a fairly high level and in an abstract manner. The agreement on notation here, though, enables the generation of document-specific transformations. While the implementation of TEI Simple uses an open function library as a method of documenting the further processing in the case of TEI Simple documents, this same processing model notation will be incorporated into the TEI infrastructure where it will be of benefit for those wishing to use a high-level form of output specification, and who wish to develop their own function library. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">TEI Simple Mapping to RDF</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Although simple presentation in web pages is an important aim of TEI Simple, it is also important to represent structural and semantic markup in the open data interchange format of RDF. The Europeana Data Model (EDM) and the Conceptual Reference Model of the International Council of Museums (CIDOC-CRM) are parts of an evolving ecosystem of metadata standards for cultural heritage documentation across the many languages and cultures of Europe. TEI ODD already has a notation (the &lt;equiv&gt; element) for expressing the relationship between TEI and RDF, and this has been used to map the elements from TEI Simple to CIDOC-CRM and FRBRoo. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">TEI Simple Performance Indicators</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Although TEI Simple is designed to be very constrained, the decisions as to what to mark up are still left to the encoder. Do they choose, for example, to explicitly identify names of people and places? Will they mark where spelling has been normalized? Will all the words be marked with part of speech information for linguistic analysis? For a simple example, are &lt;name&gt; elements not present in a text because they have not been encoded, or because there are no names in this text? This will affect the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">query potential </hi>of a corpus of texts, but cannot be determined simply by analyzing the markup. The TEI Simple project has created an extra level of metadata notation for enabling the automatic profiling of a text. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">TEI Simple Integration with TEI Infrastructure</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The outputs of the TEI Simple project are being fully integrated with the existing TEI infrastructure and thus are available for all TEI users whether using TEI Simple or not. The acceptance of TEI Simple by the TEI Technical Council is one of the success criteria for the funding received. As part of the integration with TEI Infrastructure the TEI Simple project has created a teitosimple XSLT conversion that checks texts conformance to TEI Simple, converts elements where possible, and maps attributes such @rend to known @rendition values. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Further Development of TEI Simple</hi>
            </p>
            <p>This paper will conclude with a look at resources built on top of TEI Simple and what work might be developed from it. The TEI Simple project limited its scope to early modern and modern printed books. Under the aegis of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">DiXiT </hi>project (an EU Marie Curie ITN) James Cummings and Magdalena Turska have been investigating TEI Simple as a starting point for the creation of scholarly digital editions of simple (but potentially multi-witness) manuscript materials. 
            </p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. ODD is an acronym for ‘one document does it all’. The TEI ODD is an example of ‘literate programming’ and combines code and discursive documentation in a single document.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cummings, James.</hi> (2008). The Text Encoding Initiative and the Study of Literature. In Schreibman, S. and Siemens, R. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Literary Studies</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 451–76, http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companionDLS/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cummings, J. and Willcox, P.</hi> (2013). Stationers’ Register Online: A Case Study of a Byte-Reduced TEI Schema for Digitization (tei_corset). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative,</hi> December, http://jtei.revues.org/926. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fischer, F.</hi> (2008). The Pluralistic Approach—The First Scholarly Edition of William of Auxerre’s Treatise on Liturgy. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie, </hi>http://computerphilologie.tudarmstadt. de/jg08/fischer.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pytlik Zillig, B. L.</hi> (2013). Logging the Abbot: Reflection-Oriented XSLT Programming for Corpora Conversion and Verification. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative,</hi> March, http://jtei.revues.org/722. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pytlik Zillig, B. L.</hi> (n.d.). TEI Texts that Play Nicely: Lessons from the MONK Project. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(3), https://letterpress.uchicago.edu/index.php/jdhcs/article/view/81. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rahtz, S. and Cummings, J.</hi> (2012). Kicking and Screaming: Challenges and Advantages of Bringing TCP Texts into Line with the Text Encoding Initiative. In Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">‘Revolutionizing Early Modern Studies’? The Early English Books Online Text Creation Partnership in 2012: EEBOTCP 2012 Conference Proceedings, </hi>http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid%3Af9667884220b4ec9bb2fc79044302399. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sahle, P.</hi> (2013). Band 9: Textbegriffe und Recodierung. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digitale Editionsformen, Zum Umgang mit der Überlieferung unter den Bedingungen des Medienwandels</hi>, 3 Bände, Norderstedt: Books on Demand, Schriften des Instituts für Dokumentologie und Editorik 7–9, http://www.ide. de/schriften/s79digitaleeditionsformen. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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"2369","16","Text + Creation + Partnership: Whatever Happened to the Best Laid Plans of EEBO-TCP?","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Michael</forename>
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                    <term>encoding - theory and practice</term>
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            <p>When the Early English Books Online Text Creation Partnership (EEBO-TCP) was proposed by Mark Sandler of University of Michigan in 1999, the intention was to raise sufficient funds to produce accurate, marked-up, full-text transcriptions of 25,000 titles from ProQuest’s EEBO database of images. The main partners in the collaboration were the library at the University of Michigan, the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford, and ProQuest—which, in return for making the images available to the EEBO-TCP partners, would receive a five-year exclusivity period to exploit the full-text data. Once that period elapsed, these 25,000 carefully produced texts would be released into the public domain for use by anyone in the global scholarly community and beyond. That was the dream. This paper will describe the practical realities and challenges that were faced to make this dream come true.</p>
            <p>On 1 January 2015, the 25,000 electronic texts produced by Phase I of EEBO-TCP were released into the public domain. They represented the concerted efforts of a large number of individuals employed at both Michigan and Oxford—more than 20 editors who, between them, had contributed over 100 person-years of work towards the objectives of this $9,000,000+ endeavour. In terms of scale and scope of its ambition and its outputs, the Early English Books Online Text Creation Partnership should be recognized as a seminal project in the development of the digital humanities.</p>
            <p>Perhaps one of the most interesting aspects of the EEBO-TCP was the mixed nature of its underlying funding model. The anticipated cost of $9M over five years was felt to be too substantial to appeal to any single foundation or funding body. Moreover, the formal collaboration with the commercial e-publisher, ProQuest, complicated matters further and, not unreasonably, raised questions about whether this could ever be a collaboration of equals. </p>
            <p>In the United States, colleagues at Michigan enthusiastically promoted the benefits of individual institutions joining the EEBO-TCP—putting heavy emphasis on the benefits of partnership. Contribution levels were adjusted to allow institutions of different sizes to join the Text Creation Partnership on an equal footing; they could choose to contribute via a single lump sum (of $50,000 on average) or by five equal annual $10,000 payments. In return for their commitment to the work of EEBO-TCP, these institutions would gain immediate access to the textual resources as they were created—via both the commercial EEBO interface offered by ProQuest and also via a more tailored platform, built on the DLXS system developed at Michigan. They would also be contributing to the production of a corpus of essential texts, published in England between 1473 and 1700, which would subsequently be made available for the benefit of all. Despite increasingly constrained budgets, almost 150 US institutions paid to support the work of EEBO-TCP.</p>
            <p>In the United Kingdom, we were fortunate to have the Jisc (then known as the Joint Information Systems Committee), a nationally funded service dedicated to acquiring or funding the production of content, tools, and services that would be of widespread benefit to the UK’s scholarly community. The Jisc immediately saw the merits of EEBO-TCP’s innovative approach and committed a single contribution of £1,000,000 on behalf of the UK academic community. This decision also served the Jisc, as they were involved in negotiating the relicensing of ProQuest’s EEBO database to UK universities, and the added value of full-text searching for 25,000 of these important items considerably increased its appeal to library budget holders.</p>
            <p>The initial successes in fundraising meant that the production work of EEBO-TCP was able to begin in 2000. A keying specification was developed, and text conversion companies were invited to tender for the work. Titles were selected in light of suggestions from an international editorial board and also colleagues at the growing number of EEBO-TCP partner institutions. The digital images of the texts were sent to the chosen keying companies, and the results were subject to robust quality assurance and markup enhancement by trained teams of digital editors based at Michigan and Oxford. Texts that did not achieve the desired quality threshold were returned for rekeying, whilst those that met the standards were fed into a delivery workflow that ensured their timely appearance in ProQuest’s products, and also the TCP’s own delivery platforms. Everything was going to plan.</p>
            <p>But even the best-laid plans need to account for unanticipated issues and obstacles, and this paper will share the lessons learned from this major international collaborative endeavour.</p>
            <p>For example, whilst the overall production workflow worked extremely well—thanks to the careful oversight of key individuals at Michigan—there is no doubt that fundraising a work-in-progress raises some additional challenges; yet had we not adopted this approach, it is probably unlikely that we would ever have secured a significant majority of the necessary funding before beginning the work. In fact, having outputs that we could 
                <hi rend=""italic bold"">show</hi> to potential partners as the work moved along in many cases helped secure their commitment and enabled them to clearly understand what we were aiming to do. Even so, the hard work of attempting to raise funds to achieve the target of $9,000,000, whilst spending a proportion of that money each month on text production, resulted in the work taking longer than anyone had originally envisaged. We met our production target of 25,000 texts—but it took nearly four years longer than we had planned!
            </p>
            <p>In the course of our work, new questions began to emerge that we had not anticipated at the outset. In 2000, nobody asked us about the employment practices and ethical standards of the keying companies selected to work on EEBO-TCP material. By 2007, some institutions that were thinking about committing to EEBO-TCP, and even end-users of the materials, wanted reassurances that the digital data had been produced in an ethically acceptable environment. Moreover, with the growing awareness of the Google Books Library programme, some users began to question the legitimacy of ProQuest’s five-year exclusivity period to the full-text data, and understandably they wanted clarity on when that five-year embargo would elapse. EEBO-TCP had agreed that ProQuest’s exclusivity period would start from the end of the year in which production was completed (originally anticipated to be 2005), but because production was necessarily extended until 2009, the texts could not be released into the public domain until 2015.</p>
            <p>As the work of EEBO-TCP neared its end, other questions were also raised. The first and most rewarding for us as a project, was the request to carry on doing what we were doing: to produce 
                <hi rend=""italic"">more</hi> texts. Whilst this was a clear demonstration that many people valued the work of EEBO-TCP, it also raised new questions about retaining and redefining our production methods and workflows, whether we could continue with the same funding model, how to select further texts, and so forth. It was tremendously rewarding to have the Jisc commit an additional £1,000,000 to EEBO-TCP ‘Phase II’ without hesitation—but this was 2008–2009, and we have undoubtedly been directly affected by the consequences of the global recession ever since.
            </p>
            <p>Perhaps some of the biggest questions about the 25,000 texts produced by EEBO-TCP (‘Phase I’, as it is now known) are around what we meant—and what we now understand by—the term ‘public domain’. Back in 1999 we blithely assumed that we would simply release this corpus of material into the intellectual wilds, and that ‘the community’ would assume responsibility for their ongoing maintenance and enhancement. Nowadays, we are constantly asked to consider the sustainability of digital resources—and to define what this might mean, who will do the work, and most importantly, how it will be resourced? </p>
            <p>At the time of writing this abstract, the texts from EEBO-TCP have not yet been released. That will not happen until 1 January 2015. Several leading individuals and groups from around the globe have already expressed an interest in working with some or all of the corpus; for example, they have put forward ideas for how the materials can be enhanced with additional markup, or corrections crowdsourced from a community of volunteers, or their contents integrated into scholarly editions. But we do not know which, if any, of these things will happen—or if the texts will be taken up and used in wholly unexpected ways by communities with which we have yet to engage. However, by the time of the DH conference in 2015, we will be in a position to reflect on both the 15-year build-up to the release of one of the most important collections of digital texts yet to be created, and to summarize what has happened in the six months since their release. Will they have been taken up and used in new and exciting ways, been picked up by just a few people, or been resolutely ignored? </p>
            <p>Whatever the impact of the release of the 25,000 EEBO-TCP Phase I texts on 1 January 2015, there will certainly be important lessons to be learned by the global digital humanities community. </p>
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"2370","16","Text Line Detection and Transcription Alignment: a Case Study on the Statuti del Doge Tiepolo","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Slimane</surname>
                        <forename>Fouad</forename>
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                    <affiliation>EPFL, Switzerland</affiliation>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Mazzei</surname>
                        <forename>Andrea</forename>
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                    <affiliation>EPFL, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>andrea.mazzei@epfl.ch</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Tomasin</surname>
                        <forename>Lorenzo</forename>
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                    <affiliation>EPFL, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>lorenzo.tomasin@unil.ch</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Kaplan</surname>
                        <forename>Frédéric</forename>
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                    <affiliation>EPFL, Switzerland</affiliation>
                    <email>frederic.kaplan@epfl.ch</email>
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            <p>In this paper, we propose a fully automatic system for the transcription alignment of historical documents. We introduce the ‘Statuti del Doge Tiepolo’ data that include images as well as transcription from the 14th century written in Gothic script. Our transcription alignment system is based on forced alignment technique and character Hidden Markov Models and is able to efficiently align complete document pages. </p>
            <p>* * *</p>
            <p>Many libraries and archives are currently engaged in large-scale digitization programs to make their documents accessible to larger audiences. However, to make these ancient documents searchable and linkable, it is mandatory to go beyond digital images and encode their textual content. Text transcription is a notoriously complex and time-consuming task, requiring years of scholarly practice, particularly when one has to deal with a range of different scripts. </p>
            <p>Machine learning approaches need good training sets to succeed. Luckily, several ancient manuscripts have been already transcribed by paleographers and exist as critical printed editions. These transcriptions could serve as a relevant starting point for developing automatic encoders. However, an additional step must be performed to use these materials as training sets in machine learning approaches: transcriptions must be aligned with digital images of the manuscripts. Most handwritten documents have transcription aligned only at the page level. To be used as a training set, it is necessary to generate a mapping at the line level at the very least.</p>
            <p>The goal of this paper is to present a full transcription alignment system for historical Latin page documents using Hidden Markov Models (HMMs). In this work, we focus on the Statuti of the Doge Tiepolo, a manuscript transcribed and studied extensively by Prof. Lorenzo Tomasin (2001; 2007). Our system presents many advantages, such as the following; no segmentation into words is needed, the emission probability density functions of the HMMs can be trained to model variations of the character shapes, and the same system can be used for transcription alignment and recognition in an incremental training process. So, the decoding procedure will carry out recognition of words/lines, line/word transcription alignment, and segmentation into words/character models at the same time.</p>
            <p>Corpus </p>
            <p>The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Statuta Veneta </hi>of the Duke Iacopo Tiepolo are the principal statutory norms of the Venetian Middle Ages, which were promulgated in 1242.
            </p>
            <p>It is one of the most ancient experiments of translation in vulgar of an Italian normative source, and it represents the act of foundation of a linguistic register. The existence of multiple medieval versions of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Statuta Veneta </hi>in the vernacular has already been verified; the most ancient has been found in three manuscripts held in Vienna and in Venice (Tomasin, 2001; 2007). Prof. Lorenzo Tomasin has already carried out a complete transcription of the Vienna manuscript.
            </p>
            <p>In this work, we use the Venetian version of the manuscript (Senato e collegio Miscellanea Statuta Veneta) with a diplomatic transcription of 72 pages. A diplomatic transcription copies everything it sees as it is. An example of a page image and its transcription is presented in Figure 1. </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""11.310055555555556cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Page image and transcription from the Statuti del Doge Tiepolo corpus. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">System Description </hi>
            </p>
            <p>In this section we describe the four main steps of our method: page segmentation, text segmentation, textline detection, and transcription alignment. </p>
            <p>Page Segmentation </p>
            <p>The first processing step aims at segmenting each page of the scanned document. Each scanned image contains one page surrounded by a black border and a portion of the subsequent page (Figure 2).</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""12.206111111111111cm"" height=""14.11111111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Scanned image from the Statuti del Doge Tiepolo corpus.</p>
            <p>To segment the page we use a binarization-based approach, as follows: </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Binarization </hi>using the technique proposed by 
                <hi rend=""color(222222) background(white)"">Howe</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(222222)""> (2013)</hi> (Figure 3).
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Contour Detection</hi>: The binarized image is processed in order to extract all the contours (Figure 4) (Suzuki, 1985). 
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Contour Classification</hi>: The contour having the largest area is classified as the one circumscribing the page of the text (Figure 5). 
            </p>
            <p> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Vertical RGB Projection Profile</hi>: For each image it is necessary to detect the book binding. Each page is positioned horizontally with respect to the border of the image (Figure 6). The projection profile is processed in order to extract all the local minima. A voting system based on the a priori knowledge of the aspect ratio of the document page is used to elect the best local minima corresponding to the bookbinding separation (Figures 6 and 7). 
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""13.546666666666667cm"" height=""14.11111111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Howe (2013) binarization.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""13.546666666666667cm"" height=""14.11111111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. Contour detection.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""13.546666666666667cm"" height=""14.11111111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 5. Contour classification and image cropping.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""9.595555555555556cm"" height=""14.11111111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 6. Vertical projection profile.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1007"" width=""14.57325cm"" height=""22.86cm"" url=""Pictures/image7.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 7. Page cropping.</p>
            <p>Text Segmentation </p>
            <p>The second step aims at segmenting the pixels of the text. For this step we use the adaptive thresholding approach proposed by Howe (2013). In this case we estimate the thresholding parameters by a brute force technique applied to the 2D cost function: </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1008"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""1.8679583333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image8.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>For each iteration of the optimization procedure, the connected regions are recomputed over the binarized image. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Std</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">x</hi> is the average standard deviation of the pixel x position of the extracted connected regions, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">std</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">y</hi> is the average standard deviation of the pixel y position, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">area </hi>is the average surface of the connected regions, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">num</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">contours</hi> is the number of extracted connected regions. 
            </p>
            <p>Textline Segmentation </p>
            <p>The third step corresponds to the detection of text lines. For this task we have created a novel approach based on the following steps: </p>
            <p> • Blurring of the binarized image (Figure 8).</p>
            <p> • Binarization of the blurred image (Figure 9).</p>
            <p> • Contour detection (Figure 10).</p>
            <p> • Iterative contour expansions: each polygon detected in the previous step is expanded iteratively by 1 pixel until it touches another polygon. The procedure stops when each polygon touches at least one other polygon (Figure 11). </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1009"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""20.877388888888888cm"" url=""Pictures/image9.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 8. Blurring of the binarized image.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""10010"" width=""15.24cm"" height=""20.877388888888888cm"" url=""Pictures/image10.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 9. Binarization of the blurred image.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""10011"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""21.919847222222224cm"" url=""Pictures/image11.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <graphic n=""10012"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""21.919847222222224cm"" url=""Pictures/image12.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 10. Contour and textline detection.</p>
            <p>Transcription Alignment </p>
            <p>The transcription alignment system is HMM-based. This system is inspired by Slimane et al. (2008). Figure 11 illustrates the different phases of the text recognition / transcription alignment system. </p>
            <p>In the feature extraction phase, each text line is transformed into a sequence of feature vectors extracted by moving, from left to right, an analysis window with a width of 17 pixels and a shift of one pixel. Sixty-three typographical and statistical features and delta coefficients are extracted from each window. For more details, we refer to Slimane et al. (2008) and Mezghani et al. (2014). </p>
            <p>In the training phase, each character model, represented by six HMM states, is trained using labeled textline images. Our system is developed with 53 character models, including white space and punctuation characters. All the observation sequences are used to estimate the emission probability functions of each character model. The training procedure involves two steps that are iteratively applied to increase the number of Gaussian mixtures to a given M value. In the first step, a binary split procedure is applied to the Gaussians to increase their number. In the second step, the Baum-Welch re-estimation procedure is launched to estimate the parameters of the Gaussians. </p>
            <p>In the transcription alignment phase, the feature vector sequences of all extracted text lines of one page are first concatenated into a single sequence. Then the page HMM is created using the concatenation of all character models given by the page transcription. Finally, the Viterbi algorithm is employed for forced alignment of page image, resulting in line boundaries. So, for each line image, we will obtain the corresponding transcription. </p>
            <p>This system can be used for recognition using a HMM to build an open vocabulary recognizer when all transitions from one character model to the others are allowed.</p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""10013"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""16.123708333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image13.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 11. HMM-based text recognition / transcription alignment system. </p>
            <p>This system, evaluated using 72 pages (2,302 text lines), achieved considerable accuracy for transcription alignment: 98.44% of the returned words were correct in terms of word position and label. </p>
            <p>Conclusion </p>
            <p>In this paper, we propose a fully automatic system that is able to efficiently extract handwritten text lines from images and perform their transcription alignment at the page level. </p>
            <p>In the future, we will continue the optimization of the system, and we will also test it on other scripts from the Venice Time Machine project (http://vtm.epfl.ch/). </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">Howe, N. R.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">(2013). Document Binarization with Automatic Parameter Tuning. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">International Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition (IJDAR),</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">16</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">(3): 247–58.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mezghani, A., Slimane, F., Kanoun, S., and Märgner, V.</hi> (2014). Identification of Arabic/French–Handwritten/Printed Words Using GMM Based System. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings from CIFED</hi>, Nancy, France, 18–21 March 2014, pp. 371–74. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Slimane, F., Ingold, R., Alimi, A. M. and Hennebert, J. </hi>(2008). Duration Models for Arabic Text Recognition Using Hidden Markov Models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings from International Conference on Computational Intelligence for Modelling Control and Automation</hi>, Vienna, Austria, 10–12 December 2008, pp. 838–43. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Suzuki, S.</hi> (1985). Topological Structural Analysis of Digitized Binary Images by Border Following. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CVGIP,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>(1): 32–46. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tomasin, L.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Il volgare e la legge: Storia linguistica del diritto veneziano.</hi> Esedra, Padova.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tomasin, L.</hi> (2007). Il volgare nella cancelleria veneziana fra Tre e Quattrocento. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Medioevo Letterario d’Italia</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>: 69–89.
                    </bibl>
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"2371","16","Textal: Unstructured Text Analysis Workflows Through Interactive Smartphone Visualizations","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Steven James</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>The Bartlett Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>steven.gray@ucl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Terras</surname>
                        <forename>Melissa</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Centre for Digital Humanities, University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>m.terras@ucl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ammann</surname>
                        <forename>Rudolf</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Centre for Digital Humanities, University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>r.ammann@ucl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hudson-Smith</surname>
                        <forename>Andrew</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>The Bartlett Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>a.hudson-smith@ucl.ac.uk</email>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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            <p rend=""Normal1"">Working from user location and source document metadata, this paper seeks to understand how users analyse text through mobile devices. It will present our initial findings from the first 18 months of the project and catalogue the next steps for Textal as an open service. We will discuss the technical challenges of creating bespoke analysis workflows as well as providing insight into promoting digital humanities to the general public through mobile platforms. This paper presents a collaborative project between UCL Centre for Digital Humanities (UCL DH) and the Bartlett Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis (UCL CASA). </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Textual analysis aims to return relevant logical data requests to users’ queries from digital documents using natural language and a common vocabulary (Hobbs et al., 1982). Unstructured text analysis still remains a challenge for today’s automated algorithms (Borodkin et al., 2014) and high-performance computing systems as these systems attempt to classify relevant data from human-created datasets. With the exponential increase of user-submitted content on social media sites and the vast amount of information contained on the Internet in various file formats, providing an overview of large text corpuses through automated processes still remains a challenge.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Resources available to researchers, such as TAPoR (Text Analysis Portal for Research) (TAPoR, 2014), programming libraries such as Natural Language Toolkit (NLTK) (Bird, 2006), and a Python library for processing natural language from human language data (NLTK Project, 2014), to name a few, allow researchers to analyse complex or large datasets but often neglect the visualisation aspect of analysis. The creation of data visualisations is often left to the researcher after analysis is completed. These tools provide interfaces via web-based portals, purpose-built desktop applications, or APIs that may be slow, complex, or hard to use, which can often become a barrier for people who may need extensive knowledge before a tool, or API, becomes useful. </p>
            <figure>
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            <p rend=""Normal1"">Figure 1. Textal word cloud visualisation of user’s biomedical paper (Cooper, 2014).</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Word clouds are graphical representations of textual data depicting the frequency of a given word in relation to other words within a source document (Seifert, 2008). This visualisation method derives from tag clouds, which are weighted lists of keyword metadata, first introduced as a search technique through the photo-sharing web service Flickr in 2004. Word clouds became a widely used technique among researchers analysing large texts after Wordle popularized the automated creation of such visualisations through its online tool (Feinberg, 2009). However, word clouds hide important information about the structure of the original document, context (McNaught and Lam, 2010), and statistics about individual words, which are hidden behind the visualisation. </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Textal is a smartphone application that incorporates the visual style of word clouds, the interactivity provided by mobile devices, and the power of natural language processing workflows into a single easy-to-use tool (Figure 2). The application utilises the ubiquitous ‘pinch and zoom’ feature of touchscreen mobile interfaces, allowing users to explore the data behind the word cloud by touching individual words. Textal hides the complexity of unstructured text analysis through various cloud endpoints and distributed workflows. These workflows allow users to create and interact with word clouds in real time while the statistics of the document are processed on cloud servers in the background. As demand increases on the system, the processing engine can scale dynamically using on-demand computing available from cloud platforms as well as local virtualisation hardware to reduce latency. </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The system was created in response to an increasing trend towards emergent mobile and web-based technologies and seeks to understand how mobile technologies can be harnessed within digital humanities research. Textal is the first attempt to build a standalone application that brings together tools and workflows for use by researchers to analyse unstructured text as well as giving the general public a tool to easily create word clouds. The app aspires to tap the potential for public engagement by capitalising on the popularity of the word clouds as a ‘gateway’ to text analysis (Meloni, 2009).</p>
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            <p rend=""Normal1"">Figure 2. Textal iOS Application main screen, word cloud visualisation showing underlying statistics.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Textal was launched on the iOS App Store on 14 June 2013, along with the associated website http://www.textal.org (Textal, 2015), and analysis of the data has been compiled up until 24 February 2015, the first one year, eight months, and 10 days (640 days) of the service. In this time, Textal has been downloaded onto 5,749 devices in five separate territories and has been translated into six languages. Users have created over 3,000 word clouds with over 100 million words processed, showing a need for such a tool from both the general public and as an analysis tool for researchers. This paper discusses not only the bespoke creation of a distributed workflow engine for text analysis but also the insights gained from the usage data of the application’s global user base and the textual data crowdsourced from users of the application. We will explore the use of the Textal API within the wider context of research into real-time social media analysis using distributed systems and provisioned cloud computing being carried out at the Bartlett Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis. We will also address the ramifications for the academic field in embracing mobile platforms, such as pace of technology upgrades, uptake, and dissemination in a crowded mobile application marketplace.</p>
        </body>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bird. S.</hi> (2006). NLTK: The Natural Language Toolkit. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the COLING/ACL 2006 Interactive Presentation Sessions</hi>. Association for Computational Linguistics, Sydney, July, 69–72.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Borodkin, A., Lisin, E. and Strielkowski, W.</hi> (2014). Data Algorithms for Processing and Analysis of Unstructured Text Documents. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Applied Mathematical Sciences,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(25): 1213–22.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cooper, L.</hi> (2014). Textal—Word Cloud—Biomedical Paper. http://textal.org/gallery/200e0cf6d177.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Feinberg, J.</hi> (2009). Wordle. http://www.wordle.net/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hobbs, J. R., Walker, D. E. and Amsler, R. A.</hi> (1982, July). Natural Language Access to Structured Text. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Ninth Conference on Computational Linguistics</hi>, Prague, 5–10 July 1982. Amsterdam: North-Holland, pp. 1:127–32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McNaught, C. and Lam, P.</hi> (2010). Using Wordle as a Supplementary Research Tool. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Qualitative Report,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">15</hi>(3): 630–43, http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR15-3/mcnaught.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meloni, J.</hi> (2009). Wordles, or the Gateway Drug to Textual Analysis. ProfHacker. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Chronicle of Higher Education</hi>, 21 October, http://chronicle.com/blogs/profhacker/word les-or-the-gateway-drug-to-textual-analysis/22781.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">NLTK Project.</hi> (2014). Natural Language Toolkit Library. http://www.nltk.org.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Seifert, C., Kump, B., Kienreich, W., Granitzer, G. and Granitzer, M.</hi> (2008). On the Beauty and Usability of Tag Clouds. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Information Visualisation</hi>, IEEE, London, 8–11 July 2008, pp. 17–25.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">TAPoR—Text Analysis Portal for Research.</hi> (2014). http://www.tapor.ca.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Textal Website.</hi> (2014). http://www.textal.org.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">UCL CASA.</hi> (2014). Bartlett Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis. http://casa.ucl.ac.uk.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">UCL DH.</hi> (2014). Centre for Digital Humanities. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2372","16","The Aboriginal Dreaming meets Virtual Reality","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Trescak</surname>
                        <forename>Tomas</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>t.trescak@uws.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Williams</surname>
                        <forename>Melissa</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>melissa.williams@uws.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Sloan</surname>
                        <forename>Terry</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>t.sloan@uws.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Bogdanovych</surname>
                        <forename>Anton</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>a.bogdanovych@uws.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Simoff</surname>
                        <forename>Simeon</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>s.simoff@uws.edu.au</email>
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            <p rend=""CM5"">A recent study supports the claim that Aboriginal Australians are the oldest continuous living culture on the planet (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Science</hi>, 2011), their being directly descended from the first people to leave Africa up to 75,000 years ago. Aborigines developed a rich culture involving custom, lore, and value systems based on the sustainability of their spiritual connection, belonging, obligation, and responsibility to care for their land, their people, and their environment (Andrews et al., 2006). Knowledge of this fascinating culture is still strong within Aboriginal communities and has adapted to live in two worlds, which in part is due to the recent radical change in lives of Australian Aborigines, the arrival of British colonists in the 18th century, and consequent European domination of the Australian continent. Since then, the relationship between the original Aboriginal population and more recent arrivals changed from initial curiosity, through mutual aversion, to ignorance. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">In recent years, both parties are trying to improve this unfortunate situation by dealing with consequences of historical actions and better understanding each other’s cultures. Various initiatives aim to explore and preserve the oldest surviving culture in the world and to disseminate it to the broader Australian population. These efforts include developing First Peoples perspectives in mainstream institutions. Other resources on this matter include organisational web pages, multimedia, and digital archives. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">The Aboriginal connection with the world is hard to capture, since time—particularly the dreaming or dreamtime—is difficult to express in static forms of presentation. This is where interactive workshops and focus groups can have a profound impact on the way content is consumed. Non-interactive multimedia, such as movies and videos, are a viable substitute, but their creation is expensive and, once made, the content becomes static and unchangeable. Carefully crafted web pages can combine both experiences, using multimedia for presentation and also allowing feedback from presenters. Yet web pages usually provide content for already interested parties rather than attracting a new public. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">The main attraction of today is modern technology, enhanced with artificial intelligence, interactive multimedia, games, and virtual reality (VR). Currently, the VR hardware price has dropped down to $8 for Google Cardboard and $199 for Samsung VR, becoming available to the wide public. Computer games and virtual reality combine the interactive possibilities of workshops with multimedia. It allows us to capture and simulate the transient nature of First Peoples culture, the dreamtime, and to present these from various perspectives, either as an observer or a direct participant. Therefore, in our project, we focus on creating an immersive computer simulation, using a computer games approach and virtual reality, focusing on various aspects of life and events that have occurred throughout the history of aboriginal tribes living in Australia. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">The benefits of our project are threefold: </p>
            <p rend=""CM2""> 1. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">We seek permission from Aboriginal cultural authorities (i.e., Elders/Traditional Knowledge Keepers) to capture and record Aboriginal perspectives.</hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM3""> For the purposes of our simulation, we collaborate with Aboriginal Elders to gain perspectives on the philosophical thinking of surviving in two worlds. Aboriginal people have a holistic worldview and belong to the land, viewing the world from a different perspective—for example, in an Aboriginal voice, ‘We belong to the land and have a responsibility to care for that land’. In this project we recorded what life was like in community pre-contact using motion capture technology. We have also recorded various stories of recollections of what life was like back then and, in collaboration with professionals, co-created with Aboriginal Elders educational plots that motivate simulation participants to explore and understand the perspectives of living in two worlds. We aim to record and digitise Aboriginal languages and place them in the situational context. This not only preserves many already disappearing languages but enables interested parties to learn them efficiently in the immersive manner.</p>
            <p rend=""CM5""> Along with this we are continuously co-creating with Aboriginal people, protecting their intellectual property by appropriate attribution with inputs into a large public database of Aboriginal resources, such as texts, images, videos, and references to be used throughout our project and by any other interested party (available at http://gok.scem.uws.edu.au).   </p>
            <p rend=""CM5""> 2. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">We engage and co-create with the Aboriginal community to understand their perspectives by using simulation technology.</hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM5""> During the development of our simulation, we initially engage the Aboriginal community to help us co-create the content for our simulation. First, we engage and seek permission from Aboriginal Elders to access their intellectual property and record their perspectives, which can subsequently be presented in a simulation. Later, consulting with Elders and in collaboration with Aboriginal artists, we created the 3D assets of the simulation. These assets concern the landscape of the simulation, design of the original population, and wearables and objects they used. Last, we approach youth from various communities to help us co-create the 3D content and writing new stories, allowing others to re-live their experiences in the simulated environment.</p>
            <p rend=""CM5""> 3. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Raise appreciation and appropriate attribution for Aboriginal intellectual property within the non-Aboriginal population.</hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM5""> Using our simulation, participants can learn by playing a game with a carefully crafted educational plot, which incrementally raises their knowledge about the presented topics. During this experience each party is able to re-live the experience from the perspective of the other party, helping in understanding both points of the view. Moreover, using virtual reality and the gaming approach attracts the ‘digital’ generation or ‘social web’ generation, allowing them to perform in collaborative environments, providing for the deep social experience. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">In the first phase of this project, we simulate an aspect of Aboriginal culture in the Parramatta basin in the year 1770, pre-contact and before colonisation. The simulation is presented in two formats. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">First, an interactive 3D video game takes the participant on a quest to explore the life of a clan in the Parramatta basin. A spiritual mentor and guardian in the form of an Aboriginal Elder gradually introduces the participant to the daily life of aboriginal clans—the knowledge they possessed, rituals they performed, protocols they kept, and their connection to dreamtime. The Elder presents the participant to clan members, who are performing various tasks such as spear making, tool making, painting, fishing, or preparing food. During these interactions, the participant also learns about aboriginal medicine, astronomy, arts, as well as ceremonies, such as the smoking ceremony, thus learning about their spiritual values. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">For the purposes of this simulation we have collected information from secondary and primary sources, captured it in text and video, and used motion capture technology to record animations. In close collaboration with Elders, we chose the best form of presentation, preparing the plot of our game (simulation). A problematic issue was the amount of dialogue we planned to use. Here, it was advised to use as little as possible and to depend mostly on non-verbal language and visual inference, so maintaining the historic accuracy. Yet, for the format of our presentation, we decided to use dialogue and written word to communicate with participants, but we are continuing to explore possibilities for meeting this requirement. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">Second, we built a virtual reality experience, using Oculus Rift and a historical narrative to build an immersive exhibit of aboriginal life. This part of the experience no longer depends on written texts and graphical user interfaces; it fully relies on virtual interactions and dialogue. Due to various responses from our test subjects, which varied from very pleasant experiences to slight motion sickness to vertigo, we have limited the duration of the VR experience to five minutes. We are working to extend this time, better understanding the problems related to the VR simulations. Yet we already acknowledged that the biggest drawback of VR is that it will not suit everyone, and therefore we plan to maintain both 3D and VR experiences. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">In the consecutive phases we plan to extend our simulation to re-live history through Aboriginal perspectives, from the first contact up until modern times. The goal of this simulation is to put into perspective views from both parties, to understand them and learn from them. Apart from simulating historical events, co-creating the content will open possibilities to include many different life stories and allow for interpretation of historical contexts. </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">The demo of the simulation can be found at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aT_mwlobwK8. </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""CM1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Andrews, G., Daylight C., Hunt J., et al.</hi> (2006). Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Landscape Mapping of Coastal NSW. Prepared for the Comprehensive Coastal Assessment by the NSW Department of Natural Resources, Sydney. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM1"">
                        <hi rend=""italic bold"">Science</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">.</hi> (2011). An Aboriginal Australian Genome Reveals Separate Human Dispersals into Asia. 7 October, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">334</hi>(6052): 94–98, 
                        <hi rend=""cit-sep"">
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">doi</hi>
                            <hi rend=""color(222222)"">:</hi>
                        </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">10.1126/science.1211177.</hi>
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                        <surname>Terras</surname>
                        <forename>Melissa</forename>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Dean</surname>
                        <forename>Mohamedally</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University College London</affiliation>
                    <email>D.Mohamedally@cs.ucl.ac.uk</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Tim</surname>
                        <forename>Weyrich</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University College London</affiliation>
                    <email>t.weyrich@cs.ucl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Stefan</surname>
                        <forename>Alborzpour</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University College London</affiliation>
                    <email>stefan.alborzpour.13@ucl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Stelios</surname>
                        <forename>Georgiou</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University College London</affiliation>
                    <email>stelios.georgiou.13@ucl.ac.uk</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Nektaria</surname>
                        <forename>Stavrou</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University College London</affiliation>
                    <email>nektaria.stavrou.13@ucl.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Wendy</surname>
                        <forename>Wong</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University College London</affiliation>
                    <email>wendy.wong.13@ucl.ac.uk</email>
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                    <term>collaboration</term>
                    <term>computer science</term>
                    <term>infrastructure</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>interface and user experience design</term>
                    <term>teaching and pedagogy</term>
                    <term>information architecture</term>
                    <term>GLAM: galleries</term>
                    <term>libraries</term>
                    <term>archives</term>
                    <term>museums</term>
                    <term>interdisciplinary collaboration</term>
                    <term>programming</term>
                    <term>cultural infrastructure</term>
                    <term>English</term>
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            <p>Many digital humanities–taught programmes aim to engage undergraduate and postgraduate humanists with computational methods and practices (Hirsch, 2012; Cohen and Scheinfeldt, 2013). It is relatively rare, however, to routinely engage computer scientists with the needs, methods, and worldview of historians, literature scholars, librarians, and related researchers (Spiro, 2012). This poster describes an ongoing collaboration between British Library Digital Research
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> and the UCL Department of Computer Science (UCLCS
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi>), facilitated by the UCL Centre for Digital Humanities (UCLDH
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi>), that enables and engages students in computer science with humanities research issues as part of their core assessed work. We demonstrate that CS students can provide an experimental test-bed for developing, exploring, and exploiting technical infrastructure and digital content in ways that may benefit humanities researchers within a library context. Encouraging students to develop skills in a new (and often foreign) domain encourages their critical thinking and provides real-world, complex issues that stretch and develop their technical abilities as well as their understanding of user requirements. Furthermore, from the problems, issues, and potentials such collaborative working raises, we learn more about the nature of computational infrastructure we rely on for research, and perceptions of the institutions’ core business in delivering digital content. As the British Library has a vision for transforming access to and research with its digital collections, the British Library Big Data Experiment forms an important complement to the British Library’s ongoing infrastructure activities through enabling the development of experimental services that offer unconventional engagement with its digital collections (Farquhar and Baker, 2014). 
            </p>
            <p>All taught programmes in UCLCS require students to undertake an industry exchange
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> where they work in teams as clients to an industry partner. Though UCLCS has experience with developing student projects in partnership with digital humanists (Martin et al., 2012), industry partners have tended to come from the financial or manufacturing sectors. The British Library Big Data Experiment is an umbrella for a series of activities where the British Library is the client for assessed UCLCS project work, allowing for a rolling, responsive program of experimental design, development, and testing of infrastructure and systems. At agreed milestones during the project, the British Library provides access to required data, knowledge of data structures, and project requirements. UCLCS and UCLDH jointly provide technical and academic support to the student teams. 
            </p>
            <p>In June 2014 the first British Library Big Data Experiment team was convened with a dissertation project, submitted in fulfilment of the MSc in Software Systems Engineering (Georgiou, Stavrou) and Computer Science (Alborzpour, Wong), using a collection of circa 68,000 17th- to 19th-century digitised volumes to underpin the design of a research-oriented web-based service. Microsoft Azure
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> APIs were implemented that functionally scale to the data, whilst the students worked in close consultation with humanities researchers who may wish to use the capabilities of such a system. The final public output (http://blpublicdomain.azurewebsites.net/) represents an attempt to capture the complex and multifaceted needs of humanities researchers whilst offering unconventional services such as bulk download of text based on metadata queries, word frequency lists, and OCR text previews. Following this successful pilot, the British Library Big Data Experiment is undertaking further collaborative work, including machine learning and mobile app development strands in autumn/winter 2014 and a second MSc dissertation project in summer 2015. 
            </p>
            <p>Both UCLCS and its students have an appetite for embedding problems faced by memory institutions within CS learning outcomes. In partaking in such truly interdisciplinary project work, students develop new skill sets, question their assumptions about the role of library and humanities scholars, and provide useful experimental design within the institutional context. In addition, having CS students engage with humanities scholars as a routine part of their degree allows humanists to understand their research needs and institutional structures, from a different perspective. We present the British Library Big Data Experiment as a model ripe for reuse and we argue that the benefits of such collaborative programmes outweigh potential risks. The Big Data Experiment is, then, both an experiment in teaching and an experiment in involving and integrating those undertaking advanced study in computer science into memory institutions and humanities scholarship. </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. http://www.bl.uk/ and http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/digital-scholarship/.</p>
            <p>2. http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/.</p>
            <p>3. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh.</p>
            <p>4. http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/business/partnership_programme/.</p>
            <p>5. An open and flexible crowd computing platform for computational processing, https://azure.microsoft.com/en-us/ was used in this project due to UCL’s ongoing relationship with Microsoft. </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cohen, D. J. and Scheinfeldt, T.</hi> (2013). Hacking the Academy: New Approaches to Scholarship and Teaching from Digital Humanities. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hirsch, B. D.</hi> (2012). Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics. Open Book Publishers, Cambridge. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Farquhar, A. and Baker, J.</hi> (2014). Interoperable Infrastructures for Digital Research: A Proposed Pathway for Enabling Transformation. Digital Humanities 2014, http://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.1092550%20.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Martin, W., Abdallah, D., El-Abiary, A., Dalbah, Y., Julier, S., Terras, M., Iliffe, R., Hawkins, M. and Weyrich, T.</hi> (2012). Newton Spectrum: Nonlinear Text Browsing of a Large Corpus. In Proceedings of Digital Humanities Congress 2012, University of Sheffield, September 2012. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Spiro, L.</hi> (2012). Opening Up Digital Humanities Education. In Hirsch, B. D. (ed.), Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, pp. 331–64. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2374","16","The Characteristics of Personae Observed Within Toraakirabon Kyogen Scripts: Extracting Conceptual Words Using Quantitative Analysis","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>The Characteristics of Personae Observed Within Toraakirabon Kyogen Scripts: Extracting Conceptual Words Using Quantitative Analysis</title>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Kawase</surname>
                        <forename>Akihiro</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>kawase.ak@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
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                    <term>Kyogen scripts</term>
                    <term>traditional comic drama</term>
                    <term>numerical analysis</term>
                    <term>discourse studies</term>
                    <term>corpus studies</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>classical studies</term>
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            <p>This study analyzes 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Noh</hi> farces (farces in the Japanese traditional performing arts), which have not been the subject of natural language processing research until now. The goal of this study is to quantitatively analyze the text of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Noh</hi> farce scripts from the perspective of vocabulary to verify how the status and roles of the characters are defined. Specifically, this study compares the keywords (unique concepts) of the various statuses and roles by constructing a text corpus of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Noh</hi> farce character dialogues categorized by status and role, and using co-occurrence networks of frequently occurring vocabulary and statistical indices in order to make the characteristics visible.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Noh</hi> farces are linguistic corpuses that have had an important position from medieval to early modern times (Keene, 1999). In particular, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Noh</hi> farces have a very high value as a spoken-language corpus because of the following three points: (1) stories proceed in dialogue format, (2) the conversation portions clearly depict situations and statuses, and (3) characters are diverse and have different statuses and roles.
            </p>
            <p>Therefore, organizing the text of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Noh</hi> farce scripts into machine-readable formats and executing quantitative analysis not only contributes to the clarification of the actual language spoken in early modern times, but is also significant because it promotes humanities research, such as the history of the Japanese language and descriptive bibliography. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of character speech in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Noh</hi> farces from a corpus linguistics perspective and deciphers the roles that the people play.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Subject of Analysis</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The analysis in this study uses the text corpus in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Toraakira Kyōgenshū</hi> (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Toraakira Noh</hi> Farce Collection, 1642), a collection digitized, organized, and morphologically analyzed by the National Institute of Japanese Language and Linguistics (NINJAL) (Ogiso et al., 2013). At NINJAL, digitization and morphological analysis have been done thus far on the literature of several ages and styles (e.g., Kawase et al., 2014a; 2014b). The analysis of character dialogue in this text corpus (e.g., Figure 1) was conducted using MeCab Ver.0.993 (Kudo, 2012) with the morphological analysis dictionary exclusive to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Noh</hi> farces.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""10.757958333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Excerpt script of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ebisu Dai-koku</hi> from 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Toraakira Kyōgenshū</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Word Frequency Analysis</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Here, both TF-IDF (term frequency-inverse document frequency) and CIDF (comparative IDF) used in Murai and Tokosumi (2009) was applied to the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Noh</hi> farce text corpus, and unique vocabulary was extracted for the status and role for the top 10 characters who spoke the highest number of times. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CIDF</hi> is an index that defines the desired word 
                <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi> as a ratio of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">idf</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">a</hi> (IDF value found based on the number of texts 
                <hi rend=""italic"">d</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">a</hi> where that word appeared in all text 
                <hi rend=""italic"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">a</hi>) and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">idf</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">g</hi> (IDF value found based on the number of texts 
                <hi rend=""italic"">d</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">g</hi> where that word appeared in all text 
                <hi rend=""italic"">D</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic subscript"">g</hi> in the specific genre, which is the case in the statuses and roles of the characters):
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""4.771319444444444cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Table 1 shows the broader terms for the TF-IDF and CIDF value calculated for the nouns that appear in the dialogue between the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kaja</hi> (servant) who appears most often in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Toraakira Kyōgenshū</hi> and the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">shū</hi> (master) who appears the next most often.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""7.085541666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Table 1. Extracted keyword lists for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kaja</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">shū</hi> using TF-IDF and CIDF.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""7.332486111111111cm"" height=""7.561791666666666cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. A keyword network (co-occurrence network) of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kaja</hi>.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""7.9551388888888885cm"" height=""7.493cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. A keyword network (co-occurrence network) of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">shū.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Network Centrality Analysis</hi>
            </p>
            <p>In order to explore the structure of the concepts for each character, we describe a co-occurrence network of the top 50 words that appeared in the dialogue (e.g., Figures 2 and 3), and applied network analysis techniques to numerically grasp the differences among the networks. More specifically, we used several networking algorithms based on the concept of centrality (e.g., degree, closeness, and eigen value). Table 2 shows the results of a summary of the top 10 values of network centrality for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kaja</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">shū</hi>. As given above, effectively using the characteristic vocabulary extracted here gives the ability to define the status and role of the characters in the situation.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""6.4911111111111115cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Table 2. Values of network centrality for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">kaja</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">shū</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Conclusions and Future Research</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Since 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Noh farces</hi> are for recreation and depict fictional worlds, and viewers understand people, events, and situations by integrating the information they obtain from the background knowledge and text (speech and behavior of the character) (van Dijik and Kintsch, 1983), the result of this study quantitatively clarified the characteristic vocabulary (references and concepts) that defines the statuses and roles of the characteristics in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Noh</hi> farce script texts. However, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Noh</hi> farces proceed in dialogue format, and the speech of the characters probably changes when the person listening to the speaker changes. A future topic is to extract the concepts for defining the statuses and roles of the characters more comprehensively and in more detail by analyzing the relationships between the speakers and the people listening, which will promote humanities research in the field of Japanese traditional performing arts.
            </p>
            <p>Funding</p>
            <p>This work was supported by the collaborative research project Design of a Diachronic Corpus and Study of the History of the Japanese Language Using Statistics and Machine Learning carried at the National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kawase, A., Ichimura, T. and Ogiso, T.</hi> (2014a). Problems in Encoding Documents of Early Modern Japanese. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Digital Humanities 2014</hi>, Lausanne, Switzerland, pp. 225–27.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kawase, A., Ichimura, T., and Ogiso, T. </hi>(2014b). Quantitative Analysis of Dialogues in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Toraakira Kyōgenshū</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of NLP 2014</hi>, Baltimore, MD, pp. 662–65.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Keene, D.</hi> (1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A History of Japanese Literature</hi>. Vol. 2. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">World within Walls</hi>. Columbia University Press, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kudo, T.</hi> (2012). MeCab: Yet Another Japanese Dependency Structure Analyzer. https://code.google.com/p/mecab/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Murai, H. and Tokosumi, A.</hi> (2009). Towards a Quantitative Research Approach to Literary Review: Quantitative Analysis of Book Reviews. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Japan Society of Information and Knowledge,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">19</hi>(2): 120–25.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ogiso, T., Ichimura, T. and Kouno, T.</hi> (2013). Prelminary Study of Morphological Analysis of Early Modern Japanese. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Corpus Japanese Linguistics</hi>, pp. 145–50.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Dijik, T. A. and Kintsch, W.</hi> (1983). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Strategies of Discourse Comprehension</hi>. Academic Press, New York.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2375","16","The Dariah Reference Curriculum for Digital Humanities (DARIAH-RC)","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Schreibman</surname>
                        <forename>Susan</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Maynooth University</affiliation>
                    <email>susan.schreibman@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Clivaz</surname>
                        <forename>Claire</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Lausanne</affiliation>
                    <email>claire.clivaz@unil.ch</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Tasovac</surname>
                        <forename>Toma</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Belgrade Center for Digital Humanities</affiliation>
                    <email>ttasovac@transpoetika.org</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ping Huang</surname>
                        <forename>Marianne</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Aarhus University</affiliation>
                    <email>mph@au.dk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Benardou</surname>
                        <forename>Agiati</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Athena Research Center</affiliation>
                    <email>agiati.benardou@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Scagliola</surname>
                        <forename>Stef</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Erasmus University Rotterdam</affiliation>
                    <email>scagliola@eshcc.eur.nl</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Wandl-Vogt</surname>
                        <forename>Eveline</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Austrian Academy of Sciences</affiliation>
                    <email>Eveline.Wandl-Vogt@oeaw.ac.at</email>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>pedagogy</term>
                    <term>multilingualism</term>
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                    <term>multilingual / multicultural approaches</term>
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            <p>In November 2014 a consortium of universities and research centers associated with the European Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities (DARIAH-EU) received an ERAMUS+ grant to establish a strategic partnership in digital humanities teaching. As part of the 30-months grant, Aarhus University (Denmark), the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the Athena Research Center (Greece), the Belgrade Center for Digital Humanities (Serbia), Erasmus University Rotterdam (Netherlands), the Maynooth University (Ireland), and the University of Lausanne (Switzerland) will build an extensible, open-source, and open-access reference curriculum platform and develop modules to promote multilingual DH education. Our poster will present an overview of the project and the results of the first six months of the grant period. The project started on 1 January 2015.</p>
            <p>The DARIAH Reference Curriculum (DARIAH-RC) project builds upon previous initiatives to develop and deliver a model for open-source asynchronous online educational materials from which a wide variety of communities of practice can benefit. </p>
            <p>The training materials will be designed as building blocks tailored to the exigencies of teaching situations and will be based on a format that allows easy localization and adaptation (via translation, subtitles, domain-specific examples, etc.). The language of all the materials will be English, with translations or subtitles (as appropriate) in the language of the partner-country that will develop specific modules. Moreover, the modules are being developed across multiple disciplines, genres, and formats, including text images, moving images, and sound. </p>
            <p>The training materials will present content in various degrees of complexity, allowing for use and re-use at different levels and different modalities of education: from formal classroom settings, to professional development in the form of workshops and summer schools, to nonformal individual learners wishing to improve their skills. </p>
            <p>The direct result of the partnership during the grant period will be the first multilingual collection of DH training materials that is freely available and openly accessible. By embedding and promoting localization principles to the field of DH education and by fostering multilingualism—not only theoretically, but also practically—this partnership will make a significant new contribution to the internationalization of the digital humanities landscape.</p>
            <p>In addition to being directly accessible through our custom-built web platform, the materials will also be hosted by the French national repository HAL, which is maintained by DARIAH-FR (at the joint service unit CCSD of CNRS, Inria, and University of Lyon). </p>
            <p>The expertise of project and partner countries will be leveraged in the DARIAH-RC project by situating the digital humanities curriculum development in the wider European landscape of digital resources and digital cultural heritage, so that participating institutions start building strategic alliances across disciplinary boundaries. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brier, S.</hi> (2012). Where’s the Pedagogy? The Role of Teaching and Learning in the Digital Humanities. In Gold, M. K. (ed.)., 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clement, T. </hi>(2012). Multiliteracies in the Undergraduate Digital Humanities Curriculum: Skills, Principles, and Habits of Mind. In Hirsch, B. D. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics</hi>. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ives, M. </hi>(2014). Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Hitting the Wall and Bouncing Back. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CEA Critic,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">76</hi>(2) (July). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rockwell, G. and Sinclair, S.</hi> (2012). Acculturation and the Digital Humanities Community. In Hirsch, B. D. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics</hi>. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">TEI By Example</hi>. (n.d.). http://www.teibyexample.org/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Walzer, L. </hi>(2012). Digital Humanities and the ‘Ugly Stepchildren’ of American Higher Education. In Gold, M. K. (ed.)., 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2376","16","The DH Experience","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Zachary Selman</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Alberta, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>zspalmer@ualberta.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Rockwell</surname>
                        <forename>Geoffrey</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Alberta, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>grockwel@ualberta.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ruecker</surname>
                        <forename>Stan</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Illinois Institute of Technology</affiliation>
                    <email>sruecker@id.iit.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Montague</surname>
                        <forename>John</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Alberta, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>jmontagu@ualberta.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Frizzera</surname>
                        <forename>Luciano</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Simon Fraser University</affiliation>
                    <email>dosreisf@ualberta.ca</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Gil</surname>
                        <forename>Alex</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Global Outlook::Digital Humanities</affiliation>
                    <email>colibri.alex@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>O'Donnell</surname>
                        <forename>Daniel</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Global Outlook::Digital Humanities</affiliation>
                    <email>daniel.odonnell@uleth.ca</email>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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            <p>Despite the hope that digital humanities is necessarily collaborative, multidisciplinary, and multilingual, plenty of global DH efforts operate without recognition. What projects and centres exist around the world that don’t make it to conferences? And what tools can we use to discover and connect global DH projects?</p>
            <p>Last year, we developed
                <hi rend=""italic""> DH Experience</hi>, a cooperative serious board game inspired by Matt Leacock’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Pandemic </hi>(2008), with the intent of promoting and modelling the global, interdisciplinary, and collaborative character of the digital humanities. With the input of Global Outlook::Digital Humanities (GO::DH), we have created a new version of the game that has players play with real-life DH centres and projects. Like GO::DH’s Around DH in 80 Days project—the main source for representative global DH efforts used in the board game—
                <hi rend=""italic"">DH Experience </hi>is intended to be a tool for discovery, highlighting worldwide DH research. In this poster presentation, we will
            </p>
            <p> • Introduce the game, demonstrating gameplay and how it relates to the global, collaborative experience of DH.</p>
            <p> • Talk about the testing and reception of the game.</p>
            <p> • Describe GO::DH’s contribution to the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">DH Experience</hi> project.
            </p>
            <p> • Introduce the new, global, reality-based version of the game.</p>
            <p>The Game</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">DH Experience </hi>is a cooperative board game where players take on the roles of DH researchers and professionals racing to complete projects as a group before a window of opportunity passes. Players gather data from a nodal world-map board and contribute that data to a set of available projects while the game itself provides opposition by unpredictably changing the availability of those projects. The object is for the players (as a group) to complete more projects (though not all projects are weighted equally) than those that ‘fall off’ the board as game turns pass. The main challenge of the game lies in determining the most efficient way to use each player’s location, data, special resources, and their role’s skills to tackle projects at the right moments.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic""> DH Experience</hi> was initially developed as we were experimenting with visual workflow metaphors. Some of the prototypes we developed (Frizzera et al., 2013) suggested board game spaces, so we decided to experiment with board games as a form of workflow that could be tested in play. The board game let us play with paper prototypes before developing a general workflow editor for the Web, which has now been prototyped under the name Wrkflux (https://github.com/lucaju/Wrkflux). The game, however took on a life of its own as we tested it and imagined it for other uses.
            </p>
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            <p>Figure 1. Sample of board and the cards used in the first version of the game. </p>
            <p>In the presentation, we will demonstrate how the game works and provide copies of the rules, board, and cards needed for participants to play.</p>
            <p>Testing and Reception</p>
            <p>Once the initial rounds of developer ‘balance testing’ were concluded, we engaged in several rounds of play-testing involving both volunteer DH research colleagues and acquaintances who had no connection to DH but are experienced board game players. Footage of a play session is available at http://hucodev.artsrn.ualberta.ca/jmontagu/dh_exp/ (along with PDFs of the materials needed to play yourself). Although expectations were low among almost all parties, both groups reported greatly enjoying the game experience; researchers, regardless of their love of games, are keen on the narrative. Game players, regardless of their research experience, appear to enjoy the game balance and cooperative mechanics. Researchers were able to provide valuable feedback regarding the nature of the research experience, as measured against what the game provided (skill ideas, special-ability card ideas, etc.). Gamers provided valuable game balance and playability feedback (how many cards in the timeline, how quickly resources should appear, etc.). </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">DH Experience</hi> has also been formally presented at conferences to get feedback from the game studies community: the 2014 Canadian Game Studies Association conference at Brock University and Replaying Japan 2014 at the University of Alberta. On both occasions, every copy of the game was quickly snapped up by interested DH practitioners after the presentation. Informal presentations at DH 2014 in Lausanne had similar results, suggesting that the level of interest was sufficient to redevelop the game with real centres and projects. At that point we partnered with GO::DH.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">GO::DH’s Around DH in 80 Days Project and </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic bold"">DH Experience</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Global Outlook::Digital Humanities (GO::DH) is a Special Interest Group (SIG) of the Alliance of Digital Humanities Organisations (ADHO). Its purpose is to help break down barriers that hinder communication and collaboration among researchers and students of the digital arts, humanities, and cultural heritage sectors across political, economic, and regional boundaries.</p>
            <p>The origins of GO::DH lie in Melissa Terras’ infographic ‘Quantifying the Digital Humanities’ (http://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/dh/2012/01/20/infographic-quantifying-digitalhumanities/). This contained a map showing the distribution of physical centres in the digital humanities (as defined by members of ADHO communities) across the globe. Its most striking feature, however, were the absences: apart from a thin band of centres across the Northern Hemisphere and in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, the majority of the world appeared as ‘empty space’; while digital work in the humanities was being conducted by researchers, teachers, and scholars in these areas, it remained, for the most part, invisible to researchers in the Global North associated with the largest international digital humanities societies and organisations. There was a literal disconnect between researchers in these (largely mid- and low-income economic) regions and those appearing on the map (for the most part found in high-income regions): the researchers were simply not part of the same digital, academic, and social networks.</p>
            <p>The GO::DH approach to breaking down these barriers is extremely practical: the organization develops complementary strengths, interests, abilities, and experiences of its membership through special projects, events, activities, and publicity. Its core activities are discovery, community-building, research, and advocacy. It helps its members learn more about digital work in the arts, humanities, and cultural heritage sectors; it acts to foster collaboration and cooperation across regions and economies; it coordinates research on and in support of the use of technology in these areas across the globe; and it advocates for a global perspective on work in this sector.</p>
            <p>One major example of this approach is the Around DH in 80 Days project, led by GO::DH’s founding vice chair Alex Gil. Around DH is an online project intended to foster discovery of current DH projects from around the world, beginning as a (still open) collaborative spreadsheet of DH projects populated by volunteers suggesting different projects by region. Eighty projects were featured—one per day—at www.arounddh.org, with introductory summaries of the projects edited by a team of editors from around the world. All the projects are displayed as nodes on an interactive map.</p>
            <p>The New Game</p>
            <p>The new incarnation of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">DH Experience </hi>builds on GO::DH’s Around DH in 80 Days project. To transform 
                <hi rend=""italic"">DH Experience</hi>’s hypothetical projects and centres into real ones, we used the Around DH master list, and we anticipate using similar means to keep the game up to date. Using GO::DH’s list of global DH centres, we modified the first design of the board to feature broader geographic regions as spaces, rather than just significant urban areas. A modular deck of cards highlights participating DH centres. Similarly, we updated the project cards to feature actual DH work being performed around the world. With these changes, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">DH Experience </hi>can be used to explore the global and collaborative nature of DH through a board game. It now introduces players to some of the main global actors within DH. Like Around DH in 80 Days, the game can serve as an introduction to the global scope of DH research—a tool for mutual discovery. 
            </p>
            <p>While the game is played physically, it exists and is distributed as a freely printable document on the Web, allowing us and others to adapt the board and cards easily, should other centres or projects request to be represented in the game. More to the point, we believe that some of what makes the game engaging is the iterative redesign of the game, whether changing the board, rules, or cards. For this reason we maintain the game as a living document, updating the components to highlight new projects and centres by request.</p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>Why a board game? As discussed above, the initial reason was experimentation with workflow as a way of representing information. Games offer ‘players continual opportunities to learn, solve problems, and become more skilled. That is, indeed, what makes [. . .] games fun’ (Gee, 2005, 29). Games for us offer a way of testing interface ideas (while having fun). We think of play as a method for producing new knowledge (Thomas and Brown, 2007), and game design as part of research play. This poster presentation will include reflections on game design as an iterative method for the digital humanities.</p>
            <p>Finally, we understand that designed gameplay—especially gameplay modelling life—comes laden with our own assumptions and limited perspectives. Far from intending to reify these assumptions, we instead hope to offer this game as a provocation or a starting point to ask more questions of the intersection between games and scholarship. Are there models of DH research that this game occludes? Where are the points of friction between simulation and elegant, engaging gameplay? What other mechanics, modes of play, or entire games could the DH theme support? </p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>Frizzera, L., Radzikowska, M., Roeder, G., Peña, E., Dobson, T., Ruecker, S., Rockwell, G., Brown, S. and the INKE Research Group. (2013). A Visual Workflow Interface for the Editorial Process. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi> 28(4): 615–28.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Gee, J. P. (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Why Video Games Are Good for Your Soul: Pleasure and Learning.</hi> Common Ground Publishing, Melbourne.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Leacock, M. (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pandemic.</hi> Z-Man Games, Mahopac, NY.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Russell, I. G. (2014). Geographical and Linguistic Diversity in the Digital Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing, </hi>advanced access, DOI:10.1093/llc/fqu005.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Thomas, D. and Brown, J. S. (2007). The Play of Imagination: Extending the Literary Mind. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Games and Culture,</hi> 2(2): 149–72, doi:10.1177/1555412007299458.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2377","16","The Enchantment of Civilization/Civility: the Digital Humanity Study of the “Obsession” with “Wenming”(文明) in Modern China","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Yang</surname>
                        <forename>Jui-sung</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>National Chengchi University, Taiwan, Republic of China</affiliation>
                    <email>jyang@nccu.edu.tw</email>
                </author>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <term>Wenmin</term>
                    <term>Civilizaton</term>
                    <term>Civility</term>
                    <term>China</term>
                    <term>Japan</term>
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            <p>One key issue in the study of humanities and social sciences is to figure out clearly the formation of certain important ideas and concepts. Traditionally, this kind of investigation is usually carried out based on informed speculations at best. Thanks to the new methods informed by digital humanities study, the elusive process of idea formation can now be examined more accurately. By means of these methods, we can observe the trajectory of idea formation, tracing important development of ideas in terms of key word analysis. As a result, we can not only pinpoint the origin of ideas but also realize how their meanings develop and change in different historical contexts. </p>
            <p>It is almost impossible for any visitor to today’s China to fail to notice the popularity of the term ‘wenming’ (civilization/civility) in public life. Various kinds of posters commonly invoke the term ‘wenming’ in their slogans to exhort citizens to have manners, to behave properly in public life. For example, even in the public restrooms, salient slogans such as ‘a little step forward, a giant step toward wenming’ are used to remind people of urinating in the right place. Indeed, as is well known, since the late 19th century, the term ‘wenming’ had been widely used in China to honor the European ‘modern/advanced’ ways of life and institutions. Many Chinese intellectuals had come to describe the European nations as ‘wenming guo’ (civilized nations), which are paradigms for China to emulate. To be sure, ‘wenming’ was used as a prefix to describe explicitly many things coming from the West. For example, the Western gentleman’s cane was translated in China as ‘wenming gu’ (civilized stick). In short, the popularity of the term ‘wenming’ is very indicative of the enchantment of the modern (Western) way of life in modern China, especially from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century. </p>
            <p>However, after the Chinese Communist Party took power in 1949, many Western things were denounced as ‘capitalistic’ and ‘imperialist’ and therefore no longer appreciated, according to the official ideology. On the other hand, nationalism and patriotism are emphasized more to boost national pride. Still, intriguingly, under such circumstances, the term ‘wenming’ did not lose its allure and became even more popular. PRC government propaganda has adopted this term to strongly promulgate ‘civic orders’, to stress the importance of proper manners in public life. In other words, ‘wenming’ has come to stand for ‘civility’ rather than ‘things explicitly Western’. In a way, that many behavior codes originating from the West are now promoted as ‘wenming’ ways of life—i.e., universal, civilized ways of life—symbolizes a cultural policy and strategy aiming to maintain a balance between modernization and westernization. </p>
            <p>My study of the changing meaning of the concept ‘wenming’ (civilization/civility) in modern China is based on the rich resource provided by the database of Modern Chinese Intellectual and Literature History (1830–1930), which includes more than 120 million words from original important historical texts. In addition, the whole content of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">People’s Daily</hi> (1946–present) is now available online, which can provide a lot of related information concerning ‘wenming’ in the modern period. In order to explore deeply the historical significance of this idea in modern China, I aim to study it with the help of the digital humanities. First of all, I will utilize the ‘pat-tree’ and ‘key word search’ methods to analyze the discourse contexts in which ‘wenming’ was used in various historical situations. Moreover, I will investigate the frequency of the appearance of this key term in important journals during the period between the late 19th century and the early 20th century, a crucial period for the construction of modern China’s collective identity. Third, I will try to analyze the significance of its appearance with other important terms, such as ‘modernity’, to further explore how these ‘family terms’ were utilized in shaping the modern Chinese collective identity and consciousness. 
            </p>
            <p>My initial investigation of the origin of the modern meaning of ‘wenming’ has revealed that modern Japan might be the source. In the late 19th century this term was transmitted to China from Japan, where the Western nations were also highly regarded as the models to follow. Indeed, the historical fact of this development is strongly supported by the findings based on digital methods. By surveying the aforementioned database in terms of the key word ‘wenming’, I have found that the high frequency of using the term ‘wenming’ in its modern meaning appeared in a number of famous journals published after in Japan by the exiled Chinese intellectuals and students there. By more clearly pinpointing the trajectory of the idea ‘wenming’ transmitting from Japan to China, my study will illuminate further the complicated relationship between China and Japan in terms of their modernization and Westernization processes. </p>
            <p>By historicizing and denaturalizing the key term ‘wenming’ in the discourse of modern China, my study will not only closely probe into a new set of issues, shedding new light on our understanding of modern Chinese identity, but also demonstrate the power and importance of digital methods in the study of intellectual and cultural history.</p>
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                        <forename>Paul R</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Loyola University Chicago, University of New South Wales Canberra</affiliation>
                    <email>peggert@luc.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                        <forename>Desmond Allan</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Loyola University Chicago, University of New South Wales Canberra</affiliation>
                    <email>desmond.allan.schmidt@gmail.com</email>
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            <p>The Harpur Critical Archive (HCA) is both a digital archive and a scholarly edition of the poetic works of Charles Harpur. It addresses complex problems of availability that are a direct result of Harpur’s life story.</p>
            <p>Born in 1813 in colonial NSW only 25 years after European settlement, Harpur was Australia’s first important native-born poet. Although of ex-convict stock he acquired a literary education. His poetry would be deeply in tune with the contemporary taste for wild nature and the sublime. Although he would never become a radical original in his poetry, he was easily able to master 18th-century verse forms and was equally at home with the blank verse of the Romantics, with its flexible imitation of the tones of the speaking voice and the inner rhythms of thought.</p>
            <p>His mission would be to give poetic expression to the shared colonial experience of a natural antipodean world. He began contributing poems to the Sydney newspapers in 1833. The young man soon proved adept not only at love poems but at satires and squibs usually directed at his natural enemies, the Exclusivists, who separated themselves from those like Harpur with the convict taint. An Australian patriot, he was soon preaching republican, as opposed to monarchist, politics in the vain attempt to secure independence from Britain for the still-young colony. He signed one of his manuscript volumes resonantly: ‘Charles Harpur / An Australian’. He added long prose notes to the newspaper appearances of his poems to prosecute his various agendas.</p>
            <p>Unluckily for Harpur, the local book-publishing industry would not get onto a royalty-paying footing for literature until the 1890s, more than two decades after his death in 1868. Never wealthy, Harpur could not pay to be published in book form. Newspapers were his only option. From the 1840s, he kept cuttings of his poems as they appeared. In his later years, yearning for a London book publication that would never happen, he copied out, revised, and sequenced his newspaper and manuscript poems into manuscript books. At his death there were 24 such compilations, now in the Mitchell Library in Sydney, as well as nearly 800 newspaper appearances. There were also some pamphlets of his poems; a number were appended to his play 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Bushrangers </hi>published in 1853, and a posthumous volume appeared in 1883, a substantial selection organised by his widow but edited by a literary gentleman who adapted and abridged the poems to meet the new tastes of the day.
            </p>
            <p>In total, then, for the period to 1900 we have over 2,800 versions of some 700-odd works, some of which are very long. Capturing the documentary evidence, presenting edited reading texts, annotating them, and collating the variant versions has been recognised as a scholarly necessity since the late 1940s but has never been realised in book or any other form. The HCA aims to make good by seeking simple rather than complicated digital solutions. </p>
            <p>The conceptualisation behind the technical design has been crucial. The project has two, linked expressions: archival and editorial. The archival expression aimed to gather and display the basic data: digital images of each manuscript page and newspaper or other printed appearance, and transcriptions of each one. This took about four years. The 5,000 manuscript pages were transcribed in a simplified subset of TEI-XML by master’s students at Jadavpur University in India, specially employed for the job. The transcriptions were painstakingly checked in Melbourne by a specialist research assistant, who also transcribed the newspaper poems. Along with copies of the tiff and jpeg images, the transcriptions are now archived by the Sydney University Library in its D-Space database. It can store files for preservation purposes but never delete or modify them. Done under a signed agreement, this arrangement ensures long-term storage by an institution well set up to provide it and with an interest in doing so.</p>
            <p>This arrangement is a fail-safe; a Google search will find these files, which by themselves are not user-friendly; but metadata directs the user to our site, charles-harpur.org. That in turn flicks the user to the government-funded NeCTAR cloud-server that actually hosts the HCA. The project has a back end where the files are stored and managed, and where the editor and any registered collaborators work. There is also a public-facing front end, where readers will find a variety of ways of accessing and understanding Harpur’s oeuvre.</p>
            <p>For the editorial expression of the HCA project, the facsimile images of the manuscripts and ephemeral printed objects are the central resource. Apart from the 5,000 manuscript pages professionally scanned in colour from the originals in the Mitchell Library, we have nearly 800 images from newspapers, using TROVE wherever possible, and images of another 500 pages from book, pamphlet, and broadside printed materials. Harpur’s correspondence is also represented. Readers are thus now in a position to understand the actual material basis of the editorial endeavour that has produced the reading texts that they encounter. </p>
            <p>We envisage various categories of reader. Schoolteachers not knowing the titles or first lines in advance but wanting a few poems on rivers, or about the bush or Aborigines, will be able to find them via the subject index. It was semi-automatically generated from the subject terms given to Harpur’s poems indexed for the AustLit database. Local historians from, say, the NSW south coast or the Hunter Valley or the Hawkesbury—all of which Harpur celebrated—can similarly find what they are looking for. Social historians wanting to gather evidence of Harpur’s interventions in colonial debates, or literary critics wishing to follow the gradual unfolding of his poetic career, will have, via a timeline of biographical events and Harpur’s compositions, reliable datings and reading texts for the actual versions written at any particular time—rather than, as previously, being restricted to texts of works of indeterminate date. That traditional aesthetic perspective is now being productively complicated by the historical one at version rather than work level offered by the HCA.</p>
            <p>The back-end system is based on AustESE, a NeCTAR-funded project for writing tools for scholarly editing, based at the University of Queensland during 2012–2013. Its ontology provides a model of the primary associations between people, material objects, and the concepts commonly used in scholarly editing. The primary classes of the ontology are Artefact, Version, Work, Agent, and Event. 
                <hi rend=""Heading_4_Char"">The AustESE WorkBench</hi> acts as a repository for transcription files and image files. Each such digital resource then serves as a target for analysis, specifically for annotation and textual commentary. As the user-creator adds metadata, relationships or associations among the digital surrogates are automatically asserted. A text-to-image linking tool allows the user to create links between individual words on the page of a manuscript or printed text and its transcription, mostly automatically. A minimal markup editor allows editing to be performed in an environment that presents together the page image and its transcription, together with a live preview of how the edited text will appear in the final reading text. These three components are scrolled synchronously, so that the editor never loses track of which part of the page-image corresponds to the section of text being edited. There is also an events editor that can deal with fuzzy dates and an editor for creating ordinary HTML documents intended for the scholarly editor’s use in creating annotations and introductory materials.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""Heading_4_Char"">A Multi Version Documents</hi> (MVD) service allows the assembly and textual collation of versions of the same work, thus providing the basic data for the editor’s commentary and text-editing. The TEI-XML files are first separated into text and markup. If those versions contain deletions and additions, they are automatically separated out into layers of alteration, which may also be manually adjusted to show chronologically linked revisions. No traditional textual apparatus display is necessary since the archival recording and listing of editorial emendations that it provided are now taken care of by other means. Simplicity has been our touchstone, together with our belief that the archive does not replace the edition, especially not its provision of reading texts, textual commentary, and other annotation.
            </p>
            <p>Although the users of the system are, in the first instance, the project creator and any assigned collaborators, AustESE allows later users to be granted permissions to add, for example, new annotations, transcriptions, or images. Thus the project need never be closed.</p>
            <p>One obvious moment to publish is at the point when the archival capture appears to be complete, and the more interpretative editorial stage is about to begin. As the editorial phase progresses, further publication in tranches may be conveniently done. It is likely that Sydney University Press will be the publisher of the HCA, probably in EPUB3 format. These products will likely be sold commercially. Each one will be a subset of the project aimed at a particular audience and responding to a perceived need, even as the website of the whole HCA remains open and free. The press appears content with this arrangement of combining two of the dominant digital media of today in a single scholarly publishing enterprise. </p>
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"2379","16","The History and Provenance of Cultural Heritage Collections: New Approaches to Analysis and Visualization","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>The History and Provenance of Cultural Heritage Collections: New Approaches to Analysis and Visualization</title>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Burrows</surname>
                        <forename>Toby Nicolas</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>King's College London</affiliation>
                    <email>toby.burrows@uwa.edu.au</email>
                </author>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>Cultural heritage</term>
                    <term>provenance</term>
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                    <term>graph databases</term>
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                    <term>medieval studies</term>
                    <term>metadata</term>
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                    <term>libraries</term>
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            <p>Each object in contemporary cultural heritage collections has its own history and its own historical significance, as Neil McGregor demonstrated so vividly with one hundred objects chosen from the collections of the British Museum (McGregor, 2010). An important part of that history is the process by which each object came to reside in its current location and its current collection. Each object has usually been part of a series of collections over its lifetime, and this movement of objects between collections has its own history. Similarly, each collection has its own history of formation and (usually) dispersal. These collections include personal and individual collections, private institutional collections, and modern public collections.</p>
            <p>These relationships between cultural objects, collectors, and collections over time are an important example of what Alan Liu has described as ‘network archaeology’ (Liu, 2012) —the recovery and analysis of cultural, social, and artistic relationships at a particular period of time. As well as studying how and why some objects survived while others did not, and how and why the ownership of these objects changed, this ‘network archaeology’ can also address several larger research questions. Cultural collections can reflect broader historical trends and are shaped by them. In the European context, these include the dissolution of religious institutions, the decline of royal and aristocratic patronage, the rise of public cultural institutions (especially museums and libraries), the emergence of wealthy collectors in the industrial era, European global expansion and imperial power, and the repatriation of cultural objects. The network of relationships between people and institutions involved in the ownership and transmission of cultural collections can also reveal a good deal about the more general networks of cultural influence and social and political relationships in a particular society.</p>
            <p>In the 19th century, the English collector Sir Thomas Phillipps (1792–1872) assembled the largest private collection of European medieval and early modern manuscripts and documents. It is estimated to have contained more than 40,000 items, making it considerably larger than most of the collections in public institutions today, and included many manuscripts of considerable historical, textual, and artistic significance. The manuscripts had very varied geographical origins across Western Europe, are written in various different European languages, and cover a wide range of different subjects and topics. Their modern locations are spread across the globe—the dispersal of the Phillipps Collection took place gradually over more than one hundred years, and numerous institutions and collectors were involved. As a result, the history of the Phillipps Collection provides a much richer and more varied set of data than a single contemporary institutional collection would provide.</p>
            <p>In this paper, I will report on a project to reconstruct and analyse the history and provenance of the manuscripts that formed the Phillipps Collection. The scale of the Phillipps Collection has proved a significant challenge to traditional research methods in the past; the English librarian A. N. L. Munby spent more than a decade compiling a overview of Phillipps’ collecting activities and of the dispersal of the collection up to the mid-1950s (Munby, 1951–1960). In this project I am employing innovative data modeling and analysis techniques to build a digital environment for tracing the entire history of these manuscripts, as far as it can be known. I am interested in mapping the provenance events and ownership networks that, taken together, constitute the history of these thousands of manuscripts over hundreds of years. </p>
            <p>My paper will focus particularly on four key technical aspects of the project.</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Frameworks for modeling and representing the data relating to ownership and provenance, using an event-based approach</hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> Events are central to provenance research, but they have proved difficult to represent in existing ontologies and data models, with a variety of different approaches being used. I will discuss the various alternatives—including CIDOC-CRM and the Europeana Data Model—before presenting my own approach based on property graphs (Blanke et al., 2013).</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Techniques for importing and combining existing data relating to manuscript histories</hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> The existing data relating to the Phillipps manuscripts are scattered across numerous digital and physical sources, in multiple languages. They are, inevitably, in a variety of different formats and schemas, ranging from relational databases and MARC records to handwritten notes and card indexes. Capturing these data and aligning them to a common data model are complex tasks that require multiple ingestion paths and crosswalks.</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The deployment of suitable software to manage the data and to support analysis and visualization</hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> Suitable software is critical for a project of this kind. I will report on the options available, and discuss the reasons for my choice of the graph database software Neo4j to store, manage, and present the data (Van Bruggen, 2014). Like Blanke et al. (2013), I consider that graph databases are a good fit for ‘how humanities researchers think about their data and its relationships’. I will also discuss the implementation of the data model for aggregating the provenance data used in this project.</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> • 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Methods for visualizing and analyzing the data produced by the project, and for making them available for re-use by other researchers</hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph""> I will look at a series of use cases and research questions related to the aggregated data, and will demonstrate how Neo4j can be used to produce analyses and visualizations in response to these requirements. I will also discuss methods for linking the data produced by this project with the wider Linked Data cloud, in order to enable wider contextualization and analysis. I will compare the results made possible by my software environment and data model with those produced by the Schoenberg Database of Manuscripts—a relational database that focuses on manuscript provenance. The graph database approach enables more sophisticated and complex pattern-matching across the full range of provenance data.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blanke, T., Bryant, M. and Hedges, M.</hi> (2013). Back to Our Data—Experiments with NoSQL Technologies in the Humanities. Paper presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">2013 IEEE International Conference on Big Data</hi>, Santa Clara, CA, 6–9 October 2013.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Liu, A.</hi> (2012). Remembering Networks: Agrippa, RoSE, and Network Archaeology. Paper presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Network Archaeology Conference</hi>, Miami University, Miami, OH, 21 April 2012.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McGregor, N.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A History of the World in 100 Objects.</hi> Allen Lane, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Munby, A. N. L.</hi> (1951–1960). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Phillipps Studies</hi>, 5 vols. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Bruggen, R.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Learning Neo4j</hi>. Packt Publishing, Birmingham, UK.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2380","16","The History of Science in the Age of Networked Digital Humanities","3","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>The History of Science in the Age of Networked Digital Humanities</title>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Weldon</surname>
                        <forename>Stephen P.</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, United States</affiliation>
                    <email>stephenpweldon@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Ratowt</surname>
                        <forename>Sylwester</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, United States</affiliation>
                    <email>sylwesterr@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Railiene</surname>
                        <forename>Birute</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences, Vilnius, Lithuania</affiliation>
                    <email>b.railiene@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Smith</surname>
                        <forename>Ailie</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>The University of Melbourne, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>ailie.smith@unimelb.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>La Rosa</surname>
                        <forename>Marco</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>The University of Melbourne, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>m@lr.id.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>McCarthy</surname>
                        <forename>Gavan</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>The University of Melbourne, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>gavan.mccarthy@unimelb.edu.au</email>
                </author>
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                    <term>History of Science</term>
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                    <term>archives</term>
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                    <term>resource creation</term>
                    <term>and discovery</term>
                    <term>xml</term>
                    <term>digital humanities - facilities</term>
                    <term>bibliographic methods / textual studies</term>
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            <p>This session reports on a significant information infrastructure project in the history of science as the discipline prepares itself to deal with the major scholarly and societal challenges of the 21st century. History of science scholars are seeking new analytical tools and research methodologies and are looking to computer-aided tools that utilise well-structured data. The session is drawn from participants in an international collaborative project between the History of Science Society, the University of Oklahoma, the University of Melbourne, and the Division of History of Science of the International Union of the History and Philosophy of Science. Simply stated, the IsisCB project is taking 100 years of history of science bibliographic data and transforming it into a web or graph of information objects that represent not just the cited works but, more importantly, the people, organisations, events, subjects, themes, and time periods of the world captured in the work of the historians. The project involves digitisation of print-only materials, optical character recognition, computer-aided parsing, semantic transforms, large-scale data transfer, industrial‐scale search and faceted browse facilities, visual analytics, application programming interfaces, and user‐facing design. It involves taking a community and a well-established print-focused way of working on a revolutionary change process to create an open, persistent, citable, high-quality data source that will be amenable to utilisation using linked data protocols and technologies.</p>
            <p>The history of science is a global, multidisciplinary endeavour that seeks to help us understand one of the most potent forces that has shaped contemporary society—namely, science. Although often represented as a discipline in its own right, practitioners are frequently located in other disciplinary settings, such as history, philosophy, population health, medicine, social science, and media and communication studies. Its themes and studies, while often starting with a local story, inevitably, like the science itself, document networks and interconnections that cover all continents. In the early 20th century, a community of practice began to emerge in Europe as historians of science started to formalise their own networks and communication channels. In 1913 they created the
                <hi rend=""italic""> Isis Current Bibliography of the History of Science</hi>, and it has been maintained as an annual print‐based bibliography ever since. The latest edition was published by the History of Science Society in 2014 and included references to over 4,000 scholarly works. The total corpus will comprise hundreds of thousands of records and millions of relationships and will continue to grow. 
            </p>
            <p>The three papers will be presented by members of the IsisCB project working group, covering a range of the technical and informatic challenges, and exploring the opportunities for the history of science discipline emerging as a result of the development of the IsisCB web resource.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">1. Mapping the History of a Discipline through Curated Bibliographic Data: A Case Study of Social Networks as Found in the Isis Bibliography of the History of Science, 1913–2013</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Stephen P. Weldon</p>
            <p>University of Oklahoma</p>
            <p>Sylwester Ratowt</p>
            <p>University of Oklahoma </p>
            <p>Birute Railiene</p>
            <p>Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences </p>
            <p>John Stewart</p>
            <p>University of Oklahoma</p>
            <p rend=""A-Paragraph"">The 100-year-old Isis Bibliography is a valuable data resource for exploring the development of the field of history of science over the course of the 20th century. The recent collaborative project between the Isis Bibliography of the History of Science and the eScholarship Research Centre (ESRC) at the University of Melbourne has created a robust digital research dataset consisting of over 300,000 bibliographic citation records going back to 1913. The new tool, called the IsisCB Platform, is more than a bibliographic database; it makes use of bibliographic data but supplements that data with links to other content using Linked Open Data protocols. </p>
            <p rend=""A-Paragraph"">To create this tool, we have had to ingest new data and rethink how bibliographic data can be used in a big-data, computational environment. Part of the IsisCB project involved digitizing 60 years of data in several volumes of cumulative print bibliographies. We are now parsing and merging this data with 40 years of born-digital data. The combined bibliographic dataset covers 100 years and spans the period in which history of science developed as an academic discipline. By reconceptualizing this dataset as a resource linking publications, institutions, and people, it becomes an information-rich resource that can be used to tell the story of scholarship in this area over the 20th century. </p>
            <p rend=""A-Paragraph"">This paper serves two functions. First, it introduces the IsisCB Platform and explains how the bibliographic dataset has been reconceptualized so as to create a scholarly tool with multiple research capabilities. Second, the paper provides a brief example of how a subset of this data can be used to explore the history of the discipline itself. By using computational tools, we can address historical questions about the social, institutional, and intellectual history of the scholars themselves. It will be shown how the IsisCB data can serve as the foundation for digital humanities research when it has been thoughtfully restructured in the right way.</p>
            <p rend=""A-Paragraph"">Bibliographic records contain extensive information about the institutional and publication information of people. Information scholars working on social network analysis have developed various ways of comparing and understanding multiple kinds of networks that can be produced from bibliographic data (Batagelj and Cerinšek, 2013). We will be employing some of these methods. Recent work in social network analysis has shown the utility of bibliographic datasets for exploring history of disciplinary change in the humanities (So and Long, 2013). Such an analysis has not yet been done to any great extent in the field of history of science, but the field is ripe for this kind of work (Laubichler, Maienschein, and Renn, 2013). </p>
            <p rend=""A-Paragraph"">The composition of the Isis Bibliography dataset over the years makes this analysis both possible and exciting. The Isis Bibliography contains full author, title, and citation information for each of its entries. Unlike some bibliographic databases, the Isis Bibliography also has classifications or subject index terms for most of the items, along with descriptive material for many of them. Moreover, because there have been relatively few bibliographers over the years, there has been a great deal of consistency in the categorization and tagging of the records (Weldon, 2013a).</p>
            <p rend=""A-Paragraph"">Finally, the Isis Bibliography contains the best set of information on the academic network of historians of science. The first installment of the Isis Bibliography was one of the critical moments in the founding of the discipline. George Sarton published his bibliography in 1913 in the first issue of his journal 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Isis</hi>. Over the next couple of decades, Sarton and several other scholars in Europe and America began producing bibliographies, publishing journals, and holding conferences. These would ultimately lead to the creation of a small but dedicated community of scholars focused on the study of the history of science. As the discipline grew, so did the Isis Bibliography. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""A-Paragraph"">We will conclude our paper by looking at how data in the IsisCB can illuminate historical questions. We will build a few network graphs to help us analyze the scholarly genealogy of the discipline. We will try to tease out some of the stories that lie buried within it: Which universities and research institutes have been instrumental to the growth of the discipline? How so? In what ways has gender played a role in the development of the discipline? Do the data help us identify national styles? In the end, the paper will showcase preliminary results of our analysis to show how bibliographic data can be applied in new and unique ways when the data are made available in accessible ways.</p>
            <p>References</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Alfonso-Goldfarb, A. M., Waisse, S. and Ferraz, M. H. M.</hi> (2013). From Shelves to Cyberspace: Organization of Knowledge and the Complex Identity of History of Science. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Isis,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">104</hi>(3): 551–60, doi:10.1086/673274.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Allen, C. and the I Group.</hi> (2013). Cross-Cutting Categorization Schemes in the Digital Humanities. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Isis,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">104</hi>(3): 573–83, doi:10.1086/673276.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Alsukhni, M. and Zhu, Y.</hi> (2012). Interactive Visualization of the Social Network of Research Collaborations. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">2012 IEEE 13th International Conference on Information Reuse &amp; Integration (IRI)</hi>, doi:10.1109/IRI.2012.6303017.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Anderson, R. J.</hi> (2013). The Organization and Description of Science Archives in America. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Isis,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">104</hi>(3): 561–72, doi:10.1086/673275.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Batagelj, V. and Cerinšek, M.</hi> (2013). On Bibliographic Networks. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">An International Journal for All Quantitative Aspects of the Science of Science, Communication in Science and Science Policy,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">96</hi>(3): 845–64, doi:10.1007/s11192-012-0940-1.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Coscia, M., Giannotti, F. and Pensa, R.</hi> (2009). Social Network Analysis as Knowledge Discovery Process: A Case Study on Digital Bibliography. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">2009 International Conference on Advances in Social Network Analysis and Mining</hi>, doi:10.1109/ASONAM.2009.65.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Huang, Z., Yan, Y., Qiu, Y. and Qiao, S. </hi>(2009). Exploring Emergent Semantic Communities from DBLP Bibliography Database. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">2009 International Conference on Advances in Social Network Analysis and Mining</hi>, doi:10.1109/ASONAM.2009.6.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Laubichler, M. D., Maienschein, J. and Renn, J.</hi> (2013). Computational Perspectives in the History of Science: To the Memory of Peter Damerow. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Isis,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">104</hi>(1), 119–30, doi:10.1086/669891.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Mattison, D.</hi> (2010). The Twittering of the Search World (LiveLinks). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Searcher,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(7): 24.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Mullins, N. C. and Mullins, C. J.</hi> (1973). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Theories and Theory Groups in Contemporary American Sociology</hi>. Harper &amp; Row.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Schatten, M.</hi> (2013). What Do Croatian Scientists Write About? A Social and Conceptual Network Analysis of the Croatian Scientific Bibliography. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Interdisciplinary Description of Complex Systems,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(2): 190.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Sidiropoulos, A.</hi> (2012). Finding Communities in Site Web-Graphs and Citation Graphs, http://arxiv.org/pdf/1208.5464.pdf.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">So, R. J. and Long, H.</hi> (2013). Network Analysis and the Sociology of Modernism. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Boundary 2,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">40</hi>(2): 147–82, doi:10.1215/01903659-2151839.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Tang, J., Zhang, D. and Yao, L.</hi> (2007). Social Network Extraction of Academic Researchers. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Seventh IEEE International Conference on Data Mining (ICDM 2007)</hi>, doi:10.1109/ICDM.2007.30.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Weldon, S. P.</hi> (2013a). Bibliography Is Social: Organizing Knowledge in the Isis Bibliography from Sarton to the Early Twenty-First Century. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Isis,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">104</hi>(3), 540–50, doi:10.1086/673273.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Weldon, S. P.</hi> (2013b). Introduction. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Isis,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">104</hi>(3): 537–39, doi:10.1086/673272.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Yan, E. and Ding, Y.</hi> (2012). Scholarly Network Similarities: How Bibliographic Coupling Networks, Citation Networks, Cocitation Networks, Topical Networks, Coauthorship Networks, and Coword Networks Relate to Each Other. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology,</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">63</hi>(7): 1313–26, doi:10.1002/asi.22680.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">2. Why Standards Are Critical: Graphing Knowledge by Building on Well‐Established Entity‐Relationship Standards Can Look Well into the Future</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Ailie Smith</p>
            <p>University of Melbourne</p>
            <p>Marco La Rosa</p>
            <p>University of Melbourne</p>
            <p>Through its history as the Australian Science Archives Project (1985–1999), and the Australian Science and Technology Heritage Centre (1999–2007) (eScholarship Research Centre, n.d.), the eScholarship Research Centre (ESRC) at the University of Melbourne has well‐established links with the international history of science community. Since 2014 the ESRC has been collaborating with Dr. Stephen Weldon from the University of Oklahoma on an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation–funded project, the Isis Document Indexing Platform: A Curated and Community‐Based Resource for History of Science.</p>
            <p>The ESRC has been using the World Wide Web to publish and disseminate history of science and other humanities datasets—including bibliographic data, archival descriptive data, and contextual information—since the mid‐1990s. Examples of these are web resources such as the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Frank Macfarlane Burnet Guide to Records </hi>(McCarthy et al., 2001) and the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopedia of Australian Science </hi>(eScholarship Research Centre, 2012), which includes bibliographic records from the ‘Bibliography of the History of Australian Science’, published annually in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Historical Records of Australian Science </hi>(Cohn, 2014).
            </p>
            <p>These resources are created from data captured in two systems developed by the ESRC: the Online Heritage Resource Manager (OHRM) and the Heritage Documentation Management System (HDMS). Both of these systems are based on international archival descriptive standards (ISAD[G] and ISAAR[CPF]) (International Council on Archives, 2000; 2004) and have long been used for the generation of HTML outputs for dissemination of information as web resources. However, these outputs are not readily sharable with other organisations or other resources operating in a similar sphere, resulting in limited reuse of this data and increased potential for duplication of work.</p>
            <p>The increasing use of Extensible Markup Language (XML) schemas by information professionals to enable system interoperability, data sharing, and data reuse has provided the ESRC with greater opportunities to collaborate, to rethink the way we present information online, to share data with and harvest data from other systems, and to represent and reinterpret data through the use of a variety of search and analytical tools.</p>
            <p>By generating Metadata Object Description Schema (MODS), Encoded Archival Description (EAD), and Encoded Archival Context–Corporate Bodies, Persons and Families (EAC‐CPF) (Library of Congress, 2013a; 2013b; Staatsbibliothek Zu Berlin, 2012) XML outputs for these resources—in parallel with the web presentation HTML outputs—the ESRC can make better use of the data underpinning these resources. This includes not only the applications and services developed to display and navigate individual datasets but also the capacity to build services that run across a range of datasets, and to harvest and share data with external sources at national and international levels to improve collaboration and extend the use of the data beyond individual research projects.</p>
            <p>It was a natural progression for the ESRC to begin working with Dr. Stephen Weldon from the University of Oklahoma on the Isis Document Indexing Platform: A Curated and Community‐Based Resource for History of Science project. The IsisCB web resource brings together 100 years of bibliographic records from the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Isis Current Bibliography of the History of Science</hi> (‘About Isis CB’) with the technology base of the ESRC to create a rich, searchable, contextualised online resource for exploring publications relating to the history of science. Working with researchers from the University of Oklahoma, the ESRC is helping to create XML records, develop ingests of XML and free‐text content, and build on existing technology platforms to create search and browse interfaces for interacting with the bibliographic data. This work will take resources that have previously been available in static print formats and allow them to be explored and recompiled in new ways, providing a valuable tool for historians of science.
            </p>
            <p>The work on the IsisCB Platform builds on a range of technology developments that the ESRC has undertaken and collaborated on over recent years, making use of XML data. Internally, the ESRC has been developing indexing, search, and faceted browse and filtering capabilities using XML data and Solr/Lucene technology, supported by high-availability, large-scale server infrastructure that has been developed and continues to be supported in-house (La Rosa et al., 2014). In addition, XML data are being used by the ESRC to develop flexible online presentation of humanities datasets that are targeted at the needs of specific user communities.</p>
            <p>Externally, two of the ESRC’s web resources began being harvested in 2010 by the National Library of Australia’s Trove service (Dewhurst, 2010), which had adopted the EAC‐CPF schema for harvesting information about people and organisations and their related records and publications (Dewhurst, 2008)
                <hi rend=""italic"">. </hi>XML data from a number of ESRC resources have also been harvested by the Humanities Networked Infrastructure (HuNI) project (Deakin University, 2014), and the underlying data structure has been mapped to the Registry Interchange Format–Collections and Services (RIF‐CS) schema used by Australian National Data Service (ANDS) for their Research Data Australia registry (Australian National Data Service, n.d.). Through collaborations with other professionals—within and beyond information professions—the eScholarship Research Centre is contributing to and developing research infrastructure, information resources, and public knowledge spaces that widely communicate humanities research data.
            </p>
            <p>With a focus on the development of the Isis Document Indexing Platform, this paper will investigate the ESRC’s experience in the development and utilization of MODS, EAD, and EAC‐CPF XML data exported from its systems, and the collaboration with other researchers to develop XML outputs from their own systems. It will also look at a range of tools and services that leverage the standards‐based XML outputs to allow researchers to explore, interrogate, and present the data in order to reinterpret and derive new understandings of it, and the technologies that underpin these services. The paper will also discuss the potential to better engage with public search interfaces such as Google by including schema.org markup metadata in web templates in order for resources to reach a wider audience (Starr, 2014). The paper will explore the way the standards‐based approach will help to create the Isis Document Indexing Platform as a sustainable history of science resource well into the future.</p>
            <p>References</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">‘About Isis CB’.</hi> (n.d.). ISIS Current Bibliography, http://isisbibliography.org/about/ (accessed 3 November 2014).
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Australian National Data Service.</hi> (n.d.). Research Data Australia, http://researchdata.ands.org.au/.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Cohn, H. M.</hi> (ed.). (2014). Bibliography of the History of Australian Science, No. 34, 2013. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Historical Records of Australian Science, </hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(1): 123–41.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Deakin University.</hi> (2014). HuNI Virtual Laboratory, https://huni.net.au.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Dewhurst, B.</hi> (2008). People Australia: A Topic-Based Approach to Resource Discovery. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">VALA2008 14th Biennial Conference and Exhibition</hi>, http://www.valaconf.org.au/vala2008/papers2008/116_Dewhurst_Final.pdf.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Dewhurst, B.</hi> (2010). Encyclopaedia of Australian Science Available via Trove. ARDC Party Infrastructure Project Blog, National Library of Australia, 7 May 2010, https://wiki.nla.gov.au/display/ARDCPIP/2010/05/07/Encyclopaedia+of+Australian+Science+available+via+Trove.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">eScholarship Research Centre.</hi> (2012). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopedia of Australian Science</hi>, http://www.eoas.info.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">eScholarship Research Centre.</hi> (n.d.). Our History, http://www.esrc.unimelb.edu.au/about?us/our?history/ (accessed 3 November 2014).
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">International Council on Archives.</hi> (2000). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ISAD(G): General International Standard Archival Description</hi>. 2nd ed., http://www.icacds.org.uk/eng/ISAD(G).pdf.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">International Council on Archives.</hi> (2004). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ISAAR (CPF): International Standard Archival Authority Record for Corporate Bodies, Persons and Families</hi>. 2nd ed., http://www.icacds.org.uk/eng/ISAAR(CPF)2ed.pdf.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">La Rosa, M., McCarthy, G. and Smith, A.</hi> (2014). Nothing Can Ever Be Lost: Infrastructure for Archival Research and Dissemination. eResearch Australasia 2014, http://eresearchau.files.wordpress.com/2014/07/eresau2014_submission_29.pdf.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Library of Congress.</hi> (2013a). Encoded Archival Description: Version 2002 Official Site, http://www.loc.gov/ead/ (accessed 3 November 2014).
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Library of Congress.</hi> (2013b). Metadata Object Description Schema: Official Web Site, http://www.loc.gov/standards/mods/ (accessed 3 November 2014).
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">McCarthy, G., Manhal, O., O’Sullivan, L., Tropea, R. and Sherratt, T.</hi> (2001). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Frank Macfarlane Burnet Guide to Records</hi>, Australian Science and Technology Heritage Centre, Melbourne, http://www.austehc.unimelb.edu.au/guides/burn/burn.htm (accessed November 2014).
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Staatsbibliothek Zu Berlin.</hi> (2012). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Encoded Archival Context Corporate Bodies, Persons and Families</hi>, http://eac.staatsbibliothek?berlin.de/ (accessed 3 November 2014).
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Starr, B.</hi> (2014). Demystifying the Google Knowledge Graph. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Search Engine Land,</hi> 2 September 2014, http://searchengineland.com/demystifying?knowledge?graph?201976. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">3. The Case of the Missing Records: The Long Journey of the Correspondence of Ferdinand Von Mueller into the World of Digital History of Science</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Gavan McCarthy</p>
            <p>University of Melbourne</p>
            <p>Within the context of the development of the Isis Cumulative Bibliography Online (IsisCB) as a global information infrastructure service for the history of science community, this paper presents a case study that demonstrates how a long-term research activity, through the creation of a scholarly edition of scientific correspondence, can be liberated from its print paradigm strictures to join the 21st-century world of interconnected knowledge. The Von Mueller Correspondence project has produced a corpus of over 15,000 digitally transcribed letters from the 1840–1896 period. These are complemented by materials in a range of forms that refer to Mueller dating from 1814 to 1931. Mueller was a prolific correspondent and established links with hundreds of fellow botanists and biologists across the globe; most of these, and certainly the most notable, will be registered in the IsisCB as Authority Records with links to publications about them and in some cases publications by them. The plan is to systemically interlink the Von Mueller Correspondence digital corpus and the IsisCB and develop the synergies that will drive digital humanities analysis and future scholarly endeavour.</p>
            <p>In 1987 Professor Rod Home of the Department of History and Philosophy of Science at the University of Melbourne embarked on a project to locate, edit, and publish the correspondence of Baron Ferdinand von Mueller. Mueller was Victorian government botanist (1853–1896) and one of Australia’s most well-known 19th-century scientists, not just in Australia but across the globe. Mueller was also director of the Melbourne Botanic Gardens (1857–1873) and played a major role in the establishment of the Herbarium at the Gardens as a centre of research and the dissemination of Australian plants and botanical knowledge. These roles remain the foundations of the Gardens and the Herbarium today, over 160 years later.</p>
            <p>The major challenge of this project, which included collaborators from the United Kingdom and Germany, was to locate as much of the outgoing correspondence as could be found in archives, universities, museums, and herbaria across the world. This need to reconstruct the Mueller ‘archive’ resulted from the destruction of the locally held letter-copy books, inward correspondence, and associated files about three decades after Mueller’s death in 1896. Why these records were destroyed is still shrouded in mystery. Subsequent research revealed that Mueller may have sent out well over 100,000 letters during his career. The research team, over the last 25 years, have managed to locate, copy, transcribe, and prepare for scholarly publication over 15,000 items. Over 750 selected documents have been published in print form, with some made available on CD-ROM (Home et al., 1998; 2002; 2006). This work still continues today due to the continuing commitment of the scholars, despite the initial funding having been exhausted for many years. New letters and related documents continue to appear, and new knowledge that helps in the understanding and annotation of the existing materials continues to be unearthed. This process of steady accumulation and explication of knowledge sits at odds with the original print-based paradigm that configured the project at its commencement in the late 1980s. It would appear that an online edition capable of batch-processed updating could provide both the research team and scholars from all nations with a reference and analytical resource geared to the expectations of 21st-century digital humanities.</p>
            <p>In 2011 Professor Rod Home approached the eScholarship Research Centre (ESRC) at the University of Melbourne for ‘advice on databases’ in relation to the Mueller Correspondence project. However, the subtext was both more revealing and ultimately more worrying. The Mueller project team had been using Apple Macintosh computers since 1987 and had been transcribing the photocopied source materials into Word for Mac Version 1, which had originally been released in 1985. The request in 2011 was prompted by two events: the Mac used to hold the corpus was showing signs of not booting up correctly, and the upgrade to the latest edition of Word for Mac revealed that a few hundred items were in the earliest forms of Word and could not be brought forward without the loss of the styling and annotation that the scholars used to mark up the letters. Although the scholars were interested in and aware of mark-up languages, such as SGML, at the outset of the project, they had not conceived it as a digital humanities project but as a traditional edited scholarly correspondence project with a print form being the final output. The scholars used digital technology that was readily available, improved productivity, and helped them achieve their print publications. They had not anticipated time frame of the project, now entering its fourth decade, nor the changes in technology that would occur over that period.</p>
            <p>To deal with the ‘crisis’ facing the project—that is, the potential loss of the 15,000 items—a full copy of the corpus and related materials was copied to the ESRC project ‘file share’ (a structured and managed digital object storage platform) and protocols enacted for batch updates as required. The original folder structure and file-naming protocols were problematic in a generalised digital world, so changes were instigated. However, the next key issue was the upgrading of all old format files into a recent format that would enable batch processing of the corpus in the future. Research by Chris Kirk at the ESRC revealed that Microsoft had no records of the internal proprietary formats used in the original Word for Mac releases, which meant that programmatic conversion was not technically feasible without significant expense. In the end it was cheaper and quicker for the scholars to re-style the few hundred items by hand.</p>
            <p>Once the uniform corpus had been established, a new goal was set to transform the .doc files into TEI P5 (Test Encoding Initiative) XML schema form, a non-proprietary form suitable for long-term digital preservation; a form that could be ingested into search, retrieval, and analytical engines such as Solr/Lucene; and a form that could be readily transformed to HTML for web presentation. Although the .doc form was not amenable to these types of transforms, it was found that the styles and annotations employed by the scholars were adequately preserved in the .docx form, and that using Oxgarage these versions of the items could be successfully transformed into TEI P5. At the time of writing the pipeline processes for the full transforms are being prepared. In the meantime the lead scholars, now in their seventies, are still able to keep working on the corpus, adding and refining their knowledge in technologies they are comfortable using.</p>
            <p>Despite what appeared to be two cases of the destruction of records that could have resulted in considerable loss of historical knowledge, the dedication of a few scholars will result in a digital corpus of significance to the history of science in Australia. In addition it will also reflect on the social life of the Australian colonies in the 19th century, contribute to research into Australian flora and the study of our natural environment, and contribute to the characterisation of Australian colonial administration and the relationship of Australian scientists to the national and international scientific communities. Moreover, with a suite of over 15,000 uniquely and globally identified and citable XML objects, the next generation of scholars using annotation and mark-up tools will be able to continue to add value to the collection. The transform of the Isis bibliographies into an informatically similar form will enable the two systems to share data and create many intersections. The new world of interconnected datasets and computable social networks is not something that the Mueller scholars could have envisaged in 1987. For Mueller himself, it was his world, and those networks and connections were held in his mind and externalised for posterity in his records. With a little care and attention from digital humanities curators and the emergence of robust digital preservation and publication platforms, the knowledge conceived in the critical scholarly print form will have its value multiplied many times over.</p>
            <p>References</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Home, R. W., Lucas, A. M., Maroske, S., Sinkora, D. M. and Voigt, J. H.</hi> (eds). (1998).
                <hi rend=""italic""> Regardfully Yours: Selected Correspondence of Ferdinand von Mueller. </hi>Vol. 1:
                <hi rend=""italic""> 1840–1859</hi>. Peter Lang, Bern.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Home, R. W., Lucas, A. M., Maroske, S., Sinkora, D. M. and Voigt, J. H.</hi> (eds). (2002)
                <hi rend=""italic"">. Regardfully Yours: Selected Correspondence of Ferdinand von Mueller</hi>. Vol. 2:
                <hi rend=""italic""> 1860–1875</hi>. Peter Lang, Bern.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Home, R. W., Lucas, A. M., Maroske, S., Sinkora, D. M., Voigt, J. H. and Wells, M.</hi> (eds). (2006). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Regardfully Yours: Selected Correspondence of Ferdinand von Mueller</hi>. Vol. 3:
                <hi rend=""italic""> 1876–1896</hi>. Peter Lang, Bern.
            </p>
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            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>A Practical Example: Mapping the 2007-2008 Financial Crisis</head>
                <p>The 2007-2008 financial crisis was a dramatically complex event and the political responses to this event were at least as complex. These responses can be studied thanks to a huge amount of documents produced by various bodies during the crisis and made available since then. </p>
                <p>An American initiative aims at studying the response of the American authorities to the crisis through PoliInformatics, defined as “an interdisciplinary field that promotes diverse methodological approaches to the study of politics and government” 
                    <hi rend=""color(555555)"">(</hi>
                    <ref target=""http://poliinformatics.org/"">http://poliinformatics.org/</ref>
                    <hi rend=""color(555555)"">). </hi>We participated in the first PoliInformatics challenge, as we describe in following. 
                </p>
                <p>The organizers of the challenge made available a series of documents on the 2007-2008 financial crisis. The shared task consisted in developing solutions to address questions such as “Who was the financial crisis?” or “What was the financial crisis?”. Of course, these questions are too complex to receive a simple and direct answer. So our strategy has been to provide tools to process and visualize the most relevant data, so that experts can easily navigate into this flow of information and make sense of the data. While we believe in semi-automatic corpus exploration, we do not think it is possible or even desirable to provide fully automatic answers to the above questions.</p>
                <p>We have as far as possible used available tools to extract and visualize information. More precisely, we have used the Stanford Named Entity Recognizer (Finkel et al., 2005) and the Cortext platform (
                    <ref target=""http://www.cortext.net/"">http://www.cortext.net/</ref>) for information extraction. As for data visualization, we have used Gephi (Bastian et al., 2009) to observe semantic and social networks, and the Cortext platform to observe the evolution of the domain over time. However, these tools are not enough to obtain meaningful representations: for example, new developments are necessary for named entity normalization and linking, esp. to link text with ontologies (Ruiz and Poibeau, 2015). The result should then be filtered following precise, domain-dependent criteria, so as to obtain navigable and readable maps with the most salient information. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Technical Overview </head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Named Entity Recognition and Normalization</head>
                    <p>The first step was to extract named entities from the different corpora. Named Entity Recognition is a mature technology that has been used in several Digital Humanities projects (see Van Hooland et al., 2013 for a discussion of some recent projects). However, the use of NER in the analysis of political science texts seems to have been limited, e.g. Grimmer and Stewart’s (2013) survey of text analytics for political science includes no discussion of this technology. </p>
                    <p>In order to perform entity extraction, we used the Stanford NER, based on Conditional Random Fields, with MUC tags (Time, Location, Organization, Person, Money, Percent, Date) (Finkel et al., 2005). Certain entities appear under different forms. For instance, “Standard and Poor” might occur as “Standard &amp; Poor”, “S&amp;P” or “Standard &amp; Poor’s executive board” (this last sequence in fact refers to a slightly different named entity); in a similar fashion, a person as “Mary Schapiro” may appear as “Schapiro”, or “Miss Schapiro” or “Chairman Schapiro”. We implemented a simple normalization method based on the maximization of common sub-sequence between two strings and obtained qualitatively good results when compared to other more sophisticated algorithms (Gottipati and Jiang, 2011; Rao et al., 2011). Entity linking could then be applied on the result. </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Visualizing entities</head>
                    <p>We used the Gephi software (Bastian et al., 2009) so as to create graphs for each corpus, such that:</p>
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>a node corresponds to a cluster of persons or organizations in the corresponding corpus;</item>
                        <item>an edge between two nodes corresponds to the number of co-occurrences of the two nodes within the same sentence in the corpus.</item>
                    </list>
                    <p>We chose to consider persons and organizations together since they can play a similar role in the event, and metonymy is often used, so that a person can refer to a company (and vice versa). </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic n=""1001"" width=""8.609372222222222cm"" height=""9.270316666666666cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    </figure>
                    <p>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Figure 1:</hi> Visualization of links between entities with Gephi
                    </p>
                    <p>Some results can be seen on figure 1 (which is hardly readable in small format but can be interactively explored by the experts in the field on a computer). Some links correspond to well establish relations like the link between an organization and its CEO (see for ex. the link between Scott Polakoff and OTS, or between Fabrice Tourre and Goldman Sachs). However, we are also able to extract less predictable links that could be of interest for scholars and experts in the field. As an example, we observe a link between the Fed Consumer Advisory Council and the Board of Governors (for ex. Bernanke, Mark Olson, and Kevin Warsh) since the first group of people (the council) warns vigorously the Board of Governors about the crisis. An interesting methodological issue to consider when elaborating these networks is that different automatic linguistic analyses can affect the complexity of the network: For instance, depending on the strategy to calculate intra-document coreference (e.g. whether we consider pronouns referring to an entity as an instance of the entity or not), the amount of edges in the graph will vary. Rieder and Röhle (2012) have discussed interpretation problems for visualizations, and Rieder (2010) has commented on how different graph layout algorithms can lead to representations that promote opposite interpretations of a network for the same corpus. We are as well interested in exploring how the computational linguistics tools employed in order to assess co-occurrences, even before applying a graph layout, can influence the graphs ultimately produced. </p>
                </div>
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                    <head>Visualizing temporal evolution</head>
                    <p>The visualizations we produced should be explored and tested by specialists who could evaluate their real benefits. A historic view on the data would also be useful to analyze the dynamics and the evolution of the crisis, through for example the evolution of terms associated with named entities over different periods of time.</p>
                    <p>We tried to explore and visualize the temporal evolution of the financial crisis, more specifically the evolution of the perceived role of organizations over time. To do so, we produced Sankey diagrams of the correlation of organizations and domain related terms in the corpus. With this strategy, Sankey diagrams take into account the temporal evolutions of entities and actions along the crisis.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic n=""1002"" width=""12.02988888888889cm"" height=""6.7832333333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
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                    <p>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Figure 2: </hi>Evolution of the links between named entities and topics over time
                    </p>
                    <p>Figure 2 reveals a modification in the data between 2006 and 2008, a period which approximates the start of the financial crisis. For instance, the stream in purple in this graph reveals many co-occurrences of Fannie Mae and subprime loans for the period 1990-2007 while for the period 2008-2010, Fannie Mae is more closely associated with ’bank regulators’, or ’Federal Financial Services Supervisory Authority’. In a more general way, all the streams of data represented in the diagram are dramatically modified after 2007. </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Evaluation and Future Work</head>
                <p>The work presented here has been evaluated by a panel of experts in the field. They assessed the utility of the tools and helped us define ways to improve these first results. Perspectives are thus twofold: on the one hand enhance data analysis so as to provide more relevant maps and representations, and on the second hand work closely with domain experts and provide interactive ways of navigating the data. Concerning interactions with experts, it is clear that end users could provide a very valuable contribution in the selection of relevant data as well as in the way they are linked and mapped. Some experiments are currently being done with a focus group gathering social science as well as information science experts. They will assess that the solution is useful and workable and more importantly, will give feedback so as to provide better solutions.</p>
            </div>
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                <head>Acknowledgements</head>
                <p>This work has received support of Paris Sciences et Lettres (program “Investissements d’avenir” ANR-10-IDEX-0001-02 PSL*) and of the laboratoire d’excellence TransferS (ANR-10-LABX‑0099). Pablo Ruiz is funded thanks to a grant from the Region Ile-de-France.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>Bastian, M., Heymann, S. and Jacomy M. (2009). Gephi: an open source software for exploring and manipulating networks. In International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media (ICWSM), San Jose, pp. 361–362.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Finkel, J.R., Grenager, T. and Manning, C. (2005). Incorporating non-local Information into Information Extraction Systems by Gibbs Sampling. In Proceedings of the conference of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Ann Arbor, pp. 363–370.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Gottipati, S. and Jiang, J. (2011). Linking entities to a knowledge base with query expansion. In Proc. of Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP), Edinburgh.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Grimmer J. and Stewart, B.M. (2013). Text as Data: The Promise and Pitfalls of Automatic Content Analysis Methods for Political Texts. Political Analysis, 21(3), 267–297. doi:10.1093/pan/mps028. </bibl>
                    <bibl>Latour, B. (2005). Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Rao, D., McNamee, P. and Dredze, M. (2011). Entity linking: Finding extracted entities in a knowledge base. In Multi-source, Multi-lingual Information Extraction and Summarization, pp. 93–115. Berlin: Springer. </bibl>
                    <bibl>Rieder, B. (2010). One network and four algorithms. http://thepoliticsofsystems.net/2010/10/one-network-and-four-algorithms/, date accessed 25 February 2014. </bibl>
                    <bibl>Rieder, B. and Röhle, T. (2012). ""Digital methods: Five challenges."" Understanding Digital Humanities: 67-84. London: Palgrave Macmillan.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Ruiz, P. and Poibeau, T. (2015). Entity Linking Combining Open Source Annotators via Weighted Voting. Denver: Proceedings of Semeval 2015.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Van Hooland, S., De Wilde, M., Verborgh, R., Steiner, T. and Van de Walle, R. (2013). Exploring entity recognition and disambiguation for cultural heritage collections. In Digital Scholarship in the Humanities, Oxford: Oxford University Press. </bibl>
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            <p>Ten years ago, Peter Robinson reviewed the state of digital editing at the end of its first decade in the Internet era in a trio of important articles (Robinson and Taylor, 1998; Robinson 2003; 2005).</p>
            <p>The results were not good. On the one hand, there were, by that point, a large number of digital editions and a great interest in the community of textual scholars in the possibilities of the digital edition. On the other, there was very little evidence that users were turning to digital editions: there were still many print editions being made and evidence of citations suggested that scholars preferred, on the whole, to work with familiar print editions over their newer counterparts (Robinson, 2005).</p>
            <p>Robinson, for his part, argued that a good part of this problem lay with the lacuna in the digital editions themselves (Robinson, 2003). While it was difficult even in those days to find ‘a single large-scale editorial project in western Europe or America which does not have already have, or is not actively preparing, a digital dimension’ (Robinson, 2003), this work was itself still quite conservative in its use of the technology: there was much experimentation, but the result was very little that could not be found in print contexts (esp. Robinson, 2005)—a problem compounded by difficulties in using the technology of the day (Robinson, 2005; O’Donnell, 2010).</p>
            <p>Ten years later, the digital is now even more firmly established as a primary method of scholarly communication and humanistic research (Robinson, 2010; Gold, 2012; Thaller, 2012). Moreover, interest in the significance and utility of the digital as a method of editing continues unabated (Mandell, 2010).</p>
            <p>But what about Robinson’s original point about how these digital editions were being used? While textual scholars, editors, and digital humanists discuss the possibilities of the genre, and the improvements they have brought to our ability to present textual scholarship, is there any evidence that the supposed end users of these editions are recognising the benefit that digital editions offer to their research?</p>
            <p>A review of contemporary secondary literary scholarship suggests that they are not. Despite the publication of a large number of new digital scholarly editions and great improvements in delivery methods that have all but eliminated difficulties of access experienced by scholars in the 1990s and early years of this century, bibliographic evidence suggests that digital textual editions are still passed over in actual use by scholars in preference for often superseded print editions. In contrast to the early years of this century, when scholars rarely cited electronic editions, scholars now frequently cite but rarely actually use their digital descendents. The actual text cited, as often as not, comes from the print editions that preceded these digital texts.</p>
            <p>This paper presents the results of an ongoing study of this problem, based on a comparative longitudinal citation analysis of select digital and print editions of the same literary work. As part of this research, the authors have compared the rate at which citations to a ‘newer’ (approx. 10 years old) digital edition of a standard medieval vernacular poem have been disseminated through the secondary literature and compared this to the rate at which previous (print) critical editions of the same work were disseminated within a similar time frame in earlier periods. The results suggest that editorial research may simply disseminate more slowly than was previously thought: it appears to take about a decade before the text of a ‘new’ edition begins to be used as the basis of new critical arguments within the main text of secondary research (as opposed to being mentioned in passing in bibliographic notes and asides); it appears to take about two decades before a ‘new’ edition begins to become the default choice within a given research domain.</p>
            <p>The final part of the paper turns to consider the implications of these findings for contemporary DH researchers. The first is that the slower-than-expected diffusion rate for digital scholarship places an even greater emphasis than before on issues of longevity and preservation. Ten years ago, O’Donnell demonstrated how few of the early digital editions of medieval texts had survived even a half-decade in an operational format (O’Donnell, 2004). This current research suggests that creators of digital editions need to think instead in terms of decades when it comes to preservation and longevity.</p>
            <p>A second implication involves the question of delivery format. While this study compares the diffusion rates for digital and print editions of the same text over several decades, the editions are similar in that all were disseminated as discrete bibliographic items: as books in the case of the print editions, as a CD-ROM in the case of the digital text. Evidence from other disciplines, however, suggests that web-based open-access publications have stronger citation rates (and, possibly, quicker dissemination rates as well) than closed-access publications (see, e.g., Laakso, 2014). In this particular case, no comparable web-based editions of this text exist, and none of the few web-based critical editions of comparable texts from the same period survive in nonarchived format. This suggests that while web-based publication may speed up dissemination rates, this speed must be balanced against the evident difficulty such projects have had, historically, in ensuring their survival—especially in the case of a time frame measured in years.</p>
            <p>And finally there is the question of training. The evidence suggesting that dissemination proceeds more slowly that has been previously anticipated suggests that digital editors also have a different type of training problem than they may have initially thought: instead of focussing on the short-term, early adopters of such technology, editors need instead to think about use cases 10 or 20 years down the road—of future scholars who have yet to begin their undergraduate careers, and current colleagues who may not see a citation to a digital edition for another 15 or 20 years.</p>
            <p>In discussing the success (or lack thereof) of digital editions in making an impact on the larger domains to which they aim to contribute, it is common to attribute the problems they have experienced in gaining acceptance to problems with the genre, its producers, or its audience. The research in this paper, however, suggests that the real problem may be simply that digital editorial scholarship is still too recent to have had much of an impact on secondary study of the texts they mediate, as a very similar problem appears to have affected earlier print editions of such works in their first few years. But if the ‘problem’ with digital editions is simply that they are too new, then this changes our perspective on a number of other issues commonly discussed in relation to the discipline. Faced with a dissemination rate that suggests it may take 20 or more years before any edition can be considered ‘standard’, digital editors need to rethink questions of preservation, format, and training.</p>
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                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gold, M. K.</hi> (ed.). (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Laakso, M.</hi> (2014). Measuring Open Access: Studies of Web-Enabled Innovation in Scientific Journal Publishing. PhD thesis, Helsinki: Hanken School of Economics Information Systems Science, Department of Management and Organisation, https://helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/45238.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mandell, L</hi>. (2010). Special Issue: Scholarly Editing in the Twenty-First Century—A Conclusion. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literature Compass,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(2): 120–33, doi:10.1111/j.1741-4113.2009.00684.x.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">O’Donnell, D. P. </hi>(2004). The Doomsday Machine, Or, ‘If You Build It, Will They Still Come Ten Years from Now?’: What Medievalists Working in Digital Media Can Do to Ensure the Longevity of Their Research. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Heroic Age,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>, http://www.mun.ca/mst/heroicage/issues/7/odonnell.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">O’Donnell, D. P. </hi>(2010). Different Strokes, Same Folk: Designing the Multi-Form Digital Edition. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literature Compass,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(2): 110–19, doi:10.1111/j.1741-4113.2009.00683.x.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Robinson, P. (</hi>2003). Where We Are with Electronic Scholarly Editions, and Where We Want to Be. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Jahrbuch Für Computerphilologie,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>, http://computerphilologie.uni-muenchen.de/jg03/robinson.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Robinson, P. (</hi>2005). Current Issues in Making Digital Editions of Medieval Texts—Or, Do Electronic Scholarly Editions Have a Future? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Medievalist,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>, http://www.digitalmedievalist.org/journal/1.1/robinson/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Robinson, P. (</hi>2010). Editing without Walls. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literature Compass,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(2): 57–61, doi:10.1111/j.1741-4113.2009.00676.x.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Robinson, P. and Taylor, K.</hi> (1998). Publishing an Electronic Textual Edition: The Case of the Wife of Bath’s Prologue on CD-ROM. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computers and the Humanities,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">32</hi>(4): 271–84, doi:10.1023/A:1000943530396.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thaller, M. </hi>(ed.). (2012). Controversies around the Digital Humanities. Historical Social Research / Historische Sozialforschung, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>(1). Köln: Published jointly by QUANTUM [and] Zentrum für Historische Sozialforschung.
                    </bibl>
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            <p>This paper offers a theoretical proposal for understanding the relation between design and the digital humanities with a focus on resource consumption. It proceeds from the position presented by Burdick et al. (2012) that the digital humanities move design to the centre of the research questions it poses. From this central position, design enables an unprecedented reach and capacity for the generation and management of information and the creation of new forms of knowledge. In this short paper I argue that the designed platforms sustaining the digital humanities are not simply enabling; they are agential in the development of new ways of encountering and knowing the world. </p>
            <p>The digital humanities depend on design and its objects, and yet in its tool-like practicality and normative intent, design so often evades scrutiny. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Design disappears</hi>. As Clive Dilnot (1998, 22) has remarked, ‘If something cannot be made a matter of speech then it tends to disappear as such, i.e., it does not enter discourse as such and therefore remains invisible. Hence of course, one of design’s ironic conditions: that it is everywhere seen and everywhere remains invisible’. 
            </p>
            <p>This paper will critically attend to three territories of design that tend to withdraw as objects of critical attention within the digital humanities:</p>
            <p> 1. Product-systems shaping digital engagement and participation.</p>
            <p> 2. Material infrastructures sustaining digital data.</p>
            <p> 3. Image ecologies encoding and communicating digital information.</p>
            <p>Taking each of these design territories in turn: </p>
            <p>Digital 
                <hi rend=""italic"">product-systems</hi> have very quickly materialised what David Michael Levin presciently called the ‘frontal ontology’ of our age, an interpretation substantiated by the prevalence of mobile screen-based engagement as a new bodily posture, a rise in immediate encounters with worldviews designed by others and attached to these new social practices that extend between online and material environments. I will consider how new ontologies are shaped and activated by digital environments, particularly the proposition of Fry (2005) that ‘our mental ingenuity at finding ever more novel ways to relieve physical effort far outstrips the slower evolutionary time of our physicality’.
            </p>
            <p>Vast, energy-intensive 
                <hi rend=""italic"">infrastructures</hi> sustain, store, and distribute data at an exponential rate and unimaginable scale. While innovation drives patterns of obsolescence in product-systems, data seems interminable. We lose touch with the material substrate as digital information has a powerful symbolic vitality that manifests independently of how it is being resourced and reproduced. I will consider how big energy consumers such as Google are reporting their resource consumption and what their analytical stories reveal about how ecologies are being understood, interpreted, and communicated.
            </p>
            <p>As rhetorical devices at the forefront of digital systems, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">images</hi> can be conceptualised as energetic and cognitive materials that are reshaping how we see and understand our living environments. As designed systems become more complicated, big and live consumption data are packaged to promote more ecologically literate and aware ways of being in the world. Yet we might ask to what extent can new visualities of ecology generate the sensory intuitions we need to live more sustainably? There is an anxiety around visualising data without there also being a strong sense of how visualisation shapes both cognition and action. With reference to key living experiments and projects, I will consider how participatory forms of data collection and reporting of resource consumption might inform more reflexive forms of ecological data visualization. 
            </p>
            <p>All three territories warrant being made discursive in the context of the digital humanities as they have, to paraphrase Burdick et al., profound implications for what it means to be human in the networked information age. The question of what it means to be human is, of course, a fundamental question for the digital humanities. My claim is that any response to this question must now also interrogate the extensively and intensively designed nature of the worlds in which we live, dream, and build knowledge.</p>
            <p>In order to perform this interrogation, I mobilise the emerging theory of ontological design. Ontological design is a theory that characterises the nature and agency of design as a fundamental human activity shaping the condition or behaviour of ‘what is’ (Willis, 2006, 81). It is also a method of relational critical analysis. My critique will therefore demonstrate how the unique areas of infrastructure, software, and image design are relationally implicated. The theory of ontological design is based on the hermeneutic phenomenology of Martin Heidegger and Hans-Georg Gadamer, with more explicit design interpretations in the work of Terry Winograd and Fernando Flores, Anne-Marie Willis, as well as Tony Fry and Arturo Escobar. Ontological design understands that ‘our very “being-in-the-world” is shaped by knowledge we pursue, uncover, and embody’ (Fry, 2012, 43). </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">By bringing a consideration of the ontological implications of digitisation within the remit of the digital humanities, an ongoing critical discourse regarding design’s making and unmaking of material and symbolic worlds is invited. </p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burdick, A, et al. </hi>(2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities.</hi> MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dilnot, C.</hi> (1998). The Science of Uncertainty: The Potential Contribution of Design to Knowledge. Draft paper, https://www.academia.edu/447813/The_Science_of_Uncertainty_the_Potential_Contribution_of_Design_to_Knowledge (accessed 3 November 2014).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fry, T.</hi> (2005). Rematerialisation as a Prospective Project. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Design Philosophy Papers,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>, http://www.desphilosophy.com/dpp/dpp_journal/journal.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fry, T.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Becoming Human by Design.</hi> Berg, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Willis, A.</hi> (2006). Ontological Designing: Laying the Ground. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Design Philosophy Papers,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>, http://www.desphilosophy.com/dpp/dpp_journal/journal.html.
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                        <surname>Faull</surname>
                        <forename>Katherine Mary</forename>
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                    <email>faull@bucknell.edu</email>
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            <p>In the summer 2014 issue of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CEA Critic </hi>authors Lindsay Thomas and Dana Solomon remarked on the notable lack of discussions of pedagogy in the development of DH in undergraduate institutions (2014). Arguing that DH pedagogy should be something far more than an afterthought, Thomas and Solomon outlined how their undergraduate project RoSE at the University of California, Santa Barbara developed students to be active users and researchers of DH. In the same issue of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CEA Critic, </hi>E. Leigh Bonds drew on the discussions of Melissa Terras, Stephen Ramsey, Alan Liu, et al. about the fundamental difference between the learning goals of DH courses and those of traditional courses in the humanities (2014). In the case of working with archival materials, how do we teach students to be makers and doers together? Or, in Liu’s terms, how do we develop a pedagogical hermeneutic of ‘practice, discovery, community’ (2009)?
            </p>
            <p>This paper will focus on the teaching experience of Drs. Katherine Faull and Jakacki in the fall of 2014 to show how the planning, design, and execution of a new project-based course—HUMN 100: Digging into the Digital and the Humanities Now!—introduced students to the world of digital humanities through the use of selected digital tools and methods of analysis. This course, taught within the Comparative Humanities program, was designed specifically for first- and second-year students in order to encourage the development of digital habits of mind at the earliest phases of their liberal arts curricular experience (Clement, 2012). Developed to encourage examination and experimentation with a range of digital humanities approaches, students worked with primary archival materials to encourage digital modes of inquiry and analysis. The decision to root the course in a multifaceted analysis of archival materials provided the rare chance for students to engage in the research process typical for a humanities scholar: namely, the discovery of artifacts, the formulation of research questions, followed by the analysis and synthesis of findings culminating in the publication of initial findings in a digital medium. In the process, we introduced students to the basic structure of how to develop a DH research project. </p>
            <p>For Bucknell University, the focus in digital humanities scholarship and learning has been primarily on spatial thinking (Pacchioli, 2013). It was important to both instructors to emphasize that objective in the development of the course and its learning outcomes, and so they focused upon the importance of finding materials that would be of interest to students ‘in place’. We decided to run the course in two sections, anticipating an opportunity to reflect different perspectives of the instructors’ expertise with DH methods and tools. One section focused on the Colonial mission diaries of the Moravians from Shamokin, Pennsylvania. Written in English, the diary sections selected dealt with interactions between some of the first Europeans to the area and the Native peoples they met and worked among. The other section considered a subset of the diaries of James Merrill Linn, one of the first graduates of the university and a soldier in the American Civil War. Both choices reflect and extend Bucknell’s interest in digital/spatial thinking in terms of its place in the larger historical and cultural narrative. </p>
            <p>In this paper we demonstrate how scaffolding the course—establishing a parallel structure that spanned both sections—accommodated both core texts while reinforcing the importance of considering how different DH-based methods would strengthen students’ understanding of that subject matter. This approach allowed both instructors to develop more sophisticated and complex course modules while assisting one another through the strengths and skills of each. We will discuss how this challenged us to consider whether we were co-teaching two sections of one course or two courses in collaboration, and where we were successful in identifying moments that offered a richer learning environment for both sections, supporting each other in our separate sections when our own DH expertise and pedagogical approaches were needed by the other. In essence, we had to learn how to teach one another while we were teaching the subject matter to our students. </p>
            <p>This course was developed to encourage examination and experimentation with a range of digital humanities approaches, and how digital humanists apply computational methods that involve textual analysis and data visualization. The sequencing of the modules was carefully designed so that the ‘product’ of each module then became the ‘data’ of the next module. Throughout the course, students developed a database of names, people, places, and connections that grew organically out of the focus of each specific section. This data, crucial to the success of the students’ assignments, needed some restructuring as we moved onto the next module; for example, students’ close reading in the TEI module led to the development of a prosopography that led to data for entry into Gephi that was then built out in adding geospatial data for GIS. Extensive use was made of online platforms that emphasize important forms of digital engagement, including collaborative online writing environments. Each module ended with a short assignment and also a reflective public-facing blog post that became an unmarked form of intellectual interaction. </p>
            <p>Student enrollment in the two sections of the course was purposely limited to first- and second-year undergraduates with no background in digital humanities. Accordingly, the course was designed with the goal of not only exposing them to tools of distant and close reading, and network and spatial visualization, but also requiring that they learn to think critically about what each of these methods reveals in the manuscript texts they themselves transcribed; finally, the students were required to produce digital artifacts. </p>
            <p>This paper will argue that the placement of this course within the interdisciplinary context of the program in Comparative Humanities underscored the program learning goals both of comparativity and interdisciplinarity and the course-specific goals of a new pedagogical hermeneutic. Teaching students to compare meaningfully intellectual materials of different or opposing types, and to theorize the difference between textual and material artifacts, narrative and non-narrative texts, and visual and analytical modes of thought was central to the course. To promote this, each module required students to read key secondary texts that were then integrated into their own reflections on the module. What does Johanna Drucker say about the visual rhetoric of visualization (2014)? How does Elena Pierazzo argue for the epistemic difference of diplomatic editions (2011)? What do Daniel Rosenberg and Anthony Grafton say about the development of timelines and the conceptualization of history (2000)? The interdisciplinary humanistic approach was thus clearly and directly linked to the learning goals of the course. Students also learned to identify, use, and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different DH methodologies and tools and were encouraged to identify and use key DH terms and concepts. As a result, students learned to develop research questions that could be answered with DH tools and methodologies, and work collaboratively in groups to create projects that related to their own research interests. </p>
            <p>The development and implementation of HUMN 100—a course without precedent at Bucknell and few guiding models at other undergraduate institutions—was far from easy. While both instructors had co-taught courses before, neither had developed what both agreed was a high-risk, high-profile course that could have significant impact on our colleagues as well as on our students. We knew that we were establishing a foundation that could (hopefully) scale to a much broader presence for the digital humanities across the Bucknell curriculum.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> We realized early on in course development that in order for our students to understand the evolving nature of DH research, we would have to reveal our own status as learners. Teaching unfamiliar material—not only across sections, but within a particular class—required an at times uncomfortable degree of transparency. 
            </p>
            <p>However, for all the challenges involved in teaching the class, there were moments of glory. Disengaged students became engaged; solitary learners recognized the essential need to collaborate in order to succeed; participants recognized the transformative nature of the course to their own concepts of the humanities. Students were eager to participate in crowdsourced data collection; they were intrigued to visualize ego-networks as they learned the concepts of network theory; they were excited to see their marked-up transcriptions published in an online digital edition. Through these experiences, they realized that they were creating a community of young DHers and expressed eagerness to take part in more of these learning experiences. </p>
            <p>We believe that this paper is important to the community that will be present at DH2015 because it provides a model for how digital humanities can and should be taught at the earliest stage of an undergraduate’s university experience, and how this type of learning experience is transformative in terms of demonstrating the interdisciplinarity within the humanities. If such courses are well planned, modestly ambitious, and truly collaborative in both conceptualization and execution, they promote radically new ways of understanding the goals of humanistic enquiry, a new pedagogical hermeneutic for teachers as well as students. </p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. In ‘Digital Learning in an Undergraduate Context: Promoting Long-Term Student-Faculty (and Community) Collaboration in the Susquehanna Valley’ (under review), we argue for the importance of such DH methods courses as crucial to the development of a larger curricular program of research-based learning environments that engage students in digital public humanities projects.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bonds, E. L.</hi> (2014). Listening In on the Conversations: An Overview of Digital Humanities Pedagogy. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CEA Critic,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">76</hi>(2) (July): 147–57. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clement, T.</hi> (2012). Multiliteracies in the Undergraduate Digital Humanities Curriculum: Skills, Principles, and Habits of Mind. In Hirsch, B. D. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics</hi>. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Drucker, J.</hi> (2014). Interpreting Visualization::Visualizing Interpretation. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Graphesis: Visual Forms of Knowledge Production</hi>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 56–137.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Liu, A.</hi> (2009). Digital Humanities and Academic Change. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">English Language Notes, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">47</hi>(1) (Spring/Summer): 17–35. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pacchioli, D.</hi> (2013). Thinking in Place. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bucknell Magazine</hi>, Fall, http://www.bucknell.edu/x83427.xml.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pierazzo, E.</hi> (2011). A Rationale of Digital Documentary Editions. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">26</hi>(4): 463–77. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rosenberg, D. and Grafton, A. </hi>2000. Time in Print. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cartographies of Time: A History of the Timeline</hi>. New York: Princeton Academic Press, pp. 10–15. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thomas, L. and Solomon, D. </hi>(2014). Active Users: Project Development and Digital Humanities Pedagogy. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CEA Critic,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">76</hi>(2) (July): 211–20. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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                <title>The Problem of Digital Dating: A Model for Uncertainty in Medieval Documents</title>
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                        <surname>Stokes</surname>
                        <forename>Peter Anthony</forename>
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                    <affiliation>King's College, London, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>peter.stokes@kcl.ac.uk</email>
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            <p>The dates of medieval documents are often not precisely known and so are catalogued with labels such as ‘early 12th century’. While these labels are useful and meaningful for a medievalist, they present difficulties in a digital context in terms of searching, sorting, and aggregating existing descriptions. This paper will examine these challenges, propose an alternative way of modelling dates, and then make some suggestions for representing these in user interfaces. It draws on work for Models of Authority, a new project on Scottish charters of the 12th century that is funded by the UK Arts and Humanities Research Council and that uses and extends the DigiPal framework (DigiPal, 2010–14).</p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""SECTION_1001""/>The Problem 
            </p>
            <p>Scholars have developed conventions for recording the various degrees of uncertainty in dates of manuscripts and documents.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> To take an example from Models of Authority, National Library of Scotland GD55/32 was written between 1189 and 1196; by convention this is indicated ‘1189×1196’ (POMS document no. 3/14/3). However, one or both dates in this range may be approximate or uncertain (‘circa 1192 × 24 March 1201’: POMS 3/486/8), or different date ranges may be possible (‘A.D. 670 × 671 [? A.D. 681]’: eSawyer S.1168). Alternatively, only a general date might be known (‘late 12th / early 13th century’: POMS no. 3/590/9). Other possibilities include ‘early’, ‘mid’, or ‘late’ in the 12th century; the first or second half of the century; and sometimes the second quarter, the first third, and so on (see further examples in DigiPal, 2010–14; eSawyer, 2010; as well as DigiPal, ‘Glossary’).
            </p>
            <p>This system of dating has served medievalists well. However, there is no obvious way of searching for or ordering material labelled in this way. When exactly does ‘late 12th century’ begin and end? Does it include the last quarter of the century? Does the first quarter of the 12th century come before or after the ‘early’ 12th century? Where does ‘A.D. 670 × 671 [? A.D. 681]’ fit on a timeline? We can decide answers to all of these questions in any given application, as indeed has been done (Stokes, 2012; see also the ‘search by date’ function in Manuscripts Online, and DigiPal’s faceted search, among many others). However, the result will necessarily be arbitrary and therefore difficult for others to understand. It will also inevitably be inconsistent with practice in other projects, and this in turn will lead to problems with linked data or aggregating sites (examples of which in this context include Biblissima, MESA, and Manuscripts Online). One could try to recover the intentions of the original cataloguer(s), but this is often lost and, even if recoverable, is unlikely to be consistent from one source to the next. Models of uncertainty do exist that go some way toward capturing these formulae, such as that in the TEI Guidlines (§§13.1.2 and 21.2), and those described by Grossner (2013), as well as projects such as TopoTime (Meeks and Grossner, 2013–) and PeriodO (Rabinowitz et al., n.d.). However, they still leave open these problems of searching and presenting the material, are very early in development, and/or do still not seem to adequately capture the specifics of manuscript studies. Instead, an alternative is required.</p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""SECTION_1003""/>The Model
            </p>
            <p>It is argued here that asking if ‘early 12th century’ includes the year 1100 is legitimate in a digital context, but to medievalists the question is in many ways meaningless, since if cataloguers knew that the manuscript was written after 1100, then they would have specified this. ‘Early 12th century’ does not mean ‘no earlier than midnight 1 January 1100 and no later than midnight 31 December 1115’, but rather something closer to ‘probably some time in the first 15 years or so of the century, but perhaps a little later or earlier’. To indicate this difference more concretely, it is useful to use probability density functions. Summarising crudely, a probability density function (pdf) represents the likelihood that a given variable has a given value. For instance, if we know when a document was written, then it has 100% probability of being written then and 0% probability of being written any other point of time; the resulting pdf is the Dirac delta function and is conventionally represented as shown in Figure 1. The assumption implicit in many search interfaces that ‘early 12th century’ has a fixed and firm beginning and end—say 1100×1115—and can be represented using the rectangular distribution shown in Figure 2. In contrast, judging intuitively from my own experience with manuscripts, ‘early 12th century’ is probably captured more accurately by something like a normal distribution (Figure 3). We can also combine these for more complex cases like ‘A.D. 670 × 671 [? A.D. 681]’ (Figure 4). Indeed, the range of possible curves is essentially limitless, and the model is sufficiently general to allow for any curve that best represents the particular case at hand.</p>
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            <p>Figure 1. Dirac delta function representing ‘1107’.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""11.959166666666667cm"" height=""9.075208333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>Figure 2. Rectangular distribution representing ‘1100×1115’.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""12.065cm"" height=""9.022291666666666cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
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            <p>Figure 3. Normal distribution representing ‘early 12th century’.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""11.959166666666667cm"" height=""6.852708333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. Hybrid distribution representing ‘A.D. 670 × 671 [? A.D. 681]’.</p>
            <p>It is important to emphasise that these curves do not necessarily represent the mathematical likelihood of the date of writing, or even of the cataloguer’s judgment, since accurately quantifying human impressions is difficult and problematic. Indeed, the resulting curves need not even necessarily be true pdfs. They may be mathematically valid and numerically accurate in a given implementation, but this assumes a reliable statistical model and so seems only appropriate for those projects that are sufficiently quantitative that such a model is available (examples may include DEEDS and work described by Smit [2011] or Wolf [2015]). However, it would be incumbent on people using this approach to demonstrate the validity of their statistical representation (for cautions against which, see Sculley and Pasanek [2008]; Stokes [2009]; Hassner [2013]). The point is in fact the opposite: rather than providing exact figures, they are intended instead to represent more meaningfully in digital form when the scholar in question considered the document to have been written. For instance, if I want to communicate the approximate frequency of a given letter-form in time, then instead of using a simple timeline like that shown above, I can instead calculate the sum of the distribution functions of all the scribal hands that show this form. Figure 5 shows the resulting curve for all occurrences in the DigiPal database of the tall-
                <hi rend=""bold"">e</hi> form of the letter 
                <hi rend=""bold"">æ</hi>, and this seems to effectively capture the received view that the letter-form was common early in the 11th century but went out of use soon after (Ker, 1957; Stokes, 2014). Alternative representations could include lines of varying colour, adjusting the value or saturation according to the value and thereby allowing easier comparison of different categories, or perhaps even transparency, where users adjust the date and, according to their distribution, images of the relevant letters fade in and out of view. The curves could also be used to provide a significance value for search results by taking the integral of the curve across the time interval that the user has specified, or again adjusting the transparency of images representing these forms.
            </p>
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                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""12.038541666666667cm"" height=""8.334375cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 5. Distribution curve for occurrences of the tall-e form of æ.</p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>As noted above, the highly quantitative nature of this model does not bring any more certainty, nor does it address all of the concerns raised at the start of this paper. However, it does seem to promise a more intuitive and meaningful way of interacting with the content. It has been observed that the computer should not be used to provide firm answers or proving the truth of hypotheses regarding historical fact, but should instead provide means for interaction, visualisation, and knowledge creation (Clement et al., 2009; Jessop, 2008; Sculley and Pasanek, 2008). Paradoxically, then, the benefit of the model proposed here could lie not in its mathematical accuracy but the opposite: by highlighting the ‘fuzziness’ of the content it may help to break down the illusion of certainty that the computer typically brings, and may instead present a more useful and meaningful interface. Initial experiments and informal surveys with medievalists to date have suggested very strong support indeed for this approach. No doubt that other, better models will be developed by others in due course, but the point remains for now that the representation of dates in databases of manuscripts and documents is too narrow, and more imagination is required if we are to make the best use of what we have.</p>
            <p>Funding</p>
            <p>This work was supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council [AH/L008041/1].</p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. This section of the proposal draws extensively from Stokes (2012).</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Biblissima.</hi> (n.d.). Patrimoine écrit du Moyen Age et de la Renaissance, http://www.biblissima-condorcet.fr. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clement, T., et al.</hi> (2009). How Not to Read a Million Books. Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, http://www3.isrl.uiuc.edu/~unsworth/hownot2read.rutgers.html.
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                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">DEEDS. </hi>(n.d.). The Documents of Early English Data Set. University of Toronto, http://www.utoronto.ca/deeds. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">DigiPal.</hi> (2010–14). Digital Resource and Database of Palaeography, Manuscript Studies and Diplomatic. London: King’s College, http://www.digipal.eu.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">eSawyer.</hi> (2010). The Electronic Sawyer: Online Catalogue of Anglo-Saxon Charters. London: King’s College, http://www.esawyer.org.uk/.
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                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grossner, K. </hi>(2013). A Space-Time Datatype for Historical Place? https://cga-download.hmdc.harvard.edu/publish_web/SpaceTime/DH2013_Grossner_SpaceTimeDatatype.pdf. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hassner, T., et al.</hi> (2013). Computation and Palaeography: Potentials and Limits. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jessop, M.</hi> (2008). Digital Visualisation. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(3): 281–93, doi:10.1093/llc/fqn016.
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                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ker, N. R.</hi> (1957). 
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                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Levy, N., et al.</hi> (forthcoming 2015). Consolidating the Results of Automatic Search in Large-Scale Digital Collections. In Brookes, S., Rehbein, M. and Stokes, P. A. (eds), 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manuscripts Online. </hi>(n.d.). Written Culture, 1000 to 1500. Version 1.0, http://www.manuscriptsonline.org.
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                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meeks, E. and Grossner, K.</hi> (2013–). TopoTime Gallery and Sandbox. Stanford University Libraries, Stanford, CA, http://dh.stanford.edu/topotime/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">MESA</hi>. (n.d.). Medieval Electronic Scholarly Alliance. http://www.mesa-medieval.org.
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                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">POMS</hi>. (n.d.). People of Medieval Scotland, 1093–1314. King’s College, London, http://www.poms.ac.uk.
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                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rabinowitz, A., et al.</hi> (n.d.). PeriodO: A Gazetteer of Period Assertions for Linking and Visualising Data. http://perio.do/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sculley, D. and Pasanek, B. M.</hi> (2008). Meaning and Mining: The Impact of Implicit Assumptions in Data Mining for the Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(4): 409–24, doi:10.1093/llc/fqn019.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smit, J.</hi> (2011). The Death of the Palaeographer? Experiences with the Groningen Intelligent Writer Identification System (GWIS). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Archiv für Diplomatik, Schriftgeschichte, Siegel- und Wappenkunde,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">57</hi>: 413–25.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stokes, P. A.</hi> (2009). Computer-Aided Palaeography: Present and Future. In Rehbein, M., et al. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Kodikologie und Paläographie im Digitalen Zeitalter—Codicology and Palaeography in the Digital Age.</hi> Norderstedt: Books on Demand, pp. 309–38, http://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/volltexte/2009/2978/pdf/KPDZ_I_Stokes.pdf. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stokes, P. A.</hi> (2012). The Problem of Digital Dating, Part I. In DigiPal (q.v.), http://www.digipal.eu/blog/the-problem-of-digital-dating-part-i/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stokes, P. A.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">English Vernacular Minuscule from Æthelred to Cnut, circa 990–circa 1035.</hi> D. S. Brewer, Cambridge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""List Continue"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">TEI: The Text Encoding Initiative.</hi> (2014). P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange, Version 2.7.0. http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/ (last updated 16 September 2014).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2386","16","The Problem of the Luminary: Building a Resilient Campus DH Culture","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>The Question of the Luminary: Building a Resilient Campus DH Culture</title>
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                        <surname>Morgan</surname>
                        <forename>Paige Courtney</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>McMaster University, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>pmorgan@mcmaster.ca</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Askey</surname>
                        <forename>Dale</forename>
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                    <affiliation>McMaster University, Canada</affiliation>
                    <email>askeyd@mcmaster.ca</email>
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                    <term>digital humanities - institutional support</term>
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            <p rend=""Normal1"">This paper explores a phenomenon that we have both noticed in recent years: that digital humanities programs and progress are driven by the presence of luminaries. A DH luminary is someone who identifies clearly as a digital humanist and is known in the international DH community; they are the people who keynote at DH, DHSI, and similar conferences. The presence of a luminary leads to significant success in attracting grant funding, graduate students, speaking engagements, etc. We are not the only ones who have noticed this phenomenon. In his 2011 blog entry ‘The (DH) Stars Come Out in LA’, Matt Kirschenbaum calls for a more direct engagement by DHers with the effects of celebrity in the field.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">In discussing luminary figures, it is not our intention to criticize them or in any way to diminish the hard work that has contributed to their status. Instead, we want to discuss the challenges that luminaries present for developing a resilient DH culture that supports training and individual member projects, and which will persist even if the luminary departs. While acquiring a luminary can go a long ways towards ‘making DH happen’ at a school, it can also engender concerns for future sustainability. In this paper, we address a few of the specific trade-offs/challenges that luminaries present, and identify actions that schools wanting to develop a DH initiative could take. By DH initiative, we mean the alchemistic mix of a DH community, program (i.e., formalized instruction, whether certificate or degree), physical centres, and DH-focused research entities that taken in sum represent a given institution’s DH culture. A DH initiative is intended to be a sustained and ongoing investment, rather than the temporary program of a pre-determined span of time.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Besides funding and publicity, luminaries contribute direction to a DH program, orienting its content towards a particular area: making, text analysis, software development, pedagogy, etc. Another vital (though intangible) ingredient that luminaries bring is the insurance of having succeeded previously. A luminary’s presence can serve as justification for a new and relatively untested practice. Both of these qualities are especially important in light of the lack of general DH knowledge distributed throughout humanities departments. Arguably, then, the presence of a luminary provides a DH program with a specific identity. Luminaries help to ensure success of a particular kind, easily recognisable in traditional departments, even when the medium of scholarship is different: a project is released, generating responses within the disciplinary community.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Without a luminary, a new DH centre will lack the insurance of previous successes as well as the established identity/direction. The work of achieving both components will then fall on the centre’s faculty, staff, and early participating graduate students. This creates an uphill slope for those involved: a substantial part of their work will involve trial-and-error experimentation, and their progress will almost certainly depend on their finding local allies, and their ability to connect with larger DH social networks either in person or via social media. This type of work is undeniably valuable, and applicable to many contexts, within and outside of academia. However, the work that is about producing infrastructure and culture, rather than scholarship, gains the most plaudits—in short, the work that leads to luminary status. </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">A luminary at the helm is an attractive prospect for any university that wants to make a substantial investment in the digital humanities. Moreover, universities love quick victories that give rise to press releases, photo ops, and instant notoriety. In light of the continuing lack of funding for higher education, and for humanities initiatives in general, acquiring a luminary figure to guide development may seem like the best strategy for ensuring that a new DH initiative will not fail. However, a sustainable DH community does not necessarily follow from a quick victory. More often, such a community is a slow-burn development involving a wide range of people and the formation of collaborative relationships that contribute to student training and career growth for all involved. The advantages that come with luminaries can be accompanied by challenges, specifically:</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1""> • The leadership of a luminary figure can generate energetic activity in an initiative—but this activity may reflect the luminary’s charisma rather than the growth of a widespread DH culture within the community.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1""> • Luminaries, while powerful, are not guarantors of continuity: contingency plans are needed for sabbaticals or departures.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1""> • While DH ostensibly transcends disciplinary boundaries, when programs are built around luminaries their disciplinary focus may be overemphasized, excluding other disciplines.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1""> • Luminaries’ successes can become normative, creating challenges for those who want to develop new initiatives. Instead of looking at a particular community’s strengths and needs, the goal becomes reproducing what was achieved with a previous initiative or at another university. The result is that the culture of DH becomes more narrow, rather than becoming more varied and diverse.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">These challenges can be summed up by saying that luminaries seem to provide instant infrastructure, when in reality, their contribution is superstructure.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">As we consider the future of digital humanities on a global scale, the question we focus on is how to make a DH space and/or community accessible that allows all interested graduate students, staff, and faculty to be fully involved in shaping the collective identity of their campus DH culture, so that leadership is shared and can easily pass from person to person, with no single individual responsible for carrying the community. Such a community may have luminaries in it—but the sustainability of the program does not depend on their presence. </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">DH initiatives and programs often face scalability and sustainability challenges. Even the brightest of luminaries is only one person and can mentor only a limited number of students. Currently, luminaries are especially valuable as evangelists for DH, drawing people in, but eventually the number of eager community members will outpace the luminary. How will universities address the needs that arise when this moment arrives? We will close by presenting specific strategies for broadening and diversifying the development of DH initiatives, and for making the development of DH culture the collective work of communities, rather than of a single individual.</p>
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"2387","16","The Transported Imagination: Magazines, Travel And The Pacific 1920s-30s","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>The Transported Imagination: Magazines, Travel And The Pacific 1920s-30s</title>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Kuttainen</surname>
                        <forename>Victoria</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>James Cook University, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>victoria.kuttainen@jcu.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Liebich</surname>
                        <forename>Susann</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>James Cook University, Australia; Heidelberg University</affiliation>
                    <email>susann.liebich@jcu.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Galletly</surname>
                        <forename>Sarah</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>James Cook University, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>sgalletly86@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
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                    <addrLine>Locked Bag 1797</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>Australian Magazines</term>
                    <term>Pacific</term>
                    <term>Travel</term>
                    <term>Spatial Analysis</term>
                    <term>Network Visualisation</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>literary studies</term>
                    <term>content analysis</term>
                    <term>bibliographic methods / textual studies</term>
                    <term>english studies</term>
                    <term>cultural studies</term>
                    <term>visualisation</term>
                    <term>maps and mapping</term>
                    <term>networks</term>
                    <term>relationships</term>
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            <p>In the 1920s and 1930s, glossy, quality magazines brought a flair of cosmopolitanism, glamour, and exoticism to Australian readers. Travel, especially across the Pacific, was a key component of general-interest magazines of this era, which opened up a new world beyond Australia’s shores to readers, whether travellers themselves or aspirational armchair travellers. This project explores Australia’s geographical imaginary and representations of travel as expressed in popular print culture to question the status of cultural nationalism as the dominant ideology of the period. It conceptualizes modern mainstream magazines as mediated portals through which contemporary readers could observe the historically changing conception of the Pacific during the golden age of passenger liner travel. By utilising digital mapping and network visualisation methods, this project draws attention to the emerging transpacific imaginary these magazines capture to interrogate and problematise existing notions of Australian culture and illuminate the highly interconnected nature of the periodical marketplace in this period. The interwar period in Australia is often identified as seeing the emergence and consolidation of nationalism, reflected not least in cultural and literary expressions that emphasised the nation. Yet this period was also characterised by high levels of travel and mobility; passenger liners and a bourgeoning tourism and cruising industry allowed unprecedented numbers of Australians to cruise and cross the Pacific. While much scholarly attention has focussed on the development of Australian literary culture from the 1940s onwards, the literary output of Australian writers in the period immediately before, and especially writing in commercial outlets like mainstream magazines, has largely been overlooked. </p>
            <p>Specifically, this project builds upon our manual collection and collation of metadata on the content of three Australian magazines: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Home </hi>(1920–1942), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">BP Magazine </hi>(1928–1942), and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Man </hi>(1936–1974)
                <hi rend=""italic"">. </hi>By digitally mapping the content of these magazines—ranging from short stories, feature articles, and travel writing, to book and film reviews, society notes, and advertisements—a distinct Pacific imaginary emerges that encompassed places in South and Southeast Asia as well as the Pacific Islands, and reached north as well as east. Displaying the content spatially reveals the larger patterns of Australia’s Pacific-mindedness but also the nuanced differences in geographical representations according to genres and magazine titles. Network visualisation techniques and tools allow us to re-create the publishing and authorial networks that existed both within and across these three magazines in the 1920s and ’30s, revealing new print culture hierarchies and offering new modes of understanding print culture between the wars. By imagining these publications as information ‘networks’ comprising links and nodes between places, products, and people, we can better comprehend the cultural work these magazines undertook and the imaginative sway they held over readers’ perceptions of the Pacific region. 
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"2388","16","The Trials of Tokenization","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>David L.</forename>
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                    <affiliation>New York University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>david.hoover@nyu.edu</email>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>Python</term>
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                    <term>word frequency lists</term>
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                    <term>punctuation</term>
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            <p>The process of tokenizing texts is typically out of sight and almost out of mind—often handled invisibly by the analyst’s program or R script, and rarely described, discussed, or even mentioned. For ‘big data’, even if questions did arise about the nature of the word list produced, testing is not feasible. Furthermore, tokenizer accuracy is so critically affected by the state and nature of the texts that probably no general measure of accuracy or appropriateness is possible. Finally, built-in programming functions and libraries are all too often used uncritically with little realization that their output does not conform to the assumptions or expectations of the analyst. I suggest that we should pay a little more attention to the theory and practice of tokenization.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Consider a hypothetical case. Let’s say I want to analyze 5,000 novels, have access to the texts at HathiTrust, download 5,000 novels in plain text, and tokenize them. Below is part of a page from Elizabeth Gaskell’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Cranford</hi>, from HathiTrust (Gaskell, 1910 [1851], 107):
            </p>
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            <p>Figure 1. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Cranford</hi>, Elizabeth Gaskell, from page 107.
            </p>
            <p>A human reader would have little trouble tokenizing this passage, and it is not extremely problematic, though minor OCR problems exist (mainly spacing issues around single quotation marks / apostrophes and dashes, and the line-end hyphen). I tokenized this passage with The Intelligent Archive (2012), KWIC (Tsukamoto, 2004) WordSmith Tools (Scott, 2012), Voyant (Sinclair et al., 2012), and Stylo (Eder et al., 2014).
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> Even on this short text, the five programs identify three different numbers of types and two different numbers of tokens, largely because of the handling of single quotation marks. KWIC and WordSmith produce identical lists, as do Voyant and Stylo, but neither of these match The Intelligent Archive.
            </p>
            <p>Now consider Charles Chesnutt’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The House Behind the Cedars</hi> (1900, 13), also from HathiTrust:
            </p>
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            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The House Behind the Cedars</hi>, Charles Chesnutt, from page 13.
            </p>
            <p>The dialect in this passage is challenging even for human readers, and the OCR is more problematic. For example, the printed text (judging from the PDF) had spaced contractions, which explains ‘you 're’ in the fourth line from the bottom and the space in ‘lie 's’ in the first line, where the text reads “he 's.” This classic OCR problem occurs several times in this novel. And in the last line ‘you '11’ has both a space and an erroneous number 11 for the ‘ll’ (double el), another common OCR problem. Those analyzing big data usually rely on the insignificance of random error, but these and many other kinds of error are not random, and systematic error within one text, one author, one genre, or one collection could easily lead to thousands of inaccurate word frequency counts in this hypothetical study of 5,000 texts.</p>
            <p>The use of apostrophes in the Chesnutt passage to indicate dialect pronunciations can also severely affect tokenization. Although The Intelligent Archive, KWIC, and WordSmith Tools produce exactly the same lists for this brief passage, and Voyant has the same number of types and tokens, Voyant removes all initial (but not final) apostrophes, creating different words for eight of the 97 types. Stylo removes all numbers, all initial and final apostrophes, and many internal apostrophes, retaining them only in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ain^t, gentleman^s</hi>, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">spen^s</hi> (replaced with a caret). It produces six more tokens and four more types than the other programs, and many more differences in the word list. Unfortunately, in Chesnutt’s short novel, more than 650 words begin and/or end with apostrophes crucial to the identity of the word, so that the word lists produced by Voyant and Stylo are quite inaccurate. Furthermore, only KWIC and WordSmith Tools let the user choose whether apostrophes and hyphens are part of a word, and whether numbers can appear in the word list or not. Only WordSmith Tools allows the user to choose whether to allow apostrophes at the beginnings and/or ends of the word as well as internally.
            </p>
            <p>Obviously, the two texts examined above cause different problems, and different tokenizers are more accurate for one than for the other. Worse yet, these problems are found even in relatively carefully edited texts like those from Project Gutenberg. Although Gutenberg’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The House Behind the Cedars</hi> does not have spaced contractions, and correctly has 
                <hi rend=""italic"">he’s</hi> in the first line and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">you’ll</hi> in the final line, the 29 initial and final dialect apostrophes remain problematic. The Gutenberg text also represents dashes as two hyphens without spaces, creating more problems for tokenizers. The Intelligent Archive and Stylo treat these double-hyphen dashes as breaking characters, while retaining single hyphens within compound words, but KWIC, WordSmith Tools, and Voyant treat them like single hyphens, creating compounds with double hyphens where dashes are needed. The situation is still more complex if a double-hyphen is preceded or followed by a breaking character. If this sounds esoteric, consider that this short novel contains nearly 400 double-hyphen dashes (Dickens’ 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Dombey and Son</hi> has more than 2,200). And this problem, too, is highly systematic: words vary considerably in how frequently they are preceded or followed by a dash, and 1,000 dash errors per text would produce 5,000,000 errors in our hypothetical 5,000 novels. (For a practical example of the effects of error, see Matt Jockers’ discussion of topic modeling and several ‘topics’ that arose from OCR error and metadata (Jockers, 2013, 135).
            </p>
            <p>It might seem that we just need more sophisticated tokenizers, but the required level of sophistication to handle double-hyphen dashes correctly is quite high, and the problems caused by apostrophes and single quotation marks cannot be correctly solved computationally at all. In some cases, not even a human reader can tokenize with certainty; in others, a computer can solve problems a human cannot. </p>
            <p>Let’s consider a few further tokenization questions:</p>
            <p>He said, “That’s ’bout ‘nough, sho’.”</p>
            <p>“That’s ‘bout’, not ‘fight’; ’nough said,” Nough said.</p>
            <p>“John tried that ‘Nough told me to’ on me,” Bill whined.</p>
            <p>He remarked, “John said, ‘Bout starts at nine.’”</p>
            <p>He remarked, “John said, ‘It’s ’bout time.’”</p>
            <p>He remarked, “John said, ‘‘Bout time.’” Can these apostrophes/single quotes be handled correctly computationally? How about the two single quotes before ‘Bout’ in the last example?</p>
            <p>I visited the U.S.S.R. Four tokens? Seven? Is the final period part of the final token?</p>
            <p>I visited the U.S.S.R.! Four tokens? Seven? Is the final period part of the final token?</p>
            <p>Is that C------? Is ‘C------’ the token ‘C’ followed by a dash, or the token ‘C------’? What about ‘C—’? Or ‘C-’?</p>
            <p>C------ is here. Same questions.</p>
            <p>Oh d--n it! Is ‘d--n’ the tokens ‘d’ and ‘n’ separated by a dash, or the token ‘d--n’? How about ‘d---n’? or ‘d-n’? or ‘G-d’?</p>
            <p>I said--never mind. If ‘d--n’ is a token, can we prevent ‘said--never’ from being a token here?</p>
            <p>That’s what I--a mistake, sorry. How do we get ‘d--n’ correct without failing here?</p>
            <p>You’re a real %#@$! Three tokens? Four? Does the last include the final ‘!’? What if there were a period after the ‘!’?</p>
            <p>You’re a real %#@$!. How about now?</p>
            <p>I am working on a Python tokenizer that can handle most of these issues correctly, and some of these problems are fairly rare, but I despair of the possibility of creating a word frequency list that is ‘correct’ even in my own opinion. For many years I have ‘corrected’ the texts before tokenizing, but that is not a practical solution for 5,000 novels and presents its own problems.</p>
            <p>Perhaps in sufficiently big data, the error introduced by tokenizers will not significantly alter the results, and Maciej Eder (2013) has recently shown that some corpora are remarkably resistant to some kinds of intentionally introduced error. And improving the quality of the corpus had a relatively small effect on the attribution of the Federalist Papers (Levitan and Argamon, 2006). More study seems needed before we can be complacent, however, even in large-scale problems involving only authorship or classification. For smaller-scale stylistic studies, tokenization decisions can clearly have serious repercussions. Consider Ramsay’s (2011) analysis of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Waves</hi>, where decisions about tokenization significantly alter the lists of men-only and women-only words and words that characterize the six narrative voices (see Hoover [2014a] and Plasek and Hoover [2014], for discussion). Another example that replicates an experience I have had several times is that a Full Spectrum analysis (Hoover, 2014b), based on Craig’s version of Burrows’s Zeta (Burrows, 2007; Craig and Kinney, 2010) can give strange results if uncorrected texts are inadvertently included. For example, in a test of Charlotte Brontë versus Anne and Emily Brontë, 11 of the 100 most distinctive words were words with inappropriate initial “apostrophes” because the novels of Anne and Emily in the analysis both used single quotation marks for dialogue.
            </p>
            <p>Far from being an insignificant tool that can be taken for granted, a tokenizer expresses its author’s theory of text and can significantly affect the results of many kinds of text analysis.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. As a reviewer of this paper has pointed out, the problems of tokenization have been more widely recognized recently in the NLP community. For example, Dridan and Oepen (2012) and Chiarcos et al. (2012) address and suggest partial solutions for some of the problems discussed here. Even if the problems had all been solved within the NLP community (a fact not in evidence), however, this would not diminish the force of my argument for the DH community, where there has been much less attention paid to them.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. These programs represent a variety of those used in DH work (in order): a mature Java program with a database function, a venerable corpus linguistics program with lots of functions and user-options, a highly customizable and powerful commercial program from OUP, a widely used online tool, and a recently developed set of tools written in the currently popular R.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J. F.</hi> (2007). All the Way Through: Testing for Authorship in Different Frequency Strata. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">LLC,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>(1): 27–47.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chesnutt, C. W.</hi> (1900). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The House Behind the Cedars</hi>. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?view=plaintext;size=100;id=nc01.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft7cr7221k;page=root;seq=25;num=13.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chiarcos, C., Ritz, J. and Stede, M.</hi> (2012). By All These Lovely Tokens . . . : Merging Conflicting Tokenizations. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language Resources and Evaluation,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">46</hi>(1): 53–74. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Craig, H. and Kinney, A. F.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare, Computers, and the Mystery of Authorship</hi>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dridan, R., and Oepen, S.</hi> (2012). Tokenization: Returning to a Long Solved Problem: A Survey, Contrastive Experiment, Recommendations, and Toolkit. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 50th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, </hi>pp. 378–82.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M.</hi> (2013). Mind Your Corpus: Systematic Errors in Authorship Attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">LLC,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(4): 603–14.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Rybicki, J. and Kestemont, M.</hi> (2014). Stylo.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gaskell, E. </hi>(1910 [1851]). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cranford</hi>. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?q1=twelve;id=hvd.32044097042071;view=plaintext;start=1;sz=10;page=root;size=100;seq=143;num=107.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. L. </hi>(2014a). Making Waves: Algorithmic Criticism Revisited. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH2014</hi>, Lausanne, Switzerland: EPFL-UNIL, pp. 202–4.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. L.</hi> (2014b). The Full-Spectrum Text-Analysis Spreadsheet. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013</hi>, Center for Digital Research in the Humanities, Lincoln, NE, University of Nebraska, pp. 226–29.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">The Intelligent Archive.</hi> (2012). Centre for Literary and Linguistic Computing, University of Newcastle, Australia.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M. L.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History</hi>. University of Illinois Press, Urbana-Champaign.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Levitan, S. and Argamon, S.</hi> (2006). Fixing the Federalist: Correcting Results and Evaluating Editions for Automated Attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2006</hi>. Paris: Centre de Recherche Cultures Anglophones et Technologies de l’Information, pp. 323–26.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Plasek, A. and Hoover, D. L. </hi>(2014). Starting the Conversation: Literary Studies, Algorithmic Opacity, and Computer-Assisted Literary Insight. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH2014</hi>, Lausanne: EPFL-UNIL, pp. 305–6.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism</hi>. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Scott, M.</hi> (2012). WordSmith Tools version 6. Liverpool: Lexical Analysis Software.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sinclair, S., Rockwell, G. and the Voyant Tools Team</hi>. (2012). Voyant Tools (web application).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tsukamoto, S. </hi>(2004). KWIC Concordance for Windows version 4.7.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2389","16","The Unspoken Word: Race and the New Language of Identity","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Algee-Hewitt</surname>
                        <forename>Bridget Frances Beatrice</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>bridgeta@stanford.edu</email>
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                        <surname>Algee-Hewitt</surname>
                        <forename>Mark Andrew</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Stanford University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>mark.algee-hewitt@stanford.edu</email>
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            <p>In a statement on the meaning of ‘race’ within physical anthropology, Alice Brues (2009) raises the spectre of a mismatch between our biological understanding of human variation, and the work that the word ‘race’ performs within academic, and specifically anthropological, literature: ‘The visible difference between different populations of the world tells everyone that there is something there. We had better be prepared to explain what is there, and why, before we discuss what it does or does not mean’
                <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi> Yet contrary to the meaning behind her question, it is apparent that race 
                <hi rend=""italic"">already</hi> has meaning as a clearly articulated concept in both the popular and academic understanding, whether it exists in an objective biological reality or not. Yet despite its ubiquity, few discourses are more contentious. At best, critics claim that race is cultural construction with no basis in biological fact; at worst, the language of ancestry has been accused of perpetuating the dark histories of racial categorization and eugenics. But our understanding of the evolution of this discourse is clouded both by individual agendas and specific cultural concerns: what we lack, we argue, is a comprehensive and critical understanding of the patterns that the language of race has assumed throughout recent academic discourse, and specifically within the discipline of physical anthropology, whose practitioners are, whether consciously or unconsciously, implicated in this discourse through their work on human variation and forensic identification. 
            </p>
            <p>Through this paper, we seek to explore the latent discourse of race that characterizes the anthropological study of human variation. How has the emergence of forensic anthropology and genetics altered the way in which physical anthropologists interpret concepts such as race, ancestry, or ethnicity? Are there discrete and recognizable patterns of discourse that have shaped our understanding of race? This project aims to reconstruct this history by bringing to bear the new methodologies of digital humanities on a representative sample of scholarly articles on ‘race’ from the field of anthropology. The goal is not to reify race as a concept, but explore how the discourse is operational within the work of anthropology, considering both its literature that supports it and literature that argues against it. By leveraging the new computational techniques of the digital humanities, we seek to isolate the ways in which the language surrounding the concept of race has changed over the last century and how these discursive shifts have organized the approach to human variation in physical anthropology. We provide comparative data by also exploring the same questions for cultural anthropology and the forensic sciences.</p>
            <p>The way we talk about race, in other words, is an indicator of how we understand it.</p>
            <p>Sample</p>
            <p>As our study is primarily concerned with the ongoing transformation of ‘race’ in the field of physical anthropology, the majority of our sample is taken from articles published in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">American Journal of Physical Anthropology </hi>(AJPA) throughout its publication history. Similarly, as current anthropological thinking on race, whether as a proxy for biological difference or as a social reality, is deeply affected by the practical necessities of the forensic sciences, we also drew part of our sample from articles published in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Forensic Sciences</hi> (
                <hi rend=""italic"">JFS</hi>). In order to compare the specific configurations of ‘race’ within the discourse of physical anthropology to the study of the field at large, the final subset of our sample is composed of articles published in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Current Anthropology</hi> (
                <hi rend=""italic"">CA</hi>). In addition to these three core publications, we also add to our study a corpus of genetics articles that allow us to capture how the language of race is inflected by recent work in human genetics. For this part of our corpus we draw on the journals 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Human Biology</hi>, the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">American Journal of Human Genetics</hi>, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Genetics</hi>, using the same search criteria as in our physical anthropology corpus. By combining peer-reviewed academic articles from these six publications, our study is able to examine the transformations in the anthropological discourse of race through time and across the disciplinary configurations of the field. 
            </p>
            <p>Our primary physical anthropological sample contains 440 articles published between 1918 and 2013 and that contain some cognate of the words ‘race’, ‘ancestry’, or ‘ethnic’ within either the title or article description. Of these, 299 were published in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">AJPA</hi>, 79 were published in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CA</hi>, and 63 were published in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">JFS</hi>. In preparation for our analysis, we divided our sample twice: by publication and by period. These two taxonomies of the corpus allowed us to identify trends in discourse over time (period) and across the disciplinary boundaries (publication). The period divisions were informed by the distribution of the sample and correspond to the early to mid-20th century (1918–1972 or Early), the late 20th century (1973–1999 or Mid), and the 21st century (2000–2013 or Late). Our turn towards genetics has allowed us to more than double our corpus size and gives a critical window into the ways in which the discourse around recent technological innovation is bringing back older conceptions of human variation
            </p>
            <p>Methodology</p>
            <p>Distinctive Words</p>
            <p>While unsupervised computational linguistic techniques such as topic modeling (Blei, 2006; 2007) would allow us to extract clusters of highly correlated words from across the sample (thus approximating the ‘topics’ of the articles), the variety of these clusters would obscure the nuances of any potential ‘race’ topic. In other words, we seek to capture the ways that the discourse of race manifests itself even (and especially) when the topic of race is not overtly at issue. Instead, therefore, we chose to target specifically the language of ‘race’ and to extract the vocabulary in which it is embedded. We queried our sample of texts for our target terms (‘race’, ‘ancestry’, ‘ethnic’) and extracted the 15 words before and after, effectively performing a collocation analysis on each text. We selected 15 as our horizon as it is the average length of a sentence within our sample, ensuring that each extraction captured at least one complete syntactical unit. After excluding both stopwords and low frequency words (n&lt;50), we applied a Fisher’s Exact Test to each of the remaining words to test for significant word usage (α=0.05) within the vicinity of either ‘race/racial’, ‘ancestry/ies’, or ‘ethnic/ity,’ with the goal of identifying the category of racial terminology with which each word was most highly correlated. These sets of significant words (n=230) represent the lexical ‘fingerprint’ of each of our concepts.</p>
            <p>By tracing the relationships between articles based on their usage of these words, we are able to identify how the discussion of race structures the corpus across time and disciplinary approach. Similarly, we are also able to trace the relationships between the words themselves in order to uncover the ways in which these individual discourses co-evolved over the course of the 20th century. </p>
            <p>Topologies</p>
            <p>Our primary visualization strategy uses a topological representation of either the corpus (Figure 1) or the semantic fields (Figure 2). Based upon an extension of a visualization technique using Voronoi diagrams developed by Bell Labs (Gansner et al., 2009; Algee-Hewitt and Piper, 2013; Algee-Hewitt, 2011; Okabe et al., 2000), the topology reconfigures similarity as a function of distance within a spatial representation. The resulting map provides a more complex visualization of relationships among the individual members and their local neighborhoods, replacing raw distances and word frequencies with a depiction of relationality based on proximity, area, and conjunction. The close proximity of article-tiles in our corpus maps indicates a strong similarity in their use of the vocabulary of race, while articles located on opposite sides of the topology indicate their difference. Similarly, words appearing next to each other in the word maps appear frequently together, while those far apart are rarely used within the same text. Tile size within these maps is a function of density. The smaller the tile, the more tightly embedded each object is within its surrounding cluster, while large tiles indicate their dissimilarity from the immediate neighborhood. We are also able to visualize another layer of data by adding a color mapping to the topology.</p>
            <p>Our corpus maps are colored for both period and publication: this reveals a strong disciplinary cohesion between the publication and the precise mix of words that characterize its articulation of the ‘race’ concept. Similarly, there is a less strong, but still significant correlation between the language of race in each article and its data of publication. Our word maps are colored based upon the individual word memberships in our race concept categories. This allows us to observe clusters of words that form across time and within particular disciplines, suggesting the ways in which the discourse of race has been affected by (and, in turn, shaped) the individual disciplines or study (physical anthropology, cultural anthropology, forensic anthropology, and genetics). Further, it allows us to witness the configurations of this discourse across our three period divisions: from the early studies of human diversity in the early 20th century through the current genetics revolution. Through a careful parsing of these topologies, we are able, in this paper, to give a clear and concise account of the ways in which the race concept has been mediated within the different disciplinary discourses of anthropology and, most importantly, the ways in which its evolving central term (from ‘race’ to ‘ethnicity’ to ‘ancestry’) has carried along with it discursive configurations that remain constant across all of our disciplines and periods. </p>
            <figure>
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            <p>Figure 1. Topology of articles derived from shared clusters of words, colored for publication source.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""13.81125cm"" height=""9.763125cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
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            <p>Figure 2. Topology of ‘race’ terms, clustered by co-occurrence, colored by term group membership. </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Algee-Hewitt, B. F. B.</hi> (2011). If and How Many ‘Races’? The Application of Mixture Modeling to World‐Wide Craniometric Variation. Knoxville: TRACE, University of Tennessee.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Algee-Hewitt, M. A. and Piper, A. </hi>(2013). The Werther Effect I: Goethe Topologically. In Erlin M. and Tatlock, L. (eds), Distant Readings/Descriptive Turns: Topologies of German Culture in the Long Nineteenth Century. Rochester, NY: Camden House, 2014.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">American Anthropological Association (AAA)</hi>. (1999). American Anthropological Association Statement on Race. American Anthropologist, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">100</hi>: 712–13. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. and Lafferty, J.</hi> (2006). Correlated Topic Models. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>: 147–54.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. and Lafferty, J.</hi> (2007). A Correlated Topic Model of Science. Annals of Applied Statistics, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>: 17–35.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brown, R. A. and Armelagos, G. J.</hi> (2001). Apportionment of Racial Diversity: A Review. Evolutionary Anthropology, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>: 34–40.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brues, A. M.</hi> (2009). The Objective View of Race. In Gordon, C. C. (ed.), Race, Ethnicity, and Applied Bioanthropology. Chichester: John Wiley, pp. 74–78
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cartmill, M.</hi> (1998). The Status of the Race Concept in Physical Anthropology. American Anthropologist, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">100</hi>: 651–60. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Foster, J. W. and Sharp, R .R.</hi> (2002). Race, Ethnicity, and Genomics: Social Classifications as Proxies of Biological Heterogeneity. Genome Research, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">12</hi>: 844–50. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gansner, E., Hu, Y., Kobourov, S. and Volinsky, C.</hi> (2009). Putting Recommendations on the Map—Visualizing Clusters and Relations. Proceedings of the Third ACM Conference on Recommender Systems, New York, pp. 345–48.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kaszycka, K. A., Štrkalj, G. and Strzałko, J.</hi> (2009). Current Views of European Anthropologists on Race: Influence of Educational and Ideological Background. American Anthropologist, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">111</hi>: 43–56. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lieberman, L., Hampton, R. E., Littlefield, A. and Hallead, G.</hi> (1992). Race in Biology and Anthropology: A Study of College Texts and Professors. Journal of Research in Science Teachng, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(3): 301–21.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Okabe, A., Boots, B., Sugihara, K. and Chiu, S. N.</hi> (2000). Spatial Tesselations: Concepts and Applications of Voronoi Diagrams. 2nd ed. Wiley, Chichester.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ousley, S. D., Jantz, R. L. and Freid, D.</hi> (2009). Understanding Race and Human Variation: Why Forensic Anthropologists Are Good at Identifying Race. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">139</hi>: 68–76. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sauer, N. J. (</hi>1992). Forensic Anthropology and the Concept of Race: If Races Don’t Exist, Why Are Forensic Anthropologists So Good at Identifying Them? Social Science and Medicine, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">34</hi>: 107–11. 
                    </bibl>
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"2390","16","The Watson Network: Using Data Visualization to Analyze Social Networks","9","","","1","",""
"2391","16","Through the Magnifying Glass: Rolling Stylometry for Collaborative Authorship","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Maciej</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Pedagogical University, Krakow, Poland; Institute of Polish Language, Polish Academy of Sciences</affiliation>
                    <email>maciejeder@gmail.com</email>
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            <p rend=""Standard"">This poster introduces a new stylometric method that combines supervised machine-learning classification with the idea of sequential analysis. Developed to assess mixed authorship, it can also be used as a magnifying glass to inspect works with an unclear stylometric signal.</p>
            <p rend=""Standard"">Sequential analysis is a very attractive way of assessing linear phenomena. The concept of the moving window is particularly important to measure given elements in their sequential order. It has been introduced to stylometry and extended by van Dalen-Oskam and van Zundert in their study on the medieval Dutch poem titled ‘Roman van Walewein’ (van Dalen-Oskam and van Zundert, 2007). Other notable approaches to visualize stylistic shifts using moving windows include papers on Middle Dutch rhyme words (Kestemont, 2010), on three disputed English prose texts (Burrows, 2010), and on 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Tutor’s Story</hi> by Kingsley and Mallet approached with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>-tests (Hoover, 2011). Recently, Rolling Delta has been applied to examine collaborative works by Joseph Conrad and Ford Madox Ford (Rybicki et al., 2014).
            </p>
            <p rend=""Standard"">The new stylometric method as discussed in this study is based on the above approaches. Its general idea is very simple: a text to be analyzed (e.g., an anonymous text to be attributed) is chunked into equal-size blocks (partially overlapping). Then, instead of attributing the text in its entirety, the goal is to perform an independent similarity test for each chunk, and to inspect the results as a sequence of ordered stylistic signals. Arguably, any classification method can be combined with this procedure. In the present study, support vector machines (SVM), nearest shrunken centroids (NSC), and Delta in its classical Burrowsian flavor have been used (Eder, 2015).</p>
            <p rend=""Standard"">The method is designed to detect stylistic takeovers. An example is 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The World’s Desire</hi>, a classic fantasy novel written collaboratively by Henry Rider Haggard and Andrew Lang in 1890. It is a story of the hero Odysseus, who returns home to Ithaca after his journey: instead of finding his home at peace, however, he is involved in several new adventures. The plot of the novel as well as its mythological background was set by Lang, while Haggard—the author of several appreciated adventure novels—contributed his imagination and style. It is assumed that Haggard reworked Lang’s drafts and actually wrote most of the novel except the first four chapters, which were written entirely by Lang.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Standard"">An experiment involving a reference corpus of eight novels by Haggard and eight by Lang corroborates the hypothesis. In Figure 1, the results of the rolling technique in Delta flavor have been shown. When the novel in question is split into sequentially ordered chunks, one can easily observe its development and—more importantly—a stylistic takeover in the first part of the text. The break point takes place roughly after the fourth chapter.</p>
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            <p rend=""Standard"">Figure 1. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The World’s Desire </hi>by Haggard/Lang assessed using Rolling Delta and 100 MFWs. Sections recognized to have been written by Haggard are marked black; Lang’s sections are marked gray.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Standard"">Two other variants of the rolling technique will be demonstrated using the Latin translation of the Bible known as the Vulgate. It is a very interesting example of a multi-level collaborative work. On the one hand, the original biblical text itself has many authors; on the other hand, the Latin translation is partially attributed to St. Jerome, and partially adopted from the already-existing Old Latin version (Vetus Latina). Thus, the authorial signal of the original interferes with translatorial takeovers: it is known that St. Jerome rendered most parts of the Old Testament and adopted the New Testament from earlier Latin versions. Detecting the translatorial voice might be a challenging task, since the author of the original is usually stylistically predominant in a translated text (Rybicki, 2012). Moreover, one should remember that two different languages of the Bible—Hebrew and Greek—might produce yet another stylometric signal. </p>
            <p rend=""Standard"">The testing procedure started with transplanting two training samples: one sample for St. Jerome’s translatorial voice, and one for the Old Latin translation as included in the Vulgate. The Book of Genesis and Acts were chosen, respectively. Next, the subsequent sections of the entire Vulgate were tested against the training samples. The results are shown in Figures 2 and 3. Rolling NSC and Rolling SVM both reveal similar stylistic takeovers. Interestingly, the main change in style takes place roughly between the Testaments (dashed vertical line).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.51cm"" height=""6.604cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
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            <p rend=""Standard"">Figure 2
                <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi> The Vulgate assessed using Rolling NSC and 1000 MFWs. Sections recognized to be similar to the Book of Genesis are marked gray
                <hi rend=""italic"">;</hi> sections similar to Acts are marked black.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.51cm"" height=""6.604cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
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            <p rend=""Standard"">Figure 3. The Vulgate assessed using Rolling SVM and 100MFWs.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Standard"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (2010). Never Say Always Again: Reflections on the Numbers Game. In McCarty, W. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text and Genre in Reconstruction: Effects of Digitalization on Ideas, Behaviors, Products and Institutions</hi>. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, pp. 13–36.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Standard"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M.</hi> (2015). Rolling Stylometry. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>. 7 April, http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqv010.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Standard"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. L.</hi> (2011). ‘The Tutor’s Story’: A Case Study of Mixed Authorship. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities: Conference Abstracts</hi>, Stanford, CA, pp. 149–51.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Standard"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kestemont, M.</hi> (2010). Velthem et al.: A Stylometric Analysis of the Rhyme Words in the Account of the Battle of the Golden Spurs in the Fifth part of the Spiegel Historiael. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Queeste,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>: 1–34.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Standard"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rybicki, J.</hi> (2012). The Great Mystery of the (Almost) Invisible Translator. In Oakes, M. P. and Ji, M. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Quantitative Methods in Corpus-Based Translation Studies</hi>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 231–48.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Standard"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rybicki, J., Kestemont, M. and Hoover D.</hi> (2014). Collaborative Authorship: Conrad, Ford, and Rolling Delta. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(3): 422–31.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Standard"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">van Dalen-Oskam, K. and van Zundert, J.</hi> (2007). Delta for Middle Dutch: Author and Copyist Distinction in Walewein. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>: 345–62.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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                        <surname>Schmidt</surname>
                        <forename>Desmond</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Queensland University of Technology, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>desmond.allan.schmidt@gmail.com</email>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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            <p rend=""CM4"">TILT is a Web-service and graphical user interface designed to make it easier to study printed books or handwritten manuscripts. TILT recognises word-shapes in page images, then links them to words in an already existing transcription. Unlike a traditional OCR program, no actual characters are recognised. Instead, the links are used to provide visual cues to the user by highlighting corresponding parts of the image and the text as the user moves the mouse over the words or taps them.</p>
            <p>Text-to-image linking was ﬁrst explored by Seales et al. (2000) in electronic editions of old English texts at the University of Kentucky. Their technique was to manually draw mostly rectangles around areas of manuscripts and then link them to the text by means of embedded markup in the transcription (Dekhtyar et al., 2005), developing eventually the commercial EPT tool. Other examples include the British Museum’s electronic 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Codex Sinaticus</hi> (BM, 2009) and, using a different display technique, the ‘zoom topographic’ view of the Samuel Beckett digital manuscript project (Hulle et al., 2011), the TILE project (Reside et al., 2011), and the TextGrid text-to-image link editor (Al-Hajj and Küster, 2013). However, all of these methods were predominantly manual. Rather than automatically processing the text and images, they invite the user to manually draw shapes (rectangles, ovals, and polygons) around words, and to link them one at a time to words in the text. This is very tedious, and the linking methods also lead to problems of overlapping markup that can only be resolved by creating two separate transcriptions: one to contain the text-to-image links and one the formatted text (Middell and Wissenbach, 2011). 
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">The earlier TILT tool (Schmidt, 2013) attempted to address the automation of the text-to-image links by allowing words to be outlined via a single click, and for entire pages to have their shapes recognised and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">linked</hi> to the corresponding words of the transcription largely automatically. But TILT 1 proved to be limited in the way it could deliver a user interface. The key problem was that in order to automate the linking, it would be necessary to have access to a fully featured suite of image-processing tools. For this, the Java class library was chosen. However, the only way to mediate the automation process was to present the tool as a Java applet, which is notoriously difficult to run in a web context.
            </p>
            <p rend=""CM5"">TILT 2 attempts to address this problem by separating the front-end GUI (link editing and management of the recognition process) from the back-end (page recognition) part. The back-end is accessible via a test interface (Schmidt, 2014), and is designed to act as a faceless service usable by anyone who has a page image and a transcription, and wants to link the two. The front-end GUI is currently under development and contains tools for revising the automatically generated word-shapes and links using standard web technologies.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""13.230930555555556cm"" height=""9.768416666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Text-to-image links and polygons as invisible GeoJSON overlay.</p>
            <p rend=""CM14"">Rather than use embedded markup in the transcriptions to link word-shapes with the corresponding words in the text, TILT uses GeoJSON (Butler et al., 2014) to describe the page and its recognised shapes, and annotates it with the positions of the words in the text. As shown in Figure 1, both the text-to-image links and the polygons that overlay the image are wholly contained in an invisible GeoJSON document, which can be loaded from a database or generated if required. The transcription can be in HTML or plain text formats. </p>
            <p rend=""CM16"">Page Recognition </p>
            <p>Given the immense variety of manuscript types, the TILT service is divided into clear stages. Each stage feeds the result into later stages, ending in the generation of the word-level links. The stages are:</p>
            <p rend=""List""> 1. Conversion to greyscale. </p>
            <p rend=""List""> 2. Conversion to two-tone. </p>
            <p rend=""List""> 3. Removal of borders. </p>
            <p rend=""List""> 4. Line recognition. </p>
            <p rend=""List""> 5. Word recognition. </p>
            <p rend=""List""> 6. Linking word-shapes to actual words. </p>
            <p rend=""CM14"">Of these, the first three conform closely to the standard processing steps of OCR and use techniques in the Java class library or the Ocropus toolset (Google, 2014).</p>
            <p>The fourth step, however, represents a departure from standard OCR techniques. In order to recognise words, they must first be organised into lines. In printed books, recognition of lines is relatively easy. OCR programs use heuristics to determine text blocks and assume even line spacing. Skewed or warped lines must first be deskewed or dewarped. Since lines may curve or tilt naturally in manuscripts, a general line-recognition algorithm is needed that can cope with both printed and handwritten material. TILT’s approach is to first divide the image into narrow vertical strips. The strips are then reduced to a single average column of pixels, which is smoothed via a moving average algorithm. The peaks in the black pixels of each strip then are taken to correspond to lines. Finally, the peaks are linked up across the page using a greedy approach, by linking the closest points in each pair of adjacent columns first, then progressively more distant points, so long as this does not cause the lines to cross (Figure 2) (BL, 2014).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""14.179902777777778cm"" height=""10.216444444444445cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p rend=""CM14"">Figure 2. Line-recognition (Court of Oyer and Terminer for Trial of Attained Traitors record book [1796] from Grenada). </p>
            <p>Once lines have been recognised they can be subdivided into words. (This assumes that texts 
                <hi rend=""italic"">have</hi> word divisions, which may not be the case in certain languages.) The current method uses the two-tone image to identify ‘blobs’ of connected pixels in an image, then surrounds them with a polygon, and finally measures the gaps between polygons (Stamatopoulos et al., 2010). So on a page with 230 words on 30 lines, the number of inter-word gaps to be expected would be 229−29=200. So, assuming that the 200 largest gaps are inter-word gaps, polygons not separated in this way can be merged to form word-shapes. Although this works well for printed texts, with success rates often as high as 98 to 100%, variation in the use of spacing in manuscripts limits its success. An alternative technique (Manmatha and Srimal, 1999) tries to determine an appropriate Gaussian blur to join up blobs into the expected number of words, and then split words on that basis, achieving 86% average word recognition on the test documents. Application of this technique to TILT2 is planned but not yet implemented.
            </p>
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            <p rend=""CM14"">Figure 3. Alignment of word-widths in text and image.</p>
            <p>The final linking step is actually the most reliable part of TILT. Since the numbers of word-shapes and words are now known, the approximate width of a single letter can be calculated. This allows the estimation of the pixel-widths of words in the text. Since the sequence of word-shapes in the image must match the sequence of word-shapes in the transcription, the two can be aligned by modifying a classic diff algorithm, such as Ukkonen’s (Ukkonen, 1985). But instead of matching letters in two texts, TILT matches word-widths and allows either several word-shapes in the page image to match one word of the transcription or several words in the transcription to match one word-shape in the image, as shown in Figure 
                <ref target=""REF BMalignment \h \* MERGEFORMAT "" rend=""ref mergeformat"">3</ref>. This can result in polygons being split or merged to correct the alignment. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""heading 3"">Editing Interface</p>
            <p>The editing interface aims to visualise the automatically generated text-to-image links and allow the user to adjust them manually. This uses a number of semi-automatic techniques to speed up the editing process (Figure 
                <ref target=""REF BMsemiautomatic \h \* MERGEFORMAT "" rend=""ref mergeformat"">4</ref>): 
            </p>
            <p rend=""List""> 1. Redistributing words among the word-shapes between any two manually specified anchor points. </p>
            <p rend=""List""> 2. Merging two selected polygons when a word-shape has been incorrectly split by dragging across the shapes. </p>
            <p rend=""List""> 3. Splitting of polygonal shapes by dragging a line across merged words. </p>
            <p>In addition to these techniques, manually adding and deleting points, and adjusting shapes provide a fallback when automatic methods fail. </p>
            <p>Although currently incomplete, the editing interface is anticipated to be ready for demonstration at the conference (Schmidt, 2015).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""13.3985cm"" height=""8.038041666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""8.79298611111111cm"" height=""1.2841111111111112cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""block""/>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""6.057194444444445cm"" height=""2.428875cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.png"" rend=""block""/>
                <head>Figure 
                    <anchor xml:id=""BMsemiautomatic""/>4: Semi-automatic editing tools: realignment with anchors (top), merging a split word (middle), splitting two merged words (bottom).
                </head>
            </figure>
            <p>Acknowledgements</p>
            <p>The TILT2 tool was one of two winners of the British Library Labs Competition 2014. The Center for Biodiversity Informatics at the Missouri Botanical Garden is currently supporting further development of the tool.</p>
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                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Al-Hajj, Y. A. A. and Kuster, M. W. </hi>(2013). The Text-Image-Link-Editor: A Tool for Linking Facsimiles and Transcriptions, and Image Annotations. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(2): 190–98. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM15"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">BL.</hi> (2014). Endangered Archives: EAP295/2: Collection of Court Records Held by the Grenada Supreme Court Registry [1765–1797]. http://eap.bl.uk/database/overview_item.a4d?catId=140831;r=21726.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM4"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">BM.</hi> (2009). Codex Sinaticus. http://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/manuscript.aspx.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM12"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Butler, H., Daly, M., Doyle, A., Gillies, S., Schaub, T. and Schmidt, C.</hi> (2014). Geojson. http://geojson.org/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM15"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dekhtyar, A., Iacob, I. E., Jaromczyk, J. W., Kiernan, K., Moore, N. and Porter, D. C.</hi> (2005). Support for XML Markup of Image-Based Electronic Editions. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal on Digital Libraries, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(1) (February): 55–69
                        <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM12"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Google.</hi> (2014). The OCRopus(tm) Open Source Document Analysis and OCR System. https://code.google.com/p/ocropus/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manmatha, R. and Srimal, N.</hi> (1999). Scale Space Technique for Word Segmentation in Handwritten Documents. In Nielsen, M., Johansen, P., Olsen, O. and Wieckert, J. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scale-Space Theories in Computer Vision</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lecture Notes in Computer Science</hi>. Vol. 1682. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 22–33.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM15"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Middell, G. and Wissenbach, M.</hi> (2011). Faust: Multiple Encodings and Diplomatic Transcript Layout. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Philology in the Digital Age Annual TEI Conference</hi>, Wurzburg, 10–16 October 2011, http://www.tei-c.org/Vault/MembersMeetings/2011/ﬁleadmin /04100700/_temp_/TEI_Book_of_Abstracts.pdf, p. 29.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM12"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reside, D., Lester, D., Porter, D. and Walsh, J.</hi> (2011). Tile–Text Image Linking Environment. http://mith.umd.edu/tile/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM15"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, D. </hi>(2013). Text to Image Linking Tool (TILT). In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013 Proceedings</hi>, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 16–19 July 2013, http://dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-112.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM6"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, D.</hi> (2014). TILT2 Test Interface. http://ecdosis.net/tilt/test/post.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, D.</hi> (2015). TILT2. http://www.github.com/AustESE-Infrastructure/TILT2.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Seales, W. B., Griﬃoen, J., Kiernan, K., Yuan, C. J. and Cantara, L. </hi>(2000). The Digital Atheneum: New Techniques for Restoring and Preserving Old Documents. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computers in Libraries,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">20</hi>(2) (February): 26–31. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stamatopoulos, N., Louloudis, G. and Gatos, B.</hi> (2010). Efficient Transcript Mapping to Ease the Creation of Document Image Segmentation Ground Truth with Text-Image Alignment. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Frontiers in Handwriting Recognition, </hi>Kolkata, 16–18 November 2010. IEEE, pp. 226–31.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""CM12"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ukkonen, Esko.</hi> 1985. Algorithms for Approximate String Matching. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Information and Control,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">64</hi>: 100–118. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Hulle, D., Nixon, M. and Neyt, V.</hi> (2011). Samuel Beckett Digital Manuscript Project. http://www.beckettarchive.org/demo/.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2394","16","Topic Modeling French Crime Fiction","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Schöch</surname>
                        <forename>Christof</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Würzburg, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>christof.schoech@uni-wuerzburg.de</email>
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            <p>This study applies topic modeling to a collection of French crime fiction novels in order to discover topic-related patterns. The results show both expected and unexpected patterns related to authors, subgenres, and time period. Topic modeling proves highly useful for investigating the history of French crime fiction. </p>
            <p>French Crime Fiction</p>
            <p>Crime fiction is a type of narrative prose fiction involving the elucidation of a (usually) violent crime through a (more or less) rational investigation (often) taking place in an urban setting and (typically) involving (one or several) investigators, victims, witnesses, suspects, and criminals. French crime fictionʼs rich history goes back to the 1860s and has many highly prolific proponents. Prototypical detective fiction is easily recognized, but the boundaries of the genre and its internal division into subgenres remain controversial (see Todorov, 1971; Lits, 1993; Colin, 1999; Lavergne, 2009). The abundant material is a challenge to any readerʼs memory but an opportunity for quantitative methods.</p>
            <p>Research Questions</p>
            <p>This study addresses the following questions: How prevalent are expected, genre-related topics such as crime and investigation, and which other topics are important? What relations exist between topics and categories like authorship, subgenre, or time period? What kind of groupings of novels does one obtain based on topic similarity? What new insights into the history of crime fiction does topic modeling allow?</p>
            <p>Data</p>
            <p>For this study, a collection of 270 French novels published between 1858 and 2012 was created. The vast majority are crime fiction novels, but some non–crime fiction novels have also been included. The collection includes novels pertaining to seven subgenres and written by 14 different authors. It has around 16 million word tokens. Texts in the public domain have been obtained online (from ebooksgratuits.com), while additional texts have been obtained by full-text digitization.</p>
            <p>Method</p>
            <p>Topic modeling is an unsupervised method of discovering latent semantic structure in large collections of texts. Technically, a topic is a probability distribution over word frequencies, and each text is characterized by a distribution over topics (see Steyvers and Griffiths, 2006). In practice, the words with the highest scores in a given topic are mostly semantically related words; the topics with the highest scores in a text represent the textʼs major themes or motives. </p>
            <p>The most widely known algorithm is Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA; see Blei et al., 2003), but several precursors and alternatives exist—for instance, Non-Negative Matrix Factorization (Lee and Seung, 1999). Several tools are available, like MALLET (McCallum, 2002) or gensim (Rehurek and Sojka, 2010), as well as tutorials (e.g., Graham et al., 2012, Riddell, 2014). Topic modeling has proven immensely popular in digital humanities (e.g., Blevins, 2010; Rhody, 2012; Jockers, 2013).</p>
            <p>For the results reported here, the following parameters have been used: Lemmatization has been applied to the texts, because French is a highly inflected language. After POS-tagging with TreeTagger (Schmid, 1994), nouns have exclusively been selected for analysis. Each novel has then been split into segments of approximately 150 nouns each. MALLET has been run with 60 target topics and 10,000 iterations. </p>
            <p>Results and Discussion</p>
            <p>Topics Obtained</p>
            <p>The topics obtained can manually be labeled by their dominant semantic trait (see Figure 1).</p>
            <p>Figure 1. Selection from the 60 topics obtained (with topic ID and 20 top-ranked words).</p>
            <p>The subjective topic coherence is very high: few top-ranked words do not share semantic traits, and few topics are hard to interpret (but see Chang et al., 2009; Schmidt, 2012). Many topics could appear in any type of novels, such as topics #28, #38, and #01 (labeled ‘family’, ‘money’, ‘train’). Only nine out of 60 topics are related to crime fiction, such as #15, #33, and #53 (labeled ‘investigators’, ‘fire arms’, ‘jewelry’). Judged by topic composition alone, crime fiction appears to be a less distinctive novelistic sub-genre than expected. Note that topics are based on various types of similarity: topic #44 (‘interiors’) is related to a recurrent setting, topic #22 (“informal1”) to a specific register.</p>
            <p>Authorship, Subgenre, and Time</p>
            <p>Topic scores per text segment can be aggregated and averages obtained, for instance, at the document, author, genre, or time period levels. </p>
            <p>On the author level (see Figure 2), it appears that several (but not all) authors have a distinctive ‘signature topic’: a topic with a particularly high score in comparison both to other topics for the same author and to the same topic for other authors (i.e., across rows and columns). </p>
            <figure/>
            <p>Figure 2. Distribution of topic scores at the author level (15 topics with the largest variation across authors, measured in standard deviations).</p>
            <p>Gaboriau
                <anchor xml:id=""_DdeLink__562_1474829924""/>ʼs signature topic is very general (#11, ‘bourgeoisie’) while Simenonʼs is more genre-specific (#29, ‘office’) and Maletʼs is not thematic (#22, ‘informal1’). For some authors (Leroux, Manchette, Ponson), no clear signature topic emerges. 
            </p>
            <p>Compared to authors, most subgenres have less marked characteristic topics (Figure 3).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""13.999986111111111cm"" height=""9.607902777777777cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Topic scores aggregated to the subgenre level (20 topics with the largest variation, measured in standard deviations, across genres).</p>
            <p>For example, the classical detective novelʼs most characteristic topic is #29 (‘office’). However, the traditional genre labels used here are problematic, because they tend to refer to periods rather than structural types and correlate strongly with authorship. </p>
            <p>When average topic scores are obtained across all novels for each successive tenths of novels, and topic score progressions are compared across subgenres, genre-specific patterns appear (see Figure 4). </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""5.499805555555556cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. Topic score progression for topic #26 (average topic scores per text segment and subgenre).</p>
            <p>For instance, topic #26 (‘twilight’) decreases over the course of the average detective fiction novel, but remains stable at a higher level over the course of ‘roman noir’. In the former, darkness and uncertainty are being dispelled and order restored, while in the latter, they are not. </p>
            <p>The distribution of topics at the level of time period (Figure 5) shows that, as expected, some topics gain while others lose in importance over time. Some very similar topics ‘take turns’, as it were, with successive peaks (‘informal’, right). Others reflect larger societal changes (different means of 
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""5.499805555555556cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>communication, left).
            </p>
            <p>Figure 5. Topic scores per decade for two topic groups.</p>
            <p>For the ‘informal’ topics, each peak is associated with one author and their period of activity: Malet, Dard, and Vargas (see Figure 2). The topicʼs rapid rise in the 1940s underlines how bold Maletʼs use of informal language was, but also shows the (problematic) impact of individual authors on these temporal patterns.</p>
            <p>Beyond individual topic development over time, the cumulated rate of change in topic scores from one decade to the next gives an insight into the thematic innovation cycles of crime fiction (Figure 6). </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""11.999736111111112cm"" height=""7.999236111111111cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 6. Cumulated absolute differences between topic scores from one decade to the next.</p>
            <p>Values above trendline indicate periods of intense topic-related innovation and, possibly, generational shifts (notably, 1880s–1900s and 1930s–1940s). Values below indicate periods of relative continuity (notably, 1910s–1920s and 1940s–1960s). Such results provide a fresh perspective on periodization in literary history. </p>
            <p>Author Similarity</p>
            <p>Based on the topic scores per novel, author, or genre, Principal Component Analysis (see Joliffe, 2002) yields groupings of topically similar items, independently of preexisting classifications. The PCA plots in Figure 7 are based on topic scores aggregated to the author </p>
            <p>level and have been obtained 
                <graphic n=""1007"" width=""16.00023611111111cm"" height=""6.932083333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image7.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>using the stylo package for R (Eder et al., 2013). The first two components retain large parts of the variation in the data (31.3% and 12.6%, respectively).
            </p>
            <p>Figure 7. PCA plot of aggregated topic scores per author: authors (right) and loadings (left).</p>
            <p>Not surprisingly for a collection of texts spanning 150 years, the first component is correlated </p>
            <p>with time period: authors active before 1930 are located to the east of the plot, those active from 1930 to 1960 close to the middle, and those active after 1960 to the west. A notable exception is Fred Vargas: although writing in the late twentieth century, she appears close to Malet and Dard: the topic-based grouping reveals a link between the now classic ‘roman noir’ and its later reinterpretation by Vargas. Note that although the three authors each have an ‘informal’ topic as their ‘signature topic’ (see above), their proximity remains unchanged even when these topics are removed. Japrisotʼs unique work rightly stands out, but his relative proximity to Simenon remains to be explained. </p>
            <p>Conclusions and Future Work </p>
            <p>The results obtained here shed a new light on the history of French crime fiction. Authors, subgenres, and time periods each have distinctive topic characteristics. Some well-understood facts about the genre can be confirmed (e.g., author groupings), but new insights into the genreʼs thematic history also become possible (e.g., thematic innovation cycles). Topic modeling proves to be a valuable tool, providing a fresh perspective on literary history and prompting new interrogations about periodization and the contours of subgenres. </p>
            <p>Future work will involve two areas: The text collection will be expanded to reduce correlation between authors, subgenres, and time period. Also, the precise relation between topics and certain categories (e.g., subgenres) will be further investigated using supervised/labeled topic modeling (see McAuliffe and Blei, 2008; Ramage et al., 2009). </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
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                        <forename>Sándor</forename>
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            <p>There is growing interest in intangible cultural heritage for narrative generation (Peinado and Gervás, 2006), yet with no test collections of tales or myths available, the computational modeling of narratives is still in its infancy (Finlayson et al., 2014). On the other hand, folk narratives are a global phenomenon, amply documented by fieldwork. These on the one hand pin down the major tale types as canonical motif sequences (Uther, 2004), so that storyline variants can be grouped under such types as document classes. Also, there exist lists of indexing criteria, which can be used to describe the content of such narratives on different conceptual levels (Thompson, 1955–1958). Therefore, methods that can accommodate nested compositional structure are required to index such material. </p>
            <p>At the same time, information societies increasingly exploit digitized content for knowledge discovery, the scalability of data often leading to unforeseen opportunities for data analytics (Virshup et al., 2013). As there are apparent structural similarities between the recombinative transmission mechanisms of hereditary material in biology vs. cultural memories inherent, e.g., in texts, departing from earlier work on narrative genomics (Darányi et al., 2012; Ofek et al., 2013), and by calling in significant theoretical and development progress in analogical information retrieval and inference in the biomedical domain (Cohen et al., 2012; 2014), here we report on a new integrated methodology for narrative analysis. The idea goes back to literature-based discovery (Swanson, 1986; Cohen et al., 2010), and implements Propp’s formalism to analyze Russian fairy tales as representations of sets of concept-relation-concept triplets, or predications, in high-dimensional space. </p>
            <p>Predication-based semantic trawling (PBST) is designed to both aggregate material conformant with specific semantic markup in a knowledge base and to improve the robustness of the same knowledge base by a feedback loop. The idea goes back to the metaphor of a fishing net with variable mesh size, implemented as (1) a knowledge base with a learning component; (2) storing semantically marked-up source material as a test collection, where markup regulates content granularity, i.e., the mesh size; (3) using the knowledge base for information filtering (Brin, 1998; Agichtein and Gravano, 2000) by trawling external data; (4) iteratively expanding the test collection by trawling results; and (5) periodically analyzing incoming data with the results fed back to the learning base. </p>
            <p>Our new methodology is designed with scalability, quality, and automation in mind. To this end, we consider the respective integration of available technological steps into a single processing workflow as the missing link to get from little to big data in folk narrative analysis (Malec et al., 2014). These technological steps come from a combination of biomedical text analysis with the Proppian analysis of fairy tales. </p>
            <p>In biomedical text analysis, Predication-based Semantic Indexing (PSI) provides the means to efficiently search across tens of millions of concept-relation-concept triplets, known as semantic predications, extracted from the biomedical literature using a Natural Language Processing (NLP) system called SemRep (Rindflesch and Fiszman, 2003). SemRep uses the UMLS
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> and MetaMap
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> to map relevant expressions from free text to concepts in a controlled vocabulary, and extracts relationships between these concepts using underspecified syntactic parsing, a set of indicator rules, and constraints present in the UMLS semantic network. PSI derives high-dimensional vector representations of concepts from the predications they occur in, effectively circumventing the combinatorial explosion of possible pathways between concepts by converting the task of traversing individual predications into the task of measuring the similarity between composite concept vectors. Consequently, search time for single, double, or triple predicate paths is identical once the relevant concept vectors have been constructed. This method can also detect double and triple predicate pathways connecting example pairs of therapeutically related drugs and diseases, and use these inferred pathways to guide search for treatments for other diseases. Further, PSI has been used to mediate semantic search by utilizing high-dimensional vector representations to infer the nature of the relationship between query concepts and other concepts in relevant documents. Inference is accomplished in high-dimensional space using Expansion-by-Analogy, a novel analogical approach to pseudo-relevance feedback, in which the relationships between query concepts and other concepts in documents they occur in guide the query expansion process. The semantic vector–based approaches developed show improvements in performance over a baseline bag-of-concepts model, and these are most pronounced on queries that are not conducive to keyword-based search (Cohen et al., 2014). This approach can be used to create predication-based semantic space for folk narratives. 
            </p>
            <p>V. J. Propp’s theory that the canonical form of Russian fairy tales is a compulsory sequence of actions—called 
                <hi rend=""italic"">functions</hi> and selected from a list of 31 typical activities performed by typical actors—was based on a limited sample of cca 50 fairy tales from the Afanas’ev collection, itself comprising cca 600 stories, selected and compiled in the 19th century (Propp, 1968). Whereas the in-principle applicability of the scheme, with or without modifications, has been extensively debated ever since, researchers have started to look at the reproduction of Propp’s conclusions only recently (Bod et al., 2012). The scheme lends itself to semantic markup (Malec, 2010; Lendvai et al., 2010), with subject-verb-object (SVO) triples underlying Proppian functions suitable for predicate encoding of tale content, an observation first publicly observed among Western readers by Rumelhart (1975). 
            </p>
            <p>The following are typical examples of predication from the biomedical informatics domain: </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Concept_1 </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Relation </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Concept_2 </hi>
            </p>
            <p>Mammalian Oviducts LOCATION_OF Sterility </p>
            <p>Thymol turbidity test DIAGNOSES Disease </p>
            <p>Epididymis LOCATION_OF Obstruction </p>
            <p>In comparison, predicates based on Russian fairy tales look like the following: </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Concept_1 </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Relation </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Concept_2</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Baba Yaga IS_A donor </p>
            <p>Golden apple IS_A gift </p>
            <p>Baba Yaga LIVES_IN hut on chicken legs </p>
            <p>Donor GIVES gift (direct object) </p>
            <p>Donor GIVES_TO protagonist (indirect object) </p>
            <p>In the Proppian sample corpus, e.g., Baba Yaga gives a magic apple to Ivan Simpleton, who therefore is the protagonist,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> exemplifying the ‘donor’ function. The following tale segment helps to identify this function (Afanas’ev 96: ‘Morozko/Jack Frost’): 
            </p>
            <p>The poor little thing remained there shivering and softly repeating her prayers. </p>
            <p>Jack Frost came leaping and jumping and casting glances at the lovely maiden. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">‘Maiden, maiden, I am Jack Frost the Ruby-nosed!’ he said. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">‘Welcome, Jack Frost! God must have sent you to save my sinful soul.’</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Jack Frost was about to crack her body and freeze her to death, but he was touched by her wise words, pitied her, and tossed her a fur coat.</hi>
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Here the ‘maiden’, a stepdaughter, is ordered by her stepmother to be left out to the elements in the forest, a plot element representative of Cinderella-like tales (ATU Type 510A) called ‘mat’ padcheritsa’ or ‘Zolushka’ tales in Russian folklore tradition. Jack Frost is clearly the donor. The verb ‘tossed’ is mapped to the ‘GIVES_TO’ relation for its predicate
                <hi rend=""bold"">. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>Steps in the processing workflow are as follows: </p>
            <p> • Apply PoS tagging,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> anaphora resolution,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> and semantic role labeling with SemLink
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi> (Palmer et al., 2010). 
            </p>
            <p> • Normalize concepts and predicates and identify triplets (Rusu et al., 2007). </p>
            <p> * Decompose tales sentence by sentence, noting context with respect to Proppian function sequence. </p>
            <p> * Shallow parsing of texts using Stanford parser or OpenNLP to identify SVO. </p>
            <p> * Extract triples. </p>
            <p> • Situate these normalized concept and predicate triplets as metadata within the marked-up corpus as the Proppian SemRep (PSR) output. </p>
            <p> * Through a kind of hermeneutic circle, create an analogy of the UMLS in biomedical domain, except with domain knowledge particular to folk narratives, e.g., a controlled vocabulary for predicates (GIVES_TO, ACCEPTS, PUNISHES, etc.), concepts (hero). </p>
            <p> * Index predications into PSI-space and index corpus with permuted random indexing (PRI), then visualize results by Epiphanet (Schvaneveldt, 1990) and the query/d3.js interface. </p>
            <p> * Extract triples from the Morphology itself to create a knowledge base for purposes of reasoning about the Russian fairy tale domain. </p>
            <p>The PSR tool allows for the sequential encoding of marked-up text by circular holographic reduced representation (De Vine and Bruza, 2010), the binary spatter code (Kanerva, 1996), or PRI (Sahlgren et al., 2008) to map them in predication space. For this, different open-source software components are available, prominently the SemanticVectors package.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">8</hi> The output of PSR enables the analogical retrieval of predicates, finding missing pieces of evidence to reason about dramatic personae and the plot logic of magic tales. 
            </p>
            <p>The core of the tale set for the initial knowledge base are a subset of more than 45 tales in English translation to reflect the subset of Afanas’ev’s tales in Propp’s schema in appendix III. The second sweep will cover a larger subset of the Afanas’ev collection, namely that which Propp himself stated at the outset as his concern
                <hi rend=""superscript"">9</hi> before the semantic trawling of web resources may commence. 
            </p>
            <p>We have presented here a very rough model and a proof of concept. There will likely be room to address some aspects of the complex issue of the dynamic learning of narrative macro-structures, which tend to be distinctive of particular traditions and populations (Colby, 1973). Finally, our contribution ought to be seen in the light as ‘bootstrapping’ an artificial system to facilitate analogical reasoning about a limited subset of themes, structures, and encoding devices of traditional narrative.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/umls/. </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">2. http://metamap.nlm.nih.gov/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. This is a special case where we need an indirect object, Ivan Simpleton. </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">4. https://github.com/kingfish777/ProppModel/blob/master/000_096_Morozko.xml.</p>
            <p>5. http://nlp.stanford.edu/software/lex-parser.shtml.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">6. http://cswww.essex.ac.uk/Research/nle/GuiTAR/gtarNew.html.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">7. http://verbs.colorado.edu/semlink/. Semlink can create mappings between PropBank, VerbNet, WordNet, and FrameNet.</p>
            <p>8. https://code.google.com/p/semanticvectors/. </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">9. Tales #93-270 from Afanas’ev, inclusive of the tales already mentioned.</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bod, R., Fisseni, B., Kurji, A. and Löwe, B.</hi> (2012). Objectivity and Reproducibility of Proppian Narrative Annotations. In Finlayson, M. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Third Workshop on Computational Models of Narrative</hi>, pp. 17–21, http://narrative.csail.mit.edu/cmn12/proceedings.pdf. 
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                        <hi rend=""color(1E1E1E)"">Ablex, Norwood, NJ.</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thompson, S.</hi> (1955–1958). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Motif-Index of Folk-Literature: A Classification of Narrative Elements in Folktales, Ballads, Myths, Fables, Medieval Romances, Exempla, Fabliaux, Jest-Books, and Local Legends.</hi> Indiana University Press, Bloomington. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Uther, H. J.</hi> (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Types of International Folktales: A Classification and Bibliography Based on the System of Antti Aarne and Stith Thompson.</hi> Academia Scientiarum Fennica, Helsinki. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Virshup, A. M., Contreras-Garcia, J., Wipf, P., Yang, W. and Beretan, D. N.</hi> (2013). Stochastic Voyages into Uncharted Chemical Space Produce a Representative Library of All Possible Drug-Like Compounds. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">135</hi>: 7296–303. 
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            </div>
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"2396","16","Towards an Ontopedia for Post-Medieval Hebrew Manuscripts","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Prebor</surname>
                        <forename>GIla</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Bar Ilan University, Israel</affiliation>
                    <email>gila.prebor@biu.ac.il</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Zhitomirsky-Geffet</surname>
                        <forename>Maayan</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Bar Ilan University, Israel</affiliation>
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                    <term>Ontology for historical manuscripts</term>
                    <term>Hebrew historical handwritten manuscripts</term>
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                    <term>semantic web</term>
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            <p>Digitization of the national cultural heritage is a rapidly expanding field essential for preserving and maintaining the historical data and leveraging its future research. Historical handwritten Hebrew manuscripts are one of the most unique and authentic evidences of the Jewish culture and thought that survived through the centuries. Scholars from various fields increasingly study these manuscripts to reveal historical, linguistic, religious, philosophical, and social aspects of the Jewish life in different times and places (Sirat, 2002; Richler, 2010–2011). Currently, the only available digital representation of these manuscripts’ metadata is library catalogs. The largest collection of Hebrew manuscripts metadata is offered by the catalog of the Institute of Microfilmed Hebrew Manuscripts in the National Library of Israel (http://web.nli.org.il/). This catalog is accompanied with a search engine to retrieve records by a limited number of parameters, such as author, title, date, and subject, while most of the data still remain unsearchable and thus undiscovered. Many important research questions cannot be answered by searching the existing manuscript catalogs, e.g.: How many works on specified subjects were composed in this period in different countries? What people were involved in their creation and distribution? Are these people related to each other, and how? What historical events could influence these people and their works? Are these original works or copies of older works from other manuscripts or even from printed books? Hence, to enable a systematic research of the knowledge embedded in the manuscripts there is a need for a formal conceptual data model with a high level of semantic granularity, an ontology. To the best of our knowledge, there is no formal ontology for the realm of historical handwritten Hebrew manuscripts. </p>
            <p>Therefore, in this research we design an ontological model to reflect all the cultural riches stored in post-medieval Hebrew manuscripts. We focus on the post-medieval period (16th century and later), because tens of thousands of works that belong to this period are underexplored in the research literature (Prebor, 2015). The underlying philosophical approach behind the proposed ontology is to view a manuscript as a ‘living entity’ and develop a data model of its story. This model includes stages and milestones in its biography (e.g., creation, printing, or acquisition), and its influence and interactions with other manuscripts, people, places, and historical and cultural events (see Figure 1). A sequence of events and places (as Jewish writers were spread over the world) constitutes a timeline of history against which manuscripts, people, and their relationships can be placed. Apparently, this ontology creation requires researching the most appropriate existing ontologies for the domain of cultural heritage (such as CIDOC-CRM, a result of a 10-year project [Doerr, 2003] and Europeana Data Model [Winer, 2014]).</p>
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            <p>Figure 1. A proposed conceptual model for the upper-level historical manuscript ontology. The square boxes represent the top-level classes and their subclasses; the properties are displayed by single-line arrows, while the names of properties appear near the corresponding arrows. Child-parent arrows represent IS-A/subclass relationships.</p>
            <p>Finally, the ontopedia (online ontology-based encyclopedia) for the Hebrew historical manuscripts will be constructed as a culmination of this multidisciplinary study that comprises and integrates research in various fields of science. Thus, computer scientists are involved in automatic mapping of catalog fields to ontology and user interface design, information experts contribute to the conceptual model development and evaluation, librarians sort and analyze catalog records, while researchers of Hebrew paleography complete the missing features of the manuscripts and build query sets for extending the ontopedia. </p>
            <p>The results of our project will greatly contribute to the study of Hebrew manuscripts and cultural heritage. It will enable posing queries and cross-referencing data from various vocabularies in the Semantic Web (as in Figure 2). Large-scale automated reasoning will also enable a comparison of the effect of time and place on qualitative characteristics and quantitative distribution of manuscripts. </p>
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            <p>Figure 2. Sketch of the user interface for query construction for selected ontological relations by browsing the ontology. A sample query is: ‘All the Rabbinic figures who authored post-medieval manuscripts related to some historical event in Russia’.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Doerr, M.</hi> (2003). The CIDOC Conceptual Reference Module: An Ontological Approach to Semantic Interoperability of Metadata. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">AI Magazine,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>(3): 75–92.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Prebor, G.</hi> (2015). The Manuscript 
                        <hi rend=""hps"">Collection</hi> of the Séminaire Israélite de France. Towards a New Catalog. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">La Bibliofilia</hi>, CXVII.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Richler, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold smallcaps"">B.</hi> (2010–2011). Lezione Dottorale, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Materia giudaica</hi>, XV–XVI, 14–16.28.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sirat, C.</hi> (2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Hebrew Manuscripts of the Middle Ages</hi>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Winer, D.</hi> (2014). Judaica Europeana: An Infrastructure for Aggregating Jewish Content. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Judaica Librarianship,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(1): 88–115. 
                    </bibl>
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"2397","16","Traces of Lives in Digital Archives: Life Writing, Marginalia and Google Books","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <forename>Tully</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Flinders University, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>tully.barnett@flinders.edu.au</email>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>book digitisation</term>
                    <term>digital reading</term>
                    <term>marginalia</term>
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                    <term>archives</term>
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            <p>The first decade of the ambitious Google Books project has produced a great deal of controversy as well as a valuable resource. The project has been consistently challenged by authors’ and publishers’ groups mounting legal action. The rhetoric that Google uses to justify the project frequently concerns fair use, access, marginal voices, a so-called global library, and the role of access to information in supporting a strong democracy. </p>
            <p>In the process of digitization, the books are transformed considerably. The act of reading texts on Google Books is complicated by the many figures crowding the text and the act itself. In addition to the author/s of the work in question, there may be, scattered throughout the text, traces of a person who has gifted the book, of the borrowers whose trace is marked by library loan stamps, and there are the multiple readers who have left physical marks of their reading upon the page. This marginalia can be found in the form of underlines in the text and marks in the margins—from simple ‘X’s, to detailed comments of varying degrees of legibility, to questions asked of the text and doodles drawn on the page. Also present in the text, on occasion, and complicating reception, is the ghostly figure of the book scanner whose labour is made visible by spectral fingers caught in the scan and numerous other kinds of scanning errors that, given the haste of the project, make it through quality control and into the online space.</p>
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            <p>But the Google Books reader does not leave a trace. I, reading the text on the screen, make no marks upon the text to leave for others. Although my digital trace may be recorded in the IP number, I cannot leave a trace of my reading for the next reader to examine or build upon. I may transcribe the text. I may now download (selected) books to read on a plethora of devices. I may use the clip tool to take or even share a passage with my social network. But I cannot alter the book as it appears in the archive. While I can annotate—publically or privately—a Kindle book, leaving traces in the form of underlines signifying highlights and notes, I cannot annotate a Google book. The object is frozen for all time in its scanned state (or states, since frequently scans exist from a number of different editions or copies of a book). </p>
            <p>The presence of the reader on the page of the printed book has been a marginal concern for the field of book history for scholars from manuscript culture and before to the recent obsession with David Foster Wallace’s cacophonous presence on the pages of his library, now acquired by the Harry Ransom Centre at the University of Texas. Marginalia tell us something about the reader’s response to the work, and it tends to be the marginal notes of literary giants that receives attention from scholars (Nabokov, Kerouac, Wilde).</p>
            <p>The presence of life narrative voices in the archive, and the material conditions they reflect, has significant ramifications for how we see the texts. How then do we approach the case of a published family history that has been housed for over a century in a public library and in that time has been heavily annotated with additions, comments, responses, notes, and interjections? To pursue this train of thought, I want to use as a case study a life narrative texts in the Google Books archive. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Memoir of the Farrar Family</hi> was published in 1847 by Timothy Farrar (1788–1874). The book exists in multiple online formats. It is available as full text from Archive.org as well as from Google Books. It is available for purchase on Amazon, with a caveat that the work comes from a scan and may have marks and imperfections. The book is referred to on many genealogical websites, which tells us something about the sort of text that it is. The inside cover says, ‘A Discourse occasioned by the centennial anniversary of Hon. Timothy Farrar, LL. Delivered at Hollis, N.H. July 11 1847 by Timothy Farrar Clary. Printed by Request. Andover: Printed by William H. Wardwell. 1847’.
            </p>
            <p>Google’s bibliographic information for the book tells us that it was originally digitized on 18 September 2007 from a text located at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. What makes this case so curious is that the book as it exists in the Google Books archive is riddled with the markings of a later reader. The handwriting is persistent throughout the pages of the short work, and the marginalia take the form not of active reading, of someone underlining the work as they go, but of a reader supplementing and correcting the text’s facts.</p>
            <p>This paper considers the implications of Google Books on the life writing it digitizes and on the notion of the library/archive and the interplay of voices in the digitization not only of a polished and published family history but also of the voices added to the text in less formal ways. The paper uses frameworks from the history of the book discourse, marginalia studies, and new media studies to consider the residual marks of other readers in ephemera and marginalia on the page and uses as case studies two works of life writing from the 19th century to examine the implications of autobiographical voices unbound by Google Books and the intellectual labour/vandalism represented by the works’ many readers. I apply Alexander Galloway’s view of the interface as ‘a generative friction between different formats’ (2012, 31) and look to media archaeology and Lisa Gitelman’s work on the history of documents for a means of understanding the layers at work in reading an annotated digitized work of life writing, a genre in which the traces of readers and digitization procedures are more keenly felt. </p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Borgman, C. L.</hi> (2000). From Gutenberg to the Global Information Infrastructure: Access to Information in the Networked World. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brockmeier, J.</hi> (2010). After the Archive: Remapping Memory. Culture &amp; Psychology, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">16</hi>(1) (March): 5–35.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Darnton, R.</hi> (2011). Six Reasons Why Google Books Failed. New York Review of Books, 28 March, http://www.nybooks.com/blogs/nyrblog/2011/mar/28/six-reasons-google-books-failed/.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Esposito, J.</hi> (2011). The Terrible Price of Free: On E-Reading Jane Austen via Google’s E-books. Scholarly Kitchen, 14 March, http://scholarlykitchen.sspnet.org/2011/03/14/the-terrible-price-of-free-on-e-reading-jane-austen-via-googles-e-books/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Galloway, A. R.</hi> (2012). The Interface Effect. Polity, Cambridge. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gitelman, L.</hi> 2014. Paper Knowledge: Toward a Media History of Documents. Duke University Press, Durham, NC.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jackson, H.</hi> (2001). Marginalia: Readers Writing in Books. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kirschenbaum, M.</hi> (2013) Bookscapes: Books in Electronic Space, http://mkirschenbaum.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/bookscapes.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lessig, L.</hi> (2010). For the Love of Culture. New Republic, 26 January, http://www.newrepublic.com/article/the-love-culture.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nunberg, G.</hi> (2009). Google’s Book Search: A Disaster for Scholars. Chronicle Review, http://chronicle.com/article/Googles-Book-Search-A/48245/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pressman, J.</hi> (2013). The Literary and/as the Digital Humanities. Digital Humanities Quarterly, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sheringham, M.</hi> (2005). Memory and the Archive in Contemporary Life-Writing. French Studies, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">59</hi>(1): 47–53.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smith, S. and Watson, J.</hi> (2010). Reading Autobiography: A Guide for Interpreting Life Narratives. 2nd ed. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Swanstrom, L.</hi> (2011). From Gutenberg to Google: Electronic Representations of Literary Texts; Digitize This Book! The Politics of New Media, or Why We Need Open Access Now; Poetic Acts and New Media. American Literature, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">83</hi>(2): 466–68.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wilson, K.</hi> 2015. The Art of Google Books. http://theartofgooglebooks.tumblr.com/.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2398","16","Tracing the afterlife of iconic photographs using IPTC","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Kleppe</surname>
                        <forename>Martijn</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Erasmus University Rotterdam, Netherlands, The</affiliation>
                    <email>kleppe@eshcc.eur.nl</email>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
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                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>photographs</term>
                    <term>metadata</term>
                    <term>image recognition</term>
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            <p>In recent popular and scientific products of historiography, ever more similar-looking photographs of (mostly symbolic) happenings are used as an instrument to tell a story about important events or structural trends. These types of images can be called iconic photographs (Hariman and Lucaites, 2007). We consider iconic photos as photographs that have been reproduced more than once and have a special composition. They refer to archetypes and have the potential to be an archetype itself, and thus represent more than what is being displayed. Although this symbolic meaning is immediately obvious, it may change over time when the photograph is published in different contexts during its afterlife (Kroes, 2007). Since a group of people know these photographs and attribute the same meaning to it, they are part of a ‘collective memory’ (Kleppe, 2013a). Well-known examples of iconic photographs are the photo of a girl running naked and screaming after a napalm bombardment in Vietnam in 1972 or the man in front of a line of tanks at Tiananmen Square, Beijing, in 1989. These examples can be considered to be ‘global super icons’. However, iconic photographs also exist within a national context (Paul, 2008). This paper describes how we determined which Dutch photographs can be called iconic by using IPTC technology. This technique is being used in the media industry to transfer information on photographs in unified standards. We applied this technology to efficiently research our two questions that form two elements of the above-formulated definition of an iconic photograph: (1) Which photo is published most often in a dataset and therefore functions as an iconic image, and (2) How can the changing symbolic meaning during the afterlife of iconic photos be studied? </p>
            <p>Method </p>
            <p>The International Press Telecommunication Council (IPTC) develops technical standards for news organisations.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> By applying the same standards, a photographer can embed the information of a photo inside the file and send this to an editor at a newspaper who can download the metadata in the local ICT-infrastructure. This technique not only facilitates the exchange of files between journalists, but academics, digital libraries, and cultural heritage institutions can also use IPTC to include information about their objects in the digital files (Grijsen, 2012; Reser and Bauman, 2012). 
            </p>
            <p>We used this technology to determine which Dutch photos are published most often by analysing 5,000 photographs in 400 Dutch history textbooks, published in the period from 1970 to 2000. All photos were digitized and analyzed by assigning 41 variables (such as topic, caption, person, and year). However, finding similar images in a large dataset can be a challenge given the high level of subjectivity when interpreting photographs (Finnegan, 2006; Rose, 2007) and the lack of standardized thesauri to describe photographs (Kleppe, 2012). To overcome this ‘semantic gap’ (Smeulders et al., 2000) we formulated a list of historical events based on a literature review, creating metadata that were tailored to our research question (Wallace, 2010). Together with all factual information about the photo, this data was included in the IPTC fields that are embedded within the digital file of the photograph by using the commercial software program Fotostation Pro.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> This program not only allowed us to do full text searches through all assigned metadata but we were also able to share our research data with other researchers who could import the information in the IPTC fields of their photo-, editing- and viewing software. Moreover, we were able to export all values to CSV-files that were importable into statistical software packages such as SPSS. 
            </p>
            <p>Results </p>
            <p>By making frequency tables of the list of topics we described about all photos, we calculated which topics were most present in the set of photographs. We then manually went over the images that illustrate these topics to find the images that were used most often. This method allowed us to answer our first research question on which photo is published most often and therefore functions as an iconic image. Results show that a 1912 photograph of Dutch socialist politician Pieter Jelles Troelstra is used most often in the analyzed textbooks. On the photo, Troelstra gives a speech in which he pleads for universal suffrage (see photo 1). </p>
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            <p>Photo 1. The photo of Pieter Jelles Troelstra that was published most often in the analysed Dutch History textbooks. Source: Cornelis Leenheer, IISG, https://www.flickr.com/photos/iisg/4071852722/in/set-72157622724066432. </p>
            <p>To study our second research question on the changing symbolic meaning of iconic photographs during its afterlife, we could return to our database since each photo is not only described based on the list of historical events, but we also noted factual information such as the chapter title in which the photo was published and the accompanying caption. By going over this information we could examine in which context the photo of Troelstra was used. By simply typing in the name ‘Troelstra’ in Fotostation Pro, we found all books in which the photo was used and could go over the information in the accompanying IPTC field. By following this approach we could answer our second research question on the changing symbolic meaning during the afterlife of iconic photographs. </p>
            <p>In the case of the photo of Troelstra, we found that the photo is incorrectly dated in one-third of all history textbooks. Nowadays, in Dutch historiography Troelstra is not known for his plea for universal suffrage but mainly for his failed attempt to start a revolution to overthrow the queen in 1918. Our research shows that in one-third of all Dutch history textbooks the photo of 1912 is used to illustrate the events of 1918 instead of the demonstration of 1912, clearly illustrating the changing symbolic meaning of this iconic photograph during its afterlife as visual illustration in history textbooks. </p>
            <p>Discussion </p>
            <p>Even though our database is relatively small, the case study of the photo of Troelstra shows that by adding metadata in the IPTC fields, we were able to quickly track down all the textbooks in which the photo is used to determine the context in which the photo appears. Studying this afterlife can even be taken a step further when databases with the same approach can be linked, e.g., collections that are described with the ICONCLASS System (Brandhorst, 2012) or the GTAA (Oomen and Brugman, 2010). It will then be possible to research how photos are being reused in other types of historical sources, such as newspapers or magazines. Therefore we made our database available for future researchers (Kleppe, 2013b) in order to be reused to answer humanities research questions or further exploration on the use of IPTC within the digital humanities. </p>
            <p>However, going over the frequency tables and subsequently looking up the information in the database and IPTC fields remained a manual process. Even though the software allowed us to quickly search through all data, we still had to rely on our own judgment and scrutiny, leading to inevitable human errors or false interpretations. Therefore, we envision that the current developments in image retrieval by using image recognition (Wu et al., 2009) will be of assistance for this type of research. At this moment, several search engines offer reversed image lookup (RIL), such as Google Images and Tineye.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> Users can upload an image and retrieve similar images located at indexed websites. This type of technology is already being used by commercial parties to track down copyright-protected images across the Web,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> to assess the impact of scholarly images online (Kousha, 2010), to find patterns in large image databases (Losh, 2014; Manovich, 2009), or to analyse the reuse of digital images of cultural and heritage material (Terras and Kirton, 2013). Applying this type of reversed image lookup to find similar images within a dataset has only recently been explored by Resig (2013) and Doug (2014), who developed software based on TinEye’s MatchEngine.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi> Given its promising results, scholars using visual sources to study the afterlife of imagery should explore the possibilities of computer vision to find the recurrent use of similar images in visual datasets. 
            </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">1. http://www.iptc.org.</p>
            <p>2. http://www.fotoware.com/en/Products/FotoStation/. </p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. https://images.google.com; https://www.tineye.com/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">4. http://blog.photoshelter.com/2013/04/find-your-images-online-using-reverse-image-search-on-google/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">5. https://services.tineye.com/MatchEngine.</p>
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            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brandhorst, H.</hi> (2012). The Iconography of the Pleasures and Problems of Drink: Thoughts on the Opportunities and Challenges for Access and Collaboration in the Digital Age. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Visual Resources,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(4): 384–90. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Doug, R.</hi> (2014). Using Computer Vision to Improve Image Metadata. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014</hi>, http://dharchive.org/paper/DH2014/Paper-294.xml.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Finnegan, C. A.</hi> (2006). What Is This a Picture of? Some Thoughts on Images and Archives. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Rhetoric &amp; Public Affairs,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>: 116–23. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grijsen, C.</hi> (2012). In perspectief: behoud en beheer van born-digital fotoarchieven [In perspective: Conservation and management of born-digital photo archives]. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Fotografisch Geheugen, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">75</hi>: 24–26. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hariman, R. and Lucaites, J. L.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">No Caption Needed: Iconic Photographs, Public Culture, and Liberal Democracy.</hi> University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kleppe, M.</hi> (2013a). Canonieke Icoonfoto’s. De rol van (pers)foto’s in de Nederlandse geschiedschrijving [Canonical iconic photographs: The role of (press) photos in Dutch historiography]. Eburon, Delft. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kleppe, M.</hi> (2013b). Foto’s in Nederlandse Geschiedenisschoolboeken (FiNGS) [Photos in Dutch history textbooks]. http://www.persistent-identifier.nl/?identifier=urn:nbn:nl:ui:13-l37n-bi. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kleppe, M.</hi> (2012). Wat is het onderwerp op een foto? De kansen en problemen bij het opzetten van een eigen fotodatabase [What is the subject of a picture? The opportunities and difficulties in setting up their own photo database]. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Tijdschrift voor Mediageschiedenis,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>: 93–107. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kroes, R.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Photographic Memories: Private Pictures, Public Images, and American History.</hi> Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kousha, K., Thelwall, M. and Rezaie, S.</hi> (2010). Can the Impact of Scholarly Images Be Assessed Online? An Exploratory Study Using Image Identification Technology. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">61</hi>(9): 1734–44. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Losh, E.</hi> (2014). Visualizing Global News. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014</hi>, http://dharchive.org/paper/DH2014/Paper-869.xml. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manovich, L.</hi> (2009). Cultural Analytics: Visualing Cultural Patterns in the Era of More Media. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Domus,</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Oomen, J. and Brugman, H.</hi> (2010). Thesauri gekoppeld [Thesauri linked]. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digitale Bibliotheek,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(5): 18–21. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Paul, G.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Das Jahrhundert der Bilder: 1949 bis heute.</hi> Göttingen. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reser, G. and Bauman, J.</hi> (2012). The Past, Present, and Future of Embedded Metadata for the Long-Term Maintenance of and Access to Digital Image Files. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Digital Library Systems,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(1): 53–64. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Resig, J.</hi> (2013). Using Computer Vision to Increase the Research Potential of Photo Archives. http://ejohn.org/research/computer-vision-photo-archives/#analysis-implementations. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rose, G.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to the Interpretation of Visual Materials.</hi> Sage Publications, London. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smeulders, A. W. M., et al.</hi> (2000). Content-Based Image Retrieval at the End of the Early Years. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>: 1349–80. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Terras, M. M. and I. Kirton.</hi> (2013). Where Do Images of Art Go Once They Go Online? A Reverse Image Lookup Study to Assess the Dissemination of Digitized Cultural Heritage. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Selected Papers from Museums and the Web North America,</hi> pp. 237–48. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wallace, D.</hi> (2010). Words as Keys to the Image Bank. In Bailey, C. and Gardiner, H. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Revisualizing Visual Culture</hi>. Ashgate.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wu, Zhong, et al.</hi> Bundling Features for Large-Scale Partial-Duplicate Web Image Search. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of IEEE Conference Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2009.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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                        <surname>Albanesi</surname>
                        <forename>Davide</forename>
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                    <affiliation>ILC Institute for Computational Linguistics - CNR Italy, Italy</affiliation>
                    <email>davide.albanesi@ilc.cnr.it</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Bellandi</surname>
                        <forename>Andrea</forename>
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                    <affiliation>ILC Institute for Computational Linguistics - CNR Italy, Italy</affiliation>
                    <email>andrea.bellandi@ilc.cnr.it</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Benotto</surname>
                        <forename>Giulia</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>ILC Institute for Computational Linguistics - CNR Italy, Italy</affiliation>
                    <email>giulia.benotto@ilc.cnr.it</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Giovannetti</surname>
                        <forename>Emiliano</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>ILC Institute for Computational Linguistics - CNR Italy, Italy</affiliation>
                    <email>emiliano.giovannetti@ilc.cnr.it</email>
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            <p>In this work we are going to present the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Traduco</hi> System, a collaborative web-based application for the translation of the Babylonian Talmud (BT) into Italian. The system has been designed around a computer-assisted translation (CAT) component (Gordon, 1996; Huerta, 2011), constituting its core. However, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Traduco</hi> is not limited to assisting the translation process and providing printing functionalities. In fact, it allows linguistic and semantic annotations and advanced searches, paving the way to the construction of a Talmudic knowledge base. In order to achieve these results, the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Traduco</hi> development process abided by a model that took into account aspects of Natural Language Processing and Knowledge Engineering. The component-based architectural structure was implemented using the object-oriented Java 2 Enterprise Edition framework.
            </p>
            <p>In particular, each 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Traduco</hi> component implements specific functionalities targeted at different types of users:
            </p>
            <p> 1.
                <hi rend=""bold""> Translators</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""bold"">revisors</hi> are supported by the use of CAT technologies, including a Translation Memory (TM) designed to ‘remember’ every translated portion of text. The system takes as input the Hebrew text segment to be translated, queries the TM, and suggests the Italian translations relative to the Hebrew text segments recognized to be more similar to the one that has to be translated (Bellandi et al., 2014a), as illustrated in Figure 1.
            </p>
            <p> 2.
                <hi rend=""bold""> Philologists</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""bold"">linguists</hi> can insert notes, comments, and bibliographical references (HaCohen-Kerner, 2010).
            </p>
            <p> 3.
                <hi rend=""bold""> Domain experts</hi> are allowed to structure relevant terms into glossaries (for example, proper names, plants, measures, concepts) and, potentially, domain ontologies (Guarino, 1998) represented in Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS) or Ontology Web Language (OWL), by using a graphical ontology editor (see Figure 2), which is currently under development (Bellandi et al., 2014b).
            </p>
            <p> 4.
                <hi rend=""bold""> Researchers</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""bold"">scholars</hi> can carry out complex searches on both a linguistic and semantic basis. In more detail, we are developing two morphological analysers, one for Italian and one for Mishnaic Hebrew. These instruments should allow the creation of lexical indices, where each entry (‘lemma’ or ‘root’) will be associated to all its morphologically correlated inflected forms and to all the contexts in which they occur.
            </p>
            <p> 5.
                <hi rend=""bold""> Editors</hi> can easily produce the printed edition of the translation of the BT by arranging translations and notes in standard formats for desktop publishing software (typically XML-based, see Figure 3).
            </p>
            <p>Needing a common and shared platform for the translation, revision, and editing of the BT, we went to the Web and the related technologies, providing users the ability to work on the same data collaboratively. Furthermore, it allows the supervisors to keep track, in real time, of the work done by the translators on the portions of the Talmud they were assigned to.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Traduco</hi> can be used for translating other texts by adapting its linguistic analysis and semantic annotation components to different languages and domains with relative ease. In particular, the approach employed by 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Traduco</hi> for the processing of Italian and Hebrew is based on extensively tested and state-of-the-art machine learning technologies (see Bar-Haim et al., 2005; Itai, 2006), built on highly flexible supervised models that can be trained using pre-annotated texts. Concerning the knowledge engineering components, the model allows for the definition of arbitrary semantic classes, thus enabling users to construct specific domain ontologies starting from the annotated terms. 
            </p>
            <p>Acknowledgement</p>
            <p>This work has been conducted in the context of the research project TALMUD and the scientific partnership between S.c.a r.l. ‘Progetto Traduzione del Talmud Babilonese’ and ILC-CNR, and on the basis of the regulations stated in the ‘Protocollo d’Intesa’ (memorandum of understanding) between the Italian Presidency of the Council of Ministers; the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities, and Research; the Union of Italian Jewish Communities; the Italian Rabbinical College; and the Italian National Research Council (21 January 2011).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""17.13088888888889cm"" height=""5.08cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Translation Suggestion Component (five stars indicate an exact match). The translations in English, starting from the first, are: (i) 
                <hi rend=""italic"">On the fruits of the earth he says, ‘He who owns, creates the fruit of the earth’</hi>; (ii) 
                <hi rend=""italic"">On vegetables he says, ‘He who creates the fruit of the earth’</hi>; (iii) 
                <hi rend=""italic"">On the fruits of the trees he says, ‘He who creates the fruit of the tree’</hi>.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""11.666361111111112cm"" height=""21.708180555555554cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. GUI for building the Talmudic knowledge base starting from domain terms (under development).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.451791666666665cm"" height=""10.101791666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Publishing software export functionality. Example related to the Adobe InDesign export.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bar-Haim, R., Sima’an, K. and Winter, Y.</hi> (2005). Choosing an Optimal Architecture for Segmentation and POS-Tagging of Modern Hebrew. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Association for Computational Linguistics Workshop on Computational Approaches to Semitic Languages</hi>, Michigan, June 2005.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bellandi, A., Bellusci, A. and Giovannetti, E.</hi> (2014a). Computer Assisted Translation of Ancient Texts: The Babylonian Talmud Case Study. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 11th International Workshop on Natural Language Processing and Cognitive Science</hi>, Venice.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bellandi, A., Bellusci, A., Giovannetti, E. and Carniani, E.</hi> (2014b). Content Elicitation: Towards a New Paradigm for the Analysis and Interpretation of Text. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Informatics</hi>, Innsbruck, February 2014.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gordon, I.</hi> (1996). Letting the CAT out of the Bag—or Was It MT? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Translating and the Computer</hi>, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Guarino, N.</hi> (1998). Formal Ontology in Information Systems. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the First International Conference (FIOS’98)</hi>, Vol. 46. June. Trento: IOS Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">HaCohen-Kerner, Y., Schweitzer, N. and Shoham, Y.</hi> (2010). Automatic Identification of Biblical Quotations in Hebrew-Aramaic Documents. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Information Retrieval</hi>, Valencia, October 2010.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Huerta, J. M.</hi> (2011). Towards Efficient Translation Memory Search Based on Multiple Sentence Signatures, Speech and Language Technologies. DOI:10.5772/16327. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Itai, A.</hi> (2006). Knowledge Center for Processing Hebrew. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, Workshop ‘Towards a Research Infrastructure for Language Resources</hi>. Genoa, May 2006. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2400","16","Uncanny Projections / Site-Writing Places","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>Uncanny Projections / Site-Writing Places</title>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Barns</surname>
                        <forename>Sarah</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Western Sydney, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>s.barns@uws.edu.au</email>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
                <address>
                    <addrLine>Locked Bag 1797</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                    <term>Paper</term>
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                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""subcategory"">
                    <term>Long Paper</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""keywords"">
                    <term>projection</term>
                    <term>digital interfaces</term>
                    <term>site-writing</term>
                    <term>community</term>
                    <term>public art</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>archaeology</term>
                    <term>archives</term>
                    <term>repositories</term>
                    <term>sustainability and preservation</term>
                    <term>audio</term>
                    <term>video</term>
                    <term>multimedia</term>
                    <term>film and cinema studies</term>
                    <term>GLAM: galleries</term>
                    <term>libraries</term>
                    <term>archives</term>
                    <term>museums</term>
                    <term>English</term>
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            <p>The tricks of illumination and digital projection exploit the possibilities of contemporary technical tools—3D architectural mapping, sensors, software-enabled visual distortions, real-time image manipulation of the ever-growing, luminous flux of data—to introduce into public spaces a sense of the ‘technological uncanny’, a phantasmagorical urban world in which to the receptive viewer anything, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">seemingly</hi>, is possible (Edensor, 2012, 1107). 
            </p>
            <p>For many creators of projection artworks, the topography of the built environment itself becomes a different kind of screen (Sassen, 2009, 29) to program and design to spectacular effect. But site-specific projection artworks can also be conceived not only as light and colour displays but as mixed-reality interventions that combine past and the present spaces in novel ways. </p>
            <p>This paper will present on a set of public art interventions that seek to ‘surface’ archival recordings about a specific location using contemporary interfaces of projection design and acoustic installation. The paper will address two personal projects produced in 2014–2015 in Bathurst and Canberra that reflect intensive research into multiple film, sound, and image collections as resources through which to design and curate contemporary interpretative displays and events. These are presented alongside the projection work of artist Shimone Attie in Berlin during the early 1990s and the contemporary work of the Niño Viejo (‘Old Child’) collective in Valencia, Spain. </p>
            <p>Reflecting across these different, site-specific projection pieces, the paper considers the use of digital projection as a form of ‘site-writing’, or writing a place as opposed to writing about it (Rendell, 2010). Where they draw from and recompose the ‘trace elements’ of past urban spaces, it reflects on how these different projection artworks might be understood to contribute to the ‘displacing forwards’ (Freud, 1901/1960) of contemporary memory practice, while opening up new territories for engaged digital humanities research. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Edensor, T.</hi> (2012). Illuminated Atmospheres: Anticipating and Reproducing the Flow of Affective Experience in Blackpool. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Environment and Planning D: Society and Space,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>: 1103–22.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Freud, S.</hi> (1960/1901). The Psychopathology of Everyday Life. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, </hi>Volume 6. Translated from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. Hogarth Press, London. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rendell, J.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Site-Writing: The Architecture of Art Criticism</hi>. IB Tauris, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sassen, S.</hi> (2009). Reading the City in a Global Digital Age. In McQuire, S. (ed.). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Urban Screens Reader</hi>. Amsterdam: Institute of Network Cultures. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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"2401","16","Using Feature Structures for the study of medieval manuscripts","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>Using Feature Structures for the study of medieval manuscripts</title>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Bermúdez Sabel</surname>
                        <forename>Helena</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain</affiliation>
                    <email>helena.bermudez@usc.es</email>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
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                <edition>
                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
                <address>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
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                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""keywords"">
                    <term>digital edition</term>
                    <term>historical linguistics</term>
                    <term>diachronic variation</term>
                    <term>portuguese medieval poetry</term>
                    <term>collatio</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>encoding - theory and practice</term>
                    <term>literary studies</term>
                    <term>medieval studies</term>
                    <term>scholarly editing</term>
                    <term>text analysis</term>
                    <term>philology</term>
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                    <term>English</term>
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            <p>Scholars would agree on the importance of doing a comprehensive linguistic study of every witness that integrates a manuscript tradition. However, such a detailed research on large traditions can be rather laborious. </p>
            <p>A possible alternative to limit the object of study is, to my mind, to examine the most important linguistic phenomenon, namely linguistic variation. By focusing on all the language variants found after collating every witness, we report on the distinctive linguistic features of every manuscript, thus making the study of a manuscript tradition much more practicable (Roudil, 1986). </p>
            <p>For a period such as the Middle Ages, which featured rather flexible writing codes, textual variation can be very informative. Taking a corpus of formal features as a reference and comparing it with other texts, for which there is a high degree of certainty about the conditions in which they were written, can actually provide useful information regarding their writing standards, that is, the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">scriptorium</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>Linguistic variants usually occur as a result of the self-dictation that the copyist does after reading and memorizing the extract he intends to copy, hence reflecting features of the his idiolect. The study of those features contributes to gain a better understanding of the witness production, since it provides evidence of the human resources who participated in this production. </p>
            <p>Copy errors are another gold mine, and their systematic classification and study provides information related to the sources, distinctive features of the model (e.g., a common graphic substitution in the copy means that the two graphemes were very similar in the model), and linguistic data, among others.</p>
            <p>Therefore, in order to compile all these data I propose a digital edition based on the collation of every reading of every witness an edition that is applied to the Galician-Portuguese secular lyric.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi>
            </p>
            <p>After using regular expressions and XSLT to create a preliminary interlinear collation, I manually corrected certain elements, such as the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">scripta continua</hi> found in some parts of certain witnesses or the accurate markup of lacunae and transpositions. I then transformed again the transcription, applying for this purpose a collation style sheet that I created and that tokenizes and compares each element generating an apparatus tagset that records every variant. This encoding is done according to the Text Encoding Initiative module ‘Parallel Segmentation’ method, a feature of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">TEI Guidelines</hi> that allows multiple versions of a text to be encoded in one document.
            </p>
            <p>Once all variants were marked up, I followed the TEI module ‘Feature Structures’ to categorize them. I created a very detailed feature-value library, in which every variant has its correspondent &lt;fs&gt; element defined by five to ten individual features. This kind of combination make it possible to query the corpus with high precision. The retrieval of information is thus very efficient, mainly because I can use the same language, XQuery, to query and transform the data (Siegel and Retter, 2015).</p>
            <p>As has been mentioned, this encoding and its manipulation provides, on one hand, the description of the various graphic systems used, by decoding the spelling rules present in the witnesses. A graphemic analysis will not only help to identify phenomena of language variation, but it will also clarify certain elements of the genesis of these manuscripts, such as graphic substrates, the origin of the copyists, and the textual sources that were used.</p>
            <p>On the other hand, these data will serve to analyse the linguistic variation in the corpus, at the phonetic, phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical levels. This information can be subsequently used to conduct a descriptive study, explaining the main features of the Galician-Portuguese grammar of the High and Late Middle Ages, concluding in a general study of historical linguistics, taking drawing examples from this corpus.</p>
            <p>Finally, scholars specialised in this literary tradition will find a very useful resource to prepare scholarly editions thanks to the thorough linguistic information and the informative collation.</p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. For an initial approach, the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Cantigas Medievais Galego Portuguesas</hi> [online database] offers all the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">cantigas</hi> (songs) contained in the medieval Galician-Portuguese 
                <hi rend=""italic"">cancioneiros</hi> (songbooks), the manuscripts’ images, and also the music—both the medieval and the contemporary versions.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lopes, G. Videira, et al.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cantigas Medievais Galego Portuguesas</hi> [online database]. Lisbon: Instituto de Estudos Medievais, http://cantigas.fcsh.unl.pt.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Roudil, J.</hi> (1986). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Summa de los nueve tiempos de los pleitos. Édition et étude d’une variation sur un thème par Jean Roudil</hi>. Klincksieck, Paris.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Siegel, E. and Retter, A.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">eXist. A NoSQL Document Database and Application Platform.</hi> O’Reilly, Sebastopol.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">TEI Consortium (eds)</hi>. (n.d.). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange.</hi> 2.7.0. http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/P5 (last modified date: 16 September 2014).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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"2402","16","Using Multiple Strategies To Find Connections In Digital Archives: Making Sense of Historical Data","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                <title>Using Multiple Strategies To Find Connections In Digital Archives: Making Sense of Historical Data</title>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Lester</surname>
                        <forename>Connie Lee</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Central Florida, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>Connie.Lester@ucf.edu</email>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
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                <edition>
                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
                <address>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
                </address>
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                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""keywords"">
                    <term>Archives</term>
                    <term>Sensemaking</term>
                    <term>Connections</term>
                    <term>Interdisciplinary</term>
                    <term>Visualization</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>databases &amp; dbms</term>
                    <term>historical studies</term>
                    <term>metadata</term>
                    <term>natural language processing</term>
                    <term>interdisciplinary collaboration</term>
                    <term>visualisation</term>
                    <term>spatio-temporal modeling</term>
                    <term>analysis and visualisation</term>
                    <term>English</term>
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            <p>RICHES Mosaic Interface
                <hi rend=""superscript"">TM</hi> (RICHES MI; https://richesmi.cah.ucf.edu
                <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">)</hi> is the interactive and innovative digital platform for the Regional Initiative for Collecting the History, Experiences, and Stories (RICHES™) of Central Florida, an interdisciplinary project housed in the History Department at the University of Central Florida in Orlando. The mission of RICHES MI is to enable users to 
                <hi rend=""bold"">search</hi> the database using natural language, tags, topics, and categories to maximize their search results; 
                <hi rend=""bold"">analyze</hi> the results of their search using the ‘Connections’ module to show the relationship between the returned item and other items in the digital archive using a RICHES™-developed algorithm; 
                <hi rend=""bold"">visualize</hi> results through digital exhibits, map overlays, and visualizations, and 
                <hi rend=""bold"">learn</hi> regional history and historical methods as teachers and students use the RICHES™-produced digital modules and source sets. Combining multiple search and analytical tools in an interactive database offers a more effective approach to historical analysis and more closely approximates the process that historians traditionally use in research projects.
            </p>
            <p>As historians moved into digitization of archival collections, the initial excitement of having ready access to rare documents and images took precedence over search and analysis problems that also accompanied this undertaking. Recent conference presentations and white papers demonstrate acknowledgement of these problems and advance solutions that call for greater collaboration between historians and archivists to write more detailed metadata and offer textual analysis tools for understanding larger datasets. A 2011 National Endowment for the Humanities–funded project on changing research practices among historians called for increased digitization of archival sources, the creation of new tools for interactive use of digital sources, and the development of capabilities for connecting smaller archives to larger repositories (Rutner and Schonfeld, 2012). In a discussion on digital history published in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of American History</hi>, Daniel Cohen predicted that the next iteration of scholarship would include ‘methods like collaborative filtering and recommendation systems’ (Cohen et al., 2008). Historians have followed the lead of digital literature scholars in the utilization of data mining and text analysis tools (Nelson et al., 2012), but we believe that historians need to view the results of such tools in context with other documents in order to gain insight into their broader meaning.
            </p>
            <p>RICHES MI addresses a number of issues previously raised by digital historians and moves into the realm of analysis through the Connections tool. Still in its early stages of development, Connections intersects with scholarship on sensemaking that is most frequently associated with intelligence analysis and journalism (Pirolli and Card 2005; Pirolli and Russell, 2011). In the model advanced by Pirolli and Card, ‘The sensemaking process is organized into two major loops of activities . . . a foraging loop . . . [and] a sensemaking loop’. Our system seeks to address some of these challenges posed by the search for relationships between data and apply leverage to some key points of the sensemaking processes. </p>
            <p>Designed and developed by an interdisciplinary team of historians and computer scientists, RICHES MI was constructed using several open-source programs, including Omeka, Google Maps, and MALLET (topic modeling). Plugins that permit users to contribute to the database and that enable the mapping of multiple sites for a single item were added. The Connections tool (which can be used in the Search and in the Bookbag) provides users with a tree diagram of related items and enables them to visualize the connections by time, location, tags, and topics. Finally, users can save selected items to a Bookbag, where they can organize the items into folders and annotate them. By following a well-known sensemaking process, our system supports digital research that more closely replicates the archival experience across multiple collections and large datasets.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cohen, D. J., et al.</hi> (2008). Interchange: The Promise of Digital History. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of American History, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">95</hi>(2) (September).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nelson, R. K., et al.</hi> (2012). A Conversation with Digital Historians. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Southern Spaces: An Interdisciplinary Journal about Regions, Places, and Cultures of the U.S. South and Their Global Connections</hi>, https://southernspaces.org/2012/conversation_digital_historians.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pirolli, P. and Card, S.</hi> (2005). The Sensemaking Process and Leverage Points for Analyst Technology as Identified through Cognitive Task Analysis. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of International Conference on Intelligence Analysis</hi>. Vol. 5. McLean, VA: Mitre.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pirolli, P. and Russell, D. M.</hi> (2011). Introduction to This Special Issue on Sensemaking. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Human-Computer Interaction, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">26</hi>(1–2) (March): 1–8.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rutner, J. and Schonfeld, R. C.</hi> (2012). Supporting the Changing Research Practices of Historians. Final report from 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ITHAKA S+R</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
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                        <surname>di Lenardo</surname>
                        <forename>Isabella</forename>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Kaplan</surname>
                        <forename>Frédéric</forename>
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            <p>This article discusses the methodology used in the Venice Time Machine project (http://vtm.epfl.ch) to reconstruct a historical geographical information system covering the social and urban evolution of Venice over a period of 1,000 years. Given the time span considered, the project used a combination of sources and a specific approach to align heterogeneous historical evidence into a single geographic database. The project is based on a mass digitization project of one of the largest archives in Venice, the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Archivio di Stato</hi>. One goal of the project is to build a kind of ‘Google map’ of the past, presenting a hypothetical reconstruction of Venice in 2D and 3D for any year starting from the origins of the city to present-day Venice.
            </p>
            <p>Venice is an extremely relevant case study for such an enterprise for at least two reasons. Its transformations are well documented by a large number of sources (numerous historical maps, huge administrative documents, etc.). Its evolution has essentially been ‘organic’ in the sense that most of the urban transformations have left visible traces, and in many cases the original shape of the city has not changed too much. In this article, we demonstrate how sources are used to reconstruct a dense network of information about Venice covering the 1,000-year period. </p>
            <p>The project uses a large variety of sources, as summarized in Table 1. </p>
            <p>The Historical Geographical System (HGIS) is initiated using the most up-to-date information about Venice contained in the ITB (
                <hi rend=""italic"">infrastruttura di dati territoriali di base</hi>), produced by public authorities (Type A sources in our classification). The quality and the resolution of these initial data are crucial for the success of the project. 
            </p>
            <p>Going back in time, the most ancient survey that geometrically measured the ground of the city corresponds to the Napoleonic cadaster (1808–1813) drawn in 1808. Along with the Austrian and the Austrian-Italian cadasters, the Napoleonic cadaster is the most ancient ‘geometric intermediate’ plan that can be used to reconstruct footprints of buildings, streets, channels, wells, public monuments, and other important metadata (census information, property and renting, height, functions and conditions of the buildings) (Noizet et al., 2013). Partial surveys archived at the Archivio di Stato and other cartographic sources can be used in addition to the cadasters (e.g., the ‘Combatti’ map of the 19th century, and the ‘Ughi’ of the 18th century) for the planimetries of monumental buildings (B and C sources).</p>
            <p>To geo-reference historical maps and align them with contemporary GIS coordinates, one must choose control points homologous between the raster and the vector files (Figure 1). This is a crucial moment of the analysis, a process that needs a significant knowledge of cartographic conventions, both in terms of drawing and historical notions (Gregory et al., 2001). Each cartographic source has a certain number of peculiarities linked with the city history, the 2D architectural description, the hierarchical importance of the drawn elements, and different values ​​of granularity in the map design. Cartographic sources of type 
                <hi rend=""bold"">B and C </hi>must be constantly crossed with iconic sources of type 
                <hi rend=""bold"">D, </hi>documenting the city through paintings or engravings, and bibliographical sources of type 
                <hi rend=""bold"">F</hi> studying Venetian urban history. Combining these sources, we can outline each structural class of elements, reediting different layers for lands, buildings, porticos, bridges, wells, banks, sea sands, public monuments, and so on (Gregory et al., 2001). Good geometric approximation of a diachronic visualization of data until at least the 1729 Ughi map can be achieved using this approach.
            </p>
            <p>For the preceding centuries, some Venetian public institutions have managed to produce very comprehensive, albeit incomplete, documentation of several pieces of the urban structure. All these documents, currently being digitized at the Archivio di Stato di Venezia, provide an indispensable source to perform spatial analysis and introduce other information about every structural element of the city previously chosen.</p>
            <p>Another ‘temporal nexus’ of particular importance in the history of the Renaissance cartography is the Jacopo de Barbari bird’s-eye view of Venice, published around 1500 (see Balistreri et al., 2000). This source, which we can include as a general iconographic type D source, is at the same time an excellent document from which one could extract a 2D plan and an accurate 3D reconstruction of the city (Figure 2). Thanks to the realignment of the perspective and an architectural analysis of the elements, conducted ad hoc, we can infer and draw a ‘2D de Barbari map’ and proceed to extend the layers of the HGIS up to the year 1500.</p>
            <p>Each structural unit of the GIS is also an entry to a database. The objects are organized hierarchically based on their scale from the largest entity, the laguna, to the footprint of each structure. A list of sources (from type A to F) can be associated to each element, cataloguing all the evidence that could be used to define its structure and the events associated with it. </p>
            <p>Events describe all the major changes that affect the structural unit (e.g., construction, renovation, extension, destruction) but also other historical moments (e.g., consecration, property change). Each event is associated with a (potentially fuzzy) time span. </p>
            <p>Particular series of administrative documents (type E) are extremely important to complement the other sources. Venice performed a series of tax campaigns in which all Venetians had to spontaneously describe their property (Condizioni di decima). These tax campaigns provide six additional temporal nexus for the years 1514, 1566, 1582, 1661, 1771, and 1740. For each of these years, they play the role of a ‘snapshot’ of the urban structures for the whole city. The main information concerns the owners and tenants of the structural unit, providing a lot of social information about them (name, religion, citizenship, origins, profession, political role, etc.). Other kinds of information present in the archives (death certificates, testaments, inventories, and other notarial acts) can be used to extend the information contained in these snapshots in order to create dense social networks of the past. Spatial queries can be performed, crossing social data with geographic information—studying, for instance, the urban repartitions of foreigners, the organization of particular professions in specific neighborhoods, and so on. </p>
            <p>Precise addresses in Venice are linked with the first cadasters. Earlier, administrative documents provided only names or textual descriptions of the places they mentioned. Luckily, most names of most Venetian places have been rather constant in time. The toponomastic services designed in the database allow the transformation of place names into the corresponding geographical structural unit. In cases where names are unknown or absent and only descriptions are present, the database allows for a fuzzy zoning of the hypothetical designated areas. Between 1000 and 1550, most historical evidence is of this kind. </p>
            <p>The diversity, quantity, and accuracy of the Venetian administrative documents are unique in Western history. By combining this mass of information, it is possible to reconstruct large segments of the city’s past: complete biographies, political dynamics, and the urban evolution of most Venetian neighborhoods. The documents are intricately interweaved, telling a much richer story when they are cross-referenced. This precise and detailed reconstruction can only be achieved as a collective endeavor. </p>
            <p>Acknowledgements</p>
            <p>The Venice Time Machine is an international scientific program launched by EPFL and the University Ca’Foscari of Venice with the generous support of the Fondation Lombard Odier. About a hundred researchers and students currently collaborate on this program. We would like to thank in particular Oliver Dalang, Melanie Fournier, and Marc-Antoine Nuessli for their work on the historical geographical information system used in the project. </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Type A: Contemporary GIS models (venetian ITB) and 3D scanning data. They constitute the starting point of the modelisation.</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Type B: Historical maps covering the whole city, sufficiently accurate to be geo-referenced. The most ancient of such representations is the Napoleonian cadaster published in 1808.</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Type C: Partial cartographic elements used as illustrations of particular administrative documents (S.E.A. series of documents from Archivio di Stato di Venezia).</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Type D: Iconographic documents such as paintings or engravings of the city.</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Type E: Primary sources (e.g., tax declarations) and documents describing textually the evolution of the city</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Type F: Secondary sources (e.g. monographies or articles) studying certain aspects of the evolution of the city.</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Table 1. Six types of sources used in the project.</p>
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            <p>Figure 1. Choice of homologous control points.</p>
            <figure/>
            <p>Figure 2. 3D reconstruction from ‘de Barbari’ bird’s-eye view of Venice, 1500. </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Balistreri, T. C., Balistreri, E., Ghion, A. M. and Zanverdiani, D.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Venezia città mirabile</hi>. Cierre edizioni. Venezia.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gregory, I. N., Kemp, K. and Mostern, R.</hi> (2001). Geographical Information and Historical Research: Current Progress and Future Directions. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities and Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">13</hi>: 7–22.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Noizet, H., Bove, B. and Costa, L.</hi> (eds). (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Paris de parcelles en pixels</hi>. Presses Universitaires de Vincennes, Paris, http://www.apur.org.
                    </bibl>
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"2404","16","Visual First Amendment: A Case Study in Empricial Legal Studies, Visualization, and User Experience","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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            <p>This paper uses the Visual First Amendment (VFA) project to highlight the use of data visualization, user experience studies, and computational methods in the study of law. VFA presents visitors with interactive displays that allow them to explore the interrelation of issues, cases, courts, and justices over time, and to consider the broad social and legal changes that have impacted the United States Supreme Court’s ruling on the First Amendment freedoms of religions, speech, press, assembly, and petition. We begin by situating our project in the emerging field of empirical legal studies and describing the open data sources used to create our visualizations. We also discuss several usability tests conducted to improve our visualizations, and the development of the project cycle from concept to dissemination. Explicit attention is given throughout to digital humanities aspects of the project. </p>
            <p>* * *</p>
            <p>In 1897, future U.S. Supreme Court justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. observed, ‘For the rational study of the law the black-letter man may be the man of the present, but the man of the future is the man of statistics and master of economics’ (Buckler, 2012). Holmes was addressing the need for law to look beyond historical examples to the social realities of the time. His methodological suggestion, however, has found new life in the era of digital humanities. </p>
            <p>This paper presents the Visual First Amendment (VFA) project, which applies empirical methods and visualization techniques to the study of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. VFA aims to </p>
            <p> • Provide a deeper understanding of the American constitutional freedoms of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition.</p>
            <p> • Engage citizens in a discussion of rights, as interpreted now and in the future.</p>
            <p> • Raise awareness of First Amendment issues from a historical and legal perspective.</p>
            <p> • Racilitate research surrounding the First Amendment across a range of education levels and information tasks.</p>
            <p> • Serve as a model for representing Supreme Court data generally. </p>
            <p>We begin by giving an overview of empirical legal research and similar projects that have been attempted to date. Following that, we describe the data sources and visualization tools behind several VFA interfaces. Finally, we present the results of user experience studies, as well as future directions. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Background</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Traditional legal scholarship consists of detailed analysis of primary sources (e.g., legislation and court rulings), supplemented by secondary sources such as legal scholarship. Empirical legal research, first employed in American legal scholarship in the late 1990s, ‘uses data analysis to study the legal system’ (Georgetown Law, 2014). While this approach is still not widespread, it has been described as ‘the next big thing’ in legal intellectual thought (George, 2006).</p>
            <p>Cane and Kritzer (2010) describe empirical legal research as involving ‘the systematic collection of information (“data”) and its analysis according to some generally accepted method’ and the (possibly numeric) coding or tagging of units of text. This research is often interdisciplinary—examining questions in the intersection of law, society, and economics, as well as judicial behavior and politics—and uses both quantitative/statistical and qualitative methods. Most data used in empirical legal studies are ambient in the sense that they are generated through judicial processes rather than through experiments, which would raise ethical risks in the case of law (Epstein and Martin, 2010). </p>
            <p>The proliferation of law-related datasets and the increasing availability of data to the general public represent an important step toward increased civic engagement. The U.S. Open Government Initiative makes available over 200 datasets, which are used by journalists, researchers, and the general public for a variety of purposes, among them government oversight and accountability. The Sunlight Foundation, for example, has supported several projects that draw on publicly available data to promote government oversight practices such as tracking the link between campaign contributions and congressional votes on legislation and public policy. </p>
            <p>To date, however, few attempts have been made to visualize court rulings, and none are focused on presenting data about the First Amendment for a wide variety of audiences: </p>
            <p> • One of the earliest projects, Visualizing Legal Information (http://www.cs.umd.edu/hcil/west-legal), was created in the late 1990s in the Human Computer Interaction Lab at the University of Maryland. It is no longer updated, and most of the visualizations are no longer functional. </p>
            <p> • A group of researchers from the University of Oslo is working on an interdisciplinary Law and Visualization project (http://www.jus.uio.no/english/research/areas/law-history/projects/law_visualization.html), which focuses on the relations between law and visualization as expressed in art, architecture, and film. Though the project is described as ‘empirical’, it does not employ data-driven methods, instead examining the experience of aestheticians and their concepts of law. </p>
            <p> • The Judicial Research Initiative (http://artsandsciences.sc.edu/poli/juri) from the University of South Carolina aims to ‘provide a comprehensive access point to the most recent and cutting-edge research on law and judicial politics.’. This project only has datasets available for download and does not include visualization. </p>
            <p>Visual First Amendment is unique among these projects as it applies visualization techniques to First Amendment data for a wide range of users. The information presented by the site is also highly contextualized both historically and thematically. </p>
            <p>Project Design </p>
            <p>Visual First Amendment draws on three freely available data sources, which have been selected for their recognized excellence in the field: </p>
            <p> • First Amendment Timeline is compiled by the First Amendment Center, an operating program of the Freedom Forum located at the Newseum and Vanderbilt University. The Timeline is a chronological list of 150-plus American historical events, Supreme Court rulings, and legislation relating to the First Amendment from 1215 to 2011, with narrative descriptions of each event. </p>
            <p> • Supreme Court Database (SCDB) is a National Science Foundation project hosted by the Center for Empirical Research in the Law at Washington University in St. Louis with nearly a dozen contributing law schools. SCDB contains data on 8,407 cases, 655 of which are classified as First Amendment cases, with over 200 pieces of information coded about each case. While this schema has received some criticism (Shapiro, 2008), it is highly regarded and used by scholars in various publications (Buckler, 2012; Sharma, 2013; Stearns, 2013), including a recent book on behavior of federal judges (Epstein et al., 2013). The project currently covers cases between the 1946 and 2012 terms and has a timetable established for the addition of other years. </p>
            <p> • Supreme Court Citation Network Data, compiled by James H. Fowler (UCSD) and Sangick Jeon (Stanford), contains 202,167 citations to and from 30,288 Supreme Court majority opinions over the 1800–2002 period.</p>
            <p>The initial VFA prototype contains a range of visualizations based on these data sources. A complete list of these pairings is given in Table 1, and each type of visualization is described below. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Visualization Type Software Data </hi>
            </p>
            <p>timelines TimelineJS First Amendment Center Timeline </p>
            <p>statistical charts and graphs Tableau Public SCDB </p>
            <p>networks Gephi SCDB, Citation Network Data geographic maps Leaflet, QGIS, Tableau Public SCDB </p>
            <p>Table 1.</p>
            <p>Timelines </p>
            <p>Timelines are the simplest and most easy-to-read displays used in the project. The current prototype includes a timeline of 100-plus major cases and historical events, as well as curated timelines around specific First Amendment stories. Users can swipe through the timeline using their mouse or touchscreen, and events are divided into a number of categories, including world/national events and various First Amendment freedoms.</p>
            <p>Visual First Amendment Timeline Browser </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
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                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""9.263944444444444cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. http://visualfa.org/timeline/.</p>
            <p>Statistical Charts and Graphs </p>
            <p>VFA includes several statistical charts and graphs about First Amendment rulings as well as Supreme Court justices. These visualizations are interactive, allowing the user to select, filter, and manipulate the information presented, and can be shared or embedded across blogs, websites, and social media. </p>
            <p>Justice Voting Patterns by Ideology </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""13.707180555555556cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. http://visualfa.org/statistics/justices-by-ideology/.</p>
            <p>Network Maps </p>
            <p>Networks are among the most complex yet frequently discussed visualizations in the initial prototype. These graphs illustrate the relationships between court opinions and agreement between justices. Each dot represents a case; hovering over the dot calls up the name of the case, and clicking on it opens a sidebar with full case details. Cases are searchable by name or by topic. </p>
            <p>Citation Network of Majority Opinions by First Amendment Issue </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""10.017125cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. http://visualfa.org/citation-network-maps/network-maps-a-guided-tour. </p>
            <p>Geographic Maps </p>
            <p>Geographic maps are some of the first visualizations that young users learn to read, and they bring a new dimension of spatial reasoning to historical and thematic content. Several maps in our initial prototype illustrate the behavior of circuit courts, visually investigating whether these courts merit their reputations as being conservative or liberal in their rulings. A separate map examines the number of cases that arise from each state, filterable by issue, petitioner categories, respondent categories, and more. </p>
            <p>Circuit Court Map by Decision Ideology </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""11.250083333333333cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. http://visualfa.org/circuit-court-map/. </p>
            <p>User Experience </p>
            <p>In spring 2014 the Visual First Amendment team conducted an initial round of user experience tests (Pratt IRB #189/2-12-14) at the American Civil Liberties Union and New York Civil Liberties Union offices in downtown Manhattan. Five users were tested using a talk-out-loud method in which they were asked to complete tasks and to narrate their decisionmaking process as they go. The tests were recorded using the Silverback Screen Capture software so that user behavior could be examined later. Users were also asked for general feedback on the site, including its potential audiences. We also spoke more informally with law students, law faculty, and law librarians, who have a special interest in the content of the project. This research has led to a number of site revisions, including </p>
            <p> • Site navigation with multiple points of entry.</p>
            <p> • Contextual information and details on demand within visualization interfaces.</p>
            <p> • Curated datasets and stories that introduce more advanced interfaces. </p>
            <p>Future Directions </p>
            <p>At present, we are working to collaborate with humanities scholars, legal advisors, and media experts on content and visualizations that reflect general/public interest. To further public engagement, the project would benefit from additional user testing with broader audiences as well as the creation of additional tutorial videos and other instructional materials for the website. Finally, we hope to create an integrated user experience across multiple types of visualizations and to link with external resources, such as news stories and reference sources. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Buckler, K. G.</hi> (2012). The Newsworthiness of U.S. Supreme Court Criminal Procedure Cases (1994–2010 Terms): Assessing the Effects of Case Salience and Case Complexity across Elite and Populace Press. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Criminal Justice Review, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">39(</hi>2): 140–59, http://cjr.sagepub.com/content/39/2/140.short. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cane, P. and Kritzer, H. M.</hi> (2010). In Cane, P. and Kritzer, H. M. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Oxford Handbook of Empirical Legal Research</hi>. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 1–7. 
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Epstein, L., Landes, W. M. and Posner, R. A.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Behavior of Federal Judges: A Theoretical and Empirical Study of Rational Choice.</hi> Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Epstein, L. and Martin, A. D.</hi> (2010). Quantitative Approaches to Empirical Legal Research. In Cane, P. and Kritzer, H. M. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Oxford Handbook of Empirical Legal Research</hi>. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 901–25. 
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">George, T. E.</hi> (2006). An Empirical Study of Empirical Legal Scholarship: The Top Law Schools. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Indiana Law Journal, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">81</hi>: 141–61. 
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Georgetown Law.</hi> (2014). Statistics and Empirical Legal Studies Research Guide. http://www.law.georgetown.edu/library/research/guides/empiricallegalstudies.cfm (accessed 1 June 2014). 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shapiro, C.</hi> (2008). Coding Complexity: Bringing Law to the Empirical Analysis of the Supreme Court. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Hastings Law Journal,</hi>
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                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sharma, H.</hi> (2013). The Ideological Relationship between Elected Officials and Supreme Court Justices, 1946–2012: Reframing the ‘Activism’ Debate to Incorporate Issue-Specific Analysis and Intra-Court Controls. http://ssrn.com/abstract=2277096. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stearns, M. L.</hi> (2013). Constitutional Law in Social Choice Perspective (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Public Choice,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">157</hi>(2013), University of Maryland Legal Studies Research Paper No. 2013–57. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2405","16","Visualizing Japanese Language Change During the Past Century","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Hodošček</surname>
                        <forename>Bor</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Osaka University, Japan</affiliation>
                    <email>bor@lang.osaka-u.ac.jp</email>
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                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
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                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
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                    <term>diachronic corpus</term>
                    <term>Japanese language change</term>
                    <term>genre</term>
                    <term>register</term>
                    <term>cooccurrence networks</term>
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                    <term>corpora and corpus activities</term>
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                    <term>genre-specific studies: prose</term>
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            <p>This study introduces an online system for the visualization and analysis of over a century (1874–2008) of Japanese language change. A comprehensive account of register variation in contemporary Japanese has recently become possible with the public availability of the Balanced Corpus of Contemporary Written Japanese (BCCWJ), a 100-million-word corpus that contains a wide variety of written Japanese collected and curated by the National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. Increasingly, too, public releases of new corpora that record various genres of modern (Meiji-era) Japanese writing have paved the way to enabling more comprehensive diachronic analysis (analysis of language development and evolution through time) of Japanese. Still, especially compared to recent efforts in English, which include large book digitalization projects such as the Google Books corpus (Michel et al., 2011), as well as more curated historical corpora such as the Corpus of Historical American English (COHA) or the register-balanced Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) (Davies, 2010; 2011), the available resources and research tools for investigating diachronic language change as well as register variation in Japanese lack in two respects: balanced representation of registers throughout time, and unified and sophisticated search interfaces.</p>
            <p>We combine the use of corpus metadata and annotations with textual features to model language change through time and between different registers from the following six corpora:</p>
            <p>• The Balanced Corpus of Contemporary Written Japanese (c. 1975–2008).</p>
            <p>• The Sun corpus (c. 1895–1925).</p>
            <p>• The Meiroku Zasshi corpus (c. 1874–1875).</p>
            <p>• The Kindai Josei Zasshi corpus (c. 1894–1925).</p>
            <p>• The Kokumin no Tomo corpus (c. 1887–1888).</p>
            <p>• A subset of the Aozora Bunko (c. 1890s–).</p>
            <p>All text is first converted into a unified structured format that includes structural information (paragraphs, headings, titles, lists, etc.) as well as other information (spoken text, quotations, etc.), where available, from the different textual or XML encodings of the corpora. Next, we process sentences into morpheme tokens using the morphological analyzer MeCab and, depending on the time period, the modern or contemporary version of the UniDic morphological dictionary. A unique property of both variants of UniDic is their organization of word tokens under lemma that cover the many orthographic variants observed in Japanese writing. Taking the basic lemma, word orthography, and POS triplets as a base, we construct co-occurrence networks between all words occurring in the same sentence or paragraph. This co-occurrence network is constructed so that we are able to generate sub-networks that match some metadata query, such as year and NDC code, which can then be used to compare with other sub-networks. The query and visualization interface thus provides a timeline for choosing specific time-related subsets from the corpora, as well as a visual way of selecting from other metadata, including categorical (gender, media type, etc.) and hierarchical (NDC, topic, etc.) information, which allows the user to further constrain the scope of investigation into language change to some register within a chosen time period or to instead focus on the differences between registers by comparing between two or more different registers within a set time period.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Davies, M.</hi> (2010). The Corpus of Historical American English: 400 Million Words, 1810–2009. http://corpus.byu.edu/coha/ (accessed 1 November 2014).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Davies, M.</hi> (2011). Google Books (American English) Corpus (155 Billion Words, 1810–2009). http://googlebooks.byu.edu/ (accessed 1 November 2014).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Michel, J.-B., Shen, Y. K., Aiden, A. P., Veres, A., Gray, M. K., Pickett, J. P., . . . Orwant, J., et al.</hi> (2011). Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Science,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">331</hi>(6014): 176–82.
                    </bibl>
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"2406","16","Visualizing Text Alignments: Image Processing Techniques for Locating 18th-Century Commonplaces","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Roe</surname>
                        <forename>Glenn</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Australian National University, Australia</affiliation>
                    <email>glenn.roe@anu.edu.au</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Abdul-Rahman</surname>
                        <forename>Alfie</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Oxford, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>alfie.abdulrahman@oerc.ox.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Chen</surname>
                        <forename>Min</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Oxford, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>min.chen@oerc.ox.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Gladstone</surname>
                        <forename>Clovis</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Chicago, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>clovisgladstone@uchicago.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Morrissey</surname>
                        <forename>Robert</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Chicago, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>rmorriss@uchicago.edu</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Olsen</surname>
                        <forename>Mark</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>University of Chicago, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>markymaypo57@gmail.com</email>
                </author>
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                    <term>Sequence Alignment</term>
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            <p>This paper examines the use of ‘visual analytic’ techniques to scrutinise and refine current approaches and algorithms for the identification of text reuse and alignment. In particular, we compare text alignment approaches using the ViTA (Visualization for Text Alignment) system we have developed in the context of a Digging into Data project that seeks to identify 18th-century commonplaces in large-scale historical datasets. By leveraging the flexibility of image processing techniques to visualize text alignments in a variety of ways and using multiple parameters, we can improve upon current alignment algorithms in an iterative and integrated process of automated text mining, multivariate visualization, and human-computer interaction. </p>
            <p>* * *</p>
            <p>Recent scholarship has demonstrated that the various rhetorical, mnemonic, and authorial practices associated with Early Modern commonplacing—the extraction and organisation of quotations and other passages for later recall and reuse—were highly effective strategies for dealing with the perceived ‘information overload’ of the period, as well as for functioning successfully in polite society (Yeo, 2001; Blair, 2001; Allan, 2010). But the 18th century was also a crucial moment in the modern construction of a new sense of self-identity, defined through the dialectic of memory (tradition) and autonomy (originality), the resonances of which persist long into the 19th century and beyond (Dacome, 2004; Bénichou, 1996). In the context of a larger Digging into Data Round 3 project, we are examining this paradigm shift in 18th-century culture from the perspective of the commonplace, a nexus of intertextual relationships that we aim to explore through the concerted application of sequence alignment algorithms and large-scale visual analytics. </p>
            <p>In our previous work on text reuse (Horton et al., 2010; Allen et al., 2010), we came across numerous examples of textual borrowings and shared passages that exhibited the characteristics of commonplaces. However, traditional text mining and sequence alignment approaches for the identification of text reuse in the sort of large-scale data repositories that interest us entail no small amount of methodological challenges. For this reason, data visualization is a crucial element to this project, and will be used not merely as a means of presenting the end results of text mining but rather as an analytic approach to data at all points in the text-mining process: from the initial stages of data exploration and hypothesis evaluation, to user-driven feedback for refining text-mining rules and parameters, to generating new hypotheses and questions previously unseen in the data. This type of methodological approach is known as ‘visual analytics’, and this paper outlines our attempts to leverage image processing techniques to refine our previous text-mining assumptions, practices, and rules. </p>
            <p>The concept of visual analytics was first proposed by Jim Thomas and his colleagues at the National Visualization and Analytics Center in 2004 (Thomas and Cook, 2005). It has become the de facto standard process for integrating data analysis, visualization, and interaction to better understand complex systems. The concept rests on the following assertions (Chen et al., 2011): </p>
            <p> • Statistical methods alone cannot convey an adequate amount of information for humans to make informed decisions—hence the need for visualization.</p>
            <p> • Algorithms alone cannot encode an adequate amount of human knowledge about relevant concepts, facts, and contexts—hence the need for interaction.</p>
            <p> • Visualization alone cannot effectively manage levels of details about the data or prioritize different information in the data—hence the need for analysis and interaction.</p>
            <p> • Direct interaction with data alone (e.g., search by queries) is not scalable to the amount of data available—hence the need for analysis and visualization. </p>
            <p>ViTA: Visualization for Text Alignment </p>
            <p>In order to benchmark and test the boundaries of our current approach to text alignment, we have developed a visual analytic system named ViTA: Visualization for Text Alignment. By comparing output from our alignment system PhiloLine
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> to output from the ViTA system, we can visualize text alignments on a dot-matrix image—alignments that might have been missed and/or misrecognized by our current n-gram-based approach. Using the information gained from this interface, we can then begin to construct a set of refined alignment rules that incorporate these new findings. For example, in Figure 1 we see two alignments found by the PhiloLine system. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1001"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""8.122708333333334cm"" url=""Pictures/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1.</p>
            <p>The red output was detected by PhiloLine as an alignment. The blue represents what might also be considered a match, but that the algorithm, for various reasons, missed. Given the strictures of our current n-gram matching model, isolated and highly frequent words (such as ‘et’ and ‘en’) are not be considered as part of potentially larger alignments. Using the ViTA visual analytics system, however, our capacity for detecting a matching pattern on a visual plane helps us identify the gaps in these longer sequences and eventually help in fine-tuning the matching algorithm. If we start with simple word-to-word matching, here is what the ViTA output for the above passages looks like, where matching words from each text (the horizontal and vertical axes) are plotted as single pixels in a dot-matrix (Figure 2): </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1002"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""14.410972222222222cm"" url=""Pictures/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
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            <p>Figure 2. ViTA output: Any word with default settings.</p>
            <p>We can clearly detect the matching sequence, but the gaps in the alignment show the limits of one-to-one word matching. If we change the system’s matching parameters to look only for trigrams, we allow for more variance within each match (Figure 3): </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1003"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""14.403916666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. ViTA output: Any word; +1 word on each side; minimum score of 3; image darkening &gt;.4.</p>
            <p>We see that much of the noise has been removed, which is to be expected as matching trigrams are relatively rare. The greyscale seen here accounts for n-grams that only have two tokens in common. While this has helped clear the image of unrelated matching unigrams, it still does not constitute the clear alignment that one sees when reading the passages. If we loosen our matching further to look for pentagrams, while also allowing for some variance in the content of matching n-grams, we can allow even more variance in n-gram matching: e.g., two tokens out of five tokens matching still constitutes a match, though not as strong as a true 5-gram, and is therefore represented in a lighter shade of grey (Figure 4): </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1004"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""14.213416666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. ViTA output: Any word; +2 words on each side; minimum score of 5; image darkening &gt; .2). </p>
            <p>As you can see, the alignment has stretched even further, with very little additional noise. If we try to loosen our parameters further, and use heptagrams, we can allow an even greater variance in the n-gram matching. Since heptagrams will be extremely rare, partially matching heptagrams above a certain threshold will be displayed in a lighter shade of grey (Figure 5): </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1005"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""14.324541666666667cm"" url=""Pictures/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 5. ViTA output: Any word; +3 words on each side, minimum score of 7; image darkening &gt; .2. </p>
            <p>What these examples demonstrate effectively is that the combination of an improbable hypothesis, such as using heptagrams for sequence alignment, with image processing tools such as darkening (a threshold determining what should constitute a match, and shading the strength of the match accordingly) can in fact provide longer visual alignments, regardless of the various gaps that could separate matching patterns. In other words, this is a perfect example of how visual analytic tools can build upon our human capacity to discern hard-to-find matches visually and then leverage this information to refine our algorithms. </p>
            <p>This is equally true for smaller matches, or alignments that would have otherwise been missed due to certain trade-offs between match resolution and computing efficiency. One such trade-off is the elimination of high-frequency and short stopwords at the pre-processing stage of PhiloLine alignments. The assumption here is that important and relevant matches are made primarily on content words like nouns or proper nouns. When dealing with dirty OCR data, however, the challenges of pattern matching are quite different, as matches are often missed because these content words have not been properly recognized by the OCR engine. Below is an example of two shared passages that our text alignment system missed (Figure 6): </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1006"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""4.938888888888889cm"" url=""Pictures/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 6. Dirty OCR matches that were missed by text alignment system.</p>
            <p>Using the ViTA system, we can see precisely why these matches were missed by matching only on words longer than two characters (left) and/or by looking for matching trigrams (right) in Figure 7: </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1007"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""7.925152777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 7. Matching unigrams and trigrams with small words removed.</p>
            <p>As we can see in both cases, the matching pattern is very small and would normally be dismissed as insignificant. If we leverage the flexibility of the visual analytic system, however, we can reintroduce stopwords into the mix, extending our matches to both any matching word (left), and then to matching partial trigrams (right) (Figure 8): </p>
            <p>
                <pb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic n=""1008"" width=""16.002cm"" height=""7.925152777777778cm"" url=""Pictures/image8.png"" rend=""inline""/>
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            <p>Figure 8. Matching all words and partial trigrams. </p>
            <p>The above alignments demonstrate forcefully that many of our text-mining assumptions, such as the removal of stopwords before matching, may not hold true when using image-based processing of text alignments. These findings suggest that further analysis will enable us to define and redefine our matching algorithms as we proceed. </p>
            <p>Conclusion </p>
            <p>To conclude, we assert that the identification of commonplaces is a non-trivial intellectual undertaking. Technical challenges arise not only with the size of our data, but also with the multifaceted nature of computational rules designed to capture the diverse aspects associated with commonplaces. These aspects may include, but are not limited to, word occurrence and co-occurrence, grammatical structure, linguistic properties, etc. Thus, to compile a global commonplace book computationally, one needs efficient and effective means for identifying appropriate rules, determining appropriate parameters, verifying text mining results, and most importantly, gaining an understanding of the relationship between different algorithmic choices (rules and parameters) and the quality of the corresponding text mining results (e.g., in terms of recall and precision). The ViTA system outlined above is designed to facilitate just such a process. We thus intend to move beyond conventional text alignment techniques by adopting an iterative development process that combines complex analytical tasks through an integrated process of automated text mining, multivariate visualization, and human-computer interaction. </p>
            <p>Note</p>
            <p>1. https://code.google.com/p/text-pair/.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Allan, D.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Commonplace Books and Reading in Georgian England.</hi> Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Allen, T., Cooney, C., Douard, S., Horton, R., Morrissey, R., Olsen, M., Roe, G. and R. Voyer. </hi>(2010). Plundering Philosophers: Identifying Sources of the Encyclopédie. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Association for History and Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">13</hi>(1) (May). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bénichou, P.</hi> (1996). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Le Sacre de l’écrivain (1750–1830).</hi> Gallimard, Paris. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blair, A.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Too Much to Know: Managing Scholarly Information before the Modern Age.</hi> Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chen, M., Trefethen, A., Banares-Alcantara, R., Jirotka, M., Coecke, B., Ertl, T. and Schmidt, A.</hi> (2011). From Data Analysis and Visualization to Causality Discovery. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Computer,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">44</hi>(10): 84–87. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dacome, L.</hi> (2004). Noting the Mind: Commonplace Books and the Pursuit of the Self in Eighteenth-Century Britain. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the History of Ideas,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">65</hi>(4) (October): 603–25. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Horton, R., Olsen, M. and G. Roe. </hi>(2010). Something Borrowed: Sequence Alignment and the Identification of Similar Passages in Large Text Collections. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Studies / Le Champ,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thomas, J. J. and Cook, K. A.</hi> (eds). (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Illuminating the Path: The Research and Development Agenda for Visual Analytics</hi>. IEEE Computer Society Press, Los Alamitos, CA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Yeo, R.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopaedic Visions: Scientific Dictionaries and Enlightenment Culture.</hi> Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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                        <forename>Elisa</forename>
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                    <affiliation>University of Pittsburgh at Greensburg, United States of America</affiliation>
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            <p>This paper introduces the Digital Mitford project (http://mitford.pitt.edu), and its practices of correlating prosopography information from TEI markup of its range of texts and metadata in a heterogeneous database of letters and literary texts of multiple genres, by prolific 19th-century author Mary Russell Mitford. Our editing team marks prosopography data (the names of historical people, places, and events), plus publication titles and names of fictional characters by Mitford and the many other writers she references. Our prosopography markup contributes to a detailed, centralized file holding canonical references to correlate our project’s wide range of files. This in turn helps us to generate network diagrams, maps, and other useful visualizations and search features to navigate and document patterns of information in the Mitford corpus. We will share network graphs and other visualizations drawn from our prosopography to facilitate serendipitous discoveries among clusters of texts in the Digital Mitford database.</p>
            <p>* * *</p>
            <p>Mary Russell Mitford was featured by Franco Moretti in his book 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Graphs, Maps, and Trees</hi>, in which he mapped a distinctive range of walkable locations in her popular text, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Our Village</hi>. However, Moretti’s selection of this text reflects the bias toward prose fiction in digital literary studies, a bias we seek to redress in the Digital Mitford project, which aims to introduce and correlate Mitford’s letters with her staged dramas, her poetry, and her prose fiction. A long-lived, prolific, and highly networked writer of the first half of the 19th century, Mary Russell Mitford (1787–1855) set important precedents for women as professional writers, yet literary scholarship to date has been divided across period and genre lines in evaluating her most popular works. Scholars of the Victorian period have prioritized the popular prose fiction sketches of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Our Village</hi> and have studied these as an index of peaceful English nationalism without attention to the politically provocative elements of her plays.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> Digital humanists, too, may only know about Mitford’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Our Village</hi> thanks to Franco Moretti. Meanwhile, scholars of Romanticism addressing the verse tragedies concentrate on their complex politics, their topical similarity to Lord Byron’s work, and their position within a newly forming liberal ideology of the 1820s—and these studies make only passing references to the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Our Village</hi> sketches (see Newey, 2000; Saglia, 2005; Pietropoli (2008). To address these divisions, The Digital Mitford project formed as a large 20-member team of editors in 2013 and 2014 to attempt a comprehensive scholarly archive of Mitford’s writings, with a larger goal of compiling a database of information from Mitford’s collected writings and letters to help address the gaps in our understanding of the overlap of ‘Romanticism’ and ‘Victorian’ writing, and of poetic, dramatic, and prose forms in the 19th century. Comprehensive scholarly editing of Mitford’s correspondence together with her literary texts stands to bridge the substantial gaps in period-based literary scholarship, and serves to bring to light significant proposography data on the print publishing, artistic, political, and theatrical worlds in which Mitford circulated. 
            </p>
            <p>The Digital Mitford calls itself an archive but is actually a network of linked data—a database from which we can extract and study information we are collecting about people and texts of the 19th century. Ed Folsom (2007) and Kenneth M. Price (2009) have each discussed the Walt Whitman Archive as something more complex and expansive than an ‘archive’, though they, too, have used the word ‘archive’ for much the same reasons that we have: because the word meets conventional expectations of comprehensive storage paired with digital access of a large corpus of texts. Our collective project deploys TEI text encoding far more significantly to build a database of Mitford’s writings. Mitford appears to have shared with Whitman a strong inclusive tendency reflecting wide reading and conversational intersections with other writers and text, which makes for a richly diverse database. </p>
            <p>We expect that our most important contribution to 19th-century studies will be a heterogeneous database containing XML markup of upwards of Mitford’s 2,000 known letters paired with her literary texts published over a long and successful literary career. Through our editing of Mitford, we aim to make available hitherto unknown data about publishers of periodicals, theatre managers and actors, poets, artists, as well as politicians and educators—an extensive network bonded by mutual influence and support.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> Unusual intersections are coming to light from our coding of Mitford’s letters, her journal, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Our Village</hi>, demonstrating, for example, that Jane Austen is discussed in the same documents with Lord Byron, William Macready, Gilbert White, and Walter Scott. In light of the prolific discussion of writers, performers, and public figures, we have begun producing network graphs to help visualize social interactions, as well as shared contexts in the discussion of fictional characters and literary texts.
            </p>
            <p>The Digital Mitford project, at http://mitford.pitt.edu, involves a large team of editors working individually and collaboratively in set stages of work. Working with TEI XML, our project involves producing digital surrogates of Mary Russell Mitford’s letters, drama, poetry, and prose fiction and essays, to present these texts as an integrated unit, organized chronologically over a series of years. For the ongoing test-bed stage of our project, we have selected a period between 1819 and 1825, the period in which Mitford was especially active as a playwright and prose fiction writer—two very different genres in which she attained remarkable transatlantic popularity. This test-bed phase represents a complete and significant freestanding effort in its own right. Our editing of the hybrid cross-section of Mitford's texts from the 1820s is demonstrating hitherto unexplored intersections among Mitford’s letters, prose fiction, and verse tragedies during the decade in which her reputation as a dramatist and as a periodical contributor and publisher of fiction was growing in the English-speaking world. </p>
            <p>This paper introduces the Digital Mitford’s practices of correlating prosopography information from TEI markup of its range of variant texts and metadata within its heterogeneous archive. The TEI’s guidelines include tools for marking and compiling contextual information in central places—an efficient system of indexing—so that our TEI coding not only presents texts for reading, but also tags and identifies contextual information systematically. Thus, our editing team marks prosopographical data (the names of historical people, places, and events) as well as titles of literary texts and names of fictional characters by Mitford and other writers referenced in the archive. We extract our prosopography markup from editing each text to develop a detailed, centralized file listing contextual information. We then ensure that each reference to a particular individual (often with variable names) throughout the archive points to a single entry in our centralized list of persons (or ‘personography’) that includes a complete and standard name, details on birth and death, significant life events, relation to Mitford, and other pertinent information, including relationships with other people, literary texts, fictional characters, events, and places. We are thus tapping into the potential of the TEI as a mechanism not only for archiving the content and structure of Mitford’s texts but also for compiling and connecting contexts and metadata across hundreds of files. Our coding work is internal and shared among the project team, and all project team members are working in TEI under the supervision and guidance of the principal editor and author of this paper. </p>
            <p>Contextual markup of named persons, places, and texts supports our goal to generate indexes and search features as well as to produce charts, network diagrams, maps, and other useful visualizations to navigate and document patterns of information in the Mitford corpus, an extensive archive of many different kinds of texts. This paper will demonstrate our work in progress on data visualizations designed to assist navigation of the Digital Mitford Archive. We have begun to develop network graphs with a goal of facilitating serendipitous research discoveries among clusters of related material. We aim to provide data visualization tools to direct our readers to the important intersections illuminated in the prosopography: to connect the worlds of Mitford’s correspondence, her historical tragedies, and her prose fiction sketches in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Our Village</hi>. Our network analysis plots will help to highlight relationships among letters and literary texts, and relationships between institutions—such as periodical publishers and theatre houses. We are also working on designing maps as a guide for users of our site to understand the London postal network of Mitford’s day, as well as relationships between fictional representations of places and locations known to Mitford. In discussing the visualizations produced from our test-bed markup, we hope to model and prompt discussion of new directions in digital archive development, to model XML editions as relational databases.
            </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. See, e,g., Lynch (2000). For a critique of the overemphasis on nationalism in recent criticism of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Our Village</hi>, see Morrison (2008).
            </p>
            <p>2. Describing Mitford’s interactions with just a handful of women writers, Katie Halsey (2011) has discussed the importance of sharing, promoting, and discussing texts as forms of influence and mutual support.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>Enter your references here:</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Folsom, E.</hi> (2007). Database as Genre: The Epic Transformation of Archives. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PMLA,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">122</hi>(5): 1571–79.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Halsey, K.</hi> (2011). ‘Tell Me of Some Booklings’: Mary Russell Mitford’s Female Literary Networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Women’s Writing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(1): 121–36.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lynch, D.</hi> (2000). ‘Homes and Haunts’: Austen’s and Mitford’s English Idylls. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PMLA,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">115</hi>: 1103–8.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Morrison, K. A.</hi> (2008). Foregrounding Nationalism: Mary Russell Mitford’s 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Our Village</hi> and the Effects of Publication Context. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">European Romantic Review,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">19</hi>(3): 275–87.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Newey, K.</hi> (2000). Women and History on the Romantic Stage: More, Yearsley, Burney, and Mitford. In Burroughs, C. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Women in British Romantic Theatre</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 79–101.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pietropoli, C.</hi> (2008). The Story of the Foscaris, a Drama for Two Playwrights: Mary Mitford and Lord Byron. In Crisafulli, L. M. and Pietropoli, C. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Languages of Performance in British Romanticism</hi>. New York: Peter Lang, pp. 115–26.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Price, K. M.</hi> (2009). Edition, Project, Database, Archive, Thematic Research Collection: What’s in a Name? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(3).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Saglia, D.</hi> (2005). Mediterranean Unrest: 1820s Verse Tragedies and Revolutions in the South. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Romanticism,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(1): 99–113. 
                    </bibl>
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"2408","16","What Do You Do With A Million Readers?","9","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Tangherlini</surname>
                        <forename>Timothy Roland</forename>
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                        <surname>Roychowdhury</surname>
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            <p>In 2006, Gregory Crane posed the provocative question, ‘What do you do with a million books?’, a question that captured the increasing anxiety in the humanities that accompanied the rapid digitization of many library collections, and the distribution of more and more books in digital form (Crane, 2006). Far more books than could ever possibly be read by a single person were now machine actionable, requiring a response from the intellectual community. In the ensuing years, that response has emerged from the digital humanities community, and DH projects have focused on a broad range of approaches to the study of literature at scale, operationalizing the ‘distant reading’ that Franco Moretti had already proposed in his well-known article, ‘Conjectures on World Literature’ (Moretti, 2000; 2013). Yet what has been overlooked in many of these studies is that, alongside the explosion in the digitization of world literature, there has been an equally large explosion of readers commenting on books in online forums and other easily accessed electronic venues. The analysis of these responses allows for the consideration of reader response at scale. The goal of our work is to provide a preliminary answer to the question, ‘What can one do with a million readers?’ At the very least, we want to know what types of information one can extract automatically from thousands of reader posts about a particular work of literary fiction, and what this can tell us about how people (or classes of people) read.</p>
            <p>The target data for our study are reader reviews of sixteen works of fiction, five of which we focus on in this presentation (
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Hobbit</hi>; 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Gone with the Wind</hi>; 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Life of Pi</hi>; 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Frankenstein</hi>; 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Of Mice and Men</hi>). The works were chosen from the list of the most frequently rated books on the Goodreads site (number of ratings &gt; 500,000). From these books, we downloaded the maximum allowed 3,000 reviews. The sixteen works we ultimately chose were selected on the basis of the broad disparity in their narrative structures, number of characters, and character relationships. The initial goal was to develop a review-based summary of the novel in the form of a character graph (Figure 1), with dramatis personae and pair-wise connections between them based on actions, events, or other relationships. These graphical representations can be seen as an abstraction of what the reviewers on Goodreads collectively imagine who the main characters and what the main events to be, and the relationships between these characters and events.
            </p>
            <p>The reviews were harvested using a crawler specifically designed for this project. Readily available information on the reviewer was retained as metadata for use in addressing second-order questions related to classes of reviewers (e.g., gender, age, frequency of reviewing). To evaluate reader reviews at scale, we devised two metrics related to plot: completeness and accuracy. We used SparkNotes as a basis for ‘gold standard’ summaries, a choice motivated by SparkNotes’ high degree of completeness and accuracy for target features (entities and relationships), and the brevity of the summaries. </p>
            <p>We devised several progressively more difficult challenges to test the type of information we could derive from the approximately 48,000 reader reviews we crawled from Goodreads. First, without any training data, could we successfully discover the main dramatis personae in each novel? Second, could we automatically discover the action-based relationships between characters as represented by the reviewers? Third, could we discover the ‘events’ in which dramatis personae played a role? And fourth, could we develop a visualization that captured these relationships in a clear and engaging fashion that also represented the varying degree or strength of relationships between these entities? </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.gjdgxs""/>To achieve reproducible results, we devised a simple workflow that can be applied to other similar sites. This workflow consists of a preprocessing step, a statistical entity ranking step that surfaces the main dramatis personae in any given work, a pair-wise relationship discovery step, and a visualization step. As with most blogs and crowdsourced data sources, the Goodreads reviews are ‘noisy’. Consequently, preprocessing focused on reducing noise. We also ran language detection on the reviews to eliminate non-English reviews, and a stemmer to aggregate inflected words.
            </p>
            <p>In our efforts to discover the dramatis personae for any target work, we experimented with three main approaches. LDA proved to be successful at separating the works; we intend to explore this approach more thoroughly in future work for classifying reviews that are not preclassified as they are on Goodreads. Traditional NER (named entity recognition) approaches proved to be less accurate, given the broad variance in orthography that typify these reviews. Ultimately, the most successful approach was based on a statistical ranking of tokens between the review corpus and the individual subcorpus of target work reviews.</p>
            <p>The next challenge was to discover the relationships between dramatis personae as represented in the reviews. Here, we focused on the verbs, extracted using POS tagging, between two entities, after discovering all sentences with pairs of entities. In future work, we hope to refine these pair-wise relationships by collapsing verbs into a series of higher-level representations of the entity-relationship space. Even without this processing, the current approach discovers important relationships. For example, by looking at the reviews for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Hobbit</hi>, the relationship between ‘Tolkien’ and ‘Hobbit’ is dominated by the verb ‘write’ with a directional relationship in which ‘Tolkien’ inhabits the subject position and ‘Hobbit’ the object position. Similarly, ‘Bilbo’ has a relationship with ‘ring’ characterized by ‘find’, and a relationship with ‘adventure’ of ‘go on’, while the dragon ‘Smaug’ has a relationship with ‘treasure’ of ‘guard’. Interestingly, the reader reviews also generated a relationship between ‘Bilbo’ and ‘Smaug’ characterized by ‘kill’, an inaccurate depiction of the actual events (Bard the Bowman slays Smaug). Our automatic method is able to build a surprisingly large number of relationships between discovered entities without any training data, nor any preexisting lists of entities or relationships.
            </p>
            <p>For evaluation, using only the SparkNotes plot summaries, experts created a list of nouns including (1) names, (2) locations, (3) objects, and (4) concepts that are explicitly mentioned in the summary; these were considered the true dramatis personae. Completeness was quantified by computing the proportion of this list also produced by the algorithm. We measured both Precision (proportion of main characters produced by the algorithm) and the False Detection Rate (proportion of produced characters not in the relevant set). Similarly, using only words explicitly found in the SparkNotes plot summary, experts derived relationships based on verbs that connected pairs of characters mentioned above. We again measured the Precision and the False Detection Rate (FDR) for these relationships. As an example, applying this to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Hobbit</hi> reviews produced a measure of Completeness (or precision) for dramatis personae of 0.6 and Accuracy (False Detection Rate) of 0.13. 
            </p>
            <p>The final challenge was to present these relationships in a visually engaging manner (see Figures 1 and 2). We have developed directional, multicolored graphs that represent the strength (or confidence) of a relationship by an edge of varying width. These graphs are easily compared with the ‘gold standard’ ground truth graphs, and they provide us with a visual representation of our Completeness and Accuracy measures. What is immediately clear is that reader reviews have significantly lower Completeness than a resource dedicated to providing comprehensive summaries, while the Accuracy of described relationships is good (Bilbo’s dragon-slaying feats notwithstanding). The comparison raises intriguing issues about memory—for example, why is it that certain events disappear from the user-driven graphs, while others become accentuated?</p>
            <p>Other graphs are generated for classes of reviewers: e.g., female reviewers vs male reviewers of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Hobbit</hi>, which allow for a different type of comparison. Here the question is on which aspects of a story different types of reviewers tend to comment. Additional refinements could include metrics that reveal the number of reviews that mention particular entities or particular relationships. Currently, a missing component is a dynamic representation of reviewers’ concepts of plot (dynamics), which we are reserving for future work. 
            </p>
            <p>The approach we describe here is widely applicable to other crowdsourced response sites. Of particular interest are movie review sites such as Rotten Tomatoes that, much like Goodreads, allow viewers to present their own reviews of popular films. An intriguing aspect of many of these review sites is the propensity of reviewers to provide ‘plot summaries’ as opposed to critical engagements of more sophisticated thematic analysis. While this may drive many literary scholars toward the brink of insanity, it does allow us to consider questions regarding the popular engagement with literature and other forms of artistic production. Given the responses that people do post, can we use the scale of these sites to derive insight into how people (or groups of people) not only read but also remember? It is our contention that what people remember, and what people forget (or choose to leave out), can be very telling indicators of popular engagement with art. </p>
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                <hi rend=""background(white)"">Figure 1. Character/relationship graph of </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">The Hobbit</hi>.
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                <hi rend=""background(white)"">Figure 2. Character/relationship graph of </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">Frankenstein</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi>
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                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Crane, G.</hi> (2006). What Do You Do with a Million Books? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">D-Lib Magazine,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">12</hi>(3): 1.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2000). Conjectures on World Literature. 
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">New Left Review, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">1 </hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">(January–February): 54–68.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2013).
                        <hi rend=""background(white)""> Operationalizing: or, the Function of Measurement in Modern Literary Theory. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">New Left Review,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold background(white)"">84</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">(November–December): 103–19.</hi>
                    </bibl>
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"2409","16","Whatever Happened to Interchange?","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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            <p>Interchange and Interoperability</p>
            <p>In his 2011 paper at the Balisage conference, Syd Bauman (2011) draws a clear and useful distinction between two terms that are often lazily conflated: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">interoperability </hi>and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">interchange</hi>. Interoperability, he says, involves ‘little or no human intervention’; data is pulled from one site or system and plugged unchanged into another. Interchange, on the other hand, involves human actions, either through direct communication between individuals, or through indirect human mediation in which the re-user of data makes an effort to learn about it through reading documentation supplied with it, and then modifies or transforms it in order to put it to use in his or her own work.
            </p>
            <p>The Text Encoding Initiative, as Unsworth (2011) points out, originally aimed at interchange rather than interoperability, with the ‘I’ in TEI standing in the Guidelines document itself for ‘Interchange’ rather than ‘Initiative’. Perhaps because of the increasing range of big-data projects and tools looking for texts and corpuses they can absorb and process, the focus nowadays is on interoperability and on the difficulties and failures we encounter with it (see, for example, McDonough [2009] for a detailed discussion of the chequered history of interoperability in XML encoding standards used in libraries and archives). But interoperability is hard, especially in the case of literary and historical encoding projects with unique interests and research agendas producing densely encoded texts. The TEI schema is as large and complex as it is because its user community has a wide variety of precise requirements and the need to express them at different levels of specificity. As Bauman reminds us, ‘Interoperability and expressiveness are competing goals constantly in tension with each other’, and encoding with interoperability in mind results in encoding likely to be ‘substandard, less faithful to the document, or outright incorrect’. We obviously do not want this; but when Desmond Schmidt (to take one example) complains that ‘because the choice of tags is guided by human interpretation, TEI-XML encoded files are in general not interoperable’, it is this very expressiveness he is complaining of.</p>
            <p>In this paper I would like to re-focus on interchange, for several reasons. Interchange is a common way for TEI files to be re-used, and this is especially common in teaching environments and among novice users. Despite this, other than insisting that detailed documentation is essential and expecting re-users to read that documentation, we do little in the way of encouraging and assisting in the re-use of our data. Paying more attention to the needs of users who might want to take and work with our TEI files has a number of significant benefits to the source project, not only in terms of ordinary documentation, but also with regard to clarifying, streamlining, and normalizing practices and schemas. Finally, I would argue that making sincere efforts to enhance the practicality of interchange actually contributes significantly towards enabling interoperability, the much harder problem. I will be primarily concerned with TEI here, but the principles involved are generalizable to any formal data structure.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Barriers to Interchange</hi>
            </p>
            <p>If we share our XML at all (and many projects do not), we typically share a single version of it: the version we created and customized in order to be as expressive, as faithful to the data, and as useful for the goals of our project as possible. On the face of it, this is rather strange. Most modern web-based digital edition projects (to take one large subset of the XML encoding world) provide a wide variety of output formats, including various web views (for desktops and mobile devices), printable formats such as PDF, and even plain text. Interactive web views of documents often allow the user to choose between a variety of display options—TAPAS, for instance, allows the user to switch between diplomatic and normalized views, and between ‘TAPAS Generic’ and ‘TEI Boilerplate’ renderings.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> It is regarded as good practice to try to predict the variety of
            </p>
            <p>users who will visit a project, and to answer their needs as flexibly as possible. And yet, when it comes to our XML data, we do not do this; we typically provide a single XML dump for a document (in the TAPAS case, ‘Download TEI’).</p>
            <p>In most projects, this XML view is likely full of peculiarities of encoding, rarely used elements and attributes, intra-project links, and other features that, even if well-documented, will present barriers to re-use. A brief analysis of the encoding in our Map of Early Modern London project shows many such issues, from which I examine three:</p>
            <p> • Use of many project-specific private URI schemes for linking:</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;pb </hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(F6854C)"">facs=</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(9A3300)"">‘moleebo:13311|2’</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">/&gt;</hi>
            </p>
            <p> • Complex encoding of dates with custom dating attributes:
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;date </hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(F6854C)"">notBefore-custom=</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(9A3300)"">‘1438-08-31’</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(F6854C)"">notAfter-custom=</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(9A3300)"">‘1439-08-30’</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(F6854C)"">datingMethod=</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(9A3300)"">‘mol:julian’</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(F6854C)"">calendar=</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(9A3300)"">‘mol:regnal’</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&gt;</hi>17thof
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;name </hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(F6854C)"">ref=</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(9A3300)"">‘mol:HENR2’</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&gt;</hi>Henry VI
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;/name&gt;&lt;/date&gt;</hi>
            </p>
            <p> • Standoff markup in the form of pointers to personographies, taxonomies, etc. in other files within the project:</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;l&gt;</hi>The honour due by graue Antiquitie,
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;/l&gt;</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;l&gt;</hi>Then giuen to 
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;ref </hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(F6854C)"">target=</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(9A3300)"">‘mol:LOND5’</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&gt;</hi>London
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;/ref&gt;</hi>s
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;name </hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(F6854C)"">ref=</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(9A3300)"">‘mol:DRAP3’</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(F6854C)"">type=</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(9A3300)"">‘org’</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&gt;</hi>Draperie
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;/name&gt;</hi>,
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;/l&gt;</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;l&gt;</hi>By Royall 
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;name </hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(F6854C)"">ref=</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(9A3300)"">‘mol:RICH2’</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&gt;</hi>Richard
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;/name&gt;</hi>, who in me,
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;/l&gt;</hi>
            </p>
            <p>All of these encoding practices are perfectly reasonable, and are well-documented, but they are likely to stand in the way of scholars wishing to take one of our documents out of its surrounding infrastructure and work with it in another context. The solution is obvious: in all of these cases, we can replace the problem feature with a more common encoding. For example, to make our date encoding more broadly useful, we could easily convert the date from the Julian calendar to the proleptic Gregorian, and remove the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">@datingMethod</hi> attribute:
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;date </hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(F6854C)"">notBefore=</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(9A3300)"">‘1438-09-09’</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(F6854C)"">notAfter=</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(9A3300)"">‘1439-09-08’</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(F6854C)""> calendar=</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(9A3300)"">‘mol:regnal’</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&gt;</hi>17th of
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;name </hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(F6854C)"">ref=</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(9A3300)"">‘mol:HENR2’</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&gt;</hi>Henry VI
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;/name&gt;&lt;/date&gt;</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Similarly, we can expand the private URI schemes into full URLs, so that 
                <hi rend=""bold"">‘moleebo:13311| 2’</hi> becomes:
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">&lt;pb </hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(F6854C)"">facs=</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(9A3300)"">‘http://eebo.chadwyck.com/fetchimage?</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold color(9A3300)"">vid=13311&amp;page=2&amp;width=1200’</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(00009A)"">/&gt;</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Intra-project links to personographies, gazetteers, bibliographical references, and similar resources can be expanded in similar ways. However, many users will prefer a version of the document that does not depend on resources in linked files. We can provide for this by importing external resources into the appropriate locations in the host document, creating, for example, 
                <hi rend=""bold"">&lt;particDesc&gt;</hi> containing a 
                <hi rend=""bold"">&lt;listPerson&gt;</hi> in the header, and a 
                <hi rend=""bold"">&lt;listBibl&gt;</hi> for a bibliography in the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">&lt;back&gt;</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>With strategies such as these, we can create a complete, standalone version of the encoded document that eschews unusual project-specific encoding practices.</p>
            <p>Targeting Specific Output Formats</p>
            <p>Producing a more standardized and self-contained document is one step on the path to effective interchange, but it will be useful only to a subset of potential users. The TEI schema, even if we restrict ourselves to the more common encoding practices, is still huge and daunting particularly to novice users, and problematic for the tools they are likely to use (TEI stylesheets, collation tools, rendering tools such as TEI Boilerplate,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> and so on). We can go further by providing output in simpler, more constrained versions of TEI, such as TEI Lite
                <hi rend=""superscript"">4</hi> or the nascent TEI Simple.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">5</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Naturally, there are tradeoffs here. We might characterize such conversions as lossy downsampling; most highly expressive project-specific encoding strategies will suffer in the translation to a much simpler and more constrained format. For example, the current version of the TEI Simple proposal states that ‘We will preclude use of 
                <hi rend=""bold"">@rend</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""bold"">@style’</hi>, and ‘We will produce a closed list of values for 
                <hi rend=""bold"">@rendition</hi> using a pseudo-protocol of “simple:”’. Our project uses 
                <hi rend=""bold"">@style</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""bold"">@rendition </hi>extensively with CSS code to describe the appearance, layout, and typography of primary source documents. To convert this to TEI Simple, we will have to create a complex system that analyses that CSS code and converts it to the nearest possible representation in ‘simple:’ tokens, discarding information that cannot be represented. Similarly, Simple (currently) lacks the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">&lt;mentioned&gt; </hi>element, which we use extensively; this will have to be mapped to a more generic representation, such as 
                <hi rend=""bold"">&lt;seg type=‘mentioned’&gt;</hi>.
            </p>
            <p rend=""teiPara"">This is an uncomfortable prospect, perhaps, but it does have some positive aspects. First of all, it causes us to evaluate all our encoding practices and to consider whether we really do need to use a particular formulation when something plainer might do. Second, downsampling or simplification in the process of rendering a widely used constrained format constitutes what we might call ‘enacted documentation’; by mapping our encoding to a simpler representation, we provide another level of description of our encoding practice. For example, this template, part of a conversion to TEI Lite, shows how the 
                <hi rend=""teiCode"">&lt;supplied&gt;</hi> element, not present in TEI Lite, is replaced with a 
                <hi rend=""teiCode"">&lt;seg&gt;</hi> element, documenting in the process not only how the output is produced but how the 
                <hi rend=""teiItalics"">MoEML</hi> project typically uses 
                <hi rend=""teiCode"">&lt;supplied&gt;</hi> and its attributes: 
            </p>
            <p>
                <lb/>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlComment"">&lt;!-- No &lt;supplied&gt;. Have to make do with &lt;seg&gt;. --&gt;</hi>
                <lb/>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlTag"">&lt;xsl:template</hi>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlAttName""> match=</hi>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlAttVal"">""supplied""</hi>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlTag"">&gt;</hi>
                <lb/>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlTag"">&lt;seg</hi>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlAttName""> type=</hi>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlAttVal"">""supplied""</hi>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlAttName""> n=</hi>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlAttVal"">""{concat(@reason, if(@evidence) then concat('; evidence: ', @evidence) else '')}""</hi>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlTag"">&gt;</hi>
                <lb/>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlTag"">&lt;xsl:apply-templates</hi>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlAttName""> select=</hi>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlAttVal"">""@*|node()""</hi>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlTag"">/&gt;</hi>
                <lb/>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlTag"">&lt;/seg&gt;</hi>
                <lb/>
                <hi rend=""teiXmlTag"">&lt;/xsl:template&gt;</hi>
            </p>
            <p>It might seem that such conversion processes should be undertaken by the end user, not the source project. However, in dealing with unusual encoding practices or rare elements and attributes, the source project’s encoders will have a much better understanding of what is intended, and how best to represent it in the target output; the example above, for instance, shows that in 
                <hi rend=""teiItalics"">MoEML</hi> documents, 
                <hi rend=""teiCode"">&lt;supplied&gt;</hi> can be assumed always to have 
                <hi rend=""teiCode"">@reason</hi>, and often also 
                <hi rend=""teiCode"">@evidence</hi>. An outsider coming to the project may not be willing or able to undertake the work involved in reading the project documentation and building an appropriate transformation such as this; and even worse, an automated tool may simply throw away important information without comment. For instance, the Abbot Text Interoperability Tool,
                <hi rend=""superscript"">6</hi> in converting one of our project documents to TEI Lite, simply throws away without comment the five 
                <hi rend=""bold"">&lt;egXML&gt;</hi> elements that are the heart of the document; these could actually be represented quite well using 
                <hi rend=""teiCode"">&lt;eg&gt;</hi>, which is available in TEI Lite. When lossy conversions are written by the progenitors of a project’s data, they are likely to be considerably less lossy.
            </p>
            <p>Conclusion</p>
            <p>While it has been argued that TEI XML has not lived up to its early promise with regard to interoperability, the focus on interoperability (unmediated re-use) has largely eclipsed interchange (human-mediated re-use), which is far more practical in most cases. By putting some effort into providing a range of different versions of our XML source encodings, targeted at different use-cases and user groups, we can greatly facilitate the re-use of our data in other projects; this process causes beneficial reflection on our own encoding practices, as well as an additional layer of documentation for our projects. Furthermore, by generating specific highly constrained output formats such as TEI Simple, we also help to facilitate interoperability. </p>
            <p>In the Map of Early Modern London project, we have been enhancing the variety of XML renderings of our documents, and now provide four different views: ‘Original,’ ‘Standard,’ ‘Standalone’, and TEI Lite; see, for example, 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://mapoflondon.uvic.ca/METR1.htm</hi>. TEI Simple will be added when it stabilizes. A further documentation page
                <hi rend=""superscript"">7</hi> provides an explanation of how each of these formats is derived, and suggests what kind of end-use it might be appropriate for. We are aiming to present a model example of how we might stimulate interchange and contribute to interoperability. Based on the demonstrable value of outputs created specifically for interchange, I would argue that such outputs should be incorporated as a formal component of plans and grant applications for all digital edition projects, and that granting agencies should be encouraged to look for and value this factor in project plans.
            </p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. See, for example, http://tapasproject.org/digital-mitford/lettertotntalfourd28oct1821/16145.</p>
            <p>2. See Holmes, Jenstad, and Butt (2013) for an argument that sophisticated encoding of historical dates is essential for some types of interoperability.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">3. http://teiboilerplate.org/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">4. http://www.tei-c.org/Guidelines/Customization/Lite/.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">5. https://github.com/TEIC/TEI-Simple.</p>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">6. http://abbot.unl.edu/cocoon/vicar/Vicar.html.</p>
            <p rend=""teiFootnote"">7. 
                <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://mapoflondon.uvic.ca/xml_outputs.htm</hi>.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bauman, S.</hi> (2011). Interchange vs. Interoperability. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2011</hi>. Montréal, Canada, http://www.balisage.net/Proceedings/vol7/html/Bauman01/BalisageVol7-
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Bauman01.html.</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Holmes, M., Jenstad, J. and Butt, C.</hi> (2013). Encoding Historical Dates Correctly: Is It Practical, and Is It Worth It? In 
                        <hi rend=""teiItalics"">Digital Humanities 2013 Conference Abstracts</hi>, Lincoln, NE, 
                        <hi rend=""Internet_Link"">http://dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-179.html</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McDonough, J.</hi> (2009). XML, Interoperability and the Social Construction of Markup Languages: The Library Example. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(3),
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/3/000064/000064.html.</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rahtz, S.</hi> (2014). TEI Simple: Summary. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">TEI Simple GitHub Repository</hi>,
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>https://github.com/TEIC/TEI-Simple/blob/master/advisory/report1.xml.</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, D.</hi> (2014). Towards an Interoperable Digital Scholarly Edition. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>, 10.4000/jtei.979.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Unsworth, J.</hi> (2011). Computational Work with Very Large Text Collections:
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Interoperability, Sustainability, and the TEI. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi> (June), 10.4000/jtei.215.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
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"2410","16","When Does (German) Literature Take Place? – On the Analysis of Temporal Expressions in Large Corpora","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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    <teiHeader>
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                <title>When Does (German) Literature Take Place? – On the Analysis of Temporal Expressions in Large Corpora</title>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Fischer</surname>
                        <forename>Frank</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Göttingen Centre for Digital Humanities, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>frank.fischer@zentr.uni-goettingen.de</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Strötgen</surname>
                        <forename>Jannik</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Heidelberg University, Germany</affiliation>
                    <email>jannik.stroetgen@informatik.uni-heidelberg.de</email>
                </author>
            </titleStmt>
            <editionStmt>
                <edition>
                    <date>2014-12-19T13:50:00Z</date>
                </edition>
            </editionStmt>
            <publicationStmt>
                <publisher>Paul Arthur, University of Western Sidney</publisher>
                <address>
                    <addrLine>Locked Bag 1797</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Penrith NSW 2751</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Australia</addrLine>
                    <addrLine>Paul Arthur</addrLine>
                </address>
            </publicationStmt>
            <sourceDesc>
                <p>Converted from a Word document </p>
            </sourceDesc>
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                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""keywords"">
                    <term>temporal tagging</term>
                    <term>literary studies</term>
                    <term>corpus analysis</term>
                </keywords>
                <keywords scheme=""ConfTool"" n=""topics"">
                    <term>corpora and corpus activities</term>
                    <term>information retrieval</term>
                    <term>literary studies</term>
                    <term>text analysis</term>
                    <term>german studies</term>
                    <term>English</term>
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        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Workflow</head>
                <p>Our workflow consisted of four steps that were performed in parallel: (1) compilation of a suitable (German-language) corpus; (2) collection of data using the temporal tagger HeidelTime (Strötgen and Gertz, 2012) for the automatic extraction of temporal expressions according to the guidelines of the temporal markup language TimeML (Pustejovsky et al., 2003); (3) data analysis (from heat maps to individual cases); and (4) development of an Android app for exploring the ‘literary year’.</p>
                <p>Out of the two biggest corpora with German literary texts, the TextGrid Repository
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> and Gutenberg-DE,
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> we chose the latter. We prepared the corpus so it would only contain fiction and ended up with 2,735 works by 549 authors, the majority of which had been published between 1840 and 1930. The resulting 900 MB of text were fed into HeidelTime to extract date specifications. Just using the explicit (and therefore very correct) expressions, we created a calendar heatmap (where ‘1’ means 0–9 occurrences, ‘2’ means 10–19 occurrences, etc., and ‘+’ means 90 or more occurrences; days with more than 50 occurrences are 
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">highlighted</hi>). Some expected and unexpected accumulations turned up:
                </p>
                <p>JAN: 
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">+</hi>333222323131323223222222222131
                    <lb/>FEB: 43322222133212332332212322231
                    <lb/>MAR: 
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">7</hi>3334322233243422433
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">6</hi>3232322252 (21
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">st</hi>)
                    <lb/>APR: 
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">+</hi>33233223432223223332322223323
                    <lb/>MAY: 
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">+</hi>3544332353
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">6</hi>4353232424323223244 (12
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi>)
                    <lb/>JUN: 
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">7</hi>33233323333324432343324433233
                    <lb/>JUL: 
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">9</hi>444332333243
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">6</hi>52333432224223223 (14
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi>)
                    <lb/>AUG: 
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">8</hi>3
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">6</hi>442232
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">7</hi>2444
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">6</hi>3344533332323222 (3
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">rd</hi>, 10
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi>, 15
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi>)
                    <lb/>SEP: 
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">8</hi>54433233332234233233221222323
                    <lb/>OCT: 
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">+</hi>353322224223552253432222222133
                    <lb/>NOV: 
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">9</hi>44233333
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">7</hi>23225213232222222224 (10
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi>)
                    <lb/>DEC: 55223412132232321322333
                    <hi rend=""background(lightGray)"">9</hi>2122224 (24
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi>)
                </p>
                <p>As we can see, first days of a month and fixed holidays (New Year, Christmas) have a much higher frequency. But some other days also stick out, an example being the ‘10th of August’. A look into our results files showed that 74% of its occurrences provide a temporal setting for the fictional plot. The above-average frequency of the 10th of August, though, has to do with a historical event, the storming of the Tuileries Palace on 10 August 1792. About 21% of the occurrences are references to this historical date (cf. Georg Büchner’s play 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Danton’s Death</hi>: ‘
                    <hi rend=""smallcaps"">First Citizen</hi>: Danton was with us on the 10th August, Danton was with us in September’). Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish between historical dates that left their traces in literary texts and explicit dates that provide a temporal setting of a fictional plot. The collection and analysis of such date accumulations will be systematically expanded, in regard to specific authors, languages, and nations.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Significance for Literary Studies</head>
                <p>Along the lines of Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht’s study on the year 1926, it would be useful and feasible to assemble the literary history of individual days. Every date has its own literary history, as is indicated by the example of Paul Celan and the ‘20th of January’.</p>
                <p>In Celan’s prose poem 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Conversation in the Mountains</hi> (1960), he alludes to Georg Büchner’s short story 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Lenz</hi>, which also describes a passage through the mountains. Büchner’s text starts with the sentence, ‘The 20th of January, Lenz walked through the mountains’. In 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Der Meridian</hi>, Celan’s acceptance speech for the Georg Büchner Prize (Germany’s most prestigious literary accolade), he stresses that Lenz’s hike through the mountains takes place on a 20th of January and extends the temporal frame by referring to another 20th of January, the one of 1942, when the Wannsee Conference took place in Berlin. Celan concludes, ‘Perhaps one may say that every poem has its “20th of January” inscribed?’ (cf. Sieber, 2007, 114).
                </p>
                <p>The automatic extraction of date expressions from large corpora makes such simultaneities visible and enables their systematic exploration.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Development of an Android App to Facilitate the Exploration of Date Expressions in World Literature</head>
                <p>To get an idea of the seasonal cycle of literature, we developed an Android application that works like a calendar and, for each day of the year, presents passages from canonised texts of world literature that take place on that very day. Screenshots are shown in Figure 1.</p>
                <p>It is well known that James Joyce’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses</hi> takes place on 16 June 1904. But there is just one inconspicuous mentioning of the day in the novel (the secretary Ms Dunne types it in on the keyboard); it is made visible in the app. Other examples for such passages are 12 June in Günter Grass’ novel 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Tin Drum</hi> (birth of Oskar Matzerath’s declared son Kurt), 29 February in Thomas Mann’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Magic Mountain</hi> (where the date is of importance as a special variant of the Walpurgisnacht; see Figure 1), and 27 July in Stefan Zweig’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Chess Story</hi> (on that day, imprisoned protagonist Dr. B. gets hold of the chess book).
                </p>
                <p>Our app thus represents a database of fictional dates that will be available for further research. To be able to map the entire ‘literary year’, though, we will also have to take approximate temporal expressions into account, which we will be attempting in the next section.</p>
                <p>The Seasonal Cycle of Literature</p>
                <p>We already mentioned the very specific ratio between exact and approximate dates. In the search for anomalies in the works of individual 19th-century authors, we came across Theodor Fontane and Theodor Storm. A collection of just the month specifications in the fictional works of both authors yielded the results shown in Table 1.</p>
                <p>In conformity with the popularity of the first of May, the whole month is strongly represented in the narratives of both authors. However, the summer months (of the Northern Hemisphere) are not. Fontane’s narratives seem to especially take place between September and January, Storm’s works between August and November. Given that every month name has a specific tonal-associative character and creates a stylistic effect, both authors seem to favour autumnal/wintry settings and moods.</p>
                <figure>
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                </figure>
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            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>In this abstract, we presented a method to find date accumulations in large literary corpora. We described the relation between approximate and exact dates and introduced a growing database of exact date specifications in world literature. Furthermore, we approached the seasonal cycle of literature and certain authors to try to answer the question, ‘When does [German] literature take place?’ in a macro-analytic fashion. The results obtained to date already show the potential of the ongoing research.</p>
            </div>
            <div>
                <p>Notes</p>
                <p>1. http://www.textgridrep.de/.</p>
                <p rend=""footnote text"">
                    <hi rend=""baseline"">2</hi>. http://projekt.gutenberg.de/.
                </p>
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        </body>
        <back>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History.</hi> University of Illinois Press, Chicago.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pustejovsky, J., Castano, J. M., Ingria, R., Sauri, R., Gaizauskas, R. J., Setzer, A., Katz, G. and Radev, D. R.</hi> (2003). TimeML: Robust Specification of Event and Temporal Expressions in Text. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Directions in Question Answering</hi>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 28–34.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sieber, M.</hi> (2007). Paul Celans ‘Gespräch im Gebirg’. Erinnerung an eine versäumte Begegnung. Tübingen: Niemeyer, http://books.google.de/books?id=KbfF2oIHrjwC&amp;pg=PA114.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Strötgen, J. and Gertz, M.</hi> (2012). Temporal Tagging on Different Domains: Challenges, Strategies, and Gold Standards. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Language. Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2012)</hi>, pp. 3746–53.
                    </bibl>
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"2411","16","When Is Coding Scholarship And When Is It Not?","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Van Zundert</surname>
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                    <affiliation>Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands - Royal Dutch Academy of Arts and Sciences, Netherlands, The</affiliation>
                    <email>joris.van.zundert@huygens.knaw.nl</email>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Haentjens-Dekker</surname>
                        <forename>Ronald</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands - Royal Dutch Academy of Arts and Sciences, Netherlands, The</affiliation>
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            <p rend=""Normal1"">We argue that the humanities and digital humanities need to consider certain forms of code as scholarly object and certain types of code authorship as a scholarly activity. It will be essential, therefore, to develop a scholarly mode of evaluating and criticizing these scholarly contributions in code. We argue this position from a theoretical perspective, and we present a case study to consider the boundaries of scholarship in code and coding, and how this scholarship in code may be evaluated.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Software, code, and algorithms are becoming an inherent part of the humanities, and not just because they are tools within digital humanities. Rather, code and software have resulted in the softwarization of society as a whole (Berry, 2014). The process of the digital becoming ubiquitous—of code and algorithms permeating culture and society in a radical manner—is not a new phenomenon (cf., e.g., Coyne, 1995; Capurro, 2010). However, in the last decade the emergence of digital technology in every aspect of culture and society, and in every associated workflow, seems to have accelerated vastly with the advent of mobile computing and social media—so much so that Steve E. Jones (2014) in his recent history of the digital humanities compares this development with the ‘eversion’ envisioned in the 2007 novel 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Spook Country</hi> by William Gibson: a turning inside out of digital technology intertwining with the physical world and real life to the point of complete and indistinguishable mergence. Inter alia, David M. Berry (2014) concludes that society as a whole has therefore moved into a post-digital era. For the unsuspecting or impartial user, this means that a perfectly transparent layer of omnipresent digital technology sits between digital resources, data, and information and the uses or experiences generated from these data and resources. The invisibility or—if one prefers—covertness of this transparent layer creates an illusion of neutrality of this very layer, arguably reinforced by code and software being grounded in logic and mathematics that lend digital technology an aura of impartiality and not seldom even infallibility. However, code and software are non-neutral and fallible (cf., e.g., Coyne [1995] and Berry [2014]). Being manipulable, being engineered, and being authored by people, code has meaning, intent, assertions of truth, and performative aspects of and by itself.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Given the radical ubiquitousness of a digitality that is seemingly transparent but potentially non-neutral, transformative in virtually every aspect of culture and society as well as in scholarship, one would expect the humanities on principle to be heavily involved in research towards the properties and effects of the innards of this digitality. In other words, one would expect the humanities to be interested in the scholarly methodological merits and effects of code and code engineering. Until now, however, code and code engineering have hardly been researched as to their scholarly significance and impact. Code as scholarly object and code authoring as scholarship have been less a point of attention of the humanities than the application of resulting software. This focusing away from code is also rather mainstream within the digital humanities. The debate on code literacy—does one need to be able to code to call oneself a digital humanist?—is undecided but leaning mostly towards asserting that code skills are not a necessity for digital humanists (Ramsay, 2011). The propensity to foreground the results of applying digital or computational analysis and to discuss especially those results on a scholarly level, rather than making algorithms or code the object of scholarly discussion, is also apparent in the writings of practitioners of code in the humanities: mostly what has been done with software and what the results might mean are highlighted, far more than the problematizing of the very digitality of method (cf., e.g., Ramsay and Rockwell, 2012). Because of the argued increase in prominence of digital technology, however, neither the humanities nor the digital humanities can forgo finding a genuine scholarly mode to disclose code and coding objects, and to develop scholarly critical mechanisms for such objects.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Thus, because of the ubiquitous role of digital technology both in society and scholarship, we argue that humanities cannot evade taking code and code authorship into its domain as objects of study and criticism. Often in answer to this problematic issue, one hears a hand-waving argument made that one does not need to know how a combustion engine works to drive a car. We argue that this is a false and, worse, dangerous metaphor. Ian Hacking (1981) uses the same metaphor when arguing that one needs no deep theoretical understanding of optics and the physical laws that predict the refraction of light or the behaving of electrons when operating an optic or electron microscope. In the case of microscopy this is valid, as these laws of physics have been widely theorized and heavily empirically supported. Given our scientific consensus expectation that our theory of optics will thus hold, the technology of a microscope can be blackboxed in a true Latourian sense (Latour, 1988). Software code, however, is not governed by laws of physics. Although code has to answer to certain logic to be executable, it need itself not even be logical or mathematically precise in effect, reasoning, or operation. Certainly, as long as code applications in the (digital) humanities remain a ‘parade of prototypes’ (Wouters and Beaulieu, 2007), code engineering will hardly be ruled by generic laws. Even if the mathematics of underlying analytic software may be profoundly formally tested, one is hard-pressed to find software applications in the humanities that are accompanied with formal test suites guaranteeing the correct integration of these mathematical components. Especially the heuristics of purpose-built software should be subject to rigorous automated testing, and to scholarly scrutiny and review. We argue that to improve the situation it is essential to develop a techno-scholarly mode of evaluating and criticizing scholarly contributions in code. Some work has been done in this area, most notably by Montfort et al. (2012) and, e.g., Mark Marino (2006). The literature so far, however, considers code as object external to the humanities. But how do we respond to Jean Bauer’s (2011) echoing of the call that ‘the database is the theory!’? Confirming code as a scholarly object, evaluating its functions, and acknowledging its production as scholarly activity require a theory and critical framework that have yet to be formulated. </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Such a framework should be built on the basis of practical approaches to the criticism and the evaluation of code as scholarly object. The remainder of our paper will therefore underpin our theoretical exposé with a concrete case study of the development and the code base of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CollateX</hi>. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CollateX</hi> is a successful text collation engine developed in a digital humanities context (Haentjens Dekker et al., 2014). The development, algorithm, and logic of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CollateX</hi> marries code engineering skills with mathematical methods, computational algorithm design, and decidedly scholarly heuristics. We demonstrate how certain scholarly decisions of collation can be expressed as mathematical problems and logically programmable code, but that in other cases it is essential to hand off decisions to scholarly interpretation. Determining the precise cutoff point between the application of mathematics or logic and the application of scholarly expertise is, as we demonstrate, a skill that is informed by both high-level computational as well as high-level scholarly expertise. We thus also demonstrate from practice that code has intrinsic scholarly purport and intent. Lastly we consider how this purport can be systematically scrutinized by applying both automated testing and a scholarly critical approach. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">We then return to the overarching concern of evaluating the scholarship in code, and we argue that ignoring the scholarly nature of code renders humanities willfully illiterate of a technology that is re-inscribing scholarly content and practice.</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bauer, J. </hi>(2011). Who You Calling Untheoretical? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(1), http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/1-1/who-you-calling-untheoretical-by-jean-bauer/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Berry, D. </hi>(2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Critical Theory and the Digital</hi>. Critical Theory and Contemporary Society. Bloomsbury Academic, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Borgman, C. L. </hi>(2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarship in the Digital Age: Information, Infrastructure, and the Internet.</hi> MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Capurro, R. </hi>(2010). Digital Hermeneutics: An Outline. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">AI &amp; Society,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">35</hi>(1): 35–42.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coyne, R. </hi>(1995). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Designing Information Technology in the Postmodern Age: From Method to Metaphor.</hi> Leonardo Book Series. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Drucker, J. </hi>(2003). Designing Ivanhoe. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text Technology,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">12</hi>(2): 19–41.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hacking, I. </hi>(1981). Do We See through a Microscope? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pacific Philosophical Quarterly,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">62</hi>(4): 305–22.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Haentjens Dekker, R., Van Hulle, D., Middell, G., Neyt, V. and Van Zundert, J. </hi>(2014). Computer Supported Collation of Modern Manuscripts: CollateX and the Beckett Digital Manuscript Project. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi> March, doi:10.1093/llc/fqu007.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jones, S. E. </hi>(2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Emergence of the Digital Humanities.</hi> Routledge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Latour, B. </hi>(1988). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society.</hi> Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Marino, M. C. </hi>(2006). Critical Code Studies. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Electronic Book Review</hi>, http://www.electronicbookreview.com/thread/electropoetics/codology.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Montfort, N., et al. </hi>(2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">10 PRINT CHR$(205.5+RND(1)); : GOTO 10</hi>. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, http://10print.org/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S. </hi>(2011). On Building. 11 January, http://stephenramsay.us/text/2011/01/11/on-building/
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S. and Rockwell, G. </hi>(2012). Developing Things: Notes toward an Epistemology of Building in the Digital Humanities. In Gold, M. K. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 75–84, http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/11.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wouters, P. and Beaulieu, A. </hi>(2007). Critical Accountability: Dilemmas for Interventionist Studies of e-Science. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication,</hi> special issue, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">12</hi>(2): 583–99. 
                    </bibl>
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"2412","16","World-View from Poetic Structure: An “Anti-Social” Network Analysis of Robert Southey’s and Eramus Darwin’s Epic Poems","10","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Beshero-Bondar</surname>
                        <forename>Elisa</forename>
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            <p>This paper applies network analysis to study literal and analogical relationships in literary texts, exemplified in annotated epic poems. The method is dubbed ‘anti-social’ because it screens out information about characters in order to study how texts reference places, because human readers tend to screen out complex information about places while attending to characters and their social interactions. Rather than plot a geospatial spread of places, the network analysis plots ‘closeness’ and ‘distance’ through closeness centrality measures, and studying which places are most frequently correlated in lines and stanzas of poetry and their footnotes. The network illuminates a text’s worldview by correlating its mythical and geographical places, and by distinguishing between literal and analogical place references. Network graphs will be plotted from Robert Southey’s ‘Thalaba the Destroyer’ (1801) and Erasmus Darwin’s ‘The Temple of Nature’ (1803), both encyclopedic and planetary in their scope, to compare the imagined world-view projected in each.</p>
            <p>Revised Proposal</p>
            <p>The sociological roots of network analysis from the 1920s to the 1950s strongly assert themselves in contemporary digital humanities projects, which often deploy network graphs as a way to view human beings as aggregate particles based on broadly defined parameters of shared context.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">1</hi> We in humanities fields have not tended so frequently to apply network analysis in the ways that biologists do, to illuminate interactions across small-scale structural units of a complex system, as, for example, the plotting of molecular interactions in protein synthesis.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> Nevertheless, digital humanities has welcomed borrowings from the biological sciences, such as Matthew Jockers’ ‘19th-Century Literary Genome’, designed to chart networks of literary influence from about 3,600 novels on the basis of topic modelling and stylometric measures, though as Jockers observes, the patterns of influence he models are ‘impossible’ to prove, despite the quantitative basis of his analysis (Jockers, 2012). Jockers’ work with prose corpora of thousands of texts must necessarily screen out formal complexities and microhistorical contexts in order to build a basis for comparison on a macro scale. By contrast, Franco Moretti’s intratextual network graphs of Shakespeare’s plays in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Distant Reading</hi> (2013) have prioritized human interactions or the interactions of fictional characters, evoking in literary microcosm the macro-analytical scale of social network theory. Both approaches—macro and micro—are risky in literary studies: Either we strip network theory of its statistical significance to plot character dynamics in small scale, or we potentially overstate statistical significance in our plotting of literary graphs based on social network theory. By contrast, biologists who apply network statistics to study information exchanged between distinct molecular units work closely with cellular structures in a finely tuned model of close reading and locational analysis that might benefit a structurally grounded literary scholarship. 
            </p>
            <p>Inspired by the methods and tools of biological network analysis, I propose an alternative, pointedly ‘anti-social’ approach to networking spatial references in complex poetic forms. Unlike Moretti’s approach to literary networks, my investigation screens out characters and concentrates on the proliferation of place references connected by analogy and juxtaposition in annotated epic poetry. Though literary forms are not, of course, as complicated as biological structures, they nevertheless benefit from the combination of both micro- and macro-analysis built from XML markup and statistically processed to measure patterns of distance and proximity of prolific references that are difficult for human readers to trace without assistance. This paper’s ‘anti-social’ network analysis treats poems as structures designed to network concepts together, so that analogy and metaphor constitute a kind of edge that links nodes together in correlations and juxtapositions that give poetic language a distinctive conceptual structure. </p>
            <p>My networks are drawn from scholarly encyclopedic long works of late 18th- and early 19th-century poetry by Erasmus Darwin and Robert Southey, poems that responded to an Enlightenment ‘Information Age’ to compile from voyage publications and travel narratives a knowledge base of the world’s places, cultures, species of life, and properties of nature. Southey’s ‘Thalaba the Destroyer’ (1801) and Darwin’s ‘The Temple of Nature: Or, the Origin of Society’ (1803) represent a poetics that modelled world-systems in layers, studying plant physiology in context with human belief systems, and incorporating empirical observations and experiments with speculative juxtapositions of ideas from the microcosmic to the macrocosmic, from the pollination of plants to the evolution of species.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> The complicated structural machinery of Southey’s and Darwin’s epics challenges readers now perhaps even more than readers at the turn of the nineteenth century. Without systematic computational assistance, our efforts to ‘read’ these poems might well expose us in our twenty-first-century weakness: we cannot easily assess their elaborate interplay of contexts, their investigative reading of a centuries-old archive of records on cultural encounters, their blending of ancient and contemporary sources from voyage logs and travel narratives. To examine such poems as a kind of relational database, considering their structural components—books, stanzas, prose notes, and scholarly apparatus—benefits from the methods and measurements of network analysis.
            </p>
            <p>The hybrid or composite constructions of poetry with frequent prose appendages (or extensive footnotes) was especially marked by the late 18th century in the elaborate scientific poems of Erasmus Darwin and the historical-cultural-mythopoetic syntheses of Robert Southey. Gerard Genette has theorized the paratext as transactional with readers, a boundary of exchange, and as such in the complicated long poems of the early 19th century—with their complex formal verse patterns bordering on prose discourses of authority—the paratext interface is especially challenging to the processing powers of an unassisted human reader (Genette, 1997). As Clare Kinney observes, the formal structures of poetry with embedded prose generate patterns of meaning through ‘cross-referencing of motifs over the spread of a narrative’, but the multiplying reference points of such poems from levels of analogy to annotations are very difficult to follow systematically, and scholarship has tended to flatten discussion of such poems to a discussion of main plots and salient ideas without the benefit of systematic study (Kinney, 1992, 13). If we apply network analysis tools to the structure of these complex texts, we might study them as systems of information exchange in a way related to the network plots of cell biologists, and we may thus be able to observe systematically how references to the world’s geographic and mythical places are held together within an ornate literary structure. </p>
            <p>The long poems of Darwin and Southey synthesize world-views—visions of the earth as a planetary system—based on comparisons and contrasts between and among places referenced in poetic language and prose annotation. Places are not always referenced for geospatial accuracy, but more significantly are layered together by analogy. In long poems that elaborate upon non-European cultural contexts through place references to Arabia, Persia, Malaysia, Polynesia, China, and Peru in both main text and paratext, we can examine how these places are patterned by relation to each other in the British global and imperial consciousness of these poems. We can plot with network graphs which analogies—which locations—are most frequently referenced together as measure of ‘closeness centrality’. We can also see which locations are plotted remotely, many path steps removed from centrally plotted locations and with few comparative reference points, and thus mark what places are outlying and remote on the imagined horizons of a world of locational and cultural associations. </p>
            <p>To produce an ‘anti-social’ network of locations in these long poems, I have begun with structural and contextual markup in TEI, to collect place references and their positioning within main text line groups and within paratext notes. After extracting this place data and its precise structural position within the poems systematically using XSLT and XQuery, I work with Cytoscape’s tools for network visualization and statistical analysis, originally designed for microbiology, to produce network graphs and tables of statistical information that indicate patterns of relatedness across complex structural units of texts. My project investigates the following questions:</p>
            <p> a. How can we study the way complex literary texts layer and cross-reference places by analogy with each other?</p>
            <p> b. Can the TEI’s (and XML’s) structural and contextual markup be productively deployed in literary studies to study networks of correlated concepts?</p>
            <p> c. In correlating concepts of place in a long scholarly epic, what patterns can we see in networking geographical with mythical places—that is, place connections that cannot be literally mapped with latitude and longitude coordinates but that nevertheless help to construct an imagined topography for readers of poetry?</p>
            <p> d. Can we apply the statistical measurement tools of network analysis—stepwise distance between nodes and closeness centrality—to understand how geographic and mythic places are linked by ‘closeness’ and ‘distance’ conceptually, not just geographically? </p>
            <p>At the time of drafting this proposal I have begun an ‘anti-social’ networking study of Southey’s ‘Thalaba the Destroyer’, a 12-book epic poem with especially prolific annotations and complex place-time referentiality. To survey the work in progress, please see my project site http://ebeshero.github.io/thalaba/. An early record of the project, designed to introduce students and literary scholars to network analysis, appears on my blog, http://digitalromanticist.wordpress.com/2013/08/23/spectacular-intersections-of-place-in-southeys-thalaba-the-destroyer/.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>1. For example, see the Six Degrees of Francis Bacon (http://sixdegreesoffrancisbacon.com/) and the Kindred Britain (http://kindred.stanford.edu/#) projects, drawn from the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography to map human relationships spanning centuries.</p>
            <p>2. See, for example, the network visualizations used to predict probable locations of proteins produced by the Washburn Lab and Proteomics Center: http://research.stowers.org/proteomics/ProtNetAnal.html.</p>
            <p>3. On the scientific bases and the layering and juxtapositioning of worldviews in these poems, see Fara (2012) and Smith (2010). On Southey, see Majeed (1992). See also Porter (2011), which addresses how Southey’s commonplace book documents a systematic use of Enlightenment scientific methods to collect evidence of cultural patterns that he would apply in his long poems. Without using computational methods, however, neither Majeed nor Porter can study how those patterns were plotted in the long poems within the space of a chapter or an article. </p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fara, P.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Erasmus Darwin: Sex, Science, and Serendipity</hi>. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Genette, G.</hi> (1997). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation</hi>. Jane E. Lewin (trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 284–88. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M.</hi> (2012). Computing and Visualizing the 19th-Century Literary Genome. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ADHO Digital Humanities 2012 Conference</hi>, http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/computing-and-visualizing-the-19th-century-literary-genome/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kinney, C. R.</hi> (1992). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Strategies of Poetic Narrative: Chaucer, Spenser, Milton, Eliot</hi>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Majeed, J.</hi> (1992). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ungoverned Imaginings: James Mill’s The History of British India and Orientalism</hi>. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Porter, D.</hi> (2011). Poetics of the Commonplace: Composing Robert Southey. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Wordsworth Circle, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">42</hi>(1): 27–33.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smith, C.</hi> (2010). Like Grandfather, Like Grandson: Erasmus and Charles Darwin on Evolution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Perspectives in Biology and Medicine,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">53</hi>(2) (Spring): 186–99.
                    </bibl>
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"2413","16","You can leave your hat on-line: Multiple Context-Dependent Identities on Social Networking Sites","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                        <surname>Angelopoulos</surname>
                        <forename>Spyros</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Horizon Digital Economy Research Institute, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>Spyros.Angelopoulos@nottingham.ac.uk</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Brown</surname>
                        <forename>Michael</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Horizon Digital Economy Research Institute, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>Michael.Brown@nottingham.ac.uk</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Price</surname>
                        <forename>Dominic</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Horizon Digital Economy Research Institute, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>Dominic.Price@nottingham.ac.uk</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>Mortier</surname>
                        <forename>Richard</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Horizon Digital Economy Research Institute, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>Richard.Mortier@nottingham.ac.uk</email>
                </author>
                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>McAuley</surname>
                        <forename>Derek</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Horizon Digital Economy Research Institute, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom</affiliation>
                    <email>Derek.Mcauley@nottingham.ac.uk</email>
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            <p>In this paper we seek to elucidate understandings of the self-management of multiple context-dependent identities of Social Networking Sites (SNS) users. Online social networking is now in its second decade and has become a central activity to a large proportion of the global population. This shift is not surprising, as humans are social animals with a need to connect and communicate with each other. SNS augment our existing offline networks, allowing us to keep in touch with people over great distances, share our experiences and associated content, organize our social lives, and discover new contacts beyond physical reach. As previous researchers have noted, many users maintain multiple online identities through which they actively manage their social interactions on the various SNS (Golbeck and Rothstein, 2008). </p>
            <p>Most SNS, however, suffer from a common problem that prevents them from capturing the true richness of our offline social networks. As social beings, we tend to participate in different, overlapping social groups, and we adjust our identities to match the contexts, as well as our use to match the constraints imposed by the various SNS. The reasons why people choose to explicitly manage the overlap among social networks, even keeping some networks completely distinct from others, are commonplace and usually not clandestine—for example, teenagers wishing to discuss sensitive health matters in online forums (van der Velden and El Emam, 2013), employees complaining about treatment at work (O’Brien, 2014), or those engaged in political commentary in uncomfortable or dangerous situations (Attia et al., 2011). </p>
            <p>The self-management of multiple context-dependent identities represents a topic that deserves greater attention within digital humanities and needs to be further explored and elucidated, since it incorporates the entanglement of online and offline interactivity within and around computer mediated environments (Angelopoulos and Merali, 2013) which can have significant implications for the overall sociability of SNS users (Angelopoulos and Merali, 2015). The self-management of multiple context-dependent identities implies a process in which the users control how the other users with whom they are socially connected perceive them (Baumeister and Leary, 1995; Leary et al., 1995). The extant computer-mediated communication literature highlights the needs of a diverse range of groups to incorporate and maintain multiple identities on a plethora of media, such as hobbyists like cigar smokers (Angelopoulos and Merali, 2013; 2015) and bodybuilders (Ploderer et al., 2008), as well as professionals who need to separate their professional from personal lives (Peluchette et al., 2013). Although the need for users’ multiple context-dependent identities to be further explored and elucidated is highlighted in the literature (Karl and Peluchette, 2011; Peluchette et al., 2013; Talamo and Ligorio, 2001), to date there are very few studies exploring the issue directly (Talamo and Ligorio, 2001). </p>
            <p>We adopt a quantitative approach and explore the concept through a survey. We designed the questionnaire based on extensive literature analysis on online/offline identities as well as the environment analysis and the survey planning (Duffy et al., 2000; Karl and Peluchette, 2011; Kodjamanis and Angelopoulos, 2013; Koh and Kim, 2003; Kuhn and McPartland, 1954; Peluchette et al., 2013), and our findings are drawn from a sample of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi>=272 participants and guided by a previous pilot study of 60 participants. 
            </p>
            <p>Our findings demonstrate that, compared to other SNS, use of multiple accounts is more common within Facebook and Twitter, and considerably less common within LinkedIn. This finding is surprising given the fact that both Facebook and Twitter provide the users with features to manage multiple groups of contacts within a single account, unlike LinkedIn. </p>
            <p>Moreover, our findings reveal that behavior between the use of different SNS suggest that different SNS are used to manage different aspects of people’s lives despite the fact that most SNS provide tools for this, yet such tools to manage groups of contacts within SNS are rarely used, as reported by the participants of our study. Such a finding reveals that the tools that are already available and provided by the SNS for the management of multiple context-dependent identities are insufficient and neglected by the users, and thus there is a need for better tools to be implemented by either the SNS or by third parties that take into account the real needs of the users. Exploring the differences between users of multiple accounts and users of single accounts has revealed that those who use more than one account on one or more SNS generally share more personal information with those accounts and tend to engage in more audience management behavior both online and offline. These findings suggest that users of multiple accounts use both control of information and targeted sharing of personal information to manage their identities, highlighting the need for networking activities that can support both behaviors. The combination of these two tendencies also highlights the importance of security and privacy between SNS for these individuals as they reveal a lot of personal information online but want strict control of what information is revealed to whom (boyd, 2010; Edwards and McAuley, 2013; Livingstone, 2008). Practically, the findings of our survey demonstrate the need of users for better tools for the self-management of multiple context-dependent identities, as the current tools provided especially from Facebook and Twitter are insufficient. </p>
            <p>The self-management of multiple context-dependent identities is still an issue to be pursued by the organizations behind SNS platforms, and there is a profound need for better tools to be implemented either by them or by third parties. We call, thus, for future research to focus on applied approaches trying to solve this real and practical problem. Our findings are drawn from a sample, which, although adequate for the needs of the study, remains too small to enable us to reflect on a larger scale. Whilst the following step in our future research plans is to expand our scope and explore the concept further, we suggest that future studies should explore the issue on online communities in general, as well as on online communities of hard-to-reach populations (Angelopoulos and Merali, 2013; 2015; Ploderer et al., 2008).</p>
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                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Angelopoulos, S. and Merali, Y.</hi> (2013). Offline Interactions on Online Communities: The Entanglement of Social and Material. 29th 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">European Group for Organizational Studies</hi>, Montreal, Canada, 4–6 July 2013. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Angelopoulos, S. and Merali, Y.</hi> (2015). Bridging the Divide between Virtual and Embodied Spaces: Exploring the Effect of Offline Interactions on the Sociability of Participants of Topic-Specific Online Communities. 48th 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Hawaii International Conference on System Studies</hi>, Kauai, HI, USA, 5–8 January 2015. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Attia, A. M., Aziz, N., Friedman, B. and Elhusseiny, M. F.</hi> (2011). Commentary: The Impact of Social Networking Tools on Political Change in Egypt’s ‘Revolution 2.0’. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Electronic Commerce Research and Applications,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(4): 369–74. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baumeister, R. F. and Leary, M. R.</hi> (1995). The Need to Belong: Desire for Interpersonal Attachments as a Fundamental Human Motivation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Psychological Bulletin,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">117</hi>(3): 497. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">boyd, d.</hi> (2010). Social Network Sites as Networked Publics: Affordances, Dynamics, and Implications. In Papacharissi, Z. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Networked Self: Identity, Community, and Culture on Social Network Sites</hi>. New York: Routledge, pp. 39–58. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Duffy, M. K., Shaw, J. D. and Stark, E. M.</hi> (2000). Performance and Satisfaction in Conﬂicted Interdependent Groups: When and How Does Self-Esteem Make a Difference? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Academy of Management Journal,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">43</hi>(4): 722–83. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Edwards, L. and McAuley, D.</hi> (2013). What’s in a Name? Real Name Policies and Social Networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of 1st International Workshop on Internet Science and Web Science Synergies</hi>, Paris, 1 May 2013. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Golbeck, J. and Rothstein, M.</hi> (2008). Linking Social Networks on the Web with FOAF: A Semantic Web Case Study. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">AAAI,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>: 1138–43. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Karl, K. A. and Peluchette, J. V. E.</hi> (2011). Friending Professors, Parents and Bosses: A Facebook Connection Conundrum. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Education for Business,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">86</hi>(4): 214–22. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kodjamanis, A. and Angelopoulos, S.</hi> (2013). Consumer Perception and Attitude Towards Advertising on Social Networking Sites: The Case of Facebook. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Conference of Communication, Media Studies and Design</hi>, Famagusta, North Cyprus, 2–4 May 2013. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koh, J. and Kim. Y. G.</hi> (2003). Sense of Virtual Community: Determinants and the Moderating Role of the Virtual Community Origin. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Electronic Commerce,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(2): 75–93. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kuhn, M. H. and McPartland, T. S.</hi> (1954). An Empirical Investigation of Self-Attitudes. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">American Sociological Review,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">19</hi>(1): 68–76. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Leary, M. R., Tambor, E. S., Terdal, S. K. and Downs, D. L.</hi> (1995). Self-Esteem as an Interpersonal Monitor: The Sociometer Hypothesis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">68</hi>(3): 518. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Livingstone, S.</hi> (2008). Taking Risky Opportunities in Youthful Content Creation: Teenagers' Use of Social Networking Sites for Intimacy, Privacy and Self-Expression. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Media &amp; Society,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(3): 393–411. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">O’Brien, C. N.</hi> (2014). The Top Ten NLRB Cases on Facebook Firings and Employer Social Media Policies. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Oregon Law Review,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">92</hi>(2). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Peluchette, J. V. E., Karl, K. and Fertig, J.</hi> (2013). A Facebook ‘Friend’ Request from the Boss: Too Close for Comfort? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Business Horizons,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">56</hi>: 291–300. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ploderer, B., Howard, S., Thomas, P. and Reitberger, W.</hi> (2008). ‘Hey World, Take a Look at Me!’: Appreciating the Human Body on Social Network Sites. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Persuasive Technology</hi>. Berlin: Springer, pp. 245–48. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Talamo, A. and Ligorio, B.</hi> (2001). Strategic Identities in Cyberspace. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CyberPsychology and Behavior, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>(1): 109–22. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">van der Velden, M. and El Emam, K.</hi> (2013). ‘Not All My Friends Need to Know’: A Qualitative Study of Teenage Patients, Privacy, and Social Media. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">20</hi>(1): 16–24. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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"2414","16","Zebrapedia: Collective Explication of Philip K. Dick's Exegesis","2","<?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?>
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                    <persName>
                        <surname>Doyle</surname>
                        <forename>Richard</forename>
                    </persName>
                    <affiliation>Pennsylvania State University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>mobius@psu.edu</email>
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                <author>
                    <persName>
                        <surname>O'Sullivan</surname>
                        <forename>James</forename>
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                    <affiliation>Pennsylvania State University, United States of America</affiliation>
                    <email>josullivan@psu.edu</email>
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            <p>Philip K. Dick’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Exegesis</hi> is possibly the largest archive of unreleased and unpublished material written by any major 20th-century author. At over 8,000 pages, this massive, mostly handwritten text by America’s ‘homegrown Borges’, is arguably Dick’s magnum opus, yet it remains largely unexplored. In its daily entries, diagrams, and sketches, Dick documents his eight-year attempt to fathom what he called ‘2-3-74’, a postmodern visionary experience of the entire universe ‘transformed into information’. Dick’s experiences in February and March 1974 with what he variously called VALIS, Firebright, Sophia, and Zebra sent him on a classic visionary quest through the esoteric literatures and sciences of the planet as he focused his polymath sensibility, wide-ranging erudition, and Zen-like humor on a cosmic whodunnit: Who—or what—was VALIS? Dick pursued this problem for the rest of his life, and the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Exegesis</hi> stands as a unique record, not only of a profound spiritual quest, but of the writer at work: reflective, self-questioning, and as always, prodigiously inventive.
            </p>
            <p>Zebrapedia</p>
            <p>Having secured a digital copy of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Exegesis</hi>, researchers at the Pennsylvania State University developed a portal to serve as a focal point for the ongoing transcription, annotation, analysis, discussion, editing, and exploration of the text:
                <ref target=""http://zebrapedia.psu.edu/""> </ref>http://zebrapedia.psu.edu/. In essence, the project’s primary goals are to provide an opening for and elucidate the terra incognita of Philip K. Dick’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Exegesis</hi>, using collaborative scholarship and networking tools to explore this mammoth digital text. While part of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Exegesis</hi> has already been published as a print edition (Dick, 2011), this project presents the complete manuscript—the first time that the thousands of notes, letters, and explorations contained within have been made publicly available. The manuscript offers a pandemonium of ideas, so much so that, as project lead, Richard Doyle, notes, ‘When you begin reading the “Exegesis”, you undertake a quest with no shortcuts or cheat codes’ (Platt, 2011). Founded on Ben Brumfield’s free and open-source FromThePage transcription software, we hope to use this project to draw upon the collective knowledge and expertise of Dick scholars so that we might classify and elucidate the mass of metaphysical, comical, and theosophical musings contained throughout. Publicly accessible but still under development, a selection of the project’s features worth highlighting at this particular juncture are workset overviews, as well as category and automatic subject indexing, that allow users to easily view every instance of a particular subject as it is mentioned in the text. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Future Directions</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Our intention is to use digital humanities to present the current iteration of the project, as well as gather feedback on future directions. In particular, we are currently exploring the potential for conducting a series of analyses using computational methods, but first feel that we need to refine our group-sourcing strategy, to align with practices adopted by digital humanities projects availing of similar technologies and platforms. Collaborating with international colleagues, our intention is to conduct focus groups that will inform future development of the FromThePage platform. To this end, we will be early adopters of the system’s forthcoming major upgrade, which supports, in addition to an upgrade to the Ruby on Rails framework,</p>
            <p> 1. TEI-XML export.</p>
            <p> 2. Parallel translation in addition to transcription (funded by Fordham University’s Center for Medieval Studies).</p>
            <p> 3. OCR correction emphasizing OCR-to-TEI conversion.</p>
            <p> 4. CSV export of subject occurrences for network analysis (driven by the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology).</p>
            <p> 5. UTF-8 support (driven by Universidad de Buenos Aires).</p>
            <p>The new release will also include features under active development, like Omeka integration, improvements to the full-text search, and an overhaul of the user interface. Pennsylvania State University is currently investigating digital editions (both of the annotated and scholarly variety) in the context of educational platforms like FromThePage and rich text archives like Philip K. Dick’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Exegesis</hi> in its incarnation as Zebrapedia. Having implemented new feature-sets, we will host a focus group and conduct a heuristic analysis, allowing us to customise the platform for our intended audience, allowing us to inform improvements to the Zebrapedia and base FromThePage platform in tandem. From here, we will look to implement federated wikis and continue to develop crowdsourced webinars.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dick, P. K. </hi>(2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Exegesis of Philip K. Dick</hi>. Jackson, P. and Lethem, J. (eds). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Boston.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Platt, C.</hi> (2011). ‘The Voices in Philip K. Dick’s Head’. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New York Times Sunday Book Review</hi>,
                        <ref target=""http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/18/books/review/the-exegesis-of-philip-k-dick-edited-by-pamela-jackson-jonathan-lethem-and-erik-davis-book-review.html?pagewanted=all&amp;_r=0""> </ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/18/books/review/the-exegesis-of-philip-k-dick-edited-by-pamela-jackson-jonathan-lethem-and-erik-davis-book-review.html?pagewanted=all&amp;_r=0.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
</TEI>","xml","1","https://github.com/ADHO/dh2015/blob/master/xml/O_SULLIVAN_James_Christopher_Zebrapedia__Collective_Exp.xml",""
"2415","17","Building Large Persons' Networks to Explore Digital Corpora","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Although representing large corpora through the network of persons’ interactions has become quite popular in the Digital Humanities community (Elson et al., 2010), several parameters can have an impact on the resulting network, especially when it is automatically extracted. In this work, we present a step-by-step procedure to extract persons’ networks from documents and select possible configurations in order to increase readability and ease the interpretation of the obtained information. We also discuss some open issues of the task.</p>
                <p>We rely on the same assumption as for word co-occurrence networks: <hi rend=""italic"">two persons who tend to be mentioned together in a corpus share some commonality or relation from the author’s perspective</hi>.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>The Methodology</head>
                <p>We implemented a novel tool for the automated extraction of a persons’ network from a corpus in the online ALCIDE platform<note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1""> http://celct.fbk.eu:8080/Alcide_Demo/</note> (Moretti et al., 2014). The module is based on the following steps: <hi rend=""italic"">i)</hi> the corpus is first analysed with the Stanford named entity recognizer (Finkel et al., 2005), in order to recognize persons’ mentions (e.g. <hi rend=""italic"">John Kennedy</hi>, <hi rend=""italic"">F.D. >Roosevelt</hi>, etc.). In the network representation, we assume that persons correspond to nodes and edges express co-occurrence within a given token window; <hi rend=""italic"">ii)</hi> We build a person-person matrix where we assign an edge weight of 1 every time two persons are mentioned together within a certain context window. Every time a co-occurrence is repeated, the weight is increased by 1; <hi rend=""italic"">iii) </hi>The final output is a weighted undirected network where edge weights are the co-occurrence frequency. In the default configuration, name mentions are collapsed onto the same network node only if they have an exact match. In order to allow a more flexible creation of the network, a “Person Management” functionality (Fig. 1) has been implemented, through which users can collapse nodes referring to the same person (e.g. <hi rend=""italic"">J.F. Kennedy</hi> and <hi rend=""italic"">John Kennedy</hi>). This manual check is done through an interface, without the need to access directly the underlying matrix.</p>
                <p>From a technical point of view, the information is stored in a relational database management system, in order to grant multi-user access, good performances and high flexibility regarding the queries. The persons’ co-occurrence matrix is visualized as a network by means of the d3 javascript framework<note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2""> http://d3js.org</note>. During the conversion of the matrix in the json used by d3, the nodes are enriched with additional information, such as the list of documents containing the corresponding entity and the number of connections.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""171/10000000000006A40000024043FD1467.jpg""/>
                       <head>Fig. 1 View of the Person Management tool</head>
                 </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Some settings such as the co-occurrence window type (sentence or token) and width (number of sentences/tokens) are arbitrary, although they have a relevant impact on the extracted network and on its readability. Therefore, the system gives the possibility to change such settings and regenerate the co-occurrence matrix at runtime. In the following sections we will discuss some of these parameters and explain their impact in the light of a use case related to Nixon and Kennedy’s speeches of the 1960 presidential campaign. The corpus consists of 282 documents by Nixon (830,000 tokens) and 598 documents by Kennedy (815,000 tokens)
                    <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3"">http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/1960_election.php</note>. All networks displayed in the following sections are screenshots of the system output and are dynamically displayed.
                </p>
                <div type=""div2"">
                    <head>Default configuration</head>
                    <p>In our default configuration, the tool extracts persons’ networks using 1 sentence as a co-occurrence window and collapsing on the same node only name mentions with an exact match. As shown in Fig.2, this basic configuration is enough to highlight the differences between Kennedy’s and Nixon’s networks: the first is much larger and much more connected, with several cliques that tend to emerge from the overall picture. Nixon’s network, instead, is smaller (i.e. less persons are mentioned in his corpus) and less dense. </p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""171/1000000000000546000005322B41D5FB.jpg""/>
                            <graphic url=""171/1000000000000556000004FEB8649C17.jpg""/>
                            <head>Fig. 2 Persons co-occurrence network extracted from Kennedy’s (left) and Nixon’s (right) speeches</head>
                        </figure>
                    <p>By zooming in the pictures, it is possible to focus on single nodes of interest. For example, if we compare Nixon’s mentions appearing in Kennedy’s speeches, and the other way round (Fig. 3, left and right resp.), we observe that in both cases the opponent is frequently mentioned with ‘enemies’ of the time such as Fidel Castro and Khrushchev. However, this association with negative figures is much more frequent in Kennedy’s speeches (e.g. Nixon is mentioned also with Trotsky and Lenin), probably because Nixon had already a prominent role in US foreign policy being Vice-President. </p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""171/10000201000004B70000048D5FEDFE41.png""/>
                            <graphic url=""171/10000201000003A700000318C43DBA31.png""/>
                            <head>Fig. 3 Co-occurrence network of “Nixon” mentions extracted from Kennedy’s corpus (left) and of “Kennedy” mentions from Nixon’s (right) speeches</head>
                        </figure>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"">
                    <head>Changing configuration parameters</head>
                    <p>The tool allows users to move from the default configuration to a more customizable one, where it is possible to change the type (sentence or token) and the size of the context window taken into account for the co-occurrences as well as set a threshold to the edges’ weight (number of co-occurrences). By tuning these parameters, it is possible to transform the networks presented in Fig. 2 to obtain a more readable representation, filtering minor nodes and emphasizing information previously hidden by the large amount of information. </p>
                    <p>Reducing the co-occurrence window increases the probability to extract persons that are more strictly related. At the same time, by increasing the minimum edge weight threshold, we reduce the information visualized, filtering out all the persons co-occurring only once in favour of persons co-occurring consistently through the entire corpus. </p>
                    <p>Fig. 4 shows the networks, obtained from the data in Fig. 2, generated by setting the maximum token range to 10 (thus, on average, less than the sentence length adopted in Fig. 2) and the minimum edge threshold to 2. The result is a visualization with less but more readable data. In Nixon’s network, we can easily spot some well-defined clusters such as the one grouping the leaders of the communist world (i.e Khrushchev, Stalin, Mao Tse-tung), the cluster of the main representatives of international politics in 1960 (e.g. de Gaulle, Nehru, Adenauer) or a cluster reflecting Nixon’s attitude to refer to previous U.S. Presidents (e.g Andrew Jackson, Thomas Jefferson). Also the network from Kennedy’s corpus is more understandable, including a cluster with prominent Communist politicians (e.g. Khrushchev, Castro, Kadar), but also clusters defining local democratic representatives, for instance those from California (e.g. Pat Brown, John Moss) or those from Pennsylvania (e.g. David Leo Lawrence, Joseph S. Clark).</p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""171/100002010000079000000362E9414789.png""/>
                            <head>Fig. 4 Persons co-occurrence network extracted from Kennedy’s (left) and Nixon’s (right) speeches using a 10 tokens windows and a minimum threshold of 2.</head>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                    </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Discussion</head>
                <p>As shown in the above examples, building a persons’ network in an automated fashion implies making some a-priori choices that strongly affect the outcome of the analysis. Such choices are influenced by the type of analysis required by the user. If <hi rend=""italic"">distant reading</hi> is the main goal, the parameters proposed as default by our tool, as shown in Fig. 2, seem to be appropriate. This analysis gives an overview of the overall network dimension and density, and makes it possible to compare two networks at a glance. Instead, if <hi rend=""italic"">close reading</hi> and a qualitative analysis of the connections are more relevant, reducing the window width and displaying only the most connected nodes is necessary. Since in a typical research scenario distant and close reading are both present, and users need to zoom in and out frequently, a tool that changes the network on demand in real time should be implemented. In this respect, Gephi (Bastian et al., 2009), probably the most widely used tool for network analysis in the Digital Humanities community, shows some limitations. Although it provides useful in-built metrics for analysing a network structure, it does not offer the possibility to test different parameters on the fly. Also its integration in an online, browser-based environment is quite complex, as well as the connection to a text analysis pipeline.</p>
                <p>Other issues related to the automated creation of persons’ networks are worth mentioning. Since natural language processing tools are involved in the pre-processing step, users should be aware of the possible mistakes introduced by this pipeline. In particular, Named Entity Recognizers may label as persons other types of entities, wrongly introducing nodes in the network. Other possible mistakes are more difficult to spot and concern homonyms (i.e. nodes that should be split). Such cases can be solved only resorting to a cross-document entity coreference system, where mentions can be resolved by linking them to the entities they refer to. A finer-grained outcome could be achieved integrating also an intra-document coreference system, able to link mentions referring to the same person in a text. Cross- and intra-document coreference would be necessary to ensure that all persons mentioned in a corpus are included in the extracted network. Nevertheless, the impact of automated processing on the quality of the network needs to be further investigated.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bastian M., Heymann S. and Jacomy M. </hi> (2009). Gephi: an open source software for exploring and manipulating networks.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media (ICWSM).</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elson, D. K., Dames, N. and McKeown, K. R. </hi>(2010). Extracting Social Networks from Literary Fiction. In <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 48th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2010)</hi>, Uppsala, Sweden.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Finkel J.-R., Grenager T. and Manning, Ch. </hi> (2005). Incorporating Non-local Information into Information Extraction Systems by Gibbs Sampling. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 43nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2005)</hi>, pp. 363-70.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti G., Tonelli S., Menini S. and Sprugnoli R. </hi>(2014). ALCIDE: An online platform for the Analysis of Language and Content in a Digital Environment. In <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the First Italian Conference on Computational Linguistics (CLIC-2014)</hi>, Pisa, Italy.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2416","17","Digitally Mapping Romantic Literature and Culture","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Session overview</head>
                <p>This panel session showcases three thematically interlinked papers that report on the work of three digital mapping research projects. Each of these projects engages with specific geospatial methods and technologies to model geo-historical data. Each project, moreover, uses this data to shed new light on the literature and culture of the Romantic Period in Great Britain (c. 1780-1850). One of the projects uses a virtual globe to investigate the effect of movement on writing and authorial practice. Another combines corpus analysis and multimedia GIS to explore readerly practices of reception and spatial re-enactment. The final project engages with curating topographical and cartographic representations and extends the concern with writerly and readerly contextualisation to issues of broader diachronic relevance to literary historiography. </p>
                <p>Collectively, these papers examine the links between the physical and discursive geographies of two of the key cultural landscapes of British Romanticism: the bustling metropolitan cityscape of London and the rural upland and coastal terrains of the English Lake District. In discussing the digital mapping of these landscapes, the papers provide new insights about these key cultural locations. In doing so, they extend the pioneering work of previous literary mapping projects, which have focused on the visualisation of authorial experience and on spatial querying of literary texts. Crucially, however, these papers move beyond previous research to explore how linking and juxtaposing different types of data can enhance the study of how places mediate the writing, reading, and critical reception of literary works. In addition, this panel conducts new explorations of the implications of creative mapping for literary criticism, engaging with issues of scale, genre, reception and the limitations and potentials of spatial analysis in humanities contexts.</p>
                <p>The first paper, Joanna Taylor’s “Path-making and Coleridge’s 1802 Tour of the Lake District,” uses the virtual globe environment of Google Earth to read the letters, notebooks, and verses related to the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s 1802 tour of the western and central Lake District. Taylor demonstrates how using the 3D environment of the virtual globe creates not only new possibilities for assessing Coleridge’s journey, but also new possibilities for interpreting a number of canonical Romantic works concerned with walking and the movement of the body through space.</p>
                <p>Building on this interest in mobility and path-making, the second paper, Dr Christopher Donaldson’s “Deep Mapping the English Lake District,” employs a prototype multimedia geographic information system (or “deep map”) to explore the geographies underpinning the composition, publication, and reception of the poet William Wordsworth’s topographical sonnet series 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The River Duddon </hi>(1820). In tracing the cultural influence of this emphatically geo-located lyric sequence, Donaldson’s paper explores how digital deep mapping offers new insights about both Wordsworth’s practices as a poet and about the material and geographical legacies of his writing.
                </p>
                <p>Following on from this, Dr Matthew Sangster’s paper, “Organising Romantic London,” presents early conclusions from an ongoing online project that juxtaposes different works which sought to make sense of London by annotating Richard Horwood’s “PLAN of the Cities of LONDON and WESTMINSTER the Borough of SOUTHWARK, and PARTS adjoining Shewing every HOUSE.” In his paper, Sangster explores the ways in which different genres of source materials attempt to explain the nature of a city of over a million souls, contrasting often-alienated literary responses with the more positive topographical, antiquarian and visual accounts that processes of digital reclamation have brought back to light. He attends to the way that digital methods can help us both to explore the ways in which coherence can be imposed on urban spaces and to expose the limitations of such processes of ordering. In doing so, his paper reflects critically on the roles which digital media can play in preserving and making available archival materials and on the consequences of transforming old media into new digital forms.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Author biographies</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Christopher Donaldson</hi> is Lecturer in Romanticism at the University of Birmingham and co-investigator on the Leverhulme Trust research project “Geospatial Innovation in the Digital Humanities: A Deep Map of the English Lake District” (2015-2018) and an associate of the European Research Council-funded “Spatial Humanities: Texts, GIS, Places” project (2012-2016). As part of these projects, he is currently completing a monograph entitled 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">A Literary Atlas of Victorian Lakeland </hi>and a collection entitled 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Literary Mapping in the Digital Age</hi> (forthcoming 2016, with Ashgate’s Digital Research in the Arts and Humanities series). He sits on the editorial board of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Victorian Culture</hi>, and is co-editor of the journal's Digital Forum.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Matthew Sangster</hi> teaches at the University of Birmingham and is currently completing the final elements of his first monograph, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Living as an Author in the Romantic Period</hi>. He is Website Editor for the British Association for Romantic Studies and curates the association’s blog (http://www.bars.ac.uk/blog/). Between 2008 and 2014, he catalogued the archive of the Royal Literary Fund at the British Library; he is currently developing the catalogue entries into a standalone database. He is working on two new and interrelated projects: one on the development of literary institutions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and the other on the ways in which different genres of works represented London during the Romantic period. Early elements of this project can be seen on http://www.romanticlondon.org.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Joanna Taylor</hi> is Research Associate on the Leverhulme Trust research project “Geospatial Innovation in the Digital Humanities: A Deep Map of the English Lake District.” She passed her PhD, entitled “Writing spaces: the Coleridge family’s agoraphobic poetics,” at Keele University in December 2015. She is the British Association of Victorian Studies Newsletter Editor and co-organiser of the ongoing digital project 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Placing the Author</hi> (<ref target=""https://placingtheauthor.wordpress.com/"">https://placingtheauthor.wordpress.com</ref>).
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Abstracts</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Path-making and Coleridge’s 1802 tour of the Lake District</hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Joanna Taylor</hi>
                </p>
                <p>This paper will build on the work undertaken by three digital humanities projects: “Mapping the Lakes” (British Academy, 2007-2008), “Spatial Humanities: Texts, GIS, Places” (European Research Council, 2012-2016) and “Geospatial Innovation in the Digital Humanities” (Leverhulme Trust, 2015-2018). It will read Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s (1772-1834) letters, notebooks and poems written on or about his tour of the Lake District in July and August 1802, and suggest how using digital maps to assess this journey opens out possibilities for innovative interpretations of a number of well-known Romantic texts. In particular, the paper will engage with the emergent field of walking studies to explore how physical movement – and its relationship to literary composition – can be productively emphasised using digital mapping tools. </p>
                <p>Coleridge spent much of the summer of 1802 traversing the Lake District fells. In part, Coleridge used his pedestrian tour as an escape from his increasingly unhappy marital home, and his considerations of the Lake District landscape assisted him in analysing his personal situation. The “Mapping the Lakes” project charted Coleridge’s route, as well as Thomas Gray’s important 1769 Lakeland journey, and began exploring subjective elements such as the correlation between elevation and mood. The “Spatial Humanities” project developed from “Mapping the Lakes,” and part of that project established a corpus of Lake District texts which now, as part of “Geospatial Innovation,” are being analysed using both macro and close reading techniques in order to reveal how text and landscape mutually impacted upon each other. Coleridge’s 1802 tour has remained a central text throughout these projects, and this paper will use it as a case study to demonstrate how the digital methods established by this project series can be applied to readings of texts in order to reveal hitherto concealed or unacknowledged elements. </p>
                <p>This paper will combine these digital methodologies with approaches from the emergent field of what the cultural geographer Ceri Morgan has termed “walking studies” (2015). Walking studies consider movement through spaces, in ways that may or may not be bipedal, in order to reveal how this movement impacts upon day-to-day lived experiences. As this paper will seek to ascertain, the texts Coleridge produced during and inspired by his 1802 tour – including notebook entries, letters and “Dejection: An Ode” – deserve to be recognised as seminal texts in the walking studies canon.</p>
                <p>Coleridge’s walking tour enabled him to “command” new territory – both visually and poetically. Whilst climbing up Red Pike, Coleridge considered the relationship between movement and independence: “every man his own path-maker – skip and jump – where rushes grow, a man may go.” It is well-known that Coleridge did not restrict himself to the Lake District’s already established tourist trails, preferring instead to set off cross-country. As this paper will explore, the diverse terrains he covers are registered in his writing; in particular, his notebooks – which function here as pedestrian journals – indicate his attempts to replicate his walking experiences, both via the way he lays out his entries and his formation of disjointed sentences that attempt to mimic his mode of travel. The paper will aim to demonstrate how these textual embodiments of walking experiences might be recreated or reimagined digitally by interrogating the implications of the ‘path’ from a multi-disciplinary perspective: literary, geographic and digital. </p>
                <p>“Path” is a slippery term. In his famous essay “Walking in the City,” Michel de Certeau identifies the path – and, by extension, ‘path-mak[ing]’ – as one of the crucial modes of operation in constructing space (for de Certeau the imaginative conception of the physical place). He writes that the “intertwined paths” created by footsteps “give their shape to spaces” and “weave places together.” Walking, then, is an act of construction in creating the pathways that define spaces. As Paul Cloke has argued, these theories might now productively be applied to non-urban spaces, too. Coleridge's path-making anticipates de Certeau’s belief that constructing one’s own path is an important means by which to internalise place for imaginative use. Furthermore, Coleridge's accounts of his path-making emphasise the connection de Certeau makes between walking and writing. There is a “rhetoric of walking,” de Certeau writes, and this “rhetoric” is constructed through forms and figures in much the same way as a literary work. Furthermore, paths constructed by walking can – indeed, should – be “read” as a literary pursuit.</p>
                <p>For de Certeau, the map does not allow for the necessary recognition of the importance of “intertwined paths” to place making. The map displays a set of power relations that inevitably subordinates individual experience. This paper will argue that digital maps offer a way of visualising and re-assessing the role of the path in place making. It does not seem coincidental that the structuring feature of the computer system is also the path: that is, the route to a file, folder, website or other digital destination. Furthermore, programs such as Google Earth draw attention to the connection between computer and physical pathways. Google Earth allows for the creation of “paths” which can digitally trace the physical path created by the walker, and walking websites (such as 
                    <ref target=""http://www.english-lake-district.info)"">www.english-lake-district.info)</ref> have begun exploiting the potential of Google Earth in facilitating physical walking experiences. This paper will use Google Earth to map such a path of Coleridge’s route in the summer of 1802. It will explore the extent to which this kind of digital path can vicariously recreate the physical act of path-making. By combining analysis of this digital path with Coleridge’s written accounts of his tour, this paper will uncover a relationship between literary form, terrain and physical movement in ways made uniquely possible by combining literary study with digital techniques.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Deep mapping the English Lake District</hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Dr Christopher Donaldson</hi>
                </p>
                <p>This paper reports on work undertaken as part of the Leverhulme Trust research project “Geospatial Innovation in the Digital Humanities: A Deep Map of the English Lake District” (2015-2018), which is answering the call for scholarship that models the implementation of deep mapping in historical and literary studies research. In this paper, I propose to use a prototype digital deep map to attend to the geographies underpinning the composition, the publication, and – in particular – the reception of William Wordsworth’s topographical sonnet series 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The River Duddon </hi>(1820), which outlines a journey along one of the Lake District’s most important rivers. 
                </p>
                <p>Deep mapping involves the accumulation and layering of different kinds of geo-locatable media within a geographic information systems (GIS) environment in order to facilitate investigations of the material, discursive, and imaginative geographies that inform our conception of a location’s topography and sense of place. In helping to trace the cultural afterlife of the Duddon sonnets, in particular, the prototype deep map presented here affords insights not only about Wordsworth’s reception history, but also about the sense of place communicated in his sonnet series. What is more, the deep map also enhances our understanding of how that sense of place changed and developed through creative re-appropriations during the later nineteenth century.</p>
                <p>First published in 1820, Wordsworth’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">River Duddon</hi> sonnets have long been recognised as the first sonnet series in English to allow the course of a river to govern the entirety of its design. Wordsworth’s sonnets harness the forward-flowing momentum of the lyric sequence to carry the reader on a journey down the river, from its source on the slopes of Wrynose Pass to its estuary. The note that Wordsworth uses as a preface to the sonnets sketches out the itinerary pursued by the series:
                </p>
                <p>The River Duddon rises upon Wrynose [F]ell, on the confines of Westmorland, Cumberland, and Lancashire; and, serving as a boundary to the two latter counties, for the space of about twenty-five miles, enters the Irish sea, between the isle of Walney and the lordship of Millum [sic].</p>
                <p>Each sonnet in the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">River Duddon </hi>series moves in succession through this landscape, marking a different spot beside the river and directing the reader’s attention to specific landmarks along the way. From Wrynose Pass and Cockley Beck to Seathwaite, Ulpha Kirk, and Swinside, and then finally down to the Duddon sands, Wordsworth’s sequence encourages the sense of a continuous journey that carries the reader downstream, at the poet’s side, along a single route.
                </p>
                <p>The organic relationship thus developed between the sonnet series and its subject encourages the sense of a continuous journey that conducts the reader from the upland centre of the Lake District to its coastal periphery. Responding to this, readers and literary tourists across the nineteenth century sought to follow Wordsworth’s sonnets and to map them onto the landscape of the Duddon Valley. This was accomplished with varying success, for although the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">River Duddon</hi> sonnets follow the course of the river (moving in a steady progression), many of the individual sonnets in the series are difficult to locate with precision. 
                </p>
                <p>In this paper I will use the deep map to explore these readerly and touristic efforts to locate the geographical sources of Wordsworth’s sonnets. My main focus will be to demonstrate how the multimedia GIS environment of the deep map can help us to contextualise the accounts of these readers and tourists alongside other works of literature and visual art that Wordsworth’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">River Duddon</hi> sonnets inspired. Specific examples to be featured include the essays and photographs of the Victorian Wordsworth enthusiast Herbert Rix (now held at the Wordsworth Trust in Grasmere), Canon Richard Parkinson’s 1843 novel 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Old Church-Clock</hi>, and the sketches of the Duddon valley that R. S. Chattock completed for the Fine Arts Society’s illustrated edition of the Duddon sonnets in 1884.
                </p>
                <p> In implementing this approach, this paper indicates the broader ambition of the “Geospatial Innovation” project: to make a major intervention in the application of geographical technologies in the study of the creation and reception of literary works of art. Building on the work and outputs produced as part of the European Research Council-funded “Spatial Humanities: Texts, GIS, Places” project, my aim is to use deep mapping as a means of addressing challenges raised by the application of geographical methods and technologies in literary studies scholarship. A critical issue the project has set out to address is the widely perceived incongruity between the methodologies of geographic information science – with their reliance on precise, quantifiable data – and the kinds of equivocal or “slippery” information with which literary scholars typically engage. </p>
                <p>Deep mapping presents a solution to this impediment. The concept of deep mapping emerged out of the psychogeographical experiments of the early French Situationists in the 1960s. More recently, the term has garnered popular interest through the American author William Least Heat-Moon’s study 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">PrairyErth: A Deep Map</hi> (1991), which employs composite, multimedia methodologies to investigate the cultural and historical geographies of Chase County, Kansas. As Least Heat-Moon’s
                    <hi rend=""italic""> PrairyErth </hi>suggests, deep maps are both topological and relational. Like conventional paper maps they reveal spatial networks that tie locations together. Unlike conventional maps, however, deep maps attempt to record the artefacts, narratives, and memories that underpin those locations and, therefore, shape our understanding of them as places. 
                </p>
                <p>Since the appearance of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">PrairyErth</hi>, deep mapping has been applied to describe new, exploratory approaches to digital geospatial research. For example, David Bodenhamer and his team at the Virtual Center for Spatial Humanities, Indiana University—Purdue University Indiana, define deep maps as “visual, time-based, and structurally open.” “They are,” Bodenhamer continues:
                </p>
                <p>genuinely multi-media and multi-layered. They do not seek authority or objectivity, but involve negotiation between insiders and outsiders, experts and contributors, over what is represented and how. Framed as a conversation and not a statement, deep maps are inherently unstable[.] </p>
                <p>Shelley Fishkin, at Stanford University, advocates for a similar conception of the practice:</p>
                <p>Deep maps are palimpsests in that they allow multiple versions of events, of texts, of phenomena (both primary and secondary) to be written over each other – with each version still visible under the layers. They involve mapping, since the form of display – the gateway [. . .] – would be a geographical map that links the text, artifact, phenomenon, or event to the location that produced it, that responded to it, or that is connected with it.</p>
                <p>Fiskin’s notion that “deep maps are palimpsests” is very salient. There is, after all, an analogical relationship between deep maps and GIS technology: the former is a multi-layered spatial representation; the latter is a tool for integrating layers of geographical data. Exploiting this relationship, the “Geospatial Innovation” project aims to move deep maps from the printed page into a digital environment by harnessing the power and flexibility GIS to store, organise, and visualise a wealth of visual and verbal media. Focussing on the example of Wordsworth’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">River Duddon</hi> sonnets, as outlined above, this paper will report on the progress of this research.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Organising Romantic London</hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Dr Matthew Sangster</hi>
                </p>
                <p rend=""No Spacing"">In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, writers producing the kinds of works which we would now call literary were often very sceptical about London. Percy Shelley constructed a considerable part of his poem 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Peter Bell the Third</hi> around what for the city is a very unflattering comparison:
                </p>
                <p rend=""Quote"">Hell is a city much like London —</p>
                <p rend=""Quote""> A populous and a smoky city;</p>
                <p rend=""Quote"">There are all sorts of people undone,</p>
                <p rend=""Quote"">And there is little or no fun done;</p>
                <p rend=""Quote""> Small justice shown, and still less pity.</p>
                <p rend=""No Spacing"">While earlier in the eighteenth century, poems such as John Gay’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Trivia</hi> had been able to dwell entirely within the bounds of London, and had found a great deal that was positive to say about the city, late eighteenth and early nineteenth century literary works commonly only dipped into the metropolis, finding the task of systematising either too daunting or not to their tastes. The London poetry and the London poets of the earlier eighteenth century to a large extent fell away, and it was not really until the 1820s, with works like Pierce Egan’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Life in London</hi> and new periodical forms like Charles Lamb’s Elia essays, that writers of literary prose moved to take up the nineteenth-century city as a principal subject. Frances Burney’s character Evelina circles into London twice to see two quite different sides of metropolitan life, but the city ultimately serves as a place of education through which she must pass rather than as a final destination. William Godwin’s Caleb Williams flees into the city (or, more properly, into Southwark), but finds there only temporary and melancholy succour from which he is soon dragged away. William Wordsworth spends a book of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Prelude</hi> dealing with his residence in London, but he does so in manners which often deflect away or recoil from the city’s profusion. When Samuel Taylor Coleridge imagines ‘gentle-hearted Charles’ from his lime tree bower, he sees him as someone who has “pined | And hunger’d after Nature, many a year, | In the great City pent, winning thy way | With sad yet patient soul, through evil and pain | And strange calamity!” London here is a blockage rather than a solution, a failure of connections rather than a place of fruitful exchange, something that must be overcome rather than a community which sustains.
                </p>
                <p rend=""No Spacing"">However, increasingly specialised literary modes of writing were not the only sorts of works which sought to deal with the metropolis. Poetic and fictional accounts wrote back against a wave of topographical and antiquarian accounts which were increasingly seeking to glorify the city. Where poems and novels saw London’s size as obstructive and its scale as almost impossible to represent, non-fictional and illustrative accounts of the city commonly perceived its vast scope to be an opportunity. The author of the advertisement to the 1804 volume 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Modern London</hi>, probably its publisher Richard Phillips, claims that his book will “exhibit the very soul of the Metropolis […] Most of the busy haunts of the inhabitants, whether for the gratification of ambition, avarice, or pleasure, have been exactly pourtrayed [sic]; and these views convey at once correct ideas of places which interest from their celebrity, and of scenes which characterize the manners of the people.” While Phillips does not claim that London’s soul is by any means pure, he does contend that it is graspable – that the city can be characterised and understood, rendered down into a comprehensible and useful written form. For this reason, among others, confident sources like 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Modern London</hi> can be enormously useful for accounting for and questioning the gaps left by literary disaffection.
                </p>
                <p rend=""No Spacing"">One of the most impressive of the many textual and visual attempts at encompassing London at the end of the eighteenth century was the “PLAN of the Cities of LONDON and WESTMINSTER the Borough of SOUTHWARK, and PARTS adjoining Shewing every HOUSE” produced at considerable financial and personal expense between 1790 and 1799 by the surveyor Richard Horwood. The physical Plan consists of thirty-two printed sheets displaying an area stretching from the middle of Hyde Park in the west to Limehouse in the east and from the southern edge of Islington in the north to the southern fringes of Kennington and Walworth in the south. When assembled, the full Plan is more than thirteen feet across and over seven feet from top to bottom. In its original form, therefore, it is like the city it represents: sprawling, unwieldy and extremely difficult to parse.</p>
                <p rend=""No Spacing"">The Romantic London website (
                    <ref target=""http://www.romanticlondon.org"">http://www.romanticlondon.org</ref>) seeks to alleviate some of these difficulties through digitally transforming the Plan. The site hosts a detailed tiled version drawn from a source copy in the British Library. This is layered over Google Maps and Open Street Map and can be annotated with text and images (this is done using a straightforward Wordpress plugin). The site makes the Plan generally available, bringing it out of the archive and allowing users dynamic control over its size and scope. It also curates the plan by bringing it into conversation with other means of ordering and organising the metropolis from the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. 
                </p>
                <p rend=""No Spacing"">As Horwood’s Plan and the intertexts which the site pins to it both eloquently demonstrate, London was a prospect both radically and conservatively different from any other contemporary urban or rural environment in Britain. Its quantitative scale mandated qualitative differences which encompassed systems and complexities which had not yet developed, or which were deemed unnecessary, in less extensive urban environments. At the time of writing, the Romantic London website includes a number of means by which contemporary auditors sought to understand the city: plates from Rudolph Ackermann’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Microcosm of London</hi>; plates and text from Richard Phillips’ 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Modern London</hi>; and text from 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Fores’s New Guide for Foreigners</hi> and the 1788 edition of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Harris’s List of Covent-Garden Ladies</hi>. (I plan to add more curations in the coming months.) Making the geographies implied in these texts explicit through marking them on Horwood’s Plan allows us to see the patterns of attention and inattention which they encode. Comparing different curations can bring to light hot and cold spots within the city and can show clearly the varying priorities of different stakeholders in its identity. When put into conversation with less geographically-specific literary works, other kinds of texts can reveal the roles that generic conventions played in shaping London, with other types of writing and visual representations both filling a gap left by literature’s retreat from the city and providing key contexts for its eventual reengagement. Modern accounts of London are disproportionately shaped by privileged literary writings; neglected non-fictional accounts can therefore play key roles both in complicating negative literary views of London and recovering the occluded histories of the less fortunate.
                </p>
                <p rend=""No Spacing"">The paper will conclude by considering the opportunities and challenges presented by digital remediation for understanding material and media histories. While a digital version of Horwood’s Plan is very convenient in many respects, its creation represents an intervention that transforms the Plan’s original form in ways that occlude some of its characteristics (size; physicality) and that provide new characteristics unavailable to its original users. Similarly, making texts and images into explicitly geographical systems has considerable implications for their meanings. The digital has the potential to conceal as well as to reveal, and in concluding, I will briefly discuss the ways in which informed curation can serve both to minimise the losses inherent in digital transformation and to maximise their potential for creating new tools and insights which can reify the deeper histories which previous media have encoded but concealed.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2417","17","Mapping Imagined and Experienced Places: An Exploration of the Geography of Willa Cather's Writing","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
            <p>The American novelist, Willa Cather, was an extensive traveler whose experience of and attachment to places greatly influenced her writing. As an author whose novels are traditionally regarded as depicting fictional versions of real places, Cather’s novels are particularly suited for an examination of the artistic relationship between real and imagined places. The effects that geography had on Cather’s work are demonstrated not only by her fiction, but also by her recently published letters, many of which include vivid descriptions of geographic places. This project explores the relationships between real places and those depicted in Cather’s writing by creating a series of digital, interactive maps. Using both text analysis and digitally cartographic tools, we examine the differences between Cather’s first-hand experience of place and her mental conception of place.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methodologies</head>
            <p>Our project employs two distinct approaches in order to gain a better understanding of the representations of place in Cather’s works; the first approach is concerned with Cather’s references to real locations and the second explores fictional places. We created digital maps using ArcGIS, a geographic information system designed to capture and analyze geographical data. The first series of maps we created examine place on a global scale. They provide readers and scholars with a visual representation of the places Cather lived in and traveled to, the places she wrote about in 200 of her letters, and the places she references in her novel 
                <hi rend=""italic"">My Ántonia</hi>. In order to create these maps, we first had to extract spatial data from the correspondence and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">My Ántonia</hi>, which we accomplished by using preexisting information encoded in the Willa Cather Archive’s XML and by using the Stanford Named Entity Recognizer.
            </p>
            <p>The second series of maps examine space on a more intimate scale. These maps compare Cather’s fictional depictions of the town of Red Cloud Nebraska with the geographic layout of the town at the time Cather experienced it in the late 19
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century. In this project, we used ArcGIS to create a map of Red Cloud, NE, circa 1890, based on data provided by the Webster County Assessor’s Office and historic information gathered from the Nebraska State Historical Society. The map is interactive, so that each location includes historical information and a photo, when available. From this historic and geographic data, we constructed interpretive maps of two fictional versions of Red Cloud found in Cather’s fiction:  Black Hawk of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">My Ántonia</hi> (1918) and Sweet Water of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A Lost Lady </hi>(1923).  
            </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results</head>
            <p>The maps we created helped us to expose Cather’s engagement with real space, highlighting moments when she departs from mappable, physical space into the realm of imagination.  Further, by uncovering these intricacies and depicting them in maps, readers can perform interpretive work concerning Cather’s production of fictional space. The world map of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">My Ántonia</hi> indicates that cities within Nebraska are mentioned frequently, as are Eastern European countries. This result makes sense since the novel centers on Eastern European immigrants living in Nebraska. However, more granular Eastern European locations, such as specific cities, do not appear in the novel. Surprisingly, the majority of European cities mentioned are in Italy. This suggests a correlation between Cather’s personal experience and the places she writes about, as she visited Italy, but never visited Eastern Europe. Similarly, the local map of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">My Ántonia</hi> highlights Cather’s reliance on personal experience, as it correlates closely to the historic map of Red Cloud. Scholars have often emphasized that Cather based Jim Burden’s home on her grandparents’ house, in the northwest part of town. However, the map of the novel reveals that Jim’s home is beside the Harlings’ house in the southwest part of town, which is the location of Cather’s childhood home. In the novel, Cather transplants the internal details of her grandparents’ home into the location of her childhood home.  
            </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Future Work</head>
            <p>The eventual goal of this project is to incorporate all of Cather’s letters and novels into our maps and to create additional maps of Cather’s other fictional depictions of real places. Expanding the texts used would provide a more nuanced picture of the places Cather writes about. In addition, including more texts will allow users to better query the data, asking questions such as, which of Cather’s novels include the most references to places she experienced first-hand? Do Cather’s fictional depictions of Pittsburgh and New York align as closely with reality as her re-imaginations of historic Red Cloud? Creating additional maps will allow for an exploration of the ways in which Cather's frame of spatial reference shifts among these works.</p>
            </div>
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    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2418","17","Seeing Andalucia's Late Gothic heritage through GIS and Graphs","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div>
            <head>1. Introduction</head>
            <p rend=""normal"">This study discusses the methodology used in <hi rend=""italic"">The Digital model of Andalusia's Late Gothic Heritage</hi> project to develop new models of heritage interpretation through the application of GIS and Graph visualization to provide new perspectives of Andalusia's heritage by considering social, political, economic and cultural evolutions. Given the special period context considered, late 15th and early 16th centuries, the project used a variety of sources to relate heterogeneous historical data on different subjects in order to create a historical spatial database and to respond questions such as: How was the construction process in Andalusia between 1433 and 1560? What period and region had more constructive activity? How did the opening of the Andalusia´s eastern border modify the dynamism of the territory? What features are more common in each time period? What professionals have worked together on a building or quarry? Is this reflected in the architectural language produced?</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Andalucía's territory is the consequence of a huge numbers of different cultures that passed through it - from Roman and Islamic to Christian. During the 15th century, Spain had profound transformations, both political and cultural. The Christian reconquest led to the centralization of the cultural production in major cities generating important flow of new knowledge. Also, the consolidation of the Iberian Peninsula´s borders and the growth of contacts with Europe, and in a near future with America as well, helped to improve the cultural expansion and exchanges between the political leaders, intellectuals, scientists and technicians (García C., 2011). </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">These transformations are documented by a large number of sources that usually focus only on one particular aspect. In this sense, some sources are about professionals that worked at the quarries, others are about building construction and labor contracts, or about journeys and meetings that the workers had had. On one hand, we are dealing with the data from researchers that studied the biography of a particular professional or studies that have been dedicated to the constructive evolution of a city or a building. On the other hand, we are analyzing historical cartography sources that show different territorial changes and stages over time (kingdoms, dioceses, borders, etc). </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Thereby, our goal is to build a spatial-temporal database capable of linking information that at first glance may seem unrelated. Visualizing and relating these attributes through an information system on cultural heritage has steered our work in two directions: the creation of systems built around the entities, and the implementation of analyses to observe and interpret their relationships.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">In this study we demonstrate how all different historical information could be organized and structured in two types of digital models - GIS and graphs - that will are applied to our case study and allow us to generate a more comprehensive and flexible understanding of the phenomenon of the late Gothic period as a complex system through a combined knowledge of space, time and actors.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Working with these two tools has provided new perspectives at the Late Gothic heritage, creating new groups and subgroups of entities, and new relationships that could be easily translated to other case studies. We also created different categories - for each technology - designing two models of organizational structure. On the one hand, we use GIS with a spatial approach, the space is the product and simultaneously the producer of a series of relationships (Lefebvre, 2000) whose analysis can be performed using the alphanumeric attributes of each spatial entity or its topology. On the other hand, using graphs we have an abstract approach to visualizing a network of professionals and works over the Late Gothic period. The creation of the two models is because each of these tools requires a specific way of organizing data. While GIS works with a system with fixed relational databases that support SQL ""join"" operations, using it as the main query language and organizes spatial data in layers and attributes, Graph model uses the NoSQL system (Not Only SQL) and organizes data in nodes and edges (Robinson et al., 2013).</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>2. GIS model</head>
            <p rend=""normal"">The process of creating the GIS model will be developed in eight dynamic and interrelated phases: database design schema (figure 1); collection, processing and data selection; data entry and analysis in 
                <ref target=""https://www.arcgis.com"">ArcGIS</ref> software; production model views; assessment of the problem; data interconnection; generating queries and reports; system development documentation and dissemination of the model (Ferreira Lopes and Pinto Puerto, 2015). The longest stage of the process is the creation of spatial entities - data entry - around 75% of the time and effort undertaken in the research will be used to collect, treat and create the data so that they can later be analyzed. The big difficulty lies in its accuracy. For certain entities, the maps and information of the 15th and 16th centuries does not allow us to reach an urban scale precision which forced us to work with a territorial scale. That is the case, for example, of the kingdoms, buildings, quarries or paths layers (figure 2). 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""514/image1.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1: Andalucía's Late Gothic Heritage database schema</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""514/image2.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2: Andalucía's Late Gothic Heritage SDI, more than 100 buildings, 4.000km of paths, administrative and dioceses borders (which has changed through time), 14 quarries, and others entities</head>
            </figure>
            <p rend=""normal"">Also, some gaps are constantly present in the attributes; in many cases we have incomplete information, which somewhat limited our analysis of certain data. That is the case, for example, of some 
                <hi rend=""italic"">""date""</hi> attributes. However, working with GIS allows us to take these gaps temporarily - once it offers an easy way to edit and add new data, which is one of the main advantages that the tool offers. Our SDI are created in the 
                <ref target=""http://www.eurogeographics.org/documents/Guidelines_ISO19100_Quality.pdf"">ISO 19100</ref> series standards, 
                <ref target=""http://www.opengeospatial.org/"">Open Geospatial Consortium</ref> standards and the recommendations of the guidelines of 
                <ref target=""http://inspire.ec.europa.eu/"">INSPIRE</ref> and 
                <ref target=""http://idee.es/web/guest/espanol-lisige"">LISIGE</ref> in order to be extended, edited and viewed by other researchers.
            </p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>3. Graph Model</head>
            <p rend=""normal"">The construction process of the Graph Model has been developing in three phases: 1) data collection, 2) scheme creation and 3) queries and analysis. This paper will deal with the proposal and outline gathering held in conjunction with the 
                <ref target=""http://www.cultureplex.ca/"">Culture Plex</ref> Lab at the University of Western Ontario in Canada.
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Our ""starting point"" was the Cathedral of Seville. Knowing that the construction of the Cathedral was one of the events most responsible for the flow of knowledge at that time and knowing that a lot of professionals had worked or had some kind of work relation with it, this strategy was more realistic and reachable, initially (figure 03). </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">To create the Graph model we are using the software 
                <ref target=""http://sylvadb.com/"">Sylva DB </ref> (de la Rosa et al., 2013) developed by the CulturePlex Lab, which has allowed us to create a scalable and flexible way to organize, structure, manage, visualize and analyze our mass of data. With all the data in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">SylvaDB</hi>, we can see the links between different professionals and works, as well as between quarries and workers, parts of building and professionals, quarries and buildings. This tool has redirected the process in a way that otherwise would have been too taxing in terms of time and computation - we were now not required to create innumerable tables and charts to collect all the information.
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">After having a clear starting point and already with a certain amount of professionals collected - about 300 workers - the next step was the creation of a schema through which we discern graphic patterns. At this moment, in the Graph model we have 1.000 relationships and 850 nodes (figures 04, 05 and table 1).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""514/image3.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3: <hi rend=""italic"">Sylva´s </hi>print screen showing the Andalusia´s Late Gothic Network Graph model</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""514/image4.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 4: This graph shows the masters builders who had worked in different activities concerning to the cimbor of the Cathedral of Seville</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""514/image5.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 4: This graph shows the masters builders who had worked in some chapels</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""514/image6.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Table 1: This table shows the professionals who worked in different chapels. We can see the importance of some of them - the ones who more chapels worked in</head>
            </figure>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>4. Conclusions</head>
            <p rend=""normal"">Different research methods based on new technologies applied to understanding the same phenomenon provide a greater depth of the problem. In this sense, the use of multiple methods has allowed us to achieve three important aspects: to promote different perspectives on the subject allowing a wider view about the object of study; include a large variety of variables in the study; provide multiple analyses of the same concept, which increases the validity of the research that remains open and upgradeable. Therefore, what we seek is to provide new methods but also new approaches that do not override other traditional systems, but enrich the discussion on the past and its relationship with the inheritance.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Funding</head>
            <p rend=""normal"">This project is associated with the project and R+D+I (Research, Development and Innovation) 
                <hi rend=""italic"">“A Digital Information Model for the Knowledge and Management of Immovable Cultural Heritage”</hi> funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and led by the lecturer 
                <ref target=""http://grupo.us.es/ecphum799/index.html"">Francisco Pinto Puerto</ref>.
            </p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">de la Rosa J., Suárez J. and Sancho Caparrini F. </hi>(2013). SylvaDB: A Polyglot and Multi-backend Graph Database Management System. In<hi rend=""italic""> Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Data Technologies and Applications</hi>, pp. 285-92. 
                        <ref target=""http://sylvadb.com"">http://sylvadb.com</ref>. University of Western Ontario, Canada. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ferreira Lopes, P. and Pinto Puerto, F.</hi> (2015). 
                        <ref target=""https://www.witpress.com/elibrary/wit-transactions-on-the-built-environment/153/34244"">Application of a schema to late gothic heritage: creating a digital model for a spatio-temporal study in Andalusia</ref>. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">WIT Transactions on the Built Environment</hi>. UK: Wessex Institute Press, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">153</hi>: 29-41.  
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">García Cuetos, M. P.</hi> (2011). Raíces del Tardogótico castellano. La arquitectura europea en el contexto del último gótico: ¿una arquitectura paneuropea? In Alonso Ruiz, B. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">La arquitectura tardogótica castellana entre Europa y América</hi>. Madrid: Silex. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lefebvre, H. </hi>(2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">La producción del espacio</hi>. Madrid: Capitan Swing. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Robinson, I., Webber, J. and Eifrem, E.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Graph Databases. Information Management</hi>. O´Reilly Media, Inc.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2419","17","#ww1. The Great War on Twitter","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Since 2014, some of the countries that were formerly belligerent of the Great War – most particularly France and UK – have organised a series of commemorations of the First World War, known as the ‘Centenaire’ (France) or the ‘Centenary’ (UK). We can assume that there is a strong link – that cannot let a historian indifferent – between those commemorations, collective memory and historical studies.</p>
            <p>Though studies about collective memory are numerous since the famous works of the French sociologist Maurice Halbwachs (Halbwachs, 1950), few of them are examining how collective memories are being expressed – maybe even transformed – on social networks on-line.</p>
            <p>In the case of the Centenary of the First World War, a set of questions can be asked: What is the on-line echo of the commemoration of the centenary of the 1st World War? What is the behaviour of Memorial/Heritage Institutions about the 1st World War on Twitter? How do they transmit information about the Centenary? Is there an influence of the English predominance on Twitter about the Centenary on how non-english-speaking twitter accounts are considering the 1st World War? Are there specific subjects that are discussed on-line? Which ‘temporalities’ are present in tweets when Twitter users speak about the Great War on-line?</p>
            <p>Though we are not yet able to respond to all those questions, we’ll use our database of tweets in order to answer them at least partially.</p>
            <p>Indeed, since the 1
                <hi rend=""superscript"">st</hi> April 2014, around 1.5 millions of tweets containing a hashtag (keyword) linked to the 1st World War were written by over 350 000 Twitter accounts in several languages (mainly English and French). Twitter is a good field to analyse relationships between history and collective memory, memorial institutions and citizens, historians and a wide non-academic audience. We started to explore this database (which is still expanding): we intend to show how a historian can collect, analyse and interpret those tweets, using Digital Humanities methodologies and software in order to answer questions about collective memory of the First World War online.
            </p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Tools and Methodologies </head>
                <p>We are using 140dev, a PHP open source script within a LAMP environment to collect tweets through the Twitter streaming API
                    <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                        <note place=""end"">
                            <p rend=""endnote text"">
                                <ref target=""../customXml/item1.xml"">http://140dev.com/</ref> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                            </p>
                        </note>
                    </hi>. The tweets are then stored in a MySQL database. Diverse information (tweets and their metadata, hashtags, user information, mentions, retweets) about those tweets can easily be extracted through SQL queries. Those queries can also be used to extract different kind of relations: between tweets, between Twitter users or even between hashtags (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">ie</hi> if a Twitter user mentioned or retweeted another twitter user, if two users wrote the same hashtags, etc). Concerning privacy, we respect the Twitter API Terms.
                </p>
                <p>To analyse tweets, we are using mainly two sets of methodologies/software: social network analysis and network visualisations (with Gephi: mention, retweets or hashtags are considered a link); text analysis through the theory of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">mondes lexicaux</hi> (Reinert, 1993) as it is implemented in the IRaMuTeQ software (Ratinaud and Dejean, 2009)
                    <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                        <note place=""end"">
                            <p rend=""endnote text"">
                                <ref target=""numbering.xml"">http://www.iramuteq.org/</ref> (accessed 4 March 2016) - Interface de R pour les Analyses Multidimensionnelles de Textes et de Questionnaires. IRaMuTeQ is a free software based on python and R. It is available in French, English, German and Spanish (interface and analyses).
                            </p>
                        </note>
                    </hi>. The combination of both tools and methodologies has been described by (Smyrnaios and Ratinaud, 2014). IRaMuTeQ, thanks to time-stamped metadata, can also help us working on temporalities. Indeed, clusters that are defined by this software can be projected in time: we can know, day-by-day, the most used kind of tweets.
                    <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                        <note place=""end"">
                            <p rend=""endnote text""> IRaMuTeQ works in dividing the corpus in small segments of text (around 40 words). In our case each segment is a tweet and each tweet is also a text.</p>
                        </note>
                    </hi> It helped us, for instance, finding that French fallen soldiers are not described with the same words the 11
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> of November in comparison to the rest of the year.
                </p>
                <p>The methodologies and tools that remain to be found for this research concern temporalities – even if IRaMuTeQ has helped us answer some question on time. There are several temporalities that are expressed in this corpus: the constant feed of information that is the nature of Twitter; the temporality of each twitter user; the temporality of the Centenary (which is different from one country to the other, and from the Great War temporality); and the temporality of the War itself.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>First results</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Language</head>
                    <p>English is overwhelmingly present in this corpus. Around 10% only of the collected tweets are not in English. Among those 10%, French is largely in majority and German almost absent, even though German hashtags are collected. The fact that Twitter is an English-based social network does not explain fully this disequilibrium between English and other languages. The Memorial institutions' communication policies on Twitter are better factors to explain it. </p>
                    <p>The decentralized communication policy of British memorial institutions (the BBC and all its Twitter accounts or the Imperial War Museum for instance) is obviously more efficient than the French centralized communication policy of the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mission du centenaire</hi>. French WW1-related museums do not have Twitter accounts or do have one but do not follow twitter implicit rules such as the use of a general hashtag like #ww1 or the French #pgm.
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>British and French are not commemorating WW1 the same way</head>
                    <p>The most striking difference between the French corpus and the English one is the fact that both linguistic areas do not commemorate the Great War the same way. There are two major differences between both countries:</p>
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>French are mainly remembering the soldiers (
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Poilus</hi>). British citizens are remembering soldiers, but also battles.
                        </item>
                        <item>The French are focusing on the end of the war, the Armistice, on the 11th November. The British are focusing on the way they entered the war.</item>
                    </list>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>English public history and French history amateurs</head>
                    <p>Thanks to the Network visualisations, this corpus also helps understand how public history is present in Britain, in contrary to France where it just begins to appear. The presence of amateurs of history in the French corpus also shows that French historians are not on twitter, in contrary to amateurs who, next to the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mission du Centenaire,</hi> are structuring discussions about the First World War on Twitter.
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Comparing multilingual corpora</head>
                    <p>To compare our two main corpora (the French one and the English one) that can be extracted from the database, we had to use the two main pieces of software the same way on both corpora and then to ‘humanly’ compare the results. We could not find any tools able to compare two corpora that are in different languages.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Distant reading / Close reading</head>
                    <p>This research project shows that, for historians, it is still important to keep a direct link with each single primary source, as some information can be learned from the interpretation of single tweets. Though methods used in this research are dealing with Franco Moretti’s notion of 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">distant reading </hi>(Moretti, 2007), it proved strategic to be able to go back to every single tweet. The software used, if metadata are kept all along their use, allow this.
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Twitter and the rest of the web</head>
                    <p>Why Twitter? The fact that the Twitter API, though sometimes very unstable, is very convenient to use is one of the criteria of this choice. Is it really pertinent in terms of research? Shouldn't we have broader sources? How to extrapolate the project's results to other on-line social networks? Last but not least, the difficulty to anticipate hashtags to be collected might introduce biases in our research.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Future of this research project</head>
                    <p>The question of ‘temporalities’ and their imbrications (the temporality of Twitter / the temporality of users / the temporality of the commemorations / the temporality of the First World War itself) should be the next step of this research. But, as it will require the use of Named Entity Recognition, extending our research to places will be possible as well.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Halbwachs, M.</hi> (1950). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">La mémoire collective</hi>, Paris: Albin Michel.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for Literary History</hi>. London: Verso.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ratinaud, P. and Dejean, S.</hi> (2009). IRaMuTeQ: Implémentation de la methode ALCESTE d’analyse de texte dans un logiciel libre [Implementation of the ALCESTE method of text analysis in an open-source software]. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Presentation</hi>. Available at: http://repere.no-ip.org/Members/pratinaud/mes-documents/articles-et-presentations/presentation_mashs2009.pdf (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reinert, M.</hi> (1993). Les ‘mondes lexicaux’ et leur ‘logique’ à travers l’analyse statistique d’un corpus de récits de cauchemars. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language et Société</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">66</hi>(1): 5–39. doi:10.3406/lsoc.1993.2632
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smyrnaios, N. and Ratinaud, P.</hi> (2014). Comment articuler analyse des réseaux et des discours sur Twitter. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">tic and société</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(2). doi:10.4000/ticetsociete.1578
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2420","17","A Management of Personal Name with Alternate Name and its Searching for Japanese Historical Study","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>1. Introduction</head>
            <p>The basis of historical study or historical understanding consists of collecting historical materials (mainly literature materials such as old documents, old diaries, …), precise reading of the materials, and source criticism. In order to perform them, an identification of a personal name is one of important methods or works, and the researchers of history cannot avoid it. The personal name identification is not simple issue, because there is a diversity in the name representations in the materials. The main representing patterns of the diversity are the follows:</p>
            <p>a) Written real or original name</p>
            <p>b) Written first name only</p>
            <p>c) Written nickname, epithet, or alias </p>
            <p>d) Written omitted name</p>
            <p>e) Written role name </p>
            <p>f) Written using different characters</p>
            <p>g) Described Kao (which is a stylized signature or a mark.) </p>
            <p>Examples of the representations of “伊集院忠棟 (Ijuin Tadamune)”, who is a senior statesman of “島津家 (Shimazu family)” and the relatives of the family and is in the 15th century in Japan, there are “伊集院” (which is his family name), “忠棟” (which is his first name), “幸侃” (which is a nick name, is often appeared in the old documents), “伊右衛門大夫” (which is a nick name), “伊右”, “右衛門”, “伊大夫” (which are his nick names called by familiar persons), “忠金” (which is his original name). Here is a difficult problem that the various represented names should be identified. In the above example, if you understand the various alternate names can be identified with “伊集院忠棟”, the problem is not hard. However, in practice, there are no persons (including researchers of the history) who know and understand all historical persons. For the solution of the problem, we consider that the results of personal name identifications which can be performed by researchers of history should be managed. Furthermore, in the search against historical materials, if the results can be available, the performance of the search can be surely improved compared to simply full-text search. </p>
            <p>In the paper we introduce a management method of personal names and the alternate names of the persons and a search method using the managed names. In (Ho, 2015) and (Bol et al., 2015), personal names can be extracted and tagged automated against target documents based on China Biographical Database (CBCB; http://isites.harvard.edu/icb/icb.do?keyword=k16229) as a biographical dictionary. Unfortunately, there are no exhaustive the encyclopedias or dictionaries for the names of Japanese historical persons. Moreover, methods introduced in (Ho, 2015) and (Bol et al., 2015) can be performed better if you can treat a document which is a secondary source like a ""地方志 (difangzhi)"" in which almost personal names indicates its real name. Most of documents which we treated in the work is primary source and hardly have real names of the person. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>2. Extraction of personal names and alternate names</head>
            <p>At first, in order to collecting personal names, we used “上井覚兼日記 (Uwaikakken nikki)” which is a diary of Japanese medieval period (from 1574 until 1586) written by “上井覚兼 (Uwai kakken)” who is a senior statesman of “島津家” of Japan. For the historical study in Kyushu (which is a local area of Japan) or “島津家” in medieval period, the diary is one of important historical materials and Japanese national treasure. The text of the diary has been stored in “The Full-text Database of the Old Japanese Diaries” which has been published by Historiographical Institute, The University of Tokyo. In the text the number of characters is about 1.4 million (for 1777 days; note that there are days which he was not written in the diary). The format of the text is very simply, because the text is just plain text and does not have tags such as XML, TEI. The sample is as follows:</p>
            <p>…一、此朝、入来院（重豊）殿太刀を、東郷（重尚）殿次に拳可有之由被申候、御老中よりハ、東郷・祁答院・入来之事ハ同家にて候間、東郷之次に者根占殿（禰寝重長）太刀を可被召成之由、…</p>
            <p>This is a part of the text in the diary of “天正2年8月１日” (which indicates A.D. 1574-08-17)”. There are three persons (“入来院 (Irikiin)”, “東郷(Togo)”, “根占(Nejime)”) in the part. If an alternate name against written name could be solved, the alternate name was added using parenthesis. </p>
            <p>The representation can be understood by human (who can read and understand the sentence), but machine can not be solved if the machine doesn’t know or understand the pattern. Due to machine usable, we extracted a written name, an alternate name of the name and the date and we managed the result as a set. As shown in the example, a real name or well-known name is hardly written in the Japanese historical materials, and alternate name added by researcher what indicates real name in most cases. The added name can be used for personal name identification, because this is controlled by the researchers who added the alternate names, and the notation is consistent if the same person. We performed the identification method and could obtain a name pair of 520 sets. In the process of the method, a method of a personal name extraction was needed. We could extract personal names using Machine Leaning method (which consists of an appearance patterns of the names and SVM (Support Vector Machine)). Figure 1 shows examples of the appearance pattern, which an expression of a sequence, an extraction pattern and an extracted result. We used SVM to judge whether the extracted results indicate personal name or not. The SVM results were fed back to the appearance patterns, and we performed the extraction based on appearance patterns and judgment with SVN again. The feedback was preformed several time in the work. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""147/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
             <head>Figure 1 Name extraction patterns</head>
            </figure>
            <p>We prototyped text search system which supports alternate names using the above constructed personal pairs rather than simple text matching. In the search, for example you queries “忠棟”, then you can obtain the results including “忠棟” as a string, “伊集院忠棟” which is controlled name (well-known name or real name), and alternate names such as “幸侃”, “伊右衛門大夫”, “伊右”, “右衛門”, “伊大夫”, “忠金” (which are mentioned above). </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>3. Conclusion</head>
            <p>Personal name extraction method which we introduced above is useful only target document is “上井覚兼日記 (Uwaikakken nikki)”. In order to extract more generalization, preparing a pattern suitable to each historical material is necessary. We constructed a database which can be stored the personal name pairs. Currently we also have been collecting personal names from other texts and databases, and storing it in the database. The data in the database indicates the results as an identification of personal name. The data can assist to identify personal names in a material which reading comprehension has been not yet done. We expect that the method can be useful to progress of the study of Japanese history.</p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Ho, H. I.</hi> (2015). MARKUS – A Fundamental Semi-automatic Markup Platform for Classical Chinese. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Digital Humanities</hi>. </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bol, P., Liu, Ch.-L., and Wang, H.</hi> (2015). Mining and Discovering Biographical Information in Difangzhi with a Language-Model-based Approach. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Digital Humanities</hi>.</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2421","17","Archives Distant Reading: Mapping the Activity of the League of Nations' Intellectual Cooperation","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Founded in 1922 by the League of Nations upon observation that the pacification of Europe may benefit from a better collaboration between scientific elites, the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation</hi> (ICIC) is responsible for coordinating the restructuration of knowledge circulation. Bringing together leading researchers at the height of their career, such as Albert Einstein, Marie Curie and George Hale, chaired by Henri Bergson, the Committee weaves a complex network between transnational scientific institutions and societies, congresses and individuals (Pernet, 2014). 
                </p>
                <p>This paper proposes an analysis of the work and functioning of the organization between 1919 and 1927 by setting up a database containing metadata of thousands of documents contained by the ICIC funds (United Nations Archives, Geneva). Visualized as a network of 3.200 people (tens of thousands of relationships), this work provides a new understanding of the internal organization of the Intellectual Cooperation, as well as completely new insights about its relations with the rest of the scientific and diplomatic world. In particular, we will show the necessity to compare the “micro” structure of relationships as mapped by the archive with the “macro” formal structure of the institution. Do the thousands of documents, in a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">distant reading</hi> approach (Moretti, 2013), confirm the internal organization of the League of Nations or do they show individuals/communities that bypass the official hierarchy? 
                </p>
                <p>As an opening to an epistemological debate, this research questions the relationship between the researcher, the database and its sources: are the metadata of an archive corpus usable information, regardless of their unique qualitative content? More technically, it also addresses the issue of data visualization and modeling in the historical sciences.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Sources</head>
                <p>Initially launched in 1922 as a consultative commission, the ICIC quickly mobilized the major part of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">International Bureaux</hi> section secretariat (upon its stabilization a few years later as a permanent commission), resulting in the production of very vast archives. In the period covered by our study, 1919-1927, which can be qualified as the start-up years of the dynamics of intellectual cooperation in Europe and the World, the funds contain 27.000 documents, mostly internal and external correspondence, about the main missions of the commission: university relations, bibliography coordination, educational matters and various enquiries.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""235/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figures 1-3. From a relational database to a network. The relational database links documents with their agents (Fig. 1), a relation that is then mapped as a 2-mode network (Fig. 2). By projecting the documents on the agents, the 1-mode network of co-occurrencies is fully exploitable (Fig. 3).</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methodology</head>
                <p>We are particularly interested in individuals who are personally concerned by the documents. Firstly, we indexed all the documents by creating a relational database (fig.1) of all ""agents"" (senders and receivers). In order to analyze the co-occurrences of agents in the same document, the database, displayed as a 2-mode network (fig.2), is projected onto a 1-mode network (fig.3). Each of the 3.200 agents are connected to its co-occurring by an edge whose weight reflects the intensity of the relationship.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Data analysis and visualization</head>
                <p>This paper presents the final result of years of manual indexing (intermediary results have already been presented as case-studies in Grandjean, 2015 and Grandjean, 2014). The complete graph (fig.4) displays 38.600 co-occurrences between 3.200 agents of the complete set of documents from 1919 to 1927. The size and color of the nodes are proportional to the number of appearances of the individuals in the index. The size and color of the edges are proportional to the number of co-occurrences of the two people they bind. </p>
                <p>Beyond an apparently low visual intelligibility, due to the amount of information and the dataset complexity, such a graph already makes the measurement of its mathematical properties possible (centrality measures, as detailed by Koschützki et al., 2005 or Newman, 2010). Developed as an interactive online visualization, it provides a global view and a more instinctive navigation in the archive directory.</p>
                <p>This type of graph is necessary in order to observe what happens at the margins of the institution (and thus also to understand the geography of the object: what is central and what is peripheral). However, as so often in network analysis, the core is so dense that we can not distinguish the edges and therefore makes a more advanced visual analysis impossible.</p>
                <p>Here comes the challenge of readability: how to show that elements are not only connected horizontally to other elements by maintaining a macro-structure that does not always correspond to the natural organization of the agents? </p>
                <p>As many opportunities to play with scale exist (Brailly and Lazega, 2012), we chose to flatten the institutional organization on the relational structure (fig.5). Hence our research question: do the scientists, diplomats and senior officials - who constitute the network of intellectual cooperation - structure their relationships in coherence with the organization of their institution? Or, are they the ones that determine the links that their institutions maintain together? Forced distribution of nodes under an administrative “geography” make it easier to read the edges between groups. We also note that this is a way to provide a spatial distribution that does not vary over time, and thus allows the study of several successive moments of the network, without losing the mental map. This system is also suitable for superimposing prosopographical information.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""235/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 4. The network of the Intellectual Cooperation. 38.6K co-occurrences of 3.200 agents of the documents in the League of Nations’ Intellectual Cooperation archives (1919-1927, 27K documents).</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""235/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 5. Untangling the network. Same network as Fig.4 but mapped according to the institutional structure of the League of Nations, introducing a 3rd dimension.</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Perspectives</head>
                <p>It is often at the periphery of the network that the most interesting personal trajectories may be found. As such, this display allows us to discover and highlight the thematic affinities of some of the privileged interlocutors of the ICIC: government delegates, heads of international scientific organizations or partners seeking asylum under the authority of the League of Nations.</p>
                <p>The consistency of many internal networks can be evaluated: is the plenary commission a clique (cluster where each and every node is connected to all the others)? Are the expert sub-committees coherent communities? And are these communities created by a well defined group of documents or by a heterogeneous collection of correspondences on various themes?</p>
                <p>Pushing further the distant reading, we will also see that the macro-analysis of the institutional level reveals structures that were not clear at the individual level, showing the need for a constant back-and-forth between the scales. This will also be an opportunity to recall that network analysis is a modeling process that does not relieve the researcher of the consultation of the archival documents themselves. From a quantitative approach, we return to the qualitative: the structural organization of a network is definitely a “qualitative, morphological” information (Moretti, 1999; 68) derived from the quantitative compilation of individual relationships.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brailly, J. and Lazega E.</hi> (2012). Diversité des approches de modélisation statistique en analyse de réseaux sociaux multiniveaux, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mathematics and Social Sciences</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">198</hi>: 5-28.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grandjean, M.</hi> (2014). La connaissance est un réseau, perspectives sur l’organisation archivistique et encyclopédique, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Les Cahiers du Numérique</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(3): 37-54.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grandjean, M. </hi>(2015). Introduction à la visualisation de données : l’analyse de réseau en histoire, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Geschichte und Informatik</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(19): 109-28.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koschützki, D., et al.</hi> (2005). Centrality Indices. In Brandes U. and Erlebach T. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Network Analysis</hi>. Springer, pp. 16-61.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Atlas of the European Novel, 1800-1900</hi>, Verso Books.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Distant reading</hi>, Verso Books.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Newman, M. E.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Networks: An Introduction</hi>, Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pernet, C.</hi> (2014). 
                       Twists, Turns and Dead Alleys: The League of Nations and Intellectual Cooperation in Times of War, <hi rend=""italic""> Journal of Modern European History</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">12</hi>(3): 342-58.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2422","17","Boutique Big Data: Reintegrating Close and Distant Reading of 19th-Century Newspapers","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>From their earliest incarnations in the seventeenth-century, through their Georgian expansion into provincial and colonial markets and culminating in their late-Victorian transformation into New Journalism, British newspapers have relied upon scissors-and-paste journalism to meet consumer demands for the latest political intelligence and diverting content. Although this practice, wherein one newspaper extracted or wholly duplicated content from another, is well known to scholars of the periodical press, in-depth analysis of the process is hindered by the lack of formal records relating to the reprinting process. Although anecdotes abound, attributions were rarely and inconsistently given and, with no legal requirement to recompense the original author, formal records of where material was obtained were unnecessary. Even if they had existed, the number of titles that relied upon reprinted material makes systematic analysis impossible; for many periodicals, only a few issues, let alone business records, survive. However, mass digitisation of these periodicals, in both photographic and machine-readable form, offers historians a new opportunity to rediscover the mechanics of nineteenth-century reprinting. By undertaking multi-modal and multi-scalar analyses of digitised periodicals, we can begin to reconstruct the precise journeys these texts took from their first appearance to their multiple ends. </p>
            <p>Before the advent of the telegraph, individual texts were disseminated manually, through postal and private correspondence routes, over sea and land. This allowed for the relatively slow spread of texts across communication networks, as well their adaptation, truncation and expansion various stages. In a manner similar to modern internet memes, blogs and online news content, texts underwent evolutionary changes with each reprinting. These could be minute, such as the correction of spelling errors or the application of house style, or significant, through selective reordering and truncation to alter the overall meaning of the text. While identifying meme families, or collections of related texts, can help us understand what made particularly texts popular, or viral, it is only by tracing the specific trajectories and pathways of these texts that the causes and consequences of evolutionary changes can be understood. </p>
            <p>Doing so requires us to approach these texts on multiple scales. First, by mining extremely large corpora, derived from several independent collections, we are able to identify a statistically sufficient portion of the historical network. Then, by carefully analysing the chronology and discrepancies between these reprints, hypotheses regarding institutional and industry standards can be posited and tested against the wider corpus. These efforts can be further buttressed by utilising manual transcriptions found in the personal archives of researchers using historical newspapers, such as the Scissors and Paste Database (www.scissorsandpaste.net). These transcriptions, far more accurate than the majority of datasets derived from optical character recognition, greatly improve the mining of the corpora, yielding a more complete initial network to analyse, as well as offset the skewing effect of the ‘offline penumbra’.</p>
            <p>This poster will explore the possibilities of large-scale reprint identification within and across digitised collections using a combination of Lou Bloomfield’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Copyfind</hi> and project-specific code to identify matches between individual articles or full pages of texts in both manual (perfect) and OCR (messy) transcriptions. Exemplar collections include the British Library's 19th-Century Newspapers digital collection and planned expansions into the digital collections of the National Library of Wales (Welsh Newspaper Online) and of Australia (Trove). The poster will also demonstrate the means by which reprint branching can be mapped using chronology and character clustering and the relative precision of manual and computer-aided techniques. Finally, it will explore the nature of multi-scalar analysis and how we might best reintegrate ‘boutique’ periodical research, such as the author’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Scissors and Paste Database</hi>, into large-scale text-mining projects.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Adamic, L. A., Lento, T. M., Adar, E. and Ng, P. C.</hi> (2016). Information Evolution in Social Networks,<hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Ninth ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining - WSDM ’16</hi>, doi: 10.1145/2835776.2835827.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Beals, M. H.</hi> (forthcoming). The Role of the Sydney Gazette in Scottish Perceptions of Australia, 1803-1842. In Hinks, J. and Feeley, C. (eds.) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Historical Networks in the Book Trade</hi>. London: Routledge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Smith, D. A., Cordell, R. and Mullen, A.</hi> (2015). Computational methods for uncovering reprinted texts in antebellum newspapers, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">American Literary History</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">27</hi>(3): 1–15. doi: 10.1093/alh/ajv029.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2423","17","Bretez : Conjugaison du passé au futur","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">S’appuyer sur le sensible pour valoriser le patrimoine est une demande récente des musées. En effet, à une époque où le multimédia modifie chaque activité de découverte, agissant notamment sur la perception, il devient nécessaire d’intégrer cette dimension du sensible lors des présentations touchant au patrimonial. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Bretez</hi> est un projet multimédia, associant des acteurs de sciences humaines et sociales et ceux de sciences de l’ingénieur. Il est conçu pour répondre à ces problématiques. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">Le projet tire son nom du géographe (Louis Bretez) qui leva, en 1739, le plan pour le prévôt des marchands Turgot en utilisant l’axonométrie – une technique de projection révolutionnaire pour l’époque. </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">Le projet 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Bretez</hi> relève de la recherche empirique, exploratoire et d’une méthodologie expérimentale ayant pour objectif la mise au point d’un modèle. Sa conception s’appuie sur les techniques de virtualité. Comme tout modèle virtuel, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Bretez</hi> n’incarne pas une vérité scientifique figée mais une proposition représentant l’état de la science à l’instant de sa création et qui est voué à évoluer. Dans notre cas, c’est un média (la maquette crée sur une plateforme de jeu) qui sert de départ pour le dialogue entre différents membres d’une communauté scientifique, mais aussi un public large. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">Deux grands axes se dégagent dès le début des réflexions portant sur l’élaboration du projet 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Bretez</hi>. D’une part, comment intégrer la dimension sensible, d’autre part, comment répondre à cette demande de multimédia tout en respectant les besoins des musées. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">L’archéologie du paysage sonore répond à la première de ces demandes spécifiques. L’écologie du sonore et son ouvrage référent 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Le paysage sonore – le monde comme musique</hi> de R. Murray Schafer (1977, réédition 2010), est la première étape d’une prise de conscience des spécificités de cet environnement qui forment un paysage sonore. Puis les études d’A. Corbin (<hi rend=""italic"">Les cloches de la terre</hi> – 1994) et de J.-P. Gutton (<hi rend=""italic"">Bruits et sons dans notre histoire</hi> – 2000) ouvrent un chemin vers les aspects sonores du passé. Mais ces études restent au stade du théorique. L’archéologie du paysage sonore permet de passer à l’étape expérimentale.
            </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">Que ce soit dans le cadre d’une restitution de paysages urbains, d’ambiances d’intérieur, ou autres, les problématiques restent identiques. La restitution ou création de visuels et de paysages sonores historiques pose, d’entrée, des questions fondamentales: pourquoi restituer, dans notre cas, ce Paris des Lumières? Peut-on « voir/entendre » ce passé? Comment le restituer, le faire entendre? Quelles sont les difficultés, les limites d’une telle restitution? Quels sont les matériaux? Où s’arrête l’acte du créateur, celui du chercheur? Comment dépasser le concept d’habillage sonore et aboutir la restitution d’un véritable paysage historique? Comment intégrer ces notions relevant du sensible, les porter au public? Pour quel public? </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">La demande muséographique (dans notre cas) place le concepteur aux confins de la composition, de la musicologie et de l’histoire. Un « simple » habillage sonore (<hi rend=""italic"">sound design</hi>) ne peut, en effet, satisfaire cette demande très spécifique qui entre, également, dans les cadres de la sauvegarde du patrimoine immatériel.
            </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">En effet, pour le musicologue, pour le metteur en sons, ce travail est inhabituel. Les matériaux ordinaires sont 
                <hi rend=""italic"">quasi</hi> inexistants: pas d’enregistrements disponibles pour les années antérieures à 1870. Entendre le passé implique donc qu’il faut en chercher les traces dans l’ensemble du corpus littéraire (livres, journaux, etc.) ou graphiques. Puis, tenter de le pister dans le temps d’aujourd’hui afin d’en faire une captation. Il faut également solliciter l’imaginaire lors de la restitution pour mieux servir l’Histoire. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">Pour le visiteur, l’ambiance sonore ainsi (re)créée doit également exciter son imaginaire pour l’aider à mieux percevoir, recontextualiser des situations historiques, tout en préservant la réalité historique et non jouer sur les émotions. Trouver le juste milieu dans la sollicitation de cet imaginaire pour mieux servir le patrimoine et le mettre en valeur sera le fil conducteur de cette première partie.</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">D’autre part, ainsi que nous l’avons mentionné plus haut, dès nos premières observations sur et autour du Projet 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Bretez</hi>, il est apparu que de nombreuses contraintes techniques étaient présentes, notamment des contraintes matérielles et logicielles. Parmi celles-ci, l’obsolescence présente un réel frein pour les musées car elle représente un coût financier important. Il devint dont évident que mettre au service des musées, des historiens ou des archivistes une représentation visuelle, spatiale et audio qui respecte et témoigne d’une réalité du quotidien était un enjeu majeur, ceci afin de faciliter sa communication à un public de plus en plus friand de multimédia. Il était également incontestable que nous pouvions y répondre grâce, notamment, à l’utilisation d’un moteur de jeu. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">Ce détournement d’utilisation de logiciel de conception de jeux vidéo soulève, à son niveau, de nombreux problèmes épistémologiques et éthiques. Comment développer une telle plateforme à des fins pédagogiques et scientifiques? Comment utiliser l’outil? Quelle stratégie de conception et de scénarisation? Quelles en sont les avantages, mais aussi les limites? Pour quel public? Ces réflexions structureront cette seconde partie. </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">La présentation de mes travaux s’appuie sur la maquette qui sert de matrice à la recherche et s’attardera plus particulièrement sur l’élaboration d’une maquette historique sonore, en s’articulant autour de cette réflexion: comment voir et ouïr le passé pour réjouir nos sens sans trahir l’Histoire?</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""7/image1.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">
                <hi rend=""italic"">Bretez</hi> est un projet restitution de Paris au XVIIIe siècle. La maquette virtuelle, résultat d’une coopération scientifique, associe des équipes de sciences humaines et celles des sciences de l’ingénieur (Humanités Numériques). Sa destination première est orientée muséographique. Son objectif, la valorisation patrimoniale par sa restitution numérique tridimensionnelle et sonore spatialisée, se dénote par une nouvelle approche de la restitution du passé en 5 D (la combinaison du visuel – la 3D –, le déplacement et la dimension sensoriel – le sonore). Fruit d’un travail collectif, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Bretez</hi> présente une très forte dimension sonore qui rend le passé disponible et tangible pour un très large public. Il met ainsi en valeur une vision méconnue et scientifiquement valide de la ville lumière.
            </p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">À terme, ce projet vise la conception d’une plateforme générique pour la génération procédurale de villes virtuelles, tant sonore que visuelle, qui permet de s’affranchir des contraintes technologiques liées à la diversité des supports et leur obsolescence. Projet innovant, ses spécificités porte sur: </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>L’inter et la transdisciplinarité (association étroite entre les Sciences Humaines et Sociales et les Sciences de l’ingénieur);</item>
                <item>La valorisation du patrimoine par le sensible;</item>
                <item>La construction autour du son et une élaboration concomitante visuel/son.</item>
                <item>La création d’un nouveau concept: la 5D.</item>
            </list>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">Un tel projet permet d’élargir au maximum sa sphère de rayonnement. Pensé pour la muséographie, il s’est orienté vers la recherche sur demande d’équipes de chercheurs historiens ou archéologues (notamment LaDéHiS/EHESS). Il n’entre pas dans la catégorie jeu ou purement artistique car répond à des critères scientifiques. Toutes les sources sont primaires (archives de police, notariales, témoignages d’époque…). Nous assumons les « vides » : S’il n’y a pas de sources (ou ne pouvant être validées par la communauté scientifique), nous n’inventons pas – tant sur le plan visuel que celui des ambiances sonores. Chaque information est recoupée et validée par des historiens, sociologues... Le tout forme autant de contraintes à tout acte compositionnel « traditionnel ». Les questions de temporalités, au sein du logiciel, sont réétudiées afin de répondre aux critères historiques et scientifiques et non ludiques.</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">L’élaboration de la maquette initiale sur une plateforme de jeu vidéo est un véritable atout. Ce type de logiciel permet de répondre à des demandes diverses  et ouvre la porte à l’élaboration de toute sorte de produits finalisés : ceux touchant à la réalité virtuelle, à la réalité augmentée, à la création de supports immersif ou non, à ceux nomades (pour les principaux)... Le projet entre en phase de prototypage. Les premiers essais et retours sont programmés à partir de juin 2016. Dans un premier temps, il est prévu la mise en test 
                <hi rend=""italic"">in situ</hi>, Place du Châtelet à Paris, d’une application en réalité augmentée en partenariat avec Labo-M (chef de projet: Pierre Girard) et le musée Carnavalet. 
            </p>
            <p>Ce projet soutenu et accompagné par la SATT PULSALYS pour une mise en chantier au 01/01/2016</p>
            <p>https://sites.google.com/site/louisbretez/home</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Aubrun J., Bruant C., Kendrick L., Lavandier C. and Simonnot N. </hi>(2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Silences et bruits du Moyen-Âge à nos jours. Perceptions, identités sonores et patrimonialisation</hi>, L’Harmattan, Paris.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Beck R., Kramp U. and Retaillaud E.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Les cinq sens dans la ville du Moyen-Âge à nos jours</hi>, Presses Universitaires François Rabelais, coll. Villes et territoires, Tours.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gauthier L. et Traversier M.</hi> (sous la direction de) (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mélodies urbaines – la musique dans les villes d’Europe (XVIe-XIXe siècles)</hi>, PUPS, Paris.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gutton J.–P.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bruits et sons dans notre histoire</hi>, PUF, Paris.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mercier L. S.</hi> (de 1782 à 1788//1979). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Tableau de Paris</hi>, Amsterdam( en douze volumes)/Réimpression, Slatkine Reprints, (6 volumes), Genève.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Murray S. R.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Le paysage sonore – Le monde comme musique</hi>, 4
                        <hi rend=""superscript"">e</hi> édition, Wildproject, France.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2424","17","Collaborative Annotation and Exploration of Literary Works in Learning Contexts","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In this poster we present the web application “CBook” (or “Crunched Book”), i.e. a DH tool for collaborative reading, annotation and exploration of literary works. The web app can be found here: https://cbook.it/ . It was used in learning contexts during the research projects 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Librare</hi> (in high schools) and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Pinocchio: la comunità dei balocchi</hi> (in middle schools). Other teachers are using it in complete autonomy in their classrooms.
            </p>
            <p>Students and teachers can annotate portions of text, explore novel’s settings through interactive maps, add and share images and other contents related to a literary work, search for terms into the text (e.g. in the quoted speeches of a particular character), explore connections between characters in their social networks.</p>
            <p>The CBook is used by italian students and their teachers, as an innovative digital tool for reading and studying literature, in primary and secondary schools. The list of schools involved in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Librare</hi> project, for example, can be found here:
            </p>
            <p>Some Italian and English classics are already present in the web app, the full work or a portion: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">I promessi sposi</hi> (complete), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Le avventure di Pinocchio</hi> (complete), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Decameron</hi> (3 novels), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Odissea</hi> (book VI, italian translation), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Romeo and Juliet</hi> (complete), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Wonderful Wizard of Oz</hi> (chapters 1­5). Other works requested by teachers (e.g. Dante’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Purgatorio</hi>), will be added to the web app in the next months.
            </p>
            <p>We can say that CBook is, in some sense, a collaborative anthology (or an Anthology 2.0), i.e. a collection of literary works selected by the users that are reading, annotating and exploring the works, using some DH tools and methodologies (collaborative annotation, interactive maps, SNA of characters, text mining, etc).</p>
            <p>The web app was designed and tested in collaboration with high school teachers, students and DH scholars. It is used on tablets, PCs, interactive whiteboards, and smartphones (with less functionalities).</p>
            <p>An important feature of CBook is interoperability between models and tools for TEI XML annotation and models and tools for semantic annotation. A significant difference between the CBook and other annotation tools is its emphasis on user-centered design (for students and teachers).</p>
            <p>The annotation system of CBook is based on Annotator (
                <ref target=""http://annotatorjs.org/)"">http://annotatorjs.org/)</ref> , “an open­source JavaScript library to easily add annotation functionality to any webpage”, following annotation standards for digital documents developed by the W3C Web Annotation Working Group. The User Interface is written in HTML5, CSS and Javascript. The texts were annotated in XML, using a simplified version of TEI. On the server side, we use a graph Database and Java. 
            </p>
            <p>The actions of cbook’s users (sign in, sign out, comment) can be monitored in a public dashboard accessible here: http:/sensori.librare.org/librare/. In this dashboard you can see the events concerning both cbooks (digital) and paper books that users were working on in this project.</p>
            <p>The first version of “The digital lab of crunched books"" was the Second Runner Up of Digital Humanities Awards 2014 in the Best DH Tool or Suite of Tools section (3 march 2015): 
                <ref target=""http://dhawards.org/dhawards2014/results/"">http://dhawards.org/dhawards2014/results/</ref>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""430/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl> <hi rend=""bold"">Bolioli, A. and Tasso R.</hi> (2014). Enjoying classic literature, in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Interactive e-Books for Children IBooC2014</hi> (Denmark), 2nd Workshop at IDC Interaction Design and Children.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl> <hi rend=""bold"">Bolioli, A., Casu M., Lana M. and Roda R.</hi> (2013). Exploring the Betrothed Lovers, in M. Finlayson, B. Fisseni, B. Lowe and J. C. Meister (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">2013 Workshop on Computational Models of Narrative</hi>, OASIC, vol. <hi rend=""bold"">32</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Pierazzo, E.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarly Editing: Theories, Models and Methods</hi>. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2425","17","Concept Modeling the Advertising Chinese Modern Society","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In the late 19th century, thousands of industrially produced consumer items flooded into extraterritorially governed, internationally regulated, Chinese, treaty port cities. Foreign commodities were products, and formed the backbone of new, urban, popular consumer culture. Consequently, the advertising industry infiltrated commodity brands and branding techniques into everyday life making commodity images a paramount symbol of civilized urban life. Advertising ephemera thus provides researchers with the conditions for thinking about modernity par excellent since it breaks data free of its origins to demonstrate how concepts embedded in ads ingratiate all consumer cultures (Barlow, 2012). </p>
            <p>To force advertising to speak clearly, we launched the Chinese Commercial Advertisements Archive (“CCAA”) and ‘metadated’ (Lev Manovich’s term) more than ten thousand high quality images from microfilm copies of three, major, commercial, Chinese newspapers, in the period of 1880 to 1940 (Manovich, 2002). CCAA applies customized metadata schema based on the structural standard, Dublin Core, to each digital image of advertisement, entering all relevant information e.g., cartoon, brand icon, word texts and syntax, plus street names and business titles. Our metadata include: descriptive content, contextual information, bibliographical, technical and image sources of location, copyright status, and owning institution. </p>
            <p>Scholars had already studied categories like hygienic/卫生), modern/现代, human/人类, eugenics /优生, and female/女性in commercial/common ideas. They sampled image-based advertisements in libraries using newspapers, facsimiles and microfilm/fiche. Though more recent research projects have done a poor job of digitizing advertising, still we cannot ignore ad digitalization because historians are still generalizing from a fraction of ads that make up any potential archive. To avoid wasting time and to collaborate with other scholars developing what Franco Morreti calls ‘distance reading,’ we seek to connect concepts appearing in advertisements to concepts found in sociological texts employing statistical text mining of advertising copy (Hayles, 2012). </p>
            <p>Space prevents a full literature survey here, but we have met with pioneering researchers Professor Peter Bol of ‘China Biographical Database Project’ at Harvard University and Professors Zheng Wenhui and Liu Zhaolin, co-PIs, ‘Database for the Study of Modern Chinese Thought and Literature (1830–1930) ’at Taiwan National Chengchi University, and now have available over 30,000 annotated ad images which our proposed paper will use to augment evidences and expand analysis.</p>
            <p>On the basis of these 30,000 annotated, newspaper, advertising images, our work is generating a text-mining model for advertising language, a language presenting historically anchored technical difficulties as follows:</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>Lack of word boundaries and punctuation. Word boundaries in Chinese are invisible; worse, ad slogans are not punctuated. Raw data is just a sequence of unsegmented Chinese characters which means text mining in Chinese is comparatively tough.</item>
                <item>Lacks definitions of vocabulary. Ad texts contain lots of instable, idiosyncratic technical terms, like company names written in different ways, transliterated brand names, product names and so on that we discover during the text mining process.</item>
                <item>Lack of training data. Most Chinese text mining methods depend on high quality training data, and will fail if the target texts are remarkably different from the training data. Considering that the advertisements that interest us are from regional newspapers over a long period, ad writing style is uncertain due to local linguistic differences. We cannot rely on current training data employing modern Chinese to establish models for mining 1920s syntax, vocabulary, punctuation (or lack of it) word use, semantic references, ideograph variation for 100-year-old print media. </item>
                <item>Difficulties distinguishing technical and background words. Ad texts are a mixture of technical and background phrases, so it is not a trivial task to distinguish technical terms, our true interest , from noise, words rarely used a century after the ads were published.</item>
            </list>
            <p>We have overcome many of these roadblocks using statistical methods for Chinese text mining and knowledge discovery. Text mining allows us to: 1) discover potential associations among features and terms extracted from advertisements; 2) build links among these and ideological trends in the treaty port urban areas of China during our period by developing Deng Ke’s statistical text mining method to establish indices of technical terms (“TT”) and metadated association patterns among technical terms (“APTT”) (Deng, Geng and Liu, 2014). Word Dictionary Model (“WDM”) and Advanced Word Dictionary Model (“AWMD”) are tools for word discovery, text segmentation and entity recognition of Chinese texts when training data are not available. WDM can be extended into an AWDM to achieve automatic recognition of TT (distinguishing technical terms from background words/phrases). In this case, technical terms mean the specific phrases we choose from datasets or metadata of images, and establish as concepts in the network.</p>
            <p>To this purpose we are developing the following indices: 1) Bibliographical (volume, issue, page numbers, location, date) to enable statistical analysis of ad publication frequency in one or several newspapers over the course of one or many years. 2) Contextual Informational (brand, product category, company, agency, retailer’s address, registered nationality) allowing users to establish a statistical picture of a commodity, in specific newspapers, geographical locations and decades. 3) Content index (sorting by drawing of male, female, elders, youth, middle age people, infant, human, animal, plant, Chinese, foreigner) meaning ad images are hybrid artifacts, mixing text and cartoons; 4) Theoretical categories (the modern, human, woman) to identify categories used aggressively in ads. Once TT in each and every advertisement have been successfully located and the indices of TT identified, we can reveal the APTT of ads, defined as subsets of technical terms that tend to co-occur in an advertisement frequently. With TDM, association pattern discovery can be converted into a statistical inference problem and solved by statistical means.</p>
            <p>Second, we seek concept networks that connect key concepts embedded in ads to sociological theories. The Concept Network (CN) is a graph that can efficiently present domain knowledge and reasoning based on it. Each CN node is a concept corresponding to an entity or a technical term. Thus if concept A appears in the definition of concept B, we add a direct link from A to B and domain topology will eventually reflect the structure of the knowledge system: closely related concepts are direct neighbors or locate in the same neighborhood, while concepts belonging to different disciplines or areas will be far away from each other in the graph. Building CN requires indices of concepts and their descriptions. Traditional dictionaries might be a source and our period shows an efflorescence of dictionary publication. Another source is online knowledge databases, like Wikipedia. However domain knowledge of sociological theories are not represented in any language or in any period anywhere on the World Wide Web. To compensate, we are erecting an ontological knowledge database of sociological theories as these appeared in journals, books, articles and the archived documents, ‘Social Thought in Modern China, 1830–1940’ (STMC). With an ontological database, we can open our sharing platform to define and describe key concepts and relationships among them. Interdisciplinary by design CNMACMS users are welcome to participate by entering data into the databases to improve our model.</p>
            <p>Notes</p>
            <p>As for the studied have been done by schoalrs on categories like hygienic/卫生), modern/现代, human/人类, eugenics /优生, and female/女性in commercial/common ideas, please see Jin Guantao(金观涛), Liu Qingfeng(刘青峰), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Studies in History of Idea: The Building of Basic Political Concepts in Modern China </hi>( 观念史研究:中国现代重要政治术语的形成), Falv Press, 2009; This book has investigated the origins and transformations of tern basic concepts of “gonghe” (republicanism), “minzhu” (democracy), “quanli” (rights), “geren” (individual), “geming” (revolution), “kexue” (science) in modern Chinese history by using the data of “Database for the Study of Modern Chinese Thought” (1830–1930). Huang Kewu (黄克武), “從申報醫藥廣告看民初上海的意料文化與社會生活1912–1926” explored the idea of “disease” in advertisements published on 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Shen Bao</hi> during early 19
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century. Tani Barlow’s published papers and book, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">In the Event of Women</hi> (Durham: Duke University Press, 2017) establish a historical parallel connecting advertisement ephemera, social theory and the woman category. 
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Barlow, T.</hi> (2012). Advertising Ephemera and the Angel of History. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Positions: asia critique</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">20</hi>: 111–58.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bergere, M. C.</hi> (1989). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Golden Age of the Chinese Bourgeois, 1911–1937</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Deng, K., Geng, Z. and Liu, J. S.</hi> (2014). Association pattern discovery via theme dictionary models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B</hi> (Statistical Methodology), <hi rend=""bold"">76</hi>: 319–47. doi: 10.1111/rssb.12032.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hayles, N. K.</hi> (2012). How We Think: Transforming Power and Digital Technologies. In Berry, D. M., (ed.),
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Understanding Digital Humanities</hi>. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 42–66.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manovich, L.</hi> (2002). Metadata, Mon Amour, 
                        <ref target=""http://manovich.net/index.php/projects/metadata-mon-amour"">http://manovich.net/index.php/projects/metadata-mon-amour</ref> (accessed 14 March, 2016)
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2426","17","Critical Edition as Graph: The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa Online","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In the last few years, several of the bodies that govern higher education and research in Switzerland – the swissuniversities council, the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNF), and the Swiss Academy of Humanities and Social Sciences (SAGW) – have placed an increasing focus on the importance of appropriate and sustainable handling research data, and in particular research data in the humanities. As ever more research in the humanities includes collections of digital data, these Swiss bodies are putting a significant investment into building an infrastructure capable of maintaining it. Against this background, the SNF has begun to focus in particular on the scholarly text edition; beginning in 2017, all SNF-funded edition projects are expected to be digital and to contain some strategy for long-term preservation (Swiss National Science Foundation, 2015). One of the purposes of the SNF-funded project “The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa Online” is to experiment with forms of digital critical edition of texts that can be preserved and maintained in the long term.</p>
            <p><hi rend=""italic"">The Chronicle</hi> is an Armenian-language historical work, written in the early 12
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century, covering nearly two centuries’ worth of the history of the medieval Near East, up to and including the establishment of the Crusader County of Edessa. The text survives in at least 35 manuscript copies, all from 1590 or later. Digital methods have been used since the beginning of the edition work in 2008; this includes full transcriptions of the individual manuscripts in a TEI-compatible markup system, automatic collation of the textual variants, computer-assisted stemmatic analysis, and systematic editorial analysis of the variant texts (Andrews, 2009). Since the work began, however, there has been significant progress in thought about how to represent textual variants in digital space, most particularly with the adoption of the variant graph (Andrews, 2014; Dekker, Hulle, Middell, Neyt, and Zundert, 2014; Jänicke, Geßner, Büchler, and Scheuermann, 2014; Schmidt and Colomb, 2009).
            </p>
            <p>In this poster session we will demonstrate the ways in which, beginning with the variant graph concept, we are implementing all aspects of the edition in a graph database model – the textual collation itself, analysis of the manuscripts and stemmata, the identification of events, timelines, persons, and places that normally occupies much of the commentary of the edition, and the annotations that together with these identifications will comprise the full commentary. Since it is a graph, the data becomes straightforward to transform directly into the Resource Description Framework (RDF) required for compatibility with the SALSAH database provided by the SAGW-funded Data and Service Centre for the Humanities, which is the nascent repository for all humanities research data within Switzerland and guarantees long-term API-addressable accessibility to the data itself (Rosenthaler, Fornaro, and Clivaz, 2014). Moreover, in the construction of the graph model we draw upon relevant sets of standards and tools, such as the TEI Guidelines (http://www.tei-c.org/) for description of the textual features, CIDOC-CRM (http://www.cidoc-crm.org/) to express information about the documents as objects and for notations of time and place in a manner suitable to use with tools such as Topotime (Grossner and Meeks, 2014). We are also participating in the DARIAH-DE Working Group on Digital Annotations in order to ensure that our working methods are methodologically and practically compatible with best practice in humanities research.</p>
            <p>The result of the project will be a digital edition whose constructed text, scholarly commentary, and individual manuscript witnesses will be fully accessible through a machine-queryable API. The web user interface will be built entirely on this API; in that way, no intellectual content will be embedded in the interface, only to be eventually lost when or if the interface disappears. The manuscript texts and a version of the edition itself will be available to download in TEI and ePub formats, for print consumption, archiving, or further offline analysis.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Andrews, T. L.</hi> (2009). Prolegomena to a Critical Edition of the Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa, with a Discussion of Computer-Aided Methods Used to Edit the Text. University of Oxford, http://ora.ouls.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid%3A67ea947c-e3fc-4363-a289-c345e61eb2eb.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Andrews, T. L.</hi> (2014). Analysis of Variation Significance in Artificial Traditions Using Stemmaweb. <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>, doi: 10.1093/llc/fqu072.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dekker, R. H., Hulle, D. van, Middell, G. et al.</hi> (2014). Computer-supported collation of modern manuscripts: CollateX and the Beckett Digital Manuscript Project. <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, fqu007. 10.1093/llc/fqu007.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grossner, K. and Meeks, E.</hi> (2014). Topotime: Representing historical temporality. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of DH2014</hi>, Lusanne.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jänicke, S., Geßner, A., Büchler, M. et al.</hi> (2014). 5 Design Rules for Visualizing Text Variant Graphs. Presented at the Digital Humanities 2014, Lausanne, http://dharchive.org/paper/DH2014/Paper-652.xml (accessed 27 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rosenthaler, L., Fornaro, P. and Clivaz, C.</hi> (2014). Long term preservation of digital information. Presented at the Digital Humanities 2014, Lausanne, http://dharchive.org/paper/DH2014/Paper-68.xml (accessed 27 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, D. and Colomb, R.</hi> (2009). A data structure for representing multi-version texts online. <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Human-Computer Studies</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">67</hi>: 497–514.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Swiss National Science Foundation.</hi> (2014), Call für Editionsprojekte mit Blick auf die Finanzierungsperiode 2017–2010, http://www.snf.ch/SiteCollectionDocuments/call_editionen_phase2_d.pdf (accessed 27 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2427","17","Digging into ECCO: Identifying Commonplaces and other Forms of Text Reuse at Scale","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Background</head>
                <p>Commonplaces are a particular instance of historical text reuse (Dacome, 2004; Allan 2010; Blair, 2011). This paper describes our efforts at identifying commonplaces in the Gale-Cengage 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Eighteenth Century Collections Online </hi>(ECCO) database. Given the size of this collection, as well as the state of the data in terms of its OCR output, identifying shared passages that exhibit the textual characteristics of commonplaces – e.g., are relatively short, repeated, and rhetorically significant – is a non-trivial computational task. In our previous work on text reuse, we came across numerous examples of textual borrowings and shared passages that we considered possible commonplaces (Allen et al., 2010; Horton et al., 2010; Roe, 2012). We expanded this work into a Digging into Data Round 3 project using similar methods to explore the more than 200,000 works contained in ECCO, a dataset that represents most of the printed literary and scientific output in Britain from 1700 to 1799
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text"">On our Digging into Data project, see 
                            <ref target=""http://diggingintodata.org/awards/2013"">http://diggingintodata.org/awards/2013</ref>, and on ECCO, see 
                            <ref target=""http://gdc.gale.com/products/eighteenth-century-collections-online/"">http://gdc.gale.com/products/eighteenth-century-collections-online/</ref>.
                        </p>
                    </note>. 
                </p>
                <p>Previously we developed a sequence alignment algorithm for the identification of large-scale text reuse
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text"">See 
                            <ref target=""https://code.google.com/p/text-pair/"">https://code.google.com/p/text-pair/</ref>.
                        </p>
                    </note>. This algorithm, called PhiloLine, generates a list of similar passages (based on a set of flexible matching parameters) shared between any two texts. This simple approach allows us to find borrowings and other instances of text reuse, from quotations to uncited passages and paraphrases, over large heterogeneous corpora (Edelstein et al., 2013). Historical text reuse detection is a burgeoning field within the digital humanities, whether focussed on literary allusion (Coffee et al., 2012; Coffee et al., 2014), paraphrase (Büchler et al., 2011), influence (Büchler et al., 2014), or networks of reprinting (Smith et al., 2015). While all these projects address text reuse in slightly different ways, the flexibility and scalability offered by PhiloLine, coupled with our familiarity with the system, offered significant advantages over other approaches. We thus aimed to use PhiloLine to compare the ECCO corpus to itself, compile a list of the most frequent shared passages, and from there evaluate these passages in order to build a database of potential commonplaces.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Eliminating duplicates</head>
                <p>The scope and scale of the ECCO dataset represented a major hurdle both in terms of computational expense and evaluation of the matching algorithm. Faced with more than 32 million pages of text, any manipulation of the data takes on significant proportions. To put this in perspective, comparing ECCO’s 200,000 documents to each other means making some 40 billion pairwise comparisons and then storing and evaluating the output. Fortunately, our focus on commonplaces requires us to dramatically reduce the number of comparisons. We needed, for instance, to eliminate duplicate or near-similar texts in order to reduce the number of documents for comparison. The most obvious method would be to compare all the words in each work, and define a similarity threshold beyond which we consider two works to be the same. But, given the unequal quality of the OCR in the ECCO dataset, the reliability of any algorithm meant to detect similarity between two texts is very low. Two identical texts, for instance, can potentially only share 20% of individual tokens due to the quality of the OCR. As a result, we decided to focus our efforts on comparing document metadata instead, as it is of excellent quality. </p>
                <p>
                    <lb/>Our methodology consisted in comparing titles in the dataset using a cosine similarity algorithm (Singhal, 2011). For our purposes, we determined a minimal similarity index to automatically determine whether two texts were the same, that is to say a re-edition of the same work. Beyond a certain threshold score, the newest document in terms of date of publication is automatically flagged as a duplicate. If it so happens that the minimal score is not reached, but still remains high, we compare authors, and if these are the same, we similarly flag the most recent document as a duplicate:
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""60/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>The document with the oldest publication date serves as the “source” text. Using this method, we were able to reduce the size of the corpus by 43%, eliminating 88,850 documents. We were thus left with 116,700 unique texts on which to run our matching algorithm. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Detecting similar passages</head>
                <p>Similar passage detection requires a one-to-one document comparison. Rather than compare all 116,700 texts to one another, we decided to leverage Gale’s thematic divisions, and limit the comparison task to individual modules
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text"">Gale’s ECCO modules: History and Geography (17,950 works, reduced to 10,528); Social Sciences and Fine Arts (48,335 works, reduced to 30,498); Medicine and Sciences (15,636 works, reduced to 9,202); Literature and Language (53,351 works, reduced to 25,655); Religion and Philosophy (51,485 works, reduced to 29,962); Law (13,595 works, reduced to 7,726); and General Reference (5,198 works, reduced to 3,129).</p>
                    </note>. While PhiloLine’s matching capacity is powerful, it is necessary to understand its underlying algorithm in order to configure the tool properly. Briefly, PhiloLine’s operational logic is to compare sequences of words, or n-grams, and determine the presence of a shared passage according to the number of common contiguous n-grams between two sequences. For example, the following text from Shakespeare’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Tempest</hi> is rendered by as a set of overlapping n-grams (where n = 3):
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""60/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>Trigram generation and stopword removal are thus the main parameters we apply to transform texts prior to the sequence alignment process. Once this is done, we proceed with the text-sequence comparisons. Below is an example of just such an alignment of sequences drawn from the Literature and Language module:</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""60/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>In this case, we note the perfect alignment, which PhiloLine detected because there are at least three contiguous trigrams in common between both passages. </p>
                <p>Using these base parameters (overlapping trigrams with stopwords removed), we compared the ECCO corpus to itself on a module-by-module basis. The output of this comparison ranged from 3.5 million common passages in the Literature and Language module, to almost 17 million possible commonplaces in Religion and Philosophy. Identifying these common passages is thus only a first step. Even after significant duplicate reduction, the sheer scale of the passages that require post-processing evaluation is daunting.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>From similar passages to commonplaces</head>
                <p>To attack this problem, we treat commonplaces generically as the repeated use of the same passage - more or less similar - in a minimum number of different authors. We began by grouping all source passages that were identical in order of frequency. Given that commonplaces are normally short expressions, at the most no longer than several sentences, we restricted our search to passages containing a minimum of five words and a maximum of 75: </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""60/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>A cursory glance at this list reveals several variants of the same passage that need to be merged in order to better represent a single commonplace. If we take the following passage from the Scottish poet James Thomson, for instance: </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Then infant reason grows apace, and calls For the kind hand of an assiduous care. Delightful talk! to rear the tender thought, To teach the young idea how to shoot, To pour the freft infiruAion o'er the mind, 1150 To breathe enlivening spirit, and to fix The generous purpose in the glowing breast</hi>. 
                </p>
                <p>We notice that the reuse of this passage in other authors can vary significantly. </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Gentleman of the Middle Temple</hi> (1775):
                </p>
                <p>How glorious would her matron employments be, to 
                    <hi rend=""underline"">hear the tender thought, to teach the young idea how to Jhoot</hi>; to be at once the precept and example to her family of every thing that was good, every thing that was virtuous. 
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Mrs Lovechild</hi> (1790):
                </p>
                <p>Happy the Mother ""Distilling knowledge through the lips of “love !”- ' 
                    <hi rend=""underline"">Delightful talk! to rear the tender thought, “To teach the young idea how to shoot”, To pour the fresh inltrution o'er the mind</hi> !'Lines which will never cease to be quoted...
                </p>
                <p>Given the variability in the reuse of any given passage, as well as the approximate quality of the OCR, we developed a new algorithm that could match similar passages in a way that was both precise, and yet more flexible than PhiloLine. The algorithm uses the same n-grams as PhiloLine, though they are constructed differently. Rather than use overlapping trigrams, as we do for sequence matching, here we use alternating bigrams for increased flexibility:</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""60/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>By skipping a word in the creation of these bigrams, we create n-grams that are both rarer than in-sequence bigrams, but also more common than in-sequence trigrams. In essence, these bigrams are flexible trigrams where the middle word is ignored. In this manner we can alleviate some of the issues that come from the dirty OCR. As there is a higher probability for a regular trigram to contain a wrongly identified letter, it has a higher chance of being unique, therefore making it less reliable for similarity matching than our flexible trigrams. </p>
                <p>Finally, we needed to take into account the different lengths of these passages, as some are much longer than others. This variability led to the introduction of a coefficient that accounts for varying lengths, and allows us to automatically determine the minimum number of matching n-grams needed to establish similarity between two passages. For instance, if two passages of 30 words must share 4 bigrams, a passage of 30 words and another of 50 should share more bigrams to retain the same level of similarity.</p>
                <p>Using the above methods, we were able to merge various uses of a single source passage and assign them a unique identifier. We can therefore now identify the highest frequency commonplaces in the Language and Literature module (see Appendix 1), as well as the most ‘highly commonplaced’ authors, i.e., those that generated the most shared passages (see Appendix 2). These preliminary results suggest that commonplacing, as an intertextual reading/writing practice, was alive and well in 18th-century England. Digging into a dataset such as ECCO can thus offer us new perspectives from which to view and understand 18th-century print culture, provided we unearth more than we cover up. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Future Work</head>
                <p>We aim to release an interactive database of possible commonplaces in early 2016. The database will allow users to navigate the ECCO dataset via the commonplaces, most commonly cited authors and works, and visualize commonplace use and practices over time. We will also introduce several curated datasets that pre-date the 18th century, and that can act as a control on sources that fall outside the date boundaries of our data. These possible datasets include the King James Bible, Classical Latin texts, and EEBO-TCP
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text"">See 
                            <ref target=""http://www.textcreationpartnership.org/tcp-eebo/"">http://www.textcreationpartnership.org/tcp-eebo/</ref>.
                        </p>
                    </note>. Further goals for this project include merging the module-specific results into one large pool of potential commonplaces that reach across disciplinary boundaries; developing a user interface that allows for commonplace curation as a form of crowdsourcing; and introducing non-English datasets for comparison in order to find instances of multi-lingual commonplace practices. 
                </p>
                <p>Appendix 1: </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""60/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>Appendix 2:</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""60/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Allan, D.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Commonplace Books and Reading in Georgian England</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Allen, T., Cooney, C., Douard, S., Horton, R., Morrissey, R., Olsen, M., Roe, G. and Voyer, R.</hi> (2010). Plundering Philosophers: Identifying Sources of the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Association for History and Computing</hi>,<hi rend=""bold"">13</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blair, A.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Too Much to Know: Managing Scholarly Information before the Modern Age</hi>. New Haven: Yale University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Büchler, M., Crane, G., Mueller, M., Burns, P. and Heyer, G.</hi> (2011). One Step Closer To Paraphrase Detection On Historical Texts: About The Quality of Text Re-use Techniques and the Ability to Learn Paradigmatic Relations. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Büchler, M., Geßner, A., Berti, M. and Eckart, T.</hi> (2013). Measuring the Influence of a Work by Text Re-Use. In Dunn, S. and Mahony, S. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Digital Classicist 2013</hi>. London: University of London Institute of Advanced Studies, pp. 63-80. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coffee, N., Koenig, J.-P., Poornima, S., Forstall, C., Ossewaarde, R. and Jacobson, S. </hi>(2012). The Tesserae Project: Intertextual Analysis of Latin Poetry. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coffee, N., Gawley, J., Forstall, C., Scheirer, W., Corso, J., Johnson, D. and Parks, B. </hi>(2014). Modeling the Interpretation of Literary Allusion with Machine Learning Techniques. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dacome, L.</hi> (2004). Noting the Mind: Commonplace Books and the Pursuit of the Self in Eighteenth-Century Britain. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the History of Ideas</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">65</hi>4: 603-25. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Edelstein, D., Morrissey, R., and Roe, G.</hi> (2013). To Quote or not to Quote: Citation Strategies in the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopédie</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the History of Ideas</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">74</hi>(2): 213-36.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Horton, R., Olsen, M. and Roe, G.</hi> (2010). Something Borrowed: Sequence Alignment and the Identification of Similar  Passages in Large Text Collections. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Studies / Le Champ numérique</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Roe, G.</hi> (2012). Intertextuality and Influence in the Age of Enlightenment: Sequence Alignment Applications for Humanities Research. In Meister, J.C., (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2012</hi>. Hamburg: University of Hamburg Press, pp. 345-47. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Singhal, A.</hi> (2001). Modern Information Retrieval: A Brief Overview. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bulletin of the IEEE Computer Society Technical Committee on Data Engineering</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>(4): 35-43.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2428","17","Digital Resources and Research Data in the Digital Humanities: The Digital Knowledge Store at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The Digital Knowledge Store was developed from March 2012 to April 2015 at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities (BBAW) and funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). In this first project phase a search infrastructure enables centralised access to all digital resources of the BBAW was created. The DFG granted funds for a second period in which the Digital Knowledge Store will be expanded with a focus on deployment options and integration for partner research institutions.</p>
            <p>The BBAW hosts over 170 research projects with over 1.2 million digital resources. For the first time these resources and their metadata were completely integrated into a central full text index and made accessible through an innovative user interface. The resources hosted at the BBAW vary widely in terms of content, formats and languages. The main part of the resources are provided as digital editions and translations in formats like XML, HTML and PDF but also as electronic catalogues, documentations, databases, digital full text collections and dictionaries. The Digital Knowledge Store can be queried in different languages via the morphologically analyzed index. We utilize a number of language technologies (Bing, DONATUS) to enable this multilingual search. The search also covers automatically and manually created metadata which enhance the resources, connect them semantically and provide additional information to the user. The metadata of all resources are provided as well via a machine readable web service (OAI-PMH) and in that way become part of the Linked Open Data Cloud. </p>
            <p>The biggest challenge in building an interdisciplinary research data infrastructure like the Digital Knowledge Store was the heterogeneity of the digital resources created at the BBAW in the last 20 years. Hosted on different servers in different databases they vary widely in regard to content and access possibilities. It was the main task to access these data generically and bundle them in the central Apache Lucene index and in a metadata scheme adapted to the needs of the academy (based on OAI-ORE). Specific import modules were implemented for the various projects and resource collections which integrate the varying data structures of the research projects. Semantically connected suggestions are provided by integrating Semantic Web Technologies (e.g. DBpedia) and Text Mining components which extend the query term and invite the user to discover and explore the academy's projects.</p>
            <p>The second project phase of the Digital Knowledge Store running until 2017 will expand its possibilities especially in terms of sustainability and availability. There is a heavy demand by academic institutions for sustainable longterm research infrastructures which can meet the specific requirements of research data in the humanities, e.g. the integration of heterogeneous resources and content handling. One important goal in the next stage is to broaden the target user group. The software components of the Digital Knowledge Store will be provided as an installation package. This will enable Partner institutions to run their own Knowledge Store adapted to their own digital resources. In order to coordinate further development and collaboration with future users an open workshop will be held in April 2016 in Berlin.</p>
            <p>Another topic in the next project period will be the development of guidelines for the minimum structural and technical requirements that resources and metadata have to meet to be integrated easily into the index. The guidelines will include objectives for the (technical) quality of the resources and their metadata. These best-practice-recommendations can become a general recommendation in the digital humanities for building and maintaining resource collections and a reference on how to deal with the quality of resources and metadata beyond their specific use case. Our partner institutions will successively optimize and adjust them to their specific needs. Additionally workflows for the manual and automatic supply of metadata will be created and specified. Further development goals are the automatic evaluation and integration of user feedback into the query process as well as visualization components.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ballsun-Stanton, B.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Asking About Data - Exploring Different Realities of Data via the Social Data Flow Network Methodology. </hi>The University of New South Wales. http://www.mendeley.com/download/public/2110651/4867189482/58d704a31071163071cb0a391f17ad202fe958ff/dl.pdf (accessed 17 October 2015).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ballsun-Stanton, B.</hi> (2009). Philosophy of Data (PoD) and Its Importance to the Discipline of Information Systems,
                        <hi rend=""italic"">AMCIS 2009 Proceedings.</hi> Paper 435. http://aisel.aisnet.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1443&context=amcis2009 (accessed 17 October 2015).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burdick, A.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Roure, D.</hi> (2011). Machines, Methods and Music: On the Evolution of e-Research. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">High Performance Computing & Simulation, </hi> Oxford. http://users.ox.ac.uk/ oerc0033/preprints/hpcs11.pdf (accessed 17 October 2015), pp. 8–13.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dörk, M. et al.</hi> (2011). The information flaneur: a fresh look at information seeking. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CHI 2011. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems,</hi> pp. 1215-24.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fensel, D.</hi> (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ontologies. A Silver Bullett for Knowledge Management and Electronic Commerce</hi>. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Franklin, M., Halevy, A. and Maier, D.</hi> (2005). From databases to dataspaces: a new abstraction for information management. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ACM Sigmod</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">34</hi>(4): 27–33.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Haffner, A.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Internationalisierung der GND durch das Semantic Web</hi>. http://www.kim-forum.org/Subsites/kim/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/
                        <lb/>Berichte/internationalisierungDerGndDurchDasSemanticWeb.pdf?__blob=publicationFile (accessed 17 October 2015).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jannidis, F.</hi> (2010). Methoden der computergestützten Textanalyse. In Nünning, V. and Nünning A. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Methoden der literatur- und kulturwissenschaftlichen Textanalyse. Ansätze - Grundlagen – Modellanalysen. </hi>Stuttgart, pp. 109–32.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Unsworth, J.</hi> (2011). Computational Work with Very Large Text Collections. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>: 1-9.
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Describing Data Patterns - A general deconstruction of metadata standards. </hi>Pd.D thesis, Humboldt-University Berlin, http://edoc.hu-berlin.de/dissertationen/voss-jakob-2013-05-31/PDF/voss.pdf (accessed 4 March 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Voß, J.</hi> (2013). Was sind eigentlich Daten? In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">LIBREAS. Library Ideas No 23.</hi> http://libreas.eu/ausgabe23/02voss/ (accessed 17 October 2014).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">W3C Working Group</hi> (2014). RDF 1.1 Primer. http://www.w3.org/TR/2014/NOTE-rdf11-primer-20140225/ (accessed 17 October 2015).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>: 890-99.
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        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2429","17","Diplomatic History by Data: Understanding Cold War Foreign Policy Ideology using Networks and NLP","9","<text>
        <body>
            <p>What is diplomatic culture or “rhetoric” and can we measure it?</p>
            <p>This project is an attempt to understand quantitatively the language and structure of U.S. diplomacy as a bureaucratic institution through analysis of a large corpus of diplomatic papers. Since the “cultural turn” of History in the late twentieth century historians have produced cultural interpretations of American diplomacy that highlight gender and racial influences and justifications in diplomatic decision making but there have not been attempts to measure longue duree changes or to quantify them by a standardized measure. 1 This work hopes to fill this gap by introducing a new method of analyzing time-dependent bodies of text. I then apply these methods to a corpus of diplomatic papers to systematically chart changes in concepts and ideology detectable in diplomatic language.</p>
            <p>The project has two aims. First, I am designing a method of measuring how a concept, as a fixed variable, evolves through a temporal corpus. Tools such as GloVe and Dynamic Topic Modeling are two existing approaches that can be used to understanding the linguistic shift and topic distributions over time. 2 I argue, however, that these tools are not adequate yet for time-sensitive tasks such as tracing concepts over time and attempt to design a new method optimized for this task. Second, mindful of the particular characteristics of this corpus as a set of diplomatic papers I want to apply the most appropriate methods of analysis and engage with the existing historiography on the Cold War to engage with claims historians have made about Cold War ideology. I am trying to answer: what is ""Cold War rhetoric"" in high level diplomacy? how did it evolve over the decades? and how did it become propagated within the diplomatic institution? I approach these questions from two methodological angles - networks and NLP. </p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Dataset</head>
                <p>The dataset for this analysis is the entire text corpus of the Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS, 1861-1980), a collection of published declassified diplomatic papers. The FRUS collection is hand-curated by librarians at the Office of the Historian to be a representative and comprehensive sample of American diplomatic history and has been a dependable primary source base for historians and social scientists for decades. The document types include telegrams, airgrams, notes, and memoranda among others. Most documents have accompanying meta-data such as the name of the sender, name of the recipient, location of the sender, and date when applicable. So far, I have focused on a subset of this corpus, consisting of all papers from 1948 to 1980, to analyze the high Cold War era. This subset is also what is available in xml format online with hand-tagged meta-data and reliably edited text. About 92,000 documents were available for analysis. 3 A notable caveat of this work is that the corpus, while presumably a representative sample, is still a sample of non-random selection and could carry both deliberate and unintended biases of the librarians. The FRUS is a corpus that becomes publically accessible upon publication and has a fixed audience of social scholars. There is an inevitable feedback loop where the curators respond to the requests of the prime users of the collection such as adjusting the proportion of the most „useful“ types of documents. For instance, as the Vietnam War is a highly contested field of scholarship curators may include a higher ratio of papers surrounding the Vietnam War thus distorting the overall representation of topics by exaggerating the war’s significance. This possible limitation is something to keep in mind throughout the analysis of this corpus.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""374/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Image A: Example of FRUS document; Stuart as the Ambassador in China to the Secretary of State sent from Nanking on April 25, 1949</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Analysis </head>
                <p>Descriptive summaries of the meta-data from the corpus shows several clear distributive patterns. From the total set of all documents 42,000 were correspondences (have to and from agents) from which I parsed all available meta-data (name of sender, name of recipient, location of sender, date) and made inferences on missing data based on historical knowledge. The results show that the Department of State (DOS) as a bureaucratic institution is highly centralized around key actors. Not surprisingly, the prime location of correspondence origin is Washington and its overwhelming predominance indicates that the DOS correspondence system was used for sharing information from the center to the peripheries. Similarly, the top senders of the correspondents were concentrated in high administrative positions – the Secretary of the State (SS), Department of State (DOS) administrative center, and the National Security Advisor (NSA). The individuals that have the highest correspondence authorship are therefore those who have held SS or NSA positions such as Dean Acheson (SS), John Foster Dulles (SS), Henry Kissinger (SS, NSA), and Walt Rostow (NSA). The top recipients of correspondences are also SS and DOS confirming a much bilateral relation between central and peripheral offices. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""374/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Graph 1A: Location of Correspondence Origin</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""374/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Graph 1B: Top Correspondences sent from</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""374/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Graph 1C: Persons that sent the most correspondences</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""374/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Graph 1D: Top recipients of correspondences</head>
                </figure>
                <p>I then mapped the network structure of correspondences to make the problem of bureacratic “culture” more concrete and visual. In this abstract, I have included images of correspondence networks from two discrete periods – when Kissinger served as Secretary of State from 1973-1977 and when Rostow served as National Security Adviser from 1966-1969. From the maps we can see the overall design of flow of information and transfer of knowledge based on the counts of correspondences and their directions. The maps confirm that indeed the bulk of the correspondence happens bilaterally between top administrative posts and peripheral agents. For instance, the DOS acts as the center point of correspondence for all embassies placed abroad and NSA as that for Washington based lower ranking administrative posts, such as the Under Secretaries of State. Further, two distinct communities emerge within the U.S. diplomatic institution. In both images, one can discern that the DOS and NSA act as distinct and separate focal points while the SS connects the two camps of correspondence and acts as a bridging agent of the two communities. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""374/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Graph 2A: Map of correspondence networks during the years Kissinger served as Secretary of State (1973-1977)</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""374/image7.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Graph 2B: Map of correspondence networks during the years Rostow served as National Security Advisor (1966-1969)</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""374/image8.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Chart A: Sample of select words’ change of top 10 GloVe neighbors from 1860s and 1950s (‘economy’, ‘empire’, ‘freedom’, ‘european’)</head>
                </figure>
                <p>With this structural framework, I am using a combination of NLP methods to trace given “concepts” to see how they have changed in meaning over time. I identify concepts as individual terms, such as „liberty,“ or as a collection of related terms (topics). Word vectors are the most intuitive method of tracing changes in word meanings. Global vectors (GloVe) and other word vector models suppose a time stagnant corpus so I divided my corpus into decade-long chunks and worked with the assumption that language would not change in usage and meaning significantly enough to matter within ten-year time spans. My results comparing the nearing neighbors by Euclidean Distance of GloVe outputs of select concepts show there is a qualitative difference in conceptual meaning in the 1860s and 1950s. For instance, the concept „freedom“ in the nineteenth century was associated with more poetic and romanticized terms such as „triumph“ and „humanity“ whereas a century later it came to be linked with legal and defensive terms such as „right“ and „safeguard.“ Historians would contextualize this phenomenon in the American Civil War and the Civil Rights respectively. Then a question arises: Were diplomatic agents using terms that reflect the popularized lingo of their time or were their propagating it themselves? Who, in the DOS, initiated the usage of these concepts in such ways? Can we use the networks mapped above for to interpret this? </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Discussion</head>
                <p>This is a work in progress and there is still much work to be done in finding and developing new tools appropriate for time sensitive text data. Given history is a study of change and its significance, it is imperative that we do not assume a static distribution of words across time, eliminating many otherwise useful NLP tools. While Dynamic Topic Modeling considers time as a variable, it constructs a fixed number of topics based on a collection of words making it less favorable for corpora with minimal predictability and pattern as diplomatic papers. Unlike academic journals such as 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Science</hi> as Blei and Lafferty have applied their modelling on, diplomatic papers are much less consistent in topics. I have also discovered based on my experience of implementing these tools on the FRUS corpus that because in diplomatic papers certain topics predominate discussions at certain dates, I need to be aware of isolating these topics from purely semantic changes. For instance, in the 1940s, “communism” is closest neighbor based on GloVe results to “chinese” or “ccp” because of the Chinese Communist Revolution of 1949, which does not yield any surprising result about the meaning of “communism” in diplomacy. 
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>[1] See how Hoganson introduces a gendered interpretation of U.S. involvement in the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars. Hoganson, Kristin L. (2000). Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (Yale Historical Publications Series). </bibl>
                    <bibl>[2] <hi rend=""bold"">Pennington, J., Socher, R. and Manning, Ch. D.</hi> (2014). GloVe: <hi rend=""italic"">Global Vectors for Word Representation</hi>; David M. Blei and John D. Lafferty (2006) Dynamic Topic Models. </bibl>
                    <bibl>[3] This dataset is available as manually labeled xml formatted files on GitHub 
                        <ref target=""https://github.com/HistoryAtState/frus"">(https://github.com/HistoryAtState/frus</ref>), which makes the corpus more reliable and meta-data accessible than the OCR scanned files of documents from 1861-1947.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2430","17","eComparatio - Editionsvergleich","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Das von der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) geförderte Projekt eComparatio wird seit 2014 als Kooperationsprojekt des Lehrstuhls für Alte Geschichte der Universität Leipzig und des ICE (Interdisciplinary Center of E-Humanities in History and Social Sciences/ Forschungsstelle am Max-Weber-Kolleg für kultur- und sozialwissenschaftliche Studien an der Universität Erfurt) entwickelt. Das Kernstück der Anwendung ist ein Modul zum Vergleich von Textausgaben, das auch die Erstellung eines Variantenapparates für digitale Editionen antiker Autoren ermöglicht. Die Zahl der Vergleichstexte ist beliebig, ebenso das Eingabeformat (TXT, HTML, XML, JSON, PDF). Die Anwendung wird frei skalierbar sein, so dass der Umfang der zu vergleichenden Texte nicht beschränkt ist. Das Ergebnis (Kollationierung) soll in Form von Listen als Apparat (positiver oder negativer Apparat) oder auch in beliebiger anderer Form ausgegeben werden können. In einem weiteren Modul ist für Autorenreferenzen bei der Abfrage von online-Datenbanken die Anbindung an das Referenzsystem CTS (Canonical Text Services) ermöglicht worden. Im bisherigen Verlauf des Projektes ist es gelungen, die Grundfunktionen des Tools zu implementieren und es in die Lage zu versetzen eine beliebig große Anzahl an Texten miteinander zu vergleichen. Dabei sind drei unterschiedliche Ansichten entstanden, die es dem Benutzer ermöglichen, das Ergebnis aus verschiedenen Perspektiven zu betrachten. Die Detailansicht zeigt einen Text und markiert entsprechende Unterschiede zu anderen Texten. Die Parallelansicht (siehe auch Abbildung) zeigt alle Texte nebeneinander und markiert die Unterschiede farbig. Die Buchansicht schließlich zeigt wieder nur einen Text an und visualisiert die Varianten im Stile traditioneller Printeditionen unter dem betreffenden Abschnitt. Zu betonen ist dabei, dass der Ausgangstext für den Vergleich bei jeder Ansicht frei wählbar ist und sich somit nicht auf einen zu bevorzugenden Haupttext festgelegt bzw. eine Gewichtung der Textzeugen vorgenommen wird. </p>
            <p>Die Visualisierung und Ergebnissicherung ermöglicht zum einen, einen schnellen Überblick über die Text- und Editionsgeschichte verschiedener in digitalisierter Form vorliegender Werke zu erlangen. Darüber hinaus eignet sich das Tool als Hilfsmittel zum Kollationieren bei der Erstellung beliebiger kritischer, historischer bzw. genetischer Editionen. </p>
            <p>Im Rahmen zweier Folgeprojekte in Kooperation mit Prof. Christopher Blackwell von der Furman University in Greenville, SC, von denen eines sich derzeit (Stand: Oktober 2015) in der Antragsphase (DFG) befindet und das andere bereits bewilligt worden ist (Andrew W. Mellon-Foundation), wird zunächst auf Basis einer Kooperation mit dem De Gruyter-Verlag und der durch ihn bereitgestellten digitalen Ausgabe der Bibliotheca Teubneriana Latina Online die Basis für eine kanonische CTS-Referenzierung geschaffen. Auf dieser Grundlage wird das eComparatio-Vergleichstool dazu dienen, sämtliche digital zur Verfügung stehenden Exemplare eines Textes durch eine CTS-Anfrage zu vergleichen, zu visualisieren und für die Ergebnisse die jeweiligen Textpassagen auch mit einer maschinenlesbaren Referenzierung zu versehen. Ein solches Verfahren kann dabei als wesentlicher Schritt der Qualitätssicherung der digitalen Datengrundlage an sich angesehen werden. Gerade im Falle der Altertumswissenschaften, in denen bereits früh umfangreiche, abgeschlossene Korpora (TLG, BTL u.a.) vorlagen, ist ein nächster Schritt ein Ausbau dieser Datengrundlagen in die Tiefe, d.h. hinsichtlich der zahlreichen verschiedenen Editionen und Textausgaben. </p>
            <p>Darüber hinaus wird in einem USE-Case am Beispiel der Periklesvita des Plutarch in Verbindung mit der Zitationsanalyse aus dem von 2008-2013 durch das BMBF geförderten Projekts eAQUA des Lehrstuhls für Alte Geschichte der Universität Leipzig ein praktisches Beispiel gegeben, inwiefern CITE/CTS als Grundlage einer neuen Form des Annotierens und Kommentierens dienen kann: Der Zitatonsgraph dient zur automatischen Erstellung eines Testimonien-, eComparatio zur Erstellung eines Variantenapparates. Das Verhältnis der verschiedenen Texte zueinander (Varianten des Haupttextes und der enthaltenen Fragmente/Zitate/Parallelstellen) soll darüber hinaus durch die im Rahmen des Projektes von den amerikanischen Projektpartnern entwickelten Erweiterung Canonical Graph Services (CGS) visualisiert werden.</p>
            <p>Nach seiner Fertigstellung wird das Tool als freier Webservice für Forschung und Lehre zur Verfügung gestellt. Davon können Handschriften-Digitalisierungsprojekte, Editionsprojekte sowie Projekte profitieren, die sich Spezialfragen einzelner Textpassagen widmen; es ist auch für Seminararbeiten, d.h. den Einsatz in der Lehre geeignet, da es sowohl von Nicht-Editionsphilologen als auch von Editionsphilologen eingesetzt werden kann. </p>
            <p>Da es sich bei dem Tool in erster Linie um ein Mittel zur Visualisierung handelt, ist es in hohem Maße für die Präsentation in Form eines Posters geeignet. Geplant ist die Darstellung des gesamten Workflows anhand eines Beispiels, von der Eingabe unstrukturierter Textdokumente bis hin zu den drei oben genannten Visualisierungsformen sowie erster Ergebnisse der begonnenen Folgeprojekte.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""178/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Abb. der Parallelansicht von eComparatio am Beispiel des Fragments B1 des Anaximander.</head>
            </figure>
        </body>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2431","17","Exploring and Discovering Archive-It Collections with Warcbase","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div xml:id=""introduction"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Big Data is reshaping the historical profession in ways we are only now beginning to grasp. The growth of digital sources since the advent of the World Wide Web in 1990-91 presents new opportunities for social and cultural historians. Large web archives contain billions of webpages, from personal homepages to professional or academic websites, and now make it possible for us to develop large-scale reconstructions of the recent web. Yet the sheer number of these sources presents significant challenges: if the norm until the digital era was to have human information vanish, “now expectations have inverted. Everything may be recorded and preserved, at least potentially” (Gleick, 2012).</p>
                <p>While the Internet Archive makes archived web content available to the general public and mainstream scholarly community through its “Wayback Machine,” (at <ref target=""http://archive.org/web"">http://archive.org/web</ref>) which allows visitors to enter a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) to visit archived web versions of a particular page, this system is limited: not only do visitors need to know the URL in the first place, but they are limited to individual readings of single webpages.</p>
                <p>By unlocking the Wayback Machine’s underlying system of specialized files, primarily ISO-standardized WebARChive (WARC) files, we can develop new ways to systematically track, visualize, and analyze change occurring over time within web archives. Warcbase, an open-source platform for managing web archives built on Hadoop and HBase, provides a flexible data model for storing and managing raw content as well as metadata and extracted knowledge. Tight integration with Hadoop provides powerful tools for analytics and data processing. Using a case study of one collection, this paper introduces the work that we have been doing to facilitate web archive access with warcbase. We have growing documentation at <ref target=""http://docs.warcbase.org"">http://docs.warcbase.org</ref>.</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""web-archives-from-data-to-access"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Project Rationale and Case Study</head>
                <p>In 1996, the Internet Archive launched a complementary research services company, Archive-It, which offers subscription-based web archiving to collecting institutions. </p>
                <p>The University of Toronto Library (UTL) began collecting a quarterly crawl in 2005 of Canadian political parties and political interest groups (the collections were separate in 2005, merging in 2006) (University of Toronto, 2015). The collection itself has a murky history: UTL had been part of a broader project that would have collected political websites. It fell through, but UTL opted to carry out their crawl on their own and the librarian was responsible for selecting the seed list herself (faculty and other librarians did not respond for calls for engagement). While formal political parties are robustly covered, the “political interest groups” collection was a bit more nebulous: sites were discovered through keyword searches, and some were excluded due to robots.txt exclusion requests. Beyond this brief sketch, we have little information about the decisions made in 2005 to create this collection. This lack of documentation is a shortcoming of this collection model, as if a historian was to use this material in a peer-reviewed paper, questions would be raised about its representativeness.</p>
                <p>If a user wants to use the Canadian Political Parties and Interest Groups Collection (CPP) through Archive-It today, they visit the collection page at https://archive-it.org/collections/227 and enter full-text search queries. In August 2015, our group also launched <ref target=""http://webarchives.ca"">http://webarchives.ca</ref>, based on the British Library’s SHINE front end for web archives; this was a way to facilitate a different form of more casual user access, aimed at the general public (we discuss this in a separate paper).</p>
                <p>The Archive-It portal is limited. There are no readily-available metrics of how many pages have been collected, how they break down by domain and date, and the portal undoubtedly provides skewed results unless the search phrase is dramatically narrowed down.</p>
                <p>Consider the search for “Stephen Harper,” Canada’s Prime Minister between 2006 and 2015 in Figure 1.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""99/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: Archive-It Search Portal</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The results are decent: Harper’s Facebook page from 2009, a Twitter snapshot from 2010, and some long-form journalism articles and opposition press releases. But amidst the 1,178,351 results, there is no indication as to how the ranking took place, what facets are available, and how things may have changed over the last ten years of the crawl.</p>
                <p>The data is there, but the problem is access.</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""warcbase-a-platform-for-web-archive-anal"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Warcbase: A Platform for Web Archive Analysis</head>
                <p>Warcbase is a web archive platform, not a single program. Its capabilities comprise two main categories:</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Analysis of web archives using the Pig or Spark programming languages, and assorted helper scripts and utilities</item>
                    <item>Web archive database management, with support for the HBase distributed data store, and OpenWayback integration providing a friendly web interface to view stored websites</item>
                </list>
                <p>One can take advantage of the analysis tools (1) without bothering with the database management aspect of Warcbase – in fact, most digital humanities researchers will probably find the former more useful. This paper focuses on the former capabilities, showing how we can use the warcbase platform to carry out text and network analyses.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Using Warcbase on Web Archival Collections: Text Analysis</head>
                <p>We have begun to document all warcbase commands on a GitHub wiki, found at 
                    <ref target=""https://github.com/lintool/warcbase/wiki"">https://github.com/lintool/warcbase/wiki</ref>. We begin with installation instructions, and then provide simple scripts written in Apache Spark to run the commands.</p>
                <p>While possible to generate a plain text version of the entire collection, a more fruitful approach has been to generate date-ordered text for particular domains. If a researcher is interested in say, the Green Party of Canada’s evolution between 2005 and 2015, they can extract the plain text for greenparty.ca by running the following script:</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""99/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>All they would need to change would be the path/to/input to the directory with their web archive files, the path/to/output for where they want to save the resulting plain-text files, and the greenparty.ca value to whatever domain they might be interested in researching.</p>
                <p>They then receive a date-ordered output of all plain text for that domain (as per the extractCrawldateDomainUrlBody command). It can then be sorted and used in other research avenues. For example, this plain text could be loaded into a text analysis suite such as <ref target=""http://voyant-tools.org/"">http://voyant-tools.org/</ref> or other digital humanities environments.</p>
                <p>We have also been experimenting with other visualizations based on the extracted plain text. Computationally intensive textual analysis can be carried out using warcbase itself. Using the Stanford NER package in parallel, we have a script that extracts entities, counts them, and then visualizes them using D3.js to help see overall changes in a web archival collection. Figure 2 below shows the output of the NER visualizer.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""99/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: Named Entity Visualization within Warcbase</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Finally, another text approach is topic modelling (Blei et al., 2003). LDA works by finding topics in unstructured text. To visualize topic models, we elected to use the Termite Data Server, which is a visual analysis tool for exploring the output of statistical topic models (“uwdata/termite-data-server,” n.d.). As Figure 3 demonstrates, the visualization allows you to get a top-down view at the topics found in a web archive.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""99/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3: Termite Topic Model</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Warcbase presents versatile opportunities to extract plain text and move it into other environments for analysis. Unlike the keyword-based Archive-It portal, we now have data that can be inquired in many fruitful ways.</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""using-warcbase-on-web-archival-collectio"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Using Warcbase on Web Archival Collections: Hyperlink Analysis</head>
                <p>Warcbase can also extract hyperlinks. While text can be very important, these sorts of metadata can often be more important: allowing us to see changes in how groups link to each other, what articles and issues were important, and how relationships changed over time.</p>
                <p>Consider Figure 4, which visualizes the links stemming from and between the websites of Canada’s three main political parties.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""99/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 4: Three major political parties in Canada</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Above, we can see which pages only link to the left-leaning New Democratic Party (ndp.ca), those that link only to the centrist Liberals (liberal.ca) in the top, and those that only connect to and from the right-wing Conservative Party at right. We can use it to find further information, such as in Figure 5.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""99/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 5: NDP attack</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The above links are from the 2006 Canadian federal election. The Liberal Party was then in power and was under attack by both the opposition parties. In particular, the left-leaning NDP linked hundreds of times to their ideologically close cousins, the centrist Liberals, as part of their electoral attacks, ignoring the right-leaning Conservative Party in the process. Link metadata illuminates more than a close reading of an individual website would. It contextualizes and tells stories itself.</p>
                <p>While we have traditionally used Gephi to do analysis, importing material into Gephi from warcbase required many manual steps as documented at <ref target=""https://github.com/lintool/warcbase/wiki/Gephi:-Converting-Site-Link-Structure-into-Dynamic-Visualization"">https://github.com/lintool/warcbase/wiki/Gephi:-Converting-Site-Link-Structure-into-Dynamic-Visualization</ref>. We have been prototyping a link analysis visualization in D3.js, which can run in browser (Figure 6).</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""99/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 6: Link Visualization</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""conclusions"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusions</head>
                <p>With the increasingly widespread availability of large web archives, historians and Internet scholars are now in a position to find new ways to track, explore, and visualize changes that have taken place within the first two decades of the Web. Warcbase will allow them to do so. This project is among the first attempts to harness data in ways that will enable present and future historians to usefully access, interpret, and curate the masses of born-digital primary sources that document our recent past.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brügger, N.</hi> (2008). The Archived Website and Website Philology: A New Type of Historical Document, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Nordicom Review</hi>, <hi rend=""bold""> 29</hi>(2): 155–75.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gleick, J.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood</hi>. London: Vintage.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">University of Toronto</hi>. (2015). Archive-It - Canadian Political Parties and Political Interest Groups [WWW Document]. 
                        <ref target=""https://archive-it.org/collections/227"">
                            <hi rend=""Link"">https://archive-it.org/collections/227</hi>
                        </ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">uwdata/termite-data-server</hi>. GitHub. 
                        <ref target=""https://github.com/uwdata/termite-data-server"">https://github.com/uwdata/termite-data-server</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. M., Ng, A. Y., Jordan, Michael I.</hi> (2003). Latent Dirichlet Allocation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">J. Mach. Learn. Res</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>: 993–1022.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brügger, N. and Finnemann, N. O.</hi> (2013). The Web and Digital Humanities: Theoretical and Methodological Concerns. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 57</hi>(1): 66–80.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lin, J., Gholami, M. and Rao, J.</hi> (2014). Infrastructure for Supporting Exploration and Discovery in Web Archives. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on World Wide Web</hi>. doi:10.1145/2567948.2579045.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2432","17","Faraway, So Close!: Reading Adeline Mowbray Closely Using Topic Modelling","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head> 1. Introduction: The “reading” debate</head>
            <p>Digital humanists disagree fervently about the nature of reading, and how computers can change the way we do it. Some advocate “distant reading” as a radically new form of inquiry (Burdick et al., 2012, Jockers, 2013, Moretti, 2013). Others argue that computers can improve and enrich traditional modes of reading (Burrows, 1987, McGann, 2001, Ramsay, 2005, Ramsay, 2011). McCarty subsumes this debate in his third way of “interactive modelling” (2005). Pasanek, meanwhile, offers a whimsical alternative with his “desultory reading” (2015).</p>
            <p>The hot polemic of this debate obscures a fundamental point: all these kinds of reading are deeply intertwined, and none should be treated as an exclusive option.</p>
            <p>To demonstrate this, I apply a classic 
                <hi rend=""italic"">distant</hi> reading technique, topic modelling, to a corpus of texts, in order to assist in my 
                <hi rend=""italic"">close</hi> reading of a single novel, Amelia Opie’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Adeline Mowbray </hi>(1804). This is a good novel to test new methods on, because it poses stark interpretive problems. Its heroine is a radical who dies repenting her earlier beliefs: are we supposed to admire or condemn her? For two centuries, readers have disagreed, some finding the novel conservative (Tomalin, 1974; Butler, 1987), others radical (Kelly, 1981; King, 2009)—its original readers were mostly just confused (Cooper, 2001). If digital reading can help us answer this question, then we will learn more about the nature and use of digital reading itself.
            </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>2. Methods</head>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">2.1. Software. </hi>I used the popular 
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">mallet</hi> package to perform Latent Dirichlet Allocation on 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Adeline Mowbray</hi> and 55 other realist novels from the period 1776-1822 (Mccallum, 2002). Blei and Jockers describe the method comprehensively (Blei, 2012, Jockers, 2014).
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">2.2. Corpus construction</hi>. A comprehensive selection of similar contemporary novels was taken from high-quality online archives.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">2.3. Data preparation. </hi>Scholars disagree about how texts should be prepared for modelling: should they be chunked by paragraph (Algee-Hewitt et al., 2015), or by 
                <hi rend=""italic"">x</hi>-length chunk (Jockers, 2013, Jockers and Mimno, 2013, Jockers, 2014)? 
                <hi rend=""italic"">X-</hi>length chunks make it easier to include dialogue in the analysis, so these were preferred. The length was set at 125 words, any longer made close reading of the chunks harder; any shorter made the “topics” incoherent.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">2.4. Parameters.</hi> I used hyperparameter optimization and Jockers’ stopword list; excluded characters’ names from the analysis; and set the number of topics at 150, avoiding the problems of incoherent and “chimera” topics identified by Schmidt (2012).
            </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>3. Discussion and Results</head>
            <p>Applying this technique to the novels in my corpus produced two main kinds of results. First, the model identifies key “topics” in the corpus:</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""62/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <graphic url=""62/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1. Topics 120 and 24</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Such topics uncover hidden patterns between words in the corpus: for instance, the prominence of the words “year” and “years” in the discussion of a family’s marital history in novels of this period. </p>
            <p>Secondly, as Rhody (2012) has shown, topic modelling enables us to visualise the linguistic composition of a passage:
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""62/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <graphic url=""62/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2. The topic composition of a single fragment</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Such visualisation is an invaluable tool of discovery, directing the scholar’s eye to significant patterns in a text’s language. In this case, the prominence of topics 120 and 24 in the passage turned out to be crucial.</p>
            <p>In this passage, Glenmurray uses these topics to persuade Adeline’s mother that he is a good suitor. He is a radical who has published philosophical tracts against marriage. If the novel presents him as the ideal suitor for Adeline’s hand, we may assume that the novel itself has radical sympathies. As close reading reveals, topics 120 and 24 are often used to describe past or potential suitors, in both this and other novels from the corpus. In 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Adeline Mowbray</hi>, the language of these topics is used to describe many characters negatively, and only one positively—Glenmurray. This is compelling new evidence that he is the ideal suitor, and that the novel therefore portrays him and his radicalism sympathetically.
            </p>
            <p>This reading was both “close” and “distant.” The reading was “distant” because it involved statistical analysis of 65,000 125-word chunks. But these patterns observed from a distance were used to unravel the complexities of a closely-read text. Close reading reveals strengths and flaws of the distant reading tool: it turns out that LDA assigns words to topics differently each time it is run, and is scuppered by novelists who write idiomatically. Close and distant reading, it seems, are so closely bound together that they are part of a single process. Their messy, unpredictable connections suggest a new kind of readerly ideal for the Digital Humanities: anarchic reading.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Algee-Hewitt, M., Heuser, R. and Moretti, F.</hi> (2015). Paragraphs: The Forgotten Middle. <hi rend=""italic"">Micromégas: The Very Small, the Very Large, and The Object of Digital Humanities</hi>. Stanford, CA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. M.</hi> (2012). Probabilistic topic models. <hi rend=""italic"">Commun. ACM</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">55</hi>: 77-84.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burdick, A., Drucker, J., Lunenfeld, P., Presner, T. S. and Schnapp, J.</hi> (2012). <hi rend=""italic"">Digital_Humanities</hi>. Cambridge, MA and London, MIT Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J. F.</hi> (1987). <hi rend=""italic"">Computation into Criticism: A Study of Jane Austen's Novels and an Experiment in Criticism</hi>. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Butler, M.</hi> (1987). <hi rend=""italic"">Jane Austen and the War of Ideas</hi>. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cooper, C. M.</hi> (2001). Reading otherwise: The abortive politics of Adeline Mowbray, or the mother and daughter. <hi rend=""italic"">European Romantic Review</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">12</hi>: 1-42.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M.</hi> (2013). <hi rend=""italic"">Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History</hi>. Urbana, Chicago and Springfield, University of Illinois Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M.</hi> (2014). <hi rend=""italic"">Text Analysis with R for Students of Literature</hi>. Cham, Springer.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M. L. and Mimno, D.</hi> (2013). Significant themes in 19th-century literature. <hi rend=""italic"">Poetics</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">41</hi>: 750-769.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kelly, G.</hi> (1981). Amelia Opie, Lady Caroline Lamb, and Maria Edgeworth: Official and Unofficial Ideology. <hi rend=""italic"">Ariel. A Review of International English Literature Calgary</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">12</hi>: 3-24.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">King, S.</hi> (2009). The 'Double Sense' of Honor: Revising Gendered Social Codes in Amelia Opie's Adeline Mowbray. In: Wallace, M. L. (ed.), <hi rend=""italic"">Enlightening Romanticism, Romancing the Enlightenment: British Novels from 1750 to 1832</hi>. Surrey, England: Ashgate.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCallum, A.</hi> (2002). <hi rend=""italic"">MALLET: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCarty, W.</hi> (2005). <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities Computing</hi>. Houndmills, Palgrave.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McGann, J. J.</hi> (2001). <hi rend=""italic"">Radiant Textuality: Literature After the World Wide Web</hi>. Houndmills, Palgrave.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2013). <hi rend=""italic"">Distant Reading</hi>. London and New York, Verso.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pasanek, B.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Metaphors of Mind: An Eighteenth-Century Dictionary</hi>. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S.</hi> (2005). In Praise of Pattern. <hi rend=""italic"">TEXT Technology</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>: 177-90.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S.</hi> (2011). <hi rend=""italic"">Reading Machines: Towards and Algorithmic Criticism</hi>. Urbana, Chicago and Springfield, University of Illinois Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rhody, L. M.</hi> (2012). Topic Modelling and Figurative Language. <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi> [Online], 2. Available: http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/topic-modeling-and-figurative-language-by-lisa-m-rhody/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, B. M.</hi> (2012). Words Alone: Dismantling Topic Models in the Humanities. Journal of Digital Humanities [Online], 2. Available: http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/words-alone-by-benjamin-m-schmidt/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tomalin, C.</hi> (1974). <hi rend=""italic"">The Life and Death of Mary Wollstonecraft</hi>. London, Weidenfeld and Nicholson.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
        
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2433","17","From Handwritten Text to Structured Data: Alternatives to Editing Large Archival Series","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>One of the key problems in historical political research is that many relevant research questions can only be answered by means of a prolonged and painstaking analysis of large archival series. Questions like: “How did the relationship between the government, the parliament and the political elites change over time?”, “What role did political traditions and rituals play?”, and “In what ways did the information economy influence the political process?”, still require scholars to systematically work through vast bodies of archival material. Only a few scholars, who appeared not to be intimidated by such a daunting task, have come up with long-term analyses of political patterns. This paper proposes a new, digital approach to avoid these time-consuming activities and to open up major archival series for automated text analysis, by applying various tools for text recognition and automated structuring, as well as by using reference data and re-using metadata. </p>
                <p>The case study selected to 
                    <hi rend=""st"">demonstrate the potential of this approach is the opening up of the </hi>Resolutions of the Dutch States-General from 1576 to 1795. This archival series of the central assembly of the seven Provinces forming the Dutch Republic is an excellent example of the type of source suitable to answer the above mentioned research questions. Editing the Resolutions has been a task of the Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands and its predecessors since 1915 (Japikse and Rijperman, 1915-1970, Van Deursen et al., 1971-1994).
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p>http://resources.huygens.knaw.nl/besluitenstatengeneraal1576-1630/index_html_en (accessed 3 March 2016)</p>
                    </note> This task is hindered, though, by the vast size of the resolutions, which approximately consists of 200,000 pages. The classic edition process, not even aimed at providing a full transcription of the resolutions but only abstracts, reached the year 1625 in 1994. After that, a project was carried out to edit the resolutions from 1626 to 1630 only in digital form, with the help of xml-coding (Nijenhuis, 2006; Nijenhuis et al., 2007). This project ended in 2007 and was not pursued further, because it was clear that this method also was too time and money consuming.
                </p>
                <p> In 2015 we started a totally different approach as an alternative to editing this vast collection of documents. Our goal is to make this important collection accessible, searchable, and analyzable for historical research by applying various advanced digital humanities tools. We will do this by using the metadata of the already printed edited Resolutions, and by enriching and linking the data to other relevant research data. The advantage of this approach is that the Resolutions will be made accessible for researchers in a far quicker way in comparison to the classic way of editing. Also, this approach is to provide insights which will be useful for comparable projects dealing with important archival series in the future, and may provide an alternative to full scale editing of large historical sources in the digital era.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Reusing metadata</head>
                <p>On the basis of experience with digital editing, we know that performing a small scale experiment is the best way of establishing best practices and avoiding huge costs. Therefore, we have chosen to apply a multilevel approach with several pilot projects, using various tools which may be applicable for exploring the content of some 200,000 pages of resolutions for historical research. These projects depart from the principle of using what is already there. This means, in practice, that we will construct a framework consisting of the metadata added by the previous editors, like indexes; mark-ups of names, places and institutions; and classification of subjects, as well as contemporary indexes and marginal subject-notes in the resolutions. This framework will serve as a reference to make the resolutions corpus accessible.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Automated Handwritten Text Recognition</head>
                <p>Secondly, we experiment with tools for Handwritten Text Recognition (HTR). The software developed by researchers from the Universitat Politècnica de València, which is integrated in the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Transkribus</hi> platform, offers the most valuable results (Sanchez et al., 2013).
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p>https://transkribus.eu/Transkribus/ (accessed 3 March 2016)</p>
                    </note> For the HTR-experiment we manually transcribed 40 pages of handwritten resolutions. Of these pages, 30 were used for training and 10 for testing. The resulting Word Error Rate for this experiment was 40%. We realize that using an only partly correct transcription does not deliver the results one can expect from a traditional edition. The automated transcriptions generated by the HTR-tool should be seen as an alternative that enables researchers to search the text. Of course with a Word Error Rate of 40% this will not deliver perfect results. The HTR may be improved by expanding the training set and by the use of reference data, which is discussed below. In case our approach will be financed for the whole series of resolutions, we intend to use crowdsourcing to improve the HTR results on the handwritten resolutions via the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Transkribus</hi> platform. As has been demonstrated by the developers from Valencia, manual correction of incorrect transcriptions of the HTR-software leads to a recalculation diminishing the mistakes the software made in the rest of the text. This will speed up the work towards an accurate transcription for the whole series. Nevertheless, with the limited number of people able to read 17
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi>-century Dutch handwriting taken into account, we cannot expect crowdsourcing to provide us with a perfect transcription of the whole series of resolutions within a few years. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Automated annotation</head>
                <p>Finally, we investigated the use of tools for enriching the resolutions with annotations that will improve exploring the digitized material. For this purpose we used contemporary printed resolutions, of which a series exists from 1703 to 1796. We selected a set of 100 pages from the year 1725, containing 366 resolutions. The text of the resolutions was transcribed and marked up manually using TEI. The printed material consists of blocks of text that can be categorized as follows: “session”, consisting of the date of the meeting, the name of the chairman, and the attendees representing each of the seven provinces; “resumption”, the summary of the previous meeting; “resolution”, the body of the resolutions themselves; and “insertion”, mostly incoming letters. We used a standard machine learning approach. The text blocks were marked up with their type manually. Part of the material was used for training the automated categorizer, the other part for testing. The categorizer was trained using as features fixed expressions the successive clerks of the States-General used in their account of the meetings. The comparison of the results with the manual categorization turned out to be promising. We were able to categorize the different types of text blocks with a 98,6% precision. </p>
                <p>The next step was to extract information from the text blocks. Building on software of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Stanford Natural Language Processing Group</hi> we developed a rule-based tool for recognizing dates with a 99,1% precision. The dates in the “session” text blocks could be identified easily, for they have a fixed structure; this allows us to annotate each resolution with its date. Software for identifying more complex dates in the text blocks (for example “the resolution taken yesterday”) is yet to be written; it will be used to annotate resolutions with references to other resolutions.
                </p>
                <p>Furthermore, we developed a tool using a Naïve Bayes Classifier for categorizing the attendance list. The manuscript and printed resolutions list the attendants according to the province they represented; the provinces were mentioned in a fixed order. However, at some meetings a province was not represented. With the tool we are able to identify the provinces the attendants as well as the chairman represented in these cases also.</p>
                <p>Finally, we took some steps in interpreting the content of the resolutions. Again using fixed phrases and a Naïve Bayes Classifier, it turns out to be possible to recognize in most cases whether or not a decision was taken in a resolution (96,9% precision) and whether the States-General asked a person or a body for advice (99,3%). The results for analyzing to whom the States-General asked advice; and whether and to whom they asked for a report, are yet inconclusive because of the limited amount of training material.</p>
                <p>Apart from improving the results for this last mentioned analysis, our future work will be dedicated to several issues. Firstly, applying Named Entity Recognition to the resolutions in combination with the use of reference data. The Huygens ING owns and hosts several relevant data collections, for instance the
                    <hi rend=""italic""> Biography Portal of the Netherlands</hi>
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p>http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/ (accessed 3 March 2016)</p>
                    </note> and the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Compendium of Office-Holders and Civil Servants 1428-1861</hi>
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p>http://resources.huygens.knaw.nl/repertoriumambtsdragersambtenaren1428-1861/index_html_en (accessed 3 March 2016)</p>
                    </note>with which we will be able to identify persons and institutions mentioned in the resolutions. Secondly, we aim at improving the OCR for the printed resolutions, for the benefit of the automated annotation. Thirdly, we will investigate whether the tools for automated structuring can be applied also to the automated transcription of the handwritten resolutions.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Deursen, A. T. van, Smit, J. G. and Roelevink, J. </hi>(Eds.) (1971-1994). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Resolutiën der Staten-Generaal: Nieuwe reeks, 1610-1670</hi>. Vol <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>, Gravenhage.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nijenhuis, I.</hi> (2006). Besluiten ontsloten. Resolutiën Staten-Generaal digitaal (1626-1630). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">De Zeventiende Eeuw</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>: 272-82.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nijenhuis, I. J. A., De Cauwer, P. L. R., Gijsbers, W. M., Hell, M., Meij, C. O. van der and Schooneveld-Oosterling, J. E. </hi>(Eds.) (2007, update 2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Resolutiën Staten-Generaal 1626-1630</hi>. Den Haag.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Japikse N. and Rijperman, H. H. P.</hi> (1915-1970). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Resolutiën der Staten-Generaal van 1576 tot 1609</hi>. Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>. Den Haag.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sánchez, J. A., Mühlberger, G., Gatos, B., Schofield, P., Depuydt, K., Davis, R. M., Vidal, E. and Does, J. de</hi> (2013). tranScriptorium: a European Project on Handwritten Text Recognition. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2013 ACM symposium on Document engineering</hi>. New York: ACM Press, pp. 227-28.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thomassen, T.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Instrumenten van de macht. De Staten-Generaal en hun archieven 1576-1796</hi>. Den Haag: Huygens ING.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wittek, P. and Ravenek, W.</hi> (2011). Supporting the Exploration of a Corpus of 17th-Century Scholarly Correspondences by Topic Modeling. In Maegaard, B. (Ed.), <hi rend=""italic"">Supporting Digital Humanities 2011: Answering the unaskable</hi>. Copenhagen.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2434","17","From Keyword Search To Discourse Mining - The Meaning Of Scientific Management In Dutch Vocabulary, 1900-1940","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In this paper we present a technique to enable the historical study of ideas instead of words. It aimed at assisting humanities scholars in overcoming the limitations of traditional keyword searching by making use of context-specific dictionaries. The elaboration of this technique was the result of a successful collaboration between the History Department of Utrecht University (UU) and the Research Department of the Koninklijke Bibliotheek, National Library of the Netherlands (KB), executed by the authors of this paper during Huijnen's period as Researcher-in-residence at the KB in 2015. </p>
            <p>The aim of this collaborative project was twofold: first, to create a method for dictionary extraction from a representative text corpus, based on existing methods and algorithms. Second, to find a way of executing dictionary searches in the KB's digitized newspaper archive and visualizing the results. Both components of the project were tested and evaluated by means of a case study on the impact of American scientific management theories in the Dutch public sphere during the first half of the 20th Century. Using the approach described here, we were able to discover and analyze shifts in the way the modernization of Dutch business and economy was discussed during this period. We would not have been able to achieve the same results by means of traditional historical scholarship alone. </p>
            <p>Historical newspapers have traditionally been popular sources to study public mentalities and collective cultures within historical scholarship. At the same time, they have been known as notoriously time-consuming and complex to analyze. The recent digitization of newspapers and the use of computers to gain access to the growing mass of digital corpora of historical news media are altering the historian’s heuristic process in fundamental ways. </p>
            <p>The large digitization project the Dutch National Library currently runs can illustrate this. Until now, the KB has made publicly available over 80 million historical newspaper articles from the last four centuries. Researchers (as well as the wider public) are able to do full-text searches in the entire repository of articles through the KB’s own online search interface Delpher (
                <ref target=""http://www.delpher.nl/kranten"">http://www.delpher.nl/kranten</ref>). Instead of manually skimming through a selected numbers of editions or volumes this functionality allows for the searching of particular (strings of) keywords within the entire corpus. As basic as it may seem, full-text searching completely overturns the way in which historians are used to approach newspapers. Instead of the successive top-down selections historians traditionally made in order to gradually isolate potentially interesting material, keyword searching treats the corpus as a singular bag of words and, therefore, enables researchers to immediately dive into the texts that meet their search criteria (Nicholson, 2013).
            </p>
            <p>At the same time, keyword searching has some serious shortcomings for the use in (cultural) historical research. Historians commonly work with texts, but are rarely interested in language per se. Rather, they use written or spoken sources (be it correspondence, literature, diaries, or news media) to gain access to past cultures, ideas, or mentalities. The things that historians are mostly interested in, are often not made explicit (e.g. the Enlightenment attitude, generational conflicts) and difficult to abstract into singular keywords (modernity, secularization). Doing historical research with keyword searching is like painting a canvas using felt-tip pens: it loses every inch of subtlety. </p>
            <p>We have successfully developed a technique of dictionary extraction and searching to address this problem. The use of dictionaries is able to bring greater subtlety and diversity into digital historical scholarship. The more elaborate these dictionaries are, the more they overcome the contingency that comes with the use of singular keywords in search strategies. Several research projects that have incorporated the use of highly domain- and time-specific word-lists ('dictionaries'), have already shown this. Text classification algorithms, for example, have helped find the most obvious indicator words for articles about strikes in the Dutch newspaper corpus (Van den Hoven et al., 2010). Implicit dictionaries based upon the MALLET (
                <ref target=""http://mallet.cs.umass.edu"">http://mallet.cs.umass.edu</ref>) package's topic modeling functionality has assisted in finding Darwinian motives in Danish literature (Tangherlini and Leonard, 2013). Topic modeling was also used in building a neoliberalism dictionary to study Colin Crouch's post-democracy thesis in German historical newspapers (Wiedemann et al., 2013; Wiedemann and Niekler, 2014).
            </p>
            <p>From the wide variety of techniques scholars have developed to build and use dictionaries, this project found most inspiration in the topic modeling-based method of the ePol Projekt (Wiedemann and Niekler, 2014). However, rather than aiming at building an optimal infrastructure for dictionary extraction of our own, based on existing techniques, our project centered around practical usability. We sought to develop a (set of) tool(s) for working with dictionaries tailored to the computational expertise to be expected from, but also the specific needs of professional historians (and humanities scholars in general). One of the aims of the KB's Researcher-in-residence program, in addition, is that resulting tools and techniques are usable by the wider public searching the National Library's databases of historical newspapers, periodicals, and books. Our code is fully open source and can be found on GitHub (
                <ref target=""https://github.com/jlonij/keyword_generator"">https://github.com/jlonij/keyword_generator</ref>). The ways in which we have tried to meet the specific demands this posed, can, in our view, be seen as exemplary for any Digital Humanities project aimed not at building highly specialized tools for individual projects, but at combining scholarly standards with the goal of generic usability. 
            </p>
            <p>There are a number of ways we have accounted for the targeted user groups in the development of our dictionary extraction and search techniques. On the one hand, for example, we aimed at agility and flexibility at the expense of the deployment of exhaustive computational means. Our algorithm is able to extract a dictionary of flexible length from a given source input of text files within minutes. Because the technique is intended for exploratory use, it is essential that iterations and experimentations are stimulated. Requiring too many preprocessing steps or demanding too much time would be counterproductive. </p>
            <p>On the other hand, meeting the demands of tool criticism was crucial in every step of this project. Therefore, the risk of blackboxing was avoided wherever we could, while at the same time granting the user-expert as much control as possible. By varying the command, users decide over the segmentation of the source corpus, the number of topics to be generated, the number of words to be contained per topic, as well as the number of dictionary words required. Moreover, users may flexibly choose between Gensim's (
                <ref target=""https://radimrehurek.com/gensim"">https://radimrehurek.com/gensim</ref>) and MALLET's implementation of LDA, as well as a straightforward tf-idf implementation. When making use of one of the topic modeling packages, users are, just before the process of dictionary generation, given the option of excluding any number of (irrelevant) topics of choice from the equation. 
            </p>
            <p>An evaluation in terms of generic precision and recall for any of the variables is, in our view, contradictory to the principle of flexibility. Instead, we evaluated and improved the dictionary extraction by comparing automatically generated dictionaries with ones that were built manually, based on domain knowledge. Comparing the results of searches with different dictionaries in the KB’s digitized newspaper archive was used as an additional evaluation method: dictionaries could be compared in terms of the ranking of some key articles about a particular topic, since the archive's Solr (
                <ref target=""http://lucene.apache.org/solr"">http://lucene.apache.org/solr</ref>) search engine scores the results of an OR-query (the search string, in which we expressed the dictionaries) on the basis of the number of times query words appear in an article, amongst other things. The case study that was used to test, evaluate, and apply the tools and techniques under development was the impact of American scientific management ideas in the Dutch public media before WWII. 
            </p>
            <p>On the basis of this case study we would in our presentation like to show how our implementation of dictionary extraction, search, and visualization can assist the scholarly historical study of digital corpora in general. By visualizing the search results from different dictionaries we are able to show shifting discourses in historical news media. Plotting the number of articles containing a user-specified number of words from any given dictionary, we can present trends in discourse-specific vocabulary usage over time. Whereas existing historiography, for example, suggests a continuing use of scientific management vocabulary in the Netherlands since its introduction in the 1910s, our project presents a more differentiated picture. Dictionary searches in the KB's newspaper corpus show how the use of words in public media connected to the sphere of scientific management (based on context- specific literature) waned after the WWII and how they made room for a new vocabulary belonging to a new era. </p>
            <p>At the same time, this case study illustrates how digital techniques like ours bring about conceptual innovations in the study of history. After all, our case study shows that (combinations of) ordinary words (in this instance, for example, 'time', 'work', or 'supervision') are more distinguishing to trace discursive discontinuities than the 'big' words (like 'taylorism' or 'neoliberalism') that historians traditionally have focused on.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nicholson, B.</hi> (2013). The Digital Turn, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Media History</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 19</hi>: 59-73.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tangherlini, T. R. and Leonard, P. </hi>(2013). Trawling in the Sea of the Great Unread: Sub-corpus topic modeling and Humanities research, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Poetics</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 41</hi>: 725-49.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van den Hoven, M., Van den Bosch, A. and Zervanou, K. </hi>(2010). Beyond Reported History: Strikes That Never Happened. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the First International AMICUS Workshop on Automated Motif Discovery in Cultural Heritage and Scientific Communication Texts, </hi>Vienna, pp. 20-28.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wiedemann, G., Lemke, M. and Niekler A. </hi>(2013). Postdemokratie und Neoliberalismus. Zur Nutzung neoliberaler Argumentation in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1949-2011, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Zeitschrift für Politische Theorie</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 4</hi>: 99-115.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wiedemann, G. and Niekler, A. </hi>(2014). Document Retrieval for Large Scale Content Analysis using Contextualized Dictionaries. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Terminology and Knowledge Engineering, </hi>Berlin, June 2014.  
                        <ref target=""https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01005879"">https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01005879</ref> (accessed 2 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2435","17","Geography Of Russian Poetry: Countries And Cities Inside The Poetic World","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Our paper is dedicated to two major problems: the first problem is the digital one and the second problem is connected to the humanities. The first problem involves automatic extraction of named entities, and the second problem is connected to the usage of toponyms in poetic texts. Correspondingly, our research comprises two parts: automatic processing of a huge amount of texts from the corpus of Russian poetry and revealing major trends in the functioning of toponyms during the history of the Russian poetry from 18 to 20 centuries.</p>
            <p>Our research is based on the data from the poetic corpus which is a part of the Russian National Corpus
                <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">
                    <ptr target=""http://ruscorpora.ru/search-poetic.html""/>
                </note>. This corpus includes the main texts belonging to the Russian poetry from all the periods of its history, up to the 20th century. The principles of text selection in the poetic corpus are described by its creators (Grishina et al., 2009). The size of the corpus is approximately 11 million word tokens.
            </p>
            <p>Up to the present moment, research papers considering toponyms in the Russian poetry described a concrete toponym from the perspective of an isolated text or a particular author (see, for example, Mednis, 1999). Our approach is quite different: we describe tthe geography of Russian poetry as a whole, consistently to the framework of distant reading (Moretti, 2005; Moretti, 2013). Thus, the result demonstrates global trends in the usage of toponyms in Russian poetry as a system.</p>
            <p>We used two different technologies to extract geographic entities from poetic texts, and the comparison of these two approaches is one of the results of our research. The first technology is a proprietary commercial software Textocat
                <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2"">
                    <ptr target=""http://textocat.ru/""/>
                </note>, which is based on machine learning with the use of nonfictional texts as a training sample. The creators of this software claim that the F1-measure for the retrieval of named entities is 0.75. However, it is expected that the performance would be much lower in the case of poetic texts, because the language of poetry differs radically from the language of prose.
            </p>
            <p>The second approach we use is a self-made tool for the extraction of toponyms based on the dictionary of geographical names. We are forced to create such a tool because there is no open-source software for the extraction of toponyms for Russian. As a basis for our dictionary of geographical names, we use the list of toponyms from the Wikipedia.We compared the figures retrieved with our approach to the ones resulting from Textocat. We used for evaluation a sample of toponyms consisting of countries and cities. The comparison showed that Textocat retrieves only 25.7% of country names and 19.3% of city names that are found with our tool. In addition, Textocat makes a lot of mistakes; for example, locative pronouns 
                <hi rend=""italic"">там</hi> 'there' and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">где</hi> 'where' are retrieved among geographical entities. The words 
                <hi rend=""italic"">страна</hi> 'country' and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">город</hi> 'city' are also included by Textocat in the list of found toponyms.
            </p>
            <p>As we can see, the dictionary-based approach proves to be more efficient, and in further results we consider only the data extracted with this method.</p>
            <p>First, we will look in detail on the names of countries extracted from poetic texts. The distribution of mentioning countries is presented in Table 1 (six most popular countries are taken):</p>
            <p>Table 1. The most frequently mentioned countries.</p>
            <table rend=""frame"">
                <row role=""label"">
                    <cell>Country</cell>
                    <cell>Number of times it is mentioned</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Russia</cell>
                    <cell>2744</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>France</cell>
                    <cell>283</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Italy</cell>
                    <cell>241</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Poland</cell>
                    <cell>201</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Lithuania</cell>
                    <cell>160</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Greece</cell>
                    <cell>159</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Egypt</cell>
                    <cell>151</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>The distribution of names for all the world countries is presented on Figure 1. Before building this map, the frequencies of countries' names were normalized, so we counted the number of poetic pieces in which the name was met, not the occurrences.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""574/1000000000000708000004B033E30656.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 1. Frequency of countries' names in the Russian poetry</head>
                </figure>
            <p>It is not surprising that Russia takes the first place on this list. The top of the list is occupied mainly by the European countries. The second place goes to France, because its influence on Russian culture was immense: in the 19th century French was even the main language of communication for Russian aristoсracy. Italy can be found on the third place, despite the fact that it is very important for the poetic mythology in the 19th century, and it was the main geographical location for the poetry of the eminent Russian poets Batyushkov and Baratynsky.</p>
            <p>It should also be mentioned that the Russian poetry does not favor exotic countries and it is primarily occupied with the European neighbors of Russia (Poland, Lithuania, Greece). The only African country in the top of «poetic» countries is Egypt, which is renowned for its ancient mythology and pyramids with considerable poetic potential.</p>
            <p>The second exotic country in our list is India, and it is followed by countries of the specific «Russian East», which includes Georgia and Iran. The most popular country from the Middle East is Lebanon. If we take a look at the contexts in which Lebanon is used, we see that this country is mostly mentioned due to the cedars of Lebanon. It is unexpected that Lebanon appeared to be more frequently mentioned than the Northern European countries (Finland, Norway, Denmark).</p>
            <p>Now we will consider mentionings of city names in Russian poetry. The frequency of names for European cities can be seen on Figure 1. This map reflects mentioning of cities with frequency lower than 690. Thus, we drop such cities as Moscow (with frequency of 2470), Rome (with frequency of 1135), Paris (771), and Saint Petersburg (695). Let us note that Rome is more frequent in Russian poetry than Paris, although France dominates Italy in the list of countries' mentionings. Also, we do not mark on the map those cities whose frequncy is lower than 4.</p>
            <p>As we can see from the visualization, the most «poetic» cities from the point of view of Russian poets are concentrated near Moscow and Saint Petersburg, and also in Ukraine and Northern Italy. Ukraine was a part of Russia during the history of Russian poetry, but the specifically Russian territory demonstrates uneven distribution of mentionings, whereas Ukraine is densely populated with poetic cities. The Crimea draws attention as the most «charged» with poetic cities, though it is not a big territory itself. Sea coasts of Southern Europe generally provide us with cities popular among Russian poets.</p>
            <p>Continental Europe is not frequently mentioned in the poetry, with an exception of the capital cities of Prague and Warsaw. The blank spaces can be found throughout the territories of France and Germany. Scandinavian cities also don't have considerable amount of mentionings within the history of Russian poetry.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""574/1000000000000320000003207A62CD69.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 2. Frequency of city names in the Russian poetry</head>
                </figure>
            <p>Another interesting opposition lies in the distribution of mentionings for Romanic and Germanic cities. As we can see, Russian poets prefer the cities of Italy, France, Spain and Belgium, whereas cities of Britain, Germany and Netherlands appear to be less poetic. Probably, the reason underlying this distribution is not the language, but the confession. Apparently, Russian poets prefer catholic countries to the protestant ones, and Vatican itself can be found on the 17th place judging by the frequency of mentioning countries in the Russian poetry.</p>
            <p>To sum up, mentioning of toponyms presents interesting data which can be used to reveal trends in the poetry, and those trends help to describe Russian poetry as a system. It is impossible to notice such patterns with manual or visual analysis of poetic texts, but it can be achieved through digitalization of poetry and computational analysis of the texts.</p>
            <p>In future we plan to extend our research towards extraction and interpretation of other types of geographic entities: water bodies, geographical places, regions, streets, eminent buildings and locations. This would require dealing with the change of names throughout the time periods. We also plan to investigate the usage of geography in the particular poets' works.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grishina, E., Korchagin, K., Plungian, V. and Sitchinava, D.</hi> (2009).<hi rend=""italic""> Poeticheskij korpus v ramkah NKRYa: obschaja struktura i perspektivy ispol'zovanija. 'Natsional'nyj korpus russkogo jazyka: 2006-2008. Novye rezul'taty I perspektivy'.</hi> Saint Petersburg, pp. 71-113. [Poetic Corpus in RNC: general structure and using perspectives]
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mednis, N.</hi> (1999).<hi rend=""italic""> Venecija v russkoj literature.</hi> Novosibirsk. [Venice in the Russian Literature].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2005).<hi rend=""italic""> Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract models for a literary history.</hi> Verso.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2013).<hi rend=""italic""> Distant Reading.</hi> Verso.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2436","17","Identity Lenses in Analyzing Evolving Social Structures","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In the effort to capture cultural dynamics, scholars have considered social networks, that is, a graph with people as nodes and their relationships as edges. These social networks are useful; however, to capture dynamics they must be considered over time. In the literature, Time-Varying Graphs (TVGs) have been defined (Aggarwal and Subbian, 2014; Casteigts et al., 2012; Casteigts et al., 2013). In our investigations, we have found benefit in defining TVGs with nodes as societal structures and people as the edges and then considering the dynamics of the societal structures evidenced in the TVGs (Hott et al., 2014; Hott et al., 2015). Here we consider two motivating applications for our extensions to TVGs: early Mormon marital structures and an arXiv.org citation network.</p>
            <p>The societal structures represented in the marital and church structures of early Mormons in mid-1800s Nauvoo, Illinois, include binary, polygynous, and polyandrous marriages, as well as child and adult adoptions, and membership of individuals in the church organization hierarchy. In this time period the concept of “marriage” is in flux and part of our research is to consider various conceptualizations of “marriage” to better understand the relationship to the formation of the church structure. Each conceptualization we consider as a different “identity lens,” a term we create to describe these different views.</p>
            <p>We therefore define the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">identity-lens function</hi> that maps one evolving network to another evolving network. More specifically, given a TVG, 
                <graphic url=""369/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/> as defined in (Casteigts et al., 2012), the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">identity-lens function</hi>
                <graphic url=""369/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/> maps the nodes and edges in 
                <graphic url=""369/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/> with a given identity definition to a new Time/Identity-Varying Graph (TIVG) 
                <graphic url=""369/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>. 
                <graphic url=""369/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/> is therefore the view of 
                <graphic url=""369/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/> under identity lens 
                <hi rend=""italic"">i</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>In our marital network research (Hott et al., 2014; Hott et al., 2015), we represent marriages as the nodes, with the individuals connecting the marriages of their parents to their own marriages as adults. Every piece of this network is considered to be evolving, since marital relations change, new children are born, family members are adopted, and individuals change membership in the church organizational structure. Initially, this network 
                <graphic url=""369/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/> may be described as a binary-marriage network, in which each node depicts a marriage between two individuals and their biological children. This is one specific definition of node identity. However, we may examine this network in different levels of granularity: with different definitions of node identity. By extending the marriage definition to all individuals married to the same husband, we may redefine node identity to define polygynous marriages, creating 
                <graphic url=""369/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>. A related identity function that maps binary marriages to those with the same wife creates the TIVG 
                <graphic url=""369/image8.png"" rend=""inline""/>.
            </p>
            <p>Our second motivating example is the arXiv.org
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">http://www.arxiv.org</hi>
                    </p>
                </note> citation network. ArXiv.org provides online open access to over one million cross-disciplinary papers, including papers in Physics, Mathematics, and Computer Science. We build a citation TVG from this dataset, linking authors as nodes based on the co-authorship of their papers. Similar to the Nauvoo application, we define multiple identity functions to map this TVG to multiple TIVGs. Under a node identity function combining authors within the same institution, we produce 
                <graphic url=""369/image9.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <hi rend=""bold"">. </hi>Other node identity mappings include departmental affiliation 
                <graphic url=""369/image10.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <hi rend=""bold"">,</hi> and 
                <graphic url=""369/image11.png"" rend=""inline""/>, in which authors are mapped to their subject areas.
            </p>
            <p>Each of these TIVGs have characteristics that change over time. As we increase the complexity of the nodes through the use of identity lenses, we increase the dynamics of the characteristics, specifically those captured within the nodes. In the Nauvoo dataset, these characteristics include familial relationships among marriage members and church leadership positions held by the members of each marriage. Similarly, in the arXiv dataset, the characteristics include departmental and institutional collaboration. We want and need metrics that are sensitive to these changes within the evolving nodes as well as the overall evolving structure of the network. To capture and analyze these dynamics, we first define sampling methods to produce static graphs depicting the state of the TIVG during a fixed-size interval around each time point, then compute centrality measures over the graph across time for each identity lens. This process creates a distribution of the metric across time, which may then be compared between identity lenses. We conjecture that utilizing different-sized sampling intervals and comparing distributions across identity lenses will provide insights to understanding the TVG and the motivating application it describes.</p>
            <p>We therefore define two methods to sample TIVG 
                <graphic url=""369/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>, in a 
                <graphic url=""369/image12.png"" rend=""inline""/>-sized time interval around any given time-point 
                <hi rend=""italic"">t </hi>in
                <hi rend=""italic""> T</hi>, to a static graph 
                <graphic url=""369/image13.png"" rend=""inline""/>. They are given by the following node and edge set definitions:
            </p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>The union of all nodes and edges extant at any time during the interval. 
                    <graphic url=""369/image14.png"" rend=""inline""/> and 
                    <graphic url=""369/image15.png"" rend=""inline""/> are the “presence” functions for nodes and edges, respectively, as defined in (Casteigts et al., 2012).
                    <lb/>
                    <graphic url=""369/image16.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </item>
                <item>Only nodes and edges that exist throughout the entire interval.
                    <lb/>
                    <graphic url=""369/image17.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>As a simple example of these sampling methods, consider a correspondence network, where 
                <graphic url=""369/image18.png"" rend=""inline""/> is a set of individuals and 
                <graphic url=""369/image19.png"" rend=""inline""/> defines their correspondence; an edge connecting two individuals is present when a letter is in the mail between them. For an interval length, 
                <graphic url=""369/image12.png"" rend=""inline""/>, of 1 year, the first sampling method would produce a graph containing connections between any individuals who corresponded by letter at any point that year. In comparison, the second sampling method would only leave connected those individuals with constant communication for the entire year.
            </p>
            <p>Using the sampling methods above, we measure characteristics at time points throughout the lifetime of 
                <graphic url=""369/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/> and thereby evidence the dynamics. The harmonic centrality, 
                <graphic url=""369/image20.png"" rend=""inline""/>, is an indication of how close the nodes are to each other, while the betweenness centrality, 
                <graphic url=""369/image21.png"" rend=""inline""/>, is indicative of how interconnected the nodes are within the graph. They are defined as
            </p>
            <p>
                <graphic url=""369/image22.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <lb/>where 
                <graphic url=""369/image23.png"" rend=""inline""/> and 
                <graphic url=""369/image24.png"" rend=""inline""/> are the harmonic and betweenness point-centrality measures (Wasserman and Faust, 1994) for a given node 
                <graphic url=""369/image25.png"" rend=""inline""/>, respectively. For brevity, we will define here only 
                <graphic url=""369/image26.png"" rend=""inline""/>, using Boldi and Vigna’s harmonic centrality definition (Boldi and Vigna, 2014), as 
            </p>
            <p>
                <graphic url=""369/image27.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <lb/>where 
                <graphic url=""369/image28.png"" rend=""inline""/> is the distance between 
                <graphic url=""369/image29.png"" rend=""inline""/>. As a concrete example of this measure, consider the graphs in Figures 1 and 2. In the graph of Figure 1, node A acts as the central connection point, or hub. The hub has the shortest distance to any node and therefore high harmonic point-centrality, 
                <graphic url=""369/image26.png"" rend=""inline""/> = 6. Other nodes must traverse at most two edges to reach any other node, giving them 
                <graphic url=""369/image26.png"" rend=""inline""/> = 3.5. The overall measure for this graph is 
                <graphic url=""369/image20.png"" rend=""inline""/> = 4.58. In comparison, the graph in Figure 2 has nodes that are distant from most of the other nodes, e.g., node A has 
                <graphic url=""369/image26.png"" rend=""inline""/> = 2.45 leading to harmonic centrality, 
                <graphic url=""369/image20.png"" rend=""inline""/> = 1.02. These two graphs demonstrate that the harmonic centrality of the graph is inversely related to the overall “closeness” of the nodes. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""369/image30.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1. A star graph, with nodes shaded based on relative point-centrality, which has harmonic centrality 
                    <graphic url=""369/image20.png"" rend=""inline""/> = 4.58
                </head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""369/image31.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2. A linear graph, with nodes shaded based on relative point-centrality, which has harmonic centrality 
                    <graphic url=""369/image20.png"" rend=""inline""/> = 1.02
                </head>
            </figure>
            <p>Allowing 
                <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi> to range over the entire lifespan of 
                <graphic url=""369/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/> and considering multiple sizes for our 
                <graphic url=""369/image12.png"" rend=""inline""/> interval, we generate distributions of the metric across time and with differing levels of temporal granularity. These distributions give a picture of the dynamics occurring within each TIVG. By comparing the metrics across TIVGs under different identity functions for the same TVG, we hope to more fully capture the dynamics of and understand the original evolving network, and provide insights into the motivating application at hand.
            </p>
            <p>We have therefore defined a new conceptualization of Time-Varying Graphs, specifically the identity-lens function and resulting Time/Identity-Varying Graphs under each identity mapping. We also defined methods for sampling the TIVGs into series of measurable static graphs and provided metrics over those representations. At the conference, we will present visualizations that represent each of our applications from the various perspectives, as well as the findings of these measures: to better understand the definition of marriage in Nauvoo and its relation to church formation, and to illuminate patterns in author and departmental co-citations.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Aggarwal, C. and Subbian, K.</hi> (2014). Evolutionary network analysis: A survey, ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR) <hi rend=""bold"">47</hi>(1): 10. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boldi, P. and Vigna, S.</hi> (2014). Axioms for centrality, Internet Mathematics <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(3-4): 222–62. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Casteigts, A., et al.</hi> (2013). Expressivity of time-varying graphs, Fundamentals of Computation Theory, Springer, pp. 95–106. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Casteigts, A., et al.</hi> (2012). Time-varying graphs and dynamic networks, International Journal of Parallel, Emergent and Distributed Systems <hi rend=""bold"">27</hi>(5): 387–408. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hott, J. R., Martin, W. N. and Flake, K.</hi> (2014). Evolving social structures: Networks with people as the edges, Digital Humanities Forum, University of Kansas. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hott, J. R., Martin, W. N. and Flake, K.</hi> (2015). Visualizing and analyzing identity classes in evolving social structures, Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wasserman, S. and Faust, K.</hi> (1994). Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications, Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>, Cambridge University Press. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2437","17","Integrative 3D Recording Methods of Historic Architecture: Burg Hohenecken from Southwest Germany","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This study explores the integration of various methods including photogrammetry, laser-scanning, GIS, and textual analysis in order to create a more holistic understanding of a castle ruin. The case study is the medieval castle 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Burg Hohenecken </hi>in the city of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kaiserslautern</hi> in southwest Germany. The project is divided into two main components: the visual and the textual components. The objectives of the visual component are to merge a laser-scan and a photogrammetric model, thus combining the measuring strength of laser-scanning with the visual aesthetics of photogrammetry. Once digitized as a merged 3D-model, the castle can be virtually controlled and examined, providing an opportunity to potentially reconstruct the castle (using 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Autodesk 3DsMax</hi>). Hypothetical reconstructions from the various construction and expansion periods with assist in studying the castle's function throughout time. The textual component, consisting of 70 letters (1212-1560 A. D.), provides historical context concerning the castle, its inhabitants, and correspondence. 
            </p>
            <p>Laser-scanning and 3D photogrammetric technologies have been in rapid advancement for over 20 years beginning in the disciplines of geography and mathematics (Kersten et al., 2004); specifically in photogrammetry and geodesy (Vosselmann and Maas, 2010). Academics have developed a variety of techniques and devices in order to adapt the technologies for archaeological purposes (Remondino, 2014). The intricacies of archaeological sites have pushed the devices to their limits, allowing for the production of newer devices more suited for rough terrain and countless blind spots due to walls, vegetation, and elevations. The location of the castle atop a mountain adds to the difficulty of acquiring photos encompassing the entire castle in one take (Gonzo et al., 2004). As a result of these challenges, a terrestrial laser-scanner, an aerial drone with a mirror-less camera, and a terrestrial DSLR camera, were used. </p>
            <p>The visual component consists of two part: the laser-scanning and the photogrammetry. The Riegl VZ-400 laser-scanner (with an attached DSLR camera) was provided by the Institute of Geography at Heidelberg University. We conducted 22 scans, manually linked via tie-points (placed within overlapping areas) in the proprietary software, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">RiSCAN PRO</hi>. This model was meshed in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Meshlab</hi> using the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ball-Pivot</hi> method.
            </p>
            <p>The photogrammetric data was collected using a Sony NEX-7 camera attached to an aerial drone built by the IWR (Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific Computing) at Heidelberg University, and a hand-held Nikon D3300 SLR camera (provided by the University of Nebraska-Lincoln). The eight rotor drone took 385 photos up to 100 meters above the castle in a predetermined course, capturing views not completely collected by the laser-scans. The remaining 1,351 photos were done terrestrially with the Nikon D3300 SLR camera. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Agisoft Photoscan Pro</hi> was used to align the 1,736 photos, generate the dense cloud, the mesh, and the texture.
            </p>
            <p>The textual component regards the information extracted from the letters, including names and inheritances of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Hohenecken</hi> lineage, physical locations within the surrounding environment, and construction details of the castle. This data builds a network of communication within a past landscape and pre-existing structures of the castle. The locations in the letters will be geo-referenced in GIS allowing the landscape to be visualized rather than imagined, thus reconstructing the environment of the past utilizing primary and secondary sources.
            </p>
            <p>This project is a work in progress, with an anticipated completion by May 2016. An updated status can be viewed online (
                <ref target=""http://www.jamescoltrain.com/970.Aaron/"">http://www.jamescoltrain.com/970.Aaron/</ref>) in which the letters and models have been uploaded. A virtual tour (using 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Unity</hi>) of the reconstructed 3D-model, based upon textual evidence will allow users to ""walk"" through and explore the castle. The purpose is to analyze the historic functions of the castle and its significance in the regional landscape, contributing to its preservation and enhancing the knowledge of the regional architecture.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""references""><hi rend=""bold"">Gonzo, L., El-Hakim, S., Girardi, S., Picard, M. and Whiting, E.</hi> (2004). Photo-Realistic 3D Reconstruction of Castles with Multiple-Sources Image-Based Techniques. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the ISPRS XXth Congress</hi>. Istanbul, Turkey, pp. 120-25.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""references""><hi rend=""bold"">Kersten, T., Pardo, C. A. and Lindstaedt, M.</hi> (2004). 3D Acquisition, Modelling and Visualization of North German Castles by Digital Architectural Photogrammetry. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ISPRS WG V/2 Scene Modeling and Virtual Reality</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""references""><hi rend=""bold"">Remondino, F. </hi> (Ed), (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">3D Recording and Modelling in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage</hi>. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""references""><hi rend=""bold"">Vosselmann, G. and Maas, H. G.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Airborne and Terrestrial Laser Scanning</hi>. Dunbeath, Scotland: Whittles Publishing.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2438","17","Introducing histoGraph 2: Exploration of cultural heritage documents based on co-occurrence graphs","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In this paper we discuss our strategy for the creation and exploration of graphs based on co-occurrences of named entities using the recently developed open source version of histograph and present a live demo. histograph builds on previous work conducted in cooperation with several European partners in the FP7 funded project CUbRIK but has been further developed by the Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l’Europe (CVCE) in 2015. It combines the graph-based exploration of large cultural heritage collections with crowd-based indexation. histograph opens up a new perspective on CVCE’s collections which contain some 20.000 digitized text documents, photos, audio recordings and videos that document the history of European integration since 1945. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""161/image1.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1: A screenshot from a CVCE ePublication on the Werner report. The navigation on the left shows the hierarchically organized themes, on the right a list of expert-curated documents</head>
            </figure>
            <p>histograph adds an explorative approach to the hierarchically organized, expert-curated collections of CVCE.eu: Users decide what interests them and find their own path through the collections. A user who is interested in Pierre Werner will for example see a page similar to the screenshot below.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""161/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2: A search for „Pierre Werner“ reveals a short biographical overview with a list of frequently co-occurring entities (left column) and a gallery view of related documents which can be filtered e.g. by resource type and time</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The left column provides an overview of Pierre Werner’s biography and a list of persons with whom he co-occurs in the document base. The middle column lists all documents in which he is mentioned. The graph view provides a bird’s-eye-perspective on the people who co-occur with Werner. The graph is interactive and reveals the documents which constitute a co-occurrence relationship.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""161/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3: A graph representation shows with whom Pierre Werner co-occurs in documents. A click on a link lists the documents which mention two entities, here Werner and Walter Hallstein</head>
            </figure>
            <p rend=""footnote text"">histograph uses a Neo4j (Neo4j Console, 2016) graph database to store relations between entities. This approach facilitates queries that would be computationally expensive in relational databases but are easily available in graph databases, such as the calculation of paths between entities that are not directly connected. Figure 4 shows the result of a query for all documents, which connect three persons.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""161/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 4: A query for paths between Pierre Werner, Elena Danescu and Jean-Claude Juncker reveals all relevant documents as well as an interactive graph of co-occurrences (who co-occurs with whom)</head>
            </figure>
            <p>In contrast to the hierarchical, expert-curated collections, histograph enables an interest driven exploration by the users and provides them with an effective way to retrieve and explore the relations which are of interest to them. Compared with the museum-like order of the classical CVCE collections, histograph models a more or less targeted visit to an archive, which holds the promise of serendipitous discoveries.</p>
            <p>Methods for the annotation of named entities such as persons, institutions and places have reached a very high degree of maturity and are used in different applications. For histograph we tested a variety of web services for the detection and disambiguation of entities (NER) among them TextRazor (TextRazor - The Natural Language Processing API, n.d.) and YAGO (Max-Planck-Institut für Informatik: YAGO, 2016). While these services perform well depending on the context of use (language, domain, etc.) even in a best case scenario they only allow to identify the occurrence of an entity within a logical unit such as a text but do not allow to clarify the nature of the connection between persons, places and organisations that occur together in the same unit. In our previous experiences with the detection and identification of faces in historical image sets (Wieneke et al., 2014) the format and context of the images as official photographs of specific events enabled us to understand the nature of the relationship as more easily defined: the simple working hypothesis that persons that co-occur together in a photo have some kind of connection proved to be very efficient. In the case of text however, these semantics are significantly more complex.
            </p>
            <p>We therefore decided to follow two directions: first based on the nature of the text document, where letters for example constitute a relationship between the sender and the receiver and second through a mathematical modelling of the relationship based on the distance between entities in the text and their distribution within the corpus. More specifically, we work with Jaccard distances and co-occurrence frequencies weighed by tf-idf specificity. The latter step became necessary as not all of our text documents fall in the category of clearly structured formats such as letters and even if they do, a strictly format based co-occurrence approach could hide interesting relationships that would foster exploration, e.g. in our case a written exchange between two politicians where they discuss a third person.</p>
            <p>Entities who appear within a certain distance from each other can be linked based on the assumption that their co-occurrence in the text is not arbitrary and that there is a high probability that they have 
                <hi rend=""italic"">something</hi> to do with each other. The boundaries for such relations can be defined freely, for example based on sentences, paragraphs, or documents. Alternatively, a window approach considers all entities related if they appear within 
                <hi rend=""italic"">n </hi>characters from each other. In addition, such co-occurrences can be further defined by the recognition of the semantic relationships within a sentence. We have, however, not yet systematically tested their performance and therefore limit ourselves here to a more basic approach.
            </p>
            <p>Despite all efforts to further specify the significance of such relations, co-occurrences are elusive:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>It is hard to further specify what more or less connected mean</item>
                <item>It is hard to further specify which types of relations are at play</item>
                <item>It is hard to assess which relations were missed because entities were named differently</item>
            </list>
            <p>A graph representation of such data can only allow rather general statements: We can reasonably assume that entities, which co-occur often, are more connected than those who do not. We can also assume that entities, which never co-occur together, are less or not at all connected. Finally, we can assume that entities, which tend to cluster together, are more likely to have something to do with each other without further specifying their relationship.</p>
            <p>In contrast, most social network analysis (SNA) research questions require very well defined relations given that they treat social networks as models of highly complex social interactions. Here, a graph represents a meaningful reduction of such complexity and allow insights into specific dimensions of social relations. Graphs are used to represent and/or illustrate highly complex matters, which are otherwise hard to express. Such data is typically generated and curated for the purpose of specific research questions and its value is limited to their respective context in which it was created.</p>
            <p>CVCE and cultural heritage institutions in general however address heterogeneous user groups and wish to make available their data to different audiences including educators, researchers and interested laymen. A graph representation of relations between entities therefore will serve different purposes than in a SNA context. Here, graphs need not be meaningful models of social relations but need to be multi-purpose means for the discovery of materials and acknowledge wildly different interests. This means that it is impossible to predict, which relations a user will consider relevant.</p>
            <p>Against this background we embrace co-occurrences despite their inherent shortcomings. In order to improve the quality of the various relations we display we need to balance a) higher quality or more meaningful relations and b) the potential to make highly unexpected, yet meaningful discoveries in the data. In order to achieve this, we decided against a rigid ontology of relationship types, which would significantly limit the chances for unexpected discoveries, beyond format based assumptions. Instead we use text synopses and full document text for the generation of relations and filters on time periods, media types and entities in order to further specify our graphs. In addition, we use a two-fold crowd-based approach: generic crowds help clean the data and report obvious mistakes; expert crowds provide high-quality annotations which required a highly domain-specific knowledge. 
                <hi rend=""fontnormal"">Generic crowds perform tasks which do not require specialist knowledge, for example an answer to the question “Is ‘N.A.T.O.’ a person?” Expert crowds are identified based on past performance and are presented with tasks related to entities and documents they have worked on before.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The resulting graphs can be considered hybrids: They are inasmuch based on co-occurrences as they are on user specifications. Such graphs, we argue, have the potential to meet both the necessities for the automated generation of graphs and still provide meaningful structural information which can be the starting point for a deeper investigation of the materials. 
                <hi rend=""fontnormal"">We are committed to further increase the quality of co-occurrence relationships in the future.</hi>
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Max-Planck-Institut für Informatik: YAGO</hi> (2011). https://www.mpi-inf.mpg.de/departments/databases-and-information-systems/research/yago-naga/yago/ (accessed 3.01.2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Neo4j Console</hi> (2016). http://console.neo4j.org/ (accessed 2.06.2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">TextRazor - The Natural Language Processing API</hi> (n.d.). https://www.textrazor.com/ (accessed 20.04.2015)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wieneke, L., Düring, M., Silaume, G., Lallemand, C., Croce, V., Lazzarro, M., Nucci, F., Pasini, C., Fraternali, P., Tagliasacchi, M., Melenhorst, M., Novak, J., Micheel, I., Harloff, E., Garcia Moron, J.</hi> (2014). histoGraph – A Visualization Tool for Collaborative Analysis of Historical Social Networks from Multimedia Collections. In L. Hughes (Ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of 18th International Conference Information Visualisation (IV), 2014 Conference</hi>. Paris, France.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2439","17","Invisible Cities In Literature And History: Interfaces To Scalable Readings Of Textual And Visual Representations Of The Imaginary","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Introduction</p>
            <p>At the DH2014 conference it was explained how the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ZoomImagine</hi> software (Z-editor) allows zooming on units of text and contextual information (z-lexias) in order to explore layers of meaning that support critical readings of literature (Armaselu 2014). Changing perspective or analytical viewpoints by using different types of “magnifying glass” is also possible (Figure 1).
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""59/image1.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Z-text layout. Levels of z-lexias (center). Changing perspective (bottom right)</p>
            <p>In this study the results of two experiments will be discussed in which the Z-editor was used to explore cross-overs between text and image and history and literature in descriptions of imaginary cities and imaginary depictions of existing cities. The first case concerns readings of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Invisible Cities</hi> (1972) in which Italo Calvino (1923-1985) described Marco Polo’s accounts of visits to cities to Kubla Kahn, Emperor of the Tartars. The second one discusses designs for and historical depictions of the citadel of the city of Groningen in the Netherlands in an atlas of the Flemish engineer Pierre Lepoivre (1546-1626). We will demonstrate that the Z-text model is both suitable for analyzing critical readings and artistic impressions of the Invisible Cities as for assessing different levels of historical evidence of visualizations, such as maps, drawings and designs of existing cities. Furthermore, it allows for navigating in an associative way through imaginary cities of which features might have inspired both Calvino’s literary writings as Lepoivre’s designs. Contemporary artists still inspired by Calvino seem to delve into a collective visual memory of “cities”, in a way Renaissance engineers linked their designs to representations of ideal cities and new fortress towns, from Campanella’s City of the Sun to Zamośź in Poland. The Z-text model might stimulate to explore digital past and future identities of imaginary and real cities. We will conclude with a discussion of the potential of the Z-editor interface for general debates within the digital humanities.
            </p>
            <p>The Invisible Cities of Italo Calvino</p>
            <p>The publication of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Le Città Invisibili</hi> in 1972 by Italo Calvino was directly followed by comments by literary critics and by visualizations of artists inspired by the poetical descriptions of the imaginary cities in the imageless book. The division into 11 themes associated with the city that return each 5 times in the book -City and Memory, City and Desire, City and Signs, Thin Cities, Trading Cities, Cities and Eyes, Cities and Names, Cities and the Dead, Cities and the Sky, Continuous Cities and Hidden Cities- has resulted into various interpretations of these imaginary urban spaces, such as “rhizomatic space” Kerstin Pilz (2003) and “city of strata” Sambit Panigrahi (2014). The zooming functionalities of the editor and Z-text model make it possible for instance to analyze Calvino’s description of the continuous city of Leonia that each days breaches through its boundaries of deposited waste at its circumference with these contemporary interpretations (Figure 2).
            </p>
            <p>Figure 2. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Invisible Cities</hi> Z-text. Level 1 (left), 2 (right). Calvino's text unfolding along different lines of “stratification”, the ""new-old"" divide and the ""textual-visual"" metamorphosis (the visual ""becoming"" of the text). The first level (left) contains fragments (z-lexias) conveying the meaning of ""new"" (through words like ""new"", ""renew""). By zooming-in (right), further elements from deeper levels can be surfaced, i.e. fragments entailing the idea of accumulation of ""old"" (including words such as “yesterday”, ""past"", “residue”, “remains”, ""garbage"", ""refuse"") or visual representations not belonging to the original text but imagined by various artists.
            </p>
            <p>Another ""rhizomatic"" expansion imagined via the model - along with the ""contextualization"" line ‐ enables other readings of Calvino’s work, both by critics and himself. Calvino in some occasions looks through the lens of the writer and in other moments through the eyes of the reader or editor and states “that the author’s view no longer counts” (Baldi, 2015; Calvino, 2015: 41-42). Calvino sometimes puts the Invisible Cities directly into context by referring to works that similarly are inspired by Marco Polo’s travels, such as the poem 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kubla Kahn</hi> (1798) of Samuel Taylor Coleridge or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Message from the Emperor</hi> (1919) by Franz Kafka. In other occasions references are indirect, for example when Calvino notes that the atlas of Kubla Kahn contains images of “lands visited in thought, but not yet discovered or founded: New Atlantis, Utopia, the City of the Sun [..]” (Calvino, 1997: 147). On a more detailed level the possibility of sideways movements becomes important when Calvino reacts to all those critics who underlined the importance of the closing sentence by claiming that the Invisible Cities is “a many facetted book” with “various possible ‘conclusions’” (Calvino, 1983: 41). By combining the zooming functionality with the representation of contextual information a Z-text becomes a multidimensional space of analysis (Figure 3).
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""59/image3.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Invisible Cities</hi> Z-text. Level 2 (top left), 3 (bottom left), 5 (right). “Multidimensional” exploration by switching perspectives. One can zoom-in to get the visual representation of a fragment (compare Figure 2) or, instead, change the perspective and zoom-in with a contextual magnifying glass and expand Calvino's text with Kafka's or Calvino's own comments on 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Invisible Cities</hi> (Kafka, 2012; Calvino, 1983).
            </p>
            <p>Such an interface may be useful for the analysis of the Invisible Cities when Calvino observes: “And yet, all these pages put together did not make a book: for a book (I think) is something which has a beginning and an end [..] It is a space which the reader must enter, wander round, maybe lose his way in, and eventually find an exit, or perhaps even several exits, [..]” (Calvino, 1983: 38). If we enter our concentric city of Leonia again, new associative perspectives pop up. We recognize Calvino’s reference to Kafka’s story of the Emperor’s messenger wanting to report about the death of Kubla Kahn by trying - breaking through the walls surrounding the palace, “the center of the world, piled high with its own refuse.” (Kafka, 2012: 28) However, another of Calvino’s references, the one to Campanella’s concentric walled City of the Sun allows to link the form of Leonia with images of built and not built fortified cities that are related to our second experiment dealing with levels of historical evidence of designs of citadels in the atlas of Lepoivre (compare Figure 5). This comparison is of interest since Calvino once considered a theme “Cities and Form”, but decided to merge it with those of other cities (Calvino, 1983: 38). </p>
            <p>Imaginary Depictions of An Existing City: Groningen (Netherlands)</p>
            <p>Renaissance ideal-fortress cities were ideally radial-concentric cities with a polygonal perimeter with angular bastions. Therefore circumscribing and inscribing circles played an essential role in designing fortified cities and citadels. The design of fortifications was not just functional. Fortification atlases were cultural artifacts amongst other books on architecture such as the Renaissance Vitruvius editions that often contained visual interpretations of the city described in the lost original manuscript. In this context also the four drawings based on the designs of the Italian engineer Bartolomeo Campi of the city and citadel of Groningen in the Atlas of Lepoivre of ca. 1624 must be seen (Heuvel, 1994: 1998) (Figure 4). </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""59/image4.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Lepoivre Atlas.</hi> Z-text layout (top), level 4 (bottom left); interpretation (bottom right). The imaginary space of historical representation can be traversed through layers corresponding to decreasing levels of historical evidence (top left) or to different perspectives (Campi/Aleotti and Agustino variants, top right).
            </p>
            <p>The detail of the bastion was probably directly copied after Campi’s design of 1570 (Heuvel, 1994). Lepoivre included a drawing after Campi’s design for a hexagonal citadel, but a pentagonal one was executed. The third drawing shows Groningen with the hexagonal citadel that never existed in that form and the fourth as a part of the Siege of Groningen in 1594, when the citadel that existed was already dismantled (Heuvel, 1998: 200). The Z-editor not only allows moving along the four different levels of historical evidence, but also to position these drawings (that we could call nowadays historical falsifications) between more and less imaginary depictions of existing and non existing cities (Figure 5). </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""59/image5.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 5. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Imaginary Cities</hi> Z-text. Level 1 (left), 2 (top right), 3 (bottom right). Traversal through the space of forms, following multiple exploration paths and connecting imaginary cities in literature (Calvino, Campanella) and in architectural treatises and theory (Vitruvius) with imaginary representations of existing cities in design (Lepoivre).
            </p>
            <p>The Z-text model and the digital humanities</p>
            <p> The Z-text model meets a wide array of new reading and analysis practices discussed in relation to the digital humanities. While the zooming function supports bridging distant and close reading by scalable reading (Mueller, 2012) the combination with contextualization on the various planes to read text and image from various perspectives coincides with notions of deep reading (Birkets, 1994). This combination allows for the creation of multiple levels of meaning and supports a continuously process of reinterpretation from multiple perspectives, contributing this way in developing digital hermeneutic methods (Capurro, 2010).</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Armaselu, F.</hi> (2014). The Layered Text. From Textual Zoom, Text Network Analysis and Text Summarisation to a Layered Interpretation of Meaning. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014 Conference Abstract EPFL-UNIL</hi>, Lausanne, Switzerland, pp. 79-82.  
                        <ref target=""http://dharchive.org/paper/DH2014/Paper-515.xml"">http://dharchive.org/paper/DH2014/Paper-515.xml</ref>. (accessed 2 March 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baldi, E. </hi>(2015). lL’ ochio che scrive. La dinamica dell’ imagine autoriale di Calvino nella critica italiana, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Incontri</hi> 2015, <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>: 22-33
                        <ref target=""http://www.rivista-incontri.nl"">www.rivista-incontri.nl</ref>
                        <hi rend=""Hyperlink""> (accessed 2 March 2016)</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Birkerts, S.</hi> (1994). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Gutenberg Elegies: the Fate of Reading in an Electronic Age</hi>, Faber and Faber, Boston (MA).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Capurro, R.</hi> (2010). Digital Hermeneutics: An outline.
                            <hi rend=""italic""> AI and Society</hi>, 2010, <hi rend=""bold"">35</hi>(1): 35-42, 
                        <ref target=""http://www.capurro.de/digitalhermeneutics.html"">http://www.capurro.de/digitalhermeneutics.html</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Calvino, I. </hi>(1972). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Le città invisibili</hi>, Einaudi, Turin.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Calvino, I.</hi> (1983). Italo Calvino on ‘Invisible Cities’. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Columbia: A Journal of Literature and Art</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>: 7-42.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""http://www.jstor.org/stable/41806854"">http://www.jstor.org/stable/41806854</ref> (accessed 2 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Calvino, I.</hi> (1997). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Invisible Cities. Translated from the Italian by William Weaver</hi>. London: Vintage Books.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heuvel, Charles van den</hi> (1994). Bartolomeo Campi successor to Francesco Paciotto. A different method of designing citadels: Groningen and Flushing. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Architetti e ingegneri militari italiani all'estero dal XV al XVIII secolo</hi>. Livorno-Roma, pp. 153-67.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heuvel, Charles van den</hi> (1998). Pierre Le Poivre (1546-1626). Engineer of the King and the Representation of Architecture, In W. Thomas, L. Duerloo, (Eds.), <hi rend=""italic"">Albrecht and Isabella. Essays</hi>. Turnhout, pp. 198-202. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kafka, F.</hi> (2012). A Message of the Emperor. In Franz Kafka,
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Hunger Artist and Other Studies. A new translation by Joyce Crick</hi>, World Classics 2012, 28. (First published 1919).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lepoivre, P.</hi> (1624). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Les Plans des Villes des Païs de Hennault, d’ Artois, de Breband, très noblemen descripts a la plume par l’ architecte Pierre Le Poivre</hi> etc. Brussels, Royal Library Albert I, Ms. 19611.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mueller, M.</hi> (2012). Scalable Reading. Dedicated to Data, digitally assisted text analysis, https://scalablereading.northwestern.edu/scalable-reading/ (accessed 2 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Panigrahi, S.</hi> (2014). Cities as Strata in Italo Calvino's Invisible Cities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Explicator</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">72</hi>(1): 23-7, doi: 10.1080/00144940.2013.875873.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pilz, K.</hi> (2003). Reconceptualising Thought and Space: Labyrinths and Cities in Calvino's Fictions. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Italica</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">80</hi>: 229-42, 
                        <ref target=""http://www.jstor.org/stable/30038769"">http://www.jstor.org/stable/30038769</ref> (accessed 2 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">ZoomImagine:</hi>
                        <ref target=""http://www.zoomimagine.com"">www.zoomimagine.com</ref> (accessed 2 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2440","17","Linguistic DNA: Modelling concepts and semantic change in English, 1500-1800","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Linguistic DNA is a collaboration by linguists, historians, and digital humanities specialists at the Universities of Sheffield, Glasgow and Sussex. Our aim is to explore the emergence and development of semantic concepts as they are realised in historic textual corpora through a combination of computational processing and data visualisation techniques. This poster outlines the project’s goals and methodology, describes the progress made towards those goals, and offers interim results. Prior to the era of big data, semantic research has relied on intuitive selection of concepts worthy for study and has drawn its evidence largely from canonical texts. The advent of large machine-readable textual collections opens the door to new methodologies for research in conceptual history, revolutionising our ability to extract information from such data sets. The Linguistic DNA project explores the use of these techniques for historical semantics, beginning with annotated corpora yet without a predetermined set of concepts to study, the intention being that through text processing and data visualisation, concepts should emerge ‘bottom-up’ out of collections that extend far beyond the canonical texts.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The main source of data for analysis is the Early English Books Online collection (henceforth EEBO)
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text"">
                        <ref target=""http://www.textcreationpartnership.org/tcp-eebo/"">http://www.textcreationpartnership.org/tcp-eebo/</ref>
                    </p>
                </note> and Eighteenth Century Collections Online (ECCO).
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p rend=""Normal1""> http://gdc.gale.com/products/eighteenth-century-collections-online/</p>
                </note> EEBO has been manually transcribed to high accuracy levels by the Text Creation Partnership (TCP) whilst ECCO is partly manually transcribed and partly OCR’d. All are to be annotated with lemma and part of speech information, although our process takes different inputs, and begins with cleaned text. These collections together consist of English-language material printed between the 15th and 18th centuries. Initial stages of investigation involve the development of a software tool or suite of tools to query the data and provide input for visualisation. The success of the visualisations is then evaluated by the project’s team of research associates, investigating patterns which emerge, seeking verification of these patterns through returning to the textual source material, and using the resulting insights as input for iterative improvement of the querying and visualisation processes.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">In the first year of the project, development of the query software has begun with assessment of the text for potentially challenging features, such as the difficulty posed by pre-standardisation spelling, inconsistent transcription practices, and atypical syntax. Also essential has been identification of the pre-processing required before the texts are analysed, and investigation of existing software packages that might be adapted and extended to meet our research goals. S-Space and BlackLab are examples of tools which might form part of a new pipeline, the components and algorithms of which will be developed by iterative experimentation. The processor will take account of different statistical measures starting with Pointwise Mutual Information, collecting data for a range of proximity windows to assess semantic relevance through distributional semantics techniques. Groups of words with strong patterns of association are output, which are then investigated as candidate concepts. In later stages the project will also use versions of the textual data annotated with sense codes based on the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Historical Thesaurus of English.</hi>
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                    <p rend=""Normal1""> Kay, Christian, Jane Roberts, Michael Samuels, Irené Wotherspoon, and Marc Alexander (eds.). 2015. The Historical Thesaurus of English, version 4.2. Glasgow: University of Glasgow. 
                        <ref target=""http://historicalthesaurus.arts.gla.ac.uk/"">http://historicalthesaurus.arts.gla.ac.uk/</ref>.
                    </p>
                </note> This facilitates disambiguation of the senses of homographs, as well as offering another means of assessing relationships between words. To maximise the ‘bottom-up’ approach to data analysis, the LDNA processor initially indexes and runs queries on every word in the corpus. This avoids presupposing concepts or key terms 
                <hi rend=""italic"">a priori</hi>.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Further evaluation will be conducted through the lens of three ‘research themes’. Research Theme 1, led by Professor Susan Fitzmaurice at the University of Sheffield, will contextualise the emergence and development of concepts within the historical situations which have instigated and shaped them. Research Theme 2, led by Dr Justyna Robinson at the University of Sussex, will investigate where the boundaries of concepts lie and the families of words which delineate and cross these boundaries. Research theme 3, led by Dr Marc Alexander at the University of Glasgow, will explore moments of rapid change in the lexical items used to instantiate concepts. The research themes begin their work once initial processor development has taken place, and case studies with preliminary findings will be included on the poster. The project runs until 2018.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The Linguistic DNA project is funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (project AH/M00614X/1).</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2441","17","Linguistic Variation In The Hebrew Bible: Digging Deeper Than The Word Level","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>One of the most discussed issues in Biblical studies in the past 15 years is the history of Biblical Hebrew. Standard works on this issue assume that one can distinguish between Archaic Biblical Hebrew, Early Biblical Hebrew and Late Biblical Hebrew (Saenz-Badillos; 2004, Hurvitz; 2013). This position has been challenged in a number of recent publications, in which the authors state that the variation that can be found in Biblical Hebrew is better explained by assuming that there have been different styles of Biblical Hebrew (Young, Rezetko and Ehrensvärd, 2008) in use throughout the biblical period, which is roughly the whole first millennium BCE. A complicating factor in the research on the biblical texts is that we know relatively little about their transmission in the centuries after their composition.</p>
            <p>In general the manuscript used for research on Biblical Hebrew is the Codex Leningradensis, which was created in 1008/1009 CE. There exist older manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible; by far the most important ones are those found in the Qumran Caves which can be dated to the beginning of the Common Era, but many of these manuscripts survive in a fragmentary state.</p>
            <p>Many studies on the diachrony of Biblical Hebrew are concerned with Hebrew vocabulary. These have resulted in long lists of early lexical items that were supposed to be replaced gradually by late alternatives. These late alternatives can often be identified as loans from languages like Aramaic and Persian (Young, Rezetko and Ehrensvärd, 2008).</p>
            <p>One of the problems of studying vocabulary as a gauge of linguistic change is that the vocabulary could have been manipulated easily during the process of transmission. Scribes could change words, thereby consciously archaizing the language of a text.</p>
            <p>In order to solve this problem, we study syntax instead of vocabulary. Forming sentences takes place on a less conscious level than choosing words, and therefore this is a better way of studying continuity and change in the history of Biblical Hebrew. In our study we investigate the use of prepositions accompanying a whole range of verbs. In the literature on linguistic variation in Biblical Hebrew the use of prepositions and other function words in various contexts has been studied before, but this has always been done in a very restricted way. Sometimes only a few biblical texts had been studied or the data had been extracted from one manuscript exclusively (Hornkohl, 2014:218-38).</p>
            <p>In our research we will focus on verbs of motion and on stationary verbs. In the former category we find verbs like בוא (bōʔ, to come), עלה (ʕālā, to go up) and יצא (yāṣā, to go out), in the latter we find verbs like ישב (yāšav, to sit) and עמד (ʕāmaḏ, to stand). These verbs have in common that in most cases they have a locative as complement, which is often introduced by a preposition (Oosting, Dyk and Glanz, to be published). It is known that various prepositions can be used with a given verb and this variation can be found in parallel texts in the Codex Leningradensis, within specific biblical books and between different manuscripts (Kutscher, 1974).</p>
            <p>The use of function words like prepositions is well known in authorship attribution (Argamon and Levitan; 2005, Garcia and Martin; 2007, Segarra, Eisen and Ribeiro; 2013), but in the case of ancient religious texts, detecting the author of a text is a controversial issue. Not only could texts have been adapted during the transmission of the complete text, also the composition of a text may have had a long history. Therefore we do not try to find the supposed author of a text, but based on the study of prepositions accompanying verbs of motion we would like to find out what is the main factor of the variation in the use of these prepositions. Is it related to diachronic development of the Hebrew language or to the way the texts were transmitted or both or are there still other options? We investigate these issues by comparing the thousands of instances of prepositions accompanying verbs of motion and stationary verbs in:</p>
            <p>1. different books in the Codex Leningradensis (Genesis, Exodus, etc.)</p>
            <p>2. different manuscripts (e.g. compare Isaiah in the Codex Leningradensis with the Great Isaiah Scroll)</p>
            <p>3. parallel texts.</p>
            <p>This kind of research can only be conducted in a proper way if the textual data is in place, not only for the research proper, but also for those who want to reproduce this research later on. Therefore we base our research on the Amsterdam Hebrew Text Database (Van Peursen et al., 2015). This database is Open Access and can be downloaded from DANS, a national research archive in the Netherlands. Without downloading, the material in the database can be accessed through the website SHEBANQ (<ref target=""https://shebanq.ancient-data.org"">https://shebanq.ancient-data.org</ref> and Roorda, 2015b). Here the text of the Codex Leningradensis can be browsed, and while doing so, the user has access to a wealth of annotations that represent linguistic information and additional observations. In particular, there is an extensive set of cross-reference annotations between virtually all parallel passages (Roorda, 2015a). With the help of clustering techniques and entropy calculations we are investigating the challenge of linguistic variation in Biblical Hebrew and the transmission of the biblical texts. Results of others (Hornkohl, 2014:218-38, Rezetko and Young, 2014:380-83) and ourselves show that this approach leads to significant progress in our understanding of these issues.</p>
            <p>The relevance of this research for digital humanities in general is that it explores challenges such as working with ancient languages of which we have only fragmentary evidence and (religious) texts with a long history of composition and transmission. While there is a lot of literature on these issues in traditional studies, it is clear that digital methods of research have not been pursued to their full potential yet.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Argamon, S. and Levitan, S.</hi> (2005). Measuring the usefulness of function words for authorship attribution, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Joint Conference of the Association for Computers and the Humanities and the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Garcia, A. M. and Martin, J. C.</hi> (2007). Function Words in Authorship Attribution Studies,
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>(1): 49-66.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hornkohl, A. D.</hi> (2014).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ancient Hebrew Periodization and the Language of the Book of Jeremiah: the Case for a Sixth-Century Date of Composition</hi>, Leiden: Brill.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hurvitz, A.</hi> (2013). <hi rend=""italic"">Late Biblical Hebrew</hi>, Khan.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Khan, G. (ed.)</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics</hi>,  Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>, Leiden, Brill, 2013.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kutscher, E. Y.</hi> (1974).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Language and Linguistic Background of the Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa),</hi> STDJ 6. Leiden, Brill.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Oosting, R., Dyk, J. and Glanz, O.,</hi> Valence Patterns of Motion Verbs, Semantics, Syntax and Linguistic Variation, to be published.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Roorda, D.</hi> (2015a). Parallel Passages, https://shebanq.ancient-data.org/tools?goto=parallel
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Roorda, D.</hi> (2015b). The Hebrew Bible as Data: Laboratory - Sharing – Experience, 
                        <ref target=""http://arxiv.org/abs/1501.01866"">http://arxiv.org/abs/1501.01866</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Saenz Badillos, A.</hi> (2004).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A History of the Hebrew Language</hi>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Segarra, S., Eisen, E. and Ribeiro, A.</hi> (2013). Authorship Attribution Using Function Words Adjacency Networks,
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proc. Int. Conf. Acoustics Speech Signal Processing</hi>: 5563-5567.
                     </bibl>
                     <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">SHEBANQ</hi>, https://shebanq.ancient-data.org
                     </bibl>
                     <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Peursen, W. T., et al.</hi> (2015).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Hebrew Text Database ETCBC4b</hi>. DANS. http://dx.doi.org/10.17026/dans-z6y-skyh
                     </bibl>
                     <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Young, I., Rezetko, R. and Ehrensvärd, M.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Linguistic Dating of Biblical Texts</hi>, 2 volumes, London: Equinox Publishing.
                     </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2442","17","Linking Graph With Map For The Purpose Of Historical Research","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Historical data exploration tool - the middle ages moravian nobility case study</p>
            <p>Studies over connectedness of acquired data and their dependence on space and time offer us deeper knowledge of the historical period and also new possibilities of research. In the classical historical science, scholars rarely explore the area between geography (in particular the dependency of phenomenons and people on the environment) and history (social and genealogical context). Thus, we want to create a tool, which allows a parallel observation of geographical and social connections. For this purpose, we will use an experimental data sample of the Moravian nobility in the high and late middle ages. Studies of social elites and their land property offer good conditions for merging several approaches. Simultaneously, there are some difficulties based primarily on the nature of the dataset.     </p>
            <p>The key part for the creation of a reliable model is the quality of temporal and spatial aspects of the historical data on input. In the 13th century, predicates (nicknames based on the nobility’s place of  residence) are spreading through the Bohemian lands . Since then we have information about their domains, castles, and strongholds. Further parts of domain as villages were recorded very rarely, because nobility does not need physical documents of their property ownership or property transactions. In contrast, donations from the ruler to the nobility are in better shape. The ecclesiastical institutions have the most detailed evidence of the property because individual monasteries regularly recorded all of their ownership. It was legal protection against a possibility of usurpation by the nobility. The Church evidence can help us with the reverse reconstruction of some nobility estates - if a nobleman had donated or established a monastery or a church. Simultaneously to these phenomenons, the numbers of noblemen began rising and their properties allow us their inclusion into the wider social linkage (as a lineage). </p>
            <p>Qualitative change, in field of usable data, brought year 1348, when Land tables (and registry for real estates) was reformed. Two registers for each part of the territory (with capitals in Brno and Olomouc) were established. So called “desky trhové” (libri contractuum, quaterni contractuum) theoretically capture all of the transactions of hereditary estates. Suddenly, we can explore the world of minor trades and speculations of the high and lower nobility, which primarily had not been selling whole domains or at least villages to the Church, but, on the contrary, they had been selling fields or part of villages and their accessories - courts, mills, taverns, and ponds. Next series of the Land book  called “knihy půhonné” (libri citationum, quaterni citationum) show us accusations between nobility and in many cases also decisions of the Land Court. Most of the entries is related to a controversial property or unlawful occupancy of villages or their parts, which shows us how much uncertain the property law was. However, accusations about bandit behavior (siege of castles and strongholds, conquering villages, robbery and capturing of subjects) are very rare. Number of social links compared to previous era grew exponentially and for the first time we can observe the nobility as a quarrelling community. </p>
            <p>All these specificities of mentioned historical data brought us to an idea of developing an exploratory application that would provide all necessary methods to get a new insight to these datasets. The application itself is based on the combination of modern web technologies (html5 canvas, javascript, d3, leaflet...), visualization techniques and statistical methods. This could bring an complex overview of historical datasets and provide an ideal way to study “hidden” relations. The spatial distribution of data is best explored with the map. For exploration of temporal aspect, the map has to be extended with some cartographic methods and visualization techniques: animation, brushing, filtering or highlighting. These techniques could also be used in the graph view of this application as graph is the most effective way to display and analyse relations over our dataset. In our prototype we will also provide a timeline view which will display the temporal aspect only. The main advantage of this timeline is the possibility to show both duration and existence of phenomenon in particular dates.</p>
            <p>This application could be used for further relevant historical research but also as a demonstration of the potential of linking different visualization techniques for extending the functions of historical data exploration. Presented tool will be available on hde.geogr.muni.cz. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""502/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig1 : The scheme of the prototype application</head>
            </figure>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Andrienko</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">N. and Andrienko G.</hi> (2006).<hi rend=""italic""> Exploratory Analysis of Spatial and Temporal Data: A Systematic Approach.</hi> Berlin ; New York: Springer.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chen, C., Härdle, W. K. and Unwin, A</hi>. (2007).<hi rend=""italic""> Handbook of data visualization. Springer Science & Business Media.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jullien, E.</hi> (2013). Netzwerkanalyse in der Mediävistik. Probleme und Perspektiven im Umgang mit mittelalterlichen Quellen.<hi rend=""italic""> Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte,</hi> <hi rend=""bold""> 100</hi>(2): 135–53.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Von Lünen, A., Travis, C. (eds). </hi> (2013). <hi rend=""italic""> History and GIS: Epistemologies, Considerations and Reflection.</hi>  Springer, Dordrecht.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Turchin, P., Grinin, L., de Munck, V., Korotayev, A. (eds).</hi> (2006). History & Mathematics. <hi rend=""italic"">Historical Dynamics and Development of Complex Societies.</hi> KomKniga, Moscow.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2443","17","Literary Concepts: The Past and the Future","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>
                    <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-e689e853-4dce-254d-343b-f6143522f691""/>Introduction
                </head>
                <p>The methodical discussions on 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">distant reading</hi> (Moretti, 2013) or 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">macroanalysis</hi> (Jockers, 2013) have contributed to the awareness of quantitative methods in literary studies, a discipline which many assumed to be the last (and impregnable) stand against the onslaught of quantitative approaches in the Humanities. But actually this late fame is built upon many years of research. Over the last decades, research has been done on style, on aspects of the fictional world like plot and character, on aspects of text groups like genre or historical discourses etc. Most of the research in these fields follows by and large an empirical paradigm. Thus the situation in literary studies is structurally similar to the situation in social science disciplines like psychology or sociology in the past. All of them were using mainly hermeneutical approaches (including some anti-hermeneutical approaches using the same basic methods) until at some point new researchers introduced empirical methods into the field. Interestingly enough, in each case the adoption of empirical methods and the restructuring of the discipline followed its own logic and produced a unique history. In psychology, non empirical methods have been marginalized, and in sociology there is mix of quantitative and qualitative research. This very rough outline does not do justice to the many negotiations and disruptions in the fields, but it is enough to substantiate a point: the adoption of empirical methods in literary studies will probably also be a rather unique story. At the moment, we are right in the middle of it. It seems that empirical methods applied to one or very few texts haven’t yet yielded results interesting to larger parts of the fields – with the notable exception of stylometry – while their application to many texts opens up new research possibilities interesting to many. As far as we can see, literary studies is thus in a similar position as some other disciplines in the humanities, they also have their own history of adoption of empirical methods (like linguistics) or are now right in the middle of it.
                </p>
                <p>In this situation, this panel wants to reflect on one aspect of this process: what happens to central concepts of a discipline in these negotiations and disruptions. We want to discuss questions like these:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Do literary concepts change when DH researchers use them in their (empirical) research? </item>
                    <item>If they change, how does this change look like? Can we see commonalities beyond the individual research problems marked by the concepts?</item>
                    <item>Using concepts from literary studies in quantitative methods seems to foreground the aspect that many of these concepts are compound and complex notions while empirical research has a pull towards simple, clearly defined notions. If this is true, how do the results of empirical studies translate back to the hermeneutical field? </item>
                    <item>Can DH researchers contribute to the ongoing theoretical discussions of these concepts at all and how? </item>
                    <item>And finally: Does this tell us something new about the implications DH research has on theoretical concepts from the Humanities?</item>
                    <item>We will discuss these question on the basis of five concepts: Genre, Translator, Text, Character and Topic. Each of these concepts has played a role in a sequence of studies using quantitative methods and thus they provide an excellent basis for the theoretical questions we raise.</item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Text (Maciej Eder)</head>
                <p>Text as a theoretical concept became obvious for the librarians in ancient Alexandria, who realized that various copies of the same literary work tend to differ, in terms of several textual variants introduced in various papyri (Turner, 2014). This led to the idea of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">archetype</hi> (an ideal representation of the “original”) that shines through 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">imperfect copies</hi>. Since then, philology became an art of textual archeology, where the editor played the role of a demiurge and the author’s advocate. In the era of electronic resources, this concept has changed substantially, not only in digital scholarly editions, but also in quantitative text analysis. Traditionally understood as a vehicle of (hypothesized) authorial intention, the text became a sequence of characters bearing some information. A careful philological attitude towards author’s words was replaced by: (1) distant reading, which in fact means analysis involving 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">no reading</hi> at all, (2) focusing on the most frequent words rather than on elaborated rare vocabulary, (3) distorting the original word order by applying the “bag-of-words” model of analysis, (4) high tolerance to textual errors, e.g. imperfect OCR. Such a deep redefinition, however, allows for assessing the history of literature on an unprecedented scale (Moretti, 2013; Jockers, 2013).
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Genre (Karina van Dalen-Oskam)</head>
                <p>Main literary genres such as poetry, play, and novel are divided into different subgenres (mostly called “genres” in daily use). The advances in digital corpora and stylometric tools have broadened the genres that are being studied. Science fiction researchers Nichols et al. in 2014 severely criticized genre theory, stating that it has made ‘little tractable progress answering the questions “what is a genre?” and “How is one genre distinguished from others?” in the previous decades’. Nichols et al. discussed the development of a methodology to test genre-related hypotheses in a verifiable and falsifiable way, focusing on science fiction and fantasy. They made use of readers’ responses and text analysis to find out how subgenres can actually be distinguished. Elsewhere, Jannidis and Lauer (2014) presented a quantitative analysis in which genre played a role. Using Burrows’s Delta on (amongst others) the work of Goethe, they showed that this highly successful method for authorship attribution also works well in distinguishing genres, confirming research by others in this area. This should lead to renewed attention for what a genre is and how genres can be distinguished, thus fulfilling what Willard McCarty wrote in 2010: “Computing machines and scholarly intelligence change each other, recursively”.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Character (Fotis Jannidis)</head>
                <p>The concept of “character” has been intensively researched in the last 20 years. Building on (or fighting against) ideas from the 1960s and 1970s there have been proposals to conceive “character” more as sign or more as a mental model. In digital literary studies there have been attempts to apply these results directly (Zöllner-Weber, 2008), preserving the complexity of the models but basically presupposing a manual analysis of the text. Social network analysis on the other hand provides tools to analyse many and complex social networks and has been applied successfully to plays and novels offering an insight into character constellations (Elson et al., 2010; Trilcke and Fischer, 2015). In this context the question how to identify references to characters in a text, which seemed trivial to traditional literary studies, has been researched in depth emphasizing the difference to named entities in non-fictional texts like news (Elson, 2012: chap 2.4). A recent attempt to address the issue of character types (Bamman et al., 2014) also shows the widening gap between the different modes of modeling literary concepts which will make it difficult to introduce these results into the mainstream discussion on characters.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Translator (Jan Rybicki)</head>
                <p>Already some of the earliest ventures into the stylometry of translated texts focused on the balance between the translatorial and authorial voices. For a while, it seemed that Venuti’s concept of translator invisibility (1995) found vindication in stylometric analysis: in machine-learning classification experiments, translated texts tended to group according to the original author rather than the translator – surprisingly so, since the results were based on translator-generated most frequent words that have little one-on-one correspondence to those in the original (Rybicki, 2012). The application of new visualization methods such as network analysis has allowed to bring out the signal of the translator. The main challenge now is to identify the mechanism of the interaction between the two. Possible directions in this respect include expansion of linguistic features used in analyses, comparison of topic models obtained for originals and their translations, application of text reuse detection tools to translations of the same text and, at the same time, further attempts to bridge the gap between empirical evidence and linguistic theory.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Topic (Christof Schöch)</head>
                <p>When topic modeling (Blei, 2003) was transferred from information retrieval in expository prose to literary studies, it brought with it the promise of a sophisticated access to the themes in large collections of literary texts. However, “theme” and “topic” are far from identical (Schmidt, 2012; Rhody, 2012): rather, the semantic relation between words grouped in a topic may concern, among others, personnel, setting, narrative motives, or metatextuality as well as (depending on preprocessing) character names, specific registers, or foreign-language terms. Usually, only a minority of topics represent abstract themes. This can partly be explained by the fact that literary texts, unlike expository prose, frequently enact rather than explicitly discuss their most important themes. It also shows that, unlike literary scholars, topic modeling does not distinguish background and foreground information. Finally, the fact that topic modeling is entirely unsupervised and data-driven challenges established hermeneutic strategies. Nevertheless, it seems that established concepts from literary studies such as motive, setting, personnel and metatextuality may help better appreciate the complexity of topic models derived from literary texts. While literary texts challenge any simple understanding of topics, literary studies appears well-equipped to deal with their complexity. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bamman, D., Underwood, T. and Smith, N. A.</hi> (2014). A Bayesian Mixed Effects Model of Literary Character. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 52nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics</hi>, pp. 370–79.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. M.</hi> (2012). Probabilistic Topic Models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communications of the ACM</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">55</hi>(4): 77–84. doi:10.1145/2133806.2133826.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elson, D., Dames, N. and McKeown, K.</hi> (2010). Extracting social networks from literary fiction. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 48th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics</hi>, pp. 138–47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elson, D.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Modeling Narrative Discourse</hi>. PhD Thesis, New York City: Columbia University.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jannidis, F. and Lauer, G.</hi> (2014). Burrows's Delta and its use in German literary history. In Erlin, M. and Tatlock, L. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Distant Readings – Descriptive Turns: Topologies of German Culture in the Long Nineteenth Century</hi>. Rochester: Camden House, pp. 29–54.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Macroanalysis. Digital methods and literary history</hi>. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCarty, W.</hi> (2010). Introduction. In McCarty, W. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text and Genre in Reconstruction: Effects of Digitization on Ideas, Behaviours, Products and Institutions</hi>. Cambridge (UK): OpenBook Publishers, pp. 1–11.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Distant Reading</hi>. London: Verso.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nichols, R., Lynn, J. and Grant Purzycki, B.</hi> (2014). Toward a science of science fiction: Applying quantitative methods to genre individuation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scientific Study of Literature</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>(1): 25–45.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rhody, L. M.</hi> (2012). Topic Modeling and Figurative Language. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1). 
                        <ptr target=""http://bit.ly/1Rmy5n3""/>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rybicki, J.</hi> (2012). The great mystery of the (almost) invisible translator. In: Oakes, M. P. and Ji, M. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Quantitative Methods in Corpus-Based Translation Studies: A Practical Guide to Descriptive Translation Research</hi>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 231–48.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Trilcke, P. and Fischer, F.</hi> (2015). Digital Network Analysis of Dramatic Texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH 2015 Abstracts</hi>. 
                        <ptr target=""http://bit.ly/1M4klcR""/>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Turner, J.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Philology: The Forgotten Origins of the Modern Humanities</hi>. Princeton University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, B. M.</hi> (2012). Words Alone: Dismantling Topic Models in the Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1). 
                        <ptr target=""http://bit.ly/1aR0TUo""/>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Venuti, L.</hi> (1995). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Translator’s Invisibility. A History of Translation</hi>. London and New York: Routledge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zöllner-Weber, A.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Noctua literaria – A Computer-Aided Approach for the Formal Description of Literary Characters Using an Ontology</hi>. PhD Thesis, Universität Bielefeld. 
                        <ref target=""http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:361-13097"">urn:nbn:de:hbz:361-13097</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2444","17","Mapping the Bentham Corpus","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>University College London (UCL) owns a large corpus of the philosopher and social reformer Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832). Until recently, these papers were for the most part untranscribed, so that very few people had access to the corpus to evaluate its content and its value. The corpus is now being digitized and transcribed thanks to a large number of volunteers recruited through a crowd-sourcing initiative called Transcribe Bentham (Causer and Terras, 2014a, 2014b). </p>
                <p>The problem researchers are facing with such a corpus is clear: how to access the content, how to structure these 30,000 files, and how to get relevant access to this mass of data? Our goal has thus been to produce an automatic analysis procedure aiming at providing a general characterization of the content of the corpus. We are more specifically interested in identifying the main topics and their structure so as to provide meaningful static and dynamic representations of their evolution over time. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Comparison with other works</head>
                <p>The exploration of large corpora in the Humanities is a known problem for today’s scholars. For example, the recent PoliInformatics challenge addressed the issue by promoting a framework to develop new and original research in text-rich domains (the project focused on political science but can be extended to any sub-field within the Humanities). </p>
                <p>Specific experiments have recently been done in the field of philosophy, but they mainly concern the analysis of metadata, like indexes or references (Lamarra and Tardella, 2014; Sula and Dean, 2014). Different experiments have nevertheless involved an exploration of large amounts of textual data (see e.g. Diesner and Carley, 2005 on the Enron corpus) with relevant visualization interfaces (Yanhua et al., 2009). </p>
                <p>In this paper, we propose to explore more advanced natural language processing techniques to extract keywords and filter them according to an external ontology, so as to obtain a more relevant indexing of the documents before visualization. We also explore dynamic representations, which were not addressed in the above-mentioned studies. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Corpus exploration strategy</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>The Text analysis module</head>
                    <p>Different scripts have been developed to filter the corpus
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                            <p> For example, Bentham sometimes used French in his correspondence and these texts are eliminated via automatic language detection, since we focus on English in this experiment. </p>
                        </note>. Then documents are assigned a date whenever possible: Since the corpus mostly contains notes and letters, the first date mentioned in the document often refers to the date of the document’s composition (even if this assumption is of course not always true). A large number of documents cannot be assigned a date and are thus not used for the dynamic analysis of the corpus. 
                    </p>
                    <p>To index the corpus and identify meaningful concepts, we first tried to directly extract relevant keywords from the texts. However, traditional techniques like the use of tf-idf (Salton et al., 1983) and c-value (Frantzi et al., 2000) do not seem very efficient in our case. This is not too surprising: it is well known that texts are too ambiguous to provide a sound basis for a direct semantic extraction. Surface variations, the use of synonyms and hyponyms, linguistic ambiguity and other factors constitute strong obstacles for the task. We thus decided to use natural language processing techniques that provide relevant tools to overcome some of these limitations. The tools we employed are either web-based or possible to execute on a personal computer with average specs. </p>
                    <p>We tried to refine concept extraction by confronting the text with an external, structured database. We used DBpedia (Auer et al., 2007) as a source of structured knowledge (DBpedia is a database made of information extracted from Wikipedia). DBpedia is not a specialized source of information but this guarantees that the approach is not domain or author specific and could be easily used for other corpora. We then used the DBpedia Spotlight Web Service (Mendes et al., 2012; Daiber et al., 2013) to make the connexion between the corpus and DBpedia concepts. This leads to a much more fine grained and relevant analysis than possible with an entirely data-driven keyword extraction. </p>
                    <p>Based on the outputs of Spotlight, only concepts that occurred at least 100 times, and with a confidence value of at least 0.1 were kept. Spotlight outputs a confidence value between 0 and 1 for each annotation; a 0.1 threshold removes clearly unreliable annotations while maintaining good coverage. Tagging the full corpus with Spotlight (ca. 30,000 documents) took over 24 hours. We called the Spotlight service one document at a time; parallelizing the process can decrease processing time.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>The visualization module</head>
                    <p>Once relevant concepts are identified, one wants to produce relevant text representations so as to provide a usable interface to end users. We present here three different kinds of interfaces that show the possible exploitation of the analysis described above. </p>
                    <p>The corpus is first indexed in a Solr search index
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                            <p> https://lucene.apache.org/solr/</p>
                        </note> and accessible through a graphical end-user interface. It is possible to query the corpus by date, using Solr’s faceted search functions
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                            <p> https://wiki.apache.org/solr/SolrFacetingOverview</p>
                        </note> (see figure 1).
                    </p>
                    <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""242/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
                        <head>Figure 1: Search interface: users can search via year extracted from the text, which in most cases is the year of writing, allowing users to see texts (especially correspondence) in chronological order.</head>
                    </figure>
                    </p>
                    <p>It is also possible to cluster together related keywords, so as to get access to homogeneous sub-parts of the corpora representing specific subfields of Bentham’s activity (see figure 2). </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""242/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Figure 2: the main topics addressed in the corpus, based on clusters of concepts, showing the main concerns of Bentham's writings, which map closely onto established research areas in Bentham studies. The network was produced by Cortext; colours and fonts were reformatted in Gephi based on Cortext’s gexf-format export
                            <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                                <p> https://gephi.github.io/</p>
                            </note>
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>Dynamic maps are also possible, to see for example the evolution of the different topics addressed in the corpus over time (see figure 3). </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""242/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Figure 3: A dynamic view of the corpus, computed with the Cortext plarform 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">(tubes layout)</hi>, with the evolution of the main topics addressed over time
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Scholarly benefits of these tools for the Transcribe Bentham project</head>
                <p>Since 1958, UCL's Bentham Project has been producing the new, critical edition of the “Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham”. The edition is expected to run to some eighty volumes, the thirty-third of which has recently been sent to the press. The “Collected Works” is based upon texts, which Bentham published during his lifetime, and unpublished texts, which exist in manuscript. It is a major task: UCL's Bentham Papers runs to some 75,000 manuscript pages, while the British Library's has a further 25,000 or so pages. About 40,000 pages have been transcribed to date and, while UCL's award-winning 'Transcribe Bentham' initiative has helped to significantly increase the pace of transcription, a great deal more work needs to be done.</p>
                <p>The first task in producing a volume of the “Collected Works” based upon texts in manuscript is to identify all the relevant pages. Bentham Project editorial staff use the Bentham Papers Database Catalogue, which indexes the manuscript collection by sixteen headings, including date, main heading, subject heading(s), author(s), and so forth. It is, however, entirely possible to miss relevant manuscripts using this method. The subject maps produced for this research promise to complement traditional Bentham Project methods; for instance, Bentham's work on political economy encompasses topics as varied as income tax to colonisation, and the subject maps will make it more straightforward to investigate the nexus between these, and other, subjects.</p>
                <p>The dynamic corpus view, showing the evolution of topics addressed over time, could also prove useful in editorial work as can be shown in two examples. First, an editor at the Bentham Project is currently working on Bentham's writings on convict transportation, though there is some confusion over when exactly Bentham first broached the topic. The dynamic corpus view could help to clear up whether it was only around 1802 when Bentham wrote about transportation, or if he had investigated the subject in any great detail during the 1790s. Second, Bentham became more radical as he aged, and several Bentham scholars have sought to identify the point at which Bentham abandoned his earlier conservatism and 'converted' to political radicalism, and representative democracy; an analysis of Bentham's language at the turn of the century would be instructive in helping clarify this matter.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>In this paper, we have presented a first attempt to give a relevant access to a large interdisciplinary corpus in the domain of philosophy, law and history. We have shown that using tools in concept clustering and visualization can provide an alternative way to navigate large-scale corpora, and confirm and visualise scholarly approaches to large scale textual corpora. Exploring how these tools can be effectively used with a corpus such as Bentham's indicates these methods are applicable to other sources as well.</p>
                <p>In the near future, we are planning to refine the linguistic analysis in order to give better representations of the textual content of the corpus. We are also planning experiments with end-user to evaluate in more details the solution and the visualisation techniques used so far in this project. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Acknowledgements</head>
                <p>We want to thank IDEX PSL (Paris Sciences et Lettres, ref. ANR-10-IDEX-0001-02 PSL) as well as the labex TransferS (laboratoire d’excellence, ANR-10-LABX-0099) for supporting this research. Lastly, we would like to thank the reviewers for their insightful comments on the paper. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Auer, S.</hi> (2007). DBpedia: A nucleus for a web of open data. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Semantic Web</hi>. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Causer, T. and Terras, M. </hi>(2014a). Many hands make light work. Many hands together make merry work: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Transcribe Bentham </hi>and crowdsourcing manuscript collections. In Ridge, M. 
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Crowdsourcing Our Cultural Heritage</hi>, Farnham: Ashgate.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Causer, T. and Terras, M.</hi> (2014b). Crowdsourcing Bentham: Beyond the Traditional Boundaries of Academic History, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(1): 46-64. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Daiber, J., Jakob, M., Hokamp, C. and Mendes, P.</hi> (2013). Improving Efficiency and Accuracy in Multilingual Entity Extraction. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Semantic Systems (I-Semantics)</hi>, Graz. 
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Diesner, J. and Carley, K. </hi>(2005). Exploration of Communication Networks from the Enron Email Corpus. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of SIAM International Conference on Data Mining, Newport Beach: Workshop on Link Analysis, Counterterrorism and Security</hi>, pp. 3- 14,.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Frantzi, K., Ananiadou, S. and Mima H.</hi> (2000). Automatic recognition of multi-word terms:. the C-value/NC-value method. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal on Digital Libraries</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(2): 115. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lamarra, A. and Tardella, M.</hi> (2014). Theophilo. A prootype for a thesaurus of philosophy. Lausanne: <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mendes, P., Daiber, J., Rajapakse, R., Sasaki, F. and Bizer, C.</hi> (2012). Evaluating the Impact of Phrase Recognition on Concept Tagging. Istanbul: <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2012)</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Salton, G., Fox, E. and Wu, H. </hi>(1983). Extended Boolean information retrieval. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communications of the ACM 26.11</hi>, pp. 1022-36.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sula, C. and Dean, W.</hi> (2014). Visualization of Historical Knowledge structures: an Analysis of the Bibliography of Philosophy. Lausanne: <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Yanhua, C., Lijun, W., Ming, D. and Jing, H.</hi> (2009). Exemplar-based Visualization of Large Document Corpus.<hi rend=""italic""> IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics</hi> (InfoVis2009), <hi rend=""bold"">15</hi>(6): 1161-68.
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            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2445","17","Modeling as Discourse: The case for 3D","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>In 2004, Willard McCarty characterized the Digital Humanities as “an experimental practice”, with modeling at its core: “the way to a computing that is 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">of</hi> as well as
                    <hi rend=""italic""> in</hi> the humanities: a continual process of coming to know by manipulating representations” (McCarty, 2004). McCarty’s proposition embraced the open-endedness of models, yet this quality tends to be forgotten in the face of 3D’s sensory immediacy, with the result that such models tend to be perceived as static. Diane Favro, a longtime proponent of 3D modeling for architectural historical research, has acknowledged that “while observers intellectually acknowledge that the virtual re-creation is an approximation, not a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">doppelgänger</hi> for a past reality, this concept is almost immediately subsumed by the experiential power of the presentation” (Favro, 2006). This seems to hold true regardless of the model’s realism. Recent attempts to mitigate this effect emphasize the metadata and decision making processes behind 3D models, whose claim to scholarship is substantiated by virtue of their being supported by a database of textual, graphic, and quantitative sources (Saldaña, 2015). Anyone who has worked on 3D historical models, however, can attest that the act of compiling and layering of source data only reinforces the ultimate inability of such multiplicitous archives to present a coherent picture of the past on their own terms, let alone generate a truly representational or mimetic 3D model. Despite this, it is difficult to prevent even the database-driven 3D model from slipping back to the mode of uncritical simulation.
                </p>
                <p>Simulation intentionally obscures the digital means of production in order to present a more convincing version of reality, in the service of a predetermined purpose. The origins of virtual reality simulation are coincident with the post-WWII military-industrial complex, with military training schemes being some of the primary instigators and funders of computer graphics simulation research (Penny, 2004). The anti-discursive nature of simulations is embedded in their interfaces, which invite the observer to experience the space in as natural a manner as possible, whether through embodied movement or the abstracted kinesis of mouse clicks. The pedagogical implications for academia are clear. VR training programs used in medicine, aviation, and the military rely on the repetitive, unthinking response of users to train them in a particular behavior (Penny, 2004). But what of the open-endedness of the humanistic modeling project? The automatic assumption that 3D space maps real space obscures the relationship of 3D modeling with critical theories of modeling practice in the humanities. Can 3D models be recouped from the totalizing logic of simulation?</p>
                <p>This paper attempts to access this underexplored theoretical potential of 3D by proposing a reconceptualization of 3D modeling in the Foucauldian sense of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">discourse, </hi>rather than representation. Foucault’s idea of discourse was not meant to uncover an underlying definitive meaning of a given text or object, that elusive “knowledge” to which so many scholarly 3D models aspire. Rather, discourse is meant to uncover the “rules that are revealed when an object of discourse is modified and transformed”, which often involve implicit power structures (Philp, 2013). 3D digital models, which embed and incorporate many types of information, have the capacity to bring these layers of knowledge into dialogue with each other so that the underlying assumptions inscribed in them are revealed. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Case Studies</head>
                <p>This paper will examine two of the author’s projects as ongoing attempts to mine the discursive power of 3D modeling in different ways. The first case study is an exploration of the vocabularies of ancient Roman architecture at Magnesia on the Maeander. The project directly engages with the concept of ‘rules’ that allow the formation of discourse as a “system of possibility for knowledge” (Philp, 2013). In the context of procedural modeling, the methodology used here, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">rule </hi>is a technical term denoting the scripts that generate 3D visualizations, and it also accurately describes the heuristic process of modeling. In writing the procedural rules, the modeler seeks to match a proleptic model with a mimetic one, continually negotiating the gaps between conjecture and representation. This process becomes discourse when the rules that result begin to delineate the shape of knowledge formation itself. Procedural modeling goes part of the way towards formulating a discursive approach to the process of modeling. As a finished product, however, 3D procedural models are indistinguishable from their non-discursive counterparts (Fig.1). 
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""360/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>Fig.1 3D procedural model of the Hellenistic city of Magnesia on the Maeander</p>
                <p>Another possible answer involves dissolving the link between 3D space and representational space. The second case study is an application built in the Processing development environment that takes as its object of study the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Manhattan Transcripts</hi> by Bernard Tschumi (Tschumi, 1981). Like the archaeological data behind the 3D city model of Magnesia, the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Manhattan Transcripts</hi> comprises different representational modes to form a narrative that leaves many gaps open to interpretation. Originally displayed as an exhibition and later published as a book, Tschumi’s work contains 24 sets of 3 images for the same event, expressed as plan, diagram, and rendering. The digital application attempts to bring these images into dialogue with each other through the medium of 3D space by separating them and recombining them in various ways (Fig.2). 3D space here serves the discursive function of exposing the images’ areas of overlap and discordance in combinations and sequences not possible on the printed page or gallery wall. The sets of photographs, drawings, and movement diagrams can be viewed side-by-side or as semi-transparent layers thus making it easier to investigate the correspondences and differences between each representational mode. In addition, the images can be viewed all together or sorted by medium. Using the keyboard, the images can be cycled like frames in a film, highlighting Tschumi’s own references to the medium of cinema.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <graphic url=""360/image2.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <graphic url=""360/image3.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                </p>
                <p>Fig. 1 Screenshots from the ‘Manhattan Transcripts’ 3D environment </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusions</head>
                <p>The use of 3D media in the humanities has come of age in the last 15 years and its function as a critical apparatus is still in the process of development. Projects that treat 3D models as more than representational tools have the capacity to expand and illuminate this increasingly widespread form of digital culture. Particularly important is the need for theoretical discourse that resists the intentionality of 3D simulations and provides alternative modes of generative, non-determinant modeling. The case studies mentioned in this paper are but two partial answers to this challenge, part of a growing effort by a contingent of artists and researchers interested in the critical potential of 3D models.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCarty, W.</hi> (2004). Modeling: A Study in Words and Meanings. In Schreibman, S., Siemens, R., and Unworth, J. (Eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Humanities</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Penny, S.</hi> (2004). Representation, Enaction, and the Ethics of Simulation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Electronic Book Review, </hi>
                        <ref target=""http://www.electronicbookreview.com/thread/firstperson/machanimate"">http://www.electronicbookreview.com/thread/firstperson/machanimate</ref>
                        <hi rend=""Hyperlink""> (accessed 5 March 2016)</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Philp, M.</hi> (1990). Michel Foucault. In Skinner, Q. (Ed). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Return of Grand Theory in the Human Sciences</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Saldaña, M.</hi> (2015). An Integrated Approach to the Procedural Modeling of Ancient Cities and Buildings. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities, </hi>30, Suppl. <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>: 48-63.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tschumi, B.</hi> (1981). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Manhattan Transcripts</hi>. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2446","17","Printing in a Periphery: a Quantitative Study of Finnish Knowledge Production, 1640-1828","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p rend=""normal"">This paper presents a transparent and quantitative analysis of the overall development of Finnish book production between 1640-1828. The work is based on automated information extraction from library catalogues, and introduces the concept of open analytical ecosystems as a novel research tool for digital humanities. This extends our earlier pilot project on the use of the English Short Title (ESTC) catalogue (
                <ref target=""https://github.com/rOpenGov/estc/blob/master/inst/examples/20151023-LIBER.md"">https://github.com/rOpenGov/estc</ref>). In this new work we focus on Scandinavia, further demonstrating the potential of digitized library catalogues as a valuable resource for digital humanities and reproducible research. We continue our experimental analysis of paper consumption in early modern book production, and provide a practical demonstration on the importance of open-science principles for digital humanities. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Compared to our earlier British analysis (Lahti et al., 2015) we now integrate data across multiple library catalogues from Finland and Sweden. This analysis transcends national boundaries and brings forward key questions in metadata integration such as entry harmonization and duplicate identification. We propose a set of best practices for such tasks in automated large-scale analyses, and exemplify their use in the Scandinavian context. Such pilot project is crucial to later integrate data across the Heritage of the Printed Book database that eventually covers all of early modern Europe. Our emerging data analytical ecosystem supports these goals concretely. </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Instead of ready-made standard software, such as Open Refine, Palladio, or similar user-friendly software, we have developed a set of custom tools in the R statistical programming environment to combine automation with full flexibility and access to state-of-the-art data analysis and visualization algorithms. An important contribution in comparison with related earlier work, for example Kalev’s GDELT (
                <ref target=""http://blog.gdeltproject.org/mapping-212-years-of-history-through-books/"">http://blog.gdeltproject.org/mapping-212-years-of-history-through-books/</ref>), is that we have drastically refined the metadata, for instance by harmonizing synonymous entries and by enriching the data with external information such as name-gender mappings and geographical information. The bibliographic metadata in national library catalogues follow international standards and, as we demonstrate, the fully open source computational data analysis tools introduced within this project are immediately relevant and widely applicable in further studies based on library catalogue metadata.
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">We focus on the extraction and statistical analysis of library catalogue metadata to study the emergence and development of public discourse in Finland (1640–1828). The main data source for our analysis is Fennica, Finnish National Bibliography (
                <ref target=""https://github.com/rOpenGov/fennica"">https://github.com/rOpenGov/fennica</ref>). This is complemented with further metadata and content analysis of Finnish newspapers and journals and material from Sweden, from the Kungliga collection, Stockholm (
                <ref target=""https://github.com/rOpenGov/kungliga"">https://github.com/rOpenGov/kungliga</ref>), and include comparisons with further library catalogue material from other countries as well. The analysis allows us to provide concrete, quantitative figures on publication activity, places, and topics and compare these to political, technological, and social ruptures. The quantitative analysis of print culture will allow us to study how the development of Finnish book, newspaper and journal production compares to European trends.
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">It is not enough, however, to see European public discourse by combining nationally organized knowledge. The hypothesis is that the European map of knowledge production will have local flavors in different corners of Europe. The aim should thus be to integrate data across library catalogues to analyze different streams of influence and varying regional perspectives and uncover potential asymmetries that may have guided intellectual life. The comparison between neighboring countries also allows for the detection of local publishing networks in the Baltic Sea region.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""170/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 1. Paper consumption of documents recorded in Fennica until 1828 by place of publication (Turku, other places in Finland and elsewhere including Sweden)</head>
            </figure>
            <p rend=""normal"">Our aim in this paper is particularly to study the development of publishing houses in Finland and their spread from Turku to other parts of Finland. We will also identify overlooked moments of transformation in public discourse in Finland by blending historical and computational approaches. The research undertaken will reflect on how social change and public discourse are intertwined, and how cultural, institutional, legal and technological changes are reflected both in publication metadata and the textual content of the publications. In terms of the historical timeframe, our study begins with the founding of the first Finnish press at the Academy of Turku in 1640, tracks the overall publishing history of the country until 1828 when Helsinki starts to play a major role in Finland.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Public discourse in Finland has been largely approached from the perspective of the breakthrough of the Finnish language, the role of elite discourse at the university, early Swedish-language newspapers, and book history. We combine these perspectives, and further analyze how language-barriers, elite culture and popular debate, as well as different publication channels interacted. Large-scale quantitative analysis of library catalogues opens novel opportunities to characterize the general impact of the turn from Swedish to Russian rule in early nineteenth-century regarding public discourse in Finland. Previous historical research on the development of civility in nineteenth-century Finland has lacked appropriate quantitative tools to take an objective ‘bird-eye’ view of these complicated and crucial transformations. Questions of how, for instance, the establishment of the university in Turku/Åbo (1640), the introduction of freedom of print (1766), the formation of a Finnish Grand Duchy in the Russian Empire (1809–1812), the changes in the enforcement of censorship, the decision to transform Helsinki into a capital city (1819), the lack of estate representation in the Grand Duchy, and the slow emergence of a Finnish written language resonated in publication practices are explored from a quantitative perspective. </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Our open data analytical ecosystems provide powerful and flexible data analytical tools that can best serve the needs of genuinely data-intensive research, in contrast to traditional point-and-click interfaces that are suitable for simple query tasks but not designed for fully transparent, reproducible and automated large-scale algorithmic data mining. The open source ecosystems will also enable new collaboration models around digital data collections that are now becoming increasingly available for research and other purposes. This emphasis on transparent and collaborative methodology, already wide-spread in other fields of computational science, sets the context for our work within digital humanities. Others can benefit from the new tools and the libraries from the refined data sets. The data analytical algorithms, including data extraction, statistical analysis, summarization and reporting, will be are released in full detail within a unified open source ecosystem in Github (
                <ref target=""http://github.com/rOpenGov/fennica"">http://github.com/rOpenGov/fennica</ref>), where all steps from raw data to the final results can be traced back and improved further. In this sense, our emphasis on open data analytical process and collaboration model is different from Anderson's and Blanke's discussion on digital humanities ecosystems (Anderson and Blanke, 2012), which focuses on the role of the community of researchers. </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">This paper continues an ongoing trend of quantitative analysis of publishing history (Moretti, 2013; Towsey et al., 2015). While reuse of library catalogue data has been discussed in recent digital humanities scholarship (for example, Prescott, 2013 and Bode and Osborne, 2014), large-scale library catalogues represent a so far underestimated research resource, containing systematic information on publication activity over years, language barriers, genres, geographical regions and other variables in which the evolution of the public sphere is reflected. Moreover, our work complements the distant reading and related concepts discussed by Bode and Moretti by introducing concrete algorithms and proposing a collaborative development model. Lincoln Mullen has used a related approach to analyze historical texts (
                <ref target=""software"">http://lincolnmullen.com/#software</ref>).</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Our ultimate aim is to develop algorithms to extract, harmonize and integrate relevant metadata across the different European library catalogues, regardless of language. This research data will be further enriched by complementing it with data from auxiliary sources, such as linked data on person records, biographies of partner organizations, ontologies and other assets. The enriched information is then used to formulate statistical summaries and systematic quantitative comparisons, as well as interactive and dynamic visual representations of the publication activity, topics and geographical variation and of their evolution over time. To demonstrate the efficiency of this approach, we quantify the importance of Turku in the Finnish publication landscape during 1640-1828.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                     <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Anderson, S. and Blanke, T.</hi> (2012). Taking the Long View: From e-Science Humanities to Humanities Digital Ecosystems. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Historical Social Research</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>: 147-64.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bode, K. and Osborne, R.</hi> (2014). Book History from the Archival Record. In Leslie Howsam (Ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Cambridge Companion to the History of the Book</hi>. Cambridge University Press, pp. 219-36.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lahti, L., Ilomäki, N., Tolonen, M.</hi> (2015). A Quantitative Study of History in the English Short-Title Catalogue (ESTC) 1470-1800. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">LIBER Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(2): 87-116. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Distant Reading</hi>. Verso books. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Prescott, A.</hi> (2013). Bibliographic records as humanities big data. <hi rend=""italic"">Big Data IEEE International Conference 2013: Conference Abstracts</hi>. Silicon Valley, pp. 55-58.
                    </bibl>
                   
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Towsey, M., Bode, K. Burrows, S. et al.</hi> (2015). Remapping Cultural History: Digital Humanities, Historical Bibliometrics, and the Reception of Print Culture. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2015 Conference</hi>, University of Western Sydney.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2447","17","Project Dialogism: Toward a Computational History of Vocal Diversity in English-Language Literature","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Abstract</head>
                <p>Over the past several years, we have worked to develop a human-interpretable computational method for quantifying “style” in literary texts. In projects focused on modernist texts, we have demonstrated the usefulness of this approach for studying dialogism (or multi-voicedness) in literature. Now we propose to extend our method to the “big data” scale by using a tool we have created, GutenTag (http://www.projectgutentag.org/). Our research promises insights into the historical evolution of dialogism in English-language fiction.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Aims and Approach</head>
                <p>Dialogism — the literary practice of allowing characters to speak in their own distinctive manners, without altering their speech to suit the particular linguistic practices and prejudices of the author — has been recognized as an ethically and politically significant aspect of fiction since the early twentieth century. Russian critic Mikhail Bakhtin, who coined the term “dialogism,” has been particularly influential in arguing that the dialogic novel could support pluralistic modes of thought that model democratic social systems. Yet despite the widely recognized importance of dialogism as an analytic category in literary studies, it is one that has proven difficult to study computationally, particularly at the “big data” scale. While style has proven a tractable aspect for computational literary study, and while excellent work has been produced on distinguishing character voices within literary texts using style-based methods (Burrows, 1987; McKenna and Antonia, 1996; Rybicki, 2006), existing approaches present two significant drawbacks. First, their reliance on Burrow’s PCA-based methodology means that while this work often produces reliable and insightful results, its computational outputs are generally not human-interpretable; they may be able to show 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">that </hi>an author distinguishes characters based on linguistic style, but not to tell us 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">how </hi>they are differentiated. Further, these methods tend not to be suitable to expansion to the “big data” level, since they require significant manual annotation of character speech in the texts under investigation. Our method — a human-interpretable quantitative method for analyzing literary style — and our tool — which performs automatic structural tagging of plain text — make such research possible, and thus open the way for the first large-scale investigation of dialogism in literary fiction.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Background</head>
                <p>Since 2011, we have been laying the foundations for a computational history of dialogism in English-language fiction. The first step was developing and refining our six-dimensional approach to quantifying literary style. Our method is based on six discrete aspects of style: objectivity (words that project a sense of disinterested authority); abstractness (words denoting concepts that cannot be described in purely physical terms); literariness; colloquialness; concreteness (words referring to events, objects, or properties in the physical word); and subjectivity (words that are strongly personal or reflect a personal opinion). To build our stylistic lexicons, we produce a relatively small set of words carefully selected for their stylistic diversity, which human annotators evaluate in terms of the six stylistic aspects listed above. Next, we use an automatic procedure to collect information on how these words are employed in all English texts in the 2010 image of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Project Gutenberg </hi>(Brooke et. al., 2016). Using this information, we are able to derive stylistic information for any word in our target text, and to build stylistic profiles for any character or speaking voice within a text. 
                </p>
                <p>We have demonstrated the usefulness of our six-style approach to literary problems in two projects. One project focused on free indirect discourse (FID) in Woolf’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">To the Lighthouse </hi>and Joyce’s “The Dead” (Brooke et. al., 2016). Our intention was to employ our method to test the long-held hypothesis that FID represents a stylistic middle ground between the neutral style of an objective narrator and the more extreme styles of personalized characters as rendered in direct discourse. Our method confirmed this assumption and, because it produces human-interpretable results, shed some new light on Woolf’s text in particular, finding that while Woolf’s upper-class characters exhibit a conventional power dynamic (they are more authoritative, more literary, more concrete, less objective, and less colloquial than characters of other classes) her female characters reverse these conventional dynamics: they are more objective, more abstract, less colloquial, and less subjective. The other project undertook a quantitative investigation of the problem of voice in T. S. Eliot’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Waste Land </hi>(Brooke et. al., 2015b). While it is generally agreed that 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Waste Land </hi>is composed of many speaking voices, these voices are not explicitly identified, nor are their points of transition provided. Our work explored methods of automatically segmenting and clustering voices in the text; we used the human-interpretable results of our six-style approach to evaluate the performance of various approaches and arrive at a blended human/machine interpretation.
                </p>
                <p>The other key foundation for our work is GutenTag, an open-source software tool released in October 2015 (Brooke et al., 2015a). Two aspects of GutenTag are particularly relevant to the present project. First, it allows users to quickly create large, customized literary corpora. Working from the 2010 image of Project Gutenberg (PG), metadata provided by PG and derived automatically from other sources, and our automatic decision-tree genre classifier, one can, for example, easily assemble a large corpus of nineteenth-century novels in English. Second, it uses our sophisticated rule-based method to automatically generate reliable, genre-specific structural tags in standard TEI XML. Crucially, our tagging system is able to distinguish character speech from narration and identify individual characters in novels; and to separate character speech from stage directions and setting descriptions in plays, associating each speech with a character in the dramatis personae. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Developing a Metric for Dialogism</head>
                <p>With the major pieces in place to conduct our research into the history of dialogism, our main task is to develop a reliable quantitative metric for the dialogism of a given literary text. We will proceed by calculating stylistic profiles for each character using methods already established in previous work. We will include a minimum word cutoff to exclude characters for which the stylistic profile is likely to be too noisy due to lack of data. Next, assuming multiple characters, for each style we will treat each character as a datapoint and calculate a weighted variance, where weights are applied based on the relative proportion of speech by each character, to produce a number that indicates overall stylistic variation across characters for that stylistic dimension in the given text. We can average across styles to produce a single metric. </p>
                <p>We will experiment with calculating dialogism based on stylistic variance between (a) individual characters, (b) groupings of characters (based on gender, social background, age, etc.), and (c) social networks. This will allow us to track (a) texts in which the speech of individual characters is highly varied, (b) texts in which, for example, male characters speak in a highly distinct manner from female characters, and (c) texts in which members of distant branches of a derived social network speak in their own differentiated styles. To carry out this analysis, certain modifications will be necessary to the GutenTag system; namely, methods to detect social networks in texts and to automatically identify character groupings (a method for identifying character gender is already in place; methods for identifying other groups will be more difficult, but we will explore them). </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Research Questions</head>
                <p>With these technical foundations in place, we will be ready to present our answers to some of the following questions. Our aim is not to cover all of them, but to offer detailed investigations of those that yield the most interesting results.</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Which texts in PG are the most stylistically diverse, according to our quantitative definition? Are they texts by authors traditionally celebrated as dialogic (Austen, Woolf, Joyce, translations of Dostoevsky) or are they non-canonical texts? If the latter, do these texts register qualitatively as “dialogic” to a human reader? What does a close reading of these texts reveal about the viability of our automatic method?</item>
                    <item>How does stylistic diversity map onto historical time? Do periods of political turmoil (wars, revolutions, natural disasters, strikes, etc.) correspond to changes in the average stylistic diversity of fiction? What can we learn about the social role of fiction by studying this relationship?</item>
                    <item>How is stylistic diversity distributed geographically? Which regions produce the most stylistically varied writing? </item>
                    <item>How is stylistic diversity distributed among genres? Does our method support or refute Bakhtin’s claim that the novel is the most dialogic of the genres, and poetry the least dialogic? Can dialogism be meaningfully compared across genres? </item>
                    <item>Are authors of different ages, classes, and genders more or less likely to produce dialogic fiction?</item>
                    <item>How does the stylistic diversity of fiction track against that of non-fiction? Does non-fiction become more or less dialogic over time, and does it follow a similar curve to that of fiction? Do changes in the dialogism of fiction anticipate changes in non-fiction, or are the two unrelated?</item>
                </list>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brooke, J., Hammond, A., and Hirst, G.</hi> (2016). Using Models of Lexical Style to Quantify Free Indirect Discourse in Modernist Fiction. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(2): 1–17.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brooke, J., Hammond, A., and Hirst, G.</hi> (2015a). GutenTag: an NLP-driven Tool for Digital Humanities Research in the Project Gutenberg Corpus. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Workshop on Computational Linguistics for Literature.</hi> Denver: NAACL, pp. 1–6.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brooke, J., Hammond, A., and Hirst, G.</hi> (2015b). Distinguishing Voices in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Waste Land</hi> Using Computational Stylistics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Linguistic Issues in Language Technology</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">12</hi>(2): 1–43.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J .F. </hi>(1987). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computation into Criticism: A Study of Jane Austen’s Novels and an Experiment in Method</hi>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McKenna, C. W. F., and Antonia, A. </hi> (1996). ‘A Few Simple Words’ of Interior Monologue in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses</hi>: Reconfiguring the Evidence. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(2): 55–66.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rybicki, J. </hi>(2006). Burrowing into Translation: Character Idiolects in Henryk Sienkiewicz’s Trilogy and Its Two English Translations. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(1): 91–103. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2448","17","Prototypes as Thinking through Making. Decision Points and Evaluation in Prototyping a Visualisation Framework for Historical Documents","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Starting from Manovich’s (2007) statement that “a prototype is a theory”, Galey and Ruecker (2010: 406-07) argue that design can become “a process of critical enquiry itself”, a “thinking through making” pursuit allowing the combination of digital prototyping with critical analysis. Furthermore, Pierazzo (2011: 466) brings into discussion the theoretical assumptions that may underpin the decision making process in building an edition as an “interpretative scholarly product” based on the “selection of features transcribed from a specific primary source”. </p>
                <p>The present proposal focuses on the construction of a visualisation framework allowing transformation and visualisation in the browser of XML-TEI encoded documents on European integration history. The tool developed for this purpose, the Transviewer, uses a combination of XML, HTML, XSLT, CSS and JavaScript technologies. The addressed research questions are related to the analysis of this prototyping case, viewed as a dynamic and iterative process of evaluation, adjustment, decision making, adaptation and in-house development. Our standpoint, inspired by the above mentioned studies, is that such type of analysis can shed light on the theoretical and practical questions, at the crossroad of tradition and new ground, involved in the creation of scholarly digital tools.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The Transviewer prototype</head>
                <p>The Transviewer concept consists of building a framework for the publication of European history documents on the CVCE’s Website, from treaties, official declarations and meeting reports to letters and interview transcriptions. In a first phase, a pilot testing set for the prototype (Figure 1) has been encoded in XML-TEI P5, including a selection of 55 documents on armament issues within Western European Union (WEU), from 1950’s to 1980’s.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""78/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1. Transviewer. Side-by-side view digital facsimile (left) and transcription (right) (WEU sample)</head>
                </figure>
                <p>In line with Booth et al. (2008), Galey and Ruecker (2010: 412-13) consider that a prototype can be the embodiment of an argument (or more), with all the key components of a “good thesis topic”: to be “contestable”, “defensible”, and “substantive”. This refers to how a prototype includes old affordances in a new way or proposes something new, to its potential of convincing people to accept it, or finally, to its intellectual and practical value. </p>
                <p>Our idea in designing the Transviewer has been based on the following “arguments”:</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>The historians or researchers in European integration studies (the CVCE’s main category of readers) are always interested in comparing a transcription with the original (when available).</item>
                    <item>The architecture of the visualisation framework should be multi-project-oriented and support multiple types of historical documents (primary/secondary sources - text/image/audio/video). </item>
                </list>
                <p>A number of features to be encoded and rendered via the interface have been considered after consultations with the users (CVCE's researchers): </p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <head>Table 1. “Grid of features” (Pierazzo, 2011: 467) encoded in the transcription (WEU sample)</head>
                    <row>
                        <cell/>
                        <cell cols=""2"">Transcription</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Feature type</cell>
                        <cell>Encoded</cell>
                        <cell>Ignored</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Documentary</cell>
                        <cell>Ink colour of stamps (red, black)</cell>
                        <cell>Ink colour of handwritten text</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Topology</cell>
                        <cell>Document layout (position and alignment of headers/footers/ headings)</cell>
                        <cell/>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Writing</cell>
                        <cell>Capitalisation and punctuation</cell>
                        <cell>Empty lines and exact vertical spacing on the page</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Handwriting</cell>
                        <cell>Handwritten elements from header/headings</cell>
                        <cell>Handwritten fragments, sometimes not legible, from the body of the text</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Textuality</cell>
                        <cell>Paragraphs and structural divisions</cell>
                        <cell/>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Semantics</cell>
                        <cell>Named entities (e.g. names of persons/ organisations/places/functions/events/ products, dates)</cell>
                        <cell/>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>The current version of the prototype supports functionalities such as side-by-side view of digital facsimile and transcription, page-by-page navigation, zoom-in/out, vertical scrolling, search (by names of persons/places/organisations, dates).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Decision points</head>
                <p>The initial Transviewer concept was inspired by the EVT (<ref target=""http://sourceforge.net/projects/evt-project/"">Edition Visualization Technology</ref>) model which proposes a “client-only architecture” based on XSLT transformation, HTML, CSS and JavaScript, and allows side-by-side view of manuscript images and related text (Rosselli Del Turco et al., 2014-2015).
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""78/image2.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2. EVT. Fragment (Vercelli Book)</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Although the direct adaptation of EVT was considered from the beginning, different requirements for EVT and Transviewer project have been identified. </p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <head>Table 2. EVT/Transviewer differences</head>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Characteristics</cell>
                        <cell>EVT</cell>
                        <cell>Transviewer</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>General architecture</cell>
                        <cell>Project-oriented (Vercelli Book manuscript)</cell>
                        <cell>Multi-project-oriented (documents/collections in European integration history)</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>XML-HTML transformation granularity</cell>
                        <cell>Page-oriented (one HTML file per page/manuscript image)</cell>
                        <cell>Document-oriented (one HTML file per XML document)</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>XML-HTML transformation process</cell>
                        <cell>HTML generation</cell>
                        <cell>XML transformation on the fly, in the browser, and XHTML generation </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Transcription</cell>
                        <cell>Line-oriented</cell>
                        <cell>Structure-oriented (divisions, paragraphs) with semantic annotations (named entities).</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Navigation</cell>
                        <cell>Page-by-page (supported by a single HTML file per page implementation)</cell>
                        <cell>Page-by-page and vertical scrolling (applied to a whole document)</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Image management/loading</cell>
                        <cell>One by one</cell>
                        <cell>Images for a whole document</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Therefore, the EVT concept of side-by-side view of digital facsimile/transcription has been combined with the integration of third-party libraries (<ref target=""https://openlibrary.org/dev/docs/bookreader"">BookReader</ref>, <ref target=""http://www.saxonica.com/ce/user-doc/1.1/index.html"">Saxon-CE</ref>) and in-house development. The first one has been chosen for enabling on the fly loading of images, the second for supporting XSLT 2.0 transformations in the browser. 
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""78/image3.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3. BookReader. Fragment (Don Quixote de la Mancha)</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The in-house development mainly comprised modules for the implementation of a core/project specific architecture including elements of configuration, frames and buttons layout/actions, XSLT transformation and transcription rendering.</p>
                <p>A simplified diagram of the decisions points in the first development cycle of the Transviewer is shown in Figure 4. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""78/image4.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 4. Transviewer. Decision points (diamonds) in the first prototyping cycle</head>
                </figure>
                <p>As illustrated, the prototyping process can imply multiple iterations. Once a functional prototype is built, the decisions on further development may reiterate similar phases of conceptualisation, search for solutions, implementation, evaluation and decision making. In this respect, our theoretical approach could be framed at the crossroad of “iterative prototyping” (Buxton and Sniderman, 1980; Buchenau and Suri, 2000; Lucena and Astua, 2012), “user-centered design” (Shneiderman and Plaisant, 2009; Warwick et al., 2009; Gibbs and Owens, 2012), and scholarly digital editions (Pierazzo, 2011; Rosselli Del Turco, 2011).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Evaluation</head>
                <p>Although partial evaluation had been carried out throughout the prototyping cycle, a more formal testing and evaluation phase has been conducted on the first functional version of the Transviewer. Several facets of assessment have been taken into account:</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <head>Table 3. Transviewer evaluation facets</head>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Facet</cell>
                        <cell>Short description</cell>
                        <cell>User group/stakeholders</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Technology</cell>
                        <cell>Technical issues have been identified and worked upon (e.g. non-uniform support for Saxon-CE in different browsers and the use in BookReader of an older version of the jQuery library). Another evaluation aspect, related to argument 2, consisted of proving the scalability of the framework by testing it with different projects samples.</cell>
                        <cell>CVCE's development team</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>User</cell>
                        <cell>The prototype functionalities and argument 1 have been evaluated via usability tests (Nielsen, 2000; Lund, 2001) mainly enquiring on the ease of use, ease of learning, usefulness and user satisfaction (on a scale from 1 to 5), and on suggestions for potential improvement.</cell>
                        <cell>Internal/external researchers as end-users of the Transviewer </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Impact</cell>
                        <cell>Beside the impact on the final product (e.g. how many/in what proportion the functionalities/features/arguments of the prototype are reflected in the final product), another point of interest concerns its impact on other products, in particular, the initial models having inspired it.</cell>
                        <cell>Cooperation partners, research infrastructures</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Discussion</head>
                <p>As an outcome of the analysis on the first prototype cycle, a new iteration and development reassessment is currently ongoing. The analysis helped us to: (1) identify and amend technical (see Table 3) and design issues (e.g. functionalities not quickly accessible or requiring extra-effort, unclear terminology or functionalities hierarchy, simplification); (2) adapt the encoding to support a larger variety of objects to be visualised (e.g. transcription only, facsimile only, transcription and audio/video); (3) better understand the needs of the users while dealing with historical documents (e.g. “trust” and “contextualisation” seem to play an important role). </p>
                <p>Moreover, the development of new technical tools poses not only challenges to the process itself and the methods it introduces or refines but it also raises the question of sustainability: project based funding stimulates the development of new tools between different entities but far too often, this development stops once funding runs out. In the context of the informal and not project-funded cooperation between the CVCE and the EVT team, we therefore want to explore the trials and tribulations of building and maintaining a shared codebase that would be beneficial for both entities even though our specific use cases differ. As a result of the experiences made in this ongoing process of building the new version of the EVT framework, we will take the opportunity to discuss the practical challenges, opportunities and limitations of open-source development models for digital humanities projects as an approach to achieve sustainability. </p>
                <p>In other words, we are not just testing an application but a development framework which implies considering complex theoretical-practical elements: Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) aspects, Information Technology (IT) methods and tools, specific types of documents to be published, projected audience, collaborative strategies and sustainability, etc.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>The article proposes an analytical approach to the prototyping of a visualisation framework for historical documents. Its main assumption is that a critical perspective can be applied not only to a finished digital artefact but also to the process of its creation. In line with more traditional methods of criticism from the Humanities, a ""thinking through making"" viewpoint may bring into light theoretical and practical aspects related to the construction of digital tools and to the mechanisms of the ""laboratory"". A prospect that, by its nature, positions itself at the crossroad of the old and the new, of the past and the future.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
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                        <ref target=""http://garyperlman.com/quest/quest.cgi?form=USE"">http://garyperlman.com/quest/quest.cgi?form=USE</ref>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manovich, L.</hi> (2007). Q and A Session at the 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nielsen, J.</hi> (2000). Why You Only Need to Test with 5 Users, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Nielsen Norman Group</hi>, March 19, 2000. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pierazzo, E.</hi> (2011). A rationale of digital documentary editions. 
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative</hi>, Issue 8 - PREVIEW | 2014-2015: Selected
                        <hi rend=""Title1""> Papers from the 2013 TEI Conference </hi>,
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Saxon-CE</hi>, 
                        <ref target=""http://www.saxonica.com/ce/user-doc/1.1/index.html"">http://www.saxonica.com/ce/user-doc/1.1/index.html</ref> (accessed 29 February 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shneiderman, B., Plaisant, C.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Designing The User Interface: Strategies for Effective Human-Computer Interaction</hi>, Addison Wesley Pub Co Inc.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">- TEI</hi> (Text Encoding Initiative). 
                        <ref target=""http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml"">http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml</ref> (accessed 29 February 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Warwick, C., Fisher, C., Terras, M., Baker, M., Clarke, A., Fulford, M., Grove, M., O’Riordan, E., Rains, M.</hi> (2009). iTrench: A study of user reactions to the use of information technology in field archaeology, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">(24)</hi>2: 211-23.
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            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2449","17","REDEN ONLINE: Disambiguation, linking and visualisation of references in TEI digital editions","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>As Susan Schreibman (2014) points out, a digital edition, as opposed to a printed one, is never really complete as several layers of annotation may always be added to represent and enrich the original content. TEI (Burnard, 2014) allows for several types of information - textual, linguistic and semantic - to be layered and made explicit and retrievable by a machine. Such is the case for instance with what is commonly known as semantic tagging. </p>
                <p>In this paper, we focus on Named Entities (NE), in particular names of Persons and Geographical Places. Adding NE mentions is supported by TEI with appropriate tags (such as <persName> and <placeName>), whose addition in a digital critical edition has somewhat the same function that indexes of places and persons have in a printed one. As mentions may be ambiguous (same string for different people, same place with different names,....) some referencing and disambiguating identifiers are required. But digital editions allow for much more than simple internal referencing. By pointing to external sources, structured information contained in the form of linked data in the semantic web becomes available to scholarly research. </p>
                <p>In this work we present REDEN ONLINE, a system that enables scholars to automatically add external references to annotations of persons and places. The system is a web interface taking TEI as input, where mentions are already marked up, and automatically disambiguates and links such entities to an appropriate linked data set using a graph based algorithm for disambiguation. Moreover, our system provides data aggregation and visualization facilities by using the information found in the reference sources.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Previous work and general context</head>
                <p>Semantic tagging is a hot topic in the digital humanities. Tools for semantic enrichment are, such as 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Pundit</hi> (Grassi et al., 2012, 2013), already available and allow for the interactive and intuitive annotation of portions of text. Automatic Named Entity Recognition and Linking techniques may be implemented to detect mentions and to suggest links to external knowledge bases.
                </p>
                <p>Input formats to such systems may vary from plain text to html, but ideally a tool should process available standard formats, such as TEI-XML for text and RDF/OWL for information. Using linked data sources for disambiguation and enrichment is thus strongly recommended. By doing this, external sources of structured and regularly updated information can be made available to the scholar without having to be directly incorporated into the inline annotation, that can be left as simple as possible. This in turn allows for several customizable views, as linked data sources may be queried with the SPARQL query language to retrieve only the amount of external information that is necessary for a given task. </p>
                <p>The treatment of spatial and temporal information is a typical task for which this approach is particularly effective; the availability of geographical databases and the complexity of the information are best accessed by pointing from within the digital edition to an external link. But also other types of semantic information seem to be particularly apt for connection to rich linked databases. So for instance bibliometric sources can be used to enrich texts with additional information on authors. </p>
                <p>Typical targets for references are DBpedia and Geonames, that, for their genericity and connection to other sources, are at the heart of the linked data cloud. But they may be supplemented by more domain specific sources of information. For instance, Pleiades provides geo-historical information for ancient places.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Our project</head>
                <p>REDEN ONLINE is set against the background of work carried out at LABEX OBVIL in Paris, where quality digital editions for French literary texts and criticism are produced and used in research and higher education. Recently a series of projects were carried out to semi-automatically annotate and reference places, organizations and authors. Gold standards were also produced, in close contact with researchers in French literature, so as to establish guidelines of annotation that best suit their ongoing research. </p>
                <p>The general purpose is to provide tools for both:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>augmented close reading, to enable researchers to access more information on a specific text portion</item>
                    <item>distant reading and data aggregation, so as to be able to detect trends in large portions of texts (Moretti, 2007)</item>
                </list>
                <p>OBVIL literary scholars are interested in plotting the distribution of the mentions of given authors over time in French literary criticism, in order to study the appreciation of Molière over the centuries, or in producing charts representing the distributions of professions in authors mentioned in given periods, to trace the influence of scientists and their ideas on art and literature in the age of positivism (Riguet, 2015). Other visualizations captured the emerging influence of foreign countries in the French literary panorama over time by combining the date of the publication of the essays with the detected toponyms.</p>
                <p>NLP technologies are used to facilitate various aspects of the semantic enrichment of TEI editions, in an annotation echosystem where texts are first processed and then manually checked. The detection of mentions of places, authors (and also organizations) was tackled by using a Named Entity Recognizer and Classifier (UNERD, Mosallam et al., 2014).</p>
                <p>Once the entities are correctly detected and classified, external references need to be added to disambiguate mentions and to connect them to additional information. To this purpose we developed REDEN
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> REDEN is open source; you can find the code at https://github.com/cvbrandoe/REDEN.</p>
                    </note>, a Named Entity Linker that uses a graph-based algorithm and linked data sets to identify the correct referent for each mention (Brando et al., 2015, Frontini et al., 2015a, Frontini et al., 2015b for the technical details). 
                </p>
                <p>REDEN's input consists of a TEI text with detected mentions and several parameters specifying among others the class of entities to be detected, the reference base to use and a set of pre-compiled indexes. REDEN is applied for each class of entities separately, and works at best when several mentions are disambiguated at the same time. It retrieves all candidate referents for each mention of a context (say a paragraph) and then all the available information from the semantic web. It builds a sub-graph of all candidates and chooses the correct referents for each mention with the help of the formal relations between them. From Figure 1 you can get an intuition of how REDEN works.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""216/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1 The graph based algorithm disambiguates between different possible referents for the mentions of ""Victor Hugo"" (unambiguous in this example), ""Lamartine"" and ""Vigny"" (both having several candidate referents) based on information found in DBpedia. Correct referents (in grey) are chosen based on how well connected they are within the context Here the crucial node is clearly that of yago:RomanticPoets.</head>
                </figure>
                <p>So far our efforts have concentrated on the production of a text annotation and referencing pipeline for the production of such enriched TEIs with annotated and referenced mentions. Their exploitation for data aggregation and visualization was carried out offline and with ad hoc processing tools. With REDEN ONLINE we now want to make linking technology available online while at the same time providing users with some generic visualization of the results. </p>
                <p>In what follows, we present the REDEN ONLINE interface with some screenshots from an example where two texts of the Labex OBVIL
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Find more information on OBVIL and ist digital library at http://obvil.paris-sorbonne.fr/.</p>
                    </note> digital library have been automatically linked to external sources, namely:
                </p>
                <p>- 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">L’Hérésiarque et cie</hi>, a collection of short stories by Guillaume Apollinaire, published in 1910 - place mentions linked to DBpedia entries. 
                </p>
                <p>- 
                    <hi rend=""italic color(252525)"">Réflexions sur la littérature</hi> a series of essays on French literary criticism by Albert Thibaudet, published in 1936 - author's mentions linked to entries in the linked data base of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (BnF). 
                </p>
                <p>The user (Figure 2) loads a TEI text with annotated <placeName> or <personName> tags, chooses which class of entities to process (places or nouns) and the system runs the disambiguation and linking algorithm against the given linked data base - here French DBpedia and/or BnF. Then external information is extracted from the source and used for generating a particular view of the text. The result is a summing up of the disambiguated locations (some place names may be non resolvable because they are absent from the linked data base) and a visualization.</p>
                <p>For locations the visualization consists in an interactive map that also takes frequency of mention into account. Coordinates are retrieved from DBpedia when available and the map can be zoomed in, up to the level of streets (see Figure 3 where some places in Paris have been identified in the text by Apollinaire), when relevant. </p>
                <p>For persons (see Figure 4), portraits of authors are automatically downloaded and visualized. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>The conference presentation will demonstrate REDEN ONLINE, a web based tool that enables researchers to connect place names and person names in their texts to existing linked data sources. The underlying technology will also be explained, in particular its use of standard formats, such as TEI and RDF for the linking algorithm, and GeoJSON for the creation of the map. We will also argue in favour of our economicity approach, namely the choice of not embedding semantic information in the TEI, which enables the use of different databases and the production of ad hoc ""views"" of the document.</p>
                <p>It is well known that aggregation and visualizations techniques may ""assist the critic in the unfolding of interpretive possibilities"" (Ramsay, 2008) when analysing texts. This tool has been particularly designed for the study of literature and literary criticism; in the presentation examples of use will be given using ongoing research on Apollinaire, highlighting how the visual representation of the itineraries contained in the stories may be considered as a form of novel ""digital reading"" of the text.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""216/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2 The REDEN ONLINE interface, with a sample text from Apollinaire. Place names results are visible as a map visualization. </head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""216/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3 The REDEN ONLINE interface, with a sample text from Apollinaire. Zoom on Paris of place name results.</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""216/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 4 A visualization of authors mentioned in Thibaudet’s “Réflexions sur la littérature”, frequencies are displayed in parenthesis. </head>
                </figure>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brando, C., Frontini, F. and Ganascia, J. G.</hi> (2015). Disambiguation of Named Entities in Cultural Heritage Texts Using Linked Data Sets. In Morzy, T., Valduriez, P. and Bellatreche, L. (Eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Trends in Databases and Information Systems</hi>. (Communications in Computer and Information Science 539). Springer International Publishing, pp. 505–14.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burnard, L.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">What Is the Text Encoding Initiative? How to Add Intelligent Markup to Digital Resources</hi>. (Encyclopédie Numérique). Marseille: OpenEdition Press.
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(1).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Frontini, F., Brando, C. and Ganascia, J. G.</hi> (2015a). Domain-adapted named-entity linker using Linked Data. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Workshop on NLP Applications: Completing the Puzzle</hi>, vol.<hi rend=""bold""> 1386</hi>, Aachen: M. Jeusfeld c/o Redaktion Sun SITE, Informatik V, RWTH Aachen. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Frontini, F., Brando, C. and Ganascia, J. G.</hi> (2015b). Semantic Web based Named Entity Linking for Digital Humanities and Heritage Texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">SW4SH 2015 Semantic Web for Scientific Heritage 2015</hi>, vol. <hi rend=""bold"">1364</hi>, Aachen: M. Jeusfeld c/o Redaktion Sun SITE, Informatik V, RWTH Aachen, pp. 77–88, http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1364/paper9.pdf.
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on Semantic Digital Archives, Paphos, Cyprus</hi>, pp. 49–60.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grossner, K., Janowicz, K. and Keßler, C.</hi> (2016). Place, Period, and Setting for Linked Data Gazetteers. In Mostern, Ruth, Berman, Lex and Southall, H. (Eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Placing Names: Enriching and Integrating Gazetteers</hi>. Bloomington, Indiana University Press http://geog.ucsb.edu/~jano/GrossnerJanowiczKessler_submitted_draft.pdf (accessed 27 October 2015).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Janowicz, K.</hi> (2009). The Role of Place for the Spatial Referencing of Heritage Data. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Cultural Heritage of Historic European Cities and Public Participatory GIS Workshop</hi>. The University of York, UK.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Riguet, M.</hi> (in press). L’impact de la physiologie dans la critique littéraire de la fin du XIXe siècle : l’exemple de Claude Bernard, actes du colloque Littérature et Science au xixe siècle, dirigée par Elsa Courant et Romain Enriquez, ENS Ulm, avril 2015, Épistémocritique.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schreibman, S.</hi> Digital Scholarly Editing. In Price, K. M. and Siemens, R. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary Studies in the Digital Age</hi>. Modern Language Association of America http://dlsanthology.commons.mla.org/digital-scholarly-editing/ (accessed 5 March 2014).
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    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2450","17","Researchers to your Driving Seats: Building a Graphical User Interface for Multilingual Topic-Modelling in R with Shiny","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In this paper I will showcase the results of topic-modelling research undertaken during my 2015 visiting fellowship at Victoria University Wellington (VUW), New Zealand. This research was undertaken in collaboration with staff at the Alexander Turnbull Library, National Library of New Zealand (ATL), and was subsequently applied to the Open Philology Project (OPP) in the Department of Digital Humanities at the University of Leipzig, Germany, and to Classical Persian corpora in collaboration with the Roshan Institute for Persian Studies at the University of Maryland (UMD), USA. The paper emphasizes how humanities researchers, even those who do not have deep scripting knowledge, can be enabled not only to understand, but also to modify the topic-modelling process, adapt it to their corpus- or language-specific needs, and then use the results of this process for further qualitative research. Topic-modelling in digital humanities research is a means to an end that should always help to answer a specific research question. In this way the paper follows an alternative route to previous interactive topic-modelling research, for example Hu et al. (2014) at the University of Maryland. Instead of asking how the method of topic-modelling can be improved by user-input, the author of this paper focuses on the ways in which we can improve the results of topic-modelling while also improving the humanities researcher’s understanding of the method and its variables.</p>
            <p>
                <lb/>After a brief introduction to the research projects in Wellington and Leipzig and to topic-modelling itself, the paper will summarize the limitations of topic-modelling with special emphasis on how to determine an ideal number of topics, as well as a short discussion of morphosyntactic normalization and the use of stop-words. It will then suggest a researcher-focused method of addressing these limitations and challenges in topic-modelling by introducing the Shiny topic-modelling application developed by the author based on R, Shiny, and J. Chang’s LDA library and C. Sievert’s LDAvis library. The paper will then briefly demonstrate the applicability to the different use-cases at ATL and OPP, which deal with very different fields and languages, including English, Latin, Ancient Greek, Classical Arabic and Persian. The paper will finish by stressing how digital humanities research results and practices can be improved by enabling humanities researchers who focus on more traditional and qualitative analyses of the corpora to use the quantitative method of topic-modelling as a macro-scope and faceting tool; effectively calling humanities researchers back to their driving seats. 
            </p>
            <p>During my research stay at VUW I worked with the Research Librarian for cartoons at ATL, Dr Melinda Johnston, on a mixed-methods-based analysis of the reactions of cartoonists and New Zealand print publications to the Canterbury Earthquakes in 2010 and 2011. ATL is part of the National Library of New Zealand, an institution that is interested in making the country’s cultural heritage more accessible to a digital audience and researchers. Within the short project I attempted to automatize the detection and analysis of cartoon descriptions created by ATL and over 100,000 abstracts produced by Index New Zealand (INNZ); all items were published between September 2010 and January 2014. The INNZ-data could be retrieved as a double-zipped XML file from INNZ’s webpage and ATL’s item descriptions could be queried using the Digital New Zealand (DNZ) API. During the project it became apparent how a topic-modelling approach, first applied by the author in VUW’s Digital Colenso project, could considerably speed up the finding of earthquake-related descriptions and abstracts. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""569/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1: Percentage of earthquake-related articles and cartoons published in three New Zealand newspapers in the period from December 2010 to December 2011 generated using LDA-topic modelling. Also showing combined earthquake score.</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The results were so impressive (see e.g. Figure 1 and forthcoming article by Johnston, M. and Koentges, T. in 
                <ref target=""http://ala.sagepub.com/"">Alexandria: The Journal of National and International Library and Information Issues</ref>) that the author decided to apply it to Latin and Greek literature in Leipzig’s OPP project. OPP has a text collection of over 60 million Greek and Latin words, and has recently begun to add Classical Persian and Arabic texts. It is one of the core interests of OPP to produce methods that can compete with more traditional approaches and that can swiftly generate results on big data. OPP is maintained and organized using eXistDB, the CTS/CITE-Architecture developed by the Homer Multitext Project, and additional web-based tools and services, including GitHub repositories and Morpheus, a Greek and Latin morpho-syntactic analyzer. This structure enables researchers to use a CTS-API to retrieve their desired text-corpora or specific texts. In a first evaluation run of the topic-modeller, 30,000 Classical Arabic biographies have been used (see Figure 2). 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""569/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2: LDAvis visualization of the result of an LDA-topic model of 30,000 Classical Arabic biographies, showing a topic that can be used to detect biographies of women.</head>
            </figure>
            <p>In both research institutions, OPP and ATL, researchers applying more qualitative methods complemented the process and evaluated results. In what follows the quantitative method topic-modelling will be explained briefly.</p>
            <p>Topic-modelling is “a method for finding and tracing clusters of words (called “topics” in shorthand) in large bodies of texts” (M. Posner, 2012). A topic can be described as a recurring pattern of co-occurring words (M. Brett, 2012). Topic models are probabilistic models that are often based on the number of topics in the corpus being assumed and fixed (D. Bley, 2012). The simplest and probably one of the most frequently applied topic models is the latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA). Success and results of LDA rely on a number of apriori-set variables: for instance, the number of topics assumed in the corpus, the number of iterations of the modelling process, the decision for or against morpho-syntactic normalisation of the research corpus, and how stop-words are implemented in the process. Furthermore, its interpretation is often influenced by how the topics are graphically represented and how the words of each topic are displayed. </p>
            <p>While Sievert has found already a very convincing solution for the latter (2014), the former is often out of the hands of the qualitative traditional researcher and any bigger modifications would have to be implemented by a computer-savy researcher. However, topic-modelling is often not an end in itself, rather it is a tool used to help answer a specific humanities research question or to facet large text-corpora so that further methods can be applied to a much smaller selection of texts. Traditional researchers often have to continue to work with topic-modelling results, but may not always be aware of the bias that the apriori-set variables have brought into the selection process. One possible way to bridge this gap between researcher and method is to involve the qualitative researcher earlier by providing them with agency in the topic-modelling process.</p>
            <p>The author of this paper used R and the web-application framework Shiny to combine Chang’s LDA- and Sievert’s LDAvis-libraries with DNZ/CTS API requests and language-specific handling of the text data to create a graphical user interface (GUI) that enables researchers to find, topic-model, and browse texts in the collections of ATL, INNZ, OPP, and UMD. They can then export their produced corpus and model, so they can apply qualitative methods on a precise facet of a large text corpora, rather than the whole text corpora itself, which contains texts that are irrelevant for answering the researcher’s specific research question. On the left side of the GUI, the researcher can set the following variables: a) search term(s) or CTS-URN(s); b) the source-collection; c) certain stopword lists or processes; d) additional stop-words; e) the number of topics; and f) the number of terms shown for each topic in the visualization. The application then generates the necessary API-requests, normalizes the text as desired by the researcher, applies Chang’s LDA-library, and finally presents a D3 visualization of the topics, their relationship to each other, and their terms using Sievert’s LDAvis and dimension reduction via Jensen-Shannon Divergence & Principal Components as implemented in LDAvis. The researcher can then directly and visually evaluate the success of their topic-modelling and use the settings on the left like the settings of a microscope to focus on certain significant relationships of word co-occurrences within the corpus. Once they have focused their research tool, they can then export visualizations, topics, and their corpus for further research (see Figure 3) and teaching (see Figure 4). </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""569/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3: GUI for Topic-Modelling ATL and INNZ descriptions.</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The approach also enables educators to use the topic-modelling results to identify sight-readings for language-teaching purposes. The passages are paired based on the profile of their document-topic values and Perseid’s Morpheus API is used to mark vocabulary not-yet-known by the learners. Unknown vocabulary links to an online dictionary, using markdown (see Figure 4).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""569/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 4: Sight-Readings based on the passage Thuc. 1.26.1 with unknown vocabulary marked up.</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The author hopes that this paper demonstrates how topic-modelling, in all its complexity, can be opened up to, and positively influenced by, more traditional researchers without advanced computer skills, enabling them to answer specific research questions based on large text corpora.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D.</hi> (2012). “Probabilistic Topic Models.” 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communications of the ACM</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">55</hi>(4): 77–84. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.cs.princeton.edu/%7Eblei/papers/Blei2012.pdf"">http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~blei/papers/Blei2012.pdf</ref> (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hu, Y., Boyd-Graber J., Satinoff B. and Smith A.</hi> (2014). “Interactive topic modeling.” 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Machine Learning</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">95</hi>(3): 423–69. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.umiacs.umd.edu/~jbg/docs/mlj_2013_itm.pdf"">http://www.umiacs.umd.edu/~jbg/docs/mlj_2013_itm.pdf</ref> (accessed 20 February 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brett, M.</hi> (2012). “Topic Modeling: A Basic Introduction.” 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1). 
                        <ref target=""http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/topic-modeling-a-basic-introduction-by-megan-r-brett/"">http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/topic-modeling-a-basic-introduction-by-megan-r-brett/</ref> (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Posner, M.</hi> (2012). “Very Basic Strategies for Interpreting Results from the Topic Modeling Tool.” 
                        <ref target=""http://miriamposner.com/blog/very-basic-strategies-for-interpreting-results-from-the-topic-modeling-tool/"">http://miriamposner.com/blog/very-basic-strategies-for-interpreting-results-from-the-topic-modeling-tool/</ref> (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sievert, C. and Shirley, K.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">LDAvis: A Method for Visualizing and Interpreting Topics</hi>, ACL Workshop on Interactive Language Learning, Visualization, and Interfaces. 
                        <ref target=""http://nlp.stanford.edu/events/illvi2014/papers/sievert-illvi2014.pdf"">http://nlp.stanford.edu/events/illvi2014/papers/sievert-illvi2014.pdf</ref> (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2451","17","SMTP: Stedelijk Museum Text Mining Project","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>This paper addresses how text-mining, machine-learning and information retrieval algorithms from the field of artificial intelligence can be used to analyze Art-Research archives and conduct (art-) historical research. To gain quick insight into the archive, two aspects are focused on: relations between groups of people using community detection, and global content changes over time using topic modeling. For such archives pre-tagged ground-truth collections are generally not available, and the archives are often too large, geographically distributed, and not always available in digital formats to build such a ground-truth at reasonable costs. To develop and test the validity and relevance of existing tools, close collaboration was established between the AI researchers, museum staff, and researchers in CREATE, a digital humanities project that investigates the development of cultural industries in Amsterdam over the course of the last five centuries.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Data</head>
                <p>The research draws on two datasets. The principal dataset is the digitized archive of the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam, a renowned international museum dedicated to modern and contemporary art and design. The archive of the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam contains documents from the period 1930-1980. The corpus is a static collection of approximately 160.000 text documents that were digitized using OCR. The second dataset is drawn from Delpher, developed by (Koninklijke Bibliotheek Nederland, 2015). Delpher provides a collection of digitized newspapers, books and magazines that is available for research. A selection of newspapers was made that is used as an additional dataset for this project. Only articles from 1930-1980 that resulted from the query ”Stedelijk Museum” AND ”Amsterdam” were used, forming a set of 18.290 articles.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methodology</head>
                <p>The following methodology uses two approaches to obtain a quick and detailed overview of the content of a digitized archive that contains unstructured information. The first one focuses on the relations between named entities and aims at finding communities in the relation network. The second approach uses time based topic-modeling to get an overview of content changes over time. Finally, a name extraction method is presented that is able to handle multiple causes of name variations.</p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Relation networks and community detection</head>
                    <p>In its most basic form, a relation between two named entities can be said to exist when they occur together in the same document. The strength of a relation can be characterized by the number of documents in which both named entities occur. When all the co-occurrences are found, a relation network can be constructed.</p>
                    <p>In addition, sentiment analysis can be done to further characterize a relation. A sentiment score is assigned to each document, indicating the sentiment content of the document. No distinction is made between positive and negative sentiment polarity. The hypothesis is that relations between individuals with a high sentiment are more interesting than relations with a low sentiment. This is because sentiments around trigger-events are often higher than around common-day events. A lexicon based approach is used with lists of language specific sentiment words. The sentiment score of a document is then given by the sigmoid of the count of the sentiment words in the document, normalized by the number of words in the document.</p>
                    <p>Finally, community detection algorithms can be applied to the relation network. These types of algorithms aim at finding clusters of groups of entities that have dense connections between members of the clusters and sparse connections with members of other clusters (Fortunato, 2010). The relation weight measure that is used to calculate the communities, is taken as the product of the strength of the relation, i.e. the number of documents where both entities occur in, and the average sentiment score of the documents of a relation. It was found that combining these two measures, resulted in more meaningful communities.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Time based Topic Modeling</head>
                    <p>In the next approach, topic modeling algorithms are applied to analyze the information content and their evolution over time. Topic modeling tries to discover the underlying thematic structure in a collection of documents. Non-Negative Matrix Factorization (NMF) is being used as a tool for topic modeling (Arora et al., 2012). NMF is an unsupervised method where a matrix is approximated by two low rank non-negative matrices. The extracted semantic feature vectors have only non-negative values and are sparse so they are easily interpretable. Furthermore, NMF is shown to generate more consistent results over multiple runs (Choo et al., 2013), compared to other tools used for topic modeling such as LDA (Blei et al., 2003). </p>
                    <p>The approach suggested in (Vaca et al., 2014) uses a time-based collective matrix factorization based on NMF and is used in this project. It extends NMF by introducing a topic transition matrix that allows to track topics as they emerge, evolve and fade over time.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Name Extraction</head>
                    <p>The following method was used to extract named entities from a collection of documents in order to build the relation network. It handles different causes of name variations such as OCR induced errors commonly found in digitized document collections, spelling mistakes, name abbreviations and first and last name combinations. </p>
                    <p>The method makes use of lists of name variations. Starting from a set of names extracted from a name database, such as RKDArtists and (RKD, 2015), the document collection is searched for possible name variations. These variations are found by searching for the last name using a fuzzy search. The similarity between the group of tokens around the found last name, and the original name is then calculated as a similarity score. The similarity score calculation is based on the idea described in (Song and Chen, 2007), which uses a n-gram set matching technique. The lists of name variations can then be evaluated manually or a threshold on the similarity score can be used to identify name variations that correspond to the original name. The method using a threshold of 0.9 on the similarity score was tested on 50 randomly chosen names. The average precision was found to be 81 percent.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results</head>
                <p>A relation network was constructed for the document collection of the archive of the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam. Only artists with the graphic artist qualification in the RKDArtists and database were used. The methods were implemented using available open source software libraries such as the Apache Lucene text search engine library (The Apache Software Foundation, 2015) and the Gephi platform (Bastian et al., 2009). The standard community detection feature in Gephi was used, which is based on the Louvain method (Blondel et al., 2008). The result is shown in Figure 1. The color of the relation between the nodes indicates the average sentiment score of the relation, starting from blue (neutral) to red (high sentiment content). Communities such as group exhibitions, art movements or a group of artists closely related to the museum director, could be identified with the help of a museum expert.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""539/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: Found communities for graphic artists in the archive of the Stedelijk Museum</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The time based topic modeling algorithm suggested in (Vaca et al., 2014) was implemented in MATLAB and Java. The algorithm was applied to both the archive of the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam and newspaper articles from the Delpher database. The results are visualized over time in the form of stacked topic rivers (Wei et al., 2010), shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3. Several exhibitions and events could be identified and are annotated on the chart.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""539/image2.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: Time based topic modeling for the archive of the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""539/image3.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3: Time based topic modeling for Delpher newspaper articles</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>This paper discusses two approaches to gain insight into a digitized archive. Relation networks of persons with community detection are considered, relying on a robust name extraction method. Furthermore, the evolution of content over time can be explored using time based topic modeling.</p>
                <p>For the humanities researchers in this project, the main aim was to asses the research potential of computational analysis of digitized art archives in general, and the Stedelijk Museum in particular. Two types of preliminary research questions were developed to do so. The first type had to do with identifying patterns of change and continuity, across time and place. These include for instance tracing the position of the Stedelijk Museum as an intermediary in Dutch design industries, or the development of the Stedelijk Museum as an increasingly international player. The second type of question is less concerned with general historical patterns, and more with specific art-historical research questions, regarding for instance (networks of) particular artists, artworks or exhibitions. But before we could start asking such questions to digitized art-historical archives, the quality and accessibility of the texts needed to be established. Secondly, specific methods needed to be explored and adapted in order to clean, identify, retrieve, extract, and structure the texts. The first results presented in this paper demonstrate that even though they may not be clean at the first try or capture all historical nuance, they do help archives to open up and show unexpected relationships and patterns, to answer specific questions, and to get connected with other relevant sources, such RKDartists and Delpher. The community detection in relation with sentiment mining, the topic modeling and name extraction method developed in this project therefore provide a solid basis for the next step in assessing the research potential of art-historical archives: developing in-depth case studies, again in close collaboration with art-historians and historians, allowing the archive to speak up in unprecedented ways, offering access to hidden story lines that subvert and augment prevailing historical narratives.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Arora, S., Ge, R. and Moitra, A.</hi> (2012). Learning topic models - going beyond SVD. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Foundations of Computer Science (FOCS), 2012 IEEE 53rd Annual Symposium on</hi>. IEEE, pp. 1–10.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bastian, M., Heymann, S. and Jacomy, M.</hi> (2009). Gephi: an open source software for exploring and manipulating networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ICWSM</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>: 361–62.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. M., Ng, A. Y. and Jordan, M. I.</hi> (2003). Latent dirichlet allocation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Journal of Machine Learning Research</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>: 993–1022.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blondel, V. D., Guillaume, J.-L., Lambiotte, R. and Lefebvre, E.</hi> (2008). Fast unfolding of communities in large networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2008</hi>(10): P10008.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Choo, J., Lee, C., Reddy, C. K. and Park, H.</hi> (2013). Utopian: User-driven topic modeling based on interactive nonnegative matrix factorization. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Visualization and Computer Graphics, IEEE Transactions on</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">19</hi>(12): 1992–2001.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fortunato, S.</hi> (2010). Community detection in graphs. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Physics Reports</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">486</hi>(3): 75–174.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koninklijke Bibliotheek Nederland</hi> (2015). Delpher - Boeken Kranten Tijdschriften http://www.delpher.nl/ (accessed 1 November 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">RKD</hi> (2015). Netherlands Institute for Art History https://rkd.nl/en/ (accessed 1 November 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Song, S. and Chen, L.</hi> (2007). Similarity joins of text with incomplete information formats. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Advances in Databases: Concepts, Systems and Applications</hi>. Springer, pp. 313–24.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">The Apache Software Foundation</hi> (2015). Apache Lucene - Welcome to Apache Lucene http://lucene.apache.org/ (accessed 1 November 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vaca, C. K., Mantrach, A., Jaimes, A. and Saerens, M.</hi> (2014). A time-based collective factorization for topic discovery and monitoring in news. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on World Wide Web</hi>. ACM, pp. 527–38.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wei, F., Liu, S., Song, Y., Pan, S., Zhou, M. X., Qian, W., Shi, L., Tan, L. and Zhang, Q.</hi> (2010). Tiara: a visual exploratory text analytic system. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 16th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining</hi>. ACM, pp. 153–62.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2452","17","The Computer Graphic Simulation of the Battle at Mount Street Bridge. Problems, Perspectives, and Challenges","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Three-dimensional digital visualisations have been used in the last three decades to engage and educate by making complex data more comprehensible. These have been used across a wide range of fields including military, medicine, cultural heritage, archaeology, and history. In cultural heritage contexts, the potential of these technologies as tools in the process of knowledge production has been well demonstrated (see for example Sundstedt et al., 2004; Papadopoulos et al., 2015). Contested Memories: The Battle of Mount Street Bridge project has been exploring how to integrate a 3D visualisation as the primary text of a digital scholarly edition, raising issues of how the phenomenology of place and space can be used to design a new language of scholarly editions, one that has the ability to model experience lost because of technological and evidentiary constraints. This edition, like traditional DSEs, also brings together documentary evidence in the form of apparatus, reimagining digital textuality (see Snyder, 2015). </p>
                <p>The project focuses on a battle that took place on Wednesday 26
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> April 1916 during the week of the Easter uprising in Dublin. This particular battle, between a small group of Irish rebels (members of the Irish Volunteers) and the British army sent to Dublin to put down the rebellion is used here to investigate to what extent a networked virtual world can be accommodated into a scholarly editing paradigm developed for print (and more recently digital) to enable alternative forms of research, help in the interpretive process, and assist knowledge production for both general audiences and specialists.
                </p>
                <p>The development of the primary text in a gaming platform posed significant challenges, many of which have been ameliorated when creating digital editions of print or manuscript  sources through such methods and standards as XML, The Text Encoding Initiative, and XML-aware databases. This case study will explore these challenges, the project’s accomplishments, and future directions.</p>
                <p>Contested Memories: The Battle of Mount Street Bridge is one of the four projects developed under the Humanities Virtual World Consortium (HVWC) and is funded by The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. Four virtual worlds are being constructed, each released as Unity3D builds (2015), while a shared virtual world platform ensures the sustainability and interoperability of these as well as future projects.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Historical Background and Purpose of the Digital Simulation</head>
                <p>The Battle of Mount Street Bridge has attracted much scholarly attention not only due to its significance during the Easter Rising but also because of the varied and contradictory accounts of British casualties, as well as the timeline and British strategy during the battle. Seventeen Irish volunteers took positions at four different buildings in and around on a one block stretch along Northumberland Road in a leafy suburb of Dublin (fig. 1). They prevented two Battalions of British soldiers known as the Sherwood Foresters (some 1,750 men) for over six hours from progressing into the city centre.</p>
                <p>Although there exists a significant amount of documentation for the battle from both British and Irish sources, some of it written in the 1920s (The Robin Hoods, 1921; Oates, 1920), with other sources given as oral histories between 1945-1955 (see the Bureau of Military History), scholars have not been able to map, both spatially and temporally, the contours of the engagement so as to understand how such a small number of rebels could inflict such heavy losses on a trained group of soldiers.</p>
                <p>Thus, a  goal of the project is to employ spatiotemporal methods in order to create a model of the environment in which the battle took place as well as simulate certain key events to enable researchers and specialists to visualise the conflict as well as to understand how the conflict unfolded.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""105/image1.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1. Location of buildings occupied by the Irish Volunteers</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methodology</head>
                <p>This project employed a range of research methods in order to obtain relevant information for the battle and inform the decision-making process of building the virtual world. Firstly, conventional archival research and meetings with military historians were carried out to document different sources (both contradictory and fragmentary) that provide evidence for the buildings that were occupied, participant accounts, the weapons they used, as well as the events that took place during the battle. Period photographs were used for the digital (re)construction of the area, while a Lidar Scanning of Northumberland Road helped in creating a highly accurate digital model of the battle scene. Ballistic experts and experiments at the shooting range provided a well-informed recreation of bullets’ trajectories and guns’ sounds and reload rates.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""105/image2.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2.  A 3D Model of Northumberland Road in 3ds Max 2015.</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""105/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3. Rendering of the battlefield. Building and features that were significant in the conflict were modelled in more detail, while a schematic view of the broader area provides adequate context to the users.</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The above information was used as the basis to construct a 3D model of the battle scene, as well as annotations for the Irish Volunteers and the British forces, weapons, and buildings at Northumberland Road and the adjacent streets. The purpose of this visualisation is not to present an exact representation of the battle. Rather, it is a tool to investigate alternative interpretations, as well as provide a case study to engage in ongoing interdisciplinary debates regarding the nature of digital reconstructions (Bentkowska-Kafel et al. 2012; Clark 2010; Kensek et al. 2004). The 3D model was constructed in 3ds Max 2015 (Autodesk 2015) (fig. 2, 3) and was migrated to the game engine Unity3D (2015) in order to enable a navigable in-browser 3D world for users to explore. The first version of the virtual world (November 2015) used all the capabilities of Unity Web Player (fig. 4). However, given the limited support of NPAPI, the plugin framework that Unity Web Player uses to enable detailed and high resolution models to properly function in web browsers, the second version (February 2016) implemented WebGL technology, which at the time of writing this paper, only supports light-weight applications. Therefore, most models of the virtual world had to be optimised, while detailed models of the city that provide contextual information for the Battle had to be omitted (fig. 5). Users of the virtual environment are able to navigate the world in first person-mode, while not having in-world representation in order to avoid modern figures being visible in the battle field.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""105/image4.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 4. First version of the Virtual World embedded within the digital scholarly edition</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""105/image5.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 5. Second version of the Virtual World in WebGL Unity Web Player</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>The digital simulation of the Battle of Mount Street Bridge provides a novel methodology for knowledge production and understanding in historical research demonstrating how computer-based simulations can augment traditional approaches in historical datasets, enhance the interpretive process, and potentially provide answers in complicated research questions. It was the process of producing the digital simulation and not simply the end-product that provided valuable answers to our questions. Once the model was completed, however, new research questions emerged, as historians interested in the period, as well as the public, began interacting with the model. </p>
                <p>Future development of the project includes embedding narratives about in-world objects (buildings, avatars etc.), contextual information and decisions, animations of the broad contours of the battle, an AI simulation of key events, and a Mixed-Reality application tailored to the general public and secondary school students.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>3ds Max, (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Autodesk</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.autodesk.com/products/3ds-max/"">http://www.autodesk.com/products/3ds-max/</ref> (accessed 27 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bentkowska-Kafel, A., Denard, H. and Baker, D.,</hi> (Eds.) (2012). P
                        <hi rend=""italic"">aradata and Transparency in Virtual Heritage</hi>. England, UK: Ashgate
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Bureau of Military History: Accounts/Documents/Images/Audio (1913-1921). Defence Forces Ireland. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.bureauofmilitaryhistory.ie/"">http://www.bureauofmilitaryhistory.ie/</ref> (accessed 27 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Clark, J. T.</hi> (2010). The Fallacy of Reconstruction. In Forte, M. (Ed) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cyber-archaeology</hi>. Oxford: Archaeopress.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Kensek, K., Dodd, L., Cipolla, N.</hi> (2004). Fantastic Reconstructions or Reconstructions of the Fantastic? Tracking and Presenting Ambiguity, Alternatives, and Documentation in Virtual Worlds. <hi rend=""italic""> Automation in Construction</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">13</hi>: 175–86.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Oates, W. C.</hi> (1920). The Sherwood Foresters in the Great War: 1914-1918. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The 2/8th Battalion</hi>. Nottingham: J and H Bell.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Papadopoulos, C., Hamilakis, Y. and Kyparissi-Apostolika, N.</hi> (2015). Light in a Neolithic dwelling: Building 1 at Koutroulou Magoula (Greece). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Antiquity</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">89</hi>(347): 1034-50.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Snyder, L.</hi> (2015). VSim Software. Institute for Digital Research and Education, UCLA. 
                        <ref target=""https://idre.ucla.edu/research/active-research/vsim"">https://idre.ucla.edu/research/active-research/vsim</ref> (accessed 27 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sunstedt, V., Chalmers, A. and Martinez, P.</hi> (2004). High Fidelity Reconstruction of the Ancient Egyptian Temple of Kalabsha. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">AFRIGRAPH '04 Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Computer Graphics, Virtual Reality, Visualisation and Interaction in Africa</hi>, pp. 107–13. New York: ACM.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Robin Hoods: 1/7th, 2/7th and 3/7th Battns. Sherwood Foresters 1914-1918</hi> (1921). Written by the Officers of the Battalions. Nottingham: J&H Bell, Ltd.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <lb/>Unity3D Game Engine (2015). Unity. Version 5. 
                        <ref target=""http://unity3d.com/""> http://unity3d.com/</ref> (accessed 27 February 2016).
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                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2453","17","The digital breadcrumb trail of Brothers Grimm","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Grimm's 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Kinder- und Hausmärchen</hi>: Intratextuality and Intertextuality
                </head>
                <p>Described as 'a great monument to European literature' (David and David, 1964; 180), Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm’s masterpiece 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Kinder- und Hausmärchen</hi> (hereafter KHM) has captured adult and child imagination for 200 years. International cinema, literature and folklore have borrowed and adapted the Brothers’ fairy tales in multifarious ways, inspiring themes and characters in numerous cultures and languages. While commonly and erroneously considered the fathers of the genre, the fairy tales were not original to the Brothers. In fact, Jacob and Wilhelm collected and adapted their stories from earlier works, some of them dating back to as far as the seventh century BC, and made numerous changes to their own collection (David and David, 1964, p. 183), producing seven distinct editions between 1812 and 1857. In these four decades of writing and rewriting, the fairy tales changed in number, style and content in accordance with historical, social and literary influences. And yet, how did forty years of revisions not confuse the tradition and transmission amongst followers and readers? Indeed, some fairy tales were changed almost beyond recognition. What makes them so timeless and memorable? What is it that immortalises these tales? An answer to this question can be found in the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">motifs</hi> the Brothers borrowed from earlier traditions and disseminated by way of their famous collection.
                </p>
                <p>Motifs, defined by Prince's 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Dictionary of Narratology</hi> (2003) as '[...] minimal thematic unit[s]', pervade the Grimm collection and are stable elements interlacing the seven editions of the KHM. The puss with the boots (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Der gestiefelte Kater</hi>) and the concept of the breadcrumb trail (originating in the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Hänsel und Gretel</hi> tale) are both examples of motifs, and they recur not only throughout the Grimm editions, but also over time and space. The occurrence and repetition of motifs within the Grimm collection is a form of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">intratextuality</hi>, a term used to describe the internal relations within a text or an author and, in our case, within the KHM editions. But a motif may also appear in other authors across traditions and languages, thus creating 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">intertextual</hi> relations, relations that the KHM may have with other texts. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Related work and computational opportunities</head>
                <p>The breadcrumb trail generated by these motifs in literary history, and internationally spread through the Brothers Grimm, has been extensively studied by folklorists, historians and literary critics. Akin to memes, motifs are a form of information transfer and reuse, which opens up numerous opportunities for computational research in cultural evolution and transmission. Interestingly, however, the study of motifs has not yet fully explored the affordances of digital methods. Many authoritative volumes and ontologies have been published in print, such as the well-known 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Enzyklopädie des Märchens</hi>, or the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Estonian Folktales</hi> and the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Catalogue of Portuguese Folktales</hi>, but only a few digital projects or digital editions of these print sources exist. One such digital initiative is the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Aarne-Thompson's Motif-Index</hi>
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text"">
                            <hi rend=""italic"">The Aarne-Thompson Motif-Index</hi> can be accessed at: http://www.ruthenia.ru/folklore/thompson/ (accessed 18 October 2015).
                        </p>
                    </note>, a crucial contribution to the field, often used as a reference system for the production of folktale catalogues. 
                </p>
                <p>The situation, however, is different for fairy tales, inasmuch as digital copies of many folktale collections are freely available from Google Books or the Internet Archive,
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> For example, the 1550-1553 Venetian collection 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Le piacevoli notti</hi> by Giovanni Francesco Straparola, at: https://goo.gl/fAA0J6 (accessed 21 October 2015).
                        </p>
                    </note> or from online collections, such as the Nederlandse VolksverhalenBank initiative
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Available at: http://www.verhalenbank.nl (accessed 1 January 2016).</p>
                    </note> or the Satorbase project
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Available at: http://satorbase.org/ (accessed 1 January 2016).</p>
                    </note>, fostering intertextual research never before possible.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> The increasing availability of digital and digitised assets allows us to access information more easily and to potentially uncover previously unknown or unchartered territory.</p>
                    </note> Indeed, we can now leverage hyperlinks and APIs in order to automatically retrieve specific and previously inaccessible information across the web, and to connect existing resources for comparative studies. Moreover, no effort has yet addressed the cross-cultural relations of fairy tales, giving way to opportunities for interdisciplinary, multilingual and big data research.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Our project</head>
                <p>The new project
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Starting in October 2015 and running until December 2018.</p>
                    </note> described in this paper is one such opportunity, whereby an international and interdisciplinary team of computer scientists and humanists is semi-automatically crawling digitised texts and the web to produce a multilingual motif index that uses the Grimm collection as its base reference.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> The team does not include but consults folklorists. We start with the Grimm collection as we already have clean data to work from.</p>
                    </note> More specifically, we combine knowledge acquired from existing print and digital resources with the deployment of the Google Search
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn8"" n=""8"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Available at: https://developers.google.com/custom-search/ (accessed 26 October 2015).</p>
                    </note> and Google Books APIs
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn9"" n=""9"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Available at: https://developers.google.com/books/?hl=en (accessed 26 October 2015).</p>
                    </note> in order to automatically retrieve as many motifs across the web in as many languages as possible, and hence to explore the intratextual and intertextual relations that characterise the motifs' hosting texts. The end goal is twofold; on the one hand, we provide a comprehensive reference resource for scholars in the field and interested citizens alike and concurrently revise the Aarne-Thompson Index; on the other, by testing state-of-the-art text reuse and retrieval algorithms on a sample of these diverse and large datasets, we are able to refine our methods in order to accommodate further web-scale queries and thus sharpen our understanding of why and how motifs changed. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methodology</head>
                <p>The case studies we are working with to address our research questions are three Brothers Grimm tales: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Snow White</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Puss in Boots</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Fisherman and his Wife</hi>. These were chosen on the basis of their differing degree of popularity in order to better understand how transmission affects popularisation. 
                </p>
                <p>Our research starts with digital and clean copies of the Grimm texts, downloaded and catalogued from TextGrid
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn10"" n=""10"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Available at: https://textgridrep.org/browse/-/browse/nxvg_0 (accessed 26 October 2015).</p>
                    </note> and Wikisource
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn11"" n=""11"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Available at: https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Kinder-_und_Haus-M%C3%A4rchen_Band_1_%281819%29 (accessed 26 October 2015).</p>
                    </note>. Next, our international team of researchers and student assistants collects digitally available translations and/or editions of the three tales in multiple languages
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn12"" n=""12"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> eTRAP is currently a team of twelve people from seven nationalities speaking eleven different languages.</p>
                    </note> and manually enters them into a database, where information about the web source, the tales, the language, the work and the author is stored.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn13"" n=""13"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> An example may be of use in clarifying the point. Grimm's 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Snow White</hi> corresponds to Pushkin's Сказка о Мертвой Царевне и о Семи Богатырях (
                            <hi rend=""italic"">The Tale of the Dead Princess and the Seven Knights</hi> in English). The two tales differ in many points, including the title of the tale. In Pushkin the princess is protected by seven 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">knights</hi> (семь богатырей) whereas in the Grimm tale it is seven 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">dwarves</hi>. Despite the differences, the motifs of the beautiful princess and of her seven protectors link the two stories. To hyperlink and map these versions and their differences, we use a combination of Thompson identifiers for tales, VIAF identifiers for authors and works, and customised identifiers where existing ones do not apply. This semi-automatic approach allows us to populate our database with both content and metadata, and establish relations between the different versions.
                        </p>
                    </note> Once this manually-compiled dataset is complete, we deploy the TRACER suite of text reuse algorithms (Büchler, 2013) to trace additional motifs in other digital libraries or corpora. At the same time, we use the Google Search and the Google Books APIs to search for motifs at a much larger scale, effectively crawling the web. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Impact</head>
                <p>Like the KHM, we believe this project appeals to a wide and diverse audience not only because of its subject matter, but also because of its international and interdisciplinary character. Our international group operates at the intersection of Computer Science and the Humanities in the arena that is Digital Humanities. This project is unique insofar as each and every member of the team can contribute a piece of his or her own culture, adding a personal and familiar touch to this joint endeavour. By exploring these different cultures, we aim to establish fruitful collaborations and, in so doing, broaden the boundaries of the Digital Humanities. </p>
                <p>Furthermore, we believe that this project fully engages humanists in the digital process of tracing texts through space and time. Following the motif trail back in time allows humanists to investigate lines of transmission of folktales and to potentially uncover additional trails through which other documents or stories travelled. At the same time, it enables the computer scientists in the team to identify any shortcomings in our algorithms and to better understand what to automatically feature when tracing this type of information in a digital ecosystem.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Büchler, M. </hi>(2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Informationstechnische Aspekte des Historical Text Re-use</hi>. Ph.D thesis, University of Leipzig.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">David, A. and David, M. E. </hi> (1964). A Literary Approach to the Brothers Grimm. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Folklore Institute</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(3): 180-96. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3813902 (accessed 26 July 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Prince, G.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dictionary of Narratology. Revised Edition</hi>. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2454","17","The Formation of Australia's Economic History Community, 1950 - 1970: A Multidimensional Network Analysis","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This paper adopts a social-deterministic view of intellectual history in order to link changes in social and professional interactions to the intellectual character of a community. The formation of Australia’s economic history community between 1950 and 1970 is used to illuminate the link between these social and intellectual forces. The economic history field globally has experienced a number of changes over the twentieth century, and although some of these aspects are understood for the larger communities in the US and the UK (see Hudson, 2001; Lyons et al., 2008 for recent examples), Australia’s economic history field remains neglected. Social connections within the community were driven by contextual factors such as the post-WWII expansion of higher education, the growing emphasis on research output and the development of domestic PhD programs. These connections then developed in a multi-dimensional way throughout the 1950s and 1960s, with co-location and collaborative relationships emerging simultaneously between individuals. It is found that the increased density and multiplexity of ties in the community contributed to the development of a distinctive intellectual approach.</p>
            <p>This project combines the quantitative analysis of social and intellectual relationships between members of the field with the qualitative analysis of published works of economic history in this period. Though there is a long tradition of emphasising the importance of social interactions for the development of ideas (Kuhn, [1962] 1970; Mulkay et al., 1975; Whitley, 1984), there have been only limited attempts to visualise social relationships in intellectual history (for some examples, see Harvard University, 2015; Shakeosphere, 2015; Six Degrees of Francis Bacon, 2015), and even fewer attempts to relate changes in the social structure to changes in the intellectual character of the group. </p>
          <div>
            <head>Methodology</head>
            <p>This project links the social and knowledge networks for this community. The social network has been visualised through co-location and collaboration networks. The knowledge network has been visualised through citation analysis and is discussed further through the qualitative analysis of texts. The collaboration and citation analyses are based on a selection of key texts of Australian economic history for the period 1950 to 1970. Texts have been selected from prior wide reading of the subject, with further guidance from secondary analyses that focus on the literary aspects of the field. This has determined the key ideas, approaches and debates for this community, which has informed the selection of texts.</p>
            <p>Based on these texts, collaboration for this community has been recorded in three ways: co-authorship, contributions to edited works, and sub-authorship (acknowledgments). These networks are bonded-tie and valued, based on the number of separate texts that each pair of individuals collaborated on. Collaboration in this context represents ongoing, two-way interaction and the trading of theoretical insights and ideas (Laudel, 2002; Wang et al., 2014). Co-location has been used to map geographic proximity between two individuals, assuming that if they worked within the same university or faculty, they were more likely to have contact than those who were geographically disparate (Jaffe et al., 1993; Ponds et al., 2007). This network is also bonded-tie and valued: if two people were both employed by the same university for 2 years, their relationship is given a score of 2, and so on. </p>
            <p>From the raw collaboration and co-location data, a network of key actors in the community has been determined to allow the combination of the different social networks. All authors of key texts and key collaborative works are included. Otherwise actors are included if they were involved in more than one type of social interaction in this community, for example if an individual was appointed to one of the key universities in this period, as well as involved in the sub-authorship network. From this, each social network map has been weighted based on the strength of that particular relationship. Co-location has been weighted by 0.5, because although geographic proximity may induce interaction between scholars, there is no guarantee. Sub-authorship and contributions to edited works are weighted by 2, and co-authorship is weighted by 4.</p>
            <p>The knowledge network has been partially analysed through citations, as these represent the ideas that are shared between different authors and the place of a text in the wider context of the field (Leydesdorff and Amsterdamska, 1990; Newman, 2010; Siler, 2013). The citation network for this project has been coded manually, as texts are generally non-digitised books and articles – features that make the use of the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) inappropriate here. This network is directed, indicating the one-way transfer of ideas, and is valued for the number of times in each text that the citation is made.</p>
            <p>Supplementing the quantitative analysis of social and intellectual relationships is a qualitative component. The key texts in this community, as identified above, have been analysed using Lloyd’s (1995) framework, which classifies works of economic history based upon the author’s assumptions about how the economy operates (ontology) and the author’s methodology for gaining knowledge about the economy (epistemology). By analysing both qualitative and quantitative aspects, this methodology is able to link social and intellectual interactions with the ideas that emerge in the author’s texts. </p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Preliminary results</head>
            <p>The data has been visualised with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">NetDraw</hi>. Although the community had some mobility between different locations, the co-location map shows that interactions were primarily between those in the same city. This includes those appointed to the Australian National University (ANU) (located in Canberra, and visualised as the large cluster on the right in figure 1), the University of Melbourne and Monash University (both located in Melbourne, and visualised as the cluster at the bottom of figure 1), or the University of Sydney and the University of New South Wales (both located in Sydney, and visualised as the cluster on the left of figure 1). 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""61/image1.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1: Co-location, 1950–1970</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Collaboration was less geographically determined, though there was still greater interaction between those working at the same site. All co-authors were those who also had co-location ties (see figure 2). Contributors to edited works were also generally those that were geographically proximate to the editors in this period (see figure 3). Sub-authorship was the least geographically determined social network, responsible for most of the interactions between those in different cities (see figure 4). Having said that, the sub-authorship network was still clustered around the main institutions, with the ANU group experiencing the greatest frequency of sub-authorship in this period. Figure 5 shows that when each of these measures are combined, social interactions between members of the community in this period broadly followed co-location trends.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""61/image2.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2: Co-authorship, 1950–1970</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""61/image3.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3: Contributors to edited works, 1950-1970</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""61/image4.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 4: Sub-authorship, 1950–1970</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""61/image5.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 5: Multiple measures, 1950–1970</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 6 shows the citation network for this community, with authors of those texts included in the citation analysis highlighted. There was a broad tendency for those that had strong interactions in the social network to have similar citation patterns. A good example of this is NG Butlin, WA Sinclair, N Cain and AR Hall, located together towards the centre of figure 6. In the social network, these individuals were part of the large ANU cluster, with co-location and collaboration interactions throughout this period. There is evidence to support the counterfactual as well: that a lack of social interactions with the core of the community led to distinctive citation patterns. BR Davidson and E Dunsdorfs are good examples here, located on the fringes of figure 6 below, and also with limited interaction in the social networks above. However, this is a loose relationship, with non-social factors such as choice of research topic and approach to the subject also converging citation patterns.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""61/image6.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 6: Citations, 1950-1970</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The networks above show that there was a range of social and intellectual interactions in Australia’s economic history field between 1950 and 1970, particularly structured around key institutions and prominent figures. This was accompanied by the development of a distinctive intellectual approach for the community. The orthodox approach to economic history in this period focussed on national income accounting, domestic determinants of growth, urbanisation, and the treatment of economic agents in an abstract and aggregate way. Core proponents of this approach had multidimensional interactions in the social network, mostly centred on NG Butlin and his colleagues at the ANU. A number of alternative approaches existed in smaller ‘pockets’ in the community, which were also structured by social interactions.</p>
            <p>By combining the quantitative analysis of various social and intellectual relationships with the qualitative analysis of texts and ideas, this project links the social network and the knowledge network for Australia’s economic history community. Not only does this provide a pioneering attempt to combine SNA with the more traditional methods for intellectual history, it analyses the Australian economic history field in a dynamic and multi-dimensional way. Key results suggest an association between social interactions and the citation patterns adopted by members of the community in this period. Key social and intellectual relationships between members of the field also led to the development of a distinctive intellectual approach for this interdisciplinary field.</p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_1""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Harvard University.</hi> (2015). Economists In Cambridge. http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~histecon/visualizing/graphing/economists.html (accessed 4th August 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_2""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hudson, P.</hi> ed (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Living Economic and Social History</hi>. Glasgow: Economic History Society.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_3""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jaffe, A., Trajtenberg, M. and Henderson, R.</hi> (1993). Geographic localization of knowledge spillovers as evidenced by patient citations. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Quarterly Journal of Economics</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">108</hi>(3): 577-98.
                    </bibl>
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                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_4""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kuhn, T.</hi> ([1962] 1970). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</hi>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_5""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Laudel, G.</hi> (2002). What do we measure by co-authosrhips? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Research Evaluation</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(1): 3-15.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_6""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Leydesdorff, L. and Amsterdamska, O.</hi> (1990). Dimensions of citation analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Science, Technology, and Human Values</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">15</hi>(3): 305-35.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_7""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lloyd, C.</hi> (1995). Economic History and Policy: Historiography of Australian Traditions. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Australian Journal of Politics and History</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">41</hi>(3): 61-79.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_8""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lyons, J., Cain, L. and Williamson, S.</hi> ed (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reflections on the cliometrics revolution: Conversations with economic historians</hi>. New York: Routledge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_9""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mulkay, M., Gilbert, G. and Woolgar, S.</hi> (1975). Problem Areas and Research Networks in Science. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sociology</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(1): 187-203.
                    </bibl>
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                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_10""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Newman, M.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Networks: An introduction</hi>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_11""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ponds, R., van Oort, F. and Frenken, K.</hi> (2007). The geographical and institutional proximity of research collaboration. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Papers in Regional Science</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">86</hi>(3): 423-43.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_12""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shakeosphere.</hi> (2015). Shakeosphere: Mapping early modern social networks. http://shakeosphere.lib.uiowa.edu/ (accessed 4th August 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_13""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Siler, K.</hi> (2013). Citation choice and innovation in science studies. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scientometrics</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">95</hi>(1): 385-415.
                    </bibl>
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                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_14""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Six Degrees of Francis Bacon.</hi> (2015). Six Degrees of Francis Bacon: Reassembling the early modern social network. http://sixdegreesoffrancisbacon.com/ (accessed 4th August 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_15""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wang, C., Rodan, S., Fruin, M. and Xu, X.</hi> (2014). Knowledge networks, collaboration networks and exploratory innovation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Academy of Management Journal</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">57</hi>(2): 484-514.
                    </bibl>
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                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_16""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Whitley, R.</hi> (1984). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Intellectual and Social Organisation of the Sciences</hi>. Oxford: Clarendon.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2455","17","The »Hidden Kosmos« of scientific instruments in Alexander von Humboldt's »Vorlesungen über physikalische Geographie« - or: What on earth is an »Ariometer«?","2","<text>
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Abstract</head>
                <p>In 1827/28 Alexander von Humboldt presented the scientific knowledge of his time in lectures which became famous in their own right as a milestone in the popularization of science as well as due to their apparent connection to Humboldt’s most important work “Kosmos. Entwurf einer physischen Weltbeschreibung” (1845–62).</p>
                <p>The project “Hidden Kosmos—Reconstructing Alexander von Humboldt’s ‘Kosmos-Lectures’”
                    <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1""> www.culture.hu-berlin.de/hidden-kosmos.</note> is located at Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Within two years (ending in August, 2016) the project digitizes and virtually brings together eleven attendee’s lecture notes (all that are known at the moment) of the “Vorlesungen über physikalische Geographie”, the so-called “Kosmos-Lectures”, coming from libraries, archives as well as private collections in Germany, Poland (Kraków) and Turkey.
                </p>
                <p>The TEI-encoded transcripts of about 3500 manuscript pages will be published as a standard-compliant, deeply annotated and highly integrated corpus under CC by-sa.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2""> https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/de/.</note>
                </p>
                <p>While the project’s goal is to enable an intensive exploration of Humboldt’s lectures, our poster will abstract a little from the impressive range of topics of Humboldt’s lectures and focus on technical solutions applied in the project to make the corpus likewise fruitful to Humboldt researchers, the general public and Dhists.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Starter</head>
                <p>On March 13, 1828 Alexander von Humboldt gave his 14th talk of the Kosmos-Lectures at Berlin’s Singakademie.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3""> Singakademie is todays Maxim-Gorki-Theater. After its opening on April 8th, 1827 it has been the biggest event hall in Berlin.</note> At the end of his talk he told his audience:
                </p>
                <quote>... für den technischen Gebrauch hat man von diesen neueren Entdeckungen eine Anwendung gemacht, durch die Einrichtung eines 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Ariometers</hi>, od. Wollmessers. Ein Lichtstrahl welcher bei einem feinen Faden Wolle vorbei geht, erleidet eine Beugung u. bildet farbige Frangen oder Ringe, die um so breiter erscheinen als der Faden zarter od. dünner ist.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""4"">
                        <ptr target=""http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/nn_msgermqu2124_1827/14""/>. 
                    </note>
                </quote>
                <p>The topic of this lecture is fairly clear: Optical interference and the diffraction of light. The main instrument mentioned is an “Ariometer” for measuring the thickness of woolen threads. This at least is the conclusion from what the anonymous writer of this text tells us.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Formal setting</head>
                <p>The project’s tag set strictly follows the DTABf-M (cf. Haaf/Thomas, 2015)
                    <note xml:id=""ftn5"" place=""foot"" n=""5""> More information at http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/doku/basisformat_manuskripte.</note> which is a specific DTA “Base Format” (DTABf) for 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">manuscripts</hi>. This strict subset of the TEI P5 tag set provides “a balance between expressiveness and precision as well as an interoperable annotation scheme for a large variety of text types in historical corpora [...].” (Cf. Haaf et al., 2014)
                </p>
                <p>The tag set and corresponding RNG-schema are the basis for a homogeneous TEI-encoding of all documents by different encoders, i. e. typists from the (external) vendor—providing transcription and TEI-conformant annotation of the easier legible manuscripts—as well as our project team.</p>
                <p>The linguistic analysis of texts at the DTA (incl. lemmatization and fully automatized normalization of historical forms) and their search engine enable an ideal exploitation of the attendee’s lecture notes in the context of the DTA corpora, where hundreds of other texts from Humboldt himself as well as his contemporaries, predecessors and successors can be accessed and linked to the Kosmos-Lectures.</p>
                <p>Obviously, as we are dealing with different notes by several attendees of Humboldt’s lectures—i. e. still referring to the same oral presentation—a collation of the witnesses is one essential way of access. The similarities and differences between the witnesses call for collation tools. CollateX or juXta, for instance, are well known and established DH tools for completely automatized detections and visualizations of comparisons of two or more texts. They are of great value for our project (cf. Thomas, 2014/15) and we will illustrate this by making accessible collation sets during our poster demo.</p>
                <p>Due to our TEI-encoding more options for evaluations are given:</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Humboldt’s course is segmented chronologically into single lectures.
                        <note xml:id=""ftn6"" place=""foot"" n=""6""> A contentual segmentation is in preparation.</note> This is thoroughly done via <div type=""session"" n=""[count]"">. This approach enhances the possibilities of accessing parallel reading of the transcripts.
                    </item>
                    <item>A systematic access to the sources is enabled due to referencing persons within the TEI documents (<persName ref=""[ID]"">) as a basis for an encompassing index of all postscripts linked to authority records.</item>
                    <item>A third way of accessing the Kosmos-Lectures will be a complete bibliography of all mentioned sources tagged with <bibl>.</item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Contentwise Resumption</head>
                <p>Starting point was the “Ariometer” and the diffraction of light in the one manuscript quoted above. A use case would be to see what the other listeners noted. For example, one other attendee wrote:</p>
                <quote>… durch die Beugung der Lichtstralen, indem sie durch einen engen Raum gehn, entstehn farbige Franzen, die man am besten erhalten kann, wenn man einen Lichtstral durch das Fenster bei einem dünnen Faden vorbei in ein dunkles Zimmer auf eine helle Wand leitet…
                    <note xml:id=""ftn7"" place=""foot"" n=""7""> http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/parthey_msgermqu1711_1828/126.</note>
                </quote>
                <p>Similarities between the two texts are obvious: light beams, diffraction, a woolen thread and coloured stripes of light. But while the first extract gives the impression of Humboldt being interested in measuring woolen threads, these clearly function as instruments for illustrating a physical phenomenon in the later passage.</p>
                <p>The natural attempt to search for “Ariometer” in our corpus gives no results.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn8"" place=""foot"" n=""8""> If you give google search a try, this leads you to 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Aräometer</hi>, which is a totally different instrument. The reason for this is easy to tell: It's an OCR-mistake due to the “latin superscript small letter e”.
                    </note> We can derive from the context given in the quote above that Humboldt is talking about physical phenomena, but it would be helpful to have a protagonist. So let's refine our search:
                    <note xml:id=""ftn9"" place=""foot"" n=""9""> This and the following DDC searches are documented in detail here: http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/doku/DDC-suche_hilfe. In brief: We are looking for sentences including “Lichstrahlen” and “Interferenz” where there are no more than 20 tokens in between. And the search is restricted to our Kosmos-Lecture corpus (avhkv). If you want to give it a try, go to: http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/search/ddc.</note>
                </p>
                <p>near(Lichtstrahlen,Interferenz,20) #has[corpus,/avhkv/i]</p>
                <p>Looking at the results (see fig. 1) leads us to Thomas Young as well as Jung
                    <note xml:id=""ftn0"" place=""foot"" n=""10""> Jung is not to be seen on the screenshot only because a little more context would be necessary. Just add \#cntxt2 to your search and choose the HTML-view.</note>, which obviously only is a German version of the first. Next attempt:
                </p>
                <p>near(*meter,/[JY]o?ung$/,20) #has[corpus,/avhkv/i]</p>
                <p>And this leads to another 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">meter</hi>, the “Circometer”. Maybe we couldn’t find the “Ariometer” since it doesn’t exist? To shorten the track here: A “Circometer” doesn’t exist either. What we are in fact looking for is the so-called 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">eriometer</hi>.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""189/100000000000064D0000022ED11AF252.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 1: Result of the DDC-Search</head>
                    </figure>What we are facing here is an inherent difficulty of our text type: attendee’s lecture notes. It’s always possible that the listeners misheard something. This is why 1) the deeply granulated TEI encoding of the project, 2) the technical solutions provided by the DTA and 3) text-comparison visualizations (being developed for our project’s) are absolutely necessary.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Summary</head>
                <p>The following DDC-search leads to the third volume of the Kosmos (1850), where Humboldt is talking about the above mentioned physical phenomena:</p>
                <p>near(""$p=ADJA /Fran[szg]en/"",/(Wolle|Interferenz)/,20) #has[corpus,/(avhkv|kosmos)/i]</p>
                <p>About 30 years after his lectures the eriometer and the wool are no issue any more. The reason for this is not inherent, but a little research on the basis of other digitized sources reveals it: Whereas the real eriometer—the apparatus for measuring the fineness of woolen threads—, which Young used to demonstrate the diffraction of light in his famous 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Lectures on Natural Philosophy</hi> at the Royal Institution, became forgotten,
                    <note xml:id=""ftn10"" place=""foot"" n=""11""> For “it seems hitherto to have been found much too delicate to be employed by the hard hands of peasants, with any advantage.” (Cf. George/Guarino 1973, p. 392).</note> the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">idea</hi> of combining the craft and the theory (or the engineer and the scientist) succeeded:
                </p>
                <quote>… das ähnliche Instrument dient dazu die Güte der Wolle zu messen, und die Natur der Weltkörper zu bestimmen.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn11"" place=""foot"" n=""12""> http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/nn_msgermqu2124_1827/147.</note>
                </quote>
                <p>Apart from the implementation of means for collation it is obvious that linking to more (external) data-sets, as shown here, will add even further value to the project.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn12"" place=""foot"" n=""13""> The »ariometer« obviously is just one trace to follow. For an extended list of (the approx. 120 different) instruments mentioned please grab https://github.com/haoess/hidden-kosmos/blob/master/lists/Liste_Instrumente.txt.</note>
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">N. N.</hi> (1828). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Physikalische Geographie. Vorgetragen von Alexander von Humboldt</hi>. In Deutsches Textarchiv, Berlin.
                        <ptr target=""http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/nn_msgermqu2124_1827/""/>(accessed 12 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">CollateX</hi>, 
                        <ptr target=""http://collatex.net/""/>; CollateX Console, 
                        <ptr target=""http://collatex.net/demo/""/>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Erdmann, D. and Thomas, C.</hi> (2014). … zu den wunderlichsten Schlangen der Gelehrsamkeit zusammengegliedert. Neue Materialien zu den ,Kosmos-Vorträgen‘ Alexander von Humboldts, nebst Vorüberlegungen zu deren digitaler Edition. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">HiN – Humboldt im Netz. Internationale Zeitschrift für Humboldt-Studien</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">15</hi>(28): 34–45, 
                        <ptr target=""http://hin-online.de/hin28/erdmann-thomas.htm/""/> (accessed 12 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">George, S. and Guarino, M. </hi>(1973). Young’s Eriometer: History and Modern Teaching Use. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Physics Education</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(6): 392–96.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Haaf, S., Geyken, A. and Wiegand, F. </hi>(2014/15). The DTA ""Base Format"": A TEI Subset for the Compilation of a Large Reference Corpus of Printed Text from Multiple Sources. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative (jTEI)</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>, 
                        <ptr target=""http://jtei.revues.org/1114/""/> (accessed 12 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Haaf, S. and Thomas, C.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DTABf-M: A TEI-conformant Base Format for Manuscripts. </hi>Presentation at the TEI Converence and Members Meeting 2015, Lyon. 
                        <ptr target=""http://tei2015.huma-num.fr/en/papers/#108""/> (accessed 12 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Humboldt, A. V.</hi> (1845–62). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Kosmos. Entwurf einer physischen Weltbeschreibung</hi>. 5 Bände. Stuttgart (u.a.): Cotta.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Juxta Collation Software</hi>, For Scholars, 
                        <ptr target=""http://www.juxtasoftware.org/""/>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Parthey, G.</hi> (1828/28). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Alexander von Humboldt[:] Vorlesungen über physikalische Geographie</hi>. Novmbr. 1827 bis April,[!] 1828. Nachgeschrieben von G. Partheÿ. Berlin, In Deutsches Textarchiv, 
                        <ptr target=""http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/parthey_msgermqu1711_1828/""/> (accessed 12 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">textloop Martina Gödel</hi>, 
                        <ptr target=""http://textloop.de/""/>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thomas, C.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Hidden Kosmos – Humboldts ‚Kosmos-Vorträge‘ als Probe der Digital Humanities</hi>. Vortrag auf der DHd-Jahrestagung 2015 „Von Daten zu Erkenntnissen: Digitale Geisteswissenschaften als Mittler zwischen Information und Interpretation“, 23.–27.2.2015, Zentrum für Informationsmodellierung – Austrian Centre for Digital Humanities an der Universität Graz. Book of Abstracts, http://gams.uni-graz.at/o:dhd2015.abstracts-vortraege: [193]ff.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Young, T.</hi> (1807). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts</hi>. Johnson.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2456","17","Time Series Analysis Enhances Authorship Attribution","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Long-range correlations in texts – emerging even in dictionaries and allowing to differentiate genres (Montemurro and Pury, 2002) – prove that structures larger than necessitated by syntax exist. They might reflect organisation of literary works, and be one of authorial fingerprints.</p>
                <p>Stylometry, however, have not exploited the information carried by memory longer than one clause apart – other than use of n-grams (e.g., Eder, 2011). Existing studies include investigating: sequences of (un)stressed syllables (Pawłowski, 1998; 1999); sentence lengths (Drożdż et al., 2016); transferring long-range correlations between letter and word sequences (Altmann et al., 2012).</p>
                <p>To quantify correlations in a script, successive symbols can be treated as a time-series with symbolic values (Stanley, 1992) or numeric positions on a word frequency list (Montemurro and Pury, 2002; Ausloos, 2012), see Fig. 1. Below, I use information extracted from such time-series as features in machine learning (ML) methods to increase accuracy of authorship attribution (AA) in a benchmark literary corpus.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""224/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Figure 1</hi> A book translated into a time-series: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">x</hi>-axis corresponds to the position of a word in a text; 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">y</hi>-axis corresponds to the total number of times the word appears in the book
                    </head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methods</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Complexity measures</head>
                    <p>For a series, defined as ranks of words at consecutive positions in a text, following measures are used (formatted as 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Quantity</hi>: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ML features</hi>):
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Power spectrum</hi>: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">psLen</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">psExp</hi>
                    </p>
                    <p>Power spectrum 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">S(f)</hi> of a series at a frequency 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">f </hi>can be interpreted as the strength of correlation of the series with itself at word-to-word distances 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">1/f</hi>. As Fig. 2 illustrates, it is described well by two parameters: the length 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">psLen</hi> of the high-correlation plateau and the slope of its decay 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">psExp</hi>.
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Predictability</hi>: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">pred</hi>
                    </p>
                    <p>As the name suggests, it measures how well can the next step in a series be predicted given previous steps (see definition: Stone, 1996).</p>
                    <p>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fano factor exponent</hi>: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">fanoF</hi>
                    </p>
                    <p>Fano factor measures signal autocorrelation, especially in fractal processes (Thurner et al., 1997), as one takes increasingly bigger chunks of text – similarly to the slope of power spectrum or detrended fluctuation analysis (Grabska-Gradzińska et al., 2013).</p>
                    <p>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Entropy rate of word variation</hi>: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">entExp</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">entConst</hi>
                    </p>
                    <p>The entropy is maximal for equiprobable word occurences, and minimal when a single word is always used. As one reads a text, new words appear and the entropy grows, and saturates. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">entExp</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">entConst</hi> are characteristic time and a multiplicative constant of such a growth.
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Static entropy</hi>: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">entLocM</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">entLocSD</hi>
                    </p>
                    <p>For a window of a constant length moving across the whole text, the entropy fluctuates. Parameters 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">entLocM</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">entLocSD</hi> are its mean and standard deviation.
                    </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""224/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Figure 2</hi> Power spectrum 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">S(f)</hi> of the time-series as a function of word-to-word distance 1/f
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Algorithm and parameters</head>
                    <p>AA was performed with the R package 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">stylo</hi> (Eder et al., 2013) with settings: delta distance (Burrows, 2002), 1000-fold cross-validation, one book of each author in the training set. (None of the other ML methods (Stamatatos, 2009; Jockers and Witten, 2010) implemented in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">stylo</hi> did significantly better than Burrows’s delta.)
                    </p>
                    <p>Since on this corpus about 90 most frequent words (MFW) are needed for 100% accuracy, only the first ten were used as features, which left room for improvement. Having precomputed all the eight measures, they were appended to the feature list.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Data</head>
                <p>A corpus (Rybicki, 2015) comprising 27 classic British 19
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> c. novels of 11 authors was used (see Fig. 3, where each leaf is a shorthand for a novel’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Author_Title</hi>). The reason for choosing this corpus is that many AA algorithms have been tested on it, and they perform very well, not least thanks to its size.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Authorship attribution</head>
                    <p>AA algorithms at best use 6-grams (Eder, 2011), whereas the correlations may reach hundreds of words, as demonstrated in Fig. 2. The results in Tables 1-2 show that the measures from Sec. 2.1 can aid ML. As a proof of concept, Fig. 3 shows a cluster analysis based exclusively on these complexity measures; although imperfect, it strongly indicates that the temporal characteristics contain traces of authorial style.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""224/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Figure 3</hi> Cluster analysis of the corpus based only on the eight complexity measures
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Informativeness of complexity measures</head>
                    <p>Surprisingly, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">psLen</hi> is not correlated with paragraph lengths (cf. Kosmidis et al., 2006). Its smallest values 280-300 come, intriguingly, from Austen and Anne and Emily Brontë, while the largest 370-390 from Dickens, Thackeray and Trollope.
                    </p>
                    <p>Note that correlated features (see Tab. 3 for a summary) worsen performance and should be eliminated. Remaining parameters are expected to contain non-overlapping information. Further, PCA analysis showed that 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">psLen</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">entLocM</hi> contain the most distinctive information. Tables 1-2 show that indeed these parameters most significantly aid ML.
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusions</head>
                <p>This preliminary study shows that measures reflecting long-range word-to-word correlations carry authorial information and enhance stylometric ML methods. More complex features than words and n-grams are needed.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Acknowledgements</head>
                <p>I thank Maciej Eder for insightful discussions. The research was funded by Grant No. DEC-2013/09/N/ST6/01419 of the National Science Centre of Poland.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""224/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Table 1 Left:</hi> Reference values 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Right:</hi> Clustering accuracy for 10 MFW+1 complexity measure as a feature (accuracy above 10-MFW reference level is in bold)
                    </head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""224/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Table 2</hi> Best accuracy obtained for 10 MFW plus two/three complexity measures
                    </head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""224/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Table 3</hi> Positive (+) and negative (–) correlations between parameters from Sec. 2.1
                    </head>
                </figure>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Altmann, E. G., Cristadoro, G. and Esposti, M. D.</hi> (2012). On the origin of long-range correlations in texts, <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">109</hi>: 11582–87.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Ausloos, M.</hi> (2012). Generalized Hurst exponent and multifractal function of original and translated texts mapped into frequency and length time series, <hi rend=""italic"">Physical Review E</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">86</hi>: 031108.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J. F. </hi>(2002). ""Delta"": a measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship, <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>: 267–87.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Drożdż, S., Oświęcimka, P., Kulig, A., Kwapień, J., Bazarnik, K., Grabska-Gradzińska, I., Rybicki, J. and Stanuszek, M.</hi> (2016). Quantifying origin and character of long-range correlations in narrative texts, <hi rend=""italic"">Information Sciences</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">331</hi>: 32-44.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M. </hi>(2011). Style-markers in authorship attribution: a cross-language study of the authorial fingerprint, <hi rend=""italic"">Studies in Polish Linguistics</hi>, <hi rend=""bold""/>pp. 99–114.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2013). Stylometry with R: a suite of tools. <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts.</hi> University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE, pp. 487–89.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Grabska-Gradzińska, I., Kulig, A., Kwapień, J., Oświęcimka, P. and Drożdż, S.</hi> (2013). Multifractal analysis of sentence lengths in English literary texts, <hi rend=""italic"">AWERProcedia Information Technology and Computer Science</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>: 1700-06.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M. L. and Witten, D. M.</hi> (2010). A comparative study of machine learning methods for authorship attribution, <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>: 15–223.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Kosmidis, K., Kalampokis, A. and Argyrakis, P.</hi> (2006). Language time series analysis, <hi rend=""italic"">Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">370</hi>: 808–16.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Montemurro, M. A. and Pury, P. A.</hi> (2002). <hi rend=""italic"">Long-range fractal correlations in literary corpora, Fractals</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>: 451–61.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Pawłowski, A.</hi> (1998). Séries temporelles en linguistique. avec application a lattribution de textes: Romain Gary et Émile Ajar. <hi rend=""italic"">Travaux de linguistique quantitative</hi>, Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">62</hi>, Honoré Champion, Paris, Geneve: Champion-Slatkine.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Pawłowski, A.</hi> (2011). Language in the line vs. language in the mass: On the efficiency of sequential modeling in the analysis of rhythm, <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Quantitative Linguistics</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>: 70–77.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Peng, C., Buldyrev, S., Goldberger, A., Havlin, S., Sciortino, F., Simons, M. and Stanley, H.</hi> (1992). Long-range correlations in nucleotide sequences, <hi rend=""italic"">Nature</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">356</hi>: 168–70.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rybicki, J.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">A short collection of British fiction.</hi> 
                        <ref target=""https://sites.google.com/site/computationalstylistics/corpora"">https://sites.google.com/site/computationalstylistics/corpora</ref> (accessed 23 February 2016).</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Stamatatos, E.</hi> (2009). A survey of modern authorship attribution methods, <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">60</hi>: 538–56.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Stone, J. V. </hi> (1996). Perceptually salient visual parameters using spatiotemporal smoothness constraints, <hi rend=""italic"">Neural Computation</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>: 1463–92.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Thurner, S., Lowen, S. B., Feurstein, M. C., Heneghan, C., Feichtinger, H. G. and Teich, M. C.</hi> (1997). Analysis, synthesis, and estimation of fractal-rate stochastic point processes, <hi rend=""italic"">Fractals</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>: 565–95.</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2457","17","Topical Diversification Over Time In The Royal Society Corpus","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Science gradually developed into an established sociocultural domain starting from the mid-17
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century onwards. In this process it became increasingly specialized and diversified. Here, we investigate a particular aspect of specialization on the basis of probabilistic topic models. As a corpus we use the Royal Society Corpus (Khamis et al. 2015), which covers the period from 1665 to 1869 and contains 9015 documents
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> Of these 205 years, 159 years actually contain documents (mean = 56.7, median=36, sd=61.6, min=12, max=444)</p>
                </note>.
            </p>
            <p>We follow the overall approach of applying topic models to diachronic corpora (Blei and Lafferty 2006, Hall et al. 2008, Griffiths and Steyvers 2004, McFarland et al. 2013, Newman and Block 2006, Yang et al. 2011) to map documents to topics. Probabilistic topic models (Steyvers and Griffiths 2007) have become a popular means to summarize and analyze the content of text corpora. The principle idea is to model the generation of documents with a randomized two-stage process: For every word 
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>w</mi>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>i</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula> in a document 
                <hi rend=""italic"">d </hi>select a topic 
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>z</mi>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>k</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula> from the document-topic distribution 
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">P</mi>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">(</mo>
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>z</mi>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>k</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">|</mo>
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">d</mi>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">)</mo>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula> and then select the word from the topic-word distribution 
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">P</mi>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">(</mo>
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>w</mi>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>i</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">|</mo>
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>z</mi>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>k</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">)</mo>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">.</mo>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula> Consequently, the document-word distribution is factored as follows:
            </p>
            <p>
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">P</mi>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">(</mo>
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>w</mi>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>i</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">|</mo>
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">d</mi>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">)</mo>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">=</mo>
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mo>∑</mo>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>k</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                        <mrow xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mi>P</mi>
                            <mfenced separators=""|"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <msub>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>w</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>i</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                    </msub>
                                    <mo>|</mo>
                                    <msub>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>z</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>k</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                    </msub>
                                </mrow>
                            </mfenced>
                            <mi>P</mi>
                            <mfenced separators=""|"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <msub>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>z</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>k</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                    </msub>
                                    <mo>|</mo>
                                    <mi>d</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </mfenced>
                            <mo>.</mo>
                        </mrow>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula>
            </p>
            <p>This factorization effectively reduces the dimensionality of the model for documents, improving their interpretability: Whereas 
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">P</mi>
                        <mfenced xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"" separators=""|"">
                            <mrow>
                                <msub>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi>w</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi>i</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                </msub>
                                <mo>|</mo>
                                <mi>d</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </mfenced>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula> requires one dimension for each distinct word (10s of thousands) per document, 
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">P</mi>
                        <mfenced xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"" separators=""|"">
                            <mrow>
                                <msub>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi>z</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi>k</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                </msub>
                                <mo>|</mo>
                                <mi>d</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </mfenced>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula> only requires one dimension for each topic (typically in the range of 20-100). Topics are thus not given explicitly for each document, but constitute 
                <hi rend=""italic"">latent</hi> variables: A variety of approaches exist to estimate the document-topic and topic-word distributions from the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">observable</hi> document-word distributions. We use Gibbs-Sampling as implemented in Mallet (McCallum 2002).
            </p>
            <p>For the preliminary analysis in this paper, we process documents as is, without segmenting them further into pages, only excluding stop words but not performing lemmatization or normalization in order to stay reasonably close to the original source. We experimented with the number of topics ranging between 20 and 30, reporting here results on 24 topics. Cursory analysis of multiple runs with different seeds (Steyvers and Griffiths 2007) shows that the resulting topics are rather stable. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Table 1</hi> displays the top words for the topics with manually assigned labels and their overall percentage of occurrence. We can roughly distinguish four groups of topics; three non-thematic groups and one thematic. The first group comprises topics arising from documents in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Latin</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">French</hi>, some of which are also translated into English. The second group 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Formulae</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Tables</hi> relates to highly formalized modes of information presentation. The third group of topics is also clearly non-thematic but relates to general scientific processes: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Observation </hi>and
                <hi rend=""italic""> Experiment</hi> both contain rather general verbs and adjectives in addition to nouns. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Events</hi> contains words describing remarkable events. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Headmatter</hi> includes formulaic expressions typically occurring at the beginning and end of documents that are letters. All topics in this group are relatively frequent. Finally, the topics in the fourth group (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Geography</hi> through 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Chemistry</hi>), consisting mainly of nouns, indeed have a fairly clear thematic interpretation.
            </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Label</cell>
                    <cell>Words</cell>
                    <cell>%</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Latin </cell>
                    <cell>quae quam sed ab sit vero hoc ac sunt esse qui etiam autem pro erit inter quo aut sive</cell>
                    <cell>6.4</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>French </cell>
                    <cell>la le les des en du par dans qui il une qu pour ou ce sur ne au je</cell>
                    <cell>1.3</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Formulae</cell>
                    <cell>cos equation sin equal series point equations number line terms form values curve</cell>
                    <cell>4.7</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Tables </cell>
                    <cell>weight water oo oz parts gr grain io grains fat increase weights grs passed urine specific</cell>
                    <cell>1.7</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Observation</cell>
                    <cell>great made make parts found body time small part water nature long good put find</cell>
                    <cell>10.4</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Experiment</cell>
                    <cell>present general subject case results similar nature author state result cases fact</cell>
                    <cell>7.3</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Events</cell>
                    <cell>great time account stone ground house fire letter place miles found side stones</cell>
                    <cell>5.9</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Headmatter</cell>
                    <cell>years year author society age number time royal life great letter account part letters</cell>
                    <cell>5.4</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Geography </cell>
                    <cell>water sea tide high found river coast north land tides miles height surface great level</cell>
                    <cell>3.1</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Meteorology </cell>
                    <cell>day ditto rain wind cloudy weather fair clear april year days night march july june</cell>
                    <cell>3.2</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Botany </cell>
                    <cell>leaves plant plants tree tab bark folio foliis trees seeds seed flowers species fruit leaf</cell>
                    <cell>2.9</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Reproduction </cell>
                    <cell>cells animal blood fluid eggs membrane found egg part animals ova size young</cell>
                    <cell>3.0</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Cells </cell>
                    <cell>fibres structure form surface portion cells anterior part section side posterior</cell>
                    <cell>2.7</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Paleontology </cell>
                    <cell>part bone bones teeth surface upper side lower anterior length posterior tooth large</cell>
                    <cell>2.5</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Physiology </cell>
                    <cell>blood heart muscles part animal nerves vessels left parts stomach bladder body</cell>
                    <cell>5.5</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Galaxy </cell>
                    <cell>distance position stars star obs small hill double equatorial vf diff st magnitudes nebula</cell>
                    <cell>1.6</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Terrestrial Magn. </cell>
                    <cell>observations needle ship magnetic direct force made variation observed north diurnal</cell>
                    <cell>2.6</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Solar System </cell>
                    <cell>sun time observations moon made observed difference observation clock latitude</cell>
                    <cell>5.5</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Thermodyn. </cell>
                    <cell>air water heat temperature experiments tube experiment glass made time mercury</cell>
                    <cell>4.2</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Mechanical Eng. </cell>
                    <cell>made length weight end diameter iron instrument experiments brass part point line</cell>
                    <cell>4.5</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Electromagn.</cell>
                    <cell>force electricity current wire action body power direction fluid motion surface effect</cell>
                    <cell>3.8</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Optics </cell>
                    <cell>light rays glass eye red colours spectrum colour surface lines angle white blue object</cell>
                    <cell>3.7</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Metallurgy </cell>
                    <cell>water acid salt grains quantity iron found solution colour substance experiments gold</cell>
                    <cell>4.8</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Chemistry </cell>
                    <cell>acid water solution gas oxygen hydrogen carbonic cent action obtained salt potash</cell>
                    <cell>3.4</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Table 1</hi>: Top words and percentages for topics
            </p>
            <p>To investigate topical trends in the corpus we follow the approach in (Hall et al. 2008), by averaging the document-topic distributions for each year 
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">y</mi>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula>:
            </p>
            <p>
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">P</mi>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">(</mo>
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>z</mi>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>k</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">|</mo>
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">y</mi>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">)</mo>
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML""> </mi>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">=</mo>
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML""> </mi>
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML""> </mi>
                        <mn xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">1</mn>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">/</mo>
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">n</mi>
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML""> </mi>
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mo>∑</mo>
                            <mrow>
                                <msub>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi>d</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi>j</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                </msub>
                                <mo>∈</mo>
                                <mi>y</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                        <mrow xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mi>P</mi>
                            <mo>(</mo>
                            <msub>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>z</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>k</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                            <mo>|</mo>
                            <msub>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>d</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>j</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                            <mo>)</mo>
                        </mrow>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula>
            </p>
            <p>with 
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">n</mi>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula> the number of documents in a year. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Figure 1</hi> shows a selection of five topics with the most pronounced change over time. Interestingly, some of the major changes occur for non-thematic topics: The topic 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Observation</hi> declines sharply from over 30% to less than 1 %. The topics 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Experiment</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Formulae</hi> on the other hand increase starting around 1750. This indicates a substantial paradigm shift over time. Indeed, as Gleick (2010) vividly describes, the early stages of the Royal Society were largely devoted to observing and reporting about natural phenomena. The non-thematic topic 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Latin</hi> reaches its peak in the early 18
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century, and the thematic topics 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Cells</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Chemistry</hi> show a clear increase with the beginning of the 19
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""490/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1: Major topical trends for selected topics</head>
            </figure>
            <p>To gain a better understanding about the correlation of topics, we cluster them hierarchically on the basis of the Jensen-Shannon divergence between the topic-document distributions:</p>
            <p>
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">P</mi>
                        <mfenced xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"" separators=""|"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>d</mi>
                                <mo>|</mo>
                                <mi>z</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </mfenced>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">=</mo>
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">P</mi>
                        <mfenced xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"" separators=""|"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>z</mi>
                                <mo>|</mo>
                                <mi>d</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </mfenced>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">/</mo>
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mo>∑</mo>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>j</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                        <mrow xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mi>P</mi>
                            <mfenced separators=""|"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>z</mi>
                                    <mo>|</mo>
                                    <msub>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>d</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>j</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                    </msub>
                                </mrow>
                            </mfenced>
                        </mrow>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula>
            </p>
            <p>Topics that typically co-occur in documents have similar topic-document distributions, and thus will be placed close in the tree.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""490/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2: Hierarchical clustering of topics by their topic-document distribution</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The resulting tree in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Figure 2</hi> indeed identifies meaningful subgroups. Cutting the tree into six groups - 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Nature, Latin, Medicine, Astronomy, Engineering, Matter</hi> - allows us to investigate the overall topic distribution over time (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Figure 3</hi> with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Latin</hi> left out): 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""490/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3: Distribution of topic groups over time</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The topic group 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Nature</hi> comprising reports of all kinds of natural phenomena (Gleick 2010) clearly decreases over time, which is partially to be attributed to the strong decrease of the topic 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Observation</hi> in this group. The topic groups 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Medicine</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Astronomy </hi>increase over time, whereas the topic groups 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Engineering</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Matter</hi> also generally increase but with some intermediate peaks. Similar to the overall trends at the level of individual topics (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Figure 1</hi>), the biggest overall change occurs in the 2
                <hi rend=""superscript"">nd</hi> half of the 18
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century.
            </p>
            <p>Looking at the individual trends together, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Figure 3</hi> clearly indicates topical diversification: Until around 1770, the dominance of the topic group 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Nature</hi> leads to a highly skewed distribution of topic groups, whereas after 1770 topic groups are distributed much more evenly. The amount of skew can be characterized by the Shannon-Entropy:
            </p>
            <p>
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">H</mi>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">(</mo>
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>P</mi>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>y</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">)</mo>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">=</mo>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">-</mo>
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML""> </mi>
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mo>∑</mo>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>k</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                        <mrow xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mi>P</mi>
                            <mfenced separators=""|"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <msub>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>z</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>k</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                    </msub>
                                    <mo>|</mo>
                                    <mi>y</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </mfenced>
                            <mi> </mi>
                            <msub>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>l</mi>
                                    <mi>o</mi>
                                    <mi>g</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mn>2</mn>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                            <mi>P</mi>
                            <mfenced separators=""|"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <msub>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>z</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>k</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                    </msub>
                                    <mo>|</mo>
                                    <mi>y</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </mfenced>
                        </mrow>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula>
            </p>
            <p>of the year-topic distributions 
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">P</mi>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">(</mo>
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>z</mi>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>k</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">|</mo>
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">y</mi>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">)</mo>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula> (Hall et al. 2010), with highly skewed distributions having low entropy. Indeed as can be seen in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Figure 4 (left), </hi>the entropy (
                <hi rend=""italic"">ent</hi>) increases fairly consistently during the 18
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century and levels out during the 19
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century, reflecting a general increase of topical diversity over time.
            </p>
            <p>It is interesting to compare this with the mean entropy of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">individual</hi> document-topic distributions (
                <hi rend=""italic"">ment</hi>):
            </p>
            <p>
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>H</mi>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>m</mi>
                                <mi>e</mi>
                                <mi>a</mi>
                                <mi>n</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                        <mfenced xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"" separators=""|"">
                            <mrow>
                                <msub>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi>P</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi>y</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                </msub>
                            </mrow>
                        </mfenced>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">≔</mo>
                        <mn xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">1</mn>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">/</mo>
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">n</mi>
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML""> </mi>
                        <munder xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mo>∑</mo>
                            <mrow>
                                <msub>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi>d</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi>j</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                </msub>
                                <mo>∈</mo>
                                <mi>y</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </munder>
                        <mrow xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mi>H</mi>
                            <mo>(</mo>
                            <msub>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>P</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <msub>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>d</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>i</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                    </msub>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                            <mo>)</mo>
                        </mrow>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula>
            </p>
            <p>with 
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">n</mi>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula> the number of documents 
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>d</mi>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>j</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula> in year 
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">y</mi>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula>. This measure decreases over time, i.e., while the overall topical diversity increases, the individual documents become more specific in terms of their topic distributions.
            </p>
            <p>The difference between the entropy of year-topic distributions and mean entropy of individual document-topic distributions,</p>
            <p>
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">J</mi>
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">S</mi>
                        <mfenced xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"" separators=""|"">
                            <mrow>
                                <msub>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi>P</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                    <mrow>
                                        <mi>y</mi>
                                    </mrow>
                                </msub>
                            </mrow>
                        </mfenced>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">=</mo>
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">H</mi>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">(</mo>
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>P</mi>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>y</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">)</mo>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">-</mo>
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>H</mi>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>m</mi>
                                <mi>e</mi>
                                <mi>a</mi>
                                <mi>n</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">(</mo>
                        <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>P</mi>
                            </mrow>
                            <mrow>
                                <mi>y</mi>
                            </mrow>
                        </msub>
                        <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">)</mo>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula>
            </p>
            <p>is the Jensen-Shannon divergence, which is usually applied to two distributions, generalized to the 
                <formula>
                    <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">n</mi>
                        <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML""> </mi>
                    </mml:math>
                </formula>topic distributions of all documents published in year 
                <hi rend=""italic"">y</hi>. The two opposing trends of these quantities lead to a constantly increasing Jensen-Shannon divergence, with a particularly sharp increase between 1750 and 1800. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Figure 4 (right)</hi> depicts similar trends based on the 24 individual topic distributions. At this level, the year-topic entropy (
                <hi rend=""italic"">ent</hi>) shows less of a clear trend, but mean entropy (
                <hi rend=""italic"">ment</hi>) also clearly decreases, and consequently the Jensen-Shannon divergence clearly increases. Thus, at both levels of abstraction we can observe a clear diversification of the topics assigned to the individual documents. This strongly indicates a growing separation of individual scientific disciplines over time.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""490/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 4: Entropy (ent), mean Entropy (ment), and Jensen-Shannon Divergence for topic groups (left) and individual topics (right)</head>
            </figure>
            <p>As an alternative perspective on topical entropy 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Table 2</hi> gives examples of authors with more than 20 papers. The first three authors have the lowest entropy. The dominating topics for Cayley and Owen clearly characterize their main theme of work. Conversely, Rev. John Swinton’s top topic 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Headmatter</hi> (62%) does not really reflect the overall theme of his publications (Orientalism), but rather their style as letters to members of the Royal Society – the dominant form of publication in this period. The second three authors have the highest entropy, their three top topics together amount for less than 50% of their overall topic distribution. However, they do characterize the main line of work of the authors in question fairly well. 
            </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>author</cell>
                    <cell>Papers</cell>
                    <cell>Ent</cell>
                    <cell>Ment</cell>
                    <cell>Jsd</cell>
                    <cell>Years</cell>
                    <cell>Top Topics</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Arthur Cayley</cell>
                    <cell>30</cell>
                    <cell>1.26</cell>
                    <cell>1.12</cell>
                    <cell>0.14</cell>
                    <cell>1850-1866</cell>
                    <cell>Formulae</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Richard Owen</cell>
                    <cell>26</cell>
                    <cell>1.83</cell>
                    <cell>1.58</cell>
                    <cell>0.25</cell>
                    <cell>1843-1869</cell>
                    <cell>Paleontology</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>John Swinton</cell>
                    <cell>35</cell>
                    <cell>2.50</cell>
                    <cell>2.05</cell>
                    <cell>0.45</cell>
                    <cell>1753-1774</cell>
                    <cell>Headmatter</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>John Davy</cell>
                    <cell>58</cell>
                    <cell>4.05</cell>
                    <cell>3.33</cell>
                    <cell>0.72</cell>
                    <cell>1800-1856</cell>
                    <cell>Experiment, Chemistry, Physiology</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>William Watson</cell>
                    <cell>39</cell>
                    <cell>4.03</cell>
                    <cell>3.09</cell>
                    <cell>0.95</cell>
                    <cell>1739-1778</cell>
                    <cell>Events, Observation, Botany</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Edmond Halley</cell>
                    <cell>65</cell>
                    <cell>3.93</cell>
                    <cell>2.75</cell>
                    <cell>1.18</cell>
                    <cell>1683-1731</cell>
                    <cell>Solar System, Observation, Latin</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Table 2:</hi> Authors with minimum entropy (top) and maximum entropy (bottom)
            </p>
            <p>In this paper we have analyzed the progression of topics in a corpus of the Royal Society of London. Our main result is the observation that the overall mixture of topics becomes more diverse over time, while the topics of individual documents become more specialized. These two opposing trends lead to a topical fragmentation of scientific discourse, which can be quantified by means of the generalized Jensen-Shannon divergence between the topic distributions of individual documents per time period. We are currently working on consolidating our analysis, experimenting with documents segmented into pages, focusing the analysis on different text types, and more carefully evaluating the resulting topic models (McFarland et al. 2013). </p>
            <p>Of course, topic models only provide one, rather broad perspective on diversification of domain specific language. We plan to apply our approach also to other levels of linguistic analysis, such as terminology or grammar.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. and Lafferty, J.D.</hi> (2006). <hi rend=""italic"">Dynamic topic models</hi>. ICML.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gleick, J.</hi> (2010). At the Beginning: More Things in Heaven and Earth: Bryson, B. (Ed.), <hi rend=""italic"">Seeing Further. The Story of Science and The Royal Society</hi>. Harper Press, pp. 17-36.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Griffiths, T. L. and Steyvers M.</hi> (2004). Finding scientific topics. <hi rend=""italic"">PNAS</hi>, 101 Suppl <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>:5228–35. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hall, D., Jurafsky, D., and Manning, C.D. </hi>(2008). Studying the history of ideas using topic models.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing</hi> (EMNLP '08). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, USA, pp. 363-71.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Khamis, A., et al. </hi>(2015). A resource for the diachronic study of scientific English: Introducing the Royal Society Corpus. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus Linguistics 2015</hi>. Lancaster.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCallum, A. K.</hi> (2002). MALLET: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit. http://mallet.cs.umass.edu.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McFarland, D. A., et al. </hi>(2013). Differentiating language usage through topic models. <hi rend=""italic"">Poetics</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">41</hi>(6): 607-25.
                        <ref target=""http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2013.06.004"">http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2013.06.004</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Newman, D. J. and Block, S.</hi> (2006). Probabilistic topic decomposition of an eighteenth-century American newspaper. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">J. Am. Soc. Inf. Sci. Technol.</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">57</hi>(6): 753-67. DOI=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/asi.v57:6
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Steyvers, M. and Griffiths, T.</hi> (2007). Probabilistic topic models. Landauer, T., et al.(Eds.), <hi rend=""italic"">Handbook of Latent Semantic Analysis</hi>. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Yang, T., Torget, A. J., and Mihalcea, R.</hi> (2011). Topic modeling on historical newspapers. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 5th ACL-HLT Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, and Humanities</hi> (LaTeCH '11). Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, USA, pp. 96-104.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2458","17","Visualising the Dynamics of Character Networks","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>The character network of a given narrative (novel, play, film, graphic novel, etc.) models the structure formed by the relations in its character-system (Woloch, 2003). A relation between two characters symbolises their co-presence in parts of the narrative; the entire set of relations between all characters constitutes a formal model of this character-system and lends itself to display and analysis. For example, Moretti (2011) used network modelling to compare the importance of protagonists from Shakespeare’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Hamlet</hi>, while Trilcke 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">et al.</hi> (2015) created character networks for 465 German plays and used them to initiate a wider study of German Theatre.
                </p>
                <p>Most applications of character network analysis have disregarded temporality, possibly because of its representational complexity. Consequently, all relations in the system are considered as happening at the same time: one cannot distinguish if a given edge symbolises a relation at the start, at the end, or in several parts of the work under study. Furthermore, because temporality is not being accounted for, there is usually no way of relating the network visualisation with the unfolding of the source narrative. While prototypes such as those discussed in Roberts-Smith 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">et al.</hi> (2013) offer sophisticate ways of dynamically visualising the text of theatre plays, they do so in a way that is unrelated to character network modelling.
                </p>
                <p>Based on these observations, we set out to develop an open source web application which models the character-system of theatre plays as a sequence of network states synchronised with the actual narrative content (
                    <ref target=""https://github.com/maladesimaginaires/intnetviz"">https://github.com/maladesimaginaires/intnetviz</ref>). This paper proposes a high-level overview of our application , successively focusing on the underlying structure extraction process, the conception of the graphical interface, and the range of uses envisioned for it. In the conclusion, we evoke the ways in which we intend to develop it and reflect on the potential significance of this development at a more epistemological level.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Tool overview</head>
                <p>The underlying workflow has been divided into two parts. First, the text of a play is processed using 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Orange Textable</hi> (<ptr target=""http://langtech.ch/textable""/>, Xanthos 2014), an open source text analysis add-on for the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Orange Canvas</hi> (<ref target=""http://orange.biolab.si/"">http://orange.biolab.si/</ref>) visual programming environment: in particular, the play is divided into its component parts (acts, scenes, lines) and the characters present in each scene are identified and associated with each line. These data are then imported into a web interface based on the open source 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">D3</hi> JavaScript library (<ptr target=""https://github.com/mbostock/d3""/>, Bostock et al., 2011), which allows the user (author, researcher, teacher, etc.) to manipulate the character network without prerequisite installation.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Structure extraction</head>
                <p>The workflow is designed to facilitate the later inclusion of new data. The play used in the initial development phase was Molière’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">L’Ecole des femmes</hi>, as found in raw text format on the Project Gutenberg website (
                    <ref target=""http://www.gutenberg.org/files/43535/43535-0.txt"">http://www.gutenberg.org/files/43535/43535-0.txt</ref>). Theatre plays constitute a privileged input for the automatic extraction of structural information: such information is in general explicitly encoded in these data, as illustrated by the excerpt of Molière’s play reproduced on Figure 1. It is worth noting that the extraction phase can be readily adapted to take advantage of cases where structural information has been formally encoded using TEI-XML annotation for instance, such as the “Théâtre classique” database used by Karsdorp 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">et al.</hi> (2015). We are currently investigating the possibility of extending our approach to a large body of plays in this way.
                </p>
                            <figure>
                                <graphic url=""461/100000000000026D000000C914693C24.png""/>
                                <head>Figure 1. Excerpt of L’Ecole des femmes illustrating the explicit structuration of the data</head> 
                            </figure>
                <p>Structure extraction is performed by a mostly linear chaining of segmentation and recoding operations based on regular expressions which gradually transform the raw text of the play into the tables that will be later used for controlling the web interface. Each table has the same number of rows, corresponding to the extracted lines of the play. The first table gives the text of each line (lightly annotated in XML) along with the associated character and stage directions (Table 1). The second table indicates the presence or absence of each character when each line is spoken (see Table 2).</p>
                            <figure>
                                <graphic url=""461/100000000000027100000118E53D111A.png""/>
                                <head>Table 1. First rows of the table containing the extracted text and stage directions</head>
                            </figure>
                            <figure>
                                <graphic url=""461/100000000000027100000073BC46DBA3.png""/>
                                <head>Table 2. First rows of the table indicating the presence or absence of each character when each line is spoken (the first four columns are identical to Table 1 and have been omitted, along with the last few character columns)</head>
                            </figure>
                <p>Applied to 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">L’Ecole des femmes</hi>, the process was found to give fairly reliable results: about 98% of the lines were correctly extracted. Most errors could be fixed by determining 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">a priori</hi> the set of acceptable character names in a given play. An unexpected source of errors was the assumption that characters could be consistently identified by a single string; even without taking into account situations where a character is explicitly “renamed” as part of a surprise effect, linguistic processes such as the succession of indefinite and definite articles in French discourse lead to formal variations in the designation of characters.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Interface</head>
                <p>Data files are then imported into a browser and D3 is used to build an interactive visualisation of the character-system (a demo is available at 
                    <ref target=""http://bit.ly/network-demo"">http://bit.ly/network-demo</ref>) where the state of the network is synchronised with the current line (Figure 2). Character nodes are positioned using a force-based layout. Browsing the text simultaneously updates the network, line, and position indicator (act, scene, line). At each step, the weight of edges (expressed by their width) increases with the number of co-presences between the characters up to this point. Similarly, the weight of nodes (their radius) increases with the number of lines spoken by this character.
                </p>
                            <figure>
                                <graphic url=""461/10000201000005DC0000056D9CD7FF35.png""/>
                                <head>Figure 2. User interface. [Above] Agnès is speaking in presence of Horace and Arnolphe; all characters have already intervened except Oronte and Enrique, who will appear in the final scenes. [Below] Three moments of the unfolding character network (lines 41, 359 and 536)</head>
                            </figure>
                <p>A character node can be in one of four states. It is: </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>“active” when the character is speaking.</item>
                    <item>“activated” when it is present in the scene but not active.</item>
                    <item>“previously activated” if it was present in the play but is not currently active nor activated.</item>
                    <item>“not yet activated” if its first appearance is in a later scene.</item>
                </list>
                <p>The latter state makes it possible to offer a view of the final network state, highlighting absences as well as presences in the earlier stages.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Uses</head>
                <p>We display each line in front of the matching network state for a reason: the network does not exhaust the richness of the play. Since co-presence analysis does not consider the actual content of lines, it cannot–nor aims to–account for discursive references to characters. However, by extracting an actantial model from speech turns, the tool provides a concise and dynamic representation of the enunciative structure of the play. Paired with background knowledge about theatrical narration, such a visualisation offers new ways of reading.</p>
                <p>From a philological perspective, relating sociological variables (gender, age, social status) with structural properties of the network (dynamical statistics, centrality measures, word and line counts) helps clarifying which profiles lead the interactions, which ones merely react to them, and which ones are excluded from them, revealing potential social stigma. By expliciting not only the presence but also the absence of links between certain characters, the proposed visualisation may contribute to a visual and interactive deconstruction of the plays (Derrida, 1967).</p>
                <p>By allowing the user to browse through successive pictures of the interactions, the interface provides a unique opportunity to ""play"" the play and visualise the flow of speech between characters. We believe that this playful dimension is particularly interesting for pedagogic uses, especially when discovering a new narrative work with students.</p>
                <p>Last but not least, our method can also be applied to any text in the course of the writing process. In this context, disposing of a visualisation of existing interactions at each moment of the text may help the writer distance herself from an impressionistic representation. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Perspectives and conclusion</head>
                <p>One of the most significant benefits of a digital humanities approach is the dialectic relation created between the development of a prototype and the verification of scientific hypotheses. Discussing seemingly trivial design issues like the number of colors requested to map the network relations has frequently led us to expliciting and fruitfully questioning differences in our epistemological backgrounds. Thus we consider the following perspectives not only as potential improvements to our tool but also, more importantly, as opportunities to challenge our own theoretical preconceptions:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Further enriching the visualisation (e.g. by adding line count histograms or highlighting of the first intervention of a character) would benefit the back-and-forth movement between the content and the structure of a given play.</item>
                    <item>The dynamical nature of the interface would enable us to compare the distinctive features of different plays not only in terms of the final state of character networks, but also and more importantly, of their evolution; this should help bring out ""interactional styles"" and discover 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Familienähnlichkeit</hi> (Wittgenstein, 1953) by author or period.
                    </item>
                    <item>Other kinds of texts will benefit from such a dynamical analysis: other fictional texts such as screenplays, but also linguistic transcriptions as used in conversation analysis. </item>
                </list>
                <p>By allowing the user to browse the content of a narrative and manipulate an interactive character network, our motivation is ultimately to contribute to a better integration of distant and close reading practices.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bostock, M., Ogievetsky, V. and Heer, J.</hi> (2011). D3: Data-Driven Documents. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Trans. Visualization and Comp. Graphics (Proc. InfoVis)</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://vis.stanford.edu/papers/d3"">http://vis.stanford.edu/papers/d3</ref> (accessed Oct. 28, 2015.)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Derrida, J.</hi> (1967). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Of Grammatology</hi>. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Karsdorp, F., Kestemont, M. Schöch, C. and Van Den Bosch, A.</hi> (2015). The love equation: Computational modeling of romantic relationships in French classical drama. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Computational Models of Narrative</hi> (CMN-2015), pp. 89–107.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2011). Network theory, plot analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Left Review</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">68</hi>: 80–102.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Roberts-Smith, J., DeSouza-Coelho, S., Dobson, T., Gabriele, S., Rodriguez-Arenas, O., Ruecker, S., Sinclair, S., Akong, A., Bouchard, M., Hong, M., Jakacki, D., Lam, D., Kovacs, A., Northam, L. and So, D.</hi> (2013). Visualizing theatrical text: from Watching the Script to the Simulated Environment for Theatre (SET).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(3).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Trilcke, P., Fischer, F. and Kampkaspar, D.</hi> (2015). Digital Network Analysis of Dramatic Texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2015</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://dh2015.org/abstracts/xml/FISCHER_Frank_Digital_Network_Analysis_of_Dramati/FISCHER_Frank_Digital_Network_Analysis_of_Dramatic_Text.html"">http://dh2015.org/abstracts/xml/FISCHER_Frank_Digital_Network_Analysis_of_Dramati/FISCHER_Frank_Digital_Network_Analysis_of_Dramatic_Text.html</ref> (accessed Oct. 28, 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Wittgenstein, L.</hi> (1953). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Philosophical Investigations. </hi>Blackwell Publishing.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Woloch, A.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The One vs. the Many: Minor Characters and the Space of the Protagonist in the Novel</hi>. Princeton University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Xanthos, A.</hi> (2014). Textable: programmation visuelle pour l’analyse de données textuelles. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Actes des 12èmes Journées internationales d’analyse statistique des données textuelles (JADT 2014)</hi>, pp. 691–703.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2459","17","Visualizing the Gradual Production of a Text","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div>
                <div>
                    <head>Introduction</head>
                    <p>The 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lokalbericht</hi> project (2013-2016)
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> Cf. the preliminary project website at http://lokalbericht.unibe.ch.</p>
                        </note>
                        <anchor xml:id=""OLE_LINK1""/>
                        <anchor xml:id=""OLE_LINK2""/> aims to deliver a scholarly digital edition of Swiss author Hermann Burger’s first novel 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lokalbericht</hi>. Accompanied by a reading edition in print (fall 2016), the digital edition will include all extant precursory stages of the novel as well as Burger’s final revision of the text, written between 1970 and 1972 (Wieland et al., 2012). The project relies on document oriented encoding, as supported by the TEI guidelines since P5 
                        <ref target=""http://www.tei-c.org/Vault/P5/current/doc/tei-p5-doc/readme-2.0.html"">v. 2.0</ref> (cf. Burnard et al., 2012), in order to aptly capture the materiality and the genetic dimension of the work.
                    </p>
                    <p rend=""DH-Heading2"">Macrogenetic Challenges</p>
                    <p>Whereas the recommendations of other textgenetic edition projects as well as the tradition of genetic editions in print were very helpful for the encoding of local, microgenetic phenomenons (i.e. intradocumental) and their presentation to the reader, much less information was available on how to document interdocumental textgenetic relations in a structured manner. In order to better understand the challenges and needs of what we dubbed macrogenetic editing, a workshop was convened in Bern in 2014.
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> Cf. http://lokalbericht.unibe.ch/hermann_burger/workshops.html</p>
                        </note> As Hans Walter Gabler concluded, 
                        <anchor xml:id=""OLE_LINK5""/>‘a digital genetic edition will only tap its full potential by capturing and visualizing “macrogenetic” aspects’ (Gabler, 2014).
                    </p>
                    <p>Incited by the outcomes of the workshop we investigated ways that offer immediate insight into Burger’s way of writing – the novel was crafted as a mosaic consisting of numerous tesserae that were worked over repeatedly. This writing technique results in an f
                        <hi rend=""italic"">avant texte</hi> consisting of many segmented and related texts, of which at times more than a dozen copies are extant. Taking a bird’s eye view of the corpus, the reader should get a clear understanding of the writing process and be able to follow the development of specific segments or chapters and their integration into the final typescript, before swooping down to the text level to discover the textgenetic minutiae.
                    </p>
                    <p rend=""DH-Heading2"">A Visual Approach to Macrogenetic Relationships</p>
                    <p>In printed and early digital genetic editions, macrogenetic relations are often visualized as a stemma. Such stemmata leave much to be desired – they often abstract on a high level (e.g. witnesses or versions of a text) as opposed to smaller textual entities such as paragraphs or sentences, require considerable intellectual and manual effort, and remain comparatively static, perhaps linking to representations of related documents, but lacking in precision. Yet their genealogical tree structure serves still as a powerful basis to represent editorial changes. </p>
                    <p>Taking the underlying idea to represent temporal development on the vertical axis and introducing finer levels of granularity in a stemma tree on one hand threatens to lead to over-complexity and problems of positioning. Resorting to force directed plotting as it is often used to display and investigate graph data on the other hand does not satisfy the sequentiality inherent in written text. For the manageable amount of typescript pages and drafts of the novel at hand, we found that a prearranged layout that entails a temporal dimension (y-axis) and material evidence of the texts (x-axis) works best (cf. figure 1).
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> The actual technical implementation makes use of the D3.js JavaScript library (cf. http://d3js.org) for manipulating documents based on data, but similar outcomes might be realized using other tools.</p>
                        </note> Genetic relations between the typescript pages, the smallest units of display,
                        <anchor xml:id=""OLE_LINK13""/>
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> More complex genetic corpora and different choices of granularity would however require more sophisticated zooming and panning mechanisms or ways of three-dimensional stacking and it remains to be seen whether the chosen approach would serve them well.</p>
                        </note> are highlighted on mouse actions. Interacting with this visualization, the user of the digital edition can trace the development of the early and final drafts of the novel.
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <graphic url=""495/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>Figure 1: Display of two genetically related sheets: genetic relations (r.) and navigational component (top l.)
                    </p>
                    <p rend=""DH-Heading2"">Accessing Data through Visual Navigation</p>
                    <p>Good textgenetic visualizations should not be mere by-products of digital editions, but closely tie in with the structure of the digital edition, i.e. serve as a subsidiary navigation to its contents. By way of two panels that yield lists of related typescript pages the user can access detail views in the main interface of the edition (single or synoptical views) directly from the visualization. Vice versa, the visualization initially highlights the current selection of the main interface in order to provide specific views of the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">dossier génétique</hi>. 
                    </p>
                    <p rend=""DH-Heading2"">Outlook</p>
                    <p>While the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">analytical approach</hi> based on genetic paths defined by the editors (on sheet level) should provide the most valuable knowledge about the production of the novel, it would be desirable to complement the visualization by an 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">explorative mode</hi> based on relations encoded on more granular levels.
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> The development of an explorative visualization of the entire 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Lokalbericht</hi> corpus as initially planned will presumably only be implemented for selected texts due to limited resources. 
                            </p>
                        </note> A visualization of this kind would be less useful to pursue particular authorial changes, but it would help to identify patterns that deserve closer attention and facilitate the isolation and display of the least interpretation-ridden relations and consequently better suit a reader-centered concept of a digital edition. 
                    </p>
                    <p>The wish for visualizations that abstract from the detailed genesis of a text to a more approachable overview is shared by a number of genetic edition projects.
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> Examples are the 
                                <ref target=""http://www.arthur-schnitzler.de"">digital historical critical edition of Arthur Schnitzler’s works</ref> (1905–1931), the 
                                <ref target=""http://beta.faustedition.net"">digital edition of Goethe's Faust</ref>, or the 
                                <ref target=""http://www.beckettarchive.org"">Samuel Beckett Digital Manuscript Project</ref>.
                            </p>
                        </note> After all, imparting his or her knowledge and insight to the readership lies at the core of a scholarly editor’s role. We hope to contribute to the debate by sharing our approach to this problem at DH 2016 and finally by launching the digital 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lokalbericht</hi> edition in October 2016.
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burnard, L., Jannidis, F., Pierazzo, E., Rehbein, M. </hi>(2012). An Encoding Model for Genetic Editions. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/Council/Working/tcw19.html"">http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/Council/Working/tcw19.html</ref> (accessed 1 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gabler, H. W.</hi> (2014). Personal report. In Schweizerisches Literaturarchiv, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Resümees zum internationalen Workshop </hi>Digitale genetische Editionen (in der Praxis) vom 4./5. September 2014 im Schweizerischen Literaturarchiv (SLA), <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://lokalbericht.unibe.ch/hermann_burger/pdf/Resuemees.pdf"">http://lokalbericht.unibe.ch/hermann_burger/pdf/Resuemees.pdf</ref> (accessed 1 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wieland, M. and Zumsteg, S.</hi> (2012). Lokalbericht. Von der Archivfiktion zur Archivedition. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Germanistik in der Schweiz</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>: 91-109.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2460","17","When Traditional Ontologies are not Enough: Modelling and Visualizing Dynamic Ontologies in Semantic-Based Access to Texts","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>The work described in this paper came about as a result of reflections made within the “Clavius on the web” Project<note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">http://claviusontheweb.it</note>, which studied the correspondence between the Jesuit mathematician and also astronomer and some important scientists of his century, such as Galileo and Brahe<note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2"">Clavius’ correspondence is contained in the manuscripts APUG 529-530, preserved in the Historical Archives of the Pontifical Gregorian University.</note>. One of the main aims of the project is to make it possible for students and scholars to access the texts on a semantic basis, in order to allow a deeper understanding of the often complex content, they convey.</p>
                <p>Texts are often the unique source that scholars have at their disposal in order to be able to reconstruct and more completely understand the past author’s thought. </p>
                <p>In order for technology to come to the aid of scholars in this effort, the concepts evoked within the text, as well as the terms representing these concepts need to 1) have a structured organization 2) be explicitly and univocally represented and 3) be defined through the relationships that unite them. In order to achieve this, we chose to adopt an ontologybased model, as ontologies are a de facto standard for knowledge representation.</p>
                <p>Interestingly, the choice to use ontologies raised some issues, also with regard to theoretical aspects: indeed, standard ontological formalisms usually static and crisp proved to be inadequate in modelling the complexity of the knowledge conveyed by the analysed texts. As a result, more refined models as well as appropriate graphical representations needed to be introduced so that computers would be able to process these ontologies and visualize them in a way that students and scholars could understand and work with them.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The ontological model</head>
                <p>Here we list and briefly describe the main aspects of the knowledge conveyed by the Clavius’ corpus that our ontological model should capture.</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Explicit</hi> versus 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">implicit knowledge</hi> : our ontology is designed to structure both the entities explicitly evoked in the text (typically denoted by terms) and the entities implicitly entailed as belonging to the background knowledge that the writer implies (which can be possessed by the reader themselves only in part).
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shared</hi> versus 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">individual knowledge</hi> : different authors can share, and in fact do share, some aspects of conceptualising the domain, as clearly they have certain theories and beliefs in common. However, our ontology must formally structure the author’s own conceptualisation of the world, as it emerges from specific textual passages of the analysed corpus.
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Certain</hi> versus 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">uncertain knowledge</hi> : in the case where the authors express confidence in some theories or reject and advance doubts towards others. It is therefore essential for each entity which populates the ontology (a class, an instance, a property) to be associated with a degree of certainty.
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">S</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">tatic</hi> versus 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">dynamic knowledge</hi> : correspondence implies sharing information and knowledge, which can lead to changes in the way the correspondents view the world, sometimes significant. This is particularly the case with scholars. As a result, the ontology needs to be dynamic and temporal, so that it is possible to illustrate the evolution of the author’s conceptualization over a period of time. The specific time is either explicitly indicated by the author in his/her work or reconstructed from other sources.
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>Other parameters could be considered, such as vagueness, ambiguity and sincerity. The validity of these aspects is not limited to these kinds of texts (i.e. scientific letters), but it applies to any text such as essays, scientific journals, diaries, which expresses an author’s firmly-held or evolving opinion. Consequently, as a case study (see Section 4), we chose Galileo’s Sidereus Nuncius(Galilei, 2001), to prove the applicability of the model outside the epistolary corpus. In the present paper, we will mainly focus on dynamic knowledge and its representation.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Models for representing dynamic knowledge</head>
                <p>In literature, the problem of representing dynamically evolving information in ontologies has been addressed by adopting several different approaches (Flouris et al., 2008). A very simple solution is to create a version of the ontology for each temporal event that has to be represented (ontology versioning). However, a versioning algorithm is necessary in order to access the different temporal variants of the ontology. Other proposals aim to extend OWL ontologies in order to provide binary relation instances with a time reference. Related approaches are: (Welty et al., 2006) encoding a perdurantist/4D view in OWL, (Krieger, 2008) interpreting original entities as time slices, and (Manola et al., 2004) reifying original relations. For an exhaustive list of works, see (Krieger and Declerck, 2015). However, all of these approaches typically invalidate standard OWL reasoning, and they do not allow the representation of the change in subsumption and instantiation. In (Rizzolo et al., 2009) time semantics is added also to resources by providing temporalvarying classes and individuals, but only for RDF(S) ontologies, by extending the model presented in (Gutierrez et al., 2005). However, domain expertoriented tools for manipulating RDF(S) do not currently exist.</p>
                <p>Against this background, we chose to conduct our first experiments with a reification-based approach and SKOS<note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3""> Simple Knowledge Organization System - http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/</note> , the latter providing the best compromise between temporal aspects representation, availability of tools, querying and reasoning capabilities.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>A case study</head>
                <p>We propose here a possible representation of the evolution of Galileo’s conceptualization of Jupiter’s moons over a specific week in 1610, reconstructed on the basis of the Sidereus Nuncius.</p>
                <p>The first observation of the planets dates back to 7th January 1610, when Galileo first saw what he thought were three fixed stars near Jupiter. After several observations on 11
                    <hi rend=""sup"">th</hi> January, he noticed that their position relative to Jupiter changed in the same way as wandering stars. Two days later, he observed that there existed four satellites orbiting around Jupiter and not three.
                </p>
                <p>Here we present the preliminary version of the ontology which structures the content of portions of the Sidereus Nuncius where Galileo describes his observation of Jupiter’s moons.</p>
                <p>We first identified the key terms of the text as the terminology (in bold in Fig. 2) upon which we defined the explicit entities of the ontology. In addition we specified the necessary implicit entities to add to it (eg. <hi rend=""italic"">Galilean moon</hi>). The ontology was built using Protégé 5.0.0 (Musen et al., 2000) and the plugins Skos Editor<note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""4"">https://code.google.com/p/skoseditor/</note> and Chronos (Preventis et al., 2014), the former to implement an SKOS ontology and the latter to add the diachronic component. The process is described in the following steps:</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Structuring of the concepts via the skos: broader relation; the concept 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Galilean_Moon</hi> has been set as a subconcept of both 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Fixed_Star</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Wandering_Star</hi> (Fig. 1.a);
                    </item>
                    <item>Definition of the properties 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">isNearTo</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">revolvesAround</hi> ;
                    </item>
                    <item>Instantiation of these two properties between the four moons (<hi rend=""italic"">S1</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">S2</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">S3</hi>, and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">S4</hi>) and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Jupiter</hi>;
                    </item>
                    <item>Conversion of the properties broader, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">isNearTo</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">revolvesAround</hi> into temporal;
                    </item>
                    <item>Attribution of the correct time interval to each property instantiation.</item>
                </list>
                <p>As a result of this representation, the concept 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Galilean_Moon</hi> became narrower than 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Fixed_Star</hi> during the time interval between 7th and 11th January 1610, then it changed to narrower than 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Wandering_Star</hi> (Fig. 1.b). Analogously, each of the three moons progressed from being simply “nearTo” 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Jupiter</hi> to “revolvesAround” 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Jupiter</hi>. Finally, starting from 13<hi rend=""sup"">th</hi> January, the relation broader also links 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">S4</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Galilean_Moon</hi> (i.e. Galileo spots a fourth object).
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""201/1000000000000640000002B5DF7A1E41.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 1: a) The concept hierarchy shown in the “SKOS view” tab of Protégé; b) the temporalized relation “broader” applied to Galilean_Moon.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Browsing the constructed dynamic ontology allows to answer to complex queries such as: “how did Galileo’s vision of Jupiter’s moons evolve in time?” or “which had been Galileo’s main changes of perspective about Jupiter in January of 1610?”.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Visualization of the ontology</head>
                <p>A visualization can be described as an artefact that helps humans to make decisions, learn and communicate, acting as a visual cognitive support (Card et al., 1999). A visual representation of ontologies can therefore be developed to ease their comprehension by both scholars and non-expert users. In our case, a suitable graphical display allows to make visual comparisons between the different time frames of a dynamic ontology, capturing the evolution of the author’s ideas. Among the available visualization techniques, we adopted the node-link diagram, which is particularly well suited for exploring the topology of a network and for locating paths (Munzner, 2014).</p>
                <p>We wanted to automatically produce visualizations with a quality resembling that of hand-made diagrams (Dwyer et al., 2006; Kieffer et al., 2013). To do so, we observed the work of experts sketching some ontologies on paper, and derived a series of geometric constraints for an automatic placement algorithm. Since the skos:broader relationship defines a <hi rend=""italic"">quasi-hierarchy</hi>, i.e., a tree with a reasonably small amount of nodes having multiple parents, the constraints we implemented were intended to produce a familiar, tree-like representation.</p>
                <p>The input for the layout algorithm is the entire SKOS graph, and the output is a single layout for all the time frames. Comparison is then made possible by displaying a series of juxtaposed views, each showing only the items of a specific time frame (Fig. 2). This technique ensures that the same item is given the same position in each view, while differences create easy-to-spot “holes”', thus leveraging the user's spatial memory to carry out the comparison task (Munzner, 2014).</p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""201/100002010000117400000E9A655CEFC0.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 2: A prototype visualization of the case study presented in section 4. Scholars or students can see the evolution of Galileo's concepts after each observation of Jupiter's moons. The automatically computed diagram layout ensures comparability while preserving a familiar, tree-like appearance.</head>
                    </figure>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Card, S. K., Mackinlay, J. D. and Shneiderman, B.</hi> (1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Readings in Information Visualization: Using Vision to Think</hi>, Morgan Kaufmann.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dwyer, T., Koren, Y. and Marriott, K. </hi>(2006). IPSep-CoLa: An incremental procedure for separation constraint layout of graphs, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Visualization and Computer Graphics, IEEE Transactions on</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">12</hi> (5):821–28.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Flouris, G. et al.</hi> (2008). Ontology change: Classification and survey, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Knowledge Engineering Review</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(2): 117–52.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Galilei, G. </hi>(2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sidereus nuncius</hi>, Andra Battistini., Marsilio, Venezia.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gutierrez, C., Hurtado, C. and Vaisman, A. </hi>(2005), Temporal rdf 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Semantic Web: Research and Applications</hi>, Springer, pp. 93–107.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kieffer, S. et al.</hi> (2013), Incremental grid-like layout using soft and hard constraints, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Graph Drawing</hi>, Springer, pp. 448–59.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Krieger, H.U. </hi>(2008). Where temporal description logics fail: Representing temporally-changing relationships, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">KI 2008: Advances in Artificial Intelligence</hi>, Springer, pp. 249–57.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Krieger, H.-U. and Declerck, T.</hi> (2015). An OWL Ontology for Biographical Knowledge. Representing Time-Dependent Factual Knowledge, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the First Conference on Biographical Data in a Digital World 2015</hi>, CEURS-WS.org.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manola, F., Miller, E. and McBride, B.</hi> (2004). RDF primer, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">W3C Recommendation</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(1-107): 6.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Munzner, T.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Visualization Analysis and Design</hi>, CRC Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Musen, M.A. et al.</hi> (2000). Component-based support for building knowledge-acquisition systems, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Conference on Intelligent Information Processing (IIP 2000) of the International Federation for Information Processing World Computer Congress (WCC 2000)</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">194</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Preventis, A., Petrakis, E.G. and Batsakis, S.</hi> (2014), CHRONOS Ed: a tool for handling temporal ontologies in protégé, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(4): 1460018.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rizzolo, F. et al.</hi> (2009). Modeling concept evolution: a historical perspective, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Conceptual Modeling-ER 2009</hi>, Springer, pp. 331–45.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Welty, C., Fikes, R. and Makarios, S.</hi> (2006). A reusable ontology for fluents in OWL, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">FOIS</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">150</hi>: 226–36.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2461","17","Cassius: A Narrative Fiction 3D Videogame as Scholarly Public History","9","","","2","",""
"2462","17","El Atambor de Plata Suena como Cascaveles de Turquesa. Reconstrucción de la Experiencia Sonora de la Colonización Europea (c. 1480-1650) a Través de un Glosario y un Tesauro Digital.","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>El historiador del sonido se enfrenta a tres retos entrelazados: decodificar la información aural, clasificarla y establecer una sintaxis para dar sentido a la información acumulada (Smith, 2002: 311). Este segundo y tercer retos no deben afrontarse únicamente de un modo personal e impresionista, sino que pueden servir para establecer perspectivas metodologías compartidas, colaborativas y ampliables para la historia del sonido. En esta comunicación corta presentaré un glosario y un tesauro sobre la experiencia sonora en América central durante los siglos XVI y XVII, explicaré la metodología empleada en su creación y discutiré sus distintas aplicaciones. </p>
            <p> ""El tambor de plata suena como cascabeles de turquesa"" es la traducción de un verso náhuatl en el que encontramos un instrumento musical extraño (un tambor hecho de un metal precioso) que se compara con otro artefacto sonoro igualmente complejo, como son los cascabeles de turquesa. El verso muestra tanto la densidad de la información existente en las fuentes, como la dificultad de reconstruir la experiencia sonora a partir de esa documentación. ¿Se trata de instrumentos puramente ficticios, nacidos de la voluntad del poeta, o rituales (pues nada impide que existiesen ejemplares de huethuetl decorados o incluso fabricados con metales preciosos)? Y el verbo frecuentativo 
                <hi rend=""italic"">tzitzilica</hi> usado en el original ""Xiuhcoyoltzitzilica yn teocuitlahuehuetl"" va más allá de un simple sonar y puede traducirse como repicar o repiquetear. El análisis de la poesía náhuatl (León Portilla 2011; Bierhorst, 1985; Damrosch, 1991) puede además ampliarse relacionándolo con otras descripciones de sonidos y paisajes sonoros de la época. Sin renunciar a una reconstrucción narrativa, en el que el verso del tambor de plata se explique en su contexto, un glosario y tesauro digitales ayudan a ""clasificar"" y ""establecer sintaxis"" más generales sobre las experiencias sonoras. Si se aprovecha su flexiblilidad para la comparación y el análisis, estas dos herramientas también permiten establecer nuevos modos de comprender y comunicar la información disponible en las fuentes históricas.
            </p>
            <p> Todo glosario es un catálogo de palabras sobre una misma cuestión, con definiciones o comentarios. En su versión digital un glosario no sólo permite una consulta on-line, sino también estructurar la información en diferentes capas o niveles y recuperarla de modo flexible. </p>
            <p> Un primer nivel del glosario recogerá las distintas definiciones y traducciones de términos relativos al sonido. Utilizaré para ello diccionarios y gramáticas de época, incluyendo obras bilingües o plurilingües, tales como el 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Arte mexicana</hi> del jesuita de origen mexicano Antonio Rincón (1595), el diccionario de Alonso de Covarrubias (1611) o el 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Arte de la lengua mexicana</hi> (1645), en el que Horacio Carochi publicó la primera traducción española del verso.
            </p>
            <p> En un segundo nivel, que en realidad es una base de datos, se incluyen ejemplos del uso de estos términos en las fuentes de la época, autor, fecha, localización geográfica, asociaciones entre determinados términos y eventos históricos particulares, valoraciones sobre su significado, su intensidad o su frecuencia, y valoraciones sobre el estado emocional o sensorial que provocan o en el que aparecen. La información recogida en este nivel procede de fuentes como crónicas, las historias naturales, los relatos de viaje, las cartas y los diarios escritos por los participantes en los viajes y campañas militares. De este modo se puede contextualizar la información lexicográfica y se construyen herramientas para desambiguar los términos que aparecen en las fuentes (distinguir, por ejemplo, entre un 
                <hi rend=""italic"">huehuetl</hi> y un tambor de dos membranas de origen europeo) y establecer asociaciones entre términos y contextos de uso o entre términos y zonas geográficas.
            </p>
            <p> El tesauro tiene por objetivo reducir las variaciones observadas en el glosario a una serie de categorías lógicas. Para ello se emplearán, naturalmente, términos unificados (campana, por ejemplo) clasificados dentro de una estructura de relaciones ontológicas o semánticas (sonido>artificial>instrumentos musicales>hechos de metal/largo alcance/uso público) A través del uso de estándares como ISO 25964-1 (aún en desarrollo) y de una estructura en XML se favorece la posibilidad de vincular este tesauro a otras clasificaciones previas de efectos sonoros (Chion 1983; Augoyard-Torgue, 1995) o expandirlo a través de colaboraciones de otros investigadores o instituciones.</p>
            <p> La construcción del tesauro obliga a reflexionar críticamente sobre el uso de categorías (presentes o de época) para explicar culturas distantes en el tiempo, y se nutre de las perspectivas de la antropología del sonido y de la crítica postcolonial (Tomlinson, 1995; Feld y Brenneis, 2004; Faudree, 2012). Concretamente, plantea hasta qué punto un tesauro permite identificar sobre los cambios en los patrones sonoros o en los grupos de sonidos y sus valoraciones a lo largo de la historia. También pone en cuestión la predominancia de los materiales visuales y textuales y la predominancia de la vista en los modelos teóricos de los historiadores. </p>
            <p> El formato digital del glosario y el tesauro ofrece una gran versatilidad a la hora de establecer reconstrucciones paralelas o comparaciones sobre distintas experiencias sonoras. Es posible comparar, por ejemplo, el catálogo de sonidos propio de los niveles perceptivos de un soldado (que no suele aportar muchos datos de carácter musical, pero que ofrece una información relativamente bien contextualizada y localizada en el tiempo y el espacio) con el mundo sonoro de un teólogo o misionero con conocimientos musicales y teóricos sobre el sonido (que categoriza de acuerdo a su propio esquema de división de sonidos y que puede ofrecer variaciones). </p>
            <p> La información recogida en el glosario y el tesauro podrá consultarse de varios modos. Junto a una herramienta de búsquedas, una interfaz gráfica permitirá construir ""mapas sensoriales"" para visualizar la experiencia sonora del pasado. Esta representación novedosa utilizará un diagrama de base circular se colocan varios polos en los que se identifican la procedencia (animal, voz humana, música, artificial, medioambiental), los valores atribuidos a los sonidos (agradable-desagradable, tranquilizador-preocupante, importante-irrelevantes, etc.) y sus contextos (ritual, festivo, actividades diarias, guerra, rebelión, etc.). </p>
            <p> Esta investigación es una parte del proyecto 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Sound and Silence</hi>, que actualmente desarrollo en la UC3M dentro del programa CONEX-UC3M. El objetivo general del proyecto es investigar los usos y la percepción del sonido durante la colonización portuguesa y española de la edad moderna. 
            </p>
            <p> El primer objetivo de 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Sound and Silence </hi>es ofrecer una aproximación innovadora y atractiva al estudio interdisciplinar del sonido (Bull & Back, 2003:1-9; Sterne 2012: 3-10; Schmidt 2000: 15-37) . Para ello resaltaré la importancia de la cultura oral (y de las mecánicas de choque e hibridación sonora y musical) en la edad moderna (Greenblatt, 1991: 86-118; Baker, 2008; Irving, 2010) y crearé mapas y/o visualizaciones de la experiencia sonora de un viajero o cronista particular. La página web asociada al proyecto ofrecerá mapas en los que se representarán los tipos de sonidos escuchados durante una expedición, campaña o acontecimiento particular a través de las descripciones existentes en las fuentes históricas creadas por los participantes. Algunos instrumentos, sonidos animales y de artillería y armas de fuego contarán con reproducciones históricas.
            </p>
            <p> Un segundo objetivo del proyecto es investigar las posibilidades contemporáneas de definición semántica de documentación no textual. El texto ha sido y continuará siendo por algún tiempo la base y el centro de la web semántica y de todas las ontologías. En lo que respecta a archivos de música y voz humana la investigación se ha concentrado en los procesos de codificación y reconocimiento. El reconocimiento o la búsqueda por contenidos a partir de huellas sonoras de Shazam o Google se realiza a partir de bases de datos amplias pero limitadas. Sin embargo, el sonido, entendido como un paisaje o un entorno que va más allá la voz y la música plantea retos más amplios, tanto para la teoría historiográfica como para definir la frontera de lo transmisible o ""legible"" por máquinas.</p>
            <p> Hoy día los archivos sonoros de cualquier tipo son accesibles en su gran mayoría a través de un número limitado de metadatos estandarizados referentes a su autor, título, fecha, etc. La identificación de documentos sonoros históricos no es en general mucho más profunda de la que ofrecería una biblioteca como la de iTunes. Herramientas algo más potentes como las folkosomias o la marcación social, permitirían recuperar información sobre el contenido y significado, pero no existe un equivalente histórico para esos modos de categorización. Mi hipótesis es que un glosario que recoja suficientes variaciones contextuales podría permitir de modo similar, comparar los distintos valores atribuidos a diferentes sonidos en determinada época y entender mejor como la gente clasificaba (y clasifica hoy día) el sonido. Un tesauro jerarquizado es, por otra parte, una base para una anotación más profunda de los registros sonoros. La clasificación de archivos sonoros por su contenido se beneficiaria de la existencia de una serie de categorías bien establecidas sobre los tipos de sonido. Ambas herramientas permiten reflexionar sobre los modos en que hoy día organizamos y recuperamos los archivos sonoros y abrir caminos para un tratamiento integral, y diferente, de la información contenida en los formatos de audio.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Augoyard, J-F. and Torgue, H. (eds).</hi> (1995). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">À l’écoute de l’environnement. Répertoire des effets sonores</hi>. Marseille: Editions Parenthèse.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baker, G. </hi>(2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Imposing Harmony: Music and Society in Colonial Cuzco</hi>. Durham, London: Duke University Press. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bierhorst, J.</hi> (1985). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cantares Mexicanos. Songs of the Aztecs. Translated from the Nahuatl, with an Introduction and Commentary</hi>. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bull, M. and Back, L. (eds).</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Auditory Culture Reader</hi>. Oxford, New York: Berg. 
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chion, M.</hi> (1983). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Guides des objets sonores. Pierre Schaeffer et la recherche musicale</hi>. Paris: Buchet/Chastel; Institut National de l'Audiovisuel. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Damrosch, D.</hi> (1991). The Aesthetics of Conquest: Aztec Poetry Before and After Cortés, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Representations</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 33</hi>: 101-20. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Faudree, P.</hi> (2012). Music, Language, and Texts: Sound and Semiotic Ethnography, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Annual Review of Anthropology</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 41</hi>: 519-36. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Feld, S. and Brenneis, D.</hi> (2004). Doing Anthropology in Sound, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">American Ethnologist</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 31</hi>(4): 461-74. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Greenblatt, S. J.</hi> (1991). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Marvelous Possessions. The Wonder of the New World</hi>. Chicago: Chicago University Press. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Irving, D. R. M.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Colonial Counterpoint: Music in Early Modern Manila</hi>. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">León-Portilla, M. (ed.)</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cantares mexicanos</hi>, 2 vols. Mexico: UNAM, Fideicomiso Teixidor. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, L. E.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Hearing Things: Religion, Illusion, and the American Enlightenment</hi>. Cambridge (Massachusetts): Harvard University Press. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smith, B. R.</hi> (2002). How Sound is Sound History? A Response to Mark Smith, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Journal of the Historical Society</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 2</hi>(3-4): 307-15. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sterne, J. (ed). </hi>(2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Sound Studies Reader</hi>. London, New York: Routledge. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tomlinson, G.</hi> (1995). Ideologies of Aztec song, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Musicological Society</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 48</hi>(3): 343-79.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2463","17","A DH-Leavened Musicological Toolbox","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In 1996, Don Michael Randel wrote a chapter entitled “
                <ref target=""v=onepage&q=randel%20musicologist%20toolbox&f=false"">The Canons in the Musicology Toolbox</ref>,” which examined “a common set of techniques that every dissertation and scholarly article employs” a type of “musicological interface” or “toolbox” that addresses the issues of theoretical and methodological consistency across the discipline, and, in theory, reduces the time and effort spent on producing the scholarly output (Randel, 1996:10). Fifteen years after Randel’s chapter was published, Zoe Lang reexamined his original concept in a post entitled “
                <ref target=""https://amusicology.wordpress.com/2010/02/05/guest-post-by-zoe-lang-today%E2%80%99s-musicological-toolbox/"">Today’s Musicological Toolbox</ref>,” in which she asks that we imagine afresh this concept of the “musicological toolbox” (Lang, 2010). Her argument was that a customized toolbox of both specialized and general tools would be required for producing a diverse range of musicological scholarship. The training of the musicologist should thus include as many of the specialized and generalist tools as possible, with the aim of creating a common ground with scholars of other disciplines, allowing the musicologist to move beyond the boundaries of her academic discipline. In the past twenty years, skills once considered general and essential (music notation) have given ground to areas of specialization like popular music and feminist readings. As in other humanistic disciplines, musicologists consider postcolonial and identity theories, together with the more “native” topics of music analysis and Western “art” repertories.
            </p>
            <p>If we were to reimagine the “musicological toolbox” yet again, how would we do so from a digital humanities and/or information science perspective? What tools should be added to a customizable “musicological toolbox” such that students and faculty become proficient in applying a set of techniques that may eventually become commonplace to all humanistic disciplines? Are there specific misapprehensions to be wary of when appropriating tools created for other academic fields? Can an incubator approach be tolerated to make room for learning and experimentation, without requiring formal, publishable results? Finally, how does one make room for collaboration in a discipline that is still largely driven by individual scholarly endeavor?</p>
            <p>As librarians who study and practice both digital humanities and musicology, we use certain tools and methods that we propose be part of a DH musicological toolbox. These include free and open source tools for data capture, cleaning and formatting, geospatial, temporal and network analysis, as well as tools for data enhancement and encoding (i.e. metadata and text/music encoding).</p>
            <p>We propose that concepts and methods core to digital humanities, as well information science, should be introduced into the musicological toolbox to expand students’ abilities and understanding beyond the boundaries of musicology. These include: </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Digital curation and publishing</item>
                <item>Metadata standards and schemas</item>
                <item>Information architecture (i.e. relational databases, indexing)</item>
                <item>Close reading and content analysis (i.e. encoding (text/music), transcription, analyses)</item>
                <item>Graph theory</item>
                <item>Spatial and temporal analysis</item>
                <item>Exploratory data analysis for framing scholarly arguments</item>
            </list>
            <p>Training students and scholars in all of these concepts or tools may not be feasible, however as it is important for musicologists to be introduced to methods, such as historiography, paleography, or musical analysis, it is also important that they are introduced to the concepts and methods used in digital humanities work, which will allow them to push the boundaries of musicological research and build an understanding around developing scholarship or research projects in a digital mode. </p>
            <p>Drawing from our own experiences, first as musicology students, and now as librarians, we will demonstrate how these concepts may be applied to musicological research using our current projects as case studies, 
                <ref target=""http://documentingcarreno.org/"">
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Documenting Teresa Carreño</hi>
                </ref> (Kijas) and an analysis of librettist Felice Romani’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">I due Figaro</hi> (Giannetti). In addition, we will demonstrate some of the rewards and challenges of blending the information science, musicology and digital humanities perspectives.
            </p>
            <p>In 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Documenting Teresa Carreño</hi>, a project focused on the performance career of Teresa Carreño (1853-1917), a Venezuelan pianist and composer, Kijas curates metadata and content in Omeka to document Carreño's key performances between 1862 and 1917. An understanding of concepts and methods related to metadata standards, musicological research, as well as, digital curation and publishing, are especially relevant to this project. Giannetti’s project analyzes Felice Romani’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">I due Figaro</hi> alongside its French source play, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Les deux Figaro</hi>. The concepts and methods applicable to her project include close reading, OCR, text transcriptions, network, data and text analysis. These two case studies demonstrate a data-enhanced view of the musicological toolkit in which findings drawn from traditional approaches (archival studies, bibliography, close reading) are challenged and supplemented by digital concepts and methods. Although not without its complement of additional labor and uncertainty, this DH-leavened musicological toolkit compensates by improving one’s understanding of sources, enhancing digital literacies, and raising the chances of finding intra- or inter-departmental collaborators.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lang, Z.</hi> (2010). Today’s Musicological Toolbox. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Amusicology</hi>.
                        <ref target=""https://amusicology.wordpress.com/2010/02/05/guest-post-by-zoe-lang-today%E2%80%99s-musicological-toolbox/"">https://amusicology.wordpress.com/2010/02/05/guest-post-by-zoe-lang-today%E2%80%99s-musicological-toolbox/</ref>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Randel, D. M. </hi>(1992). The Canons in the Musicological Toolbox. In Bergeron, Katherine and Philip V. Bohlman (Eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Disciplining Music: Musicology and Its Canons</hi>. University of Chicago Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2464","17","A Method for Record Linkage with Sparse Historical Data","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Massive digitization of archival material, coupled with automatic document processing techniques and data visualisation tools offers great opportunities for reconstructing and exploring the past. Unprecedented wealth of historical data (e.g. names of persons, places, transaction records) can indeed be gathered through the transcription and annotation of digitized documents and thereby foster large-scale studies of past societies. Yet, the transformation of hand-written documents into well-represented, structured and connected data is not straightforward and requires several processing steps. In this regard, a key issue is entity record linkage, a process aiming at linking different mentions in texts which refer to the same entity. Also known as entity disambiguation, record linkage is essential in that it allows to identify genuine individuals, to aggregate multi-source information about single entities, and to reconstruct networks across documents and document series.</p>
                <p>In this paper we present an approach to automatically identify coreferential entity mentions of type 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Person</hi> in a data set derived from Venetian apprenticeship contracts from the early modern period (16th-18th c.). Taking advantage of a manually annotated sub-part of the document series, we compute distances between pairs of mentions, combining various similarity measures based on (sparse) context information and person attributes.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Task Definition</head>
                <p>Major challenges when dealing with people-related data are homographic person names referring to different persons as well as the existence of name variants referring to the same person. These are well-known issues in the field of Natural Language Processing for which various approaches have been devised, first via mention clustering (Mann and Yarowsky 2003; Artiles et al. 2008), more recently via linking to a knowledge base (Ji and Grishman 2011; Shen et al 2015).</p>
                <p>In the context of historical data, dealing with person name ambiguity is all the more difficult since data is inherently sparse and uncertain (resulting in poor mention context) and since knowledge bases such as DBpedia (Lehmann et al 2013) contain very little about past average laypersons (resulting in poor entity context). It is however an essential step prior to any historical data analysis (Bloothooft et al 2015), which we address as part of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Garzoni</hi> project. This project aims at studying apprenticeship in early modern Venice by extracting information from archival material. Part of this material have been manually annotated, including mention links towards unique entities. Starting from a subset of the current data, we present a method for person record linkage, with the objective to complement its disambiguation coverage and to bootstrap a system to better automate entity disambiguation during annotation, in an active learning fashion.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The <hi rend=""italic"">Accordi dei Garzoni</hi></head>
                <p>The 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Accordi dei Garzoni</hi> is a document series from the State Archives of Venice which originates from the activity of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Giustizia Vecchia</hi> magistracy. This judicial authority was in charge of registering apprenticeship contracts in order to protect young people while they were trained and/or providing domestic services (Bellavitis 2006). As a result of this regulation, information for much of apprenticeship arrangements got centralized, today reflected in a dense archival series.
                </p>
                <p>The 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Accordi</hi> consists of about 55,000 contracts registered from 1575 until 1772. Each contract features an apprentice, a master and often a guarantor, sometimes two. A sample of 11,000 contracts have been manually annotated and the resulting data is stored in an RDF triple store. For each person mentioned in a contract, annotators created a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">person mention</hi> and, importantly, linked it to a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">person entity</hi>. They did so either by selecting an already existing entity in the database or by creating a new one. Given the difficulty of this task, only a limited number of entities have been disambiguated; the annotated dataset can therefore be considered as correct but not exhaustive.
                </p>
                <p>The present work considers annotated documents from the period 1586-1600, for which statistics about contracts and entity/mention ratio are shown in Table 1. We use a subset of this dataset (bolded line in the table) as a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">golden</hi> set for our experiments.
                </p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <head>Table 1. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Entity-Mention stastistical profile for the whole vs. selected period</hi>
                    </head>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">count</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">whole period</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1586-1600</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default""># annotated contracts</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">11,525</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">2,687</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default""># mentions</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">31,952 </cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">7,589</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default""># entities</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">26,641 </cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">6,599</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                            <hi rend=""bold""># entities with # mention  > 1</hi>
                        </cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1793</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">382</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                            <hi rend=""smallcaps"">avg</hi> mention per entity
                        </cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1.09</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1.08</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                            <hi rend=""smallcaps"">avg</hi> mention per entity with # mention  > 1
                        </cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">2.44 </cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">2.38</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Approach</head>
                <p>Given a set of mentions, our objective is to estimate the likelihood that two mentions refer to the same entity. We represent each mention by a vector of features and compare them pairwise using various similarity measures. The list of selected features at mention and contract levels are presented in Table 2 and 3 respectively.</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <head>Table 2. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mention-level features</hi>
                    </head>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Feature</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Variable Type</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">first name</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">string</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">surname</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">string</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">patronymic</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">string</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">gender</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">categorical</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">age</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">integer</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">profession</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">categorical</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">geographical origins</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">string</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <head>Table 3. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Contract-level features</hi>
                    </head>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Feature</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Variable Type</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">workshop toponym</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">string</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">workshop parish</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">string</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">workshop sestriere
                            <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                                <p rend=""footnote text"">There are 6 sestrieri in Venice, i.e. groups of contiguous parishes.</p>
                            </note>
                        </cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">string</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">workshop insigna</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">string</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">contract year</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">integer</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">contract duration</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">string</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">master profession</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">categorical</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>With respect to our dataset and features, several points should be emphasized. First, data sparsity: it is common for a mention to have just a few features. Second, features are not evenly sparse (cf. Figure 1) and do not contribute equally to a possible linkage. Core features such as 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">name</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">surname</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">patronymic</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">gender</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">profession</hi> must strongly correspond in order to consider a link as reliable. On the other hand, rare features such as 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">workshop insigna</hi> can be very informative when shared by two mentions and should also be valued by the linkage algorithm. Finally, features are dependent, particularly on the role of the person (e.g. age indicated only for apprentices).
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""165/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1. Distribution of features by role</head>
                </figure>
                <p>We construct three matrices of size 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">N</hi> × <hi rend=""italic"">N</hi>, where 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">N</hi> is the number of mentions in the dataset. The first matrix Φ, the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">feature matrix</hi>, stores similarity scores of mentions pairwise. Scores are computed using measures over features as follows:
                </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">year of contract</hi>: the feature-score is measured via distance and diminishing returns. Each year of distance between 1 and 15 and between 15 and 30 decreases an initial score of 1 by 0.01 and 0.025 respectively, with a definitive cut-off after 30. For example, two contracts from 1590 and 1594 have a score of 0.96.
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">age</hi>: similarly as per year, each year of distance of the difference between two ages decreases an initial score.
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">gender</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">profession</hi>: the feature-scores are based on exact matches.
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">name</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">surname</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">patronymic</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">workshop toponym</hi>: the feature-score is based on the Deverau-Levenshtein string metric (Cohen et al, 2003). For example, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Polo</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pollo</hi> have a similarity measure of 0.95.
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">geographical origins</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">insigna</hi>: the feature-score is based on a token-based variant of the Jaro-Winkler metric. For example, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Friulano</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">del Friuli</hi> have a similarity measure of 0.82.
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>The score of each pair is stored in Φ: it is the L2 norm of the resulting feature-score vector.</p>
                <p>The second matrix Γ, the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">combination matrix</hi>, stores values that indicate whether a pair of mentions shares similar feature combinations or not. To build such matrix, we leverage the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">golden</hi> set and identify combinations of features which produced a linkage on a role-by-role basis (e.g. master-master or guarantor-master). Features are considered activated when their feature-score is equal or above 0.84<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2""> It has been shown in comparable settings that edit distance with cut-off at distance 3 (which for us is distance > 0.85) provides good results (Kleanthi et al. 2015).</note> and we filter out combinations occurring once. The score of a mention pair in Γ is 1.0 if the combination of activated features is valid for the given role pair; 0.5 if the role pair does not match but the combination is valid; 0.0 otherwise. This matrix accounts for feature dependencies and the different ways to name a person with respect to his/her role.
                </p>
                <p>The third matrix Δ, the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">filtering matrix</hi>, scores mention pairs according to the number of activated core features (1.0 if 3 +  features – out of 5 – are activated, 0.0 otherwise
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">Features are activated when their similarity is above 0.84.</note>).
                </p>
                <p>Given the three matrices, we normalize them and consider the following function to compute the similarity score of a mention pair <hi rend=""italic"">p</hi>:</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""165/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>where δ
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">p</hi> is a boolean parameter taken from Δ which activates the filter over core features for pair 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">p</hi>; 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">π</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">p</hi> is the feature score taken from Φ; γ
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">p</hi> is the combination score from Γ; and λ is a parameter giving priority over vector features or combinations of features. δ ∈ {0, 1} and 0 ≤ λ, π, γ ≤ 1. This function allows us to adjust the different parameters: core vs sparse features (δ), feature scores (π) and feature combinations (γ).
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Evaluation</head>
                <p>We evaluate our approach in terms of coverage and precision. With respect to coverage, we verify our method over 100 thresholds from 0.99 to 0.0. For each threshold, we compare linkage curves as the percentage of links obtained over the total possible against the coverage of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">golden</hi> set. Precision is based on manual annotation of 50 randomly selected linkages.
                </p>
                <p>Both procedures are repeated with λ ∈ {0.1, 0.5, 0.9} and δ activated or not, for a total of 6 configurations. The objective is to understand the individual contributions of the three components to our function.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results and Discussion</head>
                <p>Results for the first and second evaluation procedure are presented in Figure 2 and Table 4 (resp.). Highest precision (0.61 and 0.3 in Table 4) is obtained with a balance between feature combinations and feature scores (λ = 0.5). δ proves very useful for filtering the input space (from 28,7M possible pairs to 44,2K), and lowers the number of false positives, especially for links between apprentices (cf. line ‘w-o AA’ in Table 4). The combination of the two (filtered input space and equal weights) provides the best results, especially for masters and guarantors. Linkage curves can be explained similarly: low λ entails a step-like curve (three steps at 0.0, 0.5 and 1.0), while high λ creates a Gaussian over the disambiguation space.</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <head>Table 4. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Precision with threshold </hi>>=
                        <hi rend=""italic""> 0.9 (* means not-significant statistics)</hi>
                    </head>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                        <cell cols=""3"" rend=""DH-Default"">δ active</cell>
                        <cell cols=""3"" rend=""DH-Default"">δ not active</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default""> λ = 0.1</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">λ = 0.5</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">λ = 0.9</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">λ = 0.1</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">λ = 0.5</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">λ = 0.9</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">all</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default""> 0.21</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.3</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.21</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.0</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.26</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.15</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">without A-A</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default""> 0.22</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.61</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.22</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.0</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.48</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.67</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>This confirms that a balanced approach might be the best solution in a setting where data is sparse (high λ), the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">golden</hi> set is present but of limited coverage (low λ), and some prior assumptions on the required features can be made (δ). As shown in Figure 3, the graphs with λ = 0.5 and δ = 1.0 collapse more gradually, providing the widest effective linkage space to explore. Eventually, results also suggest to proceed in an active learning fashion, where the system learns iteratively with new data as part of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">golden</hi> set.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""165/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2. Linkage curves for the 6 parameters settings, over thresholds</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""165/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3. Graph properties for the 6 parameter settings, over thresholds</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Finally, in order to further motivate our work, Figure 4 shows the largest components of the deduced social network with and without automatic disambiguation. The linkage method has the nice property of enlarging small components before gradually connecting them.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""165/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 4. Largest components of social networks from golden set (left-most) and from disambiguated datasets (center and right-most)</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion and Future Work</head>
                <p>This paper presented a system to perform record linkage over mentions of persons from sparse historical data. It deals with different constraints such as data sparsity and limited prior knowledge. We plan to apply the system to different datasets and to integrate it into a transcription and annotation interface, in order to use it for live, aided record linkage.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Artiles, J., Sekine, S. and Gonzalo, J.</hi> (2008). Web people search: results of the first evaluation and the plan for the second. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 17th international conference on World Wide Web</hi> pp. 1071–72. ACM.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bellavitis, A.</hi> (2006). Apprentissages masculins, apprentissages fminins venise au XVIe siècle. <hi rend=""italic"">Histoire Urbaine</hi>, pp. 49–73.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bloothooft, G., et al.</hi>, (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Population Reconstruction</hi>. Springer.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cohen, W., Ravikumar, P. and Fienberg, S. </hi>(2003). A comparison of string metrics for matching names and records. <hi rend=""italic""> KDD workshop on data cleaning and object consolidation</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>: 73–78.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ji, H. and Grishman, R.</hi> (2011). Knowledge base population: Successful approaches and challenges. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 49th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies-Volume</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>: 1148–58. Association for Computational Linguistics.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kleanthi, G., et al.</hi> (2015). Record linkage in medieval and early modern text.  <hi rend=""italic""> Population Reconstruction</hi>, pp. 173–95. Springer.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lehmann, J., et al. </hi> (2013). DBpedia – A Large-scale, Multilingual Knowledge Base Extracted from Wikipedia.<hi rend=""italic""> Semantic Web Journal</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mann, G. S. and Yarowsky, D.</hi> (2003). Unsupervised personal name disambiguation. <hi rend=""italic"">  Proceedings of the 7th Conference on Natural Language Learning at HLT-NAACL 2003</hi>, vol. <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>(3): 33–40.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shen, W., Wang, J. and Han, J.</hi> (2015). Entity linking with a knowledge base: Issues, techniques, and solutions. <hi rend=""italic"">Knowledge and Data Engineering</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">27</hi>(2): 443–60.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2465","17","A Study of Knowledge Integration in Digital Humanities Based on Bibliographic Analysis","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This is an extension of our previous work in which a longitudinal (1989-2014) co-citation analysis of literature in Digital Humanities was (DH) conducted to explore the degree of interdisciplinarity in DH. The selection of the literature was based on a combination of keyword search with Scopus and articles published in the key journals in the field (i.e. journals published by members of ADHO). A dual trend of gradual increases in both topical diversity and network cohesion, two hallmarks of interdisciplinarity (Porter et.al., 2007; Rafols and Meyer 2010), were found in the co-citation network. For example, as shown in Figure 1, the average path length remained steady relative to the gradual increase of the network diameter, which suggests continuing growth of the literature and its gradual consolidation (the sharp rise at the tail being the artifact of citation window). On the other hand, the growing diversity was demonstrated by the steady increase of distinct author-assigned keywords over time.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""175/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1. Growing of co-citation network and average path length</head>
              </figure>
           <p>In this article, the results of further analyses were reported that aimed to, firstly, further explore of the issue of disciplinary cohesion using co-authorship and bibliographic coupling networks; and secondly, to identify cohesive subgroups or specialties in the DH literature. </p>
            <p>Disciplinary cohesion of DH</p>
            <p>Based on the assumption that the knowledge integration process in research communities depends heavily on the topology of the underlying social network, Moody used the structure of collaborative (i.e. co-authorship) network to represent the integration of knowledge in Sociology over time (Moody, 2004). The concept of “structure cohesion” or “connectivity” in network analysis was used to measure the degree of social cohesion in Sociology, which is defined as “the extent to which a network will remain connected when nodes are removed from the network (Moody and White, 2003).” Moody (2004) discussed three types of network structures: star production, small world, and structurally cohesive and surmised on the corresponding collaborative practices each represents. Moody (2004) believe that a cohesive collaboration network signals the presence of “permeable theoretical boundaries and generic methods” that allows scholars specialized in particular theoretical, empirical or theoretical skills to collaborate freely. He added that, if enough scholars engage in this kind of cross-fertilization, mixing across multiple areas, there will be few clear divisions presented in the collaborative network (Moody, 2004). Similarly, Carolan (2008) used network structure of articles published by a leading journal in Education to examine how well the heterogeneous set of ideas and practices were integrated within the discipline. </p>
            <p>As shown in Figure 2, contrary to the co-citation network, the DH co-authorship network is very sparse and highly fragmented. The percentage of the nodes in the main component hovered only below 20% even after discounting the isolates, which is extremely low compared to other disciplines or research areas (See Table 1). Notice the contrast is especially striking with sciences, medicine, and IT. The low percentage of nodes in main component (Figure 2), coupled with extremely high clustering coefficient and modularity (Figure 3), indicated most collaboration took place at the local level, lacking global “shortcuts” found in the small-world model to hold the network together (See Figure 4). </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""175/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2. Percentage of nodes in the main component in the co-authorship network </head>
             </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""175/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3. Trends of clustering coefficient and modularity in co-authorship </head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""175/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 4. Part of the co-authorship network </head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""175/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 5. Three largest components in the co-authorship network</head>
            </figure>
            <p>A closer examination of the co-authorship network shows that, beyond the two largest components, there were relatively few international collaborations (See Figure 5). The largest component was composed of scholars mainly from the U.S. (28.53), Canada (27.12%), U.K. (26.84%), and Germany (10.45%); the second largest component was composed of scholars from the U.S. (39.71%), the Netherlands (30.88%), and Japan (5.88%); and the third component was composed of all Italian scholars. </p>
            <p>The identification of specialties in DH </p>
            <p>Modularity maximization graph partition was applied to both the co-citation and bibliographic coupling networks to identify subgroups or specialties in DH. Both co-citation and bibliographic coupling have been widely used to establish similarity or linkages between documents in bibliometrics (See, for example, Yan and Ding, 2012; Boyack and Klavans, 2010).</p>
            <p>The co-citation network was construed by using Google Scholar’s citation tracing function. The citations received by every article in our target set were first identified and downloaded then pair-wise matching was performed to identify shared citations. The bibliographic coupling was generated by pair-wise comparison of cited references retrieved from Scopus. A threshold of shared 3 citations in the reference lists was set to dichotomize the network. Figure 5 and 6 show the results of the modularity-based partition resulted from co-citation and bibliographic coupling networks, respectively. Due to the lack of global cohesion, only the giant component in either network was analyzed. We are currently in the process of identifying the research topics represented by the clusters in either network, which will be done by examining the author-assigned keywords and authors appearing in each cluster. The labeling of the clusters by each’s prominent authors has been shown to be an effective way of visualizing a field (e.g. White and McCain, 1998). Interviews with experts who have broad knowledge in the field of DH will be done in order to help us interpret the meaning of the clusters. Efforts will also be made to explore the reasons behind the lack of cohesion in the DH co-authorship network. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""175/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 6. Modularity analysis of co-citation network </head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""175/image8.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 7. Modularity analysis of bibliographic coupling network </head></figure>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boyack, K.W., Klavans, R.</hi> (2010). Co‐citation analysis, bibliographic coupling, and direct citation: Which citation approach represents the research front most accurately?
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">61</hi>(12): 2389-404.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Carolan, B.V. </hi>(2008). The structure of educational research: The Role of Multivocality in Promoting Cohesion in an Article Interlock Network.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social Networks</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>(1): 69-82.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moody, J.</hi> (2004). The structure of a social science collaboration network: Disciplinary cohesion from 1963 to 1999.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">American sociological review</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">69</hi>(2): 213-38.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moody, J. and White, D.R.</hi> (2003). Structural cohesion and embeddedness: A hierarchical concept of social groups. <hi rend=""italic"">American Sociological Review</hi>, pp. 103-27.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Porter, A.L., Cohen, A.S., Roessner, J.D. and Perreault, M.</hi> (2007). Measuring researcher interdisciplinarity. <hi rend=""italic"">Scientometrics</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">72</hi>(1): 117-47.
                   </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rafols, I. and Meyer, M.</hi> (2010). Diversity and network coherence as
                        indicators of interdisciplinarity: case studies in bionanoscience, <hi rend=""bold"">82</hi>(2): 263-87.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">White, H.D. and McCain, K.W.</hi> (1998). Visualizing a discipline: An author co-citation analysis of information science, 1972-1995.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American society for information science</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">49</hi>(4): 327-55.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Yan, E. and Ding, Y.</hi> (2012). Scholarly network similarities: How bibliographic coupling networks, citation networks, cocitation networks, topical networks, coauthorship networks, and coword networks relate to each other.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">63</hi>(7): 1313-26.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2466","17","Adding Flexibility to Large-Scale Text Visualization with HathiTrust+Bookworm","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
                <p>The HathiTrust holds one of the largest collections of digitized published work in the world. With nearly 14 million volumes (""Currently Digitized"", HathiTrust.org), it is a challenge to create mechanisms to understand and interpret a collection of this size. The HathiTrust+Bookworm (HT+BW) project presents ways to behold that textual content through interactive visualization. In this poster, we present new work from HT+BW in applying visualization as an complementary, rather than center, tool for supporting better comprehension of large collections. Whereas HT+BW has previously been used in standalone contexts with pre-determined metadata, we present work in two new areas: 1) allowing scholars to analyze custom personal collections from within the larger corpus; and 2) use of HT+BW as a supplement to other uses of the HathiTrust Research Center. </p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Context</head>
                <p>The vanguard of big text data was the realization that we had more books than a person can read in a lifetime (Crane, 2006). At the scale of current collections, such as that of the HathiTrust, it would take many years to read only the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">titles</hi> of all the digitized works. Such a scale presents opportunities for new forms of inference about historical, cultural, and linguistic trends. However, because of the necessary abstractions away from qualitative reading to quantifiable features in these texts, the underlying biases of the collection are not always apparent to a scholar. HT+BW seeks to address such problems.
                </p>
                <p>HathiTrust+Bookworm (HT+BW) is a project seeking to adapt the generalized analytic tool Bookworm (http://bookworm.culturomics.org) to the large scales and unique needs in the HathiTrust Research Center. The HathiTrust is a consortium of institutions collecting millions of digitized works, and its research center seeks to support scholars in the large-scale insights that such a collection can accommodate. HT+BW is built on the HathiTrust Research Center's Extracted Features Dataset (Capitanu et al., 2015), a publicly-released dataset of page-level counts for important features, such as text frequencies. The dataset contains nearly 8 terabytes of data for 1.8 billion pages across 4.8 million books, with plans to grow three-fold in 2016.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""598/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>Figure 1: Comparing multiple topics over all texts</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""598/image2.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>Figure 2: Comparing a single topic in multiple facets of the collections (US-published and UK-published books)</p>
                </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Approach</head>
                <p>The strength of HT+BW is in detailed querying and faceting. In contrast to the Google Ngrams Viewer, for instance, scholars do not have to compare term usage across the entire corpus. Rather, they can peer within highly particular facets; for example, one can visualize longitudinal trends for the word “love” for only those books that were both published in the US and classified as literature (Figure 2). This ability becomes much more valuable when comparing across different facets, so that the usage trend of “love” can be compared between literature and general non-fiction works.</p>
                <p>Our current work extends faceting to custom groupings of the collection — personal subsets called 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">worksets</hi> — in the Hathitrust Research Center (Jett, 2015). Worksets can be visualized in Bookworm in a manner similar to visualizing any predetermined metadata-based facet. The affordances this allows include:
                </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>generating descriptive statistics for a particular research domain, such as late 19th century best-sellers;</item>
                    <item>creating two worksets, one of early-career and one of late-career authors, and comparing how theme words occur in either case; or</item>
                    <item>using HT+BW over a collection derived from other scholarship, such as (Ted Underwood's fiction data).</item>
                </list>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""598/image3.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>Figure 3: Comparing terms used in a 2000-volume scholar curated workset</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""598/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>Figure 4: Comparing facet counts for “publication state” within a workset, using HT+BW public API.</p>
                <p>In addition to workset access, HT+BW is being used for “widget” access to support other activities within the broader HathiTrust Research Center. Most importantly, this includes search. When searching for individual works, or building a workset, it is not immediately clear what relationship the relevant results have to the underlying contours of the dataset. For example, the widget-style visualization of a researcher’s query for “Beijing” or “Istanbul” would reveal that those terms are biased toward 20th century work (as these places were earlier referred to by other names).</p>
                <p>The primary development challenge of the HT+BW has been the technical hurdles inherent to the scale of the HathiTrust’s collection. We have improved the ingest process for Bookworm to allow for lower level optimizations, a gain applicable to other projects' use of Bookworm. Query performance is robust at the scale of unigrams for 4.8 million volumes, though it remains to be seen how this will be scaled to larger n-grams and more volumes.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>The HT+BW project is providing richer, more flexible access to the large holdings of the HathiTrust Digital Library, with a goal of supporting humanists in probing questions about historical, literary, or cultural trends in published literature.</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.g98bzgmfxslp"">
            <head>Notes</head>
                    <p>HT+BW is supporting the development of Bookworm as a standalone, collection-agnostic tool. Our technical contributions are available at 
                        <ref target=""https://github.com/Bookworm-project"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">https://github.com/Bookworm-project</hi>
                        </ref> and 
                        <ref target=""https://github.com/htrc"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">https://github.com/htrc</hi>
                        </ref>. HT+BW is built upon publicly-available data from the HathiTrust Digital Library (
                        <ref target=""https://sharc.hathitrust.org/features"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">https://sharc.hathitrust.org/features</hi>
                        </ref>) and metadata (
                        <ref target=""https://www.hathitrust.org/hathifiles"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">https://www.hathitrust.org/hathifiles</hi>
                        </ref>).
                    </p>
                    <p>HT+BW is supported by NEH Implementation Grant HK-50176-14. Any views, findings, conclusions, or recommendations do not necessarily reflect those of the National Endowment for the Humanities.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""italic"">Currently Digitized</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Hathitrust Digital Library</hi>. http://hathitrust.org/about.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""italic"">Bookworm</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Culturomics</hi>. http://bookworm.culturomics.org.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Boris, C., Underwood, T., Organisciak, P., Bhattacharyya, S., Auvil, L., Fallaw, C. and Downie, J. S.</hi> (2015).<hi rend=""italic""> Extracted Feature Dataset from 4.8 Million HathiTrust Digital Library Public Domain</hi> Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>, [Dataset]. HathiTrust Research Center, doi:10.13012/j8td9v7m.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Crane, G.</hi> (2006). <hi rend=""italic"">What Do You Do with a Million Books?</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">D-Lib Magazine</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">12</hi>(3). doi:10.1045/march2006-crane.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Jett, J.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Modeling Worksets in the HathiTrust Research Center</hi>. CIRSS Technical Report WCSA0715. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2467","17","Addressing Torture in Iraq through Critical Digital Media Art-Hearts and Minds: The Interrogations Project","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Hearts and Minds: the Interrogations Project</hi> is an interactive virtual reality artwork developed by an interdisciplinary team including humanists, social scientists, artists, and computer scientists from four different universities. The project attempts to extend and make accessible difficult narratives of war and abusive violence based on actual accounts from soldiers involved. The work offers models for engaging with testimony and oral history. It uses visualization to build new discourse around challenging topics and to bridge concepts that enable storytelling. While many uses of visualization technologies are focused on providing accessible representation of “big data,” in this case, the technologies are being used as a narrative platform to represent a complex contemporary issue and to provide a platform for discussion and debate of military interrogation methods and their effects on detainees, soldiers, and society. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Hearts and Minds</hi> makes use of the CAVE2
                <hi rend=""superscript"">TM</hi> environment for a multisensory artwork addressing a complex contemporary problem: as American soldiers are returning from wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, it is becoming increasingly clear that some of them participated in interrogation practices and acts of abusive violence with detainees for which they were not properly trained or psychologically prepared. This has in turn left many soldiers dealing with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder after their return home. More than 1.8 million US troops have served in Iraq and Afghanistan, with 37% having been deployed at least twice (Litz, 2009) The mental health impact of these wars is still under research as many veterans are at risk for chronic PTSD. American soldiers and citizens are left with many unresolved questions about the moral calculus of using torture as an interrogation strategy in American military operations.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""443/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig 1. A performer interacts with the CAVE2 version of <hi rend=""italic"">Hearts and Minds</hi> at the EVL in Chicago</head>
            </figure>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Development</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Hearts and Minds</hi> bridges art, computer science, and social science research. Artist Roderick Coover (Temple University) and writer Scott Rettberg (University of Bergen) worked with the research scholars John Tsukayama and Jeffrey Stevenson Murer (St. Andrews University) to distill central themes and stories from the significant and extensive research project—based on hundreds of hours of original interviews with veterans—carried out by Tsukayama (Tsukayama, 2014). These interviews include revelations of a highly sensitive nature, including narratives of participation in acts of abusive violence that entailed violations of human rights. The interviewees granted Tsukayama the right to use their stories in his dissertation and in subsequent research outcomes derived from it, provided that their identities remained anonymous. The tapes of recorded interviews were destroyed after transcription, except for short samples to prove their authenticity, and Tsukayama did not retain any personal contact information for the soldiers he interviewed. The text was condensed into an accessible and coherent set of stories that would preserve the accuracy of the testimonies while voice actors would perform the roles of veterans, further assuring their anonymity.
                </p>
                <p>Coover and Rettberg worked with artist Daria Tsoupikova and scientist Arthur Nishimoto at the Electronic Visualization Lab (University of Illinois at Chicag, 2014) to transform this controversial and challenging research into an accessible form through visualization and dramatization. Together they developed an interactive virtual environment with imagery, 3D models and panoramic photographic backgrounds to bring story elements together. Working across these environments allowed new kinds of connections to be made between home spaces and battlefields, and between domestic objects and the memories they become attached to.</p>
                <p>The voice recordings performed by Philadelphia-based actors were integrated with interactive media elements in a peformative interactive environment. Objects, 3D environments, textures, and some animations were developed in Maya (Autodesk Inc., CA). Maya speeds up the production process through its rich selection of tools supporting all stages of modeling, including surface creation and manipulation, texturing, lighting, rigging, and animation. The visual, auditory and narrative elements were brought together in the Unity platform (Unity Technologies Inc., CA), software that is typically used by computer game developers. The getReal3D plugin for Unity developed by Mechdyne Corporation is used to run Unity across the CAVE2™ cluster (Mechdyne Corporation, 2014). User interaction was scripted using the Omicron (Electronic Visualization Lab, 2014) input abstraction library developed by EVL. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>CAVE2 Performance</head>
                <p>In its first iteration, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Hearts and Minds</hi> was presented as public performances at the University of Illinois Chicago Electronic Visualization Lab in June and July 2014 (Galatzer-Levy, 2014). Chicago-based performance artist Mark Jeffrey led a performance of the interactive work. As the audience entered the space, they found themselves in a temple environment listening to each of the four soldier character’s stories of enlistment—why they originally chose to become soldiers and what motivated their perspectives on the purpose for military service. 
                </p>
                <p>Jeffery then led the audience to the boy’s room, where activating four individual objects launches stories of first encounters with abusive violence in military experience, such as in hazing rituals during basic training, or after first arriving in Iraq. When each trigger object is selected within the 3D visual space, the domestic space falls away and a surreal desert landscape is revealed. This transition serves as a metaphor for the interior state of the individual solider, as it is coherent with accounts of soldiers experiencing Post-Traumatic Stress. It is also intended to bring audience members into a “listening state” where they can focus on the individual voices and the issues they raise. Objects in a living room space and a suburban backyard move us further into the field of battle, and there we encounter harrowing stories of interrogation, torture, and moral conflicts confronted differently by each of the characters. </p>
                <p>An important component of the performances of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Hearts and Minds</hi> is that the experience of the artwork is followed by audience discussion. The ultimate purpose of this work is to promote dialogue and debate about the contexts and circumstances of the use of torture in battlefield torture in recent history. In this sense the project shares an aim with Augosto Boal’s Theatre of the Oppressed, in that attempts to offer audiences “the aesthetic means to analyze their past, in the context of their present, and subsequently to invent their future, without waiting for it.” (International Theatre of the Oppressed Organization, 2014) During a 2015 presentation of the project at the Oslo Human Rights Film Festival (Coover et al., 2015), discussion participants included both a veteran police interrogator, who shared his experience that more humane methods of interrogation than torture were universally more effective, and a number of prisoners of conscience who had themselves been subjec to abusive violence and felt provoked by the work to share their own experiences as victims of torture. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Accessible Versions and Alternative Platforms</head>
                <p>One of the challenge for makers of immersive virtual reality artworks, particularly those developed in CAVEs and other custom-built VR environments is that these artworks tend to be more often read about in the literature of the field than experienced first-hand. The CAVE2™ at the EVL for example is an active research lab facility with keycard access at the center of a large engineering building on the UIC campus. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Hearts and Minds</hi> has been shown there at several special events and on specially arranged tours, but it is not the ideal accessiblity situation to reach a broader audience. Because 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Hearts and Minds</hi> was developed in Unity, it is possible to port the application to other environments. In order to make the work more accessible for new audiences, the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Hearts and Minds</hi> team is developing new versions of the work: a Mac OS standalone application suitable for cinematic performance or installation (Coover et al., 2014), a Unity web-player version which will be published on the World Wide Web and will be accessible freely to the public, a version suitable for iPads and other tablet computers, and a version for Oculus Rift. The stand-alone application version has been used for performances in cinema enivronments in Paris, Bergen, Oslo, Krakow, Michigan, and elsewhere, and the other application versions will be publically released in 2016.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""443/image2.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 2 Presentation of the interactive cinematic version of <hi rend=""italic"">Hearts and Minds</hi> at the 2015 Oslo Human Rights / Human Wrongs festival</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Completing 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Hearts and Minds</hi> as Critical Digital Media and Digital Humanities Project
                </head>
                <p>The 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Hearts and Minds</hi> team is currently developing the tablet version of the work, which will include both the tablet (iPad and Android) application, and a package of contextualizing essays, interviews and commentaries both specific to the work and that provide more detailed treatments of the issues the work raises. These essays and interviews will for example contributions by political scientists and social scientists about the situations out of which abusive interrogations practice emerged, contributions by digital humanists considering interactive media artworks as a mode of critically and socially engaged research, and contributions by designers and computer scientists considering the history and technologies involved in virtual reality art. Coover and Rettberg’s long paper for DH 2016 will include a presentation of this new version of the project, and will further situate 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Hearts and Minds</hi> in an emergent corpus of critically engaged new media art.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coover, R., Nishimoto, A., Rettberg, S. and Tsoupikova, D.</hi> (2014). Hearts and Minds: The Interrogations Project. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the IEEE VIS Arts Program</hi> (VISAP), Paris, France.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coover, R., Murer, J., Kvanvig, G., Rachlew, A., Rettberg, S. and Tsukayama, J.</hi> (2015). Interrogating Torture. Video of panel discussion at 2015 Oslo Human Rights Festival. https://vimeo.com/119752276 (accessed May 24, 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Electronic Visualization Lab</hi> (2014). Omnicron. http://github.com/uic-evl/omicron (accessed May 24, 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Galatzer-Levy, J.</hi> (2014). Virtual immersion in 3-D storytelling. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">UIC News</hi>. http://news.uic.edu/virtual-immersion-in-3-d-storytelling (accessed May 24, 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">International Theatre of the Oppressed Organization </hi>(2014). Declaration of Principles. http://www.theatreoftheoppressed.org/en/index.php?nodeID=23 (accessed March 5, 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Litz, B. and Schlenger, W.</hi> (2009). PTSD in Service Members and New Veterans of the Iraq and Afghanistan Wars: A Bibliography and Critique, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PTSD Research Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">20</hi>(1): 1-7.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mechdyne Coporation</hi> (2014). getReal3D. http://www.mechdyne.com/getreal3d.aspx (accessed May 24, 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tsukyama, J.</hi> (2014).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">By Any Means Necessary: An Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis Study Of Post 9/11 American Abusive Violence In Iraq</hi>. Ph.D. thesis, University of St Andrews.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2468","17","An Augmented Reality Mobile Application for Intergenerational Learning and Critical Connection: Experiencing The Histories of Flushing Meadows Park","10","<text>
        <body>
            <p>Augmented Reality (AR) superimposes geolocated digital text and images on a real-time view of the world.  Museums, urban spaces and cultural heritage sites are using AR to virtually restore and enhance historical displays and environments on smartphones or tablets. We have created an AR application that combines dynamic, interactive content, including realistic 3D models, video, animation, game, and website portal, to immerse a diverse public in the history and culture of an important and well-trafficked setting: Flushing Meadows-Corona Park (FMCP), a 1255-acre urban park in Queens, NY.  Littered with dramatic remnants of two World’s Fairs, FMCP is steeped in a largely-forgotten history as the site of the 1939/40 and 1964/65 World’s Fairs (NYWF), the first UN General Assembly, activities of European colonists, and early habitation by Algonquian speaking Native Americans. Additionally, the park served as the backdrop for the novel <hi rend=""italic"">The Great Gatsby </hi>and as a site for an interesting natural history.</p>
            <p>Our public venture partner, the Queens Museum, is situated within FMCP, in the most diverse immigrant neighborhood in New York State. In 2014  the population of Queens was composed of 49.1% Caucasian, 28% Latino, 25.8% Asian, and 20.8% African American. 47.8% of households are headed by individuals born outside the United States (http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/36/36081.html). By harnessing the multimodal possibilities of AR, we have engaged an ethnically, generationally and educationally diverse audience in the cooperative - and critical - exploration of history and culture.</p>
            <p>The application will provide users two complementary experiences: an intergenerational learning game which enables children and adults to be partners while learning about the history of FMCP, and a guided tour that explores the two World’s Fairs through comparison of their common, recurrent themes such as futurism, technological optimism, citizenship, progress, race and nationalism. Through these modalities, the application supplies a greatly enhanced destination experience to users of all ages and backgrounds, whether they are families from the surrounding neighborhoods, Queens Museum goers or tourists to New York City. </p>
            <p>The project is informed by interdisciplinary humanities scholarship, including World's Fair history, anthropology, theme park studies, cognitive psychology, AR mobile design,and game design for STEM and cultural learning (<ref target=""http://srealserver.eecs.ucf.edu/chronoleap/"">http://srealserver.eecs.ucf.edu/chronoleap/</ref>).</p>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>I.  Intergenerational Game</head>
            <p>Based upon the activity Geocaching, an intergenerational learning game is under development to provide children a scaffolded way to learn about the history and heritage of FMCP. Geocaching is a scavenger hunt-style game, which sends individuals or teams searching an environment for hidden physical items. By making the caches virtual, there are no limitations on items and avoid impacting park operations.  An adult led by the child must surmount the challenge of locating virtual geocaches, while exploring the past of FMCP.  Teams will also drill virtual core samples in the park and examine them to find geocached items within.</p>
            <p>Game play proceeds as users are provided clues and instructions guiding them to a physical locations. For example,  a clue might read “Find the ancient column” (referring to the extant Roman Column of Jerash, presented to NYC by Jordan’s King Hussein at the close of the 1964-65 NYWF) (Wingfield, 2011). Player’s devices notify them when reaching the location and are then provided new GPS coordinates. The device enables them to find the location, as well as see the landscape of the park as it appeared in the past and find the virtual artifact. Artifacts are stored by the application for future examination. This process continues for a set of artifacts – each artifact being one piece of a puzzle. In geocaching tradition we provide a final reward at the end.</p>
            <p>Another feature entails the collection of virtual pieces of artifacts from the core-sample’s strata, which are eventually reassembled at the relevant location. Examples of artifacts which might be found and assembled by users include the Videophone displayed at the Bell Telephone Pavilion during the 1965/65 Fair, the first television displayed at the RCA Pavilion during 1939/40 Fair, and a Mastodon from the Pleistocene Era. The application can provide supplemental content (e.g. video, audio and images), questions that open up further pathways for thought, and fun quizzes that challenge a user’s knowledge and memory.  </p>
            <p>As children have yet to develop a mastery of most subjects, they can often learn better when they are provided support from a familiar adult (Vygotsky, 1978). Such support, commonly known as scaffolding, is essential for them to integrate new information into their base of knowledge.  This dovetails well with Lave and Wenger (1991), where learning is a communal, interactive activity where less experienced individuals learn from master practitioners.  Our app provides an intergenerational pathway, where the adult can both support learning information presented and share associated information from their own life. A child will likely to engage with media prompts when with an adult (Takeuchi et al., 2011). Participatory mediation of learning, where adults and children collaborate, sharing a dialogue stimulated by the geocaching activity offers the potential for learning in such application (Clark, 2011).  This could be extended to encompass the sharing of deep-rooted memories and experiences for the adult, while also enabling children to share their experiences.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>II.  The Deep Experience</head>
            <p>This modality targets individuals who are interested in advanced content and interpretation for deeper, critical understanding of the 1939/40 and 1964/65 Fairs at Flushing Meadows, remnants of which form a dramatic backdrop. World's Fairs were typically experienced as spectacles of culture, industry, and technology. (Benedict,1981; Geppert et al., 2005; Greenhalgh, 2011; Corn and Horrigan, 1984; Garn et al., 2007; Rydell, 1984, 1993; Rydell and Gwinn, 1994; Rydell et al., 2000)  However, they are also environments that shaped popular understanding of society’s past, present and future, linked through enduring narratives of citizenship, progress, technological optimism, consumerism, race and nationalism (Hollengren et al., 2014; Gordon, 2005; Marchand ,1991,1995; Samuel, 2007; Tirella, 2014; Winner, 1991). This mode enables users to critically engage with the changing social themes and narratives that tie the Fairs together by sending users to cognate, virtual pavilions.</p>
            <p>Designed as a curated tour starting at the Queens Museum, visitors are guided through the park viewing models of Fair pavilions, and learning about common themes through archival images, audio and documentary footage, both within the application itself and on the associated website. Examples include:</p>
              <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                  <head>Landscapes of the Future</head>
                  <p>The connected themes of progress, technology, commerce and utopia – as expressions of “the future in the present” – have always dominated in World’s Fairs (cf Land, 2011).  Visitors are directed to the interstate highway utopia of Futurama at the General Motors pavilion, designed by Norman Bel Geddes (Marchand, 1991; 1995), and also to Futurama II, its updated version in the later Fair, in which “General Motors set out to reveal how technology would conquer the harshest environments for the betterment of humanity” (Walters, 2014:467).  Visitors will be able to view archival footage of both exhibits, read contemporary accounts and see original designs.</p>
              </div>
              <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                   <head>Protests at the Fair</head>
                   <p>National and global conditions did not reflect the optimistic themes of the Fairs, nor did Fairs go uncontested by groups who were excluded from self-representation and employment.  The 1964/65 NYWF was designed as a virtual bubble away from the emergent civil rights, free speech and anti-war movements. Visitors are invited to explore the CORE (Congress of Racial Equality) protests of 1964 (Peneda, 2014; Jacoby, 1998; Tirella, 2014; <ref target=""http://www.democracynow.org/2014/4/25/protesting_the_1964_world_s_fair"">http://www.democracynow.org/2014/4/25/protesting_the_1964_world_s_fair)</ref></p>
                   <p>and to see them come alive at the site of the Unisphere (still extant), through  digital overlay of archival footage (see for example <ref target=""http://timetraveler.berlin"">http://timetraveler.berlin</ref>).  Visitors will also access additional material such as pamphlets, flyers and photographs, and hear audio of speeches and meetings.</p>
                  </div>
              <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                <head>Racial Representation: two Africas</head>
                <p>Both Fairs contained pavilions that represented “Africa” as a project of defining, organizing and displaying people and culture. (Lorini, 1999; Rydell, 1999).  Our comparison of these exhibitions highlights the increased agency of the emergent African Republics of 1964/65 to represent themselves as modern members of the family of nations with professional dance performances, art exhibit, displays of industry (cf Benedict, 1993; Lukas, 2007).  In contrast, the Great Britain pavilion of 1939/40 contained “natural history” dioramas of traditional scenes in the life of its colonized subjects  (<ref target=""http://www.1939nyworldsfair.com/worlds_fair/wf_tour/hall_of_nations/great_britain"">http://www.1939nyworldsfair.com/worlds_fair/wf_tour/hall_of_nations/great_britain</ref>, <ref target=""page/n1/mode/2up"">https://archive.org/stream/ldpd_11290477_000#page/n1/mode/2up</ref>). The static diorama was a key visual strategy that distinguished colonized Africans from its white Commonwealth citizens, also on display.  Visitors will be able to compare the 1964/65 professional dance performances with those that took place at the 1939/49 Midway where they were framed as exotic, marginal entertainments.</p>
               <p>The interpretive experience provides an associated website that contains contemporary accounts, academic essays, archival media, and exhibition content.  The website will also provide an opportunity to upload personal oral histories of the Fairs (cf Anderson, 2003) that will prompt them to critically reflect on the relationship of the historic Fairs and contemporary life.</p>
              </div>                  
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Anderson, D.</hi> (2003).  Visitors Long-term Memories of World Exhibitions. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Curator: The Museum Journal, </hi><hi rend=""bold"">46</hi>(4): 401-20. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Benedict, B.</hi> (1991). International Exhibitions and National Identity. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Anthropology Today,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(3): 5-9.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Benedict, B.</hi> (1981).  
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Anthropology of Worlds Fairs.</hi> Scolar Press. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Clark, L.</hi> (2011). Parental Mediation Theory for the Digital Age.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communication Theory</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(4): 323–43. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2011.01391.x.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Clasen, W. </hi>(1968). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Expositions, Exhibits, Industrial and Trade Fairs.</hi> New York: Praeger. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Corn, J. J. and Horrigan, B. </hi>(1984). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Yesterday’s Tomorrows: Past Visions of the American Future.</hi> Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Corn, J.J. ed.</hi> (1986).  
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Imagining Tomorrow: History, Technology, and the American Future.</hi> Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Eco, U. </hi>(1986).  A Theory of Expositions.  In Umberto Eco, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Travels in Hyperreality</hi>. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, pp. 291-307. 
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Garn, A., Antonelli, et al.</hi> (Eds.) (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Exit to Tomorrow: World’s Fair Architecture, Design, Fashion 1933-2005</hi>. New York: Universe Publishing. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Geppert, A. C. T., Coffey, J. and Lau, T.</hi> (2016). International Exhibitions, Expositions Universelles and World’s Fairs, 1851-2005, <hi rend=""italic"">A Bibliography</hi>. http://www.csufresno.edu/library/subjectresources/specialcollections/worldfairs/ExpoBibliography3e d.pdf (accessed 2 January 2016).</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gordon, T.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Global Villages: The Globalization of Ethnic Display. </hi>Tourist Gaze Productions, 58 mins.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Greenhalgh, P.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Fair World: A History of World’s Fairs and Expositions from London to Shanghai 1851-2010</hi>. London: Papadakis Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Herbst, I., et al.</hi> (2008).<hi rend=""italic""> TimeWarp: Interactive Time Travel with a Mobile Mixed Reality Game</hi>. Paper presented at MobileHCI 2008, Amsterdam.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Hollengreen, LH., et al. </hi>(Eds.) (2014) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Meet Me at The Fair: A World’s Fair Reader</hi>. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Mellon ETC Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Land, N.</hi> (2011). <hi rend=""italic""> Neomodernity</hi>. Urban Future 22. </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Lave, J. and Wenger, E.</hi> (1991). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation</hi>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Lorini, A.</hi> (1999). International Expositions in Chicago and Atlanta: Rituals of Progress and Reconciliation. In Lorini, A.  
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Rituals of Race: American Public Culture and the Search for Racial Democracy</hi>. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, pp. 33-75. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Lukas, S.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Immersive Worlds Handbook: Designing Theme Parks and Consumer Spaces.</hi> New York, NY: Focal Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Lukas, S. ed.,</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Themed Space: Locating Culture, Nation, and Self</hi>. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Marchand, R. </hi>(1991). Corporate Imagery and Popular Education: World’s Fairs and Expositions in the United States, 1893-1940.  In David E. Nye and Carl Pedersen (Eds.),  
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Consumption and American Culture.</hi> Amsterdam VU University Press, pp. 18-33.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Marchand, R. </hi>(1995). The Designers Go to the Fair, I: Walter Dorwin Teague and the Professionalization of Corporate Industrial Exhibits, 1933-1940; The Designers Go to the Fair, II: Norman Bel Geddes, the General Motors “Futurama,” and the Visit-to-the-Factory Transformed.  In Doordan, Dennis (ed.) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Design History: An Anthology</hi>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 89-121. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Peneda, E. </hi>(2014). Present Tense, Future Perfect: Protest & Progress at the 1964 World's Fair.  
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Appendix </hi><hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(3): 118-26. 
                        <ref target=""http://theappendix.net/issues/2014/7/present-tense-future-perfect-protest-and-progress-at-the-1964-worlds-fair"">http://theappendix.net/issues/2014/7/present-tense-future-perfect-protest-and-progress-at-the-1964-worlds-fair</ref>.  (accessed 1 February 2015)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rydell, R. W.</hi> (1984). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">All the World’s a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916</hi>. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rydell, R. W. </hi>(1993). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">World of Fairs: The Century-of-Progress Expositions.</hi> Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rydell, R. W. and Gwinn, N. E.</hi> (Eds.) (1994). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Fair Representations: World’s Fairs and the Modern World.</hi> Amsterdam: VU University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rydell, R. W. </hi>(1999). “Darkest Africa”: African Shows at America’s World’s Fairs, 1893-1940. In Lindfors, B. (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Africans on Stage: Studies in Ethnological Show Business. </hi>Bloomington: Indiana University Press/Cape Town, pp. 135-55. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rydell, R. W., Findling, J. E. and  Pelle, K. D.</hi> (2000).
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Fair America: World’s Fairs in the United States.</hi> Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Samuel, L.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The End of the Innocence: The 1964-65 NY World’s Fair</hi>. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sorensen, C.</hi> (1989). Theme Parks and Time Machines. In Vergo, P. (Ed). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The New Museology</hi>.  London: Reaktion Books, pp. 60-73. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Stanley, N.</hi> (1998). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Being Ourselves for You: The Global Display of Cultures</hi>. Middlesex University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Takeuchi, L., et al.</hi> (2011). “The New Coviewing.” 
                        <ref target=""http://www.joanganzcooneycenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/JGC_CoViewing_iPadPrint.pdf"">http://www.joanganzcooneycenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/JGC_CoViewing_iPadPrint.pdf</ref>. (accessed 3 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Tirella, J.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Tomorrow-Land: The 1964-65 World’s Fair and the Transformation of America. </hi>Guilford, CT: Lyons Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Vygotsky, L.</hi> (1978). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes</hi>. Harvard University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Walters, L </hi>(2014).  The Japan Pavilion at the 1964/65 New York World’s Fair: A Vision of the Near Future.  In Hollengreen, LH., Pearce, C., Rouse, R., Schweizer, B., (Eds.). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Meet Me at The Fair: A World’s Fair Reader</hi>. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Mellon ETC Press, pp. 467-72.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Wingfield </hi>(2011). <hi rend=""italic"">Whispering Column of Jerash</hi>. New York Public Library Blog.  
                        <ref target=""http://www.nypl.org/blog/2011/10/24/whispering-column-jerash"">http://www.nypl.org/blog/2011/10/24/whispering-column-jerash</ref> (accessed 27 January 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Winner, L.</hi> (1991). An Alternative Worlds Fair Could Playfully Debunk Myths about Technological Progress. <hi rend=""italic"">Technology Review,</hi> 94. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Yovcheva, Z., Buhalis, D. and Gatzidis, C. </hi>(2013). Engineering Augmented Tourism Experiences. In L. Cantoni, and Z. Xiang (Eds.), <hi rend=""italic"">Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2013</hi>, pp. 24-36. Heidelberg: Springer.</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2469","17","An Islamic Manuscript Database as a Network of Objects","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>The ISMI project</head>
                <p>The Islamic Scientific Manuscripts Initiative (ISMI) is a project by the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science and the Institute of Islamic Studies at McGill University in Montreal to collect and make accessible information on all Islamic manuscripts in the exact sciences (astronomy, mathematics, optics, mathematical geography, music, mechanics, and related disciplines), whether in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, or other languages ranging in time from the 8th to the 19th century. Since 2007 the project has collected information on over 4000 texts existing in 14500 witnesses in 7500 codices, as well as information on over 2000 persons. A preliminary website with a subset of information on 130 codices is already available online (
                    <ref target=""https://ismi.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/"">https://ismi.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de</ref>).
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""620/1000020100000503000003A4BF3756324FD67B89.png""/>
                        <head>
                            <lb/>Figure 1: Online view of codex Peterman I 674 (Staatsbibliothek Berlin)
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>The project's goal is to create a catalogue database of all relevant manuscripts and record as much information on these manuscripts as available. The collected data contains basic bibliographic information but also paleographic and codicological information, and also information about the content of the texts and information about the uses of the manuscript and its users.</p>
                <p>The manuscripts sometimes and notes and colophons providing information about the reading of a text or the use of a text in teaching, about sponsors and the acquisition and ownership of the manuscripts over time. With this information the database not only provides a powerful bibliographical research tool for scholars in the field, but also helps to answer questions pertaining to the historical and social context of knowledge like: Was the author working as an isolated individual or as part of a scientific group? Was this a well-known text? Did it influence subsequent workers in the field? Was it studied at a court or in a school?</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>A manuscript database</head>
                <p>Cataloging old manuscripts is already a task that overwhelms standard bibliographical databases. There is the problem of anonymous authors at the same time as a proliferation of authors with the same or similar names. The integration of information from different sources is made difficult by libraries changing the names of their collections and their numbering systems or libraries themselves being incorporated or centralized into other institutions. Adding to that are the problems of handling of Arabic writing and the multitude of slightly different Arabic romanization systems.</p>
                <p>Other requirements also arose in the project early on: for example the need to record and present outdated information. In many cases authorship information has been misattributed widely and for long times so that scholars coming to the database looking for specific information may search under a wrong name or assume the database to be in error unless the common misattribution is also presented with arguments of why the old information is superseded.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Manuscripts as network of objects</head>
                <p>The database development started in 2006 with a new data model based on the idea of a network of flexible objects and relations. Objects can have arbitrary attributes which are text strings. The relations between objects are also like objects and also have attributes.</p>
                <p>The objects are things like an abstract 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">TEXT</hi>, a concrete 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">WITNESS</hi> and a real or imaginary 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">PERSON</hi> while relations like 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">is_exemplar_of</hi> connect a text and its witnesses and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">was_created_by</hi> connects the texts and a person as its author. The same person can at the same time also be connected to other witnesses as a copyist or as a sponsor.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""620/100002010000062900000314FEDB17B52F9A525F.png""/>
                        <head>
                            <lb/>Figure 2: Data model showing relations between text, witness, person and codex objects.
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>The flexible nature of the relations made it easy to introduce new relation types as it became necessary in the research process, for example to record the documented reading of a manuscript or the misattribution of authorship.</p>
                <p>This concept of a network of objects with flexible relations, also called an attribute-graph exists in database products like Neo4J today but those were not available in 2006 which led to the development of a custom database called ""OpenMind"". The database software is Open Source, written in Java, uses a conventional SQL database backend and a Web-based frontend.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Challenges of networked data</head>
                <p>The network-like structure of data in the database makes it easy to add new relation types or new attributes to objects while at the same time making it more difficult to create simple forms for entering data for things that are composed of multiple objects in the data model. A form for a manuscript for example not only creates a witness object but also creates relations to a text object, multiple person objects, codex, collection, library and place objects, creating those objects if they do not exist.</p>
                <p>Visualising and querying such networks of data objects is also a new challenge where few established tools and concepts exist. Data can be projected into conventional tools like tables and spreadsheets researchers may be familiar with but these do not exploit the full potential of existing relations. Network visualisation tools and methods on the other hand make if often difficult to browse and search for specific items and require a careful selection of semantically relevant relations for the application of standard graph-theoretical measures.</p>
                <p>The project currently explores different tools and methods and gathered input from expert scholars in the field in a workshop in February 2016 to be presented at the conference.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ragep, Jamil F., and Sally P. Ragep.</hi> (2008). The Islamic Scientific Manuscript Initiative (ISMI) Towards a Sociology of the Exact Sciences in Islam. 
                        In Calvo E., Comes M., Puig R., and Rius M. (eds.), <hi rend=""italic"">A Shared Legacy: Islamic Science East and West. Homage to Professor J. M. Millàs Vallicrosa</hi>, Barcelona: University of Barcelona, pp. 15–21. 
                        <ptr target=""https://www.rasi.mcgill.ca/ISMI_SharedLegacy.pdf""/>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2470","17","Approaches to Thematic Classification for Latin Epic","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Background and Motivation</head>
                <p>It has long been understood that Greek and Roman epic poems partake of a shared repertory of stock themes and typical scenes: the catalogue of heroes, the warrior arming for battle, the tempest, etc. These themes originally evolved under circumstances peculiar to oral-formulaic composition in archaic Greece, where they served the exigencies of real-time composition in performance by organizing poetic material into mnemonic chunks, each with a predictable internal structure (Rubin, 1995; Minchin, 2001). For later, literate Greeks, and still later for the Romans, who continued to develop the epic tradition, the use of these themes was no longer an aide to memory, but a complex intertextual gesture that formed one of the defining features of the genre (De Jong, 2014; Nünlist, 2009).</p>
                <p>The study of elemental, thematic building-blocks in epic and related genres has a long history, through the twentieth century and even earlier, including work by Claude Levi-Strauss, Milman Parry, and Vladimir Propp. While catalogues and typologies of epic themes exist (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">e.g.</hi>, Edwards, 1992), at the same time significant disagreement remains over their definition and delineation. Here we take first steps towards automated detection of theme in epic, defining features that target scene-sized samples of text under in bag-of-words model, and applying both unsupervised and supervised classification methods.
                </p>
                <p>Our research is on intertextuality in Latin epics of the Flavian period, and in particular the ways in which an intertextual relationship at the thematic level can support or undermine specific verbal allusions at the sentence or phrase level. The ability to automatically detect text reuse in Latin epic at the scale of individual verse lines is provided by tools such as Tesserae (
                    <ref target=""http://tesserae.caset.buffalo.edu"">http://tesserae.caset.buffalo.edu</ref>), Musisque Deoque’s co-occurrence search (
                    <ref target=""http://www.mqdq.it/mqdq/cooccorrenze.jsp"">http://www.mqdq.it/mqdq/cooccorrenze.jsp</ref>), and eTRAP’s forthcoming TRACER framework (
                    <ref target=""http://etrap.gcdh.de"">http://etrap.gcdh.de</ref>), so that it is now conceivable to generate an exhaustive list of all such correspondences between any two texts. Yet the same efforts have shown that simple text-reuse search alone cannot capture all of the allusions noted by professional commentaries, and that sensitivity to scene-level thematic parallelism would improve both recall and precision over a model based on single verse lines or sentences (Coffee et al., 2012).
                </p>
                <p>Tesserae has in fact produced a prototype thematic search using topic modelling to create scene-level features (Scheirer et al., forthcoming). At the same time, work by the Memorata Poetis project affiliated with Musisque Deoque is carrying out systematic manual tagging of themes in Latin vernacular poetry (Ciotti et al., 2015). Both approaches—the supervised and the unsupervised identification of themes—show promise, although neither has been fully integrated into its respective parent project’s verse-level, text-reuse search tool. In the ongoing work presented here, we attempt to combine elements of each approach, comparing unsupervised, bag-of-words classifiers at the scene-level with manual tagging for specific, selected themes. Our ultimate goal is to combine similarity scores for thematic parallelism with existing phrase-level search tools’ scores for text reuse in order to improve their accuracy.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Method</head>
                <p>We consider a corpus including the three more or less complete epics of the Flavian period—Valerius Flaccus’ 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Argonautica</hi>, Statius’ 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Thebaid</hi>, and Silius Italicus’ 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Punica</hi>—as well as three earlier poems to which our works of interest respond—Lucan’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Civil War</hi>, Ovid’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Metamorphoses</hi>, and Vergil’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Aeneid</hi>. These works are initially subdivided into samples of 50 consecutive verse lines.  After lemmatization, tf-idf weighted feature vectors are calculated for each sample, dropping terms common to 50% or more of the samples, and the resulting feature set is reduced using principal components analysis to the most significant 500 components.
                </p>
                <p>The samples still show a strong tendency to cluster by author despite the removal of very frequent words. Since our goal is to examine parallel variation across authors, we attempt to remove a characteristic ‘authorship signal’ from each author’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">œuvre</hi> before classification. A mean vector representing the author is thus subtracted from every one of his samples.
                </p>
                <p>In the unsupervised approach, we then perform k-means clustering on the corpus as a whole. Because we do not have any 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">a priori </hi>set of themes to look for, we test multiple values of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">k</hi> in an attempt to identify the most stable number of clusters. For each possible value of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">k</hi>, we perform multiple repetitions and compare pairwise agreement among the resulting classifications using the adjusted Rand index. We also attempt to identify the most stable passages through comparison of error across repeated classifications using different offsets for our 50-line sampling window. For those passages most consistently classified across repetitions, we return to the text to investigate, through close reading, whether the passages indeed demonstrate meaningful similarity.
                </p>
                <p>In the supervised approach, on the other hand, we begin by identifying scenes of interest using a set of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">a priori</hi> thematic categories—for example, battle scenes and storms at sea. We then attempt to train a classifier that can distinguish these types. Earlier work on this project has shown that certain thematic contexts can be separated at a coarse scale (e.g, love versus war, generally) using principal components analysis alone; however here we will attempt to achieve finer precision using support vector machines, a popular approach in stylometric tasks and one that has previously been applied to intertextuality in Latin in particular (Forstall et al., 2011).
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results</head>
                <p>This work is ongoing, and one of our goals in presenting at DH 2016 is to elicit feedback that will help to shape the design of future experiments. At the same time, early results suggest that the supervised and unsupervised approaches may indeed meet in the middle. For example, many of the most stable passages in the unsupervised classification belong to a ‘nautical’ theme which includes as a subset the storm theme identified by human tagging. Across 100 different classifications of the six epics, using differently-offset sampling windows, the passages with the lowest rate of disagreement included characteristic descriptions of tempests in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Aeneid</hi> 1 and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Argonautica</hi> 1 (Figs. 1–2). The same class, and a high degree of stability, also marked nautical chase sequences in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Aeneid</hi> 5 and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Argonautica</hi> 8 as well as the recounting of the Argonauts’ story in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Thebaid</hi> 5.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""669/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1. Vergil’s <hi rend=""italic"">Aeneid</hi>, book 1, after k-means classification with 8 classes. The line shows disagreement between repeated re-classifications. Shaded bands at bottom show classes in one randomly-selected trial.</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""669/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2. Valerius Flaccus, <hi rend=""italic"">Argonautica</hi>, book 1, after k-means classification with 8 classes. Line shows disagreement among repeated re-classifications; shaded bands show the same classes as in Fig. 1.</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Implications</head>
                <p>The concrete goal of this project is to provide a thematic feature set for automated intertext-detection, compatible with the phrase-based results of existing tools, so that, for example, otherwise slight verbal correspondences can be promoted where they occur within thematically parallel passages and thus are likely more interesting to readers. More generally, we would like to understand how stock themes function in epic intertextuality, and whether they can indeed be sufficiently modeled using a bag-of-words approach. To the degree that they can, we can say that thematic features are in fact made of words and exist on a continuum with the word-level bigrams matched by Tesserae, for example, instead of representing ‘deeper’, semiotic structures distinct from the word forms that appear on the ‘surface’ of the text (as in, e.g., Levi-Strauss, 1955)</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ciotti, F., Mordenti, R., and Silvi, D.</hi> (2015). Thematic Annotation of Literary Text: The Case for Ontology. Paper presented at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanités Numeriques et Antiquité</hi>, Grenoble, France.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coffee, N., et al.</hi> (2012). Intertextuality in the Digital Age. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Transactions of the American Philological Association</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">142</hi>(2): 383–422.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Jong, I. J. F.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Narratology and Classics: A Practical Guide</hi>. New York: Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Edwards, M. W.</hi> (1992). Homer and Oral Tradition: The Type-Scene. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Oral Tradition</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi> (2): 284–330.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Forstall, C. W., Jacobson, S. L., and Scheirer, W. J. </hi>(2011). Evidence of intertextuality: investigating Paul the Deacon’s 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Angustae Vitae</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">26</hi> (3): 285–96.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Levi-Strauss, C.</hi> (1955). The Structural Study of Myth. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Journal of American Folklore</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">68</hi> (270): 428–44.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Minchin, E.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Homer and the Resources of Memory</hi>. New York: Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nünlist, R.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Ancient Critic at Work: Terms and Concepts of Literary Criticism in Greek Scholia.</hi> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rubin, D. C.</hi> (1995). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Memory in Oral Traditions: The Cognitive Psychology of Epic, Ballads, and Counting-out Rhymes</hi>. New York: Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Scheirer, W. J., Forstall, C. W., and Coffee, N.</hi> (forthcoming). The Sense of a Connection: Automatic Tracing of Intertextuality by Meaning. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>. First published online October 20, 2014: 10.1093/llc/fqu058.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2471","17","Automatic Detection of Characters in Case Insensitive Text in Comics","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Huge amounts of comics are being published on a daily basis. However, the textual data that are circumscribed in comics’ speech balloons and thought bubbles are highly unstructured, and very hard to automatically extract and digitize. Several automatic techniques have been used to automatically detect the shapes, sizes, and contents of speech balloons and thought bubbles leading to automatic text digitization and localisation in comics (Rigaud et al 2013; Ho et al 2012). Such advances open new horizons for a myriad of text mining applications to comics, namely, automatic indexing, searching, recommendation and visualization.</p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""554/10000000000002390000029512052689AB1D9D63.jpg""/>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>Named Entity Recognition (NER) is a task of information extraction under text mining that aims to identify in-text references to concepts such as people, locations and organizations, mainly in unstructured natural-language text. NER is very useful for text indexing, text summarization, question answering and several other tasks that enhance the experience between humans and literature.</p>
            <p>In a previous study, we developed a simple and original method of Unsupervised Named Entity Recognition and Disambiguation (UNERD) (Mosallem et al 2014) to automatically extract names of people, locations and organizations from French and English (Abi Haidar et al., 2016) newspapers. We then used the text coordinates in the ALTO XML format to automatically locate and highlight the named entities detected by UNERD on the scanned image of the newspaper (Abi Haidar et al 2014). Last, we used UNERD to detect and visualize named entities from French newspaper during the period of the first world war (Abi Haidar et al 2016).</p>
            <p>The main challenges encountered in unsupervised NER have been identified and addressed with our original UNERD method when applied on English and French newspapers and French literature. These challenges include but are not limited to named entity disambiguation, named entity boundary detection, and domain-specific dictionary attribution. In comics, in addition to the aforementioned challenges, the case-insensitive text extracted from comics adds the challenge of proper noun detection that we used to handle using POS tagging. We used TreeTagger (Shmid 2005) POS tagger to detect proper nouns, however and like other POS taggers, it works only when applied on case sensitive text.</p>
            <p>Here, we use a variation of our UNERD method to detect names of fictional characters in a  database of unstructured text from comics that has been recently digitized by our partners at the L3i Labs using an active contour model for speech balloon detection (Rigaud et al 2013). Au lieu of POS tagging for proper noun extraction, we filter stop words that constitute a 5000 word list of most frequent French words. For the dictionary, we use  the freebase dictionaries of fictional characters and characters in fiction novels from Freebase. The comics digitised data amounts to around 8000 case-insensitive words in the French language. We evaluate our method's precision by analysing the predicted character names. </p>
            <p>Out of 182 predictions of character names made by UNERD, 113 names were correctly predicted. This precision of 62% cannot be compared to that obtained in our previous results with UNERD when tested on case sensitive textual data. We also did not compute the coverage since we do not have any gold standard or any annotated data. In the table below, we see the most frequent characters that were automatically detected. The terms ‘FLIP’ and ‘HUM’ could be discarded by adding a list of onomatopoeic terms to the list of stop words thus improving precision to 68%. Our precision compares well to results presented in Cornolti's meta-study of Named Entity Recognition/Entity Linking resulting in a precision of 69% (Cornolti et al 2013).The extracted character names are then associated with page numbers to help with the automatic indexing of characters that is otherwise very costly in time and human resources. Co-occurrences of character names in the same page are used to detect dialogues or interactions between the characters. Such information, along with the mere occurrences of character names, are used by our partner, Actialuna, in order to enhance digital comics recommendation. Our method can be applied to extract entities from other case-insensitive texts by simply adapting the dictionary to the targeted text. Our results are preliminary and have been tested on a tiny database that is currently being updated.</p>
            <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Table1"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Frequency</cell>
                    <cell>Entity</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>2</cell>
                    <cell>CASTOR</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>2</cell>
                    <cell>COW-BOY</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>2</cell>
                    <cell>CYBORG</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>2</cell>
                    <cell>Doc</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>2</cell>
                    <cell>FRED</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>2</cell>
                    <cell>Keuf</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>2</cell>
                    <cell>Lamisseb</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>2</cell>
                    <cell>LET</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>2</cell>
                    <cell>LONGUE-VUE</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>2</cell>
                    <cell>PHILÉMON</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>2</cell>
                    <cell>PiLOT-BOAT</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>2</cell>
                    <cell>PRESIDENT</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>2</cell>
                    <cell>RAT</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>2</cell>
                    <cell>Stock</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>3</cell>
                    <cell>HUM</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>3</cell>
                    <cell>JEAN-MICHEL</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>3</cell>
                    <cell>JOHN</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>3</cell>
                    <cell>KID</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>3</cell>
                    <cell>LEO</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>3</cell>
                    <cell>Li</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>3</cell>
                    <cell>MIN</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>3</cell>
                    <cell>NEAR</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>3</cell>
                    <cell>NEW-YORK</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>3</cell>
                    <cell>PiLOTE</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>3</cell>
                    <cell>PIRANHA</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>3</cell>
                    <cell>Traffic</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>4</cell>
                    <cell>ACHETé</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>4</cell>
                    <cell>BILL</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>4</cell>
                    <cell>DEMON</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>4</cell>
                    <cell>DOC</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>4</cell>
                    <cell>ZiG</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>5</cell>
                    <cell>MAN</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>5</cell>
                    <cell>STEVE</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>8</cell>
                    <cell>BOY</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>8</cell>
                    <cell>CINDY</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>8</cell>
                    <cell>DOLLY</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>8</cell>
                    <cell>FLIP</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>12</cell>
                    <cell>NEMO</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>14</cell>
                    <cell>COCO</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>14</cell>
                    <cell>SUPER</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>16</cell>
                    <cell>ALFRED</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rigaud, Ch., et al.</hi> (2013). An active contour model for speech balloon detection in comics. <hi rend=""italic"">Document Analysis and Recognition (ICDAR)</hi>, 2013 12th International Conference on IEEE.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Ho, A. K. N., Burie, J.-Ch. and Ogier, J.-M.</hi> (2012). Panel and speech balloon extraction from comic books. <hi rend=""italic"">Document Analysis Systems (DAS)</hi>, 2012 10th IAPR International Workshop on IEEE.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Mosallem, Y., Abi-Haidar, A. and Ganascia, J. G.</hi> (2014). Unsupervised Named Entity Recognition and Disambiguation: An Application to Old French Journals. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of ICDM 2014</hi>. St. Petersburg, Russia.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Alaa ABI HAIDAR, Jean-Gabriel GANASCIA</hi> (2014). Mapping French Press to the Digital Age. at Digital Humanities 2014 Conference. DH 2014: 7-12 July 2014. Lausanne, Switzerland.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Alaa ABI HAIDAR, Oscar ALBERTINI, Jean-Gabriel GANASCIA</hi> (in press). A Simple yet Efficient Unsupervised Named Entity Recognition Model. Wiley’s DMKD (In Press).</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Schmid, Helmut</hi> (1995). Treetagger, a language independent part-of-speech tagger. <hi rend=""italic"">Institut für Maschinelle Sprachverarbeitung, Universität Stuttgart</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">43</hi>: 28.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Cornolti, Marco, Paolo Ferragina, and Massimiliano Ciaramita</hi> (2013). A framework for benchmarking entity-annotation systems. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 22nd international conference on World Wide Web. International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee</hi>, 2013.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Alaa Abi-Haidar, Bin Yang, Jean-Gabriel Ganascia</hi> (2016). Mapping the First World War Using Interactive Streamgraphs. <hi rend=""italic"">Sociology and Anthropology</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>: 12-16.</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2472","17","Automatic quotation detection in Russian nonfiction texts","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p rend=""normal"">
                <anchor xml:id=""h.gjdgxs""/>Introduction
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">We present work in progress to automatically extract quotation constructions. We claim that it is possible to infer markers that introduce quotation even for the languages without grammaticalized reported speech forms. The object of our study is not the quotation itself, but the canonical context of quotation. We rely on the concept of context as 
                <hi rend=""background(white)"">a term with a “hole” (Gabbay and Lengrand, 2008)</hi>. The context with a quotation as filling for the 
                <hi rend=""background(white)"">“hole”</hi> has formal features, which we consider as parameters of quotation canon in terms of the canonical typology (
                <hi rend=""color(282828) background(white)"">Corbett et. al, 2012)</hi>. We specialize in direct written quotations, which can be distinguished by the reader exactly because of its heterogenity.
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">We used semi-supervised machine learning techniques to discover contribution of individual predictors to the quotation distribution in Russian nonfiction texts and to build a working prototype of quotation classifier. The classifier does not need any particular text corpora on the final stage, using it only as training data. It predicts probability of sentence to contain a quotation with accuracy of 85%. The objective of the research is to create a machine-learned model that would distinguish between citations and non-citations and arrange the quotation boundaries. The paper presents such a model trained on Russian data. As a result importance of different contextual features can be measured.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Our model can be used both by scholars and by ordinary readers, unaware of intertextuality issues, and our achievements are undoubtedly useful for a wider class of problems, identifying heterogeneous fragments in the text.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">2 Dataset</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">The material for the training sample is based on the dictionary of Russian literary quotations (Dushenko, 2005) and on the corpora of Russian nonfiction texts from the web-project “Zhurnal’ny Zal” (ZZ) (
                <ref target=""http://magazines.russ.ru/"">
                    <hi rend=""color(1155CC)"">http://magazines.russ.ru/</hi>
                </ref>). We formed 24761 search queries and extracted approximately 1200 sentences, containing quotations from the dictionary and 1200 sentences without any of them. Semi-automatic filtering of false quotative sentences and correcting of quotations boundaries gave us the training corpora of 1000 quotation sentences with the correct boundaries, 1000 sentences without any quotations and 1000 examples of quotative sentences with false borders. At the machine learning stage we divided it to two complementary sets for training and testing respectively.
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">3 Features</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">We define overt quotation markers as the most relevant context features for identifying the quote. We examined these features in the tagged corpora and built a logistic regression model, providing us with the most significant markers and their combinations (pic. 1):</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""662/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p rend=""normal"">(pic. 1)</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">That allowed us to exclude the most unimportant features from our final model.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">4 Model</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">The main learning property of the Binary Machine was distinguishing between the presence and absence of a particular marker in certain parts of a sentence. Thus, we built two classifiers:</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">1) dividing the examples into quotative and non-quotative;</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">2) pointing out the quotation boundaries.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">The final response was based on the cumulative response of the two classifiers. The first machine would give a positive response with a probability 0.7 and more, whereas the second classifier would activate choosing the most relevant hypothesis out of the potential set of quotation boundaries. Support Vector Machines method is commonly applied for classification tasks. We used a modification of this method, Support Vector Classification, because it 
                <hi rend=""bold color(6A6A6A) background(white)"">gives</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(545454) background(white)""> a </hi>
                <hi rend=""bold color(6A6A6A) background(white)"">best fit</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(545454) background(white)""> to our binary data type.</hi>
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">5 Results</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">The two classifiers have shown positive results with the quotation classifier accuracy of 0.86 and borders classifier accuracy of 0.83. </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">The greatest confidence in the quotativeness of the fragment results from the presence of the quotation marks. Without them the precision of the evaluations decreases, but not critically. What is important is that our model is not oriented to the quotation marks, the most obvious marker, it analyses all the relevant features in the sentence. For example, for the quotative sentence with overt quotation marks (pic. 2) probability was estimated as 99%, and the same sentence with cut quotation marks was evaluated as 98% quotative. </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">
                <graphic url=""662/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>(pic.2)
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">The final version of the program allows one to automatically mark quotes in an untagged text with the permissible share of errors. It works best with nonfiction texts and operates either plain text, or group of texts, or one sentence. Also it can be re-learned on the following set of interchangeable input data for 
                <hi rend=""bold color(6A6A6A) background(white)"">training</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(545454) background(white)""> sample</hi>: the set of relevant quotation parameters, a list of standard quotations and group of texts for context-mining. We expect this method to be rather flexible and applicable to other text corpora.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold color(282828) background(white)"">Corbett et. al</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(282828) background(white)""> (2012). Canonical morphosyntactic features. In Dunstan Brown, Marina Chumakina and Greville G. Corbett (eds.), </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic color(282828) background(white)"">Canonical morphology and syntax</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(282828) background(white)"">, 48-65. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gabbay </hi>(2008). Gabbay M. J., Lengrand S. The λ-context calculus //Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science. – Т. 196. – С. 19-35.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dushenko</hi> (2015). Citaty iz russkoj literatury: 5200 citat ot «Slova o polku.» do nashih dnej.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">ZZ. </hi>“Zhurnal'nyj zal”, 
                        <ref target=""http://magazines.russ.ru/"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://magazines.russ.ru/</hi>
                        </ref>. (accessed on 2016–03–06).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2473","17","Big Data and the Study of Allusion: an Exploration of Tesserae's Multitext Capability","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This paper aims to explore the methodology and the potential of the “multi-text tool,” an advanced feature of the Tesserae Project. This tool is capable of identifying potentially interesting textual parallels between works, and collating all instances of these and similar phrases throughout the entire corpus of canonical Latin or Greek. As such it expands the researcher's ability to identify meaningful intertexts among Tesserae results, and makes it possible to quantify the literary influences which act upon a given work.</p>
            <p>Tesserae is an online tool that aims to automatically identify allusions and more general forms of intertext between ancient authors. The program can identify specific intertexts between two works, as in previous research which has brought to light new parallels between Lucan's 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Bellum Civile</hi> and Vergil's 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Aeneid</hi>. A standard Tesserae search identifies a possible intertext when the same words (regardless of inflection) appear within the same phrase in two different texts. This 'bigram' measurement of similarity has been demonstrated to capture roughly 67% of intertexts previously noted in scholarship. The multitext function begins with a standard two-text Tesserae comparison; all bigrams shared between the two texts are then compared to a corpus of additional works selected by the user.
            </p>
            <p>Although the first aim of most Tesserae users is to discover previously unnoted allusions, not all bigram similarities discovered by a Tesserae search are allusions. The program's scoring algorithm attempts to sort the meaningful intertexts sought by the researcher from undesired, coincidental overlap by considering the rarity of the shared words and their proximity to one another. This method has shown to be at least partially effective, yet it does not fully predict the assesment of the expert researcher. Because Tesserae results can number in the tens of thousands, further means of identifying desirable intertexts is necessary, particularly when the number of results is expanded by new search features such as semantic matching, introduced in October 2015. Tesserae's multitext search can be used to trace the history of a phrase throughout the corpus, and thereby eliminate oft-repeated bigrams. This method assumes that phrases appearing in many previous works are less likely to represent allusions.</p>
            <p>In addition to identifying new allusions between two works, intertextual scholars often wish to measure the rate of connection between them. The level of active engagement between authors suggests the literary influence of a given work, and we propose a way to quanitfy this engagement. Using the multitext tool, the researcher can eliminate all widely-occuring textual parallels between potentially connected works and retain only unique results, then consider the rate of unique intertextuality against a baseline figure. Unlike the micro-level analysis of individual textual parallels, this macro-level analysis allows the reader to examine the intertextuality between works as a whole. </p>
            <p>Our preliminary research shows that specific textual parallels with a large number of multitext results tend to indicate the use of generalized language rather than a meaningful communication between works. For example, Augustine’s language in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">De Doctrina Christiana</hi> bears measureable resemblance to the language of Quintilian, Cicero, and Tacitus. Yet scholars have long argued that Augustine’s primary influence was Cicero. Our multitexts results show Augustine’s engagement with Cicero include a large percentage of “unique” intertexts, seldom picked up by other authors. His connections to other authors were mostly composed of “general” intertexts, which appear to consist of standard language used by almost all Latin writers engaged in the discussion of rhetoric. The same method has been previously used to examine Claudian's differential level of interaction with the various authors of Latin epic. The examples of Claudian and Augustine demonstrate the efficacy of unique intertextual connections as a measurement of relative literary engagement.
            </p>
            <p>Although the elimination of oft-repeated language is effective for eliminating meaningless intertexts when considering works at the macro-scale, the scholar in pursuit of specific, meaningful intertexts should not eliminate these parallels. Sometimes a phrase with a large number of multi-texts results is actually more significant than one with fewer multi-text results. Certain phrases are quoted and alluded to so often that they become “viral.” These instances do tend to apply in cases where a Tesserae match is ranked particularly high, but it ultimately remains the responsibility of the reader to sort meaningful intertexts from coincidental ones. </p>
            <p>The multi-text tool expands the potential big-data research in the field of Classics, allowing for quantitative stylistic analysis at a rate of speed and a level of specificity previously impossible. It is an essential addition to the basic matching of the Tesserae Project, and we hope to see it become an element of digital humanities programs in various academic curricula. From specific analyses of sets of texts to more comprehensive explorations of style, the multi-text tool should be a fundamental resource in the study of allusion in Latin literature. In addition to demonstrating the efficacy of this tool, in this paper we explain how to use the results generated by a multi-text search to build an empirical measurement of authorial engagement, beginning with how to run the module on a personal computer and concluding with how to meaningfully analyze its results and tailor its parameters for individual projects.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coffee, N. et al.</hi> (2012). The Tesserae Project: Intertextual Analysis of Latin Poetry. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(1): 221-28. doi: 10.1093/llc/fqs033.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coffee, N. et al.</hi> Modeling the Interpretation of Literary Allusion with Machine Learning Techniques. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coffee, N. and Forstall, C.</hi> (forthcoming). Claudian’s Engagement with Lucan in his Historical and Mythological Hexameters. In Berlincourt, V., Galli-Milic, L. and Nelis, D. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lucain et Claudien face à face: une poésie politique entre épopée, histoire et panégyrique</hi>. Winter Verlag.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Conley, T. M.</hi> (1990). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Rhetoric in the European Tradition</hi>. New York: Longman.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>                        
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Murphy, J. J.</hi> (1960). Saint Augustine and the Debate about a Christian Rhetoric. In Enos, R. L. and Thompson, R. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Rhetoric of St. Augustine of Hippo: De Doctrina Christiana and the Search for a Distinctly Christian Rhetoric.</hi> Waco: Baylor University Press, pp. 205-17.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Forstall, C. et al.</hi> (2015). Modeling the Scholars: Detecting Intertextuality through Enhanced Word-Level N-Gram Matching. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, doi: 10.1093/llc/fqu014.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gawley, J., Forstall, C. and Coffee, N.</hi> Evaluating the literary significance of text re-use in Latin poetry, <hi rend=""italic""> Poster presented at Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science</hi>, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL. November, pp. 17-19.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2474","17","Bringing Migration Data Into Context Using Digital Computational Methods","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Preparing sources for historical research usually requires making many heterogeneous collections digitally accessible and linking them to compose a multi-faceted and multi-layered resource that supports both distant reading and close reading forms of analysis. In the lifecycle of historical information – a model introduced in 2004 - the Dutch DH-experts Boonstra, Breure and Doorn emphasize three points that should be kept in mind by e-science experts and researchers alike to keep historical information systems alive and useful: durability, usability and modeling (Boonstra et al., 2006: 22). </p>
                <p>Timbuctoo, developed at the Huygens ING, offers a system that makes it possible to model and store heterogeneous data but also incrementally enrich and link the data. Furthermore, it also offers facilities to document the provenance of all data as well as all steps in data editing, extraction and linking data. These features are vital for historical research in which researchers need to be able to exert 'source criticism' and go back to the original source or data at all times (Ockeloen et al., 2013).</p>
                <p>We will demonstrate the solution Timbuctoo offers with the Migrant, Mobilities and Connection project as a use case, because of its complex and multiple links to datasets from a myriad of cultural heritage institutions (archives, libraries and museums) on several levels.</p>
                <p>The main focus of the Migrant project is on the life courses of the migrants. Starting from the limited core data from a connection between (digitized) Dutch emigrant cards and Australian immigration files, the life courses will be elaborated using in depth-analysis of these and other collections. It is important to note that for the purpose of the Migrant project that life courses not only comprise dates and birth, marriage, migration, education and employment but also extend to the interactions of migrants with all sorts of institutions in the Netherlands and Australia and their representatives. The database therefore enables us to analyse and compare the evolution of a multitude of social networks (Arthur et al. (submitted); Van Faassen, 2014a, 2014b).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Migration files as a multi-layer resource</head>
                <p>The Migrant, Mobilities and Connection project focuses on the Dutch-Australian post World-War II migration from the Netherlands to Australia. Like all migrants these 180,000 people have left many traces in different cultural heritage collections ranging from (supra) government archives to the photo and memorabilia collections of the migrant families themselves and anything in between. These collections are dispersed over different countries. A lot of the collections are available in a digital form or will be digitized in the future, but like all historical collections they contain partially structured information and partially unstructured information that needs to be made accessible for further analysis. In elaborating the data we will use a variety of methods ranging from computer assisted data extraction and linking of a large collection of life events to hand editing of handwritten registration cards and personal migrant files. From an analytic perspective all these collections and edited data can be seen as different layers that need to be accommodated by the data store in which they are kept (Hoekstra and Nijenhuis, 2012).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Timbuctoo</head>
                <p>Timbuctoo is a data repository system aimed at humanities research with the aim of linking together datasets containing structured information concerning people, places and organisations without actually merging them to facilitate scientific analysis and discussion.</p>
                <p>To accomplish this it defines a number of primitive types that describe entities that all researchers agree on, such as the afore mentioned persons, places, organisations as well as works, languages, concepts and events. Each research project that makes use of the repository can extend the primitive types with extra fields. On top of that the repository has the ability to store multiple viewpoints on the same entity. In this way, researchers become aware of the different or sometimes even conflicting assumptions about entities, fueling scholarly debates in a conceptual way. Timbuctoo also support versioning and provenance. To make it clear on which information the results are based every change made to the data should have information who made the change, when the change was made and for what reason the change was made. The user interface, analysis and visualization are completely separated from the storage of the data. All services are coupled using REST (Fielding, 2000) APIs. The software is freely available under an open source license (GPL 3) and is published on Github.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Information extraction</head>
                <p>During the project data will be added, edited and analysed continuously. As indicated above, at the beginning of the project the data consists of migration information contained in cards, files and information of governance agencies. Apart from the core information already available in a simple database, the cards and files contain much more information that must be digitized to be able to use it for analysis. In the course of the project, a lot of other materials from archives, libraries and other collections from different cultural heritage institutions will be added to the Timbuctoo database. Some of the information will be structured, but most is contained in typed or handwritten files and in images. The aim of information extraction is to extract structured information from unstructured information.</p>
                <p>For the elaboration of this wealth of materials we will use an eclectic mix of editing and information extracting methods. Previously, hand editing was the only option for these types of materials, but in light of the amount of material that will be collected, all computer assisted information extraction that is possible will contribute to the database and help analysis. </p>
                <p>To automate this process the data needs to be stored in such a way that a context can be build. The computer can search for patterns and suggest links to data already present in the network or calculate statistics to point out interesting or unusual things in the dataset. To begin with, an algorithm needs to be made to link the Dutch and Australian records together. Note that the system should not actually merge the records. Data about persons can be linked together based on (for example) familyname, year and place of birth and indeed all other types of structured information available such as migration date, migration scheme, ship with which they travelled or still very different data depending on the source and the context.</p>
                <p>Other examples of computer assisted data extraction include the recognition of certain keywords in the facsimile or transcriptions. Researchers can add or edit information manually through the user interface, either manually or using algorithms. Automatic information extraction should suggest relations between different records or entities, but never actually enforce those changes on the researcher.</p>
                <p>We started out to build Timbuctoo with the problem of the large variety of heterogeneous data sources that our institute produced in the course of a hundred years of classical and some twenty-five years of digital source editing and publishing. The use case of the Migrant, Mobilities and Connection project, with data about thousands of personal migrant stories scattered all over the world and its myriad of policy files on national and supranational levels recorded in different datasets, demonstrates the different features of Timbuctoo.</p>
                <p>First, Timbuctoo is used as a repository where researchers as well as automatic tools such as parsers store all the heterogeneous data and the relations between it. Since all the data is versioned and provenance information is recorded, it is always clear where the data originates from. Second, Timbuctoo serves as a data source for researchers and parsers. Named entity recognition tools can use all the available names of places, organisations and persons as training data. Researchers can do queries on certain properties and do statistical analysis on the results to either find outliers or confirm or refute a hypothesis on a larger scale in more varied ways than previously possible. Finally, being a graph database, Timbuctoo is a research tool that enables researchers to infer indirect relations from the numerous direct relations in the repository. This makes it possible to perform complex queries and conduct network analysis and visualization. These three features combined enable researchers to discover unexpected phenomena that can lead to new research and methodological questions.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Arthur, P., et al.</hi> (2015 submitted). Migrating People, Migrating Data. <hi rend=""italic"">Digital approaches to migrant heritage (manuscript)</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boonstra, O., Breure, L. and Doorn, P. </hi>(2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Past, present and future of historical information science</hi>. Amsterdam: DANS.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Faassen, M. van</hi> (2014a). <hi rend=""italic"">Polder en emigratie. Het Nederlandse emigratiebestel in internationaal perspectief 1945-1967</hi>. The Hague: Huygens ING.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Faassen, M. van</hi> (2014b). <hi rend=""italic"">Naoorlogs emigratiebeleid in Nederland 1945-1967</hi>, The Hague: Huygens ING ( 
                        <ptr target=""http://resources.huygens.knaw.nl/emigratie""/>).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fielding, R. T.</hi> (2000) Architectural Styles and the Design of Network-based Software Architectures, <hi rend=""italic"">Doctoral Dissertation</hi>. University of California.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoekstra, R. and Nijenhuis, I.J.A.</hi> (2012). Enhanced Access for a Paper World, conference paper for 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Editing Fundamentals: Historical and Literary Paradigms in Source Editing. Ninth Annual Conference of the European Society for Textual Scholarship. </hi>Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ockeloen, N., et al.</hi> (2013). 
                        <ref target=""http://linkedscience.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/paper7.pdf"">BiographyNet: Managing Provenance at multiple levels and from different perspectives.</ref> In:
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Workshop on Linked Science (LiSC) at ISWC 2013</hi>, Sydney, Australia, October 2013.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2475","17","Climate Negotiation Analysis","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Text analysis methods based on word co-occurrence have yielded useful results in humanities and social sciences research. For instance, Venturini et al., (2012) describe the use of concept co-occurrence networks in social sciences. Grimmer and Stewart (2013) survey clustering and topic modeling applied to political science corpora. Whereas these methods provide a useful overview of a corpus, they cannot determine the predicates
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text"">
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Predicate</hi> in the sense of an expression relating a set of arguments.
                        </p>
                    </note> relating co-occurring elements with each other. For instance, if 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">France</hi> and the phrase 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">binding commitments</hi> co-occur within a sentence, how are both elements related? Is France in favour of, or against 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">binding commitments</hi>?
                </p>
                <p>Different natural language processing (NLP) technologies can identify related elements in text, and the predicates relating them. A recent approach is 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">open relation extraction</hi> (Mausam et al., 2012, among others), where relations are derived from the corpus in a data-driven manner, without having to pre-specify a vocabulary of predicates or actors. We are developing a workflow to analyze the Earth Negotiations Bulletin (vol. 12)
                    <anchor xml:id=""Ref434091966""/>
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.iisd.ca/vol12</p>
                    </note>, which summarizes international climate negotiations. A sentence in this corpus can contain several verbal or nominal predicates indicating support and opposition (see Table 1). Results were uneven when applying open relation extraction tools to this corpus. To address these challenges, we developed a workflow with a domain model, and analysis rules that exploit annotations for semantic roles and pronominal anaphora, provided by an NLP pipeline.
                </p>
                <p>Our system identifies points supported and opposed by negotiating actors and extracts keyphrases and DBpedia
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> wiki.dbpedia.org (Auer et al., 2007)</p>
                    </note> concepts from those points. The results are displayed on an interface, allowing for a comparison of different actors’ positions. The system helps address a current need in digital humanities: tools for the quantitative analysis of textual structures beyond word co-occurrence.
                </p>
                <p>The abstract is structured as follows. First, related work and the corpus are presented. Then, our system is described. Finally, evaluation is discussed. </p>
                <p>Material supplementing the paper and access information to the system will be available on the project’s website.
                    <anchor xml:id=""Ref434095322""/>
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> https://sites.google.com/site/nlp4climate</p>
                    </note>
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""357/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Table : 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Typical corpus sentences</hi>. Sentence 1 has predicates 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">supported</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">opposed</hi>, with several actors each. Example 2 shows a nominal predicate (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">proposal</hi>). For Sentence 1, five 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">‹actor, predicate, negotiation point›</hi> propositions are extracted by the system, and the opposing actors (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">China, Malaysia, Bhutan</hi>) are assigned a proposition which is a negated version (with 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">~supported</hi> as the predicate) of the proposition for the main verb 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">supported</hi>.
                    </head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Related work</head>
                <p>Venturini et al., (2014) created concept co-occurrence networks for the ENB corpus, using Cortext Manager
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://docs.cortext.net</p>
                    </note>, a corpus cartography tool. This analysis does not cover which predicates relate concepts and actors. Salway et al., (2014) used 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">grammar induction</hi> on ENB to identify recurrent actor/predicate patterns; it could be tested whether results with that approach complement ours. 
                </p>
                <p>Some studies have used syntactic and semantic parsing for text-analysis of social sciences and humanities corpora. Diesner (2012, 2014) examines the contribution of NLP to the construction of text-based networks. Van Atteveldt (2015) used dependency parsing to apply co-occurrence based methods within sentence elements related to an actor or a predicate. These studies rely mostly on syntactic dependencies and verbal predicates. We are using semantic role labeling as the basis for relation extraction, and treating nominal predicates besides verbal ones. We also developed an interface to navigate the results.</p>
                <p>Finally, a relevant resource for text-mining on climate corpora is 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">climatetagger</hi> API
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> API: http://api.climatetagger.net ; Thesaurus: http://www.climatetagger.net/glossary/ </p>
                    </note>, which links concepts against a domain-specific thesaurus (Bauer et al., 2011). This thesaurus could complement our concept-linking results (based on DBpedia, a general ontology).
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Corpus</head>
                <p>Each ENB issue is a 2000 word summary for one day of negotiations. The issues are written by domain experts, who strive for an objective tone and, to avoid biases, use similar expressions when reporting about all participants’ interventions (Venturini et al., 2014). The COP meetings are covered in 255 ENB issues, with ca. 35,000 sentences. The original corpus format is HTML, which we preprocessed into clean text. We dated each issue based on ENB’s table of contents.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>System description</head>
                <p>The system helps analyze patterns of support and opposition between negotiating parties, and the issues about which parties agree or disagree. To achieve this, the system extracts propositions of shape 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">‹actor, predicate, negotiation point›</hi>,
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Terminology adopted: 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">‹Norway, preferred, legally-binding commitments›</hi> is a proposition, with actor 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Norway</hi>, predicate 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">preferred</hi> and 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">legally-binding commitments </hi>as the negotiation point.
                        </p>
                    </note> based on a domain model containing actors and predicates, and applying analysis rules on the outputs of an NLP toolkit. Keyphrases and DBpedia concepts are also extracted from the negotiation points. All extractions, and the corpus itself, are made navigable on a user interface (UI).
                </p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>NLP toolkit</head>
                    <p>We used the IXA Pipes library
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn8"" n=""8"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://ixa2.si.ehu.es/ixa-pipes/</p>
                        </note> (Agerri et al., 2014), with default models for 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">tokenization</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">part-of-speech tagging</hi>. We resolved some types of 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">pronominal anaphora</hi> based on 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CorefGraph</hi>
                        <anchor xml:id=""Ref434078902""/>
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn9"" n=""9"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> https://bitbucket.org/Josu/corefgraph</p>
                        </note> coreference chains.
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Semantic Role Labeling (SRL)</hi> (Surdeanu et al., 2008) identifies a predicate’s arguments and their semantic functions or roles (e.g. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">agent</hi>). SRL was performed with ixa-pipe-srl
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn10"" n=""10"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> https://github.com/newsreader/ixa-pipe-srl ; it provides a wrapper to 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">mate-tools</hi> (Björkelund et al., 2010)
                            </p>
                        </note>, which tags against the PropBank database (Palmer et al., 2005) for verbal predicates and against NomBank (Meyers et al., 2004) for nominal ones. 
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Keyphrase Extraction</hi>: YaTeA
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn11"" n=""11"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://search.cpan.org/~thhamon/Lingua-YaTeA/lib/Lingua/YaTeA.pm</p>
                        </note> was used (Aubin and Hamon, 2006). This library performs unsupervised term extraction using syntactic and statistical criteria. 
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Entity Linking (EL)</hi>: The tool from (Ruiz and Poibeau, 2015) was used. It combines outputs from several public EL services, selecting the best outputs with a weighted vote.
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Domain-specific components</head>
                    <p>The 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">domain model</hi> contains actors (negotiating countries and groups) and verbal or nominal predicates. Verbal predicates (from PropBank) can be neutral reporting verbs (e.g. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">stated</hi>), or verbs related to support and opposition (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">recommended</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">criticized</hi>). The nominal predicates (from NomBank) express similar notions to the verbs (e.g. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">proposal</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">objection</hi>). The model also specifies a predicate type: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">report</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">support</hi>, or 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">oppose</hi>. 
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Analysis rules</hi> were implemented to identify propositions based on the semantic roles of predicates’ arguments, previously obtained with SRL. Most domain predicates involve an agent and a message expressed by the agent (who agrees with the message, objects to it, or just reports it). Thus, actor mentions in a predicate’s A0 argument
                        <anchor xml:id=""Ref434078019""/>
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn12"" n=""12"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> In SRL, 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">A0</hi> corresponds to a predicate’s agent. 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">A1</hi> is the patient or theme. 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">AM</hi> roles represent adjuncts (time, location etc.) or negation. See Palmer et al., 2005.
                            </p>
                        </note> represent the actor who expresses the message, and the predicate’s A1 argument
                        <hi rend=""footnote_reference"">12</hi> often represents the negotiation point addressed by the actor. The generic rule to identify propositions is in Figure 1. 
                    </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""357/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Figure : 
                            <hi rend=""bold"">General rule to create a proposition</hi>
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>Sentences with 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">opposed by</hi> constructions require a different analysis (e.g. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">China, opposed by the EU, recommended…</hi>) In such sentences, a different rule creates, for the opposing actors, propositions where the predicate contradicts the main clause’s predicate (see Table 1 for an example). Proposition-creation rules for more specific cases have also been implemented.
                    </p>
                    <p>The treatment of 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">negation</hi> relies on finding 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">AM-NEG</hi> roles (see footnote 12) attached to a predicate, or negative items (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">not</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">lack</hi>) in a window of two tokens preceding a predicate.
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pronominal anaphora</hi> was treated via custom rules operating on the output of a coreference resolver (see footnote 9). We created custom rules since, in the corpus, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">he</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">she</hi> (besides 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">it</hi>) can refer back to a country (pronoun gender depends on the country’s delegate).
                    </p>
                    <p>To facilitate searches by date-range, propositions are assigned their documents’ date.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""357/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Figure : 
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Main view of the interface.</hi> The left panel gives access to the search workflows (Actors, Actions, Points). It also shows propositions for a query (e.g. the actor 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Canada</hi>), and gives access to the 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">AgreeDisagree</hi> view. The right panel shows the documents in the Docs tab, as well as aggregated keyphrases and DBpedia concepts for the query or for selected propositions, in the other tabs.
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>User interface</head>
                    <p>The UI (Figure 2) helps analyze actors’ negotiation positions. It allows searching for documents matching a text query (
                        <hi rend=""italic bold"">Text</hi> search box), and for propositions matching a given actor (
                        <hi rend=""italic bold"">Actors</hi> box) or a given predicate (
                        <hi rend=""italic bold"">Actions</hi> box). Propositions matching a query are displayed on the left panel, documents for a query on the right. Aggregated 
                        <hi rend=""italic bold"">keyphrases</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""italic bold"">DBpedia</hi> concepts for the content matching a query (documents or propositions) are displayed in tabs on the right panel. The 
                        <hi rend=""italic bold"">AgreeDisagree</hi> view provides an overview of keyphrases and concepts from propositions where selected actors agree or disagree. Simultaneous access on the UI to the corpus and the annotations helps researchers validate results.
                    </p>
                    <p>The implementation framework is Django
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn13"" n=""13"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> https://www.djangoproject.com/</p>
                        </note>, with Solr search. 
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn14"" n=""14"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> https://lucene.apache.org/solr/</p>
                        </note> We’re working on allowing the user export results and edit the model’s actors and predicates.
                    </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""357/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Figure : 
                            <hi rend=""bold"">AgreeDisagree</hi> View displays keyphrases and DBpedia concepts from propositions where actors (here the EU and China) agree or (as here) disagree.
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Evaluation</head>
                <p>It is important to assess whether the system can help domain-experts gain insights they would not have otherwise obtained, e.g. detect previously unnoticed generalizations (see e.g. Berry, 2012). This type of evaluation is ongoing; we are collaborating with political scientists, whose initial feedback on the tool has been positive. User validation of the interface is also ongoing.</p>
                <p>The system’s NLP components were evaluated in literature cited above. Results are state-of-the-art or competitive, and available on our project’s website (sites.google.com/site/nlp4climate).</p>
                <p>To evaluate the model and analysis rules that create domain-relevant propositions, we have manually annotated a set of corpus sentences with propositions. Details about the test-set, evaluation metrics and results are on the website. We consider the results satisfactory. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Outlook</head>
                <p>A useful feature would be an annotation confidence score, that users could employ to establish priorities in manual result revision. A useful application of the propositions extracted would be creating network graphs with different types of edges representing support and opposition among parties, and between parties and issues. </p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Acknowledgements</head>
                    <p>We thank Tommaso Venturini, Audrey Baneyx, Kari de Pryck and Diégo Antolinos-Basso from the Sciences Po médialab in Paris for domain-expert feedback on the system. Pablo Ruiz is supported by a PhD grant from Région Ile-de-France. </p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Agerri, R., Bermudez, J. and Rigau, G</hi>. (2014). IXA Pipeline: Efficient and ready to use multilingual NLP tools. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of LREC 2014, the 9th Language Resources and Evaluation Conference</hi>. Reykjavik, Iceland. 
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Aubin, S. and Hamon, T.</hi> (2006). Improving Term Extraction with Terminological Resources. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Advances in Natural Language Processing: 5th International Conference on NLP, FinTAL 2006</hi>, LNAI 4139. Springer, pp. 380-87. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Auer, S., Bizer, C., Kobilarov, G., Lehman, J., Cyganiak, R., and Ives, Z.</hi> (2007). DBpedia: A nucleus for a web of open data. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Semantic Web</hi>, Springer, pp. 722–35. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bauer, F., Recheis, D. and Kaltenböck, M.</hi> (2011). Data. reegle. info–A new key portal for Open Energy Data. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Environmental Software Systems. Frameworks of eEnvironment</hi>, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 189-94.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Berry, D. M.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Understanding Digital Humanities, </hi>pp. 1–20. Palgrave Macmillan. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Björkelund, A., Bohnet, B., Hafdell, L. and Nugues, P.</hi> (2010). A high-performance syntactic and semantic dependency parser. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Coling 2010, 23</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic superscript"">rd</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic""> International Conference on Computational Linguistics: Demonstration Volume</hi>, Beijing, pp. 33–36,
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Diesner, J.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Uncovering and managing the impact of methodological choices for the computational construction of socio-technical networks from texts</hi>. PhD Thesis. Carnegie Mellon University. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Diesner, J.</hi> (2014). ConText: Software for the Integrated Analysis of Text Data and Network Data. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social and Semantic Networks in Communication Research, </hi>at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ICA</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Conference of International Communication Association</hi>.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grimmer, J. and Stewart, B. M.</hi> (2013). Text as data: The promise and pitfalls of automatic content analysis methods for political texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Political Analysis</hi>, OUP, pp. 1–31.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mausam, Schmitz, M., Bart, R., Soderland, S. and Etzioni, O.</hi> (2012). Open language learning for information extraction. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2012 Joint Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and Computational Natural Language Learning</hi>, pp. 523–34. 
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meyers, A., Reeves, R., Macleod, C., Szekely, R., Zielinska, V., Young, V. and Grishman. R.</hi> (2004). The NomBank project: An interim report. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">HLT-NAACL 2004 workshop: Frontiers in corpus annotation</hi>, pp. 24–31.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Palmer, M., Gildea, D. and Kingsbury, P.</hi> (2005). The Proposition Bank: A Corpus Annotated with Semantic Roles. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computational Linguistics Journal</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">31</hi>: 1.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ruiz, P. and Poibeau, T.</hi> (2015). Combining Open Source Annotators for Entity Linking through Weighted Voting. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of *SEM. Fourth Joint Conference on Lexical and Computational Semantics,</hi> Denver, U.S., pp. 211–15.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Salway, A., Toulieb, S. and Tvinnereim, E.</hi> (2014). Inducing information structures for data-driven text-analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the ACL Workshop on Language Technologies and Computational Social Science</hi>, pp. 28–32.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Surdeanu, M., Johansson, R., Meyers, A., Màrquez, L., and Nivre, J.</hi> (2008). The CoNLL-2008 shared task on joint parsing of syntactic and semantic dependencies. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Twelfth Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning</hi>, Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 159–77. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Atteveldt, W., Sheaferm, T., Shenhav, S., and Fogel-Dror, Y.</hi> (2015). Clause analysis: using syntactic information to enrich frequency-based automatic content analysis. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Symposium New Frontiers of Automated Content Analysis in the Social Sciences</hi>, at the University of Zurich.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Venturini, T. and Guido, D.</hi> 2012. Once upon a text: an ANT tale in Text Analytics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sociologica, </hi><hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>: 1–17. Il Mulino, Bologna.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Venturini T., Baya Laffite, N., Cointet, J-P., Gray, I., Zabban, V., and De Pryck, K.</hi> (2014). Three maps and three misunderstandings: A digital mapping of climate diplomacy. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Big Data and Society</hi>,<hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(2): 1–19.
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            </div>
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    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2476","17","Comparing Digital Scholarly Editions","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Citing and comparing texts</head>
                <p>Explicit and tacit assumptions of traditional text criticism have been questioned for decades,
                    <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1""> As early as 1934, Pasquali already pointed out that the necessary assumption of the “Lachmannian method” that each copy derives from a single archetype is demonstrably wrong in many instances (Pasquali, 1934).</note> but the creation of digital scholarly editions has provoked discussion ranging from practical questions of method, to theoretical debate about what constitutes the nature of an edition in an electronic environment.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2""> See for example the collection of essays edited by Sutherland and Deegan (Sutherland and Deegan, 2009), or the recent broad survey assembled by Pierazzo (Pierazzo, 2015).</note> In this paper, we address questions of what it means to compare two scholarly editions, and demonstrate applications of our approach to compare manuscripts of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi>.
                </p>
                <p>One characteristic of a scholarly edition in any medium is that it makes a text canonically citable. Canonical citation is an essential prerequisite: in order to compare more meaningful units than streams of characters, we must be able to identify and align passages in different versions of a text. We use the technology-independent CTS URN notation
                    <note xml:id=""ftn0"" place=""foot"" n=""3""> On CTS URNs, see http://cite-architecture.github.io/ctsurn/.</note> to identify books and lines of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi>. CTS URNs could be applied to any citation scheme, but logical schemes (such as those typically used to cite biblical passage by chapter and verse, or legal document by numbered section and subsection) are superior to arbitrary schemes based on physical artifacts (such as citing Plato by Stephanus page, or referring to the physical page of a specific edition of the works of Jane Austen) since they ensure that our comparison is organized in chunks of texts meaningful for scholarly analysis.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>A model for text comparison</head>
                <p>Traditional Homeric scholarship offers a useful model for comparing aligned citable texts. Homerists use the terms “vertical difference” and “horizontal difference” to describe two kinds of variety: “vertical difference” refers to entire lines that are present in one text but absent in the other, or that occur in a different sequence in the two texts. “Horizontal difference” refers to lexical differences within a single line. We can generalize the two dimensions of this approach, and understand our comparison of texts as determining the structural and lexical variation between texts.</p>
                <p>Structural differences are simply differences in citation structure. For texts cited by CTS URNs, then, we can reduce the determination of structural differences to a comparison of ordered lists of each document’s CTS URNs.</p>
                <p>Lexical differences are differences in the readings within a single citation unit (line of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi>, subsection of a legal text, etc.) The crucial question is: what produces a “reading”? Simply comparing streams of characters, or assuming that a stream of characters can be parsed into tokens based on some criterion such as splitting word tokens by white space or punctuation is dangerously underconceptualized. Instead, we recognize that any analysis that tokenizes a citable unit of text for a specified purpose produces an ordered list of tokens that we can compare in order to determine lexical differences between two texts. The lexical type of the token will depend on the goal of the comparison. As we subsequently illustrate, for example, we could analyze literal textual tokens, orthographically normalized tokens, or even morphologically or metrically analyzed tokens.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Implementing the model</head>
                <p>When we determine structural (“vertical”) variation by comparing ordered lists of URNs and lexical (“horizontal”) variation by comparing ordered lists of tokens for each citable unit of text, we are performing exactly the same operation: comparison of ordered lists. This is one of the most studied and best understood problems in computer science, and a typical exercise in first-year programming courses. We have implemented the standard algorithm for Longest Common Subsequence (or LCS)
                    <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""4""> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longest_common_subsequence_problem</note> in a library freely available in source code or binary .jar for JVM languages. In addition to solving the LCS, the library determines what items appear in one list but not the other, and what items appear in both lists but in a different order.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Applying the model to the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi>
                </head>
                <p>We illustrate the possibilities of this approach by repeatedly comparing incompletely published manuscripts of the Iliad, focusing especially on 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi> 8 in two manuscripts, in the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice and in the Escorial monastery near Madrid. All of our comparisons find the same structural differences. (The run of lines from 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi> 8.466-8.468 is present in some manuscripts, for example, but absent from others.) The lexical comparisons, on the other hand, vary depending on the features we analyze.
                </p>
                <p>We begin with a simple tokenization of the literal diplomatic text split on white space. Inventorying the tokens in each manuscript is essentially the collation phase of a traditional edition, but when we fully account for differences in punctuation, accent, abbreviation and spelling, the vast quantities of differences between manuscripts informs us about aspects of Byzantine orthographic practice that are normally suppressed in critical editions.</p>
                <p>We next tokenize the same text to a normalized orthography eliminating punctuation, and adapting both accents and spelling to modern conventions. This comparison most closely approaches what we find in a typical critical edition (except that its listings of tokens present, absent or relocated in different manuscripts is comprehensive, rather than selective). Viewed from this perspective with orthographic differences removed, we find much greater agreement in the text of the Venice and Escorial manuscripts, although we still find passages like 8.137 where the reins of Nestor’s chariot are either “shining” (σιγαλόεντα) or “red-purple” (φοινικόεντα).</p>
                <p>This comparison also reports differences in passages like 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi> 9.3, where a few manuscripts have βεβλήατο against the majority with βεβολήατο. The “differences” are actually equivalent forms of the same verb (an epic pluperfect of βάλλω). Depending on our interests, we might prefer to view these two literal variants as identical. We next tokenize the text not to representations of the specific form found in the text, but instead to the lexical entity (“dictionary form”) from which the word derives. In this tokenization, the same lexical entity is given for each of the two variant forms, and the lines are, by this reading, equivalent.
                </p>
                <p>Since the formulaic variation illustrated by different readings for the same passage is metrically conditioned, we might also want to tokenize the text to metrical units. Like the preceding tokenizing to an abstract lexical entity, this is often considered beyond the scope of a critical edition, but we do not need to make any procedural distinction in our digital comparison. Reading the same line 9.3 metrically, for example, we next tokenize the dactylic hexameter into six metrical feet. In the majority manuscripts with βεβολήατο, we “read” the text with a dactyl in the third foot,</p>
                <p>—⏖ —— —⏖ —⏖ —⏖ —×</p>
                <p>while in the minority manuscripts with βεβλήατο we read a spondee</p>
                <p>—⏖ —— —— —⏖ —⏖ —×</p>
                <p>Each of these comparisons captures a distinct feature of the text. In every case, the analyses are keyed to the CTS URN of the text they analyze, so we can readily combine and compare the results of distinct analyses. In the Iliadic examples, we could equally easily identify passages that are metrically identical with either different vocabulary items or different forms of the same vocabulary item; or, as in 9.3, metrically distinct passages with identical vocabulary in different forms.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Rethinking digital editions</head>
                <p>We recognize, as others have before, that many assumptions in the traditional practice of critical editing are self-contradictory and unnecessary in a digital environment. Digital editors are not constrained to eliminate the evidence of manuscripts judged not valuable (<hi rend=""italic"">eliminatio codicum descriptorum</hi>); they do not have to select only significant variants (<hi rend=""italic"">selectio</hi>) based on the evaluation of a limited set of crucial passages (<hi rend=""italic"">examinatio locorum criticorum</hi>); they do not have to present material supporting their editorial choices in a critical apparatus that is flawed both by its circular logic of selectively publishing evidence and by its notational deficiency (a deficiency that has been clearly recognized only when the apparatus is computationally processed).
                    <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""5""> An important but largely unrecognized implication of Federico Boschetti’s work parsing a critical apparatus of Aeschylus is that more than 10% of the entries in the critical apparatuis were not clearly enough expressed to be correctly mapped on to the section of the main text they annotate. This was not due to lack of diligence by the editors: rather, it reflects the notational ambiguity of the traditional apparatus. (Boschetti, 2007)</note> One of the most significant consequences of working with scholarly editions in a digital environment is the potential to automate systematic and comprehensive comparisons of various classes of features across a set of full diplomatic editions.
                </p>
                <p>The comparisons of Iliadic manuscripts presented here further show that the analysis underlying a traditional critical edition is functionally no different than any other kind of analytical comparison: critical editing is one approach to analyzing a comparable set of texts. Our model of textual comparison compels us to specify unambiguously the process that generates our sequence of lexical tokens. This permits us to apply completely generic tools for comparing ordered lists, and to construct increasingly complex cascades of aligned analyses.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boschetti, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">F.</hi> (2007). Methods to extend Greek and Latin corpora with variants and conjectures: Mapping critical apparatuses onto reference text. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Corpus Linguistics Conference.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CL2007. </hi>Birmingham. 
                        <ptr target=""http://ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/publications/CL2007/paper/150_Paper.pdf""/> (accessed March 4, 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pasquali, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">G.</hi> (1934). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Storia della tradizione e critica del test.</hi> Florence.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pierazzo, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">E.</hi> (Ed.). (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarly Editing: Theories, Models and Method.</hi> Ashgate.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sutherland, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">K. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and Deegan, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">M. </hi>(Eds.). (2009).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text Editing, Print and the Digital Worl.</hi> Ashgate.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2477","17","Comparison of Methods for the Identification of Main Characters in German Novels","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Motivation</head>
                <p>Digital literary studies have embraced social network analysis as a powerful tool to formalize and analyze social networks in literary texts (Elson et al., 2010b, Hettinger et al., 2015). Extracting networks automatically from texts is still a challenging task with the following steps: identification of all character references (which is not identical to named entity recognition), coreference resolution (CR) and a final step defining the amount of interaction between the characters, for example by the amount of verbal exchanges or the co-occurrence in a text segment. In the following we will discuss different ways to solve this task using an annotated corpus of German novels. One of the related problems is the definition of an evaluation metric which connects the computational problem to literary concepts like “main characters” and “character constellation”. Our goal is to find the best way to capture the intuition behind these literary concepts in a formalized procedure. For this purpose we introduce a new way of evaluating automatically extracted networks. We make use of carefully created and revised summaries of German novels, provided by Kindler Literary Lexicon Online
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p> http://kll-online.de</p>
                    </note>. Besides, this work is to the best of our knowledge the first to compare different methods of creating and evaluating automatically extracted character networks.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.v3iw2mr0znz6"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Related Work</head>
                <p>Social Network Analysis (SNA) is a well-established discipline, e.g. in the social sciences, which literary studies can apply for the analysis of character networks (Trilcke, 2013). Approaches to automatic extraction of SNs from literary text using NLP techniques have been manifold.</p>
                <p>Most works start by identifying entities in the text and connect them via CR. Park et al. (Park et al., 2013) extract SNs based on proximity of names in the text and define a kernel function to distinguish protagonists from less important characters. Celikyilmaz et al. (Celikyilmaz et al., 2010) use an unsupervised actor-topic-model to create SNs from narratives. Elson et al. associate speakers with direct speech passages in novels (Elson et al., 2010a) and create SNs from the dialogues to validate literary hypotheses like whether the amount of dialogues is inversely proportional to the amount of characters that appear in the novel (Elson et al., 2010b).</p>
                <p>Moreover, three end-to-end systems for the extraction and visualization of SNs from English literary texts already exist: PLOS (Waumans et al., 2015) works similarly to the approach by Elson et al. by creating networks from dialogue interactions. He et al. use their own speaker identification system to detect family connections between entities (He et al., 2013). SINNET by Agarwal et al. (Agarwal et al., 2013b) finds different types of directed events in a text and creates a directed SN from these events.</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.q2ob5nq3n80n"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Data</head>
                <p>This work is based on a corpus of 452 German novels from the TextGrid Digital Library
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p> https://textgrid.de/digitale-bibliothek</p>
                    </note>. Expert plot summaries from Kindlers Literary Lexicon Online are available for 215 of these novels. As the following experiments are partly based on direct speech, we analysed the novels with regard to the direct speech they contain. We selected 58 novels with the highest possible amount of direct speech for which there was also a summary on hand.
                </p>
                <p>Those 58 novels have been split into tokens and sentences with OpenNLP
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p> https://opennlp.apache.org/</p>
                    </note>, POS-tagged and lemmatized by the TreeTagger (Schmid, 1995), further processed by the RFTagger (Schmid and Laws, 2008) and the morphological tagger from MATE-Tools
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p> https://code.google.com/p/mate-tools/</p>
                    </note>. Additionally, we use the dependency parser by Bohnet (Bohnet and Kuhn, 2012) to analyze the sentence structure. Named Entity Recognition is done with the tool by Jannidis et al. (Jannidis et al., 2015) and the rule-based component by Krug et al. is used for CR. The detection of the speaker and the addressee for each direct speech passage is also part of the CR (Krug et al., 2015). In the summaries from Kindler, Named Entities and Coreferences have been manually labeled by two annotators.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.ma9231knkmpe"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methods</head>
                <p>We use four different methods to identify the most central characters in the novels and evaluate their quality by comparison with the characters occurring in the Kindler summaries.</p>
                <p>The first method relies only on the frequencies of the characters in the text: the most central characters are those appearing most often in the novel (coreferences resolved). The second methods counts only those entities that have at least once been detected as speaker or addressee of direct speech. The other methods each construct a different type of social network and make use of SNA to find the most central characters. The first network is based on co-occurrences of characters in the same window of text: an edge between two characters exists if they are mentioned in the same paragraph and the weight of the edge is the number of paragraphs in which this is the case. The second network is created using the dialogue structure of the text. For each direct speech for which both speaker and addressee could be detected, an edge is drawn between those two. Longer dialogues consequently lead to higher edge weights between the participants. Thus, both network types are undirected and weighted. Examples for networks that were created with those methods are shown in Figure 1.</p>
                <p>To identify the most central characters we use the weighted degree of each node (i.e. the sum of the weights of all edges incident to a node) in decreasing order. This metric is most intuitively interpretable with regard to the importance of characters in a fictional world.</p>
                <p>In the following paragraph, we compare the rankings with the summaries and discuss possible sources of error and their influence on the results.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""462/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>Figure 1: Automatically extracted SNs for Goethes: “Die Wahlverwandtschaften”. The left picture shows the ten most connected characters when an interaction is created for a common appearance in a paragraph. The right picture shows the corresponding network when only direct speech is used as interactions.</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.v0r87yttfc9w"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Evaluation</head>
                <p>Evaluating automatically extracted SNs is not a trivial task and there are no established practices. Elson et al. (Elson et al., 2010b) validate literary hypotheses, (Park et al., 2013) and (Waumans et al., 2015) analyze typical distributions that they expect of literary character networks. Agarwal et al. (Agarwal et al., 2013a) evaluate a machine-generated network of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Alice in Wonderland </hi>against a manually conceived version by comparing typical SNA metrics like different centrality measures.
                </p>
                <p>In this work, we want to compare the methods for identifying the most central characters as described in section 4. As a gold standard, we use the manually annotated Kindler summaries. The generated rankings for each novel, as well as the rankings from the summaries are first cleaned up so that only real names remain.</p>
                <p>Our evaluation is based on the assumption that a summary contains all important characters. Since those summaries are carefully created and even revised by experts we propose that this assumption holds. For each summary, we create a ranking of the mentioned characters by [a] the number of occurrences (gold_count from here) and [b] the order of occurrence (gold_order from here). We relax the ranking assumption and only select the top 5 (top 10) figures from the summary rankings and compare them against the top 5 (top 10) characters in the automatically obtained rankings for the novels without respecting the particular ordering. If the name of a character from the gold standard is exactly found in an automatic ranking, there is a match. Table 1 shows the resulting correspondences with the two gold rankings, averaged over all 58 novels.</p>
                <p>Table 1: Overview of the successfully matched entities between the two relaxed rankings from the summaries (gold_count, gold_order) and the generated relaxed rankings for the top 5 and the top 10 entities (DSN= Direct Speech Network; PN = Paragraph Network;DSC = Direct Speech Count; Count = simple frequency)</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>Algorithm</cell>
                        <cell>DSN_5</cell>
                        <cell>DSN_10</cell>
                        <cell>PN_5</cell>
                        <cell>PN_10</cell>
                        <cell>DSC_5</cell>
                        <cell>DSC_10</cell>
                        <cell>Count_5</cell>
                        <cell>Count_10</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>gold_count</cell>
                        <cell>40.5%</cell>
                        <cell>50.2%</cell>
                        <cell>39.3%</cell>
                        <cell>51.6%</cell>
                        <cell>38.9%</cell>
                        <cell>49.0%</cell>
                        <cell>40.1%</cell>
                        <cell>52.0%</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>gold_order</cell>
                        <cell>38.6%</cell>
                        <cell>45.1%</cell>
                        <cell>41.3%</cell>
                        <cell>48.6%</cell>
                        <cell>37.5%</cell>
                        <cell>45.3%</cell>
                        <cell>41.2%</cell>
                        <cell>48.5%</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.u4zcca2l7xt"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results and Discussion</head>
                <p>Table 1 displays first results for the identification of main characters in novels. Nevertheless, none of the methods yields very high scores for this kind of evaluation. Interestingly, the simpler approaches seem to be suited well for the task.</p>
                <p>The low values can be explained by a variety of errors which can be grouped in three categories. Firstly, a character might not be among the top 10 of the relaxed ranking from Kindler. If automatic matches to lower positions in the ranking are allowed, the score in Table 2 can be reached.</p>
                <p>Table 2: Accuracy of the matching, independent of the position in the automatic ranking</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>Algorithm</cell>
                        <cell>DSN_Max</cell>
                        <cell>PN_Max</cell>
                        <cell>DSC_Max</cell>
                        <cell>Count_Max</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>gold_count</cell>
                        <cell>55.1%</cell>
                        <cell>56.6%</cell>
                        <cell>53.8%</cell>
                        <cell>57.3%</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>gold_order</cell>
                        <cell>58.0%</cell>
                        <cell>64.7%</cell>
                        <cell>55.1%</cell>
                        <cell>64.7%</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>We can see that approximately 60% of the characters can now be matched unambiguously.</p>
                <p>The highest percentage of errors is due to incorrectly resolved coreferences. Clusters of the same character that have not been merged during the CR do not only create redundant elements in the rankings, wrongly merged clusters also mean, that one character can never be matched correctly. If coreference errors are ignored, the results are as shown in table 3.</p>
                <p>Table 3: Accuracy of the matching, independent of the position in the automatic ranking, CR errors ignored</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>Algorithm</cell>
                        <cell>DSN_Maxcr</cell>
                        <cell>PN_Maxcr</cell>
                        <cell>DSC_Maxcr</cell>
                        <cell>Count_Maxcr</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>gold_count</cell>
                        <cell>79.7%</cell>
                        <cell>81.2%</cell>
                        <cell>78.8%</cell>
                        <cell>81.2%</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>gold_order</cell>
                        <cell>58.6%</cell>
                        <cell>65.3%</cell>
                        <cell>55.6%</cell>
                        <cell>65.3%</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>The third error type of originates from different spellings of the same name which make an unambiguous matching very difficult (e.g. “Amanzéi” vs. “Amanzei”, “Lenore” vs. “Leonore”). Those kinds of errors are caused by different encodings, since the novels and the summaries originate from separate sources. Further reasons which render the matching more difficult or impossible respectively are missing or incorrectly detected Named Entities. The error analysis shows that future improvements are especially needed for the CR or procedures which avoid CR, since those have a better chance to succeed.</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.ghsdfzda1v8e"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>In this paper we showed work in progress to extract SNs from German novels. We compared four different approaches to the identification of central characters and evaluated against manually annotated summaries. Two presented methods rely on direct speech, the other methods can be applied to any novel. At least for this task, the more challenging approaches of determining speaker and addressee of direct speech and creating networks from the resulting interactions did score slightly lower than the simpler approaches. To improve the results, future work especially needs to be invested into the creation of a less error-prone CR system. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
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","xml","2","",""
"2478","17","Compiling a Database on Historical China from Local Records: The Local Gazetteers Project at MPIWG","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This paper introduces a digital humanities project at the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science (Max-Planck-Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte, MPIWG) that aims to unlock the treasure chest of local knowledge written in the genre of Chinese local gazetteers for computer assisted analyses. </p>
            <p>In the past two decades, a great amount of historical documents have been digitized and put on the Web to enable easy access for scholars around the globe. In parallel, the amount of searchable full-text versions of historical texts has increased, which opens the possibility of text mining the contents for large scaled analyses. Many works in this direction have been proposed and got recognition, while they are also criticized for drawing conclusions from seemingly imprecise results due to the restriction that their algorithms have no knowledge about the meanings of the different pieces in a text (Jockers, 2013; Google Ngram Viewer; Chen et al., 2007).</p>
            <p>An alternative approach is thus to first “teach” computers what each pieces of a text means before asking computers to run automatic analyses. Such “teaching” is done by tagging, or called markup. Many digital humanities projects have been using TEI, a standard for text encoding based on XML, to tag their research materials (TEI; Flanders).</p>
            <p>In the Local Gazetteers Project, since the genre organizes knowledge in a very structural way, we are also using tagging to teach computers the meanings of texts in order to turn them into data tables to enable computer assisted analyses including GIS mapping. However, since the amount of texts is huge, we also propose a research data repository for scholars to collaborate in this project and to aggregate their results. </p>
        <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
        <head>What are the Chinese Local Gazetteers?</head>
            <p>The Chinese local gazetteers is a genre of texts that has been produced in China consistently from the 10
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century on to even today. Most of them are compiled by local officials as a major means to collect and aggregate historical, social, and geographical knowledge of an administrative region for governing purposes. There are at least 8,000 titles of pre-1949 local gazetteers still extant today. They cover almost every well-populated region in historical China. 
            </p>
            <p>Despite being compiled by different officials for different regions, the local gazetteers have developed a pretty consistent structure of “describing” local knowledge. Most gazetteers contain the following chapters: history, geography, local government, infrastructure (buildings, schools, temples, bridges), local products (grains, plants, animals, drugs, commodities), people (local officials and celebrities), and literature. The vast number, the longue durée, the width in geographical coverage, together with the extensive and consistent selection of topics have made the local gazetteers major sources for knowledge about regions for scholars from later periods. To date, several digitization projects on the local gazetteers have been conducted by either commercial vendors or public institutions, and thousands of titles have been made available in searchable full texts for scholarly access. 
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> To name just a few of such digital local gazetteers project, there is first the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Chinese Local Gazetteers Database</hi> (Zhongguo Fangzhii Ku) by a commercial vendor Erudition, second open access projects such as CTEXT.org with OCR-ed full texts of the gazetteers, and third national projects in China such as the Electronic Local Gazetteers by the Beijing National Library. 
                    </p>
                </note>
            </p>
        </div>
        <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">           
        <head>The Project’s Goal</head>
            <p>Local gazetteers are well studied, but the vast amount of information contained within also makes scholars struggled to study them analytically. We noticed that the local gazetteers often organize knowledge by listing the items: list of temples, lists of flora and fauna, lists of local officials, etc. (See Figure 1 for an example.) This characteristic makes the local gazetteers a database by nature. </p>
            <p>The goal of this project is to transform this genre into a scholarly enhanced database in order to enable new forms of digital historical analyses. By turning texts (of lists of things) into data (tables), it will be much easier to aggregate the rich knowledge written in all the extant local gazetteers to compile a database for historical China on local knowledge across geographical regions and time periods. Research-oriented queries, visualization of query results, and further large scaled analyses will then be more easily realized with such a database. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""590/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1 Two pages from the chapter of “local products” from <hi rend=""italic"">Fujian tongzhi</hi> (Qing, 1737). The pages list items according to categories. The bigger fonts represent the names of the items, while the smaller fonts are descriptions of the items. (Image source: 
                    <ref target=""http://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&file=50305&page=80"">http://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&file=50305&page=80</ref>.)
                </head>
            </figure>
        </div>
        <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
        <head>Our approach</head>
            <p>We have identified and developed a set of digital tools to help this process. They are: (1) an 
                <hi rend=""bold"">extraction interface</hi> that helps historians to tag and to transform digital texts and their built-in structures into 
                <hi rend=""italic"">data tables</hi>; (2) a 
                <hi rend=""bold"">research data repository</hi> where historians can 
                <hi rend=""italic"">share and publish</hi> their data collected via the extraction interface; (3) a set of 
                <hi rend=""bold"">digital analytical, visualization, and analysis tools</hi> that can be applied on the collected data for posing research questions. 
            </p>
          <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
          <head>I. An extraction interface for transforming digital texts into data</head>            
            <p>Due to the well-formatted organization of the local gazetteers, some scholars have tried to write computer programs to parse the digital texts in order to collect data for their own research (Mitchell, 2015; Chang, 2015). However, due to the fact that each of the local gazetteers has slightly different formats, it is difficult to write generic computer programs that can work on all the gazetteers. The China Biographical Database project (CBDB) tackled this problem by building an interactive user interface that allows scholars to describe observable writing patterns of the text in regular expressions (Wikipedia, 2015) – The Smart Regex Tool. The compiled regular expressions can be saved, run against other texts, and modified to fit slightly different writing patterns. CBDB used this interface and efficiently collected 250,000 records on local officials from 290 local gazetteers using only 420 man-hours (Pang et al., 2014).</p>
            <p>We inherited this interface from CBDB and further improved it so that scholars can define different tag sets and regular expressions to capture information relevant to topics they are interested in. Figure 2 to Figure 6 are the step-by-step screenshots of how we use this interface to tag a text on local product and to export the result into a table. The resulting table contains not only the names, categories, descriptions, alternative names, and usages of the products, but also the source gazetteer, the chapter name, and page number as well as geographical coordinates for mapping purpose.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""590/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2 A sample digital texts for “local products” for Figure 1. The categories are circled in blue color, while the names of products are circled in pink. </head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""590/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3 Step 1 of turning texts into data: Break the text into records (rows) via the help of the Smart Regex tool. </head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""590/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 4 Step 2: Adding shared categorical information to each row.</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""590/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 5 Step 3: Tag further information that you want to capture.</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""590/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 6 Step 4: Export the tagging result as a table.</head>
            </figure>
          </div>
          <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
          <head>II. Compiling a global database from local records: A research data repository</head>
            <p>Our extraction interface provides a semi-automatic way of transforming texts into data tables. Nevertheless, compiling a global database through this interface will still take a lot of time. We envision it to be a collaborative work among scholars with different research interests and specialties, and we eagerly need to be a way to give credits to scholars who contribute the data in the academic world. We found that the philosophy behind the open source software Dataverse, developed by Institute for Quantitative Social Sciences at Harvard University with the philosophy of “dedicated to sharing, archiving, and citing research data” (IQSS, 2015), matches our needs and will allow our project to meet the open access policy of the Max Planck Society and the “Berlin declaration”.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> Please see the declaration at http://openaccess.mpg.de/Berliner-Erklaerung.</p>
                </note>
            </p>
            <p>After a text is tagged in our extraction interface, a user can publish the data to LGDataverse, a Dataverse instance we set up for this project. A citation link to the data along with the contributors will be shown on the LGDataverse page, urging any scholar who wishes to use the data to cite it in their publications (Figure 7).</p>
            <p>We are still working on a way to aggregate the produced tables into one database in order to enable joint queries on records drawn from different gazetteers. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""590/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 7 A screenshot of LGDataverse.</head>
            </figure>
          </div>
          <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
          <head>III. Computer assisted analyses on large scales</head>
            <p>By transforming texts into data tables with predefined shared schema, it enables computers to easily process and analyze the data on large scales with better accuracy. We envision there can be multiple tools connected to our data, and scholars can choose which tools to use based on their research needs. </p>
            <p>At the moment we are using the open source software PLATIN GeoBrowser (http://platin.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/) to create geospatial visualization for our data with one click away. PLATIN doesn’t just display the geospatial distribution of the data on a map but also provides an animated timeline and user-defined pie charts, which we found very helpful for historians for preliminary analysis (Figure 8 and Figure 9). </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""590/image8.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 8 LGMap service (based on PLATIN) with Pie Chart function for analyzing categorical data.</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""590/image9.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 9 LGMap service with Timeline function showing temporal distribution of two datasets.</head>
            </figure>
        </div>
        </div>
        <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
        <head>Concluding Remarks</head>
            <p>This is an ongoing project. As a history of science study, we are collecting data from the chapter of local products in order to understand how local identities were constructed through the compilation of local products. In 2016, MPIWG will invite visiting scholars to use our digital tools to collect and analyze data of other topics from local gazetteers. This will also be a chance to further examine the model we proposed: from data collection from digital texts, aggregation of data in a research data repository, to digital tools for analysis and visualization. </p>
        </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Chang, S.</hi> (2015). Data Extraction and Analysis: The Taxonomy of Fauna and Flora of Taiwan Local Gazetteers in the Qing Dynasty. Unpublished paper presentation at: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Chinese Local Gazetteers workshop: Historical Methods and Computerized Data Collection and Analysis</hi>, Berlin, Germany.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Chen, S.-P., Hsiang, J., Tu, H.-C. and Wu, M.-C.</hi> (2007). On Building a Full-Text Digital Library of Historical Documents. In Goh, D., Cao, T., Sølvberg, I. and Rasmussen, E. (eds.) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Asian Digital Libraries. Looking Back 10 Years and Forging New Frontiers</hi>. Berlin: Springer, pp. 49-60.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Flanders, J.</hi> (n.d.). Women Writers Project. Retrieved November 1, 2015, from http://www.wwp.northeastern.edu/</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Google Ngram Viewer.</hi> (n.d.). Retrieved November 1, 2015, from https://books.google.com/ngrams/</bibl>
                    <bibl>Institute for Quantitative Social Science (IQSS), Harvard University. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dataverse Project</hi> [Online]. Available at: http://dataverse.org/ (Accessed: November 1, 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M. L.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Macroanalysis: Digital methods and literary history</hi>. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Mitchell, A.</hi> (2015). Encoding China’s Past: Computational Methods of Historical Analysis. In Unpublished paper presentation 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Chinese Local Gazetteers workshop: Historical Methods and Computerized Data Collection and Analysis</hi>, Berlin, Germany. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Pang, W.H., Cheng, H. and Chen, S.-P.</hi> (2014). From Text to Data: Extracting Posting Data from Chinese Local Gazetteers. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">the 5</hi><hi rend=""italic superscript"">th</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic""> International Conference of Digital Archives and Digital Humanities: Crossover and Transformation</hi>, Taipei: National Taiwan University, pp. 93-116. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>TEI: Text Encoding Initiative [Online]. Available at: http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml (accessed: November 1, 2015).</bibl>
                    <bibl>Wikipedia. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Regular expression</hi> [Online]. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_expression (accessed: November 1, 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
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        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2479","17","CORE - A Contextual Reader based on Linked Data","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Motivation</head>
                <p>In a relatively recent study on the needs of humanities faculty and students in using digital sources (Lindquist and Long 2011), two major issues were identified: 1) locating data relevant to a topic when online collections are distributed across institutions and systems; and 2) being able to explore the items found in context. In addition, problems were identified with crossing language barriers and with ambiguities and variants in names. </p>
                <p>The CORE contextual reader is an application that uses natural language processing and Linked Data (Heath and Bizer 2011) techniques to address these issues in the context of close reading of primary source material
                    <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">In this, the application can be seen as a spiritual successor to the Magpie tool (Dzbor, Motta, and Domingue 2007), although the two share nothing concrete with each other.</note>. Particularly, the CORE application has been designed to improve the user reading experience with texts in a domain not entirely familiar to them. Examples of this situation include a history student approaching a new topic through primary sources, or a layperson trying to make sense of law texts.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""271/1000000000000411000002B04516D870C00F75B4.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 1. The contextual reader interface</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The CORE user interface</head>
                <p>CORE supports contextualization in and understanding of unfamiliar documents by utilizing Linked Data reference vocabularies and datasets to identify entities in any PDF file or web page. For each discovered entity, CORE can then present configurable information sourced from these reference datasets on a mouse-over inside the web browser being used to read the document. Figure 1 shows this functionality in the context of reading a primary source document dealing with the First World War. The document, a scanned PDF, is shown in the interface on the left-hand side. Colored boxes highlight all of the entities identified by CORE. Here, the user has moused over “Captain Fryatt”, and the interface has brought up his picture and a short biography. Other examples of contextual information shown are word definitions for domain-specific vocabulary, maps showing the geographical context of unfamiliar places mentioned, and so on.</p>
                <p>If further information is needed, an entity can be clicked on to load more information and context into the pane on the right-hand side of the reader. In this pane, contextualization is further supported by visualizations, for example, locating the entity of interest temporally on a timeline and geographically on a map. Figure 2 shows these visualizations for an identified event, in this case the execution of Nurse Edith Cavell by the Germans in Belgium during WW1. At the top of the pane, the event is contextualized temporally among other war events. These are color-coded to differentiate: 1) important top-level wartime events sourced from the Imperial War Museum, 2) all events happening in the same timeframe, and 3) other wartime events happening nearby. Below the timeline, all of these events are presented on a map to give a geographical perspective. Clicking on any of the entities visualized loads the information pertaining to that entity into the contextualization pane, allowing further navigation of the context.</p>
                <p>In addition to providing more nuanced context, the right-hand pane of CORE also facilitates serendipitous discovery of further related content. Using the configured Linked Data vocabularies, CORE is able to extract relevant search terms for an entity of interest. These search terms can then be used to discover related content from configured endpoints, even if they support only simple text searches. In Figure 1, this functionality is seen on the right-hand side of the user interface. First, formally encoded metadata brings in another relevant primary source from the University of Colorado Boulder’s (CU-Boulder) WWI Collection Online
                    <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2"">
                        <ptr target=""http://cudl.colorado.edu/luna/servlet/UCBOULDERCB1~58~58""/>
                    </note>. Images of the burial of Captain Fryatt from Europeana
                    <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3"">
                        <ptr target=""http://europeana.eu/""/>
                    </note>, on the other hand, are found not through formally encoded keywords, but rather a match on his name that appears in the textual description of the images.
                </p>
                <p>Among the extracted terms used in the query are multilingual labels for places, variant names for actors and events, etc. Leveraging these terms enables CORE to cross language barriers and handle naming variations. To improve recall even further, the search term extraction can be configured to include terms for related entities, such as the actors participating in an event or the names of all villages in a particular municipality under investigation. </p>
                <p>Because CORE is able to dynamically process most HTML and PDF content, any linked resource can be loaded into the contextual reader by clicking on it. This function facilitates endless browsing on a topic through thematic and contextual connections, regardless of from where the linked material comes. </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""271/100000000000022D000002AEE7B5602540B76810.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 2. Contextual visualizations for the shooting of Nurse Edith Cavell</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>System demonstrators</head>
                <p>In contrast to most other similar systems, a CORE instance can relatively easily (and always should be) configured for a particular domain, thus ensuring the contextual information provided is actually useful and interesting to the end-user. </p>
                <p>To provide its services, CORE makes use of dynamic, configurable entity recognition, in which modular lexical analysis services are combined with SPARQL queries
                    <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""4"">For technical details of the system, see (Mäkelä 2014).</note>. This allows multilingual entity recognition against any vocabulary stored at a Linked Data endpoint. A configuration therefore consists of tuning the lexical analysis service to a particular domain and set of languages, as well as defining the endpoints and queries to be used in bringing in contextual information and related resources.
                </p>
                <p>While in future the application is intended to be fully configurable using a web user interface, currently new instances must be configured from the source code, released under the MIT open source license at 
                    <ptr target=""http://github.com/jiemakel/core/""/>. Thus far, three different demonstrators have been created
                    <note xml:id=""ftn5"" place=""foot"" n=""5"">For those technically oriented, the configuration files for these demonstrators can be perused at 
                        <ptr target=""https://github.com/jiemakel/core/blob/v1.0.0/app/scripts/main/""/>.
                    </note>.
                </p>
                <p>The first of these is the contextual reader for First World War primary sources available at 
                    <ptr target=""http://demo.seco.tkk.fi/ww1/""/>. For vocabularies, it draws on the WW1LOD dataset (Mäkelä et al. 2015), the vocabularies of 1914–1918 Online
                    <note xml:id=""ftn6"" place=""foot"" n=""6"">
                        <ref target=""http://www.1914-1918-online.net/"">http://www.1914-_1918-_online.net/</ref>
                    </note>, the Europeana 1914–1918
                    <note xml:id=""ftn7"" place=""foot"" n=""7"">
                        <ref target=""http://www.europeana1914-1918.eu/"">http://www.europeana1914-_1918.eu/</ref>
                    </note> thesaurus, the Out of the Trenches (Pan-Canadian Documentary Heritage Network 2012) and Trenches to Triples
                    <note xml:id=""ftn8"" place=""foot"" n=""8"">
                        <ptr target=""http://data.aim25.ac.uk/about_t3.php""/>
                    </note> vocabularies, and DBpedia (Lehmann et al. 2015). Repositories used for sourcing related content are CU-Boulder’s WWI Collection Online, WW1 Discovery
                    <note xml:id=""ftn9"" place=""foot"" n=""9"">
                        <ptr target=""http://ww1.discovery.ac.uk/""/>
                    </note>, Europeana, the Digital Public Library of America (DPLA)
                    <note xml:id=""ftn10"" place=""foot"" n=""10"">
                        <ptr target=""http://dp.la/""/>
                    </note>, and The European Library (TEL)
                    <note xml:id=""ftn11"" place=""foot"" n=""11"">
                        <ptr target=""http://www.theeuropeanlibrary.org/""/>
                    </note>.
                </p>
                <p>To further demonstrate multilingual support as well as support for inflected languages, a second contextual reader has been configured to support the study of ancient Roman sources, be they translated into English or still in the original Latin. This installation is available at 
                    <ptr target=""http://demo.seco.tkk.fi/ancore/""/>. Here, ancient place names are located on maps through the Pleiades gazetteer of ancient places
                    <note xml:id=""ftn12"" place=""foot"" n=""12"">
                        <ptr target=""http://pleiades.stoa.org/""/>
                    </note>, while information on entities like people and mythical characters mentioned in the texts is sourced from the English and Latin DBpedias. Targeted repositories are the Perseus Catalog
                    <note xml:id=""ftn13"" place=""foot"" n=""13"">
                        <ptr target=""http://catalog.perseus.org/""/>
                    </note>, the various Pelagios datasets
                    <note xml:id=""ftn14"" place=""foot"" n=""14"">
                        <ptr target=""http://pelagios.dme.ait.ac.at/api/datasets""/>
                    </note>, and again Europeana, DPLA, and TEL.
                </p>
                <p>The final demonstrator, aimed at supporting the reading of legal documents in the highly inflected language of Finnish, is available at 
                    <ptr target=""http://demo.seco.tkk.fi/laki/""/>. In this case, the documents are drawn from, for example, the consolidated legislation
                    <note xml:id=""ftn15"" place=""foot"" n=""15"">
                        <ptr target=""http://finlex.fi/fi/laki/ajantasa/""/>
                    </note> and the precedents of Finnish supreme courts
                    <note xml:id=""ftn16"" place=""foot"" n=""16"">
                        <ptr target=""http://finlex.fi/fi/oikeus/""/>
                    </note> published by the Finnish Ministry of Justice. In addition to linking these distributed resources to one another, the application is able to bring in news articles
                    <note xml:id=""ftn17"" place=""foot"" n=""17"">
                        <ptr target=""http://www.edilex.fi/uutiset""/>
                    </note> dealing with laws of interest published by Edita Publishing.
                </p>
                <p>When reading documents containing precise legal terminology, the reader is supported by definitions from the legal terminology section of the Bank of Finnish Terminology in Arts and Sciences
                    <note xml:id=""ftn18"" place=""foot"" n=""18"">
                        <ptr target=""http://tieteentermipankki.fi/wiki/Oikeustiede""/>
                    </note>, the Asseri vocabulary of the Ministry of Justice, the Edilex legal vocabulary from Edita, the Finnish law vocabulary from Talentum Publishing, and the legal terminology section of the Finnish DBpedia. In addition to Finnish, this reader has also been configured with limited support for Swedish, as Finland is a bilingual country.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusions and future work</head>
                <p>The CORE contextual reader clearly demonstrates the potential of utilizing Linked Data vocabularies to bridge institutional silos and language barriers, even in situations where the structured metadata of the corresponding databases is lacking. On the other hand, the core mission of the tool is to support contextualization and understanding. While initial experience points both to significant overall support, as well as a marked increase in support with regard to less domain-configured alternatives (Csomai and Mihalcea 2007; Olango, Kramer, and Bouma 2009), a formal user evaluation of the reader remains to be conducted. This will be the natural next step for the project, and plans for testing the WW1 version of the reader are already underway. </p>
                <p>At the same time, the CORE reader is currently seeing uptake in new contexts, most notably a project to unify disparate material related to the Finnish view of the Second World War (Hyvönen et al. 2015). Supporting these new contexts may require further development of components of the reader. For example, the Second World War material under study contains multiple distinct places and people with the same names. To properly handle these would require better support for disambiguation in the entity recognition component of the reader. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Csomai, A. and Mihalcea, R.</hi> (2007). Linking Educational Materials to Encyclopedic Knowledge. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2007 Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education: Building Technology Rich Learning Contexts That Work</hi>. Amsterdam: IOS Press, pp. 557–59.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Dzbor, M., Motta, E. and Domingue, J.</hi> (2007). Magpie: Experiences in supporting Semantic Web browsing. <hi rend=""italic"">Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Heath, T. and Bizer, Ch.</hi> (2011). <hi rend=""italic"">Linked Data: Evolving the Web into a Global Data Space</hi>. Synthesis Lectures on the Semantic Web. Morgan & Claypool Publishers.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Hyvönen, E. et al.</hi> (2015). Second World War on the Semantic Web: The WarSampo Project and Semantic Portal. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of 14th International Semantic Web Conference 2015 (ISWC 2015), Posters and Demos</hi>. Forthcoming. Bethlehem, PA, USA: CEUR-WS Proceedings.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Lehmann, J. et al.</hi> (2015). DBpedia - A large-scale, multilingual knowledge base extracted from Wikipedia. <hi rend=""italic"">Semantic Web</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(2): 167–95.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Lindquist, T. and Long, H.</hi> (2011). How can educational technology facilitate student engagement with online primary sources?: A user needs assessment. <hi rend=""italic"">Library Hi Tech</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(2): 224–41.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Mäkelä, E.</hi> (2014). Combining a REST Lexical Analysis Web Service with SPARQL for Mashup Semantic Annotation from Text. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the ESWC 2014 demonstration track, Springer-Verlag</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Mäkelä, E. et al.</hi> (2015). World War 1 as Linked Open Data. Submitted for review.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Olango, P., Kramer, G. and Bouma, G.</hi> (2009). TermPedia for interactive document enrichment using technical terms to provide relevant contextual information. <hi rend=""italic"">International Multiconference on Computer Science and Information Technology, 2009. IMCSIT ’09</hi>, pp. 265–72.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Pan-Canadian Documentary Heritage Network</hi> (2012). <hi rend=""italic"">PCDHN Linked Open Data Visualization “Proof-of-Concept”</hi>. Tech. rep.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2480","17","Crosslingual Textual Emigration Analysis","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The presented work describes the adaptation of a Natural Language Processing (NLP) based biographical data exploration system to a new language. We argue that such a transfer step has many characteristic properties of a typical challenge in the Digital Humanities (DH): Resources and tools of different origin and with different accuracy are combined for their use in a multidisciplinary context. Hence, we view the project context as an interesting test-bed for a few methodological considerations.</p>
            <p>In previous work, we developed a web-based application called Textual Emigration Analysis (TEA) (Blessing and Kuhn, 2014). The system consists of two components. The import component automatically extracts emigration paths from a German Wikipedia data set. The user interface component provides several views (interactive map, aggregated tables and underlying textual content) on the extracted data. The whole application was originally designed for German Wikipedia articles and the applied NLP pipeline is based on webservices of the CLARIN-D infrastructure (Mahlow et al., 2014). Later, other German sources of biographical data were included by adapting the import component (ÖBL: Austrian Biographical Dictionary 1815-1950, and NDB: the New German Biography).</p>
            <p>One often requested feature was the adaptation of the system to other languages. In DH research it is important to investigate different sources. As a consequence, textual data may include different languages. In particular, biographical analysis systems benefit if sources of different languages can be analysed. However, the development of such language-sensitive systems still lacks sufficient support. Therefore, the used methods should not require any knowledge of the new target language during development phase. In this work we present the adaptation process for French.</p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""480/100000000000049F000000CC98343B24.png""/>
                    <head>
                        <lb/>Figure 1: Parsed French sentence which describes an emigration path.
                    </head>
                </figure>Wikipedia and Wikidata are important resources for the development of language technology tools which also holds for cross-lingual approaches. Wikidata enables a clean mapping between the different language editions of Wikipedia. Following the idea of cross-lingual distant supervision (Blessing 2012), our method consists of three steps. First, we use the results of our TEA tool to find biographical articles that include mentions of emigration paths. Subsequently, Wikidata is used to map those articles to their corresponding French articles, if they exist. Finally, we use anchor points in the text to find comparable sentences.
            </p>
            <p>In most cases, emigration sentences contain geospatial and time expressions (e.g., “He emigrated in 1941 to Switzerland.” ), which can be used to find comparable sentences in the target language. We exploit the hyperlink structure of Wikipedia to recognize geospatial expressions and HeidelTime (Strötgen, 2013) to identify time expressions. The locations can be mapped through Wikidata into the target language and the atomic date representation of HeidelTime enables a simple identification of all matching sentences in the target sentence.</p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""480/10000000000005D3000002BC3ED768A8.png""/>
                    <head>
                        <lb/>Figure 2: Screenshot of the TEA web application
                    </head>
                </figure>This results in an annotated corpus in the new target language which can be used as training data for the emigration extraction component . Each sentence of the training corpus is automatically enriched with linguistic annotations (Figure 1) which is necessary to extract features for the emigration extraction component.
            </p>
            <p>Figure 2 depicts our web-based application after integrating the automatically learned French emigration data. Our system can be accessed online: http://clarin01.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/tea</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blessing, A. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schüthze,</hi> 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">H.</hi> (2012). Crosslingual Distant Supervision for Extracting Relations of Different Complexity. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">twenty-first </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ACM</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic""> International Conference on </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Information and Knowledge Manageme2012</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic""> (</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CIKM-12</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">), </hi>ACM, New York, NY, USA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blessing, A. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Kuhn, J.</hi> (2014). Textual Emigration Analysis (TEA). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'14) European Language Resources Association (ELRA)</hi>, Reykjavik, Iceland.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mahlow, C., Eckart, K., Stegmann, J., Blessing, A., Thiele, G., Gärtner, M. and Kuhn, J.</hi> (2014). Resources, Tools and Applications at the CLARIN Center Stuttgart<hi rend=""italic"">. Proceedings of the 12th Konferenz zur Verarbeitung natürlicher Sprache (KONVENS 2014).</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Strötgen, J. and Gertz, M.</hi> (2013). Multilingual and Cross-domain Temporal Tagging. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language Resources and Evaluation</hi>. Springer <hi rend=""bold"">47</hi>(2): 269-98.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2481","17","Defining the Core Entities of an Environment for Textual Processing in Literary Computing","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>The development of applications in the field of Digital Humanities (DH) does not adequately take into account domain modelling, software design principles and software engineering methodologies (Bozzi, 2013; D'Iorio, 2015; McCarty, 2008; Terras and Crane, 2010). In fact, many systems developed in the context of DH-related projects have not been conceived to be modular, extensible, and scalable: they only tend to solve specific problems such as data-driven and project-oriented tools (Boschetti and Del Grosso, 2015). In addition, most projects focus on the requirements of humanists (as end users), but leave out the needs of software developers.</p>
                <p>This research was motivated by a number of issues emerged from the projects we worked on 
                    <hi rend=""background-color(#ffff00)""> </hi>(Abrate et al., 2014a; Albanesi et al., 2015; Bellandi et al., 2014; Bozzi, 2015; Del Grosso, 2013; Ruimy et al., 2012) and it fits into an ongoing discussion about textual modelling and research infrastructures (Moulin et al., 2011; Pierazzo, 2015; Schmidt, 2014). In particular, this work aims at providing methodological guidelines for the definition of the core entities of a digital scholarly environment. We chose to adopt an object-oriented approach since it can bring benefits in the definition of efficient and effective digital tools (Boschetti et al., 2014; Del Grosso and Nahli, 2014). To give an analogy, the environment we propose can help developers and scholars as CMS (e.g. Wordpress) can help Web designers and publishers.
                </p>
                <p>The development of the environment follows three criteria: i) adopting an agile process (Ashmore and Runyan, 2014) to define the nature and behavior of the environment through both functional (e.g. user stories) and non-functional requirements (e.g. data model, system architecture) (Cohn, 2004; Collins-Cope et al., 2005); ii) providing well-defined Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) among components (Grill et al., 2012; Tulach, 2008); iii) applying analysis, architectural and design patterns for the sake of abstraction, generalization and flexibility (Ackerman and Gonzalez, 2011; Buschmann et al., 2007; Gamma et al., 1995).</p>
                <p>Following the agile methodology, we are developing a modular environment by starting from the design and implementation of a 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">microkernel</hi> (Buschmann et al., 1996) as the manager of the different components. In addition, the microkernel provides all the operations needed to manipulate the domain basic entities which are described in the section “Domain entities and design patterns”.
                </p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Related works</head>
                    <p>Digital humanists have access to several tools for literary studies. TextGrid, for example, provides integrated tools for analyzing texts and gives computer support for digital editing purposes (Hedges et al., 2013). The NINES project offers an environment to support scholars in the creation of long-term digital research materials. It includes three main tools: Collex (Nowviskie, 2007), Juxta, and Ivanhoe. Annotation Studio is a collaborative system to annotate texts and add links to multimedia objects (Paradis et al., 2013). The CULTURA project aims at developing a “corpus agnostic research environment” providing customizable services for a wide range of users (Steiner et al., 2014). The development of an online workspace which helps scholars in the production of critical editions is the main objective of the Workspace for Collaborative Editing framework (Houghton et al., 2014). It uses existing standards and open-source solutions to create an architecture of reusable components. Other platforms worth mentioning are TUSTEP/TXSTEP (Ott, 2000; Ott and Ott, 2014), WebLicht (Hinrichs et al., 2010), Perseids (Almas and Beaulieu, 2013), Muruca/Pundit (Grassi et al., 2013), Textual Communities (Bordalejo and Robinson, 2015), SAWS (Jordanous et al., 2012), Voyant Tools (Sinclair and Rockwell, 2012), Transcribe Bentham (Causer and Terras, 2014) and Alcide (Moretti et al., 2014). However, the aforementioned initiatives allow digital scholars to meet specific needs, but none of them seems to provide, simultaneously, all the following characteristics: i) reusability and extensibility, ii) ease of use and configuration, iii) continuous availability of the services and development over time, iv) a well-grounded software data model.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Domain entities and design patterns</head>
                <p>One of the main challenges of the DH community is to provide suitable software models and tools (Ciotti, 2014). To model the literary domain and the relative user requirements, we chose to follow the engineering principles of 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">object-oriented analysis and design</hi> (Ackerman and Gonzalez, 2011). The digital representation of a textual resource is a challenge as it involves several theoretical and epistemological issues in semiotics, paleography, philology, linguistics, engineering, and computer science (McCarty, 2005; Meister, 2012; Moretti, 2013; Robinson, 2013; Sahle, 2013).
                </p>
                <p>In this work, we define each textual element by means of four properties: i) the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">version</hi> allows to select a specific textual element among those available in its history of changes; ii) the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">granularity</hi> represents a level of a hierarchical structure (e.g. a page composed of lines); iii) the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">position</hi> provides the location of a textual element within the hierarchical representation (e.g. the second page of a book); iv) the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">layer</hi> indicates the set of homogeneous information the textual element belongs to (e.g. morphological layer). As pointed outby (Buzzetti, 2002; McGann, 2004; Pierazzo, 2015), the information conveyed by a textual resource is logically organized through multiple layers (also called 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">dimensions</hi>) of information.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""24/100002010000070400000824354E1F7F0D4DC755.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 1: Class diagram of the domain entities</head>
                    </figure>On these four properties we have designed and implemented a set of core entities as the fundamental data types shared among all the components of the environment (Fig. 1)
                    <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1""> The ongoing implementation of the environment is available at: https://github.com/literarycomputinglab</note>. The 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Source</hi> class is in charge of managing the low-level data: it is composed of a 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Payload</hi> representing the information conveyed by the textual resource and a
                    <hi rend=""bold"">SourceType</hi> which indicates the nature of the Source (e.g. text, image, audio, etc.). Payload objects (as used in networking) have the only purpose of encapsulating the information. The 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Locus</hi> and the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">P</hi>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">lace</hi>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">OfInterest</hi> (POI) classes identify, through a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">composition pattern</hi>, specific data fragments of the source content, and they are used to establish the boundaries of an 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Annotation</hi>. A chunk of text, for example, can be addressed to by a locus having a POI (of type Sequence of Interest) representing its start and end coordinates. Similarly, a region of an image can be identified by a locus having a POI (of type Region of Interest) composed of a sequence of coordinates. The Locus and POI provide a stand-off text annotation technique able to tackle, for example, the overlapping hierarchies problem, which cannot be handled easily with inline markup techniques (Schmidt, 2010). As a matter of fact, it is possible, simultaneously, to manipulate a resource on the basis of its documental and textual structure (Renear et al., 1996; Robinson, 2013) (see the example in the following section). However, since stand-off models are affected by the issue of the indexing updating, a dedicated component must be in charge of automatically maintaining the coherence of the annotations each time the underlying text is edited.
                </p>
                <p>An Annotation represents an information associated to a locus and is defined by an 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">AnnotationType</hi> (e.g. a token, a lemma, a named entity, etc.). Since the hierarchical structure of the source may evolve over time, the changes to the relative tree must be managed. For example, a tree structure having tokens as leaves could need to be updated with a finer-grained layer of characters (e.g. to assign annotations to specific letters). In this case, the tokens should become intermediate nodes and the characters would become the leaf nodes. Typically, this kind of editing is unpredictable and it often implies heavy adaptations if the software is not flexible enough to manage changes in the underlying text representation schema. Consequently, we decided to exploit the flexibility of the Object Oriented model by adopting the Role Design Pattern (Fowler, 1997) to switch between leaf and intermediate nodes dynamically. This pattern has been implemented by the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">AnnotationRole</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">AnnotationRoleElement</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">AnnotationRoleStructure</hi> classes. Moreover, an annotation is a source in itself (see the inheritance relationship between the Annotation and the Source classes in Fig. 1) and, thus, it can be annotated recursively.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>An Example</head>
                <p>We here introduce an example showing a representation of a snippet of text with annotations. The chosen text is an excerpt of a letter, written in Latin, belonging to the epistolary corpus of the Clavius on the Web project
                    <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2""> Clavius on the Web is a project funded by Registro.it and partecipated by the Institute of Informatics and Telematics (IIT-CNR), the Institute of Computational Linguistics “A. Zampolli” (ILC-CNR), and the Historical Archives of the Pontifical Gregorian University (APUG). Website: http://claviusontheweb.it/</note> (Abrate et al., 2014b). Fig. 2 shows a typical way of encoding sentences and lines with a markup language as TEI (Burnard, 2014): the resulting XML hierarchical structure has been broken by the addition of the line anchors (<lb />) mixing up the textual and documental structure of the text. Indeed, to preserve the integrity of the word “Dinostrati” (spanning across lines 4 and 5), it is necessary to encapsulate it with the element <w />.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""24/10000201000006EC00000398E68D91980964673A.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 2: A standard way of encoding a text with TEI-XML</head>
                    </figure>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""24/1000020100000386000001F5970322C0327A03CA.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 3: Multi-layered stand-off annotation of text</head>
                    </figure>The model we propose solves this problem with the stand-off annotations: as shown in Fig. 3 the document (made of lines) and the textual structure (made of sentences and words) are logically separated. Lines, sentences and words do not overlap and they are structured in separate hierarchies.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Next Steps</head>
                <p>We plan, in future works, to release a first version of a web environment, called 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Omega</hi>, built around the core entities that we here described. The environment will allow to load, index, annotate, and query a textual collection. Furthermore, we’ll carry on the development of modules for text analysis and textual scholarship with the related APIs.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
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                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tulach, J.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Practical API Design: Confessions of a Java Framework Architect</hi>. 1st ed. Berkely, CA, USA: Apress.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2482","17","Detecting Musical Paratext at Scale","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Summary</head>
                <p>In this work we will detail the open source tools, custom code and processing steps that were used to support textual analysis for a Digital Humanities (DH) project. Additionally, a more general genre classification tool will be described which was developed to support a machine learning model. Extensions of this work will be proposed that may allow these tools to identify types of text.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Background</head>
                <p>The Multimedia in the Long 18th Century (Wallace et al., 2015) project is an attempt to automate the process of detecting and quantifying music references in French and English manuscripts written in the ‘Long 18th Century’, a period ranging from 1685 to 1815. Hundreds of thousands of volumes have been scanned to digital image format and are readily available from a number of online sources. The process of automatically analyzing these images and identifying music rendered in standard music notation is relatively trivial. However, the vast majority of music in the corpus is represented as text, often with various keywords or key phrases, i.e. ‘sing the following to the tune of…’. Most people can recognize the difference between poetry, lyrics and prose almost immediately. We assimilate and analyze a large number of clues and usually reach the correct conclusion without conscious effort. This is not the case with the current state of the art in computer technology. While many separate pieces of the solution already exist, gaps still exist. To achieve our goals, it was decided that it would be necessary to leverage the existing work of others while adding a few innovations of our own.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Methods</head>
                <p>We have developed a number of batch-processing tools to retrieve the relevant scanned PDF files from online sources and split them into individual images, each representing one page. We use the open source ImageMagick image processing tools to clean up the images. These are then fed to a customized version of the Tesseract OCR engine. Tesseract performs the optical character recognition (OCR) to convert the source images to HOCR files containing bounding box, plain text and recognition confidence levels for each individual paragraph, line and word. This is used to produce PDF files that duplicate the page layout of the original image and contain searchable text that is typically >90% accurate. We have developed an in-house tool to create training data for the machine learning (ML) algorithms used later on. The tool has a user interface that displays both the original image and the formatted PDF side by side. This tool allows the user to choose a category such as: lyrics, poetry, key word, key phrase, etc. The user is able to select regions of the page encompassing anywhere from a single word to the entire page. This generates a very fine-grained database, accurate to within a single word. This database is subsequently used to train the ML engine and to perform validation of the automated classification algorithms. Similar solutions typically have the users classify sections by operating on the page after it has been processed by the OCR engine. This can lead to misclassifications when the OCR results have numerous misspellings or imprecise page layout formatting. We have the user perform the manual classification on the original page images. This provides precise control and future proofing against improvements in OCR techniques. We employ a multi-pronged, multi-pass approach in order to differentiate music lyrics from other types of verse or prose. We perform detailed shape analysis to identify sections of text that 'look' like some form of verse. Symmetry, right and left indentation, relative length of alternating lines and other shape factors are examined. We look at letter casing based on the OCR-processed version. As a result we achieve 90-100% correct identification of structured verse for almost every volume with a relatively small number of false positives. Once we have identified sections of verses, we used a number of empirically determined factors such as relative word frequency, occurrence of n-grams, proximity of keywords/key phrases and comparison to databases of known song lyrics.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Future Development</head>
                <p>We are continuing to fine-tune our model, especially in our ability to handle poorly scanned or otherwise non-conforming documents. All software and techniques that we have developed will be made publicly available so that we can share the results of our efforts and with the hope that others will feel free to contribute. Beyond music detection, we see a number of potential applications in the Digital Humanities. The training set region selection can be used just as easily to select features in cuneiform script or Norse runes.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wallace, J., Sanders, S. and Boettcher, M.</hi> (2015). Multi-Media in the Long Eighteenth Century, In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DLFM’15 Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on Digital Libraries for Musicology</hi>, pp. 29-32.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2483","17","Deux Projets D'Édition Numérique Dans Le Cadre Du Projet SyMoGIH: Le Journal De Léonard Michon Et Les Actes Des Synodes Des Églises Réformées De Bourgogne","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Le portail d'édition numérique de sources, 
                <ref target=""http://xml-portal.symogih.org/"">
                    <hi rend=""Lien_Internet"">http://xml-portal.symogih.org/</hi>
                </ref>
                <hi rend=""Lien_Internet"">,</hi> que nous présentons aux DH2016 au travers de deux projets d’édition numérique n'est pas un outil de visualisation d'images ou de textes comme pourraient l'être des systèmes de type Omeka ou Drupal. Il s’agit de mettre à disposition de manière dynamique à la fois le texte d'une source mais aussi les données d’une base relationnelle qui constituent son apparat critique. Il faut concevoir ce portail d'édition davantage comme une brique de développement du projet symogih.org. 
            </p>
            <p>Le 
                <ref target=""http://symogih.org/"">
                    <hi rend=""Lien_Internet"">projet symogih.org</hi>
                </ref> (Système Modulaire de Gestion de l'Information Historique) a développé un modèle générique de stockage des données historiques permettant leur interopérabilité et leur publication [
                <ref target=""http://symogih.org/"">http://symogih.org/</ref>, tous les sites web ont été consultés le 30 octobre 2015]. À partir de ce modèle a été mis en place un système d'information collaboratif pour la recherche en histoire qui est aujourd'hui utilisé par 15 projets de recherche et environ 50 utilisateurs individuels. La plateforme du projet symogih.org offre un outillage numérique accessible et pérenne pour le stockage et la publication de données extraites de l'étude de documents archivistiques et bibliographiques. Il est possible d'intégrer des données de nature variée qui décrivent l'activité humaine, sociale, économique ou intellectuelle rassemblant, autour d'événements datés et sourcés, des acteurs individuels ou collectifs, des concepts ou des objets géographiques. Le système autorise également l'
                <ref target=""https://groupes.renater.fr/wiki/symogih/symogih_manuel/edition_de_textes_en_xml-tei"">
                    <hi rend=""Lien_Internet"">articulation de ces données avec des textes codés en XML</hi>
                </ref> – traités selon les recommandations de la Text Encoding Initiative [
                <ref target=""https://groupes.renater.fr/wiki/symogih/symogih_manuel/edition_de_textes_en_xml-tei"">
                    <hi rend=""Lien_Internet"">https://groupes.renater.fr/wiki/symogih/symogih_manuel/edition_de_textes_en_xml-tei</hi>
                </ref>] – ou encore la mise en relation avec des images et leurs métadonnées. La réalisation d'un 
                <ref target=""http://geo-larhra.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/"">
                    <hi rend=""Lien_Internet"">système d'information géographique</hi>
                </ref> (SIG) [
                <ref target=""http://geo-larhra.org/"">http://geo-larhra.org/</ref>] joue un rôle essentiel dans ce modèle afin d'associer à ces différents objets leur “empreinte spatiale” et ainsi permettre des analyses spatiales diachroniques.
            </p>
            <p>L'un des derniers développements du projet symogih.org a été la mise en ligne d'un 
                <ref target=""http://xml-portal.symogih.org/web-publications.html"">
                    <hi rend=""Lien_Internet"">portail de publication des éditions numériques</hi>
                </ref> élaborées au sein du LARHRA. Si symogih.org permettait aux chercheurs de mettre à disposition les données structurées issues de leur travail analytique, le portail d'édition rend désormais possible la contextualisation d'une source écrite grâce à ces mêmes données. Les textes encodés en XML/TEI sont stockés sur un serveur eXist-db à partir duquel sont développés différents services (visualisations du texte et des données, géolocalisation, possibilité d'export, moteur de recherche). Le point de jonction entre le texte numérique et la base de données se situe à l'intérieur même des balises TEI où sont intégrés les identifiants du système d'information qui font le lien avec les données structurées. Des fonctionnalités de visualisation peuvent être développées à partir des textes encodés stockés dans une base de données native XML, offrant davantage d'interactivité avec les données et augmentant l'expérience de lecture. De plus, grâce aux technologies web, via les langages XQuery + HTML/Javascript, le portail d'édition numérique permet de collecter des données au-delà du référentiel commun de symogih.org directement à partir du web de données (DBpedia, IdRef, ...). 
            </p>
            <p>À ce jour, la partie publique du portail recueille deux projets, l'un d'édition de sources (les 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mémoires</hi> de Léonard Michon), l'autre d'annotation sémantique et de contextualisation de documents concernant l'histoire des savoirs scientifiques à l'époque moderne (Society religion science) [
                <ref target=""http://xml-portal.symogih.org/web-publications.html"">
                    <hi rend=""Lien_Internet"">http://xml-portal.symogih.org/web-publications.html</hi>
                </ref>]. Un troisième projet d'édition de documents est en cours d'élaboration et verra bientôt le jour : l'édition des Actes des synodes des églises réformées de Bourgogne.
            </p>
            <p>L'édition numérique des 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mémoires</hi> de Léonard Michon fait partie d'une recherche doctorale [Letricot, Rosemonde. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Édition critique numérique des </hi>Mémoires
                <hi rend=""italic""> de Léonard Michon (1715-1746).</hi> Sous la direction de Hours, Bernard. Université Jean Moulin Lyon 3, LARHRA UMR5190] qui vise à mettre à disposition du public et de la communauté scientifique l'édition critique du Journal historique d'un notable lyonnais relatant la vie des élites bourgeoises de la ville de Lyon de la première moitié du XVIIIe siècle. Le travail d'encodage XML/TEI s'est principalement centré sur l'identification des segments d'information et des entités nommées (personnes, institutions, lieux, etc.) ce qui permettra de recourir à des analyses quantitatives sur les pratiques d'écriture (fréquence, récurrence de noms, etc.) et sur la nature des informations données dans l'ouvrage, que nous pourrons ensuite traduire en parcours de lecture pour le public (parcours thématique, biographique, chronologique, etc.).
            </p>
            <p>Quant aux Actes des synodes des églises réformées, ils représentent une source essentielle pour la connaissance du protestantisme français sous l’Ancien Régime. Ces assemblées réunissent régulièrement des représentants de toutes les églises d’une province pour traiter des affaires qui leur sont communes : questions financières, disciplinaires, doctrinales, etc. Si les sources sur le protestantisme français font l’objet d’une édition chez Droz dans une sous-série de la collection “Travaux d’Humanisme et Renaissance” intitulée “Archives des Églises réformées de France”, il n’y avait pas de projet en Humanités numériques sur le sujet [Une édition “papier” des Actes des Synodes Provinciaux des Églises Réformées est en cours chez Droz, le premier volume édité par Didier Boisson a été publié en 2012 et concerne l’Anjou-Touraine-Maine (1594-1683). Le second volume proposera les actes des églises de Bourgogne et sera édité par Yves Krumenacker]. Ce sera bientôt le cas avec l'édition sur le portail XML du projet symogih.org des Actes des synodes des églises réformées de Bourgogne au XVIIe siècle, réalisée sous la direction de Yves Krumenacker de l'Université Jean Moulin Lyon 3.</p>
            <p>Ces deux projets d'édition ne se limitent pas à la seule publication de sources mais proposent une édition enrichie par des renseignements récoltés dans des sources complémentaires, saisis dans la base collaborative du projet symogih.org et utilisés non seulement pour préciser l'un ou l'autre renseignement fourni par le texte, selon la démarche d'annotation classique d’une édition papier, mais en proposant également une explication contextuelle dynamique – que permet l'édition numérique – en croisant toute sorte de données et tout en conservant leur traçabilité, par l'enregistrement des sources et de la bibliographie pour chaque information. Il est ainsi possible de reconstituer, par exemple, la généalogie et la carrière d’un pasteur, ou sa bibliographie [L’utilisation d’une base de données collaborative et cumulative permettant de multiplier les sources : journal de pasteur (Bernus, Auguste (1888). Le ministre Antoine de Chandieu d'après son journal autographe inédit 1534-1591. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Bulletin historique et littéraire publié par la Société de l'histoire du protestantisme français</hi>, Tome XXXVII), sources régionales (Papillon, Philibert (1742). 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Bibliothèque des auteurs de Bourgogne</hi>. Dijon: Philippe Marteret), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Registres de la Compagnie des pasteurs de Genève</hi>, édités chez Droz].
            </p>
            <p>Les lieux mentionnés dans les écrits et dans la documentation annexe, sont renseignés et géolocalisés dans le 
                <ref target=""http://geo-larhra.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/?q=gazetteer/named-places"">
                    <hi rend=""Lien_Internet"">gazeteer du projet symogih.org</hi>
                </ref>. À partir des données spatiales encodées dans le texte XML, on pourra ainsi réaliser des cartes interactives illustrant différents aspects du codage : villes organisatrices des synodes, lieux d'origine des pasteurs, carte des églises absentes, parcours professionnels des pasteurs. Des fonctions interactives permettront de rebondir de la carte vers les textes ou les informations respectives.
            </p>
            <p>Nous soulignerons lors de la présentation l'apport de la visualisation dynamique des documents pour les deux éditions, chacune avec ces spécificités. En particulier, l'intégration directe des données de la recherche permet une plus grande interactivité : l’apparat critique peut être à tout moment complété au fil des découvertes des chercheurs par la mobilisation simultanée de données provenant d'un silo d'information commun. De plus, les interfaces de visualisation spatiale, ou les graphes mettant en évidence les relations entre les textes et leurs contenus, facilitent l'accès aux documents édités. Les nombreuses possibilités d'enrichissement et d'exploitation des textes amènent les chercheurs en histoire, mais aussi le public, à une découverte sous d'autres angles et avec de nouvelles perspectives du contenu des textes édités. </p>
            <p>Nous souhaitons montrer l’apport pour la recherche historique d’un portail d'édition numérique de sources, en insistant sur les bénéfices d'une utilisation croisée de textes encodés en XML/TEI et d'une base de données collaborative. Les projets présentés permettent de retracer le processus de traitement de l'information, de la source à son édition numérique dynamique. </p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2484","17","Developing Local Digital Humanities Communities: The Atlanta Studies Network","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Atlanta might be best known around the world because it was burnt down during the Civil War. While many residents imagine that General Sherman’s march to the sea is the reason we have so few historic buildings, the fact is the city has recreated itself repeatedly, knocking down the old and building the new. This trend has led many scholars interested in the city to turn to digital tools to better research and tell the stories of the city.</p>
            <p>What started as a series of projects and platforms within the silos of departments and institutions at Georgia State University (GSU) and Emory, has turned into a broadly interdisciplinary network of Digital Humanities scholars and instructors across local institutions. This panel will explore the possibilities that arise when scholars in many disciplines from universities in the same city combine resources and begin to build projects and platforms with a local audience in mind.  The panel will begin with an overview of the network, and then, one or two speakers from different institutions and disciplines will discuss each of the following sections. Each topic will be under 10 minutes to allow for discussion during and after each presentation.</p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Sharing collections</head>
                <p>The first part of building our network began through dialogue between Emory and GSU scholars about digitizing archival collections, technical opportunities to produce and share spatial data and maps, and a search for ways to collaborate.</p>
                <p>At Emory much of this process was centered on the digitization of a 
                    <ref target=""http://disc.library.emory.edu/atlantamaps/"">1928 Atlas of Atlanta and Vicinity</ref>, which was the most comprehensive topographic mapping of the city. Over several years Emory students and staff produced a geodatabase with several thematic layers including the street networks, streetcar and rail lines, and building footprints to name a few. The digitization of map collections at Emory has opened new avenues to explore the original content and has amplified the opportunities in the area of digital heritage of Atlanta.
                </p>
                <p>GSU’s 
                    <ref target=""http://digitalcollections.library.gsu.edu/cdm/planningatl"">Planning Atlanta: A New City in the Making, 1930s – 1990s</ref> is a digital collection of material related to city planning and urban development in Atlanta. The collection consists of city planning maps and publications, demographic data, photographs depicting planning activities, oral histories, and aerial photographs. This NEH funded project sought to move beyond the traditional digital library model of simply providing digital equivalents of tangible objects. This city planning focused collection provides open access to digitally transformed, dynamic, and engaging content with the goal of enhancing this material for educational and research uses.
                </p>
                <p>During the 1970s, GSU archaeologists, led by Dr. Roy Dickens, conducted excavations associated with the construction of the MARTA rail lines, a major city planning initiative. These materials, over 100,000 artifacts and all the accompanying documentation, represent the single most comprehensive archaeological collection of Atlanta’s history. The new efforts to work with this legacy collection are dubbed the 
                    <ref target=""http://anthropology.gsu.edu/phoenix-lab/"">Phoenix Collection</ref> because, like Atlanta itself, this collection is being reborn. The collection’s broader significance stems from the insight it can provide into the development of Atlanta. Because these archaeological materials have accompanying contextual data, they can more easily be connected with other datasets, such as development maps and historical texts, to create a more holistic understanding of the various processes that shaped the development of the city.
                </p>
                <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""472/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <lb/>
                    <head>Figure1. Doll head from Phoenix Collection.</head>
                </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Creating platforms</head>
                <p>While digitizing material is crucial for research, making archives more available is only a first step. Instructors and researchers from diverse disciplines found the need to develop platforms for using, sharing, and curating data and archives from different collections.</p>
                <p>Discussions about the projects between both institutions and the need to engage the public about Atlanta’s history and contemporary scholarship led to the launch of the 
             <ref target=""http://atlantastudies.org"">Atlanta Studies</ref> website, an open access, digital publication that any scholar of Atlanta can contribute to. The site hosts many of the projects that make use of the resources and platforms highlighted in this panel and provides a venue for cross-disciplinary work, collaborative institutional work, and public scholarship.
                </p>
                <p>Drawing from the collections of GSU and Emory, the 
                    <ref target=""http://atlmaps.com"">ATLmaps</ref> web application combines archival maps, geospatial data visualization, and user contributed multimedia location “pinpoints” to promote investigation into any number of issues about Atlanta. This innovative online platform allows users to layer an increasing number of interdisciplinary data to address the complex issues that cities pose. The project encourages knowledgeable members of the university and local communities to curate data on the site to demonstrate the possibilities for synthesizing material across projects, institutions, disciplines, and data types.
                </p>
                <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""472/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <lb/>
                    <head>Figure 2. Screenshot of an ATLmaps project.</head>
                </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Emory’s 
                    <ref target=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A3NBdi5B6EQ"">Atlanta 3D Explorer</ref> is an interactive virtual city circa 1930 built off the 1928 map. The application incorporates the data from the Emory produced geodatabases and historic geocoders in order to create an application that allows users to engage with the content at 3 levels, a map viewer of all atlas pages combined, a 3D city model, and an immersive 3D exploration environment. The third level provides an immersive experience that seeks to recreate street scenes around Atlanta.
                </p>
                <p>In conjunction, a team of students at GSU began building an 
                    <ref target=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gy86AHaIzTY&feature=youtu.be"">interactive and immersive 3D version of downtown Atlanta from the late 1920s</ref>. The project focuses on city blocks that GSU currently occupies and allows students to explore the history of the area using the Unity gaming engine. Classes in Archaeology, History, and English will eventually help in the research and construction of this 3D environment. Plans are currently being established as to how to integrate these two projects.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Developing a digital pedagogy community</head>
                <p>The traditional research and communication skills generally taught in humanities disciplines are crucial to an undergraduate education, but it has become increasingly evident that digital literacy and citizenship need to be integrated into the curriculum. This need runs into the problem that in many humanities departments (where basic academic skills are often taught), digital scholarship is sometimes undervalued, underutilized, and misunderstood.  Instructors experienced in or curious about using and teaching digital tools in their classes sometimes lack a community in their own departments or institutions.  
                    <ref target=""http://atlcl.org"">Atlanta Connected Learning</ref> is a collegial network of university faculty, staff, and graduate students from schools in the Atlanta area interested in digital pedagogy, scholarship, and networked collaboration. Since 2012 participants from ATLCL have been instrumental in organizing monthly digital pedagogy meetups, faculty development initiatives, and several smaller academic colloquia.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Developing a local studies pedagogy community</head>
                <p>Students learn more if they feel the work they are doing is meaningful and has a real audience. As we have become more aware of ourselves as a network of scholars and instructors, we have begun to connect the Atlanta-based projects we are working on to classrooms. We are currently building a site to connect classes to local projects, resources, and experts that are relevant to the skills and content taught in various courses and disciplines. One example is GSU students in advanced 
                    <ref target=""http://atlantaartifacts.net"">multimodal composition courses</ref> are studying specific artifacts from the Phoenix Collection and are creating 3D digital surrogates of these objects through both laser scanning and Structure from Motion techniques. The Phoenix Project provides a visceral means of connecting with the public and bringing to life the past in a way that historical texts alone cannot.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Producing projects</head>
                <p>The network that has organically formed over the past five years from the creation and combining of Atlanta-based platforms is now consciously developing projects based on the network that has formed across institutions and disciplines.  Scholars, artists, and community leaders have started to contact and join the group understanding the possibility of developing massive projects that are only possible with a great deal of expertise, equipment, and labor.</p>
                <p>The first project to intentionally tap into the resources of the network is 
                    <ref target=""https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/unpackingmanuels/"">Unpacking Manuel’s Tavern</ref>.  Students of history, political science, urban planning, sociology, film, architecture, computing and other disciplines will work independently or in the classroom to “unpack” the organic archive that has accumulated over 60 years on the walls of Manuel’s Tavern, a bar that has played a significant role in the politics, culture, and history of Atlanta.  Faculty and staff from local universities have created a gigapixel map of the tavern walls and a Unity-based 3D scan of the building. Students, directed by instructors from several disciplines, can then choose images they wish to research and compose content for pop-out metadata pages including text, video, interviews and links to other sources from local, national and international archives.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                    <graphic url=""472/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <lb/>
                    <head>Figure 3. Screenshot of a Manuel’s Tavern gigapan.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2485","17","Complex networks-based approach to Russian rhyme history description: linguostatistics and database","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Russian rhyme was described thoroughly in the 20th century, especially by M. Gasparov (Gasparov, 2000). Though we now have a powerful tool to analyze rhymes further in the form of the poetic corpus of the Russian National Corpus (henceforth RNC), not much recent research has been carried out in this area (Orekhov, 2015). As I am particularly interested in visualizing corpus data, I applied graphs to rhyme analysis. </p>
                <p>Rhymes are convenient entities to be described in graph terms. In a rhyming pair, words are nodes, and rhyme relationship between them is an edge between nodes. Certain properties can be assigned to the nodes and to the edges. For example, word nodes may contain grammatical information and rhyme edges may bear all the rhyme classification (meter, position, etc.). </p>
                <p>Furthermore, nowadays, there are tools available for storing graph information in a database. Information from such databases can be retrieved easily and in several formats. </p>
                <p>My aim was to build a graph database using the data from the poetic corpus of the RNC. I want to show that the manual research done previously can be supported and extended in a vivid graphic way.</p>
                <p>Graphs can provide us with much information about rhyme diachrony:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Degree of connectivity in different periods (different rhyming tendencies); </item>
                    <item>The longest path (chain of rhymes) and clusterization (popular rhymes in different periods);</item>
                    <item>Tendency flow from exact rhymes to inexact (requested by parameter of exactness in the different periods);</item>
                    <item>Appearance of the dissonance rhymes;</item>
                    <item>Tendency flow in rhyming types, position;</item>
                    <item>Domination of a certain rhyming type within the rhymes of one poet.</item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Data</head>
                <p>The whole poetic corpus of the RNC was used for analysis. The data covers 775 Russian authors, born between 1658—1939. Overall, the corpus contains 85,996 documents, 229,968,798 words.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Analysis</head>
                <p>Technical work included the following steps:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Transcribing words in a rhyme position; </item>
                    <item>Retrieving rhymes from poems according to the phonetic transcription;</item>
                    <item>Rhyme classification;</item>
                    <item>Building new nodes and edges in the graph database.</item>
                </list>
                <p>I used Python for rhyme extraction and classification and a Neo4j database for storing the data. </p>
                <p>As I could not find any available modules for Russian transcription, I made this module myself using the transcribing rules from [http://www.philol.msu.ru/~fonetica/index.htm]. The module takes into account almost every rule, but the exception word lists are quite small. </p>
                <p>The rhyme extraction algorithm I used was the following. The Python program finds all the tags <rhyme-zone> (tagged everywhere except blank verse) in the XML documents with poems (last words in lines). Then the program tries to find a possible rhyming pair within 4 lines before and after the current rhyme-zone word. Afterwards comes the transcriptions comparison; if stressed vowels are the same, then the process of classification begins. If the stressed vowels are different, then the dissonance rhyming type is checked.</p>
                <p>The classification of the rhymes was based on (Surkov, 1962), (Kvjatkovskij, 1966) and (Timofeev, 1935). I took 8 parameters into account:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Exactness (exact or inexact); </item>
                    <item>Richness (rich or poor);</item>
                    <item>Depth (deep or not);</item>
                    <item>Ending (open or closed);</item>
                    <item>Position of the stressed vowel (male, female, dactyl, hyperdactyl);</item>
                    <item>Rhyming type (paired, crossed, encircling);</item>
                    <item>Assonance;</item>
                    <item>Dissonance.</item>
                </list>
                <p>As soon as a new rhyming pair is found and classified, new nodes and edges are automatically created in the graph database. If any of the words existed in the database before, then an edge is created to the existing node; otherwise, a new node is created.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results</head>
                <p>For now, I have rendered several graph images for certain poets with approximately 30% of their rhymes. In Figure 1 there are 2570 rhymes from the poems of P. Vjazemskij. Figure 2 shows 3866 rhymes from the poetry of A. Pushkin. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""342/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1. Graph of the 2570 P. Vjazemskij's rhymes</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""342/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2. Graph of the 3866 A. Pushkin's rhymes</head>
                </figure>
                <p>From the figures, we can see that connectivity in Pushkin's graph is much higher than in Vjazemskij's graph. Furthermore, the graph of Vjazemskij's rhymes demonstrates certain clusters which can be analyzed in detail.</p>
                <p>I plan to continue my research and obtain other graphs for the whole epoch. I hope that further work will provide the information I listed in the introductory part, especially regarding connectivity and clusterization over different time periods. Quantitative analysis remains to be done as well. Firstly, I would like to look at the graph patterns, and then go deeper into calculations of graph characteristics and their interpretations.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gasparov, M.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Očerk istorii russkogo stikha</hi> [Studies of the Russian verse history]. Fortuna limited.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kvjatkovskij, A.</hi> (1966). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Poetičeskij slovar'</hi> [Poetic dictionary]. Sovetskaja Enciklopedija.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Orekhov, B.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ešče raz ob issledovatel'skom potenciale poetičeskogo korpusa: metr, leksika, formula</hi> [One more time about the research potential of the poetic corpus: meter, lexicon, formula]. Russian National Corpus, in print.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Surkov, A.</hi> (1962). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Kratkaja literaturnaja enciklopedija</hi> [Short literary encyclopedia], 1. Sovetskaja enciklopedija.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Timofeev, L.</hi> (1935). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literaturnaja enciklopedija</hi> [Literary encyclopedia], 9. Sovetskaja enciklopedija.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2486","17","Digging the Aboveground: Visual Archeology of an Asylum","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Psychiatric practice during the nineteenth century was closely engrained in the spaces of the asylum. Envisioned as “therapeutic instruments” in and of themselves, asylums boomed all around the world: some were purpose-built, some were existing buildings repurposed as asylums. But how did these institutions really function? How was psychiatry practiced here?</p>
            <p>Our proposal reports a work in progress that visualizes the evolution and workings of a nineteenth century Ottoman asylum. Located in Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, it was used as the state mental hospital between 1873 and 1922. The building is originally a sixteenth century imperial complex by the famous Ottoman court architect Mimar Sinan (1489-1588) and is still standing albeit currently under heavy and damaging restoration. Research shows that during the time of its use as an asylum, the building changed significantly to enable its medical function. Indeed, it is precisely through the changing of the building one can demonstrate the medicalization and modernization of Ottoman psychiatry during this period. In this sense, our case study does not visualize an ""ideal"" asylum nor is it a search for the ""original"" complex; on the contrary, it analyzes a neglected and messy phase of an existing building's life. Traditionally perceived as a “corruption” in the original structure, we take the period it was used to treat the insane as a story worth being told. </p>
            <p>The information is gathered from a detailed research of primary archival and printed sources involving multiple disciplines: medicine, psychiatry and architecture. These sources include: (1) Ottoman and Turkish official documents kept in the Prime Minister's Archives: Correspondences between state departments giving details about the running of mental institutions, spatial interventions, and concerns over public health; (2) Medical publications of the period: Visitor accounts by physicians, medical writings discussing approaches in psychiatry, and comparative reports on the current conditions of asylums around the world; (3) Popular media: Newspaper articles and travel accounts.</p>
            <p>The project is located at the intersection of architectural and medical history; however, it is primarily using the toolset of architectural history. Partly stemming from the demands of the field and partly due to the nature of the project itself, one of the major concerns is the visualization of findings. In line with architects' particular understanding of visualization, the first resort was experimenting with various 2D and perspectival illustration techniques. 2D depictions (i.e. plan, façade, elevation) have been the mode of representation for centuries in the field of architecture. Perspective was a welcome addition with the development of linear, or mathematical, perspective in the fifteenth century. Computational 3D modeling and visual simulation (rendering) has become the norm starting from the 1990s. Despite its popularity in architectural practice and education, the use of 3D computation has, until recently, been relatively underutilized in architectural history.</p>
            <p>Scholars in architectural history and in the neighbouring fields of art history and archeology have recently been using methodologies and approaches to integrate innovative technologies in historical research. From virtual reconstruction to web-based panoramas, geospatial modeling to photogrammetry, the virtual creation of static environments to interactive ones, these studies appear in multiple platforms and venues related to digital humanities, digital art history, architectural computation etc. In the mainstream publications of architectural history, an important milestone was the publication of an article that featured real-time interactive simulations of the Roman Forum presenting a hypothetical reconstruction of a funeral ceremony in the Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians (JSAH) (Favro and Johanson, 2010). Another outstanding project that addressed issues of time and movement was ""The Virtual Monastery"" that focused on a single structure to analyse the workings of a building type through ages (Bonde et al., 2009).</p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Visualizing the findings</head>
                <p>In our project, we faced several challenges to demonstrate the findings with methods traditionally used in architectural history. Ottoman mental facilities in general, and our case study in particular (especially the period that we are focusing on), is largely understudied compared to the aforementioned examples of the Roman Forum or monasteries. All the findings come from primary sources that are incomplete in nature. Moreover, the sources are predominantly textual with limited visual resources describing various states of the building. The historical layers added to the building render conventional visualization methods ineffectual. As a response to these challenges and the resulting complicated presentation of findings, the project employs an interactive 3D simulation toolset built within Unity 3D that allows visualizing hypothetical spatial reconstructions and trajectory tracking all continuously referring to temporal data and incorporating primary documents. Our interactive simulation framework builds on these efforts creating the ability to navigate in four dimensions simultaneously and without restriction:</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">1 Temporal dimension: </hi>Instead of the traditional interest in finding out about the “original” building, this approach looks at the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">life of a building</hi> and how it changed over time. The method we propose for Unity is to implement a time slider component into the viewing user interface (UI). This component controls the visibility of architectural changes at distinct time periods. In this project, we have identified four specific points in time wherein primary sources identify distinct architectural states. The timeline UI is enabled by including time data within the model data. In the 3D modeling or 3D data acquisition phase, model elements are tagged with custom properties coded to our tool. These custom properties represent abstract metadata defining the start and end date for the object(s) (for temporal properties), the orientation point for the object(s) (for geospatial locating), as well as any descriptive information all of which become native to the file. 
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">2 Reconstructed trajectories:</hi> Instead of treating space as an isolated entity, this approach captures the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">life in the building</hi>. By tracing the movement of the occupiers of the space, we know more about their lives. The everyday life in the asylum consisted of the acts and movements of its occupiers, in this case, patients, doctors and the staff. By tracing their movements and visualizing them, it becomes possible to have a better understanding of the daily routines (eating, cleaning, sleeping etc.) in addition to the medical treatments that took place through a certain reorganization of space and time. This setting is particularly illuminating as it was assumed at the time that the life and routines of patients in the asylum were crucial components of the healing process.The user interface (UI) enables diagrammatic circulation indicators for each of the four points in time to be visible at the viewer’s discretion. 
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">3 Cross-referencing data:</hi> In addition to the ability to preview time and movement, the interactive functionality in Unity allows the viewer to select the information relevant to the simulation viewed at any time. The ability to combine text as hyperlinked visual overlays and graphic information enables important reference texts and images to be associated with spatial and temporal elements and viewed when desired. One advantage of this presentation method is the ability to break free from the linear structure of a textual manuscript. One can interact with the information presented in a nonlinear way (albeit guided). By cross-referencing various types of information, we aim to create a system that binds or connects these documents and data sets in meaningful ways.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <lb/>
                    <graphic url=""518/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: Simulation User Interface Mockup (B. Ozludil, U. Thompson, A. Wendell). Photograph source: Sihhat Almanaki, 1933.</head>
                </p>
                <p>We do not intend the spatiotemporal model to be the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">primary</hi> outcome, but rather a platform inviting interpretation and scholarship through the combined textual and visual data. In line with the ontological approach adopted in digital humanities, the ever-evolving outcome is a “knowledge representation, a hypothesis” not a re-creation of reality (Bonde et al., 2009). The relationship between the representation and its referent also calls into question producing knowledge with partial data, which is not uncommon in (conventional or digital) historical scholarship. Both possibilities and risks exist in 3D visualization with partial data. 3D models give the opportunity to relate to the building without the trained eye to ""read"" 2D representations. Risk is related: 3D creates a sense of absolute masking the hypothetical elements within. Being aware of this danger, the project aims to visually clarify the “known” versus “unknown” using graphic coloration indicating the extent of “known” detail.
                </p>
                <p>The tool we propose visualizes temporally-located spatial data that allows multiple readings and interpretations, and that is open to manipulation, rather than a mere representation of a space. Doing so will open the approach to more disciplines and interested parties, and while still technical in nature, will provide a platform for historical spatial research. This work can be shared with other digital humanities scholars employing Unity or similar tools. Integrating innovative technologies in historical research has the potential to change the ways in which we conceptualize and tackle the problem at hand. In other words, rather than being ""tools"" to accomplish what is predetermined, they open up new ways to think and to produce knowledge.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Alkhoven, P.</hi> (1991). The Reconstruction of the Past: The Application of New Techniques for Visualization and Research in Architectural History. <hi rend=""italic"">Computer Aided Architectural Design Futures: Education, Research, Applications</hi>. Zürich (Switzerland), pp. 549-566.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boeykens, S. and Neuckermans, H.</hi> (2009). Architectural design analysis, historical reconstruction and structured archival using 3D models: Techniques, methodology and long term preservation of digital models. In Tidafi, T. and Dorta, T. (Eds.) Joining Languages, <hi rend=""italic"">Cultures and Visions: CAADFutures 2009</hi>, PUM, pp. 119-32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bonde, S., Clark M., Elli M. and Julia F.</hi> (2009). The Virtual Monastery: Re-Presenting Time, Human Movement, and Uncertainty at Saint-Jean-des-Vignes, Soissons. Visual Resources:<hi rend=""italic""> An International Journal of Documentation</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(4): 363–77.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bourdakis, V. and Pentazou, I.</hi> (2012). Real City Museum/Virtual City Model: Real Datasets/Virtual Interactions. In Achten, H., Pavlicek, J., Hulin, J. and Matejovska, D. (Eds.), <hi rend=""italic""> Digital Physicality - Proceedings of the 30th eCAADe Conference</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>, pp. 337-41.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Drucker, J.</hi> (2013). Is There a ""Digital"" Art History?. Visual Resources: <hi rend=""italic"">An International Journal of Documentation</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi> (1-2): 5-13.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Favro, D. and Johanson, C.</hi> (2010). Death in Motion: Funeral Processions in the Roman Forum. <hi rend=""italic""> Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">69</hi>(1): 12-37.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gill, A. A.</hi> (2009). Digitizing the Past: Charting New Courses in the Modeling of Virtual Landscapes. Visual Resources:<hi rend=""italic"">  An International Journal of Documentation</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(4): 313-32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kalay, Y., Kinayoglu, G. and Kim, S. W.</hi> (2005). Spatio-Temporally Navigable Representation and Communication of Urban Cultural Heritage. Proceedings:<hi rend=""italic"">  VSMM 2005 International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia</hi>. Ghent, Belgium, pp. 145-52.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Osman, M.</hi> (1933). Sihhat Almanaki. Kader Matbaasi, Istanbul.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2487","17","Digital Folkloristics: the Use of Computational Methods in Revealing the Characteristics of Folkloric Communication","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Panel Topic</head>
                <p>Folkloric communication is a specific mode of social interaction that uses existing knowledge and creatively adapts it to particular situations, audience, and intent. It always includes some repetition and some innovation or, in other words, as Michel de Certeau (1984) expresses it in his study of everyday practices, the main attribute of cultural transmission is the changing nature of everything that is being passed on.</p>
                <p>The questions of authorship, stylistics and variation in time and space have been discussed and problematized in folklore studies for over a hundred years. Digital era has brought along mass digitization of cultural heritage documents and the compilation of folklore databases and text corpora (see e.g. Schmitt, 2014). However, the use of computational methods in researching folklore and its specifics has thus far been modest. The intention of this panel is to discuss the possibilities that computational methods have to offer in revealing the inherent qualities of folkloric communication in various text collections and research corpora. The participants of the panel deal with different source data including archival records and publications as well as contemporary social media. They discuss different aspects of folkloric communication and variation, contributing together to a general insight into these processes.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The Panel: speakers and contributions</head>
                <p>In this panel, the participants will introduce their projects, data, methods and research results to contextualize and elicit a discussion on the state-of-the-art in digital folkloristics, and on possible ways forward.</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Mari Sarv</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Risto Järv</hi> (Estonian Literary Museum) analyse the essence of 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">folkloric variation</hi> relying on the text corpora from the collections of Estonian Folklore Archives. The Estonian Runic Songs’ database (1996-2015) contains ca. 100,000 poetic texts, and the database of folk tales consists of 11,000 tales (both together with metadata). Previous studies of folksongs have shown that the statistical analysis of poetical features of songs as well as their content allows us to locate their geographical origin (i.e. tracing the belonging of songs to the tradition of a local community) quite precisely. At the same time there are clear differences in the geographical distribution of linguistic-poetical features, especially compared to the elements of content. The stylistic analysis of folklore texts enables us to find out how much the personal style of performer is revealed in folkloric recordings of traditional plots (‘types’ in the folkloristic discourse). The potential of computational methods to tackle the dichotomy of stability and variation in the folkloric communication poses a most intriguing challenge.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Kati Kallio</hi> (Finnish Literary Society) will discuss 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">the characteristics of oral poetry</hi>, including complex patterns of variation and tricky definitions of authorship, and concentrate on the challenges posed by of the SKVR-corpus of Finnic oral poetry (see also Digital Archive of Finnish Folk Tunes). The corpus represents various languages and dialects, orthographies, personal writing styles and traces of different modes of performance, but is held together by similar poetic registers. For this kind of specific poetic register in several related small languages and across a wide variety of genres, no ready-made tools for computational linguistic analysis exists. On the other hand, the corpus already includes a detailed thematic index, and the researchers have applied various manual methods to the corpus for hundred years. What kinds of new questions could be answered with computational methods? The author will present some test analyses and discuss the future possibilities of digital folkloristics on oral poetry.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Greta Franzini</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Emily Franzini </hi>(Göttingen Centre for Digital Humanities) will elaborate on two research projects focusing on the computational interrogation of folktale collections and corpora. Using the Brothers Grimm’s Kinder- und Hausmärchen as a case study and base reference, one project addresses the popularization of fairy tale motifs triggered by the Brothers, and seeks to algorithmically crawl web corpora to study the global network of motifs. Motifs form the significant set of “key words” of a tale. In order to systematically crawl for parallel texts, we prepare a digital, machine-readable and -citable index in different languages. TRACER as a text reuse framework is used to check if a document contains similar keywords or describes the same tale. It implements a seven-layer approach combining segmentation, preprocessing, featuring, selection, linking, scoring, and postprocessing steps. The other project examines the textual evolution of the Kinder- und Hausmärchen, starting with the first edition published in 1812 to the seventh and last in 1857. The number of fairy tales grew with every edition, and the numerous changes the Brothers made over the decades in terms of both style and content were symptomatic of societal interest and development. These seven editions represent an ideal testbed not only to computationally verify existing research about this progression but also to identify and distinguish the authorial and stylistic fingerprints of Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm. The discussion will demonstrate the possibilities afforded by the Digital Humanities to conduct 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">web-scale</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Big Data</hi> research. 
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Liisi Laineste</hi> (Estonian Literary Museum) is applying the methodologies of Digital Humanities to the folkloric aspect of 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">social media</hi> content in combination with theories of global information flow, participatory journalism and humour theory. Internet has become central in contemporary cultural communication – most of online communication can be treated as folklore, in which shared norms and values are constructed through cultural artifacts. Forums, commentary boards of news sites, blogs, Twitter and other social media applications have become commonplace during the last fifteen years. In the Internet, news, ideas and opinions travel fast. Social media spreads folklore in unforeseen volumes across national and cultural boundaries. Above all, the focus is on producing and consuming texts, images and multimedia. The presentation will attempt to trace such cultural texts as they move across and between cultures. Besides, as social media is often perceived as a catalyst and accelerator of public discussion and citizen movements, cultural texts as valuable agents in citizen engagement will be discussed in the light of the 2015 refugee crisis in Europe.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Certeau, M.</hi> (1984). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Practice of Everyday Life.</hi> Berkeley: University of California Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic bold"">Digital Archive of Finnish Folk Tunes</hi>, http://esavelmat.jyu.fi/index_en.html (accessed 27 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""selectable"">
                            <hi rend=""italic bold"">Estonian Runic Songs’ database</hi> (1996-2015), Estonian Folklore Archives. Estonian Literary Museum, 1996-2015, http://www.folklore.ee/regilaul/andmebaas/?ln=en (accessed 1 November 2015).
                        </hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""selectable"">
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Schmitt, Christoph (Ed.)</hi> (2014). 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Corpora ethnographica online. Strategies to digitize ethnographical collections and their presentation on the Internet.</hi> Waxmann Verlag GmbH. (Rostocker Studien zur Volkskunde und Kulturgeschichte; 5).
                        </hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic bold"">SKVR-tietokanta – kalevalaisten runojen verkkopalvelu</hi>. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, http://skvr.fi. (accessed 27 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2488","17","Digital Palaeography: What is digital about it?","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Compared to the tradition of analytical palaeography it builds on, how is digital palaeography transformative? In this paper
                    <note xml:id=""ftn0"" place=""foot"" n=""1""> A preliminary version of this paper was presented at the international workshop 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Paleography. Projects, Prospects, Potentialities</hi> (Università Ca’ Foscari, Venice, April 10-11, 2014), by invitation of the organisers, Università Ca’ Foscari (Venice) and Digital Humanities Lab (DHLAB), EPFL (Lausanne).
                    </note> I will reflect on the emergent meanings and possible research directions of digital palaeography by analysing the last twelve years of approaches and conceptualisations in the field. Moving between a formal and an historically situated analysis, I will show how digital approaches relate to the scholarly tradition of the study of handwriting and writing systems as a whole. Digital palaeography will emerge well positioned to represent the complexity of handwritten objects from an unfamiliar perspective by departing from the structure of the expression of handwriting (text as shape). 
            </p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Words in context</head>
                <p>The adoption and development of digital tools and resources for palaeography and manuscript studies are intertwined with fluctuating cultural attitudes (Busa, 1961; Morando, 1961;
                        <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""2""> My thanks to Willard McCarty for recommending and providing access to these two references.</note> McCarty, 2014b; Nyhan et al., 2015). The convergence towards the use of digital
                        <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""3""> On the cultural understanding of digital, calling for a wider semantic spectrum that transcends the opposition with analogue, see for example McCarty (2014a). The 
                            <hi rend=""bold"">plus</hi> sign is a deliberate borrowing of Cecire's reflections on the “problem of the plus” being addictive rather than transformative (McCarty, 2014b: 292): “it should not be possible to have the “plus” without the two terms—“digital” and “humanities”—themselves changing” (Cecire, 2011).
                        </note> coupled with humanities — digital humanities
                        <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""4""> For a recent discussion on the first occurrence of the term digital humanities and its uptake in the first decade of 2000 see Faulhaber (2015).
                        </note> — and therefore palaeography — digital palaeography — denotes the methodology of research being enabled rather than the symbolic form of its objects of analysis or of its outcomes. The scope within which I propose to discuss digital palaeography
                        <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""5""> My thanks to Peter Stokes for having pointed out to me another sense of digital paleography as attributed by Hirtle (2000), who talks about this new “speciality” as the ability to convert obsolete file formats containing digital information (e.g. HTML, JPEG) into current formats. For an overview on the term see Stokes (forthcoming).</note> is hence mainly methodological.
                </p>
                <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Table1"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>Terms</cell>
                        <cell>Semantics</cell>
                        <cell>Overall emergent meaning</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Computational (e.g. Computational Palaeography)
                        </cell>
                        <cell>Process-ability of data
                        </cell>
                        <cell rows=""3"">Digital Palaeography ⊃ Computational Palaeography
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Digital (e.g. digital vs. analogue)
                        </cell>
                        <cell>Representational form of data
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Digital <hi rend=""bold"">+</hi> (e.g. Digital Humanities; Digital Palaeography)
                        </cell>
                        <cell>Research methodology
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>A formal knowledge of handwriting — e.g. about scripts morphology or terminology used to describe it —
                        <note xml:id=""ftn5"" place=""foot"" n=""6""> Cf. the 15th century treatises on scriptural typologies e.g. as described in Montecchi (1998: 119).</note> Not only palaeography as a discipline — from the 1930s with Bischoff at least, onwards — has subscribed to analytical methods, but more in general the perception of text as divisible entity in opposition to the notion of the ungraspable composition of images has prevailed in humanistic enquiries with few exceptions (e.g. semiotics of art).
                        <note xml:id=""ftn6"" place=""foot"" n=""7""> Modern art has exploited this cultural conflict between reading practices that put emphasis on symbolic aspects of written text as opposite to the morphological and sensorial aspects of other artefacts. See for example the works of <hi rend=""italic"">Information as Material</hi> (Dworkin, C. et al., 2012) such as the exhibition <hi rend=""italic"">Learn to Read Differently</hi> (Northern Gallery of Contemporary Art, Sunderland, August 10– September 23, 2013).</note> Computer sciences and image processing techniques offer an 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">addendum</hi>, a perspective that suits nicely methodological traditions and inclinations of the classificatory minds of palaeographers. Yet, my aim in this paper is to identify any transformative aspects (table 1). So, even if digital palaeography follows a long tradition of analytical approaches to handwriting and an even longer human wish to control writing systems, does it actually affect our conceptualisation of handwriting? How is digital palaeography transformative (in the sense of 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">digital +</hi>)? or is there a <hi rend=""bold"">digital + palaeography</hi>?
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Projects rationales and self-narratives</head>
                <p>I will summarise some 2004-onwards projects and activities (Ciula, 2004a, 2004b, 2005a, 2005b, 2005c, 2009;DigiPal, 2011-14; 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Exploratory Workshops</hi>, 2011)
                        <note xml:id=""ftn7"" place=""foot"" n=""8""> In addition, various events connected to research in digital palaeography took places towards the end of the first decade of 2000 in Europe; in particular, two dedicated symposia on 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Codicology and Palaoegraohy in the Digital Age</hi> took place in Munich and resulted in two volumes (Rehbein et al., 2009; Fischer et al., 2011). The ESF workshop also had a follow up in the Dagstuhl Perspectives Workshop on 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Computation and Palaeography: Potentials and Limits</hi> held in 2012 (see
                            <ptr target=""http://www.dagstuhl.de/en/program/calendar/semhp/?semnr=12382""/>) which resulted in the publications Hassner et al. (2012, 2013).
                        </note> which witness a critical engagement with digital technology, informed by diverse modelling processes and a constructive discussion of the limitations of computational tools. These approaches challenge the notion of palaeography as an auxiliary discipline towards a renewed return to an “integral” (Boyle, 1984) perspective which places palaeography within a wider multi and interdisciplinary framework, linking it with philology, linguistics and even cognitive sciences.
                        <note xml:id=""ftn8"" place=""foot"" n=""9""> See for instance the ORIFLAMMS project blog (Stutzmann) where the connection to neurosciences is explicit (this project started in 2012).</note> The analysis on terminology as well as an overview of practices put the emphasis on a self-reflective approach around the analysis of handwriting beyond strictly computational concerns.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Creating and deflating models</head>
                <p>In addition, I will reflect on the potentially productive dilemma digital palaeography approaches suffer from; a dilemma that is made more acute in recent practices compared to the already vivid debates in the 1970s between the historical and “Cartesian” approach (Gumbert, 1976) and in the 90s (Costamagna et al., 1995, 1996). On one hand, palaeographers engaged with the digital are busy building things, what Godfrey-Smith (2009: 108) would call a specific type of models or “imaginary concreta”  (creatures in between reality and fiction, between the schematic and the concrete); on the other hand, they are engaged in reflecting about their own practice and in so doing deflate the same models they build.
                        <note xml:id=""ftn9"" place=""foot"" n=""10""> For a broader adaptation of Godfrey-Smith's “deflationary view” (2009:115) as a “deflationary account of modelling practices” in digital humanities see Ciula and Marras (in press).
                        </note>
                </p>
                <p>In a paper questioning the connections between a scriptorium and its products, Ganz states: “searching for the distinctive details of letter forms shared by scribes may risk the application of an over rigid positivism to the study of manuscripts.” (Ganz, 2015)
                </p>
                <p>Not to dismiss this warning against positivism in digital humanities,
                        <note xml:id=""ftn10"" place=""foot"" n=""11""> This is a concern beyond digital palaeography with respect, for instance, to trends in distant reading; see for example Eyers (2013).
                        </note> I will claim that what a digital palaeography approach as contextualised earlier on brings to the fore is precisely this awareness and hence the questioning of the 'mechanics' of a topographical or taxonomical analysis. By asking “what is the unit of handwriting? what we considered it to be?,” a digital palaeographer is aware that even by getting closer to the supposed materiality of the artefact — e.g. through high resolution images and microscopically segmented image features — she does not lose the lenses palaeographers have being using for interpreting such artefacts in the past, but can consciously decide to put them to test. In this lies one of the paradoxes of the digital and of modelling more in general: it brings perceptual materiality to our scrutiny while taking us away from it. The digital models are used to analyse the objects they are models of, but are also self-reflective tools to question those same models.
                        <note xml:id=""ftn11"" place=""foot"" n=""12""> A similar point with respect to computational modelling of literary novels was made recently by Piper (2015: 68): “We not only gain insights into the specific subset of texts identified by the model, as the model provides the interpretive horizon through which these texts assume new meanings. But we recursively gain insights into the computational model itself through the detailed analysis of the texts it has identified.”
                        </note>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Semantics and materiality</head>
                <p>Palaeographic research with its focus on the perception of handwriting in morphological terms is a reminder that the handwriting manifests itself as an artefact that is rationalised and divided (hence constructed) only after it is given. By bringing to the fore the picture of writing or the writing as picture (cf. “text as shape” vs. “texts as meaning” in Hassner et al., 2012: 193), palaeographical studies live on the intermedia dimension of handwriting. By this I intend the crossing of the analytical media border between the sensorial and the conceptual qualities of handwriting, form and meaning, visible and invisible, between token and type, <hi rend=""italic"">langue</hi> and <hi rend=""italic"">parole</hi>. An adapted Hjelmslevian semiotic model of language exemplifies this intermedia dimension of writing.
                        <note xml:id=""ftn12"" place=""foot"" n=""13""> While this model can be applied to handwriting and writing alike, the variety of grades of expressions as demarcated in handwriting are more diverse than, for instance, in printed documents.</note>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""215/1000000000000376000001E68059057F.jpg""/>
                        <head>Figure 1. Interplay between the substance of the expression (the physical medium, the ink on the parchment) and the form of the content (the semantics of the text, its meaning)</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>These reflections will allow me to sketch the intermedia borders where I think digital palaeography sits. I will build on an unpublished paper (Ciula, 2006) where I used McCloud's (1994) triangular map of visual iconography to represent the relationships between cultural textual objects and their digital (visual) representations both in graphical and in textual forms.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn13"" place=""foot"" n=""14""> An alternative circular graph representing the multidimensionality of text encompassing the whole spectrum from physical medium (substance of the expression) to semantics (form of the content) can be found in Sahle's wheel of text (2006, 2013). See also Pierazzo (2013, 2015: 52) who drew two graphs collocating respectively editorial theories and editorial formats on a continuous axis with respect to their relationship with the materiality of text.
                    </note>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""215/10000000000002F1000000DA447935E9.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 2: McCloud’s Big Triangle or a map of visual iconography (<ptr target=""http://archive.is/Vg6OQ""/>)</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""215/10000000000004B600000316744C1951.jpg""/>
                        <head>Figure 3. By following the analogy to McCloud’s triangle, in Ciula (2006) I showed how the variety of ways of representing a textual object in visual terms can assume both the form of more or less resemblant representations—images of the physical object bearing the handwriting—or their textual counterparts</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>The visualisation of encoding is an example of structure-oriented visualisation which shows how a graphic rendering of the text does not have to relate unequivocally to features of the textual object as expression (whether form or substance of the expression) but can rather represent one or more supposed structures of the textual content. When made explicit and visible, the structure of the content on the textual-symbolic side can play a fundamental role in the implementation of a thoughtful connection between the image-iconic representation/s of the text and the textual-symbolic content representation/s of a cultural object.
                        <note xml:id=""ftn14"" place=""foot"" n=""15""> Visualisations of dynamic editions (Buzzetti and Rehbein, 2008) integrating textual expression (form or structure of the expression) and semantic model (form or structure of the content) could also exemplify this connection. A concrete example of a project which is attempting at revealing visually the deep connections between the palaeography of texts (handwriting styles of Scottish charters in this case) with the textual content (the representation of authority) is 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Models of Authority</hi> (2014-17). </note>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""215/10000000000004670000029AF2C88584.jpg""/>
                        <head>Figure 4. Digital paleographic methods as enhancers of iconic representations of textual artefacts</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Following this analysis, digital paleographic methods (inclusive of image processing, image annotation and conceptual models blending morphology and semantics) will be theorised as enhancers of iconic representations of textual artefacts. They can bridge the sensorial/perceptive and structural/conceptual interpretations of handwriting, material and mental knowledge of text, visual and textual, spatial and temporal.
                </p>
                <p>In my 2006 paper, I concluded that for a digital resource to be inspired by and to promote research based on the material/perceptual aspects of a cultural object, a high quality graphical representation of the cultural object is essential but not sufficient. In specular terms to what Buzzetti (2006)
                        <note xml:id=""ftn15"" place=""foot"" n=""16""> My translation: “The challenge for the representation in digital form of any kind of information and for its adequately exhaustive and functional preservation is therefore given by the possibility of representing the text as a digital complex object and by the ability to reproduce in functional terms the forms of interaction between the structure of the expression and the structure of the content of textual information.” (Buzzetti, 2006: 55)
                        </note> says about the symbolic components of textual objects, this paper will argue that the scope of digital palaeography lies in anchoring the structure of the expression of image-texts to the structure of their content, in other words in bridging the “semantic model” of a handwritten source to at least some of the material aspects of the artefact.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusions</head>
                <p>Digital palaeography builds on the tradition of analytical palaeography. How is it then transformative or is there a digital + palaeography? Some digital palaeography projects and initiatives, including my own doctoral research, claim to be transformative by advocating for “integral” palaeography and by distancing themselves from a purely computational approach. Some also adopt a self-reflective perspective on the modelling of handwriting in a digital environment, for instance, by testing ontological commitments, categories, classifications of handwriting; in so doing they deflate the models they build. Further, when contextualised within an analysis of the border between form and meaning of handwritten sources, digital palaeography approaches can can be used to connect the structure of expression of handwriting with structures of meaning. A digital model which embeds both structure of expression and structure of content of the handwriting is then theorised as a unique contribution to reconstruct material textuality of cultural artefacts by bridging visual and symbolic elements of texts, spatial and temporal, perception and interpretation. Ultimately, digital palaeography can be transformative by bridging the semantics of written artefacts with their materiality. 
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stokes, P. A.</hi> (forthcoming). Computing and Palaeography in Theory: Some Historical Context for the Future. In Brookes, S., Rehbein, M. and Stokes, P. A. (eds), 
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            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2489","17","Discursive Constructions Of Culture: A Semantic Model For Historical Travel Guides.","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Context</head>
                <p>The 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Baedeker Corpus</hi>, a digital collection of early German travel guides that is currently being developed in the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">travel!digital</hi> project
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p> The project “travel!digital. Exploring 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">People</hi> and 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Monuments</hi> in Baedeker Guidebooks (1875–1914)” is funded by the platform 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Austria</hi>.
                        </p>
                    </note>, brings together a valuable but rarely investigated part of cultural heritage in an up-to-date and sustainable digital form. A combination of source oriented approaches and Semantic Web formats (Meroño-Peñuela et al, 2014) allows for enhanced access to both the TEI-based digital edition and the rich domain-specific knowledge. As complex inter-texts (Wierlacher, 1997; Koshar, 2000) and significant discourse-historical artefacts (Maingueneau, 2014) travel guides represent codified and authorized versions of local culture and history (Pritchard et al, 2005). Reflecting dominant discourses, (re)producing and (re)constructing them, the genre plays a central role in shaping the tourist experience and directing the tourist gaze (Thurlow et al, 2007; Urry, 1990). Giving insight into various readings of history, tradition and culture, the new language resource is meant to foster cross-disciplinary research in cultural representation and identity constructing discourses.
                </p>
                <p>The 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Baedeker Corpus</hi> comprises 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">all</hi> first editions of German travel guides on non-European countries which were brought out by the Baedeker publishing house before World War I. It contains more than 1.5 million running words and covers various regions, offering a balanced picture of different cultural areas.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p> Palestine and Syria (1875), Lower (1877) and Upper Egypt (1891), North America and Mexico (1893), Asia Minor (1905), the Mediterranean Coastline of Africa (1909), India and Ceylon (1914). </p>
                    </note> Along with the basic layers of linguistic annotation, controlled vocabularies and content contextualization by 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Linked Open Data</hi> resources will assist in exploring cultural narratives from the turn of the 19th century.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>bdk:ConceptScheme(s)</head>
                <p>Focusing on 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">people</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">monuments,</hi> two essential components of the guidebook genre and of cultural discourse itself, the extensive lexical inventory is represented by means of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Simple Knowledge Organization System SKOS</hi>. Besides personal names, people are addressed in a variety of different forms in the guidebooks. References to classes are frequently used in making generalizations about groups and individuals as well (cf. Schmidt-Brücken, 2015). Each of these generic expressions is represented by a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">bdk:Descriptor</hi>, which is defined as a subclass of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">skos:Concept</hi>. Individual terms are encoded as 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">skosxl:prefLabel(s)</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">skosxl:altLabel(s)</hi>. Variants and translations are designated on term-level by the properties 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">hasVariant/isVariantOf</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">hasTranslation/isTranslationOf</hi>. Modelled in this way, the vocabulary identified in the guidebooks forms the basis of the concept scheme. Seven categories indicated by 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">skos:topConceptOf</hi> improve structuring of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic bold"">bdk:ConceptSchemeGroups</hi>: 
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">1.</hi> Collective terms: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">population, tribes, natives;</hi>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">2.</hi> ethnic/national communities: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Englishmen, Wedda;</hi>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">3.</hi> geographical concepts: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Europeans, Orientals;</hi>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">4.</hi> names of languages and scripts, language affiliation: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Arabic, Cyrillic;</hi>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">5.</hi> professions, including political, religious, economic roles, and styles of living: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">merchants, government officials, priests, peasants, nomads;</hi>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">6.</hi> religious communities: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">brotherhood, pilgrims; Buddhists, Sikhs;</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">7.</hi> social classes: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">castes, workers.</hi> Concepts and labels include both nouns and adjectives, indicating associations among them by means of the property 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">skos:related</hi>. Figure 1 lists definitions of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">skos:topConcept(s)</hi> and shows selected examples of concepts and labels.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""120/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: bdk:ConceptSchemeGroups.</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The picture is similarly varied for monuments and notable sights. Since assessments and classifications of cultural heritage objects are integral parts of cultural representation, they are included in a separate concept scheme. The 
                    <hi rend=""italic bold"">bdk:ConceptSchemeMonuments</hi> is organized by 
                    <hi rend=""italic bold"">skos:topConcept(s)</hi> which indicate topical spheres the objects belong to, ranging from architecture and artworks, to accommodations, landscapes, and breath-taking views.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Prospects</head>
                <p>By the end of the project, a web application based on the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">corpus_shell</hi> framework
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p> Cf. 
                            <ref target=""https://clarin.oeaw.ac.at/corpus_shell"">https://clarin.oeaw.ac.at/corpus_shell</ref> [accessed 2015-12-22].
                        </p>
                    </note> will make the digital texts available along with their facsimiles, exposing them via FCS/SRU protocol
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p> Cf. 
                            <ref target=""https://www.clarin.eu/content/federated-content-search-clarin-fcs"">https://www.clarin.eu/content/federated-content-search-clarin-fcs</ref> [accessed 2015-12-22].
                        </p>
                    </note> that is part of the CLARIN infrastructure. This online edition will offer querying capabilities inside of both the text and the linguistic annotation layers. It will provide indexes of word classes, lemmas and the semantic entities defined by the SKOS-vocabularies presented in this abstract. Transforming names of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">people/s</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">monuments</hi> in the texts into links to the LOD cloud
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                        <p> LOD datasets: VIAF Virtual International Authority File, GESIS Thesaurus for the Social Sciences, AAT Art & Architecture Thesaurus, UNESCO Thesaurus, DBpedia.</p>
                    </note>, the vocabularies will connect occurrences in the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Baedeker Corpus</hi> to other online resources, providing enhanced access to the corpus and additional information via the guidebooks’ main actors. The presented data model aims at supporting fine-grained examinations of semantic components that have a lasting influence on cultural perceptions of “Other” and “Self”. It is expected that semantic technologies do have the potential to reveal much about a discourse that goes far beyond travel literature.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clarin E.</hi> (n.d.). Federated Content Search (CLARIN-FCS). 
                        <ref target=""https://www.clarin.eu/content/federated-content-search-clarin-fcs"">https://www.clarin.eu/content/federated-content-search-clarin-fcs</ref> (accessed 22 December 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ďurčo, M. and Mörth, K., et al.</hi> (n.d.). corpus-shell. 
                        <ref target=""https://clarin.oeaw.ac.at/corpus_shell"">https://clarin.oeaw.ac.at/corpus_shell</ref> (accessed 22 December 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jaworski, A. and Pritchard, A. (eds.)</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Discourse, communication and tourism.</hi> Clevedon: Channel View Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koshar, R.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">German Travel Cultures.</hi> Oxford: Berg.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Maingueneau, D.</hi> (2014). Diskurs und Äußerungsszene. Zur gattungsspezifischen Kontextualisierung eines Zeitungsartikels zum unternehmerischen Bildungsdiskurs. In Angermuller, J. and Nonhoff, M. et al. (eds.) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Diskursforschung. Ein interdisziplinäres Handbuch</hi> (2 Bde.). Bielefeld: transcript Verlag, pp. 433-53.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meroño-Peñuela, A. and Ashkpour, A., et al. </hi>(2014). Semantic Technologies for Historical Research: A Survey. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Semantic Web</hi>, IOS Press, pp. 1-27. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.semantic-web-journal.net/sites/default/files/swj301.pdf"">http://www.semantic-web-journal.net/sites/default/files/swj301.pdf</ref> (accessed 22 December 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt-Brücken, D.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Verallgemeinerung im Diskurs. Generische Wissensindizierung in kolonialem Sprachgebrauch.</hi> Berlin/München/Boston: Walter de Gruyter GmbH.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stehouwer, H. and Durco, M., et al.</hi> (2012). Federated Search: Towards a Common Search Infrastructure. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2012)</hi>. ELRA, pp. 3255–59.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Urry, J.</hi> (2002 [1990]). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Tourist Gaze. Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies.</hi> London: SAGE Publications.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wierlacher, A.</hi> (1997). Verfehlte Alterität. Zum Diskurs deutschsprachiger Reiseführer über fremde Speisen. In Teuteberg, H. J. and Neumann, G. et al. (Hrsg.). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Essen und kulturelle Identität. Europäische Perspektiven.</hi> Berlin: Akademie Verlag GmbH, pp. 498-509.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2490","17","Does Character Speech Matter? A Quantitative Approach.","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Introduction</head>
            <p>Character speech is an elementary part of novels. When calculating with German-speaking novels, the question arises, if there is a stylistic difference between character and narrator speech. Given the presupposition that character speech imitates authentic communication, I will answer these questions with a structured series of experiments on deictic expressions, based on statistic and linguistic knowledge.</p>
            <p>Theoretical background</p>
            <p>Character speech is defined here as direct or cited/quoted speech, the words and sentences one finds between quotation marks. By drawing on these distinct punctuation markers, it can be separated automatically from the rest of the text. With the beginning of modernism, however, these formal structures have started to dissolve. Between the clear marking of character speech and no marking at all, gradual stages are possible. In these cases, a considerable effort is required to automatically separate character speech from the rest of the novel. An examination of the differences between character and narrator speech therefore can be useful to assess the necessity of such a costly separation.</p>
            <p>Deictics are necessary in communication situations to refer to a point in time, space or to certain objects or persons like the speaker or the addressee. In the sentence</p>
            <p><hi rend=""italic"">Tomorrow I will be there</hi>.</p>
            <p>every word is deictical. Deictics are context-dependent, which means that in different situations they have different meanings. They belong to different lexical categories – but most of them are function words. The presented approach implies the following premises:</p>
            <p>1. Different (non-fictional) texts types show a different frequency of deictic terms. These basic text types have been categorised according to three criteria of communication (dialogical, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">face-to-face</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">oral</hi> by Diewald, 1991).
            </p>
            <p>2. Character speech imitates a <hi rend=""italic"">dialogue</hi> – which is one of these basic text types.</p>
            <p>Transferring the first premise on fiction, literary genre-categorisation has to stand back: character speech in novels and plays would belong to one basic text typ.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Previous Work</head>
            <p>Previous research on character speech in the humanities shows, that it seems to be a subject mainly in the philosophy of language (see Pafel and Dirscherl, 2015). In literary studies, only one monograph on direct speech exists (Müller, 1981). Recently Brunner (2015) showed that the automated tagging of different kinds of speech in German-speaking novels with computerlinguistic methods is possible, but still has weak results – except for direct speech. Her corpus consisted of 13 different novels, which is a rather small corpus. In computational stylistics it appears that most approaches tend to use smaller corpora (e.g Burrows, 1987; van Dalen-Oskam, 2014).</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Method</head>
            <p>For the corpus, German-speaking plays and novels from the 18
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> to the 20
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century are selected randomly. They are separated into several subcorpora consisting of 25 plays and 75 novels, including the Brunner corpus with 13 novels (Fig. 1). 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""164/image1.PNG"" rend=""inline""/>
               <head>Figure 1: corpus scheme</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The subcorpus with the plays serves as a benchmark/reference value: Since plays consist mostly of character speech, they can be compared with the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">plays</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">novels_character speech only</hi>-subcorpus. Gries 2008 serves for the statistical basis. Eder’s structured experiments in “Does size matter?” (2013) serve as a template for the presented analyses. That means parameters are changed in a consistent and transparent way through the experiment: 
            </p>
            <p>The experiment – counting the deictic terms – is run several times (Fig. 1): At first, the whole corpus is tested. For the second run the novels are separated from the plays and for the third run character speech is separated from the rest of the text. Finally, the Brunner corpus is run a forth time with the other categories of speech, e.g. free indirect speech, separated as well.</p>
            <p>Since there is no common definition of deictics, nothing like a deictic lexicon exists. In my analyses, I will use a rather straightforward approach: An expression will be regarded as deictic, if it belongs to one of the main deictic categories like time, space, or person and if the deictic reference is its main function. This definition excludes verbs, but includes all function words like temporal and spatial adverbs and a small group of personal pronouns. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Results sample corpus</head>
            <p>As a starting point for upcoming research I will present temporary results that are generated by drawing on a small sample corpus of novels in which character speech is separated from the rest of the text and the frequency of deictic terms is analysed (Fig. 2). Then the results are compared with Diewald’s results for the basic text types in non-fiction (Fig. 5). </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""164/image2.PNG"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2: Percentage of deictic terms (<hi rend=""italic"">here</hi>, <hi rend=""italic"">now</hi>) in character speech and in the rest of the novel (narrator speech), relative frequency.</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The average values for character and narrator speech (0.36% in either case) show no difference at all (Fig. 2). However, a closer look on the frequency distribution draws another picture: Figure 2 shows that most of the novels (novels 6 to 14) range around 0,4% deictic terms in character speech. In figure 3 the results seen in figure 2 are visualised: in contrast half of the deictic terms in the narrator speech of the novels range a bit higher than 0,2%. This shift is marked by the blue arrows (Fig. 3 + 4). The stability of these results will be evaluated on the complete corpus (see “Methods”).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""164/image3.PNG"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3: Frequency of deictic terms in character speech of the 18 novels of the table in fig. 2, in ascending order</head>
                </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""164/image4.PNG"" rend=""inline""/>
            <head>Figure 4: Frequency of deictic terms in narrator speech of the 18 novels of the table in fig. 2, in ascending order</head>
            </figure>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Conclusions</head>
            <p>According to Diewald’s results the deictic frequency of basic text types is lowest in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">letters</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">written monologues</hi>. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Dialogue </hi>and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">oral monologue</hi> present a higher frequency of deictic terms, but still topped by 
                <hi rend=""italic"">telephone conversation </hi>(Fig. 5). Regarding their principle structure, character speech can be assigned to the basic text types, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dialogue</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">oral monologue</hi>, whereas narrator speech resembles 
                <hi rend=""italic"">written monologue</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">letters</hi>. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""164/image5.PNG"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 5: Different text types and their frequency of personal, local, temporal and objectual deictic terms, the results refer to Diewald 1991: 383.</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Accordingly, the results of the sample corpus indicate a lower deictic frequency in narrator speech compared to character speech, which matches DIEWALD’s results on deictic frequency in the basic text types. </p>
            <p>Still, for the sample corpus, it is quite problematic to compare these numbers with DIEWALD’s results, because in the non-fictional discourses all deictic terms are analysed instead of only two prototypic ones (
                <hi rend=""italic"">here, now</hi>). Since it seems that there is a difference between both types of speech in novels, it nevertheless has to stand the test of the broader experiments with the bigger 100 texts corpus. In addition, for further research another series of this experiment should be run with the same corpus scheme, but set up as a stylometric analysis to see if similar patterns can be found. If the results show a significant difference between character and narrator speech, it is necessary to have character and narrator speech separated in all novels as part of the preparation for digital text analyses.
            </p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brunner, A.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Automatische Erkennung von Redewiedergabe: Ein Beitrag zur quantitativen Narratologie</hi>, Band 47. Berlin/Boston: de Gruyter.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bühler, K.</hi> (1934/1965). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sprachtheorie</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Die Darstellungsfunktion der Sprache</hi>. Stuttgart: Lucius and Lucius.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J. F.</hi> (1987). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computation into criticism: a study of Jane Austen's novels and an experiment in method</hi>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Diewald, G. M.</hi> (1991). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Deixis und Textsorten im Deutschen</hi>. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M.</hi> (2013). Does size matter? Authorship attribution, small samples, big problem. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi> Nov 2013, DOI: 10.1093/llc/fqt066 
                        <ref target=""http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqt066"">http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqt066</ref>
                        <hi rend=""highwire-cite-doi"">.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gries, S. T.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Statistik für Sprachwissenschaftler</hi>. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Müller, A.</hi> (1981). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Figurenrede. Grundzüge der Rededarstellung im Roman</hi>. PhD,  Göttingen: Georg-August-Universität.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pafel, J., Dirscherl, F.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Die vier Arten der Rede- und Gedankendarstellung: Zwischen Zitieren und Referieren</hi>. <hi rend=""italic"">Linguistische Berichte</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">241</hi>: 3–47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dalen-Oskam, K. van.</hi> (2014). Epistolary voices. The Case of Elisabeth Wolff and Agatha Deken. <hi rend=""italic"">LLC: The journal of digital scholarship in the humanities</hi>. <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(3): 443-51. First published online: May 21, 2014. 
                        <ref target=""http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/content/29/3/443.full.pdf?keytype=ref&ijkey=aRCuD3n825cEkmP"">http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/content/29/3/443.full.pdf?keytype=ref&ijkey=aRCuD3n825cEkmP</ref>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2491","17","Enabling Complex Analysis of Large-Scale Digital Collections: Humanities Research, High Performance Computing, and transforming access to British Library Digital Collections","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>How best can humanities researchers access and analyse large-scale digital datasets available from institutions in the cultural and heritage sector? What barriers remain in place for those from the humanities wishing to use high performance computing to provide insights into historical datasets? This paper describes a pilot project that worked in collaboration with non-computationally trained humanities researchers to identify and overcome barriers to complex analysis of large-scale digital collections using institutional university frameworks that routinely support the processing of large-scale data sets for research purposes in the sciences. The project brought together humanities researchers, research software engineers, and information professionals from the British Library Digital Scholarship Department
                <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/digital-scholarship/</note>, UCL Centre for Digital Humanities (UCLDH) 
                <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2"">http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh</note>, UCL Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis (UCL CASA)
                <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3"">http://www.bartlett.ucl.ac.uk/casa</note>, and UCL Research IT Services (UCL RITS)
                <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""4"">http://www.ucl.ac.uk/isd/services/research-it</note> to analyse an open-licensed, large-scale dataset from the British Library. While useful research results were generated, undertaking this project clarified the technical and procedural barriers that exist when humanities researchers attempt to utilize computational research infrastructures in the pursuit of their own research questions. 
            </p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Overview</head>
                <p>The drive in the Gallery, Library, Archive, and Museum (GLAM) sector towards opening up collections data,
                    <note xml:id=""ftn5"" place=""foot"" n=""5"">http://openglam.org/, an initiative to promote free and open access to digital cultural heritage datasets. </note> as well as the growth in data published by publicly-funded research projects, means humanities researchers have a wealth of large-scale digital collections available to them (Lui, 2015, Terras 2015). Many of these datasets are released under open licences that permit uninhibited use by anyone with an internet collection and modest storage capacity. A few humanities researchers have exploited these resources, and their interpretations make claims that change our understanding of cultural phenomena (for example, see Schmidt, 2014; Smith et al., 2015; Cordell et al., 2013; Huber, 2007; Leetaru, 2015). Nevertheless, there remain major barriers to the widespread uptake of these data sets, and related computational approaches, by humanities researchers, which risks diminishing the relevance of the humanities in “big data” analysis (Wynne, 2015). These barriers include:
                </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>fragmentation of communities, resources, and tools;</item>
                    <item>lack of interoperability;</item>
                    <item>lack of technical skills: “mainstream researchers in the humanities and social sciences often don’t know what the new possibilities are” (ibid) and seldom have the technical experience to experiment (Hughes, 2009; Mahony and Pierazzo, 2012).</item>
                </list>
                <p>A common response to this lack of awareness and computational skills is to build web-based interfaces to data
                    <note xml:id=""ftn6"" place=""foot"" n=""6"">For example, 
                        <ref target=""http://nactem.ac.uk/hom/"">Mining the History of Medicine</ref> (http://nactem.ac.uk/hom/) or Language of the State of the Union (http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/01/the-language-of-the-state-of-the-union/384575/). 
                    </note> or federated services and infrastructures
                    <note xml:id=""ftn7"" place=""foot"" n=""7"">For example CLARIN (http://clarin.eu/), Common Language Resources and Technology Infrastructure, and DARIAH (https://www.dariah.eu/) Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities.</note>. Whilst these interfaces play a positive role in introducing humanities researchers to large-scale digital collections, they rarely fulfil the complex needs of humanities research which constantly questions received approaches and results, or allow researchers to tailor analysis without being limited by shared assumptions and methods (Wynne, 2013). 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Method</head>
                <p>We explored the challenges associated with deploying and working with large-scale digital collections suitable for humanities research, using a public domain digital collection provided by the British Library
                    <note xml:id=""ftn8"" place=""foot"" n=""8"">The British Library has various digital datasets, including (but not limited to) 7m pages of historic newspapers, 1m out of copyright book illustrations, 100,000s of scientific articles, text from over 60,000 books, 1000s of UK theses, and various digitized medieval manuscripts. We chose here just one of its large scale datasets to work with in this pilot phase. For the terms under which the British Library makes collections available, see http://www.bl.uk/aboutus/terms/copyright/.</note>. This 60,000 book dataset covers publication from the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, or – seen as data – 224GB of compressed ALTO XML that includes both content (captured using an OCR process) and the location of that content on a page. Using UCL's centrally funded computing facilities
                    <note xml:id=""ftn9"" place=""foot"" n=""9"">https://wiki.rc.ucl.ac.uk/wiki/Legion, just one of the High Performance Computing facilities available at UCL for researchers, see http://www.ucl.ac.uk/isd/services/research-it/research-computing. </note> we worked from March-July 2015 with RITS and a cohort of four humanities researchers (from doctoral candidates to mid-career scholars) to ask queries that could not be satisfied by search and discovery orientated graphical user interfaces. Working in collaboration we turned their research questions into computational queries, explored ways in which the returned data could be visualised, and captured their thoughts on the process through semi-structured interviews.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Results</head>
                <p>We successfully ran queries across the dataset tracking linguistic change, identifying core phrases, plotting and understanding the placing of illustrations, and mapping locations mentioned within core texts. We found that building queries that generate derived datasets from large-scale digital collections (small enough to be worked on locally with familiar tools) is an effective means of empowering non-computationally trained humanities researchers to develop the skill-sets required to undertake complex analysis of humanities data.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn10"" place=""foot"" n=""10"">All code, data, visualisations and other outputs from this pilot project are freely available at https://github.com/UCL-dataspring</note>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""41/100002010000036E000001B386248DF5.png""/>
                        <head><hi rend=""italic"">Figure 1: A search for mentions of various infectious diseases (Cholera, Whooping Cough, Consumption, and Measles) across the 60,000 book dataset. We compared the profound spikes for Cholera in the dataset with known data regarding epidemics in the UK (Chadwick, 1842; Wall, 1893) which appear as the bars on the graph, showing a relationship between the first major UK outbreak of Cholera and its appearance within the written record of the time. There are further pronounced spikes 1870s and 1880s: these are not associated with UK epidemics, but there were outbreaks in the US and elsewhere. Identifying the texts that refer to these outbreaks allows us to look more closely at these clusters and to understand the relationship between public health, epidemiology, and the published historical record.</hi></head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>From a technical perspective, this pilot highlighted various sticking points when using infrastructure developed predominantly for scientific research. 224GB is only moderately large by comparison to the scientific datasets UCL RITS usually encounters, but although there are shared assumptions between research infrastructures (adoption of technical standards, and the sharing of tools, approaches and research outputs (Wynne, 2015)) most of the UK’s university eScience
                    <note xml:id=""ftn11"" place=""foot"" n=""11"">For more on the UK’s eScience infrastructure, see the work of the eScience Institute, http://www.esi.ac.uk/. Plan-Europe is the Platform of National eScience Centers in Europe (http://plan-europe.eu/). In the United States, the equivalent of eScience is known as Cyberinfrastructure, see the National Science Foundation’s guides: http://www.nsf.gov/div/index.jsp?div=ACI. </note> infrastructure has been constructed specifically to run scientific and engineering simulations, not for search and analysis of heterogeneous datasets. Our task here had a large textual input, a simple calculation, and a small output summary. By comparison, the typical engineering simulation addresses moderately sized numerical input data, runs a long, complicated calculation, and produces a large output. Poor uptake in the arts and humanities (Atkins et al., 2010; Voss, 2010) has meant that these resources have not been optimised for these workloads. The file system and network configuration of Legion – UCL RITS's centrally funded resource for running complex and large computational scientific queries across a large number of cores – did not match the way that the dataset in question was structured (a large number of small zipped XML files). 
                </p>
                <p>The complexities associated with redeploying architectures designed to work with scientific data (massive yet very structured) to the processing of humanities data (not massive but more unstructured) should not be understated, and are a major finding of this project. Relevant libraries (such as an efficient XML processor) needed to be installed and optimised for the hardware. Also, the data needed to be transformed to a structure that the parallel file system (Lustre) could address efficiently (that is, fewer, larger files). </p>
                <p>Best practice recommendations for comparable projects emerged from this work: the need to build multiple derived datasets (counts of books and words per year, words and pages per book, etc) to normalise results and maintain statistical validity; the necessity of documenting decisions taken when processing data and metadata; and the value of having fixed, definable data for researchers to explain results in relation to (and in turn, the risks associated with iterating datasets). Pointers to how to process the derived datasets were welcomed, but it was at this stage that the researchers were confident to “go it alone” without our support. We also discovered that a core set of four or five queries gave most of the humanities researchers the type of information they required to take a subset of data away to process effectively themselves: for example, keywords in context traced over time; NOT searches for a word or phrase that ignored another word or phrase, etc. As Higher Education Institution (HEI)-based subject librarians regularly handle routine research queries, we contend that training librarians to aid humanities researchers in carrying out defined computational queries via adjustable recipes would improve access to infrastructure, and cut down on the human-resource intensive nature of this approach. In turn, research computing programmers could be invoked as collaborators for their expertise, such as for developing more complex searches beyond the basic recipes. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>We successfully mounted large-scale humanities data on high performance computing University infrastructure in an interdisciplinary project that required input from many professionals to aid the humanities scholars in their research tasks. The collaborative approach we undertook in this project is labour intensive and does not scale. Nevertheless, we found many research questions can be expressed with similar computational queries, albeit with parameters adjusted to suit. We recommend, therefore, that HEIs or HEI clusters looking to build capacity for enabling complex analysis of large-scale digital collections by their non-computationally trained humanities research should consider the following activities:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Invest in research software engineer capacity to deploy and maintain openly licensed large-scale digital collections from across the GLAM sector in order to facilitate research in the arts, humanities and social and historical sciences,</item>
                    <item>Invest in training library staff to run these initial queries in collaboration with humanities faculty, to support work with subsets of data that are produced, and to document and manage resulting code and derived data.</item>
                </list>
                <p>Our pilot project demonstrates that there are at present too many technical hurdles for most individuals in the arts and humanities to consider analysing large-scale open data sets. Those hurdles can be removed with initial help in ingest and deployment of the data, and the provision of specific, structured, training and support which will allow humanities researchers to get to a subset of useful data they can comfortably and more simply process themselves, without the need for extensive support. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Atkins, D. E., Borgman, C. L., Bindhoff, N., Ellisman, M., Felman, S., Foster, I. and Heck, A.</hi> (2010). RCUK Review of e-Science 2009. Research Councils UK. https://www.epsrc.ac.uk/newsevents/pubs/rcuk-review-of-e-science-2009-building-a-uk-foundation-for-the-transformative-enhancement-of-research-and-innovation/</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Huber, M.</hi> (2007). The Old Bailey Proceedings, 1674-1834 Evaluating and annotating a corpus of 18th- and 19th-century spoken English. <hi rend=""italic"">Studies in Variation, Contacts and Change in English 1: Annotating Variation and Change.</hi> http://www.helsinki.fi/varieng/series/volumes/01/huber/</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Hughes, A.</hi> (2009). <hi rend=""italic"">Higher Education in a Web 2.0 World.</hi> Jisc, http://www.webarchive.org.uk/wayback/archive/20140614042502/http://www.jisc.ac.uk/publications/generalpublications/2009/heweb2.aspx.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Leetaru, K.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">History As Big Data: 500 Years Of Book Images And Mapping Millions Of Books</hi>. Forbes, Tech, http://www.forbes.com/sites/kalevleetaru/2015/09/16/history-as-big-data-500-years-of-book-images-and-mapping-millions-of-books/.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Lui, A.</hi> (2015). Data Collections and Datasets, Curated by Alan Liu. http://dhresourcesforprojectbuilding.pbworks.com/w/page/69244469/Data%20Collections%20and%20Datasets.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Mahony, S. and Pierazzo, E.</hi> (2012). Teaching Skills or Teaching Methodology? In Hirsch, B. D. (ed.), <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics</hi>, Open Book Publishers, http://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/161/digital-humanities-pedagogy--practices--principles-and-politics.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, B.</hi> (2014). Shipping maps and how states see. Sapping Attention Blog, http://sappingattention.blogspot.co.uk/2014/03/shipping-maps-and-how-states-see.html.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Smith, D., Cordell, R. and Mullen, A.</hi> (2015). Computational Methods for Uncovering Reprinted Texts in Antebellum Newspapers. <hi rend=""italic"">American Literary History</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">27</hi>(3). </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Terras, M.</hi> (2015). Opening Access to collections: the making and using of open digitised cultural content. <hi rend=""italic"">Online Information Review</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">39</hi>(5): 733–52. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/full/10.1108/OIR-06-2015-0193</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Voss, A., Asgari-Targhi, M., Procter, R. and Fergusson, D.</hi> (2010). Adoption of e-Infrastructure services: configurations of practice. <hi rend=""italic"">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A</hi>. DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2010.0162. </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Wynne, M.</hi> (2013). The Role of Clarin in Digital Transformations in the Humanities, <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(1-2): 89-2014.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Wynne, M.</hi> (2015). Big Data and Digital Transformations in the Humanities: are we there yet?. <hi rend=""italic"">Textual Digital Humanities and Social Sciences Data</hi>, Aberdeen, 21-22 September 2015. http://www.slideshare.net/martinwynne/big-data-and-digital-transformations-in-the-humanities.</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2492","17","Enhancing Close Reading","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Motivation</head>
                <p>In last years, the advancements in computer science brought a global change in the way information is stored, retrieved and analyzed. The digital humanities also benefit from these developments, and now, a vast amount of texts is available in digital form. This information explosion generates interesting research questions for humanities scholars who are capable of deriving new insights from this knowledge bank. In order to support humanities scholars, many visualization techniques – summarized in a survey (Jänicke et al., 2015b) – were developed to aid exploring large texts collections. Most of these techniques are interactive and belong to the category of distant reading (Moretti, 2005). The authors of the mentioned survey observe that less work has been done to improve the close reading capabilities of humanities scholars even though they are often focused on close reading text passages.</p>
                <p>Close reading is the careful interpretation of the text, where the scholar iteratively reads the text in order to explore its meaning, inherent topics and occurring relationships (Boyles, 2013). Traditionally, close reading is done on paper. Several ideas and thoughts are made persistent by annotations written at the margins alongside the text (see Figure 1). But as the margin space is limited, not all observations can be put around the text. So, annotations may become cluttered and confusing for the reader, especially, when obsolete ideas are struck through. Despite its disadvantages, annotating on paper is still quite popular as it benefits the scholars to record observations about the hypothesis and all these changes reappear in front of the scholar’s eyes as soon as he re-reads the text passage. We observed that the way of annotating in close reading resembles the idea of mind maps (Buzan et al., 1993) that are based on a central concept and thoughts are represented around it using lines and text. In the close reading scenario, the text can be considered as the central concept and annotations represent thoughts.</p>
                <p>An important task of computer science is to enhance the original workflows of researchers with computational methods. As most humanities scholars are well trained in close reading and nowadays often work with digital texts, it is necessary to enhance their capabilities for digital close reading. We propose an enhanced close reading design inspired by mind-maps that not only mimics the traditional way of annotating a text on paper, but also helps humanities scholars to perform live visual analyses. Furthermore, we use extendible margins to provide enough space for all thoughts of the scholar.</p>
                <p>
                    <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-cfc761b5-411d-b964-effb-76d244703cf0""/>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""262/1000000000000640000004D5F3E06A1C.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 1: Traditional close reading on paper</head>
                        </figure>
                    </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">
                        <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">
                            <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-cfc761b5-418b-4abf-34b3-191157a29b72""/>
                            <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Image reproduced with permission from Kehoe (Kehoe et al., 2013)</hi>
                        </note>
                    </hi>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Related Work</head>
                <p>Nancy Boyles (Boyles, 2013) defines close reading, which has become a fundamental method in literary criticism in the 20th century (Hawthorn, 2000), as follows: “Essentially, close reading means reading to uncover layers of meaning that lead to deep comprehension.” Annotating the text in close reading is a strong method for scholars to facilitate the understanding of a text passage. Figure 1 shows the result of a traditional close reading approach. In this example, various annotation methods were used by the scholar to annotate various features of a text passage in Charles Dickens' „David Copperfield“. </p>
                <p>The availability of digital texts has further awaken the interest of humanities scholars in collaboratively close reading the same texts. There are several annotation tools for such a purpose, such as eMargin (Kehoe et al., 2013), Hypothes.is (Bonn et al., 2014) and NB (Zyto et al., 2012). These tools are beneficial for collaborative research and classroom environments as they provide an excellent paradigm to share thoughts, as well as find collective answers. To avoid clutter, these tools work with popup windows that are only shown on demand. In Figure 2, the eMargin system is shown where colors are used to highlight different text features, and a popup window on demand, lists the comments of collaborating scholars.</p>
                <p>
                    <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-cfc761b5-412e-0f91-0c44-c948a3dc5484""/>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""262/10000201000003CB000002F649BAF3AA.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 2: eMargin annotation tool</head>
                        </figure>
                    </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">
                        <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2"">
                            <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-cfc761b5-418b-4abf-34b3-191157a29b722""/>
                            <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Image reproduced with permission from Kehoe (Kehoe et al., 2013)</hi>
                        </note>
                    </hi>
                </p>
                <p>Digital Ink Annotations systems (Schilit, 1998, Bargeron et al., 2003, Agrawala et al., 2005, Yoon et al., 2013) also support annotating text, but their use is only limited to pen-based computing devices such as tablets. The systems are designed to work well on smaller screens, and the adaption to larger screens is not appropriately implemented. </p>
                <p>Close reading tasks can also be assisted via distant reading tools. For example, parallel coordinates, a heatmap and a dot plot are used to analyze the variance of a selected text passage from different German translations of Shakespeare’s Othello (Geng et al., 2013). Heat maps are appropriate visualizations to illustrate the distribution of specific phrases or annotations in a corpus (Muralidharan, 2011, Alex et al., 2015). Voyant Tools allow the user to perform basic text mining functions with selected word statistics shown in linked views (Sinclair et al., 2012). The Voyant Tools interface in Figure 3 shows statistics about Chapter 2 of Oscar Wilde's “David Copperfield”. Goffin's idea to enhance close reading is the integration of small visualizations (e.g., maps or bar charts) besides the words of a text (Goffin et al., 2014).</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""262/100002010000077C000003DA2D6B26FC.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 3: Screenshot of web-based Voyant Tools (Sinclair et al., 2012).</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Enhanced Close Reading Design</head>
                <p>In contrast to the tools mentioned above, we combine traditional annotation tasks with distant reading analyses to enhance the close reading capabilities of the scholar. We suggest a design inspired by mind mapping (an example mind map is shown in Figure 4a), a methodology that allows a researcher to work on a central concept, and thoughts and features about that concept are placed around it using figures, lines etc. In a mind map, the associations spread out from a central concept in a free-flowing, yet organized and coherent manner (Budd, 2004) - thus forming a mental map of the central concept. We observe that like in the case of mind maps, fixed annotations around the central text in a traditional close reading process facilitate forming a mental map of the thoughts about the text of interest, and help the scholar to draw conclusions when seeing the whole picture.</p>
                <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Table1"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <figure>
                                <graphic url=""262/10000200000002F4000001B428DDC0DA.png""/>
                                <head>Figure 4a: An example mind map</head>
                            </figure>
                            <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3""> Image reproduced with permission from Kanter (Kanter, 2015) (Figure under CC BY 2.0 license, see 
                                <ptr target=""https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/""/> for details).
                            </note>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <figure>
                                <graphic url=""262/10000201000002F4000001B45878ECC5.png""/>
                                <head>Figure 4b: Mind-map inspired close reading</head>
                            </figure>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Figure 4b illustrates the idea of a mind map inspired interface with multiple types of annotations supporting the scholar in the close reading process. Textual annotations known from the traditional close reading are also necessary in the digital process. In addition, images, videos and charts can facilitate text interpretation and the generation of valuable hypotheses about the text. To support dynamic, multifarious views on a certain text passage or a term of interest, we designed our interface the way that the literary scholar can apply a multitude of visual analyses and generate distant reading visualizations that are placed as annotations alongside the text. This combines the traditional close reading paradigm with elaborated text visualization techniques valuable for exploration purposes. An important feature of our proposed interface design is to support the scholar to „stay in the flow“ (Bederson, 2004), so that the central focus remains on the text, which can be analyzed without interrupting the scholar. The major advantage of our design over existing tools that assist close reading tasks is interface versatility. For example, Voyant Tools (see Figure 3) provide a predefined set of visualizations based on text statistics. On the other hand, our design allows the scholar to choose an appropriate text visualization as an annotation alongside the text, which is based on a user-defined query on the text.. Therefore, the scholar can apply different text visualizations for different passages of the text to support a variety of close reading tasks. </p>
                <p>An example of the design discussed above is shown in Figure 5. The example from Figure 1 is annotated using different kinds of annotations. Like in other digital tools, certain topics of the text are annotated using colors. In addition, the character(s) Peggotty is marked and a panel shows thumbnail images based on a Google Images search. Also the relative word frequency chart of the term “Peggotty” in Chapter 2 is shown on the bottom left. Furthermore, on the left area, a TagPie (Jänicke et al., 2015a) showing the co-occurrences of both the terms memory and observation helps to investigate the hypothesis of the literary scholar about the similar meaning of both topics. The example depicts how the scholar can use different annotation tools as well as different distant reading tools to enrich the close reading experience.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""262/100002010000075F00000440C3691AC9.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 5: Example of our design</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Future Work and Conclusions</head>
                <p>We held discussion with the collaborating humanities scholars about the design as well as the usability of the proposed interface. The scholars remarked that such an interface will help removing fears of using digital humanities tools and that they intend to use the tool as it mimics their existing workflows. They also mentioned that such a tool could help users getting a better big picture of the text, and that it enhances the close reading capabilities of the scholar. Another important point is the capability in supporting teaching activities. They mentioned that various types of annotations (text, pictures, charts) are also used in teaching material, but it is not easy to share these with students. Such a tool could support this process as it generates persistent annotations to be analyzed and discussed collaboratively in courses. </p>
                <p>We observe that the scholar’s initial reactions after seeing the prototype of the tool, which is still in development, are convincing and encouraging. We think that rigid modeling syntax is inappropriate for annotation. Our final interface will allow the scholar to make annotation styles versatile. At the digital humanities conference, we will demonstrate our prototype and discuss future prospects within the community. An additional user study will compare the viability of our proposed, mind map inspired annotation technique to existing approaches.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Acknowledgements</head>
                <p>We thank our colleagues from the humanities department, Judith Blumenstein in particular, who provided insights and expertise that greatly assisted this research.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Agrawala, M. and Shilman, M.</hi> (2005). DIZI: a digital ink zooming interface for document annotation. <hi rend=""italic"">Human-Computer Interaction-INTERACT 2005</hi>, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 69-79.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Alex, B., Grover, C., Zhou, K., Hinrichs and Palimpsest, U.</hi> (2015). Improving Assisted Curation of Loco-specific Literature. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Digital Humanities 2015</hi>, pp. 5-7.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bargeron, D. and Moscovich, T.</hi> (2003). Reflowing digital ink annotations. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems</hi>, ACM, pp. 385-93.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bederson, B. B.</hi> (2004). Interfaces for staying in the flow. <hi rend=""italic"">Ubiquity</hi>, 1-1.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bonn, M. and McGlone, J.</hi> (2014). New Feature: Article Annotation with Hypothesis. <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Electronic Publishing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(2).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boyles, N.</hi> (2013). Closing in on Close Reading. <hi rend=""italic"">Educational Leadership</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">70</hi>(4): 36–41.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Budd, J. W.</hi> (2004). Mind Maps as Classroom Exercises. <hi rend=""italic"">The Journal of Economic Education</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">35</hi>(1): 35–46.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Buzan, T. and Buzan, B.</hi> (1993). The Mind Map Book How to Use Radiant Thinking to Maximise Your Brain's Untapped Potential. New York: Plume.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Geng, Z., Cheesman, T., Laramee, R. S., Flanagan, K. and Thiel, S.</hi> (2013). ShakerVis: Visual analysis of segment variation of German translations of Shakespeare’s Othello. <hi rend=""italic"">Information Visualization</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">15</hi>: 93-116.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Goffin, P., Willett, W., Fekete, J. D. and Isenberg, P.</hi> (2014). Exploring the placement and design of word-scale visualizations. Visualization and Computer Graphics, <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Transactions</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">20</hi>(12): 2291-300.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hawthorn, J.</hi> (2000). <hi rend=""italic"">A glossary of contemporary literary theory</hi>. Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jänicke, S., Blumenstein, J., Rücker, M., Zeckzer, D. and Scheuermann, G.</hi> (2015a). Visualizing the Results of Search Queries on Ancient Text Corpora with Tag Pies. <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jänicke, S., Franzini, G., Cheema, M. F. and Scheuermann, G.</hi> (2015b). On Close and Distant Reading in Digital Humanities: A Survey and Future Challenges. In Borgo, R., Ganovelli, F., and Viola, I. (eds.), <hi rend=""italic"">Eurographics Conference on Visualization (EuroVis) - STARs (2015)</hi>, The Eurographics Association.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kanter, B.</hi> (2015). Cambodia4kids.org, https://www.flickr.com/photos/cambodia4kidsorg/6195211411 (Retrieved 2015-11-25).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kehoe, A. and Gee, M.</hi> (2013). eMargin: A Collaborative Textual Annotation Tool. <hi rend=""italic"">Ariadne</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">71</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCabe, M. M.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Platonic Conversations</hi>. Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2005). <hi rend=""italic"">Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History</hi>. New York: Verso.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Muralidharan, A.</hi> (2011). A Visual Interface for Exploring Language Use in Slave Narratives. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Digital Humanities 2011</hi>.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schilit, B. N., Golovchinsky, G. and Price, M. N.</hi> (1998). Beyond paper: supporting active reading with free form digital ink annotations. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems</hi>, ACM Press/Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., pp. 249-56.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sinclair, S. and Rockwell, G.</hi> (2012). Voyant Tools. Online: http://voyant-tools.org (Retrieved 2015-11-25).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Yoon, D., Chen, N. and Guimbretière, F.</hi> (2013). TextTearing: Opening white space for digital ink annotation. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 26th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology</hi>, ACM, pp. 107-12. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zyto, S., Karger, D., Ackerman, M. and Mahajan, S. (2012).</hi> Successful classroom deployment of a social document annotation system. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems</hi>, ACM, pp. 1883-92.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2493","17","Entities as topic labels: improving topic interpretability and evaluability combining Entity Linking and Labeled LDA","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Humanities scholars have experimented with the potential of different text mining techniques for exploring large corpora, from co-occurrence-based methods to sequence-labeling algorithms (e.g. Named entity recognition). LDA topic modeling (Blei et al., 2003) has become one of the most employed approaches (Meeks and Weingart, 2012). Scholars have often remarked its potential for distant reading analyses (Milligan, 2012) and have assessed its reliability by, for example, using it for examining already well-known historical facts (Au Yeung, 2011). However, researchers have observed that topic modelling results are usually difficult to interpret (Schmidt, 2012). This limits the possibilities to evaluate topic modeling outputs (Chang et al., 2009).</p>
                <p>In order to create a corpus exploration method providing topics that are easier to interpret than standard LDA topic models, we propose combining two techniques called Entity linking and Labeled LDA; we are not aware of literature combining these two techniques in the way we describe. Our method identifies in an ontology a series of descriptive labels for each document in a corpus. Then it generates a specific topic for each label. Having a direct relation between topics and labels makes interpretation easier; using an ontology as background knowledge limits label ambiguity. As our topics are described with a limited number of clear-cut labels, they promote interpretability, and this may help quantitative evaluation. </p>
                <p>We illustrate the potential of the approach by applying it to define the most relevant topics addressed by each party in the European Parliament’s fifth term (1999-2004).
                    <lb/>
                    <lb/>The structure of our work is as follows: We first describe the basic technologies considered. We then describe our approach combining Entity Linking and Labeled LDA. Based on the European Parliament corpus (Koehn, 2005),
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p> http://www.statmt.org/europarl/</p>
                    </note> we show how the results of the combined approach are easier to interpret or evaluate than results for Standard LDA. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Basic technologies</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Entity Linking</head>
                    <p>Entity linking (Rao et al., 2013) tags textual mentions with an entity from a knowledge base like DBpedia (Auer et al., 2007). Mentions can be ambiguous, and the challenge is to choose the entity that most closely reflects the sense of the mention in context. For instance, in the expression Clinton Sanders debate, Clinton is more likely to refer to DBpedia entity Hillary_Clinton than to Bill_Clinton. However, in the expression Clinton vs. Bush debate, the mention Clinton is more likely to refer to Bill_Clinton. An entity linking tool is able to disambiguate mentions taking into account their context, among other factors. </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>LDA Topic Modeling</head>
                    <p>Topic modeling is arguably one of most popular text mining techniques in digital humanities (Brauer and Fridlund, 2013). It addresses a common research need, as it can identify the most important topics in a collection of documents, and how these topics are distributed across the documents in the collection. The method’s unsupervised nature makes it attractive for large corpora.</p>
                    <p>However, topic modeling does not always yield satisfactory results. The topics obtained are usually difficult to interpret (Schmidt, 2012, among others). Each topic is presented as a list of words. It generally depends on the intuitions of the researcher how to interpret these tokens in order to propose concepts or issues that these lists of words represent.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Labeled LDA</head>
                    <p>An extension of LDA topic model is Labeled LDA (Ramage et al., 2009). If each document in a corpus is described by a set of tags (e.g. a newspaper archive with articles tagged for areas like “economics”, “foreign policy”, etc.), Labeled LDA will identify the relation between LDA topics, documents and tags, and the output will consist of a list of labeled topics.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Our approach</head>
                <p>Labeled LDA has shown its potential for fine grained topic modeling (e.g. Zirn and Stuckenschmidt, 2014). The method requires a corpus where documents are annotated with tags describing their content. Several methods can be applied to automatically generating tags, e.g. keyphrase-extraction (Kim et al., 2010). Our source for tags is Entity linking. Since entity linking provides a unique label for sets of topically-related expressions across a corpus’ documents, it can help researchers get an overview of different concepts present in the corpus, even if the concepts are conveyed by different expressions in different documents. </p>
                <p>Our first step is identifying potential topic labels via entity linking. Linked entities were obtained with DBpedia Spotlight (Mendes et al., 2011). Spotlight disambiguates against DBpedia, outputting a confidence value for each annotation.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p> Spotlight outperforms other systems when corpus entities often correspond to common-noun mentions like 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">democracy</hi>, vs. proper-noun mentions (e.g. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Greenpeace</hi>). See Cornolti et al., 2013 and Usbeck et al., 2015. 
                        </p>
                    </note> Annotations whose confidence was below 0.1 were filtered out. We also removed too general or too frequent entities (e.g. Country or European_Union)
                </p>
                <p>We then rank entities' relevance per document with tf-idf (Jones, 1972), which promotes entities that are salient in a specific subset of corpus documents rather than frequent overall in the corpus. Finally, we select the top five entities per document as per tf-idf. These five entities are used as labels to identify, with Labeled LDA, the distribution of labeled topics in the corpus. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Experiments and Results</head>
                <p>Using the Stanford Topic Modeling Toolbox,
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p> http://nlp.stanford.edu/software/tmt/tmt-0.4/</p>
                    </note> we performed both Standard LDA (k=300) and Labeled LDA (with 5 labels)
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p> Each document (party) is labeled with 5 entities. Some entities are shared across parties. For the 125 parties, this gives 300 distinct labels. This corresponds to k=300 topics in Standard LDA.</p>
                    </note> on speech transcripts for the 125 parties at the European Parliament (1999-2004 session). The corpus contains 125 documents, representing one party each. Documents were tokenized and lemmatised; stopwords were removed. DBpedia entities were detected with Spotlight and ranked by tf-idf, as described above.
                    <lb/>We present the outputs of Labeled LDA with entity labels (EL_LDA) for three parties, compared to both Standard LDA and to the top-ranked entities for each party (by tf-idf). In each case, we show topics with relevance above 10%. Results for the remaining parties are available online.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                        <p> https://sites.google.com/site/entitylabeledlda</p>
                    </note>
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""240/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure: Linked entities (tf-idf-ranked), standard LDA topics and EL-LDA topics for speeches by Les Verts (France).</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""240/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure: Linked entities (tf-idf-ranked), standard LDA topics and EL-LDA topics for speeches by the Conservative Party (UK).</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""240/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure: Linked entities (tf-idf-ranked), standard LDA topics and EL-LDA topics for speeches by Partido Nacionalista Vasco (Spain).</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Discussion</head>
                <p>Labeled LDA combines the strengths of Entity Linking and standard LDA. Entity Linking provides clear labels, but no notion of the proportion of the document that is related to the entity. Standard LDA’s relevance scores do provide an estimate to what an extent the topic is relevant for the document, but the topics are not expressed with clear labels. Labeled LDA provides both clear labels, and a quantification of the extent to which the label covers the document's content.</p>
                <p>An advantage of Labeled LDA over Standard LDA is topic interpretability. Consider the UK Conservative Party's topics. In each standard LDA topic, there are words related to the concepts of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Industry</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Business</hi> in general, and some words related to the UK appear on the first topic. However, in each topic, some other words (e.g. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">government, directive, decision, measure, health, consumer</hi>) are related to other concepts, like perhaps 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Legislation</hi> or 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Social policy</hi>. A researcher trying to understand the standard LDA topics is faced with choosing which lexical areas are most representative of each topic: is it the ones related to 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Industry</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Business</hi>, and the UK, or is it the other ones? The clear-cut labels from Labeled LDA are more interpretable than a collection of words representing a topic.
                </p>
                <p>The Labeled LDA topics may be more or less correct, just like Standard LDA topics. But we find it easier to evaluate a topic via questions like ""is this document about 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Industry</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Business</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">the UK</hi>, in the proportions indicated by our outputs?"" than via questions like ""is this document about issues like 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">house, british, amendment, market, industry, government,</hi> (and so on for the remaining topics)""?
                </p>
                <p>The topics for French party Les Verts illustrate Labeled LDA’s strengths further. Most of the Standard LDA topics contain some words indicative of the party's concerns (e.g. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">environment</hi> or 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">development</hi>). However, it is not easy to point out which specific issues the party addresses. In Labeled LDA, concrete issues come out, like 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Genetically modified organism</hi>.
                </p>
                <p>Topic label 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Development aid</hi> shows a challenge with entity linking as a source of labels. Occurrences of the word 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">development</hi> have been disambiguated towards the entity 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Development_aid</hi>, whereas the correct entity is likely 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Sustainable_development</hi>. These errors do not undermine the method’s usefulness. Efficient ways to filter out such errors exist; this is conceptually similar to removing irrelevant words from Standard LDA topics. However, we need to be aware of and address this challenge. 
                </p>
                <p>Regarding Partido Nacionalista Vasco (Basque Nationalist Party), the Standard LDA topic misses the word 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">basque</hi>, which is essential to this party. Labeled LDA identifies 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Basque people</hi> as a dominant concept in this party’s interventions. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Outlook</head>
                <p>Our method performs Labeled LDA using Entity Linking outputs as labels. Its main advantage is providing a specific label for each topic, that improves topic interpretability, and can simplify human evaluation of topic models. </p>
                <p>More evaluation is needed to fully assess the approach. We will consider two possible complementary evaluations: first, a crowdsourced task where participants evaluate the coherence of Labeled LDA topics with the corpus documents. Second, an assessment of our topics by political science experts. We’re mostly interested in evaluating the approach for diachronic comparisons.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Au Yeung, C. M. and Jatowt, A.</hi> (2011). Studying how the past is remembered: towards computational history through large scale text mining.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 20th ACM international conference on Information and knowledge management.</hi>
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Auer, S., Bizer, C., Kobilarov, G., Lehmann, J., Cyganiak, R. and Ives, Z.</hi> (2007).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dbpedia: A nucleus for a web of open data</hi>. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. M., Ng, A. Y. and Jordan, M. I.</hi> (2003). Latent dirichlet allocation.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Journal of machine Learning research</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>: 993-1022.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brauer, R., and Fridlund, M.</hi> (2013). Historicizing Topic Models, A distant reading of topic modeling texts within historical studies.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Conference on Cultural Research in the context of ""Digital Humanities""</hi>, St. Petersburg: Russian State Herzen University.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chang, J., Gerrish, S., Wang, C., Boyd-Graber, J. L. and Blei, D. M.</hi> (2009). Reading tea leaves: How humans interpret topic models.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Advances in neural information processing systems</hi>.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cornolti, M., Ferragina, P. and Ciaramita, M.</hi> (2013). A framework for benchmarking entity-annotation systems.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 22nd international conference on World Wide Web</hi>. International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kim, S. N., Medelyan, O., Kan, M. Y. and Baldwin, T.</hi> (2010). Semeval-2010 task 5: Automatic keyphrase extraction from scientific articles.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Semantic Evaluation</hi>. Association for Computational Linguistics.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koehn, P.</hi> (2005). Europarl: A parallel corpus for statistical machine translation.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">MT summit</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mendes, P. N., Jakob, M., García-Silva, and Bizer, C.</hi> (2011). DBpedia spotlight: shedding light on the web of documents.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Semantic Systems</hi>. ACM.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meeks, E. and Weingart, S. B.</hi> (2013). The digital humanities contribution to topic modeling.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1): 2-1.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Milligan, I. </hi>(2012). Mining the ""Internet Graveyard"": Rethinking the Historians' Toolkit.>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Canadian Historical Association/Revue de la Société historique du Canada</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""italic"">23</hi>(2), 21-64.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramage, D., Hall, D., Nallapati, R. and Manning, C. D.</hi> (2009). Labeled LDA: A supervised topic model for credit attribution in multi-labeled corpora.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2009 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing</hi>. Association for Computational Linguistics.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rao, D., McNamee, P. and Dredze, M.</hi> (2013). Entity linking: Finding extracted entities in a knowledge base.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Multi-source, Multilingual Information Extraction and Summarization</hi>. Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Salton, G., Fox, E. A. and Wu, H.</hi> (1983). Extended Boolean information retrieval. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communications of the ACM</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">26</hi>(11): 1022-1036.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, B. M</hi>. (2012). Words alone: Dismantling topic models in the humanities.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1): 49-65.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sparck Jones, K. </hi>(1972). A statistical interpretation of term specificity and its application in retrieval. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of documentation</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(1): 11-21.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Usbeck, R., Röder, M. and Ngonga, A. C. N.</hi> (2015). Evaluating Entity Annotators Using GERBIL.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Semantic Web: ESWC 2015 Satellite Events</hi>. Springer International Publishing.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zirn, C. and Stuckenschmidt, H.</hi> (2014). Multidimensional topic analysis in political texts.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Data and Knowledge Engineering</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">90</hi>: 38-53.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2494","17","Exploring Networks Of Confidentiality And Secrecy In Early Modern Transconfessional Correspondences","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>With this contribution, I would like to discuss how multi-layered visualizations of epistolary networks can contribute to a better understanding of the circulation of illegal literature and confidential ideas between Catholic Tuscany and the Calvinist Dutch Republic. It questions how intellectual exchanges between these two regions maintained a balance between, on the one hand, the necessity to distribute (prohibited) books and to express controversial ideas and, on the other, social control and the need to avoid the objections of powerful political and religious institutions and individuals. This comparative analysis allows for a sharper focus on the differences and similarities on how intellectuals capitalized on opportunities in the social and religious structures to which they were connected. Indeed, they had to deal with the many tensions between the oppressive catholic environment of the court of Cosimo III and the Dutch Republic, already well known for its relative tolerance and freedom of printing (e.g. Touber, 2014). </p>
            <p>These personal and societal conflicts forced scholars and booksellers to take strategic measures of secrecy and confidentiality, which in turn depended on what Mauelshagen (2003) also called “networks of trust”. If we pose the question how epistolary networks evolved, understanding changing relationships between people, one might provide insights into aspects of confidentiality. For instance, as relationships grew friendlier, correspondence grew in confidence and trust, while on the other hand one did not correspond with adversaries (Heuvel, et al. 2014). Other examples include studies of Lux and Cook (1998), who claimed that the success of the Dutch Republic depended on what Granovetter (1973) also called “weak ties” instead of central hubs. This implies the importance of intermediaries between communities for the faster distribution of ideas: if you have a particularly close friend from another community, you are more likely to introduce him to your other close friends whom you know that will trust you (Barabási, 2009: 55). </p>
            <p>If we wish to verify these statements and to understand how intellectuals were able to overcome these confessional and social barriers, the analysis of multi-layered networks of correspondences provides a very interesting addition to archival research. Or in other words, the combination of methods for network analysis for distant reading of large sets of letters with close reading devoted to detect the role of secrecy and confidentiality in epistolary exchanges strengthens historical research. This means that qualitative analysis will uncover how social relations are represented and constructed, sometimes reinforced and sometimes transformed, which is enriched by traditional hermeneutic methods to focus on specific religious and personal features that have influenced those dynamics.</p>
            <p>It is important to consider that full data integration, in particular when dealing with early modern letters, is impossible for reasons of incompleteness, complexity and uncertainty in data. Therefore the focus should not be on analytical and statistical methods of network representations alone, but on approaches that allows us to handle, inquire and interpret these complex historical data. We do not need just networks as static representations, but also networks as interactive interfaces (Heuvel, et al. 2016). To this end, the software tool Nodegoat is used to bring together, explore and contextualise these epistolary exchanges. Nodegoat, differently from network visual-analytical tools such as Gephi, is built around data entry, management and curation processes (
                <ref target=""http://mnn.nodegoat.net/viewer"">http://mnn.nodegoat.net/viewer</ref>). It enables us to explore and to combine historical networks in various configurations, involving a diverse set of actors. This means that not only persons (scholars and booksellers) constitute relationships but also textual objects, like books with their dedicatees and introduction letters. For instance, the overlay of networks highlights those artefacts that played an important role in the establishment of contacts. If we look at their intersection with their function in the network, new opportunities may rise about how to link book dedications to strategies adopted by scholars. The importance of textual objects as participants in networks has also been stressed by Latour (2005). From the correspondence of the Florentine librarian Antonio Magliabechi, for example, it turned out that the Dutch microbiologist Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) chose to dedicate his work the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Arcana Naturae Detecta</hi> to Magliabechi. By using this strategy, Leeuwenhoek was able to benefit from Magliabechi’s extensive network for the distribution of his work in Italy. Overlaying different networks sheds light on the role of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Arcana</hi> in the network of Magliabechi (fig. 1 and 2). For instance, the image illustrates those correspondences in which Magliabechi mentioned the publication of Leeuwenhoek, showing in this way the diffusion of his publication over time. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""219/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Fig. 1 A visualization of networks around the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Arcana Naturae Detecta</hi> of Leeuwenhoek (the right yellow node) and Magliabechi. Magliabechi, at the centre of this visualisation, is surrounded by other dedicatees (represented in red), their accompanying books (yellow) and the letters in which the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Arcana</hi> is mentioned (light blue). Hovering over the nodes and ties opens an overview with the different connections, and specifies the nature of the relationships (see fig. 2) 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""219/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Fig. 2 Overview of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Arcana Naturae Detecta</hi>, linked to the Short Title Catologue of the National Library of the Netherlands (KB)
            </p>
            <p>Moreover, the analysis of relationships between people can provide insight between direct and indirect transfer of confidentiality via intermediaries. In the Mapping Notes and Nodes in Networks project (Álvarez and Heuvel, 2014) it appeared that the overlay of more networks shed light on the evolution of co-citation networks and introduction networks. As correspondents entered networks of epistolary exchange, they did so not in some ideal egalitarian society, where anyone could join simply by writing a letter, but in a world regulated by social norms and rules of etiquette. In short, letters of introduction were often necessary to be admitted into an epistolary network. Following the evolution of introduction letters alongside a citation network and determine whether a shift takes place in the number of intermediates between correspondents (revealing shrinking degrees of separation), could reveal the importance of introductions in the establishment of epistolary networks. 
            </p>
            <p>Furthermore, Nodegoat is used to bring and contextualise epistolary networks by means of data integration from various data resources such as the Short Title Catalogue Netherlands (STCN) and archival research from archives in the Netherlands and in Italy. The STCN has been queried in order to disambiguate objects and to enhance the interoperability of my data. For example, information on books in epistolary networks can be linked directly to the STCN, which allows me to map the unstructured data in the letters (as titles are often mentioned incomplete) to structured data.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Álvares Francés, L., Heuvel, C. van den</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">End report Mapping Notes and Nodes in Networks</hi>. https://www.huygens.knaw.nl/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/EndReportMNN.pdf> (accessed 18 December 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Barabási, A.</hi> (2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Linked; the New Science of Networks</hi>. Cambridge/Massachusetts: Perseus Publishing. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Granovetter, M. S.</hi> (1973). The Strength of Weak Ties, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">American Journal of Sociology</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">78</hi>(6): 1360-1380.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heuvel, C. van den, Vugt, I. van, Kessels, G., Bree, P. van</hi> (2016). Deep networks as associative interfaces to historical research, The Future of Historical Network Research (peer reviewed book chapter) in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ashgate</hi> (submitted for publication).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heuvel, C. van den et al. </hi>(2015), Modeling Confidentiality and Secrecy in Knowledge Exchange Networks of Letters and Drawings in the Early Modern Europe, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Nuncius</hi>, 31: 78–106.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Latour, B. </hi>(2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reassembling the Social, An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory</hi>. Oxford: University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lux, D and Cook, H. </hi>(1998). Closed circles or open networks? Communicating at a distance during the scientific revolution, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">History of Science</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">36</hi>(112): 179-211.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mauelshagen, F.</hi> (2003). Networks of Trust and Imagined Community of the Learned, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Medieval History Journal</hi>, 6(1): 1-32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Touber, J. J</hi>. (2014). Religious interests and scholarly exchange in the Early Enlightement Republic of Letters: Italian and Dutch scholars 1675-1715, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Rivista di Storia della Chiesa in Italia</hi>, 2: 411-436.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2495","17","Exploring The History Of The Qur'an Digitally","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Initiated in 2007, the project Corpus Coranicum of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities aims at building a comprehensive digital information system by providing access to relevant materials for the history of the Qur’an such as digitized versions of the oldest qur'anic manuscripts and their transliterations, comparisons of variant readings for each verse, texts from the environment of the Qur’an as well as providing commentaries for each sura, taking all the aforementioned elements into account. Both, manuscript evidence and variant readings, can be seen as the foundation for a future critical edition of the Qur'an. Following the German philological approaches to the history of the Qur'an before World War II such as the “Wissenschaft des Judentums” – a reform movement founded by Abraham Geiger (1810-1874) – and Gotthelf Bergsträßer's (1886-1933) “Korankomission” of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences, the Qur'an project in Potsdam is working on implementing a sustainable solution for exploring the history of the Qur’an, this time digitally.  </p>
            <p>This information system does not confine itself to the digital reproduction of the holy text but utilizes international standards like XML, Unicode and TEI to ensure the long-term readability and archivability of the conducted research, text analyses and editorial efforts. The print edition of the Qur'an produced in Cairo in 1924 is used as a reference for the documentation of the material for the textual history, since that print had a tremendous influence on following prints during the 20
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century. following the analytical approach of Theodor Nöldeke (1836-1930), the project produces rich philological commentaries for each sura, exposing their chronological order and putting emphasis of the development of their literary forms across the 22 years of the prophet's proclamation.  
            </p>
            <p>Viewing the Qur’an as a text proclaimed in Arabia in Late Antiquity, the Corpus Coranicum project provides access to a collection of testimonies labeled as “Texte aus der Umwelt des Korans” (“Texts from the Environment of the Qur'an”). There, texts in Hebrew, Syriac, Greekt, Arabic, Ancient South Arabian, Ethiopian and others are being gathered, transcribed and translated, in order to highlight intersections and point out differences between and other documents from Late Antique culture, religions and traditions: Thus, the messages of the Qur'an can be viewed and understood in their respective contexts and in a new light. </p>
            <p>Furthermore, the project gathers archeological evidence and conducts radiocarbon datings of qur’anic parchments in an ongoing German-French cooperation (2011-2014 Coranica, from 2015-2018 Paleocoran) to contribute substantially to the understanding of the Qur'an's history and the emergence of Islam. A joint goal of Corpus Coranicum and Paleocoran is to bring together all manuscripts that were originally kept in old Cairo and are now scattered around the world in a digital format for presenting them in their original form and order. On top of mere digitizations of the manuscripts, the Corpus Coranicum provides modernized transliterations of the original Arabic scripture. These transliterations are being shown in a self-developed font “Coranica” since other Arabic fonts like MS Typesetting or Amiri fail to display all the necessary characters occurring in the relevant texts of the project.  </p>
            <p>Next to commentaries, contextualization and analyzing manuscripts, the Corpus Coranicum project is building a corpus of variant readings on a word-level. Since the earliest time, the various readers of the Qur’an have recited the text in their own way. For each sura, each verse and word-coordinate in the Qur’an, the project compares the variant readings according to the written source with each other in order to show the varying tradition and interpretation of the holy text. </p>
            <p>With the variant data accumulated so far the variances cannot only be analyzed on a word-to-word basis, but they can also be utilized to compute a general similarity measure between readers of the Qur’an by mapping the variant readings into a vector space which can be represented as a multi-dimensional matrix.  For each word occurring in Qur’an, the Qur’an matrix is being assigned a dedicated row. Each variant reading of that word at this particular sura-verse-word-coordinate creates a column in that row, assigning the variant reading as its value. The same procedure is then applied to create matrices for each reader of the Qur’an. Whereas the Qur’an matrix can have multiple non-empty values in a row, a reader matrix can only have one: the corresponding coordinate of the variant reading the reader uses at that particular sura, vers and word position. Since the cutting angle between two vectors or matrices represents the similarity to each other, the Euclidian distance (see below) is being utilized to compute that similarity measure.  </p>
            <p>All the aforementioned branches of the Corpus Coranicum project, the history of the text, the manuscripts, analyses of variant readings, the literary and chronological commentary as well as the texts surrounding and having influenced the Qur’an are bundled together to develop a new perspective on the text. The website of the Corpus Coranicum goes beyond a traditional digital edition of the Qur’an and can better be described as a digital framework or digital information system for the Qur’an, as a variety of tools and different texts are present.  </p>
            <p>The project tries to pick up and go digitally beyond where German Qur’anic science tradition has left off. On top of the content created and functionalities implemented thus far, the projects aims at extending its range of features by providing internationalized versions of the website (English, French, Turkish) as well as integrating the Rafi Talmon (1948-2004, Arabist, University of Haifa) concordance to offer chrono-morphological and statistical analyses of the holy text.  </p>
            <p>The talk will give an overview about the current state of the project, will portray philological approaches and their technical applications as well as present results of the similarity computations mentioned above.  </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""http://www.corpuscoranicum.de"">http://www.corpuscoranicum.de</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>http://cl.haifa.ac.il/projects/quran/index.shtml</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2496","17","Extraction and Visualization of Toponyms in Diachronic Text Corpora","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>This paper focuses on the extraction of German and Austrian place names in historical texts. It is part of a cooperation between the Berlin-Brandenburg and the Austrian Academies of Sciences. The latter is the holder of the text basis for this investigation, the digitized version of the satirical literary magazine ""Die Fackel"" (""The Torch""). It has been originally published and almost entirely written by the satirist and language critic Karl Kraus in Vienna from 1899 until 1936, and contains a considerable variety of toponyms (Biber, 2001).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Gazetteers and lists</head>
                <p>Toponym resolution often relies on named-entity recognition and artificial intelligence (Leidner and Lieberman, 2011). However, knowledge-based methods using fine-grained data – for example from Wikipedia – have already been used with encouraging results (Hu et al., 2014).During the 20th century there have been significant political changes in Central Europe that have severely affected toponyms, so that geographical databases lack coverage and detail. Consequently, the database we develop follows from a combination of approaches: gazetteers are curated in a supervised way to account for historical differences,and current geographical information is used as a fallback.</p>
                <p>First, a cascade of filtersis used: (1) current and historical states (e.g. Austria-Hungary); (2) regions, important subparts of states, and regional landscapes (e.g. Swabia); (3) populated places; (4) geographical features (e.g. valleys). Wikipedia's API is used to navigate in categories and to retrieve coordinates, which are completed by hand for states and regions.Second, current information is also compiled from the Geonames database
                    <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">
                        <ptr target=""http://www.geonames.org/""/>
                    </note>: data for European countries are retrieved and preprocessed(variants and place types).
                </p>
                <p>In order to exclude common and proper nouns, the German version of the Wiktionary serves as a reference
                    <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""2""> Thanks to Kay-Michael Würzner (BBAW) for his extraction script.</note>, and registers of frequent surnamesand family names, as well as well-known persons (especially writers) are built using Wikipedia and Wikidata.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Extraction</head>
                <p>The texts were digitized, manually corrected as well as manually annotated with respect to the names of persons and institutions, so that most proper nouns which are not place names can be excluded from the study.</p>
                <p>The tokenized files of works to be analyzed (Jurish and Würzner, 2013) are filtered and matched with the databaseby finite-state automatons: toponyms are extracted using a sliding window (for multi-word names up to three components). Disambiguation being a critical component (Leetaru, 2012), an algorithm similar to Pouliquen et al. (2006), who demonstrated that an acceptable precision can be reached that way,guesses the most probable entry based on distanceto Vienna (Sinnott, 1984), contextual information(closest-country, last names resolved), and importance (place type, population count).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Visualization</hi>
                </head>
                <p>The results are projected on a map of Europe with boundaries of 1914
                    <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""3"">
                        <ptr target=""http://dev2.dariah.eu/geoserver/web/""/>
                    </note> using TileMill
                    <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""4"">
                        <ptr target=""https://www.mapbox.com/tilemill/""/>
                    </note>. They are customized with CartoCSS: multiple trial-and-error iterations are performed concerning both data quality and graphical output. The two experimental maps belowground on the same data, they result from different settings.
                </p>
                <figure>
                 <graphic url=""404/10000000000003200000029B1FE2607EE2A29830.png""/>
                 <head>
                 <p>Map 1– Experiment on European scale with boundaries of 1914 (yellow: sovereign territories; orange: regions; green: populated places; blue: geographical features)</p>
                 </head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                  <graphic url=""404/1000000000000320000002A717C1DDBE9503CB88.png""/>
                <head>
                <p>Map 2– Central Europe, experiment with a restrictive filtering</p>
                </head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Discussion</hi>
                </head>
                <p>Potential conceptual caveats include previous times as well as fictitious places, especially names which can refer to mythological and actual places of Ancient Greece or Rome. Practical caveats are for instance false localizations due to disambiguation errors (e.g. Brünn/Brno on map 2). We plan to bypass the disambiguation for a hand-picked list of places. As big datais an entanglement of implicit theoretical assumptions (Crawford et al., 2014), the difference between a mere data collection project and a digital humanities study resides precisely in the number and diversity of filters used. The code and listings produced for this study are available online.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn0"" place=""foot"" n=""5"">
                        <ptr target=""https://github.com/adbar/toponyms""/>
                    </note> We plan to integrate corpora of greater variety and scope and to include more specific metadata in order to design versatile visualizations.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>A map is a discrimination, a marking of difference (Wulfman, 2014): our maps highlight the linguistic and cultural ties of Kraus and his contemporaries with Bohemia and Northern Italy, where there are more numerous toponyms to be found than in Hungary.Beyond that, ""Die Fackel"" is (at least) a European phenomenon; Kraus' vision of Europe is more inclined towards cultural centers (Prague, Munich, Paris, Berlin).</p>
                <p>It is our hope that visualization studies based upon mixed methods contribute to a greater awareness of the potential of digital heritage as well as literary studies in the digital age. Although the maps seem immediately interpretable, they are not an objective result but a construct (Juvan, 2015), the result of a filtering. The ""human"" interventions on the map as well as the technical competence to do so replace this study in the hermeneutic circle of the philological tradition.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">AAC-FACKEL.</hi> Die Fackel. Herausgeber: Karl Kraus, Wien 1899-1936. In Biber, H., Breiteneder, E., Kabas, H., Mörth, K.; Graphic Design: Burdick, A.(eds), <hi rend=""italic"">AAC Digital Edition 1</hi>, http://www.aac.ac.at/fackel.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Biber, H.</hi> (2001). In Wien, in Prag und infolgedessen in Berlin - Ortskonstellationen in der ""Fackel"". In Marten-Finnis, S., Uecker, M. (ed.) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Berlin-Wien-Prag. Moderne, Minderheiten und Migration in der Zwischenkriegszeit</hi>, Peter Lang, pp. 15-26.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Crawford, K., </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Gray, M. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Miltner, K.</hi> (2014). Big Data | Critiquing Big Data: Politics, Ethics, Epistemology | Special Section Introduction. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Communication</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>: 1663–72.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hu, Y., </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Janowicz, K. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Prasad, S.</hi> (2014). Improving Wikipedia-Based Place Name Disambiguation in Short Texts Using Structured Data from Dbpedia. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Geographic Information Retrieval</hi>, ACM, pp. 8-16.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Juvan, M.</hi> (2015). From Spatial Turn to GIS-Mapping of Literary Cultures.                      <hi rend=""italic"">European Review</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(1): 81-96.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jurish, B. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Würzner, K.-M.</hi> (2013). Word and Sentence Tokenization with Hidden Markov Models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">JLCL</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(2): 61–83.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Leidner, J. L. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Lieberman, M. D.</hi> (2011). Detecting Geographical References in the Form of Place Names and Associated Spatial Natural Language. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">SIGSPATIAL Special</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(2): 5-11.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pouliquen, B., Kimler, M., Steinberger, R., Ignat, C., Oellinger, T., Blackler, K., Fluart, F., Zaghouani, W., Widiger, A., Forslund, A.-C. and Best, C.</hi> (2006). Geocoding multilingual texts: Recognition, disambiguation and visualisation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of The Fifth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC)</hi>, pp. 53-58.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sinnott, R. W.</hi> (1984). Virtues of the Haversine.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sky and Telescope</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">68</hi>(2): 159.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wulfman, C. E.</hi> (2014). The Plot of the Plot: Graphs and Visualizations. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Journal of Modern Periodical Studies</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>(1): 94-109.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2497","17","From Index Cards to a Digital Information System: Teaching Data Modeling to Master's Students in History","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>For the last five years I’ve taught a course on “computer science for historians” at University Lyon3 Jean Moulin. The course includes 20 hours in ten sessions and has attracted twenty to forty students each year. It addresses history students during the first semester of their master studies: they start at this stage with information collection in archival sources and bibliography, which they can later exploit to write their master's thesis. Thus, the aim is to provide them with methods and digital tools for modeling and storing information, and then for subjecting it to interrogation, visualization and analysis. This is a great challenge because many students still use paper for taking notes when they analyze historical sources and are not used to working with software that is not completely self-installing. Furthermore, students will receive from their tutors all kinds of research subjects, from Ancient to Modern history, and they often want to analyze quite complex information which one cannot store in a simple spreadsheet. For this reason, the pedagogical challenge is also a challenge for the digital humanist: how can the students be provided with a generic and flexible information system of ready use for their research but sophisticated enough to store any sort of data?</p>
            <p>In this paper I will treat some theoretical and practical aspects of the digital information system I devised to cope with this problem, and will present some issues raised by recourse to the information system that concern both students and teacher. The manuscript of the course is publicly available on a 
                <ref target=""http://phn-wiki.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/doku.php?id=td_histoire_numerique:accueil"">dedicated website</ref>
                <note xml:id=""ftn12"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">
                    <ptr target=""http://phn-wiki.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/doku.php?id=td_histoire_numerique:accueil""/>(all websites were accessed on 30 October 2015).
                </note>: anyone interested can download the tools I developed and test the methods proposed to the students, or employ them for their own teaching. As I teach in French the documentation, interfaces, etc. are written in this language. The information system I propose in the course combines the experience acquired in developing the 
                <ref target=""http://symogih.org/"">symogih.org project</ref>
                <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""2""> Documentation about the project and links to its the different components are provided on the project main website : 
                    <ptr target=""http://symogih.org/""/> .
                </note>, a collaborative platform for storing and sharing structured historical data, with the method of semantic annotation of texts adopted in our 
                <ref target=""http://xml-portal.symogih.org/web-publications.html"">platform for digital editions</ref>
                <note xml:id=""ftn0"" place=""foot"" n=""3"">
                    <ptr target=""http://xml-portal.symogih.org/web-publications.html""/> .
                </note> in accordance to the
                <hi rend=""italic"">Text encoding initiative</hi>'s
                <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>guidelines (TEI). These data production practices, both as structured data and encoded texts, must be radically simplified to cope with the pedagogical need exposed above and this requires working on a high level of abstraction.
            </p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""317/10000000000009AF00000DB49FDF5DAE.jpg""/>
                    <head>Figure 1</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>The first component of the information system provided to the students is a relational database designed using a generic data model
                <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""4""> Cf. 
                    <ptr target=""https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generic_data_model""/>. Databases are used in historical research both at individual and project level. See, e.g., Gast, Leugers and Leugers-Scherzberg, 2010; Alerini and Lamassé, 2011; Cellier and Cocaud, 2001; Erickson, 2013. The novelty of the method proposed by the symogih.org project, and in my course, is the abstraction level allowing to treat any kind of historical information.
                </note>. In the center of the model (Figure 1), the object class, having the same sense as the ""Endurant"" class in DOLCE
                <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""5"">
                    <ref target=""http://www.loa.istc.cnr.it/old/DOLCE.html"">DOLCE : a Descriptive Ontology for Linguistic and Cognitive Engineering</ref>: 
                    <ptr target=""http://www.loa.istc.cnr.it/old/DOLCE.html""/>.
                </note>, or the ""Persistent Item (E77)"" class in CIDOC-CRM
                <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""6"">
                    <ref target=""http://www.cidoc-crm.org/"">CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (CRM)</ref>: 
                    <ptr target=""http://www.cidoc-crm.org/""/>.
                </note>, comprises individual actors, institutions, places, concepts, etc. about which students will be collecting information. The function of this class is to provide an identifier for each individual, in turn characterized by one or more names, a time span of existence, a type and an accurate textual definition. The database also allows treatment of some basic associations between objects defined in a class ""system parameter"" – a typical component of a generic data model – whose instances are predefined by the teacher. This simplifies the use of the database by students and guides them in their first steps of data production, but if needed parameters can be extended to other kinds of relationships. A simple PHP interface is added to facilitate data capture.
            </p>
            <p>The database is implemented using PostgreSQL because this open-source database provides extended features in datatype treatment (namely XML) and comes along with a procedural language (PL/pgSQL) allowing data treatment in a SQL context without having to learn a different programming language
                <note xml:id=""ftn5"" place=""foot"" n=""7"">
                    <ptr target=""http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.4/static/plpgsql.html""/>.
                </note>. The teacher can thus write predefined functions to help the student prepare, transform and code the data before further treatment. A spatial extension is also available (PostGIS) which permits working with geo-referenced data if needed
                <note xml:id=""ftn6"" place=""foot"" n=""8"">
                    <ptr target=""http://postgis.net/""/>.
                </note>. PostgreSQL is therefore a kind of ""Swiss Army knife"" for historical data storage and treatment.
            </p>
            <p>If the ""Objects"" (""Endurants"" or ""Persistent items"") are identified in the database, where then is collected information about them? According to the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">symogih.org</hi> semantic data model
                <note xml:id=""ftn7"" place=""foot"" n=""9"">
                    <ptr target=""http://symogih.org/?q=rdf-publication""/> .
                </note>, a ""Knowledge Unit"" is an atomized portion of information that expresses a relationship among objects situated in space and time, established on critical analysis of documents. The class ""Knowledge Unit"" is therefore equivalent to the ""Temporal entity (E2)"" class in CIDOC-CRM or ""Perdurant"" class in DOLCE: “An endurant lives in time by 
                <hi rend=""italic"">participating</hi> in some perdurant(s). For exemple, a person, which is an endurant, may participate in a discussion, which is a perdurant”
                <note xml:id=""ftn8"" place=""foot"" n=""10""> Cf. Masolo et al., 2003: 14.</note>. 
            </p>
            <p>In former years, ""knowledge units"" were also stored in the database, as the ""objects"" are presently
                <note xml:id=""ftn9"" place=""foot"" n=""11"">
                    <ptr target=""http://phn-wiki.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/doku.php?id=td_histoire_numerique:installation_db_2013""/> .
                </note>. Pedagogical experience has shown that the degree of abstraction required for modeling information in form of structured data is generally too steep for training digital historians, although some students used this method with ease. The newly proposed information system comprises therefore a second component which consists in a text encoding method using some specific TEI tags and attributes. These allow semantic text encoding: ""knowledge units"" can be directly annotated into the text, thus marking up named entities with the database identifiers of the related objects and then encoding their properties and relationships in the text with specific tags and attributes
                <note xml:id=""ftn10"" place=""foot"" n=""12"">
                    <p> Some pages of the symogih.org project's user manual provide the encoding specification for XML/TEI semantic annotated texts using the symogih.org ontology:
                        <ptr target=""https://groupes.renater.fr/wiki/symogih/symogih_manuel/edition_de_textes_en_xml-tei""/>.
                    </p>
                    <p>This method was presented at the TEI 2015 conference in Lyon, cf. Beretta 2015. The Special Interest Group Ontologies in the TEI Consortium is devoted to this approach. See the GIS Ontologies wiki : 
                        <ptr target=""http://wiki.tei-c.org/index.php/SIG:Ontologies""/> and Eide, 2014-2015. A similar approach is represented by Jordanous, Stanley and Tupman, 2012.
                    </p>
                </note>.
            </p>
            <p>But this method raises the question of the XML editor to adopt for text semantic encoding, meaning the addition of a further software component to the workflow of data production providing XML schema validation and also tools for querying the encoded text. XML text encoding is more suitable and I prefer it for PhD student and researcher training, but this demands a supplementary specific instruction that it impossible to provide in the limited master's course time. I therefore conceived a way of semantically tagging the text in a simple text editor or word processing program using curly brackets instead of angle brackets and replacing XML-attributes by predefined codes. This method is described on the 
                <ref target=""http://phn-wiki.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/doku.php?id=td_histoire_numerique:exercice_2"">course wiki</ref> that also furnishes instructions for using regular expressions for proper encoding
                <note xml:id=""ftn11"" place=""foot"" n=""13"">
                    <ptr target=""http://phn-wiki.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/doku.php?id=td_histoire_numerique:exercice_2""/>.
                </note>. Regular expressions are then used in a PL/pgSQL script in the database to transform the curly brackets and their content into real XML tags and attributes: the encoded tag “{en2ai_10}Johannes Kepler{/en}” becomes “<en type=“ai” ref=“2” ana=“10”>Johannes Kepler</en>” (belonging to a course-specific namespace). This transformation allows storage of the encoded text in a PostgreSQL XML field and consequently benefit of the full power of the XPath and SQL queries, and programming capabilities of PL/pgSQL, to extract information from the texts.
            </p>
            <p>The workflow of data production and treatment ends with the phase of data analysis and visualization. For this purpose I adopted the R software that can be directly connected to a PostgreSQL database and provides many useful libraries. For instance, a former student produced data about relationship between persons attested by medieval charters that can be used for network analysis (Figure 2). </p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""317/1000000000000B200000070FADC281D2.jpg""/>
                    <head>Figure 2</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>The students can send the teacher a dump of their database and formulate the research questions that the latter will transcribe into SQL, XPath or procedure language queries for extracting data, before sending this back to the students. Building upon these examples the students can themselves adapt the queries and scripts to new research questions. A wiki dedicated to each student's project can be created to document the specific workflow of each research project: it is not public but it is accessible to all other students participating in the process of data production and analysis. The students can use the results of data analysis and visualization to formulate new research hypotheses or they can integrate them into their master's thesis.</p>
            <p>In this paper I will present the essential conceptual and technical aspects of the whole workflow and consider three major advantages of this pedagogical approach for the disciplinary domain of digital history. First, students gain the experience of managing a workflow going from installation and personal practice on a solid community maintained open-source software, to reflection on data modeling concerning their own research agenda, to collaborative data and project management through a wiki, to an introduction in data mining and visualization techniques. Secondly, the abstraction level of the data model and text encoding practice proposed to the students implicitly introduces them to knowledge management and data production according to present-day standards like CIDOC-CRM and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Text encoding initiative</hi>: from this perspective historical knowledge is modeled as a graph of objects situated in time and space and linked to the texts from which they derive. Thus —and this is the third advantage— the course acquaints students with the basic principles of linked data and of semantic text encoding, introducing them to the concepts and practice of resource sharing and data curation: the datasets I use for the exercises come from the French national library (BNF) SPARQL endpoint and DBPedia, and the texts from Wikipedia. In a final part, I will discuss the issues that this pedagogical approach raises for master's students in history.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Alerini, J. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Lamassé, S. </hi> (2011). Données et statistiques. L'avenir du travail en ligne de l'historien. In: Genet, J.-P. and Zorzi, A. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Les historiens et l'informatique. Un métier à réinventer.</hi> Rome: Ecole française de Rome, pp. 171-187.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Beretta, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">F</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">.</hi> (2015). The symogih.org project and TEI : encoding structured historical data in XML texts. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text Encoding Initiative Conference and Members’ Meeting 2015. Connect, Animate, Innovate</hi>, Lyon, France: 
                        <ptr target=""https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01251915v1""/> .
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cellier, J. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Cocaud, M.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Traiter des données historiques : méthodes statistiques, techniques informatiques</hi>. Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eide, Ø.</hi> (2014-2015). Ontologies, Data Modeling, and TEI. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8:</hi> Selected Papers from the 2013 TEI Conference. 
                        <ptr target=""http://jtei.revues.org/1191""/>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Erickson, A. T. </hi>(2013). Historical Research and the Problem of Categories. In: Dougherty, J. and Nawrotzki, K. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Writing History in the Digital Age.</hi> Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 133-145.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gast, H., Leugers, A. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Leugers-Scherzberg, A. H. </hi>(2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Optimierung historischer Forschung durch Datenbanken. Die exemplarische Datenbank ""Missionsschulen 1887-1940""</hi>. Bad Heilbrunn: Verlag Julius Klinkhardt.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jordanous, A., Stanley, A. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tupman, C.</hi> (2012). Contemporary transformation of ancient documents for recording and retrieving maximum information: when one form of markup is not enough. Proceedings of Balisage, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>: The Markup Conference 2012, 
                        <ptr target=""http://www.balisage.net/Proceedings/vol8/html/Jordanous01/BalisageVol8-Jordanous01.html""/>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Masolo, C., Borgo, S., Gangemi, A., Guarino, N., </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Oltramari, A</hi>. (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">WonderWeb Deliverable D18 Ontology Library (final).</hi> Trento: Laboratory For Applied Ontology. PDF version: 
                        <ptr target=""http://wonderweb.man.ac.uk/deliverables.shtml""/> .
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2498","17","From Order to Order Switch. Mediating between Complexity and Reproducibility in the Context of Automated Literary Annotation","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>In the context of literary studies, which are mainly concerned with the hermeneutic interpretation of literary texts, narratological annotation can be helpful in at least two ways. First, the identification of narrative structures can point to peculiarities of the individual texts that are in need of interpretation, thereby advancing the generation of interpretation hypotheses. Second, since narrative structures can often be detected on the surface level of texts and described intersubjectively, narratological analyses may provide a robust and concrete backing for more comprehensive and complex interpretations. </p>
                <p>Against this backdrop, the project heureCLÉA aims at developing a “digital heuristic”: a functionality that automatically annotates specific narrative features in literary texts. To achieve this, a corpus of short stories is manually and collaboratively annotated based on a narratological tagset (cf. Gius, 2015; Gius/Jacke, 2015a). The automation is subsequently achieved in a combined approach of rule-based NLP methods and machine learning techniques (cf. Bögel et al., 2015a). However, the automation process is complicated by a specific interdisciplinary conflict: the textual phenomena literary scholars are interested in are often very complex and closely interconnected, which seems to significantly hinder the automation process.</p>
                <p>In this paper, we present our way of addressing this problem by way of example: we introduce the basic narratological concept of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">temporal order</hi> and its theoretical prerequisites/application conditions; we show how the concept’s complexity causes technical issues in the context of automation and how converting 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">order</hi> to the stripped-down concept of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">order switch</hi> significantly enhances the automation results; finally, we explain in which way the new concept is still suited for literary analysis.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Collaborative manual annotation of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">temporal order</hi>
                </head>
                <p>The discipline of narratology mainly deals with analyzing the (textual) features typical for narrative representation (cf. Meister, 2014). Narratological text analysis is based on often widely accepted narratological concepts or categories. The project heureCLÉA focuses on the operationalization of a subset of these categories: categories that describe temporal relations between a story and its representation. These categories are: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">order</hi> (when does an event happen? – when is it told?), 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">frequency</hi> (how often does it happen? – how often is it told?), and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">duration</hi> (how long does it take to happen? – how long does it take to tell about it?) (cf. Genette, 1980). While these categories are reckoned comparably simple and straightforward in narratology, collaborative manual annotation revealed that they are not. We would like to illustrate this using the example of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">order</hi> (cf. fig. 1).
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""64/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 1: Tagset order</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Basically, the events of a story can either be presented in chronological order or the chronology can be interrupted by “flashbacks” (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">analepses</hi> in narratological terms) or “flashforwards” (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">prolepses</hi>). Each analepsis and prolepsis can further be qualified according to their reach and extent. Whenever anachronies occur, the whole text passage constituting the anachrony is annotated as either 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">analepsis</hi> or 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">prolepsis</hi>. Furthermore, anachronies may be nested: they can contain further anachronies (cf. fig. 2).
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""64/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 2: Annotation of nested anachronies
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">“Outside under the high gateway she stopped, breathing deeply. Her heart grew heavy; she had [just] pushed back the helping hand by which she had been guided since her youth; she knew none she could grasp now.” (Theodor Storm: Veronika).</note>
                    </head>
                </figure>
                <p>The complexity of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">order</hi> annotation is significantly increased by the fact that the analysis of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">order</hi> showed to be dependent on a different narrative phenomenon: that of narrative levels. Narrative texts can contain embedded narrations, i.e., narrations within narrations. This occurs whenever a character in the story starts telling a story of their own (“new speaker”) or when counterfactual passages occur in a narration (“new world”) (cf. Ryan, 1991). As should be immediately plausible (at least for ontologically distinct narrative levels), it does not make sense to try and analyze the temporal relation between different narrative levels, i.e., between “actual” and counterfactual events in a story. It thus became necessary to establish an additional round of annotation preceding the annotation of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">order</hi>: we first had to identify the embedded narrations in a story, so that temporal order could subsequently be analysed for each narrative level separately.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Automation: from 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">order</hi> to 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">order switch</hi>
                </head>
                <p>From a computational linguistic perspective, modeling order phenomena imposes interesting challenges that can be grouped into two types: aspects inherent to the phenomenon and data-specific issues.</p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Phenomenon-inherent aspects</head>
                    <p>Regarding characteristics of order phenomena, the aforementioned aspects of nestedness of order poses interesting challenges. As order phenomena are inherently nested, they yield a tree structure of annotations with multiple parent-child relationships. While there are models to formalize and predict tree structures (e.g., in the area of grammars), the prediction is orders of magnitude more complex than the prediction of linear or independent annotations, where complexity in this sense means the amount of training data required to sufficiently model the problem.</p>
                    <p>In addition, the span of order annotations is highly heterogeneous comprising few tokens as well as multiple paragraphs. Finally, while a sequence classification approach would be suitable to annotate a sequence of tokens representing a specific order, additional aspects of the data at hand impede sequence classification. There is thus no clear annotation target that should be classified by a classifier.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Investigating the data</head>
                    <p>To assess the annotation quality and thus feasibility of automation, we investigated the primary annotations of order phenomena. Investigating the number of different annotations for the entire training set (21 documents, see below) where two annotators agree with each other – which was the case for 90% of all annotations – revealed that there is an imbalance of annotations with seven times as many analepses (696) than prolepses (98).</p>
                    <p>This imbalance poses three major problems for statistical modeling and machine learning: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">sparsity</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">noise </hi>and class-
                        <hi rend=""italic"">imbalance</hi>. Sparsity occurs for annotations that are not well reflected in the data set, such that a classifier cannot find enough evidence to integrate the annotations into its model. This issue is reinforced by noise, meaning inconsistencies in the annotations. One sequence of tokens could either represent a certain order phenomenon or just reflect a change of narrative levels, making it hard for the classifier to learn anything meaningful. Finally, class-imbalance imposes a bias on the classifier, resulting in the phenomenon that the minority class is rarely predicted or even not considered at all.
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>From order to order switches</head>
                    <p>Investigating the annotations revealed that sub-sentences serve as boundaries for order switches. Thus, to solve the issues mentioned above, we do not attempt to classify order phenomena directly but instead predict for each sub-sentence whether it introduces a 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">switch</hi> of the order in the previous (sub-)sentence. While this is, of course, a simplification of the task, it allows us to model the task as a binary classification problem with a clear annotation target and alleviates the issue of sparsity because we do not distinguish between different types of order annotations. To generate training and test data from the original manual annotations of order, we determine all sub-sentences where the order annotation changes, and tag them as order switches.
                    </p>
                    <p>The resulting annotation statistics are shown in table 1 and indicate that switching from order to order switch increases the number of positive instances in the training set to 1802, meaning that 1802 out of all sub-sentences introduce order changes. Note, however, that the issue of imbalanced data still exists.</p>
                    <table rend=""rules"">
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">annotation</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">count</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">percentage</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">order-switch</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1802</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">12.3%</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">no switch</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">12871</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">87.7%</cell>
                        </row>
                    </table>
                    <p>tab. 1: New training set based on order switches</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Evaluation and experiments</head>
                    <p>Our training set consists of 21 documents from various authors of the 20th century, comprising about 80,000 tokens in total (cf. Bögel et al., 2014). For evaluation, four additional documents were annotated.</p>
                    <p>Overall, we use 21 features (presented in the appendix) to model order changes. We investigate different aspects of tense (e.g., whether a sub-sentence and the previous (sub-)sentence use the same tense), direct speech, temporal signals (cf. Bögel et al., 2015b), as well as structural features, e.g., paragraph boundaries. Finally, we add features to capture whether the sub-sentence represents a change of narrative levels rather than order.</p>
                    <p>As mentioned above, the class-imbalance between positive and negative instances remains problematic. To reflect this during the evaluation, we perform randomized re-sampling (cf. Japkowicz/Shaju, 2002) with replacement on the training data which allows us to artificially adjust the spread between two classes. Table 2 contains the evaluation results for different spreads using Random Forests (Breiman, 2001) for classification. The more uniform the distribution of both classes and thus the lower the spread, the better the results. With the best setting (spread = 1:2), we are able to achieve a balanced result with a high F
                        <hi rend=""subscript"">1</hi>-score of 81.4%.
                    </p>
                    <table rend=""rules"">
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">setting</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">precision</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">recall</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">F
                                <hi rend=""subscript"">1</hi>
                            </cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">spread=1:6</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">20.4</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">14.7</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">17.1</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">spread=1:3</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">74.9</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">77.5</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">76.1</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">spread=1:2</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">79.1</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">83.9</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">81.4</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">spread=1:1</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">76.2</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">79.5</cell>
                            <cell rend=""DH-Default"">77.8</cell>
                        </row>
                    </table>
                    <p>tab. 2: Evaluation results for different spreads</p>
                    <p>Overall, the high performance confirms our hypothesis that breaking the complex task of predicting order phenomena into more manageable sub-steps yields promising results. </p>
                    <p>Nevertheless, we expect that even more complex narrative phenomena can be automatically annotated in the future. As simple narrative concepts have now been tackled successfully, their annotations could be exploited as features to predict more complex phenomena. </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusions</head>
                <p>Our aim to automate the annotation not only of basic and rather straightforward linguistically encoded temporal aspects like tense and temporal signals (cf. Bögel et al., 2014; Bögel et al., 2015b), but also of more complex phenomena like 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">order</hi> in heureCLÉA was a long shot. However, by cautiously reducing the concept’s complexity in active dialogue between computer scientists and literary scholars, we were not only able to yield good annotation results, but also to end up with a concept that is still of value for literary scholars: while deviations from the chronological presentation of a story cannot be automatically predicted in as much detail as in manual annotation, the automated functionality still serves as a robust heuristic pointing to temporally interesting passages upon which literary scholars can base their in-depth analyses and interpretations. By finding a way to include consideration of narrative levels in the automation, the original 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">order</hi> concept was not compromised with regards to its conceptual key features. The transformation from 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">order</hi> to 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">order switch</hi> is therefore yet another example of successful collaboration between literary scholars and computer scientists in heureCLÉA (cf. Gius/Jacke, 2015b): only a frequent exchange between the involved parties can yield results satisfactory to both sides. We are optimistic that this kind of collaboration has the potential to achieve a functional automated annotation of even more complex narrative phenomena – provided that the phenomena in question are of the kind that their analysis allows for a certain degree of inter-annotator agreement.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p> This precondition may be the critical factor in some automation attempts, e.g., the automated annotation of free indirect discourse that lacks a sufficient amount of reliable indicators (cf. Brunner, 2013). Its determination is rather interpretation-dependent and thus the phenomenon is barely qualified for high inter-annotator agreement.</p>
                    </note>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <pb/>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Appendix: feature set for order switch prediction</head>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">tense</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                            <p>tense of target</p>
                            <p>tense of target
                                <hi rend=""subscript"">-1</hi>
                            </p>
                            <p>same tense for target&target
                                <hi rend=""subscript"">-1</hi>?
                            </p>
                            <p>target contains imperative?</p>
                            <p>target
                                <hi rend=""subscript"">-1</hi> contains imperative
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">direct speech</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                            <p>target starts direct speech?</p>
                            <p>target
                                <hi rend=""subscript"">-1</hi> starts direct speech?
                            </p>
                            <p>target within direct speech?</p>
                            <p>target
                                <hi rend=""subscript"">-1</hi> within direct speech?
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">structural</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                            <p>target occurs after paragraph boundary?</p>
                            <p>target is at beginning/end of sentence?</p>
                            <p>length of target relative to entire sentence</p>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">temporal signals</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                            <p>target contains temporal signal?</p>
                            <p>target starts with temporal signal?</p>
                            <p>string of temporal signal</p>
                            <p>first token of temporal signal</p>
                            <p>preposition of temporal signal</p>
                            <p>last token of temporal signal</p>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">narrative levels</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">
                            <p>target in conjunctive mood?</p>
                            <p>target
                                <hi rend=""subscript"">-1</hi> contains utterance verb?
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bögel, Th., Strötgen, J. and Gertz, M.</hi> (2014). Computational Narratology: Extracting Tense Clusters from Narrative Texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 9th Edition of the Language Resources and Evaluation Conference (LREC’14)</hi>, pp. 950-955, Reykjavik, Iceland. 
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bögel, Th. et al.</hi> (2015a). Collaborative Text Annotation Meets Machine Learning. heureCLÉA, a Digital Heuristic of Narrative. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DHCommons 1</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://dhcommons.org/journal/issue-1/collaborative-text-annotation-meets-machine-learning-heurecl%C3%A9-digital-heuristic"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://dhcommons.org/journal/issue-1/collaborative-text-annotation-meets-machine-learning-heurecl%C3%A9-digital-heuristic</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bögel, Th., Strötgen, J. and Gertz, M.</hi> (2015b). A Hybrid Approach to Extract Temporal Signals from Narratives. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the International Conference of the German Society for Computational Linguistics and Language Technology (GSCL’15)</hi>, pp. 106-107, September 20-October 2, Duisburg-Essen, Germany. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Breiman, L.</hi> (2001). Random forests. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Machine learning</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">45</hi> (1): 5-32.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brunner, A.</hi> (2013). Automatic recognition of speech, thought, and writing representation in German narrative texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(4): 563-75.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Genette, G.</hi> (1980). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Narrative Discourse</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gius, E.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Erzählen über Konflikte: Ein Beitrag zur digitalen Narratologie</hi>. Berlin, München, Boston: De Gruyter.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gius, E. and Jacke, J.</hi> (2015a). Zur Annotation narratologischer Kategorien der Zeit. <hi rend=""italic"">Guidelines zur Nutzung des CATMA-Tagsets</hi>. 
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Intelligent data analysis </hi><hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(5): 429-49.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ryan, M.-L.</hi> (1991). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Possible Worlds, Artificial Intelligence, and Narrative Theory</hi>. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Storm, T.</hi> (1861). <hi rend=""italic"">Veronika</hi>. 
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    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2499","17","Git-Lit: an Application of Distributed Version Control Technology toward the Creation of 50,000 Digital Scholarly Editions","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Distributed version control technologies, the most popular protocols of which are git, subversion, and mercurial, have long been popular among computer programmers for their abilities to track changes in a codebase and foster collaboration among coders. When combined with code management platforms such as GitHub, Bitbucket, or GitLab, they become even more powerful, enabling sophisticated bug tracking, project planning, and open-source code publication. Although these technologies have not yet been in widespread use in the humanities, their potential for use with corpus creation and textual editing is far-reaching. This paper describes Git-Lit, an open-source, community-centered initiative to parse, version control, and publish to GitHub roughly 50,000 scanned public-domain books from the British Library, thereby facilitating decentralized, open-access, and democratic scholarly editing.</p>
            <p>The Git-Lit initiative addresses these problems:</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Electronic texts are difficult to edit.</hi> Traditional text repositories like Project Gutenberg and the Oxford Text Archive maintain central, canonical versions of their texts that, in most cases, are virtually immutable. If a reader spots an OCR error in an ebook, he or she must rely on contacting the publisher to propose a correction. Even with an infrastructure such as Project Gutenberg’s Distributed Proofreaders, the process of releasing a corrected edition may take months or years. Git-Lit aims to radically streamline the improvement of an electronic text in two ways. First, ease of editing is achieved through GitHub's push-button forking (making a copy of a repository in one's user account) and in-browser editing---a reader may spot a mistake, correct it, and submit a pull request for the change in mere seconds, all without leaving the browser. Second, the decentralized model ensures that no single text may be considered unquestionably canonical, although 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">de facto</hi> canonicity might be democratically achieved through repository voting mechanisms such as GitHub’s stars.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Electronic texts often lack editorial history.</hi> Owing, in some cases, to the age of an electronic text, its editorial provenance is often lost. Many Project Gutenberg editions, for instance, are transcribed from unknown print editions, and the history of their revisions is similarly opaque. Version control mitigates these problems by recording every edit, editor, and edition in the history of the text. When two editions diverge, git provides sophisticated tools for analyzing the differences between these editions. Sites like GitHub further provide graphical network charts, showing the genealogy of each version. Since contributions to a given text are logged according to individual contributor, credit for a given edition may be assigned according to the individual’s percentage of total contributions, minimizing the danger, for instance, that a professor may take credit for his or her graduate student's work.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Textual corpora are difficult to assemble.</hi> With some exceptions, notably the download function of the NLTK corpus module, downloading a text corpus involves compiling texts from diverse and heterogeneous sources. A would-be text analyst must click through a sequence of web pages to find the corpus he or she wants, and then either download a number of .zip files, or email the corpus creator to request a copy. With multiple texts, this can be a labor-intensive process that is not easily scriptable or automated. Git provides an easy way to solve these problems: by making texts available through the git protocol on GitHub, anyone that wishes to download a text corpus can simply run the command git clone followed by the repository URL. Parent repositories can then be assembled for collections of texts using git submodules. A parent corpus repository might be created for nineteenth-century 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Bildungsromane</hi>, for instance, and that repository would contain pointers to individual text repositories. These categories would not necessarily be mutually exclusive, and would allow for arbitrary curation of custom corpora. This provides a major advantage over the traditional directory structure model, where the existence of overlapping datasets necessitates the storage and maintenance of redundant data.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">ALTO XML is not comfortably human-readable.</hi> ALTO XML, the OCR output format used by the British Library texts, as well as texts created by the Library of Congress, is extremely verbose. It encodes the location of each word on the page, and often gives the OCR certainty for each word. While this format is useful for archival purposes, plain text editions are more useful for reading and for most brands of computational text analysis. Git-Lit parses the British Library’s ALTO XML, and creates markdown versions of each text that are easily edited. Since markdown is readily converted to other document formats using tools such as Pandoc, this allows each text to be easily exported to PDF, EPUB, LaTeX, Docbook, and others. Additionally, Git-Lit is currently working on a system that leverages GitHub's built-in Jekyll HTML compilers to convert each text into a web page hosted on github.io, effectively creating 50,000 readable web editions. These new editions will exist as git branches in parallel with the markdown and ALTO XML editions. Since git maintains efficient copies of every historical version of the text, no information about the text is lost in these conversions. Anyone that wishes to improve the conversion script and create newer, better editions of the original files may freely do so by branching the text from an earlier git commit.
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>Git-Lit software works by first parsing the XML metadata included with each text. This metadata is used to programmatically generate a repository name and a README.md file that describes the text, a document which GitHub will automatically render into a web page at the repository root. This file, along with standard CONTRIBUTING and LICENSE files, is then committed to local git repositories, initiating version control of the texts. The resulting local repository is then uploaded to GitHub via Python bindings to the GitHub API. Parent repositories are then created using git submodules for each collection of texts based on the their associated Library of Congress subjects. This enables a text analyst interested in 19th century poetry, for instance, to download all of the British Library’s released works in this genre simply by running git clone https://github.com/git-lit/19th-century-poetry.git && git submodule update --init --recursive.</p>
            <p>Since British Library texts are not the only ones being published to git-based platforms like GitHub---notable version-controlled corpora on GitHub include texts from the Text Creation Partnership and the early modern corpus Shakespeare His Contemporaries---git provides a common protocol for sharing, modifying, and distributing texts and textual corpora. Anyone may aggregate these corpora into parent repositories using git submodules. The Git-Lit project will soon launch a web application that will routinely scrape GitHub and other open repository sites for any textual corpus, thereby automating the process of discovering and indexing available corpora. This mechanism will also serve to democratize the curation of corpora, since the corpus index will be sorted by the number of GitHub “stars”, or votes, a repository has engendered from the community.</p>
            <p>The 50,000 British Library texts processed by Git-Lit, as well as many of the other open corpora described here, are currently being integrated into DHBox, the cloud-based Digital Humanities software suite. Soon, these corpora and many others will be available for download by selecting them from a web-based interface, where they will then be available for analysis using pre-installed versions of the Python NLTK, R, and other textual analytic tools.</p>
            <p>This paper discusses how Git-Lit’s methods might be used by other digital humanities projects involved in the creation or analysis of large text corpora, and how digital humanists may contribute to the Git-Lit project. (As an open-source project, Git-Lit welcomes contributions in the form of bug reports, feature requests, or code.) The paper also discusses some of the storage and computation limitations of electronically publishing texts via code repositories, and some of the technical problems encountered by the Git-Lit project. Finally, it suggests pedagogical uses of git-based collaborative digital editing, such as classroom compilation of anthologies or digital scholarly editions. The applications of these technologies are wide-ranging, and are neither proprietary to this project nor to services such as GitHub, but remain concepts of openness and collaboration with powerful implications for the digital humanities.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2500","17","Institutionalizing and implementing the Digital Yiddish Theatre Project","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>""Administrative Challenges of a Global Collaborative Research Group""</p>
            <p>Joel Berkowitz, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee</p>
            <p>DYTP co-founder Joel Berkowitz will address administrative challenges facing a collaborative research group. These include the initial selection of group members, the division of labor within the group, articulating the group’s mission and objectives, keeping activities moving forward in a timely fashion, managing effective communication among group members spread across a number of cities on two continents, working with partner individual organizations, and funding the consortium’s work.</p>
            <p>""Data and the 'Obscurity' of Yiddish Theatre""</p>
            <p>Debra Caplan, Baruch College, City University of New York</p>
            <p>DYTP co-founder Debra Caplan will describe the group's progress in creating a data model and database for a digital critical edition of a Yiddish theatre encyclopedia. Yiddish theatre data poses particular challenges, and our data model and database will need to accommodate relationships among individual actors, directors, and playwrights; hundreds of itinerant Yiddish theatre companies; thousands of geographical locations, often within rapidly changing national borders; a multilingual repertoire that often featured dozens of variants of a single play; literary trends in Yiddish drama; ticket prices and sale figures; cross-continental reviews; and other data related to the near-constant travels of Yiddish theatre artists across the globe. Caplan will discuss the potential of this data to document Yiddish theatre's broad impact on theatre history.</p>
            <p>""Capturing the Ephemeral: The Digitization of Yiddish Theatre""</p>
            <p>Agnieszka Legutko, Columbia University</p>
            <p>Agnieszka Legutko will set the Digital Yiddish Theatre Project in a broader context of other Yiddish theatre-related digital attempts, often short-lived or only partially executed online projects created in the last decade or so. She will also discuss the unique potential of the Digital Yiddish Theatre Project resulting from its focus on specific content, collaboration of a diverse team of experts, and strategies for attaining social media presence.</p>
            <p>""Creating a Yiddish OCR""</p>
            <p>Aaron Rubinstein, University of Massachusetts Amherst</p>
            <p>Data mining, the computer analysis of large corpora, is an essential tool in contemporary textual analysis. For the humanities, Optical Character Recognition (OCR) has made this kind of analysis possible, rendering the text from printed, digitized works into a machine readable form. Though far from perfect, OCR has a high success rate recognizing roman characters but for researchers in the field of Yiddish studies, OCR engines that can recognize characters from the Jewish alphabet are still in the early stages of development. This presentation will discuss the current state of Yiddish alphabet OCR and a project that attempts to make use of existing tools and a variety of other strategies to provide machine readable access to a seminal Yiddish reference work.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2501","17","Language Attitudes of Twitter Users Toward New York City English","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>New York City English (NYCE) has long been a stigmatized variety of English. In his seminal research on language use in the New York City dialect, the sociolinguist William Labov referred to New York City as “a great sink of negative prestige” (Labov, 1966)—a characterization that reflected the negative view of NYCE speech shared by non-New Yorkers and New Yorkers alike. Decades later, Preston (2003) elicited extremely low ratings of the New York City dialect on scales of both “correctness” and “pleasantness” by participants from across the US. While these studies present strong evidence of the prevalence of negative language attitudes toward NYCE speech, a more complete picture of linguistic ideology would include what speakers say about NYCE when they are not participating in an academic study. This project seeks to accomplish just that, by examining linguistic ideology with respect to NYCE as espoused by users of the social networking service, Twitter.</p>
            <p>Twitter has been recognized as an important resource for humanists and social scientists alike. Scholars have collected and analyzed Twitter messages (tweets) in order to investigate numerous textual and linguistic phenomena such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">lexical variation </hi>(differences in use of synonymous words and phrases, such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">pop </hi>vs. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">soda </hi>vs. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">coke</hi>). Russ (2012) in particular (see also Bamman, 2011) illustrates the utility of Twitter for examining regionally defined lexical variation through comparison of the geographic distribution of word choices in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">geotagged </hi>tweets (with GPS coordinates from which they originated) to more traditionally collected dialectology data. All related research has focused on differences in production. However, I argue that Twitter represents an untapped resource for the investigation of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">perceptions </hi>of language use, particularly language attitudes toward regional dialects and differences in their phonetic features (which can be identified by non-standard orthography). Using Twitter solves a primary quandary for language attitude researchers—how to acquire naturally occurring data given the fact that participation in research decreases naturalness.
            </p>
            <p>Tweets containing attitudes and ideology were collected using a range of strategies, including text mining for words—and, crucially, spellings—that reference individual features. To do this, however, it is necessary to determine which features get noted and then which lexical items—and which spellings—are used to signal them. For instance, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">cawfee</hi> (also, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">cawffee</hi>) is a common orthographic representation of the word “coffee” as pronounced with a raised-THOUGHT vowel, one of the signature dialect features of NYCE. Widely used spellings that reflect 
                <hi rend=""italic"">r</hi>-vocalization, another key feature of the NYCE dialect, include 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Yawk</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">fuhgeddaboudit</hi>. In addition to collecting tweets containing orthographic representations of nonstandard features, Twitter search parameters included over 20 terms related to possible names for the dialect itself (e.g., 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New York accent, Manhattan dialect, Brooklynese</hi>). These were included in part to determine the extent to which the general public perceives a distinction among speakers from the five boroughs (a distinction which has not been borne out by linguistic analysis).
            </p>
            <p>Repeated automated text mining of Twitter using a Python script to interact with the Twitter API yielded 6,384 tweets that match the aforementioned criteria. Elimination of retweets that did not introduce additional linguistic content and inspection to ensure the tweets reference NYCE produced a final corpus of 1,773 tweets. Relative frequencies of the borough-specific and pan-regional terms in the 1,315 tweets that explicitly reference NYCE by some name reveal that Twitter users most frequently refer to NYCE as the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New York accent </hi>(N=805; 61.2%), though 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Brooklyn accent </hi>(N=359; 27.4%) accounts for more than a quarter, with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Bronx accent </hi>(N=54), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Queens accent </hi>(N=29, tied with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Brooklynese—</hi>the most frequent 
                <hi rend=""italic"">-ese </hi>moniker), and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Staten Island accent </hi>(N=10) being used much less often. Whether 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New York accents </hi>and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Brooklyn accents </hi>are perceived as linguistically or socially distinct, or two names for the same dialect region, will be explored in the paper.
            </p>
            <p>All tweets were manually coded to determine their sentiment with respect to NYCE.</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>POSITIVE: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">I swear girls from New York accent sound so sexy </hi>
                </item>
                <item>NEUTRAL: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">GAWGEOUS idea she said in her New Yawk accent </hi>
                </item>
                <item>NEGATIVE: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">If you have a Brooklyn accent I automatically want to punch you. </hi>
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>Almost half of these tweets are neutral in sentiment (N=584, 44.4%); 378 were positive (28.7%) and 200 negative (15.2%). However, 154 tweets were classified as UNCLEAR (8.7%)—many are ambiguous as to whether they evaluate an imitation of an accent or the accent itself, such as when describing an actor’s performance (which is common among these types of tweets):</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>UNCLEAR: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">his New York accent is so bad /: </hi>
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>Examples such as these pose significant obstacles to automated sentiment analysis—which has been extended to Twitter data (see for instance Pak and Paroubek, 2010)—particularly of language attitudes. Automatic methods would simply code the tweet as negative without recognizing the need to differentiate its underlying meaning. It is noteworthy, however, that even if every UNCLEAR tweet is actually expressing negative sentiment, there would 
                <hi rend=""italic"">still </hi>be a greater number of tweets with positive opinions of NYCE speech than negative ones. Furthermore, when Twitter users reference a specific NYCE feature, their evaluation of it is more likely to be positive, regardless of whether they use standard (N=79) or nonstandard (N=568) orthography to represent the feature.
            </p>
            <p>These findings portray a broader range of reactions to NYCE than the language attitudes speakers have presented when engaged in academic research. The paper will include discussion of both negative and positive language attitudes that Twitter users espouse concerning the dialect features associated with NYCE. For instance, any tweets with positive sentiment will be examined to determine if they represent instances of “covert prestige” (Labov 1966), whereby speakers use stigmatized varieties for in-group identification and solidarity. Additional discussion will focus on which regional features evoke the most meta-commentary. Furthermore, I will explore the extent to which Twitter users draw (additional) attention to non-standard forms they employ through capitalization (
                <hi rend=""italic"">NEW YAWK</hi>), hashtags (
                <hi rend=""italic"">#newyawk</hi>), and other orthographic means.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bamman, D.</hi> (2011). Lexicalist. http://www.lexicalist.com/ (accessed 30 August 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Labov, W.</hi> (1966). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Social Stratification of English in New York City</hi>. Washington, D. C.: Center for Applied Linguistics.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pak, A. and Paroubek, P.</hi> (2010). Twitter as a Corpus for Sentiment Analysis and Opinion Mining. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Language Resource and Evaluation Conference </hi>(LREC), Valletta, Malta. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Preston, D.</hi> (2003). Language with an attitude. In J. K. Chambers, Peter Trudgill and Natalie Schilling-Estes (eds),  
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Handbook of Language Variation and Change</hi>. Oxford: Wiley- Blackwell, pp. 40-66. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Russ, B.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Examining large-scale regional variation through online geotagged corpora.</hi> Presented at the 2012 American Dialect Society Annual Meeting.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2502","17","Making Sense of Illustrated Handwritten Archives","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""256/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1. Page from a bundle of field notes, describing and depicting a mouse species. Source: Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Archief van de Natuurkundige Commissie voor Nederlands-Indië. Copyright: Public Domain Mark 1.0</head>
            </figure>
            <p>This paper presents initial findings of the 
                <ref target=""http://brill.com/makingsense"">research project</ref>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Making Sense of Illustrated Handwritten Archives</hi> and demonstrates the recognition capabilities of the MONK artificial intelligence system developed since the early 2000s at the institute of Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Engineering (ALICE) at Groningen University (Van der Zant et al., 2008; Van Oosten and Schomaker, 2014a, Van Oosten and Schomaker, 2014b). In a period of four years (Q1 2016 – Q1 2020), our research project aims to produce an innovative and user-friendly online environment that combines both image and textual recognition, and allows an integrated study of fragmented historical heritage collections. 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Next to a short demonstration of MONK, we use this paper to outline how handwriting and image recognition helps to increase the value of illustrated handwritten collections by enriching and linking information that is now inaccessible and disconnected. </hi>By doing so it advances the state of the art in automated extraction, classification, and networking of knowledge from heterogeneous manuscript collections.
            </p>
            <p>The MONK system uses shape-based feature vector methods that have very few assumptions concerning the content or style of the material. It avoids the traditional OCR approach (optical character recognition) which assumes that individual characters are essentially legible. That assumption only holds for a tiny fraction of handwritten material and a limited number of scripts. The only assumptions MONK makes are that pictorial and textual segments are separated by white spaces; and that the layout, of underlining, etc. in a specific document, is consistent throughout the document. In MONK, classification methods are used that allow for a fast bootstrap from single example instances (nearest-neighbor search) (Gast et al., 2013). With larger numbers of labeled examples, models can be computed, varying from nearest-centroids to support-vector machines and neural networks in a continuous learning process (Krizhevsky et al., 2012; Liu et al, 2015; Guo, in press). A challenging topic from the technical point of view is the relation between existing semantic knowledge (ontologies) and the statistically inferred semantics using Google’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">word2vec</hi> and current deep-learning neural networks. Can the underlying structure and style in a collection of a common and realistic size be detected by such algorithms? Can the proposed enrichment system profit from generally available text corpora? The processing power required by the proposed architecture is substantial. For this project, algorithmic optimization of the image processing and recognition system is necessary in order to create the necessary speed and flexibility of the system for use by non-technical end users. In order to tackle this challenge the consortium will make use of the combined knowledge and expertise of ALICE in Groningen, and the Leiden Institute of Advanced Computer Science (LIACS), where multiple supercomputers and high performance computing experts are present.
            </p>
            <p>Because of its visual approach, MONK can handle the diversity of material that we encounter in our use case and in historical collections in general: text, drawings, and images. MONK also does not require a language model nor fully transcribed samples to quickly assess the contents of an archive page. The human-in-the-loop approach of MONK is currently ‘label’ oriented, but will be enhanced by providing the user and the system with ontologies for bootstrapping the learning process. The system will understand handwritten corpora to such an extent that the visual and textual content on individual pages is categorized, determined and networked to other pages in the archive and external sources. To construct training examples for MONK, biologists and historians of science will manually label documents to the machine learning software by means of a human in the loop approach. In addition, a crowdsourcing approach will be used to further expand this corpus of examples. Our consortium will here build on the expertise of ALICE and Naturalis Biodiversity Center, the Leiden-based National Museum of Natural History. Eventually, the computer-assisted recognition of words and visual information on a page will thus allow users to search, filter and group arbitrary archive items and enables connections with external databases. Last but not least, MONK lays the groundwork for full transcription of any handwritten-illustrated archival collection. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""256/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2. Drawing of Burro multicolor created in Buitenzorg, Java in 1827 by Pieter van Oort. Source: Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Archief van de Natuurkundige Commissie voor Nederlands-Indië. Copyright: Public Domain Mark 1.0</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The central use case of our research project is the collection of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Natuurkundige Commissie voor Nederlandsch-Indië </hi>(hereinafter NC). It is one of the top-collections of Naturalis. From 1820 to 1850, the NC charted the natural and economic state of the Dutch East Indies and returned a wealth of scientific data and specimens which are now stored in archives in the Netherlands and Indonesia. The collection comprises thousands of handwritten notes and drawings and tens of thousands biological and geological specimens. While these archival items have all been digitized, the individual pages in the notebooks, diaries and reports are not catalogued nor labeled separately. Many of the field notes combine different textual and visual elements on one page. Our short paper presentation is based on the processing of an initial set of understudied handwritten field notes which we carried out in early 2016. By doing so, we will demonstrate the efficiency of the MONK system and our approach.
            </p>
            <p>Owing to the different ‘hands’ and languages used in the documents, links across handwritten field records and notes, drawings and specimens cannot be made in an efficient way. Our corpus contains material from at least seventeen different writers and the used languages range from German 
                <hi rend=""italic"">(Kurrentschrift)</hi> to Latin, French, and Dutch. The labels of related historic specimens only provide very general information on collection localities and collectors. Hence, the typical use case of a scholar wishing to retrieve information on a certain species, person, drawing, or collecting locality is limited. Owing to its sheer dimension and its weak structure, it is impractical to disclose and network this archive manually. Its current inaccessibility hampers research into Southeast Asian natural history and the history of (scientific) knowledge production. Knowledge extracted from the documents will be structured and served as Linked Open Data. This will allow interlinking of content and also enable interoperability with other cultural heritage resources, for example, the physical specimens obtained during expeditions, or other historically significant data collections from the same area. 
            </p>
            <p>The multi-layered character of the material makes it a perfect use case for developing a technologically advanced and usability engineered digital environment for interpreting and connecting illustrated-handwritten collections. In our consortium data scientists from the Universities in Leiden and Groningen work closely together historians of science from the University of Twente and taxonomy experts from Naturalis. Fueled by an investment from BRILL publishers in a national funding scheme, this project will not only result in the disclosure of the NC archive, but will also enable the integrated study of underexplored scientific manuscript collections and archives in general. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zant, T. van der, Schomaker, L. and Haak, K. </hi> (2008). Handwritten-Word Spotting Using Biologically Inspired Features. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>(11): 1945–57. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Oosten, J.-P. van and Schomaker, L. </hi>(2014a). Separability versus prototypicality in handwritten word-image retrieval. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pattern Recognition</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">47</hi>(3): 1031–38. (Handwriting Recognition and Other PR Applications) 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Oosten, J.-P. van and Schomaker, L. </hi>(2014b). A Reevaluation and Benchmark of Hidden Markov Models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">2014 14th International Conference on Frontiers in Handwriting Recognition (ICFHR)</hi>. pp. 531–36. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gast, E., Oerlemans, A. and Lew, M. S. </hi>(2013). Very large scale nearest neighbor search: ideas, strategies and challenges. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Multimedia Information Retrieval</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(4): 229–41. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I. and Hinton, G. E. </hi>(2012). Imagenet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems</hi>. pp. 1097–105.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Liu, Y., Guo, Y., Wu, S. and Lew, M. S. </hi>(2015). DeepIndex for Accurate and Efficient Image Retrieval. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 5th ACM on International Conference on Multimedia Retrieval</hi>. (ICMR ’15). New York, NY, USA: ACM, pp. 43–50. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Guo, Y., Liu, Y., Oerlemans, A., Lao, S., Wu, S. and Lew, M. S.</hi> (2015). Deep learning for visual understanding: A review. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Neurocomputing</hi>. (Available online 26 November 2015).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2503","17","Mining Leitmotif in James Joyce's 'Ulysses'","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>James Joyce is one of the most admired, emulated and mythologised masters of twentieth-century prose. His 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses</hi> (1922) is among the cardinal texts of literary modernism produced between the world wars. The text creates its numinous effect through the repetition of short phrases over the course of a quarter of a million words. As early as 1929, critics invoked the musical device of leitmotif to explain this form of literary repetition (Curtius, 1929). Leitmotif describes a signature phrase or cue that accompanies and signals the presence of a character, locale or theme in a work. The device achieved a new importance in the nineteenth century through the opera of Richard Wagner, and it quickly migrated from music to literature in the writings of Édouard Dujardin, Thomas Mann and Marcel Proust. In Joyce’s hands, the pervasive use of the device amounts to “a sort of linguistic magic-realism” (O’Callaghan, 2011). But whereas musical leitmotif is conveyed through auditory recall – listeners recognise a brief musical phrase as an instance of leitmotif – written language cannot always offer this immediacy. The problem is a singular one: how do readers and how do computational tools recognise and unify the discrete instances of leitmotif that are distributed across a text?
            </p>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Methodology</head>
            <p>The proposed paper will report on a series of experiments that combine methods of corpus and computational linguistics with close reading to gauge a fuller extent of the repetition in the novel and to assess its worth as leitmotif. From the perspective of text analysis, leitmotif is the purposeful repetition of textual fragments (or n-grams) in a text or over a collection of textual documents. Our computer assisted retrieval of leitmotifs is based on the following set of assumptions: First, for a sequence of words to be a leitmotif, it must capture a (human) reader’s attention through distinctive word choice or unsual collocation. This distinctiveness ensures a reader can recall earlier occurrences. Second, a given sequence of words functions as a leitmotif only if it occurs in a limited number of chapters or episodes of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses</hi>. The sequence must occur in more than one episode but not in all eighteen. Key to distinguishing a given sequence is a limitation in the number of its occurences. Finally, previous scholarship has observed that Joyce not only repeated leitmotifs verbatim but also paraphrased, transposed, abbreviated or otherwise altered their individual elements (see Büchler et al., 2014 in this context). A computational approach needs to take stock of this state of affairs.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Work to Date</head>
            <p>At the current stage of our research, we focus on bigrams. By treating each episode of the novel as a single document, we have constructed a document collection to measure the inverse document frequency (idf) of bigrams in the collection. The use of idf metrics enables us to retrieve those bigrams occur in a given number of episodes. Initially we set a threshold of occurrence at two, three and four episodes; in the light of the results produced we are continually revising this threshold. As a second step, the uniqueness or distinctiveness of bigrams was investigated by measuring the probability of their occurrence in a contemporary corpus of English texts put together from documents in Project Gutenberg and Archive.org. This helped to filter out very common constructions that enjoy a high idf. Named entities were also eliminated from the list of bigrams. We have also examined bigrams for “fuzziness” – gauging whether the constituent elements reoccur but with words inserted between them or in a reversed or otherwise transposed order. We have produced a list of around two hundred bigrams that are candidates for consideration as leitmotifs. Finally, a striking feature of Joyce’s style in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses</hi> is the frequent use of compound coinages. Not only did he insert such neologisms into the text, but he also split them, reusing the constituent units of compounds in close proximity. This stylistic device also contributes to the pervasive sense of repetition in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses</hi>, functioning as an alternative to and special case of leitmotif. To identify this type of repetition, we have retrieved and split all compound coinages in the novel, and examined whether their constituents reoccur within a given word distance.
            </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Challenges</head>
            <p>The main obstacle to identification is the “protean nature” of leitmotif itself (Bribitzer-Stull, 2015). Whereas a highly distinctive phrase like Joyce’s “Agenbite of inwit,” which occurs in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses </hi>seven times (Joyce, 1922), can readily be identified as a leitmotif, the associative potential inherent in even very short units of language means it is not always clear how one is to distinguish leitmotif from mere linguistic flukes or from instances of more general intertextuality (Kristeva, 1967). Examples of the latter include lexical priming (Hoey, 2005) and natural language collocation – for example, if an author writes “he opened the,” a reader of English would reasonably expect the next word to be “door.” At the moment, our list of candidate leitmotifs is checked by close reading bigrams within the context of the sentences in which they occur in the novel. Those bigrams that are accepted or judged as valid instances of leitmotif are added to a purpose-built database.
            </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Outcomes</head>
            <p>In addition to extending the inventory of leitmotifs identified in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses </hi>(see, for example, Schutte, 1982), the experiments and the subsequent analysis have another key goal. They are meant to test the hypothesis that leitmotif not only offers a way to flag the presence of a character, locale or theme in the novel, but also creates a series of “primitive hyperlinks” or “analogue hyperlinks” (Cope and Phillips, 2006) threaded throughout 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses</hi>. Critics have often invoked hypertext to explain the myriad connections established within Joyce’s work (e.g. James, 1999), but our research will lead to an online hypertext edition of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses </hi>that allows the reader to explore the non-linear reading paths created by leitmotif.
            </p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bribitzer-Stull, M.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Understanding the Leitmotif: From Wagner to Hollywood Film Music</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Büchler, M., Burns, P. R., Müller, M., Franzini, E. and Franzini, G.</hi> (2014). Towards a historical text re-use detection. In Biemann, C. and Mehler, A. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text Mining: From Ontology Learning to Automated Text Processing Applications</hi>. Cham: Springer, pp. 221–38.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cope, B. and Phillips, A.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Future of the Book in the Digital Age</hi>. Oxford: Chandos. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Curtius, E. R.</hi> (1929). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">James Joyce und sein “Ulysses.”</hi> Zürich: Verlag der Neuen Schweizer Rundschau.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoey, M.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lexical Priming: A New Theory of Words and Language</hi>. New York: Routledge. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">James, L. L.</hi> (1999). Some notes on Joycean hypertext: machine—tra(ns)versal— acrostic. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Litteraria Pragensia</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(17): 59–89.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Joyce, J.</hi> (1922). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ulysses</hi>. Paris: Shakespeare and Company. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kristeva, J.</hi> (1967). Bakhtine, le mot, le dialogue, le roman. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Critique</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(239): 438–65.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">O’Callaghan, K.</hi> (2011). Mapping the “call from afar”: the echo of leitmotifs in James Joyce’s literary landscape. In Bénéjam, V. and Bishop, J. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Making Space in the Works of James Joyce</hi>. New York: Routledge, pp. 173–90. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schutte, W.</hi> (1982). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Index of Recurrent Elements in James Joyce’s “Ulysses.”</hi> Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2504","17","Modelling between Digital and Humanities: Thinking in Practice","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">This poster will present the rationale behind as well as the work in progress of an international collaborative project funded by the Volkswagen Foundation (scheme </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">“Original – isn’t it?”</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic""> New Options for the Humanities and Cultural Studies, </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Funding Line 2 </hi> Constellations), 2016-2017. The project aims to link scholarly modelling as a formal and informal reasoning strategy across disciplinary boundaries, and to bridge between modelling in research and teaching.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">In Digital Humanities (DH), modelling is a creative process of reasoning in which meaning is made and negotiated through the creation and manipulation of external representations. Through the lenses of critical humanities traditions and interdisciplinary takes on making and using models, the project </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Modelling between digital and humanities: thinking in practice </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">builds on the novelty of DH research in making explicit and integrating existing diverse models of cultural phenomena (e.g. texts; events) with the aim to:</hi>
            </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>explore possibilities for a new interdisciplinary language of modelling;</item>
                <item>analyse modelling in scholarship as a process of signification;</item>
                <item>develop connections between modelling as research and learning strategies.</item>
            </list>
            <p>By modelling we intend the creative process by which researchers create and manipulate external representations (“imaginary concreta,” Godfrey-Smith, 2009: 108) to make sense of the conceptual objects and phenomena they study. In order to integrate diverse theoretical frameworks around modelling (McCarty, 2005, 2009; Mahr, 2009; Frigg and Hartmann, 2012; Morgan, 2012; Kralemann and Lattmann, 2013; Flanders and Jannidis, 2015) with a practical dimension, the project makes use of DH as an interdisciplinary departure to study modelling as anchored both to computer science and to the humanities. </p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Research focus</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Our working hypothesis is that in DH research, implicit and explicit </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">models of</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">cultural phenomena are integrated into external metamodels, e.g. graphical representations, which often embed natural language and are informal. These metamodels are iteratively translated towards computable implementations via a variety of more or less formal models: </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">models for. </hi>
                </p>
                <p>Two case studies are used to reflect on modelling in practical terms:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Textuality, standing for the complexity of cultural objects and activities addressed by a plethora of subject-specific approaches. Sahle (2013) proposes a metamodel to chart and relate single models of textuality from several disciplines. The metamodel acts both as a 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">model of</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>the phenomenon of textuality and as a 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">model for</hi> working with texts to inform the development of text technologies, digitisation practices, and rules for transcription and annotation.
                    </item>
                    <item>Events. While textuality mediates the world we live in, events are central to an epistemological perception and description of the processes shaping this world. Many disciplines contribute to theoretical reflections on and practical applications of the modelling of events (see, e.g., Le Boeuf et. al., 2015). The project aims at combining contributions from philosophy, literary studies, history, linguistics, and computer science with cultural heritage documentation and the news industry in the transition from 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">models of</hi> events as things to perceive and talk about to 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">models for</hi> event detection and description.
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>The analysis of modelling practices in the areas outlined above will aim at gaining new insights in the epistemology of modelling:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>How are theory and practice blended in these modelling efforts?</item>
                    <item>What role do formal and informal metamodels play in translating models of cultural phenomena into implementations?</item>
                    <item>What shared terminology can help us gaining an integrative and non-reductive understanding of digital modelling?</item>
                    <item>Can we define the methods of digital modelling informed by such an integrative and non-reductive approach?</item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Societal resonance</head>
                <p>The rationale of the project places the practice of DH within a broad understanding of how humans think through things. Models are ubiquitous in our contemporary society as powerful tools to schematise the complexities of our universe, from genes to climate, from the economy to the stars. By linking DH practices to the craft of computer science as well as to the critical humanities tradition, this project tackles issues at the centre of the construction and deconstruction of (digital) models. It also advocates for a critical DH research offering the instruments to unpack the rhetoric of digital and data models, so as to contribute to a pedagogy of the digital age and to act at the core of a new cultural literacy.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Outcomes</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Over 18 months, the project aims at producing: 1) an open access book about modelling, and 2) An international workshop devoted to selected controversies around the theorisation and practice of modelling (e.g. fictions vs. non-</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">fiction; theory vs. data), which will give important input to the book. A consulting group will be set up to discuss draft chapters and ongoing work. </hi>
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boeuf, P. Le, Doerr, M., Ore, C. E. and Stead, S.</hi> (2015). Definition of the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model. Version 6.2. http://www.cidoc-crm.org/docs/cidoc_crm_version_6.2.pdf (accessed 18 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Flanders, J. and Jannidis, F.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Knowledge Organization and Data Modeling in the Humanities</hi>. White paper http://www.wwp.northeastern.edu/outreach/conference/kodm2012/ flanders_jannidis_datamodeling.pdf (accessed 18 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Frigg, R. and Hartmann, S.</hi> (2012). Models in science (Ed.) Zalta, E. N. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</hi>. Stanford University http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2012/entries/models-science/ (accessed 18 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Godfrey-Smith, P.</hi> (2009). Models and fictions in science. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Philosophical Studies</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">143</hi>(1): 101–16.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kralemann, B. and Lattmann, C.</hi> (2013). Models as icons: modeling models in the semiotic framework of Peirce’s theory of signs. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Synthese</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">190</hi>(16): 3397–420.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mahr, B.</hi> (2009). Information science and the logic of models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Software & Systems Modeling</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(3): 365–83.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCarty, W.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities Computing</hi>. Basingstoke [England]; New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCarty, W.</hi> (2009). Being reborn: the humanities, computing and styles of scientific reasoning. In Bowen, W. R. and Siemens, R. G. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Technologies in Medieval and Renaissance Studies</hi>, Tempe, Arizona: Iter and the ACMRS, vol. <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>: 1–23.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Morgan, M. S.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The World in the Model: How Economists Work and Think</hi>. Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sahle, P.</hi> (2013). Digitale Editionsformen. Zum Umgang mit der Überlieferung unter den Bedingungen des Medienwandels. Teil 3: Textbegriffe und Recodierung. [Preprint-Fassung] Universität zu Köln Ph.D. http://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/5013/ (accessed 18 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2505","17","Moving Images and the Connection to other Media Types","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In film and media studies, there has always been a desire to annotate and analyze movies as easily as still images. Video is an interesting research object in historical and ethnographic research. The recordings then need to be transcribed. This could be a simple interview transcription, but in disciplines like sociology, or film and media studies, it can be more complicated. In this case, the scholar would also like to annotate the source, to describe the composition of the image, the soundtrack, or the movement of the camera. The question was always: how can we watch and describe a moving image at the same time? </p>
            <p>The moving image has a continuous linearity and makes only sense in a dynamic state. So this medium is difficult to grab and the researcher is not able to write notes and commentaries direct to it. In contrast to an image, a moving image is always bound to technical devices [1]. This fact does not make it easier to annotate them. In the digital world today moving image research is better to do as before, because we can work with only one technical device now – namely the computer. This step is comfortable, but without a corresponding software awkward to do. If the researcher works with moving images, he needs software for the video file and software for the text processing. He has to switch at least between two (proprietary) programs. </p>
            <p>At our lab we’re developing a purely web-based virtual research environment (VRE) – a system for annotation and linkage of sources in arts and humanities (SALSAH). The project originated from an art historical research project about early prints in Basel (Incunabula Basiliensia). It allows for the collaborative annotation and linking of digitized sources [2] or to define and linking special regions inside the source (e.g. region of interest on a picture). </p>
            <p>In the recent years the project grew enormously. Different projects from art history, history, media and cultural studies are using the SALSAH platform. They’re all working with different kind of sources and meta data information. It doesn’t matter which kind of data we’re working with, because we’re implemented a semantic graph database in the back-end; a triple store service based on the semantic web idea RDF (resource description framework). This data storage and long term preservation service is called KnORA: Knowledge Organization, Representation, and Annotation [3].</p>
            <p>With the splitting of SALSAH into two parts (back-end and front-end) we have a properly RESTful API on the one hand and the possibility of various front-ends on the other side. The main page for the researchers remains SALSAH [4]. The idea is still the annotation and linkage of any kind of media. One module is the moving image transcription tool. It should be possible to bring images, text and audiovisual sources together as shown in figure 1. </p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""17/10000000000005A000000361923B802F06B7336E.jpg""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: “2001: A Space Odyssey” – Connect the movie with film posters, making of... scenes, screenplay and film stills</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>For a deep moving image analysis we want to have the possibility to connect a movie or just a sequence of it with related objects like screenplay, film stills or making-of...-descriptions. The connection of the movie with these additional objects and their own metadata information, enables a powerful (re)search possi- bility on the main moving image. The moving image module in SALSAH is not a standalone solution like other video analysis tools. The network behind every movie would be visible. Another difference with conventional video transcription tools is the representation of the transcription. Especially in film and media stud- ies the researcher has to describe different aspects in the movie: camera position, sound, actors, text etc. [5, 6] The result is a table based sequence protocol, as shown in figure 2 on the right hand side.</p>
            <p>The moving image is the main object in the new module. The film analyst can describe and annotate every scene with a simple transcription tool at the bottom of the SALSAH movie player (SMP). On the right hand side we can see the result of the transcription: the sequence protocol. The figure is showing just a simple example. The researcher can define the columns of the protocol by himself. Through the RDF triple store in KnORA it is possible to have the metadata depending on the research question. At the end it should be possible to export this table based sequence protocol as shown or like a subtitle file to use it with other media players. </p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""17/100000000000183D00000EE5FA5C1266B60F7647.jpg""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: Example of the SALSAH movie player (top left) with the transcription tool (bottom left) and the sequence protocol (right)</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2506","17","Named Entity Extraction from digitized texts of Mongolian Historical Documents in Traditional Mongolian Script","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Abstract</head>
                <p>In this paper, we demonstrate a named entity extraction method for digitized ancient Mongolian documents by using features of traditional Mongolian script. In the field of humanities, getting knowledge by analyzing various historical documents is an important task. There are increasing demands from Mongolian humanities researchers to perform text analysis at massive scale with prompt and accurate results. A few ancient Mongolian historical manuscripts including 1) the “Qad-un ündüsün-ü quriyangγui altan tobči neretü sudur (The Altan Tobchi or the Golden Summary: Short history of the Origins of the Khans)” a.k.a “Little” Altan Tobchi, and 2) the “Asaraġci neretü-yin teüke or Asragch nėrtiin tüükh (The Story of Asragch)”, which were written in traditional Mongolian script have been converted to digital texts and made publicly available through the traditional Mongolian script digital library (TMSDL) (Batjargal et al., 2013). Figure 1 shows a page of the “Little” Altan Tobchi in the TMSDL. The demands from Mongolian humanities researchers, as well as the lessons learned from the TMSDL have encouraged us to conduct further research in developing a new method for extracting named entities from ancient Mongolian historical documents. However, there has been little research on text mining or named entity extraction for Mongolian language and none of the research has considered text mining on ancient Mongolian historical documents due to the lack of research in those areas. Thus, we want to propose a named entity extraction method for ancient historical documents in traditional Mongolian script by employing machine learning techniques for aiming to reduce the labor-intensive analysis on historical text.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""375/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>
                    <p rend=""Figure Caption"">Figure 1. Screenshot of the TMSDL</p>
                    </head>
                    </figure>
                <p>In the proposed approach, an ancient Mongolian corpus gets tokenized, each token gets annotated and gold standard annotations are prepared for inputting into computer system for learning. The proposed method learns the extraction rules of personal names and place names from annotated training corpora, and then extracts named entities from ancient Mongolian texts by employing machine learning techniques (Batjargal et al., 2015).</p>
                <p>We use the IOB2 (Ramshaw and Marcus, 1995) format for tagging tokens. Because of some unique features of traditional Mongolian script, we also use “Start/End” (SE) chunk tag set (Asahara and Matsumoto, 2003). “S” tag is attached to the first character of each word including the named entities and “E” tag to the last character. Thus, each token will include the 1) IOB2 tag and 2) SE tag.</p>
                <p>We also consider the following features of traditional Mongolian script for differentiating personal names and place names.</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Information of the preceding </hi>
                        <hi rend=""Bullets"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> following tokens:</hi> Features are extracted by looking the context of the current, preceding, and succeeding tokens. If the preceding token is generational or dynastic information, an inherited or life-time title of nobility, or a traditional descriptive phrase, it could indicate the current token is a personal name.
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Suffix:</hi> Many 
                        <hi rend=""Bullets"">living</hi> being and humankind proper names take only certain plural suffixes such as 
                        <graphic url=""375/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/> (nar/ner) and possessive suffixes (Chinggaltai, 1963). Some suffixes are visually separated from the stem of a word or other suffixes, but any attached suffixes are considered to be an integral part of the word. 
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Beginning of a sentence:</hi> Subjects or personal names often appear at the beginning of a sentence.
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">End of a token:</hi> Words with a final vowel letter ‘a’ or ‘e’ are separated visually from the preceding consonant by a narrow gap. However, the ‘a’ or ‘e’ is an integral part of the word stem.
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>For evaluation, we calculated precision, recall, and F-measure by the 5-fold cross-validation. To prepare the gold standard annotations, we annotated all the personal names and place names in the “Little” Altan Tobchi using the manually compiled personal and place names’ indices obtained from the “Qad-un ündüsün quriyangγui altan tobči –Textological Study” (Choimaa, 2002). For the experimental corpus, we utilized digitized text of chronological manuscripts “Little” Altan Tobchi. We utilized the LIBLINEAR with the L2-regularized L2-loss support vector classification (dual) solver (Rong-En Fan et al., 2008).</p>
                <p>We will further improve the proposed method by considering more features by conducting various experiments with different combinations of features for checking whether the particular feature set will improve the preliminary results of 0.70 of precision, 0.57 of recall and 0.63 of F-measure or not.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Asahara, M. and Matsumoto, Y</hi>. (2003). Japanese Named Entity Extraction with Redundant Morphological Analysis, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceeding of the 2003 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics on Human Language</hi>, Stroudsburg, PA, USA, June 2003, pp. 8–15.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Batjargal, B., Khaltarkhuu, G., Kimura, F. and Maeda, A.</hi> (2012). Developing a Digital Library of Historical Records in Traditional Mongolian Script, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Digital Library Systems</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(1): 33–53.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Batjargal, B., Khaltarkhuu, G., Kimura, F. and Maeda, A.</hi> (2015). An Approach to Named Entity Extraction from Mongolian Historical Documents, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the International Conference on Culture and Computing (Culture and Computing 2015)</hi>, Kyoto, Japan, October 2015, pp. 205-06.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chinggaltai</hi>. (1963). <hi rend=""italic"">A Grammar of the Mongol Language.</hi> New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Choimaa, Sh.</hi> (2002). <hi rend=""italic"">Qad-un űndűsűn quriyangγui altan tobči (Textological Study)</hi> vol. <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>. (in Mongolian). Ulaanbaatar: Centre for Mongol Studies, National University of Mongolia, Urlakh Erdem.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fan, R.-E., Chang, K.–W., Hsieh, C.–J., Wang, X.–R. and Lin, C.-J.</hi> (2008). LIBLINEAR: A Library for Large Linear Classification. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Machine Learning Research</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>: 1871–74.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramshaw, L. A. and Marcus, M. P.</hi> (1995). Text Chunking Using Transformation-based Learning, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 3rd ACL Workshop on Very Large Corpora</hi>, Cambridge MA, USA, June 1995, pp. 82–94.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2507","17","Outliers or Key Profiles? Understanding Distance Measures for Authorship Attribution","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The state of the art</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Burrows’ Delta is one of the most successful algorithms in computational stylistics (Burrows 2002). A series of studies have proven its usefulness (e.g. Hoover 2004, Rybicki & Eder 2011). There are two essential steps in Burrows’ Delta. The first is to standardize the relative frequencies of words in a document-term-matrix through a </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">z-score</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">transformation. In the second step, the distances between all texts are calculated. For each word, the difference between the </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">z-score</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">of the word in one and the other text are calculated. The absolute values of the differences are added for all words taken into account. The usual interpretation is that the smaller the sum, the more similar two texts are stylistically, and the more likely it is that they have been written by the same author. </hi>
                </p>
                <p>Despite the fact that Burrows’ Delta is as simple as it is useful, there is still a lack of a good explanation why the algorithm works so well. Argamon (2002) has shown that the second step in Burrows’ Delta is equivalent to taking the Manhattan distance between two points in a multi-dimensional space. He suggests, among other things, using the Euclidean distance instead. An empirical test of his proposals has shown, however, that none of them lead to an improvement in performance (Jannidis et al. 2015).</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""290/10000201000007AF000007CFCCC81279FE2EA7FD.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 1: Illustration of the distance between two texts made up of just two words</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Smith and Aldrige (2011) have suggested to use the cosine of the angle between the document vectors for the second step, as is customary in Information Retrieval (Baeza-Yates & Ribeiro-Neto 1999:27). The Cosine variant of Delta (Delta
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Cos</hi>) outperforms Burrows’ Delta (Delta
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Bur</hi>) in many different settings and has the advantage of not showing the drop in performance typical ofother Delta variants when large numbers of MFW are used (Jannidis et al. 2015). The question now is why Delta
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Cos</hi> is so much better than Delta
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Bur</hi> and other variants, that is, in what way Delta
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Cos</hi> captures the authorship signal more clearly than other variants of Delta. 
                </p>
                <p>Of decisive importance for our further analyses was the insight that using the Cosine Distance is equivalent to a vector normalization in the sense that (in contrast to Manhattan and Euclidean Distance) the length of the vector does not play a role for the calculation of the distance (see figure 1). Previous experiments have shown that an explicit, additional vector normalization also substantially improves performance of the other Delta measures (Evert et al. 2015).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Hypotheses</head>
                <p>Having discovered that impact of the normalization effect, we have developed two empirically testable hypotheses:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>(H1) Performance differences are caused by single extreme values, so-called outliers. These are particularly large positive or negative 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">z-scores</hi> specific to single texts rather than all texts of a single author. As the Euclidean distance should be more sensitive to single extreme values than the Manhattan distance, this hypothesis would explain the comparatively bad performance of Argamon’s “Quadratic Delta” Delta
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Q</hi>. The positive effect of vector normalization originates from the reduction of outlier amplitudes (“outlier hypothesis”).
                    </item>
                    <item>(H2) The author specific “style profile” manifests itself more in the qualitative combination of word preferences, i.e. in the pattern of over- and under utilization of vocabulary, rather than in the actual amplitude of 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">z-scores</hi>. A text distance measure is particularly successful in authorship attribution if emphasizing structural differences of author style profiles without being too much influenced by actual amplitudes (“key-profile hypothesis”). This hypothesis explains directly why vector normalization results in such impressive improvements: it standardizes the amplitudes of author profiles in different texts.
                    </item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>New insights</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Corpora</head>
                    <p>For the experiments in this paper, we use three similarly composed corpora in German, English and French. Each corpus contains 25 different authors with 3 novels each, thus 75 texts in total. The corpora have been described in Jannidis et al. (2015). Due to space issues, the following section will only present our observations on the German corpus. The results for the corpora in both other languages show only small deviations and also support our findings.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Experiments</head>
                    <p>To further investigate the role of outliers and thus the plausibility of H1, we complement Delta
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bur</hi> and Delta
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Q</hi> with additional variants based on the general Minkowski distance (for 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">p </hi>≥ 1):
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""290/1000020100000107000000361C04104BBC97A252.png""/>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                    <p>We generally name these distance measures L
                        <hi rend=""italic"">p</hi>-Delta. The specific case 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">p</hi> = 1 equals the Manhattan distance (L
                        <hi rend=""italic"">1</hi>-Delta = Delta
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bur</hi>), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">p</hi> = 2 the Euclidean distance (L
                        <hi rend=""italic"">2</hi>-Delta = Delta
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Q</hi>). The higher the value for 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">p</hi>, the larger the influence of single outliers on L
                        <hi rend=""italic"">p</hi>-Delta.
                    </p>
                    <p>Fig. 2 compares four different L
                        <hi rend=""italic"">p</hi> distance measures (for p=1, √2, 2, 4) with Delta
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cos</hi>. The method of comparison is the same as in Evert et al. (2015): 75 text are automatically clustered in 25 groups according to Delta distances; clustering quality is estimated with the adjusted rand index (ARI). An ARI of 100% signifies perfect author recognition whereas a value of 0% shows that the clustering is entirely random. The performance of L
                        <hi rend=""italic"">p</hi> Delta obviously decreases with increasing 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">p</hi>. Additionally, the robustness of the measures also decreases with an increasing number of MWF used. As already reported in Jannidis et al. (2015) and Evert et al. (2015), Delta
                        <hi rend=""sub"">Bur</hi> (L
                        <hi rend=""sub"">1</hi>) consistently outperforms Argamon’s Delta
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Q</hi> (L
                        <hi rend=""italic"">2</hi>). Especially if many features, i.e. a large number of MFW is considered, high p values result in low performance. Delta
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cos</hi> is more robust than other variants and achieves almost perfect attribution success (ARI > 90%) over a wide range of the MFW.
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""290/10000201000007CF0000039D7A13BB39B37D0A44.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 2: Clustering quality of different Delta measures as a function of the number of the MFW considered</head>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                    <p>Normalizing the feature vectors to length 1 improves the quality of all Delta measures significantly (fig. 3). In this case, Argamon’s Delta
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Q</hi> is identical to Delta
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cos</hi>: the red line is completely covered by the green one. The other Delta measures (Delta
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bur</hi>, L
                        <hi rend=""italic"">1.4</hi>-Delta) now reach about the same quality as Delta
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cos</hi>. Only L
                        <hi rend=""italic"">4</hi> Delta, which is especially prone to outliers, falls short considerably. These results seem to support H1.
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""290/10000201000007CF0000039D4B5D688B276087C2.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 3: Cluster quality of various Delta measures with length-normalized vectors</head>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                    <p>A different approach to limit the influence of outliers is to truncate extreme 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">z-scores</hi>. To do so, we set all |
                        <hi rend=""italic"">z</hi>| > 2 to +2 or –2, depending on the original 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">z-scores</hi>’s sign. Fig. 4 shows the effects of various normalizations on the distribution of the feature values. Vector length normalization (lower left) produces only slight changes and practically does not reduce the number of outliers at all. Pruning large 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">z-score</hi> values only affects words with above-average frequencies (upper right). 
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""290/10000201000007CF0000051AA61625924867E17C.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 4: Distributions of feature vectors for all 75 texts, using vectors of 5000 most frequent words. The table shows the distribution of the original 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">z-scores</hi> (upper left), the distribution after length-normalizing the vectors (lower left), the distribution after clamping outliers with |
                                <hi rend=""italic"">z</hi>| > 2 (upper right) and a ternary quantization to the values –1, 0 and +1 (lower right). The red curve in the lower left graph shows the 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">z-scores</hi> before normalization; the direct comparison shows the normalization has only minimal effect and almost does not reduce outliers. The thresholds for the ternary quantization, 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">z</hi> < –0.43 (–1), –0.43 ≤ 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">z</hi> ≤ 0.43 (0) and 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">z</hi> > 0.43 (+1), have been selected such that in an ideal normal distribution, a third of all feature values would fall into each of the classes –1, 0, and +1.</head>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                    <p>
                    </p>
                    <p>As Fig. 5 shows, this manipulation improves the performance of all L
                        <hi rend=""italic"">p</hi> Deltas considerably. However, its positive effect is noticeably smaller than that of vector normalization.
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""290/10000201000007CF0000039D8C2EE8D70E074D6B.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 5: Cluster quality after clamping outliers, i.e. feature values with |
                                <hi rend=""italic"">z</hi>| > 2 have been replaced with the fixed values –2 or +2, depending on 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">z-score</hi>’s sign</head>
                        </figure>
                    </p>

                    <p>With these differing effects of the normalizations on outlier distributions and Delta results, H1 cannot be upheld. H2 is supported by the good results of vector length normalization. However, on its own, it cannot explain why clamping outliers leads to a considerable improvement as well. To examine this hypothesis further, we created pure “key profile” vectors that only discriminate between word frequencies that are above average (+1), unremarkable (0), and below average (–1; cf. Fig. 4, lower right).</p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""290/10000201000007CF0000039DBF7F231C631CC80A.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 6: Cluster quality with ternary quantization of the vectors in frequencies that are above average (+1, 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">z</hi> > 0.43), unremarkable (0, –0.43 ≤ 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">z</hi> ≤ 0.43), and below average (
                                <hi rend=""italic"">z</hi> < –0.43)</head>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                    <p>Fig. 6 shows that these key profile vectors perform remarkably well, almost on par with vector normalization. Even the especially outlier-prone L
                        <hi rend=""italic"">4</hi> Delta reaches a quite robust clustering quality of more than 90%. We interpret this observation as giving considerable support to hypothesis H2.
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Discussion and perspectives</head>
                <p>H1, the outlier hypothesis, has been disproven as the vector normalisation hardly reduces the number of extreme values and the quality of all L
                    <hi rend=""italic"">p</hi> measures is still considerably improved. On the other hand, H2, the key profile hypothesis, has been confirmed. The ternary quantification of the vectors shows clearly that it is not the extent of deviation resp. the size of the amplitude, but the profile of deviation across the MFW which is important. Remarkably, the measures behave differently if more than 2000 MFW are used. Almost all variant show a decline for a very large number of features, but they differ in when this decline starts. We suppose that the vocabulary in those parts is less specific for an author than for topics and content. Clarifying such questions will require further experiments.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Argamon, S.</hi> (2008). Interpreting Burrows’s Delta: Geometric and Probabilistic Foundations. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(2): 131–47 doi:10.1093/llc/fqn003. 
                        <ptr target=""http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/content/23/2/131.abstract""/>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baeza-Yates, R. and Ribeiro Neto, B.</hi> (1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Baeza-Yates, Ricardo; Ribeiro Neto, Berthier (1999): Modern Information Retrieval. Harlow.</hi> Harlow.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (2002). ‘Delta’: a Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(3): 267–87 doi:10.1093/llc/17.3.267. 
                        <ptr target=""http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/content/17/3/267.abstract""/>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                   		<hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2011). Deeper Delta across genres and languages: do we really need the most frequent words?. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">26</hi>(3): 315–21 doi:10.1093/llc/fqr031. 
                        <ptr target=""http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/07/14/llc.fqr031.abstract""/> .
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Evert, S., Proisl, T., Pielström, S., Schöch, C. and Vitt, T.</hi> (2015). Towards a better understanding of Burrows’s Delta in literary authorship attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Fourth Workshop on Computational Linguistics for Literature</hi>. Denver CO.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. L.</hi> (2004). Testing Burrows’s Delta. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">19</hi>(4): 453–75 doi:10.1093/llc/19.4.453. 
                        <ptr target=""http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/4/453.abstract""/>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jannidis, F., Pielström, S., Schöch, C. and Vitt, T.</hi> (2015). Improving Burrows’ Delta – An empirical evaluation of text distance measures. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2015 Conference Abstracts</hi>. Sydney: ADHO 
                        <ptr target=""http://dh2015.org/abstracts/xml/JANNIDIS_Fotis_Improving_Burrows__Delta___An_empi/JANNIDIS_Fotis_Improving_Burrows__Delta___An_empirical_.html""/>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smith, P. W. H. and Aldridge, W.</hi> (2011). Improving Authorship Attribution: Optimizing Burrows’ Delta Method. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Quantitative Linguistics</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(1): 63–88 doi:10.1080/09296174.2011.533591. 
                        <ptr target=""http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09296174.2011.533591""/>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2508","17","Poetry in Prose: automatic identification of verses in brazilian literature","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In 1946, the brazilian poet Guilherme de Almeida published a study on the structured patterns of verses that he discovered in the prose of ‘Os Sertões’ (‘Rebellion in the Backlands’) by Euclides da Cunha (1902). According to Almeida’s work, there is, in the Euclidean prose, apparently more often at the end of the paragraphs, versification structures of various rhythmic patterns. In 1996, another study on the same literary work was published by Augusto de Campos validated Almeida’s discovery and revealed several others versified patterns in Euclidean prose. Dodecasyllables and Alexandrines are among the most used metric patterns, in varied combinations and positions. The diversity of patterns found, disregarding “the strict metrification” and admitting “more rhythmic freedom” (Campos, 1996), creates surprising zones of tension, “areas spread with poetry in significant portions of poetry in his prose” (Campos, 1996). </p>
            <p>The process of separating and nesting of poetry syllables, the scansion process, is usually applied to text structures categorically defined as poetry, allowing mapping of poetry metric characteristics present in the author’s writing. Performed by a person, the same analysis carried out by Almeida and Campos require, depending on the size of the piece, hours, days or even months of work. </p>
            <p>Our work proposes the use of computational techniques to perform the process of automated scansion and analysis of Euclides da Cunha’s prose, revealing its verse structures, thus reducing time for the task, providing a new tool for prose analysis and opening a new research agenda. These verse structures, distributed along the text, are found using computational methods based on scansion rules for Portuguese language. As the location of these structures are not previously given, any sentence is treated as a potential candidate for a verse, moreover segments of the sentences can also be considered.</p>
            <p>In order to identify metric verses in the text, our system performs four major steps: extraction of sentences, separation of syllables, scansion, and overlay of verses in the original text. From a digital copy of the book, sentences are extracted according to punctuation mark present in literary piece. In Portuguese, the rhythm or musicality of a verse follows the alternance of strong (tonic) syllables and weak (atonic) syllables, so along with syllable boundaries, the position of the tonic syllable is also identified for every word. Therefore, every word in each sentence undergoes syllable separation following grammatical rules, applying the software developed by Neto et al (2015), defining initial syllable boundaries. Besides the positions of tonic syllables are also identified, determining rhythmic features.</p>
            <p>To identify verses, the final process of scansion is performed, considering intravocabular (syneresis and diaeresis) and intervocabular (elision and crasis) phonological changes. These changes may alter initial syllable count, for example with the omission of one or more sounds, merging two syllables in a single one. As a final output, the verses identified are overlaid on the original document, along with verse classification, metric count, syllable separations and tonic syllables position, replacing the original sentence, allowing analysis by the user in context. </p>
            <p>Initial experiments with the proposed system were performed for the book ‘Os Sertões’ by Euclides da Cunha, aiming to reproduce in a computer lab the work performed by Guilherme de Almeida in the 40s and Augusto de Campos in the 90s. As an example of the results, in page 67, the system identified previously twenty-four candidates verses. Of these, we have, ""O sertanejo é, antes de tudo, um forte"", one segment of text that starts the third chapter, identified by our system as a dodecasyllable ""O / ser/ta/ne+/jo é+,/ an+/tes/ de/ tu+/do/ um/ for+/te"", where ‘+’</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Almeida, G.</hi> (1946). A poesia d’Os Sertões. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Diário de São Paulo</hi>. August 18.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Neto, N., Rocha, W. and Sousa, G.</hi> (2015). An open-source rule-based syllabification tool for Brazilian Portuguese. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Brazilian Computer Society</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 21</hi>(1): 1-10.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Campos, A.</hi> (1996). TRANSERTÕES. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Folha de São Paulo</hi>. November 3.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2509","17","Projet Odysseus, Outil d'Etudes Comparatives Du Traductologue","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>
                    <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-b824eac0-3706-72ef-044d-cb369b919294""/>Introduction
                </head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Le programme Projet Odysseus permet de voir immédiatement des différences et similitudes entre diverses traductions de l’</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">Odyssée </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">d’Homère. Nous appliquons ce programme à un corpus français d’une centaine de traductions françaises allant de 1584 à 1934, afin de déceler les évolutions diachroniques dans les pratiques traductives. Nous constituons un corpus italien similaire, et avons aussi effectué des essais sur des traductions espagnoles, anglaises et allemandes de l’</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">Odyssée.</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> Le protocole est applicable à tout corpus de traductions </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(Callison-Burch, 2008).</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Notre programme permet donc de comparer un nombre indéfini de traductions d’un même texte source, sans dépendre des particularités linguistiques de chacune des langues cible.</hi>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Preprocessing : l’alignement</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Pour comparer les différentes traductions entre elles, nous déterminons leurs similarités sémantiques et associons le texte source avec chaque texte cible. Nous établissons des points d’ancrage en grec et en français, qui permettent de découper les textes en séquences ayant potentiellement le même sens </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(Feng et </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Manmath,</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> 2006)</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">: les noms propres. Ils présentent deux avantages: ils peuvent être de très basse fréquence et sont majoritairement traduits par l’ensemble des traducteurs. Le texte grec pivot comprend toutes les leçons éditoriales établies à ce jour, afin d’assurer un alignement optimal tant avec les traductions anciennes que modernes. Le texte source pivot est découpé en séquences fixes : le programme découpe une nouvelle séquence dont le premier mot est le nom propre. Nous obtenons une série fixe de séquences. Nous appliquons le même processus aux textes cibles. Sont ainsi déterminés un ensemble de séquences sources et un ensemble de séquences cibles de nombre inégal.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Le programme aligne les séquences cibles aux séquences sources grâce à l’algorithme de Needleman-Wunsch </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(Needleman et Wunsch, 19</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">70).</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> Il remplit une matrice de scores de similarité en comparant chaque séquence source avec chaque séquence cible. Un dictionnaire de noms propres</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">augmente ou diminue le score. Un transformateur phonétique, </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">transcrivant le grec en alphabet latin, augmente le score si le nom source phonétique se trouve dans la séquence cible. Le score tient compte la différence de longueur entre la source et la cible. Nous établissons dictionnaire de fréquence : si le nom pivot est à fréquence équivalente entre la source et la cible, le score augmente.</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)strikethrough""> </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Lorsque la matrice de scores est remplie, l’algorithme établit le chemin le plus probable depuis les deux dernières séquences source et cible jusqu’aux deux premières (Fig.1). </hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""46/1000000000000287000001244A30897D.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 1: Parcours de l'algorithmeTableauNW.png</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Nous constituons ensuite un dictionnaire basé sur la distribution sémantique des mots. Chaque mot est caractérisé par un vecteur de </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">cooccurrence</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">: sur l’ensemble des séquences, lorsque un mot apparaît dans une fenêtre constituée d’une séquence source et de sa séquence cible, la valeur du vecteur à l’indice de la fenêtre augmente. Statistiquement, des mots à usage similaire se trouvent à la fois dans les séquences sources et cibles aux mêmes indices. </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">La similarité des vecteurs est établie avec la similarité cosinus (</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Ye, 2011). </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Si un mot source obtient un vecteur similaire</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">à celui d’un mot cible, la source-clé et la cible-valeur sont ajoutés au dictionnaire. Un second alignement est produit, tenant compte des scores obtenus grâce au dictionnaire de distribution. Lorsque nous effectuons plusieurs alignements en même temps, nous fusionnons les dictionnaires. Chaque séquence source comporte alors un identifiant unique auquel un identifiant cible est associé.</hi>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Classes comparatives</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Nous pouvons comparer chacune des traductions alignées au texte source pivot, dans une interface faisant figurer autant de traductions que l’utilisateur le souhaite.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Lorsque des vides sont laissés par l’algorithme, deux interprétations sont possibles : le traducteur est extrêmement loin du texte source, ou il ne traduit pas le texte source. Dans les deux cas, cela nous renseigne sur ses pratiques traductives.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Nous comparons ensuite statistiquement les séquences alignées. Pour chaque séquence dans l’ensemble du corpus, nous déterminons la fréquence de chaque mot. Nous pouvons voir le taux d’usage d’un mot pour chaque séquence. Il est ainsi possible de visualiser les hapax produits par chaque traducteur. Il est aussi possible de déceler si un traducteur se </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">base sur la même source que les autres : si le nombre d’hapax sur une séquence se multiplie, le traducteur ajoute probablement une séquence par rapport à ses homologues. Nous identifions les étoffements et réductions : si le nombre de mots employé par un traducteur pour une séquence est largement inférieur ou supérieur au nombre médian de mots employés dans le corpus pour cette séquence, le traducteur étoffe ou réduit le texte source. Nous décelons enfin un littéralisme fréquentiel de chaque séquence par rapport à sa source (lorsque le nombre de mots grecs est équivalent au nombre de mots français pour une même séquence), ainsi qu’un littéralisme phonétique (lemme grec retranscrit phonétiquement proche d’un mot cible).</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Nous nous appuyons sur les travaux d’Henri Meschonnic </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Meschonnic, 1997)</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">et d’Antoine Berman </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(Berman, 1984)</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">pour définir des critères de comparaison entre la source et les cibles. Nous déterminons d’abord s’il y a, entre les deux, un allongement ou un appauvrissement quantitatif, en définissant une fenêtre de mots au-delà ou en deçà de laquelle nous considérons que la différence dans le nombre de mots est signifiante. Nous visualisons la tendance à la « rationalisation »</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">: nous repérons, en comparant les patrons syntaxiques, l’inversion de la linéarisation des arborescences syntaxiques. Nous visualisons enfin la « destruction des rythmes », en recherchant la similarité entre les patrons de ponctuation ou les patrons de syntaxe profonde (juxtaposition, coordination, subordination) entre la source et la cible.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Pour comparer les traductions entre elles, l’utilisateur peut considérer dans l’étude statistique soit les traductions à l’écran, soit l’ensemble du corpus. </hi>
                </p>
                <p>Nous intégrons un graphique permettant de visualiser les tendances décrites des auteurs dans la diachronie. Si un auteur a une forte tendance à l’emploi d’hapax, et que cette tendance se poursuit chez ses successeurs, cela est immédiatement visible.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Cas d’étude</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Voici deux exemples: une utilisation unilingue dans l’interface de comparaison automatique, et une utilisation multilingue avec les résultats d’un dictionnaire de distribution. Le premier exemple est basé sur le chant I de vingt traductions françaises, de 1584 à 1935.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""46/100000000000064000000232E874D622.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 2: Une des fenêtres du programmescreen2.png</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""46/10000000000005AC00000012BB9AF6E5.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 3: Trois séquenceszoom1.png</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Dans la Fig.3, la première version est de Médéric Dufour et Jeanne Raison (Dufour et Raison, 1935), la deuxième celle d’Eugène Bareste (Bareste, 1842), la troisième celle de Victor Bérard (Bérard, >1924). Les termes en vert sont utilisés pour chaque tronçon par une grande majorité de traducteurs, ceux en orange sont fréquents, et ceux en rouge sont des hapax (utilisés une seule fois dans cette séquence par un traducteur). Le programme permet de visualiser ces captures sur une grande échelle, avec autant de traducteurs que nécessaire. En comparant le « chunk 131 » de Victor Bérard, par exemple, avec l’ensemble des « chunk 131 » du corpus, nous distinguons, toute proportion gardée, une tendance de Bérard à se démarquer de ses prédécesseurs par emploi de termes rares, phonétiquement ou syntaxiquement proches du grec.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""46/10000000000003D30000003D085596CB.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 4: Comparaison, zoomzoom2.png</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Dans la Fig.4 Dufour et Raison (premier texte) optent pour un terme rarement associé aux yeux d’Athéna (« ballants »), produisant un hypallage, tandis que les autres termes sont consensuels. Bareste privilégie les présents d’hypotypose et de juxtaposition temporelle. Certaines expressions homériques sont rendues unanimement par les traducteurs, comme « ὕπνος ἡδύς », « le doux sommeil ».</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""46/10000000000001E10000003DD6FD06BD.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 5: Traduction de Bareste (1842)zoom4.2.png</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""46/10000000000001E20000002D68E4BBCF.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 6: Traduction de Bignan (1853)zoom4.3.png</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""46/10000000000001E20000004059436907.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 7: Traduction de Froment (1883)FromentScreen.png</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Les Fig.5, Fig. 6 et Fig.7 sont des traductions d’une portion de texte qui tend à se traduire selon le même mode au XIXe siècle. Dans plus de vingt textes, pour l’expression « καὶ κεν τοῦτʼ ἐθέλοιμι Διός γε διδόντος ἀρέσθαι », les traducteurs imitent la ponctuation du texte source (italique), mais aussi sa syntaxe (couleur bleue).</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Le programme permet de déceler les portions de texte omises par le traducteur. Par exemple, Achille de La Valterie disait traduire l’</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">Odyssée </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">sans connaître le grec (à partir du latin) : sa traduction s’aligne, mais le nombre d’hapax et d’omissions est sans précédent (Fig.8).</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""46/10000000000001DF00000179A044FA14.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 8: Traduction de La ValterieValterieZoom.png</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Dans cet extrait, les blancs laissés par le programme ne sont pas des erreurs d’alignement, mais des omissions du traducteur, qui choisit de ne pas traduire.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""46/1000020100000468000000DEAC8AD0E6.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 9: Dictionnaire Distributionneldictionnaire.png</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Pour une utilisation multilingue, nous pouvons mener les mêmes expériences que pour un corpus unilingue. Nous pouvons aussi visualiser le dictionnaire de distribution, qui permet de voir comment chaque langue traduit, pour l’ensemble de son corpus, chaque notion. En Fig.9, nous comparons comment chaque langue traduit « Ὀδυσσεύς » dans le chant I et quels en sont les termes sémantiquement proches, tous auteurs confondus. Nous pouvons </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">ne choisir que certains auteurs, afin par exemple de voir l’évolution de l’emploi d’un terme en France et en Italie pour une période définie. Nous pouvons générer des dictionnaires multilingues dont le degré de sévérité dans la sélection est modifiable.</hi>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Ce programme a pour but de proposer aux comparatistes une façon simple de repérer les grandes tendances et les phénomènes notables d’une traduction à une autre, indépendamment de la langue du traducteur. Mais le programme ouvre aussi la voie à la création d’autres outils pour l’étude de corpus multilingues (dictionnaires, détection automatique de paraphrases interlinguistiques), à de nombreuses analyses statistiques (fréquence des mots, « type / token ratio », etc.) qui représenteront un apport substantiel à l’étude de l’Histoire des traductions.</hi>
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bareste, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">E.</hi> (1842). <hi rend=""italic"">Odyssée: traduction nouvelle</hi>, (Lavigne).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bérard, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">V.</hi> (1924). <hi rend=""italic"">L’Odyssée. Texte établi et trad. par Victor Bérard</hi>, (Les Belles Lettres).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Berman, A.</hi> (1984). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">L'épreuve de l'étranger: Culture et traduction dans l'Allemagne romantique </hi> Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">226</hi>: 67-81, Gallimard.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Berman, A</hi>. (1995) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pour une critique des traductions: John Donne</hi>. Paris, Éditions Gallimard, ""Bibliothèque des idées"".
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bignan, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">A.</hi> (1853). <hi rend=""italic"">L’Odyssée traduite en vers français</hi>, (Hachette).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Callison-Burch, C.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Paraphrasing and translation </hi>(Doctoral dissertation, University of Edinburgh).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dufour, M., Raison, J.</hi> (1941). Homère. <hi rend=""italic"">L’Odyssée: traduction de Médéric Dufour et Jeanne Raison, illustrée de vingt-quatre compositions en couleurs par Benito... </hi>,(Le Vasseur).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Feng, S. and Manmatha, R</hi>. (2006, June). A hierarchical, HMM-based automatic evaluation of OCR accuracy for a digital library of books. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Libraries, 2006. JCDL'06. Proceedings of the 6th ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on </hi>, IEEE, pp. 109-18
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Froment, J. B. F.</hi> (1883). <hi rend=""italic"">Odyssée d’Homère</hi>, Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>: in-8e (Plon et Cie)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">La Valterie, A.</hi> (1681). <hi rend=""italic"">L’ Odyssée</hi>, (Barbin)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meschonnic, H.</hi> (1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Poétique du traduire</hi>. Paris: Verdier.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ye, J.</hi> (2011). Cosine similarity measures for intuitionistic fuzzy sets and their applications. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mathematical and Computer Modelling</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">53</hi>(1), 91-97.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2510","17","Qu'est-ce qu'un texte numérique? A New Rationale for the Digital Representation of Text","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Over half a century ago Briet (1951) famously asked ""Qu'est-ce que la documentation?"" She proposed a definition much more fluid than the scraps of writing on paper we usually associate with the term: any object, even an uninscribed stone, becomes a document as soon as it is used to communicate some fact (e.g. in a museum’s geological collection). In a similar vein we argue in this paper for a renewed consideration of the nature of text in the digital realm, or rather the nature that has been imposed upon it both by information-technological and methodological constraints.</p>
            <p>Text is by its nature both discrete and continuous. The glyphs of a writing system are combined into words, which are arranged into phrases, sentences, paragraphs, quotations, and so on; these discrete formations can be arbitrarily complex, but they are communicated through the atom of the glyph. On the other hand, very many elements of the meaning of a text—e.g. narratological elements such as the theme of isolation in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?</hi>, intertextual references and referents (Miola 2000), the concept of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">writerly text</hi> (Barthes, 1974), or even the visual presentations of individual glyphs, defy discrete boundaries. Yet the technologies we have used overwhelmingly for the large-scale production of text—from the printing press to signal transmissions and thence to digital models—treat text as a code of discrete characters; moreover, once text moves from “print” to “signal” (Petzold, 2000) it becomes specifically a single stream of these discrete characters. This can already present some problems to scholars who wish to remediate texts not coded by machine, e.g. manuscripts, to the digital domain for humanistic enquiry. To date scholars who encounter these problems generally consider them an acceptable trade-off for the benefits of access, exchange, and computational tractability that the digital medium offers. 
            </p>
            <p>If we want our digital model of a text to extend beyond the semiotic registration of a single stream of characters, however, problems emerge. McGann (2004) summarizes this well: ""Print and manuscript technology represent efforts to mark natural language so that it can be preserved and transmitted. It is a technology that constrains the shapeshiftings of language, which is itself a special-purpose system for coding human communication. Exactly the same can be said of electronic encoding systems. In each case constraints are installed in order to facilitate operations that would otherwise be difficult or impossible.” Everyone who has ever worked on the remediation of a physically-inscribed text into the digital medium has implicitly conceptualized it at some point as a single stream of discrete characters, simply because this is how we have always known text, ultimately, to be represented digitally. Transcription is thus exactly the sort of constraint to which McGann refers: there is a single stream of text, and only once it exists can it be subdivided and classified as having certain descriptive, structural, or logical characteristics, or even relationships to other portions of text.</p>
            <p>The model of text as a single stream of discrete characters also informs the concept of XML markup.<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1""> While this is not stated explicitly anywhere of which we are aware, the underlying assumption is plain in, e.g., Goldfarb’s discussion of the roots of SGML (1996) or Renear’s definition of text encoding (2004).</note> As Pierazzo (2011) notes, “The editor will first transcribe a primary source, thereby creating a transcription; this transcription will be corrected, proofread, annotated, and then prepared for publication.” The predominant model for the process of annotation to which Pierazzo refers is TEI-XML, that is, embedded markup within the hierarchical structure required by XML. Conceptually a tree structure expressed in XML can be perfectly reorderable, and so not bound to a single valid serialization. With text encoding, however, the ordering constraint remains and must be preserved, however marked up it is and subdivided into branches. Standoff markup schemes similarly assert a single stream—each scheme relies on the stability of the range notation it uses for the underlying text stream—but the markup itself is reorderable. This reorderable property of standoff markup takes us a small step closer to our goal: to recast and represent digital text as something more than a single stream of discrete tokens. 
            </p>
            <p>Standoff markup essentially applies a graph model. This is the feature of standoff that makes it so valuable to its proponents—in a graph, unlike a tree, overlapping ranges of markup are easily handled. Some of these standoff markup elements might even include alternative readings to a given text range, or a reference to a different text that elucidates the contextual meaning of the range in question. From there it is only a small step to the conception of a text that is itself more complex than a single stream. Such conceptions emerge already with the different implementations of variant graphs for collations of “multi-version documents” (Schmidt and Colomb, 2009; see also Dekker et al., 2015; Andrews and Macé, 2013; Jänicke et al., 2014). While so far the variant graph has been used only for word-by-word comparisons of text versions, the concept can be extended radically farther. We will demonstrate this, building on prior work in this direction (e.g. Marcoux, Sperberg-McQueen, and Huitfeldt, 2013). We will show in our paper, for instance, how a graph-based digital text can model collections of stories preserved in manuscripts, without giving primacy to any one ordering of the story sequence; that is, it can contain both the collated text of each story and the variety of story order within the tradition. Likewise the same narrative element, inserted into multiple stories, can be represented as such. </p>
            <p>The representation of information as entities with relationships between them—in other words: as a graph—is not a new idea. RDF works exactly this way, and the theoretical ideas behind hypertext are not dissimilar (cf. Nelson, 1993). The ease with which complex graphs can be modelled in software, however, has massively increased in the last five years. Moreover, it is now reasonably straightforward to create an initial graph representation from a TEI-encoded XML file, and nearly as straightforward to produce multiple “flavors” of TEI XML from a single graph—for example, a document-oriented representation alongside a logical-text-oriented representation, such as those created in the Faust edition project (Brüning et al., 2012).</p>
            <p>Graph representation does not relieve us from the constraint that digital text must be formed from discrete atomic units (characters) and discrete compound digital units. What it does allow us to do, however, is to digitally model the shades of meaning, ambiguity, and uncertainty of text—the aspects of a text’s meaning or interpretation that are not by their nature discrete at all. So far, uncertainty of interpretation has been all but explicitly avoided in the scholarly digital space. McGann (2004) observes: “In the case of a system like the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI), the system is designed to ‘disambiguate’ entirely the materials to be encoded.” The 1700+ pages of the TEI guidelines bear witness to the difficulty of this task; element names and their intended usages are defined as precisely as possible, with illustrative examples. </p>
            <p>The use of tags and attributes in a TEI-encoded file is itself an act of interpretation—it is precisely in the labelling of the elements of an encoding and of the relationships between those elements that much of the scholar’s interpretation of the encoded text lies. This is equally true of a graph encoding. The prolixity of the Guidelines is in fact a result of the attempt to constrain the scholar’s interpretation of a given tag to a disambiguated, and thereby discrete, set of meanings. Rather than shrinking from uncertainty of meaning, however, rather than resolving it in an occasionally misleading or (paradoxically) unhelpful attempt to ease computational analysis, how much better if the uncertainty can be retained in the model, in a manner that is nonetheless machine-parseable? Interpretation remains inherent in the labels that are chosen for the properties in a graph model; these may be taken from the TEI, or they may reflect another interest of the scholar. Either way, a graph-based text model by its nature includes computationally tractable information about how these properties relate to each other. </p>
            <p>In representing “fuzziness” or ambiguity of interpretation, we can perhaps follow the lead of those who have struggled with similar problems of representation of time. If text can be represented as a graph, mostly-sequential but with scope for fluidity, then interpretative elements—say, picking out the theme of isolation within the text—can be represented as spanning a continuous or disjoint range of text sequences, beginning not before word A but certainly by word B, and continuing at least as far as word C but certainly not beyond word D. And so on. If scholars disagree on the correct identification of a person in a historical text, both hypotheses can be represented without innate primacy being given to one over the other, because a graph does not enforce a single ordering of its elements.</p>
            <p>The text model we are advocating, then, amounts to a form of knowledge representation; in representing “the text”, we are actually representing a collection of our knowledge, understanding, and interpretation of that text, in a form that can be analyzed and processed by a machine. The more we can encode texts as computable knowledge, the greater the power computational methods will have in textual scholarship of all forms.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Andrews, T.L., Macé, C., 2013. “</hi>Beyond the tree of texts: Building an empirical model of scribal variation through graph analysis of texts and stemmata.” 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi> 28 (4): 504–521.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Barthes, Roland.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">S/Z</hi>. Trans. Richard Miller. London: Cape, 1975.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Briet, S., 1951.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Qu’est-ce que la Documentation?</hi>, Paris: Édit. Translated as S. Briet, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">What is Documentation?: English Translation of the Classic French Text</hi>, Lanham, Md: Scarecrow Press. Available at: http://ella.slis.indiana.edu/~roday/briet.htm [Accessed 1 November 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brüning, G., et al., 2012.</hi> “On the dual nature of written texts and its implications for the encoding of genetic manuscripts”. Presented at the Digital Humanities 2012, Hamburg.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dekker, R.H., van Hulle, D., Middell, G., Neyt, V., van Zundert, J., 2014.</hi> “Computer-supported collation of modern manuscripts: CollateX and the Beckett Digital Manuscript Project.” 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities </hi>30 (3): 452-470.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Goldfarb, C.F., </hi>The Roots of SGML -- A Personal Recollection. Available at: http://www.sgmlsource.com/history/roots.htm [Accessed 1 November 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grossner, K. and Meeks, E., 2014.</hi> “Topotime: Representing Historical Temporality.” Presented at the Digital Humanities 2014, Lausanne
                        <hi rend=""italic"">. </hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jänicke, S., Geßner, A., Büchler, M., Scheuermann, G., 2014.</hi> “5 Design Rules for Visualizing Text Variant Graphs.” Presented at the Digital Humanities 2014, Lausanne.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Marcoux, Y., Sperberg-McQueen, M.C. & Huitfeldt, C., 2013. </hi>Modeling overlapping structures: Graphs and serializability. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2013</hi>. Balisage Series on Markup Technologies. Balisage: The Markup Conference 2013. Montréal, Canada. Available at: http://www.balisage.net/Proceedings/vol10/html/Marcoux01/BalisageVol10-Marcoux01.html [Accessed 1 November, 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McGann, J., 2004. </hi>Marking Texts of Many Dimensions. In S. Schreibman, R. Siemens, & J. Unsworth, eds. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Humanities</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell. Available as chapter 16 at: http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/ [Accessed 1 November 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Miola, R.S., 2000.</hi> Seven Types of Intertextuality. In M. Marrapodi, ed. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare, Italy, and Intertextuality</hi>. Rome: Bulzoni Editore, pp. 23–38.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nelson, T.H., 1993. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary Machines. The report on, and of, Project Xanadu concerning word processing, electronic publishing, hypertext, thinkertoys, tomorrow’s intellectual revolution, and certain other topics including knowledge, education and freedom.</hi> First published 1981., Mindfull Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Petzold, C., 2000.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Code: The Hidden Language of Computer Hardware and Software</hi>. Redmond: Microsoft Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pierazzo, E., 2011.</hi> “A rationale of digital documentary editions”. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing </hi>26 (4): 463–77.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Renear, A., 2004. </hi>Text Encoding. In S. Schreibman, R. Siemens, & J. Unsworth, eds. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Humanities</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell. Available as chapter 17 at: http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/ [Accessed 1 November 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, D., Colomb, R., 2009.</hi> “A data structure for representing multi-version texts online.” 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Human-Computer Studies</hi> 67: 497–514.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2511","17","Regional Classification of Traditional Japanese Folk Songs from the Chugoku District","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>This study aims to grasp the regional differences in the musical characteristics inherent in the traditional Japanese folk songs of the Chugoku district (the westernmost region of Japan’s largest island of Honshu) by extracting and comparing the characteristics of each area by conducting quantitative analysis in order to promote digital humanities research on traditional Japanese folk songs.</p>
                <p>We have sampled and digitized the five largest song genres within the music corpora of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Nihon Min’yo Taikan</hi> consisting of 1,794 song pieces from 45 Japanese prefectures, and have clarified the following three points by extracting and comparing their respective musical patterns (Kawase and Tokosumi 2011): the most important characteristics in the melody of Japanese folk songs is the transition pattern, which is based on an interval of perfect fourth pitch; regionally adjacent areas tend to have similar musical characteristics; and the differences in the musical characteristics almost match the East-West division in the geolinguistics or in the folkloristics from a broader perspective.
                </p>
                <p>However, to conduct more detailed analysis in order to empirically clarify the structures by which music has spread and changed in traditional settlements, it is necessary to expand the data and do comparisons based on the old Japanese provinces (ancient administrative units that were used under the ritsuryo system before the modern prefecture system was established).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Procedure</head>
                <p>In order to digitize the Japanese folk song pieces, we generate a sequence of notes by converting the music score into MusicXML file format. We devised a method of digitizing each note in terms of its relative pitch by subtracting the next pitch height for a given MusicXML. It is possible to generate a sequence 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">T</hi> that carries information about the pitch to the next note: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">T</hi> = (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""subscript"">1</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""subscript"">2</hi>, … , 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>, …, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">n</hi>). An example of the corresponding pitch intervals for 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi> can be written as shown in Table 1. We treat sequence 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">T</hi> as a categorical time series, and execute n-gram analysis by conducting unigram, bigram, and trigram patterns to clarify major transitions and their trends in the Chugoku district.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""53/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Table 1: Corresponding Pitch Intervals</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Overview of Data</head>
                <p>In order to quantitatively extract pitch transition patterns from Japanese folk songs, we sampled and digitized folk songs included in the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Nihon Min’yo Taikan</hi>. We sampled all the songs in the music corpora included in the Chugoku Region volume (1966). Table 2 shows the statistics about the song pieces from each area in the Chugoku district. Figure 1 is a map of the provinces in the Chugoku district.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""53/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Table 2: Basic Statistics for Number of Songs for Each Province</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""53/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: Geographical Divisions of the Chugokuk District Under the Old Province System</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Frequency of the First Transition</head>
                    <p>Figure 2(a) shows the usage frequency of the first transition patter (unigram). The graph implies that pitch transitions occur almost equally in both the ascending and descending directions. Figure 2(b) is a cumulative relative frequency diagram of the first transitions for ascending and descending order that confirms the trends for each interval. The profile shows that most of the voice range does not extend beyond the interval of perfect fifth (±7).</p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""53/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Figure 2: (a) First Transition Frequency and (b) Cumulative Relative Frequency Diagram</head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>Based on studies of musical psychology, step-by-step changes in pitch height (in other words, pitch interval transitions that always involve ascending or descending order) are an indispensable factor by which humans perceive melodic patterns (Scruton 1997). Therefore, to extract the structures buried under repetition of notes, we will exclude the 0 intervals from sequence 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">T</hi> in order to seek the pure changes of ups and downs within the melody.
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Overall Summary of Bigram Patterns</head>
                    <p>Table 3(a) shows the top 40 bigram patterns. These components do not exceed the range of the perfect fifths (±7), and the values of the chains (intervals) also add up to a pitch interval between -5 and +5. In addition, we find that transition patterns that add up to 0 (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i </hi>+ 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>
                        <hi rend=""subscript"">+1 </hi>= 0), transition patterns that add up to ±5 (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i </hi>+ 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>
                        <hi rend=""subscript"">+1 </hi>= ±5, which is the interval of the perfect fourth), and patterns that include the interval of the perfect fourth in either component (e.g. patterns that form (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>
                        <hi rend=""subscript"">+1</hi>) = (±5, *), (*, ±5)) also appear with high frequency.
                    </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""53/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Table 3: Frequency of Occurrence of (a) Bigrams and (b) Trigram (Top 40 Patterns)</head>
                    </figure>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Overall Summary of Trigram Patterns</head>
                    <p>Table 3(b) shows the top 40 trigram patterns. These components do not exceed the range of perfect fourths (±5), and the feature that stands out is that some of the top-ranked patterns are patterns with a single pitch transition attached to bigram. Most of the transition patterns fall in the range of the intervals of perfect fifths (±7). Furthermore, there are many high-ranked patterns in which the beginning two transitions or the last two transitions add up to form either the same degree of pitch (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i </hi>+ 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>
                        <hi rend=""subscript"">+1</hi> = 0 or 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>
                        <hi rend=""subscript"">+1 </hi>+ 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>
                        <hi rend=""subscript"">+2</hi> = 0) or a perfect fourth pitch (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i </hi>+ 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>
                        <hi rend=""subscript"">+1</hi> = ±5 or 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>
                        <hi rend=""subscript"">+1 </hi>+ 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>
                        <hi rend=""subscript"">+2</hi> = ±5).
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Discussion</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Koizumi’s Tetrachord Theory</head>
                    <p>To speed things along, we will mention Koizumi’s tetrachord theory (1958). The tetrachord is a unit consisting of two stable outlining tones (nuclear tones) with the interval of a perfect fourth pitch, and one unstable intermediate tone located between them. Depending on the position of the intermediate tone, four different types of tetrachords can be formed (Table 4).
                    </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""53/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Table 4: For Basic Types of Tetrachords</head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>Using a bigram model representing pitch transitions, all four types of tetrachords can be expressed as follows in ascending order: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">min’yo</hi> (+3, +2), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">miyako bushi</hi> (+1, +4), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ritsu</hi> (+2, +3), and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ryukyu</hi> (+4, +1). Depending on the positions of the three initial pitches in a tetrachord, six transition patterns can be considered in perceiving a tetrachord in two steps (bigram). Therefore, the amount of tetrachords within two steps can be obtained by counting the pairs of 24 transition patterns in sequence 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">T</hi>.
                    </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""53/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Table 5: Number of Transition Patterns for the Four Tetrachords</head>
                    </figure>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Province Similarities Based on the Frequency of Occurrence of Tetrachords</head>
                    <p>Table 5 shows the frequency that the 24 transition patterns for the four tetrachords appear for all 12 provinces. Here, we did hierarchical cluster analysis on the 24 transition patterns for each province to objectively demonstrate similarities in the 12 provinces. The dendrogram in Figure 3 shows hierarchical cluster analysis results. When calculating distances between each element, we normalized the frequency that the tetrachords appear, and used the Euclidean distance and the algorithm from the Ward method.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""53/image8.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Figure 3: Cluster Analysis Results</head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>If we look for 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">h</hi> = 60 (a height where there are three vertical lines) and trace them to the individuals, this partition of three clusters separates the 12 provinces into 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">C</hi>
                        <hi rend=""subscript"">1</hi> = {Aki, Suo}, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">C</hi>
                        <hi rend=""subscript"">2</hi> = {Mimasaka, Bizen, Bitchu, Nagato, Inaba, Hoki, Izumo, Oki}, and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">C</hi>
                        <hi rend=""subscript"">3</hi> = {Iwami, Bingo}, which almost classifies the Chugoku district into geographically close groups. Meanwhile, it also stands out that only Nagato is separately geographically isolated.
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Sea Route Connecting the Provinces</head>
                    <p>The cluster analysis results did not turn out to match the famous two ancient divisions based on the main road: San’yo = {Mimasaka, Bizen, Bitchu, Bingo, Aki, Suo, Nagato} and San’in = {Inaba, Hoki, Izumo, Iwami, Oki}. However, instead it is possible to consider each cluster based on sea routes (Figure 4).</p>
                    <p>Since ancient times, the Chugoku district has been an area travelers passed through when traveling from the Kansai district (a center of regional culture in Japan) to get to Kyushu region, which had close relations with China and Korea. Since there wasn’t much flat land and there are many mountain ranges, sea routes played an important role in transportation.</p>
                    <p>The existence of the Ota River, a major river and also a sociocultural and economical foundation in the Chugoku district, supports the grouping of the two provinces in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">C</hi>
                        <hi rend=""subscript"">1</hi>. From an oceanic commerce point of view, the north and south sea routes that link the Nagato and Kansai regions also support the grouping of providences in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">C</hi>
                        <hi rend=""subscript"">2</hi>. It is also possible to say that the Gonokawa River, which functioned as a traffic relay point between San’yo and San’in, supports the grouping of provinces in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">C</hi>
                        <hi rend=""subscript"">3</hi>. In this way, we find that rivers have important functions that exert musical influence as well as indicate boundaries between districts and geographical areas.
                    </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""53/image9.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Figure 4: Sea Routes Map of the Chugoku District</head>
                    </figure>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusions</head>
                <p>In this paper, we digitized the melodies of traditional Japanese folk songs in the Chugoku district, and quantitatively analyzed its pitch transition patterns using n-gram modeling, and did a classification experiment based on the frequency of occurrence of the tetrachords to see the differences in each province. As a result, we constructed the possibility that the melodic features in the Chugoku district spread by land and sea routes based on actual music data analysis. However, we should be able to describe the relationships influencing musical culture between regions in detail if we develop this analysis on a nationwide scale. In further research, it is possible to clarify the structural commonalities and differences between areas by conducting analysis on musical corpora nationwide including folk song pieces from neighboring regions such as the Kyushu, Shikoku, and Kansai regions, which has not really been pursued in existing humanities research fields. We believe this will empirically clarify the musical culture phenomena by which music spreads and changes.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kawase, A. and Tokosumi, A.</hi> (2011). Regional classification traditional Japanese folk songs,
                        <hi rend=""italic""> International Journal of Affective Engineering</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(1): 19-27.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koizumi, F.</hi> (1958). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Studies on Traditional Music of Japan 1</hi>, Ongaku no tomosha.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">MusicXML.</hi> http://www.musicxml.com/for-developers/ (accessed 16 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nihon Hoso Kyokai</hi> (1944-1993). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Nihon Min’yo Taikan</hi> 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">(Anthology of Japanese Folk Songs)</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Scruton, R.</hi> (1997).  
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Aesthetics of Music</hi>, Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2512","17","Repairing William Playfair: Digital Fabrication, Design Theory, and the Long History of Data Visualization","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
         <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
         <head>Introduction</head>
            <p>In her plenary address at the 2014 Digital Humanities conference, Bethany Nowviskie urged the field to consider how “broken world thinking,” an approach equal parts ethical, ontological, and methodological, might enrich digital humanities practice (2015, n.p.). Nowviskie borrows the phrase from information theorist Steven Jackson, who argues for a reparative rather than productivist approach to the study of media and technology, and more specifically, for an increased emphasis on the “moments of breakdown” that allow us to “see and engage our technologies in new and sometimes surprising ways” (2013, 230). In this paper, we take up this shared call and extend it, elaborating an approach to broken-world thinking that is simultaneously informed by examples of historical fabrication in the digital humanities (e.g. Elliott et al. 2012, Sayers 2015) and theories of breakdown and repair from the field of design (e.g. Jackson, 2013; Gabrys, 2011). We take the time-series charts of William Playfair, the eighteenth-century data visualization pioneer, and recreate them using D3.js, a data visualization library commonly employed in digital humanities work (Bostock, 2011). In doing so, we gain valuable purchase on the historical concepts that contributed to the creation of Playfair’s charts, many of which-- such as data-- still hold sway today. But by remaining equally attentive to the “moments of breakdown” between the original artifact and our contemporary recreations, we are also able to open new perspectives on the “affordances” of our own visualization tools (Murray, 2011). Our digital “fossils,” as we term them, following the work of Jennifer Gabrys, suggest a generative new point of intersection between the fields of digital humanities and design (2011). </p>
         </div>
         <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
              <head>Project overview</head>
            <p>William Playfair is widely considered the “inventor” of modern data visualization (Tufte, 32). The graphical forms that he first developed, including the bar chart and the pie chart, remain among the building blocks of visualization today (Wilkinson, 2005), and the charts he created are still employed as examples of the crystallizing power of data visualization (Klein, forthcoming). And yet, the techniques he employed, such as copperplate engraving, have long been supplanted by newer technologies. This project seeks to understand how Playfair’s techniques affected the images he created, and how our techniques, in turn, affect the images and interactions we create today. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""131/image1.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1: William Playfair, “Exports and Imports to and from all North-America,” from <hi rend=""italic"">The Commercial and Political Atlas</hi>, 3rd ed. London, 1801</head>
            </figure>
            <p>To recreate Playfair’s chart, we selected D3, the javascript visualization library employed in contexts ranging from data journalism to scientific research to the digital humanities (e.g. Meeks n.d., Schmidt n.d). In comparison to off-the-shelf software such as Microsoft Excel or Tableau, D3 provides additional control over the structure and style of the data, an advantage when attempting to achieve fidelity to an original image. In addition, D3 is open source; this allowed us to consider additional aspects of the library’s design. Finally, D3 was developed in an academic context; its own design choices therefore support a conceptual as well as technical analysis. </p>
            <p>We took two approaches to recreating Playfair’s chart: the first by adhering to the original as closely as possible, including the use of the original data; and the second by adapting Playfair’s design for use with contemporary trade data, taking advantage of D3’s emphasis on data transformation. (We employed the US Census Bureau’s data on foreign trade). In the sections that follow, we describe these approaches in more detail, with particular attention to “moments of breakdown” and the new perspectives that they granted. </p>
         </div>
         <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
         <head>First approach: remediating playfair’s original chart as a digital fossil</head>
            <p>Jennifer Gabrys, a design theorist who, like Jackson, views instances of breakdown and failure in a generative light, suggests that we view cast-off objects as “fossil forms” rather than waste (2011, 7). These digital fossils provide “evidence of more complex and contingent material events,” as well as “traces of the economic, cultural, and political contexts in which they circulate.” By recreating Playfair’s chart in D3, we also remediate its “fossil form,” granting us access to the various contexts in which the chart circulates, both historical and contemporary. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""131/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2: True-to-form recreation of William Playfair’s original chart. The gray area emphasizes the uncertainty of the data, while the green area matches the original. Implementation and image by C. Foster</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Our interest in creating our digital fossil was to induce the moments of breakdown that might alert us to the contextual differences between past and present; the nature and status of statistical data was one such difference. When consulting the third edition of Playfair’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Statistical Atlas</hi> as a reference, we found no actual data accompanying his charts. D3 assumes that the developer will begin with data, so without it, we could not begin. To compensate, we turned to a data table from a previous edition, but it contained data for only a portion of the date range, from 1770 to 1782. We began by recreating that section of time, but to create the entire chart, we estimated the additional data points. The resultant chart resembled the original, but was premised upon two different data sources, with different degrees of accuracy. 
            </p>
            <p>This instance of breakdown and repair illustrates how D3 assumes that a dataset will be presented in a certain format, and that the data will be well-defined, clean, and accurate. The context of D3 is revealed as representative of a culture fixated on data-driven solutions. Rather than present our numbers, actual and interpreted, as the same, we used a technique developed by Kevin Schaul (2013) to create dashed lines for the interpreted numbers. The code he developed, what some might view as a “hack,” might be understood as a “repair” of a breakdown within D3, one that enables the visual presentation of defined and undefined data together. By contrast, Playfair’s original chart shows us that precise data were not a necessary component of its initial success. Playfair drew his charts’ data lines freehand. In fact, there is little evidence that Playfair plotted any actual data points before engraving the lines (Klein, forthcoming).</p>
         </div>
         <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
         <head>Second approach: creating an interactive chart in the style of playfair</head>
            <p>Our second recreation, an interactive version of Playfair’s chart supplemented by modern trade data, revealed additional contexts and biases encoded in D3’s design. D3 was designed to facilitate the creation of interactive visualizations (Bostock, 2011). Its built-in functions worked smoothly once we traded out the original dataset for a more consistently formatted, if substantially larger, contemporary one.</p>
            <p>It was when we attempted to recreate Playfair’s customized labels that we encountered a significant moment of breakdown. All Playfair did to create his labels was to pick an appropriate spot and engrave them. While less extensible than any computational method, Playfair’s technique allowed for more flexibility in the visualization’s layout. Since we were dynamically generating the charts, we weren’t able to use the human eye. Instead, we had to determine a set of rules for where to place text, and then encode them in D3. To ensure legibility, we had to verify three things: 1) that the label was not placed on a part of the chart where the import and export lines were too close; 2) that the label did not intersect with a line; and 3) that the text was placed along a part of the graph that had a consistent slope. As it turned out, determining the points of intersection was a non-trivial task. Even though the ability to illustrate the intersections between lines-- or more generally, the relations among different slices of a particular dataset-- would seem to be a basic requirement of any visualization platform, D3 was constrained by the affordances of its underlying technologies. Playfair thought hard about how to facilitate a “comparative perspective” through the design of his charts, but employing contemporary tools that are constrained for various reasons can affect the range of knowledge that is produced (1801, x).  </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""131/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3: Interactive version of Playfair’s time-series charts. The user selects the country to display through a drop-down menu. Implementation and image by E. Pramer</head>
            </figure>
         </div>
         <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Conclusions </head>
            <p>This project illustrates some of the insights that emerge from broken-world thinking as applied to digital humanities tools. Through the process of recreating Playfair’s charts, we introduced moments of breakdown and prompted our repairs. We became alerted to the changed relation between data and image, and to how the hidden affordances of both software and platform affect the forms of knowledge that D3 can produce. Copperplate engraving allowed greater flexibility and less reliance on the dataset. By contrast, D3 imposes limits on design and is heavily reliant on a clean dataset. This project shows how an uninterrogated reliance on popular tools can limit the creative expression of humanistic data. We have since extended this study by recreating the visualizations Elizabeth Peabody (1804-1894). Her visualization techniques are far more difficult to recreate using standard tools, underscoring how historical fabrication allows us not only to better understand the past, but also to illuminate the present. </p>
         </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bostock, M.,Ogievetsky, V., and Heer, J. </hi>(2011). D3: Data-Driven Documents, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Transactions of Visualization and Computer Graphics, </hi><hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(12): 2301-09.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elliott, D., MacDougall, R. and Turkel, W. J.</hi> (2012). New Old Things: Fabrication, physical computing, and experiment in historical practice, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Canadian Journal of Communication</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>(1). Web. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gabrys, J..</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Rubbish: A natural history of electronics,</hi> University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jackson, S. J. </hi>(2013). Rethinking Repair, in T. Gillespie, P. Boczkowski, and K. Foot, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Media Technologies: Essays on Communication, Materiality, and Society, </hi>MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 221-39.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Klein, L. F.</hi> (forthcoming). ‘Data, Image, and D3: Recreating William Playfair,’ in S. Jackson et al., eds, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DigitalSTS: A Handbook and Field Guide</hi>. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meeks, E. </hi>(n.d). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Specialist</hi>, Stanford University Libraries, accessed at: 
                        <ref target=""https://dhs.stanford.edu/category/d3/"">https://dhs.stanford.edu/category/d3/</ref> (28 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Murray, J. </hi>(2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Inventing the Medium: Principles of Interaction Design as a Cultural Practice</hi>, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nowviskie, B.</hi> (forthcoming). Digital Humanities In The Anthropocene. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Playfair, W. </hi>(1801). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Commercial and Political Atlas</hi>, 3rd ed., London. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rosner, D. K. and Ames, M.</hi> (2014). Designing for Repair? Infrastructures and Materialities of Breakdown, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 17th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing </hi> - CSCW '14. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sayers, J.</hi> (2015). Why Fabricate?, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarly and Research Communication</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(3), n.p.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schaul, K.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Tutorial: Undefined data in d3 charts,</hi> accessed at: 
                        <ref target=""http://kevin.schaul.io/2013/07/06/undefined-data-in-d3-charts/"">http://kevin.schaul.io/2013/07/06/undefined-data-in-d3-charts/</ref> (28 October 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, B. </hi>(n.d.). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Maps and Visualization Gallery</hi>, accessed at: 
                        <ref target=""http://benschmidt.org/maps-visualizations-gallery/"">http://benschmidt.org/maps-visualizations-gallery/</ref> (28 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tufte, E.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Visual Display of Quantitative Information</hi>, Graphics Press, Cheshire, CT. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <lb/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wilkinson, L.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Grammar of Graphics,</hi> Springer-Verlag, New York, NY.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2513","17","Researchers' perceptions of DH trends and topics in the English and Spanish-speaking community. DayofDH data as a case study.","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Defining the “state of the art” in Digital Humanities (DH) is a really challenging task, given the range of contents that this tag covers. One of the most successful efforts in this sense has been the international blogging event known as “DayofDH” or “A Day in the Life of the Digital Humanities” project, promoted and sponsored by centerNet (
                <ref target=""http://www.dhcenternet.org/"">http://www.dhcenternet.org/</ref>), which has put together digital humanists from around the world to document once a year what they do (Rockwell et al., 2012). The websites of DayofDH were hosted in North America until 2015, when it was coordinated in Europe by LINHD (
                <ref target=""http://linhd.uned.es"">http://linhd.uned.es</ref>), the Digital Innovation Lab, at UNED in Madrid. Participants belong to several countries around the world.
            </p>
            <p>The relevance of DH in non-English speaking countries has been quick and important in the last decade, and especially important in the Spanish-speaking world (Spence and González-Blanco, 2014; González-Blanco, 2013; Del Rio Riande, 2014a; Del Rio Riande, 2014b; Galina et al., 2015). Technological projects for humanities have existed in the Spanish world for many years; however, the discipline called “Digital Humanities” arose in 2011 with the first meeting that originated the Spanish Digital Humanities Association, HDH. This relevance is reflected in the creation of a parallel version of the DayofDH in Spanish, the “DíaHD”, which was hosted by the UNAM in Mexico in 2013 and 2014 and converged in the last initiative at UNED transforming both blogging events into a bilingual version of the Day. </p>
            <p>Although there have been general studies about the information on participation in those events (Priani et al., 2014), there has not been an automated data analysis using NLP (Natural Language Processing) or Big Data tools to extract and classify the relevant information gathered in blogs (Webb et al., 2004). More technical details about these aspects can be found in (Tobarra et al., 2014b).</p>
            <p>According to this, the main goal of this paper is to develop a dashboard that allows us to get more insight about interest topics and leaderships of this community during the period of time in which this event has been developed. With the “dashboard” word, we mean the analysis and presentation of results, not a tool. In this sense, the topic characterization process deals with the detection of the most relevant topics which are employed in the publication tools of these kinds of virtual communities (Tobarra et al., 2014a).</p>
            <p>In order to achieve our aforementioned objectives, this work is focused on the datasets corresponding to four years of DayofDH (2012, 2013, 2014 and 2015 editions), and the Spanish version of the event in DíaHD 2013. This work strives at showing the evolution and trends in the last four years in order to give account of the presence of the Hispanic communities in the field. The information of the Spanish 2014 edition has been discarded, as it is not any more available online due to technical problems at the organizing institution. All editions of DayofDH employ WordPress, which has an associated SQL database, including several general tables and a specific set of tables per blog, defined in the project and common to all editions. The CMS is combined with the Buddypress social plugin, which lets users register, create communities and forums and interact among them. For the last edition of the Day, LINHD included also the bilingual plugin WPML to make it available the possibility of including translation in Spanish and English. This feature was, however, just used for the general website and its blog entries.</p>
            <p>The data employed in this proposal has been obtained by using web scraping techniques (Fredheim, 2014) in the DayofDH websites for the previously mentioned editions. In particular, humanists’ blog data, and their associated posts in the website have been gathered in this phase. All information scrapped from blogs is public and accessible from the Internet and, also, they have been anonymized for ethical issues. For validation purposes, the conceptual information about the database schemas have been compared with the extracted dataset, concluding the extraction process has been satisfactory.</p>
            <p>Since the data obtained are huge enough to be efficiently processed, the use of big data techniques have been considered for this work (
                <ref target=""http://social-metrics.org/analyzing-big-data-with-python-pandas/"">http://social-metrics.org/analyzing-big-data-with-python-pandas/</ref>). In order to achieve the main goals of the project, all the information related to the textual content in DayofDH have been processed, so that the most significant tokens are selected. Then, these tokens have been characterized by two parameters; first, it has been used the direct frequency which characterize if a token is used regularly in all DayofDH blogs. Secondly, the inverse frequency of the token that give information of how significant the token is in the context of digital humanities in a semantic way.
            </p>
            <p>These parameters have been used to observe the interest and evolution of the characterized tokens along the time, either in a global and individual way. The interest of the global analysis is to find how the knowledge has evolved during the years of the study. From the point of view of a personal analysis, the interest is to build individual profiles that show the main interest of the researchers in the humanist community. Finally, the leadership relations have also been explored by using disease propagation techniques in the generated social network, taken into account the different editions of the DayofDH. For instance, Fig. 1 shows the social network according to the amount of authors’ participations.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""230/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Fig. 1. Social network generated for 2012-2015 editions of DayofDH</p>
            <p>The resulting graphics and visualizations (Tobarra et al., 2014b) let users make a quick idea of how the DH focus has been moving and distributing across the time through the different Academies in the different countries, but also how topics and interests change from one country to another and it is strongly related to their perspectives and disciplines, which are not independent from their origin (as an example, see Figs. 2 and 3). This approach will enlighten future studies on DH perspectives with real and precise data on the current state-of-the-art on DH perception and its evolution. Data of the years 2009, 2010 and 2011 are not used at the moment, as the same information is not available through web scraping. They will be incorporated to this study as a future work.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""230/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Fig. 2. Interest topics for 2012-2015 editions of DayofDH</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""230/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Fig. 3. Interest topics for 2013 edition of DíaHD</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Acknowledgements</hi>
            </p>
            <p>This work is part of next research projects funded by MINECO and leaded by the professor Elena González-Blanco; Research Europe Action EUIN2013-50630: Digital index of European poetry (DIREPO) and FFI2014-57961-R; and the Digital Humanities Innovation Lab: Digital edition, Linked data, and Research virtual environment for Humanities, in addition to the European project ERC-2015-STG-679528 POSTDATA. Authors would also like to acknowledge the support of the research project (2014I/PPRO/031) from UNED and Banco Santander, and a local project (2014-027-UNED-PROY). Furthermore, we thank both the Region of Madrid for the support of E-Madrid Network of Excellence (S2013-ICE2715) and the Spanish Government for the support of SNOLA Network of Excellence (TIN2015-71669-REDT).</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fredheim, R. </hi>(2014). Web-scraping: The basics. Available online at 
                        <ref target=""http://www.r-bloggers.com/web-scraping-the-basics/"">http://www.r-bloggers.com/web-scraping-the-basics/</ref> (Accessed 9th February, 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Galina, I., González-Blanco, E. and Rio Riande, G. del</hi> (2015). Se habla español. Formando comunidades digitales en el mundo de habla hispana 
                        (in Spanish). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Abstracts of the HDH 2015 Conference</hi>. Madrid, Spain. Available online at 
                        <ref target=""http://hdh2015.linhd.es/ebook/hdh15-galina.xhtml"">http://hdh2015.linhd.es/ebook/hdh15-galina.xhtml</ref> (Accessed 9th February, 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">González-Blanco, E.</hi> (2013). Actualidad de las humanidades digitales y un ejemplo de ensamblaje poético en la red: ReMetCa 
                        (in Spanish). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">761</hi>: 53–67.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Priani, E., Spence, P., Galina, I., González-Blanco, E., Alves, D., Barrón Tovar, J. F., Godínez Bustos, M. A. and Paixão De Sousa, M. C. </hi>(2015). Las humanidades digitales en español y portugués. Un estudio de caso: DíaHD/DiaHD 
                        (in Spanish). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Anuario Americanista Europeo</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">12</hi>: 5–18.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rio Riande, G. del</hi> (2014a). ¿De qué hablamos cuando hablamos de humanidades digitales?. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Abstracts of the AAHD Conference. Culturas, Tecnologías, Saberes</hi>. Buenos Aires, Argentina.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rio Riande, G. del</hi> (2014b). ¿De qué hablamos cuando hablamos de Humanidades Digitales?. Available online at 
                        <ref target=""http://blogs.unlp.edu.ar/didacticaytic/2015/05/04/de-que-hablamos-cuando-hablamos-de-humanidades-digitales/"">http://blogs.unlp.edu.ar/didacticaytic/2015/05/04/de-que-hablamos-cuando-hablamos-de-humanidades-digitales/</ref> (Accessed 9th February, 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rockwell, G., Organisciak, P., Meredith-Lobay, M., Ranaweera, K., Ruecker, S. and Nyhan, J. </hi>(2012). The design of an international social media event: A day in the life of the digital humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(2). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Spence, P. and González-Blanco, E.</hi> (2014). A Historical Perspective on the Digital Humanities in Spain. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Status Quo of Digital Humanities in Europe, H-Soz-Kult</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tobarra, Ll., Robles-Gómez, A., Ros, S., Hernández, R. and Caminero, A. C. </hi>(2014). Analyzing the students’ behavior and relevant topics in virtual learning communities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computers in Human Behavior (CHB)</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">31</hi>: 659–69.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tobarra, Ll., Ros, S., Hernández, R., Robles-Gómez, A., Caminero, A. C. and Pastor, R.</hi> (2014). An integrated analytic dashboard for virtual evaluation laboratories and collaborative forums. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Tecnologias Aplicadas a la Ensenanza de la Electronica (Technologies Applied to Electronics Teaching) (TAEE), 2014 XI</hi>. Bilbao, Spain, pp. 1–6.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Webb, E., Jones, A., Barker, P. and van Schaik, P. </hi>(2004). Using e-learning dialogues in higher education. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Innovations in Education and Teaching International</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">41</hi>(1): 93–103.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2514","17","Social Networks and Archival Context: People and Cultural Heritage","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Overview</head>
                <p>Social Networks and Archival Context (SNAC), initiated in 2010 as a R&D project, is now being transformed into an international cooperative. SNAC’s original research objective was to demonstrate that descriptions of people, embedded in the descriptions of historical records that document their lives, could be extracted and used to reveal the social networks within which their lives were lived 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">and</hi> provide integrated access to geographically dispersed historical records. SNAC’s early success led to plans to establish a sustainable international cooperative to maintain and expand these descriptions of people. The long-term technological objective is a platform to support a continuously expanding, curated corpus of reliable biographical descriptions of people linked to, and providing contextual understanding of, the historical records that function as primary evidence for understanding their lives and work. The SNAC Cooperative will benefit librarians, archivists, and researchers, and will provide traditional historical researchers integrated access to distributed historical records and the social contexts within which the records were created and used. It will provide prosopographic researchers with methods for reconciling and establishing reliable social networks, and will enable archivists and librarians to share descriptive data while also making descriptions more effective.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The Archival Description Source Data </head>
                <p>Archival description source data encompasses both descriptions of historical records as well as authority data for corporate bodies, persons, and families documented in historical records. OCLC WorldCat, sixteen archival consortia (representing hundreds of individual repositories), over thirty repositories, and two digital humanities research projects contributed their source data to SNAC. The holdings of over 4000 repositories are represented:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>190,000 finding aids, contributed by fifteen consortia and over thirty repositories in the U.S., the ArchivesHub in the U.K., and the Bibliothèque nationale de France (Catalogue Collectif de France (CCFr) and BnF archives et manuscrits)</item>
                    <item>2.25 million OCLC WorldCat archival descriptions </item>
                    <item>400,000 authority records contributed by NARA (93,051), the British Library (297,731) the Smithsonian Institution Archives (2,083), the New York State Archives (258); and the Archives nationales, France (2,350)</item>
                    <item>30,000 correspondent names from the Joseph Henry Papers Project, Smithsonian Institution Archives </item>
                    <item>2,332 correspondents from The Walt Whitman Archive </item>
                    <item>1,200 names associated with the Chaco Research Archive </item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Data Processing</head>
                <p>During SNAC’s R&D phase (2010-2015), this source data was processed in three distinct steps. </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Biographical and historical data was extracted or migrated from existing archival descriptions and assembled into standardized descriptions that identify and document organizations, persons, and families based on an international archival communication standard, Encoded Archival Context – Corporate Bodies, Persons, and Families (EAC-CPF). Each EAC-CPF identity description includes the description of the entity as such (names, life dates, biographical information, etc.), links to descriptions of the historical records from which the data was derived, and links to other identities found in the same source. These links provide the foundation for assembling a vast social-document network or graph. </item>
                </list>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>The EAC-CPF identity descriptions were matched (identity reconciliation) against one another and against descriptions in the Virtual International Authority File, combining records that identify the same entity, to produce a set of unique EAC-CPF records. </item>
                </list>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>We developed a prototype access system, based on Extensible Text Framework (XTF), open source software from the California Digital Library. It has three major functional components: 1) display of the EAC-CPF records; 2) sophisticated searching and exploration of the EAC-CPF records; and 3) exposing the data to enable third-parties to access and use it in other applications.</item>
                </list>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Extracted or Migrated Data</head>
                    <p>The first step resulted in 6,719,064 Encoded Archival Context – Corporate Bodies, Persons, Families (EAC-CPF: an archival encoding standard hosted by the Society of American Archivists and developed in collaboration with the international archival community).</p>
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>4,653,365 Persons</item>
                        <item>1,868,448 Corporate Bodies</item>
                        <item>197,251 Families</item>
                    </list>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Merged Data</head>
                    <p>After performing identity resolution processing (match and merging), we had:</p>
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>3,741,262 EAC-CPF records
                            <list type=""unordered"">
                                <item>2,466,425 persons</item>
                                <item>1,077,588 corporate bodies</item>
                                <item>197,249 families
                                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Because family names, as traditionally formed, lack sufficient qualifying information and thus commonly result in false positives, no matching was done against family names. In the final production, two family names were rejected as malformed.</p>
                                    </note>
                                </item>
                            </list>
                        </item>
                        <item>7,966,737 links between the 3,741,262 persons, corporate bodies, and families</item>
                        <item>15,031,209 links to 2,079,504 unique resource descriptions</item>
                    </list>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Prototype History Research Tool</head>
                    <p>The prototype history research tool (http://socialarchive.iath.virginia.edu/snac/search
                        <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">) allows researchers to find persons, organizations, and families; to read biographic information about them; to explore the social networks within which they existed; to locate historical records that document their lives, related resources, and external links associated with that name. Associated links are provided for ArchivesGrid and Digital Public Library of America, as well as “sameAs” links to Wikipedia, VIAF, WorldCat Identities, and others.</hi>
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Significance for Researchers</head>
                <p>Researchers have welcomed SNAC for its research economies: SNAC’s History Research Tool provides integrated access to distributed primary (archival) and secondary (published) resources, eliminating or at least substantially ameliorating the need to track down resources in multiple archival catalogs. Painstakingly locating these resources is a labor-intensive, time-consuming activity in the current research environment, with successful discovery and assembling of the data highly dependent on persistence and serendipity. Indeed it is likely that some of the information found in the SNAC records might never be discovered using current methods. SNAC also makes explicit what has been, at best, implicit in archival description: the social-professional-intellectual networks within which the lives and work of the people documented in historical resources took place. It exposes the vast global social-document network that connects the past to the present. Ed Ayers, President of the University of Richmond and a Civil War historian, wrote that:</p>
                <quote>SNAC promises to change the way history is imagined and written! For all that the digital revolution has revolutionized, the heart of research lies within the primary record embedded in archives large and small. The pioneering work of SNAC will unlock that record, revealing connections and patterns invisible to us now.</quote>
                <p>Alan Liu, Professor of English, University of California, Santa Barbara and Director of Research Oriented Social Environment (RoSE), describes SNAC’s potential:</p>
                <quote>SNAC employs state-of-the-art computational techniques to do three things very well: 1) unlock information originally recorded for specific purposes in library and other archival finding aids to make them usable in new contexts; 2) connect widely-distributed information of this sort from around the world; and 3) marry the “library” or “archive” model of knowledge to a whole other model of social networks that both humanizes our understanding of the way knowledge emerges from communities of knowledge creators and seekers, and speaks powerfully to today’s “social network” generation.</quote>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Significance for Prosopographical Research</head>
                <p>SNAC is building a humanities resource that benefits humanities researchers, but ongoing development and refinement of identity reconciliation techniques are of further benefit to humanists engaged in prosopographical research. Names alone are weak identifiers: multiple people can have the same name and one person may have multiple names. A number of factors influence our ability to reliably identify people. Indeed, the larger the domain from which names are drawn, the higher the likelihood that a name is shared by several people. </p>
                <p>Though each step in the processing described above presents intellectual and technical challenges, the most challenging is identity reconciliation. A fundamental human activity in the development of knowledge involves the identification of a unique “real world” entity (e.g., a person or book) and recording facts that, when taken together, uniquely distinguish that entity. Establishing the identity of a person, for example, involves examining available evidence, including the existing knowledge base, and recording facts associated with him or her (such as names, dates and places of birth and death, occupation, etc.). This is an ongoing, cumulative activity that both leverages existing established identities and establishes new identities. Identity reconciliation is the process by which an encountered identity is compared against established identities, and if not matched, is itself contributed to the established base of identities. The networked computing environment presents opportunities for using algorithm-based inference methods to compare newly encountered entities with established identities to determine the probability that a new entity represents the same person or thing as an established identity. This ongoing expansion of the base of reliable identities is an interplay of human research, knowledge recording, and computational methods.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Transforming SNAC into an International Cooperative</head>
                <p>It became clear early on that the biographical data extracted and assembled from archival resource description constituted a valuable independent resource that could (and should) be maintained and further developed cooperatively. Development of a cooperative began back in 2011 and it recently entered its pilot phase with a group of fourteen inaugural institutional members that support the potential benefits of aggregated description and access demonstrated to date in SNAC, and, further, embrace the idea that the resources amassed should be cooperatively built and maintained in order to fully realize these benefits. The initial members represent research archives, libraries, museums (art and natural history), government archives, and institutional archives. The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) serves as the secretariat for the Cooperative, while the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities (IATH), University of Virginia, hosts the technological infrastructure. SNAC is led by IATH, working collaboratively with NARA, the California Digital Library, and the iSchool at UC Berkeley. The National Endowment for the Humanities (2010-2012), the Institute for Museum and Library Services (2011-2013), and the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation (2012-2017) have provided funding for SNAC. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2515","17","Straight Talk! Automatic Recognition of Direct Speech in Nineteenth-century French Novels","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>
                    <anchor xml:id=""id_h.ji1azr7fcbzf""/>Introduction
                </head>
                <p>In fictional prose narrative such as novels and short stories, various forms of speech, thought, and writing representation are ubiquitous and have been studied in great detail in linguistics and literary studies. However, beyond quotation marks, what are linguistic markers of direct speech? And just how ubiquitous is direct speech really? Is there systematic variation in the amount of direct speech over time or across genres? Especially for the field of French literary history, where typography is not a reliable guide, we really don't know. </p>
                <p>This is regrettable, because being able to quickly and automatically detect direct speech in large collections of literary narrative texts is highly desireable for many areas in literary studies. In the history of literary genres, this allows to observe distributions and evolutions of a fundamental, formal aspect of the novel on a large scale. In narratology, differentiating narrator from character speech is a precondition for more detailed analyses of narrator speech, e.g. with regard to text type (descriptive, narrative, argumentative text). And in authorship attribution, it hereby becomes possible to discard character speech from a set of novels and perform authorship attribution on the narrator speech only, something which may improve attribution. </p>
                <p>Against this background, the work presented here addresses both the question of how to identify direct speech in French prose fiction and that of how prevalent direct speech is in different subgenres of the nineteenth-century French novel. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Aims and hypotheses</head>
                <p>Our first aim has been to use machine learning to automatically identify direct character speech in a small collection of French-language fictional prose. This is less trivial than it seems to be since in the French typographical tradition, direct speech is usually not marked with opening and closing quotation marks (figure 1). Rather, a long hyphen usually indicates the beginning of direct speech, whereas the end is left unmarked. In figure 1, the first highlighted direct speech continues after the insertion revealing who has just spoken (“lui dit-il, tout bas,”; 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">he quietly said to him</hi>). In the second example, the direct speech ends after the speaker has been indicated (“dit une voix à la portière”; 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">said a voice at the door</hi>). Our hypothesis is that there are enough linguistic markers of direct speech to make it possible to identify it automatically and reliably (for an overview of such markers, see Durrer, 1994).
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""132/1000000000000489000007CF1A34A5D56B198967.jpg""/>
                        <head>Figure 1: Detail from Paul Féval, La Louve, 1857, p. 126 (Source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6366934b)</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Our second aim has been to use the best-performing algorithm to identify direct speech in a larger collection of French nineteenth-century novels and to study its distribution. Here, we hope to detect significant differences in the proportion of direct speech found in different novelistic subgenres. Research about other literary traditions supports this hypothesis (e.g. Allison et al., 2011).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>State of the Art</head>
                <p>Speech, thought and writing representation are common topics in narratology and stylistics (Genette, 2008, Leech/Short, 2007). Semino and Short’s 2004 quantitative study finds that direct representation is clearly the most frequent type in their English fiction sub-corpus. Brunner 2015 confirms this trend for her corpus of German short narratives. Here, the percentage of sentences containing direct speech is about 35% and varies widely over different texts (2%-72%). </p>
                <p>Frequently, speech representation recognition is an auxiliary step to other tasks, e.g. knowledge extraction or speaker recognition (Krestel at al., 2008, Elson and McKeown, 2010, Iosif and Mishra, 2014, Sarmento/Nunes, 2009). Weiser and Watrin 2012 used a rule-based approach to extract unmarked quotations in French newspaper texts with success rates of 0.745-0.789. Brunner 2015 focuses on speech, thought and writing representation in German short literary narratives. Using machine learning with random forests, she reports an F1 score of 0.87 for direct speech in a sentence-based cross-validation.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Data</head>
                <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""132/10000201000007CF000006401CAD3E0AED5E3C10.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: Distribution of novels per subgenre and decade</head>
                </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Our text collection contains 127 French novels published between 1840 and 1889. Three generic subsets can be distinguished, each of which is represented by approximately 40 texts: general novelistic fiction (so-called ‘littérature blanche’) is contrasted with specific subgenres, crime fiction (‘policier’) and fantastic novels (see figure 2). The narrative perspective is largely heterodiegetic.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methods</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Manual Annotation</head>
                    <p>To obtain a gold standard, 40 chapters from 20 different novels were randomly chosen from the collection and annotated manually. 5734 sentences were marked as either containing direct speech or not containing any direct speech; the former also include mixed sentences.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Preprocessing</head>
                    <p>To prepare feature generation, preprocessing was performed, the pipeline consisting of the Stanford CoreNLP-Tokenizer and Sentence-Splitter, as well as the TreeTagger for POS-Tagging and Lemmatization.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Feature generation</head>
                    <p>We modeled 81 features which we believed to be useful cues for the classification task (see the annex for a ranked list). Features are generated on a sentence-based level and can be divided into different categories:</p>
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>Character-based: e.g. long hyphen marks, exclamation marks, question marks.</item>
                        <item>Lexical: e.g. deictic expressions, interjections.</item>
                        <item>Semantic: categories of verbs, from WordNet and the French equivalent WOLF: e.g. verbs of motion or perception.</item>
                        <item>Morphological: e.g. part-of-speech, verb-tense, lemma.</item>
                        <item>Syntactic features: e.g. number of commas, sentence length. </item>
                    </list>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Classification</head>
                    <p>For the binary classification task (sentences containing vs. not containing direct speech), we used an annotation and classification framework developed by Markus Krug (Würzburg) wrapping LibSVM Support-Vector-Machine (Chang and Lin, 2011), Maximum Entropy (Nigam et al., 1999) and Naïve Bayes (John and Langley, 1995) and implemented in MALLET (McCallum 2002). Random Forest (Breiman, 2001) and JRip (Cohen, 1995) were applied using Weka. All experiments were validated using 10-fold cross-validation unless otherwise stated.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Error analysis</head>
                    <p>The machine learning algorithms’ incorrect assignments on the gold standard (false positives and false negatives) were manually analyzed in order to detect the errors' underlying causes.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Automatic tagging of unseen texts</head>
                    <p>Using the best-performing model, all sentences in the text collection were tagged for containing direct speech or not. The distribution of ratios of direct speech / non-direct speech was calculated for the three subgenres and five decades covered by the collection. Performance on these unseen texts was checked manually on a random sample. (We sampled 2300 sentences, i.e. 100 random sentences each from a sample of 23 novels stratified by ratio of direct speech.) </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results and Discussion</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Recognition of direct speech</head>
                    <p>Table 1 depicts the performance for different conditions.</p>
                    <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""132/1000020100000756000003B78062947778BF83D5.png""/>
                        <head>Table 1: Performance (10-fold cross-validation on the gold standard)</head>
                    </figure>
                    </p>
                    <p>Our baseline is using the speech sign (i.e. the long hyphen) as the only feature, which yields an F1 score of 0.734. Random-Forest performs best, with an F1 score of 0.939, which we consider to be an impressive result. Even when excluding the speech sign from the features, we still reach an F1 score of 0.924, much better than the hyphen alone. </p>
                    <p>After inspecting the models, it becomes clear that only very few features carry strong cues for direct speech, namely (and unsurprisingly) the initial long hyphen. Most other features, taken separately, carry weak signals in either direction, but become relevant in combination. </p>
                    <p>Error analysis reveals that incorrect assignments (false positives and negatives) are frequently due to imperfect sentence segmentation. Several features which have been previously used to define and recognize direct speech (question / exclamation marks, interjections, verbal tenses) also cause incorrect assignments, especially in the context of homodiegetic narration, where the narrator is somewhat involved in the plot so that his narrator speech is similar to direct speech. Finally, letters are sometimes mistaken for direct speech, which makes	 sense given that in most of them, one person addresses one or several other people.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Distribution of direct speech in the corpus</head>
                    <p>We applied the best-performing algorithm (Random Forest) to the entire text collection. Evaluation shows a certain drop in performance, with a weighted average success rate of 0.844, indicating less-than-perfect generalization. We noted a welcome absence of any strong bias for either direct or non-direct speech. Our results suggest that the average proportion of direct to non-direct speech across the collection is 61% sentences with direct speech (and 39% without direct speech).</p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                        <graphic url=""132/10000201000005DC000004B092682480DA414F98.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 3: Ratio of direct to non-direct speech in 127 novels</head>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                    <p>While variance is considerable (see figure 3), the proportion of direct speech in French nineteenth-century novels is overall much higher than expected (and higher, for example, than the 35% reported by Brunner 2015 for German novellas). </p>
                    <p>Figure 4 shows that both fantastic novels and crime fiction have a significantly higher median for proportion of direct-speech than ‘littérature blanche’, but do not differ significantly from each other (for significance tests, we used the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test at a significance level of 1%). </p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                           <graphic url=""132/10000201000007CF00000331CF6E09243FBC5EE6.png""/>
                           <head>Figure 4: Distribution (left) and significance (right) of direct to non-direct speech ratios across three subgenres</head>
                       </figure>
                    </p>
                    <p>Figure 5 shows that only the ratios for the 1850s and the 1880s have a significantly differing level. However, because the decades do not have perfectly balanced subgenre proportions, this is probably due to a subgenre imbalance rather than an effect of the time period.</p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""132/10000201000007CF000003425305A9FB545D67A0.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 5: Distribution (left) and significance (right) of direct to non-direct speech ratios across five decades</head>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>
                    <anchor xml:id=""id_h.knm7ich2oh04""/>Conclusions and Future Work
                </head>
                <p>Using a wide range of linguistic markers allows the reliable identification of direct speech, even in the absence of clear typographic markers. Performance is excellent to good (F1-score of 0.94 on the gold standard, weighted average success rate of 0.844 on unseen texts). Using our method reveals that nineteenth-century French novels contain a large proportion of sentences with direct speech (61% on average). Also, there are previously unseen differences in direct speech proportion for subgenre, but not for time period.</p>
                <p>For future work, we plan to use several strategies to improve performance. One is to add more sequential information to our set of features. Examples include the position, inside a sentence, of certain lexical or typographical features as well as linguistic cues preceding and following direct speech. Also, we plan to expand our corpus to make it more balanced in terms of genres and decades. This will allow us to discover genre-related patterns of interest to literary historians in a more reliable manner and assess their significance with more confidence.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Supplementary material</head>
                <p>Supplementary material can be found at: https://github.com/cligs/projects/tree/master/2016/dh.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Annex A: Features used</head>
                <p>List of features used, sorted by descending rank by a one-rule classifier.</p>
                <p>average merit average rank attribute</p>
                <p>74.028 +- 0.168 1 +- 0 79 SPEECHSIGN</p>
                <p>71.743 +- 0.16 2 +- 0 57 VER:impf</p>
                <p>65.847 +- 0.234 3 +- 0 54 VER:pres</p>
                <p>63.893 +- 0.155 4 +- 0 55 VER:simp</p>
                <p>63.248 +- 0.136 5 +- 0 6 PUNCMARKDOT</p>
                <p>59.48 +- 0.12 6 +- 0 29 MATCHINGPPER_SON</p>
                <p>58.835 +- 0.094 7.7 +- 0.64 30 MATCHINGPPER_SES</p>
                <p>58.695 +- 0.208 8.1 +- 0.94 24 MATCHINGPPER_IL</p>
                <p>58.713 +- 0.104 8.4 +- 0.92 35 VERB_MOTION</p>
                <p>58.364 +- 0.083 10.6 +- 0.49 28 MATCHINGPPER_SA</p>
                <p>58.344 +- 0.417 10.8 +- 1.78 7 SENTENCELENGTH</p>
                <p>58.172 +- 0.078 11.7 +- 0.46 61 VER:subi</p>
                <p>57.492 +- 0.091 14 +- 1.41 25 MATCHINGPPER_ELLE</p>
                <p>57.422 +- 0.103 14.5 +- 1.36 44 VERB_PERCEPTION</p>
                <p>57.387 +- 0.248 14.9 +- 1.51 50 INNERSUBCLAUSE</p>
                <p>57.356 +- 0.4 15.8 +- 2.09 48 UNKNOWNLEMMA</p>
                <p>57.213 +- 0.07 16.5 +- 1.02 31 MATCHINGPPER_LEUR</p>
                <p>57.143 +- 0.162 17.3 +- 1.1 60 VER:ppre</p>
                <p>56.672 +- 0.042 20.2 +- 0.98 36 VERB_BODY</p>
                <p>56.672 +- 0.115 21 +- 1.84 52 VER:cond</p>
                <p>56.62 +- 0.136 21.7 +- 2.1 40 VERB_EMOTION</p>
                <p>56.567 +- 0.072 22.3 +- 1.19 26 MATCHINGPPER_ILS</p>
                <p>56.497 +- 0.033 23.9 +- 1.3 41 VERB_COGNITION</p>
                <p>56.428 +- 0.044 25 +- 1 46 VERB_CONSUMPTION</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 34.5 +- 4.06 20 MATCHINGPPER_VOTRE</p>
                <p>56.339 +- 0.176 35.4 +-18.69 32 COMMAS</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 35.8 +- 4.19 21 MATCHINGPPER_VOS</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 35.8 +- 6.4 22 MATCHINGPPER_TOI</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 36.3 +- 4.2 17 MATCHINGPPER_TES</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 37.6 +- 7.35 5 PUNCMARKCOLON</p>
                <p>56.195 +- 0.018 37.7 +-13.33 18 MATCHINGPPER_NOTRE</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 38.2 +- 3.16 23 MATCHINGPPER_MOI</p>
                <p>56.424 +- 0.296 38.4 +-25.85 47 VERB_COMMUNICATION</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 38.6 +- 6.45 4 PUNCMARKEXCL</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 38.7 +- 3.44 16 MATCHINGPPER_TON</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 39.4 +- 4.82 15 MATCHINGPPER_TA</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 39.6 +- 6.45 3 PUNCMARKQUSTION</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 40.2 +- 8.81 8 MATCHINGPPER_JE</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 41.8 +-10.17 9 MATCHINGPPER_TU</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 43.5 +- 9.19 10 MATCHINGPPER_NOUS</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 43.5 +- 2.84 13 MATCHINGPPER_MON</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 44.6 +- 4.43 12 MATCHINGPPER_MA</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 44.7 +- 6.47 11 MATCHINGPPER_VOUS</p>
                <p>56.261 +- 0.436 45.6 +-27.28 1 AmmountOfPPER</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 45.8 +- 9.65 75 INTERJECTION_FI</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 48 +-14.72 76 INTERJECTION_HEP</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 50.2 +- 9.34 73 INTERJECTION_EH</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 50.2 +- 6.27 74 INTERJECTION_EUH</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 51.3 +- 3.66 81 INTERJECTION_MADAME</p>
                <p>56.203 +- 0.08 51.3 +-23.56 37 VERB_COMPETITION</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 52.1 +-15.75 58 VER:infi</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 52.3 +-16.54 56 VER:futu</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 53 +- 8.91 78 INTERJECTION_OUSTE</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 54.7 +-17.43 34 VERB_CONTACT</p>
                <p>56.162 +- 0.116 55.6 +-18.7 33 VERB_WEATHER</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 56.9 +- 6.55 64 INTERJECTION_OH</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 57.3 +- 4.5 63 INTERJECTION_AH</p>
                <p>56.135 +- 0.087 58 +-24.31 19 MATCHINGPPER_NOS</p>
                <p>56.193 +- 0.015 58.7 +-13.46 77 INTERJECTION_OUF</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 59.3 +- 9.42 67 INTERJECTION_HÉLAS</p>
                <p>56.143 +- 0.07 59.6 +-16.69 14 MATCHINGPPER_MES</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 59.9 +- 4.5 42 VERB_STATIVE</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 60.2 +- 2.64 62 VER:subp</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 60.6 +- 8.39 71 INTERJECTION_CHUT</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 62 +- 6.36 70 INTERJECTION_HEM</p>
                <p>56.193 +- 0.015 62.5 +-10.87 66 INTERJECTION_HEIN</p>
                <p>56.197 +- 0.011 62.6 +- 8 65 INTERJECTION_HÉ</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 62.7 +- 5.87 51 DEIKTIKA</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 63 +- 4.07 80 INTERJECTION_MONSIEUR</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 63 +-11.79 53 VER:impe</p>
                <p>56.005 +- 0.298 63.8 +-24.78 38 VERB_POSSESSION</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 64 +- 5.67 39 VERB_SOCIAL</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 64.3 +- 4.86 45 VERB_CHANGE</p>
                <p>56.197 +- 0.013 64.7 +- 8.74 68 INTERJECTION_BAH</p>
                <p>56.201 +- 0.005 64.7 +- 5.27 59 VER:pper</p>
                <p>56.197 +- 0.015 65.2 +- 7.08 69 INTERJECTION_HOLÀ</p>
                <p>56.139 +- 0.062 66.7 +-20.16 27 MATCHINGPPER_ELLES</p>
                <p>56.183 +- 0.008 71.8 +- 5.23 72 INTERJECTION_BRAVO</p>
                <p>56.005 +- 0.121 74.2 +- 9.41 43 VERB_CREATION</p>
                <p>56.079 +- 0.038 77.4 +- 1.56 2 AmmountOfDET</p>
                <p>55.99 +- 0.142 78.1 +- 3.73 49 POSNPP</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Annex B: Text collection</head>
                <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Table1"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>author-name</cell>
                        <cell>title</cell>
                        <cell>year</cell>
                        <cell>subgenre</cell>
                        <cell>narration</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Balzac</cell>
                        <cell>Pierrette</cell>
                        <cell>1840</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Balzac</cell>
                        <cell>TenebreuseAffaire</cell>
                        <cell>1841</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Balzac</cell>
                        <cell>AlbertSavarus</cell>
                        <cell>1842</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresParis02</cell>
                        <cell>1842</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MorneDiable</cell>
                        <cell>1842</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresParis01</cell>
                        <cell>1842</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>LoupBlanc</cell>
                        <cell>1843</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Dumas</cell>
                        <cell>Eppstein</cell>
                        <cell>1843</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresLondres1</cell>
                        <cell>1843</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>FanfaronsRoi</cell>
                        <cell>1843</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresLondres3</cell>
                        <cell>1843</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresParis04</cell>
                        <cell>1843</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresParis05</cell>
                        <cell>1843</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>JuifErrant</cell>
                        <cell>1844</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sand</cell>
                        <cell>PecheAntoine</cell>
                        <cell>1845</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>PaulaMonti</cell>
                        <cell>1845</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>Quittance2Galerie</cell>
                        <cell>1846</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sand</cell>
                        <cell>LucreziaFloriani</cell>
                        <cell>1846</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>homodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Balzac</cell>
                        <cell>CousineBette</cell>
                        <cell>1846</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gautier</cell>
                        <cell>PartieCarrée</cell>
                        <cell>1848</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresPeuple02</cell>
                        <cell>1849</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Dumas</cell>
                        <cell>Fantômes</cell>
                        <cell>1849</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>homodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Dumas</cell>
                        <cell>Olifus</cell>
                        <cell>1849</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>homodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Dumas</cell>
                        <cell>ColliersVelours</cell>
                        <cell>1850</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresPeuple03</cell>
                        <cell>1850</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresPeuple04</cell>
                        <cell>1850</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresPeuple07</cell>
                        <cell>1851</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresPeuple06</cell>
                        <cell>1851</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Aurevilly</cell>
                        <cell>Ensorcelée</cell>
                        <cell>1852</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>homodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>Baronne</cell>
                        <cell>1852</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>ReineEpees</cell>
                        <cell>1852</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>FemmeImmortelle</cell>
                        <cell>1852</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresPeuple09</cell>
                        <cell>1853</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresPeuple08</cell>
                        <cell>1853</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresPeuple11</cell>
                        <cell>1854</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresPeuple10</cell>
                        <cell>1854</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresPeuple12</cell>
                        <cell>1855</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>MadameGilBlas</cell>
                        <cell>1856</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>homodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gautier</cell>
                        <cell>Avatar</cell>
                        <cell>1856</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>Louve2</cell>
                        <cell>1856</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresPeuple13</cell>
                        <cell>1856</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gautier</cell>
                        <cell>RomanMomie</cell>
                        <cell>1857</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresPeuple16</cell>
                        <cell>1857</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Dumas</cell>
                        <cell>MeneurLoups</cell>
                        <cell>1857</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sue</cell>
                        <cell>MysteresPeuple15</cell>
                        <cell>1857</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>ClubValets2</cell>
                        <cell>1858</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>ExploitsRocambole3</cell>
                        <cell>1859</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>ExploitsRocambole2</cell>
                        <cell>1859</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>ExploitsRocambole1</cell>
                        <cell>1859</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Sand</cell>
                        <cell>ElleLui</cell>
                        <cell>1859</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>Chevaliers</cell>
                        <cell>1860</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Féval</cell>
                        <cell>Ténèbre</cell>
                        <cell>1860</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>ChevalierTenebre</cell>
                        <cell>1861</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>homodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Aimard</cell>
                        <cell>RodeursFrontieres</cell>
                        <cell>1861</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Hugo</cell>
                        <cell>Miserables1Fantine</cell>
                        <cell>1862</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>TestamentGrainDeSel</cell>
                        <cell>1862</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>About</cell>
                        <cell>OreilleCassée</cell>
                        <cell>1862</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Villiers</cell>
                        <cell>Isis</cell>
                        <cell>1862</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>HabitsNoirs1</cell>
                        <cell>1863</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Aurevilly</cell>
                        <cell>PrêtreMarié</cell>
                        <cell>1864</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>homodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Féval</cell>
                        <cell>Vampire</cell>
                        <cell>1865</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>homodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gaboriau</cell>
                        <cell>Lerouge</cell>
                        <cell>1865</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>HabitsNoirs2Coeur</cell>
                        <cell>1865</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>Breda</cell>
                        <cell>1866</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>ResurrectionRocambole2</cell>
                        <cell>1866</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Verne</cell>
                        <cell>CapitaineHatteras</cell>
                        <cell>1866</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>DernierMot3</cell>
                        <cell>1867</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>DernierMot4</cell>
                        <cell>1867</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gaboriau</cell>
                        <cell>EsclavesParis2</cell>
                        <cell>1867</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>DernierMot2</cell>
                        <cell>1867</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>MiseresLondres3</cell>
                        <cell>1868</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Aimard</cell>
                        <cell>Ourson</cell>
                        <cell>1868</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>MiseresLondres2</cell>
                        <cell>1868</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>MiseresLondres4</cell>
                        <cell>1868</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>HabitsNoirs3Rue</cell>
                        <cell>1868</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>FéeAuteuil</cell>
                        <cell>1868</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Flaubert</cell>
                        <cell>Education</cell>
                        <cell>1869</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>HabitsNoirs4Arme</cell>
                        <cell>1869</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>HabitsNoirs5Maman</cell>
                        <cell>1869</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gouraud</cell>
                        <cell>EnfantsFerme</cell>
                        <cell>1869</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gaboriau</cell>
                        <cell>MonsieurLecoq2</cell>
                        <cell>1869</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Zola</cell>
                        <cell>FortuneRougon</cell>
                        <cell>1870</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>CordePendu1</cell>
                        <cell>1870</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ponson</cell>
                        <cell>CordePendu2</cell>
                        <cell>1870</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gaboriau</cell>
                        <cell>VieInfernale2</cell>
                        <cell>1870</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gaboriau</cell>
                        <cell>Degringolade1</cell>
                        <cell>1872</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gaboriau</cell>
                        <cell>Degringolade3</cell>
                        <cell>1872</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gaboriau</cell>
                        <cell>Degringolade2</cell>
                        <cell>1872</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gaboriau</cell>
                        <cell>CordeCou2</cell>
                        <cell>1873</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Zola</cell>
                        <cell>VentreParis</cell>
                        <cell>1873</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gaboriau</cell>
                        <cell>CordeCou1</cell>
                        <cell>1873</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gaboriau</cell>
                        <cell>Argent1</cell>
                        <cell>1874</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gaboriau</cell>
                        <cell>Argent2</cell>
                        <cell>1874</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>VilleVampire</cell>
                        <cell>1875</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>homodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Zola</cell>
                        <cell>AbbeMouret</cell>
                        <cell>1875</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Verne</cell>
                        <cell>HectorServadac</cell>
                        <cell>1877</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Malot</cell>
                        <cell>Cara</cell>
                        <cell>1878</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>AimardAuriac</cell>
                        <cell>AigleNoirDacotahs</cell>
                        <cell>1878</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Stolz</cell>
                        <cell>SecretLaurent</cell>
                        <cell>1878</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>HommeSansBras</cell>
                        <cell>1881</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Loti</cell>
                        <cell>RomanSpahi</cell>
                        <cell>1881</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Boisgobey</cell>
                        <cell>Omnibus</cell>
                        <cell>1881</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gaboriau</cell>
                        <cell>AmoursEmpoisonneuse</cell>
                        <cell>1881</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Stolz</cell>
                        <cell>Mesaventures</cell>
                        <cell>1881</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>FevalPP</cell>
                        <cell>HistoireRevenants</cell>
                        <cell>1881</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gouraud</cell>
                        <cell>ChezGrandMere</cell>
                        <cell>1882</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Aurevilly</cell>
                        <cell>HistoireSans</cell>
                        <cell>1882</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Maupassant</cell>
                        <cell>UneVie</cell>
                        <cell>1883</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Rachilde</cell>
                        <cell>MVénus</cell>
                        <cell>1884</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Boisgobey</cell>
                        <cell>Voilette</cell>
                        <cell>1885</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Zola</cell>
                        <cell>Germinal</cell>
                        <cell>1885</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Ohnet</cell>
                        <cell>GrandeMarnière</cell>
                        <cell>1885</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Zola</cell>
                        <cell>Oeuvre</cell>
                        <cell>1886</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Villiers</cell>
                        <cell>EveFuture</cell>
                        <cell>1886</cell>
                        <cell>fantastique</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Boisgobey</cell>
                        <cell>RubisOngle</cell>
                        <cell>1886</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Malot</cell>
                        <cell>Zyte</cell>
                        <cell>1886</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Loti</cell>
                        <cell>PecheurIslande</cell>
                        <cell>1886</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Mary</cell>
                        <cell>RogerLaHonte</cell>
                        <cell>1886</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Malot</cell>
                        <cell>Conscience</cell>
                        <cell>1888</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Boisgobey</cell>
                        <cell>OeilChat1</cell>
                        <cell>1888</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Boisgobey</cell>
                        <cell>Chat2</cell>
                        <cell>1888</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Gouraud</cell>
                        <cell>QuandGrande</cell>
                        <cell>1888</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Boisgobey</cell>
                        <cell>MainFroide</cell>
                        <cell>1889</cell>
                        <cell>blanche</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Boisgobey</cell>
                        <cell>Opera2</cell>
                        <cell>1889</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Boisgobey</cell>
                        <cell>MainFroide</cell>
                        <cell>1889</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Boisgobey</cell>
                        <cell>Opera1</cell>
                        <cell>1889</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Boisgobey</cell>
                        <cell>DoubleBlanc</cell>
                        <cell>1889</cell>
                        <cell>policier</cell>
                        <cell>heterodiegetic</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Allison, S., Heuser, R., Jockers, M. L., Moretti, F. and Witmore, M.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Quantitative Formalism: An Experiment (Stanford Literary Lab, Pamphlet 1)</hi>. Stanford: Standford Literary Lab.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Breiman, L.</hi> (2001). Random Forests. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Machine Learning</hi>, 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brunner, A.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Automatische Erkennung von Redewiedergabe: Ein Beitrag Zur Quantitativen Narratologie</hi>. (Narratologia: Contibutions to Narrative Theory Band 47). Berlin; Boston: De Gruyter.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chang, C.-C. and Lin, C.-J.</hi> (2011). LIBSVM: A library for support vector machines. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology</hi>, 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cohen, W. W.</hi> (1995). Fast Effective Rule Induction. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Twelfth International Conference on Machine Learning</hi>. Morgan Kaufmann, pp. 115–23.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Durrer, S.</hi> (1994). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Le dialogue romanesque. Style et structure</hi>. Geneva: Droz.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elson, D. K. and McKeown, K. R.</hi> (2010). Automatic Attribution of Quoted Speech in Literary Narrative. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Twenty-Fourth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence</hi> (AAAI-10).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Genette, G.</hi> (1980). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Narrative Discourse. An Essay in Method</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Iosif, E. and Mishra, T.</hi> (2014). From Speaker Identification to Affective Analysis: A Multi-Step System from Analyzing Children Stories. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Computational Linguistics for Literature</hi>, pp. 40–49.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">John, G. H. and Langley, P.</hi> (1995). Estimating Continuous Distributions in Bayesian Classifiers. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Eleventh Conference on Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence</hi>. San Mateo: Morgan Kaufmann, pp. 338–45.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Krestel, R., Bergler, S. and Witte, R.</hi> (2008). Minding the Source: Automatic Tagging of Reported Speech in Newspaper Articles. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ELRA, Proceedings of the Sixth International Language Resources and Evaluation Conference</hi>.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Leech, G. N. and Short, M.</hi> (1981). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose</hi>. London; New York: Longman.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCallum, A. K.</hi> (2002). MALLET: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sarmento, L. and Nunes, S.</hi> (2009). Automatic Extraction of Quotes and Topics from News Feeds. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of DSIE’09 - 4th Doctoral Symposium of Informatics Engineering.</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Weiser, S. and Watrin, P.</hi> (2012). Extraction of Unmarked Quotations in Newspapers. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Eight International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation</hi>.
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            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2516","17","Taking VIVO into the Past: Adapting the VIVO Researcher Profile System to Historical Persons","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This poster will explain the concept behind and report preliminary results of an in-progress project, VIVO for Historical Persons (VIVO4HP).
                <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                    <note place=""end""><ref target=""../customXml/item1.xml"">http://demo.vivo4hp.org:8080/</ref></note>
                </hi> This project is an experiment to reuse and extend the VIVO-Integrated Semantic Framework (ISF) ontology
                <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                    <note place=""end""><ref target=""numbering.xml"">https://wiki.duraspace.org/display/VIVO/VIVO-ISF+Ontology</ref></note>
                </hi> to accommodate historical persons, using early Stuart diplomats (1603-1649) as a use case. VIVO4HP investigates whether VIVO
                <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                    <note place=""end""><ref target=""styles.xml"">http://www.vivoweb.org/</ref></note>
                </hi> can be reasonably adapted to represent and facilitate discovery of structured biographical data about historical persons. It represents a foray into the adaptation of existing systems to historical purposes interesting to humanists, the VIVO user community, and 
                <ref target=""https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_Web"">semantic web</ref> researchers.
            </p>
            <p>VIVO (Börner et al., 2012) is an open-source semantic application that represents modern academic research communities. VIVO’s purpose as a researcher profile system is to represent scholars, their interests, activities, and accomplishments, and the networks among them. The VIVO-ISF ontology interlinks researcher biographical data in meaningful ways to enable discovery, analysis, and visualization of scholarly networks. It does this, in part, by reusing and extending a number of established ontologies already integrated with the VIVO-ISF, such as 
                <ref target=""https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FOAF_(ontology)"">Friend of a Friend</ref> (FOAF) and the 
                <ref target=""https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliographic_Ontology"">Bibliographic Ontology</ref> (BIBO). Additionally, we are evaluating external ontologies relevant to the use case that could be imported into the system. Given VIVO’s origin in academia and active user community, a number of efforts are underway to extend the ontology in areas like aerospace and agriculture; however, little experimentation has occurred in the humanities let alone in the historical context.
            </p>
            <p>Our investigation aims to assess whether VIVO can be reasonably adapted to represent and facilitate discovery of biographical data about historical persons, a humanities use case that corresponds closely to its original purpose. Our initial work focuses on historical persons belonging to a specific professional community – early Stuart diplomats, that is, the diplomats who served 
                <ref target=""https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_VI_and_I"">James I</ref> and 
                <ref target=""https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_I_of_England"">Charles I</ref> of England in the first half of the seventeenth century. The test data is derived from the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</hi> (
                <hi rend=""italic"">ODNB</hi>) (Matthew and Harrison, 2004; Goldman, 2005-13), the standard British biographical source. They are supplemented by event data on the diplomats’ missions from 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A Handlist of British Diplomatic Representatives</hi> (Bell, 1990). VIVO4HP will make the data available as 
                <ref target=""https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linked_data"">linked data</ref>, a flexible format that encourages data sharing and integration. Thus the data will lend themselves to a variety of projects and applications for subsequent analysis, evaluation, and visualization.
            </p>
            <p>We are undertaking this work as a multi-stage, iterative process. The first step is to manually create profiles in VIVO for a limited number of diplomats to identify issues with the source data, default ontology, data mapping and transformation, and online display. The second is to make adjustments to the ontology and online display to address gaps. The third is to automatically ingest 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ODNB</hi> data into VIVO, using custom scripts where possible to address data mapping and transformation issues. The final step is to augment the profiles with other data sources, such as historical sources, other web sites, and linked data. 
            </p>
            <p>A variety of issues surface related to working with humanities data (Posner, 2015) in an environment that was not necessarily built to accommodate them. General issues with historical data include dealing with data ambiguity (e.g., dates, spelling variations), incomplete biographical information, individuals’ identities (e.g., using noble titles instead of their personal names), and historical geographies. The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ODNB</hi> data was created with another purpose in mind and thus can be incomplete and either untagged or not tagged to the specificity necessary for certain types of data that might be desirable to represent for our use. Finally, since VIVO is meant to represent a researcher’s professional life, it does not incorporate some of the personal, political, or social aspects desirable for representing historical persons. 
            </p>
            <p>How we are able to deal with these issues, and the level of intervention required, will play an important role in our assessment of VIVO’s utility for the discovery and representation of historical persons and whether the outcome merits the investment required to further extend it for this purpose. We hope that VIVO4HP will provide a basis that others can build upon to represent, facilitate discovery of, and share data about historical persons in the online environment. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bell, G. M. </hi>(1990). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Handlist of British Diplomatic Representatives, 1509-1688</hi>. Royal Historical Society Guides and Handbooks, 16. London: Royal Historical Society.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Börner, K., et al.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">VIVO: A Semantic Approach to Scholarly Networking and Discovery</hi>. Synthesis Lectures on the Semantic Web: Theory and Technology. [San Rafael, Calif.]: Morgan & Claypool.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Goldman, L. (ed).</hi> (2005-13). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</hi>. Online edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press. http://www.oxforddnb.com/. Accessed 28 February 2016.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Matthew, H. C. G. and Harrison, B. (eds).</hi> (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</hi>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Posner, M. </hi>(2015). Humanities data: a necessary contradiction. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Miriam Posner’s Blog</hi>. 1 November. http://miriamposner.com/blog/humanities-data-a-necessary-contradiction/. Accessed 28 February 2016.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2517","17","The Categories of Philosophy in the Digital Era","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                <head>Knowledge Representation</head>
                <p>The research we present is a digital reworking of the categories. This research forms part of a larger work which explores the impact of computational methods on philosophy. Nearly 40-years-ago Aaron Sloman anticipated this 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Computer Revolution in Philosophy</hi> (Sloman, 1978). This revolution is as yet not fully under way, we would argue, at least not to the same extent that it is currently transforming the humanities and has already transformed the sciences. Our research adds momentum.
                </p>
                <p>A distinction must be made between the general notion of category in philosophy and the top-level categories of metaphysics. When we refer to the categories of virtue of vice, for instance, it is to the general notion of category to which we refer. When we refer to the ontologies of Aristotle, Kant, Peirce, Whitehead, or whoever, it is to the top-level categories that we refer. Every object/entity there is, without exception, participates in at least one of these top-level categories because these categories indicate universal properties. Properties such as: quality, substance, modality, form, and so on. C. S. Peirce arguably took these investigations to their logical conclusion with his triad of logical terms: firstness, secondness, thirdness. John F. Sowa in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Knowledge Representation</hi> (Sowa, 2000) presents a historical account of this philosophical activity and its connections with software modelling, we regard our research is a continuation of Sowa's investigations.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Saffron</hi> (Bordea, 2013) is a domain modelling research tool that uses novel natural language parsing and taxonomic techniques. Specifically, it performs domain adaptive extraction of topical hierarchies. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Saffron</hi> was conceived and is being developed at the Insight Centre for Data Analytics in the National University of Ireland, Galway.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">PACT.x</hi> (Durity, 2015) is a purpose-built corpus of philosophical texts, these are stored in plain text with their associated metadata and they reflect 2500 years of mainly Western thought, from Plato's 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Symposium</hi> to Wittgenstein's 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Tractatus</hi>. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">PACT.x</hi> was conceived and is being developed at the Digital Arts and Humanities program in University College Cork, Ireland.
                </p>
                <p>We arrive at a digital reworking of the categories in a number of algorithmic steps.</p>
                <p>(1) By performing a semantic-based analysis of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">PACT.x</hi> corpus using 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Saffron</hi> we obtain result set α, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Rα</hi>, which comprises a sequence of terms, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Sα</hi>, and related taxonomy, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Tα</hi>, of philosophical concepts (Vulcu, 2015) and their corresponding visualisation - Figure 1. Sequence 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Sα</hi> is ordered by a weighted combination of frequency and coherence, meaning frequency of occurrence of a word within the corpus coupled with terms that contain a word from the domain model, and terms that appear in the context of a word from the domain model. The structure and relation of the topics in taxonomy 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Tα</hi> are drawn from result set 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Rα</hi>. The directed edges of the graph are constructed using the broader/narrower than relation from WordNet
                    <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""‡"">
                        <p>
                            <ptr target=""https://wordnet.princeton.edu/""/>
                        </p>
                        <p> “WordNet® is a large lexical database of English. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are grouped into sets of cognitive synonyms (synsets), each expressing a distinct concept. Synsets are interlinked by means of conceptual-semantic and lexical relations.”</p>
                    </note> and the graph is pruned using the ChuLiu/Edmonds algorithm resulting in a directed acyclic graph.
                </p>
                <p>The first 30 terms in sequence α are:</p>
                <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Table1"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>1 Nature</cell>
                        <cell>16 Truth</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>2 Life</cell>
                        <cell>17 Matter</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>3 God</cell>
                        <cell>18 Cause</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>4 Knowledge</cell>
                        <cell>19 Mind</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>5 Law</cell>
                        <cell>20 Terms</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>6 Words</cell>
                        <cell>21 Object</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>7 Principle</cell>
                        <cell>22 Character</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>8 Sense</cell>
                        <cell>23 Soul</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>9 Power</cell>
                        <cell>24 Person</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>10 World</cell>
                        <cell>25 Philosophy</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>11 Time</cell>
                        <cell>26 Moral</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>12 Reason</cell>
                        <cell>27 Pleasure</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>13 Body</cell>
                        <cell>28 Experience</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>14 Idea</cell>
                        <cell>29 Government</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>15 Form</cell>
                        <cell>30 Action</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>(2) We Iterate through each of the terms in result set α in turn and query the open knowledge graph Wikidata
                    <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">
                        <p><ptr target=""https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:Main_Page""/> “Wikidata is a free linked database that can be read and edited by both humans and machines.” “Wikidata acts as central storage for the <hi rend=""bold"">structured data</hi> of its Wikimedia sister projects[…]” Wikidata is a triplestore. A triplestore is a database of semantic web triples, each with the form: subject, predicate, object. It is no coincidence, we suggest, that the ultimate store of structured data that has evolved on the web shares the same form as Peirce's triad of logical terms.</p>
                    </note> to perform further analysis. By tracing the compositional relationship properties (instance-of, subclass-of, part-of) of each term we infer the compositional structure of these concepts and obtain ultimately another sequence, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Sβ</hi>, and related taxonomy, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Tβ</hi>. The list of topics that is sequence 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Sβ</hi> is more or less identical to sequence 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Sα</hi> save for disambiguation and completeness. Note that taxonomy 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Tβ</hi> differs from taxonomy 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Tα</hi> in that it reflects the mereological structure of Wikidata rather than WordNet.
                </p>
                <p>(3) Taxonomy 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Tβ</hi> is then divided into two parts using a heuristic method: the base taxonomy, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Tγ</hi>, which comprises the most abstract part, and superstructure which comprises the rest.
                </p>
                <p>Taxonomy <hi rend=""italic"">Tγ</hi> is the digital reworking of the categories.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                <head>Critical Assessment in Context</head>
                <p>We compare taxonomy γ with the traditional categories of philosophy to see how the singular vision of individuals (Aristotle, 1938; Kant, 1787, for instance) differs from what may be viewed as a complex adaptive system (WordNet and Wikidata). To clarify, the idea here is to contrast the semi-isolated contemplation of individuals from different eras with the distillation of the organic collective behaviour of billions of wiki edits. In what way does a digitally generated ontology differ from the standard hand-built ones? For a contrasting approach see the recent theoretical work 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Foundations of an Ontology of Philosophy</hi> (Grenon and Smith, 2011) with attendant Web Ontology Language applied work 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Philosophy Ontology</hi> (Grenon, 2007)
                </p>
                <p>We validate resultset α against authoritative philosophical reference works such as 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</hi> (Blackburn, 2008), 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</hi> (Craig, 1996), and so on. In this way we are able to understand how a distant reading (to use a term that has almost become a genericized coinage) of topics by machine algorithms compares to professional reference works. Is it possible that topics that philosophers have touched on down through the ages, as highlighted by the machine, haven't gotten the attention they deserve? If so, why? Is it possible that there are topics which are considered important enough to gain a reference entry that have been overlooked by the machine? Again, what could be the reason? Because the topics in resultset α are ordered by frequency we now have a rough quantitative measure of the relative usage of different philosophical concepts which perhaps can be used as a proxy for their relative human significance; reference works obviously arrange entries in alphabetical order having no other metric.
                </p>
                <p>Our research indicates that novel computational methods may be brought to bear on the task of philosophy. It suggests a radically different route than that taken by others, such as that of modelling the formal systems discussed within philosophical works, as exemplified by 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Philosophical Computer</hi> (Grim, Mar, and St. Denis, 1998). It suggests also that we should take a sustained look beyond the more, if we may say, pedestrian use of the computer as an educational and communication tool as discussed, for example, in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Cyberphilosophy</hi> (Moor and Bynum, 2002).
                </p>
                <p>Though some way off from becoming part of the standard philosophical curriculum the investigations we have undertaken indicate further avenues of fruitful research and hint at future novel results once the methods have been refined through third-party experimentation, replication, and feedback.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""139/100002010000059600000436F41C8E73B7050340.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 1: Visualisation of philosophical topic list and taxonomy</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Aristotle</hi>. (1938). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Organon.</hi>
                        In H. P. Cooke, H. Tredennick, and E. S. Forster, (Eds.). Cambridge, Mass.; London: Harvard University press; W. Heinemann Ltd.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Blackburn, S.</hi> (Ed.). (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</hi> (2nd ed.). 
                        Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bordea, G.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Domain Adaptive Extraction of Topical Hierarchies for Expertise Mining</hi>. 
                        PhD dissertation. Retrieved from 
                        <ptr target=""http://aran.library.nuigalway.ie/xmlui/handle/10379/4484""/>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Craig, E.</hi> (Ed.). (1996). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</hi>. 
                         Routledge. Retrieved 5 March 2016, from 
                        <ptr target=""https://www.rep.routledge.com/""/>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Durity, A. </hi>(2015). Philosophy Archive of Clear Text, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PACT.x</hi>. 
                        Corpus. http://dh.ucc.ie/corpus-builder/texts.xml
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Grenon, P. </hi>(2007). Philosophy Ontology. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Web Ontology Language </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">File</hi>. (5 March 2016)<ptr target=""http://ontology.buffalo.edu/philosophome/pdcphilontology-v1.owl""/>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Grenon, P., and Smith, B.</hi> (2011). Foundations of an Ontology of Philosophy. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Synthese</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">182</hi>(2): 185–204. 
                        
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Grim, P., Mar, G., and St. Denis, P.</hi> (1998). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Philosophical Computer: Exploratory Essays in Philosophical Computer Modeling</hi>. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Kant, I.</hi> (1787). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Critique of Pure Reason</hi>. 
                        In M. D. Meiklejohn, Trans, Raleigh, N.C.: Alex Catalogue.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Moor, J. H., and Bynum, T. W.</hi> (2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cyberphilosophy: The Intersection of Philosophy and Computing</hi>. 
                         Malden, MA: John Wiley and Sons.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sloman, A.</hi> (1978). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Computer Revolution in Philosophy: Philosophy, Science, and Models of Mind</hi>. 
                        Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sowa, J. F.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Knowledge Representation: Logical, Philosophical, and Computational Foundations</hi>. 
                        Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Vulcu, G.</hi> (2015). Philosophy Texts - One Word. 
                        (31 October 2015)
                        <ptr target=""http://140.203.155.226:8000/philosophy_one_word/""/>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2518","17","The Corpus of Revenge Tragedy (CoRT): Toward Interdisciplining Early Modern Digital Humanities and Genre Analysis","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Discoveries in anatomy and dissection in early modern England and the lively publishing economy of medical texts during this period undoubtedly played a critical role in the popularization of medical and anatomical language in early modern English drama. England’s mid-sixteenth century saw the beginnings of the culture of dissection (Sawday 1995), and it was not long until language once exclusive to physicians and anatomists found its way onto the early modern stage and invested the tumultuous worlds of revenge tragedy. Just as the human envelope was peeled away on anatomists’ tables, in artists’ engravings, and by writers’ quills in order to permit autoptic access to what was previously veiled, so can Digital Humanities (DH) techniques and processes of inquiry offer new modes of dissection on dramatic texts. The value of DH to and in early modern dramatic studies rests not only in its capacity to complement existing modes of literary analysis but also in its disruption of reading, interpretive, and knowledge construction practices of early English texts. </p>
            <p>Additionally, within the work of genre analysis, DH approaches perform a valuable role in the furthered exploration and understanding of a genre’s discursivity and position as a cultural phenomenon rather than just a material object (Steggle 2015). In the continued study of early modern revenge tragedy--a genre that has received relatively little attention in comparison to others--DH can prove invaluable by demonstrating how this genre increasingly participated in discourses of medicine and anatomy across the Elizabethan (1558-1603), Jacobean (1603-1625), and Caroline (1625-1642) periods via mapping the movement of anatomical language from the medical register to a literary and dramatic one. As has been rightly suggested, DH significantly expands the purview of what can be questioned by literary analysis to include not just a consideration of literary texts but also larger modes of cultural production (Wilkens 2015). An examination of how revenge tragedies adopted and exploited the medical register is significant to understanding not only the cultural significance of the revenge tragedy genre but also discovering the early modern conceptions of embodiment and the pervasiveness of the contemporary medical arena in popular culture. </p>
            <p>This project thus reports on a hybrid corpus linguistics and geohumanities approach to a genre analysis of early modern revenge tragedy, which serves to widen the scope of inquiry and interpretation in respect to the role of the body and anatomical language in revenge tragedy. As a means to map the increasing frequency of anatomical language and medical vernacular in revenge tragedy, a corpus analysis was conducted using AntConc, a digital tool that enables textual analysis and corpora comparison. I created the Corpus of Revenge Tragedy (CoRT) as an experimental corpus of approximately 40 revenge tragedies to compare against other corpora, including Shakespeare’s corpus and other larger corpora, such as the Early Modern English Medical Texts (EMEMT) Corpus, the Corpus of English Dialogues (CED), and the Early English Books Online-Text Creation Partnership (EEBO-TCP) Phase I database of more than 25,000 texts. As a means to focus interpretation, I developed a variety of word lists by collating—through traditional concordance-making methods—an Anatomical Lexicon (AL) of 209 representative material and metaphorical words from revenge tragedies. The AL provides first recorded usages of each word, root language(s), as well as select definitions from the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Oxford English Dictionary</hi> and definitions (when available) from Henry Cockeram’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The English Dictionarie</hi> (1623). In a subset of revenge tragedies, I manually flagged all anatomically inflected words. I then broke the list up into 2 primary categories and 13 secondary categories. Anatomically direct words are words that deal 
                <hi rend=""italic"">directly</hi> with anatomy (e.g., 
                <hi rend=""italic"">eye</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">brain</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">arm</hi>, etc.). Anatomically indirect words are words that deal 
                <hi rend=""italic"">indirectly</hi> with anatomy (e.g., 
                <hi rend=""italic"">sconce</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">aspect</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">soul</hi>, etc.). The categories are compositely based on the early modern medical texts of Thomas Vicary, John Banister, Andreas Vesalius via Thomas Geminus, Helkiah Crooke, and Ambroise Paré via Thomas Johnson. As such, data mining is an essential method to this project since this is a method that necessitates and encourages interdisciplinary work (Hagood 2012). Data mining has also helped shaped this project both instructively and interpretively since--as DH typically does--it allows not only new modes of investigation but also produces new systems of knowledge making.  
            </p>
            <p>As this diachronic project’s interest is grounded in a discussion of how early modernity conceptualized not only the body itself but also understood embodiment (and how those two things manifested in revenge tragedy), this project also looks to geohumanities--a branch of DH--as a means to consider the geography of anatomical language and printing trends in early modern London. Through a lexical mapping of anatomical words in conjunction with a mapping of publication locations that printed revenge tragedy texts, we can gain an understanding of the cultural geography of London in respect to the pervasiveness of the medical register. Through various DH methods, the CoRT and AL complement and enrich existing bodies of knowledge about histories of anatomy and medicine, early modern drama, and early modern theories of embodiment.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hagood, J.</hi> (April/May 2012). A Brief Introduction to Data Mining Projects in the Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bulletin: American Society for Information Science and Technology</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">https://www.asis.org/Bulletin/Apr-12/AprMay12_Hagood.html</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sawday, J.</hi> (1995). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Body Emblazoned</hi>. London: Routledge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Steggle, M. </hi>(2008). “Knowledge will be multiplied”: Digital Literary Studies and Early Modern Literature. In Schreibman, S. and Siemens, R. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Literary Studies</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">http://www.digitalhumantites.org/companionDLS/</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wilkens, M.</hi> (2015). Digital Humanities and Its Application in the Study of Literature and Culture.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Comparative Literature</hi>. Special section, “Empirical and Systemic Approaches to the Study of Literature and Culture” (accessed 13 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2519","17","The Great War on the Web: the Making of Citing and Referencing by Amateurs","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Over the last two decades, an important amount of work has been carried out by cultural heritage institutions to make their collections available online. How are these digitized collections discovered, discussed and shared on the Web?
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> “The future of online digitized heritage: the example of the Great War” is a research project conducted by the BnF, the BDIC and Télécom ParisTech as part of the Cluster of Excellence, Pasts in the present, Investissements d'avenir, réf. ANR-11-LABX-0026-01 (Valérie Beaudouin, Philippe Chevallier, Lionel Maurel, Josselin Morvan, Zeynep Pehlivan, Peter Stirling). </p>
                </note>
            </p>
            <p>The digitized heritage around the First World War (WW1) is an ideal area for such analysis: many digitized collections, centenary anniversary (2014–2018) and an important activism around the Great War. Family, local and militant history are the main motivations of persons that get involved in the history of WW1 (Offenstadt, 2010).</p>
            <p>Who are the users who publish or discuss around WW1 on the web? Are they amateurs, experts, academics? How do they publish, share and comment digitized documents? These questions matter for the development of Digital Humanities, but also to those in charge of managing the collections. We conduct an exploratory analysis to understand how the activity around the war is visible in the digital space.</p>
            <p>Our research consists of two steps:</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>Identification and categorization of web sites dedicated to WW1 and network analysis of the links between those sources, in order to draw an overall cartography of Web activity on WW1 and to identify the position of amateurs.</item>
                <item>Focus on one of the main nodes in the web cartography (a forum dedicated to WW1), to analyze the forms of circulations of digitalized documents.</item>
            </list>
            <p>We also conducted a series of semi-structured interviews with participants.
            </p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Corpus and methodology</head>
                <p>The web is ephemeral: working on web archives allows us to rely on a stabilized corpus, which guaranties the reproducibility of the research (Brügger, 2013). Bibliothèque Nationale de France (BnF), in charge of archiving the French web, created a specific web archive collection dedicated to the centenary of the WW1, based on web sources chosen by librarians. The process of archiving is regularly repeated. Our research relies on the November 2014’s archive (9 698 633 Urls for a total size of 800 Gb).</p>
                <p>The first step of our analysis consists of generating an oriented network graph on web archives to study the relations (materialized by hyperlinks) between web sources related to WW1. We can consider a link as a pragmatic activity of citing or referencing sources (documents, web sites etc.), although in our approach we are not able to qualify the exact nature and function of the link (Saemmer, 2015). </p>
                <p>To make the large-scale graphs readable, the nodes in the graph correspond to the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">seed urls</hi> chosen by librarians and all the data crawled from each url is agregated to it. Librarians, in charge of web archiving, qualify the producers (or authors) of the websites. Depending on this categorization, we will distinguish institutional websites (public and official, red) and personal websites (personal and associative, blue). 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Mapping WW1 on the Web</head>
                <p>The network graph allows to evaluate the place of “amateurs” websites compared to institutional sources. </p>
                <p>Basic characteristics of our network are calculated using Gephi (Bastian et al., 2009). The network consisted of 514 nodes and 3713 edges with an average degree of 7.22. The average network distance between all pairs of nodes (average path length) is 2.78 edges with a diameter (longest distance) of 8 edges. The clustering coefficient (the degree to which they tend to cluster together) is 0.27 and the modularity index is 0.28. Overall, WW1 French network is made of highly connected pages (∼2.7 edges per node) and shows small-world scale-free network properties (Humphries et al., 2008; Watts et al., 1998) with high clustering coefficient, short average path length and a degree distribution following a “power-law” (smallworldness index = 15).</p>
                <p>More than half of the sources (52%) come from personal websites that are involved in WW1 as a serious leisure, but not as a profession. The institutional sites are less present (36 %). </p>
                <p>To detect influential actors on our network, we use the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">degree centrality</hi> which is simply the number of direct relationships that an actor has, the sum of outgoing and incoming links. The network is visualized in Figure 1 by using Gephi, Force Atlas 2 algorithm (Jacomy et al., 2014) as layout with node sizes proportional to their degree centrality. 
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""488/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1.Cartography of web sites dedicated to WW1 (degree>30)</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The two main actors are centenaire.org, the official site dedicated to the Centenary, on one side and pages1418.mesdiscussions.net, a web forum managed by amateurs, on the other. Around them, we can distinguish two clusters: the red gathers the institutional sites, while the blue (bottom) gathers all the personal web sites that are intensely interconnected. The forum (Pages 14-18) has a specific position: although it is immersed in the middle of the amateur sphere, it is well connected to institutional sources, because users of this forum are mediators to institutional ressources. The forum constitutes a community of practice (Lave and Wenger, 1991): questions and answers on one side and discussions on the other are two kinds of interactions that allow to share and elaborate knowledge collectively (Conein and Latapy, 2008). Thanks to the forum, a lot of personal websites emerged, each of them dedicated to a specific regiment of foot. Experts of those regiments are the authors of those website that accumate documents (public and personal documents and photographies) on each soldier, each battle, each place occupied.
                </p>
                <p>Degree centrality considers only direct relationships, we also use Hubs and Authorities, known as HITS (Kleinberg, 1999) algorithm. A hub is defined as an actor that points to many other actors and an authority is defined as an actor pointed by many others. HITS algorithm calculates two scores for each actor, hub score and authority score, in a mutually reinforcing way based on the idea that a good authority must be pointed to by several good hubs while a good hub must point to several good authorities (Table 1). 
                </p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Top 5 Authorities</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Authority Score</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Top 5 Hubs</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Hub Score</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">memoiredeshommes.sga.defense.gouv.fr</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.0199</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">pages14-18.mesdiscussions.net</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.0379</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">centenaire.org</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.0135</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">centenaire.org</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.0276</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">crid1418.org</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.0127</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">guerre1418.fr</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.0251</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">chtimiste.com</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.0125</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">combattant.14-18.pagesperso-orange.fr</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.0175</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">gallica.bnf.fr</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.0124</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">verdun-meuse.fr</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.0163</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Table 1 : Hubs and Authorities</p>
                <p>Some authorities, like memoiredeshommes.sga.defense.fr and gallica.bnf.fr, have a very specific profile: as documents warehouses, they receive a lot of links but do not point to other resources. The Centenary website is at the same time a top level authority and hub. The forum, pages1418.mesdiscussions.net, and other personal websites are hubs that point to a relatively large number of authorities.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Forum activity of citations</head>
                <p>Based on the specific position of the forum, we decided to focus on it. This forum, founded in 2004 by an amateur, has gradually become a reference site in terms of exchanges and discussions on the WW1. It is a highly active platform with about 400,000 messages in 10 years and about 18,000 subscribers.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""488/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3. Number of messages published in the forum by year</head>
                </figure>
                <p>This forum was archived by BnF in January 2015 and we rely on this corpus for our work. For analysing the activity of citing, we classified the citations into four categories: </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Message_Citation: using a part of previous message </item>
                    <item>Quote: text inserted using another source</item>
                    <item>Links: hyperlink by using 'link' tag</item>
                    <item>Images: hyperlink by using 'img' tag</item>
                </list>
                <p>As shown by Figure 4, while the usage of quote and message_citations stays stable, the usage of links and images increases over time according to the increase of digitized documents available on line. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""488/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 4. Citations distribution over time</head>
                </figure>
                <p>In the corpus, we identified 255,374 image or link citations, an average of 1 citation for 2 messages. We extracted their domain name. The ten more cited domains, which represent 60% of total links, are shown in Table 2. </p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>Netloc</cell>
                        <cell>Fréquence</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>images.mesdiscussions.net</cell>
                        <cell>91990</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>pages14-18.mesdiscussions.net</cell>
                        <cell>9636</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>www.memoiredeshommes.sga.defense.gouv.fr</cell>
                        <cell>8984</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>gallica.bnf.fr</cell>
                        <cell>6721</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>www.asoublies1418.fr</cell>
                        <cell>4979</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>usera.imagecave.com</cell>
                        <cell>4274</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>74eri.canalblog.com</cell>
                        <cell>4019</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>www.servimg.com</cell>
                        <cell>2674</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>imageshack.us</cell>
                        <cell>2592</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>largonnealheure1418.wordpress.com</cell>
                        <cell>2407</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>perso.orange.fr</cell>
                        <cell>1916</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>www.casimages.com</cell>
                        <cell>1588</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>www.memorial-genweb.org</cell>
                        <cell>1574</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>www.hiboox.fr</cell>
                        <cell>1492</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>www.pages14-18.com</cell>
                        <cell>1387</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>pagesperso-orange.fr</cell>
                        <cell>1372</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>perso.wanadoo.fr</cell>
                        <cell>1200</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>albindenis.free.fr</cell>
                        <cell>1129</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>images.imagehotel.net</cell>
                        <cell>1041</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>images4.hiboox.com</cell>
                        <cell>1016</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Table 2. Most frequent hosts extracted from url citations</p>
                <p>The most notable result is the importance of image hosting services. Instead of giving a direct link to an online source, people use hosting services (ex: images.mesdiscussions.net). We can estimate that more that 100 000 citations (40% of total) are of this kind where almost half of them point to images. Users are not confident with the life of web sources. They prefer to download and post the picture than to point to a link which may disappear. The image, in this case is directly available and visible into the post. </p>
                <p>Secondly, the forum itself is the most cited website: due to his long history and intense activity, a lot of questions have already been answered. An activity of knowledge management consists in answering a question by signaling an old topic about the same topic.</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Memoire des hommes</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Gallica</hi> are the most cited institutional sites. The first one is a gold mine for genealogists who search for ancestors dead during the war and for historians interested in the battles and regiment history. Gallica is a huge warehouse (4 millions of documents): there is a need to identify what kind of documents people are looking for. We extracted the titles of the documents cited and made a content analysis with Iramuteq (Reinert, 1993) (Figure 4); we identified three kinds of documents: photographs and newspapers, official documents (“journaux officiels”, “décrets”) and documents related to the history of regiments (“historiques des Régiments”) from the department of Defense. 
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""488/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 5. Text Mining clustering of title documents cited from Gallica</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Users of the forum also cite a lot of personal web sites dedicated to specific aspects of the war: the history of the soldiers from a specific regiment or squadron for example.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion </head>
                <p>To understand what internet users do with digitized archives, we explored systematically the websites discussing WW1. We developed an original methodology combining web and text mining methods applied to web archives. This method is transferrable. It includes expert advice to qualify the relevant variables for qualifying and selecting sources.</p>
                <p>Our analysis shows a great involvment of amateurs (more than half of the websites) in the memory of WW1. They participate to a network of personal websites that gives a specific vision of WW1, more focused on soldiers, regiments, geographic places, objects, remains of war, close to micro-history. A the core of this network, we find the forum, which is the place for interactions and discussions on documents, data, interpretations. </p>
                <p>In doing research with digitized resources, amateurs collectively increase their professionalism. Although they do not have the status of academics, they acquire methods in exploring and citing their sources, commenting and sharing with other users. Those amateurs, in doing research with digitized resources, play a major role by discovering and citing institutional heritage documents, adding to their value and creating networks and resources.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bastian M., Heymann S. and Jacomy M.</hi> (2009). Gephi: an open source software for exploring and manipulating networks,
                        <hi rend=""italic""> International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brügger N.</hi> (2013). Historical Network Analysis of the Web, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social Science Computer Review</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">31</hi>(3): 306-21.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Conein B. and Latapy M.</hi> (2008). Les usages épistémiques des réseaux de communication électronique: Le cas de l’Open-Source, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sociologie du Travail</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">50</hi>(3): 331-52.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Humphries, M.D. and Gurney, K.</hi> (2008). Network 'small-world-ness': A quantitative method for determining canonical network equivalence, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PLoS ONE</hi>,<hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(4), e0002051.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jacomy, M., Venturini, T., Heymann, S. and Bastian, M.</hi> (2014). ForceAtlas2, a Continuous Graph Layout Algorithm for Handy Network Visualization Designed for the Gephi Software. <hi rend=""italic"">PLoS ONE</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(6), e98679. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0098679
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Freeman, L. C.</hi> (1977). A Set of Measures of Centrality Based on Betweenness, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sociometry</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">40</hi>(1): 35-41.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kleinberg, J.</hi> (1999). Authoritative sources in a hyperlinked environment.  <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of ACM</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">46</hi>(5): 604-32. DOI=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/324133.324140
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lave, J. and Wenger, E.</hi> (1991). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation</hi>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Offenstadt, N.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">14-18 aujourd’hui - La Grande Guerre dans la France contemporain</hi>, Paris: Odile Jacob.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reinert, M.</hi> (1993). Les “mondes lexicaux” et leur “logique” à travers l’analyse statistique d'un corpus de récits de cauchemars », 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Langage et société</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">66</hi>: 5-39.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Saemmer, A.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Rhétorique du texte numérique: figures de la lecture, anticipations de pratiques</hi>, ENSSIB.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Watts, D. J. et Strogatz, S. H.</hi> (1998). Collective dynamics of ‘small-world’ networks, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Nature</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">393</hi>(6684): 440-42.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wenger, E.</hi> (1998). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity</hi>, Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2520","17","The Manuscripts of David Livingstone and New Frontiers for Spectral Imaging","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction </head>
                <p>This presentation will focus on the results of the newest phase of the NEH-funded Livingstone Spectral Imaging Project (2010-present). This project seeks to apply spectral imaging and processing techniques to the study of some of the most damaged manuscripts produced by David Livingstone (1813-73), the famous Victorian traveler, abolitionist, geographer, and missionary. Our project asks whether spectral imaging can indeed restore erased or otherwise invisible portions of Livingstone’s writing. More recently, we also explore whether the technology can illuminate the specific circumstances of the production and preservation of Livingstone’s manuscripts, thereby better revealing the links between these manuscripts and the unique historical events that shaped the material dimensions of these manuscripts.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methodology</head>
                <p>Spectral imaging, a technology beginning to make a significant impact in humanities research (see bibliography), relies on imaging an object, such as a manuscript, under multiple wavelengths of light, ranging from ultraviolet (UV) through the visible color spectrum to the near-infrared. A high-resolution monochromatic digital camera automatically photographs each illumination. Imaging scientists then manipulate this raw image data with computers by applying various processing algorithms with the goal of enhancing features of interest. Often these features are made more visible by creating pseudocolor (false-color) representations of the object that foreground or suppress other object elements.</p>
                <p>Our previous research (Wisnicki 2011) applied spectral imaging to recover the text of a diary that Livingstone had written over newspaper pages and that had become illegible because, first, the considerable fading of Livingstone’s ink (which he had concocted out of a local African clothing dye) and, second, the continuing prominence of the black newsprint over which Livingstone wrote his text. Using a combination of new and established spectral image processing techniques, our team successfully suppressed the newsprint so that it no longer interfered with Livingstone’s text. By enhancing his writing so that it could be read easily, we were able to recover some 99% of Livingstone’s words (up from about 40% before) and, in turn, use this technique to reveal important new information about Livingstone’s strategies for representing his experiences in interacting with local populations in Central Africa.</p>
                <p>Our current project takes our previous research in a new direction to suggest that spectral imaging can illuminate the production and preservation history of Livingstone’s fragmentary 1870 Field Diary. With spectral imaging, we have enhanced or revealed material features of this diary, such as overwriting, staining, and page topography, that are often not visible or difficult to discern with the naked eye. Our results represent an important advance in the study of manuscripts with spectral imaging, particularly because previous related research has generally focused on using of spectral imaging for the recovery of faded texts or illegible palimpsests such as the Dead Sea Scrolls (Shor 2012) and the Archimedes Palimpsest (Netz and Noel 2007).</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""98/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1. Page XXXV of Livingstone’s 1870 Field Diary in natural light. Copyright National Library of Scotland. CC BY-NC 3.0</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Historical and Scholarly Implications </head>
                <p>Livingstone wrote the 1870 Field Diary in central Africa and carried it with him to his death in 1873 in what is now Zambia. Livingstone’s supporters then transported his manuscript (and his corpse) from the interior to the coast of Africa and back to Britain, where different repositories have since preserved the manuscript. The pages of the diary, therefore, bear the remnants of this complex history, from the changes and deletions that Livingstone made over time, to the marks left on the manuscript pages by the diverse local African environments through which the diary traveled, to the traces of modern curatorial methods used to preserve the diary’s pages. </p>
                <p>Our efforts to study the material history of Livingstone’s diary with spectral imaging represent an important intervention in the field. Our work demonstrates new methods and frontiers for the use of spectral imaging in the humanities because it underscores that spectral imaging can do more than recover faded or invisible text. Spectral Imaging can provide crucial insights into the passage of a manuscript through time and into the relationship between a manuscript and the specific historical circumstances from which it emerged. By applying this technology to the 1870 Field Diary, we have gained key insights into the strategies by which Livingstone shaped his experiences and identity for public consumption and the impact of specific moments of handling in determining material features of the manuscript. These insights promise to enhance our understanding of Livingstone’s biography and the history of the many African cultures in which he worked. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""98/image2.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2. Page XXXV of Livingstone’s 1870 Field Diary with topography illuminated by spectral image processing. Copyright National Library of Scotland. CC BY-NC 3.0</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Moreover, the spectral image processing techniques we have developed for the 1870 Field Diary can now be applied to study other manuscripts with notable textual and material features or, indeed, other cultural objects such as paintings and sculptures whose surfaces retain their material history and bear the marks of the many people and events that have come to shape the objects we encounter today. Our project is helping us distinguish such marks, but, in our case, the project also sets the stage for future research in which we might use the spectral signatures of specific marks as a portal to defining tangible aspects of nineteenth-century African environments from which Livingstone’s manuscripts emerged and through which these manuscript circulated.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chabries D. M., Booras S. W. and Bearman G. H.</hi> (2003). Imaging the past: recent applications of multispectral imaging technology to deciphering manuscripts, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Antiquity</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 77</hi>(296): 359–72.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Easton R. L. Jr., Knox K. T., Christens-Barry W. A., Boydston K., Toth M. B., Emery D. and Noel W.</hi> (2010). Standardized system for multispectral imaging of palimpsests, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of SPIE </hi>7531, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computer Vision and Image Analysis of Art. </hi>75310D.111, San Jose, California.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Goltz D. M., Cloutis E, Norman L. and Attas M.</hi> (2007). Enhancement of faint text using visible (420-720 nm) multispectral imaging, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Restaurator</hi>, pp. 11–28.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Joo Kim S., Deng F. and Brown M. S.</hi> (2011). Visual enhancement of old documents with hyperspectral imaging, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pattern Recognition</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">44</hi>(7): 1461–69.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">MacDonald L. W., Giacometti A., Campagnolo A., Robson S., Weyrich T., Terras M. and Gibson A. </hi>(2013). Multispectral imaging of degraded parchment, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Computational Color Imaging, 4th International Workshop</hi>, CCIW 2013, Chiba, Japan, 3-5 March 2013.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Marengo E., Manfredi M., Zerbinati O., Robotti E., Mazzucco E., Gosetti F., Bearman G., France F. and Shor P.</hi> (2011). Development of a technique based on multi-spectral imaging for monitoring the conservation of cultural heritage objects, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Analytica Chimica Acta</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">706</hi>(2): 229–37.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Netz R. and Noel W.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Archimedes Codex: How A Medieval Prayer Book Is Revealing The True Genius of Antiquity’s Greatest Scientist.</hi> London: Da Capo Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shor, P.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library</hi>. Israel Antiquities Authority. Retrieved from 
                        <ref target=""http://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/home"">http://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/home</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Walters Art Museum.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Archimedes Palimpsest data set</hi>. Baltimore: Walters Art Museum. Retrieved from 
                        <ref target=""http://www.archimedespalimpsest.org/"">http://www.archimedespalimpsest.org/</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wisnicki, A. S.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Livingstone’s 1871 Field Diary: a multispectral critical edition</hi>. Beta edition; first edition; corrections. Los Angeles: UCLA Digital Library. Retrieved from 
                        <ref target=""http://livingstone.library.ucla.edu/1871diary/index.htm"">http://livingstone.library.ucla.edu/1871diary/index.htm</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2521","17","The Preparation of the Topic Model","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p rend=""Quotations"">Replacing “How something is made, with a view to finding out what it is” with “How something is made, with a view to making it again” – the Essence with the Preparation – is linked to an option that’s completely antiscientific: in reality, the starting point of the Fantasy [of the critic’s writing of a novel] isn’t the Novel (in general, as a genre), but one or two novels out of thousands. </p>
            <p rend=""Quotations"">-Roland Barthes, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Preparation of the Novel, </hi>Session of December 9, 1978, 13.
            </p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The Literariness of Topic Modeling </head>
                <p>This short paper reports on the progress of my attempt to construct a reading of topic modeling using state-of-the-art literary criticism. I argue that dominant digital humanities understandings of topic models assume some of the characteristics of literature most essential to twentieth-century criticism – counter-factuality, a mediated form that is ultimately separable from aesthetic characteristics, and an efficient, self-enclosed, total form. More specifically, I show that topic models also tend to be read by digital humanists according to the assumptions, protocols, and caveats we accord to the interpretation of realist fiction. While often revealing and productive, many digital humanists’ uses of topic modeling are indebted to assumptions about the literariness and fictionality of topic models that we have yet to fully understand. Drawing on work by Stephen Ramsay, Johanna Drucker, Alan Liu, and others that theorizes continuities between the values of literary criticism and computational processes, I suggest that we temporarily set aside the idea that topic modeling reveals the ""contents"" of a set of novels (or of any other corpus). Instead, drawing on Roland Barthes’ late work on 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Preparation of the Novel</hi>, we might rethink topics as preparatory notes written by no one, as an imaginary archive whose contents furnish a productively alienating, too-perfect map of the novel’s preparation. In 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Preparation</hi>, Barthes moved away from his earlier work’s emphasis on totalizing interpretations of literature’s meaning to think about models of the text that allow for a more partial and slow view of the process of meaning creation.
                    <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                        <note place=""end"">
                            <p>See Buurma, R.S. and Heffernan, L. (2014). “Notation After ‘The Reality Effect’: Remaking Reference with Roland Barthes and Sheila Heti.” 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Representations</hi> 125:1 80–102. doi:10.1525/rep.2014.125.1.80.
                            </p>
                        </note>
                    </hi> Topic modeling has the potential for helping us towards a Barthesian reimagination of the novel's reader as the novel's writer, of the search for the fantasy origins of a novel as a method that pulls us away from formal totality and a form-content divide. While this reorientation comes out of literary studies, I also suggest that it might have applications for more instrumental uses of topic modeling outside the realm of the humanities, in which assumptions about topics as equivalent to a document set’s “contents” also tend to draw on our conventions for reading realist genres. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Fictionality and the Topic Model </head>
                <p>The past few years have seen the rapid popularization of topic modeling among humanist scholars in general, and among scholars of literature in particular.
                    <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                        <note place=""end"">
                            <p>Blei, D. M. (2014). Topic Modeling and Digital Humanities. 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi> (April 8, 2013). 
                                <ref target=""../customXml/item1.xml"">http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/topicmodeling-and-digital-humanities-by-david-m-blei/</ref> Erlin M (2014). The Location of Literary History: Topic Modeling, Network Analysis, and the German Novel, 1731-1864, p 55-90. In Matt Erlin (ed. and introd.) and Lynne Tatlock (ed. and introd.), 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Distant Readings: Topologies of German Culture in the Long Nineteenth Century</hi>, Rochester, NY: Camden House; Goldstone, A. and Underwood, T (2014). The Quiet Transformations of Literary Studies: What Thirteen Thousand Scholars Could Tell Us. 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">New Literary History: a journal of theory and interpretation</hi> 45:3; Jockers, M.L. and Mimno, D (2013). Significant Themes in 19th-Century Literature. 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Poetics</hi> 41:6, 750–69. doi:10.1016/j.poetic.2013.08.005; Laudun, J. and Goodwin, J. (2013). Computing Folklore Studies: Mapping over a Century of Scholarly Production through Topics. 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of American Folklore</hi> 126:502, 455-475; Meeks, E (2013). The Digital Humanities Contribution to Topic Modeling. 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi>, 2:1. 
                                <ref target=""numbering.xml"">http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/dh-contribution-to-topic-modeling/</ref>; Rhody, L.M. (2013). Topic Modeling and Figurative Language. 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi>. 
                                <ref target=""styles.xml"">http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/topic-modeling-and-figurative-language-by-lisa-m-rhody/</ref>; Rhody, L.M. (2016). The Story of Stopwords: Topic Modeling an Ekphrastic Tradition. 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014, </hi> Lausanne, Switzerland. Accessed January 3, 2016. 
                                <ref target=""stylesWithEffects.xml"">http://www.lisarhody.com/the-story-of-stopwords/</ref> and Tangherlini, T.R. and Leonard, P (2013). Trawling in the Sea of the Great Unread: Sub-Corpus Topic Modeling and Humanities Research. 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Poetics</hi> 41:6 (December 2013): 725-749. doi:10.1016/j.poetic.2013.08.002. 
                            </p>
                        </note>
                    </hi> The literature on topic modeling abounds in stern and salutary warnings about the limits and dangers of topic modeling for humanistic study. One can read about the dangers of introducing algorithmic black boxes into literary research, the concern that literary scholars are unprepared to fully (or even partially) interpret the topic models and their related data, and the worry that they fail to understand even the interpretive choices made during corpus preparation. Part of the worry derives from a larger assumption that topic modeling ""reveals"" the ""contents"" of novels. We assume that literary critics dipping their toes into topic modeling will shed their traditional interpretive caution in the face of the algorithm’s authority, and will misunderstand the un-semantic nature of topics or accept meaningless correlations as meaningful. I want to suggest that all such warnings are relevant only given a very limited understanding of what a topic model is, its imagined relation to the corpus from which it derives, and the goals of the model’s interpreter. These warnings do usefully help us think about some of the invisible interpretive choices we make when we choose chunk and clean documents, apply stoplists, select a number of topics to train, and - most importantly, assign semantic labels to unsemantically generated topics. And yet these warnings assume either that topic models aspire to be mimetic maps of the corpuses they model or that technologically unsophisticated interpreters of topic models imagine that this is the case.
                    <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                        <note place=""end"">
                            <p>Benjamin Schmidt warns, for example, that ""simplifying topic models for humanists who will not (and should not) study the underlying algorithms creates an enormous potential for groundless — or even misleading — “insights.”"" Schmidt worries that a pair of assumptions about topic models – that they are ""coherent"" and ""stable"" – ""let humanists assume that the co-occurrence patterns described by topics are meaningful; topics are useful because they describe things that resemble “concepts,” “discourses,” or “fields.”"" Schmidt is worried, that is, that the appearance of semantic meaning we find in ""good"" topics will seduce humanists into thinking that they have discovered the ""contents"" of novels – whereas what topic modeling really offers us is exactly a non-semantic machine indexing of a set of texts about which our approaches tend to be based on ground assumptions about semantic meaning. Benjamin Schmidt, “Words Alone: Dismantling Topic Modeling in the Humanities.” 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">The Journal of Digital Humanities </hi>2:1 (Winter 2013), http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/words-alone-by-benjamin-m-schmidt/
                            </p>
                        </note>
                    </hi> This is not surprising; the assumption that topic models are a realist genre is pervasive in literature on topic modeling, literary and otherwise.
                    <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                        <note place=""end"">
                            <p>One recent paper, for example, describes good topics with the example of “trout fish fly fishing water angler stream rod flies salmon…” explaining that the topic “is specific. There is a clear focus on words related to the sport of trout fishing. It is coherent. All of the words are likely to appear near one another in a document. Some words (water, fly) are ambiguous and may occur in other contexts, but they are appropriate for this context. It is concrete. We can picture the angler with his rod catching trout in the stream. It is informative. Someone unfamiliar with the topic can work from general words (fishing) to learn about more unfamiliar words (angler). Relationships between entities can be inferred (trout and salmon both live in streams and can be caught in similar ways).” (Boyd-Graber J, Mimno D and Newman D (2014) Care and Feeding of Topic Models: Problems, Diagnostics, and Improvements. In: Airoldi E M, Blei D, Erosheva E A, Fienberg S E (eds.), 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">The Handbook of Mixed Membership Models and Their Applications</hi>. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, 2015.)
                            </p>
                        </note>
                    </hi> Yet if we relieve ourselves of this constraint and instead substitute a more plausible frame – the topic model’s fictionality – we will be able to enjoy a wider range of relations between model and corpus.
                </p>
                <p>In place of assuming that topic models belong to the realm of realism, then, we might pay more attention to the generative uncertainty of topic modeling and to its literal fictionality. Topics are probabilistically-created formations, and the algorithm that generates topic models is based on the enabling--but crucially, counterfactual--""assumption that documents have multiple topics."" (Boyd-Graber et al., 2015). By looking at the documents we offer it, the algorithm generates topics that, in given proportions, compose each document. (Or, rather, it generates the probability that a certain percentage of words in every given document were generated by a given particular topic.) Topics, of course, don't actually exist prior to the documents that generate them; they don't actually exist independently in the same way the documents at all. They are, in a certain sense, fictions. Topics are things that might have existed – but didn’t! - given the existence of the document set in question. While we can and sometimes do relegate this fact to the realm of methodology, the fictionality of topics is crucial to remember for any literary-critical uses of topic modeling, for it reminds us that these models offer us a view of our document set radically at odds with any other more literal sources of a novel we might use – such as an author’s notes towards a novel, or a catalog of the virtual or actual library of books a novelist brings to the writing table, or even the looser sense of social ""discourses"" that exist prior to novels and which we might imagine in part ""composing"" a novel.
                    <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                        <note place=""end"">
                            <p>As Boyd-Graber et alia note, ""Topic models are based on a generative model that clearly does not match thway humans write. However topic models are often able to learn meaningful and sensible models."" (2014: 15). </p>
                        </note>
                    </hi> Using a few targeted examples drawn from topic models of corpuses of nineteenth-century novels of varying sizes and comparing them to some examples of nineteenth-century novelists’ notebooks, I suggest that reimagining topic models as fictional notes might be not just a theoretical exercise but a practical way of conceptualizing the relation between topic model and corpus. 
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. M.</hi> (2012). Probabilistic Topic Models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communications of the ACM</hi>,  <hi rend=""bold"">55</hi>(4): 77. doi:10.1145/2133806.2133826.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. M.</hi> (2014). Topic Modeling and Digital Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi> (April 8, 2013). 
                        <ref target=""http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/topic-modeling-and-digital-humanities-by-david-m-blei/"">http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/topicmodeling-and-digital-humanities-by-david-m-blei/</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Belvins, C.</hi> (2010) Topic Modeling Martha Ballard’s Diary. April 1, 2010. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.cameronblevins.org/posts/topic-modeling-martha-ballards-diary/"">http://www.cameronblevins.org/posts/topic-modeling-martha-ballards-diary/</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boyd-Graber, J., Mimno, D. and Newman, D.</hi> (2014). Care and Feeding of Topic Models: Problems, Diagnostics, and Improvements. In Airoldi, E. M., Blei, D., Erosheva, E. A. and Fienberg, S. E. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Handbook of Mixed Membership Models and Their Applications</hi>. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, 2015.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Buurma, R. S. and Heffernan, L</hi>. (2014). Notation After ‘The Reality Effect’: Remaking Reference with Roland Barthes and Sheila Heti. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Representations</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">125</hi>(1): 80–102. doi:10.1525/rep.2014.125.1.80.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chang, J., Boyd-Graber, J. L., Gerrish, S., Wang, C., and Blei, D. M.</hi> (2009). Reading Tea Leaves: How Humans Interpret Topic Models. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems</hi>,  <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>: 288–96.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Erlin, M.</hi> (2014). The Location of Literary History: Topic Modeling, Network Analysis, and the German Novel, 1731-1864, In  Erlin, M.  and Tatlock L. (eds.), <hi rend=""italic"">Distant Readings: Topologies of German Culture in the Long Nineteenth Century</hi>, Rochester, NY: Camden House, pp. 55-90. . 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Goldstone, A. and Underwood, T.</hi> (2014). The Quiet Transformations of Literary Studies: What Thirteen Thousand Scholars Could Tell Us. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Literary History: a journal of theory and interpretation</hi>,  <hi rend=""bold"">45</hi>(3). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M. L.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History</hi>. University of Illinois Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M. L. and Mimno, D.</hi> (2013). Significant Themes in 19th-Century Literature. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Poetics</hi>,  <hi rend=""bold"">41</hi>(6): 750–69. doi:10.1016/j.poetic.2013.08.005
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Laudun, J. and Goodwin, J.</hi> (2013). Computing Folklore Studies: Mapping over a Century of Scholarly Production through Topics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of American Folklore</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">126</hi>(502): 455-75.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meeks, E.</hi> (2013). The Digital Humanities Contribution to Topic Modeling. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi>,  <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1). 
                        <ref target=""http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/dh-contribution-to-topic-modeling/"">http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/dh-contribution-to-topic-modeling/</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reading Machines: Towards an Algorithmic Criticism.</hi> Urbana, Chicago, Springfield: University of Illinois Press. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rhody, L. M.</hi> (2013). Topic Modeling and Figurative Language. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/topic-modeling-and-figurative-language-by-lisa-m-rhody/"">http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/topic-modeling-and-figurative-language-by-lisa-m-rhody/</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rhody, L. M.</hi> (2016). The Story of Stopwords: Topic Modeling an Ekphrastic Tradition. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014</hi>, Lausanne, Switzerland (accessed January 3, 2016). 
                        <ref target=""http://www.lisarhody.com/the-story-of-stopwords/"">http://www.lisarhody.com/the-story-of-stopwords/</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, B. M.</hi> (2012). Words Alone: Dismantling Topic Models in the Humanities. <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1). 
                        <ref target=""http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/words-alone-by-benjamin-m-schmidt/"">
                            <hi rend=""bold"">http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/2-1/words-alone-by-benjamin-m-schmidt/</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tangherlini, T. R. and Leonard, P.</hi> (2013). Trawling in the Sea of the Great Unread: Sub-Corpus Topic Modeling and Humanities Research. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Poetics</hi>,  <hi rend=""bold"">41</hi>6: 725-49. doi:10.1016/j.poetic.2013.08.002. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2522","17","The Royal Society Corpus: Towards a high-quality corpus for studying diachronic variation in scientific writing","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Big data are a potential source for quantitative research in the humanities, but typically they do not contain all relevant contextual meta-data (time, register/genre, social group, author, etc.) to be readily usable for social, historical or philological studies (cf. Schöch, 2013). Small corpora, in contrast, are typically carefully hand-crafted and provide rich meta-data as well as structural and linguistic data, but the application of data-driven analysis techniques is impeded by their small size.</p>
            <p>We introduce a diachronic corpus of English scientific writing - the Royal Society Corpus (RSC) - adopting a middle ground between big and ‘poor’ and small and ‘rich’ data. The corpus has been built from an electronic version of the Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of London and comprises c. 35 million tokens from the period 1665- 1869 (see Table 1). The motivation for building a corpus from this material is to investigate the diachronic development of written scientific English.</p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""582/100000000000064C000001D128C06285687683C5.png""/>
                    <head>Table 1: Material used for the RSC</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>In terms of corpus building (see Figure 1 for a schematic overview), the sources for the RSC were obtained from JSTOR and include some but not all relevant meta-data (year of publication and authors, but not disciplines), structural data is partial and erroneous (e.g. scrambled pages, text duplicates), and the base text contains OCR errors. To move towards a cleaner and richer version of the corpus, an approach is needed that allows obtaining good-quality base-text data and relevant meta-data as well as structural and linguistic data with affordable effort. For this purpose, we use a combination of pattern-based techniques (e.g. by adapting the patterns for OCR corrections made available by Underwood and Auvil)
                <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">
                    <ptr target=""http://usesofscale.com/gritty-details/basic-ocr-correction/""/>
                </note> and data-mining methods (e.g. topic modelling 
                <ref target=""#_bookmark3"">(Blei et al.,</ref>
                <ref target=""#_bookmark3"">2003)</ref>to approximate disciplines; cf. 
                <ref target=""#_bookmark8"">McFarland et al.</ref>
                <ref target=""#_bookmark8"">(2013)</ref>for an overview of types of topic models applied to capture differentiation in scientific language). Additionally, to enrich the RSC with basic linguistic annotations, we build on existing tools adapting them to the diachronic material. For normalization we use VARD 
                <ref target=""#_bookmark2"">(Baron and Rayson,</ref>
                <ref target=""#_bookmark2"">2008)</ref>with a model we trained on a manually normalized subset of the RSC, and for tokenization, lemmatization, segmentation and part-of-speech annotation we useTreeTagger 
                <ref target=""#_bookmark9"">(Schmid,</ref>
                <ref target=""#_bookmark9"">1994)</ref>on the normalized texts. Inspired by the idea of Agile Software Development (Cockburn, 2001), we intertwine the actual corpus building with corpus annotation and analysis, continuously building new versions of the corpus whenever we see a recurrent problem in data quality. We work with a dedicated pipeline and keep the corpus-building process as modular and automatic as possible, applying manual work before the first automatic step. In the last step, the corpus is encoded in CQP format (cf. IMS Open Corpus Workbench (CWB) (Evert and Hardie, 2011)) and can be accessed via a CQPweb interface (Hardie, 2012)
                <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2"">
                    <ptr target=""https://fedora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/cqpweb/""/>
                </note>.
            </p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""582/100000000000064A0000038EAF84534F612C77A5.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: Corpus building steps</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>In terms of analysis, our main assumption is that due to specialization, scientific texts exhibit greater encoding density over time 
                <ref target=""#_bookmark6"">(Halliday and Martin,</ref>
                <ref target=""#_bookmark6"">1993),</ref>resulting in a specific discourse type characterized by high information density (Crocker et al., 2015) that is functional for expert communication (but rather inaccessible to lay persons). Linguistically, this may be reflected in lexical compression (e.g. compounding, derivation) and syntactic reduction (e.g. relativizer omission, contractions). For instance, there is evidence from the Thesaurus of the OED (Oxford English Dictionary)
                <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3"">
                    <ptr target=""http://www.oed.com/thesaurus/""/>
                </note> that affixation rises considerably as a means of word formation in scientific texts in the mid-17th century. For the identification that affixation rises considerably as a means of word formation in scientific texts in the mid-17th century. For the identification of further linguistic features possibly involved in denser encoding, we draw, on the one hand, on existing literature (e.g. Harris, 1991) and, on the other hand, on exploratory data-mining techniques (e.g. pattern mining as in Vreeken, 2010).
            </p>
            <p>In the poster, we show the corpus-building process and selected analyses of diachronic development in the RSC with dedicated visualizations (Fankhauser et al., 2014).</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baron, A. and Rayson, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">P.</hi> (2008). VARD 2: A tool for dealing with spelling variation in historical corpora. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">the</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Postgraduate</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Conference</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">in</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Linguistics</hi>, Birmingham, UK.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""id__bookmark3""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. M., Ng, A. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Y., </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and Jordan, M. I.</hi> (2003). Latent Dirichlet Allocation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Machine Learning Research</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>: 993–1022.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cockburn, A.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Agile Software Development</hi>. Addison-Wesley Professional, Boston, USA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""id__bookmark4""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Crocker, M. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">W., </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Demberg, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">V. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Teich, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">E.</hi> (2015). Information density and linguistic encoding (IDeaL). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">KI - Künstliche Intelligenz</hi>, pp. 1–5.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Evert, S. and Hardie, A.</hi> (2011). Twenty-first century Corpus Workbench: Updating a query architecture for the new millennium. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Corpus Linguistics Conference,</hi> Birmingham, UK.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""id__bookmark5""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fankhauser, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">P., </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kermes, H. and </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Teich, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">E.</hi> (2014). Combining Macro- and Microanalysis for Exploring the Construal of Scientific Disciplinarity. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities</hi>, Lausanne, Switzerland.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""id__bookmark6""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Halliday, M. & Martin, J. </hi>(1993). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Writing science: literacy and discursive power</hi>. Falmer Press, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hardie, A.</hi> (2012). <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Corpus Linguistics</hi><hi rend=""bold""> 17</hi>(3): 380-409.
                        <ref target=""http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/jbp/ijcl/2012/00000017/00000003/art00004"">CQPweb – combining power, flexibility and usability in a corpus analysis tool</ref>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""id__bookmark7""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Harris, Z. S.</hi> (1991). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A theory of language and information: a mathematical approach</hi>. Oxford University Press, USA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""id__bookmark8""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McFarland,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">D.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">A.,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramage,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">D.,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chuang,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">J.,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heer,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">J.,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manning,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">C.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">D.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jurafsky,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">D.</hi> (2013). Differentiating language usage through topic models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Poetics</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 41</hi>(6): 607–25.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2523","17","The School of Salamanca on the Semantic Web","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Launched in 2013, the project  <hi rend=""italic"">The School of Salamanca. A Digital Collection of Sources and a Dictionary of its Juridical-political Language</hi> is establishing a collection of more than a hundred sources from Iberian theologians and jurists of the 16<hi rend=""sup"">th</hi> and 17<hi rend=""sup"">th</hi> century. These texts deal with political and juridical topics and the collection of sources is supplemented by a dictionary that comprises, next to biographical information on the authors of the sources, the development of central terms and ideas of the Western history of political and legal ideas, as it is reflected in the source texts.</p>
            <p>Both parts, the sources and the dictionary, will be published under Open Access conditions. In the beginning of 2016, the project’s web application will be launched online with the first batch of sources and dictionary entries as TEI-XML texts plus corresponding facsimile images. At the moment, we are running a proof-of-concept mechanism and some experiments, which at the time of release will be constituting a Linked Open Data interface to our data along with a SPARQL-Endpoint.</p>
            <p>At the beginning of the presentation the project’s rationale and web application will be introduced shortly. But the focus of the presentation will be on giving insights in the workflow, the decision making process and the implementation of the LOD mechanisms, that have been realized:</p>
            <p>1. The first aspect accentuated in the presentation is the modelling of the information contained in our TEI-XML data within a Linked-Data-environment: Which TEI elements or attributes are assigned to which objects and predicates of which ontology? How are these assignments processed in order to offer the data as semantic data? Problems that we are dealing with are the questions of how to record the temporal dimension of much biographical information (see Ramos, 2009; Mynarz, 2013), and how to cope with alternative values like e.g. conflicting data about the date of birth of a person? Do considerations such as these affect our main objectives, e.g. the TEI-scheme or the collection of data?</p>
            <p>Here is what has been settled up to now: We will offer semantic data about the sources and about the authors of the collection. The ontologies we use are mainly the foaf-, bio-, relationship-, and SPAR-ontologies (see, among others, Peroni, 2014). The TEI-data will be transformed into RDF by the xtriples webservice (Schrade, 2015).</p>
            <p>2. The second highlighted aspect concerns the very networking of the data itself and its utilization in the project’s infrastructure. This concerns technical issues, such as the questions of which services and resources should be – directly or indirectly – provided in order to offer our data for external reuse? It concerns issues of academic strategies such as negotiations with favored partner projects and data providers over the data they expose and the interfaces they provide. But it also concerns scholarly questions, such as eventual opportunities to handle new research questions, or to handle questions in new ways, opened up by the integration of our data with the data of other LOD-providers. In which form could or should such expanded possibilities be provided on the publicly accessible website? What stance are we taking on rights management and quality insurance of federated queries/data?</p>
            <p>Again, here is the current status: We have mechanisms for the resolution of resource URIs, for content negotiation and for dumping the complete triple store as well as a SPARQL endpoint in place. We are elaborating federated queries responding to specific, concrete research questions. And we are still in the process of evaluating the Linked Data Fragments (Verborgh, 2014) mechanism. We are in contact with several projects the data of which would nicely complement our own (Schmutz, 2008; Sytsma, 2010; Bullón, 2012; Mrozik, 2016). And we are probing possibilities of offering a configurable interface to (federated) querying to our users and of rendering network information visually in our web application. Except most likely for the last point (due to time constraints), the talk will present the state of affairs we will have achieved in summer 2016.</p>
            <p>The presentation will thus point out conceptions and their implementations of linking TEI resources into the semantic web, difficulties encountered and needs still left open by scholarly research questions.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bullón, Xavier Agenjo</hi> (2012). Introducción: la Biblioteca Virtual de la Escuela de Salamanca y Linked Open Data. http://dx.doi.org/10.18558/FIL (accessed 8 April 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ciotti, Fabio et al.</hi> (2014). TEI, Ontologies, Linked Open Data: Geolat and Beyond. https://jtei.revues.org/1365 (accessed 8 April 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eide, Øyvind</hi> (2015). Ontologies, Data Modeling, and TEI. https://jtei.revues.org/1191 (accessed 8 April 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meroño-Peñuela, Albert et al.</hi> (2014). Semantic Technologies for Historical Research. A Survey. http://www.semantic-web-journal.net/system/files/swj588_0.pdf (accessed 8 April 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mrozik, Dagmar</hi> (2016). The Jesuit Science Network (Wuppertal/Berlin, being established in 2016). http://jesuitscience.net/ (accessed 8 April 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mynarz, Jindřich</hi> (2013). Capturing temporal dimension of linked data. http://blog.mynarz.net/2013/07/capturing-temporal-dimension-of-linked.html (accessed 8 April 2016).
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pattuelli, Cristina M.</hi> (2012). FOAF in the Archive: Linking Networks of Information with Networks of People. Final Report to OCLC. http://www.oclc.org/content/dam/research/grants/reports/2012/pattuelli2012.pdf (accessed 8 April 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Peroni, Silvio</hi> (2014). The Semantic Publishing and Referencing Ontologies: 10.1007/978-3-319-04777-5_5.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramos, Michele R.</hi> (2009). Biography Light Ontology. An Open Vocabulary For Encoding Biographic Texts. http://metadata.berkeley.edu/BiographyLightOntology.pdf (accessed 8 April 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Romanello, Matteo and Pasin, Michele</hi> (2013). HuCit. https://bitbucket.org/56k/hucit/ (accessed 8 April 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ruiz-Iniesta, Almudena </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Corcho, Oscar</hi> (2014). A review of ontologies for describing scholarly and scientific documents. http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1155/paper-07.pdf (accessed 8 April 2016).
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sch</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">mutz, Jacob</hi> (2008). Scholasticon. Ressources en ligne pour l'étude de la scolastique moderne (1500-1800): auteurs, sources, institutions. http://scholasticon.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/Presentation/index_fr.php (accessed 8 April 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sytsma, David</hi> (2010). Post-Reformation Digital Library. http://www.prdl.org/ (accessed 8 April 2016).
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Verborgh, Ruben et al.</hi> (2014). Querying Datasets on the Web with High Availability. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Semantic Web Conference: 10.1007/978-3-319-11964-9_12.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wettlaufer, Jörg et al.</hi> (2015). Semantic Blumenbach: Exploration of Text-Object Relationships with Semantic Web Technology in the History of Science: 10.1093/llc/fqv047.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schrade, Torsten</hi> (2015). xTriples. A generic webservice to extract RDF statements from XML resources. http://xtriples.spatialhumanities.de/index.html (accessed 8 April 2016).
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                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2524","17","The Trace of Theory: Extracting Subsets from Large Collections","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Can we find and track theory, especially literary theory, in very large collections of texts using computers? This panel discusses a pragmatic two-step approach to trying to track and then visually explore theory through its textual traces in large collections like those of the HathiTrust.</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Subsetting: </hi>The first problem we will discuss is how to extract thematic subsets of texts from very large collections like those of the HathiTrust. We experimented with two methods for identifying “theoretical” subsets of texts from large collections, using keyword lists and machine learning. The first two panel presentations will look at developing two different types of theoretical keyword lists. The third presentation will discuss a machine learning approach to extracting the same sorts of subsets.
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Topic Modelling: </hi>The second problem we tackled was what to do with such subsets, especially since they are likely to still be too large for conventional text analysis tools like Voyant (voyant-tools.org) and users will want to explore the results to understand what they got. The fourth panel presentation will therefore discuss how the HathiTrust Research Center (HTRC) adapted Topic Modelling tools to work on large collections to help exploring subsets. The fifth panel talk will then show an adapted visualization tool, the Galaxy Viewer, that allows one to explore the results of Topic Modelling. 
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>The panel brings together a team of researchers who are part of the “Text Mining the Novel” (TMN) project that is funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) and led by Andrew Piper at McGill University. Text Mining the Novel (novel-tm.ca) is a multi-year and multi-university cross-cultural study looking at the use of quantitative methods in the study of literature, with the HathiTrust Research Center is a project partner.</p>
                <p>The issue of how to extract thematic subsets from very large corpora such as the HathiTrust is a problem common to many projects that want to use diachronic collections to study the history of ideas or other phenomena. To conclude the panel, a summary reflective presentation will discuss the support the HTRC offers to DH researchers and how the HTRC notion of “worksets” can help with the challenges posed by creating useful subsets. It will further show how the techniques developed in this project can be used by the HTRC to help other future scholarly investigations.</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.t9dpcs25grxn"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Using Word Lists to Subset</head>
                <p>Geoffrey Rockwell (Kevin Schenk, Zachary Palmer, Robert Budac and Boris Capitanu)</p>
                <p>How can one extract subsets from a corpus without appropriate metadata? Extracting subsets is a problem particular to very large corpora like those kept by the HathiTrust (www.hathitrust.org/). Such collections are too large to be manually curated and their metadata is of limited use in many cases. And yet, one needs ways to classify all the texts in a collection in order to extract subsets if one wants to study particular themes, genres or types of works. In our case we wanted to extract theoretical works which for the purpose of this project we defined as Philosophical works or Literary Critical works. In this first panel presentation we will discuss the use of keyword lists as a way of identifying a subset of “philosophical” texts.</p>
                <p>Why philosophical? We choose to experiment extracting philosophical texts first as philosophy is a discipline with a long history and a vocabulary that we hypothesized would lend itself to a keyword approach. Unlike more recent theoretical traditions, philosophical words might allow us to extract works from the HathiTrust going back thousands of years.</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Keywords. </hi>For the first part of this project we adapted a list of philosophical keywords from the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project (inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/). Our adapted list has 4,437 words and names starting with ""abauzit"", ""abbagnano"", ""abdolkarim"", ""abduction"", ""abduh"", ""abel"", and so on. There are a number of ways of generating such lists of keywords or features, in our case we were able to start with a very large curated list. The second paper in this panel discusses generating a list of literary critical keywords.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Process. </hi>We used this list with a process we wrote in Python that calculates the relative frequency of each word in a text and does this over a collection. The process also calculates the sum of the relative frequencies giving us a simple measurement of the use of philosophical keywords in a text. The word frequency process generates a CSV with the titles, author, frequency sum and individual keyword frequencies which can be checked and manipulated in Excel.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Testing.</hi> We iteratively tested this keyword approach on larger and larger collections. First we gathered a collection of 20 philosophical and 20 non-philosophical texts from Project Gutenberg (www.gutenberg.org/). We found the summed frequency accurately distinguished the philosophical from the non-philosophical texts. The process was then run by the HTRC on a larger collection of some 9,000 volumes and the results returned to us. We used the results to refine our list of keywords so that a summed relative frequency of .09 gave us mostly philosophical works with a few false positives. We did this by sorting the false positives by which words contributed to their summed relative frequency and then eliminating those words from the larger list that seemed to be ambiguous.
                </p>
                <p>The process was then run on the HathiTust Open Open collection of 254,000 volumes. This generated some 3230 volumes that had a summed relative frequency over .1, which seemed a safe cut-off point given how .09 had worked with a smaller collection. To assess the accuracy of this method we manually went through these 3,230 and categorized them using the titles producing a CSV that could be used with other classification methods.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""622/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>The table below summarizes the categories of volumes that we found, though it should be noted that the categorization was based on the titles, which can be misleading. “Unsure” was for works which we weren’t sure about. “Not-Philosophical” were those works that we were reasonably sure were not philosophical from the title. The categories like Science and Education were for works about science and philosophy or education and philosophy.</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>Tag (Type)</cell>
                        <cell>Number of Volumes</cell>
                        <cell>Example</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Unsure</cell>
                        <cell>349</cell>
                        <cell>The coming revolution (1918)</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Education</cell>
                        <cell>473</cell>
                        <cell>Education and national character (1904)</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Philosophy</cell>
                        <cell>813</cell>
                        <cell>Outlines of metaphysics (1911)</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Science</cell>
                        <cell>189</cell>
                        <cell>Relativity; a new view of the universe (1922)</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Social</cell>
                        <cell>526</cell>
                        <cell>The study of history and sociology (1890)</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Religion</cell>
                        <cell>722</cell>
                        <cell>Prolegomena to theism (1910)</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Not Philosophical</cell>
                        <cell>158</cell>
                        <cell>Pennsylvania archives (1874)</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>One of the things that stands out is the overlap between religious titles and philosophical ones. This is not surprising given that the fields have been intertwined for centuries and often treat of the same issues. We also note how many educational works and works dealing with society can have a philosophical bent. It was gratifying to find only 4.9% of the volumes classified seemed clearly not philosophical. If one includes the Unsure category it is 15.7%, but the Unsure category is in many ways the most interesting as one reason for classifying by computer is to find unexpected texts that challenge assumptions about what is theory.</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Conclusions</hi>. Using large keyword lists to classify texts is a conceptually simple method that can be understood and used by humanists. We have lists of words and names at hand in specialized dictionaries and existing classification systems. Lists can be managed to suit different purposes. Our list from InPhO had the advantage that is was large and inclusive, but also the disadvantage that included words like “being” and “affairs” that have philosophical uses but are also used in everyday prose. The same is true of the names gathered like Croce that can refer to the philosopher or the cross (in Italian). Further trimming and then weighting of words/names could improve the classification of strictly philosophical texts. We also need to look deeper into the results to find not just the false positives, but also the true negatives. In sum, this method has the virtue of simplicity and accessibility and in the case of philosophical texts can be used to extract useful, though not complete, subsets. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.hts4jtuwsy3j"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The Problem with Literary Theory</head>
                <p>Laura Mandell (Boris Capitanu, Stefan Sinclair, and Susan Brown)</p>
                <p>In this short paper, I describe adapting the word list approach developed by Geoffrey Rockwell for extracting a subset of philosophical texts from a large, undifferentiated corpus, to the task of identifying works of literary theory. The degree to which running the list of terms did in fact pull out and gather together works of literary criticism and theory is very high, despite potential problems with such an enterprise, which we discuss in this talk in detail.</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Developing the list of literary terms</hi>. Susan Brown and I decided to gather lists of literary terms. Susan initiated a discussion with the MLA about using terms from the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">MLA Bibliography</hi> but upon consideration these were in fact not at all what we needed: they classified subjects of texts as opposed to listing terms that would appear in those texts. I had recently spent some time learning about JSTOR’s new initiative in which sets of terms are created by what they call “SMEs”--Subject Matter Experts--and then used to locate articles all participating in an interdisciplinary subject. Their first foray is available in Beta: it gathers together all articles in no matter what field on the topic of Environmental Sustainabilty (labs.jstor.org/sustainability/). The terms collected are terms that would appear 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">in</hi> the relevant texts, not in the metadata about them; the goal is to collect documents across multiple categories related to specialization, discipline, and field, since the desired result to gather together interdisciplinary texts concerning a common topic. 
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Anachronism. </hi>JSTOR had started a “literary terms” list, and I finished the list of terms relying on encyclopedias of literary theory. Could a list of terms significant in the late-twentieth-century theories of literature as expressed in articles gathered in JSTOR be used to extract a set of texts published much earlier that analyze literature? What about the historical inaccuracy of using twentieth-century terms to find eighteenth- and nineteenth-century literary criticism?
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>Results:</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""622/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>In fact, results show solidly that this anachronistic list of terms developed by experts do work to gather materials that preceded and fed into, served to develop, the discipline of literary theory. One of two falsely identified texts among the top relevant documents has to do with water distribution systems which had, as part of its most frequent terms, “meter” and “collection,” two terms relevant to analyzing the medium and content of poetry. Other false positives are similarly explicable, and, most important, they are rare.</p>
                <p>In this paper, we report upon the effects of running these frequent words on very large datasets using both unsupervised to supervised learning.</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.r6cofa424xj8"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Machine Learning</head>
                <p>Stefan Sinclair (and Matthew Wilkens)</p>
                <p>The third panel presentation deals with machine learning techniques to extract subsets. Unsupervised learning techniques allow us to evaluate the relative coherence of theoretical clusters within large textual fields and to identify distinct theoretical subclasses in the absence of any firmly established anatomy of the discipline. For these reasons, we performed unsupervised classification on three corpora: (1) A large collection (c. 250,000 volumes) of mixed fiction and nonfiction published in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. (2) A subset of that corpus identified by algorithmic and manual methods as highly philosophical. And (3) A subset similarly identified as literary-critical.</p>
                <p>In the case of the large corpus, the goal was to identify subsets containing high proportions of philosophy and criticism. For the smaller sets, we sought to produce coherent groupings of texts that would resemble subfields or concentrations within those areas. In each case, we extracted textual features including word frequency distributions, formal and stylistic measures, and basic metadata information, then performed both 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">k</hi>-means and DBSCAN clustering on the derived Euclidean distances between volumes.
                </p>
                <p>As in past work on literary texts (Wilkens, 105), we found that we were able to identify highly distinct groups of texts, often those dealing with specialized and comparatively codified subdomains, and that we could subdivide larger fields with reasonable but lower accuracy. The model that emerges from this work, however, is one emphasizing continuity over clear distinction. Subfields and areas of intensely shared textual focus do exist, but a systematic view of large corpora in the philosophical and literary critical domains suggests a more fluid conception of knowledge space in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.</p>
                <p>In parallel with the unsupervised classification performed – an attempt to allow distinctive features to emerge without, or with less, bias – we also performed supervised classification, starting with the training set of 40 texts labelled as Philosophical and Other (mentioned in ""Using Word Lists to Subset"" above). We experimented with several machine learning algorithms and several parameters to determine which ones seemed most suitable for our dataset. Indeed, part of this work was to recognize and and normalize the situation of the budding digital humanist confronting a dizzying array of choices: stoplists, keywords, relative frequencies, TF-IDF values, number of terms to use, Naïve Bayes Multinomial, 
                    <hi rend=""background(white)"">Linear Support Vector Classification, penalty parameter, iterations, and so on ad infinitum. Some testing is desirable; some guesswork and some craftwork are essential. We reflect on these tensions more in the iPython notebook (Sinclair et al., 2016) and we will discuss them during the presentation as well.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>One of the surprises from these initial experiments in machine learning was that using an unbiased list of terms from the full corpus (with stopwords removed) was considerably more effective than attempting to classify using the constrained philosophical vocabulary. Again, this may be because the keywords list was overly greedy.</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""background(white)"">Just as we experimented with ever-larger corpora for the ""Using Lists to Subset"" sub-project, the supervised learning subproject broadened its scope gradually in an attempt to identify theoretical texts unknown to us while examining the efficacy of the methodologies along the way. Indeed, the overarching purpose of adopting all three approaches (keyword-based, unsupervised classification, machine learning) was to compare and contrast different ways of studying theory in a large-scale corpus.</hi>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.yxbg2h3ogjn8"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Working with HTRC datasets</head>
                <p>Boris Capitanu</p>
                <p>The fourth panel presentation focuses on working with the HathiTrust and the particular format of HathiTrust texts. Researchers may obtain datasets directly from HathiTrust [1] by making a special request, after having fulfilled appropriate security and licensing requirements. Datasets in HathiTrust and HTRC are available in two different ways:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>via rsync in Pairtree format</item>
                    <item>via Data API</item>
                </list>
                <p>According to “Pairtrees for Object Storage (V0.1)” [2], the Pairtree is ""a filesystem hierarchy for holding objects that are located within that hierarchy by mapping identifier strings to object directory (or folder) paths, two characters at a time”. In the HathiTrust, the objects consist of the individual volume and associated metadata. Volumes are stored as ZIP files containing text files, one text file for each page, where the text file is named by the page number. A volume ZIP file may contain additional non-page text files, whose purpose can be identified from the file name. The metadata for the volume is encoded in METS XML [3] and lives in a file next to the volume ZIP file. For example, a volume with id “loc.ark:/13960/t8pc38p4b” is stored in Pairtree as:</p>
                <p>loc/pairtree_root/ar/k+/=1/39/60/=t/8p/c3/8p/4b/ark+=13960=t8pc38p4b/ark+=13960=t8pc38p4b.zip loc/pairtree_root/ar/k+/=1/39/60/=t/8p/c3/8p/4b/ark+=13960=t8pc38p4b/ark+=13960=t8pc38p4b.mets.xml</p>
                <p>where “loc” represents the 3-letter code of the library of origin (in this case Library of Congress). As mentioned, the volume ZIP files contain text files named for the page number. For example, here are the first few entries when listing the contents of the above ZIP file:</p>
                <p> ark+=13960=t8pc38p4b/</p>
                <p> ark+=13960=t8pc38p4b/00000001.txt</p>
                <p> ark+=13960=t8pc38p4b/00000002.txt</p>
                <p> ark+=13960=t8pc38p4b/00000003.txt</p>
                <p> …</p>
                <p>Note that the strings that encode the volume id and the ZIP filename are different. Before a volume id can be encoded as a file name, it goes through a “cleaning” process that converts any character that is not a valid character to be used in a filename into one that is (for example “:” was converted to “+” and “/” to “=“), also dropping the 3-letter library code. The specific conversion rules are obscure, but library code already exists [4][5] for multiple languages that is able to perform this conversion both ways.</p>
                <p>The pairtree is an efficient structure for storing a large number of files. However, working with this structure can pose certain challenges. One of the issues is that this deeply nested folder hierarchy is slow to traverse. Applications needing to recursively process the volumes in a particular dataset stored in pairtree will have to traverse a large number of folders to “discover” every volume. A second inconvenience stems from the use of ZIP to store the content of a volume. While efficient in terms of disk space usage, it’s inconvenient when applications need to process the text data of the volume as they would need to uncompress the ZIP file and read its contents, in the proper order, concatenating all pages, in order to obtain the entire volume text content. A further complication is due to the fact that the exact ordering and naming of the page text files in the ZIP file is only provided as part of the METS XML metadata file. So, if the goal is to create a large blob of text containing all the pages of a volume (and only the pages, in the proper order, without any additional non-page data), the most correct way of doing so is to first parse the METS XML to determine the page sequence and file names, and then uncompress the ZIP file concatenating the pages in the exact sequence specified. This, of course, has a large performance penalty if it needs to be done on a large dataset every time this dataset is used to address some research question.</p>
                <p>An alternative way to obtain a particular dataset is to use the Data API [6]. Currently, access to Data API is limited, and is allowed only from the Data Capsule [7] while in Secure Mode. Using the Data API a researcher can retrieve multiple volumes, pages of volumes, token counts, and METS metadata documents. Authentication via the OAuth protocol is required when making requests to the Data API. The advantage of using the Data API in place of the pairtree (other than disk storage savings) is that one can request already-concatenated text blobs for volumes, and make more granular requests for token counts or page ranges without having to traverse deeply-nested folder structures or parse METS metadata.</p>
                <p>In this panel presentation we will show how the tools developed for the Trace of Theory project were adapted to work with the Pairtree format. The goal is to help others be able to work with the HathiTrust data format.</p>
                <p>Notes:</p>
                <p>[1] https://www.hathitrust.org/datasets</p>
                <p>[2] http://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-kunze-pairtree-01</p>
                <p>[3] http://www.loc.gov/standards/mets/</p>
                <p>[4] https://confluence.ucop.edu/display/Curation/PairTree</p>
                <p>[5] https://github.com/htrc/HTRC-Tools-PairtreeHelper</p>
                <p>[6] https://wiki.htrc.illinois.edu/display/COM/HTRC+Data+API+Users+Guide</p>
                <p>[7] https://wiki.htrc.illinois.edu/display/COM/HTRC+Data+Capsule</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.f2bgagc46fwp"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Topic Modelling and Visualization for Exploration</head>
                <p>Susan Brown (Geoffrey Rockwell, Boris Capitanu, Ryan Chartier, and John Montague)</p>
                <p>When working with very large collections even subsets can be too large to manage with conventional text analysis tools. Further, one needs ways of exploring the results of extraction techniques to figure out if you got what you were expecting or something surprising in an interesting way. In the fifth panel presentation we will discuss the adaptation of a tool called the Galaxy Viewer for visualizing the results of Topic Modelling (Montague et al., 2015). Topic modeling is an automated text mining technique that has proven popular in the humanities that tries to identify groups of words with a tendency to occur together within the same documents in a corpus. Chaney and Blei explain that, “One of the main applications of topic models is for exploratory data analysis, that is, to help browse, understand, and summarize otherwise unstructured collections.” (Chaney et al., 2012)</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""622/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>The Galaxy Viewer prototype was developed to explore the results of topic modelling over large collections. It combines different views so that one can select topics, compare topics, explore the words in topics, follow topic tokens over time, and see the document titles associated with topics. In this presentation we will demonstrate the Galaxy Viewer and then discuss how it was scaled to handle much larger collections.</p>
                <p>The prototype Galaxy Viewer backend code uses Mallet (McCallum, 2002) to infer the set of topics, topic distributions per document, and word probabilities per topic. Unfortunately, Mallet is meant to be used on small- to medium-sized corpora as it requires that the entire dataset be loaded into RAM during training. An additional constraint with Mallet is the fact that although Mallet can fully utilize all the CPU cores on a single machine, it’s not designed to work in a distributed-computing fashion across a number of machines, to speed up execution. As such, processing very large datasets (if even possible) might take a very long time (as the algorithm makes multiple passes over the entire dataset). Many implementations of LDA exist, which primarily fall into one of two categories: Batch LDA, or Online LDA. The core difference between batch and online LDA stems from what happens during each iteration of the algorithm. In batch mode, as mentioned earlier, each iteration of the algorithm makes a full pass over all the documents in the dataset in order to re-estimate the parameters, checking each time for convergence. In contrast, online LDA only makes a single sweep over the dataset, analyzing a subset of the documents each iteration. The memory requirement for online LDA depends on the chosen batch size only, not on the size of the dataset - as is the case with batch LDA.</p>
                <p>We are currently in the process of researching/comparing the available implementations of LDA to establish which one would be best suited to use for the Galaxy Viewer. We are also considering the option of not fixing the LDA implementation, but instead make the backend flexible so that any LDA implementation can be used (as long as it provides the appropriate results that are needed). In the latter case we’d have to create specific result interpreters that can translate the output from the specific implementation of LDA to the appropriate format to be used to store in the database (to be served by the web service).</p>
                <p>Given that Topic Modeling results do not expose the textual content of the documents analyzed, and cannot be used to reconstruct the original text, they are safe to be publicly shared without fear of violating copyright law. This is great news for researchers working with collections like those of the HathiTrust as they should be able to gain insight into datasets which are still currently in-copyright and would, otherwise, not be available to be inspected freely.</p>
                <p>In the prototype Galaxy Viewer implementation, the output of the topic modeling step is processed through a set of R functions that reshape the data and augment it with additional calculated metrics that are used by the web frontend to construct the visualization. These post-processing results are saved to the filesystem as a set of five CSV files. One of these CSV files is quite large as it contains the topic modeling state data from Mallet (containing topic assignments for each document and word, and associated frequency count). The visual web frontend code loads this set of five files into memory when the interface is accessed the first time, which can take several minutes. For the prototype this approach was tolerated, but it has serious scalability and performance issue that needs to be addressed before the tool can be truly usable by other researchers.</p>
                <p>Scaling the Galaxy Viewer therefore consists of creating a web service backed with a (NoSQL) database which will service AJAX requests from the front-end for the data needed to construct the topic visualization and related graphs. We are developing the set of service calls that need to be implemented/exposed by the web service to fulfill the needs of the front-end web-app. The backend service will query the database to retrieve the necessary data to service the requests. The database will be created based on the output of the Topic Modeling process, after required post-processing of the results is completed (to calculate the topic trends, topic distances, and other metrics used in the display). Relevant metadata at the volume and dataset level will also be stored to be made available to the front-end upon request. This work will be completed by the end of December 2015 so that it can be demonstrated in the new year. The scaled Galaxy Viewer will then provide a non-consumptive way of allowing users of the HathiTrust to explore the copyrighted collections. Extraction of subsets and Topic Modelling can take place under the supervision of the HTRC and the results database can then be exposed to visualization tools like the Galaxy Viewer (and others) for exploration.</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.izhdfmsd0qww"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Closing reflections: How “Trace of Theory” will improve the HTRC
                    <hi rend=""italic"">. </hi>
                </head>
                <p>J. Stephen Downie</p>
                <p>The HathiTrust Research Center exists to give the Digital Humanities community analytic access to the HathiTrust’s 13.7 million volumes. The HT volumes comprise over 4.8 billion pages each in turn represented by a high-resolution image file and two OCR files yielding some 14.4 billion data files! Thus, as the earlier papers have highlighted, the sheer size of the collection, along with the idiosyncratic nature of the HT data, together create several hurdles that impede meaningful analytic research.The HTRC is engaged in two ongoing endeavours designed to assist DH researchers in overcoming these obstacles: The Advance Collaborative Support (ACS) program [1]; and, the Workset Creation for Scholarly Analysis (WCSA) project [2]. </p>
                <p>The ACS program at HTRC provides no-cost senior developer time, data wrangling assistance, computation time and analytic consultations to DH researchers who are prototyping new research ideas using the HT data resources. The ACS program is an integral part of the HTRC’s operation mission and was part of its value-added proposition when the HTRC launched its recent four-year operations plan (2014-2018). It is a fundamental component of the HTRC’s outreach activities and as such, has staff dedicated to its planning, management and day-to-delivery. The ACS team was responsible for creating, and then reviewing, the competitive ACS Request for Proposals (RFP) that ask interested DH researchers outline their intellectual goals, describe their data needs, and estimate their computational requirements. The ACS team is generally looking for new projects that could benefit from some kickstarting help from HTRC. HTRC welcomes proposals from researchers with a wide range of experience and skills. Projects run 6 to 12 months.</p>
                <p>Originally funded by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation (2013-2015), the current WCSA program is building upon, extending and implementing the development made during the funding period. The HTRC project team, along with subaward collaborators at University of Oxford, University of Maryland, Texas Agriculture and Marine University and University of Waikato, developed a group of prototype techniques for empowering scholars who want to do computational analyses of the HT materials to more efficiently and effectively create user-specific analytic subsets (called “worksets”). A formal model has been designed to describe the items in a workset along with necessary bibliographic and provenance metadata that is now being incorporated into the HTRC infrastructure (Jett, 2015). </p>
                <p>The Trace of Theory project was selected from the first round of ACS proposals. This concluding panel presentation will discuss in what ways the Trace of Theory project has been both a representative and a unique exemplar of the ACS program. It will present some emergent themes that evolved from the HTRC-Trace of Theory interactions that we believe will have an important influence on the delivery of future ACS projects. In the same manner, it will reflect upon the problems the team of researchers had in subsetting the data to build their necessary worksets along with the solutions that the HRTC-Trace of Theory collaboration developed to surmount those difficulties. The panel will finish with a summary of how HTRC intends to incorporate the lessons learned into its day-to-day operations as well as future ACS projects. </p>
                <p>Notes:</p>
                <p>[1] The 2014 ACS RFP is available at: https://www.hathitrust.org/htrc/acs-rfp</p>
                <p>[2] https://www.lis.illinois.edu/research/projects/workset-creation-scholarly-analysis-prototyping-project</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chaney, A. J. and Blei, D. M.</hi> (2012). <hi rend=""italic"">Visualizing Topic Models</hi>, ICWSM. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/ICWSM/ICWSM12/paper/download/4645%26lt%3B/5021"">http://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/ICWSM/ICWSM12/paper/download/4645%26lt%3B/5021</ref> (accessed Dec 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jett, J.</hi> (2015).<hi rend=""italic""> Modeling worksets in the HathiTrust Research Center</hi>. CIRSS Technical Report WCSA0715. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Available via: http://hdl.handle.net/2142/78149 (accessed Dec 2015)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCallum, A. K.</hi> (2002). <hi rend=""italic"">MALLET: A Machine Learning for Language Toolkit</hi>, http://mallet.cs.umass.edu (accessed Dec 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Montague, J., Simpson, J., Brown, S., Rockwell, G. and Ruecker, S.</hi> (2015). Exploring Large Datasets with Topic Model Visualization. <hi rend=""italic"">Paper presented by Montague at DH 2015 at the University of Western Sydney</hi>, Australia.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sinclair, S., G. Rockwell and the Trace of Theory Team</hi>. (2016). <hi rend=""bold"">Classifying Philosophical Texts</hi>. Online at 
                        <ref target=""http://bit.ly/1kHBy56"">http://bit.ly/1kHBy56</ref> (accessed Dec 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wilkens, M.</hi> (2016). Genre, Computation, and the Weird Canonicity of Recently Dead White Men. <hi rend=""italic"">NovelTM Working Paper</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2525","17","Towards a Cross-generation Social Network for Jewish Sages","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
         <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
            <head>Introduction</head>
            <p>Construction and analysis of social networks for historical figures has lately become a popular approach in History and Prosopography (Keats-Rohan, 2007), Sociology (Wetherell, 1998; Roldán Vera and Schupp, 2006) and digital humanities (Rochat, 2015; Yamada, 2015). This approach is especially beneficial for providing a global view and automatic mathematical and statistical analysis for large historical corpora (Rossi et al., 2013), for which researchers are unable to gain much knowledge by even an exhaustive manual exploration. </p>
            <p>Jewish Biblical and Rabbinic literature is a great source of ancient wisdom and cultural heritage. It includes a large amount of people such as prophets, political and religious leaders, sages and other historical figures. Amazingly, although these people were spread over the world and through different time periods, they were united and connected by the same text - the Bible. Therefore, the aim of this research is to propose and implement a methodology for construction of a cross-generation social network for Jewish sages to explore their inter-relationships on a large scale, using modern computerized tools for text analysis and graph mining (Rossi et al., 2013; Yamada, 2015). </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
            <head>The proposed methodology</head>
            <p>At the first stage we define the corpus of the study and a reliable digital resource for this corpus. We work with the text of Mishna (2
                <hi rend=""superscript"">nd</hi> century CE) and Talmud (4
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi>-5
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century CE). Next, the following information is retrieved from existing traditional research sources, such as encyclopedia of Jewish sages (as most of these sources have not been digitized, the person-related data is extracted manually and stored in the digital form):
            </p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>A list of sages for the selected corpora. One of the biggest challenges with sages’ names is their ambiguity and a large number of namesakes (Rochat, 2015; Keats-Rohan, 2007). To tackle this problem we add identifying discriminative features to each name (e.g. father’s name or place of birth). </item>
                <item>A list of basic relationships between sages, e.g. family relationships, teacher-student, time period, place, possessing a similar political/social/professional role, studying in the same institution, participation in the same event. </item>
            </list>
            <p>Finally, the above basic relationship list can be further extended with text-based relationships, such as sages who cite each other, disagree, or comment on the same section of the biblical text. This is achieved by automatically learning lexical patterns in which pairs of sages co-occur in texts and using them to extract the corresponding relations. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""106/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1: A fragment of the cross-generation social network for Jewish sages</head>
            </figure>
            <p>All the extracted data from multiple independent resources are digitized and integrated in the single database and can be queried and visualized by the common tools (e.g. Gephi (Bastian et al., 2009)). Figure 1 illustrates a fragment of the proposed type of the cross-generation social network for Jewish sages. Complex queries can be further answered by mining the network, e.g. whether a given pair of sages are related and how? What are all the various direct and indirect relationships of a given sage? Whether the same text segment cites sages from different time periods (meaning that it has been edited at a later period)? At the global level the social network helps identify the central figures/communities of the sages in different places, times, schools, dynasties, philosophical approaches, text segments, and citations according to the number of network relationships and their density, centrality and coreness (Rochat, 2015; Keats-Rohan, 2007). The historical data in the built network becomes accessible to researchers from the humanities and will take their research capabilities to the next level. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""BastianHeymannJacomy2009""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bastian, M., S. Heymann, and M. Jacomy.</hi> (2009). Gephi: An Open Source Software for Exploring and Manipulating Networks. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media</hi>, Eytan Adar et al. (Eds.), Menlo Park: AAAI Press, pp. 361-62.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""Barber2007""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Barber, Michael J.</hi> (2007). Modularity and Community Detection in Bipartite Networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Physical Review E,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">76</hi>: 1-9.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""Keats-RohanBenedicta2007""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Keats-Rohan, K.S.B.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Prosopography Approaches and Applications: A Handbook.</hi> Oxford: Linacre College Unit for Prosopographical Research.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rochat. Y.</hi> (2015). Character network analysis of Émile Zola’s Les Rougon-Macquart. In
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of DH 2015</hi>, Sydney.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Roldán Vera, E. and T. Schupp</hi>. (2006). Network analysis in comparative social sciences. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Comparative Education</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">42</hi>(3).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rossi, F., Villa-Vialaneix, N. and Hautefeuille, F.</hi> (2013). Exploration of a Large Database of French Notarial Acts with Social Network Methods. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Medievalist, </hi>9.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wetherell, C.</hi> (1998). Historical Social Network Analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Review of Social History</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">43</hi>: 125-44.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Yamada, T.</hi> (2015). Detection of People Relationship Using Topic Model from Diaries in Medieval Period of Japan. In
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Proceedings of DH 2015</hi>, Sydney.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2526","17","Using Digital Editions to Analyze Iliadic Text Reuse and its Poetic Tradition","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Since its foundation, the Homer Multitext project has been creating digital diplomatic editions of manuscripts of the <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi>, editions which record every intentional mark on the manuscript, in order to create a resource to explore larger Homeric questions. Our poster presents one aspect of Homer Multitext research. The authors’ original research involves analyzing the Venetus A to look for multiforms, that is, substitutions for Homeric text that fit both metrically and contextually. The Venetus A, a tenth-century manuscript currently housed in Venice, is the oldest complete manuscript of the <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi> existing today. In addition to the intact poem, the Venetus A includes an abundance of scholia, scholarly notes which comment on the poem. It is in these scholia that we find the evidence for multiforms. Our use of the term ""multiform"" intentionally follows Albert Lord’s of the <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi> as an orally composed and transmitted poem: ""the word multiform is more accurate than variant, because it does not give preference or precedence to any one word or set of words to express an idea; instead it acknowledges that the idea may exist in several forms.""  (Lord, 2000). Ultimately, in looking for multiforms, we found a definitive correlation between the appearance of multiforms in the scholia and the reference to one of three Homeric textual editors, all of whom served as the head of the library at Alexandria at various times from the third to second centuries BCE. While it has been previously hypothesized that the work of these three Alexandrian editors, preserved in the Iliadic scholia, is responsible for the current standard canon of available multiforms, the research represents our first steps in using statistics to better understand the transition from an oral tradition to today’s critical print editions.</p>
            <p>The first task in our research was to analyze how many multiforms existed in a select portion of the <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi>. Books 18 and 19 of the <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi> served as our sample, and we accessed the manuscript through openly-licensed digital photography. From these photographs we created digital diplomatic editions of the poem and its corresponding scholia using an XML editor and following TEI guidelines. Within our editions we used the TEI element “quote” to identify every instance of text reuse found in the scholia, and then generated a separate table in which we classified the types of text reuse.<note><p>The following is the link to a table which shows our classification of the instances of text reuse. (<ref target=""https://github.com/hmteditors/hc-il18/blob/master/venA/collections/reuse_18_19.csv"">https://github.com/hmteditors/hc-il18/blob/master/venA/collections/reuse_18_19.csv</ref>)</p></note> Our classification was modelled on work by Monica Berti who defines “text reuse” as “the meaningful reiteration of text, usually beyond the simple repetition of common language” <ref target=""https://wiki.digitalclassicist.org/Text_Reuse"">https://wiki.digitalclassicist.org/Text_Reuse</ref>). By assigning distinct URNs to the different types of text reuse in the table and not in our XML mark-up, we applied a unique approach that kept our external analysis separate from our digital edition.</p>
            <p>We automatically generated a table displaying the occurrence of multiforms in relation to references to Alexandrian editors in preparation for a chi-square test for independence.<note><p>The following is the link to data tables showing the correlating frequencies of appearances of multiforms and Alexandrian editors. (<ref target=""https://github.com/hmteditors/hc-il18/blob/master/venA/stats/Table%20of%20multiforms.md"">https://github.com/hmteditors/hc-il18/blob/master/venA/stats/Table%20of%20multiforms.md</ref>)</p></note></p>
            <p>This table shows 34 instances of overlap, in which one of the scholars was named with a multiform. For the chi-square test, we compared these two sets of data, beginning with the null hypothesis that they were independent. Then, having set a significance level of 0.01, we obtained a p-value of 1.2 *10<hi rend=""superscript"">-42</hi>. This p-value shows that the probability of randomly obtaining the results we did is negligibly low. Thus, we were able to reject our null hypothesis and conclude that there is a correlation between the occurrence of a multiform and references to one of the Alexandrian grammarians.</p>
            <p>Given the correlation between Alexandrian editors and multiforms attested to in the Venetus A, we conclude that the Alexandrian editors were responsible for setting the canon of multiforms which has been transmitted in this manuscript, and from there to the modern world. In respect to further avenues of research, the strength of this correlation remains to be tested.  Additionally, we have not yet attempted text reuse analysis with the majority of the Venetus A; drastically increasing the sample size will likely yield more insights into the nature of the poem’s transmission and production. The ability to statistically support this conclusion exemplifies the great promise statistical, analytical methods hold for the field of Homeric studies, as well as wider areas in other fields of the humanities.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lord, A. </hi>(2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Singer of Tales (2nd ed.)</hi>. Cambridge, MA.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2527","17","Verbal Identity of a Fictional Character: a Quantitative Study with a Machine Learning Experiment","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>The idea that narrative literature comprises two distinct types of speech – that of the narrator and that of characters – dates as far back as Plato’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Republic</hi>. The philosopher distinguished 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">diegesis</hi> (narrative, narration), when the author speaks for himself, from 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">mimesis</hi> (imitation, enactment), when the author puts words in the mouths of his or her fictional actors. 
                </p>
                <p>Modern narratology places high emphasis on the concepts of 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">point of view</hi> (POV) and 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">POV structure</hi> of a text (Schmid, 2003), which are often expressed through specific combinations of author’s and character’s speech. Authors may switch between the POV’s by employing character-specific lexica and the use of temporal and spatial references that indicate certain POV (Uspensky, 1983). 
                </p>
                <p>Leo Tolstoy was one of the writers known for 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">conscious</hi> usage of such means to differentiate between the character POV’s. He was a firm proponent of the idea that each character has to speak his/her 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">own</hi> language if the book was to be convincing. Critics confirm that Tolstoy’s characters do have their personal styles of conversation. 
                </p>
                <p>In this paper we made an attempt to provide quantitative grounds for these claims. For that purpose we extracted all speech activity instances from 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">War and Peace</hi>, attributed them to the speaker characters and used the data to train a classifier. Our hypothesis was that if Tolstoy’s characters actually possessed these unique speech features, the classifier would be able to predict the speaker with some tolerable accuracy. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Data</head>
                <p>Instances of direct speech were extracted from the text with help of ABBYY Compreno (Starostin et al., 2014). For more details on the extraction procedure see (Bonch-Osmolovskaya A., Skorinkin D., 2015). The total number of extracted speech instances was 6853, of which 4476 had their speakers identified. </p>
                <p>Apart from the speaker, a number of additional attributes were extracted for each instance: text of the speech, text of the author’s introduction (‘she cried’, ‘he said with a laugh’), normalized speech predicate (‘to say’, ‘to cry’, ‘to whisper’, ‘to burst out’), the number of question and exclamatory phrases within one speech, the number of words in the speech and the number of punctuation marks. </p>
                <p>Before we carried out the experiment we attempted to analyze the data and detect potentially informative features. It appeared that certain characters (Natasha Rostov, Nikolai Rostov) tend to speak in short intermittent bursts and exclaim a lot, so they were expected to have higher average punctuation marks per word ratio and bigger shares of exclamatory speech. To confirm this intuition we gathered some aggregated statistics (see Fig. 1). </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""668/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 1 Shares of exclamatory and question sentences in the speech of the main characters</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Exclamatory and question phrases together make up the ‘emotional part’ of a character’s speech. Its share (Fig. 2) seems to correlate with age extremities. Prince Nikolay Bolkonsky is probably the oldest of the main characters, and as his age gets the better of him in the course of the novel, he turns more and more emotional and impulsive; Petya Rostov, on the other hand, is an exuberant and emotional boy, the youngest of the Rostov family. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""668/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 2 Characters with the highest share of ‘emotional speech’ (exclamatory and question sentences combined)</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Fig. 3 reflects character’s overall punctuation marks per word ratios. Seems like the ‘burst speech’ pattern is hereditary within the Rostov family: </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""668/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 3 Punctuation marks per word ratio in the direct speech text </head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Machine learning experiment</head>
                <p>Next step was to try and use some of these features to train a classifier. We used several standard algorithms, of which Random Forest demonstrated the best results. At the first stage we created a baseline by training the classifier solely on the lemma and word form frequencies of speech. Table 1 shows the results we obtained. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""668/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Table 1 Baseline results for classifier trained on lemma and word form frequencies</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The second stage was to add formal features that we considered informative (number of exclamatory phrases, number of questions and punctuation marks per word ratio) and retrain the classifier. The results we obtained show that the use of these features slightly improved performance. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""668/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Table 2 Results for classifier trained with additional features</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results & discussion</head>
                <p>Our first attempts to automatically classify speaker in Tolstoy’s text did not prove successful. The best F-measure we were able to obtain so far does not exceed 0.385 for an individual character. However, we were able to show that some formal features, such as punctuation marks per word ratio or the number of exclamatory/question sentences, might improve classification quality. This assumption can be confirmed by the figures in the Data section, where the aggregated values of features correspond with certain character traits that are apparent to the human reader.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bonch-Osmolovskaya A., Skorinkin D.</hi> (2015). Automatic semantic tagging of Leo Tolstoy’s works. In Abstracts of Digital Humanities – 2015 conference, Sydney, Australia. 
                        <ref target=""http://dh2015.org/abstracts/xml/SKORINKIN_Daniil_Automatic_semantic_tagging_of_Le/SKORINKIN_Daniil_Automatic_semantic_tagging_of_Leo_Tols.html"">http://dh2015.org/abstracts/xml/SKORINKIN_Daniil_Automatic_semantic_tagging_of_Le/SKORINKIN_Daniil_Automatic_semantic_tagging_of_Leo_Tols.html</ref> (accessed 06 March 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eichenbaum, B.</hi> (2009). Works on Leo Tolstoy. Saint-Petersburg. SPBSU Faculty of Philology and Arts.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmid, V.</hi> (2003). Narratology. Moscow: LRC Publishing House. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Starostin A. , Smurov I., Stepanova M.</hi> (2014). A Production System for Information Extraction Based on Complete Syntactic-Semantic Analysis.  Computational Linguistics and Intellectual Technologies: Proceedings of the International Conference ‘Dialogue’, Bekasovo, pp. 659–667.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Uspensky, B.</hi> (1983). A Poetics of Composition: The Structure of the Artistic Text and Typology of a Compositional Form. Oakland: University of California Press. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2528","17","WebSty - an Open Web-based System for Exploring Stylometric Structures in Document Collections","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Computer-assisted text analysis is now witnessing the phenomenon of ever-growing computer power and, more importantly, an unprecedented aggregation of textual data. Certainly, it gives us an unique opportunity to see more than our predecessors, but at the same time it presents non-trivial challenges. To name but a few, these include information retrieval, data analysis, classification, genre recognition, sentiment analysis, and many others. It can be said that, after centuries of producing textual data and decades of digitisation them, the scholars now face another great challenge - that of beginning to make good use of this treasure.</p>
                <p>Generally speaking, the problem of large amounts of textual data can be perceived from at least three different perspectives. Firstly, there is a need of asking new research questions that would take advantage of thousands of texts that can be compared. Secondly, one has to introduce and evaluate statistical techniques to deal with vast amounts of data. Thirdly, there is a need of new computational algorithms that would be able to handle enormous corpora, e.g. containing billions of tokens, in a reasonable amount of time. The present study addresses the third of the aforementioned issues.</p>
                <p>Stylometric techniques are known for their high accuracy of text classification, but at the same time they are usually quite difficult to be used by, say, an average literary scholar. In this paper we present a general idea, followed by a fully functional prototype of an open stylometric system that facilitates its wide use with respect to two aspects: technical and research flexibility. The system relies on a server installation combined with a web-based user interface. This frees the user from the necessity of installing any additional software. Moreover, we plan to enlarge the set of standard stylometric features with style-markers referring to various levels of the natural language description and based on NLP methods.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Multi-aspectual Document Representation</head>
                <p>Computing word frequencies is simple for English, but relatively complicated for highly inflected languages, e.g. Polish, with many word forms, resulting in data sparseness. Thus, it might be better first to map the inflected forms onto 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">lemmas</hi> (i.e. basic morphological forms) with the help of a morpho-syntactic tagger, and next to calculate the lemma frequencies.
                </p>
                <p>Most frequent words or lemmas as descriptive features proved to be useful in authorship attribution. However, for some text types or genres they do not provide sufficient information to tell the authors apart, e.g. see (Rygl, 2014). Moreover, in other types of classification tasks, where the goal is to trace signals of individual style, literary style or gender, it usually turns out that they appear on different levels of the linguistic structures. Thus, one needs to enhance text description.</p>
                <p>In practice, every language tool introduces errors. However, if the error level is relatively small and the errors are not systematic (i.e. their distribution is not strongly biased), than the results of such a tool can be still valuable for stylometric analysis. Bearing this in mind, we have evaluated a number of language tools for Polish, and selected types of features to be implemented:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>length of: documents, paragraphs or sentences (a segmentation tool),</item>
                    <item>morphological features
                        <list type=""unordered"">
                            <item>word forms or tokens and punctuation marks,</item>
                            <item>pseudo-suffixes (last several letters),</item>
                            <item>lemmas (from WCRFT2 morpho-syntactic tagger for Polish (Radziszewski, 2013))</item>
                        </list>
                    </item>
                    <item>grammatical classes
                        <list type=""unordered"">
                            <item>35 grammatical classes defined in the tagset (Szałkiewicz and Przepiórkowski, 2012) of the Polish National Corpus (Przepiórkowski et al., 2012), e.g. pseudo-past participle, non-past form, ad-adjectival adjective; recognised by WCRFT2,</item>
                            <item>parts of speech (by grouping grammatical classes),</item>
                            <item>grammatical categories, e.g. gender, number, person, etc.; (WCRFT2),</item>
                        </list>
                    </item>
                    <item>sequences
                        <list type=""unordered"">
                            <item>lemma sequences (e.g. potential collocations),</item>
                            <item>sequences of grammatical classes (bigrams or trigrams - hints about the grammatical structures),</item>
                        </list>
                    </item>
                    <item>semantic features
                        <list type=""unordered"">
                            <item>semantic 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Proper Name classes</hi> – recognised by a Named Entity Recogniser Liner2 (Marcińczuk, 2013),
                            </item>
                            <item>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">lexical meanings</hi> – represented by synsets in plWordNet (the Polish wordnet); assigned by Word Sense Disambiguation tool WoSeDon (Kędzia, et al., 2015)
                            </item>
                            <item>generalised lexical meanings – more general meanings from plWordNet, e.g. 
                                <hi rend=""italic""> an animal</hi> instead of 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">a cheetah</hi>,
                            </item>
                            <item>formalised concepts from a formal ontology SUMO that plWordNet is mapped to,</item>
                            <item>lexicographic domains from wordnet.</item>
                        </list>
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>Semantic features go beyond a typical stylometric description, but allow for crossing borders between the style and the content description.</p>
                <p>There are no features overtly describing the syntactic structure, as the available parsers for Polish express too high level of errors. The set of features can be further expanded by user-defined patterns expressed in the WCCL language (Radziszewski et al., 2011) that can be used to recognise binary relations between words and their combinations.</p>
                <p>WebSty allows for testing the performance of the aforementioned features in different stylometric tasks, several case-studies will be presented on a set of Polish novels.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Processing and Results</head>
                <p>The proposed system follows a typical stylometric workflow which was adapted to the chosen language tools and other components of the architecture (see  Section 4).</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Uploading a corpus of documents together with meta-data in CMDI format (Broeder et al., 2012) from the CLARIN infrastructure.</item>
                    <item>Choosing the features for the description of documents – done by the users (see Fig. 1).</item>
                    <item>Setting up the parameters for processing (users).</item>
                    <item>Pre-processing texts with the help of language tools.</item>
                    <item>Extracting the features from the pre-processed texts.</item>
                    <item>Calculating feature values.</item>
                    <item>Filtering and/or transforming the original feature values.</item>
                    <item>Clustering the feature vectors representing documents.</item>
                    <item>Extracting features that are characteristic for different clusters.</item>
                    <item>Presenting the results: visualisation or export of data.</item>
                </list>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""586/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig.1 Choice of features GUI</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The step 5 can be performed as: simple counting of words or lemmas, processing and counting annotations matching some patterns or running patterns for every position in a document. This is why a dedicated feature extraction module comes into stage, namely 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Fextor</hi> (Broda et al., 2013).
                </p>
                <p>Filtering and transformation functions can be built into the clustering packages (see below) or implemented by the dedicated systems, e.g. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">SuperMatrix</hi> system (Broda and Piasecki, 2013).
                </p>
                <p>The WebSty architecture can be relatively easy adapted to the use of any clustering package. The prototype is integrated with 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Stylo</hi> – an elaborated clustering package dedicated to stylometric analysis, and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Cluto</hi> – a general clustering package (Zhao and Karypis, 2005). Stylo offers very good visualisation functionality, while 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Cluto</hi> delivers richer possibilities for formal analysis of the generated clusters. The obtained results are displayed by the web browser (see Fig. 2). Users can also download log files with formalised description of the clustering results.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""586/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig.2 Stylometric results</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Moreover, features that are characteristic for the description of individual clusters or differentiation between clusters can be identified.  Ten different functions (implemented in Weka
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/ml/weka/</p>
                    </note> (Witten et al., 2011) and SciPy packages
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.scipy.org/</p>
                    </note>), based on mathematical statistics and information theory, are offered. The ranking lists of features are presented on the screen for interactive browsing (Fig. 3) and can be downloaded.
                </p>
                <p>The system has a web-based user interface that allows for uploading input documents from a local machine or from a public repository and enables selecting a feature set, as well as options for a clustering algorithm.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""586/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig.3 Browsing significant features identified for the extracted clusters</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Technical Architecture</head>
                <p>Application of language tools is inevitably more complex than calculating statistics on the level of words or letters. Moreover, processing of Polish is mostly far more complex than English (in terms of the processing time and memory used). Thus, higher computing power and bigger resources are required. In order to cope with this, the entire analysis in WebSty is performed on a computing cluster. Users do not need to install any software - which might be non-trivial particularly in the case of the language tools. The system processes the documents using a parallel and distributed architecture (Walkowiak, 2015). </p>
                <p>The workflow is as follows. Input documents are processed in parallel. The uploaded documents are first converted to an uniform text format. Next, each text is analysed by a part-of-speech tagger (we use WCRFT2 for Polish (Radziszewski, 2013)) and then it is piped to a name entity recognizer - Liner2 (Marcińczuk et al., 2013) in our case. After the annotation phase is completed for all texts, the feature extraction module comes into stage, i.e. Fextor (Broda et al., 2013).  Clustering tools requires input data in different formats: sparse or dense matrices, text (ARRF, Cluto format) or binary files (R objects, Python objects). Thus data received from the feature extraction for each input file has to be unified  and converted. The extracted raw features can be filtered or transformed by a range of methods inside the clustering packages or in a system for distributional semantics called SuperMatrix (Broda and Piasecki, 2013).  Finally, the R package Stylo (Eder et al., 2013) or a text clustering tool called Cluto (Zhao and Karypis, 2005) are run to perform exploratory analysis, e.g. multidimensional scaling.</p>
                <p>To prevent the system from overloading and long response time the input data size is limited to 20 files. However, large text collections can be processed, if they are deposited in the dSpace repository.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text"">
                            <ref target=""https://clarin-pl.eu/dspace/"">https://clarin-pl.eu/dspace/</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note> All corpora in dSpace can be annotated stored for further processing. Therefore, it is only left to run feature extraction and clustering tools inside WebSty.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://ws.clarin-pl.eu/demo/cluto2.html</p>
                    </note>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion and future plans</head>
                <p>The paper presented opened, web-based system for exploring stylometric structures in Polish document collections. The web based interface and the lack of the technical requirements facilitates the application of text clustering methods beyond the typical tasks of the stylometry, e.g. analysis of types of blogs (Maryl, 2012), recognition of the corpus internal structure, analysis of the subgroups and subcultures, etc.</p>
                <p>The system is currently focused on processing Polish. However, as the feature representation is quite language independent, we plan to add converters for for other languages. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Broda, B., Kędzia, P., Marcińczuk, M., Radziszewski, A., Ramocki, R. and Wardyński, A.</hi> (2013). Fextor: A feature extraction framework for natural language processing: A case study in word sense disambiguation, relation recognition and anaphora resolution. In Przepiórkowski, A., Piasecki, M., Jassem, K., Fuglewicz, P. (Eds.), Computational Linguistics: Applications, Series: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Studies in Computational Intelligence</hi>, Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">458</hi>, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 41-62.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Broda, B. and Piasecki, M.</hi> (2013). Parallel, Massive Processing in SuperMatrix – a General Tool for Distributional Semantic Analysis of Corpora. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Data Mining, Modelling and Management</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>(1): 1–19.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Broeder, D., Van Uytvanck, D., Gavrilidou, M., Trippel, T. and Windhouwer, M.</hi> (2012). Standardizing a component metadata infrastructure. In: Calzolari, N., Choukri, K., Declerck, T., Doğan, M.U., Maegaard, B., Mariani, J., Moreno, A., Odijk, J., Piperidis, S. (Eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of LREC 2012: 8th International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation</hi>. European Language Resources Association (ELRA), pp. 1387-90.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2013). Stylometry with R: a suite of tools. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts</hi>. University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE, pp. 487-89.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kędzia, P., Piasecki, M. and Orlińska, M. J.</hi> (2015). Word Sense Disambiguation Based on Large Scale Polish CLARIN Heterogeneous Lexical Resources. <hi rend=""italic"">Cognitive Studies | Études cognitives</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">15</hi>: 269-92.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Marcińczuk, M., Kocoń, J. and Janicki, M.</hi> (2013). Liner2 - A Customizable Framework for Proper Names Recognition for Polish. In Bembenik, R., Skonieczny, Ł., Rybiński, H., Kryszkiewicz, M., Niezgódka, M., Intelligent Tools for Building a Scientific Information Platform, Series: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Studies in Computational Intelligence,</hi> Springer: Berlin Heidelberg, <hi rend=""bold"">467</hi>: 231-53.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Maryl, M.</hi> (2012). Kim jest pisarz (w internecie?). <hi rend=""italic"">Teksty Drugie</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>: 77-100.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Przepiórkowski, A., Bańko, M., Górski, R. L. and Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B. </hi>(Eds.),(2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Narodowy Korpus Języka Polskiego</hi>. Warszawa: PWN.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Radziszewski, A.</hi> (2013). A tiered CRF tagger for Polish, In Bembenik, R., Skonieczny, Ł., Rybiński, H., Kryszkiewicz, M., Niezgódka, M., Intelligent Tools for Building a Scientific Information Platform, Series: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Studies in Computational Intelligence</hi>. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, <hi rend=""bold"">467</hi>: 215-30.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Radziszewski, A., Wardyński, A., and Śniatowski, T.</hi> (2011). <hi rend=""italic"">WCCL: A morpho-syntactic feature toolkit</hi>. In Habernal, I. and Matoušek, V. (Eds.), Text, <hi rend=""italic"">Speech and Dialogue</hi>, Plzen, Springer: Berlin Heidelberg, LNAI 6836, pp. 434–41.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rygl, J.</hi> (2014) Automatic Adaptation of Author’s Stylometric Features to Document Types, In Sojka, P., Horák, A., Kopeček, I. and Pala, K. (Eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of 17th International Conference TSD 2014</hi>. Brno, Czech Republic, LNCS 8655, Springer: Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 53-61.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Szałkiewicz, Ł. and Przepiórkowski, A.</hi> (2012). <hi rend=""italic"">Anotacja morfoskładniowa</hi>. In Przepiórkowski et al., pp. 59-96.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Walkowiak, T.</hi> (2015). Web based engine for processing and clustering of Polish texts. In Zamojski, W., Mazurkiewicz, J., Sugier, J., Walkowiak, T., Kacprzyk, J., <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Dependability and Complex Systems DepCoS-RELCOMEX</hi>, Brunów, Poland, Series: Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing Springer, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 515-22.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Witten, I. H., Frank, E. and Hall, M. A.</hi> (2011). Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques, Third Edition. <hi rend=""italic"">Series in Data Management Systems</hi>, Morgan Kaufmann.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zhao, Y. and Karypis, G.</hi> (2005). Hierarchical Clustering Algorithms for Document Datasets. <hi rend=""italic"">Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(2): 141-68.
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            </div>
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    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2529","17","Wikidition: Towards A Multi-layer Network Model of Intertextuality","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Current computational models of intertextuality run the risk of ignoring several desiderata: on the one hand, they mostly rely on single methods of quantifying text similarities. This includes syntagmatic models that look for shared vocabularies (unigram models) or (higher order) (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">k</hi>-skip-)
                    <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi>-grams (Guthrie et al., 2006). Such approaches disregard the two-level process of sign constitution according to which language-related, paradigmatic relations have to be distinguished from their text-related, syntagmatic counterparts (Hjelmslev, 1969; Miller et al., 1991; Raible, 1981) where the former require language models of the sort of neural networks (Mikolov et al., 2013), topic models (Blei et al., 2007) or related approaches in the area of latent semantic analysis (cf., e.g., (Paaß et al., 2004)). On the other hand, computational models should enable scholars to revise their computations. The reason is the remarkably high error rate produced by statistical models even in cases that are supposed to be as “simple” as automatic 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">pre</hi>-processing. Thus, scholars need efficient means to make numerous corrections and additions to automatic computations. Otherwise, the computations will be hardly acceptable as scientific data in the humanities (Thaller, 2014).
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""467/10000201000005320000010C62AC686B05DB4FC0.png""/>
                        <head>Table 1: Nine scenarios of generating Wikiditions out of corpora of (referring) literary (hyper-)texts and their (referred) hypotexts. Examples: (1) Kafka's ""Bericht für eine Akademie"" (in the role of a hypertext) versus Hauff's ""Der Affe als Mensch"" (in the role of a hypotext); (2) Kafka's ""Bericht für eine Akademie"" versus all ""Affentexte"" (Borgards, 2012) since the end of the 18th Century (including works of, e.g., Hauff, E. T. A. Hoffmann, Flaubert etc.); (3) Kafka's ""Beim Bau der Chinesischen Mauer"" versus the ""Prager Tagblatt"" from August 1914 to March 1917; (4) Kafka's ""Oeuvre"" versus Nietzsche's ""Geburt der Tragödie aus dem Geiste der Musik""; (5) a selection of Kafka's ""Oeuvre"" versus a selection of Nietzsche's ""Oeuvre""; (6) Kafka's ""Oeuvre"" versus a newspaper corpus (e.g., sampled from the ""Prager Tagblatt""); (7) the complete works of several authors versus a single hypotext (e.g., Goethe's ""Faust""); (8) the complete works of several authors versus a corpus of ""Faust"" texts; (9) the complete works of several German authors versus the complete works of several French authors.</head>
                    </figure>
                    </p>
                <p>This paper presents 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Wikidition</hi> as a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Literary Memory Information System</hi> (LiMeS) to address these desiderata. It allows for the automatic generation of online editions of text corpora. This includes literary texts in the role of (referring) 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">hypertexts</hi> (Genette, 1993) in relation to candidate (referred) hypotexts by exploring their 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">intra- and intertextual relations</hi> – see Table 1 for nine related research scenarios. In order to explore, annotate and display such relations, Wikidition computes multi-layer networks that account for the multi-resolution of linguistic relations – on the side of the hypo- and the hypertexts. The reason is that hypertextual relations (in the sense of Genette) (that occur in the form of transformations, imitations or any mixture thereof) may be manifested on the lexical, sentential or the textual level (including whole paragraphs or even larger subtexts). As a consequence, Wikidition spans lexical, sentential and textual networks that allow for browsing along the constituency relations of words in relation to sentences, sentences in relation to texts etc. In this multi-layer network model, intrarelational links (of words, sentences or texts) are represented together with interrelational links that combine units of different layers. Figure 1 shows the range of sign relations that are mapped. To this end, Wikidition combines a multitude of text similarity measures (beyond 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi>-grams) for automatically linking lexical, sentential and textual units regarding their (1) syntagmatic (e.g., syntactic) and (2) paradigmatic use. We call this two-level task 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">linkification</hi>.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""467/10000201000005A800000271CE80EDC9FCC4FD2D.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 1: Sign relations that are automatically explored and annotated by Wikidition (Mehler et al., 2016): on the level of words (Module (5) – paradigmatic –, (6) and (7) – both syntagmatic), on the level of sentences (Module (3) – paradigmatic – and (4) – syntagmatic) and on the level of texts (Module (1) and (2) – both paradigmatic). Wikidition additionally includes a component for wikification (i.e., for linking occurrences of concepts to articles in Wikipedia (Mihalcea et al., 2007)) and especially for automatically inducing lexica out of input corpora (i.e., for linkification). Arcs denote links explored by Wikidition; reflexive arcs denote intrarelational (i.e., purely lexical, sentential or textual) links. In this way, intra- and interrelational links are maintained by the same information system.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Beyond linkification, Wikidition contains a module for automatic 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">lexiconisation</hi> (see Figure 2). It extracts lexica from input corpora to map author specific vocabularies as subsets of the corresponding reference language. Input corpora (currently in English, German or Latin) are given as plain text that first are automatically preprocessed; the resulting wikiditions are mapped onto separate URLs to be accessible as self-contained wikis. By means of lexiconisation, research questions of the following sort can be addressed: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">What kind of German does Franz Kafka write? (E.g., Prager Deutsch.) What terminologies does Franz Kafka use in “In der Strafkolonie”? (E.g., engineering terminology.) How does his German depart from the underlying reference language?</hi> Since texts are not necessarily monolingual (because of using citations, translations, loan words, verbal expressions etc.), the same procedure can be applied by simultaneously looking at all foreign languages being manifested in the texts under consideration (right side of Figure 2).
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""467/10000201000003CE0000028AAB9CD0E53B655ADE.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 2: Left side: schematic depiction (red) of the vocabulary of an author (e.g., Franz Kafka) as manifested within Wikidition's input text(s) (e.g., ""In der Strafkolonie"") as mainly overlapping with the vocabulary of the corresponding reference language (e.g., German).</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>To this end, Wikidition distinguishes three levels of lexical resolution: superlemmas (e.g. German 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Tätigkeit</hi>), lemmas (e.g., 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Thätigkeit</hi>) and syntactic words (e.g., 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Thätigkeiten</hi> (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">nominative</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">plural</hi>)) as featured sign-like manifestations of lemmas (lower part of the figure). Note that this model diverges from the majority of computational models to textual data which start from tokens as manifestations of wordforms (referred to as types) and which, therefore, disregard the meaning-side of lexical units. Based on linkification and lexiconisation, Wikidition does not only allow for traversing input corpora on different (lexical, sentential and textual) levels. Rather, the readers of a Wikidition can also study the vocabulary of single authors on several levels of resolution: starting from the level of superlemmas via the level of lemmas down to the level of syntactic words and wordforms (see Figure2).
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""467/10000201000005720000021F41FDAD9F264C67A4.png""/>
                        <head>Table 2: Notions of human, computer-supported and machine-based reading. Wikidition addressesmachine close reading by integrating semantic web (SW) resources and the human mind (HM) (asthe ultima ratio of interpreting its computations). T<hi rend=""sub"">1</hi>, ..., T<hi rend=""sub"">m</hi> span the input corpus of m (hyper-)texts; X<hi rend=""sub"">n</hi> denotes the contextualizing corpus of hypotexts of size n that is explicitly consulted by the readingprocess. Machine close reading is similar to human reading in that it focuses on small, rather than bigdata.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>While the linkification component of Wikidition relates to principles of WikiSource and Wikipedia, the Wiktionary project is addressed by its lexiconisation module. Wikidition uses numerous computational methods for providing interoperability and extensibility of the resulting editions according to the wiki principle. In this way, the dissemination of computer-based methods is supported even across the borders of digital humanities in that scholars are enabled to make their own exploratory analyses. However, Wikidition does not address a big data scenario in support of distant reading (Moretti, 2013), nor does it aim at emulating human reading in the sense of machine reading (Etzioni, 2007). Rather, Wikidition addresses what we call 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">machine close reading</hi> in that it aims at massively supporting the process of (scientific or literary) reading by means of computational methods (see Table 2).
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Evaluation</head>
                <p>We exemplify Wikidition by example of three pairs of text. Regarding the layers of lemmas and sentences, Table 3 shows that Wikidition generates extremely sparse networks (whose cohesion is below 1%) of high cluster values and short average geodesic distances in conjunction with largest connected components that comprise almost all lexical and sentential nodes. In this example, we compute paradigmatic associations among words by means of word2vec (Mikolov et al., 2013) while sentence similarities are computed by means of the centroids of the embeddings of their lexical constituents. Networks are filtered by focusing on the first three most similar neighbors of each node – obviously, this does not interfere with the small-world topology of the networks. Each pair of texts is additionally described regarding the subnetwork of syntactic words and sentences. This is done to account for the impact of inflection on networking. As a result, the networks are thinned out (cohesion is now at most 0.5%), but neither the sizes of the largest connected components nor the cluster and distances values are affected considerably. Obviously, differentiation leads to sparseness, but in a sense that the general topology is retained. By focusing on a single level of resolution (e.g., paradigmatic relations among words), sub-networks are generated that fit into what is known about universal laws of complex linguistic networks (Mehler, 2008). See (Mehler et al., 2016) for additional evaluations of Wikidition.</p>
                <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Eval-Table"">
                    <head>Table 3: Wikiditions of three text pairs (Kafka: Beim Bau der Chinesischen Mauer // Nietzsche: Die Zeit der Zyklopen-Bauten; Kafka: Ein Bericht für eine Akademie // Rathenau: Höre, Israel; Kafka: In der Strafkolonie // Rauchberg: Statistische Technik) compared by their cluster value c, the average geodesic distance of their nodes l, the fraction of nodes in their largest connected components lcc and by their cohesion coh (the number of links in relation to all possible links). First line of each text pair: nodes comprise lemmas and sentences; second line of each pair: nodes comprise syntactic words and sentences. Networking is conditioned by the operative preprocessor (Eger et al., 2016).</head>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Edition</cell>
                        <cell>#nodes</cell>
                        <cell>#links</cell>
                        <cell rend=""italic"">c</cell>
                        <cell rend=""italic"">lcc</cell>
                        <cell rend=""italic"">l</cell>
                        <cell rend=""italic"">coh</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Kafka // Nietzsche</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">1624</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">10391</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">0,27</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">1</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">3,31</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">0,008</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell/>
                        <cell rend=""end"">2401</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">13644</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">0,34</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">1</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">3,56</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">0,005</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Kafka // Rathenau</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">1749</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">10782</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">0,28</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">1</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">3,36</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">0,007</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell/>
                        <cell rend=""end"">2473</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">13609</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">0,36</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">1</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">3,60</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">0,004</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Kafka // Rauchberg</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">4034</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">30951</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">0,25</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">0,999</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">3,35</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">0,004</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell/>
                        <cell rend=""end"">6830</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">44369</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">0,31</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">0,999</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">3,62</cell>
                        <cell rend=""end"">0,002</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>We presented Wikidition as a framework for exploring intra- and intertextual relations. Wikidition combines machine learning with principles of several wiki-based projects (Wikipedia, WikiSource and Wiktionary) to generate multi-layer networks from input corpora by integrating syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations on the lexical, sentential and the textual level. Our approach addresses intra- and inter-level networking in a single framework while adhering to laws of networking as being explored by complex network theory. In this way, input corpora get traversable in line with both empirical findings about characteristics of linguistic networks and the multi-resolution of sign relations whose space complexity is preferably reduced. Currently, Wikidition exists as a prototype that is further-developed by means of several edition projects in order to be finally made available as open source software. Wikidition is open for the cooperative development of digital editions.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gleim, R. and Mehler, A.</hi> (2016). Lemmatization and Morphological Tagging in German and Latin: A comparison and a survey of the state-of-the-art. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation</hi>.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Etzioni, </hi>
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Knowledge Capture, K-CAP ’07</hi>, pp. 1–4.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">G.</hi> (1993). Palimpseste: Die Literatur auf zweiter Stufe. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Y.</hi> (2006). A closer look at skip-gram modelling.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">L.</hi> (1969). Prolegomena to a Theory of Language. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">F.</hi> (1916). Die Verwandlung. Kurt Wolff Verlag, Leipzig.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kafka, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">F.</hi> (1919). In der Strafkolonie. Kurt Wolff Verlag, Leipzig.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mehler, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">A.</hi> (2008). Large text networks as an object of corpus linguistic studies. In Anke Lüdeling and Merja Kytö, editors, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus Linguistics. An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society</hi>. De Gruyter, Berlin/New York, pp. 328–82.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mehler, A., </hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">vor der Brück, T., </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hemati, W., </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Uslu, T. and Eger, S.</hi> (2016). “Wikidition: Automatic Lexiconization and Linkiﬁcation of Text Corpora,” 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Information Technology</hi>.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mihalcea, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">R.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> and Csomai, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">A.</hi> (2007). Wikify!: Linking documents to encyclopedic knowledge. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Sixteenth ACM Conference on Conference on Information and Knowledge Management, CIKM ’07</hi>. New York, NY, USA. ACM, pp. 233–42.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mikolov, </hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold""> Yih, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">W. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and Zweig, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">G.</hi> (2013). Linguistic regularities in continuous space word representations. In Lucy Vanderwende, Hal Daumé III, and Katrin Kirchhoff, (eds), <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of NAACL 2013</hi>. The Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 746–51.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Miller, G. A. and Charles, W. G.</hi> (1991). Contextual correlates of semantic similarity. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language and Cognitive Processes</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 6</hi>(1): 1–28.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">F</hi>. (2013). Distant Reading. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Verso</hi>.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">E.</hi> (2004). Learning prototype ontologies by hierarchical latent semantic analysis. In Andreas Abecker, Steffen Bickel, Ulf Brefeld, Isabel Drost, Nicola Henze, Olaf Herden, Mirjam Minor, Tobias Scheffer, Ljiljana Stojanovic, and Stephan Weibelzahl, (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">LWA 2004: Lernen – Wissensentdeckung – Adaptivität</hi>. Humbold-Universität Berlin, pp. 193–205.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">W.</hi> (1981). Von der Allgegenwart des Gegensinns (und einiger anderer Relationen). Strategien zur Einordnung semantischer Informationen. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">H.</hi> (1890). Statistische Technik. Deutsche Statistische Gesellschaft, 1.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">M.</hi> (2014). The humanities are about research, first and foremost; their interaction with computer science should be too. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dagstuhl Reports</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 4</hi>(7): 108–10.
                    </bibl>
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","xml","2","",""
"2530","17","Wired!: Collaborative Teaching & Critical Digital Making In An Art History Classroom","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The Wired! Lab for digital art history and visual culture at Duke University comprises a group of faculty, staff, and students engaged in applications of visualization methods to studies of material culture and art, architectural, and urban histories. Members of the lab collaborate to develop critical digital research employing 3D modeling, mapping, and database tools. Art historians and digital humanists work together to integrate both digital and art historical methodologies in lab courses and projects.</p>
            <p>In the Wired! classroom’s collaborative teaching model, a digital humanist takes on a significant role in both course planning and implementation. She works with instructors, graduate assistants, and librarians to redesign syllabi and assignments for preexisting departmental courses that incorporate not only digital tools but also critical methods. She then attends class meetings to familiarize herself with courses’ art historical content; she delivers workshops on digital concepts and tools; and she works with instructors and students to establish project workflows, to troubleshoot technical issues, and to critique student work. For students, this kind of collaboration can provide opportunities to make intellectual connections across two modes of inquiry as they apply digital methodologies to art historical topics. For instructors, this collaboration can enrich pedagogical practice as digital methods present different possibilities for student engagement.</p>
            <p>While some educators have focused on pedagogical challenges such as, “How does one teach students the digital tools to address a wide variety of projects without neglecting traditional discipline-specific issues of research formulation and data collection?”, (Johanson and Sullivan et al., 2012) the Wired! Lab’s digital pedagogy focuses on only the digital knowledge required for a specific topic. This approach ensures that students intentionally engage art historical content via digital methods, prioritizing quality of digital interventions over quantity while also addressing very practical issues of scalability within a disciplinary context.</p>
            <p>In this presentation, I will examine two cases in which Wired! Lab instructors and a digital humanist collaborated to design and implement project-based undergraduate courses. These examples will demonstrate how the different teaching teams worked in tandem to create these learning experiences and will discuss benefits and challenges of these pedagogical collaborations. I will also situate the Wired! Lab’s pedagogical work within the larger digital humanities and digital art history ecosystem.</p>
          <div>
            <head>Introduction to Art History </head>
            <p>In Spring 2015, Professor Caroline Bruzelius implemented a team-based teaching approach for her Introduction to Art History course. Together, we worked with a graduate assistant and librarian to redesign the survey course and student projects. We all attended class meetings, we each taught aspects of the course, and we assessed student projects as a group. Combining our variant expertise, we created a course in which students employed a digital humanities approach to performing art historical critical analyses of spatial, temporal, and cultural relationships that influenced the movement of raw materials and cultural objects across ancient and medieval Western and Mediterranean societies. The digital tools we chose to use in the course were Neatline, a spatiotemporal exhibit builder, and Omeka, a collection management system in which Neatline operates. We implemented Neatline first for visualizing the syllabus and second for developing students’ visual narratives concerning specific pre-modern art historical objects and materials.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""288/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 1. Neatline syllabus for Introduction to Art History</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The interactive visual syllabus (Fig. 1) introduces students to the course narrative: its units and lectures are shown in time and space accompanied by contextual maps, specific geospatial points of reference, and other relevant multimedia including hyperlinks to important objects’ museum pages, lecture slides, and supplementary videos. The interactive visual syllabus makes explicit temporal, spatial, and cultural relationships that effected the development of art practices across pre-modern societies. Presenting the syllabus in Neatline also familiarized students with Neatline’s affordances and interface in preparation for creating their own Neatline projects, in which they used critical understandings of spatiotemporal narrative to develop cohesive art historical arguments concerning particular pre-modern objects, their making processes, political influences, and economic and environmental impacts.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Visualizing Venetian Art</head>
            <p>Dr. Kristin Lanzoni’s upper level course on early modern Venetian art also employed a collaborative teaching model. She and I worked together to develop a syllabus and project in which students studied course material through processes of visualization. Students spent the semester not only learning about Venetian art, history, and culture but also working together to model a Venetian palace no longer extant and to design an immersive visual narrative about the palace’s political and cultural significance (Fig. 2). The students worked with tools ranging from Adobe Photoshop to SketchUp to Unity3D to visualize the palace.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""288/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 2. Model of a Venetian palazzo created by students in Visualizing Venetian Art</head>
            </figure>
            <p>As the semester progressed, Dr. Lanzoni and I worked closely with the students to troubleshoot a number of problems that arose as students strove to translate historical evidence into an historically informed 3D model. These issues stemmed from both primary sources, which give conflicting visual evidence for the palace’s scale and appearance, and digital tools, which present challenges for modeling non-rectilinear structures and force compromises with regard to levels of detail. Students had to make joint decisions regarding model and narrative designs based on both historical research and the digital tools’ affordances and limitations.</p>
            <p>In both courses, students gained understandings of art historical topics through digital visualization processes. Wired! Lab teaching teams facilitate these types of learning experiences by combining their expertise in course design and implementation. While in the survey course, students were asked to create individual visual narrative projects, guided by an art historian, a graduate student, a librarian, and a digital humanist, the students in Visualizing Venetian Art worked together on a single topic from which their learning about early modern Venice radiated outward. While some digitally-inflected Wired! courses ask students to work individually, other courses model collaboration not only in the teaching but also in the learning. Overall, the majority of Wired! courses are not “Introduction to Digital Humanities” but rather art history courses redeveloped to integrate specific digital approaches that directly support course-specific content and disciplinary methods. The integration of a digital humanist in Wired! art history courses ensures that students’ digital projects are informed not only by disciplinary knowledge but also by critical approaches to digital methodologies.</p>
         </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Johanson, C. and Sullivan E. et al.</hi> (2012). Teaching Digital Humanities through Digital Cultural Mapping. In Hirsh, B.D. (ed) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy</hi>, Open Book Publishers, pp. 121-49.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2531","17","Writing a 50-Volume Book in Premodern Damascus: Algorithmic Analysis, Text reuse and the Arabic Historiographical Tradition","2","","","2","",""
"2532","17","1 Million Dutch Newspaper Images available for researchers: The KBK-1M Dataset","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The visualisation of news through photographs has exploded since the second half of the 20th century (Kester & Kleppe 2015). Press photographs are not only being used more often in all sorts of media, historical photographs are also increasingly being reused. In some cases the reuse of these images leads to a recontextualisation of the photograph. A well-known example in the Dutch context is a photograph of Dutch socialist party leader Pieter Jelles Troelstra who is known for a failed attempt to overthrow the royal family in 1918.  When Troelstra’s failed coup d’état is being discussed in history textbooks, the text is very often accompanied by a photograph of Troelstra holding a speech. However, research has shown that this photo was not made in 1918 but in 1912 when Troelstra was advocating the introduction of women’s suffrage (Kleppe 2013). </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""399/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Photograph of Dutch socialist partyleader Pieter Jelles Troelstra giving a speech during a demonstration in 1912 while the photo nowadays often is used for Troelstra’s coupe d’etat of 1918. (photograph by Cornelis Leenheer. Source: IISG Amsterdam)</p>
            <p>This example illustrates that in the field of history and visual culture there is a need for the thorough study of the origin and reuse of visual materials. However, methods that are employed to analyse the (re)use of visual materials are cumbersome and labour-intensive since Humanities researchers tend to analyse their sources manually (Burke 2001). To estimate the increase in the use of pressphotographs in Dutch newspapers, Kester & Kleppe (2015) e.g manually analysed a sample of 385 newspapers and 5.877 pressphotographs of the period 1870-2013, creating the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Foto’s in Nederlandse Kranten (FiNK) (Photos in Dutch Newspaper)</hi> dataset (Kleppe, Zeijl, Kester 2014). To find the recurring use of the Troelstra image, Kleppe (2012) followed a same approach by manually analysing over 5.000 photographs in 400 history textbooks, creating the
                <hi rend=""italic""> Foto’s in Nederlandse Geschiedenisschoolboeken (FiNGS) (Photos in Dutch History textbooks)</hi> dataset (Kleppe 2012). 
            </p>
            <p>While manually created and annotated datasets such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">FiNK</hi> & 
                <hi rend=""italic"">FiNGS</hi> contain rich & well-annotated data that can be reused for all sorts of research questions, their scope remains limited given its labour-intensive creation process. To find the recurring imagery in the FiNGS dataset, Kleppe (2012) e.g. manually created and assessed all images and metadata, leading to inevitabel human errors. However, digitised historical imagery is increasingly becoming available allowing researchers to undertake the first steps in the field of ‘Visual Big Data’, following the footsteps of Barry Salt’s study on the characteristics of opening shots of 20th century films (Salt 1974) and Scott McCloud work on the visual language of Japanese manga and comics from the West (McCloud 1994). More recent, the work of Lev Manovich on exploring large scale visual datasets such as Manga Comics (2012), Time covers, and selfies (Manovich & Tifentale 2015) is seen as a new way of what he calls doing ‘cultural analytics’ (Manovich 2012).
            </p>
            <p>While the focus of these studies is on characteristics of the images, others using large scale image datasets focus on the recurrance of imagery in different types of contexts, aiming 1) to assess the impact of scholarly images online (Kousha 2010), 2) to analyse the reuse of digital images of cultural and heritage material on the internet (Terras & Kirton 2013) or within a closed dataset (Resig 2014; Reside 2014) and 3) to detect poetic content in historical newspapers (Lorang et al 2015).</p>
            <p>To cater their research questions, these scholars all created visual datasets on their own. However, large datasets containing photographs that are available for researchers are scarce. Only within the Computer Vision and Natural Language Processing community we found some datasets (Ordonez et al, 2011; Chen et al, 2015a; Chen et al, 2015b; Hodosh et al., 2013), but these are mainly created for training purposes of algorithms, not for Humanities research questions. </p>
            <p>Therefor this poster presents the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">KBK-1M</hi> dataset, that was created specifically for (Digital) Humanities researchers. This dataset contains a collection of 1,6 million captioned images of the period 1922-1994, extracted from Dutch digitised newspapers stored in the Dutch National Library (KB) newspaper archive. The images cover black & white photographs, sketches, line-drawn cartoons, and line-drawn weather forecasts and are available as year-by-year ZIP files at the National Library of the Netherlands. A request for access can be submitted to 
                <ref target=""mailto:dataservices@kb.nl"">dataservices@kb.nl</ref>. On our poster, we will describe how we obtained the images and what types of research questions it could tailor.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burke, P.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Eyewitnessing. The uses of images as historical evidence.</hi> London: Cornell University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chen, J., Kuznetsova, P., Warren, D. S. and Choi, Y.</hi> (2015a). Deja image-captions: A corpus of expressive descriptions in repetition. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">NAACL</hi>, pp. 504–14. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chen, X., Fang, H., Lin, T., Vedantam, R., Gupta, S., Dollar, P. and Zitnick, C. L</hi>. (2015b). Microsoft COCO captions: Data collection and evaluation server. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CoRR</hi>. abs/1504.00325.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hodosh, M., Young, P. and Hockenmaier, J.</hi> (2013). Framing Image Description as a Ranking Task: Data, Models and Evaluation Metrics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 47</hi>: 853–99.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kester, B. and Kleppe, M.</hi> (2015). Acceptatie, professionalisering en innovatie. Persfotografie in Nederland, 1837-2014. In Bardoel, J. & Wijfjes, H., 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journalistieke Cultuur in Nederland</hi>. Amsterdam University Press, pp. 53-76.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kleppe, M.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Canonieke Icoonfoto's. De rol van (pers)foto's in de Nederlandse geschiedschrijving</hi>. Delft: Eburon.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kleppe, M.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Foto’s in Nederlandse Geschiedenisschoolboeken (FiNGS</hi>). DANS
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""http://dx.doi.org/10.17026/dans-zfn-u8k4"">http://dx.doi.org/10.17026/dans-zfn-u8k4</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kleppe, M., Zeijl, L. and Kester, B.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Foto’s in Nederlandse kranten (FiNK). </hi>DANS
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""http://dx.doi.org/10.17026/dans-2cz-x7rh"">http://dx.doi.org/10.17026/dans-2cz-x7rh</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kleppe, M.</hi> (2012). Wat is het onderwerp op een foto? De kansen en problemen bij het opzetten van een eigen fotodatabase. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Tijdschrift voor Mediageschiedenis</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>(2): 93-107.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kousha, K., Thelwall, M. and Rezaie, S.</hi> (2010). Can the impact of scholarly images be assessed online? An exploratory study using image identificationtechnology. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">61</hi>(9): 1734-44.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manovich, L.</hi> (2009). Cultural analytics: Visualing cultural patterns in the era of more media. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Domus</hi> (923). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manovich, L.</hi> (2012). How to compare one million Images? In Berry, D. M., 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Understanding Digital Humanities</hi>, pp. 249-78.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manovich. L. and Tifentale, A. </hi>(2015). 
                        <ref target=""http://manovich.net/index.php/projects/selfiecity-exploring"">Selfiecity: Exploring Photography and Self-Fashioning in Social Media</ref>. In Berry, David M., Dieter, M. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Postdigital Aesthetics: Art, Computation and Design</hi>, pp. 109-22.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCLoud, S</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi> (1994). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. </hi>New York: HarperPerennial.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ordonez, V., Kulkarni, G. and Berg, T. L.</hi> (2011). Im2text: Describing images using 1 million captioned photographs. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">NIPS</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reser, G. and Bauman, J.</hi> (2012). The Past, Present, and Future of Embedded Metadata for the Long-Term Maintenance of and Access to Digital Image Files. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Digital Library Systems (IJDLS),</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(1): 53-64.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reside, D.</hi> (2014). Using Computer Vision to Improve Image Metadata. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014</hi>.
                        <ref target=""http://dharchive.org/paper/DH2014/Paper-294.xml"">http://dharchive.org/paper/DH2014/Paper-294.xml.
                        </ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Resig, J.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Using Computer Vision to Increase the Research Potential of Photo Archives</hi>.
                        <ref target=""analysis-implementations"">
                            <hi rend=""color(1155CC)"">http://ejohn.org/research/computer-vision-photo-archives/#analysis-implementations</hi>.
                        </ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Salt, B.</hi> (1974). The Statistical Style Analysis of Motion Pictures.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Film  Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(1): 13-22.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Terras, M. M. and Kirton, I.</hi> (2013). Where do images of art go once they go online? A Reverse Image Lookup study to assess the dissemination of digitized cultural heritage. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Selected papers from Museums and the Web North America</hi>, pp. 237–48.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2533","17","3D Scanning for Preservation: Difficulties and Dissemination","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The use of 3D scanning & visualisation technologies for creation of digital surrogates has begun to gain wider acceptance in the museums and archives sector, largely due to significant advances in technology and price over the last few years. However, the technology is still evolving, and in some situations can struggle to yield accurate results. This poster will look at the pragmatic aspects of scanning for preservation, and will, it is hoped, generate public discussion and sharing of best practice.</p>
            <p>We present a number of case studies. Firstly, looking at reflectivity, we show techniques in scanning metallic objects, and non-intrusive ways of reducing and eliminating surface reflection which can introduce unwanted noise and confuse tracking calculations in hand-held scanners.</p>
            <p>Secondly, we look at results from a number of objects with significant amounts of very fine surface detail or flexible materials. Various materials such as modern fabrics, leather, thread and wool present particular challenges, and the results of working with these objects will provide the basis of guidance in preparation for undergraduate and postgraduate users of equipment at Exeter, which will be shared publically.</p>
            <p>Thirdly, we examine experiments in the use of 3D scanning to evaluate and preserve archaeological finds in situ during excavation, and in particular, we evaluate the accuracy of measurement using hand-held scanners. This has clear advantages if sufficiently reliable, including the taking of otherwise impossible measurement through objects and evaluation through reconstruction of artefact fragments.</p>
            <p>Finally, we look at means of disseminating the results of the scanning process, looking at the problems of reducing polygon counts, and the importance of surface texture and overlays in recreating the ‘look and feel’ of objects. We briefly look at the ‘impact’ of virtual 3D surrogates against 2D images, in particular referencing a student-engagement project involving the evoking of memory in dementia sufferers, using archival material and 3D visualisations of football memorabilia.</p>
            <p>We examine the cross-generational possibilities opened up by engaging groups of students and seniors in the capture process, and suggest further possibilities for triggering memory or emotional responses through the use of detailed and immersive surrogates.</p>
            <p>It is highly likely that further case studies will be examined; by June 2016, projects looking at difficult materials such as beeswax and ancient fabric remnants are likely to be under way, and preliminary findings will be included in the poster.</p>
            <p>It is hoped that this poster will allow the sharing of ideas and experience both directly at the interactive poster session, and through the linked web objects, where comments can be left and dialogue can continue.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ioannides, M., Quak, E. </hi>(2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">3D Research Challenges in Cultural Heritage: A Roadmap in Digital Heritage Preservation</hi>. Springer.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koller, D., Frischer, B., Humphreys, G</hi>. (2010). Research Challenges for Digital Archives of 3D Cultural Heritage Models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">J. Comput. Cult. Herit</hi>. 2, 7:1–7:17. doi:10.1145/1658346.1658347
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Remondino, F.</hi> (2011). Heritage Recording and 3D Modeling with Photogrammetry and 3D Scanning. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Remote Sensing</hi> 3, 1104–1138. doi:10.3390/rs3061104
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rodrigues, M.A., Kormann, M., Davison, L.,</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A case study of 3D technologies in higher education: Scanning the metalwork collection of museums in Sheffield and its implications to teaching and learning.</hi> Presented at the 2011 International Conference on Information Technology Based Higher Education and Training (ITHET), pp. 1–6. doi:10.1109/ITHET.2011.6018697
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2534","17","A Web-based Tool Called Gauntlet: From Iterative Design To Interactive Drawings Annotation","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Gauntlet was developed for the international SNSF project “Drawings of gods”, which is dealing with up to 5’100 drawings collected in different parts of the world (e.g. Japan, Russia, Switzerland, Romania). The data was digitalized and deposited on a publicly available database designed on MySQL for this project (
                <ref target=""http://ddd.unil.ch/"">http://ddd.unil.ch</ref>). The presentation of this tool will then make use of a specific application on such material.
            </p>
            <p>Subsequent analyses involve interpretation of collected data and metadata (Brandt et al., 2009; Dandarova, 2013) as well as image analysis (Konyushkova et al., submitted). While algorithms and software tools for automated image analysis of photographic pictures are steadily expanding, high-variability and approximate nature of children’s drawings make analysis and object detection (e.g. stars, clouds, eyes) rather challenging.</p>
            <p>Convinced that the curation (i.e. manual annotation) of our complex objects is the solution both to tackling such a big data problematic and to guiding further automated computational approaches, we built Gauntlet, a web application tool for image annotation. It results from a collaborative and interdisciplinary software development process gathering psychologists, theologians and bioinformatics specialists. The tool is available for Chrome (version 44.0 or higher) and Firefox (version 41.0.2 or higher). It was built on modern and open source web standards for software development such as HTML5/CSS3 and AngularJS. There is no restriction to the use of this tool and it is GNU GPLv>=2. The logic behind follows from web tool development in bioinformatics, aiming to provide platform-independent and barrier-free solutions - which could not be found with existing tools.</p>
            <p>Gauntlet's main benefit is to provide our worldwide collaborators with common semantics from a set of attributes (i.e. features) and geometrical tools for annotating the collected drawings. The set is displayed on the interface as a hierarchical list - termed “annotation tree” - of categories and subcategories (e.g. “characters area"" branch contains sub-branch attributes: “human”, “non-human”, “text” and “blank sheet”). The tree is designed and edited via Excel and converted to JSON for web display. Such an implementation grants us flexibility and editing of the annotation tree based on curators’ comments (full text comments can be dropped at every level) and the degree of attributes occurrences. The annotation tree first took after McCarty et al.’s personification model (2004) approach, but is currently fashioned in such a way that the role played by annotators’ subjectivity should be reduced.</p>
            <p>While it allows relatively fast annotations of large samples of drawings, Gauntlet’s main purpose is to provide positional coordinates of attributes from smooth and accurate user-image interactions. Such interactions rely on points to target repeated objects of a specific attribute (e.g. accessories or hands) and boxes to mark off the whole spanning area of an attribute (e.g. characters area). Curators can, at any time, export the current status of annotation in CSV format and run comparative statistical analysis on feature frequency, occupancy or positioning. So far, annotations have been carried out by researchers who are affiliated with our project, although crowdsourcing may be used in the future.</p>
            <p>In the end, it is expected to help highlight developmental, intercultural and interfaith variations on the material collected for the abovementioned project “Drawings of gods”. Moreover, exports from Gauntlet will help complete further explorations into pattern recognition by providing the ground truth.</p>
            <p>At this stage the tool is client-based and main features are ready for use. Even though it is stand-alone, it may go through further development to plug into API for operating with any kind of data storage systems (e.g. RDBMS, nosql or rdf-based). Beside this, due to its flexibility such a tool might prove practical for a wider use, targeting the processing of data in various contexts, such as photos of paintings or other art forms.</p>
            <p>Overall, the collaborative and interdisciplinary work from which Gauntlet emerged represents a great deal of mutually enriching influences between agents from various fields ready to revise their initial views, thus shedding light on what today's scientific project development should look like.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brandt, P.-Y., Kagata Spitteler, Y. and Gillièron Paléologue, C.</hi> (2009). La représentation de Dieu: Comment les enfants japonais dessinent Dieu. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Archive de Psychologie</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">74</hi>: 171-203.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dandarova, Z. </hi>(2013). Le dieu des enfants: Entre l’universel et le contextuel. In Brandt, P.-Y. and Day, J. M. (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Psychologie du développement religieux: Questions classiques et perspectives contemporaines</hi>, Labor et Fides, pp. 159-87.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Konyushkova, K., Arvanitopoulos, N., Süsstrunk, S., Dandarova, Z., and Brandt, P.-Y. </hi>(submitted). God(s) know(s): Developmental and cross-cultural patterns in children drawings. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCarty, W., Matthews, M., Suksi, A., Wright, B. and Bradley, J. </hi>(2004). An Analytical Onomasticon to the Metamorphoses of Ovid. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Classical Studies Publications.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2535","17","Abbreviations In Manuscripts - Systematization And Crowdsourcing By Ad Fontes","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In an unprecedented and very successful crowd sourcing project, the most important resource for abbreviations in Latin and Italian has been digitised and is now freely available. The e-learning project Ad fontes managed to accumulate and systematize all 14’357 abbreviations contained in the most renowned collection, the <hi rend=""italic"">Dizionario di abbreviature</hi> by Adriano Cappelli (Cappelli, 1928). The digitized and systematized abbreviations offer new ways to access handwritten texts. Besides enhanced search methods (with wildcards, uncertainty, abbreviation placement etc.) it will soon be possible to add new abbreviations and rectify entries that were handled incorrectly by Cappelli.</p>
            <p>The poster presents the crowd-sourced digitisation of the printed Lexicon and considers specific problems and lessons learned while dealing with the crowd; it gives insights into new possibilities regarding the research of abbreviations, discusses possible ways to deal with abbreviations, and at the same time raises questions concerning requirements and nice-to-haves for an application that hopes to become an ever-growing resource to abbreviations found in historical sources.</p>
            <p>Following Cappelli’s model, each abbreviation is presented as a „facsimile“ of a hand-written abbreviation followed by a transliteration of the letters present, the placement of the abbreviation symbol(s) in a grid, if applicable the category of context (e.g. legal or medical) as well as the period the manuscript stems from.</p>
            <p>All this information could be identified by users without further knowledge of paleography or Latin and thus offered ways to allow non-experts to take part in the crowdsourcing process. In addition to Cappelli’s system, we had the participants place the abbreviation symbols within a 3x3 grid. This allows the introduction of a new search parameter refining the search according to the positioning of abbreviation marks. Unlike the data indicated in Cappelli (for which only a very limited number of mistakes and typos were entered), the placement of abbreviation marks was highly problematic and needed to be corrected in most cases by expert validation. In a next phase we would not include this part in the regular crowd sourcing process, but instead have it done separately.</p>
            <p>Within 23 days, all of the abbreviations contained in Cappelli were digitised by our crowd sourcing participants. Mobilising such a crowd was made possible by a highly connected academe and archivists (via mailing lists such as digital medievalist as well as social media). Apart from the option of remote online participation, we planned a crowd sourcing event at the University of Zurich that was supplemented by smaller events at universities in Oxford and Berlin.</p>
            <p>The information gained allows – based on very provisional data – conclusions concerning the use of abbreviations in Latin manuscripts. Of the 9’000 most common words in Latin (according to the SLU corpus, Pavur, 2009) 1094 (12.2 %, roughly 13% if we subtract words consisting of 3 letters or less which are usually not abbreviated) could potentially be abbreviated, only taking basic forms of words into account (no flections or conjugations). Compared to the Vulgate, the data shows that of the 38’138 words occurring in the Bible, 1083 exist in abbreviated form. Therefore the data demonstrates what could be expected (Traube, 1907): The abbreviations were not especially or solely conceived for the use in handwritten Bibles but for a variety of texts. A digital Cappelli is thus able to show in a quantitative way what specialists already suspected.</p>
            <p>The abbreviations are being offered through the platform Ad fontes (<ref target=""http://www.adfontes.uzh.ch"">www.adfontes.uzh.ch</ref>, Kränzle and Ritter, 2004) as well as the web app App fontes (t.uzh.ch/adf). A batch download of all data including the images is possible.</p>
            <p>The digitization and systematization of the abbreviations according to Cappelli opens possibilities not included in the printed version: Unidentifiable letters and/or letters that are not part of the roman alphabet do not need to be known by the user; instead, they can use wildcards in order to get satisfactory search results. Generally, uncertainties won’t prevent a successful search, they will only increase the number of results.</p>
            <p>Currently, a feedback loop (concerning emendations of the Cappelli) as well as the possibility to add further abbreviations are being developed. Especially the second part will once more use the power of a specialized crowd, at the same time assembling a resource for the use of everyone working with manuscripts.</p>
            <p>By crowdsourcing the digitisation of the Cappelli by a heterogeneous group of people, we proved that there is an interest in and a need to deal with abbreviations (Pluta, 2016). With its new resource, Ad fontes will facilitate how abbreviations in handwritten documents are dealt with in the 21st century.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Literaturverzeichnis1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cappelli, A.</hi> (1928).<hi rend=""italic""> Lexicon abbreviaturarum: Wörterbuch lateinischer und italienischer Abkürzungen wie sie in Urkunden und Handschriften besonders des Mittelalters gebräuchlich sind</hi>. Leipzig: JJ Weber.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Literaturverzeichnis1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kränzle, A. and Ritter, G.</hi> (2004). Ad fontes. Zu Konzept, <hi rend=""italic""> Realisierung und Nutzung eines E-Learning-Angebots</hi>. Zürich (http://opac.nebis.ch/ediss/20050043.pdf, accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Literaturverzeichnis1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pavur, C.</hi> (2009).<hi rend=""italic"">  Latin Vocabulary: High-Frequency Latin Word-Forms </hi>[web site]. http://www.slu.edu/colleges/AS/languages/classical/latin/tchmat/grammar/vocabulary/hif-ed2.html (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Literaturverzeichnis1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pluta, O.</hi> (2016). Abbreviationes
                        <hi rend=""superscript"">TM</hi> Online – Medieval Abbreviations on the Web [web site]. (http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/philosophy/projects/abbreviationes/index.html, accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Literaturverzeichnis1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Traube, L.</hi> (1907). <hi rend=""italic"">Nomina sacra. Versuch einer Geschichte der christlichen Kürzung</hi>. München: CH Beck’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Quellen und Untersuchungen zur lateinischen Philologie des Mittelalters 2).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2536","17","Academic Pillow-Talk and Two Immersive Explorations of Linguistic Space","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>As Virtual Reality emerges as an accessible technology, researchers have begun to experiment with its potential for data visualisation. In this paper I will use two particular VR visualisations of linguistic data as a springboard for discussing the affordances of different immersive technologies for research.<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1""><p> My development of the linguistic visualisations discussed here was funded by a transdisciplinary grant from the Centre of Excellence for the Dynamics of Language (COEDL).</p></note></p>
            <p>The first visualisation is a geographically-anchored walkthrough of data held in the PARADISEC linguistic archive (Thieberger and Barwick, 2012). A user moves across a representation of a geographic region and sees markers on the landscape representing the metadata of the relevant PARADISEC materials for that location: number of speakers, amount and diversity of material held. Audio and text appear when the user gazes at a marker. Looking up, the user can also see the historical relationships between the languages as a network. Such a visualisation could be adapted to represent the holdings of other kinds of archives, so the discussion in this paper has implications for digital humanities more generally.</p>
            <p>The second visualisation is a more abstract three-dimensional cloud of coloured points laid out on three axes. The user is located initially in the midst of this cloud, and can move through it in any direction. The colours, sizes and shapes of the points, as well as their location on the x, y, and z axes, can be mapped to variables of any kind of data, and therefore this too has implications beyond linguistic research. For my purposes, they represent linguistic features derived from the <hi rend=""italic"">World Atlas of Language Structures</hi> (WALS) (Dryer and Haspelmath, 2013). To demonstrate one use case, different measures of linguistic complexity can be graphed on the x, y, and z axes (e.g. WALS features 1A+2A, 22A, 49A, etc). Colouring the points according to the geographical location of the languages, with shape determined by genetic affiliation makes it easy to explore clusters of types of complexity.</p>
            <p>Both of these visualisations can be viewed in a pseudo-3D environment using WebGL in a desktop browser. For a more immersive experience, however, they can also be viewed inside a virtual reality headset such as the Google Cardboard or Oculus Rift. Alternatively, the visualisations can be displayed on the inside of a fulldome such as those used in a planetarium. Through a recent successful LIEF grant, Western Sydney University and a number of partners have been able to construct an ultra-high resolution experimental fulldome (‘DomeLab’ http://www.niea.unsw.edu.au/research/projects/domelab). </p>
            <p>Display via virtual reality headset is the most straightforward sort of immersion. The viewer is embodied amidst the data, and simple movements from everyday life (e.g. looking around) translate directly into the virtual space. Display of the visualisation in a browser is at the other extreme of (non)immersion. However, many users are familiar with the translation of three-dimensional space onto a flat screen from modern computer games, so it can still give a sense of movement, rotation, and interactivity. </p>
            <p>A hybrid of these two experiences, perhaps less familiar, is the dome. The user lies on the floor inside the dome, and the visualisation is displayed on the concave walls of the dome above. Because the user is surrounded by the screen, the experience is far more immersive than the display of a visualisation in a computer browser. Metaphors of movement and space have to be adapted for such a display, however, as most of the display surface is above the user. </p>
            <p>This paper will discuss the reasons why we might want to explore linguistic data visually, and what we gain or lose by doing so in the various environments described above. Lev Manovich notes that information visualisation is the representation of datasets in such a way as to reveal structure (Manovich, 2010). Linguists are obsessed with structure. Since at least Pāṇini (4<hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century BC, see Vasu, 1891), linguists have conceived individual languages as highly structured; since the Neogrammarians if not before, ‘language’ as an abstraction that changes and exists outside of its speakers has also been considered a highly structured object of study; sociolinguists are interested in the structure of speech communities and speaker networks; psycholinguists and neurolinguists in the linguistic structures of the mind and the brain. Linguistics is therefore a field that is primed to search for and find structure in its data, and is constantly searching for new ways to do so.</p>
            <p>Manovich also describes data visualisation as a matter of reduction and spatialisation, often involving a remapping of the non-visual to the visual. For linguists, reducing linguistic data to features and remapping it to the visual (audio to text, for example) are business as usual. What I would like to discuss in this paper is the spatialisation of the data, and the embodiment of the researcher(s) within that data space.</p>
            <p>A very active branch of linguistics involved in data visualisation is linguistic typology. Typology concerns itself with how languages are distributed within the possibility space of all conceivable languages: i.e. “what’s where and why” (Bickel, 2007). Because linguistic data has an inherent geographical dimension, the predominant linguistic visualisation typologists use is a map. I have followed this lead for my PARADISEC visualisation. However, Manovich also points out that both designers and their audience tend to treat spatial dimensions as primary (Manovich, 2010:8). Therefore it makes sense also to experiment with mapping these to other, perhaps more significant features of the linguistic data. This is the impetus behind my data graph visualisation. By translating the WALS data to a more abstract 3D graph, different relationships, clusters and structures become apparent. In the full paper I demonstrate examples of this.</p>
            <p>Data visualisations can have a variety of purposes (see e.g. Dransch, 2000; Purchase et al., 2008). They can be a way to explore data to generate ideas or observations that then inspire future research. They can be an attempt at scientific modelling, instantiating more fully formed pre-existing ideas. Or they can be a way of communicating information to others. An early study of user experience in 2D, 3D and immersive data visualisation (Modjeska, 2000) showed that users generally find 2D representations of the data more efficient, but enjoyment and motivation increases with the degree of immersiveness. This suggests that VR visualisations might be best suited for the playful exploration of data described above than for serious scientific modelling. They may also be well suited for communication of ideas when it is not essential that the audience grasp complex details. </p>
            <p>These are therefore the motivations behind the two linguistic data visualisations I describe. With the PARADISEC map visualisation it is not essential that a user come away with perfect recall of what exactly the archive holds, but rather with a sense of its richness, and increased motivation for using the archive in the future. The data graph visualisation is aimed at researchers who want to explore language data creatively in order to generate new ideas.</p>
            <p>Finally, I discuss how the affordances of the VR headset versus the Dome depend on one’s beliefs about the locus of knowledge production. In the ‘lone wolf’ researcher model, an individual generates ideas in a relative vacuum, or at least, the important connections for the researcher are among and with the data itself, not with other people. For this model, a VR headset is ideal. In the world of the headset, the researcher is alone with the data: the mundane is quite literally blacked out. The dome, on the other hand, is designed to be experienced communally. The floor is covered with large pillows, and people lie head-to-head or side-by-side. Curtains delimit the boundaries, but this threhold is permeable: people come and go. It is natural to discuss the visualisations above with those who lie beside you in the half-dark. In this way, research conversations become a kind of academic pillow-talk, naturally imbued with the playfulness, intimacy, and gentleness of such. In the VR headset, you become part of the data; in the dome you become part of a community.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bickel, B.</hi> (2007). Typology in the 21st century: major current developments. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Linguistic Typology</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(1): 239-51.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dransch, D.</hi> (2000). The use of different media in visualizing spatial data. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computers & Geosciences</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">26</hi>(1): 5-9.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dryer, M. and Haspelmath, M.</hi> (Eds.) (2013).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The World Atlas of Language Structures Online</hi>. MPI for Evolutionary Anthropology. http://wals.info
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manovich, L.</hi> (2010). What is visualization?
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PAJ: The Journal of the Initiative for Digital Humanities, Media, and Culture</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Modjeska, D.</hi> (2000).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Hierarchical data visualization in desktop virtual reality.</hi> Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Purchase, H., et al.</hi> (2008). Theoretical foundations of information visualization. In Kerren, A., Stasko, John T., Fekete, J-D. and North, C. (Eds),
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Information Visualization.</hi> Springer, pp. 46-64.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thieberger, N., and Barwick, L.</hi> (2012). Keeping records of language diversity in Melanesia, the Pacific and regional archive for digital sources in endangered cultures (PARADISEC).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Melanesian Languages on the Edge of Asia: Challenges for the 21st Century</hi>, pp. 239-53.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vasu, S. C. (1891).</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Ashtadhyayi of Panini</hi> vol. 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, India.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2537","17","Access, Ownership, Protection: The Ethics of Digital Scholarship","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Abstract</head>
            <p>This panel aims to address the important issue of how we as Digital Humanities scholars negotiate and present the sensitive data (textual, archival, geospatial) that constitutes the core of our analyses. The public facing nature of our work reveals significant challenges that have to do increasingly with access and ethics, and in many cases cause us to reassess how we conduct and disseminate our research. A number of topics pertinent to this issue are addressed in this panel, informed by case studies offered from the panelists’ own work. Points of discussion will include, but not be limited to: the negotiation and presentation of sensitive data, access to sources and resources, collaboration, and ownership. In addition to presenting case studies, this panel will incorporate an open dialogue among attendees that addresses these issues across a broader array of research.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Research Ethics in DH</head>
            <p>Many of us who work in the Digital Humanities are in some way negotiating, mediating, remediating, and publishing sensitive data. We use the term “sensitive” in a broad way: sensitivity has to do with data that is physically difficult to access because it is privately held, fragile under restrictive copyright, or regards peoples or places that are affected by its use. While our community is opening up new opportunities to digitize, analyze, and share archival materials, the very publicfacing nature of our work reveals significant challenges that have to do increasingly with access and ethics. In many cases, digital methods and approaches make the data upon which we rely even more sensitive. How do we take into account the possibility of risking damage to an artifact in order to digitize it? How do we negotiate rights to data and metadata that has until now been held privately and closely or that involves dozens if not more authors and artists who are still alive, or whose literary and artistic executors have established different parameters for publication? How do we act responsibly when the very publication of a personal work even one that on the surface seems not to impact upon a group of people or a place because of its historical nature may have a profound impact on the lives of those peoples’ descendants or the sanctity or environmental protection of those places? The pillars of digital scholarship data visualization and markup, large corpus literary analysis, and geospatial analysis are all complicated profoundly by these questions and sometimes deter us as scholars from working with the very materials we rely on to do our research.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <p>Case Studies</p>
            <p>This panel’s five contributors work with distinctly different types of data, utilizing a variety of approaches from across the spectrum of digital methods:</p>
              <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                <head>Spatial Data</head>
                <p>Katie Faull's work with culturalhistorical spatial data in the Susquehanna river watershed has led to a role as mediator between Native American nations and Federal, State and local agencies. Her work regularly raises ethical questions about how data pertaining to sites and landscapes that are carriers of cultural identity and memory for indigenous peoples should be protected from destruction, while at the same time presented to the public as part of important negotiations about conservation. Working with present day Native American nations about the interpretation and conservation of landscapes that are deeply culturally significant, frequently demands delicate negotiations about access and protection and exemplifies the tightrope that many DH researchers must walk. For example, within the realm of Public Humanities, how do we protect indigenous knowledge systems and simultaneously educate the nonindigenous public about those knowledge systems. Her presentation will outline how she and her team of researchers have had to convince archaeologists, for example, that cultural sites can be interpreted within a broader environmental context, thus widening the focus of the cultural historical interpretive lens. At the same time she negotiates with indigenous peoples how to best represent their views of this broader environment. This paper will also discuss how the US Department of the Interior’s new landscape conservation initiative (one that is garnering international recognition) may provide a bridge between access, protection and ownership of indigenous cultural memory.</p>
              </div>
              <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                <head>Historically exploited cultural communities</head>
                <p>Amy Earhart’s work in digital critical race studies has led her to develop community collaborations. However, historical abuses of communities present formidable challenges for those who seek to develop partnerships with vulnerable populations. Earhart will address the challenges that those interested in developing equitable partnerships for collaborative projects might encounter, with particular attention to power dynamics between universities/colleges and such communities using her project The Millican “Riot,” 1868 (http://millican.omeka.net ) project as a lens through which to discuss how trust and protection might be built into digital projects and how decisions, from project team to technological platform, impact the equitableness of the partnership. In addition, she will discuss strategies for removing control from the academic and the academic institution and, instead, positioning the project within a community or activist site. Finally, she will discuss the use of creative commons licensing including the TK: Traditional Knowledge License and Labeling license (http://www.localcontexts.org ) which ensure that historically exploited communities maintain ownership of their material and intellectual property.</p>
              </div>
              <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                <head>Text Analysis</head>
                <p>James O’Sullivan’s work in computational analytics deals with literary datasets that, while not necessarily restricted, are difficult for peers to replicate. Literary datasets are particularly susceptible to computational approaches, and the new insights that such techniques reveal have the potential to add considerable value to our core disciplines. However, in research contexts where the subject matter is as culturally and socially sensitive as it is intriguing, scholars are presented with an ethical dilemma as far as data is concerned. Many of the works used in macroanalyses are often still under copyright, and so researchers are prohibited from sharing the texts. This restriction precludes our peers from doing two important things: validating our findings, and offering further iterations of our work. Considering the effort that is required in digitising certain datasets, our discipline is fast becoming one where much of the work that claims to be empirically valid cannot in fact be validated. Much of our field’s research is conducted on datasets which take the researchers years to acquire and digitize. If datasets are not shared and oftentimes they cannot be replication requires sufficient time and institutional support, and is thus infeasible. As a result, the field has no realistic mechanism by which it can query the validity of methods and interpretations. Should scholars who create datasets hold power over digital artefacts of cultural significance? How can we validate the new insights being offered by scholars in our field? Should we, as scholars, sacrifice access in the name of exploration, or do we need to at least strive for balance between the two?</p>
              </div>
              <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                <head>Intellectual Property</head>
                <p>Diane Jakacki’s work as a coordinator of digital humanities projects involves collaborating with researchers whose scholarship often entails significant contributions across disciplines and institutions. In addition, the digital nature of this work necessitates the longterm commitment of institutional resources. As this digital scholarship becomes public, questions about intellectual property rights become increasingly complex. Reflecting the nature of DH as a primarily collaborative mode of intellectual work, traditional models of solitary or individual production no longer work. DH collaboration requires teams of investigators, collaborators, data specialists, and research assistants; it often spans years and involves team members across institutions and international borders. The humanistic tradition honors the primacy of the scholar in terms of intellectual property. But as DH methods and forms of labor transform scholarship models, defining primacy becomes ever more complicated. Who is the scholar? Who owns the artifacts that embody DH scholarship? Who makes those determinations? As DH scholars we (rightly) resist any idea that our work is not our own; but do our institutions understand this the same way?</p>
              </div>
              <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                <head>National Security and Public History</head>
                <p>Micki Kaufman’s work involves the text analysis, data visualization and historical interpretation of the National Security Archive's Kissinger Collection, a carefully curated set of meeting memoranda (memcons) and telephone transcripts (telcons) spanning the 9 years of former US Secretary of State and National Security Advisor Henry A. Kissinger’s tenure (1968-1977). Her research into the source material and the methods she has employed to obtain and study it, confront and engage complex issues of copyright and public domain, open access and classification, legality and violence. Through a process of creative deformance of text analytics data (collocation frequency, topic models and other abstractions of text), she uses an aesthetic, visual approach to study patterns and surface complex questions of emotional motivation and behavior, intent and suppression. What ethical features apply when one asks questions about a deeply controversial historical subject’s intent and behavior via statistically based text analysis methods, using declassified public domain material from a still classified correspondence, curated by a nonprofit institution and obtained from behind a corporate paywall? From the provenance of the material to the intent of the subject, and from the actions of the declassifying agencies and authorities to the research method, Micki's work examines the ethical underpinnings of the relationship between historian and narrative, setting and subject, word and byte, secret and free.</p>
              </div>
            </div>
        </body>
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Borgman, Ch. </hi>(2009). The Digital Future is Now: a Call to Action for the Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(4). 
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Christen, K. </hi>(2015). On not Looking:  Economies of Visuality in Digital Museums. In Coombes, Annie E and Phillips, Ruth B (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The International Handbooks of Museum Studies: Museum Transformations</hi>. London: Wiley: Blackwell, pp. 365-86.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Christen, K.</hi> (2012). 
                        <ref target=""http://www.kimchristen.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/christen6.2012.pdf"">Does Information Really Want to be Free? Indigenous Knowledge Systems and the Question of Openness</ref>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Communication</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>: 2870-93. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Lewis, V. et al.</hi> (2015). Building Expertise to Support Digital Scholarship: A Global Perspective. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Council on Library and Information Resources</hi>. 
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Nowviskie, B.</hi> (2011). Where Credit is Due: Preconditions for the Evaluation of Collaborative Digital Scholarship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Profession</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">13</hi>: 169-81.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Poole, A. H.</hi> (2013). Now is the Future Now? The Urgency of Digital Curation in the Digital Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>. <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(2) 
                        <ref target=""http://digitalhumanities.org:8081/dhq/vol/7/2/000163/000163.html"">http://digitalhumanities.org:8081/dhq/vol/7/2/000163/000163.html</ref> (accessed 3 March 2016).
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Werbin, K., C.</hi> (2012). The Social Media Contract: On the Paradoxes of Digital Property in this Digital Land. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Canadian Studies/Revue d'Études Canadiennes</hi>. <hi rend=""bold"">46</hi>(2): 245-62.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">The National Security Archive.</hi> (2015). Most Agencies Falling Short on Mandate for Online Records. 
                        <ref target=""http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB505/"">http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB505/</ref> (accessed 3 March 2016)
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    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2538","17","An Iterative 3DGIS Analysis of the Role of Visibility in Ancient Landscapes","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
        <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Introduction</head>
            <p>Through the spatial arrangements of temples, houses, roads, and more, the built environment provides a window to human interaction (Lawrence and Low, 1990). Spatial configurations influence how people negotiate their surroundings. People “read environmental cues, make judgments…and then act accordingly” (Rapoport, 1990: 139), and these decisions in turn, affect the frequency and intensity of interaction (Fletcher 1981). While many factors influence interaction within landscapes, in this paper I focus on visibility. </p>
            <p>The visibility, intervisibility, and invisibility of features communicate information that guides pedestrian movement, and consequently, structures social interaction and community organization (Llobera, 2003, 2006; Gillings, 2015). Building on these ideas, this paper uses Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and 3D visualization to explore the role of visibility in ancient landscapes asking: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">How might visibility influence where people went, what they did, who interacted with whom, and how did these interactions shape their daily experiences? </hi>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""140/image1.jpg"" rend=""block""/>
                <head>Figure 1: Map of Copan’s location at southeastern periphery of Maya region (Map: H. Richards-Rissetto)</head>
            </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Case Study: Copan, Honduras</head>
            <p>The case study is the ancient Maya polity of Copan (Figure 1) ruled for over four-hundred years by a line of dynastic kings who by the late eighth century were facing mounting sociopolitical and environmental problems (Fash, 2001). Copan’s final dynastic ruler, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Yax Pasaj</hi>, like the rulers of many other Maya polities, was coping with strenuous environmental, demographic, and sociopolitical circumstances that would ultimately lead to the kingdom’s demise. Yet during this time of stress, it seems that 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Yax Pasaj</hi> carried out a major urban renewal project commissioning several new temples in the city center that elevated Copan’s skyline. Given the changes to Copan’s urban fabric, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Yax Pasaj’s</hi> reign is an ideal case study to investigate the role visibility may have played in the production or reproduction of social interaction among the ancient Maya. 
            </p>
            <p>At Copan, as at other Maya centers, imagery on ceramics, murals, and freestanding monuments depicted deities floating over lords who subsequently looked down over lower-ranking persons. Maya architecture replicated this vertical succession by elevating royal compounds above other architecture, and in essence linking Maya rulers to the heavens (Messenger, 1987). In terms of visibility, epigraphic decipherments indicate that “seeing” afforded high status, and sight had an authorizing gaze and witnessing function—similar to Foucault’s (1995) Panoptic gaze—where those who were all-seeing were all-knowing (Houston et al. 2006: 173). In order to be all-seeing or to give such an impression, however, Maya rulers needed to be seen, and so often located themselves in physically high and easily visible places or built tall temples that dominated the landscape.</p>
            <p>While we know that Maya kings typically constructed highly visible temples, we actually know very little about the role visibility may have played in structuring social connections and daily interactions among social groups. To do this we need to broaden our view from civic-ceremonial precincts to encapsulate the broader landscape (Doyle et al., 2012; Richards-Rissetto 2010; Landau, 2015). </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Background: GIS & 3D Visualization</head>
            <p>Early visibility studies in the Maya region focused on astronomical alignments among structures, freestanding monuments, and the sky (Aveni and Hartung, 1986). Later, ethnographic studies showing that contemporary Maya often use sight lines to mark out spaces (Hanks, 1990) inspired researchers to investigate whether non-astronomical lines-of-sight also existed at ancient sites; and in fact, archaeologists identified sight lines between a major temple and outlying stelae at the site of La Milpa, Belize (Hammond and Tourtellot, 1999). Recent research has moved away from lines-of-sight between two objects to study the relationships that an object may have to the many objects or features found within a landscape, referred to as a visualscape (Llobera, 2003). Simple line-of-sight measurements cannot provide data on the relationships among multiple objects because they are done along a fixed line; however, visualscapes can be measured using viewsheds that calculate an object‘s entire 360° field-of-view using GIS. </p>
            <p>A GIS links mapped features to attributes stored in a database and overlays different data layers such as land usage, elevation, and buildings to help reveal complex patterns, relationships, and trends that are not readily apparent using other tools such as traditional databases not linked to maps. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""underline"">Pros:</hi> In regard to visibility analysis, GIS allows archaeologists to move beyond line-of-sight analysis to viewshed analysis. A viewshed uses raster data (pixels) to identify all cells visible from one or more viewpoints in a landscape; all non-visible cells are assigned a 0 and all visible cells are assigned a 1. This basic binary schema allows for complex mathematical calculations, for example, Boolean operations or map algebra, to calculate topographic prominence of individual features (or classes of features) and percentage of intervisibility among features. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""underline"">Cons:</hi> “Viewsheds depicted in a GIS map bear little resemblance to what people experience on the ground” (Conolly and Lake, 2006: 233). This limitation occurs because viewshed data are 2.5D. In other words, viewsheds store heights and elevation, but they are not actually 3D models (Figure 2). For digital humanists, these flat maps lack a sense of mass, scale, and aesthetics integral to human perception and experience, and the numerical outputs fail to differentiate visibility of a building’s façade versus its sides or back—essential for close reading interpretation. Technically, data resolution (i.e., ratio of pixel size to earth’s surface) can dramatically affect viewshed results—low spatial resolution often masking variation and too high a spatial resolution underestimating visibility (King et al., 2015). 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""140/image2.jpg"" rend=""block""/>
                <head>Figure 2: Cumulative viewshed illustrating number of valley stelae visible at locations at Copan</head>
            </figure>
            <p>3D technologies offer an alternative to GIS. 3D data acquisition (e.g., airborne LiDAR, terrestrial laser scanning, and photogrammetry), 3D modeling (e.g., SketchUp, 3D StudioMax, Agisoft), and interactive 3D visualization (e.g., Unity, Oculus Rift) are transforming archaeological practice. But, what impact are such 3D technologies having on visibility analysis across ancient landscapes? Airborne LiDAR, for example, rapidly collects 3D data for archaeological sites across vast areas (Thompson and Prufer, 2015). Most LiDAR data are of unexcavated mounds requiring subsequent 3D modeling of architecture and proper alignment within terrains in order to perform visibility analysis—traditionally time-consuming tasks (Richards-Rissetto, 2013). </p>
            <p>While most visibility analyses of archaeological landscapes use traditional 2.5D GIS, recently archaeologists have been exploring the potential of 3D approaches for visibility analysis in archaeology. Paliou (2014) developed a computational visibility approach to analyze the visual range of paintings first using 3D modeling programs (3DStudioMax and AutoCAD) and then converting the results into raster maps to be analyzed in a GIS. Dell’ Unto and colleagues (2015) bring georeferenced 3D architectural models (using laser scanning and photogrammetry) into a GIS to calculate visibility of building interiors at Pompeii. While Saldana and Johanson (2015) also use 3DGIS, they employ procedural modeling to rapidly generate alternative 3D building reconstructions based on a set of architectural rules and attributes stored in a GIS to explore visibility in Ancient Rome (Saldana, 2015).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Methods</head>
            <p>Building on this scholarship, I employ an iterative 3DGIS approach to explore the role of visibility at the ancient Maya site of Copan—today a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Honduras. The approach is twofold: computational and experiential. In the computational approach, I employ traditional 2.5D viewshed analysis in GIS to establish a baseline for comparative analysis with viewshed results in 3DGIS. </p>
            <p>First, I use ArcGIS 10.3 (standard GIS software) to assign known building heights and interpolate building heights of unexcavated mounds and run viewsheds to calculate topographic prominence and percent visibility in relation to settlement of major temples and classes of architecture (Richards-Rissetto, 2013). Recent acquisition of airborne LiDAR data has generated a 1m resolution terrain allowing for greater accuracy than earlier visibility analyses (Richards-Rissetto, 2010; von Schwerin et al., 2016). Second, I employ CityEngine—a procedural modeling program that convert GIS data to 3D models—to generate 3D models for Copan’s 3,000+ buildings with the LiDAR terrain using the GIS data and a set of architectural rules as well as laser scanned and photogrammetric models of some standing monuments at Copan (Figure 3) (Muller et al., 2006; Richards-Rissetto and Plessing, 2015; von Schwerin et al., 2013). These procedurally-generated 3D models are then returned to ArcScene (a 3D viewer for ArcGIS) and the viewshed analysis is rerun for comparative analysis of 2.5DGIS vs. 3DGIS of visibility at ancient Copan.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""140/image3.jpg"" rend=""block""/>
                <head>Figure 3: Illustrating procedurally-generated models and various data types imported into CityEngine</head>
            </figure>
            <p>In the experiential approach, I export the 3D models and terrain from CityEngine into Unity 5—a gaming engine—to interactively explore the 3D models. In this model, vegetation is added to the landscape and avatars proceed along set paths generated from a combined cost surface and visibility analysis (Figure 4) (Richards-Rissetto, 2013; Richards-Rissetto and Landau, 2014). Oculus Rift—a head-mounted virtual reality display—is employed to create an immersive experience for ancient Copan as a means to more intuitively interact with archaeological data (Bartolo et al., 2000; Frisher and Dakouri-Hild, 2008). </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""140/image4.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>
                <head>Figure 4: 3D Models (from SketchUp using GIS data) visualization in Unity 5 (Richards-Rissetto and Day)</head>
            </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Discussion</head>
                <p>Strongly embedded in the Digital Humanities, this 3DGIS iterative approach tacks back and forth between 2.5D and 3D data to compare results and potentially derive new methods and interpretations for visibility analysis of ancient landscapes—analyses that would not be possible without taking advantage of the digital to cross-cut the computational and experiential. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Acknowledgements</head>
                <p>The Layman Award, University of Nebraska-Lincoln provided a seed grant to carry out initial procedural modeling tests. This research would not be possible without permission and assistance from the Honduran Institute of Anthropology and History (IHAH). The MayaArch3D Project has generously providing the airborne LiDAR data and the laser scanned and photogrammetric models for this research. I want to thank UNL students Zachary Day, Stephanie Sterling, and Rachel Plessing for their important work on the visualizations. </p>
            </div>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Von Schwerin, J., Richards-Rissetto, H., Remondino, F., Grazia Spera, M., Auer, M., Billen, N., Loos, L. and Reindel M.</hi> (2016). Airborne LiDAR Acquisition, Post-Processing and Accuracy-Checking for a 3D WebGIS of Copan, Honduras. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Archaeological Science Reports</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2539","17","Ancient Maya Writings as High-Dimensional Data: a Visualization Approach","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p> The ancient Maya civilization flourished from around 2000 BC to 1600 AD and left a great amount of cultural heritage materials, in the shape of stone monument inscriptions, folded codex pages, or personal ceramic items. All these materials contain hieroglyphs (in short glyphs) written on them. The Maya writing system is visually complex (Fig. 1) and new glyphs are still being discovered. This brings the necessity of better digital preservation systems. Interpretation of a small amount of glyphs is still open to discussion due to both visual differences and semantic analysis. Some glyphs are damaged, or have many variations due to artistic reasons and the evolving nature of language.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""188/10000201000005E1000004659135E837.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 1. A stone inscription found in Pomona, Tabasco (Mexico), Panel 1 from 771 AD (Photograph by Carlos Pallán Gayol for AJIMAYA/INAH Project© 2006, Instituto Nacional de Antropología de Historia, Mexico)</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Signs following ancient Mesoamerican representational conventions end up being classified according to their appearance, which leads to potential confusions as the iconic origin of many signs and their transformations through time are not well-understood. For instance, a sign thought to fall within the category of 'body-part' can later be proven to actually correspond to a vegetable element (a different semantic domain). Similarly, several signs classified as 'abstract', 'square' or 'round' could actually be pars-pro-toto representations of a larger whole.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""188/1000020100000781000003211C532234.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 2. Maya glyph samples from several categories (according to Thompson's catalog) that illustrate the within-class variety and between-class similarity</head>
                    </figure> 
                    </p>
                <p>Fig. 2 illustrates the challenges to analyse Maya glyphs visually. Adding functionalities that take context (i.e., co-occurrence statistics, characteristics of the data) and part-whole relations (i.e., highlighting diagnostic parts) into account would bring guidance during decipherment tasks. The tools we envision are different from existing almanac-by-almanac visualization systems (Vail and Hernandez, 2013). They are also more engaging for users (i.e. visitors in museums), and offer promising perspectives for scholars.</p>
                <p> This motivates the study of data visualization. In this paper, we built a prototype for visualization of glyphs based on visual features. We introduce (1) an approach to analyse Maya glyphs combining a state-of-the-art visual shape descriptor, and (2) a non-linear method to visualize high-dimensional data. For the first component, we use the histogram of orientation shape context (HOOSC) (Roman-Rangel et. al., 2011a; Roman-Rangel et. al., 2011b; Roman-Rangel et. al., 2013) which has similarities to other descriptors of the recognition literature (Belongie et. al., 2002; Dalal and Triggs, 2005; Lowe, 2004), but is adapted to shape analysis (Franken and van Gemert, 2013). </p>
                <p> For the second component, we use the t-distributed Stochastic Neighbourhood Embedding (t-SNE) (Van der Maaten and Hinton, 2008), which is a dimensionality reduction method from the machine learning literature that has value for Digital Humanities (DH), as it can highlight the structure of high-dimensional data, i.e., multiple viewpoints among samples.</p>
                <p>As analysis of DH data is often based on attributes like authorship, produced time, and place, observing these variations as smooth transitions with t-SNE becomes a relevant feature. </p>
                <p> We show that the proposed methodology is useful to analyse the extent of spatial support used in the shape descriptor and to reveal new connections in the corpus through inspection of glyphs from stone monuments and glyph variants from catalogue sources. In particular, we hope that the presentation of our use of t-SNE can motivate further work in DH for other related problems.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methodology</head>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""188/10000201000006D2000001D278FA1261.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 3. Overall flow for visualization with t-SNE</head>
                    </figure> 
                    </p>
                <p>The analysis process is illustrated in Fig. 3. First, for each glyph, a standard visual bag-of-words representation (BoW) is computed from the HOOSC descriptors. Second, dimensionality reduction is performed on the BoW representation of a glyph collection to generate the visualization. The main steps are described below.
                </p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Datasets</head>
                    <p>We analyse our visualization pipeline on two individual Maya glyph datasets.</p>
                    <div type=""div3"" rend=""DH-Heading3"">
                        <head>Monument data</head>
                        <p>
                            <figure>
                                <graphic url=""188/10000201000004A300000208C03F34E8.png""/>
                                <head>Figure 4. Sample glyph images, corresponding Thompson annotations, and syllabic values (sounds) of selected 10 classes from the syllabic monument glyph dataset</head>
                            </figure>
                            </p>
                        <p>We use a subset (630 samples from 10 classes, Fig. 4) of hand-drawings (Roman-Rangel et. al., 2011), corresponding to syllabic glyphs inscribed in monuments. These samples are collected by archaeologists (as part of Mexico’s AJIMAYA project) from stone inscriptions spread over four regions (Peten, Usumacinta, Motagua, and Yucatan). As an additional source, around 300 glyph samples are taken from existing catalogues (Thompson and Eric, 1962; Macri and Looper, 2003). </p>
                    </div>
                    <div type=""div3"" rend=""DH-Heading3"">
                        <head>Thompson catalogue </head>
                        <p>Secondly, we use 1487 glyph variants cropped from the Thompson's catalogue. These variants belong to 814 categories and divided as main sign and prefix/suffix groups in the catalogue.</p>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Visual feature representation</head>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""188/10000201000003570000011DEDB4B719.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 5. HOOSC computation at a sample position of the shape</head>
                        </figure> 
                        </p>
                    <p>The HOOSC is a shape descriptor proposed in our research group for Maya glyphs (Roman-Rangel, 2011b). It is computed in two main steps (Fig. 5). First, the orientations of a set of sampled points are computed. Secondly, for a given sampled position, the histogram of local orientations are computed using a small number 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Na</hi> of angle bins forming a circular grid partition centred at each point. The HOOSC descriptor is obtained by concatenating all histograms, and applying per-ring normalization. Basic parameters are the spatial context 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">sc</hi> defining the extent of the spatial partition; the number of rings 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">N</hi>
                        <hi rend=""sub italic"">r</hi>; and the number 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">N</hi>
                        <hi rend=""sub italic"">s </hi>of slices in a ring. With 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">N</hi>
                        <hi rend=""sub italic"">a</hi> =8, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">N</hi>
                        <hi rend=""sub italic"">r</hi> =2, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">N</hi>
                        <hi rend=""sub italic"">s</hi>=8, HOOSC has 128 dimensions. We have used HOOSC for usual retrieval and categorization tasks (Hu et. al., 2015).
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Dimensionality reduction: t-SNE</head>
                    <p> Proposed in (Hinton and Roweis, 2002), SNE is a non-linear dimensionality reduction method. It relates the Euclidean distances of samples in high-dimensional space to the conditional probability for each point selecting one of the neighbours. In t-SNE (Van der Maaten and Hinton, 2008), these distributions are modelled as heavy-tailed t-distributions. t-SNE aims to find for each data point, a lower-dimensional projection such that the conditional probabilities in the projected space are as close as possible to those of the original space (measured with KL divergence (Kullback and Leibler, 1951)).</p>
                    <p> In our application, first, we project the BoW representation to a 30-dimensional space using PCA, then applied t-SNE to these projections to get 2-dimension mapping. t-SNE keeps track of the local structure of the data as it optimizes the clusters globally.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results and discussion</head>
                <p> The full-scale visualization of the glyphs are available at 
                    <ptr target=""https://www.idiap.ch/project/maaya/demos/t-sne""/>.
                </p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Glyph monument corpus structure</head>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""188/100002010000044C0000046002AD45BC.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 6. Monument data: t-SNE plots with visual representations obtained at four different spatial context levels</head>
                        </figure> 
                        </p>
                    <p>Fig. 6 shows the monument corpus. The region encoded in the visual descriptor varies from almost whole glyph (sc=1/1) to small local parts (sc=1/8). One question is how spatial context influences visualization of the representation. Regarding the visual clusters, with the most global representation (sc=1/1), our method extracts more distinct clusters, e.g. T229 and T126 in Fig. 7 (navy and magenta in Fig. 6 and 9). Please see Fig. 9 for roughly-coloured clusters of the glyphs. As the descriptor gets more local, the categories with common patterns mix up (Fig. 6). Yet, our method is able to capture meaningful common local parts and maps the samples based on these elements, i.e. parallel lines, hatches, and circles.
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""188/10000000000004E2000002EE99F1601A.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 7. Monument data: Close-up of two clusters (T229 on the left and T126 on the right), corresponding to navy and magenta clusters in Fig. 6 with the most global HOOSC descriptor (sc=1/1)</head>
                        </figure> 
                    </p>
                    <p>For Maya epigraphers in our team, a more neatly differentiated grouping of signs, e.g. obtained by HOOSC with sc=1/1 is preferable. However, work on the effects of parameter choice is required to obtain groupings that make more epigraphic sense. Clearer 'borderlines', less 'outliers,' and less 'intrusive' signs (e.g. T25 and T1) within each cluster would be desirable. Our results in this regard are preliminary, but they open promising research questions.</p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""188/1000020100000618000002F87971B233.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 8. Monument data: Close-up of two clusters (T59 on the left and T116 on the right), which exhibit smooth transition between samples corresponding to place or temporal variations</head>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                    <p> Another important epigraphic point is that we observe interesting visual transitions between samples of the categories. Fig. 8 shows examples from category T59 and T116, which illustrate a smooth dilation of samples in one direction. These kind of observations are interesting for archaeologists, since they might correspond to modification of the glyph signs over time or place.</p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""188/10000000000003EB0000050054BDC39D.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 9. Monument data: Visualization of all class samples with the most global HOOSC descriptor (sc=1/1)</head>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Glyph variants from Thompson catalogue</hi>
                    </head>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""188/10000201000006940000042C50C35A02.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 10. Catalogue data: A visual cluster of main signs from the Thompson's catalogue, with the most global HOOSC descriptor (sc=1/1). Many of them are impersonated main signs that corresponds to gods or animals. In this part of the visualization, the upper left part has more visually complex variants than the rightmost samples</head>
                        </figure>
                        </p>
                    <p>From the visualization of glyph variants in Thompson's catalogue with the largest spatial context level (sc=1/1), we observe that visually similar categories are grouped together, while exhibiting smooth transitions. These transitions may correspond to some characteristics of the data. Fig. 10 shows a cluster of personified main signs in which degree of visual internal detail decreases in the indicated direction. We also observe separate visual clusters for hatched, horizontal and vertical glyphs. </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p> Our goal in this study is to help DH scholars to visualize data collections not as isolated elements, but in context (visually and semantically). Even though early catalogues are built based on visual similarities, i.e., (Thompson and Eric, 1962) or (Zimmermann, 1956) relied on graphic cards to study similar patterns, the categorization methods were poorly understood and were not easy to reconfigure.</p>
                <p> Furthermore, due to the limited knowledge at the time about semantics and sign variants, these catalogues turned out to be inaccurate or outdated. Similarly, Gardiner’s list (Gardiner, 1957) is insufficient to elucidate sign variability in the 'Book of The Dead' (Budge, 1901).</p>
                <p> With the proposed tool, however, considering details at different scales as semantic/diagnostic regions in the visualization can help archaeologists to discover semantic relations. In this way, overlapping notions such as 'colours', 'cardinal directions' and specific toponyms from earthly, heavenly or underworld realms can be studied in greater detail.</p>
                <p> Finally, illustrating all variations with different visual focus in a fast and quantitative manner brings out the characteristics of signs. This also helps experts match samples from various sources (i.e. monuments, codices, and ceramic surfaces) to corpus data more efficiently; and trigger the decipherment of less frequent and damaged signs. Hence, our work is a step towards producing a more accurate and state-of-the-art sign catalogue.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Acknowledgements</head>
                <p>This work was funded by Swiss National Science Foundation as part of the MAAYA project. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Belongie, S., Malik, J. and Puzicha, J.</hi> (2002). Shape matching and object recognition using shape contexts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>(4): 509–22.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Budge, E. A. W.</hi> (1901). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Book of the Dead: An English Translation of the Chapters, Hymns, Etc. of the Theban Recension, with Introduction, Notes, Etc.</hi> (Books on Egypt and Chaldaea). Open Court Pub.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dalal, N. and Triggs, B.</hi> (2005). <hi rend=""italic"">Histograms of Oriented Gradients for Human Detection. vol. 1. IEEE</hi>, pp. 886–93.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Franken, M. and Gemert, J. C. van</hi> (2013). <hi rend=""italic"">Automatic Egyptian hieroglyph recognition by retrieving images as texts</hi>, ACM Press, pp. 765–68.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gardiner, A. H.</hi> (1957). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs. 3d ed., rev</hi>. Oxford: Griffith Institute, Ashmolean Museum.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hinton, G. E. and Roweis, S. T.</hi> (2002). <hi rend=""italic"">Stochastic neighbor embedding.</hi> pp. 833–40.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hu, R., Can, G., Pallan Gayol, C., Krempel, G., Spotak, J., Vail, G., Marchand-Maillet, S., Odobez, J.-M. and Gatica-Perez, D.</hi> (2015). Multimedia Analysis and Access of Ancient Maya Epigraphy: Tools to support scholars on Maya hieroglyphics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Signal Processing Magazine, IEEE</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">32</hi>(4): 75–84.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kullback, S. and Leibler, R. A.</hi> (1951). On information and sufficiency. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Annals of Mathematical Statistics</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>(1): 79–86.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lowe, D. G.</hi> (2004). Distinctive image features from scale-invariant keypoints. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Computer Vision</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">60</hi>(2): 91–110.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Maaten, L. Van der and Hinton, G.</hi> (2008). Visualizing data using t-SNE. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Machine Learning Research</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(2579-2605): 85.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Macri, M. J. and Looper, M. G.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The New Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs: The Classic Period Inscriptions</hi>. University of Oklahoma Press. Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Roman-Rangel, E., Odobez, J.-M. and Gatica-Perez, D.</hi> (2013). Evaluating shape descriptors for detection of maya hieroglyphs. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pattern Recognition</hi>. Springer, pp. 145–54.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Roman-Rangel, E., Pallan, C., Odobez, J.-M. and Gatica-Perez, D.</hi> (2011a). Analyzing ancient maya glyph collections with contextual shape descriptors. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Computer Vision</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">94</hi>(1): 101–17.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Roman-Rangel, E., Pallan Gayol, C., Odobez, J.-M. and Gatica-Perez, D.</hi> (2011b). <hi rend=""italic"">Searching the past: an improved shape descriptor to retrieve Maya hieroglyphs. ACM</hi>, pp. 163–72.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thompson, J. E. S. and Eric, S.</hi> (1962). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs</hi>. University of Oklahoma Press Norman.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vail, G. and Hernández, C.</hi> (2013). The Maya Codices Database, Version 4.1. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Website and Database Available at: http://www.mayacodices.org/</hi>.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zimmermann, G.</hi> (1956). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Die Hieroglyphen Der Maya-Handschriften</hi>. (Abhandlungen Aus Dem Gebiet Der Auslandskunde / Reihe B: Völkerkunde, Kulturgeschichte Und Sprachen). De Gruyter.
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                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2540","17","ARLO (Adaptive Recognition with Layered Optimization): a Prototype for High Performance Analysis of Sound Collections in the Humanities","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p rend=""Standard Indent"">Beyond simple annotation and visualization tools or expensive proprietary software, open access software for accessing and analyzing audio is not widely available for general use by the humanities community. Speech recognition algorithms in projects such as MALACH (Multilingual Access to Large spoken ArCHives) are often not built as Web-accessible interfaces for broader audiences. Analysis and visualization software such as PRAAT, which is used by linguists, and Sonic Visualizer, which is often used by music scholars, are desktop tools that typically allow users to focus on one file at a time, making project-sharing difficult for collaborative research and classroom projects. In bioacoustics, researchers use Raven (from the Cornell Lab of Ornithology) and Avisoft (expensive, proprietary software), which perform well with clean data from a single animal. Most of these tools are either not used in multiple domains or with large collections and none of them do well with noise or with multiple signals. As a result of these factors, humanists have few opportunities to use advanced technologies for analyzing large, messy sound archives. In response to this lack, the School of Information (iSchool) at the University of Texas at Austin (UT) and the Illinois Informatics Institute (I3) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) are collaborating on the HiPSTAS (High Performance Sound Technologies for Access and Scholarship) project. A primary goal of HiPSTAS is to develop a research environment that uses machine learning and visualization to automate processes for describing unprocessed spoken word collections of keen interest to humanists. </p>
                <p rend=""Standard Indent"">This paper describes how we have developed, as a result of HiPSTAS, a machine learning system called ARLO (Adaptive Recognition with Layered Optimization) to help deal with the information challenges that scholars encounter in their attempt to do research with unprocessed audio collections.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>ARLO (Adaptive Recognition with Layered Optimization) Software</head>
                <p rend=""Standard Indent"">ARLO was developed with UIUC seed funding for avian ecologist David Enstrom (2008) to begin exploring the use of machine learning for data analysis in the fields of animal behavior and ecology. ARLO software was chosen as the software we would develop through HiPSTAS primarily because it extracts basic prosodic features such as pitch, rhythm, and timbre that humanities scholars have called significant for performing analysis with sound collections (Bernstein, 2011; Sherwood, 2006; Tsur, 1992). </p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Filter Bank Signal Processing and Spectrogram Generation</head>
                    <p rend=""Standard Indent"">ARLO analyzes audio by extracting features based on time and frequency information in the form of a spectrogram. The spectrogram is computed using band-pass filters linked with energy detectors. The filter bank approach is similar to using an array of tuning forks, each positioned at a separate frequency, an approach that is thought to best mimic the processes of the human ear (Salthouse and Sarpeshkar). With filter banks, users can optimize the trade-off between time and frequency resolutions in the spectrograms (Rossing, 2001) by choosing a frequency range and ‘damping factor’ (or damping ratio), a parameter that determines how long the tuning forks ‘ring.’ By selecting these features, users can optimize their searches for a given sound. For these reasons, </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Machine-Learning Examples and the ARLO API (Application Programming Interface)</head>
                    <p>In ARLO, examples for machine learning are audio events that the user has identified and labeled. Audio events comprise a start and end time such as a two-second clip, as well as an optional minimum and maximum frequency band to isolate the region of interest. Users label the examples of interest (e.g., “applause” or “barking”). Other control parameters such as damping factor are also provided for creating spectrograph data according to optimal resolutions for a given problem. The algorithm described below retrieves the features of the tag according to the user's chosen spectra and framing size (e.g., two frames per second, each 0.5 seconds) from the audio file through the ARLO API.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>ARLO Machine-Learning Algorithms: IBL (Instance-Based Learning)</head>
                    <p rend=""Standard Indent"">The ARLO IBL algorithm finds matches by taking each known classified example and “sliding” it across new audio files looking for good matches based on a distance metric. The average of the weighted training set classes determines prediction probability. The number of match positions considered per second is adjustable and is set to the spectral sample rate. In addition to simple spectra matching, a user can isolate pitch and volume traces, compute correlations on them, and weight the different feature types when computing the overall match strength. This allows the user to weight spectral information that might correspond to such aspects as pitch or rhythm. In the IBL algorithm, accuracy is measured using a simulation of the leave-one-out cross-validation prediction process described above. </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Use Case: Finding Applause in PennSound Poetry Performances</head>
                <p>Humanities scholars have identified the sound of applause as a significant signpost for finding patterns of interest in recorded poetry performances. Applause can serve as a delimiter between performances, indicating how a file can be segmented and indexed. Applause can also serve as a delimiter between the introduction to a performance and the moment when a performance has ended and a question-and-answer period has begun, both of which indicate contextual information such as the presence of people who might not appear in traditional metadata fields (Clement and McLaughlin, 2015). A means for quantifying the presence of applause can also lead researchers to consider more in-depth studies concerning the relationship between audience responses and a poet’s performance of the same poem at different venues as well as the differing responses of audiences at the same venue over the course of a poet’s career or perhaps as a point of comparison between poets. Examples of these results are described below.</p>
                <p>For this use case, we ingested approximately 30,257 files remaining (5374.89 hours) from PennSound into ARLO. We chose 2,000 files at random, manually examined them for instances of applause, and chose one instance of applause per recording until we had an example training set of 852 three-second tags, including 582 3-second instances of non-applause (3492 0.5-second examples) and 270 3-second instances of applause (1620 0.5-second examples). Optimization for the IBL test went through 100 iterations. As a result of this optimization process, we used the following parameters for both tests: 0.5-second spectral resolution; 0.5 damping factor; 0.8 weighting power (for IBL); 600 Hz minimum frequency; 5000 Hz maximum frequency; 64 (IBL) and 256 (Weka) spectral bands; spectral sampling rate of 2 (i.e., half-second resolution). </p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Preliminary Results</head>
                    <p rend=""Standard Indent"">We first evaluated our models using cross-validation on the training data. Using the leave-one-out approach, the IBL classifier achieved an overall accuracy of 94.52% with a 0.5 cut-off classification threshold. After comparing 676 configurations, we found that the optimal approach was using IBL with Hann smoothing over 14 windows (7 seconds). The accuracy for this configuration was 99.41%. </p>
                    <p>In our initial analysis of classification data, we identified significant differences between measured applause durations for six poets, each with more than ten readings in the evaluation set. Table 6 presents the results of pairwise single-tailed Mann-Whitney (Mann and Whitney, 1947) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">U</hi> tests of applause durations that have been predicted by our IBL classifier. The alternative hypothesis states that the performer in the left column tends to receive more applause than the corresponding one listed in the top row. 
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Results that are significant at the p<0.05 level appear in bold, with the counts and overall means of each set of observations provided in the right two columns. </hi>It appears, for instance, that the poet Rae Armantrout tends to receive more applause than either Bruce Andrews or Barrett Watten. These two differences remain significant when comparing ""seconds of applause per minute"" instead of total applause duration.
                    </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""243/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Table 1. P-values for Pairwise Directional Mann-Whitney 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">U</hi> Tests Between Six Poets' Applause Durations
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Discussion and Future Work</head>
                <p rend=""Standard Indent"">This is preliminary work in an ongoing attempt to create a virtual research environment for analyzing large collections of audio. These data warrant further scrutiny, however, since multiple factors might be skewing the results. First, recording technologies have changed over time and as a result some earlier recordings likely include more noise and thus more false positives. Second, editing practices and event formats can vary widely between venues and over time. Finally, recordings that are included in the PennSound archive represent curation decisions that may favor certain kinds of performers over others. Part of the challenge is to determine what use such analysis might serve for scholars in the humanities and in other fields. Some of the HiPSTAS participants have written about their experiences using ARLO in their research (MacArthur, 2015; Mustazza, 2015; Sherwood, 2015; Rettberg, 2015), but we are interested in feedback from multiple user communities including linguists and scientists who have recorded too much sound data for traditional forms of analysis and processing (Servick, 2014). Furthermore, the IBL algorithm produced promising results, but could be improved with more training data, for example. Or, in extended experiments in which users wish to increase the accuracy of the model, we could develop a voting mechanism on the predictions by comparing the models. Users could validate newly identified examples and include them as new training examples, building each model again on the new data. We are currently working on further testing the models and developing a means for these iterative approaches.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Bernstein, C.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Attack of the Difficult Poems: Essays and Inventions</hi>. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Bioacoustics Research Program.</hi> (2014). Raven Pro: Interactive Sound Analysis Software (Version 1.5). Ithaca, NY: The Cornell Lab of Ornithology.</bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Boersma, P.</hi> (2001). Praat, a system for doing phonetics by computer. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Glot International</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>(9/10): 341-45.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Cannam, C., Landone, C. and Sandler, M.</hi> (2010). Sonic Visualiser: An Open Source Application for Viewing, Analysing, and Annotating Music Audio Files. In <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the ACM Multimedia 2010 International Conference</hi>.</bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Council on Library and Information Resources and the Library of Congress</hi>. (2010). <hi rend=""italic"">The State of Recorded Sound Preservation in the United States: A National Legacy at Risk in the Digital Age</hi>. Washington DC: National Recording Preservation Board of the Library of Congress.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Enstrom, D. A. and Ward, M. P.</hi> (2008). Sex specific song repertoires in Northern Cardinals: mutual assessment and the occurrence of female song. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The 12 International Behavioral Ecology Meetings</hi>, Ithaca, NY.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Greene, M. A. and Meissner, D.</hi> (2005). More Product, Less Process: Revamping Traditional Archival Processing. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The American Archivist</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">68</hi>(2): 208–63. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Hall, M., et al.</hi> (2009). The WEKA Data Mining Software: An Update. <hi rend=""italic"">SIGKDD Explorations</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(1).</bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">MacArthur, M.</hi> (2015). Monotony, the Churches of Poetry Reading, and Sound Studies. <hi rend=""italic"">PMLA</hi>. Forthcoming.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Mann, H. B. and Whitney, D. R.</hi> (1947). On a Test of Whether One of Two Random Variables is Stochastically Larger than the Other. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Annals of Mathematical Statistics</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(1): 50–60.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Mustazza, C.</hi> (2015) The noise is the content: Toward computationally determining the provenance of poetry recordings using ARLO. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Jacket2</hi>. Retrieved from https://jacket2.org/commentary/noise-content-toward-computationallydetermining-provenance-poetry-recordings
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Nelson-Strauss, B., Gevinson, A. and Brylawski, S.</hi> (2012). The Library of Congress National Recording Preservation Plan. Washington, DC: Library of Congress. </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Powers, D. M. W.</hi> (2011). Evaluation: From Precision, Recall and F-Measure to ROC, Informedness, Markedness and Correlation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Machine Learning Technologies</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1): 37–63.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Rettberg, E.</hi> (2015). Hearing the Audience. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Jacket2</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">26</hi>. Retrieved from 
                        <ref target=""http://jacket2.org/commentary/hearing-audience"">http://jacket2.org/commentary/hearing-audience</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">R Core Team</hi> (2014). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. <hi rend=""italic"">R Foundation for Statistical Computing</hi>, Vienna, Austria. Retrieved from
                        <ref target=""http://www.r-project.org/"">http://www.R-project.org</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Rossing, T. D., and Moore, F. R.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Science of Sound</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">(3rd edition.)</hi>, San Francisco: Addison-Wesley.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Salthouse, C. D. and Sarpeshkar, R.</hi> (2003). A Practical Micropower Programmable Bandpass Filter for Use in Bionic Ears. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Journal Of Solid-State Circuits</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">38</hi>(1): 63-70.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Servick, K.</hi> (2014). Eavesdropping on Ecosystems. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Science Magazine</hi>. doi: 343.6173: 834–837.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Sherwood, K.</hi> (2006). Elaborate Versionings: Characteristics of Emergent Performance in Three Print/Oral/ Aural Poets. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Oral Tradition</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(1): 119-47. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Sherwood, K.</hi> (2015). Distanced sounding: ARLO as a tool for the analysis and visualization of versioning phenomena within poetry audio. <hi rend=""italic"">Jacket2</hi>. Retrieved from https://jacket2.org/commentary/distanced-sounding-arlo-toolanalysis-and-visualization-versioning-phenomena-within-poetr. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Smith, A., Allen, D. R. and Allen, K.</hi> (2004). Survey of the State of Audio Collections in Academic Libraries. Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources.</bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""References""><hi rend=""bold"">Tsur, R.</hi> (1992). <hi rend=""italic"">What Makes Sound Patterns Expressive?: The Poetic Mode of Speech Perception</hi>. Duke University Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2541","17","Authorship Attribution Using Different Languages","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>For many at this conference, stylometry and authorship attribution need little introduction; the determination of who wrote a document by looking at the writing style is an important problem that has received much research attention. Research has begun to converge on standard methods and procedures (Juola, 2015) and the results are increasingly acceptable in courts of law (Juola, 2013). </p>
            <p>The most standard experiment looks something like this: collect a training set (aka ""known documents,"" KD) representative of the documents to be analyzed (the testing set, aka ""questioned documents,"" QD) and extract features from these documents such as word choice (Burrows, 1989; Binongo, 2003) or character n-grams (Stamatatos, 2013). On the basis of these features, the QD can be classified -- for example, if Hamilton uses the word ""while"" and Madison uses the word ""whilst"" (Mosteller and Wallace, 1963) a QD that doesn't use ""while"" is probably Madisonian. </p>
            <p>... unless it's not in English at all, in which case, neither word is likely to appear. The need for the KD to represent the QD fairly closely is one of the major limitations on the use of this experimental methodology. By contrast, the authorial mind remains the same irrespective of the language of writing. In this paper, we report on new methods based on cross-linguistic cognitive traits that enables documents in Spanish to be attributed based on the English writings of the authors and vice versa. Specifically, using a custom corpus scraped from Twitter, we identify a number of features related to the complexity of language and expression, and a number of features related to participation to Twitter-specific social conventions. </p>
            <p>We first identified (by manual inspection) a set of 14 user names that could be confirmed to have published tweets in both English and Spanish. Once our user list had been collected, we scraped the Twitter history of each user to collect between 90 and 1800 messages (""tweets"") from each user and used the detectlanguage.com server to identify automatically the language of each tweet.</p>
            <p>A key problem is feature identification, as most features (e.g. function words or character n-grams) are not cross-linguistic. For this work, we have identified some potentially universal features. One of the most long-standing (de Morgan, 1851) features proposed for authorship analysis is complexity of expression, as measured variously by word length, distribution of words, type/token ratio, and so forth. We used thirteen different measures of complexity that have been proposed (largely in the quantitative linguistics literature) to create a multivariate measure of complexity that persists across languages. Similarly, we identified three specific social conventions (the use of @mentions, #hashtags, and embedded hyperlinks, all measured as percentage of occurrence) that people may or may not participate in. Our working hypothesis is that people will use language in a way that they feel comfortable with, irrespective of the actual language. Hence, people who use @mentions in English will also do so in Spanish. Similarly, people who send long tweets in English also do so in Spanish, people who use big words in English also do so in Spanish, people who use a varied vocabulary in English also do so in Spanish, and of course vice versa. </p>
            <p>We were able to show, first, that the proposed regularities do, in fact, hold across languages, as measured by cross-linguistic inter-writer correlations. (Thus, we also showed that our working hypothesis is confirmed, at least for these traits). Second, we showed via cluster analysis that these measures are partially independent from each other, and thus they afford a basis for a stylistic vector space. (Juola and Mikros, under review). This potentially enables ordinary classification methods to apply. The results reported here show that, in fact, they do. </p>
            <p>To do this, we apply normal classification technology (support vector machines using a polynomial kernel) to the vector space thus constructed. We first broke each individual collection into 200 word sections (thus conjoining multiple tweets). Each section was measured using each complexity feature and then raw values were normalized using z-scores [thus a completely average score would be zero, while a score at the 97th percentile would be approximately 2.0; this is similar to Burrows' Delta (Burrows, 1989)]. For our first experiment, the English sections were used to create a stylometric vector space, then the Spanish sections were (individually) embedded in this space and classified via SVMs. For our second experiment, the languages were reversed, classifying English sections based on Spanish stylometric space. Since SVM with polynomial kernel is a three parameter model, we optimized the classifier's performance using a grid-search parameter tuning and comparing 3 different values for each of the three parameters (totaling 3^3 models). The classifier's performance was evaluated using a 10-fold cross-validation scheme and the best single language model was used for predicting the authorship of the texts written in the other language from the same authors.</p>
            <p>This resulted in 2652 attempts to predict authorship of individual 200 word sections in Spanish, and another 1922 attempts in English, classified across fourteen potential authors. Baseline (chance) accuracy is therefore 1/14 or 0.0714 [7.14%].</p>
            <p>Using the English data to establish the stylometric space and the Spanish samples to be attributed yielded an accuracy of 0.095, a result above baseline but not significantly so. By contrast, embedding English data into a Spanish space yielded an accuracy of 0.1603, more than double the baseline. This result clearly establishes the feasibility of cross-linguistic authorship attribution, at least at the proof of concept level. Experiments are continuing, both to establish clearer statistical results, and also to evaluate the additional effectiveness of the Twitter-specific social conventions as features.</p>
            <p>We believe this result to be the first recorded instance of using training data from one language to attribute test data from another language using a formal, statistical attribution procedure. This is a very difficult dataset using an extremely small set of predictive variables, and the samples (200 words) are very small (Eder, 2013). In light of these issues, the relatively low (in absolute terms) accuracy may still represent a major step forward.</p>
            <p>Like many research projects, these results pose as many questions as they answer. Why is English->Spanish easier than Spanish->English? What other types of language-independent feature sets could be developed, and how would performance compare? Do these results generalize to different language pairs, or to different genres than social media and Twitter in particular? What additional work will be necessary to turn this into a practical and useful tool? Can this generalize to other authorial analysis applications such as profiling (of personality or other attributes)? </p>
            <p>Further research will obviously be required to address these and other issues. In particular, this study is obviously only a preliminary study. More language pairs are necessary (but finding active bilinguals on Twitter is difficult). Studies of other genres than tweets would be informative, but again corpus collection is problematic. We acknowledge that the current accuracy is not high enough to be useful. For the present, however, the simple fact that cross-linguistic authorship attribution can be done and has been done, remains an important new development in the digital humanities. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Binongo, J. N. G.</hi> (2003). Who wrote the 15th book of Oz? An application of multivariate analysis to authorship attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Chance</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">16</hi>(2): 9–17.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J. F. </hi>(1989).`An ocean where each kind...': Statistical analysis and some majordeterminants of literary style. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computers and the Humanities</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(4-5): 309-21.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M.</hi> (2013). Does size matter? Authorship attribution, short samples, big problem.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>(2): 167–82.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Morgan, A.</hi> (1851). Letter to Rev. Heald 18/08/ 1851. In Elizabeth, S. and Morgan, D. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Memoirs of Augustus de Morgan by His Wife Sophia Elizabeth de Morgan with Selections from His Letters</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Juola, P.</hi> (2013). Stylometry and immigration: A case study. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Law and Policy</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(2): 287–98.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Juola, P.</hi> (2015). The Rowling case: A proposed standard analytic protocol for authorship questions. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""HTML Preformatted"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Juola, P. and Mikros, G.</hi> (under review). Cross-Linguistic Stylometric Features: A Preliminary Investigation. Ms. Submitted to 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">JADT 2016</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mosteller, F. and Wallace, D. L.</hi> (1964). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Inference and Disputed Authorship: The Federalist. Reading</hi>, MA: Addison-Wesley.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stamatatos, E.</hi> (2013). On the robustness of authorship attribution based on character n-gram features. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Law and Policy</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(2): 420-40.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2542","17","Authorship Verification with the Ruzicka Metric","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Authorship studies have long played a central role in stylometry, the popular subfield of DH in which the writing style of a text is studied as a function of its author’s identity. While authorship studies come in many flavors, a remarkable aspect is that the field continues to be dominated by so-called ‘lazy’ approaches, where the authorship of an anonymous document is determined by extrapolating the authorship of a document’s nearest neighbor. For this, researchers use metrics to calculate the distances between vector representations of documents in a higher-dimensional space, such as the well-known Manhattan city block distance. In this paper, we apply the minmax metric – originally proposed in the field of geobotanics – to the problem of authorship attribution and verification. Comparative evaluations across a variety of benchmark corpora show that this metric yields better, as well as more consistent results than previously used metrics. While intuitively simply, this metric generally displays a regularising effect across different hyperparametrizations, and allows the more effective use of larger vocabularies and sparser document vectors. In particular the metric seems much less sensitive than its main competitors to (the dimensionality of) the vector space model under which the metric is applied.</p>
                <p>Most authorship studies in computer science are restricted to present-day document collections. In this paper, we illustrate the broader applicability of the minmax metric by applying it to a high-profile case study from Classical Antiquity. The ‘War Commentaries’ by Julius Caesar (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus Caesarianum</hi>) refers to a group of Latin prose commentaries, describing the military campaigns of the world-renowned Roman statesman Julius Caesar (100-44 BC). While Caesar must have authored a significant portion of these commentaries himself, the exact delineation of his contribution to this important corpus remains a controversial matter. Most notably, Aulus Hirtius – one of Caesar’s most trusted generals – is sometimes believed to have contributed significantly to the corpus. Thus, the authenticity and authorship of the Caesarian corpus is a philological puzzle that has persisted for nineteen centuries. In our paper, we shed new light on this matter.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Benchmarking</head>
                <p>To properly evaluate the performance of the novel Ruzicka minmax metric, we turn to a publicly available benchmark corpora: the multilingual datasets (Dutch, English, Greek, and Spanish) used by the 2014 track on authorship verification in the PAN competition on uncovering plagiarism, authorship, and social software misuse. This track focused on the “open” task of authorship verification (as opposed to the closed set-up of authorship verification). Each dataset holds a number of “problems”, where given (a) at least one training text by a particular target author, (b) a set of similar mini-oeuvres by other authors, and (c) a new anonymous text, the task is to determine whether or not the anonymous text was written by the target author. A system must output for each of the problems a real-valued confidence score between 0.0 (“definitely not the same author”) and 1.0 (“definitely the same author”). By outputting the value of 0.5, a system can specify that it was not able to solve a problem. For each dataset, a fully independent training and test corpus are available (i.e. the problems, nor authors and texts in both sets do not overlap). Systems are eventually evaluated using two scoring metrics which were also used at the PAN: the established AUC-score, as well as the so-called c@1, a variation of the traditional accuracy-score, which gives more credit to systems that decide to leave some difficult verification problems unanswered. In the full paper, we offer a complete evaluation of all datasets: for the sake of brevity, this paper is restricted to a representative selection of results.</p>
                <p>As common in text classification research, we vectorize the datasets into a tabular model, under a ‘bag-of-words’ assumption, which is largely ignorant of the original word order in document. Unless reported otherwise, we use character tetragrams below (Koppel et al., 2014), which yield generally acceptable results across corpora. We experiment with a number of different vector space models, the results of which can be summarized as follows:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>plain 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">tf</hi> (where simple relative frequencies are used);
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">tf-std</hi>, where the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">tf</hi>-model is scaled using a feature’s standard deviation in the corpus (cf. Burrows’s Delta: Burrows, 2002);
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">tf-idf</hi>, where the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">tf</hi>-model is scaled using a feature’s inverse document-frequency (to increase the weight of rare terms).
                    </item>
                    <item>…</item>
                </list>
                <p>In our experiments, we focus on the Ruzicka ‘minmax’ distance metric, a still fairly novel algorithm in the field of stylometry. Just as the Euclidean or Manhattan distance, this metric will calculate a real-valued distance score between two document vector A and B as follows:</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""515/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>While the formula below uses the tf-model, the Ruzicka distance can of course be easily applied to other vector space models too. In our paper, we will offer a intuitive assessment of the desirable properties of this metric (e.g. in comparison to Burrows’s Delta).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>General Imposters Framework (GI)</head>
                <p>In our experiments, we make amongst others use of the General Imposters Method, a bootstrapped approach to authorship verification which has recently yielded excellent results. Fitting the verifier on the train data involves two steps. First, we calculate a distance score for the anonymous document in each problem, using Algorithm 1, in order to determine whether the anonymous text was written by the target author specified in the problem:</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""515/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>Thus, during 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">k</hi> iterations (default 100), we randomly select a sample (e.g. 50%) of all the available features in the data set. Likewise, we randomly select 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">m</hi> ‘imposter’ documents (default 30), which were not written by the target author. Next, we use a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">dist()</hi> function to assess whether the anonymous text is closer to any text by the target author than to any text written by the imposters. Here, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">dist()</hi> represents a regular, geometric distance metric, such as the Manhattan or Ruzicka metric. The score returned by Algorithm 1 has been characterized as a ‘second-order’ metric, because it does not rely on the rather comparison of document vectors. The general intuition here, is that we do not just calculate how different two documents are; rather we test whether the stylistic differences between them are consistent (a) across many different feature sets, and (b) in comparison to other randomly, sampled documents.
                </p>
                <p>In the second stage, we attempt to optimize the distance scores returned by Algorithm 1, in the light of the specific evaluation measures used. We apply a score shifter (Algorithm 2), which attempts to define a ‘grey zone’ where the results seem too unreliable to output a score (cf. c@1):</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""515/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>Through a grid search of different values between 0 and 1 for p1 and p2, we determine the settings which yield the optimal AUC x c@1 on the train data. In Fig. 1, we plot the optimal results which could be obtained on the train problems in the data set of Dutch Essays, for a specific combination of a metric and a vector space model. We ran the experiment 20 times, with increasing vocabulary truncations (e.g. the 1000 most frequent tetragrams). The results demonstrate how the Ruzicka minmax metric returns the most stable results across the experiments and clearly has a regularizing effect across different hyperparametrizations. In the full paper, we will present a complete evaluation of this system on all the PAN datasets, which in most cases yields surprisingly competitive scores on the test data, even without much corpus-specific parameter tuning. In the table below, we show the test results for Dutch essays corpus in terms of the AUC x c@1. The best combination reaches a AUC x c@1 of 0.886 on the test data (combination of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">minmax</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">std</hi>), whereas the best individual system submitted to PAN 2014 only reached 0.823 on that test dataset. Using randomized significance tests, we will additionally demonstrate the regularizing effect of the Ruzicka distance across vector spaces; its strong performance is also evident from Table 1.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""515/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: Optimal results on train corpus</head>
                </figure>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default""/>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <table rend=""rules"">
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Vector Space / Metric</cell>
                                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Euclidean</cell>
                                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Manhattan</cell>
                                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Minmax</cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Tf</cell>
                                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.676</cell>
                                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.698</cell>
                                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.837</cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Tf-Idf</cell>
                                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.720</cell>
                                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.750</cell>
                                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.854</cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Tf-Std</cell>
                                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.614</cell>
                                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.701</cell>
                                    <cell rend=""DH-Default"">0.886</cell>
                                </row>
                            </table>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Table 1: Final test results (AUC x C@1)</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Corpus Caesarianum</head>
                <p>To further illustrate the applicability of the Ruzicka metric for authorship problems in traditional philology, we also report a stylometric case study concerning the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus Caesarianum</hi>. This 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus</hi> is a group of five commentaries Caesar’s military campaigns:
                </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bellum Gallicum</hi>, the conquest of Gaul, 58 to 50 BC;
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bellum civile</hi>, the civil war with Pompey, 49 to 48 BC;
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bellum Alexandrinum</hi>, the campaigns in Egypt etc., 48 to 47 BC;
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bellum Africum</hi>, the war in North Africa, 47 to 46 BC
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bellum Hispaniense</hi>, a rebellion in Spain, 46 to 45 BC.
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>The first two commentaries are mainly by Caesar himself, the only exception being the final part of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Gallic War</hi> (Book 8), which is by Caesar’s general Aulus Hirtius. Suetonius, writing a century and a half later, suggests that either Hirtius or another general, named Oppius, authored the remaining works. We will report experiments which broadly supports the Hirtius’s own claim that he himself compiled and edited the corpus of the non-Caesarian commentaries. Figure 2, for instance, shows a heatmap-like visualisation, in which Hirtius’s Book 8 of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Gallic War</hi> clearly clusters with the bulk of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Alexandrian War</hi> (labeled 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">x</hi>).
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""515/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: Minmax-based clustermap of 1000-word samples of the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus Caesarianum</hi>.
                    </head>
                </figure>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Argamon, S.</hi> (2008). Interpreting Burrows’s Delta: Geometric and probabilistic foundations. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 23</hi>: 131-47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows. J. F.</hi> (2002). ‘Delta’: A measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 17</hi>: 267-87.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gaertner, J. and Hausburg, B.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Caesar and the Bellum Alexandrinum: An Analysis of Style, Narrative Technique, and the Reception of Greek Historiography</hi>. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koppel, M. and Winter, Y.</hi> (2014). Determining if two documents are written by the same author. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">65</hi>: 178–87.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mayer, M. </hi>(2011). Caesar and the corpus caesarianum. In Marasco, G. (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Political auto-biographies and memoirs in antiquity: A Brill companion</hi>. Brill, Leiden, pp. 189-232.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stamatatos, E. et al.</hi> (2014). Overview of the author identification task at PAN 2014. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Working Notes for CLEF 2014 Conference</hi>, pp. 877-97.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stover, J., Winter, Y., Koppel, M. and Kestemont, M.</hi> (2016). Computational authorship verification method attributes a new work to a major 2nd century African author. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 66</hi>: 239-42.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2543","17","Automatic Emotion Detection for Quantitative Literary Studies: A case study based on Franz Kafka’s “Das Schloss” und “Amerika”","2","<text>
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Sentiment analysis and opinion mining methods are established for automatically summarizing information shared by users in product reviews or in social media platforms like Twitter, Facebook or more specific fora (Liu 2015). These approaches can be categorized into coarse-grained and fine-grained methods: The first focus on assigning a polarity (positive, negative, neutral) and optionally an intensity to a text snippet (Täckström and McDonald 2011; Pang and Lee 2004). The latter additionally aim at detecting the opinion holder (for instance a specific person mentioned in a news article) and the target (for instance a specific aspect of a product in a review) (Hu and Liu 2004; Popescu and Etzioni 2005; Jakob and Gurevych 2010).</p>
                <p>Transferring such methods to the analysis of literature leads to at least two questions: Firstly, are polarities for this domain as helpful as for the analysis of reviews? Secondly, how can such methods from sentiment analysis be improved, and what can they contribute to literature analysis?</p>
                <p>Regarding the first aspect, resources to measure the occurrence of words which are associated with different emotions have been developed for English but, to the best of our knowledge, not for German (Mohammad et al. 2015). Secondly, it should be noted that research in German sentiment analysis is still comparably limited (counter examples are Ruppenhofer et al. 2014; Klinger and Cimiano 2015; Remus, Quasthoff, and Heyer 2010). In addition, sentiment analysis has mainly focused on the Web, like social media, and product reviews. However, the analysis of emotions and sentiment in literature has been proven to be of interest and value (Mellmann 2007; Winko 2003). A prerequisite for a quantitative approach is that emotions are (at least to some extend) a surface phenomenon (Hillebrandt 2011, p. 154), i.e., that words carry information such that it is possible to infer “private states” of specific emotions (Wiebe, Wilson, and Cardie 2005).</p>
                <p>Our two main contributions are: (a) We make German dictionaries of words associated with seven fundamental emotions publicly available, and (b) perform a case study on Kafka’s “Amerika” and “Das Schloss” regarding emotion analysis to support literature studies with a focus on complex non-factual phenomena and the analysis of personality traits. All resources and software used in this paper are made publicly available at 
                    <ref target=""http://www.romanklinger.de/emotion/"">http://www.romanklinger.de/emotion/</ref>.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Materials and Methods</head>
                <p>The goal of this work is to detect different emotions represented in literary texts. Psychological research offers different models to categorize emotions. The most common ones include Plutchik’s wheel of emotions (Plutchik 2001) and Ekman’s definition of fundamental emotions (Ekman 1999). A discussion of relevant context is offered by Russell (Russell 1991). We opt for roughly following the structure of Ekman’s definition of emotions and focus on 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">anger</hi> (Wut), 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">disgust</hi> (Ekel), 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">fear</hi> (Angst), 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">enjoyment</hi> (Glück), 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">sadness</hi> (Trauer), and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">surprise</hi> (Überraschung) and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">contempt</hi> (Verachtung).
                </p>
                <p>To track emotions over the whole text, we assign an emotion score es(
                    <hi rend=""italic"">e,</hi>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">ab</hi>) to a subset of consecutive tokens 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">ab</hi> from textual position 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">a</hi> to position 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">b</hi> as
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""427/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>where 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">D</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">e</hi> is a dictionary containing words expressing the specific emotion 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">e</hi> and 1
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""subscript"">∈</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">D</hi> is 1 if and only if t
                    <hi rend=""subscript"">i</hi>∈
                    <hi rend=""italic"">D</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">e</hi> and 0 otherwise. This score corresponds to the number of tokens which are in a window and in the respective emotion dictionary, normalized by the dictionary size.
                </p>
                <p>To track the development of the emotions over the whole text, we apply a sliding window approach which is parameterized by window size w such that 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">b = a + w − 1</hi> (which can be interpreted as a smoothing parameter). To allow for a character oriented analysis, we assign an emotion score as in the sliding window, but for windows around each mention of such character in the text, with an additional normalization based on number of character mentions. Each token and dictionary entry is normalized by mapping to lower-case and stemming with the Porter stemmer (Porter 2001).
                </p>
                <p>As a resource for the emotion dictionaries, two authors of this paper manually selected words from different sentiment polarity, subjectivity, and emotion resources in German and English (translated to German) into the emotion categories (Waltinger 2010a; Waltinger 2010b; Remus, Quasthoff, and Heyer 2010; Mohammad and Turney 2013). We semi-automatically enriched this resource with synonyms (Naber 2005; Wermke, Kunkel-Razum, and Scholze-Stubenrecht 2010).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Experiments and Conclusions</head>
                <p>As an estimate for the difficulty of emotion assignments, we performed an annotation experiment of 300 words (stratified sample from all emotions in the dictionary mentioned above) with fluent speakers of German. In 85 % of all words two out of three annotators agree on the same emotion, however, only in 46 % of of all words, three annotators agree on the associated emotion.</p>
                <p>As a use-case, we apply our methods to Franz Kafka’s “Der Verschollene” (“Amerika”) and “Das Schloß”. Especially the latter is interesting as a comprehensive emotion-focused manual analysis is available (Hillebrandt 2011). It is narrated in third person and interesting from an emotion analysis point of view, as attribution of specific emotions to the protagonist is difficult (Hillebrandt 2011, p. 165).</p>
                <p>The development of emotions in Figures 1 and 2 visualize the outcomes of our analyzes. In “Das Schloss”, the strong increase of surprise towards the end is striking (most indicative words are “neu”, “schnell”, “plötzlich”, “ungeduldig”). Another example for an eye-catching peak of fear is shortly after start of chapter 3 (“ängstlich”, “Gefahr”, “unruhig”, “Gewalt”). In “Amerika”, one striking characteristic is the decrease of enjoyment after a peak in chapter 4 (“gut”, “Mutter”, “glücklich”) followed by disgust in chapter 5 (“unerträglich”, “Elend”, “schrecklich”, “beschmutzt”). Emotions for each mention of a selection of characters in “Amerika” and “Das Schloss” are shown in Figures 3 and 4.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Acknowledgements</head>
                <p>This project has been partially funded by the project CRETA (Zentrum für reflektierte Textanalyse, 
                    <ref target=""http://www.creta.uni-stuttgart.de/"">http://www.creta.uni-stuttgart.de/</ref>), funded by the German Ministry of Education and Research.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""427/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""427/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""427/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""427/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ekman, P.</hi> (1999). “Basic Emotions”. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Handbook of Cognition and Emotion</hi>. Ed. by M Dalgleish T; Power. Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hillebrandt, C.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Das emotionale Wirkungspotenzial von Erzähltexten</hi>. Deutsche Literatur - Studien und Quellen. Berlin, Germany: Akademie Verlag.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hu, M. and Liu, B.</hi> (2004). “Mining and summarizing customer reviews”. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the tenth ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining.</hi> Seattle, WA, USA: ACM, pp. 168–77.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jakob, N. and Gurevych, I.</hi> (2010). “Extracting opinion targets in a single- and cross-domain setting with conditional random fields”. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2010 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing</hi>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 1035–45.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Klinger, R. and Cimiano, P.</hi> (2015). “Instance Selection Improves Cross-Lingual Model Training for Fine-Grained Sentiment Analysis”. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Nineteenth Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning</hi>. Beijing, China: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 153–63.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Liu, B.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sentiment Analysis</hi>. Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mellmann, K.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Emotionalisierung – Von der Nebenstundenpoesie zum Buch als Freund</hi>. Vol. 4. Poetogenesis - Studien zur empirischen Anthropologie der Literatur. Münster, Germany: Mentis Verlag.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mohammad, S. M. and Turney, P. D.</hi> (2013). “Crowdsourcing a Word-Emotion Association Lexicon”. In: <hi rend=""italic"">Computational Intelligence</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(3): 436–65.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mohammad, S. M., Zhu, X., Kiritchenko, S. and Martin, J.</hi> (2015). “Sentiment, emotion, purpose, and style in electoral tweets”. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Information Processing & Management</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">51</hi>(4): 480–99.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Naber, D.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">OpenThesaurus: ein offenes deutsches Wortnetz</hi>. http://danielnaber.de/ publications/gldv-openthesaurus.pdf (visited on 02/17/2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pang, B. and Lee, L.</hi> (2004). “A Sentimental Education: Sentiment Analysis Using Subjectivity Summarization Based on Minimum Cuts”. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 42nd Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Main Volume.</hi> Barcelona, Spain, pp. 271–78.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Plutchik, R.</hi> (2001). “The Nature of Emotions”. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">American Scientist</hi>, <hi rend=""bold""> 89</hi>: 344–50.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Popescu, A.-M. and Etzioni, O.</hi> (2005). “Extracting Product Features and Opinions from Reviews”. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Human Language Technology Conference and Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing</hi>. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada: Associ- ation for Computational Linguistics, pp. 339–46.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Porter, M. F.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Snowball: A language for stemming algorithms</hi>. http://snowball. tartarus.org/texts/introduction.html.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Remus, R., Quasthoff, U. and Heyer, G.</hi> (2010). “SentiWS – a Publicly Available German- language Resource for Sentiment Analysis”. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 7th International Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC’10),</hi> pp. 1168–71.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ruppenhofer, J., Klinger, R., Struß, J. M., Sonntag, J. and Wiegand, M.</hi> (2014). “IGGSA Shared Tasks on German Sentiment Analysis”. In
                        <hi rend=""italic"">: Workshop Proceedings of the 12th Edition of the KONVENS Conference</hi>. Ed. by G. Faaß and J. Ruppenhofer. Hildesheim, Germany: Uni- versity of Hildesheim.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Russell, J. A.</hi> (1991). “In Defense of a Prototype Approach to Emotion Concepts”. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">60</hi>(1): 37–47.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Täckström, O. and McDonald, R.</hi> (2011). “Semi-supervised latent variable models for sentence- level sentiment analysis”. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 49th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies</hi>. Portland, Oregon, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 569–74.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Waltinger, U.</hi> (2010a). “GERMANPOLARITYCLUES: A Lexical Resource for German Sentiment Analysis”. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC).</hi> Valletta, Malta.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Waltinger, U.</hi> (2010b). “Sentiment Analysis Reloaded: A Comparative Study On Sentiment Polarity Identi- fication Combining Machine Learning And Subjectivity Features”. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Web Information Systems and Technologies (WEBIST ’10)</hi>. Valencia, Spain.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wermke, M., Kunkel-Razum, K. and Scholze-Stubenrecht, W., (eds). </hi>(2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Duden – Das Synonymwörterbuch</hi>. Mannheim, Zürich: Dudenverlag.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wiebe, J., Wilson, T. and Cardie, C.</hi> (2005). “Annotating Expressions of Opinions and Emotions in Language”. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language Resources and Evaluation</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">39</hi>(2): 165–210.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Winko, S.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Kodierte Gefühle: Zu einer Poetik der Emotionen in lyrischen und poetologischen Texten um 1900</hi>. Erich Schmidt Verlag.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2544","17","Beyond Shot Lengths - Using Language Data and Color Information as Additional Parameters for Quantitative Movie Analysis","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction: Quantitative movie analysis</head>
                <p>Film studies make use of both, qualitative as well as quantitative methods (Korte, 2004). While there is a large variety of qualitative approaches to analyze movies (cf. e.g. Monaco, 2009; Sikov, 2010), most quantitative attempts seem to be focused on the analysis of the length and frequency of a film’s shots, which are understood to be the “single definable elements which can be nominated and described” (Salt, 2006: 14). After Barry Salt’s
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> For a concise review of Barry Salt’s work on quantitative movie analysis cf. Buckland (2008).</p>
                    </note> seminal article “Statistical Style Analysis of Motion Pictures” appeared in 1974, numerous other quantitative studies were to follow
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p> For a comprehensive overview of Cinemetrics-related research cf. the bibliography compiled by Mike Baxter, available online at http://www.cinemetrics.lv/dev/bibliography_with_essay_Baxter.pdf (accessed 3 March 2016).</p>
                    </note>. “Cinemetrics” (Tsivian, 2009) has been suggested as a term to describe these quantitative, shot-based approaches for analyzing movies. Cinemetrics is also the name of a large online database that contains information about shot lengths and frequencies for several thousand films
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.cinemetrics.lv (accessed 3 March 2016).</p>
                    </note>. 
                </p>
                <p>Studies that take into account quantifiable parameters other than shots are, however, rather rare. Among the few examples are Hoyt et al. (2014), who describe a tool that can be used to visualize relations between the characters of a film. 
                    <hi rend=""Absatz-Standardschriftart1"">Another example can be found in Ewerth et al. (2009), who present a toolkit that allows researchers to automatically detect shots and camera motion, superimposed text, faces and audio signals. While the latter example is rather focused on the automatic annotation of quantitative features, other projects, such as Lev Manovich’s (2013) „Visualizing Vertov“, focus on the presentation and visualization of quantitative parameters.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>In this paper, we suggest to enhance the existing, shot-focused approaches to quantitative movie analysis, by considering additional parameters, such as language (cf. Forchini, 2012) and color use (cf. Flückinger, 2011). We present a prototype that can be used to automatically extract and analyze these parameters from movies and that makes the results accessible in an interactive visualization. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>A prototype for the analysis of language and color use in movies</head>
                <p>Language use as well as the use of colors in movies have long been known in the area of qualitative film studies. We argue, that these parameters are equally suited for a quantitative approach and present an experimental prototype that can be used to quantify the language and color used in different movies. Much like Clement et al. (2008), who discuss the drawbacks and opportunities of computer-based methods in the field of literary studies, we believe that digital, quantitative movie analysis tools can be helpful in “offering provocations, surfacing evidence, suggesting patterns and structures, or adumbrating trends”. As the prototype allows researchers to investigate potential correlations between color usage and corresponding language in a movie, it can be used to examine questions such as the following:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Are there characteristic patterns in color or language use for movies from different eras, genres, or directors (e.g. dark colors and words such as “kill” or “blood” in horror movies)?</item>
                    <item>Are there characteristic color patterns within a film that correlate with the occurrence of certain characters or objects (e.g. bright colors whenever the hero is speaking)?</item>
                    <item>Are there characteristic color patterns within a film that correlate with the sentiment of the language (e.g. dark colors for language with negative sentiment)?</item>
                </list>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Obtaining language and color data</head>
                    <p>Machine-readable instances of movie language can be obtained fairly easy in the form of subtitle files, which are freely available via sites such as OpenSubtitles
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> www.opensubtitles.org (accessed 3 March 2016).</p>
                        </note>; for a precompiled corpus of subtitles also cf. Tiedemann (2012). The standard file structure of such subtitles contains a timestamp as well as a transcription of the actual dialog fragments. 
                    </p>
                    <p>Information about color usage can be extracted directly from the movie itself, by cutting the digital movie into single frames and by calculating the most frequent colors for each frame (color histograms). </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Analyzer component</head>
                    <p>Our prototype comprises an analyzer and a viewer component. The analyzer can be used to extract single frames from a movie by using the open source tool FFmpeg
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> https://www.ffmpeg.org/ (accessed 3 March 2016).</p>
                        </note>. We used a K-means Cluster algorithm (Wu, 2012) to group together similar RGB values in each frame, as the actual variation of distinct RGB values is too high to allow for any kind of meaningful, quantitative interpretation. The analyzer also processes the subtitle file of a movie and uses Python NLTK
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.nltk.org/ (accessed 3 March 2016).</p>
                        </note> to perform basic POS tagging, as we are mainly interested in how nouns correlate with certain colors. We used the Python library TextBlob
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://textblob.readthedocs.org/ (accessed 3 March 2016).</p>
                        </note> to perform a simple sentiment analysis for each of the adjectives, tagging them with a polarity score between -1 (negative) and +1 (positive). After the analysis, each frame is saved as a JPG file; all quantitative data is stored in a JSON file. 
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Viewer component</head>
                    <p>The viewer component uses this data to generate an interactive HTML page that can be viewed in any recent web browser. A popular visualization of the most frequent colors that occur in a movie can be found in the MovieBarcodes
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn8"" n=""8"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://moviebarcode.tumblr.com (accessed 3 March 2016).</p>
                        </note> project. In a MovieBarcode, each frame of a movie is skewed to be only one pixel wide; all frames are then lined up in a row that looks very much like a colored barcode. On the overview page of our tool, all movies that have been analyzed before are rendered in a MovieBarcode visualization, together with information of the four most frequent colors in the movie (cf. Fig. 1). This view can be used to compare various movies with each other from a more distant perspective. 
                    </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""274/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Figure 1: Overview of analyzed films in a MovieBarcode visualization (“The Lion King”, top; “True Detective, season 1, episode 1”, middle; “True Detective, season 1, episode 2”, bottom). </head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>By clicking on one of the MovieBarcodes, the tool zooms into the respective movie and renders different kinds of information in a more detailed view (cf. Fig. 2). </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""274/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Figure 2: Detailed view with MovieBarcode, sentiment graph and noun distribution.</head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>Below the MovieBarcode appears a sentiment graph that aggregates a score between -1 and +1 for each dialog. In the bottom row, the most frequent nouns are displayed. All different types of information are also aligned to the time axis of the movie. The visualization is fully interactive, i.e. by hovering over one of the frames in the MovieBarcode, or a node in the sentiment graph or the noun distribution, the corresponding frame and subtitle appear as an overlay. The complete movie can also be navigated back and forth by means of the arrow keys.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion and future directions</head>
                <p>We believe the real strength of a quantitative approach that makes use of language and color information lies in a mix of “distant watching” (cf. Howanitz, 2015) and close watching, i.e. characteristic language-color patterns identified in specific movies can be used as a query to search other movies for similar patterns. Our next steps will therefore go into the direction of an information system that allows researchers to search and compare a collection of movies according to language and color characteristics.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Buckland, W.</hi> (2008). What Does the Statistical Style Analysis of Film Involve? A Review of Moving into Pictures. More on Film History, Style, and Analysis. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(2): 219-30.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Flückiger, B.</hi> (2011). Die Vermessung ästhetischer Erscheinungen. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Zeitschrift für Medienwissenschaft</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>(2): 44–60. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Forchini, P.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Movie language revisited. Evidence from multi-dimensional analysis and corpora</hi>. Bern et al.: Peter Lang Verlag. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clement, T., Steger, S., Unsworth, J. and Uszkalo, K.</hi> (2008). How not to read a million books. http://people.brandeis.edu/~unsworth/hownot2read.html (accessed 3 March 2016).
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                            <hi rend=""bold"">Hoyt, E.</hi>
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                            <hi rend=""bold"">Howanitz, G.</hi> (2015). Distant Waching: Ein quantitativer Zugang zu YouTube-Videos.
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                            <hi rend=""bold"">Korte, H.</hi> (2004). 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Einführung in die Systematische Filmanalyse</hi>. Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag.
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                            <hi rend=""bold"">Manovich, L. </hi>(2013). Visualizing Vertov. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Softwarestudies.com</hi>. http://softwarestudies.com/cultural_analytics/Manovich.Visualizing_Vertov.2013.pdf 
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                            <hi rend=""bold"">Monaco, J.</hi> (2009). 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">How</hi>
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                            <hi rend=""bold"">Salt, B.</hi> (2006). 
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                            <hi rend=""bold"">Salt, B.</hi> (1974). Statistical Style Analysis of Motion Pictures. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Film Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(1): 13-22.
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                            <hi rend=""bold"">Sikov, E.</hi> (2010). 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Film Studies. An Introduction</hi>. New York: Columbia University Press.
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                            <hi rend=""bold"">Tiedemann, J.</hi> (2012). Parallel Data, Tools and Interfaces in OPUS. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation</hi>
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                            <hi rend=""bold"">Tsivian, Y.</hi> (2009). Cinemetrics, Part of the Humanities’ Cyberinfrastructure. In Ross, M., Grauer, M. and Freisleben, B. (eds.), 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Tools in Media Studies – Analysis and Research. An Overview</hi>. Bielefeld: tanscript Verlag, pp. 93-100.
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                            <hi rend=""bold"">Ewerth, R., Mühling, M., Stadelmann, T., Gllavata, J., Grauer, M. and Freisleben, B.</hi> (2009). Videana: A Software Toolkit for Scientific Film Studies. In Ross, M., Grauer, M. and Freisleben, B. (eds.), 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Tools in Media Studies – Analysis and Research. An Overview</hi>. Bielefeld: tanscript Verlag, pp. 100-16.
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    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2545","17","Blacks In American Medicine Archive: Exploring Forgotten Stories","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Archival work has for centuries privileged the aggregation over the dissemination of rare and important content. And while this has been necessitated largely in order to preserve the objects within, it has particularly been harmful to marginalized communities whose narratives lie outside of mainstream consciousness. Thankfully, the affordances of digital humanities has opened up new avenues for these elusive materials, and the expansive histories they hold within, to reach a multitude of audiences.</p>
            <p>The newest project at HyperStudio, MIT’s Digital Humanities Center, the Blacks in American Medicine (BAM) archive innovates on this unique potential offered by digital media to promote and display never-before-seen materials.  The BAM project features over 23,000 biographical records of African American physicians from 1860-1980 and countless primary documents associated with these practitioners and the African-American medical community at large. From numerous pieces of personal correspondence, such as a letter to the AMA pleading with them to hold the annual convention in a non-segregated locale, to unique biographical data that charts the ebb and flow of African Americans in medicine, much of the content within the BAM archive has never been available to a wide audience, and all of it has never been digitalized in a central location. Our archive incorporates both a focused study into the history of specific physicians and a broader analysis of the trends within the African American medical community to unearth untold chapters in the vast history of the black experience in America.</p>
            <p>While still in the initial stages of this project, we are working on a number of intersectional methods to display this wealth of content. As with most of HyperStudio’s archival projects, we are making sure that the content is discoverable by both scholars as well as more casual audiences. This begins by making sure that the content is encoded using established metadata standards such as Dublin Core, allowing to connect our high resolution primary materials and biographical records to other relevant archives. Additionally, within our site itself, we plan to integrate our <ref target=""http://hyperstudio.mit.edu/software/faceted-browser/"">Repertoire faceted browser</ref>, which allows for both a targeted search usingspecific criteria and the ability to explore interconnected documents that interest the user. Additionally, this project will feature our <ref target=""http://hyperstudio.mit.edu/software/chronos-timeline/"">Chronos Timeline</ref>, which dynamically uses events and occurrences to present historical data. Outside of displaying content algorithmically and chronologically, we plan on incorporating geographic, visual and biographical tools to help novices and experts alike delve into this content in order to discover new stories and explore existing narratives. By allowing users multiple entry points, these cross-sectional methods of content interrogation will further highlight our project’s unique ability to test traditional views of the African American experience, which focus on a few key moments that affected the larger populace than the long history of the people themselves.</p>
            <p>Our job as custodians of this trove of content is to make sure that it is not only widely accessible but, more importantly, that it is intuitive and useful to our audience. A poster session at DH2016 will allow us to gather feedback from thought leaders in the field in order to facilitate the evolution of our product. This is a crucial step in making sure that our project has the impact, reach and power that it deserves.</p>
            <p>At HyperStudio, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s center for digital humanities, we use new media to discover and explore forgotten stories. By both focusing on specific people, places and details and zooming out to view trends and patterns, our methods and tools allow us to question traditional narratives and investigate emerging ones. This project, a collaboration with Pulitzer-Prize-finalist author and African-American science historian, Kenneth Manning, demonstrates the power of new/innovative archival approaches to discover and promote new content. This archive is a chance to articulate stories that have remained untold and question narratives that have remained unchallenged, and the Digital Humanities 2016 conference is the perfect place to deepen this discussion.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2546","17","Boundary Land: Diversity as a defining feature of the Digital Humanities","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <quote>It is normally the case that the objects of scientific inquiry inhabit multiple social worlds, since all science requires intersectional work... The management of this diversity cannot be achieved via a simple pluralism or a laissez-faire solution. The fact that the objects originate in , and continue to inhabit, different worlds reflects the fundamental tension of science: how can findings which incorporate radically different meanings become coherent? (Star and Griesemer, 1989:392)</quote>
            <p>In the Sociology of Science, objects of scientific enquiry that are common to multiple disciplines or communities are known as “boundary objects” (Star and Griesemer, 1989). As Borgman argues, “these are objects that can facilitate communication, but that also highlight differences between groups” (Borgman, 2007: 153). They have “different meanings in different social worlds but their structure is common enough to more than one world to make them recognizable, a means of translation” (Star and Griesemer, 1989). Handled poorly, they promote ""boundary work"" - the effort to institutionalize difference between fields (Gieryn, 1983; Lamont and Molnár, 2002: 180); handled well, they are “important interfaces enabling communication across communities” (Lamont and Molnár, 2002: 180).</p>
            <p>The theme of this session is the Digital Humanities as a “Boundary Land” - i.e. a locus in which such objects are common. As O'Donnell argues in his paper, this aspect is one of the defining features of contemporary Digital Humanities and an important cause of its recent rapid growth. As the field grows, DH workshops, panels, and journals see increasing work by practitioners trained in more and more traditionally distinct disciplinary traditions: textual scholars, literary critics, historians, New Media specialists, as well as theologians, computer scientists, archaeologists, Cultural Heritage specialists... and geographers, physicists, biologists, and medical professionals.
            </p>
            <p>It is the contention of the speakers of this panel that interpersonal diversity (i.e. diversity along lines such as gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, language, economic region, etc.) is as an important element of this aspect of DH. The Digital Humanities is not only a place where different disciplines work together (and at times at odds to each other): it is also a place where different people work together and at odds in developing our field. In other words, diversity initiatives in the Digital Humanities are important not only because they let more people into our field, they are important because they change the nature of our field as its practice widens.
            </p>
            <p>The papers in this session each approach the issue from a different perspective. In the first paper, O’Donnell looks at the theoretical background to this understanding of diversity as a component of DH as a boundary discipline, grounding his approach in early work on interdisciplinarity and boundary work. In the second paper, Murray Ray and Bordalejo discuss the ways in which efforts to promote diversity within DH can paradoxically undermine its theoretical importance to the field, before turning to different examples of diversity's intellectual importance. In the third paper, del Rio and González-Blanco examine the institutional and social pressures that promote and hinder dialogue among researchers in developing and developed countries and across linguistic and other boundaries before proposing new approaches in Digital Humanities that go beyond lingüistic diversity focusing on theories such as Sociology of Culture and Education and other reformulations.
            </p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>All along the Watchtower: an interdisciplinary approach to understanding the importance technical, disciplinary, and interpersonal diversity within the Digital Humanities</head>
                <p>Daniel Paul O'Donnell (University of Lethbridge)</p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>The increasing paradisciplinarity of Digital Humanities</head>
                    <p>Perhaps the defining feature of the Digital Humanities as a discipline is its growth (Terras, 2012). Despite some pushback and counter pushback about the precise valence of the field as a discipline (for some more famous recent examples of this growing genre, see Koh, 2015; Fish, 2012; Marche, 2013; Chun, 2013; Grusin, 2013; Jagoda, 2013; a selection of responses to these specific pieces include, among many others, Risam, 2015; Gil, 2015; Liberman, 2012; O'Donnell, 2012; Pannapacker, 2013), digitally inflected work on Humanities problems and material continues to grow.</p>
                    <p>As its popularity has grown—and, more importantly, as the potential of networked computation as applied to cultural material and questions has become more broadly apparent - it has begun to incorporate practitioners trained in more and more traditionally distinct disciplinary traditions: textual scholars, literary critics, historians, New Media specialists, as well as theologians, computer scientists, archaeologists, Cultural Heritage specialists... and geographers, physicists, biologists, and medical professionals (see Deegan and McCarty 2012 for a detailed discussion of cross disciplinary collaboration in DH).
                    </p>
                    <p>This growth is interesting for a variety of reasons: as a demonstration of the continuing relevance of the humanities (Davidson, 2011), as a route to new approaches to traditional disciplines (e.g. Ramsay, 2011; Moretti, 2005), and as a method of improving our ability to answer old questions (e.g. Terras, 2006). It also has been interesting for the way it fed back into computer science and other non-humanities domains, for example, through the development of XML and Unicode (O’Donnell 2010).
                    </p>
                    <p>Above all, however, this growth is interesting because it reflects the increasingly paradisciplinary nature of the domain and its methods. ""Humanities Computing”, the designation most commonly used before Blackwell’s marketing team proposed “Digital Humanities” as an alternative in 2005 (Kirschenbaum, 2010), was far more traditional in approach: beginning with the original work of Roberto Busa in the 1940s, computation in this older form was used to work with relatively traditional objects and questions within relatively traditional humanities domains. As a glance at the tables of contents of journals from this period demonstrates, literary scholars and historians tended to use their computation to do literary and historical work: build concordances and indices, develop statistics, and, later, capture text; Gallery, Archive, Library, and Museum (GLAM) professionals, for their part, computed metadata and built catalogues; Corpus linguists built corpora; and so on. DH, on the other hand, especially in the course of the last decade, has been marked—perhaps defined (O'Donnell, 2012) - by its inter - and cross - disciplinarity: geographers study British Romantic poets' fascination with the Lake District (Cooper et al., 2015); museum curators decipher mathematical texts (Netz and Noel, 2008); literary scholars edit maps, compile archives of things, or analyse Cultural Heritage installations (Foys, 2003; Nelson, 2014; O'Donnell et al., 2012; Hobma, 2014).
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Boundary objects and border lines in the sociology of science</head>
                    <p>In the Sociology of Science, such cross-disciplinary outputs are known as “boundary objects” (Star and Griesemer, 1989). As Borgman argues, “these are objects that can facilitate communication, but that also highlight differences between groups” (Borgman, 2007:153). They have “different meanings in different social worlds but their structure is common enough to more than one world to make them recognizable, a means of translation” (Star and Griesemer, 1989:393). Handled poorly, they promote “boundary work”—the effort to institutionalize difference between fields (Gieryn, 1983; Lamont and Molnár, 2002:180); handled well, they are “important interfaces enabling communication across communities” (Lamont and Molnár, 2002: 180).</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>The Digital Humanities as Boundaryland</head>
                    <p>As the Digital Humanities has matured technologically, the question of these Boundary Objects has become an increasingly important, if largely unrecognised, issue among practitioners, users, and critics of DH (Borgman, 2007, chap. 7). As the example of Fish and Liberman (a literary scholar and a computational linguist discussing “distance reading” and “algorithmic criticism”) suggests, unacknowledged disciplinary differences about how such objects are understood can result in users talking past each other (see the debate between Fish 2012; Liberman 2012). And indeed a surprisingly large number of other debates in the field can be understood as involving such boundary constructs: complaints that the Digital Humanities are “undertheorised”, for example; the “hack vs. yack” debate (i.e. about the relative importance of programming vs. cultural aspects of DH; see Nowviskie, 2014) or even “centre and the periphery” (about the definition of DH through western—or sometimes simply Anglo-American—norms; see Galina, 2013; Fiormonte, 2012).</p>
                    <p>The rest of this paper looks at the place of globalisation and diversity in light of this understanding of DH as a ""boundaryland"" - a place in which shared research objects or goals take on different meanings depending on the background of the participant. As the paper will show, interpersonal diversity is in this regard as important to the growth of our field as disciplinary diversity. Research objects, questions, and more importantly, solutions, look very different when lack of funds or inadequate technology prevents the proper preservation of your cultural patrimony and makes participation in collaborations next-to-impossible (see Babalola, 2013). Drawing on the author’s experience in establishing and overseeing the first few years of the Special Interest Group, Global Outlook::Digital Humanities, this paper demonstrates the extent to which this openness to difference is in fact an essential feature of both interdisciplinarity and the future growth and development of the Digital Humanities as a discipline that transcends the domains it increasingly incorporates.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Conclusion</head>
                    <p>Although the concept of the “Boundary Object” is now most commonly discussed in terms of disciplinary difference, the original work on the concept involved the boundary between “Science and Nonscience” or the management of differences in the way in which professional and amateur ornithologists understood the collection of specimens for a museum (Gieryn, 1983). By failing to understand the extent to divisions within the boundaries that coincide with broader cultural, historical, economic, or regional differences amplify existing impediments to the incorporation of the full diversity of our community’s experience (Fiormonte, 2012; Galina, 2013; Wernimont, 2013). As Star and Griesemer note:</p>
                    <quote>When participants in the intersecting worlds create representations together, their different commitments and perceptions are resolved into representations—in the sense that a fuzzy image is resolved by a microscope. This resolution does not mean consensus. Rather, representations, or inscriptions, contain at every stage the traces of multiple viewpoints, translations and incomplete battles... By reaching agreements about methods, different participating worlds establish protocols which go beyond mean trading across unjoined world boundaries. They begin to devise a common coin which makes possible new kinds of joint endeavour (1989, 413).</quote>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>If You Think You Know the Answer, You Don’t Understand the Question</head>
                <p>Bárbara Bordalejo and Padmini Ray Murray</p>
                <p>Digital Humanities appears to be an open and welcoming field. Indeed, conversations about diversity have been increasingly visible in the digital humanities community. It has been said that the discipline boasts “...a culture that values collaboration, openness, nonhierarchical relations, and agility” and so “might be an instrument for real resistance or reform (Kirschembaum, 59). Notably, this statement by Kirschembaum is also supported by Burdick et al., who state that “...however heterogeneous, the Digital Humanities is unified by its emphasis on making, connecting, interpreting, and collaborating” (24).
                </p>
                <p>These emphases on unity are necessary and vital to ensure that the ideal of a “global” DH establishes itself as a reality in the future. But the widespread belief that these values are at the core of Digital Humanities as a discipline, and that just by virtue of such values it is open and welcoming to all, may prevent us from seeing that the discipline can also fail to meet these standards. And when we discuss the importance of diversity, we need to understand what it is we are talking about: do we mean simply the inclusion of an ever broader collection of participants? Or do we mean that diversity is in some way a crucial intellectual aspect of what we do? 
                </p>
                <p>The emphasis on representation and inclusivity has been a main focus of what we might describe as the initial stages in the opening of the Digital Humanities. From the early emphasis on gender balance in the selection of keynote speakers at the ALC/ALLC conference through the early years of DH, to the more recent work of formal committees within ADHO, such as the Special Interest Group Global Outlook :: Digital Humanities (GO::DH) and the the Multilingual/Multicultural Committee, the focus of work thus far has been primarily on discovering and understanding the obstacles that prevent full access to our community and developing strategies to address those obstacles. 
                </p>
                <p>There are two dangers to this approach, how ever well meaning and necessary it is.
                </p>
                <p>The first is, of course, that “diversity” is a boundary-less category. By concentrating on one category, or even a few categories, we, almost inevitably end up ignoring others. We focus on gender, but ignore race; or emphasise language, but ignore social class, professional status, or economic/regional disparity. 
                </p>
                <p>Thus, when the editorial board of
                    <ref target=""http://journal.frontiersin.org/journal/digital-humanities#editorial-board"">
                    </ref> Frontiers in Digital Humanities was announced, it became instantly notorious because all the editors were male. What was less debated was the fact that they were, with one exception, white. Or that they all came from the usually dominant (primarily High Income) countries. Likewise, when Scott Weingart started to write about the acceptance rate of women as first author of papers to the DH conference, it had to do (at least in part) with the relative ease of identifying female and male authors. 
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">In reality, as the example of Frontiers shows, it can be much more difficult to assess other layers of diversity which are not apparent and, therefore, cannot be easily quantified. Even if we imagine that it might be relatively simple to identify native speakers of English, we would remain ignorant of people whose day to day work is carried out in a different language from their native one. Moreover, degrees of bilingualism vary greatly from country to country and culture to culture in such way that for scholars who have English as their second language, their proficiency and ease within it, might be significantly different. </hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">The second danger to this approach is that it trivialises the importance of the category it intends to support. If diversity involves no </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">more</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> than simply ensuring that a wider range of people are present at the table, then questions about the relationship of diversity to quality become, if not entirely reasonable, at least not completely beyond understanding. Perhaps it is possible to become too welcoming--or at the very least to believe that we are somehow watering down the quality of our work by allowing too many participants in simply because they belong to the right demographic.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">This paper is about both aspects of the place of diversity within the Digital Humanities. </hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">In the first section, Padmini Ray Murray examines how non-Western cultural concepts and intellectual categories might redefine the digital humanities in terms of methodological frameworks. It is particularly significant that the concept and understanding of what DH is varies in accordance to the cultural context in which it is presented. In other words: although there might be a significant conceptual overlap, one researcher’s digital humanities is rarely equal to the one of another. Ray Murray's investigations look at how infrastructural and structural ramifications of working in languages other than English; how notions of the archive can be culturally fluid and how critical making as an intervention is altered by local conditions of production and economics in order to demonstrate that the digital humanities must necessarily be informed by these factors in order to be truly diverse.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">In the second section, Bárbara Bordalejo looks at intersectionality and the Digital Humanities. She investigates the combination of factors that might hinder the ability of individual researchers to make themselves more widely known within the DH community. As she shows, background, race, culture, gender, language and ability are all factors whose impact we are just beginning to understand. As she argues, however, this diversity does not need to </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">be a problem. On the contrary, it could be (and it should be) taken advantage of in such way that it challenges and enhances both our research and our community. </hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">A final goal of both parts of this paper is to test the words of </hi>
                    <ref target=""http://listserv.uleth.ca/pipermail/globaloutlookdh-l/2013-May/000329.html"">Domenico Fiormonte</ref>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">about the importance of social capital in the Digital Humanities: “...it's not enough to have good ideas, work in the Northern [h]emisphere and write them in English: you need good sponsors and authoritative venues.“ Although it is true that this is part of the problem, nothing should prevent current structures to become part of the solution. Opening authoritative venues can only bring enrichment and new understanding to the DH community. </hi>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Spanish Digital Humanities: the construction of a scientific field</head>
                <p>Gimena del Rio Riande (CONICET) and 
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Elena González-Blanco García (LINHD, UNED)</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">As Pierre Bourdieu (1975, 19) clearly stated forty years ago: “the scientific field is the locus of a competitive struggle, in which the specific issue at stake is the monopoly of scientific authority, defined inseparably as technical capacity and social power.” Universities are strategic spaces for the construction of scientific competences and practices in terms of </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">doxa</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> and </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">habitus </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(Bourdieu, 1979). The agents that are part of these academic spaces acquire there a socially recognised capacity to speak and act in an authorized and authoritative way in scientific matters. This way, these agents can define and legitimate the definitions they propose for their subjects of study. University education is also a vital experience of utmost importance: university socialization  can lead to a deep identity redefinition, with the incorporation of new ways of thinking, communicating and acting. Consequently, altogether with the recognized capacity to legitimate, universities provide the social framework </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">to interpret academic disciplines and communicate specific shared knowledge. (Bernstein, 1990:31), makes it clear when he highlights the distribution of power and principles of control that produce different communication principles unevenly distributed. In his theory, different contexts produce different codes that act selectively on the meanings and realizations.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Undoubtedly, Digital Humanities are nowadays part of the North American and European scientific field. A big offer of postgraduate courses, summer schools, Digital Humanities centers and labs, and scientific journals and websites legitimate the field and its discourse. In this sense, </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">Defining Digital Humanities. A reader</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> (2013), edited by Melissa Terras, Julianne Nyhan and Edward Vanhoutte, can be seen as a text that comes to serve as </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">the</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> last legitimated definition for Digital Humanities. The volume appeared almost ten years after </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">A Companion to Digital Humanities</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> (2004), edited by Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens and John Unsworth, and aims to collect </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">the</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> authoritative voices in the field. The book focuses just on voices that have defined the Digital Humanities making use of English as </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">lingua franca</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> and it only considers as authoritative voices a very homogenic group that legitimates the field </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">from universities with a shared Anglo-American perspective and a set of common discourses and practices.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">This landscape is very different for the Spanish speaking community. On the one side, European Spanish universities have defined Digital Humanities paying little or no attention to Latin America (González-Blanco, 2013; Spence and González-Blanco, 2014; Rojas Castro, 2013); on the other side, very few definitions have been provided in this side of the world (Galina, 2014; Rio Riande, 2014a, 2014b) or there is a preference for working on a non-defined scientific field that could lead to more open and less philological humanities,  more interested in the Social Sciences or Digital Media (Piscitelli 2014). Although there may be many external social, cultural and economic issues that divide the Spanish-speaking Digital Humanities field, this work means to unveal the symbolic violence (Bourdieu, 1991) behind these facts and focus on the characteristics of the institutional spaces in which legitimated discourses and socialization occur as a set of historical and social conditions that explain their particular constitution and nature in Spain and some countries that have started regarding Digital Humanities as a possible (non actual) academic discipline. Knowledge and practices as expressed in the university curricula, but also the set of norms, values ​​and social representations that make each space, can not be fully understood without taking into account the very specific historical, intellectual and institutional factors that have operated and operate in its constitution and legitimate in different ways their discourses.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Regarding the aforementioned, some questions arise: are there possibilities of dialogue in Digital Humanities between developed countries and others with unequal access to technology despite using the same language? Who are the agents that can be part of this dialogue? How do they become part of the scientific field? How much of that symbolic violence comes across in this dialogue? How do social, cultural and historical factors shape the knowledge  built</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">at university? The work aims to outline some possible answers to these questions at the time it claims for new approaches in Digital Humanities that go beyond lingüistic diversity focusing on theories such as Sociology of Culture  and Education and other reformulations.</hi>
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
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                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">–––––. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(2015c).</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""><hi rend=""italic"">Acceptances to Digital Humanities 2015 (Part 3)</hi></hi>
                        <ptr target=""http://www.scottbot.net/HIAL/?p=41355""/>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(June 27th 2015).</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">–––––. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(2015d).</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""><hi rend=""italic"">Acceptances to Digital Humanities 2015 (Part 4)</hi></hi>
                        <ptr target=""http://www.scottbot.net/HIAL/?p=41375""/>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(June 28th 2015).</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">–––––. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(2015e). </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""><hi rend=""italic"">What’s Counted Counts</hi></hi>
                        <ptr target=""http://www.scottbot.net/HIAL/?p=41425""/>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(July 31st 2015).</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wernimont, J.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> (2013). <hi rend=""italic"">Whence Feminism? Assessing Feminist Interventions in Digital Literary Archives.</hi></hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""><hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(1).</hi>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2547","17","Browsing, Sharing, Learning and Reviewing the Haine du théâtre Corpus through Insightful Island","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Researchers of DH need visualizations to help them analyze and share their research results. Meanwhile, the users of the corpus are waiting for a tool (e.g. knowledge Map) to help them with learning and information seeking, and help them with knowledge understanding and memorizing tasks. The insightful island is one of the most promising tool for the perception of the corpus and its memorization.</p>
            <p>Cartographic Visualizations (Gansner et al., 2013), have a lot of advantages: they propose to map contents onto two-dimensional knowledge maps that use cartographic metaphors and geographical analogies. These help users to understand the knowledge and allow them to show their own understanding on the visualization, then share it with other scholars. With knowledge maps, people from different domains can collaborate with each other, thus leading to additional benefits. For example, the famous Torrance’s experiments (Torrance, 1970) show that working in pairs facilitates creativity.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""185/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1. Visualize the HdT corpus as an insightful Island</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""185/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2. Access, detail information and search with the HdT island</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The Project 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Haine du théâtre</hi> (HdT) aims at analyzing theatre debates in Europe by using scientific approaches and critical editions of polemical texts. The reflections of the HdT team are mainly focused around the discovery of the circumstances and the arguments used in theatre controversies all across Europe, from the 16
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century up to the 19
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century. 
            </p>
            <p>In this poster, we show how to use Memory Island (MI) technique (Yang, 2015) to help us creating an insightful island for the HdT corpus. MI is inspired by the “loci” method of the Art of Memory technique, and it consists of associating each entity of knowledge to a designated area on a created virtual island. We generated a 2D knowledge island (Figure 1) of an ontology built to access the HdT corpus by employing the MI technique. </p>
            <p>This visual representation allows users to navigate through the corpus, based on the insights of experts. It uses distance measures, based on the perception of the literary field expressed by scholars specialized of the considered period. This is achieved in this same way that experts from the “Knowledge Cartography” field (Okada et al., 2008) manually craft their knowledge maps. 
            </p>
            <p>Users can circulate through the corpus and discover interesting documents that appear to be semantically close to the one they are viewing. The overall organization being based on the ontology skeleton (i.e. a hierarchical structure), the spatial proximity corresponds to a semantic proximity between documents that could arise unexpectedly to the eyes of the viewer, which should stimulate his/her curiosity. In addition, the users can get more information about the concepts by simply clicking their labels on the map: detailed information windows appear on demand. Moreover, the users can study the online corpus, together with the labels of instances and the supplementary information by clicking the chosen items in this window (Figure 2).</p>
            <p>Then we designed two different actions: “Visit” and “Study”. ""Visit"" is the action performed by the user that allows her to see a concept’s detailed information; ""study"" is the action allowing users to examine concepts and learn from it at a deeper level. We developed techniques for helping the users to learn and memorize this knowledge based on these map representations. For example, the users can share visiting trace with others, which allows to collaboratively study the corpus (Figure 3). This is essential in the perspective of a participatory activity in DH. User can visually display her visiting trace and allow others to re-visit her trace. </p>
            <p>The studied concepts of one user are also visually represented (Figure 3) by the novel review function which simulates our mind’s memorization and learning mechanisms. The frequency of learning is also visually represented, using degrees of transparency (least transparent means most studied), in a technique analogous to that of the “heat-maps”. If the user wants to review the studied concepts, it will show her a summary about the concept, prepared by the expert, also allowing the comparison with the original text in the corpus.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""185/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3. Visualize the visiting trace and review the studied concepts (highlighting with the five-point stars). In this case, the user has studied “society”, “quality” and “thematics” concepts, alighting on the concept “economy” and reading its summary</head>
            </figure>
            <p>In the future, we envisage integrating Natural Language Processing and Artificial Intelligence techniques, such as Name Entities Recognition to rendering our technique fully automatic; this in turn will enable all scholars in DH to develop their own Memory Islands for sharing their knowledge more easily.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gansner, E., Hu, Y., and Kobourov, S.</hi> (2013).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Handbook of Human Centric Visualization</hi>. Springer.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Okada, A., Shum, S. B., and Sherborne, T.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Knowledge Cartography: Software Tools and Mapping Techniques (Advanced Information and Knowledge Processing)</hi>. Springer.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Torrance, E. P.</hi> (1970). Dyadic interaction as a facilitator of gifted performance. <hi rend=""italic"">Gifted Child Quarterly</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>(3): 139–43.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Yang, B.</hi> (2015).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Memory Island: Visualizing Hierarchical Knowledge as Insightful Islands</hi>. Ph.D thesis, University Pierre and Marie Curie.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2548","17","Building Blocks of Fiction: Lexical Bundles in Nineteenth-Century Novels","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Several decades ago, corpus linguists undertook systematic analyses of a lexical unit larger than the individual word but smaller than syntactical or phrasal units—multi-word sequences they called “lexical bundles” (Biber et al., 1999: 989; Biber and Conrad 1999: 58). Lexical bundles are extremely common collocations of three or more words, such as “<hi rend=""italic"">I want to</hi>”, “<hi rend=""italic"">it was a</hi>”, or “<hi rend=""italic"">going to be a.</hi>” Unlike idioms or clichés, which are statistically very rare— and unlike word n-grams, which can occur with any frequency— lexical bundles are diffused throughout the language, occurring at least ten times per million words, and in many cases much more frequently (Biber et al., 1999: 989).<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1""><p rend=""footnote text""> In stylometry, there has been lively debate about the use of n-grams for authorship attribution. Our study differs in focusing on very common n-grams (i.e., on lexical bundles) rather than the rare n-grams studied by Vickers (2011), and it does so not for the purposes of authorship attribution, but rather to identify how fiction’s most common lexical bundles may have evolved over time, and may have done so differently in narration and in dialogue.</p></note> Because of their frequency, lexical bundles are regarded as “discourse framing devices”: sequences of words that function as connective tissue in organizing discourse, expressing stance, or conveying referential status (Biber, 2006: 174). 
                </p>
                <p>While much of this ground-breaking research has focused on register—i.e., on differences in the use of multi-word sequences in various discourse contexts (like conversation vs. academic prose)—surprisingly little attention has been paid to the role of bundles in fiction. Biber et al. (1999) do not discuss results for fiction in their work, focusing instead on differences between academic prose and conversation (cf. also Conrad and Biber, 2004). Michaela Mahlberg’s corpus stylistics approach to Dickens’ fiction (2012) was pioneering in the use of lexical bundles to study fiction, but to date, no studies focusing on corpus- or register-wide trends in fiction have appeared.<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2""><p> Jonathan Culpeper’s 2012 book is another recent study that uses bundles to study literary texts, but Culpeper’s object of inquiry is the early modern English dialogue, not the novel. </p></note> Yet the dramatic differences in the use of lexical bundles in other registers suggest that lexical bundles play an important role in building the discourse of fiction, and also that the bundles that occur in fiction will be significantly different than those occurring in other registers.
                </p>
                <p>This paper analyzes the role of lexical bundles in a corpus of over 1000 novels published in Great Britain and America between 1800 and 1905. The two key contributions of the paper are: 1) to provide a taxonomy of the discourse functions of lexical bundles in nineteenth-century English and American fiction; and 2) to historicize that usage by tracking changes in our corpus over the course of the nineteenth century. We also provide some data about differences between narration and dialogue. </p>
                <p>In expanding the unit of analysis beyond the level of the word, this paper also aims to intervene in recent methodological debates about digital humanities research on literary style. Much DH research on style in recent years—including some of the authors’ own work—has relied on a bag-of-words approach (Heuser and Le-Khac, 2012; Underwood and Sellers, 2012; for a discussion of the virtues of this approach, see Underwood, 2013). Since the terrain of higher-level lexical patterning in fiction remains under-explored, this paper contributes to the field both a methodological approach and a set of empirical results about the language of the nineteenth-century Anglo-American novel. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methods</head>
                <p>Our corpus derives from two digital fiction collections (licensed to the Stanford University Libraries) by Proquest: “Early American Fiction” (805 American novels published from 1789 - 1875; and “Nineteenth-Century Fiction” (250 British novels published from 1782-1903). To extend the American corpus’ historical scope to match that of the British corpus, we added a collection of about 325 American novels published between 1875 and 1905. We selected these texts based on their inclusion in the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Annals of American Literature </hi>(Ludwig and Nault, 1989) and their availability in Project Gutenberg.
                </p>
                <p>To identify bundles in a corpus with an uneven historical distribution of texts, we split each national corpus into four twenty-five year segments, creating eight sub-corpora. Each sub-corpus is derived from an identical number of words per author. Authors with fewer than 100,000 words in a particular period were not included; authors with more than this number were included by selecting 100 random slices of 1,000 words from all of their texts published in the period. Sub-corpora ranged in length from 900,000 words (U.S. publications, 1800-25) to 5.9 million words (U.S. publications, 1850-75), with a median length of 2.3 million words.</p>
                <p>Following Biber et al. (1999), we defined lexical bundles as the most commonly occurring tri- and quad-grams in our sub-corpora, with a threshold of at least ten occurrences per one million words (frequency per million [FPM]). After tokenizing each of the eight sub-corpora, we counted the number of occurrences of each unique tri-gram and quad-gram, normalizing by the length of the sub-corpus.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p> Departing from Biber et al., we decided to tokenize contractions as separate words (with “won’t” becoming “wo” + “n’t”), in order to place bundles involving contractions in direct comparison with their uncontracted equivalents (“i wo n’t” and “i will not” being both tri-gram bundles).</p>
                    </note> Any tri-gram or quad-gram with a frequency above 10 FPM in any of the eight sub-corpora was considered a potential lexical bundle. Biber et al. additionally required that bundles occur in at least five different texts in the corpus, in order to guard against the possibility of individual authorial or textual effects (991). Similarly, we excluded from our list of bundles those that occurred in fewer than three unique authors, so as to exclude idiosyncratic stylistic habits, as well as bundles containing character names or other novel-specific traits.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Biber and Conrad (1999) argue, and we agree, that lexical bundles often serve as mechanisms for bridging syntactic and semantic units. Accordingly, we allow lexical bundles to cross punctuation as well as clause and phrase boundaries.</p>
                    </note>
                </p>
                <p>We manually created an interpretive typology of the most frequent lexical bundles: the 150 most frequent tri-gram bundles (all with a median FPM across sub-corpora above 31), and the 240 most frequent quad-gram bundles (all with a median FPM across sub-corpora above 13). By looking at randomly-selected examples from the sub-corpora, each of these lexical bundles was annotated for its apparent function within fictional discourse. For example, “there was a” (5th most frequent tri-gram bundle, with a median FPM of 184) was annotated as “expletive”: grammatically, “expletives” are phrases of the form [“there” or “it” + to be], and within fiction, they provide a means by which the existence or effect of something can be easily introduced.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                        <p> For example, in the 1835 novel by William Gilmore Simms, <hi rend=""italic"">The Partisan: A Tale of the Revolution</hi>: “but <hi rend=""underline"">there was a</hi> reckless audacity in his replies to the friendly suggestions of the landlord, which half-frightened the latter personage out of his wits.”
                        </p>
                    </note>
                </p>
                <p>Finally, because corpus linguistics research has shown dramatic differences in lexical bundles across oral and written registers, we separately tracked their frequency in the narration and dialogue portions of our texts. To separate dialogue from narration, we used a tool developed by Grace Muzny at Stanford University. For this task we used a slightly reduced version of our corpus, which we curated by hand to ensure proper typographic markings of dialogue and thus a high precision and recall for the dialogue separation. We then replicated the corpus design described above, creating eight sub-corpora for each register, dialogue and narration. In this case, however, the periods are of twenty-year increments, from 1825 to 1905, due to the paucity of typographically well-formatted novels previous to 1825; also, each author contributes not 100,000 but 50,000 words to a particular sub-corpus, and authors with fewer than this number are not included in the sub-corpus.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results</head>
                <p>Due to constraints of space, we can provide here only an overview of our findings in each area. </p>
                <p>1. The function of lexical bundles in nineteenth-century fiction</p>
                <p>From our annotations (see “Methods” above), the most frequently-occurring bundles in fiction have one of the following functions: </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Expletive (<hi rend=""italic"">there was a, it was a, there was no, it was not, and there was</hi>)
                    </item>
                    <item>Auxiliary forms (<hi rend=""italic"">i do not, i did n’t, he did not, he had been</hi>)
                    </item>
                    <item>Modal forms (<hi rend=""italic"">i could not, would have been, i ca n’t, as if he</hi>)
                    </item>
                    <item>Relative clause markers (<hi rend=""italic"">that he had, that he was, which he was, that she was</hi>)
                    </item>
                    <item>Temporal markers (<hi rend=""italic"">for a moment, as soon as, the first time</hi>)
                    </item>
                    <item>Partitive constructions (<hi rend=""italic"">one of the, part of the, some of the</hi>)
                    </item>
                    <item>Spatial markers (<hi rend=""italic"">out of the, at the door, in the house</hi>) 
                    </item>
                    <item>Stance markers (<hi rend=""italic"">do n’t know, i am sure, to be sure, seemed to be</hi>) 
                    </item>
                    <item><hi rend=""italic"">Of</hi>-genitive (<hi rend=""italic"">the name of; the voice of; the heart of; the hands of</hi>)
                    </item>
                    <item>Discourse organization markers (<hi rend=""italic"">in spite of, as to the, in order to</hi>)
                    </item>
                </list>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""664/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: The most frequent 240 4-gram bundles, and most frequent 150 3-gram bundles, were annotated for their primary function in fiction; displayed here is the percentage of occurrences of all 390 annotated bundles within each unique functional type</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The discursive mechanisms and requirements of fiction are immediately discernable in this ranked typology, especially when compared to prior work on lexical bundles in other discursive contexts. The prominence of expletives in fiction, for example, seems particularly significant, as they condense a fundamental gesture of storytelling into a phrase: once upon a time, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">there was a</hi>... Expletives function in our corpus as a means of positing and sustaining a fictional ontology: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">it was</hi> the best of times, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">it was</hi> the worst of times. Similarly, the prevalence of temporal and spatial markers (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">as soon as, in front of</hi>) help perform another fundamental task of fictional narration, that is, maintaining a complex and evolving network of persons, objects and events in their changing relationships to one another.
                </p>
                <p>2. Historical behavior of lexical bundles</p>
                <p>On the whole, the historical trends we find in the use of lexical bundles suggest an increasing specialization of certain narrative functions over the course of the century, especially in the language of dialogue and its narrative orchestration. For example, the most frequent functional type of lexical bundle—the “expletive” bundles described above, like “
                    <hi rend=""italic"">there was a</hi>”—are actually more frequent in dialogue than in narration earlier in the century, but are then increasingly adopted by fictional narrators as part of their machinery for coordinating the existence of fictional objects (see Figure 2). 
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""664/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: The sum frequency per million of 21 lexical bundles annotated as expletives. Frequency is calculated in the dialogue and narrative portions, per period, of U.S. fiction</head>
                </figure>
                <p>We also see evidence of historical changes that do not depend on internal register differences in fiction (narration vs. dialogue). Particularly striking is the general decline in the use of <hi rend=""italic"">of</hi>-genitives in both narration and dialogue, in both British and American fiction (see Figure 3)—presumably replaced by the more concise Saxon genitive (<hi rend=""italic"">’s</hi>) or by noun phrases (as in <hi rend=""italic"">the center of the city </hi>vs. <hi rend=""italic"">the city center</hi>). This may be an instance of a broader shift towards more informal, concise diction as the nineteenth century progresses, since the Saxon genitive and such noun phrases privilege efficiency of expression over the rhythmical advantages of the <hi rend=""italic"">of</hi>-genitive. 
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""664/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3: The sum frequency per million for 35 lexical bundles annotated as genitive, per period, in the dialogue and narrative portions of U.S. and British fiction</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Finally, we find some key differences in the use of bundles between dialogue and narration, largely having to do with national differences in colloquial expressions. In American dialogue, for example, over the course of the century we find an increased use of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">going-to </hi>future forms (<hi rend=""italic"">are going to; am going to; going to do; are you going; going to be</hi>), along with an increase in colloquial discourse markers (<hi rend=""italic"">sort of thing; kind of a; all the time</hi>). In the British dialogue corpus, similarly, we find a decrease in formal and polite phrases over time (<hi rend=""italic"">to be sure; i have no doubt; my dear sir; depend upon it; god bless you; as you please; by the bye; the honour of</hi>), and a concurrent rise in more informal modern phrases (<hi rend=""italic"">in spite of; at any rate; here and there; now and again</hi>). Taken together, such trends suggest that this shift towards more informal bundles is particularly concentrated in fictional dialogue.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Biber, D. and Conrad, S.</hi> (1999). Lexical bundles in conversation and academic prose. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Out of Corpora: Studies in Honor of Stig Johansson</hi>, (Ed) Hilde Hasselard, Signe Oksefjell. Rodopi, Amsterdam: Rodopi, pp: 181–89. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Biber, D., et al.</hi> (2003). Lexical bundles in speech and writing: An initial taxonomy. In Wilson, A. et al., 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus Linguistics by the Lune.</hi> Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, pp. 71–92. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Biber, D., et. al.</hi> (1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English</hi>. Harlow: Longman.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Culpeper, J.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Early Modern English Dialogues: Spoken Interaction as Writing. </hi>Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heuser, R. and Le-Khac, L.</hi> (2011). <ref target=""https://www.academia.edu/9318474/Learning_to_Read_Data_Bringing_out_the_Humanistic_in_the_Digital_Humanities"">Learning to Read Data: Bringing out the Humanistic in the Digital Humanities</ref>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Victorian Studies</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">54</hi>(1): 79-86.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ludwig, R. and Nault, C.</hi> (1989). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Annals of American Literature, 1602-1983</hi>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mahlberg, M.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus Stylistics and Dickens’ Fiction</hi>. New York: Routledge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Underwood, T. and Sellers, J.</hi> (2012). The Emergence of Literary Diction. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(2). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Underwood, T.</hi> (2013). Wordcounts are amazing. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Stone and the Shell</hi>, 20 February. Retreived from: <http://tedunderwood.com/2013/02/20/wordcounts-are-amazing/>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2549","17","Chronological corpora: Challenges and opportunities of sequential analysis. The example of ChronoPress corpus of Polish","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Chronological corpus – definition </head>
                <p>The notion of chronological corpus has appeared so far only in publications of limited circulation (cf. Pawłowski, 2006), whereas it is practically absent from mainstream literature on corpus linguistics and digital humanities. This is somewhat surprising given that the research of so called “lexical series” has been conducted in the past (cf. Brunet, 1981; Salem, 1987) and that Google has been for some years developing the tools 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Ngram Viewer</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Google Trends</hi>, which allow sequential analysis of Google Books resources and of users' Internet queries (cf. Michel et al. 2011). 
                </p>
                <p>In order to understand what chronological corpus is one must grasp the basic distinction between synchrony and diachrony at the heart of structural linguistics. Synchrony is a study of language at a certain moment in time, where ""moment"" can last even several decades, provided there are no apparent changes in grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. As for diachrony, it exposes evolution of language taking place in the process of its development, usually over long periods, spanning even several centuries. However, corpus research supported by NLP tools enables a far more flexible approach to the time variable, since text samples consistent in terms of their typography, spelling and grammar can be annotated with their exact publication dates. Scientific description then focusses on the dynamics of the frequency change of specific lexemes (or other segments) in time, rather than on the evolution of word forms beginning with a hypothetical proto–language until the present state. </p>
                <p>An important issue to be resolved is that of naming such an approach, whereby the chosen term would instate it in the domain of corpus linguistics. While social sciences and psychology use the term of ""longitudinal"" research, its equivalent in linguistics could be ‘microdiachrony’. Having said that, the term’s association with traditional diachrony and history of language could prove misleading. This is why it is more advisable to speak of 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">chronological analysis</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">chronological corpora</hi>, where, similarly to diachrony, both terms contain a reference to time – gr. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">chronos</hi>.
                </p>
                <p>Consequently, 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">chronological corpus should be understood as a sequence of text samples consistent in terms of their spelling and grammar, corresponding to subsequent points on the axis of time </hi>(e.g. weeks, months etc.). Such a corpus would make it possible to explore the dynamics of the change of lexeme frequencies in successive periods using the method of time series analysis (cf. Gottman, 1981; Cryer, 1981; Pawłowski, 1998, 2001). A chronological corpus would differ from a diachronic one in that in the former texts are evenly spread in time and word forms remain unchanged, while in the latter it is the opposite: word forms must evolve to become object of interest and time spans between measurements may be of any length. It needs to be emphasised that the annotation of the time variable may be ignored (if such is the premise of the conducted research); a chronological corpus would then be treated as a synchronic one.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Chronological corpora </head>
                <p>There exist corpora that are intrinsically arranged with regard to the time variable, e.g. literary outputs of some authors presented as Shakespearean Corpus, Corpus Thomisticum or Corpus Platonicum. If the date of creation of every piece of data in the corpus is known, the development of the text's stylostatistical properties over time can be established. If text chronology remains partly unknown, stylometric research can help to put undated works in the correct order (cf. Lutosławski, 1897). </p>
                <p>But there is also another set of text corpora that seem to be naturally predestined to sequential analysis. Contrary to other genres or functional styles, 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">press and media texts</hi> necessarily incorporate the date or even the time of their creation. This is of course little surprising, since media must comment upon actual events. Publication dates in the headers or footers of printed newspapers may be thus regarded as “time markup” that is invaluable as a Gutenberg era contribution to the sequential corpus research in the digital universe. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>ChronoPress – features and origin </head>
                <p>At present ChronoPress corpus contains texts representing Polish press of the post-war totalitarian period (1945-1954). Future extensions are planned to cover the entire period of the country's sovereignty (1918–2018). As the flow of press information was abundant even in the early post-war period, representative method of sampling has been applied. It has also been assumed that the minimum time spans, visible from the user level, are limited to subsequent months (the volume of text corresponding to weeks was too small to guarantee a sufficient level of representativeness). Apart from that it should be pointed out that the pace of public discourse in the times of printed press was slower than it has been in the digital world, so that months as time units can be regarded as sufficient to trace relevant events or processes. </p>
                <p>In order to obtain reliable values of lexeme frequencies the number of words per month has been established as ca 120.000-140.000. Since sample size has been fixed to ca 250-300 words of continuous text, every month is represented by 480 samples and every year by 5760 samples (ca 1,5 million words per year). Equal numbers of words per month are important to guarantee that time series and other parameters generated from ChronoPress remain statistically unbiased with regard to the sample size. Selected newspapers represent a relatively broad spectrum of public post-war discourse of the totalitarian state. Particular titles to be included in the corpus have been selected according to two criteria: newspaper circulation (only titles with the highest values and national range have been considered) and target groups, as defined by the ideology of the time (first of all the working class, peasantry, army, youth, and, to a lesser extent, ""intelligentsia""). The corpus is freely available through an interactive user interface. </p>
                <p>Data have been thoroughly sampled from Polish dailies and weeklies. Preparatory stages of analysis consist of: sample selection, scanning, OCR, markup with metainformation (XML scheme) and text curation. The corpus has been annotated morphosyntactically using Morfeusz tool which had been designed for the Polish National Corpus. Metadata (Fig.1) include newspapers’ titles, articles’ titles, authors’ names, exposition, and data support. </p>
                <p>Fig. 1 Example of sample annotation with metadata </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""682/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>ChronoPress offers a variety of online linguistic and exploratory tools, such as concordances, frequency lists, word profiles and word maps. Its specific feature is, however, the possibility to generate time series. The analysis of lexeme frequency values displayed on an axis of time allows users to discover and explore the dynamics of events and phenomena represented in daily press over long periods of time. </p>
                <p>Fig. 2 Moving average of the frequency of the lexeme 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">machine</hi> (maszyna). It 
                    <hi rend=""fontnormal"">supports the view</hi> that despite the systemic inefficiency of communist economy technological progress was promoted in post-war Poland.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""682/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Goals of the presentation </head>
                <p>ChronoPress allows to conduct a wide range of research in linguistics, contemporary history, cultural anthropology, media studies and communication science. The perspective adopted here is oriented towards the analysis of dynamic processes occurring in time rather than towards static states of language reflecting extralinguistic reality. The goal of the presentation is to provide an overview of the available exploratory techniques for chronological corpora, highlighting their explanatory power and limitations. In particular the following issues will be addressed and exemplified with empirical evidence from the ChronoPress corpus: </p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Manual and automated trend detection, modelling and interpretation </head>
                    <p>Long-term change in frequency of selected lexemes will be analysed as the expression of dominating topics of interest in public discourse, but also of social change imperceptible from the point of view on an average. Illustration material will include salient and informative examples generated from the ChronoPress database (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">inter alia</hi> lexemes from the semantic fields 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">war</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">health</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">technology</hi>). Since trend analysis requires some conceptualisation of time, various approaches to time will be presented and discussed (linear or circular, anthropological, political and astronomical).
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Detection of events </head>
                    <p>Events are understood here as sudden changes, such as natural or technological catastrophes, wars, accidents etc. They manifest themselves as sudden rises in the lexeme frequency. This task will be illustrated with some examples generated from the ChronoPress corpus and from other online sources. </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Testing the efficiency of statistical tools </head>
                    <p>The utility of the autocorrelation function (for univariate series) and of the cross-correlation function (for multivariate series) in the analysis of chronological corpora will be verified. </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Comparison of ChronoPress and online resources </head>
                    <p>Informational potential and functionalities of the ChronoPress corpus will be compared with other online research tools, such as Google Ngram Viewer, Hansard Corpus and Polish National Corpus. </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Word profiles analyses </head>
                    <p>Collocations and semantic profiles of selected lexemes in subsequent years will be generated (using Log Likelihood Ratio) and compared. </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Automatic detection and annotation of named entities </head>
                    <p>Proper names and other named entities in Polish can be detected and annotated using Liner 2. Spatial distribution of toponyms identified by Liner 2 will be automatically displayed on a map and further analysed. Both tools have been created in the framework of the Clarin-PL project (http://clarin-pl.eu/en/home-page/).</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Brunet, E.</hi> (1981). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Le vocabulaire français. De 1789 à nos jours</hi>. Paris–Genève: Slatkine, Champion. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Cryer, J.</hi> (1986). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Time series analysis</hi>. Boston: Duxbury Press. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gottman, J. M.</hi> (1981). Time-series analysis: a comprehensive introduction for social scientists. Cambridge, London etc.: Cambridge University Press. </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Lutosławski, W.</hi> (1897). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The origin and growth of Plato’s logic</hi>. London, New York, Bombay: Longmans, Green and Co. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Michel, J.-B., Shen, Y. K., Aiden, A. P., Veres, A., Gray, M. K., The Google Books Team, Pickett, J. P., Hoiberg, D., Clancy, D., Norvig, P., Orwant, J., Pinker, S., Nowak, M.A., Aiden, E. L.</hi> (2011). Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Science</hi> 14 (2011), Vol. 331: 176–182. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Pawłowski, A.</hi> (1998). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Séries temporelles en linguistique. Avec application à l'attribution de textes: Romain Gary et Émile Ajar</hi>. Paris, Genève: Champion-Slatkine. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Pawłowski, A.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Metody kwantytatywne w sekwencyjnej analizie tekstu</hi> [Quantitative methods in sequential text analysis]. Warszawa: Uniwersytet Warszawski, Katedra Lingwistyki Formalnej. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Pawłowski, A.</hi> (2006). Chronological analysis of textual data from the Wrocław Corpus of Polish. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Poznań Studies in Contemporary Linguistics</hi> (PSiCL) 41, 2006: 9-29. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Salem, A.</hi> (1987). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pratique des segments répétés. Essai de statistique textuelle</hi>. Paris: Klincksieck.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2550","17","Challenges in Setting up a Digital Humanities Centre in Romania","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The Transylvania Digital Humanities Centre (DigiHUBB) is an emerging Digital Humanities Centre based in the Babes-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania. The Centre was officially established in April 2014 within the Faculty of Letters. As is evidenced in other cases, DigiHUBB exists because of the commitment of scholars experienced in various fields related to Digital Humanities.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> Some of the DigiHUBB’s members were directly involved in Digital Humanities, like text editing or mapping, others expressed their interest in Digital Humanities as a discipline and an object of study. The DigiHUBB members come from different fields, like linguistics, geography, literature, computer science, art history, etc.</p>
                    <p rend=""footnote text"">
                        <ref target=""http://centre.ubbcluj.ro/digihubb/"">http://centre.ubbcluj.ro/digihubb/</ref>. 
                    </p>
                </note> The primary goal of DigiHUBB was to create a collaborative network connecting DH activities within the University and beyond, that first took into account the importance of communicating the vast global impact that DH research and practices have today. The centre defined itself as impact-oriented, with an emphasis on innovation related to research, teaching and creative activities. While following the path of other prestigious DH Centres around the world, DigiHUBB aims to develop its own expertise coming from the distinctive regional specificity of Transylvania that benefits from a multicultural and multilingual cultural heritage, which has not been sufficiently explored with modern tools till now.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> There is a lack of collaborative projects concerning big historical events important for Transylvania and Romania, as the “1918 Centenary” where DigiHUBB could evidently have an important contribution.</p>
                </note>
            </p>
            <p>The importance of analysing the different ways in which a DH centre is built was stressed by Claire Warwick in her seminal essay “Institutional models for digital humanities” published in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanties in Practice</hi> (Warwick, C., Terras, M., Nyhan, J., 2014). The cases analysed in the chapter - the creating of the Center for Digital Research in the Humanities at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln and the Digital Humanities in Mexico - were considered representative for the way they illustrated the institutional environment and the particularities of diverse “particular academic, political, cultural and economic realities” (
                <ref target=""http://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/dh-in-practice/chapter-9/"">http://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/dh-in-practice/chapter-9/</ref>).
            </p>
            <p>This paper is a commentary on the manner in which a DH Centre is established in an Eastern-European country
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> Romania is, at the moment of this proposal, one of the last East-European country that entered the Digital Humanities circuit.</p>
                </note> and the challenges that exist within the traditional structures and mentalities at different levels -- the academia, the policy-makers and the society in the larger sense. The poster will focus on the strategies that 
                <ref target=""http://centre.ubbcluj.ro/digihubb/"">DigiHUBB</ref> has, at different levels – education, research and innovation, collaboration with the IT industry. It will also point out similarities between other post-revolutionary experiences and learn if there could be a kind of specificity that could give our centre a uniqueness that will make it relevant internationally. We will compare this challenge with other interdisciplinary endeavours in Romania. The argument in this paper strongly resonates with the thematic implications addressed in this conference – the “social, institutional and multicultural aspects of digital humanities” (
                <ref target=""http://dh2016.adho.org/cfp/"">http://dh2016.adho.org/cfp/</ref>).
            </p>
            <p>In approaching this report we have observed several paradoxes that could easily exemplify the challenges that an innovative approach faced in both the institutional environment and the investment in the research framework in Romania. In the first place, the rapidity with which DigiHUBB gained international support and assistance
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> Immediately after its creation DigiHUBB was put on the “Around DH” map (courtesy to Alex Gill from Columbia University Libraries), 
                        <ref target=""http://www.arounddh.org/"">http://www.arounddh.org/</ref>. The response of the Digital Humanities Community to the first call for assistance launched on Humanist Discussion Group was impressive. 
                    </p>
                </note> was tempered by the resistance of the existing research structure, although it is well-known that Romanian research in general is less internationalized and under performing in all major university rankings.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> As reported in http://ec.europa.eu/research/horizon2020/pdf/country-profiles/ro_country_profile_and_featured_projects.pdf#view=fit&pagemode=none.</p>
                </note> In the second instance, although the IT industry in Romania, and especially in Transylvania, is productive and lucrative, it addresses the quotidian aspects of digital work and not the innovative part. Moreover, there is a visible mismatch between the skills needed by the knowledge market and the qualifications provided by the academia. 
            </p>
            <p>The challenges that DigiHUBB faces are complex and they target, as our paper will show, several important issues that go from the generic ones ( the misunderstanding of the concept, the lack of confidence in its epistemological value, the supremacy of the published paper book over electronic publications, the absence of systemised pedagogy in Digital Humanities, the minimal funding from the University or governmental institutions) to more specific ones, which are more challenging to engage with. </p>
            <p>DigiHUBB has been involved in a variety of activities related to the Digital Humanities since its inception: in January 2014 the keynote speaker for the inaugural conference was professor Susan Schreibman from Maynooth University; this was followed by a conference held by doctor Julyanne Nyhan, from UCL, in March and many informal meetings with other key members of the Digital Humanities community. The lobbying and promoting Digital Humanities also included participation to national academic events, publishing articles on the theme
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> See Corina Moldovan, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A discipline of reference in present days research digital humanities</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">, </hi>in “Globalization, Intercultural Dialogue and National Identity”, Iulian Boldea ed., Arhipeleag Press XXI, 2014, pp.286-294.
                    </p>
                    <p rend=""footnote text"">Corina Moldovan, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Les humanités numériques, une provocation</hi>, in “Debates on Globalization. Approaching National Identity through Intercultural Dialogue”, Iulian Boldea ed., Arhipeleag Press XXI, 2015, pp.99-108.
                    </p>
                </note>; the following step was to set up a training event, so in April-May 2015 DigiHUBB organized a one week workshop on TEI and data visualisation financed by NeDIMAH and the European Science Foundation, and co-organized a symposium on textual digital analysis within the Babes-Bolyai University.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text"">„Editing texts in a digital world:text encoding and data visualization”, workshop, Cluj-Napoca, 27 april-3 may 2015 and „Explorations in textual digital analysis for the humanities and social-sciences”, symposium, Cluj-Napoca, 14-15 may 2015.</p>
                </note> There was a strong involvement in networking and studying the activities of other DH centres in Europe. We also succeeded to introduce an MA module on scholarly edition that will start in 2016.
            </p>
            <p>In the process of setting up our centre we had to fight a very specific way of relatedness that still characterizes post-revolutionary Romanian society, which we can be characterized as “non-digital humanist”, as it is, in most cases, individualistic, speculative, traditional, and change-resisting, in comparison with the collaborative, hands-on, innovative and co-creative features of Digital Humanities
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn8"" n=""8"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> „The digital humanities, therefore, not only widens the scope and processes of disciplines within the university, but contributes to national innovation agendas, creating new possibilities for the traditional scholar within an increasingly competitive academic and economic context. As such, the collaborative nature of digital humanities research contributes to the innovation ecosystem, understood as the productive interaction between people, ideas, flows, processes and outputs.” (Byrne, T and Schreibman, S (2015)</p>
                </note>. 
            </p>
            <p>Understood as a HUB, our centre has multiple possibilities of offering innovation, at all levels of the research-economic-social chain. We also consider it as a new cultural model, a real co-working space opened to all the actors of our multicultural and multilingual region.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Byrne, T. and Schreibman, S.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">‘Digital Humanities and the Innovation Ecosystem: A DARIAH-Ireland Report.’ </hi>Maynooth University.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Schreibman, S., Siemens R. and Unsworth J. (eds).</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Humanities</hi>. Hoboken: Blackwell Publishing.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Terras, M., Nyhan, J. and Vanhoutte, E. (eds).</hi> (2013). 
                        <ref target=""http://www.ashgate.com/isbn/9781409469636"">
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Defining Digital Humanities: a Reader</hi>
                        </ref>. UK: Ashgate.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Ridge, M.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Crowdsourcing our Cultural Heritage</hi>. UK: The Open University.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Warwick, C., Terras, M. and Nyhan, J. (eds). </hi>(2012). 
                        <ref target=""http://www.facetpublishing.co.uk/title.php?id=047661&category_code="">
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities in Practice</hi>
                        </ref>. Facet.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2551","17","Combining Corpora and Statistics using Geographical Technologies: New evidence on nineteenth century infant mortality decline in England & Wales","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The division between quantitative and qualitative approaches is fundamental to the study of the past. Quantitative approaches are predominantly used to study statistical sources in fields such as historical demography and economic history where large numerical databases are available. These approaches are well suited to situations where large volumes of digital statistics are available and are very good at finding relationships between variables. They can be criticised on two levels: firstly, while good at identifying relationships they are poor at establishing the causal mechanisms that cause them. Secondly, and more fundamentally, most information about the past is not in numerical form and thus cannot form part of a traditional quantitative analysis, thus many relevant factors cannot be included within the analysis. Qualitative sources, particularly texts, are richer in both the range of material available and in the amount of detail it provides about the conditions in which people lived. They are however much more complex to work with and traditionally required close reading which is slow and selective. Digital technologies offer the potential to overcome this divide and make use of the combined advantages of both types of source, making use of statistical sources to identify patterns and relationships, and textual sources to help explain the patterns found. This paper presents an example of this based on infant mortality in Victorian and Edwardian England and Wales.</p>
            <p>Infant mortality refers to deaths before the age of one, usually expressed as an infant mortality rate (IMR) of infant deaths per thousand births. An orthodox story is that infant mortality decline was brought about by government action on sanitation (Szreter, 1991; Woods et al., 1988; Woods and Shelton, 1997). More recently Gregory (2008) used a GIS database and demonstrated that infant mortality decline actually started before the Public Health Acts, that decline was earlier and steeper in rural areas of the south and east of England than anywhere else, and that rural parts of the north, Wales and the West Country had among the lowest rates of improvement. He was, however, unable to explain this variation with the data available. This paper uses a combination of statistical and textual sources to attempt to provide explanations for infant mortality decline with an emphasis on rural areas.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""537/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <graphic url=""537/image2.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
            <head>Figure 1: Temporal trajectories and geographical locations of the seven latent classes</head>
            </figure>
            <p>In the quantitative stage, as many geographically disaggregate independent variables as possible were assembled to explore what other factors seemed to be associated with infant mortality decline. Analysing change over time and space for multiple variables is difficult. A technique called Latent Trajectory Analysis to do this but combine it with the use of GIS (Nagin, 1999). Figure 1 shows how this techniques was used to group districts into seven clusters based on their temporal characteristics, and then map where rural districts with similar trajectories are found. This confirms that there was a clear geography to infant mortality decline. The biggest improvements occurred in rural areas in the south and east in the clusters described as ‘Fenland’ and ‘Mercia.’ Areas showing the lowest declines, which in some cases actually got worse, were in the north and west in the clusters described as ‘Upland’ and ‘Heath and Moor.’ </p>
            <p>Further analysis reveals statistically significant relationships between infant mortality change and rates of female TB and a less strong relationship with female literacy. These relationships have been shown elsewhere in the literature, however our findings show that these factors were important in rural areas as well as in urban ones. Interestingly convincing relationships could not be found with population density or fertility, these would be expected from the literature. The other striking finding was that the most important independent variable in every model was ‘decade’, in other words, change over time that none of our other variables could account for. Fundamentally this tells us three things: first that there are some very interesting geographical patterns to infant mortality decline, second that this is related to some other factors, particularly female health and education, and third that even though we have assembled what we believe to be as many quantitative independent variables as it is practical to use, these are unable to account for much of the change in infant mortality over this period. </p>
            <p>The relative lack of explanatory ability by the quantitative analysis is hardly surprising given the lack of variables on a whole range of topics that may be associated with improving infant health, including: sanitary conditions, access to midwives and healthcare, attitudes towards breast-feeding, access to safe cows’ milk, and so on which have never been captured in statistical form. Thus, if we are going to improve our understanding we need to explore non-quantitative sources. Of particular interest here is the British Library’s Nineteenth Century Newspapers collection, a corpus of over 50 newspapers, most of which are available for series that cover most of the century. The corpus is at least 30 billion words although, to date we have been working with individual newspaper series which are usually hundreds of millions of words. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""537/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <graphic url=""537/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            <head>Figure 2: Crude death rates from disease classes and frequency of instances of these diseases in the Era</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2 shows the use of one newspaper, the Era, to explore the relationship between interest in a variety of diseases associated with the young, classed according to whether they are respiratory diseases, food and water-bourn diseases, and diseases associated with crowding (Woods, 2000). The frequency with which these diseases are mentioned in the corpus is compared with the death rates from the diseases. Different disease types show quite different results. Interest in diseases of crowding follows the decline in these diseases, particularly associated with the decline of scarlet fever and typhus. Food and water death rates rise overall while interest in them seems to fall, while deaths from respiratory diseases are broadly flat but there is a major increase in interest in them in the 1880s and 1890s. We can then explore the collocates to these terms, the words that are found close to them. This shows four major classes of collocates: first, other words associated with disease, included other disease names, and words such as ‘died’, ‘attack’ and ‘epidemic.’ Second there are symptoms of disease, third are brand names of medicines typically found in advertisements, and fourth there are military terms which are found in the 1850s and are related to the Crimean War. </p>
            <p>To allow us to explore the geographies within themes within the newspapers we have developed a technique we call concordance geoparsing (Rupp et. al., 2014). This involves firstly extracting concordance lines around the search-term. These concordance lines are then geo-parsed using the Edinburgh Geoparser (Grover et. al., 2010) which identifies place-names and matches them to a gazetteer to allocate them to a grid reference. The results are then explored to check for errors which are corrected with the corrections added to an updates file. In this way we can cumulatively remove geoparsing errors and have confidence in its results. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""537/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3: Locations associated with disease instances from the Era</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3 shows the place-names associated with the diseases in the Era. It is noticeable that these are concentrated in urban areas but there are exceptions to this. We will present comparisons between the number of references to a disease and the number of deaths from it in a district, showing how media interest was not related to disease severity. </p>
            <p>Taking this work further, we will take regional newspapers from rural areas that experienced the highest and lowest declines and explore these for collocates and places that are associated with diseases themselves and a wide range of potential causal factors that may be related to them. In this way we will be combining the descriptive strengths of statistical data with the explanatory power of textual sources, using text to work around insufficiencies of data and making use of the temporal and geographical detail in both.</p>
            <p>Acknowledgement: The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) / ERC grant “Spatial Humanities: Texts, GIS, places” (agreement number 283850). </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gregory, I. N.</hi> (2008). Different places, different stories: Infant mortality decline in England and Wales.  
                        <hi rend=""italic"">1851-1911 Annals of the Association of American Geographers</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">98</hi>: 773-94.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Grover, C., Tobin, R., Woollard, M., et al.</hi> (2010). Use of the Edinburgh geoparser for georeferencing digitized historical collections. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A</hi> 368, pp. 3875-889.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Nagin, D. S.</hi> (1999). Analyzing developmental trajectories: A semi-parametric, group-based approach. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Psychological Methods</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>: 139-57.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rupp C. J., Rayson P., Gregory I., et al.</hi> (2014). Dealing with heterogeneous big data when geoparsing historical corpora.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE Conference on Big Data</hi>, pp. 80-83.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Szreter, S.</hi> (1991). The GRO and the Public-Health Movement in Britain, 1837-1914. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social History of Medicine</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>: 435-63.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Woods, R. I.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The demography of Victorian England and Wales</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Woods, R. I., Watterson, P. A. and Woodward, J. H.</hi> (1988). The causes of rapid infant mortality decline in England and Wales, 1861-1921. Part I. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Population Studies</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">42</hi>: 343-66.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Woods, R. I. and Shelton, N.</hi> (1997). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Atlas of Victorian Mortality</hi>. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2552","17","Comparing Architectural Floor Plans: New Strategies","10","<text>
        <body>
            <p>Triggered by an article by Lev Manovich 
             <hi rend=""italic""> How to compare one million images? </hi> (Manovich, 2012: 249-78) we were intrigued to find out “how to compare and analyse thousands of architectural floor plans”? The reason for this interest was the availability of the archive of the 
             <hi rend=""italic""> Bureau Wederopbouw Boerderijen </hi> (Office for Farm Reconstruction, 1940-1955) with data of 7700 farmhouses that were destroyed during World War II and were subsequently rebuilt – reconstructed or redeveloped in a new form – between 1940 and 1955 (Elpers, 2008). </p>
            <p>Since it seemed impossible to analyse almost 8000 drawings by hand we decided to study the possibility of automatic identification and categorization of these floor plans. For this paper, we explored several strategies and digital tools to find out more about their usefulness in art and architectural history in general to answer questions about change, distribution of spaces, typology, genre, etc. </p>
        <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
        <head>Automation of architectural floor plans</head>
            <p>By examining the differences between and changes of the floor plans of the reconstructed farms from the period between 1940 and 1955 and by comparing them with reconstruction sketches of the old destroyed farms, we hope to be able to answer questions such as: how was the struggle about tradition and modernization which determined the debate about farm construction in the middle of the twentieth century (Elpers, 2013) resolved in practice? This question focuses on the maintenance or abandoning of the so-called ‘streekeigen bouwen’ (traditional regional building)(Lambert, 2007) and related planning principles. Which traditional elements were retained and which were not? Which new elements were added? Can any general structural patterns be recognized?</p>
            <p>For this aim we would like to be able to automatically categorize and recognize elements in the architectural drawings. Following the visualization method and software (ImagePlot) by Manovich we would also like to create clusters of images of farms ordered by morphological structure, type, architect, region and timelines as output. </p>
            <p>As architectural historians with limited programming knowledge, we started looking for existing software to find answers. Search engines usually use databases with (meta)data about objects. In our case we would rather be able to study the drawings directly on its visual content. We hoped that a combination of image processing software, techniques for pattern recognition, OCR and vectorization would bring us closer to our goals. Following information about conventions of farmhouses e.g. specific rooms, and workspaces like sheds could be labelled and found. This method, that we use in our study, has been, amongst others, described by Hansson (1998).</p>
        </div>
        <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
        <head>Preprocessing</head>
            <p>A test-set of about 1000 images was scanned in 300 dpi TIFF: 400 reconstruction drawings and 600 new floor plans. For each farm we have two sets of scans available: drawings of the old, destroyed farms and plans of the new farms. Further, we have built a repository with the TIFF-images in relation to a simple database. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""474/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Illustration 1. Image of original architectural drawing Westkanaaldijk D74, showing plan, views and situation plan</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The architectural or engineering drawings show not just one floor plan of a farm but also plans of other floors, sheds and outbuildings, cross sections and several views, a drawing of the lay-out of the premises etc. Often several details are depicted, sometimes added in a separate drawing. Although the human eye can instantly distinguish which element is the main floor plan, one has to teach the computer how to find it. In order to isolate the floor plan from all the other parts of information, the white empty spaces surrounding the different elements in a drawing could be taken as a division space, separating the individual elements. First, we had to isolate the floor plan in the drawing and deconstruct its information. Unfortunately we could not find software that could ingest the drawings and produce the isolated floor plans, without programming. As a consequence, since it appeared too complicated to automatically find the position of the floor plan on the drawing, we skipped this part for the moment and prepared manually a new set of cut-out images of the floor plans. </p>
            <p>With a simple image-processing program it appeared possible to manually deconstruct the contents of a drawing. In this way we could find out what steps were needed to automate the process. A drawing of Westkanaaldijk D74 in the village of Heumen (middle east of the Netherlands) was selected as a random example for the first test that shows the following manipulations:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>OCR-text</item>
                <item>Vectorize the floor plan</item>
                <item>Floor plan with text labels</item>
                <item>Walls (thick, medium, without openigs)</item>
                <item>Walls (thick, medium, with openings and numbers)</item>
            </list>
            <p>Although most techniques could be carried out with simple imaging software, such as CorelDraw – and we tried some other free online programs such as Inkscape, VectorMagic, Gimp, etc – the number of actions or manipulations just for one drawing appeared quite high. Although it works reasonably well for one drawing, this is exactly the process that we want to automate and connect with a search system. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""474/image2.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Illustration 2. Architectural drawing of Westkanaaldijk with vectorized plan and labelled spaces.</head>
            </figure>
            <p>To scale up the process a bit, in a test with 10 floor plans of farms in the city of Groesbeek (middle east of the Netherlands) the following manipulations were carried out: </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>the plan of ground floor and first floor were manually cut out</item>
                <item>images were converted from heavy tiff to the lighter jpg</item>
                <item>reconstruction drawings were converted from 1:200 to 1:100</item>
                <item>resolution of new plans were converted from 300 dpi to 150 dpi</item>
                <item>x/y axes were calibrated</item>
                <item>a central axis was determined</item>
                <item>it was noted that the drawings were not always on the right scale, while the inscribed measurements were noted correctly</item>
                <item>rooms are taken to be rectangles (which can be corrected later, but in most cases will not affect the results)</item>
                <item>the main spaces of farmhouses are accurate, while the interior spaces should be estimated on sight</item>
            </list>
            <p>It appeared that most walls have static measurements that can be brought into a library: the thickness of the walls depends very much on the type of bricks they are built with. These bricks have common measurements such as the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Waalformaat</hi> (210 x 100 x 50 mm). The thickness of a wall therefore varies from 27 cm to 6 cm. The different sizes could then be coded by colour and compared. 
            </p>
        </div>
        <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
        <head>Deconstructing drawings, isolating elements and detecting symbols</head>
                <p>In order to deconstruct each drawing (see e.g.: Henderson, 2014; Dosch, 2000) the following steps were determined and carried out:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Building a repository with images and database (same scale, direction)</item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Finding the position of the floor plan on the drawing</hi>
                </item>
                <item>Determine (outlines of) spaces / rooms</item>
                <item>OCR all text information</item>
                <item>Recognizing walls (determining and labelling exterior and interior)</item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Recognizing specific rooms (determining and labelling livingroom, kitchen, bathroom, hall, bedroom, stables etc.) </hi>
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Determining difference between reconstruction drawing (original state) and new plan and difference between reconstruction drawings from different years</hi>
                </item>
            </list>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""474/image3.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Illustration 3. Cut-out plans showing ground floor and other floors</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""474/image4.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Illustration 4. Cut-out floor plans, vectorized showing the volumes of spaces.</head>
            </figure>
            <p>To carry out the recognition part such as wall detection, text recognition and labelling, and making comparisons of old and new, the approach of Ahmed and Liwicki (Ahmed et al. (2011; 2014) appears promising for solving some of our problems. Although they focus on using sketches to be recognized and compared with floor plan drawings in a repository, we would like to see how their system works for us with our repository of cut-out floor plans.</p>
            <p>Timelines can relatively easy be visualized using the metadata - with the tag “year” - in the database example (Borner, 2010; Alkhoven, 1998; 2008). Other tests with visualization software such as ImagePlot produced interesting and beautiful views of the drawings but could not yet provide the required results for analysis. More experimentation and possible adaptation of the software is needed. </p>
        </div>
        <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">            
        <head>Next steps</head>
            <p>We set out to find answers on how we could compare thousands of drawings of floor plans, what digital tools and best practices are currently available to analyse them and how we could visualize differences in sets of floor plans. In this first stage of the process we have gathered information about the preprocessing stages and we were able to perform some experiments with the scanned architectural drawings.</p>
            <p>We discovered many – free–tools but it turned out difficult to distinguish among them and to choose the best ones that could solve each part of the problem. We have tested several apps but since it was not our objective to deal with coding, we could not adapt the software and we were therefore limited in doing our research. As a consequence much had to be done manually in a computer-assisted way. </p>
            <p>Since our overall problem appeared a bit too ambitious to carry out within the given boundaries of time and budget, we have limited ourselves to producing a list of ingredients and a well-argumented recipe formulating the next sequence of steps to take. These form the basis for a new research proposal for the Digital Humanities’ call in The Netherlands. A long article with more detailed information about the process, experiments, and results, will be ready later this year.</p>
        </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ahmed, S. et al.</hi> (2011). Improved automatic analysis of architectural floor plans. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Document Analysis and Recognition (ICDAR)</hi>, pp. 864-68.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ahmed, S. et al.</hi> (2014). Automatic Analysis and Sketch-based Retrieval of Architectural Floor Plans, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pattern Recognition Letter</hi>, 35, pp. 91-100.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Alkhoven, P.</hi> (1993). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Changing Image of the City. A Study of the Transformation of the Townscape by means of Computer-Aided-Architectural-Design and Visualization Techniques. A case study: Heusden.</hi> 
                         Alphen aan den Rijn. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Alkhoven, P.</hi> (1998). Computer Visualisation as a tool in Architectural Historical Research.
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Architectural and Urban Simulation Techniques in Research and Education</hi>, Delft University Press, pp. 16-23.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Berry, D.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Understanding Digital Humanities</hi>, Palgrave: Macmillan.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Börner, K.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Atlas of Science. Visualizing what we know</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dosch, Ph. et al.</hi> (2000). A complete system for the analysis of architectural drawings. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition</hi>, vol.<hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>: 102-16.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elpers, S.</hi> (2008). Het archief van het Bureau Wederopbouw Boerderijen, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Vitruvius.</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(3): 40-47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elpers, S.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Erfenis van het verlies. De strijd om de wederopbouw van boerderijen tijdens en na de Tweede Wereldoorlog</hi> (unpublished PhD thesis) Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hanson, J.</hi> (1998). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Decoding Homes and Houses,</hi> Cambridge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Henderson, T.C.</hi> (2014).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Analysis of Engineering Drawings and Raster Map Images</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lamberts, B.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Boerderijen. Categoriaal onderzoek wederopbouw 1940-1965</hi>. Zeist.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manovich, L.</hi> (2012). How to compare one million images?
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Understanding Digital Humanities</hi>, pp. 249-78.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2553","17","Content Based Social Network Analysis of Reşat Nuri Güntekin's Letters","2","<text>
        <body>
            <p>Reşat Nuri Güntekin is one of the most important authors in Turkish literature, who gave a direction to the Turkish literature with his many novels and essays. He also conducted significant bureaucratic tasks in the early years of the Turkish Republic. He left substantive materials which have historical and literary value, considering his lifetime. The letters he wrote to his wife give us important information about this period. In addition, these letters are also of capital significance in terms of their evincing the historical events and social life of early period of Turkish Republic through the eyes of an author and statesman. The letters also constitute alternative historical as well as official information resources.
            </p>
            <p>The letters began to be written to his wife, Hadiye in 1927. Although 62 letters were written with their dates affixed, there are 22 letters without dates. The letters were written in Ottoman Turkish. They were transcribed into the Latin characters and published. In order to discover the relationships between events and people in the text, we visualize the letters by using social network analysis and content analysis methods.
            </p>
            <p><hi rend=""italic"">Social network analysis</hi> method is used to visualize the connections between communities whose existing connections are not easy to be perceived and modelled, through describing the network structures. Social network analyses are important in terms of visualizing the complexity in a simpler way. The fact that the letters Reşat Nuri Güntekin sent to his wife were from different cities and about important people of the period makes them suitable for a social network analysis. With the social networks obtained from the archive of letters, the closeness between the historical figures and the indirect effects to each other can be detected and the historical inferences can be made by examining these connections.
            </p>
            <p><hi rend=""italic"">Content analysis</hi> method is the process of summarizing the content of the written information and the messages contained in them. This method has been used frequently in social sciences and typically preferred for the analysis of written texts such as books, letters, newspapers etc.
            </p>
            <p>Primarily the descriptive statistics about the content of the letters are presented and then the findings from the content analysis on the messages are revealed. In this paper, the big picture and the details are explained through social network analysis method and the connections and relationships which are indirect, are made apparent.
            </p>
            <p>Relationship between people and the citations etc. are mostly suggested clearly in social network analysis studies. However the relationship between the people in the mentioned letters is not clear. Therefore it is determined in the study based on the proximity and frequency of the names in the text. Proximity-based method is based on the names similar to each other in the letters. Within the scope of the study, CiteSpace software was used for visualization.
            </p>
        </body>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2554","17","Contextualized Integration of Digital Humanities Research: Using the NeMO Ontology of Digital Humanities Methods","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The advent of digital infrastructures for arts and humanities research calls for deeper understanding of how humanists work with digital resources, tools and services as they engage with different aspects of research activity: from capturing, encoding, and publishing scholarly data to analyzing, visualizing, interpreting and communicating data and research argumentation to co-workers and readers. Digitally enabled scholarly work, and the integration of digital content, tools and methods, present not only commonalities but also differences across disciplines, methodological traditions, and communities of researchers. A significant challenge in providing integrated access to disparate digital humanities (DH) resources and, more broadly, in supporting digitally-enabled humanities research, lies in empirically capturing the context of use of digital content, methods and tools. This paper presents recent and ongoing work on the development of NeMO, an ontology of digital methods in the humanities, and its deployment for the development of a knowledge base on scholarly work. </p>
            <p>Several attempts have been made to develop a conceptual framework for DH in practice. In 2008, a project funded by the UK’s Arts and Humanities Research Council, the 
                <ref target=""http://www.methodsnetwork.ac.uk/index.html"">AHRC ICT Methods Network</ref>, based at King’s College, London, developed a taxonomy of digital methods in the arts and humanities. This was the basis for the classification of over 200 digital humanities projects funded by the AHRC in the online resource arts-humanities.net. This taxonomy was subsequently modified by Oxford University as the basis for the classification of digital humanities initiatives at the University (
                <ref target=""https://digital.humanities.ox.ac.uk/people-projects"">Digital Humanities at Oxford</ref>). Other initiatives to build a taxonomy of Digital Humanities include 
                <ref target=""http://tadirah.dariah.eu/"">TaDiRAH</ref> and 
                <ref target=""http://dhcommons.org/"">DH Commons</ref>. From 2011 to 2015 the European Science Foundation funded the 
                <ref target=""http://nedimah.eu/"">Network for Digital Humanities in the Arts and Humanities</ref> (NeDiMAH). This Network was established to develop a better understanding of the practice of DH across Europe, and ran over 40 activities structured around key methodological areas in the humanities (digital representations of space and time; visualisation; linked data; creating and using large scale corpora; and creating editions). Through these activities, NeDiMAH gathered a snapshot of the practice of digital humanities in Europe, and the impact of digital methods on research. A key output of NeDiMAH is 
                <ref target=""http://nemo.dcu.gr/"">NeMO</ref>:
                <hi rend=""italic""> the NeDiMAH Ontology of Digital Methods in the Arts and Humanities</hi>. This ontology of digital methods in the humanities has been built as a framework for understanding not just the use of digital methods, but also their relationship to digital content and tools. The development of an ontology, rather than a taxonomy, stands in recognition of the complexity of the digital humanities landscape, the interdisciplinarity of the field, and the dependencies that impact the use of digital methods in research. 
            </p>
            <p>NeMO was developed by the Digital Curation Unit (<ref target=""http://dcu.gr/"">DCU</ref>), IMIS-Athena Research Centre, in collaboration with NeDiMAH, as a conceptual framework capable of representing scholarly work in the humanities, addressing aspects of intentionality and capturing the diverse associations between research actors and their goals, activities undertaken, methods employed, resources and tools used, and outputs produced, with the aim of obtaining semantically rich structured representations of scholarly work. It is grounded on earlier empirical research through semi-structured interviews with scholars from across Europe, which focused on analysing their research practices and capturing the resulting information requirements for research infrastructures. Its intellectual foundations lie in earlier work of the DCU on conceptualizing and modelling scholarly activity in the arts and humanities, conducted within the 
                <ref target=""http://www.dariah.eu/"">Preparing DARIAH</ref>,
                <ref target=""http://www.dyas-net.gr/"">DYAS / DARIAH-GR</ref>, and 
                <ref target=""http://www.ehri-project.eu/"">EHRI</ref> projects, and manifested in the Scholarly Research Activity Model (SRAM), an ontological representation of scholarly information activity drawing from cultural-historical activity theory and process modelling, and compatible with CIDOC’s Conceptual Reference Model (
                <ref target=""http://www.cidoc-crm.org/"">CIDOC CRM</ref>, ISO 21127:2006). 
            </p>
            <p>Architecturally, NeMO adopts a three layer structure, spanning from abstract/general to concrete/special concepts, to provide a flexible framework suitable to the multidisciplinarity of DH. Its top tier concepts (<hi rend=""italic"">Actor, Activity, Object</hi>) provide a general reasoning frame, and function as semantic links to reference ontologies such as CIDOC CRM. These abstract notions are specialized in the second layer by way of domain-specific concepts covering every aspect of scholarly work:
                <hi rend=""italic""> Methods </hi>employed in activities of various degrees of complexity or taught in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Courses</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Tools</hi> used, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Information Resources</hi> taken as input or produced as output,
                <hi rend=""italic""> Groups/Organizations</hi> or
                <hi rend=""italic""> Persons</hi> participating in various roles, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Goals</hi> addressed, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Topics</hi> covered, etc. Furthermore, in this second layer, several semantic relations capturing the context of the aforementioned core concepts allow for modeling scholarly work through four complementary perspectives: (1) Process-related, centered around the concept of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Activity</hi> and capturing temporal and spatial aspects; (2) Methodological, centered around the
                <hi rend=""italic""> Method</hi> concept and capturing ""how"" aspects; (3) Agency-related, centered around the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Actor</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Goal</hi> concepts and capturing ""who"" and ""why"" aspects; and (4) Resource-related, centered around the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Information Resource</hi> concept and covering ""what"" aspects of scholarly work. 
            </p>
            <p>Ιn the third layer of NeMO, fine-grained notions supporting domain-specific detailed descriptions are represented as specializations of second layer concepts. Respective vocabularies are organized as SKOS thesauri. More specifically, controlled vocabularies of lexical terms are structured hierarchically under the concepts of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ActivityType, MediaType, InformationResourceType, TopicKeyword, ActorRole, SchoolOfThought</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Discipline</hi>, which are specializations of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Type</hi> concept of the second layer, and are used for characterization/classification in parallel to ontological classification. The role of these taxonomies is, thus, twofold: (1) as a vocabulary of terms that can be used for flexible tagging of the objects of interest; (2) as entry points for the alignment, or mapping, of terms from NeMO to terms from other existing taxonomies. The latter enables integration with related work, as well as effective use of these taxonomies as documentation instruments or entry points for content in NeMO knowledge bases. For instance, the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ActivityType</hi> taxonomy is organized in five hierarchies roughly corresponding to Unsworth's ""cholarly primitives"", and offers a flexible tagging system for modelling the intentionality of actors, scope adherence of activities, or purpose of use of tools and methods. On the other hand, mappings through broader/narrower term relations from the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ActivityType</hi> terms to terms of other method taxonomies, including TaDiRAH, Oxford ICT and DH Commons, allow using those taxonomies transparently within NeMO. 
            </p>
            <p>The development of NeMO contributes to the work of the Digital Methods and Practices Observatory Working Group of DARIAH (<ref target=""http://dimpo.dcu.gr"">DiMPO</ref>), as well as of 
                <ref target=""http://research.europeana.eu/"">Europeana Research</ref> within the Europeana Cloud project, providing an intellectual foundation for the analysis of evidence on arts and humanities scholarly activities and needs with regard to digital resource access across Europe. The relevance of the ontology to the DH community was validated through interviews and web surveys, to elicit information needs and patterns in working practices among humanities researchers, as well as two workshops in which these patterns were explored through use cases contributed by researchers. The evidence collected demonstrates that NeMO addresses adequately the knowledge representation needs manifested there. A variety of complex associative queries articulated by researchers in these workshops were also collected, demonstrating the potential of NeMO as an effective mechanism for information extraction and reasoning with regard to the use of digital resources in scholarly work; queries were encoded in SPARQL, a language appropriate for exploiting the serialization of NeMO in RDF Schema (RDFS), thus highlighting the benefits of its potential use as a knowledge base schema. 
            </p>
            <p>A prototype implementation of the above functionalities provides an easy to use demonstration of NeMO's potential. Users can articulate queries in structured English, without prior knowledge of any specific query language, using an intuitive user interface offering dynamic feedback of suggestions based on the conceptual schema. Input to the knowledge base is also supported by the same mechanism, guiding the user according to relations and classes provided by the model. A use case will be presented by way of example. </p>
            <p>In sum, NeMO offers a well-founded conceptualization of scholarly work, which can function as schema for a knowledge base containing information on scholarly research activity, including goals, actors, methods, tools and resources involved. NeMO can thus be useful to researchers by (a) helping them find information on earlier work relevant for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">their own</hi> research; (b) supporting goal-oriented organization of research work; (c) facilitating the discovery of yet uncharted paths with regard to resources, tools and methods suitable for particular contexts; and, (d) promoting networking among researchers with common interests. Additional benefits for research groups include support for better project planning by explicitly representing links between goals, actors, activities, methods, resources and tools, as well as assistance for discovering methodological trends, future directions and promising research ideas. Furthermore, for funding organisations, research councils, etc., NeMO can (a) provide a bird’s eye view of funded scholarly activities; (b) enable the systematic documentation of research projects; (c) support evaluation of proposals, monitoring and control of project work, and validation of project outcomes. 
            </p>
            <p>Planned improvements include the development of mechanisms for providing recommendations based on semantically related instances and for the semi-automatic population of the knowledge base, as well as specialization of core classes and addition of new terms in Type taxonomies to reflect developments in DH scholarship.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Benardou, A., Constantopoulos, P. and Dallas, C.</hi> (2013). An approach to analyzing working practices of research communities in the humanities, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 7</hi>: 105-27 (Edinburgh University Press). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Benardou, A., Constantopoulos, P., Dallas, C. and Gavrilis D.</hi> (2010). Understanding the information requirements of arts and humanities scholarship: implications for digital curation. <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Digital Curation</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hughes, L. M., Constantopoulos, P. and Dallas, C.</hi> (2014). Digital Methods in the Humanities: Understanding and Describing their Use across the Disciplines, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The New Companion to Digital Humanities</hi>, (Eds.) Schreibman, S. and Siemens, R. (Oxford, Blackwell). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hughes, L. M., and Ell, P. </hi>(2013). Digital Collections as Research Infrastructure,
                        <hi rend=""italic"">From Evolution to Transformation: Research Infrastructures and Scholarly Research</hi>. Special issue of the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing, </hi>(Edinburgh University Press). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hughes, L. M.</hi> (2011). ICT Methods for digital collections research
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Collections: Use, Value and Impact. </hi>London: Facet.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Unsworth, J.</hi> (2000). Scholarly primitives: What methods do humanities researchers have in common, and how might our tools reflect this.<hi rend=""italic""> Humanities Computing, Formal Methods, Experimental Practice Symposium. 5100</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2555","17","Contextualizing Historical Places in a Gazetteer by Using Historical Maps and Linked Data","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Dealing with historical geographic places (Southall et al., 2011) is important in museums, libraries, archives, and media companies, but challenging: 1) Historical places change in time. 2) It is difficult to understand the spatial and temporal context of the places. 3) Historical place names can often be seen only on historical maps. 4) Historical geographic data is scattered across multiple sources that can be incomplete and/or mutually conflicting. 5) To preserve semantic interoperability across Cultural Heritage (CH) datasets, there is a need to find out how the same place is represented in different repositories. 6) If a place is nowhere to be found—a situation quite common—there should be a mechanism to suggest and share new place concepts among the CH community.</p>
                <p>To tackle these challenges, we have developed a Linked Open Data brokering service model HIPLA for using and maintaining historical place gazetteers and maps based on distributed SPARQL endpoints. Using Linked Data technologies, HIPLA provides a common search interface to historical geographic data like place names with coordinates and historical maps. Contextual information, e.g. historical events or photographs related to a geographic location, is provided to help the user to gain a deeper understanding of the historical place. HIPLA also serves as a sustainable and evolving repository of historical places by implementing Dynamic Ontology Services for Evolving Ontologies (Hyvönen et al., 2015). Cultural Heritage organizations can connect their legacy cataloguing systems to HIPLA using a widget or an API in the same vain as in the ONKI ontology service (Tuominen et al., 2009).</p>
                <p>The general HIPLA model is being implemented to create and manage a national level gazetteer and map service Hipla.fi. Hipla.fi is based on four Finnish datasets in SPARQL endpoints totalling some 840,000 geocoded places, on 450 historical maps from two atlas series aligned on modern maps, and on the Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names (TGN) SPARQL endpoint in the US.</p>
                <p>This paper first presents Hipla.fi’s user groups (section 2) and the end-user interface (section 3), complementing the crowdsourcing view to the system (Hyvönen et al., 2015). Then the system architecture is outlined (section 4), and finally lessons learned are discussed (section 5). Hipla.fi is available at 
                    <ref target=""http://dev.hipla.fi/"">http://hipla.fi</ref>.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>HIPLA user groups</head>
                <p>The audiences of HIPLA are 1) collaborative geo-ontology developers, 2) cataloguers of historical content, 3) information searchers, and 4) application developers. For group 1 HIPLA facilitates a sustainable model for aggregating historical place names in shared data repositories as time goes by. For groups 2 and 3 HIPLA provides a combination of historical and contemporary maps, linked contextual data, and semantic federated search to find and understand historical places. User group 4 can utilize distributed SPARQL endpoints, URI resolving services, and an autocompletion text search widget.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Finding and understanding historical places in context</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Federated search</head>
                    <p>Our first focus in developing Hipla.fi has been on modeling, storing, and searching Finnish place names in multiple SPARQL endpoints, and on displaying them on historical and contemporary maps. The datasets used are stored in separate RDF graphs, which makes it possible to offer dynamic selection of data sources for the user interface or external data consumers. Table 1 presents the datasets currently connected to Hipla.fi, most of them available on the Linked Data Finland platform
                        <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1""> http://www.ldf.fi</note> (Hyvönen et al., 2014).
                    </p>
                    <p>Figure 1 depicts the Hipla.fi user interface. For finding, disambiguating, and examining historical places, there is an autocompletion search input field (a). Place names can be searched from multiple SPARQL endpoints at the same time based on the user's choice (checkboxes above (b)) with the following functionalities:</p>
                    <list type=""ordered"">
                        <item>Hovering the cursor over the search results shows where the places are: the corresponding marker bounces on the map.</item>
                        <item>A click on a search result label opens the info window of the place, showing its context (c).</item>
                        <item>A click of the menu button on a result row (a) shows the place data in a Linked Data browser for investigating the data in detail.</item>
                    </list>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""177/1000000000000780000003BEDCB3BFAF82C50978.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 1. Hipla.fi user interface</head>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                    <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Taulukko1"">
                        <head>Table 1. Datasets connected to Hipla.fi</head>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""start"">Dataset</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">Original source</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">Place type</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">Size</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">Description</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""start"">Finnish Municipalities 1939–44</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">National Archives of Finland</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">municipality</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">612</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">Finnish National Archives research project “Finland, prisoners of war and extraditions 1939–1955” produced a map application, from where the war time municipalities were obtained.</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""start"">Karelian map names 1922–44</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">Jyrki Tiittanen / National Land Survey of Finland</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">village, house, etc.</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">34 938</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">Historical places in the Karelia region of Finland and Russia.</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""start"">Finnish Spatio-Temporal Ontology</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">SeCo</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">municipality</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">1 261</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">A spatio-temporal ontology of Finnish municipalities.</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""start"">Finnish Geographic Names Registry</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">National Land Survey of Finland</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">61 place types</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">800 000</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">The place name dataset comprises natural and cultural names whose spelling has been checked by the Institute for the Languages of Finland.</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""start"">The Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">J. Paul Getty Trust</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">1800 place types</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">2 156 896</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">TGN is a structured vocabulary containing names and other information about places. Names for a place may include names in the vernacular language, English, other languages, historical names, names and in natural order and inverted order. Among these names, one is flagged as the preferred name.</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""start"">Senate atlas</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">National Archives of Finland</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">map</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start""> 414</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">Series of maps of Southern Finland drawn by the Russian Army topographic troops in the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries in scale 1:21 000.</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""start"">Karelian maps</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">National Land Survey of Finland</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">map</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">47</cell>
                            <cell rend=""start"">The National Board of Survey and Topografikunta produced four-colour topographic maps in scale 1:100 000 during 1928–1951.</cell>
                        </row>
                    </table>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Map-based multiple dataset browsing</head>
                    <p>If the user does not know the name of the place, but has some idea where the place is located, she can pan and zoom the map view to the area. After this it’s possible to use the “View all places on current map view” button. This way places from different datasets connected to Hipla.fi are rendered on the map, and the user can check if the place exists already in some of the datasets, and compare places in different gazetteers.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Fetch historical maps</head>
                    <p>The ""Historical maps"" tab (Figure 1 (b)) provides a list of old maps that intersect the current map view. The map images are fetched from the Hipla.fi's Map Warper service
                        <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2""> http://mapwarper.onki.fi</note> and their metadata is queried with SPARQL from the map RDF graph of the HIPLA service. Each map has a checkbox for rendering the map on the main map view, a thumbnail image, information about map series, scale and type, and a link to view the map in Map Warper. All map series are visible by default, but with the series button it is possible to filter the maps by their series. Once one or more historical maps have been selected with the checkboxes, the opacity of the historical maps can be controlled with the slider that is located on the top right corner of the map. If the user pans or zooms the main map view, clicking the ""Refresh map list"" button updates the map list.
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>View contextual data</head>
                    <p>When the user selects a place, contextual data (Figure 1 (c)) is provided for connecting the place to other relevant data sources. This functionality is first piloted with the spatial datasets of the WarSampo portal (Hyvönen et al., 2016), providing, e.g. 160 000 historical photos of the Second World War related to the places, and a timeline of historical events. In addition to this, the spatial perspective
                        <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3""> http://www.sotasampo.fi/en/places/</note> of the WarSampo portal uses customized Hipla.fi user interface elements to visualize wartime places and their connections to other WarSampo datasets.
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Extend with new gazetteers</head>
                    <p>The HIPLA model is adaptable to various geographic data models and both contemporary and historical gazetteers. The only requirement is that the gazetteer is published in a SPARQL endpoint. Because there is no standard for how to express the temporal extent of spatial data, the spatial dimension of gazetteer data can be utilized in the user interface (e.g. when disambiguating place names) by individual configurations.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>System architecture</head>
                <p>Figure 2 depicts the components of the HIPLA model. The Hipla.fi prototype is implemented using the Linked Data Finland platform (Hyvönen et al., 2014), based on Fuseki
                    <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""4""> https://jena.apache.org/documentation/serving_data/</note> with a Varnish
                    <note xml:id=""ftn5"" place=""foot"" n=""5""> https://www.varnish-cache.org</note> front end for serving the linked data. The end-user interface of Hipla.fi is a lightweight HTML5 single page map application, which provides access to multiple data sources with SPARQL queries and autocomplete search functionality using typeahead.js
                    <note xml:id=""ftn6"" place=""foot"" n=""6""> https://twitter.github.io/typeahead.js/</note>. Embedded Google Maps view is used to visualize historical places. Hipla.fi's Map Warper is an instance of the open source Map Warper tool of the New York Public Library for georectifying old maps on top of modern ones.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""177/10000000000003900000022DF6B8D0882F55E99C.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 2. HIPLA system architecture</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Related work and discussion</head>
                <p>HIPLA is an ontology library service (d'Aguin and Noy, 2012) for historical places. Complementing traditional gazetteers, HIPLA not only publishes the data for humans but also for machines using the SPARQL endpoint API. In addition, historical maps and contextual linked data about the places are provided.</p>
                <p>Thesauri of historical places, published as Linked Data, include the Getty TGN
                    <note xml:id=""ftn7"" place=""foot"" n=""7""> http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabularies/tgn/</note> of some 1.5 million records, 'Pelagios: Enable Linked Ancient Geodata In Open Systems'
                    <note xml:id=""ftn8"" place=""foot"" n=""8""> http://pelagios-project.blogspot.fi/p/about-pelagios.html</note>, and Pleiades
                    <note xml:id=""ftn9"" place=""foot"" n=""9""> http://pleiades.stoa.org</note>. Pelagios and Pleiades are based on crowdsourcing volunteers' work in ontology development. The novelty of HIPLA from a user interface viewpoint lays in the idea of combining multiple geographic data sources, offering a unified view for examining and comparing them. In addition, HIPLA makes it possible to crowdsource the creation of the gazetteer to cataloguers of Cultural Heritage content, as a side effect of their daily work, as discussed in Hyvönen et al., 2015.
                </p>
                <p>The Historical Gazetteer of England's Place-names
                    <note xml:id=""ftn10"" place=""foot"" n=""10""> http://www.placenames.org.uk</note> is a service of over 4 million names that can be searched and viewed on modern maps as well as on historical ones. HIPLA has a similar local flavor focusing on places in Finland, but is based on Linked Open Data. OldMapsOnline
                    <note xml:id=""ftn11"" place=""foot"" n=""11""> http://www.oldmapsonline.org</note> is a search engine for finding historical maps covering a given area. In contrast to the systems above, HIPLA includes a map service for aligning and viewing georectified historical maps, as in the New York Public Library's Chronology of Place gazetteer
                    <note xml:id=""ftn12"" place=""foot"" n=""12""> http://nypl.gazetteer.us</note>. HIPLA also publishes the metadata of the historical maps as Linked Open Data and the dynamic and transparent selection of data sources makes it possible to understand the origins of the data.
                </p>
                <p>Our research was supported by the Finnish Cultural Foundation and Wikidata Finland.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">’Aquin, M. and Noy, N. F</hi>. (2012). Where to publish and find ontologies? A survey of ontology libraries. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">11:</hi> 96–111.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hyvönen, E., Tuominen, J., Alonen, M. and Mäkelä, E. </hi>(2014). Linked Data Finland: A 7-star model and platform for publishing and re-using linked datasets. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Semantic Web: ESWC 2014 Satellite Events, Revised Selected Papers</hi>. Springer–Verlag, pp. 226–30.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hyvönen, E., Tuominen, J., Ikkala, E. and Mäkelä, E</hi>. (2015). Ontology services based on crowdsourcing: Case national gazetteer of historical places. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the ISWC 2015 </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Posters & Demonstrations Track, </hi>CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Vol 1486. http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1486/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hyvönen, E., Heino E., Leskinen, P., Ikkala, E., Koho M., Tamper M., Tuominen, J. and Mäkelä, E.</hi> (2016). Publishing Second World War History as Linked Data Events on the Semantic Web. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Digital Humanities 2016</hi>, short papers, Kraków, Poland, July 2016.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Southall, H., Mostern, R. and Berman, M. L. </hi>(2011). On historical gazetteers. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>: 127–45.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tuominen, J., Frosterus, M., Viljanen, K. and Hyvönen, E.</hi> (2009). ONKI SKOS server for publishing and utilizing SKOS vocabularies and ontologies as services. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 6th European Semantic Web Conference (ESWC 2009)</hi>. Springer–Verlag, pp. 768–80.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2556","17","Contextualizing Receptions of World Literature by Mining Multilingual Wikipedias","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Reading in translation is an impoverishment, not so much because of the fluctuating quality of a translation or the loss of a perceived 'original work' but because of the elision of sociolinguistic context and the difficulty in conveying that lost context to readers. That world literature is taught almost always in translation at universities in America and elsewhere (a situation driven by the low capacity for foreign language instruction at the university level and the broad linguistic reach of world literature courses) compounds this problem. Of the estimated 20.2m American undergraduates in 2015, an estimated 1.6m are enrolled in foreign language courses, and, historically, only 17% of those reach the higher levels of proficiency necessary to read literature (Goldberg et al., 2013).  The problem of American monolingualism has even affected the publishing industry; as noted translation theorist Laurence Venuti argued (1998), there are more translations of English texts into other languages than ever before while fewer foreign texts are translated into English. This trend means that American students are even less likely to feel comfortable with literature in translation than students from non-English speaking countries.</p>
            <p>However, conversations about literary summarization, a core practice of critical reading, take place globally and are preserved in the background of pages on every national language Wikipedia. As each language community summarizes their translations of works of world literature in the form of Wikipedia articles, they generate for every crowdsourced entry a discussion page and a history of that page; together, they reveal that literary work's history of reception for a reading community in a given language. By striving to synthesize an authoritative, peer-reviewed summary of text native to or translated into that community's language, each group highlights their concerns, thought processes, and the challenges posed by a given work. The goal is to make these differences and conversations more visible to readers through techniques from natural language processing for automatic translation, topic modeling, and the visualization of topic models; in so doing, we aim to develop a method by which the digital humanities can address a core problem in comparative and world literature.</p>
            <p>Machine translated Wikipedia discussions can help reveal to monolingual audiences the degree to which cultural pragmatics influence the reception of key (and popular) works of world literature.  Although flawed, automatic translation has been found in some languages to be comparable with human translation, at least in regards to cohesion and formality (Li et al., 2014). Presenting parallel national-language conversations – such as the national language conversations about topics like translating the title for Camus' <hi rend=""italic"">L'Étranger / The Stranger / Der Fremde/ The Foreigner</hi> and a visualization of the change-over-time of Goethe's <hi rend=""italic"">Faust I</hi> summarizations in English, German, and Spanish – would help demonstrate the practical reception of a work in a language community.  While work has been done on multi-lingual topic models (Ni et al., 2009), our research assumes that there will be both alignment and misalignment of topics across the various languages of a work; as such, our project resists the urge to normalize those topics into one category on the basis of an imperfect vector model of semantic similarity. Furthermore, experiments on iterative summarizations, such as elements of <hi rend=""italic"">The Tale of Genji</hi>, demonstrate how even basic tasks in literary scholarship contain cultural dimensions and can thus reveal strong cultural patterns and biases held by different populations (Kashima, 2000). Along with the works mentioned above, this research explores the Wikipedia conversations around J.D. Salinger's <hi rend=""italic"">Catcher in the Rye / Der Fänger im Roggen / El guardián entre el centeno o El cazador oculto / L'Attrape-cœurs / Il giovane Holden</hi> and Homer/Omero's <hi rend=""italic""> The Odyssey / Die Odyssee / Odisea / L'Odyssée / Odissea</hi> across English, German, Spanish, French, and Italian Wikipedia pages.</p>
            <p>In an increasingly digitized cultural landscape, the pedagogical use of Wikipedia and similar platforms has gained a great deal of traction in certain fields. While it is often derided as a dubious source for information, Wikipedia has proven to be a successful arena for instructing students on the distillation of information, writing in the public sphere, and collaborative writing (Purdy, 2009; Vetter, 2014; Sweeney, 2012). As a multilingual space, Wikipedia has offered many scholars the opportunity to examine the ways in which the cross-cultural sharing of information takes place (Nothman et al, 2013; Filatova, 2012). In some instances, Wikipedia specifically has been used as a place for the comparison of knowledge and representation across cultural and geographic divides (Callahan and Herring, 2011). These scholars provide a framework for examining the cross-linguistic aspects of Wikipedia in order to highlight cultural differences and deconstruct colonial power structures that privilege the English language (Ensslin, 2011). In the available scholarship, the use of Wikipedia in teaching literature has been largely ignored; only a few studies exist and those mainly address literary studies' reticence to incorporate Wikis into pedagogy (Bayliss, 2013). However, quite a few studies suggest that Wikipedia can occupy a distinct operational space in the university that supplements established pedagogical spaces and practices (Gorard and Selwyn, 2015; Knight and Pyke, 2012).</p>
            <p>Our computational framework follows these possibilities to supplement two established methods of teaching translation in a world literature classroom. The first method consists of placing a work of literature in translation – a passage from a novel, for example – in relation to the same work in its original language. The hope is that students can analyze the differences between the original and the work in translation and, thereby, understand the way the literary text undergoes a 'new life' in translation. This method not only assumes a sophisticated knowledge of foreign languages among the majority of students but also brackets the question of how these works are read in the original language by native-language readers. The second method juxtaposes several translations of the same work into English. This has the advantage of not assuming knowledge of a foreign language. For example, students might read various translations of the 19<hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi>-century French poet Baudelaire in English, starting from English translations from the late 19<hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century and continuing through translations that have been published in the last twenty years. The advantage of this method is clear: students can easily see, in their own language, the way translation can change the meaning of a poem as they read it from one translation to another. While this method successfully bypasses the problem of foreign language competency, it amplifies the second problem: the student is even more divorced from the source-language context since all emphasis is placed on the way <hi rend=""italic"">English speakers</hi> respond to a work of literature.</p>
            <p>New methods, therefore, are needed to expose foreign texts and foreign contexts. Using computational methods to enter the themes and arguments about specific texts in other languages precludes some of the need for high-level competency in a foreign language in order to understand the debates about world literature in a non-American – and especially non-English – context. Automatic translation and topic modeling facilitate encounters with Wikipedia 'talk' pages in other languages. The rough output of these automated and annotated procedures preserves some of the estrangement of working across languages as the translation is rough, clearly communicating its nature as translation — and therefore serves its purpose without fully replacing the source text.  With such experiments, our project broadly addresses two questions: how different language populations create summaries that are culturally distinct, and how these differences can be folded back into meaningful encounters for readers of works in translation. The overall method for this project is to identify the subset of well-documented and significant works, mine the relevant Wikipedia entries and conversations, and develop preliminary code to identify the linguistic features of the entry (e.g. topics, use of modals, noun density, phraseological structures, complexity measures, etc.) and the nodal points of the crowd's conversation that yielded the page. As an example, consider the discrepancies across the Italian and English discussion pages of <hi rend=""italic"">The Odyssey / Odissea</hi> as represented by ten 5- to 10-term topic models.</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <head>Table 1. Named Topics Models from English and Italian Discussion Pages of Omero/Homer's 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Odyssey</hi> / 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Odissea</hi>
                </head>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Terms, Italian Discussion Page</hi>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Topic Name</hi>
                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>odissea originali palla contributi registrarmi</cell>
                    <cell>Contributions and Registration</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>wikipedia forum migliorarla posto figlio arrivassero tenter tentare importanza</cell>
                    <cell>Need for More Expert Contributors</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>ulisse niente aggiunto dante manchi riferimento elenco procedo cielo parte pietose condizioni</cell>
                    <cell>References to Dante</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>poseidone divina generale voglia </cell>
                    <cell>Unclear</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>commedia incontra quesiti accecato ostacola competenti voce</cell>
                    <cell>Other Web Sources</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>ripristino aggiungerei siti porre partenza traducendo manna materia versione</cell>
                    <cell>Older Versions are Better than Newer Versions</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>dir notizie rete evidente polifemo</cell>
                    <cell>Unclear</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>inglese qualcuno pensa piccola inferno appositi pagina discutere film serve deciso</cell>
                    <cell>Using English Wikipedia to Backfill Italian</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>esattamente pecca opere fin tema passo potere utenti</cell>
                    <cell>Reflections on Contributors</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>pare so troia attendo basandomi mesi trova provvisorio</cell>
                    <cell>Reflections on What to Write</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Terms, English Discussion Page</hi>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Topic Name</hi>
                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>odyssey homer work titles guideline searching works section promotional directed</cell>
                    <cell>Editing Guidelines and Work Title</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>february page common dab crazynas people epic redirect iliad dictionary</cell>
                    <cell>Genre and Other Works</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>talk odysseus december journey extant account term proposal giu september</cell>
                    <cell>The Journey</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>word article wp called style subject similar adventures locations toronto</cell>
                    <cell>Locations in the Story and Writing Style</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>utc play topic primary part poem link note odisseus july</cell>
                    <cell>Poetry</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>title article refer word davidiad edited cynwolfe don titles voyage</cell>
                    <cell>Voyages</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>edit western preceding map request www apology talk zcc suggest</cell>
                    <cell>Mapping the Journey</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>medea akhilleus euripides noun don current literature click crazynas english</cell>
                    <cell>Characters</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>utc april added source staged meant argument written fall cite</cell>
                    <cell>Sourcing and Staging</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>talk comment unsigned university musical oldest review tedickey tomb point</cell>
                    <cell>Ceremony</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>What comes across in this comparison is the somewhat different concerns of the two reading communities. The Italian discussion reflects concerns with the expertise of the editing community, a social reflection common to Wikipedias, and with connections between Homer and Dante, a figure more central to Italian literary identity. The English page reflects a concern with the Odyssean journey and its possible real-world correspondences. More commonality was found in another example comparing the discussion pages of J.D Salinger's <hi rend=""italic"">The Catcher in the Rye</hi>. These alignments and misalignments of reader's concerns can destabilize the primacy of concerns held by a given reading community and speaks to one of the core benefits of reading world literature.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bayliss, G. </hi>(2013). Exploring the Cautionary Attitude toward Wikipedia in Higher Education: Implications for Higher Education Institutions. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Review of Academic Librarianship</hi>, <hi rend=""bold""> 19</hi>(1): 36-57.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Callahan, E. and Herring, S.</hi> (2011). Cultural Bias in Wikipedia Content on Famous Persons. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal for Information Science and Technology</hi>, <hi rend=""bold""> 62</hi>(10): 1899-1915.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Ensslin, A.</hi> (2011). 'What an un-wiki way of doing things': Wikipedia's Multilingual Policy and Metalinguistic Practice. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Language & Politics</hi>, <hi rend=""bold""> 10</hi>(4): 535-61.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Filatova, E.</hi> (2012). Information Overlap in Multilingual Wikipedia and Summarization. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Cooperative Information Systems</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(4): 383-403.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Goldberg, D., Looney, D. and Lusin, N. </hi>(2015). Enrollments in Languages Other than English in United States Institutions of Higher Education, Fall 2013. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Modern Language Association</hi>. First published online February 2015. https://apps.mla.org/pdf/2013_enrollment_survey.pdf. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gorard, S. and Selwyn, N.</hi> (2015). Students Use of Wikipedia as an Academic Resource—Patterns of Use and Perceptions of Usefulness. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Internet and Higher Education </hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>: 28-34. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Kashima, Y.</hi> (2000). Maintaining Cultural Stereotypes in the Serial Reproduction of Narratives. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin</hi>, <hi rend=""bold""> 26</hi>(5): 594-604.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Knight, C. and Pyke, S.</hi> (2012). Wikipedia and the University, a case study. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Teaching in Higher Education</hi>, <hi rend=""bold""> 17</hi>(6): 649-59.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Li, H., Graesser, A. C. and Cai, Z.</hi> (2014). Comparison of Google translation with human translation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Twenty-Seventh International Florida Artificial Intelligence Research Society Conference</hi>. Pensacola Beach, FL, May 2014, pp. 190-5.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Ni, X., Sun, J., Hu, J. and Chen, Z.</hi> (2009). Mining multilingual topics from wikipedia. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 18th international conference on World Wide Web</hi>. Madrid, Spain, April 2009.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Nothman, J., Ringland, N., Radford, W., Murphy, T. and Curran, J. </hi>(2013). Learning Multilingual Named Entity Recognition from Wikipedia. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Artificial Intelligence </hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">194</hi>: 151-75.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Purdy, J.</hi> (2009). When the Tenets of Composition Go Public: A Study of Writing in Wikipedia. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">College Composition and Communication</hi>, <hi rend=""bold""> 61</hi>(2): W351-W373.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sweeney, M. </hi>(2012). The Wikipedia Project: Changing Students from Consumers to Producers. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Teaching English in the Two-Year College</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">39</hi>(3): 256-67.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Venuti, L. </hi>(1998). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scandals of Translation: Towards an Ethics of Difference</hi>. London: Routledge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Vetter, M.</hi> (2014). Archive 2.0: What Composition Students and Academic Libraries Can Gain from Digital Collaborative Pedagogies. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Composition Studies</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">42</hi>(1): 35-53.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2557","17","Corpus Analyses of Multimodal Narrative: The Example of Graphic Novels","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>This paper presents first empirical analyses and visualizations of a large corpus of graphic novels – an increasingly popular form of book-length comics aimed at adults – that is currently in the process of being assembled and digitized. We introduce an XML vocabulary and visual editor that we have developed for the annotation of our corpus, and reflect on the challenges presented by a cultural form that is characterized by the complex interaction of text and images. Analyzing the specific narrativity of this and other multimodal cultural forms (including illustrated books and magazines, theater, film, television and computer games), we argue, calls for a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods drawn from such diverse fields as narratology, digital art history, and cognitive science. In contrast to corpus analyses of literary texts, which have made great strides in recent years, comparable work on visual narrative still remains in its infancy and at the periphery of the digital humanities. While this can be traced, in part, to copyright issues, such scholarship also faces a number of crucial technical and methodological hurdles – from image description, classification, and object recognition to the operationalization of narratological concepts. Given the dominance of visual storytelling in modern and contemporary culture, overcoming these hurdles will represent an important contribution to the further development of DH research.</p>
                <p>The introduction presents our corpus and the wider research questions of our interdisciplinary group. This is followed by a brief overview over the “Graphic Narrative Markup Language” (GNML), which builds on TEI, and the visual editor developed for the annotation of graphic novels, but which is also applicable to other multimodal forms. A version of this editor will be available as open-acess software by the time of the conference. Part two introduces a number of analyses and visualizations combining the study of text and images that make up graphic novels. The final part moves to the quantitative and qualitative analysis of graphic novels with the help of eye-tracking. This approach allows us to study the construction of storyworlds by empirical readers, and thus opens up an aspect of narrative that remains severely underrepresented in DH, and the humanities at large.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>1. GNML-Editor: Tools for (Semi-)Automatic Annotation</head>
                <p>Whereas the automatic analysis of text corpora has become feasible in many instances, such automation currently remains a pipe dream for multimodal narratives. In the case of comics and similarly hand-drawn, or otherwise non-perspectival, images, object identification depends on lengthy training efforts and registers a relatively high error rate. Similarly, standard OCR programs fail at recognizing the (quasi) hand writing that dominates comics. As a consequence, our corpus study presently depends on manual and semi-automatic annotation. For this purpose, we have developed the XML-language GNML, which builds on TEI and previous efforts by John Walsh (2012), to describe all textual and visual properties of graphic novels. To minimize errors during the annotation process, our visual GNML-editor supports annotators with integrated spell checking and auto-completion mechanisms. An automatic recognition of panels is complemented by a function that recognizes the borders of individual captions, speech bubbles, and characters to accelerate annotation. Further automations, such as an in-built OCR for narrative text that conforms to standard fonts, are currently under development. As the conceptual basis of the editor (visual objects with graphic and textual characteristics) is not limited to comics but can be applied to other text-image combinations in visual culture (from illustrated manuscripts to film and TV), the editor will be generalized for the annotation of such formats.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>2. Quantitative Analyses and Visualizations of Graphic Novels</head>
                <p>Part two presents approaches that combine image and text analysis for a number of structural features of graphic novels. Methods developed for digital literary studies, such as topic modeling, are of limited value for the analysis of visual culture given the dominance of images. In contrast, studies of large-scale image sets have so far shown little interest in narrative analysis. To complicate matters further, most narratological concepts are drawn from the study of literary texts, and it remains questionable to what extent they can be successfully applied to visual narrative.</p>
                <p>In a first analysis of the corpus, which is still in the process of being digitized and annotated, we look at the historical development of the visual and textual elements of about 150 book covers of graphic novels. This includes a grammatical and semantic analysis of their titles with the help of a statistical language parser, as well as the stylistic and visual attributes of their design and cover images. In a second step, we move to more detailed studies of a first sub-corpus that consists of the ten most-cited titles within our larger set of graphic novels. Such a small sub-set does not allow for genre comparisons or for studying historical developments within the form. However, we can consider the narrative features of representative texts within our corpus. In order to do so, we compare a network analysis of characters with their visual prominence and respective share of text, and complement this with a stylistic analysis of the latter. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>3. Eyetracking Analysis of Multimodal Narrative</head>
                <p>The experimental observation of eye movements has proven a reliable measure of the human processing of text and images, and allows us to form hypotheses about the construction of storyworlds by empirical readers. The final part of the paper aims to show the value of this method by considering excerpts from a first, explorative corpus of canonical graphic novels. In contrast to theoretical scholarship on comics, which has emphasized the primacy of images (Groensteen, 2009), our experiments demonstrate that readers focus most of their attention on the text. Not only is it usually read first, but many images are either not focused on at all, or analyzed purely in peripheral vision. Whether images are viewed depends, among other variables, on their informational content: if either visual aspects or the storyline continue from one panel to the next, it is much more likely that a panel will be skipped by the reader than if they are distinguished more clearly from its immediate predecessor. We also look at the interaction between visual and textual levels: do reading habits differ if text and images refer to distinct storylines? Finally, we report on experiments that focus on comic reading expertise, for which we propose a new empirical measure. In sharp contrast to the reading of text alone, where experience and reading speed are positively correlated, experienced comics readers focus on the visual aspects of the panels for an extended amount of time. This time appears to be invested wisely, since they are able to better understand the story, as shown by an empirical content test. Taken together, these results suggest that the text and image work together to transmit the narrativity of graphic novels, and that a specific type of expertise is required to understand multimodal narratives. This maps well onto the hypothesis that comics and other forms of sequential art use a particular kind of visual language (McCloud, 1993), which has been analyzed in psycholinguistic terms by Cohn (2013).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>4. Summary and Conclusions</head>
                <p>We present a new DH project aiming at collecting and analyzing a corpus of graphic literature, enriched by human annotations as well as by a corpus of eye-movement recordings to measure the momentary distribution of readers’ attention. First example analyses on both global and local levels demonstrate the potential of this approach. A toolchain for description, annotation, and analysis of these data is being developed, and is of potential use for a wider field of studies in cultural analytics of image-related and multimodal material. In perspective, the corpus will be further enhanced by automated description, using features developed in the field of computer vision (Farabet et al., 2013; Krizhevsky et al., 2012; Rigaud et al., 2015; Serre et al., 2007).</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cohn, N.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Visual Language of Comics. Introduction to the Structure and Cognition of Sequential Images.</hi> London: Bloomsbury.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Farabet, C., Couprie, C., Najman, L. and LeCun, Y.</hi> (2013). Learning Hierarchical Features for Scene Labeling. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 35</hi>: 1915–29.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Groensteen, T.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The System of Comics</hi>. Jackson, MS: University of Mississippi Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I. and Hinton, G. E.</hi> (2012). ImageNet Classification with Deep Convolutional Neural Networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 25</hi>: 1097–1105.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lowe, D. G.</hi> (2004). Distinctive Image Features from Scale-Invariant Keypoints. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Computer Vision</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 60</hi>: 91–110.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCloud, S.</hi> (1993). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art.</hi> New York, NY: Harper Collins.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rigaud, C., Guérin, C., Karatzas, D., Burie, J.-C. and Ogier, J.-M.</hi> (2015). Knowledge-driven understanding of images in comic books. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 18</hi>: 199–221.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Serre, T., Wolf, L., Bileschi, S., Riesenhuber, M. and Poggio, T.</hi> (2007). Robust Object Recognition with Cortex-like Mechanisms. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 29</hi>: 411–26.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Walsh, J.</hi> (2012). Comic Book Markup Language: An Introduction and Rationale. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly,</hi> (6–1).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2558","17","Corpus of Ioannes Dantiscus' Texts & Correspondence dantiscus.al.uw.edu.pl","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Ioannes Dantiscus (1485–1548) was a humanist, author of neo-Latin poems, outstanding diplomat in the service of Polish King Sigismund I Jagiellon and Queen Bona Sforza, and then the Senator of the Polish Kingdom as the Bishop of Kulm (1530/33–1537) and Ermland (1537–1548). The final office was also connected with the post of president of the Royal Prussian Council.</p>
            <p>Dantiscus’ correspondence forms the largest collection of letters (over 6,000) in Central-Eastern Europe, related to the Polish royal court and its partners across the world during that period. Among Dantiscus’ 656 correspondents we find rulers, politicians, knights, banquers, humanists and scholars, including especially Nicolaus Copernicus and Erasmus of Rotterdam.</p>
            <p>The project “Registration and Publication of the Correspondence of Ioannes Dantiscus”, carried out over nearly thirty years at the University of Warsaw (Laboratory for Editing Sources, Faculty of “Artes Liberales”), currently includes two elements:</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>Traditional print publication of the series 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Corpus Epistularum Ioannis Dantisci </hi>(appearing in print since 2004 in editorial collaboration between the University of Warsaw and the Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences in Cracow; seven volumes have appeared to date, including three volumes of source texts, two volumes of inventories, and two volumes of studies and commentaries.)
                </item>
                <item>Web publication entitled 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Corpus of Ioannes Dantiscus Texts and Correspondence</hi> (letters, poems, diplomatic memorials, envoy’s speeches and records), 
                    <hi rend=""underline"">dantiscus.al.uw.edu.pl</hi>, first published in July 1, 2010.
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>The “Corpus of Ioannes Dantiscus Texts and Correspondence”, with an interface in English and Polish, presents in extenso transcriptions of the primary sources enriched with elaborate critical apparatus. It also contains detailed inventory data on the entirety of Dantiscus’ correspondence (sender, addressee, incipit, dating, data on the original source, data on publication in print) and all the Latin texts written by Dantiscus (778 letters, 107 poems, 7 speeches, 15 memorials, 36 records, 1 other text) collected in the “Corpus of Ioannes Dantiscus’ Latin Texts”, as well as a selection of other correspondence texts (letters to Dantiscus, Dantiscus’ letters in German). The selection of texts edited so far was based on the research needs of the program as a whole. Plans for the future envisage publication of the complete “Corpus of Ioannes Dantiscus’ German Texts” (letters and documents). The web publication also serves as a first draft for the print publication of the Corpus Epistularum Ioannis Dantisci.</p>
            <p>In order to present the source texts online, a custom-designed system of digital registration and annotation for Renaissance correspondence was created, combining transcriptions encoded in accordance with TEI Guidelines, and a relational database that stores a rich set of metadata. All this meticulously collected data offers great potential for further research along many diverse lines. As an example, encoding of references to places and individuals mentioned in this large body of texts allows us to map areas of interest and influence for correspondents or to track their itineraries. Focusing only on people, it is possible to reconstruct parts of social networks of the time, analyzing not only obvious links between correspondents but also references to people co-occurring across the documents. Other areas of scientific investigation have been opened thanks to encoding of variance across extant sources, regularized and original orthography, and other transcriptional features.</p>
            <p>The adopted TEI-based approach allows for single source publishing workflow for both the printed series and the web resource, helping to achieve high standards of quality and consistency across publications. As the project and its predecessors span over two decades, technological choices have to be revisited from time to time. The current relational-database-based publishing system, with roots in the early nineties, is planned to be replaced with a native XML database and publishing solution, better suited to satisfying needs for flexible querying of the existing data. Future plans also encompass the integration of visualizations, both to assist research carried out by project collaborators and to provide different ways of engagement with this rich resource, thus broadening its potential audience.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2559","17","Creating A Management Plan For A Cultural Heritage Project - Best Practise","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The project “Repository of Styrian Cultural Heritage” aims to build a digital archive of cultural heritage objects to make digitized and scholarly annotated collections from various institutions (archives, museums or universities) available for the public. To implement accurate retrieval functionalities and special visualizations a consistent data pool is indispensable. Furthermore, to guarantee data longevity and the possibility to analyse, re-use or add to the collected data, a well-documented management plan is of great importance. Contrary to possible assumptions that the increasing number of similar portals means that comparable documentations already exist in abundance, most portals either do not have any kind of documentation (e.g. Kulturerbeportal-Niedersachsen, BLO, DG-Kulturerbe) or strongly focus on details (e.g. metadata and mapping guidelines or specify controlled lists for comparability) (e.g. bavarikon, DDB, Europeana, museum-digital, MIMO). They do not offer extensive guidelines, especially for the creation of digital collections from scratch. At the Centre for Information Modelling in Graz we designed a management plan for this project according to the OAIS reference model and taking into account aspects concerning research data management (e.g. Puhl et al., 2015), for all partners involved.</p>
            <p>Because we gather data from more than one preservation infrastructure (e.g. FEDORA-based repository GAMS) and deal with a variety of resources, from text-centred materials and images to museum objects and artefacts from various contexts (e.g. criminology or archaeology), the designed strategy is generic and expandable. The poster will show systematic strategies regarding different aspects ranging from evaluation to content curation and data re-use. The steps include: </p>
            <p><hi rend=""bold"">Analysis & Evaluation:</hi> The starting-point is to evaluate and analyse the structure of the diverse sources. It involves a discussion about the goal and scope of the project in general as well as possible publication scenarios and functionalities for the collected data. At this stage, communication between technically skilled humanists and specialists for the respective collections is crucial. This collaboration saves time and effort in later stages of the project. Based on this foundation, workflows and data models exactly suited to the needs of the specific institution, including legal aspects, can be established.</p>
            <p><hi rend=""bold"">Modelling & Metadata Generation:</hi> After these evaluations, a data model, including obligatory object descriptions as a minimum requirement for all object types along with rules for metadata creation, has to be developed. Furthermore the depth of the annotation and the use of controlled vocabularies for semantic enrichment have to be defined.</p>
            <p><hi rend=""bold"">Quality Control & Preserving Data:</hi> Quality control of data is an integral part and takes place at various stages, during data collection or digitization. Already existing digital data has to be reviewed and if necessary revised according to the defined rulesets. In this respect, the documentation of data provenance (origins of data, revision agreements and transformation scenarios) is an essential step. Gathered and harvested data has to be transformed from proprietary file formats to suitable storage formats. Internationally recognized standards like DC for basic descriptive metadata, TEI for manuscripts or LIDO for museum objects are recommended to maximize possible re-use and interoperability of the data. For the web portal, all objects are going to be mapped to EDM. The model forms the common ground for the general object description and semantic enrichment.</p>
            <p>For long-term preservation, platform-independent systems and open-source software like a Fedora-based repository should be used (e.g. Stigler, Steiner 2015). All objects need persistent identification, which ensures its availability and citability.</p>
            <p><hi rend=""bold"">Access & Dissemination: </hi>Based on consistent data, various search options (filter, facet or advanced) can be implemented. Next to a general representation for all artefacts, elaborate object-specific functionalities and visualizations, like the possibility to thumb through manuscripts or view postal routes of correspondence on a historic map, can be offered.</p>
            <p><hi rend=""bold"">Adding & Re-use:</hi> The possible re-use of data and the addition of new objects or scientific findings as well as the further enrichment of metadata also have to be considered. Adding information according to the defined guidelines guarantees the same quality for re-use, whether for follow-up research, teaching or browsing.</p>
            <p>The poster will generally introduce the approaches to a common web portal for a variety of digital resources. It will present a best practice model for an interdisciplinary, cross-institutional cultural heritage project, based on experiences concerning data preservation, consistent metadata description and enrichment. In this respect it also provides guidance to implement a long-lasting expandable digital archive.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bavarikon</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.bavarikon.de/object/bav:BSB-CMS-0000000000000605"">http://www.bavarikon.de/object/bav:BSB-CMS-0000000000000605</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">BLO</hi> - Bayerische Landesbibliothek Online. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.bayerische-landesbibliothek-online.de"">http://www.bayerische-landesbibliothek-online.de</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">CCSDS</hi> - Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (2012). OAIS-MAGENTA BOOK (2012). 
                        <ref target=""http://public.ccsds.org/publications/archive/650x0m2.pdf"">http://public.ccsds.org/publications/archive/650x0m2.pdf</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">DC</hi> - Dublin Core. 
                        <ref target=""http://dublincore.org/specifications"">http://dublincore.org/specifications</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">DDB</hi> – Deutsche Digitale Bibliothek. 
                        <ref target=""https://api.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/doku/display/ADD"">https://api.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/doku/display/ADD</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">DG-Kulturerbe</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.dgkulturerbe.be"">http://www.dgkulturerbe.be</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">EDM</hi> - Europeana Data Model. 
                        <ref target=""http://pro.europeana.eu/page/edm-documentation"">http://pro.europeana.eu/page/edm-documentation</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Europeana</hi>: 
                        <ref target=""http://pro.europeana.eu/"">http://pro.europeana.eu/</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Kulturerbeportal-Niedersachsen. 
                        <ref target=""http://kulturerbe.niedersachsen.de/viewer/start/"">http://kulturerbe.niedersachsen.de/viewer/start/</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">LIDO</hi> - Lightweight Information Descriping Objects. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.lido-schema.org/schema/v1.0/lido-v1.0-specification.pdf"">http://www.lido-schema.org/schema/v1.0/lido-v1.0-specification.pdf</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">MIMO</hi> – Musical Instrument Museums Online. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.mimo-international.com/MIMO/how-to-join.aspx"">http://www.mimo-international.com/MIMO/how-to-join.aspx</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Museum-digital</hi>: 
                        <ref target=""http://www.museum-digital.de/index.php?t=einmaleins"">http://www.museum-digital.de/index.php?t=einmaleins</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Puhl, J. et al.</hi> (2015). Diskussion und Definition eines Research Data LifeCycle für die digitalen Geisteswissenschaften, PURL. 
                        <ref target=""http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl/?dariah-2015-4"">http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl/?dariah-2015-4</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Repository of Styrian Cultural Heritage</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://wissenschaftserbe.uni-graz.at/en/"">http://wissenschaftserbe.uni-graz.at/en</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stigler J. and Steiner E.</hi> (2015). GAMS and Cirilo Client Policies, documentation and tutorial. 
                        <ref target=""http://gams.uni-graz.at/doku"">http://gams.uni-graz.at/doku</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stigler J.</hi> Cirilo Client. 
                        <ref target=""https://github.com/acdh/cirilo"">https://github.com/acdh/cirilo</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">TEI</hi> - Text Encoding Initiative. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.tei-c.org"">http://www.tei-c.org</ref>, (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2560","17","Creating Feminist Infrastructure in the Digital Humanities","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <quote>Today, it is imperative that we develop an ideological infrastructure that 
                <lb/>both supports and facilitates feminist interventions within connective, 
                <lb/>networked elements of the contemporary world. [...] We want to 
                <lb/>cultivate the exercise of positive freedom – freedom-to rather than simply 
                <lb/>freedom-from – and urge feminists to equip themselves with the skills to 
                <lb/>redeploy existing technologies and invent novel cognitive and material tools 
                <lb/>in the service of common ends.
            </quote>
            <quote>Laboria Cubonix, 
                <ref target=""http://www.laboriacuboniks.net/"">Xenofeminism: A Politics for Alienation</ref>
            </quote>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>This panel considers how gender and digital infrastructures shape each other. Infrastructure can be described as that which creates the conditions of possibility for certain kinds of activities. In the context of digital humanities, infrastructure can refer to physical infrastructure such as servers, software infrastructure in the form of code or a software stack, organizational infrastructure such as a scholarly society, institutional infrastructure such as a DH centre, or methodological infrastructure such as a standard. </p>
                <p>As is often observed, infrastructure tends to be transparent or invisible until broken (see Bowker and Starr), rather in the manner that ideological structures can blind us to systemic discrimination and gender bias. Rather than view infrastructure as a transparent mediation, feminist thinking invites broader questions around how we might address the social or relational aspects of infrastructure: </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>How can digital infrastructure, as technologies of connection, support complex, non-binary understanding?</item>
                    <item>How does a systemic approach to information infrastructure offer opportunities for a more systemic political critique within the digital humanities?</item>
                    <item>How can we address the ways in which standards (such as the TEI encoding of sex [Terras]) and procedures (‘organizing logic’ [Posner]) embed values?</item>
                    <item>What would an explicitly ‘ideological infrastructure’ look like? Is it desirable?</item>
                    <item>To what extent can existing infrastructure be adapted for feminist ends and/or do we need to create new forms and instances of infrastructure to redress inequity?</item>
                </list>
                <p>The panel will be a hybrid of the panel- and multiple-paper session. Within each of its three sectioned themes, the panelists specified for a particular subtopic will have the responsibility to open up discussion with short statements of up to 7 minutes, followed by pithy responses from other panel members (who will have read the statements in advance) of up to 5 minutes in total, followed by an invitation to the audience to continue the discussion jointly with us. What is proposed, therefore, is not a series of 5 papers, but a set of interweaving engagements with each other and our audience that will make clear the connections between the component topics.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Training and pedagogical traditions </head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">DH Training</hi> (Tanya Clement) Project-based research is often heralded as the site of work that defines DH. Indeed, in Willard McCarty’s DH paradigm, the DH practitioner alone possesses ‘an outsider’s objectivity’ and the ‘performative ability to move in and out of disciplines, back and forth between duck and rabbit... while carrying its own intellectual load on its back’ (136). Except, a feminist perspective based on situated knowledges (Haraway, 1998) teaches us that what liberates us from obstacles often blinds us to the opportunities that difficulties illuminate.
                </p>
                <p>This rhetoric of ‘mastery’ over technology threatens an advancement of knowledge production from other perspectives, adopting what Haraway would call ‘the standpoint of the Man, the One God, whose Eye produces, appropriates and orders all difference’ (Haraway, 1988: 587). Further, training in project-related work arguably produces skills- rather than knowledge-based programs, and digital humanists professionals rather than researchers (Clement, 2012; Kraus, 2013; Mahony and Pierazzo, 2012). The debate about whether designing and building tools provides indispensable knowledge about information infrastructures is inflected by the concern that the ability to bridge the ‘building’ gap) largely reflects social privilege.</p>
                <p>Clement will posit a contradiction between the presumed goals behind DH work, and the everyday practices of DH scholars and major DH education and training programs. In short, while scholars claim a keen desire to frame infrastructure development in the context of theories such as cultural criticism, feminist inquiry, and post-colonial critique, her investigation indicates that many training programs are not framed in these ways. </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Community-based Training and Research Networks </hi>(Jacque Wernimont): 
                    <ref target=""http://femtechnet.org/"">
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">FemTechNet</hi>
                    </ref>
                    <hi rend=""color(232323) background(white)""> is an activated network of scholars, artists, and students working on, with, and at the borders of technology, science, and feminism in many fields including Science and Technology Studies, Digital Humanities, Media and Visual Studies, Art, Gender, Queer, and Ethnic Studies. This networked structure works asynchronously and across local and international interventions. A major feature of our work is the series of Distributed Open Collaborative Courses (DOCCs) that recognize the complexities of the learning situation by designing platforms both locally and collectively. They represent new models from which many stakeholders will learn. The DOCCs are alternatives to the ‘reform’ efforts represented by the Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), which actually do little to change the status quo and can even be counterproductive when promoters oversimplify questions of access, underestimate investments of labor in instructional technology, deny the importance of infrastructure and its human and discursive aspects, and reinforce ideologies about technology being values-neutral. </hi>
                </p>
                <p>In addition to curricular work, FemTechNet members collaborate on the design and creation of feminist technological innovations and in so doing extend our networked training into both traditional curriculum, apprenticeship, and non-hierarchical collaboration. Consequently, FemTechNet is a model of research and training infrastructure that foregrounds transparent and locally responsive structures, affords the ability to move up and back as time, expertise, and desire allow, and places feminist principles of equity, justice, and engagement at the fore. It is also a case study in understanding the labor, care, and resources necessary to maintain international cooperation and collaboration. We believe that our infrastructure is as expressive of our intellectual and ethical commitments as any content that we might produce, making the challenges of distributed online work around digital technologies not simply innovative, but also absolutely necessary. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Examples of feminist technical infrastructure</head>
                <p>To give a sense of the array and complexity of infrastructural concerns, we will frame three quite different technical infrastructure initiatives in relation to feminism.</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">HuNI</hi> (Deb Verhoeven): 
                    <ref target=""http://huni.net.au/"">HuNI, Humanities Networked Infrastructure</ref>, is a service that aggregates data from a broad range of humanities disciplines and institutional sources and makes them available to researchers and any members of the public with access to a browser (Verhoeven and Burrows, 2015). HuNI provides users the opportunity to build collections and propose a graph of relationships between records which in turn contribute to a HuNI network graph. As researchers themselves create the links between data, they also produce a kind of ‘vernacular ontology’ which, rather than providing an ‘authoritative’ model of the data, instead allows for diversity, complexity, interpretation and contestability. In this way, HuNI acknowledges ‘difference’ in the representation and organisation of knowledge and underlines the way in which gender (and other ‘differences’) are socially produced rather than empirical givens.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">ARC </hi>(Laura Mandell): ARC, the 
                    <ref target=""http://www.ar-c.org/"">Advanced Research Consortium</ref>, is the parent group overseeing and supporting 
                    <ref target=""http://www.nines.org/"">NINES</ref>, 
                    <ref target=""http://www.18thconnect.org/"">18thConnect</ref>, 
                    <ref target=""http://www.mesa-medieval.org/"">MESA</ref>, and the forthcoming ReKN and ModNets. These period-specific, online finding aids and scholarly communities work with traditional scholars to encourage digital production: they provide peer review for digital projects, and guidance along the way. ARC supports that work by hosting the web interfaces for these groups, the SOLR server feeding them metadata, providing the Lucene search engine that powers the online finding aids. ARC also coordinates with proprietary companies to import their data into these online finding aids in order to make them into comprehensive research environments. Finally, ARC is attempting to build a sustainability plan for the group by selling BigDIVA, the Big Data Infrastructure Visualization Application (
                    <ref target=""http://www.bigdiva.org"">
                        <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://www.bigdiva.org</hi>
                    </ref>). 
                </p>
                <p>ARC is not explicitly a feminist infrastructure, but it is noteworthy that it was originally designed by a feminist, Bethany Nowviskie, and is currently directed by a feminist, Laura Mandell. It is possible, however, that the ethic of service and care is a form of stealth feminist infrastructure (Brown, 2008), channeling technological and social structures toward serving and educating the academy. Indeed, this infrastructure has a service focus: the period-specific groups attempt to serve scholars, to educate them about best practices in the peer-review procedure, to work with them in building up projects and creating metadata about those projects. ARC serves the period-specific communities so that they can focus on outreach to traditional scholars. At a recent two-day ARC meeting, including one or two directors from each period-specific group, we spent a full fifth of our meeting time discussing sexism and its impact on our work: the ARC board is made up of feminist men and women attempting to intervene in the way that the academy does its normal business.</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">CWRC </hi>(Susan Brown): The 
                    <ref target=""http://cwrc.ca/"">Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory</ref> is a feminist project in drag: built on a feminist recovery initiative (Brown et al 2006-15), it was a bid to gain infrastructure funding for several projects in women’s writing, but its scope was strategically broadened and generalized to ‘writing in and about Canada’. At least in 2009 in Canada, focusing on ostensibly neutral infrastructure was apparently a better strategy for gaining funding than a research grant application focused on women’s writing. Hence ‘drag’: we weren’t disguising who we were, but dressing ourselves up in infrastructural (read male) clothing, performing the ‘neutral’. As a virtual research environment, CWRC tried to take on board the insights of scholars such as Lucy Suchman that we needed to design for situated, embodied, that is sexed and gendered, subjects. Nevertheless, the project struggled throughout with the divide between form and content, technical and subject expertise, that has largely characterized the division between the digital humanities and feminist scholarship, even as CWRC supports projects that investigate gender, race, nationality, and sexuality in diverse ways.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Infrastructure, collaboration, and credit</head>
                <p>We will conclude by tackling the thorny question of credit, awkward though it is to articulate. Infrastructure development’s implicit relation to service means that the development of research infrastructure is not considered research 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">per se</hi> but rather is consigned to the role of research ‘support’ and is therefore not ‘accountable’ as a specific research outcome in a range of contexts. To materialize research infrastructure is a process that is clearly distinguished from the reality produced: a covert operation, not a recognized result. And yet the devising and development of new systems might equally be seen as the devising and development of their standards, measures, and meanings and the principles of their provenance in which the restless, transformative, and connective work of infrastructure can be understood as a form of inventiveness and interpretive resourcefulness too. 
                </p>
                <p>Collaboration is both highly prized in the digital humanities as a privileged, indeed essential (Price, 2011: 9) form of scholarly practice. Yet, we would contend on the basis of a number of stories arising from our own experience and knowledge of others’, it is also fraught for women to the extent that their contributions are more prone than men’s to be overlooked or misattributed. We will provide a few largely anonymized examples of having work misattributed, credit or authorship erased (or absorbed into a project identity), and contributions to fields ignored, followed by discussion of how to combat such tendencies.</p>
                <p>The panel, we hope, will help to improve understanding of 1) the extent to which even something as apparently neutral or apolitical as infrastructure is imbued with gender and other socio-political considerations; 2) the impact of systemic gender and racial discrimination in a range of infrastructural contexts, notwithstanding the extent to which so many DH practitioners work hard to overcome the biases embedded in our cultures and our discourses; and 3) current and prospective strategies for countering those biases. We will seek to engage the audience throughout this session to include in the panel’s discussions a broad range of perspectives on and positions in relation to infrastructure. </p>
                <p>Successful infrastructure has the capacity to transform the world in which we already (co‑)exist. Digital humanities infrastructure can open up new visions of the world in which we live, and invite contemplation of the different ways in which we might live, and work, in it.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bowker, G. C. and Starr, S. L.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sorting Things Out: Classification and its Consequences</hi>. Cambridge, MIT Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brown, S.</hi> (2008). ‘Delivery/Service.’ In Smith, M. N., et al., 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Agora.Techno.Phobia.Philia2: feminist critical inquiry, knowledge building, digital humanities</hi>. Panel at Digital Humanities 2008. Oulu Finland. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.rch.uky.edu/docs/DigitalHumanities2008BookOfAbstracts.pdf"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://www.rch.uky.edu/docs/DigitalHumanities2008BookOfAbstracts.pdf</hi>
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brown, S, Clements, P and Grundy, I. </hi> (2006-2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Orlando: Women’s Writing in the British Isles from the Beginnings to the Present</hi>. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. 
                        <ref target=""http://orlando.cambridge.org"">http://orlando.cambridge.org</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clement, T.</hi> (2012). Multiliteracies in the Undergraduate Digital Humanities Curriculum: Skills, Principles, and Habits of Mind.’ In Hirsch, B. D. (Ed.)
                        <hi rend=""italic)"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics</hi>. Cambridge, Open Book Publishers. 
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                            <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://www.openbookpublishers.com/reader/161#page/1/mode/2up</hi>
                        </ref>
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Haraway, D.</hi> (1988). Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Feminist Studies</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>(3): 575–99.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Harding, S. G.</hi> (1986).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Science Question in Feminism</hi>. Ithaca, Cornell University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kraus, K.</hi> (2013). Alt-Research for Humanities PhDs. Kari Kraus. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.karikraus.com/?p=234"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC) background(white)"">http://www.karikraus.com/?p=234</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Laboria Cubonix Collective.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Xenofeminism: A Politics for Alienation</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.laboriacuboniks.net/"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://www.laboriacuboniks.net/</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mahony, S. and Pierazzo, E.</hi> (2015). 8. Teaching Skills or Teaching Methodology?, <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics</hi> Cambridge, Open Book Publishers, pp. 215–25.
                        <ref target=""page/1/mode/2up"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://www.openbookpublishers.com/reader/161#page/1/mode/2up</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCarty, W.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities Computing</hi>.
                         New York, Palgrave Macmillan.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Posner, M.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)""> (2015). </hi>
                        <ref target=""http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2015/08/12/the-radical-unrealized-potential-of-digital-humanities/"">
                            <hi rend=""color(1155CC) background(white)"">The Radical Potential of the Digital Humanities: The Most Challenging Computing Problem is the Interrogation of Power</hi>
                        </ref>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">.’ </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic background(white)"">The Impact Blog</hi>
                        <hi rend=""background(white)"">, London School of Economics. First appeared August 12, 2015. </hi>
                        <ref target=""http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2015/08/12/the-radical-unrealized-potential-of-digital-humanities/"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC) background(white)"">http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2015/08/12/the-radical-unrealized-potential-of-digital-humanities/</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Price, K. M.</hi> (2011). Collaborative work and the conditions for American literary scholarship in a digital age. In Earhart, A. E. and Jewell, A. (Ed.)
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The American Literature Scholar in the Digital Age</hi>. Ann Arbor, University of Michgan Presss, pp. 9-27.
                        <ref target=""http://dx.doi.org/10.3998/etlc.9362034.0001.001"">
                            http://dx.doi.org/10.3998/etlc.9362034.0001.001
                        </ref>
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Suchman, L. A.</hi> (1987). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Plans and Situated Actions: The Problem of Human-Machine Communication</hi>. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Terras, M.</hi> (2015). On Changing the Rules of the Digital Humanities. <hi rend=""italic "">Melissa Terras’ Blog</hi>.
                        <ref target=""http://melissaterras.blogspot.com/2013/05/on-changing-rules-of-digital-humanities.html"">
                        http://melissaterras.blogspot.com/2013/05/on-changing-rules-of-digital-humanities.html
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Verhoeven, D. and Burrows, T.</hi> (2015). Aggregating Cultural Heritage Data for Research Use: The Humanities Networked Infrastructure (HuNI). In Garoufallou, E. and Hartley, R. J. (Eds.)
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Metadata and Semantics Research, Proceedings of the 9th Research Conference</hi>. Springer, Cham, Computer and Information Science 544, pp. 417-423.
                        <ref target=""http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24129-6_36"">
                        http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24129-6_36
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2561","17","Crossed Semantic Analysis of Literary Texts with DeSeRT","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Doing comparative researches on a large literary corpus is often lengthy and demanding. With the digitization of contents, scholars have started using computers. Semantic information is essential for an appropriate understanding of texts and is an extremely important factor in cross-textual analysis. This is why we have developed a new semantic engine built especially for Digital Humanities, called DeSeRT
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p> A French version of DeSeRT is freely available online at http://obvil-dev.paris-sorbonne.fr/desert/ </p>
                    </note>. This paper presents some of the results that were obtained from a corpus of the 17
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> and 18
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century texts characteristic of the debates about theater in the classical age. The following paper is divided into four parts: after a first section that briefly describes the search engine used and the different investigations it allows, a second section introduces the corpus used. Then, the third section shows some of the results obtained.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The DeSeRT Search Engine</head>
                <p>DeSeRT has been designed to identify and compare rewriting, paraphrasing or reformulation. It is based on an idea, already developed (Barron-Cedeño et al., 2013; Ferrero and Simac-Lejeune, 2015), according to which, even if the reformulations cannot be reduced to paraphrases, they retain the meaning of original texts by using either the same words or words of similar meaning. As a consequence, the detection of co-occurrences of a few semantically equivalent lemmas in small blocks of texts is sufficient to capture the equivalent meaning and, therefore, to identify the reformulation of the same ideas.</p>
                <p>This is implemented in four steps: </p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Dividing texts into small blocks of words that are partially overlapping. Typically each block may contain 300 words and two consecutive blocks overlap by one-half, but both the block size and the proportion of overlap can vary.</item>
                    <item>Extracting the meaningful lemmas using a POS tagger. This step enables the exclusion of some syntactical categories, such as prepositions or articles, and to get the lemma associated to each word. The current implementation makes use of TreeTagger
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                            <p> http://www.cis.uni-muenchen.de/~schmid/tools/TreeTagger/</p>
                        </note>, but this could easily be changed.
                    </item>
                    <item>Indexing each block with the lemmas obtained at step 3. Without going into implementation details, let us remark that the index is stored using the SQLite
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                            <p> http://sqlite.org/</p>
                        </note> database management system.
                    </item>
                    <item>Retrieving blocks that contain many identical or semantically equivalent lemmas. This fourth module exploits a dictionary of synonyms to recover blocks that have similar meanings. It is also possible to use a thesaurus to restrict the search to a set of predefined terms, but this is not a necessity. The proximity between two blocks of text is based on an Okapi similarity measurement (Spärk-Jones et al, 2000), of which evaluation is greatly simplified by the fact that all blocks have the same size. </item>
                </list>
                <p>More precisely, the Okapi similarity measure of a block B with a set of terms T = 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">1</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">, … t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">n</hi> is given by the following formula:
                    <lb/>
                    <graphic url=""477/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <lb/>where 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">f(t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">, B)</hi> is the frequency of the term 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi> in the block 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">B</hi>, |
                    <hi rend=""italic"">B</hi>| is the size of block 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">B, k</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">b</hi> are two free parameters chosen in advance (usually chosen as k∈[1.2, 2] and b=0.75), 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">avdl</hi> is the average document description length in the collection and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">IDF(t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">)</hi> is the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Inverse Document Frequency</hi> of term 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi> is given by: 
                    <graphic url=""477/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </p>
                <p>It appears that, when the size of each block is the same and when the frequency of terms in blocks is supposed to be at max 1 (this approximation is justified since the blocks are small), this formula can be simplified. It then becomes equivalent to the information theoretic measure of the terms in blocks, i.e. 
                    <lb/>
                    <graphic url=""477/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <lb/>where 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Pr(t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">)</hi> is the probability of the term 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi> in the overall corpus.
                </p>
                <p>Using this score, it is possible to measure the similarity between blocks or between a block and a set 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">T</hi> of terms 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>. As a consequence, DeSeRT can be used in different ways. The research queries may be done through words or concepts, i.e. words that are expanded using the dictionary of synonyms. It is also possible to compare any text (or file) to a corpus: then, DeSeRT detects corpus blocks where the meaning is similar to blocks of the given text, which allows, for instance, the arguments in a dispute or the anecdotes and the common places that are reused to be followed. Lastly, it is also possible (but not mandatory) to add a thesaurus or ontology to focus the search on a given semantic field.
                </p>
                <p>Note that, based on techniques developed to detect plagiarism, many tools already exist that are designed to identify paraphrases, reuses and borrowings, i.e. sequences of words that are approximately identical, e.g. (Ganascia et al. 2014; Horson et al. 2010). However, these techniques are unable to spot reformulations of the same ideas or allusions to previous texts. DeSeRT has been designed to overcome these limitations.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The Hate of Theater </head>
                <p>The project 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Haine du Théâtre</hi>
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""http://obvil.paris-sorbonne.fr/projets/la-haine-du-theatre"">
                                <hi rend=""Hyperlink.0"">http://obvil.paris-sorbonne.fr/projets/la-haine-du-theatre</hi>
                            </ref>
                        </p>
                    </note> (“The Hatred of Theater” in French) aims to analyze theater disputes in Europe using scientific approaches and critical editions of polemical texts. The team’s reflections are mainly focused around the discovery of the circumstances and the arguments used in theater controversies all across Europe, not limited to France, but also in England, Spain, Italy, and the Germanic area, from the last decades of the 16
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century up to the beginning of the 19
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century.
                </p>
                <p>The corpus of the project collects many texts written in French during the 17
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> and the 18
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> centuries. The purpose of this project is to explore the gray areas of theater controversies in order to outline a global overview and to discover where and how the polemics began, their chronological discrepancies and the links between them and their contemporary resurgences. The total collection of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Haine du Théâtre</hi> texts is, by now, made up of 27 texts. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Exploitation of DeSeRT on the Hate of Theatre Corpus</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Discovery of reuses</head>
                    <p>Querying the 27 texts of the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Haine du Théâtre</hi> corpus, we found much reuse of similar passages and texts. DeSeRT is not only useful for detecting those parts of text that deal with the same concept, but is also a very good tool to find borrowings. 
                    </p>
                    <p>For example, comparing two texts, the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Défense</hi> of Voisin (1666) and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Traité de la Comédie</hi> of Nicole (1667), we discover immediately that the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Traité</hi> has been included in the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Défense</hi> by Voisin, which is a very long text, not only once, but twice. The first time, Voisin presents it as a re-publication, then he re-uses phrases similar to those employed by Nicole in different passages and he sprinkles them in his 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Défense</hi>.
                    </p>
                    <p>The keywords of this correspondence are very well detected by DeSeRT, as can be seen in the example below. </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""477/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    </figure>
                    <p>Furthermore, continuing the analysis of the text we discover that in these two texts the actor is frequently associated with the idea of purity in religion.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""477/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    </figure>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Reformulations of Ideas</head>
                    <p>DeSeRT also shows in detail the parts of the corpus that are similar or that develop the same ideas. This may either be done on demand, according user requests, i.e. to given texts, or to the overall corpus, which automates the process.</p>
                    <p>For instance, we have found many topics common not only to the texts by Nicole and Voisin, but also to two others e.g. the theme of the idolatry as the “mother of all spectacles” in (Aubignac, 1666) and (Conti, 1666).</p>
                    <p>Note that, in the following figures, we have greyed the identical passages with the MEDITE system, which only spots strict homologies, without considering many words that appear identical to DeSeRT because they correspond to the same lemma or to two synonymous lemmas. As a consequence, the number of gray zones considerably underestimates the semantic proximity detected by DeSeRT.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""477/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    </figure>
                    <p>Secondly, as shown in the following figures, the topic “renouncing the Devil” (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Renoncer au Diable</hi> in French) is regularly present in the texts written by Aubignac, Conti and Voisin,
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                            <p> D’Aubignac, 1666 : 59, 62, 65, 72, 73, 74, 79, 217. Conti, 1666 : 88, 105, 120, 144, 173, 182, 184. Voisin, 1671 : 59, 86, 88, 97, 113, 114, 124, 165, 205, 212, 228, 407, 427, 433, 451, 463, 481.</p>
                        </note> while it appears only once in (Nicole, 1667: 477).
                    </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""477/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    </figure>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""477/image8.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    </figure>
                    <p>Further results of DeSeRT lead us to understand that many others expressions are common to the four authors, such as the description of the theatre as a “flesh of pestilence” (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">chair de pestilence</hi>) or as a “school of the debauchery”. 
                    </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""477/image9.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    </figure>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""477/image10.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    </figure>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>To conclude, DeSeRT allows the discovery of reformulations and similar phrases, as well as related topics and passages in a corpus. It is usable on any kind of corpus that is made up by files in the txt format. As we have briefly shown in this paper, this search engine enables users to identify crucial passages of a specific corpus according to two types of detection: the discovery of reuses, such as plagiarism or hidden rewritings, and the reformulation of ideas, which can be manually given by the user (as words or concepts) or automatically extracted by the DeSeRT search engine.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Barron-Cedeño, A., et al. </hi> (2013). Plagiarism meets paraphrasing : Insights for the next generation in automatic plagiarism detection. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Association for Computational Linguistics</hi>, vol. <hi rend=""bold"">39</hi>: 917–47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Conti, Prince de, A. de B.</hi> (1666). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Traité de la Comédie et des spectacles</hi>, Louis Billaine, Paris.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">D'Aubignac, Abbé, F.H. </hi>(1666). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dissertation sur la condemnation des théâtres</hi>, N. Pépingué, Paris.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ferrero, J. and Simac-Lejeune, A.</hi> (2015). Détection automatique de reformulations - Correspondance de concepts appliquée à la détection du plagiat, <hi rend=""italic"">15ème conférence internationale sur l'extraction et la gestion des connaissances (EGC 2015)</hi>, Luxembourg.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ganascia, J.G., Glaudes, P. and Del Lungo, A.</hi> (2014). Automatic detection of reuses and citations in literary texts, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 2014, doi: 10.1093/llc/fqu020
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Horton, R., Olsen, M., and Roe, G.</hi> (2010). Something Borrowed: Sequence Alignment and the Identification of Similar Passages in Large Text Collections, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Studies/ Le champ numérique </hi><hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1), Available at: http://www.digitalstudies.org/ojs/index.php/ digital_studies/article/view/190/235. (last access 7 November 2013). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nicole, P.</hi> (1667). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">De la Comédie</hi>, Adolphe Beyers, Liege.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Spärck Jones, K., Walker, S. and Robertson, S. E. </hi>(2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A probabilistic model of information retrieval: Development and comparative experiments: Part 1</hi>. Information Processing and Management 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">36</hi> (6): 779–808.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Voisin, Abbé, J.</hi> (1671). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Défense du traité de Mgr le Prince de Conti touchant la comédie et les spectacles ou la réfutation d'un livre intitulé Dissertation sur la condamnation des théâtres</hi>, Coignard, Paris.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2562","17","CTRaCE: Canonical Text Reader and Citation Exporter","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Motivation</head>
                <p>“Citation is the core of scholarship” Neel Smith and Chris Blackwell state in their paper on the CTS/CITE Architecture (Smith et al., 2012). A citation like “Athenaeus, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Deipnosophists</hi>, edition of Kaibel (1887), book 1, chapter 3” can refer to only one string of Greek words and it is valid for every printed copy of Kaibel’s edition. Such a citation identifies an object of study uniquely, and it is “independent of any implementing technology”. But such a citation scheme is hardly machine readable, and the digital processing of citations becomes more and more important in the humanities. To support this task, the CITE Architecture
                    <hi rend=""sup"">1</hi> was designed. Adopting the international standard of URNs
                    <hi rend=""sup"">2</hi>, unique, complete and machine readable scholarly citations, so called CTS URNs can be generated.
                </p>
                <p>Although the CITE Architecture is a substantial basis, it does not provide an interface to intuitively make this capability accessible to humanities scholars. This paper aims to fill this gap. We designed the web-based application 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">CTRaCE</hi> that first of all allows the browsing and reading of texts provided in the corresponding canonical format. With basic interaction functionality, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">CTRaCE</hi> supports easy creation of a digital citation of an arbitrary text passage as a CTS URN. As it can also be used to resolve existent CTS URNs, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">CTRaCE</hi> fulfills the major requirements for the processing of manually generated digital citations necessary for digital scholarship.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""485/10000201000004110000032C69F33001.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 1: Screenshot of 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">CTRaCE</hi> showing the CTS URN greekLit:tlg0008.tlg001.perseus_grc3:1.3:
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Technical Basis</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">CTRaCE</hi> is based on Canonical Text Services (CTS), which – part of the CITE architecture – addresses two fundamental needs in digital scholarship: (1) the citation of textual units, and (2) their retrieval. To accomplish the transition between classical and digital citations, CTS use Uniform Resource Names (URNs). The top-level structure of a CTS URN
                    <hi rend=""sup"">3</hi> has the following format:
                </p>
                <p><hi rend=""bold"">cts:urn:namespace:work:passage</hi></p>
                <p>As URNs are organized hierarchically from left to right, each component increases the precision of the corresponding reference. The 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">namespace </hi>component is the top level division of the system. As we use the Perseus Digital Library
                    <hi rend=""sup"">4</hi> as demonstration corpus, one of the namespaces is “greekLit”, which identifies works in ancient Greek that are preserved through manuscript tradition (Smith et al., 2012). The 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">work </hi>component specifies the document the URN refers to. It is divided into 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">textgroup.work.version.exemplar</hi> from which the last two parts are optional. For example, the URN
                </p>
                <p><hi rend=""bold"">cts:urn:greekLit:tlg0008.tlg001.perseus_grc3:</hi></p>
                <p>refers to Kaibel’s edition of “Deipnosophists” (tlg001), located in the textgroup that contains works by Athenaeus (tlg0008). Generating a URN representation for each text, the CTS architecture organizes the whole corpus in the form of a tree with inner nodes representing the hierarchical structure among the texts, which are the leaf nodes of the tree.</p>
                <p>Each individual text further has a canonical citation scheme assigned. As the hierarchy of texts varies depending on genre – a play might be arranged by acts and scenes while a poem uses verses –, this scheme is flexibly designed. Additionally, the URN can be further refined with the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">passage </hi>component that specifies a continuous part of the text – even on character granularity if necessary.
                </p>
                <p><hi rend=""bold"">cts:urn:greekLit:tlg0008.tlg001.perseus_grc3:1.2@καὶ[2]-1.3@δρ</hi></p>
                <p>refers to the “Deipnosophists” part that ranges from the second occurrence of the string “καὶ” in the second chapter of the first book until the first occurrence of “δρ” in the third chapter. </p>
                <p>Figure 2 displays an overview of our CTS based architecture. Though the scalable CTS implementation (Tiepmar et al., 2014) we use as server infrastructure supports any text in Unicode, we built our application with the idea to operate with texts in TEI
                    <hi rend=""sup"">5</hi> format that often include styling markup, which can be used for visualization purposes. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">CTRaCE</hi> is a client side web application communicating with the CTS server using the CTS protocol
                    <hi rend=""sup"">6</hi>. In the following section, we explain the design and the functionality of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">CTRaCE</hi> in detail.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""485/1000020100000802000002B34CC08B5B.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 2: Architecture overview</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">User Interface </hi>
                </head>
                <p>The CTS architecture is a robust basis for digital citations, but due to its technical nature, tools need to be built upon the architecture to leverage its functionality in an intuitive way to humanities scholars. We present 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">CTRaCE</hi> for that purpose, an example screenshot is shown in Figure 1. It focuses on supporting the following three tasks:
                </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>browsing and reading texts in the CTS system</item>
                    <item>creating and exporting citations using CTS URNs</item>
                    <item>resolving CTS URNs by visualizing the cited text and its surrounding context</item>
                </list>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">CTRaCE</hi> is designed to display the content of a single URN, always shown as parameter in the address bar of the internet browser. Everything related to the citation this URN points to is drawn with a white background in three view components, which we explain below.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""485/100002010000040D000000AC2810EA1A.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 3: Navigation component</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>The 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">navigation component</hi> shown in Figure 3 is placed in the header section of the user interface and can be used to browse through all available documents. It is derived from the ontology of the CTS system described above. Each row represents one level of the URN parts that identify a text. If appropriate metadata such as authors or titles are available, we display these labels instead of URN identifiers as fallback. Each text in this tree can be selected via mouse click for close reading.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""485/10000201000003520000025AE8B7C498.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 4: Distant view component</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">CTRaCE</hi> displays texts as one continuous scrollable block, which for optimal performance is loaded in chunks. To the left of the text, we implemented a 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">distant view component</hi> showing the citation structure in relation to the visible portion of the text. We therefore adopt a visualization method called Icicle Plot (Kruskal et al, 1983) that shows hierarchical relations in a compact way. Figure 4 shows a screenshot of this view. The underlying text uses a three level hierarchy to create a citation: book, chapter and section. Each gray-bordered rectangle in the view represents a node within the citation structure. The leftmost rectangle labeled with the URN of the document represents the root. Inside each node’s rectangle, we provide information about their direct children regarding the citation tree. Since the document contains eight books, the same number of alternating shaded rectangles is drawn inside the root node. We provide quick navigation through the document using mouse clicks on these inner rectangles. Depending on the document position, the corresponding citation nodes are drawn in the remaining columns with the leaf nodes aligned to the text. As the text shown in Figure 4 is only part of the first chapter, there is only one node rectangle in the second column. Additionally, the white rectangles depict which part of a node is defined by the current URN, and the blue rectangles represent the visible portion of a node.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <anchor xml:id=""id_h.gjdgxs""/>The text of the document is shown in the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">text reader component</hi> in main area of the screen. As the text chunks are loaded from the server, they are transformed into HTML code. So far we implemented two rendering methods as shown in Figure 5. The XML view mode displays the text including its markup in a syntax highlighted, indented fashion. The Styled view mode only displays the text using the markup information to style it appropriately. For example, <head> tags will be rendered bold, <note> tags indented, etc. The user can switch between both modes while viewing the document.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""485/10000000000004C80000025F37EEFD9E.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 5: XML (left) and Styled (right) rendering methods</head>
                    </figure>When generating a new digital citation with our application, basically the current URN is changed. There are two possibilities to do so. First, the scholar can click on one of the labels of the nodes in the distant view component. This selects the corresponding entire citation node. Second, the user can mark the desired text passage in the text reader component with the mouse, and then click the “Set Citation” button. The updated URN then represents the selected text passage. Finally, a popup dialog helps to export the URN or the text it is referring to. This includes the possibility to generate a link pointing to our web application showing the generated citation.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>The proposed 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">CTRaCE</hi> interface is based on Canonical Text Services in order to provide an online service to generate citations of digital text editions. Such a front-end allows humanities scholars not only to close read texts, but also to identify and retrieve text passages of interest. The interface offers the possibility to generate and export citations of textual works down to the character level. Moreover, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">CTRaCE</hi> is a service that is capable of resolving existent or with 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">CTRaCE</hi> generated citations by opening the referenced text passage.
                </p>
                <p>As of now, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">CTRaCE</hi> is a very helpful tool for humanities scholars who want to produce machine readable citations. Future steps in the development of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">CTRaCE</hi> include visualizations of different kinds of annotations on a CTS passage produced by different scholars to facilitate the collaborative work on a shared text of interest.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Acknowledgments</head>
                <p>Parts of the work presented here is the result of the project “Die Bibliothek der Milliarden Wörter” funded by the European Social Fund. We additionally want to thank Monica Berti for the valuable input and discussion about use cases for our application.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Notes</head>
                <p>1. 
                    <ptr target=""http://www.homermultitext.org/hmt-doc/cite/""/>
                </p>
                <p>2. 
                    <ptr target=""https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2141.txt""/>
                </p>
                <p>3. 
                    <ptr target=""https://github.com/cite-architecture/ctsurn_spec/blob/master/md/specification.md""/>
                </p>
                <p>4. 
                    <ptr target=""https://github.com/PerseusDL/canonical""/>
                </p>
                <p>5. 
                    <ptr target=""http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml""/>
                </p>
                <p>6. 
                    <ptr target=""https://github.com/cite-architecture/cts_spec/blob/master/md/specification.md""/>
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-371a64cc-3d00-5856-f70b-27d2f4bebad1""/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kruskal, J. B. and Landwehr, J. M.</hi> (1983). Icicle plots: Better displays for hierarchical clustering. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The American Statistician</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>(2): 162-68.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smith, D. N. and Blackwell, C.</hi> (2012). Four URLs, Limitless Apps: Separation of concerns in the Homer Multitext Architecture. In Muellner, L. (ed.),
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Donum natalicium digitaliter confectum Gregorio Nagy septuagenario a discipulis collegis familiaribus oblatum</hi>, Washington, DC: The Center for Hellenic Studies of Harvard University.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tiepmar, J., Teichmann, C., Heyer, G., Berti, M., and Crane, G.</hi> (2014). A New Implementation for Canonical Text Services. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, and Humanities (LaTeCH)</hi>,
                        Association for Computational Linguistics.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2563","17","Curating Community: Building A Communications Strategy For The European Association For Digital Humanities","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
        <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Summary</head>
            <p>This poster will seek to illustrate the enhanced communications presence of the European Association for Digital Humanities (EADH) since 2014, and measure the impact of its action in building a community of geographically-dispersed members. It will outline the strategies undertaken by the EADH in furthering its communications initiative, for which a number of Communications Fellows have been activated on the organisation's communications policy in an effort to promote the work of digital scholars across the European region. Accounts of this activity will be further contextualised by theoretical discussion on the evolution of social media and Web-based communications across academia.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>This poster will seek to illustrate the enhanced communications presence of the European Association for Digital Humanities (EADH) since 2014, and measure the impact of its action in building a community of geographically-dispersed members. The poster will outline the strategies undertaken by the EADH in furthering its communications initiative over the last 24 months, during which a number of EADH Communications Fellows have been collaborating on the organisation's communications policy in an effort to promote, more broadly, the work of digital scholars across the European region. Accounts of this activity will be further contextualised by theoretical discussion on the evolution of social media and Web-based communications across academia.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Communications Fellows</head>
                <p>As noted, in an effort to engage further with the international Digital Humanities community in respect to news, events, and opportunities, the EADH has motivated a diverse group of four junior scholars tasked with strengthening the Association's public interactions. The self-directed goals of the Fellows are as follows:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Publish news, announcements and CfPs relevant to the European community of digital scholars</item>
                    <item>Document projects undertaken in Europe in recent times and feature them in a slider to promote access and collaboration between members</item>
                    <item>Ensure quality of language, as well as accuracy and detail of information, across all official EADH correspondence</item>
                    <item>Increase community engagement through social media, particularly Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn</item>
                    <item>Enhance the profile of relevant scholars and scholarship from across Europe’s various Digital Humanities projects, centres, and initiatives</item>
                    <item>Curate and disseminate information across a variety of European languages, enhancing the cultural diversity of the organisation's communications </item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Social Media</head>
                <p>The social media revolution that has spread into the academy in recent years has shifted scholarly communications towards participatory technologies. Collectively, these social technologies are now dominating the ways in which users interact across the Web. In an effort to foster a network of researchers which embraces diversity, one must take advantage of the networks of exchange facilitated by these platforms. Initially, the focus of the fellows was oriented towards social media, Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn. These channels have proved essential in the collection and distribution of relevant information, and have contributed to the advancement of Europe's community of Digital Humanities scholars. Currently, the EADH engages with 2373 followers on Twitter, 491 users on Facebook, and 85 users on Linkedin. In the context of this networking activity, the EADH collaborates with associate organisations, AIUCD, Dhd, Nordic DH, and DH Benelux as well as with the Alliance of Digital Humanities Organizations (ADHO) to increase the synergies and the visibility of its members.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Discussion</head>
                <p>This poster will illustrate the presence and performance of the EADH on social media, provoking discussion with attending researchers on their personalised use of social media and their future aspirations in regards to the employment of social media in promoting Digital Humanities research across regional and global contexts. Furthermore, the poster will present metrics on the success of this particular communications drive, as well as detail various strategic decisions, such as how to structure a Facebook group for a scholarly community, and the benefits and drawbacks of each.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2564","17","Data Praxis in the Digital Humanities: Use, Production, Access","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>While there have been numerous efforts at framing the history of the Digital Humanities, no study has concretely characterized the extent to which Digital Humanities research is data driven (Gold and Klein, 2012; Schreibman, Siemens, and Unsworth, 2004; Nyhan, Flinn and Welsh, 2015; Terras, Nyhanand Vanhoutte, 2013). Debates related to this topic periodically crop up along the Hack/Yack divide, as recurrent waves of scholars reflect on the varied histories, projects, and positions that comprise the Digital Humanities (Nowiskie, n.d.; Ramsay, n.d.; Cecire, n.d.; Alvarado, 2012). While these debates will likely continue, it is clear that current theoretical and historical contextualization stand to benefit from a more granular evaluation. The benefits of this evaluation hold potential to shed light on data driven research practices across disciplines and academic ranks, distribution of this output by institution type and geographical location, relative research data accessibility, as well as illumination of the scope of data resources utilized to further Digital Humanities research, which in turn holds the potential to inform library efforts to augment Digital Humanities support with more nuanced focus on acquisition, preparation, and provision of data that is more readily usable to Digital Humanists (Bryson et al., 2011; Sustaining the Digital Humanities, n.d.; Rockenbach, 2013). In order to realize these benefits the present study focuses on Digital Humanities praxis that is expressly data driven and computationally contingent. The study of this praxis is achieved through analysis of nearly 500 articles drawn from seven years of Oxford University Press' Digital Scholarship in the Humanities (formerly Literary and Linguistic computing), seven years of Digital Humanities Quarterly (the full run of the journal), as well as the full run of the Journal of Digital Humanities.</p>
            <p>In order to evaluate data praxis, it was necessary to come to a working definition of “data” scoped to the level of concrete usage patterns in the Digital Humanities. The conclusion that a particular article utilized source ""data"" was based on whether or not the material under analysis played a role in supporting research claims predicated on the affordances of the digital object itself. A close reading of a digital version of <hi rend=""italic"">Jane Eyre</hi> therefore would not meet the criterion of data driven, but topic modeling <hi rend=""italic"">Jane Eyre</hi> would, as this is a form of analysis that is uniquely possible given digital instantiation of the object under study. Articles which were understood more as reports on data-oriented research, rather than active analysis were typically excluded. Assessments, historiographies, and other meta-analysis of computational research represented elsewhere are not treated as data driven for the purposes of this study as the work in question can move forward without leveraging the affordances of a digital object. Even where these types of articles are held to not contain source data under a process of direct computational analysis or representation, they are still considered against a rubric of research data production. Research data is understood to encompass any non-rhetorical, primarily structural data generated as an output that is used to validate research findings (Federal Register Notice Re OMB Circular A-110, n.d.). This might include tabular data, computer code, or survey responses.</p>
            <p>Research data production is evaluated in order to come to an understanding of how Digital Humanists provide or do not provide access to generated data they use to support their arguments. The authors sought to focus on this aspect of research given a growing movement by scholars, operating primarily outside of the Humanities, to make their data and code accessible to support reproducibility and transparency (Stodden, Leisch, and Peng, 2014). If research data was produced in a given article, the authors proceeded to evaluate whether or not it was accessible. Research data is only considered to be accessible if the data in question is made available in a format that is machine processable. Therefore, a table of research data or an image of a line graph included in an article as a JPG is not accessible because the format renders the data intractable. Furthermore, a subset of a larger set of data, mainly used to illustrate an aspect of an argument rather than providing access to the unmediated source dataset is held to be inaccessible. Collectively, researchers, librarians, and publishers can use this portion of the study to inform assessment of the extent to which current research and publication practice are in line with how the field aims to articulate the integrity of its research claims.</p>
            <p>On the whole, article level analysis is supported by capturing up to 48 descriptive elements for each article in the target corpus. In aggregate this dataset captures the number of data sources used in a given article, the provider of the data, type of provider, data collection name, content type, format, extent, size, publication pre or post 1923, whether research data is produced, whether research data is accessible, the method of access provided if it is accessible, research data URL, research data type, and a range of demographic data that allows disciplinary characterization of data driven practices by scholars and students, the type of institutions they work in, and where in the world they work. Collectively this data will enable the Digital Humanities community to gain a concrete sense of what proportion of Digital Humanities Scholarship as represented in a core set of journals is data driven. This study indicates that current research and publication practice provide insufficient access to research data. Because the evaluation of a data driven article’s argument requires access to research data, this scarcity seems especially troubling. Additional pragmatic gains to be had from this study include ready access to all data sources utilized over the past 7 years in core Digital Humanities journals. Ready access to this data holds potential to increase awareness of data for Digital Humanities research and pedagogy in addition to informing library acquisition, preparation, and provision of data that can used to support the Digital Humanities. Through its concrete focus on data praxis, this study provides newly comprehensive insight into data driven practices across the Digital Humanities.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Alvarado, R.,</hi> (2012). The Digital Humanities Situation,
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>,ed. Gold, Matthew and Klein, Lauren, University of Minnesota Press, http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/50.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bryson T. et al.</hi> (2011). <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities</hi>, SPEC Kit 326, http://publications.arl.org/Digital-Humanities-SPEC-Kit-326/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cecire, N.</hi> <hi rend=""italic"">Works Cited: When DH Was in Vogue; Or, THATCamp Theory</hi>, http://nataliacecire.blogspot.com/2011/10/when-dh-was-in-vogue-or-thatcamp-theory.html. (accessed October 24, 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Federal Register Notice Re OMB Circular A-110</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The White House</hi>, https://www.whitehouse.gov/node/15587. (accessed October 31, 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gold, M. K. and Klein, L.</hi> (Eds.) (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>, Minneapolis: Univ Of Minnesota Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nowiskie, B.</hi> <hi rend=""italic"">Eternal September of the Digital Humanities</hi>, http://nowviskie.org/2010/eternal-september-of-the-digital-humanities/. (accessed October 15, 2010). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nyhan, J., Flinn, A. and Welsh, A.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Oral History and the Hidden Histories Project: Towards Histories of Computing in the Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>(1): 71–85.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S.</hi> <hi rend=""italic"">On Building</hi>, http://stephenramsay.us/text/2011/01/11/on-building/. (accessed October 24, 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rockenbach, B.</hi> (2013). Introduction,
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Library Administration</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">53</hi>(1): 1–9, doi:10.1080/01930826.2013.756676.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schreibman, S., Siemens, R. G. and Unsworth, J.</hi>(Eds.) (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Humanities</hi>, Malden, MA: Blackwell.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stodden, V., Leisch, F. and Peng, R. D., eds.,</hi> (2014).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Implementing Reproducible Research</hi>, The R Series, Boca Raton: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sustaining the Digital Humanities</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ithaka S+R</hi>, http://www.sr.ithaka.org/publications/sustaining-the-digital-humanities/. (accessed October 30, 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Terras, M. M., Nyhan, J. and Vanhoutte, E.</hi> (Eds.) (2013).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Defining Digital Humanities: A Reader</hi>, Farnham, Surrey, England : Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Limited ; Ashgate Publishing Company.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2565","17","Development of a Support Tool for Categorizing Ukiyo-e's Pictorial Themes: A System to Deal with Visual Features and Similarities","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
        <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Introduction</head>
            <p>This research aims at supporting categorization of ukiyo-e (Japanese woodblock prints) by developing an original, data-visualization system. As a part of the system development, this case study focuses on the prints’ visual features—how the system can help analyzing them by simulating the analytical process. Our investigation of the ukiyo-e research’s process helps us identifying what the researchers actually need to know and how to deal with it. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Research process</head>
            <p>For developing the system, we take an example of pictorial theme of “Otohime,” who is these days explained as a mythical princess, living in Ryugu or the Dragon Palace at the bottom of the sea. Princess Otohime or comparable others related to the Dragon Palace have appeared in many stories with versions and variants through history, whose prolificness their ukiyo-e imagery reflect. Thus, we need to pay our attention to this kind of pictorial themes’ extensibility in intertextuality, or in this case, inter-imagery, by which one image refers to, exploits, or recycles another. For comparing and analyzing the heroin’s visual features thoroughly, the following 9 visual features of hers are chosen as indexes: 1. headdress; 2. hairstyle; 3. frills; 4. scarf; 5. Chinese fan; 6. Chinese-style clothes; 7. collar; 8. apron; and 9. Urashima. Checking the indexes leads researchers to understand the degree of similarity in different ukiyo-e prints, and generate hypotheses about what kinds of factors affect specific ukiyo-e production as well as historical changes in Otohime’s overall imagery.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>System development</head>
            <p>Recently, data visualization, both its technology applicable for many fields and methodology, has been systematically developed (Mazza and Berre, 2007; Tufte, 1983). In order to pursue the above-mentioned purpose, we are developing the SALOMONIS system (Fig.1) which can load an ukiyo-e dataset encoded in JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) format. The following list shows how SALOMONIS visualizes the data.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""128/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 1. Layout chart of SALOMONIS</head>
            </figure>
            <p>A. Entire dataset and records </p>
            <p>In the system, a record is visualized as a line, each of which is arranged in a radial manner. As a result, SALOMONIS visualizes the records, i.e., the entire dataset, as a circle (Fig.2). </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""128/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 2. Visualization of entire dataset</head>
            </figure>
            <p>B. Columns</p>
            <p>As mentioned above, a line indicates a record, and each record includes columns that correspond to indexes. Our system visualizes columns as dots, plotted on the line. Each color of the dots indicates different value of the column.</p>
            <p>In the case of the Otohime dataset, it has 41 records and 11 columns with 9 visual features and the print’s production year and keyword. Therefore, 41 lines are arranged, each of which has 11 dots (Fig.3).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""128/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 3. Visualization of columns</head>
            </figure>
            <p>C. Interactive function</p>
            <p>As each line is linked to an ukiyo-e print, when the user puts the mouse cursor on a certain line, a chart appears with its corresponding ukiyo-e’s 9 visual features plus its production year and keyword, mentioned on the above (Fig.4). Using this interactive function, the user can compare ukiyo-e in a speedy and accurate manner.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""128/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>>Fig. 4. Chart that indicates ukiyo-e’s features</head>
            </figure>
            <p>D. Similarity-screening function</p>
            <p>When the user chooses one ukiyo-e as a reference point, then pushing the “Play” button, the system starts automatically screening how the other ukiyo-e are similar or not to the chosen one. Depending upon the degree of the similarity, lines of the ukiyo-e appear highlighted with colors. For example, when one ukiyo-e shares 80 percent or more similarity with the chosen one in terms of the visual features, the line appears in orange. In the case of 60 percent or more, green; 40 percent or more, yellow; and 20 percent or more, red (Fig.5). </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""128/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 5. Similarity-screening function</head>
            </figure>
            <p>E. Visual Sort function</p>
            <p>Furthermore, this system has visual sort function. Using this, all records are sorted based on the similarity in a radial manner.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Discussion</head>
            <p>The system proved its efficiency as it not only saved the time for the analyses but also suggests new ways to think about the prints. Right now, however, we are still in the developing stage, planning to test the system by applying it for more cases. </p>
            </div>
            </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mazza, R. and Berre, A</hi>. (2007). Focus group methodology for evaluating information visualization techniques and tools, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 11th IEEE International Conference on Information Visualisation</hi>, pp. 74-80.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tufte, E.</hi> (1983). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Visual Display of Quantitative Information</hi>. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2566","17","Diachronic changes of the Russian Presidential Addresses to the Federal Assembly: From the perspective of archetype key words.","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The purpose of this study is to investigate diachronic changes of the Russian Presidential Addresses to the Federal Assembly (RPAFA) given by Russian Presidents, Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin, Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin and Dmitrii Anatolievich Medvedev. This study proposes political archetype key words (PAKW) and provides a fine-grained classification of presidential speeches. </p>
            <p>Russian presidents have given a number of annual speeches. Among them, the RPAFA, which started in 1994, has drawn text-miners’ attention. In one recent study, Jashin (2010), argues the importance of “political archetype key words” (PAKW) in the RPAFA through one text from each president: Yeltsin in 1996, Putin in 2000 and Medvedev in 2008. While thought provoking, Jashin’s observation has two fatal issues: (i) his observation is based on raw frequencies of each lexical item, and (ii) the speech texts that he uses are arbitrarily limited. That is, he only uses three of the speeches, one from each president, without providing reasons for not using all the texts. Thus, the tendencies observed by Jashin cannot be straightforwardly generalized to tendencies of the presidents; Rather, they may be tendencies of the year. Though the notion of the PAKWs is useful, a further investigation of the PAKWs is needed. </p>
            <p>In order to overcome the insufficiencies in Jashin’s study, the data set must be reexamined. The data used in this study includes the following: </p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>the full set of RPAFA speeches (22 texts in total)</item>
                <item>the 30 most frequent content words as PAKWs</item>
            </list>
            <p>Importantly, this study intentionally excludes function words because only content words can convey political messages.</p>
            <p>The result of the correspondence analysis using a frequency matrix of the PAKWs in each RPAFA file is given in Figure 1 and Figure 2.</p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""452/image1.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 1 The textual distribution</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>According to Figure 1, we can roughly classify the speeches into three large categories: Yeltsin on the leftmost circle in a bold dotted line (hereafter, Y dimension); Putin’s first term circled with a solid line (henceforth, P dimension); and Medvedev and Putin’s second term traced by a fine dotted circle (thence, MP dimension). </p>
            <p> Figure 2 shows PAKWs that each text frequently uses. Words observed around the Y dimension are highly relevant to national reconstruction, such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">власти </hi>‘authority-
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">gen</hi>’, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">государственной</hi> ‘state-
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">gen-fem</hi>’, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">органов</hi> ‘organ-
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">gen-pl</hi>’, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">деятельности</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>‘activity-
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">gen</hi>’. Putin in the P dimension prefers to use words as like in Yeltsin, but Putin tends to use words related to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Russia</hi> such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Россия</hi> ‘Russian-
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">nom</hi>’, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">российской</hi> ‘Russian
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">-gen-fem</hi>’ in his first term. In the MP dimension, the figure shows that the presidents frequently used words related to the life of citizen like 
                <hi rend=""italic"">жизни</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>‘life-
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">gen</hi>’, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">люди</hi> ‘people-
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">gen-pl</hi>’, экономика ‘economy-
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">gen</hi>’, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">сфера</hi> ‘sphere-
                <hi rend=""smallcaps"">prep</hi>’ and правительство ‘government-subject case’.
            </p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""452/image2.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 2 The distribution of PAKWs</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>The observation based on the distributions of the PAKWs suggests that the classification based on the correspondence analysis in Figure 1 is attributed to the historical backdrop. Let us consider Figure 2, which corresponds to the result of Figure 1. In the Y dimension, Yeltsin frequently uses words related to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">state</hi>. In other words, he expresses concern through words related to ‘state’. This is primarily because the Russian government was in confusion due to the collapse of the Soviet Union, and Yeltsin’s primary policy was to construct a democratic political system. A lexical overlap in the Y and P dimensions indicates that Putin inherited Yeltsin’s policy, but the use of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Russia</hi> refers to a change of approach to reconstruct Russia from Yeltsin’s administration. The MP dimension includes the PAKWs related to non-authorized citizen or nation. This is attributed to development of the country. That is, after enhancement of the Russian political infrastructure supported by Yeltsin and Putin’s first term, the primary political attention has shifted to improvement of social-infrastructure in Medvedev and Putin’s second term.
            </p>
            <p>To sum up the investigation from Figure 3 and Figure 4, the use of PAKWs in the RPAFA provides political attitudes of the presidents. That is, the 30 most frequent content words show background political issues of the time. This study concludes a possible implication in supporting the political discourse analysis theories.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ishino, T.</hi> (2014).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Putin daitouryou nenjikyousho enzetu</hi> (2014.12.4) [President Putin annual State of the Union speech: 2014. 12. 14], Russia -related memo 109 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ueno, T.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Medvedev daitouryou no seijikaikaku – 2008 nen do kyoushoenzetu ni okeru seijikaikaku teian</hi> [Political reform of President Medvedev: On political reform proposals in the 2008 State of the Union speech’] , International Issues 580, p. 4-15.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Кузнецов, В. И.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Формирование политического курса президента Б. Н. Ельцина в посланиях федеральному реализации</hi> [Formation of president B. N. Yeltsin’s policy in the Messages to the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation (For the period 1994-1999) and the problems of its realization. ] Политология No. 3 p. 1-11.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Яшин, В. Н.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Анализ системы архетипических ключевых слов современной Российской политической речи</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>[The analysis of the system of archetype key words in Russian modern political speech],
                        <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>ИЗВЕСТИЯ ВОЛГОГРАДСКОГО ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОГО ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОГО УНИВЕРСИТЕТА No. 2, p. 120-124.
                        <anchor xml:id=""id__GoBack1""/>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Imao, Y. </hi>(2015). CasualConc (Version 2.0) [Computer Software]. Osaka, Japan: Osaka University. Available from 
                        <ptr target=""https://sites.google.com/site/casualconc/""/>(accessed 3 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2567","17","Digicraft and 'Systemic' Thinking in Digital Humanities","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In the AIUCD (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Associazione per l'Informatica Umanistica e la Cultura Digitale</hi>) conference held in Bologna in September 2014 Manfred Thaller wondered ""Are the Humanities an endangered or dominant species in the digital ecosystem?"" (Thaller, 2014, also Thaller, 2012). The answer was not simple nor linear and directly involved the Digital Humanities (DH from now on) as a disciplinary and research field that was still poorly defined, DH hold the promise to bring out the Humanities from the Indian reserve where they are now confined, provided certain conditions will be met. In particular DH specialists should:
            </p>
            <p>1) conceive of themselves as researchers and not as conversationalists;</p>
            <p>2) strive for a vision;</p>
            <p>3) change the epistemology of the Humanities;</p>
            <p>4) drive technology and not be driven by it.</p>
            <p>A few months after the conference Serge Noiret wrote on Digital History (one of my fields of investigation) trying to clarify what actually characterizes this subject within the wider field of DH, and - within the Digital History itself - what is the specific task of the Digital Public History (Noiret, 2015; see also Robertson, 2014). We could place Noiret’s article completely under the first point of Thaller’s list: Digital History and Digital Public History are clearly seen as areas of research and not merely as new forms of communication of old disciplines. Moreover he answered to items 2 and 3 too, essentially proposing a more accurate taxonomy of DH. In a way, he seems to answer Thaller’s question with an accurate definition of some components of the meta-discipline itself.</p>
            <p>I do not want to linger in this paper on the definition of DH as a whole nor of its components: so many authors in recent years have-debated to define what someone thinks to be (or could be) a discipline and others a research or work field (McCarty, 2005; Svensson, 2010). Every exercise of definition of a “new” area of research is, of course, useful, but at the same time it is potentially frustrating and risky. Frustrating because, as many authors and research centers have declared, despite its now long history, the DH is still an emerging field, and as well as an open, multifaceted, ever-changing one; risky, because each taxonomy of knowledge unavoidably builds walls and fences that encase the knowledge itself in a series of sterile boxes. This could be, in my modest opinion, the risk in Noiret’s essay. It's more important to go beyond a possible but also difficult definition of DH and their several sub-disciplines, focusing our attention on items 2 and 3 of the Thaller list instead, namely on the need to have our own vision and on the importance to characterize DH in terms of the emerging changes of method in our daily research.</p>
            <p>In particular I will try to connect the concepts expressed by both scholars, looking on the one hand to the recent history of DH in Italy (i.e. degree courses, associations, meetings) and on the other hand to my own research projects at the University of Pisa, especially inside the DH course degree (https://www.unipi.it/index.php/ects/ects?ects_id=IFU-L) and within the Digital Culture Laboratory (http://labcd.humnet.unipi.it/). Starting from some specific cases I wish to reason on the possible vision of the DH.
            </p>
            <p>I will focus very briefly on some projects. </p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>For what concerns 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Epigraphical Studies, Public History and Education</hi>:
                    <list type=""ordered"">
                        <item>
                            <ref target=""http://epigrapisa.humnet.unipi.it/"">Epigrapisa</ref>: A re-reading partly driven and partly spontaneous of the epigraphic messages left over time in a city. Competence/knowledge at work: history, public history, epigraphy, paleography, writing, dramatize, processing images, audio and video, web design.
                        </item>
                        <item>
                            <ref target=""https://www.overleaf.com/read/tyxsmpvtyhwg"">Teaching (Digital) Epigraphy</ref>: a novel education experience in teaching students to transcribe and interpret Roman inscribed lead tags, using a Digital Autoptic Process (DAP) in a Web environment. Competence/knowledge at work: history, education, epigraphy, paleography, writing, manipulating images, collaborative tools.
                        </item>
                        <item>
                            <ref target=""http://pisaeislam.humnet.unipi.it/"">Pisa e l’Islam</ref> and Pisan Romanesque meets Contemporary America: two examples of historical web dissemination with a reasoning about both the potential and the limits of the medium to involve the audience. Competence/knowledge at work: history, arts, archaeology, public history & archaeology, epigraphy, GIS, writing, dramatize, processing images audio and video, web design.
                        </item>
                    </list>
                </item>
            </list>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>In the area of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Public History</hi>:
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>
                            <ref target=""http://www.tramontivaldivara.it/"">Tramonti. Itinerari tra generazioni lungo i crinali della Val di Vara</ref> a complex project aimed at enhancing the cultural heritage of an Italian rural valley through the active participation of residents. Competence/knowledge at work: history & archaeology, public history & archaeology, invented archives, education, writing, dramatize, GIS, manipulating images and videos, libraries, collaborative tools, web design, project management.
                        </item>
                    </list>
                </item>
            </list>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>In the field of Digital Editions:
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>
                            <ref target=""http://pelavicino.humnet.unipi.it/"">Codice Pelavicino Digitale</ref>: the digital edition of a medieval manuscript built to provide all services of the digital world and to invite the readers to actively participate. Competence/knowledge at work: history & public history, text encoding, philology, paleography, codicology, writing, manipulating images, collaborative tools, web design, project management.
                        </item>
                    </list>
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>By shortly describing these project I will not try to figure out what distinguishes them from each other, but, on the contrary, what characterizes all of them as Digital Culture projects and what they tell us about a possible vision of DH:</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>they are digital;</item>
                <item>they are inevitably and necessarily interdisciplinary;</item>
                <item>they are open;</item>
                <item>they were built in a kind of new Renaissance workshop, a digital craft (DIGICRAFT).</item>
            </list>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""underline"">They are digital</hi>. This may seem trivial but it is not. These are projects “born digital” not because the digital world offers the most useful tools to achieve the same purpose in relation with the “real” world, but because they could not exist outside the incredible interaction between real and digital world that it is now our life. They are digital because they might not otherwise exist.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""underline"">Interdisciplinarity is compulsory</hi>. DH is a field unavoidably and profoundly interdisciplinary and we have to deal with each project as a complex set of activities and skills that crosses, by its true nature, several fields; this change of practice and approach implies by itself a methodological revolution, because it requires an organization of work similar to a Renaissance workshop (a DIGICRAFT), with an articulated division of labor in relation to several levels of skills, where education and training could be provided by the same learners, coordinated by a strong and mature central idea. 
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""underline"">Openness is a result and a choice</hi>. Working in a multidisciplinary team built upon research and with different tools, sustainability requires using open source tools, sharing data between individuals and giving everything to the public. Then Openness is a natural result, even it is also an ethical, political and philosophical choice as the Digital Manifesto 2.0 says: “the digital is the realm of the open, open source, open resources"".
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""underline"">A DIGICRAFT</hi>. In a Renaissance workshop it was possible to produce different objects: statues, paintings, goldsmith or less valuable coroplastic objects. Each handwork was a “project” that included on the one hand a strong artistic and cultural vision (meaning, style, function, purpose, style) and on the other hand a complex set of different techniques made by different workers with different levels of capacity. The owner of the shop (or the head-artist) had not necessarily to know each technique as an expert, but his employees could in many ways be superior and the various members of the workshop could learn from each other. The owner had to keep the team together with a well clear idea of the work itself.
                    <lb/>Likewise a DIGICRAFT could work (and actually does in our LabCD in Pisa) in the same way: each project is taken over as an interdisciplinary complex object that requires specific skills and different but profoundly related competences. The basis (first phases) of the work are often composed by students of the Bachelor and Master's degree in DH, who work, in the labCD, as interns or undergraduates. The work is directed by one “manager” but followed at various stages by experts, who assign specific tasks to the students, always ensuring an active connection among everyone in the team through the usual or more useful collaborative tools. While the work goes on, often happens that some student acquire, in a particular technique or phase, a greater capacity and knowledge than the others and then he/she becomes able to propose substantial changes in the work chain. The manager is not required - nor humanly could - to know every aspect in depth, nor to be fully aware of all the problems related to it, or to master each technique: however, he/she must be able: 
                    <lb/>*) to see always clearly the aim and the nature of the work; 
                    <lb/>*) to communicate effectively with everyone in the team.
                    <lb/>
                    <lb/>A “digicraft” is anywhere on a DH project teachers and students exchange knowledge and leverage this interaction to offer innovative and effective solutions, combining the theoretical reasoning with practices and skills. This is possible only if the manager and the team share a common strong vision of what a DH project is, embracing a ""systemic"" or “organic” or “holistic” thinking of DH itself.
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>The core of DH is unitary and lies in the conviction that the digital turn has permeated every aspect of our lives as people and scholars modifying them deeply. </p>
            <p>In the 70s of XXth century has increasingly gained ground a vision of Humanities Computing that kept almost unchanged the traditional disciplines within their rigid internal divisions and distinguished the humanist from the expert in information technology, hoping and promoting a dialogue between the two main areas (still in Fusi 2011, I, p. 1-2). Today this position is no longer sustainable. The web in first place and the web 2.0 in the second (but also the Big Data emerging field as well as the Data Visualization tools) have slowly but surely changed the research landscape especially demolishing the barrier between tools, methods and ways of sharing. We are obviously still in a transitional phase. Highly specialized sub-areas remain (and also in the future will exist) and obviously several scholars strive to better define the old / new digital disciplines (digital history, digital philology and so on), but there is also a complementary phenomenon pointing to an inclusive and unitary vision of DH. </p>
            <p>From the perhaps limited but interesting Italian observatory I believe this change has affected both the terminology used in the establishment of centers, associations and degree programs (AIUCD, Digital Humanities degree, Digital Cultural Heritage, Arts and Humanities School), both the organisation of courses and meetings. </p>
            <p>It 's more and more widespread the awareness that we are a new type of scholar (and graduate, and PhD), the digital humanist, someone who has a mixed formation, an open mind, is able to master both languages and the main methodological issues of the two areas without considering one serving the other.</p>
            <p>In doing so, we need to maintain the epistemological strictness that each discipline involved in the DH has developed over time: commingling does not mean carelessness or inaccuracy; but in the same time we have to claim the change or the changes in each methodology in order to build a new global epistemology.</p>
            <p>In order to do this the digital humanist has to embrace a ""systemic” or “organic” or “holistic” thinking of the humanities, leave the enclosure of the academic fields and get away from the temptation to create an old-new rigid taxonomy.</p>
            <p>Speaking of “systemic” or “organic” or “holistic” thinking / view (I’m sorry for the repetition but the adjectives organic and holistic mean different things not only in different languages but mainly in different subjects), I refer to the epistemological approach that has emerged in some areas of the research over the past thirty years and which tends to oppose the reductionist approach flourished since the seventeenth century onwards and imposed in almost all sectors of the so-called ""hard sciences"" (Capra-Luisi 2014). As we know reductionism believes that studying in depth a peculiarity of a phenomenon and understanding it completely it will be possible, by progressive addition of discoveries, illuminate the entire system. The reductionist approach has been, as we know, the basis for the scientific revolution of the modern age, but it also led in the eighteenth and nineteenth century to an exasperate</p>
            <p>fragmentation of the fields of scientific research. This phenomenon has also heavily influenced the Humanities,often creating absurd barriers and hyper-specialized languages, that have closed researches in several walled gardens. I believe that this long wave has exhausted its strength and that precisely the DH can reverse the trend. Now a new methodological approach have arisen alongside the reductionist thinking, considering the “system”, the “whole”, something more and different than the sum of its components. The “systemic thinking” reasons in terms of relationships, networks, patterns of organizations and processes; it proposes a change of paradigms: from the vision of the world as a machine to the world as a network; it takes account of the fundamental interdependence of all phenomena. </p>
            <p>This change of paradigms could and should affect the DH as well for the reasons listed above, promoting a systemic view of this meta-discipline and therefore pushing Digital Humanists to deeply transform the old practice of work.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">AIUCD</hi> Associazione per l'Informatica Umanistica e la Cultura Digitale, http://www.umanisticadigitale.it/ (accessed 27 February 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boonstra O., Breure L., Doorn P.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Past</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Present and Future of Historical Information Science.</hi> Amsterdam.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Capra F., Luisi P.L</hi>. (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Systems View of Life: A Unifying Vision,</hi> Cambridge; italian edition 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Vita e natura. Una visione sistemica</hi>. Sansepolcro.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">The Digital Humanities Manifesto 2.0 </hi>http://www.humanitiesblast.com/manifesto/Manifesto_V2.pdf
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fusi D.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Informatica per le scienze umane,</hi> I, Elementi, Roma.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCarty W.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities Computing,</hi> London-New York.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Noiret S.</hi> (2015). Digital Public History: bringing the public back. <hi rend=""italic""> Public History Weekly</hi>, 3:13 http://public-history-weekly.oldenbourg-verlag.de/3-2015-13/digital-public-history-bringing-the-public-back-in/
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Robertson S.</hi> (2014). The Differences between Digital History and Digital Humanities. <hi rend=""italic"">CHNM Blog Pos</hi>t (23/1/2014), <ref target=""http://drstephenrobertson.com/blog-post/the-differences-between-digital-history-and-digital-humanities/"">http://drstephenrobertson.com/blog-post/the-differences-between-digital-history-and-digital-humanities/</ref> (accessed 27 February 2016)
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Salvatori E.</hi> (2015). Il patrimonio genetico della storia digitale (e le nostre paure), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Appunti di viaggio tra il medioevo e la cultura digitale</hi> (05/03/2015), 
                        <ref target=""http://esalvatori.hypotheses.org/211"">http://esalvatori.hypotheses.org/211</ref> (accessed 27 February 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Salvatori E.</hi> (2015). L’identità dell’Informatico Umanista e la visione sistemica <hi rend=""italic"">, Appunti di viaggio tra il medioevo e la cultura digitale</hi> (23/01/2015) <ref target=""http://esalvatori.hypotheses.org/204"">http://esalvatori.hypotheses.org/204</ref> (accessed 27 February 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Svensson P.</hi> (2010). <ref target=""http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/4/1/000080/000080.html"">The Landscape of Digital Humanities</ref>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>(1). 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thaller M.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Controversies around the Digital Humanities: An Agenda</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Historical Social Research / Historische Sozialforschung</hi>,  <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>(3): 7-23,  http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/4/1/000080/000080.html
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thaller M.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Keynote address</hi>. AICUD 2014, <ref target=""http://aiucd2014.unibo.it/"">http://aiucd2014.unibo.it/</ref> (accessed 27 February 2016).
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    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2568","17","Digital Criticism Platform for Evidence-based Digital Humanities with Applications to Historical Studies of Silk Road","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Source criticism is a scholarly process fundamental to many disciplines of humanities, especially in historical studies. However, it is mainly designed for a traditional way of research, namely human scholars read a textual source without producing structured evidences for reuse. Our proposal is to extend the traditional methodology of source criticism to digital research infrastructure on which scholars records the reasoning process from evidences to facts, and share them with other scholars so that the detail of the reasoning process can be transparently reproduced. Our approach, digital criticism, aims at realizing this idea on digital criticism platform (DCP) toward evidence-based digital humanities with the support of Semantic Web technology. </p>
                <p>An evidence-based approach is also used in quantitative humanities, but digital criticism is a fundamentally different approach. Digital criticism focuses on reading sources in a critical manner, while quantitative humanities focuses on deriving numerical values from the collection of sources. Generally speaking, quantitative humanities tries to make abstraction of corpus through quantitative aggregation, while digital criticism tries to make critique of sources through digital analysis with support for the management of a layered abstraction process.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""632/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1 Schematic diagram of evidence network</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Core concepts of digital criticism</head>
                <p>The main contribution of the paper is evidence network on which digital criticism is performed. The network consists of four concepts, namely evidence, hypothesis, fact, and reliability. Those concepts have our own definition to organize the historical reasoning process into an explicit model. </p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Evidence is relationship between sources. If a photograph A takes the same scene with a photograph B, they are linked as an evidence with reproducible parameters of how photographs can be matched. </item>
                    <item>Hypothesis is relationship between historical concepts. If a ruin A and ruin B have different names but are believed to be the same ruins, they are linked as a hypothesis with supporting evidences and other descriptions on the reasoning process. </item>
                    <item>Fact is relationship between evidences and hypotheses to claim reusable knowledge for future research. </item>
                    <item>Reliability is an attribute of evidences and hypotheses to represent the degree of reliability estimated by the scholar on registration. Because the estimated reliability may be different for each scholar, evidences and hypotheses should always be linked to a user entity who made the action. </item>
                </list>
                <p>Figure 1 illustrates a schematic diagram of evidence network. A scholar can build up the network starting from each evidence and hypothesis. Another scholar who wants to reuse the knowledge can start from the fact, and track back to hypotheses and evidences to check the reliability of the reasoning process. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""632/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2 Three components of Digital Criticism Platform (DCP)</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Digital Criticism Platform (DCP)</head>
                <p>Evidence network is a directed graph with semantic annotation, and the graph structure is built using RDF (Resource Description Framework). Hence a search over a graph can be implemented using SPARQL, which is a query language for a RDF graph. To construct and study the evidence network, we develop Digital Criticism Platform (DCP) with three components, namely data repository, evidence tool, and inquiry tool as illustrated in Figure 2. </p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Data repository</hi> archives digital resources with unique IDs and metadata. We developed data repository using DSpace as infrastructure for its reliability and extensibility to Semantic Web environment. 
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Evidence tool </hi>works on various types of media for collecting evidences. We developed three tools, Mappining, Photofit, and MemoryHunt, for maps, photographs, and field work, respectively.
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Inquiry tool</hi> is to study and sophisticate the evidence network using Semantic Web technology such as SPARQL. This component is now under study, and has not reached the development phase. 
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>In the following, we focus on three evidence tools to describe more detail of the tools. Those tools should be integrated into data repository so that every evidence is registered as a part of evidence network. Three tools are already in operation, but only Photofit is fully integrated into data repository at the time of writing. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Mappining</head>
                <p>Mappining (Kitamoto 2012) is a web-based tool for matching maps (Figure 3). This tool employs an idea of “interactive georeferencing” in contrast to geometric correction. Interactive georeferencing uses a pin to match two maps at a single point, in a similar way of pinning cloths. When we put a pin, two maps scroll together, while when we release a pin, only one map scrolls. Using this interface, any point on a map can be matched with another map for overlay-based comparison. Interactive georeferencing is advantageous for reading sources because geometric distortion is not introduced. A pin is an evidence to claim that each point on a map represent the same location on earth.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""632/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3 Matching two maps on Mappining</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Photofit</head>
                <p>Photofit is a web-based tool for matching photographs (Figure 4). The target of the tool is two photographs taken from similar locations but different angles at different time. It allows planar shift and zooming transformation for two photographs to find the best match. On success, it is an evidence to claim that two photographs take the same scene or the same object. This evidence may lead to a new hypothesis on the identity of historical concepts when the captions of two photographs represent different historical concepts. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""632/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 4 Matching two photographs on Photofits</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>MemoryHunt</head>
                <p>MemoryHunt (Kitamoto 2015) is a mobile app for matching a photograph with the real world (Figure 5). It shows a target photograph on the viewfinder of a smartphone camera with controllable transparency, and the task of a user is to find the same location and the same direction that the photograph was taken. On success, a mobile app can record the location and direction as metadata of the photograph. This may lead to an evidence between an object appearing in the photograph and one in the present world. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""632/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 5 Interface of MeomoryHunt app</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Evidence network</head>
                <p>The purpose of digital criticism is to build an evidence network in which historical sources are linked through evidence nodes, and historical concepts are linked through hypothesis nodes to derive fact nodes supported by evidence and hypothesis nodes. We start by a bottom-up process of registering evidences and hypotheses which are still fragmented. We then switch to a top-down process of viewing a graph structure as a whole to discover unknown relationships. In the following, we use our past results on Silk Road ruins as case studies to check the validity of our approach. Due to the incompleteness of DCP, the following diagrams were manually drawn.</p>
                <p>Figure 5 shows a simple evidence network. A photograph in a book is matched with another photograph in another book using Photofit, and an evidence node is added with transformation parameters. We also know that, through captions, each photograph represents a ruin known by different names. We then add a hypothesis node based on the above evidence to claim that two ruins known by different names are the same. </p>
                <p>Figure 6 shows a complex evidence network. Multiple tools are used for matching multiple sources, such as Mappinning, Photofit, and Google Earth. The evidence network suggests relationship among a Buddhist ruin and a ruin known by the name Chikkan-kol and another ruin known by “七康湖遺跡. ” This relationship was our discovery previously reported in a paper (Nishimura and Kitamoto 2010), but digital publishing in the form of evidence network offers clearer representation of a compex reasoning process. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""632/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 6 A simple evidence network</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""632/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 7 A complex evidence network</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>We proposed digital criticism platform (DCP) as a model of source criticism on a digital platform. Digital criticism tries to simulate the traditional method of source criticism and extend it to take advantage of digital research infrastructure. Digital Criticism is the upgraded version of our past proposal on “data criticism” (Kitamoto and Nishimura 2014), after shifting research focus on the type of sources to the way of digital scholarship. The methodology of criticism is also investigated in different approaches, such as algorithmic criticism (Ramsay 2011). </p>
                <p>Knowledge representation of historical evidences has a large number of related literature. In particular, Pasin proposed the usage of factoid model for accumulating evidences for prosopography in the linked data world (Pasin and Bradley 2013), and linked data is also used for places such as Pelagios (Isaken et al. 2014). We also use the same concept of linking entities and uses sources as evidences, but digital criticism focuses more on accumulating structured evidences and hypothetical links. Another important work for the refinement of evidence network is knowledge representation for argumentation, such as CRMinf argumentation model, an extension of CIDOC-CRM (Paveprime Ltd and collaborators 2015). Finally, we are yet to make choices on metadata standards or vocabularies, which are open questions.</p>
                <p>The long-term goal is to design a digital publishing platform for evidence citation. Historical facts can be tracked to evidences to clarify the reliability of evidences that support historical facts. This leads to increased transparency of research, and to realize better data management planning.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Acknowledgments</head>
                <p>This work is supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 26540178. Software codes for DCP was developed by Mr. Tomohiro Ikezaki.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Isaken, L., Simon, R., Barker, E. T. E. and Cañamares, P. S.</hi> (2014). Pelagios and the emerging graph of ancient world data. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2014 ACM conference on Web science</hi>, pp. 197-201.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kitamoto, A.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mappining</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/digital-maps/mappinning/"">http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/digital-maps/mappinning/</ref> (accessed 6 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kitamoto, A. and Nishimura, Y.</hi> (2014). Data Criticism: General Framework for the Quantitative Interpretation of Non-Textual Sources. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014: Conference Abstracts</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kitamoto, A.</hi> (2015). MemoryHunt: A Mobile App with an Active Viewfinder for Crowdsourced Annotation through the Re-experience of the Photographer. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Fifth Annual Conference of the Japanese Association for Digital Humanities (JADH2015)</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nishimura, Y. and Kitamoto, A.</hi> (2010). Identification of Ruins Excavated by Silk Road Expeditions through Matching Names and Locations by Stein Maps and Google Earth. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IPSJ SIG Computers and the Humanities Symposium 2010</hi>, pp. 255-62. (in Japanese).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pasin, M. and Bradley, J. </hi>(2013). Factoid-based prosopography and computer ontologies: towards an integrated approach. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>(1): 86-97.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Paveprime Ltd and collaborators.</hi> (2015). CRMinf: the Argumentation Model, An Extension of CIDOC-CRM to support argumentation.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism</hi>. University of Illinois Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2569","17","Digital Hansard - Politics and the Uncivil","2","","","2","",""
"2570","17","Digital History ""From Below"": a call to action","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Humanists – inclusive of digital humanists – are preoccupied with telling stories. Some of our most interesting subjects, however, have left only the barest of marks on historical records. Their stories are among the most captivating, but also some of the most difficult to access. This paper knits together recent trends in digital humanities practices that have helped us to elevate unrepresented voices with a discussion of how to elevate the marginalized within the DH community. It showcases select projects that undermine archival silences.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> These might include work like Ben Schmidt’s, elaboration upon late twentieth-century cliometrics and use of “big data” methods to explore historical sources (
                        <ref target=""http://benschmidt.org/projects/digital-humanities-research/"">http://benschmidt.org/projects/digital-humanities-research/</ref>); maps like Vincent Brown’s “Slave Revolt in Jamaica” which uses sources produced by slaveholders to argue for the agency and tactical prowess of enslaved people (http://revolt.axismaps.com/map/); and Michelle Moravec’s use of metadata to “unghost” lesbian women in the past (http://michellemoravec.com/). 
                    </p>
                </note> It then argues that digital humanities practitioners should add these theories to the collection of tools currently used to forward social justice projects in DH spaces. 
            </p>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Elevating the Archivally Silenced</head>
            <p>Various methodologies have been adopted to address the problem of how to tell stories about people who left behind few records. In the 1970s and 1980s, practitioners of “history from below” worked to elevate narratives about “people with no history,” by chronicling the everyday lives of peasants and non-elites. At the same time, practitioners of the “new social history” turned to cliometrics – and adopted methods that would be familiar to those who work with “big data” today – to highlight trends about marginalized peoples from historical data like censuses, probate records and financial documents. </p>
            <p>There have been various resurgences and developments in these methods in the intervening four decades. These include practices of reading archives “against the grain” to get at the unstated assumptions that historical actors made about those they held power over. They also include theoretical approaches that advocate the reading of silences to understand those whose voices were intentionally obscured by official recorders and gatekeepers. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Marginalizations Within DH</head>
            <p>Questions about whose voices are elevated and whose are silenced have also long been a theme in DH scholarship and discourse. These questions seek to unpack the ways in which DH as a field is exclusionary. This former is a much (though still not enough) referenced problem in panels at former DH conferences, which have asked how DH research can address (and remedy) social problems. </p>
            <p>Digital humanities scholarship has also begun to address problems of access within the broader DH community, and the barriers erected to women and people of color in particular. For example, Adeline Koh has argued that we need to examine the ways in which DH publics are constituted, in order to better understand the creation of “limits of the discourse that defines the idea of a digital humanities ‘citizen.’” Similarly, Tara McPherson has argued that we must see the evolution of DH as a field shaped by structural inequalities – of race, class and gender – which accompanied the rise of computation technologies. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>A Knitted View</head>  
            <p>These are much needed interventions, and help us to understand the evolution of our field as one in which certain groups have been marginalized and others have been centered. These conversations also mirror methodological debates within history about whose voices to elevate, and under what circumstances. This paper complements extant work by arguing that theoretical interventions concerning current structural inequalities must be brought to bear on the past, and that digital methodologies are ideally suited to elevating subsumed voices in the present. It further demonstrates that these projects, the theories that underlie them, and current work to make DH more equable should be read together to further the practice of digital history and humanities “from below.</p>
          </div>
        </body>
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Journal of Economic History</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>(1): 3–12.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koh, A.</hi> (2014). Niceness, Building, and Opening the Genealogy of the Digital Humanities: Beyond the Social Contract of Humanities Computing. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Differences</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(1): 93–106. doi:10.1215/10407391-2420015.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McPherson, T.</hi> (2012). Why Are the Digital Humanities So White? Or Thinking the Histories of Race and Computation. In Gold, M. (Ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Trouillot, M.</hi> (1995). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History</hi>. Beacon Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2571","17","Digital Humanities Pedagogy as Digital Liberal Arts: A Framework for Curriculum Development","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p rend=""normal"">The Lab for the Education and Advancement in Digital Research (LEADR) is a new initiative of the Michigan State University Department of History, Department of Anthropology, and Matrix. LEADR’s role is to integrate digital humanities and digital social science methods into courses in affiliated departments. In its first two years of operation, LEADR has partnered with 40 instructors to add digital components to 63 courses, interacting with around 1600 students. These partnerships varied from a single hour-long workshop to semester-long experiential courses in digital research. </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">While some courses are specifically designed as Digital History or Digital Anthropology, most of these courses are standard Anthropology and History courses composed of majors from all across campus. For courses such as these, LEADR has begun to frame these digital projects and activities as an extension of the core values of the liberal arts: the skills essential for individuals to participate in civic life, including the ability to seek information, to engage, analyze, and criticize this information, and to communicate their views in an effective manner. It is these fundamental liberal arts skills, in the context of 21st century information and communication that LEADR develops through on to disciplinary, content-based coursework.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">This poster will illustrate LEADR's framework for developing Digital Humanities and Social Science curricula that contribute to understandings of emerging disciplinary methods while developing essential skills for students in broad-ranging domains. The four competency goals are:</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Information Literacy</hi> is defined by the American Library Association as “the set of integrated abilities encompassing the reflective discovery of information, the understanding of how information is produced and valued, and the use of information in creating new knowledge and participating ethically in communities of learning (2016).” This goal utilizes ALA’s framework to fulfill the information literacy frame, while focusing specifically on finding, evaluating and using primary sources and datasets relevant to the course.
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">
                <hi rend=""bold"">Digital Literacy</hi> is the ability to think critically about the effect of media and web technology on communication and writing, and the ability to create scholarly content in a variety of different forms. There is a focus specifically on web publication, and methods for scholarly multimodal writing, as well as an understanding of power and influence on the web.
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">
                <hi rend=""bold"">Data Literacy</hi> is the ability to critically use, curate, process, and produce data and data-driven analysis. This goal draws upon Data Information Literacy, a framework developed primarily for graduate students in the sciences, to teach some of the most crucial data skills, and makes them applicable for undergraduate students across disciplines (Carlson, et al. 2011).
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">
                <hi rend=""bold"">Computational Analysis</hi> lessons are grounded in disciplinary methodology, and illustrate the ways in which scholars are using computationally-aided methods to conduct research. In addition to using computational analysis to explore and analyze sources, it also holds value in its ability to challenge students to think differently about a resource - to break down the way we convey information and think about ways to work through those abstractions.
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">The poster will include a description of each of the competency goals, their theoretical grounding, some examples of what specific skills or outcomes may be included in each, and an example of its application in a content-specific exercise.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">In LEADR, there have been three clear benefits from early experiences with the framework. The framing is useful when speaking with faculty members who may be skeptical or unfamiliar with the Digital Humanities. Many who are skeptical of digital methods have often become familiar with Digital Humanities as a new set of methodologies and practices aimed at disrupting and displacing older methods, or as a flashy way to get students interested. Instead, by introducing course modules as a method for teaching longstanding objectives in new contexts, digital work is seen as less gimmicky, and more essential to the development of undergraduate students. The framework has also been a valuable tool for organizing teaching and instruction partnerships for the courses. The collaborative nature of digital projects and the variety of skills required calls for the involvement of scholars, researchers, and technology specialists in teaching and course management. The framework allows for more clear and open communication between partners, and clarifies the necessary skills and objectives needed. Finally, the framework has ensured that exercises are designed with student development in mind, rather than working back from a desired final project.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Association of College & Research Libraries [ACRL]</hi>. (2016). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education</hi>. http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/ilframework (accessed 3 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Carlson, J. R., Fosmire, M., Miller, Ch., Sapp, N., Megan, R.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Determining Data Information Literacy Needs: A Study of Students and Research Faculty. </hi>Libraries Faculty and Staff Scholarship and Research. Paper 23. http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/lib_fsdocs/23. (Accessed 3 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2572","17","Dramatic Networks and Kinship Structures in African-American Plays","10","","","2","",""
"2573","17","Edit Histories and Literary Turf Wars: John Ashbery, Academic Criticism and Wikipedia","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>How is cultural authority visualized in social media through the publication, revision, and erasure of citations? This poster highlights the social dimensions of Wikipedia’s creation, revision, and dissemination. Many of us may be familiar with the mechanics of knowledge production on Wikipedia: the ""citation needed"" requests that follow unattributed information on Wikipedia pages, the lengthy revision histories available to interested readers, the use of bots as well as human editors, the privileging of public domain images (among other dimensions). Attention will be paid to the interfaces of the Wikipedia and its articles: their performative dimensions as sites of cultural authority, the edit histories of articles and the forms of gatekeeping revealed in patterns of page revisions, and the visualization tools created by the Wikipedia community to visualize patterns in composition and citation. More broadly, I want to situate the investments in particular patterns and performances of curation and citation present in Wikipedia within the larger context of modes of cultural production found on the web, focusing particular attention on forms of erasure and practices that, for various reasons, disavow or ignore investments in citation and attribution: screencapping, the creation of image macros, and other transformative uses of cultural objects on Twitter, Tumblr, and other platforms.</p>
            <p>I use Wikipedia pages related to poet John Ashbery to highlight the ways ideas of literature circulate in one of the world’s largest and most accessible encyclopedic resources. I am interested in Ashbery because of his literary stature in the eyes of segments of North American and global audiences. Additionally, Ashbery creates particular challenges for scholars (and other readers) interested in periodization and reception history; he has ties to several literary coteries across time and space (the New York School, L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E poetry), his work has been praised by scholars, journalists, and MTV (among other audiences), andhe continues (as of this writing) to publish new material that unsettles the work being done to cement his legacy. The various editorial and citational practices involved in creating and revising that legacy on Wikipedia can tell us much about the impact of academic and scholarly works, the privileging of certain modes of reading and cultural analysis, and the various investments in certain ideas about the value of poetry that circulate on the web. Wikipedia is an extremely visible and malleable public space where competing claims about aesthetics collide and re-collide.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2574","17","Etymology Meets Linked Data. A Case Study In Turkic","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Linking Etymological Dictionaries</head>
                <p>When studying low-resource languages, historical documents or dialectal variation, researchers often face the problem that lexical resources are sparse, dated, or simply unavailable. At the moment, the problem is addressed by different initiatives to either aggregate language resources
                        <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1""> e.g. ELRA 
                            <ref target=""http://www.elra.info/"">http://www.elra.info</ref>
                        </note> in a central repository or to collect metadata about them
                        <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2""> e.g. OLAC 
                            <ptr target=""http://www.language-archives.org/""/>
                        </note>. The availability of this huge and diverse amount of material, often in different formats, and with a highly specialized focus on selected language varieties, poses the challenge how to access and search this wealth of information. Our project aims to address both aspects:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">uniform access to lexical resources</hi>. At the moment, most resources are distributed across different providers. Platforms to query or browse this data are available, but they use different representation formalisms and remain isolated from each other. We employ <hi rend=""bold"">Linked Data</hi> to develop interoperable representations to access distributed resources in a uniform fashion.
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">search across multilingual resources</hi>. We are not only interested in a specific language, but also, in related varieties: Much of the material we have is sparse, and we can address gaps in our lexical knowledge by consulting background information about form and meaning of possible cognates in other languages.
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>The project will implement search functionalities as web services and provide a prototypical web interface that allows to query Linked Data versions of open lexical resources. As a first step towards this goal, this paper addresses representation formalisms and data modelling, illustrated for an etymological dictionary of the Turkic language family.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Linked Open Data</head>
                <p>Linked (Open) Data defines rules of best practice for publishing data on the web, and since (Chiarcos et al., 2012), these rules have been increasingly applied to language resources, giving rise to the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Linguistic Linked Open Data</hi> (LLOD) cloud (Chiarcos et al., 2013)
                        <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3""> e.g. 
                            <ptr target=""http://linguistics.okfn.org/""/>
                            <ref target=""http://linguistics.okfn.org/,http://linguistic-lod.org"">, http://linguistic-lod.org</ref>
                        </note>. A 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">linguistically relevant</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">resource</hi> constitutes Linguistic Linked (Open) Data if (1) its elements are uniquely identifiably by means of 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">URIs</hi>, (2) its URIs 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">resolve via HTTP</hi>, (3) it can be accessed using 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">web standards</hi> such as RDF and SPARQL, and (4) it includes 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">links</hi> to other resources. It is Linguistic Linked Open Data (LLOD) if – in addition to these rules –, it is published under an 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">open</hi> license. For etymological dictionaries, the capability to refer to and to search across distributed data sets (federation, dynamicity, ecosystem) in an interoperable way (representation, interoperability) allows to design novel, integrative approaches on accessing and using etymological databases, but only if common vocabularies and terms already established in the community are being used, re-used and extended. (Moran & Brümmer, 2013) established lemon (McCrae et al., 2011)
                        <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""4"">
                            <ref target=""http://lemon-model.net/"">http://lemon-model.net</ref>
                        </note> for representing etymological data. Inspired by the pre-lemon inventory (de Melo, 2014), we introduce lemon extensions for etymological relations, illustrated for the linked data edition of the Starling Turkic etymological dictionary. With further dictionaries for Turkic languages becoming available as a result of our project, these are linked with each other and with language resources from contact languages such as Mongolian, Iranian, Caucasian, Arabic, and Russian.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Turkic Etymology in Starling</head>
                <p>The 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Tower of Babel (Starling)</hi>
                        <note xml:id=""ftn5"" place=""foot"" n=""5"">
                            <ptr target=""http://starling.rinet.ru/""/>
                        </note> is a web portal on historical and comparative linguistics (Starostin, 2010), widely used in academia to publish etymological datasets over the internet. Starling allows exploring its dictionaries by means of faceted browsing using a coarse-grained phylogenetic tree (Fig. 2.a). We illustrate its data structures for the Turkic Etymological Dictionary (Dybo et al., 2012) with an example result for the query 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">meaning=""bird""</hi> (Fig.2.b). Following the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Proto-Turkic</hi> root, we find a cross-reference to the Altaic dictionary, and the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">meaning</hi> (sense) of the proto-form in English and Russian. The following entries pertain to 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">cognates</hi> in different Turkic languages: They provide complex information including one or multiple 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">forms</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">co-indexed</hi> with the meaning field, and optionally augmented with additional gloss (e.g., ‘moth’ for Middle Turkic/Chagatai), bibliography (as a hyperlink, Fig. 3) or additional comments (e.g., < Az. for Halaj). We used an XML export of the Starling data (Fig. 1) to create RDF and (by converting cross-references) Linked Data.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""473/10000000000002EB000001A21D73B82B2543251A.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 1: XML snippet</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""473/10000000000002D60000053C60B558B8371927A4.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 2a: Starling phylogenetic tree for faceted browsing</head>
                    </figure>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""473/10000000000001F500000421DEABCA479CA6F640.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 2b: First query result for meaning “bird” in the Turkic etymological dictionary</head>
                    </figure>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""473/10000000000002E800000192E4FB4F49502DFAA6.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 3: Bibliographic information for <hi rend=""bold"">Abush</hi>
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Data Model for the Turkic Etymology</head>
                <p>Following LLOD conventions, we employ the Ontolex/Lemon vocabulary (McCrae et al., 2011)
                        <note xml:id=""ftn6"" place=""foot"" n=""6"">
                            <ptr target=""http://www.w3.org/community/ontolex/wiki/Final_Model_Specification""/>
                        </note> as shown in Fig. 4. Originally developed to add linguistic information to existing ontologies, Lemon evolved into a de-facto standard to represent lexical resources as LLOD. Here, we focus on Lemon extensions to represent etymological cognates: Etymological relations involve a relationship on the level of meaning (sense) and on the level of form, and thus require a novel property between one 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">LexicalEntry</hi> and another. Between etymological cognates, it is not always clear whether one was the source of the other, or a more indirect relation holds. To express a generic etymological link without additional directionality information, we introduce the property 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">lemonet:cognate</hi>. If source and target are known, a subproperty 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">lemonet:derivedFrom</hi> is introduced. Similar to 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">lemonet:cognate</hi>, it is transitive, but it is not symmetric. Distinguishing 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">lemonet:cognate</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">lemonet:derivedFrom</hi> follows de Melo’s apparent directionality differentiation. Here, however, we provide a formal definition as a (minimal) extension of Lemon following (Chiarcos & Sukhareva, 2014) which supports inferring general cognate relations by subsumption and transitive/symmetric closure. In the Starling data, the directionality of etymological links is generally known, so we represent etymological relations with 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">lemonet:derivedFrom</hi> between lexical entries from different Lemon lexicons. By subsumption inference, transitivity and symmetry of its superproperty, 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">lemonet:cognate</hi> relations can be inferred automatically between all language-specific forms.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""473/10000201000002B1000001B6C730D528F4CA5EBB.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 4: Lemon-Core (Ontolex) module</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Applications</head>
                <p>The 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Comparative-Lexicographical Workbench</hi> (Fig. 5) will provide novel search functionalities extending the functionality of existing platforms, form-based search and a gloss-(meaning-) based search, currently applied to the Turkic language family and its contact languages.
                </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">gloss-(meaning-)based search</hi>. Dictionary lemmas are complemented with a gloss paraphrasing their meaning. Linked Data allows transitive search over sequences of bilingual dictionaries (e.g., Kazakh-Russian-English).
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">form-based search</hi>. Given a lexeme in a particular language, say, Kazakh, and a set of related languages, say, the Turkish languages in general, the system will retrieve phonologically similar lexemes for the respective target languages.
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>Both search functionalities aim to detect candidate cognates. The data provided by Starling represents a gold standard, but can also be directly integrated into the search process: In Fig. 5, we query for Chalkan 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">ана</hi> and possible cognates from Turkic (as an inherited word) or Mongolic (as a possible source of loan words). The results are organized according to the taxonomic status of the varieties in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">www.multitree.org</hi>. They include a gloss from a Chalkan dictionary (marked by subscript C), but in addition provide form-based matches (subscript +) from the Starling dictionaries (S), e.g., with Turkish 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">ana</hi> and its etymologically corresponding forms, etc.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""473/100000000000036C000001859BCD84B9DB5D43F8.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 5: Design study: Form-based search in the Comparative-Lexicographical Workbench</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Summary</head>
                <p>We described preliminary steps towards the development of a Comparative-Lexicographical Workbench that uses Linked Data formalisms to retrieve cognates as given in etymological dictionaries as well as to automatically identify cognate candidates from different languages (which are similar in form and meaning). In our presentation, both will be illustrated for the Turkic language family, and we will show how both aspects complement each other.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chiarcos, C., Nordhoff, S. and Hellmann, S.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Linked Data in Linguistics.</hi> Berlin: Springer.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chiarcos, C., Cimiano, P., Declerck, T. and McCrae, J.</hi> (2013). Linguistic linked open data (llod).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proc. 2nd Workshop on Linked Data in Linguistics (LDL-2013)</hi>, Pisa, Italy, pp. 1-11.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chiarcos, C. and Sukhareva, M.</hi> (2014). Linking Etymological Databases.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proc. 3rd Workshop on Linked Data in Linguistics</hi> (LDL-2014), Reykjavik, pp. 41–49.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Melo, G.</hi> (2014). Etymological Wordnet: Tracing the history of words.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proc. LREC 2014</hi>, Reykjavik.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dybo, A. V., Starostin, S. A. and Mudrak, O. A.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages.</hi> Brill, Leiden.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCrae, J., Spohr, D. and Cimiano, P.</hi> (2011). Linking lexical resources and ontologies on the semantic web with lemon.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proc. 8th Extended Semantic Web Conference (ESWC-2011)</hi>, Heraklion, Crete, pp. 245–59.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moran, S. and Brümmer, M.</hi> (2013). Lemon-aid: Using Lemon to aid quantitative historical linguistic analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proc. 2nd Workshop on Linked Data in Linguistics (LDL-2013)</hi>, Pisa, Italy.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Starostin, G.</hi> (2010). Preliminary lexicostatistics as a basis for language classification: A new approach. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Language Relationship</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>: 79–117.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2575","17","Evaluating Modal Use in News Corpus for Constructing Rhetorical Context of Historical Event","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div>
          <head>1. Introduction</head>
            <p>Language use performs as a screen or filter to reality, reflecting speakers’ perception and organization of the world around them (Wardhaugh, 2002). In language, modality deploys various kinds of meaning filter (types of modal expression) which variously color and modify our conceptualizations of the world and enable us to represent it with such purposeful diversity (Hoye, 2005). Modality acts as stance-taking or attitudinal qualifications, e.g. necessity (must, should) and possibility (can, may), expressing the speaker’s opinion of a proposition or a predicate and its subject. Simon-Vandenbergen (1997) shows that modal certainty is an important feature of the discourse of political speakers and give a functional explanation of modal selections in political interviews. Garzone (2013) conducts a corpus-based study to show the decline in the use of “shall” in U.K. legislative texts and the use of other modal/non-modal substitutes for the somewhat offensive “shall.” In this paper, we examine modality use in a corpus of historical news to observe the rhetorical stance of government propaganda at a time of governance crisis. The results indicate that a strong sense of moral persuasion and demand was manifested by significant modal use for social responsibility.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
          <head>2. Theoretical framework and methodology</head>
            <p>Theoretical studies to modality include generative, cognitive-pragmatic, and typological approaches (Hoye, 2005). The central notions to linguistic modality in typological sense are possibility and necessity (Lyons, 1995). We adopt Li’s (2004) Chinese modal system which was derived from an English modality framework (van der Auwera and Plungian, 1998).</p>
            <p>The semantic categories of the modal types and the primary Chinese modal verbs are listed below. Chinese modal verbs are poly-functional, each may indicate more than one modal senses.</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Epistemic uncertainty: estimates whether something will become a fact or not and suggests objective possibility, which corresponds to epistemic possibility. The modal verbs in Mandarin Chinese that express epistemic possibility are 能 neng2 (can), 能夠 neng2 gou4 (can), 會 hui4 (may), 可 ke3 (may), 可以 ke3 yi3 (may), 得 de2 (can). </item>
                <item>Epistemic probability: predicts the necessity about a finite event or state or concludes about the necessity of a current event. The modal verbs that are used to express a note of conjecture include 該 gai1 (should), 應該 ying1 gai1 (should), 要 yao4 (will), 得 dei3 (must). </item>
                <item>Ability: expresses subjective possibility of participant related ability, function, property, or quality. Chinese modal verbs indicating participant-internal possibility include能 neng2 (can), 能夠 neng2 gou4 (can), 會 hui4 (can), 可 ke3 (can), 可以 ke3 yi3 (can), 得 de2 (can).</item>
                <item>Need: concerns with subjective necessity that corresponds to need internal to the participant involved in the state of affairs. It relates to hope, intention, and interest which come to cause the ultimate action or event. The Chinese modal verbs identified for expressing need are 要 yao4 (need), 需要 xu1 yao4 (need), 須 xu1 (need), 必須 bi4 xu1 (must), and 得 dei3 (must).</item>
                <item>Permission and circumstantial possibility: deals with possibility out of deontic sources like rules, regulations, authority, or non-deontic objective circumstances. Chinese modal verbs that express the notional categories of permission and circumstantial possibility are: 能 neng2 (can), 能夠 neng2 gou4 (can), 可 ke3 (may), 可以 ke3 yi3 (may), 得 de2 (can).</item>
                <item>Obligation and circumstantial necessity: involves deontic necessity out of morality or social conventions, and non-deontic necessity out of objective situations and reasons. Modal verbs that express obligation and circumstantial necessity include 要 yao4 (must), 該 gai1 (should), 應該 ying1 gai1 (should), 應 ying1 (should), 當 dang1 (should), 應當 ying1 dang1 (should), 須 xu1 (must), 必須 bi4 xu1 (must), 得 dei3 (must).</item>
            </list>
            <p>The corpus for our investigative purpose is the 228 event Taiwanese news archive, published by the 228 Event Memorial Foundation to compile local news articles during a short period, dated from 2/28/1947 to 5/15/1947, of widespread riot after Chinese takeover of Taiwan at the end of World War Two. The current study focuses on news articles from Taiwan Shin Sheng Daily News (TSSDN), controlled by the government at that time, while all private news publishers were shut down one week after the incident erupted. As a baseline benchmark, we use the Academia Sinica Balanced Corpus of Modern Chinese (Sinica Corpus), designed to be a balanced collection from different areas of genre, style, mode, topic, and source (Huang and Chen, 1992). The two corpora are both Mandarin (modern Chinese) without notable language variants and are considered as comparable. </p>
            <p>For both TSSDN and Sinica corpora, we use CKIP segmentation and part-of-speech (POS) tagging for first-line processing (Chang & Chen, 1995). The size of the TSSDN corpus is a total of 0.237 million word tokens. The Sinica Corpus (version 3.1), dated approximately from 1981 to 1997, contains a total of 5.738 million word tokens, which is about 24 times the size of the TSSDN corpus. For the purpose of comparing modal use in the TSSDN corpus and the Sinica corpus, the following procedure was used to extract and observe respective modal use distribution.</p>
            <p>Step 1. For each word token in the list of common modal verbs, extract sentences that contain the specified word token with the POS tag of auxiliary verb. </p>
            <p>Step 2. Rank the modal verbs by its occurrence frequency, i.e., the number of the extracted sentences for each modal verb.</p>
            <p>Step 3. Exclude the bottom half of the list of modal verbs that show insignificant use and compare the use of significant modal verbs with both absolute frequency and normalized frequency (per million word tokens).</p>
            <p>Step 4. For the TSSDN corpus, assess each sentence in use of a modal verb and determine its actual modal type.</p>
            <p>Step 5. Compile the actual use frequency of the modal types in the TSSDN corpus.</p>
            <p>Step 6. Compile the top five verb semantics following the use of each modal verb for observing the association of modal sense and semantic notion. </p>
          </div>
          <div>
          <head>3. Results and discussion</head>
            <p>An initial frequency observation on the list of common modal verbs in the TSSDN corpus is shown in Table 1. This led us to focus on the top half of the modal verbs that are clearly of more significant use in the investigated corpus. </p>
            <p>Table 1. Rank list of common modal verbs by frequency in TSSDN corpus</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Rank 1 ~ 4</cell>
                    <cell>Rank 5 ~ 8</cell>
                    <cell>Rank 9 ~ 12</cell>
                    <cell>Rank 13 ~ 16</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>應 ying1 (should) 535</cell>
                    <cell>可以 ke2 yi3 (can, may) 206</cell>
                    <cell>會 hui4 (may, can) 77</cell>
                    <cell>應當 ying1 dang1 (should) 21</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>要 yao4 (will, must) 476</cell>
                    <cell>須 xu1 (must) 170</cell>
                    <cell>得 de2, dei3 (can, must) 69</cell>
                    <cell>能夠 neng2 gou4 (can) 13</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>可 ke3 (can, may) 416</cell>
                    <cell>應該 ying1 gai1 (should) 138</cell>
                    <cell>需要 xu1 yao4 (need) 68</cell>
                    <cell>該 gai1 (should) 11</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>能 neng2 (can) 403</cell>
                    <cell>必須 bi4 xu1 (must) 123</cell>
                    <cell>當 dang1 (should) 66</cell>
                    <cell>需 xu1 (need) 6</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Table 2 compares the use of major modal verbs in TSSDN corpus, Sinica corpus, and the newspaper subset of Sinica corpus (29.4% of the whole corpus). It is observed that TSSDN corpus shows a considerable frequency variation of modal verb use when compared with Sinica corpus and its newspaper subset. Among the eight modal verbs, three pairs of modal verbs are actually variants of each other and may be aggregated to better represent the semantic notions of the modal verbs.</p>
            <p>Table 2. Benchmark comparison of modal verbs use</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Modal Verbs</cell>
                    <cell cols=""2"">TSSDN corpus</cell>
                    <cell cols=""2"">Sinica corpus</cell>
                    <cell>Increase Ratio</cell>
                    <cell cols=""2"">Sinica corpus Newspaper subset</cell>
                    <cell>Increase Ratio</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>Absolute Frequency</cell>
                    <cell>Normalized Frequency</cell>
                    <cell>Absolute Frequency</cell>
                    <cell>Normalized Frequency</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>Absolute Frequency</cell>
                    <cell>Normalized Frequency</cell>
                    <cell/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>應 ying1 (should)</cell>
                    <cell>535</cell>
                    <cell>2257.4</cell>
                    <cell>3250</cell>
                    <cell>566.4</cell>
                    <cell>398.5%</cell>
                    <cell>1228</cell>
                    <cell>728.6</cell>
                    <cell>309.8%</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>要 yao4 (will, must)</cell>
                    <cell>476</cell>
                    <cell>2008.4</cell>
                    <cell>15783</cell>
                    <cell>2750.7</cell>
                    <cell>73.0%</cell>
                    <cell>3135</cell>
                    <cell>1860.2</cell>
                    <cell>108.0%</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>可 ke3 (can, may)</cell>
                    <cell>416</cell>
                    <cell>1755.3</cell>
                    <cell>8318</cell>
                    <cell>1449.7</cell>
                    <cell>121.1%</cell>
                    <cell>2439</cell>
                    <cell>1447.2</cell>
                    <cell>121.3%</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>能 neng2 (can)</cell>
                    <cell>403</cell>
                    <cell>1700.4</cell>
                    <cell>10867</cell>
                    <cell>1893.9</cell>
                    <cell>89.8%</cell>
                    <cell>3038</cell>
                    <cell>1802.6</cell>
                    <cell>94.3%</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>可以 ke2 yi3 (can, may)</cell>
                    <cell>206</cell>
                    <cell>869.2</cell>
                    <cell>9546</cell>
                    <cell>1663.7</cell>
                    <cell>52.2%</cell>
                    <cell>1981</cell>
                    <cell>1175.4</cell>
                    <cell>73.9%</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>須 xu1 (must)</cell>
                    <cell>170</cell>
                    <cell>717.3</cell>
                    <cell>786</cell>
                    <cell>137.0</cell>
                    <cell>523.6%</cell>
                    <cell>237</cell>
                    <cell>140.6</cell>
                    <cell>510.1%</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>應該 ying1 gai1 (should)</cell>
                    <cell>138</cell>
                    <cell>582.3</cell>
                    <cell>2787</cell>
                    <cell>485.7</cell>
                    <cell>119.9%</cell>
                    <cell>522</cell>
                    <cell>309.7</cell>
                    <cell>188.0%</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>必須 bi4 xu1 (must)</cell>
                    <cell>123</cell>
                    <cell>519.0</cell>
                    <cell>3181</cell>
                    <cell>554.4</cell>
                    <cell>93.6%</cell>
                    <cell>788</cell>
                    <cell>467.6</cell>
                    <cell>111.0%</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>In Table 3, we aggregate three pairs of modal verb variants of the same semantic notion and re-calibrate the relative amount of modal use in the two corpora and one sub-corpus. The comparison shows that the use of應 ying1, 應該 ying1 gai1 (should) and須 xu1, 必須 bi4 xu1 (must) in TSSDN corpus are significantly frequent than in Sinica corpus and its newspaper sub-corpus, while the use of the other modal verbs are somewhat comparable. This indicates that TSSDN corpus contains a strong attitude and stance through the unusual emphasis of should and must. </p>
            <p>Table 3. Benchmark comparison of modal verbs use in semantic notions</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Modal Verbs</cell>
                    <cell cols=""2"">TSSDN corpus</cell>
                    <cell cols=""2"">Sinica corpus</cell>
                    <cell>Increase Ratio</cell>
                    <cell cols=""2"">Sinica corpus Newspaper subset</cell>
                    <cell>Increase Ratio</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>Absolute Frequency</cell>
                    <cell>Normalized Frequency</cell>
                    <cell>Absolute Frequency</cell>
                    <cell>Normalized Frequency</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>Absolute Frequency</cell>
                    <cell>Normalized Frequency</cell>
                    <cell/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>應 ying1, 應該 ying1 gai1 (should)</cell>
                    <cell>673</cell>
                    <cell>2839.7</cell>
                    <cell>6037</cell>
                    <cell>1052.1</cell>
                    <cell>269.9%</cell>
                    <cell>1750</cell>
                    <cell>1038.4</cell>
                    <cell>273.5%</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>可 ke3, 可以 ke2 yi3 (can, may)</cell>
                    <cell>622</cell>
                    <cell>2624.5</cell>
                    <cell>17864</cell>
                    <cell>3113.3</cell>
                    <cell>84.3%</cell>
                    <cell>4420</cell>
                    <cell>2622.6</cell>
                    <cell>100.1%</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <p>要 yao4 </p>
                        <p>(will, must)</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>476</cell>
                    <cell>2008.4</cell>
                    <cell>15783</cell>
                    <cell>2750.7</cell>
                    <cell>73.0%</cell>
                    <cell>3135</cell>
                    <cell>1860.2</cell>
                    <cell>108.0%</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>能 neng2 (can)</cell>
                    <cell>403</cell>
                    <cell>1700.4</cell>
                    <cell>10867</cell>
                    <cell>1893.9</cell>
                    <cell>89.8%</cell>
                    <cell>3038</cell>
                    <cell>1802.6</cell>
                    <cell>94.3%</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>須 xu1, 必須 bi4 xu1 (must)</cell>
                    <cell>293</cell>
                    <cell>1236.3</cell>
                    <cell>3967</cell>
                    <cell>691.4</cell>
                    <cell>178.8%</cell>
                    <cell>1025</cell>
                    <cell>608.2</cell>
                    <cell>203.3%</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Next, we observe how the use of modal verbs is distributed in the modal system to depict various aspects of attitude and stance. Each occurrence of a modal verb in a sentence is categorized in modal type by independent coders. Disputed codes are discussed to reach consensus decision. Table 4 breaks down the occurrence of modal type expression by the poly-functional modal verbs. The results reveal an extremely high concentration on the modality type of obligation, signaling a heavy dose of demand and persuasion of social responsibility from government propaganda. </p>
            <p>Table 4. Frequency distribution of modal type expression by modal verbs</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Modal Type by Modal Verb</cell>
                    <cell>Epistemic uncertainty</cell>
                    <cell>Epistemic probability</cell>
                    <cell>Ability</cell>
                    <cell>Need</cell>
                    <cell>Circumstantial possibility</cell>
                    <cell>Circumstantial need</cell>
                    <cell>Permission</cell>
                    <cell>Obligation</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>應 ying1, 應該 ying1 gai1 (should)</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>11</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>15</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>647</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>可 ke3, 可以 ke2 yi3 (can, may)</cell>
                    <cell>112</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>97</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>248</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>165</cell>
                    <cell/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>要 yao4 (will, must)</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>27</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>74</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>33</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>342</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>能 neng2 (can)</cell>
                    <cell>8</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>168</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>138</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>89</cell>
                    <cell/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>須 xu1, 必須 bi4 xu1 (must)</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>3</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>77</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>213</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Absolute Frequency</cell>
                    <cell>120</cell>
                    <cell>38</cell>
                    <cell>265</cell>
                    <cell>77</cell>
                    <cell>386</cell>
                    <cell>125</cell>
                    <cell>254</cell>
                    <cell>1202</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Normalized Frequency</cell>
                    <cell>506.3</cell>
                    <cell>160.3</cell>
                    <cell>1118.1</cell>
                    <cell>324.9</cell>
                    <cell>1628.7</cell>
                    <cell>527.4</cell>
                    <cell>1071.7</cell>
                    <cell>5071.7</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""370/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1. Chronological occurrence of modal types on a daily timeline</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""370/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2. Chronological occurrence of modal types on a weekly timeline</head>
            </figure>
            <p>We also observe the normalized occurrence with respect to word count of news reports on a daily timeline in Figure 1 and weekly timeline in Figure 2. The temporal variation depicts a process of employing the rhetoric of obligation that immediately peaks in the second week, followed by a lower peak in the seventh week before gradually reduced in the third month, over the period in which social order was lost and regained, social activities was disrupted and restored.</p>
            <p>Table 5 compiles the top five verb semantics, ranked by the occurrence frequency and ratio, associated with the use of each modal verb in a sentence. This helps provide a better rhetorical picture of what is being said, appealed, urged, or even warned. Overall, we observe a rhetoric sense of strict attitude and firm stance on exercising and restoring control of social order. </p>
            <p>In conclusion, our study seems to indicate that modality is an effective linguistic feature for extracting narrative stance and provides a convenient contextual view of a corpus. Our future work includes examining more comprehensive modal expression and evaluating against corpora of various historical context. </p>
            <p>Table 5. Primary verb semantics following modal verbs</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Modal Verb</cell>
                    <cell>Top Five Verb Semantics with Occurrence Frequency and Ratio</cell>
                    <cell>Semantic Meaning</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>應 ying1, 應該 ying1 gai1  (should)</cell>
                    <cell>
                        注意 zhu4 yi4 (33) (4.9%)
                        遵守 zun1 shou3, 遵照 zun1 zhao4 (27) (4.0%)
                        負責 fu4 ze2 (27) (4.0%)
                        處分 chu3 fen4, 嚴懲 yan2 cheng3 (27) (4.0%)
                        檢查 jian3 cha2, 調查 diao4 cha2 (25) (3.7%)
                    </cell>
                    <cell>
                        heed
                        comply
                        responsible
                        punish
                        inspect
                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <p>可 ke3, </p>
                        <p>可以 ke2 yi3 </p>
                        <p>(can, may)</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>
                        <p>說 shuo1, 知 zhi 1(63) (10.1%)</p>
                        <p>恢復 hui1 fu4, 穩定 wen3 ding4 (45) (7.2%)</p>
                        <p>實現 shi2 xian4, 達成 da2 cheng2 (36) (5.8%)</p>
                        <p>運輸 yun4 shu1, 通行 tong1 xing2 (32) (5.1%)</p>
                        <p>報告 bao4 gao4, 提請 ti2 qing3 (26) (4.2%)</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>
                        <p>speak, know</p>
                        <p>restore, stabilize</p>
                        <p>achieve</p>
                        <p>transport, pass</p>
                        <p>report, submit</p>
                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <p>要 yao4</p>
                        <p>(will, must)</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>
                        知道(zhi1 dao4), 認識(ren4 shi4) (64) (13.4%)
                        努力 nu3 li4, 加強 jia1 qiang2 (34) (7.1%)
                        說明 shuo1 ming2 (21) (4.4%)
                        檢舉 jian3 ju3, 糾正 jiu1 zheng4 (17) (3.6%)
                        負責 fu4 ze2 (14) (2.9%)
                    </cell>
                    <cell>
                        <p>know, perceive</p>
                        <p>strive, strengthen</p>
                        <p>explain</p>
                        <p>report fault, correct</p>
                        <p>responsible</p>
                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <p>能 neng2 </p>
                        <p>(can)</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>
                        <p>了解 le3 jie3, 明瞭 ming2 liao3 (39) (9.7%)</p>
                        <p>恢復 hui1 fu4 (24) (6.0%)</p>
                        <p>實現 shi2 xian4, 達成 da2 cheng2 (22) (5.4%)</p>
                        <p>解決 jie3 jue2, 克服 ke4 fu2 (19) (4.7%)</p>
                        <p>看懂 kan4 dong3, 讀寫 du2 xie3 (16) (4.0%)</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>
                        <p>understand</p>
                        <p>restore</p>
                        <p>achieve</p>
                        <p>solve, overcome</p>
                        <p>read/write</p>
                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <p>須 xu1, </p>
                        <p>必須 bi4 xu1</p>
                        <p>(must)</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>
                        <p>登記deng1 ji4, 註冊zhu4 ce4 (12) (4.1%)</p>
                        <p>持有 chi2 you3 (12) (4.1%)</p>
                        <p>注意 zhu4 yi1 (11) (3.8%)</p>
                        <p>懲辦 cheng2 ban4, 處分chu3 fen4 (8) (2.7%)</p>
                        <p>肅清 su4 qing1, 鎮壓zhen4 ya1 (7) (2.4%)</p>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>
                        <p>register</p>
                        <p>carry (valid permit)</p>
                        <p>heed</p>
                        <p>punish</p>
                        <p>exterminate, suppress</p>
                    </cell>
                </row>
            </table>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chang, L. P. and Chen, K. J.</hi> (1995). The CKIP part-of-speech tagging system for modern Chinese texts.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of ICCPOL'95</hi>. Hawaii, U.S.A.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Garzone, G.</hi> (2013). Variation in the use of modality in legislative texts: Focus on shall. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Pragmatics</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 57</hi>: 68-81.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoye, L. F.</hi> (2005). “You may think that; I couldn’t possibly comment!” Modality studies: Contemporary research and future directions. Part I. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of pragmatics</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>(8): 1295-321.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Huang, C. R. and Chen, K. J.</hi> (1992). A Chinese corpus for linguistics research In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 1992 International Conference on Computational Linguistics </hi>(COLING-92). Nantes, France, pp. 1214-17.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Li, R. Z.</hi> (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Modality in English and Chinese: A Typological Perspective</hi>. Doctoral Dissertation. University of Antwerp.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lyons, J.</hi> (1995). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Linguistic Semantics: An Introduction</hi>. Cambridge University Press.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Simon-Vandenbergen, A. M.</hi> (1997). Modal (un)certainty in political discourse: A functional account. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language Sciences</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">19</hi>(4): 341-56.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van der Auwera, J. and Plungian, V. A.</hi> (1998). Modality’s semantic map. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Linguistic Typology</hi>, 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wardhaugh, R.</hi> (2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">An Introduction to Sociolinguistics</hi>. Blackwell Publishing.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2576","17","EVT 2.0: a new architecture to publish critical editions in digital form","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>EVT (Edition Visualization Technology
                <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">Edition Visualization Technology: 
                    <ptr target=""https://sourceforge.net/projects/evt-project/""/>
                </note>) is a light-weight, open source tool specifically designed to create digital editions from XML-encoded texts, freeing the scholar from the burden of web programming and enabling the final user to browse, explore and study digital editions by means of a user-friendly interface, providing a set of tools (zoom, magnifier and hot-spots for manuscript images, text-image linking and an internal search engine for the edited texts) for research purposes. The starting point of the system is one or more documents in the standard TEI P5 format, which is turned into a web based application – a mix of HTML5, CSS3 and JavaScript – that can be easily shared on the Web. The text can be presented in different levels of edition (e.g. interpretative, diplomatic) and, besides the default visualization layout where text and scans of the original manuscript are linked together and placed side by side, a book reader mode can be activated if double side images are supplied.
            </p>
            <p>Even if it was born in the context of the specific use case the Digital Vercelli Book project, whose first version has been available online for about a year
                <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2"">Digital Vercelli Book beta edition: 
                    <ptr target=""http://vbd.humnet.unipi.it/beta/""/>
                </note>, it is able to fit different texts and needs. For example, it is now being used to publish the digital edition of the Codice Pelavicino manuscript
                <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3"">Codice Pelavicino digital edition: 
                    <ptr target=""http://labcd.humnet.unipi.it/""/>
                </note>, a medieval codex preserving charters dating back to the XIII century. Moreover, it has been used by the CVCE
                <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""4"">
                    <ptr target=""http://www.cvce.eu/""/>
                </note> (Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l’Europe) as a starting point to create a publication framework for bilingual (French, English) documents of the W.E.U. (Western European Union). As a first consequence of these collaborations, EVT has been enriched with several new features
                <note xml:id=""ftn0"" place=""foot"" n=""5"">Especially if compared to the first version presented at DH 2014.</note>:
            </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>thanks to an appropriate encoding, it is now possible to automatically create a list of all the entity names in the text that can be used both to provide a direct access to the page where a particular entity occurs and to present all the additional information considered relevant for that specific entity;</item>
                <item>an internal search engine allows the user to perform textual searches in a specific edition level for the shown text, and a virtual keyboard holding special characters is available if necessary;</item>
                <item>a generalized method to add critical textual notes has been implemented;</item>
                <item>all the information included in the TEI header, in particular the <msDesc> element, and in the <front> element, can now be shown to the user in a separate formatted panel;</item>
                <item>the user interface is now more flexible thanks to new configuration options, and it can be localized in different languages.</item>
            </list>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""102/10000000000003ED00000233E19D6958.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: EVT 1.0 - List of named entities</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""102/10000000000003ED00000233FC70DC56.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: EVT 1.0 - Search results</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>The continuous development and need to adapt EVT to different types of documents and TEI-encoded texts has shifted the development focus towards creation of a more general tool for the web publication of TEI-based documents, able to cater for multiple use cases. This decision has led to a complete revision of the infrastructure in order to improve flexibility and modularity, to make it easier to implement new features and to adjust the UI layout for different kinds of editions. This is why the development team decided to refactor the whole code of the viewer and base it on AngularJS
                <note xml:id=""ftn5"" place=""foot"" n=""6"">AngularJS: 
                    <ptr target=""https://angularjs.org/""/>
                </note>, a Javascript framework which implements the MVC (Model View Controller) pattern to separate presentation, data, and logic component, providing a great modularity of the web application.
            </p>
            <p>Perhaps the most important new feature developed for the next EVT version is the support for critical editions, again encoded according to the TEI XML P5 standard. This new level of edition is based on the current TEI relevant CA module and Guidelines chapter
                <note xml:id=""ftn7"" place=""foot"" n=""7"">
                    <ptr target=""http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/TC.html""/>
                </note> and it supports the Parallel Segmentation method. The current implementation, however, is kept as generic and flexible as possible to make it easier to update it when the TEI module will be rewritten and expanded to become more powerful and suitable to philologists
                <note xml:id=""ftn6"" place=""foot"" n=""8"">For more information see: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">TEI Wiki. Critical Apparatus Workgroup</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">TEI Wiki. TEI Special Interest Group on Manuscripts </hi>and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Hugh Cayless. Representing Textual Variation</hi>
                </note>. Among the different tools offered, EVT will provide a straight and quick link from the critical apparatus to the textual context of a specific reading; moreover, it will allow to compare witnesses’ texts among each other or with respect to the base text of the edition (or to another specific text); finally, if the digitized images of each manuscript are provided, each variant can be examined in its palaeographic context.
            </p>
            <p>From the point of view of the editor, the new architecture will be as easy to use as the current one: the only technical skill required from the editors will be a general competence in XML editing to configure EVT properly and the care to place each XML-related component of the edition (mainly the schema besides the encoded texts) into the correct area of the directory structure. Moreover, the editor will be able to modify the CSS style sheets to customize all aspects of text visualization, according to his/her needs.</p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""102/100000000000059E0000031AA081BD15.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 3: EVT 2.0 - Critical edition. Collation of witnesses</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>The poster that we would like to present at the DH 2016 will show how far EVT has progressed and matured in terms of features, code robustness and UI innovation especially with regard to critical edition support and handling of manuscript variants.</p>
            <p>During the poster session you will be able to try a working demo of the software.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Angular.js.</hi> 
                        <ptr target=""https://angularjs.org/""/> (accessed 28 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Codice Pelavicino digital edition.</hi> 
                        <ptr target=""http://labcd.humnet.unipi.it/""/> (accessed 28 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">CVCE (Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l’Europe).</hi>
                        <ptr target=""http://www.cvce.eu/""/> (accessed 28 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Digital Vercelli Book. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Beta edition</hi>. 
                        <ptr target=""http://vbd.humnet.unipi.it/beta/""/> (accessed 28 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">EVT. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Home page</hi>,
                        
                        <ptr target=""https://sourceforge.net/projects/evt-project/""/> (accessed 28 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hugh Cayless.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Representing Textual Variation (2nd Draft). </hi>
                        <ptr target=""https://docs.google.com/document/d/10R5FfpvCh9v2c2zeG1hgYMcyuT8o-PfHiaWYVrLf56k""/> (accessed 28 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">TEI Guidelines.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Chapter 12 Critical Apparatus.</hi>
                        <ptr target=""http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/TC.html""/> (accessed 28 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">TEI Wiki.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Critical Apparatus Workgroup</hi>. 
                        <ptr target=""http://wiki.tei-c.org/index.php/Critical_Apparatus_Workgroup""/> (accessed 28 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">TEI Wiki.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">TEI Special Interest Group on Manuscripts </hi>(TEI MS SIG). 
                        <ptr target=""http://wiki.tei-c.org/index.php/SIG:MSS""/> (accessed 28 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2577","17","Exploring the Rules of Rhyme: Operationalizing Historical Poetics","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Rhyme is a key feature of many verse forms used throughout the history of English poetry. In its simplest forms, rhyme in English poetry can be understood as a connection between words at the end of lines of poetry, due to the similarity in the sounds of their final syllables. Rhyme suggests and enacts relationships between sound and sense in poetry: “the equivalence of the rhyme syllables or words on the phonic level implies a relation or likeness or difference on the semantic level” (Brogan et al., 2012). Internal rhyme can also connect words located elsewhere in the poetic line, although that is less common in English poetry. Rhyme connects lines of poetry through sound patterns which contribute to the tone, pace, and emotional effects of a poem. Because a common printing convention in the nineteenth century indented lines of poetry to match the rhyme scheme, rhyme was also a visual feature of printed poems, perceptible to the reader’s eye and cognition. Rhyme, along with meter, contributes to the memorable qualities of verse, and to the popularity of humorous forms like the limerick. Rhymed verse forms, such as the sonnet and ballad, were very popular in nineteenth-century British poetry, alongside unrhymed blank verse. Rhyme was used for different ideological and aesthetic purposes, as in the working-class ballads of the 1840s or Decadent revivals of French forms like the triolet and villanelle.</p>
            <p>But the rules of rhyme are not fixed. Throughout the nineteenth century, poets and critics debated which kinds of rhymes were allowed in the best poetry. In particular, some critics argued that imperfect rhyme (also called near rhyme) was allowable because so many poets used such rhymes (such as “love” and “prove”), while others argued for a more restrictive definition of perfect rhyme. These debates about rhyme are part of larger nineteenth-century discourses about prosody, the patterning of sound in poetry. Recent work in nineteenth-century studies has focused on “historical poetics,” the examination of nineteenth-century theories of prosody and their cultural impact (Hall 2011, Martin 2012, Rudy 2009). Such scholarship complicates transhistorical definitions of lyric poetry and its formal features by demonstrating how “prosody provided a way of thinking, a method of protest, of scientific argument and investigation, of negotiating gender, class, and national structures” (Martin and Levin, 2011: 153). But too often this work in historical poetics remains focused on theory separate from poetic practice: Yopie Prins, for instance, says bluntly that “practical application is not the point of historical poetics. There are other, more interesting questions” which for her encompass the relationship of prosody to larger philosophical and scientific discourses (Prins, 2008: 233). This paper offers an alternative, computational approach to historical poetics that will not only further our understanding of nineteenth-century theories of rhyme but also of their relationship to actual poetic practice. </p>
            <p>Rhyming dictionaries, which serve as a resource to writers seeking rhymes for their compositions, serve as an importance source for understanding the changing rules of rhyme in the nineteenth century. In the eighteenth century, Edward Bysshe’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Art of English Poetry</hi> (1702) offered a small dictionary of rhymes, supplanted later in the century by John Walker’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A Dictionary of the English Language, Answering at once the Purposes of Rhyming, Spelling, and Pronouncing</hi>, first published in 1775 with 41,000 words included in the rhyme dictionary. Walker’s dictionary was expanded and reprinted many times throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and it is mentioned in the letters and papers of many writers and poets as a standard text. But in the second half of the nineteenth century the popularity of poetry writing as a leisure activity among the growing middle class led to the publication of many new rhyme dictionaries, each of which offered different definitions of acceptable rhymes. These included J. E. Carpenter’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A Handbook of Poetry</hi> (1868); Tom Hood’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Rules of Rhyme</hi> (1869), later republished as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Rhymester; Or, the Rules of Rhyme</hi>; the American writer Samuel W. Barnum’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A Vocabulary of English Rhymes, Arranged on a New Plan</hi> (1876); John Longmuir’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Rhythmical Index to the English Language</hi> (1877); R. F. Brewer’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Orthometry: A Treatise on the Art of Versification</hi> (1893); and Andrew Loring’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Rhymer’s Lexicon</hi> (1905).
            </p>
            <p>This paper presents my current work in progress in operationalizing these nineteenth-century rhyme dictionaries as R scripts that identify rhymes in poetic texts based on the rules of a specific dictionary. The entries in these rhyme dictionaries consist of rhyme syllables that serve as the entry headings, followed by a list of homophone syllables, and then examples of words that rhyme with the entry heading. The rhyme syllables and words listed may be subdivided into categories, such as perfect rhymes and imperfect or “allowable” rhymes. Many of the dictionaries provide supporting evidence for the use of imperfect rhymes in the form of quotations from the works of British poets. For this project, all of the rhyme syllables, rhyme words, and rhyme categories are stored in csv files for each dictionary, organized by entry headings. In the interest of fidelity to the original historical dictionaries, and to facilitate comparative analysis, conflicting entries have not been normalized. Thus one dictionary might give very different rhyme syllables or words for a given entry than those listed in another; it is precisely this kind of historical variation in the rules of rhyme that this project allows us to explore. The R package data.table facilitates querying and joining data files for multiple dictionaries so as to compare their entries for the same rhyme syllable. </p>
            <p>The technical section of the paper describes the key components of these scripts: </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>the last word of each line of the poem is extracted from the text and converted to reverse spelling;</item>
                <item>a series of regular expressions are used to enact the specific instructions each rhyme dictionary provides for its users to identify the rhyme syllable to look up, such as locating the vowel that precedes the consonant(s) of the final syllable (“ame”), unless the consonant(s) are preceded by a dipthong, in which case the first of the two dipthong vowels begins the rhyme syllable (“ound”); </item>
                <item>a hash lookup for each rhyme syllable to the selected dictionary returns the perfect rhyme syllables, perfect rhyme words, imperfect rhyme syllables (if given), and imperfect rhyme words (if given); </item>
                <item>matches among these returned values and the other rhyme syllables and words in the poem are sought; when located, a capital letter is used to mark the rhyme pattern, as is traditional in literary criticism (ABAB, etc);</item>
                <item>for those dictionaries that include imperfect rhymes, the ratio of perfect to imperfect rhymes in the poem is also recorded.</item>
            </list>
            <p>This project expands our understanding of nineteenth-century rhyme theory and practice in three ways: by enabling the identification of rhyme patterns in large sets of texts, we can expand our understanding of historical verse writing practices beyond canonical literary texts; by operationalizing the rules instantiated in different dictionaries, we can compare how they would have evaluated the rhymes chosen by particular poets; and by creating a database of the words included in these dictionaries, we can examine the consistency and variation of the recommended rhymes. </p>
            <p>The final section of the paper presents a case study in the application of these scripts to literary texts, an analysis of the rhyme patterns used in the 1274 poems included in Edmund Clarence Stedman’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A Victorian Anthology 1837-1895</hi> (1895), as a sample dataset of poetry produced during the time when these rhyme dictionaries were circulating and when these rhyme theories were debated. Examining the frequency of different rhyme patterns and the vocabulary of rhyme common in Victorian poetry opens up new paths for analyzing rhyme practice, rhyme theory, and the lexical fields generated by the use of rhyme. This project thus contributes to current work in nineteenth-century studies and historical poetics by computationally analyzing the theory offered by rhyme dictionaries with the actual practices of nineteenth-century poetry.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brogan, T.V.F., et al.</hi> (2012). Rhyme. In Cushman, S. and Cavanagh, C. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics</hi>. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 1182-92.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hall, J.</hi> (ed). (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Meter Matters: Verse Cultures of the Long Nineteenth Century</hi>. Athens: Ohio University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Martin, M.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Rise and Fall of Meter: Poetry and English National Culture, 1860-1930</hi>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Martin, M. and Levin, Y. </hi>(2011). Victorian Prosody: Measuring the Field. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Victorian Poetry</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">49</hi>(2): 149-60.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Prins, Y.</hi> (2008). Historical Poetics, Dysprosody, and ‘The Science of English Verse’. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PMLA</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">123</hi>(1): 229-34.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rudy, J.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Electric Meters: Victorian Physiological Poetics</hi>. Athens: Ohio University Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2578","17","Faceting and Mining Network Graphs","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Faceting and Mining Networks </head>
                <p> The network graph is one of the best-known and overdetermined of all data visualizations. And it suffers, more than most such modes, from the problem of fetishization. When non-specialists see network graphs, which are information-heavy, aesthetically appealing, cognitively suggestive, and yet curiously hard to read, their first reactions are often along the lines of “Oh wow!”, “Cool!”, or “Neat!”. The corollary to admiration, for members of the academy, however, is often distrust.</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> The problem is two-fold. Critical thinkers are justly skeptical of enthusiasm, since enthusiasm can foreclose critical engagement. But the network graph’s prominence as a mode of data visualization, as featured in new outlets like the New York Times, or in prominent projects like</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">Mapping the Republic of Letters </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">or </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">Six Degrees of Francis Bacon</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">, makes it uniquely vulnerable to the hermeneutic of suspicion (see Elijah Meeks, “The Digital Humanities as Lightning Rod”). If the digital humanities are </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">still </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">distrusted in some more conservative corners of the academy — such as mine, eighteenth century english literary manuscript studies — then network graphs, because they have become synecdochic for digital humanities writ large, are doubly distrusted. </hi>
                </p>
                <p> This short paper addresses three states of addressing this skepticism head-on, embedding network graph literacy in the context of a larger disciplinary argument. Those three stages correspond to three key perspectives practitioners of network analysis can assume when wanting to persuade skeptics of the probative value of network graphs, to show how condign those graphs are to traditional “analogue” analysis, and to build a persuasive argument within your own field.</p>
                <p> Those three perspectives are: targeted data gathering; graph design, and argument design.</p>
                <p> Much of my own work centers on networks of distribution of Jacobite manuscript poetry from 1688 — 1750. Once I knew that I would be using network graphs to illustrate the richness of the social and material facts I had uncovered, I started enriching my dataset with an eye to encoding metadata to reveal those richnesses as precisely as possible. Those metadata categories include size of manuscript, number of copies of each poem in circulation, names of manuscript collectors, languages contained in each manuscript, dates of manuscript, and so on. I entered this metadata on each future node in my two sets of network graphs (one of individual poems, one of manuscripts).</p>
                <p> Graph design, the next stage, was just as important. Having settled on a layout in Gephi that I felt reliably showed relations among objects in a way that I knew I could explain simply (such as proximity as a function of similarity; distance as an index of relative dis-similarity) I then worked to combat the visual fetish character of the network graph by partitioning the nodes multiple times while keeping them within the same layout. This meant that one my audience had had time to accustom themselves to the layout, successive graphs with differing color schemes, node sizes, and edge weights would show them the facets, the richness, of the dataset. By showing the same graph layout faceted in multiple different ways, my audience could comprehend the layout as a function of multiple and overlapping functions.</p>
                <p> Argument design, the last stage, is a way of making the procession of network graphs an intuitive progression of visual arguments that draws the audience into, and educates them about, the rhetoric of the network graph precisely by showing its malleability and, in some ways, its very partiality. By showing the protean capacities of the network graph, by showing the extent to which each network graph is itself a reading, skeptics more at home with paleography and stemmatology are able to grasp quite intuitively the resource that is faceted network graph: a flexible and powerful tool to show the richness and interrelatedness of large datasets based on archival discoveries very like their own.</p>
                <p> This short paper will include slides of my own faceted network graphs to show how we can use this form of argumentation as a kind of nested pedagogy.</p>
                <p> I enclose here a collection of faceted and mined network graphs made for a colleague’s project on Modernist journals. These bimodal graphs show the interrelation of different contributors to various roughly contemporary journals. By showing the same layout several times, but using node color, node size, edge weight and color, we are able to see:</p>
                <p>which nodes are journalists and which are journals;</p>
                <p>nodes clustered with a granularity of 1.0 (fewest communities of the largest size);</p>
                <p>nodes clustered with a granularity of 0.23 (many smaller communities);</p>
                <p>which journalists contributed the most (edge weight), which journals had the most contributors (node redness and size), and</p>
                <p>which journalists contributed to the most journals (by node size).</p>
                <p>These five network graphs taken together not only supply a much richer picture of the system of writing and publication than a single graph would; by showing the range of information that can be displayed on that graph with a series of simple adjustments, the reader is shown how the graph is a product not of vulgar scientism but of intentional humanism.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""676/10000201000001D40000016BA8E9A184.png""/>
                        <head>Illustration 1: Lilac nodes are journalists; blue are journals</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""676/10000201000001C50000015BAFD18B9D.png""/>
                        <head>Illustration 2: Modularity at granularity 1.0; the fewest communities of the largest size.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""676/10000201000001C500000187349E77EB.png""/>
                        <head>Illustration 3: Modularity class 0.23; more communities of a smaller size.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""676/10000201000001C500000188BDF78A03.png""/>
                        <head>Illustration 4: Edge weight shows number of of contributions by a journalist; node redness and size indicates number of contributors.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""676/10000201000001C50000015C51F51D08.png""/>
                        <head>Illustration 5: Node size indicates number of journals to which a journalist contributed.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mapping the Republic of Letters</hi>. <ptr target=""http://republicofletters.stanford.edu/""/> (accessed March 7th 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meeks, E</hi>. (2012). The Digital Humanities as Lightning Rod. <ptr target=""https://dhs.stanford.edu/the-digital-humanities-as/digital-humanities-as-lightning-rod/""/> (accessed March 7th 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Six Degrees of Francis Bacon</hi>. <ref target=""http://sixdegreesoffrancisbacon.com/"">http://sixdegreesoffrancisbacon.com</ref> (accessed March 7th 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2579","17","FIRST WE FEEL THEN WE FALL - multimedia adaptation of Joyce's FINNEGANS WAKE","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Finnegans Wake</hi> is the last, most mysterious book by the Irish writer James Joyce. Usually described as a novel, it is a fascinating text written primarily in English (more strictly Hiberno-English), but the words are often fused with any of several dozen languages (McHugh, 1991). This dream-like narrative features a Dublin pub owner Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker, his wife Anna Livia Plurabelle, their twin sons Shem and Shaun and their daughter Issy. They travel through space and time to discover the truth about a scandalous incident in Phoenix Park in which HCE was implicated and to deliver a letter written by ALP in his defense. Drawn into a whirlpool of the past, they metamorphose into historical and legendary figures, a hill, a river, a cloud, a tree and a stone (Campbell and Robinson, 1944/1959; Bishop, 1986). The story of HCE’s fall overlaps with the story of a drunken bricklayer Tim Finnegan who fell off a ladder but was resurrected when whisky splashed on his face during a fight at his wake. This fuses with the original Fall, with sexual falls of politicians and celebrities, with Napoleon and Wellington on the battlefield of Waterloo, with Tristan and Iseult’s romance, a hen discovering an ancient manuscript in a rubbish heap, and more. Full of sexual innuendoes, historical, literary, autobiographical allusions and hilarious wordplays, multiple plots of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Finnegans Wake</hi> develop in non-linear ways and can be followed like a maze, or a hypertext (Hart, 1962; Hayman, 1978; Loska, 1999 and 2000; Armand, 2003; Bazarnik, 2011).
            </p>
            <p>In 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Middle Ages of James Joyce. The Aesthetics of Chaosmos</hi> Umberto Eco offers a diagram that visualizes hypertextual complexity of the Wakean language (Eco, 1989). It shows how MEANDERTALE and MEANDERTHALLTALE, two of innumerable puns making up the textual labyrinth of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Finnegans Wake</hi>, can be unpacked into separate words. The image represents a network connecting major components: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">meander</hi>, German 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Tal</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">tale</hi>, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Neandertal</hi>, which combine to suggest a cluster of meanings. This Wakean pun nudges us about how to read the book: as a “tall tale” wandering waywardly, looping backward and flashing forward, into the pre-historic past, and the origins of the human species. And as a watercourse – of course, ‘the Meander’ is a river which (giving us the word) meanders. Working on the logic of associations, it hints at different interpretative paths, visualised by the wavy lines of the diagram. 
            </p>
            <p>In our project – 
                <hi rend=""italic"">First We Feel Then We Fall</hi> – we aspire to offer a similar, dynamic, visual translation of hypertextuality and simultaneity of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Finnegans Wake </hi> (Joyce, 1939/2002). Inspired by Eco’s diagram, our project is based on a comparable analysis of narrative streams in Joyce’s text. Having analysed the Wakean imagery, euphonies, rhythms and polyphonic contexts, we have selected four narrative strands, or “plots,” which are translated into an up-to-date audiovisual form of an interactive Internet app. Thus networks of linguistic, historical, symbolic, and mathematical meanings entailed in Wakean puns are transposed into a dynamic audio-visual structure that the audience can co-shape in the process of interactive viewing. The viewer can switch at will between four simultaneous streams of film clips accompanied by sound (and optional captions with the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">FW</hi> text). The interactive and immersive nature of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">First We Feel Then We Fall</hi> will go beyond previous cinematic adaptations of Joyce’s novel. It is the advance of digital technologies that has enabled us to approach complexity of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Finnegans Wake</hi> in this novel way.
            </p>
            <p>The application devised for this project is a multichannel, interactive video app. It will enable the viewers to experience Joyce’s text in an audiovisual format consisting of simultaneously running streams, and thanks to this, offer them a portmanteaux-like audio-visual experience. The app will also contain an option suggesting a narrative path modelled on selections made by previous viewers. It will be available on the Internet browsers and mobile devices (Wróblewski, 2015). The software used includes: Final Cut for editing; Adobe After Effects and Processing for animation, and DaVinci Resolve for colour grading. Video capture was made with Canon 5D Mark III, Sony A7SII, Sony FX7e, Phantom HD Gold, and Found Footage, whereas the website was developed with Python, Django, JavaScript, HTML 5, and CSS3. </p>
            <p>In our presentation we will briefly describe the rationale for our multimedia adaptation of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Finnegans Wake</hi>, and let the audience experience it in an individual, interactive viewing on an available mobile device and/or a computer.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Armand, L.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Technē</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">James Joyce, Hypertext and Technology. </hi>Prague: Karolinum.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bazarnik, K.</hi> (2007). Joyce, Liberature and Writing of the Book. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Hypermedia Joyce Studies</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(2). 
                        <ref target=""http://hjs.ff.cuni.cz/archives/v8_2/main/essays.php?essay=bazarnik"">http://hjs.ff.cuni.cz/archives/v8_2/main/essays.php?essay=bazarnik</ref> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bazarnik, K.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Joyce and Liberature</hi>. Prague: Litteraria Pragensia.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bishop, J.</hi> (1986). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Joyce’s Book of the Dark, FINNEGANS WAKE</hi>. Madison, Wisc.: The University of Wisconsin Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Campbell, J. and Robinson, H. M.</hi> (1944/1959). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake</hi>. London: Faber and Faber.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eco, U.</hi> (1989). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Aesthetics of Chaosmos: The Middle Ages of James Joyce</hi>. Trans. E. Esrock and D. Robey. London: Hutchinson Radius.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hart, C.</hi> (1962). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Structure and Motif in FINNEGANS WAKE</hi>. London: Faber.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hayman, D.</hi> (1978). Nodality and the Infra-Structure of FINNEGANS WAKE. <hi rend=""italic"">James Joyce Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">16</hi>(1/2): 135-50.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Joyce, J.</hi> (1939/1989). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Finnegans Wake</hi>. London: and Faber.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Joyce, J.</hi> (1939/2002). Finnegans Wake. Theall J. B. and Theall D. F. (eds).A Webified version of James Joyce's 
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Finnegans Wake</hi>. Sd2cx1.webring.org. 
                        <ref target=""http://sd2cx1.webring.org/l/rd?ring=jamesjoyce;id=4;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.trentu.ca%2Ffaculty%2Fjjoyce%2Ffw.htm"">http://sd2cx1.webring.org/l/rd?ring=jamesjoyce;id=4;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.trentu.ca%2Ffaculty%2Fjjoyce%2Ffw.htm</ref> (accesed 18 June 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Loska, K.</hi> (1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Wokół FINNEGANS WAKE. James Joyce i komunikacja wizualna</hi>. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Loska, K.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Finnegans Wake: James Joyce a rozumienie i interpretacja</hi>. Kraków: Rabid.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McHugh, R.</hi> (1991). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Annotations to </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic allcaps"">Finnegans Wake</hi>. Revised ed. Baltimore: John Hopkins UP.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wróblewski, J. </hi>(2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">First We Feel Then We Fall teaser #1</hi>. 
                        Adaptation of James Joyce’s Finnegans Wake by J. Wróblewski and K. Bazarnik.[video] 
                        <ref target=""https://vimeo.com/137422246"">https://vimeo.com/137422246</ref> (accessed 31 Oct 2015).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2580","17","Frequency and Meaning","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p><head>1. Introduction</head></p>
            <p>Computational stylistics now has thirty years or so of publications and has been celebrated as one of the success stories of Digital Humanities (McCarty, 2014: 289). It brings together statistical methods and literary analysis, inferring meaning from the frequency of literary features. In this paper I explore this connection between frequency and meaning, and consider some of the objections which have been made to the statistical approach to style. </p>
            <p>Much research in linguistics focuses on individual sentence-level structures. Stylistics introduces a new dimension of extension and cumulation, placing a net of continuing co-occurrence over a language sequence. The added dimension of time, or extent, opens up the analysis of meaning not only in the instance itself but in the series that it forms with other instances of the same feature. Computational stylistics takes a routinely quantitative approach to this cumulative aspect.</p>
            <p>Critics have laid down significant challenges to this frequentist approach. They have questioned whether language features are really countable, whether frequency matters in meaning, whether the inevitable choice of features to count undermines the objectivity of the results, and whether quantitative results can ever usefully relate the text to any wider context.</p>
            <p><head>2. Are language features countable?</head></p>
            <p>The first key enabling assumption of computational stylistics is that the language features being counted are homogenous. In his 1970s articles attacking stylistics, Stanley Fish argues that meaning is constructed by the reader at the moment of reading and concludes that stylistics is therefore an invalid practice. There is no meaning in the word on the page, so it is pointless to count instances of the word, of combinations of words, or of any other language feature (Fish, 1973; Fish and Graham, 1979). John Frow, likewise, argues that in literary study features are not stable or commensurate but relational, so counting them is pointless (cited in Bennett, 2009: 287).</p>
            <p><head>3. Is frequency meaningful?</head></p>
            <p>Many would also question the relation between frequency and salience. It seems unwise to assume that an unusual accumulation of a feature is necessarily noticed by writer or reader. Fish in a recent online post critiquing digital humanities argues that only patterns intended by the author are worth discussing (Fish, 2012). Different frameworks influence the noticeability of language elements, and a single instance may be highly salient, and a cluster of instances may pass without any conscious reaction. </p>
            <p><head>4. Function words</head></p>
            <p>Considering function words as a basis for counting helps counter these objections. Computational stylistics has a natural alliance with function words. Function words lend themselves to computation since they are easy for a machine to recognise and appear regularly and in large numbers, offering opportunities for analysis by statistical methods whose power is well established in other domains. On the other hand, computation has a special benefit for function words analysis because counting on a scale not possible for the unaided reader makes it possible to reveal hitherto latent patterns in the behaviour of these words.</p>
            <p>Function words do not have a semantics in the usual sense: 
            <hi rend=""italic"">if</hi> has a structural function rather than a meaning. The stylistic import of the word only becomes clear in repetition. By contrast, lexical words are rich in meaning in the individual instance and do not necessarily achieve any cumulative effect through a series. Function words bear traces of larger structures and hence, though not salient in themselves, their frequencies bear meaning as indexes to wider discourse orientations. They help show how a language feature can be sufficiently homogenous to justify counting, and how frequencies can have a literary dimension.
            </p>
            <p>There are two other important objections to consider: the possible bias arising from the fact that a judgement has to be made about which features to count, and the difficulty of relating patterns found within a corpus to extra-textual factors. </p>
            <p>5. Features have to be chosen, so results are arbitrary</p>
            <p>Tony Bennett points out that researchers have to choose the units to count in – there are no ""given units"" -- and argues that this choice has a necessary influence on results, which undermines any claims to objectivity (2009: 290, 291). </p>
            <p>This is a fundamental critique of quantitative study, i.e. of any quantitative study. The logical extension would be that the choice of units always determines the results, so there can be no surprises and nothing new can be learned. It is easy to show that there are cases where this is not so. If we ask, do women write differently from men? - we have a way of validating the units: if the pattern of use of a given unit shows a significant difference in a balanced and commensurate sets of samples of the writing of women and the writing of men, then it does not matter how the unit was chosen. Here we have an external basis, the difference between two objectively based classes, on which to discard some units and accept others. Then there are cases of classification, e.g. by author and by date. We can seek markers of the classes, check them with known members of the classes, and then apply them to disputed cases. We have an objective way of validating the units, so we don't care much about where they came from.</p>
            <p><head>6. Formalism</head></p>
            <p>Computational stylistics begins with textual features, focuses on finding patterns in their use, provides striking visualisations of the patterns, and then struggles to relate the patterns to extra-literary events. The textual data is well defined, easy to explore, and with the help of statistics it can be shown that there are robust structures within it. The world of possible causation beyond is hard to limit and hard to quantify. If there is (say) a consistent and marked increase in the Shannon Entropy of the language of Victorian novels from early in the period to late, how could that be described in terms of the reading experience? And how could that be related to the forces acting on the novel? Computational stylistics is lop-sided: very well developed on the textual side, but weak - tentative and fragmentary - in relating statistical findings to the extra-textual world. Another way of saying this is to call computational stylistics formalist. In this sort of approach the evidential force of the explanation for a pattern will always be less than that for the pattern itself. However, it is only fair to point out that in this it is in the same situation as other literary methods. A literary effect may be demonstrable, but its genesis in composition, and the larger forces to which it relates, are always matters of judgement and selective contextualisation. The text is available, even if dauntingly complex, but the conditions which made it possible have to be painstakingly and always speculatively recreated. It is easier to show that Hamlet changes in the course of his play than that this observed change relates to Early Modern beliefs about the typical course of melancholia. </p>
            <p><head>7. Conclusion</head></p>
            <p>Computational stylistics has proved itself in the realm of classification. In this area the methods can be thoroughly tested and success or otherwise can be demonstrated. There are some well-established and significant findings, leading to a reassessment of some commonplaces such as the downplaying of authorship as a factor in style (Egan, 2014). This presents a problem for those who think that counting literary features is inherently unsafe, that frequencies in language cannot have any real force, and that all feature choice is fatally arbitrary. Beyond classification, though, these objections still have some force, and a new one intrudes, the argument that computational stylistics is disablingly formalist. Computational stylistics now needs to produce findings in more properly stylistic areas of the same weight as its justly celebrated classification ones, findings which match the style within a corpus to the world beyond it. Only then will we be confident that frequency in literary language is linked to meaning, and that computational stylistics has the methods to do justice to this link. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bennett, T.</hi> (2009). Counting and Seeing the Social Action of Literary Form: Franco Moretti and the Sociology of Literature. <hi rend=""italic"">Cultural Sociology</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>: 277-97.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Egan, G.</hi> (2014). What Is Not Collaborative About Early Modern Drama in Performance and Print? <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare Survey</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">67</hi>: 18-28.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Fish, S. E. </hi>(1973). What Is Stylistics and Why Are They Saying Such Terrible Things About It?. In Chatman, S. (ed) <hi rend=""italic"">Approaches to Poetics: Selected Papers from the English Institute</hi>. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 109-52.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Fish, S. E.</hi> (2012). <hi rend=""italic"">Mind Your P's and B's: The Digital Humanities and Interpretation</hi>. New York Times, Opinionator. 
                        <ref target=""http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/23/mind-your-ps-and-bs-the-digital-humanities-and-interpretation/"">http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/23/mind-your-ps-and-bs-the-digital-humanities-and-interpretation/</ref> (accessed 6 March 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Fish, S. E. and Graham, J. F.</hi> (1979). <hi rend=""italic"">What Is Stylistics and Why Are They Saying Such Terrible Things About It? Part II. Boundary</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>: 129-45.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">McCarty, W.</hi> (2014). Getting There from Here. Remembering the Future of Digital Humanities: Roberto Busa Award Lecture 2013. <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>: 283-306.</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2581","17","From Ashes to Ashé: Digital Disaster Archives as Memorials","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The rapid proliferations of digital archives that develop in response to, and often in the immediate aftermath of, globalized, catastrophic events are not only repositories for historical documentation and collective memories, but are also spaces where rituals of mourning and formations of subject identity can be critically examined. This poster presents close and distanced readings of the mission statements and selected verbal and visual elements of four disaster archives/memorials: The September 11 Documentary Project; The National September 11 Memorial Museum; Our Marathon: The Boston Bombing Digital Archive and WBUR Oral History Project; and UC QuakeStudies. </p>
            <p>Optimally, the disaster memorial archive aggregates and displays artifacts of mourning, recovery, and a diversity of shared memories while simultaneously facilitating a sense of public agency and participation in the community’s collective wellbeing. As evidenced by the expansion of local cultural heritage archives and crowdsourced collection development, collections of local, private memories co-exist with other documents of official or journalistic origins. Archivists Joan Schwartz and Terry Cook are among many who discuss the paradigm shifts in the archive profession that have been initiated by postmodern ideas and facilitated by the affordances of digitization (Schwartz and Cook, 2002). Contemporary archives reach into the local constituencies and beyond in the increasingly global and interdisciplinary network of digital archives (McKemmish and Gilliland, 2004: 84).</p>
            <p>Notwithstanding the stated missions of disaster archives to provide an open-source archive that facilitates the participation by all constituents and interested public, the archival affinity for historical truth and broad representation of its public can sometimes work against public mourning and recovery. As one of my research questions, I explore whether the archival affinity for historical truth and broad representation of its public can co-exist with public mourning and recovery. Modern archives were traditionally associated with progressive and positivist concepts of history whereas memory was associated with unstable sensory triggers and artifices (including rhetorical applications). Postmodern influences and recordings of 20th and 21st century witnesses to and survivors of war crimes and other atrocities have influenced the policies and heuristics used by archivists and historians to critically assess and incorporate individual and collective memories of previously marginalized populations in the archive. </p>
            <p>Although skepticism towards the evidentiary value of collective memory has abated, the tasks of balancing memories with official accounts are, nevertheless, complicated. The eventual selection, classification, and creation of policies for access and long-term preservation are negotiable products―an outcome of the balance of power between the public and the archive, and also between the digital media and technical platforms. From my research that triangulates data from my critical analysis of the purpose and functionality of disaster archives, and field studies, I coded themes and abstracted dimensions of private and public mourning, formations of subject identity (such as witness, victim, first responder, or “other”), and evidence of ethics and personal judgment used to create archival policies and collections. The refinements of these dimensions and data visualizations are represented in the poster.</p>
            <p>Beyond the discovery of relationships between these dimensions and attaining insight into, if not a solution to, whether the historical and memorializing functions can seamlessly merge in the disaster archive, this poster also rationalizes the interdisciplinary methods of ethnographic and social science research as applied to humanities issues and, conversely, assumes a humanities perspective in critiquing the technical infrastructures of the reviewed disaster archive/memorials. The digital disaster archive promotes the active outreach and mobilization of local communities and establishes models for building resilience to the globalized man-made and naturally caused disasters.</p>
            <p>The aesthetics of the archive—the database structure and narratives told within—is also an ethical decision. Sharon Daniel (2007: 150) describes these collaborative spaces (archives, in general) as “dialogic spaces in which the acts of writing, imaging, storytelling, and political statement are a collective production, a process rooted in social interaction and dialogue that produces a narrative without authorial consistency.” The narratives emerging from the disaster archive/memorials convey an urgency to rebuild and perhaps, redefine the rituals of mourning and civic responsibility to others. It is the intent of this poster to illustrate the narrative arc of my research, highlighting the areas of interest for digital humanists, including the construction of an ethical and aesthetic database, and to illuminate patterns of online memorialization in disaster archives.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>1.
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Daniel, S. </hi>(2007). Database: An Aesthetics of Dignity. In Vesna, V. (ed.) <hi rend=""italic"">Database Aesthetics: Art in the Age of Information Overflow</hi>. University of Minnesota Press, pp. 150. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>2. 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Library of Congress. </hi>(2002). September 11, 2001, Documentary Project. [Online] Available at: https://www.loc.gov/collections/september-11th-2001-documentary-project/about-this-collection/ (Accessed 03 March 16).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>3.
                        <hi rend=""bold"">MacNeil, H. </hi>(2012). What finding aids do: archival description as rhetorical genre in traditional and web-based environments. <hi rend=""italic"">Archival Science: International Journal on Recorded Information</hi>, Academic OneFile, EBSCOhost, <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>: 485.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>4. 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Marathon.neu.edu. </hi>(2016). Our Marathon. [Online] Available at: http://marathon.neu.edu/ (Accessed 3 Mar. 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>5. 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">National September 11 Memorial and Museum | World Trade Center Memorial. </hi>(2015). 9/11 Memorial.org. [Online] Available at: http://www.911memorial.org/. (Accessed 03 March 16).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>6. 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media and American Social History Project/Center for Media and Learning. </hi>(2002). <hi rend=""italic"">The September 11 Digital Archive: Saving the Histories of September 11, 2001</hi>. [Online] Available at: http://911digitalarchive.org/ (Accessed 03 March 16).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>7. 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schwartz, J, and Cook, T. </hi>(2002). Archives, records, and power: the making of modern memory. <hi rend=""italic"">Archival Science</hi>, Library, Information Science and Technology Abstracts, EBSCOhost, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1-2): 1-19.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>8. 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">UC QuakeStudies | UC CEISMIC Canterbury Earthquakes Digital Archive.</hi> (2011). UC QuakeStudies. [Online] Available at: https://quakestudies.canterbury.ac.nz/ (Accessed 03 March 16).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2582","17","From Language Revolution to Revolutionary Language","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In his insightful book 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Language of the Third Reich</hi>, Jewish linguist Victor Klemperer pointed out, “One tends to understand Schiller’s distich on a ‘cultivated language which writes and thinks for you’ in purely aesthetic and, as it were, harmless terms [...] But language does not simply write and think for me, it also increasingly dictates my feelings and governs my entire spiritual being the more unquestioningly and unconsciously I abandon myself to it.” Thus he observed and detailed the language change during and after the rise of Hitler and Nazism, kept an invaluable record for study of the impact of language on the mind. 
            </p>
            <p> Klemperer was by no means the only scholar who was alert to the influence of language. In Chinese context, when May Fourth intellectuals followed the flow of turning the classical Chinese into something more colloquial in late Qing period and advocated a new literature/cultural movement, which was at its heart a language revolution, the idea under the action was that one cannot separate the language habits from the operation of mind. They started the vernacular movement in magazines like 
                <hi rend=""italic"">the New Youth</hi>, and hoped by modernizing language, they would empower the mind of the nation, modernize the culture, and eventually really modernize China, a task that 1911 revolution apparently did not fully succeed. The language revolution in early Republic was closely studied by many scholars. Our team also contributed by bringing in digital humanity methods, finding effective ways to tell the classical Chinese from modern Chinese by computer. It was when we analyzed the data of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The New Youth Magazine</hi> that we noticed something rarely discussed by modern scholars: the language changed significantly in Volume 8 of the magazine, published on the eve of the rise of Chinese Communist Party. 
            </p>
            <p> According to our study, by the end of Volume 7 (published in 1920), modern vernacular Chinese had almost completely replaced classical Chinese as the main written language. However, the language of Volume 8 seems to be a new breed, deeply influenced by the translation of Soviet language and full of political jargons. It seems that right after success of language revolution, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The New Youth Magazine</hi> immediately change the language again and promote a new kind of “revolutionary language” to advocate the Communism before the Chinese Communist Party was founded. Was there someone like Klemperer to observe the language change before the political turmoil? It called for further study. What we are doing here is to analyze the language turn in the late period of
                <hi rend=""italic""> The New Youth Magazine</hi>. For comparison, we draw in two other materials. First, the editorials of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">United Daily News </hi>from 1951 to 1960, inherited the May Forth legacy and published in Taiwan before Taiwanese Modernist movement in 60s and Indigenized movement in 80s changing the written language violently. Second, the essays from the Chinese Communist Party’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">People’s Daily</hi> from 1971 to 1989, published in mainland China before the Chinese economic reform. 
            </p>
            <p>There are two types of data: one is structured data (with a high degree of organization) and the other is unstructured data. Most of the textual data are unstructured and quantifying them often requires certain knowledge about the application domain. We need to create a relational structure for the textual data before plugging classification methods. In particular, we use the notion of Exploratory Data Analysis (or EDA, proposed by famous statistician J.W. Tukey in 1977) to evaluate potential variables which can differentiate the language styles of Volume 7 and Volumes 8~11 in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Youth Magazine</hi>. According to our previous study of writing style for Volumes 1~7, we found that the number of words, the number of different words (or vocabularies) and their distribution, in addition to function words in classical and modern Chinese, can be used to distinguish Chinese writing styles. We also include species diversity indices, such as Simpson index and entropy (or Shannon index).
            </p>
            <p>Since there are more than 30 variables, we also consider data reduction methods, such as principle component analysis, to include fewer variables. Then, we apply classification methods (logistic regression) to judge the style of an article is close to Volume 7 or Volumes 8~11. Also, to avoid over parameterization (i.e., using too many unnecessary variables), we use cross validation to check whether the model is stable. The regression model is first built based on training data and then applied to the testing data. The fitting accuracies of training data and testing data are recorded separately, and these two numbers of accuracy should be close if the model is stable. For every simulation run, we randomly separate the training data and testing data into proportions of 90% and 10%, respectively. Based on 100 simulation runs, the regression model is fairly stable since it has very similar fitting accuracy (and small standard errors) for training and testing data.</p>
            <p>Next step, we apply the constructed regression model to the articles from two newspapers, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">United Daily News</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">People’s Daily</hi>. Both newspapers have about 500 articles and Table 1 shows their classification results. The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">United Daily News</hi> is published in Taiwan and the Soviet Union should have little influence on this newspapers. As expected, only 10% articles are classified to the group of “Revolutionary Language.” On the other hand, more than 50% of articles from 
                <hi rend=""italic"">People’s Daily</hi> are classified to “Revolutionary Language.” This matches to our anticipation, since the articles from 
                <hi rend=""italic"">People’s Daily</hi> are published in 1971~1989, in which period China had close link with the Soviet Union.
            </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>　</cell>
                    <cell>No. of Article</cell>
                    <cell cols=""2"">Classified to “Revolutionary Language”</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>No. of Article</cell>
                    <cell>Proportion</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>United Daily News</cell>
                    <cell>550</cell>
                    <cell>57</cell>
                    <cell>10.36%</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>People’s Daily</cell>
                    <cell>534</cell>
                    <cell>308</cell>
                    <cell>58.68%</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Table 1. Classifications of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">United Daily News</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">People’s Daily</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Similar to the cross-validation for the articles from the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Youth magazine</hi>, we can fit the regression model to the articles from two newspapers year by year. Figure 1 shows the yearly classification results. It seems that the results of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">United Daily News</hi> are fairly stable and the yearly results lie around the average (red dotted line). The fitting results of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">People’s Daily</hi> somehow show an inconsistence pattern. The average proportion of “Revolutionary Language” is 76.3% for the articles in 1971~1977 and is 39.2% in 1978~1989 (the overall average is the red dotted line).
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""278/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
              <head>Figure 1. Yearly Classifications of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">United Daily News</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">People’s Daily</hi>
              </head>
            </figure>
            
            <p>The yearly classification results of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">People’s Daily</hi> are interesting and very encouraging. The first stage of China’s reform and opening is between 1978~1989, under the formal leader Deng Xiaoping. China started to open to the outside world gradually since 1978, and it also triggers the economic blooming of China at the end of 20
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century. Figure 1 suggests a similar story. The proportion of “Revolutionary Language” (under the influence of Soviet Union) articles is larger before 1978 and has a radical change ever since 1978 until 1989, coincide with the years of reform and opening in modern China.
            </p>
            <p>2015 marks the 100th anniversary of The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Youth Magazine</hi>. By employing the digital humanity methods and focusing on the language change of the latest few volumes that so far rarely discussed by scholars, we hope to make some new contribution to the study of both The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Youth Magazine</hi> and the writing style of modern Chinese language. Our study shows that the styles of articles from 
                <hi rend=""italic"">United Daily News</hi> are close to that of Volume 7 in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">New Youth Magazine</hi>, while those from 
                <hi rend=""italic"">People’s Daily</hi> have about equal probability for being classified to Volume 7 or to Volumes 8~11. This implies that the Chinese writing styles of Taiwan and mainland China are different and the writing style of mainland China is likely to be influenced by the Soviet language. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""278/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
              <head>Figure 2. Predicted Results of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">United Daily News</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">People’s Daily</hi>
              </head>
            </figure>
            <p>Also, the change of “Revolutionary Language” in 1978 seems to indicate a new possible writing style. Judging from the proportion of “Revolutionary Language,” those of 1978~1989 lie between “Revolutionary Language” and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">United Daily News, </hi>and it seems that the writing style of China turned into a new direction in 1978~1989 (namely, Reform China). Figure 2 shows the predicted results (after kernel smoothing) of all articles, with a value near 1 indicating style closer to “Revolutionary Language” and vice versa. If we treat 
                <hi rend=""italic"">United Daily News</hi> and 1971~1977 
                <hi rend=""italic"">People’s Daily</hi> as two extremes, then 1978~1989 
                <hi rend=""italic"">People’s Daily</hi> is somewhat in between (or a mixture of) these two extremes. It would be interesting to explore the writing style in China since 1978. For example, we can further compare the writing styles of China according to the following three periods, 1978~1989 (first stage), 1989~2002 (economic blooming), and 2002~today (modern China).
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Agresti, A.</hi> (1990). 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Categorical Data Analysis</hi>.
                            New York: Wiley.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hastie, T., Tibshirani, R., and Friedman, J.</hi> (2009). <hi rend=""italic"">The Elements of Statistical Learning: Data Mining, Inference, and Prediction</hi>. 2nd Edition, Springer Series in Statistics.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ho, L., Yue, C. J., and Cheng, W.</hi> (2014). From Classical Chinese to Modern Chinese: A Study of Function Words from New Youth Magazine. <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the History of Ideas in East Asia</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>: 427-54.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>                        
                         <hi rend=""bold"">Tukey, J. W.</hi> (1977). <hi rend=""italic"">Exploratory Data Analysis</hi>. Addison-Wesley.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2583","17","Geocoding Thousands of Fiscal Records: Methodological Approach for a Study on Urban Retail Trade in the Belle Époque","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In August 1902 the British newspaper The Times inserted an article announcing “The passing of the grocer” as a result of a crisis in the small retail trade that apparently had bankrupted more than 900 stores (Winstanley, 1983). Across the Atlantic, Canada’s shopkeepers faced a crisis equally significant, with overabundance of shops and a lot of bankruptcies (Monod, 1996). The same happened in continental European cities like Paris or Milan, in the final decades of the nineteenth century (Nord, 1986; Morris, 1993). Much of what happened this time was the result of an demographic growth in the cities in the nineteenth century that almost everywhere would have important consequences in the reorganization of urban space, leading to changes in their economic and social geography. Lisbon was no exception and the city’s retail trade, after a phase of growth in the 1880s, faced a crisis in the last ten years of the century (Alves 2012). This occurred while the city was transformed, witnessing an expansion into new urban areas to accommodate an increasing volume of inhabitants.</p>
            <p>Through the analysis of the geographical distribution of Lisbon’s retail trade, between 1890 and 1910, it is possible to verify the impact of this crisis on the way small businessmen apprehended the urban space, as well as the opportunities and risks that those changes could represent to them. The study is based on a very detailed information about the localization and characteristics of every single shop in the city streets, gathered from fiscal sources in the municipal archives (around sixteenth thousand records for each of the three years, 1890, 1900 and 1910) and analyzed through the use of spatial statistical analysis tools. This volume of information and the potential introduced by a Digital Humanities / Spatial Humanities approach, brings in methodological challenges regarding the digitization and geocoding process of several thousands of records, as well as opens new research possibilities and new research questions, namely: about the role of women in the retail trade business, since previous work based on smaller sets of data analyzed with traditional qualitative methods had misrepresented or even ignored gender issues in the retail business (Alves, 2012); or about the influence of the dwelling rents in determining changes in the social space of a city in the Belle Époque, only possible by the digital analysis of a very large, temporal and geographical encompassing amount of data for all the city.</p>
            <p>In terms of the methodology two were the challenges we faced in two distinct stages of research, data collection and its georeferencing. The first challenge relates to the difficulty in scanning a volume of data of this nature, only available on archive, with no available funding to carry out a project of mass digitization of the original tax records. This was associated with the fact that all sources are handwritten, drawn up by several employees, with equally different handwritings, which would make it impossible, given the current state of handwritten character recognition technology (Beatty, 2010; Brumfield, 2014), for an automatic or even semiautomatic data treatment. The solution followed a close approach to crowdsourcing projects (Causer et al., 2012), using shared databases and collaborative work, a method already developed with excelent results in previous studies (Alves and Queiroz, 2013; Alves and Queiroz, 2015). The second challenge went through georeference about fifty thousand addresses obtained in this documentation, using essentially the computer's processing power. It is recognized that there are advantages and disadvantages in using several geocoding methods (Zandbergen, 2008). Its application to Lisbon is made difficult due to the fact that the city have gone through a deep urban morphology transformation and experienced significant changes in its street names throughout the twentieth century (Alves, 2005; Oliveira and Pinho, 2006). Nevertheless, it remains one of the best methods for automatic assignment of geographic coordinates. The challenge was to think of a process that could overcome the difficulties listed, without having to go through the full reconstitution of the urban network. Not least because the available sources do not made possible the recreation of all the buildings and their functional classification in a GIS environment, as was achieved in other projects (Dunae et al., 2013). The option went through reconstruction of the existing streets network of the time, based on geo-referenced digital cartography. Thus an addresses’ database was created, with slight adaptations on the geocoding algorithm of the GIS platform used, allowed for a success rate of around 90%.</p>
            <p>As for georeferencing, the first and greatest of all the problems is related to the urban changes that the city has undergone over the last 120 years. On the one hand, strong population growth led to the expansion or changes in the corresponding urban area, even If we take into account just the three years analyzed. The city of 1890 is very different from the one in 1910, in the layout of the streets, in the expansion into new areas, construction or renovation of its buildings. On the other hand, Lisbon had the particularity to overcome, between 1890 and the present, four very different political regimes that have left a peculiar and deeply transformative mark in the city's toponomy. Even if the urban area was stable, only the change of street names over more than a century of profound political changes, would pose great challenges to an automated geocoding process.</p>
            <p>For this there was first the need to rebuild the streets network of the time, trying to recreate the map of Lisbon of the Belle Epoque. This map was fixed for 1890 and then it was possible to apply the normal geocoding techniques, adapting either the collected data source, or the software algorithm used, in order to overcome difficulties so small, but so significant in the final results, such as the fact that the software was incapable to deal with some Portuguese names and characters or to recognize certain types of streets that were used at the time but ignored or underused today. Or the fact that the names of some streets are identical or very similar in different areas of the city. This is an iterative process of trial and error so as to refine the best model data that maximizes the results obtained.</p>
            <p>However, there was still the issue of street names changing over time. For the period in question this problem is not very complicated, since only at the end of 1910 took place the first regime change, the Republican Revolution, with the consequent wave of place names changed. But there was almost annually, specific changes in street names. These changes were incorporated in the database, maintaining the address structure already georeferenced for 1890, allowing to incorporate the data for the same streets that appeared in the sources with different names.</p>
            <p>These two ways to overcome the problems with georeferencing were only possible due to the existence of sources, either cartography or streets itineraries, which allowed to go adapting the original map so as to incorporate, with a similar success rate, the 1900 and 1910 data.</p>
            <p>As for the quality or accuracy of georeferencing, it is obvious that the ideal would be to have the possibility to rebuild not only the network of city streets, but also the actual location of the various housing/trade blocs. Unfortunately no sources for this level of detail are available. In the original shapefile map, which represented the actual city streets, in 2012, the streets were targeted with the actually existing building numbers in each block. Since we have no way of saying, at this stage of the research, how many buildings existed on every block in 1890, it was decided to distribute all points along the entire length of the street, according to the geocoding algorithm. Obviously, this option can cause some significant deviation in less consolidated urban areas of the city, but it is also true that the areas where the overwhelming majority of small businesses traditionally where implemented account for already established streets. So that problem here is much lower, and the geocoding accuracy is much higher.</p>
            <p>I did not use crowdsourcing primarily due to the available time for the collection of data and to poor accessibility to the original sources. Seems odd to state this because apparently these are precisely justifications for using crowdsourcing. However, it is known, also through the literature already cited in the abstract, that the use of crowdsourcing can be a lengthy process and not always easy to check on the quality of final results. Furthermore, it requires easier access to sources through digital copies because not all potential participants have availability or even competence for archive work. In our case, the sources correspond to thick volumes of bound sheets, deposited in a municipal archive without major conditions for local consultation and without the financial ability to carry out its full or partial scan. There was also the problem of the quality of the data, given that we are talking about handwritten information sometimes difficult to read. In this sense, the use of a collaborative work, through volunteer history students with availability and sensitivity to archival work was decisive. This data collection was made via a PostgreSQL database, shared with all students through ODBC, so that all data collected by one of the students become available for subsequent use by others. This process, already tested in other project with very good results (Alves and Queiroz, 2013; Alves and Queiroz, 2015) , saved up a lot of time in data collection and redundancies were avoided, because a new address o r a new commercial activity detected by one of the students in the sources once registered in the database, was automatically available and could be used/selected by all the others. Even if the original record contained an error, since it was registered only once in the database, because the data model prevented duplicates, the validation task was also facilitated.</p>
            <p>The reconstruction of the 1890 street map, base of all subsequent work, was made through a current map in shapefile format, provided by the Municipality. This map was superimposed on a digital copy of an old city map properly georeferenced. The mere overlap of the two maps identified a broad set of streets that did not exist at the time (eliminated from the shapefile) and others that changed their layout (fixed in the shapefile). Using streets itineraries, namely one for 1890, very complete, mentioning the name, location and building numbers of all city’s streets, it was possible to correct the shapefile street names that had gone through changes over these 120 years. The link between this corrected shapefile and the shops’ addresses collected in the shared database allowed for geocoding, with minor adjustments to the software algorithm.</p>
            <p>Overcoming these issues, it was possible to get a far more dynamic source, more accessible and manageable, able to respond quickly to old research questions or to introduce new perspectives about Lisbon and its retail trade in the Belle Époque. Just to mention one possibility, in the Lisbon municipal archive there are many available data that could be crossed with the information collected on shops and shopkeepers. In particular, it has data on electoral census and elections, with voters lists organized by parishes and addresses, for several years of the nineteenth and twentieth century and this data can also be mapped and analyzed using the methodology now developed. The same can happen with data on primary education, for example, because this fund has information on the addresses of the students also. Given that the addresses of the shops are being collected in a separate table and that it allows to be connected to either the GIS or to other tables with different data, whether on small businesses, on elections or on education, the use of this methodology will allow for results in other projects or to add new information relevant to the history of the city without the need to start everything from scratch.</p>
            <p>In this sense, while recognizing the limitations of GIS (Boonstra, 2009; Bodenhamer et al., 2010; Silveira, 2014), it must be highlighted the capabilities of its spatial analysis, processing and data visualization tools, that has been particular useful in the context of urban history (Hillier, 2010; DeBats and Gregory, 2011). In recent years, the use of GIS for the study of cities and their retail trade (Beascoechea Gangoiti, 2003; Mirás Araujo, 2008; Bassols and Oyón Bañales, 2010; Novak and Gilliland, 2011; Ünlü, 2012) has enhanced the theoretical framework and the possibility of international comparative studies, which represented a definitive stimulus to the application of these methodologies to this case study. To this matter it is useful to mention that a session comparing four case studies for Iberian port cities will occur in the ESSHC in Valencia, this year, putting together comparative analysis about Barcelona, Bilbao, Coruña and Lisbon, in the first decades of the twentieth century (https://esshc.socialhistory.org/esshc-user/programme?day=55&time=145&session=3003).</p>
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        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
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                     <hi rend=""bold"">Alves, D.</hi> (2005). Using a GIS to reconstruct the nineteenth century Lisbon parishes.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities, Computers and Cultural Heritage. Proceedings of the XVIth international conference of the Association for History and Computing</hi>. Amsterdam: Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, pp. 12–17.
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                     <hi rend=""bold"">Alves, D., Queiroz, A. I.</hi> (2015). Exploring Literary Landscapes: From Texts to Spatiotemporal Analysis through Collaborative Work and GIS. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(1): 57–73.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Alves, D., Queiroz, A. I.</hi> (2013). Studying urban space and literary representations using GIS: Lisbon, Portugal, 1852-2009. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social Science History</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>(4): 457–81.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bassols, M. G. and Oyón Bañales, J. L.</hi> (2010). Retailing and proximity in a liveable city: the case of Barcelona public markets system. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">REAL CORP 2010: CITIES FOR EVERYONE. Liveable, Healthy, Prosperous</hi>. Vienna, pp. 619–28.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Beascoechea Gangoiti, J. M.</hi> (2003). Jerarquización social del espacio urbano en el Bilbao de la industrialización. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scripta Nova</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">VII</hi>(142): 1–19.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Beatty, J.</hi> (2010). Historical Documents in a Digital Library: OCR, Metadata, and Crowdsourcing. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lemonade and Information</hi>. Available at: https://lemonadeandinformation.wordpress.com/2010/05/28/historical-documents-in-a-digital-library-ocr-metadata-and-crowdsourcing/ (accessed October 25, 2015).
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bodenhamer, D. J., Corrigan, J. and Harris, T. M. (Eds.)</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The spatial humanities: GIS and the future of humanities scholarship</hi>, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Boonstra, O.</hi> (2009). Barriers between historical GIS and historical scholarship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(1-2): 3–7.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Brumfield, B. W.</hi> (2014). Collaborative Digitization at ALA 2014. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Collaborative Manuscript Transcription</hi>. Available at: http://manuscripttranscription.blogspot.pt/2014/07/collaborative-digitization-at-ala-2014.html (Accessed October 25, 2015).
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Causer, T., Tonra, J. and Wallace, V.</hi> (2012). Transcription maximized; expense minimized? Crowdsourcing and editing The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">27</hi>(2): 119–37.
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social Science History</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">35</hi>(4): 455–63.
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Labour/Le Travail</hi>, 72, pp. 37–73.
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Planning History</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(2): 122–34.
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Urban History</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">34</hi>(3): 458–83.
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Store wars: shopkeepers and the culture of mass marketing, 1890-1939</hi>, Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">The political economy of shopkeeping in Milan, 1886-1922</hi>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Nord, P. G.</hi> (1986). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Paris shopkeepers and the politics of resentment</hi>, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Novak, M. J. and Gilliland, J. A.</hi> (2011). Trading Places: A Historical Geography of Retailing in London, Canada. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social Science History</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">35</hi>(4): 543–70.
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Urban Design International</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(3): 187–201.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Silveira, L. E. da</hi> (2014). Geographic information systems and historical research: an appraisal. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(1): 28–45.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Ünlü, T.</hi> (2012). Commercial development and morphological change in Mersin from the late nineteenth century to the mid-twenties: modernization of a mercantile port of exchange in the Eastern Mediterranean. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Planning Perspectives</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">27</hi>(1): 81–102.
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">The shopkeeper’s world, 1830-1914</hi>, Manchester: Manchester University Press.
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    </text>
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"2584","17","Harvesting History: Democratizing The Past Through The Digitization Of Community History","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In 1993-94 Roy Rosenzweig and David Thelen conducted a set of surveys that resulted in the publication of a seminal work titled 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Presence of the Past</hi>. The team of historians, museum curators and students surveyed the American public about their interaction with history in order to understand “better ways of connecting academic historians with larger audiences” (Rosenzweig and Thelen, 1998). Their study concluded that Americans’ interest in history related to those events and groups that intersected with their own lives. They universally trusted museums because they could see the objects and images that were the “stuff” of history, but family stories, letters, and photographs defined history for most of the survey participants. With the publication of the survey, Rosenzweig and Thelen entered a historiographic discussion that centered on ways to incorporate history from the “bottom up” and to make the museum experience more interactive (Wallace, 1996; Hayden, 1997; Gardner and LaPaglia, 2004; Lewis, 2005; Gordon, 2010; Anderson, 2012; and Falk and Dierking, 2012).
            </p>
            <p>Almost twenty years after Rosenzweig and Thelen conducted their survey, William G. Thomas, Patrick D. Jones and Andrew Witmer “advanced a movement to democratize and open history” with the founding of the History Harvest Project at the University of Nebraska (Thomas, Jones, and Witmer, 2013). Incorporating their own digital history experience into the classroom, Thomas, Jones, and Witmer developed student projects that operated at the “intersection of digital history and experiential learning.” Beginning in 2010 and continuing to the present, students worked with specific communities to organize History Harvest events at which they photographed objects and scanned images offered by individuals from their personal collections. The photographs and scans were uploaded into an Omeka database and organized into collections and digital exhibits. The project’s aim is to “make invisible archives and stories more visible.” The founders argue that to be successful, a History Harvest must be “organic, grassroots, and local.”</p>
            <p>At the University of Central Florida (UCF), a Regional Initiative for Collecting History, Experiences, and Stories (RICHES™) Project has advanced the concept of student-public engagement through the use of History Harvests to collect “invisible archives and stories” by making the presentation of the digitized material interactive and democratizing the ability of site users to utilize the data in the collections to develop their own narratives. This transformational addition to the efforts to democratize history provides the user with the data, the tools to analyze the data, and the digital space to organize the data in order to create a narrative.</p>
            <p>Working in Florida, students have access to a history that celebrates more than 500 years of interaction between Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans. The geographical position of Florida with its extensive coastline means that the history of the area has always been global. Interaction between the people of Caribbean Islands and those living in Florida pre-dated European claims for the region and expands the scope of scholarship. Successive waves of Spanish, French, British and American settlers altered the landscape and created new borderlands that continued until well into the twentieth century. Currently, the third most populous state in the nation, with an economy that ranges from agriculture to tourism to space exploration and high tech industries, Florida’s history is deep, diverse, and largely unexplored. </p>
            <p>Students in graduate classes in Public History at UCF have completed three History Harvests and three additional Harvests are planned for 2016. The largest of the completed Harvests was accomplished through a partnership between the Introduction to Public History class, the Oviedo (Florida) Historical Society and a RICHES partnership tech firm, EZ-Photo-I/O Track. The students worked with the historical society to understand the history of the 137-year-old agricultural community that was transformed by the founding of UCF and the influx of thousands of students and faculty only three miles from the center of town. Based on the information provided by the historical society and a National Endowment for the Humanities-funded, society-published book (Adicks and Neely) the students conducted sixteen oral histories with descendants of the original settlers. In order to generate community awareness of the upcoming History Harvest students participated in public events and obtained permission to post information on the community and historical society social media sites. Building on the planning documents produced by previous student-led History Harvests, they organized the release forms, prepared to obtain the stories associated with items brought for scanning, and worked with EZ-Photo staff to facilitate the scanning process. More than 500 images, documents, three dimensional items, pamphlets, and scrapbooks were scanned on the day of the History Harvest. They told the story of citrus grove owners, farm laborers and fruit packers, migrants and immigrants to the community, schools, churches, and community social life. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""519/image1.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Oviedo History Harvest, 2015</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The UCF/RICHES History Harvest pushed the use of the collected data to a new, level by placing the material in RICHES Mosaic Interface™ 
                <ref target=""https://richesmi.cah.ucf.edu"">https://richesmi.cah.ucf.edu</ref> . RICHES MI was initially created with the help of a National Endowment for the Humanities Startup Grant, and is an Omeka archive with multiple custom plugins and a front end that is a unique mechanism for searching the archive. RICHES MI users can search the database using natural language, tags, and topics, and browse by collection categories to maximize their search results; analyze the results of their search using the RICHES-developed “Connections” feature to show the relationship between the returned item and other items in the database; and visualize their results on a Google map and through digital exhibits, map overlays, and other visualizations. Users can save their search results in a Bookbag where they can annotate individual items, store items in folders, map the items collected in folders on a Google map and a timeline, and analyze the connections between items in the folders. They can also develop a narrative using the story board feature to organize their data. Finally, a search in the Omeka archive provides the user with links to digitized primary and secondary sources relevant to the individual object as well as links to other databases or websites that might be useful to the researcher. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""519/image2.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Schematic of RICHES Functionality</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Student Harvests, like their counterparts elsewhere, also create digital exhibits to organize the collected images and documents into an interpretative narrative. Faculty and students gain much through their participation in the History Harvests. Students acquire digital skills in metadata writing, archiving and exhibit creation; they learn to conduct oral histories and plan events; and they develop an understanding of the connection between local history and national/global issues. Each student’s work is cited by name in the metadata and in digital exhibits. Faculty participants are organizing larger projects (i.e. Parramore Project and Glass Bank Project) that include History Harvests and are expected to result in scholarly and pedagogical publications. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""519/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>History Harvests in Omeka</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The next three projects, which are funded by a National Endowment for the Humanities “The Common Good: The Humanities in the Public Square” grant, will push the boundaries of History Harvests further: students will be using the oral histories and the collections obtained through History Harvests to produce a documentary film on an African American community’s struggles with urban development, to understand a coastal community’s relationship to an iconic building, and to provide evidence for two MA thesis projects dealing with Orlando’s LGBTQ community. The African American community project pairs students in an undergraduate history class with students at a predominantly black high school to explore changes that the construction of public buildings, entertainment and sports venues, an interstate highway, and the proposed expansion of UCF to a downtown campus have had on what was once a vibrant and cohesive African American community. The material collected will be used by a second undergraduate Honors class to produce a documentary film. This will be the fourth student produced film supervised by the course faculty. The second History Harvest will focus on an iconic building, the so-called Glass Bank, in Cocoa Beach, Florida. Constructed in the 1960s, the Glass Bank was demolished in 2014, but not before a partnership between RICHES and the Institute for Simulation and Training produced a 3D scan of the building. Recreated as it existed in 1963, the Glass Bank will serve as a vehicle for collecting images, artifacts and stories about the building as a center of community activity and economic development. See the video of the 3D scan 
                <ref target=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DtVETzCND4M"">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DtVETzCND4M</ref> Finally, students will work with the GLBT Virtual Museum and the Orange County Regional History Center to harvest images, oral histories, and artifacts that tell the story of the gay destination, Parliament House, and the effect of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Orlando. 
            </p>
            <p>The RICHES project builds upon the insights of Public History scholarship and Digital scholarship to understand the complex past of local communities and to connect those histories to larger narratives. Using History Harvests to build a bridge between individuals, families, and local museums and historical societies and the academic community of students and faculty provides a service to the public and experiential learning for students. Awareness of the interaction between local and the national/global events enables students to consider their own scholarship in new ways. Placing the material harvested in an interactive database like RICHES Mosaic Interface democratizes the history collected by providing context, analytical tools, and space for organizing personal narratives. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Wallace, M.</hi> (1996). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mickey Mouse History and Other Essays on American Memory</hi>. Philadelphia, PA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Hayden, D.</hi> (1997). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Power of Place: Urban Landscapes as Public History</hi>. Cambridge, MA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Adicks, R. and Donna N.</hi> (1998). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Oviedo: Biography of a Town</hi>. Ovideo, FL.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rosenzweig, R. and Thelen, D.</hi> (1998). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Presence of the Past: Popular Uses of History in American Life</hi>. New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gardner, J. B. and LaPaglia, P. S. (eds).</hi> (1999), (2004).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Public Essays from the Field</hi>. Malabar, FL.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Lewis, C.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Changing Face of Public History: The Chicago Historical Society and the Transformation of an American Museum</hi>. DeKalb, IL.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gordon, T. S. </hi>(2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Private History in Public: Exhibition and the Settings of Everyday Life</hi>. Nanham, MD.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Anderson, G. (ed).</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reinventing the Museum: The Evolving Conversation on the Paradigm Shift</hi>. Lanham, MD.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Falk, J. H. and Dierking, L. D.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Museum Experience Revisited</hi>. Walnut Creek, CA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Thomas, W. G., Jones, P. D. and Witmer, A.</hi> (2013). “History Harvests: What Happens When Students Collect and Digitize the People’s History?” 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Perspectives on History: The Newsmagazine of the American Historical Association</hi> (January 2013) 
                        <ref target=""https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/january-2013/history-harvests"">https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/january-2013/history-harvests</ref> (accessed October 15, 2015).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2585","17","Historical Linguistics' New Toys, or Stylometry Applied to the Study of Language Change","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Background</head>
                <p>In the last decades, quantitative linguistics (following exact and social sciences) has developed several statistical methods providing an insight into measurable phenomena of natural language. Although to a lesser extent, it also applies to the analysis of diachronic changes. Obviously, the so-called philological method in historical linguistics (unlike historical comparative and internal reconstruction methods) was always a kind of “corpus linguistics”, which means that a linguist studying a given period of a language investigated, via close reading, available written records. Consequently, the text was usually treated as a (mistrustful) informant. The implication of this attitude is that in principle, a single attestation of a linguistic fact in a text was considered a strong evidence. Paradoxically, it is synchronic corpus linguistics that changed the overly conservative approaches to diachrony. The most significant here is the shift from purely qualitative to quantitative argumentation. Certainly, the availability of machine-readable corpora allows for much more sophisticated quantitative analysis these days.</p>
                <p>A significant drawback of many of the quantitative methods applied so far is a tacit assumption that the researcher knows in advance which elements of the language are subject to change. In other words: the method of, say, plotting and inspecting the trend for a given phenomenon may be applied only to verify hypotheses stipulated earlier by traditional (that is qualitatively oriented) diachronic linguistics. A real challenge, however, is to develop such a method that would allow to trace chronological change in the language without a prior knowledge which linguistic features are responsible for the change. Promising results may be expected using some of the stylometric techniques based on the statistical analysis of style, especially the so-called multidimensional methods. The combination of stylometry and historical linguistics is not an entirely new idea. The problem of automatic recognition of relative chronology of texts was recently addressed by Stamou (2008; 2009), Štajner and Mitkov (2011), Popescu and Strapparava (2013), Štajner and Zampieri (2013), Zampieri et al. (2015). We shall note, however, that the first who sought to solve the question of chronology of texts via their stylistic features was Lutosławski (1897).</p>
                <p>Stylometric methods are particularly efficient when applied to frequencies of function words (or, the most frequent words). However, an interesting question arises what if we disregard words and examine grammatical features instead? Obviously, the usage of archaic vs. modern inflected forms alone will differentiate texts written in two distinct (yet still close) periods. What is less obvious, however, is whether processing solely POS-tags, i.e. grammatical labels, can show the dynamics of language change. Note that the sequences of POS-tags are a good approximation of syntax, even if they cannot replace parsing (Hirst and Feiguina, 2007; Wiersma et al., 2011). To scrutinize the above research question, we performed a number of stylometric tests using different (tailored) methods and different combinations of lexical and grammatical features’ 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi>-grams.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Chronology at a glance</head>
                <p>Standard stylometric methods are aimed at tracing differences between (groups of) texts. They proved to be successful in detecting a predominant stylistic signal, which in most cases is the authorial voice. However, when the number of analyzed texts is high enough, the emerging authorial groups (clusters) tend to form larger lumps reflecting the existence of other stylometric signals, such as genre, gender or chronology. This phenomenon can be observed very clearly when bootstrap consensus network – an enhanced version of cluster analysis (Eder, 2015) – is applied.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""296/10000201000007CF00000588FAA7D94637E73674.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 1: Stylometric network of similarities between 333 English texts</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>In Fig. 1, a network of an exemplary corpus of 333 English texts (De Smet, 2005) covering the period 1700–1930 is shown. The network was produced using most frequent words as predictors. One can notice a clear split into three distinct areas of the network that is due to a strong genre signal. However, despite the overwhelming division into novels, non-fiction, and drama, an additional chronological signal – represented by a transition from green (the earliest works) to red (the latest works) is fairly noticeable within each of the three sub-groups. Networks for other style markers (word 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi>-grams, POS-tag 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi>-grams) showed a similar behavior.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Modeling stylistic drifts</head>
                <p>Certainly, the general picture revealed by the above network is by no means satisfactory, at least from the perspective of historical linguists. In particular, one would like to know how to pinpoint the observed chronological transition, in terms of identifying interpretable trends and/or breaks. The idea discussed in this section addresses this problem by combining multivariate stylometry with linear regression models. </p>
                <p>Multidimensional scaling is a way of compressing (or projecting) a highly complex space into its simpler, usually two-dimensional, representation. Even if such a procedure always involves some loss of information, it is believed to reveal actual differences between samples. Now, since the technique allows to reduce the original space into an arbitrary number of dimensions, one can squeeze the data into just one dimension. This single MDS score can be plotted against the timeline, in order to test if any correlation between the two variables exist. The more diagonal is the shape of the plotted points, the higher the correlation.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""296/10000201000007CF000007270F5E092CE346D0DE.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 2: Multidimensional Scaling of 333 English texts (250 most frequent word 3-grams), compressed into one dimension and plotted against the timeline</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>In Fig. 2, some correlations between the timeline and the MDS values are fairly visible with a naked eye. However, when the results are scrutinized using a standard linear regression model 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">y</hi>
                    <hi rend=""sub italic"">i</hi> = 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">x</hi>
                    <hi rend=""sub italic"">i</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">β</hi>
                    <hi rend=""sub"">1</hi> + 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">β</hi>
                    <hi rend=""sub"">0</hi> + 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">ε</hi> (where 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">β</hi>
                    <hi rend=""sub"">1</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">β</hi>
                    <hi rend=""sub"">0</hi> are parameters of the model, and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">ε</hi> is a random effect), their correlations become even more obvious. The estimated model (a dashed line in Fig. 2), is formulized as 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">ŷ</hi>
                    <hi rend=""sub italic"">i</hi> = 0.272 * 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">d</hi>
                    <hi rend=""sub italic"">i</hi> – 499.94 + 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">ε</hi>, where 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">d</hi>
                    <hi rend=""sub italic"">i</hi> denotes the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">i</hi>-th text’s date of publication. In terms of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">p</hi> value, the model is statistically significant (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">p</hi> < 0.01); however, the goodness of fit as represented by the adjusted 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">R</hi>
                    <hi rend=""sup"">2</hi> value is rather poor (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">R</hi>
                    <hi rend=""sup"">2</hi> = 0.06), due to the overwhelming genre signal hidden in the dataset. When one splits the corpus into three genres and analyzes them separately, however, the explanatory power of the model is far higher.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Supervised classification and the timeline</head>
                <p>One of the most interesting aspects of language development – overlooked in a vast majority of the existing studies – is the question of the dynamics of linguistic changes. Presumably, one should expect epochs of substantial stylistic drift followed by periods of stagnation, rather than purely linear trends. </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""296/10000201000007CF000006D2F542A2E3329780E9.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 3: A sequence of Nearest Shrunken Classification tests on 333 English texts: cross-validated results for different vectors of most frequent POS-tag 2-grams</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>To assess this issue, we apply an iterative procedure of automatic text classification. First, we formulate a working hypothesis that a certain year – be it 1750 – marks a major linguistic break. We divide the text samples into the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">ante</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">post</hi> subsets, according to particular texts’ publication date. Next, we randomly pick a number of train and test samples representing the both classes (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">ante</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">post</hi>), and we train a supervised classifier. We perform a standard classification, and record the cross-validated accuracy rates. Then we dismiss the original hypothesis, in order to test new ones: we iterate over the timeline, testing the years 1755, 1760, 1765, 1770, ... for their discriminating power. The assumption is simple here: any acceleration of linguistic change will be reflected by higher accuracy scores.
                </p>
                <p>In Fig. 3, the classification accuracy rates for the aforementioned corpus of 333 English texts were shown (POS-tag 2-grams, NSC classifier). As one can observe, the scores obtained for the period 1750–1850 are only slightly higher than the baseline, betraying no revolutionary changes in this period. Later, however, the stylistic drift accelerates, reaching 70% of correctly recognized test samples.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Conclusions</head>
                <p>in this paper we used a set of tailored stylometric methods to assess the question of language change over time. Our chosen techniques proved to be useful indeed; the further research will focus on tracing the very linguistic features that were responsible for the observed change. However, an important question has to be asked here: is it a change of Saussurean 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">langue</hi> what we track with our approach, or rather the change of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">parole</hi>. Obviously, if texts written earlier can be separated from texts written more recently, they must share some features common for a given stage of language development. However, it is not clear if an observed change is due to, say, literary taste of the epoch or, if we face an actual change in the system here. Theoretically, the former and the latter are possible, as well as both answers together. It is also very likely that the change takes place in between: in the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">norm</hi> in the sense proposed by Coseriu (1958). Still there are no means to answer this question with any stylometric method, what for a linguist might be seen as a drawback. However, the proposed method informs the linguist about the fact of change, which takes place not only in lexis but also in syntax; about the speed of change and, above all, about the points where this speed accelerates.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Acknowledgements</head>
                <p>This research is part of project UMO-2013/11/B/HS2/02795, supported by Poland’s National Science Centre.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Smet, H.</hi> (2005). A corpus of Late Modern English texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Computer Archive of Modern and Medieval English</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>: 69–82.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M.</hi> (2015). Visualization in stylometry: cluster analysis using networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>, first published online 3 December 2015, doi: 10.1093/llc/fqv061.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hirst, G. and Feiguina, O.</hi> (2007). Bigrams of syntactic labels for authorship discrimination of short texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>(4): 405–17.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lutosławski, W.</hi> (1897). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Origin and Growth of Plato’s Logic: With an Account of Plato’s Style and of the Chronology of His Writings</hi>. London: Longmans, Green and Company.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Popescu, O. and Strapparava, C.</hi> (2013). Behind the times: Detecting epoch changes using large corpora. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing</hi>. pp. 347–55 http://anthology.aclweb.org/I/I13/I13-1040.pdf (accessed 25 November 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Štajner, S. and Mitkov, R.</hi> (2011). Diachronic stylistic changes in British and American varieties of 20th century written English language. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Workshop on Language Technologies for Digital Humanities and Cultural Heritage at RANLP</hi>. pp. 78–85 http://www.anthology.aclweb.org/W/W11/W11-41.pdf#page=88 (accessed 25 November 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Štajner, S. and Zampieri, M.</hi> (2013). Stylistic changes for temporal text classification. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text, Speech, and Dialogue</hi>. Springer, pp. 519–26 http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-40585-3_65 (accessed 25 November 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stamou, C.</hi> (2008). Stylochronometry: stylistic development, sequence of composition, and relative dating. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(2): 181–99.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stamou, C.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dating Victorians</hi>. VDM Publishing.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wiersma, W., Nerbonne, J. and Lauttamus, T.</hi> (2011). Automatically extracting typical syntactic differences from corpora. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">26</hi>(1): 107–24.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zampieri, M., Ciobanu, A. M., Niculae, V. and Dinu, L. P.</hi> (2015). AMBRA: A Ranking Approach to Temporal Text Classification. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 9th International Workshop on Semantic Evaluation (SemEval 2015)</hi>. Denver, pp. 851–55 http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marcos_Zampieri/publication/273769693_AMBRA_A_Ranking_Approach_to_Temporal_Text_Classification/links/550c14850cf2b2450b4e901e.pdf (accessed 25 November 2015).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2586","17","How IBM Watson Can Help Us Understand Character in Shakespeare: A Cognitive Computing Approach to the Plays.","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>The study of an individuals’ personality traits is a new line of research that emerged only recently, primarily through the investigation of dialogue systems and weblogs (Gill et al., 2012; Konstantopoulos, 2010; Mairesse and Walker, 2006; Mairesse and Walker, 2007). This paper proposes a novel application for personality classification by leveraging on cognitive computing research and by exploiting the poetic production of theatrical plays. More specifically, this research is circumscribed to the analysis of Shakespeare’s tragedies, which offer a rich spectrum of characters for a detailed and in-depth study. This research does not aim at introducing the innovative technological aspects of personality classification in cognitive computing but rather at employing such technology in the study of English literature, and analyse some implications that arise from the results.</p>
                <p>Before presenting the core of this research, we outline the psychological theory of the “Big Five,” its implementation as well as its extension in IBM Watson. Successively, in Section 2, we introduce the data used, the method applied and the results obtained in our analysis. In Section 3, we discuss some useful applications and extensions for literature scholars. Finally, we conclude by presenting some considerations for future research.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                    <head>IBM Watson and the Big Five personality insight</head>
                    <p>Cognitive computing originated in the early 60s, however, it has been improved dramatically in recent years, achieving significant success through the launch of IBM Watson in 2010. IBM Watson simulates human cognitive systems by implementing advanced natural language processing, information retrieval, knowledge representation, automated reasoning, and machine learning technologies to the field of open domain question answering (Ferrucci et al., 2010; Ferrucci, 2012). Among human cognitive activities, one of the most employed is the capability to understand and forecast other people’s personalities. As described in the Big Five theory (Norman, 1963) formulated by scholars in psychology, each individual presents a different aptitude in identifying characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving in others. The Big Five theory is the main theory on which IBM Watson has been built; it distinguishes between five broad dimensions underlying an individual’s personality, namely openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.</p>
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>Openness mirrors the level of scholarly interest, imagination and an inclination for oddities. </item>
                        <item>Conscientiousness is the propensity to be reliable, to show self-control and act obediently. </item>
                        <item>Extroversion comprises vitality, positive feelings, confidence, amiability and the propensity to look for incitement in the organization of others. </item>
                        <item>Agreeableness is the inclination to be merciful and agreeable as opposed to suspicious and adversarial towards others. </item>
                        <item>Neuroticism is the propensity to encounter obnoxious feelings, for example, outrage, uneasiness, wretchedness, and powerlessness.</item>
                    </list>
                    <p>Next to the Big Five personalities, IBM Watson takes into account the concept of “Needs,” which are described by the literature as universal needs shared by all human beings (Ford, 2005; Kotler and Armstrong, 2010). Along with Big Five and Needs, IBM Watson takes into account the psychological concepts of Values which are defined as “desirable, trans-situational goals, varying in importance, that serve as guiding principles in people’s lives” (Schwartz, 2006). As mentioned on the IBM Watson website
                        <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">.
                            <ptr target=""http://www.ibm.com/smarterplanet/us/en/ibmwatson/developercloud/doc/personality-insights/science.shtml""/>accessed on October 25 2015
                        </note> “Schwartz summarizes five features that are common to all values: (1) values are beliefs; (2) values are a motivational construct; (3) values transcend specific actions and situations; (4) values guide the selection or evaluation of actions, policies, people, and events; and (5) values vary by relative importance and can be ranked accordingly.”
                    </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Method and Results</head>
                <p>Our objective consists in comparing the personality of the main characters of three Shakespeare’s tragedies in a positive versus negative sentimental context. To establish these contexts we use the work of Nalisnik et al. (Nalisnick and Baird, 2013) on sentiment analysis to divide the characters of the play into two groups. The first group is composed of those characters towards which the main character expresses mainly positive sentiments; the second group comprises those characters towards which the main character expresses mainly negative sentiments. In practice, we extracted each instance of continuous speech from the plays
                    <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2"">. XML versions provided by Jon Bosan: 
                        <ptr target=""http://www.ibiblio.org/xml/examples/shakespeare/""/>accessed on October 15 2015
                    </note>. The groups divisions take in account the sentiment valence and the minima of sings that the IBM Personality Insights needs to produce significant results and then assumed that each speech act by one speaker was directed towards the character that spoke immediately before him. We used this assumption to replicate Nalisnik’s data but, as he pointed out in his paper, “This assumption does not always hold; it is not uncommon to find a scene in which two characters are expressing feelings about someone off-stage.”. We retrieved the sentiment valences for each main character
                    <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3"">. The tables provided by Nalisnik in 
                        <ptr target=""http://www.ics.uci.edu/~enalisni/ShakespeareExplorer.html""/>accessed on October 15 2015
                    </note>, reported in the following tables:
                </p>
                <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Table1"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Table1-1"">
                                <row>
                                    <cell cols=""2"">Hamlet’s Sentiment </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell cols=""2"">Valence Sum</cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Guildenstern </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">31 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Polonius </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">25 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Gertrude </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">24 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Horatio </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">12 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Ghost </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">8 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Marcellus </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">7 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Osric </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">7 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Bernardo </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">2 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Laertes </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">-10 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Phelia </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">-5 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Rosencrantz </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">-12 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Claudius </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">-27 </cell>
                                </row>
                            </table>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Table1-2"">
                                <row>
                                    <cell cols=""2"" rend=""center bold"">Othello’s Sentiment</cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell cols=""2"" rend=""center bold"">Valence Sum</cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Iago </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">71 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Cassio </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">38 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Brabantio </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">27 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Duke of Venice </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">24 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Montano </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">7 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Desdemona </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">-1 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Lodovico </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">-4 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Emilia </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">-10</cell>
                                </row>
                            </table>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Table1-3"">
                            <head>>Table 1: Tables representing the sentiment valence sum, and the used groups for each main character. Positive scores stand for a character’s positive attitude towards others and negative scores stand for a negative attitude</head>
                                <row>
                                    <cell cols=""2"" rend=""center bold"">Macbeth’s Sentiment</cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell cols=""2"" rend=""center bold"">Valence Sum</cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Murderer 1 </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">22 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Banquo </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">16 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Duncan </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">8 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Angus: </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">7 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Macduff </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">5 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Which 3 </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">5 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Which 1 </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">1 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Young Siward </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">-4 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Lennox </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">-11 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Seyton </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">-20 </cell>
                                </row>
                                <row>
                                    <cell rend=""start"">Lady Macbeth </cell>
                                    <cell rend=""end"">-39 </cell>
                                </row>
                            </table>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>By assembling all continuous speech sequences directed to the characters in the different groups, we created two text groups: the first group contains all lines of the main character towards the others when expressing positive sentiments, the second group includes those speech sequences characterized by a negative sentimental connotation. We performed this task for three main characters, more specifically Hamlet, Othello and Macbeth. In Table , the positive and negative word counts for these text assemblies are plotted.</p>
                <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Table2"">
                <head>Table 2: Word counts per characters of positive and negative sentimental context</head>
                    <row>
                        <cell/>
                        <cell rend=""center bold"">Positive </cell>
                        <cell rend=""center bold"">Negative</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""center bold"">Hamlet </cell>
                        <cell rend=""center"">6655 </cell>
                        <cell rend=""center"">3455 </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""center bold"">Othello </cell>
                        <cell rend=""center"">3424 </cell>
                        <cell rend=""center"">2407 </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""center bold"">Macbeth </cell>
                        <cell rend=""center"">1293 </cell>
                        <cell rend=""center"">1852 </cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Finally, we used IBM’s personality insight service to create personality profiles for each of the main characters based on the positive and negative texts. Figures 1, 2 and 3 represent the distribution of needs and values with respect to the positive or negative sentimental valence. Points on line represent independence with respect to the latter. For needs and values falling below this line, the distribution is characteristic for the expression of negative sentiments. We also created personality graphs with respect to the groups. Although they are calculated as percent of a given facet (as indicated by the x axis), the facets vary between low and high values. Thus, the bars in the graph begin at 50% and can either be low (to the left) or high. A score of 50% signifies that the facet is balanced. </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""280/100002010000052B00000A5600BE9868.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 1: Hamlet’s scores for Needs, Values and the Big Five categories</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""280/100002010000052B00000A56D5874874.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 2: Othello's scores for Needs, Values and the Big Five categories</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""280/100002010000052B00000A56B6B013A2.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 3: MacBeth's scores for Needs, Values and the Big Five categories</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Some Insights and Discussion</head>
                <p>A quantitative approach to character clearly generates a comparatively large amount of linguistic data. The question is, how are we to use this data? What can such an approach offer Shakespeare studies and the humanities more broadly? How does the data we have generated contribute to the critical conversation in a sub-field like character criticism (Hazlitt, 1845; Bradley, 1992; Desmet, 1992; Yachnin and Slights, 2009) which has such a long and distinguished history. There are two answers to this question. First, our analysis shows in a more concrete and detailed way than ever before, the close relationship between character and language, something easy to forget in the context of a representational practice like theatre which is so dependent on non-linguistic features, such as gesture, costume, and stage properties. Playgoers, however, do not just see character; they also hear it. And in the modern humanities classroom, they read it. Accordingly, words play a significant role is crafting what we would now call the “personalities” of Shakespeare’s stage. Our approach offers a new means of isolating and analyzing these verbal features of character. The second way in which our work contributes to Shakespeare studies has to do with something our data does not tell us. To understand what we mean by this, consider for a moment why it is that the words associated with some characters generate a personality profile that anyone familiar with the plays knows does not quite fit? Why, for example, does Hamlet have a verbal data set that makes him seem much more serious and honor-driven than he actually is It is because the technology we are using is not capable of accounting for context and therefore cannot detect things like irony and wordplay, two things that are extremely important components of the way language articulates character and personality. While this may be viewed as a methodological weakness from the perspective of information technology, it is a great strength from the perspective of the humanities. For it is precisely at those moments that the data fails to deliver coherent results that we are forced to ask compelling questions about language and art: why do words that seem to mean one thing have the opposite effect on stage? What is the relationship between the literal and implied meanings of words in the constitution of dramatic character? In the end, this facet of our contribution to Shakespeare studies illustrates something important not just about our project specifically, but also about the digital humanities generally: the value of applying computational technology to literary texts lies not in the promise of “better data” or irrefutable “facts,” but rather in the way such technology returns us again and again to the fundamental humanist questions that help us understand how literature and art work
                    <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""4"">. This idea has been advanced influentially in the work of Jonathan Hope and Michael Witmore. See their blog, Wine Dark Sea 
                        <ref target=""http://winedarksea.org/"">http://winedarksea.org</ref>.
                    </note>.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Future Research</head>
                <p>In this paper we introduced novel techniques based on cognitive computing to get an understanding of characters in Shakespeare’s plays. This research explores newway of computer-assisted methods for the investigation of literature. Nonetheless, some technical issues need to be overcome in order to improve the quality of this new methodology. First, an improved methodology to outline the sentiment polarity needs to be developed. Second, the low representativity of IBM’s personality model needs to be enhanced in order to catch literary phenomena in sources such as Twitter, Wikipedia, and other such corpora. Thus, recreating a personality insight service based on a literary work corpus would surly enhance the results of our method.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bradley, A. C.</hi> (1992). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespearean Tragedy: Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth</hi>. 3rd ed. New York: St. Martinis Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Desmet, C.</hi> (1992). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reading Shakespeare’s Characters: Rhetoric, Ethics, and Identity</hi>. Amherst: Univ of Massachusetts Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ferrucci, D. A.</hi> (2012). Introduction to ‘This is Watson’. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IBM Journal of Research and Development</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">56</hi>(3): 1 doi:10.1147/JRD.2012.2184356.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ferrucci, D. A., Brown, E. W., Chu-Carroll, J., Fan, J., Gondek, D., Kalyanpur, A., Lally, A., et al.</hi> (2010). Building Watson: An Overview of the DeepQA Project. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">AI Magazine</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">31</hi>(3): 59–79.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ford, J. K.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Brands Laid Bare: Using Market Research for Evidence-Based Brand Management</hi>. Wiley https://books.google.it/books?id=0Q3OClLh6UsC.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gill, A., Brockmann, C. and Oberlander, J.</hi> (2012). Perceptions of Alignment and Personality in Generated Dialogue. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">INLG 2012 Proceedings of the Seventh International Natural Language Generation Conference</hi>. Utica, IL: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 40–48 http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W12-1508.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hazlitt, W.</hi> (1845). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Characters of Shakespeare’s Plays</hi>. Boston: Wiley and Putnam.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Konstantopoulos, S.</hi> (2010). An Embodied Dialogue System with Personality and Emotions. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2010 Workshop on Companionable Dialogue Systems</hi>. Uppsala, Sweden: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 31–36 http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W10-2706.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kotler, P. and Armstrong, G. M.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Principles of Marketing</hi>. (PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING). Prentice Hall https://books.google.it/books?id=5HkrAQAAMAAJ.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mairesse, F. and Walker, M.</hi> (2006). Automatic Recognition of Personality in Conversation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Human Language Technology Conference of the NAACL, Companion Volume: Short Papers</hi>. New York City, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 85–88 http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/N/N06/N06-2022.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mairesse, F. and Walker, M.</hi> (2007). PERSONAGE: Personality Generation for Dialogue. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 45th Annual Meeting of the Association of Computational Linguistics</hi>. Prague, Czech Republic: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 496–503 http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/P07-1063.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nalisnick, E. T. and Baird, H. S.</hi> (2013). <hi rend=""italic"">Character-to-character sentiment analysis in Shakespeare’s Plays</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Norman, W. T.</hi> (1963). Toward an adequate taxonomy of personality attributes: replicated factors structure in peer nomination personality ratings. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">J Abnorm Soc Psychol</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">66</hi>: 574–83.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schwartz, S. H.</hi> (2006). Basic human values: Theory, measurement, and applications. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Revue Française de Sociologie</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">47</hi>(4): 249–88.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Yachnin, P. and Slights, J.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare and Character: Theory, History, Performance and Theatrical Persons</hi>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2587","17","If Paintings were Plants: Measuring Genre Diversity in Seventeenth-Century Dutch Painting and Printmaking","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Tracing the ""origins of pictorial species"" (to borrow Larry Silver's turn of phrase) has long been an interest of art historians. (Silver, 2006) The emergence of distinct genres of painting (e.g. dedicated landscapes or still-lifes) in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Europe, and in the Netherlands in particular, has proven especially fascinating. Historians of art and economics have hypothesized that, by specializing in standalone still-lifes, landscapes, or so-called ""genre scenes"" of everyday life, painters may have reaped two advantages: an opportunity to distinguish themselves in the uniquely competitive art market in the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Netherlands; and the ability to efficiently paint similar compositions over and over again. (Chong, 1987; Montias, 1988) But would professional printmakers also have adopted this specialization strategy? Or did the medium, which was often put to use making reproductions after other artists' designs, instead favor etchers and engravers willing to render the works of a wide variety of artists? Existing case studies present conflicting evidence. How can we test this question at scale?</p>
            <p>While Silver only invokes speciation as a metaphor, ecology may offer a useful quantitative model for thinking about genre specialization. A common measurement of species diversity (Shannon's diversity metric) can be used to characterize artists' relative specialization or diversification in genre, thus allowing us to gain a broader perspective on printmakers' specialization or diversification strategies. I will first demonstrate how this index can detect Dutch painters' trend towards genre specialization from a database of paintings seventeenth-century Dutch household inventories, and a comprehensive database of Dutch paintings in modern-day museum collections. I will then use it to test whether or not we can detect similar results in a database of prints maintained by the Rijksmuseum.</p>
            <div xml:id=""methodology"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methodology</head>
                <p>Whether looking at the diversity of species within an ecosystem, or the variety of different industries within a state, diversity measures have to account for two dimensions:</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Categorical: How many discrete classes are observed?</item>
                    <item>Allocation: How even is the distribution of units among categories?</item>
                </list>
                <p>Shannon's measurement of diversity (
                    <formula>
                        <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>D</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>s</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                        </mml:math>
                    </formula>), a widely-used metric, captures both of these dimensions of diversity.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p> Shannon's diversity index 
                            <formula>
                                <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                    <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>D</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>s</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                    </msub>
                                </mml:math>
                            </formula> is defined as the negative sum of the proportions of every class size within the population multiplied by their logged equivalents, where 
                            <formula>
                                <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                    <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>n</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>i</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                    </msub>
                                </mml:math>
                            </formula> is the number of observations in class 
                            <formula>
                                <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                    <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">i</mi>
                                </mml:math>
                            </formula>, and 
                            <formula>
                                <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                    <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">N</mi>
                                </mml:math>
                            </formula> is the total population size:
                        </p>
                        <p>
                            <formula>
                                <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                    <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>D</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>s</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                    </msub>
                                    <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">=</mo>
                                    <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">-</mo>
                                    <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">∑</mo>
                                    <mfrac xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                        <mrow>
                                            <msub>
                                                <mrow>
                                                    <mi>n</mi>
                                                </mrow>
                                                <mrow>
                                                    <mi>i</mi>
                                                </mrow>
                                            </msub>
                                        </mrow>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>N</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                    </mfrac>
                                    <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"" mathvariant=""normal"">l</mi>
                                    <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"" mathvariant=""normal"">n</mi>
                                    <mfrac xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                        <mrow>
                                            <msub>
                                                <mrow>
                                                    <mi>n</mi>
                                                </mrow>
                                                <mrow>
                                                    <mi>i</mi>
                                                </mrow>
                                            </msub>
                                        </mrow>
                                        <mrow>
                                            <mi>N</mi>
                                        </mrow>
                                    </mfrac>
                                </mml:math>
                            </formula>
                        </p>
                        <p>For the original derivation of Shannon's diversity, see (Shannon and Weaver, 1949); for the R implementation of this formula, see (Oksanen et al., 2015).</p>
                    </note> Originally developed to characterize entropy in information transmission, this metric of diversity has been applied to the studies as diverse as ecological diversity, economic specialization, and racial segregation. (Gibbs and Martin, 1962; Ottaviano et al., 2003) To measure whether specialization or generalization was more favored by painters and printmakers, each artist's oeuvre is treated as a ""population"" with a single diversity score calculated per artist. By this measure, a population whose members are distributed evenly across several different species/categories will have a higher diversity index than a population whose members are largely concentrated in just one category.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""data"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Data</head>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""327/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure The number of unique artists and artworks represented in each dataset, subdivided by birth year</head>
                </figure>
                <p>This study is based on two sources of information about paintings, and one source for prints.</p>
                <p>The first, a modern resource, is the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">RKDimages</hi> database compiled by the Rijksbureau voor Kunsthistorische Documentatie.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text"">
                            <ref target=""https://rkd.nl/en/explore/images"">https://rkd.nl/en/explore/images</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note> This catalog of Dutch and Flemish artworks extant in collections around the world contains approximately 13,000 dated and attributed paintings that have each been tagged with a series of keywords (on average between 6 to 7 keywords per painting) describing their subject matter.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p> These keywords have been assigned by hand by researchers at the RKD, building on the index cards typewritten by Hofstede de Groot (1863--1930) that have served as the foundation of the RKD's current digital databases.</p>
                    </note> The scale of the RKD database makes it unfeasible for the individual researcher to manually categorize each artwork into a single broad subject category. Therefore, I identified clusters of artworks that shared groups of keywords though community detection on a constructed graph where each object was connected to others based on shared RKD subject keywords.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p> On the community detection algorithm, see (Blondel et al. ,2008); implemented in R by (Csardi and Nepusz, 2006).</p>
                    </note> I then checked the resulting groups manually to confirm that they did, in fact, corresponded relatively well to common genre categories. The resulting groups roughly encompassed: 1) portraits, 2) still lifes, 3) landscapes, 4) religious paintings, and 5) a looser array of other works that featured multiple figures (generally genre scenes or history subjects).
                </p>
                <p>Because the surviving paintings in the RKD database are a biased proxy of the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">actual</hi> patterns of paintings produced in the seventeenth century, it is crucial to compare the trends derived from the RKD's modern database against contemporary archival records. The Montias Database of 17th Century Dutch Art Inventories, maintained by the Frick Art Reference Library, contains information on household inventories from Amsterdam that were recorded between 1575 and 1700.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text"">
                            <ref target=""http://research.frick.org/montias/home.php"">http://research.frick.org/montias/home.php</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note> Of these inventories, 1153 contained at least two paintings The Montias Database has 86 different subject headings, which have been manually grouped into the same general set of subject headings that we used for the RKD database.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                        <p> The number of subject headings detailed by Montias are small enough that it was feasible to manually generate a concordance between the 86 original subject headings and the ten subject headings used by Van der Woude in his study of the same database: ""old testament"", ""new testament"", ""other religious"", ""mythology-allegory"", ""history"", ""landscape"", ""genre"", ""still life"", ""portrait"", ""animals"", ""other"", and ""unknown""; (van der Woude, 1991).</p>
                    </note> The MDI describes 34,147 paintings, of which 26,349 (about 77% of the total) have an identified subject (the rest are labeled ""unknown""), with 4,377 of those described paintings (about 13% of the total) attributed to a specific artist.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                        <p> This limited level of description common in collection inventories from the seventeenth century. While it was common to describe the subject of the painting and its size, notaries generally did not make an attribution of an artwork unless its painter was well-known enough that its attribution would have impacted the painting's monetary value.</p>
                    </note> The Montias inventories are also an imperfect reflection of seventeenth-century painting production, being biased towards rich collectors, mostly in Amsterdam, who died with outstanding debt. However, if both the modern and contemporary datasets reveal similar patterns in specialization, this would strengthen the case for claiming that a trend towards specialization existed historically. (De Vries, 1991:259--260.)
                </p>
                <p>Unfortunately, there are virtually no seventeenth-century inventories that catalog individual prints. Instead, we rely solely on the surviving prints in the collection of the Rijksmuseum
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn8"" n=""8"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text"">
                            <ref target=""https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/"">https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note>: an imperfect source, though one that is also unparalleled in its coverage of known surviving prints from this period. The Rijksmuseum has classified their artworks based on the ICONCLASS system for tagging iconography in European art
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn9"" n=""9"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text"">
                            <ref target=""http://iconclass.org/"">http://iconclass.org/</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note>, and this has also been mapped to the same broader categories used in the Montias database. Multiple impressions of the same print have been roughly disambiguated by removing prints with a duplicate engraver, title, and dates. This study is also only considering reproductive prints, so prints made by engravers or etchers after their own designs are excluded from this analysis.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""results"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results</head>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""327/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure The oeuvre diversity ranges of painters (Montias and RKD datasets) and printmakers (RKM dataset) born at different points between 1500 and 1700</head>
                </figure>
                <p>We find that, although both the Montias and RKD paintings datasets show wide variation, with both highly specialized painters and highly diversified ones, both datasets reflect an increasing number of specialized painters born after 1600, as shown by a decreasing median oeuvre diversity. On the other hand, the median oeuvre diversity of printmakers in the Rijksmuseum dataset remains consistent during the entire period of study. This confirms the widely-held hypothesis that an increasing number of Dutch painters defined a niche for themselves by specializing in a particular genre. The results also appear to support the previously-unexamined hypothesis that reproductive printmakers instead favored making prints after a wide array of artworks; printmakers who did define highly specialized niches appear to have been the exception, rather than the norm.</p>
                <p>So what subjects did these specialists prefer? Prolific specialized painters overwhelmingly favored landscapes: of those artists in the bottom diversity quartile (i.e. the 25% most specialized painters in the Montias database), almost 85% of their paintings are described as landscapes, followed in a distant second by still-life paintings. Landscape was a genre that was both highly conventionalized - it was easy to produce endless variations on the same general set of topographical motifs - and also amenable to a very efficient technique - a landscape could be rendered in broad brushwork with a limited palette and still be an aesthetic success. (Goedde, 1997) Still-life paintings in this period were also, by in large, the purview of specialists. They may comprise a much smaller share of the total number of paintings in the Montias database because, unlike landscapes, the aesthetic effect of still lifes was often dependent on the painter's mimetic skill and illusionistc finish - not a technique conducive to speedy production.</p>
                <p>On the other hand, of those printmakers who 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">did</hi> specialize in particular genres of prints, we do not find a single dominant theme. Rather, a few specialties rise to the top: ""news"" prints depicting current events, architectural illustrations, and allegorical or biblical series prints. Those printmakers who did specialize (Table 1) did not rely on prints as their main means of support; many were specialist painters who happened to produce prints as well. But these printmakers were outnumbered by those professional printmakers (Table 2) who were willing and able to render reproductions after a wide variety of artists. This flexibility could have presented an attractive insurance policy for print publishers, who had to continually react to the demands of a quickly-moving market for artistic prints and illustrations, while also appealing to the seventeenth-century function of prints as encyclopedic sources of knowledge. (MacGregor, 1999:395)
                </p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">artist name</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">works</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">div</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">subjects</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Abraham Dircksz Santvoort</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">123</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">0.74</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">topographical views, history prints</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Allaert van Everdingen</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">113</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">0.77</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">landscape, animals</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Adriaen van Ostade</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">85</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">0.67</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">genre, low-life</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Isaac Vincentsz van der Vinne</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">82</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">0.23</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">heraldry</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Reinier Nooms</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">72</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">0.58</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">seascape</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Cornelis Dusart</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">57</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">0.76</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">portraiture</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Theodoor van Thulden</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">52</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">0.68</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">antiquity, mythology</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Cornelis Pietersz Bega</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">36</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">0.62</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">genre</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Anthonie Waterloo</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">35</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">0.67</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">landscape</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Table 1: The most productive Dutch and Flemish specialist printmakers (those falling below the 45th diversity percentile). Note that the count of ""works"" treats print series as a single work</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">artist name</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">works</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">div</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">subjects</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Jan Luyken</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">2,047</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">1.64</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">bible scenes, seascape, genre, historical, architecture, titlepages</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Caspar Luyken</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">454</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">1.74</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">bible, landscape, historical, genre, maps</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Aegidius Sadeler</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">238</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">1.80</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">landscape, portraiture, allegory, mythology, religious</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Jacob Matham</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">229</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">1.73</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">allegory, mythology, portraiture, biblical</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Hendrick Goltzius</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">228</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">1.80</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">biblical, portraiture, allegory, antiquity, mythology, landscape</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Crispin van de Passe (I)</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">203</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">1.80</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">moralizing allegories, portraiture, devotional, botanical, biblical</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Johannes Wierix</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">215</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">1.54</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">portraiture, biblical, allegory, genre, mythology, devotional,</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Abraham Bloteling</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">188</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">1.72</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">landscape, genre scenes, portraiture, mythological</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Cornelis Bloemaert (II)</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">180</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">1.69</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">saints & other religious, biblical, portraiture</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">Raphaël Sadeler (I)</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">156</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">1.57</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Compact"">devotional series, biblical, allegory, mythology, titlepages</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Table 2: The most generalist Dutch and Flemish printmakers (those falling above the 85th diversity percentile)</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chong, A.</hi> (1987). The Market for Landscape Painting in Seventeenth-Century Holland. In Sutton, P. C. and Blankert, A. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Masters of Seventeenth-Century Dutch Landscape Painting</hi>. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, pp. 104–20.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Csardi, G. and Nepusz, T.</hi> (2006). The igraph Software Package for Complex Network Research. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">InterJournal</hi>: 1695.  
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Vries, J.</hi> (1991). Art History. In Freedberg, D. and De Vries, J. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Art in History, History in Art: Studies in Seventeenth-Century Dutch Culture</hi>. Santa Monica: Getty Center for the History of Art & the Humanities, pp. 249–71.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gibbs, J. P. and Martin, W. T.</hi> (1962). Urbanization, Technology, and the Division of Labor: International Patterns. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Goedde, L. O.</hi> (1997). Naturalism as Convention: Subject, Style, and Artistic Self-Consciousness in Dutch Landscape. In Franits, W. E. (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Looking at Seventeenth-Century Dutch Art: Realism Reconsidered</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 129–43.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">MacGregor, W. B.</hi> (1999). The Authority of Prints: An Early Modern Perspective. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Art History</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>(3): 389–420. doi:
                        <ref target=""https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8365.00163"">10.1111/1467-8365.00163</ref>.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Montias, J. M.</hi> (1988). Art Dealers in the Seventeenth-Century Netherlands. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(4): 244–56. doi:
                        <ref target=""https://doi.org/10.2307/3780702"">10.2307/3780702</ref>.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Montias, J. M.</hi> (2015). The Montias Database of 17th Century Dutch Art Inventories. Frick art reference library Database. 
                        <ref target=""http://research.frick.org/montias/home.php"">http://research.frick.org/montias/home.php</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Oksanen, J., Blanchet, F. G., Kindt, R., Legendre, P., Minchin, P. R., O’Hara, R. B., Sipson, G. L., Solymos, P., Stevens, M. H. H. and Wagner, H.</hi> (2015). Vegan: Community Ecology Package R Package (version 2.2-1) R Package (version 2.2-1), ms 
                        <ref target=""http://cran.r-project.org/package=vegan"">http://cran.r-project.org/package=vegan</ref>.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ottaviano, G. I. P., Pinelli, D., Maignan, C. J. and Rullani, F.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bio-Ecological Diversity Vs. Socio-Economic Diversity: A Comparison of Existing Measures</hi>. SSRN Scholarly Paper.  
                        <ref target=""http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=389043"">http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=389043</ref>.
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                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shannon, C. E. and Weaver, W.</hi> (1949). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Mathematical Theory of Communication</hi>. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Silver, L.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Peasant Scenes and Landscapes: The Rise of Pictorial Genres in the Antwerp Art Market</hi>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
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                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Woude, A. M. van der</hi> (1991). The Volume and Value of Paintings in Holland at the Time of the Dutch Republic. In Freedberg, D. and De Vries, J. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Art in History, History in Art: Studies in Seventeenth-Century Dutch Culture</hi>. Santa Monica: Getty Center for the History of Art & the Humanities, pp. 285–329.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2588","17","Intersectional Scholarship in Electronic Literature and Digital Humanities","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p rend=""normal"">This panel examines some of the many shared issues between Digital Humanities (DH) practices and theories with those in the study of Electronic Literature (E-Lit). Until recently, the fields of DH and E-Lit, though intimately related, have intersected only to a certain extent. The historical development of each of the fields––broadly speaking, DH originating from the earlier humanities computing; E-Lit work from experimental poetics and digital media––might be the reason why these two fields have not engaged in sustained communication. A few events have started to revert this tendency. Within the Alliance of Digital Humanities Organizations (ADHO), the approval of the Special Interest Group on Audiovisual Data in Digital Humanities (SIG AVinDH) is an important milestone fostering the exchange of “knowledge, expertise, methods and tools by scholars who make use of audiovisual data types that can convey a certain level of narrativity: spoken audio, video and/or (moving) images” (
                    <ref target=""https://avindhsig.wordpress.com/2015/06/24/avindh-sig-dh2015-in-sydney/"">
                        <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">AVinDH SIG @DH2015 in Sydney)</hi>
                    </ref>. Similarly, constant collaboration between the Digital Humanities Summer Institute (DHSI) and the Electronic Literature Organization (ELO) in the last few years has lead to deeper collaborations between scholars bridging both fields of knowledge. 
                </p>
                <p rend=""normal"">In previous ADHO conferences, though on occasion E-Lit has been part of the schedule, it remains a fact that there is room for a timely intervention not only signaling where E-Lit and DH intersect, but also pointing out where E-Lit specific insights are capable to illuminate instrumental approaches to DH theory and practice. E-Lit work has much to offer to DH. An awareness of the expressiveness and historicity of the digital medium that compliments its instrumental and innovative dimension. Dealing with multiple expressive codes besides language, and through the leadership of the ELO, E-Lit work has been at the forefront of inclusivity, diversity, and multilingualism. Issues that continue to be discussed in DH venues. </p>
                <p rend=""normal"">Specifically, the papers in this panel will focus on the materiality of electronic literature as it illuminates the ongoing debates of print-digital media and changing reading and writing practices; the applicability to works of E-Lit of forms of quantitative criticism that had been used exclusively for print literature in DH; and finally, the best practices for collecting and archiving electronic literature as it affects GLAM and what it can teach us about all, or most, DH work subject to obsolescence. We hope that this panel will foster further explorations and collaborations between the two fields of study.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>""Print"" Works of Electronic Literature and Scholarly DH Narratives</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Élika Ortega, Institute for Digital Research in the Humanities. University of Kansas.</hi>
                </p>
                <p rend=""normal"">These paper starts with the question what can DH practitioners learn from material composition of electronic literature works in order to improve the outreach of DH projects? This work focuses specifically on the material architecture of ""print"" works of electronic literature, which I understand as those that depend or heavily hinge on print materials for their digital configuration. Drawing from this corpus, I propose to take E-Lit works as models to explore and address the effect of digital media as it has modified––and continues to propose a modification of––reading and writing practices as well as modes of abstracting, encoding, and communicating information, all of which are common in DH pedagogical and research praxis. </p>
                <p rend=""normal"">First, I examine a handful of creative print works of electronic literature including Stephanie Strickland's et al 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Vniverse</hi> (2011), Amaranth Borsuk and Brad Bouse’s
                    <hi rend=""italic""> Between Page and Screen</hi> (2012), Nick Montfort’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">#!</hi> (2014), and Jacob Garbe and Aaron Reed’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Ice-Bound </hi>(2015). I argue that the architecture of these works requires specific infrastructural conditions and the unfolding of several practices or protocols for their reading that pose challenges not only for preservation and archives professionals, but for the average reader as well. Strickland’s
                    <hi rend=""italic"">, </hi>Borsuk and Brad Bouse's
                    <hi rend=""italic"">, </hi>Montfort's, and Garbe Reed's works are so uniquely imagined and crafted that they seem to embed within them the specific critical framework to be theorized. In that sense, they too demand a tailored reading: a look into how their text is media and how their media is text. These kinds of compositions, I argue, have much to teach DH practitioners and students about the expressiveness of the digital medium, the way electronic and print media reciprocally inform, shape, and inflect each other. Further, they allow us to study the modification of the practices and protocols associated with each of its material components: print objects are not self-sufficient and translatable outside of the digital realm, computational devices are rendered useless without input from print materials. Even when these works are highly experimental, the specific conditions of each one constitute a laboratory to investigate contemporary changing reading and writing practices.
                </p>
                <p rend=""normal"">Further, I argue that in their radical specificity, creative works like these that rely on various print or digital media for their poetic, material, or narrative construction provide models for multimodal design that is both highly desirable and commonly found in DH scholarly outputs. The organization of information––whether poetic, narrative, or scholarly––is certainly responding to the same moving-target media landscape and, thus, bringing them all together offers an opportunity to observe how material composition is approached in creative works in ways that can be extrapolated to scholarly works. To that end, I extract a handful of compositional strategies from the works mentioned above that can be translated to a scholarly realm. Among them, we can find the use of augmented reality, the design of a script that takes the reader from one medium to another, the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">extension</hi> and complementation of information through different expressive languages, and even the performance of reading as an interpretive act. Under this light, aside from being great examples of poetic and computational creativity, these works of electronic literature are capable of illuminating the ongoing debates on the future of the book, and the place of the monograph in academic careers. Crucially, these works also signal the need for training in alternative reading and writing capacities that sits at the center of DH instruction, project development, and outreach. Taken as models of composition in the media ecology in which DH work is currently carried out, these works offer avenues for communication between the two fields not only on a conceptual level, but also as a methods of argumentation and interpretation.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Quantifying the Evolution of Electronic Literature with Zeta</head>
                <p>James O'Sullivan, Pennsylvania State University</p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Introduction</head>
                    <p rend=""normal"">This paper seeks to determine to extent to which electronic literature (understood as born-digital literature with an inherent computational aesthetic) has evolved, by analysing the language used to describe the works included in both 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Volume I</hi> and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">II</hi> of the Electronic Literature Organization's 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Electronic Literature Collection</hi>. These anthologies include descriptions of the works by their respective editors, as well as by the contributing authors. Outlining the various technical and literary characteristics reflected in each work, these descriptions provide a unique opportunity to determine the aesthetic qualities of the canon, as depicted by some of the field’s most prominent practitioners. Furthermore, the considerable time between the publication of the collections, released in 2006 and 2011 respectively, is such that they provide a useful sample when examining how the electronic literary movement has developed throughout the contemporary era. Using a method typically reserved for print literature, this paper applies a macro-analytical approach to the analysis of these descriptions in an effort to produce some quantitative evidence to support critical interpretations on the evolution of electronic literature. Research of this sort has never been conducted in this field, and thus, not only does this paper develop our understanding of the literary movement in question, but it also breaks new ground in the application of specific computational methods to born-digital artistry.
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Methodology & Results </head>
                    <p rend=""normal"">For the purposes of this study, Craig’s Zeta was selected as the method best suited to identifying trends in the manner by which electronic literature is described by its creators and curators. A Zeta analysis compares two datasets, producing a set of words distinct to each. In other words, it gives a set of words most likely to occur in Set A, which are unlikely to appear in Set B. In this instance, the analysis compared the editor and author contributions from each volume, providing a list of words which indicate what topics were being prioritised across the collections. Comparing these wordlists, we can see how it is that the focus of the electronic literature community changed over the course of this particular time period. The Zeta analysis was conducted using R, with a text slice length of 2,000, text slice overlap of 1,000, an occurrence of 2, and filter threshold of 0.1. For the purposes of this abstract, the top 25 distinctive words have been displayed (see Table 1), but a more complete set of results will be addressed in the final offering.</p>
                    <table rend=""rules"">
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Volume I </hi>(2006)
                            </cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Volume II</hi> (2011)
                            </cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">diagrams</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">video</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">exploring</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">rather</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">versions</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">google</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">blue</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">relation</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">clock</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">see</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">gallery</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">herself</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">red</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">pages</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">ambient</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">creative</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">away</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">water</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">corresponding</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">last</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">dhtml</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">map</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">practice</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">emblems</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">earlier</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">home</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">murder</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">engine</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">my</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">production</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">version</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">tree</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">line</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">unknown</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">nature</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">age</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">author</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">beyond</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">makes</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">break</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">landscapes</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">friends</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">frame</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">had</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">day</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">imagery</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">poetics</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">screens</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">meditation</cell>
                            <cell rend=""normal"">starts</cell>
                        </row>
                    </table>
                    <p rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Table 1. Top 25 distinctive words used to described the anthologised works</hi>
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Interpretations</head>
                    <p rend=""normal"">The results of the Zeta analysis provide computational evidence for many of the assumptions that one might make when speculating on this issue. For example, there is a marked shift from static “diagrams” in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Volume I</hi>, to “video”, in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Volume II.</hi> The evolution of Web cultures is also apparent, with “dhtml” giving way to “google”. Beyond these, somewhat expected, findings, other, more interesting, revelations are also present. In particular, the inclusion of herself"" in the later collection would suggest a rise in feminist electronic literature, while words like “exploring” and “poetics” in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Volume I </hi>suggests a field that, in 2006, is still ontologically uncertain. As already noted, a more robust analysis drawn from a more thorough interpretation of the entire set of findings will be offered in this paper. However, from this limited snapshot into this study, it is clear that this approach yields valuable insights into the field, and justifies the use of macro-analysis in the extrapolation of cultural contexts.
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Rendering Literature: Methods for Collecting and Archiving Electronic Literature</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Dene Grigar, PhD, The Creative Media & Digital Culture Program, Washington State</hi>
                </p>
                <p>University Vancouver</p>
                <p rend=""normal"">This presentation, entitled “Rendering Literature: Methods for Collecting and Archiving Electronic Literature”, focuses on methods developed to document early digital literature, 1986-1995.</p>
                <p rend=""normal"">This paper builds on research undertaken with 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Pathfinders: Documenting the Experience of Early Digital Literature</hi> (with Stuart Moulthrop, scalar.usc.edu/works/pathfinders), a project funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities that developed the methodology for documenting early works of electronic literature (1986-1995) and the print-based book, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Traversals</hi> (forthcoming, The MIT Press, 2016, also with Moulthrop) that provides a critical look at the works themselves. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Rendering Literature</hi> aims to discuss best practices for collecting and archiving electronic literature by libraries, museums and other institutions so that works retain their inherent significant properties, including its cultural context.
                </p>
                <p rend=""normal"">Electronic literature is an experimental literary art form that can include a combination of words, images, sound, video, animation, gestures, and movement but always involves code and computation. Referred to often as born digital literature, electronic literature cannot be experienced meaningfully in print and is intended, instead, to be accessed through digital devices. Early work was published on floppy disks, CDs, and DVDs, but the advent of the web made sharing it online with a global audience popular from 1995 onward. The introduction of smart mobile devices in the mid-2000s drove artists to innovate their art for the app environment. To remain accessible to a reading audience, many works of electronic literature have been updated to newer platforms and software iterations––sometimes many times––resulting in numerous versions of a work. In cases of literary art produced as apps, it is not possible to study versions of a work saved on a single device because upgrading to a new version of a work overwrites the previous version completely.</p>
                <p rend=""normal"">Contributing to the challenge of archiving electronic literature is that many of these works are published as a combination of digital files, accompanying documentation websites, and ephemera. Some, like John McDaid's 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Uncle Buddy Phantom Funhouse</hi> (1993) include audio cassettes that are part of the narrative. Others like Judy Malloy’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Uncle Roger Version 3</hi> (1987-8) were packaged in hand-made artists boxes that themselves are works of visual art. Recent works like Erik Loyer’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Breathing Room</hi> (2013) or Amaranth Borsuk and Brad Bouse’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Whispering Galleries </hi>(2014), require additional equipment like a Leap Motion controller. Still others like Jody Zellen’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Urban Rhythms</hi> (2011) exist only as apps. In a word, these works differ widely from traditional digital texts and yet, to date, there are no specific methods used for handling this form of literary art.
                </p>
                <p rend=""normal"">A visit in October 2015 to the David M. Rubenstein Rare Book and Manuscript Library</p>
                <p rend=""normal"">at Duke University to locate data in the Judy Malloy Papers for an article about her database novel,
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Uncle Roger</hi>, drove home the need to analyze methods of archiving and preservation undertaken at collections of electronic literature in the U.S. Floppy disks were separated from their artists boxes and unavailable for review, while inserts for the artists boxes were placed in separate folders in a different section of the archival containers. The six versions of the work were not readily distinguishable from one another. Discussions with the librarians and archivists revealed that they too were interested in determining how best to handle such complex problems for works that resist current preservation and archival practices.
                </p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Research Significance</head>
                    <p rend=""normal"">Nothing lasts forever. Paper mildews. Sappho’s nine books of poetry were burned, leaving but a few extant poems for us to read. Today, poetry and literary forms are increasingly produced in the electronic medium, and the danger facing them is not dampness or fire but the constant innovation of digital technology. Net poetry by artists like Jason Nelson created a mere 10 years ago, for example, is quickly becoming obsolete today because the Apple Corporation decided in 2007 not to support Flash on its iPhones. Despite this problem, digital technologies have fostered the production of so much experimental work that one of the key challenges facing the humanities today is how to transmit the heritage of a culture whose objects are multiplying not simply in mass of items but also in types of system or interface––and where the nature of those varying interfaces greatly complicates the task of identifying, collecting, and otherwise treating the object. This is an enterprise that requires traditional archival research to work in conjunction with Digital Humanities practice where computation methods figure largely (Burdick et al., 3).</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Experience</head>
                    <p>For the last 25 years I have collected works of electronic literature. Driving my efforts besides a fascination with avant-garde literature was the early realization that many of the works in my collection were, over time, becoming impossible to access without computer equipment contemporary with the works themselves. In other words, it became necessary for me to collect, along with floppy disks, CDs, and DVDs holding electronic literary poetry, fiction and essays, computers for which the works were intended to be experienced. To date, I have collected a library of 200 works of electronic literature and 46 vintage computers dating to 1977. I have also found it necessary to collect versions of software for which these works were produced, such as Netscape Communicator used by many electronic literature artists for early experiments with net art and other web-based practices. My library and computer collections are now housed together in the Electronic Literature Lab (ELL, dtc-wsuv.org/wp/ell) at the Vancouver campus. ELL represents the method of digital preservation called Collecting, an approach different from Migrating and Emulating in that it seeks to retain the cultural experience of a work without moving it to a newer platform or representing it in a new setting, respectively. </p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Electronic Literature Organization.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Electronic Literature Collection</hi>, Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi> and Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>.
                        <ref target=""http://collection.eliterature.org/"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://collection.eliterature.org/</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (2007). All the Way Through: Testing for Authorship in Different Frequency Strata. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>(1): 27–47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (2004). Textual Analysis. In Schreibman, S., Siemens, R. and Unsworth, J. (eds),
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Humanities</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D.</hi> (2008). Quantitative Analysis and Literary Studies. In Schreibman, S., Siemens, R. and Unsworth, J. (eds),
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Humanities</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 517–33.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2013). Sylometry with R: a suite of tools. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts</hi>. Lincoln (NE): University of Nebraska Lincoln, pp. 487–89.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2589","17","ITAF: Rewiring the Italian 'Nation' of the Army of Flanders (1567-1714)","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Established in 1568 to crush a rebellion triggered by religious strife, which through the years turned into a conflict of empires, the Spanish Army of Flanders rose to the challenge, becoming Europe’s largest standing army since Roman times. An army in which troops from all corners of the Spanish empire (and beyond) were called to serve, from Portugal to the Balkans, from Scotland to Sicily. Between 1568 and 1713 – when the Treaty of Münster put an end to the existence of the Spanish Netherlands – more than forty infantry regiments, dozens of companies of light cavalry, several thousands of gentlemen adventurers, sailors, artillerymen, administrators, ecclesiastics and architects from all corners of Spanish Italy ‘passed to Flanders’ (as the saying went) to help restore the authority of their king. And that without mentioning the numerous unaccounted-for women and children that followed them. </p>
            <p>In the course of a century and a half of almost uninterrupted conflicts, the Italian military ‘nation’ of the Army of Flanders existed as a protean, complex and extended network, created through a largely unplanned and spontaneous process of social and cultural sedimentation by wave after wave of soldiers and officers that spent an important part of their active lives in the Low Countries. Still, owing the heavy historiographical stigma that accompanied for a long time the memory of ‘Spanish Italy’, the Italian military ‘nation’ in the Army of Flanders has gradually slipped into oblivion, and is nowadays largely forgotten. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">ITAF</hi> (Italian Troops of the Army of Flanders), is an application tailored to ‘rewire’ the tangled web of military and social hierarchies which sustained the life of the Italian military ‘nation’ in the Low Countries through the effective integration of data extracted from a variety of archival and bibliographic sources. I intend to present at DH Krakow 2016 the trial version of this application/database, with which I am conducting a pilot study on the history of the longest-lived Italian infantry 
                <hi rend=""italic"">terzo</hi> (the Italianization of the Spanish word 
                <hi rend=""italic"">tercio</hi>) of the Army of Flanders – a unit that served the Spanish monarchy in the Low Countries from 1597 to 1713. The final version of this application is meant to be applied to the study of the entire Italian ‘nation’, and, with a few adaptations, its use could be extended to that of each of the other ‘nations’ (Spanish, Walloon, British, German etc.) of the Army of Flanders – or to the Army as a whole. 
                <hi rend=""bold"">ITAF </hi>is developed open source and relies on a NoSQL Database for data management.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gonzalez de Leon, F.</hi> (2009). <hi rend=""italic"">The Road to Rocroi. Class, Culture and Command in the Spanish Army of Flanders, 1567-1659.</hi> Leiden: Brill.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Parker, G.</hi> (1972). <hi rend=""italic"">The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road 1567-1659.</hi> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2590","17","KARREK: Building and Annotating a Kafka/Reference Corpus","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The proposed paper reports on philological and computational aspects of building and annotating a literary corpus. As part of the ongoing corpus-stylistic project Q-LIMO (Quantitative Analysis of Literary Modernity), the KARREK (Kafka/Referenzkorpus), a corpus that centers on German narrative Literature, is designed to enable comparative quantitative-stylistic analyses of Franz Kafka’s prose. The corpus includes literary as well as non-literary texts and is tagged for part-of-speech (POS) and enriched by selected types of meta-data (e.g., author, title, date of publication, and [narrative] genre). The number of digital German literary text collections has been growing, and there are several repositories, such as the TextGrid Repository, the German Text Archive (DTA), as well as Gutenberg-DE and individual digital collections (e.g., the Central Catalogue of Digitized Prints [zvdd]). However, so far, no digital resource has been specifically tailored to the needs of quantitative Kafka-research. We offer such a resource, KARREK, which covers the entirety of Kafka’s writings (including literary and non-literary ones) as well as a meaningful selection of Newer German Literature, putting a focus on Modernism (ca. 1880 – 1930). What is more, it caters to consistent and high-quality linguistic annotation, text-markup, and metadata. The corpus is hence a unique resource; it will be made publicly available.</p>
            <p>Building and annotating the KARREK poses unique challenges typical for textual analysis in Digital Humanities: The first main task is a philological one, selecting the texts that allow meaningful and hypothesis-driven analyses of Franz Kafka’s writings. Philological standards of corpus construction are especially high in terms of editorial detail and consideration of cultural, societal and philosophical contexts (cf., Engel and Auerochs, 2010) as well as linguistic ones (cf. Blahak, 2015). KARREK is hence balanced for factors such as canonicity, popularity, (narrative) genre, and linguistic variety. It strives for clarity in terms of literary edition. A special feature of the corpus is its representation of Kafka’s reading habits: we assume that a writer’s texts may reflect a dimension of ‘constructive reading’ (‘produktive Rezeption’, cf. Grimm, 1977), resulting in stylistic similarity with particular authors. For corpus compilation, we thus systematically review the available sources to determine which literary and non-literary works may be candidates for having influenced his writings (e.g., Blank 2001; Born 1990; Born et al., 1983), with ensuing data analysis to explore Kafka’s position within a global network of texts and authors. </p>
            <p>Our aim to form a reference corpus (with some degree of ‘representativeness’ for Newer German Literature, Prague Literature, Modern Literature, etc.) requires transforming a substantial amount of ‘big literary data’ into a consistent corpus. The philological questions transform into computational tasks where retro-digitization (and OCR) is concerned, as well as preprocessing of the data, with consistent metadata (available literature on meta-data (e.g., Alemuh and Brett, 2015; Lazinger, 2001), as well as a uniform textual format, including parameters of textual markup (TEI-5). The entire corpus is going to be published in a flexible stand-off format (TCF) which allows further annotation.</p>
            <p>For our means, the second main task is the reliable and accurate linguistic annotation for POS (with the STTS tag-set for German). Word class is a reliable indicator of register and genre variation (e.g., Biber and Conrad, 2009), with a high degree of accurate automatic annotation. Although there are high-quality POS-taggers available for German (e.g., Unigram, HMM, and Perceptron Taggers), most were trained on late 20<hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi>-Century news texts. To ensure accurate tagging of historically prior and literary texts, for training our taggers, we use as a first resource the POS-tagged corpus of the German Text Archive (DTA) which comprises historical and literary data. In addition, a round of manual error management (on a sample of ca. 40,000 words), as well as training of a CRF-tagger (MarMot) are administered to heighten reported accuracy of POS-tagging for our corpus. We are currently establishing a workflow comprising an eXist-database with an annotation interface, as well as a procedure for evaluation of tagger output for different sections of the corpus. Next to the compilation of the corpus, our project will thus offer more insight into POS-tagging of historical German narrative literary texts.</p>
            <p>In DH, tackling representativeness in literary corpus building is an important research task, with theoretical background offered by corpus linguists and computational linguists (e.g., Biber, 1994; Evert, 2006; Lee, 2001). Although methods of ‘big data’ computing (cf. Anderson, 2008; Manovich, 2015) are extremely promising for digital literary studies, we suggest that in our field creating balanced and representative corpora is a vital question. Since there are only few best practice examples (for German, e.g. the DTA), and representativeness is a recurring issue that by no means may be considered ‘once-and-for-all’-solved, the way in which our particular study tackles the issue may be of interest for many similar studies. In the prospective talk, we will thus address ‘representativeness’, reporting on the decisions made on text selection (author, titles, genre, canon/popularity, ‘constructive reading’). We will also provide a description of the linguistic (POS) annotation, including details on our machine-learning procedure and the user interface. Also, the workflow will be presented, elucidating ways of applying it to analogous studies/projects. The talk will give a description of the online publication details. In all, our research shows that building and enriching a particular literary corpus is by far no trivial task, but requires a sound theoretical modeling of the phenomenon constructed and an interdisciplinary method that does justice to philological as well as to computational criteria of high-quality corpus research.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Alemuh, G., and Brett, S.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">An Emergent Theory of Digital Library Metadata: Enrich the Filter</hi>. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Anderson, C.</hi> (2008). The end of theory: The data deluge makes the scientific method obsolete. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Wired</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/magazine/16-07/pb_theory"">http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/magazine/16-07/pb_theory</ref> (accessed 6 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Biber, D.</hi> (1994). Representativeness in corpus design. In A. Zampolli, N. Calzolari, AND M. Palmer (Eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Current Issues in Computational Linguistics: In Honour of Don Walker</hi>, pp. 377–407. Springer Netherlands. 
                        <ref target=""http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-0-585-35958-8_20"">http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-0-585-35958-8_20</ref> (accessed 19 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Biber, D., and Conrad, S. </hi>(2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Register, Genre, and Style</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blank, H. </hi>(2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">In Kafkas Bibliothek: Werke der Weltliteratur und Geschichte in der Edition, wie sie Kafka besaß oder kannte; kommentiert mit Zitaten aus seinen Briefen und Tagebüchern</hi>. Stuttgart: Blank.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blahak, B.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Franz Kafkas Literatursprache: Deutsch im Kontext des Prager Multilingualismus</hi>. Köln: Böhlau Verlag.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Born, J. </hi>(1990). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Kafkas Bibliothek: ein beschreibendes Verzeichnis; mit einem Index aller in Kafkas Schriften erwähnten Bücher, Zeitschriften und Zeitschriftenbeiträge</hi>. Frankfurt am Main: S. Fischer.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Born, J., and Koch, E. </hi>(Eds.) (1983). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Franz Kafka: Kritik und Rezeption, 1924-1938</hi>. Frankfurt am Main: S. Fischer.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Engel, M., and Auerochs, B.</hi> (Eds.) (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Kafka-Handbuch. Leben, Werk, Wirkung</hi>. Stuttgart: Metzler. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Evert, S.</hi> (2006). How Random is a Corpus? The Library Metaphor. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Zeitschrift für Anglistik und Amerikanistik</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">54</hi>(2): 177–90. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grimm, G. E.</hi> (1977). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Rezeptionsgeschichte: Grundlegung einer Theorie. </hi>München: Fink.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lazinger, S. S.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Preservation and Metadata: History, Theory, Practice</hi>. Englewood, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lee, D. Y. W.</hi> (2001). Genres, registers, text types, domains and styles: Clarifying the concepts and navigating through the BNC jungle. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language Learning and Technology</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>(3): 37–72.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manovich, L.</hi> (2015). Data science and digital art history. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal for Digital Art History</hi>, (1). 
                        <ref target=""http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:16-dah-216313"">http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:16-dah-216313</ref> (accessed 6 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2591","17","Khepri - a Modular View-Based Tool for Exploring (Historical Sociolinguistic) Data","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Motivation</head>
                <p>Digital humanities needs tools that better support the core processes of humanistic inquiry. This includes support for handling uncertainty and incompleteness in the data, for interactive exploration, and for fluidly moving between close and distant reading (Drucker 2011; Jänicke et al., 2015; Caviglia, Ciuccarelli, and Coleman, 2012; Uboldi and Caviglia, 2015). </p>
                <p>The Khepri tool presented here is part of a project to develop a modular set of components that take these requirements into account, and can be connected and configured to respond to the needs of a particular humanities task and data. Khepri targets data stored as Linked Data (Heath and Bizer, 2011), a set of scalable standards that has gained widespread adoption particularly in the sphere of cultural heritage. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Development process</head>
                <p>To ensure the tools developed meet the needs of humanities users, they are being developed iteratively, utilizing participatory design in case studies, as advocated by the field of design science (Hevner et al., 2004; Peffers et al., 2007; Wieringa 2009). The task of the computer scientist is to see beyond these individual studies; to identify common components allowing the tools to generalize beyond the projects under scrutiny. </p>
                <p>To date, a variety of collaborations have been embarked upon, from the prosopographical study of the Republic of Letters
                    <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">
                        <ptr target=""http://www.republicofletters.net/""/>
                    </note>, through supporting engagement with WW1 primary sources (Mäkelä, Törnroos, et al., 2015), to developing a contextual network for Finnish fiction (Mäkelä, Hypén, and Hyvönen, 2013). Together, these span a range of research questions, and types of data.
                </p>
                <p>Through these collaborations, a prevalent process of inquiry was identified – the need to explore and contrast differently constrained subsets of a dataset. For instance, this might be looking at the correspondence networks of different individuals and comparing them, or looking at how possible values of a linguistic variable behave with respect to each other as well as associated metadata.</p>
                <p>To support this process, Khepri utilizes the view-based paradigm (Mäkelä, 2010), where data is presented simultaneously from different perspectives, with each perspective acting both as a visualization as well as a means to constrain what is shown. A proper implementation of the paradigm also allows for speedy informed variation of parameters, and thus interactive exploration. </p>
                <p>Because the views interact in a defined way, they can be developed as separate components targeting major visualization classes such as geographical, temporal or statistical. Each individual Khepri instance can then select from these the views suitable for that particular use. </p>
                <p>Thus far, most of the work has been preparatory, with the functionalities simulated through ad-hoc disconnected components, tied together and supplemented by manual work of the computer scientist. However, now a first complete tool for a particular task has been developed. This instance has been configured for historical sociolinguistics. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Khepri for historical sociolinguistics</head>
                <p>Historical sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to social factors through time (Nevalainen and Raumolin-Brunberg, 2003). A possible research question would be to chart the role of gender, age and socioeconomic status in the diffusion of the English progressive (as in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">I am writing</hi>). From the viewpoint of the Khepri tool, this is interesting because it requires combining access to unstructured text with access to the structured (meta)data describing their authors.
                </p>
                <p>This is also the area where current tools fall short, for while corpus tools (e.g. CQPweb (Hardie, 2012), Korp (Borin, Forsberg, and Roxendal, 2012) and WordSmith
                    <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2"">
                        <ptr target=""http://www.lexically.net/wordsmith/""/>
                    </note>) enable querying texts by linguistic features, they poorly support walking from the texts to the attributes of the authors. On the other hand, tools for visually exploring structured data (e.g. Palladio
                    <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3"">
                        <ptr target=""http://palladio.designhumanities.org/""/>
                    </note>, Europeana4D
                    <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""4"">
                        <ref target=""http://www.tinyurl.com/e4d-project"">http://www.tinyurl.com/e4d-_project</ref>
                    </note> and RAW
                    <note xml:id=""ftn5"" place=""foot"" n=""5"">
                        <ptr target=""http://raw.densitydesign.org/""/>
                    </note>) do not support interacting with text corpora.
                </p>
                <p>This makes research currently very labor-intensive. For instance, if one wishes to study the aforementioned progressive, one first searches for instances of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">-ing</hi> in the corpus using a corpus tool. The instances are then exported into Excel to analyze them and eliminate false hits such as gerunds
                    <hi rend=""italic"">(My favourite hobby is</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">writing</hi>). Next, the number of hits produced by each person is calculated using another sheet that lists the authors by gender, age, socioeconomic status and time period. These numbers are then exported for statistical analysis and visualization. Because the corpus texts, spreadsheets, visualizations and statistical analyses are not connected to each other, the exploration and interpretation of the observations is cumbersome and time-consuming at every stage.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""516/100002010000049B000003B1A14AA764.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 1. the Khepri for historical sociolinguistics interface</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The user interface configuration of Khepri for historical sociolinguistics</head>
                <p>The Khepri interface for historical sociolinguistics is depicted in Figure 1. The interface is divided into three columns, with the views contained in each having different primary purposes. </p>
                <p>On the left are views aimed primarily at producing a subset of interest. The first view is for text search. Below the query, matching keywords from the data are presented for evaluation. Notice that two sets of counts are given. One shows the overall amount of hits for a keyword in the corpus, while the other takes into account constraints set in other windows. This way, the view acts not only as a selector, but also as a statistical breakdown of the current subset. </p>
                <p>Below the keyword search view, the user can add metadata views. Here for example, a view visualizes and allows one to constrain the data through the lens of the author's education. </p>
                <p>The second column shows the items in the current subset. Matches are shown in their textual context, with metadata and additional context available on mouse-over. While tuned for close reading, this view also acts as a filter. Clicking on an item removes it from the current subset. For linguistic research, this is important as the inclusion or exclusion of a particular example of a phenomenon may depend on contextual cues and background knowledge that cannot be defined as search parameters, but require manual evaluation.</p>
                <p>When focusing on close reading, the column can be expanded to occupy the whole right-hand side of the interface. Expanded, the view shows additional metadata, such as the author and year of the texts. The view can also be sorted according to these properties, as well as grouped by them, so that for example only a listing of the authors, or the linguistic types (e.g. different words ending with 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">-ing</hi>) is shown, with the individual matches revealed by expanding.
                </p>
                <p>To further help in keeping a close reading task organized, the interaction between this view and the constraining views has been designed so that it is easy to temporarily restrict the matches shown to only those from e.g. a particular spelling, or a particular social class. </p>
                <p>Finally, the column on the right is intended primarily for visualization. In fact, it can visualize and contrast multiple subsets of the data. To facilitate this, the first two columns are subsumed in a tabbing container, with each tab containing the query state of a single subset. In the example of Figure 1, these are spelling variants of the negated auxiliary verb 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">cannot</hi> (written separately, contraction, written together).
                </p>
                <p>By default, the frequency of each subset is visualized as its own line chart. However, numerous options affecting this are provided, drawn from best practices in the field (Hinneburg et al., 2007). For example, separate lines can be graphed for each of the values of a particular metadata property. In Figure 1 for example, each chart contains lines for male and female writers, showing that the use of the form “can not” seems to follow an approximately linear decline for men, but not for women. </p>
                <p>To prevent misinterpretations arising from small samples, each graph can be accompanied by a dotted logarithm representing the size of the corpus as a whole for that metadata value. The interface also supports bootstrapping to visualize confidence intervals. As this takes considerable time to calculate, it should only be enabled when a seemingly significant discovery needs verification. </p>
                <p>The interface also offers alternative charts. For example, when comparing possible values of a single linguistic variable, the area chart visualization shown in Figure 2 is appropriate. In addition, a motion chart visualization (Figure 3, inspired by the static scatterplots in Nevalainen, Raumolin-Brunberg, and Mannila (2011)) is provided, used to see how different individuals relate to the variable under study, and even how they change their use through time.</p>
                <p>In line with the view-based querying paradigm, all visualizations also act as selectors, enabling delving deeper into interesting phenomena. Through them, one can for example constrain the instance list to show only usage by women in a particular timespan, or in the case of the motion chart, even the use of a single individual. </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""516/100002010000018500000191FBC90026.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 2. Area charts showing the relative proportions of “can not” (blue), “cannot” (yellow) and “can’t” (red) by time and gender</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Discussion and future work</head>
                <p>Khepri for historical sociolinguistics is the first complete version of the tool. It is also only in its second iteration, and will continue to improve based on feedback. However, it has already been received with excitement, enabling research that was previously too time-consuming to attempt.</p>
                <p>With the architecture of the tool now in place, other instances will soon follow, targeting next the Republic of Letters and Finnish fiction use cases. This can be said because all the views created are actually generic, and can be pointed to different data by reconfiguring. For example, text search is also useful for locating individuals or books, while the metadata facets directly target structured data already. The views requiring most modification are the statistical charts, but even here work will be fine-tuning to match differing metrics. Correspondingly, any visualizations developed for other scenarios can be imported here, to for example visualize language phenomena on maps.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""516/100002010000018400000134C6000FB9.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 3. Motion chart showing how many percent of individual writers use the form “cannot”</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Lars, B., Forsberg, M. and Roxendal, J.</hi> (2012). Korp – the corpus infrastructure of Språkbanken. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC’12).</hi>
                        url: 
                        <ref target=""http://www.lrec-conf.org/proceedings/lrec2012/pdf/248_Paper.pdf"">http://www.lrec-_conf.org/proceedings/lrec2012/pdf/248_Paper.pdf</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Caviglia, G., Ciuccarelli, P. and Coleman, N.</hi> (2012). Communication Design and the Digital Humanities. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 4th International Forum of Design as a Process.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Drucker, J.</hi> (2011). Humanities approaches to graphical display. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>(1): 1–21.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Hardie, A.</hi> (2012). CQPweb - combining power, flexibility and usability in a corpus analysis tool. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Corpus Linguistics</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(3): 380–409. doi: 10.1075/ijcl.17.3.04har.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Heath, T. and Bizer, Ch.</hi> (2011). 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Linked Data: Evolving the Web into a Global Data Space.</hi>
                        Synthesis Lectures on the Semantic Web. Morgan and Claypool Publishers. doi: 10.2200/S00334ED1V01Y201102WBE001.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Hevner, Alan R., et al.</hi> (2004). Design Science in Information Systems Research. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">MIS Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(1): 75–105.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Hinneburg, A., et al.</hi> (2007). How to Handle Small Samples: Bootstrap and Bayesian Methods in the Analysis of Linguistic Change. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>(2): 137–150. doi: 10.1093/llc/fqm006.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Jänicke, S., et al.</hi> (2015). On Close and Distant Reading in Digital Humanities: A Survey and Future Challenges. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Eurographics Conference on Visualization (EuroVis) - STARs.</hi>
                        Ed. by R. Borgo, F. Ganovelli, and I. Viola. The Eurographics Association. doi: 10.2312/eurovisstar.20151113.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Mäkelä, E. </hi>(2010). View-Based User Interfaces for the Semantic Web. D.Sc. dissertation. PhD thesis. Aalto University, School of Science and Technology, Espoo. </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Mäkelä, E., Hypén, K. and Hyvönen E.</hi> (2013). 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Fiction Literature as Linked Open Data - the BookSampo Dataset.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Mäkelä, E., Törnroos, J., et al.</hi> (2015). 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">World War 1 as Linked Open Data</hi>. Submitted for review.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Nevalainen, T. and Raumolin-Brunberg, H. </hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Historical Sociolinguistics: Language Change in Tudor and Stuart England</hi>. London: Pearson Education.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Nevalainen, T., Raumolin-Brunberg, H. and Mannila H.</hi> (2011). The diffusion of language change in real time: Progressive and conservative individuals and the time depth of change. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Language Variation and Change</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(1): 1–43. doi: 10.1017/S0954394510000207.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Peffers, K., et al.</hi> (2007). A Design Science Research Methodology for Information Systems Research. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Management Information Systems</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>(3): 45–77.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Uboldi, G. and Giorgio C. </hi>(2015). Information Visualizations and Interfaces in the Humanities. English. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">New Challenges for Data Design.</hi>
                        Ed. by David Bihanic. Springer London, pp. 207–18. isbn: 978-1-4471-6595-8. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4471-6596-5˙11.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Wieringa, R.</hi> (2009). Design science as nested problem solving. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 4th international conference on design science research in information systems and technology.</hi> ACM, p. 8.
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            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2592","17","Linked Ancient World Data: Relating the Past","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Bringing together researchers from a wide variety of disciplinary backgrounds, this panel discusses the newly emerging ecosystem of Linked Ancient World Data projects and resources. One of the fastest growing areas of Digital Humanities, Linked Open Data (LOD) has the potential to transform traditional scholarship through its ability to promote the discovery of, and connections between, online documents of a highly varied nature (texts, maps, databases, images, etc.). Yet many barriers that are limiting its uptake and application, both technical and human, need to be addressed before this potential can be realised. This panel explores the issues relating to LOD, the semantic web and RDF technologies by focusing on three case studies drawn from the ancient world of literature, history and archaeology: the SNAP, Pelagios, and Integrating Digital Epigraphies (IDEs) projects.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Each of these three projects takes a different focus for their linking strategies: SNAP aims to connect documents through the people mentioned within them (prosopographies and onomastica); Pelagios through places (maps and gazetteers); and IDEs tackles different kinds of written material that survive from the ancient world (inscriptions and papyri). The projects are all united, however, in a concern for the use of, and access to, massive and diverse datasets that cannot be curated, aggregated or even archived in a single location. One major challenge to be addressed is the inherited scholarly infrastructure that tends to shoehorn multiple projects into a single institution’s repository and data model. These projects and their participants are also concerned with issues far beyond their primary subject area: the interoperability of bibliographical references, citations of ancient sources, encoding of date and time, events and actors, material objects and their curatorial history all contribute to the study and understanding of the ancient world (and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">mutatis mutandis</hi> of any other). All also recognise that there is no firm demarcation between the cultures of the Mediterranean in the classical period, nor between the worlds and cultures bordering them in time and space. Data from the Bronze Age and Mediaeval periods can be read profitably in and against this classical focus; our sources do not exist in a vacuum that can be entirely insulated from the ancient Near and Far East, sub-Saharan Africa or pre-Columbian America, for example. The three papers in this panel will all discuss how they are deploying the formats and technologies of Linked Open Data to address the massive and multidisciplinary interoperability that these historical challenges require.
            </p>
            <p rend=""DH-Heading2"">Paper 1.</p>
            <p rend=""DH-Heading2"">Networking Ancient Person-data: community building and user studies around the SNAP:DRGN project</p>
            <p rend=""DH-AuthorAffiliation"">Gabriel Bodard (University of London)</p>
            <p rend=""DH-AuthorAffiliation"">Tom Gheldof (KU Leuven)</p>
            <p rend=""DH-AuthorAffiliation"">Faith Lawrence (King’s College London)</p>
            <p rend=""DH-AuthorAffiliation"">Simona Stoyanova (King’s College London)</p>
            <p rend=""DH-AuthorAffiliation"">Charlotte Tupman (University of Exeter)</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The Standards for Networking Ancient Prosopographies (SNAP: 
                <ref target=""http://snapdrgn.net"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://snapdrgn.net</hi>
                </ref>) project is using linked open data (LOD) to build a virtual authority list for ancient people through aggregation of common information from collaborating projects. A unified authority of ancient persons will serve as a convenient and powerful single resource for prosopographers, text editors and scholars to use for disambiguating person references by means of annotations that record the specific URI of a person identified by the SNAP graph.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The objective is neither to create a new universal dataset of historical persons, nor to ingest or supplant the many valuable prosopographical resources, both analogue and digital, created over the past many years. Rather, through the creation of a single entry point—and related identifier—coupled with a small subset of common fields made available both to human researchers and for automated processing, SNAP aims to facilitate interoperability and interchange, exploitation and discovery through common metadata, and the recording of both known and newly discovered relationships between person records. Users will be enabled and encouraged to (a) annotate their data with SNAP URIs to disambiguate person references, and (b) add structured commentary to the SNAP graph in the form of scholarly assertions, bibliography and apparatus.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">This paper will outline our efforts to engage both the scholarly community and the wider public in the development of the SNAP model, and discuss the importance of user analysis and feedback into the design and functionality of the user interface and research tools. It is essential both for the utility of the project, and to encourage scholarly uptake in the person data and use of the virtual authority records, that we base our development on consultation with communities of our anticipated user groups, both scholarly and more widely.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">In the first phase of the project, SNAP began to address the core issue of linking together large datasets containing information about persons, names and person-like entities (families, associations, deities, anthropomorphic animals) managed in heterogeneous systems and formats. Ambiguous co-referencing is a ubiquitous issue within the linked data world; how does a researcher or analyst determine whether two records refer to the same person or are related in some other way? Even more trickily, what other related information referring to one record can be said equally to apply to both people? The SNAP dataset attempts to address this issue by retaining scholarly metadata around the assertion of co-references and relationships, so that ambiguity, disagreement and academic justification can be recorded alongside all statements that can potentially lead to inference of new relationships.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">SNAP models a simple structure using Web and LOD technologies to represent relationships between databases and to link from references in primary texts to authoritative lists of persons and names. The core of its source material was built around three large historical prosopographies and onomastica (databases of persons and names) from the ancient world: the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Lexicon of Greek Personal Names</hi>, an Oxford-based corpus of some 300,000 persons mentioned in ancient Greek texts (
                <ref target=""http://www.lgpn.ox.ac.uk/"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://www.lgpn.ox.ac.uk/</hi>
                </ref>); 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Trismegistos</hi>, a Leuven-run database of over half a million names and persons from Egyptian documents (
                <ref target=""http://www.trismegistos.org/"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://www.trismegistos.org/</hi>
                </ref>); and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Prosopographia Imperii Romani</hi>, a series of printed books listing senators and other elites from the first three centuries of the Roman Empire (
                <ref target=""http://pir.bbaw.de/"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://pir.bbaw.de/</hi>
                </ref>). With several other more specialist databases of ancient and Mediaeval persons, museum and library catalogues, and digital editions contributing data or in the process of converting their data to the RDF format SNAP requires, the virtual authority will soon record well over a million person URIs. Due to the focus on historical datasets, we are able to address wider issues of dealing with person data without the ethical and privacy concerns raised by that gained from modern social networks. While still massive in scale, the amount of data under discussion is tractable, allowing for more academic coherence and review within the data, which, diverse as it is, is produced by a discipline with well-established working practices.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">During this first phase, SNAP held a number of meetings and presentations to introduce the principles of and the preliminary work done by the project in its pilot period, and to hear from potential project partners about their datasets, practices and reactions to our proposals. These discussions led to a greater understanding of the nature of the prosopographical materials as well as helping to identify future partners. In addition, they provided the opportunity to advise participants how to present the relevant subset of their data for SNAP import in order to allow further datasets to be ingested, by demonstrating the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">SNAP Cookbook</hi> (
                <ref target=""http://snapdrgn.net/cookbook/"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://snapdrgn.net/cookbook/</hi>
                </ref>) which sets out details of several scenarios for the encoding, publication and linking of ancient person data in RDF, and connecting them to the SNAP graph.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The second phase of the SNAP project focuses further on the ingest, creation and linking of a much wider range of person data, using a range of methodologies including named entity recognition (NER), both hand and machine-assisted curation of person references from large corpora including inscriptions and mythological sources, and the ingest of data from existing projects via prosopographical tool kits such as the Berlin-Brandenberg Academy’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Personendaten Repositorium</hi> (
                <ref target=""http://pdr.bbaw.de/"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://pdr.bbaw.de/</hi>
                </ref>) and the Berkeley Prosopography Services (
                <ref target=""http://berkeleyprosopography.org/"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://berkeleyprosopography.org/</hi>
                </ref>).
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">At the same time, we aim to enable a wider interchange of data and discovery of related materials as part of the larger Linked Ancient World Data community. In order to engage scholars and other interested parties in both creating and linking to SNAP identifiers, and to support and encourage the use of research tools and interfaces, we will hold a series of user analysis and engagement workshops, focusing on scholarly feedback on the SNAP web interface, API and widgets, the use of disambiguating annotation, and creation of and engagement with structured commentary. These workshops will help us assess and better understand the expectations and needs of our user communities with regards to both infrastructure and support, and sustained engagement with the project. User analysis is vital for developing an understanding of how users interact with the data and the current tools that are available for working with prosopographical data. We need to understand the goals and workflows of our user groups in order to meet their scholarly needs, and to create effective methods for attracting and maintaining engagement with the next phase of the project.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The issues being investigated by SNAP have implications beyond the bounds of this particular project: many of the issues such as variant name spellings, persons with changing or ambiguous names, uncertain identities and relationships, and tracking assertions about persons and the cascading inferences resulting from scholarly or editorial decisions, are precisely the same questions that concern both professional and amateur groups working on person-identification, including local historians, family historians, genealogists and graveyard conservationists. This has two major implications: first, as the work being done by SNAP is likely to reach far beyond its immediate subject area, this must be reflected in the way the project is conducted and disseminated to a variety of groups; and second, we must ensure that our user engagement workshops therefore include not only scholars but members of the public whose interests overlap with those of the SNAP project in these and other ways. This paper will seek audience discussion and advice about how best to ensure that the second phase of the project can meet such potentially diverse user needs.</p>
            <p rend=""DH-Heading2"">Paper 2.</p>
            <p rend=""DH-Heading2"">Early Geographic Documents and the Pelagios Commons</p>
            <p rend=""DH-AuthorAffiliation"">Leif Isaksen (Lancaster University)</p>
            <p rend=""DH-AuthorAffiliation"">Rainer Simon (AIT Austrian Institute of Technology)</p>
            <p rend=""DH-AuthorAffiliation"">Elton Barker (The Open University)</p>
            <p rend=""DH-AuthorAffiliation"">Pau de Soto Cañamares (Institute of Catalan Studies)</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Pelagios is an international initiative concerned with the development of LOD methods, tools and services so as to better interconnect the vast and ever-growing range of historical resources online. Specifically, it uses the Open Annotation RDF ontology (
                <ref target=""http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core/"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core/</hi>
                </ref>) to associate place references within those resources to online gazetteers that offer URI-based identifiers for such places. The resulting graph is then exploited in a variety of ways to facilitate research, teaching and public engagement. The Pelagios 3 project expanded the scope of Pelagios dramatically from its original focus on classical antiquity, to encompass the early geographic documents of the pre-modern era, including early Christian, Islamic and Chinese traditions. It addressed three critical challenges for stimulating activity in these areas:
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">First, we developed user-friendly Web-based and Open Source software tools for the production and exploration of Pelagios LOD. Recogito (
                <ref target=""http://pelagios.org/recogito/"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://pelagios.org/recogito/</hi>
                </ref>) is a Web-based tool for the semi-automatic annotation of place references. It features several work areas, dedicated to different stages of the geo-annotation workflow: (i) a text annotation area to identify place names in digital texts or tabular documents (optionally aided by automatic Named Entity Recognition); (ii) an image annotation area to mark up and transcribe place names on high-resolution map or manuscript scans; (iii) a geo-resolution area, where identified (and transcribed) place names are mapped to a gazetteer, supported by an automated suggestion system. Recogito also provides basic features for managing documents and their metadata, as well as for viewing annotation results, usage statistics and bulk-downloading annotation data. Peripleo (
                <ref target=""http://pelagios.org/peripleo/map"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://pelagios.org/peripleo/map</hi>
                </ref>) is a spatio-temporal search engine for exploring the annotation data produced through Pelagios 3, as well as by the Pelagios community at large. Its user interface resembles that of Google Maps, and allows for free browsing as well as keyword & fulltext search, while offering additional filtering options based on time, data source and object type.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Second we carried out much annotation both in house and by independent contributors, so as to provide a ‘critical mass’ of annotated text and map documents that would attract contributions from other data curators. Over the course of the project 90 registered editors identified approximately 130,000 place references in 317 early geographic documents in 8 languages. About half of these were manually inspected for association with a gazetteer. Around 60 institutional or personal partners have contributed to Pelagios to date with a similar number expressing interest in doing so. We believe this offers substantial evidence that LOD approaches do not of necessity impose high barriers to entry, and on-ramps to semantic technologies can be offered at a varying levels of complexity.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Third, we developed a mechanism for enabling different gazetteers (each serving their particular community) to be interoperable, allowing for interlinking between data from divergent traditions. This has been achieved through the development of the Pelagios Gazetteer Interconnection Format which provides baseline requirements and optional additions for gazetteers to interoperate (
                <ref target=""https://github.com/pelagios/pelagios-cookbook/wiki/Pelagios-Gazetteer-Interconnection-Format"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC) background(white)"">https://github.com/pelagios/pelagios-cookbook/wiki/Pelagios-Gazetteer-Interconnection-Format</hi>
                </ref>). While such decentralized models for key infrastructure are both evolving and not without their challenges and risks, they offer significant potential for resolving conventional problems with enforcing universal standards across multiple domains and communities of practice.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Consequently, Pelagios has generated sustained and lively community interest, and has offered a pioneering model for other LOD initiatives which are semantically annotating different reference types from people to time periods, including PeriodO (
                <ref target=""http://perio.do/"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://perio.do/</hi>
                </ref>), SNAP (
                <ref target=""https://snapdrgn.net/"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">https://snapdrgn.net/</hi>
                </ref>), PastPlace (
                <ref target=""http://www.pastplace.org/"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://www.pastplace.org/</hi>
                </ref>) and al-Thurayya (
                <ref target=""http://maximromanov.github.io/projects/althurayya_02/"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://maximromanov.github.io/projects/althurayya_02/</hi>
                </ref>). The success of the Pelagios approach has also attracted funding for academic research into early geographic documents through the Pelagios 4 project which is working with specialists in historical geography to identify both the advantages and limitations of semantic annotation for comparative studies and visual and statistical analyses. Topics span from the significance of hazard depictions on medieval portolan charts to the use of reliability of textual sources as proxies for the missing sections of the only extant Roman world map. In addition to this academic research, the SEA CHANGE project trialled crowdsourcing workshops for the use of semantic annotation in Higher Education in collaboration with i3 Mainz and the University of Heidelberg (
                <ref target=""http://pelagios-project.blogspot.co.uk/2014/11/bringing-about-sea-change.html"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://pelagios-project.blogspot.co.uk/2014/11/bringing-about-sea-change.html</hi>
                </ref>).
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">In parallel with these developments a community of practitioners has emerged with interests in a range of related activities: the annotation of curated or third-party content; the production of specialist gazetteers; the integration of place annotations with those of people, periods and things; and the visualization and analysis of graph-based data, to name but a few. Since its early stages Pelagios has made concerted efforts to consult and support such stakeholders, but as it has grown new opportunities and challenges have emerged. In particular we have established that within a heritage context, one of LOD’s key advantages is its ability to relate independently maintained projects without requiring a single centralized authority. But what are the social ramifications of such an approach? In a world in which funding criteria, academic legitimacy, intellectual property, and even conference presentations presume the authority of individuals and institutions, can LOD communities ever scale effectively? In order to do so individual stakeholders will need to shoulder responsibility for specific services within them. These may be the provision of content, real-time search aggregators, or dynamic real-time operations that offer visualization and analysis of heterogenous material. For some, reliability will be more important than complexity or innovation, while others will pioneer new strategies at the cost of longevity or broad usership. Negotiating the relationships between these stakeholders—technically, socially and legally—is perhaps the greatest task ahead for those seeking to establish Linked Open Data as a principal mechanism for drawing together, if not necessarily synthesizing, information about the past.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">In addition to reviewing the outputs of Pelagios 3 and Pelagios 4, this paper will report on early developments within Pelagios Commons, a new phase of Pelagios which focuses explicitly on increasing its technical and social decentralization. This spans beyond its current pre-Modern and literary scope, in order to embrace later periods, differing scales of geography (from intra-urban to multi-regional) and the conceptual changes of dealing with arbitrary findspots and mythical, fictional and itinerant places. It will present our experiences in establishing Special Interest Groups, and the different challenges faced in devolving LOD architectures, as well as lessons learned from similar initiatives. In doing so we hope to foster discussion and critique from those planning or implementing related community-driven projects.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">
                <hi rend=""bold"">Acknowledgments: </hi>Pelagios 3 was funded by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. Pelagios 4 was funded by the AHRC. SEA CHANGE received an Open Humanities Award from D2ME and the Open Knowledge Foundation. We thank all our financial supporters and content contributors for the collective production of this work.
            </p>
            <p rend=""DH-Heading2"">Paper 3.</p>
            <p rend=""DH-Heading2"">Integrating Digital Epigraphies</p>
            <p rend=""DH-AuthorAffiliation"">Hugh Cayless (Duke University)</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The Integrating Digital Epigraphies (IDEs) project aims to build on the lessons learned in the course of developing the Papyri.info project. The differences in the digital landscape between Greek Epigraphy and Papyrology are considerable, the main one being that, whereas many of the partner projects of Papyri.info were happy to permit that site to aggregate their data, IDEs will not be able to host partner data, but rather to collect citation and linking information with the goal of improving the links between the different Epigraphical sites. This paper will discuss the project, hosted at
                <ref target=""http://ides.io""> </ref>
                <ref target=""http://ides.io"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://ides.io</hi>
                </ref> and the part played in it by the Linking Ancient World Data Ontology, which may be found at
                <ref target=""http://lawd.info""> </ref>
                <ref target=""http://lawd.info"">
                    <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://lawd.info</hi>
                </ref>.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">What is a citation? It is a sequence of characters in a text that refers to something the reader may wish to consult. A citation is obviously a pointer of some sort, but what is it a pointer to? It depends: a citation like 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Il 1.1</hi> is a reference to book 1, line 1 of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi>, that is, it refers, notionally, to an ideal or composite Iliad, not to a particular expression. It is assumed that the first line of book 1 will be more or less the same in any edition. A citation like 
                <hi rend=""italic"">IG I³ 40</hi> on the other hand, is to a particular edition: number 40 in the third edition of the first volume of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Inscriptiones Graecae</hi>. It points therefore to a particular part of a larger work. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">S.C. de Bacch.</hi>, to take a third example, is a citation of an actual inscription, not a publication of that inscription. Here, the citation refers to a physical object, and the reader is expected to be able to find a text of it if they wish to read the document.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">Given all this, we must conclude that if a citation is a pointer, it is a very vague one. It may point to an abstract work, an actual (perhaps online) edition or part of it, or a real-world object with text written on it, but which the reader of the citation probably isn’t expected to go and read in person. Further complicating the situation, the referring strings that comprise citations are subject to different formatting conventions: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">IG I³ 40</hi>, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">IG I[3].40</hi> refer to the same edition, for example. Even more extreme variation is entirely possible, depending on the conventions used by the publications citing the source.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">How do we model this situation then? Citations are strings that indicate resources or parts of resources, which may or may not be abstractions and may or may not have published editions, translations, etc.. The LAWD Ontology approaches this by modeling the Citation as its own RDF Class which may represent a written or conceptual work. Citations may have a value that is either a string, a URI, or both, and other properties may be attached to them as well.</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">In IDEs, Citations are the main component of the project. IDEs works by identifying epigraphic citations from a variety of sources, including the Packard Humanities Institute (PHI) site, the Diccionario Griego-Español’s Claros project, and the Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum (SEG). PHI contains the text of editions of Greek inscriptions, Claros collects pairs of citations where one source cites or updates another, and SEG publishes a kind of annotated bibliography of epigraphic publications. All of these manifest different citation practices, even though they deal with largely the same body of material. IDEs attempts to parse the citations from each project, match them up when that is possible, and present an interface and APIs that permit projects with epigraphic citations to retrieve related material easily. For example, if PHI wishes to find and display citations related to the inscription they assign ID number 40 to (
                <hi rend=""italic"">IG I³ 40</hi>), they can query the URI 
                <ref target=""http://ides.io/browse/ides:phi:40"">http://ides.io/browse/ides:phi:40</ref> which resolves to 
                <ref target=""http://ides.io/browse/ides:t000003n"">http://ides.io/browse/ides:t000003n</ref> (the IDEs ID or IDEst of the inscription itself), and from there they can retrieve machine readable data in JSON, RDF, or JSON-LD formats that could be incorporated into their own page at 
                <ref target=""http://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/40"">http://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/40</ref>. It would be possible, for example, to link to related articles in SEG, to display additional bibliography, to link to the corresponding place entry in Pleiades, and when we have incorporated data from JSTOR, to link to articles that mention 
                <hi rend=""italic"">IG I³ 40</hi>.
            </p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">IDEs itself is a property graph database which uses RDF semantics without relying on an underlying RDF database implementation. This approach is intended to allow it to permit commenting on and editing relationships between the entities it tracks. RDF by itself has trouble attaching extra information to triples, requiring reification or the use of named graphs to do so. We hope that by imposing RDF semantics on a property graph structure, we can have the ability to attach additional metadata and commentary to relations without sacrificing speed or expressive capability.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2593","17","Linking Qualitative and Quantitative Research by Thin Descriptions through Semantic Graphs. Experiments in Apparatus Design with Semantic CorA.","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
            <p>The use of Semantic Web Technologies in Digital Humanities projects has increased over the years, but only recently annotation tools and research environments have started to create and use semantic graphs (e.g. Pundit
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p>
                        <ref target=""http://thepund.it"">http://thepund.it</ref>
                    </p>
                </note>, Grassi et al. 2013, or CWRC
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p>
                        <ref target=""http://www.cwrc.ca"">http://www.cwrc.ca</ref>
                    </p>
                </note>, Rockwell et al., 2012). While the sharing of annotations and data into a formalized Web of Data is a central part of these projects, in this paper we would like to focus on capacities for qualitative research by using semantic graphs and linking these with quantitative data. Qualitative research approaches have thus far not been positioned at the core of Digital Humanities (Drucker, 2012). However, recent discussions about close and distant reading e.g., (Moretti, 2013) point out a manifestation of a strict opposition between qualitative and quantitative research on the level of data. We would like to reconfigure this separation between qualitative and quantitative data by taking into account its epistemological practices and apparatuses. Qualitative and quantitative data can be regarded as “thin descriptions”. Both need an interpretative act to become “thick descriptions” (Love, 2013). This involves a broad range of research capacities, whereby a semantic graph addresses parts of it and creates a link between both paradigms by connecting the different data. This main argument of the paper will be demonstrated through examples from ongoing Digital Humanities research projects based on the semantic research environment Semantic CorA
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                    <p>
                        <ref target=""http://semantic-cora.org"">http://semantic-cora.org</ref>
                    </p>
                </note>, where we experimented with epistemological apparatuses which were developed through participatory design approaches and collaborative ontology engineering. 
            </p>
            <p>Re-Configuring the apparatus of qualitative and quantitative research </p>
            <p>The recent focus in Digital Humanities on epistemological apparatuses, including their materiality, performativity and relation to theory, offers the possibility to sharpen the respective analytical concepts for data and research apparatuses. Ramsey and Rockwell (2012) describe tools as a “telescope for the mind” and offer a materialistic epistemology. Concerning the opposition of qualitative and quantitative research, Manovich (2011) describes the potentials of big data by contrasting quantitative methods (i.e., statistical, mathematical, computational) with qualitative methods (i.e., as used in History, Literature Studies, Anthropology, qualitative Social Sciences and Psychology) and the different kinds of underlying data. While quantitative approaches commonly rely on surface data, qualitative data are described as deep data. Manovich posits equivalent epistemological depth of both kinds of data but hints to the different scale of contact points with the object of interest. </p>
            <p>Venturini and Latour (2010) point to the micro/macro distinction in Social Sciences, which corresponds to the qualitative/quantitative separation at the methodological level. The new capacity of digital, computerized methods, they point out, are quali-quantitative methods, which do not rely on the opposition of statistical analysis and ethnographic observation. Love (2013) concretizes this link between qualitative and quantitative approaches as well and takes into account the epistemological apparatus by comparing Literature Studies and ethnographic research. Instead of placing thin description in opposition to “thick description” (Geertz, 1973), Love (2013: 403) argues for the significance of thin description, which she considers as an integral part of thick description, and demands for a reflective engagement with the full range of empirical methods. In this sense the epistemological apparatuses are per se boundary-making practices, which “enact what matters and what is excluded from mattering” (Barad, 2007: 148) and demand an accountability of this material-discursive practice of epistemological apparatus design. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Designing Semantic CorA</head>
            <p>The realization of Sematic CorA was driven by a participatory design and agile development approach of both the software components as well as the ontology. A main goal was to enable classical qualitative researchers to realize their research by using the potentials of a semantic graph. The design followed the research practice though an evolutionary process, which was initiated by an analysis of needs and requirements (i.e., site visit, artefact analysis, interviews) and was followed by nearly weekly meetings with requirement articulations and prototype testings. Semantic MediaWiki
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text"">
                        <ref target=""http://semantic-mediawiki.org/"">http://semantic-mediawiki.org/</ref>
                    </p>
                </note> was used as a technological platform, which was extended with newly developed tools (extensions) to address the needed research capacities.
            </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Linking qualitative and quantitative Research with Semantic CorA</head>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic bold"">Openness and flexibility:</hi> In qualitative research, the openness of the research object and the flexibility to adjust the knowledge base play a central role in grasping the complexity of the phenomenon of interest (Bauer, Aarts, 2007). Using a semantic graph as an epistemological tool offers the possibility to create new entities, add properties or relate these to other entities. In this way, a network is created step by step based on the research material, which can be extended and re-arranged in the research process. So an all-encompassing fixed schema is not a precondition when starting a research project. The semantic graph consists of pages (representing entities), which are described by properties or links. Figure 1 demonstrates the schema of the semantic graph for exploring historical educational lexica (ranging from 1774 to 1945). Integrated bibliographic data (e.g., lexicon, article, author) and digital images of the lexica from a digital library
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text"">
                        <ref target=""http://bbf.dipf.de/digital-bbf/spo"">http://bbf.dipf.de/digital-bbf/spo</ref>
                    </p>
                </note> build the data basis for the graph, whereby the syntax supported by the SMW platform and data edit forms offer to enrich the graph. For example, a researcher establishes the relation `Is About´ between the article and a person and adds further properties (date of birth/death, gender, nationality, domain of mattering). In this respect, a thin description has been created, indicating a network of the phenomenon with more than 6 million values and 100,000 pages.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                    <p> Additionally, the technological platform itself offers the possibility to link elements of the graph to established Semantic Web vocabularies (i.e., BIBO or DC); this has been performed for a large part of the data. </p>
                </note>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""48/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1: Schema of the semantic graph for exploring educational lexica</head>
            </figure>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic bold"">Balancing particularities and formalizations</hi>: In qualitative research it is necessary to balance formalization with respect to the particularities of the phenomenon of interest and the research material. Star describes this balance as achieved through facetted classifications in the methodological approach of the grounded theory (Star, 1998: 227). As previously described, a semantic graph offers the possibility to create a network, which calls for formalization and sets the boundaries of the phenomenon. To enable a more `fuzzy´ or qualitative thin description, each node and property of the graph can be described in an unformalized way using the classical text tools of a wiki. Additionally, an open approach for qualitative content analysis is followed to enable annotations of the text (Figure 2). In this way, the annotation is connected to the article on the basis of the semantic graph (Figure 1), providing links between the annotations of the qualitative content analysis and the further network of the semantic graph. This constitutes a thin description based on qualitative data (e.g., through close reading and annotations) and quantitative data (e.g., bibliographic data), where an interpretative act is needed for the description to become a thick description. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""48/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
                <head>Figure 2: 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Annotation tool with data edit form </hi>(i) and 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">a</hi>ggregated annotations in a dynamic table (ii)
                </head>
            </figure>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic bold"">Ongoing data analysis and graph creation: </hi>Another main aspect of qualitative research is the ongoing iteration between grasping the research material and creating new connections or qualities. This intensive work with research data can be done by comparing, following associations, close reading, or – as previously described – by distant reading of aggregated or related elements. While using a semantic graph as a network of the phenomenon, two different examples can be demonstrated which use the linkage between qualitative and quantitative data: Semantic browsing and querying the network. To represent relevant parts of the graph, aggregations and inferences are created for main entities (e.g. 1,200 aggregated descriptions of persons) to thickening the research data and browsing through the network (Figure 3, i). Additionally, a query tool enables to query and aggregate the semantic graph (Figure 3, ii).
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""48/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3: Semantic Browsing through the aggregated information on page about person (i) and analysis tool with results in dynamic table (ii). </head>
            </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Discussion and outlook</head>
            <p>This paper demonstrates the possibility of linking qualitative and quantitative data by using semantic graph technologies to create thin descriptions. Therefore, the advantages of the interpretative act of thick descriptions are considered by allowing for ongoing iterations of analyzing the research material and creating the semantic graph in a formalized and unformalized way (enrichments, annotations, text descriptions). With semantic browsing, aggregations of information, annotation and querying the semantic graph, aspects of close and distant reading are addressed, thus offering new techniques for grasping the research material for qualitative research. </p>
            <p>For the Digital Humanities, the focus on mattering of apparatuses offers the possibility to open the design space for digital tools to the diversity of epistemological practices in Humanities. Thereby, an engagement with the diversity of the Humanities comes to the front, enhancing the accountability of boundaries and possibilities of epistemological apparatuses in Digital Humanities.</p>
            <p>Acknowledgements </p>
            <p>The authors would like to thank the research group around Semantic CorA, especially Marc Rittberger, Lia Veja, Kendra Sticht, Anne Hild, and Anna Stisser. The initial realization of the research environment Semantic CorA was supported by the German Research Foundation (DFG) and its further development is supported in the context of CEDIFOR by the eHumanities program of the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) no. 01UG1416C. </p>
            </div>
            </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Barad, K.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Meeting the Universe Halfway: Quantum Physics and the Entanglement of Matter and Meaning</hi>. Duke University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bauer, M. W. and Aarts, B.</hi> (2007). Corpus Construction: a Principle for Qualitative Data Collection. In Bauer, M. W. and Gaskell, G. (Eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Qualitative Researching with Text, Image and Sound: A Practical Handbook</hi>. London: Sage, pp. 19–37.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Drucker, J.</hi> (2012). Humanistic theory and digital scholarship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>, pp. 85–95.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Geertz, C.</hi> (1973). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays</hi>. Basic books.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grassi, M., Morbidoni, C., Nucci, M., Fonda, S. and Piazza, F.</hi> (2013). Pundit: augmenting web contents with semantics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>: fqt060 doi:10.1093/llc/fqt060.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Love, H.</hi> (2013). Close Reading and Thin Description. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Public Culture</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(371): 401–34.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manovich, L.</hi> (2011). Trending: the promises and the challenges of big social data. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>, pp. 460–75.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Distant Reading</hi>. Verso Books (accessed 31 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsey, S. and Rockwell, G.</hi> (2012). Developing Things: Notes toward an Epistemology of Building in the Digital Humanities. In Gold, M. K. (Ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 75–84.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rockwell, G., Brown, S., Chartrand, J. and Hesemeier, S.</hi> (2012). CWRC-Writer: An In-Browser XML Editor. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Poster Presented at Digital Humanities</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Star, S. L.</hi> (1998). Grounded Classification: Grounded Theory and Faceted Classification. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Library Trends</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">47</hi>(2): 218–32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Venturini, T. and Latour, B.</hi> (2010). The social fabric: Digital traces and quali-quantitative methods. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Future En Seine</hi>, pp. 30–15.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2594","17","Live/Life Stories. The Uses Of Digital War Testimonies In Educational Contexts","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Since the 1980s, under pressure of the definite ‘disappearance’ of the eye witness generations of WWII, a wide variety of initiatives has been undertaken to capture eye witness memories for the future. Multiple oral history collections have been created throughout the western world, in which ten thousands of interviews and life stories have been preserved on audio and video. Parallel to the quest for individual war memories to collect and preserve, there has been an increasing effort to transmit these memories onto younger generations. In my dissertation, I have referred to this process as the pedagogization of memory, with which I point at the transmission of WWII memories onto younger generations as a crucial way of giving meaning to the past, and, therewith, in creating and sustaining identities (Hogervorst, 2010, Proske 2012, Macdonald, 2013; 200). Both practices respond to, and express, a perceived shift from war memory towards war history, although in different contexts of historical culture (Erll 2011; Assmann, 1999, 2006). It is through the digital revolution that, at the beginning of the 21st century, both of these practices have become intertwined; the shift from memory to history is accompanied by, or expressed by, a shift from collecting and preserving to disclosing digitized interviews for a wider audience, also for education (Bothe/Lücke, 2013; Barricelli, 2009, 2010).</p>
            <p>My paper presents the first findings of a case study of my postdoc research project, that addresses the central question how online portals to digitized WWII eye witness testimonies are used in educational contexts – both formal education in history or civics, and heritage educational projects. The case study focuses on secondary school history teachers’ conceptions of digitized video testimonies as educational resource. Therefore, a group was composed of teachers interested in WWII, which was asked to explore different online interview collections. Through participatory observation and individual interviews with participating teachers, data was collected on expectations, desires and experiences regarding the use of digitized video interviews in history classrooms. The analysis focused on two different themes: (1) Participants’ conceptions of differences and similarities between live and digitized testimonies as educational resource; (2) Their experiences using specific online portals to interview collections. The latter will be the focus of my paper. </p>
            <p>Participants were asked to explore two different online portals to different interview collections: Getuigenverhalen.nl (‘eyewitness stories’) and IWitness. Getuigenverhalen.nl is a Dutch portal hosted by the Netherlands Institute of War- Holocaust- and Genocidestudies, giving access to about 500 quite recently conducted video interviews (2007-2010), all in Dutch. The interviews address multiple WWII related topics such as resistance, daily life, persecution, and forced labor. The majority of these interviews is searchable at fragment-level as the transcripts and time-based key words that have been attributed are indexed and aligned with the video. The other portal is IWitness, the worldwide educational program of the USC Visual History Archive in Los Angeles. Through IWitness, in which a selected part (1,500 interviews) of the Shoah interview collection is made available online in an open, but supervised community of teachers and students. Twelve of these interviews are in Dutch. The video interviews can be watched and searched. Moreover, a video-editing tool enables users to select, annotate, and share video fragments, or to combine them with other fragments, photographs or information from the built-in encyclopedia. Because of IWitness’ theoretical fundament in constructivism as a learning theory, and the fact that it actively invites teachers (and students) to create their own learning materials with/within the program, it is unclear whether this program can be easily implemented in non-American education systems and practices. </p>
            <p>In Dutch history education, oral history is not a common practice; neither as a source of information that pupils learn to assess, nor as a practice in which pupils are trained. Regarding WWII however, there is a modest tradition of inviting eyewitnesses in classrooms, mostly in the weeks prior to the yearly commemorations of the liberation in May. Video interviews are hardly being used in Dutch history education at this point. There seems to be a transition period, in which institutions disclose their interview collections for still undefined audiences, which are mostly unaware of the existence of such collections and their online accessibility, and continue current practices. It is this transition that is the background of my postdoc research project. Other case studies focus on video interviews in WWII exhibitions and educational projects.</p>
            <p>The aim of the postdoc research project is, first, to gain insight in contemporary historical culture, and specifically in the effects of the digital in transmitting and appropriating war memories across generations. For instance it would be important to know whether there is some kind of digital ‘streamlining’ of testimonies with specific features considered to be suitable for educational purposes. The same goes for the eye witnesses as culturally constructed figure, that is already very familiar to us through the numerous films, documentaries, news reports, and exhibitions (Kansteiner, 2015; Keilbach, 2012; Gries, 2012). Which characteristics of the narrators are perceived as necessary or relevant for letting students learn from their testimonies, and why exactly? And how about the perceived historical realism and authenticity of the testimonies – are we perhaps more critical when we do not encounter the narrators in person? </p>
            <p>The second objective is to explore and think through the needs of the educational and heritage field as users of digitized oral history collections. This corresponds to research such as the CLARIAH project Oral History Today, that has made the numerous oral history collections in the Netherlands available for scholarly research, in close cooperation with both computer technologists and scholars in the humanities. (Scaglioa et al., forthcoming; Kemman et al., 2013; De Jong et al., 2011). It is relevant to expand the gained knowledge about the scholarly uses of oral history collections, examining how digital technology can be applied to turn interview collections into a network of knowledge relevant to multiple audiences, including teachers and students.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Andresen, K. et al. </hi> (eds.) (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Es gilt das gesprochene Wort. Oral History und Zeitgeschichte heute</hi>. Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Apostolous, N. and Pagenstecher, C.</hi> (eds.) (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Erinnern an Zwangsarbeit. Zeitzeugen-Interviews in der digitalen Welt</hi>. Berlin: Metrolpol.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Assmann, A. and Brauer, J</hi>. (2011). Bilder, Gefühle, Erwartungen. Über die emotionale Dimension von Gedenkstätten und den Umgang von Jugendlichen mit dem Holocaust, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Geschichte und Gesellschaft</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">37 </hi>(1): 72-103.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Barricelli, M. </hi>(2010). Kommemorativ oder kollaborativ? Historisches Lernen mithilfe digitaler Zeitzeugenarchive (am Beispiel des Visual History Archive). Alavi, B. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Historisches Lernen im virtuellen Medium</hi>. Heidelberg: Mattes Verlag, pp. 13-29.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Barricelli, M</hi>. (2009). Das Visual History Archive des Shoah Foundation Institute als geschichtskulturelle Objektivation und seine Verwendung im Geschichtsunterricht – ein Problemaufriss. H. Pandel, H. and Oswalt, V. (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Geschichtskultur. Die Anwesenheit von Vergangenheit in der Gegenwart</hi>. Schwalbach im Taunus: Wochenschau Verlag, pp. 198-211.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bothe, A. and Lücke, M.</hi> (2013). Shoah und historisches Lernen mit virtuellen Zeugnissen. Gautschi, P., Zülsdorf-Kersting M, Ziegler. B. (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shoa und Schule. Lehren und Lernen im 21. Jahrhundert.</hi> Zürich: Chronos Verlag, pp. 55-74. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Erll, A</hi>., (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Memory in Culture</hi>. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Scagliola, S. and Jong, F. de</hi> (2014). Clio’s talkative daughter goes digital. R. Bod, R. et al. (eds.)
                        <hi rend=""italic"">, The Making of the Humanities, The Modern Humanities</hi>, vol.<hi rend=""bold"">3</hi> Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hogervost, S</hi>. (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Onwrikbare herinnering. Herinneringsculturen van Ravensbrück in Europa, 1945-2010.</hi> Hilversum: Verloren. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jong, F. de, Ordelman R. and Scagliola, S.</hi> (2011). Audio-visual Collections and the User Needs of Scholars in the Humanities, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Supporting Digital Humanities</hi>, Copenhagen.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kansteiner, W.</hi> (2014). Genocide memory, digital cultures, and the anesthetization of violence. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Memory Studies</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi> (4): 403–8.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Keilbach, J.</hi> (2012). Mikrofon, Videotape, Datenbank. Entwurf einer Mediengeschichte der Zeitzeugen. Sabrow, M. and Frei, N. (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Die Geburt des Zeitzeugen nach 1945</hi>. Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, pp. 281-99.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kemman, M., et al.</hi> (2013) Talking with Scholars: developing a research environment for Oral History Collections. Demo paper.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on Supporting Users Exploration of Digital Libraries</hi>, Malta. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Macdonald, S</hi>. (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Memorylands. Heritage and identity in Europe today</hi>. London and New York: Routlledge. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2595","17","Making George Washington's Financial Documents Accessible: Transcription, Data, And The Drupal Solution","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The George Washington Financial Papers Project exists at the intersection of two challenges editors currently face: managing complicated editorial work and navigating the world of digital publication. By focusing on a particularly difficult and dynamic dataset—financial documents—work has advanced on three interconnected fronts: 1) developing document templates for both traditional financial documents, such as account books and ledgers, as well as receipts, journals, and memoranda; 2) developing taxonomies and data visualizations; and 3) constructing an open-source content management/editorial/publication platform. The work has resulted in the development of both an open-access digital edition of Washington’s financial documents as well as the groundwork of Drupal for Editors prototype—a Drupal-based, open-source, editorial/publication platform—providing editors with a stable, flexible, and powerful platform to build engaging digital editions of financial documents.</p>
            <p>In 2013, The Papers of George Washington received a grant from the National Historical Publications and Records Commission (NHPRC) for the perfection and population of the content management database (DocTracker) with Washington’s three major ledger books; preparation of Gouverneur Morris’s 1811-1816 account book and its entry into the content management database in partnership with the Gouverneur Morris Papers at the New-York Historical Society; and the completion of a primary version of a web interface that will provide users with free access to the edition’s entire content and permit downloading and data manipulation. </p>
            <p>During our partnership with DocTracker we helped design a viable content management and customized editorial workflow solution built on the proprietary, commercial database software FileMaker Pro. DocTracker allowed us to manage both document records and content identifications, and associate both with transcriptions. But as a publication platform it was limited because of its use of XML. We investigated alternative publication options and decided on Drupal, a highly-configurable open-source content management system. We determined Drupal to be the best publication solution for several reasons: 1) at its core, Drupal is a database in which imported content can be mapped to fields, allowing for robust displays and searching, querying, and browsing; 2) Drupal is accessible, both in terms of cost and usability and has a large user community; 3) both the backend (content/data) and frontend (website interface) are managed in the system; and 4) Drupal is open-source and its core and add-on (module) code are developed and actively maintained by a large international developer community. </p>
            <p>Drupal has allowed the project to confront the numerous challenges inherent in these documents: (1) different types of financial documents are formatted in distinct, though standardized, ways, and the formatting of financial documents carries implied meanings; (2) transactions are full of dittos, abbreviations, and short hand, that raise a question of what kind of fields should be created to capture the transcription and clear text, thereby making both the text and content searchable; (3) the documents present issues of currency, valuation, and barter; and (4) a hierarchy of documents exist, and therefore the same transaction may be recorded in a day book, account, and ledger, etc., generating multiple instances of the same transaction.</p>
            <p>Indeed, one of the primary goals of the Project is to make accurate transcriptions of the documents <hi rend=""italic"">available</hi>, in keeping with the long tradition of the Papers of George Washington documentary editing project. However, the types of information, or the “data,” contained in these documents are not easily <hi rend=""italic"">accessible</hi> using common search and query techniques. The challenges, as described above, make it impossible to simply transcribe and put online, ready to be searched and understood document transcriptions. The solution involves a combination of transcription and corresponding data fields (where dittos, abbreviations, and short hand have been expanded), node references associating various content types, and term references connecting taxonomies. Additionally, Drupal provides a place to develop and manage taxonomy lists for specific content types, such as financial documents, to enhance the grouping and sorting of content and be used to identify relationships between different types of content.</p>
            <p>Developing this system has challenged us to think creatively about all aspects of the editorial and publication process, resulting in innovative ways for users to explore, analyze, and interact with content. This poster and hands-on demonstration will explore these issues and the technological solutions to make these documents available, as a free online resource as well as highlight strategies for content searchability, including annotation, glossaries, indexes, and linking. </p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2596","17","Mapping Kipnis","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>What did everyday life look like for a Polish Jew in Warsaw around the time of the First World War? We teach music history, musicology, Jewish history, and Slavic studies. Our students come to us with various pre-conceptions: either that Jews and Poles (conceived of as mutually exclusive categories) lived in open hostility to each other, or that they lived entirely separate from each other, their paths only crossing out of necessity. We want to create, together with our students, a digital tool that will challenge this pre-conception, and their broader ideas about history. We know that preconceptions often interfere with classroom instruction, and often remain much more salient than new knowledge (see, for example, Sam Wineburg, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts</hi>, 2001). We believe that hands-on digital tools may do more to interfere with preconceptions than traditional methodologies. 
            </p>
            <p>The work of Menachem Kipnis (1878-1942) belies those assumptions. For 16 years, between 1902 and 1918, he performed with the Warsaw Opera; he also sang at the a synagogue in downtown Warsaw. He wrote about these experiences in a variety of newspapers, including Poland’s widest circulation Yiddish-language daily, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Haynt</hi>. His accounts are full of rich details that mix the personal and the geographic—how he could run from Tłomackie Street to the Opera and arrive, out of breath, but with enough time to change, for example. Other archival records in which he appears demonstrate the difficulties that Jews faced in joining non-Jewish Polish society—Kipnis’s obviously-Jewish first name was not always given in Opera programs, or is Slavicized. 
            </p>
            <p>We came to create 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mapping Kipnis </hi>as a challenge to see what an interactive mapping project, one designed by historians and Jewish studies scholars, could do for students’ (and our own) understandings of Kipnis’s world. Using Omeka, we present Kipnis’s Warsaw, with locations enhanced by his words and photographs. We plan a second phase of the project to look at Kipnis’s tour through Eastern Europe; his writing from those years offers a warm and colorful picture of Jewish life before the Holocaust. This phase will help students form an understanding of the political and cultural geography of Europe during the period. 
            </p>
            <p>Virtually none of our students have been to Warsaw, and have only the vaguest understanding of what it looks like, and even less of an understanding of pre-World War Two Warsaw. For these students, we believe that using interactive tools can provide a layer of understanding about the social geography of Jewish life in Poland that a purely textual account cannot. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mapping Kipnis </hi>is incomplete and we envision students being able to contribute to it, and to add adjacent projects to it as well. Thus, it is both an instructionally demonstrative tool, and an opportunity for our students to familiarize themselves with digital mapping and with the potential digital life of archival material. We are delighted to bring 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mapping Kipnis </hi>to Krakow in 2016, for demonstration and feedback. We hope it sparks as many conversations among participants as it has among the three of us.
            </p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2597","17","Mapping Languages Performance by Performance","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This presentation introduces Language Landscape (LL) - an online, open access language mapping resource, which adopts a ‘performance-based’ approach to mapping languages.</p>
            <p>Language maps play a crucial role in increasing our understanding of the geographical distribution of linguistic groups (Lameli, 2010). Many language maps represent languages either as polygons or points. Each polygon in Figure 1, or point in Figure 2, represents a language of Africa.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""205/image1.gif"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1: polygon-based map of African languages (credit: Steve Huffman/Ethnologue)</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""205/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2: points-based map of African languages (credit: The Endangered Languages Project)</p>
            <p>While these maps are useful for gaining a general insight into the linguistic makeup of an area, there are issues with the way they represent language communities. Languages are not commonly spoken by a monolingual population who live across a continuous area with discrete boundaries. Language boundaries are fluid, and both individuals and populations are often highly multilingual, for example in some sub-Saharan African settings (Lüpke and Storch, 2013), and also in many large cities (Extra and Barni, 2008). A notional “centre” for a language is also problematic. Speakers of a language are typically dispersed across a large area, meaning that a single point chosen to represent that community can only represent some important cultural centre (Dahl and Veselinova, 2006).</p>
            <p>Both polygon- and points-based maps represent languages as monolithic entities which have an existence separate from their speakers, cf. the notion of “competence” (Chomsky, 1965). An alternative way to view languages is as “communities of practice” (e.g. Wenger, 1998; Eckert, 2000) - loose associations of individuals who participate in shared social practices.</p>
            <p>One way to represent the spread of communities of practice is to map recordings of community members’ performances, because these represent a moment in which speakers participated in a community of practice. Coupled with rich sociolinguistic information about speakers’ backgrounds and repertoires, a map of these performances represents not only all the places in which a language is spoken, but also who speaks it, and which other languages those speakers speak.</p>
            <p>We have adopted this performance-based approach to language mapping on our website 
                <ref target=""http://languagelandscape.org/"">languagelandscape.org</ref>. The website is designed to enable anyone with an internet connection to create an account and add recordings of their languages to a world map. Other users can then access these recordings by browsing or searching the map. In order to encourage as many contributions as possible, we do not have any specific requirements for the type of data submitted. The metadata categories on the website are based on the International Meta Data Initiative (IMDI) standards and are stored in a relational database.
            </p>
            <p>The language maps available on Language Landscape do not represent languages as polygons or single points, but rather as a series of points which indicate the locations where language recordings were made. The maps on LL are also, in this sense, “point-based”, since points are used to represent languages, but crucially these points indicate the locations of performances of a language, rather than the language itself. For example, the map below shows recordings of English added to the website, which may be taken as a proxy for (some of the) locations around the world where English is spoken:</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""205/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3: Language Landscape map of the English language</p>
            <p>We believe that given a critical mass of contributors, the website could become a useful tool for a range of potential audiences. Contributions are currently skewed towards places where digital infrastructure is well established. However, technological advances mean that in 5-10 years the network will be available to more people. Resources like our website, which concentrate on promoting audio and video content in minority languages, will play a crucial role in convincing new users that the internet is a useful and valuable tool for communicating remotely.</p>
            <p>In order to encourage more contributions, we target students who have expressed an interest in languages through their course choices. We have helped university students in London, Croatia, Germany and Poland to run projects, and have run outreach projects with 12-13 year olds in a school in East London. Promotion of the site on social media has also resulted in members of the public contributing recordings to the site.</p>
            <p>We hope that the website will contribute to efforts to increase the number of languages and cultures currently represented on the web. We want to provide a platform where people feel comfortable representing their own language and culture in the way they see fit, rather than feeling compelled to participate in one of the dominant cultural forms which make up so much online content (e.g. Kornai, 2013).</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chomsky, N. A.</hi> (1965). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Aspects of the Theory of Syntax</hi>, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dahl, Ö. and Veselinova, L.</hi> (2006). <hi rend=""italic"">Language Map Server. University of Stockholm</hi>. http://www.esri.com/news/arcuser/0206/language_ms1of2.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eckert, P.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Linguistic Variation as Social Practice</hi>, Malden, MA: Blackwell.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Extra, G. and Barni, M.</hi> (2008). Mapping linguistic diversity in multicultural contexts: cross-national and cross-linguistic perspectives. In Barni, M. and Extra, G. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mapping Linguistic Diversity in Multicultural Contexts</hi>. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 3–42.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kornai, A.</hi> (2013). <hi rend=""italic"">Digital language death</hi>. PLoS ONE,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(10).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lameli, A.</hi> (2010). Linguistic atlases - traditional and modern. In Auer, P. and Schmidt, J. E. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language and Space: An International Handbook of Linguistic Variation</hi>. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 567–92.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lüpke, F. and Storch, A.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Repertoires and Choices in African Languages</hi>, Berlin: De Gruyter.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wenger, E.</hi> (1998). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity</hi>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2598","17","Mapping Multilingual Responses To Famine And Dearth In The Early Modern Landscapes Of India And Britain","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Famine, as John Walter writes, was “…a recurring reality and ever-present fear” in the early modern period (Walter, 2015). The AHRC-funded project 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Famine and Dearth in India and Britain, 1550-1800: Connected Cultural Histories of Food Security </hi>(
                <ref target=""http://humanities.exeter.ac.uk/english/research/projects/famine/"">http://humanities.exeter.ac.uk/english/research/projects/famine/</ref>) examines the practices, discourses and literary modes through which societies in early modern India and Britain articulated their concerns about the availability and distribution of food (Mukherjee, 2014). A collaboration between the University of Exeter and Jadavpur University, Calcutta, the project draws upon a large body of texts written in languages including English, Latin, Persian, Bengali and Hindi for evidence about cultural responses to landscapes of famine and dearth. Its aim is to produce a digital resource that includes encoded extracts from the source materials and maps that reflect the variety and scope of identified responses to the landscapes encountered in the sources. 
            </p>
            <p>The application of digital methods to large corpora of thematic texts presents both opportunities and challenges, which will be examined in this work-in-progress paper. The dataset is highly diverse, not only in terms of the languages in which these texts are written but also in the types of documents that form our body of evidence. The source materials include chronicle histories, gazetteers, official correspondence, legislation, pamphlets, periodicals, plays, poetry, surveys and prose (fiction and non-fiction), and the project will publish excerpts from each of these categories. Our markup priorities (beyond the basic structure of the document) lie in how to encode the many themes surrounding famine and dearth that are present in our texts, which we need to extract in order to address the research questions of the project. We can use natural language processing tools to help us identify names and places, for instance (at least for some of the languages), but the range of terms used in these texts to describe the features of the landscape, the people, and the food situation are extremely varied. Inevitably there are also subtleties in the ways in which particular concepts are represented in the various languages of our source materials, as well as added complications such as variant spellings. The project uses the open source software GATE (General Architecture for Text Engineering, 
                <ref target=""http://gate.ac.uk/"">http://gate.ac.uk/</ref>) to identify names and places in the texts written in English, and we would like to apply a similar process to the texts written in other languages. It is likely that we will create some of the gazetteers from scratch, in which case we would aim to make these available as part of the project’s outputs.
            </p>
            <p>One of the most interesting challenges is in how to map the resulting data meaningfully. Exploring responses to landscapes of scarcity is a key research question of the project, and descriptions of such responses feature very heavily in some of our texts, particularly in the travel writings (see McRae, 2009 for a discussion of some of themes in travel writing of this period). The works of Peter Mundy, for instance, are full of rich descriptions of the places he visited, including very personal observations of the circumstances in which he found himself (Carnac Temple, 1914; Pritchard, 2011). We are particularly keen to place our work in the context of some of the projects that have taken place during the last decade on mapping emotional responses to landscapes at other periods and in different geographical areas. While many of the recent projects on emotional cartography use wearable technologies to measure and record responses to the landscape, such as Christian Nold’s 2006 Greenwich Emotion Map (an art project combining annotations with measurements of skin responses at different stages of a walk through the Greenwich area of London: 
                <ref target=""http://www.emotionmap.net/background.htm"">http://www.emotionmap.net/background.htm</ref>), we see potential in learning from, and building upon, their approaches to visualising the resulting data (Nold, 2009). Projects such as Kurt Jensen’s representation of Sterne’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">A Sentimental Journey</hi>, built using Neatline (
                <ref target=""http://neatline.org/"">http://neatline.org/</ref>), have also suggested possible directions for representing some of the travel writings (
                <ref target=""http://enec3120.neatline-uva.org/neatline/show/a-sentimental-journey"">http://enec3120.neatline-uva.org/neatline/show/a-sentimental-journey</ref>), and our recent workshop on food security has helped to clarify the relevant user requirements (
                <ref target=""http://foodsecurity.exeter.ac.uk/"">http://foodsecurity.exeter.ac.uk/</ref>). However the question of how to integrate such a wide variety of sources and languages into useful and meaningful maps remains one of the most interesting and challenging aspects of the project. As such, it will be a key focus of our paper, and we anticipate that presenting the results of our experiments with this data could be helpful for other projects that are grappling with similar issues, potentially in very different subject areas.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Carnac Temple, R. (ed.).</hi> (1914). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Travels of Peter Mundy in Europe and Asia, 1608-1667</hi>. London: printed for the Hakluyt Society.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McRae, A.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literature and Domestic Travel in Early Modern </hi>England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mukherjee, A. </hi>(2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Penury Into Plenty: Dearth and the Making of Knowledge in Early Modern England</hi>. London and New York: Routledge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nold, C. (ed.).</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Emotional Cartography – Technologies of the Self. </hi>Available at 
                        <ref target=""http://emotionalcartography.net/"">http://emotionalcartography.net/</ref> Accessed 5th March 2016.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pritchard, R.E.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Peter Mundy, Merchant Adventurer</hi>. Oxford: Bodleian Library, University of Oxford.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Walter, J.</hi> (2015). Abstract for “Poverty without patience? The politics of dearth and scarcity in early modern England”, presented at the workshop ‘Food Security: Past and Present’, Oxford, 3-4 September 2015.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2599","17","Measuring the Dynamics of Lexico-Semantic Change Since the German Romantic Period","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>The dynamics of language change over time are most evident in the lexicon component of natural languages. In particular, the gradual semantic changes words may undergo have a strong effect on the comprehension of historical texts by modern readers. Yet, efforts to automatically detect and trace this lexical evolution are scarce. Our study follows the work of Kim et al. (2014) who detected lexico-semantic changes in English texts over the 20
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century via a series of neural network language models. Our models were trained on the German part of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Google Books Ngram</hi>
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> An 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi>-gram is a sequence of 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi> words plus information on their frequency/probability of occurrence for a given corpus. The available version of the corpus does not consist of running text, but of 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi>-grams instead. 
                        </p>
                    </note> corpus (Michel, et al., 2011; Lin et al., 2012), which covers over 657k German books. Such models have the particular advantage that they can be queried for the semantic similarity of arbitrary words. We tested this query option by sampling nouns from 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Des Knaben Wunderhorn</hi> (Arnim and Brentano, 1806-1808), a collection of German folk poems and songs from the German Romantic period. The choice of this volume is merely motivated by our interest in the literary period it belongs to. We detected interesting semantic changes between 1798 (often taken as the starting point for the German Romantic period) and 2009 (last year in the Google corpus). 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methods</head>
                <p>Using the specific contexts in which words appear in order to determine the (distributional) meaning of words is an old idea from linguistic structuralism (Firth, 1957). For a long time, this appealing approach could not have been seriously investigated due to the lack of suitably large corpora and adequate computational power to deal with distributional patterns of words on a larger scale. Thus, only few studies on automatically detecting semantic change have been conducted up until now, with a clear focus on the high-volume data provided by Google Books. This collection is widely popular due to its immediate availability and enormous coverage despite well-known problems stemming from both the quality of optical character recognition (OCR) and the sampling strategies used to compile it (Pechenick 
                    et al., 2015).
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> The 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Deutsches Textarchiv</hi> (DTA) can be considered as a counter example, at least, as far as the quality of OCR is concerned. Yet, DTA suffers from tremendous size limitations in comparison with the (German portion of the) Google corpus, since this corpus for historic German texts contains only about 2.4k texts (
                            <ref target=""http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/list"">http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/list</ref>).
                        </p>
                    </note>
                </p>
                <p>Early approaches towards modeling lexico-semantic change patterns used frequency and bi-gram co-occurrence data (Gulordava and Baroni, 2011), as well as (context-based) classifiers (Mihalcea and Nastase, 2012). Riedl et al. (2014) built distributional thesauri to cluster similar word senses. All of these approaches detected lexico-semantic changes between multiple pre-determined periods. In contrast, neural network language models can be used to detect changes between arbitrary points in time, thus offering a longitudinal perspective (Kim et al., 2014; Kulkarni et al., 2015). In our experiments, we use a skip-gram model, a simplified neural network that is trained to predict plausible contexts for a given word, thereby generating (computationally less expensive) low-dimensional vector space representations of a lexicon (Mikolov et al., 2013). Despite their simplicity, neural network language models are a state-of-the-art approach, with details concerning ideal implementation solutions and training scenarios still being under dispute (Baroni et al., 2014; Schnabel et al., 2015).
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Experiment</head>
                <p>We trained our models on 5-grams spanning the years 1748 to 2009, using a uniform sampling size of 1M 5-grams per year; the first 50 years were used for initialization only. Test words for high-lighting semantic change patterns were selected from 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Des Knaben Wunderhorn</hi> by identifying the ten most frequent nouns, i.e. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Gott </hi>[‘god’], 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Herr</hi> [‘lord, mister’], 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Liebe</hi> [‘love’], 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Tag</hi> [‘day’], 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Frau</hi> [‘woman, miss’], 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Mutter</hi> [‘mother’], 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Herz </hi>[‘heart’], 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Wein</hi> [‘wine’], 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Nacht</hi> [‘night’] and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Mann </hi>[‘man’]. For each of these ten nouns we selected the three words most similar to them (according to the cosine of their respective vector representations) during 1799 and 1808 and between 2000 and 2009, tracking how the similarity of these words developed between 1798 and 2009. The programs used for our experiments and resulting data are publically available via GitHub.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text"">
                            <ref target=""https://github.com/hellrich/dh2016"">https://github.com/hellrich/dh2016</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results</head>
                <p>The cosine similarity between the 1798 and the 2009 vector representation of the ten test words is rather high, ranging from 0.72 for 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Mann</hi> to 0.84 for 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Wein</hi>, thus showing only minor semantic changes. Manual interpretation of their most similar words revealed an interesting change for 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Herz</hi> (see Fig. 1) that is nowadays more similar to other anatomical terms (such as 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Gehirn</hi> [‘brain’], 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Lunge</hi> [‘lung’], or 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Ohr</hi> [‘ear’]) and less likely to be used metaphorically (such as indicated by 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">erschrecke</hi> [‘frighten’], or 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Gemüth</hi> [archaic for ‘mind’]). As this change predates Google Books’ tendency to overrepresent scientific texts (at least for English, cf. Pechenick et al., 2015) this finding can be assumed to be an example of true lexico-semantic change. The example also demonstrates a need for a metric incorporating frequency information and normalization of input, since 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Gemüth</hi> is an archaic form for 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Gemüt</hi> non-conformant with modern German spelling conventions, although it is rated as currently similar to 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Herz</hi>.
                </p>
                <p>Fig. 1 Lexical semantics of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Herz</hi> [‘heart’] as expressed by its similarity with six other words; similarity-axis not depicting whole range of possible values (0–1)
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""67/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>This research note has gathered preliminary evidence for the feasibility of corpus-driven studies into German diachronic semantics. We advocate a computational, neural network-based approach where the evolution of lexico-semantic changes is traced by similarities of distributional patterns in the context of words over time.</p>
                <p>Looking backwards for semantic changes is, however, constrained by the quality and quantity of linguistic data available. While the primary corpus we use for determining semantic evolution patterns, the Google Books Ngram corpus, is remarkably large, it suffers from a idiosyncratic sampling policy, as well as OCR shortcomings and even more advanced issues, such as the absent normalization of historic orthographic variants. Other historic corpora dealing with the latter quality issues (such as the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Deutsches Textarchiv</hi>) are plagued by their comparatively minuscule size. 
                </p>
                <p>Future research in Digital Humanities, besides dealing with these issues, will exploit the similarity data in order to make proper use of them under a humanities’ perspective and, thus, hopefully determine the added value of such computational results. This can be achieved by incorporating complementary types of data (e.g. historical, economic ones) to render additional evidences to change patterns. Since this is a huge and complex task, we plan to make our similarity data publically available on a website, together with an easy-to-use interface, as a humanities tool for comparative, diachronic lexico-semantic studies, with several user-adjustable parameters (e.g. different grain sizes of time intervals, alternative ranking metrics, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">etc.</hi>). From a methodological perspective, we plan to focus our research on protocols for training models covering long timespans, a metric to measure the quality of historic language models (probably including the need for a manual evaluation) and a way to include frequency information–a word which is no longer used cannot be said to be unchanged in its semantics. Such a system would ideally be tested by an in-depth study of the semantics of carefully selected words, including a comparison with prior, hermeneutically guided work in the humanities as a rich, yet completely informal background theory.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Funding</head>
                <p>This work was supported by the DFG-founded Research Training Group ""The Romantic Model. Variation - Scope - Relevance"" [grant GRK 2041/1].</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Arnim, A. von and Brentano, C. </hi>(1806-1808). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Des Knaben Wunderhorn</hi>
                         <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(3), (Annotated TCF version provided by the Deutsches Textarchiv).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baroni, M., Dinu, G. and Kruszewski, G. </hi>(2015). Don’t count, predict! A systematic comparison of context-counting vs. context-predicting semantic vectors. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 52nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics</hi>,<hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>: 238–47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Firth, J. R.</hi> (1957). A synopsis of linguistic theory, 1930-1955. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Studies in Linguistic Analysis</hi>, pp. 1–32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gulordava, K. and Baroni, M. </hi>(2011). A distributional similarity approach to the detection of semantic change in the Google Books Ngram corpus
                        <hi rend=""italic"">
                            <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi>
                        </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the GEMS 2011 Workshop on Geometrical Models of Natural Language Semantics @EMNLP 2011</hi>, pp. 67–71.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kim, Y., et al.</hi> (2014). Temporal analysis of language through neural language models
                        <hi rend=""italic"">. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the ACL 2014 Workshop on Language Technologies and Computational Social Science</hi>, pp. 61–65.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kulkarni, V., et al.</hi> (2015). Statistically significant detection of linguistic change. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on World Wide Web</hi>, pp. 625–35.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lin, Y., et al. </hi>(2012). Syntactic annotations for the Google Books Ngram Corpus
                        <hi rend=""italic"">. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 52nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: System Demonstrations</hi>, pp. 169–74.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Michel, J.B., et al.</hi> (2011). Quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books
                        <hi rend=""italic"">. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Science</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">331</hi>(6014): 176–82.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mihalcea, R. and Nastase, V.</hi> (2012). Word epoch disambiguation: Finding how words change over time
                        <hi rend=""italic"">. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 50th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>: 259–63.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mikolov, T., et al. </hi>(2013). Distributed representations of words and phrases and their compositionality. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 26 (NIPS2013),</hi> pp. 3111–119.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pechenick, E. A., Danforth, C. M. and Dodds, P. S.</hi> (2015). Characterizing the Google Books Corpus: Strong limits to inferences of socio-cultural and linguistic evolution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PLoS ONE</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(10): e0137041.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Riedl, M., Steuer, R. and Biemann, C.</hi> (2014). Distributed distributional similarities of Google Books over the centuries
                        <hi rend=""italic"">. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC’14)</hi>, pp. 1401–405.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schnabel, T., et al.</hi> (2015). Evaluation methods for unsupervised word embeddings. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2015 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP ’15)</hi>, pp. 298–307.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2600","17","MEDEA (Modeling semantically Enriched Digital Editions of Accounts)","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Most human communities have produced accounts of various sorts, and scholars have long used accounts as primary sources for economic and social history. MEDEA is a collaborative project that involves participants from three continents and includes projects using primary sources that span several centuries across multiple geographical regions. We recommend that digital editions of accounts—business, governmental, personal—use XML/TEI, the widely accepted stable archival format for digital scholarly editions, as a first step. XML/TEI-based editions of accounts should be further encoded using RDFs/OWL to take advantage of the affordances of the Semantic Web and Linked Open Data. Producing semantically enhanced digital scholarly editions of accounts on this general model will create opportunities to ask new questions about the social and economic lives of people in the past. The session features participants from MEDEA’s first year; we expect the project to continue for several more years, depending on resources.</p>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Accounts: abstract models of human interactions</head>
            <p>Account books share with printed and manuscript texts in prose, poetic, or dramatic forms a problem in data modeling because they are already abstract representations of human interactions. In the case of accounts, although these representations have taken different forms in different times and places, they have an apparent uniformity in that they often consist of lists of people, goods, and services accompanied by numerical values that represent amounts of currency, credit, or in-kind benefits exchanged. Often but not always, these values are totaled or balanced in some way (Tomasek and Bauman, 2013). The development of printed ledgers and spreadsheets illustrates the apparent uniformity of the structure of account books. Contemporary spreadsheet software fails to recognize the conceptual abstractions embedded in the physical format, but these unmarked abstractions are carried into the representations of spreadsheet information in digital form. </p>
            <p>Accounts contain both numerical and semantic information (Thaller, 2012; Vogeler, 2014). Various types of accounts lend insight into business dealings, institutional, municipal, and state activities as well as personal uses of goods, property, and currency. The numerical information might include prices, wages, payments of customs duties or taxes as well as quantities of time worked and goods exchanged. In its simplest form, such information can be input as comma separated values (csv), and spreadsheet software can be used to perform calculations on the data. Through the emphasis on calculation, spreadsheets privilege the numerical information found in accounts. </p>
            <p>But financial records include information of historical interest in addition to data expressed in numerical form. Account books often include the names of people with whom an individual or organization exchanged goods and services. Goods, services, and currencies have historically significant values in addition to the numerical data expressed as prices, wages, and quantities of time or goods, and such values have associations that are of historical interest. For example, different grains were staples for bread making in different regions (Allen, 2001). </p>
            <p>Indeed, the semantic information contained in accounts can provide a rich picture of a community at the local level as well as that community’s relationships to others across space and time. In combination with other kinds of community records well known to social and economic historians—tax lists, church memberships, probate inventories, manuscript census returns—the semantic information embedded in accounts can reveal insights that the pure numerical representation might obscure. And such information might open up new avenues of inquiry or facilitate new insights into the operations of past networks of human relationships. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Historical accounts on the Semantic Web</head>
            <p>If the semantic information is marked in standardized machine-readable ways, digital editions of accounts can be combined with Semantic Web technologies to produce much richer comparative information about the human relationships they represent than has been possible with earlier iterations of social and economic history. In fact, accounts are an example of a problem space in which insights of </p>
            <p>Digital Humanities can improve longstanding practices in social scientific uses of computers to produce data about past human practices and relationships. </p>
            <p>Since the Semantic Web offers opportunities to collect and compare data from multiple digital projects, the MEDEA project looks to the potential of developing broad standards for producing semantically enriched digital editions of accounts. Because the Guidelines of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) offer a method for creating stable humanities-oriented data from textual sources, MEDEA explores models for building on them to test ways to publish data on commodities, wages, and prices susceptible to comparative analysis. </p>
            <p>While the TEI Guidelines provide a standard for markup of manuscript and print sources, some of the elements and attributes most useful for accounts fail to model machine-readable values adequate to the goal of comparability of accounts originally created across broad ranges of time and space. Thus the MEDEA project looks also to CIDOC-CRM and RDF/OWL as sites to begin consideration of the kinds of taxonomies and ontologies that will produce standard machine-readable values to express some of the semantic values found in accounts--especially information about commodities and currencies--that are relevant to humanities scholars. This includes conversion of local measures (Vogeler, 2014). </p>
            <p>At present, the MEDEA leadership team imagines semantically enriched digital editions as networks of references between several digital representations of original archival account books. Such editions will allow scholars with varied interests to use the data from the accounts in different ways according to their fields and scholarly interests. We consider RDF a good solution to publish the data extracted from accounts in machine-readable format as it facilitates explicit references to other (possible) representations of the accounts. If spreadsheets are employed, their use should be restricted to data input and calculations. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Presentations</head>
            <p>This multi-speaker session reports on results from the first stage of a joint project of historians at the University of Regensburg, the Centre for Information Modeling - Austrian Centre for Digital Humanities at the University of Graz, and Wheaton College in Massachusetts. Short presentations from participants will highlight historical and technical features central to MEDEA. </p>
            <p><hi rend=""bold"">Kathryn Tomasek</hi> will act as chair for the session and offer some brief observations about the advantages of international and cross-institutional collaborations for developing standards for semantically enhanced digital editions of accounts. In North America, the greatest support for producing digital editions of accounts tends to come from a small number of well-established documentary projects and from librarians and archivists who seek to encourage use of their sources. Resistance continues in the form of familiar objections emphasizing the labor-intensive nature of TEI and transcription generally. Both using transcription and markup in undergraduate classrooms and exploring opportunities for carefully curated crowdsourcing offer possible solutions. Graduate advisors in Asia and Europe seem to be more open to encouraging their doctoral students to explore digital edition of accounts than do those in the United States. Developing an international community of practice increases the likelihood that existing projects will seek ways to optimize their own data for the Semantic Web.</p>
            <p><hi rend=""bold"">Kathrin Pindl</hi> and <hi rend=""bold"">Anna Paulina Orlowska</hi> offer examples of ongoing interest in accounts as primary sources for historical study at the graduate level. Influenced by the work of British economic historian Richard C. Allen, Pindl hopes to develop better serial data through digital edition of accounts (Allen, 2001). Pindl will discuss her MEDEA working groups’ experiences with beginning a digital scholarly edition of granary accounts from the St. Katharinenspitalarchiv in Regensburg. Orlowska will describe challenges to producing a digital edition of the accounts of Hanseatic merchant Johan Pyre, who was active in Danzig from 1421 to 1455. Since Pyre’s bookkeeping methods developed through eight clear stages during those twenty-four years and contained unreliable temporal data, they demand a careful search for proper algorithms for their translation into digital media.</p>
            <p><hi rend=""bold"">Oyvind Eide</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">Cliff Anderson</hi>, and <hi rend=""bold"">Georg Vogeler</hi> will speak to some of the technical questions involved with data modeling for the Semantic Web. Eide will describe advantages of event-based modeling like that used in the CIDOC-CRM. Anderson will present observations based on his comparison of XML/TEI and the contemporary business tool XBRL-GL using information extracted from the Dutch periodicals <hi rend=""italic"">De Heraut</hi> (<hi rend=""italic"">The Herald</hi>) and <hi rend=""italic"">De Standaard</hi> (<hi rend=""italic"">The Standard</hi>), which were edited by the scholar, pastor, and prime minister Abraham Kuyper in the late nineteenth century.</p>
            <p>Vogeler will close the presentations with a brief discussion of the value of Semantic Web technologies for historians interested in the “content” layer of accounts. RDFs/OWL allows modeling and encoding of the basic economic facts recorded in historical accounts and economic records. SKOS allows describing taxonomies of commodities, services, and monetary values recorded. They can be aligned into a common vocabulary. SPARQL allows aggregate querying of resources on these common facts together with individual data recorded. Digital editions of registers and accounts that not only publish text but try to express their interpretation of the text in a “content” layer and that publish this interpretation online with the help of semantic web technologies do what scholarly edition is meant to do: publish the critical analysis of the document by a competent scholar.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Funding</head>
            <p>The MEDEA project is supported by an award from the Bilateral Digital Humanities program of the National Endowment for the Humanities and the German Research Foundation [grant numbers HG-229349-15]. Any views, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this session do not necessarily reflect those of the National Endowment for the Humanities or the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. </p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Allen, R.</hi> (2001). The Great Divergence in European Wages and Prices from the Middle Ages to the First World War, <hi rend=""italic"">Explorations in Economic History</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold""> 38:</hi> 411–47. doi: 10.1006/exeh.2001.0775.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Crofts, N., Doerr, M., Gill, T., Stead, S. and Stiff, M.</hi> (Eds.). (2011). Definition of the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model. ISO: 21127:2014.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">RDF Working Group</hi>. Resource Description Framework (RDF). http://www.w3.org/RDF/. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sanderson, R. and Albritton, B.</hi> Shared Canvas Data Model. 
                        <ref target=""http://iiif.io/model/sharedcanvas/1.0/index.html"">http://iiif.io/model/sharedcanvas/1.0/index.html</ref>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sarnowsky, J.</hi> (lead researcher), Die mittelalterlichen Schuldund Rechnungsbücher des Deutschen Ordens um 1400. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.schuredo.unihamburg.de/content/"">http://www.schuredo.unihamburg.de/content/</ref>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">TEI Consortium</hi>. Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. [Last updated on 15th October 2015]. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.teic.org/P5/"">http://www.teic.org/P5/</ref>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thaller, M.</hi> (2012). What is a text within the Digital Humanities, or some of them, at least? <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2012: Conference Abstracts</hi>. Hamburg: Hamburg University Press, July 2012, pp. 143-45. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tomasek, K. and Bauman, S.</hi> (2013). Encoding Financial Records for Historical Research, <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>. doi: 10.4000/jtei.895. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vogeler, G.</hi> (2014). Modelling digital edition of medieval and early modern accounting documents, <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014: Conference Abstracts</hi>. Lausanne: EPFL and UNIL, July 2012, pp. 398-400.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">W3C.</hi> OWL Web Ontology Language. 
                        <ref target=""w3c_all"">http://www.w3.org/standards/techs/owl#w3c_all</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">W3C</hi>. OpenAnnotation Data Model. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core"">http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">XBRL</hi> Global Ledger. https://www.xbrl.org/thestandard/what/globalledger/. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2601","17","Metacanon.org: Digital Humanities and the Canon","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Can the digital humanities offer an alternative to traditional modes of canon formation? This paper argues that quantitative methods can both enrich our understanding of the way canons are formed and help us create more flexible and interactive alternatives to traditional canons. Over the last year, I’ve built a tool for generating dynamic literary canons and placed it in public beta at 
                <ref target=""http://www.metacanon.org"">http://www.metacanon.org</ref>. Metacanon measures the canonicity of literary works by calculating the number of times they are mentioned in scholarly journals and using an algorithm to assign a uniform score to each work based on this data. While this certainly does not amount to a measure of aesthetic value or ""greatness,"" it does offer a concise snapshot of the body of literary works that are most discussed by scholars. Currently, it only covers twentieth century American fiction, but future versions will be expanded to include other genres, periods, and nationalities. For scholars, this will provide a tool for quickly measuring the relative centrality or obscurity of particular works as well as a tool for measuring how canons change over time. For students and the general public, it will offer a far more inclusive, flexible, and interactive alternative to the fairly predictable greatest books lists that currently act as arbiters of literary value outside of academic circles. 
            </p>
            <p>In the wake of Pierre Bourdieu’s Distinction (1979), literary studies has developed a nuanced critical apparatus for rethinking the role played by the canon and canonicity in the perpetuation of cultural capital. Our current scholarly common sense insists that far from reflecting aesthetic value, canons actually create this value socially, often thereby reinforcing hegemonic cultural values and hierarchies. And yet, even as we know this, the actual collection of texts that is consistently taught, written about, and by extension canonized remains relatively stable. By examining the frequency with which particular works are mentioned in various scholarly networks, Metacanon creates an accessible representation of this trend and in doing so introduces a greater level of transparency into the dominant allocation of literary values. In doing so, this project is similar in some respects to work being done by Mark Algee-Hewitt and Mark McGurl at the Stanfard Literary Lab, although using different means and with different ends in mind. Whereas Algee-Hewitt and McGurl have produced a master list of 350 twentieth century novels by combining several “found lists” supplemented by a survey of scholars working in the field of postcolonial literature, Metacanon uses an approach that takes advantage of a wider array of harvested data drawn from thousands of journal articles. This reflects the very different goals of this project. Rather than producing a necessarily limited corpus suitable for datamining, Metacanon is primarily intended as an exhaustive but flexible representation of the canon. This allows for a much larger interactive list, but I‘ve also found that the Metacanon list is much more diverse in terms of gender (and likely ethnicity) than the McGurl and Algee-Hewitt list, even though they consciously aimed to create a corpus that would be more representative than most standard lists. What this indicates is that although most publicly available “greatest books lists” tend to over-represent white men in their construction of literary value, scholars themselves tend to work on a much more diverse array of literary texts. In other words, there is already a working canon in existence that is much more diverse and representative than the standard lists and surprisingly more so even than Stanford’s intentionally varied list; it’s just that this working canon isn’t generally available in an accessible, objectified form. Metacanon takes the first steps toward producing this more accessible form, even as it integrates flexibility and transparency into its framework.</p>
            <p>The current version of Metacanon (0.6) is limited to twentieth century American fiction. As such, however, it is the most comprehensive relational database of American fiction from this period. Of course, there are more extensive listings of American literature available (for example, the Chadwyck-Healey Bibliography of American Literature). However these offer no way to easily distinguish between highly canonical works and more obscure works. In essence this forces readers looking for a definitive list of American fiction to choose between the unwieldiness of comprehensive bibliographies and the partiality of much shorter “greatest books” lists and standard field lists. What makes Metacanon unique is that it harnesses digital technology in order to offer both the expansiveness of a comprehensive bibliography while at the same time measuring the relative centrality or obscurity of each particular work. </p>
            <p>This digital framework also allows users to become active participants in the construction of the canon rather than merely passive recipients. For example, one user might choose to see a list of the most canonical novels published between 1970 and 1979, or even more interestingly the most canonical novels of the 70s according only to data from the 80s or 90s. Another user might choose to see a list consisting only of science fiction written by women. A third user might choose to alter the algorithm to calculate canonicity based only on citations in a single journal. Contrary to the widespread fear that digital or quantitative approaches to literature are fundamentally opposed to nuance and flexibility, Metacanon demonstrates that this need not be the case, at least in so far as questions of canon formation are concerned.</p>
            <p>While most of what is written above concerns Metacanon’s value as a public humanities initiative and as an aid to students, this project has growing implications for literary scholarship more broadly. One of the most fascinating lines of inquiry in the digital humanities today is the use of quantitative textual analysis to trace the connections between literary form and reception over time. For example, scholars like Richard Jean So, Hoyt Long, Ted Underwood, and many others have used digital text mining to demonstrate relationships between particular formal features of literary texts and the social categories that govern their movement through the world, such as attributed aesthetic value and genre. As the precision of Metacanon’s measurement of canonicity improves, researchers could use this data along similar lines to ascertain connections between literary form and canonicity over time.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Algee-Hewitt, M. and McGurl, M.</hi> (2015). Between Canon and Corpus: Six Perspectives on 20th-Century Novels. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Stanford Literary Lab Pamphlet</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://litlab.stanford.edu/LiteraryLabPamphlet8.pdf"">http://litlab.stanford.edu/LiteraryLabPamphlet8.pdf</ref> (accessed 1 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Long, H. and So, R. J.</hi> (2016). Literary Pattern Recognition: Modernism between Close Reading and Machine Learning. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Critical Inquiry</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">42</hi>(2): 235-67.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sellers, J. and Underwood, T.</hi> (2016). The Longue Durée of Literary Prestige. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Modern Language Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">77</hi>(3).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2602","17","Metaphor Mining in Historical German Novels: Using Unsupervised Learning to Uncover Conceptual Systems in Literature.","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Figurative language poses a challenge to Natural Language Processing systems, while being a ubiquitous phenomenon that is deeply ingrained in every-day language. As corpus studies suggest, figurative language devices appear on average in every third sentence of general-domain text (Shutova, 2015), thus making the development of automatic recognition and interpretation systems play an important role in many text mining use cases, especially those aiming for a deeper semantic understanding of texts. Furthermore, acknowledging the pervasiveness of such language forms - and of the emblematic device of metaphor in particular - allows for a change in perspective, not conceiving it as a merely rhetorical device but as a genuinely cognitive mechanism that manifests itself in language in the form of surface metaphorical expressions. Such surface expressions usually follow a directionality principle common in figurative language which is to project one domain of experience (the source, e.g. war) onto another (the target, e.g. argument), the first one typically being more concrete and the second one being more abstract. Taken together, such surface expressions (e.g. She shot down all of my arguments) consitute a conceptual metaphor argument is war, a cognitive phenomenon that can be studied through its expression in language. This line of thought has been established as Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980), by now a widely adopted and empirically grounded approach (e.g. Gibbs, 2008) that has opened up a interdisciplinary field of research, not least with involvement from computational linguistics. </p>
            <p>Analysing metaphorical language use from a (cognitive) anthropologic and psycholinguistic point of view has various possible applications: The approach qualifies for research questions from the fields of critical discourse analysis, media studies, and philosophy, as it sheds light on a collective subconscious, encompassing ideological subtexts, and maybe even pre-discursive existential territories (Guattari, 2008) as traced out in late 20th century philosophy. Another area of application is text classification in literary studies: Found metaphorical expressions and conceptual mappings can be used as features to describe the relative similarity of observed texts and thus lend themselves to genre identification and authorship attribution (Lodge, 1988). </p>
            <p>The research described here takes up this theoretical framework and builds upon a computational metaphor identification and aggregation approach as proposed by Shutova and Sun (2013). Unsupervised machine learning, namely a hierarchical soft clustering strategy known as Hierarchical Graph Factorization Clustering (HGFC), is employed to build up a graph of concepts that reflects aggregate metaphorical mappings. Using conceptual metaphor as a unit of observation allows for a sensible aggregation and tracing of surface metaphorical expressions in large scale corpora, and in this case is also used to follow diachronic developments in a corpus of historical German literature. Furthermore, as a correlate of cognitive processes it should provide an empirically grounded access to the conceptual systems, e.g. cultural and moral models, of examined texts and their times. </p>
            <p>The main idea of the approach is to cluster nouns - which are taken to be concepts - according to their selectional preferences, that is, ""the tendency for a word to semantically select or constrain which other words may appear in a direct syntactic relation with it"" (Roberts and Egg, 2014). In the resulting clustering, figurative language use becomes visible as violation of the most frequent selectional preferences representing the normal, non-figurative case. It is an approach that determines the metaphorical in relation to the normal, which also entails that a sufficient amount of non-metaphorical language use needs to be present in the data. In the case of a diachronic corpus of literature that means to balance the corpus using historical dictionaries and encyclopaedias in order to introduce more prosaic language use. </p>
            <p>The dataset is drawn from a large text collection (The Digital Library, 2016) and contains up to 1700 German novels from the early 16th up to the beginning of the 20th century. Preprocessing consists of POS-tagging, lemmatization, and dependency parsing, allowing for an extraction of nouns and their corresponding verbs according to certain grammatical relations - subject, direct object, and indirect object relations. Verbal constructions are only one type of realization, but they do cover a significant part of metaphors usually encountered in the wild. Furthermore, it should be straightforward to generalize the approach in order to include adjectival constructions and similes, which would allow to cover most of the possible metaphorical expressions. Preprocessing is performed using a modular pipeline (Jannidis et al., forthcoming), tailored to the processing of book-length German texts. Subsequently, a number of most frequent nouns (e.g. 2000) and corresponding verbs are extracted. The verbs act as features for the concept clustering and can come from various sources, not necessarily the same corpus as the most frequent nouns. This could be used as a way to introduce balancing text types into the model, without altering the concept graph as derived from the literary corpus. The resulting noun-verb feature matrix is then normalized for each noun vector to sum to 1 and the Jensen-Shannon divergence between pairs of noun vectors is used as a measure to calculate the similarity matrix (the initial concept graph). </p>
            <p>With the similarity matrix in place, clustering methods can be applied in order to generate a suitable tree of concepts. Different approaches were tested at this point (using implementations from Python machine learning library scikit-learn, cf. Pedregosa et al., 2011): 1) connectivity-based or agglomerative clustering, which includes average, complete, and - the baseline from Shutova and Sun (2013) - Ward linkage 2) density-based clustering, namely DBSCAN and HDBSCAN, and 3) for subspace-based methods, spectral clustering, as well as spectral bi- and co-clustering. Results where manually reviewed and an internal evaluation measure, the silhouette coefficient, was used to assess the quality of generated clusterings. Results indicate that in this setting, spectral clustering performs very similar to the baseline, while the other methods produce clusterings of inferior quality. This exploration of readily available methods shed some light onto the requirements for unsupervised metaphor identification and aggregation. In addition, tests with balancing and pruning were performed on smaller development corpora: Solely using encyclopedias produces a model that contains mostly synonym and antonym relations but no metaphorical mappings. Similarly, models consisting only of literary texts can lack non-figurative uses for concepts. What can also be observed is that the balancing leads to deeper models, e.g. concepts accumulate more features and aggregate better. </p>
            <p>To give an intuition, example clusters from the baseline results on a subset of 383 novels are reproduced here, showing the top ten features for each concept: </p>
            <p>IDEAS ARE FOOD</p>
            <p>education / bildung (10): geben-dobj beanspruchen-dobj taxieren-dobj voraneilen-subj überstrahlt-dobj ausspräch-subj nahestehen-subj heraustreiben-dobj ermangelnd-dobj abschöpfen-dobj </p>
            <p>memory / erinnerung (48): geben-dobj wachzurufen-dobj stören-dobj mahnen-dobj aufgrischen-dobj verlöschen-subj wiederzuerwecken-dobj neubeleben-dobj frischen-dobj hervorschießen-subj </p>
            <p>hunger / hunger (10): geben-dobj erweren-dobj büssen-dobj schaben-subj überhen-iobj verschmachten-dobj stärkern-dobj bittern-subj hinausgetreiben-subj trainieren-iobj </p>
            <p>EMOTIONS ARE PLANTS</p>
            <p>flower / blume (47): pflücken-dobj liegen-subj lieben-dobj begießen-dobj welken-dobj duften-dobj duftet-subj durchhauten-subj hingesenken-subj erblüht-dobj </p>
            <p>emotion / gefühl (90): liegen-subj ersticken-dobj abstumpfen-dobj hervorraufen-dobj halten-iobj entspinnen-dobj hinausdehnen-dobj aufwekken-dobj anhielen-subj arten-subj </p>
            <p>In principle, cluster labels are manually assigned using categories from Lakoff’s master metaphor list (Lakoff et al., 1991). Such is the case with the first example, IDEAS ARE FOOD, while the second one, EMOTIONS ARE PLANTS, is not present in the list and was created to appropriately describe the cluster. </p>
            <p>Pending work includes testing HGFC and providing means to include metadata for modeling the diachronicity of the data. Considering the time span covered by the corpus, some orthographic and lexical variation will have to be handled, either by use of a specialized spelling normalization system or a more rigoros treatment such as stemming. It can be noted that HGFC combines some of the characteristics exhibited by the surveyed approaches and running it on the full size corpus will significantly improve on the baseline in terms of the amount of metaphorical expressions and conceptual mappings induced. The system will be evaluated using either a small gold standard of annotated sample sentences or manually compiled conceptual mappings in a confined domain (e.g. using Lakoff et al., 1991), which should give some indication of its precision in the domain of historical German literary texts.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gibbs, R. W.</hi> (2008). Metaphor and Thought. The State of the Art. In Gibbs, R.W. (Ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought.</hi> Cambridge University Press, pp. 3-14. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Guattari, F.</hi> (2008).<hi rend=""italic""> The Three Ecologies</hi>. Continuum.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jannidis, F., Reimers, N., Vitt, T., Pernes, S. and Pielström, S.</hi> (forthcoming). DARIAH-DKPro-Wrapper Output Format (DOF) Specification. <hi rend=""italic"">DARIAH-DE Working Papers</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M.</hi> (1980).<hi rend=""italic""> Metaphors We Live by</hi>. University of Chicago Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lakoff, G., Espenson, J. and Schwartz, A.</hi> (1991). <hi rend=""italic"">The Master Metaphor List</hi>. University of California at Berkeley.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lodge, D.</hi> (1988). <hi rend=""italic"">The Modes of Modern Writing: Metaphor, Metonymy, and the Typology of Modern Literature</hi>. University of Chicago Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pedregosa, F., Varoquaux, G., Gramfort, A., Michel, V., Thirion, B., Grisel, O., Blondel, M., Prettenhofer, P., Weiss, R., Dubourg, V. and Vanderplas, J.</hi> (2011). Scikit-learn: Machine learning in Python. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Journal of Machine Learning Research</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">12</hi>: 2825-30.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Roberts, W. and Egg, M.</hi> (2014). A Comparison of Selectional Preference Models for Automatic Verb Classification. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of EMNLP 2014</hi>, pp. 511-22.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shutova, E.</hi> (2015). Design and Evaluation of Metaphor Processing Systems. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computational Linguistics</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">41</hi>(4): 579-623.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shutova, E. and Sun, L.</hi> (2013). Unsupervised Metaphor Identification Using Hierarchical Graph Factorization Clustering. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of NAACL-HLT 2013</hi>, pp. 978–88. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">The Digital Library</hi> (2016). <hi rend=""italic"">The Digital Library in TextGrid</hi>. https://textgrid.de/en/digitale-bibliothek
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    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2603","17","Méthodes computationnelles et analyse d'une langue de chancellerie : le logiciel d'analyse textuelle Machiato et la correspondance diplomatique et administrative de Machiavel","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Cet exposé a pour vocation de présenter un projet en cours qui associe les méthodes traditionnelles des sciences humaines (philologie, histoire et histoire des idées) aux approches computationnelles et statistiques. La création et la mise en place du logiciel d’analyse textuelle MACHIATO (Lasson et Manchio, 2015) constitue le point de convergence de deux perspectives de recherche initialement séparées, celle d’un chercheur en informatique spécialiste de la formalisation mathématique et d’une doctorante en études italiennes, travaillant sur la correspondance diplomatique et administrative de Machiavel (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Legazioni e Commissarie, Scritti di governo</hi>, 2002-2012). La mise en place du site internet relève donc en premier lieu d’une coopération, terme central pour tout chercheur en sciences humaines et sociales qui entreprend de se lancer dans un projet relevant des humanités numériques. En effet, la rencontre entre des champs disciplinaires, implique un constant pour créer un langage commun pour appréhender les textes, pour identifier le type de questionnements qu’il est possible de soumettre aux machines et pour dégager les potentialités et les limites de certaines procédures d’automatisation.
            </p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>1. Question de méthodes</head>
                <p>Nous avons suivi un cheminement complexe depuis la philologie traditionnelle, entendue comme combinaison de critique littéraire, historique et linguistique ou comme pratique d’établissement de texte à partir de sources différentes jusqu’à la philologie dite numérique. L’école qui a le plus influencé nos travaux est celle de Jean-Claude Zancarini et Jean-Louis Fournel et leur approche de ce qu'ils appellent « philologie politique ». Ils se sont attachés à historiciser la pensée de Machiavel, et plus généralement cette génération de la guerre, à travers une analyse minutieuse de son usage des mots dans le cadre de la traduction des textes politiques majeurs de la période des guerres d'Italie. Or, le fait de revenir à chaque usage pour parvenir à une élucidation sémantique est d’autant plus ardu que le corpus est important : pour exploiter nos 2214 lettres, nous avons donc rapidement pensé à croiser notre méthode initiale avec les potentialités des méthodes computationnelles et statistiques, qui nous ont ainsi permis de multiplier les points de vue sur le texte (diachronique, synchronique), de modifier l’unité de base de l’analyse (lemme, champ lexical, champ sémantique) et dégager les tendances générales du corpus et les spécificités de sous-corpus. De telles possibilités modifient inévitablement le rapport aux textes du chercheur en SHS qui ne peut parvenir à l’interprétation des résultats qu’à condition d’en comprendre le sens et les enjeux et donc, de suivre une formation (notamment en statistique et en visualisation de données). </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>2. Les mots et les nombres: <hi rend=""smallcaps"">machiato</hi>
                </head>
                <p>Le logiciel est commandé par une interface Web qui confère à l'utilisateur un accès facile aux ressources du programme avec son navigateur. Les analyses et les pré-calculs statistiques sont faits par un back-end mis en œuvre avec le langage de programmation Python dont le rôle est d'initialiser la base de données. Nous utilisons le Framework 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">open-source</hi> Django pour générer du contenu HTML. Enfin, nous utilisons le langage de programmation Javascript pour afficher les données et les résultats côté utilisateur. Le corpus a tout d’abord été normalisé : différents types d’entrée permettent de le découper en fonction de nos besoins. L’index des lettres permet d’accéder à chaque missive en obtenant les indications de base sur chacune d’elles ; l’index des occurrences donne accès à chacune des 25 007 formes, permettant de cibler des graphies particulières, des noms propres ou des hapax) ; l’index des 6399 familles de mots (qui rassemble toutes les flexions d’un vocable, très nombreuses pour certains verbes du fait de leur emploi et de l’instabilité graphique très forte) consent de mesurer le poids d’un champ lexical. En outre, à chaque missive ont été associés son destinataire, sa date et son lieu de rédaction. Ce 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">tagging</hi> préliminaires nous a ensuite donné la possibilité de formuler de nouvelles questions plus complexes et de croiser différentes variables (à titre d’exemple, quel terme est le plus employé lorsque Machiavel se trouve en mission auprès du roi Louis XII ?). 
                </p>
                <p>Nous avons repris une large part des outils proposés dans les logiciels d’analyse textuelle existants et utilisés par les linguistes à l’instar des concordances, particulièrement utiles pour dégager rapidement les nombreux homographes de notre corpus, et des cooccurrences indispensables pour repérer les cas de polysémie, voire de double isotopie typiques de la langue machiavélienne. Nous avons en outre emprunté un modèle d’analyse des cooccurrences multiples (Heiden, 2004) et les principes de mesure et de comparaison développés en statistique textuelle par Lebart et Salem. Les différents types de calcul permettent de décrire de façon toujours plus précise non seulement la nature des usages, mais aussi leur poids et les relations qui les lient les unités du texte entre elles. Nous utilisons trois types de calcul : les fréquences, l’indice de dispersion et l’indice de spécificité qui ont en outre permis de dépasser certains reproches récurrents faits aux méthodes computationnelles (dont celui de ne considérer la langue comme un ensemble d’unités abstraites, sans lien et décontextualisées). Nous avons fait le choix de limiter les types de visualisation pour des raisons de cohérence, de temps et de compétence. Nous proposons d’en donner quelques exemples tels que l’histogramme de répartition des fréquences, celui des graphies, les structures arborescentes (permettant de représenter tous les environnements immédiats en une image) et les histogrammes interactifs représentant la chronologie des missives. Toutes les visualisations de données sont exportables : nous utilisons Excel pour les tables, ainsi que le format SVG pour les données graphiques. Les critères de recherches avancées (permettent d’effectuer des recherches complexes en fonction du nombre d’occurrences ou/et de la fréquence et/ou des indices de répartition et de dispersion). À partir de l’index des lettres, il est aussi possible de questionner un sous-corpus particulier en vertu de critères variés tels que les bornes chronologiques ou la nature des missives (lieu de rédaction). Il est aussi possible de sélectionner un sous-corpus spécifiques et de procéder à une recherche précise en activant (ou non) les filtres sur les occurrences suivants : taille, nombre d’occurrences dans le sous-corpus interrogé, nombre d’occurrences dans l’ensemble du corpus, fréquence dans le sous-corpus, fréquence dans le corpus total, nombre de lettres, indice de dispersion et indice de spécificité. Enfin, nous avons ajouté une fonctionnalité pour comparer deux sous-corpus. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>3. Premiers résultats</head>
                <p>Le premier résultat que nous ayons obtenu est la réalisation du site internet en lui-même, à savoir la création d’une interface dynamique donnant accès aux textes et consentant de les interroger en fonction de différentes variables. En second lieu, plusieurs types de visualisation permettent de représenter l’évolution (dans une perspective globale) ou les rythmes (en fonction des lieux ou du contexte historique et politique de rédaction) des usages langagiers. Les données et leur visualisation permettent de vérifier ou d’écarter certaines thèses que nous avions postulées initialement mais elles ouvrent également la voie à une nouvelle approche des textes qui implique de nuancer certains phénomènes que nous avions identifiés au niveau local. Les tendances de l’écriture qui était invisibles apparaissent alors. L’analyse systématique des relevés d’occurrences et des mesures effectués mettent ainsi en exergue certaines micro-spécificités de la langue telles que le recours constant à la forme hypothétique et aux métaphores de l’incompréhension pour exprimer l’incertitude face aux événements en cours et à venir. L’examen des affinités lexicales a confirmé cette thèse et a permis de mettre au jour une caractéristique déterminante de notre corpus : l’extrême instabilité du monde politique pendant les guerres d’Italie, qui s’exprime à la fois par la centralité du champ sémantique du conflit (qui semble commander les autres champs sémantiques) et par la présence de différents éléments langagiers traduisant une précarité des temps et une fragilisation de la praxis politique.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blumenthal, P. and Hausmann F. J. (éd).</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Collocations, corpus, dictionnaires. Langue française</hi>, pp. 150. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burdick, A., Drucker, J., Lunenfeld, P., Presner, T. and Scnapp, J.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital humanities</hi>. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Genet, J. P. and Zorzi, A.</hi> (2011).  
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Les historiens et l’informatique : un métier à réinventer</hi>. Rome: École française de Rome.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Guillot, C., Heiden, S., Lavrentiev, A., Marchello-Nizia, C. and Rainsford, T.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">La « philologie numérique » : tentative de définition d’un nouvel objet éditorial du point de vue des linguistes</hi>. 27e Congrès international de philologie et de linguistique romanes. 
                        <ref target=""https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00846767"">https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00846767</ref>. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heiden, S.</hi> (2004). Interface hypertextuelle à un espace de cooccurrences: implémentation dans Weblex. In Purnelle, G. Fairon, C., Dister, A. (eds),
                        <hi rend=""italic"">JADT 2004 - Le poids des mots – Actes des 7ème Journées Internationales d’Analyse Statistique des Données Textuelles</hi>. Presses Universitaires de Louvain, pp. 577-88.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lafon, P.</hi> (1980). Sur la variabilité de la fréquence des formes dans un corpus. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mots</hi>. n.1 
                        <ref target=""http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/mots_0243-6450_1980_num_1_1_1008"">http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/mots_0243-6450_1980_num_1_1_1008</ref>. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lasson, M. and Manchio C.</hi> (2015). Measuring the Words: Digital Approach to the Official Correspondence of Machiavelli. In Francesca Tomasi, Roberto Rosselli Del Turco, and Anna Maria Tammaro, (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities and Their Methods in the Digital Ecosystem. Proceedings of the Third AIUCD Annual Conference (AIUCD2014). Selected papers</hi>. ACM: New York. 
                        <ref target=""http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=2802612.2802643"">http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=2802612.2802643</ref>. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lebart, L. and Salem, A.</hi> (1994). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Statistique textuelle</hi>. Paris: Dunod. 
                        <ref target=""http://lexicometrica.univ-paris3.fr/livre/st94/st94-tdm.html"">http://lexicometrica.univ-paris3.fr/livre/st94/st94-tdm.html</ref>. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Machiavelli, N.</hi> Edizione Nazionale delle Opere di Niccolò Machiavelli, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Legazioni. Commissarie. Scritti di governo</hi>. Roma: Salerno : t. I (1498-1500), Marchand, J. J. (eds), 2002 ; t. II (1501-1503), Fachard, D. et Cutinelli-Rèndina, E. (eds), 2003 ; t. III (1503-1504), Marchand et Melera-Morettini, M. (eds), 2005 ; t. IV (1504-1505), Fachard et Cutinelli-Rèndina éd., 2006 ; t. V (1505-1507), Marchand, Guidi, A. et Melera-Morettini (eds), 2009 ; t. VI (1507-1510), Fachard et Cutinelli-Rèndina (eds), 2011 ; t. VII (1510-1527), Marchand, Guidi et Melera-Morettini (eds), 2012.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mayaffre, D. </hi>(2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Philologie et/ou herméneutique numérique: nouveaux concepts pour de nouvelles pratiques?</hi>
                        <ref target=""http://www.revue-texto.net/Parutions/Livres-E/Albi-2006/Mayaffre.pdf"">http://www.revue-texto.net/Parutions/Livres-E/Albi-2006/Mayaffre.pdf</ref>. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pincemin, B.</hi> (2012). Sémantique interprétative et textométrie. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus</hi>. 10 | 2011. 
                        <ref target=""http://corpus.revues.org/2121"">http://corpus.revues.org/2121</ref>. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schöch, C. </hi>(2012). Nouvelles configurations : textes, outils, méthodes, et infrastructures de recherche dans les études de lettres. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Configuration(s).</hi>
                        <ref target=""https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00951518/document"">https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00951518/document</ref>. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">ThatCamp. </hi>(2011).  
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Manifeste des Digital humanities</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://tcp.hypotheses.org/318"">http://tcp.hypotheses.org/318</ref>. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zancarini, J. C. </hi>(2007). Une philologie politique. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Laboratoire italien</hi>, pp. 7. 
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                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2604","17","Microanalyzing Parts of Texts","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Some broad questions require the analysis of huge collections of texts. Other broad questions and many narrower ones require microanalyzing parts of texts. Some microanalyses are unproblematic: narrative structure and its relationship to chapter divisions can be studied simply by dividing texts into chapters. Analyzing narrative or dialogue only, or the relationships between these and chapter divisions, may be much more problematic, as may analyzing a novel that also contains letters, diaries, legends, and poetry. Some or all of these may be more appropriately analyzed separately or ignored. Difficulties multiply for multiple narrators whose narratives contain dialogue and subdivisions.</p>
            <p> One of the most difficult tasks is analyzing the character dialogue in a novel. Burrows showed that the frequencies of the most frequent words in their dialogue can distinguish Jane Austen’s characters from each other (1987), but few scholars have followed his lead, at least partly because of the tedium and difficulty of separating character parts. McKenna and Antonia (1996) were an early exception, but most related work involves epistolary novels or multiple narrators, where the separation of parts is simpler (Stewart 2003; Rybicki 2006; Ramsay 2011; Balossi 2014; Hoover, Culpeper, and O’Halloran 2014; Hoover 2010, and forthcoming).) Consider the case of Sherlock Holmes. Perhaps, as Moretti argues, “Doyle owes his phenomenal success to his greater skill in the handling of clues” (2004, 48), but Holmes and Watson are also extraordinarily fascinating characters. Analyzing their voices for distinctiveness requires comparing them with his other characters. Because reliable results require substantial amounts of text, I focus here on the longest Holmes novel, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Hound of the Baskervilles</hi> (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Hound</hi>, below).
            </p>
            <p> Extracting the dialogue computationally still requires the tedious and error-prone manual separation of the character parts and identification of the speakers. Typically characters are too numerous to open separate dialogue files for all of them, and multiple files increase copying and pasting errors. Initial decisions about the handling of dialogue may also change, requiring painstaking re-editing. Instead, I introduce very simple markup that is then processed in “Analyze Textual Divisions,” an Excel spreadsheet with macros. The markup, powerful enough for texts with quite complex structures, is also simple, flexible, and customizable:</p>
            <p><1> text division 1</p>
            <p><2> text division 2</p>
            <p><3> text division 3</p>
            <p><4> text division 4</p>
            <p>[ ] Letter writer</p>
            <p>{ } Letter addressee</p>
            <p>/ speaker</p>
            <p>\ speech marker</p>
            <p>> copy without processing</p>
            <p>^ special character follows</p>
            <p> For Wilkie Collins’s complex novel 
                <hi rend=""italic"">No Name,</hi> with scenes containing chapters, which contain letters and other documents, the four divisions are “Scene”, “Chapter”, “Letter”, and “Document.” (The spreadsheet includes brief excerpts from this novel with mark-up.) Epistolary novels might use “Letter,” and others might use “Volume” and “Book.” For texts with multiple narrators and for plays “Narrator” and “Act” and “Scene” are obvious divisions. The top-level division, like the rest of the markup, can be modified. For 
                <hi rend=""italic"">No Name</hi>, division one is defined as follows: div1name = “Scene”. Novels divided into books could use “div1name = “Book.” Alternatively, after the macro operates, the labels can be changed as desired.
            </p>
            <p> Here is a truncated version of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">No Name</hi>:
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""27/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>A “<1>” has been inserted to mark “THE FIRST SCENE.” as division one, and all lines in the first scene will be so labeled. In line two, “>” indicates that “COMBE-RAVEN, SOMERSETSHIRE.,” which seems like a scene-setting label, not narrative, should not be processed (epigraphs or poems might be treated similarly). In line three, “CHAPTER I.” marks division two. In line six, “/Norah” labels lines 6-8 as hers (the person addressed could, like a letter addressee, be marked with {}). In line seven, “\she said” is a speech marker, categorized separately because they sometimes vary interestingly and because “she said” seems to me neither dialogue nor narration. In line eight, the quotation mark indicates dialogue. The blank ninth line changes the label from dialogue to narrative until marked otherwise. The beginning of chapter thirteen is marked similarly. Later in the novel, embedded letters are marked with “Letter writer” and “Letter addressee.” Finally, “^” must begin any line that would otherwise begin with “+”, “-”, or “=” (reserved characters in Excel). (Line-division can be changed instead, except where required line breaks force special characters to the beginning.)</p>
            <p>With the Analyze Textual Divisions spreadsheet and the marked-up text open in Excel, the macro processes the text line by line, producing the results below (the marked-up text and empty columns have been deleted). Each line gets a scene label, and, beginning in line three, a chapter label, and all the lines are numbered. Lines 4-5 are marked as narration, lines 6 and 8 as Dialogue, and line 7 as Marker, and the speaker is entered for lines 6-8 and 14-16. The processed text appears on the right with all markup removed.</p>
            <p>The text could be marked up in TEI and the character parts extracted with XSLT, but the markup here is much simpler and easier to learn, and the spreadsheet has advantages over XSLT. Excel’s built-in sorting function can handle several levels of sorting, for example, so that the dialogue can be sorted by type, scene, chapter, speaker, and line number, all at once. The unmarked processed text, after sorting, can be divided and analyzed however the analyst desires with plain-text tools. Sorting on the line number restores the original order for further analysis, and errors can be corrected in the original text, and the analysis re-run. (See my Excel Text-Analysis Pages at 
                <ref target=""http://wp.nyu.edu/exceltextanalysis/"">http://wp.nyu.edu/exceltextanalysis/</ref> for detailed instructions.) This method works especially well for short, simple texts like 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Hound,</hi> with character parts too short to be analyzed by chapter; the dialogue can be marked with just speaker and speech marker characters, and > and ^.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""27/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p> To test the distinctiveness of the character voices in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Hound</hi>, I selected all character parts at least 1,500 words long, and divided longer parts into 1,500-word sections. Initial testing was disappointing. Although the sections of dialogue by Stapleton, Mortimer, and Watson grouped correctly, those by Baskerville, Barrymore, and Holmes did not, casting doubt on the distinctiveness of their voices. The section of Baskerville’s dialogue that groups with Barrymore’s, however, consists almost entirely of a conversation between the two, so that similarity of topic may skew the results. More significantly, the first six sections of Holmes’s dialogue consistently group correctly. The final two, which consist almost entirely of the final chapter, and which tend to group separately from all others, are Holmes’s explanation of the case to Watson. Nominally dialogue, this chapter is more like narration, a genre difference that is almost certainly responsible for the anomalous clustering. Removing the final chapter and sorting the lines of Baskerville’s dialogue in random order to blunt any topical or thematic effects produces the cluster analysis shown in Fig. 1, based on the 225mfw (most frequent words).
            </p>
            <p> Cluster analysis is an exploratory statistical method that compares the frequencies of a set of words across a set of texts to determine which texts use those words at the most similar frequencies. The nearer to the left that sections join together into a single cluster, the more similarly they use the words. All sections in Fig. 1 group correctly by speaker, and several sections of Holmes’s dialogue are the most similar, and the results are correct across analyses based on the 125-325mfw. Doyle’s use of clues may have helped the Sherlock Holmes stories succeed, but the distinct character voices also seem likely to be a factor. (The analysis here uses Ward Linkage and squared Euclidean distance; the often-used complete linkage gives weaker results.)</p>
            <p> Separating character dialogue can never be easy, but my spreadsheet makes it much easier. It also provides a versatility in comparing multiple kinds of textual divisions that may encourage more in-depth analysis of dialogue and characterization and enhance our understanding of how texts work.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""27/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 1: Character Dialogue in <hi rend=""italic"">Hound</hi> (225mfw)</head>
            </figure>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Balossi, G.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Corpus Linguistic Approach to Literary Language and Characterization: Virginia Woolf’s The Waves</hi>. Amsterdam: Johns Benjamins.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (1987). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computation into Criticism.</hi> Oxford: Clarendon Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover D.</hi> (forthcoming). Argument, evidence, and the limits of digital literary studies. In Gold, M. (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities,</hi> University of Minnesota Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Hoover D.</hi> (2010). Some approaches to corpus stylistics. In Yu Dongmin (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Stylistics: Past, Present and Future</hi>. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, pp. 40-63.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D., Culpeper, J., and O’Halloran, K.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Literary Studies: Corpus Approaches to Poetry, Prose, and Drama</hi>. London: Routledge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McKenna, C. W. F., and Antonia, A.</hi> (1996). ‘A few simple words’ of interior monologue in “Ulysses”: reconfiguring the evidence. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(2): 55-66. 
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2004). Graphs, maps, trees: abstract models for literary history — 3, 
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                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism</hi>. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rybicki, J.</hi> (2006). Burrowing into translation: character idiolects in Henryk Sienkiewicz’s trilogy and its two English translations. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(1): 91-103.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stewart, L.</hi> (2003). Charles Brockden Brown: quantitative analysis and literary interpretation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(2): 129-38.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2605","17","Modelling Music Reception: An Ontology For Representing Interpretations of Richard Wagner's Leitmotifs","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>1. Background</head>
            <p>Richard Wagner’s leitmotifs (Whittall, 2003), the compositional technique and its aesthetic implications as well as the individual motives, their musical characteristics, meanings, and transformations through the works, have been subjected to a wide variety of interpretations throughout different cultural and historical situations. The popular Wagner discourse in particular – in work introductions, guidebooks, programme notes, commentaries and motivic annotations in libretti and piano scores – focused on the extraction, description and presentation of leitmotifs in order to convey their interpretation of Wagner’s work. Thus, the phenomenon ‘leitmotif’ cannot only be defined as a compositional technique, but also as a reception practice (Grey, 1996; Rümenapp, 2002; Thorau, 2003). This study aims at a large-scale comparison of these reception practices that reaches across cultures and time periods and is able to not only describe general characteristics of sources, but to compare interpretations down to conceptions of individual motives. Semantic Web technologies (Berners-Lee et al., 2001; Bizer et al., 2011), with the enhanced capabilities of linking, searching and structuring of data they provide, may facilitate this undertaking. This paper describes an ontology that models the structure and content of leitmotif interpretations, which shall enable the semantic annotation of sources and the structured representation of the interpretations they contain. A particular focus lies thereby on the methodological considerations and design decisions that stand behind it. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>2. Methodological Considerations</head>
            <p>Semantic Web Research and Musicology are two distinct domains, each with their own conventions, terminologies, and patterns of thought and discourse. Attempts to integrate them thus have to deal with the following questions: “How do [musicological] methods translate into methods of Semantic Web Research?” (Kummer, 2011) Can we conceive of a musicological ontology, which not only forms the basis to represent discourse in novel ways, but also works as an analytical device? How can we take advantage of the commonalities and accommodate the differences between methodologies and ways of thinking, such as different approaches to the presentation of knowledge and the construction of complexity, and the confrontation of different values of flexibility, ambiguity, and metaphoricity on the one hand and explicit definitions and taxonomies on the other? There are several key strategies by which the described ontology aims to achieve compliance with both domains: 1) a historical, critical and philosophical ‘awareness’ within the terminology and its specifications, as well as the connection to a shared vocabulary in the form of musicological encyclopaedias; 2) the incorporation of flexibility, ambiguity and nuance into the explicit model; 3) a direct correspondence between the ontology and both the document and “thought structure” of the interpretations it models. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>3. Related Work</head>
            <p>Existing approaches that apply Semantic Web technologies to music or musicology are mostly concerned with organising and retrieving musical data. The Music Ontology aims at modelling the “music production workflow”, and focuses on managing “music-related data” of recorded and foremost popular music (Raimond, 2007). Since this domain specification also shapes the terminology and definitions it employs, its application in the scholarly context of music history can be problematic: it does not comply with the terminological standards and conventions of musicology, and does not provide sufficient concepts to describe the variety of data that contextualises music and that is vital for music-historical study. The “musicSpace” project (Bretherton et al., 2009) aimed at enhancing the possibilities of musicological research by “integrating access to many of musicology’s leading data sources”, gathering factual information from this data and metadata and making this information accessible and searchable via a single interface. While sharing common goals and objectives, the project at hand aims at going beyond factual information and at analysing the structure and content of a specific type of musicological discourse, modelling assignments people attribute to a musical work throughout the history of its interpretation. Related approaches can also be found in different disciplines, such as Cultural Heritage and Museology (Doerr, 2003): Traditional approaches in musicology tended to treat works as self-contained conceptual objects; therefore, the reception or interpretation history of a musical work can, to a certain extent, be seen in correspondence to the provenance of an object. Relevant are furthermore ontologies that aim at modelling narratives or, more general, the content or structure of sources in different contexts, such as the OntoMedia ontology (Jewell et al., 2005), Story Fountain (Mulholland et al., 2004), or Curate (Mulholland et al, 2012).</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>4. Structure and Design</head>
            <p>Analyses and interpretations of musical works, even though their content, analytical approach etc. might be completely different, on a basic level often rely on similar structures and constituent elements. These commonalities increase within the “specialised” analytic or interpretative discourse that is concerned with, for instance, a particular composer, a particular form, style or genre, which shares patterns and conventions of discourse and a specified vocabulary. This ontology, therefore, aims to model leitmotif interpretation as a special case of musicological discourse: its design is based on an analysis of representative source documents, and its structure and scope is informed by the structure and content of these interpretations and their presentation principles. </p>
            <p>The ontology negotiates between several layers that model different dimensions. The first contains bibliographical metadata on the source documents, while the second concerns the source type and the corresponding internal document structure. The third level comprises the content structure, and is most significant for the comparisons of the different leitmotif interpretations. </p>
            <p>Guidebooks, such as Hans von Wolzogen’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Thematischer Leitfaden</hi> (Wolzogen, 1876), are already highly structured documents: They follow the chronology of the work, and “narrate” the music by extracting leitmotifs and describing their appearances, interactions and transformations through the course of the work. This interpretational concept of a leitmotif is, however, not the same as the compositional concept: they are integrated, self-contained constructs, abstractions from the musical context that tie together a musical phenomenon and its interpretation. They are represented as a collection of several constituent elements, such as a notation example fixing the motive’s shape, and a descriptive name defining its semantic reference (see figure 1). Which constituent elements exactly form a leitmotif concept differs between sources, and is characteristic for the source type or the interpretation approach. However, whereas within one guide, leitmotif concepts are stable and easily identifiable, the comparison between a large number of sources undermines permanent constructions: the same name can be found applied to different musical phenomena, or the same musical shape can be assigned different names; and even seemingly small nuances can point to significant differences in interpretations and aesthetic attitudes: the names ‘Schicksalsmotiv’ (Wolzogen, 1876) and ‘Schicksalsfrage’ (Porges, 1882), for instance, imply a completely different relationship between the name and the musical phenomenon: while the former establishes a denoting connection, with the motive acting as a sign for its semantic reference, the second establishes a metaphoric connection between the musical structure and the name, as the rhetoric characteristics of the ‘Frage’ (‘question’) parallel the musical characteristics of the motive. The varied combinations of constituent elements in different sources further complicate a comparison: how can we compare leitmotif concepts that don’t share any features? The ontology applies several strategies in order to cope with these difficulties: 1) Rather than providing a fixed definition of an interpretational leitmotif concept and its structure, the notion of a leitmotif concept is defined through its relationship to its constituent elements. Thus, the ontology does not prescribe a particular structure in which the actual instances have to be fitted, but stays flexible and can accommodate varying interpretational approaches. 2) The ontology introduces three meta-constituents, that are assigned in the analytic process and that shall introduce a common basis for comparison: the reference to a point in the work, the reference to a semantic sphere, and the reference to a basic musical shape (see figure 1). 3) Within these three categories, there is a set of relationships that aims at expressing a differentiated spectrum of influence and independence, identity and contrast, similarity and difference. In addition to the described structural features, the ontology also introduces different levels of abstraction, so that leitmotif interpretation is modelled as a special case of musicological discourse in general and the ontology remains potentially extensible to accommodate other forms of music interpretation and discourse. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""530/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure: Possible constituents of a leitmotif concept</head>
            </figure>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>5. Conclusion</head>
            <p>The described ontology forms the basis of a semantic annotation of the digitised sources, which shall facilitate the systematic comparison of a wide variety of leitmotif interpretations and enable to answer questions such as the following: Which musical shapes have been associated with a certain semantic sphere? How has a certain set of musical characteristics been classified in different interpretations and reception contexts? Being able to reorganise and query the reservoir of leitmotif concepts according to such questions can provide insights about larger contexts, patterns and constellations and form the starting point of more detailed investigations. Furthermore, beyond this particular analysis, it forms a first step towards a new structure of musicological discourse, as it allows to link elements of musical analyses, interpretations or reception documents together in novel ways. </p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Berners-Lee, T., Hendler, J., and Lassila, O. </hi>(2001). The Semantic Web. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scientific American</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">284</hi>(5): 34-43.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bizer, C., Heath, T., and Berners-Lee, T.</hi> (2011). Linked Data: The Story so far. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Semantic Services, Interoperability and Web Applications. Emerging Concepts</hi>, pp. 205-27.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bretherton, D. et al.</hi> (2009). Integrating musicology's heterogeneous data sources for better exploration. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 10th International Society for Music Information Retrieval Conference</hi>, pp. 27-32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Doerr, M.</hi> (2003). The CIDOC conceptual reference module: an ontological approach to semantic interoperability of metadata. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">AI magazine</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>(3): 75-92.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grey, T.</hi> (1996). ...wie ein rother Faden. On the origins of ‘leitmotif’ as critical construct and musical practice. In Bent, I. (Ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Music theory in the age of Romanticism</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 187-210. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jewell, M.O. et al.</hi> (2005). OntoMedia: An ontology for the representation of heterogeneous media. In
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceeding of SIGIR workshop on Mutlimedia Information Retrieval</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kummer, R.</hi> (2011). Semantic Technologies for Manuscript Descriptions – Concepts and Visions. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Codicology and Palaeography in the Digital Age 2. Schriften des Instituts für Dokumentologie und Editorik, 3</hi>. Norderstedt, pp. 133-55.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mulholland, P., Collins, T. and Zdrahal, Z.</hi> (2004). Story fountain: intelligent support for story research and exploration. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 9th international conference on Intelligent user interfaces</hi>, pp. 62-69.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mulholland, P., Wolff, A. and Collins, T.</hi> (2012). Curate and storyspace: an ontology and web-based environment for describing curatorial narratives. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Semantic Web: Research and Applications.</hi> Berlin: Springer, pp. 748-62. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Porges, H.</hi> (1882). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Die Bühnenproben zu den Bayreuther Festspielen des Jahres 1876</hi>, 
                        Vol.<hi rend=""bold""> 2</hi>, Die Walküre, Chemnitz: Schmeitzner.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Raimond, Y., et al.</hi> (2007). The Music Ontology. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the International Conference on Music Information Retrieval (ISMIR)</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rümenapp, P.</hi> (2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Zur Rezeption der Leitmotivtechnik Richard Wagners im 19. Jahrhundert</hi>. Wilhelmshaven: Noetzel.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thorau, C.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Semantisierte Sinnlichkeit. Studien zu Rezeption und Zeichenstruktur der Leitmotivtechnik Richard Wagners.</hi> Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Whittall, A.</hi> (2003). Leitmotif.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The new Grove dictionary of music online.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wolzogen, H. V.</hi> (1876). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Thematischer Leitfaden durch die Musik zu Richard Wagners Festspiel Der Ring des Nibelungen, </hi>Leipzig: Schloemp.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2606","17","Modelling Taxonomies of Text Reuse in the Deipnosophists of Athenaeus of Naucratis: Declarative Digital Scholarship","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This paper presents work on documenting text reuse of fragmentary authors and of extant works. By 
                <hi rend=""bold"">fragmentary</hi> we mean authors whose texts are lost and known through quotations and references by other authors. Within ancient Greek literature 60% of authors is preserved only in fragments, showing the challenge of working with innumerable pieces of reuse scattered in our textual heritage (Berti et al., 2009). This work is necessarily prior to any specific research questions. We cannot inquire into, e.g., the historical works of Istrus the Callimachean until we can comprehensively and precisely catalogue the surviving fragments of Istrus; nor can we ask “how did intellectuals in the 3rd century CE read epic poetry?”, until we can comprehensively identify instances of Homeric text reuse and work with them in their context.
            </p>
            <p>The term 
                <hi rend=""bold"">fragment</hi> is the result of print editorial practices, where chunks of text preserving traces of lost authors and works are extracted from their contexts and reprinted in separate collections. Even if such editorial workflow has produced invaluable results for reconstructing lost authors, the concept of 
                <hi rend=""bold"">textual fragment</hi> is problematic: It includes different kinds of text reuse and implies a certain degree of originality, which is difficult to assess and represent because the original text from which the reuse derives is hidden by the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">cover text</hi>, i.e., by the intention of the quoting author and the characteristics of the preserving context (Most, 1997; Schepens, 2000; Berti, 2013).
            </p>
            <p>Our data model defines taxonomies of text reuse for representing references to authors and works not as separate chunks of text but as contextualized annotations, expressing their nature of reuse of textual evidence. These annotations include not only the portion of text classifiable as a reuse, but also biographical and bibliographical data preserved in the source text.</p>
            <p>Text reuse of fragmentary authors presents the challenge of documenting text aligned with no extant exemplar. Text reuse of extant works presents additional challenges of aligning as precisely as possible (but no more precisely than is possible) two or more extant passages of text that may differ in small ways or large. Our data model documents uniquely instances of text reuse and it is developed on the Canonical Text Services (CTS), which is a protocol for identifying and retrieving passages of text based on concise, machine-actionable canonical citation. It is founded on the assumption that a “text” can be modelled as “an ordered hierarchy of citation objects” (Smith and Weaver, 2009). CTS URNs can identify passages more grossly or more finely; they can identify a range of passages at various levels of specificity; by the addition of an indexed substring, a CTS URN can identify a particular string within a passage of text (Blackwell and Smith, 2012). CTS is one component of a larger digital library architecture, developed for the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Homer Multitext</hi> project and called CITE (Collections, Indices, Texts, and Extensions): http://www.homermultitext.org/hmt-doc/cite/.
            </p>
            <p>In order to produce citable analyses of text reuse in their context, we have been working with the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Deipnosophists</hi> of Athenaeus of Naucratis, which is the account of a banquet where learned men quote authors and works of Greek literature concerning a wide range of topics related to dining and food. The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Deipnosophists</hi> is significant because it is a very rich collection of many different kinds of text reuse of fragmentary authors and of extant works (Braund and Wilkins, 2000; Lenfant, 2007; Jacob, 2013).
            </p>
            <p>Our data model specifies four subjects of analyses:</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Authors</hi>: enumerate and identify authors reused by Athenaeus;
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Works</hi>: enumerate and identify works reused by Athenaeus;
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Mentions</hi>: catalog every mention of authors and works in the text of Athenaeus, including his vocabulary for identifying them. For example, Athenaeus may mention that a work by Archestratus of Syracuse was known by four different names (i.e., 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Gastronomy</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Life of Pleasure</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Science of Dining</hi>, or 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Art of Cooking</hi>); this would generate five entries in this list: one mention of Archestratus, and four mentions of the same work.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Reuses</hi>: uniquely identify instances of text-reuse in the text of Athenaeus.
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>A fifth analysis will also include the twenty-two learned men who take part in the banquet described by Athenaeus and who are actually the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">characters</hi> who quote and reuse a huge amount of authors and works.
            </p>
            <p>We need seven records to produce citable analyses of the above mentioned subjects:</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Analysis Record URN</hi>. Every documented instance of text reuse (authors, works, mentions, reuses) has a CITE URN uniquely identifying this instance in a CITE collection.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Sequence Number</hi>. The collection of instances of text reuse is an 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">ordered collection</hi>; each item has a sequence number, reflecting the item’s sequence in the text of Athenaeus. This value is programmatically generated by a CTS-aware script before publishing the collection.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Analyzed Text</hi>. A CTS URN defining, as precisely or imprecisely as necessary, the span of text in the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Deipnosophists </hi>that is the subject of this analysis of text reuse. The scope of the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Analyzed Text</hi> is determined by the nature of the text reuse. In the case of authors and works, this CTS URN identifies a passage in the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Deipnosophists</hi> that serves to justify the inclusion in the respective list. When an author or a work is reused often, the passage should be a clear, unambiguous reference (e.g., “Homer says …”).
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Reused Text</hi>. While the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Analyzed Text</hi> identifies a coherent and contiguous span of text, as it appears in the edition being analyzed, the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Reused Text</hi> is a string identifying only the text being reused. The 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Analyzed Text</hi> provides context and a basis for alignment, while the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Reused Text</hi> gives us the flexibility to call out non-contiguous text, to normalize text, or even to promote morphological forms determined by indirected statement to those appropriate for direct speech, without doing violence to our source-edition. The 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Reused Text</hi> record allows us to represent different intepretations of the same text reuse, especially in the case of non-verbatim quotations.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Alignment URN</hi>. This collection documents reuse of extant authors and works, for which we have extant editions with canonical citation. The 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Alignment URN</hi> is a CTS URN pointing to the quoted extant author (identified with a CtsGroupUrn) or to one specific edition of the reused work (identified with a CtsWorkUrn) that (a) justifies our claim of text reuse, and (b) is the basis for attaching a citation of a still extant work to this analysis.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Analytical Edition URN</hi>. The collected instances of text reuse of extant work in the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Deipnosophists</hi> represent a new edition of these works, whose text-content is based on our analysis of our project’s edition of Athenaeus. The 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Analytical Edition URN</hi> is a CTS URN to an 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Athenaeus Edition</hi> of these works; the citation-value is based on that of the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Alignment URN</hi>; the text-content of this edition is the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Reused Text</hi> in Athenaeus. The 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Analytical Edition</hi> gives us an orthogonal view of the text reuse of extant authors in Athenaeus.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">CITE Collection of Lost Works</hi>. For text reuse of lost authors and works, there is no citation scheme, nor any inherent order to the text. For these, we produce a collection of text-reuse. This Collection can be cited by CITE URNs.
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>Initial work on documenting text reuse has been focused on references to Homer’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi> in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Deipnosophists</hi> (data available at http://digitalathenaeus.github.io/). The aim is to extend our data model including the categorization of different kinds of text reuse and further concrete examples of references to fragmentary authors and extant works in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Deipnosophists</hi> of Athenaeus of Naucratis.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Berti, M.</hi> (2013). Collecting Quotations by Topic: Degrees of Preservation and Transtextual Relations among Genres. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ancient Society</hi> 43: 269–88. doi:10.1145/1555400.1555442.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Berti, M., Romanello, M., Babeu, A. and Crane, G.</hi> (2009). Collecting Fragmentary Authors in a Digital library. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 9th ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries</hi>. New York: ACM, pp. 259–62. doi:10.1145/1555400.1555442.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blackwell, C. W. and Smith, D. N.</hi> (2012). Four URLs, Limitless Apps: Separation of Concerns in the Homer Multitext Architecture. In Muellner, L. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Donum Natalicium Digitaliter Confectum Gregorio Nagy Septuagenario a Discipulis Collegis Familiaribus Oblatum</hi>. Washington, DC: The Center for Hellenic Studies. http://chs.harvard.edu/wa/pageR?tn=ArticleWrapper&bdc=12&mn=4846.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Braund, D. and Wilkins, J.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Athenaeus and His World. Reading Greek Culture in the Roman Empire</hi>. Exeter: University of Exeter Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jacob, C.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Web of Athenaeus</hi>. Center for Hellenic Studies: Harvard University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lenfant, D.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Athénée et les fragments d’historiens. Actes Du Colloque de Strasbourg (16-18 Juin 2005)</hi>. Paris: De Boccard.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Most, G. W.</hi> (1997). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Collecting Fragments. Fragmente sammeln</hi>. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schepens, G.</hi> (2000). Probleme der Fragmentedition. (Fragmente der Griechischen Historiker). In Reitz, C. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Vom Text Zum Buch</hi>. St. Katharinen, pp. 1-29.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smith, D. N. and Weaver, G.</hi> (2009). Applying Domain Knowledge from Structured Citation Formats to Text and Data Mining: Examples Using the CITE Architecture. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text Mining Services</hi> 129. http://katahdin.cs.dartmouth.edu/reports/TR2009-649.pdf
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2607","17","New maps for the lettered city: a data visualization exploration of 19th century salons in Mexico","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Visualizations have a central role in the Digital Humanities. The second most popular author-chosen topic word of DH2015 was visualization (cf. Figure 1 from Weingart, 2015). Yet, when one revisits all accepted abstracts at DH2015 with the keyword “vis(z)ualization”, one may notice that not many of these texts indicate which libraries were used for interactivity (only some mention D3), and even fewer had direct links to their websites for testing (many were prototypes). 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""673/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
                <head>Figure 1. Fragment from graphic with the topical coverage of DH2015 (Weingart, 2015)</head>
            </figure>
            <p>One of the more common visualizations are those of relational data. In Katrien Verbert’s more thorough survey of interactive visuals in DH2014's presentations, relations-visualizations represent 50% of all prototypes (that is 29 out of 58). The most popular way to represent relationships are uni- or bi-directional graphs (23 out of 29) and only one of them used a matrix to display connections (see figure 2 from Verbert, 2015). To crack open the discussion on the pros and cons of this visualization technique, I will show how I answered some questions of cultural history, more specifically of Latin American Literary History, with a tailored interactive matrix (to this the visualizations visit: 
                <ref target=""http://www.sgutierrez.seewes.de/"">http://www.sgutierrez.seewes.de/</ref>).
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""673/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Visualization techniques used by work presented at DH14 (Verbert, 2015)</p>
            <p>Theoretical Framework</p>
            <p>The history of associations is a goldmine for the intellectual queries of scholars interested in literary and intellectual history. In Latin America, for instance, the appearance of Angel Rama's posthumous book 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The lettered city</hi> (1984), lead to a series of studies concerned with the constitution of enlightened groups, especially in new nation-states. As the capital city of one of the most powerful ex-Spanish Colonies, the lettered network in Mexico City makes an interesting case study. However, despite the valuable monographic studies on this subject (most notably Perales Ojeda, 2000 and Sánchez, 1951), which register around 200 active literary societies during the 19
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century, no overview on the subject has been possible and not all questions have been resolved. How diverse or homogeneous were these groups? Who were their most recurrent actors? Were certain generations more likely to be part of groups from a certain literary movement? I will propose a way of using visual and interactive displays of literary societies’ membership data to answer these three questions.
            </p>
            <p>Before me, others have sought to gain new insights by exploring the possibilities of data modeling to understand modern sociability. The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Berliner Klassik Gesseligkeit Datenbank</hi> (The Societies Database of the Berlin Classical Period, 2013) aimed to understand the cultural bloom of the early 19
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century and Stanford’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Salons Project</hi> (2012) was designed to get an understanding of the social composition of the French Enlightenment network. However, to date, there are no online dynamic visualizations of either of these projects.</p>
            <p>Methodology</p>
            <p>a) data collection</p>
            <p>The network's information was obtained by scrapping each associations' entry in the Encyclopedia of Mexican Literature (ELEM). Since ELEM is the most complete source of biographical data for 19th century Mexican writers, it is very unlikely that information about these writers can be found elsewhere; thus, I only considered members with an entry in this source. This procedure leaves out many characters, but it is at least representative of the known characters of the lettered city. It contains information of 51 associations (founded between 1808 and 1894) and of 195 members born between 1781 and 1870.</p>
            <p>b) data model</p>
            <p>The database derived from these two nodes (members and associations) was modelled to answer my research questions, but its metadata is designed to be reusable: members were assigned standard identifiers using Jeff Chiu's VIAF reconciliation service for OpenRefine (Chiu, 2015), and neutral aspects about these nodes -- such as birth and death dates or founding and closing dates—were included. In addition to these neutral aspects, I added two categories that scholars have used to cluster literary characters and societies, namely, generations and literary movements.</p>
            <p>c) visualization</p>
            <p>My first attempt was to follow the most common visualization for networks in the digital humanities, the Gephi-spaguetti (see figure 3). I did everything I could to enhance readability. I set the societies-nodes’ size according to the number of connections they had with other associations and the thickness of the edges to vary depending on how many common members two groups had. Even more, in order to get a chronologically-ordered layout I used Spekkink’s useful plugin, the Event Graph Layout (Spekkink, 2014). From this display, I was able to confirm kinship-relationships between societies. That is, that although persistence was never their 
                <hi rend=""italic"">forte</hi>, when one looks at the number of members that went from an extinct society to the next new one, one gets the impression that despite the ephemeral nature of these groups, there was still a type of continuity among them. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""673/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 3. Network visualization where nodes are 19th century Mexican societies and edges represent the number of common members between them</p>
            <p>Yet, even when I created an interactive graph with Sigma.js it was very hard to read the quantitative differences between my nodes’ connections. On the one side, I was interested in creating a visual display that allowed interactivity, providing end-users with both additional information for each data-point and the possibility to select specific ranges of the network. On the other, I wanted to control the order of my data and the quantities’ color-coding for readability. The solution was provided by a Python-library, Bokeh.</p>
            <p>Results</p>
            <p>The first visual I created was a co-occurrence matrix where each literary association was compared against all others. This display allowed me to understand how many members each pair of associations had in common. In order to enhance the identification of meaningful co-occurrences, I followed the principles of sequential color schemes –where low data values are represented by light colors and high values by dark ones (Wyssen, 2014) – and I assigned different colors and alphas according to the quantities’ distribution of my data: associations’ pairs above or equal to five common members were coded in red, and below five, in blue (see Figure 4). Additionally, I set different and consecutive alpha values to each glyph according to their exact value (intersections of less density had lower alphas). This display was helpful to address the question on the diversity or homogeneity of literary societies: with this tailored visual I was able to identify the homogenous hub of ten literary associations around the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Liceo Hidalgo</hi> that had a considerable amount of common members, suggesting that although they had different approaches they were nonetheless constituted by recurring members (cf. Figure 5).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""673/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 4. Co-occurrence matrix of literary societies ordered by the sum of common members with other associations</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""673/image5.png"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 5. Selection of societies with the highest common-members’ density</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""673/image6.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 6. Associations’ co-occurrence matrix by founding date</p>
            <p>Moreover, when I changed the order of the matrix (by founding date, see Figure 6) I was able to understand these connections in its temporal dimensions. For instance, when zooming on the glyphs for the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Liceo Hidalgo</hi> (see Figure 7) one can easily identify the previous societies with which this association had enough common members to consider them as predecessors, or which other later groups could be considered as successors for the same reasons. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""673/image7.jpg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 7. Liceo Hidalgos’ co-occurrences, a box-selection of the associations’ matrix by founding date</p>
            <p>Finally, in another color coding of the glyphs (by the literary movement that was in vogue when these societies were established) I could identify which societies of the same period had more common members (see Figure 8). </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""673/image8.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 8. Societies’ co-occurrence matrix with literary movements’ color-coding.</p>
            <p>Conversely, I created another matrix –this time comparing members— which was useful to understand which characters co-occurred more often in the same associations and thus address the second question, namely, which were the most recurrent actors in the network (see Figure 9). The result: thirteen characters formed the core of actors who were most involved (see Figure 10). This information, however, could have been obtained with a simple bar-chart. The difference in perspective that this matrix offers is that it allows the user to see that these characters were not only in many but also similar associations (which can be retrieved by hovering the glyphs), and, additionally, it makes evident how proportionally small this core is when compared to the whole matrix.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""673/image9.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 9. Members’ co-occurrence matrix ordered by maximum summed values.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""673/image10.jpg"" rend=""block""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 10. Members’ co-occurrence snapshot done with the selection tool of Bokeh’s visuals.</p>
            <p>Finally, to address the second question –namely, the correlation between generations and literary movements–, I created a matrix where associations were ordered by founding date on the y-Axe, and members by birth date on the x-Axe, and where the colors were coded according to their correspondent literary movement (see Figure 11). The dark colors of the glyphs represent the literary movement of a given society (all the blue ones are from the neoclassic movement, for instance), and the light colors in the background represent the members’ generations (for example, in light orange -in a vertical division- are all the members of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Renacimiento </hi>generation). Arranging them like this enabled me to take snapshots of different societies and observe the generations’ patterns of membership-adscription. For instance, I could note that although the group formed around the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Renacimiento</hi> magazine was heavily constituted by its homonym generation (see Figure 12), almost half of its members were born in the timeframe of the previous generation (coded with a light yellow background).
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""673/image11.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 11. Generations versus literary movements: a co-occurrence matrix</p>
            <p>               
                <graphic url=""673/image12.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </p>
            <p>Figure 12. Active members in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Grupo de la Revista el Renacimiento</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Conclusions</p>
            <p>In this paper I have shown how customized visualization of modeled data can enable new readings and lead to new understandings of how societies were formed in a key period of national history. Among other things, matrices help us “see” connections between previous categories of literary history (like generations and literary movements), between societies, but also between members, thus supporting new narratives of the lettered city were the alleged homogeneity of this “elite” group can be seen in a nuanced perspective that integrates complexity without sacrificing abstraction.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Chiu, J.</hi> (2015). An OpenRefine Reconciliation Service That Queries VIAF. Java https://github.com/codeforkjeff/refine_viaf.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Perales Ojeda, A. </hi>(2000).  <hi rend=""italic"">Asociaciones literarias mexicanas: siglo XIX</hi>. 2nd ed. (Al siglo XIX. Ida y vuelta). México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rama, A.</hi> (1984).  <hi rend=""italic"">La ciudad letrada</hi>. Hanover, N.H., U.S.A.: Ediciones del Norte.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sánchez, J.</hi> (1951). <hi rend=""italic""> Academias y sociedades literarias de México</hi>. University of North Carolina.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Spekkink, W.</hi> (2014).  <hi rend=""italic"">Event Graph Layout Wouter Spekkink</hi>. http://www.wouterspekkink.org/?page_id=93 (accessed 20 October 2015).</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Verbert, K. V. K. L. </hi>(2015).  <hi rend=""italic"">On the Use of Visualization for the Digital Humanities</hi>. Sydney, Australia http://dh2015.org/abstracts/xml/VERBERT_Katrien_On_the_Use_of_Visualization_for_t/VERBERT_Katrien_On_the_Use_of_Visualization_for_the_Dig.html (accessed 15 December 2015).</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Weingart, S.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Acceptances to Digital Humanities 2015</hi>, (part 2). The Scottbot Irregular http://www.scottbot.net/HIAL/?p=41347 (accessed 23 January 2016).</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Wyssen, J.</hi> (2014). <hi rend=""italic"">How We Created Color Scales</hi>, Website Datavisualization.ch http://datavisualization.ch/inside/how-we-created-color-scales/ (accessed 14 September 2014).</bibl>
                    <bibl>(2012). The Salons Project Mapping the Republic of Letters. http://republicofletters.stanford.edu/casestudies/salons.html (accessed 12 November 2014).</bibl>
                    <bibl>(2013). Berliner Klassik Geselligkeit-Datenbank Website Berliner Klassik Datenbanken. http://berlinerklassik.bbaw.de/BK/geselligkeit/Suche.html (accessed 25 February 2016).</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2608","17","Notes from the Transcription Desk: Modes of engagement between the community and the resource of the Letters of 1916","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Letters of 1916</hi> is Ireland’s first public humanities project. It collects, digitises, transcribes, encodes, and makes available through its electronic platform epistolary documents written between 1st November 1915 and 31st October 1916. The year 1916 was one of transition for Ireland: between its involvement in the Great War and the rise of militant nationalism, the country was divided by sentiment, separated by ideals. 2016 sees the centennial commemoration of the Easter Rising
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p> The Easter Rising was an armed insurrection launched by a minority of Irish nationalists against the British Empire in 1916. The Rising was contained to Dublin and suppressed following a week of fighting. It is seen as the genesis of the later Irish War of Independence. For further reading see, for instance, Max Caulfield’s 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Easter Rebellion</hi> (1998).
                    </p>
                </note> across Ireland. A more complex interpretation of the events that transpired in Easter week 1916 has entered national consciousness and with it the interest in the smaller and more personal accounts of those caught up in the ensuing violence. The rhetoric of the letter presents personal perspectives and individual memory traces; the collected letters provide an insight into those fragmentary stories that, inspected together, constitute a collective consciousness. Letters are shared experiences that connect people across geographical spaces.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p> Janet Gurkin Altman, contemplatig about the form of the letter, contends that while letters connect two geographical points they also serve as a bridge between the sender and the receiver. The epistolary author can either choose to emphasisne either the bridge or the distance (1982).</p>
                </note> The unique personal perspective of the epistolary form challenges the perceptions of established history, questioning the role of memory and the acts of commemoration that this era suggests. 
            </p>
            <p>Since Jeff Howe’s coining of the term ‘crowdsourcing’ in 2006 (Howe 2006), a number of pioneering projects have provided legitimacy and validity to the process.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                    <p> Since Howe’s definition of the term there have been several pioneering project based on crowdsourcing. For instance, see 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Transcribing Bentham</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Papers of the War Department 1874-1800 </hi>and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">What’s on the Menu</hi>?
                    </p>
                </note> The
                <hi rend=""italic""> Letters of 1916</hi> considers crowdsourcing in the widest possible sense of the term; the processes of collection, transcription, and curation are done through public engagement. The focus of this paper rests on the volunteer community associated with the project
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                    <p> As of October 2015 there are 1159 registered users on the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Letters of 1916</hi> site. These users transcribe, on average, 192,409 characters a month. 
                    </p>
                </note> and provides an inspection of the levels of its engagement, a study of its interests and motivations, and how future projects can adapt this investigation into community interaction. Sharon Leon, discussing her observations while working on the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Papers of the War Department 1784-1800,</hi>  identifies and categorises these motivations into six fields: (a) an interest in history, (b) a sense of civic duty, (c) a specific point of scholarly research, (d) engagement based on genealogical and family research questions, (e) educational assignments, and (f) curiosity about how the transcription tool and process works (Leon 2014). This paper extends these assumptions, inspecting specifically the affect of the epistolary form on the transcriber. The topical nature of this project raises questions beyond the ones that Leon raises. 
            </p>
            <p>The investigation in this paper traces the manner in which the community engages with the content, a hundred years since they were written, not merely as historical documents but as individual memory traces that express personal sentiments. The centenary creates a renewed vigour in the study of these documents and the paper questions if the engagement with these letters produce a more nuanced understanding of this conflicted time. As Leon points out, one of the driving forces of community transcription lies in an active interest in scholarly research. This paper attempts to understand this very engagement in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Letters of 1916</hi> project; some of the letters in the resource, particularly those received from personal collections, have been unavailable to the public until this point. Does the possibility of discovering these little stories and personal narratives that are weaved within the politics of the time, create an interest that emphasises the novelty of discovery? As the transcriber actively engages and researches these documents, do her motivations lie in the possibility of unearthing new knowledge? 
            </p>
            <p>A data-driven examination of transcriber-activity, as evidenced in the project, suggests that individual members of the community create self-fashioned roles. The transcriber who reads and re-authors these letters, the encoder who attributes TEI
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                    <p> The Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) is a consortium which develops and maintains a standard for the representation of texts in their electronic forms. For further information see <ref target=""http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml"">http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml</ref></p>
                </note> markup to the transcribed text, and the researcher who provides contextual information for the letter are all employed in the production of these electronic documents but their engagement is at different levels. This paper attempts to understand this division of roles based on the modes of engagement that are apparent. Re-authoring of these letters raises another question: as Barthes suggests, the relationship between the reader and the writer is complex and deeply problematic (1977). Does the re-authoring of these letters create a deeper investment in the narrative? This investment is reiterated when we consider the private emails exchanged between members of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Letters of 1916 </hi>volunteer network and the project staff where concerns are raised over the urgency, validity, and authority of the initial transcription; the accuracy and the model of the transcription becomes a point of contention between the members of the community.
            </p>
            <p>This paper considers the proposed questions in three stages and at three levels to gain a clearer understanding of the role of the transcriber within the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Letters of 1916</hi> project. In the first instance, a statistical inspection of the metadata for the transcribed letters provides an examination of the volume and the rate of transcription over the course of the project. The engagement of the individual transcriber with specific themes
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                    <p> Letters can belong to one or multiple themes including 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Easter Rising</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">World War I</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Family Life</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Love Letters</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Official Documents</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Politics</hi>, the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Irish Question</hi> and more.
                    </p>
                </note> within the collection is revealed in the process; this mode of investigation aids in viewing the community, not as a homogenous cluster, but as individuals with specific interests and different points of engagement. The visualizations generated from these analyses illustrate the interests of the community at a macro level. In the second instance, the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Letters of 1916</hi> volunteer network is approached with a focused survey. This ongoing survey presents the second phase of coordinated feedback that this project records. The questionnaire is designed to cover a range of topics that both reinforce the results of the statistical analysis and ask questions that lie outside the scope of data-driven inquiry. The focused design of the questionnaire is informed by the preliminary phase and attempts to tease out the motivations that lie at the heart of crowd-sourced projects such as the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Letters of 1916</hi>. In the third and final instance, the most-prolific transcribers
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                    <p> Each month the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Letters of 1916 </hi>Project generates a list of “top” transcribers. This list is determined by the number of characters a specific individual has transcribed in that time frame.
                    </p>
                </note> in the project are approached for interviews regarding their role in the process of transcription. These interviews are detailed and provide a closer study of the desires of the community. The methods utilised in this paper move from a macro to a micro level, from the data to the individual, in order to derive a concrete and axiomatic base to study the modes of engagement that the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Letters of 1916</hi> project and, perhaps, all crowdsourced projects have. 
            </p>
            <p>The success of a crowdsourced project lies in creating effective engagement between the community and the resource. This paper provides an investigation of the motivations and the desires of individuals that drive these forms of public history projects forward. The topical nature of this research, combined with the affect of epistolary documents, creates a unique opportunity for this study, a model for future projects to further develop their volunteer community, and the critical foundations on which future study of community transcriptions may be based.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>Altman, J. G. (1982). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Epistolarity: Approaches to a Form. </hi>Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Barthes, R. (1977). Death of the Author. In Heath, S (tr.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Image, Music, Text,</hi> New York: Hill and Wang.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Caulfield, M. (1995). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Easter Rebellion: The outstanding narrative history of the 1916 Rising in Ireland. </hi>Dublin: Gill & McMillan Ltd.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Howe, J. (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Rise of Crowdsourcing</hi>. WIRED. Available at: 
                        <ref target=""http://www.wired.com/2006/06/crowds/"">http://www.wired.com/2006/06/crowds/</ref> [Accessed on 27 Oct. 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Leon, S. M. (2014) Build Analyse and Generalise: Community Transcription of the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Papers of the War Department</hi> and the Development of Scripto. In Ridge, M. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Crowdsourcing Our Heritage</hi>. Dorchester: Ashgate.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Papers of the War Department. (2012). Wardepartmentpapers.org. Available at: http://wardepartmentpapers.org/ [Accessed 27 Oct. 2015].</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">TEI: Text Encoding Initiative</hi> (2013). tei-c.org. Available at: 
                        <ref target=""http://tei-c.org/index.xml/"">http://tei-c.org/index.xml/</ref> [Accessed on 27 Oct. 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>UCL Transcribe Bentham. (2016). Blogs.ucl.ac.uk. Available at: http://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/transcribe-bentham/ [Accessed 27 Oct. 2015].</bibl>
                    <bibl>What’s on the menu? (2016). Menus.nypl.org. Available at: http://menus.nypl.org/ [Accessed 27 Oct. 2015].</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2609","17","On the Distant Reading of Musicians' Biographies","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-bd995a2b-368e-7c44-2887-b3b049c99437""/>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">The Bavarian Musicians Encyclopedia Online (Bayerisches Musiker Lexikon Online, BMLO) is a web-based platform that provides access to biographical information about musicians associated to Bavaria's music history (BMLO, 2016). Most of the musicians contained in the corresponding database had an active lifetime period living in Bavaria or a considerable influence on Bavaria. Initiated in 2004, the musicians database contains biographical data about nearly 28,000 musicians now. This suggests the rather global scope of the BMLO – underpinned by many musicologists worldwide using the BMLO for their daily work. The screenshot in Figure 1 shows the BMLO entry for the composer Gustav Mahler.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-bd995a2b-368f-ae0b-a3d0-a06be3aea6e3""/>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""42/10000201000004D3000001E340ED74BE.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: Biographical information about Gustav Mahler in the BMLO</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-bd995a2b-3691-2871-b704-0e7439fcfaa0""/>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">A recently published article facilitates the profiling of musicians based on the BMLO (Jänicke et al., 2015). The profile of a musician of interest can be visualized, and according to biographical information, similar musicians are determined in a semi-automated process </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(MusikerProfiling, 2016)</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">. A profiling result for Gustav Mahler is shown in Figure 2. Although the profiling system has been proven useful for the collaborating musicologists, it does not support generic research questions like “In which cities Roman Catholic conductors worked during the 18th century?” or “What are the differences and similarities among the careers of pianists and violinists?” Therefore, the musicologists desired a system that facilitates the dynamic exploration of musicians’ characteristics with the help of interactive visual interfaces. The design of the resultant visualization system is outlined below.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-bd995a2b-3692-d0ba-1f6b-cf89b7578768""/>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""42/10000201000006400000040317F2B68F.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: Interactive visual profiling of Gustav Mahler comparatively visualizes Mahler's profile to the profiles of the three most similar musicians in three views (Column Explorer, Relationship Graph, Map)</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-bd995a2b-3694-9e4c-add2-5a82c7487bd7""/>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">To support the dynamic exploration of </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">musicians' </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">biographies, we provide various views that visualize aggregate biographical information of musicians inherent in the database. For the divisions where musicians worked, we use a tag cloud (Fig. 3a). As musical (Fig. 3b) and further professions (Fig. 3c) are organized in a hierarchy, we apply a sunburst technique tailored for such structures (Stasko et al., 2000). A map plots all places of activity (Fig. 3d). Using GeoTemCo </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(Jänicke et al., </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">2013) </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">for that purpose, occluding dots are clustered and metropolises of music history, e.g., Munich, Vienna and Berlin, are salient as large circles. To illustrate the denominations of musicians, we use again a tag cloud (Fig. 3e), and a pie chart to visualize </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">musicians' </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">sexes (Fig. 3f). Finally – based on the dates of birth, the first mentioned dates and the dates of death – we define an activity time for each musician. The aggregate of all activity times is shown in a timeline graph (Fig. 3g). With mouse interaction, each view can be used for filtering purposes. So, the investigation of rather generic research questions in musicology gets possible. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Figure 4 shows the filter steps required to explore </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">in which cities Roman Catholic conductors worked during the 18th century.</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> The first filter is applied in the denomination tag cloud (Fig. 4a) by clicking “römisch-katholisch” (Roman Catholic). Then, we select “Kapellmeister” (conductor) in the musical profession sunburst plot (Fig. 4b). Finally, dragging a time range from 1700 to 1800 in the timeline (Fig. 4c) filters the dataset from around 28,000 to 72 musicians, and their places of activity get visible in the map.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-bd995a2b-3696-9bc8-82f8-fe7c4833b475""/>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""42/10000201000005480000057A0469FFA7.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 3: Seven visual interfaces to explore various musicians' characteristics</head>
                    </figure>
                </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-bd995a2b-36bd-3f63-a252-783060bfacb6""/>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""42/100002010000033F000002C825626468.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 4: Exploring the question “In which cities Roman Catholic conductors worked during the 18th century?”</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-bd995a2b-369c-3e0b-539c-186c36349ab3""/>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">The system also supports the comparison of musicians groups. An example is given in Figure 5, which investigates </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">the differences and similarities among the careers of pianists and violinists</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">. We are using different colors to mark the attributes of violinists (yellow) and pianists (blue). The several views are slightly modified to support the comparative analysis. Looking at the result, some initial conclusions can be drawn:</hi>
            </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Although the database contains more violinists (Geiger) than pianists (Pianist), the profession of a pianist seems to be more multifarious, e.g., pianists had more musical and more further professions than violinists.</item>
                <item>The pianist profession is newer than the violinist profession.</item>
                <item>The ratio between male and female musicians is more balanced for pianists.</item>
                <item>Whereas Munich is the city where lots of pianists worked, violinists worked often in northern Bavaria, e.g., Bayreuth (772 x).</item>
            </list>
            <p>In our poster presentation, we will illustrate the above outlined design of the visualization system. In addition, we would demonstrate typical usage scenarios from the collaborating musicologists.</p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-bd995a2b-369e-b564-48e9-7e2da793ce31""/>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""42/10000201000005480000057A9DC354FB.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 5: Exploring the question “What are the differences and similarities among the careers of pianists and violinists?”</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">BMLO</hi> (2016). Bayerisches Musiker-Lexikon Online, 2016. ed. Josef Focht. <ptr target=""http://www.bmlo.lmu.de/""/> (accessed 2 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jänicke, S., Focht, J. and Scheuermann, G.</hi> (2016). Interactive Visual Profiling of Musicians. <hi rend=""italic"">Visualization and Computer Graphics, IEEE Transactions on,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>(1): 200–209, Jan 2016.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jänicke, S., Heine, C. and Scheuermann, G.</hi> (2013). GeoTemCo: Comparative Visualization of Geospatial-Temporal Data with Clutter Removal Based on Dynamic Delaunay Triangulations. In <hi rend=""italic"">Computer Vision, Imaging and Computer Graphics. Theory and Application,</hi> pp. 160–75.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">MusikerProfiling</hi> (2016). Musiker Profiling der Universität Leipzig. <ptr target=""http://profiling-musicians.vizcovery.org/""/> (accessed 2 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stasko, J. and Zhang, E.</hi> (2000). Focus+Context Display and Navigation Techniques for Enhancing Radial, Space-Filling Hierarchy Visualizations. In <hi rend=""italic"">Information Visualization, 2000. InfoVis 2000. IEEE Symposium on,</hi> pp. 57-65.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2610","17","Oulipian Stylometry","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p> The Oulipo, or Ouvroir de littérature potentielle, is a group of writers in Paris who for over fifty years have experimented with algorithmic techniques for writing and reading literature. Raymond Queneau, one of the group’s co-founders, proposed a method in 1964 for analyzing the syntactic structure of texts written in French, and he believed that the method, which he called matrix analysis, could provide a measure of an author’s style.</p>
            <p> What can matrix analysis contribute to stylometry? Apart from its origins as a form of computational play for play’s sake (Wolff, 2007), matrix analysis offers an alternative to lexically based techniques for authorship attribution such as Burrow’s Delta (2002). Rybicki and Eder reported that Delta does not work as well for texts written in French as for those in English and German (2011). Antonia, Craig and Elliott have shown that analyzing the frequencies of lexical n-grams where n > 1 does not usually yield very good results (2014). Researchers have developed syntactical methods based on bigrams of labels for a simplified parsing of texts (Hirst and Feiguina, 2007) and on correlations between semantics and the structures of dependent and independent clauses (Allison et al., 2013). In the latter study the researchers concluded that their definition of style “entailed […] 
                <hi rend=""italic"">a method for looking for it</hi>” (28). The early Oulipo would have agreed with this approach. Recognizing that an author aware of how he or she used words syntactically might apply Queneau’s matrix analysis to change his or her “manner,” François Le Lionnais (the other co-founder) claimed that matrix analysis could serve as a “literary prosthesis” exemplifying the vocation of the group (Bens, 2005: 246). For Le Lionnais, the most important focus of the Oulipo should be the synthesis of new possibilities for understanding literary phenomena (Oulipo, 1973: 17). Matrix analysis enables the identification of significant syntactical patterns for further inquiry into an author’s style. These patterns would be difficult to ascertain without a method like the one developed by Queneau.
            </p>
            <p> Queneau devised a grammatical schema of the French language for describing the construction of word pairs using a system similar to linear algebra (1964). He began by dividing all elements of speech into two categories: signifiers, which include nouns, adjectives, and verbs (except 
                <hi rend=""italic"">avoir</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">être</hi>); and formatives, which include everything else (
                <hi rend=""italic"">avoir</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">être</hi>, pronouns, articles, conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs, interjections, etc.). Given a sentence, one can construct two matrices where the first matrix contains all formatives and the second all signifiers:
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""51/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>If a sentence contains two consecutive formatives or signifiers, one can use a unitary element to construct the matrices:</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""51/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>By adopting the conventions that neither (1 × 1) nor (Y × 1) + (1 × Z) are allowed within a sentence, one avoids uninteresting or redundant word pairs.</p>
            <p> Queneau proposed observing the distribution of formatives and signifiers in a text using the relation F + Uf = S + Us, where F is the number of formatives, S the number of signifiers, Uf the number of unitary elements paired with signifiers (1 × Z), and Us the number of unitary elements paired with formatives (Y × 1). Noting that even if an author like Flaubert worked tirelessly to vary how he wrote, Queneau believed that this distribution could serve as a “potential” but unconscious indicator of the author’s style (1965: 319).</p>
            <p> In order to test Queneau’s hypothesis, I applied his matrix analysis to a corpus of 328 nineteenth-century French novels from the ARTFL-FRANTEXT database using Helmut Schmidt’s part-of-speech tagger (1995). Figure 3 is a biplot of a principal components analysis of scaled values for F, S and Uf (Us is excluded to avoid collinearity) and the graph shows that works by the authors Jules Barbey d’Aurevilly, Alexandre Dumas and Honoré de Balzac cluster separately whereas works by George Sand form distinct clusters.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""51/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Table 1 indicates the results of using support vector machines with a radial basis function kernel to build a classification model for the texts (Kuhn, 2015). Sixty-seven percent of the corpus was used for training the model with 10-fold cross-validation. A one-against-one method was used for classifying the test set (Karatzoglou, 2004: 7-8). The results show a moderate authorial signal in the works of Barbey d’Aurevilly and weaker signals for Dumas and Balzac.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""51/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p> To build a better model using matrix analysis, one can observe the distribution of bigrams of matrix analysis pairs in the corpus. Given the labels 
                <hi rend=""bold"">F</hi> for (Y × 1), 
                <hi rend=""bold"">S</hi> for (1 × Z), and 
                <hi rend=""bold"">B</hi> for what Queneau called a biword (Y × Z), one can transcribe a text into a series of these letters. For instance, the sentence from George Sand’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Indiana</hi> (1832):
            </p>
            <quote>(Toute × 1) (sa × conscience), (c’ × 1) (était × 1) (la × loi); (toute × 1) (sa × morale), (c’ × 1) (était × 1) (son × droit).</quote>
            <p>can be represented as 
                <hi rend=""bold"">FBFFBFBFFB</hi>. With the feature set of bigrams 
                <hi rend=""bold"">FF</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""bold"">FB</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""bold"">BF</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""bold"">BB</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""bold"">BS</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""bold"">SB</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""bold"">SS</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""bold"">SF</hi>, and 
                <hi rend=""bold"">FS</hi>, one can analyze its distribution within the corpus. Figure 4 is a biplot of a principal components analysis of the corpus with the nine bigrams as variables and suggests that at least some authors do have measurable differences in style.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""51/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Table 2 shows the results of building a model with support vector machines to classify the texts by author according to the distribution of bigrams.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""51/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>The model can identify the styles of Barbey d’Aurevilly and Dumas with very good accuracy, and it can detect authorial signals in works by Flaubert and Balzac. The model does not do well identifying works by Sand because they seem to evince two distinct styles (as suggested by Figure 4). The small cluster of works by Sand on the left side of the graph include 
                <hi rend=""italic"">François le champi</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Elle et lui</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Le Château des désertes</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">La Mare au diable</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Consuelo</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Indiana</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Lélia</hi>, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">La Comtesse de Rudolstadt</hi>. The predominance of formatives in this cluster is perhaps indicative of a more conversational style: such an hypothesis would require further analysis.
            </p>
            <p> Compared to other classification methods based on wordlists, matrix analysis does not deliver as high a level of accuracy. Table 3 summarizes the sensitivity and specificity of several classification models with different statistical techniques for the five selected authors using the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">classify()</hi> function of the R software package 
                <hi rend=""italic"">stylo</hi> (Eder et al., 2013):
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""51/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>To minimize the effects of semantic variation, the wordlists for classification with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">stylo</hi> were culled 100% (only those words that appear at least once in every text were included).
            </p>
            <p>Despite the low accuracy of matrix analysis, it is possible to identify sample sentences that exemplify an author’s style with sequences of bigrams. In Figure 4 the left group of Sand’s texts clusters near the vectors for 
                <hi rend=""bold"">FF</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""bold"">BF</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""bold"">FB</hi>. Scanning the texts for the highest relative frequency of these bigrams yields sentences such as this from Sand’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Consuelo</hi> (1842):
            </p>
            <quote>(Il × faut) (que × 1) (je × sache) (comment × 1) (elle × 1) (se × tient), (ce × 1) (qu’ × 1) (elle × fait) (de × 1) (sa × bouche) (et × 1) (de × 1) (ses × yeux).
                <hi rend=""bold"">BFBF</hi><hi rend=""bold"">FBFFBFBFFB</hi>
            </quote>
            <p>The syntax of this sentence as schematized by matrix analysis contains within it the syntax of the previously quoted sentence, inviting further inquiry into how Sand constructed her texts. Although Sand most likely did not think of her writing style in the terms conceived by Queneau, matrix analysis represents a method for thinking about style that not only measures how words are used but can also inform potentially the act of writing and reading. Lexically-based techniques consider texts as “bags of words” with structure-less frequencies, but matrix analysis approaches texts as objects that have undergone a process of development. As an Oulipian procedure, matrix analysis allows the reader to detect reproduced and reproducible patterns through an interactive process of textual exploration.</p>
            <p> Queneau’s matrix analysis represents an analytical method for defining style that classifies texts according to their structure. The Oulipo in the 1960s made a distinction between the quality of works of literature and the potentiality of the methods used to create works of literature (Bens, 2005: 80). Practitioners of computational text analysis can observe a similar distinction between the accuracy of text classification and the potentiality of classification methods for understanding literature. If style implies how words are used more than what words are used, stylometry should seek to better understand how words are used. The Oulipo provides us with an example of this kind of inquiry into computationally revealed text structures. Queneau performed small experiments with matrix analysis, but Le Lionnais imagined the possibility of harnessing machines to support the necessary calculations on a larger scale (Bens, 2005: 246). Following the Oulipian notion of “plagiarism by anticipation” (Oulipo, 1973: 23), we can understand matrix analysis as a precursor of stylometry in the digital humanities.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Allison, S., Gemma, M., Heuser, R., Moretti, F., Tevel, A. and Yamboliev, I.</hi> (2013). Style at the Scale of the Sentence. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary Lab</hi> 5. Stanford University. Retrieved from <http://litlab.stanford.edu/LiteraryLabPamphlet5.pdf>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Antonia, A., Craig, H. and Elliott, J.</hi> (2014). Language chunking, data sparseness, and the value of a long marker list: explorations with word n-grams and authorial attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 29/2: 147–63. DOI: 10.1093/llc/fqt028
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bens, J.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Genèse de l’Oulipo 1960-1963</hi>. Bordeaux: La Castor Astral.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (2002). ‘Delta’: a Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 17/3: 267–87. DOI: 10.1093/llc/17.3.267
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2013). Stylometry with R: a suite of tools. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts.</hi> University of Nebraska--Lincoln, NE: 487-89.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hirst, G., and Feiguina, O.</hi> (2007). Bigrams of Syntactic Labels for Authorship Discrimination of Short Texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 22/4: 405–17. DOI: 10.1093/llc/fqm023
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Karatzoglou, A., Smola, A., Hornik, K. and Zeileis, A.</hi> (2004). kernlab – An S4 Package for Kernel Methods in R. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Statistical Software</hi>, 11/9: 1–20.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kuhn, M.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">caret: Classification and Regression Training</hi>. Retrieved from <http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=caret>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Oulipo</hi> (1973). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">La Littérature potentielle (Créations Ré-créations Recréations)</hi>. Paris: Gallimard.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Queneau, R.</hi> (1964). L’Analyse matricielle du langage. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Etudes de linguistique appliquée</hi>, 3: 37–50.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Queneau, R.</hi> (1965). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bâtons, chiffres et lettres</hi>. Paris: Gallimard.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rybicki, J. and Eder, M.</hi> (2011). Deeper Delta across genres and languages: do we really need the most frequent words? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 26/3: 315–21. DOI: 10.1093/llc/fqr031
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmid, H.</hi> (1995). TreeTagger: a language independent part-of-speech tagger. Retrieved from <http://www.cis.uni-muenchen.de/~schmid/tools/TreeTagger/>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wolff, M.</hi> (2007). Reading Potential: The Oulipo and the Meaning of Algorithms. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, 1/1.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2611","17","Photogrammar","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Photogrammar</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The poster will focus on Photogrammar (photogrammar.yale.edu), a web-based platform for organizing, searching, and visualizing the 170,000 photographs from 1935 to 1945 in the United State’s Farm Security Administration and Office of War Information (FSA-OWI) Archive. Our poster session will include two parts – a physical poster and demonstrations of how to use Photogrammar. The goal is to highlight how we used digital humanities methods such as text, image and spatial analysis to increase discoverability of a photograph archive while also changing humanities scholarship related to the FSA-OWI. </p>
            <p>For the poster, we will first outline how Photogrammar is changing scholarship in media studies, visual culture studies and 20th century United States cultural history. In order to build support for and to justify government programs during the Great Depression and World War II, the FSA-OWI set out to document America and the successful administration of government services. They produced some of the most iconic images of the era and employed prominent documentary photographers such as Arthur Rothstein, Dorothea Lange, Gordon Parks, and Walker Evans, all of whom shaped the visual culture of the era both in its moment and in American memory. Unit photographers were sent across the country. The negatives were sent to Washington, DC. 170,000 negatives were collected and for decades, scholars have argued that FSA-­‐ OWI archive is a collection about rural poverty in the American south and Dust Bowl. Photogrammar shows that mapping the photographs challenges decades of scholarship on one of the most prominent visual culture archives in the United States. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""512/image1.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>The photographers took pictures across the nation, which leads to new questions about the breadth and depth of the archive and goals of the federal government during the era. Questions include why the United States federal government sought these images and how individual photographers’ ways of seeing impacted the archive. We will then turn to the methods used to reframe and visualize the photographs that are changing scholarship on and the discoverability of the FSA-­‐OWI collection. We will focus on three techniques: automated geo-referencing and CartoDB to map the photographs, TF-­‐IDF and cosine similarity to surface related photographs based on their captions, and facial recognition software to make the collection searchable by faces (OpenBR).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""512/image2.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""512/image3.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Along with the poster, we will offer demonstrations of the site. We will highlight the multitude of features on the site such as tracking photographers as they move across the country and how users can explore the collection through the archival system developed by Paul Vanderbilt in the 1940s to organize the collection. We will also share new Labs that are in development in order to receive feedback from the international DH community.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""512/image4.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>We are also excited to share with participants of DH2016 how we built Photogrammar and to speak with them about how they could apply these methods to their archives and humanities data. In addition, we are eager to learn from participants about additional techniques that might augment Photogrammar.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2612","17","Playing with French Drama: from Old Research Questions to New Research Tools","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>While early English drama has been subject to several DH investigations, because “a quite explicit and rigid system of metadata is part of the genre itself” (Mueller, 2014: par27), French theatre of the 17<hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> and 18<hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century remains largely underexplored, in spite of demonstrations and case studies presented by authors with large international audiences (Moretti, 2005). This paper presents some results of a project inspired by the explorations of the English corpora, but dedicated to the computer aided identification and analysis of theatrical topoi in the French domain.</p>
            <p>Topoi can be defined as “recurrent configurations of thematic or formal elements” (adapted from Weill and Rodriguez, SATOR, 1996) and they are highly significant for the French plays, which are largely based on a common stock of characters, scenes and themes, and in which novelty often consists in reuse with a shift of former materials. Considering the vast amount of plays produced over the period going from, roughly, 1630 to 1790 (some 12000 plays, even if the text of many of them is lost), the use of computational tools to track the presence of various topoi over the time appears appropriate. Computer aid can help answer in a (more) rigorous way questions concerning the aesthetics of the French theatre of the period, too often reduced to “classicism”, and historical interrogations about moments and reasons when certain meaning units are more in use or relatively abandoned.</p>
            <p>While the results of this endeavour are at a very early phase, for reasons to be detailed in the presentation, the very attempt to clarify some of these literary questions shows that the use of the computer is not neutral and modifies the problems to be solved. After a more detailed presentation of the activities undertaken to date, this paper will reflect upon the way in which the methods and tools used to approach the texts modify the initial research questions.</p>
          <p rend=""DH-Heading2"">Dramacode: an expanding community for French drama</p>
            <p>Identifying topoi using a computer asks in the first place for the existence of digitised texts in a more elaborate format than the pdfs or plain texts offered by Gallica (see http://gallica.bnf.fr). Various initiatives have been taken in this domain in France, either by scholars supported by HEIs and research institutes (see “Molière project” http://obvil.paris-sorbonne.fr/corpus/moliere/moliere) or by individuals with computer skills and a special interest in literature from the 17<hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> and 18<hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century (see <ref target=""http://www.theatre-classique.fr"">http://www.theatre-classique.fr</ref>). Unfortunately, this diversity of initiatives resulted in a great variety of encoding practices, more or less TEI compliant. To reduce this diversity and move towards common standards, an organisation has been created on GitHub. Under the name of “Dramacode”, it hosts some 882 plays written or staged between 1630 and 1810 (roughly, 7,3% of the dramatic production of the period), to be progressively re-tagged and enriched with further mark-up. “Dramacode” allows also to publish the contents with a harmonised style-sheet, and to share work on experiments of visualisation of data extracted from the plays.</p>
          <p rend=""DH-Heading2"">Finding theatrical topoi through linguistic analysis and literary mark-up</p>
            <p>Within this corpus, the plays of Louis de Boissy (1694-1754) have been selected for a pilot study, destined to build strategies for gathering sufficient clues, through various queries, about the existence of a topos in an unknown (i. e., not previously read) play, digitised and encoded in another project. </p>
            <p>Louis de Boissy was a French play writer who enjoyed a certain success in the 18th century mainly because of two of his plays, <hi rend=""italic"">Le Français à Londres</hi> and <hi rend=""italic"">L’Homme du jour</hi>. Beyond these achievements, what renders his work interesting is precisely its mediocrity. Boissy’s works are a perfect example of the reuse of topoi, sometimes to follow the fashion, sometimes in an attempt to distinguish himself by revitalising conventional themes and dialogues. He has also the particularity of having worked for the three main theatrical spaces of the period, namely the Comédie-Française, Théâtre Italien and Théâtres de la Foire. Therefore, his texts become a privileged observatory of French comedy in the first half of the 18th century.</p>
            <p>Two approaches of topoï identification are developed. The first one consists in developing an ontology for characters and scenes description. Roles and description of roles from the existing plays have been extracted, cleaned, and analysed using an excel spread-sheet. Ten categories appear necessary for describing characters from classical French scenes; five of them were known and formalised since Aristotle, or, at least, since the rediscovery of Aristotle by French authors and thinkers of Renaissance, then 17<hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century: nationality (“climat” in Marmontel’s words, see entry “Moeurs” in Eléments de littérature, 1787), age, sex, occupation (“état”) and temperament. Five others were deemed of interest, as allowing potential automatic analysis aimed to spot changes in aesthetic principles: the ontological category (human/ nonhuman/ semihuman), the dramatic or actantial role, the social status (“king”, “prince”, “marquis”, “Dom”…: it seemed useful to distinguish these from information about “état”), the family position, and the collective nature of some characters.</p>
            <p>In parallel, types of scenes and other significant recurrences are manually identified and marked-up as “recognition”, “fight”, “complot”, etc. Relevant lines or phrases (labelled with xml:ids) are regrouped as <span>s in the <back> section of <text>; if each span receives, for the moment, a literal description, this will progressively feed into another library and will be later referred to using @ana.</p>
            <p>The second approach is based on a linguistic analysis of the speeches, using AntConc to generate concordances and to identify key-words. The initial objective was to spot key-words or linguistic idiosyncrasies of the character of “petit-maître”, whose identification was the primary goal of this research. Indeed, “petit-maître” are not always labelled as such, and therefore their presence in French drama has been underestimated and incorrectly related to a specific period in time (mainly, “decadence comedy” after 1680). If, in time, a complete mark-up of the characters according to the above-mentioned categories (i. e., <temper>) will help identifying as “petits-maîtres” those who are not called as such by roleDesc or other characters in the play, speech identification is for the moment the only option for answering the research question.</p>
          <p rend=""DH-Heading2"">New research vistas</p>
            <p>When observing the trajectory of this study, the digital approach can be said as having significantly modified the initial perspective and research questions. The TEI tagging of characters and scenes revealed the need to refine methods and categories developed by the narratology and the theatrical analysis in 1970 and 1980, preparing the grounds for more accurate description of character building.</p>
            <p>In the meantime, the effort to describe a stylistic specificity of the “petits-maîtres” revealed to be rooted in a larger, two folded research question, concerning the potential differences in speech between characters of the same author. Digital humanities have been, to date, more interested in global stylistic analysis on one side, and in authorship studies, on the other side, while this research project intends to apply the methods of the second approach to fictional speakers. While such an endeavour can be justified by the pretences of French dramatists of the classical centuries to act as kind of “sociolinguists”, the question is as well that of the methods to automatize the analysis of specific speeches when conducted on a large scale (more than 9300 distinct characters presents in the above-mentioned set of plays), and of the explanations to be found for the observed recurrences. Indeed, during the pilot study executed on Boissy plays, it appeared that his characters group, by their speech, less in male and female speakers, but rather in two unexpected classes, one formed by those who tend to speak more about themselves (characters saying “je”), the second by those who address themselves to the the others (characters saying “vous”). The importance of “I” and “You” has already been spotted in theatrical studies (see Craig, 2004), but not the observed repartition, which needs, however, to be checked against the larger corpus, a very time consuming operation for the moment. </p>
            <p>It is to be expected that further observation of concordancers and n-grams extracted from very large collections of digitised plays will put into light such other unexpected recurrences, triggering a new understanding about what is a classical play, and contributing to the on-going debate about the nature of the theatre.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Marmontel, J. F. </hi> (2005).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Eléments de littérature. Édition présentée, établie et annotée par Sophie Le Ménahèze</hi>. Paris : Desjonquères.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mueller, M.</hi> (2014). Shakespeare His Contemporaries: collaborative curation and exploration of Early Modern drama in a digital environment. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ: Digital Humanities Quaterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(3).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2005).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Graphs, maps and trees: Abstract Models for a Literary Theory</hi>. London and New York: Verso.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Craig, H. </hi> (2004). Stylistic Analysis and Authorship Studies. In Schreibman, S. Siemens, R. and Unsworth, J. (Eds.) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion Digital Humanities</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell, DOI: 10.1002/9780470999875.ch20.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2613","17","Publishing Second World War History as Linked Data Events on the Semantic Web","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Second World War on the Semantic Web</head>
                <p>Data about wars is typically heterogeneous, distributed in the data silos of the fighting parties, multilingual, and often controversial depending on the political point of view. It is therefore hard for the historians to get a global picture of what has actually happened, to whom, where, when, and how. We argue that Semantic Web and Linked Data technologies are a very promising approach for modeling, harmonizing, and aggregating data about war history. Our goal is to make it possible, for both historians and laymen, to study history in a contextualized way where linked datasets enrich each other. The paper presents the in-use WarSampo
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p> “Sampo'' is a magical artifact in Finnish mythology that brought good fortune to its owner.</p>
                    </note> system, where massive collections of heterogeneous data about the (Finnish) history of the Second World War are harmonized using an event-based approach, and provided as a Linked Open Data service for applications to use. As a use case, a semantic portal WarSampo providing six different perspectives to the war based on events is presented.
                </p>
                <p>There are several projects publishing data about the World War I on the web, such as Europeana Collections 1914–1918
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""http://www.europeana-collections-1914-1918.eu"">http://www.europeana-collections-1914-1918.eu</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note>, 1914–1918 Online
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""http://www.1914-1918-online.net"">http://www.1914-1918-online.net</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note>, WW1 Discovery
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""http://ww1.discovery.ac.uk"">http://ww1.discovery.ac.uk</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note>, Out of the Trenches
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""http://www.canadiana.ca/en/pcdhn-lod/"">http://www.canadiana.ca/en/pcdhn-lod/</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note>, CENDARI
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""http://www.cendari.eu/research/first-world-war-studies/"">http://www.cendari.eu/research/first-world-war-studies/</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note>, Muninn
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""http://blog.muninn-project.org"">http://blog.muninn-project.org</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note>, and WW1LOD (Mäkelä et al., 2015). War history makes a promising use case for Linked Data because war data is heterogeneous, distributed in different countries and organizations, and written in different languages (Hyvönen, 2012). Using metadata, also different opinions and conflicting information about the war can be represented.
                </p>
                <p>Many websites also publish information about the World War II, the largest global tragedy in human history, such as the World War II Database
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn8"" n=""8"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""http://ww2db.com"">http://ww2db.com</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note> to name just one. However, such portal data is typically meant for human consumption, and there are only few works that deal with machine readable data about the WW2 for applications to use (Collins et al., 2005; de Boer et al., 2013).
                </p>
                <p>Our work contributes to the related research above by initiating and fostering large scale LOD publication of WW2 data on the web, based on event-based data modeling. The idea is to publish Linked Open data, aggregated from distributed data silos, for Digital Humanities applications to use. In our case study, the data is related to the Finnish Winter War 1939–1940 against the Soviet attack, the Continuation War 1941–1944, where the occupied areas of the Winter War were temporarily regained by Finns, and the Lapland War 1944–1945, where the Finns pushed the German troops away from Lapland.</p>
                <p>We first present and discuss the data modeling approach developed for the WarSampo LOD service. After this an application of the data, the WarSampo semantic portal, is presented where events are linked to related resources, such as photos, persons, and historical places. In conclusion, lessons learned are discussed and directions for further research pointed out.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The data service: modelling war events as Linked Data</head>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""241/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Table 1</hi>. Central datasets published and linked in WarSampo.
                </p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Data</head>
                    <p>The project deals initially with the datasets presented in Table 1. The casualties data (1) includes data about the deaths in action during the wars. War diaries (2) are digitized authentic documentations of the army unit actions in the frontiers. Photos and films (3) were taken during the war by the troops of the Defense Forces. The Kansa taisteli magazine (4) was published in 1957–1986; its articles contain mostly memories of the men that fought on the fronts. Karelian places (5) and maps (6) cover the war zone area in pre-war Finland that was finally annexed by the Soviet Union. Organization cards (7), written after the war, document events of military units during the war. War time events (8) extracted from various publications include, e.g., battles and political incidents. The data, over 5 million triples in total, has been transformed into RDF from database dumps, spreadsheets (CSV), and by applying OCR to documents. Named Entity Recognition (NER) techniques were used to link texts to data, e.g., to identify and disambiguate persons and places in the magazine articles and captions of the photos. In addition, new datasets are planned to be included in the system, such as the Finnish Broadcasting Company YLE’s audio and film material recorded during the war or related to it (“Living Archive”), and a database of prisoners of war.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Metadata models </head>
                    <p>CIDOC CRM
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn9"" n=""9"">
                            <p>
                                <ref target=""http://cidoc-crm.org"">http://cidoc-crm.org</ref>
                            </p>
                        </note> is used as the harmonizing basis for modeling data, with events providing the semantic glue for data linking (Doerr, 2003). Our data model for WW1, presented in (Mäkelä et al., 2015), is used as the metadata model to start with. The model and data is documented at the data service
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn10"" n=""10"">
                            <p>
                                <ref target=""http://www.ldf.fi/dataset/warsa/"">http://www.ldf.fi/dataset/warsa/</ref>
                            </p>
                        </note>.
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Domain ontologies</head>
                    <p>The data is annotated using a set of domain ontologies, including: 1) an ontology of the troops and their hierarchies, 2) persons with their ranks and roles, 3) place ontology of historical places, 4) event ontology of battles, politics, and other war time incidents, 5) an ontology of time periods, and 6) a subject matter ontology. Ontologies on objects such as weapons, aircraft, and vessels remain topics of possible future work.</p>
                    <p>All WarSampo datasets are available as Linked Open Data (LOD) at the “7-star” Linked Data Finland service
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn11"" n=""11"">
                            <p>
                                <ref target=""http://www.ldf.fi"">http://www.ldf.fi</ref>
                            </p>
                        </note> (Hyvönen et al., 2014), based on Fuseki
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn12"" n=""12"">
                            <p>
                                <ref target=""http://jena.apache.org/documentation/serving\data/"">http://jena.apache.org/documentation/serving\data/</ref>
                            </p>
                        </note> establishing the SPARQL endpoint, and with a Varnish Cache
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn13"" n=""13"">
                            <p>
                                <ref target=""https://www.varnish-cache.org"">https://www.varnish-cache.org</ref>
                            </p>
                        </note> frontend for dereferencing URIs.
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Application: perspectives to war history</head>
                <p>The idea of the WarSampo portal is to provide a variety of different perspectives to war history. There are six perspectives available: Events, Persons, Army Units, Places, Kansa taisteli Magazine Articles, and Casualties (Hyvönen et al., 2016). The idea is that the perspectives enrich each other based on data linking.</p>
                <p>Figure 1 illustrates the WarSampo Events perspective application to the WarSampo data. Events are displayed on a map, (a) in Fig. 1, and on a timeline (b) that shows here some events of the Winter War. When the user clicks on an event, it is highlighted (c), and the historical place, time span, type, and description for the selected event are displayed (d). Photographs related to the event (e) are also shown. The photographs are linked to events based on location and time. Furthermore, information about casualties during the time span visible on the timeline is shown alongside the event description (f), and the map (a) features a heatmap layer for a visualization of these deaths.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""241/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Figure 1.</hi> Event perspective featuring a timeline and a map.
                </p>
                <p>The events can also be found and visualized through other perspectives. For example, in the Army Units perspective, the events in which a unit participated can be viewed on maps and in time, providing a kind of graphical activity summary of the unit. In the casualties perspective, military units of the dead soldiers are known, making it possible to sort out and visualize the personal war history of the casualties on historical maps that come from a yet another dataset in WarSampo.</p>
                <p>The WarSampo semantic portal
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn14"" n=""14"">
                        <p> The application is in use at 
                            <ref target=""http://sotasampo.fi"">http://sotasampo.fi</ref>.
                        </p>
                    </note> was published Nov 27, 2015 at and has had tens of thousands of users. It is implemented solely on the SPARQL endpoint of the WarSampo LOD data service.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Discussion</head>
                <p>Our first experiments, as illustrated in Section 3, suggest that heterogeneous datasets of war history really can be interlinked with each other through events in ways that provide useful insights for the historians. We have also learned that even in the rural northern parts of Europe, massive amounts of WW2 data can be found. We have initially dealt with tens of thousands of people killed in action. However, there is also data available about hundreds of thousands of soldiers who survived the war. In addition to historians, WarSampo data is very interesting to the laymen, too: every soldier’s history is of interest at least to, e.g., his/her relatives. Managing the data, and providing it for different user groups, suggests serious challenges when dealing with, e.g., the war in the central parts of Europe, where the amount of data is orders of magnitude larger than in Finland, multilingual, and distributed in different countries. For example, solving entity resolution problems regarding historical place names and person names can be hard. However, it seems that Linked Data is a promising way to tackle these challenges.</p>
                <p>Our work
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn15"" n=""15"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> See the project homepage 
                            <ref target=""http://seco.cs.aalto.fi/projects/sotasampo/en/"">http://seco.cs.aalto.fi/projects/sotasampo/en/</ref>.
                        </p>
                    </note> is funded by the Ministry of Education and Culture and Finnish Cultural Foundation. Wikidata Finland project financed the alignment of the historical maps in WarSampo.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Boer, V., van Doornik, J., Buitinck, L., Marx, M. and Veken, T.</hi> (2013). Linking the kingdom: enriched access to a historiographical text. In:<hi rend=""italic""> Proc. of the 7th International Conference on Knowledge Capture</hi> (KCAP 2013). Association of Computing Machinery, New York, pp. 17–24.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Collins, T., Mulholland, P. and Zdrahal, Z.</hi> (2005). Semantic browsing of digital collections. In:<hi rend=""italic""> Proc. of the 4th International Semantic Web Conference </hi>(ISWC 2005). Springer–Verlag.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Doerr, M.</hi> (2003). The CIDOC CRM – an ontological approach to semantic interoperability of metadata. AI Magazine, <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>(3): 75–92.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hyvönen, E.</hi> (2012).<hi rend=""italic""> Publishing and using cultural heritage linked data on the semantic web.</hi> Morgan & Claypool, Palo Alto, CA, USA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hyvönen, E., Lindquist, T., Törnroos, J. and Mäkelä, E.</hi> (2012). History on the semantic web as linked data – an event gazetteer and timeline for World War I. In:<hi rend=""italic""> Proc. of CIDOC 2012 – Enriching Cultural Heritage</hi>. http://seco.cs.aalto.fi/publications/2012/hyvonen-et-al-ww1-cidoc-2012.pdf
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hyvönen, E., Tuominen, J., Alonen, M. and Mäkelä, E.</hi> (2014). Linked Data Finland: A 7-star model and platform for publishing and re-using linked datasets. In:<hi rend=""italic""> The Semantic Web: ESWC 2014 Satellite Events</hi>, Revised Selected Papers. Springer–Verlag, pp. 226–30.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hyvönen, E., Heino, E., Leskinen, P., Ikkala, E., Koho, M., Tamper, M., Tuominen, J. and Mäkelä, E.</hi> (2016). WarSampo data service and semantic portal for publishing linked open data about the second world war history. In:<hi rend=""italic""> Proceedings of the 13th Extended Semantic Web Conference</hi> (ESWC 2016). Springer–Verlag, forth-coming.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mäkelä, E., Törnroos, J., Lindquist, T. and Hyvönen, E.</hi> (2015). World War I as Linked Open Data (2015). http://www.seco.tkk.fi/publications/submitted/makela-et-al-ww1lod.pdf, submitted for review.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2614","17","Pulp Science Fiction's Legacy to Women in Science","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This study examines a “pulp” science fiction corpus (1930–1965) through corpus linguistic analysis in order to digitally reconstruct the gendered occupational identities created by those authors, and the culture they represent, which perpetuated a stereotype of “the scientist” and how they characterized women in professional scientific roles. I created “occupational archetypes” based on the linguistic analysis of collocates, clusters, and textual examples of science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) career keywords in order to investigate the culturally informed gender roles demonstrated in modern stereotypes of the scientist. I chose to study pulp science fiction, a sub-genre of science fiction literature that enjoyed a wide readership during the formative decades of the creation of the scientific industrial complex in pre and post-war America. One way to get at the culture that created and then maintained our national scientific industrial complex is through examining the stories about science that people of that time produced. For indeed, stories, and even more simply, language are a transmitter of social and cultural values, especially when it comes to gender roles (Rey, 2001). Pulp science fiction existed as a sub-genre of science fiction from roughly 1930 to 1965, characterized by its wide audience and affordability. The accessibility and engaging style of this literary genre gained it a wide readership, and “the pulps” as they came to be called quickly became a feature of American life during the pre and post-war eras. These stories, and indeed the genre at large, represent popular conceptions of “appropriate” gender identities and reinforce those occupational stereotypes that play such a key role in the lives of women scientists. </p>
            <p>The aim of corpus linguistics is to study patterns of language at their most fundamental level of words and phrases, thereby revealing patterns of meaning, making the implicit explicit (Biber, 1998; Biber, 2009; Stubbs, 2001; McEnery, 2001; Lakoff, 2008; Kennedy, 2014; Hettel, 2013). Since patterns of meaning are precisely what I wished to investigate with respect to gendered occupational stereotypes, this method served as the basis for my study. Corpus linguistics is able to harness the power of Moretti's distant reading approach (Moretti, 2013) in uncovering the scope and and nature of the literature, while also providing clues as to which specific pieces within a corpus merit a close reading.</p>
            <p>The corpus I constructed for this project consists of 560 full text copies of pulp science fiction stories from 1930 to 1965 (totaling just over 6 million words), published in magazines like Astounding Stories, Amazing Stories, Analog Science Fact and Fiction, Planet Stories, and If Worlds of Science Fiction. These full texts were obtained from public repositories, principally Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org/) and The Internet Archive's Pulp Magazine Archive (https://archive.org/details/pulpmagazinearchive). While some of these stories were already conveniently in plain text files, others were scanned copies of the original pulp magazine pages stored as image files. The latter I converted into plain text through the application of Tesseract, an open source optical character recognition (OCR) program. I then organized these stories according to their date of publication in the magazines, stratifying according to five year periods: 1930-34, 1935-39, etc. Each of these five year periods contain 80 stories, coming to 560 in total. This stratification allows for representativeness through ensuring that all five year periods were weighted proportionally over time (Sinclair, 2004). </p>
            <p>When I finished constructing the corpus, I used the software suite WordSmith Tools to generate keyword lists for the corpus in its entirety, in addition to each five year period respectively. When I generated the keyword lists for each five year period, I used the rest of the pulp science fiction corpus as my reference, in order to track how these words were being used over time (Bondi, 2010). From these general keyword lists, I chose the keywords which represented careers or occupations that constitute or interact with STEM disciplines: scientist, engineer, mathematician, doctor, nurse, and professor. I then used WordSmith Tools to analyze measures of association for the above science, technology, and engineering occupational words. By focusing on the language used to describe occupations related to the sciences, I was able to get a picture of the characterization of these professions at the time the stories were published. I also did a collocation analysis in order to uncover the words that most frequently co-occurred with these keywords, limited to five words to the right and left of the key word in question (the node). The character of the collocates reflects the nature of the node, and the distinctions offered by collocations are subtle, yet crucial to the creation of a linguistic profile (Hettel, 2013).</p>
            <p>In order to determine which collocates were statistically significant, I evaluated the association by its t-score, a statistic which works well with smaller corpora (such as mine) because it also takes frequencies into account, as opposed to mutual information (MI). Using the STEM occupation keywords, collocates, clusters, and qualitative examination of specific examples of the node words in context, I then created “lexical profiles” of each of these science, technology, engineering, and related occupations, which I'm terming “occupational archetypes.” The development of these archetypes is based largely on the work done by Hettel on the construction of lexical profiles from collocations, clusters, and context in the language of US nuclear plants and regulatory entities.</p>
            <p>Specifically, the archetype I constructed of “the scientist” revealed a middle aged white male, defined by his adherence to “true” or “good” science, and often called upon by other characters to provide scientific or technical insight. Though he spends a good deal of his time talking, others struggle to grasp his meaning and find him difficult to deal with. This occupational archetype is a mirror image of the American stereotype of scientific professionals, one which leaves no room for diversity in race or gender. Furthermore, through this analysis, I discovered that out of the hundreds of scientists in my corpus, only three were women. A linguistic analysis of these women in particular (a chemist, a physicist, and a mathematician) revealed American cultural assumptions about the intersection of femininity and science: a female scientist could either be beautiful or accomplished. And even then, the chemist's beauty came with exploitation (and the physicist's ugliness with prestige), and scientific genius in these women necessitated qualification (i.e. genius “in her own way”) while that of their male colleagues did not. The mathematician, the one woman in the corpus with beauty and brains, so to speak, appeared very late on the scene, and perhaps signals a shift in the cultural conception of who a scientist could be and what they could look like. Making these entrenched cultural stereotypes of women in science explicit through linguistic analysis is the first step in creating a STEM workforce strong through its diversity and acceptance. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Biber, D., Conrad, S. and Reppen, R.</hi> (1998). <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus linguistics: Investigating language structure and use</hi>. Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Biber, D. and Conrad, S.</hi> (2009). <hi rend=""italic"">Register, genre, and style</hi>. Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bondi, M. and Scott, M. (eds.)</hi> (2010). Keyness in texts.<hi rend=""italic""> John Benjamins Publishing</hi>, vol. <hi rend=""bold"">41</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gries, S. T.</hi> (2010). Useful statistics for corpus linguistics. <hi rend=""italic""> A mosaic of corpus linguistics: selected approaches</hi>, pp.  269-91.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hettel, J. M.</hi> (2013).<hi rend=""italic""> Harnessing the power of context</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kennedy, G.</hi> (2014). <hi rend=""italic""> An introduction to corpus linguistics</hi>. Routledge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M.</hi> (2008). <hi rend=""italic""> Metaphors we live by</hi>. University of Chicago press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McEnery, T. and Wilson, A.</hi> (2001). Corpus linguistics: An introduction. Edinburgh University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2013). <hi rend=""italic""> Distant reading. Verso Books</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Oakes, Michael P.</hi> (2010). <hi rend=""italic"">Statistics for Corpus Linguistics</hi>. Edinburgh University Press. 1998.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rey, J. M.</hi> (2001). Changing gender roles in popular culture: Dialogue in Star Trek episodes from 1966-1993. <hi rend=""italic"">Variation in English: Multidimensional Studies</hi>. London: Longman. pp. 138­56.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sinclair, J.</hi> (2004). Developing linguistic corpora: a guide to good practice. <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus and text–basic principles</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stubbs, M.</hi> (2001). <hi rend=""italic"">Words and phrases: Corpus studies of lexical semantics</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tognini-Bonelli, E.</hi> (2001). Corpus linguistics at work,<hi rend=""italic"">John Benjamins Publishing</hi>, vol. <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2615","17","RAPSCAPE - un'esplorazione dell'universo linguistico del rap attraverso il text-mining e la data-visualization","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In questo lavoro descriviamo un progetto di ricerca, attualmente in corso, dedicato all’analisi dell’universo linguistico e semantico della musica rap, con particolare attenzione rivolta alla realtà italiana. L’obiettivo del lavoro è quello di arrivare ad offrire una mappatura panoramica, una “distant reading” della lingua usata dal rap italiano. </p>
            <p>La scelta di questo genere è motivata dal fatto che il rap è tra i fenomeni più vitali e dal maggiore impatto socioculturale della musica e delle sottoculture giovanili degli ultimi decenni (Lena, 1995; Toop, 1999; Forman and Neal, 2004; Pinkney, 2007), esteso ormai ben oltre gli originari confini statunitensi per divenire fenomeno globale (Androutsopoulos and Arno 2003; Osumare, 2007; Alim et al., 2008) e all’interno del quale è possibile riscontrare una ricchissima produzione testuale ed un alto tasso di innovazione e sperimentazione di forme linguistiche (Cutler, 2007; Bradley, 2009; Terkourafi, 2010).</p>
            <p>L’idea alla base del lavoro è quella di ottenere una “cartografia” della lingua del rap, che permetta di osservare e analizzare nel suo complesso un settore della produzione culturale contemporanea estremamente diffuso e popolare anche in Italia (Pacoda 1996; Filippone and Papini, 2002; Attolino, 2003; Scholz, 2005). In questo lavoro focalizziamo l’attenzione principalmente sulla dimensione testuale del rap piuttosto che su quella musicale, pur trattandosi di un genere in cui il rapporto tra parola e ritmo è inestricabile (Bradley, 2009). In ogni caso, è possibile affermare che la componente testuale nel rap occupa un ruolo centrale e che la specificità del vocabolario, dei temi, della capacità di invenzione linguistica nonché l’importanza dell’aspetto narrativo (Attolino, 2012) fanno dei testi del rap un corpus linguistico interessante da analizzare in sè.   </p>
            <p>A tal fine, piuttosto che soffermare l’attenzione su di un numero limitato di testi da analizzare in profondità, mettiamo in campo una metodologia di lavoro multidisciplinare - in cui convergono web data-mining, linguistica e information design – con l’obiettivo di giungere alla costruzione di un database testuale molto ampio da sottoporre ad analisi mediante strumenti di text-mining e di linguistica computazionale e da rendere esplorabile mediante una serie di visualizzazioni interattive elaborate ad-hoc.  </p>
            <p>In una prima fase si è proceduto all’individuazione di alcune web-repository contenenti le trascrizioni dei testi delle canzoni rap in lingua italiana. Non essendo le fonti ufficiali (siti personali degli artisti, siti delle etichette, libretti dei CD, ecc.) particolarmente ricche di informazioni, sono stati individuati alcuni popolari siti di text-sharing, dove fan e ascoltatori forniscono spontaneamente le proprie trascrizioni dei testi degli artisti.</p>
            <p>Sulle fonti selezionate è stato addestrato uno script di web-scraping, sviluppato appositamente, in grado di estrarre, per ogni brano presente sul sito, il testo e i meta-dati di riferimento (titolo brano, nome autore, collaborazioni, album). Una volta addestrato lo script si è passati alla fase di estrazione dati vera e propria che ha portato alla costruzione di un database di circa quindicimila brani. Il risultante database è stato poi sottoposto ad una prima fase di pre-processing e data-wrangling per renderlo disponibile all’analisi successiva. Sul testo estratto dal web è stata effettuata una profonda ripulitura con metodi semi-automatici in modo da ottenere un corpus omogeneo di testi trattabili computazionalmente. </p>
            <p>Alla fase di estrazione e standardizzazione del dataset segue la fase di analisi linguistica. In questa fase teniamo conto di alcuni studi precedenti condotti nell’ambito del MIR - Music Information Retrieval, in particolare quelli rivolti all’analisi automatica dei testi delle canzoni (Mahedero et al., 2005; Kleedorfer et al., 2008; Hu et al., 2009) e dei testi rap in particolare (Hirjee and Brown, 2009; Hirjee and Brown, 2010; Malmi et. al, 2015).</p>
            <p>Il corpus è processato usando l’intera pipeline di analisi linguistica (Manning and Schütze, 1999) già ampiamente nota nei task di NLP: tokenizzazione, lemmatizzazione e pos tagging. Successivamente si è passato ad un’analisi statistica per ottenere le frequenze assolute dei termini, le frequenze relative per autore, le collocazioni, i bigrammi e i trigrammi ricorrenti e la forza di associazione tra le parole espressa in termini di PMI (Pointwise Mutual Information). Gli strumenti utilizzati per effettuare queste analisi sono basati sulla libreria NLTK in Python (Loper and Bird, 2002). Una volta estratti i Lemmi con le rispettive frequenze, viene calcolato il valore di Term Frequency/ Inverse Document Frequency (TF/IDF) per ogni lemma in modo da estrarre le parole più significative per ciascun autore. Una matrice di co-occorrenza, precedentemente costruita su un corpus di circa 3 milioni di parole, attraverso l'applicazione di un algoritmo di Distributional Semantics chiamato HAL - Hyperspace Analogue to Language (Burges and Lund, 1995), è utilizzata per estrarre le parole con valori di similitudine semantica maggiori per ogni lemma, allo scopo di creare un network di significati che identifichi lo spazio semantico di ciascun autore e permetta la loro classificazione attraverso algoritmi di machine learning (clustering).</p>
            <p>I dati risultanti dall’analisi linguistica sono strutturati in un database adatto all’elaborazione dei software e dei processi di data visualization. L’obiettivo di questa parte del progetto è quello di costruire un tool interattivo che utilizzi tecnologie web (html, css, javascript) per rendere il dataset esplorabile, comunicabile e analizzabile ulteriormente. Per l’elaborazione del sistema di visualizzazione prendiamo in esame le specifiche problematiche poste dalla visualizzazione di grandi corpora testuali (Wise et al., 1995; Fortuna et al., 2005; Alencar et al., 2012; Sinclair et al., 2013; Kucher, 2014; Brath and Banissi, 2015) e le soluzioni approntate da alcuni lavori precedenti sulla visualizzazione di database composti da testi di canzoni (Labrecque, 2009; Baur et al., 2010; Oh, 2010; Sasaki et al., 2014). </p>
            <p>Il tool di visualizzazione si compone di una serie di “viste” e di filtri di navigazione che permettono di osservare il dataset da più angolazioni e attraverso diversi livelli di dettaglio, secondo il classico pattern Overview first, zoom and filter, then details-on-demand (Shneidermann, 1996). Oltre agli approcci classici dell’Information Visualization, la progettazione delle visualizzazioni tiene conto dell’approccio maturato dal design della comunicazione nell’ambito delle Digital Humanities (Uboldi and Caviglia, 2015) in paritcolare per quanto riguarda la definizione della user experience. </p>
            <p>Una serie di layer di visualizzazione sono combinati in delle viste panoramiche che offrono uno sguardo complessivo su diversi aspetti del database: statistiche di base come le frequenze e le distribuzioni dei termini più utilizzati; la varietà complessiva del vocabolario; una serie di ranking; reti bipartite tra autori e termini; reti tra parole e relativi cluster semantici più evidenti. </p>
            <p>Filtri e viste secondarie sono progettati invece per muoversi rapidamente tra diversi livelli e prospettive sul dataset e di scendere nel dettaglio per analizzare i dati relativi al singolo autore (termini più frequenti, temi dominanti, ecc) o al singolo brano. E’ inoltre possibile operare comparazioni tra autori (o gruppi di autori), o tra brani (o gruppi di brani). La visualizzazione è progettata dunque principalmente come strumento esplorativo in modo tale da rendere possibile l’analisi dell’universo testuale del rap  a diversi livelli di profondità e granularità.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""615/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig : Rapscape: Single Artist Explorer view</head>
            </figure>
        </body>
        <back>
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        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2616","17","Re-visiting traditional News Values in the Digital Age","9","","","2","",""
"2617","17","Rebuilding Digital Harlem for Sustainability and Change","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Background</head>
                <p>Digital Harlem (<ref target=""http://DigitalHarlem.org"">DigitalHarlem.org</ref>), winner of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">American Historical Association's </hi>2009 
                    <ref target=""http://www.historians.org/prizes/Rosenzweig_Fellowship.cfm"">Roy Rosenzweig Prize for Innovation in Digital History</ref>, was a bespoke php/js/MySQL application with 34 tables and over 9,000 lines of code. While bespoke programming may under some circumstances offer the shortest path to a particular outcome, a fixed database structure and bespoke codebase pose problems for sustainability (the codebase will require ongoing maintenance and retention of support for code which is no longer current), for transferability (knowledge and development work which is not directly transferrable to other projects) and for evolutionary change (modification can involve significant rewriting and programming expertise). For Digital Harlem both evolving requirements and external changes have forced the excavation and re-learning of code long after development funding ceased, an experience which will be common for any project which seeks longevity beyond short-term project grants.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conversion</head>
                <p>In 2014/2015 we converted the Digital Harlem database to Heurist (<ref target=""http://HeuristNetwork.org"">HeuristNetwork.org</ref>). This allowed us to unlock the previously inflexible data structures and rigid interface, and refine the data model, enabling the project to start a campaign of data entry for a new research grant and focus. Where analysis of the data was previously restricted to three rather limiting search forms for People, Places and Events, the new version (Figure 1) opens up a full range of built-in data management functions and user-defined searches/filters, including multi-level faceted search. Search results can now be saved and visualised with maps, timelines, network diagrams and user-defined reports, as well as file and printed output. 
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""350/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1. Digital Harlem - the standard Heurist interface (used by the research team)</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The original public website was subsequently reimplemented, with minor external changes, as a reskinned view of the database running natively within Heurist (Figure 2). We moved significant elements of the interface - search forms, base maps, popup content, buttons – out of custom code into data. These data can be easily edited by the research team allowing them to extend the interface without technical assistance. Fixed form-based searches were replaced with saved faceted searches which can be added to or modified without programming.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""350/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2. Digital Harlem - the reimplemented public interface with faceted search</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Adaptability</head>
                <p>The public interface is easily adaptable to other projects requiring a customised public search, mapping and timeline interface for richly linked entities. It is not tied to specific types of entity or relationship, as almost all customisation other than visual appearance occurs within the database content. The interface is built from reusable widgets in a responsive framework, using less than 1,000 lines of html, css, php and js code. New widgets can be added for additional types of interaction, although many projects will find the existing widgets adequate.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Sustainability</head>
                <p>Heurist databases retain the inherent medium-term sustainability of an Open Source MySQL database at the backend, but reinforce this sustainability through the adoption of an identical structure across many diverse projects. The use of a single, well-documented database structure across all projects promotes the transfer of expertise and leverages the effort of code development - when someone requests Zotero synchronisation or the generation of GEPHI network files, the code can be written just once and every database inherits the capability. The same goes for any maintenance required to keep pace with the changing web environment and for bug fixing. Standard documented SQL queries, which can be run from any programming language, will work across all databases. A complete, fully documented XML data archive can be generated in a couple of clicks.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>In this poster we will outline the sustainability and development benefits of the new implementation of Digital Harlem. By adopting an adaptable codebase (Heurist) which can run many heterogeneous projects we have leveraged development effort and benefits across Digital Harlem and several dozen other projects. For new projects, common data structures can be imported with a few mouse clicks from a clearinghouse of projects, adapted to specific needs and republished for use by others. Existing public interfaces can, with slightly more effort, be repurposed for new projects. A stable well-documented underlying data format also allows independent code development in a variety of languages.</p>
                <p>If there is a final takeaway, it is that - while there will always be a place for bespoke, one-off code as a vehicle for experimentation - for the majority of projects, re-use of a shared codebase and body of expertise (where practical) will be more cost-effective, require less technical development and provide a better chance of longevity. Heurist offers one such generic solution which has allowed Digital Harlem to escape its self-imposed straightjacket of bespoke data structure and code; new data structures, research tools or public interfaces can simply be added without reengineering the system. Digial Harlem builds on the work of many preceding projects, and future projects can build on this experience without the cost of reinvention.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2618","17","Reconstructing Past Teaching","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>One of the best sources to get an insight in how various subjects (e.g. history, Latin, home economics) were instructed to children and teenage pupils in the past, are the textbooks that were used in various pedagogical systems. They can teach us how knowledge in these various subjects was ordered and presented and how one tried to transfer this knowledge – a fact that is recognized, e.g., in the multifarious work of researchers working on the collections of the National Museum of Education (Rotterdam) or the Georg Eckert Institute for International Textbook Research (Braunschweig). This type of publications, however, is often overlooked in the creation of library collections. The main reason for this is that textbooks, and other connected teaching materials (such as curricula, didactic plates and pedagogical journals), are generally considered to be only relevant for a brief period of time, namely for as long as they are used in a didactic context. They are continually replaced by more recent materials, and only become the object of study again when one wants to reconstruct past teaching. </p>
            <p>This poster depicts the efforts at the University Library of the KU Leuven (Belgium) to preserve and prepare such didactic material, created in a Belgian context and thus mostly written in French or Dutch, for present and future research. It also presents how specific corpora of textbooks are catalogued and digitized to facilitate their study, and details the concrete plans to further unlock these didactic sources through more advanced digitization enabling distant reading (starting from an exploratory pilot study focusing on history textbooks). By presenting this case, it illustrates the current results and the future possibilities of the collaboration between researchers and library staff in the context of specific Digital Humanities projects, and documents the ambition of various divisions of the University Library to continue to foster such collaborations (Verbeke, 2014 and Truyen-Verbeke, 2015).</p>
            <p>The poster first describes the origins and content of the collection of textbooks and related didactic materials within the Library of Psychology and Educational Sciences, a division of the University Library at KU Leuven. It then details how this unique collection is being catalogued by the staff of the Metadata Unit. This is done according to a specifically developed data model (using the resource management environment in the library software 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Alma</hi>) which both ensures maximum compatibility with the general library discovery system (currently 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Primo/Limo </hi>at the KU Leuven), as well as the provision of detailed metadata which is needed in the context of an academic study of these teaching materials. The next part discusses the various ways in which this collection is or can be used by researchers, as well as the various selections which have been made in the context of specific research projects (e.g. by focusing on representations of Belgian-Congolese (post)colonial history in Belgian secondary school education since the Second World War, cf. Van Nieuwenhuyse, 2014 and 2015). It details how research projects of this kind determine a corpus of teaching materials, smaller than the entire collection, which are studied in more detail through a close reading of the physical materials, but which also form a priority category of items to be digitized by the Digitization Unit of the University Library. At present, this digitization offers high-end photographic images of the relevant books (using a Qidenus Smart Book Scan, 2 Nikon D800 cameras with 36 million pixels used in a color-calibrated workflow, producing RAW, TIF and JPEG files), but the ambition is to extend this to the creation of a machine-readable textual corpus which enables distant reading as well (with the intention that this distant reading will supplement, not supplant, close reading; see Moretti, 2013 and the varying interpretations of Moretti’s intentions in Serlen, 2010, Khadem, 2012, and Ross, 2014). The poster therefore closes with a brief presentation of the OCR (Aletheia, ABBYY Finereader Engine, ocrevalUAtion) and NER (INL Attestation tool, Stanford NER tool with Europeana Newspaper extension) technology used at the University Library of KU Leuven, building on previous experience gathered in the context of a Succeed-project (Alloing-Verbeke, 2014 and Verbeke, 2015).
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Alloing, S. and Verbeke, D.</hi> (2014). Tools Evaluation: University Library of KU Leuven. http://www.digitisation.eu/blog/tools-evaluation-university-library-ku-leuven (accessed 20 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Khadem, A.</hi> (2012). Annexing the unread: a close reading of “distant reading”, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Neohelicon</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">39</hi>: 409-421.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Distant Reading</hi>. London: Verso. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ross, S.</hi> (2014). In Praise of Overstating the Case: A review of Franco Moretti, Distant Reading (London: Verso, 2013), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(1), http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/8/1/000171/000171.html (accessed 20 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Serlen, R.</hi> (2010). The Distant Future? Reading Franco Moretti, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literature Compass</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(3): 217-225. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Truyen, F. and Verbeke, D.</hi> (2015). The library as a valued partner in Digital Humanities projects: The example of EuropeanaPhotography, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Art Libraries Journal</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">40</hi>(3): 28-33.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Nieuwenhuyse, K. </hi>(2014). From triumphalism to amnesia. Belgian-Congolese (post)colonial history in Belgian secondary history education curricula and textbooks (1945-1989), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Research on History Didactics, History Education, and History Culture</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">35</hi>: 79-100.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Nieuwenhuyse, K. </hi>(2015). Increasing criticism and perspectivism: Belgian-Congolese (post)colonial history in Belgian secondary history education curricula and textbooks (1990-present), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Research on History Didactics, History Education, and History Culture</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">36</hi>: 183-204.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Verbeke, D.</hi> (2014). The opportunistic librarian: A Leuven confession, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014: Conference Abstracts</hi>. Lausanne: EPFL and UNIL, pp. 395-396.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Verbeke, D.</hi> (2015). Renaissance Studies, Digital Humanities and the Library. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">JNR Polaris</hi>, http://www.northernrenaissance.org/renaissance-studies-digital-humanities-and-the-library (accessed 20 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2619","17","Reconstruction Of Labour Relations In The North Sea Region In The Late Middle Ages: Spatio-Temporal Analysis Using Historical GIS, Taxation Sources, And Coin Finds","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>In this paper a range of maps, documents, data and archaeological finds are brought together in a historical GIS (Geographical Information System) to reconstruct different forms of labour and especially labour relations in existence in late medieval Northwest Europe. Starting from the Late Middle Ages, England and the Low Countries laid the groundwork for becoming two of the dominant powers in Europe and the world. The question is how this process of growth began. Often it has been coined with the rise of capitalism and the rise of wage labour as the predominant form of labour (e.g. van Bavel, 2007). The issue also touches on the Great Divergence debate. This debate centres around why and at what point in time Europe became the dominant continent in the world, surpassing the power and wealth of China, India, Japan and the Ottoman Empire (Pomeranz, 2000). England and the Low Countries play an important role in this debate and quite often the level of (real) wages is used as a determinant to study the emerging differences between Europe and other parts of the world (Allen, 2001). This opens up the question, however, how many people in a certain time and place actually worked for wages: an issue which questions the validity of real wages as (the only) measured variable (Lucassen, 2016).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Labour relations</head>
                <p>Labour relations can be defined as “for or with whom one works and under what rules” (Hofmeester et al., 2015). In the “Global Collaboratory on the History of Labour Relations, 1500-2000”, a collaboration of researchers from all over the world, study these labour relations and especially shifts between them. To effectively compare different parts of the world across time, a uniform way of entering and presenting data as well as a taxonomy has been created (Figure 1). One of the advantages of this taxonomy is that it encompasses the entire population of an area, working and non-working, forces researchers to think about female labour participation (even if it is omitted in their sources), and includes various forms of labour, from reciprocal labour to wage labour, self-employment or slavery.</p>
                <p>Studying societies other than modern ones can be especially difficult however. Lacking anything like modern census data, one has to be more creative to study different forms of labour across time and space and bring together a wide range of data and information. One may think about information on land use, vicinity of roads, waterways or coastlines, all proving modes of transportation, the vicinity of towns and monasteries, demographic density, documents related to taxation and many other. GIS is best equipped to present such combinations of different data, and is therefore at the core of the following two areas for which the labour relations are reconstructed. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Reconstruction England/Wales</head>
                <p>To come to a reconstruction of the labour relations in England and Wales a range of sources are combined, including the 1378-1381 Poll Tax records (Fenwick, 1998), the muster rolls of 1522, information on medieval markets (Keene et al., 2002; Keene and Letters, 2004), and GIS shapefiles of historical parish boundaries (Southall and Burton, 2004). From these sources regional variation in demography, market presence, and occupational structure can be extracted – albeit with many caveats. One of the main sources used for the reconstruction, however, are the tens of thousands of archaeological coin finds, by both amateurs and professionals. These are made available through the Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS) website (The British Museum, 2013-2015) (Figure 2). </p>
                <p>The principal assumption behind using the coin finds is that the presence of small denominations, valued at a day’s wage or less, can function as a determinant of wage labour (Lucassen, 2014). Used in combination with figures on mint output, the coin finds can therefore be used to study the relative presence of wage labour; as well as regional differences and developments over time. </p>
                <p>As the PAS database was formed by different people over a long period of time, various issues caused by inconsistent or erroneous data entry had to be solved. Much effort has gone into cleaning (especially place names) in the Portable Antiquities Scheme database and supplementing the numerous missing geographical coordinates. The following step is linking the coin finds to the data mentioned earlier, a complicated process that has started but for which much still has to be done in the coming months. In the end, the combination of available data provides us with an extensive toolbox to reconstruct the labour relations in late medieval England and Wales and to study the mechanisms that influence these labour relations, causing regional and temporal variation. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Reconstruction Low Countries</head>
                <p>For the reconstruction of the labour relations on the other side of the North Sea, in the Low Countries a different approach has been chosen, although here too coin finds may be used in the end (De Nederlandsche Bank, 1997-2015). Starting point is the County of Holland. In 1494 and 1514 two sets of questionnaires were produced by the Burgundian/Habsburg rulers, intended to allocate a new round of taxes. The questionnaires had to be answered by representatives of all towns and heerlijkheden (a feudal administrative-judicial unit, precursor of modern municipalities) in Holland. They asked for information about the number of dwellings and parishioners; economic activities; how these economic activities developed in the past couple of years; land ownership; and tax-related issues. The questionnaires have been used to assess the state of the economy in Holland and study per capita growth (van Zanden, 2002). </p>
                <p>Never before have these questionnaires been mapped, which, for instance, would allow to combine the information with land use, the vicinity of monasteries and modes of transportation, and study in more detail regional variance in the county and – because of the nature of the questionnaires – changes over time between 1477 and 1514. For this purpose, a historical GIS of the administrative-judicial boundaries in this and some neighbouring counties was created from scratch. A wide range of digitised historical maps from the sixteenth to eighteenth century were used, in combination to the historical atlas of the Netherlands drawn by Anton Beekman at the beginning of the twentieth century (Figure 3; results in Figure 4). The maps were georeferenced and combined with information on natural and/or current (sometimes unchanged) municipality borders to reconstruct the location of the historical boundaries. </p>
                <p>One of the immediate advantages was that using this GIS map, silent omissions in the questionnaires became visible (e.g. certain heerlijkheden that were not mentioned explicitly in the sources). Moreover, the advantage of using the historical boundaries, instead of just looking at the location of the villages and creating Voronoi diagrams for instance also becomes clear, as the maps provide much more detail and display patterns more clearly: see Figure 5. </p>
                <p>By combining the questionnaires and the newly created geographical information with assumptions on household size, child and female labour participation, information on religious houses (using Goudriaan and Stuyvenberg, 2008), and other information a tentative reconstruction is made on the full range of labour relations present in the County of Holland in the Late Middle Ages.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>In the end, the goal is to create a map that shows the presence and absence of various forms of labour and labour relations in the North Sea region. This allows us to study this part of the world, just before two new world powers emerged from here, and the role labour plays in this development. By using GIS (instead of displaying the information in tables for instance), the full potential offered by geographical information systems is made available: e.g. easily combining different forms of information, pinpointing developments to a certain point in time and space. Large-scale regional variation can therefore become a point of study, instead of hindering or difficult to grasp principle.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""250/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1. Taxonomy of the Global Collaboratory on the History of Labour Relations, 1500-2000.</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""250/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2. Archaeological coin finds in England/Wales and the Netherlands (Northern Low Countries). Note that at the moment the finds in the Netherlands and England/Wales cannot be compared easily due to national differences in registration.</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""250/image3.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3. Excerpt of geographical sources: various 16th-18th century maps, historical atlases.</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""250/image4.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 4. Result: Historical GIS of administrative-judicial units in Low Countries around 1500 (with churches; monasteries; present-day municipality boundaries).</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""250/image5.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 5. Thought process and development of mapping medieval tax/population records in Holland: from Voronoi diagrams surrounding the towns and villages mentioned in the sources; to mapping these towns and villages; and finally locating and assessing the areas not explicitly mentioned in the sources.</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Allen, R. C.</hi> (2001). The Great Divergence in European Wages and Prices from the Middle Ages to the First World War. <hi rend=""italic"">Explorations in Economic History</hi>, <hi rend=""italic"">38</hi>: 411–447.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">De Nederlandsche Bank</hi> (1997-2015). <hi rend=""italic"">NUMIS Muntvondsten Database</hi>. URL http://www.dnb.nl/over-dnb/nationale-numismatische-collectie/numis/index.jsp (accessed 10.31.15).</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Fenwick, C.C. (Ed.)</hi> (1998). <hi rend=""italic"">The poll taxes of 1377, 1379, and 1381, Records of social and economic history</hi>. Published for the Bristish Academy by Oxford University Press, Oxford; New York.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Goudriaan, K., Stuyvenberg, B.</hi> (2008). <hi rend=""italic"">Kloosterlijst: beknopt overzicht van de Nederlandse kloosters in de Middeleeuwen</hi>.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Hofmeester, K., Lucassen, J.M.W.G., Lucassen, L.A.C.J., Stapel, R.J., Zijdeman, R.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">The Global Collaboratory on the History of Labour Relations, 1500-2000: Background, Set-Up, Taxonomy, and Applications</hi>. URL http://www.historyoflabourrelations.org/ (accessed 10.31.15)</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Keene, D., Galloway, J., Murphy, M., Myhill, O.</hi> (2002). <hi rend=""italic"">Metropolitan Market Networks, c. 1300-1600; London, its Region and the Economy of England</hi>.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Keene, D., Letters, S.</hi> (2004). <hi rend=""italic"">Markets and Fairs in England and Wales to 1516</hi>.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Lucassen, J.M.W.G.</hi> (2014). Deep Monetisation: The Case of the Netherlands 1200-1940. <hi rend=""italic"">TSEG</hi>, <hi rend=""italic"">11</hi>: 73–122.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Lucassen, L.A.C.J.</hi> (2016, forthcoming). Working Together. New Directions in Global Labour History. <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Global History</hi>, <hi rend=""italic"">11</hi>(1).</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Pomeranz, K.</hi> (2000). <hi rend=""italic"">The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy</hi>. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Southall, H.R., Burton, N.</hi> (2004). <hi rend=""italic"">GIS of the Ancient Parishes of England and Wales, 1500-1850</hi>.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">The British Museum</hi> (2013-2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Portable Antiquities Scheme</hi>. URL http://finds.org.uk/ (accessed 10.31.15).</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Van Bavel, B.</hi> (2007). The Transition in the Low Countries: Wage Labour as an Indicator of the Rise of Capitalism in the Countryside, 1300-1700. <hi rend=""italic"">Past & Present</hi>, <hi rend=""italic"">195</hi>: 286–303.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Van Zanden, J.L.</hi> (2002). Taking the measure of the early modern economy: Historical national accounts for Holland in 1510/14. <hi rend=""italic"">European Review of Economic History</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>: 131–163.</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2620","17","Reflecting On And Refracting User Needs Through Case Studies In The Light Of Europeana Research","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Summary: This poster presents work on documenting user needs in the Humanities and Social Sciences as illustrated through Case Studies in the context of the Europeana Cloud “Unlocking Europe's Research via the Cloud” project. Conducted as part of a wider methodological effort including desk research, expert fora and a web survey, methodology and findings of actual use of innovative digital tools and services will be visually represented. This work will form the basis of the Europeana Research Case Studies which will seek to gather and process an evidence-based record of the information practices, needs and scholarly methods in the respective communities.</p>
            <p>This poster reports on collaborative, cross-European work conducted during 2013-2015 in the context of the Europeana Cloud “Unlocking Europe's Research via the Cloud” project, and touches upon planned activities in the context of Europeana Research in 2016. Europeana Research is an initiative which aims to create stronger links between the cultural heritage sector and academia. More particularly, it aims to ensure that open, high-quality data from the cultural sector is available for reuse by the digital humanities community.</p>
            <p>One of the main objectives of Europeana Cloud was the enhancement of the understanding of digital tools, research processes and scholarly content used in the Humanities and Social Sciences, thus informing the development of tools and aggregation of content in Europeana for research purposes. To this end, and in order to contribute towards the development of the new platform of Europeana Research, Case Studies were developed as part of a wider methodological effort which included desk research, expert fora and web survey for reaching user requirements.</p>
            <p>The purpose of this poster is to visually represent the methodology followed and results reached in documenting actual use of innovative digital tools and services in the Humanities and Social Sciences research communities illustrated in three main Case Studies in the disciplines of Education, Art History and Sociology, and further complemented by satellite cases. </p>
            <p>The Case Studies were initially selected based on the disciplines and tools that might best make use of current Europeana content. By defining “innovative” as “either performing functions that were previously unavailable, or performing already available functions in a qualitatively different way”, three tools were identified as best fitting this criteria (Transana, HyperImage, NodeXL) enriched by two “satellite” tools more frequently used in the respective research disciplines (NVivo, Voyant).</p>
            <p>These were further approached following a threefold methodology of semi-structured interviews, empirical observation of the tools and background research. The results were then discussed both from the perspective of the discipline area, and through the lens of the scholarly primitives (Unsworth 2000, Palmer et al 2009), to determine their use with Europeana content. The poster will also highlight the importance of accessibility of data for research infrastructures and research groups and need to focus on high quality metadata and content both for Europeana Research and the wider GLAM sector, and will illustrate how digital tools are not themselves a guarantee of good research, as researchers do not necessarily use the same digital tool throughout the research process; rather they use one tool per step (one tool = one research primitive).</p>
            <p>This poster will also present future work planned to be undertaken in the context of Europeana Research in 2016. Based on Europeana Cloud, a series of new Case Studies will be developed and expanded towards different research communities. The Europeana Research Case Studies will be undertaken in collaboration with existing European research initiatives, and will seek to gather and process an evidence-based record of the information practices, needs and scholarly methods of arts and humanities and social sciences researchers within the broad Europeana ecosystem and particularly in relation to Europeana content. Τhe Case Studies will employ a mixed methods approach combining various ways of gathering empirical evidence on the information needs and scholarly methods employed in digitally-enabled arts and humanities and social sciences research across Europe and beyond.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hughes, L.</hi> (2011). Using ICT methods and tools in arts and humanities research, L. Hughes (Ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Evaluating and measuring the value, use and impact of digital collections</hi>. London: Facet Publishing.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Palmer, C. L., Teffeau, L. C. and Pirmann, C. M.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarly information practices in the online environment. </hi>Report commissioned by OCLC Research. Published online at: 
                        <ref target=""http://www.oclc.org/programs/publications/reports/2009-02.pdf"">www.oclc.org/programs/publications/reports/2009-02.pdf</ref>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>University of Virginia (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Summit on Digital Tools for the Humanities - Report on Summit Accomplishments.</hi> Retrieved from http://www.iath.virginia.edu/dtsummit/SummitText.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Unsworth, J.</hi> (2000). Scholarly primitives: What methods do humanities researchers have in common, and how might our tools reflect this. In J. Unsworth (Ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities Computing, Formal Methods, Experimental Practice Symposium, </hi>pp. 5-100.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Unsworth, J.</hi> (2003). Tool-Time, or Haven't We Been Here Already?. Presented at the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Transforming Disciplines: The Humanities and Computer Science</hi>. Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://people.lis.illinois.edu/~unsworth/carnegie-ninch.03.html.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2621","17","Remapping Leigh Hunt's Circles"": Voyant Tools and Hunt's Dramatic Criticism","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>“Remapping Leigh Hunt’s Circles” is an ambitious project that explores Leigh Hunt’s central position in the London literary and critical scene of the first half of the nineteenth century, through the lens of digital humanities tools. Hunt is today considered one of the key figures of the Romantic period in England, known for his work as editor, journalist, poet, and facilitator. Numerous articles, essay collections, biographies, and monographs published in the last fifteen years have made this clear. Hunt's contribution to Romantic and Victorian literature was as extensive as it has proven durable, in matters as various as prosodic experimentation and the modernization of the magazine essay. Yet little work (beyond some biographical notes) has been done on the second half of his life, a period that was as productive as the first, and during which Hunt was intimate with many of the finest writers of the time, and continued to contribute to London’s literary circles through the ongoing publication of critical essays in periodicals and anthologies. This project aims to redress this imbalance/oversight and reassert Hunt’s place in the Romantic and Victorian eras, as well as his continuing significance for understanding the London literary scene between 1805 (publication of his first critical essay) and 1859 (date of his death, with his last article published only a few weeks before). </p>
            <p>“Remapping Leigh Hunt’s Circles” makes a case for Hunt’s position as a key critical voice in London beyond his already established prominence during the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Examiner</hi> years. It does so through a careful analysis of his critical reviews and essays (with a specific focus on his drama criticism to underscore Hunt’s ongoing engagement with the public sphere) published during his entire career, which spanned the first half of the nineteenth century. Data mining and textual analysis offer exciting opportunities to bring together different sets of data which, when prepared to the highest standard of text encoding, can yield new and innovative results that encourage reconsideration of preconceived notions regarding the transfer of ideas from one author to another, or one literary genre to another. The results of the research undertaken in “Remapping Leigh Hunt’s Circles” will be presented in a collaborative, visual context that reimagines the digital scholarly edition as a transparent workspace in which established primary objects from existing databases can be gathered, organized, correlated, annotated, and augmented by multiple users in a dynamic environment. 
            </p>
            <p>All the texts prepared for inclusion in our project are encoded to the Text-Encoding-Initiative (TEI) standards. The mark-up language and quality controls for improving metadata in all the resources provide more accurate search and discovery, allow for the presentation of well-supported content on multiple devices and develop tools for assembling, archiving and indexing research objects and artifacts. Ongoing work on this platform will enable researchers to undertake world-class research by providing the means to link data-sets to published content, encouraging data reanalysis, replication studies, and data re-purposing, all of which improve research quality and efficiency.</p>
            <p>Our poster will report on the first year of this project, and the implementation of the latest version of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Voyant Tools</hi> to examine the dramatic essays written by Hunt between 1805 and 1813 (when he was sentenced to two years in prison for libel against the Prince Regent). We will showcase in particular two aspects of the integration between the Hunt archives and Voyant Tools. First, the ability to identify and visualize named entity connections and their networks across multiple documents (this a refinement of the previous RezoViz tool in Voyant). The Hunt collection presents an ideal corpus for network exploration given the interconnectedness of the people, locations and events that animate the documents. Second, Voyant provides a generic and customizable way of presenting a web-based corpus catalogue with the same kinds of faceted browsing and advanced querying capabilities we have come to expect from library databases and online stores. A further benefit of this functionality is the ability to create dynamic subsets of a corpus to examine more closely (in other words, using a catalogue skin in Voyant to create worksets destined for Voyant’s more conventional analytic skin).
            </p>
            <p>The “Remapping Leigh Hunt’s Circles” is essentially a project of digital text editing and literary criticism whereas Voyant Tools is essentially a software platform for reading, analyzing and visualizing digital texts. These are separate traditions and separate concerns, but this poster will demonstrate the value of symbiotic development: both projects benefit from the collaboration.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">McGann, J.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A New Republic of Letters</hi>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sinatra, M., and Sinclair, S.</hi> (2015). Special issue “Repenser le numérique au 21
                        <hi rend=""superscript"">ème</hi> siècle”. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sens public</hi> (hiver 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sinatra, M.</hi> (2015). “Representing Leigh Hunt’s Autobiography”.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Virtual Victorians: Networks, Connections, Technologies</hi>. Eds. Stauffer, A. and Alfano, V. R., Palgrave.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sinclair, S., Rucker, S. and Radzikowska, M.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Visual Interface Design for Digital Cultural Heritage</hi>. Ashgate.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2622","17","Representations Of Race: Mining Identity In American Fiction, 1789-1964","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
        <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
        <head>Introduction</head>
            <p>If, as Ta-Nehisi Coates has suggested, the most lasting traumas of United States history can be traced back to Americans' ""need ... to think that they are white"" (2015), what might digital literary studies be able to tell us about this self-inflicted delusion? Specifically, how might quantitative textual analysis help us reconstruct the process by which ethnicities, nationalities, religious groups, and other identity categories became dominated by the all-encompassing category of race? One might expect literature to present a complex field of racial discourse, one in which what sociologist Matthew Snipp calls ""administrative definitions of race” (2010) coexist with self-identifications and ethnic stereotypes, colonialist fantasies and half-forgotten family trees. Literary scholars specializing in race and ethnicity have established a rich tradition of close readings that attempt to disentangle this discourse within particular texts, generating information about how individual writers navigate race in the United States. How would this understanding change, however, if we expanded our scope to hundreds of writers and two centuries of American history? What discontinuities or consistencies might we find in the language associated with different ethnicities? Would historical changes in civil rights, immigration, and territorial expansion be visible on the level of fictional discourse?</p>
        </div>
        <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
        <head>Corpus and Methods</head>
            <p>To approach these questions, we have assembled a corpus of 193 works of American fiction across a range of genres. Our selection begins in 1789: the year of Washington’s election and the establishment of the Constitution, it also saw the publication of William Hill Brown’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Power of Sympathy</hi>, considered the first American novel. 1964, on the other hand, marked the beginning of President Lyndon Johnson’s systematic immigration policy reforms, culminating in the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which finally erased the restrictive quotas that had limited entry into the U.S. for non-white, non-western European populations. Within this extended period, major changes in government policy toward various racial and ethnic groups -- the Indian Removal Act, Emancipation, the Chinese Exclusion Act, the Immigration Act of 1917, the internment of Japanese citizens -- provide cardinal points that guide our analysis and raise fundamental issues about the relationship between fiction and the world it represents. What kinds of socio-political shifts make a difference in literary characterization? Can literature change the direction or accelerate the pace of social change, as in Abraham Lincoln’s oft-quoted but probably apocryphal claim that Harriet Beecher Stowe’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Uncle Tom’s Cabin</hi> incited the Civil War?
            </p>
            <p> To probe our assumptions about the language of identification in the novel, we combine methods that both investigate the formal features of the novels as a whole and extract racialized discourse as it attaches to particular characters. We suggest that the semantics of identity, whether racial, cultural, ethnic or national, operate at two discrete levels: 1) embedded within discourse such that it acts as a background to the particular worldview of the text; 2) at the level of character, where the lexemes of identity become a self-aware system of description, whether leveraged by the narrator, in the reactions of other characters or internally as part of a character’s self-articulation. We argue through this project that characters embody a set of racialized identifiers that operate against a set background understanding of the meaning of identity within the text -- a dialectic between intratextual characterization and intertextual stereotyping that has its origins in, but expands significantly upon, the model of marginalized characters articulated in Alex Woloch’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The One vs. the Many</hi> (2003). The goal of our project is to tease apart these two levels of discursive identity in order to reassemble a new history of the discourse of race in American fiction as it evolves against the backdrop of history and a changing set of aesthetic principles in novel writing.
            </p>
        </div>
        <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
        <head>Phase One: The Racial Unconscious</head>
            <p>The first stage of this investigation examines the discourse of identity categories as they propagate throughout our corpus. We begin with a set list of various racial determinants that include national origins (German, Italian), ethnic identifiers (Jew, Arab) and racialized categories (Negro, Indian) and identity the pattern of language that attaches to these descriptors over time. In our first pass, we extract the collocates of each of our terms and identify which, if any, are significantly distinctive of that term.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p> Significance is determined using a Fisher’s Exact test to measure the observed values against the expected frequency of the term as a collocate, using an alpha of 0.05. </p>
                </note> For example, the term “foreign” appears significantly often as a collocate of the names of European countries, but never within the vicinity of racial descriptors, or ethnic identifiers. We then extend the process and trace a new set of second order distinctive collocates from the terms we have identified, to see which trace back to our initial set of identifiers and which introduce new discourses into the semantics of race. By visualizing our results as a dynamic network of interconnected language we trace the connections between our primary identifiers, as well as how these relationships change over time. To extend the above example, in the nineteenth century, a language of “foreignness” is connected with European nationalities, while “America/n” is distinctively used as a descriptor of African Americans. By the mid-twentieth century, the terms describing African Americans shift away from the emphasis on their “Americanness” and instead incorporate a set of terms, such as “descent” and “blood” borrowed from the foreign discourse of immigration. Such analyses can help us to identify in precise historical detail both the moment at which particular national or ethnic groups became American and the related but not the identical moment at which they, in Noel Ignatiev’s phrase, “became white” (1995) -- that is, when the language surrounding those groups became unmarked. At the same time, finding consistencies in the language applied to different racial or ethnic groups at different historical moments grants support for Theodore Allen’s claim that the concept of race names “a pattern of oppression (subordination, subjugation, exploitation) of one set of human beings by another,” where the “phenotypical” identity of those sets is less important than the structure of their relationship (2012). This work builds upon the previous work of the members of the Literary Lab on the language of human identification in Anthropology, presented at the 2015 Digital Humanities conference and forthcoming in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Current Anthropology</hi>, although it represents a substantial methodological extension over this early project, as well as shifting the emphasis from scholarly writing to literary representations of identity. 
            </p>
        </div>
        <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
        <head>Phase 2: Identity as Cultural Construction</head>
            <p>The second phase of our project examines the construction of individual characters against this backdrop. This not only allows us to observe which characters actively resist the discourse of the period in which they were created, but also how the evolution of this terminology as applied to individuals differs from the cultural construction of identity as a historically contingent socio-cultural phenomenon. That is, does a character described as “black” inherit the descriptors of identity from the language of the period or is discourse radically more individuated on a character by character basis? To test this assumption, we adopt a similar approach to the “BookNLP” developed by Bamman, Underwood and Smith (2014), using Named Entity Recognition to extract characters coupled with a set of scripts to perform co-reference resolution. We then tag the corpus for part-of-speech and extract the distinctive adjectives that appear in dependent positions within 50 words of each mention of the character. This allows us to identify, with reasonable precision, a descriptive terminology for each character. We then tag each character for the racial, ethnic or national identity that is given in the novels and compare our descriptive discourse for characters who embody similar identities across texts, using a set of semantic network diagrams that allow us to trace the contiguities of identity both across genre and across time.</p>
        </div>
         <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
         <head>Conclusion</head>
            <p>By combining these methods, we are able to see, for the first time, not only how the distinctive language of identity alters over the history of the American novel, but how the discourse of characterization functions as both a vehicle for the standard tropes and stereotypes for identity, as well as a point of resistance to the dominant representational language of a given period. It also provides new insights into the process of characterization, especially in regard to the representation of immigrant or minority identities. </p>
        </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Algee-Hewitt, M. and Algee-Hewitt, B.</hi> (N.D.). Finding the place of race in anthropological discourse: a digital textual analysis. <hi rend=""italic"">Current Anthropology</hi>, forthcoming.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Allen, T. W.</hi> (2012). <hi rend=""italic"">The Invention of the White Race.</hi> London: Verso, vol. 1.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bamman, D., Underwood, T. and Smith, N. A.</hi> (2014). A Bayesian Mixed Effects Model of Literary Character. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 52nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computation Linguistics.</hi> Baltimore, Maryland, pp. 370-79.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coates, T</hi>. (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Between the World and Me</hi>. New York: Random House.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ignatiev, N.</hi> (1995). <hi rend=""italic"">How the Irish Became White</hi>. New York: Routledge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Snipp, C. M.</hi> (2010). Defining Race and Ethnicity: The Constitution, the Supreme Court, and the Census. 
                         In <hi rend=""italic"">Doing Race: 21 Essays for the 21st Century. </hi> New York: Norton.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Woloch, A.</hi> (2003). <hi rend=""italic"">The One vs. the Many</hi>. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2623","17","Multivalent reuse of web data about temporary art exhibitions: the Exhibitium project","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Our proposal aims to display the analysis techniques, methodologies as well as the most relevant results expected within the Exhibitium project framework (http://www.exhibitium.com). Awarded by the BBVA Foundation, the Exhibitium project is being developed by an international consortium of several research groups [1]. Its main purpose is to build a comprehensive and structured data repository about temporary art exhibitions, captured from the web, to make them useful and reusable in various domains through open and interoperable data systems. </p>
            <p>The Exhibitium project aims to face the new challenges posed by the data-driven society respect to the production, management, use and distribution of digital cultural content. Specifically, the question that we want to respond is: how to take advantages of the universe of data related to cultural activity distributed through the Internet to generate value at very different levels (academic research, new critical narratives, cultural management, economic development, processes of social and cultural transformation, etc.)? Accordingly, multivalency, as a key notion of the new knowledge economy (Roney et al., 2012), is the guiding axis of the Exhibitium project. </p>
            <p>To think on a precise working prototype, we have adopted as a central object of our research the art exhibitions that regularly held galleries, museums and art centers, since they produce a very large and heterogeneous set of data that can potentially be captured by means of web mining strategies. </p>
            <p>For that, we have developed a technology infrastructure, which has been implemented in two dimensions: </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">a)</hi> A computing prototype consists of two modules operating in a complementary manner: Beagle, an automated data capture system which extracts information about art exhibitions from any web source; and ExpoFinder, a system for collecting and enhancing the information captured by Beagle (http://www.expofinder.es).
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">b.</hi> An aggregate of three data analysis and visualization platforms (SylvaDB, Techne Coword © and Geowave), which connect with the Beagle-ExpoFinder system using an automated export application [2]. (See in figure 1 a simplified diagram of the system).
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""542/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 1. Simpiflied schema and flowchart</p>
            <p>As regards the theoretical framework, Exhibitium faces the phenomenon of art exhibitions according to the actor-network theory (ANT) developed by Bruno Latour (2007), that is say, as complex cultural phenomena resulting from of a series of relationships established between heterogeneous human and no human actors -artists, curators, exhibition centers, funding agencies, publishing companies, artistic movements, artistic themes, etc.- that constitute dynamic networks among them. The application of the actor-network theory to the field of art exhibitions raises an interesting perspective, since the emphasis, rather than on the exhibitions themselves, is placed on the «mediation» processes (production, distribution, reception, etc.) as part of a social system in which the power relations that characterize the cultural institutions are unveiled. </p>
            <p>Consequently, the Exhibitium project aligns with the growing research field oriented to explore complex networks in art and humanities (Schich, 2014). Particularly, we are using two types of methodologies.</p>
            <p>a) Network analysis strategies through a graph database (SylvaDB) that we have structured according to an ontology specifically developed for the project (see figure 2).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""542/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2. Ontology of the “temporary art exhibition” domain in the SylvaDB interface </p>
            <p>b) KDD (Knowledge Discovery in Databases) techniques, specially the co-word analysis strategy (He, 1999) [3], which are mainly oriented to the discovery of implicit knowledge in large repositories of structured data (Echevarría and González, 2009; Rodríguez Ortega et al, 2015). </p>
            <p>Through these analyses we are getting a set of graphs that is allowing us to discover correlations between certain artists, centers, curators, financing institutions, themes and geo-spatial contexts. Note that the configuration of clusters of this nature, understood as network of strong relationships established between their nodes, can be read as power structures operant in a certain domain. </p>
            <p>The conceptual and methodological differences existing between the co-word analysis strategy, which extracts the actors and their relationships directly from the data processing, and the network analysis strategy, based on a scheme previously established (ontology) that derives from our direct observation of the real world, it is allowing us to make interesting comparisons between how we understand the domain “art exhibitions"" and what (implicit) structure emerges naturally from the processing of the keywords associated to this field. </p>
            <p>Along with this knowledge -key to develop new critical narratives-, the discovery of certain patterns is also providing a prospective knowledge about possible and future trends in the field of temporary art exhibitions, which can be strategically used by exhibition centers or other stakeholders (tourism companies, entertainment industries, etc.) in their decision-making processes. </p>
            <p>In addition, these methods of analysis are allowing us to investigate the peripheries that are also associated to the field of art exhibitions as a result of the prevalence of some institutions which centralize the flow of public among other things due to their media impact capacity. To facilitate the social visibility of those initiatives usually unknown we are proceeding to integrate the Exhibitium data in the Geowave system, a georeferenced platform to manage cultural content. </p>
            <p>NOTES</p>
            <p>[1] They are: iArtHis_Lab (http://www.iarthislab.es) and Khaos (http://khaos.uma.es) at the University of Málaga; Techne, ingeniería del conocimiento y del producto (
                <ref target=""http://www.ugr.es/~tep028/quienes_somos_es.php"">http://www.ugr.es/~tep028/quienes_somos_es.php</ref>) at the University of Granada; and CulturePlex at the University of Western Ontario (http://www.cultureplex.ca). 
            </p>
            <p>[2] Since the nature of this text does not allow us to provide a detailed explanation of such system, we suggest to see the site http://admin.expofinder.es/test/xmlrpc/ [Viewed: 28/10/2015].</p>
            <p>[3] The co-word strategy is based on a basic principle: all actors in a network, regardless of their nature, can be represented by words or descriptors (actually, this is how the data are represented mostly in bibliographic repositories). Natural relations of co-occurrence of words in data repositories form a network that can be analyzed and mapped. The words that co-occur more frequently form clusters that can be analyzed as networks with strong links; at the same time, it is possible to analyze how these networks change throughout different periods of times or geo-spatial contexts. For example, we can analyze how the network generated by an artist (i.e., Picasso) changes according to the geographical provenance of the data (exhibitions in Spain, Europe, USA, Latin America, etc.). </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Echevarría, J. and González, M. I.</hi> (2009). La Teoría del Actor-Red y la tesis de la Tecnociencia, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Arbor Ciencia, Pensamiento y Cultura</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">738</hi>: 705-20.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">He, Q.</hi> (1999). Knowledge Discovery Through Co-Word Analysis, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Library Trends</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">48</hi>(1): 133-59.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Latour, B.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory.</hi> Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rodríguez Ortega, N. et al.</hi> (2015). Repesando los estudios metadisciplinares en la sociedad datacéntrica: análisis dinámico de las redes de conocimiento de la Historia del Arte a través de la base de datos ISOC-Arte del CSIC. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">II Congreso de la Sociedad Internacional de Humanidades Digitales Hispánicas. Innovación, globalización e impacto</hi>, 5-7 de octubre de 2015, Madrid: UNED-Createspace, pp. 322-36. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Roney, D. et al.</hi> (2012). Knowledge is people doing things, knowledge economies are people doing things with better outcomes for more people. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Handbook on the Knowledge Economy</hi>, Elgar Original Reference Series, Edward Elgar Publishing, Incorporated, pp. 1-14.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schich, M. et al.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Arts, Humanities, and Complex Networks</hi>, 4
                        <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> edition, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Leonardo,</hi> Cambridge: MIT Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2624","17","RICardo Project : Exploring 19th Century International Trade","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>RICardo (
                <hi rend=""italic"">Research on International Commerce</hi>) is a database gathering bilateral flows of international commerce extracted from a large number of historical statistical sources during the 1787-1938 period. The foundational principles of this database are described in a working paper (Dedinger and Girard, 2015) submitted to the Historical Methods journal. This database begun to be developed by researchers in Economy and History in 2004 with the goal of renewing research on the history of trade globalization. In 2013, an entire new direction was given to the RICardo project. Economists and historians worked together with data scientists and designers in order to build a completely innovative digital tool susceptible to be used for both teaching and research
                <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1""> A French version of this abstract is available at: 
                    <ptr target=""http://ricardo.medialab.sciences-po.fr/Girardetal_RICardo_dh2016_fr.pdf""/>
                </note>.
            </p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Exploring international </hi>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">trade</hi>
                    <hi rend=""bold""> during the 19</hi>
                    <hi rend=""sup bold"">th</hi>
                    <hi rend=""bold""> century</hi>
                </head>
                <p>To this day, there is no equivalent digital resource to the RICardo database that focuses on such an ancient and lengthy time period. The only comparable tools are web applications from the IMF (
                    <ref target=""https://data.imf.org/"">data</ref>
                    <ref target=""https://data.imf.org/"">.</ref>
                    <ref target=""https://data.imf.org/"">imf</ref>
                    <ref target=""https://data.imf.org/"">.</ref>
                    <ref target=""https://data.imf.org/"">org</ref>), the WTO (
                    <ref target=""http://stat.wto.org/"">stat</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://stat.wto.org/"">.</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://stat.wto.org/"">wto</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://stat.wto.org/"">.</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://stat.wto.org/"">org</ref>) and the United Nations (
                    <ref target=""http://comtrade.un.org/"">comtrade</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://comtrade.un.org/"">.</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://comtrade.un.org/"">un</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://comtrade.un.org/"">.</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://comtrade.un.org/"">org</ref>) that offer data and visualizations on commerce during the post-50’s period. As we will show, the methodological problems posed by historical trade statistics (19
                    <hi rend=""sup"">th</hi>-20
                    <hi rend=""sup"">th</hi> centuries) are more complex. The first result of our work is a web application
                    <hi rend=""color(#1155cc)underline"">
                        <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2""> the source code is available at 
                            <ptr target=""http://github.com/medialab/ricardo""/>
                        </note>
                    </hi> available online:
                    <ref target=""http://ricardo.medialab.sciences-po.fr/""> </ref>
                    <ref target=""http://ricardo.medialab.sciences-po.fr/"">
                        <hi rend=""color(#1155cc)underline"">http://ricardo.medialab.sciences-po.fr</hi>
                    </ref>. The database will be publicly released in 2017 upon the start of an international conference marking the two-hundredth anniversary of the publication of Ricardo’s main work (Ricardo, 1817).
                </p>
                <p>We will discuss the methodological choices made during the creation of this data exploration tool – what we call 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">datascape</hi> (Latour et al., 2012) – and will quickly present the research and educational perspectives that the tool allows for, before concluding on the method of transdisciplinary work that was used.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Representing data in their uncertainty</head>
                <p>In RICardo, the basic informational unit is a trade flow (exportation or importation) between a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">reporting</hi> unit and a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">partner </hi>unit. In its present version, the database contains 267⁠ 000 flows. The 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">partners</hi> are the commercial partners recorded in the annual trade statistics reports of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">reporting</hi> countries. The large spatial and temporal coverage of the database raises certain problems. First off, the entities cover very heterogeneous realities: partners can be countries (“United Kingdom”), groups of countries (“United Kingdom & Ireland”) or geographic areas (“British colonies”). Further, the availability of trade statistics before the end of the 19
                    <hi rend=""sup"">th</hi> century is very problematic (Dedinger and Girard, 2015), which is translated into an absence, in the database, of a non-negligible (17 000) amount of flows throughout the observed period. The challenge we then had to take up was to aggregate heterogeneous data without crushing the corpus’ complexity and accounting for missing data in the series. We attempt to resolve this thorny question by the exploratory analysis of the data (Tukey, 1977).
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Three levels of exploration</head>
                <p>The exploration interface developed offers three levels of entry from global to local: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">world view, country view</hi> and
                    <hi rend=""italic"">bilateral view</hi>. Each representation offers a specific point of view on the data within the database. The complexity increases as we move from the world view (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">World</hi>) to the national point of view (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">bilateral</hi>). In order to lead the exploration throughout these different levels, we have decided to construct a common structure to all three viewpoints.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""38/1000000000000487000001542E803B1BE96E5DDB.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 1: Temporal filtering</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Each one opens unto a main curve representing total flows per year (representation of countries’ total trade for the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">world view</hi>, of one country’s total trade for the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">country view</hi>, or tradebetween two specific countries for the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">bilateral view</hi>) in addition to temporal limits. It is represented as a discontinuous line that is interrupted when there is no known value. In addition, these discontinuities appear also in an underlying temporal axis, indicating the absence of data in the form of a projection on the X-axis. This graphic object is also useful as an interface for temporal filtering: one can graphically select a sub-period to study more specifically (Becker and Cleveland, 1978). As footer for each view’s page, a spreadsheet allows to navigate within the visualized source data and export it as spreadsheet format (CSV). This way, the user can continue the analysis in an external statistical tool. At the center of this common structure, each view offers more detailed exploration.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Studying a country through the prism of its partners</head>
                <p>The country view allows users to center their analysis on a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">reporting</hi> country by representing annual trade balances with each 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">partner</hi> under the form of histograms.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""38/1000020100000486000001C68153BF3D687B4335.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 2: Trade balances of partners</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>This use of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">small multiples</hi> (Tufte, 1990) facilitates comparisons between partners. The choice of detailing trade balances per year holds the fact that an aggregation on the entirety of the period would have introduced a bias by masking the year in which some data is missing. Furthermore, the ordering of the partners corresponds to the average annual share of each partner on the available years. This metric, represented as a circle at the start of the line, allows on the one hand to display the partners by decreasing importance, and on the other hand to let appear similar 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">partner</hi> entities. Figure 2 therefore shows that “Ireland & United-Kingdom” and “United Kingdom” were the 2
                    <hi rend=""sup"">nd</hi> and 3
                    <hi rend=""sup"">rd</hi> partners of the United States during the 19
                    <hi rend=""sup"">th</hi> century. They are two different entities but a similar partner in reality: the United Kingdom (the overlapping of years 1864-1876 is a consequence of the inclusion of two different sources).
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The distorting mirror of bilateral trade flows</head>
                <p>In the bilateral view, the tool offers to interrogate a pair of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">reporting</hi> countries by using a representation of their mirror flows. It’s one of the great strength of the RICardo database: a same bilateral flow is declared as an export by one of the countries and as an import by the other, however these two recordings are rarely the same (Dedinger and Girard, 2015). Thanks to the calculation of an indicator (Dedinger, 2012), the bilateral view offers an immediate view of the deviation between mirror flows and its fluctuations over the selected period.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""38/100002010000048B00000154C98E3CAE24319472.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 3: The bilateral view</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>A tool for researchers and students in social sciences</head>
                <p>The exploratory formatting of data brings powerful tools to help research on the history of economics. It’s an excellent way to detect possible inconsistencies in data (Leclercq et al., 2013) in order to determine its cause. To achieve such a result, our method consisted in considering data visualizations as both results and media of research (Stefaner, 2010), in fostering collaboration between researchers, engineers and designers through workshops where each data visualization was discussed by articulating the methodological constraints of Economics and History, the ideas and principles of Design and technical workability.</p>
                <p>Researchers have at their disposal an incomparable tool to deepen an analysis of trade statistics reliability (bilateral view), to compose monographs on the trade history of the world’s countries (country view), to study the history of trade globalization since the beginning of the 19
                    <hi rend=""sup"">th</hi> century (world view) and to experiment data-driven teaching methods.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Becker, R. A. and Cleveland, W. S.</hi> (1987). Brushing Scatterplots. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Technometrics</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(2): 127 doi:10.2307/1269768.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dedinger, B.</hi> (2012). The Franco-German trade puzzle: an analysis of the economic consequences of the Franco-Prussian war1: THE FRANCO-GERMAN TRADE PUZZLE. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Economic History Review</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">65</hi>(3): 1029–54 doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2011.00604.x.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dedinger, B. and Girard, P.</hi> (2016). Visualizing trade globalization in the long run : the RICardo project. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Working Paper Submitted to Historical Methods</hi>
                        <ptr target=""http://ricardo.medialab.Sciences-po.fr/Dedinger_Girard_RICardo_HistoricalMethods.pdf""/> (accessed 26 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Latour, B., et al.</hi> (2012). ‘The whole is always smaller than its parts’ - a digital test of Gabriel Tardes’ monads. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The British Journal of Sociology</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">63</hi>(4): 590–615 doi:10.1111/j.1468-4446.2012.01428.x.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Leclercq, C. and Girard, P.</hi> (2013). The Experiments in Art and Technology Datascape. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Collections électroniques de l’INHA. Actes de Colloques et Livres En Ligne de l’Institut National D’histoire de L’art</hi>. INHA 
                        <ptr target=""http://inha.revues.org/4926""/> (accessed 26 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ricardo, D.</hi> (1817). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation</hi>. London: John Murray.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stefaner, M.</hi> (2010). Bootstrapping - use visualizations to create visualizations Paper presented at the VisualEyes / The Role of Design in Data, Information and Knowledge Visualization, Politecnico Milano, Italy 
                        <ref target=""http://www.slideshare.net/MoritzStefaner/bootstrapping-use-visualizations-to-create-visualizations"">http://</ref>
                        <ref target=""http://www.slideshare.net/MoritzStefaner/bootstrapping-use-visualizations-to-create-visualizations"">www.</ref>
                        <ref target=""http://www.slideshare.net/MoritzStefaner/bootstrapping-use-visualizations-to-create-visualizations"">slideshare.net/MoritzStefaner/bootstrapping-use-visualizations-to-create-visualizations</ref> (accessed 26 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tufte, E.</hi> (1990). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Envisioning Information</hi>. Cheshire, CT, USA: Graphics Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tukey, J. W.</hi> (1977). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Exploratory Data Analysis</hi>. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2625","17","Robots Reading Vogue: Data Mining, Commercial Licenses and Copyright","9","","","2","",""
"2626","17","Ruthenian Metrica : technological aspects of the electronic publication","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Ruthenian (Volhynian) Metrica is a complex of books of acts of ruthenian (from Ruthenia) series of Crown Chancery of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. 29 books in which more than 3,5 thousand acts are entered were a part of the Metrica. The main part of documents is written in the Cyrillic letter of Ruthenian language. Other part of acts is written down by the Latin letter on Latin or Polish. Copies of confirmations (privilea) and the decision of royal court are entered in books (decrees). Therefore Ruthenian Metrica consists of books of two types: blotters and books of decrees. Each act has the original name. All acts are rather precisely dated. Documents of the Metrica can be divided into two categories conditionally: simple and compound. Compound documents usually contain literally entered copies of other acts (vidimus) in the structure. Usually entered as private-law acts (for example, wills or donative), and decisions of local courts.</p>
            <p>For the purpose of ensuring broad access for historians to documents of the Ruthenian Metrica on department of history of the Oles Honchar Dnipropetrovsk National University (Ukraine) the project on creation of the Web publication of such complex of sources is carried out. Implementation of the project assumes creation of an online-resource in which will various opportunities of presentation and the analysis of documents are integrated.</p>
            <p>The concept of the Web version of a complex of acts of this book provides possibility of simultaneous display as the digitized images of pages, and their paginal transliteration in a text format. Access to all acts of the book is provided from the initial page where the general register is placed (fig. 1). The register allows to open its PDF version according to the name of the document or at the choice of number of a leaf to pass to the corresponding Web version (fig. 2). In each case the accompanying information on a place of storage of the original of the act is submitted. It is possible to see documents both in a hand-written form, and in the transcribed (fig. 3). As the cursive writing still kept portable letters, and in the electronic text means of HTML transferred such feature of the letter. It is possible to increase the digitized image of the page of the document in a separate window, having activated the reference (fig. 4). The hypertext structure is comfortable also that regarding the electronic text it is possible to bring later references to the connected documents of other books of Ruthenian, Lithuanian or Crown Metrica, magistrate or territorial government or judicial books both archival, and published. Similar additions can concern a personnel, toponyms or hydronyms, groups of documents, special terminology, etc. For transition between pages of the book the corresponding interactive references in a type of numbers of sheets are provided in the top and lower part of the displayed document. The user can always return to the general register of acts of the book from any looked-through page according to the universal reference ""Register"". The marking of text part on the basis of the TEI standard allowing to process the free text is in the long term planned.</p>
            <p>At this stage quality of images of pages of the book rather low in connection with a digitizing of a monochrome microfilm on which they were finished shooting as a backup copy of storage more than three decades ago. Respectively esthetic registration of insufficient level. However in this case images carry out rather confirmation function, allowing the user, to get acquainted with paleography of acts and to make sure of correctness of the transcribed text and if necessary to offer the specifications. Replacement of images on better is defined not so much technological, how many by legal and financial factors. </p>
            <p>This project is interesting also to that it has also didactic value. Such form of submission of documents carries out functions as visual aid in which various samples of paleography of a Ruthenian cursive writing and the corresponding transliteration, and the simulator for creation of the Web version of the case of hand-written sources are presented.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""428/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 1. Initial Site for Access to Acts of the Ruthenian metrica</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""428/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 2. Ruthenian Metrica Acts Registry</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""428/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 3. An Example of Act Web Page</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""428/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 4. Increased Act Page</head>
            </figure>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">TEI P5:</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange by the TEI Consortium</hi>. Originally edited by C.M. Sperberg-McQueen and Lou Burnard for the ACH-ALLC-ACL Text Encoding Initiative Now entirely revised and expanded under the supervision of the Technical Council of the TEI Consortium. The TEI Consortium. Version 2.7.0. Last updated on 16th September 2014,revision 13036. Text Encoding Initiative Consortium, 2014.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Ruthenian (Volhynian) Metrica</hi>. Registers of Polish Crown Chancery Documents Addressed to Ukrainian Lands (Palatinates of Volhynia, Kyiv, Bratslav, and Chernihiv) 1569-1673 with an Introduction by Patricia Kennedy Grimsted. Kyiv, 2002.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2627","17","Scholarly Requirements for Large Scale Text Analysis: A User Needs Assessment by the HathiTrust Research Center","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>The HathiTrust Research Center (HTRC) aims to facilitate large-scale computational text analysis of the contents of the HathiTrust Digital Library (HTDL) through data services and analytical tools. We conducted a study of current and potential users of the HTRC to investigate how scholars integrate text analysis into their research. Our study aims to inform the development of HTRC services and also to generate deeper insights into scholarly research practices with large-scale digitized text corpora.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Background</head>
                <p>Studies on the use of digital content by humanities scholars, ranging from humanities cyberinfrastructure (ACLS, 2006) and patterns in scholarly practices (Brockman et al., 2001; Palmer and Neumann, 2002; Green and Courtney, 2015), to discipline-specific studies (Zorich, 2012; Babeu, 2011; Rutner and Schonfeld, 2011), reveal that scholars acquire and analyze digital content in multi-faceted ways. Several investigations particularly examine scholarly uses of digital tools (Frischer et al., 2006; Toms and O’Brien, 2008; Gibbs and Owens, 2012). Computational text analysis dates from the beginnings of humanities computing (Hindley, 2013), and the resources of the ARTFL Project (Argamon et al., 2009; Horton et al., 2009), MONK (Unsworth, 2011), Wordseer (Muralidharan and Hearst, 2013), Voyant and TaPOR (Rockwell et al., 2010), and Lexos (LeBlanc et al., 2013), among others, inform the current work of the HTRC to provide a secure computational and data environment for researchers to conduct analyses of content from the HathiTrust Digital Library.</p>
                <p>Our study builds on an earlier user needs assessment conducted for the HTRC and its Mellon Foundation-funded Workset Creation for Scholarly Analysis project. That earlier study analyzed interviews and focus groups in order to identify capabilities needed in large text corpora to facilitate scholarly research use (Fenlon et al., 2014). These desired capabilities included the ability to create and manipulate collections as reusable datasets and research products, the ability to work at different units of analysis, and access to highly enriched metadata (Green et al., 2014; Fenlon et al., 2014). </p>
                <p>Our present study especially builds upon that previous investigation by examining the text analysis research practices of current and potential users of the HTRC.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Research Design</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Goals</head>
                    <p>Our study’s primary goals are:</p>
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>To analyze current scholarly research practices with textual corpora to identify user requirements for HTRC services;</item>
                        <item>to develop illustrative use cases of text analysis research for shaping training curricula; and</item>
                        <item>to obtain information for guiding the development of HTRC research services in the University of Illinois Library’s Scholarly Commons and similar digital scholarship centers.</item>
                    </list>
                    <p>While the findings of this study specifically will inform the development of services to meet the needs of HTRC users, it also contributes broader insights into how to develop similar digital resources and research services for computational text analysis.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Methods</head>
                    <p>We conducted fifteen semi-structured interviews with students, faculty, researchers, administrators, and librarians who pursue work that includes text analysis, or have familiarity with text analysis methods. Some participants were recruited at professional conferences for digital humanities and libraries, while others were active in HTRC user group forums. Several of the interviewees had previously interacted with the HTRC, and most had experience with the HTDL. The participants were from various disciplines — including English, Anthropology, History, and Computer Science —and ranged from newcomers to digital humanities to long-time researchers. </p>
                    <p>We performed an initial analysis of the interview data through open coding and will continue detailed qualitative analysis using ATLAS.ti. Data was independently coded by the authors to ensure inter-coder reliability. While we are still actively analyzing interview data, we identified several preliminary themes discussed here. These themes include strategies for obtaining and managing data, research workflows and results, collaborations, and teaching. </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Analysis and Discussion</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Data Acquisition and Management</head>
                    <p>Several respondents characterized text analysis research as being time-intensive in spite of the speed of computational tools. One interviewee noted, ‘It’s funny, often people think, “Oh we have it digitized, now it’s useful.” Scholars realize that you have a lot more work to do after that. And that can often slow projects down terribly.’</p>
                    <p>The interviewees indicated that gathering, managing, and manipulating text data comprised a considerable portion of their work. An interviewee explained, ‘I think the biggest challenge is data, getting good data to work with. I think people underestimate the problems and difficulties in doing that.’</p>
                    <p>Interviewees also expressed a desire for improved ways to identify and extract the content they needed, especially when navigating large-scale collections to find the volumes, pages, or passages relevant to a research project. As one interviewee remarked, ‘Even if you had somehow structured your texts, I would be saying, “What was left out? How do I bring it back in?”’ </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Research Workflows and Results</head>
                    <p>Several interviewees described the potential of text analysis to challenge previously held understandings of text, as differences between human and computational readings emerged. One respondent noted, ‘There are many cases in which the computer is at least as good—if not better—a reader than humans are. That’s very difficult for people to accept... sometimes the computer gets it right and it bears looking at that difference. So we kind of want to get that new ground truth on this kind of work.’</p>
                    <p>Many researchers highlighted the importance of interpretive work in understanding how the tools interact with the text, and characterized the interactions as dynamic. One respondent observed, ‘I yearn for workflows where the scholar could actually set their own tokenization rules.... It would be a way that we could create less language-specific [rules] or control the language specificity of the algorithm. I think that is the real need.’ Several respondents highlighted the importance of tools that flexibly fit into various stages of the research process, and also are accessible to users of different skill levels. Interviewees also suggested enhancements specific to the HTRC, which included expanded visualization capabilities, improved generation of statistics about text corpora, and better ability to handle languages other than English. </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Research Collaborations</head>
                    <p>Interviewees repeatedly cited collaboration and research support, both virtual and in-person, as important. Many interviewees worked with digital humanities initiatives, and reported that their local resources ranged from limited technical support to well-resourced research centers. For some interviewees, online support communities— such as Digital Humanities Questions and Answers or Stack Overflow — also were significant.</p>
                    <p>Interdisciplinary collaborations between departments and across institutions emerged as the most prominent kind of partnership, but interviewees also noted the challenges that such collaborations pose. As one interviewee explained, ‘Collaborations between institutions: much more difficult. There’s money, there’s institutional blockages, and then anything over half a dozen people, it gets complicated very quickly. And so the people dynamics get very complicated.’ Some respondents noted that these collaborations affected their research practices and acquisition of research resources. </p>
                    <p> Interviewees reported that their collaborations with libraries ranged from non-existent to critical partnerships. Many saw the library as a key space because ‘the library is actually the one functioning interdisciplinary space on a university campus.’ Collaborations with the HTRC and digital repositories for working with data also were important to respondents.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Teaching and Training</head>
                    <p>Interviewees mentioned their active efforts and intentions to incorporate computational text analysis into their teaching. Some remarked on institutional constraints that make it difficult to incorporate computational tools into curricula. As one respondent explained: ‘I once imagined teaching a class in which students learn to script and actually run analyses against data, but I was told, basically, that that class isn’t a humanities class anymore—that belongs in computer science.’</p>
                    <p>Some stated that the courses that they currently teach may not require or allow for the incorporation of computational analysis. Yet others noted that there is only a limited amount of technical or scientific skills that a humanities student could realistically master within a short period of time, with one interviewee noting that ‘you can only get people to learn so much about the math; as much as they can learn, they should — at the same time, it’s hard.’</p>
                    <p> Although the demand from students for learning about computational text analysis was, overall, reported to be increasing, some interviewees noted that they are constrained by not only limited resources, but also uncertainty as to how to carry out such activities. One interviewee reported prevailing sentiments that the digital humanities ‘doesn’t even fit anywhere,’ leading to the question of whether ‘there should be a whole separate department that’s digital humanities,’ or to offer training within existing curricula.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p> The immediate aims of this study are to generate an updated framework of user requirements that will guide the development of the HTRC’s educational programming and research support services and also to inform forthcoming Mellon Foundation-funded development of the HTRC Data Capsule. But our preliminary findings also provide insights into scholars’ needs as they increasingly incorporate text analysis in research and teaching. These findings also reveal how digital scholarship centers, information professionals, and providers of digitized content can best support scholarship as digital humanities resources evolve.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Acknowledgements</head>
                <p>We thank Megan Senseney, Angela Courtney, Nicholae Cline, and Leanne Mobley for their collaboration in this study. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Argamon, S., et al. </hi>(2009). Gender, Race, and Nationality in Black Drama, 1850-2000: Mining Differences in Language Use in Authors and their Characters. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Babeu, A.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Rome wasn't digitized in a day: Building a cyberinfrastructure for digital classics.</hi> CLIR Publication, <hi rend=""bold"">150</hi>, Washington, DC: Council of Library and Information Resources. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brockman, W. S., et al.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarly work in the humanities and the evolving information environment</hi> CLIR Publication,<hi rend=""bold""> 104</hi>, Washington, D.C.: Digital Library Federation, Council on Library and Information Resources. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fenlon, K., et al. </hi>(2014). Scholar-built collections: A study of user requirements for research in large-scale digital libraries. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science and Technology</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">51</hi>(1): 1–10.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Frischer, B., et al.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Summit on digital tools for the humanities: Report on summit accomplishments</hi>. Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, University of Virginia. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.iath.virginia.edu/dtsummit/SummitText.pdf"">http://www.iath.virginia.edu/dtsummit/SummitText.pdf</ref> (accessed 4 March 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gibbs, F. and Owens, T.</hi> (2012). Building Better Digital Humanities Tools: Toward broader audiences and user-centered designs. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(2).
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">College and Research Libraries</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">76</hi>(5): 690-707.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">LeBlanc, M. D., et al.</hi> (2013). Lexomics: Integrating the Research and Teaching Spaces. 
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                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sukovic, S. </hi>(2011). E-Texts in Research Projects in the Humanities, A. Woodsworth and W. D. Penniman (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Advances in Librarianship</hi>. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing, pp. 131-202.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Toms, E. G. and O’Brien, H.</hi> (2008). Understanding the Information and Communication Technology Needs of the E-Humanist. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Documentation</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">64</hi>(1): 102-30.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Unsworth, J.</hi> (2011). Computational Work with Very Large Text Collections: Interoperability, Sustainability, and the TEI. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>, 10.4000/jtei.215 (accessed 4 March 2016). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zorich, D. </hi>(2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Transitioning to a Digital World: Art History, Its Research Centers and Digital Scholarship: A Report to the Samuel H. Kress Foundation and the Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media</hi>. New York: Samuel H. Kress Foundation. http://www.kressfoundation.org/research/Default.aspx?id=35379 (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2628","17","Scholarly Research Activities and Digital Tools: When NeMO met FLOSS","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>While there has been a significant investment in the development of digital tools that can be used in the humanities, information about their use is frequently located in disciplinary silos, with little transfer of knowledge about the features of specific tools that make them valuable for research across the humanities. This poster shows the collaboration between two initiatives, the NeDiMAH Methods Ontology (NeMO) and the EuropeanaTech FLOSS Inventory Task Force. The aim was to carry out research in order to align the FLOSS Inventory against the Activity Types in NeMO, the Ontology of Digital Methods for the Humanities developed by the Digital Curation Unit (DCU), IMIS-ATHENA R.C with the ESF Network for Digital Methods in the Arts and Humanities (NeDiMAH). </p>
            <p>The FLOSS Inventory is an effort undertaken by the Netherlands Institute for Sound and Vision and EuropeanaTech to raise awareness of, share access to, and improve the overall status of Open Source software available for cultural heritage developers internationally. The Inventory contains over 200 well-documented, active and relevant OS tools and is actively updated and maintained. </p>
            <p>NeMO provides a conceptual framework for representing scholarly practice in the Humanities. This is the main output of NeDiMAH, a Network that ran from 2011- 15 and brought into collaboration 16 countries to document the practice of Digital Humanities across Europe in a series of Methodological Working Groups. Building on earlier expertise in digital taxonomies for the digital humanities, NeDiMAH facilitated a research project carried out by DCU, building upon earlier work on scholarly activity modeling in projects including DARIAH, EHRI and Europeana Cloud. NeMO is a formal ontology which enables the representation and codification of scholarly work by providing a controlled vocabulary of interrelated concepts. NeMO offers a flexible tagging system through a taxonomy of Activity Types, structured in five hierarchies that correspond roughly to scholarly primitives (Unsworth, 2000), and incorporates existing taxonomies and related work such as TadiRAH, Oxford ICT, and DH Commons. </p>
            <p>The research teams working on FLOSS and NeMO collaborated to map each tool in the FLOSS inventory against NeMO Activity Types. According to the structure established by NeMO, scholarly research practices are divided into five core Activity Types within a scholarly research lifecycle: acquiring, communicating, conceiving, processing and seeking, which encompass narrower terms accounting for further detail and specialization. This study allows the integration of the information about tools gathered by FLOSS into a uniform conceptual framework for expressing knowledge about scholarly work. By doing so, it also validates the ability of the NeMO ontology to act as a sound framework for the conceptual representation of digital tools and services in one important area of the humanities. This mapping enables the categorisation of available tools according to the function they serve, and could permit researchers in the Humanities - even those without a technical background - to consult an authoritative list of tools covering their needs according to the type of activity they wish to undertake. Availability and the role that each tool can play in the research practice may increase its overall use by the community. The representation of the FLOSS Inventory using NeMO adds value to digital research, and the visualization of categorization ratios it provides facilitates an important debate about software development trends, probing the question whether development is weighted towards software tools that address researchers’ needs, a major topic of research in Research Infrastructures across Europe and beyond.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Benardou A., P. Constantopoulos, C. Dallas</hi> (2013). An approach to analyzing working practices of research communities in the humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>: 105-27. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hughes, L. M.</hi> (2011a). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Collections: Use, Value and Impact</hi>. London: Facet. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hughes, L. M.</hi> (2011b). ICT Methods for digital collections research. In Hughes, L. M. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Collections: Use, Value and Impact</hi>. London: Facet. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hughes, L. M.</hi> (2014). Digital Methods in the Humanities: Understanding and Describing their Use across the Disciplines. In Schreibman, S. and Siemens, R. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The New Companion to Digital Humanities</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>The AHRC Methods carried out scoping studies on the challenges of access to digital tools in the Humanities: see the series of Working Papers on Digital Tools for the Arts and Humanities: http://www.methodsnetwork.ac.uk/resources/workingpapers.html, and an expert seminar on digital tools: http://www.methodsnetwork.ac.uk/redist/pdf/wg1report.pdf 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Unsworth, J.</hi> (2000). Scholarly primitives: What methods do humanities researchers have in common, and how might our tools reflect this, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities Computing, Formal Methods, Experimental Practice Symposium</hi>, pp. 5-100.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2629","17","Seeing the Argument: Visualize Your Database with DAVILA","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Data modeling is a subject of study within digital humanities (Flanders and Jannidis, 2015) with special emphasis on the creative, </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">scholarly,</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> and normative aspects of data modeling </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">in database </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">design</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> (Verhoeven, 2014; Bauer, 2015). </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">By imagining our sources as data, and then abstracting th</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">ose</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> data to the point where quantitative methods </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">gain</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> purchase but still retain their original context, digital humanists are reimagining what it means to study the human record. While the study of data modeling is crucial to digital humanities, it is complicated by database schema conventions. Whether expressed in technical diagrams or computer code, database schemas initially present as confusing to anyone not trained to read them. Yet, schemas contain crucial information about how humanities data are translated to the computer, creating affordances for querying, browsing, and display – making direct access to schemas valuable to researchers, users, and peer reviewers.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">DAVILA </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">is </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">an open </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">source </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">relational database schema annotation and visualization tool </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">created</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> to help </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">bridge this gap. </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">While there are </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">other</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> database schema visualization tools </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(</hi>ex.
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">MySQL Workbench, DbVisualizer, and DbSchema)</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> available, DAVILA was specifically</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">designed </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">to</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">function within </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">digital humanities project teams </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">and to </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">document</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> digital humanities projects </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">for</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> the </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">non-technical </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">audiences </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">that</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> use </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">and review</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> them. Drawing on</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">the </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">scholarly practice of annotation as well as </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">the principles of </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Information Design (Tufte, 2006a; Tufte, 1997; Tufte, 2006b; Tufte, 2006c) and Computational Information Design (Fry, 2004), DAVILA creates a modified Entity-Relationship diagram </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(see (Ramsay, 2004)</hi> for a more detailed description of E-R diagrams)
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> that can be used by both technical and content experts.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""423/1000000000000EC4000009544DCF113A.jpg""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: A sample database schema, in this case the output from a mysqldump file for Project Quincy (http://projectquincy.org)</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">DAVILA </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">takes two files as inputs: a database schema and an optional</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> plain text customization </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">file. </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Examples of both files are included with the software. </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">When a schema is processed without a customization file </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">DAVILA</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> will create a blue box for each entity, and connect the entities based on their relationships (if specified in the schema). So, if a user is given someone else's database without documentation, she can use DAVILA to create a technical diagram from the schema. The user can then explore the entities in the interface and get a better sense of a new system. The customization file can be completed in an iterative process until the entire system has been documented.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">The customization file is the heart of DAVILA, and what separates it from other database schema visualization software packages. The plain text file allows scholars to annotate the resulting diagram. These annotations</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">begin with </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">basic project metadata, </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">crucial to data curation </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(Flanders and Muñoz, 2014)</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">:</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> project name, URL, developer names, </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">and </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">the copyright</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> license </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">applied to</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> the diagrams. The customization file allows users to group entities into modules, color code those modules, indicate which entity is central to each module, and provide annotation text for every entity in the database. </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">The annotated text is particularly crucial, </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">describing in a sentence or two the essence of a particular entity and its relationship to the larger database. The color coding and positioning bring order to the diagram, but the</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">annotation</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> gives non-technical team members or </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">peer </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">reviewers a way into the schema.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""423/1000000000000EC400000C189BB7CD87.jpg""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: Sample customization file that ships with DAVILA. Note that the diagram now has associated metadata, including a copyright statement</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>Once DAVILA is running, users can click and drag the entities into different positions, expand an individual module for more information, or hide the non-central entities in a module to focus on another part of your schema, all in a fun, force-directed environment courtesy of the toxiclibs physics library. Pressing the space bar saves a snapshot of the window as a timestamped, vector-scaled pdf. As a visualization tool, DAVILA has limited use for a team that combines sighted and blind (or colorblind) team members. For such groups, the customization file may provide a more fruitful locus of collaboration than the visual output.</p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""423/1000000000000EC400000B1677ED881F.jpg""/>
                    <head>Figure 3: Example of the “Locations Module” in Project Quincy laid out in DAVILA. Note that the other modules are still in the visualization, but have been minimized. Also note that primary keys are highlighted, relationships have directionality, and datatypes are specified for each attribute.</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">DAVILA is written in Processing, a Java-based artistic scripting language originally created by Ben Fry</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> and Casey Reas, </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">and released under GPLv3. </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Special attention was paid to documenting DAVILA itself.</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> Each file in the program starts with at least one paragraph, in English, describing what the following code does and</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">how to modify it as needed. This supplements the extensive inline commenting of the code, which can double as a tutorial for >Processing. Finally, there is a detailed README file which walks new users through installing Processing and using DAVILA with their own database schemas.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>DAVILA-generated schemas are used to teach database design and were included in a database inflected doctoral dissertation in history (Bauer, 2015). To generate your own diagram visit.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bauer, J.</hi> (2015). Republicans of Letters: The Early American Foreign Service as Information Network, 1775-1825 University of Virginia Ph.D. http://libra.virginia.edu/catalog/libra-oa:9454.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Flanders, J. and Jannidis, F.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Knowledge Organization and Data Modeling in the Humanities</hi>. http://www.wwp.northeastern.edu/outreach/conference/kodm2012/flanders_jannidis_datamodeling.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Flanders, J. and Muñoz, T.</hi> (2014). An Introduction to Humanities Data Curation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH Curation Guide</hi> http://guide.dhcuration.org/contents/intro/ (accessed 6 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fry, B. J.</hi> (2004). <hi rend=""italic"">Computational information design</hi>. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S.</hi> (2004). Databases. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Humanities</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tufte, E. R.</hi> (1997). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Visual Explanations: Images and Quantities, Evidence and Narrative</hi>. Cheshire, Conn.: Graphics Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tufte, E. R.</hi> (2006a). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Visual Display of Quantitative Information</hi>. 2nd ed. Cheshire, Conn.: Graphics Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tufte, E. R.</hi> (2006b). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Beautiful Evidence</hi>. Cheshire, Conn.: Graphics Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tufte, E. R.</hi> (2006c). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Envisioning Information</hi>. Cheshire, Conn.: Graphics Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Verhoeven, D.</hi> (2014). Doing the sheep good: facilitating engagement in digital humanities and creative arts research. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories</hi>. pp. 206–20.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2630","17","Significance Testing for the Classification of Literary Subgenres","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>The automatic classification of literary genres, especially of novels, has become a research topic in the last years (Underwood, 2014; Jockers, 2013). In the following we report on the results from a series of experiments using features like most frequent words, character tetragrams and different amounts of topics (LDA) for genre classification on a corpus of German novels. Two problems will be in the main focus of this paper and they are both caused by the same factor: The small number of labeled novels. So how can experiments be designed and evaluated reliably in a setting like this. We are especially interested in testing results for significance to get a better understanding of the reliability of our research. While statistical significance testing is quite established in many disciplines ranging from psychology to medicine, it is unfortunately not yet standard in digital literary studies.</p>
                <p> The scarcity of labeled data is also one of the reasons some researchers segment novels. We will show that without a test for significance it would be easy to misunderstand our results and we will also show that using segments of the same novel in the test and the training data leads to an overestimation of the predictive capabilities of the approach.</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.v5r3hrqs5gxk"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Setting</head>
                <p>In the following we will describe our corpus and feature sets. Our corpus consists of 628 German novels mainly from the 19th century obtained from sources like TextGrid Digital Library
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p> textgrid.de/digitale-bibliothek</p>
                    </note> or Projekt Gutenberg
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p> gutenberg.spiegel.de</p>
                    </note>. The novels have been manually labeled according to their subgenre after research in literary lexica and handbooks. The corpus contains 221 adventure novels, 57 social novels and 55 educational novels; the rest belongs to a different or more than one subgenre.
                </p>
                <p>Features are extracted and normalized to a range of [0,1] based on the whole corpus consisting of 628 novels. We have tested several feature sets beforehand and found stylometric and topic based to be the most promising (c.f. Hettinger et al., 2015). To represent stylometric features we employ 3000 most frequent words (mfw3000) and top 1000 character tetragrams (4gram). Topic based features are created using Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) by Blei et al. (2003). In literary texts topics sometimes represent themes, but more often they represent topoi, often used ways of telling a story or parts of it (see also Underwood, 2012; Rhody, 2012). For each novel we derive a topic distribution, i.e. we calculate how strongly each topic is associated with each novel. We try different topic numbers and build ten models for each setting to reduce the influence of randomness in LDA models. We remove a set of predefined stop words as well as Named Entities from the novels as we have shown before that the removal of Named Entities tends to improve results. </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.h3q4c0oaksnc"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Evaluation</head>
                <p>Classification is done by means of a linear Support Vector Machine (SVM) as we have already shown in Hettinger et al. (2015) that it works best in this setting (see also Yu, 2008). In each experiment we apply stratified 10-fold cross validation to the 333 labeled novels and report overall accuracy and F1-Score (c.f. Jockers, 2013). The majority vote (MV) baseline for our genre distribution yields an accuracy score of 0.66 and F1 score of 0.27 (see fig. 1). </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""469/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 1: Cross table for majority vote baseline</head>
                </figure>
                <p>In the cross tables of Figure 1 and 2 each column represents the true class and each row the predicted genre. Correct assignments are shaded in grey, average accuracy in green and average F1 score in red. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""469/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 2: Cross table for mfw 3000 as an example for classification results</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Because there are not many labeled novels for genre classification we expanded our corpus by splitting every novel into ten equal segments. Features are then constructed independently for the resulting 3330 novel segments. To test the influence of the LDA topic parameter 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi> in conjunction with having more LDA documents we evaluate topic features for 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">t </hi>=100, 200, 300, 400, 500 (see figure 3 and 4). 
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""469/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 3: Accuracy scores for novels and novel segments and different feature sets</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""469/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 4: F1 scores for novels and novel segments and different feature sets</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Results show that our evaluation metrics tend to drop if novels are segmented. This could mean that genre is indeed a label for the whole literary work and not parts of it. On the other hand many differences are pretty small. Therefore we would like to test if these differences are statistically significant or if they should be attributed to chance. </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.uho96i5s80d"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Tests of statistical significance </head>
                <p>When working with literary corpora there are few genre labels available for two reasons. First, the task of labeling the genre of a novel is strenuous; second, literary studies have mostly concentrated on a rather small sample, the canonical novels. Another issue is the creation of a balanced corpus, because for historical reasons the distribution of literary genres is not uniform and also the process of selecting novels for digitization has made the situation even more complicated. This generally results in data sets of less than 1000 items or even less than 100, see for example Jockers (2013) where 106 novels form a corpus or Hettinger et al. (2015) where we evaluate on only 32 novels. </p>
                <p>The problem arising from small corpora is that small differences in results may originate from chance. This can be investigated by using statistical tests (c.f. Kenny, 2013; Nazar and Sánchez Pol, 2006). A standard tool to detect if two data sets are significantly different is Student’s t-test which we will use in the following to control the results of our experiments.</p>
                <p>We use two variations of Student’s t-test with 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">α</hi> = 0.05: 
                </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>the one-sample t-test to compare the accuracy of a feature set against the baseline </item>
                    <item>the two-sample t-test to compare accuracy results for two feature sets</item>
                </list>
                <p>In both cases the data set considered consists of ten accuracy results from ten-fold cross validation and accordingly 100 data points for LDA from its ten models. Due to the small sample size we drop the assumption of equal variance for the two-sample t-test. The results for the one-sample t-tests show that every single feature set yields significantly better accuracy than the baseline (66.4%). We can therefore conclude that feature sets classify novels not randomly and that they do incorporate helpful genre clues. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""469/image5.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 5: P-values for two sided t-test with <hi rend=""italic"">α </hi>= 0.05 on accuracy of genre classification using 333 German novels</head>
                </figure>
                <p>P-values for the two-sided t-tests are reported in Figure 5. Due to the large number of tests we apply Holm-Bonferroni correction; the resulting statistically significant outcomes are shaded in grey. From Figure 5 it follows that differences between segmented and not-segmented novels are 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">not </hi>statistically significant in most cases except for LDA with 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi> = 100. Besides results do not differ significantly for different topic numbers 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">t</hi> = 100, 200, 300, 400, 500. 
                </p>
                <p>An important assumption of the two-sample t-test is that both samples have to be independent. This is the case here as each time we do a cross validation we split the data independently from any other cross validation run. Thus, even if we repeat our experiments for a number of iterations (see e.g. Hettinger et al., 2015) we still get independent evaluation scenarios. Therefore we can apply the two-sided t-test in our setting to support our claims. In case of dependency of samples we could instead use paired t-tests on accuracy per novel. </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.8ui9dtz3mgnn"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Novel segmentation</head>
                <p>A crucial factor when segmenting novels is how to distribute the segments between test and training data set. We decided that in our case we have to put all of the ten segments a novel was divided into either in the test or in the training data set as we want to derive the genre of a novel not seen before. Another possibility which Jockers (2013) exploited is to distribute segments randomly between training and test set. In his work “Macroanalysis” Jockers investigates how function words can be used to research aspects of literary history like author, genre etc. In the following we want to replicate the part concerning genre prediction using German novels. </p>
                <p>When segments of one novel appear in both test and training data we achieve an accuracy of 97.5% and F1 score of 95.9% - that is close to perfect (see fig. 6). Such a partitioning of the novels dramatically overestimates predictive performance on unseen texts. In comparison, Jockers (2013) achieves an average F1 score of 67% on twelve genre classes. His results are worse because we are only using three different genres while he is doing a multiclass classification with 12 classes. But nevertheless 67% probably still overestimates the real predictive power of this approach, because in our setup using the segments in both, test and training data, increased F1 by more than 17%.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""469/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 6: Results for different partitioning strategies</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.75pj8ebi4kxq"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>In this work we looked at the methodology and evaluation of genre classification of German novels and discussed some of the methodical pitfalls of working with data like this. We discovered that only some of our results turned out to be statistically significant whereas for example the statement, that stylometric perform better than topic-based features, could not be fortified. Therefore our opinion is that research findings on small data sets should be scrutinized especially carefully for example by using statistical tests. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
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        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2631","17","Studying Linguistic Changes on 200 Years of Newspapers","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Newspaper archives as a linguistic corpus</head>
                <p>This research investigates methods to study linguistic evolution using a corpus of scanned newspapers. We use a corpus of 4 million press articles covering about 200 years of archives, thus documenting indirectly the evolution of written language. The corpus is made out of digitized facsimiles of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Le Journal de Genève</hi> (1826–1997) and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">La Gazette de Lausanne</hi> (1804–1997). For each journal, the daily scanned issues were algorithmically transcribed using an OCR system. The whole archive represents more than 20 TB of scanned data and contains about two billion words, putting it beyond the capabilities of most usual analysis techniques for regular desktop computers.
                </p>
                <p>The corpus can be easily divided into subsets corresponding to the year of publication. However, the number of pages and their content fluctuates greatly depending on the year, ranging from 280’000 in the early 19th century to about 18 million in the later years of the 20th century. Figure 1 shows the relative size of each subset in terms of number of words for 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Le Journal de Genève</hi> (JDG) and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">La Gazette de Lausanne</hi> (GDL).
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""338/image1.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <p><head>Figure 1: corpus size versus years for GDL (top) and JDG (bottom).</head></p>
                </figure>
                <p>Considering the lack of data for 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Le Journal de Genève</hi> for the years 1837, 1917, 1918 and 1919, we left those out in all further graphs and analytics. In addition, some years had to be removed because the scanning quality was too poor (1834, 1835, 1859 and 1860 for JDG and 1808 for GDL).
                </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.zhx7scploktg"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Lexical kernels: Definition and basic measures</head>
                <p>A straightforward approach to the problem consists in computing a textual distance between subsets of the corpora. One could, for instance, easily compute the so-called Jaccard distance (Jaccard 1901, Jaccard 1912) between two consecutive vocabularies. In the same way, other distances could also be tried, such as those given by Kullback and Leibler (1951), Kullback (1987), Chi-squared distance (Sakoda, 1981), and Cosine similarity (Singhal, 2001).</p>
                <p>
                    <anchor xml:id=""h.jcb96tq89fen""/>However, the uneven distribution of the corpus subsets (Figure 1) causes methodological difficulties for interpreting these distances. An increase in the lexicon size causes an indirect increase in the linguistic drift as measured by the Jaccard formula (Sternitzke and Bergmann, 2009). Under such conditions, it is difficult to untangle the effects of the unevenness of the distribution of subsets of the corpus from the actual appearance and disappearance of words.
                </p>
                <p>These difficulties of interpretation motivate the exploration of another, possibly sounder approach to the same problem. Let us define a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">lexical kernel </hi>
                    <formula>
                        <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>K</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>x</mi>
                                    <mo>,</mo>
                                    <mi>y</mi>
                                    <mo>,</mo>
                                    <mi>C</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                        </mml:math>
                    </formula> as the sequential subset of unique words common to a given period starting in year 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">x</hi> and finishing in year 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">y</hi> of a corpus 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">C</hi>. 
                    <formula>
                        <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>K</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mn>1804,1998</mn>
                                    <mo>,</mo>
                                    <mi>G</mi>
                                    <mi>D</mi>
                                    <mi>L</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                        </mml:math>
                    </formula> is, for instance, the subset of all words present in the yearly corpus of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">La Gazette de Lausanne</hi>. It contains 5242 unique words that have been used for about 200 years. The kernel 
                    <formula>
                        <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>K</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mn>1826,1998</mn>
                                    <mo>,</mo>
                                    <mi>J</mi>
                                    <mi>D</mi>
                                    <mi>G</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                        </mml:math>
                    </formula> contains 7486 unique words, covering a period of about 170 years. As the covered period is smaller, the kernel is naturally larger.
                </p>
                <p>The exact contents of both 
                    <formula>
                        <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>K</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mn>1804,1998</mn>
                                    <mo>,</mo>
                                    <mi>G</mi>
                                    <mi>D</mi>
                                    <mi>L</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                        </mml:math>
                    </formula> and 
                    <formula>
                        <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>K</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mn>1826,1998</mn>
                                    <mo>,</mo>
                                    <mi>J</mi>
                                    <mi>D</mi>
                                    <mi>G</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                        </mml:math>
                    </formula> are provided in the appendix. It is interesting to note that 4465 words are in common between the two kernels. 
                </p>
                <p>Figure 2 shows the statistical distribution of word-typologies for both kernels.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""338/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <p>Figure 2: Distribution in terms of typologies of words contained in the kernel of 
                    <formula>
                        <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>K</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mn>1798,1998</mn>
                                    <mo>,</mo>
                                    <mi>G</mi>
                                    <mi>D</mi>
                                    <mi>L</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                        </mml:math>
                    </formula> (left) and 
                    <formula>
                        <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>K</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mn>1826,1998</mn>
                                    <mo>,</mo>
                                    <mi>J</mi>
                                    <mi>D</mi>
                                    <mi>G</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                        </mml:math>
                    </formula>(right).
                </p>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.38fcxw8k9qt5"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Word resilience</head>
                <p>Extending the notion of a kernel, it is rather easy to study the resilience of a given word. Let 
                    <formula>
                        <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>R</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>d</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                        </mml:math>
                    </formula> be the union of all words contained in a kernel corresponding to a duration of 
                    <formula>
                        <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">y</mi>
                            <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">-</mo>
                            <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">x</mi>
                            <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML""> </mi>
                            <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">≥</mo>
                            <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML""> </mi>
                            <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">d</mi>
                        </mml:math>
                    </formula> years. For instance, 
                    <formula>
                        <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>R</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mn>100</mn>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                        </mml:math>
                    </formula> contains all the words that maintain themselves in the corpus for at least 100 years. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">R</hi> subsets are organized as concentric sets: 
                    <formula>
                        <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>R</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mn>1</mn>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                            <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">⊂</mo>
                            <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>R</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mn>2</mn>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                            <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">⊂</mo>
                            <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">.</mo>
                            <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">.</mo>
                            <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">.</mo>
                            <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">⊂</mo>
                            <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>R</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>i</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                            <mo xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">⊂</mo>
                            <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>R</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>i</mi>
                                    <mo>+</mo>
                                    <mn>1</mn>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                        </mml:math>
                    </formula>
                </p>
                <p>The relative proportion of each subset sheds light on both the stability and dynamics of language change. Figure 3 shows the distribution of word resilience for both journals.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""338/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <p>Figure 3: Size of 
                    <formula>
                        <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>R</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>d</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                        </mml:math>
                    </formula> versus the number of maintained years 
                    <formula>
                        <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <mi xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">d</mi>
                        </mml:math>
                    </formula> (logarithmic scale) showing the word resilience distribution for JDG (green) and GDL (blue).
                </p>
                </figure>
                <p>The GDL resilience curve is normalized (on the same years range as JDG) in order to make the two curves comparable. This representation of 
                    <formula>
                        <mml:math xmlns:mml=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                            <msub xmlns=""http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"">
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>R</mi>
                                </mrow>
                                <mrow>
                                    <mi>d</mi>
                                </mrow>
                            </msub>
                        </mml:math>
                    </formula> shows a similar global word resilience trend for both JDG and GDL. However, we notice that the two curves intersect when considering the longest durations.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.ylv5i2p19w1x"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Discussion</head>
                <p>Large databases of scanned newspapers open new avenues for studying linguistic evolution. However, these studies should be conducted with sound methodologies in order to avoid misinterpretation of artifacts. Common pitfalls include misinterpreting results linked to the size variation of the subsets or overgeneralizing results obtained on one particular newspaper corpus to general linguistic evolution.</p>
                <p>In this paper, we have introduced the notion of a kernel as a possible approach to study linguistic changes under the lens of linguistic stability. Focusing on stable words and their relative distribution is likely to make interpretations more robust.</p>
                <p>Results were computed on two independent corpora. It is striking to see that most of the results obtained are extremely similar for both. The kernels composition in terms of grammatical word typologies is very similar. Results in terms of word resilience are also similar. This suggests that our methods are indeed measuring general linguistic phenomena beyond the specificity of the corpora chosen for this study. However, this still needs to be confirmed with subsequent studies involving other corpora, such as non-journalistic texts and texts in other languages.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Appendix 1 – Kernel over 200 years of <hi rend=""italic"">La Gazette de Lausanne</hi></head>
                <p>0, 00, 000, 01, 1, 10, 100, 1000, 101, 104, 11, 110, 111, 12, 120, 1200, 13, 130, 14, 15, 150, 1500, 16, 160, 17, 18, 180, 19, 2, 20, 200, 2000, 21, 22, 23, 24, 240, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 3, 30, 300, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 4, 40, 400, 4000, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 5, 50, 500, 5000, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 6, 60, 600, 6000, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 7, 70, 700, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 8, 80, 800, 8000, 81, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 9, 90, 900, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, a, à, â, aa, ab, abandonnant, abandonné, abandonnée, abandonner, abandonnés, abbaye, abbé, abolition, abondamment, abondance, abondante, abondantes, abonnement, abonnés, abord, abri, absence, absolue, absolument, abus, ac, académie, académique, accéder, accélérer, acceptation, accepte, accepté, acceptée, accepter, accès, accident, acclamations, accompagne, accompagné, accompagnée, accompagnées, accompagnent, accompagner, accompagnés, accomplis, accord, accorde, accordé, accordée, accordées, accordent, accorder, accordera, accordés, accourus, accoutumée, accrédité, accueil, accueilli, accueillie, accuse, accusé, acharnement, achat, achats, acheté, acheter, acheteurs, achevé, achevée, achever, acier, acquéreur, acquis, acquisition, acquitté, acquittement, acquitter, acte, actes, actif, action, actionnaires, actions, active, actives, activité, actuel, actuelle, actuellement, actuelles, actuels, ad, adhéré, adhérer, adjoint, adjudant, admet, admettre, administration, administrations, admiration, admirer, admis, adolphe, adopté, adoptée, adoptées, adopter, adoptés, adresse, adressé, adressée, adressées, adresser, ae, affaire, affaires, affection, affiche, affiché, affranchir, affreuse, affreux, afin, afrique, âge, âgé, âgée, agent, âgés, agi, agir, agit, agitation, agité, agréable, agréablement, agréables, agrément, agriculture, ah, ai, aide, aider, aides, aie, aient, aigle, aii, ail, aile, ailes, ailleurs, aime, aimé, aimée, aiment, ain, aine, aîné, ainsi, air, aire, ait, aix, ajournée, ajoutant, ajoute, ajouté, ajoutent, ajouter, al, àl, alarmant, albert, alex, alexandre, alexandrie, ali, alla, allant, allé, allée, allemagne, allemand, allemande, allemandes, allemands, aller, alliance, allié, alliée, alliées, alliés, allons, alors, alpes, am, amateur, amateurs, ambassadeur, ambition, ame, amélioration, amende, amené, amener, amenés, américain, américains, amérique, âmes, ami, amiable, amicale, amicales, amie, amiral, amis, amitié, amnistie, amour, ample, amples, amsterdam, an, analogue, anarchie, ancien, ancienne, anciennes, anciens, ancre, andré, anéanti, anéantir, anglais, anglaises, angleterre, animaux, anime, animé, animée, animées, animés, anne, année, années, annonça, annonçant, annonce, annoncé, annoncée, annoncées, annoncent, annoncer, annuel, annuelle, annuellement, ans, ant, antérieure, anti, antique, antiques, antoine, août, ap, apparence, apparences, apparition, appartement, appartenant, appartenir, appartiennent, appartient, appel, appelé, appeler, appelés, appelle, appenzell, applicable, application, applique, appliquée, appliquer, apporte, apporté, apportée, apportées, apporter, apprend, apprendra, apprendre, apprennent, apprenons, appris, apprit, approbation, approche, approcher, approuvé, approvisionnement, appui, appuyé, appuyée, appuyer, après, ar, arbitraire, arbres, arc, archevêque, archives, ardent, ardeur, argent, argenterie, argovie, arithmétique, arme, armé, armée, armées, armement, armer, armes, armés, arracher, arrachés, arrangement, arrestation, arrêt, arrêta, arrête, arrêté, arrêtée, arrêtées, arrêter, arrêtés, arrière, arriva, arrivant, arrive, arrivé, arrivée, arrivées, arrivent, arriver, arrivera, arrivèrent, arrivés, arrondissement, arsenal, art, article, articles, artillerie, artiste, arts, as, assassins, assaut, assemblée, assez, assisté, assurance, assurances, assure, assuré, assurer, at, attaché, attachée, attachées, attachement, attachés, attaque, 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aveugle, avez, aviez, avions, avis, avise, avocat, avocats, avoine, avoir, avons, avoue, avoué, avril, ayant, ayez, ayons, b, ba, bade, baden, bagages, baie, bail, bains, baisse, bal, balance, bâle, balle, balles, banc, bancs, bande, bandes, banque, banquier, banquiers, bar, barbarie, barbe, baron, barre, bas, bat, bataille, bataillon, bataillons, bâte, bateau, bateaux, bâti, bâtie, bâtiment, bâtir, batterie, batteries, battre, battu, battus, bavière, be, beau, beaucoup, beauté, beaux, bel, belle, belles, bénédiction, bénéfice, bénéfices, benjamin, berger, berlin, bernard, berne, berthoud, besoin, bétail, bex, bi, bibliothèque, bien, bienfaits, biens, bientôt, bienveillance, bière, bill, billet, billets, bis, blanc, blanche, blanches, blancs, ble, blé, blés, blessé, blessés, blessures, bleu, bloc, blocus, bœufs, bois, boite, bon, bonheur, bonne, bonnes, bonnet, bons, bonté, bord, bordeaux, bords, borne, borné, borner, bornes, bouche, boucher, boucherie, bouches, boulanger, bourg, 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irlande, is, isle, issue, it, italie, italien, italienne, italiens, iu, iv, ix, j, ja, jacob, jadis, jamais, jambes, james, janvier, jaques, jardin, jardinier, jardins, jaune, jaunes, je, jean, jes, jeta, jeté, jeter, jette, jeu, jeudi, jeune, jeûne, jeunes, jeux, ji, jj, jl, jn, jo, joie, joindre, joint, jointe, joints, joli, jolie, jonction, joseph, joué, jouer, joui, jouir, jouiront, jouissance, jouit, jour, journal, journaux, journée, journées, journellement, jours, joux, jt, ju, judiciaire, judiciaires, juge, jugé, jugée, jugement, juger, jugera, juges, jugés, juillet, juin, jura, juré, juridique, jus, jusqu, juste, justes, justice, k, l, la, là, lac, lacs, lai, laine, laissa, laissant, laisse, laissé, lait, lancé, langage, langue, langues, laquelle, large, largeur, larmes, las, latin, lau, laurent, lausanne, lavaux, le, lé, leçons, lecteurs, lecture, légal, légale, légalement, légales, léger, légère, légèrement, légères, légers, légion, législatif, législation, légitime, légitimes, léman, lendemain, lent, lequel, ler, les, lés, lès, lesquelles, lesquels, lettre, lettres, leur, leurs, levant, lève, levé, levée, levées, lever, levés, li, lia, libérales, liberté, libraire, libraires, libre, librement, libres, lie, lié, lien, liens, lient, lier, lies, lieu, lieues, lieutenant, lieux, ligne, lignes, ligue, limite, limites, lin, linge, lion, lions, liquidation, lire, lis, lisbonne, liste, lit, litres, lits, littéraire, littérature, livre, livré, livrée, livrer, livres, livrés, lj, ll, lle, lo, local, locale, locle, loge, logé, logement, loger, logis, loi, loin, lois, lon, londres, long, longs, longue, longues, longueur, lord, lords, lors, lorsqu, lorsque, lot, loterie, louer, louis, loyal, loyauté, lr, ls, lt, lu, lucens, lucerne, lue, lues, lui, luimême, lumière, lumières, lundi, lune, lus, lut, lutry, lutte, lyon, m, ma, maçon, madame, madrid, magasin, magasins, magistrat, magistrats, magnifique, magnifiques, mai, main, mains, maintenant, maintenir, maintenu, maintien, maintient, maire, mais, maison, maisons, maître, maîtres, majeure, major, majorité, majors, mal, malade, malades, maladie, maladies, mâle, malgré, malheur, malheureuse, malheureusement, malheureux, malheurs, malle, malte, maltraité, manche, mande, manger, manière, manières, manifeste, manifesté, manœuvres, manque, manqué, manquent, manquer, manteau, manuel, manufacture, manufactures, mar, marais, marbre, marc, marchand, marchande, marchandise, marchandises, marchands, marche, marché, marcher, marches, marchés, mardi, maréchal, mari, mariage, mariages, marie, marié, marin, marine, marins, maritime, maritimes, marque, marqué, marquée, marques, marquis, mars, marseille, martin, mas, masse, mat, matelots, matériaux, mathématiques, matières, matin, matinée, mauvais, mauvaise, maux, mayor, me, mé, mécontentement, médecin, médecine, médecins, médiation, méditerranée, meilleur, meilleure, meilleures, meilleurs, mêle, membre, membres, même, mêmes, mémoire, mémoires, mémorable, menace, menacé, menacée, menacent, menacer, menacés, ménage, ment, mention, mépris, mer, mercier, mercredi, mère, mères, méridionale, mérite, mérité, méritent, mériter, mes, messieurs, mesure, mesures, met, méthode, métier, mettant, mettent, mettra, mettre, meubles, meurtre, mexique, meyer, mi, michel, midi, mie, mieux, mil, milan, milice, milices, milieu, militaire, militaires, mille, milles, millier, milliers, million, millions, mine, mines, mineurs, ministère, ministre, ministres, minorité, minuit, minute, minutes, mis, mise, misérable, misérables, misère, mises, mission, mit, ml, mlle, mm, mme, mo, mobilier, mode, modèle, modérés, moderne, modernes, modifications, modique, mœurs, moi, moindre, moindres, moins, mois, moitié, moment, momentanément, mon, monarchie, monarque, monde, moniteur, mont, monta, montagne, montagnes, montant, monte, monté, montée, montent, monter, montés, montra, montre, montré, montrent, montrer, montreux, monument, moral, morale, moralité, morat, morceaux, morges, mort, morte, mortes, morts, mot, motif, motifs, motion, mots, mou, moudon, moulin, moulins, mourir, mouvement, moyen, moyennant, moyenne, moyens, mr, mu, muller, multitude, muni, munich, municipal, municipalité, municipalités, munis, munitions, mur, muret, murs, mus, musique, n, na, naître, nant, naples, napoléon, nation, national, nationale, nationales, nationaux, nations, naturalisation, nature, naturel, naturelle, naturellement, naturels, navales, navigation, navire, navires, ne, né, néanmoins, nécessaire, nécessairement, nécessaires, née, négligé, négligence, négociant, négociation, négociations, négocier, neige, nes, nés, net, neu, neuchatel, neuf, neufs, neutralité, neutre, neuve, neveu, new, ni, niais, nice, nicolas, nie, nier, niveau, nn, no, noble, nobles, noblesse, noël, noir, noire, noires, nom, nombre, nombreuse, nombreuses, nombreux, nomination, nomme, nommé, nommée, nommer, nommes, nommés, noms, non, nonce, nord, nos, notaire, notaires, notamment, note, notes, notice, notification, notifié, notre, nôtre, nou, nourrir, nourriture, nous, nouveau, nouveautés, nouveaux, nouvel, nouvelle, nouvellement, nouvelles, novembre, ns, nt, nu, nue, nuit, nuits, nul, nulle, nullement, nullité, numéro, numéros, nus, nyon, o, ô, oa, ob, obéir, obéissance, objet, objets, obligation, obligations, oblige, obligé, obligée, obliger, obligés, obscurité, observation, observations, observe, observer, obstacles, obtenir, obtenu, obtenus, obtiendra, oc, occasion, occasionnés, occasions, occident, occidentale, occupant, occupation, occupations, occupe, occupé, occupée, occupées, occupent, occuper, occupera, occuperont, occupés, océan, octobre, œil, œuvre, œuvres, offert, offerte, offerts, office, offices, officiel, officielle, officiellement, officielles, officiels, officier, officiers, offrant, offre, offrent, offres, offrir, oh, oi, oit, olivier, ollon, ombre, on, oncle, ons, ont, onze, oo, op, opéra, opération, opérations, opère, opéré, opérée, opérer, opiniâtre, opinion, opinions, opposer, opposition, or, orage, orateur, orateurs, orbe, ordinaire, ordinairement, ordinaires, ordonnance, ordonnances, ordonne, ordonné, ordonnées, ordonner, ordre, ordres, oreilles, organe, organisation, organise, organisée, organiser, organisés, orgueil, orient, orientale, orientales, originaire, origine, orléans, orné, oron, orphelins, os, ot, ou, où, oublié, oublier, ouest, oui, our, ouragan, ours, ous, outils, outrages, outre, ouvert, ouverte, ouvertement, ouvertes, ouverts, ouverture, ouvertures, ouvrage, ouvrages, ouvre, ouvrier, ouvriers, ouvrir, ouvrira, p, pa, pacifique, pacifiques, page, pages, paille, pain, pair, paire, paisibles, paix, palais, palud, pape, papier, papiers, paquebot, pâques, paquet, par, parade, parages, parait, paraît, paraître, parc, parce, parcourent, parcourir, parcouru, pardon, pareil, pareille, pareillement, pareilles, pareils, parent, parfait, parfaite, parfaitement, paris, parla, parlant, parle, parlé, parlement, parlementaire, parlent, parler, parles, parmi, paroisses, parole, paroles, part, partage, partagé, partager, partant, partent, parterre, parti, participer, particulier, particulière, particulièrement, particulières, particuliers, partie, parties, partir, partira, partiront, partis, partisans, partit, partout, parts, paru, parut, parvenir, parvenu, parvenue, parvenues, parvenus, parvint, pas, passa, passage, passagers, passe, passé, passée, passer, passera, passés, passions, pasteur, pasteurs, pat, patente, paternel, patience, patrie, patriotisme, patrouilles, paul, pauvre, pauvres, pavillon, payables, payant, paye, payé, payée, payées, payer, payerne, payés, pays, paysans, pe, peau, peine, peines, pénal, pendant, pénétré, pénétrer, pénible, pénibles, pense, penser, pension, pensionnaires, pensions, per, perception, perd, perdit, perdre, perdu, perdue, perdus, père, pères, perfection, perfectionner, perfides, péri, périodique, périr, permanente, permet, permettent, permettra, permettre, permettront, permis, permission, permit, perpétuelle, perpétuer, perpétuité, persévérance, personne, personnel, personnelle, personnellement, personnels, personnes, persuadés, perte, pertes, pesant, peste, pétersbourg, petit, petite, petites, pétition, pétitions, petits, peu, peuple, peuples, peur, peut, peuvent, philippe, pi, pie, pièce, pièces, pied, pieds, piémont, pierre, pierres, pillage, pins, piquet, pire, pis, pittet, place, placé, placée, placées, placer, places, placés, plaine, plaint, plainte, plaintes, plaisir, plan, planches, plans, plantes, plate, plein, pleine, pleinement, pleines, pleins, plomb, plu, pluies, plupart, plus, plusieurs, plutôt, po, poche, poids, poil, point, pointe, points, poitrine, police, politique, politiques, pologne, pommes, pompe, pont, ponts, populaire, population, por, port, porta, portant, porte, porté, portée, portées, portent, porter, portera, porteront, portes, portés, porteur, porteurs, portion, portrait, ports, portugais, portugal, poses, position, positions, positivement, posséder, possession, possessions, possible, poste, postérité, postes, pot, pots, pou, pouces, poudre, pouf, pour, pourquoi, pourra, pourraient, pourrait, pourront, poursuite, poursuivi, poursuivis, poursuivre, pourtant, pourvoir, pourvu, pourvue, pourvus, pousser, pouvant, pouvoir, pouvoirs, pouvons, pr, prairies, pratique, pratiqué, pre, pré, préalable, préalablement, préavis, précaution, précautions, précédé, précédée, précédemment, précédent, précédente, précédentes, précieuse, précieux, précipita, précipitation, précipité, précis, prédit, préfecture, préférence, préfet, préfets, préjudice, préliminaires, premier, première, premières, premiers, prenant, prend, prendra, prendre, prendront, prenne, prennent, préparatifs, prépare, préparé, préparent, préparer, préparés, prés, près, présent, présenta, présentation, présente, présenté, présentées, présentent, présenter, présentera, présenteront, présentes, préside, présidé, présidence, président, presqu, presque, prêt, prête, prêté, prétend, prétendant, prétendent, prétendre, prétendu, prétendue, prétention, prétentions, prêter, prêtes, prétexte, prêtres, prêts, preuve, preuves, prévenir, prévenu, prévenus, prévient, prévoir, prévu, prie, prié, priée, priées, prier, prière, prières, priés, prince, princes, princesse, principal, principale, principalement, principales, principauté, principaux, principe, principes, prirent, pris, prise, prises, prison, prisonnier, prisonniers, prisons, prit, privé, privée, privés, privilèges, prix, pro, probabilité, probable, probablement, procède, procédé, procéder, procédera, procédés, procédure, procès, prochain, prochaine, prochains, proche, proclamation, proclamations, procuré, procurer, procureur, prodigieuse, production, productions, produira, produire, produit, produits, profession, profit, profité, profiter, profond, profonde, profondément, profondes, progrès, proie, projet, projets, prolongation, prolongé, prolongée, prolonger, promenade, promet, promettent, promettre, promis, prompt, prompte, promptement, prononcé, prononcée, prononcer, proportion, propos, propose, proposé, proposer, proposés, proposition, propositions, propre, proprement, propres, propriétaire, propriétaires, propriété, propriétés, prospérité, protection, protège, protéger, prouve, prouvé, prouvent, prouver, provenant, provence, providence, province, provinces, provisions, provisoire, provisoirement, proximité, prudence, prudent, prusse, pu, public, publication, publications, publicité, publics, publie, publié, publiée, publiées, publient, publier, publiés, publique, publiquement, publiques, puis, puisqu, puisque, puissance, puissances, puissante, puisse, puissent, puni, punir, punis, punition, pur, pure, purement, purent, pureté, put, pût, pyrénées, q, qn, qu, qua, quais, qualité, qualités, quand, quant, quantité, quarante, quart, quartier, quartiers, quarts, quatorze, quatre, quatrième, que, quel, quelconque, quelconques, quelle, quelles, quelqu, quelque, quelquefois, quelques, quels, querelle, ques, question, questions, queue, qui, quiconque, quinzaine, quinze, quitta, quittant, quitte, quitté, quittent, quitter, quoi, quoiqu, quoique, r, ra, rabais, race, rade, rage, rai, raison, raisons, ramené, ramener, rang, rangs, rap, rapide, rapidement, rapides, rapidité, rappel, rappelé, rappeler, rappelle, rapport, rapporte, rapporté, rapportent, rapporter, rapports, rapprocher, rare, rares, rassembler, ratification, ratifié, ration, ravages, rayon, re, ré, rebelles, récemment, récente, récentes, réception, recette, recettes, recevoir, recevons, recevra, recevront, recherche, rechercher, recherches, réciproque, réciproquement, réciproques, récit, réclamation, réclamations, réclame, réclamer, reçoit, reçoivent, récolte, récoltes, recommande, recommandé, recommander, recommencé, recommencer, reconnu, reconnue, reconnus, reconnut, recourir, recours, recrues, recrutement, recteur, reçu, reçue, recueil, recueillir, reçues, reçurent, reçus, reçut, rédacteur, rédaction, rédigé, rédiger, redoutable, redoute, réduction, réduire, réduit, réduite, réduites, réduits, réelle, réellement, réforme, réfugié, réfugiés, refus, refusa, refuser, regarde, regardé, regardent, regarder, regards, régence, régent, régime, régiment, règle, réglé, réglées, règlement, régler, règles, règne, régné, régnent, régner, regret, regrets, regrette, regretter, régulière, régulièrement, régulières, reine, réitérées, rejeté, rejeter, rejette, rejoindre, relâche, relatif, relatifs, relation, relations, relative, relativement, relatives, relevé, relever, religieuse, religieux, religion, remarquable, remarquables, remarque, remarqué, remarquer, remboursement, remettra, remettre, remis, remise, remises, remit, remonter, remparts, remplace, remplacé, remplacée, remplacement, remplacer, remplacés, rempli, remplie, remplies, remplir, remplis, remplit, remporté, ren, rencontra, rencontre, rencontré, rencontrer, rend, rendant, rendent, rendez, rendirent, rendit, rendra, rendre, rendront, rendu, rendue, rendues, rendus, renfermant, renferme, renferment, renforcer, renforts, renommée, renonce, renoncé, renoncer, renonciation, renouveler, renouvelle, renouvellement, renouvellent, rent, rente, rentes, rentré, rentrée, rentrer, rentrés, renverser, renvoi, renvoyé, renvoyée, renvoyées, renvoyer, renvoyés, répand, répandent, répandre, répandu, répandue, répandues, répandus, réparation, réparations, réparer, reparti, répartition, repentir, répétées, répétition, répond, répondant, répondit, répondre, répondu, réponse, repos, repoussé, reprendre, représailles, représentations, représenter, repris, reprise, reprises, république, réputation, requis, réquisition, res, réserve, résidence, résistance, résister, résolu, résolution, respectable, respecter, respectifs, ressort, ressources, reste, resté, restée, rester, restera, restes, restés, restitution, résultat, résultats, résulté, résulter, rétabli, rétablie, rétablies, rétablir, retard, retardé, retarder, retenir, retenu, retenus, retira, retire, retiré, retirée, retirées, retirent, retirer, retirés, retour, retourner, retraite, retrouver, réuni, réunie, réunies, réunion, réunir, réunira, réuniront, réunis, réunit, réussi, réussir, revenant, revenir, revenu, revenue, revenus, revers, revêtu, reviendra, reviennent, revient, revint, revoir, révolte, révolution, révoqué, revue, reymond, rez, rf, rhin, rhodes, rhône, ri, riche, riches, richesse, ridicule, rie, rien, rigoureuse, rigueur, ris, rit, rivage, rive, rives, rivière, rivières, ro, roc, rochat, roche, roi, rois, rôle, rolle, romain, romaine, romains, rome, romont, rompre, rompu, ront, rouages, roues, rouge, rougemont, rouges, route, routes, roux, royal, royale, royales, royaume, royaux, rr, rs, ru, rue, rues, ruine, ruines, rupture, russe, russes, russie, s, sa, sabre, sac, sacrifices, sacs, sages, sagesse, saint, sainte, saisi, saisit, saison, sait, salle, samedi, samuel, san, sanction, sang, sanglante, sans, santé, satisfaction, satisfaisante, saura, sauvé, sauver, savant, savent, savoie, savoir, savons, saxe, scènes, se, séance, sec, second, seconde, seconder, secourir, secours, secousses, secret, secrétaire, secrétaires, secrets, section, sécurité, seigneur, sein, seine, seize, séjour, sel, selon, semaine, semaines, semblable, semble, semblent, sénat, sensation, sensible, sent, senti, sentier, sentiment, sentir, séparément, séparés, sept, septembre, séquestre, sera, serait, serez, sérieusement, serment, seront, servant, servi, service, services, servie, servir, servira, ses, session, seul, seule, seulement, seuls, sévère, sévérité, sexe, si, sicile, siècle, siècles, siège, sienne, signal, signalé, signature, signe, signé, signée, signes, signés, simple, simplon, sinon, sir, sire, situation, situé, située, six, sixième, so, société, sœur, soi, soient, soigner, soins, soir, soirée, soit, soixante, sol, soldat, soldats, soleil, solennelle, soleure, solide, sollicitude, sommation, somme, sommé, sommes, son, sons, sont, sophie, sort, sorte, sortes, sortie, sortir, sou, souffert, souffrir, soumettre, soumis, soumises, sous, souscrit, soustraire, soutenir, soutenu, soutenue, soutien, soutiennent, souvenir, souvent, souverain, souveraineté, souverains, soyez, spécial, spéciale, spécialement, spectacle, spéculations, ss, st, ste, strasbourg, su, subir, subitement, substance, succès, successeur, successivement, sucre, sud, suède, suffi, suffire, suffisante, suffisantes, suffit, sui, suis, suisse, suisses, suit, suite, suites, suivant, suivante, suivantes, suivent, suivie, suivit, suivra, suivront, sujet, sujets, superbe, superbes, supérieur, supérieures, supérieurs, supériorité, supplément, suppose, supposer, suprême, sur, sûr, sûreté, surplus, surpris, surtout, surveillance, surveiller, sus, suspendre, suspendu, suspension, sut, système, t, ta, tabac, table, tableau, tableaux, tables, tache, taches, taille, taire, tait, talent, tandis, tant, tante, tantôt, tard, tarda, tardera, tarderont, tas, tat, taux, taxe, te, té, tel, telle, tellement, telles, tels, témoignage, témoignages, témoigné, témoigner, témoin, témoins, tempête, temple, temps, tenant, tend, tendant, tendent, tendre, teneur, tenir, tentative, tentatives, tente, tenté, tenter, tenu, tenue, tenues, tenus, ter, terme, termes, termina, termine, terminé, terminée, terminées, terminer, terminés, terrain, terre, terres, terrible, territoire, tes, tés, tète, tête, têtes, texte, th, thé, théâtre, théologie, thomas, thurgovie, ti, tiendra, tienne, tiennent, tiens, tient, tiers, timbre, tin, tint, tion, tions, tir, tira, tirage, tire, tiré, tirée, tirées, tirer, tirés, titre, titres, tl, tle, tn, to, toi, toile, toit, toits, tomba, tombe, tombé, tombeau, tombée, tombées, tomber, tombés, ton, tons, torrent, tort, tôt, total, totale, totalement, totalité, tou, touchant, touchante, touche, touché, touchent, toucher, toujours, toulon, tour, tourne, tournée, tourner, tournure, tours, tous, tout, toute, toutefois, toutes, tr, tracé, tracer, traces, traduction, traduit, traduits, trahison, train, trait, traite, traité, traitée, traitement, traiter, traités, traits, trajet, tranquille, tranquillement, tranquilles, tranquillité, transmettre, transmis, transport, transporté, transportée, transporter, transports, travail, travaille, travaillé, travaillent, travailler, travaux, travers, traverse, traversent, tre, treize, tremblement, trentaine, trente, tres, très, tribu, tribunal, tribunaux, tribune, tribut, trieste, triomphe, triple, triste, tristes, trois, troisième, trompé, tromper, trône, trop, trou, trouble, troublé, troublée, troubler, troubles, troupe, troupeau, troupes, trouva, trouvaient, trouvant, trouve, trouvé, trouvée, trouvées, trouvent, trouver, trouvera, trouveront, trouvés, ts, tt, tte, tu, tue, tué, tuer, tués, tuileries, tumulte, turc, turcs, turin, turquie, tuteur, u, ù, û, ue, uh, ui, ultérieur, ultérieure, ultérieurement, ultérieures, ultérieurs, un, unanime, unanimement, unanimes, unanimité, une, unes, uni, unie, uniforme, union, unique, uniquement, unis, unité, univers, uns, ur, uri, urs, us, usage, use, ut, utile, utilement, utiles, utilité, uu, ux, v, va, vacante, vache, vaches, vain, vaincre, vainement, vainqueur, vainqueurs, vains, vais, vaisseau, vaisseaux, val, valais, valence, valet, valeur, valeurs, vallée, valoir, van, varsovie, vaste, vastes, vaud, vaudois, vaut, vaux, ve, vé, veau, vécu, veille, veiller, venant, vend, vendre, vendredi, vendu, vendus, vénérable, vengeance, venir, venons, vent, vente, ventes, ventre, venu, venue, venues, venus, ver, verbal, verger, vergers, véritable, véritables, vérité, verra, verrez, vers, vert, vertu, vertus, vétérinaire, veuille, veulent, veut, veuve, veux, vevey, vi, viande, vice, vices, vicomte, victime, victimes, victoire, victoires, victor, vie, vieillard, vieille, vieilles, viendra, viendront, vienne, viennent, viens, vient, vieux, vif, vifs, vigilance, vigne, vigneron, vignes, vigoureuse, vigueur, vii, vil, village, villages, villars, ville, villeneuve, villes, vin, vincent, vingt, vingtaine, vins, vint, violation, violé, violence, violent, violente, violer, vis, vit, vite, vivacité, vivant, vive, vivement, vivent, vives, vivre, vivres, vo, vocation, vœu, vœux, voici, voie, voies, voilà, voile, voir, voire, vois, voisin, voisinage, voisines, voisins, voit, voiture, voitures, voix, vol, volé, volontaire, volontairement, volontaires, volonté, volontés, vols, volume, von, vont, vos, vote, voté, votre, vôtre, vou, voudra, voudraient, voudrait, voudront, voulant, voulez, vouloir, voulons, voulu, voulut, vous, voyage, voyages, voyageur, voyageurs, voyant, voyez, voyons, vrai, vraie, vraiment, vrais, vraisemblable, vraisemblablement, vraisemblance, vu, vue, vues, vus, w, wurtemberg, x, xv, y, yeux, yverdon, z, zèle, zurich.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Appendix 2 - Kernel over 170 years of <hi rend=""italic"">Le Journal de Genève</hi></head>
                <p>0, 00, 000, 1, 10, 100, 1000, 108, 11, 110, 12, 120, 128, 13, 14, 15, 16, 160, 17, 175, 1789, 1792, 1798, 18, 180, 1800, 181, 1814, 1815, 1816, 1817, 1818, 1819, 1820, 1821, 1822, 1824, 1825, 1827, 1828, 19, 2, 20, 200, 2000, 21, 218, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 280, 29, 3, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 4, 40, 400, 4000, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 5, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 6, 60, 600, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 7, 70, 700, 71, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 8, 80, 800, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 88, 89, 9, 90, 91, 96, 98, 99, a, à, â, aa, ab, abandon, abandonnant, abandonne, abandonné, abandonnée, abandonnent, abandonner, abattre, abattu, abbé, abolir, abolition, abondance, abondante, abondent, abonnement, abonnés, abord, aborder, abri, absence, absent, absolu, absolue, absolument, abstenir, abstenus, absurde, abus, abusé, ac, académie, académies, académique, accéder, accélérer, accepte, accepté, accepter, accès, accessible, accessoires, accident, accompagnant, accompagne, accompagné, accompagnée, accompagnées, accompagnement, accompagnent, accompagner, accompagnés, accompli, accomplie, accomplir, accomplis, accomplissement, accord, accorde, accordé, accordée, accordées, accordent, accorder, accordera, accordés, accroissement, accroît, accroître, accueil, accueilli, accueillie, accueillies, accueillir, accueillis, accusation, accusations, accuse, accusé, accusée, accuser, achat, achats, achète, acheté, acheter, achetés, achevé, achevée, achèvement, achever, acier, acquérir, acquiert, acquis, acquise, acquisition, acquitter, acte, actes, acteur, acteurs, actif, actifs, action, actionnaires, actions, active, activement, activité, actuel, actuelle, actuellement, actuelles, actuels, ad, adam, additionnel, adhérer, adhésion, adieux, adjoint, adjoints, adjudant, adjugé, admet, admettant, admettons, admettre, administrateur, administrateurs, administratif, administration, administrations, administrative, administratives, administrer, administrés, admirable, admirablement, admirables, admiration, admirer, admis, admise, admises, admission, adolphe, adoptant, adopte, adopté, adoptée, adoptées, adopter, adoptés, adoption, adoucir, adressa, adressait, adressant, adresse, adressé, adressée, adressées, adressent, adresser, adressera, adressés, adroitement, adversaire, adversaires, ae, affaiblir, affaire, affaires, affecté, affection, affiche, affiché, affiches, affirme, affirmer, affluence, affranchir, affreuse, affreux, afin, afrique, âge, âgé, agent, agi, agir, agira, agissait, agissant, agit, agitation, agite, agitée, agitent, agonie, agréable, agréablement, agréables, agréer, agrément, agricole, agricoles, agriculteurs, agriculture, ah, ai, aide, aidé, aider, aie, aient, aigle, aigreur, aii, ail, aile, aille, ailleurs, aimable, aime, aimé, aimée, aiment, aimer, aimons, ain, aine, aîné, ainsi, air, aire, airs, aisance, aise, aisé, aisément, ait, aj, ajourné, ajournée, ajournement, ajourner, ajouta, ajoutait, ajoute, ajouté, ajoutent, ajouter, ajouterai, ajoutons, al, alarme, albert, alexandre, alexandrie, alfred, ali, aliénés, allaient, allait, allant, allé, allée, allemagne, allemand, allemande, allemands, aller, allèrent, allez, alliance, allié, allier, alliés, allons, allure, alors, alpes, altérer, alternativement, amas, amateur, amateurs, ambassadeur, ambassadeurs, ambitieux, ambition, âme, amélioration, améliorations, améliorée, améliorer, amende, amendé, amendement, amendes, amène, amené, amener, amenés, américains, amérique, amertume, âmes, ami, amicales, amie, amies, amiral, amis, amitié, amour, amoureux, amplement, amusant, an, analogie, analogue, analogues, analyse, ancêtres, ancien, ancienne, anciennement, anciennes, anciens, ancre, andré, anéantir, anecdote, anecdotes, anglais, anglaise, anglaises, angleterre, angoisses, animait, animal, animaux, anime, animé, animée, animées, animer, animés, annales, anne, année, années, anniversaire, annonça, annonçaient, annonçait, annonçant, annonce, annoncé, annoncée, annoncent, annoncer, annonces, annuel, annuelle, annuellement, annuelles, ans, ant, anti, antique, antiques, antiquité, antoine, ao, août, apercevoir, aperçoit, aperçu, aperçus, aplomb, appareil, apparence, apparente, apparition, appartement, appartenait, appartenant, appartenir, appartiennent, appartient, appel, appelait, appelant, appelé, appelée, appelées, appeler, appelés, appelle, appellent, appellera, appelons, appenzell, applaudi, applaudir, applaudis, applaudit, applicable, applicables, application, applique, appliqué, appliquée, appliquées, appliquent, appliquer, apporte, apporté, apportée, apportées, apportent, apporter, apportés, apprécie, apprécié, appréciée, apprécier, appréciés, apprenant, apprend, apprendra, apprendre, apprennent, apprenons, appris, apprit, approbation, approche, approché, approcher, approfondie, approuve, approuvé, approuvée, approuver, appui, appuie, appuient, appuyé, appuyée, appuyées, appuyer, après, ar, arbitraire, arbitrairement, arbitraires, arbitre, arbre, arbres, arc, archevêque, architecture, archives, ardent, ardeur, arène, argent, argovie, argument, aristocratie, arithmétique, arme, armé, armée, armées, armes, armés, arracher, arrangement, arranger, arrestation, arrêt, arrête, arrêté, arrêtée, arrêtées, arrêter, arrêtés, arrêts, arrière, arriva, arrivait, arrivant, arrive, arrivé, arrivée, arrivées, arrivent, arriver, arrivera, arrivèrent, arriveront, arrivés, arsenal, art, article, articles, artillerie, artisans, artiste, artistes, arts, arve, as, asie, asile, aspect, aspire, assassinat, assaut, assemblé, assemblée, assemblées, assemblés, assentiment, asseoir, assertion, assertions, assez, assigner, assis, assises, assistaient, assistait, assistance, assisté, assister, association, associations, associer, associés, assurance, assurances, assurant, assure, assuré, assurée, assurément, assurent, assurer, assurés, at, atelier, ateliers, athènes, atmosphère, attache, attaché, attachée, attachées, attachement, attachent, attacher, attachés, attaque, attaqué, attaquée, attaquer, attaques, attaqués, atteignent, atteindre, atteint, atteinte, atteintes, atteints, attend, attendaient, attendait, attendant, attendent, attendons, attendra, attendre, attends, attendu, attentat, attente, attentif, attention, attentions, atténuer, atteste, attestent, attire, attiré, attirer, attitude, attrait, attribue, attribuée, attribuer, attributions, au, auberge, aubert, aucun, aucune, audace, audacieux, audience, auditeur, auditeurs, auditoire, augmentant, augmentation, augmente, augmenté, augmentée, augmenter, augure, auguste, augustin, aujourd, auparavant, auprès, auquel, aura, auraient, aurais, aurait, aurez, aurions, aurons, auront, aurore, auspices, aussi, aussitôt, autant, autel, auteur, auteurs, authenticité, authentique, automne, autorisation, autorise, autorisé, autorisée, autoriser, autorisés, autorité, autorités, autour, autre, autrefois, autrement, autres, autriche, autrichien, autrichiens, autrui, aux, auxquelles, auxquels, av, avaient, avais, avait, avance, avancé, avancée, avancées, avancement, avancer, avances, avancés, avant, avantage, avantages, avantageuse, avantageusement, avantageuses, avantageux, avec, avenir, aventure, avertir, avertis, avertissement, aveu, aveugle, aveuglément, avez, avide, avions, avis, aviser, avocat, avocats, avoir, avons, avoue, avoué, avouer, avouons, avril, ayant, ayez, ayons, b, ba, bade, bail, bains, baisser, bal, balance, bâle, balle, balles, banc, bancs, bande, bandes, banlieue, bannière, bannières, banque, banquet, banquier, banquiers, baptême, barbare, barbares, barbarie, barbe, barbier, baron, barque, barques, barreau, barrière, barrières, bas, base, basée, bases, basse, basses, bassin, bat, bataille, bataillon, bataillons, bateau, bateaux, bâtiment, bâtir, bâton, bâtons, batterie, batteries, battre, battu, battus, bavière, be, beau, beaucoup, beaumont, beauté, beautés, beaux, bel, belle, belles, bénéfice, bénéfices, bénir, bénit, berceau, bergues, berlin, bernard, berne, bernois, bertrand, besançon, besogne, besoin, besoins, bétail, bêtes, bibliothèque, bien, bienfaisance, bienfait, bienfaits, biens, bientôt, bienveillance, bienveillant, bienveillante, bijouterie, bijoux, bile, billet, billets, bis, bizarre, blâme, blâmer, blanc, blanche, blé, blés, blesse, blessé, blesser, blessés, blessure, blessures, boire, bois, boissier, boîte, bon, bonheur, bonne, bonnes, bonnet, bons, bonté, bord, bordeaux, bords, borne, borné, bornée, borner, bornes, bornés, botanique, bouche, bouches, boue, bouquet, bourg, bourgeois, bourgeoisie, bourreau, bourse, bourses, bout, boutique, boutiques, branche, branches, bras, brave, braver, braves, bravoure, bre, bref, bretagne, brillant, brillante, briller, brisé, briser, britannique, brochure, brochures, bronze, bruit, bruits, brûle, brûlé, brûler, brun, brusque, brusquement, bruxelles, bt, bu, bulletin, bulletins, bureau, bureaux, but, butte, c, ç, ca, cabaret, cabinet, cabinets, cache, caché, cacher, cachés, cachet, cadavre, cadre, café, cafés, cahier, caisse, caisses, calcul, calculé, calculer, calculs, calme, calmer, calomnie, calomnies, calvin, camarade, camarades, camp, campagne, campagnes, canal, canaux, candidat, candidats, candolle, canon, canons, canton, cantonal, cantonale, cantonales, cantonaux, cantons, capable, capables, capacité, capitaine, capitaines, capital, capitale, capitales, capitaux, caprice, car, carabine, carabiniers, caractère, caractères, carouge, carré, carrée, carrés, carrière, carte, cartes, cas, casernes, casimir, casino, cassation, cassé, catalogue, catastrophe, catégorie, catégories, cathédrale, catherine, catholique, catholiques, cause, causé, causée, causer, causes, causés, cavalerie, cavaliers, caves, cc, ce, ceci, cédant, cède, cédé, céder, cela, célèbre, célébré, célébrée, célèbres, célébrité, célérité, céleste, celle, celles, celte, celui, cendres, censure, cent, centaine, centimes, central, centrale, centre, cents, cependant, cercle, cercles, cérémonie, cérémonies, certain, certaine, certainement, certaines, certains, certes, certificat, certitude, cerveau, ces, césar, cessation, cesse, cessé, cesser, cessera, cesseront, cet, cette, ceux, ch, chacun, chacune, chagrin, chaîne, chaînes, chair, chaire, chaires, chaise, chaises, chaleur, chambéry, chambre, chambres, champ, champêtres, champs, chance, chancelier, chancellerie, chances, change, changé, changeant, changement, changent, changer, changera, chansons, chant, chantant, chante, chanté, chanter, chanteurs, chants, chapeau, chapelle, chapitre, chapitres, chaque, char, charbon, charge, chargé, chargée, chargées, chargent, charger, charges, chargés, charité, charles, charmant, charmante, charme, charmé, charmes, chars, charte, chasse, chassé, chasseurs, château, châtiment, chaud, chaude, chaussée, chaux, che, chef, chefs, chemin, chemins, chêne, cher, cherchait, cherchant, cherche, cherché, cherchent, chercher, chercherait, chère, chèrement, chers, cheval, chevalier, chevaliers, chevaux, cheveux, chez, chien, chiffres, chimie, chirurgien, chœur, chœurs, choisi, choisie, choisir, choisis, choix, chose, choses, chrétien, chrétienne, chrétiennes, chrétiens, christ, christianisme, christine, chronique, chute, ci, ciel, cimetière, cinq, cinquante, cinquième, circonstance, circonstances, circulaire, circulation, circule, circulent, circuler, cire, citadelle, citations, cite, cité, citer, citerons, cités, citoyen, citoyens, civil, civile, civiles, civilisation, civilisé, civils, cl, clair, claire, clairement, clameurs, clans, clarté, classe, classes, classique, classiques, claude, clause, clauses, clé, clémence, clément, clergé, climat, cloches, clos, close, clôture, cm, co, code, codes, cœur, cœurs, coin, coire, col, colère, collecte, collection, collège, collèges, collègue, collègues, colline, colonel, colonels, colonne, colonnes, com, combat, combats, combattent, combattre, combattu, combattue, combien, combinaison, comble, combler, comédie, comique, comité, comités, commandait, commandant, commande, commandé, commandée, commandement, commander, commandés, comme, commença, commençant, commence, commencé, commencée, commencées, commencement, commencent, commencer, commencera, commenceront, comment, commentaires, commerce, commerciale, commerciales, commettre, commis, commise, commises, commissaire, commissaires, commission, commissions, commode, commun, communaux, commune, communes, communication, communications, communion, communique, communiqué, communiquées, communiquer, communs, comp, compacte, compagnie, compagnies, compagnons, comparaison, comparant, comparativement, compare, comparer, compatriote, compatriotes, compensation, compétente, complaisance, complément, complet, complète, complété, complètement, compléter, complot, composaient, composait, composant, compose, composé, composée, composées, composent, composer, composés, compositeur, composition, compositions, comprenant, comprend, comprendra, comprendre, comprendront, comprends, comprennent, comprenons, compris, comprise, comprises, compromettre, compromis, comptait, comptant, compte, compté, comptent, compter, comptes, comptons, comte, comté, comtesse, con, concentrer, conception, concernant, concerne, concernent, concert, concession, concessions, concevoir, concilier, concitoyens, conclu, conclure, conclusion, conclusions, conclut, conçoit, concordat, concorde, concourir, concours, conçu, conçue, concurrence, condamnation, condamne, condamné, condamnée, condamner, condamnés, condition, conditions, conducteur, conduire, conduisait, conduisant, conduit, conduite, conduites, conduits, confection, confectionner, confédération, confédéré, confédérés, conférence, conférences, conférer, confiance, confie, confié, confiée, confier, confiés, confirmation, confirme, confirmé, confirmée, confirmer, confiscation, conflit, confondre, conforme, conformément, conformer, conformes, confrères, confusion, congé, congrès, conjointement, connais, connaissait, connaissance, connaissances, connaissant, connaisse, connaissent, connaissons, connaît, connaître, connu, connue, connues, connus, conquêtes, consacrant, consacre, consacré, consacrée, consacrées, consacrer, consacrés, conscience, consciencieusement, consciencieux, consécutives, conseil, conseiller, conseillers, conseils, consent, consentement, consenti, consentir, conséquence, conséquences, conséquent, conservant, conservateur, conservation, conservatoire, conserve, conservé, conservent, conserver, considérable, considérablement, considérables, considérant, considération, considérations, considère, considéré, considérée, considérées, considérer, considérés, consistant, consiste, consistent, consistoire, consolation, consoler, consolider, consommation, consommé, conspiration, constamment, constance, constant, constantinople, constaté, constater, consternation, constitue, constitué, constituent, constituer, constitués, constitution, constitutionnel, constitutionnelle, constitutionnelles, constitutionnels, constitutions, construction, constructions, construire, construit, consul, consuls, consulté, consulter, contact, contemporains, contenait, contenant, contenir, content, contente, contenté, contenter, contenu, contenue, contenues, contestations, contestée, contester, contiennent, contient, continent, contingent, continua, continuait, continuation, continue, continué, continuelle, continuellement, continuent, continuer, continuera, continueront, contracter, contradiction, contradictoires, contraindre, contraint, contrainte, contraints, contraire, contraires, contraste, contrat, contre, contredit, contrée, contrées, contribuables, contribue, contribué, contribuer, contribution, contributions, contrôle, convaincre, convaincu, convaincue, convaincus, convenable, convenablement, convenables, convenait, convenance, convenances, convenir, convention, convenu, conversation, conversations, convertir, conviction, conviendrait, conviennent, convient, convoi, convoqué, convoquer, coopération, coopérer, copie, coppet, cor, corde, cordon, cordonnier, cornavin, corporations, corps, corraterie, correction, correctionnel, correctionnelle, correspondance, correspondances, correspondant, corriger, cortège, costume, costumes, côte, coté, côté, côtes, côtés, cou, couche, couché, coucher, coule, couler, couleur, couleurs, coulouvrenière, coup, coupable, coupables, coupe, coupé, couper, coups, cour, courage, courait, courant, courante, courent, courir, couronne, couronné, couronnes, couronnés, courrier, cours, course, court, courte, courts, couru, coutance, coûte, coûté, couteau, coûteux, coutume, coutumes, couvent, couvert, couverte, couvertes, couverts, couvertures, couvre, couvrent, couvrir, craignait, craignant, craignent, craignons, craindre, crains, craint, crainte, craintes, créances, création, crédit, crée, créé, créée, créer, cri, crie, crier, crime, crimes, criminel, criminelle, criminelles, criminels, cris, crise, critique, critiqué, critiquer, critiques, croient, croira, croirait, croire, crois, croissant, croissante, croit, croix, croyait, croyance, croyances, croyant, croyez, croyons, cru, cruel, cruelle, crus, crut, cs, ct, cuisine, cuivre, culte, culture, curé, curés, curieuses, curieux, curiosité, d, da, daigné, dame, dames, dan, danger, dangereuse, dangereuses, dangereux, dangers, daniel, dans, danse, date, datée, dater, davantage, david, dc, de, dé, débarquement, débarrasser, débat, débats, débattue, débit, débouchés, debout, débris, début, débuts, décadence, décédé, décembre, décès, décharge, décida, décide, décidé, décidée, décidément, décider, décisif, décision, décisions, décisive, déclara, déclaration, déclare, déclaré, déclarée, déclarent, déclarer, décourager, découvert, découverte, découvertes, découvre, découvrir, décret, décrété, décréter, dédaigner, dedans, dédommagement, déduction, défaire, défaite, défaut, défauts, défavorable, défend, défendent, défendre, défendu, défendue, défendus, défense, défenseur, défenseurs, défiance, déficit, défier, définitif, définitive, définitivement, défunt, dégagé, degré, degrés, dehors, dei, déjà, del, delà, délai, délibération, délibérations, délibéré, délibérer, délicat, délicate, délicates, délicatesse, délicats, délicieuse, délicieux, délit, délits, délivré, délivrer, demain, demanda, demandaient, demandait, demandant, demande, demandé, demandée, demandent, demander, demandera, demandes, demandés, demandons, démarche, démarches, démenti, demeurant, demeure, demeuré, demeurent, demeurer, demi, demie, démission, démissionnaire, démocratiques, demoiselle, demoiselles, démonstration, démontre, démontré, démontrer, deniers, denis, dénouement, denrées, dents, dénué, départ, département, dépasse, dépassé, dépasser, dépend, dépendait, dépendance, dépendances, dépens, dépense, dépenser, dépenses, dépit, déplacée, déplaisir, déploie, déplorable, déplorables, déplorer, déployé, déposé, déposée, déposées, déposer, déposés, dépositaire, dépôt, dépôts, dépouille, depuis, députation, député, députés, der, dernier, dernière, dernièrement, dernières, derniers, derrière, des, dés, dès, désagréable, désastre, désastreux, descendre, descendu, description, désespoir, désignation, désigné, désignées, désigner, désignés, désintéressé, désintéressement, désir, désirable, désiraient, désirait, désirant, désire, désiré, désirée, désirent, désirer, désireraient, désirerait, désirons, désirs, désordre, désordres, désormais, desquelles, desquels, dessein, dessin, dessins, dessous, dessus, destination, destine, destiné, destinée, destinées, destinés, destruction, détachement, détail, détaillé, détaillée, détails, détention, détenus, détermination, déterminé, déterminée, déterminer, déterminés, détour, détresse, détriment, détruire, détruit, détruite, dette, deuil, deux, deuxième, devaient, devait, devanciers, devant, développe, développé, développée, développées, développement, développer, devenait, devenir, devenu, devenue, devenus, deviendra, deviendrait, devienne, deviennent, devient, deviner, devint, devions, devise, devoir, devoirs, devons, dévoué, dévouement, dévoués, devra, devraient, devrait, devront, di, diable, diamètre, dicte, dicté, dictée, die, diète, dieu, diffère, différemment, différence, différences, différent, différente, différentes, difficile, difficilement, difficiles, difficulté, difficultés, digne, dignement, dignes, dignité, digues, diligence, dimanche, dimensions, diminue, diminué, diminuer, diminution, dîner, diocèse, diplomatie, diplomatique, diplomatiques, dira, dirait, dire, direct, directe, directement, directes, directeur, directeurs, direction, directions, directs, dirige, dirigé, dirigea, dirigeant, dirigée, dirigées, dirigent, diriger, dirigés, dirons, dis, disait, disant, discipline, discorde, discours, discrétion, discussion, discussions, discute, discuté, discutée, discuter, dise, disent, disons, disparaissent, disparaît, disparaître, disparu, dispenser, dispersés, dispose, disposé, disposée, disposer, disposés, disposition, dispositions, dispute, dissimuler, dissiper, distance, distinction, distinctions, distincts, distingue, distingué, distinguée, distinguent, distinguer, distingués, distraire, distribue, distribué, distribuer, distribués, distribution, district, districts, dit, dite, dites, dits, divers, diverses, diversité, divin, divine, divisé, divisée, diviser, divisés, division, divisions, dix, dixième, dn, do, docteur, docteurs, doctrine, doctrines, doigts, dois, doit, doive, doivent, domaine, domaines, domestique, domestiques, domicile, dominante, domination, domine, dominent, dominer, dommage, dommages, don, donc, donna, donnaient, donnait, donnant, donne, donné, donnée, données, donnent, donner, donnera, donneraient, donnerait, donnerons, donneront, donnés, donnez, donnons, dons, dont, dorénavant, dos, dose, dotation, douane, douanes, double, doublé, doubles, douce, doucement, douces, douceur, doué, 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reçoit, reçoivent, récoltes, recommandation, recommande, recommandé, recommandent, recommander, recommandons, récompense, reconnaissance, reconnaissant, reconnaissent, reconnaissons, reconnaît, reconnaîtra, reconnaître, reconnu, reconnue, reconnues, reconnus, reconnut, reconstruction, recourir, recours, recouvre, recouvrer, recrues, recruter, recteur, rectification, reçu, reçue, recueil, recueilli, recueillir, recueillis, reçues, reçus, reçut, rédacteur, rédacteurs, rédaction, rédigé, rédigée, rédiger, redoute, redoutent, redouter, réduction, réduire, réduit, réduite, réduits, réel, réélection, réelle, réellement, réelles, réels, réélu, réélus, réfléchi, réfléchir, réfléchit, réflexion, réflexions, réformation, réforme, ré</p>
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","xml","2","",""
"2632","17","Testing the Doctrine of Election: A Computational Approach to Karl Barth's Church Dogmatics","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Karl Barth's 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Church Dogmatics</hi> (Barth, 1969-80) is widely considered to be one of the most influential works of Christian theology since the Reformation, and within it Barth's doctrine of election is considered a decisive contribution to modern theology (Webster, 2004: 1, 88, 93; von Balthasar, 1992: 174). Briefly, the doctrine of election, as a theological topic, describes the manner of God’s salvific work, particularly how God determines those who will be saved. Barth’s genius was to inscribe election within the relationship of the Father and the Son, Jesus of Nazareth, so that God is both the electing God and the elected human, and the humanity of Jesus is elected even while the divinity of Jesus is condemned. Over the past two decades, theologians have engaged in a rich questioning of the significance of Barth's doctrine of election for his own theology. His elaboration of the doctrine occurs in the document sections, traditionally referred to as paragraphs,
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p> Barth’s 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Church Dogmatics</hi> are broken down into volumes, part-volumes, paragraphs, and sections. Paragraphs are the primary organizing unit, though, and each constitutes a coherent thematic whole. 
                    </p>
                </note> numbered 32 through 35 (of a total of 73 plus a fragment), with paragraph 33 being the primary location for Barth's innovative reworking of the doctrine of election. Some scholars, such as Bruce McCormack (McCormack, 2000, 2010) and Paul Jones (Jones, 2011), contest that election is a turning point in Barth's theology, decisively shaping the remainder of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Dogmatics</hi> to the point that some formulations after election are incompatible with formulations made prior to the doctrine of election, particularly within the context of Barth’s Trinitarian ontology. Others, such as George Hunsinger (Hunsinger, 2000, 2008) and Paul Molnar (Molnar, 2002, 2006), argue that while the doctrine of election is the heart of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Dogmatics</hi>, it is a part of a consistent and coherent whole, and does not mark an incompatibility between what comes before and after. 
            </p>
            <p>This paper engages the question of the significance of the doctrine of election, as elaborated in paragraphs 32 through 35, to the whole of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Church Dogmatics</hi> through algorithmic approaches. It suggests that if a portion of a corpora strongly determines the rest of the corpora after its appearance, there will be textual traces, such as changes in word frequencies and common semantic groupings, that can be detected through computational analysis. It approaches the corpora, consisting of the entire 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Church Dogmatics</hi>, including prefaces and forewords written by Barth as well as his unfinished fragments that have been published as the final volume of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Dogmatics</hi>, though a variety of analytic techniques. 
            </p>
            <p>
                The initial explorations are conducted through topic modeling in order to discover hidden thematic structure in texts (Blei, 2012). Using Mallet, we first run topic models on different collections of paragraphs, from 15 to 30 topics, to discern the thematic structure of the entire corpora, noting especially those topics that seem definitively about the doctrine of election. Given the hypothesis that the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Dogmatics</hi> from paragraph 36 on is determined by the theme of election in a way that the paragraphs leading up to paragraph 32 are not, we break the corpus into paragraphs 1 through 31, 32 through 35, and 36 through 73 plus the fragment that Barth was writing before his death. We then run topic models with the number of topics ranging from 15 to 30, looking for the presence of topics indicating the doctrine of election. We also run similar models for the entire corpus minus paragraphs 32 through 35 in order to see whether election would appear as a theme in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Dogmatics</hi> without the presence of the paragraphs explicitly committed to explicating the doctrine. Examining the results, we find that election fails to surface as a topic at most levels of granularity when paragraphs 32 through 35 are not included. We find that at all levels of granularity in which the topics are meaningful and coherent, election does not appear as a topic in the corpus consisting of paragraphs 36 through 73, plus the fragment, and we offer an interpretation for why this is the case based on the rhetorical strategy that Barth employs throughout his lengthy work.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p> In his text, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Barth</hi>, Webster notes that Barth’s, ‘preferred method of exposition, especially in the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Church Dogmatics</hi>, is frustrating for readers looking to follow a linear thread of argument. Commentators often note the musical structure of Barth’s major writings: the announcement of a theme, and its further extension in a long series of developments and recapitulations, through which the reader is invited to consider the theme from a number of different angles and in a number of different relations” (13). Barth frequently circles around his topics, returning again and again to various doctrines through different paragraphs, in each case attempting to approach in such a way as to show something new. 
                    </p>
                </note>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""328/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
                <head>Fig. 1: Graph of topic distributions across the Church Dogmatics. Each column is one paragraph</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Our topic models not only provide data for interpretation, but also supply a vocabulary for focusing further computational analysis. Based on words we determined to be distinctive to the theme of election, we examine overall frequency of key terms across the whole corpora, tracking the rise and fall of language specific to election. We also use term frequency-inverse document frequency (tf-idf) to examine which terms are particularly characteristic of individual paragraphs, paying attention to words typically associated with election (Kilgarriff, 2001; Garside, 2000). In a similar vein to that of our topic models, we determine mean tf-idf values for all features (words) in the broken down corpus, consisting of the same three chunks as determined above, at the levels of unigrams, bigrams, and ngrams (n=1-3). Looking especially at the bigram and ngram results, we do see shifts in the importance of some features that fit the hypothesis that Barth’s doctrine of election determines the rest of his work. If the proponents of this thesis are correct, there should be an increase in reference to Jesus Christ due to a stronger Christological shift, and a greater sense of the humanity of Jesus due to the election-based eternal identification of the Son, the second Person of the Trinity, with the historical human Jesus of Nazareth. We do see a rise in the importance of ‘jesus’ in the unigram set, and in the ngram set see the bigram ‘jesus christ’ appear in the election and after election corpora. In the bigram set, we see ‘elected man’ appear in the election set, which in Barth’s paragraph 33 references Jesus, and interestingly find “man jesus” as the fifth most characteristic bigram of the after election corpora. In relation to the text, we interpret this as an indication of the increased importance of the humanity of Christ in the election and after election corpora. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                 <graphic url=""328/image2.png"" rend=""block""/>
                 <head>Fig. 2: Top 15 tf-idf weights at unigram level</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""328/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 3: Top 15 tf-idf weights at bigram level</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""328/image4.png"" rend=""block""/>
                <head>Fig. 4: Top 15 tf-idf weights at ngram(n=1-3) level</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Based on these results, we explore two conclusions. While our analysis of frequencies and tf-idf values does seem to support the hypothesis that Barth’s doctrine of election is a determining point in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Dogmatics</hi>, the connection between high value features and a substantial conceptual shift is difficult to determine, especially when the conceptual shift regards that ontology underlying theological developments in many doctrinal loci. Our topic models likewise were inconclusive in identifying shifts in the corpus that could be attributed to the paragraphs on election. We suggest that Barth's style of writing, which notoriously circles around and repetitively approaches topics from different angles, though with a traditional theological vocabulary, proves resistant to current algorithmic approaches in textual analysis.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Balthasar, H. U. von.</hi> (1992). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Theology of Karl Barth: Exposition and Interpretation</hi>. Trans. Edward T. Oakes. San Francisco: Ignatius.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Barth, K. </hi>(1969-80). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Church Dogmatics</hi>, 13 part volumes. Ed. G.W. Bromiley and T.F. Torrance. Edinburgh: T and T Clark.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. M</hi>. (2012). Probabilistic Topic Models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communications of the ACM</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">55</hi>(4): 77-84.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hunsinger, G. </hi>(2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Disruptive Grace: Studies in the Theology of Karl Barth. </hi>Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hunsinger, G. </hi>(2008). Election and the Trinity: Twenty-Five Theses on the Theology of Karl Barth. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Modern Theology</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>(2): 179-98.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jones, P. D. </hi>(2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Humanity of Christ: Christology in Karl Barth's Church Dogmatics.</hi> London: T and T Clark.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jüngel, E. </hi>(2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">God's Being is in Becoming: The Trinitarian Being of God in the Theology of Karl Barth. A Paraphrase.</hi> Trans. John Webster. Edinburg: T and T Clark.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kilgarriff, A.</hi> (2001). Comparing Corpora. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Corpus Linguistics</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(1): 97-113.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCormack, B. </hi>(2010). Election and the Trinity: Theses in response to George Hunsinger. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scottish Journal of Theology</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">63</hi>(2): 203-24.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCormack, B. </hi>(2000). Grace and Being: The Role of God's Gracious Election in Karl Barth's Theological Ontology. In John Webster (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth.</hi> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 92-110.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCormack, B. </hi>(1995). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Karl Barth's Critically Realistic Dialectical Theology. Its Genesis and Development, 1909-1936.</hi> Oxford: Clarendon Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Molnar, P. D. </hi>(2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Divine Freedom and the Doctrine of the Immanent Trinity: In Dialogue with Karl Barth and Contemporary Theology.</hi> London: T and T Clark.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Molnar, P. D.</hi> (2006). The Trinity, Election, and God's Ontological Freedom: A Response to Kevin W. Hector. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Systematic Theology</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(3): 294-306.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Oakes, M. P. </hi>(1998). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Statistics for Corpus Linguistics</hi>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rayson, P. and Garside</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">R.</hi> (2000). Comparing Corpora using Frequency Profiling. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Workshop on Comparing Corpora</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>: 1-6.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Webster, J.</hi> (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Barth</hi>. London: Continuum.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2633","17","Textual Communities","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This poster presents the public version of the Textual Communities scholarly editing environment, describing its underlying principles, its innovative structure, and its functionality. It updates the presentation of Textual Communities given as a poster at DH 2013 in Lincoln, Nebraska.</p>
            <p>Study of literary works that exist in many different forms is one of the most important and difficult tasks in the humanities. The number of forms a work may have —eighty-four fifteenth-century manuscripts and printed texts of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, more than eight hundred manuscripts of Dante’s Commedia, and five thousand manuscripts of the Greek New Testament — is both testimony to their significance and a challenge to scholars. In order to understand these texts and how they relate, we have to discover as much as we can of how they came to be written and disseminated. Only then can we seek to establish how they might best be read and prepare texts (in the form of scholarly editions) for scholars to use. The work of building archives of primary materials for this work is daunting and prohibitive in the old lone scholar method. Many large editing projects have opted for a team approach, exploring the possibilities of crowd-sourcing for processing large amounts of textual data. The challenge is to coordinate this work in a way that produces high-quality, useful results. The Textual Communities workspace enables every aspect of the scholarly process: defining, transcribing, and linking textual materials for a digital archive or edition; collating the witnesses and adjusting the collation for optimal scholarly use; analyzing the results of the collation to create an understanding of the relations among the manuscripts; and for marshaling and managing a community of participants with an array of community building tools. </p>
            <p>There are many editorial tools under development and a few that are already functional. There are two defining features that make Textual Communities different from the rest: its integrated participant and document management systems, and its mapping of fundamental document-entity structure. These features correspond to two underlying principles: that the work of amassing large corpora of textual materials is best accomplished by a well-managed community of interested participants from within, but also potentially from outside the academy; and that for the resulting materials to be useful, their relationships must be clearly articulated. </p>
            <p> As its name suggests, Textual Communities is designed for gathering and organizing multiple participants around a common editorial project. It supports a wide range of relational structures, from a carefully crafted team to ad hoc community built on crowd-sourcing. Crucially, it enables definition of roles in the project with varying degrees of access to project materials and of authority to do the work of processing these materials, and oversight over other participants. It is also built on an ontology of text, document and communicative act to identify and relate the produced transcriptions (“texts”), the exemplars they derived from (“documents,” usually in the form of a digital image of a particular witness), and the intellectual construct they instantiate (the communicative act or “work”, or our preferred term, “entity”). Thus anyone interested in John Donne’s poem “The Good Morrow” will find various “texts” (transcriptions) of this work as found in the extant “documents” (the poem as it is found in each of the manuscripts and printed books that contain it). </p>
            <p>Textual Communities itself enables uploading of digital images of primary and linkage of these images with a transcription space. The user supplies information for each document, which defines the text that is to be transcribed and its relationship to the source document and entity. The user also defines the structure of the document, which is rendered behind the visible transcription in TEI conformant XML. The transcription area, which is automatically linked to the source image, can also support any XML markup that is desired or required for intelligent transcription of the source document. The collation area (based on CollateX) offers full regularization and editing facilities, to enable creation of optimal collations for scholarly use.</p>
            <p>This open-source tool is available free of charge for use and adaptation by anyone anywhere. Development of this tool is funded by a generous grant from the Canadian Foundation for Innovation with the support of the Digital Research Centre at the University of Saskatchewan. </p>
            <p>This poster will be accompanied by a live demonstration of the editorial workspace.</p>
            <p>Figure 1: opening screen of Textual Communities</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""545/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 2: transcription interface</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""545/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2634","17","The attribution of the Lazarillo de Tormes. Shedding some light into a centuries old problem","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-242fbfcc-196f-a706-cb34-180868c0ee56""/>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Summit work of the Spanish Golden Age and forefather of the so called picaresque novel, The Life of Lazarillo de Tormes and of His Fortunes and Adversities (henceforth: the Lazarillo still remains an anonymous text (Rico, 2011). The 400 years of attributions have left us an enormous, nearly intractable, amount of bibliography that must be reviewed and studied. Paradoxically, scholars, instead of shying away from this mystery, are still adding new proposals to the pool of candidate authors, although some of them use modern and less explored methods (mostly computational) that were not available a decade ago.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Chronologically, the Hieronymite Friar José de Sigüenza was the first to propose a possible author: Friar Juan de Ortega. Father Sigüenza’s Historia de la Orden de San Jerónimo gathers his finding of a manuscript of the Lazarillo in the cell of Juan de Ortega. Although a draft was indeed found in the Friar’s cell, the circulation of handwritten copies was a common practice during the Spanish Golden Age (Botrel and Salaün, 1974). The claim that Father Ortega was the author is hard to sustain as the draft does not seem to be enough proof. Diego Hurtado de Mendoza was proposed a couple of years later, in 1607. His candidacy as the author of the Lazarillo was proposed by Valerio Andrés Taxandro. Over the years other scholars contributed to the diffusion of Mendoza being the author, and the attribution proved to be extremely popular. For almost three centuries book catalogues all over Europe recorded Hurtado de Mendoza as the author of theLazarillo. In 2010 Mercedes Agulló provided documentary proof to support the authorship, although some dispute the validity of such evidence (Agulló y Cobo, 2011). Other humanists were also proposed. The reformist Juan de Valdés was defended by Morel-Fatio and Manuel J. Asensio, but in view of the lack of solid evidence, this candidacy was abandoned in favor of his brother Alfonso. Rosa Navarro Durán supported Alfonso de Valdés, as she found connections between the works that influenced both Valdés’ work and the Lazarillo. The lack of direct comparisons has been strongly criticized.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">In the last decade, a couple of names have taken center stage. Juan Luis Vives was proposed and devotedly defended by Francisco Calero. Following the same precepts as for Alfonso de Valdés’ candidacy, the fact that all Vives’ known works were written in Latin makes the attribution lose some credibility. In 2008, after abandoning the authorship of Francisco Cervantes de Salazar, José Luis Madrigal proposed Juan Arce de Otálora. Using existing corpora such as Google Books and CORDE, Madrigal employed basic computational analysis based on the counting of words in order to find correlations between the style of authors in the corpora and the style of the author of the Lazarillo.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Computational approaches to authorship attribution are usually not considered to be enough proof to state the final truth in the disputed authorship of an anonymous text. However, the use of modern authorship attribution techniques might help to reduce the pool of candidates and contribute with evidence to support a specific possible author. After building the pool of candidates, we collected each candidate’s available texts. Half of them lacked modern editions, which we solved building and using our own crowdsourcing OCR reviewing tool. The corpus we created counts a total of 50 works in a 90 year period surrounding the publication of the first known edition of the Lazarillo in 1554. All the major candidates for the authorship of this book were included, as well as some authors who had not been considered previously to add robustness to our analysis. The rules we followed for regularizing the spelling of old Spanish were borrowed from Ocasar’s system (Ocasar, 2014). Features from the text were then extracted following the winners of several editions of the authorship attribution competition known as PAN at CLEF, which establishes the state-of-the-art in attribution techniques (Stamatatos et al., 2015). The final set of features were composed by several distributions: functions words, the 300 most common words (BOW), the 3000 most common character 3-grams (CNG), punctuation signs, the 30 most common parts of speech; tf-idf for a maximum of 1000 word bi- and tri-grams, and for a maximum of 1000 character {2,4}-grams; and average sentence length, sentence length variation, and sentence lexical diversity. A combined feature vector with all the abovementioned features was also included.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Once the texts were in digital format, we explored the dataset through distance-based methods, such as Burrows’ Delta and its variations (Burrows, 2003), which outperformed any other. For compression-based methods we applied Cilibrasi and Vitanyi’s NCD with BZIP2, RAR and PPM (Cilibrasi and Vitanyi, 2005). We tested PCA and Linear Discriminant Analysis with different settings for number of chunks per work, components and features (Burrows and Hassall, 2002). Our final approach was comprised of three steps: first we used unsupervised learning to reduce the pool of candidates. Then, applying supervised learning, we ranked the possible authors. Finally, only six of these candidates were fed into an ensemble algorithm for “unmasking” the most likely author. As for unsupervised learning techniques, we obtained that Ridge, Bernoulli, multinomial, and nearest centroid had the best performance for our total feature vector, BOW, and CNG. In supervised learning the best results were provided by SVM and maximum entropy models, for the same feature sets. This allowed us to reduce the pool of candidates for the unmasking method proposed by Moshe Koppel and Jonathan Schler since it is a computationally expensive method (Koppel and Schler, 2004). The results were consistent for all methods and in line to what we first obtained applying Burrows’ Delta. We found that the most likely author seems to be Juan Arce de Otálora, closely followed by Alfonso de Valdés. Unfortunately, although supporting previous hypotheses about the authorship of the Lazarillo and providing with evidence in the case of Valdés, the method also stated that no certain attribution could be made with the given corpus.</hi>
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Agulló y Cobo, M.</hi>
                        (2011). A vueltas con el autor del Lazarillo. Un par de vueltas más <hi rend=""italic"">. Lemir: Revista De Literatura Española Medieval Y Del Renacimiento, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">15</hi>: 217-34.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Anónimo</hi> (2011).
                        Lazarillo de Tormes.
                        In F. Rico (ed.) <hi rend=""italic"">Madrid: Real Academia Española-Galaxia Gutenberg-Círculo de Lectores </hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Asensio, M. J.</hi> (1959). La intención religiosa del Lazarillo de Tormes y Juan de Valdés. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Hispanic Review</hi>, pp. 78-102, ISSN 0018-2176.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Botrel, J. and Salaün, S.</hi> (1974). <hi rend=""italic"">Creación y público en la literatura española. </hi> Editorial Castalia.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (2003). Questions of Authorship: Attribution and Beyond.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computers and the Humanities</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>(1): 5.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J. F. and Hassall, A. J.</hi> (1988). Anna Boleyn and the authenticity of Fielding's feminine narratives.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Eighteenth Century Studies</hi>, pp. 427-53.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cilibrasi, R. and Vitanyi, P.</hi> (2005). Clustering by compression. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Information Theory, IEEE Transactions On</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">51</hi>(4): 1523-45.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">De la Concha, V.</hi> (1972). La intención religiosa del Lazarillo. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Revista De Filología Española</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">55</hi>(3): 243-77, ISSN 1988-8538.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koppel, M. and Schler, J.</hi> (2004). Authorship verification as a one-class classification problem.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Machine Learning</hi>, 2004.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ocasar, J. L.</hi> (2014). La atribución del Lazarillo a Arce de Otálora. Una perspectiva geneticista sobre los estudios de autoría, 2014.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stamatatos, E., Daelemans, W., Verhoeven, B., Potthast, M., Stein, B., Juola, P. and López-López, A.</hi> (2015). Overview of the Author Identification Task at PAN 2015. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CLEF 2015 Labs and Workshops, Notebook Papers. CEUR Workshop Proceedings</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">1391</hi>: 31, ISSN 1613-0073.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2635","17","The Evolution of Virtual Harlem: Bringing the Jazz Age to Life","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Imagine being faced with the choice of remaining in your hometown, living in what you have known all of your life in harshly oppressive conditions, or leaving, along with a number of your family and neighbors, headed North or West toward a land of promise and opportunity. This was the basic choice that many African Americans had in increasing numbers after 1865 when the emancipation proclamation was signed and a flurry of legislation passed in an attempt to equal the playing field for recently emancipated African Americans. By the early 20th Century, the Great Negro Migration was well underway, as African Americans were being driven off the land by the violence and intimidation of the Ku Klux Klan, natural disasters, and increasing levels of legal and extra-legal oppression and inequality in all sectors of life. They were also being pulled to the North and West by the perceived promise of increased opportunities in many aspects of life, the receipt of letters and communication from friends and relatives who had already made the move, and the perception of less racism in the North and West.</p>
            <p>By the end of World War I, The Great Migration had reached flood proportions with hundreds of thousands of African Americans moving to urban centers in the north such as Chicago, Il, Harlem, NY, the steel belt and the auto industry in the midwest, as well as out towards the great promise of the West. Those who left the south for the urban North knowingly or sometimes unknowingly became a part of the New Negro Movement , known later as The Harlem Renaissance, of the 1920s, and The Chicago Renaissance of the 1930s and 40s. Understanding the cultural, intellectual and political output of African Americans during this period is key to understanding American history and our contemporary society. But what was it like in the big city of the 20s? How did that change, if at all, from the big city of the 40s and 50s?Artistic production was huge during both these periods, how might similar issues of artistic production be discussed from within this virtual environment?</p>
            <p>There are a variety of ways to introduce our current generation of students to this vibrant aspect of African American culture that encompass both traditional and avant garde approaches. This project builds on two existing projects to engage today’s learners and teachers in ways not previously possible, and also intertwines modern technology and advanced visualization with traditional practices to create a learning experience like no other that is focused on 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Great Migration, and Beyond. </hi>Additionally, this paper explores, through the discussion and demonstration of the aforementioned project, ideas related to digital preservation, lack of diversity in Digital Humanities and introduces Digital Africana Studies as an engaging pedagogy.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Great Migration and Beyond</hi> represents the first time that two major virtual environments focused on African American history and culture will be connected through both technology and theme. We recognize that there will be a number of challenges as we create rich historic landscapes and experiences while simultaneously creating a non-linear, visually and technologically unified journey through time and place related to African American life and culture.
            </p>
            <p>The technology enabling this virtual world development is based on the Unity 3D game engine. Unity 3D is a platform for creating virtual worlds and games that accepts 3D assets or models using Open Standards format, meaning that assets can originate in nearly any 3D modeling tool and those entities can then be imported into Unity. The platform then enables us to distribute the final project to the spectrum of media devices (e.g. PC, Tablet, Game Console, Mobile,  and full VR environments such as the CAVE, CAVE2, or a Data Wall. Additionally, we plan to address how the environment can be experienced through the increasing number of peripheral devices such as the Oculus Rift, HTC Vive, Samsung Gear or even Google Cardboard.</p>
            <p>Key to the verisimilitude and distinctive look/feel of the Harlem/Bronzeville environment is the use of motion capture-based animation of the characters that the visitor encounters. While exploring the environment, visitors will encounter scenes depicting significant historic events of the time and place or common everyday occurrences where, those occurrences actually become a part of the evolving experience, in essence, a living part of a Theater of the Surround.</p>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>The Starting Point</head>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Virtual Harlem Project</hi> is a representation of Harlem, New York, as it existed during the 1920s Jazz Age, in 3D space, where objects such as buildings, interiors, automobiles and more are constructed using 3D modeling applications. This project is one of the earliest full virtual reality environments created for use in the humanities and certainly one of the first for use in an African American literature course. Virtual Harlem was originally conceived by Dr. Bryan Carter as part of his graduate work at the University of Missouri-Columbia in 1996, and developed by the Advanced Technology Center there who assisted him in designing it as a collaborative Virtual Reality (VR) environment and learning simulation in which participants learned about and experienced the Harlem Renaissance to supplement real world courses about the subject.  The Harlem Renaissance/New Negro Movement was a unique period in American history that occurred in the 1920’s, just after the end of World War I. 
            </p>
            <p>It was a time when Langston Hughes, Eubie Blake, Marcus-Garvey, Zora Neale Hurston, Paul Robeson, and countless other African Americans made their indelible mark on the landscape of American and international culture. This is a time when African Americans made their first appearances on Broadway; chic supper clubs opened on Harlem streets; riotous rent parties kept economic realities at bay while the rich and famous, both white and black, attempted to outdo each other with elegant, integrated soirees (Lewis)., and African American artists and entertainers were the toast of European Cafe Society.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Time Machine: Bronzeville</hi> has been in-development as a multi-modal recreation and immersive experience of the vanished and historically significant Bronzeville section of Chicago’s South Side, during The Chicago Renaissance period (1930–1950). Components of this project include a 
                <ref target=""https://philipmalloryjones.com/dateline-bronzeville/"">computer game treatment</ref>, online immersive web destination, and 
                <ref target=""https://philipmalloryjones.com/portfolio/augmented-reality-chicago-renaissance/"">augmented reality gallery installation.</ref>
            </p>
            <p>Through the use of digital 3D image creation and animation, game and web technologies, the visitor can explore the history, lore, and legends of Bronzeville during the defining events of the 20th century: The Great Migration, The Great Depression, The Chicago Renaissance, Jim Crow Segregation (American Apartheid), World War II, and the emergence of The Black Metropolis.</p>
            <p>Intuitively navigating the avenues, alleys and interior spaces of Bronzeville, and interacting with its residents, the visitor discovers the genius, ingenuity, and invention in all the arts and humanities, from painters’ studios and recital halls, juke joints and storefront churches, to lecture halls, theater stages and street corner soapboxes that distinguishes the vibrant and creative period of The Chicago Renaissance.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>The Vision: An Expanded Harlem/Bronzeville World</head>
            <p>The immersive cityscapes of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Virtual Harlem</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Time Machine: Bronzeville</hi> are historical simulations and interpretations of the vanished Harlem and Bronzeville of the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, recreated from extensive research of the photo and graphic records, the African American press archives, personal memoirs,  oral histories and statistics.
            </p>
            <p>The richly detailed environments will be deeply embedded with informing and contextual media. The visitor’s movements and interactions with animated characters and objects will trigger radio broadcasts, phonograph recordings, ambient soundscapes, and links to other resources. The visitor will be able to interact with and manipulate objects in the environment to access the archive of historical photos, print documents and media clips that illuminate the events, persons, and significance of the creative, cultural, social and commercial engines that were Harlem and  Bronzeville in these periods. Extensive use is made of documentation gleaned from African American press, radio and film archives.</p>
            <p>The projected Harlem/Bronzeville complex will enable the visitor to explore 3D simulations of the vanished Harlem and Bronzeville communities. With a click/touch, select locations can be viewed through decades of change, allowing the visitor to witness the evolution of the neighborhoods, and to compare the historical views with the contemporary cityscape. 3D animated scenes and tableaux depict historical events, persons and places significant in understanding this period and its arts movement. In-world interactive maps and guides aid the visitor in navigating the terrains and times.</p>
            <p>Featured historical figures, locations, and significant events of Harlem and Bronzeville  include:  artists’ profiles and portfolios for Langston Hughes, Richard Wright, Arna Bontemps, Margaret Walker,  Gwendolyn Brooks, Inez Cunningham Stark, William Edouard Scott, Charles White, Archibald John Motley, Jr., Eldzier Cortor, William MacBride, Elizabeth Catlett, Gordon Parks, Horace Cayton, John Johnson, the Jones Brothers (Policy Kings), The Apollo Theater, the Cotton Club, Connie’s Inn, The Theresa Hotel, The Dark Tower, The South Side Community Art Center, Parkway Community House, South Side Writers’ Group, the American Negro Exposition, Louis Armstrong and Chicago Jazz, Thomas Dorsey, the “Father of Gospel Music”, blues artists, Contralto Mahalia Jackson, Katherine Dunham and Ballets Negres, the Beaux Arts Ball, The Skyloft Players, The Bud Billiken Parade, Artists’ and Models’ Ball, Savoy Ballroom, Regal Theater, Rhumboogie, Club DeLisa, among many others.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Timeline, Maps, and Infographics</head>
            <p>Through the Graphical User Interface Unity3d overlay (GUI), the visitor will be able to access a Timeline, maps and other infographics, presenting a multimedia chronology of The Great Migration, The Harlem Renaissance, and The Chicago Renaissance. Images and text, media clips and animations pop up as the cursor rolls over key points on the graph. Hot spots on the graph link to other components of the environment, enabling visitors to travel quickly around the space. The Timeline, maps and infographics also present contextual information about national and international events, as documented in the African American press and other media sources.  This prototype GUI will also enable users to save information, take snapshots and submit suggestions for integration of their own research for approval or suggestions to improve the experience.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Community-Of-Interest</head>
            <p>Another of our challenges will be to create a forum for a community-of-interest, encouraging inquiry and making connections, and a host site/server for live presentations, teaching/learning experiences, performances and discussions. We envision an expanding archive and repository for Humanities research and scholarship (Implementation Phase). The start-up phase will include the design and samples of supplemental materials and guides to aid educators, and researchers in making full use of the evolving technology components and capabilities of this multi-modal compendium of reference materials, image archive, bibliography, repository for and curation of visitor contributions, and library of, and portal to, essays and lectures by scholars.</p>
            <p>The immersive Harlem/Bronzeville complex presents an unprecedented contribution to the historical representation and interpretation of African Americans, uniquely enabled by current and emerging technologies. The design of the content and interactive engagement will make the Harlem/Bronzeville destination attractive to a wide spectrum of visitors, with international reach.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Enhancing the Humanities</head>
            <p>The evolution of video games, the excitement surrounding virtual reality with the launch of a number of VR headsets, the increased graphic and processing power of currently available personal computers and gaming consoles, the rise of low cost and accessible virtual environment and game development tools, and the focus on increased engagement in the classroom makes this a perfect time to consider ways that both these projects might focus on a much larger and unifying aspect of African American culture and transformative period of American history, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Great Migration</hi>. The nationwide observance of the centennial of The Great Migration begins in 2016, and our project is intended to contribute to this multi-year observance.
            </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The Larger Discussions</head>
            <p>This project, in addition to it representing an innovative use of emerging technologies to teach Africana content, also introduces three parallel discussions; digital preservation, lack of diversity in Digital Humanities and the pedagogy of Digital Africana Studies. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Lack of Diversity in Digital Humanities</head>
            <p>So what exactly is the Virtual Harlem/Bronzeville project? Since its inception, the Virtual Harlem Project has been called a variety of things to include a virtual learning platform, a collaborative learning network and a digital humanities project. Although it is most likely one of the oldest VR environments focused on African American life and culture, more specifically, that of the 1920s Jazz Age/Harlem Renaissance, until recently, Virtual Harlem has rarely been discussed as an example of diversity in Digital Humanities. This is rather odd given that the project is particularly focused on African American life and culture, that it was conceived by an African American scholar and that it was initially intended to be used in an African American literature course. Yet, discussions of Virtual Harlem tend to center on the project as a good example of advanced visualization, technology in the classroom, or even a digital humanities project, without much mention of it having an emphasis on diversity. There are a variety of reasons why this may be the case. One is that there are so few VR projects that deal with diverse topics that those that are tend to be discussed with regards to the technologies used, not necessarily the nature or content of the project. Virtual Harlem also represents the use of interactive technologies where students are encouraged to become active contributors to a much larger landscape that is accessible by other members of the class and by limited numbers who are not enrolled. Contributions to the environment are done in non-traditional ways, to include performance, 3D body scanning and motion capture. It is just this sort of non-traditional teaching, learning and use of advanced technologies that some, particularly within the Africana Studies scholarly community, sometimes tend to view with a level of scepticism. Possible reasons for this are complex and may in part be related to how traditionally, scholarly respect for the discipline has been connected to knowledge and experience of its scholars. When the focus is shifted towards the technology used, there may be a fear of losing part of that respect. Tara McPherson suggests that “politically committed academics ...engage technology and its production not simply as an object of our scorn, critique or fascination but as a productive and generative space that is always emergent and never fully determined” (McPherson 155). Virtual Harlem represents one of the myriad of technologies that are and can be used in the humanities to address the learning styles of this generation of students, to encourage students to make use of the variety of tools they have at their disposal to express their understanding of humanities content, and to help us all deal with increasing amounts of data and information directly and indirectly related to the humanities. There are, however, a number of exciting projects by a diverse set of scholars that are flying under the radar simply because these scholars tend not to publish their work in digital humanities journals, many are dealing with tenure and promotion and focusing their publishing efforts on that which those evaluating their dossiers are more familiar instead of pushing projects that some fear may call their scholarship into question simply because evaluating digital humanities projects is not always fairly done in every discipline. These scholars are caught in a catch 22. Their projects are an amazing example of the use of technology in the classroom, yet evaluators have a fundamental lack of understanding of what digital humanities is or how to deal with it for tenure and promotion. So underrepresented scholars typically have to publish in traditional venues while working on their digital humanities projects as side projects until tenure and promotion are earned. Funding for digital humanities projects dealing with diverse topics is also difficult. Statistics are difficult to come by, but judging from the articles published in the most difficult popular digital humanities journals and books, there are very few pieces published that document projects dealing with diverse topics, created by underrepresented scholars. That is a problem. So what can be done to diversify the field? What can be done to encourage young minority scholars to contribute their ideas to the growing body of digital humanities scholarship in an effort to strengthen the field? Answers to these questions are not easy, nor will they be addressed in the very near future. However, there are efforts being made to introduce underrepresented scholars to digital tools and projects that, in time, may filter into the classroom and eventually into scholarship of these groups. These activities include workshops funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Mellon Foundation along with pedagogies being developed that inherently incorporate technology as a part of the teaching and learning process.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Digital Africana Studies</head>
            <p>
                <lb/>Digital Africana Studies closely parallels Digital Humanities in that it encourages scholars to use a variety of technologies to teach and research within their fields and seek connections to the outside world in an effort to understand the human condition. Furthermore, Digital Africana Studies, also encourages students to use a variety of digital tools to express their understanding of course content and find relationships between what they are learning, their lives and the world around them. Digital Africana Studies is a direct outgrowth of Afrofuturism, which is a theory that explores how people of African descent are represented in conversations of the future, whether that future be depicted through science fiction, the entertainment industry, popular culture or education, as well as a way of looking at the world, a canopy for thinking about black diasporic artistic production, a way of considering the presence of people of African descent within past, present and future Western society, as well as an epistemology that is thinking about the future, the subject position of black people, and about how that is both alienating and about alienation. So when I am asked, “what 
                <hi rend=""italic"">is</hi> Virtual Harlem?”, I find it simultaneously strange, curious and sometimes insulting that some would try to categorize, label and subsequently only 
                <hi rend=""italic"">see</hi> it through a relatively narrow lens, thus missing the larger, experiential aspect of the project. Digital Africana Studies is the pedagogical and practical application of Afrofuturism in that it seeks to explore how advanced technologies may be used in the classroom to support a more experiential environment, one that creates memorable  encounters with the culture and content of the course.
            </p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">McPherson, T.</hi> (2012). Why are the Digital Humanities so White? Or Thinking the Histories of Race and Computation. In Gold, M.K. (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 155.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2636","17","The First World War in Perm Provincial Periodicals","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Regional newspapers’ periodicals hold a firm place in the humanities among the sources of studying the First World War and its impact on the state and development of the countries and nations in the early 20
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century. This kind of sources is especially significant at the level of micro-history and history of everyday life. At the same time, it is complicated to put provincial periodicals into scientific circulation due to problems of access, preservation, organization as well as effective search and analysis of information (Kornienko and Gagarina, 2015).
            </p>
            <p>The source-oriented information system “The First World War in Perm Provincial Periodicals” (
                <ref target=""http://permnewspapers.ru/"">http://permnewspapers.ru/</ref>) is an integrated solution to identify problems based on approaches, methods and technologies of Digital Humanities in general and Digital History in particular. The project is realized in the laboratory of historical and political information science of Perm State University in cooperation with the Perm Regional Museum (Russia).
            </p>
            <p>The information system provides free access for scholars to images and full-texts of ten newspapers collections published in Perm province during the First World War. There are more than 2500 issues. Publications cover periods of Imperial Russia, the 1917 Revolution and the Civil War and represent different ideological political movements. These editions include:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>official periodicals of provincial administration of Imperial Russia: “Пермские губернские ведомости” (“Perm Province Bulletin”);</item>
                <item>official periodicals of the 1917 Revolution and the Provisional Government period: “Вестник Пермского края” (“Herald of Perm Region”), “Пермский вестник Временного правительства” (“Perm Herald of Provisional Government”);</item>
                <item>official newspapers of various levels councils:
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>provincial level: “Известия Пермского губернского комитета” (“News of Perm Provincial Committee”);</item>
                        <item>branch level: “Известия исполнительного комитета Совета железнодорожных депутатов Пермской железной дороги” (“Proceedings of the Executive Committee of the Board of Railway Deputies of Perm Railroad”);</item>
                        <item>district (uyezd) level: “Известия Осинского исполнительного комитета Совета крестьянских, рабочих и солдатских депутатов” (“News of Osa Executive Committee of Peasants, Workers and Soldiers Deputies”);</item>
                    </list>
                </item>
                <item>official gazette of the Perm Province Zemstvo: “Пермская земская неделя” (“Perm Zemstvo Week”).</item>
            </list>
            <p>Meaningful diversity and variety of publication's types are distinguishing features of the provincial newspaper periodicals. Official and unofficial newspapers published full texts of normative acts of different levels authorities, official announcements and telegrams, reference and information materials, articles, notes, satires, and others. There were treatments of government, laws and draft laws, regulations, diplomatic notes, information from the fronts of the First World War, reports on meetings of the Government, the Interim Committee of the State Duma, the State Conference and other agencies, including provincial and district authorities, as well as non-government organization. The newspapers published various materials on local history, geography, statistics, ethnography and cover topical issues of socio-economic, political, scientific and cultural life of the country and the region. </p>
            <p>Such breadth of perspective and variety of publications leads to a high level of demand for local periodicals as a source of information for humanitarian studies in political, economic and social history, the history of printing and journalism, literature, linguistics, philology, cultural studies, political science, etc.</p>
            <p>However, a variety of information submits special claims for its structuring in the information system, the search tools, representation and visualization of electronic versions. </p>
            <p>The informational system “The First World War in Perm Provincial Periodicals” is structured based on metadata system that includes thematic fields (rubrics, headings, subheadings of publications), geographical, toponymical fields, personalities. This provides effectiveness of information retrieval and samples formation on various topics, issues, and other criteria at the level of the issue, single newspaper or their combination as well as whole collection. The system also gives possibilities to search keyword and context on titles and full texts for all editions and publications.</p>
            <p>The informational system allows visualization of information at the level of newspapers, issues and publications. The results of search requests are displayed in the form of various lists and full-text publications. Each issue of newspapers is presented page by page in PDF format (text below the image), which help to preserve the text content and appearance of newspapers as much as possible. In addition, this method of representation allows text verification and editing as well as reading if OCR is found to be impossible. Texts of publications on the First World War theme are presented in HTML format. Both PDF files and texts as well as all other information and metadata on newspapers, issues and publications are stored in MySQL database.</p>
            <p>Organization and structuring of sources data, search tools and visualization tools allow to obtain data on a wide range of issues related to the First World War, life and activities of the region's population in this period.</p>
            <p>The information system “The First World War in Perm Provincial Periodicals” provides new possibilities for evaluating potential sources of information, completeness, representativeness and credibility of Perm newspapers periodicals, using computer processing techniques, obtaining new data for scientific humanities research. </p>
            <p>Issues that can be studied by the system include attitude towards the war of different social classes and various persons in Perm, the evaluation of forces and the actions of Russia, its allies and opponents. It covers key war events, the role of various commanders, activities of Nicholas II, events in the Perm province and its districts related to the war and their consequences, the creation of images of the war, daily life in the rear and the fronts, etc.</p>
            <p>Techniques and methods for solving research tasks are developed based on different types of database queries, which allow obtaining quantitative characteristics, samples for various themes and for specific items of publications. The implementation of these types of queries permits to determine the most common types and genres, subject focus of publications and their relation, generate text fragments and interpretation of the results in terms of the completeness and nature of the information source.</p>
            <p>The study is supported by Russian Foundation for Humanities (grant 14-11-59003).</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kornienko, S. and Gagarina, D. </hi>(2015). Information systems: new methods of Russian history sources study. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conferences Social Sciences AND Arts SGEM 2015. Conference Proceedings. Anthropology, Archaeology, History and Philosophy.</hi> Sofia, pp. 337-43.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2637","17","The GeoHumanities Special Interest Group: Fostering and facilitating the geospatial turn","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Introduction</p>
            <p>The GeoHumanities Special Interest Group (SIG) was formed in 2013, and in two and a half years, over 500 individuals have subscribed to the group’s email and social media feeds. However, there remains considerable untapped potential for SIG activities informing and enabling humanities scholars’ investigations of geospatial research methods and theory. This poster will publicize the SIG’s mission and activities, and gather input from conference attendees on possible future endeavors.</p>
            <p>Formation</p>
            <p>The 2013 Digital Humanities conference program reflected an increasing interest in questions of place and space by scholars from various disciplines. Recognizing the need for cross-disciplinary collaborations and sharing of experience, the SIG co-founders responded to ADHO’s call for proposals during that year’s SIG slam. Our intent was to utilize ADHO’s SIG structure to unite and support the disparate groups of scholars conducting research with a spatial or geographic context. In naming the SIG, we have emphasized geography’s traditional attention to not only spatial, but spatial-temporal and ‘placial’ perspectives. Soon after DH2013, the GeoHumanities SIG proposal was approved. </p>
            <p>Goals</p>
            <p>The SIG’s stated goals are </p>
            <p>“… to create a venue for pooling knowledge and best practices for relevant existing digital tools and methods, to foster the collaborative development of shared resources and new tools and extensions to geospatial software, and to keep humanist scholars at large informed about the possibilities and inherent pitfalls in their use.”</p>
            <p>Activities</p>
            <p>The SIG uses various communication channels, including a web site (geohumanities.org), an email-list and twitter feed. Subscribers now number over 500, primarily from the US and Europe, and the group has had a few notable accomplishments during that time. SIG members have contributed to the expansion of the DiRT Directory by augmenting the TaDiRAH DH taxonomy and are contributing annotations to DiRT listings that are relevant to geospatial research, on an ongoing basis. Those listings are fed automatically to the SIG site in a feature called 
                <hi rend=""italic"">GeoDiRT</hi>. The web site also features a list of over 150 Humanities GIS projects from around the world. That resource was originally developed by one of our members several years ago, and transferred to our ADHO-hosted site to ensure its longevity and to facilitate contributions. The SIG website includes blog postings, announcements and a twitter feed. 
            </p>
            <p>In each of the past two years the GeoHumanities SIG has held pre-conference events. At Lausanne in 2014, a well-attended day-long meeting focused on “Place and Period in an Emerging Global Gazetteer,” and at Sydney in 2015, the SIG promoted a workshop hosted by several of its members on the topic of peer review in GeoHumanities. In 2016, the SIG endorsed and promoted a member organized workshop, “A Place for Places: Current Trends and Challenges in the Development and Use of Geo‑historical Gazetteers.” Each of these sessions provided a venue to share expertise and shape research agendas. </p>
            <p>Future</p>
            <p rend=""Normal1"">The GeoHumanities SIG’s future initiatives may include:
                <anchor xml:id=""h.bw4p1gj2ojy8""/>
                <anchor xml:id=""h.150wal156mma""/>
            </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""background(white)"">Enabling the enhancement of Humanities GIS project listing</hi>s by their investigators.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""background(white)"">Improving browse and search capability for the Humanities GIS project </hi>list.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""background(white)"">Improving integration of DiRT</hi> and GeoDiRT.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <anchor xml:id=""h.ihr9pi37yn9p""/>
                    <anchor xml:id=""h.45amvhxocepm""/>
                    <hi rend=""background(white)"">Coordinating the collaborative development of an online primer on geospatial analytic and mapping tools, data resources</hi>, and best practices.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <anchor xml:id=""h.l2zw19j982p""/>
                    <hi rend=""background(white)"">Engaging SIG members to enhance GeoDiRT by reviewing tool listings.</hi>
                </item>
                <item>Other ideas brought forward by members.</item>
            </list>
            <p>The DH conference poster venue is a great opportunity to increase awareness of the GeoHumanities SIG and its activities, expand the member base and gather input on current and future directions.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2638","17","The Holy and the Godless - Cultural Stereotypes Featured in the Language of the Polish Medieval Hagiography. A Corpus-based Study.","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>My poster presents a work-in-progress focused on the language of the Polish medieval Latin hagiography. The main subject of my research are the words and expressions denoting the holy and the godless extracted from the corpus. Therefore my poster concentrates on four main topics: </p>
            <p>1. The Corpus of the Polish Medieval Hagiography itself </p>
            <p>2. Delimitation of the field of study within the linguistic material in relation to historical circumstances and cultural landscape of the Polish Middle Ages </p>
            <p>3. Methodology of the research</p>
            <p>4. Questions arising and first results.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">1.</hi> At present the Corpus consists of three main types of texts – 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Vitae, Miracula, Translationes - Lives, Miracles and Translations of the bodies of the Saints</hi>. It comprises about thirty texts, it is nearly 500 000 words. Firstly, I would like to explain the reasons of such a selection of the components resulting in the expected homogeneity of the whole body of texts (from the linguistic as well as cultural point of view): 
                <hi rend=""bold"">a.</hi> established time frame and limitations concerning authorship and place where a given text was written (Starnawski, 1993), 
                <hi rend=""bold"">b.</hi> the phenomenon of mixing of the literary genres within particular groups of texts, 
                <hi rend=""bold"">c.</hi> last but not least - the preservation of the texts and the existence of critical editions of the majority of them. Secondly, I describe technical parameters of the Corpus (Piotrowski, 2012): XML format, microstructure and typography of the texts encoded according to the TEI Guidelines (P5), morphosyntactic mark-up with TreeTagger (Schmid, 1994). The Corpus is being analyzed using multi-tool platform TXM (Heiden., Magué, Pincemin, 2010).
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">2.</hi> The starting point of the investigation is the scheme of the seven virtues and seven vices with their subdivisions, popular in the European Middle Ages, sometimes represented in manuscripts in the form of two seven-branched, multi-leaved trees, each part of which is meticulously subscribed with a respective Latin expressions (Marchese, 2013). This traditional set of vices and virtues is being compared with the list of words of the Corpus. At the same time, apart from the historical and literary data mentioned above, other elements of character description, such as epithets, comparisons and attributes connected strictly with each of the saints and their opponents are searched and analyzed (Sinclair, 2003; Stubbs, 2001). As a result I expect to obtain a huge lexical resource containing the most eminent vocabulary of the subject, which will open the prospect of further research. It should be noted that the antithetic tension between the good and the bad one was particularly emphasized in the tradition about the Bishop Stanislaw murdered by the King Boleslaw II the Generous. Because of the great importance of the Saint himself and of the wide spread narration about the Episcopal/royal conflict, it is very interesting to observe how it is echoed (or ignored) in the histories of other saints. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">3.</hi> Since the texts considered were written in a very long period - between the end of the 10th and the end of the15th century - the linguistic material is studied mainly in a diachronic perspective, although there are other possible applications, which require dividing the Corpus into parallel sub-corpora. The possible research questions in this case include: 
                <hi rend=""bold"">a.</hi> comparing and contrasting the image of male and female Saints, 
                <hi rend=""bold"">b.</hi> comparing Dominican, Franciscan and other traditions, 
                <hi rend=""bold"">c.</hi> showing the dialogue between the hagiographers of the two Patrons of the Polish Kingdom: St. Stanislaw and St. Adalbert, 
                <hi rend=""bold"">d.</hi> shedding some more light on Polish saints and sinners in the context of the European Middle Ages (in the future). 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">4.</hi> The main question is two-fold: what are the most frequent features and virtues ascribed to the Polish medieval saintly men and women and, on the contrary - features and vices used to describe sinners/bad people? Then, does it change in time and is this change congruent with what we know about the transformation of the models of sanctity and the image of ""the Other""? All these problems, as well as other issues mentioned above (point 3) can only be solved by a complex analysis of textual data combining methods of the corpus linguistics and those of the literary and historic studies. The Corpus I present is meant to be a starting point for such complex studies.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gaşpar, C., Miladinov, M. and Wood, I.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Saints of the Christianization Age of Central Europe: Tenth to Eleventh Centuries.</hi> Central European University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heiden, S., Magué, J.-P. and Pincemin, B.</hi> (2010). TXM : Une plateforme logicielle open-source pour la textométrie - conception et développement. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The 10</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic superscript"">th</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic""> International Conference on the Statistical Analysis of Textual Data - JADT 2010</hi>. Edizioni Universitarie di Lettere Economia Diritto, pp. 1021–32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Marchese, F. T.</hi> (2013). Virtues and Vices: Examples of Medieval Knowledge Visualization. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Information Visualization: IV'13.</hi> (London, UK, July 16-18, 2013), IEEE Computer Society. Los Alamitos, CA, pp. 359-65.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McEnery, T. and Wilson, A.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus Linguistics: An Introduction.</hi> Edinburgh University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McEnery, T., Xiao, R. and Tono, Y.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus-based Language Studies: An Advanced Resource Book.</hi> Taylor & Francis.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Piotrowski, M.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Natural Language Processing for Historical Texts.</hi> Morgan & Claypool Publishers.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Plezia, M.</hi> (1987). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Średniowieczne żywoty i cuda patronów Polski</hi>. Instytut Wydawniczy Pax.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmid, H.</hi> (1994). Probabilistic Part-of-Speech Tagging Using Decision Trees. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of International Conference on New Methods in Language Processing</hi>. Manchester, pp. 44–49.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sinclair, J.</hi> (1991). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus, Concordance, Collocation.</hi> Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sinclair, J.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reading concordances : an introduction</hi>. New York: Pearson/Longman.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Starnawski, J.</hi> (1993). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Drogi rozwojowe hagiografii polskiej i łacińskiej w wiekach średnich</hi>. Kraków: Polskie Towarzystwo Teologiczne. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stubbs, M.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Words and Phrases: Corpus Studies of Lexical Semantics</hi>. Wiley-Blackwell.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Witkowska, A.</hi> (1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Nasi święci: polski słownik hagiograficzny</hi>. Księgarnia Św. Wojciecha.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2639","17","The Ibn Darraj Project: SpatioTemporal Reasoning Engine Based on Evidence Combination","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>In historical statements, we face narrations that are vague in sense of persons, places, times, and events. This means that we have uncertainties and non-specificities about the persons and the events, and the time and place the event has taken place. These uncertainties are mostly caused by ignorance about the characters and events assignments, and definition of the boundaries narrowing down the time and space frames. Moreover, we have narrations that usually do not uphold each other, and have different validities or certainties. Putting these contradictory narrations together to judge about the most definite event needs a great effort, and is a hard task for unaided human mind.</p>
                <p>Although its importance and utility, there are not any noteworthy research on spatio-temporal reasoning to combine evidences, or applying evidence combination methods (such as Dempster-Shafer Theory of Evidence) in spatio-temporal reasoning. Hence, this paper delivers a novel tool to compensate this deficiency.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methodology</head>
                <p>To reach this goal, we divide the problem to three main domains, and simplify the question to minimize the efforts and implementation cost of each step.</p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Extracting and Structuring Evidences</head>
                    <p>In this step, we model narrations as narration trees, such as 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">'A' says he has heard 'B' talking about [Event]</hi>. Each of the narrators has a validity coefficient indicating the reliability of the narration made by the person. Then using the SRL (Semantic Role Labeling) methods (Gildea and Jurafsky, 2000), we structure the narrations to a standard form Jurafsky and Martin (2009). Hence, we have a bunch of narrations, and each of the narrations has a narration chain and a standard, structured event.
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Finding Similar Events</head>
                    <p>In this step, using Natural Language Processing tools, we form [multiresolution] verb clusters that help us define the same events that have meanings in common. For example, killing, shooting down, hanging, and choking can be considered as different ways to end one’s life, and we may put them in one cluster. These clusters are extracted from WordNet (Hirst and St-Onge, 1998), and define the degree to which we may merge events based on their verbs (Meng et al., 2013).</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Evidence Combination</head>
                    <p>The main role of the reasoning engine is to combine different evidences to calculate the probability of a hypothesis. To do so, one can use the very familiar Bayesian inference method to incorporate different evidences using the Bayes theorem. However, this modeling cannot deal with non- specificities. For instance, if we have four persons A, B, C, and D as candidates of an assassination, we may assign probabilities to Assassins = {A,B,C,D} or other probabilities to subsets of the Assassins set. However, if we do not have crisp evidences defining the probabilities of each member we are unable to do inference where the subsets overlap. As a result, we cannot use the Bayes rule to combine evidences of Pr(A or B or C) and Pr(B or C or D) if we do not know Pr(B or C)or assume some other hypothesis for it. </p>
                    <p>On the other hand, there is a great advantage in using the Dempster-Shafer Theory of Evidence (DST) compared to the classical probabilistic reasoning based on the Bayesian Theory (BT). By DST, it’s possible to take non-specificity into account as well as randomness, which was not possible in BT. In many problems, such as reasoning based on non-specific statements (which are modeled here as narrations), accumulated non-specificity (vagueness) may reveal more specific details. This is the main reason to use DST instead of BT.</p>
                    <p>It means that when each narration determines a non-specific time and place for an event, or these space-time pieces overlap each other, we are able to define precisely the most and least probabilities that the event has taken place in a specific portions of space-time. These probabilities are usually mentioned as lower and upper bounds of probability, and may be interpreted as Belief and Plausibility respectively (Zadeh, 1986).</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Tools and Methods</head>
                <p>The core element of the system is a reasoning engine that combines different pieces of evidence. The output will be total expected probabilities and the upper and lower bound of probabilities for different pieces of space-time. This task can be accomplished by efficiently succeeding in the following:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Modelling space and time effectively, and</item>
                    <item>Using the evidence combination methods to deliver the reasoning engine, mainly using Dempster-Shafer Theorem.</item>
                </list>
                <p>We used the CRMgeo model (Doerr and Hiebel 2013) that is standardized in ISO 21127:2014 as the space-time model. We have incorporated GIS tools (as done in Hirschfield and Bowers, 2001; and Fuhrmann et al., 2013) and standard ISO 8601:2004 to model space and time respectively. However, due to the rich and flexible ontology design of the CRMgeo model (Doerr and Hiebel, 2013) which is standardized in ISO 21127:2014, we switched to it as our main space-time model. We also benefited from the CRMinf argumentation model (Doerr 2015) to model the narrations.</p>
                <p>At last, we implemented different evidence combination rules in R language to combine the structured narrations together, resulting in and reduced ambiguity and vagueness (Kohlas and Monney n.d., Barnett 1991)</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>An Example of a Toy Problem</head>
                <p>The following figures are the output results of a reasoning over a toy problem of an airplane crash in different boroughs of London, and is plotted for each of the years in the 1930-1935 timeframe. Each plot is for a specific time (e.g. X1930 is for the year 1930). The values of the average probability of the crash in each borough are represented in decibels to better visualize the slight changes of probability in similar regions.</p>
                <p>The problem is to combine the following five narrations to gether. The numbers in the parentheses are the validities and/or confidence of the statements.</p>
                <p rend=""Quote"">1. I think (70%) it was between 1930-33 that a plane crashed in the south east of London</p>
                <p rend=""Quote"">2. If I'm correct (90%) I heard my brother that he's somehow sure (80%) that it was between 1932-35 that the Air Union cargo plane hit the northern bank of the Thames river.</p>
                <p rend=""Quote"">3. I cannot remember it clearly (60%) but in 1933 or 34 an airplane of a post company hit the eastern London.</p>
                <p rend=""Quote"">4. It's hard to remember (60%), but my father once told me (90%) that he witnessed an airplane crash in the center of London, Old London.</p>
                <p rend=""Quote"">5. If I'm remembering correctly (80%), an airplane crashed the west London between the 1932-34.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""349/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <graphic url=""349/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <graphic url=""349/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <graphic url=""349/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <graphic url=""349/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <graphic url=""349/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>About the Project Name</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Nuh (Noah) ibn Darraj al-Nakha‘ı¯</hi> (d. 182 AH/ AD 798), was the Shı‘ite judge of Kufa, and later in his life, the grand judge of the eastern half of Baghdad. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Nuh</hi>’s older brother, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Jamil ibn Darraj al-Nakha‘ı¯</hi> was a prominent Shı‘ite jurist in the latter part of the second Islamic century (AD 760s - 810s) (Modarressi, 2003)
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Barnett, J. A.</hi> (1991). Calculating Dempster-Shafer plausibility. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">13</hi>(6): 599–602.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Doerr, M.</hi> (2015).  <hi rend=""italic"">CRMinf: the Argumentation Model</hi>.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Doerr, M. and Hiebel, G.</hi> (2013). CRMgeo : Linking the CIDOC CRM to GeoSPARQL through a Spatiotemporal Refinement, pp. 1–40.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Fuhrmann, S., Huynh, N. T. and Scholz, R.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Crime Modeling and Mapping Using Geospatial Technologies</hi>, Available at: 
                        <ref target=""http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-007-4997-9"">http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-007-4997-9</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gildea, D. and Jurafsky, D.</hi> (2000). Automatic labeling of semantic roles. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 38th Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics - ACL ’00</hi>, (1972), pp.12–520. Available at: 
                        <ref target=""http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=1075218.1075283"">http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=1075218.1075283</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Hirschfield, A. and Bowers, K.,</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mapping and analysing crime data</hi>, London: Taylor and Francis, 2001. Available at: 
                        <ref target=""http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1329199/"">http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1329199/</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Hirst, G. and St-Onge, D.</hi> (1998). Lexical chains as representations of context for the detection and correction of malapropisms. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">WordNet - An Electronic Lexical Database</hi>, pp.305–32. Available at: 
                        <ref target=""http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/wordnet"">http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/wordnet</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Jurafsky, D. and Martin, J. H.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Speech and language processing</hi>. Pearson.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Kohlas, J. and Monney, P. A.</hi> (2013).  <hi rend=""italic"">A mathematical theory of hints: An approach to the Dempster-Shafer theory of evidence</hi>, <hi rend=""bold""> 425</hi>, Springer Science and Business Media.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Meng, L., Huang, R. and Gu, J.</hi> (2013). A Review of Semantic Similarity Measures in WordNet. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Hybrid Information Technology</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(1): 1–12.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Modarressi, H.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Tradition and Survival: A Bibliographical Survey of Early Shi’ite Literature</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Zadeh, L. A.</hi> (1986). Simple View of the Dempster-Shafer Theory of Evidence and Its Implication for the Rule of Combination. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">AI Magazine</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(2): 85–90. Available at: 
                        <ref target=""http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/view/542"">http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/view/542</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2640","17","The journal _al-Muqtabas_ between _Shamela.ws_, HathiTrust, and GitHub: producing open, collaborative, and fully-referencable digital editions of early Arabic periodicals---with almost no funds.","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div xml:id=""abstract"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The problems at hand</head>
                <p>In the context of the current onslaught cultural artefacts in the Middle East face from the iconoclasts of the Islamic State, from the institutional neglect of states and elites, and from poverty and war, digital preservation efforts promise some relief as well as potential counter narratives. They might also be the only resolve for future education and rebuilding efforts once the wars in Syria, Iraq or Yemen come to an end; and while the digitisation of Archaelogical artefacts has recently received some attention from well-funded international and national organisations, particularly vulnerable collections of texts in libraries, archives, and private homes are destroyed without the world having known about their existence in the first place.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> For a good example of crowd-sourced conservation efforts targetted at the Armenian communities of the Ottoman Empire see the 
                            <ref target=""http://www.houshamadyan.org/"">Houshamadyan project</ref>, which was established by Elke Hartmann and Vahé Tachjian in Berlin in 2010 and launched an “Open Digital Archive” in 2015. Other digitisation projects worth mentioning are the 
                            <ref target=""http://ymdi.uoregon.edu/"">Yemen Manuscript Digitisation Project</ref> (University of Oregon, Princeton University, Freie Universität Berlin) and the recent “Million Image Database Project” of the 
                            <ref target=""http://digitalarchaeology.org.uk"">Digital Archaeology Institute</ref> (UNESCO, University of Oxford, government of the UAE) that aims at delivering 5000 3D cameras to the MENA region in spring 2016.
                        </p>
                    </note>
                </p>
                <p>Early Arabic periodicals, such as Butrus al-Bustānī’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">al-Jinān</hi> (Beirut, 1876–86), Yaʿqūb Ṣarrūf, Fāris Nimr, and Shāhīn Makāriyūs’ 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">al-Muqtaṭaf</hi> (Beirut and Cairo, 1876–1952), Muḥammad Kurd ʿAlī’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">al-Muqtabas</hi> (Cairo and Damascus, 1906–18/19) or Rashīd Riḍā’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">al-Manār</hi> (Cairo, 1898–1941) are at the core of the Arabic renaissance (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">al-nahḍa</hi>), Arab nationalism, and the Islamic reform movement. These better known and—at the time—widely popular journals do not face the ultimate danger of their last copy being destroyed. Yet, copies are distributed throughout libraries and institutions worldwide. This makes it almost impossible to trace discourses across journals and with the demolition and closure of libraries in the Middle East, they are increasingly accessible to the affluent Western researcher only.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> In many instances libraries hold incomplete collections and only single copies. This, for instance, has caused even scholars working on individual journals to miss the fact that the very journal they were concerned with appeared in at least two different editions (e.g. (Glaß, 2004) see (Grallert, 2013; Grallert, 2014)).</p>
                    </note>
                </p>
                <p>Digitisation seemingly offers an “easy” remedy to the problem of access and some large-scale scanning projects, such as 
                    <ref target=""http://catalog.hathitrust.org/"">Hathitrust</ref>,
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> It must be noted that the US-based HathiTrust does not provide public or open access to its collections even to material deemed in the public domain under extremely strict US copyright laws to users outside the USA. Citing the absence of editors able to read many of the languages written in non-Latin scripts, HathiTrust tends to be extra cautious with the material of interest to us and restricts access by default to US-IPs. These restrictions can be lifted on a case-by-case basis, which requires at least an English email conversation and prevents access to the collection for many of the communities who produced these cultural artefacts; see 
                            <ref target=""https://www.hathitrust.org/access_use"">https://www.hathitrust.org/access_use</ref> for the access policies.
                        </p>
                    </note> the 
                    <ref target=""http://eap.bl.uk/"">British Library’s “Endangered Archives Programme” (EAP)</ref>, 
                    <ref target=""http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/"">MenaDoc</ref> or 
                    <ref target=""http://ima.bibalex.org/IMA/presentation/home/list.jsf"">Institut du Monde Arabe</ref> produced digital facsimiles of numerous Arabic periodicals. But due to the state of Arabic OCR and the particular difficulties of low-quality fonts, inks, and paper employed at the turn of the twentieth century, these texts can only reliably be digitised by human transcription (c.f. Märgner and El Abed, 2012).
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> For the abominable state of Arabic OCR even for well-funded corporations and projects, try searching inside Arabic works on Google Books or HathiTrust.</p>
                    </note> Funds for transcribing the tens to hundreds of thousands of pages of an average mundane periodical are simply not available, despite of their cultural significance and unlike for valuable manuscripts and high-brow literature. Consequently, we still have not a single digital scholarly edition of any of these journals.
                </p>
                <p>On the other hand, gray online-libraries of Arabic literature, namely 
                    <ref target=""http://www.shamela.ws/"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">al-Maktaba al-Shāmila</hi>
                    </ref>, 
                    <ref target=""http://almeshkat.net/"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mishkāt</hi>
                    </ref>, 
                    <ref target=""http://saaid.net/"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ṣayd al-Fawāʾid</hi>
                    </ref> or 
                    <ref target=""http://www.alwaraq.net/"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">al-Waraq</hi>
                    </ref>, provide access to a vast body of, mostly classical, Arabic texts including transcriptions of unknown provenance, editorial principals, and quality for some of the mentioned periodicals. In addition, these gray “editions” lack information linking the digital representation to material originals, namely bibliographic meta-data and page breaks, which makes them almost impossible to employ for scholarly research.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""our-proposed-solution"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Our proposed solution</head>
                <p>With the 
                    <ref target=""https://github.com/tillgrallert/digital-muqtabas"">GitHub-hosted TEI edition of 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Majallat al-Muqtabas</hi>
                    </ref>
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> For a history of Muḥammad Kurd ʿAlī’s journal 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">al-Muqtabas</hi> (The Digest) see (Seikaly, 1981) and the readme.md of the project’s 
                            <ref target=""https://github.com/tillgrallert/digital-muqtabas"">GitHub repository</ref>.
                        </p>
                    </note> we want to show that through re-purposing well-established open software and by bridging the gap between immensely popular, but non-academic (and, at least under US copyright laws, occasionally illegal) online libraries of volunteers and academic scanning efforts as well as editorial expertise, one can produce scholarly editions that offer solutions for most of the above-mentioned problems—including the absence of expensive infrastructure: We use 
                    <ref target=""http://shamela.ws/index.php/book/26523"">digital texts from 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">shamela.ws</hi>
                    </ref>, transform them into TEI XML, add light structural mark-up for articles, sections, authors, and bibliographic metadata, and link each page to facsimiles provided through 
                    <ref target=""http://eap.bl.uk/database/overview_project.a4d?projID=EAP119;r=63"">EAP</ref> and 
                    <ref target=""http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/100658549"">HathiTrust</ref>; the latter step, in the process of which we also make first corrections to the transcription, though trivial, is the most labour-intensive, given that page breaks are commonly ignored by 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">shamela.</hi>ws’s anonymous transcribers. The digital edition (TEI, markdown, and a web-display) is then hosted as a GitHub repository with a 
                    <ref target=""http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/"">CC BY-SA 4.0 licence</ref> for reading, contribution, and re-use.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> The text of 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">al-Muqtabas</hi> itself is in the public domain even under the most restrictive definitions (i.e. in the USA); the anonymous original transcribers at 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">shamela.ws</hi> do not claim copyright; and we only link to publicly accessible facsimile’s without copying or downloading them.
                        </p>
                    </note>
                </p>
                <p>We argue that by linking facsimiles to the digital text, every reader can validate the quality of the transcription against the original we can remove the greatest limitation of crowd-sourced or gray transcriptions and the main source of disciplinary contempt among historians and scholars of the Middle East. Improvements of the transcription and mark-up can be crowd-sourced with clear attribution of authorship and version control using .git and GitHub’s core functionality. Such an approach as proposed by Christian Wittern (2013) has recently seen a number of concurrent practical implementations such as project 
                    <ref target=""https://gitenberg.github.io/"">GITenberg</ref> led by Seth Woodworth, Jonathan Reeve’s 
                    <ref target=""https://github.com/Git-Lit/git-lit"">Git-lit</ref>, and others.
                </p>
                <p>In addition to the TEI XML files we provide structured bibliographic metadata for every article in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">al-Muqtabas</hi> (currently as BibTeX). The TEI edition will be referencable down to the word level for scholarly citations, annotation layers, as well as web-applications through a documented and persistent URI scheme.
                </p>
                <p>In order to contribute to the improvement of Arabic OCR algorithms, we will provide corrected transcriptions of the facsimile pages as ground truth to interested research projects starting with 
                    <ref target=""https://transkribus.eu/Transkribus/"">transkribus.eu</ref>.
                </p>
                <p>To ease access for human readers (the main projected audience of our edition) and the correction process, we also provide a 
                    <ref target=""https://github.com/tillgrallert/tei-boilerplate-arabic-editions"">basic web-display</ref> that adheres to the principles of 
                    <ref target=""https://go-dh.github.io/mincomp"">GO::DH’s Minimal Computing Working group</ref>. This web-display is implemented through an adaptation of the 
                    <ref target=""http://dcl.slis.indiana.edu/teibp/"">TEI Boilerplate XSLT stylesheets</ref> to the needs of Arabic texts and the parallel display of facsimiles and the transcription. Based solely on XSLT 1 and CSS, it runs in most internet browsers and can be downloaded, distributed and run locally without any internet connection—an absolute necessity for societies outside the global North.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""559/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: The web-display of 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Muqtabas</hi> based on TEI Boilerplate.
                    </head>
                </figure>
                <p>Finally, by sharing all our code, we hope to facilitate similar projects and digital editions of further periodicals. For this purpose, we successfully tested adapting the code to 
                    <ref target=""https://www.github.com/tillgrallert/digital-haqaiq"">ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Iskandarānī’s monthly journal 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">al-Ḥaqāʾiq</hi> (1910–12, Damascus)
                    </ref>
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> On the history of 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">al-Ḥaqāʾiq</hi> and some of its quarrels with 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">al-Muqtabas</hi> see (Commins, 1990:118–22).
                        </p>
                    </note> in February 2016.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""conclusion"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>The paper will discuss the challenges cultural artefacts, and particularly texts, face in the Middle East. We will propose a solution to some of these problems based on the principles of openness, simplicity, and adherence to scholarly and technical standards. Applying these principles, our edition of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Majallat al-Muqtabas</hi> improves already existing digital artefacts and makes them accessible for reading and re-use to the scholarly community as well as the general public. Finally, we will discuss the particular challenges and experiences of this still very young project (since October 2015).
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Commins, D.</hi> (1990). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Islamic Reform: Politics and Social Change in Late Ottoman Syria</hi>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Glaß, D.</hi> (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Der Muqtaṭaf Und Seine Öffentlichkeit. Aufklärung, Räsonnement Und Meinungsstreit in Der Frühen Arabischen Zeitschriftenkommunikation</hi>. Würzburg: Ergon Verlag.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grallert, T.</hi> (2013). The puzzle continues: al-Muqtaṭaf was printed in two different and unmarked editions,
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sitzextase,</hi> http://tillgrallert.github.io/blog/2013/08/19/the-puzzle-continues/ (accessed 6 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grallert, T.</hi> (2014). The puzzle continues II: in addition to al-kabīr and al-ṣaghīr, al-Muqtaṭaf published slightly different editions in Beirut and Kairo,
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sitzextase,</hi> http://tillgrallert.github.io/blog/2014/01/19/the-puzzle-continues-2/ (accessed 6 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Märgner, V. and El Abed, H. </hi> (Eds) (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Guide to OCR for Arabic Scripts</hi>. London: Springer http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4471-4072-6.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Seikaly, S.</hi> (1981). Damascene Intellectual Life in the Opening Years of the 20th Century: Muhammad Kurd ʿAli and Al-Muqtabas. In Buheiry, M. R. (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Intellectual Life In The Arab East, 1890-1939</hi>. Beirut: American University Of Beirut, pp. 125–53.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wittern, C.</hi> (2013). Beyond TEI: Returning the Text to the Reader. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative</hi>, 4: Selected Papers from the 2011 TEI Conference. http://jtei.revues.org/691.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2641","17","The Latin of Matthew of Cracow (c. 1345 - 1410) - a corpus based study of his language and style","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The poster illustrates the problems arising when attempting to describe the language used by the author flourishing at the turn of the Middle Ages and the modern era. It shows how a corpus-based linguistic analysis can tell us more about author's language and stylethan the traditional stylometric techniques. It also presents an example of the authorship attribution research of an anonymous medieval treaty carried out with the help of digital tools.</p>
            <p>Matthew of Cracow (c. 1345–1410) is considered as one of the greatest theologians of the Eastern Europe Middle Ages as well as one of the most important representatives of the Polish Scholasticism. He was born in Cracow, probably into a family of German ancestry. After completing his initial education in his native city, he went to Prague, where he entered the Charles University and where he became professor of theology. He was involved in the establishment of the University of Heidelberg, University of Chelmno (Poland) and later in the project of bringing to life the Academy of Cracow. He died on March 5, 1410, in Heidelberg. Matthew belonged to the followers of the <hi rend=""italic"">via moderna</hi> trend of Scholasticism and is known as a zealous reformer of the Catholic Church. He is an author of more than 70 treatises, from which the most famous are <hi rend=""italic"">Rationale operum divinorum</hi>, <hi rend=""italic"">De squaloribus Curiae Romanae</hi> and <hi rend=""italic"">Opuscula Theologica </hi>(Nuding, 2007).</p>
            <p>The poster will present the results of the Matthew's idiolect analysis. It will focus on language change between the late Middle Ages and the early Renaissance, as one of the main goals of the study is to trace two technolects used by authors living in this period, namely Scholastic and Humanistic Latin. Scholastic Latin is defined as a variant of late Medieval Latin, the language of science and the university community in use between 12th and 14th century (Herren, 1996: 124). Its main characteristics are excessive formalism, the use of impersonal narrati on and the pursuit of semantic precision to the detriment of aesthetic and literary values. As a result, Scholastic Latin became a highly technical language, employing countless number of theological and philosophical terms (Bourgain and Hubert, 2005: 62). With the raise of the Renaissance the language of the scientific treatises underwent a significant transformation has been transformed. Imitation of the works of Virgil and Cicero made scholars to change their own way of writing. From now on they will be using the idiomatic structure, the lexis and the rhetorical and stylistic techniques characteristic – at least in their opinion – of the Classical authors (Knight and Tilg, 2015: 4; Tunberg, 1996: 130). Many of the features of Matthew's idiolect seem to follow this new tendency and it is very important to establish how big influence it had on the style of his writings.</p>
            <p>The research is based on the corpus of Matthew's works which includes five editions published between 1930-2011 and consists of over 60000 words. It contains both his original treaties, namely <hi rend=""italic"">De contractibus, De squaloribus Curiae Romanae, Sermones de sanctis, Lectura super Beati Immaculati, Opuscula Theologica</hi>, and an anonymous medieval work, often attributed to Matthew – <hi rend=""italic"">Ars Moriendi</hi>. </p>
            <p>The present study uses the methods developed by the computational stylometry and corpus linguistics and includes among others concordance, collocation and keywords analysis. The software employed for this purpose is the TXM platform – an open-source environment based on CQP and R and providing tools for NLP pre-processing, quantitative analysis together with clear metadata model (Heiden, 2010). Thanks to the TreeTagger coupled with the Latin language model file, TXM makes it possible to annotate Latin text with PoS and lemma tags, and as a result allows to perform advanced queries. In addition to frequency lists for any token property (type, lemma, PoS), the built-in CQP search engine lets generate lists for syntactic constructions specific to Classical and/or Medieval Latin, such as the accusative with infinitive or the possessive dative construction. The R package stylo (Eder et al., 2013), on the other hand, allows to trace similarities between anonymous <hi rend=""italic"">Ars Moriendi </hi>treatise and the original Matthew’s works. </p>
            <p> In thatthe poster shows how the use of the Digital Humanities methods can support the traditional analysis of a writer's language and style and help to ascertain the authorship of various texts coming from different ages.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bourgain, P. and Hubert, M. C.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Le latin médiéval</hi>. Turnhout: Brepols.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2013). Stylometry with R: a suite of tools. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts</hi>. Lincoln (NE): University of Nebraska-Lincoln, pp. 487-89.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heiden, S. </hi>(2010). The TXM Platform: Building Open-Source Textual Analysis Software Compatible with the TEI Encoding Scheme. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">24th Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information and Computation 2010: Conference Abstracts.</hi>Sendai: WU, pp. 389-98.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Herren, M. W.</hi> (1996). Latin and the vernacular languages. In: Mantello F. A. C., Rigg A. G. (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide</hi>. Washington DC: Catholic University of America Press, pp. 122-29.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Knight, S. and Tilg, S.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Oxford Handbook of Neo-Latin</hi>. Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nuding, M.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Matthäus von Krakau</hi>. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tunberg, T. O.</hi> (1996). Humanistic Latin. In Mantello F. A. C. and Rigg A. G. (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide</hi>. Washington DC: Catholic University of America Press, pp. 128-35.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2642","17","The Lifecycle of a Digital African Studies Projects: Creating Sustainable, Equitable, and Ethical Projects","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>For more than 20 years, researchers at Matrix, the Center for Digital Humanites and Social Science have been working on digital projects in several countries in Africa. While the technologies are critical parts of the digital humanities, ethical considerations also need to be part of any project that involves multiple projects. This is particularly true of Digital African Studies Projects because of the long and bloody history of colonialism, exploitation, and cultural theft. This long paper will explore through the context of two ongoing projects -- “Archive of Malian Photography” and the “Gorée Island Archaeological Digital Repository” — strategies to be deployed to develop sustainable, equitable, and ethical projects. While neither project is a perfect model, the strategies deployed set against the everyday frustrations of multiple partner projects, long distance project management, and problematic working conditions does help to expose what works and what still needs to be changed or augmented.</p>
            <p>Mali has remained the international nexus of African photography for nearly twenty years. Since 1994, its capital, Bamako, has been home to the only biennial festival of photography from Africa and has produced the continent’s most globally renowned professional photographers. Matrix in collaboration with the Maison Africaine de la Photographie in Mali, is digitizing and rendering globally accessible the archives of the nation’s most important photographers, dating from the 1940s to the present. The “Archive of Malian Photography” addresses the following significant needs for scholarship and teaching in the humanities as well as the preservation of Mali’s cultural heritage:</p>
            <p>- Although commercial, popular, and scholarly interest in African photography has flourished over the past twenty years, access to photographers’ studio archives is extremely limited and published materials are minimal;</p>
            <p>- Retained in private archives, these materials are not catalogued, appropriately preserved, or internationally accessible for research and education;</p>
            <p>- Due to the high commercial value of these archives in global markets, these materials are vulnerable to mistreatment, theft, and exploitation;</p>
            <p>- Moreover, stored in harsh climactic conditions, the physical integrity of these collections is in serious jeopardy.</p>
            <p>Photography was introduced to present-day Mali during the 1880s by French military officers and, later, colonial administrators, missionaries, and French expatriates. By the 1940s, an African market for photography developed in the French Sudan, as Mali was then known, and its professional photographers maintained a monopoly over the medium. As a result, their archives contain rare visual documentation of social, cultural, and political life as well as processes of urban development in the country, and in French West Africa more broadly. Spanning the eras of French colonialism, political independence, socialism, and democracy, their archives record important socio-political transformations of present-day Mali, its capital, and smaller towns along the Niger River such as Mopti and Ségu during the twentieth century. Employed by colonial and national governments, while operating private studio enterprises, each photographer’s collection houses unique African perspectives on local histories and practices, including personal and family portraiture, military activities, visits of foreign dignitaries, and images of the coup d’états that toppled the socialist regime of the nation’s first president, Modibo Keïta (1968), and the dictatorial rule of his successor, Moussa Traoré (1991). They also feature the construction of national monuments, governmental structures, bridges, dams, roadways, as well as prominent religious leaders, political figures, cultural ceremonies, and fluctuating trends in personal adornment, popular culture, and photographic practices from the 1940s to the present.</p>
            <p>In addition to promoting the global accessibility of these materials, the project is designed to protect the physical integrity of the original archives, safeguarding the negatives from further damage and theft. After the popularization of Malian photographers’ images in exhibitions and publications around the world since the 1990s, their archives have become increasingly vulnerable to pilfering and misuse due to their high commercial value in the international art market. Underscoring the severity of this issue, today, some images from the archives of El Hadj Tijani Sitou and Abdourahmane Sakaly are illegally featured for sale online (http://www.african-collection.dk/english/sakaly-1.htm) by a dealer in Denmark who obtained the photographers’ original negatives, along with those from Mamadou Cissé’s archives, from an administrator at the National Museum in Bamako who had been charged with their protection. To date, the dealer refuses to repatriate the negatives. In another case, prints from twelve of Sitou’s negatives appeared on the cover of African Arts in 2008, without his family’s permission. Such pervasive pilfering of negative archives by foreign collectors, dealers, curators, and scholars, as well as by the leaders of local cultural institutions (museums, galleries, libraries), has prevented these rare collections from entering formal, public archives in Mali.</p>
            <p>The Gorée Island Archaeological Digital Repository seeks is creating virtual 3D representations of cultural heritage materials excavated from archaeological sites in and around Gorée Island, Senegal and share those representations in an open-access, online digital repository. This work answers at least three needs in the scholarly community. First, it enables cultural heritage institutions in Africa to digital preserve archaeological materials in a way that is unobtrusive, relatively inexpensive. The project makes use of photogrammetry, a process wherein a series of images are taken of an object and run through point-recognition software to create a virtual 3D image. This process inexpensive, portable, and relatively easy to complete, making it the jointly sustainable choice for African cultural heritage institutions. Second, the repository allows scholars both within Africa and around the world to have access to these cultural heritage materials without the restrictions and inconveniences of analog-based preservation. Finally, the Gorée Island Digital Repository builds capacity amongst Senegalese students, scholars, and organizations to continue documenting and preserving cultural heritage materials using industry best standards and practices.</p>
            <p>The project is being developed through the collaboration of the Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar – Sénégal (UCAD), Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire, the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture, Michigan State University, Matrix with the support of the Centre de Researche Ouest Africain.</p>
            <p>Documenting, safeguarding, preserving, interpreting/reinterpreting, and making accessible the myriad expressions of Africa’s many cultures is vitally important for Africa’s diverse constituent communities as well as for the rest of the world. Museums, libraries, and archives in Africa and around the world face an enormous challenge as Africa’s diverse and rich cultural heritage has been scattered by history and put at risk by wars, illicit trafficking, overwhelming economic challenges, and destruction or erosion due to human and environmental impacts. As pioneering efforts have demonstrated, the digital revolution opens up significant possibilities for long-term preservation and meaningful access that have proven unattainable in an analog world. However, to do so requires thoughtful, ethical, equitable, and sustainable strategies. These considerations need to be built into the very structure of digital humanities projects.</p>
            <p>Significant barriers remain, however, that severely limit efforts to move beyond these individual projects and fully utilize digital technologies within Africa and with African cultural materials around the world. While we are at a moment of opportunity with digital technologies, this is also a period of crisis where invaluable cultural resources are at risk to be lost forever. This paper also calls for the need for major international leadership initiatives to tackle these barriers in coordinated fashion and chart a path forward for museums, libraries, archives, universities and other heritage preservation institutions to construct equitable international partnerships that can harness this powerful opportunity.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2643","17","The Models of Authority Project: Extending the DigiPal Framework for Script and Decoration","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The DigiPal project for palaeography has featured in previous DH conferences (Stokes 2012; Stokes 
                <hi rend=""italic"">et al</hi>. 2014; Stokes 2015). It includes a generalised framework for the description and analysis of handwriting, initially applied to Old English of the eleventh century but subsequently extended to Latin, Hebrew, and decoration (Stokes 
                <hi rend=""italic"">et al</hi>. 2014); it incorporates a novel model for describing handwriting (Stokes 2012); and a recent addition allows the embedding of linked palaeographical images into prose description (Figures 1 and 2; see also Figure 3). The purpose of this poster is to present new developments which form part of two further major grants, one of which is the Models of Authority project (see also Exon 2015). Specifically, the focus here is on the incorporation of textual content into the model for handwriting.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""394/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""Ref307993375""/>Figure 1: Sample of Embedded Annotations in Palaeographical Description (Webber 2015). All images are linked by the framework to their full context in the manuscript page.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""394/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""Ref307994298""/>Figure 2: The Graph of 
                <hi rend=""bold"">s</hi> (fourth across in Fig. 1 above) in its page context.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""394/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""Ref307994921""/>
                <anchor xml:id=""Ref307996748""/>Figure 3: Sample forms (graphs) of 
                <hi rend=""bold"">r</hi> in the Models of Authority database. Examples of 2-shaped 
                <hi rend=""bold"">r</hi> are starred.
            </p>
            <p>It is well known that features of handwriting depend not only on the type of manuscript and the social context of production, but also on the text itself, and the absence of this has always been a weakness of DigiPal (Stutzmann 2012; Stutzmann 2013). For Models of Authority, in contrast, a key premise is that the development of government in medieval Scotland is reflected in the choice of visual models behind the layout and handwriting of royal and local documents: this choice probably drew primarily on English counterparts, but elements from papal bulls, among others, are also visible (Broun 2015). It is helpful to note further that the text of these documents is relatively formulaic: this is common of charters in general, as noted in particular by the Charters Encoding Initiative (CEI) and utilised effectively by the Anglo-Saxon Charters project (ASChart), among others. However, connections between diplomatic formulae and script remain largely unexamined, at least in a digital context; certainly digital projects are underway that analyse the relationship between script and document (two examples are PUhMA and MoM-CA), but freely-available online frameworks are still lacking that allow queries like ‘show me images of 
                <hi rend=""bold"">d</hi> that appear in witness-lists of episcopal charters, and let me compare them with those of dispositive clauses’. Hence a key question of Models of Authority is whether matching the palaeography to the diplomatic formulae in this way might reveal new information about how the documents were put together, what models may lie behind them, and therefore how the nascent Scottish government may have seen itself particularly in relation to the English and Papal chanceries.
            </p>
            <p>The DigiPal framework has therefore been extended by adding a generalised textual component, such that arbitrary marked-up texts (transcription, translation, codicological description, and so on) may be associated with palaeographical annotations and images and displayed in parallel with them (Figures 4–6). This allows the exploration of correlations between palaeographical forms and the corresponding text, comparing in this case the different clauses in the documents not just in terms of the text (as done in ASChart and others) but also as images of the corresponding clause in different documents. The integration of this into the DigiPal model for handwriting (described by Stokes 2012) therefore allows detailed palaeographical querying, such as filtering for images of all the letters with ascenders that appear in the address clause of the charter, or looking for variation in letter-forms in the witness lists. The former is of considerable interest because chancery scribes often add decorative elements to ascenders of letters, particularly in the first line of the text (visible in Figure 4), a practice which derives from Papal and ultimately Merovingian diplomatic practice; for the latter query, names of witnesses are normally written by the main scribe at the same time as the rest of the text but in some cases may also have been added later (Broun 2011, 258–65 and 280–7), so identifying differences in writing here can also be very significant. Beyond charters, the digital model generalises to other forms of linking from structured text to structured annotation, for instance at the glyph-by-glyph level advocated by Stutzmann (2013), and is also being applied elsewhere (Exon 2015).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""394/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""Ref307993399""/>Figure 4: Diplomatic Markup of Text and Image
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""394/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 5: Example query showing text and image of witness lists in private charters.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""394/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 6: Prototype overview/timeline indicating shapes of 
                <hi rend=""bold"">d</hi> in documents of different type.
            </p>
            <p>This addition of text introduces considerable complexity to the system, since it seeks to connect very different views of the original document: as transcription, translation, image and annotation; as scribal product (a set of interconnected and interacting letters) and diplomatic product (a set of textual formulae); an overview of the current architecture is shown in Figure 7. This integration of different views goes to the heart of an ongoing challenge in Digital Humanities, as perhaps best represented by the competing ‘textual’ and ‘documentary’ views in the TEI (2015; Pierazzo and Stokes 2011; see also Stokes and Noël 2010).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""394/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Figure 7: Overview of the current architecture</p>
            <p>The proposed poster will therefore present the existing framework and integrated model, addressing the complexities described above. Live demonstrations will be available of Models of Authority, and of other instances of the framework such as DigiPal, Exon, and some that are not yet publicly available.</p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Acknowledgements</head>
                <p>The Models of Authority project is funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) under Grant Reference n° AH/L008041/1.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">ASChart</hi>.
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Anglo-Saxon Charters</hi>. London: King’s College. Available at 
                        <ref target=""http://aschart.kcl.ac.uk/"">http://aschart.kcl.ac.uk/</ref>. [Accessed 1 November 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Broun, D.</hi> (2015). Introducing the ‘Models of Authority’ project: Scottish charters c. 1100–c.1250. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Models of Authority: Scottish Charters and the Emergence of Government</hi>. London: King’s College. Available at 
                        <ref target=""http://www.modelsofauthority.ac.uk/blog/intro/"">http://www.modelsofauthority.ac.uk/blog/intro/</ref>. [Accessed 1 November 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Broun, D.</hi> (2011). The presence of witnesses and the writing of charters. In Broun, D. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Reality behind Charter Diplomatic in Anglo-Norman Britain</hi>. Glasgow: University of Glasgow, pp. 235–90. Available at 
                        <ref target=""http://paradox.poms.ac.uk/redist/pdf/chapter4.pdf"">http://paradox.poms.ac.uk/redist/pdf/chapter4.pdf</ref>. [Accessed 3 March 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">CEI</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Charters Encoding Initiative</hi>. Munich: Ludwig-Maximilians Universität. Available at 
                        <ref target=""http://www.cei.uni-muenchen.de/"">http://www.cei.uni-muenchen.de/</ref>. [Accessed 1 November 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">DigiPal</hi>. (2010–14). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Resource and Database of Palaeography, Manuscript Studies and Diplomatic</hi>. London: King's College. Available at 
                        <ref target=""http://www.digipal.eu"">http://www.digipal.eu</ref>. [Accessed 1 November 2015]. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Exon</hi>. (2015–). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Conqueror’s Commissioners: Unlocking the Domesday Survey of SW England</hi>. London: King’s College. Available at 
                        <ref target=""http://www.exondomesday.ac.uk"">http://www.exondomesday.ac.uk</ref>. [Accessed 1 November 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">PUhMA</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Papsturkunden des hohen Mittelalters</hi>. Erlangen: University of Erlangen-Nuremberg. 
                        <ref target=""https://www5.cs.fau.de/de/papsturkunden-des-hohen-mittelalters/startseite/"">https://www5.cs.fau.de/de/papsturkunden-des-hohen-mittelalters/startseite/</ref>. [Accessed 3 March 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">MoA</hi> (2015–). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Models of Authority: Scottish Charters, c.1100–c.1250</hi>. London: King’s College. Available at 
                        <ref target=""http://www.modelsofauthority.ac.uk"">http://www.modelsofauthority.ac.uk</ref>. [Accessed 3 March 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">MoM-CA</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Source Code of the Monasterium Collaborative Archive</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""https://github.com/icaruseu/mom-ca"">https://github.com/icaruseu/mom-ca</ref>. [Accessed 3 March 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pierazzo, E. and Stokes, P.A.</hi> (2011). Putting the text back into context: A codicological approach to manuscript transcription. In Fischer, F., Fritze, C. and Vogeler, G. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Kodikologie und Paläographie im Digitalen Zeitalter 2 - Codicology and Palaeography in the Digital Age 2</hi>. Norderstedt: Books on Demand, pp. 397–430. Available at 
                        <ref target=""http://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/4360/"">http://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/4360/</ref>. [Accessed 1 November 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stokes, P. A., and Noël, G.</hi> (2010). Modelling and system design. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Anglo-Saxon Cluster Project Report</hi>. London: King’s College. Available at 
                        <ref target=""http://www.ascluster.org/techinfo/analysis/system_design.html"">http://www.ascluster.org/techinfo/analysis/system_design.html</ref>. [Accessed 1 November 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stokes, P.A.</hi> (2012). Modeling medieval handwriting: A new approach to digital palaeography. In Meister, J.C. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">et al</hi>. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH2012 Book of Abstracts</hi>. Hamburg: University of Hamburg, pp. 382–5. Available at 
                        <ref target=""http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/modeling-medieval-handwriting-a-new-approach-to-digital-palaeography"">http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/modeling-medieval-handwriting-a-new-approach-to-digital-palaeography</ref>. [Accessed 1 November 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stokes, P.A., Brookes, S., Noël, G., Buomprisco, G., Marques de Matos, D., and Watson, M.</hi> (2014) The DigiPal framework for script and image. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014 Book of Abstracts</hi>. Lausanne: 512–14. Available at 
                        <ref target=""http://dharchive.org/paper/DH2014/Poster-193.xml"">http://dharchive.org/paper/DH2014/Poster-193.xml</ref>. Poster available at 
                        <ref target=""http://www.digipal.eu/media/uploads/uploads/images/blog_posts/2014/DH2014%20Poster.pdf"">http://www.digipal.eu/media/uploads/uploads/images/blog_posts/2014/DH2014%20Poster.pdf</ref>. [Accessed 1 November 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stokes, P. A.</hi> (2015). The problem of digital dating: A model for uncertainty in medieval documents. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2015 Book of Abstracts</hi>. Sydney: University of Western Sydney. Available at 
                        <ref target=""http://dh2015.org/abstracts/"">http://dh2015.org/abstracts/</ref>. [Accessed 1 November 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stutzmann, D.</hi> (2012). Modélisation des signes graphiques (1). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Écriture médiévale et numérique</hi>. Available at 
                        <ref target=""http://oriflamms.hypotheses.org/921"">http://oriflamms.hypotheses.org/921</ref>. [Accessed 1 November 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stutzmann, D.</hi> (2013). Ontologie des formes et encodage des textes manuscrits médiévaux: Le projet ORIFLAMMS. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Document númerique</hi> 16(3): 81–95.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">TEI</hi>: Text Encoding Initiative (2015). Representation of primary sources. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange</hi>. Version 2.9.1 revision 46ac023. Available at 
                        <ref target=""http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/PH.html"">http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/PH.html</ref>. [Accessed 1 November 2015].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Webber, T.</hi> (2015). The handwriting of Scottish charters 1100–1250 in the National Library of Scotland. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Models of Authority: Scottish Charters and the Emergence of Government 1100–1250</hi>. King’s College London. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.modelsofauthority.ac.uk/blog/handwriting/"">http://www.modelsofauthority.ac.uk/blog/handwriting/</ref>. [Accessed 3 March 2016].
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2644","17","The North Carolina Jukebox Project: Archives Alive and the Making of Digital Cultural Heritage","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The North Carolina (USA) Jukebox project transforms an inaccessible audio archive from the 1930s, of historic North Carolina folk music collected by Frank Clyde Brown, into a vital, publicly accessible digital archive and museum exhibition. Led by Trudi Abel, a librarian in the Rubenstein Special Collections Library at Duke University, and Victoria Szabo, a faculty member in Visual and Media Studies and Information Science + Studies at Duke, this interdisciplinary, collaborative effort also involves scholars in music and folklore, music and preservation librarians, digital media specialists, descendants of the original performers, and contemporary musicians who play this music professionally today (Archives Alive Initiative | Trinity College of Arts and` Sciences, 2016). </p>
            <p>As a teaching experience associated with the Library’s Archives Alive initiative, the project offers opportunities for students from arts, music, computer science, and engineering programs to learn about the collection and develop an exhibition from initial concept to execution, and to do so in collaboration with a diverse set of mentors and collaborators who help them understand the histories and technologies involved, as well as stakes of their presentation choices. As a ongoing archival project, it demonstrates the challenges and opportunities inherent in working out a major library archive and preservation effort alongside a live curricular intervention and planned public exhibition. As a research project, it offers scholars in media studies a firsthand view of how material recording and playback technologies and their affordances help shape subsequent cultural histories, and affect what we can recirculate and share today. Taken together, these strands demonstrate that introducing digital cultural heritage project development as a shared objective enriches student learning, encourages library archiving and preservation projects to consider their public facing dimensions as they construct new resources, and offers digital humanities and media studies scholars meaningful opportunities to collaborate with colleagues in historically minded disciplines around new forms of scholarly production – in this case data-driven exhibitions at the Mountain Music Museum in Western NC, at the Rubenstein Special Collections Library at Duke, and online.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""561/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1. NC Jukebox Project Advertisement</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Our project begins with the songcatcher himself. In the 1930s Frank Clyde Brown, Duke Professor of English, and co-organizer of the North Carolina Folklore Society (1913) as Zeke Graves in our Library tells us, began recording and archiving Western North Carolina folk music (Graves, 2015). Following in the tradition of folklorist Alan Lomax, and songcatcher/musician Bascom Lunsford as chronicled by Loyal Jones, along with other famous songcatchers of the period, he drove around region capturing a range of singers and songs using the technology available in the period, a notebook and Dictaphone equipped with first wax cylinders and later aluminum cylinders (Jones and Forbes, 1984). Like us, Brown involved his students in the project as well, encouraging them to capture songs and research their origins. Today most of those recordings are still housed on wax cylinders and glass disks in the Duke Libraries, and in the Library of Congress, with about 400 songs having already been converted to digital formats. The rest are being converted as part of a substantial Council of Library and Information Resources grant.</p>
            <p>In addition to learning about Brown, histories of the music, songcatching, and folklore practices of the period, students in a Fall 2015 NC Jukebox course began to work closely with the 400 digitized recordings we currently have available, developing metadata, transcribing songs, and organizing their materials in spreadsheet, blog, and database form. Our project also explores biographies of the singers, transcribes the songs as heard on the tapes in in comparison to other versions, and traces the Scotch‑English history and contemporary analogues of the songs themselves through research in Child’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ballads</hi> and other key sources (Child et al., 2001). In addition, we have begun to demonstrate change over time and space through maps, patterns, flows, timelines, and networks of the music - a kind of distant listening, or viewing of its collection and presentation, with more to come. In the physical exhibits, interactive touchscreens, period photos, and hybrid analog‑digital audio playback machines – a radio, a Jukebox, and perhaps a 78‑playing phonograph – will invoke the historical conditions of production and reception of the music for diverse audiences.
            </p>
            <p>As an historiographical research project, NC Jukebox is also offering opportunities to explore firsthand how social and material conditions affect the writing of cultural history itself. Over the course of this project we have learned about the history of songcatching and folklore as social and academic practices designed to verify expectations about a specific kind of musical heritage. Brown died before his work could be compiled into the published versions of his work. As his papers reveal, not all of the songs he collected were included in the final, posthumous collection of his work (Guide to the Frank Clyde Brown Papers, 1912-1974, 2016). His subsequent editors, like other before them who were seeking a pure musical tradition descended from that of the Scots-Irish settlers in the region, as seen in Ritchie and Orr’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Wayfaring Strangers,</hi> for example, picked and chose songs to include in the published work (Ritchie, Orr and Parton, 2014). Their criteria are (helpfully for future researchers) sketched out in their editorial notes, which are also in the archives. Songs that were too popular, had been published, were too religious, or, perhaps most significantly, were from African American traditions, were excluded from the published collection, even if familiar from other sourdes like the Library of Congress Checklist of Recorded Songs (U.S Library of Congress, 1942). On another note, we also experienced the lingering effects of musical and cultural segregation first-hand as a class when our well-intentioned musical guest, a contemporary folksinger who is helping keep the Mountain Music traditions alive today, explained that he was going to perform a song as he had heard his “colored” neighbors sing it growing up (McKinney, 2015). This moment became part of a class conversation about representing tradition while at the same time acknowledging our contemporary perspectives upon it in how we frame the music.
            </p>
            <p>This project is also about the history of recording and reproduction technologies, which has deeply affected the content. Encountering recordings made from wax cylinders and glass disks, which included a white-glove visit from Special Collections as well as examining photographs of Brown and other “in the field,” encouraged conversations around our continuously evolving standards and expectations for archiving and reproduction. Our students had to consider whether it was more “authentic” to leave in the hisses and crackles that had made it into the third generation audio files they were listening to, or whether they could and should attempt to clean up the sound quality so it was closer to the “original” source – the singers themselves. Were we archiving the archives, or the ur-performances? Our students also learned about and from Charles Bond, the onetime Duke undergraduate (and now lawyer in San Francisco) who serendipitously took it upon himself in the 1980s to transfer some of the existing recordings to reel-to-reel tapes, using a moog synthesizer to clean up some pops and crackles. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""561/image2.JPG"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2. Wax Cylinder from the FCB collection</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Further, we discovered how the limits of the recording medium itself reveal the priorities of the documentarians and archivists involved. Wax disks could only record 6-7 minutes of a song, as the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Federal Cylinder Project</hi> editors note (Gray and Schupman, 1990). Songcatchers might record just one stanza of a song, rather then the whole performance, a fact that highlights that it was the intellectual process of abstracting data from the performance, to be converted to written notation and lyrics, rather than the performance itself, that was most valued for academic folklore purposes. The recordings were data to mine rather than songs to hear. We have also confronted challenges to our efforts in repatriation and exhibition as we began to develop our downloadable “Greatest Hits” of the FCB collection. Because of copyright restrictions on published songs, in the end we may need to limit our final song choices to the purely folkloric – putting us in some cases right back in line with Brown’s purity-seeking editors! We have even begun to wonder about the NC Jukebox idea itself as a title and concept, given that the term jukebox didn’t come into common parlance until the 1940s, as we learned from 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Jukeboxes:An American Social History</hi>, and the music we are sharing was most likely shared at the time either locally or over live radio, as our guest Terry McKinney told us (Segrave, 2002). Our presentism is a both a problem and an acknowledgement of our own historicity and subjectivity.
            </p>
            <p>NC Jukebox is serving as a prototype for future “Archives Alive” projects at Duke University in terms of pedagogical approach, access to primary and secondary source materials from Special Collections, community engagement, and digital platform and exhibition development. As a digital heritage project designed to serve multiple audiences, the digital and onsite exhibition components are being built with an eye towards multiple display formats and locations for a single set of materials within a grown growing database of content. This includes exhibition in a regiona museum organized by McKinney himself (Neufeld, 2015). It also necessitates metadata standards and library infrastructure, a conversation that is ongoing with our Library staff. For the exhibits in Western North Carolina and at the Rubenstein Library we have websites, Omeka exhibits, and interactive web graphics, as well as the downloadable playlist and physical exhibits and listening stations. For the archive, however, we are working with Library and technology partners on a more sustainable and flexible content management system in Drupal that draws content from the more permanent institutional repository solution, which will serve as the substrate for future development as well as, we hope, drive later installations. Our hope is that subsequent generations of students, librarians, and scholars will be able to build upon what we have done in bringing the archives alive.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brown, F.C.</hi> (2016). The Frank C. Brown Collection of North Carolina Folklore; the folklore of North Carolina, collected by Dr. Frank C. Brown during the years 1912 to 1943, in collaboration with the North Carolina Folklore Society : Frank C. Brown Collection of North Carolina Folklore : Free Download and Streaming: Internet Archive. (2016). [online] Internet Archive. Available at: https://archive.org/details/frankcbrowncolle00fran [Accessed 6 Mar. 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gray, J. and Schupman, E.</hi> (1990). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Federal cylinder project</hi>. Washington: American Folklife Center, Library of Congress.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Graves, Z.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">...and We're Putting it on Wax (The Frank Clyde Brown Collection) - Bitstreams: The Digital Collections Blog</hi>. [online] Bitstreams: The Digital Collections Blog. Available at: http://blogs.library.duke.edu/bitstreams/2015/06/19/and-were-putting-it-on-wax-the-frank-clyde-brown-collection/ [Accessed 6 Mar. 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McKinney, T.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">North Carolina Mountain Music</hi>. Durham, NC. Available at: http://bit.ly/1MAPQRs [Accessed 6 Mar. 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Neufeld, R.</hi> (2015). Visiting Our Past: 1930s a Golden Age for music in WNC. [online] <hi rend=""italic"">Citizen Times.</hi> Available at: http://www.citizen-times.com/story/life/2015/02/01/visiting-past-golden-age-music-wnc/22705455/ [Accessed 6 Mar. 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Segrave,K.</hi> (2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Jukeboxes: An American Social History</hi>. London: McFarland. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Child, F., Heiman, M., Heiman, L. and Child, F.</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The English and Scottish popular ballads</hi>. Northfield, Minn.: Loomis House Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Duke University</hi>. (2016). Archives Alive Initiative | Trinity College of Arts and Sciences. [online] Trinity.duke.edu. Available at: https://trinity.duke.edu/initiatives/archives-alive [Accessed 6 Mar. 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Duke University. </hi>(2016). Guide to the Frank Clyde Brown Papers, 1912-1974. [online] David M. Rubenstein Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Available at: http://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/findingaids/brownfrankclyde/ [Accessed 6 Mar. 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jones, L. and Forbes, J.</hi> (1984). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Minstrel of the Appalachians</hi>. Boone, N.C.: Appalachian Consortium Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ritchie, F., Orr, D. and Parton, D.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Wayfaring strangers: The Musical Voyage from Scotland and Ulster to Appalachia</hi>. Chapel Hill: UNC Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""selectable"">
                            <hi rend=""bold"">U. S. Library of Congress</hi>. (1942). Division of music. Archive of American folk song.,
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Check-list of recorded songs in the English language in the Archive of American folk song to July, 1940. Alphabetical list with geographical index</hi>. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, Division of music.
                        </hi>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2645","17","The Online Archive ""Forced Labor 1939-1945. Memory and History""","10","<text>
        <body>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Research</head>
            <p>This presentation will focus on the development of the Online-Archive “Forced Labor 1939-1945. Memory and History”.</p> 
            <p>The collection of narrative interviews was compiled in 2005 and 2006 by the Institute of History and Biography at FernUniversität Hagen. In a joint project, the Foundation “Remembrance, Responsibility and Future”, the Freie Universität Berlin, and the German Historical Museum aim to safeguard and provide easy access to these multilingual audio and video interviews and accompanying materials for research and education.</p>
            <p>The online archive contains 583 comprehensive life story interviews with concentration camp survivors, prisoners of war, and “civilian” forced laborers. In 27 countries, mainly in Central and Eastern Europe, 192 video and 391 audio interviews were conducted in the native languages of the witnesses. Each interview is accompanied by additional material: a short biography, a transcript of the interview, a translation of the transcript into German, a table of contents showing the structure of the interview, additional photos and documents, as well as basic biographical information. All content is accessible worldwide for any users who registered with the site.</p>
            <p>So far there are no standards on how to document and index Oral History Collections and we will show examples of different approaches which are used at the moment.</p>
            <p>In this context we will describe our indexing method, with its internal working interfaces and the process involved, as well as the public online application and its functionalities. We will present the different functionalities (content-based indexing, full-text search and an interactive map application) that enable a targeted search that leads directly to individual passages of the interviews. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""19/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>We will also discuss considerations involved in designing an online platform to avoid the use of the interviews as a mere quotations quarry and instead supports a comprehensive understanding of the whole testimony in its narrative structure and its biographical meaning.</p>
            <p>An annotation function will be presented. The function is meant to benefit from the specific knowledge of users to add to the understanding of the interviews. </p>
            <p>Finally, the archive has been designed multilingually and runs in German, English, and Russian in order to accommodate the needs of a greater international audience.</p>
            <p>This presentation doesn´t focus on a special research problem. Instead it shows a powerful tool which enables academics to work effectively with testimonies to answer their own research questions. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Education</head>
            <p>The online-platform aims to support education as well, and there is the option to give an overview of our approaches in this context, too.</p>
            <p>We created an online-learning-environment for the use in the classroom which will be available from the beginning of 2016. Based on short biographical films (half an hour) and additional provided material (maps, documents, photographs, additional films) students are asked to work on a number of didactically framed tasks. Most tasks are historical in nature and working with them is useful for the teaching of history. But also for other school subjects exercises are available as for example in language education or religious instructions.</p>
            <p>The pupils are asked to write their answers in an online-editor and combine them with selected materials which are easy to import. The results can be saved and printed individually. </p>
              <list type=""unordered"">
                  <item>Teachers have additional options and can for example create their own questions based on the films and the materials. </item>
                  <item>The software offers versions of the learning environment for different countries. These versions vary in language and content and are drawn up by experts in the respective countries. From the beginning of 2016 a Czech and a German version are available. A Russian version is on the way. </item>
                  <item>The online-learning-environment is responsive and can be used with different mobile devices. </item>
              </list>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
              <head>Links</head>
            <p><ref target=""http://www.zwangsarbeit-archiv.de"">http://www.zwangsarbeit-archiv.de</ref></p>
            <p><ref target=""https://lernen-mit-interviews.de/"">https://lernen-mit-interviews.de/</ref></p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Andresen, K., Apel, L. and Heinsohn, K.</hi> (Eds.) (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Es gilt das gesprochene Wort. Oral History und Zeitgeschichte heute</hi>. Göttingen: Wallstein. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Apostolopoulos, N., Barricelli, M., Possekel, R. and Koch, G.</hi> (Eds.) (2016). <hi rend=""italic"">Preserving Survivors’ Memories. Digital Testimony Collections about Nazi Persecution</hi>. Berlin (forthcoming). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Apostolopoulos, N. and Pagenstecher, C.</hi> (Eds.) (2013). <hi rend=""italic"">Erinnern an Zwangsarbeit. Zeitzeugen-Interviews in der digitalen Welt</hi>. Berlin: Metropol. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bothe, A. and Brüning, Ch. I.</hi> (Eds.) (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Geschlecht und Erinnerung im digitalen Zeitalter. Neue Perspektiven auf ZeitzeugInnenarchive</hi>. Berlin: LIT Verlag. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Jong, F., Oard, D. W., Heeren, W. and Ordelman, R.</hi> (2008). Access to recorded interviews: A research agenda. <hi rend=""italic"">ACM J. Comput. Cultur. Heritage</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(1), http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1367080.1367083 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nägel, V.</hi> (2016). Zeugnis – Artefakt – Digitalisat. Zur Bedeutung der Entstehungs- und Aufbereitungsprozesse von Oral History-Interviews. In: Eusterschulte, A., Knopp, S. and Schulze, S. (Eds.), <hi rend=""italic"">Videographierte Zeugenschaft. Ein interdisziplinärer Dialog, Weilerswist: Velbrück Wissenschaft</hi> (in print). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Plato, A. von, Leh, A. and Thonfeld, Ch.</hi> (2010). <hi rend=""italic"">Hitler’s Slaves. Life Stories of Forced Labourers in Nazi-Occupied Europe</hi>. New York: Berghahn Books. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2646","17","Books from the Southern Netherlands and their role in early modern globalisation (1500-1800)","2","<text>
        <body>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""292/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Books from the Southern Netherlands and their role in early modern globalisation (1500-1800)</head>
            </figure>
            <p>In the early modern period, books were the most important medium of cultural and scientific exchange. The trade in books and the translation of books were two major aspects in this process. This presentation aims to introduce a research project at the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">KU Leuven (Belgium)</hi> that examines the specific contribution of books published in the Southern Netherlands and their role in early modern globalisation. This investigation encompasses four sub-projects, three of which analyse 
                <hi rend=""bold"">the importance of books from Southern Netherlands for the cultural life of early modern Spanish America</hi>. These focus on the viceroyalties of New Spain, Peru, New Granada, and Rio de la Plata. The poster introduces the sub-project about the viceroyalty of Peru, thereby outlining the use of digital tools in this research context.
            </p>
            <p>The fourth sub-project looks at 
                <hi rend=""bold"">book translations produced in the Southern Netherlands</hi>. It aims to increase our understanding of the world-system of translations as it existed (and evolved) during the early modern period.
            </p>
            <p>All four sub-projects are unique, in that for the first time, they harness the potential offered by the digitalisation of books and library catalogues allowing us to arrive at more comprehensive conclusions than could be reached in the past.</p>
            <p>The two show-cased sub-projects were facilitated by the use of online tools and the effective use of standard software. They are exemplary for new approaches to research questions which could not be posed earlier, because the data was not accessible and/or the amount of resulting detailed information could not be appropriately analysed.</p>
            <p>The book trade projects prove the existence of a global network spanning three hundred years, while content analysis based case studies and comparisons made to books by Peruvian authors in the early modern period reveal how publications originating from the Southern Netherlands influenced intellectual elites in the Spanish Colonies. The translation project has documented how translation was used to bolster the image of the Spanish Monarchy and advance the cause of the Counter Reformation.</p>
            <p>This presentation gives an 
                <hi rend=""bold"">overview of the methodological steps</hi> needed to answer the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">research questions</hi> and it presents the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">digital tools employed</hi> in these tasks.
            </p>
            <p>The main section provides exemplary representative results based on the evaluation of metadata collected from digital resources such as library catalogues. This data was analysed using standard MS office software. </p>
            <p>Initial 
                <hi rend=""bold"">results have already been published</hi> in various articles. More comprehensive results are awaiting publication.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Behiels, L.,Thomas, W. and Pistor, C.</hi> (2014). Translation as an Instrument of Empire: The Southern Netherlands as a Translation Center of the Spanish Empire, 1500-1700.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Historical Methods</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">47</hi> (3): 113-27. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pistor, C., Behiels, L. and Thomas, W.</hi> (2013). Translation, court networks, and the fashioning of an Imperial image: Charles V and the work of Luis de Ávila y Zúñiga. Bibliothèque d'Humanisme et Renaissance. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Travaux et Documents</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">75</hi> (2): 271-89. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manrique Figueroa, C.</hi> (2013). New Spain’s import of Culture from the Southern Netherlands. The case of Books, in: Hyden-Hanscho V. and Pieper R. (Eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cultural Exchange and Consumption Patterns in the Age of the Enlightenment</hi>, pp. 41-56. 
                   </bibl>
                   <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manrique Figueroa, C.</hi> (2013). Studying the book in Hispanic America. The process of consolidation of national identities, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Jaarboek voor Nederlandse Boekgeschiedenis</hi>, pp. 187-200. 
                  </bibl>
                  <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fuss, U.</hi> (2012). Books and book trade as trigger of the global modernity, in: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Libro y lectura en la Historia</hi>, EREBEA. Revista de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>, (online). 
                  </bibl>
                  <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fuss, U</hi>. (2011). From Antwerp to Peru - books from the Southern Netherlands in the 16th century's Viceroyalty,
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Jaarboek voor Nederlandse Boekgeschiedenis</hi>, jaargang 18, pp. 115-32. 
                  </bibl>  
                  <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manrique F., C. and Thomas, W.</hi> (2009). La infraestructura de la globalización: la imprenta flamenca y la construcción del imperio hispánico en América, In Collard P. and Ubarri M. (coords.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Encuentros, desencuentros, reencuentros: Flandes, Países Bajos y el mundo hispánico en los siglos XVI-XVII</hi>, pp. 45-72. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2647","17","The Stanford Code Poetry Slam through Critical Code Studies","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This paper reports on, analyzes, and contextualizes a project I have co-founded and run since 2013, the Stanford Code Poetry Slam (
                <ref target=""http://tinyurl.com/codepoetryslam"">tinyurl.com/codepoetryslam</ref>). This is a series of international contests in which we solicit code poetry, whatever that means to our submitters, and then curate the best works. At each event, the best submissions are then “slammed” by human performers and (often) simultaneously by the computer programs that run them. The project explores the performative potential of computer languages, situates itself within the growing discipline of critical code studies, and has produced some fascinating work. In this short paper, I'll explain the project, analyze several of the poems as code and as poetry, and place the Stanford Code Poetry Slams in the context of recent conversations in critical code studies, particularly with reference to performance. How do humans perform code, and how does that differ from the way computers perform it? The connective aspect, I will argue, is based in the languages code poets use to write their works, each of which afford different performative possibilities. Through a close analysis of the linguistic choices our authors made, I will show in this brief presentation some of the commonalities between critical code studies and translation studies.
            </p>
            <p>Many of our code poets have written and performed works that reference older poetic movements or forms, repurposing them for a digital medium. In Zak Kain’s “Capsized,” written in beautifully descriptive CSS, you can see a clear reference to imagistic works like William Carlos William’s “The Red Wheelbarrow”; utilizing sparse but evocative descriptions, Kain’s poem paints a harsh picture and simultaneously comes off as jokey and whimsical. This duality illustrates a fascinating, secretive aspect to code poetry, where the tone and content of the poem can imply one reading and the very language in which it’s written (and the specific rules of that language) can inspire another reading entirely. In this case, the surrogate performer did a great job of presenting both aspects of the work, by starting sadly and then growing increasingly over-dramatic.</p>
            <p>The code poem that won CPS 1.1 also played with performance to get across a profound point, in this case crossing seamlessly between aspects of performativity in digital, theatrical, religious, and social media realms. In “21
                <hi rend=""superscript"">st</hi> Century Prophecies,” Hunter Bacot wrote a poem that calls the most recent tweet from seven “Prophets” (famous twitter users with huge followings) and strings those tweets together into a list of “virtues.” In Keshav Dimri’s performance, each line was intoned with the solemnity of a sermon (“Let KingJames be added to the list of virtues!”) and the resulting poem (the 7 most recent tweets) was spoken like a biblical verse. “21
                <hi rend=""superscript"">st</hi> Century Prophecies” references movements like bricolage and found poetry by rearranging already extant text in new ways, and it gestures towards “Curation as Creation” and ideas found in the Digital Humanities Manifesto 2.0.
            </p>
            <p>Other kinds of code poems make art out of the strenuous constraints imposed by coding languages, if one’s goal is to write a text that actually compiles. Constrained texts reference much older poetic forms, like the sonnet, which require following a complicated set of rules about syllabic stresses and end rhymes. Many Perl poets write these kinds of texts. One of our best examples was Mike Widner’s “A Pythonic Lament,” which prints out “Alas! Alas!” when run.</p>
            <p>Finally, in linguistic double coding, a sentence is readable in multiple languages at once. “Jean put dire comment on tape” reads in English (albeit a little ungrammatically) and, in translation from French, says ""Jean is able to say how one types."" Poems that are readable to humans and readable to computers perform a kind of cyborg double coding, and the ramifications of this possibility for translation studies are one of the themes the CPS series explores. Julian Bliss’ “Polymorphism,” the winning poem from CPS 2.0, took this idea to an incredible extreme, as he created a piece of text that, when compiled in multiple languages, produces a different poem in each. Moreover, each output poem parodies a clichéd English-language poem.</p>
            <p>This presentation will analyze these and other works of code poetry we’ve slammed, showing how the languages in which they were written greatly affect their performative potential and demonstrate the performative nature of translation.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2648","17","The symogih.org Project: Towards an International Consortium","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">symogih.org</hi>, a project in constant evolution
                </head>
                <p>The collaborative platform for historical research developed as part of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">symogih.org</hi> project has reached a mature stage
                    <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">SyMoGIH: Système Modulaire de Gestion de l'Information Historique</hi> - Modular Historical Information Management System. The project site: 
                        <ptr target=""http://www.symogih.org/""/>. Cf. Beretta, F., Vernus, P., and Hours, B. (2012).
                    </note>. With an active SPARQL endpoint, the system is now interoperable and interconnected
                    <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""2"">
                        <ref target=""http://symogih.org/?q=rdf-publication"">http://</ref>
                        <ref target=""http://symogih.org/?q=rdf-publication"">www.</ref>
                        <ref target=""http://symogih.org/?q=rdf-publication"">symogih.org/?q=rdf-publication</ref> . Cf. Beretta, F., Ferhod, D., Gedzelman, S. and Vernus, P. (2014).
                    </note>. It is housing 16 ongoing projects, including several on a European scale (France, Germany, Switzerland, Belgium); there are about 50 active users and it contains nearly 1.700.000 data rows. The research projects include, for example, the Siprojuris project
                    <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""3"">
                        <ptr target=""http://siprojuris.symogih.org/""/>
                    </note>, a prosopographic data publishing site interconnected with IdRef, the authority data repository of the French higher education libraries’ catalogue
                    <note xml:id=""ftn5"" place=""foot"" n=""4"">
                        <ptr target=""http://www.idref.fr/""/>.
                    </note>; the Historical Atlas of Political Territories
                    <note xml:id=""ftn6"" place=""foot"" n=""5"">
                        <ptr target=""http://geo-larhra.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/?q=atlas-historique-des-territoires-politiques""/>.
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Cf. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Beretta, F. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Butez, C. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(2014).</hi>
                    </note>, a project that is mapping the evolution of world political borders; Society Religion Science (SRS)
                    <note xml:id=""ftn7"" place=""foot"" n=""6"">
                        <ptr target=""http://srs.symogih.org/""/>.
                    </note>, an experimental digital intellectual history website providing documents encoded in XML following the recommendations of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Text Encoding Initiative</hi> (TEI) and annotated using the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">symogih.org </hi>ontology
                    <note xml:id=""ftn9"" place=""foot"" n=""7"">
                        <ptr target=""https://groupes.renater.fr/wiki/symogih/symogih_manuel/edition_de_textes_en_xml-tei""/> .
                    </note>.
                </p>
                <p>The institution hosting the project is the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Laboratoire de recherche historique Rhône-Alpes</hi>
                    <note xml:id=""ftn8"" place=""foot"" n=""8"">
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> LARHRA CNRS UMR 5190 – Universités de Lyon et Grenoble:</hi>
                        <ptr target=""http://larhra.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/""/>.
                    </note>. Its human and material resources being limited, to avoid a growth crisis and with a view to building an international community of users, the evolution of two principle aspects of the architecture of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">symogih.org </hi>project needs to be reconsidered and planned for from today: these are,its interface with other information systems, in particular with those put in place by heritage institutions; and the management of a growing community of users.
                </p>
                <p>The purpose of our DH 2016 Conference poster is to share our prospects with other DH projects and to present a proposal for the evolution of the platform and operational information, for both the technological and project management domains, and to call for an international collaboration which could function as a consortium.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Towards a distributed and multi-instantiated database</head>
                <p>A possible technological answer to the challenge of the increasing number of projects hosted by the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">symogih.org</hi> platform, i.e. to provide the expected information centralization without creating a bottleneck and low performance, is to evolve its architecture by distributing the data between a primary node and several secondary nodes of a clustered database.
                </p>
                <p>The primary node would contain all of the shared repositories (object authority records and instances of the collaborative ontology), as well as general-interest data. The secondary nodes, hosted in various research institutions, would contain the information produced by the local projects. To allow the collaborative management of a shared, good-quality ontology to be maintained, avoiding redundant and messy data, a user of any secondary node shoud be able to access all the data, whether it is held in their database instance or not, via a table held in the primary node, which would hold the keys of all the existing knowledge units and their location in the distributed system.</p>
                <p>The whole information system will be interoperable with reference ontologies like CIDOC-CRM or FRBRoo and interlinked with authority files repositories (ISNI, VIAF, BNF, etc.). In addition, a growing portion of the information will be directly accessible in RDF format through a SPARQL endpoint, allowing the data to be queried at the same time as those from other linked data warehouses. The data will be available under a Creative Commons 4.0 international licence. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Establishing an international community of users</head>
                <p>This distributed platform management entails the creation of an international organized community of users in the form of a consortium. This community will need to be built around a governance committee, responsible for ensuring a collaborative approach at all levels, from managing the definitions of ontology instances through to data capture. The primary node could be managed, as at present, by the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Pôle histoire numérique</hi> (Digital History Department) of the LARHRA, founding institution of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">symogih.org</hi> project; but it could be hosted in the data centre of an institutional structure such as, in France, the TGIR HumaNum
                    <note xml:id=""ftn0"" place=""foot"" n=""9"">Très Grande Infrastructure de Recherche (very large research infrastructure): 
                        <ptr target=""http://www.huma-num.fr/""/> .
                    </note>.
                </p>
                <p>The other nodes would be managed by teams made up of researchers and IT technicians, ensuring not only management of the respective databases and software development for the whole project, but also running local scientific projects and training users in data modelling and capture, working closely with the governance committee. The evolution towards the participation of projects using different languages will imply the implementation of a multilingual version of the information system, both at the level of the interface and for drafting instances of the collaborative ontology. </p>
                <p>By offering access to a collaboratively designed ontology and a robust technological solution, intended for an increasingly wide community of users, the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">symogih.org</hi> project will contribute to the evolution of practices in the domain of data production and data curation in historical research.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Beretta, F. and Butez, C.</hi> (2014). SyMoGIH project and Geo-Larhra: A method and a collaborative platform for a digital historical atlas.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humaities 2014 Conference</hi>, Lausanne, Switzerland.
                        <ptr target=""http://dharchive.org/paper/DH2014/Paper-831.xml""/>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Beretta, F., Ferhod, D., Gedzelman, S. and Vernus, P.</hi> (2014). The SyMoGIH project: publishing and sharing historical data on the semantic web. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014 Conference</hi>. Lausanne, Switzerland, 
                        <ptr target=""http://dharchive.org/paper/dh2014/poster-930.xml""/> ; 
                        <ptr target=""https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01097399v1""/> .
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Beretta, F., Vernus, P. and Hours, B.</hi> (2012). The Système Modulaire de Gestion de l'Information Historique (SyMoGIH): a collaborative and cumulative platform for storage and use of geo-historical information. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2012 Conference</hi>. Hamburg, Germany, 
                        <ptr target=""http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/le-systeme-modulaire-de-gestion.1.html""/>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2649","17","The Trajectories Tool: Amplifying Network Visualization Complexity","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Network visualizations are the most complex visualizations possible, but sometimes they are not capable of describing system-complexity. Even if they are the most widely employed visualization techniques, they still have limitations. Indeed a) their relations are not sufficient to analyse complexity and b) networks do not distinguish between qualitative differences of represented entities.</p>
                <p>Starting from the actual network model, how could one manipulate this visualization to improve complexity comprehension? In this paper, we propose a solution called 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">trajectory</hi>. The trajectory has two major points of difference compared to the network: the trajectory a) represents not only distances, but also durations, and b) it displays kinetic entities according to their evolution with time.
                </p>
                <p>The discourse is articulated around these four points. Considering that networks are tools widely used by digital humanists, we propose a new language to improve the quality of represented data: a new network based on a vertical timeline. Complexification of the network visualization is not just a new language, but also a tool that would give the field of Digital Humanities the most complex of all possible visualizations.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Networks</head>
                <p>How could one improve the visualization of complexity? To answer this question, we need to investigate the qualities and defects of network visualizations. A network is a wonderful way to visualize complexity: in this model, limitless relations and entities can be mapped. A network neither draws frontiers nor imposes quantitative limits to relations and entities. How does one imagine an even more complex visualization? In other words, how does one draw a “greater infinity” of relations and entities? It seems impossible indeed; the network could possess interminable relations and entities. But a trick is still possible – to enrich entities by adding a temporal dimension.</p>
                <p>Conventionally, network visualizations are created considering the interdependence between distance and attraction, i.e. the spatial relationship. In fact, network visualizations are stable images, keeping each entity immobile, without possible evolutions. Changes in connections and disconnections of entities happen because of temporal events taking place in reality. So, if we want to achieve an even more detailed representation of complexity, we need to introduce another dimension for relations and entities – the dimension of time.</p>
                <p>Time and space are intimately linked through movement. To enhance the richness of the visual language, we need to visualize the movement of entities through static simulation, as done in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Spiral Expansion of Muscles in Action</hi> by Umberto Boccioni, the Futurist artist who introduced the art of depicting sculpture in movement (Figure 1). We do not need to draw more actors or relations, it is enough to improve their representation with a more elaborated shape. In this way, complexity will be managed not only in terms of infinite spatial entities and relations, but also in terms of infinite time-based entities and relations.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""442/image1.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1. Umberto Boccioni, Spiral Expansion of Muscles in Action, 191</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Movement and complexity</head>
                <p>If network visualization is to represent movement, it needs the fluidity through a new dimension of reality. This is the reason why relations and entities have to be both spatial and time-based. Movement lends a continuity to time and space, and is the key to better understand the representation. Consequently, the aim is to visualize the evolution of entities through a sequence of time-based networks.</p>
                <p>Formerly, Kandinsky had noticed that nodes are fixed (1947, 32-35). To create dynamic visualizations, these nodes should progress. Now, network visualizations enriched by time could be said to be in motion. Visually speaking, network entities are represented by points; giving them a movement signifies that the points have to be represented through lines (Kandinsky 1947, 57; Ingold 2007). This solution allows us to lend more complexity to the basic point representation. Moreover, Kandinsky claims: “Considered in terms of substance, it [the point] equals zero” (1947, 25). The contrast between the point and the line in network visualizations finds another analogy in the Kandinsky’s thoughts, who considers the line as the antithesis to the point: “The line is, therefore, the greatest antithesis to the pictorial proto-element – the point” (Kandinsky, 1947: 57).</p>
                <p>Thanks to the line representation, continuity enters the complexity of representation as the fabric stitching together the narrativity of several network sequences. Moreover, continuity implies an inherent relationship between both distance 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">and</hi> duration. If the network visualization tends to be infinite in terms of spatial relations and entities, it is fairly weak to highlight time, another infinite dimension. The introduction of the trajectory brings another dimension to the visualization: the infinity of durations of relations and entities.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""442/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2. The DHLAB network is created by co-authoring: each node is an author and each edge a collaboration for a paper. Nodes represent also external collaborators</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""442/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3. The DHLAB network is divided into years. Each trajectory represents an author who published during the years, tracing his continuity</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The visualizations in practice</head>
                <p>Data are extracted from Infoscience, EPFL’s publication repository. This repository is public, and everyone can access it and obtain the data presented in this paper. Technically speaking, we queried all publications associated with the DHLAB.</p>
                <p>This article has two figures representing the DHLAB in Lausanne. Both visualizations present the same information in two different ways: the first shows collaborations on a plain surface – this figure is a classical network visualization (Figure 2); the second is based on the trajectory idea: points previously arranged on a flat surface are transformed into lines reifying the continuity of people (Figure 3).</p>
                <p>If we affirm that complexity representation has indeed been “complexified”, how this could help digital humanists? </p>
                <p>The first figure shows how the laboratory professor is placed at the center – the network would probably be very different without him and would be divided in parts. So, he is the core of the laboratory with good reason. The networks consists of two big clusters, which means that the professor is not included in all the publications of the laboratory (a rule that is compulsory in some labs).</p>
                <p>The second figure immediately displays the literary production year by year. For example in 2013, the laboratory was relatively young to widely publish scientific works, collaborations have a greater size in 2014 and 2015. Compared to the network visualization, the trajectories depict the variability of links with time quite well by splitting the network into a sequence of networks.</p>
                <p>The trajectories also describe the centrality of the professor better. For example in 2014, he basically worked with a group of people (shown at his left) and a colleague (at his right). In the same year, this colleague had a group of authors with whom he collaborated. Following the trajectories of that group, we can easily see that in 2014, it was not directly linked to the professor whereas in 2015, they all worked together. This is a detail revealed by trajectories that was not visible with classical network visualization.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The tool (conclusion)</head>
                <p>Gyorgys Kepes wrote: “each new visual environment demands [...] new way of measuring” (1995, 13). This phrase introduces two concepts that would be of interest to the communities of Digital Humanities and Data Visualization: context and method. We could suppose that the context is given by humanists and the method by designers, but DH is the result of a blend between the two. Designers can not think of methods out of context, the opposite is true for humanists.</p>
                <p>As Johanna Drucker says, we are experiencing “a momentary blindness among practitioners” (2011, 5). To overcome this blindness, we put together the efforts of designers and humanists: the visualization here described represents interdisciplinarity – the context and the method at the same time. For this reason, we think that trajectories are a good example. The DH community is close to having the sensibility to solve the interdisciplinarity issue.</p>
                <p>For this reason, theory has to be combined with practice to produce solid research tools for the DH community. Trajectories are not simply a theoretical concept but also a tool that will be presented at the DH 2016 conference and which will be available to digital humanists for decomposing their networks, or, in other words, to lend representations their complexity.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Biber, D.</hi> (1988). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Variation Across Speech and Writing</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boccioni, U.</hi> (1914). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Manifesto of Futurist Sculpture</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Drucker, J.</hi> (2011). Humanities approaches to graphical display, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>(1): 1-21.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Holme, P. and Saramäki J.</hi> (2013). (Eds.) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Temporal Networks. Understanding Complex Systems</hi>. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ingold, T.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lines, A Brief History of Lines</hi>, Routledge, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lima, M.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Book of Trees: Visualizing Branches of Knowledge</hi>, Princeton Architectural Press, Princeton.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kandinsky, W.</hi> (1947). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Point and Line to Plane</hi>, The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation for the Museum of Non-Objective Painting, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kepes, G.</hi> (1995). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Langage of Vision</hi>, Dover, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meeks, E.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">D3.js in Action</hi>. Shelter Island, NY: Manning.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meirelles, I.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Design for Information</hi>. Rockport Publishers.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Munster, A.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Anaesthesia of Networks: Conjunctive experience in Art and Technology</hi>, MIT Press, Cambridge.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2650","17","Theatre Plays as 'Small Worlds'? Network Data on the History and Typology of German Drama, 1730-1930","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Approach</head>
                <p>Decades ago, alongside more traditional structuralist paradigms that were largely based on linguistic theorems (Lotman 1972, Titzmann 1977), literary studies began to undertake structural analyses based on empirical sociology, in particular the social network analysis. Structure was no longer solely defined by semantic relations (such as opposition or equivalence), but by social interactions, too (Marcus 1973; Stiller, Nettle and Dunbar 2003; de Nooy 2005; Stiller and Hudson 2005; Elson, Dames and McKeown 2010; Agarwal et al., 2012). In the context of the Digital Humanities, this kind of approaches has gained a new dynamic in shape of a dedicated literary network analysis (Moretti 2011; Rydberg-Cox 2011; Park, Kim and Cho 2013; Trilcke 2013). This method is based on the analysis of bigger literary corpora (i.e., quantitative data) and promises insights into the history of literature as well as generic characteristics of literary texts. In our project, ""dlina. Digital LIterary Network Analysis"", we already developed a workflow for the extraction, analysis and visualisation of network data from dramatic texts built on basic TEI markup (Fischer, Kampkaspar, Göbel, Trilcke, 2015). This paper will present results of our analysis of the network data gathered so far and discuss them in the light of current theories in the field of social network analysis.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Data Collection and Analysis</head>
                <p>Our current corpus comprises 465 German-language dramas (from 1730 to 1930), the better part of the Digitale Bibliothek corpus contained in the TextGrid repository (
                    <ptr target=""https://textgridrep.de/""/>). The structural data crucial for the network analysis of these dramas (segmentation, character identification, etc.) was revised manually in a rule-based process to straighten out issues with the OCR and TEI tagging. We also had to level out philological peculiarities that would otherwise distort our results (such as different names for identical figures or groups of characters like 'Both' or 'All'). All the structural data is stored in an XML format we especially developed for that purpose (DLINA format). Network visualisation and network-value calculation has been automated (via Python and, alternatively, JavaScript to facilitate a direct embedding of our results into webpages). The scripts are fed with the data stored in DLINA files. In addition to graphs and simple network values that globally describe networks (like network size, density, average degree, average path length, clustering coefficent), we also calculate centrality values for the characters of each play (like degree, average distance, closeness centrality, betweenness centrality). In addition, we most recently implemented the calculation of random graphs based on the observed drama networks. All data and visualisations are freely available online on the project website (
                    <ptr target=""https://github.com/dlina""/> and 
                    <ptr target=""https://dlina.github.io/linas/""/>).
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Evaluation, Part I: History of Drama</head>
                <p>The diachronic extension of our corpus over 200 years of German literary history allows the observation of larger developments in the structural composition of dramatic texts (we outlined some reflections on this in a blog post: 
                    <ptr target=""https://dlina.github.io/200-Years-of-Literary-Network-Data/""/>). Values referring to networks as a whole will be broached (incl. network size, density, average degree; as an example, we put average-path-length values by decades in Fig. 1), as will be character-related values for each character of each play (centrality measures, primarily) providing information on the distribution of the personae dramatis or their division into 'central' and 'less central' characters. These values will lay the groundwork for the discussion of some global hypotheses of literary history. We will discuss, firstly, the extent to which we can observe a differentiation of the structural composition of drama at the end of the 18th century on the basis of network analysis values: Such a differentiation is to be expected given the coexistence of 'closed' drama (following the doctrines of French classicism) and 'open' drama (mostly influenced by Shakespeare). Secondly, we will discuss some common literary periodising hypotheses (originating from structuralism, social history, or other directions). We will have a closer look at correlations between our network data and well-established traditional periodisations.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""94/10000201000002580000014D5CA5F45D0E0DB778.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 1: Average path length by decades (mean)</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Evaluation, Part II: Types of Drama</head>
                <p>The data raised so far shows how very differently theatre plays were structured in the focal period. Traditional literary studies have developed various typologies for such different types, the most popular in German studies being Volker Klotz's subdivision into 'open' and 'closed' drama. We want to build on this kind of typological impulse and propose a method as to how certain types of structural composition can be distinguished by means of network analysis (and also placed in their historic context). With this proposal we want to take up reflections from research on so-called small-world networks. This branch of research assumes that the values of empirically collected networks often differ significantly from those of corresponding random networks (e.g., graphs generated with the Erdős–Rényi model). Following the approach of Stiller, Nettle and Dunbar 2003, but relying on a much larger set of texts, we investigate the plays in our corpus with regard to their small-world properties (clustering coefficient, average path length, node degree distribution). The results show that there are just a few plays that meet all the criteria (a total of five plays, i.e., just about one percent of the corpus) – see figs. 2.1 to 2.5.</p>
                <p>These findings will give us a deeper understanding of different types of structural composition. We shall first direct our attention to forms of networks that – unlike dramas with small-world properties – occur much more frequently in our corpus. Eventually, we will discuss structural characteristics of drama networks exhibiting properties exactly opposite to the properties of small-world dramas (e.g., reverse power-law form in the node degree distribution). It will also be discussed in this context whether we can contrast the strong hierarchical type of small-world drama with an anti-hierarchical type.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""94/1000020100000320000002F8E40352D1114C0DF5.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 2.1: Goethe, “Götz von Berlichingen” (1773): Spring Embedder Layout, Circular Layout, Node Degree Distribution</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""94/1000020100000320000002F82EC3EC7C3EF7F66B.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 2.2: Arnim, “Jerusalem” (1811): Spring Embedder Layout, Circular Layout, Node Degree Distribution</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""94/1000020100000320000002F895E12D94990ECB81.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 2.3: Soden, “Doktor Faust” (1797): Spring Embedder Layout, Circular Layout, Node Degree Distribution</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""94/1000020100000320000002F84AC3C8DED518C4EE.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 2.4: Nestroy, “Der böse Geist” (1833): Spring Embedder Layout, Circular Layout, Node Degree Distribution</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""94/1000020100000320000002F8C694651C8849ACE6.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 2.5: Raimund, “Der Barometermacher” (1823): Spring Embedder Layout, Circular Layout, Node Degree Distribution</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Réka, A. and Barabási, A.-L.</hi> (2002). Statistical mechanics of complex networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reviews of Modern Physics</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">74</hi>: 47–97.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Agarwal, A.</hi> et al. (2012). Social Network Analysis of Alice in Wonderland. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Workshop on Computational Linguistics for Literature</hi>, Montréal: 88–96.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">de Nooy, Wouter</hi> (2006). Stories, Scripts, Roles, and Networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Structure and Dynamics </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(2) 
                        <ptr target=""http://escholarship.org/uc/item/8508h946#page-1""/> (accessed 4 March 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elson, D. K., Dames, N.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> McKeown, K. R.</hi> (2010). Extracting Social Networks from Literary Fiction. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 48th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics</hi>, Uppsala, pp. 138–47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fischer, F., Kampkaspar, D.; Göbel, M. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Trilcke, P.</hi> (2015). Digital Network Analysis of Dramatic Texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DH2015</hi>, script: 
                        <ptr target=""https://dlina.github.io/Our-Talk-at-DH2015/""/>, slides: 
                        <ptr target=""https://dlina.github.io/presentations/2015-sydney/sydney.html""/> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Klotz, Volker</hi> (1960). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Geschlossene und offene Form im Drama</hi>. München.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lotman, Jurij M.</hi> (1972).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Die Struktur literarischer Texte</hi>. München.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Marcus, Solomon</hi> (1973). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mathematische Poetik</hi>. Frankfurt/M.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, Franco</hi>: Network Theory, Plot Analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Stanford Literary Lab Pamphlets</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">No. 2</hi>, 1 May 2011, 
                        <ptr target=""http://litlab.stanford.edu/LiteraryLabPamphlet2.pdf""/> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Park, G.-M., Sung-Hwan, K. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Cho, H.-G.</hi> (2013). Structural Analysis on Social Network Constructed from Characters in Literature Texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Computers</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(9): 2442–47, 
                        <ptr target=""http://ojs.academypublisher.com/index.php/jcp/article/view/jcp080924422447/7672""/> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rydberg-Cox, J.</hi> (2011). Social Networks and the Language of Greek Tragedy. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(3), 
                        <ptr target=""https://letterpress.uchicago.edu/index.php/jdhcs/article/view/86/91""/>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stiller, J., Nettle, D. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dunbar, Robin I. M.</hi> (2003). The Small World of Shakespeare's Plays. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Human Nature</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>: 397–408.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stiller, J. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Hudson, M.</hi> (2005). Weak Links and Scene Cliques Within the Small World of Shakespeare. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Cultural and Evolutionary Psychology</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>: 57–73.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Titzmann, M.</hi> (1977). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Strukturale Textanalyse. Theorie und Praxis der Interpretation.</hi> München.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Trilcke, P.</hi> (2013). Social Network Analysis (SNA) als Methode einer textempirischen Literaturwissenschaft. Ajouri, Philip; Mellmann, Katja and Rauen, Christoph (eds.): 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Empirie in der Literaturwissenschaft</hi>. Münster, pp. 201–47.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2651","17","Toccata : Text-Oriented Computational Classifier Applicable To Authorship","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Many text-classification techniques have been proposed and used for authorship attribution (Holmes, 1994; Grieve, 2007; Juola, 2008; Koppel et al., 2011), genre categorization (Biber, 1988; Argamon et al., 2003), stylochronometry (Forsyth, 1999) and other tasks within computational stylistics. However, until quite recently, it has been extremely difficult to assess novel and existing techniques on comparable benchmark problems within a common framework using statistically robust methods.</p>
                <p>Toccata is a resource for computational stylometry which aims to address that lack, freely available at</p>
                <p>
                    <ref target=""http://www.richardsandesforsyth.net/software.html"">http://www.richardsandesforsyth.net/software.html</ref>
                </p>
                <p>under the GNU public licence.</p>
                <p>The main program is a test harness in which a variety of text-classification algorithms can be evaluated on unproblematic cases and, if required, applied to disputed cases. The package supplies four pre-existing classification methods as modules (including Delta (Burrows, 2002), widely regarded as a standard in this area) as well as five sample corpora (including the famous 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Federalist Papers</hi>) so that users who don't wish to write Python code can use it simply as an off-the-shelf classifier and those who do can familiarize themselves with the system before implementing their own algorithms.
                </p>
                <p>Noteworthy features of the system include:</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>sample corpora provided for familiarization;</item>
                    <item>test phase using random subsampling to give robust error-rate estimation;</item>
                    <item>ability to plug in new techniques or to employ existing standards;</item>
                    <item>option of post-hoc phase applying trained model(s) to unseen holdout data;</item>
                    <item>empirically grounded computation of post-hoc confidence weights to deal with 'open' problems where the unseen cases may not belong to any of the training-set categories;</item>
                    <item>accompanying export file readable by R or similar statistical packages for optional further processing.</item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Sketch of the System's Operation</head>
                <p>Toccata performs three main functions, in sequence:</p>
                <p>(a) testmode: leave-n-out random resampling test of the classifier on the training corpus to provide statistics by which the classifier can be evaluated;</p>
                <p>(b) holdout: application of the classifier to an unseen holdout sample of texts, if given;</p>
                <p>(c) posthoc: re-application to the holdout sample of texts (if given) using the results from phase (a) to estimate empirical probabilities.</p>
                <p>Steps (b) and (c) are optional.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Sample corpora</head>
                <p>Toccata is a document-oriented system. Thus a training corpus consists of a number of text files, in UTF8 encoding, without markup such as HTML tags. Each file is treated as an individual document, belonging to a particular category. Example corpora are supplied to enable users to start using the system, prior to collecting or reformatting their own corpora.</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">ajps</hi>: ninety poems by 2 eminent 19th-century Hungarian poets, Arany József and Petőfi Sándor. Arany was godfather to Petőfi's child, so we might expect their writing styles to be relatively similar.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">cics</hi>: Latin texts relevant to the authorship of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Consolatio</hi> which Cicero wrote in 45 BC. This was thought to have been lost until in 1583 AD when Sigonio claimed to have rediscovered it. Background information can be found in Forsyth et al. (1999).
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">feds</hi>: writings by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, as well as some contemporaries of theirs. This corpus is related to another notable authorship dispute, concerning the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Federalist Papers</hi>, which were published in New York in 1788. See Holmes and Forsyth (1995).
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">mags</hi>: 144 texts from 2 different learned journals, namely 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Machine Learning</hi>. Each text is an excerpt consisting of the Abstract plus initial paragraph of an article in one of those journals, written during the period 1987-1995.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">sonnets</hi>: 196 English sonnets, 14 each by 14 different authors, with an additional holdout sample of 24 texts, half of which are by authors absent from the main sample.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Validation by Random Subsampling</head>
                <p>A major objective of the system is to assess the effectiveness of text-classification methods by a form of cross validation. For this purpose the training corpus of undisputed texts is repeatedly divided into two portions, one used to form a classification model and the other used to test the accuracy of this model. After this cycle a number of quality statistics are computed and printed, along with a confusion matrix. This helps to establish a relatively honest estimate of the likely future error rate of the classifier. After subsampling, the program will construct a model on the full training set. This may then be applied to a genuine holdout sample, if provided.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Classifier Modules</head>
                <p>A classifier module is expected to develop trained models of each text category and deliver matching scores of a text to each model, with more positive scores indicating stronger matching. The category with the highest match-score relative to the average of all scores for the text, is the assigned class. Four library modules are supplied ""off the shelf"".</p>
                <p>Module 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">docalib_deltoid.py</hi> is an implementation of Burrows's delta (Burrows, 2002) which has become a standard technique in authorship attribution studies. Module 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">docalib_keytoks.py</hi> works by first finding the 1024 most common word tokens in the corpus, then keeping from these the most distinctive. For classification, relative word frequencies in the text being classified are correlated with relative frequencies in each class. Module 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">docalib_maws.py</hi> is a version of what Mosteller and Wallace in their classic work (1964/1984) on the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Federalist Papers</hi> call their ""robust Bayesian analysis"", as implemented by Forsyth (1995). Module 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">docalib_topvocs.py</hi> implements another classifier inspired by the approach of Burrows (1992), which uses the most frequent tokens in the training corpus as features.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The Holdout and Posthoc Phases</head>
                <p>The subsampling test phase (above) is primarily concerned with assessing the quality of a classification method. The holdout and posthoc phases are when that method is applied in earnest.</p>
                <p>If a holdout sample is given, the model developed on the training set is applied to that sample. The holdout texts may belong to categories that were not present in the training set, so each decision is categorized as correct (+), incorrect (-) or undetermined (?) and the success rate statistics computed accordingly.</p>
                <p>This is illustrated in Table 1, below, from an application of the MAWS (Mosteller and Wallace) method to a collection of sonnets. Here the training set consists of 196 short English poems -- 14 sonnets by 14 different authors. This is a challenging problem firstly because the median length of each text in the training corpus is 116 words, secondly because 14 is a relatively large number of candidates.</p>
                <p>Table 1 shows the ranking produced on a holdout sample of 24 texts, absent from the training set. Note that 12 of these 24 items are 'distractors', i.e. texts by authors not present in the training set. The program assigns these a question mark (?) in assessing its own decision.</p>
                <p>The listing ranks the program's decisions from most to least credible. The upper third include 6 correct assignments, 1 clear mistake and a distractor. The middle third contains 1 correct classification, 3 mistakes and 4 distractors. The last third contains no correct answers, 1 mistake and 7 distractors. (Incidentally, the distractor poem by the Earl of Oxford, ranked twentieth, is more congruent with Wordsworth than any other author, including Shakespeare, and not confidently assigned to any of the training categories.)</p>
                <p>This output addresses the very real problem of documents from outside the known training categories. The listing is ordered by a quantity labelled 'credit'. This is the geometric mean of the last two numbers in each line, labelled 'confidence' and 'congruity'. Confidence is derived from the preceding subsampling phase. It is computed from the differential matching score of the text under consideration as W / (W+L), where W is the number of correct answers which received a lower differential score during the subsampling phase and L is the number of wrong answers with a higher score. Congruity is simply the proportion of matching scores of the chosen category that were lower, in the subsampling phase, than the score for the case in question. It is an empirically based index of compatibility between the assigned category of the text and the training examples of that category.</p>
                <p>In all kinds of classification, the problem of never-before-seen categories can loom large. (See, for instance, Eder, 2013.) Like most trainable classifiers, Toccata always picks the most likely category from those it has encountered in training, but the most likely may not be very likely. The confidence and congruity scores give useful information in this regard. For example, if we only consider the classifications which obtain a score of at least 0.5 on both confidence and congruity, we find 6 correct decisions, 1 incorrect and 1 distractor. Treating the distractor (assigning a sonnet by Dylan Thomas to Edna Millay) as incorrect still represents a 75% success rate in an ""open"" authorship problem on texts only slightly more than a hundred word tokens in length, where the training sample for each known category consists of approximately 1600 words, with a chance expectation of 7% success. In other words, three crucial parameters -- training corpus size, text length and number of categories -- are all well ""outside the envelope"" of most previously reported authorship studies.</p>
                <p>Table 1 -- Posthoc ranking of 24 decisions on unseen texts, including 12 'distractors'</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">rank</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">credit</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">filename</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">pred:true</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">conf.</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">congruity</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 1</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.9163</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> ChrRoss_WinterSecret.t</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> ChrRoss + ChrRoss</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.9530</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.8810</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 2</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.8768</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> WilShak_6.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> WilShak + WilShak</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.9425</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.8158</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 3</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.8142</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> DylThom_Altar09.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> EdnMill ? DylThom</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.8838</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.7500</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 4</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.7664</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> MicDray_Idea000.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> MicDray + MicDray</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.6378</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.9211</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 5</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.7595</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> WilShak_137.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> WilShak + WilShak</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.8118</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.7105</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 6</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.6950</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> JohDonn_Nativity.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> JohDonn + JohDonn</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.6720</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.7188</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 7</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.6247</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> MicDray_Idea048.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> JohDonn - MicDray</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.5430</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.7188</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 8</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.5356</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> WilShak_109.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> WilShak + WilShak</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.5737</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.5000</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 9</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.5225</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> DylThom_Altar05.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> RupBroo ? DylThom</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.4150</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.6579</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 10</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.4684</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> TomWyat_THEY_FLEE_FROM</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> EdmSpen ? ThoWyat</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.4596</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.4773</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 11</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.4226</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> PerShel_Ozymandias.txt</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> EliBrow ? PerShel</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.2217</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.8056</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 12</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.4027</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> EliBrow_SP23.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> DanRoss - EliBrow</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.2237</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.7250</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 13</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.3061</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> WilShak_RomeoJuliet.tx</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> WilShak + WilShak</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.2094</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.4474</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 14</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.2739</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> PhiSidn_astel108.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> EliBrow - PhiSidn</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.1080</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.6944</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 15</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.2625</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> DylThom_Altar06.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> EliBrow ? DylThom</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.0992</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.6944</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 16</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.2283</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> JohDonn_Temple.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> EdnMill - JohDonn</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.1179</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.4423</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 17</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.2014</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> Lincoln1863Gettysburg.</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> SamDani ? AbeLinc</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.0649</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.6250</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 18</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.1894</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> RicFors_LaBocca.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> RupBroo ? RicFors</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.0649</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.5526</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 19</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.1352</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> HelFors_1958.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> EliBrow ? HelFors</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.0263</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.6944</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 20</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.1089</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> oxford_13.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> WilWord ? Oxford </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.0265</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.4474</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 21</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.0977</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> RicFors_Underworld.txt</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> EdnMill ? RicFors</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.0261</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.3654</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 22</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.0755</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> HelFors_1982.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> DanRoss ? HelFors</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.0109</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.5250</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 23</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.0690</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> DylThom_Altar03.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> RupBroo ? DylThom</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.0106</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.4474</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 24</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text"">0.0411</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> PhiSidn_astel030.txt </cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> EdmSpen - PhiSidn</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.0106</cell>
                        <cell rend=""Plain_Text""> 0.1591</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>++?+++-+???-+-?-???????-</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Argamon, S., et al.</hi> (2003). Gender, genre, and writing style in formal written texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(3): 321-46.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Biber, D.</hi> (1988). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Variation across speech and writing</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.F.</hi> (1992). Not unless you ask nicely: the interpretive nexus between analysis and information. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(2): 91-109.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.F.</hi> (2002). 'Delta': a measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(3): 267-87.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M.</hi> (2013). Bootstrapping Delta: a safety net in open-set authorship attribution. 
                        <ref target=""http://dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/"">
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts</hi>
                        </ref>. Lincoln: University of Nebraska-Lincoln, pp. 169-72.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Forsyth, R.S.</hi> (1995). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Stylistic Structures: a Computational Approach to Text Classification</hi>. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Faculty of Science, University of Nottingham. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.richardsandesforsyth.net/doctoral.html"">http://www.richardsandesforsyth.net/doctoral.html</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Forsyth, R.S.</hi> (1999). Stylochronometry with substrings, or: a poet young and old. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>(4): 467-77.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Forsyth, R.S., Holmes, D.I. and Tse, E.K</hi>. (1999). Cicero, Sigonio, and Burrows: investigating the authenticity of the 'Consolatio'. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing, </hi><hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>(3): 1-26.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grieve, J.</hi> (2007). Quantitative authorship attribution: an evaluation of techniques. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">22</hi>(3): 251-70.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Holmes, D.</hi> (1994). Authorship attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computers and the Humanities</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>: 1-20.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Holmes, D.I. and Forsyth, R.S.</hi> (1995). The 'Federalist' revisited: new directions in authorship attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(2): 111-27.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Juola, P.</hi> (2006). Authorship attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Foundations and Trends in Information Retrieval</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(3): 233-334.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koppel, M., Schler, J. and Argamon, S.</hi> (2011). Authorship attribution in the wild. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language Resources and Evaluation</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">45</hi>, pp. 83-94. DOI 10.1007/s10579-009-9111-2.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mosteller, F. and Wallace, D.L.</hi> (1984). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Applied Bayesian and Classical Inference: the Case of the Federalist Papers</hi>. New York: Springer. [First edition, 1964.]
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2652","17","Topic Modeling Literary Quality","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>To what extent can topic models explain variation in perceptions of literary quality? We try to find correlations between topics and judgments of literary quality using a topic model of 401 recent bestselling Dutch novels. Instead of examining topics on a macro-scale in a geographical or historical interpretation (e.g., Jockers 2013; Riddell 2014), we take a new perspective: whether novels have a dominant topic in their topic distributions (mono-topicality), and whether certain topics may express an explicit or implicit genre in the corpus. We hypothesize that there is a relationship between these aspects of the topic distributions and perceptions of literary quality. We then interpret the model by taking a closer look at the topics in a selection of the novels.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>
                    <anchor xml:id=""id_h.hwo31iwoyajz""/>Riddle survey and corpus
                </head>
                <p>This research is part of a Dutch computational humanities project called The Riddle of Literary Quality. In the project we aim
                    <hi rend=""color(#0000ff)""> </hi>to identify textual features that may play a role in readers’ evaluations of a novel as being good or bad and as high or low literature. We analyze a corpus of 401 contemporary Dutch-language (including translated) novels in search of textual features they have in common. Within our corpus there is a small variety of novelistic genres, which can be roughly divided into suspense, romantic and general novels. The readers’ judgments were gathered in a large online survey. We asked a general public to rate the novels they had read on a 7-point scale from 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">definitely not</hi> through 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">highly</hi> literary. Approximately 14,000 respondents participated, providing us with much data on the perceived quality of our 401 novels.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1""> Extensive details on the survey will be published in two articles, one of which is in submission.</note> The mean rating over all 401 novels is 4.2, with 2.1 being the lowest rating for 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Fifty Shades of Grey </hi>by E.L. James, and 6.6 the highest for Julian Barnes’ 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Sense of an Ending</hi>.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <anchor xml:id=""id_h.n7lskb6rsaof""/>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""119/10000201000002EE000005DCD6EE8AC0.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 1: Overview of topics, sorted by proportion of the corpus</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>
                    <anchor xml:id=""id_h.8uc0a79nppo5""/>Topic model
                </head>
                <p>A topic model aims to automatically discover topics in a collection of documents. We use Latent Dirichlet Allocation (Blei et al., 2003), which assumes the documents have been generated from a fixed number of probability distributions (the topics) over words. The topics reflect word co-occurrence patterns. We preprocess the novels by lemmatizing the words, removing punctuation, function words and names, and splitting the remaining text in chunks of 1000 tokens. We use MALLET to create a topic model with 50 topics. Fig. 1 shows an overview of the topics with their proportion across the corpus.</p>
                <p>We have attempted to identify topics for novels with high literary ratings, and topics specific for suspense and romantic novels. According to Jockers and Mimno (2013), the topics can be used to identify literary themes. They use the terms “theme” and “topic” as “proxies for [...] a type of literary content that is semantically unified and recurs with some degree of frequency or regularity throughout and across a corpus” (p. 751).
                    <hi rend=""color(#ff00ff)""> </hi>We found that three topics are specific to a single author (for instance t3), and about a third seem genre specific. By inspecting the most important words for each topic we found that most topics (genre related or not) indeed cohere with certain themes (cf. Fig.1). This suggests that the choice for 50 topics is neither too small nor too high.
                </p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>
                        <anchor xml:id=""id_h.i8hby3sksr0l""/>Quantitative analysis
                    </head>
                    <p>We aim to gain insight into the distribution of topics in relation to the literary ratings of the novels (predicting literary ratings is not the main aim here). In order to interpret the topic distributions, we introduce the concept of mono-topicality.
                        <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2""> After submitting this abstract, we discovered the Literary Lab pamphlet by Algee-Hewitt et al. (2015), who independently devised a concept called mono-topicality.</note> A mono-topical novel contains little diversity in topic distribution, which means that one or two topics are dominant throughout the novel. A novel which shows more variation in topics has a more even distribution of topics, i.e., such a novel has a larger topic diversity. Fig. 2 shows an example of both cases.
                    </p>
                    <p>The x-axis shows the distribution of topics, sorted from least to most prevalent. In John Grisham’s 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Appeal, </hi>topic 5 (“lawsuits”) has a proportion of 47.8 % of all 50 topics. This novel is more mono-topical than the Franzen’s 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Corrections</hi>, which has a more balanced distribution of topic proportions.
                    </p>
                    <p>We hypothesize that the less mono-topical a novel is, the higher the perceived literariness by readers will be. And indeed, Fig. 3 shows that there is a statistically significant correlation between the diversity of topics of a book and its perceived literariness. Books with a single, highly prominent topic, such as Grisham’s, tend to be seen as less literary.</p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""119/100002010000037A00000191B20BB108.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 2: Distribution of the top 15 topics in novels with high (left) and low (right) mono-topicality</head>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                    <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Table1"">
                        <head>Table 1: Themes in fifteen highly literary novels, all of which are originally Dutch Table 2: Six topics from the model that address themes present in the fifteen highly literary novels, but which are not the most prominent as topics in those novels</head>
                        <row>
                            <cell>
                                <figure>
                                    <graphic url=""119/10000201000001AB000001A83F9F1B90.png""/>
                                    <head>Figure 3: Correlation between share of themost prominent topic per book and mean literariness ratings</head>
                                </figure>
                            </cell>
                            <cell>
                                <figure>
                                    <graphic url=""119/10000201000001AB000001A8B6C60109.png""/>
                                    <head>Figure 4: Correlation between topic 29 proportion and mean literariness ratings</head>
                                </figure>
                            </cell>
                        </row>
                    </table>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>
                        <anchor xml:id=""id_h.ltz2p1h11072""/>Interpretation
                    </head>
                    <p>There are several possible explanations for the correlation. Genre novels could have a tendency to single out certain topics, as they deal with more ‘typical’ or genre-specific subject matter than do general novels. If this were the case, we would simply be finding that genre novels are considered to be less literary than general novels, and this would tell us little about literary quality in a more general sense. General novels in the other hand, deal with all sorts of subjects and themes, across and beyond ‘genre’ subjects, and therefore a topic model may not be able to single out thematic groups of words common to these novels, and thus may
                        <hi rend=""color(#ff00ff)""> </hi>not find one single prominent topic. A third explanation could be that highly literary novels 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">do</hi> deal with specific themes and subjects which are also part of genre novels, but that these are described in wordings that are more implicit or subtle, and therefore do not come up as single, clear topics. If this were the case, that would bring us closer to an explanation of what topics have to do with literary quality. These explanations are not mutually exclusive and we will explore the topic model here to examine the value of the second and third explanation.
                    </p>
                    <p>The topic that shows the highest correlation (r=0.49) with literary appreciation is topic 29; cf. Fig. 4. This topic is most prominent in fifteen originally Dutch general novels. The twenty words in topic 29 with the highest weights are 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">begin, music, play, occasion, first, the first, sing, only, year, one, stay, sometimes, even, new, own, always, high, exact(ly), bike, appear</hi>. They show little coherence, making it hard to interpret their context, although ‘music and performance’ appears to be part of it. To find out more about the novels in which this topic is prominent, we consult a Dutch website maintained by librarians called 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literatuurplein</hi>, which provides information on the themes and content of Dutch novels.
                    </p>
                    <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Table2"">
                        <head>Table 1: Themes in fifteen highly literary novels, all of which are originally Dutch Table 2: Six topics from the model that address themes present in the fifteen highly literary novels, but which are not the most prominent as topics in those novels</head>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Author_Title</cell>
                            <cell>Survey rating</cell>
                            <cell>% topic 29</cell>
                            <cell>Relationships</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>Complications</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>Artistic profession</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>True story</cell>
                            <cell/>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>Friend / family</cell>
                            <cell>parent-
                                <lb/>child
                            </cell>
                            <cell>love</cell>
                            <cell>rivalry</cell>
                            <cell>illness & death</cell>
                            <cell>writer / editor</cell>
                            <cell>other
                            </cell>
                            <cell>autobio-
                                <lb/>graphic
                            </cell>
                            <cell>history</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Hart_Verlovingstijd</cell>
                            <cell>5.9</cell>
                            <cell>24.8</cell>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Rosenboom_ZoeteMond</cell>
                            <cell>6.2</cell>
                            <cell>22.5</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Lanoye_Sprakeloos</cell>
                            <cell>6.4</cell>
                            <cell>21.8</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Dewulf_KleineDagen</cell>
                            <cell>6.0</cell>
                            <cell>19.6</cell>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Rosenboom_Mechanica</cell>
                            <cell>6.2</cell>
                            <cell>17.0</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Heijden_Tonio</cell>
                            <cell>6.3</cell>
                            <cell>16.8</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Verhulst_LaatsteLiefdeVan</cell>
                            <cell>5.8</cell>
                            <cell>16.5</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Lanoye_HeldereHemel</cell>
                            <cell>5.8</cell>
                            <cell>15.7</cell>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Springer_Quadriga</cell>
                            <cell>6.0</cell>
                            <cell>15.7</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Mortier_GestameldLiedboek</cell>
                            <cell>6.5</cell>
                            <cell>15.5</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Kooten_Verrekijker</cell>
                            <cell>5.0</cell>
                            <cell>15.2</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Moor_SchilderEnMeisje</cell>
                            <cell>5.9</cell>
                            <cell>14.7</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Zwagerman_Duel</cell>
                            <cell>5.5</cell>
                            <cell>14.6</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Giphart_IJsland</cell>
                            <cell>5.3</cell>
                            <cell>13.0</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Dorrestein_Stiefmoeder</cell>
                            <cell>5.5</cell>
                            <cell>8.7</cell>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell>X</cell>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                            <cell/>
                        </row>
                    </table>
                    <p>Most of these novels show similarities in themes, such as family relationships. In ten of the novels the protagonist has an artistic profession: a couple of writers, a painter and a stand-up comedian. None of them has a musical or acting career, despite the 'music and performance' words; and vice versa, none of the twenty most prominent words concern writing.
                        <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>All in all, at first glance topic 29 seems not to address the themes and content of the novels, whereas most other topics in the model do concern specific themes (cf. Fig. 1 and Table 2).
                    </p>
                    <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Table3"">
                        <head>Table 2: Six topics from the model that address themes present in the fifteen highly literary novels, but which are not the most prominent as topics in those novels</head>
                        <row>
                            <cell>Topic</cell>
                            <cell>Name</cell>
                            <cell>Top 10 words with highest weight</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>2</cell>
                            <cell>Family relations I</cell>
                            <cell>father, mother, child, year, son, girl, brother, woman, older, daughter</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>6</cell>
                            <cell>Health I</cell>
                            <cell>doctor, body, pain, illness, pill, blood, death, medicine, child, patient</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>11</cell>
                            <cell>Family relations II</cell>
                            <cell>child, mother, mom, baby, dad, little, cry, hand, time, grandma</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>12</cell>
                            <cell>Writing & memories</cell>
                            <cell>picture, letter, write, read, paper, book, year, day, enveloppe, memories</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>33</cell>
                            <cell>Health II</cell>
                            <cell>doctor, hospital, patient, women, bed, lie, nurse, room, hall, hour</cell>
                        </row>
                        <row>
                            <cell>41</cell>
                            <cell>Novels</cell>
                            <cell>book, writing, story, year, word, writer, human, novel, time</cell>
                        </row>
                    </table>
                    <p>For instance, topic 2 and 11 address family relations, topic 12 and 41 are about writing novels, and topic 6 and 33 concern health issues. These topics are present, but as smaller topics. This shows that the second explanation, of the general novels not sharing themes, is not valid. It could be an indication though that the highly literary novels indeed use a more subtle way of describing themes similar to other novels in our corpus, our third explanation. As a final note, in topic 29 there are proportionally more adverbs than in the other topics mentioned, which contain more nouns. Perhaps this shows that style is a more shared element in literary novels than the choice of words. In other words, this brief analysis shows that there is merit to our third explanation. This will therefore become a new hypothesis for further research.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>
                    <anchor xml:id=""id_h.rbkzcj4b41u""/>Conclusion
                </head>
                <p>We have explored a topic model of contemporary novels in relation to genre and literariness, and shown that topic diversity correlates with literary ratings. Most topics express a clear theme or genre. However, topic 29, the most literary topic, does not. It rather appears to be associated with a particular Dutch literary writing style.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Algee-Hewitt, M., Heuser R., and Moretti, F.</hi> (2015). On paragraphs. Scale, themes, and narrative form. Stanford Literary Lab pamphlet 10. 
                        <ptr target=""http://litlab.stanford.edu/LiteraryLabPamphlet10.pdf""/>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D. M., Ng, A. Y., and Jordan, M. I.</hi> (2003). Latent Dirichlet allocation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Machine Learning Research</hi>, 3:993–1022.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M. L. and Mimno, D.</hi> (2013). Significant Themes in 19th-Century Literature. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Poetics</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">41</hi>(6):750–69. 
                        <ptr target=""http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2013.08.005""/>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M. L</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Macroanalysis: Digital methods and literary history</hi>. University of Illinois Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Riddell, Allen </hi>(2014). How to read 22,198 journal articles: Studying the history of German studies with topic models. In Erlin, M. and Tatlock, L. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Distant Readings: Topologies of German Culture in the Long Nineteenth Century</hi>, Rochester, New York: Camden House, pp. 91–114.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2653","17","Trading Zones of Digital History","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>As a subfield of the wider Digital Humanitiesdigital humanities, Digitaldigital hHistory is concerned with the incorporation of digital methods in historical research practices. Digital hHistory thus aims to do historical research using methods, concepts, or tools from other disciplines, making it a form of 
                <hi rend=""bold"">methodological interdisciplinarity</hi> (Klein, 2014){Formatting Citation}. However, how this interdisciplinarity affects the practices of Historyhistorians, on the methodological and the epistemological levels, remains underexplored. The PhD research presented in this paper aims to address this question by investigating the interdisciplinary interactions in which historians take part.
            </p>
            <p>Three forms of interaction are of interest for this research, which are not necessarily an exhaustive list of digital history interactions. These forms are not mutually exclusive, but occur interchangeably and simultaneously, or one form could lead to another:</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>Digital history as collaboration with, among others, the computer science discipline. </item>
                <item>Digital history as end-users of tools. </item>
                <item>Digital history as building tools independently.</item>
            </list>
            <p>In order to look into such interactions, this PhD research will employ Galison’s concept of 
                <hi rend=""bold"">trading zones</hi>, described as “an arena in which radically different activities could be locally, but not globally, coordinated” (Galison, 1996, p. 119).
            </p>
            <p>When different groups interact with one another over a period of time in a trading zone, it is likely that the two groups will influence one another through 
                <hi rend=""bold"">acculturation</hi>: “the process by which the beliefs and practices of one community diffuse across the boundaries of another and subsequently alter the second community’s practices and interpretations” (Barley et al., 1988). At the community level, acculturation involves changes of social structures, institutions, and cultural practices. At the individual level, it involves the behavioural repertoire of a person. By studying the acculturation of practitioners of digital history, as individuals and in groups, we may get a view of the types of trading zones and how these change over time. To model the different types of trading zones, we use three dimensions based on research by Berry (1997, 2005) and Collins et al. (2007):
            </p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>Contact & Participation, i.e., how the two groups meet. </item>
                <item>Cultural Maintenance (from homogeneous to heterogeneous), i.e., how the two groups define themselves and to what extent they aim to maintain their identity. On this scale, more homogeneous means the two groups become more alike to form a single group, while more heterogeneous means they remain two distinct groups. </item>
                <item>Coercion (from collaborative to coercive), i.e., what the power relations in the trading zone are. On this scale, more collaborative means the two groups are both acting out of free will, while more coercive means one group is imposing practices upon the other. </item>
            </list>
            <p>The concept of trading zones has been used before to describe the digital humanities field. McCarty (2005) argues that humanities computing should rather be seen as a third space, neither belonging to one group nor the other, rendering it no longer a trading zone. However, in the terminology of Collins et al. (2007), this would constitute a collaborative-homogeneous trading zone, termed an inter-language. Svensson (2011, 2012a,b) suggests digital humanities is a collaborative-heterogeneous, termed fractioned, trading zone; a meeting place of two groups. Klein (2014) also describes digital humanities as a fractioned trading zone, and, like Svensson, emphasises that this may lead to a shared language, or jargon, between the different communities. Hunter (2014), without employing the concept of trading zones, describes digital humanities as a bridge or translation between two cultures, which we can describe as a collaborative-heterogeneous trading zone, termed interactional expertise. Rieder and Röhle (2012) use the concept to argue however that not the language should be central, but the interactions on the level of methodology, where not the terminology but the method itself is negotiated. In contrast to these authors, Mounier (2015) contends that there is a coercive political dimension underlying the field, which in the terminology of Collins et al. would suggest that digital humanities constitutes a coercive-heterogeneous, termed enforced, trading zone. This is not to say that this is how digital humanities will always be, but Mounier argues this should be better understood before we can move further and perhaps diffuse new digital methods into the wider humanities.</p>
            <p>However, what is striking about these discussions of digital humanities as trading zones is that very little research into the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">local</hi> practices has been done, with the exception of Hunter (2014) who does not actually employ the concept of trading zones. Instead, digital humanities is discussed as a global phenomenon; this is in contrast with the original use of the concept by Galison as described above. This paper aims to reintroduce the concept of trading zones to describe local phenomena of digital humanities.
            </p>
            <p>To this end, this paper investigates local manifestations of trading zones in digital history using the three dimensions described above. The analysis focuses on the first form of interaction described above, collaboration, and is based on interviews with practitioners of digital history, i.e., historians, computer scientists, and other collaborators, focusing on the diverse aspects of interdisciplinary collaboration. The interviews cover five distinct subjects, which together give an insight into the trading zones from each interviewee’s perspective.</p>
            <p>The first subject is that of 
                <hi rend=""bold"">boundary work</hi>, concerning how practitioners characterise their own discipline. Moreover, it is of interest how practitioners characterise the other disciplines in the collaboration. In previous research involving students of journalism, a lack of understanding what computer science is appeared to result in disinterest and performance anxiety (Cook, 2015). Furthermore, this subject covers the extent to which the practitioners aim to have their digital history research meet their discipline’s values. This subject thus not only works towards the Cultural Maintenance dimension, but also already gives hints towards the Coercion dimension regarding how interested practitioners are in the collaboration with the other discipline.
            </p>
            <p>The second subject is the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">practice of research</hi>, the research activities. This concerns a description of their research, both within and outside the trading zone, and the tools potentially used at different steps in their process.
            </p>
            <p>The third subject concerns their 
                <hi rend=""bold"">incentives</hi> for practising digital history. In previous research on the collaboration between earth scientists and computer scientists, it was found that the two groups had different incentives for the collaboration (Weedman, 1998). This difference introduced difficulties for the collaboration and impacted the understanding of the other discipline. This subject thus works towards the Coercion dimension.
            </p>
            <p>The fourth subject concerns the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">organisation</hi> of the collaboration. This concerns how often the groups meet, and where they are located, e.g., is it a collaboration between different departments at different places (or in different countries), or a sharing of office space. This subject thus works towards the Contact & Participation dimension.
            </p>
            <p>Finally, the fifth subject concerns the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">epistemological positions</hi>. A criticism in the digital humanities debate is the incorporation of different epistemological positions such as positivism or objectivism in humanities scholarship (Drucker, 2011, 2013). It is therefore of interest whether practitioners in the trading zone (unconsciously) shift their epistemological position. A first question concerns their practice of reasoning; do they reason in a research question-driven deductive way, a more data-driven inductive way, or an abductive way to try to discover patterns (Dixon, 2012)? Other questions are related to epistemological positions. Roth and Roychoudhury (1994) developed a short qualitative questionnaire which allows to describe interviewees as more objectivist or more constructivist. Thus, this subject provides insight into the acculturation of practitioners, and works towards the Cultural Maintenance and Coercion dimensions on the epistemological level.
            </p>
            <p>This paper will present preliminary findings of interviews held for this PhD research, focusing on the aspects of 
                <hi rend=""bold"">incentives</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""bold"">organisation</hi>. We will present a preliminary taxonomy of collaborations on the Contact & Participation dimension, and describe several digital history interactions on the Cultural Maintenance and Coercion dimensions. With these results, we aim to gain a better understanding of how digital history works as an interdisciplinary interaction, and how this impacts the practices of the involved groups and individuals.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Administrative Science Quarterly</hi>, 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Berry, J. W.</hi> (1997). Immigration, Acculturation and Adaptation. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Berry, J. W.</hi> (2005). Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>: 697–712. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.07.013.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Collins, H., Evans, R. and Gorman, M.</hi> (2007). Trading zones and interactional expertise. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">38</hi>(4): 657–66. doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2007.09.003.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cook, L.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Why Journalism Students Don’t Learn CS</hi>. https://source.opennews.org/en-US/learning/journalism-students-and-cs/ (accessed 27 October 2015).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dixon, D.</hi> (2012). Analysis tool or research methodology? Is there an epistemology for patterns?. In Berry, D. M. (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Understanding Digital Humanities</hi>. Palgrave Macmillan http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/16572/.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Drucker, J.</hi> (2011). Humanities approaches to graphical display. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Drucker, J.</hi> (2013). Performative Materiality and Theoretical Approaches to Interface. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(1). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/7/1/000143/000143.html.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Galison, P.</hi> (1996). Computer simulations and the trading zone. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Klein, J. T.</hi> (2014). 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Svensson, P.</hi> (2012a). Beyond the Big Tent. In Gold, M. K. (ed), 
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            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2654","17","Using Big Cultural Data To Understand Diversity And Reciprocity In The Global Flow Of Contemporary Cinema","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This paper explores the relationships between countries in the exchange of movies and measures the reciprocal nature of these relationships. This investigation represents an innovative way to explore international exchanges of digital cultural content based on global cinema screenings analysed at the national level. Rather than focus on the market dominance of particular cinemas (e.g. the US or Indian cinemas) we examine the relative strength of two-way relationships in order to understand cultural reciprocity in the film industry. The dynamics of shared cultural exchange are explored in terms of the volume of transactions between ‘cinema nations’ expressed in the form of dyadic networks. </p>
            <p>The paper is based on the premise that films can be understood as cultural goods that are distributed both between ‘territories’ or markets and across the globe according to industrially unique spatial patterns and temporal flows. Seeing film diffusion in this way invites us to explore the industrial aspects of movement and location but it also invites reflection on our use of these large datasets. For example, understanding the dynamics of global film exhibition and distribution demands an appreciation of scale and velocity in both the film industry and in a data-driven approach to its study. Data-driven approaches to Cinema Studies are at best an emergent aspect of the discipline (Verhoeven). This paper makes a significant contribution to the development of Cinema Studies by extending a trans-disciplinary, digital humanities approach to critically understanding the dimensions of a global creative industry at scale. </p>
            <p>Digitisation and globalisation are full of contradictions in terms of how they impact diversity of screen culture represented by film. On one hand digitisation has facilitated an explosion in the number of films being made and that can be distributed and viewed online. This has had the effect of increasing the diversity of films available to audiences with digital access over the web. On the other hand however, only a relatively small proportion of films produced are released widely into cinemas. This paper seeks to provide insight into diversity at cinema locations that extends beyond the obvious dominance of Hollywood blockbusters. We are interested in drawing attention to equitable reciprocal exchange relationships that exist between nations, even where these may be small in scale, as evidence of alternative practices in the promotion of diversity at the cinema. This enables us to explore relational geographies using dyads in an approach similar to that of Taylor, Hoyler, Pain and Vincigurrra (2013) in their investigation of the connectivity between cities in the services sector. We use dyadic analysis to explore an equitable exchange in film that extends beyond the unilateral to ensure cultural exchange between two nations is assessed as a two-way flow where cultural content from both sides to the dyadic relationships are valued and accounted for. </p>
            <p>The data used in this paper is drawn from the Kinomatics Global Showtime dataset (Kinomatics, 2015) which comprises over 330 million individual records of film screenings from across 31,500 venues covering 47 countries, including the US, India, most of Western Europe, Japan, Brazil and Australia for the years 2013 – mid-2015 (see Arrowsmith et al). For this analysis, the kinomatics data is analysed using a variety of methods that draw from a range of disciplinary perspectives including the digital humanities and economics as well as geospatial and computational sciences. Our key tool is Principal Components Analysis that explores dyadic relationships as part of Social Network Analysis (see: Wasserman and Faust, 1999). We apply this approach to ‘nations’ as they are defined by the kinomatics (cinema screening data aggregated at the national level) and imdb (film production aggregated at the national level) datasources. Further to this, in a selection of countries, we employ a Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) to consider case study analysis of cultural diversity based on cinema screen count data. We use spatio-temporal visualisations as a way to represent the results and propose insights into the relational geographies of film flow and exchange that are found to exist. </p>
            <p>Using dyads to explore international exchanges between nations we are able to consider diversity in relation to films screened at the cinema in terms of the two key dimensions stemming from globalised relations between nations, namely in terms of intensive and extensive international exchanges. The intensive dimension aids understanding of the most important national dyads that dominate cinema screenings that can be seen as the core centres of the globalised market for film, while the extensive dimension is focused upon the multitude of links between nations in a broader globalised market for film screened at the cinema. The analysis of dyadic relationships enables us to move beyond the assumption that the flow of cinema is simply unilateral. Instead we are concerned with the relative strength of exchanges in which a strong reciprocal dyadic relationship is one that has an equal exchange between two nodes, in this case, countries.</p>
            <p>In considering diversity using the HHI we focus on the screening of new release features within the case studies of Australia, France and the Republic of Korea in order to analyse the relationship between cinema venue location (capital cities versus regional), venue type (in terms of the number of screens) and film programming allocations between domestic, US and other imported feature films. We find that as an increasing number of films are being released, non-US derived films are struggling in a tight contest for screen time. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>Arrowsmith, Colin; Verhoeven, Deb, and Davidson, Alwyn and Coate, Bronwyn (2014). ‘Kinomatics: A global study into Cinema Data’, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the GSR_3 Conference</hi>, 
                        <ref target=""http://kinomatics.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/GSR_Kinomatics.pdf"">http://kinomatics.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/GSR_Kinomatics.pdf</ref>, Melbourne 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Kinomatics (2015), 
                        <ref target=""http://www.kinomatics.com"">www.kinomatics.com</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Taylor, P., Hoyler, M., Pain, K. and Vinciguerra, S. (2013) ‘Extensive and intensive globalisations: Explicating the low connectivity puzzle of U.S. cities using a city dyad analysis’, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Urban Affairs</hi>, Vol 36, issue 5, doi:
                        <ref target=""http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/juaf.12077"">10.1111/juaf.12077</ref>, 1-14. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Verhoeven, Deb (2012) ‘New Cinema History and the Computational Turn’, Beyond Art, Beyond Humanities, Beyond Technology: A New Creativity”, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">World Congress of Communication and the Arts Conference Proceedings</hi>, University of Minho, 
                        <ref target=""http://kinomatics.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Verhoeven_ComputationalTurn.pdf"">http://kinomatics.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Verhoeven_ComputationalTurn.pdf</ref>, Portugal
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Wasserman, S. and Faust, K. (1999) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications</hi>. Cambridge University Press: New York.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2655","17","Using Big Data Techniques For Searching Digital Archives: use cases in Digital Humanities","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Background</head>
            <p>The background for this paper is work in progress in E-ARK: an EC FP7 pilot B project
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> E-ARK is funded by the European Commission’s FP7 PSP CIP Pilot B Programme under Grant Agreement no. 620998.</p>
                </note> having as its main objective the creation of an open source, digital archiving system with attendant standards and tools to be deployed in seven pilot instances. Hence practical application is at the heart of the project, which is led by archivists, researchers, SMEs, digital preservation / archiving membership organizations and government home offices, who together seek to fill the current digital archiving lacuna. E-ARK is a wide-ranging project: we are taking and integrating existing best practices into a digital archiving system, so that it is suitable not only for national archives and government agencies, but also for regional, local, business and research archives of many shapes and sizes. A legal study taking account of varying national legal directives delineates how the archiving system can be deployed against a pan-European backdrop.
            </p>
            <p>At the heart of the system is the OAIS standard (OAIS), with data arriving at an archive via Submission Information Packages (SIPs), which are then stored in the archive as Archival Information Packages (AIPs) and subsequently retrieved upon access as Dissemination Information Packages (DIPs). E-ARK is also addressing an eclectic range of sources: both structured and unstructured data, atomic and complex, including records from Electronic Records Management Systems (ERMSs); databases; geodata; and computer files.</p>
            <p>The project stakeholders are similarly also drawn from a wide pool of varied users, and include public administrations, public agencies, public services, citizens, researchers and business. Re-use of information is a key project objective, and we are employing the latest Big Data tools / techniques / architecture such as Hadoop and Lily to present users with innovative access methods, such as the data mining showcase using geodata. We are also building on techniques used in creating an Oracle data warehouse of US 1880 census data (Healey and Delve, 2007). </p>
            <p>Although E-ARK is being spearheaded by national archives, it is a key objective to be relevant and useful to a broad church, and to that end the paper should be of interest to many in the Digital Humanities community, not just archives, so we will be including use cases tailored to this end. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Scope of the Paper</head>
            <p>E-ARK has conducted a GAP analysis that identifies user requirements for access services, which are described in project report D5.1 (Thirifays et al., 2014). The study investigates the current landscape of archival solutions regarding currently-available access components and identifies gaps and requirements from the perspective of national archives and third party users, as well as content providers. This report has identified a major gap in the identification process, where users browse and search collections to identify material of potential interest. It states that a lack of comprehensive metadata that is available and indexed in finding aids, compromises their performance and efficiency, which directly impacts the user experience and the user’s access to the archival holdings in their entirety.</p>
            <p>To fill this gap, work on the E-ARK Faceted Query Interface and Application Programming Interface (API) aims to establish a scalable search infrastructure for archived content. It is important to note that here we are not working with the whole content ecosystem of an archive, but instead concentrating only on indexing and searching of the born-digital E-ARK Information Packages (IPs). The goal is not to replace existing systems but to augment these components (like available catalogues) with a “content repository” that can be searched based on a full text index. This content repository concentrates on search and access based on the content (ie. data/files) contained within an AIP rather than selected metadata elements. The reference implementation employs scalable (cluster) technology, as scalability issues must be taken into account when operating a detailed content-based search facility. A major task in the context of the reference implementation is the development of a faceted query interface for searching archived content that can be utilized directly by end-users or integrated with other software components like archival catalogues. </p>
            <p>Work on 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Query and Indexing</hi> concerns the configuration and generation of a repository index that holds detailed information on the archives’ digital holdings. For developing a reference implementation, it is important to provide a solution that is flexible and configurable with respect to a range of requirements. The exact configuration of the faceted search interface will be driven by requirements of the access components (like DIP creation)
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> The specific access component requirements are being currently defined in E-ARK and are already partially described in (Thirifays et al., 2015), the report D5.2 “E-ARK DIP draft specification”</p>
                </note> as well as individual institutional requirements and content specific aspects. As a consequence, the reference implementation developed within E-ARK must provide a configurable query interface that should be accessible via a service API. This API can be used through a web interface and/or an access component for searching the repository based on a full text index.
                <lb/>
                <lb/>The reference implementation integrates this query API with a repository implementation, which in turn provides access to an application layer via its access API. The application layer implemented in E-ARK develops end user components for search, access, and display of archived records. Figure 1 provides a conceptual overview of the architecture and workflow supported by the reference implementation.
                <lb/>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""135/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1:
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Icons made by 
                            <ref target=""http://www.flaticon.com/authors/freepik"">Freepik</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note> IPs are received and processed by an ingest system like the ESSArch Preservation Platform
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text"">
                            <ref target=""http://www.essarch.org/"">http://www.essarch.org/</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note>. As part of the ingest workflow, the information packages are written to an archival storage medium. In addition
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> The full-text search and access component developed in E-ARK does not replace an existing archival system (like catalogues) but can be utilized to augment these systems. </p>
                    </note>, these packages are also ingested into a content repository that provides basic data management capabilities and search. The created repository records are indexed and can be queried by an end-user application through a service interface. At the repository level, random access is provided on an item/file based level.
                </head>
            </figure>
            <p>The goal of the E-ARK Faceted Query Interface and API is the establishment of a reference service that enables application components to search through the entire archived data and to link the applications with the data management layer
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> Here, data management refers to functionality provided by the content repository introduced by the E-ARK infrastructure, which is intended to augment the existing archival ecosystem. </p>
                </note> (provided through the content repository). The reference implementation will concentrate on data management functionality that supports search, access, and data mining (like providing a CRUD API and support for versioning). The implementation of a fully-fledged archival data management system, however, is out of focus for the reference implementation.
            </p>
            <p>The search functionality is provided by an indexing infrastructure which generates a full-text index for data being ingested into the data management component (ie. the content repository). The goal is to enable end users to efficiently search archival records based on different aspects (or facets) extracted from the archived data and metadata. The search index includes enclosed archival descriptions (metadata) but most crucially the archived data itself (e.g. based on extracted text portions) and generated technical metadata (like file format information).</p>
            <p>The employed indexing techniques are not intended to provide a finding aid based on archival metadata, as for example provided by archival cataloguing systems. The intention of the E-ARK Faceted Query Interface and API is to provide a complementary service that takes advantage of information retrieval techniques like full text indexing, faceted search, and ranking to improve the search through archived data. The indexing workflow is however configurable and able to extract specific information from the archival metadata. This flexibility can for example be utilized to develop specific search facets and/or to handle information related to data confidentiality.</p>
            <p>The Faceted Query Interface and API are being developed as part of the E-ARK reference implementation which builds upon a scalable technology stack. The intention is to provide an archiving and search solution that works for different payloads. The reference implementation can therefore be scaled from a single host out to a cluster deployment that is capable of maintaining large volumes of data, e.g. in the magnitude of hundreds of terabytes of archived data organized in hundreds of millions of repository records. The indexing infrastructure is however intended to be deployed next to established archiving systems in order to extend the functionality of the available finding aids. The intention is not to replace the existing systems but rather to extend these infrastructures.</p>
            <p>The final paper proposes to add further details of deploying the above scenario with use cases making use of geographic data integrated with the peripleo tool from the Pelagios project
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> https://github.com/pelagios/peripleo</p>
                </note>. We will describe the implementation of a complete archival workflow that includes conversion procedures necessary to support text-based search as well as geographic information retrieval and spatial browsing. We will also show how Big Data techniques such as denormalisation and dimensional modelling used in creating the AIPs can facilitate the discovery methods we outline. 
            </p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Healey, R. and Delve, J.</hi> (2007). Integrating GIS and Data Warehousing in a Web Environment: A Case Study of the US 1880 census, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Geographical Information Science</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(6): 603-24.
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thirifays, et al.</hi> (2014). GAP report between requirements for access and current access solutions. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.eark-project.com/resources/project-deliverables/3-d51-e-ark-gap-report"">http://www.eark-project.com/resources/project-deliverables/3-d51-e-ark-gap-report</ref> (accessed 29 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thirifays, et al.</hi>. (2015). E-ARK DIP draft specification. 
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">OAIS.</hi> (2012). Reference Model for an Open Archival Information System (OAIS). 
                        <ref target=""http://public.ccsds.org/publications/archive/650x0m2.pdf"">http://public.ccsds.org/publications/archive/650x0m2.pdf</ref> (accessed 29 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2656","17","Using Computer Numerical Control Techniques to Prototype Media History","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>New technologies can now be used to fabricate old ones. With rapid prototyping techniques, a nineteenth-century mechanism can be downloaded from an online library, translated into code, fed to a 3-D printer, and used to repair a watch, all in about an hour. While such 3-D fabrication techniques tend to fetishize objects, this talk proposes an alternative: “prototyping the past,” or remaking technologies that no longer function, no longer exist, or may have only existed as fictions, illustrations, or one-offs. Conceptually, prototyping the past explains why technologies matter by approaching them as representations 
                <hi rend=""italic"">and</hi> agents of history. Practically, it creates media that function simultaneously as evidence
                <hi rend=""italic""> and</hi> arguments for interpreting the past. Yet most important, it does more than re-contextualize media history in the present. It integrates that history into the trajectories of design practice. 
            </p>
            <p>This full circuit through digital and analog manufacturing corresponds rather provocatively with a “materialist turn” in media studies, where, since at least the late 1990s, scholars have stressed the importance of media as physical entities that resist or diffract interpretations as often as they facilitate them.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p> For examples of this work, see Kittler (1999), Gitelman (1999, 2006, 2014), Bowker and Star (2000), Sterne (2003, 2012), Galloway (2006), Kirschenbaum (2008), Vismann (2008), Chun (2011), Ernst (2012), Parikka (2013, 2015), and Starosielski (2015).</p>
                </note> Writing about phonography, Lisa Gitelman asserts, “At certain levels, media are very influential, and their material properties do (literally and figuratively) 
                <hi rend=""italic"">matter</hi>, determining some of the local conditions of communications amid the broader circulations that at once express and constitute social relations” (2006, p. 10). Somewhere between technological determinism
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p> Technological determinism asserts that technologies cause cultural and social phenomena. For more, see Postman (1992).</p>
                </note> and social constructivism,
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                    <p> Social constructivism asserts that cultural and social phenomena precede or shape the development of technologies. For more on social constructivism, see Pinch and Bijker (1984). For an overview of technology and cultural criticism, see Sayers (2014).</p>
                </note> this assertion accounts for how—as both representations 
                <hi rend=""italic"">and</hi> agents of history—media play an active role in reproducing the past. Following Gitelman, in the following paragraphs I situate media history in rapid prototyping research, looking specifically at the effects of fabricating tactile models to “prototype the past.” While instrumental uses of rapid prototyping tend to fetishize objects, encourage commodification, foster nostalgia, or ignore the political dimensions of material culture, I argue that rapid prototyping can help researchers demonstrate how social and cultural complexity is intricately entangled with the historical particulars of design.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                    <p> Put this way, the combination of media history with rapid prototyping corresponds with how Wendy Chun describes the aims of the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Media, Old Media </hi>anthology, which focuses on the “actualities of the media itself” and “the experience . . . of being entangled within it” (2005, p. 9). 
                    </p>
                </note> Ultimately, what distinguishes rapid prototyping from most other approaches to media history is its investment in not only translating between 2-D and 3-D modes of trial-and-error production but also communicating across a spectrum of media that operate simultaneously as evidence and arguments for future work. Put simply, prototyping the past is more than re-contextualizing media history in the present. It is an opportunity to meaningfully integrate that history into the social, cultural, and ethical trajectories of design practice. 
            </p>
            <p>More common in engineering and architecture than the humanities, rapid prototyping entails producing materials through a combination of computer numerical control (CNC) machines—such as 3-D printers (additive manufacturing) and routers (subtractive manufacturing)—with manual approaches to wood, paper, clay, etc. The aim is to subject a 3-D model to repeated feedback throughout the development process. In this sense, the design cycles are small, not grand. Also, the models are versioned. Instead of working toward a single model, multiple models are maintained throughout production. This approach is steeped in “design-in-use,” which privileges situated activity over some ideal model or user (Botero, 2013). Through design-in-use, a prototype is treated like a congealed dialogue between interested groups. </p>
            <p>With the above in mind, this talk explains why scholars of media history may wish to prototype the past. It builds on especiwork by Kraus (2009), Balsamo (2011), Ratto (2011), Buechley (2012), Perner-Wilson (2012), Ames (2014), Hjorth (2014), Jungnickel (2014), and Rosner (2014)., and It also they in part corresponds with arguments published in “New Old Things” (2012), by Elliott, MacDougall, and Turkel. There, Elliott 
                <hi rend=""italic"">et al</hi>. argue that “matter [is] a new medium for historical research. Working with actual, physical stuff offers the historian new opportunities to explore the interactions of people and things” (2012, p. 122). Also, rapid prototyping may frame prototypes may be understood as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">situations</hi> for interpretation, without creating exact reproductions of historical artefacts (127). By extension, using matter as a medium for historical research need notneed not fetishize the past. Instead, itt becomes a time and space to interpret the material intricacies of technological design, both now and then. 
            </p>
            <p>Perhaps most important, prototyping the past allows scholars to remake technologies that no longer function, no longer exist, or may have only existed as illustrations, fictions, patents, or—fittingly enough—prototypes. TheseOne appeal of prototyping the past is that remade technologiesremade technologies may be circulated as tangible reminders of what was forgotten or destroyed. Yet prototyping the past also affords critiques of what is ready to hand. That is, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">it refuses to take historical materials at face value</hi>. Through trial and error, it tests the plausibility of historical claims. After all, what is depicted in a text may contain redactions, deliberate omissions, purposeful obfuscations, or accidental occlusions. Using historical materials to prototype a technology amplifies the meaningfulness of these absences. 
            </p>
            <p>Put this way, prototyping the past is intertwined with close reading. However, its emphasis on physically remaking historical technologies expands hermeneutics to include the centrality of translation and tacit knowledge toin media history. By re-contextualizing historical technologies in the present, prototyping also accentuates differences across time. What was once an innovation in the 1860s becomes a relic in 2015. Alternatively, these differences across time may turn things of the past into the stuff of present-day current curiosity., thus complicating distinctions between old and new. </p>
            <p>Rather than transcending such differences, prototyping the past grounds media history in a particular thing and the interpretations it affords. Following the work of Karen Barad, such grounding posits prototypes as entanglements of meaning with matter by attending to the substance of “fine-grained details” (Barad , 2007, p. 90). Here, neither meaning nor matter can be relegated to a concept or abstraction. Again, situations are significant. And prototyping reminds scholars of that significance. It is an embodied process involving frustration and surprise, trial, and error, and it highlights how technologies do not emerge effortlessly from the brilliant minds of inventors or makers. Prototyping also reminds scholars that 1) the sources of meaning are forever unstable and under dispute, 2) historical materials are not complete“total” works but rather compositions of parts that change—degrade, rot, morph, warp, break, or swell—over time, 3) prototypes can be de- and remanufactured without significant material consequence, and 36), as noted earlier, materials resist or diffuse as many interpretations as they facilitate. </p>
            <p>Example Application: Kits for Cultural History</p>
            <p>Based at the Maker Lab in the Humanities (“Lab”) at the University of Victoria, the Kits for Cultural History (“Kits”) remake technologies from the past, package them in bespoke containers, contextualize them with historical materials, and encourage people to experiment with them. Comparable to Heathkits, the Kits include components and guides for assembly. However, the guides are steeped in cultural history and do not assume a single approach to assembly. By design, this resistance to uniformity is essential, since the Kits focus on technologies that are inaccessible today. These technologies are not found in galleries, libraries, archives, or museums; they no longer function as they once did; or they were never actually built or mass-manufactured. Such inaccessibility necessarily entails a degree of uncertainty where research is concerned. Rather than approaching this uncertainty at a remove, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">the Kits prototype absences in the historical record and prompt audiences to examine the contingencies of that record</hi>. Anchored in design-in-use, this method approach presents prototypes as negotiations or situations for interpretation, not replicas. 
            </p>
            <p>The Kits’ design cycle may be visualized as follows: </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""529/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1: Design Cycle for the Kits</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Once the Lab selects a technology for remaking, we historicize it through archival materials. Informed by existing theoriesy, we then speculate about absences in the record and determine how those absences might manifest in tactile form. Next, we model, fabricate, and assemble the technology’s component parts into prototypes, which we test and share with other researchers. After feedback, the Lab writes about the process and related history. When bundled together, the writing, prototyping, and testing refine ourthe research, and the cycle is repeated until we deem a Kit persuasive. Once a Kit is ready for circulation, we publish it in tactile form, as a repository of digital files, and through an exhibit. With these, the Lab also authors articles about the Kit’s contribution to media history, theorhistory, and design. We treat these publications—the tactile Kit, repository, exhibit, and article—equally as elements of scholarly communication. </p>
            <p>Throughout this cycle, we ask several questions of what we are prototyping: 1) Who made it? For whom? When? 2) How was it made? How did it work? How was it used? 3) Do any instances of it exist? If so, where are they? Can they be handled? 4) Under what assumptions was it made and used? 5) How might prototyping it shape design in the future? </p>
            <p>We have used this process to produce three Kits thus far: an Early Wearable Kit (for an electro-mobile skull stick-pin from 1867), an Early Magnetic Recording Kit (for experiments involving steel wire, telephones, and carriages during the late 1890s), and an Early Optophonics Kits (for a reading aid patented in 1919). </p>
            <p>Findings: Rapid Prototyping and Media History, Together</p>
            <p>The Kits support the following observations about the articulation of CNC techniques with media history: 1) prototyping the past demands methods from the humanities, engineering, and fine arts; 2) prototyping is not always futurist or restricted to forecasting; 3) 3-D media such as tactile models are not more persuasive than 2-D media such as illustrations; both include exaggeration and omission; 4) history remains inaccessible even with access to physical materials, which neither resolve issues of absence nor guarantee certainty about the past; 5) prototyping the past may actually resist nostalgia; 6) as with any research method, prototyping is not immediate and cannot access “real history”; 7) prototyping may be premised on
                <hi rend=""italic""> not</hi> replicating history—on what we should 
                <hi rend=""italic"">not</hi> repeat; 8) prototyping tests suspicions of history by grounding them in fine-grained details of matter and meaning; and 9) prototyping the past need not aim for a rational history without remainders. Instead, it can recognize how the technologies we use to reproduce history exceed our control and understanding. Indeed, the speculative elements of prototyping can be anchored in the specificities surrounding historical absences—of what we cannot prove or do not know for sure but certainly shapes us. 
            </p>
            <p>Acknowledgments</p>
            <p>The Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, the Canada Foundation for Innovation, and the British Columbia Knowledge Development Fund have supported this research. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Balsamo, A.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Designing Culture</hi>. Duke UP.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Barad, K.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Meeting the Universe Halfway</hi>. Duke UP. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Botero, A.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Expanding Design Space(s).</hi> Aalto U.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Buechley, L. and Perner-Wilson, H.</hi> (2012). Crafting Technology. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ACM Trans. Comput.-Hum. Interact.</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">19</hi>(3).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Elliott, D., MacDougall, R. and Turkel, W. J.</hi> (2012). New Old Things. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Canadian Journal of Communication</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Jungnickel, K. and Hjorth, L.</hi> (2014). Methodological Entanglements in the Field
                        <hi rend=""italic"">. Visual Studies</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(2).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Kraus, K.</hi> (2009). Conjectural Criticism. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(4).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Pinch, T. J. and Bijker, W. E.</hi> (1984). The social construction of facts and artefacts: Or how </bibl>
                    <bibl>the sociology of science and the sociology of technology might benefit each other. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Social Studies of Science</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>(3): 399–441. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Postman, N.</hi> (1992). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Technopoly: The surrender of culture to technology</hi> (Reprint edition). New York: Vintage.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Ratto, M.</hi> (2011). Critical Making. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Information Society</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">27</hi>(4).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rosner, D. K. and Ames, M.</hi> (2014). Designing for Repair? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">17th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work &#38; Social Computing</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2657","17","Visualisation Strategies for Comparing Political Ideas with the ORATIO platform","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Data visualisation has become one of the most relevant DH topics, due to the advent of Big Data in Humanities research practices, and to the need to make complex statistical analyses accessible to users without a technical background. Although several visualisation libraries, such as d3.js, are now freely available online and are relatively easy to use, it is still a challenging task to provide simple and effective interface design, avoiding both over-complex and over-simplified solutions. When the data to be displayed have undergone complex processing, for instance automated text analysis, it is of paramount importance to preserve all the information conveyed by such analyses, while making it understandable to the users. </p>
                <p>In this work, we present a collaboration between communication design and natural language processing (NLP) researchers, devising effective strategies to display different aspects of the semantic content of texts. The outcome of the collaboration is the ORATIO platform, specifically developed to 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">compare</hi> different points of view automatically extracted from text. The most challenging tasks, indeed, concerned the visualisation and the exploration of differences and overlaps detected through automated text processing.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Use case</head>
                <p>Our use case concerns the comparison between Nixon’s and Kennedy’s speeches uttered during the U.S. presidential campaign in 1960. The corpus consists of 282 documents by Nixon (830,000 tokens) and 598 documents by Kennedy (815,000 tokens)
                    <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">From http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/1960_election.php</note>. The overall goal of the project was to track the difference in language and content between the two opponents, and make it available through a platform which makes use of a “generous interface”: first providing all the information to the user, and then enabling him to handle the visual model through a number of options and filters (Whitelaw, 2012). Infact, in our setting, researchers are supposed to reshape and reduce the visualizations in order to prove theories or discover new interesting aspects related to the processed text. The proposed navigation pattern complies with the paradigm “Overview first, zoom and filter, details on demand” (Heer and Shneiderman, 2012).
                </p>
                <p>Other existing approaches do not start from an overview, but from an empty window, where the user can build up a personal view, while investigating the relationships inside the data. We rely on such approaches in order to design the last visual model of the platform (Fig. 6), while the others take from the first one, starting from an overview.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>ORATIO Description</head>
                <p>To cope with corpora richness, a multiple view approach has been adopted (Mauri, Pini, Ciminieri and Ciuccarelli, 2013): rather than providing a single view, with all the information, five different perspectives have been identified, each exploring a different piece of information in a comparative way. The first view is the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Summary</hi>, whose goal is to provide the user with a general overview of the two corpora, including geographical, temporal and size information. Each corpus is associated with an imagine and a color (blue for Kennedy, red for Nixon), which remain consistent across all the platform views. Under 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Summary</hi>, users can see how speeches are distributed on a map (according to the place where the talk was given, included in the metadata), on a timeline (based on day of the speech in the metadata), and what linguistic features characterise each corpus (i.e. number of speeches, average words in a document and total number of words). For instance, in Figure 1 a compact representation of three corpus dimensions is given: the x-axis represents the timeline, the y-axis includes the list of cities where the speeches were given, and the dimension of the bubbles corresponds to the number of speeches uttered in a certain place at a certain time point.
                </p>
                <p>The visualisation shows, for instance, that Nixon pledged to visit all the 50 States, while Kennedy did not held any speech in some States that were less critical to the victory of the elections (e.g. Hawaii or Vermont). Another interesting aspect of the electoral campaign emerging from this view is that, despite having visited less States, Kennedy was more active than Nixon: he stopped in a higher number of cities (239 cities overall, against the 172 cities visited by Nixon), and had about twice as many speeches, press releases, statements and remarks as his opponent (about 550 for Kennedy and 260 for Nixon). This is highlighted by the prominence of blue over red bubbles.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""434/100000000000059E000004168AC4E0EE.jpg""/>
                        <head>Fig.1: Summary view of the two speech corpora</head>
                </figure>
                </p>
                <p>The second view, called <hi rend=""italic"">Affinity</hi>, targets the need to understand the relevance of topics in the political debate and the presence of important differences between the two candidates. In this view, specific word classes such as verbs, keywords or persons’ names are displayed as circles, whose size is proportional to the number of occurrences in text. The more the terms occur in both corpora, the more they are displayed towards the center of the window. If they occur prevalently (or only) in Kennedy’s or Nixon’s speeches, they are displayed towards the left or the right side of the window, respectively (Fig. 2).</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""434/10000201000007CF0000048F3F967B62.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 2: <hi rend=""italic"">Affinity</hi> view showing the most relevant personal entities discovered in the corpora.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>The third view, displaying <hi rend=""italic"">People</hi>, gives a network-based representation of the people automatically recognized in the corpora by a Named Entity Recogniser (Finkel et al., 2005). If two or more people are mentioned within the same sentence, they are linked in a spatialized graph. As with the other views, users are then able to filter out elements from the visualization, in order to discover new patterns (Fig. 3a). In our specific use case, filters and other selection strategies are really useful, since the complete network is very large and difficult to read at a glance (Fig. 3b).</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""434/100000000000088000000428B308AE8B.jpg""/>
                        <head>Fig. 3a: <hi rend=""italic"">People</hi> view after filtering Fig. 3b: The default network in <hi rend=""italic"">People</hi> view</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>The <hi rend=""italic"">Places</hi> view provides a comprehensive visualisation of the geographical information contained in the two corpora. It displays the metadata about the place where the speeches were uttered together with the GPEs mentioned in the speeches, automatically extracted with the same Named Entity Recogniser used for <hi rend=""italic"">Persons</hi>. These two pieces of information are usually displayed separately, since the most widely used visualisation strategies based on heatmaps would not allow to distinguish them. However, we devised a solution where both can appear on the same map, while being easily distinguishable: the locations where a speech was uttered are marked with a cursor, while the mentioned places are highlighted on the map as colored areas. The comparison shows that Kennedy devoted more attention to specific areas outside US, while Nixon was more concerned with domestic policy. For instance, Kennedy mentioned several times places in Latin America, since one of the key themes of his campaign was the “Good Neighbor” policy, a topic not covered by Nixon.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""434/10000000000004A000000410ABC1E7B4.jpg""/>
                        <head>Fig. 4: <hi rend=""italic"">Places</hi> view with visited places (marked with cursor) and mentioned places (colored)</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>The last view, named <hi rend=""italic"">Concordances</hi>, is inspired by linguistic research and recalls the family of concordancer tools (see for instance Kehoe and Renouf, 2002). In contrast with the previous models, this functionality takes a different approach, since there is no overview and the user is supposed to create a representation in order to answer questions and prove hypotheses. Specifically, a user can look for a particular keyword or concept and see all the sentences where it appears, typographically aligned to ease readability. In a second step, other important terms close by the given concept can be displayed as well (Fig. 5).</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""434/10000201000007CF000003B8BA812C91.png""/>
                        <head>Fig 5: the <hi rend=""italic"">Concordances</hi> view, displaying the use of “today”, compared with the presence of the term “begin”.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Conclusions</head>
                <p>We presented the ORATIO platform, specifically developed to compare the content of two different corpora in the political domain. The work is the outcome of a collaboration between researchers in Communication Design and Natural Language Processing applied to Digital Humanities. Although NLP allows to process and extract information from large corpora with minimal efforts, it has drawbacks, which are then inherited by the presented platform. For instance, persons’ nodes (Fig. 3) need to be disambiguated in order to merge nodes representing co-referring mentions (e.g. “J. F. Kennedy” and “Jack Kennedy”). Also geo-political entities (Fig. 4) require disambiguation and geo-referencing. This was performed completely automatically, but errors are possible, and this kind of visualisation makes it even more straightforward to spot them. </p>
                <p>In order to address these issues, possible solutions could be to <hi rend=""italic"">1)</hi> give users the possibility to inspect the content of the documents containing displayed information (from <hi rend=""italic"">distant</hi> to <hi rend=""italic"">close</hi> reading), and then <hi rend=""italic"">2)</hi> give them the possibility to manually correct the displayed information (e.g. drag and drop some elements in the space, delete nodes, etc.). The development of new interfaces enabling such human intervention would be very important and represents the future direction of our research.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heer, J. and Shneiderman, B.</hi> (2012). 
                        Interactive Dynamics for Visual Analysis. A taxonomy of tools that support the fluent and flexible use of visualizations. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Queue</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(2).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Finkel, J.-R., Grenager, T. and Manning Ch.</hi> (2005). Incorporating Non-local Information into Information Extraction Systems by Gibbs Sampling. In <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 43nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 2005)</hi>, pp. 363-70.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kehoe, A. and A. Renouf.</hi> (2002). 
                        WebCorp: Applying the Web to Linguistics and Linguistics to the Web. In <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of WWW2002 Conference</hi>, Honolulu, Hawaii.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mauri, M., Pini, A., Ciminieri, D. and Ciuccarelli, P.</hi> (2013). 
                        Weaving data, slicing views. In <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Biannual Conference of the Italian Chapter of SIGCHI - CHItaly '13</hi>. New York, USA: ACM Press, pp. 1–8. doi:10.1145/2499149.2499159
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Whitelaw, M.</hi> (2012). 
                        Towards Generous Interfaces for Archival Collections. In <hi rend=""italic"">International Council on Archives Congress</hi>. Retrieved from http://www.ica2012.com/files/data/Full papers upload/ica12Final00423.pdf
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2658","17","Visualizing Mouvance: Towards an Alignment of Medieval Vernacular Text Traditions","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Poetry in the Middle Ages changed as it was recopied, recited and passed along. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mouvance</hi> is a term used by late Swiss medievalist Paul Zumthor to designate the high degree of instability in medieval text traditions. Zumthor qualifies this instability as an “interplay between variant readings and reworkings,” balancing both the textual, literary elements of written works with oral, performative ones (Zumthor, 1992; p.44). Twentieth-century text editing came to grips with this instability in large text traditions in different ways. For complex text traditions with a high degree of variance in medieval French, editors sometimes compiled one edition containing all the witnesses in successive chapters, as in the cases of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">La vie de sainte Marie l’Egyptienne</hi> (Dembowski, 1977) and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">L’Evangile de Nicodème</hi> (Ford, 1973) or they arranged them in a synoptic-style parallel edition as in the case of the <hi rend=""italic"">fabliaux</hi> (Rychner, 1960). The alignment of such synoptic editions, although not discussed explicitly by the editors, was no doubt hand-ordered and its page layout was based on rough narrative equivalence of passages.
            </p>
            <p>Cerquiglini has argued that, faced with such variance, the medievalist’s “analysis must be comparative, not archeological” (Cerquiglini, 1999; p.44). Such parallel print editions provide readers with a visual frame for comparative reading of variant texts, inviting exploration and giving insight into processes of textual change. There are a number of problems in text traditions with oral influence. There are not only different kinds of variance (single word/string variance, half-line or hemistich variance, transposition and reorganization of rhyming verse lines or interpolation of entirely new lines), but patterns of variance are also not uniform across a text, making the desired comparative visualization of texts difficult. Alignments can also mix and confuse kinds of variance. What are ways of visualizing textual variation in a digital environment? This is the question our paper intends to explore.</p>
            <p>Visualization strategies for historical text reuse vary according to the scale of the phenomenon and the nature of the texts involved (Franzini et al., 2015). Sophisticated visualizations for alignment exist at the micro-level, that is, at the level of the word such as the graph visualizations of TRAViz (Jänicke et al., 2015). They facilitate comparative readings of word-level variance in manuscript witnesses or translations. The text in such alignments is fully legible. A clean example of this can be found in the TRAViz alignments of English translations of the Bible (Figure 1), a textual use case in which units and sub-units of text are already commonly agreed upon by tradition (e.g. book, chapter, verse). On the other hand, solutions exist for macro-level text reuse, such as fingerprinting techniques (Jänicke and Geßner, 2015), creating distant patterns of textual similarity without showing the text (Figure 2).</p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""275/10000000000006400000010E6F6B0156047D0DD6.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: Micro-level alignment of 24 English translations of Genesis 1:1 (Jänicke et al., 2015)</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""275/10000000000004E20000034E57377D9A62E9DF27.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: Macro-level fingerprint illustrates similarity between 24 English Bible translations (Jänicke and Geßner, 2015)</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">A critical discussion of the description and design of meso-level visualization of complex text traditions is missing. Not only are these text traditions large, but they are highly influenced by orality, that is, in Zumthor's words, they present a combination of textual and performative variance. Textual reworking at multiple scales (whole chunks of text, groups of lines, individual lines, sub-line strings) are challenges for both alignment and visualization. Our design attempts to translate the insights of Zumthor and Cerquiglini into an environment for visual exploration using two medieval text traditions: a tradition of short baudy tales known as the </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic"">fabliaux</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">,</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> and in versions of the well-known epic the </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic"">Chanson de Roland</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">.</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic""> </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">These two traditions have been chosen for the kinds of complex variance they exhibit. Our paper focuses on so-called meso-level alignments that visualize patterns of textual variance higher than the word and verse line level, and stress both legibility and human interaction in visualizing patterns.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Existing methods for text alignment in digital environments, generally speaking, favor relatively stable texts with small variance. The Versioning Machine accepts texts encoded “according to TEI's Parallel Segmentation method” and “interprets the encoding, parsing out the text into its constituent parts” (Versioning Machine, 2015). The authors of the Versioning Machine offer a sample alignment of a medieval “Prophecy of Merlin” (Figure 3). The line-to-line alignment has been encoded by the textual scholar. Similar lines are visually connected using customary mouse behavior, however, variance within the line or across lines is not visualized.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""275/100000000000034F000000FC327D18466BD2829B.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 3: Two versions of the Prophecy of Merlin visualized in Versioning Machine</head>
                    </figure>
                </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Another environment for the collation of raw text and visualization of textual differences is JuxtaCommons (Wheeles and Jensen, 2013). The example in Figure 4 uses two editions of Chretien de Troyes’ medieval romance </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic"">Perceval</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">,</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> one based on BnF, ms. français 12576 (Roach, 1959) at left, and the other Bern, Burgerbibliothek ms. 354 (Méla, 1990) at right. There is basic alignment of the verse line and minor lexical or dialectal variance, and mouse over in JuxtaCommons allows basic comparative reading of word- and string-level variants. In their out-of-the-box implementation, both tools allow </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">for easy </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">comparison of two versions of the text, although the Versioning Machine has been implemented for larger comparison sets.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""275/10000000000005010000021C80C4C88CD7ED0954.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 4: Two editions of Chretien de Troyes’ Perceval visualized in JuxtaCommons</head>
                    </figure>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">When complex text traditions containing more than just variant readings, but also interpolations, extra or missing lines or a significant amount of orthographic variance are collated automatically in JuxtaCommons, their results, however, are nearly illegible. Figure 5 shows two </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">witnesses</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> of </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">the same</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> old French </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic"">fabliau</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">;</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> the visual alignment, however, does an insufficient job at expressing the performative element of their </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic"">mouvance</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""275/10000000000004FD000001F4B88CFDAD106D5143.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 5: Two versions of a fabliau visualized in JuxtaCommons</head>
                    </figure>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Our design for a sufficient representation of </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">variance in</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> the</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic"">fabliaux</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> is shown in Figure 6. We use the intuitive quality of stream graphs (Byron et al., 2008) in order to support the analysis of aligned verses and to illustrate the transmission of one </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic"">fabliau</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">in four versions. The text editions are juxtaposed in columns in order to minimize edge crossings, in other words, we order the editions according to their similarity.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""275/10000000000004D200000396D171FF1B4FAB2C40.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 6: Four versions of a fabliau in our design</head>
                    </figure>
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-c13027de-4252-f2aa-16ae-1759b2647bb4""/>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">The visualization is available at</hi>
                <ref target=""http://informatik.uni-leipzig.de:8080/Fabliaux/"">
                    <hi rend=""color(#1155cc)""> </hi>
                </ref>
                <ptr target=""http://informatik.uni-leipzig.de:8080/Fabliaux/""/>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">. </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Clicking on a specific verse line produces a TRAViz micro-view of the line-level variance (Jänicke et al., 2015), whereas the larger meso-view of this portion of the </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic"">fabliau</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">allows patterns between and across verse lines to be clearly ascertained. </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">V</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">ariance </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">in this genre </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">maintains prosody and avoids hypermeter; </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic"">mouvance</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">is characterized </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">here </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">by the interpolation of larger narrative multi-line fragments of text. The exception to this general rule is manuscript Harley 2253 in the column at far right where the narrative is reconstituted almost completely around sparse line re-use, illustrating what Rychner calls in the subtitle of his book “deteriorization” </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">[dégradation] </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(Rychner, 1960). </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic"">Mouvance</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">occurs in multi-line “chunks,” visible in </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">highly legible streams of text re-use. This provides much more insight into textual transformation than reading Rychner’s hand-aligned synoptic edition, with the streams </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">here </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">drawing our attention to patterns of re-used text. In his edition, blank spaces and horizontal lines in the page layout effect a more uncertain alignment.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Another example of what we are calling meso-level alignment is the visualization of one stanza from the </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic"">Chanson de Roland</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">tradition contained in six manuscripts. </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Figure 7 illustrates</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic"">laisse</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">1 of the Lavergne fragment, absent from Oxford, Bodleian Library manuscript Digby, 23. An interactive version of the alignment is available at</hi>
                <ref target=""http://informatik.uni-leipzig.de:8080/roland/index2.html?ftsize=11"">
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                </ref>
                <ptr target=""http://informatik.uni-leipzig.de:8080/roland/index2.html?ftsize=11""/>
                <hi rend=""color(#1155cc)underline"">.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-c13027de-4253-a9f9-d546-e3b8c763bc67""/>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""275/10000201000005C5000002FE08346E7609AD2FCC.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 7: Six editions and one fragment of the Chanson de Roland in our design</head>
                    </figure>
                </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-c13027de-4254-48b8-72bb-849f0195e26e""/>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">To indicate how often lines recur across the whole manuscript tradition, we use streams colored </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">with</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> varying saturation. Highly saturated colors indicate frequently repeated passages, whereas less saturated colors indicate less repeated ones. Such a feature allows for a “consensus” visualization of the tradition at this meso scale. It is easy to see the more complex, transpositional variance of lines in the </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic"">Chanson de</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic""> Roland</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">.</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> This compositional feature of French epic visualized here needs to be studied across the entire corpus of seven manuscripts and three fragments. It is perhaps on this point, however, that a principle of visualization clashes with the visual expectations of a medieval textual scholar. As in the above example, we ordered the </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">editions to reduce the number of crossing streams and to maximize legibility. This is potentially at odds with readers who expect to see temporality of manuscript dating represented in the visualization. More thinking needs to be done about the visual semantics of such a large tradition. In such a case, a perfect order that produces less clutter might be hard to determine, and we will be required to extend our proposed design.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">We began with the alignment of the </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic"">fabliaux</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">and </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic"">Chanson de Roland</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">since they are traditions where editors have indexed alignment manually, either using page layout or by </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">numerical </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">cross referencing </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">of the stanzas</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">.</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">As the example shown in Figure 8 illustrates, </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">lin</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">es are not identical word for word, but rather our alignment has asserted basic diegetical equivalence.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-c13027de-4254-a979-5799-5c8c612441bb""/>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""275/10000000000004B3000001F98C8F70B7E5AD807C.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 8: Visualization of an aligned verse line in three versions of a fabliau</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-c13027de-4254-fcf3-5a99-8679adf6ead0""/>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""275/100002010000046E0000024C5FE649DE32830886.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 9: Alignment of an aligned verse among seven Chanson de Roland editions</head>
                    </figure>
                </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-c13027de-4255-7162-e175-023e1728ab02""/>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">In the example portrayed in Figure 9, performative </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold italic"">mouvance</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">is reflected in the recombination of words in the line.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>In developing our research on this topic, we intend to pursue more granular alignment using computational means, down to the line and perhaps the hemistich. Based on the Relative Edit Distance of strings (Jänicke et al., 2015), we aim to determine spelling variants and rhyme sets automatically. Combined with an n-gram analysis, we will support the discovery and alignment of similar text passages. Due to the high degree of orthographic variance of the medieval French language, a purely computational approach might lead to a high number of false positive alignments. Therefore, we will design a visual analytics system that includes the human in the alignment process in order to configure appropriate settings that maximize the alignment of re-used text passages. This visual analytics process includes the supervised training of a classifier that supplies the parameters steering the alignment. Iteratively, computationally aligned text fragments are scored by the textual scholar according to their relevance. After each scoring session, the alignment will be recomputed taking the scholar's justifications into account.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">In contrast to the manual alignment illustrated in the visualizations above (Figures 6-9), such a semi-automated process will potentially yield a very different picture in particular with respect to the degree of difference the human allows in string matching and the presence of shared n-grams required to align certain text passages. A further opportunity of this generic visual analytics approach is its straightforward adaptability to editions in other languages than medieval French. With </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">such a user-centered approach, alignment is not to be understood as a final product, but rather a process, for understanding variant text traditions, exploring their intricacies and supporting generation of hypotheses about textual behavior.</hi>
            </p>
        </body>
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                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Franzini, G., Franzini, E., Büchler, M.</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Jänicke, S., Geßner, A., Franzini, G., Terras, M., Mahony, S. and Scheuermann, G. (2015). TRAViz: A Visualization for Variant Graphs. In </hi>
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                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> By Chrétien de Troyes. Paris, Librairie générale française.</hi>
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    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2659","17","vWise: Visual Workspace for Information Seeking and Exploration","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Increasingly, scholars have access to large, heterogeneous collections of information such as those provided by the Digital Public Library of America, Europeana, or Canadiana as well as more targeted thematic research collections like the Whitman Archive. In additions to purpose-built humanities projects, scholars commonly make use of general-purpose resources such as Flickr, Google Search, HathiTrust Digital Library and many other services. </p>
                <p>Traditional search interfaces allow scholars to rapidly search for specific items and to explore a collection via facetted search interfaces and other techniques. Search, however, is only one part of a complex ecosystem of behaviors associated with information seeking (Toms and O’Brien, 2008; Buchanan et al., 2005). In practice, scholarly information seeking is not characterized by a single search event or interaction with a single system. Rather, it is a process that takes place over an extended period of time and involves searching different sources for potentially relevant material. As material is found, scholars organize, annotate and make notes about the retrieved material; activities that lead to more questions and more seeking.</p>
                <p>These tasks serve a dual purpose of cataloging material for re-discovery, use and interpretation as well as engaging the participant in a process of sensemaking and internalization. The fundamental purpose of this work is not merely the discovery, consumption or indexing of information or even the production of a concrete research output such as a paper. Instead, scholarly information seeking serves to hel</p>
                <p>p the seeker develop an internalized, systematic understanding of a body of knowledge and cultivate a distinctive interpretive voice (Audenaert and Furuta, 2010).</p>
                <p>We are developing the Visual Workspace for Information Seeking and Exploration (vWise
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> vWise builds on key concepts and findings of a previous project, CritSpace (Audenaert et al., 2010) and provides a new implementation and enhanced capabilities.</p>
                    </note>) to support these tasks. This paper introduces the key features and capabilities of the vWise platform and discusses how those features and capabilities reflect and build on a theoretical framework for designing systems to support open-ended information seeking and exploration. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>System Overview</head>
                <p>vWise is an extensible Web-based application framework that allows scholars to search for content from different data providers and bring the resulting information together into a single display. Once resources have been added to the workspace, they can then organize and reframe that information, for example by culling unwanted results or juxtaposing digital surrogates for newly discovered relationships. </p>
                <p>Panels are the primary way people interact with content in the vWise interface. They are used to display different types of information drawn from different sources in a single workspace. Users can organize this information by rearranging panels within the workspace and add visual annotations by setting properties such as background color, border style, font properties and drop shadows. The panels themselves support user interactions tailored to the types of content they display. For instance, users could read a book from HathiTrust, watch a video from YouTube, explore metadata from DPLA or manipulate manuscript page images to improve readability. </p>
                <p>Users have several options for adding content panels to a workspace. A basic search service allows them to execute searches using pluggable content providers. Alternatively, custom panel implementations may provide advanced searching capabilities or allow users to drag composite content such as pages from a manuscript onto the workspace to create new panels. </p>
                <p>Workspaces provide a site for both individual and collaborative work. To enable collaboration, a user can share a workspace with others. Modifications to this shared workspace are reflected on all users’ display simultaneously. This allows both synchronous and asynchronous collaboration. </p>
                <p>As a framework, vWise is designed to be customized and configured by an application developer prior to being deployed. This customization allows the basic application to be extended in four major ways:</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Integration with external data sources.</hi> vWise provides a pluggable architecture for defining interfaces to external data sources such as a digital library or search service. For instance, we provide data sources that allow users to load videos from YouTube videos, search Wikipedia and display web-pages. 
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Custom panels for working with data objects.</hi> Individual units of content are displayed using panels that provide basic support for moving, resizing and styling. Extensions support rich interactions tailored to specific types of content. For example, an image annotation tool could allow the creation and storage of annotations.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Ad hoc panels for interacting with underlying search services.</hi> The core use-case for panels is to display and organize individual content elements. Panels can also be used to implement other application services. For example, we envision implementing a search service panel that will display basic and advanced search options, display facets from the currently active search, maintain a history of recent search and display search results as panels in the main workspace. 
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Integration with server-side workspace persistence.</hi> vWise runs in a browser and stores workspaces and workspace configuration information via a well-defined RESTful interface. Application developers can use the default implementation that comes with vWise or provide a custom implementation. For instance, we developed a custom data storage implementation to connect the vWise interface with a proprietary system used to train emergency responders. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Supporting Information Seeking and Exploration</head>
                <p>Information seeking and exploration in scholarly research is an intensive, creative activity. Supporting these activities require tools that go beyond merely helping scholars find resources to provide environments that reflect and facilitate the creative process. vWise is based on ideas that have emerged from the literature in hypermedia systems, digital libraries and creativity research, including the following core concepts:</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Information Triage:</hi> The process of information seeking requires people to rapidly assess the utility of various information resources, discard those that aren’t relevant and prioritize those that show promise (Marshall and Shipman, 1997). vWise goes beyond traditional search interfaces by allowing users to remove individual results, prioritize the remaining objects and combine the results from multiple searches in a single workspace. 
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Incremental Formalization:</hi> One aspect of open-ended information seeking tasks is sense-making—the process of gaining a broad understanding of the structure of ideas within a domain. During sense-making, the emerging organizational framework is partial, provisional and implicit (Shipman and Marshall, 1999). vWise facilitates incremental formalization of knowledge by allowing users to express an emerging organization framework implicitly via the spatial arrangement and visual properties of the panels displayed on the workspace. Within this environment, user can rapidly form and reform organizational structures by manipulating the visual characteristics of the display.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Representational Talkback:</hi> The visually expressed knowledge structure serves as an externalized representation of a user’s internal, evolving mental models. Creating and interacting with this content supports representational talkback (Schön, 1983; Nakakoji et al., 2000). Representational talkback occurs when material externalizations of an internal mental model initiate a “reflective conversation” in which they talk back to their creator to inform subsequent stages of the sense making process. 
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Heterogeneous Sources and Material:</hi> Complex information seeking tasks rarely involve one-stop shopping. vWise allows people to integrate, analyze and synthesize information from different sources, by bringing content into a unified information organization space. Manipulation of spatial and visual properties (border color, drop-shadows, backgrounds, etc.) provides a lightweight and open-ended interface manipulating this content. Domain-specific panel implementations allow users to engage in content-specific interactions.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Summary</head>
                <p>vWise provides support for the complex information seeking needs of scholars and other professionals that goes beyond the capability of traditional search systems. It allows people to gather information from multiple sources and to work either independently or collaboratively to organize and analyze that material using a workspace metaphor. </p>
                <p>To date, we have demonstrated prototype implementations of vWise in two different settings. While initially conceived and designed to support the needs of scholars in the humanities, we have integrated a version of vWise into the Emergency Management*Exercise System (EM*ES). EM*ES is a simulation tool used by Texas A&M Engineering Extension Service (TEEX) to train incident managers, supervisors, and jurisdiction officials in the management of a large-scale crisis (TEEX, 2016). We have added vWise as a component to support the training of communication and coordination between emergency managers and cyber response teams. vWise is currently in use in a series of training exercises starting in January of 2016 and running through September 2017. During this period we will investigate options for more widespread use within the EM*ES application.</p>
                <p>Our second deployment of vWise was a demonstration prototype for use in wall-sized display of the Humanities Visualization Space (HVS) at Texas A&M University’s Initiative for Digital Humanities, Media and Culture (IDHMC). While vWise is envisioned primarily for desktop-oriented use, when working on knowledge organization tasks, bigger is often better. The HVS provides just such a space and opens intriguing possibilities for scholars to work with this class of interfaces both as individuals and in collaborative settings. </p>
                <p>
                    <graphic url=""683/image1.jpeg"" rend=""block""/>Figure 1: vWise demonstration at the IDHMC Humanities Visualization Space
                </p>
                <p>Moving forward, we continue to develop the core implementation of vWise framework and to add additional content provider connections and panel implementations for displays. We are specifically interested in developing integrations with major content providers for humanities and cultural heritage scholars and are working to pursue such collaborations.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Audenaert, N. and Furuta, R.</hi> (2010). What Humanists Want: How Scholars Use Source Materials. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 10th Annual Joint Conference on Digital Libraries</hi>. (JCDL ’10). New York, NY, USA: ACM, pp. 283–92. doi:10.1145/1816123.1816166 (accessed 13 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Audenaert, N., Lucchese, G. and Furuta, R.</hi> (2010). CritSpace: A Workspace for Critical Engagement within Cultural Heritage Digital Libraries. In Lalmas, M., Jose, J., Rauber, A., Sebastiani, F. and Frommholz, I. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries</hi>. (Lecture Notes in Computer Science 6273). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 307–14. http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-15464-5_31 (accessed 13 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Buchanan, G., Cunningham, S. J., Blandford, A., et al.</hi> (2005). Information Seeking by Humanities Scholars. In Rauber, A., Christodoulakis, S. and Tjoa, A. M. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries</hi>. (Lecture Notes in Computer Science 3652). Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 218–29. http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/11551362_20 (accessed 13 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Toms, E. G. and O’Brien, H. L.</hi> (2008). Understanding the information and communication technology needs of the e‐humanist. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Documentation</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">64</hi>(1): 102–30. doi:10.1108/00220410810844178.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Marshall, C. C. and Shipman, F. M., III</hi> (1997). Spatial Hypertext and the Practice of Information Triage. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Eighth ACM Conference on Hypertext</hi>. (HYPERTEXT ’97). New York, NY, USA: ACM, pp. 124–33. doi:10.1145/267437.267451  (accessed 13 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nakakoji, K., Yamamoto, Y., Takada, S., et al.</hi> (2000). Two-dimensional Spatial Positioning As a Means for Reflection in Design. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 3rd Conference on Designing Interactive Systems: Processes, Practices, Methods, and Techniques</hi>. (DIS ’00). New York, NY, USA: ACM, pp. 145–54. doi:10.1145/347642.347697 (accessed 13 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schön, D. A.</hi> (1983). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action</hi>. Basic Books.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shipman, F. M. and Marshall, C. C.</hi> (1999). Formality Considered Harmful: Experiences, Emerging Themes, and Directions on the Use of Formal Representations in Interactive Systems. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW)</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(4): 333–52. doi:10.1023/A:1008716330212.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">TEEX</hi> (2016). TEEX | Emergency Operations Training Center (EOTC). https://teex.org/Pages/about-us/emergency-operations-training-center.aspx (accessed 13 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2660","17","Web Historiography - A New Challenge for Digital Humanities?","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>During the last ten years the use of web archives as primary sources for historical research has attracted the attention of researchers in several different fields. From the web archiving community (Foot et al., 2003; Hockx-Yu, 2014) to Internet studies scholars (Brügger, 2009; Ankerson, 2012), from web scientists (Huurdeman et al., 2013; Hale et al., 2014) to STS researchers (Rogers, 2013; Schafer, 2013), several case studies have been presented. All these different projects have been designed to highlight the potential of born digital sources to offer a new and more complete perspective on our recent past. More recently, traditionally trained and digital historians have been directly engaged in the debate, raising both methodological and theoretical questions (Milligan, 2012; Webster, 2015). However, within Digital Humanities, the web as a source and as an object of study has not been widely debated.</p>
            <p>For these reasons, the proposed panel brings together different researchers whose work focuses on the use of born digital materials as historical sources and who have developed, employed, criticized or refused the use of computational/quantitative methods in order to extract useful pieces of information from them. </p>
            <p>The purpose of this panel is twofold. First, we aim to discuss how the toolkit available to new generations of historians will necessarily have to combine a vast series of new skills: from accessing and dealing with web archive objects to analyzing networks of hyperlinks, from employing text mining approaches to re-discussing the reliability of a primary source when it is born digital. </p>
            <p>Second, our intention is to discuss with the community how this new field of study could be recognized as a relevant example of a digital humanities practice. While the number of born digital sources is increasing rapidly, a broad discussion within the Digital Humanities community is needed, in order to reflect on how to prepare the first generation of digital historians that will work with materials that do not have an analogue counterpart, of which web archives are just one.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Anat Ben-David</hi> is a lecturer in the department of Sociology, Political Science and Communication, the Open University of Israel. Her research focuses on Internet geopolitics, web historiography and digital methods for Web research. Ben-David's contribution presents her recent work on the reconstruction of portions of the Web's deleted pasts. In particular, her presentation argues that the use of the Web as a primary source for studying the history of nations is conditioned by the structural ties between sovereignty and the Internet Protocol, and by a temporal proximity between live and archived websites. The argument is illustrated with an archival reconstruction of the history of the top-level domain of former Yugoslavia, .yu, which operated on the Web since 1989 and was discontinued in 2010. The archival reconstruction of a portion of the Web's deleted past serves to assess and conceptualise the Web’s limits as an appropriate source for telling its own history.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Niels Brügger</hi> is Professor and head of the Centre for Internet Studies as well as of the internet research infrastructure NetLab within the Danish Digital Humanities Lab, Aarhus University, Denmark. His research interests are web historiography, web archiving, and media theory. Within these fields he has published monographs, edited books, and book chapters at international publishers, as well as articles in international peer reviewed journals. He has participated in a number of large research projects, in Denmark and in the UK.  Niels Brügger is cofounder and now coordinator of RESAW, a Research Infrastructure for the Study of Archived Web Materials (
                <ref target=""http://resaw.eu/"">resaw.eu</ref>). 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Meghan Dougherty</hi> is an assistant professor of digital communication at Loyola University Chicago. Her research focuses on methodological challenges in answering questions about how we move through networks of digital culture to create knowledge, form memory, and make history. The questions that guide her inquiry explore how knowledge production — ranging from identity formation and group membership to scholarly knowledge — is shaped by digital communication infrastructure, and vice versa. Dougherty’s contribution to the panel stems from her current book project under contract at University of Toronto Press, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Virtual Digs: Excavating, preserving, archiving, and curating the Web</hi> in which she describes a common field of Web Archaeology drawn together from experiments in Web archiving, digital preservation, and curating that are commonly found in Internet research, digital humanities, and information science.  She argues that the nature of scholarly evidence and interpretation must be reconsidered in the new media ecology.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Ian Milligan</hi>, an assistant professor of digital and Canadian history at the University of Waterloo (Canada, Ontario) will talk on a specific web archiving project that he has been involved with. His contribution, ""WebArchives.ca: Enabling Access to Canadian Political Party Web Archives,"" explores the development, deployment, and reception of 
                <ref target=""http://webarchives.ca"">http://webarchives.ca</ref>. He argues that since 1996, we have been collecting web archives – now we need to put them to good use. However, accessing and making sense of results requires computational skills. Milligan's case study, a 2005-2015 assemblage of political parties and political interest groups within Canada, should have arguably have been used far more than it had been given pivotal shifts in the Canadian political milieu during the period it studies. These collections were underused, however, due to problems of access restrictions and a lack of technical knowledge. His contribution to this roundtable will then quickly explore various access methods, from content analysis to metadata parsing, using his case study as a reference point throughout.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Federico Nanni</hi> is a PhD student in Science, Technology and Society at the Centre for the History of Universities and Science of the University of Bologna and a visiting researcher at the Data and Web Science Group of the University of Mannheim. His research is focused on understanding how to combine methodologies from different fields of study in order to face both the scarcity and the abundance of born digital sources related to the recent history of Italian universities. In particular, he employed oral histories and traditional hermeneutic practices for reconstructing the evolution of the University of Bologna website, which was excluded from the Wayback Machine of the Internet Archive. Later, he applied text mining methods in order to study the collected data. He finally focused his attention on comparing the changes in academic input and output of this institution during the last two decades by analysing the descriptions of the courses presented on the website and the dissertations abstracts available in the digital library.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Jane Winters</hi> is Professor of Digital History at the Institute of Historical Research, University of London. Her research interests include the ways in which researchers in the humanities can work with born digital big data, including the archived web. She was Principal Investigator of a big data project funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council, ‘Big UK Domain Data for the Arts and Humanities’, which sought to develop a theoretical and methodological framework for the study of web archives over time. Drawing on the lessons of this project she will discuss the challenges faced by researchers wishing to work with the archive(s) of UK web space, and suggest ways in which archiving institutions and researchers can collaborate to overcome them. She will address the fractured and diverse nature of the available web archives - from the open and comprehensive UK Government Web Archive to the dataset derived from the Internet Archive for 1996-2013, from a focused institutional collection such as the Parliamentary Web Archive to the ongoing domain crawl undertaken by the British Library since 2013 - and consider the barriers for researchers in the arts and humanities who choose to use this material, whether as a key source for study or simply as one primary source among many.
            </p>
            <p>Together, these six papers all point towards the growing significance of web archives within contemporary historical practice. In order to encourage the discussion, each speaker will briefly introduce his or her work (5 min), then another speaker will address a general comment (5 min) and following there will be an open discussion (5 min).
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p> A similar format has been already successfully employed at the conference “Web Archives as Scholarly Sources: Issues, Practices and Perspectives”, Aarhus, 2015.</p>
                </note>
            </p>
            <p>The building blocks of the field are in place: what is needed is a discussion within the historical community, but also towards the broader field of digital humanities practice. Our discussion will look to find commonalities and similarities both within our work, but also within the broader DH 2016 conference.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ankerson, M. S.</hi> (2012). <hi rend=""italic"">Writing web histories with an eye on the analog past. New Media and Society</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>(3): 384-400.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brügger, N.</hi> (2009). <hi rend=""italic"">Website history and the website as an object of study. New Media and Society</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>(1-2): 115-32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hale, S. A., Yasseri, T., Cowls, J., Meyer, E. T., Schroeder, R. and Margetts, H.</hi> (2014). Mapping the UK webspace: Fifteen years of british universities on the web.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2014 ACM conference on Web science</hi>. ACM.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Foot, K., Schneider, S. M., Dougherty, M., Xenos, M. and Larsen, E.</hi> (2003). Analyzing linking practices: Candidate sites in the 2002 US electoral Web sphere.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(4).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hockx-Yu, H.</hi> (2014). Access and scholarly use of web archives.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Alexandria: The Journal of National and International Library and Information Issues</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(1-2): 113-27.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Huurdeman, H. C., Ben-David, A. and Sammar, T.</hi> (2013). Sprint methods for web archive research.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 5th Annual ACM Web Science Conference</hi>, ACM, pp. 182-90.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Milligan, I.</hi> (2012). Mining the “Internet Graveyard”: Rethinking the Historians’ Toolkit.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Canadian Historical Association/Revue de la Société historique du Canada</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(2): 21-64.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schafer, V. and Tuy, B.</hi> (2013).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dans les coulisses de l’internet: RENATER, 20 ans de Technologie, d'Enseignement et de Recherche.</hi> Armand Colin.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rogers, R.</hi> (2013).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital methods</hi>. MIT press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Webster, P.</hi> (2015). Will historians of the future be able to study Twitter? http://peterwebster.me/2015/03/06/future-historians-and-twitter/
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2661","17","What Do Boy Bands Tell Us About Disasters? The Social Media Response to the Nepal Earthquake","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>When an earthquake struck Nepal in 2015, the band One Direction sent a tweet encouraging their fans to donate to relief efforts. This one tweet was retweeted a few times, but quickly lost in a flood of other tweets about One Direction’s tour. Simultaneously, an Indian Hindu extremist politician flooded his Twitter stream with rumors that Christian missionaries were coercing conversions from Nepalis in exchange for humanitarian aid. Additionally, an Indian religious group mixed substantial numbers of tweets about a movie they had released with tweets about their relief efforts in Nepal. These are just a few of the users who engaged with the disaster from a distance: they had different motives for tweeting about the disaster, and different levels of engagement with it. We call these users “onlookers:” they tweet about a disaster, but are not directly affected by it.</p>
            <p>This paper analyzes onlooker behavior: it argues that onlookers who will send a few tweets can be predicted by their interests, while onlookers who will tweet heavily about it have few, if any, shared interests. We show that onlookers who primarily tweet about entertainment topics and news topics are likely to mention the disaster, yet send few tweets about it. On the other hand, onlookers who tweet substantially about a disaster after it happens are difficult to identify before the disaster occurs because they do not share common interests aside from the disaster.</p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Background</head>
                <p>Natural disasters often attract significant attention on Twitter, both by those affected and those who are distant. A substantial amount of research has explored how social media causes users to engage with political, social, and humanitarian problems; however, opinions on social media’s effectiveness—whether it causes users to donate money, stay informed, or participate in campaigns—are mixed. Some argue that displaying concern in social media is more about acquiring social capital than effecting change (Shulman, 2009; Gladwell, 2011; Morozov, 2012; Morozov, 2014), while a Pew Research Center survey finds that social media does create change (Raine et al., 2016). Additionally, many have argued that social media was important though not essential to protests in Egypt (Mazaid, 2011; Tufekci and Wilson, 2012) and other nations (Raine et al., 2016; Shirky, 2011). One analysis found that charities’ use of social media does not increase donations (Malcolm, 2016), while another finds that certain tweeting strategies do (Gasso Climent, 2015) although tweets may not raise awareness about the charity’s causes (Bravo and Hoffman-Goetz, 2015). Where all these studies concur is that social media enable a substantial amount of discourse about crises. The question we explore is how to predict how much attention Twitter users pay to crises: social media presents the opportunity for a user to send a single retweet about a disaster—as many One Direction fans did—or to sustain interest by following other users and sending many tweets about the event over a period of time.</p>
                <p>Additionally, there is little question that social media is useful for those directly affected by disasters. A substantial amount of research finds that social media helps first responders (Regalado et al., 2015; Dugdale et al., 2012; Omilion-Hodges and McClain, 2016; Burns, 2015; Xiao et al., 2015; Kaewkitipong et al., 2016; Meng et al., 2015; Madianou, 2015; Palen, 2008). In fact, specialized algorithms have been developed for that purpose (Pohl et al., 2013a; Pohl et al., 2013b; Platt et al., 2011). Little work examines users who tweet about disasters at a distance, however, despite the large numbers of such users. We examine these onlookers because they produce a large amount of the tweets about humanitarian crises.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Method</head>
                <p>We use quantitative text analysis to identify tweets about the earthquake, to cluster onlookers based on shared interests, and to derive a correlation between onlookers’ interests and the number of tweets they sent about the earthquake. This section outlines our methods.</p>
                <p>To attain a broad sample of onlookers, we gathered a dataset of over 5 million tweets sent by around 15,000 users in the three weeks following the Nepal earthquake. We harvested the data from the Twitter REST API by searching for any tweets that mentioned the word “Nepal” from April 24 to May 8. We randomly selected 15,000 users from this set and harvested all of their tweets sent between April 24, 2014 and May 5, 2015. We attempted to capture only English-speaking users to increase the likelihood that we would capture users not directly affected by the earthquake, but we still captured some users who tweeted in multiple languages. This left us with roughly 11,000 onlookers.</p>
                <p>To determine how many tweets a user had sent about the earthquake, we trained a Naive Bayesian classifier using MALLET (McCallum, 2002) on a set of 100 onlookers’ tweets (totaling about 30,000 tweets), marking them as either quake-related or not. We applied the trained classifier to the remainder of the dataset to count each user’s quake-related tweets. Spot checking showed this technique had acceptable accuracy.</p>
                <p>To find shared interests, we used Latent Dirichlet Allocation (Blei et al., 2003), treating all of a user’s tweets as one document. We ran LDA with MALLET with various numbers of topics, and settled on 80. These topics represented a broad span of themes: greetings, news, entertainment, technology, plus four topics directly related to the earthquake. We then looked for connections between onlookers by building an edge list of shared topics, creating a weighted edge between two onlookers if over 25% of both onlookers’ tweets consisted of a shared topic. The edge weight was the product of their affinities to that topic. Using Gephi (Bastian et al., 2009), we then ran a weighted Louvian modularity algorithm (Blondel et al., 2008) over this onlooker graph to generate communities of users.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Analysis</head>
                <p>This experiment resulted in 21 communities of onlookers being identified. The communities were labelled using the strongest topics in each. </p>
                <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Table1"">
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""bold"">ID</cell>
                        <cell rend=""bold"">Label</cell>
                        <cell rend=""bold"">Average Number of Tweets</cell>
                        <cell rend=""bold"">Users</cell>
                        <cell rend=""bold"">Average Quake-Related Tweets</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>0</cell>
                        <cell>Foreign language (Spanish)</cell>
                        <cell>419</cell>
                        <cell>882</cell>
                        <cell>9</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>1</cell>
                        <cell>Japanese Music</cell>
                        <cell>403</cell>
                        <cell>135</cell>
                        <cell>5</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>2</cell>
                        <cell>Greetings</cell>
                        <cell>326</cell>
                        <cell>199</cell>
                        <cell>5</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>3</cell>
                        <cell>Portuguese/Fifth Harmony</cell>
                        <cell>710</cell>
                        <cell>658</cell>
                        <cell>7</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>4</cell>
                        <cell>News Media</cell>
                        <cell>977</cell>
                        <cell>11</cell>
                        <cell>1</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>5</cell>
                        <cell>News Media</cell>
                        <cell>652</cell>
                        <cell>1312</cell>
                        <cell>22</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>6</cell>
                        <cell>News/Politics</cell>
                        <cell>600</cell>
                        <cell>1236</cell>
                        <cell>26</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>7</cell>
                        <cell>Indonesia</cell>
                        <cell>386</cell>
                        <cell>416</cell>
                        <cell>8</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>8</cell>
                        <cell>Foreign language (unknown)</cell>
                        <cell>495</cell>
                        <cell>312</cell>
                        <cell>5</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>9</cell>
                        <cell>Unclassified</cell>
                        <cell>372</cell>
                        <cell>589</cell>
                        <cell>25</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>10</cell>
                        <cell>Dera Sacha Sauda</cell>
                        <cell>1732</cell>
                        <cell>54</cell>
                        <cell>205</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>11</cell>
                        <cell>News about Russia</cell>
                        <cell>780</cell>
                        <cell>30</cell>
                        <cell>18</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>12</cell>
                        <cell>Shopping</cell>
                        <cell>1153</cell>
                        <cell>226</cell>
                        <cell>11</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>13</cell>
                        <cell>Greetings</cell>
                        <cell>476</cell>
                        <cell>1010</cell>
                        <cell>11</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>14</cell>
                        <cell>Greetings</cell>
                        <cell>439</cell>
                        <cell>1347</cell>
                        <cell>5</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>15</cell>
                        <cell>Science and animals</cell>
                        <cell>521</cell>
                        <cell>108</cell>
                        <cell>13</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>16</cell>
                        <cell>One Direction</cell>
                        <cell>388</cell>
                        <cell>1085</cell>
                        <cell>10</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>17</cell>
                        <cell>Foreign Language (Italian)</cell>
                        <cell>553</cell>
                        <cell>47</cell>
                        <cell>14</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>18</cell>
                        <cell>TV/Music</cell>
                        <cell>598</cell>
                        <cell>722</cell>
                        <cell>5</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>19</cell>
                        <cell>Music Videos</cell>
                        <cell>649</cell>
                        <cell>14</cell>
                        <cell>30</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>20</cell>
                        <cell>Nepal</cell>
                        <cell>393</cell>
                        <cell>748</cell>
                        <cell>125</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>After pruning out the foreign language communities in the dataset and some that were difficult to classify (Communities 0, 7-9, and 17), we can further group these onlookers into three broad interest groups: Casual Users (Communities 1-3, 12-14, 18, and 19), News and Pundits (4-6, and 13), and Engaged Users (20). We divided these subgroups based on the topics that were strongest in each, but these subgroups correlated with the number of quake-related tweets that each sent. They are described in the table below.</p>
                <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Table2"">
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""bold"">Category</cell>
                        <cell rend=""bold"">Proportion</cell>
                        <cell rend=""bold"">Quake-Related Tweets/Week</cell>
                        <cell rend=""bold"">Topic Affinities</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Casual Onlookers</cell>
                        <cell>46%</cell>
                        <cell>3</cell>
                        <cell>Entertainment, greetings</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>News Onlookers</cell>
                        <cell>25%</cell>
                        <cell>6</cell>
                        <cell>News and politics</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Engaged Onlookers</cell>
                        <cell>12%</cell>
                        <cell>10</cell>
                        <cell>Nepal</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Casual Onlookers.</hi> Onlookers in these communities showed high activity but low engagement with the disaster, sending an average total of three quake-related tweets a week. Their primary topics of discussion were entertainment, or greetings and positive sentiments. This is the largest group.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">News Onlookers.</hi> These accounts are either the accounts of professional news outlets or amateur pundits. We find low average quake-related tweets in this group as well: users sent an average of six relevant tweets per week. News outlets generally moved from one topic to another quickly, and pundits only sustained interest in the topics that appealed to them.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Engaged Onlookers.</hi> This group sent the most quake-related tweets of all users; the strongest LDA topics in this group were two “Nepal earthquake” topics. However, users in this community had few other topics in common with each other.
                </p>
                <p>This breakdown suggests a model for predicting the number of tweets onlookers send about events. There will be roughly three categories of onlookers: Casual Onlookers, News Onlookers, and Engaged Onlookers. Casual Onlookers will consist of roughly 50% of onlookers, and will send only a few tweets over the first three weeks. Membership in this group is predicted by an interest in entertainment topics. The number of News Onlookers will be half the size of the Casual Onlookers, but they will be roughly twice as engaged. An onlookers’s affinity to this group will be predicted by a general interest in news. Finally, the Engaged Onlookers will send 10-20 times as many tweets as the Casual Onlookers, and will comprise slightly over 10% of onlookers. This group sends the most tweets about an event, but membership in this group cannot be predicted from their preexisting interests.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>We find that it is easy to predict shallow engagement with a disaster on Twitter, but difficult to anticipate sustained interest. Onlookers who tweet about entertainment are likely to pass on at least a few messages about donating money because entertainers are likely to post these messages, and fans are likely to retweet them. On the other hand, onlookers who tweet more about an event are likely to have preexisting interests that intersect with a particular aspect of the disaster, but the relevant interests are hard to predict because doing so would require knowing the nature of the disaster ahead of time. For example, to know the Hindu extremist would tweet about rumors of coerced conversions in Nepal, we would have to predict a crisis that would produce such rumors. </p>
                <p>Additionally, we acknowledge that our model is derived from a single case study. As such, we treat it as provisional pending further experiments. We hope to confirm this model with future work.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
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    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2662","17","What's in a Topic Model: I fondamenti del text mining negli studi letterari","10","<text>
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduzione</head>
                <p>Nel 1975 William A. Wood, ricercatore alla Bolt Beranek and Newman (una delle culle di Internet), pubblicò un articolo dal titolo “What's in a link” . Il lavoro, che determinò una svolta nella storia dell'Intelligenza Artificiale e in particolare della Knowledge Representation, consisteva in una serrata e argomentata critica della nozione di rete semantica (in tutte le sue varie accezioni, dal primo modello proposto da Ross Quillian alla più avanzata nozione di 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">conceptual dependencies</hi> di Roger Shank), il concetto centrale di gran parte delle teorie di semantica computazionale. Il problema secondo Wood era che quella nozione non era fondata teoricamente (Wood, 1975): “there is currently no 'theory' of semantic networks. The notion of semantic networks is for the most part an attractive notion which has yet to be proven. Even the question of what networks have to do with semantics is one which takes some answering.” 
                </p>
                <p>Nel suo titolo questo paper allude, immodestamente, al lavoro di Wood poiché si propone di affrontare, con lo stesso atteggiamento critico, i fondamenti teorici di una nozione e di un metodo che sono oggi molto diffusi negli studi letterari computazionali: quella di topic modeling, ovvero l'individuazione statistico/probabilistica dei cluster lessicali che caratterizzano un insieme di testi, e l'analisi delle loro distribuzioni (Underwood, 2012a; Blei, 2013). Occorre chiarire che quando parliamo di fondamenti teorici ci riferiamo al ruolo che tale nozione può giocare nel contesto di una teoria del testo e di una metodologia della critica letteraria, e non ai suoi aspetti puramente matematici, che sono ovviamente saldamente basati sulla statistica e sulla teoria della probabilità bayesiana (Blei, 2012).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Il distant reading e l’interpretazione</head>
                <p>Come noto le tecniche di topic modeling rientrano nell'insieme più generale di metodi e approcci all'analisi computazionale dei testi letterari che Mario Moretti, con una formula di notevole successo coniata in antinomia con il metodo critico tradizionale, ha definito “distant reading” (Moretti 2013b: 48):</p>
                <quote>what we really need is a little pact with the devil: we know how to read texts, now let’s learn how not to read them. Distant reading: where distance, let me repeat it, is a condition of knowledge: it allows you to focus on units that are much smaller or much larger than the text: devices, themes, tropes— or genres and systems.</quote>
                <p>Tra i numerosi ricercatori che, con interesse se non addirittura con entusiasmo, hanno adottato questi metodi si nota talvolta una specie di atteggiamento riduzionista secondo cui i fenomeni letterari possono essere ridotti senza residui a fenomeni quantitativi misurabili e analizzabili in virtù di metodi puramente numerici e statistici (Jockers, 2013):</p>
                <quote>Close reading is not only impractical as a means of evidence gathering in the digital library, but big data render it totally inappropriate as a method of studying literary history […] massive digital corpora offer us unprecedented access to the literary record and invite, even demand, a new type of evidence gathering and meaning making.</quote>
                <p>A questo atteggiamento ovviamente si oppone una posizione che rivendica la radicale irriducibilità della letterarietà e/o dell'ermeneutica letteraria, la loro natura qualitativa. La tesi che intendo difendere in questo paper è la seguente: un metodo quantitativo o computazionale riveste interesse come strumento critico letterario nella misura in cui fornisce dati osservativi che possono essere correlati a termini o nozioni teoriche rilevanti per la teoria e la critica letteraria. In particolare, ritengo che le teorie semiotiche del testo letterario rappresentino una fonte di modelli e teorie di enorme utilità in ambito computazionale.</p>
                <p>L'interpretazione di un testo letterario consiste nella creazione ed elaborazione di una serie di nozioni intenzionali adottate per spiegarne il funzionamento: nozioni come quella di storia, personaggio, eroe, autore e lettore, descrizione. Possiamo dire che la scuola semiotica nella teoria e nella critica letteraria ha adottato verso queste nozioni la stessa strategia che la corrente funzionalista nella teoria della mente ha avuto verso i termini della psicologia del senso comune: ne ha fornito una spiegazione in termini di concetti (come quella di attante, funzione narrativa, fabula, intreccio, isotopia) e modelli formali più rigorosi. Questi concetti non negano la natura intenzionale dell'interpretazione, ma non la intendono come un fenomeno irriducibile, bensì ne tentano una spiegazione al livello del progetto, per usare i termini del filosofo Daniel Dennet (Dennet, 1990). Lo stesso Eco ha descritto questo doppio livello esplicativo introducendo la distinzione tra interpretazione semantica e interpretazione critico/semiotica (Eco, 1990: 29):</p>
                <quote>L’interpretazione semantica o semiosica è il risultato del processo per cui il destinatario, di fronte alla manifestazione lineare del testo, la riempie del significato. L’interpretazione critica o semiotica è invece quella per cui si cerca di spiegare per quali ragioni strutturali il testo possa produrre quelle (o altre alternative) interpretazioni semantiche.</quote>
                <p>D'altronde è lo stesso Moretti (che in questo mostra una accortezza teorica e una conoscenza del campo letterario non riscontrabile in altri autori) a suggerire questa via in uno dei suoi migliori saggi teorici adottando la nozione epistemologica di “operazionalizzazione” come processo di traduzione di un termine teorico in una procedura sperimentale (Moretti, 2013a):</p>
                <quote>Operationalizing means building a bridge from concepts to measurement, and then to the world. In our case: from the concepts of literary theory, through some form of quantification, to literary texts.</quote>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Topic model e loro possibili interpretazioni</head>
                <p>Accettando il suggerimento metodologico di Moretti, quale nozione teorica della teoria letteraria viene operazionalizzata dal concetto statistico di 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">topic model</hi>? O per usare un linguaggio più caro ai praticanti delle tecniche di 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">text mining</hi>, di quale fenomeno letterario funge da “proxy” un topic model?
                </p>
                <p>Dal punto di vista tecnico il 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">topic modeling</hi> è una tecnica di text mining non supervisionata. Esistono diversi algoritmi di topic modeling, ma ad oggi il più diffuso è quello noto come Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), fondato su un approccio probabilistico bayesiano. In modo intuitivo possiamo dire che alla base di LDA vi è un semplicistico modello generativo del testo: quando un autore scrive un testo in prima battuta sceglie l’insieme degli argomenti (topic) di cui vuole parlare e poi determina la proporzione con cui ciascun argomento sarà presente. Ammettiamo ora che ogni possibile topic possa essere caratterizzato come un insieme di parole con una data distribuzione: una specie di sacchetto di parole dove le parole possono essere ripetute in ragione diversa a seconda delle loro rilevanza rispetto all'argomento. Il nostro autore dunque potrà “pescare” in modo casuale dai vari sacchetti che corrispondo agli argomenti di cui intende scrivere ed estrarre da ciascuno un numero di parole proporzionale al peso che intende assegnare a ciascun argomento. Alla fine non dovrà fa altro che mettere in sequenza il suo mucchietto di parole ed ecco che avrà ottenuto il suo testo, in cui ovviamente le parole avranno una distribuzione determinata dalla rilevanza degli argomenti/sacchetti da cui sono state estratte. In termini tecnici si dice che in LDA un testo è una distribuzione di probabilità su un insieme di topic e un topic una distribuzione di probabilità su un insieme di parole. La cosa interessante di questo semplice metodo modello generativo è che può essere invertito: otteniamo in questo modo un algoritmo che è in grado di estrapolare i topic prevalenti in un insieme di documenti, ovvero la lista delle parole che co-occorrono con frequenza notevole e la loro distribuzione di probabilità. 
                </p>
                <p>I problemi tecnici dell'applicazione immediata di questo metodo (come di altri simili) in ambito letterario, sono diversi (Sculley and Pasanek, 2008). Ma qui ci interessa soprattutto il fatto che la nozione di topic non ha un chiaro statuto in ambito letterario: che cosa è quella lista di parole che costituisce un topic? E che cosa è la lista di topic (il topic model) nel suo insieme?</p>
                <p>Le risposte possibili a questo quesito sono diverse: Ted Underwood ha proposto di interpretare i topic prodotti dal algoritmi come LDA come “discorsi”, ovvero “kinds of language that tend to occur in the same discursive contexts” (2012a). Ma questa proposta da un lato richiede che lo statuto del concetto di discorso sia meglio definito; dall'altro nella formulazione di Underwood sembra dare adito a circolarità, poiché è proprio la natura e la funzione letteraria di quel particolare insieme di parole che va spiegata. Altri possibili candidati come correlati teorici della nozione di topic sono le nozioni di tema e motivo, che hanno avuto una lunga storia teorica nella teoria letteraria del secolo scorso; ma anche in questo le varie accezioni che possiamo assegnare ai concetti di tema e motivo paiono avere poco a che fare con i risultati di un algoritmo come LDA. Temi e motivi sono entità di contenuto che possono manifestarsi linguisticamente in specifici sintagmi o enunciati, ma che possono altresì essere manifestate da vaste porzioni di testo (a limite un testo nella sua interezza) senza avere nessun correlato linguistico immediato (Segre, 1985) . Si identificano in quanto temi e non generici contenuti concettuali in virtù della loro natura di stereotipi culturali che risiedono nella memoria culturale collettiva a cui autori e lettori attingono, pur mutandone nel tempo e nello spazio i valori semantici connotativi. Altrettanto problematica la interpretazione di un topic model come 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">isotopia</hi> nel senso definito da Greimas (1985), intesa come classe paradigmatica di caratteristiche testuali discorsive che presentano una omogeneità semantica: infatti l’isotopia non è un fenomeno lessicale e soprattutto è il prodotto della cooperazione interpretativa del lettore, come la nozione di 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">topic discorsivo</hi> adottata da Eco in nel suo 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Lector in Fabula</hi> (1979).
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusioni</head>
                <p>La discussione delle possibili interpretazioni semiotico letterarie della nozione di topic modeling e la constatazione della difficoltà teoriche che esse presentano ci porta ad affermare che in effetti non è possibile trovare un unico e soddisfacente correlato teorico- letterario dei risultati di questi metodi di analisi quantitativa. La conseguenza di questa difficoltà nella definizione teorica, ovviamente, non deve essere il rifiuto di queste tecniche di analisi come metodi utili alla conoscenza dei testi letterari. Occorre tuttavia essere consapevoli che di volta in volta il ricercatore dovrà individuare, sulla base dei testi che ha sottoposto ad analisi, quale siano i fenomeni letterari che i risultati intendono spiegare. Ne consegue inoltre la fallacia dell'idea di adottare nella ricerca letteraria le strategie di analisi esplorativa tipiche dei metodi della 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Big Data analytics</hi>. La natura intenzionale degli oggetti letterari rende impossibile individuare fenomeni rilevanti senza avere un modello o una ipotesi critica che orienti e regoli l’indagine.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D.</hi> (2012). Probabilistic topic models. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communications of the ACM</hi>, <hi rend=""italic"">55</hi>(4): 77–84.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Blei, D.</hi> (2013). Topic modeling and digital humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Humanities</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Dennett, D. C.</hi> (1990). The Interpretation of Texts, People and Other Artifacts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Philosophy and Phenomenological Research</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">50</hi>(S): 177-94.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Eco, U.</hi> (1979). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lector in fabula: la cooperazione interpretativa nei testi narrativi</hi>. Milano: Bompiani.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Eco, U.</hi> (1990). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">I limiti dell’interpretazione</hi>. Milano: Bompiani.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Greimas, A. J.</hi> (1985). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Del senso 2: narrativa, modalità, passioni</hi>. Milano: Bompiani.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2013a). Operationalizing: Or, the Function of Measurement in Literary Theory. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Left Review</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">84</hi>: 103-19.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2013b). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Distant Reading</hi>. London: Verso.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sculley, D. and Pasanek B. M.</hi> (2008). Meaning and Mining: The Impact of Implicit Assumptions in Data Mining for the Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(4): 409–24.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Segre, C.</hi> (1985). Tema/motivo. In Segre, C. (ed.),
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Avviamento all’analisi del testo letterario</hi>. Torino: Einaudi, pp. 331-56.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Underwood, T.</hi> (2012a). Topic modeling made just simple enough. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Stone and the Shell</hi>. https://tedunderwood.wordpress.com/2012/04/07/topic-modeling-made-just-simple-enough/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Underwood, T.</hi> (2012b). What kinds of “topics” does topic modeling actually produce?. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Stone and the Shell</hi>. http://tedunderwood.com/2012/04/01/what-kinds-of-topics-does-topic-modeling-actually-produce/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Woods, W. A.</hi> (1975). What's in a link: Foundations for semantic networks. In Bobrow D. G. ad Collins A. (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Representation and understanding: Studies in cognitive science</hi>. New York: Academic.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2663","17","Where Close and Distant Readings Meet: Text Clustering Methods in Literary Analysis of Weblog Genres","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Problem: towards a non-topical classification of weblog genres</head>
                <p>The existing typologies of weblog genres - both popular and academic - are based on the blog topic, e.g. cooking blogs, travels, business (cf. Morrison 2008) or its medium, e.g. vlogs, picture logs (cf. Herring et al. 2005). In order to go beyond topical distinctions, Maryl, Niewiadomski and Kidawa (2016) conducted an interpretive study on the sample of 322 popular Polish blogs. They adopted a new-rhetorical approach, basing on Carolyn Miller’s (1994) concept of genre as a social action, concentrating mostly on the blog’s communicative purpose and functions.  Following the principles of the grounded theory (cf. Lonkila 1999) the team interpreted those blogs and created an empirical-conceptual typology which entailed following genres: diaries (subjective, self-referential discourse), reflection (subjective discourse on universal matters), criticism (subjective and expert discourse on general issues), information (objective facts), filter (gateway to the existing web content), advice (subjective and expert instructions on particular issues), modelling (serving as a role model for readers) and fictionality (description of fictional events). Weblogs in the sample were coded by three separate coders with 69% average pairwise percent agreement and Cohen’s kappa of .622
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> The intercoder reliability was calculated with ReCal3, see (Freelon, 2010)</p>
                    </note>. Such a moderate agreement could be attributed to the fact that the resulting genres are ideal types, and most of the actual blogs share features of more than one genre.
                </p>
                <p>This subsequent study aims at supplementing this close-reading typology with a distant-reading perspective (Moretti 2013), based on selected tools for language processing and text clustering. We explore the style of those genres, adapting the definition proposed by Herrmann et al.: “Style is a property of texts constituted by an ensemble of formal features which can be observed quantitatively or qualitatively” (2015:41). We chose this approach due to its stress on mixed methods, as we are combining linguistic and literary criteria of selecting style markers to discriminate between blog genres (Leech & Short 2007,57-58). Current research in the field of computational literary genre stylistics focuses on Most Frequent Words (e.g. Schöch and Pielström 2014; Jannidis & Lauer 2014) or functional linguistic categories (or both) (e.g. Allison et. al 2011). Yet, this study applies similar methods to emergent and uncategorised forms of writing. The quantitative methods are incorporated into the qualitative research workflow in order to create a productive feedback loop.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Corpus</head>
                <p>The corpus of blogs was collected with the use of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">BlogReader</hi> - an extension of a corpus gathering system developed in CLARIN-PL (Oleksy et al. 2014) on a basis of open components: 
                    <ref target=""https://code.google.com/p/justext/"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">jusText</hi>
                    </ref> and
                    <ref target=""http://code.google.com/p/onion/"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Onion</hi>
                    </ref> (Pomikálek, 2011). From the initial set analysed by Maryl et al., 250 blogs were selected for processing as being long enough and included clean text (comments were omitted). We intentionally left out blogs with exceptionally large or small amount of text in order to balance the sample. The selected subcorpus includes: Diaries (44 blogs), Reflection (12), Criticism (73), Information (10), Filter (11), Advice (59), Modelling (24), Fictionality (5), and 10 ‘Unblogs’, i.e. websites or portals using the label of blogs. Posts from the one blog were merged together into a single text document per a blog that was saved in the CCL corpus format (Broda et al., 2012).
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Processing</head>
                <p>We followed the blueprint of stylometry to find groups of blogs, e.g. (Burrows 2002), (Stamatatos, 2009) or (Eder, 2011). Blogs were described by feature vectors whose initial values were frequencies of the selected elements. They were next filtered or transformed. The transformed vectors were clustered into a number of groups that could be presented as automatically identified blog types or compared with the original types.</p>
                <p>According to the criteria considered for the typology of blogs, we assumed that the interesting distinctions are not of semantic character. Thus we tried to define descriptive features that are not sensitive to the semantics of the blog contents. As a consequence, we have analysed features based on frequencies of lemmas, grammatical classes and sequences of grammatical classes. The brief description below will be elaborated in the presentation:</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>We have selected the 500 most frequent lemmas from the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Polish National Corpus</hi> (Przepiórkowski et al., 2012) and in the series of experiments on the corpus of novels we reduced it to 212 lemmas that did not trigger semantic grouping (e.g. filtering out most of nouns and verbs).
                    </item>
                    <item>Grammatical classes (as defined in the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Polish National Corpus</hi> tagset) were recognised by 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">WCRFT</hi> morpho-syntactic tagger (Radziszewski, 2013).
                    </item>
                    <item>Features were defined and extracted with the help of the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Fextor</hi> system (Broda et al., 2013).
                    </item>
                    <item>Raw feature values were transformed by measures returning positive results for those features which contribute the significant amount of information to the document description. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">SuperMatrix</hi> system (Broda & Piasecki, 2013) for Distributional Semantics was applied during the transformation.
                    </item>
                    <item>Similarity of the transformed vectors were computed by the cosine and ratio measures. The first is not sensitive to the differences in the document lengths that was the case of the analysed collection. The ratio as a heuristic measure that is aimed at comparing how much information is shared by the two vectors:</item>
                </list>
                <p>ratio(<hi rend=""italic bold"">V</hi>,<hi rend=""italic bold"">U</hi>) = 2*sum( (<hi rend=""italic"">V</hi><hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi> + <hi rend=""italic"">U</hi><hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>)/max(<hi rend=""italic"">V</hi><hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>, <hi rend=""italic"">U</hi><hi rend=""italic subscript"">i</hi>) - 1) / (length(<hi rend=""italic bold"">V</hi> ) + length(<hi rend=""italic bold"">U</hi> ))
                </p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Clustering was performed by the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cluto</hi> package for text data clustering (Zhao &  Karypis 2005). In addition, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Stylo</hi> package (Eder et al., 2013) for stylometry was used in experiments with visualisation of the possible blog clusters.
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>In order to understand the clusters better, most significant features for each cluster were identified and ranked. From several tests the Mann-Whitney U nonparametric test was chosen. For each feature its values in the documents of the given cluster were compared with its values in documents from the rest of the collection.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Experiments</head>
                <p>We have performed several experiments that can be divided into three main groups:</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">lexical level analysis</hi>, based solely on the selected most frequent lemmas and punctuation marks and aimed at testing whether those properties can serve as a basis for automated identification of the blog types;
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">lexico-syntactic level analysis</hi> featured grammatical classes in combination with the lexical features of the lexical analysis in order to assess whether blog styles result in syntactic properties. On both levels we set the expected number of clusters to 20, in order to give algorithm more ‘freedom’;
                    </item>
                    <item>extraction of significant features for the blog types with the help of the Mann-Whitney U nonparametric test.</item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Discussion</head>
                <p>The generated groups represented relatively high average of clusters purity: 54%-60,4%, i.e. more than 50% blogs in a cluster are of same type. Entropy was higher than expected: 0.438-0.481, i.e. besides dominating types in clusters blogs of other types were scattered (especially smaller types). However, the obtained clusters did not match very well the qualitatively defined types. Lexical analysis combined with the ratio measure produced results that were closest to the qualitative types: entropy of 0.467 and 58% purity, see Figure 1. Yet, lexico-syntactic analysis (lexical features together with grammatical classes and bigrams) yielded better results: 0.438 of entropy and 60.4% of purity, see Figure 2. A slightly worse result: 0.481 of entropy and 54% of purity, was obtained with trigrams instead of bigrams - groups became too small and too specific.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""265/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1. Results of the lexical analysis (features: 212  selected frequent lemmas, punctuation marks), PMI weighting, the ration similarity and, graph clustering algorithm from Cluto</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""265/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2. Results of the lexico-syntactic analysis (lexical features plus grammatical classes and bigrams), PMI weighting, ration similarity, graph clustering algorithm</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Such genres as advice, criticism and, to certain extent, diaries and modelling were clustered together with others present in multiple clusters. It was caused by distinctive language features of those genres, especially of the advice, which employs instructional vocabulary, or criticism, due to its essayistic style with compound sentences and conjunctions reflecting logical reasoning. Diaries tend to use narrative language, whereas modelling blogs are clearly concentrated on expressing the author’s self.</p>
                <p>Those differences were further explored through the extraction of blog types’ significant features with the use of Mann-Whitney U statistic. The results were in line with the definitions of classes, but provided more detailed information about the linguistic cues in those genres, some of which are presented in Table 1.</p>
                <p>Table 1. Selected linguistic features of weblog genres (Mann-Whitney U)</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Genre</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Linguistic features</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Advice</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">infinitive, passive adjectival participle, numerals, measurements (“about”, “large”, “small”)</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Criticism</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">subjective vocabulary: „I”, „mine”; conjunctions pointing to logical reasoning, e.g. “if”, “that”, “given”, “hence”, “but”</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Diaries</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1
                            <hi rend=""superscript"">st</hi> & 2
                            <hi rend=""superscript"">nd</hi> person; vocabulary: “self”, “to be”; specific words and verb forms pointing out to a narrative: “certain”, “there”
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Fictionality</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">past tense, 3rd person</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Filter</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">punctuation, substantives</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Information</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">impersonal verb forms, 3
                            <hi rend=""superscript"">rd</hi> person
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Modelling</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">interjections (e.g. “eh”), exclamation marks, 1
                            <hi rend=""superscript"">st</hi> & 2
                            <hi rend=""superscript"">nd</hi> person, vocabulary: “mine”, “thing”, “new”, “why”, “because”
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Reflection</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">1
                            <hi rend=""superscript"">st</hi> & 2
                            <hi rend=""superscript"">nd</hi> person, vocabulary: “self”, “always”, “everything”
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusions</head>
                <p>This study showed how close readings (literary interpretative practices) and distant readings (computational approaches to genre analysis) could be integrated in a non-topical analysis of the emerging genres. The novelty of the presented approach lies in the fact that we do not aim at assessing existing genres but rather at developing tools and procedures for the analysis and classification of new genres. The automated methods are used not only to verify the qualitative findings, but rather to enhance them by pointing towards the attributes which might have been overlooked by human coders who were able to read only a sample of each of 332 blogs. The aim is not to cluster texts automatically but rather to support human interpretation in an integrated research design.</p>
                <p>Recurring problems with clustering genres other than advice could be attributed to the fact that individual blogs within one class may consists of posts which follow different genre conventions. Hence, further studies should explore the genre problem by comparing individual posts (rather than entire blogs) by different authors in order to find stylistic similarities.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Allison, S., Heuser, R., Jockers, M. L., Moretti, F. and Witmore, M.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Quantitative Formalism: An Experiment</hi>, Pamphlet 1. Stanford Literary Lab.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Broda, B., Marcińczuk, M., Maziarz, M., Radziszewski, A. and Wardyński, A.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">KPWr: Towards a Free Corpus of Polish</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of LREC’12</hi>. Istanbul, Turkey.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Broda, B., Kędzia, P., Marcińczuk, M., Radziszewski, A., Ramocki, R. and Wardyński, A.</hi> (2013). Fextor: A Feature Extraction Framework for Natural Language Processing: A Case Study in Word Sense Disambiguation, Relation Recognition and Anaphora Resolution. In  Przepiórkowski, A., Piasecki, M., Jassem, K. and Fuglewicz, P. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computational Linguistics. Applications</hi>, volume 458 of Studies in Computational Intelligence, Berlin: Springer Verlag, pp. 41–62.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Broda, B. and Piasecki, M.</hi> (2013). Parallel, Massive Processing in SuperMatrix – a General Tool for Distributional Semantic Analysis of Corpora. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Data Mining, Modelling and Management</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 5</hi>(1): 1–19.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J. F.</hi> (2002). ‘Delta’: a measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 17</hi>(3): 267–87.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M.</hi> (2011). Style-markers in authorship attribution: a cross-language study of authorial fingerprint. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Studies in Polish Linguistics</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 6</hi>: 99-114.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2013). Stylometry with R: a suite of tools. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts</hi>. University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE, pp. 487-89.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Freelon, D.</hi> (2010). ReCal: Intercoder reliability calculation as a web service. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Internet Science</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 5</hi>(1): 20-33.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Herring, S., Shedit, L. A., Writh, E. and Bonus, S.</hi> (2005). Weblogs as a bridging genre, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Information, Technology & People</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(2): 142-71.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Herrmann, J. B., van Dalen-Oskam, K. and Schöch, Ch.</hi> (2015). Revisiting Style, a Key Concept in Literary Studies, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Literary Theory</hi>, <hi rend=""bold""> 1</hi>(9): 25-52.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jannidis, F. and Lauer, G.</hi> (2014). Burrows’s Delta and Its Use in German Literary History. In  Erlin,M. and Tatlock, L. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Distant Readings. Topologies of German Culture in the Long Nineteenth Century</hi>, New York: Camden House, pp. 29-54.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Leech, G. N. and Short, M.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Style in fiction: A linguistic introduction to English fictional prose</hi>. Harlow: Pearson Longman.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lonkila, M.</hi> (1999). Grounded theory as an emerging paradigm for computer-assisted qualitative data analysis. In Kelle, U. (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computer-Aided Qualitative Data Analysis: Theory, Methods and Practice</hi>. London: Sage, pp. 41-51.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Maryl, M., Niewiadomski, K. and Kidawa, M.</hi> (2016 - forthcoming). Empirically Generated Typology of Weblog Genres. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 18</hi>(2).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Miller, C. R.</hi> (1994). Genre as Social Action. In Freedman, A. and Medway, P. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Genre and the New Rhetoric</hi>. London: Taylor & Francis, pp. 57-66.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Distant reading</hi>. London: Verso.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Morrison, A.</hi> (2008). Blogs and Blogging: Text and Practice. In Siemens, R. and Schreibman, S. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Literary Studies</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 369-87.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Oleksy, M., Kocoń, J., Maryl, M. and Piasecki, M.</hi> (2014). Linguistic analysis of weblog genres, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Practical Applications of Linguistic Corpora Conference</hi>, PALC’14, Łódź.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pomikálek, J.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Removing Boilerplate and Duplicate Content from Web Corpora</hi>. PhD Thesis, Faculty of Informatics, Masaryk University, Brno. 
                        <ref target=""http://is.muni.cz/th/45523/fi_d/phdthesis.pdf"">http://is.muni.cz/th/45523/fi_d/phdthesis.pdf</ref> (accessed 29 February 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Przepiórkowski, A., Bańko, M., Górski, R. L. and Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B. (eds).</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Narodowy Korpus Języka Polskiego</hi>. Warszawa: PWN.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Radziszewski, A.</hi> (2013). A tiered CRF tagger for Polish. In Intelligent Tools for Building a Scientific Information Platform, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Studies in Computational Intelligence</hi>, vol. 467, pp. 215–30.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rybicki, J. and Eder, M.</hi> (2011). Deeper Delta across genres and languages: do we really need the most frequent words? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold""> 26</hi>(3): 315-21.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schöch, Ch. and Pielström, S.</hi> (2014). Für eine computergestützte literarische Gattungsstilistik, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">1. Jahrestagung der Digital Humanities im deutschprachigen Raum (DHd).</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stamatatos, E.</hi> (2009). A survey of modern authorship attribution methods. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">60</hi>(3): 538–56.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zhao, Y. and Karypis, G.</hi> (2001). Criterion functions for document clustering: Experiments and analysis. Technical Report TR #01–40, Department of Computer Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zhao, Y. and Karypis, G.</hi> (2005). Hierarchical Clustering Algorithms for Document Datasets. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 10</hi>(2): 141-68.
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            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2664","17","Who's Doing What?: Examining The Relationships Among Subjectivity, Agency, and Syntax In The 19th Century Novel","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Introduction</head>
            <p>The relationship between action and identity is a significant element of understanding the way that characterization functions within literary works; many memorable characters are in part defined by their actions. This link between character and action raises the question of whether 
            <hi rend=""bold"">specific</hi> types of characters, or subjects, are consistently associated with certain types of action. Our project seeks to address this question by looking at the relationship between elements of a subject’s identity and the actions associated with that subject. Our research builds off of work begun by the University of Nebraska-Literary Lab that explores the relationship between behavior and gender in the 19
            <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century novel. The research begun by the Lab attempts to situate questions of gender and agency within the context of 19th century notions of propriety; is the Victorian valorization of passive women and active men reflected in novels from the period? 
            </p>
            <p>This project adds on to our initial foray into questions of gender; what is at stake is still very much a question of the allocation of agency. This avenue of research revolves around the question of when and why inanimate objects fill the subject position in sentences. This research also queries whether certain types of characters behave differently from others: what do kings do that peasants do not?  Our project examines the agency associated with male, female, human, and non-human actors by studying the different types of verbs used in conjunction with different types of subjects. This research explores the question of whether or not certain types of subjects 
                <hi rend=""bold"">behave</hi> differently in our corpus, and if so, in what ways and to what effect.
            </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Methodologies</head>
            <p>The initial foray into the study of gender and genre performed by the University of Nebraska-Literary Lab relied on POS tagging and used an R programming script to extract the ﬁrst pronoun that it encountered, along with the ﬁrst verb that followed this pronoun, and entered each as a relationship into a data frame.<note>R is a statistical programming language often used in text analysis research and authorship attribution studies</note> The male pronouns “him,” “his,” “he,” and “himself,” and the female pronouns “she,” “her,” “hers,” and “herself” were extracted. Thus, in the following sentence, the pronouns “she” would be extracted and grouped with the verb “walked.”</p>
            <p>After dinner, she walked outside.</p>
            <p>This approach was also our initial model for extracting non-human actors. For example, in the following sentence, we could similarly extract the pronoun “it” and the verb “howled.”</p>
            <p> The wind was fierce; it howled into the night. </p>
            <p>However, such an approach has several shortcomings. The first of which is that multiple verbs associated with a single subject in a sentence are not extracted. The second, is that this method only captures pronouns.  Instances of personification, which often rely on nouns rather than pronouns, are ignored by this model. In order to solve these issues, we turned to the Stanford Dependency Parser, a tool that provides a representation of grammatical relations between words in a sentence. For example, in the sentence “The wind is dancing and howling,” the parser would extract two subject verb pairs, “wind, dancing” and “wind, howling.” The output looks as follows:</p>
            <p>det(wind-2,The-1)
                <lb/>nsubj(dancing-4,wind-2)
                <lb/>nsubj(howling-6,wind-2)
                <lb/>aux(dancing-4,is-3)
                <lb/>root(ROOT-0,dancing-4)
                <lb/>cc(dancing-4,and-5)
                <lb/>conj:and(dancing-4, howling-6)
            </p>
            <p>Using the parser allowed us to collect subjects that were not pronouns and allowed us to correctly associate multiple verbs with a single subject. It also allowed us to easily collect gender data, since we could simply collect any nsubj pair that contained a gendered pronoun. </p>
            <p>While the parser does identify subject and verb pairs, it does not differentiate between human and non-human subjects. To differentiate between these subject types, we created a script that allows us to extract non-human agents and the verbs associated with them by ignoring sentences in which the subject is a gendered pronoun, a proper name, or a title. In performing our research, we realized that human subjects were indicated by either a pronoun (such as he), a proper name (such as Mary), or a title (such as the priest). If a subject did not fall into one of these three categories, the subject was most likely a non-human entity. </p>
            <p>Ignoring nsubj groupings in which one of the words is a gendered pronoun was straightforward. In order to block proper names, we ran the Stanford Named Entity Recognizer on the texts in order to create a list of proper names from the corpus. We then ignored nsubj groupings that contained one of these names. Finally, in order to ignore titles, we created a dictionary of titles derived from vocabulary lists for non-native english speakers. These lists contained titles such as “captain,” professions, such as “baker,” terms signalling family relationships, such as “mother,” and general terms for human agents, such as “girl.” We then recorded each subject-verb relationship that did not contain one of these three categories into a data frame. However, in a separate script, we also used this list of titles to extract nsubjs that contain any of these titles. Our process allows us to use our program to assess the frequency of recurring syntactical relationships, essentially counting the number of times each verb is associated with male, female, human, and non-human subjects. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Observations</head>
            <p>The initial results observed by the Nebraska-Literary Lab in their study on gender indicate that certain verbs were strongly associated with male characters while different verbs were strongly associated with female characters. Continuing this research, Matthew Jockers and Gabrielle Kirilloff confirmed these results in their work, which used the Stanford Dependency Parser in the manner discussed above. Jockers and Kirilloff found that a verb can be used to predict the gender of the pronoun associated with it, with 89% percent accuracy. Given the high degree of accuracy obtained from this analysis, we can conclude that within our corpus of 19th century fiction, authors chose to portray male and female characters differently by associating them with divergent groups of verbs. This result is not surprising, especially given the way in which ideas about proper behavior differed for males and females within 19th century society.<note>For a helpful discussion of the gender stereotypes that existing in the 19th century, please see: <hi rend=""bold"">Welter, B.</hi> (1966). The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820-1860. <hi rend=""italic"">American Quarterly</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(2). <hi rend=""bold"">Clark, A.</hi> (1995). <hi rend=""italic"">The Struggle for the Breeches: gender and the making of the British working class</hi>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. <hi rend=""bold"">Gilbert, M. and Gubar, S.</hi> (1979). <hi rend=""italic"">The madwoman in the attic: the woman writer and the nineteenth-century literary imagination</hi>.  New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. These works were influential in our understanding of 19<hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century notions of gender, behavior, and propriety.</note> However, this result still has several far-reaching implications, one of which is that “actions,” or verbs, are in fact an important part of creating and determining character.</p>
            <p>One of the shortcomings of the analysis on gendered pronouns and verbs is that it does not take into account other aspects of character identity. A princess and a witch may perform the same actions, but the implications are radically different. Similarly, certain types of characters may be associated with verbs typically associated with the opposite gender; though both are male, clerics and soldiers are no doubt associated with different actions. The data we extracted is a first step toward broadening this work; our extraction of specific subjects (such as wife, soldier, cleric) allow us to more closely look at character identity. In querying our data, our results thus far support the findings on gendered pronouns and verbs. For example, the verb “wept” was found to be strongly associated with female pronouns. In examining specific types of actors, we found that “women,” “mothers,” and “woman” were the most frequent actors associated with “weep,” “weeping,” and “weeps” respectively. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Future work</head>
              <p>Our initial foray into our corpus has produced a wealth of data; at this stage our next step is to organize and query this data, asking more specific questions about the relationship between subjects and actions. For example, we have hypothesized that instances of objects performing actions occur more often in certain genres, specifically the Gothic.<note>This hypothesis arose from both our own close reading of certain texts within our corpus and previous scholarship on the appearance and use of personification in the Gothic novel. For insight into the scholarly understanding of personification and the Gothic novel, please see the chapter on the Gothic novel in: <hi rend=""bold"">Parrinder, P., Nash, A. and Wilson, N.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">New Directions in the History of the Novel</hi>. New York: St. Martin's.</note> Over the coming months we intend to begin studying whether the actions associated with male, female, human, and non-human subjects are associated with specific genres. This type of analysis is challenging, largely because of the difficulties associated with collecting accurate Genre data. Genres are not rigid categories and many works participate in multiple genres.  In addition to exploring the effects of genre, we also intend to more thoroughly examine the types of non-human and human agency we are extracting. Man-made objects, objects found in nature, animals, and supernatural beings are just a few of the types of non-human agency we have observed. We would like to begin exploring and categorizing these differences in an attempt to better understand our data. Because the Stanford Dependency Parser allows us to look closely at syntactic relationships, we also intend to expand our research to encompass the objects of actions, essentially asking, who is doing what 
                <hi rend=""bold"">to whom</hi>. This question has important implications for studies of gender and character identity. 
            </p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Normal1"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baylog, O., Dimmit, L., Heller, T., Kirilloff, G., Smith, S., Thomas, G., Warren, C. and Wehrwein, J.</hi> (2014). More than Custom has Pronounced Necessary: Exploring the Correlation between Gendered Verbs and Character in the 19th Century Novel, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">UNL Digital Commons</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2665","17","Work In A Globalised World. Allocation Algorithm To Add Labour Relations To Digitised Census Data","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Contemporary studies on social inequality often focus on income or status attainment, but neglect the fundamental underlying relationship between employer and employee, referred to as a 'labour relation'. This negligence of labour relations (for and with whom one works) was for a long time of no concern, as the employer-employee relationship was predominant in the period after World War II. However, the current fierce debate on the desirability of precarious work among the rising number of freelancers and independent contractors around the world, as well as the increased media attention and consumer awareness of 'forced labour', shows that employer-employee relationship is not a universal constant, but the result of a much broader historical context. Moreover the interest in the historical context of social inequality is now bigger than ever, judging by both the academic and media impact of recent publications (e.g. Clark, 2014; Piketty and Goldhammer, 2014; van Zanden et al., 2014).</p>
            <p>In order to describe and explain the historical context of shifts in labour relations and to recognize global connections between these shifts, a taxonomy of labour relations covering the past five centuries was devised by the participants of the Global Collaboratory on the History of Labour Relations (https://collab.iisg.nl/web/LabourRelations/; Figure 1). This collaboratory – hosted by the International Institute of Social History in Amsterdam (http://www.socialhistory.org) – has grown in the past decade to an online scholarly community of dozens of regional experts across the world and from various scholarly disciplines, such as social and economic historians, archaeologists and sociologists. </p>
            <p>Using the taxonomy (Lucassen, 2013) (Figure 1), accompanying codebook and guidelines for data entry, the global collaboratory has gathered data on labour relations for more than twenty countries, using five temporal cross-sections (1500, 1650, 1800, 1900, [Africa: 1950], 2000) (Brown and van der Linden, 2010; Hofmeester and Moll-Murata, 2011; van der Linden, 2008; Lucassen, 2008). Databases of many more countries and regions are currently being prepared. For each country and cross-section a set of scholarly products are created that consists of a predesigned database with 1) population and demographic data and 2) details of the labour relations. A methodological paper explaining the choices made in the data collection for each country and time period accompanies the database. Both the database and methodological paper are verified before they are provided online as open access publication.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""251/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1. The taxonomy of labour relations, 2015</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Until now, most of the data gathered are manually derived from aggregated sources, similar to contemporary occupational censuses, mainly for the period before 1800. The main aim of this paper is to present an alghorithm that was developed to automatically derive labour relations from digitized census materials. We therewith improve on the traditional way of working in the following ways. First, our alghorithm specifically applies to the biggest two projects that digitize census materials in the world NAPP and IPUMS, therewith providing a major contribution to the collection of labour relations for the post 1800 period and for the entire world. </p>
            <p>A second advantage of the algorithm is that it provides the first alternative derivation of labour relations and thus can be used to test the reliability of the traditional derivation of labour relations. For many of the digitized censuses both original aggregated tables as well as the individual level data have been preserved, thus allowing for a reliability test of both methods. </p>
            <p>The third advantage our algorithm provides is that is able to derive labour relations from individual level census data, thus allowing for more rigorous tests of hypotheses on labour relations. For until now, labour relations have just been gathered from aggregated census tables, only allowing for national comparisons and hypothesis testing. Also labour relations for the past two centuries have only been gathered for three cross-sectional years, while census data is available by decade from ca. 1850 onwards. By being able to attach labour relations to individuals, for the first time descriptive results on heterogeneity of labour relations within countries as well as over time will become available. Moreover, researchers will be much more able to zoom in on the characteristics related to changes in labour relations, such as individual characteristics (e.g. age, gender, education), household composition (e.g. extended family, sibling composition), and historical context of the municipality, region or state (e.g. level of development, political orientation) and therefore be able to provide more rigorous tests of hypotheses on changes in labour relations.</p>
            <p>For this purpose, an algorithm is created to allocate labour relations to each of the millions of individual records that are part of the IPUMS databases. This algorithm was first tested on the censuses of the United States between 1850 and 2010. While an earlier version was written in R, the current algorithm was written in SPSS syntax, a fourth generation programming language, as SPSS proved to be better equipped for our purpose and to handle the large file sizes (4-10 GB). In the end, the algorithm will be available to all users of the IPUMS databases.</p>
            <p>Starting from the total population, in each iterance a proportion of the records was allocated to a certain labour relation until all records were assigned. Different variables were used or combined, including age, class of worker, employment status, whether someone was considered in the labour force, their occupation, whether they lived on a farm. Here, the order of the different allocations is very important. Broadly speaking, the algorithm moves from the general to the detail. The end result is an enormous database of labour relations, both in the United States and the wider world. This allows us to study shifts in labour relations in much more detail than before (for example: Figure 2). As the census also includes numerous other information, including for instance place of residence, it is also possible to study in great detail geographical factors (Figure 3, or the role of education, gender, age, ethnicity, household composition, migrant status, wealth, and many other things. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""251/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2. Likelihood that one changes labour relation</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Although the IPUMS project has done much effort already to harmonise the different census data, and although historical census takers were also much aware of the need to create uniform censuses both national and trans-national, the algorithm can easily be adapted to the specifics of each of the sources used by the Collaboratory. This means that changes in categories in the census, but also changes in the meaning of census category labels can be adapted to. A future goal is to create an updated version of the algorithm, that allows not only an allocation of a labour relation, but also provides a certainty value. This update is expected in the coming months. Also, in our paper, in addition to presenting the algorithm itself, we will provide a complete research cycle for the US census data from 1850-2013. We start by deriving the labour relations for each of the census years and show our census-specific adaptations of the algorithm to account for historic changes in census taking, such as changes in instructions or the meaning of census category labels. Next, we will describes shifts in labour relations in the US for the period under study using amongst others animations as depicted in Figure 3. Finally, we will derive and test hypotheses on acts that affect self-employment in the US, such as the Midwives Act, that forced women out of self-employment.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""251/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3. Still of an animation of changes in self-employment in the US, 1850-2013</head>
            </figure>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brown, C. and Linden, M. van der.</hi> (2010). Shifting Boundaries between Free and Unfree Labor: Introduction. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Labor and Working-Class History</hi>, (78), pp.4–11.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clark, G. </hi>(2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Son Also Rises.</hi> [online] Princeton University Press. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5hhrkm.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hofmeester, K. and Moll-Murata, C.</hi> (Eds.). (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The joy and pain of work: global attitudes and valuations, 1500-1650</hi>. International review of social history. Cambridge: [Published for the Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis] Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Linden, M. van der.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Workers of the world: essays toward a global labor history</hi>. Studies in global social history. Leiden ; Boston: Brill.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lucassen, J.</hi> (Ed.). (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Global labour history</hi>. International and comparative social history. Bern ; New York: Peter Lang.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lucassen, J.</hi> (2013). Outlines of a history of labour. (51), pp.5–46.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Piketty, T.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Capital in the Twenty-First Century</hi>. [online] Harvard University Press. Available at: <http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wpqbc>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Zanden, J.L., Baten, J., Mira d’Ercole, M., Rijpma, A. and Timmer, M.</hi> (Eds.). (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">How was life? Global Well-being since 1820</hi>. OECD Publishing.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2666","17","Digital in practice: survey of Russian historians' research practices","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Realm of Digital history</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)"">“Digital history” became a professional realm, because new ways to store, process, and study information entered the everyday historical research practices in Russia (Rosenzweig, 2010). Obviously, the “digitization” introduces new approach to the craft of the historian, when digitization became the indispensable stage of many studies (Volodin, 2015). Interdisciplinary framework of “digital history” is often placed in the context of a broader movement of the “digital humanities” (Schreibman et al., 2004; Schreibman et al., 2016). However, it should be emphasized that historical research has lots of specific features, and “digital turn” makes a significant impact on the research practices (Weller, 2013).</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Historical research is a kind of reconstruction of the past on the basis of the extant monuments and documents, “remains” and “legends”. This reconstruction is based on three pillars: heuristics, criticism and interpretation. These basic practices today meet the challenges of the “digital age”.</hi> It's important to mention that 
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)"">the “digital turn” in the profession of historical research was one of the four main themes of the International Congress of Historical Sciences in 2015. It seems that time has come to investigate the specificity of research practices and digital tools for professional historians. </hi>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Survey of “digital” in practice</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)"">The research is based on questionnaires and interviews of historians in Russia in 2015 and 2016 (178 respondents). In questionnaires and interviews I tried to ask not only “geeks” among historians, but also “pure” historians whom “digital turn” also touched (cf.: DARIAH Survey, 2015; Schreibman and Hanlon, 2010; Trinkle, 1999). First questions ask respondents to name main “digital practices” that they consider important. Such start helps to create “folksonomy” of practices and tools that historians define for themselves as “digital” (e.g. it’s not obvious whether text-editing is considered as digital practice, or email as research tool?). Then I started to ask questions about different fields of digital practices as we hypothetically classified in several groups: access, digitization, editing, mark-up, visualization, modeling/simulation, and others. Each group (or type of practice) includes different techniques and tools. We define techniques as more general term to call research procedure, when tools are linked to particular software or platform.</hi>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>History in the “digital turn”</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)"">The instancy of the research is associated with a new stage in the development of information and digital technologies in history. “Digitizing” is not just a technical procedure now, but it becomes a preparation for further computerized analysis of historical sources, using different tools for visualization and analysis of historical information.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)"">The “digital turn” in history requires a monographic study as well as a full systematization of historians’ research practices. We don’t know any systematic attempt to generalize the results achieved by “digital history”. This research project is designed to systematize the research practices (both visualization and analysis of historical data). This study tries to “catch” the development of contemporary digital practices, and we hope to make classification that will summari</hi>ze achievement 
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)"">in the field of “digital history”. Summarizing the answers, it’s possible to draw several valid observations: one insight and three dichotomies. </hi>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Insight: Digital is “Invisible”</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)"">It looks that a prediction which was vividly pronounced in</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic color(222222)"">“A New Companion to the Digital Humanities”</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)""> that “a decade or two from now, the modifier “digital” will have come to seem pleonastic when applied to the humanities” is much closer. Most of answers were concerned with some concrete experience of usage of digital tools, mentioning that they are so “natural” or “spontaneous”. The time has come when historians are really in the majority of cases are so-called “digital natives” (even if not in age, but at heart).</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)"">The usual remark on state-of-art in historical digital practices was that so-called new ICT (Information and communications technology) became usual, familiar, and mostly routine ICT. The increase of computing power broadens digital practices form tables and databases to full-text search in enormous online collections, and then to visualizations from GIS to 3D (cf.: Gregory, 2014).</hi>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Heuristics dichotomy: Analog versus Digital</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Digital in Russian literally means numeric (like chiffre or numerique in French, or Zíffern in German) without any link to fingers, but strongly connected to quantitative research and computing. That’s why for main historians “digital history” strongly refers to quantitative history or cliometrics. History as one of ""traditionally print-based disciplines"" (Hayles, 2012, 1) is deeply connected to studies of analog primary sources. This dichotomy has two implications: on the one hand, historians usually see no principle differences between analog original and digital copy, but, on the other hands, they mainly prefer to study analog archives, because it shows their professional skills of access to rare documents.</hi>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Criticism dichotomy: Capta versus Data</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)"">The “digitization” became the usual and common practice of collecting information. But it's important to mention that for many respondents digitization is almost the same practice as “writing out” or “making notes”, not planning the future possibilities of processing this “capta”. </hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Distinction between “capta” and “data” in digital history became indicative. If capta is “taken” actively while data is assumed to be a “given” (Drucker, 2011), in digital history capta explains the “catch” of the researcher in terms of his/her sampling of primary sources as well as a critical attitude to the choice of the sources. </hi>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Interpretation dichotomy: Close versus Distant </head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)"">The distinction between “close reading” and “distant reading” came to digital history from computer linguistics (Moretti). This dichotomy explains the conscious choice between brains or processors in solving different research problems. And main present question (or prospect) is that to what extent main practices of history can be robotized? This vision of the future is usually mixed with vague hope that at least interpretation will remain in the researches’ hands and heads. It also brings up an issue of possibilities of digital infrastructure for analytical level.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(222222)"">The aim of the lasting research of digital practices is to create a list of solutions and techniques developed in real research practice, and thus to disseminate such solutions among historians and researchers of the past. The classifier of digital methods and tools will help to choose the most appropriate solution for particular research aims.</hi>
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">DARIAH Survey (2015). “DARIAH Survey on Digital Practices in the Arts and Humanities”. https://dariahre.hypotheses.org/285</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Drucker J. (2011) “Humanities Approaches to Graphical Display” in DHQ. 5.1. http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/5/1/000091/000091.html</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Gregory I. (2014) Challenges and opportunities for digital history. Front. Digit. Humanit. 1:1. 10.3389/fdigh.2014.00001</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Hayles N.K. (2012) How We Think: Digital Media and Contemporary Technogenesis. University of Chicago Press.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Moretti F. (2013) Distant Reading. Verso.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Rosenzweig R., Grafton A. (2010) Clio Wired: The Future of the Past in the Digital Age. Columbia University Press.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Schreibman S., Siemens R., Unsworth J. (2004) A Companion to Digital Humanities. Blackwell Publishing. http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Schreibman S., Siemens R., Unsworth J. (2016) A Companion to Digital Humanities. Wiley-Blackwell.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Schreibman S., Hanlon A.M. (2010) “Determining Value for Digital Humanities Tools: Report on a Survey of Tool Developers"" in DHQ (4/2). URL: http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/4/2/000083/000083.html</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Trinkle D.A. (1999) “History and the Computer Revolutions A Survey of Current Practices” in Journal of the Association for History and Computing. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.3310410.0002.107</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Volodin A. (2015) «Cifrovaja istorija»: remeslo istorika v cifrovuju epokhu [Digital history: the craft of historian in the digital age] // Elektronnyj nauchno-obrazovatel'nyj zhurnal «Istorija», 2015. № 8 (41). 10.18254/S0001228-9-1</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(222222)"">Weller T. (2013) History in the digital age. London; New York: Routledge, 2013.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2667","17","A Model for International Cooperation: Emblematica Online and Linked Data in Research and Pedagogy","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>“Pedagogy and Emblematica Online: Humanities Students in DH Projects”</head>
                <p>Mara R. Wade </p>
                <p>University of Illinois</p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Why DH a Pedagogy?</head>
                    <p>As Burdick, Drucker, Lunenfeld, Posner, and Schnapp state: “A new kind of digital humanist is emerging who combines in-depth training in a single humanistic subfield with a mix of skills drawn from design, computer science, media work, curatorial training, and library science” (Burdick et al, 166). Researchers with Emblematica Online took this challenge seriously, and determined ways to incorporate student researchers into our federally funded project as a means of investing in our shared DH future. Tier-one research institutions present particularly rich opportunities to advance the rapidly changing field of undergraduate research. Faculty members in the humanities at these universities have excellent opportunities to advance undergraduate research, and strong obligations do so. With graduate students, we can scaffold our mentoring to offer creative and productive experiences for DH pedagogy across all areas of the academic landscape. DH pedagogy involves experiential learning within a framework that emphasizes peer learning as well as more formal modes of instruction. Because DH pedagogy involves learning by doing, it emphasizes approaches in university teaching including both a vertical to a horizontal pedagogy. </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>“The Emblem Scholars” </head>
                    <p>This paper presents the research initiative with bachelor students at the University of Illinois, analyzes their research results, outlines the challenges, and makes suggestions for future efforts in DH pedagogy. “Digital Humanities: Emblematica Online” was a course for undergraduate researchers with no experience whatsoever in DH. Our goal was the long-term intellectual development of students with respect to the disciplines, concepts, workflows, and methodologies. This project also incorporated international research exchange and modeled experiential learning beyond the narrow confines of an undergraduate major. </p>
                    <p>The undergraduate research opportunity was a hybrid course, introducing students to early modern books and book history directly in the rich collections of the University Library, to literary criticism of texts and images with a tight focus on the European emblem, and to digital humanities concepts such as consistent vocabularies, multilingual thesaurus, best practices and standards for transcriptions of texts, and the importance of linked open data and semantic web technologies. The class integrated “a holistic learning by project approach” (Rehbein and Fritze). </p>
                    <p>The “Emblem Scholars” with six undergraduates was launched in spring semester 2013. The project PI organized the course as “Digital Humanities: Emblematica Online” and met twice per week. Project researchers introduced the virtual collection Emblematica Online and the workings of the Portal; they developed spreadsheets for motto transcriptions and the “stitching” program to collocate individual emblems with their metadata and create a URI from a handle server. The PI, together with a senior project consultant and a graduate assistant, directed these students. Students were also paired with faculty mentors from early modern studies who checked the students’ transcriptions of emblem mottos from various early modern versions of European vernacular languages and Latin. These mentors also met with them once or twice during the semester about their research papers. The Emblem Scholars transcribed emblem mottos, associated this data with the emblems within their books, and wrote scholarly papers. Together they also presented two posters at the Undergraduate Research Symposium 2013 (see ill. 1). This pedagogy was largely student driven, and three students continued their research with Emblematica Online for several additional semesters. The continuing students created the website Emblem Scholars: Emblematica Online as an extension of their course work (see ill 2)</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Student Outcomes and Next Steps</head>
                    <p>The student research associated with Emblematica Online is vital to training the next generation of DH scholars and users. All three continuing undergraduate students now plan graduate study in the humanities with DH integrated into their studies. Their research for Emblematica Online positions them ideally as users, and perhaps even creators, of future digital resources. There are further multipliers for positive outcomes. One student presented new aspects of her research at the Undergraduate Research Symposium 2014, while the two others studied abroad, in Ireland and France, respectively. During her semester abroad, the one student volunteered in the library, digitizing a photo album. She considers her research as an Emblem Scholar key to her acceptance to the highly competitive 2014 Andrew W. Mellon Summer Academy and Undergraduate Curatorial Fellowship Program at the Art Institute Chicago. One has an internship at a museum in the Chicago area, another has entered Library School. </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Challenges in Undergraduate Research</head>
                    <p>The first semester was time intensive to bring the students up to speed in all areas: DH, early modern literature and culture, working with rare books, and training in accurate transcription of foreign languages. (The six students came from Spanish, Communications, Mathematics, Psychology, English, and Art History.) Taking ownership of their work, responsibility for accuracy in all workflows, and dependability in meeting deadlines were habits they quickly developed. These students were smart and eager to work; they developed the necessary skills rapidly. We received a competitively awarded start-up fund of $1,500 for a new initiative in undergraduate research. That contributed to the purchase of materials (a book, a large-capacity flash drive, some computer hardware) and to printing posters. All teaching was done as an overload to the normal courses assignments. Regularizing funding and integrating the teaching of such courses into the normal operations of an academic department are clear desiderata. Owing to generous consortium and renewed SLCL funding, the three students will participate in a DFG funded event at the Newberry Library, Chicago, “Emblematica Online Workshop: Link Open Data – Developing an Ontology for Annotating Emblems.” </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>DH and Critical Digital Pedagogy</head>
                    <p>We posit that investment in undergraduate (bachelor) education is well worth the time and resources spent. The “Emblem Scholars” participated in aggregated, distributed, collaborative, and open learning techniques (Gold, 2012a) within the framework of a federally funded project, Emblematica Online, that offers an ideal test bed for new knowledge, best practices, and emerging standards for all researchers involved in the project. Significantly, it has introduced students at all level of study in the humanities and library science to humanistic digital research. The researchers at Emblematica Online invested in their long-term trajectory of scholarly and intellectual development. We also developed a kind of “critical digital pedagogy” that educates for the long run through intensive mentoring and experiential learning. As Sean Michael Morris and Jesse Strommel define it: “Critical Pedagogy is an approach to teaching and learning predicated on fostering agency and empowering learners... .” The experience of Emblematica Online suggests that DH pedagogy is praxis-oriented teaching that positions students to learn experientially in a hybrid setting. While the usual project “tasks” are certainly part of the experience, the focus is on the development of a theoretical and conceptual understanding of the intersection of traditional and digital humanities. By situating learning directly in the research experience, students acquired a broad range of skills and concepts that exceeds a narrow academic focus. These students see DH as an integral part of the way we do humanities (McCarty, 24). Emblematica Online is a scholar driven project, and this synergy is reflected in the pedagogical outcomes. </p>
                    <p>In her blog post, “Commit to DH people, not DH Projects,” Miriam Posner, University of California, Los Angeles, makes the case for investing in the human resources clustered around projects, such as Emblematica Online. Posner raises the questions: “What if you saw that training period as an investment in healthy, long-lasting relationships? What if we saw digital humanities as a long-term investment in scholarly growth, not a short-term investment in projects?” The student researchers with Emblematica Online learned a range of critical thinking, technical, intellectual, and administrative skills that are the most transferrable and will serve them well in the future. They are well prepared to be DH citizens.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""351/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Illustration 1: Undergraduate Researchers Presenting at the University of Illinois 2013</head>
                    </figure>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""351/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Illustration 2: Undergraduate Researchers’ Website</head>
                    </figure>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Transforming SPINE metadata to Linked Open Data</head>
                <p>Myung-Ja K. Han</p>
                <p>Timothy W. Cole</p>
                <p>Maria Janina Sarol</p>
                <p>Patricia Lampron</p>
                <p>University of Illinois</p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Background</head>
                    <p>Emblem books flourished in Europe as a popular literary genre from 1531, the publication date of the first emblem book, through the mid-18th century. The form of the emblem book is compound, integrating text and graphics, and highly contextual, often influenced by cotemporaneous events. Remaining copies of printed emblem books are widely dispersed in libraries across Europe and North America today. To facilitate access and better support Emblem Studies, a large segment of the corpus has now been digitized and made discoverable through the Emblematica Online Portal (http://emblematica.library.illinois.edu/). Because the individual emblems within emblem books are themselves of scholarly interest, emblem books pose interesting descriptive challenges for libraries. A domain-specific, XML-based metadata schema was developed and implemented to address these challenges and support a measure of interoperability within the Emblem Studies community (http://diglib.hab.de/rules/schema/emblem/emblem-1-2.xsd). However, emblems are of interest to scholars in additional disciplines, e.g., art historians, historians of Renaissance and Baroque cultures, comparative literary scholars, etc. To maximize utility it is crucial to integrate digitized emblem resources with other kinds of resources used by scholars in multiple domains. As a step towards this vision, this presentation will report on work done to transform our emblem-specific XML metadata into Linked Open Data in order to support broader discovery and access and to better integrate digitized emblem resources with other resources on the Web.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>The SPINE Metadata Schema and Discovery Services </head>
                    <p>Discovery and browse services provided through the Emblematica Online Portal are possible because of the emblem-specific SPINE metadata schema. The genesis of the SPINE schema was an international workshop on the digitization of emblems held in 2001 at the Centre for Emblem Studies at the University of Glasgow. The participants in the workshop, drawn from widely dispersed institutions, recognized the need for a shared metadata vocabulary to support interoperability across emblem collections. The classes and properties of the SPINE schema were subsequently documented by Stephen Rawles of the University of Glasgow (2004). Thomas Stäcker at the Herzog August Bibliothek Wolfenbüttel implemented the schema proposed by Rawles in XML. To express most book-level properties, Stäcker integrated the Metadata Object Description Schema (MODS) into SPINE. He supplemented MODS classes and properties with emblem-level descriptive classes and properties and added a few additional book-level properties to record the provenance of digitized emblem volumes, i.e., to link digitized items back to the print item from which they are derived. SPINE is now available as an XML based metadata schema, currently in version 1.2 (Stäcker, 2012). </p>
                    <p>As implemented in the Emblematica Online Portal, the SPINE metadata schema, designed for describing emblem books, the emblems contained in those books, and copy-specific information about the book, allows digital humanities scholars access to digitized emblem resources at any of three different levels granularity, an entire emblem book, an individual emblem, and an individual pictura, while providing detailed descriptive information at each level (Cole et al. 2012). Iconclass, a multilingual, extensible classification system for visual cultural content containing more than 28,000 hierarchically ordered descriptors, has been used extensively by scholars and curators to describe emblem picturae. Most recently, the team has exploited Iconclass.org linked open data services (""Iconclass as Linked Data"" 2015) to facilitate emblem discovery. By using the available Iconclass Web services, the Emblematica Online Portal can now support multilingual search and browsing services for Iconclass headings as well as browsing broader and narrower Iconclass headings, demonstrating the benefits of being a linked open data consumer (Cole et al. 2013). </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Exposing SPINE Metadata to the Web</head>
                    <p>As a next step, the Emblematica Online project team has been exploring ways to become a linked open data producer by publishing SPINE metadata as linked open data. To accomplish this, the Emblematica Online project team takes a rather unique approach. Instead of creating a new ontology for the SPINE metadata schema, the project team is focusing on discovery and visibility of digitized emblem resources on the web, in other words, using linked data as a vehicle that brings the emblem resource information contained in the SPINE metadata to the web. To make SPINE metadata more web friendly, i.e., indexed and searchable by web search engines including Google, and compliant with current linked open data work being conducted across cultural heritage institutions, the Emblematica Online project team has developed a workflow that transforms SPINE metadata to Resource Description Framework in Attributes (RDFa) based web pages for the presentation of both emblem books and emblems. As an extension to HTML5, RDFa allows web search engines to generate better search results through the attributes embedded in the web pages, ultimately improving the visibility of these resources on the web. The RDFa attributes are being populated relying on schema.org semantics, since these semantics are recognized and used by major web search engines as a de facto linked data markup standard, whenever schema.org semantic meanings aligned well with the SPINE metadata elements. When there are no corresponding semantics in schema.org, or it is necessary to keep the semantic meanings of the SPINE schema, schema.org extensions (2015) are employed to represent emblem specific information, such as Pictura, Iconclass, subscriptio, motiv, emblemParts, and so on. The figure below shows how the SPINE XML description of an emblem pictura that includes an Iconclass descriptor (figure 1-a) can be transformed to RDFa with semantics from schema.org (figure 1-b). </p>
                    <p><pictura xml:id=""E001352_P1"" xlink:href=""http://djatoka.grainger.illinois.edu/...""></p>
                    <p> <iconclass rdf:about=""http://www.iconclass.org/rdk/25F711(GRASS-HOPPER)(+45)""></p>
                    <p> <skos:notation>25F711(GRASS-HOPPER)(+45)</skos:notation></p>
                    <p> </iconclass></p>
                    <p> </pictura></p>
                    <p>Figure 1-a: < pictura> element in a SPINE XML metadata that can include one or more iconclass descriptors.</p>
                    <p><div rel=""sc:hasPart"" typeOf=""emb:Pictura""></p>
                    <p> <a property=""sc:url"" href=""http://djatoka.grainger.illinois.edu/..."">Pictura Image</a></p>
                    <p> <div rel=""sc:about"" typeOf=""sc:CpnceptCode""></p>
                    <p> <span rel=""sc:codingSystem"" resource=""http://iconclass/org/""/></p>
                    <p> <span property=""sc:name"">inscets: grass-hopper (+ animals eating and drinking)</span></p>
                    <p> <a property=""sc:sameAs"" href=""http://www.iconclass.org/rdk/25F711(GRASS-HOPPER)(+45)""></p>
                    <p> <span property=""sc:codingValue"">25F711(GRASS-HOPPER)(+45)</span></p>
                    <p> </a></p>
                    <p> </div></p>
                    <p></div></p>
                    <p>Figure 1-b: The same <pictura> element transformed to RDFa using schema.org semantics and schema.org extension with Emblem specific types (classes) like emb:Pictura as well as mini-skos.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Conclusion</head>
                    <p>Early experimentations with linked data undertaken by the Emblematica Online Portal have allowed emblem scholars to access related resources available in the Virtual Printroom (Virtuelle Kupferstichkabinett, VKK), jointly managed by the Herzog August Bibliothek and the Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum in Germany, and Festkultur Online, developed and maintained at the Herzog August Bibliothek, since all three sites use Iconclass as a descriptive vocabulary for their resources. Additionally, exposing SPINE metadata in RDFa based HTML pages would expand relationships between information resources in SPINE and other contextual information available on the web that is represented with the same schema.org semantics, such as information about the author or historical or cultural events related to emblem books and emblems, ultimately enabling emblem scholars to access additional information in conjunction with emblem resources available at the Emblematica Online Portal. This presentation will discuss why Emblematica Online experimented with linked open data, describe details of the workflow, challenges, and lessons learned from this SPINE to linked open data transformation work, and enumerate future plans for using additional linked open data sources to improve user experiences.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Linked Open Data for Emblem Research </head>
                <p>Dr. Thomas Stäcker</p>
                <p>Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbüttel</p>
                <p>Germany</p>
                <p>This paper presents a project carried out in close collaboration with the current research of Emblematica Online, University of Illinois (Prof. Mara Wade, PI). It aims to strengthen international co-operation in the field of emblem studies, to jointly develop and apply technical models, and to make use of synergies to establish transnational digital collections and data pools that can be freely used by the international emblem community. The new project at the Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbüttel, proposes to develop and integrate concepts and models that can be applied to and employed by other areas within the burgeoning field of Digital Humanities. It is divided into four distinct but interconnected areas of activity. First, the data in the collection itself will be enlarged; secondly, emblem books will be transcribed and made available as full text; thirdly, and that is the most innovative part of the project, data and metadata will be modeled and designed in such a way that they can be used in the semantic web; and finally, interfaces and web services will be enhanced or established to facilitate the harvesting and retrieval of emblem data.</p>
                <p>A central feature of this project is the development of an ontology that allow scholars to analyze emblems by offering a vocabulary that is apt to ascertain identities, resemblances, or significant differences of emblems digitized at various places on the web. Supported by suitable tools scholars will ideally be able to encode in RDF (see example, Ill. 1) that there is an identity with respect to meaning by relating a helmet with bees to a camel walking through the eye of a needle (both of them allude to the topic peace, see Ill. 2), or they will be able to assemble identical emblems from various books or will characterize instances where the same motto is used for various picturae. The project draws on a comprehensive corpus of emblems that were digitized in several larger projects within the last decade. It is meant to move a step forward in that it no longer intends to make source material merely available, but attempts to offer means and methods for practical research by applying semantic web techniques and standards such as the Open Annotation Collaboration and Iconclass’ RDF representation.</p>
                <p># resemblance that cannot be further determined </p>
                <p>emblem:resemblance rdf:type skos:Concept;</p>
                <p>skos:prefLabel “Ähnlichkeit oder Gleichheit”@de;</p>
                <p>skos:prefLabel “resemblance”@en;</p>
                <p>skos:definition „Nicht weiter bestimmte Ähnlich- oder Gleichkeit“@de.</p>
                <p>#subordinated concepts of similarity and resemblance</p>
                <p>emblem:sameness rdf:type skos:Concept;</p>
                <p>skos:prefLabel “Gleichheit”@de;</p>
                <p>skos:prefLabel “sameness”@en;</p>
                <p>skos:narrower emblem:resemblance.</p>
                <p>emblem:similarity rdf:type skos:Concept;</p>
                <p>skos:prefLabel “Ähnlichkeit”@de;</p>
                <p>skos:prefLabel “similarity”@en;</p>
                <p>skos:narrower emblem:resemblance.</p>
                <p>#causality in a most general sense, e.g. also „exemplar for“, „cause for “ etc.</p>
                <p>emblem:causality rdf:type skos:Concept;</p>
                <p>skos:prefLabel “Verursachung”@de;</p>
                <p>skos:prefLabel “causality”@en.</p>
                <p>#contiguity, e.g. emblems in a one book, emblems occuring in the same period of time etc.</p>
                <p>emblem:contiguity rdf:type skos:Concept;</p>
                <p>skos:prefLabel “Räumliche oder zeitliche Nähe”@de;</p>
                <p>skos:prefLabel “contiguity” @en</p>
                <p>Usw</p>
                <p>Ill. 1</p>
                <p>URI-Emblem-1d
                    <lb/>http://hdl.handle.net/10111/EmblemRegistry:E000004
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""351/image3.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p><URI-Emblem-1> emblem:sameTopic <URI-Emblem-2></p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF0000)"">URI-Emblem-2 </hi>
                    <ref target=""http://www.emblems.arts.gla.ac.uk/french/emblem.php?id=FALa045"">http://www.emblems.arts.gla.ac.uk/french/emblem.php?id=FALa045</ref>.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""351/image4.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>III.2</p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>External links</head>
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>Arkyves: http://arkyves.org/</item>
                        <item>Emblematica Online: http://emblematica.library.illinois.edu/ </item>
                        <item>Emblem Scholars: http://emblematicaonlineuiuc.wordpress.com/</item>
                        <item>Festkultur Online: http://www.hab.de/en/home/research/projects/festkultur-online.html</item>
                        <item>Hybrid Pedagogy: http://www.hybridpedagogy.com/journal/critical-digital-pedagogy-definition/</item>
                        <item>Mellon Summer Academy, Art Institute Chicago</item>
                    </list>
                    <p>:http://www.artic.edu/employment/andrew-w-mellon-summer-academy-and-undergraduate-curatorial-fellowship-program</p>
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>Mini-skos proposal for schema.org: </item>
                    </list>
                    <p>https://dvcs.w3.org/hg/webschema/file/default/schema.org/ext/miniskos.html </p>
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>Open Annotation Collaboration: http://www.openannotation.org/ </item>
                        <item>Posner, Miriam, Blog: http://miriamposner.com/blog/commit-to-dh-people-not-dh-projects/#more1687</item>
                        <item>RDFa: https://rdfa.info/</item>
                        <item>Schama.org: http://schema.org/</item>
                        <item>School for Literatures, Cultures, and Linguistics, University of Illinois: http://www.slcl.illinois.edu/</item>
                        <item>Virtual Printroom (Virtuelle Kupferstichkabinett, VKK): http://www.virtuelles-kupferstichkabinett.de/</item>
                    </list>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>Alexander, Bryan and Rebecca Frost Davis. (2012). Should Liberal Arts Campuses Do Digital Humanities? Process and Products in the Small College World, Debates in the Digital Humanities, ed. Matthew Gold. Minnesota: U Minnesota Press, pp. 368-389.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Burdick, Anne, Johanna Drucker, Peter Lunenfeld, Todd Posner, and Jeffrey Schnapp. (2012) Digital Humanities. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Cole, Timothy W. and Myung-Ja Han. (2011). The Open Annotation Collaboration Phase I: Towards a Shared, Interoperable Data Model for Scholarly Annotation, Journal of the Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science, 1. 3. </bibl>
                    <bibl>Cole, Timothy W. and Myung-Ja Han. (2012). Developing Digital Library Services to Support Emblem Studies, Emblematica. A Journal for Emblem Studies, 19, pp. 65-94.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Cole, Timothy W., Myung-Ja Han, Mara Wade, and Thomas Staecker. (2013). “Linked Open Data & the OpenEmblem Portal.” Digital Humanities 2013. Available at http://dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-359.html.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Cole, Timothy W., Myung-Ja Han, Jordan Vannoy. (2012). ""Descriptive Metadata, Iconclass, and Digitized Emblem Literature."" Proceedings of the 12th Annual Joint Conference on Digital Libraries. New York: Association for Computing Machinery. pp.111-120.</bibl>
                    <bibl>“Extension Mechanism.” 2015. Acceded on October 30 2015. Available at https://schema.org/docs/extension.html.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Gold, Matthew. (2012a). Looking for Whitman: A Multi-Campus Experiment in Digital Pedagogy, Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics, ed. Brett D. Hirsch. Openbook, pp. 151-176.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Gold, Matthew. (2012b). Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minnesota: U Minnesota Press.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Hirsch, Brett D. ed. (2012). Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics, Openbook. http://www.openbookpublishers.com/reader/161#page/1/mode/2up </bibl>
                    <bibl>“Iconclass as Linked Data.” Last edited on September 18 2015, accessed on October 30 2015. Available at http://www.iconclass.org/help/lod.</bibl>
                    <bibl>McCarty, Willard. (2012). The Residue of Uniqueness, Controversies Around the Digital Humanities, ed. Manfred Thaller. Historical Social Research, 37.2, pp. 24-45, here 24.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Rawles, Stephen. 2004. “A SPINE of Information Headings for Emblem-Related Electronic Resources.” In Digital Collections and the Management of Knowledge: Renaissance Emblem Literature as a Case Study for the Digitization of Rare Texts and Images, edited by Mara Wade, 19-28. Salzburg: DigiCULT.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Rehbein, Malte and Christiane Fritze/ (2012). Hands-On Teaching Digital Humanities, Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics, ed. Brett D. Hirsch. Openbook, pp. 47-78.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Reid, Alexander. (2012). Graduate Education and the Ethics of Digital Humanities, Debates in the Digital Humanities, ed. Matthew Gold. Minnesota: U Minnesota Press, pp. 350-367.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Stäcker, Thomas. 2012. “Practical Issues of the Wolfenbüttel Emblem Schema.” In Emblem Digitization: Conducting Digital Research with Renaissance Texts and Images, edited by Mara R. Wade. Early Modern Literary Studies Special Issue 20. Accessed 27 May 2015, http://purl.oclc.org/emls/si-20/WADE_Staecker_EMLS_Schema.htm></bibl>
                    <bibl>Thaller, Manfred, ed. (2012). Controversies Around the Digital Humanities, Historical Social Research, 37.2</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2668","17","#dariahTeach: online teaching, MOOCs and beyond","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Background</head>
                <p>Online education has been advocated as the ultimate way of democratizing knowledge, but recent research indicates that there are reasons for concern. As the Allen & Seaman 2014 report underlines, 66% of higher education institutions report that online education remains critical to their long-term strategy while 74% of chief academic officers consider the learning outcomes for online courses to be ‘as good as or better’ than traditional face-to-face courses. But “despite this confidence in online education, researchers continue to report ‘compromised quality in online courses’ as one of the concerns of faculty, administration, and the general public” (Kidder, 2015; Selingo, 2014). In the landscape of online teaching, MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) have received much attention in both academic and popular publications  (Bayne and Ross, 2015; Bulfin et al., 2014; Clara and Barbera, 2013) despite the fact that they are not representative of the diverse modalities of online teaching.</p>
                <p>Siemens (2012) makes a useful distinction between xMOOCs (behaviorist MOOCs) and cMOOCs (connectivist MOOCs). The former emphasizes “a more traditional learning approach through video presentations and short quizzes and testing” with a focus on “knowledge duplication”, whereas the latter focus on “knowledge creation” (Siemens, 2012). Along the same lines, Ozturk recently reported that new variations of MOOCs have emerged becoming more market oriented “aligning with instructivist, cognitive, and behaviourist pedagogy” (Ozturk, 2015). Moreover, the financial model of the MOOCs raises questions about the audience for and motivations behind this method of teaching (Ozturk, 2015; Manjoo, 2015).</p>
                <p>Conscious of this present situation, the #dariahTeach project (funded by an Erasmus+ Strategic Partnership) is developing a  network based in seven partner countries exploring the production, dissemination, and promotion of high quality, dynamic, extensible, localisable, and integrated educational materials for the digital humanities specifically tailored for third level education. It is adopting a cMOOC philosophy which focuses on ‘creation, creativity, autonomy, and social networked learning’ (Siemens, 2012) to provide pedagogical content that can be easily integrated into diverse teaching and learning situations. </p>
                <p>A key consideration in the design of the platform is interoperability between courses/modules (and units within those modules) since DH draws on a wealth of methods and tools from a variety of disciplines. Moreover, it is envisioned that these modules will be used beyond the DH community as the societal impact of a culturally-driven digital transition grows opening up new ways of collaborating on productive theory and critical thinking (Hayles, 2012). Thus a goal of #dariahTeach is to develop rich educational materials that 1) instructors in the growing number of Digital Humanities programmes can use as appropriate to their own institutional settings and learning outcomes; 2) instructors in other disciplines can draw on and; 3)  students who are not at institutions that have DH expertise can use to develop the skills and methods, as well as understand the theoretical basis, to engage in digital humanities and humanities research.</p>
                <p>The project team is currently developing the infrastructure and design of the modules based on the production of five modules: Introduction to Digital Humanities, Text Encoding, AudioVisual Media and Multimodal Literacies, Retrodigitizing Dictionaries, and Ontologies and Knowledge Management. This paper will present the results of preliminary research carried out through an extensive study of user requirements, as well as desk research on module and platform design informed by a workshop in Belgrade funded by the Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities (DARIAH) on developing open educational materials. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Analysis of User Requirements</head>
                <p>The design and the implementation of a successful platform-based learning environment  melds concepts from psychology, education, and human-computer interaction. Poor interface design can become a serious obstacle to the learning outcome, as it may slow the process down and impose cognitive obstacles. To this end, a qualitative analysis and interpretation of online teaching practices and recommendations in the DH domain and the elicitation of corresponding user requirements was based on a series of semi-structured interviews with experienced instructors of online courses within Europe.</p>
                <p>Findings of the user requirement process are a key component of the development of the #dariahTeach platform. These indicate that the platform needs to cater for the following needs: be adaptable to different learning methodologies; allow for persistent roles; provide an API or advanced forms of web services so that new unforeseen components can be added to the environment; support  ad hoc groupings and grouping of materials across modules and units; allow for both synchronous and asynchronous collaboration and communication and enable user customization.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Module Design</head>
                <p>#dariahTeach modules are designed as building blocks tailored to the exigencies of teaching situations in different educational and cultural contexts, allowing  for localization and adaptation (via translation, subtitles, domain-specific examples etc.). By offering examples of and encouraging further adaptation of training materials to specific linguistic/cultural contexts, #dariahTeach will dispel any notion that the use of ICT methods leads to abstract representations of culturally impoverished outputs. </p>
                <p>It is important to stress two levels of translatability of module design: 1) translatability and adaptability of the language of instruction; and b) selectability, translatability and adaptability of primary sources and materials that are used in instruction. This means that an English-language module on Text Encoding, for instance, is localizable both in terms of the instructional narrative, as well as the kind of texts that are used to exemplify the taught principles and methods of text modeling: different genres (poetry, prose, drama) but also language (Latin, Greek, Serbian, Dutch etc.) </p>
                <p>Our “Introduction to DH” module will also not attempt to impose a single pedagogical narrative on what is a constantly evolving and highly diverse, interdisciplinary field. Instead, our Introduction to DH is based on a micromodular, polycentric approach: a collection of mutually-linked, cross-referenced, metadata-rich short videos that shed light on DH as a community of practice from multiple perspectives without creating a false sense of uniformity.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Platform Design</head>
                <p>Modules will be made available via an online portal/ web application based on existing solutions. This paper will explore the decision tree in adopting a solution including whether to use a well-established Content Management Systems (eg Drupal, WordPress, Joomla) with Learning Management System plugins and appropriate customizations or the use of a customizable Learning Management System (such as  Moodle or Blackboard). Considerations feeding into the decision tree include the platform being open source, freely available, well documented and customizable with plugin development support;   support for multilinguality; an embedded xml editor; collaboration and interaction functionalities (eg chats, forums and wikis); test and assessment functionalities; extended search functionalities for available metadata (mapped to Dublin Core and LOM to facilitate sharing and support interoperability and reusability (Roy et al., 2010); and copyright attribution and licence management functionalities. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>The paper will conclude with longer-term prospects for the project. Oversight of #dariahTeach will be maintained after the grant has ended by a General Editor and Editorial Board under the oversight of the DARAH’s Research and Education Competency Centre.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Advances in Semantic Computing</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>: 103-26.
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","xml","2","",""
"2669","17","A Comparative Analysis of Bibliographic Ontologies: Implications for Digital Humanities","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>In the ever-expanding world of digital libraries and cultural heritage collections, bibliographic metadata standards provide a structured approach to managing resources. The capture of additional contextual information further supports the identification, selection, and use of the resources described. As the problem spaces and areas of study of Humanities scholars are increasingly diversified (Henry and Smith, 2010) and supported by digital material and methods, existent approaches and systems are falling short of the needs of users (Fenlon et al., 2014; Varvel and Thomer, 2011). In short, research agendas and investigations have begun to evolve beyond searches based on traditional metadata parameters (author, date, publication place, genre). </p>
                <p>Semantic Web technologies have been identified as a potential solution (Bair and Carlson, 2008). They augment keyword-based, full-text approaches to discovery, with methods that rely on named entity identification, relationships between entities, and the potential to leverage interlinked data from a variety of repositories and corpora. A number of different, well-defined ontologies (structural frameworks capturing domain information) created by various bodies within the wider context of the Digital Humanities (DH) have emerged (Isaac, 2013; Stead, 2006). A critical evaluation and comparison between these different structures has, however, been lacking.</p>
                <p>In this paper, we provide a summary of four bibliographical metadata ontologies, and expand on an earlier initial comparative analysis between them. What follows is a more in-depth discussion of complementary differences and parallels in terms of expressiveness, rather than domain, focus, or perspective. The strengths and weaknesses of these vocabularies are of interest and importance to anyone working with any type of Humanities dataset or research output, whether it be interacting with metadata that describes the resource, features that have been extracted from it, or the resource itself.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Bibliographic Ontologies</head>
                <p>To date digital libraries have relied heavily on traditional library bibliographic standards, such as MARC
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""http://www.loc.gov/marc/bibliographic/"">http://www.loc.gov/marc/bibliographic/</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note>. As new research questions have arisen in DH, the limitations of earlier standards have become more pronounced (see Ramesh et al., 2015; Sfakakis and Kapidakis, 2009; Park, 2006; Cantara, 2006; Shreeves et al., 2005), and a number of ontologies designed to map the entities and relationships inherent in bibliographical metadata have emerged. 
                </p>
                <p>Rather than aiming to provide a comprehensive analysis of all known examples, we extended a preliminary evaluation of a small number of bibliographic ontologies. Earlier research
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""http://www.oerc.ox.ac.uk/projects/elephant"">http://www.oerc.ox.ac.uk/projects/elephant</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note> bridging the large general corpus of the HathiTrust Digital Library
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""https://www.hathitrust.org/htrc"">https://www.hathitrust.org/htrc</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note> with the specialist Early English Books Online - Text Creation Partnership
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""http://www.textcreationpartnership.org/tcp-eebo/"">http://www.textcreationpartnership.org/tcp-eebo/</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note> assessed the different needs of three distinct case study examples and analysed the suitability of existing ontologies to adequate capture associated information, including publication facts and object biographies (Nurmikko-Fuller et al., 2015a). This preliminary analysis examined four ontologies: MODS RDF
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""http://www.loc.gov/standards/mods/modsrdf/v1/"">http://www.loc.gov/standards/mods/modsrdf/v1/</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note>/ MADS RDF
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""http://www.loc.gov/standards/mads/rdf/v1.html"">http://www.loc.gov/standards/mads/rdf/v1.html</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note>, BIBFRAME (Miller, et al., 2012), Schema.org
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""http://schema.org/docs/full.html"">http://schema.org/docs/full.html</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note>, and FRBRoo (Bekiari, et al., 2013). BiBo
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn8"" n=""8"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text"">
                            <ref target=""http://bibliontology.com/"">http://bibliontology.com/</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note> was originally considered, but excluded from the final comparison as it operates on a finer level of granularity.
                </p>
                <p>In this paper, we elaborate on that initial analysis, and provide access to the entirety of the comparative table (Nurmikko-Fuller et al., 2015b)
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn9"" n=""9"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""http://hdl.handle.net/2142/88356"">http://hdl.handle.net/2142/88356</ref>
                        </p>
                    </note> of which only a representative sample has previously been made available. We summarise the main characteristics of each structure in order to provide context for the detailed discussion outlining the parallels and differences between the models. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methodology</head>
                <p>Based on available documentation and extant examples, we conducted an extensive review of the expressiveness of each ontology. Comparing each property and class against possible alignments in the other three led to the identification of parallels and differences between these models. One revelation was the differing extent to which documentation had been left incomplete, highlighting the lack of workflow standardisation in ontology-development even within a shared domain. At times the absence of extensive documentation complicated our ability to confidently assert parallels between the models.</p>
                <p>The comparative analysis led to the insertion of all classes and properties of each ontology into one cohesive table, aligned wherever the same data could be represented regardless of how the mapping was achieved, and resulting in a table of exactly 500 rows. Five types of alignment were identified:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic bold"">equivalent</hi>, where the same data can be mapped in each ontology using a single class. An example of this is location information (such as publication place), captured via madsrdf:Geographic, bf:Place, sc:Place, and frbroo:F9_Place (equivalent to cidoc:E53) in MODS/MADS, BIBFRAME, Schema.org and FRBRoo respectively.
                    </item>
                </list>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic bold"">alternative</hi>, which encompasses situations where properties were used in one ontology, but classes in another to talk about the same attribute. An example of this is Schema.org’s sc:birthDate. It takes an entire grouping of entities and relationships to express this same information in FRBRoo (frbroo:P98B_wasBorn frbroo:E67_Birth frbroo:P4_hasTime-Span frbroo:E52_Time-Span frbroo:P78_isIdentifiedBy frbroo:E50_Date).
                    </item>
                </list>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic bold"">parallel</hi>, where the same data can be mapped using a combination of classes and properties. In the case of the date of creation for a work, MODS/MADS, BIBFRAME and Schema.org all have a single property (mods:dateCreated, bf:creationDate, CreativeWork:dateCreated), whilst FRBRoo necessitates a cluster of classes and properties: F1_Work R19b_wasRealisedThrough F28_ExpressionCreation P2_hasType E55_Type{“Earliest known externalisation”}. We consider these approaches as aligned because the same data can be mapped against them, but parallel rather than exactly equivalent due to different approaches.
                    </item>
                </list>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic bold"">partial</hi>, where the same data could be mapped using different ontologies to a greater or lesser extent. As an example of this, we cite the assignment of a unique identifiers, captured using a single property in MODS/MADS (modsrdf:identifier) and FRBRoo (which uses a CIDOC property cidoc:P48_hasPreferredIdentifier), but through several possible options in Schema.org  (Thing:sameAs, Book:isbn, Periodical:issn), and via a total of 13 possible properties in BIBFRAME (such as bf:doi, bf:isbn, bf:uri).
                    </item>
                </list>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic bold"">granular</hi>, which captures differences in levels of granularity. This is illustrated by entity types such sc:CreativeWork and sc:Book, and showcases how categorical alignment across all four ontologies is not always possible. In the case of frbr:F1_Work (a conceptual version of a work, of which digital and physical manifestation are carriers), an equivalent alignment can be drawn to bf:Work, but MODSRDF/MADSRDF has no entity type that fulfills the role of representing that notion.
                    </item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Comparative Analysis</head>
                <p>The bibliographic metadata ontologies discussed here differ in their approach and expressiveness. Of the four, MODS RDF/MADS RDF was found to be most descriptive, with FRBRoo an event-based model, and BIBFRAME bridging the two by virtue of containing characteristics typical of either. Schema.org stands out as an ontology that promulgates a model at the crossroads between the other four; however, its focus on instrumenting marketplace transactions also detracts from much of its descriptive power and leaves it orthogonal to the purposes of the others. It has some generic properties that are useful in each of the other ontologies, but also possesses properties and classes that end users do not require outside of point of service systems.</p>
                <p>From the perspective of a DH user of these ontologies, each is (to some degree) a victim of its provenance and the motivations of its designers. The benefits and failings of each are different, and they all incorporate a number of idiosyncrasies:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>MODS/MADS has a data structure that replicates the XML serialization format and is frequently realized in RDF as empty nodes.</item>
                </list>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Schema.org affords humanists with a vocabulary that combines events and descriptions but differs from the other models in its focus.</item>
                </list>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>FRBRoo spans beyond the remit of bibliographical metadata by mapping relationships via temporal entities; this results in greater complexity for the representation of the same data, often necessitating a cluster of classes and properties.</item>
                </list>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>BIBFRAME adopts a different method, recreating MARC in RDF using methods and approaches more in line with graphical thinking, as well as extending beyond that format.</item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>Our review examines the structure and scope of four ontologies designed for the representation of bibliographic metadata as applied to cataloguing digital source material in the Humanities. From this analysis direct equivalences, parallels, and complementary differences have emerged: there are many similarities in aim, scope, and expressiveness, but none of the considered ontologies completely satisfy scholarly needs on their own. Moving between them is feasible, but not achievable without some lossiness, as illustrated by the examples for 
                    <hi rend=""italic bold"">granular alignment</hi> (see 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Methodology</hi>). For the comprehensive mapping of all the aspects of a given dataset, these models need to be supplemented with less bibliographically-focused ontologies. Our analysis has highlighted the need to formalize the mappings, best practices, and transformations, as these are key to the correct (re)use of ontologies across projects and domains. 
                </p>
                <p>We have provided DH researchers with a window into the digital corpora design process. Knowing the requirements of domain scholars to have interactions with finer-grained research objects, we will be looking at standards like BiBo, Web Annotation, and others during the next round of research.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Acknowledgement</head>
                <p>The authors gratefully acknowledge their colleagues Pip Willcox, Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford; Colleen Fallaw, and Megan Senseney, Graduate School of Library and Information Science University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, for their invaluable contributions to the creation of the Bibliographic Ontologies Comparative Features Dataset, available at 
                    <ref target=""https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/handle/2142/88356"">https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/handle/2142/88356</ref>.
                </p>
            </div>
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Twelfth National Conference of the Association of College and Research Libraries</hi>, April 7-10 2005, Minneapolis, MN. Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries. pp. 223-37.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stead, S. </hi>(2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The CIDOC CRM: a standard for the integration of cultural information</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.cidoc-crm.org/cidoc_tutorial/index.html"">http://www.cidoc-crm.org/cidoc_tutorial/index.html</ref> (accessed November 15 2010).
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Varvel, V. E. J. and Thomer, A.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Google digital humanities awards recipient interviews report (CIRSS Report No. HTRC1101)</hi>. Technical report prepared for the HathiTrust Digital Library. Champaign, IL: Center for Informatics Research in Science and Scholarship.
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                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""http://www.loc.gov/marc/bibliographic/"">http://www.loc.gov/marc/bibliographic/</ref>
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                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""http://www.oerc.ox.ac.uk/projects/elephant"">http://www.oerc.ox.ac.uk/projects/elephant</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""https://www.hathitrust.org/htrc"">https://www.hathitrust.org/htrc</ref>
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                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""http://www.textcreationpartnership.org/tcp-eebo/"">http://www.textcreationpartnership.org/tcp-eebo/</ref>
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                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""http://www.loc.gov/standards/mods/modsrdf/v1/"">http://www.loc.gov/standards/mods/modsrdf/v1/</ref>
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                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""http://www.loc.gov/standards/mads/rdf/v1.html"">http://www.loc.gov/standards/mads/rdf/v1.html</ref>
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                        <ref target=""http://schema.org/docs/full.html"">http://schema.org/docs/full.html</ref>
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                        <ref target=""http://hdl.handle.net/2142/88356"">http://hdl.handle.net/2142/88356</ref>
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","xml","2","",""
"2670","17","À la Croisée des Discours Littéraire et Scientifique : La Comparaison comme Haute Figure Dialogique","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>S’intéresser à la comparaison, à l’échelle du discours, c’est interroger sa fonction d’amarrage, de point charnière, entre plusieurs champs énonciatifs distincts ; c’est questionner la façon dont deux discours entrent en interaction et s’activent l’un l’autre sur le plan structurel, à travers un nouveau réseau de ressemblances/différenciations qui participe de leur affirmation singulière.</p>
                <p>Cette étude exploratoire se concentre sur le dialogue particulièrement riche qu’entretiennent les discours scientifique et littéraire entre 1860 et 1928, et plus précisément sur la convocation, au sein de la critique littéraire, de tout un champ notionnel emprunté aux sciences dites exactes (biologie, physique, chimie, botanique…). À une époque où émergent la biologie moderne, la médecine expérimentale, les principes de thermodynamique, ou encore l’évolutionnisme de Darwin et Spencer, le discours scientifique ne se cantonne plus à une sphère dévolue aux spécialistes, mais nourrit au contraire des mutations sociales, éthiques et esthétiques, au travers desquelles la littérature redéfinit sa place. </p>
                <p>Au vu de la dimension analogique de la comparaison, on pourrait supposer qu'elle tient un rôle central dans cet appareillement des discours littéraire et scientifique, captant et catalysant en quelque sorte le « dialogisme discursif » (Adam, 2005) au niveau microscopique. Il s'agit donc de déterminer ses différentes fonctions et manifestations au cœur de cette intertextualité qu'elle crée. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Méthode automatisée </head>
                <p>Le besoin d’une méthode automatisée et le recours à des outils informatiques nous ont paru incontournables afin de pouvoir traiter un corpus à la fois signifiant et vaste. Nous avons donc cherché à identifier et à extraire automatiquement les comparaisons concernées au sein d’un corpus numérisé homogène, comprenant 49 auteurs pour un total de 140 ouvrages de critique littéraire française. Pour ce faire, deux outils ont été utilisés :</p>
                <p>- un algorithme permettant d’identifier des comparaisons potentielles construites autour de différents types de marqueurs de la comparaison ainsi que les termes qu’elles mettent en parallèle (Mpouli & Ganascia, 2015) ;</p>
                <p>- le Dictionnaire électronique des mots (Dubois & Dubois-Charlier, 2010), un dictionnaire au format XML qui fournit pour chaque entrée un champ lexical et une sous-classe sémantique (cf. Figure 1), offrant ainsi la possibilité de ne retenir que les comparaisons dans lesquelles le comparant ou le comparé relève exclusivement du champ lexical de l’une des sciences exactes prédéfinies (chimie, chirurgie, médecine, physiologie, physique, mathématiques, astronomie, biologie, géologie, zoologie et botanique).</p>
                <p>Précisons cependant que le terme « espèce », qui occupe une place importante dans le vocabulaire scientifique de l’époque, a dû être ajouté manuellement car le dictionnaire ne le plaçait dans aucun des domaines scientifiques concernés.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""101/image1.JPG"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1. Exemple de deux entrées dans le Dictionnaire électronique des mots</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Les termes ainsi recueillis peuvent être regroupés en trois grands ensembles : les disciplines scientifiques, les métiers et les concepts qui leur sont rattachés. Si on ne considère que les termes scientifiques utilisés comme comparant, on se rend compte que le domaine de la zoologie, contenant entre autres les termes « espèce » et « animal », est le plus fortement représenté (42 % des occurrences). La fréquence de ces comparants permet en outre de dégager des groupes d’auteurs bien distincts (cf. Figure 2). </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""101/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2. Répartition des auteurs en fonction de leur fréquence d'utilisation de termes scientifiques comme comparant. Seuls ont été considérés les concepts comptant au moins 5 occurrences dans le corpus</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Activation d’un dialogue interdisciplinaire</head>
                <p>De fait, une lecture plus poussée des résultats confirme deux positionnements antagonistes de la critique face au discours scientifique. D’une part, tout un pan de la critique dénigre l’aridité ou l’arrogance d’un discours scientifique qui permet, par contraste, de valoriser une vision romantique et symboliste de la littérature. La comparaison introduit en ce sens un rapport de supériorité au bénéfice du discours littéraire.</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>Livre</cell>
                        <cell>Comparaison extraite</cell>
                        <cell>Marqueur</cell>
                        <cell>Comparé</cell>
                        <cell>Comparant</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>P. de Saint-Victor, </p>
                            <p>Le Théâtre contemporain.</p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>Depuis quelques années déjà, l’auteur de 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">l’Ami des femmes</hi> exerce la morale 
                            <hi rend=""underline"">comme</hi> une chirurgie ; il lui prête l’impudeur tranchante d’une science expérimentale qui a le droit de tout éventrer et de tout décrire.
                        </cell>
                        <cell>comme</cell>
                        <cell>morale</cell>
                        <cell>chirurgie</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>A. de Lamartine, </p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Cours familier de littérature</hi>, t. 5.
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>[Les psychologues] n’arrivent qu’à s’embrouiller dans leurs définitions, à se contredire dans leurs distinctions, à se perdre dans leur analyse ; et, 
                            <hi rend=""underline"">comme</hi> les chimistes, leurs émules, quand ils veulent retirer de leur creuset les principes de l’âme humaine et dire : La voilà ! ils ne tiennent sous leur plume ou sous leurs doigts qu’une pincée de cendre…
                        </cell>
                        <cell>comme</cell>
                        <cell>[psychologues]</cell>
                        <cell>chimistes</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>De l’autre, une critique littéraire dite « scientifique », regroupant entre autres Sainte-Beuve, Brunetière, Guyau, Bourget, Taine, Renan, Hennequin, Lemaître, Goncourt, Zola ou Renard, instaure au contraire un rapport d’égalité avec un discours scientifique apte à enrichir le discours littéraire.</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>J.-M. Guyau</p>
                            <p>L’Art au point de vue sociologique.</p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>Dans la composition des caractères, par exemple, l’art combine, 
                            <hi rend=""underline"">comme</hi> les chimistes dans la synthèse des corps, des éléments empruntés à la réalité.
                        </cell>
                        <cell>comme</cell>
                        <cell>art</cell>
                        <cell>chimistes</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>E. Zola cité par L. Bazalgette,</p>
                            <p>L’Esprit nouveau dans la vie artistique, sociale et religieuse.</p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>Nous devons opérer sur les caractères, sur les passions, sur les faits humains et sociaux, 
                            <hi rend=""underline"">comme</hi> le chimiste et le physicien opèrent sur les corps bruts, 
                            <hi rend=""underline"">comme</hi> le physiologiste opère sur les corps vivants.
                        </cell>
                        <cell>comme</cell>
                        <cell>nous</cell>
                        <cell>chimiste, physicien, physiologiste</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Au sein de ce second type de critique, la comparaison apparaît comme une figure de premier plan par son aptitude à cimenter un rapport de type analogique entre les discours.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Le système analogique d’une critique littéraire « scientifique »</head>
                <p>En rhétorique, la comparaison contribue souvent, de par sa fonction évocatrice, à donner plus de poids à une argumentation. Si plusieurs usages de la comparaison peuvent ici être analysés, tous semblent néanmoins obéir à une même stratégie discursive : l’image provoquée par le rapprochement de l’objet littéraire avec un élément exogène, puisé dans le domaine scientifique, vient servir le discours critique sur un plan rhétorique immédiat. Agrandir le champ notionnel par un rapprochement analogique, c’est par là-même généraliser la portée d’un énoncé qui devient exportable à d’autres domaines. En ce sens, la comparaison est mise au service d’un processus de valorisation, dans la mesure où le discours littéraire, trouvant un pied d’égalité avec le discours scientifique, reçoit simultanément une légitimité qui lui est extérieure – sans compter la forte caution institutionnelle dont bénéficie à cette époque le discours scientifique.</p>
                <p>Cette mise en place d’un système analogique peut ainsi s’observer autour de « concepts nomades » (Stengers, 1987) que la comparaison rend nettement identifiables, telle que la notion d’espèce, dont la circulation et la réappropriation par le discours littéraire sont ici particulièrement remarquables.</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>P. Bourget</p>
                            <p>
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Études et Portraits, </hi>t. I.
                            </p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>Des espèces littéraires existent, 
                            <hi rend=""underline"">analogues aux</hi> espèces vivantes, constituées par des caractères propres et irréductibles les unes aux autres, malgré l’unité de composition de notre monde intellectuel.
                        </cell>
                        <cell>analogue à</cell>
                        <cell>
                            <p>espèces</p>
                            <p>littéraires</p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <p>espèces</p>
                            <p>vivantes</p>
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Cette égalité introduite par la comparaison entre domaines littéraire et scientifique n’est jamais stricte, mais structurelle, comme le montre les exemples repris ci-dessous. La comparaison pose donc une ressemblance entre des rapports, de sorte que la critique littéraire peut traiter la littérature comme la science traite son objet : la littérature, l’art, deviennent par la force de l’analogie champs de savoir. En servant de « modèle analogue » (Black, 1962), non seulement la science légitime le projet de la critique littéraire, mais elle opère consécutivement un renversement axiologique en imposant la valeur de vérité, à laquelle les valeurs esthétiques et éthiques se retrouvent subordonnées. </p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell cols=""2"">E. Renan, 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Discours et conférences.</hi>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>Car il y a une logique dans une tragédie en cinq actes 
                            <hi rend=""underline"">comme</hi> dans un mémoire de physiologie, et la règle des ouvrages de l’esprit est toujours la même : être égal à la vérité, ne pas l’affaiblir en s’y mêlant, se mettre tout entier à son service, s’immoler à elle pour la montrer seule, dans sa haute et sereine beauté.
                        </cell>
                        <cell>comme</cell>
                        <cell>tragédie</cell>
                        <cell>mémoire de physiologie</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <p>A. Albalat</p>
                            <p>Le Mal d’écrire et le roman contemporain.</p>
                        </cell>
                        <cell cols=""2"">L’étude comparative des procédés de composition dans les œuvres écrites démontre au contraire qu’il y a en art des lois d’examen invariables, des vérités esthétiques démontrables 
                            <hi rend=""underline"">comme</hi> les mathématiques, des principes fixes, une évidence positive et irrésistible, une certitude enfin de filiation et de descendance commune à toutes les écoles et élucidant toutes les productions.
                        </cell>
                        <cell>comme</cell>
                        <cell>vérités</cell>
                        <cell>mathématiques</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Enfin, la comparaison, autant qu’elle rassemble, se fait lieu de confrontation entre les discours. L’identité même du discours se voit ainsi mise en jeu, dans la mesure où le rapprochement analogique sert aussi, pour la critique littéraire, de mise en rivalité avec un discours scientifique dont elle cherche à la fois à emprunter des structures et à rejeter l’ascendant. Par la comparaison, qui contrairement à la métaphore ne « fusionne » pas, le dialogisme discursif participe finalement de la construction identitaire du discours littéraire, dans ce sens où « l’Autre n’est pas seulement la contrepartie du Même, mais appartient à la constitution intime de son sens » (Ricœur, 1990). En ce sens, on pourrait se demander dans quelle mesure et sous quelle forme la métaphore contribue elle aussi à la construction de ce nouveau discours critique.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Adam, J.-M.</hi> (2005).
                        <hi rend=""italic""> La Linguistique textuelle. Introduction à l’analyse textuelle des discours. </hi>Paris: Armand Colin. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Black, M.</hi> (1962). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Models and metaphors. Studies in Language and Philosophy</hi>. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dubois, J. and Dubois-Charlier, F. </hi>(2010). La combinatoire lexico-syntaxique dans le Dictionnaire électronique des mots. Les termes du domaine de la musique à titre d’illustration, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Langages</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 3</hi>(179-180): 31-56.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Mpouli, S. and Ganascia, J.-G. </hi>(2015). Extraction et analyse automatique des comparaisons et des pseudo-comparaisons pour la détection des comparaisons figuratives. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Actes de la 22e conférence sur le Traitement Automatique des Langues Naturelles</hi>, Caen.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Ricœur, P.</hi> (1990). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Soi-même comme un autre.</hi> Paris: Seuil.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Stengers, I. (ed).</hi> (1987).
                        <hi rend=""italic""> D’une science à l’autre. Des concepts nomades. </hi>Paris: Seuil.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2671","17","A lesson in applied minimalism: adopting the TEI processing model","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-ce919500-4723-be65-eaa2-cab1892431c4""/>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">The Guidelines of the Text Encoding Initiative Consortium (TEI) have been used throughout numerous disciplines producing huge numbers of TEI collections. These digital texts are most often transformed for display as websites and camera-ready copies. TEI Simple </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(Rahtz et al, 2014) </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">project was the first one to propose more prescriptive approach providing the baseline rules of processing TEI into various publication formats, while offering the possibility of building customized processing models within the same infrastructure. For the first time in history of TEI there exists a sound recommendation for default processing scheme, which significantly lowers the barriers for entry-level TEI users and enables better integration with editing and publication tools. The TEI Simple project was a Mellon-funded collaboration between the TEI Consortium, Northwestern University, the University of Nebraska at Lincoln, and the University of Oxford.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">The new (on track for acceptance by early 2016) TEI method for documenting processing models gives editors and TEI customisers a method for high level recording of processing intentions in a machine-processable but implementation agnostic manner. Nevertheless, the processing model is a new proposal and needs to be extensively tested before announcing it a success. As the TEI Technical Council works to integrate the TEI processing model extensions created by the TEI Simple project, we endeavour to employ it on real world projects, both of which have been running for a significant number of years and have already produced vast collections of material: historical documents of the US Department of State, Office of Historian (</hi>
                <ptr target=""http://history.state.gov/""/>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">) and the corpus of Ioannes Dantiscus’ correspondence (</hi>
                <ptr target=""http://dantiscus.al.uw.edu.pl/""/>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">). The Office of the Historian publishes a large collection of archival documents of state, especially those appartaining to foreign relations. The Dantiscus project spans over ten thousand original sources from the early sixteenth century including correspondence, poetry, and diplomatic documents. This makes it a good test case for implementation of the TEI Processing Model because it is far beyond the scope of the original TEI Simple sample collections. Having the material previously published with custom-built XQuery/XSLT packages means that we are in a position to compare the results of using an approach based on the processing model with the previous one in terms of the quality and consistency of final presentation but also in more quantitative ways like the size of necessary code base, development time and ease of the long-term maintenance.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The first challenge is, obviously, rephrasing the transformations previously formulated in XQuery/XSLT using ODD meta-language extensions proposed by TEI Simple project. Preliminary results are very encouraging even though, as expected, it became necessary to extend the behaviours library to accommodate some specific needs. From the developer’s perspective it is immediately clear that using the TEI processing model brings substantial advantages in development time and results in much leaner and cleaner code to maintain. For the Office of Historian project figures suggest code reduction by at least two-thirds in size. Numbers are even more impressive realizing that the resulting ODD file is not only smaller, but much less dense, consisting mostly of formulaic <model> expressions that make it easier to read, understand and maintain, even by less skilled developers.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">To a lesser extent, but it is still interesting to see if, thanks to the additional layer of abstraction that processing model brings to the table, the editors can become more independent from developers in tweaking the processing rules. This heavily depends on the personal predilections of the editor, but again, in cases where editors are already deeply involved in the decisions about encoding on the level of XML markup and do have some fluency in XPath and/or CSS our results show that it is perfectly reasonable to expect them to tailor the existing high-level processing models to fit their specific needs in a majority of cases. We will also investigate the effect of incorporating the Processing Model into eXist-db</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">native database and application framework </hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(Meier et al, 2016)</hi>
                <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> environment in terms of easening the learning curve, for the non-technical users in particular. </hi>
            </p>
            <p>The processing model at the time of writing this paper proposal is not a mature technology yet, in the sense that it still lacks the critical mass of its practitioners as well as formal acceptance by the TEI Technical Council (although this will have been integrated into the TEI infrastructure by the time of DH2016). This presentation aims to present both challenges and open questions as well as already demonstrated advantages of applying this technology. It will draw on the evidence from early adopters available by the time of DH2016. It is not only the quantitative measures of improvements in technical implementations that will be reported on, but the variation in methodologies employed by the test projects and others.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">Meier</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">W</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">and </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">Turska, M.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(2016).</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> TEI </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Processing Model Toolbox Documentation</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">,</hi>
                        <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-ce919500-4732-eec7-84ce-5c97c7e906d36""/>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                        <ptr target=""http://showcases.exist-db.org/exist/apps/tei-simple/doc/documentation.xml?odd=documentation.odd""/>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>(accessed 5 March 2015)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">Rahtz, S., Mueller, M., Pytlik-Zillig, B., Turska, M. and Cummings, J.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(2015).</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> TEI Simple </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Processing Model Specification</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">,</hi>
                        <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-ce919500-4732-eec7-84ce-5c97c7e906d3""/>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                        <ptr target=""http://htmlpreview.github.io/?https://github.com/TEIC/TEI-Simple/blob/master/tei-pm.html""/>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>(accessed 5 March 2015)
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2672","17","A literary rat race","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>‘A hype already’, was the Friday 28 January 2011 headline on the first page of the Dutch newspaper 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">NRCnext</hi>. ‘It’s called the literary rat race K2, the simultaneous publication of Herman Koch’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Zomerhuis met zwembad </hi>and Kluun’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Haantjes</hi>’. The front-page story continues with literary critic Arjen Fortuin presenting an analysis of the two novels that were published the week before, both written by well-known Dutch authors and with the amazing first print runs of 80,000 (Kluun) and 100,000 (Koch) copies. These two novels are from totally different authors, who began their careers on opposite sides of the literary spectrum. However, Fortuin states, they seem to be converging. Koch started out as a ‘literary’ author not selling very well, but with his last book before 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Zomerhuis met zwembad</hi> (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Summerhouse with Swimming Pool</hi>), 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Het diner</hi> (2009, translated into English as 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Dinner</hi>, 2012) he turned to a wider audience, thus - according to literary critics - severely damaging his literary reputation. Kluun (the one-word alias of Raymond van de Klundert) started out as writing popular fiction with no literary pretentions at all with his much read but openly despised 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Komt een vrouw bij de dokter</hi> (2003, translated as 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Love Life</hi> (2007), under the name Ray Kluun). Quite unexpectedly, on 23 January 2011, Kluun’s new novel 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Haantjes</hi> (which could be translated as ‘Alpha-males’) got a positive review from prominent literary critic Arjan Peters in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">de Volkskrant</hi>. Fortuin found this an additional reason to compare the two novels. His conclusion is: ‘It’s an uneven literary match – Kluun plays in a lower league – but the commercial battle of K2 could be a close tie – although here Koch also seems to have the best chances: the Alpha-males are in fact very light-weight’.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The Riddle of Literary Quality</head>
                <p>Both novels are on the list of 401 novels analyzed in the project 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Riddle of Literary Quality</hi> (
                    <ref target=""http://literaryquality.huygens.knaw.nl/"">http://literaryquality.huygens.knaw.nl/</ref>). The aim of the project (running until 2017) is a stylistic analysis of novels in Dutch and to compare this analysis with readers’ opinions. The corpus was based on a list of most sold and most lent titles in The Netherlands from 2010 to 2012, excluding titles first published in Dutch before 2007. It includes Dutch originals (such as the novels by Kluun and Koch) and translations. The list contains a lot of genre fiction such as thrillers, ‘literary thrillers’, and chick-lit, and many titles the publishers categorized as ‘literary novels’, among which the K2 titles (Koch’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Zomerhuis met zwembad </hi>and Kluun’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Haantjes</hi>). In 2013, in an online survey titled 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Het Nationale Lezersonderzoek</hi> (‘The National Reader Survey’) we asked a wide audience of readers to indicate which of the 401 novels they had read, and for a smaller set of these novels how they rated them on two scales: one on the scale of literariness, from 1 (not literary at all) to 7 (highly literary) and one on the scale of general quality, from 1 (very bad) to 7 (very good). In total, 13,782 respondents completed the survey. By combining these data with an analysis of stylistic characteristics of the novels we expect we can discover which textual features may play a role in the current Dutch conventions of literariness. In this paper I will compare the K2 novels both in an exploratory analysis of the survey results on the scale of literariness and in stylometric analysis. Do the opinions of the K2 readers agree with the stylometric picture we get? 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Zooming in on style</head>
                <p>‘Style is a property of texts constituted by an ensemble of formal features which can be observed quantitatively or qualitatively’ (Herrmann et al. 2015). For the K2 case, I use the Stylo package in R (Eder et al. 2013). This R package is mainly used for authorship attribution. It compares texts based on the frequencies of a range of words or characters. Since words give more insight into the texts themselves than characters, Stylo can also be used for literary analysis beyond verifying authorship. In Fig. 1 I used Stylo to measure the distance between the ten ‘literary’ novels by male authors with the highest scores for literariness and the ten novels that got the lowest scores. The bootstrap consensus tree (a harmonization of cluster analyses) was based on the most frequent 100, 200, 300 etc. words (MFW) until 1000 MFW. There is a complete distinction between the “HIGH” and the “LOW” group.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""196/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 1</head>
                </figure>
                <p>However, the ten novels with the highest scores are all written by men and the ten with the lowest scores by women. The “HIGH” novels are labelled by the publishers as ‘literary novel’ and the “LOW” ones are mostly marketed as genre fiction such as chick-lit. The graph therefore probably does not distinguish literary quality but genre. </p>
                <p>I now zoom in on the ‘literary novels’. The Riddle corpus contains 96 titles labeled as ‘literary novel’ written by a male author or by only male co-authors, and 66 by a female author or only female co-authors. For the whole set of 401 novels, 191 are written by male and 196 by female authors or co-authors, which shows female authors are not underrepresented in the corpus. In Fig. 2 all ‘literary novels’ are categorized according to the mean scores for level of literariness. The general trend seems to be that the respondents see the female authors ‘playing in a lower league’ than the male authors. Riddle-PhD-students Corina Koolen and Kim Jautze will deal with gender issues in detail in their dissertations.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""196/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 2 Literary novels (originally Dutch and translated into Dutch)</head>
                </figure>
                <p>I will leave the gender topic to my PhD-students to publish about, and I will for now limit my presentation to an analysis to novels written by male (co-)authors. The lowest score on the level of literariness was 3.1, for two titles written by the Dutch author (and sports reporter) Mart Smeets. Kluun’s novel 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Haantjes</hi> is directly above these two novels, with a score of 3.5. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Zomerhuis met zwembad</hi> clearly did better. It got a mean score of 5.1. The highest score is 6.6, for Julian Barnes’ 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Alsof het voorbij is</hi> (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The sense of an ending</hi>). Where Barnes’ novel ranks first on the list of 96 novels, the new Koch ends up at rank 74 and the new Kluun at 94. The respondents of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The National Reader Survey</hi> thus agree with Fortuin that Koch ranks higher on the scale of literariness. From the list of 96 novels I select thirty novels: ten with the highest (including Barnes), ten with the lowest (including Kluun), and ten with intermediate scores for literariness (including Koch). If we use the same settings in Stylo as above, the 30 novels end up as shown in Fig. 3. 
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""196/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 3</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The results are not very clear. The groups “HIGH”, “MIDDLE”, and “LOW” do not have their own specific clusters. For now, we can conclude that literary quality for this corpus does not reside in shared word frequency patterns. We are currently gathering as many measures of linguistic features as possible to apply these to the selected corpus. One of the assumptions to test is whether the scores for literariness correlate with features that relate to linguistic complexity. A suite of tools for Dutch is currently being developed. A simple test using HyperPo does show that some features normally related to the level of difficulty of a text need further inspection (Fig. 4, 5, 6) (
                    <ref target=""http://tapor1.mcmaster.ca/~sgs/HyperPo/"">http://tapor1.mcmaster.ca/~sgs/HyperPo/</ref>).
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""196/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 4</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""196/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 5</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""196/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. 6</head>
                </figure>
                <p>In each of these figures, the 30 novels are represented on the x axis arranged from highest score for literariness to lowest. Koch is at data point 20 and Kluun at 28. Fig. 4 shows that the scores for literariness display a trend that is opposite to the average frequency of words – this suggests that for this corpus, lexical density scores perhaps play a role in what makes a novel literary or not. However, Kluun’s score below the trend line is close to that of the top-5, while Koch is on the opposite side of the trend line. Fig. 5 highlights that mean word length does not resonate with scores for literary quality. Fig. 6, however, shows a clear (statistically significant) trend of literary score and average words per sentence. Here, Koch and Kluun do not differ very much. This sneak preview (which will be tested with tools finetuned for Dutch) shows a further analysis of complexity issues is promising. Riddle PhD student Andreas van Cranenburgh is working on syntactic markers of literariness, and all three PhD students have looked into topic variation in the Riddle corpus (see the abstract they have submitted for DH2016).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>So how do the novels by Kluun and Koch compare? The match is still undecided. We need an analysis of many more linguistic features before we can draw conclusions. This analysis did show in which directions to look. For now, stylistically they are playing in the same league. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2013). Stylometry with R: a suite of tools. In: Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts. University of Nebraska--Lincoln, NE, pp. 487-89.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fortuin, A</hi>. (2011) ‘Mogen wij nog haantjes zijn? Tweestrijd van de moderne man is het gemeenschappelijke thema van Kluun en Koch’. [Can we still be alpha-males? Dilemma of the modern man is the shared theme of Kluun and Koch.] In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ncrnext</hi>, Friday 28 January 2011, p. 4-5. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.nrc.nl/next/2011/01/28/mogen-wij-nog-haantjes-zijn-11991928"">http://www.nrc.nl/next/2011/01/28/mogen-wij-nog-haantjes-zijn-11991928</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Herrmann et al.</hi> (2015). J. Berenike Herrmann, Karina van Dalen-Oskam, Christof Schöch, Revisiting Style, a Key Concept in Literary Studies. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Literary Theory</hi> 2015; 9(1): 25–52.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kluun</hi>. (2003) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Komt een vrouw bij de dokter</hi>. Uitgeverij Podium.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kluun, R</hi>. (2007) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Love life</hi>. Pan UK.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kluun</hi>. (2011) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Haantjes.</hi> Amsterdam: Uitgeverij Podium.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koch, H.</hi> (2009) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Het diner</hi>. Amsterdam: Anthos.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koch, H.</hi> (2011) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Zomerhuis met zwembad</hi>. Amsterdam: Ambo|Anthos.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koch, H.</hi> (2012) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The dinner</hi>. Faber & Faber.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Koch, H.</hi> (2014) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Summerhouse with swimming pool</hi>. Atlantic Books.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Peters, A</hi>. (2011) ‘De nieuwe Kluun mag er wezen. Hoogstaand amusement in Haantjes van Kluun. Of: hoe Stijn van Diepen goud geld dacht te verdienen aan de Gay Games in Amsterdam’ [The new Kluun is splendid. High quality entertainment in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Haantjes</hi> by Kluun. Or: how Stijn van Diepen expected to make big money at the Gay Games in Amsterdam.] In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">de Volkskrant</hi> 23 January 2011, 
                        <ref target=""http://www.volkskrant.nl/boeken/de-nieuwe-kluun-mag-er-wezen~a1827236/"">http://www.volkskrant.nl/boeken/de-nieuwe-kluun-mag-er-wezen~a1827236/</ref>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2673","17","A new approach to libraries in the Digital Humanities: the case of ""Fonte-Gaia""","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>One of the much discussed topic of the digital humanities as an infrastructure concerns the role of libraries, which are not only the place where knowledge has been preserved for centuries (if not millennia), but also they represent the ideal partner for researchers and research centers, since they preserve most of the objects studied by scholars. Libraries have been identified as major actors for the preservation of digital artifacts (Van Zundert and Boot, 2012; Pierazzo, 2015), and many have engaged in such activities (Stanford Library, Brandeis University, British Library, for instance). In the same time the creation and the provision of digital libraries has now become almost normal, with most research libraries digitizing at least some part of their beholding and putting them online. </p>
            <p>Although preservation and digitization are indeed of a fundamental importance, it is arguable that the mission of a library in the age of the digital can be extended even further. At the University of Grenoble a new and ambitious project has started. The idea is to transform the library of Italian Studies (which has a privileged status within the French library system) into a cultural hub, thanks to the tools and approaches offered by the Digital Humanities. The project is called “Fonte Gaia” (happy source), a name that plays with the double meaning of the Italian word “fonte”, which means “fountain” (like the fountain in Siena from which the project is named) and “source” as in the sources of knowledge (the books); the “happy” refers to the conviviality of sharing such knowledge. The project is the expression of a larger consortium of libraries beholding considerable Italian books collections (Paris, Padua, Bologna, Rome, for now), and includes several components, surrounding the provision of a digital library, offering access to books digitized in Grenoble and in the other partner libraries. The digitized books will be offered in correlation with a series of tools and facilities for users: to annotate them; to create digital editions based on the same; to create reading paths and exercises. A funded PhD student is now investigating the functionalities and the ergonomics of an interface offering so many options to the users. The project has a strong pedagogical component: from the involvement of BAs and MAs students in the workflow of production of the eBooks, to PhD studentships, to the hosting of interns from Italy and France, to the organization of an French-Italian summer school for digital editing (starting summer 2016) and workshops; on that context a partnership with the ITN DiXit has been put in place. </p>
            <p>In addition to these initiatives, two periodical publications are being proposed: first an informal un-journal (inspired by the format of un-conferences), where a group of early career researchers animate a polyphonic blog on topics rotating around Italian Studies and the time of digital; and second a more formal, peered-review scholarly journal which will be focused on libraries, Italian Studies and digital humanities. While this latter is still at the planning stage, the former has already started in April 2015 with great enthusiasm and success, with encouraging numbers of visits and good feedback from scholars, librarians and the Open Access environments in Italy and France. In fact “Fonte Gaia” adopt a strict golden OA policy for all the contents that are generated under its label, as well as for the content that are harvested; “Fonte Gaia” actively engages in the diffusion of OA policies and initiatives. </p>
            <p>On the research side, “Fonte Gaia” incubates and fuels several small and medium research projects, providing support to early career researchers and other scholars in the mounting of digital humanities projects. At moment we have just started a project on metadata standards to open up our content to a linked data approach; two other new projects are in the phase of elaboration, one centered on the private archive of one of the most prominent translator of Italian literature in French between the end of the Nineteenth and the beginning of the Twentieth century, and the second on the census and digital cataloguing of Italian manuscripts possessed by the libraries of Grenoble. Connected to this latter, a module for virtual exhibition will be developed.</p>
            <p>One of the aspects that make “Fonte Gaia” standing out from other similar initiatives is a partnership on equal basis between research and teaching centers and libraries. The different sets of complementary competences and experiences are at the base of the creation of a center of cultural animation, as well as preservation and production in a digital context. The pedagogical vocation shared by teachers and librarians are also shaping a unique learning environment with a strong hands-on component coupled with theoretical and ethical teaching. This ethos reflects also on the research and cultural heritage components of the project, making of “Fonte Gaia” a pioneering experiment of bringing together people, expertise and innovation.</p>
            <p>This type of partnership is a genuine revolution in the French context, where traditionally the relationship between librarians and scholars is more a matter of a polite sharing of spaces,often verging on indifference, rather than one of active cooperation. In fact, since its inception this equal governance of “Fonte Gaia” has produced astonishment (luckily sometimes curiosity as well) among the members of the two categories as it challenges their tradition, their missions and their working methods. We take this as proof that we have to persevere.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Van Zundert, J. and Boot, P.</hi> (2012). The Digital Edition 2.0 and the Digital Library: Services, not Resources, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bibliothek and Wissenschaft</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">44</hi>: 141-52.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Pierazzo, E.</hi> (2015). 
                        Digital Scholarly Editing.<hi rend=""italic""> Theories, Methods and Models</hi> (Aldershot: Ashgate).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fonte Gaia Blog</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://fontegaia.hypotheses.org"">http://fontegaia.hypotheses.org</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2674","17","A Tool for NLP-Preprocessing in Literary Text Analysis","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The possibilities for widening the spectrum of research questions by adopting new computational methodology seem to be almost unlimited for literary scholars with considerable programming skills. Researchers with little or no such skills, however, have to rely on user-friendly tools. Simple word counts are still among the most common, and admittedly often very useful features used in computational text analysis. Usually, linguistic annotations are needed for using more complex features in the analysis of style or content of a literary text. For example, a researcher might want to investigate style in terms of syntactic preferences by applying stylometric analysis on part-of-speech tag n-grams, to run topic modelling on specific word types only or to characterize the way an author describes figures by extracting all the adjectives that refer to a named entity. All these examples require of the scholar to first extract linguistic information from the text and use that information to define complex features. </p>
            <p>Computer linguists have developed several tools for the various tasks of natural language processing (NLP) that can automatically analyze a digital text and annotate it with such information. In the present spectrum of solutions for NLP tasks, there is a gap between tools for rather simple tasks and full programming frameworks which require significant programming skills. The one end of the spectrum is represented by WebLicht,
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <ref target=""http://weblicht.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de/weblichtwiki/index.php/Main_Page"">http://weblicht.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de/weblichtwiki/index.php/Main_Page</ref>
                </note> a web service that allows users to upload and process single files very comfortably. On the other end are GATE,
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <ref target=""https://gate.ac.uk/"">https://gate.ac.uk/</ref>
                </note> NLTK
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <ref target=""http://www.nltk.org/"">http://www.nltk.org/</ref>
                </note>, BookNLP
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <ref target=""https://github.com/dbamman/book-nlp"">https://github.com/dbamman/book-nlp</ref>
                </note> and the Darmstadt Knowledge Processing Repository (DKPro).
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                        <ref target=""https://www.ukp.tu-darmstadt.de/research/current-projects/dkpro/"">https://www.ukp.tu-darmstadt.de/research/current-projects/dkpro/</ref>
                </note>
            </p>
            <p>DKPro provides a programming framework in which many such NLP tools can be combined into an analysis pipeline. The pipelining approach is especially useful, often even necessary, when one NLP tool needs the annotations provided by another NLP tool in advance for extracting more complex linguistic features. DKPro thus provides access to tools like sentence splitters, tokenizers, part-of-speech taggers, named-entity recognizers, lemmatizers, morphological analyzers and parsers in many languages.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6""> Not every kind of tool is available in all languages; it depends on the native support of the tools, not on the framework provided by DKPro.
                </note>
            </p>
            <p>While making NLP significantly easier by integrating many NLP tools into a single framework, the use of DKPro still requires a substantial knowledge of technologies like UIMA, Java and Maven. To further lower the skill threshold for literary scholars to use complex NLP output in computational text analysis, DARIAH-DE (the German branch of the European project Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities, funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research) developed the DARIAH-DKPro-Wrapper (DDW).
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                        <ref target=""https://github.com/DARIAH-DE/DARIAH-DKPro-Wrapper"">https://github.com/DARIAH-DE/DARIAH-DKPro-Wrapper</ref>
                </note> The DDW bundles a pipeline with a set of commonly used NLP components into a java program to be executed with a single command. As DKPro in general, the wrapper provides transparent access to a whole set of different NLP tools which are downloaded as needed behind the scenes. Command line options and configuration files allow users a considerable degree of control over the pipeline and its components, giving partial access to DKPro functionality without requiring any programming knowledge. The DDW also solves the problem of different input and output formats of the tools, offering a unified access. Therefore, the DDW positions itself in between the two ends of the aforementioned spectrum: It runs locally, allows for the processing of multiple files and can be configured to a considerable extent to one’s own needs. Whereas the user of classical DKPro is a UIMA programmer, the DDW can be used by anybody who can copy a command into the command line. Nonetheless, the DDW in some cases offers more features than other more advanced solutions, as DKPro supports more tools and languages. It also integrates Stanford NLP and supports the highly efficient Treetagger. A list of components available for both DKPro and the DDW can be found of the DKPro project page.
            </p>
            <p>Furthermore, the DDW stores its output in a tab-separated plain text format inspired by CoNLL2009.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn8"" n=""8"">
                        <ref target=""https://ufal.mff.cuni.cz/conll2009-st/task-description.html"">https://ufal.mff.cuni.cz/conll2009-st/task-description.html</ref>
                </note> The format provides information on paragraph id, sentence id, token id, token, lemma, POS, chunk, morphology, named entity, parsing information and more. This format can be comfortably accessed in common scripting languages for further analysis, i.e. it can be directly read as a dataframe object in R or Python Pandas; it can even be opened in a common datasheet editor like Microsoft Excel.
            </p>
            <p>Scripts connecting the output format to popular text analysis tools like the R package 
                <hi rend=""italic"">stylo</hi>
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn9"" n=""9"">Eder, Maciej, Mike Kestemont, and Jan Rybicki. ""Stylometry with R: a suite of tools."" 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts</hi>. 2013. For the software see: 
                        <ref target=""https://sites.google.com/site/computationalstylistics/stylo"">https://sites.google.com/site/computationalstylistics/stylo</ref>
                </note> are currently under development. Dariah also prepared some tutorials explaining how to use the wrapper and showing the use of the output format in research in three use cases.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn10"" n=""10"">
                    <p>
                        <ref target=""https://rawgit.com/DARIAH-DE/DARIAH-DKPro-Wrapper/master/doc/tutorial.html"">https://rawgit.com/DARIAH-DE/DARIAH-DKPro-Wrapper/master/doc/tutorial.html</ref>
                    </p>
                </note>
            </p>
            <p>This poster will present the DDW and its file format as a new and comfortable means of providing linguistic annotations, thus significantly lowering the threshold for using complex NLP-based features in computational literary analysis.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2675","17","A Workflow for Encoding and Publishing Inscriptions","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>US Epigraphy (USEP)(Bodel, 2015), directed by John Bodel at Brown University, is a venerable project – its roots are in a printed handbook, which was instantiated as an HTML based website at Rutgers in 1997 (Bodel et al., 1997). In 2003, Prof. Bodel moved to Brown and USEP was converted to a more automated, data-driven site. It has gone through several implementations since that time, following the state of the art in humanities computing/DH and conforming to the practices of our library development team. </p>
            <p>The project’s goal is to identify, document and create new editions of classical inscriptions in American collections, as well as to teach digital epigraphy. The inscriptions are organized geographically by collection. The project collaborates with international epigraphic consortia such as Eagle (EAGLE, 2015) and will remain conformant with their encoding schemas and vocabularies. In addition, it is one of the active contributors to the Epidoc schema for epigraphy (Elliott et al., 2015)</p>
            <p>The current USEP front end is written in Django, and is powered by a SOLR index. XML transformations occur at two points: when the inscriptions are ingested into SOLR, and when they are displayed - the latter transformation takes advantage of SaxonCE and therefore takes place in the user’s browser. </p>
            <p>Our choice of Django for a front-end framework was driven by the environments used by our library developers – it means that we need a developer to work on the project, either library staff or a skilled student programmer. Our choice of Saxon CE to generate our display was driven by our need to modify the display easily outside of the development environment and is easily replaced.</p>
            <p>Inscriptions are added to the collection as they are identified, with minimal information (location and a bibliographic reference or “unpublished”) and iteratively enriched. Although major collections are represented, new inscriptions are always being found in small collections or in storerooms. Gradually, all inscriptions in USEP are edited to have detailed metadata, a full transcription, more complete bibliographic information and images. </p>
            <p>The project has received some funding over the years, but has functioned continuously with basic university support. Staff include </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>a faculty director</item>
                <item>technical management and consulting, as well as programming support provided by the library</item>
                <item>a graduate student/postdoc manager in charge of the encoding workflow and proofreading (along with the director) and other improvements</item>
                <item>graduate student encoders and collaborators outside Brown, who either contribute editions or whose students contribute editions.</item>
            </list>
            <p>Almost all USEP encoding is done by newly minted encoders or colleagues who aren’t working on it consistently, it is important to make the process easy and as error-free as possible. The project is also used in digital epigraphy seminars, and the Oxygen forms allow graduate students to focus on their epigraphic work while also engaging with the decisions and activities of text encoding. We also want to make it easy for the manager to add inscriptions to the website and to modify the display and controlled vocabularies. </p>
            <p>The components we have developed to satisfy these criteria are </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Forms in Oxygen Author mode with controlled vocabularies and proofreading transformations to assist encoders. USEP uses the Epidoc schema and a modified version of its XSL/CSS files.</item>
                <item>An Oxygen framework configured as an add-on to disseminate the forms, to propagate updates automatically, and to be accessible beyond Brown.</item>
                <item>Controlled vocabularies and shared bibliography are stored on the web, so encoders are always using the latest version.</item>
                <item>GitHub to store our working corpus, images, XSLT stylesheets, bibliography and controlled vocabularies. Currently, GitHub functions as our public repository, but we intend to store all USEP sources in the Brown Digital Repository when the editions are more stable. The USEP data repository on github also hosts XSL for our display transformation. </item>
                <item>Server side Git scripts to automatically initiate the SOLR process when any changes are committed. </item>
            </list>
            <p>Currently, encoders are trained by the encoding manager and technical manager. Their work is proofread for epigraphic accuracy by the project director and encoding manager and screened for XML validity by the encoding manager and the technical manager. Once initial encoding is done, any further corrections or editing are handled by project members. The encoding manager pushes the finalized inscriptions to GitHub, triggering the SOLR indexing process, which then makes the new inscriptions live on the Usepigraphy website. These last few steps are an iterative process, as it is important to publish inscriptions quickly, and our process makes it easy to correct mistakes. Because the XSLT and CSS are also treated as data, the encoding manager can modify the inscription display as well which makes changes to the display much more nimble than if the project had to rely on the developers.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bodel, J. and Tracy, S.</hi> (1997). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Greek and Latin Inscriptions in the USA. A Checklist.</hi> NY.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bodel, J. (ed).</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">US Epigraphy Project Website</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://usepigraphy.brown.edu"">http://usepigraphy.brown.edu</ref>
                        <hi rend=""Hyperlink""> </hi>(accessed 6 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elliott, T, Bodard, G., Mylonas, E., Stoyanova, S., Tupman, C., Vanderbilt, S., et al. </hi>(2007-2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">EpiDoc Guidelines: Ancient documents in TEI XML (Version 8). </hi>
                        <ref target=""http://www.stoa.org/epidoc/gl/latest/"">http://www.stoa.org/epidoc/gl/latest/</ref>. (accessed 6 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Europeana Network of Ancient Greek and Latin Epigrapy (EAGLE)</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://eagle-network.eu"">http://eagle-network.eu</ref>
                        <hi rend=""underline"">(accessed 6 March 2016)</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2676","17","Adding Semantics To Comics Using A Crowdsourcing Approach","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>With over 85 million print units sold in 2014 for the top 300 comic book titles only, the comics industry is reaching a new high for the first time since 2007 (before the economical crisis). And this doesn’t include the increasingly popular graphic novels or the increasingly more accessible digital comics. The resurgence of comics and the establishment of the graphic novel as a literary genre prompted Humanities scholars to turn their attention on comics as a medium. In this paper, we address the difficulty of creating a digitized corpus by using a crowdsourced approach for annotating comic books. The resulting XML-based encodings could assist not only researchers, but publishers and collection curators equally.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Motivation</head>
                <p>Our approach should provide Digital Humanities (DH) scholars with a (currently missing) structured, annotated corpus; this should enable or speed up research related to the comics and sequential art theory: identifying the rhythm of the narration based on the shape, size or number of panels and its relation to the depicted action, investigations about the style of comics authors, historical periods, cultural movements etc.</p>
                <p>Curators and collectors (professional or amateur) of physical or online comics collections would be provided with a structured content which could be more easily integrated within their collections or databases. This may assist them into enlarging public or private databases of characters or comics series and enable the creation of artefacts such as comic books dictionaries, search indices and dictionaries of onomatopoeia. A certain number of projects are already in place and could greatly benefit from the creation of comic books annotations. We mention here the Grand Comics Database
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.comics.org/</p>
                    </note> (an online database of printed comics), Comic Book Database
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://comicbookdb.com/</p>
                    </note>, Digital Comics Museum
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://digitalcomicmuseum.com/</p>
                    </note> (a collection of scanned public domain comics from the Golden Age) or the Catalogue of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Cité Internationale de la Bande Dessinée et de l’Image</hi>
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.citebd.org/</p>
                    </note> from Angoulême.
                </p>
                <p>From a publishing perspective, current standard specifications related to digital comics, such as EPUB’s Region Based Navigation (Conboy et al., 2014) and Metadata Structural Vocabulary for Comics (Ichikawa et al., 2014) are taking care exclusively of the presentation layer (i.e. rendering a publication on a screen device). But the artistic nature of comics and the great potential digital comics have already showcased allow us to go beyond simple content presentation. We believe that the data we are collecting will allow publishers and digital comics authors to create better, enhanced content and in the end a superior reading experience.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Crowdsourcing Annotations for Comics</head>
                <p>Participants to our crowdsourcing experiment (Azavea, 2014; Sharma, 2010) are digital comics readers. Previous research has identified expertise sharing, belonging to a community and helping with a research project as strong motivating factors for crowdsourcing participants (Dunn et al., 2012). In addition, our industrial partner will incentivize participants with product vouchers for their platform
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Actialuna – Sequencity: https://www.sequencity.com</p>
                    </note>.
                </p>
                <p>The tasks we propose are organized around a set of questions regarding a series of comics-related topics (Eisner, 1985; Ichikawa et al., 2014) on which computer algorithms are not performing well enough: complex page layouts, identification of narration elements (characters, places, events, objects), stylistic elements (balloon shapes, onomatopoeia, movement lines).</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""486/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1. The 4 key annotation themes</head>
                </figure>
                <p>We aggregate the answers (Feng et al., 2014; Snow et al., 2008) taking into account the reliability of an annotator in a given context (task difficulty, user experience with the task, type of question) and the agreement between the annotators (Nowak et al., 2010). A quality score is thus generated for each annotation, with the best of them being selected as solutions.</p>
                <p>We subsequently are able to generate the ComicsML encodings (Walsh, 2012). This XML derived format is particularly useful since it’s based on the already widespread Text Encoding Initiative (TEI), allowing for declarations of page structure and composition, panels, characters, text (in all the varieties hosted by the comics medium: different types of balloons, diegetic text, onomatopoeia), events and even panel-to-panel transitions.</p>
              <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                <head>Page structure</head>
                <p>The annotators are presented with a simple interface (Fig. 2) in which they will have to make a choice between a set of suggested grid layouts. These layouts are the output of applying the automatic frame extraction algorithm developed by (Rigaud et al., 2011). Alternatively, for complex page layouts, they will be asked to draw the page layout themselves.</p>
              </div>
              <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                <head>Character identification</head>
                <p>At this step, we ask the “crowd” to simply enumerate all the characters they can identify in the current page. Characters are identified by reading their names in the text, recognising them from experience or simply giving a general statement about the character (e.g., “
                    <hi rend=""italic"">masked man</hi>” may be referring to 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Batman</hi>). Using state of the art symbolic learning algorithms we fusion generic and specific information (e.g. if 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Batman</hi> and “<hi rend=""italic"">masked man</hi>” both have high quality scores in the same context, they will both denote the same concept and will be considered as valid annotations).
                </p>
              </div>
              <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                <head>Places identification</head>
                <p>We ask the annotators to simply enumerate all the places they can recognise on the current page. We are particularly looking for named places (e.g., 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Gotham City, NY, planet Mars</hi>), but will also ask the annotator to mark any generic place that he might consider important for the scenes in the page (e.g., “
                    <hi rend=""italic"">the interior of a bank</hi>“ [in case of a robbery], “<hi rend=""italic"">inside a space ship</hi>” [in case of a battle in space]). These are exactly the kind of very specific annotation tasks for which state of the art image recognition algorithms are expected to fail.
                </p>
              </div>
              <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                <head>Events identification</head>
                <p>This is yet another highly specific recognition task. Annotators are asked to describe the most important events occurring in the page. The solutions generated at this step, together with the annotations obtained in the previous steps will be used to further build the ComicsML encoding of the page.</p>
                <p>Comics scholar Scott McCloud stresses the role of ellipsis (“the blood in the gutters“ – the space between two panels) as an artistic mean for authors to engage their readers, and describes a typology of these transition spaces (McCloud, 1993). ComicsML allows us to declare such transitions through the #ana attribute of the cbml:panel element, giving us the possibility to investigate their use and their distribution across different cultural spaces (France/Belgium, Japan/Korea, USA).</p>
                <figure>
                        <graphic url=""486/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <graphic url=""486/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Figure 2. Annotation interface (drawing page structure-left, narration elements-right)</head>
                </figure>
              </div>
              <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                <head>Non-visual cues</head>
                <p>Comics are a special medium, making use of the visual to depict all other non-visual senses, with the help of different drawing “tricks”, such as:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Smoke coming out of a cigarette may engage the reader’s smelling sense</item>
                    <item>Onomatopoeia form a particular language of their own; comics and especially manga authors have proven great creativity when it comes to expressing different sounds via stylised text (e.g., “
                        <hi rend=""italic"">POW!</hi>” – punch, “
                        <hi rend=""italic"">BAM!</hi>” – gunshot)
                    </item>
                    <item>Horizontal lines around a car suggest the car is moving at high speed, while around a ball, they express the ball’s movement</item>
                </list>
                <p>Researchers could study, for instance, the drawing style of an author and his use of non-visual cues, and go as far as creating onomatopoeia dictionaries for comics (to our knowledge, such dictionaries already exist for manga, but not for American nor European comics).</p>
                <p>At the end of this stage, we should be able to generate a reasonably complete ComicsML encoding of the current page (see Fig. 3).</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""486/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3. A fragment of the ComicsML encoding for the page presented above</head>
                </figure>
              </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusions</head>
                <p>We have presented the outline of our crowdsourced annotation system for comics, as well as details of how we have designed our tasks, having in mind three main aspects: the limits of current digital comic book formats, the specifications behind the ComicsML metadata schema and theoretical principles of comics as a medium (Eisner, 1985). Last, we have presented the way in which the collected results are merged into the final ComicsML encoding and have briefly discussed some potential applications.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Azavea, SciStarter.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Citizen Science Data Factory, Part 1: Data Collection Platform Evaluation</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dunn, S. and Hedges, M.</hi> (2012). Engaging the Crowd with Humanities Research. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Crowd-Sourcing Scoping Study</hi>. Centre for e-Research, Dept. of Digital Humanities – King’s College, London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Conboy, G., Duga, B., Gardeur, H., Kanai, T., Kopp, M., Kroupa, B., Lester, J., Garrish, M., Murata, M. and O’Connor E.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">EPUB Region Based Navigation 1.0</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.idpf.org/epub/renditions/region-nav/"">http://www.idpf.org/epub/renditions/region-nav/</ref> (accessed 5 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eisner, W. (1985).</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Comics and Sequential Art: Principles and Practices From the Legendary Cartoonist</hi>. Norton&Company, USA&U.K.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Feng, D., Sveva, B. and Zajac, R. (2009).</hi> Acquiring High Quality Non-Expert Knowledge from On-demand Workforce. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">People’s Web Meets NLP-2009</hi>, ACL (2009), 51-56.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ichikawa, D., Kasdorf, B, Kopp, M. and Kroupa, B.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">EPUB Region Based Navigation Markup Guide 1.0</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.idpf.org/epub/guides/region-nav-markup/"">http://www.idpf.org/epub/guides/region-nav-markup/</ref> (accessed 5 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCloud, S.</hi> (1993). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Understanding Comics – The Invisible Art</hi>, Harper Collins, USA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nowak, S. and Ruger, S.</hi> (2010) How reliable are annotations via crowdsourcing? A study about inter-annotator agreement for multi-label image annotation. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proc. MIR-2010</hi>, ACM, 557-566.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rigaud, C., Tsopze, N., Burie, J.-C. and Ogier, J.-M.</hi> (2011). Robust text and frame extraction from comic books. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">GREC-2011</hi>, Springer, 129-138.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sharma, A.</hi> (2010). Crowdsourcing Critical Success Factor Model: Strategies to harness the collective intelligence of the crowd. Working paper.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Snow, R., O’Connor, B., Jurafsky, D. and Ng, A.Y.</hi> (2008). Cheap and Fast – But is it Good? Evaluating Non-Expert Annotations for Natural Language Tasks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">EMNLP-2008</hi>, ACM, 254-263.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Walsh, J.A.</hi> (2012). Comic Book Markup Language: an Introduction and Rationale. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ-6</hi>, 1. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/6/1/000117/000117.html"">http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/6/1/000117/000117.html</ref> (accessed 5 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2677","17","Adding Value to a Research Infrastructure Through User-contributed ePublications","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>The so-called ‘web 2.0 revolution’ heralded in the middle of the last decade has so far neither replaced the author as the source of genuine creation nor turned conventional production processes in research and industry upside down. Rather than blurring the boundary between experts and amateurs, it questions the role of the institution as a source of authority by empowering individuals, small groups and communities (Wieneke 2010). Even today, institutions struggle to turn the productivity and impulses of their respective user communities into clear added value that benefits the institution and the community alike. In this paper we present and discuss our experiences in the development, implementation and management of user-created content built using the MyPublications tool on CVCE.eu. MyPublications enables users to create and publish their own enhanced publications using documents and resources on the European integration process available on CVCE.eu. </p>
                <p>The CVCE’s goal is to contribute to a deeper understanding of European integration by developing a dedicated digital research infrastructure. One component of the infrastructure is a series of digital collections of publications (ePublications) on themes and topics associated with the European integration process, as curated by a researcher or team of researchers. The ePublications are themselves aggregations of diverse research objects (resources), including researcher-written contextual articles, historical documents, press articles, photographs, interactive diagrams and timelines as well as other multimedia material, each with a set of descriptive, publishable metadata and a unique and persistent identifier. </p>
                <p>State-of-the-art ePublication frameworks are built upon a set of underlying principles encapsulated by the presentation of research knowledge alongside mechanisms for describing, sharing, discovering, reusing and repurposing the scientific content (Bechhofer, Roure et al., 2010). The CVCE’s publication model is no different. It encapsulates the following principles: (1) the ability to provide aggregations of content derived from many different published objects; (2) the provision of a unique and persistent identifier, ensuring sustainability of access; (3) the possibility of tracing the steps a researcher took to produce the ePublication; (4) the potential to reuse objects in a different context; (5) the ability to change the way objects are used by repurposing them; (6) the ability to reuse objects in compliance with IPR constraints. </p>
                <p>The current CVCE ePublication framework is expert-led, and research outputs are based on the centre’s research questions and strategic topics. This approach leads to digital expert-curated ePublications based on themes and topics that are robust and reliable but — and this is both an advantage and a limitation — constrained by organisational priorities. On the other hand, the content itself can be combined and contextualised in different ways, both to highlight other perspectives and readings but also to address topics out of scope of the hosting institution. The challenge we face is therefore in the development of innovative tools and methods that offer new ways of reusing and repurposing historical objects by leveraging the potential of our user base to contribute knowledge themselves. This will in turn foster outputs that create a genuine surplus value for other users of the site by covering issues that we partially address or do not include at all. </p>
                <p>The MyPublication tool empowers users to create tailor-made ePublications comprising resources in line with their personal needs, and encourages them to publish them on our website, thereby providing a plethora of different perspectives on the European integration process that ultimately enhance the value of our site for other users. The tool builds on the CVCE’s multilingual ePublication model and infrastructure for research, teaching and learning activities in European integration studies.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The tool</head>
                <p>MyPublications is the first instalment of the ‘Digital Toolbox’ at CVCE.eu. This suite of tools is designed to enable users to reuse or customise our resources for their own purposes. Using the MyPublications authoring tool, users can create ePublications that are personally curated collections of the many historical resources available on CVCE.eu alongside their own text, thoughts, ideas and critical analysis. The tool has been developed with the following workflow in mind: select, organise, structure, annotate, author (and edit), read, share and publish. The tool and its development are based on the CVCE’s experience in building and maintaining a previous application called ‘Albums’, which was widely used by the teaching and learning community for assignments (e.g. ‘build an album on the history of monetary union’) or to document ongoing research (e.g. ‘all resources related to the Rome Treaties’). </p>
                <p>Once a user is logged into the Digital Toolbox, they can browse collections of objects (referred to as ‘resources’ in the tool) or use the search facility to find and select relevant resources and add them to ‘MyResources’. Users are then able to create a new publication using the MyPublication tool. They are asked to choose a cover picture, provide a short description and title and set the language. They then build a structure by creating subsections, add content to the different sections and write corresponding descriptions while being able to add, sort, organise and annotate the selected resources. Users can read the publication using a slideshow viewer, a simple interface that provides a sequential presentation of the narrative of an ePublication akin to a book. They can also share their publication with colleagues, peers and friends via a link. The publish/unpublish functionality enables users to make their publication accessible to the public in the MyPublications section of CVCE.eu (see figure 1). This should add new user-generated content to the research infrastructure.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""163/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: The MyPublications tool. Empty authoring interface (top left), MyResources section (middle left), slideshow view (bottom left), Share feature (top right), overview of publicly available MyPublications (bottom right).</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The platform</head>
                <p>The current CVCE data repository and ePublication framework uses the 
                    <ref target=""http://www.alfresco.com/"">Alfresco </ref>
                    <ref target=""http://www.alfresco.com/"">document management system</ref> to manage, store and retrieve a wide variety of historical resources on the European integration process, such as interviews, treaties, legislation, photographs and cartoons, from an extensive array of archives and media outlets. The frontend and backend applications have been implemented in Liferay using HTML 5, CSS and JavaScript.
                </p>
                <p>MyPublications was developed using the iterative design methodology Scrum, an AGILE development approach. This approach enabled us to involve our users in the development process on an ongoing basis, avoiding the need to predefine requirements for complex functionalities. The interface was designed with a focus on usability (Shneiderman and Plaisant, 2005) and the aim of providing an easy-to-use, pragmatic environment. All the tools in the Digital Toolbox, especially MyPublications, were designed with a ‘less-is-more’ approach (Jones and Haklay, 2009) based on pragmatism and prioritising simplicity over complexity. As a benchmark we defined that it should be possible to explain how to use the tool with a two-minute help video. In-house users (historians, economists and political scientists) were engaged in testing, evaluating and providing feedback following each development cycle. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>The simplicity of MyPublications enables a straightforward process of authoring and content creation for users with varying levels of digital literacy. Such facilities within research infrastructures also have the potential to increase accessibility to and reuse of existing objects to create new content. The tool provides a pragmatic solution for resources that have complex restrictions with respect to their licences for use. The content on our site is hosted by the CVCE, and full licences for permission to use the material on CVCE.eu have been acquired, so scholars, teachers and learners can avoid all the common problems associated with the use of weakly licensed material or unsustainable, transitory URLs. The option of publishing the publications in the CVCE research infrastructure increases the usability of the resources by enabling individual users, in various guises, to actively contribute to an international research infrastructure. </p>
                <p>Following the release of the final tool in autumn 2015, we will reflect during our presentation at DH2016 on our experience of maintaining the MyPublications tool and user-created publications while particularly emphasising our lessons learned: how far have we succeeded in mobilising our user base to create and publish MyPublications? Is the incentive of being able to use licensed material, therefore avoiding copyright restrictions, strong enough, or is this not relevant for our users? What kind of content have our users created? Has the focus been on the final outcome (e.g. those publishing their own research) or has the process of creation been more relevant for them (e.g. those completing class assignments)? What tensions do we encounter between the institutional perspective and our user base regarding different perspectives and topics? And finally, what are the practical trials and tribulations of integrating user-created content in an institutional context?</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bechhofer, S., De Roure, D., Gamble, M., Goble, C. and Buchan, I.</hi> (2010). Research objects: Towards exchange and reuse of digital knowledge.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Future of the Web for Collaborative Science.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                         <hi rend=""bold"">Jones, C. E., Haklay, M., Griffiths, S. and Vaughan, L.</hi> (2009). A less is more approach to geovisualization–enhancing knowledge construction across multidisciplinary teams. 
                         <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal in Geographical Information Science</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 23</hi>(8): 1007-93.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shneiderman, S. B. and Plaisant, C.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Designing the user interface, 4th edition</hi>. USA: Pearson Addison Wesley.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wieneke, L. </hi>(2010). <hi rend=""italic"">An analysis of productive user contributions in digital media applications for museums and cultural heritage</hi>. Weimar, Germany: Bauhaus-Universität Weimar.  
                        <ref target=""https://e-pub.uni-weimar.de/opus4/frontdoor/index/index/year/2010/docId/1442"">https://e-pub.uni-weimar.de/opus4/frontdoor/index/index/year/2010/docId/1442 .</ref>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2678","17","Agréger le passé en ligne : Euchronie, le passé ici et maintenant !","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Euchronie est un projet collaboratif francophone s’inscrivant dans le domaine des humanités numériques. Partant du constat qu’une abondante production de contenu sur le passé est autopubliée sur le web francophone, le projet vise créer une base de données en centralisant, collectant, indexant et hiérarchisant dès leur parution cette multiplicité de contenus.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p> Notes historiographiques, synthèses méthodologiques, premières versions d’articles en cours de rédaction, hypothèses d’un chapitre de thèse encore à écrire, analyses d’archives en ligne, tutoriels concernant de nouveaux outils, expression de doutes épistémologiques, recensions d’ouvrages récents ou de classiques, analyses de productions filmiques ou multimédias, prises de position dans l’espace public, micro-essais d’ego histoire, vidéos, podcasts audio…</p>
                </note> Contemporains de l’essor de la blogosphère, puis des humanités numériques, de l’autoproduction dans le domaine musical tout autant que de la diffusion de la photographie amateur en ligne, ces contenus ont pour double spécificité d’émaner de chercheur.e.s et d’être autopubliés sur le web.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p> Doctorant.e.s aussi bien que professeur.e.s d’université, enseignant.e.s du secondaire, amateurs et amatrices éclairé.e.s faiant usage des méthodes de la discipline.</p>
                </note> 
            </p> 
            <p>La base de données ainsi créée prend la forme d’un site web hébergé par Huma-Num, la très grande infrastructure de recherche numérique pour les SHS. Pour parvenir à créer rapidement un corpus d’étude, la collecte de données est facilitée par l’utilisation du plug-in PressForward pour WordPress. Libre et gratuit, aisé à prendre en main par des chercheurs néophytes en humanités numériques, il autorise la recopie partielle de pages produites sur différents sites web et réseaux sociaux, mais aussi de vidéos et de fichiers audio. Dans le même temps, l’agrégation des contenus s’accompagne d’une éditorialisation fondée sur la hiérarchisation des données : nous proposons un nouvel agencement basé sur l’ajout de métadonnées. Strictement normées, ces dernières permettent une catégorisation fine (chronologie, thématique et aire géographique) qui constitue l’une des principales valeurs ajoutées du projet.</p>
            <p>Pour développer le contenu de la base de données, chaque membre du comité éditorial d’Euchronie est chargé de la veille d’un ensemble de sites défini en fonction de son domaine de spécialité. Pour chaque actualité publiée, le responsable éditorial s’assure qu’il s’agit bien de l’expression d’un point de vue, sans prise de position partisane : il s’agit de la dimension qualitative de la sélection. D’autre part, le responsable éditorial n’est pas amené à faire une sélection sur des critères plus restrictifs tels que l’intérêt historiographique du contenu ou une quelconque adéquation avec une ligne éditoriale que la plateforme souhaiterait défendre. Au contraire, la volonté à la base de la création de cette plateforme est d’être un lieu de rencontre entre différents types de discours sur le passé. À ce titre, l’aspect collaboratif du projet est primordial : dans la mesure où l’indexation est avant tout pensée comme une interaction sociale, les usagers de la plateforme sont aussi invités à proposer l’agrégation de billets ou sites qu’ils et elles ont identifiés. Enfin, un billet de synthèse est publié chaque semaine sur le blog du projet. Dans celui-ci, chaque membre du comité éditorial y présente brièvement les trois meilleurs contenus de la semaine. </p>
            <p>Le site web permet ainsi de rendre compte d’une écriture de l’histoire de moins en moins logocentrée et de plus en plus intermédiale, c’est-à-dire écrite et visuelle, parlée et sonore, interactive et collaborative. Euchronie est ainsi un outil créé par et pour des spécialistes, tout autant qu’un point d’entrée pour les passionnés du passé.</p>
            <p>En phase de développement, le projet dispose d’un 
                <ref target=""https://euchronie.hypotheses.org/partenaires-2"">financement</ref> assuré par plusieurs laboratoires de recherche en histoire et information-communication. Au 1er novembre 2015, son comité éditorial se compose de 
                <ref target=""https://euchronie.hypotheses.org/lequipe"">19 membres séniors et juniors</ref> en France, Suisse et Canada, tandis que la première version de son corpus agrège 
                <ref target=""https://euchronie.hypotheses.org/le-corpus"">100 références,</ref> tant au format textuel que vidéo et audio. La mise en ligne du site est prévu pour l’année 2016 et sera donc visualisable lors du colloque. Un 
                <ref target=""https://euchronie.hypotheses.org/"">blog Hypotheses</ref> regroupe l’ensemble des informations relatives au projet.
            </p>
            <p>La création de notre poster doit permettre de présenter l’outil et d’échanger autour des problématiques liées à la construction d’un corpus dans une perspective de Digital Public History. Nous désirons notamment rencontre les développeurs de PressForward pour partager nos retours et comparer notre projet avec Digital History Now.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2679","17","All in the Family: Testing Burrows' Delta on Robert Louis Stevenson's Collaboratively Authored Volumes The Dynamiter and The Wrecker","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894) is known to have co-authored several of his works, including 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Dynamiter </hi>(1885), on which he collaborated with his wife Fanny van der Grift Stevenson (Stevenson and Stevenson 1885). Until recently, Stevenson scholars had comparatively little information about how the collaboration around 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Dynamiter</hi> had operated, with one narrative claiming prominence: the preface to the 1905 edition written by Fanny (after her husband’s death) which stated that she had invented the stories during an illness of his, and they had subsequently worked collaboratively to put them into written form (Stevenson 1905). 
            </p>
            <p>In this paper, we take insights gleaned from our previous work on the authorship of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Dynamiter </hi>(carried out with collaborators Mingyuan Chen, Carlos Fonseca, Laura McAleese, Alba Morollón Díaz-Faes and Elizabeth Nicholas) to investigate another text, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Wrecker </hi>(1892). (At the time of submitting this abstract, the authorship analysis of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Wrecker</hi> had not yet been carried out, so we have supplied details about our previous study so as to demonstrate that the methods used are both appropriate and robust.) We used the R package Stylo (Eder et al. 2015) to apply Burrows’ Delta (Burrows 2002) to two reference corpora containing works known to have been solely authored by Fanny or Robert Louis, and used these as comparators against the individual stories in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Dynamiter</hi>. 
            </p>
            <p>Visualizing the results in the form of a cluster analysis indicated that Burrows’ Delta performed well at separating out texts known to be authored by Fanny from texts known to be authored by Robert Louis (Fig 1.)</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""609/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 1. Cluster analysis of Burrows’ Delta scores of the 450 most frequent words in texts by Fanny, in green and blue, by Robert Louis, in orange and black, and <hi rend=""italic"">The Dynamiter</hi>, in red (pronouns deleted, no culling).</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Our interpretation of these results was that the stories Fanny was most likely to have authored from 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Dynamiter </hi> were “The Story of the Destroying Angel” and “The Fair Cuban”. However, it is important to note that while Fanny may well have had an originating role for the plot of many, if not all, of the stories – something which the Preface to the 1905 edition seeks to establish – when it came to the actual writing down of the stories, the “signal” from her linguistic signature was made less clear by the “noise” of her husband’s heavy editorial hand (something which is known from biographical and historical writings about their relationship).
            </p>
            <p>Building on this earlier work on 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Dynamiter</hi>, the paper we propose here will examine another work co-authored by Stevenson: 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Wrecker</hi>, also a volume of short stories, which Stevenson co-authored with his stepson Lloyd Osbourne. Stylo will again be used, as will insights from the many 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Dynamiter </hi>tests. These indicated, for instance, that deleting pronouns resulted in better separation of texts in the reference corpus, something we attributed to Stevenson’s tendency to write about predominantly male characters, which resulted in the prevalence of male pronouns. With the experience gained from attempting to find a solution to the “signal” vs. “noise” problem caused by Robert Louis’s proclivity to edit the work of his collaborators, we will also investigate how changes to additional parameters offered by Stylo – changes to the number of most frequent words considered, for example, and variations in text sample size – affect the results of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Wrecker</hi> tests.
            </p>
            <p>As mentioned above, our earlier results suggested that Robert Louis’s editing practices – he had a tendency to edit texts meticulously prior to publication – makes it hard to determine with certainty which sections were written, or initially drafted, by Fanny. A model of co-authorship in which the boundaries between one author and another are clear-cut – where the assumption is that one person is solely responsible for some sections and a second person is solely responsible for others – breaks down in a situation such as this, where the shared domestic space of two authors means that close consultation with – and iterative redrafting of the work of – one’s familial collaborator is not simply possible but likely. It underlines the need for stylometric analysis to be complemented with careful literary historical analysis in order to arrive at any meaningful conclusions.</p>
            <p>The broader significance of this work is that it is not only of relevance for the field of authorship attribution, but also for its recuperative potential in relation to figures who are less prominent within literary history, including women. Despite scholars' awareness of Fanny’s involvement with her husband's writing, for instance, there is still minimal research into how she influenced his work, and how other women in similar positions influenced their famous husbands' legacies. In bringing to light the omitted literary contributions from women and other family members, what emerges is the need for theoretical approaches capable of evaluating the gendered practices of literary studies and book history in contributing to these omissions. In analysing letters and journals, combing through stylometric data, and assessing biographical accounts, there is a risk of overlooking collaborations in favour of other types of partnerships (amanuenses, muses, and the like). A woman like Fanny van der Grift, who history has recorded as a keen writer, diarist, and editor, surpasses the labels that book history has offered her. While authorship attribution analysis offers one set of useful tools for breaking down these barriers, further critical engagement with our own gendered scholarly practices is necessary to more clearly understand how and why certain works and canons have become established in the way that they have.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J. F.</hi> (2002). Delta: A Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(3): 267-87.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Rybicki, J. and Kestemont, M.</hi> (2015). ‚Stylo’: A Package for Stylometric Analyses. https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxjb21wdXRhdGlvbmFsc3R5bGlzdGljc3xneDpmM2U3OGUzZTM2YjkyYzM (accessed 6 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stevenson, F.V.d.G.</hi> (1905). Preface to the Biographical Edition. In Stevenson, R. L. and Stevenson, F.V.d.G., 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">More New Arabian Nights: The Dynamiter</hi>. New York: Scribners, pp. V–XIV.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stevenson, R. L. and Stevenson, F.V.d.G.</hi> (1885). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Dynamiter: More New Arabian Nights</hi>. London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2680","17","An OWL 2 Formal Ontology for the Text Encoding Initiative","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>This paper presents the results of an effort that our research team has done in order to develop an OWL 2 ontology to formally define the semantics of the Text Encoding Initiative markup language. The preliminary steps of this research project have already been presented at the TEI Conference in 2014 and 2015 (Ciotti and Tomasi 2014, Ciotti et al., 2015). We believe that our work has reached a satisfactory level of development, both on the theoretical side and in the practical implementation.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Why an ontology for TEI</head>
                <p>The reasons to have a formal and machine-readable semantics for TEI are manifold. In the first place we can set forth a list of pragmatic and technical benefits that have been already pointed out in many previous works dedicate to this topic, that dates back to the mid-90s (Di Iorio, Peroni and Vitali, 2009; Ciotti and Tomasi, 2014). Here is a brief summary of those arguments:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>enabling parsers to perform both syntactic and semantic validation of document markup;</item>
                    <item>inferring facts from documents automatically by means of inference systems and reasoners; </item>
                    <item>simplifying the federation, conversion and translation of documents marked up with different markup vocabularies;</item>
                    <item>allowing users to query upon the structure of the document considering its semantics.</item>
                </list>
                <p>The advantages envisioned in this list are not specific to the TEI or aim to facilitate the relationships between different markup languages; but some of the issues have special relevance for TEI and for the usage of TEI inside its reference community.</p>
                <p>Take for instance the query issue: we all know that there are many ways of expressing one and the same textual feature in TEI markup, so that it is very difficult to query heterogeneous TEI corpora and text archives. Having a set of ontological definitions of the conceptual level behind markup, that is, a set of shared formal definitions of the textual features to which any single encoding project could bind idiosyncratic markup usage, could help solve this problem. The same argument could be made for a far more adequate management of interoperability of TEI text collections between different repositories or applications.</p>
                <p>But we believe there is also a deeper theoretical and foundational advantage in the idea of an ontological semantic model for TEI. It is a commonly acknowledged notion that the very core of digital methods application in humanities research is the notion of model/modeling. The pair of terms “model/modeling” is deplorably understood in many different ways in the community. We think that, as far as we are using Turing machine like device for computation, the only workable notion of modeling is a formal one: model we should be interested in are formal models. Where formalization is to be understood as a series of semiotic processes that generates an algorithmically computable representation of one (or more) phenomenon/object.</p>
                <p>It is widely recognized that the TEI is not only a markup facility but first and foremost a conceptual model of textuality. In fact, the Guidelines (TEI Consortium, 2015, chap. 23) explicitly introduce the notion of a TEI Abstract Model. The fact is that the notion of an abstract model is used in many formal procedures but this very notion is not formally defined. This ends up in a lot of problems and circularities. We think that we need to have a formalized account of the quasi-formal notion of TEI abstract model, if it has to be of any use other than a sort of regulatory principle.</p>
                <p>We do not advocate going back to a monist theory of textuality. Our suggestion to adopt contemporary Semantic Web formalisms to build this abstract conceptual model give us the possibility to have a “foundation” of TEI in a well-defined data model that is not dependent on the notion of a single hierarchical “ordered hierarchy of content object” (OHCO, DeRose et al., 1997), and that can accommodate, at least to some extent, the “pluralities” of textuality. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Structure of the ontology</head>
                <p>TEI as a whole is very complex, and its usage is governed by pragmatics and contextual requirements. We acknowledge that it is impossible to reduce to a unique formal semantic definition this fuzzy cloud. Though, we can identify a subset of shared assumptions, a common ground of notions about the meaning of TEI markup and the nature of documents like object: we think that this subset can be the object of an ontological formalization. For various reasons we have adopted the TEI Simple customization (Cummings et al., 2014) as an acceptable approximation of this common ontology. This is not an opportunistic ad hoc choice, as it may seem. TEI Simple in fact has been defined by a group of domain expert that have analyzed the actual usage of TEI markup in some big textual repositories and have selected and organized a set of one hundred or so elements that can describe all the textual features represented by the markup in those documents. This fits perfectly in the definition of a formal ontology development process.</p>
                <p>The main design requirements for building our ontology have been the following:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>the ontology must express at the same time an abstract characterization of TEI Simple elements' semantics and an ontological definition of their structural role;</item>
                    <item>the ontology must define a precise semantics of the elements having a clear characterization in the official TEI documentation (e.g., the element <p>), while it should relax the semantic constraints if the elements in consideration can be used with different semantic connotations depending on the context (e.g., the element <seg>);</item>
                    <item>it must be possible to extend the ontology, reuse it and define alternative characterizations of elements semantics without compromising the consistency of the ontology itself;</item>
                    <item>where possible existing ontologies or meta-ontologies must be reused</item>
                </list>
                <p>In accordance with these overall principles we have decided to implement a complex architecture using some pre-existing meta-ontology frameworks to express the meaning of TEI element set by the way of the classes and properties they define. In particular we have adopted:</p>
                <p>1) LA-Earmark (Di Iorio, Peroni, Poggi, Vitali, 2011; Peroni, Gangemi, Vitali, 2011), a markup metalanguage, that can express both the syntax and the semantics of markup as OWL assertions, and an ontology of markup that make explicit the implicit assumptions of markup languages. LA-EARMARK is an extension of EARMARK with the Linguistic Act module of the Linguistic Meta-Model that allows one to express and assess facts, constraints and rules about the markup structure as well as about the inherent semantics of the markup elements themselves. </p>
                <p>2) Structural Pattern Ontology (Di Iorio, Peroni, Poggi, Vitali, 2014), whose goal is to identify a small number of patterns that are sufficient to express how the structure of digital documents can be segmented into atomic components.</p>
                <p>The specification of markup semantics for the various TEI Simple elements is done by means of LA-EARMARK class and properties. The general Earmark class for any markup element is earmark:Element. The <abbr> element is defined as follows:</p>
                <quote>Prefix earmark: <http://www.essepuntato.it/2008/12/earmark#></quote>
                <quote>Prefix co: <http://purl.org/co/></quote>
                <quote>Prefix tei: <http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0/></quote>
                <quote>Class: tei:abbr a </quote>
                <quote> earmark:Element that</quote>
                <quote> earmark:hasGeneralIdentifier ""abbr"" and</quote>
                <quote> earmark:hasNamespace ""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0""</quote>
                <p>LA-EARMARK allows us to link particular class of elements with the actual semantics they express. From our point of view there are at least two semantic levels that we explicitly define:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>one concerning the structural behavior of markup that is described by means of the Pattern Ontology (PO);</item>
                    <item>the other regarding the intended semantics of an element (e.g., the fact that an element is a paragraph rather than a section, a personal name reference rather than a geographical reference), that is described by TEI Semantics Ontology or by a combination of already existing ontologies.</item>
                </list>
                <p>TEI Semantics Ontology is the core component that gives the actual semantics of TEI elements. Its definition is based on a categorization of the elements of the TEI Simple, based on a refactoring of the TEI model Classes. </p>
                <p>The link between the class describing kinds of elements and their related semantic characterization is possible by means of the property “semiotics:expresses”. The associations of semantics to markup elements can be contextualized according to a particular agent's point of view, in order to provide provenance data pointing to the entity that was responsible for such specification. This is possible by means of the Linguistic Act Ontology included in LA-EARMARK that allows one to consider all these markup-to-semantics links as proper linguistic acts done by someone.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusions</head>
                <p>The work we have done so far is limited to the Simple subset of TEI. We envision some further development:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Refine the TEI Semantics Ontology component.</item>
                    <item>Extend to some other areas of TEI that are suitable for formalization.</item>
                </list>
                <p>We think that in the long term this ontological formalization could become the primary formalization of the TEI encoding schema, independently of any serialization format. Today XML is still the better strategy to encode digital texts in real word projects for many practical reasons. But there is no reason for the TEI to be strictly based on it, as it is 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">de facto</hi> now. Technical issues should not determine the choice of a formalization language. In the end, we believe that our effort can give a substantial contribution to the TEI to envision the shape of its own future.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Ciotti F. and Tomasi F.</hi> (2014). Formal ontologies, Linked Data and TEI semantics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Ciotti F., et al.</hi> (2015). An ontology for the TEI: one step beyond. <hi rend=""italic"">TEI Conference and Members Meeting 2015</hi>. Lyon. http://tei2015.huma-num.fr/en/papers/#acc-16.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">DeRose, S. J., Durand, D. G., Mylonas, E. and Renear, A. H.</hi> (1997). What is Text, Really?. <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Computer Documentation</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(3): 1–24.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Di Iorio, A., Peroni, S. and Vitali, F.</hi> (2009). Towards markup support for full GODDAGs and beyond: the EARMARK approach. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2009</hi>, Balisage Series on Markup Technologies, Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>, Montreal, Canada.  doi:10.4242/BalisageVol3.Peroni01.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">TEI Consortium.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange</hi>. Version 2.9.1. Last updated 15th November 2015. http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/index.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Cummings, J. et al.</hi> (2015). TEI Simple: Power, economy, and a processing model for encoders and developers. <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2015</hi>. http://dh2015.org/abstracts/xml/CUMMINGS_James_C__TEI_Simple__Power__economy__and/CUMMINGS_James_C__TEI_Simple__Power__economy__and_a_pro.html.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Peroni S., Gangemi A. and Vitali F.</hi> (2011). Dealing with Markup Semantics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">I-SEMANTICS 2011 Proceedings</hi>, 111-118. DOI: 10.1145/2063518.2063533.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Di Iorio, A., Peroni, S., Poggi, F. and Vitali, F.</hi> (2011). Using semantic web technologies for analysis and validation of structural markup. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Int. J. of Web Engineering and Technology</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(4): 375-98.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Di Iorio, A., Peroni, S., Poggi, F. and Vitali, F.</hi> (2014). Dealing with structural patterns of XML documents. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">65</hi>(9): 1884-900. DOI: 10.1002/asi.23088.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2681","17","Analyzing the 17th Century Theatre Critique Texts with a Semantic Annotation Tool Driven by a Dedicated Ontology","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Project “Haine du Théâtre”</head>
                <p>This experiment takes place within the “Haine du Théâtre”<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">The directors of this Projet are François Lecercle and Clotilde Thouret. <http://obvil.paris-sorbonne.fr/projets/la-haine-du-theatre> It is one of the many outstanding projects at the Labex OBVIL (Laboratoire d’Excellence: Observatoire de la Vie Littéraire) in Paris headed by Didier Alexandre and Jean-Gabriel Ganascia.</note> Project, which aims at analysing theatre debates in Europe by using scientific approaches and critical editions of polemical texts. The reflections of the team were primarily focused on the discovery of the circumstances and arguments used in theatre all across Europe, not limited to France, but including England, Spain, Italy, and the Germanic area. The timeframe encompassed the last decades of the 16th century up to the beginning of the 19th century. The purpose of the Project is to explore the grey areas of the controversies in order to outline a global overview of the situations which led to these polemics, discovering where and how they began, their chronological discrepancies in the different countries, and the links between them and their contemporary resurgences.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Corpus</head>
                <p>The total collection of the Haine du Théâtre Project related to France made up of 300 texts in the PDF format. The XML/TEI critical edition of 27 texts has been achieved manually (examples of the main titles of this TEI corpus are D'Aubignac (1666), Conti (1666), Pierre Nicole (1667), Voisin (1671), Vincent (1647), cfr. <http://obvil.paris-sorbonne.fr/corpus/haine-theatre/>) and this small corpus is used for the semantic analysis we present here.</p>
                <p>This collection is a homogenous combination of texts in which the different authors express their approval or their condemnation of theatre. Using the ontology we created, our interest was to discover to what extent the personal judgment of each author was celebratory or derogatory about theatre and, also, which arguments were mostly involved in their critiques.</p>
                <p>In this direction, we had two main goals:</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Organizing the knowledge about polemics in theatre and their vocabulary;</item>
                    <item>Use this structured lexicon for the corpus annotation and its analysis.</item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Building of the ontology</head>
                <p>An ontology is a good way to automatically analyse many texts together along two parameters: documentary and linguistic. On the one hand, by improving a state of knowledge about 17th century French ; on the other hand, by refining the vocabulary linked to theatre controversy.</p>
                <p>The ontology organizes the knowledge of our domain (polemical texts about theatre) as structured points of view (condemnation, defence, etc.) as well as 44 structured classes (concepts) related to critical controversies.</p>
                <p>These classes report the axiological points of view (the judgment of the authors), their objects (such as 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">jongleur</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">actrice</hi>, etc.), and the thematics of the polemics (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">religion</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">emotions</hi>, etc.).
                </p>
                <p>To detect the salient terms pertaining to each concept, we realized that in most texts of the modern period, authors' judgements revolve around quoted authorities. The context and the deep knowledge of the corpus together with expertise in 17th century French constitute the cornerstones of our approach. It is very important to fully understand the contextual meaning (in the 17th century) of the selected salient terms.</p>
                <p>The idea we came up was to look at the relative importance of the various semantic fields in each chapter of the collection, then extract a priori the content of a chosen text. We began to use this structured lexicon of outstanding terms related to theatre polemics for the corpus annotation and its analysis.</p>
                <p>To our knowledge no other comparable ontology about theatre polemics exists; therefore, we will present the method we conceived keeping in mind that those classes are not exhaustive and that new questions will require the creation of new classes.</p>
                <p rend=""Predefinito"">Despite the high specificity of the domain, this ontology model and the automatic annotator are deployable in other contexts, such as literary criticism and theatre critique in different languages. For this purpose we will translate the model into English (the set of the attributes useful for the annotator).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The annotation tool</head>
                <p>We created an annotator in order to markup all the forms of the outstanding terms, recorded as lemmas in the ontology (“horrible”, “horribles”, etc.), except when:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>the exact form matters: the tool annotates only the exact form (“Père” does not match “père”, “pères”);</item>
                    <item>the gender matters: only the feminine forms, singular and plural (""courtisane(s)"" which is a linguistic sign of the ""Femme"" concept in our ontology does not match the masculine forms ""courtisan(s)"").</item>
                </list>
                <p>The annotation tool enriches automatically the TEI files by setting down some <term> tags to mark all the forms, but also their lemma and the related semantic field.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""202/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Snapshot of the TEI annotation (François Hédelin d’Aubignac, <hi rend=""italic"">Dissertation sur la condemnation des théâtres</hi>, 1666, “Chapitre I. Que les Spectacles des Anciens ont fait partie de la Religion Païenne"")</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Following this method we find a high density of salient terms (on average 9,5% of words in each the chapters) in our collection of texts. The combination of these linguistic signs and related semantic fields emerges as a semantic descriptor of the corpus content (e.g. 
                    <ref target=""http://obvil-dev.paris-sorbonne.fr/corpus/haine-theatre/vincent_traite-des-theatres_1647/vincent_traite-des-theatres_1647_6"">http://obvil-dev.paris-sorbonne.fr/corpus/haine-theatre/vincent_traite-des-theatres_1647/vincent_traite-des-theatres_1647_6</ref>).
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""202/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Snapshot of the HTML highlighting of the annotation (François Hédelin d’Aubignac, <hi rend=""italic"">Dissertation sur la condemnation des théâtres</hi>, 1666, “Chapitre I. Que les Spectacles des Anciens ont fait partie de la Religion Païenne”). The salient words of the religion thematic, very important in this chapter, are highlighted in dark blue (“Dieux”, “Saint”, “Divinités”, “Démons”, “Sacrifices”, “Païens”, “Dieux”, “Prêtres”, etc.)</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Semantic analysis</head>
                <p>Without preconceived notions and previous knowledge of the corpus, it was possible for us to answer numerous research questions. By examining the intensity of condemnation in the corpus, we discovered that the most derogatory chapters belong to Nicole and Conti.</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>chapter_id</cell>
                        <cell>condemnation_terms</cell>
                        <cell>defense_terms</cell>
                        <cell>chapter_length (words)</cell>
                        <cell>condemnation intensity (‰)
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>nicole_traite-de-la-comedie_1667_4</cell>
                        <cell>6</cell>
                        <cell>0</cell>
                        <cell>762</cell>
                        <cell>7,87</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>nicole_traite-de-la-comedie_1675_4</cell>
                        <cell>6</cell>
                        <cell>0</cell>
                        <cell>906</cell>
                        <cell>6,62</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>conti_traite-de-la-comedie_1666_14</cell>
                        <cell>21</cell>
                        <cell>1</cell>
                        <cell>4536</cell>
                        <cell>4,63</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Examples of the condemnation intensity.</p>
                <p>By virtue of the possibility of making cross queries across multiple classes, we were able to obtain a list of the arguments developed by the authors – which can be confirmed by reading the chapters concerned. For instance, the most derogatory chapters about theatre were written by Nicole and Conti.</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>chapter_id</cell>
                        <cell>“Théâtre” and “Morale Négative” thematics relative scores<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">The score is the ratio between the theatre and the condamnation terms over the chapter length (number of words).</note> (‰)</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>nicole_traite-de-la-comedie_1667_4</cell>
                        <cell>66,67</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>nicole_traite-de-la-comedie_1675_4</cell>
                        <cell>56,25</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>nicole_traite-de-la-comedie_1675_1</cell>
                        <cell>41,67</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>conti_traite-de-la-comedie_1666_14</cell>
                        <cell>41,24</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>nicole_traite-de-la-comedie_1675_13</cell>
                        <cell>40,75</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">The most derogative chapters.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>We can also compare the chapters more concerned with, for instance, condemnation and the thematic of “Women”. We discovered that the chapters more concerned with misogyny belonged to Voisin, Conti and Nicole. The discriminant terms for woman are, in these derogatory chapters: “femme, fille, bouffonne, maîtresse, comédienne”. Those are just examples of the queries we can construct with the annotation tool.</p>
                <p>At this point, the results of the computational analysis reveal some critical conclusions about the textual tradition analysed. Continuing this kind of analysis for every concept present in the ontology, we found that some authors are more concerned with all the elements of theatrical debates, whereas others deal only with some of them.</p>
                <p>In particular, we found a high concentration of annotated terms in Voisin, Conti, Nicole and Aubignac, whose chapters usually occupy the first 20 results for most thematics. On the contrary, authors like Vincent, Guillot-Gorju, Le Marcant and Gaule score high only when relating to economic issues. </p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>chapter_id</cell>
                        <cell>“Economy” thematic relative scores<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">The score is the ratio between the economy terms and the chapter length (number of words).</note> (‰)</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>vincent_traite-des-theatres_1647_9</cell>
                        <cell>3.77</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>vincent_traite-des-theatres_1647_7</cell>
                        <cell>3.40</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>anonyme_honneur-theatre_1620_1</cell>
                        <cell>3.1</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>guillot-gorju_apologie_1634_1</cell>
                        <cell>2.75</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>lemarcant_conduite-du-vrai-chretien_1694_1</cell>
                        <cell>2.50</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>nicole_traite-de-la-comedie_1667_18</cell>
                        <cell>2.33</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">The concentration of the economic thematic. These results show that the economy is at the core of the descriptions by another group of authors: Vincent, Guillot-Gorju, Le Marcant.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>For example, some very specific arguments are associated in the controversy, like women, passion and the economy. Moreover, results have shown that some authors of the corpus focus on only few topics of the polemics, whereas others, like Vincent, concentrate all the topics of the theatre polemic in his 11th chapter.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head> Conclusions </head>
                <p>The HdT ontology organizes the knowledge about the theatre polemics and their vocabulary. In particular, it presents a hierarchical lexicon of salient terms and it reflects the points of view, objects and thematics of the polemic.</p>
                <p>This ontology enables the exploration the corpus for research questions: the relative frequency of the salient terms (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">lemma</hi>) and of their related class (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">catégorie d’indexation</hi>) is a semantic descriptor of each chapter. Those descriptors can be exploited for the semantic exploration of the corpus, capitalizing on the ontology structure (terms / classes). The researchers can understand the intensity of the concepts they choose to analyse and thus can focus on the most significant chapters of the corpus.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Aubignac, abbé d’.</hi> (1666). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dissertation sur la condemnation des théâtres</hi>. Paris: N. Pépingué. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Buitelaar, P., Cimiano, P. and Magnini, B.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ontology Learning from Text: Methods, Evaluation and Applications</hi>. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications Series. Amsterdam: IOS Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Cimiano, P., Buitelaar, P. and Volker, J.</hi> (2010). Ontology construction. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Handbook of Natural Language Processing</hi>, Second Edition. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, pp. 577–604.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Conti, Prince de.</hi> (1666). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Traité de la Comédie et des spectacles</hi>. Paris: L. Billaine.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gaule, André de. </hi>(1607). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Conviction</hi>. Lyon: A. Cloquemin.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Guillot-Gorju, Harduin de Saint-Jacques, Bertrand. </hi>(1634).  
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Apologie de Guillot-Gorju. Addressee à tous les beaux Esprits</hi>. Paris: M. Blageart.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Le Marcant, J.</hi> (1694). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">La conduite du vrai chrétien</hi>. Paris: E. Couterot.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Maedche, A.</hi> (2002).  
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ontology learning for the Semantic Web</hi>. Volume 665. Kluwer Academic Publisher.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Nicole, P. </hi>(1667).  
                        <hi rend=""italic"">De la Comédie</hi>. Liege: Adolphe Beyers. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Vincent, P.</hi> (1647). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Traité des théâtres</hi>. La Rochelle: J. Chuppin.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Voisin, Joseph de, abbé.</hi> (1671). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Défense du traité de Mgr le Prince de Conti touchant la comédie et les spectacles ou la réfutation d'un livre intitulé Dissertation sur la condamnation des théâtres</hi>. Paris: Coignard.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2682","17","Annotating and Georeferencing of Digitized Early Maps","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Original early maps are usually only accessible for a small group of researchers and librarians because they are very old and sensitive, and could be easily destroyed. However, they are a valuable knowledge source for historical research, because they are also political and cultural evidences of its time. In the age of Digital Humanities, online access and information search in digitized historical documents and early maps allows people from all over the world to work with such artefacts of cultural heritage. However, the digitization solely generates images of the artefacts without any access to the semantics of the documents. </p>
            <p>For most digital libraries of early maps (e.g. http://www.oldmapsonline.org/) the available metadata include only information about the map, e.g. author, title, size, creation date. Unfortunately, there is only little information about the data contained in the map. Tools for information retrieval in digitized early maps need to support users in typical queries like for instance:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Development of places over time</item>
                <item>Toponym changes in the course of the history</item>
                <item>Position of the place from an early map on a modern map, if the place still exists.</item>
            </list>
            <p>Place markers and their text labels contain this information, for instance the place type town, village, village with church or a factory or mill. This makes the annotation and georeferencing of place markers a crucial task. This task is at the same time very challenging due to the nature of the manually created early maps, which contain a high variance in the used symbols. This gets even more complicated by the fact that a single map can easily contain many thousands of place markers. Therefore, proper tool support and automation of the annotation and georeferencing are of interest.</p>
            <p>The Referencing and Annotation Tool (RAT) supports annotators in the task of identifying place markers in a digitized early map and helps to create a link to a modern map with minimum effort. Because many different symbols are used as place markers and they differ across maps, the user needs to select a template for each type of place marker and to manually annotate a small subset of the map. Based on this, the templates get adjusted; all parameters for the template matching are calculated to automatically preselect place markers with high confidence and assign them the most likely of the possible types. These annotations can also be added by hand and the automatically generated annotations can be corrected. </p>
            <p>RAT facilitates georeferencing by suggesting the most likely modern places based on an estimated mapping between the coordinates of the pixel- and geocoordinates of the already georeferenced place markers. The number of suggestions can be further restricted through a phonetic search to places with names sounding similar to the name given on the map. This allows for identification of the modern place name using the historic name if the spelling has changed but the names still sound similar. </p>
            <p>Currently, RAT is in a prototype stage which we tested with a range of 16th to 18th century maps. For instance, one of the maps in the test set contained 3809 place markers. An area with 47 place markers was manually annotated. Based on this initial annotation 3399 place markers were identified and 3339 of them were correct matches.</p>
            <p>In other words, 98.2% of the identified markers were correct and 87.7% of the existing place markers were semi-automatically identified. A detailed description of the implementation and the functionality of an earlier version of RAT can be found in (Höhn et al., 2013) but the latest version uses a new template matching algorithm specifically optimized for maps where text, rivers and other structures are frequently next to the place markers and can disturb standard template matching algorithms.</p>
            <p>We plan to reduce the manual work needed in all areas by identifying similar maps of the same region and time and exploiting their similarities to provide better suggestions for existing places and their georeferencing on new maps.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Höhn, W., Schmidt, H.G. and Schöneberg, H.</hi> (2013). Semiautomatic Recognition and Georeferencing of Places in Early Maps, <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 13th ACM/IEEE-CS joint conference on Digital libraries, Indianapolis</hi>, pp. 335-38.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2683","17","Anonymity and Online Discussion: A New Framework for Analysis","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>We present a way of disaggregating the concept of anonymity and linking it to particular democratic goods. We demonstrate its value in the particular context of studying online commenting by contrasting three distinctive commenting regimes used by the Huffington Post (HuffPo) in the period January 2013 - March 2015. But we think this may have wider relevance for scholars looking at online communication, as modes of identity disclosure are an unavoidable yet consequential design feature of online communication platforms. In this paper we disaggregate three aspects of anonymity: traceability, which we argue relates to inclusion; durability, which influences deliberative quality through varying levels of communicative accountability; and connectedness, which ties users to real-world relations. </p>
            <p> Decisions about online architectures have a crucial influence on the quality of communication, but are often adopted by default or with regard to other factors. In the realm of online commenting, we observe a trend of commenting platforms being outsourced to the Facebook commenting API. These changes are often framed and justified in terms of a shift from an anonymous but easily abused environment, to one in which users operate under real-name identities. When we think in terms of a choice between anonymous and real-name architectures, it seems that there is a simple trade off between the goods and dangers associated with anonymity, such as trolling on the one hand and the freedom to express one’s views without fear of recrimination on the other, and the goods and dangers of real-name communication, which ties users more closely to discursive norms of civility but which also risks reproducing offline power relations.</p>
            <p> We propose to analyse the concept of anonymity in three dimensions. We argue that cross-platform connectedness is associated with increasingly personalised communication as well as less communicative engagement between individual users; durability (continuity) of identity is associated with greater levels of civility, reduced trolling, and higher quality of deliberation (more reason-giving, etc); traceability is associated with exit - that is, people worried about traceability leads people to make a binary decision, to opt out, and the increasingly pervasive traceability promotes exit. Thinking of anonymity in these terms helps resolve some apparent trade-offs: it may be possible to capture the benefits of communicative accountability without the drawbacks of either the abusive space of easy anonymity or of the exposure to offline power relationships associated with real-name spaces.</p>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Disaggregating anonymity</head>
            <p>Anonymity exists on one end of a spectrum of degrees of disclosure of identity. In the context of commenting, anonymity means contributions to a discussion are not visibly linked to any particular commenter. Pseudonyms - names chosen by commenters - allow users to keep their real identity private if they wish, yet allows them to maintain a persistent alternate identity in the context of the forum in question. You might have an identity as a commenter on the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Guardian</hi> that you keep separate from your professional networks and from your social networks. Real name comments, obviously enough, appear under your real name, not a pseudonym.
            </p>
            <p> While this is a useful starting point, many scholars analysing the different degrees of disclosure on online platforms have sought more fine-grained distinctions (Marx, 1999; Ruesch and Märker, 2012). We favour splitting online anonymity into three dimensions: traceability, durability, and connectedness. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Traceability</hi> refers to the extent to which your contributions can be traced to your real identity. Traceability is distinct from disclosure of identity to fellow commenters. You can make comments under a pseudonym and yet it may be possible (with some effort) for advertisers or the National Security Agency (NSA) to trace your real identity. Nissenbaum, for instance, argues that anonymity online, in the sense of ‘conducting one’s affairs, communicating, or engaging in transactions anonymously in the electronic sphere... without one’s name being known’, is undermined by technologies that have made it possible to track and / or piece together (‘infer identity from non-identifying signs and information’) the real identities of citizens online even when they are withholding their names or using pseudonyms (Nissenbaum, 1999). Because traceability is strictly distinct from the question of anonymity or pseudonymity 
                <hi rend=""italic"">with respect to other commenters</hi>, it does not help us grasp the relation between disclosure of identity and discussion quality.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Durability</hi> refers to the ease or difficulty with which online identities can be acquired and changed. Where new pseudonyms are easy to create, online identities are disposable; if you acquire a reputation for abusive or untrustworthy behaviour you can just create a new pseudonym and start again. As Resnick and Friedman put it, cheap pseudonyms create ‘opportunities to misbehave without paying reputational consequences’ (Resnick and Friedman, 2001). Users are more likely to stick with a particular name, exposing them to the reputational consequences of their behaviour. The durability dimension is particularly important for the possibility of holding commenters accountable for claims they make, enabling challenges in terms of consistency, and exposing uncivil or abusive commenters to sanctions. 
            </p>
            <p>The third dimension has to do with 
                <hi rend=""bold"">connectedness</hi> or bridging across different platforms and contexts. The most visible example of cross-platform connectedness is sites enabling users to login or register through a third party - typically Google or Facebook - rather than filling in a site-specific form. Connectedness also involves reputation, but is a global rather than local reputation. The durability or stickiness of an online identity is a necessary condition for building a local reputation, but it need not be connected to the wider reputation, a cross-referenced, cross-platform (including real life) reputation, of the sort you would want if you were renting out your apartment to someone you didn’t know (as in Airbnb).
            </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>The Experiment</head>
            <p>The two changes introduced by HuffPo provided us with a natural experiment. We collected more than 50 million comments on more than 50,000 articles featured on the HuffPo front page in the period January 2013 - March 2015. </p>
            <p>The first of these phases allowed anonymous commenting. At this time, the platform experienced aggressive ‘trolling’ and the use of multiple accounts. In December 2013 HuffPo moved to regulate its forum by requiring users to authenticate their accounts through Facebook. On the face of it, little changed in this pseudonymous environment: user names and avatars remained, but behind the scenes Facebook’s database helped weed out fake accounts. Users did not have to create a new online identity, give up their old pseudonyms, or change the appearance of their HuffPo commenter profile. We read this first change as primarily about durability of identity. </p>
            <p>In June 2014 HuffPo changed to commenting through Facebook, meaning that HuffPo user profiles were 
                <hi rend=""italic"">replaced</hi> by Facebook profiles in a ‘real name’ environment. In this phase, comments appear below the line of the news article under the user’s real name, as well as - depending on a user’s privacy settings - appearing simultaneously on their Facebook page. This may have the effect that users comment on the HuffPo but speak to an audience located on Facebook. We read interpret this change as a move to more integrated and connected online identities. 
            </p>
            <p> While we found more durable online identities were associated with greater civility but less participation in online commenting, we also observed a shift in the sorts of issues on which users most frequently comment. This might be normatively encouraging: the relative rise in articles tagged Gay Voices, we speculate, may be a result of the inhibition of hostile and offensive commenters. Here greater civility seems to promote more participation and inclusive discussion. However, we also note a more general shift away from conflictual and politicized topics and towards ‘safer’ topics of celebrity, lifestyle and consumer issues. Turning to the second commenting change, we found that the Facebook phase exhibited markedly less argumentative engagement relative to the 'pseudonymous’ phase, as evidenced both by an overall reduction in the proportion of replies, and by measures of deliberative quality (Fredheim et al., 2015a, 2015b). This finding points in the same direction as a recent Pew survey that found people were less likely to discuss a controversial issue on social media than in face to face conversation (Hampton et al., 2014). </p>
            <p>With these findings in mind, we argue that the pseudonymous phase harnessed the beneficial effects of increased durability, without introducing the costs of connectedness. More broadly, we can link these dimensions of identification to particular democratic goods. The dimension of traceability seems to be associated with inclusion and exclusion, as users make a binary choice to stay on the platform. The dimension of durability or continuity of identity is associated with deliberative quality in so far as (theoretically) it exposes users to communicative accountability and (empirically) is associated with a higher density of reason-giving in commenting. The dimension of connectedness ties users to real-world relations. This favours civility, but it also promotes what Schudson calls ‘sociable’ conversation rather than more adversarial ‘democratic’ conversation (Schudson, 1997). We argue that durable and disconnected identities are more conducive to productive, issue-based debate between heterogeneous users. This bears on discussions of polarization. It also bears on the drive towards integration of social media and news discussion. </p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fredheim, R., Moore, A. and Naughton, J.</hi> (2015a). Anonymity and Online Commenting: An Empirical Study. http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2591299 (accessed 27 November 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fredheim, R., Moore, A. and Naughton, J.</hi> (2015b). Anonymity and Online Commenting: The Broken Windows Effect and the End of Drive-by Commenting. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ACM Web Science 2015</hi>. University of Oxford (accessed 27 November 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hampton, K., et al.</hi> (2014). Social Media and the ‘Spiral of Silence’ 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pew Research Center: Internet, Science and Tech</hi> http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/08/26/social-media-and-the-spiral-of-silence/ (accessed 2 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Marx, G. T.</hi> (1999). What’s in a Name? Some Reflections on the Sociology of Anonymity. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Information Society</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">15</hi>(2): 99–112.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nissenbaum, H.</hi> (1999). The meaning of anonymity in an information age. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Information Society</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">15</hi>(2): 141–44.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Resnick, P. and Friedman, E. J.</hi> (2001). The social cost of cheap pseudonyms. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Economics and Management Strategy</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(2): 173–99.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ruesch, M. A. and Märker, O.</hi> (2012). Real Name Policy in E-Participation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CeDEM 12 Conference for E-Democracy and Open Government 3-4 May 2012 Danube-University Krems, Austria</hi>. Edition-Donau-Univ. Krems, pp. 109 (accessed 23 March 2015).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2684","17","APIs in Digital Humanities: The Infrastructural Turn","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>As a community of practice, digital humanists deal with data and metadata not as static artifacts, but rather as complex, multi-dimensional and multi-layered datasets that can be analyzed, annotated and manipulated in order to produce new knowledge. One of the most important challenges facing DH today is how to consolidate and repurpose available tools; how to create reusable but flexible workflows; and, ultimately, how to integrate and disseminate knowledge, instead of merely capturing it and encapsulating it. This technical and intellectual shift can be seen as the “infrastructural turn” in digital humanities (Tasovac et al. 2015).  </p>
            <p>Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) have the potential to be powerful, practical building blocks of digital humanities infrastructures.
                <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                    <note place=""end"">
                        <p rend=""No Spacing"">Infrastructures are installations and services that function as “mediating interfaces” or “structures ‘in between’ that allow things, people and signs to travel across space by means of more or less standardized paths and protocols for conversion or translation” (Badenoch and Fickers 2010, 11). Digital research infrastructures are no different: they are a mediating set of technologies for research and resource discovery, collaboration, sharing and dissemination of scholarly output. </p>
                    </note>
                </hi> On the technical level, they let heterogeneous agents dynamically access and reuse the same sets of data and standardized workflows. On the social level, they help overcome the problem of “shy data”, i.e. data you can “meet in public places but you can’t take home with you”  (Cooper 2010). Some 10 years ago, Dan Cohen started the conversation about APIs in DH by pointing out that, despite their potential, Andreas few humanities projects — in contrast to those in the sciences and commercial realms — were developing APIs for their resources and tools (Cohen 2005). In the decade since, API development in the digital humanities has certainly increased: today, both large-scale, national and international initiatives, such as HathiTrust, DPLA or Europeana, as well as individual projects, such as Canonical Text Services (CTS), Open Siddur, Folger Digital Texts, correspSearch etc., are focusing their attention and resources on developing APIs. It is now time to reflect on this development: have standards or best-practices evolved?  What workflows are most effective and efficient for creating APIs? What are the challenges or stumbling blocks for creating or using APIs? Are APIs being used by DH researchers? What is the future of API development and use in the humanities community? 
            </p>
            <p>This panel will cover both the theory and practice of APIs in the digital humanities today. It will bring together researchers working on major European and North American projects, who will discuss APIs from the perspectives of design, implementation, and use, as well as technical and social challenges. Each group will have 10 minutes for their statement, and 40 minutes will remain for group discussion and questions from the audience. One of the panel members will serve as the moderator. All speakers have confirmed their intention to participate in the panel. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Toma Tasovac</hi> (Belgrade Centre for Digital Humanities) will discuss an API-centric approach to designing and implementing digital editions. Starting with the notion of text-as-service and textual resources as dynamic components in a virtual knowledge space, Tasovac will show how two recent projects — 
                <hi rend=""italic""> Raskovnik: A Serbian Dictionary Platform</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Izdanak: A Platform for Digital Editions of Serbian Texts</hi> — were implemented using API-focused data modeling at the core of the project design process. The API-first approach to creating TEI-encoded digital editions оffers tangible interfaces to textual data that can be used in tailor-made workflows by humanities researchers and other users, well-suited to distant reading techniques, statistical analysis and computer-assisted semantic annotation. The “infrastructural turn” in Digital Humanities does not only have practical implications for the way we build tools and create resources, but also has theoretical ramifications for the way we distinguish highly from loosely structured data: if text is not an object, but a service; and not a static entity, but an interactive method with clearly and uniquely addressable components, a formal distinction between a dictionary and, say, a novel or a poem, is more difficult to maintain. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Clifford Wulfman</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Natalia Ermolaev </hi>(Center for Digital Humanities, Princeton) will discuss the design and implementation of Blue Mountain Springs, the API for the Blue Mountain Project’s collection of historic avant-garde periodicals.
                <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                    <note place=""end"">
                        <p rend=""endnote text""> http://bluemountain.princeton.edu</p>
                    </note>
                </hi>  By modeling magazine data using the FRBRoo ontology and its periodical-oriented extension PRESSoo (PRESSoo, 2014), this RESTful API exposes the Blue Mountain resource in a variety of data formats (structured metadata, full-text, image, linked data). The authors will provide several examples of how Blue Mountain Springs has been used by researchers, drawing especially from the results of the hackathon they will host at Princeton in February 2016, which will bring together approximately twenty periodical studies scholars, technologists, and librarians to work with the API. Creating APIs is part of a trend in DH to move into a post-digital-library phase, when the traditional library functions of discovery and access are no longer sufficient to support research in the humanities. This trend also suggests that DH researchers must reconceptualize their own engagement with material, to think less in terms of monographs and more in terms of resources, and consequently to promulgate their work not as web sites but as web services. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Thibault Clérice </hi>(University of Leipzig) will discuss the design of the Canonical Text Services (CTS) and its URN scheme, which make the traditional citation system used by classicists machine-actionable (Blackwell and Smith 2014)
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> Traditional scholars have been citing texts the same way for centuries : for example, “Hom. Il. 1.1”, which corresponds to Homer’s Iliad, Book 1 Line 1. However, although the passage identifier does not change from one scholar to another in most cases, the abbreviation used for the author and the work title will diverge among authors, countries, and publications. </p>
                </note>. The Homer Multitext (HMT) implementation of CTS requires textual data to be extracted out of its original digital representation into RDF triples in order to be served. The Perseus Digital Library (PDL) implementation, on the other hand, uses extended transformations to slice XML files into multiple records, each representing a passage at a certain level. While relational and RDF database approaches have had some success in scalability and speed (Tiepmar 2015), they also have to deal with maintenance and evolution capacity. There is a real need for this type of DH projects to scale not only in terms of data retrieval speeds, but also in terms of allowing  researchers to correct and enhance their data. In addition, projects need to be able to propose other narratives: sliced data doesn’t easily provide access to the full data model. Clérice will discuss why and how, using both a native XML-based system such as eXist and a Python-based implementation, one can achieve scalability while guaranteeing maintenance and evolution.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Adrien Barbaresi</hi> from the Austrian Academy of Sciences (ICLTT) will discuss the use of APIs in building resources for linguistic studies. The first case deals with lesser-known social networks (Barbaresi 2013) while the second tackles the role of the Twitter API in building the ICLTT’s ""tweets made in Austria"" corpus
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.oeaw.ac.at/icltt/node/193</p>
                </note>. For computational linguists, short messages published on social networks constitute a ""frontier"" area due to their dissimilarity with existing corpora (Lui & Baldwin 2014), most notably with reference corpora of written language. Since data are mainly accessed and collected through APIs and not in the form of web pages, Barbaresi argues that social networks are a frontier area for (web) corpus construction. He will point out the challenges of using Twitter’s API, for example how to reveal the implicit decisions and methodology used by API designers, as well as concrete implementation issues, such as the assessment and optimization of data returned by the API. Free APIs may come at no cost, but they also offer no guarantee, so that the use of commercial APIs for research purposes has to be seen with a critical eye in order to turn a data collection process into a proper corpus.
            </p>
            <p>Finally, 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Jennifer Edmond</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Vicky Garnett</hi> (Trinity College Dublin), will provide reflections on the place of APIs within European research infrastructures for the humanities. Their contribution to the panel builds on their recent study on the Europeana Cloud project, which found that while access to data is a real and growing area of interest, very few humanities researchers seem to actively and directly use APIs.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> This is a result of the confluence of several factors: that the research data most humanists want to access is seldom available via an API; that many sources that do offer relevant data lack the structure or metadata to make the API useful; and that humanistic researcher generally lack the skill set to experiment directly with APIs.  At the same time, however, one of the key desires expressed by researchers in the current landscape is the federation of high-quality data (Edmond and Garnett 2015). </p>
                </note> They will describe two initiatives, one technical, one social, aiming to better harness the potential of the API to meet researcher’s implicit needs. The first is the Collaborative European Digital Archival Research Infrastructure (CENDARI) project, whose platform is structured around an internal API that will allow multiple data sources (local repository, triple store, metasearch engine) to be aligned, enhanced and then served out to a number of environments and tools, including the project’s native note-taking environment. The second example is the genesis and development of the concept of the ‘inside-out’ archive. This framework, which has arisen out of a collaborative venture between several European humanities research infrastructure projects, seeks to encourage collection holding institutions to look beyond their own digitization programs and platforms and recognize the rising importance of machines-as-users (requiring specific access points and formats) rather than the somewhat outdated model of individual institutional web presence serving individual human resource seekers.
            </p>
            <p>The five speakers on this panel will address some of the most pressing issues related to the ongoing development and future of APIs on the DH research infrastructure landscape. The discussion will cover both micro- and macro levels, ranging from methodological implications and technical scalability to the ways in which API-based data access to collections challenges traditional norms of institutional identity and independence. As such, the panel will offer a timely platform for a multifaceted debate on the potentials and pitfalls of building and using APIs in the digital humanities. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Badenoch, A. and Fickers A.</hi> (2010). Europe Materializing? Toward a Transnational History of European Infrastructures. In Badenoch, A. and Fickers A. (eds.), Materializing Europe: Transnational Infrastructures and the Project of Europe, 1-26. Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Barbaresi, A.</hi> (2013). Crawling microblogging services to gather language-classified URLs. Workflow and case study. In Proceedings of the 51th Annual Meeting of the ACL, Student Research Workshop, pages 9-15.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blackwell, C. and Smith N.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Canonical Text Services Protocol Specification</hi>. http://folio.furman.edu/projects/citedocs/cts/. Accessed October 23, 2015.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cohen, D.</hi> Do APIs Have a Place in the Digital Humanities. http://www.dancohen.org/blog/posts/do_apis_have_a_place_in_the_digital_humanities. Accessed October 24, 2015.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cohen, D.</hi> (2006). “From Babel to Knowledge: Data Mining Large Digital Collections.” 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">D-Lib Magazine</hi> 12, no. 3.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cooper, D.</hi> (2010). When Nice People Won’t Share: Shy Data, Web APIs, and Beyond, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Second International Conference on Global Interoperability for Language Resources (ICGL 2010)</hi>, n. pag.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Edmond, J, Bulatovic N. and O’Connor, A.</hi> “The Taste of ‘Data Soup’ and the Creation of a Pipeline for Transnational Historical Research.” Journal of the Japanese Association for Digital Humanities 1, no. 1 (2015): 107–22.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Edmond, J. and Garnett V.</hi> (2015). APIs and Researchers: The Emperor’s New Clothes, International Journal of Digital Curation, 10(1): 287-97.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">LeBeuf, Patrick (ed.).</hi> PRESSoo. Extension of CIDOC CRM and FRBROO for the modelling of bibliographic information pertaining to continuing resources. Version 0.5, 
                        <ref target=""http://www.ifla.org/files/assets/cataloguing/frbr/pressoo_v0.5.pdf"">http://www.ifla.org/files/assets/cataloguing/frbr/pressoo_v0.5.pdf</ref>. Accessed, November 1, 2015. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Murdock, J. and Allen C.</hi> (2011). InPhO for All: Why APIs Matter, Journal of the Chicago Colloquium on Digital Humanities and Computer Science 1(3): 
                        <ref target=""http://www.jamram.net/docs/jdhcs11-paper.pdf"">http://www.jamram.net/docs/jdhcs11-paper.pdf</ref>. Accessed, October 23, 2015. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tasovac, T. Rudan S. and Rudan S.</hi> (2015). Developing Morpho-SLaWS: An API for the Morphosyntactic Annotation of the Serbian Language. Systems and Frameworks for Computational Morphology, 137-47. Heidelberg: Springer.
                        <lb/>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tiepmar, J.</hi> (2015). Release of the MySQL based implementation of the CTS protocol. In Bański, P., Biber H., Breiteneder E., Kupietz M., Lüngen H. and Witt A. (eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Challenges in the Management of Large Corpora (CMLC-3), 35-43. Mannheim: Institut für Deutsche Sprache.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2685","17","Arduino Circuits and Javanese Puppets: 'Re-materializing' Digital Archives through Tangible Interfaces","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The creation and analysis of digital collections is a key aspect of the digital humanities. Deciding what to archive, how to organize the documents, and how to present them to the public are never easy questions. But in the case of theatre and performance archives, these questions are especially complex since theatre performances are necessarily transient and they depend on the embodied co-presence of actors and spectators. In order to document the embodied and ephemeral nature of theatre performances, digital archives often try to include a wide array of documents (video recordings, photographs, motion capture data, 3d models of theatrical spaces and technical scripts). The makers of digital theatre archives are at pains to contextualize their materials and account for aspects that cannot be easily documented and transmitted. Can interaction design help communicate these aspects? Is it possible to imagine and construct interfaces that can communicate cultural context, transcending the limitations of a computer screen, mouse and keyboard?</p>
            <p>To investigate these questions within the context of an Indonesian performance archive, I developed a Tangible User Interface (TUI) using open source hardware (Arduino microcontrollers and an array of sensors) and culturally-coded objects that are important for the performances in the archive. This interface was developed as an interactive artwork for educational museums and as a thought experiment on how tangible, culturally-specific interfaces can constitute instances of academic research outputs in the digital humanities.</p>
            <p>The archive in question is the Contemporary Wayang Archive (CWA, 
                <ref target=""http://cwa-web.org"">http://cwa-web.org</ref>), a collection of digital recordings and metadata pertaining to Javanese wayang kulit (shadow puppetry), which I have been developing with my collaborators at the National University of Singapore since 2012. Wayang kulit is the oldest theatre form of Indonesia and one of the most important theatre traditions of Southeast Asia. It consists of a form of puppetry where a dalang (narrator-puppeteer) singlehandedly moves all the puppets, speaks all the character parts, jokes with the audience and directs the musicians. He is at the same time a puppeteer, a storyteller, an orchestra conductor and a stand-up comedian. In order to communicate with the audience and the orchestra, he uses different objects in order to control the progression of the story. For this project, I wired different sensors into these objects in order to develop a TUI that recreates the spatial setup of a conventional wayang performance and three key material components of this setup:
            </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>A kerlir or screen where videos from the CWA are projected. </item>
                <item>The kayon. This puppet is shaped like a leaf and it has different narrative functions. In between scenes, the dalang rotates it around its axis and places it on a banana log at a specific angle (either 45⁰, 90⁰ or 135⁰) to indicate the progression of the story. This visual cue is important for audience members that don’t watch the entire show. A conventional performance lasts eight hours and the audience members often come and go, drifting in and out of attention. Depending on the specific angle of the kayon, knowing audience members can estimate the specific moment in the development of the performance (which is divided into three main acts). For my interface, I used an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) and a wireless sensor in order to detect rotation (angular velocity) in the puppet. By rotating an actual puppet, users of this interactive artwork can navigate to a different digital video in the collection.</item>
                <item>The cempala. By hitting this wooden mallet against the puppet chest, the dalang cues the musicians to start and stop the musical accompaniment. For the interactive artwork, I wired the cempala to a Piezoelectric sensor to measure vibration. When the users of the artwork knock the cempala against a box that mimics the puppet chest, they can start and stop the videos and additional contextual information appears on the projection screen.</item>
                <item>The usage of these objects is not exactly the same in this interactive artwork display as it is in an actual wayang performance. But it can invite users to think about the importance of materiality and embodiment for this particular theatre tradition. In such a way, this interactive artwork can be considered a piece of digital scholarship, a research output of the DH research into wayang kulit that complements the forthcoming online version of the archive and other publications that might arise from this research project (see, for example <ref target=""www.wayangkontemporer.com"">www.wayangkontemporer.com</ref>).</item>
                <item>Although this artwork has a very specific origin and function, I hope it will resonate with scholars working in other areas of the digital humanities who are engaged in building and theorizing new artefacts for the communication of academic research. The objective of this short paper is to frame the creation of this artwork within the larger context of the digital humanities, exemplifying modes of scholarship that can emerge at the intersection of cultural knowledge, open hardware and digital technologies. </item>
            </list>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""153/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1. Conventional wayang kulit setup</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""153/image2.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2. IMU sensor attached to the kayon (left) and piezoelectric sensor attached to the cempala (right)</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""153/image3.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3. A user interacting with the TUI</head>
            </figure>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fishkin, K. P.</hi> (2004). A taxonomy for and analysis of tangible interfaces. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Personal Ubiquitous Computing</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(5): 347–58.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bonanni, L. et al.</hi> (2010). Tangible interfaces for art restoration. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Creative Interfaces and Computer Graphics</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(1): 54-66.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jones, S. et al.</hi> (2009). Redefining the Performing Arts Archive. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Archival Science</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(3): 165-71.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2686","17","Are the Digital Humanists Prepared for Open Access to Research Data ?","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This panel aims to stimulate a debate among the panelists and the audience about the challenges that the new requirements for the dissemination of research results and research data (often referred to as Science 2.0) is posing to researchers, information professionals and their institutions. </p>
            <p>Digital technologies continue to reshape the way researchers do research. They are changing not only the way research is conducted, but also the way in which research results are published and disseminated. More and more legislators, funders, publishers, and scholarly research communities require that “research results” include curated and/or raw research data, methods and processes, tools and software, blogs and wikis, in addition to the “traditional” published material such as articles, monographs, conference proceedings, thesis, grey literature, etc.. </p>
            <p>In addition to that, we have seen in recent years the push (especially from the European Commission) towards the so called “Open Science”, where all published material should be Open Access, i.e. freely accessible by anyone interested. The main argument in favor of Open Access is that most of research is being done with public funds, with research results and research data being produced in the public interest, and therefore they should remain publicly available. Of course, Open Access does not prevent commercial exploitation and protection of the research results and the research data, with patents and copyrights. </p>
            <p>While there is a general agreement that Open Access is desirable and ultimately should be the main mode of publication, nevertheless its implementation still presents today a number of issues, made even more apparent by the additional requirement of publishing as Open Access also the raw material underlying the research process, generically indicated as “research data”. The variety and quantity of (digital) information that needs to be processed, curated, stored, preserved, and made available in Open Access is posing new kinds of challenges to the researchers themselves (the data producers), to the information professionals dealing with that data (the data curators), and to the institutions responsible for the research activities and the data management (such as institutional repositories and libraries). </p>
            <p>The issues range from technological issues (access to and interoperability of research data) to institutional and managerial issues (variety of institutional models and data management approaches), from financial issues (setup and maintenance of data infrastructures) to cultural and behavioral issues (reward structures as a necessary component for promoting data access and sharing practices)</p>
            <p>Very often research in the Humanities has been done “in isolation”, i.e. by a single researcher who gathers “raw data” (sometimes over many years) and based on them produces research results. More recently we often see that Digital Humanists are working in collaborative interdisciplinary team and could be willing to share the raw data, which are the basis for the research results. However, traditional evaluation criteria are an obstacle to this new behavior, as very often only traditional publication are recognized as such. In this context it is understandable the reluctance to publish also the raw data, as they could be the basis for further traditional publications, needed to get the desired recognition.</p>
            <p>The panel will try to discuss some of the main issues related to Open Access to research data: </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Scholarly dissemination in the Humanities and in the Sciences</item>
                <item>The economic challenges of Open Access (Gold OA, Green OA)</item>
                <item>Interdisciplinary research and Open Access</item>
                <item>What are “research data” in the Humanities?</item>
                <item>Curation of research data (quality, accessibility, preservation)</item>
                <item>The role of university presses and academic/research libraries</item>
                <item>Publishing monographs or publishing in journals?</item>
                <item>Career issues and academic “reward system”</item>
            </list>
            <p>Each panelists will have about five minutes to present his/her views on some of the issues mentioned above, in order to stimulate a discussion among the panelists, which (hopefully) will trigger also a debate with the audience. </p>
            <p>Panel moderator</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Vittore Casarosa (ISTI-CNR, Pisa, Italy)</item>
            </list>
            <p>Panel participants</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Marin Dacos (Centre pour l’édition électronique ouverte – Cléo, France)</item>
                <item>Lorna Hughes (University of Glasgow, U
                    <hi rend=""smallcaps"">K)</hi>
                </item>
                <item>Maurizio Lana (Università degli Studi del Piemonte Orientale, Vercelli, Italy)</item>
                <item>Claudine Moulin (University of Trier, Germany)</item>
                <item>Seamus Ross (University of Toronto, Canada)</item>
                <item>Anna Maria Tammaro (University of Parma, Italy)</item>
            </list>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2687","17","Assessing a Shape Descriptor for Analysis of Mesoamerican Hieroglyphics: A View Towards Practice in Digital Humanities","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Technological advances in digitization, automatic image analysis and information management are enabling the possibility to analyze, organize and visualize large cultural datasets. As one of the key visual cues, shape feature has been used in various image analysis tasks such as handwritten character recognition (Fischer, 2012; Franken, 2013), sketch analysis (Eitz, 2012), etc. We assess a shape descriptor, within the application domain of Maya hieroglyphic analysis. Our aim is to introduce this descriptor to the wider Digital Humanities (DH) community, as a shape analysis tool for DH-related applications.</p>
                <p>The Maya civilization is one of the major cultural developments in ancient Mesoamerica. The ancient Maya language infused art with uniquely pictorial forms of hieroglyphic writing, which represents an exceptionally rich legacy (Stone, 2011). Most Maya texts were written during the Classic period (AD 250-900) of the Maya civilization on various media types, including stone monuments. A special class of Maya texts was written on bark cloths as folding books from the Post-Classic period (AD 1000-1519). Only three such books (namely the Dresden, Madrid and Paris codices) are known to have survived the Spanish Conquest. A typical Maya codex page contains icons, main sign glyph blocks, captions, calendric signs, etc. Fig. 1 illustrates an example page segmented into main elements (Gatica-Perez, 2014). In this paper, we are interested in the main signs.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""416/100000000000089800000647989F2083.jpg""/>
                        <head>Figure 1. Page 6b of the Dresden Codex, showing individual constituting elements framed by blue rectangles (Hu, 2015), Green arrows indicate reading order of the main sign blocks, generated by Carlos Pallan based on SLUB (
                            <ptr target=""http://digital.slub-dresden.de/werkansicht/dlf/2967/1/""/> ) online open source image.
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Maya hieroglyphic analysis requires epigraphers to spend a significant amount of time browsing existing catalogs to identify individual glyphs. Automatic Maya glyph analysis has been addressed as a shape matching problem, and a robust shape descriptor called Histogram of Orientation Shape Context (HOOSC) was developed in (Roman-Rangel, 2011). Since then, HOOSC has been successfully applied for automatic analysis of other cultural heritage data, such as Oracle-Bones Inscriptions of ancient Chinese characters (Roman-Rangel, 2012), and ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs (Franken, 2013). It has also been applied for generic sketch and shape image retrieval (Roman-Rangel, 2012). Our recent work extracted statistic Maya language model and incorporated it for glyph retrieval (Hu, 2015).</p>
                <p>The goal of this paper is two-fold:</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Introduce the HOOSC descriptor to be used in DH-related shape analysis tasks (code available at: 
                        <ptr target=""http://www.idiap.ch/paper/maaya/hoosc/""/>);
                    </item>
                    <item>Discuss key issues for practitioners, namely the effect that certain parameters have on the performance of the descriptor. We describe the impact of such choices on different data types, specially for 'noisy' data as it is often the case with DH image sources.</item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Automatic Maya Hieroglyph Recognition</head>
                <p>We conduct glyph recognition with a retrieval system proposed in (Hu, 2015). Unknown glyphs are considered as queries to match with a database of known glyphs (retrieval database). Shape and context information are considered. Fig.2 illustrates a schema of our approach. We study the effect of different HOOSC parameter choices on the retrieval results.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""416/100002010000032300000180AC2EF00A.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 2. Retrieval system pipeline.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Datasets</head>
                    <p>We use three datasets, namely the 'Codex', 'Monument' and 'Thompson'. The first two are used as queries to search within the retrieval database ('Thompson').</p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""416/10000000000005F1000003A997F1124F.jpg""/>
                            <head>Figure 3. Digitization quality: (left) raw glyph blocks cropped from Dresden codex; (middle) clean raster images produced by removing the background noise; (right) reconstructed high-quality vectorial images.</head>
                        </figure>
                        </p>
                    <p>The 'Codex' dataset contains glyph blocks from the three surviving Maya codices. See Fig.3 for examples. Glyph blocks are typically composed of combinations of individual signs. Fig.4 shows individual glyphs segmented from blocks in Fig.3. Note the different degradation levels across samples. We use two sub-datasets: 'codex-small', composed of 156 glyphs segmented from 66 blocks, for which we have both clean raster and high-quality reconstructed vectorial representations (see Fig.4) to study the impact of the different data qualities on the descriptor; and a 'codex-large' dataset, which is more extensive, comprising only the raster representation of 600 glyphs from 229 blocks.
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""416/100000000000057A000002D254172A9F.jpg""/>
                            <head>Figure 4. Example glyph strings generated from blocks shown in Figure 3.</head>
                        </figure>
                        </p>
                    <p>The 'Monument' dataset is an adapted version of the Syllabic Maya dataset used in (Roman-Rangel, 2011), which contains 127 glyphs of 40 blocks extracted from stone monuments. It is a quite different data source to the codex data, in terms of historical period, media type, and data generation process. Samples are shown in Fig.5.
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""416/10000000000007670000025128EFE4C1.jpg""/>
                            <head>Figure 5. Example blocks and segmented glyph strings form the 'Monument' dataset.</head>
                        </figure>
                        </p>
                    <p>To form the retrieval database ('Thompson'), we scanned and segmented all the glyphs from the Thompson catalog (Thompson, 1962). The database contains 1487 glyph examples of 892 different sign categories. Each category is usually represented by a single example image. Sometimes multiple examples are included; each illustrates a different visual instance or a rotation variant. Fig.6 shows glyph examples.
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""416/100000000000074C0000016D4A6642BE.jpg""/>
                            <head>Figure 6. Thompson numbers, visual examples, and the syllabic values of glyph pairs. Each pair contains two different signs with similar visual features (Hu, 2015). All examples are taken from (Thompson, 1962).</head>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Shape-based retrieval</head>
                    <p>Feature extraction and similarity matching are the two main steps for our shape-based glyph retrieval framework. </p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""416/1000000000000881000004C3545452A8.jpg""/>
                            <head>Figure 7. Extracting HOOSC descriptor: (a) input clean raster image; (b) binary image; (c) thinned edge of (b); (d) reconstructed vector representation of (a); (e) thinned edge of (d); (f) corresponding groundtruth image in the catalog; (g)-(k) spatial partition of a same pivot point with five different ring sizes (1, ½, ¼, 1/8, 1/16, all defined as a proportion to the mean of the pairwise distance between pivot points) on the local orientation field of the thinned edge image (c). Note that we zoomed in to show the spatial context of 1/16 in (k).</head>
                        </figure>
                        </p>
                    <p>Glyphs are first pre-processed into thin lines. To do so, an input glyph (Fig.7(a)) is first converted into a binary shape (Fig.7 (b)). Thin lines (Fig.7(c)) are then extracted through mathematical morphology operations. Fig.7(c)-(d) show the high-quality reconstructed binary image, and the extracted thin lines.
                    </p>
                    <p>HOOSC descriptors are then computed at a subset of uniformly sampled pivot points along the thin lines. HOOSC combines the strength of Histogram of Orientation Gradient (Dalal, 2005) with circular split binning from the shape context descriptor (Belongie, 2002). Given a pivot point, the HOOSC is computed on a local circular space centred at the pivot's location, partitioned into rings and evenly distributed angles. Fig.7 (g)-(k) show different sizes of the circular space (referred to as spatial context) partitioned into 2 rings and 8 orientations. A Histogram-of-orientation-gradient is calculated within each region. The HOOSC descriptor for a given pivot is the concatenation of histograms of all partitioned regions.</p>
                    <p>We then follow the Bag-of-Words (BoW) approach, where descriptors are quantized as visual words based on the vocabulary obtained through K-means clustering on the set of descriptors extracted from the retrieval database. A histogram representing the count of each visual word is then computed as a global descriptor for each glyph. In all experiments, we use vocabulary size k=5000.</p>
                    <p>Each query is matched with glyphs in the retrieval database, by computing shape feature similarity using the L1 norm distance.</p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""416/100000000000074D0000020A8E000B05.png""/>
                            <head>Figure 8. Six pairs of glyph signs (Hu, 2015). Each pair contains a query glyph from the 'Codex' dataset (right), and their corresponding groundtruth in the catalog (left).</head>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Incorporating context information</head>
                    <p>Shape alone is often ambiguous to represent and distinguish between images. In the case of our data, different signs often share similar visual features (see Fig.6); glyphs of the same sign category vary with time, location, and the different artists who produced them (see Fig.8); additionally, surviving historical scripts often lose visual quality over time. Context information can be used to complement the visual features.</p>
                    <p>Glyph co-occurrence within single blocks encodes valuable context information. To utilize this information, we arrange glyphs within a single block into a linear string according to the reading order (see Fig.4 and Fig.5), and consider the co-occurrence of neighbouring glyphs using an analogy to a statistical language model. For each unknown glyph in the string, we compute its probability to be labelled as a given category by considering not only the shape similarity, but also the compatibility to the rest of the string.</p>
                    <p>We apply the two language models extracted in (Hu, 2015), namely the ones derived from the Maya Codices Database (Vail, 2013) and the Thompson catalog (Thompson, 1962), which we refer to as the 'Vail' and the 'Thompson' models. We use Vail model with smoothing factor α=0 for the 'Codex' data, and the Thompson model with α=0.2 for the 'Monument' data.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Experiments and Results</head>
                <p>Our aim is to demonstrate the effect of various HOOSC parameters on retrieval results.</p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Experimental setting</head>
                    <p>We illustrate the effect of 3 key parameters:</p>
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>Size of the spatial context region within which HOOSC is computed</item>
                    </list>
                    <p>A larger region encodes more context information and therefore captures more global structure of the shape. However, in the case of image degradation, a larger region could contain more noise. We evaluate five different spatial contexts as shown in Fig.7(g)-(k). The circular space is distributed over 8 angular intervals. </p>
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>Number of rings to partition the local circular region</item>
                    </list>
                    <p>This parameter represents different partition details. We evaluate either 1 or 2 rings, the inner ring covers half the distance to the outer ring. Each region is further characterized by a 8-bin histogram of the local orientations.</p>
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>Position information</item>
                    </list>
                    <p>Relative position (i, j) of a pivot in the 2-D image plane can be concatenated to the corresponding HOOSC feature.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Results and discussion</head>
                    <p>Fig.9 shows the average groundtruth ranking in the retrieval results with different parameter settings, on three query sets, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">e.g.</hi> 'Codex-large', 'Codex-small' and 'Monument'. Each query image usually has only one correct match (groundtruth) in the retrieval database. The smaller the average ranking value, the better the result. From Fig.9 we can see the following:
                    </p>
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>In most cases, the best results are achieved by using the largest spatial context, with finer partitioning details (2 rings in our case);</item>
                        <item>When the location information is not considered, results show a general trend of improving with increasing ring sizes. However, the results are more stable when the position information is encoded, 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">e.g.</hi> a smaller ring size can also achieve promising results when the location information is incorporated. This is particularly useful when dealing with noisy data, where a smaller ring size is preferred to avoid extra noise been introduced by a larger spatial context;
                        </item>
                        <item>The results do not benefit from a finer partition, when a small spatial context is considered. However, results improve with finer partitions, when the spatial context becomes larger. </item>
                        <item>Position information is more helpful when a small spatial context is considered.</item>
                    </list>
                    <p>Fig.10 shows example query glyphs and their top returned results.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>We have introduced the HOOSC descriptor to be used in DH-related shape analysis tasks. We discuss the effect of parameters on the performance of the descriptor. Experimental results on ancient Maya hieroglyph data from two different sources (codex and monument) suggest that a larger spatial context with finer partitioning detail usually leads to better results, while a smaller spatial context with location information is a good choice for noisy/damaged data. The code for HOOSC is available so DH researchers can test the descriptor for their own tasks.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Acknowledgement</head>
                <p>We thank Edgar Roman-Rangel for co-inventing the HOOSC algorithm and providing the original code. We also thank Carlos Pallán Gayol, Guido Krempel, and Jakub Spotak for producing the data used in this paper. Finally, we thank the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) and the German Research Foundation (DFG) for their support, through the MAAYA project.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""416/10000000000007EA0000093853776226.jpg""/>
                        <head>Figure 9. Retrieval results on each dataset, with various feature representation choices. (left) shape-base results; (right) incorporating glyph co-occurrence information.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""416/1000000000000790000009C9BCD3C226.jpg""/>
                    </figure>Figure 10. Example queries (first column) and their top returned retrieval results, ranked from left to right in each row. Groundtruth images are highlighted in green bounding boxes.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Belongie, S., Malik, J., and Puzicha, J.</hi> (2002). Shape Matching and Object Recognition using Shape Contexts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PAMI.</hi> pp. 509-22.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dalal, N., and Triggs, B.</hi> (2005). Histogram of Oriented Gradients for Human Detection.
                        <hi rend=""italic""> In CVPR</hi>. pp. 886-93.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eitz, M., et al.</hi> (2012). Sketch-based shape retrieval. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ACM Transactions on Graphics</hi>. <hi rend=""bold""> 31</hi>: 1-10.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fischer, A., et al.</hi> (2012). The HisDoc Project. Automatic Analysis, Recognition, and Retrieval of Handwritten Historical Documents for Digital Libraries. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">InterNational and InterDisciplinary Aspects of Scholarly Editing.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Franken, M., and Gemert, J. C.</hi> (2013). Automatic Egyptian Hieroglyph Recognition by Retrieving Images as Texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ACM MM</hi>, pp. 765-68. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gatica-Perez, D., et al.</hi> (2014). The MAAYA Project: Multimedia Analysis and Access for Documentation and Decipherment of Maya Epigraphy. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Conference.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hu, R., et al.</hi> (2015). Multimedia Analysis and Access of Ancient Maya Epigraphy: Tools to support scholars on Maya hieroglyphics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Signal Processing Magazine</hi>, pp. 75-84.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Roman-Rangel, E.</hi> (2012). <hi rend=""italic"">Statistical Shape Descriptors for Ancient Maya Hieroglyphs Analysis.</hi>
                        PhD thesis, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Roman-Rangel, E., et al.</hi> (2011). Analyzing Ancient Maya Glyph Collections with Contextual Shape Descriptors. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IJCV</hi>, pp. 101-17.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stone, A.J. and Zender, M.</hi> (2011). <hi rend=""italic"">Reading Maya Art: A Hieroglyphic Guide to Ancient Maya Painting and Sculpture</hi>. 
                        Thames and Hudson Limited Publisher.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thompson, J. E. S.</hi> (1962). <hi rend=""italic"">A Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs</hi>. 
                        University of Oklahoma Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vail, G., and Hernández, C.</hi> (2013). <hi rend=""italic"">The Maya Codices Database</hi>, Version 4.1. A website and database available at 
                        http://www.mayacodices.org/.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2688","17","Authorial {X}: A Research and Teaching Platform for Literary Geography","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The Authorial {X} project introduces novel means for compiling and mapping references to place within literary works, then exploring and analyzing them from literary, geographical, and biographical perspectives. Its first exemplar locale is London, significantly extending a 2011 project directed by Professor Martin Evans (2011), which mapped the residences of 47 London authors living between the 14
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> and 20
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century. The revamped 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Authorial London</hi> project (https://authoriallondon.stanford.edu) delves deeply into hundreds of written works by those same authors, with interactive features permitting the examination of over 1600 place‑inflected passages, faceted on dimensions of genre, form, literary community, social standing, and neighborhood.
            </p>
            <p>The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Authorial London</hi> web application has been developed as a re-usable platform, hence, “Authorial {X}.“ Our intent is that researchers and college instructors may readily instantiate a similar site for any place of interest, and engage either a class or research community of interest in gathering data for it: authors, texts, references to places within texts, and the geometry necessary for mapping them. The software code and documentation required for standing up an empty, configurable Authorial {X} instance will be freely available on GitHub.
            </p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Scale</head>
                <p>The Authorial {X} platform operates at multiple scales of analysis, viewed from both geographic and literary perspectives.</p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Geographic scale</head>
                    <p>Cities are a distinctive kind of place in many respects, sharing the quality of geographic variability of lived experience with areas of other scales. Neighborhoods within cities are distinctive places themselves: Belgravia and Southwark are both in London, but are not similar—either in economic and social scientific terms, or in the literary imagination that is this project’s focus. The same can be said of provinces within countries and districts within provinces. Authorial {X} provides one means for discovering within literature how places within places of any scale differ, and whether and how they have changed over time. </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Analytic scale</head>
                    <p>The platform is designed to permit the close reading of particular works, at the scale of passages, and also facilitates the aggregation of those passages in several ways: across 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">authors</hi>, by any of 17 genres (e.g. comedy, novel, bildungsroman) and 3 forms (prose, drama, and poetry); across 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">time</hi>, by one of 13 literary communities (e.g. Romantic, Victorian, Modernist); and across 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">space</hi> (by several dozen neighborhoods). These groupings are visualized 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">spatially</hi>, as interactive dots and lines on a map, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">temporally</hi> in simple histograms; and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">conceptually</hi>, in word clouds of salient terms as measured by the TF-IDF statistic computed on the project corpus. 
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Data</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Textual</head>
                    <p>The 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Authorial London</hi> corpus has been developed by manual and machine-assisted means. Initially, over 600 passages were hand-selected from approximately 80 works under copyright. The place references tagged in those passages were then used to search an indexed corpus of 690 texts in the public domain acquired from Project Gutenberg. The result narrowed the search space dramatically (from 690 to 220 texts), allowing the still arduous manual selection of several hundred more passages in a timely fashion. During the second round of manual selection numerous additional place references were identified, and the process repeated. Passage length varies significantly, from a sentence or two to several hundred words. 
                    </p>
                    <p>In addition to passages from authored works, the application presents georeferenced biographical essays for each of the 47 authors.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Geographic</head>
                    <p>All references to places—whether in featured works or biographical essays—are “place-reference” records, each linked to a spatial location. Their scale ranges from a single tavern to the entire city. A place may have multiple names, but link to the same geometry; for example “The Thames” and “the silver Flood” are from different works, referring to the same place and physical location. Cartographic representations are not limited to single points; many streets are displayed as lines. A modern basemap is supplemented by three geo-rectified (“warped”) historical maps.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Graphical</head>
                    <p>A number of photographs related to locations within the biographical essays are also made available in the interface.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Platform details</head>
                <p>The Authorial {X} platform back-end is built with the Ruby-on-Rails framework on a PostgreSQL database. Its custom front-end code leverages several JavaScript software libraries, including Leaflet for mapping and D3 for visualization. The Rails technology has enabled the efficient development of an administrative interface to the data, wherein a set of simple web-based forms for populating and editing the database are available to authenticated users. In this way, once an instance of Authorial {X} is initialized, non-technical users can develop data that will appear dynamically in the interface. The project is open-source, and its developers expect that improvements will be made by digital humanities developers over time.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Evans, M. and Meeks, E.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Guide to Authorial London</hi>. http://authorial-london.stanford.edu (accessed 25 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2689","17","Authorship attribution of Mediaeval German Text: style and contents in Apollonius von Tyrland","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>In this paper, we describe computer-aided authorship testing on the Middle High German (MHG) text 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Apollonius von Tyrland</hi> written by Heinrich von Neustadt (HvN) in the late 13th century. Being based on a Latin original, HvN is suspected to incorporate other sources into the translation. We investigate assumptions regarding a segmentation of this text into parts supposedly tracking back to different sources. Our objective is it to provide a) clarification on the validity of this segmentation and b) on features that show the difference in origin of the segments. In particular, we distinguish between features related to content and to style.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Contents and Style</head>
                <p>Comparing frequency distributions over frequent words has been established as a state of the art method for contrasting style across different literary texts (cf. Eder et al. (2013)). Quite recently, (Herrmann et al., 2015) proposed to define style as a property constituted by “formal features which can be observed quantitatively or qualitatively” (p. 44). An important aspect of it is that style has to be based on observable features.</p>
                <p>We propose to make a clear cut between content and style: To measure stylistic differences, we restrict the selection to words appearing in every text of the corpus, thus are observable in each text, assuming that this is a simple way to exclude words that are markers of content. Content words (that presumably only appear in a subset of the texts) do not contribute to this understanding of style. They, in contrast, are extracted by filtering the MFW with a stop word list containing all the function words in a language. We refer to the sets of feature words extracted for a text with 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">content words</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">style words</hi>.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""154/10000000000006210000028C486DDBB8.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 1: Comparison of different groups of high frequent words and their performance on a clustering task on MHG text by three different authors. Due to largely uniform editing of MHG text in the 19th century, normalisation can be neglected (Kragl, 2015).</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>To validate this idea, we analyse five MHG texts by three authors with the R stylo package (Eder, 2013). Figure 1 shows results for the content (a) and style (b) words. The higher similarity of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Erec</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Tristan</hi> in (a) compared to 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Der arme Heinrich</hi> reflects that both narratives feature knighthood as a main theme. In contrast, the narrative in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Der Arme Heinrich</hi> involves more religious themes (faith, god), which is also reflected in the frequency tables. This distinction is clearly based on content. If we focus our analysis on style words, as in (b), we see the clustering according to authors. Thus, distinguishing frequent words of a corpus in style and content words can give us better insights into the results.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Dissecting Heinrich von Neustadt: Apollonius</head>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""154/1000000000000552000000FDF230B444.png""/>
                        <head>Table 1: Partition of Apollonius according to Bockhoff and Singer (1911).</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""154/1000000000000519000001A402BD6CFB.png""/>
                        <head>Table 2: Subparts identified in the third section of Apollonius, identified by Bockhoff and Singer (1911).</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Bockhoff and Singer (1911) formulated two hypotheses regarding the internal structure and origin of the ca. 21K verses long text, regarding both the overall structure (Table 1) and the internal structure of one segment (Table 2). To get an impression of which paragraphs can indeed be found as a distinctive group using content words and style words respectively, we split the text into 71 segments of equal length. These segments are then clustered with Stylo, using delta as a similarity measure.</p>
                <p>Our baseline consists of randomly assigning distances between the segments, drawn from a uniform distribution. We sample baseline results 1000 times. The baseline results give an impression on how well an uninformed method overlaps with the hypothesis classification introduced in Section 3. Comparing these to the results of our methods can inform us on which method goes in line with the hypothesis as opposed to a random classification.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""154/1000000000000637000001EAD75B420C.png""/>
                        <head>Table 3: Results of the clustering analysis for style and content words respectively regarding the overall structure hypothesis of Apollonius. Since clustering methods do not provide class labels for an evaluation of the performance with respect to precision, recall and F-score, we need to map the clusters onto the parts of the hypothesis. This is done manually in such a way that F-score is maximised. BL: Baseline, CA: Cluster Analysis.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Regarding the first hypothesis (Table 3), we observe that for both feature sets the F-score lies above the baseline for all parts except the third. This seems reasonable since this part is suspected to be based on different sources and therefore might be more heterogeneous both in content and in style. Style seems to be more homogeneous (F-Score above baseline) throughout the entire text whereas content seems to be heterogeneous especially in the adventure part introduced by HvN (F-Score below baseline). This is in line with the hypothesis, considering that HvN’s insertions report on different adventures.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""154/100000000000063C00000263FC6438AB.png""/>
                        <head>Table 4: Results of the clustering analysis for style and content words respectively regarding structure of the parts of Apollonius attributed to Heinrich von Neustadt. Final part has been removed from the discussion due to its short length.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Analysing these heterogeneous parts further (second hypothesis, Table 4), we see heterogeneity in terms of content for all but one part, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The duel in Syria</hi>. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The duel in Syria</hi> seems homogeneous in style whereas 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The adventures in Galacites</hi> shows tendencies towards a heterogeneous style.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>Both feature sets show similar tendencies and support a major part of the hypotheses by Bockhoff and Singer (1911) regarding parts suspected as insertions. Nevertheless, differences in content cannot clearly confirm the suspicion that HvN incorporated other sources. He might have created additional adventures by himself. Bockhoff and Singer (1911) do not cite sources from which HvN copied narratives, making it difficult to tackle exactly. Overall differences in style are much less significant than differences in content, which is in line with the hypothesis.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bockhoff, A. and Singer, S. </hi>(1911). Heinrichs von Neustadt Apollonius von Tyrland und seine Quellen. Ein Beitrag zur mittelhochdeutschen und byzantinischen Literaturgeschichte von A. Bockhoff und S. Singer. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sprache und Dichtung: Forschungen zur Linguistik und Literaturwissenschaft [dann] zur Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaft</hi>. J. C. B. Mohr.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2013). Stylometry with R: a Suite of Tools. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts</hi>, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska–Lincoln, pp. 487–89.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M.</hi> (2013). Mind your corpus: systematic errors in authorship attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">LLC</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(4): 603–14.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kragl, F. </hi>(2015). Normalmittelhochdeutsch. Theorieentwurf einer gelebten Praxis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Zeitschrift fur Deutsches Altertum und Deutsche Literatur</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">144</hi>: 1–27.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Herrmann, J. B., van Dalen-Oskam, K. and Schöch, C</hi>. (2015). Revisiting Style, a Key Concept in Literary Studies.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Literary Theory</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(1): 25-52.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2690","17","Beyond Digital Humanities? Furthering the Exploration of Language Diversity and Pan-European Culture by Means of Transdisciplinary Research Infrastructures: Introducing the new DARIAH CC Science Gateway","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Introduction
                    <lb/>The Core Project EGI-Engage
                </head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Th</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">is paper</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> introduces into a new Science Gateway, developed in the framework of</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">the European Horizon 2020 project EGI-</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Engage</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(Engaging </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">the Research Community towards an Open Science Commons</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">). </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">EGI-Engage </hi>
                </p>
                <quote>aims to accelerate the implementation of the Open Science Commons by expanding the capabilities of a European backbone of federated services for compute, storage, data, communication, knowledge and expertise, complementing community-specific capabilities (EGI-Engage).</quote>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Within EGI-Engage there are several clusters of research infrastructures, representing different research communities. 
                        <lb/>The Arts and Humanities are represented by DARIAH, building the DARIAH
                    </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Competence Centre </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(DARIAH CC).</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">In this </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">paper we focus on </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">transdisciplinary</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> collaboration in the framework of eLexicography in cultural context.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>In the last decade it becomes almost impossible to image excellent science without support of e-Infrastructures in the sciences. However, although various research areas, such as medicine, chemistry, and physics, mostly depend on the availability of advanced research infrastructure, the area of Arts and Humanities is still not utilizing the available infrastructure at their full potential, especially but not exhaustively on the example of EGI infrastructures.</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">To overcome this gap, DARIAH </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">CC aims</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> to provide a wider and more efficient access to, and use of, research e-Infrastructures at EGI level, including transnational access </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">as well as </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">joint research and networking for user</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">s</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> coming from the areas of the Arts and Humanities. </hi>
                </p>
                <p>The first step in achieving this goal is by providing end-user support, at both technical and service level. One way of fulfilling this mission is by providing a workflow-based Science Gateway.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Customising the Long Tail of Science (LToS) 
                    <lb/>Science Gateway and the Semantic Search Engine (SSE) for the Humanities
                </head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">For the specific research domain of eLexicography, a Science Gateway is adapted and tailored to meet the needs of the user community coming from the field of Arts and Humanities or, in a more general case, from the Social Science and Humanities. </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Technically the Science Gateway is based on the generic purpose grid and cloud user support environment (gUSE/WS-PGRADE; </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">LPDS [2015]</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">) as well as gLibrary technologies (</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">INFN [2015]</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">).</hi>
                </p>
                <p>The new gateway provides access and compute services for data residing in distributed grid and cloud storages, generic applications, as well as computational resources. The usefulness and evaluation of the specific Science Gateway is demonstrated with two specific pilot applications: “Storing and Accessing DARIAH contents on EGI” (SADE), and “Multi-Source Distributed Real-Time Search and Information Retrieval” (SIR). After the end of the EGI DARIAH CC, it results will be contributed to DARIAH-EU through the DARIAH Virtual Competence Centre 1 “eInfrastructures”, which will take appropriate means to support and maintain the results.</p>
                <p>From the Semantic Search Engine (SSE) you can search in parallel and in more than 100 languages across various Linked Data repositories:</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">1) the e-Infrastructure Knowledge Base (KB) containing more than 30 million resources belonging to thousands of semantically enriched Open Access Document Repositories and Data Repositories </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">s</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">earch results are ranked according to the </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">R</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">anking Web of Repositories.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">2) </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">several resources that are essential for the Arts and Humanities SADE use case in context of cultural lexicography. </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">In this poster we focus on Biodiversity and linguistic diversity and show results for European Repositoris dealing </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">especially </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">with this </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">topic,</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> e.g. </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Europeana, Cultura Italia, Isidore, </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">O</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">pen</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Agris and </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Bio2RDF</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Others can simply added using the configuration options.
                        <lb/>According to the Humanities requirements, further possibilities are at the moment
                    </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">i</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">nvestigated to be included, </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">e.g.</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> AGROVOC, GEONAMES, GERMANET, ISLEX as well as DBPedia. 
                        <lb/>Furthermore, the team is investigating into supporting ALE
                    </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">w</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">orkflow opportunities.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>From the SSE one can right now search for your plant names and get a full list of results according to the EGI-ontology.</p>
                <p>Figure 1 gives an overview on the science gateway archidecture:</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""610/100000000000025D000001667FA652E7.png""/>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Figure 2 below shows first search results for the search term “bellis perennis”:
                    <lb/>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""610/10000000000001520000013AAFACAC9F.png""/>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">F</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">or each item you can click on:
                        <lb/>- ""More Info"" to get more additional information about the dataset
                        <lb/>- ""Check citations on Google Scholar""
                        <lb/>- ""Linked Data"" to display graphically the semantic connections.
                        <lb/>- Access directly the repository where data are stored.
                        <lb/>Instructions to access the LTOS
                    </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">SG </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">can be found here.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>Figure 3 below introduces the SSE-schema:</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""610/1000000000000283000002270F6C4C0D.png""/>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Exploring cultural diversity and multilinguality 
                    <lb/>Supporting ALE and COST ENeL
                </head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">The certain use case is developed to support Pan-European Lexicography and Lexicology and explore new methods </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">of scholarship</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">. The main use case partners are members of the two European initiatives in the fields, namely for Lexicography the COST action IS 1305 European network for electronic Lexicography (ENeL) and for Lexicology the Atlas Linguarum Europae (ALE).</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Both of these initiatives aim to explore cultural diversity against the background of multilingual Europe. Europe, as “common space of knowledge” with a common background for lexicography and with shared lexicographical practices and methodological principles, was to this regards influenced by a common canon of dictionaries and other reference works rather than as independent works </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Haß </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">[2010]</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">; Kirkness </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">[2012])</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">. </hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Moreover, the purpose of these dictionaries was to contribute to nation-building, which explains their – usually strong – monolingual view. Yet, this does not adequately reflect the common Pan-European linguistic heritage </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Munske / </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Kirkness [1996]</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">; Habermann </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">[1999])</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> of the languages of Europe, which have been in fact in permanent contact with each other </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">COST Memorandum </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">of Understanding)</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">.Possibilities to study the Pan-European commonal</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">i</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">ties are explored in the framework of COST ENeL and are to be supported by the science gateway and DARIAH Competenc</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">e </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Centre.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">The Use Case definitely meets user needs: The Memorandum of Understanding for the</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">COST action ENeL [</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">COST MoU </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">p: 6] refers directly to the lack of common approaches and lacking standards as well as the ambition to “fully explore the possibilities of the digital medium”.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">The developed Science Gateway is one of the solutions for some of the items aimed to be results of the COST ENeL action Working Group 4 “Lexicography and Lexicology from a Pan-European perspective” </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(COST / Wandl-Vogt / Nowak)</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">, namely mainly 1) Developing ways in which already existing information from single language dictionaries can be displayed and interlinked to present more adequately their common European heritage – 2) Finding new applications for the very large amount of interconnected dictionary information from the European dictionary portal in the field of digital humanities [</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">COST MoU</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">: 14]. Main topics to be addressed in this paper are forms of scholarship and production of </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">knowledge </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Nowotny </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">/ Scott / Gibbons [2003])</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> – a) collaborative – b) explorative – c) interdisciplinary transdisiplinary / in the framework of Open S</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">ci</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">ence. </hi>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">a</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">) Collaborative: The proposers of the paper discuss how open online collaboration is furthering research on the examples of ALE and COST EneL. </hi>
                </p>
                <p>b) Explorative: The authors of the paper introduce how their developed and adapted infrastructure supports explorative scholarship. </p>
                <p>c) Interdisiplinary, transdisciplinary, towards Open Science: Finally, they reflect their transdisciplinary collaboration – with background in sciences as well as Humantities – and the added value of it on the one hand; on the other hand they reflect on transforming their workflows towards Open Science Commons.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>Conclusion and Outlook 
                    <lb/>Beyond Digital Humanities?
                </head>
                <p>This paper presents a collaboration beyond Digital Humanities: The contributors introduce into a new science gateway for the Digital Humanities, discuss the main technologies adopted and developed and point at the added value of a collaboration beyond Digital Humanities.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
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                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">H.H.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">; Kirkness, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">A.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> (1996). </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">Eurolatein. Das griechische und lateinische Erbe in den europäischen </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Sprachen, Reihe Germanistische Linguistik (RGL), </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Tübingen, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Niemeyer</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">Nowotny, </hi>
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                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">M</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> 2003. `Mode 2´ Revisited. The new Production of Knowledge. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)italic"">Minerva </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">41: 179-194. </hi>
                        <ptr target=""http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/wiho/downloads/nowotny.pdf""/>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">. (Accessed: </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">12 March</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">201</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">6</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">).</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">SCI-GaLA </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(2015). </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">Map of Open Document Repositories </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(OADRS). </hi>
                        <ref target=""http://www.sci-gaia.eu/einfrastructures/knowledge-base/oadr-map/"">http://www.sci-gaia.eu/einfrastructures/</ref>
                        <ref target=""http://www.sci-gaia.eu/einfrastructures/knowledge-base/oadr-map/"">
                            <hi rend=""color(#0000ff)"">knowledge-base/oadr-map/</hi>
                        </ref>
                        <hi rend=""color(#0000ff)""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(Accessed: Oct, 31st 2015).</hi>
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)bold"">The Arni Magnussen Institute for Icelandic Studies </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(2016). </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">ISLEX: An Islandic – Scandinavian Multilingual Dictionary</hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">. </hi>
                        <ptr target=""http://www.arnastofnun.is/page/islex_en""/>
                        <hi rend=""color(#0000ff)""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">(Accessed: </hi>
                        <hi rend=""color(#000000)"">12 March</hi>
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","xml","2","",""
"2691","17","Biblissima - Following Medieval Manuscripts and Incunabula through their Existence via a Semantic Web Application","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Biblissima—<hi rend=""italic"">Bibliotheca bibliothecarum novissima</hi>—is a Digital Humanities project that brings together libraries and research institutions, whose goal is to provide a single access point to over 40 databases regarding medieval and Renaissance manuscripts and early printed books by the end of 2016.</p>
            <p>The project began late in 2012 with nine founding partners: the Department of Manuscripts at the BnF (Bibliothèque nationale de France), the Campus Condorcet, the CESR (Centre d'Etudes Supérieures de la Renaissance), the CIHAM (Histoire, Archéologie, Littératures des mondes chrétiens et musulmans médiévaux), the Centre Jean-Mabillon at the ENC (École nationale des chartes), the CRAHAM (Centre de Recherches Archéologiques et Historiques Anciennes et Médiévales. Centre Michel de Boüard), the IRHT (Institut de recherche et d’histoire des textes), the Digital Document Centre at the MRSH de Caen (Maison de la Recherche en Sciences Humaines), and the SAPRAT-EPHE (Savoirs et pratiques du Moyen Âge au XIXe siècle, Ecole pratique des hautes études).</p>
            <p>Funded by the French National Research Agency (ANR: Agence Nationale de la Recherche), Biblissima is concerned with the history of collections and the transmission of texts. In this respect, the project stands somewhat in line with the works of Antoon Sanders, who published his <hi rend=""italic"">Bibliotheca Belgica Manuscripta</hi> in 1641-44, and Bernard de Montfaucon and his <hi rend=""italic"">Bibliotheca bibliothecarum manuscriptorum nova</hi>, published in 1739, both of which are major inventories compiling lists of manuscripts held in many different libraries in Europe.</p>
            <p>In order to create an <hi rend=""italic"">Online library of historical collections of France for the 21st century</hi>, our chosen solution was to develop a semantic web application. We released a prototype (<ref target=""http://demos.biblissima-condorcet.fr/prototype"">http://demos.biblissima-condorcet.fr/prototype</ref>) in summer 2015 that provides unified access to a subset of two major iconographic databases: Initiale (<ref target=""http://initiale.irht.cnrs.fr/accueil/index.php"">http://initiale.irht.cnrs.fr/accueil/index.php</ref>) and Mandragore (<ref target=""http://mandragore.bnf.fr/html/accueil.html"">http://mandragore.bnf.fr/html/accueil.html</ref>). An export of the metadata pertaining to the illuminations that depict geographical locations was used as a starting point for the development of our application. People (author or illuminator), institutions (libraries), work titles and places were aligned with the BnF authority records and, whenever possible, also linked to external vocabularies (GeoNames, VIAF, Pleiades, Getty thesauri).</p>
            <p>The next step involved generating dynamic web pages that describe a person, a work, an expression, a manuscript, a part of a manuscript or an illumination, and which include links to the corresponding descriptions in the source databases. This original data is enriched with longitude and latitude coordinates for geographical names that were acquired by aligning them with the equivalent GeoNames concepts. It is now possible, for example, to show on two different maps the places depicted in illuminations with the images of the corresponding folios, and the illuminations from manuscripts held in a particular institution.</p>
            <p>In addition, a viewer embedded in the page (we currently favour Mirador: <ref target=""https://iiif.github.io/mirador"">https://iiif.github.io/mirador</ref>) shows the digitised manuscript or folio when available. The information needed to display these images is structured according to the Shared Canvas data model (<ref target=""http://iiif.io/model/shared-canvas/"">http://iiif.io/model/shared-canvas</ref>), which is the foundation of IIIF (International Image Interoperability Framework: <ref target=""http://iiif.io"">http://iiif.io</ref>). This information is passed to the viewer in form of JSON-LD manifests, which are generated from metadata and image files supplied by the partner institutions. The viewer itself is client-based and features a deep-zoom capability for the loaded images, the possibility to display associated metadata, and also the superposition of different layers, such as an image and the corresponding textual transcription.</p>
            <p>The data model behind the application is based on CIDOC-CRM (<ref target=""http://www.cidoc-crm.org"">http://www.cidoc-crm.org</ref>) and FRBRoo (<ref target=""http://www.cidoc-crm.org/frbr_inro.html"">http://www.cidoc-crm.org/frbr_inro.html</ref>) and our data is already available in RDF format. Beyond taking into account the different levels of work, manifestation and item (using the classes F4 Manifestation Singleton for manuscripts as well as F3 Manifestation Product Type and F5 Item for early printed books), we intend to group manuscripts and early printed books as productions of certain expressions (class F2 Expression). Illuminations are understood as features (class E26 Physical Feature) placed on a folio or page, and provenance marks will be modelled in the same way. Based on the lessons learned through developing our own ontology, we will be able to give feedback about the data.bnf.fr, FRBRoo and SharedCanvas ontologies, as well as other theoretical foundations.</p>
            <p>We are currently working on extending this prototype, which was developed using the semantic web application framework CubicWeb (<ref target=""https://www.cubicweb.org/"">https://www.cubicweb.org/</ref>). In addition to manuscripts, we will be including early printed books, with a strong emphasis on book provenance, by integrating data from the following four sources: Esprit des Livres (database on auction and other sales catalogues, ENC), Bibale (database on historical book collections, IRHT), Europeana Regia (database on three important historical collections of the Middle Ages and Renaissance), as well as CR2I (Catalogues Régionaux des Incunables Informatisés, CESR) and CRIICO (CR2I Centre-Ouest, CESR). Resolved challenges include the creation of ARKs (Archival Resource Keys) for each manuscript (BnF and IRHT) and codicological unit (BnF). At a later stage, digital editions of inventories of manuscripts in TEI XML will be integrated as well.</p>
            <p>This short paper will present the latest version of the semantic web application for Biblissima’s data cluster.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2692","17","Change, transition and governance: Lessons from a long-term, large scale DH collaboration","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Digital Humanities (DH) is becoming increasingly a collaborative community of practice, a move encouraged both by the scale, scope and complexity of projects (L. Siemens and Burr, 2013) and by granting agencies with programs such as Digging into Data (2013), the new Bilateral Digital Humanities Program between the National Endowment for the Humanities’ Office of Digital Humanities and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Germany’s research office (2014), Canada’s Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council’s Partnership Grants (2013), and many others. This trend is further supported through efforts such as Fair Cite (2012) and the Collaborators’ Bill of Rights (Off the Tracks, 2011) to more fully recognize project contributions through multi-authorship citation practices, University of Virginia’s Praxis Program which provides collaborative project experience for graduate students (The Praxis Program at the Scholars' Lab, 2011a, 2011b, 2012, nd), and individual DH project charters outlining guidelines for team work (Hjartarson, Fast, and Hasenbank, 2011; Ruecker and Radzikowska, 2007).</p>
            <p>These are all exciting developments that will reap long-term contributions at the individual, project, and DH as a community of practice levels and beyond. At the same, more work is needed to understand how these teams function and the types of supports which are needed to coordinate the research, people and tasks to ensure successful outcomes at these levels (Dombrowski, 2013; Lyall, Bruce, Marsden, and Meagher, 2013). With this knowledge, DH teams will be better able to anticipate benefits and challenges associated with collaborations and develop processes to maximize benefits while minimizing associated challenges. </p>
            <p>At present, much of the body of knowledge about academic team functioning and best practice guidelines has been developed through a reflection process at a project’s completion (For example, see Bracken and Oughton, 2006; Bryan, Negretti, Christensen, and Stokes, 2002; Kishchuk, 2005; Lawrence, 2006; National Endowment for the Humanities Office of Digital Humanities, 2010). These reviews often focus on the actual research work accomplished with little discussion of associated processes that supported the work, communication patterns, and other factors that supported (or not) successful outcomes. As a result, some hard-earned lessons are forgotten or minimized through the passage of time, but might be captured if this type of reflection occurs during a project’s life. </p>
            <p>As a large project in terms of team membership, budget, scope, disciplinary perspectives, and project length and research integration, Implementing New Knowledge Environments (INKE) provides a unique perspective to explore the nature of collaboration (INKE, 2012a). INKE’s primary research focus is the exploration of e-books and their potential from a variety of perspectives, including interface design, modeling and prototyping, user studies, and textual studies (INKE, 2012b). Further, this collaboration is examining the “understanding, creating, and evaluating research structures that will allow academic and non-academic (including industry partner) members of our research team to work together in ways that meet the needs of the research and development cycles of the entire INKE group” (R. G. Siemens, Siemens, Cunningham, Galey, Ruecker, and Warwick, 2012, p. 7)
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">See R. G. Siemens et al. (2009) for the full grant application.</note>. To that end, INKE has undergone yearly reflections on the nature of collaboration within the project with an objective to better understand the ways to support large-scale research collaborations as they unfold and communicate these lessons to other projects for consideration. 
            </p>
            <p>This paper contributes to our understanding of how research teams function by reviewing INKE’s six years of experience in collaboration and with a view to articulate best practice guidelines (L. Siemens and INKE Research Group, 2010, 2012b, 2012c, 2012d, 2012e, 2013).</p>
            <p>Members of the administrative team, researchers, graduate research assistants and others are asked about their experiences collaborating within INKE on an annual basis in order to understand the nature of collaboration and ways that it may change over a grant’s long-term life. The interview questions focus on understanding the nature of collaboration, advantages and challenges associated with it within INKE’s context. These interviews allow the researcher to explore topics more fully and deeply with probing and follow up questions while participants reflect on their own experiences and emphasis those issues which are important to them (Marshall and Rossman, 1999; McCracken, 1988; Newell and Swan, 2000; Rubin and Rubin, 1995). This paper focuses on a summary of the first 5 years of the grant-funded work.</p>
            <p>At the time of writing this proposal, final data analysis is being completed, but clear patterns are emerging and, after final analysis, these will form the basis of my presentation.</p>
            <p>While the grant application suggested a stable team of active researchers and partners, the reality has been very different. Due to a variety of reasons (L. Siemens and INKE Research Group, 2012a, 2013), change and transition have been constant within INKE, which has led to sub-research group re-organizations and the creation of new ones. Concurrently, new researchers, administrative leads and partners joined the team. And as is always the case when working with student research assistants and post-doctoral fellows, sub-research areas were continually recruiting and training new ones as others moved on to other opportunities. </p>
            <p>Grounding this change has been several constants that have ensured the research has been able to continue effectively and efficiently despite the transitions. First, the governance documents outlined clear articulation of roles and responsibilities which became especially important for ensuring that new researchers, partners, and administrative understood and enacted the nature of collaboration and accountability within INKE. At the same time, these documents provided guidance for ensuring that processes for change, transition, planning and reporting, and decision making were considered and thoughtful while remaining responsive to changing circumstances (L. Siemens and INKE Research Group, 2012c). The use of basecamp, an online project space, and an updated project website further reinforced these processes by providing an ongoing repository for messages, documents, data, and publications, all important knowledge for current and new researchers and partners. Second, multiple communication channels, such as annual birds-of-a-feather gatherings, attendance at other conferences, both formal and in-formal face-to-face administrative and sub-research area group meetings, conference calls, and online project spaces, ensured that team members met on a regular basis to exchange information about and participate in research projects with the other sub-research areas, ensuring highly collaborative work.</p>
            <p>As INKE nears the end of its 7 years of funded research, the team is anticipating both winding down this focused work on e-books and exploring next research steps, building from its successes (INKE, 2014). While the research has been intellectually challenging and not without its administrative issues, INKE team members report positive experiences in terms of the collaboration, associated outcomes, and connections to the DH and traditional humanities communities. As measures of this positive spirit and connections, they are extending their collaboration into associated research areas as well as contemplating another large-scale research project. </p>
            <p>This research will make several contributions to the knowledge base about the nature of collaboration within the DH community of practice. First, this research contributes to efforts to make work patterns and relationships more explicit and understand those factors that tend to predispose them to success, and perhaps, more importantly, to avoid those which may lead to problematic interactions. Already, lessons from INKE are informing other projects’ collaborations (Nowviskie, 2011; The Praxis Program at the Scholars’ Lab, nd). Second, INKE’s experience demonstrates that these types of team research projects require skills not typically taught in graduate school, including project management and collaboration within a targeted and integrative research environment, which differs from that of curiosity-based one. This reinforces the call to enlarge graduate training beyond purely disciplinary to these larger collaborative skills to ensure that students are prepared for both academic and alternative academic posts (Berman, 2011; Carr, 2012; Leon, 2011; Nowviskie, 2010; Powell, Bouchard, Dalgleish, Keenan, McLeod, and Thomson, 2013; L. Siemens, 2013; Spiro, 2010). </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
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                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_27""/>Siemens, L. (2013). 
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                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_28""/>Siemens, L., and Burr, E. (2013). A trip around the world: Accommodating geographical, linguistic and cultural diversity in academic research teams. 
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                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_29""/>Siemens, L., and INKE Research Group. (2010). 
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                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_30""/>Siemens, L., and INKE Research Group. (2012a). Firing on all cylinders: Progress and transition in INKE's year 2. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarly and Research Communication, 3</hi>(4), 1-16.
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                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_31""/>Siemens, L., and INKE Research Group. (2012b). From writing the grant to working the grant: An exploration of processes and procedures in transition. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarly and Research Communication, 3</hi>(1).
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                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_32""/>Siemens, L., and INKE Research Group. (2012c). INKE administrative structure: Omnibus document. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarly and Research Communication, 3</hi>(1).
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                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_33""/>Siemens, L., and INKE Research Group. (2012d). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">INKE at the midterm review</hi>. Paper presented at the Research Foundations for Understanding Books and Reading in the Digital Age: E/Merging Reading, Writing, and Research Practices, Havana, Cuba. 
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                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_34""/>Siemens, L., and INKE Research Group. (2012e). Understanding long-term collaboration: Reflections on year 1 and before. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarly and Research Communication, 3</hi>(1), 1-4.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_35""/>Siemens, L., and INKE Research Group. (2013). Responding to change and transition in INKE’s year three. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarly and Research Communication, 4</hi>(3), 12 pp.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_36""/>Siemens, R. G., Siemens, L., Cunningham, R., Galey, A., Ruecker, S., and Warwick, C. (2012). Implementing new knowledge environments: Year one research foundations. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarly and Research Communication, 3</hi>(1).
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                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_37""/>Siemens, R. G., Warwick, C., Cunningham, R., Dobson, T., Galey, A., Ruecker, S., Schreibman, S., and INKE Research Group. (2009). Codex ultor: Toward a conceptual and theoretical foundation for new research on books and knowledge environments. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Studies/Le champ numerique, 1</hi>(2).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_38""/>Spiro, L. (2010). Opening up digital humanities education. Retrieved from 
                        <ref target=""http://digitalscholarship.wordpress.com/2010/09/08/opening-up-digital-humanities-education/"">http://digitalscholarship.wordpress.com/2010/09/08/opening-up-digital-humanities-education/</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_39""/>SSHRC. (2013). Partnership grants: An overview, December 9, 2013, from 
                        <ref target=""http://www.sshrc-crsh.gc.ca/about-au_sujet/partnerships-partenariats/partnership_grants-bourses_partenariats-eng.aspx"">http://www.sshrc-crsh.gc.ca/about-au_sujet/partnerships-partenariats/partnership_grants-bourses_partenariats-eng.aspx</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_40""/>The Praxis Program at the Scholars' Lab. (2011a). 2011-12 praxis program charter, September 19, 2012, from 
                        <ref target=""http://praxis.scholarslab.org/charter.html"">http://praxis.scholarslab.org/charter.html</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_41""/>The Praxis Program at the Scholars' Lab. (2011b). 2011-12 praxis program charter Retrieved February 11, 2012, from 
                        <ref target=""http://praxis.scholarslab.org/charter.html"">http://praxis.scholarslab.org/charter.html</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_42""/>The Praxis Program at the Scholars' Lab. (2012). About praxis, October 17, 2012, from 
                        <ref target=""http://praxis.scholarslab.org/about.html"">http://praxis.scholarslab.org/about.html</ref>
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                    <bibl rend=""EndNote Bibliography"">
                        <anchor xml:id=""ENREF_43""/>The Praxis Program at the Scholars' Lab. (nd). Toward a project charter, September 11, 2013, from 
                        <ref target=""http://praxis.scholarslab.org/topics/toward-a-project-charter/"">http://praxis.scholarslab.org/topics/toward-a-project-charter/</ref>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2693","17","Choosing Words for Stylometric Authorship Attribution: Evaluating Most Distinguishing Words (MDWs) vs. Most Frequent Words (MFWs)","9","<text>
        <body>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Introduction</head>
            <p>The results of stylometric authorship attribution studies are strongly influenced by four choices:</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Candidate Authors</hi> – The choice of candidate authors should be based on the historical context of the texts to be attributed.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Representative Texts</hi> – Representative texts should be chosen that are similar in genre, topic and time frame as the texts to be attributed (Argamon et al, 2003; Stamatatos, 2009).
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Analytical Method</hi> – Many analytical methods are available. Burrows’ Delta is often considered to be the ‘gold standard’ to compare other methods (Burrows, 2002).
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Distinguishing Features</hi> – One list of features to distinguish among candidate authors can provide greater distinguishing power than another list of features. This paper is about identifying the most distinguishing list.
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>Grammatical function words are used by all authors, but authors do not use function words in the same way or with the same frequencies. Therefore, different usage frequencies for function words are useful in characterizing an author’s writing style. Although the specific function words that are distinguishing among authors vary from study to study, their effectiveness as features to set apart an author’s writing style is well established (Mosteller and Wallace, 2007; Holmes, 1998).</p>
            <p>Discriminant analysis is a statistical technique to classify objects into known categories based on a set of features about those objects. The technique was developed by Sir Ronald Fisher, a botanist. He illustrated the technique by classifying iris flowers into three species using four features – the length and width of sepals and petals (Fisher, 1936).</p>
            <p>The approach is to compute linear combinations of the features that best separate the categories from each other. The most distinguishing combination of features is called the first linear discriminant function (LD1). Additional combinations (LD2, LD3 and so on) are computed that are orthogonal to each other to maximize the separation among categories. After computing the discriminant functions using a training set of data for objects with known classification, the discriminant functions can be used to classify objects of unknown classification into the categories to which they most likely belong.</p>
            <p>The discriminant analysis concept is illustrated in figure 1 for a two-category problem and two dimensions. Each ellipse in the graph encircles the items within a category. LD1 shows the direction of greatest separation between the two categories. Discriminant analysis can be extended to classification problems with any number of categories and dimensions. </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""85/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1. Graphical illustration of discriminant analysis for two categories with two discriminant functions</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Discriminant analysis can be used in authorship attribution since the problem is similar to that of classifying plants into species based on their physical features. In attribution, the process is to use a set of texts of known authorship to determine the discriminant functions using non-contextual words as the features, and then classify texts of unknown authorship into the set of authors using the discriminant functions. </p>
            <p>A variation of discriminant analysis called stepwise discriminant analysis (SDA) first determines a subset of the most distinguishing features from a comprehensive list of features and then formulates the discriminant functions (Goldstein and Dillon, 1977). The most distinguishing features are the best predictors for classifying objects into the proper categories.</p>
            <p>n our stylometric work we have observed the utility of SDA to choose the words to use as distinguishing features in authorship attribution studies. This observation agrees with work done by other researchers (Smith and Aldridge, 2011). From a comprehensive list of non-contextual words, SDA identifies the most discriminating word first and subsequent words in descending order of discriminating ability. It stops when none of the remaining words add to the discriminating ability of the set of words. Thus, we end up with a subset of words that are the best predictors of authorship. </p>
            <p>Another approach often used to select distinguishing features for authorship attribution is to use a list of the most frequent words listed in descending order of frequency in a set of representative texts of the candidate authors’ works. Consequently, we considered this research question:</p>
            <p>For a given set of authors and representative texts, and using Burrows’ Delta as the analytical method, will the most distinguishing words (MDWs) identified by SDA give more distinguishing power in the analysis than using the most frequent words (MFWs) approach?</p>
            <p>The corresponding null and alternative hypotheses are:</p>
            <p>H
                <hi rend=""subscript"">0</hi>: Using non-contextual MDWs selected by SDA is not more distinguishing among candidate authors than using a set of MFWs.
            </p>
            <p>H
                <hi rend=""subscript"">a</hi>: Using non-contextual MDWs selected by SDA is more distinguishing among candidate authors than using a set of MFWs.
            </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Method</head>
            <p>To answer our research question, the metric we used for a set of words’ distinguishing power was the difference in Burrows’ Deltas for the two authors with the smallest Deltas to that text. If the null hypothesis is true, the differences between Deltas should be about the same whether using MDWs or using MFWs. If using MDWs produces larger Delta differences than using MFWs, that evidence would support the alternative hypothesis. </p>
            <p>We used the difference in Deltas between the nearest authors because it is an indication of statistical power. Analogous to the power of a microscope, statistical power is a statistical technique’s ability to distinguish between things that are close together. The greater the distance between Deltas, the greater the power of the technique used to calculate the Deltas.</p>
            <p>To conduct the study we used 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Federalist Papers</hi>, commonly used for testing the usefulness of authorship attribution methods. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Federalist Papers</hi> are well suited to the problem as there were a total of 85 published papers written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay. Fifty-one were known to have been written by Hamilton, fourteen by Madison, five by Jay, and three written jointly by Hamilton and Madison. Twelve had disputed authorship, but have subsequently been studied extensively and are commonly attributed to Madison.
            </p>
            <p>Because the attribution of the disputed papers is relatively non-controversial, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Federalist Papers</hi> provide a useful basis for comparing attribution methods. Since our research objective was not to answer the attribution question, but rather to compare methods of answering the question, using 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Federalist Paper</hi> removed the question of correct attribution for a more direct comparison of the distinguishing ability of SDA-selected MDWs compared to MFWs.
            </p>
            <p>Using only the 70 papers of known authorship as the representative texts, we applied SDA and selected the MDWs from a large list of non-contextual words, and then calculated Burrows’ Delta distances for each paper to each of the three candidate authors. We compared these results to the results of using sets of MFWs ranging from 50 to 500 words in increments of 50 words.</p>
            <p><hi rend=""bold"">Results</hi></p>
            <p>The SDA procedure select 29 words as the most distinguishing words for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Federalist Papers. </hi>Those 29 MDWs produced 100% correct classification of the 70 representative texts and provided greater distinguishing power than MFWs for the 12 disputed texts. As shown in figure 2, for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Federalist Papers</hi>, MDWs have from 1.5 to 4 times the discriminating power of MFWs. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""85/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2. Comparison of the discriminating power of MDWs vs. MWFs</head>
            </figure>
            <p>To understand why this occurs, examine table 1 and notice where each of the 29 MDWs appears on the MFW list.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""85/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Table 1. Comparative ranking of MDWs and MWFs for <hi rend=""italic"">The Federalist Papers</hi></head>
            </figure>
            <p>Words in a list of MDWs often are not included in typical MFW lists. For example, note that the word, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">whilst</hi>, is the third most discriminating word selected by SDA and yet it is not even in the top 1000 MFWs. Even though Mosteller and Wallace identified 
                <hi rend=""italic"">whilst</hi> as a key indicator of authorship for the disputed papers, MFW lists of less than 1231 words would miss this highly distinguishing word. Notice further that 12 of the 29 MDWs are not even in the top 200 MFWs. So using MFWs will miss many highly distinguishing words.
            </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Discussion</head>
            <p>Thus, we reject the null hypothesis and assert that MDWs provide more distinguishing power between the Deltas for the two closest authors to the texts to be attributed as compared to MFWs. Our results show that MDWs can provide greater sensitivity than MFWs in discovering stylistic word-choice differences among candidate authors. The finding that it only takes 29 words selected by SDA to correctly classify all of the disputed Federalist Papers is a striking example of the power of using SDA-selected MDWs, since over 350 MFW words – more than ten times as many words – were required to achieve the same results.</p>
            <p>Although some research has shown that variations of Delta may perform better than Burrows’ original formulation (Evert et al., 2015; Hoover, 2004), we have found that using modifications of Delta does not improve the performance of MFWs relative to MDWs. </p>
            <p><hi rend=""bold"">Conclusion</hi></p>
            <p>We conclude greater discriminating power can be achieved with a small set of MDWs chosen by SDA than with even large sets of MFWs. Using SDA-selected MDWs a researcher is more likely to make correct attributions and may be able to do it with fewer representative texts and for smaller texts. As a result, a researcher will have a greater likelihood of discovering new insights about the possible authorship of unattributed or disputed texts.</p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Argamon, S., et al.</hi> (2003). Gender, genre, and writing style in formal written texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(3): 321-46.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (2002). ‘Delta’: A measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(3): 267-87.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Evert, S., et al.</hi> (2015). Towards a better understanding of Burrows’s Delta in literary authorship attribution. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of NAACL-HLT Fourth Workshop on Computational Linguistics for Literature</hi>, Denver, CO.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fisher, R. A.</hi> (1936). The use of multiple measurements in taxonomic problems. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Annals of Eugenics,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(2): 179-88.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Goldstein, M. and Dillon, W. R.</hi> (1977). A stepwise discrete variable selection procedure. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communications in Statistics – Theory and Methods,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(14): 1423-36.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Holmes, D. I.</hi> (1998). The evolution of stylometry in humanities scholarship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">13</hi>(3): 111-17.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. L.</hi> (2004). Delta prime?, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">19</hi>(4): 477-95.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mosteller, F. and Wallace, D. L.</hi> (2007). Inference and Disputed Authorship: 
                        The Federalist,
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The David Hume Series Philosophy and Cognitive Science Reissues</hi>, CSLI Publications. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smith, P. W. H. and Aldridge, W.</hi> (2011). Improving Authorship Attribution: Optimizing Burrows' Delta Method. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Quantitative Linguistics,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(1): 63-88.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""endnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stamatatos, E.</hi> (2009). A survey of modern authorship attribution methods. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Society for information Science and Technology,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">60</hi>(3): 538-56.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2694","17","Collaborative Translation Using FromThePage","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Many pre-print texts emerge from an authorial context that was collective rather than individual. Pre-print texts may be the result of an accretive process, where portions of the work were added or subtracted to conform to the needs of copyist or audience, and where the surviving versions can reflect the contribution of many different minds (Fisher, 2012). A truly sensitive translator of a text from the past must take into account the historical setting of the written product, what has been called the <hi rend=""italic"">social logic of the text</hi> (Spiegel, 1990) to interpret the words for the reader and convey the meaning for those who wrote them and for their contemporary audiences (Paul, 2008).</p>
            <p>Just so, the job of the translator has become increasingly complex as our notion of text also expands. Ideally, the process of translating pre-modern texts would mirror their progressive creation, incorporating multiple voices and layers of interpretation. With the integration of digital modes of thinking and acting into our daily lives, what some digital theorists have called “eversion” (Jones, 2014), new textual communities in some way mimic those that participated in the collective process of pre-print text creation. Digital tools have made it possible to assemble voices in a virtual community of textual reception, one in which participants need not be in the same physical space to exchange ideas in real time about the meaning of a text. </p>
            <p>Scholars at Fordham University have embarked upon two different translation projects that are sensitive to elements of pre-print textual creation and that aim to forefront the process in ways understood by digitally-inflected communities. The projects emerge from a pragmatic vision of work-sharing, yet simultaneously co-opt our increasing comfort with virtual communities to recreate the collective context of pre-print texts. These projects come from unrelated disciplines and cultural contexts: the first brings together scholars with linguistic, literary, and art historical expertise to produce a new translation of the Codex Aubin, a manuscript written in Nahuatl created between 1576 and 1609 by indigenous scribes in Mexico City; and the second, led by the French of Outremer Legal Texts Working Group, brings together nine scholars to examine and translate three thirteenth-century legal texts written in a type of Old French from the Holy Land.</p>
            <p>Although digital tool-builders have recognized the power of the collective translation process from the standpoint of a division of labor, most translation platforms are designed to manage work-flow, not to accommodate incertitude, discussion, or to express a plurality of interpretations (Gambier, 2014). Using the norms of crowdsourcing as a point of departure, Fordham scholars have worked with program-developer Ben Brumfield to substantially extend his open-source digital edition tool FromThePage (<ref target=""HYPERLINK"">http://www.fromthepage.org/</ref>) to allow groups of scholars to translate selected texts in a communal fashion. For example, since the 1841 editions of the French-language legal texts were digitized by the Internet Archive, the existing FromThePage-Internet Archive integration was extended to ingest the OCR produced by the digitization process as a starting point for page transcripts (Beugnot, 1841). The translation process itself required modifying the data model to support parallel texts for each transcribed page, as well as new user interfaces for editors to toggle between transcript and facsimile while translating.  Since users may be unfamiliar with Old French or Nahuatl, the presentation interface was revised to support a translation-first experience.</p>
            <p>Translation teams working on both Fordham FromThePage projects include language specialists, historians, and content experts who bring their proficiencies to the discussion, but who will nonetheless disagree along the way. The assembled communities are closed and highly selective; our end product will be a curated conversation that reflects the specialization of each team member. Using FromThePage gives us the option to make the deliberations transparent to our end-users in a way that remains epistemologically true by mapping the process of consensus necessary for a final translation. Reaching an agreement on our final versions, for example, may be the result of one scholar arguing for a reading according to his or her own expertise, or of a collective ignorance and the need to choose the most neutral term possible; our final translations will expose this decision-making process and situate our users in the midst of communal textual production.</p>
            <p>Achieving this transparency required a number of unanticipated changes. The first concerned the commenting mechanism: while editors transcribing a manuscript often need to discuss unclear handwriting, translators’ discussions of variant readings need to be surfaced for readers.  In addition, parallel texts required a total re-write of the full-text search mechanism to handle verbatim text of the original, editorial emendations, and English translations. Finally, the nature of the sources revealed fundamental challenges in the representation of text within FromThePage; since the page division of the <hi rend=""italic"">Assises</hi> is an artifact of 19th-century typesetting, semantic divisions had to be de-coupled from the facsimile pages for online readers and consumers of the exported TEI-XML documents. All of these enhancements were re-incorporated into the FromThePage source code, allowing other digital edition projects to benefit from the new translation and OCR correction features. The projects underscore the communally-crafted nature of our chosen texts by marking conflicting opinions, and the results will serve as a test-case for other kinds of collaborative textual projects, particularly those that contain non-standard languages or terminologies.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>Legal Texts project: 
                        <ref target=""http://fromthepage.ace.fordham.edu/collection/show?collection_id=1)"">http://fromthepage.ace.fordham.edu/collection/show?collection_id=1</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Codex Aubin project: 
                        <ref target=""http://fromthepage.ace.fordham.edu/collection/show?collection_id=2"">http://fromthepage.ace.fordham.edu/collection/show?collection_id=2</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Beugnot, A. (ed). </hi>(1841). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Assises de Jérusalem, ou, Recueil des ouvrages de jurisprudence, composées pendant le xiiie siecle dans les royaumes de Jérusalem et de Chypre</hi>. Recueil des historiens des Croisades. Lois, Paris: Imprimerie royale, <hi rend=""bold"">1-2</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Fisher, M. </hi>(2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scribal Authorship and the Writing of History in Medieval England. </hi>Ohio State University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gambier, Y.</hi> (2014). “Changing Landscape in Translation,” 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Society, Culture and Language</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.ijscl.net/article_4638_848.html"">http://www.ijscl.net/article_4638_848.html</ref>.
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(2): 1-12. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Paul, G. (ed).</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Translation in Practice: A Symposium by the British Centre for Literary Translation. </hi>Dalkey Archive Press.
                        <ref target=""http://www.llvs.lt/img/File/Translation_in_Practice_book.pdf"">http://www.llvs.lt/img/File/Translation_in_Practice_book.pdf.</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Jones, S. E. </hi>(2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Emergence of the Digital Humanities.</hi> Routledge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Spiegel, G.</hi> (1990). “History, Historicism, and the Social Logic of the Text in the Middle Ages,” 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Speculum</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">65</hi>(1): 59-86.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2695","17","Collecting Judgments On Artworks Through A Similarity Game","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>We present PAGANS (Playful Art: a GAme oN Similarity)
                <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">
                    <ptr target=""https://youtu.be/PgiZl6noPns?t=5m29s""/>
                </note> a playful activity to be performed by pairs of users in order to collect similarity judgments about artworks. The final goal of this task is to have indicators concerning how people perceive artworks and how they judge their similarity. We are also interested in comparing such judgments with the opinion of art curators, and see whether users’ contribution can be integrated in the arrangement of a virtual or physical exhibition in view of a crowd-curation approach (Ridge, 2014).
            </p>
            <p>PAGANS foresees the involvement of a pair of users at a time, who play in parallel. Each of them plays the same game independently: similarity was not explained and participants were asked to follow their intuition. A final score, presented as a sort of “aesthetic affinity score”, is obtained by comparing the two judgments and how much they overlap. The game could be played online, but so far the collection method has been tested in real-world scenarios, where both players are physically in the same place and one researcher is available to give feedback after the completion of the activity.</p>
            <p>The game itself is as follows: a virtual card representing an artwork is given (the card with a red pin on the right of the table in Fig. 1), while a set of other 10 cards is displayed to the user. (S)he has to drag and drop on the round target the cards in order of similarity to the given card, until all images on the table are ranked. </p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""18/1000020100000769000004035FB162B1.png""/>
                    <head>Fig. 1: Game interface</head>
             </figure>
            </p>
            <p>When both players have completed the task, they enter information about gender and age, and then the system shows the dashboard displayed in Fig. 2. The Pearson’s, Spearman’s and Kendall’s coefficients (Hauke and Kossowski, 2011) are three metrics that measure with slight differences the players’ agreement on the similarity judgments (the higher the value, the higher the agreement). This score is presented to the players as their aesthetic affinity score. The best affinity is reached when the players choose the same ranking, since there is no ‘gold standard’ order. Players’ affinity is also compared with the ones displayed on the right of the dashboard: the average score obtained by other pairs previously participating in the game (“Overall correlation”), the average agreement among all male players, and that of female players. Another useful information is the “Rank switching trend”: for each artwork to be ranked, the picture shows if the two players put them in the same order (straight line) or if they switched some positions.</p>
            <p>Each picture displayed in the game was pre-processed with the LIRE tool
                <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2"">
                    <ptr target=""http://www.lire-project.net/""/>
                    <hi rend=""color(#386eff)underline""> </hi>
                </note> that extracts automatically image-related features such as color and shape. These features are used to provide information about the similarity judgments provided by the players, specifically if similarity relies more on color or shape information. Finally, the system outputs on the fly a network, where each node is one of the artworks in the game and the distance from the central node (i.e. the pinned card) is proportional to the average rank assigned by the two players.
            </p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""18/1000000000000721000003DF8F336B64.png""/>
                    <head>Fig. 2: Players dashboard</head>
            </figure>
            </p>
            <p>PAGANS was presented during Researchers’ Night 2015 in Trento (Italy) as a game for pairs of players, allowing us to collect around 170 game sessions in few hours. The game environment proved successful in engaging players also thanks to some gamification strategies. For instance, every hour the system automatically displayed a message assigning two free museum entrances to the players currently involved in the game. Besides, we kept track of the best affinity scores, and we identified the “winning pair” of the night. This boosted competition, with players trying to beat the highest score. </p>
            <p>
                <anchor xml:id=""id_h.gjdgxs""/>The goal reached with this first experiment was two-fold: on the one hand, some verbo-visual works from “Archivio di Nuova Scrittura” (Ferrari, 2012) were displayed in digital form for the first time, reaching an audience that would not necessarily see them in an exhibition. Since the game included four possible similarity sessions, around 50 artworks were shown. These works are usually kept in the archive of MART
                <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3"">
                    <ref target=""http://www.mart.trento.it/"">http</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://www.mart.trento.it/"">://</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://www.mart.trento.it/"">www</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://www.mart.trento.it/"">.</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://www.mart.trento.it/"">mart</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://www.mart.trento.it/"">.</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://www.mart.trento.it/"">trento</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://www.mart.trento.it/"">.</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://www.mart.trento.it/"">it</ref>
                </note> and MUSEION
                <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""4"">
                    <ref target=""http://www.museion.it/"">http</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://www.museion.it/"">://</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://www.museion.it/"">www</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://www.museion.it/"">.</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://www.museion.it/"">museion</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://www.museion.it/"">.</ref>
                    <ref target=""http://www.museion.it/"">it</ref>
                </note> museums, not visible to the public. A second advantage of PAGANS is that we were able to collect in a short time several similarity judgments, which will be used to investigate which features related to images and possibly to persons’ age and gender correlate best with similarity. These analyses are currently in progress.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ferrari, D.</hi> (2012). <hi rend=""italic"">Archivio di Nuova Scrittura Paolo della Grazia. Storia di una Collezione/Geschichte einer Sammlung</hi>. Silvana Editoriale.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hauke, J. and Kossowski, T.</hi> (2011). Comparison of values of Pearson's and Spearman's correlation coefficients on the same sets of data. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Quaestiones Geographicae</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">30</hi>(2): 87-93.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ridge, M. M.</hi> (Ed.). (2014). <hi rend=""italic"">Crowdsourcing Our Cultural Heritage</hi>. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2696","17","Computation-Aided Analysis on Film Credits","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>This project is centrally concerned with using digital computation to analyze historical and comparative data of film credits in order to study the evolution of film production. Our hypothesis is that the elements of film production, as credited by the film itself, have a direct correlation with the historical and cultural background of film production. We want to identify the specific connection with each query, hence contributing to the understanding of the culture of film production in general. </p>
                <p>In the introduction to 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Production of Culture and the Cultures of Production</hi>, Paul du Gay points out that culture and economy are mutually constitutive in the present day. Not only are most of popular cultural products manufactured by organized industries, but the production activities themselves also manifest cultural values (Gay, 1997). Our project is theoretically oriented toward the latter, the cultures of production. Although relatively less studied than the production of culture led by the theories of the Culture Industry (Horkheimer & Adorno, 1997), significant scholarship has been conducted to discern the cultural patterns of the film and television productions, such as John Thornton Caldwell’s book, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Production Culture: Industrial Reflexivity and Critical Practice in Film and Television</hi> (Caldwell, 2008). The primary data Caldwell and other researchers used are trade publications, interviews, and field observations. Sharing the same theoretical inclination of Caldwell, our research breaks the methodological new ground by analyzing the most conspicuous records of film production—the credits shown on film itself. 
                </p>
                <p>Influenced by fiction publication and theater programs in earlier years, film crediting convention has evolved throughout the history of cinema. Today, it is typical for an American film to open with a title sequence and end with a longer rolling credit crawl. The end credits for big production blockbusters are relatively lengthy, featuring both above-the-line categories such as director, producer, and cast, and below-the line categories such as production assistants, camera operators, electricians, special effects specialists, sound editors, etc. As records of film production, film credits contain a plethora of vital information, disclosing not only involved labor (personnel), and corporations (financiers, production companies, and distribution companies), but also procedures (e.g. special effects units and location shootings), and technologies (e.g. Panavision cameras and Chapman camera cranes). </p>
                <p>The scholarly attention to film credits has steadily increased in recent years. Many focus on the credits’ aesthetic and philosophical values (de Mourgues, 1993; Moinereau, 2009; Tylski, 2009). Some use film credits as an evidence to study the Hollywood star system and labor hierarchy (Clark, 1995; Chisholm, 2000; Carman, 2008). Will Straw’s article “Letter of Introduction: Film Credits and Cityscapes” represents a significant contribution by linking the design of the title credit sequence to the socio-historical condition of film viewing – the development of city life after World War II (Straw, 2010). Two recent dissertations also offer interesting insights (Allison, 2001; Crawford, 2013). Allison’s research is statistical in nature but only confined to opening title sequences. Crawford’s dissertation presents multiple perspectives (aesthetic, legal, and industrial), convincingly justifying the importance of film credits. </p>
                <p>This project focuses on actually accessing and analyzing film credits to generate insights into the evolution of film production. More specifically, we propose to employ large-scale computation to perform comparative analysis on film credits. Digital computation is necessary to carry the study of film credits to another level since physically examining the credits even for one film is a daunting task. The final crawl of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Dark Knight</hi> (2008), for example, runs for 7.5 minutes and contains hundreds of names and entities. The listed order and naming of some categories also differ from film to film. Besides increasing efficiency by substituting for human labor, digital computation also invites a large quantity of research subjects. These methods will potentially discover patterns across an extended period of time as well as across national and genre boundaries. We are confident that the potential of film credits as written records will be fully tapped with the aid of digital computation, and our research project will represent a major contribution to film studies. 
                </p>
                <p>Our project is mapped into two stages. For the first stage, we will pull available digital records of American films on the Internet to perform some statistical analysis. The second stage will see the expansion of selected works from American films to Chinese films. The Chinese film industry is chosen because of its dramatic development trajectory in the last 30 years. The industry was resuscitated in the 1980s from its near death in the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) (zero output for three years), and only found itself slipping into financial crises throughout the 1990s in its attempt to balance political and commercial imperatives. Just when the industry was on the brink of collapse at the dawn of the new millennium, it picked itself up with full-scale capitalization while still maintaining substantial degree of governmental control. Charting an extraordinary growth curve to the present day, the Chinese film market has become the second largest in the world since 2012, and is on track to overtake the United States in 2017 or 2018 if the current growing pattern sustains. Tracing the information listed as credits over time and comparing to that of Hollywood will demonstrate the trajectory of both local changes and external influences in the development of Chinese commercial cinema. Because the digital records of Chinese film credits are not as readily available as their American counterparts, we will employ video-capture as well as optical character recognition technology to establish source data sets. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Preliminary Findings</head>
                <p>In this conference paper we will present some of our preliminary findings from the first stage. We have developed a software tool to aggregate and analyze records from International Movie Database (IMDB) for analysis. The application is implemented in Java and can parse IMDB records, extract named entities, conduct statistical and association analysis. One of our queries is the number of people listed under major credit categories as documented by the IMDB. We selected 20,690 titles since 1900 with at least one director and at least 10 cast members (actors and actresses). The average number of crew for each film over years is shown in Table-1. For 1900 to 2010, the film statistics are aggregated every 10 years. For example, “1900 to 1910” refers to films released between Jan. 01, 1900 and Jan. 01, 1910. Figure 1 shows the growth of cinematographer, composer, costume-designer, director, editor, miscellaneous workers, producer, production-designer, and writer categories. And Figure 2 shows growth in the number of actors and actresses. </p>
                <p>From Figure 1, we can see the dramatic increase in the number of credited producers and miscellaneous workers (below-the-line film crew) over time. After years of steady increase, the number of producers took off around 1975, the same year that saw the release of modern blockbuster prototype 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Jaws</hi>. Our findings put a direct link between the spreading of the blockbuster business model and the number of producers on board. The miscellaneous worker category displays an even steeper rise. Interestingly, the time of dramatic increase coincides with that of producers – around 1975, but its down size in the early 1990s has no parallels. This graph pinpoints key historical moments for further investigation in the area of union activities, film labor division and representation. Finally from Figure 2 we can see that the gap between male and female cast has remained steady over a century. The biggest gap, however, does not appear in recent years when superhero films reign at the box office – probably thanks to an increased awareness of gender equality – but in the period of 1925 to 1945. Our findings invite further scrutiny into the pre-Paramount Decree (1948) years to study gender dynamics in Hollywood. From this perspective, the conventionally-defined golden age of Hollywood studio era (1927–1960) (Bordwell et al., 1985) may not be as seamlessly continuous as once conceived. 
                </p>
                <figure>
                   <graphic url=""608/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                 <head>Figure 1 Average number of crews excluding actors and actress per film</head>
                </figure>

                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""608/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                  <head>Figure 2 Average number of actors and actress per film</head>
                </figure>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell/>
                        <cell>ACTOR</cell>
                        <cell>ACTRESS</cell>
                        <cell>CINEMATOGRAPHER</cell>
                        <cell>COMPOSER</cell>
                        <cell>COSTUMER</cell>
                        <cell>DIRECTOR</cell>
                        <cell>EDITOR</cell>
                        <cell>MISC</cell>
                        <cell>PRODUCER</cell>
                        <cell>PRODUCTION</cell>
                        <cell>WRITER</cell>
                        <cell>Movie count</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>1900 to 1910</cell>
                        <cell>9.57</cell>
                        <cell>6.57</cell>
                        <cell>0.57</cell>
                        <cell>0.29</cell>
                        <cell>0.00</cell>
                        <cell>2.14</cell>
                        <cell>0.00</cell>
                        <cell>0.14</cell>
                        <cell>1.14</cell>
                        <cell>0.14</cell>
                        <cell>2.00</cell>
                        <cell>7</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>1910 to 1920</cell>
                        <cell>9.67</cell>
                        <cell>4.96</cell>
                        <cell>0.94</cell>
                        <cell>0.08</cell>
                        <cell>0.05</cell>
                        <cell>2.12</cell>
                        <cell>0.08</cell>
                        <cell>0.24</cell>
                        <cell>0.76</cell>
                        <cell>0.04</cell>
                        <cell>1.73</cell>
                        <cell>347</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>1920 to 1930</cell>
                        <cell>10.56</cell>
                        <cell>4.87</cell>
                        <cell>1.29</cell>
                        <cell>0.40</cell>
                        <cell>0.15</cell>
                        <cell>2.14</cell>
                        <cell>0.37</cell>
                        <cell>0.68</cell>
                        <cell>0.83</cell>
                        <cell>0.07</cell>
                        <cell>2.61</cell>
                        <cell>492</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>1930 to 1940</cell>
                        <cell>19.40</cell>
                        <cell>6.23</cell>
                        <cell>1.31</cell>
                        <cell>0.91</cell>
                        <cell>0.26</cell>
                        <cell>2.16</cell>
                        <cell>0.81</cell>
                        <cell>0.96</cell>
                        <cell>1.01</cell>
                        <cell>0.28</cell>
                        <cell>3.16</cell>
                        <cell>971</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>1940 to 1950</cell>
                        <cell>21.89</cell>
                        <cell>7.64</cell>
                        <cell>1.26</cell>
                        <cell>1.01</cell>
                        <cell>0.33</cell>
                        <cell>2.24</cell>
                        <cell>1.06</cell>
                        <cell>1.46</cell>
                        <cell>1.14</cell>
                        <cell>0.43</cell>
                        <cell>3.20</cell>
                        <cell>613</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>1950 to 1960</cell>
                        <cell>19.52</cell>
                        <cell>8.72</cell>
                        <cell>1.19</cell>
                        <cell>0.99</cell>
                        <cell>0.34</cell>
                        <cell>2.41</cell>
                        <cell>0.95</cell>
                        <cell>1.60</cell>
                        <cell>1.26</cell>
                        <cell>0.48</cell>
                        <cell>3.18</cell>
                        <cell>863</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>1960 to 1970</cell>
                        <cell>17.37</cell>
                        <cell>8.52</cell>
                        <cell>1.15</cell>
                        <cell>0.91</cell>
                        <cell>0.35</cell>
                        <cell>2.60</cell>
                        <cell>0.96</cell>
                        <cell>1.31</cell>
                        <cell>1.27</cell>
                        <cell>0.43</cell>
                        <cell>3.00</cell>
                        <cell>1045</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>1970 to 1980</cell>
                        <cell>16.59</cell>
                        <cell>7.90</cell>
                        <cell>1.01</cell>
                        <cell>0.84</cell>
                        <cell>0.29</cell>
                        <cell>2.50</cell>
                        <cell>0.82</cell>
                        <cell>1.97</cell>
                        <cell>1.49</cell>
                        <cell>0.30</cell>
                        <cell>2.60</cell>
                        <cell>1301</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>1980 to 1990</cell>
                        <cell>18.21</cell>
                        <cell>9.51</cell>
                        <cell>0.91</cell>
                        <cell>0.84</cell>
                        <cell>0.34</cell>
                        <cell>2.71</cell>
                        <cell>0.86</cell>
                        <cell>3.69</cell>
                        <cell>1.98</cell>
                        <cell>0.38</cell>
                        <cell>2.75</cell>
                        <cell>1559</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>1990 to 2000</cell>
                        <cell>18.47</cell>
                        <cell>11.06</cell>
                        <cell>0.95</cell>
                        <cell>0.83</cell>
                        <cell>0.38</cell>
                        <cell>2.96</cell>
                        <cell>1.04</cell>
                        <cell>5.86</cell>
                        <cell>2.90</cell>
                        <cell>0.34</cell>
                        <cell>2.89</cell>
                        <cell>2127</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>2000 to 2010</cell>
                        <cell>15.89</cell>
                        <cell>8.84</cell>
                        <cell>1.18</cell>
                        <cell>0.90</cell>
                        <cell>0.30</cell>
                        <cell>2.60</cell>
                        <cell>1.35</cell>
                        <cell>5.54</cell>
                        <cell>3.68</cell>
                        <cell>0.32</cell>
                        <cell>2.37</cell>
                        <cell>5458</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>2010 to 2015</cell>
                        <cell>15.47</cell>
                        <cell>8.26</cell>
                        <cell>1.29</cell>
                        <cell>0.85</cell>
                        <cell>0.25</cell>
                        <cell>2.55</cell>
                        <cell>1.36</cell>
                        <cell>4.35</cell>
                        <cell>4.50</cell>
                        <cell>0.31</cell>
                        <cell>2.37</cell>
                        <cell>5655</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>after 2015</cell>
                        <cell>18.04</cell>
                        <cell>9.50</cell>
                        <cell>1.17</cell>
                        <cell>0.65</cell>
                        <cell>0.30</cell>
                        <cell>3.04</cell>
                        <cell>1.11</cell>
                        <cell>5.37</cell>
                        <cell>5.57</cell>
                        <cell>0.37</cell>
                        <cell>2.47</cell>
                        <cell>252</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Table 1 Average number of crew per film from 1900 to 2015</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Summary</head>
                <p>In summary, these preliminary findings illustrate the mechanism of using computation to analyze the credits of a large number of films across historical periods. The inquiries described above all fall into the category of the “personnel.” There are three other categories for future considerations: companies, procedures, and technologies. We believe that the computation-aided study of film credits will detect patterns or gaps, which will serve as important clues and evidences to analyze the cultural dynamics of film production. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>         
              <bibl>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Allison, D.</hi> (2001). <hi rend=""italic"">Promises in the Dark: Opening Title Sequences in American Feature Films of the Sound Period</hi>. Dissertation. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
              </bibl>
              <bibl>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Bordwell, D., Staiger, J. and Thompson, K.</hi> (1985). <hi rend=""italic"">The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960</hi>. New York, NY, USA: Columbia University Press.
              </bibl>
              <bibl>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Caldwell, J. T.</hi> (2008). <hi rend=""italic"">Production Culture: Industrial Reflexivity and Critical Practice in Film and Television</hi>. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
              </bibl>
              <bibl>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Carman, E. S.</hi> (2008). Independent Stardom: Female Film Stars and the Studio System in the 1930s. <hi rend=""italic"">Women’s Studies: An Inter-disciplinary Journal</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>(6): 583–615.
              </bibl>
              <bibl>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Chisholm, A.</hi> (2000). Missing Persons and Bodies of Evidence. <hi rend=""italic"">Camera Obscura</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">15</hi>(1): 122–61.
              </bibl>
              <bibl>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Clark, D.</hi> (1995). <hi rend=""italic"">Negotiating Hollywood: The Cultural Politics of Actors’ Labor</hi>. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
              </bibl>
              <bibl>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Crawford, J. A. M.</hi> (2013). <hi rend=""italic"">Film Credit</hi>. Dissertataion. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
              </bibl>
              <bibl>
                <hi rend=""bold"">de Mourgues, N.</hi> (1993). <hi rend=""italic"">Le Générique de Film</hi>. Paris: Méridiens Klincksieck.
              </bibl>
              <bibl>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Gay, P.d.</hi> (1997). <hi rend=""italic"">Production of Culture/Cultures of Production</hi>. London: Sage.
              </bibl>
              <bibl>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Horkheimer, M. and Adorno, T. W.</hi> (1997). <hi rend=""italic"">Dialectic of Enlightenment</hi>. Translated by J. Cumming. New York: Continuum.
              </bibl>
              <bibl>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Moinereau, L.</hi> (2009). <hi rend=""italic"">Le Générique de Film: de la Lettre à la Figure</hi>. Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes.
              </bibl>
              <bibl>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Straw, W.</hi> (2010). Letters of Introduction: Film Credits and Cityscapes. <hi rend=""italic"">Design and Culture: The Journal of the Design Studies Forum</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(2): 155–65.
              </bibl>
              <bibl>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Tylski, A.</hi> (2009). <hi rend=""italic"">Le Générique au Cinéma: Histoire et Fonctions d’un Fragment Hybride</hi>. Lille: Presses Universitaires du Mirial.
              </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2697","17","Computers on Law & Order","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""36/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Detailed accounts have been written of mainframes and cloud computing, social media and online commerce, but there are few books about the more humble aspects of technological culture. Screensavers, bubble-jet printers, computer desks, and other physical technologies are thrown in the trash or overwritten with new versions; the way we talk about computers, the “Web,” and the ways technology shapes culture has changed considerably since the birth of the PC. This paper examines how we can find anthropological details about our relationship with technology through popular media, specifically the television program 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Law and Order</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>In 2012, I was commissioned by the new media arts organization Rhizome to create a project recording every computer on 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Law and Order</hi>. After watching all 319 hours of the show (or the equivalent of about two straight months watching 40-hours a week) and extracting approximately 11,000 screenshots of computers and related technologies, it is clear that 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Law and Order</hi> forms a unique database of images and speech, and one that reflects the fascinations, fears, and biases of its time. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Law and Order’s</hi> long run and its “ripped from the headlines” content makes it a useful lens with which to look at a period of great political and economic change in the United States. In particular, the show coincides with a major cultural shift: the rise and eventual ubiquity of computers and networked technologies over a crucial 20-year period in technological history.
            </p>
            <p>Using my 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Computers on Law and Order</hi> project as a case study, this paper focuses on how these kind of details that can be unearthed from popular media, and that in fact such sources may be the only way to recover the most mundane details. Through a series of categorized screenshots and quotations, I examine several pathways through the archive of the show: the physical infrastructure of computers from shared desktop terminals to smartphones, the development of software interfaces from often-faked text-only input to interactive graphical user interfaces, and peripherals such as mice and printers.
            </p>
            <p>The project can be viewed at: 
                <ref target=""http://www.computersonlawandorder.tumblr.com"">http://www.computersonlawandorder.tumblr.com</ref>
            </p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2698","17","Conjuring up the Artist from the Archives: Ivar Arosenius. Digitization and Coordination of Archives for Enhanced Accessibility and Research","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>How can our understanding of an artist be deepened and developed through digital materials and methods? How can we develop tools for a better understanding of previous practices in conjuring up, modifying and curating artists and works of art in museum exhibitions, publications and studies? What ideological and practical considerations and presuppositions have governed the presentations that have formed the artist for the public consideration? </p>
            <p>These are questions we investigate through a three-year project about Ivar Arosenius, a Swedish artist and writer. His main body of work was produced during the last few years that led up to his untimely death in early 1909, only 30 years of age and within months of his big breakthrough. During the subsequent years and decades, his substantial production earned him recognition posthumously both nationally and internationally, and today he is one of the most renowned Swedish artists. </p>
            <p>At the core of the project is the development of a digital archive that collects the digitized material from several sources, both public and private, into a central repository, allowing scholars and the public to view, filter, and combine the entirety in new ways, and, through public APIs that we make available, explore, activate and make use of this rich material on various platforms. In addition to this, the project has also instigated a number of studies of what knowledge and aspects can be added through different technological developments, as well as what knowledge and values are lost or threatened in a digitization process. The poster focuses on two advanced studies; the processes involved in translating a physical archive into a digital, and methods through which to give body, context, and affect back to a digitized material. In the former study, we follow the material as it travels from the manuscript vault into the digitization studio, mapping all the actants involved in shedding it of its physicality. This is a translation process that functions to rephrase the archival material with the purpose of making it mobile and conform to those protocols that define something as being digital. This rephrasing does not only remove physicality, but does also introduce a whole new vocabulary that in many ways replaces the one that art historians, archivists and conservators use to describe the manuscripts. </p>
            <p>The latter study explores material pertaining to Arosenius’ home in Älvängen, torn down in the early seventies after decades of neglect. Using the archive as a source, a virtual model is assembled in a game engine where the connection between artist, art and place is investigated to catch the way Arosenius has translated his surroundings and to contextualize the documents of the archive. </p>
            <p>As with the digital archive, with this interactive reconstruction we aim to construct a synthesis of a heterogeneous and sometimes conflicting material that can be used both as an access-point to the life of Ivar Arosenius and his art, and as a repository: built on a source material consisting of archival photos, local stories and historic maps, paintings, 3d-scanned artefacts, sound recordings, and inventories of both the belongings of the artist and his family, and of the vegetation on his lands, the digital construction is a knowledge-model containing all the material pertaining to this part of the artists’ life. As such, of central interest for the study is how to communicate interpretative practices to the user, balancing an incomplete source material with the need to create a space that can inspire affect. </p>
            <p>Just as the archive contains a translation of Arosenius’ home, first into documents and files, and later, when digitized, into bits, the reconstruction of Arosenius’ home is a translation of bits into context. It is an investigation into both the limits of the <hi rend=""bold"">archive view</hi>, that which the archive lets us perceive, and the produce of activating and giving depth to the archive by bringing it together with the site of its origin. In the study, we frame the act of digitally reconstructing a site as an iterative research method of investigation and translation between different media, that allow a disparate material to be collected, studied, and processed simultaneously. Arosenius’ Älvängen is at the centre of this study as it is the locus of the art, and also the place of the life that the archive tries to represent. As such, it is the archaeo-archival embodiment of the artist’s archive.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""594/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""594/image2.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>The project involves a number of departments and divisions at the University of Gothenburg as well as the Swedish National Museum in Stockholm, and the Museum of Art in Gothenburg.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2699","17","Constructing Evidence in the Photographic Archive: The Experience of Digital Humanists","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Widespread digitization of cultural heritage materials has presented scholars with unprecedented access to primary sources. For digital humanities scholars, who craft arguments from examination of primary sources, increased access to materials has been celebrated as the “democratization of historical research” (Bolick, 2006). Presumably, such changes in archival research environments have influenced how humanist scholars work. Indeed, recent research has confirmed that technological advancements have significantly impacted scholarly practices (Rutner and Schonfeld, 2012; Chassanoff, 2013). Yet 
                <hi rend=""italic"">how</hi> humanists evaluate and use digitalsource materials to construct narratives is less well-understood. 
            </p>
            <p>In this paper, I report on findings from a one year qualitative study examining digital humanists’ scholarly use of one kind of digital source material - digitized archival photographs. Using a case study approach, I examine the practices and processes at play in the construction of historical evidence. This research is guided by the following questions:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>How and why are digital humanists using digitized archival photographs in their research and teaching activities? </item>
                <item>What factors and qualities matter to them in their experiences in the photographic digital archive? </item>
            </list>
            <p>The goal of this study is to provide an in-depth, holistic understanding of a complex interaction space made up of, but not limited to: digital surrogates of archival objects, user perceptions and attitudes, environmental constraints, and historical training and orientation. Empirical research in digital environments tends to focus on single components of the interaction (e.g., user and interface; user and artifact) as they relate to specific aspects of information behavior, or to conceptualize information use as the successful fulfillment of stated information needs. Yet such perspectives do not attend to the impact that ecological factors may have on user interactions with materials. Adopting a phenomenological stance enables a focus on understanding “how persons construct meaning” through examinations of their particular experiences with certain phenomenon (Wilson, 2002). In this study, exploring 
                <hi rend=""italic"">how and why </hi>scholars use digital photographs helps to reveal the emergent qualities and attributes that make this experience meaningful for participants. 
            </p>
            <p>Semi-structured interviews were conducted with sixteen participants (9 men and 7 women) throughout the spring and summer of 2015. Recruited participants came from a variety of academic departments, including History, English, African-American Studies, American Studies, Classical Studies, and Musicology. Each participant pre-selected two examples of digitized archival photographs they had used in research and teaching. Two customized web pages, which I termed 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Photograph Scenarios</hi>, were created in an attempt to replicate where possible their original experience viewing and encountering the digital photograph. I also collected supplementary materials related to each participant’s image use, including conference presentations, class presentations, course syllabus, dissertation chapters, and journal articles. Data were analyzed using open coding and thematic analysis in order to surface salient aspects of the experience related to interpretation and use. To strengthen and verify the analysis, triangulation across data sources was employed. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""613/image1.PNG"" rend=""inline""/>
            <p>
                <head>Figure 1: Photograph Scenario used in interview from Library of Congress collection (http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2002707085/)</head>
            </p>
            </figure>
            <p>The findings presented in this paper shed light on both practical concerns and intellectual challenges that surface throughout the experience of constructing historical evidence. Descriptive quotations from interview transcripts alongside examples of image use illustrate the functional ways humanists are using digitized archival photographs in their scholarly activities (e.g., to make historical assertions, to corroborate existing information, etc.). A typology illustrating how scholars use digital photographs is presented below. </p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">HUMANIST USED PHOTOGRAPH TO….</hi>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">INTERVIEW EXCERPT</hi>
                    </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Corroborate existing information</hi>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>""A lot of times we need to look at these historic photos to actually know what it actually looked like and not just our idea of what it looked like""</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Make historical assertions</hi>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>""And I was having trouble finding certain types of ferries that I know existed because of other records. You know, like you would find references to their being a rope ferry, but then you could never find a photo to see exactly what they meant by that.""</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reference historical documentation</hi>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>""Because we were working on just one of the bridges, and as you can see from where they had, it's on the well, the left and the right side, it shows the different bridges that were there.""</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elicit reactions from viewer</hi>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>""But I'd always try to find good touristy photos to show some good 60s and 70s touristy photos or whatever, just to make it livelier""</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Present community perceptions at time of creation</hi>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>“…it’s sort of like what did the community, or the boosters of the community, think was important? Because, hey, it's what they were trying to put out for the public…”</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Juxtapose against other sources</hi>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>""Yeah, and that's exactly what I did, is I put it in conversation with other images like it.""</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Table 1: Typologies of Use</p>
            <p>The cases presented demonstrate the extent to which material conditions of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">experience</hi> (rather than the tools through which users discovered or accessed resources) can impact interpretive practices and further use. 
            </p>
            <p>One salient theme is the factors that motivate participants to use photographs. In one case study, a participant discovered a “vernacular body of images” that led them to collect similar types of visual sources. In another case, a participant selected their project topic after encountering multiple published images depicting what they term “radical masculinity” in the Communist party. They describe their discovery experience: “But then I started noticing there was a lot of- not this image in particular- but there were several other ones that were repeatedly published, of Communists bandaged and showing black eyes and stuff, after confrontations with the police or vigilantes, so that was the first thing I noted.” </p>
            <p> Other cases illustrate the discrepancies between viewing digital photographs online and encountering them in person. In one case, a participant describes the advantages of obtaining a high quality scan from an archivist rather than accessing and using the “tiny tiny little print” displayed in the online collection. In another case, a participant attributes the discovery of a number of details that became central to their historical argument only after viewing a physical version of the photograph in person: </p>
            <quote>So, there are a whole number of things that I never would have seen [if I hadn’t also viewed the photograph in person], I think. And a whole range of- you know, the physical image has a whole affect to it that you don't get from a glowing screen.… I can look at the digital image from the [library], and zoom and zoom in to see it, but I never would have seen [this important detail] if I was just looking at a 2 inch by 3 inch digital version.</quote>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Both of these examples demonstrate the importance of individual scholars’ interpretive experiences as a means for understanding the conditions that enable further use of these primary sources. </p>
            <p>Digital humanities scholars undoubtedly face a number of practical and hermeneutic challenges in using source materials from digital archival research environments. As spaces of knowledge production, online archives must support numerous heterogeneous practices in order to remain useful and relevant. At the same time, navigating online archives to find and use sources requires digital humanists to be competent at varying levels, including: interfaces, digitization quality, overall orientation to the archive, and domain-specific heuristics (Yakel and Torres, 2003). </p>
            <p> While there has been unquestionable growth in access to digital archival materials, there have been few empirical attempts to understand the factors and qualities that matter to scholars as they interact with digital sources. The case studies presented in this paper will inform design and development efforts in the digital humanities community by focusing on the end-users of these systems and their needs. A holistic, methodological approach which emphasizes scholars’ experiences evaluating, interpreting and using materials in scholarly activities allows for an exploration of the mediating factors underlying these practices. Such an orientation enables us to extend our attention beyond simply exploring the material constraints of resource discovery and access, which are often modeled on analog approaches to communication. Instead, this study broadens the emphasis to, in the words of Gregory Bateson, “the difference that makes a difference.”</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bateson, G.</hi> (1972). <hi rend=""italic"">Steps to an Ecology of Mind.</hi> Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bolick, C.</hi> (2006). Digital archives: Democratizing the doing of history. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The International Journal of Social Education</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(1): 122.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Chassanoff, A.</hi> (2013). Historians and the Use of Primary Source Materials in the Digital Age. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The American Archivist</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">76</hi>(2): 458-80.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Collier, J. and Collier, M.</hi> (1986). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Visual Anthropology: Photography as a Research Method.</hi> Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rutner, J. and Schonfeld, R. C.</hi> (2012). Supporting the Changing Research Practices of Historians
                        <hi rend=""italic"">. Final Report from ITHAKA S+R Research Publications</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Stone, S.</hi> (1982). Humanities scholars: Information needs and uses. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Documentation</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">38</hi>(4): 673-91.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Wilson, T. D.</hi> (2002). Alfred Schutz, phenomenology and research methodology for information behaviour research. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Information Seeking in Context</hi>. Lisbon: Universidade Lusiada.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Yakel, E. and Torres, D.</hi> (2003). AI: Archival intelligence and user expertise. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The American Archivist</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">66</hi>(1): 51–78.
                    </bibl>
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            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2700","17","Converting the Liddell Scott Greek-English Lexicon into Linked Open Data using lemon","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>The emergence and growing popularity of Linked Open Data (LOD) offers researchers a new range of possibilities when it comes to publishing datasets online (Hyvönen 2012, Oomen et al 2012); indeed not only does the success of LOD greatly facilitate the process of making scholarly data accessible and to a wider community but it also permits the enrichment of individual datasets by linking them to the other datasets available on the so called Linked Open Data Cloud.   The advantages of Linked Open Data for teachers, academics and students in the humanities are obvious and are indeed manifold. However there is currently a paucity of linked open datasets in fields such as philology and literary studies, and in particular of datasets that deal with classical languages such as ancient Greek, Sanskrit, and Latin. This seems strange given the rich abundance of surviving works, of both a religious and secular character, that exist in those languages. A salient consideration here relates to the fact that even when such works have been digitised and made available in a format such as TEI-XML, a format which renders the structure and content of such texts more amenable to computer processing, the conversion of these resources into the Resource Data Framework (RDF), the standardised data model that underpins the Semantic Web, is not always straightforward.   </p>
                <p>In this article we describe ongoing work in the conversion of an important 19th century Ancient Greek resource the Liddell-Scott-Jones Lexicon, into RDF, part of a wider program of work that has been recently initiated at CNR-ILC in converting historical lexicons in languages such as Greek, Latin and Arabic into Linked Open Data.  </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Background</head>
                <p>The Liddell-Scott-Jones lexicon (LSJ), or to give it its original title “A Greek-English lexicon”, is a bilingual ancient Greek-English dictionary which since its first edition was published in the mid-nineteenth century has come to be regarded as amongst the most authoritative of modern day lexicographic resources dealing with the ancient Greek language, indeed it has the reputation of a standard in the field. As a result of its popularity the LSJ has been made available in a number of different versions differing in terms of the number of entries and the amount of data which they contain. For the work described in this paper we are using an abridged version of the LSJ which was originally published as “An Intermediate Greek-English lexicon,” but which is more colloquially known as the “Middle Liddell” (ML).  Fig. 1 shows the lexical entry for the adjective <hi rend=""italic"">ἀληθής </hi> (alēthēs) in the ML. Entries in the ML are structured into different nested (sub-)senses, and each of these senses contain references (usually just the name of an author) attesting the use of the word as described in the sense’s gloss.  
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""310/image1.jpg""/>
                        <head>Fig 1. An entry from the “Middle Liddell”</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>There were a number of motivations for choosing the LSJ as a starting point of our work into converting legacy lexical resources into linked data: aside of course from the question of its historical importance and continuing influence in the field of philology. Firstly we felt that given the lack of ancient Greek lexical resources in linked open data -- at the time of writing the Linguistic Linked Open Data cloud (Chiarcos et al 2011), that part of the LOD cloud that deals with linguistic data, contains no ancient Greek datasets -- there was an obvious necessity to ensure a presence on the cloud for a language that is absolutely foundational to the history of Western civilisation. Additionally there was also the challenge of converting a legacy resource like the LSJ which in its published form, and even in an abridged version like the ML, manages to condense a significant amount of lexical information in a relatively short amount of text, into linked data. In order to represent this information in the RDF model, and to stay close to the spirit of the Linked Open Data movement, a lot of what was implicit in the original text had to be teased out and rendered explicit.</p>
                <p>Finally, one very important practical reason for choosing the ML was the fact that the conversion of the ML into XML using the TEI dictionary guidelines had already been carried out and made freely available under a creative commons license by the Perseus project (Crane et al 2013). This obviously saved us the trouble of digitizing the text ourselves and meant that we could work from a source file that was already annotated for lexical entries, senses, translations, etc.</p>
                <p>In Fig 2 below we present the TEI-XML encoding of the ML entry for ἀληθής from the Perseus XML version of the ML which we used as our source dataset.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""310/10000000000004E3000001E7B8F46CBD.png""/>
                        <head>Fig 2. The TEI-XML encoding of the ML entry for ἀληθής.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>The TEI-XML encoding for each entry already contains most of the information which we wish to represent in RDF marked up, and so the actual processing of the dataset was fairly straightforward.  The part of the conversion which, however, did call for some thought was the use of the <hi rend=""italic"">lemon</hi> model to structure the RDF translation. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Translating the Middle Liddell in RDF using <hi rend=""italic"">lemon</hi></head>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head/>
                <p>For the conversion of the TEI-XML version of the ML we decided to use the <hi rend=""italic"">lemon</hi> model for publishing lexicons in RDF (McCrae et al 2011, McCrae et al 2012). <hi rend=""italic"">lemon</hi> has by now become a de facto standard for converting lexicographic resources into RDF and has been used to convert a number of important lexical resources such as Wordnet (McCrae 2014), UBY (Eckle-Kohler et al 2014), Wiktionary (McCrae et al 2012), and Parole/Simple/Clips (Del Gratta et al 2015).  The Linked Open Data movement emphasises the re-use of general vocabularies and models in order to ensure semantic interoperability between datasets. And so given the widespread use of <hi rend=""italic"">lemon</hi> in converting lexical resources into RDF, and given the lack of a more specific alternative specifically tailored for lexicographic resources like the ML, we decided to use it as the framework for our conversion. However using <hi rend=""italic"">lemon</hi> for the conversion has not been without its challenges. One of the primary difficulties rests in the fact that <hi rend=""italic"">lemon</hi> was originally intended as an onomasiological model, that it is, it was designed with the perspective in mind of enriching an already existing ontological or conceptual resource with linguistic information (Cimiano et al 2013). However in our case we started out with a very rich lexical resource but without any particular pre-ordained ontological or conceptual datasets in mind to which to link it. In fact we are not currently using the lemon:reference relation to link our dataset to others.</p>
                <p>The ML in particular and the LSJ more generally represent lexical resources that have a specific and relatively complex way of encoding information and that contain a lot of philological and historical data alongside or in addition to “pure” semantic information. Therefore in in order to ensure a faithful translation we had to define a number of new classes and relations in addition to those in <hi rend=""italic"">lemon</hi>. In what follows below we will briefly describe (most of) the additional classes and properties which were introduced in order to model the ML and which together make up the lemonLSJ module. Fig. 3 below is a diagram showing classes and properties in the lemonLSJ module and their relation to some of the main classes.</p>
                <p>The new class lemonLSJ:Gloss represents the written text associated with each sense; the object relation lemonLSJ:gloss then links elements of this class to lemon senses. The lemonLSJ:usage relation links a sense to an ontological resource describing where that sense was used, e.g., by linking to an author or work where that sense can be found.<note xml:id=""ftn0"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">We made the decision not to include CTS URNs describing particular works or copora, since this data is usually not included in the LM. This data is however available in the Perseus version of the LSJ (though not the ML) and we plan to include it when we come to convert the LSJ into RDF.</note> We have also added the relations lemonLSJ:senseChild, and lemonLSJ:senseSibling in order to represent the nesting of subsenses in ML entries.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""310/1000020100000246000000C2A594EBAA.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 3 The lemonLSJ module.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>In Fig 4 we present an excerpt of the lemonLSJ RDF-Turtle encoding of the ML entry for ἀληθής with only two of the attached senses represented.  Note that we have linked the second of the word senses in Fig 4 to instances in the VIAF dataset (in this case the entries for Herodotus and Homer).</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""310/1000000000000355000002B34393DC9D.png""/>
                        <head>Fig. 4 Excerpt of the RDF encoding of an ML entry.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>The diagram in Fig. 5 shows how the nesting of senses is treated in the RDF encoding.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""310/image5.jpeg""/>
                        <head>Fig. 5 Sense diagram.</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Conclusions and future work</head>
                <p>In this paper we have briefly described ongoing work in the conversion of an ancient Greek-English lexicon into RDF. Currently we are manually checking the RDF triples resulting from our conversion scripts and we also plan to additionally link the senses to Princeton Wordnet synsets by checking similarity of the glosses to synset glosses. The resulting dataset will soon be made available as an RDF dump together with other lexical resources of ILC CNR.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Acknowledgments</head>
                <p>First of all we would like to thank Perseus project for converting the data and for making it freely available.  Thanks also to the organisers of the <hi rend=""italic"">mylider</hi> 2015  Summer Datathon, during which some of this work was carried out, for their advice.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bennett, R., Hengel-Dittrich, C., O’Neill, E. T. and Tillett, B. B.</hi> (2006). Viaf (virtual international authority file): Linking die deutsche bibliothek and library of congress name authority files. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">World Library and Information Congress: 72nd IFLA General Conference and Council</hi>. Citeseer http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.150.5328&rep=rep1&type=pdf (accessed 29 October 2015).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bizzoni, Y., Boschetti, F., Del Gratta, R., Diakoff, H., Monachini, M. and Crane, G.</hi> (2014). The Making of Ancient Greek WordNet. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Language Resources and Evaluation Conference, Iceland</hi>. http://www.lrec-conf.org/proceedings/lrec2014/pdf/1071_Paper.pdf (accessed 29 October 2015).
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Chiarcos, C., Hellmann, S. and Nordhoff, S.</hi> (2011). Towards a Linguistic Linked Open Data cloud: The Open Linguistics Working Group. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">TAL</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">52</hi>(3): 245–75.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cimiano, P., McCrae, J., Buitelaar, P. and Montiel-Ponsoda, E.</hi> (2013). On the Role of Senses in the Ontology-Lexicon. In Oltramari, A., Vossen, P., Qin, L. and Hovy, E. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Trends of Research in Ontologies and Lexical Resources</hi>. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 43–62. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-31782-8_4 (accessed 31 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Crane, G., Almas, B., Babeu, A., Cerrato, L., Krohn, A., Baumgart, F., Berti, M., Franzini, G. and Stoyanova, S.</hi> (2014). Cataloging for a Billion Word Library of Greek and Latin. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the First International Conference on Digital Access to Textual Cultural Heritage</hi>. (DATeCH ’14). New York, NY, USA: ACM, pp. 83–88. doi:10.1145/2595188.2595190. http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/2595188.2595190 (accessed 29 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Del Gratta, R., Frontini, F., Khan, F. and Monachini, M.</hi> (2015). Converting the parole simple clips lexicon into rdf with lemon. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Semantic Web Journal</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(4): 387–92.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eckle-Kohler, J., McCrae, J. and Chiarcos, C.</hi> (2014). LemonUby-a large, interlinked, syntactically-rich resource for ontologies. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Semantic Web Journal, Submitted. Special Issue on Multilingual Linked Open Data</hi> http://www.semantic-web-journal.net/system/files/swj404.pdf (accessed 29 October 2015).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elliott, T. and Gillies, S.</hi> (2009). Digital geography and classics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(1).
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Francopoulo, G.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">LMF Lexical Markup Framework</hi>. John Wiley & Sons.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hyvönen, E.</hi> (2012). Publishing and Using Cultural Heritage Linked Data on the Semantic Web. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Synthesis Lectures on the Semantic Web: Theory and Technology</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1): 1–159. doi:10.2200/S00452ED1V01Y201210WBE003.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Janowicz, K.</hi> (2009). The Role of Place for the Spatial Referencing of Heritage Data. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Cultural Heritage of Historic European Cities and Public Participatory GIS Workshop.</hi>. The University of York, UK, pp. 17–18.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Liddell, H. G. and Scott, R.</hi> (1896). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon: Founded upon the Seventh Edition of Liddell and Scott’s Greek-English Lexicon</hi>. Harper & Brothers.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCrae, J., Aguado-de-Cea, G., Buitelaar, P., Cimiano, P., Declerck, T., Gómez-Pérez, A., Gracia, J. et al.</hi> (2012a). Interchanging lexical resources on the Semantic Web. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language Resources and Evaluation</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">46</hi>(4): 701–19.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCrae, J., Fellbaum, C. and Cimiano, P.</hi> (2014). Publishing and Linking WordNet using lemon and RDF. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Linked Data in Linguistics</hi>. http://pub.uni-bielefeld.de/download/2732779/2732785 (accessed 29 October 2015).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCrae, J., Montiel-Ponsoda, E. and Cimiano, P.</hi> (2012b). Integrating WordNet and Wiktionary with lemon. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Linked Data in Linguistics</hi>. Springer, pp. 25–34. http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-28249-2_3 (accessed 29 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCrae, J., Spohr, D. and Cimiano, P.</hi> (2011). Linking lexical resources and ontologies on the semantic web with lemon. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Semantic Web: Research and Applications</hi>. Springer, pp. 245–59. http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-21034-1_17 (accessed 29 October 2015).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Minozzi, S.</hi> (2009). 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Oomen, J., Baltussen, L. B. and Erp, M. van</hi> (2012). Sharing cultural heritage the linked open data way: Why you should sign up. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Museums and the Web</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2701","17","correspSearch - A Web Service to Connect Diverse Scholarly Editions of Letters","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Letters are an important historical source: First, they may contain comments from contemporaries about the most different events, persons, publications, and issues. Second, letters allow insights about connections and networks between correspondence partners. So, questions occur which can only be answered across the borders of scholarly letter editions due to the fact that these editions are usually focussed on partial correspondences (of a certain person or between two specific persons). But this requires time-consuming searches across various letter editions. This has been a well-known problem for quite some time, now (Bunzel, 2013: 117) and has already evoked work on a few databases dedicated to correspondence, like e.g. “Early Modern Letters Online”.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p> Early Modern Letters Online (EMLO), 
                        <ref target=""http://emlo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/"">http://emlo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/</ref>, is the one with the largest databases, but also includes data from other databases like “Circulation of Knowledge and Learned Practices in the 17th-century Dutch Republic”, 
                        <ref target=""http://ckcc.huygens.knaw.nl/"">http://ckcc.huygens.knaw.nl/</ref>. Besides this, there also exist more focused databases like “Exilnetz33”, 
                        <ref target=""http://exilnetz33.de"">http://exilnetz33.de</ref>.
                    </p>
                </note> But these databases have some limitations: firstly, they focus on specific research questions, time periods, geographic areas, or certain material.  Secondly, they don’t provide an open, standard-based and well-documented way to provide and update data. Furthermore, the data can be searched and displayed, but only on a simple website. In none of the existing databases dedicated to edited letters it is possible to query and retrieve the data via an Application Programming Interface (API) and under a free license for subsequent use.
            </p>
            <p>The mentioned methodic problem has lead Wolfgang Bunzel, who works in the field of research about the Romanticism, to request:</p>
            <quote>‘the creation of a decentralized, preferably open digital platform, based on HTML/XML and operating with minimal TEI standards, which is extensible in different directions and allows for existing web portals and websites to contribute at the lowest possible cost. This doesn’t request some kind of super structure which covers the entire amount of letters from the Romantic era (which could not be estimated exactly, anyway) but rather an intelligent linking system, which associates existing documents with one another. The creation of such nexus will naturally lead to research options reaching from searches for persons and places to specific keyword-based searches [...]’ (Bunzel, 2013: 123)
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p> Please note, that this is my own translation into English.</p>
                </note>
            </quote>
            <p>With “correspSearch” (
                <ref target=""http://correspsearch.bbaw.de"">http://correspSearch.bbaw.de</ref>) this paper will present a web service, which takes a step in this direction by aggregating metadata of letters from various (digital or printed) scholarly editions and providing them collectively via open interfaces (Fig. 1). In doing so, it is independent from specific research questions as well as from temporal, geographic, or thematic limits.
            </p>
            <p>The basis of the web service are digital indexes of letters provided by the editions in the “Correspondence Metadata Interchange Format” (CMIF), that has been (and will further be) developed by the Correspondence Special Interest Group of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI).
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                    <p> The CMIF is maintained in a GitHub repository: 
                        <ref target=""https://github.com/TEI-Correspondence-SIG/CMIF"">https://github.com/TEI-Correspondence-SIG/CMIF</ref>
                    </p>
                </note> The CMI format is based on the TEI Guidelines and allows to interchange metadata of letters, postcards etc. between scholarly editions by restricting and normalizing the essential elements of a communication act, namely sender, addressee, dates and places of writing and receiving. Besides the consistent TEI XML encoding, interchange will be enabled by usage of ISO dates and authority controlled identifiers. Sender, addressee, sender’s place as well addressee’s place are identified unambiguously using authority IDs, as e.g. provided by the Library of Congress.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                    <p> For using authority files in scholarly editions, cf. Stadler 2012</p>
                </note> When reading the indexes of letters the web service retrieves the most common authority controlled IDs from the Virtual International Authority File (VIAF). This way, IDs from different authority files are mapped onto one another. Up till now, the web service supports VIAF, GND (“Gemeinsame Normdatei” from the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek) as well as the authority files of the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BNF), the Library of Congress (LC), and the National Diet Library (NDL) in Japan. As for place names the web service uses “GeoNames”.
            </p>
            <p>The scholarly editions themselves provide such digital indexes of letters in CMI format, online and under a free license (CC-BY 4.0). For this purpose the CMI format and its creation process is extensively documented on the correspSearch website including a FAQ section.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                    <p> See 
                        <ref target=""http://correspsearch.bbaw.de/index.xql?id=participate"">http://correspsearch.bbaw.de/index.xql?id=participate</ref>
                    </p>
                </note> After providing a CMI file online, it is only necessary to register its URL for the web service. After that the file is automatically retrieved by correspSearch periodically (and in that way updated, if necessary). 
            </p>
            <p>The aggregated letter indexes are searchable on the correspSearch website by correspondent, location, and date. Correspondent and location can be specified according to their role in the communication process. Search results are displayed based on the metadata of the individual letter, together with biographical details. Letters from digital editions are directly linked.</p>
            <p>Apart from the website an API has been implemented which allows for automatic requests to the web service.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                    <p> See 
                        <ref target=""http://correspsearch.bbaw.de/index.xql?id=api"">http://correspsearch.bbaw.de/index.xql?id=api</ref>
                    </p>
                </note> In this scenario, the results are provided in TEI-XML in the described CMIF under a CC-BY 4.0 license, thus ensuring and facilitating further use and processing of the search results. Furthermore, the web service offers BEACON files as well as an experimental TEI-JSON output.  
            </p>
            <p>Thanks to the API it is possible to automatically refer or even link from one digital letter edition to related letters provided by other editions. This function was already implemented in a prototype for the digital scholarly edition “Schleiermacher in Berlin 1808-1834” (Fig. 2).
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                    <p> The first version of the scholarly digital edition “Schleiermacher in Berlin” will be published in the next months by the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities.</p>
                </note> This feature helps researchers avoid methodological problems when interpreting a piece of correspondence: When analyzing a letter they usually consider the preceding and following letters in the correspondence between the sender and addressee, as well. However, their interpretation often does not include the letters which the correspondents send to or receive from 
                <hi rend=""italic"">other</hi> persons. With this feature the background of historical correspondences can be easily explored.
            </p>
            <p>Via the API scholars can also exploit the data basis by usage of their own innovative technologies as well as of technologies which the web service itself does not yet support technically. Therefore, with a sufficiently extended data basis and the suitable software it will be possible to perform research on e.g. social or correspondence networks based on correspSearch.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn8"" n=""8"">
                    <p>For example: the developers of the visualisation tool “nodegoat” imported the data in their application to visualize a correspondence network: 
                        <ref target=""http://correspsearch-test.nodegoat.net/viewer.p/4/136/scenario/1/geo/fullscreen"">http://correspsearch-test.nodegoat.net/viewer.p/4/136/scenario/1/geo/fullscreen</ref>
                    </p>
                </note> Furthermore, the correspSearch API was connected with the web service “XTriples”, developed by the Academy of Sciences, Humanities and Literature in Mainz (Germany). Thus the results can be converted into RDF and provided for further analyses with the help of semantic web technologies.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn9"" n=""9"">
                    <p>
                        <ref target=""http://xtriples.spatialhumanities.de"">http://xtriples.spatialhumanities.de</ref>. One prototype configuration is available under 
                        <ref target=""http://xtriples.spatialhumanities.de/examples.html"">http://xtriples.spatialhumanities.de/examples.html</ref>  
                    </p>
                </note>
            </p>
            <p>The web service correspSearch and the CMIF are still under development. In the future it should be possible to search also for mentioned persons, events, publications etc. For this purpose the enhancement of the CMI file is currently discussed (Dumont, 2015). Also additional authority files will be supported, e.g. the Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn10"" n=""10"">
                    <p>
                        <ref target=""http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabularies/tgn/"">http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabularies/tgn/</ref>
                    </p>
                </note>
            </p>
            <p>The web service correspSearch was granted the “Berlin Digital Humanities Award 2015” (First Prize, endowed with 1.200 €).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""526/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig 1: Operating principle of the web service correspSearch</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""526/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig 2: Screenshot of the digital scholarly edition “Schleiermacher in Berlin 1808-1834” (published soon), which presents letters to and from the theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The digital scholarly edition queries the correspSearch API for other letters from and to August Boeckh around the date of the letter displayed (10 september 1810). If there is a result, the edition provides links to these letters.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bunzel, W.</hi> (2013). Briefnetzwerke der Romantik. Theorie – Praxis – Edition. In Bohnenkamp, A. and Richter, E. (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Brief-Edition im digitalen Zeitalter</hi> (=Beihefte zu editio Bd. 34). Berlin/Boston: de Gruyter 2013. pp. 109-31.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dumont, S.</hi> (2015). Perspectives of the further development of the Correspondence Metadata Interchange Format (CMIF). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">digiversity — Webmagazin für Informationstechnologie in den Geisteswissenschaften.</hi>
                        <ref target=""http://digiversity.net/2015/perspectives-of-the-further-development-of-the-correspondence-metadata-interchange-format-cmif/"">http://digiversity.net/2015/perspectives-of-the-further-development-of-the-correspondence-metadata-interchange-format-cmif/</ref> (accessed 27 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stadler, P.</hi> (2012). Normdateien in der Edition. <hi rend=""italic"">Editio</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">26</hi>: 174-83.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2702","17","Creating An EpiDoc Corpus for Ancient Sicily","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                    <head>Introduction</head>
                    <p>This paper introduces the TEI P5 XML – EpiDoc corpus of inscriptions on stone for ancient Sicily, I.Sicily. The project is one of the first attempts to generate a substantial regional corpus in EpiDoc. The project is confronting a number of challenges that may be of wider interest to the digital epigraphy community, including those of unique identifiers, linked data, museum collections, mapping, and data conversion and integration, and these will be briefly outlined in the paper which will concentrate on the conversion and technical development of the project.</p>
                </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                    <head>Technical Background of I.Sicily</head>
                    <p>I.Sicily is an online, open access, digital corpus of the inscriptions on stone from ancient Sicily.
                        <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1""> The corpus will be mounted at 
                            <ptr target=""http://sicily.classics.ox.ac.uk/isicily/""/> by the time of DH2016, but is currently on a development server.
                        </note> The corpus aims to include all texts inscribed on stone, in any language, between approximately the seventh century BC and the seventh century AD. The corpus currently contains records for over 2,500 texts, and when complete is likely to contain c. 4,000. The corpus is built upon a conversion from a legacy dataset of metadata in MS Access to EpiDoc TEI XML. The XML records are held in an eXist database for xQuery access, and additionally indexed for full-text search using SOLR/Lucene. The corpus and related information (museum list, bibliography) are published as Linked Data, and are manipulated through a RESTful API. The records are queried and viewed through a web interface built with AngularJS and jQuery javascript components. Mapping is provided in the browser by the Google Maps API, and ZPR (Zoom, Pan, Rotate) image- viewing is provided by the IIIP image server.
                    </p>
                    <p> At the time of writing, the main conversion routine is being refined, and the epigraphic texts are being collated for incorporation into the records. An ancillary database of museum collections in Sicily has been constructed and bibliography is held in a Zotero library. Extensive search facilities will be provided, including map-based and bibliographic searching. Individual inscriptions and individual museums will both be provided with URIs, as will personal names and individuals; places will be referenced using Pleiades, epigraphic types, materials, and supports using the EAGLE vocabularies.</p>
                </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                    <head>The motivations for I.Sicily </head>
                    <p>The existing epigraphic landscape in Sicily is extremely diverse in two primary regards: on the one hand, the island has a very mixed cultural and linguistic make-up, meaning that the epigraphic material is itself extremely varied, with extensive use throughout antiquity of both Greek and Latin, as well as Oscan, Punic, Sikel, and Hebrew
                        <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2""> Recent overview of much of the linguistic tradition in Tribulato 2012; and of the epigraphic material in Gulletta 1999.</note>; on the other hand, the publication of this material has a very uneven record and despite an excellent pre-twentieth century tradition, the existing corpora are far from complete and the ability of key journals such as SEG or AE to keep pace with local publication has been limited. A limited number of museum-based corpora have been published in recent decades (for Catania, Palermo, Messina, and Termini Imerese, as well as the material from Lipari), but this has not greatly improved the overall situation. The combination of these two factors already means that locating, identifying, or working with a Sicilian inscription, or its publication record, is extremely challenging for anyone without extensive experience of the material. I.Sicily has been conceived in the hope of improving the situation in all these areas.
                    </p>
                </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                    <head>Multilingualism </head>
                    <p>Sicily is traditionally described as a ‘melting pot’, the ‘crossroads of the Mediterranean’. The situation created by basic technologies such as Unicode and TEI P5 EpiDoc XML mean that there is now no reason not to be language agnostic in the inclusion of material. The opportunities and possibilities offered by these technologies are considerable, since, for example, searching can be made language specific or language neutral. One obvious area where Sicilian studies are currently hampered by this disciplinary partitioning is in the study of onomastics. The Lexicon of Greek Personal Names records most instances of Greek names for the island, but Sicily is no less rich in non-Greek names (Latin and others), and at present there is no onomasticon for the island.
                        <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3""> See 
                            <ptr target=""http://www.lgpn.ox.ac.uk/""/>
                        </note> Simply by the marking-up and indexing of all names in the island’s inscriptions, I.Sicily will have generated a powerful tool for future study.
                    </p>
                </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                    <head>Identification and Bibliography </head>
                    <p>The PHI database of Greek inscriptions has a rich record of Greek texts, but again is text only and limited in outputs.
                        <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""4""> See 
                            <ptr target=""http://noapplet.epigraphy.packhum.org/regions/1156""/>
                        </note> SEG references are available for 733 inscriptions on stone and AE references for 328 (data taken from the I.Sicily database and based upon comprehensive manual trawls of SEG and AE). One major aim of I.Sicily, therefore, is to generate unique identifiers for each inscription - the I.Sicily number, in the form ISic 1234 maintained as URIs, of the form: 
                        <ptr target=""http://sicily.classics.ox.ac.uk/isicily/inscriptions/1234""/>. I.Sicily is well placed to do this since its initial dataset is primarily a bibliographic concordance of the lapidary inscriptions of Sicily. One of the associated outputs of the project will therefore be an online bibliography for Sicilian epigraphy, and an online Zotero library has already been created with over 700 records which are referenced in the EpiDoc. A locally cached version of the bibliography will be presented at the I.Sicily site to facilitate detailed bibliographic searching (including the identification of inscriptions by publication) and to allow the generation of customised concordances.
                    </p>
                </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                    <head>Location, location, location</head>
                    <p>I.Sicily is actively generating rich geo-data for the individual inscriptions, both for the original findspot/provenance and the current location (whether museum-based, on-site, or elsewhere), and we aim to provide map-based searching for inscriptions, as well as text-based searching by ancient and modern place-names. In addition to full listing wherever possible of both ancient and modern place names for epigraphic provenance, we are working to provide detailed location information for each find-spot and current location, through a combination of library and map-based research and the use of autopsy and GIS recording. At present geo-data is being recorded in two forms, both through the use of explicit geographical locations in the form of longitude and latitude records in decimal degree form, and through the use of Pleiades URI references wherever possible.
                        <note xml:id=""ftn5"" place=""foot"" n=""5""> See 
                            <ptr target=""http://pleiades.stoa.org/""/>
                        </note> We are committed to the long-term use of Pleiades as our primary reference for ancient places, and to that end we aim to update and improve the Pleiades data for Sicilian locations, in particular name data and sub-locations, in conjunction with the editing of the I.Sicily records.
                    </p>
                </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                    <head>Translations </head>
                    <p>The creation and availability of translations is a major goal of the EAGLE project and its collaborators, and I.Sicily is no less committed to that ambition.
                        <note xml:id=""ftn6"" place=""foot"" n=""6""> See Orlandi et al. 2014: Part II.</note> Translations are very rarely available for any of the published Sicilian inscriptions. It is obvious that the inclusion of translations will make the material much more accessible to a wider audience both of students and the general public. Equally, provision of translations will add to the value of the database as a resource for museums and others curating the inscriptions recorded in the database. To that end, a long-term ambition of I.Sicily is to include translations wherever possible in both English and Italian. We see this as one obvious area where public contribution (‘crowd-sourcing’) will be invaluable.
                    </p>
                </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                    <head>Limitations and future ambitions </head>
                    <p>The scale of the enterprise, and the available resources, mean that in its current form the project has limited itself to inscriptions engraved on stone (the coverage of rupestral inscriptions/graffiti and of inscriptions painted on stone/plaster is regrettably uneven). However, there is no reason in principle not to extend coverage in future to include inscriptions on other materials. Similarly, although the current project does not include a programme to mark up linguistic features of the texts, the commitment to the long-term maintenance of the corpus and the open availability of the underlying XML records means that such a project would be entirely possible in the future. </p>
                    <p>It is our long-term ambition that I.Sicily might become the default location for the publication and dissemination of Sicilian inscriptions; in the shorter term, we hope that it will serve as valuable portal in the world of Sicilian epigraphy and of ancient world open linked data, greatly improving the accessibility of Sicilian epigraphy and so enriching the study of the ‘crossroads of the Mediterranean’.</p>
                </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gulletta, M. I.</hi> (ed.) (1999), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sicilia Epigraphica</hi>. Atti del convegno internazionale, Erice, 15-18 ottobre 1998, 2 vols.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Orlandi, S., Santucci, R., Casarosa, V. and Liuzzo, P. M.</hi> (eds.) (2014). 
                        Information Technologies for Epigraphy and Cultural Heritage, <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the First EAGLE International Conference, Rome 2014</hi>, Sapienza Università Editrice. Published online at: http://www.eagle-network.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Paris-Conference-Proceedings.pdf (accessed 5 March 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Prag, J. R. W.</hi> (2002). Epigraphy by numbers: Latin and the epigraphic culture in Sicily. In Cooley, A. E. (ed.), Becoming Roman, Writing Latin?: Literacy And Epigraphy In The Roman West (Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Roman Archaeology</hi>, pp. 15-31. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tribulato, O.</hi> (ed.) (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language and linguistic contact in ancient Sicily</hi>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2703","17","Cross-Institutional Music Document Search","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The Single Interface for Music Score Searching and Analysis (SIMSSA) project is building tools and best-practices for performing large-scale document image recognition, analysis, and search on music documents. In this paper, we will describe a novel technique for providing cross-institutional music document image search, allowing for the creation of a search engine for the contents of the world’s music collections through a single search interface. </p>
            <p>This paper will describe our methodology for building large-scale search systems that operate across institutions. We will describe the optical music recognition (OMR) process, which, like optical character recognition (OCR) for text, extracts symbolic representations from document images and places them in a structural representation for further processing. We will then describe our techniques for music analysis, extracting patterns for indexing the musical contents of these images into searchable representations. Finally, we present our efforts at building a system that will allow users to search musical documents from many institutions and retrieve the digitized document image. </p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Challenges</head>
                <p>Perhaps the most significant challenge to building a global document image search system is how to retrieve, store, process, and serve document page images. These images have been produced through mass digitization efforts by individual institutions. Aggregating document images to provide cross-institutional document search has traditionally been provided through centralized efforts, where a single organization collects digital images and performs document recognition (i.e., OCR) on them. </p>
                <p>While this approach provides a central tool for users to search and retrieve document images, it has several disadvantages. It often requires significant storage capabilities, as the central organization must store and manage all the images from its partner institutions. There are logistical challenges, integrating cataloguing data from multiple document collections and maintaining up-to-date information and error-fixes from the partner organizations. There are also legal implications over the ownership and copyrights of document image surrogates, even on out-of-copyright documents (Allan, 2007). This typically requires negotiations and embargoes on who can access certain types of content which differ across partner institutions, and which must be applied at the central organization level (HathiTrust, 2015). </p>
                <p>These technical, legal, and logistical challenges may be mitigated if the partner organizations were able to host and control access to their images directly. Until recently, however, direct access to the document images hosted by an institution was difficult as it required interacting with a wide variety of digital repository software, each with their own particular ways of storing and serving images. There were no standardized methods to specify how a document image could be accessed directly in these repository systems.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Interoperable Image Collections</head>
                <p>The International Image Interoperability Framework (IIIF) (Snydman et al., 2015) is a new initiative that attempts to standardize methods for retrieving digital images from an institution’s digital image collection. The IIIF specifies two mechanisms for this, the Image API and the Presentation API. The Image API sets out a standard URI-based request format to which IIIF-compatible systems must conform. Using this URI format one may specify the size, region, rotation, quality, and format of the requested image, as well as basic information about the image. The Presentation API is used to describe structural and presentation information about an image, or a sequence of images. The Presentation API is structured using JavaScript Object Notation (JSON), which may then be parsed by other software, and within which pointers to images using the Image API are stored. </p>
                <p>To give an illustration, a digitized book may be represented as a IIIF Presentation API manifest file. Each page image within the book would be retrievable by a URI to the page image stored on a remote server. To view the book, the manifest would be loaded into a IIIF-compatible image viewer, which would then fetch and load each of the document images and present them in sequence. </p>
                <p>The typical use case for a IIIF manifest is for the purposes of retrieving and viewing document page images. However, we are proporsing a novel application of IIIF as a standard interface to perform document image recognition tasks on digital collections from many different institutions. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Distributed Document Image Recognition</head>
                <p>We are building a web-based document recognition system, named Rodan, for performing optical music recognition (OMR) on large quantities of page images (Hankinson, 2014). Rodan is a workflow system, where different image processing, shape recognition, and document processing tools can be chained together to produce the sequence of discrete steps through which an image must proceed to extract the symbolic music representation of the content. Crucially, the exact cartesian positions of every musical symbol on the image are stored, providing a way to correlate the musical content with its physical position on the page image (Hankinson et al., 2012). </p>
                <p>By providing Rodan with a IIIF Presentation API manifest, the document page images may be downloaded and the symbolic music notation extracted. However, rather than storing the image, we store just the IIIF Image API-formatted URI back to the original image. This allows us to discard the downloaded image file but point back to the image hosted by the originating institution. This approach eliminates the need to store and serve the images on our own systems, while still providing content-level access to document images hosted in different institutional repositories.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Music Analysis</head>
                <p>Within music notation there are several levels of representation. The most basic level is that of the symbol–the graphical element printed on the page. Structures such as melodies, phrases, and cadential patterns are built from these symbols, and exist in multiple overlapping hierarchies; a phrase might contain a number of cadential patterns. A music search system must understand the different levels and structures in a musical work, beyond simply understanding the individual notes, as these structures may form structural objects that a user may wish to retrieve. Within the SIMSSA project we are developing tools and techniques for extracting patterns from symbolic music representations using the Music Encoding Initiative (MEI) and other structured music representations (Schubert and Cumming, 2015; Sigler et al, 2015).</p>
                <p>The Vertical Interval Successions (VIS) (Antiilla and Cumming, 2014) tool we are developing provides a platform on which pattern analysis and extraction methods may be built. Like the document recognition process, VIS operates on the principle that computational music analysis is a sequence of tasks, where each task is responsible for extracting specific types of information that may then be passed on to subsequent tasks. In this way, the underlying symbolic representation of music notation may be used to build higher-level representations, which may then be sent to an indexing service for use in query and retrieval tasks.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Cross-Institution Indexing and Retrieval</head>
                <p>After analysis, the symbolic representations and the structures of the music documents are indexed for retrieval in a search engine. The IIIF Image URI associated with the page image, stored in the document recognition stage and carried along in the analysis stage, provides the mechanism through which the page image may be retrieved from host institutions in response to a query on the symbolic music contents. Through this system, musical full-text (or “full-music”) search can be performed on document images hosted and served from IIIF-compatible digital collections. Additionally, metadata and cataloguing data may be embedded in the IIIF Manifest, or linked to other machine-readable representations. This data may also be centrally indexed, allowing users to retrieve documents across institutions with useful textual searches such as titles, composers, or dates. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Impact and Future Work</head>
                <p>With cross-institutional music document image search, institutions may make their collections available to a broader audience without the need to host their images with a third-party service. With IIIF-compatible image and manifest services, the barriers to entry for these institutions to provide these capabilities is relatively low; the metadata and images are already part of their digital infrastructure. Furthermore, by serving the images and metadata directly from their own infrastructure, institutions can track collection usage patterns through their own server analytics.</p>
                <p>More general applications of this methodology will have significant impacts on libraries, archives, and other institutions’ document image collections. By providing machine-readable access to document images directly, third-party services for document analysis, including distributed optical character recognition (OCR) may be built and deployed. This will have implications on large-scale computational re-use of digital resources, and will open up document image collections to distributed analysis by a global audience. </p>
                <p>We are currently in the process of building a prototype system that incorporates all elements of the process described in this paper. Our existing tools, Rodan and VIS, are currently being used in research and production, with a third system in development that will provide a platform for developing search and retrieval tools.</p>
                <p>One of our biggest unanswered questions concerns the human side of retrieval. With large quantities of recognized musical content, what sorts of tools and interfaces will people use to query the symbolic content of music documents? How will they conceptualize their symbolic music information needs, and what types of interfaces will they use to express these needs to a search system? What types of musical patterns will we need to extract from our musical documents to provide a useful symbolic search system? All of these questions we hope to investigate with a completed system. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Allan, R.</hi> (2007). After Bridgeman: Copyright, museums, and public domain works of art. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">University of Pennsylvania Law Review</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">155</hi>(4): 961–89. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Antilla, C. and Cumming, J.</hi> (2014). The VIS Framework: Analyzing counterpoint in large datasets. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Conference of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval</hi>. Taipei, pp. 71–6. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hankinson, A.</hi> (2014). “Optical music recognition infrastructure for large-scale music document analysis.” PhD diss., Schulich School of Music, McGill University.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hankinson, A., et al.</hi> (2012). Digital Document Image Retrieval Using Optical Music Recognition. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Conference of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval</hi>. Porto, Portugal. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">HathiTrust.</hi> (2015). Copyright. https://www.hathitrust.org/copyright (accessed 31 October 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schubert, P. and Cumming, J.</hi> (2015). “Another Lesson from Lassus: Quantifying Contrapuntal Repetition in the Duos of 1577.” 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Early Music</hi> 43, no. 4 (September 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sigler, A., Wild, J. and Handelman, E.</hi> (2015). Schematizing the Treatment of Dissonance in 16th-Century Counterpoint. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Conference of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval</hi>. Taipei, pp. 645–51.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Snydman, S., Sanderson, R., and Cramer, T</hi>. (2015). The International Image Interoperability Framework (IIIF): A community and technology approach for web-based images. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Archiving Conference</hi>. Los Angeles, CA, 19–22 May. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2704","17","Cultivating Digital Humanities Biomes: A Collaborative Model","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The Digital Humanities community spans disciplines, academic and professional ranks, and the full spectrum of student education. This community self-defines in myriad ways, which poses challenges to faculty, librarians, staff, and others working to design curriculum, support skill development and methodological fluency, allocate resources, and develop services in the Digital Humanities. The authors of this poster conducted a year long, multi-pronged, campus-wide study to gain a greater understanding of how individuals across a large research intensive university campus include Digital Humanities methods in their research and pedagogy, what their data needs and preferences are, where these parties need greater support, and where additional opportunities for partnerships within and across departments, colleges, and units. </p>
            <p>Given the desire to provide a unified and complementary set of services, curriculum, resources, and collaborative possibilities, representatives from the libraries, one college, and a multi-disciplinary lab within another college at a research intensive university jointly designed and implemented a campus-wide survey and targeted, in depth interviews that equally reflected the Digital Humanities related missions of the aforementioned units. This poster demonstrates a collaborative model for assessing and cultivating a Digital Humanities community at a large research intensive university. </p>
            <p>Michigan State University, home to MATRIX, H-Net, and WIDE, has been active in Digital Humanities and Social Sciences for more than two decades. Serendipitously, MSU Libraries, the College of Arts and Letters, and the Department of History each sought to build on this strength at the same time through a program of hiring. Amidst this constellation of Digital Humanities activity and inspired by the example of the University of Colorado, in which the university library conducted a Digital Humanities needs assessment, the authors resolved to conduct a data-driven analysis of the Digital Humanities environment on campus. To do so, the authors reached out to units known to the community in addition to disciplines less engaged with Digital Humanities. The collaborative, cross-institutional nature of this needs assessment design is foundational as a model for other institutions to evaluate and enhance their own community and offerings.                                                                   </p>
            <p>The assessment model developed for this study adopted a holistic approach, focusing on current use and interest in methods and tools, programming languages, types of data used, data sources, and preferences for data access, preferences relating to collaboration, workshops and training sessions, and an inquiry into limitations and barriers to using digital and computational methods. The 20-minute long survey received 421 responses, including a strong turnout from key humanities and social science departments, including History, Anthropology, Linguistics and Languages, English, and Writing, Rhetoric, and American Cultures. Survey results were supplemented with ten hour-long interviews with faculty and graduate students about their use of digital methods and support on campus. Some respondents were selected by the survey convenors ahead of time, while others volunteered through the survey responses.</p>
            <p>The results of the survey are being used at the unit level as well as university-wide at differing scales to face specific needs within units as well as to strategize campus-wide collaboration and capacity-building initiatives. The authors are using data at the unit level to augment support, services, and partnerships for pedagogy, research, data management, and skill development. Results are also being used to inform campuswide community building initiatives through outreach, strategic developments among units, and larger initiatives through the Office of Research.</p>
            <p>This poster presents a model for developing a campus-wide Digital Humanities needs assessment intended to provide strategic information for multiple units on a large research intensive campus. By reviewing this model, other universities and colleges will come away with strategies for identifying what types of collaborations between colleges, departments, programs, labs, and libraries can improve DH pedagogy and research, what resources, activities, and services are needed to support those collaborations, as well as approaches for engaging those that are interested in the Digital Humanities but are not yet active participants. The poster presentation will include data derived from the needs assessment in addition to Digital Humanities community building solutions inspired by the data. </p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2705","17","Curating Just-In-Time Datasets from the Web","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The Web is now deeply integrated into contemporary culture, and scholars interested in current phenomenon cannot afford to ignore it, however, collecting data from the web is not easy. The web is based on a mix of continually changing technical standards which make creating an archival copy of a web site for scholarly reference very difficult. Without such a copy there is no way for future scholars to question the interpretations we make today or reinterpret the phenomenon in light of new evidence tomorrow.</p>
            <p>Researchers and organizations, such as the Internet Archive, are attempting to preserve portions of the web for future retrieval, but much of the web disappears quickly. A 2014 study of web links in scholarly papers found that 1 out 5 scholarly papers contains links to web URLs which no longer function or no longer exist (Klein et al., 2014). The need for humanists to recognize the value of web archives to historical research is especially acute. Researchers cannot engage recent cultural histories and ignore the culture of the web (Milligan, 2012).</p>
            <p>The challenge of web archiving is especially acute for rapidly changing stories which track specific events. Discussions about controversial topics, such as GamerGate,
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> This paper is the result of a larger project investigating the discourse surrounding GamerGate, an internet controversy about feminism and gaming, which grew dramatically in 2014. The paper presents some of the methods used by our research group to study GamerGate. For a brief non-academic explanation of GamerGate see Hathaway, 2014</p>
                </note> take place across multiple websites, use multiple forms of media, and occur in very different discourse communities. Underneath the different social worlds gathered around online communities there is an incredibly diverse set of technological platforms which require customized strategies for tracking and collecting data. This paper will:
            </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Describe the key challenges for researchers wishing to collect just-in-time archives of web based cultural phenomenon.</item>
                <item>Put current challenges in an historical context of differing goals between web developers and web archivists.</item>
                <item>Propose some social and technical solutions to improve the situation, and</item>
                <item>Introduce a set of tools to help researchers engaged in these areas.</item>
            </list>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Challenges</head>
                <p>Dynamic changes in online content present one of the unique challenges for gathering contemporary web discourse. Most internet users are familiar with the constantly updating nature of Twitter and other social media platforms. Social media platforms present a challenge for web archivists because of their technological structure and commercial ownership. The speed of updates on social media requires specialized tools to download, especially in large quantities. A researcher needs deep technological knowledge of these tools and the application programming interface (API) provided by the website in order to build a reliable and useful corpus. On the legal side, the terms of service affect the types of information that can be gathered by researchers and how that data can be analyzed or shared with other researchers.</p>
                <p>Other commercial sites, such as news media web sites, often host comment threads where internet users can post their opinions on the topics covered in the main story. It is relatively trivial to download the main content of a news story posted on the web but collecting the comment stream may present a challenge because the comments may be hosted by another website service or may be displayed dynamically as a user scrolls further through a web page. In such cases the default web archiving tools may not be sufficient. Web discussion forums present yet another technical challenge.</p>
                <p>Researchers often frame their questions about web phenomena by describing a topic that they wish to study. But the architecture of the web is built around the key idea of a web site, a particular set of files which may include many different types of media including text, images, and video, and is hosted by a particular business, institution, or individual. These web sites are identified by the Uniform Resource Locators people type into their browsers in order to navigate to a web page. </p>
                <p>The tools used to archive the web are built on this technical background for dealing with URLs, APIs, REST, RSS, and other interfaces which human beings do not usually interact with. In the language of web archive software the unit of research is the seed, or base URL, from which data can be harvested. For the researcher the unit of work is the topic. Negotiating between these two conceptions of how online research should work is a major social challenge for any type of internet research. Researchers and web users just want to see the content, but automating the collection of that content means reproducing a complicated software experience which has gradually been built by web developers and web browsers over the past 25 years.</p>
                <p>Humanities researchers have traditionally relied on stable or slowly changing content. Efforts by humanities scholars have been made to adapt to the changes in digital content represented by the web. Some universities have set up web labs for collecting and analyzing web data. One key task of these labs has been building subcollections from the overall web in order to further the study of particular topics (Arms et al., 2009). One of the key insights from our work is the need to continue building strong collaborations between multiple fields. Libraries and the Internet Archive need input from digital humanists in order to understand their research questions and digital humanists need to understand the technological challenges of web archiving in order to collectively design systems which will help future researchers. The web, however, is constantly changing at multiple levels, ranging from the technology used to deliver content, the processes of creating content, commenting on content, and the distribution of information. Archiving the web for humanities research calls for changing the conceptual image of stable sources, collaborating with new communities, and adopting new technologies.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Solutions</head>
                <p>The implication of the technological treadmill described above is that it becomes more and more difficult for a single researcher to adequately collect the web. There are two potential solutions to this problem: technological and social.</p>
                <p>Computer scientists are working to build better web archive software which can integrate with social media in order to reduce the amount of administrative overhead needed to collect information on particular topics.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p> Some of these research groups are located at the 
                            <ref target=""https://www.csdl.tamu.edu/"">Center for the Study of Digital Libraries at Texas A and M</ref>; 
                            <ref target=""http://ws-dl.blogspot.ca/"">Web Science and Digital Libraries Research Group at Old Dominion</ref>; and the 
                            <ref target=""http://www.dlib.vt.edu/"">Digital Library Research Laboratory at Virginia Tech</ref>.
                        </p>
                    </note> These tools will automate the selection of web sites to be archived, removing some of the human intervention needed to curate web materials. But simplifying the data gathering process today may make future explanations of the context of a collection more technical. For now researchers are dependent upon a mix of tools, often customized for specific uses, and mixing open source and commercial software.
                </p>
                <p>In our research project we used a combination of open source tools, subscription services, and customized API calls. For gathering data from Twitter we used a program called twarc.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p> Github repository at https://github.com/edsu/twarc</p>
                    </note> Customizations were made to improve the performance of the tool for our uses, which was tracking specific hashtags. The Twitter scraper was initially installed on a laptop belonging to a member of the research team, but when the number of tweets became too large for a laptop the program was moved to a cloud server provided by Compute Canada. The data from Twitter was stored in JSON and then transformed using standard libraries into files which could be analyzed for most frequent Twitter posters, most frequent URLs, and most frequent hashtags. Data from web pages was collected using the Archive-IT subscription service
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p> Web site https://archive-it.org/</p>
                    </note> provided by the Internet Archive and the wget
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                        <p> Web site https://www.gnu.org/software/wget/</p>
                    </note> command line tool. Some specific websites, such as 4chan and 8chan, required the development of custom API interfaces to download material from relevant chat boards. Additional programs to download comments from YouTube are currently being tested. We plan to document our recipes for using these different tools on methodi.ca,
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                        <p> Web site http://methodi.ca/</p>
                    </note> the methods commons for text analysis.
                </p>
                <p>Archiving the web involves many different institutions and disciplines. The largest players are the Internet Archive and various national libraries; the Internet Archive operates as a non-profit and has the most comprehensive collection of digital materials from the web. Unfortunately, the Internet Archive collections are not primarily built for researcher access and can be especially difficult to work with if you are investigating topics which cover multiple URLs or lengthy time periods. Any research project using their collections requires significant human labor. Libraries and museums can step in to fill some of the gaps by using services such as Archive-IT, which provides more curatorial control over the collection development process and also has a more robust search interface. In order to improve these tools, humanists will need to build connections with other disciplines, such as information and library science, computer science, and archival studies. Only by working together and extending our disciplinary horizons can we build the collections which current and future digital humanists can use to study our current era.</p>
                <p>One final social issue of importance are the legal and ethical implications of gathering large amounts of data from the web. We will not discuss these issues in great depth in this paper but they do need to be acknowledged because they constrain some of the actions which can be taken in web data gathering. In our project on GamerGate we have looked closely at the ethical implications of sharing data gathered from social media. The dataset we shared online includes an appendix on ethical issues related to data sharing.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                        <p> Rockwell, G., Suomela, T., 2015, ""Gamergate Reactions"", http://dx.doi.org/10.7939/DVN/10253 V5 [Version]</p>
                    </note>
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Arms, W.Y., Calimlim, M. and Walle, L.</hi> (2009). EScience in Practice: Lessons from the Cornell Web Lab. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">D-Lib Magazine</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">15</hi>(5/6). doi:10.1045/may2009-arms
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hathaway, J.</hi> (2014). What is GamerGate, and Why? An Explainer for Non-Geeks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Gawker</hi>. http://gawker.com/what-is-gamergate-and-why-an-explainer-for-non-geeks-1642909080
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Klein, M., Van de Sompel, H., Sanderson, R., Shankar, H., Balakireva, L., Zhou, K. and Tobin, R.</hi> (2014). Scholarly Context Not Found: One in Five Articles Suffers from Reference Rot. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PLoS ONE</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(12): doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0115253
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Milligan, I.</hi> (2012). Mining the “Internet Graveyard”: Rethinking the Historians’ Toolkit. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Canadian Historical Association</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(2): 21-64. doi:10.7202/1015788ar
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2706","17","Data-First Digital Humanities: How Adopting a Data-First Strategy Fosters Research, Collaboration, Pedagogy, and Scholarly Communication in the Digital Humanities","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>We propose a strategy for conducting digital humanities teaching and research that prioritizes publishing data above all other project activities. Drawing on our experience working with faculty, librarians, and graduate students on a critical edition in TEI of Charles Baudelaire’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Les Fleurs du Mal</hi>, we demonstrate how adopting a data-first strategy fosters research, collaboration, pedagogy and scholarly communications in the digital humanities. 
            </p>
            <p>The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus Baudelaire Project </hi>began at Vanderbilt University in 2013, when a hybrid group of approximately ten scholars, who had recently learned how to encode literary texts in the TEI, aspired to do something practical with their new skills. The group developed a connection to Vanderbilt University Library’s W. T. Bandy Center for Baudelaire and Modern French Studies;  who exhaustively collects Baudelaire’s works, including 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Les Fleurs du Mal</hi>.  The work itself was published in four editions: 1857, 1861 (containing 35 additional poems, the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Tableaux parisiens</hi>, and lacking six poems censored by the Second Empire), 1866 (including 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Les Epauves</hi> or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Scraps</hi>, and the six poems missing from the 1861 edition), and the posthumous 1886 edition. Participants in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus Baudelaire Project </hi>are encoding all the editions using the critical edition apparatus in the TEI.
            </p>
            <p>We describe our data-first approach to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus Baudelaire Project</hi>, which minimizes otherwise common tasks such as developing databases or coding interfaces, and argue for its advantage over alternative approaches in fostering collaboration, pedagogy, and new forms of publishing. We also suggest that our data-first approach may also productively be generalized to any digital humanities projects developing significant quantities of data.
            </p>
            <p>A data-first approach differs from other forms of digital humanities scholarship by minimizing startup costs and reducing complexity. Whereas digital humanities projects aim above all to produce some form of online digital edition or interactive website, a data-first approach invests primarily in producing and sharing data with others. “It’s the data, stupid!” is our informal slogan.</p>
            <p>A data-first approach to DH involves at least three steps: licensing, curating, and publishing datasets online. The second two steps are likely to be iterative and emergent.</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item><hi rend=""bold"">Licensing.</hi> A data-first approach begins with the presupposition of making data openly available and reusable by other scholars. This not only implies attaching an open source license to the data, but also making certain that participants in the project understand the license and agree with its terms.</item>
                <item><hi rend=""bold"">Curating</hi>. A data-first approach implies that discussions about data curation start at the beginning of the project, not its end. How shall information be encoded? How to decide between alternative options? Are there emerging best practices and converging forms of representation? Documenting data and making available any accompanying schemas is also critical when taking a data-first approach.</item>
                <item><hi rend=""bold"">Publishing</hi>. A data-first approach requires that data be published for comment, criticism and reuse from the onset of the project. What are the best platforms for publishing digital humanities data? How can digital humanists provide access and get credit for their data?</item>
            </list>
            <p>By prioritizing these three activities above other forms of digital humanities, we simultaneously lower the barriers for participants to join our project while offering them the opportunity to publish and begin receive credit for their work almost immediately. Crucially, credit is allocated with respect to contributions, not by seniority or other hierarchical designations; the data bear witness directly to their creators.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vishwas, Ch. and Penev, L.</hi> (2011). The data paper: a mechanism to incentivize data publishing in biodiversity science.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">BMC bioinformatics</hi>, 12.15 (2011): 1.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2707","17","Dépasser La Liste : Quand La Bibliothèque Entre Dans La Danse Des Corpus Web","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div>
                <p>Depuis 2014, la bibliothèque de Sciences Po développe une offre de service à destination des laboratoires de recherche de l’Institution. Traditionnellement assez éloignée de ces publics, elle essaye d’adapter ses pratiques et de trouver de nouvelles méthodologies de travail pour accompagner les chercheurs dans leurs travaux.</p>
                <p>La révolution numérique a introduit un bouleversement dans la constitution des fonds des bibliothèques: comment rendre compte de l’état d’un sujet d’actualité pour les générations à venir lorsque le discours ne se bâtit plus uniquement dans des médias coutumiers, mais dans le flux des réseaux ? La bibliothèque peut-elle opérer des carottages thématiques du web et concevoir les dispositifs qui en conserveraient la trace ?</p>
                <p>Les corpus web tentent de répondre à cette double problématique documentaire et de recherche en s’appuyant sur des techniques d’exploration et de visualisation de réseaux web. S’inscrivant dans la lignée des corpus d’étude outillés proposés par Corinne Welger-Barboza, ils permettent de structurer et d’identifier les discours sous-jacents, tout en apportant des moyens d’appropriation adaptés. </p>
                <p>De la construction des données aux premiers constats scientifiques, cette communication dresse un bilan de ce travail, expérimental pour la bibliothèque tant au niveau des outils mobilisés et développés que des processus documentaires mis en œuvre, à travers l’exemple d’un corpus des acteurs de la question des changements climatiques.</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.67u23zy09zn0"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Construction</head>
                <p>En 2015 se tient à Paris la Conférence des Nations Unies sur les changements climatiques, la COP21. Sciences Po a retenu cette année ce sujet d’actualité comme thème fort de l’institution; le contenu des enseignements, des manifestations scientifiques et de vulgarisation, des expositions en est irrigué. La bibliothèque et le médialab
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p> « Laboratoire de recherche centré sur les méthodologies numériques qui présente la particularité de s’appuyer sur une approche théorique forte et originale en sciences sociales, la théorie de l’acteur-réseau » [
                            <ref target=""http://www.medialab.sciences-po.fr/fr/about/"">
                                <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://www.medialab.sciences-po.fr/fr/about/</hi>
                            </ref>] 
                        </p>
                    </note>, partenaires de ce projet, l’ont choisi comme problématique de leur premier corpus. Quels sont les acteurs de la discussion autour des changements climatiques? Quelle est leur position quant à la responsabilité de l’homme? Qui parle avec qui? Faut-il réduire les émissions de gaz à effet de serre? Voici la liste des questions que nous avons posées. Pour y répondre, nous avons développé un processus en 3 temps: construction, exploration et exposition des données.
                </p>
                <p>Le crawler Hyphe est l’outil qui nous permet de constituer les données. Pour cette opération, itérative, deux types d’actions sont mises en œuvre : identifier, sélectionner. La première consiste à trouver des sites (entités) pertinents pour la thématique. C’est le cœur du corpus
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p> L’équipe a retenu comme point de départ les 12 thèmes identifiés dans (Venturini, 2014)</p>
                    </note>. Les crawlers parcourent les liens hypertextes de ce cœur afin d’identifier de nouvelles entités. La seconde à distinguer ceux qui sont pertinents et qui seront crawlés, de ceux qui ne le sont pas. De proche en proche, nous prospectons le web et de nouveaux sites apparaissent. De 60 entités de départ, 40.000 ont été identifiées et 600 ont été conservées. Ce sont ces dernières qui forment le corpus (Jacomy, 2015).
                </p>
                <p>Cette étape repose sur des pratiques à la fois connues et nouvelles pour la bibliothèque: l’analogie entre la sélection d’ouvrages à partir de sources fiables (ici pertinentes) est assez aisée à comprendre. En revanche, crawler, et ainsi automatiser l’opération d’identification reste une action assez éloignée des processus traditionnellement mobilisés en bibliothèque. D’autant plus que le crawler utilisé, Hyphe, conserve l’empreinte des liens qui unissent les entités constitutives du corpus: le réseau. Au-delà de la liste des sites de référence sur les changements climatiques, Hyphe nous permet donc de garder la trace des discussions en ligne. La compétence méthodologique sur les réseaux est apportée ici par le médialab.</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.aazd4s48j2te"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Exploration</head>
                <p>L’exploitation envisagée nécessite que les entités web soient enrichies. Les métadonnées des sites ne sont pas standardisées, à l’inverse des objets traditionnellement traités en bibliothèque (ouvrages, revues, documents audiovisuels) qui sont, eux, décrits avec des langages contrôlés. C’est pourquoi une série de catégories a été créée: type d’acteur, responsabilité de l’homme dans le changement climatique, nature des actions soutenues (atténuation, adaptation). </p>
                <p>Ce travail est la combinaison de compétences documentaires et scientifiques. Le chercheur spécialiste de la thématique propose, et valide les catégories choisies, mais il aide également à circonscrire le périmètre du corpus, en optant par exemple pour la conservation de sites anglophones uniquement. Les catégories sont construites sur des index élaborés par la bibliothèque qui les éprouve lors des phases de test. De plus, pour chaque site, un résumé est rédigé afin de garder une trace de son contenu et ainsi pallier la nature éphémère du web (Corey, 2010).</p>
                <p>En l’absence d’outil de catégorisation pour ce type de corpus, le développement d’une solution ad hoc est nécessaire. Elle doit répondre à des contraintes claires, dont le travail collaboratif synchrone et le maintien de l’intégrité des données entre Hyphe et le site web.</p>
                <p>La phase exploratoire ultime est celle de la visualisation: « faire parler » le réseau en s’appuyant sur la catégorisation
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p> Quelques visualisation sont disponibles sur le site 
                            <ref target=""/"">
                                <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://medialab.github.io/double-dating-data/#/</hi>
                            </ref>
                        </p>
                    </note>.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.b6ozhj4h9sir"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Exposition</head>
                <p>Le troisième temps est celui de l’exposition: comment dépasser la liste, par laquelle une bibliothèque présente traditionnellement les ressources web sélectionnées? En proposant un outil d’exploration en ligne, qui permet à l’utilisateur non seulement de consulter les sites du corpus, mais également de se les approprier. En combinant les catégories au graphe, l’usager peut jouer la partition écrite par la bibliothèque: si la liste, rassurante, car connue, est toujours là, il est en plus possible de visualiser, par exemple, les acteurs institutionnels qui soutiennent les mesures d’atténuation des émissions de gaz à effet de serre et de les confronter à celles des blogueurs climato-sceptiques en manipulant la visualisation. Le graphe ajoute de la profondeur à la liste en faisant apparaître la dimension de connexion entre les entités: c’est un atout du corpus.</p>
                <p>Les interfaces web existantes exposent rarement cette dualité liste/visualisation. C’est pourquoi, une nouvelle fois, une solution adaptée aux besoins des utilisateurs a été développée
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p>
                            <ref target=""HYPERLINK"">
                                <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">http://corpusweb.sciencespo.fr/app/#/</hi>
                            </ref>
                        </p>
                    </note>. Ce projet entre dans un cadre de libération du code et d’ouverture des données.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.wio7aj9yrjx8"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>Ce travail est le fruit d’une collaboration étroite entre les différents corps de métiers inhérents aux Digital Humanities. 11 personnes ont participé à cette expérimentation : 1 chef de projet, 4 bibliothécaires dont le référent « environnement », 1 développeur, 2 informaticiens spécialistes des réseaux web, 3 chercheurs du domaine. Il aura fallu une année pour mener à terme ce projet qui avait valeur de test: la bibliothèque a-t-elle les moyens de proposer un service d’accompagnement des chercheurs pour l’étude des réseaux web? Répond-elle également à la question de l’archivage du web ?</p>
                <p>Le premier constat, positif, est celui de la faisabilité : le collectif a été en mesure de finaliser ce corpus. Le deuxième, tout aussi engageant est celui des premiers résultats scientifiques basés sur la visualisation du réseau. L’équipe de recherche a été surprise de voir que les climato-sceptiques sont encore très actifs sur le web, alors même qu’ils semblent minoritaires dans les discussions physiques. Qui sont-ils? Comment interagissent-ils avec les institutions, les entreprises et la société civile? Pourquoi ne forment-ils pas un groupe à part, mais apparaissent-ils comme parties prenantes de la conversation en ligne? Ces questions doivent maintenant être analysées en profondeur. D’objet documentaire, ce corpus sur le changement climatique est devenu objet d’étude outillé. Chaque carte peut entériner ou infirmer les problématiques initiales et parfois générer des intuitions, interrogations qui doivent être vérifiées et prouvées scientifiquement.</p>
                <p>Ce projet a permis à la bibliothèque de collaborer avec un laboratoire de recherche et ainsi d’aller au-delà de ses logiques traditionnelles de documentation. De nouvelles méthodes de travail ont été identifiées. Il s’agit maintenant de les fixer et de voir s’ils sont opérants sur d’autres thématiques en achevant la conception de la chaîne d’outils et en faisant monter en compétence les équipes sur leur utilisation et la connaissance des réseaux web. La phase suivante est également celle de l’archivage: la documentation du processus de construction et d’exploration de chaque corpus est une étape nécessaire pour garder une trace pérenne des ressources web et assurer les conditions de réutilisation des corpus.</p>
                <p>S’appuyant sur la décomposition du travail autour de la construction, l’exploration et l’exposition des données, l’équipe a su répondre à la double problématique à laquelle l’institution est confrontée. Et ainsi, comme une valse, la bibliothèque est entrée en trois temps dans la danse des corpus web.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Corey, D.</hi> (2014). Archiving the Web: A Case Study from the University of Victoria. <hi rend=""italic"">Code4Lib, 26</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://journal.code4lib.org/articles/10015"">http://journal.code4lib.org/articles/10015</ref> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Girard, P.</hi> (2011). HyperText Corpus Initiative: how to help researchers sieving the web,<hi rend=""italic""> Proceedings of the Out of the Box conference: Using Web Archives Conference</hi>, London, UK. 
                        <ref target=""http://spire.sciencespo.fr/hdl:/2441/5coittpe7h8g695h172cg34d3e"">http://spire.sciencespo.fr/hdl:/2441/5coittpe7h8g695h172cg34d3e</ref> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jacomy, M.</hi> (2015). L’analyse visuelle de réseaux. Explorer le social grâce au numériqu, <hi rend=""italic"">I2D – Information, données and documents</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">52</hi>(2): 60-61. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.cairn.info/revue-i2d-information-donnees-et-documents-2015-2-page-60.htm"">http://www.cairn.info/revue-i2d-information-donnees-et-documents-2015-2-page-60.htm</ref> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Niu, J.</hi> (2012). <hi rend=""italic"">Functionalities of Web Archives, D-Lib Magazine</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(3/4). 
                        <ref target=""http://dx.doi.org/10.1045/march2012-niu2"">http://dx.doi.org/10.1045/march2012-niu2</ref> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Venturini, T., Baya Laffite, N., Cointet, J., Gray, I., Zabban, V. and De Pryck, K.</hi> (2014). Three maps and three misunderstandings: A digital mapping of climate diplomacy,<hi rend=""italic""> Big Data and Society</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(2): 1-19. 
                        <ref target=""http://spire.sciencespo.fr/hdl:/2441/1lpf2c85nl8a5bvji6lcpcc4bp"">http://spire.sciencespo.fr/hdl:/2441/1lpf2c85nl8a5bvji6lcpcc4bp</ref> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Welger-Barboza, C.</hi> (2010). Quelques réflexions sur l’effet propédeutique des catalogues des collections des musées en ligne,<hi rend=""italic""> DH2010 Conference</hi>, London, UK. 
                        <ref target=""https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fdh2010.cch.kcl.ac.uk%2Facademic-programme%2Fabstracts%2Fpapers%2Fpdf%2Fbook-final.pdf"">https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fdh2010.cch.kcl.ac.uk%2Facademic-programme%2Fabstracts%2Fpapers%2Fpdf%2Fbook-final.pdf</ref> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Welger-Baroza, C.</hi> (n.d.). <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus d’étude outillés</hi>. [Blog] Observatoire critique. 
                        <ref target=""http://observatoire-critique.hypotheses.org/category/corpus-detude-outilles"">http://observatoire-critique.hypotheses.org/category/corpus-detude-outilles</ref> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2708","17","Developing Competencies in Digital Scholarship Among Humanities Scholars","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Introduction</head>
            <p>This paper draws on results of a three-year ethnographic study funded by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation and the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, which explored research practices, challenges, and directions in contemporary digital humanities (DH). Within this broader set of questions and results, the current paper focuses on findings related to humanists’ strategies for developing competencies in digital scholarship. The study was conducted from 2010 to 2013 at twenty-three educational, research and funding institutions in the United States and Europe, and it included case studies, surveys, in-depth interviews, and observations. The study involved 258 participants, including researchers, faculty, students, university administrators, librarians, software developers, policy makers, and funders. For more information about the methodological design and results of the study see 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Amongst Digital Humanists: An Ethnographic Study of Digital Knowledge Production</hi> (Antonijević, 2015).
            </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Results</head>
            <p>The majority of humanists consulted in this study reported awareness of methodological and epistemological benefits of digital research tools and methods, but also a lack of opportunity to acquire skills and knowledge that would enable them to reach beyond the “search and access” level of digital scholarship. As one assistant professor of art history put it, “I haven’t used technology in my research in a pervasive way to really, really think about epistemological issues. I’m not opposed to using technology to analyze, but I haven’t had a chance to learn it.” </p>
            <p>Humanists commonly identify lack of time as one of the main impediments to developing digital research skills. One aspect of this is the learning curve, and a perception that the time needed to learn new tools and methods slows down their established research process. Another root of researchers’ lack of time for developing computational skills stems from the structure of disciplinary incentives and rewards in humanities disciplines. Respondents underscored that when training sessions on digital research tools and methods were organized at their universities, hardly any of the tenure-track faculty attended them: “We are not rewarded for doing that. What we are rewarded for is publishing, and going to one of those sessions takes away [time] from our publishing. So, there’s a lot of resistance“ explained an assistant professor of linguistics. </p>
            <p>With digital skills still having an unrecognized status in their disciplines and departments, interviewees said the only organized educational initiatives at their disposal were training sessions at university libraries, to which they had mixed reactions. While some found the library sessions “eye-opening” the majority did not regard them as helpful. Commonly, respondents pointed that the librarians focused on digital tools and resources, while field-specific research questions exceeded their scope. The respondents held that only their peers understand epistemological and methodological complexity of particular research problems, so they considered working with colleagues as a more effective way to develop digital skills than attending library workshops or instruction sessions. In the same way, respondents identified as the preferred type of instruction the one that does not profess to teaching about digital technologies, but about a specific humanities subject area, introducing digital tools and methods along the way. Attending library and similar workshops was thus seen as less effective then attending academic conferences where peers present results achieved through digital methods and tools. Learning by example inspires humanists to discover new tools and methods, and to apply them in their own work. As a professor of Romance languages and literature put it, “in an ideal world, I would like to see humanists teaching other humanists how to conduct research using the enhancements of digital tools; I guess that’s as opposed to we bring the IT people in to teach us. I think that it should happen the way that we teach other things in the humanities, through collaboration with one another.”</p>
            <p>Dissatisfaction with existing educational initiatives might be the reason that the majority of humanities scholars consulted in this study reported not having any formal technology-related instruction, which is consistent with Siemens’ (2013) findings. Instead, the respondents reported that they predominantly relay on informal channels, such as word of mouth, to learn about digital research tools and methods: “I do everything on my own, I ask around. It feels serendipitous, I sort of bump into it, or I hear a friend talk about it, or a colleague will shoot me an e-mail. It’s not organized or strategic at all” related an associate professor of philosophy.</p>
            <p>This informal learning path is linked to immediate and specific research problems scholars are facing, which makes it preferred over workshops and similar efforts where learning is often decontextualized from practice. This method also successfully makes use of one of the scholars’ most scarce recourses—their time. It enables them to direct learning efforts towards tools, methods, and subjects of particular interest to them.</p>
            <p>Informal learning also often takes place through engagement with students. The respondents explained that teaching prompts them to expand knowledge of digital tools and methods, and students challenge them to be up-to-date with technology. Even those respondents who described themselves as “technological dinosaurs” identified the need to take up digital technologies in the classroom.</p>
            <p>In addition to class interaction, more formal initiatives where students teach faculty take place in digital humanities centers, where graduate students often work as tutors. Students consulted in this study believed that this reversal of instructional roles facilitated their understanding of the didactic principles, motivating them to develop their own pedagogic strategies:</p>
            <p rend=""List Paragraph"">“You’re doing work with people who are the smartest people on the earth in their particular discipline. On average, they don’t like to admit that they don’t know something. So, it’s not trying to force things upon them, but it’s trying to present things in the same way that you would pedagogically teach a difficult concept. If I can present it it in such a way that leads them to discovering on their own, they have a sense of ownership of the idea, so that’s “teaching the old dog new tricks” if I can say that.” [A graduate student]</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Conclusion</head>
            <p>Findings of this study indicate that library initiatives and units should not remain the main locus of digital scholarship in the humanities. Instead, digital scholarship needs to be part of humanities departments and wider university initiatives, since “digital humanities will ultimately matter, or not at all, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">inside</hi> the department” (Liu, 2009: 21; italics in the original). As long as humanists’ interaction with digital tools, methods, and resources is treated merely as a technical skill that can be taught by non-expert personnel, it will be difficult to achieve more substantial transformations and to motivate academics about digital scholarship. As Raley (2014) points out, “academic service staff providing skills-based training […] and performing service work for “clueless arts and humanities scholars” can tell us something about both the field and the university” (p. 7).
            </p>
            <p>Instead of skilled-based training, humanities education in digital scholarship needs a comprehensive framework encompassing epistemological, methodological, technical, and sociocultural aspects of digital knowledge production. These include developing understanding of digital and other types of data, fostering critical reflection on digital objects of inquiry, comprehending the influence of algorithmic processes on humanities investigations, and so on. Similarly, digital methods training should include systematic deliberation on methodological decisions influencing research process and results, epistemological and ethical challenges of digital scholarship, as well as making choice of digital tools and methods as best suited for specific research questions.</p>
            <p>This study reveals that humanists favor and best learn in practice, when instruction is closely related to their area of study and when it unfolds organically, through collaboration with colleagues and students. Therefore, initiatives for developing competencies in digital scholarship among senior scholars should use a variety of collaborative learning strategies. Furthermore, these educational activities should not restrain the generative potential of digital scholarship in the humanities through the exclusive focus on research themes, methods, and skills recognized in the DH field. Humanities scholars do not necessarily need or want to be digital humanists; they do, however, need and overwhelmingly want to be scholars competent at teaching and conducting research in the digital age. As a program officer in a major humanities foundation consulted in this study pointed out, the goal should be “to fund training for scholars even if they don’t want to be a digital humanist in the sense that they’re building their own tools and their programming, but more along the lines of users of digital technology within their own research.” This kind of funders’ support to digital scholarship in the humanities is vital. Equally vital is the need that education in digital scholarship becomes administratively recognized as part of scholars’ professional development included in their paid time and activity, as well as in their promotion dossiers.</p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Antonijević, S.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Amongst Digital Humanists: An Ethnographic Study of Digital Knowledge Production</hi>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Liu, A.</hi> (2009). Digital Humanities and Academic Change, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">English Language and Notes</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">47</hi>: 17-35.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Raley, R.</hi> (2014). Digital Humanities for the Next Five Minutes, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">differences</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(1): 26-45.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Siemens, L.</hi> (2013). Developing Academic Capacity in Digital Humanities: Thoughts from the Canadian Community, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(1). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/7/1/000114/000114.html (accessed August 6, 2014).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2709","17","DH Bridge: Teaching Computational Thinking in the Humanities","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This poster will introduce and demonstrate 
                <ref target=""http://dhbridge.org/"">DH Bridge</ref> (
                <ptr target=""http://dhbridge.org/""/>), a pedagogical model and curriculum for one to two day workshops that provides intensive training in computational thinking in humanities contexts. There are an ever increasing number of opportunities for training in the digital humanities, from informal workshops held at 
                <ref target=""http://thatcamp.org/"">THATCamps</ref> (
                <ptr target=""http://thatcamp.org/""/>) to multiple week training programs, such as the 
                <ref target=""http://www.neh.gov/grants/apply-neh-funded-seminar-institute-or-workshop"">NEH Institutes for Advanced Topics</ref> (
                <ref target=""file:///Users/jeriwieringa/Desktop/(http://www.neh.gov/grants/apply-neh-funded-seminar-institute-or-workshop"">http://www.neh.gov/grants/apply-neh-funded-seminar-institute-or-workshop</ref>), 
                <ref target=""http://www.dhtraining.org/hilt/"">Humanities Intensive Learning and Teaching</ref> (HILT) (
                <ptr target=""http://www.dhtraining.org/hilt/""/>), and the 
                <ref target=""http://www.dhsi.org/"">Digital Humanities Summer Institute</ref> (DHSI) (
                <ptr target=""http://www.dhsi.org/""/>). While these workshops provide excellent opportunities to gain exposure to new ideas or to dive deep into a particular subject area, they are also dependent upon the expertise of the particular instructors and, depending on the length of the workshop or institute, require substantial commitments of time and money.</p>
            <p>Building on the examples of 
                <ref target=""http://www.railsbridge.org/"">Rails Bridge</ref> (
                <ptr target=""http://www.railsbridge.org/""/>) and 
                <ref target=""http://railsgirls.com/"">Rails Girls</ref> (
                <ptr target=""http://railsgirls.com/""/>), which focus on lowering the barriers to entry for underrepresented persons in code, DH Bridge offers an additional model for training in the digital humanities. Rather than relying on a single instructor, DH Bridge relies on a group of coaches to guide participants through a shared tutorial, troubleshoot technical problems, and provide additional contextual information for participants. Throughout the day of the workshop, technical work is interwoven with group activities aimed at helping participants develop useful mental models of computational processes and articulate research questions that would benefit from computational analysis. We have found that this combination of community supported learning, technical work, and group exercises creates a supportive environment where technical learning can take place.
            </p>
            <p>DH Bridge started as a locally hosted 
                <ref target=""http://railsgirls.com/digitalhumanities_fairfax"">Rails Girls workshop for humanities scholars</ref> (
                <ptr target=""http://railsgirls.com/digitalhumanities_fairfax""/>) held in early September 2013. The event was well-received and successful, highlighting for us the strength of the model of the short workshop with a central curriculum and small group coaching. It was clear, however, from the feedback we received that the Rails Girls curriculum was too focused on gaining technical skills for employment, as participants struggled to connect the skills they learned to their intellectual goals as humanities scholars. Thanks to an 
                <ref target=""http://ach.org/2014/07/09/ach_microgrants_winners_2014/"">incubation grant from the Association for Computers and the Humanities</ref> (
                <ptr target=""http://ach.org/2014/07/09/ach_microgrants_winners_2014/""/>), we were able to develop a curriculum focused not on the mechanics of code, per se, but on the processes of computational thinking. This curriculum was used in a second workshop, held on November 1, 2014.
            </p>
            <p>What is unique about this pedagogical approach in the current landscape of digital humanities training is that the workshops run from a central and open curriculum that can be adjusted and expanded for a particular community. Because the emphasis is on patterns of thinking, rather than use of particular tools, the workshop curriculum is flexible. Whether using the included text-mining tutorial, or adapting tutorials from outside sources such as 
                <ref target=""http://programminghistorian.org/"">The Programming Historian</ref> (
                <ptr target=""http://programminghistorian.org/""/>), workshop organizers can customize the day for the interests of their community. In addition, the central curriculum, together with the local focus and short timeframes of the events, helps to keep the costs of the workshops low for both participants and organizers. And, most importantly, the success of the curriculum is derived from the community—the participants and the coaches work together to solve problems, both at the level of the code and at the theoretical level of scholarly investigation through code.
            </p>
            <p>We’ve taken this approach to help expand the community of scholars leveraging computational approaches in their research. Cultural and institutional barriers to learning computational methods are well documented, and organizational responses like 
                <ref target=""http://femtechnet.org/"">FemTechNet</ref> (
                <ptr target=""http://femtechnet.org/""/>) and 
                <ref target=""http://www.globaloutlookdh.org/"">GO::DH</ref> (
                <ptr target=""http://www.globaloutlookdh.org/""/>) are doing valuable work in challenging the systemic barriers. DH Bridge aligns with this work, and seeks to provide a local means for groups of people underrepresented in the digital humanities to learn and engage with the concepts and skills of programming in a way that is meaningful to their interests.
            </p>
            <p>This poster will address our lessons learned from running the two iterations of the workshop, as well as our plans for future workshops. We will discuss the model of the one to two day workshop as a way of lowering the costs for participants and organizers; our theoretical and pedagogical choices in developing the curriculum; the challenges we faced and some lessons learned; and the feedback we have received from participants. We invite and look forward to engagement with and collaboration on the curriculum and the model of DH Bridge.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2710","17","DH Poetry Modelling: a quest for Philological and technical standardization","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Introduction</head>
            <p>Standardization has become an increasingly important process in relation to academic research, as it provides a better way for exchanging information. Humanities and cultural studies have followed, however, a heterogeneous path in which creativity and tradition play an essential role. Comparative studies in literature, and especially poetry, are a clear example of this eclectic situation. There is not a uniform academic approach to analyze, classify or study the different poetic manifestations. Things get even worse when comparing poetry schools from different languages and periods. The result of this uncoordinated evolution is a bunch of varied terminologies that means to explain analogous metrical phenomena through the different poetic systems whose correspondences have been hardly studied (González-Blanco and Sélaf, 2014).</p>
            <p>The existing digital poetic repertoires and databases are a good example of this situation, as they constitute a rich kaleidoscope of multilingual virtual poetry, constituted by lyrical collections in French (<hi rend=""italic"">Nouveau Naetebus</hi>), Italian (<hi rend=""italic"">BedT</hi>), Hungarian (<hi rend=""italic"">RPHA</hi>), Medieval Latin (<hi rend=""italic"">Corpus Rhythmorum Musicum, Annalecta Hymnica Digitalia, Pedecerto</hi>), Gallego-portuguese (<hi rend=""italic"">Oxford Cantigas de Santa María, MedDB2</hi>), Castilian (<hi rend=""italic"">ReMetCa</hi>), Dutch (<hi rend=""italic"">Dutch Song Database</hi>), Occitan (<hi rend=""italic"">BedT, Poèsie Neotroubadouresque, The last song of the Troubadours</hi>), Catalan (<hi rend=""italic"">Repertori d’obres en vers</hi>), Skaldic (<hi rend=""italic"">Skaldic Project</hi>), or German repertoires (<hi rend=""italic"">Lyrik des Minnesänger</hi>), among others.</p>
            <p>Interoperability among these different poetic corpora would be desirable, as having a common search engine to extract information from all of these databases at the same time would have a deep impact for comparative studies in literature, linguistics and other humanities disciplines. We are, however, far from this reality as interoperability is not possible due to a lack of standardization both in technological and philological fields.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Philological standardization</head>
            <p>During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the powerful influence of Latin made scholars inherit the terminology of Classical poetry treatises and apply it to Romance languages, regardless of their different linguistic traits and verse structures. When vernacular theories started to arise, each literary school set up its own terminology and classification system. This multiplicity led to complex situations, such as the creation of conceptual genres that only exist in some traditions. </p>
            <p>Spanish conceptualization models are a good example to illustrate this situation: the classical system of Bello (1955), first published in 1835, divided all the structures into binary and ternary feet (imitating the classical Latin terminology):</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Binary </cell>
                    <cell>Ternary </cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <table rend=""rules"">
                            <row>
                                <cell>Trochaic: óo</cell>
                            </row>
                            <row>
                                <cell>Iambic: oó</cell>
                            </row>
                        </table>
                    </cell>
                    <cell>
                        <table rend=""rules"">
                            <row>
                                <cell>Dactylic: óoo</cell>
                            </row>
                            <row>
                                <cell>Amphibrachic: oóo</cell>
                            </row>
                            <row>
                                <cell>Anapestic: ooó</cell>
                            </row>
                        </table>
                    </cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>Later, the musical analysis system applied by Navarro Tomás (1956) was followed as a valid system through many years, using concepts like <hi rend=""italic"">anacrusis</hi>. In the last years, there have been many different approaches to explain the Spanish panorama, as it is shown by the semantic comparative model designed by the Czech Oldrich Bělič.
            </p>
            <p>The international context is richer, especially in English, with two prominent schools: 1) A traditional approach based on stress and classical feet; and 2) A generative approach based on the terminology and concepts shown through text grids that take into account word boundaries, with a strong impact on poetic theories (Gerber, 2013: 147).</p>
            <p>The models described are just an example of the idiosyncrasy that can be observed in each literary tradition. Although the current ICT infrastructures are prepared to harvest different types of collections and models, it is necessary at a first stage to standardize metadata and map vocabularies and terminology at the philological level in order to build a consistent able to be shared between the different traditions.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Technological standardization</head>
            <p>The lack of unified criteria is translated into many different uncoordinated technologies when research data are transformed to build digital projects and do not even follow a standard, in most cases. The multiplicity of technologies used includes SQL databases, TEI and XML markup languages, semantic web technology standards (RDF, OWL, SKOS), natural language processing systems (NLP) and visualization tools. </p>
            <p>Relational databases have been deeply used by the first digital poetic repertoires combining an ER (Entity-Relationship) model, together with the data model based on records for the logical implementation (Elmasri and Navathe, 2011, 27-ss). The problem of representing ER composition model is that the result shown is data centered, but it is not enough to mark textual items that need to be analyzed from a metrical point of view.</p>
            <p>There are other projects based on XML solutions, as TEI has a specific module for poetry analysis, “Verse”, with a rich set of tags to describe metrical schemas, rhymes, accentual structure and syllabic varieties. However, this model is not widely used by the different projects, and the lack of philological unified criteria makes it difficult to translate literary schemas into XML tags, making researchers create new tags or express nuances with customized attributes for each project. </p>
            <p>The key for interoperability both in philological and technological fields is a common reference system, for which semantic web technologies are a powerful solution. Building a linked data model by adding a semantic layer of metadata to the existing databases does not alter their internal structure. This solution requires, however, to assume unified criteria on the philological model that serves as a reference.</p>
            <p>Although semantic web technologies have had success in archives libraries and museums (group known as LODLAM <ref target=""http://lodlam.net/"">http://lodlam.net/</ref>), its application to poetic corpora is very different, as there are only a couple of studies dealing with some of the above mentioned aspects (Bootz and Szoniecky, 2008 and Zöllner-Weber, 2009), but there is not a standard conceptual model of ontology referred to metrics and poetry. The closest works related to this topic are probably the conceptual model of CIDOC, the controlled vocabularies of English Broadside Ballad Project <ref target=""http://ebba.english.ucsb.edu/"">http://ebba.english.ucsb.edu/</ref> and the linked data relations offered by the Library of Congress (<ref target=""http://id.loc.gov/"">http://id.loc.gov/</ref>), which do not offer enough information on metrics vocabulary. There are also interesting computational approaches which use automated linguistic analysis or text mining, based on the morphological and phonetic structure of each language. Results have been impressive, as one of the greatest advantages is the speed of the analysis of big amounts of text (Gervás, 2000). Nevertheless, the integration of these technologies with the previous models described is not easy, and solutions are often customized for the variation of natural language used, most times standard English. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Our approach</head>
            <p>What we propose in this paper is not a new method for analyzing poetry, but an abstract model based on a working methodology supported by a double standardization system, both at philological and technological levels. In relation to this aspect, it must be highlighted that it needs to be carried out by an interdisciplinary and coordinated team, which requires a careful design of data architecture in different levels. Our proposal aims to set up a procedure to combine philological criteria to map vocabularies and concepts which might have common means and properties in the different traditions and to insert them into an abstract framework in which each of these elements can fit as individuals of an ontology which gathers the main poetics concepts shared by most traditions. We have worked on some first approaches in this sense, building our first ontology prototype, based on our ReMetCa Spanish project: <ref target=""http://www.purl.org/net/remetca"">www.purl.org/net/remetca</ref> (González-Blanco, and Del Rio, et al., 2014), populated with a controlled vocabulary in SKOS, that can be found in <ref target=""http://vocabularios.caicyt.gov.ar/pmc/"">http://vocabularios.caicyt.gov.ar/pmc/</ref>. These preliminary results, which served as prototype and a basis to build the current model, have been applied to different poetry projects, such as the edition of <hi rend=""italic"">Cancionero de Baena</hi>: <ref target=""http://sade.textgrid.de/exist/apps/SADE/Dialogo_Medieval/index.html"">http://sade.textgrid.de/exist/apps/SADE/Dialogo_Medieval/index.html</ref> or the description of poetic collections in <ref target=""http://www.poetriae.linhd.es/"">http://www.poetriae.linhd.es/</ref>, but they need to be expanded and improved to analyze other poetic systems.</p>
            <p>This paper has been developed thanks to the research projects funded by MINECO and led by Elena González-Blanco: Acción Europa Investiga EUIN2013-50630: Repertorio Digital de Poesía Europea (DIREPO) and FFI2014-57961-R. Laboratorio de Innovación en Humanidades Digitales: Edición Digital, Datos Enlazados y Entorno Virtual de Investigación para el trabajo en humanidades, and the Starting Grant ERC-2015-STG-679528 POSTDATA.</p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bělič, O.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Verso español y verso europeo: introducción a la teoría del verso español en el contexto europeo</hi>, Santafé de Bogotá, Instituto Caro y Cuervo.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bello, A. </hi>(1955).
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Estudios filológicos. Principios de la ortología y métrica de la lengua castellana y otros escritos en Obras completas</hi> de Andrés Bello, Caracas, Ministerio de Educación. (1st ed. 1835)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bootz, P. and Szoniecky, S.</hi> (2008). Towards an ontology of the field of digital poetry, <hi rend=""italic"">Paper presented at Electronic Literature in Europe</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://elmcip.net/node/415"">http://elmcip.net/node/415</ref>. Accessed: 30/10/2015.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Burnard, L. and  Bauman, S.</hi> (Eds.) TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Ver. 2.5.0. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/"">http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/</ref> Accessed 30-10-2015. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gerber, N.</hi> (2013). Stress-Based Metrics Revisited: A Comparative Exercise in Scansion Systems and their Implications for Iambic Pentameter. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Thinking Verse III</hi>, pp. 131-68.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">González-Blanco, E., G. Del Rio, C. Martínez, M. Martos </hi> (2014). When TEI Verse becomes linked data: using TEI tags as a model to build a linked poetry system. <hi rend=""italic"">Abstract from the paper presented at the TEI Conference 2014</hi>, 
                        <ref target=""http://tei.northwestern.edu/files/2014/10/gonzalez-blanco-20wnj3q.pdf"">http://tei.northwestern.edu/files/2014/10/gonzalez-blanco-20wnj3q.pdf</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">González-Blanco, E. and L. Seláf </hi> (2014). Megarep: A comprehensive research tool in medieval and renaissance poetic and metrical repertoires. In Soriano, L. et al. (Eds.),
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities on the web: the medieval world</hi>. Oxford, Peter Lang, pp. 321-32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">González-Blanco, E. and J. L. Rodríguez </hi>(2013). ReMetCa: a TEI based digital repertory on Medieval Spanish poetry, at The Linked TEI: Text Encoding in the Web, <hi rend=""italic"">Book of Abstracts - electronic edition</hi>. Edited by F. Ciotti and A. Ciula, DIGILAB Sapienza University and TEI Consortium, Rome 2013, pp. 178-85. 
                        <ref target=""http://digilab2.let.uniroma1.it/teiconf2013/abstracts/"">http://digilab2.let.uniroma1.it/teiconf2013/abstracts/</ref>. Accessed 30-10-2015.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Navarro Tomás, T.</hi> (1991). <hi rend=""italic"">Métrica española</hi>, Barcelona, Labor. (1st ed., 1956).</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Zöllner-Weber, A. </hi>(2009). Ontologies and Logic Reasoning as Tools in Humanities? <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(4). 
                        <ref target=""http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/4/000068/000068.html"">http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/4/000068/000068.html</ref> Accessed: 30/10/2015.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2711","17","Diachronic Semantic Lexicon of Dutch (Diachroon semantisch lexicon van de Nederlandse Taal; DiaMaNT)","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Dutch language has been described extensively in the comprehensive historical dictionaries of the Institute for Dutch lexicology. These dictionaries (Oudernederlands Woordenboek, Dictionary of Old Dutch, ca. 500-1200; Vroegmiddelnederlands Woordenboek, Dictionary of Early Middle Dutch, 1200-1300 ; Middelnederlandsch Woordenboek; MNW, Dictionary of Middle Dutch, ~1250-550; Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Dictionary of the Dutch Language, 1500-976) cover over 15 centuries of Dutch and are as such a perfect guide to understanding historical language. The dictionaries also provide the core material for the diachronic computational lexicon of Dutch (GiGaNT), that can be used to support search in historical texts by users without (expert) knowledge of historical spelling variation: when searching for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">slager</hi> (‘butcher’) the user also gets the morphological and spelling variants like 
                <hi rend=""italic"">slagers, slagher(s), slaeger(s) slaegher(s)</hi> or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">slegher(s). </hi> However, when a user wants to study the history of the butcher’s trade, it is not immediately obvious from the way these traditional dictionaries are structured that one has also to look for 
                <hi rend=""italic"">vleeschhouwer</hi> or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">beenhouwer</hi> or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">beenhakker.</hi> And it is only after reading the complete articles that a user learns that 
                <hi rend=""italic"">vleeschouwer</hi> can also mean ‘executioner’, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">slager</hi> ‘a person who slays so.’, be it though that in the case of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">vleeschhouwer</hi> the meaning 
                <hi rend=""italic"">‘executioner´</hi> is derived from vleeschhouwer ‘butcher’, while 
                <hi rend=""italic"">slager</hi> in contemporary meaning ‘butcher’ is derived from the meaning 
                <hi rend=""italic"">‘a person who slays so’.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>In this contribution we describe the first results of our work on the development of a diachronic semantic lexicon of Dutch. The lexicon aims to enhance text accessibility and to foster research in the development of concepts, by interrelating attested word forms and semantic units (concepts), and tracing semantic developments in time. In the lexicon, the diachronic onomasiology, i.e. the change in naming of concepts and the diachronic semasiology, i.e. the change in meaning of words, will be recorded in a way suitable for use by humans and computers. The onomasiological part of the lexicon is meant to enhance recall in text retrieval by providing different verbal expressions of a concept or related concepts (<hi rend=""italic"">slager → beenhouwer, beenhakker, vleeshouwer; boer → landman</hi>). The diachronic semasiological component (which charts semantic change), aims to enhance precision by enabling the user to take semantic change into account; the oldest meaning of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">appel</hi> for example is ‘a fruit’ (so 
                <hi rend=""italic"">appel</hi> is also used for pears, plums etc.). 
                <lb/>
            </p>
            <p>We describe the structure of the diachronic semantic lexicon and procedures for the acquisition and aggregation of content. The INL historical dictionaries will be the main source of the lexicon, as these dictionaries describe the Dutch lexicon from the 6
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> to the 20
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century and cover most of the basic vocabulary of this period. Word sense descriptions are illustrated by dated quotations, which constitute a first step towards dating a concept. The temporal distribution of quotations pertaining to different senses gives a first picture of the diachronic development of the sense inventory of a headword. The fact that many words in the historical dictionaries are defined (partly) by synonym definitions and contemporary semantic (near)-equivalents enables us to extract an initial set of semantic relations. 
            </p>
            <p>Information from other sources is not disregarded. For contemporary Dutch, several lexical resources cataloguing semantic relationships are available. This includes traditional synonym dictionaries like Brouwers “Het Juiste woord” and more recent initiatives such as Open Dutch Wordnet (Vossen). For some specific domains, thesauri with a diachronic component are in development (eg. the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">HISCO</hi> (
                <ref target=""http://historyofwork.iisg.nl/index.php"">http://historyofwork.iisg.nl/index.php</ref>)). 
            </p>
            <p>Besides lexical sources, diachronic corpus material
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text"">Corpora: DBNL (digital library of Dutch literature, 
                        <ref target=""http://www.dbnl.nl"">http://www.dbnl.nl</ref>), digitized newspaper collections at the Dutch Royal Library, and other collections digitized by the Royal Library (
                        <ref target=""http://www.delpher.nl"">http://www.delpher.nl</ref>).
                    </p>
                </note> and corpus-based methods are no less essential to the development and verification of the relevance of the lexicon content. This includes: i) corpus based analysis of semantic change at the “type”-level, using distributional methods. Here, the fact that our starting point is defined by the set of quotation dates per word sense provides an interesting perspective. ii) research into the application of token-based distributional methods to the interlinking of historical corpora and lexical resources.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fellbaum, C. ed. </hi>(1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">WORDNET. An Electronic Lexical Database.</hi> London: The MIT Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Geeraerts, D., et al. </hi>(1994). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Structure of Lexical Variation. Meaning, Naming, and Context. </hi>Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Geeraerts, D.</hi> (1997). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Diachronic Prototype Semantics. A Contribution to Historical Lexicology.</hi> Oxford: Clarendon Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Geeraerts, D.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Theories of Lexical Semantics.</hi> Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gulordava, K. and Baroni, M.</hi> (2011). A distributional similarity approach to the detection of semantic change in the Google Books Ngram corpus.
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Proceedings of the EMNLP 2011 Geometrical Models for Natural Language Semantics (GEMS 2011) Workshop</hi>, pp. 67-71.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heylen, K., et al.</hi> (2015). Monitoring polysemy: Word space models as a tool for large-scale lexical semantic analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lingua</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">157</hi>: 153-72.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kay, C. J. and Chase, T. J. P.</hi> (1987). Constructing a Thesaurus database. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(3): 161-63.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Laurence, S. and Margolis, E.</hi> (1999). Concepts and Cognitive Science. In Margolis, E. and Laurence, S., 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Concepts. Core Readings.</hi> Cambridge (US)/London: The MIT Press, pp. 3-81.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sijs, N. van der</hi> (2001). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Etymologie in het digitale tijdperk. Een chronologisch woordenboek als praktijkvoorbeeld.</hi> Ph.D. thesis, Universiteit Leiden.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vanhove, M. ed.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">From Polysemy to Semantic Change. Towards a typology of lexical semantic associations. </hi>Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vossen, P. ed.</hi> (1998). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">EuroWordNet: A mulitlingual database with lexical semantic networks.</hi> Reprinted from 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computer and the Humanities</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">Vol.</hi> 32, Nos. 2-3, 1998. Dordrecht/Boston/London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2712","17","Die digitale Modellierung experimenteller Druckgrafiken des 15. Jahrhunderts. Anforderungen und Chancen computerbasierter Dokumentationsverfahren","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p rend=""normal"">Das Forschungsprojekt “Digitale Materialität” des Schweizerischen Nationalfonds ist eine Kooperation des Digital Humanities Labs und des Kunsthistorischen Seminars der Universität Basel. Ziel dieses Projektes ist es, Verfahren zur digitalen Reproduktion von Kunstwerken zu entwickeln sowie bereits bestehende Methoden zu optimieren, um sie in der kunsthistorischen Forschung besser einsetzen zu können. </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Ein Themenbereich, in dem diese Vorgehensweise erprobt wird, sind frühe experimentelle Druckgrafiken, die im 15. Jahrhundert entstanden sind. Sie sind Teil der Medienrevolution, die der Erfindung des Buchdrucks folgt. Anders als konventionelle Graphiken nutzen die experimentellen Drucktechniken Farb- und Reliefeffekte, um attraktiver und wertvoller zu wirken. Beides sind Oberflächeneigenschaften die sich nur schwer fotografisch aufnehmen lassen.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Zu diesen graphischen Experimenten gehören die sogenannten Teigdrucke (Mabbott, 1932; Bowman, 1985; Bertalan, 1993; Scheld, 2009). Sie bestehen aus mehreren übereinanderliegenden Schichten. Ein Papieruntergrund ist mit einer verformbaren Substanz bedeckt. Sie wurde mit einer dünnen Metallfolie überzogen, um den Eindruck zu erwecken, als sei Gold verwendet worden. In diesen mehrschichtigen ""Teig"" wurde eine Metallplatte gepresst, in die man zuvor das abzubildende Motiv graviert hatte. Die Oberfläche der Platte wurde für den Druckprozess mit schwarzer Farbe bedeckt. Dieses Schwarz übertrug sich beim Drucken auf den golden schimmernden Untergrund.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Solche Drucke sind sehr selten, ausgesprochen fragil und deshalb meist in schlechtem Zustand erhalten. Ihre Oberfläche ist an vielen Stellen abgebröckelt. Auch der metallische Glanz ist nur noch an wenigen Stellen sichtbar. Darum fällt es schwer, sich eine Vorstellung vom einst so filigranen, kostbar schimmernden Relief zu machen. Aufgrund der Oberflächenkomplexität wirken Teigdrucke auf konventionellen Fotografien unansehnlich, obwohl sie in Wirklichkeit einiges von ihrer faszinierenden Materialwirkung bewahrt haben.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Um diese interessanten Objekte besser reproduzieren zu können, verbindet das Projekt “Digitale Materialität” Komponenten aus der Fotografie und der Computergrafik, welche es ermöglichen, die materiellen Eigenschaften der Originale so abzubilden, dass sie mit der beobachtbaren Realität in einem überprüfbaren Zusammenhang stehen. Um das ursprüngliche Aussehen in der digitalen Domäne zu representieren, wird für die fotografische Aufnahme das sogenannte Reflection Transformation Imaging (RTI) eingesetzt (Malzbender, Gelb, Wolters, 2001; Mudge et al., 2008; MacDonald, 2015). Mit diesem Verfahren wird aus mehreren statischen Aufnahmen ein mathematisches Relexionsmodell gerechnet, welches erlaubt die Reflexionseigenschaften der Oberfläche eines Objekts interaktiv darzustellen. So wird es möglich, die Reflexe unter sich verändernder Beleuchtung verlässlich zu simulieren. Die grundsätzliche Methodik von RTI besteht im systematischen Aufnehmen von Fotografien unter unterschiedlichen Lichteinfallswinkeln. Dieses Aufnahme-Set dient als Datenbasis, um eine mathematische Funktion so zu parametrisieren, dass sie die physikalischen Gegebenheiten für jeden Ort (jedes Pixel) möglichst exakt wiedergeben kann. Das auf diese Weise generierte Modell kann anschliessend am Computer betrachtet werden, wobei sich das Aussehen des Objekts unter wechselnden Lichtsituationen interaktiv simulieren lässt.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Die erreichten Ergebnisse zeigen, dass RTI die Oberfläche, ihre Reflexionseigenschaften und den aktuellen Erhaltungszustand von Teigdrucken aussagekräftiger dokumentieren und darstellen kann, als konventionelle Fotografien. Insbesondere das feine dreidimensionale Relief der Teigdrucke lässt sich an RTI-Modellen besser nachvollziehen. </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Im Rahmen des Basler Projekts wird das Verfahren aber nicht nur angewendet, sondern auch weiterentwickelt. Das konventionelle RTI Verfahren stösst bei Objekten mit kombinierten glänzenden und matten Oberflächen an seine Grenzen. Dies liegt am einfachen mathematischen Modell – im Normalfall eine einfache Parabel – sowie an der Tatsache, dass das selbe Modell für das ganze Bild verwendet wird, also nicht auf einen ggf. vorhandenen Materialmix eingegangen wird. Durch das Überlagen eines aus der Computergrafik stammenden Glanzmodells – z.B. Phong (Phong, 1975) oder Ward (Ward and Glencross, 2009) – kann dieses Manko behoben werden, um so dem Reflexionsverhalten unterschiedlicher Materialien Rechnung zu tragen. Die Weiterentwicklungen werden laufend von kunsthistorischer Seite begleitet, um zu bewerten, wie die verbesserten Modelle im Vergleich zu den bislang verwendeten Verfahren als neues Analyseinstrument für geisteswissenschaftliche Forschungen genutzt werden können.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Um schliesslich die im Projekt generierten digitalen Objekte der Forschung zur Verfügung zu stellen, werden sie in ein Virtual Research Environment (Rosenthaler and Subotic 2012, Carusi and Reimer, 2010) integriert. Zur Wiedergabe der Modelle setzen wir auf WebGL (https://www.khronos.org/webgl/). Die Verbreitung der Daten im Rahmen von Open Access Anforderungen wird durch eine standardisierte Schnittstelle (JSON, JSON-LD) realisiert.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Am Beispiel der Teigdrucke zeigt sich im Basler Projekt, wie Entwicklungen der Digital Humanities Voraussetzung für neue Forschungsfragen in den Geisteswissenschaften schaffen können. An die Stelle des erprobten Dokumentations- und Vermittlungsmediums der konventionellen Fotografie tritt mit RTI ein innovatives Verfahren. Es wird jedoch nicht nur zweckmässig eingesetzt, sondern muss anwendungsbezogen optimiert werden, um den hohen Ansprüchen kunsthistorischer Dokumentationspraxis gerecht zu werden. Gefordert sind nämlich nicht etwa multimediale sondern gänzlich neuartige Forschungsdaten, die andernfalls für wissenschaftliche Diskurse nicht verfügbar wären.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Hinzu kommt die Aufbereitung des Verfahrens für den Gebrauch in einer neuen, virtuellen Forschungsumgebung, die ihrerseits traditionelle Formen der wissenschaftlichen Vernetzung ergänzt. Dies geschieht unter anderem durch den Einsatz semantischer Technologien, die nur im digitalen Raum ihr Potential entfalten können. Die virtuelle Forschungsumgebung wird schliesslich in Kombination mit webfähigen Applikationen und Open Access-Schnittstellen zum Angelpunkt für eine dauerhafte Sicherung der digitalen Daten, die zugleich nutzbar und archivierbar gemacht werden.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliographie</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bowman, C. L.</hi> (1985). Pasteprints. A New Hypothesis About Their Production.<hi rend=""italic""> Print Quarterly</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>: 4-11.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bertalan, S. M.</hi> (1993). Medieval pasteprints in the National Gallery of Art. In Ross M. Merrill u. a. (eds.), <hi rend=""italic"">Conservation research</hi>. Hanover u. a.: University Press of New England, pp. 30-61.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Carusi, A. and Reimer, T.</hi> (2010). Virtual Research Environment Collaborative Landscape Study <hi rend=""italic""> JISC</hi>. <ref target=""http://www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/publications/vrelandscapereport.pdf"">http://www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/publications/vrelandscapereport.pdf</ref> [letzter Zugriff 26. Februar 2016].</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Mabbott, T. O.</hi> (1932). Pasteprints and Sealprints. <hi rend=""italic"">Metropolitan Museum Studies</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>: 55 -75.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">MacDonald, L.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Realistic visualisation of cultural heritage objects</hi>. London: University College 2015.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Malzbender, T., Gelb, D. and Wolters, H.</hi> (2001). Polynomial Texture Maps. <hi rend=""italic""> SIGGRAPH 01, Proceedings of the 28th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques</hi>. New York: ACM Press 2001, pp. 519-28.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Mudge, M. et al.</hi> (2008). Image-Based Empirical Information Acquisition, Scientific Reliability, and Long-Term Digital Preservation for the Natural Sciences and Cultural Heritage. <hi rend=""italic"">EUROGRAPHICS</hi>. http://culturalheritageimaging.org/What_We_Do/Publications/eurographics2008/eurographics_2008_tutorial_notes.pdf [letzter Zugriff 26. Februar 2016].</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Phong, B. T. </hi>(1975). Illumination for Computer Generated Pictures. <hi rend=""italic"">Commun</hi>. ACM <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(6): 311-17.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rosenthaler, L. and Subotic, I.</hi> (2012). SALSAH 2.0 – Augmenting a virtual research environment with source-centric analysis methods. SNF-Proposal no. 137929: Bern.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Scheld, A. and Damm, R. </hi>(2009). Flock Prints and Paste Prints. A Technological Approach. <hi rend=""italic"">Peter Parshall</hi> (ed.): The Woodcut in Fifteenth-Century Europe. New Haven: Yale University Press 2009, pp. 316-36.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Ward, G. and Glencross, M.</hi> (2009). <hi rend=""italic"">A case study evaluation: perceptually accurate textured surface models</hi>. Manchester: ACM Press: 109.</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2713","17","Digital Annotation Tooling for Opera Performance Studies","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>
                    <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-be6290fd-4937-d95f-72e4-bf6af4f8b6a1""/>Background
                </head>
                <p>In opera and music theatre, the realisation of a work in performance differs significantly from the abstract concept that is captured in the score. The scenic interpretation, with its own characteristics and specific perspective on the work, is created afresh in every new staging – thus a performance and its experience cannot be determined from the score alone (Cook, 2013).</p>
                <p>Comparing a mere three stagings of Richard Wagner's 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Der Ring des Nibelungen</hi> illustrates this point: the Bayreuth premiere in 1876, Boulez'/Cherau's
                    <hi rend=""italic"">""centennial Ring""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic""/> in Bayreuth 1976, and the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Ring</hi> Cycle in Birmingham in 2014 (which is the subject of our digital annotation capture in this paper). Not only are costumes and decorations entirely different, but also the setting and staging of the action, interpretation and presentation of the characters, visual and scenic aesthetics, and the perspective on and attitude towards the work.
                </p>
                <p>For studies of the reception and perception of an operatic work, keeping a record of a particular performance – the characteristics of individual stagings – is an important requirement. This poses the question of how best to document the ephemeral phenomenon of an opera. Audio-visual recordings appear to provide an answer, but they are neither neither objective nor exhaustive; live annotation by a musicologist in the audience can thereby provide an additional or alternative resource.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Musical Score Annotation Kit</head>
                <p>We developed the Musical Score Annotation Kit (MuSAK) to capture these musicological annotations, designing it to meet the requirements – and technical compromises – of operating in the environment and timescales of a live production in a working theatre, and providing an interface of sufficient responsiveness and adaptability to meet the needs of a working musicologist. The kit comprises:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>A touchscreen tablet device, running a bespoke web-based client through which each individual page of a score can be annotated and pages can be turned;</item>
                    <item>A server based on the Union platform which gathers annotation keystrokes from the tablet client;</item>
                    <item>A second ""score following"" page-turn annotation interface, capturing timings of the realisation (performance) of the material on a particular score page;</item>
                    <item>A Livescribe Echo digital smart pen, used to take notes beyond those described in the annotation key (see below);</item>
                    <item>Capture of audio and video, potentially recording both the staged performance and the musicologist using MuSAK.</item>
                </list>
                <p>Technical details of the MuSAK infrastructure are fully described elsewhere (Page et al., 2015). In this paper we report upon the utility of the toolkit: both in relation to the needs of the musicologist during the annotation event; and in relating the quantitative temporal data captured to the qualitative consideration of its potential musicological interpretation. Particularly with regard to the latter data-derived investigations, a key functionality of the kit for post-performance analysis is the temporal reconciling of the constituent digital media and annotations into a coherent metadata hyperstructure, enabling navigation of the information-dense digital captures (Nurmikko-Fuller et al., 2015).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Annotation workflow and enactment</head>
                <p>The first full deployment of MuSAK captured annotations during a complete staging of Richard Wagner's 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Ring</hi>, performed on four nights over five days by the Mariinsky Opera at the Birmingham Hippodrome in November 2014 (Figure 1).
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""359/100000000000023B000002800519C9372DE4A9DE.png""/>
                        <head>
                            <lb/>Figure 1: The musicologist and MuSAK in position from her viewpoint at the back of the stalls before curtains up
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>This multi-stage process is summarised in Figure 2. Digital images were generated from short piano scores of the operas obtained from IMSLP
                    <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">
                        <anchor xml:id=""id_docs-internal-guid-be6290fd-4949-0487-ed14-70f467d832fd""/> The International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)/Petrucci Music Library, http://imslp.org/
                    </note>, then formatted and cleaned for viewing on the MuSAK tablet. The musicologist spent considerable time before the performance annotating printed copies of these scores which were subsequently re-digitised. These pre-performance notes highlighted musical elements determined directly from the score; these also served as ""signposts"" for potential points of interest which would be revisited during the live performance.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""359/10000201000002B6000001742F6A52634386C719.png""/>
                        <head>
                            <lb/>Figure 2: Annotation workflowscore_workflow.png
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>This necessitated the development of a symbolic key (Figure 3) which allowed annotations to be made at sufficient speed during the live performance, and which was trialled before deployment during co-development of the technical system. During the Birmingham staging the musicologist annotated the tablet-based score image directly using a stylus to draw symbols from the key (Figure 4), allowing for adaptation of the key between the nightly performances, based on experience during fieldwork.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""359/10000000000001F20000003FA9702D3710073FA9.jpg""/>
                        <head>
                            <lb/>Figure 3: Examples of symbols from the musicologist's keykey_image.jpg
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""359/100000000000019200000249ECBEE94F0C1CBEFB.jpg""/>
                        <head>
                            <lb/>Figure 4: An annotated score pagescore_page.jpg
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>A significant volume of annotation and related data was gathered: 15 hours of video footage; over 100,000 tablet strokes encoding 8,216 annotations; 1,300 performance based page turns; 1,316 digital score images; and 104 pages of writing producing 13 hours of digital pen replay.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Toolkit Assessment</head>
                <p>The usability attributes of MuSAK were assessed in interviews with the musicologist after the Birmingham performances according to learnability, efficiency, memorability, and satisfaction, as defined by Ferre (Ferre et al., 2001).</p>
                <p>Learnability was evaluated through the musicologist’s experience of acquiring the skills necessary to complete the annotation process. She found the system comparable to existing musicological annotation pragmatics, minimising the need for training:</p>
                <quote>Using MuSAK [is] very similar to the process that I as a musicologist used to do regularly...I think it worked very well because [it repeated existing] processes [...and] fitted in with actions I was very well adapted to...the tools were very non-invasive.</quote>
                <p>On satisfactory functionality and performance, the musicologist felt “quite” able to 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">keep up with the pace of the opera</hi>, although believed that the time necessary to make additional freehand annotations and cognitively process observations made the page turn annotations inaccurate:
                </p>
                <quote>I was quite well able to keep up with the pace... I have been able to capture...a pretty good picture of...the profile of the performance... an important realisation is that making these scenic [and musical] annotations … which are particular about this performance... requires a lot of time to think and... process even if it is only [around] 10 seconds or 5 seconds...if we want to also capture a detailed and accurate time profile of the performance it would be necessary to have two people…</quote>
                <p>However, an analysis of the page turn data (below) indicates an ability to at least turn pages at a pace highly correlated with the performance. (MuSAK can also be configured to support multiple annotation devices and annotators simultaneously, although this was not done during the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Ring</hi> capture.)
                </p>
                <p>The musicologist reported an ability to 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">capture the idiosyncratic profile of each specific performance</hi>, including deviations from the score or expectations based on it, as well as staging, lighting, and the behaviour of the actors:
                </p>
                <quote>...the performance details: are the musical details particular in any places, is something particular loud ...[or]... fast, are any mistakes made ... scenic specifics of the performance, what happens on stage... are people moving a lot, are they using a lot of gestures, are there significant lighting changes, are there changes of scenes...</quote>
                <p>MuSAK was described as 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">supportive of traditional annotation paradigms</hi>, because new skills were not necessary for effective and efficient annotation using the touchpad screen and stylus: 
                </p>
                <quote>...intuitive to use because it was mainly very similar to just using pen and paper which everyone who is concerned with analysing music is very used to... so it's very similar to the process that I as a musicologist used to do regularly anyway and ... it worked very well because it took up processes that were there anyway and tried to fit in with actions I was very well adapted to [...] very similar to [...] if you eventually get used to the touch screen which didn’t take such a long time...</quote>
                <p>The additional affordances of a digital system were noted, including the automatic 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">capture of the temporal profile of the performance and the benefit of being able to easily make corrections:</hi>
                </p>
                <quote>...they actually help because with using a pen and paper you wouldn’t be able to undo things if you make mistakes, ...[nor]... be able to afterwards see the timings [...] with pen and paper doesn’t give such an accurate profile of this particular performance [...] you’re capturing the timings [of] not only the music but also the timings of the annotations because afterwards you can look at how dense are the annotations.</quote>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Data Interpretation</head>
                <p>In addition to recording the musicologist’s (subjective) annotations, MuSAK can be used to produce statistics about the acts of annotation to supplement our understanding of the technical system and our interpretation of the musicological context.</p>
                <p>For example, Figure 5 shows comparative plots of what is, effectively, the rate of performance of each page (from the score-following annotations) compared to the musicologist, indicating an overall ability to ""keep up"" with the pace of the staging.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""359/100000000000064000000280D4AE9B576A33E0D9.png""/>
                        <head>
                            <lb/>Figure 5: Comparative plots of performance and annotator
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Figure 6 shows the rate of annotations over the course of the four operas, indicating what might be considered as a crude measure of ""music information density"".</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""359/100000000000064000000280553B4D5D1045C8CF.png""/>
                        <head>
                            <lb/>Figure 6: Rates of annotation over time during the Ring Cycle performance
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Moments which pass a higher threshold of annotation rate have been identified to relate to significant music-dramatic instances in several places, which involve highly concentrated activity on stage (e.g. Hagen killing Gunther in Götterdämmerung).</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cook, N.</hi> (2013). 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Beyond the Score: Music as Performance</hi>. New York: Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ferre, X., Juristo, N., Windl, H. and L. Constantine, L.</hi> (2001).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Usability basics for software developers</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Software</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>(1): 22–29.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nurmikko-Fuller, T., Weigl, D. M. and Page, K. R.</hi>
                        On organising multimedia performance corpora for musicological study using Linked Data. <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on Digital Libraries for Musicology.</hi>Knoxville: ACM, pp. 25-28.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Page, K., Nurmikko-Fuller, T., Rindfleisch, C., Weigl, D. M., Lewis, R., Dreyfus, L. and De Roure, D.</hi> 
                        (2015).
                        A Toolkit for Live Annotation of Opera Performance: Experiences Capturing Wagner's Ring Cycle.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval 2015</hi>. Malaga: ISMIR, pp. 211-17.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2714","17","Digital Data Sharing: Opportunities and Challenges of Opening Research","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The data generated in the course of digital humanities research is a valuable resource, with the potential to allow collaborative research and the enhancement of researcher profiles through its publication and re-use. Researchers in the sciences have a longer standing practice of sharing research data, although the pathways to making this data open, discoverable, and interoperable are still being explored. This panel aims to introduce researchers to concepts and best practices in research data management, and to explore the specific challenges and opportunities of research data publication for digital humanities.</p>
            <p>Research data is defined as data from any academic discipline which is the subject or product of research. This data may be qualitative or quantitative in nature, and can include documents, spreadsheets, databases, field notebooks, diaries, AV material, transcripts, digital models, algorithms, code, scripts, software applications and other formats. The impetus for research data publication is often closely linked to the principle of Open Access which states that the outputs of publicly funded research should be made openly available and accessible for interrogation by other interested parties. Researchers may be compelled to publish their research data openly due to policies driven by their institution, funder or journal publisher. Currently, the onus is on the researcher to plan their data management and data publication across the lifetime of their research. </p>
            <p>Common practice and guidelines have been developed to support researchers in preparing their data for preservation and publication. In many research performing organisations, data curation professionals also provide guidance to support individual researchers. Digital humanities research outputs bring particular challenges, often incorporating or analysing existing copyrighted material. As international policy moves towards mandated preservation and publication of publicly funded research, it is increasingly important that researchers are assisted in identifying, curating and describing their research data, and that Humanities scholars can access training and guidelines relevant to their disciplines and data types.</p>
            <p>Internationally, organisations, digital infrastructures and research projects exist to support research data curation activities. The Research Data Alliance (RDA) is an international organisation that draws support and funding from the EU Commission, the National Science Foundation in the United States, and the Australian Government and National Data Services. The RDA aims to accelerate and facilitate research data sharing and exchange, and its work is primarily undertaken through its working groups. Any interested party is welcome to participate in working groups and interest groups, start new working groups, and attend the twice-yearly plenary meetings. RDA Working Groups produce research and tangible outputs (see: https://rd-alliance.org/rda-outputs.html) covering areas relevant to digital humanities including Education and Training on handling of research data, Ethics and Data and Digital Practices in History and Ethnography. Current outputs include recommendations on dynamic data citation, allowing researchers to cite version of changing datasets at certain points in time.</p>
            <p>The panel draws together a range of experts in research data management, and will give an overview of key themes in research data and research data management for digital humanities, including identifying and preparing data for deposit, repository infrastructures and the services they provide, and the potential benefits of re-using published research data. The panelists will explore how existing conceptions of research data (often built on the ‘hard’ sciences) fit with Humanities research, how ‘data’ may be understood differently depending on domain, and what challenges arise through these differences. A representative from the Research Data Alliance will provide an overview of the RDA’s work and its connection to digital humanities research, providing specific examples of relevant outputs to generate discussion from the DH community. This panel will be interactive and welcome engagement from all attendees.</p>
            <p>Panel Chair: Dr. Natalie Harrower, Acting Director, Digital Repository of Ireland (Ireland)</p>
            <p>As chair, Dr. Harrower will provide an overview of how digital infrastructures can support researchers in preparing and publishing their data. Case studies will include the Digital Repository of Ireland, a national repository for Humanities and Social Science research data which provides services including digital preservation, education and outreach and the creation of persistent identifiers for data citation.</p>
            <p>Speaker 2: Rebecca Grant, Digital Archivist, Digital Repository of Ireland (Ireland)</p>
            <p>An introduction to concepts of research data in the digital humanities, including accepted definitions of what constitutes research data in a DH context. The specific challenges associated with research data management for DH will be explored. </p>
            <p>Speaker 3: Martin Donnelly, Digital Curation Centre (UK)</p>
            <p>This paper will present the basics of research data management practice, including the research data lifecycle and the roles and responsibilities of the researcher in managing data. </p>
            <p>Speaker 4: Ingrid Dillo, Data Archiving and Networked Services; RDA Technical Advisory Board member (Netherlands)</p>
            <p>An introduction to the work of the Research Data Alliance and its relevance to DH researchers. Specific outputs will be presented which have practical applications for the management and reuse of DH research data.</p>
            <p>Speaker 5: Orla Murphy, School of English, University College Cork (Ireland)</p>
            <p>Opportunities in research data publication for the digital humanities; how digital humanities data publication benefits the data creator, and how DH scholars can reuse research data in their work. A case study showing how published research data can be reused in a humanities context.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2715","17","Digital Humanities in Cultural Areas Using Texts That Lack Word Spacing","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div>
                <p>As most of modern and pre-modern western writing systems explicitly represent division of the words in a sentence by spaces or breaks, it has been easy to use computers to analyze texts based on each word and its meanings. However, there are several modern and pre-modern writing systems that do not explicitly indicate word separation in texts; that is, all words in a sentence are contiguous. A major contemporary representative of this kind of writing is seen in the language system of East Asia. Moreover, a popular Japanese pre-modern writing system called kuzushi-ji (cursive style characters) had often been presented with undivided characters even in typesetting until the late nineteenth century (Fig. 1, Fig. 2). As the lack of word-separation has been evoking not only ambiguity but also multiple interpretations, it has formed an aspect of cultural richness in Japanese culture. However, as a result, Japanese texts have intrinsically presented difficulties: not only in the case of textual analysis but also in both manual and automatic transcription in the digital era. This presentation will discuss problems in these writing systems and the current situation of attempts to resolve them through the methods of digital humanities.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""263/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fig.1</hi>: Typesetting printing (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ise-monogatari</hi> (Tales in Ise). Saga-bon. 1608. 
                        <ref target=""http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/%201287963/6"">http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/ 1287963/6</ref>
                        <hi rend=""Hyperlink""> </hi>)
                    </head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""263/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fig. 2</hi>: Woodcut printing (Yamamoto Shunsho ed. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Eiri-Genji-Monogatari </hi>(Pictorial tales of Genji. 1654. 
                        <ref target=""http://base1.nijl.ac.jp/~anthologyfulltext/"">http://base1.nijl.ac.jp/~anthologyfulltext/</ref> )
                    </head>
                </figure>
                <div>
                    <head>Difficulties of transcription </head>
                    <p>Recent Japanese texts do not have serious problem in case of OCR due not only to the separation of each character but also accuracy and clarify of its printing. However, it is difficult to OCR books printed even ten decades ago because of two points: most of them uses relatively complicated characters for OCR and parallel embedded small-font size texts (called ruby in HTML5) which explain pronunciation of a word, and are too close to the explained word to OCR (Fig. 3), even though they were printed by metal typesetting. More three decades ago characters were sometimes connected, and the writing style of characters were partially cursive (Fig. 4). Recently, some researchers are attempting to develop tools for recognition of kuzushi-ji not based on the shape of individual characters but by continuous shapes of characters. They have not yet reached the stage where they are able to transcribe all characters accurately, for both technical and intrinsic reasons, but the technology can nonetheless assist in reading such texts by showing candidates of characters (Fig. 5)
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> Hashimoto, Yuta, et al. The SMART-GS Project: An Approach to Image-based Digital Humanities. 
                                <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014</hi>:476-477. 2014.
                            </p>
                        </note>. One of reasons why such kind of image recognition of a series of characters by machine is available in many cases is that many resources written by kuzushi-ji are woodcut printing, in which case the continuous cursive characters are more or less normalized within a single book. 
                    </p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""263/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Fig. 3</hi>: Ruby close to text body (Ohashi Matatarou. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Jituyou-ryouri-hou,</hi> A Guidebook to practical cooking). Hakubunkan. 1895. 
                            <ref target=""http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/849051/19"">http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/849051/19</ref>
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""263/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Fig. 4</hi>: Continuous characters (Ryusuitei Tanekiyo ed. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Shiranui-monogatari</hi> (Tales of Shiranui). Vol. 68a. Enju-dou. 1885. 
                            <ref target=""http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/%20884924/8"">http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/ 884924/8</ref> )
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""263/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Fig. 5:</hi> A result of image search in SMART-GS
                        </head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>However, there are special difficulties presented when a needed character is not encoded in Unicode. It seems to be similar with the case of Medieval Unicode Font Initiative
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://folk.uib.no/hnooh/mufi/</p>
                        </note>, but the number of unencoded characters would be much more in the Japanese case included in East Asia culture. Especially, as Japanese culture has been involved with foreign cultures and developing them in its contexts, several writing systems are preserved in its cultural resources, including Kanji, Hiragana, Katakana, Hentaigana, and Siddham scripts. Siddham scripts were encoded in Unicode 8.0 with its variant characters by efforts of Script Encoding Initiative, international experts, and SAT project
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> Pandey, Anshuman. Proposal to Encode the Siddham Script in ISO/IEC 10646. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N4294. 2012. 
                                <ref target=""http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2012/12234r-n4294-siddham.pdf"">http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2012/12234r-n4294-siddham.pdf</ref> .
                            </p>
                            <p rend=""footnote text"">KAWABATA , Taichi, Toshiya SUZUKI, Kiyonori NAGASAKI and Masahiro SHIMODA. Proposal to Encode Variants for Siddham Script. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N4407. 2013. http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n4407.pdf .</p>
                            <p rend=""footnote text"">Anderson, Deborah, et al. 2013-11-22 Siddham Script (梵字) Meeting @ Tokyo, JAPAN, Earth. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N4523. 2013. 
                                <ref target=""http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n4523.pdf"">http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n4523.pdf</ref> .
                            </p>
                        </note>. There are already 80,000 Kanji (CJK unified characters) registered, but thus number will continue to increase. Hentaigana (including over 200 glyph shapes) was proposed to the ISO committee on October 2015
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> ITSCJ SC2 Committee, IPSJ, JAPAN. Proposal of Japanese HENTAIGANA. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N4674. 2015. 
                                <ref target=""http://unicode.org/wg2/docs/n4674-Japan_Hentaigana_Proposal-a.zip"">http://unicode.org/wg2/docs/n4674-Japan_Hentaigana_Proposal-a.zip</ref> .
                            </p>
                        </note>. In order to make easy-use digital scholarly edition for Japanese texts, especially classics, this process will be continued. 
                    </p>
                    <p>While efforts of transcription, due to commoditization of digitizing textual materials in hi-resolution, digital image databases have also been grown in Japan. Especially, the National Diet Library in Japan has been addressing the publication of digitized collection including over 300,000 books--since over decades ago and recently stated that most of them are to be released in the public domain
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://dl.ndl.go.jp/</p>
                        </note>. And some institutes such as Kyoto Prefectural Library and Archives
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://hyakugo.kyoto.jp/</p>
                        </note> and the University of Tokyo Library
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://dzkimgs.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/utlib_kakouzou.php</p>
                        </note> are publishing their digitized collections under open license. The Art Research Center in Ritsumeikan University and the National Institute of Japanese Literature
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn8"" n=""8"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.nijl.ac.jp/</p>
                        </note> have released many digitized textual resources under academic license. The latter institute plans to distribute parts of their contents under open license in this year in its new comprehensive digitization project
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn9"" n=""9"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.nijl.ac.jp/pages/cijproject/index_e.html</p>
                        </note>. Needless to say, these are useful to enhance the convenience of humanities research. Especially, in Japanese contexts, many humanities researchers mention that validation of research results has been made much more efficient by the increased use of the digitized images.
                    </p>
                    <p>Crowd sourcing transcription has recently emerged also in Japan. Transcribe JP project has been conducted as a SIG of the Japanese Association for Digital Humanities. It provides a Web service
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn10"" n=""10"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> Hondigi2014. http://lab.ndl.go.jp/dhii/omk2/</p>
                        </note> for transcription with Omeka and Scripto plugin. Moreover, it started a micro task crowd sourcing project on
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn11"" n=""11"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> 翻デジ＠JADH×Crowd4U. http://www.jadh.org/transcribejp</p>
                        </note> October 2015 in cooperation with Crowd4U project
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn12"" n=""12"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> Crowd4U. http://crowd4u.org/en/</p>
                        </note>. Contributors can determine whether a character is exactly OCRed or not, comparing a candidate character with a piece of an image only by one click. The first experiment was finished in a much shorter time than we expected. Further results will be reported at the DH2016.
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Difficulties in Word Separation</head>
                    <p> In spite of the difficulties of transcription, there are many digitized texts in Japanese. Aozora-Bunko
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn13"" n=""13"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.aozora.gr.jp/</p>
                        </note>, a public domain Japanese texts repository similar to the Gutenberg Project, provides over 10,000 texts on its Web site and GitHub. The National Institute of Japanese Language and Linguistics (NINJAL)
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn14"" n=""14"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.ninjal.ac.jp/</p>
                        </note> publishes several encoded historical Japanese texts with POS tags on Web and Web services of textual analysis on modern Japanese texts including 100 million words with POS tags each word in its original format. The SAT project
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn15"" n=""15"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://21dzk.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/SAT/</p>
                        </note> also provides digital texts of Buddhist scriptures consists of 100 million characters mainly in Chinese and Japanese with some philological tags on Web.
                    </p>
                    <p> The texts of NINJAL consists of separated words with POS tags, but most of the others do not use this method. Then, methods for textual analysis are common in Japan: The one is n-gram analysis regarded a character as one “n”. The other is developing tools for automatic separation of words sometimes with POS tagger, such as Mecab
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn16"" n=""16"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://taku910.github.io/mecab/</p>
                        </note>, Chasen
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn17"" n=""17"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://chasen.naist.jp/hiki/ChaSen/</p>
                        </note>, and Kuromoji
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn18"" n=""18"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.atilika.com/ja/products/kuromoji.html</p>
                        </note>. These tools realize a high degree of precision, but sometimes produce erros. In this case, one has to manually correct the result of the tools if sharing exactly-processed texts is necessary. Moreover, even if a separation is not mistaken, it might support an interpretation in some cases. Such kinds of cases can also be occurred in word-separated corpora. This type of writing system includes such kinds of issues. 
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div>
                    <head>Rendering of texts</head>
                    <p>In XML-formatted texts, suc has those maintained in TEI, JATS
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn19"" n=""19"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://jats.nlm.nih.gov/</p>
                        </note>, and so on representation of breaks in source XML files seems to be regarded a space as a separation between words in popular stylesheets. But in the case of non-separated texts, it causes problems such as unnecessary separation. The XSLT-processed Japanese text in fig.7 must exclude spaces between characters in spite of line-breaks in the XML source (fig.6). Conversely, as a Japanese semi-governmental open access journal system adopting JATS ignores line breaks even in English, the words are connected in the case of Fig. 6 and Fig.7. This problem seems to be recognized in ePub with solution in CSS according to the target language
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn20"" n=""20"">
                            <p>
                                <ref target=""http://www.idpf.org/epub/30/spec/epub30-overview.html"">http://www.idpf.org/epub/30/spec/epub30-overview.html</ref>
                            </p>
                        </note>. While it must already be discussed even in contexts of DH because non-spacing texts have been generated in various time and place, the differences of treatment of the line-breaks in XML source files should be carefully treated regarding not only representation but also analysis of texts. 
                    </p>
                    <figure>
                        <p>
                            <graphic url=""263/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                            <lb/>
                        </p>
                        <head>Fig. 6 An example for contrast of word separation in XML format</head>
                    </figure>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""263/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                        <head>Fig. 7 An example for a result of XSL Transformation of the Fig. 6</head>
                    </figure>
                    <p>In contexts of current DH, huge humanities resources have still been dormant. According to their awakening, these kind of issues should be gradually revealed and needed to be solved from both practical and abstract viewpoints. Through solving them earnestly under global communication, DH will come to better fruition. </p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2716","17","DIVAServices-Spotlight - Experimenting with Document Image Analysis Methods in the Web","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>We present an easy-to-use web-based user interface which allows scholars working on manuscripts to assess the usefulness of automatic document image analysis (DIA) methods when incorporating automatic processes into their workflows. In contrast to existing web interfaces (Clausner, Pletschacher, and Antonacopoulos, 2011; Embach et al., 2013), this interface allows the user to directly upload images of the manuscript of interest without any registration. Thus, a fast assessment of a variety of algorithms and DIA processes can be performed. D<hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services is not a specialized tool for one specific use-case, but a collection of tools for several tasks in different use cases.
                </p>
                <p>With this web interface we build on our previous initiative (Würsch, Ingold, and Liwicki, 2015) to provide access to a wide range of DIA methods to the research communities in Computer Science and the Humanities. While the existing D<hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services are already useful to integrate state-of-the-art DIA methods into new research applications it is still difficult for researchers with little programming experience to estimate the capabilities of the offered methods. For example, it is not easy to know which binarization, text line segmentation, or OCR method and which parameters would work best on a given manuscript.
                </p>
                <p>In order to overcome this shortcoming, we present a web application that allows interacting with all offered methods. Users are able to upload their own images, perform experiments on them and have the results visualized. With this, researchers in the Humanities should get a better understanding on what the methods developed in the Computer Science community are able to achieve. The other way round, researchers from the Computer Science will have their methods exposed to a much broader range of data and can gather feedback to further improve the methods. This feedback loop should enhance communication between the two communities such that future methods can target the respective needs even better.</p>
                <p>D<hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services-Spotlight is built in a highly modular way, providing Graphical User Interface (GUI) blocks for various kinds of input and output parameters. The web interface is therefore automatically updated when new methods are added without the need of any further ado. Furthermore, based on our continuous open source support, this tool is available under a LGPL v2.1 license and the source code can be downloaded from github.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p> Available at: https://github.com/DIVA-DIA/DIVAServices-Spotlight</p>
                    </note>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>D<hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services-Spotlight</head>
                <p>DivaServices-Spotlight
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Available at: http://divaservices.unifr.ch/spotlight</p>
                    </note> is a web application that allows user to upload their own image data, perform experiments and investigate the results. This should help in deciding whether an algorithm can help solving a particular problem or not, and which parameters are best for the data at hand. Figure 1 provides an example of such an experiment where the highlighted area (left) is segmented into text lines (right) and visualized for the user.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""340/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                  <head>Figure 1 Example of an executed experiment using DivaServices. The highlighted region (left) is segmented into separate text lines (right) and visualized for the user.</head>
                </figure>
                <p>In this part we give an overview of how the different user interface works and provide an example on how to perform a workflow.</p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head> The User Interface</head>
                    <p>From the welcome page the three main parts of D<hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services-Spotlight are available: Images, for uploading and manipulating input images; Algorithms, for executing methods; and Results, for accessing computed results.
                    </p>
                    <div type=""div3"" rend=""DH-Heading3"">
                        <head>Images</head>
                        <p>Via the “Images” link the user can view his already uploaded images (Gallery) or upload new images (Upload). In its current version all uploaded images are automatically converted into the PNG format and users can upload a maximum of ten images at the same time.</p>
                        <p>Users get the possibility to apply various pre-processing steps onto their image. It is possible to crop an image to a specific size and values such as 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">brightness</hi>, <hi rend=""italic"">contrast</hi>, and 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">saturation</hi> can be adjusted. Performing these pre-processing steps can lead to better results of varying methods.
                        </p>
                    </div>
                    <div type=""div3"" rend=""DH-Heading3"">
                        <head>Algorithms</head>
                        <p>On the “Algorithm” page, all currently available methods are listed (c.f. Figure 2). When selecting “Apply” on a given method, the user is asked to select one of his uploaded images. </p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""340/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                          <head>Figure 2 The “Algorithms” page provides an overview of all available methods with a short description of what they can be used for. Using the “Apply” button one method can be used. </head>
                        </figure>
                         <p>On the page for a specific algorithm the user then has to specify input for this method. The input elements are created automatically based on the specifications of the method. For certain input elements a method can also specify ranges of possible values. The input of the user is validated and error messages are displayed should the input be not in a valid range. </p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""340/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                          <head>Figure 3 Different input types and validations. D<hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services-Spotlight offers automatic generation of input blocks for different types of inputs (a) like numbers, strings, and selection. Automatic validation (b) ensures that the user input is within ranges specified by the method. </head>
                        </figure>
                        <p>Figure 3 (a) shows how various input blocks are generated by D<hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services-Spotlight. Currently it is possible to generate blocks for the following elements: strings (textual data), numbers, selection (one of multiple), and checkboxes. In Figure 3 (b) validation of input elements is visualized. When the user inputs data that is not valid for the given input type (e.g. text data for numbers) an error message is displayed and the user cannot execute the method.
                        </p>
                        <p>Furthermore, an algorithm can specify that a user needs to select a region within the image. This is needed by methods which want to only work on a subset of the image and can speed up the runtime, as well as the quality of the results of a method (e.g., of text line detection). DivaServices-Spotlight allows for drawing the following selections onto an input image: rectangle, polygons, and circles. These regions are drawn using the mouse. Rectangles and circles can be created using a simple click and drag operation. Polygons are created through manually creating every point of the polygon and clicking near the start point to close it. After creating the various highlighters, they can be edited (e.g., a single point of a polygon can be moved to a new location after creation). The various highlighters are visualized in Figure 4. </p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""340/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                           <head>Figure 4 The different selection methods; rectangle (left), polygon (center), and circle (right).</head>
                        </figure>
                        <p>Once the user has entered necessary parameters and selected a region on the image (if needed) the execution can be started using “Submit”. The user is notified of the process at the top of the page that shows more information when clicked on with the mouse (Figure 5 (a)). Once the execution is finished, again the user is notified by a small balloon that pops up in the top right corner (Figure 5 (b)). Also, the counter behind the “Results” link in the menu navigation is increased (Figure 5 (c)).</p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""340/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                          <head>Figure 5 Notifications shown to the user about the current status of an execution (a), when an algorithm finishes (b), and the number of available results (c).</head>
                        </figure>
                    </div>
                    <div type=""div3"" rend=""DH-Heading3"">
                        <head>Results</head>
                        <p>The “Results” page provides the user an overview of all available results. Using the “+” button on a specific result will show him the computed result. On the left side the user sees the input image as well the used parameters and on the right side the user gets a visualization of the results.</p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""340/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                         <head>Figure 6 Results of a text line segmentation method. User input (left) is shown together with the computed results (right). Below the images is the JSON information a programmer would receive when calling the methods on D<hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services directly.</head>
                        </figure>
                        <p>Figure 6 provides an example of a detailed result. The user input is shown (left) with the computed result (right). The image view can be manipulated (dragging, and zooming) to get a better view of certain areas. Below each image is the JSON information that is sent to and received from D<hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services. This information should help programmers to see with what kind of information they have to deal with should they decide to integrate that method into another application.</p>
                    </div>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Using D<hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services-Spotlight for Designing DIA Workflows
                    </head>
                    <p>We provide an example how D<hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services-Spotlight can be used to design a full workflow. The aim is to build a system that takes an input image and performs OCR on the segmented text lines. For this we need to perform three steps: binarization, text line segmentation, and OCR recognition.
                    </p>
                    <p>Using the “Save Image” functionality on the result page we save the result image after each step. Figure 7 (a) – (d) show results at each stage using a combination of available methods. Parameters or even method could be changed at each step in order to find the best suited combination.</p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""340/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                      <head>Figure 7 Results at different stages in the workflow. The input image (a) is binarized (b), segmented into text lines (c) and processed using an OCR algorithm, leading to its digital representation (d).</head>
                    </figure> 
                    <p>Once a researcher is satisfied with the results on a small scale, he could then integrate that workflow into his application by directly invoking the methods on D<hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services using his programming language of choice.
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>With D<hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services-Spotlight we provide a web application to interact with all available methods hosted on D<hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services. Researchers can run small scale experiments to experience the possibilities of the different algorithms. Furthermore, the application provides developers with the necessary information they would need to use the methods outside of D<hi rend=""smallcaps"">iva</hi>Services-Spotlight and integrate them into other applications.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Clausner, C., Pletschacher, S., and Antonacopoulos, A.</hi> (2011). Aletheia – An advanced document layout and text ground-truthing system for production environments. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition, ICDAR</hi>, pp. 48–52.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Embach, M., Krause, C., Moulin, C., Rapp, A., Rindone, F., Stotzka, R., … Vanscheidt, P.</hi> (2013). eCodicology-Algorithms for the Automatic Tagging of Medieval Manuscripts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Linked TEI: Text Encoding in the Web</hi>, pp. 172.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Würsch, M., Ingold, R., and Liwicki, M.</hi> (2015). DIVAServices – A RESTful Web Service for Document Image Analysis Methods. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2717","17","Diverse Digitalities: Targeted Models for Postcolonial Challenges in the Digital Discourse.","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The digital highway is as yet an exclusive neighborhood-let’s just say that there are no traffic jams on there just yet. This disparity is of course not lost on the practitioners of digital humanities and several conversations pointing out this disparity have emerged in the last few years. Whether it is Postcolonial Digital Humanities (DHPoCo), gender algorithms experiments, the articulations of marginalizations spilling over to the digital space have all been part of this discourse. Various projects have also attempted to understand, articulate and bridge the gaps of representations. This panel too is concerned about that gap and discusses different projects that specifically address issues in countries where bandwidth and connectivity is not optimal as in the more advanced nations. How do we harness digital technology so humanities research can be innovative and access to them is not behind a pay wall or a “bandwidth” boundary? </p>
            <p>Alex Gil’s sx: Archipelagoes project sees to channel the rich and diverse theoretical engagements of the Caribbean with the Digital by providing an innovative two-tiered platform to support digital scholarship in, for and about the region and its diaspora. He proposes a minimum-computing model that can make humanities scholarship in low bandwidth countries longer lasting and easier to access. Alex will also argue for the moral imperative of DH scholars to make that access easy and useful. </p>
            <p>Rahul Gairola’s & Arnab Datta’s project focuses on the theory and practice of electronic education for the under-privileged in India. With their respective humanities and engineering backgrounds, their paper will discuss the imperative of reaching digital technology to the rural population of northern India. As their paper points out, Internet access has still not reached large chunks of the population in India. However, according to Government of India statistics, nearly a billion people will have subscription to mobile phones by the end of the decade. In this context, despite the difficulty of hypertext-based learning in rural areas of India due to lack of internet availability, the solutions can be provided through portable data transfer and convenient access by means of flash memory chips readily available in mobile phones. While many digital archives to date use DVDs and CD-ROMs for archival data storage, no research to date engages alternative data storage and retrieval in rural India archives. State of the art memory technologies support novel technological trends in Postcolonial Digital Humanities – not only in terms of the resources, but also for efficient archival of them. This will make digital literacy in rural India feasible in the immediate future rather than relying on bandwidth sensitive Internet connection.</p>
            <p>Nirmala Menon makes a similar case for the dissemination of humanities research and access to it for higher education in India. MAP (Multilingual Academic Publishing) is a new publishing project from Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), India. MAP has two specific features that address the research needs of students and established researchers of humanities in India- 1) it will be an open access platform that will allow access to students of universities across the country and 2) it will publish both original research and translations from and into different languages of India. For this, the project associates are in the process of developing translations software that will be efficient and will aid translations into multiple languages. Nirmala will also argue for the imperative of Digital Humanities to support projects in different postcolonial languages. While there are now DH initiatives in India, a lot of the discourse is still in English even if the projects themselves engage in conversations between different languages. This publishing project ambitiously aims, in the long run, to allow knowledge productions and disseminations in multiple languages.</p>
            <p>Together, all three papers address specific problems of the global south and envisage projects that will enable a more diverse global Digital Humanities conversation. The specific examples in these papers are of places that are part of the DH conversation but the geographic locales of the discourse pose challenges that are different from those of EU or US. Each of the projects discusses ways of enabling humanities research and researchers to go from the digital driveway to the highway within the constraints of connectivity and capability.</p>
          <div>
          <head>Small Axe: Archipelagos: A minimal computing model for a digital humanities journal for Caribbean Studies</head>
            <p>Alex Gil </p>
            <p> The Caribbean is the site of some of the most radical and diverse theoretical and material engagements with the digital. The archipelagos project seeks to channel that activity by providing an innovative two-tiered platform to support digital scholarship in, for, and about the region and its diaspora. Each layer of sx: archipelagos will contribute something new to both Caribbean Studies and to the digital humanities, first via the creation and documentation of a new cost-efficient workflow for the production of text-based scholarly outputs; second, the production of digital humanities project reviews attached to the traditional workflow of book reviews; and third, via the creation and support of a flexible multimodal environment for the production of unique works of digital scholarship that can be ultimately preserved by integrating their components into the university repository. This paper will combine an outline of the specific technological stack needed to run the journal with low resources, and an argument for the moral and practical imperatives to adopt such a model. In brief, I will argue that a minimal computing model can make publication in the humanities longer lasting, easier to access in regions of the world with low-bandwidth and ultimately more transferable to new generations.</p>
            </div>
          <div>
          <head>Democratic Digitality: Theory and Practice of Electronic Education for the Underprivileged</head>
            <p>Rahul K. Gairola & Arnab Datta</p>
            <p>This paper is the first co-authored study that deploys questions of gender equity and rural literacy in Literary Studies with electronic memory and communications platforms in the field of Electronics. Our goal herein is to combine our disparate fields to examine, from multiple perspectives, the haunting problems of electronic access to literary/ pedagogical tools in rural India. These problems of access are the consequence of poor infrastructure that demonstrates, as such, the complimentary relationship shared between the humanistic nature of the literary arts and the technical nature of electronics and communications platforms. We would moreover insist that research trends in our individual fields combined allow us to tackle one of South Asia’s most pressing issues in the 21
                <hi rend=""superscript"">st </hi>century: digital literacy in rural India. By “digital literacy” here, we do not limit our definition simply to knowledge of knowing how to use digital devices. Rather, we mean the hypertexts, databases, and resources that comprise the soft materials for education and research, and also the required hardware and infrastructure needed to support them. Here, there are significant problems of electronic access to literary/ pedagogical tools in, for example, the requisite data storage and retrieval of digital archives. In principle, these have been realized through the implementation of internet-based hypertexts that facilitate a seamless exchange of knowledge.
            </p>
            <p>However, in the Indian context, the Internet has not yet reached rural areas, and hypertext-based implementation of digital archives is hence not viable. According to the Government of India, nearly a billion users will be subscribing to mobile phones in the coming decade. This is in stark contrast to the growth rate of Internet subscriptions in India, which is projected to be nearly half the growth of mobile phone subscribers. In this context, despite the difficulty of hypertext-based learning in rural areas of India due to lack of internet availability, the solutions can be provided through portable data transfer and convenient access by means of flash memory chips readily available in mobile phones. While many digital archives to date use DVDs and CD-ROMs for archival data storage, no research to date engages alternative data storage and retrieval in rural India archives. State of the art memory technologies support novel technological trends in Postcolonial Digital Humanities – not only in terms of the resources, but also for efficient archival of them. This will make digital literacy in rural India feasible in the immediate future rather than relying on bandwidth sensitive Internet connection. We believe that advanced research and implementation of portable memory devices has the ability to disseminate the resources of the world to the four corners of the earth and improve digital literacy in rural populations.</p>
          </div>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2718","17","Documenting Material Culture: 3D Laser Scanning, Photogrammetry and Archaeological Ceramics from Lincoln Pottery Works","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This poster explores the application of laser scanning and photogrammetric recording methods to archaeological ceramics excavated from a former pottery factory in Lincoln, Nebraska, USA. As 3D modeling methods continue to become more user-friendly and affordable, they offer an attractive alternative for artifact documentation, analysis and sharing of data, compared to the traditional methods of photography and profile drawings. Several studies have utilized 3D scanning for accurate data acquisition, including 2D profiling, and the calculation of attributes that are harder to measure by traditional means, e.g. volume, surface area, and symmetry. Furthermore, the 3D models can become part of digital publications and form the basis for the creation of new digital resources.</p>
            <p>Here we are presenting 3D models created with two different methods: laser scanning and photogrammetry. We used a Next Engine 3D laser scanner, a portable scanner, suitable for small to medium-sized artifacts. The scanner generates 3D point clouds and also records texture. The texture is not high resolution, so it is not as sharp as high quality digital photographs. Multiple views are needed to create a complete model. The model requires editing (trimming, aligning, fusing) and, depending on the complexity of the object, it can take from one to two hours for a complete edited model. The 3D models created with the laser scanner are very accurate; they include any surface lines, indentations, breaks, imperfections, etc. We also use photogrammetry in order to improve upon texture and to compare the accuracy of the photogrammetric models with the 3D laser scanner models. All photographs are taken with a Nikon D3300 DSLR camera. Agisoft Photoscan Pro is used for the alignment, dense cloud, mesh, and texture for each model. Additional trimming and modifications are completed with CloudCompare (an open source 3D point cloud processing software). The combination of both methods allows for precise replication and creation of high resolution models. It also facilitates multiple types of analysis.</p>
            <p>The case study is the Lincoln Pottery Works (LPW), in Lincoln, NE, USA, which operated from 1880 until around 1903. The inventory of the LPW centered on utilitarian, domestic wares. It produced crocks, jugs, bowls, jars, lids, flower pots, planters, architectural terra cotta and other types of ceramics. Ceramic technology developed rapidly during this period to include semi-mechanized means of forming pots, known as “jigging” or “jollying,” which allowed for mass production of vessels. LPW also exhibits the latest innovations in nineteenth-century kiln design in the form of downdraft kilns. When the LPW was founded, Lincoln was a prosperous and rapidly growing city with a population of c. 13,000 in 1880 which had increased to 55,000 in 1890 (Bleed and Schoen, 1990: 34). After the factory closed, most of the property became part of a housing development. The site was excavated by Peter Bleed in 1986-1987, and the results were published in 1993. The LPW collections are currently in the Nebraska State Historical Society.</p>
            <p>This is a pilot project and a work in progress. The digital recording of representative types of LPW ceramics through 3D interactive models is the first step in the creation of an online exhibit and digital resource. Currently, we are documenting the most common types of ceramics produced by LPW. The LPW collection is extremely large. For example, the estimated number of bowls is 5,633 vessels and represent 38.45% of the assemblage. Thus, our goal is to document a representative sample of the collection, we do not plan to document the collection fully. Once the pilot phase is completed, we will make the 3D models, along with other content, available on a website (in collaboration with the Nebraska State Historical Society). </p>
            <p>The digitization project will facilitate different kinds of analysis that build on the original publication of the results; for example, the distribution of LPW products in other Midwestern states (the records of the business have not been preserved), socioeconomic aspects, food ways, a gendered perspective, etc. The first step, however, is to create a digital resource that will draw attention to this collection and engage other researchers and the public. By utilizing the latest technology to create and present accurate models of LPW representative products, we hope to bring wider attention to this important assemblage, which is an integral part of the history of nineteenth century Nebraska and the industrial archaeology of the Great Plains region.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bleed, P. and Schoen, Ch.</hi> (1990). The Lincoln Pottery Works: A Historical Perspective. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Nebraska History</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">71</hi>: 34-44.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schoen, Ch. and Bleed, P.</hi> (1993). The Archaeology of the Lincoln Pottery Works. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Central Plains Archaeology</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(1): 1-240.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2719","17","Documenting the pain: Sharing Second World War survivors' stories to help meaning making and lessons learning through curating trans-European digital narrative trajectories","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>“The world is the totality of facts, not of things” but facts do not speak for themselves; they have no voice. The life-world is the totality of human experiences. When people die, those experiences are lost, unless they are recorded in some way, becoming part of individual or collective memories. This includes Second World War survivors’ experiences of the role of the war in their lives, over their subjective time, and the physical and social spaces that they have traversed. With our research, we aspire to explore novel ways to capture, preserve, curate, organise and communicate this set of experiences, stories, narratives, so that they can constitute a shared resource that people can augment, and that individuals as well as institutions can delve into, to find inspiration for new ways of conceptualising acceptance, tolerance and understanding, and how these new ways can be reflected into every-day practices and policies, and foundations for visions of our future. </p>
            <p>The Second World War was one of the major transformative events of the 20th century. Millions of lives were lost crimes were committed, physical capital was destroyed, populations were displaced, families experienced extended periods of separation, and many Europeans, including young children were exposed to the horrors of War. Unlike many earlier wars when casualties were mainly confined to the battlefield, during this conflict civilians were also directly affected by warfare. About half of the European casualties of the war were civilians (including women and children). At the end of the war, millions of people were homeless, the European economy had collapsed, and much of the European industrial infrastructure had been destroyed. Reconstruction in the aftermath of the Second World War brought significant change to political, economic and social systems across most European countries and was the touchstone for the realization of the European project.
            </p>
            <p>The trauma of these Second World War experiences and the upheaval it brought to ordinary people’s lives continues to have a compelling resonance in contemporary European societies. Formal commemorative practices on local, national and international platforms draw attention to the bravery of combatants and pay tribute to those who lost their lives, during this and other conflicts, as demonstrated by the recent commemorations of the centenary of the First World War and the 70
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> anniversary of the Second World War. As the Second World War survivor generation disappears, their lived experience is also being lost. However, family story telling means that their personal stories continue to circulate. Individuals who have passed on their personal war stories to their descendants, along with these descendants, comprise contemporary European society and shape ‘European identity’. From a psychological point of view, citizens experience all these war-related political and economic changes on a personal level and they develop their own personal stories which may differ from official political discourses. Since past stories transform our present image of the war, and past stories can save both us and our descendants from committing the same ‘mistakes’ in the future, it is important to uncover, save and preserve individual’s personal and family war stories, and officially record them as a part of European cultural heritage. Our research seeks to develop a story telling platform and research framework which will allow for the collection of these stories. This will process material and narratives from three source types:
            </p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>Resources provided by Second World War survivors which were originally collected at source / by the source (e.g. diaries, letters), </item>
                <item>Resources provided by Second World War survivors that were later created in the form of memoirs or documentaries, </item>
                <item>Resources created by third parties (family, children, others) and which may be of a variety of types like fiction / non-fiction works, scientific publications in the form of e.g. research dissertations, journalistic newspaper articles, posts in social media or blogs, etc.</item>
            </list>
            <p>They will be complemented by contributions from multimodal sources such as open data collections, closed archives, collections of pictures (drawings and photographs), video footage and sounds, etc. </p>
            <p>We aspire to offer a unique access point for producing and annotating stories on the basis of impromptu / ad hoc ontologies that will be leveraged to construct trajectories of narratives over time. Besides a time-based order of the narratives, ontologies could relate key concepts, key emotions, and key arguments, in single narratives or over several narratives by the same or by different individuals. Part of the work can already start with narratives on existing community platforms exploiting the 
                <ref target=""http://www.fleeinghitler.org"">www.fleeinghitler.org</ref> infrastructure.
            </p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2720","17","Early English Books in Context: Towards a History of the Technological Humanities","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Writing in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, Julianne Nyhan et al argue that “without a better understanding—a more appropriate term might be “body of interpretations”—of the near and distant history of computing in the humanities, we are condemned to repeat the revolutionary trope 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ad infinitum</hi>.” (Nyhan, Flinn, and Welsh, 2013). Willard McCarty, amplifying this, writes that “rather than hypnotizing ourselves with supposedly unprecedented marvels, we must learn to see computing in its historical and social contexts, and so be able to ground modelling in something larger than itself. For computing to be 
                <hi rend=""italic"">of</hi> the humanities as well as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">in</hi> them, we must get beyond catalogues, chronologies, and heroic firsts to a genuine history. There are none yet.” (McCarty, 2008). 
            </p>
            <p>Susan Hockey wrote in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Companion to Digital Humanities</hi> that “humanities computing has a very well-known beginning,” by which she means the decades-long collaboration between Father Roberto Busa and IBM to create a concordance of the work of Thomas Aquinas (Hockey, 2004). This is the heroic first, which Busa, writing in the forward of that same volume, summed up with admirable brevity: “During the World War II, between 1941 and 1946, I began to look for machines for the automation of the linguistic analysis of written texts. I found them, in 1949, at IBM in New York City.”
                <hi rend=""superscript"">_</hi> This narrative is familiar to many of those working in digital humanities today, and has become openly accepted as the standard historical background for, first, humanities computing and, subsequently, the digital humanities writ large. 
            </p>
            <p>This presentation aims to upset this easy narrative by re-situating the history of one type of digital humanities project—Early English Books Online—as one chapter in an overall history of a technological humanities. That history—the history of a technological humanities—the story of how academics have deployed technology to better understand human creations, especially in textual form—or to understand and explore texts—did not begin in 1949. The creation of digital humanities, radiating outward from those early years, is surely part of the larger story of how technology and text have come together and drifted apart over many centuries. I claim that there is a great deal more continuity in the apparatuses, in the knowledge infrastructure of the humanities than we put forward in our “official” histories. In our search for a neat disciplinary history, we elide technology as a whole with the digital electronic computer. Busa’s project likely does represent the beginning of one type of computational textual processing. It bears remembering, however, that his goal was to create a concordance, a type of reference tool and interface in existence in Western Europe since at least the 13th century. What is the history of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">this</hi> type of textual processing in the intervening six hundred years? 
            </p>
            <p>Instead of a history of tools for textual work beginning with the rise of humanities computing and moving forward to the present day, I hope to juxtapose a different narrative, one that troubles the rhetoric of a textual digital humanities that arises from a clear break with what came before. I hope to, perhaps polemically, test the boundaries of histories of digital humanities by considering an equally technologically sophisticated pre-digital humanities. Such a reframing opens many avenues of inquiry, including a consideration of Linked Open Data in the context of cooperative cataloguing practices from the 19th & 20th centuries, or contemporary textual analysis tools such as Voyant alongside the imposing machinery of an electromechanical Hinman Collator. This presentation, however, will highlight particularly those technologies of textual reproduction developed prior to the oft-quoted originary moment of 1949. Drawing on the history of Early English Books Online (EEBO), I argue that while a 
                <hi rend=""italic"">computational </hi>humanities may indeed be limited to the last half-century, the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">technological </hi>humanities—in both materialist and cultural senses—have a much longer history. 
            </p>
            <p>ProQuest introduces the resource on their front page: </p>
            <quote>From the first book printed in English by William Caxton, through the age of Spenser and Shakespeare and the tumult of the English Civil War, Early English Books Online (EEBO) will contain over 125,000 titles listed in Pollard and Redgrave's Short-Title Catalogue (1475-1640), Wing's Short-Title Catalogue (1641-1700), the Thomason Tracts (1640-1661), and the Early English Tract Supplement - all in full digital facsimile from the Early English Books microfilm collection.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">_</hi>
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p> This text was current as of summer 2015 and is available in cached form. Since that time, Proquest has altered the front page description of EEBO to the following: </p>
                    <quote>Early English Books Online (EEBO) contains digital facsimile page images of virtually every work printed in England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales and British North America and works in English printed elsewhere from 1473-1700 - from the first book printed in English by William Caxton, through the age of Spenser and Shakespeare and the tumult of the English Civil War. </quote>
                    <p>Strangely, this newer version eliminates reference to the Early English Books microfilm Collection, as well as collapsing a number of distinct early modern collections of content into what might be called the EEBO brand. See the current version of <http://eebo.chadwyck.com/home> and a cached version <https://web.archive.org/web/20150905141338/http://eebo.chadwyck.com/home> from September 2015.</p>
                </note>
            </quote>
            <p>In practice, this means that users are able to view the metadata for a given text; view page images of the original, early modern books in TIFF or PDF format; and, where available, view a full text transcription of the volume that are derived from the EEBO - Text Creation Partnership. Efforts to microfilm early English books began in 1931, intensified as World War II loomed, and continue today. Digital images of these microfilmed documents were made (and are still being made) available online first in 1998. The printed 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Short Title Catalogue </hi>(itself published in 1926) has determined what objects were photographed and, subsequently, scanned and put online
                <hi rend=""superscript"">_</hi>(EEBO).
            </p>
            <p>The history of EEBO crosses multiple media, was directly impacted by global war, involves private companies and public universities, and is both analog and digital. To bracket EEBO (or EEBO-TCP) as a only a digital project impoverishes our understanding of how digital technologies have impacted the reproduction, preservation, and use of texts in humanistic scholarship. To write the full history of the early English books project, Early English Books Online, the Early English Books Online Text Creation Partnership is to engage in an act of disciplinary archaeology, one that forces digital humanists to grapple with the pre-digital origins and ideologies that inflect contemporary digital resources undergirding scholarship. EEBO is a microcosm through which one body of interpretations of digital humanities might be seen. </p>
            <p>As much as it is a history, this presentation is also engaged in answering claims by Alan Liu and Tara McPherson, amongst others, that digital humanities has chosen disciplinarily to disengage from socio-critical questions.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">_</hi>
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p> For work by Liu on this topic, see “Where is the Cultural Criticism in the Digital Humanites?,” published in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humaniteies</hi>, ed Matthew K. Gold <http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/20>. For McPherson work on UNIX and ideologies of race, see “Why are the Digital Humanities So White? or Thinking the Histories of Race and Computation” in the same volume <http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/29>.
                    </p>
                </note> Thinking through the history of EEBO is one way to approach the digital humanities as a discipline tied to war-driven technological development; the uneasy relationships between private-sector providers and our shared cultural heritage; or the many varieties of labour that are imbricated within the knowledge infrastructures humanists use day in and day out.
                <hi rend=""superscript"">_</hi>
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                    <p> It is worth noting that one of the very few publications to deal with the EEBO set of projects in this way was published in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing </hi>(now 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>). See Diana Kichuk, “Metamorphosis: Remediation in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Early English Books Online (EEBO)</hi>” (2007) 22 (3): 291-303. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqm018. Kichuk’s efforts have helped establish a historical framework for this discussion; this presentation seeks to contextualise the facts she has brought together and extend their relevance into discourses about DH as a whole.
                    </p>
                </note> Blending media analysis, historical perspectives, and in-depth knowledge of humanities research tools, I hope to question the boundaries of what we consider digital humanities to be, how we write our histories, and how we move forward.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">About EEBO.</hi> 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Early English Books Online</hi>. <http://eebo.chadwyck.com/marketing/about.htm>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Hockey, S.</hi> (2004). The History of Humanities Computing. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Humanities</hi>. (Eds.) Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens, and John Unsworth. Oxford: Blackwell. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">McCarty, W.</hi> (2008). What’s going on? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(3): 253-61, doi: 10.1093/llc/fqn014.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Nyhan, J., Flinn, A. and Welsh, A.</hi> (2013). Oral History and the Hidden: Histories project: towards histories of computing in the humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, doi: 10.1093/llc/fqt044. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Svensson, P.</hi> (2009). Humanities Computing as Digital Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(3). http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/3/000065/000065.html.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2721","17","Editing in a text-image-sound form: the eTalks","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>An interdisciplinary team of researchers has built a new multimedia editorial tool: the eTalks (Clivaz 2014; Clivaz et al., 2015a; Clivaz et al., 2015b; EADH projects, 2016), based primarily on speeches of scholars. Simple videos or MP3 recordings of lectures may prove insufficient to many researchers since they are unquotable in detail and they do not offer the possibility of being combined with text, images, hyperlinks, and references. Until now, no tool has been available for creating a carefully edited product that includes text-image-sound, all entirely quotable in details: yet, this is what we have achieved with the eTalks [<ref target=""http://etalk.vital-it.ch/mooser/mode-demploi-en/"">http://etalk.vital-it.ch/mooser/mode-demploi-en/</ref>].</p>
            <p>In creating the eTalks, we were motivated by the fact that academic publications and pedagogy have been deeply reconfigured by the emergence of a new kind of knowledge produced by the synergy between text, image and sound. As Tanya Clement points out, diverse Digital Humanities (DH) pedagogies, such as new media studies and game studies, can be characterized by looking at multiliteracies “that are engaged within undergraduate humanities curricula through general skills, principles and habits of mind that allow students to progress within and engage society in the twenty-first century” (Clement 2012). Academic publications in Humanities are slower than pedagogy in terms of the testing of multimodal literacies. However, different tools are now able to present slides joined to videos of scholarly talks, such as Slideshot and Dashboarding [<ref target=""http://slideshot.epfl.ch/play/cops_binney"">http://slideshot.epfl.ch/play/cops_binney</ref>; <ref target=""http://www.infoq.com/presentations/dashboard-data-analysis?utm_source=infoq&utm_medium=related_content_link&utm_campaign=relatedContent_presen"">http://www.infoq.com/presentations/dashboard-data-analysis?utm_source=infoq&utm_medium=related_content_link&utm_campaign=relatedContent_presen</ref>], but they cannot be quoted in detail. Scalar, a very impressive multimodal tool, proposes to “create interpretive pathways through the materials”[<ref target=""http://scalar.usc.edu/about/"">http://scalar.usc.edu/about/</ref>], privileging users’ points of view. The eTalks claim to rely on the scholar’s oral talk as a leading way among multimodal materials while giving the users the possibility of reconsidering the auctorial point of view by directly accessing all the quoted sources.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""149/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>The eTalks application implements an easy-to-use editor interface, designed for the use of researchers themselves, allowing for the creation and editing of original enhanced talks. This permits the linking together of images, sounds and textual materials by means of hyperlinks, thereby enriching the content with relevant information. The result of the editing is displayed through a viewer interface, allowing one to experiment with the entire eTalk or to actively navigate, scroll and search inside its content. After recording the speech of the scholar, the Audacity software allows for the splitting of the speech into pieces of 2-3 sentences. Each piece of speech can be associated with its written version, a slide, images, or hyperlinks and so forth. Each piece is also quotable with a specific URL: a new kind of reference. Thus, the final release of eTalks allows for the complete ‘citability’ of its contents: each and every portion of the researchers’ talks can be precisely referred to and therefore cited, just like any traditional, paper-based scientific publication but with all the potential for plural literacies.</p>
            <p>The core of the eTalk engine was developed in JavaScript and the code is now available as open source on Github as a free application for further development. The eTalks are currently being further developed and disseminated by an interdisciplinary team of researchers in Digital Humanities and bioinformatics at the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (Lausanne). Four series of eTalks have thus far been published as openly accessible: twelve on funerary rituals, nine on the enhanced Human, two on the institutional biobank of Lausanne, and one in Digital Humanities [<ref target=""http://etalk.vital-it.ch"">http://etalk.vital-it.ch</ref>]. The eTalks are now in development by institutional and research collaborations, notably the Pedagogical High School of Lausanne (HEPVaud) and the ERASMUS+ #dariahTeach project, whose purpose is to offer a webportal by 2017 that will include digital teaching modules [<ref target=""http://www.dariah.eu/teach"">www.dariah.eu/teach</ref>].</p>
            <p>We will present eTalks’ main features in our poster, and in particular the question of copyrights: to be able to quote several images, the team had to learn the basic rules of the relevant Swiss laws, and how Wikipedia commons work in Switzerland; furthermore we plan to develop European test-cases. We have also learned to negotiate with the authors and to convince them to rather use open access material. In difficult cases, we consult specialized people. Such obstacles had to be navigated and new skills acquired by our team as new, necessary knowledge. We will secure the interoperability of our data, and progressively introduce videos, and purl references.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clement, T.</hi> (2012). Multiliteracies in the Undergraduate Digital Humanities Curriculum: Skills, Principles, and Habits of Mind. In Hirsch, B. (ed.)
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics</hi>, Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers, pp. 365–88. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.openbookpublishers.com/htmlreader/DHP/chap15.html"">http://www.openbookpublishers.com/htmlreader/DHP/chap15.html</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clivaz, C.</hi> (2014). De l’article à l’etalk : enjeux et défis de la littératie plurielle dans la communication académique, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Actes du colloque de l'AIPU 2014, Mons (Belgique)</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://hosting.umons.ac.be/php/aipu2014/C9TEST/select_depot2.php?q=1775"">http://hosting.umons.ac.be/php/aipu2014/C9TEST/select_depot2.php?q=1775</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clivaz, C., Rivoal, M. and Sankar, M.</hi> (2015a). A New Platform for Editing Digital Multimedia: The eTalks. In Schmidt, B. and Dobreva, M.  (Eds.)
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Avenues for Electronic Publishing in the Age of Infinite Collections and Citizen Science</hi>, The authors and IOS Press, doi: 10.3233/978-1-61499-562-3-156; 
                        <ref target=""http://ebooks.iospress.nl/publication/40894"">http://ebooks.iospress.nl/publication/40894</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clivaz, C., Pache, C., Rivoal, M. and Sankar, M.</hi> (2015b). Multimodal literacies and academic publishing: the eTalks, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Information Services and Use</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">35</hi>: 4.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">EADH projects</hi> (2016). 
                        <ref target=""http://eadh.org/projects/etalks"">http://eadh.org/projects/etalks</ref>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2722","17","EDM in Use: Collecting Metadata for a Regional Cultural Heritage Portal","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The Europeana Data Model (EDM) aims to provide an abstract and formal specification for the delivery of data to Europeana. The model is meant to replace the older Europeana Semantic Elements (ESE) definition. Though Europeana still accepts data provided in ESE, the newer model means to provide a richer set of description possibilities and fine granulation in the distinction of the provided digital heritage object (provided CHO) and one or more digital representations thereof. Most notably, EDM is designed to provide Linked Open Data (LOD) of the described resources (cf. Berners-Lee, 2006). Thus, data providers are encouraged to switch to EDM and to take advantage of the extended potential. </p>
            <p>The project “Repository of Styrian Cultural Heritage” will build a digital archive of cultural heritage objects, i.e. a common web platform where all partners (3 universities, 2 museums, and the local government) will expose metadata on their Styrian specific collections and holdings. As the nature of digitized objects ranges from text-centered materials like manuscripts or correspondence to images like historical photographs to museum objects of various contexts, an abstract data model for representation and retrieval was needed. </p>
            <p>In a first step, the metadata core categories obligatory for all partners and content types were defined: They roughly correspond to Dublin Core (DC) and DCTerms and will form the basis of the web portal: institution, title/description, person/creator, time, place, object type, media type.</p>
            <p>In a second step, this abstract model had to be converted into a formal specification of how to provide the metadata for a harvesting mechanism. The process of choice was OAI-PMH, either in form of an OAI-PMH interface or as an OAI 2.0 compliant XML-file. Harvesting of metadata on diverse cultural heritage objects naturally calls for the application of EDM expressed in XML. Thus, the abstract metadata core categories are mapped to EDM properties and formalized as XML elements and attributes. EDM is a powerful yet flexible tool, therefore a standardized application profile had to be developed for the project. </p>
            <p>An important consideration is the integration of controlled vocabularies and norm data. EDM offers the possibility to do so, yet the incorporation of geographical coordinates for instance calls for the modelling of the place name in the edm:Place element and not in dc:coverage or dcterms:spatial. </p>
            <p>At the end, the EDM XML data is integrated into the OAI-PMH stream. The goal is to arrive at a recommendation on data structure for the contributing institutions, a process which is currently underway. </p>
            <p>Using EDM offers obvious advantages in the context of a harvesting portal: as it was specifically designed to capture the field of data aggregation from various sources, it offers a good spectrum of possibilities to address the difference between the original (i.e. analog) cultural heritage object (edm:providedCHO) and available web resources (edm:WebResource), but also sets these two aspects in correlation (ore:Aggregation). </p>
            <p>The conception of a least common denominator template is achieved relatively easy though this is surely not a trivial task, taking into consideration the flexibility and integration potential of the model. Another important aspect needs constant supervision during the project: maintaining metadata quality and how to fill the template accordingly. What type of annotation of person forenames and surnames should be used? What set of keywords? What date format? What controlled vocabularies are vital? How to deal with uncertainties and fuzziness inevitably occurring in such datasets? These questions need to be addressed in cooperation with the scholars working on the collections, clarifying that these annotations will determine the accurateness of search and the quality of data retrieval and representation on the web portal. With regard to the (re-)use as Linked Open Data, special attention is given to the annotation with suitable norm data.</p>
            <p>EDM offers a good framework for use in harvesting contexts, especially where various content types are present. Nevertheless, the experience in the project has shown that offering a technical concept is only half of the story: To achieve formal data interoperability and to simultaneously populate this model with comparable content categories is the great challenge in this context. Only with such a homogenous data basis the resulting web portal will be able to offer features like timelines, map-oriented visualisations and other discovery mechanisms. The poster will introduce the project’s so far approaches, solutions and lessons learned from this point of view.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Berners-Lee, T.</hi> (2006). Linked Data. 
                        <ref target=""https://www.w3.org/DesignIssues/LinkedData"">https://www.w3.org/DesignIssues/LinkedData</ref> (accessed 29 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">DC and DCTerms</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://dublincore.org/documents/dcmi-terms/"">http://dublincore.org/documents/dcmi-terms/</ref> (accessed 29 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Definition of the Europeana Data Model v5.2.6</hi> (2014). 
                        <ref target=""http://pro.europeana.eu/files/Europeana_Professional/Share_your_data/Technical_requirements/EDM_Documentation//EDM%20Definition%20v5.2.6_01032015.pdf"">http://pro.europeana.eu/files/Europeana_Professional/Share_your_data/Technical_requirements/EDM_Documentation//EDM%20Definition%20v5.2.6_01032015.pdf</ref> (accessed 29 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">EDM Documentation</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://pro.europeana.eu/share-your-data/data-guidelines/edm-documentation"">http://pro.europeana.eu/share-your-data/data-guidelines/edm-documentation</ref> (2016-02-29)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Europeana.</hi>
                        <ref target=""http://www.europeana.eu/portal/"">http://www.europeana.eu/portal/</ref> (accessed 29 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Europeana Semantic Elements Specification and Guidelines</hi> (2013). 
                        <ref target=""http://pro.europeana.eu/files/Europeana_Professional/Share_your_data/Technical_requirements/ESE_Documentation//Europeana%20Semantic%20Elements%20Specification%20and%20Guidelines%2014%20July%202013.pdf"">http://pro.europeana.eu/files/Europeana_Professional/Share_your_data/Technical_requirements/ESE_Documentation//Europeana%20Semantic%20Elements%20Specification%20and%20Guidelines%2014%20July%202013.pdf</ref> (accessed 29 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">OAI 2.0.</hi>
                        <ref target=""http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/openarchivesprotocol.html"">http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/openarchivesprotocol.html</ref> (accessed 29 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">OAI-PMH.</hi>
                        <ref target=""http://www.openarchives.org/pmh/"">http://www.openarchives.org/pmh/</ref> (accessed 29 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Repository of Styrian Cultural Heritage.</hi>
                        <ref target=""http://wissenschaftserbe.uni-graz.at/en/"">http://wissenschaftserbe.uni-graz.at/en/</ref> (accessed 29 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2723","17","Engaging Students in Digital Literary Analysis: GALGO (Golden Age Literature Glossary Online), a Social Semiotic Platform","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This poster showcases a digital teaching application that approaches the study of language and literary texts from a social semiotic perspective and represents an innovative pedagogical model for world language and literature classes. The Golden Age Literature Glossary Online, known by the acronym 
                <hi rend=""italic"">GALGO</hi>, consists of an online glossary of select keywords, from canonical texts of Golden Age Spanish literature, whose multiple connotations illuminate important linguistic and social concepts of the 16th and 17th centuries. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">GALGO</hi> incorporates British cultural historian Raymond Williams’ methodology in his 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society</hi>: namely, identifying problem-laden words or “keywords,” charting their distinct usages across texts, and reflecting critically on clusters of associated words. Implicit in William’s keyword analysis is a social semiotic theory of language that takes as its starting point the observation that meanings “are created by the social system and are exchanged by the members in the form of text” (Halliday, 1978, p.141) and find in literary texts their fullest creative expression (Lotman, 1990). Contextualizing poetic language in its particular space-time, therefore, reveals the linguistic codes derived from the culture in which the work has been produced. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">GALGO</hi> seeks to instantiate the theoretical construction that embeds the semantic configurations of a literary text simultaneously in the cultural environment, the linguistic system, and the social system. The computer is an ideal semiotic machine to expose these multiple interwoven strands of meaning at once. Applying the structure of M.A.K. Halliday’s theoretical model in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Language as social semiotic</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">GALGO</hi>’s interpretive apparatus allows the user to identify the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">field of discourse</hi> or social function of each instance of a specific keyword and determine its distributional profile
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> According to the Distributional Hypothesis, the distributional profile (DP) of a word is determined by the strength of association of the word with co-occurring words in the text (Rubenstein & Goodenough, 1965, Schütze, 1992)</p>
                </note>(DP) with respect to underlying semantic relationships. The platform is capable of presenting a list of clusters, word groupings based on semiotic affinity, along with their fuller contexts in the works. Simultaneously, within the cluster analysis, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">GALGO </hi>also prompts an interpretation of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">tenor of discourse</hi>, highlighting sociological variables connected to class status, gender role and racial category that refine the text’s meaning from an interpersonal perspective. 
            </p>
            <p>We envision the architecture of the platform to not only be suitable for our corpus of 16th and 17th century Spanish works, but rather potentially abstracted in such a way that any set of words could be glossed from any collection of works.
                <hi rend=""italic""> GALGO</hi> offers students the opportunity to explore a wide variety of views and re-combinations of words and definitions in order to engage more effectively with primary sources that are written in a language, discipline, or time period that is “foreign” to an undergraduate. In this, its third prototype, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">GALGO </hi>suggests untapped potential for computer-assisted textual analysis and would now benefit from additional critical feedback offered by the larger digital humanities community.
            </p>
            <p>Participants will have the chance to engage with the platform during the poster session and share their feedback and experiences with the authors:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>How user-friendly is GALGO’ s interface?</item>
                <item>How successful is GALGO in performing its intended tasks (cultural semiotic analysis, sociolinguistic research, student engagement in reading)?</item>
                <item>How can GALGO be improved? </item>
                <item>How do others engage students with new media methods?</item>
                <item>How suitable is GALGO for texts from other disciplines?</item>
            </list>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                     <hi rend=""bold"">Halliday, M. A. K.</hi> (1978). 
                      <hi rend=""italic"">Language as social semiotic. The social interpretation of language and meaning</hi>. Baltimore: University Park Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                     <hi rend=""bold"">Lotman, Y. M.</hi> (1990). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Universe of the mind. A semiotic theory of culture</hi>. London: I.B. Taurus & Co.</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                     <hi rend=""bold"">Rubenstein H. and Goodenough J. B.</hi> (1965). Contextual correlates of synonymy.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communications of the ACM</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(10): 627-33.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                     <hi rend=""bold"">Schütze, H.</hi> (1992). Dimensions of meaning. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 1992 ACM/IEEE Conference on Supercomputing</hi>, pp. 787-96. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2724","17","Evaluating GitHub as a Platform of Knowledge for the Humanities","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Among the most popular platforms for digital humanities development projects is GitHub.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> This work emerges out of Rice University’s John E. Sawyer Seminar on Platforms of Knowledge in Wide Web of Worlds, supported by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.</p>
                </note> GitHub provides web-based hosting for coding and other collaborative projects, building on the Git version control system. Founded in 2008, GitHub now hosts approximately 31 million repositories and 12 million users, making it “
                <hi rend=""ng-scope"">the largest online storage space of collaborative works that exists in the world</hi>” (GitHub, 2016; Orsini, 2013). Using GitHub, developers can fork (copy) a public repository to their own account, change the code, and submit a pull request to share the modifications with the repository owner, who can then “merge” the code with the original. GitHub also enables users to create profiles, “follow” others, “star” projects and “watch” them evolve, serving as a social network for developers (Brown, 2014).
            </p>
            <p>Digital humanities (DH) researchers are drawn by GitHub’s support for version control and collaboration, as well as by its free hosting for publicly available projects. A range of digital humanities projects use GitHub, including:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Software</item>
                <item>Writing projects</item>
                <item>Taxonomies and community documentation</item>
                <item>Websites</item>
                <item>Datasets</item>
                <item>Course materials</item>
                <item>Syllabi</item>
                <item>Research notes</item>
            </list>
            <p>What digital humanities researchers are adopting GitHub, and why? What are the benefits and risks of employing GitHub for digital humanities work? </p>
            <p>Academia’s growing reliance on GitHub requires careful consideration. As a for-profit company, GitHub does not necessarily operate with the interests of academics at heart. Yet it provides services that would be difficult for scholars to secure themselves, and it enables collaboration. To develop an informed view of GitHub and similar services, we need to establish clear criteria for evaluating platforms. In choosing a platform for a web project, Quinn Dombrowski recommends considering functionality, familiarity, community, support and cost (Dombrowski, 2013). We would add support for openness and sustainability as core criteria for digital humanities platforms.</p>
            <p>Through an initial case study of GitHub, we will examine these criteria for evaluating DH platforms:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item><hi rend=""bold"">Functionality:</hi> GitHub offers several features that make it attractive to researchers, particularly open science advocates. Karthik Ram suggests that Git (and by extension GitHub) supports open science by providing decentralized version control; attributing changes to authors; supporting distributed backup of data; enabling projects to branch in new directions; collecting feedback through issue trackers; and facilitating reuse through forking (Ram, 2013). Likewise, Konrad Lawson touts the power of GitHub in facilitating “collaboration without collaboration” (easily modifying someone else’s code through forking, and contributing that code back through a pull request) and detailed credit for contributions (Lawson, 2013c; Lawson, 2013a). While GitHub can be used for a range of texts, from syllabi to code, it’s not necessarily well suited for all uses. For example, Mark Sample notes the significant labor and potentially low rewards in putting syllabi into GitHub (Sample, 2012a). Lawson observes that using GitHub for writing projects requires overcoming a fairly steep learning curve, using plain text (or a converter), creating short documents, and dealing with limited support for non-textual files (Lawson, 2013d).</item>
                <item><hi rend=""bold"">Familiarity/ease of use:</hi> As Lincoln Mullen points out, GitHub’s learning curve poses a barrier to entry for some potential collaborators (Mullen, 2012). Indeed, participants discussing how to make it easier for women to contribute to <hi rend=""italic"">Programming Historian</hi> identified the publication’s reliance on GitHub as an obstacle (Crymble et al, 2015). To what extent do the challenges of using GitHub limit its adoption in the humanities?</item>
                <item><hi rend=""bold"">Community: </hi>As more digital humanists adopt GitHub, it becomes even more attractive, since you are more likely to find collaborators and to gain recognition for your work. Yet the wide adoption of GitHub may reduce diversity and increase dependency on a commercial platform. Not everyone wants to participate in this community. Lawson points to several social and cultural obstacles to GitHub enabling richer academic collaboration, including reluctance to embrace “forking” as means of building on another’s work; fears of plagiarism; concerns that the original voice of the author will be lost; anxiety that transparency will reveal one’s scholarly flaws; and worry that ideas will be stolen or misused (Lawson, 2013b). </item>
                <item><hi rend=""bold"">Support: </hi>With such a large community, new users can turn to a number of resources to learn how to use GitHub. Some university IT groups offer limited support for GitHub, but in general users are left to secure their own support.</item>
                <item><hi rend=""bold"">Cost/business model:</hi> GitHub uses a “Freemium” business model in which it hosts public repositories for free and charges companies for private repositories (Brown, 2014). It also offers up to five free private repositories to academic researchers and twenty to research groups. While free holds appeal, should the digital humanities community be concerned about becoming dependent on a platform developed by a for-profit company? As Sample warns, “History suggests that relying too much on a commercial service with interests that do not necessarily align with our own is no way to sustain the work of the humanities”(Sample, 2012b). GitHub has attracted $350 million in venture capital and is now valued at about $2 billion, so it faces pressure to generate a profit (Gage, 2015). Klint Finley argues that GitHub’s business interests may work against its open source mission, pointing to SourceForge as an example of an open source software site that went astray (Finley, 2015). When SourceForge was acquired, it began to display junky third-party ads that misled people into downloading malicious software, prompting projects such as GIMP and VLC to leave. While GitHub is not funded through ad revenue, its business model could change under pressure from investors. </item>
                <item><hi rend=""bold"">Support for openness:</hi> Compared to some web platforms that claim user-produced content as their own, GitHub articulates an open approach to intellectual property: “Your profile and materials uploaded remain yours”(GitHub, 2015). But should we be concerned about clauses reserving the right to remove content and requiring users to defend and indemnify GitHub against suits alleging that their content violates the law? Does GitHub’s model of providing free public repositories lead some users to share work that they otherwise would keep private?</item>
                <item><hi rend=""bold"">Sustainability:</hi> GitHub is not meant to be a preservation repository, and it is easy to delete a public repository (Bergman, 2012). However, Git’s distributed, decentralized approach to versioning provides protection against data loss, since everyone who contributes to a GitHub project has a local copy of the code (Finley, 2015). </item>
            </list>
            <p>In addition to these criteria, we will also consider the significance of factors such as accessibility and multilingualism.</p>
            <p>In performing this research, we are first identifying digital humanities users by 1) searching for publicly available GitHub accounts associated with presenters at the last three Digital Humanities conferences and 2) searching for GitHub accounts associated with Digital Humanities centers listed on CenterNet. To understand patterns of collaboration and code reuse, we will analyze publicly available statistics for selected users such as number of commits, branches, releases and contributors, as well as networks connecting users. We will survey GitHub DH users to understand how and why they use GitHub, its strengths, and its weaknesses. We will also conduct interviews with selected GitHub users. Where possible, we will use GitHub to share ongoing work about this project.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> https://github.com/lms4w/githubproject</p>
                </note> By analyzing public GitHub statistics and gathering insights and information from users, we will illustrate how GitHub is being used in the digital humanities community and develop principles for evaluating platforms.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bergman, C.</hi>, (2012). On the Preservation of Published Bioinformatics Code on Github. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">An Assembly of Fragments</hi>. Available at: https://caseybergman.wordpress.com/2012/11/08/on-the-preservation-of-published-bioinformatics-code-on-github/ (accessed 1 November 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brown, M.</hi> (2014). GitHub - Cracking the Code to GitHub’s Growth. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">GrowthHackers</hi>. Available at: https://growthhackers.com/growth-studies/github (accessed 13 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""selectable"">
                            <hi rend=""bold"">Crymble, A., Posner, M., et al.</hi> (2015). How Can We Make The PH More Friendly For Women To Contribute? Issue #152. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Programming Historian.</hi> Available at: 
                        </hi>https://github.com/programminghistorian/jekyll/issues/152 (accessed 12 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dombrowski, Q.</hi> (2013). Choosing a platform for your project website. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Berkeley Digital Humanities</hi>. Available at: http://digitalhumanities.berkeley.edu/blog/13/12/04/choosing-platform-your-project-website (accessed 14 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Finley, K.</hi> (2015). The Problem With Putting All the World’s Code in GitHub. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">WIRED</hi>. Available at: http://www.wired.com/2015/06/problem-putting-worlds-code-github/ (accessed 13 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gage, D. </hi>(2015). GitHub Raises $250 Million at $2 Billion Valuation; Capital Raise Puts Company’s Total Funding at $350 Million. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Wall Street Journal </hi>(Online), 29 July.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                            <hi rend=""bold"">GitHub.</hi> (2015). Github Terms Of Service - User Documentation. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Help.github.com</hi>. Available from: 
                        <ref target=""https://help.github.com/articles/github-terms-of-service/"">https://help.github.com/articles/github-terms-of-service/</ref> (accessed 28 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">GitHub.</hi> (2016). Press. Available at: https://github.com/about/press (accessed 5 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lawson, K. M.</hi> (2013a). File and Repository History in GitHub. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Chronicle of Higher Education Blogs: ProfHacker</hi>. Available at: http://chronicle.com/blogs/profhacker/file-and-repository-history-in-github/48047 (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lawson, K. M.</hi> (2013b). Fork the Academy. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Chronicle of Higher Education Blogs: ProfHacker</hi>. Available at: http://chronicle.com/blogs/profhacker/fork-the-academy/48935 (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lawson, K.M.</hi> (2013c). Getting Started With a GitHub Repository. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Chronicle of Higher Education Blogs: ProfHacker</hi>. Available at: http://chronicle.com/blogs/profhacker/getting-started-with-a-github-repository/47393 (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lawson, K.M.</hi> (2013d). The Limitations of GitHub for Writers. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Chronicle of Higher Education Blogs: ProfHacker</hi>. Available at: http://chronicle.com/blogs/profhacker/the-limitations-of-github-for-writers/48299 (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mullen, L. </hi>(2012). How ready are DHers to use GitHub for non-code projects? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Questions and Answers</hi>. Available at: http://digitalhumanities.org/answers/topic/how-ready-are-dhers-to-use-github-for-non-code-projects (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Orsini, L.</hi> (2013). GitHub For Beginners: Don’t Get Scared, Get Started. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ReadWrite</hi>. Available at: http://readwrite.com/2013/09/30/understanding-github-a-journey-for-beginners-part-1 (accessed 13 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ram, K.</hi> (2013). Git can facilitate greater reproducibility and increased transparency in science. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Source Code for Biology and Medicine</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(1): 7.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sample, M.</hi> (2012a). Git a Fork in My Syllabus, It’s Done. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Chronicle of Higher Education Blogs: ProfHacker</hi>. Available at: http://chronicle.com/blogs/profhacker/git-a-fork-in-my-syllabus-its-done/40331 (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sample, M.</hi> (2012b). GitHub Fever. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Culture Week</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(3). Available at: http://www.digitalculture.org/2012/06/08/dcw-volume-1-issue-3-distant-and-familiar/ (accessed 31 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2725","17","EVI-LINHD. A Virtual Research Environment for the Spanish-speaking Community","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Although Digital Humanities have been defined from a discipline perspective in many ways, it is surely a field still looking for its own objects, practices and methodologies. Their development in the Spanish-speaking countries is no exception to this process and, even it is complex to trace a unique genealogy to give account for the evolving field in Spain and Latin America (Gonzalez-Blanco, 2013; Spence and Gonzalez-Blanco, 2014; Rio Riande 2014a, 2014b), the emergence of various associations in Mexico (RedDH), Spain (HDH) and Argentina (AAHD) that seek for a constant dialogue (Galina, González-Blanco and Rio Riande, 2015), and academic lab and DH center initiatives such as LINHD (Spain and Argentina), GRINUGR (Spain), Medialab USAL, LABTEC (Argentina), TadeoLab (Colombia), Elabora HD (Mexico), among others, make it clear that research has become increasingly “global, multipolar and networked” (Llewellyn Smith, et al., 2011) and that the academic field is looking for a global outreach and aims to open spaces of shared virtual work. Virtual Research Communities (VRCs) are a consequence of these changes.</p>
            <p>Virtual Research Environments (VREs) have become central objects for digital humanist community, as they help global, interdisciplinary and networked research taking of profit of the changes in “data production, curation and (re‐)use, by new scientific methods, by changes in technology supply” (Voss and Procter, 2009: 174-90). DH Centers, labs or less formal structures such as associations benefit from many kind of VREs, as they facilitate researchers and users a place to develop, store, share and preserve their work, making it more visible. The focus and implementation of each of these VREs is different, as Carusi and Reimer (2010) show in their comparative analysis, but there are some common guidelines, philosophy and standards that are generally shared (as an example, see the Centernet map and guidelines of TGIR Huma-Num, 2015). </p>
            <p>This poster presents the structure and design of the VRE of LINHD, the Digital Innovation Lab at UNED (
                <ref target=""http://linhd.uned.es"">http://linhd.uned.es</ref>), and the first Digital Humanities Center in Spain. This VRE focuses on the possibilities of a collaborative environment for (profane or advanced) Spanish-speakers scholarly digital editors. Taking into account the language barrier that English may suppose for a Spanish-speakers scholar or student and the distance they may encounter with the data and organization of the interface (in terms of computational knowledge) while facing a scholarly digital edition or collection, LINHD’s VRE comes as a solution for the VRC interested in scholarly digital work. Moreover, it will make it possible to add an apply tools that contribute to improve Spanish-English applications or tools developed locally, such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Contawords</hi>, by Iula-UPF 
                <ref target=""http://contawords.iula.upf.edu/executions"">http://contawords.iula.upf.edu/executions</ref>. Opening such an environment to the Spanish speaking world will make it possible to reach different kinds of communities, whose profile and training in digital humanities differ from the typical users of DH tools and environment. Testing all these tools in this new environment will, for sure, draw interesting project results.
            </p>
            <p>In this sense, our project dialogues and aims to join the landscape of other VREs devoted to digital edition, such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Textgrid</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">e-laborate</hi>, etc. and, in a further stage, to build a complete virtual environment to collect and classify data, tools and projects, work and publish them and share the results with the research community. After having studied the structure and components of other digital virtual environment, our VRE has been designed on a humanist-user centered perspective, in which interface design, accessibility easiness and familiarity with tools and standards are key factors.
            </p>
            <p> Therefore, the key of our VRE is the combination of different open-source software that will enable users to complete the whole process of developing a digital editorial project. The environment is, up-to-now, divided into three parts: 1) A repository of data to (projects, tools, etc.) with permanent identifiers in which the information will be indexed through a semantic structured ontology of metadata and controlled vocabularies (such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Isidore</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Huni</hi>, but using 
                <hi rend=""italic"">LINDAT</hi> software by 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Clarin</hi>.
                <hi rend=""italic"">eu</hi>). 2) A working space based on the possibilities of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">eXistDB</hi> to work on text encoding together with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Tei-Scribe</hi>, a tool developed at LINHD to tag texts in an intuitive way, storing and querying, plus some publishing tools (pre-defined stylesheets and some other open-source projects, such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Sade</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Versioning machine</hi>, etc.). 3) A collaborative cloud workspace which integrates a wiki, a file archiving system and a publishing space for each team. 
            </p>
            <p>Sustainability and long-term preservation are issues which we contemplate from the beginning, as our group is leading the addition of Spain into Dariah and LINHD is also part of a Clarin-Knowledge center with two powerful NLP groups from U.Pompeu Fabra in Barcelona and IXA in País Vasco. Our project has been conceived according to DH standards and open-source tools and its infrastructure is supported by our university UNED.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Candela, L.</hi> Virtual Research Environments. GRDI2020. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.grdi2020.eu/Repository/FileScaricati/eb0e8fea-c496-45b7-a0c5-831b90fe0045.pdf"">http://www.grdi2020.eu/Repository/FileScaricati/eb0e8fea-c496-45b7-a0c5-831b90fe0045.pdf</ref> (accessed 28-10-2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Carusi, A. and T. Reimer</hi>, (2010). Virtual Research Environment Collaborative Landscape Study. <hi rend=""italic"">A JISC funded project</hi>. Oxford e-Research Centre, University of Oxford and Centre for e-Research, King's College London 
                        <ref target=""https://www.jisc.ac.uk/rd/projects/virtual-research-environments"">https://www.jisc.ac.uk/rd/projects/virtual-research-environments</ref> (accessed 28-10-2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Galina, I., González Blanco García, E. and Rio Riande, G. del</hi> (2015). Se habla español. Formando comunidades digitales en el mundo de habla hispana. <hi rend=""italic"">Abstracts of the HDH 2015 Conference</hi>, Madrid, Spain. 
                        <ref target=""http://hdh2015.linhd.es/ebook/hdh15-galina.xhtml"">http://hdh2015.linhd.es/ebook/hdh15-galina.xhtml</ref> (accessed 28-10-2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">González-Blanco Garcí A., E.</hi> (2013). Actualidad de las Humanidades Digitales y un ejemplo de ensamblaje poético en la red: ReMetCa. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">761</hi>: 53-67.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Llewellyn Smith, C., Borysiewicz, L., Casselton, L., Conway, G., Hassan, M., Leach, M., et al.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Knowledge, Networks and Nations: Global Scientific Collaboration in the 21st Century</hi>. London: The Royal Society. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rio Riande, G. del</hi> (2014a). ¿De qué hablamos cuando hablamos de Humanidades Digitales?  
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Abstracts of the AAHD Conference. “Culturas, Tecnologías, Saberes</hi> Buenos Aires, Argentina. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.aacademica.com/jornadasaahd/toc/6?abstracts"">http://www.aacademica.com/jornadasaahd/toc/6?abstracts</ref> (accessed 28-10-2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rio Riande, G. del</hi> (2014b). ¿De qué hablamos cuando hablamos de Humanidades Digitales? 
                        <ref target=""http://blogs.unlp.edu.ar/didacticaytic/2015/05/04/de-que-hablamos-cuando-hablamos-de-humanidades-digitales/"">http://blogs.unlp.edu.ar/didacticaytic/2015/05/04/de-que-hablamos-cuando-hablamos-de-humanidades-digitales/</ref>. (accessed 28-10-2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Spence, P. and González-Blanco, E.</hi> (2014).
                        A historical perspective on the digital humanities in Spain,<hi rend=""italic""> H-Soz-Kult</hi>, doi: 22.10.2014,
                        <ref target=""http://www.hsozkult.de/text/id/texte-2535"">http://www.hsozkult.de/text/id/texte-2535</ref>.
                        The Status Quo of Digital Humanities in Europe, <hi rend=""italic"">H-Soz-Kult</hi>, doi: 22.10.2014. (accessed 28-10-2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Tgir H.-N.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Le guide des bonnes pratiques numériques</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.huma-num.fr/ressources/guide-des-bonnes-pratiques-numeriques"">http://www.huma-num.fr/ressources/guide-des-bonnes-pratiques-numeriques</ref> (version of 13-1-2015). (accessed 28-10-2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Voss, A. and Procter, R.</hi> (2009). Virtual research environments in scholarly work and communications, <hi rend=""italic"">Library Hi Tech</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">27</hi>(2): 174–90.</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2726","17","Excerpta Constantiniana: from palimpsest to a digital edition of a medieval encyclopaedia","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The aim of the poster is to present a digital edition of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Excerpta Constantiniana </hi> (<hi rend=""italic"">Excerpta</hi> further on), a Byzantine encyclopaedia written in Ancient Greek in Constantinople in the 10
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century (edited by de Boor, 1903, 1905; Büttner-Wobst, 1906; Boissevain, 1906; Roos, 1910).
            </p>
            <p>The underlying research project belongs to the field of Classical and Byzantine Philology and is devoted to the edition of an important historiographical source. The goal of this poster is interdisciplinary: it aims to define the role of the editor and the concept of the presentation of a historical source in the digital environment.</p>
            <p>The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Excerpta</hi> was planned as a large-scale encyclopaedia in multiple volumes. It consists of several thousand separate extracts (excerpts) that were taken from about three dozens of Ancient Greek and Byzantine historiographical works. The extant parts of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Excerpta</hi> contain about 560 000 words (it is believed that almost tenfold is lost). We possess two original manuscripts of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Excerpta</hi> (each of the two for a different volume of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Excerpta</hi>) that distinguish themselves through a remarkable 
                <hi rend=""italic"">mise-en-page</hi>: for the purpose of navigation in the content several hundred notes and pictograms have been placed on the margins of the manuscript (see image 2).
            </p>
            <p>The digital edition of the whole work is in the preparatory phase; a section from the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Excerpta </hi>have been edited exemplary, to be more precise, 24 pages (about 9 000 words) from the original manuscript 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Vaticanus graecus</hi> 73. The manuscript itself is a palimpsest. The text of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Excerpta </hi>has been washed off in the 14
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century and overwritten, leading to a limited legibility of the original text (see image 1). Standard solution in such a case would be to publish the facsimile of the manuscript and to prepare a historical-critical edition of the text. However, the publication of such a damaged text proved itself to be of little value for the reader not versatile in deciphering palimpsests. Moreover, the traditional layout of a historical-critical edition is not suitable for displaying the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Excerpta</hi>. The biggest challenge here is a faithful reproduction of the notes and pictograms on the margins that are important for the understanding of the text.
            </p>
            <p>The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">mise-en-page</hi> of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Excerpta</hi> was pivotal for the development of the concept of this digital edition. A 
                <hi rend=""italic"">pluralistic </hi>approach to the text was taken as a basis. The goal was to ensure the presentation of the text in multiple 
                <hi rend=""italic"">views</hi> (displaying perspectives), most important of which were the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">document-focused</hi> and the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">text-focused</hi> perspectives (cf. Pierazzo and Stroke, 2011; Rehbein and Gabler, 2013; Muñoz and Viglianti, 2015). In doing so three main views were chosen: (i) a digital reconstruction of the manuscript (
                <hi rend=""italic"">topographical view</hi>), (ii) a diplomatic transcription (
                <hi rend=""italic"">document-focused view</hi>), and (iii) a normalized, historical-critical version of the text (
                <hi rend=""italic"">text-focused view</hi>).
            </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Topographical view</hi>: The topographical view includes the digital reproduction of the original as a two-dimensional, detailed representation of the surface. In other words, it means that the earlier text of the manuscript, significantly enlarged, has been digitally replenished with stylus on the touchscreen (see image 1 and 2). To my knowledge this method has not been used in the reconstruction of the palimpsests before and therefore represents a novel way of displaying original texts. Its uniqueness lies in the combination of human expertise and the current technical possibilities.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Document-focused view</hi>: In this view, the text is reproduced as true to the original as possible. The design of the original is visualized, especially the layout of the text and the navigation elements in it (see images 2 and 3). Wherever possible, the original orthography is reproduced. Nevertheless it is also possible to switch to the normalized orthography within the same view. The reader can therefore choose between modern and medieval punctuation, between the spelling containing original abbreviations, or expanded text, etc.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Text-focused view </hi>(see image 4): This view has the layout of a modern edition, the orthography is largely normalized. An option is provided to highlight different types of content, such as quotations, places, personal names, peoples, etc.
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>Technically the concept of the edition is implemented as follows. The topographical view is produced as images. The transcription of the original text for the document- and text-focused views is made according to the TEI/XML standards. Phenomena encoded with tags are divided into larger 
                <hi rend=""italic"">blocks</hi>. The main blocks are:
            </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Physical condition of the manuscript and physical structure of the text</hi>: physical damage of the manuscript, legibility of the text, page and line division at the locations where they are not connected with the logical structure of the text (see below);
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Logical structure of the text, as well as all the elements of the layout, which support navigation in the text</hi>: units such as volumes, chapters, excerpts; elements of the design that refer to this classification (e.g. larger spaces in text intentionally left blank); pictograms and marginal notes;
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Orthography of the manuscript</hi>: original punctuation, accentuation, abbreviations and ligatures;
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Normalized orthography</hi>: modern punctuation, word boundaries (missing in the manuscript), uppercase and lowercase letters according to modern standards;
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Contents of the text</hi>: quotes, names, places, peoples, and other items.
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>The web presentation is created on the basis of XSLT. The transformation of separate blocks of tags is modeled for each view individually. The final presentation is styled with Cascading Style Sheets (CSS). It is planned to publish the edition online by mid-2016.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""30/image1.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Image 1: The process of the graphical reconstruction of the palimpsest</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""30/image2.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Image 2: A screenshot of the topographical view</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""30/image3.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Image 3: A screenshot of the document-focused view</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""30/image4.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Image 4: A screenshot of the text-focused view</head>
            </figure>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boissevain, U. Ph.</hi> (1906). Excerpta historica iussu Constantini Porphyrogeniti confecta. Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>,<hi rend=""italic""> Excerpta de sententiis</hi>. Berlin.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Büttner-Wobst, Th.</hi> (1906). Excerpta historica iussu Constantini Porphyrogeniti confecta. Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1), <hi rend=""italic"">Excerpta de virtutibus et vitiis</hi>. Berlin.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Boor, C. G.</hi> (1903). Excerpta historica iussu Constantini Porphyrogeniti confecta. Vol.<hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>,<hi rend=""italic""> Excerpta de legationibus.</hi> Berlin.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Boor, C. G.</hi> (1905). Excerpta historica iussu Constantini Porphyrogeniti confecta. Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>, <hi rend=""italic"">Excerpta de insidiis.</hi> Berlin.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Muñoz, T. and Viglianti, R.</hi> (2015). Texts and Documents: New Challenges for TEI Interchange and Lessons from the Shelley-Godwin Archive, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative</hi> [Online], Issue 8 - PREVIEW | 2014-2015. URL: http://jtei.revues.org/1270.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pierazzo, E. and Stokes, P. A.</hi> (2011). Putting the Text back into Context: A Codicological Approach to Manuscript Transcription, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Kodikologie und Paläographie im digitalen Zeitalter </hi>2 -
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Codicology and Palaeography in the Digital Age </hi>2. Schriften des Instituts für Dokumentologie und Editorik, 3. Books on Demand (BoD), Norderstedt, pp. 397-429.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rehbein, M. and Gabler, H. W.</hi> (2013). On Reading Environments for Genetic Editions, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarly and Research Communication </hi><hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>(3). 
                        <ref target=""http://src-online.ca/index.php/src/article/view/123"">http://src-online.ca/index.php/src/article/view/123</ref> (accessed 10 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Roos, A. G. </hi>(1910). Excerpta historica iussu Constantini Porphyrogeniti confecta. Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(2), <hi rend=""italic"">Excerpta de virtutibus et vitiis.</hi> Berlin.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2727","17","Exploring and Evaluating Cartographic (miss)Representation in a Sample of Web-based Geohumanities Projects","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Given the rise in recent years of GeoHumanities projects, this paper considers how historical data are translated and represented geographically within online mapping projects, giving insights into how these representations influence acquired meaning. GeoHumanities predominantly use geographical tools to create, present and explore different types of historical evidence and resources, for example original paper maps transformed into digital representations or geocoding of place names within texts. Factors impacting the resulting representation of historical evidence in geographical form include: choice of the underlying geographic data models, form and style of the original (historical) objects, as well as the selection, transformation and encoding practices. In this study we observe which data models are used and their context, to understand how these choices may influence acquired meaning and cognitive understanding. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Method</head>
                <p>The GeoHumanities special interest group of the Alliance for Digital Humanities Organisations has a catalog of 312 geohumanities based projects (data from July 2014). From this list a sample of 30 projects were selected (sample selected based on language, availability and production since 2010) . In these projects, the cartographic representation of historical evidence was evaluated according to a set of 70 different criteria grouped into 4 categories: (1) data structures used to model data; (2) forms of representation (typology, symbolism, use of transparency and uncertainty); (3) data interaction possibilities offered to users and (4) spatial data analysis possibilities offered to users. </p>
                <p>The following research questions were investigated: </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>How are historical data represented in web mapping applications? </item>
                    <item>How rich are geohumanities interfaces?</item>
                    <item>How do they influence knowledge acquisition? </item>
                </list>
                <p>In this paper we consider the first research question. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results: Exploring raster representations</head>
                <p>In the sample we observed a mix of both vector and raster data models. Of the 30 projects, 40% (n=12) used raster data models to integrate georeferenced versions of historical paper maps, with 4 types of use scenarios (see figure 1). Firstly, either paper map sheets belonging to a map series were stitched together or individual maps were used as a basemap layer enabling viewing of historical context or comparison of raster map to digitally encoded vector data.  The digital versions of the paper map were presented as an optional data layer in the interface that, in the main, could be switched on or off by the user.   For 26 out of 30, the historical map was overlaid on top of a contemporary raster base map which displayed either a street map or an aerial view. In only 2 very early period maps, the Agas Map of Early Modern London and The Gough Map of Great Britain, was it not possible to view a contemporary reference basemap. </p>
                <p>The second and third types of historical paper map representations in raster format were observed in crowdsourcing methodologies. In these projects users are asked to interact with the map to create new digital data. One category of projects asked members of the public to undertake the transformation from a digital scan of the paper map to a true digital raster using the processes known as georeferencing. The other made use of georeferenced historical maps and asked users to vectorise historical data. Users were asked to encode labels or draw and confirm shapes of buildings. In this type of task the users are effectively tracing the historical map to create a vector representation. The final use observed focused on the search of historical data through the map interface to find metadata records and locate historical maps. The coordinate extents of the original paper maps were used to draw a minimum bounding rectangle within the web-map interface to highlight the represented areas. Users could then search for places and discover which old maps are available digitally at different archives. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""168/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: show screenshot of the different models of historical raster representation</head>
                </figure>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Influences of raster representations </head>
                    <p>After such extensive treatment, to digitally transform the paper map into a web map, it becomes relevant to consider notions of materiality between the source and the transformed map. The “materiality” of the raster map is influenced by the transposition from paper to digital, with the associated loss of integrity. Take the action of cropping the map, observed in two thirds of all the rasters. The deletion of contextual map elements implies a certain loss of meaning from the source. Lost information commonly include: title, coordinate system, data of production, map producer, original legend, handwritten notes, archive stamps and other information. Thus the cropping process ensures that only purely functional cartographic data are retained, whilst the social document context is neglected. </p>
                    <p>A new type of digital materiality is derived from the transformation of the paper map to the digital into a “
                        <hi rend=""italic"">slippy map</hi>”, where the historical  raster map is cut up into a sets of map tiles that provide small images which are seamlessly joined together (in the same way Google Maps API and others provide users access to contemporary basemaps). By cropping the historical map to show only the cartographic map many map sheets from the same original paper map series can be stitched together to provide a detailed view across a wider geographical extent without having overlapping boundaries or edge effects of the different map sheets that would result otherwise. Of course such a large map with street level detail would not have been possible to draw using traditional paper maps and is facilitated only by advances in technology and web-mapping interfaces. Once the georeferenced maps are tiled, the slippy map enables users to zoom and pan effortlessly. There are certain advantages: (1) users can explore an entire city, region or continent as one seamless entity; (2) viewing of the map is instantaneous as tiling methods do not require lengthy loading times (which can be the case if providing high resolution georeferenced raster maps that are not tiled); (3) users are provided with new types of interactions for engaging with the map and importantly (4) users are provided with digital transformation to enable new ways of consuming “original” historic material. 
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results: Exploring point representations</head>
                <p>Vector data, especially point objects, were by far the most common representation of historical data in Geohumanities projects. Nearly all of the samples, almost ninety percent of the projects (n=26) used points for their digital conceptualisations of historical phenomena, ideas or events, see figure 2. Moreover, it was particularly common to simultaneously use both raster and point data structures within the interface. Whereby, the historical map in raster form was adopted as the basemap, ie a reference map with the point data provided users with representations of more specific data. Such a mix was observed in 22 projects. A small number of projects also made use of the line (26%) and area (33%) geometry objects that are available as part of the vector data format. No projects used text as a way of representing information (except to label objects label objects).
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""168/image2.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: Example of map interfaces uses point data</head>
                </figure>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Influences of Point for representing historical data</head>
                    <p>The point data object is a ubiquitous form of representation. It is a pervasive feature of geohumanities web-mapping projects and was observed in nearly all the sample projects (almost 90%). The point is used to represent a digital conceptualisation of historical phenomena, ideas, places, events etc. Despite the ubiquitous use of this data model, it is not without issues. </p>
                    <p>Given that a point marks an exact location, it was often observed that points (miss)represented phenomena that ranged in scale from a building, city and region or wider, sometimes representing all in the same data layer. Such confusing representations were exacerbated by (1) choice of representation - the use of the map pin which implies certainty in location; (2) failure to represent uncertainty in data therefore implying absolute facts – that are actually ambiguous (3) low usage of icons as map symbols reducing the cognitive understanding of the map. The point encapsulates a sense of location accuracy, precision and factual detail that often represented fuzzy historical constructs at best. Thus, in much the same way as text is transposed into digital form (Kirschenbaum, 2001; Hayles, 2005; Drucker, 2011), the digital map transformations and resulting cartographic representations influence the meaning of the mapped data and how it is read, interpreted and understood. By failing to consider carefully the cartographic choices in how the digitised historic data are embodied, it is likely that the cognitive load placed on the user and the efforts required to extract meaning from the maps are significantly increased. It also will strongly influence how these digital translations are interpreted and understood by the user. 
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Thoughts and Conclusions</head>
                <p>This evaluation is a starting point for discussions between humanities scholars and geo specialists, designers, information scientists and human computer interactions experts. It is obvious that digital transformations of historical data into digital geodata world provides many benefits, not least that associated with pattern recognition and presentation of data but it is not without its limitations. Initial results indicate that existing models and cartographic representations of georeferenced historical data need to be extended. It is plausible to suggest that the point data structure is inadequate for representing complex historical phenomena or broad geographical concepts but due to the lack of alternatives it is widely accepted as standard practice. We will reflect on the point as an appropriate mechanism for representing complex historical data? Explore the extent digital representations should stay true to original historic map evidence? And investigate how 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">digital map translations</hi> influence understanding and aid/hinder interpretation? 
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""teiBiblioEntry""> <hi rend=""bold"">Drucker, J.</hi> (2011). ""Diagrammatic Writing"". In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Materialities of Text: Between the Codex and the Net, </hi>edited by Sas Mays and Nicholas Thoburn. New Formations: A Journal of culture, theory and politics,<hi rend=""bold""> 78</hi>(1): 5-6. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""teiBiblioEntry""> <hi rend=""bold"">Hayles, K.</hi> (2005).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">My Mother Was a Computer</hi>, University of Chicago Press. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/321487.html"">http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/321487.html</ref> .
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""teiBiblioEntry""> <hi rend=""bold"">Kirschenbaum, M. G.</hi> (2001).""Materiality and Matter and Stuff: What Electronic Texts Are Made Of"". In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Electronic Book Review</hi> (ebr), edited by Joseph Tabbi et al. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.electronicbookreview.com/thread/electropoetics/sited%20"">http://www.electronicbookreview.com/thread/electropoetics/sited</ref> .
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2728","17","File Formats for Archiving: Stability and Persistence Issues","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Introduction</head>
            <p>A well chosen file format is an important aspect in the process of archiving digital information. A typical example are image files for archival purposes. Unfortunately it can be shown, that even a well-defined file format like TIFF can have partially proprietary, vendor-based features. Today it is inevitable to digitize analogue photographs or images because the originals are endangered by unstoppable physical decay. Because of the continuous process of scanning, digital images are an important part of our cultural heritage already and they account for a constitutive part of our contemporary multimedia output in social, scientific and economic ambits (Kuny et. al., 1998). Unfortunately any digital object must be migrated in periodic cycles, because of technological changes. Hardware migration is only one of the steps needed to ensure that a digital file can be rendered in future. The file format definition is of the same importance. If such a definition becomes obsolete, the existing file must be converted into another one that is not in danger to be outdated (Heath et. al., 2011). Therefore it is necessary to judge and optimize all relevant factors that define the sustainability of a file format definition. Even more important is the persistence of a file format if a storage solution with very long cycles of migration is used, as presented in the Monolith-Project (Fornaro et. al., 2014) or the Rosetta-Project. In those cases a lifecycle of several decades can be expected.</p>
            <p>We discuss in this document the long-term stability of existing image file formats and derive possible new approaches. We will show in detail what weaknesses exist, that endanger the future rendering of the content. In addition an image file format definition for archival needs is proposed, based on the already existing widespread standard TIFF. The proposed approach follows the concept of the Portable Document Format (Oettler et. al.,2013), PDF and its archival derivative PDF/A. The recommended specification is called TI/A, <hi rend=""italic"">Tagged Image for Archives</hi>.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Problem</head>
            <p>If digital file formats are not well chosen, the content won’t be accessible in future because it can no longer be decoded as a consequence of one or multiple technological issues (Rothenberg, 1995). A “file format” basically defines the logical structure and meaning of the bits within the bit stream and thus it is essential for correct interpretation and proper rendering of the coded data. Unfortunately a file format or parts of its logical structure and definition can become obsolete, like hardware does. As a result the information renders useless, even-though the bit stream is still properly readable. To prevent such obsolescence the file format must be migration. In most cases this is more complex than creating a simple duplicate of a bit stream; the file has to be restructured. In addition every migration can reduce image quality or introduce artefacts. Therefore it is necessary to use a file format for long-term preservation of digital data that is stable, simple, well-documented and reliable. Unfortunately most image file formats do not fulfill the needed requirements. Even open standards like the Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) can have partially vendor specific, proprietary content that decreases long-term stability. TIFF is one of the most widespread formats used to represent high quality image data in archives. TIFF is a well known, established, flexible, adaptable file format for handling images and data within a single file, by including various header tags. TIFF offers some features that are rarely used and not supported by most applications. The TIF format is quite complex and parts of the original definition have become obsolete, while new, not formally standardized additions have been made. As a consequence it would be easily possible to create a TIFF file that is fully conformant to the TIFF Revision 6.0 specifications but would be virtually useless because no existing software is be able to open and render it, migration is the needed. </p>
            <p>Migration is an expensive task. Therefor numerous approaches for archival storage solutions exist that do not or only rarely need to be migrated. Most of those solutions make use of a very stable carrier and a simple interface to access data. Monolith is such an example for an “eternal” storage. Monolith (Gubler et. al., 2006) is based on chromogenic optical film, that has a life expectancy of up to 500 years. The data is stored on Monolith as 2D-barcode, enriched with human readable metadata. For such a solution the data format is of very high importance because any format obsolescence reduces migration cycles drastically. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Approach</head>
            <p>Since a digital archive has the goal that the file can be rendered in a indefinite but possibly far future, a simplistic approach is necessary. Therefor a TIFF suitable for long term archiving should require only a minimal set of features (tags) that are necessary to allow a correct future rendering of the data and the essential descriptive metadata. We therefore propose a subset of the full functionality of TIFF that is fully compatible with the de-facto TIFF standard itself but marks some tags as <hi rend=""bold"">mandatory</hi>, some as <hi rend=""bold"">optional</hi> and some as <hi rend=""bold"">forbidden</hi> in order to guarantee the correct rendering in the future. In addition to the core functionalities, it is crucial to define a minimal set of metadata for archival applications, following standards like Dublin Core or METS (Loeffler et. al., 2007). In analogy to PDF/A format we propose to call this specification <hi rend=""italic"">TI/A</hi> or <hi rend=""italic"">Tagged Image for Archives</hi>.</p>
            <p>In cooperation with the University of Girona in Spain and EASY INNOVA, a technology and innovation centre of Girona, we have started the process of specifying TI/A in co-operation with multiple memory institutions of Switzerland and Europe.  </p>
            <p>Of course the concept of using a subset of the functionality of TIFF can be applied to any other format common for archiving digital image data like JPEG2000/A (Buckley, 2013) or even video or motion picture like DCP/A (Fornaro et. al., 2014: Goethels, 2009).</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Results</head>
             <p>It can be shown that a smart chosen file format is very important for successful archiving [9]. With the help of numerous institutions and experts we have drafted a recommendation, based on the existing TIFF standard (<ref target=""http://ti-a.org"">http://ti-a.org</ref>). The exchange of needs, requirements, dos and don’ts will lead us to a final draft specification of an ideal archival file format for high quality image data that is well supported by an international network of experts. Following the original standard definition of TIFF allows us to define a format that is fully compatible with existing decoders. This approach makes it not necessary to have “out on the market” software modified or enhanced by any means.</p>
             <p>Based on that preliminary work we will try to have the document standardized by the International Standard Organisation, ISO. Such a precise definition of the functionalities and their implementation in a Tagged Image File for Archives will help to increase the sustainability of the original image format drastically. </p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kuny, T. </hi>(1998). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A digital dark ages? Challenges in the preservation of electronic information</hi>. Int. Preserv. News, pp. 8–13.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rothenberg, J.</hi> (1995). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ensuring the longevity of digital documents</hi>. Sci. Amer. <hi rend=""bold"">272</hi>(1): 42–47. 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gubler, D., Rosenthaler, L. and Fornaro, P.</hi> (2006). The obsolescence of migration: Long-Term storage of digital code on stable optical media. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of IS&T’s Archiving Conference</hi>. IS&T, pp. 135–39. 
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Loeffler, H.</hi> (2007). Photo Metadata White Paper. In Baranger, W. (Eds.),
                        <ref target=""http://www.iptc.org/goto?phmdwp2007""> </ref>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IPTC, </hi>
                        <ref target=""http://www.iptc.org/std/photometadata/0.0/documentation/IPTC-PhotoMetadataWhitePaper2007_11.pdf"">http://www.iptc.org/std/photometadata/0.0/documentation/IPTC-PhotoMetadataWhitePaper2007_11.pdf</ref> (accessed 4. March 2016)
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                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Goethels, A.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">General Considerations for Choosing File Formats</hi>, Harvard University Library, 
                        <ref target=""http://library.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/general_format_considerations.pdf"">http://library.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/general_format_considerations.pdf</ref> (accessed 4. March 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heath, T. and Bizer, Ch.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Linked Data: Evolving the Web into a Global Data Space</hi>, Synthesis Lectures on the Semantic Web: Theory and Technology, Morgan & Claypool.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Oettler, A. </hi>(2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PDF/A in a Nutshell 2.0, </hi> – presentation from the First International PDF/A Conference in Amsterdam, Association for Digital Document Standards e.V., Berlin.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Buckley R. </hi>(2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Using Lossy JPEG2000 Compression For Archival Master Files</hi>, Library of Congress Office of Strategic Initiatives, Version 1.1, 
                        <ref target=""http://www.digitizationguidelines.gov/still-image/documents/JP2LossyCompression.pdf"">http://www.digitizationguidelines.gov/still-image/documents/JP2LossyCompression.pdf</ref> (accessed 4. March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fornaro, P. and Gubler D</hi>. (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DCP/A: Discussion of an Archival Digital Cinema Package for A V-Media</hi>, IS&T Archiving Conference Proceedings, Berlin. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fornaro P., Wassmer A., Rosenthaler L. and Gschwind R. </hi>(2014) . 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Monolith: Materialised Bits, the Digital Rosetta Film</hi>, DH2014 Conference, Lausanne. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2729","17","Flexible Community-driven Metadata with the Component Metadata Infrastructure","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Many researchers, from the humanities and other domains, have a strong need to study resources in close detail. Nowadays more and more of these resources are available online. To make these resources discoverable, they are described with metadata. These metadata records are collected and made available via central catalogues. Often, resource providers want to include specific properties of the resource in the metadata. The purpose of catalogues will be more generic and addresses a broader target audience. It is hard to strike the balance between these two ends of the spectrum with one metadata schema, and mismatches can negatively impact the quality of metadata provided. The European CLARIN infrastructure (CLARIN ERIC, 2016b) was confronted with this specific problem, and designed a solution based on a flexible mechanism to build resource specific metadata schemas, potentially using domain, community or project specific terminology, out of shared components and semantics. This paper introduces this approach and the infrastructure built for it, which is applicable to any domain with the same needs.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Component Metadata</head>
                <p>In the Component Metadata (CMD) Infrastructure (CMDI) (CLARIN ERIC, 2016c; Broeder et al., 2012) the metadata lifecycle starts with the need of a metadata modeler to create a dedicated metadata profile for a specific type of resources, e.g., speech recordings (e.g., HZSK, 2015) or historical letters (e.g., Roorda, 2013). The modeler can browse and search a registry for components and profiles that are suitable or come close to meeting the requirements at hand. A component groups together metadata elements that belong together and can be potentially reused as a group in a different context, e.g., a location or a language description. Components can also group other components, e.g., the actor component can contain the general location component. The CMDI Component Registry (CLARIN, 2016a) already contains many of these general components. And these can be reused as they are or be adapted, i.e., add or remove some metadata elements and/or components. Also completely new components can be created to model the unique properties of the resources under consideration. All the needed components are combined into one profile that is specific to the type of resources, e.g., a profile for a speech recording (see Figure 1). Components, elements and values in this profile are linked to a semantic description, e.g., a concept, to make their meaning explicit. This feature allows the use of community specific terminology, while still creating a shared semantic layer that can be exploited by generic tools. Finally, metadata creators can create records for specific resources that comply with the profile relevant for the resource type, and these records can be provided to local and global catalogues. Notice also that CMD leaves the final responsibility of how heavy a metadata description should be to the modeler: it is perfectly possible to create a lean profile, resulting in lightweight records and combine it with a full-text index of the resources for discovery.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""293/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: Example CMD profile (p), components (c) and elements (e)</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The Component Metadata approach is currently being standardized by ISO Technical Committee 37. And the first part (ISO 24622-1, 2015) of this family of standards has been released and specifies the model just described.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Component Metadata Infrastructure</head>
                <p>CLARIN built an infrastructure (see Figure 2) around the approach described in the previous section. This infrastructure is open source and provides many tools, which can readily be reused by other communities.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""293/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: An overview of tools and roles in CMDI</head>
                </figure>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">CMDI toolkit</hi> (CLARIN, 2016b): A set of XML schemas and transformations that implement the workflow from validating component and profile specifications to conversion into profile specific XML schemas used to validate specific CMD records.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Component Registry</hi> (CLARIN, 2016b): A registry storing the profiles and components created by the community for reuse. It also provides an editor for the creation of new profiles and components and derivatives of existing ones. The backend also provides REST services based on the toolkit, i.e., serves the XML schema representation of a CMD profile.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Concept Registry</hi> (CLARIN, 2016c; Schuurman et al., 2015): A SKOS-based registry storing the communities widely accepted concepts and their relations, which form the general semantic network overlaying the specific metadata profiles (Durco and Windhouwer, 2014).
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">CMD editors and forms</hi>: Various general CMD editors have been developed, e.g., the desktop tool Arbil (The Language Archive, 2016a) and the online editor COMEDI (CLARINO, 2016). Also dedicated forms for specific profiles, e.g., the CMDI maker (CLARIN-D, 2016), which can be inspiring.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Repository systems</hi>: Many CLARIN centers have deployed and configured generic repository systems to store their resources accompanied by CMD records. LINDAT (UFAL, 2016) and The Language Archive (2016b) have done so as well and released their solutions as general CMD-capable repository systems.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">OAI harvester</hi> (The Language Archive, 2016c): CMD records can be harvested with any OAI harvester, but this harvester is special in that has easy provisions to add transformations to CMD that enable the harvesting of other metadata formats.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Catalogues</hi>: Faceted browsing is a suitable and commonly applied method for exloring vast collections based on some key properties. The CLARIN Virtual Language Observatory (VLO) (CLARIN, 2016d) is such a browser. Although the front-end is rather CLARIN specific, the VLO importer in the back-end, which takes the harvested CMD records, determines the facets and their values and stores these in a SOLR index, is generic because the facet mapping is highly configurable and exploits the shared semantic layer. The Meertens Institute has developed an alternative faceted browser (Meertens Institute, 2016) for CLARIN-NL. The importer of this browser does not take any configuration and dynamically creates facets for any semantically different context it finds in the CMD records.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Convertors</hi>: CMDI is currently XML oriented, but other representation formats are possible. The CMD2RDF service (CLARIN-NL, 2016) provides a RDF representation to link CMD records with the world of Linked (Open) Data. Also convertors for other metadata formats, e.g., MODS or OLAC, to CMD are available. 
                </p>
                <p>Although this list is far from complete it shows that the CMD Infrastructure is a thriving and versatile software ecosystem. Also many parts of it are configurable, which makes it adaptable to other domains.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Lessons learned by CLARIN</head>
                <p>When CLARIN started development on the CMD Infrastructure in its preparatory phase many things were not clear yet and a lot of flexibility was needed. Common and reusable components and concepts still had to be specified. This has lead to situations where sometimes several alternatives have coexisted for a long time in the CMD ecosystem, which can make it hard for users, especially novices, to select which one to use. It is better to prevent this kind of confusion. CLARIN advises new communities that start using the CMD Infrastructure to first setup a set of basic recommended or even obligatory components and concepts, so a stable generic core is available to the community to extend with their specific needs.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Future work</head>
                <p>CLARIN keeps on working actively on the CMD Infrastructure, with the next version, i.e., CMDI 1.2 (Goosen et al., 2015) currently under development. The following topics will be addressed by this update:</p>
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>Lifecycle management of components and profiles.</item>
                        <item>Connection to vocabulary services.</item>
                        <item>Annotation of profiles and components with hints targeted at tools.</item>
                    </list>
                <p>Also improvement of the metadata quality is an ongoing process. The ongoing CLARIN-PLUS project (CLARIN ERIC, 2016a) includes the design and development of tools and and a workflow that can be used used by metadata curators for quality assessment and curation of CMD records (King et al., 2015).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusions</head>
                <p>CLARIN has built a highly flexible and versatile infrastructure for metadata that is able to meet both the generic needs of catalogues and the specific needs of resource providers. The fruits of these efforts are ready to be picked by any community experiencing the same needs. CLARIN is happy to share their experiences as well as the sometimes hard learned lessons.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Broeder, D., Windhouwer, M., Van Uytvanck, D., Goosen, T. and Trippel, T.</hi> (2012). 
                        <ref target=""page=8&pagemode=none"">CMDI: a Component Metadata Infrastructure</ref>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Metadata 2012 Workshop on Describing Language Resources with Metadata: Towards Flexibility and Interoperability in the Documentation of Language Resources</hi>. Istanbul, Turkey: European Language Resources Association (ELRA).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">CLARIN</hi> (2016b). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CMDI Toolkit</hi>
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                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">CLARIN</hi> (2016a). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Component Registry</hi>
                        <ref target=""https://catalog.clarin.eu/ds/ComponentRegistry"">https://catalog.clarin.eu/ds/ComponentRegistry</ref> (accessed 24 February 2016).
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                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">CLARIN</hi> (2016c). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Concept Registry</hi>
                        <ref target=""http://www.clarin.eu/conceptregistry"">http://www.clarin.eu/conceptregistry</ref> (accessed 24 February 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">CLARIN</hi> (2016d). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Virtual Language Observatory</hi>
                        <ref target=""https://vlo.clarin.eu/"">https://vlo.clarin.eu/</ref> (accessed 24 February 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">CLARIN-D</hi> (2016). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CMDI Maker</hi>
                        <ref target=""http://cmdi-maker.uni-koeln.de/"">http://cmdi-maker.uni-koeln.de/</ref> (accessed 24 February 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">CLARIN ERIC</hi> (2016a). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Factsheet: CLARIN-PLUS</hi>
                        <ref target=""https://www.clarin.eu/node/4213"">https://www.clarin.eu/node/4213</ref> (accessed 3 March 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">CLARIN ERIC</hi> (2016b). 
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                        <ref target=""http://clarin.eu/"">http://clarin.eu/</ref> (accessed 24 February 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">CLARIN ERIC</hi> (2016c). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Component Metadata</hi>
                        <ref target=""http://www.clarin.eu/content/component-metadata"">http://www.clarin.eu/content/component-metadata</ref> (accessed 24 February 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">CLARIN-NL</hi> (2016). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CMD2RDF</hi>
                        <ref target=""http://catalog.clarin.eu/ds/cmd2rdf"">http://catalog.clarin.eu/ds/cmd2rdf</ref> (accessed 24 February 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">CLARINO</hi> (2016). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">COMEDI:: The COmponent Metadata EDItor</hi>
                        <ref target=""http://clarino.uib.no/comedi/page"">http://clarino.uib.no/comedi/page</ref> (accessed 24 February 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Durco, M. and Windhouwer, M.</hi> (2014). 
                        <ref target=""http://www.lrec-conf.org/proceedings/lrec2014/summaries/156.html"">The CMD Cloud</ref>. In Calzolari, N., Choukri, K., Declerck, T., Loftsson, H., Maegaard, B., Mariani, J., Moreno, A., Odijk, J. and Piperidis, S. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC’14)</hi>. Reykjavik, Iceland: European Language Resources Association (ELRA).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Goosen, T., Windhouwer, M., Ohren, O., Herold, A., Eckart, T., Durco, M. and Schonefeld, O.</hi> (2015). 
                        <ref target=""http://www.ep.liu.se/ecp_article/index.en.aspx?issue=116;article=004"">CMDI 1.2: Improvements in the CLARIN Component Metadata Infrastructure</ref>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Selected Papers from the CLARIN 2014 Conference</hi>. (Linköping Electronic Conference Proceedings). Soesterberg, The Netherlands: Linköping University Electronic Press, Linköpings universitet.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">HZSK</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">SpokenCorpusWithResourcesProfile</hi>
                        <ref target=""/?itemId=clarin.eu%3Acr1%3Ap_1442920133048&registrySpace=public"">https://catalog.clarin.eu/ds/ComponentRegistry/ - /?itemId=clarin.eu%3Acr1%3Ap_1442920133048&registrySpace=public</ref> (accessed 3 March 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">ISO 24622-1</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language Resource Management - Component Metadata Infrastructure (CMDI) - Part 1: The Component Metadata Model</hi>. International Organization for Standardization.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">King, M., Ostojic, D. and Durco, M.</hi> (2015). 
                        <ref target=""page=42"">Variability of the Facet Values in the VLO - a Case for Metadata Curation</ref>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CLARIN Annual Conference 2015 - Book of Abstracts</hi>. Wroclaw, Poland.
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">Search Resources and Tools at the Meertens Institute</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">CorrespondenceHistorical</hi>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schuurman, I., Windhouwer, M., Ohren, O. and Zeman, D.</hi> (2015). 
                        <ref target=""page=85"">CLARIN Concept Registry: the new semantic registry</ref>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CLARIN Annual Conference 2015 - Book of Abstracts</hi>. Wroclaw, Poland.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">The Language Archive</hi> (2016a). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Arbil</hi>
                        <ref target=""https://tla.mpi.nl/tools/tla-tools/arbil/"">https://tla.mpi.nl/tools/tla-tools/arbil/</ref> (accessed 24 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""italic"">FLAT</hi>
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                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">The Language Archive</hi> (2016c). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Simple Java Application for Managing an OAI-PMH Harvesting Workflow</hi>
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                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">UFAL</hi> (2016). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">LINDAT/CLARIN Digital Repository Based on DSpace</hi>
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                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2730","17","Free FannyPacks: A Model for the Easy Digital Publication of Archival Periodical Material","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The nature of nineteenth-century culture, particularly literary, publication, and print culture, meant that many female writers plied their trade in periodicals. Even many American writers who we think of today primarily as novelists—Harriet Beecher Stowe, for instance—first published much of their material in periodicals. Stowe's 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Uncle Tom's Cabin</hi> first appeared serially in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The National Era</hi>, an abolitionist newspaper. But writers like Stowe gained and have maintained notoriety in part because their work also existed in book form. Many writers whose work remained trapped in periodicals have since fallen off the literary map, their writing accessible only in increasingly fragile and scattered print runs of newspapers held in libraries and archives, or on microfilm. Attempts to digitize cultural heritage material in periodicals have been far spottier than comparable attempts to digitize books for a variety of mostly practical reasons.
                    <note place=""end"">
                        <p rend=""annotation text""> While there have been a number of large-scale newspaper digitization projects, most of them have been undertaken by large commercial entities that charge a fee for access to the content and provide material of mixed quality. Readex and Proquest are two of the more popular services, and genealogy site Ancestry.com has also undertaken its own mass digitization of government records, census data, and newspaper and periodical material; all three charge for access to the content. While these services can certainly be useful for certain types of research work, the quality of the digitization, particularly transcription, is in nearly all cases quite poor, with transcriptions being derived from optical character recognition (OCR) software, which often has difficulty accurately transcribing the small and often smudged print of nineteenth-century periodicals. </p>
                    </note> Over the past decade or so, scholars such as Kenneth Price, Susan Belasco, and Meredith McGill have argued for both an increased acknowledgement of periodicals and periodical writing as a key site of intellectual and literary exchange in the nineteenth century, and the increased utilization of digital tools for the editing, study, and dissemination of periodicals.
                    <note place=""end"">
                        <p rend=""endnote text""> See Price and Belasco's introduction to their edited collection, 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Periodical Literature in Nineteenth-Century America</hi>. Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1995. Also, see: Belasco. ""
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Whitman's Poems in Periodicals</hi>: Prospects for Periodicals Scholarship in the Digital Age."" 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">The American Literature Scholar in the Digital Age</hi>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2011; McGill, Meredith. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">American Literature and the Culture of Reprinting, 1834-1853. </hi>Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003.
                        </p>
                    </note> While the advent of the digital archive has afforded well-documented possibilities for the recovery and, more importantly, dissemination of previously unknown and/or largely inaccessible material,
                    <note place=""end"">
                        <p> Perhaps the most relevant example of a digital recovery project, for the purposes of my presentation, is the 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Women Writers Project </hi>(http://wwp.northeastern.edu), now run out of Northeastern University and directed by Julia Flanders. Begun in 1988, the project has been instrumental in the recovery of rare or inaccessible work by early modern women writers (the project covers a period from 1526-1850, although the vast majority of texts are from the sixteenth and seventeenth-centuries). In addition to providing access to digitally encoded texts, the project has also provides various research and teaching materials. However, the 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Women Writers Project</hi> is only accessible with a paid subscription and does not deal with periodicals.
                        </p>
                    </note> digital transcription, encoding, and publication of literary texts still remain skills that many academics feel are well beyond their technical capabilities. This means that many of the people best positioned to undertake such recovery work—literary scholars and other subject-specialists—are held back merely by a technological learning curve that they feel is too steep.
            </p>
            <p>For the past year I have been using basic and widely-available digital tools and resources to build a digital archive of the newspaper writing of the nineteenth century American writer Fanny Fern, who, in the 1850s, was the highest-paid periodical writer in the country, writing for the widest circulated American periodical of its day. The project, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Fanny Fern in The New York Ledger</hi> (http://fannyfern.org) is the first attempt to make available the full run of Fern's newspaper columns. Using the Drupal content management system, I have been making TEI-encoded transcriptions of Fern's columns, high-resolution digital images of the complete 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ledger</hi> issues, and brief critical apparatuses about both Fern and the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ledger</hi> available for free public and scholarly use. While the digital methods and tools used to construct my project were fairly simple, the functionality and appearance of the finished product belie the relative ease (from a technical standpoint) of its creation. But the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Ledger </hi>is just one paper and Fanny Fern is just one writer, albeit a significant one. ""There are countless other periodicals and writers, particularly women writers, that deserve this sort of attention,"" I thought. ""If only other 19
                <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century lit scholars could see how easy this is!"" And an idea was born.
            </p>
            <p>I already had a relatively simple TEI template designed to handle the metadata, textual content, and linking of digital image files for periodicals. I had an XSLT style sheet that converted the TEI to HTML. I had project documentation for how I had set up my own domain name and hosting space (using Reclaim Hosting, a web hosting service specifically designed for educators and students). I had documentation about how I had installed and configured Drupal. I had documentation about how I had incorporated the HTML of the transcribed newspaper columns into the Drupal architecture. And I had documentation about how I had tweaked and played around with the design of the site. In short, I had everything anyone would need to build his or her own digital archive; all they would need is the content. If I could just share these files and instructions with other literature scholars, scholars who themselves are experts and masters of all kinds of content, then piece by piece and site by site, the gaps in literary and historical scholarship could to begin to close, be it ever so slightly. While I knew this had long been one of the (increasing number of) mantras of digital humanities, I now felt that I had the means to do my small part to contribute to its realization. Thus, using 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Fanny Fern in The New York Ledger</hi> as an example and template, I plan to soon begin providing other literature scholars with a single package, a package that contains the tools and instructions they will need to construct their own digital archives—I'm going to start handing out FannyPacks.
            </p>
            <p>Geared mainly for those wishing to gather and display texts in a digital environment, these FannyPacks (a zipped collection of files) will include the needed TEI templates, style sheets, and thorough but simple documentation about digital imaging, hosting setup, and Drupal installation and execution. Scholars with a bit of tech savvy can choose to begin hosting their own projects right away. For those looking to first experiment before fully diving in, Reclaim Hosting easily allows for multiple subdomains to be hosted under an existing domain free of charge. Thus, I will provide testing space on my ""fannyfern.org"" domain where users can download their own installations of Drupal and experiment with adding their own content. While I have chosen to take the time to encode Fern's newspaper columns in TEI—for the preservation, interoperability, and potential for enhanced functionality of the files and their content—there are some users who might wish to simply ""get their material out there"" using HTML. Drupal's graphical user interface allows for the easy input of basic or full HTML. Thus, users unfamiliar with or not wanting to take the time to encode in TEI could simply encode their transcriptions in basic HTML and paste them into Drupal's GUI. The setup of both Reclaim Hosting and Drupal also provide ample opportunity for student involvement in the creation of such projects.</p>
            <p>Projects such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Fanny Fern in The New York Ledger </hi>and those facilitated by the FannyPacks occupy a scholarly space somewhere between large-scale, institutionally-hosted TEI-based projects such as the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Willa Cather Archive </hi>or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Walt Whitman Archive</hi> (both of which are well-funded and boast a host of technical and subject specialists) and a low-cost collaborative TEI repository such as the TAPAS Project (http://tapasproject.org). While not requiring any institutional technical resources, projects based on the FannyPacks model possess greater customization and more autonomy than TAPAS projects. And, in the world of nineteenth-century American women's literature at least, there seems to be a desire for just such a model. A recently created listserv of the Society for the Study of American Women Writers (SSAWW) is geared specifically to those scholars already working on or interested in creating digital projects devoted to American women writers. And initial communication on the listserv has made clear the appeal and potential of a method and means for facilitating the publication of digital scholarly content centered around women writers, particularly periodical writers. But while my main and initial goal will be to work specifically with nineteenth century literature scholars, particularly scholars of women's literature, the FannyPacks certainly have a broader application and could be adapted to fit any manner of digital archival project.
            </p>
            <p>My poster will thus provide a brief overview of my current project, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Fanny Fern in The New York Ledger</hi>, a discussion of the project's potential to serve as a model, and specifics of the FannyPacks and their creation, distribution, and application.
            </p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2731","17","Full Stack DH: Building a Virtual Research Environment on a Raspberry PI","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Ian Hodder has recently pointed to a “return to things” in the humanities and social sciences, a mode of analysis that explores the relationships between people and the objects we use to construct and make sense of the world (Hodder, 2014, p.19). In digital humanities we can see this in Matthew Kirschenbaum’s focus on the forensics of computer hard disks (Kirschenbaum, 2007), the development of platform studies to investigate the relationship between computing culture and the consoles and other hardware that enables it (Montfort and Bogost, 2009), and the appearance of maker cultures that seek to explore the humanities through practical experimentation (Dieter and Lovink, 2014). It suggests a desire to pay attention to and interact with the material world, rather than retreating to a purely digital one. Some commentators go beyond this. They propose that entanglement with material objects represents a ground of being for humans and their societies, that it presents a postphenomenological “dialectic of dependence and dependency between humans and things” worthy of deep contemplation (Hodder, 2014, p.19). People rely on the things they have created to such a degree, so the argument goes, that our identity has become inseparable from them. In Donald Ihde’s original conception, it amounts to “recognition that “consciousness” is an abstraction, that experience in its deeper and broader sense entails its embeddedness in both the physical or material world and its cultural-social dimensions” (Ihde, 2009). Knowledge, art, religion, and science are entangled, in turn, with books, oil paint, churches, and laboratories: “thing theory” grounds epistemology in the myriad interactions between the physical and non-physical world (Preda, 1999).</p>
            <p>If we apply these insights to digital infrastructure we begin to see how humanists have become entangled with complex systems, a situation that might prompt us to pause for thought. Analog books, archives, and libraries presuppose a degree of entanglement with the material world, undoubtedly, but those are relatively well understood: we have had centuries to understand and critique them. Digital infrastructure, however, is rarely “symbolically or politically construed” (Knorr-Cetina, 1992, p.119). It is merely requested in an email to a manager or Information Technology (IT) helpdesk, or held to be something humanists need to do their work. Little attempt is made to define the critical ground or, much less, to understand the object of enquiry prior to investment. Rather, in denial of the epistemological significance of things, humanities infrastructure is treated as something we should merely go to the store or work with our IT department to buy. The result has been an ongoing failure to provide the kind of infrastructure needed by humanities researchers, a misalignment of the debate, and often a rejection of the very notion of digital infrastructure itself. </p>
            <p>As Matt Ratto points out, so-called ‘critical making’ provides new ways of dealing with difficult issues like this. Rather than attempting to solve complex problems in their entirety, critical making encourages the development of prototypes and basic models in the context of wider critical discourses, thus blending “practice-based engagement with pragmatic and theoretical issues” and fostering the possibility that creative solutions will be found to long-standing problems. He suggests the approach can be particularly useful in the context of so-called “wicked problems” (Ratto, 2011, p.253), defined by architectural scholar Horst Rittel in the 1960s and 1970s (Rittel and Webber, 1973). This class of problem is characterized by the existence of “many clients and decision makers with conflicting values, and where the ramifications in the whole system are thoroughly confusing” (Rittel was interested in problems associated with large-scale planning projects) (Churchman, 1967, p.B141). Significantly, he claimed there is a moral element to such problems, in that it is immoral to solve only one component of a wicked problem when such an approach will leave the larger issue unresolved. Prototyping and critical making can thus be positioned, not as inadequate tinkering, but as a mode of activity well-suited to the resolution of very complex problems. In this way we come to the intersection of critical making, cyber-infrastructure, and the humanities.</p>
            <p>This project migrated my personal website jamessmithies.org from Wordpress.org (a free, fully hosted service) to a home server running on a Raspberry Pi 2 Model B minimal computer, a device built in the United Kingdom at Sony’s manufacturing plant in Pencoed in South Wales and supported by a registered charity: the Raspberry Pi Foundation. The computer measures 85.60mm x 56mm x 21mm (or roughly 3.37″ x 2.21″ x 0.83″), has 1GB of Random Access Memory (RAM) and is powered by a 900MHz quad-core ARM Cortex-A7 Central Processing Unit (CPU). The VRE application is built using Django, a Python-based web framework designed for newspaper websites but now deployed in a wide variety of scenarios. The social media service Pinterest is one of the largest services to use it, with over 46 million unique visitors between 2011 and 2015 (Statista, 2015). The framework is thus highly adaptable, and could be used to develop almost any functionality a humanities researcher might need. The website is served by the Gunicorn application server and light-weight Nginx web server (used by NASA), with content saved in Postgres, one of the more advanced database systems available. All of these products are available free through the open source community. They require a reasonable level of technical proficiency to install and configure but there are many tutorials available online and their user communities share knowledge openly. It speaks to an interesting aspect of this project. Although there is a massive gap between jamessmithies.org and well-funded cyber-infrastructure projects, the nature of the open source software movement means there is only a small gap (if any) in terms of scalability and potential functionality.</p>
            <p>One of the most powerful things about the project - in both technical and tactical terms - is the level of control conferred by the architecture of the ‘stack’. Not only is the Pi itself accessible and configurable, but its operating system can be changed, and Gunicorn and Nginx can be configured at both an administrative level and through their core code base. Django can be programmed to support an extremely wide range of functionality. To extend the metaphor of control towards the incomprehensibly large infrastructures used by multi-national digital corporates (to escape the criticism that the Pi is a fundamentally limited device, or a mere toy), static files like CSS style sheets and images are hosted on the Amazon Web Services (AWS) cloud, integrating the Pi with a truly enormous global data infrastructure. These could have been hosted on the Pi, but it is considered best practice to deliver them separately for Django projects. It means, essentially, that much of the ‘heavy-lifting’ has been outsourced to a high performance computer, allowing almost limitless options for expansion of the site. </p>
            <p>Perhaps counter-intuitively given the dominance of ‘bigger is better’ cyberinfrastructure discourse, the migration from Wordpress.org servers to a lowly Raspberry Pi has produced a personal VRE capable of significant further development. The intention is not necessarily to create a finished and reproducible product, but to take control of – and experiment with - all aspects of the computing architecture in order to gain a better understanding of my scholarly infrastructure needs, from the hardware the site runs on, to maintenance of the Internet domain name, the content management system that helps me organize content, and the firewalls that secure it from malicious actors. The conclusion after this phase of the project is that issues like ethical hardware, net neutrality, data sovereignty and security, and the ability to extend and configure the code that supports my research activities, are central to my work – and identity - as a humanities scholar.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Anon.</hi>, (2015). Pinterest: Unique U.S. Visitors 2015.
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Statista</hi>. April 2015. http://www.statista.com/statistics/277694/number-of-unique-us-visitors-to-pinterestcom/ (accessed July 11, 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Churchman, C.W.</hi> (1967). Guest Editorial: Wicked Problems. <hi rend=""italic"">Management Science</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>: 141-42.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dieter, M. and Lovink, G.</hi> (2014). Theses on Making in the Digital Age. In 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Critical Making</hi>. California: Garnet Hertz.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hodder, I.</hi> (2014). The Entanglements of Humans and Things: A Long-Term View.
                            <hi rend=""italic"">New Literary History</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">45</hi>: 19-36.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ihde, D.</hi> (2009). 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Postphenomenology and Technoscience: The Peking University Lectures.</hi> Albany: SUNY Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kirschenbaum, M.</hi> (2007). 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Mechanisms: New Media and theForensic Imagination.</hi> Cambridge Mass.: The MIT Press. 
                      
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Knorr-Cetina, K.</hi> (1992). The Couch, the Cathedral, and the Laboratory: On the Relationship between Experiment and Laboratory in Science. In Pickering, A. (ed.), 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Science as Practice and Culture</hi>, ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 113-38.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Montfort, N. and Bogost, I.</hi> (2009). 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Racing the Beam: The Atari Video Computer System</hi>. Cambridge Mass.: The MIT Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Preda, A.</hi> (1999). The Turn to Things: Arguments for a Sociological Theory of Things. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">The Sociological Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>: 347–66.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ratto, M.</hi> (2011). Critical Making: Conceptual and Material Studies in Technology and Social Life. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">The Information Society</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>: 252-60.
                        
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rittel, H.W.J. and Webber, M.M.</hi> (1973). Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Policy Sciences</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>: 155-69.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sayers, J.</hi> (2014). The Relevance of Remaking. 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Maker Lab in the Humanities</hi>. November 24, 2014. http://maker.uvic.ca/remaking/ (accessed 01 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2732","17","GLAMorous! Edizione Digitale Di Beni Culturali Con Contenuto Testuale, Multidisciplinarietà  Ed Epigrafia Digitale","10","<text>
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <p>Il progetto <hi rend=""italic"">Tesserarum Sisciae Sylloge</hi> (TSS) mira alla digitalizzazione di più di 1100 etichette commerciali di piombo di epoca romana (I-III secolo d.C.) conservate nel Museo Archeologico di Zagabria. Hanno le dimensioni approssimattive dei nostri francobolli e portano incisioni con informazioni relative  alla tintura della lana (prezzi, prodotti, ecc.).</p>
                <p>L’edizione scientifica è a cura di Radman-Livaja, 2014 e il disegno seguente è il fronte dell’etichetta 12563 pubblicata dall’editore</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""680/image1.png""/>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Queste etichette, beni archeologici sotto la responsabilità dei GLAM (Galleries, Libraries, Archives and Museums), sono anche oggetto di studio scientifico, e quindi da considerare sotto vari punti di vista: beni culturali, fonti primarie di informazione per gli studi storici, epigrafi, <hi rend=""italic"">Text Bearing Object</hi> (TBO) etc. Sia nell’interesse del pubblico che della ricerca, abbiamo realizzato, tramite l'edizione digitale di queste etichette romane, un open access a questa documentazione (Terras, 2015), facilitato da un <hi rend=""italic"">framework</hi> digitale che copre gli aspetti di visualizzazione, divulgazione e informazione scientifica.</p>
                <p>Lavori precedenti (vedi ad es. Terras, 2006 con le tavolette di Vindolanda) avevano approfondito le riflessioni riguardo alla rapresentazione digitale e alla decifrazione di un TBO simile per certi aspetti (scritura manoscritta) e sono serviti come punto di partenza in fase preparatoria. Il progetto TSS è stato, durante l’anno 2015, l’ambiente di sviluppo di un aspetto metodologico specifico dell’epigrafia digitale, che mette al centro della procedura di digitalizzazione l’oggetto archeologico, cioè la fonte primaria di informazione dello storico. Si basa sull’analisi dispositiva (<hi rend=""italic"">dispositive analysis</hi>) ed è approfondito in Lamé 2015a. L’analisi dispositiva prende in considerazione i vari elementi eterogenei che partecipano al messaggio epigrafico, tenendo conto delle dimensioni sociali e culturali del TBO in quanto oggetto di studio della storia digitale. Propone un insieme di tappe e di procedure che possono includere il <hi rend=""italic"">crowdsourcing</hi> (vedi Ridge 2014).</p>
                <p> Raggiunti i primi obiettivi prefissati, utilizzando le tecnologie di <hi rend=""italic"">Reflectance Transforming Imaging</hi> (RTI), siamo entrati in una fase che potremmo chiamare di <hi rend=""italic"">document editing</hi> e che riguarda le metodologie del Cultural Heritage, i <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Autoptic Processes</hi> (DAP), la materialità dell’oggetto, e la sua accessibilità a tutti i pubblici dell’Archeological Museum of Zagreb in modo da svolgere sia una missione scientifica che di mediazione museografica verso il suo pubblico. Tuttavia, come sottolinea Pierazzo 2015 (specialmente pp. 70-83), <hi rend=""italic"">document editing</hi> (edizione del TBO) e <hi rend=""italic"">textual editing</hi> (edizione del testo) sono metodi editoriali complementari: se si possono distinguere non si possono separare. Il <hi rend=""italic"">textual editing</hi> è uno dei campi di ricerca più sviluppato nell’ambito delle Digital Humanities ed è ben supportato dal punto di vista tecnico, in particolare grazie allo standard TEI. Il testual editing ha raggiunto la matturità necessaria per essere abbinato e combinato agli aspetti che riguardano il documento.</p>
                <p>Il contesto dell’epigrafia digitale del progetto TSS, che presenteremo nella sua versione 1.0, con le conclusioni metodologiche attinenti all'informatica umanistica, in occasione del convegno DH16, fornisce documenti epigrafici la cui funzione è per natura diversa dal manoscritto. Questo genera alcune conseguenze, come, ad esempio, l’assenza del concetto di pagina ma l’uso di quello meno controllabile tecnicamente di ‘specchio epigrafico’, ovvero la superficie inscritta; essa non viene sempre definita da un rettangolo piano, ma può assumere numerose forme geometriche, come un cipo migliaro, avere confini meno delimitati nello spazio, come nelle iscrizioni arabe, nelle quali le scritte si miscelano a motivi floreali, o come le statue-geroglifiche egiziane. Diventa inoltre importante unire materialità archeologica (<hi rend=""italic"">document editing</hi>) e interpretazione del testo (<hi rend=""italic"">textual editing</hi>) in una “ricostituzione diplomatica” dell’oggetto in caso di lacuna (Lamé 2015b) tramite un tool dedicato, il MarkOut, che permette di associare calco digitale, paleografia e codifica testuale al momento della decifrazione.</p>
                <p>MarkOut è un'interfaccia web (HTML5 e Javascript) che permette di tracciare le iscrizioni su di un'immagine e successivamente di correggere le linee tramite dei punti di controllo, consentendo di ottenere facilmente una rappresentazione fedele con uno strumento, il mouse, non proprio ideale, ma alla portata di chiunque.</p>
                <p>Ad ogni segno viene associato un simbolo di un alfabeto predefinito, o eventualmente una variante di una lettera (Unicode code point + un indentificatore della variante). L'interfaccia infine permette di gestire più strati di scrittura e nel caso siano disponibili rappresentazioni RTI, è possibile variare l'illuminazione dell'iscrizione per facilitarne l’osservazione. </p>
                <p>Il risultato finale è un file in formato SVG, che può essere condiviso online, processato automaticamente per estrarre la trascrizione in altri formati (es. TEI), inserito in un database ad hoc, o impiegato in algoritmi che analizzino la forma delle varie lettere e la loro posizione topologica sul TBO.</p>
                <p>Questa interfaccia è concepita per servire i vari tipi di usi, con alcune varianti nel suo design: la discussione scientifica tra esperti (MarkOut Expert), la formazione degli studenti universitari alla decifrazione di iscrizioni (MarkOut Assisted, see Lamé 2016), la mediazione museografica verso il pubblico generale del museo, adulti e bambini. Di seguito, immagine dell’etichetta 12563 con il MarkOut Assisted.</p>
                <p>Specialmente, il MarkOut Kids, in corso di sperimentazione presso i bambini da 4 a 10 anni, permette di mettere in pratica esercizi di scrittura del programma scolastico combinato ad un contatto con l’oggetto archeologico. Il gesto continuo che consiste nel designare la forma di una lettera dell’alfabeto viene associato a quello più astratto di identificazione e riconoscimento di un segno alfabetico con la sua posizione su una tastiera e il suo inserimento in modo tale che compaia associato al disegno sullo schermo.</p>
                <p>Il Tesserarum Sisciae Sylloge è finanziato dal Ministero della Cultura Croato, dal Comune di Zagabria e dall’European Association for Digital Humanities. È realizzato dal Laboratorio di Cultura Digitale dell’Università di Pisa con la partecipazione del Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Borillo, M.</hi> (1984). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Informatique pour les sciences de l’homme: limites de la formalisation du raisonnement</hi>. (Philosophie et langage). Bruxelles: P. Mardaga.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lamé, M.</hi> (2015a). Primary Sources of Information, Digitization Processes and Dispositive Analysis. New York: ACM.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lamé, M.</hi> (2015b). Scritture in contesti: il dispositivo epigrafico come veicolo di echi epigrafici. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lexis</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">33</hi>: 9–17.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lamé, M., Ponchio, F., Robertson, B. and Radman-Livaja, I.</hi> (2016). Teaching (Digital) Epigraphy. Rome: La Sapienza.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Masséglia, J.</hi> (2015). The Ashmolean Latin Inscriptions Project: Bringing epigraphic research to museum visitors and schools. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Studi Umanistici – Antichistica Convegni Information Technologies for Epigraphy and Cultural Heritage</hi>. Rome: La Sapienza, pp. 221–30.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pierazzo, E.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital scholarly editing: theories, models and methods</hi>. Farnham; Burlington: Ashgate.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Radman-Livaja, I.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Tesere Iz Siska/Plombs de Siscia</hi>. Vol. IX/1-IX/2. (Musei Archaeologici Zagrabiensis Catalogi et Monographiae). Zagreb: Archaeological Museum in Zagreb.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ridge, M.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Crowdsourcing Our Cultural Heritage</hi>. Farnham: Ashgate.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rosselli del Turco, R.</hi> (2015). Edition Visualization Technology: A Simple Tool to Visualize TEI-based Digital Editions. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative</hi>(8).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Terras, M.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Image to Interpretation: An Intelligent System to Aid Historians in Reading the Vindolanda Texts</hi>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Terras, M.</hi> (2015). Opening Access to Collections: the Making and Using of Open Digitised Cultural Content. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Online Information Review</hi>(Special Issue on Open Access: Redrawing the Landscape of Scholarly Communication).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2733","17","Go Set A Watchman while we Kill the Mockingbird in Cold Blood, with Cats and Other People","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Even before Harper Lee’s “new” book, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Go Set A Watchman</hi>, was published earlier this year (2015), rumors as to its authorship abounded. Alabama police looked into alleged abuse of Lee’s rights; suspicion suddenly (re)surfaced about the strange fact that one of the greatest bestsellers in American history was its author’s only completed work; Lee’s childhood friendship with Truman Capote (portrayed as Dill in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">To Kill A Mockingbird</hi>) and their later association on the occasion of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">In Cold Blood</hi> fueled more speculations on the two Southern writers’ possible, or even just plausible, collaboration; finally, the role of Tay Hohoff, Lee’s editor on her bestseller, was discussed. Desperate media turned to the usual front for stylometry, Matt Jockers, who graciously ceded this opportunity onto us. A story about our early results appeared in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Wall Street Journal</hi> (Gamerman, 2015), and it echoed even in our native Poland, where the country’s major newspaper, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Gazeta Wyborcza</hi>, also devoted a whole page to this international success of Polish stylometry (Makarenko, 2015).
            </p>
            <p>The truth proved to be at once much less sensational than most of the rumors – and much more interesting. Stylometric evidence is very strong in this case: Harper Lee is the author of both 
                <hi rend=""italic"">To Kill A Mockingbird</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Go Set A Watchman</hi>. The first method applied here was part of stylo, a stylometric package (Eder et al., 2013) for R (R Core Team, 2014): series of most-frequent word frequencies in a collection of texts were compared using Burrows’s Delta measure of distance (Burrows, 2002); Delta distances were compared for each pair of the texts in this corpus by cluster analysis, and the results of clustering were used to create a bootstrap consensus tree. The resulting Fig. 1 shows the two Harper Lee books as two nearest neighbors just as it does the other authors included for comparison here. More importantly, perhaps, Truman Capote is far away. Most importantly, her editor’s only available book, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Cats and Other People</hi>, betrays no similarity to her charge. Since this sort of diagram is oriented at deciphering the strongest signal in word usage, authorship, the various rumors should be finally set at rest – the more so as the two Harper Lee novels have always been each other’s nearest neighbors in a whole series of rigorous machine-learning classification tests performed using stylo’s “classify” function.
            </p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""169/100000000000096000000960D9FF05DB80EB7F5B.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: Harper Lee and selected authors of the American South, compared at 100–2000 most frequent words</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>Lesser affinities between texts are preserved in Fig. 2, which presents a network analysis of the same data treated with an enhanced version of the aforementioned consensus statistical method (Eder, 2015b) and produced with the Force Atlas 2 layout (Jacomy et al., 2014) in Gephi (Bastian et al., 2009). The degree of similarity is shown by the thickness of the curves that connect the particular texts: the thicker the line, the stronger the similarity. Additionally, the algorithm also spatially distributes the nodes (representing each text) to provide an additional visualization effect.</p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""169/100002010000080000000400EB1E59515603655E.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: Network analysis of the same collection of novels</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>It is no surprise that this diagram echoes the previous one as far as the strongest similarities are concerned. Lee is still Lee; now, Faulkner stands almost alone. But then the lesser forces, represented by the slightly narrower connections, also count. The first thing that strikes the eye in the Lee neighborhood is the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Watchman</hi>’s affinity to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">In Cold Blood</hi> and a more heterogeneous pattern for the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mockingbird</hi>: the book researched by Capote with Lee is still linked to her 1960 bestseller, but now only by the minutest of lines. This rephrases the Lee/Capote question in a more interesting way. Is there a drop of Capote in Lee? Perhaps not in the entirety of her work – perhaps just in a passage or two. This should be answered with a modification of the method: since it is difficult to see overlapping stylometric signals in an entire novel, one can see much more when the novel is split into equal and smaller fragments; then, the usual stylometric analysis is applied to the particular slices according to the “rolling.classify” procedure (Eder, 2015a).
            </p>
            <p>The most reasonable texts to be thus compared to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">To Kill A Mockingbird</hi> are Capote’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">In Cold Blood</hi> (since Lee helped with the research for that book), Lee’s own 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Go Set A Watchman</hi> (to see how much of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Watchman</hi> might be found in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mockingbird</hi>) and Tay Hohoff’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Cats and Other People</hi> (to find out how much of Lee’s rewriting of her original proposal might have been influenced by her experienced editor). This is presented in Fig. 3, and the result is quite interesting.
            </p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""169/100000000000040E00000233CE149AD949F85BF4.png""/>
                    <head>Figure 3: To Kill a Mockingbird contrasted sequentially against Capote’s In Cold Blood (red), Hohoff’s Cats and Other People (blue) and Lee’s Go Set A Watchman (green). The lower band represents the strongest authorial signal; the upper band (in less intense colors) is the second-strongest signal</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>The signal in a little more than a half of the segments in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">To Kill A Mockingbird</hi> is that of the novel she originally brought to be published by Lippincott. It is highly significant that its longest stretch coincides with the trial that was only mentioned in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Watchman</hi> and became the focus of the book in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mockingbird</hi>. This seems to suggest that while this refocusing of the book was made following the advice of the editor, the rewriting was indeed done by Harper Lee.
            </p>
            <p>The rest of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mockingbird</hi> is a veritable mosaic of her own and her editor’s hand. Tay Hohoff’s impact seems to be especially visible towards the end of the story, and it coincides with the novel’s climax in Chapter 28: Scout, dressed in her elaborate and cumbersome ham costume, is attacked by Bob Ewell, who, following the struggle with Jem and then with Arthur “Boo” Radley, is left with his own knife stuck under his ribs.
            </p>
            <p>We will never know, of course, whether Tay Hohoff really wrote that scene (and the others that seem to bear her mark) for Lee. But it is sensible to argue that while 
                <hi rend=""italic"">To Kill A Mockingbird</hi> is obviously a novel by Harper Lee, traces of someone who helped her along the way for two whole years – and who, at one point, talked the author into running down to the street to collect the manuscript that had been flung through the window in frustration (Shields, 2006: 121) – must be there somewhere. The results produced by the different functions of stylo are not in conflict when they show the overall strength of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Watchman</hi> signal in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mockingbird</hi> and the possible echoes of Hohoff (or even, at the very onset of the novel, of Capote) in selected segments. Rather, they seem to provide new insights into the traces of various people involved in the making of a novel – and into how some of these traces may be identified and discerned by stylometry. It is equally sensible to find such traces in a work of a very particular kind: a novel that has been reprocessed almost beyond recognition in a long process of authorial and editorial collaboration; where the final version keeps the setting and the characters of the first, but changes its focus, its historical moment in time and, perhaps more importantly, its ideological message.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bastian M., Heymann S., Jacomy M.</hi> (2009). Gephi: an open source software for exploring and manipulating networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (2002). “Delta”: A measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>: 267–87.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M.</hi> (2015a). Rolling stylometry. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>, first published online: 7 April 2015, doi: 10.1093/llc/gqv010.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M.</hi> (2015b). Visualization in stylometry: cluster analysis using networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>, first published online 3 December 2015, doi: 10.1093/llc/fqv061.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2016). Stylometry with R: a package for computational text analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">R Journal</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>, first published online 30 December 2015, 
                        <ptr target=""https://journal.r-project.org/archive/""/>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gamerman, E.</hi> (2015). Data Miners Dig Into “Watchman”. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Wall Street Journal</hi>, 17 July 2015: D5, 
                        <ptr target=""http://www.wsj.com/articles/data-miners-dig-into-go-set-a-watchman-1437096631""/>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jacomy, M., Venturini, T., Heymann, S. and Bastian, M.</hi> (2014). ForceAtlas2, a continuous graph layout algorithm for handy network visualization designed for the Gephi software. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PLoS ONE</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(6): e98679, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0098679.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Makarenko, V.</hi> (2015). Literackie śledztwa Polaków. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Gazeta Wyborcza</hi>, 31 July 2015: 18.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">R Core Team</hi> (2014). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Wien, 
                        <ptr target=""http://www.R-project.org/""/>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shields, C. J.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mockingbird: A Portrait of Harper Lee</hi>. New York: Henry Holt and Co. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2734","17","Identifying the Same Ukiyo-e Prints from Databases in Dutch and Japanese","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>As more and more libraries, museums, galleries and archives are making their collections available online, it is becoming essential to develop methods for accessing these vast and valuable collections of cultural heritage easily and thoroughly. One of the promising approaches is to automatically identify the database records that refer to the same entity across different collections, which is called “record linkage”. In the past, numerous approaches (Elmagarmid et al., 2007) have been proposed. Most of the existing approaches targeted to identify the same records in the same language. However, we aim to identify the same artworks in different languages.</p>
                <p>In our recent work, we have developed a method for identifying the same Ukiyo-e prints from databases in English and Japanese (Batjargal et al., 2014). This method is particularly useful since Ukiyo-e, the Japanese traditional woodblock printing, is engraving and many copies or variants of one particular work were made from the same woodblock, and most of these copies were scattered around Western countries in the 19th century, and now stored in museums and galleries in these countries. Most of the metadata of these databases are available only in English or in the native language of that country. Titles are mostly written either as the transliteration of the original Japanese title, or a translation in that language. Table 1 shows an example of an Ukiyo-e print whose copies are stored in databases around the world with titles in different languages.
                </p>
                <p>One of the effective approaches for identifying the same artworks from multiple image databases is to utilize image similarity calculations. Ukiyo-e.org (Resig, 2012; Resig, 2013) is the most successful example of identifying the same Ukiyo-e prints, which purely uses image similarities rather than textual data. The advantage of our approach is that we do not have to harvest all the data from the databases beforehand. This paper discusses the method for identifying the same Ukiyo-e records between Japanese and Dutch databases using textual metadata written in different languages.</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <head>Table 1. The same Ukiyo-e print in different databases with titles in different languages</head>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Original Ukiyo-e print</cell>
                        <cell>Title</cell>
                        <cell>Database</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <figure>
                                <graphic url=""151/image1.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                            </figure>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>凱風快晴 (original title in Japanese)</cell>
                        <cell>The Edo-Tokyo Museum, Japan</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <figure>
                                <graphic url=""151/image2.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                            </figure>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>Gaifū kaisei (transliteration)</cell>
                        <cell>The Library of Congress, USA</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <figure>
                                <graphic url=""151/image3.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                            </figure>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>South Wind, Clear Sky (in English)</cell>
                        <cell>The Metropolitan Museum of Art, USA</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <figure>
                                <graphic url=""151/image4.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                            </figure>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>Vent frais par matin clair (in French)</cell>
                        <cell>French Photo Agency, France</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <figure>
                                <graphic url=""151/image5.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                            </figure>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>Helder weer en een zuidelijke wind (in Dutch)</cell>
                        <cell>Rijksmuseum, Netherlands</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <figure>
                                <graphic url=""151/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                            </figure>
                        </cell>
                        <cell>Fuji bei schönem Wetter von Süden gesehen (in German)</cell>
                        <cell>Bildarchiv Foto Marburg, Germany</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Proposed approach</head>
                <p>Here we explain our method for identifying the same Ukiyo-e records between Japanese and Dutch databases. The proposed method is divided into two main parts as shown in Figure 1. One is the literal translation of original Japanese titles into Dutch, and the other is to find the English title of the same artwork and then translate it into Dutch. The reason of having two different parts is that the translated titles of Ukiyo-e can be classified into two types, a literal translation of the original title, and a translated title, which depicts the scene or objects portrayed in the print that is not necessarily related to the original title. There are a considerable numbers of depictive titles in the translated English and Dutch titles of Ukiyo-e prints.</p>
                <p>In the process of literal translation of original titles, first we translate the original Japanese title into Dutch by using a machine translation service (e.g. Google Translate or Microsoft Translator), and then we calculate the similarities between the literal translation and candidate Dutch titles using the similarity measure proposed in our previous approach (Kimura et al., 2015). Identified candidates are narrowed down from a Dutch database using the artist name of the original title.
                </p>
                <p>In the process of using English titles, first we identify the corresponding English title(s) of the original title using the method proposed in our previous approach, then we translate the English title(s) into Dutch using a machine translation service, and then we calculate the similarities between translated Dutch title(s) and candidate Dutch titles using the same similarity measure as the literal translation process. Finally, we integrate the results of two processes and identify the same artworks that exceed a certain threshold of the similarity degree.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""151/image7.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1. An illustration of the proposed method. Red arrows are the literal translation process and blue arrows are the process of using English titiles.</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Experimental evaluation</head>
                <p>We have conducted experiments to evaluate the proposed method. The experimental data is shown in Table 2 and the experimental results are shown in Table 3. In these experiments, we utilized the artworks of Hiroshige Utagawa.</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <head>Table 2. Experimental data</head>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Language</cell>
                        <cell>Database</cell>
                        <cell>Number of available Ukiyo-e prints of Hiroshige Utagawa</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Japanese</cell>
                        <cell>The Edo-Tokyo Museum</cell>
                        <cell>32</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>English</cell>
                        <cell>The Metropolitan Museum of Art</cell>
                        <cell>133</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Dutch</cell>
                        <cell>Rijksmuseum</cell>
                        <cell>207</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <head>Table 3. Experimental results</head>
                    <row>
                        <cell/>
                        <cell>By employing the literal translation of original titles </cell>
                        <cell>By employing the English titles </cell>
                        <cell>Combining the literal translation and English titles </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Number of correctly identified titles within top 5 ranks (percentage)</cell>
                        <cell>20/32 (0.6250)</cell>
                        <cell>14/32 (0.4375)</cell>
                        <cell>22/32 (0.6875)</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>We proposed a method for identifying the same Ukiyo-e prints across multiple databases using textual metadata written in different languages, particularly Japanese and Dutch. By using English titles as an intermediate text, we can find not only literally translated titles but also “depictive” titles, which are common in translation of Ukiyo-e prints’ titles that cannot be identified by a simple word-to-word matching. Our preliminary experiments showed reasonable results in identifying both literally translated titles and depictive titles. As the future work, we plan to extend the proposed method to other humanities databases.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Batjargal, B., Kuyama, T., Kimura, F. and Maeda, A.</hi> (2014). Identifying the same records across multiple Ukiyo-e image databases using textual data in different languages, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceeding of the 2014 IEEE/ACM Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (JCDL)</hi>. London, United Kingdom, pp. 193–96. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elmagarmid, A. K., Ipeirotis, P. G. and Verykios, V. S. </hi>(2007). Duplicate Record Detection: A Survey. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">19</hi>: 1–16.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Resig, J.</hi> (2013). Aggregating and analyzing digitized Japanese woodblock prints. Presented at the 3rd Annual Conference of the Japanese Association for Digital Humanities, Kyoto, Japan, September 2013.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Resig, J.</hi> (2012). Japanese Woodblock Print Search
                        <hi rend=""bold"">.</hi> http://ukiyo-e.org/ (accessed 26 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kimura, T., Batjargal, B., Kimura, F. and Maeda, A. </hi>(2015). Finding the Same Artworks from Multiple Databases in Different Languages. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2015: Conference Abstracts</hi>. Sydney, Australia, June 2015.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2735","17","If You Build It Will They Come? Digital Infrastructure And Disciplinary Practice In Language Documentation","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Digital scholarship depends on the availability of data in forms which are tractable to computational techniques, implying storage of data in sustainable archives. This is perhaps even more true of research in the humanities than in science. As the ESF observed in their 2011 report on research infrastructure: “in the hard sciences, datasets tend to be generated rather than collected and tend to be homogeneous in nature …. In Humanities, data tends to be collected and to be heterogeneous in content and format” (European Science Foundation, 2011:5). It is both the possibility of storing the data and the stored data itself which makes up critical infrastructure in many disciplines and innovative scholarly practices may not develop in the absence of such infrastructure. Here, we discuss the development of digital infrastructure in the field of language documentation (within the discipline of linguistics) and try to assess the extent to which the provision of well-funded (by the standards of the discipline) infrastructure is changing scholarly practice.</p>
            <p>Language documentation as a field in linguistics dates from the publication of the seminal paper ‘Documentary and descriptive linguistics’ (Himmelmann, 1998). It is in large part a reaction by linguists to the challenge of language endangerment (see Hale et al., 1992; and Musgrave, 2015 for a recent survey) and it emphasises the collection of large bodies of data of languages in use. Language documentation began at the same time that it was becoming feasible to make high quality digital recordings, both audio and video, on reasonably priced equipment. Archiving of documentary material was a core component of the program as conceived by Himmelmann, and this was immediately seen to mean digital archiving. Indeed, it can be argued that the whole enterprise of documentary linguistics falls comfortably within the digital humanities (Thieberger, 2014).</p>
            <p>Two projects began in the first decade of the century to fund researchers to make collections of documentary materials. One was based at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics (Nijmegen, The Netherlands) and funded by the Volkswagen Stiftung;
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1""> Dokumentation Bedrohte Sprache (DoBeS): http://dobes.mpi.nl/</note> the other was based at the School of Oriental and African Studies (London, UK), funded by Arcadia.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2""> Hans Rausing Endangered Languages Project: http://www.hrelp.org</note> MPI Nijmegen had a well-resourced technical department which took responsibility for developing the archiving stream of the DoBeS project. HRELP had to build their archive from scratch; no existing resources at SOAS were available to support their work. For both projects, it was a requirement of funded research that data were deposited in the relevant archive. Both archives, however, are open to deposits from non-funded researchers.
            </p>
            <p>The DoBeS archive is subsumed under a larger archive called The Language Archive
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">https://tla.mpi.nl</note> which also holds language data from other MPI activities and from other institutions and projects. Figure 1 shows the cumulative deposits in TLA for DoBeS material and for material classified as donated. The figures here represent the number of files retrieved from the catalogue based on their ’Last modified’ field. This does not reflect the accession date of the file in all cases, but it is a reasonable proxy.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4""> We are deeply grateful to Paul Trilsbeek of The Language Archive for assistance in refining this data.</note>
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""373/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1. Cumulative deposits in TLA</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The archive at SOAS is known as ELAR. Figure 2 shows cumulative deposits in that archive; figures are drawn from information provided by ELAR in the annual reports of HRELP and represent bundles of data deposited rather than individual data files.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""373/image2.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2. Cumulative deposits in ELAR</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Although both archives have grown over the periods shown, the patterns are different, with a flattening out in the DoBeS deposits starting around 2011. There was no funding round in 2010. Projects were funded in 2011 and 2012 but 2012 was the final round and while the archive still expects to receive deposits from the last two funding rounds, such deposits will continue to decrease.</p>
            <p>Figure 3 shows the percentage of donated deposits based on the cumulative figures for each archive.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""373/image3.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3. Comparison of the percentage of donated material in the two archives</head>
            </figure>
            <p>For both archives, once the infrastructure was established, non-funded deposits make up an increasing proportion of the archive. TLA has added large amounts of donated material in recent years, in part a conscious effort by the archive to expand its activities beyond the DoBeS project by taking responsibility for existing data sets. One barrier to archiving data is meeting an archive’s requirements particularly in the area of metadata. ELAR uses a more flexible metadata system than TLA (which uses the IMDI scheme, 
                <ref target=""https://tla.mpi.nl/imdi-metadata/"">https://tla.mpi.nl/imdi-metadata/</ref>). We might therefore expect more voluntary deposits in ELAR than in TLA, but this is not the case in these data. The different proxies we are using to assess these trends here make it difficult to compare the two exactly, but we can see a clear trend over the last decade which suggests that archiving data is increasingly a part of scholarly practice in this area of linguistics and that there has been progress since the rather gloomy summary provided by Thieberger (2011).
            </p>
            <p>One question raised by this data is the extent to which the donated data is coming from researchers who have also been funded by the relevant program. Both projects provide training to funded researchers and it is possible that the practices learned there are continued when researchers collect data in other projects. In the case of TLA, 36 data sets have been deposited which were not the result of DoBeS funding and in six cases the researcher(s) had been funded by DoBeS for other work. ELAR has material not associated with funded projects deposited by 37 researchers of whom eight had been funded by ELDP for other work. These figures suggest that acquiring experience of the archiving process is a factor in future work practices, and that this factor has had very similar levels of effect in both archives. </p>
            <p>The data which we have used in this paper are limited and important questions remain unanswered. The most obvious is how and to what extent are these resources being used. ELAR provide some usage statistics; based on logs for the month of November 2013, estimated traffic on the catalogue and the archive portal is around 680 users per day with an estimated 1.66 million pages served per year. These numbers suggest that the archive is being used a lot, but it is not possible to tell who the users are or what they are doing on the site. More fine-grained data are needed to tell us whether the availability of resources such as ELAR and TLA is changing scholarly practice in accessing language data.</p>
            <p>The data we present here indicates that, in the field of documentary linguistics, the availability of good infrastructure for digital archiving has had an impact on scholarship. Data is being deposited in the archives beyond the requirements of the relevant funding bodies, and in the case of the archive for which usage statistics are available, it seems that the level of activity is substantial. These changes may in part be due to the level of training provided to funded researchers; but such training should, we suggest, be considered an essential part of the research infrastructure of digital scholarship. Another reason for the changes may be that linguistic scholarship is moving towards recognising primary data as scholarly output (Thieberger et al., 2016). This process is only possible when primary data can be cited using persistent identifiers provided by a repository (cf. NSF (Task Force on Data Policies), 2011:9 (Recommendation 2)). There is therefore the possibility of a virtuous circle here: adoption of best practice in data management will lead to more robust research methods in the field as well as career benefits for researchers.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">European Science Foundation</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Research Infrastructures in the Digital Humanities</hi>. (Science Policy Briefing). Strasbourg: European Sceince Foundation http://www.esf.org/fileadmin/Public_documents/Publications/spb42_RI_DigitalHumanities.pdf (accessed 2 March 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hale, K., Krauss, M., Watahomigie, L. J., Yamamoto, A. Y., Craig, C., Jeanne, L. M. and England, N. C.</hi> (1992). Endangered languages. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language</hi>, pp. 1–42.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Himmelmann, N.</hi> (1998). Documentary and descriptive linguistics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Linguistics</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">36</hi>(1): 161–96.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Musgrave, S.</hi> (2015). Endangered languages. In Allan, K. (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Routledge Handbook of Linguistics</hi>. (Routledge Handbooks in Linguistics). Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 385–400.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">NSF (Task Force on Data Policies)</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Research Data Sharing and Management</hi>. Washington DC: National Science Foundation.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thieberger, N.</hi> (2011). Where are the records? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Endangered Languages and Cultures</hi>. http://www.paradisec.org.au/blog/2011/06/5649/ (accessed 1 November 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""Bibliography"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thieberger, N.</hi> (2014). Digital humanities and language documentation. In Gawne, L. and Vaughan, J. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Selected Papers from the 44th Conference of the Australian Linguistic Society, 2013</hi>. Melbourne: University of Melbourne, pp. 144–59. http://minerva-access.unimelb.edu.au/handle/11343/40961 (accessed 30 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thieberger, N., Margetts, A., Morey, S. and Musgrave, S.</hi> (2016). Assessing Annotated Corpora as Research Output. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Australian Journal of Linguistics</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">36</hi>(1): 1–21. doi:10.1080/07268602.2016.1109428.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2736","17","Implementation of a National Data Center for the Humanities (DaSCH)","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Up-to-date research in the humanities today depends as much on digital methods and digital data. However, the use of computer-based methods and online sources in the humanities still faces several challenges, including the difficulty of ensuring the longevity of research data, the lack of common basic services, inadequate standardisation of data formats, insufficient training in digital methods and best practices, and weak international Digital Humanities networks. Digital documents are accumulated, organised and annotated using electronic databases. However, the necessary infrastructure is most often established in a project- specific way and is not designed for the long-term preservation of data. After the completion of a research project, these digital resources quickly become unavailable if they, and the software and hardware they rely on, are not properly maintained. Keeping digital data accessible after the end of a project is costly in terms of money and labour and is usually not included in the project funding.</p>
                <p>While the digitisation of analogue sources produces large numbers of digital documents, these documents usually have a simple structure. By contrast, the data produced during the research process is much more complex, consisting of interlinked information (databases, annotations etc.). Because of the complexity of this research data, it is very difficult to make it permanently available. However, there are several reasons for doing so:</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Transparency:</hi>
                    <lb/>As research data is the foundation on which published results are based, it be- comes necessary to have access to this data in order to evaluate the results.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Reuse</hi>:
                    <lb/>New research projects can reuse existing research data to propose different answers to the same questions, or to ask entirely new questions, especially if the datasets from different projects can be linked.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Citability</hi>:
                    <lb/>Digital sources may only be referenced in scientific texts if they can be accessed permanently without modification. The long-term accessibility of arbitrary digital objects (together with permanent links and unique object identifiers) is usually not possible.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Organisational form</head>
                <p>The Swiss Academy of Humanites and Social Sciences (SAHSS) therefore decided to establish in collaboration with the Digital Humanities Lab (DHLab) of the University of Basel a new “national research infrastructure” (Data- and Service Center for the Humanities, DaSCH) which takes this kind of digital research data into custody and preserves the direct online access. The primary goals are:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Long-term curation of research data </item>
                    <item>Permanent access and reuse </item>
                    <item>Services for researchers to support data life-cycle management </item>
                </list>
                <p>The secondary goals are:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Promoting the digital networking of databases created in Switzerland or in other countries </item>
                    <item>Carrying out a pilot project in close proximity to humanities research </item>
                    <item>Collaboration and networking with other institutions on developing digital literacy</item>
                </list>
                <p>During a pilot phase lasting two years that ended in July 2015, the data of about 25 different research projects ranging from ancient history to musicology have been passed to new institution for preserving long term accessibility. In order to copy with such heterogeneous data, the platform has to be extremely flexible and versatile.</p>
                <p>Since Switzerland is a highly federalist country, a balance between a central/decentral approach had to be chosen. We decided to form of a network that currently consists of several “satellite” nodes and a central office which acts as coordinator, main provider of technology and software development. The individual locations have a great deal of freedom to take local decisions (e.g. which research projects are considered important to be included in the platform). At each satellite location, it is necessary to have both a broad knowledge and experience available in humanities research as well as in IT and software development skills. The central office provides second-level support.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Technological issues</head>
                <p>Our daily experience seems to suggest that digital data is quite volatile and unstable. Everybody who works with computers on any scale has suffered the unfortunate experience of data loss. In a recent interview, Vincent Cerf, often regarded as one of the ""fathers of the internet"", says he is worried that all the images and documents we have been saving on computers will eventually be lost: ""Our life, our memories, our most cherished family photographs increasingly exist as bits of information – on our hard drives or in ""the cloud"". But as technology moves on, they risk being lost in the wake of an accelerating digital revolution."" (Cerf, 2015) Thus, it appears that ""long-term archival"" and ""digital"" are diametrically opposed concepts. However, the digital domain offers some unique characteristics that allow the long-term preservation of digital data. However, guaranteeing long-term access to digital information remains a tedious and difficult process.</p>
                <p>There are only a few fundamental methods for long-term preservation of digital data:</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Emulation</hi>
                    <lb/>The software and to some extent the hardware of obsolete computer system can be emulated (""simulated"") on modern computers. Thus data can be rendered using vintage software.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">«Eternal» media</hi>
                    <lb/>The «eternal» media approach requires the digital data to be recorded onto the most robust and durable media available.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Migration</hi>
                    <lb/>In the context of long term archiving, migration is defined as the process of periodically copying digital data onto new, up-to-date storage media and, if required, converting the file formats to new, well-documented standard formats.
                </p>
                <p>The OAIS reference model for a digital archive is based on the migration model. In addition to a formal process description, it also covers the ingest of data into the archive and the dissemination of archived data to a user. An important aspect of the OAIS reference model is the systematic approach to metadata that is distinguished between the metadata required to identify and find a «document», and the technical metadata required for the management of the migration processes. The OAIS approach can be adapted for complex «objects» such as relational databases or NoSQL-databases (e.g. using the SIARD-suite (Ohnesorge, 2015), a standard adopted by European PLANETS project and as Swiss eGovernment Standard eCH-0165), however in order to browse or use the data, the whole dataset has to be retrieved from the archive and converted back into a working RDBMS using the SIARD-Suite – a «quick overview» is not possible.</p>
                <p>Complementary to the OAIS archival process model, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">keep-alive archiving</hi> keeps a system of data, data management and access methods online and permanently up-to-date. Whenever the technology evolves (e.g. a new stable version of the data management software or a new version of a file format is released), the whole system is migrated to conform to the new environment. The keep-alive archives are especially well suited to complex data such as databases which are accessed very frequently. However, there two fundamental problems with keep-alive archives:
                </p>
                <p>If the data management system does not offer a method to record all changes, the history will be lost. </p>
                <p>It is virtually impossible to keep each projects IT-infrastructure – especially the software – running forever. Each project uses its own software (Filemaker Version XY, MySQL, PHP, ruby, Excel, etc.) and data models. The adaption to the evolving technology would overwhelm each institution.</p>
                <p>The DaSCH implements a modified keep-alive concept. It has chosen to use the Resource Description Framework (RDF, standardised by the W3C) as a common ground for representing the data. It provides a very simple but highly flexible representation of digital information. RDF allows the definition of ontologies which formalise the semantic relationship of digital objects. We defined a base ontology which implements some required basic concepts (e.g. timestamp based versioning, annotations, access rights etc.). Starting from this base ontology, for each research project taken into custody a specific ontology is being derived. On delivery of the data, the original data structure is translated into this ontology preserving the important features and relationships of the data. This technological framework thus allows the «simulation» of almost any data models (relational databases, XML hierarchies, TEI-encoded texts, graph networks etc.) in a common infrastructure using open standards such as RDF, RDFS
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> RDS-Schema for expressing simple ontologies.</p>
                    </note> and OWL
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Web Ontology Language for expressing complex ontologies and relations.</p>
                    </note>.
                </p>
                <p>The pilot phase has made it clear that project-specific access applications (such as online graph- ical user interfaces) have to be preserved. While this approach does not make it possible to directly reuse the original applications, it has been shown that is easy to re-implement their basic functionality as well as their look and feel. </p>
                <p>Using the common platform, it is straightforward to create new tools and applications that reuse existing data by combining information from different datasets. Thus, new research methods can be implemented, e.g. using methods of «big data» analysis </p>
                <p>Due to the success of the pilot phase where about 25 projects have been integrated, some with individual user interfaces, the Academy has decided to ask for funding. The request is awaiting the approval of the swiss national parliament.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cerf, V.</hi> (2015). Interview on BBC
                        <hi rend=""superscript""/> http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-31450389 (accessed March 4th 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ohnesorge, K., Mérinat, T. and Büchler, M.</hi> (2015). SIARD Format Version 2.0, SFA | 2015-10-15 | DLM Forum 2015, Luxembourg, http://www.eark-project.com/resources/conference-presentations/dlm-oct15/37-siard2eark-1/file (accessed March 4th 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2737","17","Implementing Canonical Text Services in the Croatiae Auctores Latini Digital Collection","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head/>
                <p>The Canonical Text Services (CTS) protocol (Blackwell and Smith, 2014) offers the scholarly community a way to use URNs for referring to two categories of propositional objects commonly called texts: to their ideal representations, 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">works</hi>, and their specific realizations, 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">expressions</hi> (International Working Group on FRBR and CIDOC CRM Harmonisation, 2015). CTS URNs point to complete texts and their subdivisions. CTS has a potential to transform scholarly practices. It supports the migration of our interpretations and knowledge from print to digital. It also forces us to reconsider what exactly we are doing when we refer or cite. It could, eventually, integrate into our referring and citing machine-driven comparisons across multiple versions of texts.
                </p>
                <p>The CTS protocol is currently implemented in two projects: the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Homer Multitext</hi> (Dué and Ebbott, 2015) and the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Perseus Digital Library</hi> (Crane et al., 1987-). Both focus on texts which have traditionally been considered classical. Centuries, in some cases millennia, of appreciation and careful study have provided us with slightly different, but well-established citation schemes for such texts, and the main challenge to CTS up to now has been to reproduce these schemes. We put the protocol to a new test, by applying it to a non-canonical corpus of Latin texts published in the digital collection 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Croatiae auctores Latini, </hi>CroALa (Jovanović et al., 2009-).
                </p>
                <p>CroALa collects and enables research of texts from a rich tradition of writing in Latin in Croatia. Latin was written through the Medieval and Early Modern periods up to modern times (our latest title is from 1984). The corpus includes a number of translations of Homeric poems into Latin, such as the partial one – an episode from the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad </hi>- by Janus Pannonius (1447), and a complete 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi> by Rajmund Kunić (1776). We wanted to connect
                    <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>CroALa manifestations (digital editions) of these expressions to the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad </hi>as work, thus making possible a connection to manifestations of its other expressions, published elsewhere – in our case, to the Greek editions published by the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Homer Multitext</hi>. 
                </p>
                <p>The process involved three stages: making the CroALa texts canonically referable through XML catalog records, validating and verifying the prepared editions, and establishing connections between editions prepared by different projects.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""270/100000000000089E000004B4CD1FFC49.png""/>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Homer Multitext</hi> have produced URNs for each line of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad </hi>as work; e. g. book 6, line 119 is described by 
                    <hi rend=""color(#191919)"">urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001:6.119. </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#191919)"">A RDF triple connects this to URN of a line in the edition of the Venetus A codex (urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.msA:6.119). Something similar is done for CroALa; </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#191919)"">you can see t</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#191919)"">he work URN</hi> implied in the URN of a line our edition of Janus Pannonius’ Latin translation (which is an expression fragment): 
                    <hi rend=""color(#191919)"">urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.croala-lat01:6.119. </hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(#191919)"">T</hi>he same work URN is also implied by a line in the edition of Rajmund Kunić's complete Latin expression of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi>: 
                    <hi rend=""color(#191919)"">urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.croala-lat02:6.119.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>The referencing happens through CTS Text Inventory (CTS TI), an XML catalog file. There Janus Pannonius' text is described by the following fragment:</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""270/100000000000033D000002AF7B9B3A1C.gif""/>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>The TEI XML guidelines allow multiple ways of marking up text structures (Schmidt, 2014). Therefore the most important sections in the fragment above are the XPaths which describe locations of individual books and linesin our editions. Books and lines can be encoded in a different way, represented by different XML elements, but through CTS URNs we are still able to connect the corresponding points, just as we refer to the same verse in the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad-</hi>as-work regardless of the fact that it is realised (printed or written) on different pages in different editions (Manifestation Product Types).
                </p>
                <p>Our descriptions have also to be checked for correctness. Here the Homer Multitext project also can help; they have developed an excellent system for automated validation of editorial descriptions. We are adapting this to ensure that everything works in CroALa CTS, that no errors are introduced during the encoding process.Validation happens in a Virtual Machine which ensures that the entire process is replicable (Smith, 2015). But, since faithful replication of the process will only faithfully replicate systematic errors, a validation system was developed to assess our work in a different method, independent of how it was created.</p>
                <p>The system first tokenizes all of the words. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Parsley</hi>, a parsing machine for Latin morphology (Schmidt, 2015), checks that all tokens are valid Latin forms. Personal and geographic named entities do not parse automatically, so the system analyzes these separately. Named entities are checked for consistent markup and for compliance with our authority lists. The tokens that do not parse at either of these stages are analyzed by a researcher. 
                </p>
                <p>What has been validated has also to be verified as correct; our validation system ensures that all the tokens are acceptable Latin forms, but researchers have to ultimately decide whether the forms were correctly used. </p>
                <p>Forms that are identified as being invalid are analyzed further for encoding errors, incorrect entries, problems with the parsing machine. One of recurring problems is that neo-Latin vocabulary is missing from the classical Latin dictionary used by the parser, so new words should be added to the lexicon. Even more numerous are neo-Latin forms that orthographically (sometimes morphologically too) violate classical Latin rules. Such forms have to be matched with the classical equivalents so that they can be accepted when the machine comes across these forms again. A similar approach would be required for all editions in which language differs markedly from the standard modern variant - e. g. for the Early Modern English as used in Shakespeare.</p>
                <p>Once we have a text referenced by canonical URNs and tested as validated and verified CTS, we can serve the URNs and retrieve them from wherever we want. Connecting different editions - for example, linking Croatian Latin translations of Homer to editions of manuscripts prepared by the Homer Multitext project - is then a question of aligning the two sets of URNs. These aligned sets will enable us later, for example, to display in parallel the texts served behind each of them.</p>
                <p>Though clear and simple in principle, the actual application of CTS to CroALa texts opened up a series of practical questions with certain theoretical implications. We mention only two.</p>
                <p>First, a text and its translation are not always in a 1 : 1 relationship. A verse of the original can be rendered by verse and a half, or by a half verse, in the translation; a description (""Peleiades"") can be glossed (""Achilles""). This had to be taken into account during the process of editorial verification. We had to introduce additional checks for translation alignments and establish a procedure for marking places where translation ""shifts"" equivalents forward or back in the textual structure (Latin equivalent of a Greek word appears elsewhere in the sentence, and therefore may appear in a different line).</p>
                <p>Second, Croatian Latin translations of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Iliad</hi> are expressions of the Homeric work, but at the same time they themselves are of potential interest as authorial works, and they themselves exist in multiple manifestations (Kunić's translation was published in Rome 1776, Venice 1784, Vienna 1784, Firenze 1831 and 1838). To enable detailed scholarly study of translation as a work, the system has to take into account this additional level of multiplicity too: not only 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Homer Multitext</hi>, but also a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Kunić Multitext </hi>(with the same underlying work).
                </p>
                <p>Among the grand visions of digital humanities there is a dream of a world - or a space - in which different digital editions, carefully prepared, annotated and interpreted, mesh easily together, thus providing an especially rich and detailed groundwork for further annotations and interpretations. This space of interchangeability is today attained only rarely and with difficulty. The level of difficulty can be significantly lowered, as shown by CroALa's successful implementation of CTS and its automated validation and verification processes. A further step towards interchangeability will be wider acceptance of a digital canonical reference system such as CTS. For this to happen, a series of applications and ""recipes"" for specific usage cases is needed. We hope to have offered one such recipe here.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Blackwell, C. and Smith, N.</hi> (2014). <hi rend=""italic"">Homer Multitext.</hi> 
                        <ref target=""http://www.homermultitext.org/hmt-docs/specifications/cts/specification.html"">Canonical Text Services protocol specification</ref>
                         (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Crane, G., Beaulieu, M.-C., Almas, B., Babeu, A. and Cerrato, L.</hi> (1987-). 
                        <ref target=""http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/"">Perseus Digital Library</ref> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dué, C. and Ebbott, M.</hi> (2015). The Homer Multitext project (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">International Working Group on FRBR and CIDOC CRM Harmonisation</hi> (2015). 
                        <ref target=""http://www.cidoc-crm.org/docs/frbr_oo/frbr_docs/FRBRoo_V2.3_0_draft.pdf"">Definition of Object-Oriented FRBR</ref> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jovanović, N., Haskell, Y., Lonza, N., Lučin, B., Marinova, E., Novaković, D. and Tunberg, T. O.</hi> (2009-). 
                        <ref target=""http://croala.ffzg.unizg.hr/"">CroALa: Croatiae auctores Latini</ref> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, D.</hi> (2014). Towards an Interoperable Digital Scholarly Edition. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative</hi>(Issue 7) doi:10.4000/jtei.979. (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schmidt, H.</hi> (2015). goldibex/parsley-core 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">GitHub</hi> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smith, N.</hi> (2015). homermultitext/vm2015 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">GitHub</hi> (accessed 4 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2738","17","Indigenous digital humanities. Participatory geo-referenced-mapping and visualization for digital data management platforms in digital anthropology","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In this short paper presentation a participatory ethnographic GIS-mapping approach and an example for a digital platform for the visualization and digitalization of local environmental knowledge will be introduced. The term “Indigenous” is used to refer to those who “have a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories and consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing in those territories” (UNESCO, 2004). Based on examples and research results of the research project ANIK <hi rend=""italic"">Alpine risks in times of climate change</hi>, funded (2012-2015) by the German Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), this paper will question how local environmental knowledge (Pottier, 2003) and local perceptions and handling strategies of climate-related risks may be gathered through participatory GIS mapping (PGIS), (Reichel, Frömming 2015, 2014). Based on applied visual anthropological methods, PGIS is a relatively new cartographical digital approach which includes local perceptions and strategies of action gathered during interviews and participant observation. This approach fosters active participation of local people (Wood, 2012), not only during the research process in the field, but also during the presentation process of the research data as digital spaces of memory.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Frömming, U. U., Reichel, Ch.</hi> (2014). Multimedia platform for geo-referenced data management http://medien.cedis.fu-berlin.de/cedis_medien/projekte/safiental/
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Heather A., H., Miller, D. (eds.)</hi> (2012). <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Anthropology</hi>. London: Berg Publishers.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pottier, J. </hi>(2003). <hi rend=""italic"">Negotiating local knowledge: An introduction, Negotiating local knowledge: Power and identity in develop- ment</hi>. In Pottier, J., Bicker, A. and Silitoe, P. (eds.), London: Pluto Press, pp. 1–29.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reichel, Ch., Frömming, U. U. </hi>(2014). Participatory Mapping of Local Disaster Risk Reduction Knowledge. Example from Switzerland, <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Disaster Risk Science</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>(1): 41-54.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">UNESCO</hi> - United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People (2004) and (2006). Publisher: United Nations.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wood, D.</hi> (2012). The anthropology of cartography. In Roberts, L. (ed), <hi rend=""italic"">Mapping cultures: Place, practice, performance</hi>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 280-303. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2739","17","Jonathan Edwards and Thomas Foxcroft: In Pursuit of Stylometric Traces of the Editor","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) is generally considered the most eminent and versatile thinker in early American history. His impact on the shaping of the theological thought and the preaching tradition of the colonial period was profound and long-lasting. Today he remains one of the best studied figures of the American past and different elements of his impressive output are continually reprinted by both academic and commercial publishing houses. Over his life Edwards authored more than a thousand sermons, hundreds of letters and a number of theological treatises. The Jonathan Edwards Research Center at Yale University edited and published most of these texts in their complete form as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Works of Jonathan Edwards</hi>, led by Harry Stout as general editor and Kenneth Minkema as executive editor. The series of almost thirty volumes is described by Phillip Gura, a former editor of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Early American Literature,</hi> as the “most important editorial project in American cultural history in the past 50 years” (2004, 149). Edwards’ life is so well documented that there are hardly any stones unturned in the life of the Northampton divine. Especially, his relevance for the events of the Great Awakening, a powerful social-religious movement of colonial America, underwent close scrutiny and the most notorious sermon of America, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” which he authored, has been the studied linguistically, rhetorically and stylistically. 
            </p>
            <p>Like most people of his age, Edwards was a diligent diary-keeper and an avid letter-writer. His private texts offer a comprehensive insight into his daily struggles and ambitions – in consequence, the very writing and publishing process of his texts is relatively well documented. Yet, surprisingly – in spite of such extensive research conducted upon Edwards – the relationship between him and Thomas Foxcroft (1697-1769), his editor and literary agent has not been extensively studied. </p>
            <p>Foxcroft was a minister at First Church in Boston, Massachusetts and Jonathan Edwards's ally in the pro-revival debate. Their collaboration began most probably in 1849; Edwards had great trust in his erudition and skill to carry out the authorial intent expressed point-by-point in his commentaries to the suggestions of corrections. Foxcroft sometimes included Edwards's correction verbatim, exactly as indicated by the author, at other times, he paraphrased them, while preserving the author's thought. Edwards entrusted Foxcroft with the editing, the correction and the publication process – as he writes in a letter sent from Stockbridge – a small mission he was sent to after the dismissal from his own parish of Northampton: “I should be glad that you would endeavor that this book may be printed in a pretty good paper and character, and may be printed correctly, and that particular care may be taken that the printer don't skip over a whole line as they sometimes do. And if the bookseller can be agreed with to let me have a number for the copy, it would be pleasing”. (30 June, 1752). Edwards also consulted Foxcroft about the correctness of his interpretation of other authors: ""(…) it is very difficult, and almost impossible, for another to enter into all the views of a writer, or to know everything he has in view in all that he says; and therefore a little variation of sentiment, may much thwart and disappoint his design, insensibly to another. But this I should take as a very friendly part and much desire, that if you observe, that in any instances I have mistaken Mr. Williams' meaning, and misrepresented him, or in any respect injured him (…)"" (30 June, 1752). The extent to which the style of the editor (whose idiosyncratic style can be described on the basis of numerous publications he himself authored) permeated the author's writings in this case has not been determined. The influence of Foxcroft's thought and style in Edwards's writings seems to be potentially very strong and demands close investigation and the stylometric approach seems a most fitting tool to be employed for such a study. </p>
            <p>The analysis was performed with two quantitative methods: frequencies of most frequent words were compared between the texts using the Delta procedure (Burrows 2002); then, an analogous procedure (this time using Support Vector Machines) was used to look for traces of the editor’s signal in consecutive segments of several treatises by Edwards (“rolling.classify,” Eder 2015a). The analyses were performed with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">stylo</hi> (Eder et al. 2013), a package for R, the statistical programming environment (R Core Team 2014), postprocessed with Gephi network analysis software (Bastian et al. 2009).
            </p>
            <p>A general view of stylometric similarities and differences between the writings of Edwards and Foxcroft is presented in the network diagram in Fig. 1. It shows, above all, a good separation of the signal of the two preachers, especially when Edwards’s spiritual texts; sermons, treatises and Biblical comments are concerned, these, in turn, exhibit a degree of separation by subgenre – as opposed to Foxcroft’s generally more uniform stylometry.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""182/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1. Network analysis of texts by Edwards (red) and Foxcroft (green).</head>
            </figure>
            <p>In the more detailed search for the editor’s signal with the “rolling.classify” method, longer texts by Edwards, i.e. his treatises, were compared against his own signal averaged over the rest of his 
                <hi rend=""italic"">oeuvre</hi> and against that of Foxcroft, bearing in mind the suggested caesura of 1749. Sure enough, consecutive segments of Edwards’s works written before that date exhibited no traces of the editor (as exemplified by Fig. 2), and then surfaced in a series of works (as visible in Fig. 3). Interestingly, the editor’s signal disappears again in 1758, the year of Edwards’s (not Foxcroft’s) death.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""182/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2. Consecutive segments of Edwards's 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Mind</hi> (1723); throughout the work, Edward's signal (red) dominates over the (absent) signal of Foxcroft.
                </head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""182/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3. Consecutive segments of Edwards's Humble Inquiry (1749); in many other fragments, dominated by Edwards (red), Foxcroft's impact is still visible. The lower band shows the strongest signal; the upper, the second strongest.</head>
            </figure>
            <p>These results have two significant consequences. The first is that we have now produced a quantitative confirmation of the extent of collaboration between two major colonial authors. But the fact that the quantitative agrees so well with the qualitative (or historical) evidence also shows that editorial traces can indeed be found with stylometry, perhaps to a greater degree than we might have anticipated.</p>
            <p>Acknowledgements</p>
            <p>This research is part of project K/PBO/000331, supported by Poland’s National Science Center.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bastian M., Heymann S. and Jacomy M. </hi>(2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Gephi: an open source software for exploring and manipulating networks</hi>. International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (2002). Delta: A measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>: 267-87.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M.,</hi> (2015a). Rolling stylometry. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>, first published online 7 April 2015, doi: 10.1093/llc/gqv010.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M.</hi> (2015b). Visualization in stylometry: cluster analysis using networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>, first published online 3 December 2015, doi: 10.1093/llc/fqv061.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2013). Stylometry with R: a suite of tools. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference abstracts</hi>, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, pp. 487-89.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gura, Philip F</hi>. (2004). Jonathan Edwards in American Literature, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Early American Literature</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">39</hi>(1): 147-166.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jacomy, M., Venturini, T., Heymann, S. and Bastian, M. </hi>(2014). ForceAtlas2, a Continuous Graph Layout Algorithm for Handy Network Visualization Designed for the Gephi Software. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PLoS ONE</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(6): e98679. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0098679.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">R Core Team</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">R: A language and environment for statistical computing</hi>. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Wien, 
                        <ref target=""http://www.R-project.org/"">http://www.R-project.org/</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2740","17","Mapping European Periodical Counterpublics: Building A Sustainable Collaborative Framework For European Periodical Studies","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>
                <ref target=""http://www.wechanged.ugent.be/"">Agents of Change: Women Editors and Socio-Cultural Transformation in Europe, 1710–1920</ref> is a five–year humanities research project funded by a European Research Council (
                <ref target=""http://erc.europa.eu/"">ERC</ref>) Starting Grant (2015–2020), directed by Marianne Van Remoortel from the Department of Literary Studies at Ghent University, Belgium. It examines a neglected aspect of the social and cultural life in Europe in the modern period: the impact of women editors on public debate. From the 1700s on, European women actively participated in the cultural arena through the journals that they edited. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Agents of Change</hi> advances the hypothesis that periodical editorship enabled women editors to take a prominent role in public life and as a result influence public opinion and shape transnational processes of socio-cultural change. By examining how these processes unfolded in the press through practices of textual transfer both among women and in the larger publishing landscape, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Agents of Change</hi> will not only initiate a shift in our thinking about the participation of women in society and print culture, but also pave the way for pan-European research on the periodical press. 
            </p>
            <p>In order to trace these networks of intellectual exchange, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Agents of Change</hi> is using 
                <ref target=""http://nodegoat.net/"">NodeGoat</ref>, a web-based integrated data management, network analysis, and visualisation platform, developed by 
                <ref target=""http://lab1100.com/"">Lab1100</ref>, a research and development company, based in The Netherlands. NodeGoat allows us to collaboratively gather our research data about women editors and their periodicals, and enables us to visualise and analyse the linkages (both biographical and bibliographical) between them. By gathering evidence to prove connections between people and publications across languages and state borders, we will be able to identify the dynamics of cultural prestige at work in Europe. For example, how knowledge and fashion radiated outward from a few trendsetting periodicals across the pages of myriad publications which translated, adapted, or reprinted them either in part or in their entirety. The data that we collect in NodeGoat will also be invaluable as a descriptive index of periodical editors, a role which traditional print culture studies has tended to overlook, especially when it comes to women periodical editors. For this reason, we are developing a web front-end that will act as a catalogue interface to make this descriptive index freely available online.
            </p>
            <p>In order to fully capture these transnational networks of intellectual exchange it is important to strive for the most comprehensive coverage possible of the period and region at hand. Our multilingual and multidisciplinary team of six researchers will pay particular attention to practices of textual transfer (including translation, adaptation, reprinting and reviewing) across language boundaries and historical periods. However, six researchers cannot cover every language across the 1710–1920 period. In order to make our data as rich as possible, we will be inviting researchers from outside our research team to contribute missing data. We will develop an online workflow, based as far as possible on existing crowd-sourcing initiatives, for managing this community-sourced content. The workflow will enable the community-sourced data to be reviewed by the research team before it is added to the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Agents of Change</hi> dataset. An important aspect of the workflow will be to ensure that such contributors are properly credited for their work.
            </p>
            <p>Alongside the collection of our research data, we are also requesting retrospective assignment of International Standard Serial Numbers (ISSN), a unique identification code for serial publications, for the periodicals which do not currently have one. These ISSNs will be used as stable identifiers for the periodicals we store within our database. Similarly, we are working on establishing authority records via the Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) for those women editors that do not have one yet. We will use use their VIAF IDs as stable identifiers within our NodeGoat dataset. </p>
            <p>Our ultimate goal is to create a Virtual Research Environment (VRE), as an essential tool for establishing the research field of European Periodical Studies. The VRE will bring together primary sources and secondary literature, as well as the original scholarship that is produced as a result of the research data that we collect. Additionally, we would like the VRE to enable researchers outside the project team to contribute to the field, which we hope, step-by-step, will become a research community for European Periodical Studies.   </p>
            <p>We want to ensure that 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Agents of Change</hi> becomes a sustainable research tool beyond the end of the project funding by working closely with the local digital humanities centre. The Ghent Centre for Digital Humanities (
                <ref target=""http://www.ghentcdh.ugent.be/"">GhentCDH</ref>) is an interdisciplinary centre facilitating digitally-enabled research in the arts, humanities and social sciences at Ghent University and beyond.  GhentCDH also plays an active role in the coordination of Belgium’s participation in 
                <ref target=""https://www.dariah.eu"">DARIAH, the Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities</ref>. Within the framework of DARIAH, Ghent University, along with the universities of Antwerp and Leuven, has received startup funding from the Research Foundation Flanders, to develop a Virtual Research Environment Service Infrastructure (VRE-SI). 
            </p>
            <p>The VRE-SI is being developed by focussing on the infrastructural needs of existing humanities research projects in Flanders and Belgium that have a ‘digital focus’. Now that the first year of the DARIAH-Flanders project has drawn to an end, the project team have gained a better understanding of how DARIAH Partner Institutions can sustainably support digital scholarship in the humanities. For example, at Ghent University, it has been identified that the establishment of a 
                <hi rend=""italic"">digital humanities expert team</hi> including humanities researchers, library staff, IT professionals and digital humanities experts would help to institutionally embed digital humanities research support. The role of this interdisciplinary team is to both support the realisation of the digital humanities aspects of existing humanities research projects as well as providing advice and guidance in the development of new project proposals. To date, it has been identified that a missing element in the existing service provision is a 
                <hi rend=""italic"">digital humanities scientific programmer</hi>, whose role is to combine an understanding of the humanities research questions with the skills of an IT professional to realise the tools and services needed. It is possible to use the DARIAH funding to temporarily recruit such a member of staff and to demonstrate the value of such a post to the Faculty Management Team, with the view to, such a position being structurally funded by the university, in the medium to long-term. 
            </p>
            <p>Considering the curation and management of the research data both during the project funding and beyond, is a further crucial aspect of the project. As it is intended that 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Agents of Change</hi> will become a sustainable digital humanities research tool thriving beyond the fixed-term project funding, the establishment and implementation of a Data Management Plan (DMP) has been anticipated from the start of the project. The 
                <ref target=""http://www.flw.ugent.be/library"">Faculty Library of Arts and Philosophy</ref>, as a result of their 
                <ref target=""http://www.flw.ugent.be/library/researchdata"">Arts and Humanities Research Data project</ref>, coordinated by their 
                <ref target=""http://www.flw.ugent.be/library/librarylab"">LibraryLab</ref>, is providing support to researchers in the faculty in the development of DMPs. Within 
                <ref target=""http://be.dariah.eu/"">DARIAH-BE</ref>, the intention is that every ‘DARIAH pilot project’, is strongly recommended to consider research data management from the outset. Finally, the GhentCDH is working closely with Lab1100 to explore how NodeGoat could be offered as a DARIAH-service. In the medium to long-term, the possibility of facilitating the development of an open source community around NodeGoat to further extend the environment for the needs of the digital humanities research, is being investigated. 
            </p>
            <p>The aim of this short paper is to firstly, to present some initial research results, based on the analysis of the data gathered by the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Agents of Change</hi> on tracing the networks of intellectual exchange across temporal, geographic and linguistic borders through women editors and their periodicals. Secondly, this paper will demonstrate how working together with the local digital humanities centre and participating in DARIAH is helping to facilitate 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Agents of Change</hi> in becoming a sustainable digital humanities research tool that will thrive beyond the end of the fixed-term project funding.
            </p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2741","17","Materiality and Metadata of Digitised Photographs: A Theoretical Inquiry","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This paper suggests a separation between the content, the carrier, and the presentational forms of the digitised photograph (as opposed to a born-digital image) and presents the draft for a metadata schema that is able to record the circulation of the object. The arguments presented in this paper are adapted from the research conducted for a recently-submitted doctoral thesis.<note xml:id=""ftn0"" place=""foot"" n=""1""> Thesis titled ‘From Evidence to Essence: Curating Thematic Collections with Photographs from the British Raj’ submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Ph.D to Trinity College Dublin on 30th September 2015.</note></p>
            <p>Scholarly study of the photographic image, specifically with the ‘material turn’ in anthropology and cultural studies,<note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""2""> Material cultural analysis, from an anthropological position, questions the assumed superiority of language over other forms of expression (Miller, 1987).</note> has attempted to inspect the photograph as a physical object (Batchen, 1997, Edwards, 2002, Edwards and Hart, 2004). This process of inspection expresses the complexity of the social existence of objects and allows the investigation of the photograph as a material object whose understanding is augmented by its form. Photographs have specific modes of circulation, production, and consumption, and their inspection has potential beyond the critiques of representation alone.<note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""3""> John Tagg (1988) discusses the manner in which the currency and the value of material objects arise in certain distinct and historically specific social practices.</note> The inherent bias of the indexical qualities of the image over its material properties may overlook the social and cultural contexts within which the photograph is born and used. While current digitisation techniques have found accurate methods of copying the content image, the description of its materiality remains a challenge. If the physicality of the photograph is central to its understanding, this paper inspects the possibilities of providing the digital referent with the material information. It presents an examination of both the materiality of the photographic image (and its transformation into a digital object), and the means through which the presentational forms of the original may be inscribed in the digital referent.</p>
            <p>The digitised photograph is a material object: to observe this materiality, a separation between the content and the carrier of the object is required. The photographic image is printed on paper, and this paper is the carrier of the content image. Similarly, the content of the book is carried in the physical form of the book — the paper, glue, and ink that hold it together. In the physical object (as opposed to its digital counterpart) the content and the carrier are closely inter-linked to the point where their separation is difficult. However, the carrier may change at different moments of time, which may provide the object with different contexts: consider an image that was first printed on photographic paper, then printed in a newspaper, and then, perhaps, in a book. The different material existences of the image provide contexts that locate it within different points in history. The digital object is, similarly, carried by electronic circuits. That the digital object has materiality, then, is undeniable. The problem, perhaps, in identifying this materiality lies in the degrees of separation between the circuits and the perception of the object. To view an electronic image, a screen — an enabler — is required. The experience of the object then is governed by an intermediary system. The dislocation between the carrier of the object and the experience of the object is perhaps the source of a material fallacy.<note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""4""> Joanna Sassoon (2004) presents an engaging examination of the materiality of digital photographs. However, the central rationale in her paper takes premise on the assumption that digital objects have no material existence.</note> If it is acceptable to think of this separation between the content and the carrier, it is possible to argue that the digital object is merely one iteration of a different carrier. The digitised image, then, is the original image, in a new material form.</p>
            <p>The photograph has multiple lives; it exists within socio-cultural contexts, and to understand it, the content image must be seen in conjunction with its material form. Since the inception of photography, photographic images have been used in a variety of contexts, and have been presented in a multitude of ways; the carrier often determines the use the content image is put to. Whether preserved in photo-albums (arranged thematically or sequentially), sold as postcards for the curious, or published as documentary evidence the presentational form of the photograph weighs heavy on the readings of the image. Presentational forms, in particular, guide the way in which photographs were used after their inception, and also the way they were understood. It is, here, important to distinguish between the carrier and the presentational form: the carrier is always material, while the presentational form is ideological. The materiality guides the technical production of the image, and bears the imprint of time on it. The presentational form reveals the social, political, cultural, and religious contexts within which the photograph is <hi rend=""italic"">used</hi>.<note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""5""> A similar concern may be seen in the area of textual editing with concerns about the primacy of the document over the text. For further reading see, for instance, Hans Walter Gabler’s ‘The Primacy of the Document in Editing’ (2007).</note></p>
            <p>This paper proposes to include the material specifics of the physical photograph at the level of the metadata of the digitised image. Metadata schemata for visual resources, such as CDWA and VRA Core, articulate the description of objects by distinguishing between Work and Image.<note xml:id=""ftn5"" place=""foot"" n=""6""> VRA Core 4, in fact, is built around three record types — Work, Image, and Collection.</note> This separation attempts to describe the complex relationship between the original and the surrogate. In a similar vein, this paper suggests a separation between the content, the carrier, and the presentational form of the photograph in its descriptive schema. For photographic images, it is more important to record its material transformations than separate the original from the copy.<note xml:id=""ftn6"" place=""foot"" n=""7""> Walter Benjamin in his seminal essay ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction’ contends that for photographs, asking for the mechanically produced, original print is non-sensical.</note> While the content image remains the same, different material specifics of the photograph change as the object adopts new carriers and new presentational forms. The proposed schema is able to record multiple carriers and presentational forms for the same photographic object. This would, potentially, help to examine the circulation of the photographic object — a key concern of scholarly research in the field. This schema also presents the possibility of being extended to a linked data format that multiple curators can add to in order to articulate information about the same object. The paper presents a blueprint for the proposed schema — the structural and the functional aspects of its design.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Batchen, G.</hi> (1997). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Photography's Objects. </hi>Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Art Museum.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Benjamin, W.</hi> (1969). The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction. In Arendt, H. (ed.), Zohn, H. (tr.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Illuminations: Essays and Reflections, </hi>New York: Schocken, pp. 224.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Das Gupta, V.</hi> (2015). From Evidence to Essence: Curating Thematic Collections with Photographs from the British Raj. <hi rend=""italic"">Ph.D. thesis</hi>, Trinity College Dublin.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Edwards, E.</hi> (2002). Material beings: objecthood and ethnographic photographs. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Visual Studies</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(1): 67-75.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Edwards, E. and Hart, J.</hi> (2004). Photographs as Objects. In Edwards, E. and Hart, J. (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Photographs Objects Histories</hi>, London and New York: Routledge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gabler, H. W.</hi> (2007). The Primacy of the Document in Editing. <hi rend=""italic"">Ecdotica </hi><hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>: 197-207.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Miller, D.</hi> (1987). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Material Culture and Mass Consumption</hi>. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, pp. 9.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sassoon, J.</hi> (2004). Photographic materiality in the age of digital reproduction. In Edwards E. and Hart, J. (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Photographs Objects Histories</hi>, London and New York: Routledge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Tagg, J.</hi> (1988). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories. </hi>Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2742","17","Medialatinitas.eu. Towards Meaningful Integration and Retrieval of Resources for Medieval Latin","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Latin was one of the most widely used languages in European history. In its spoken and written it was the language of daily communication, law, literature, and science for over fifteen centuries on the territory stretched from Spain to Germany to Poland and from Sweden to Croatia to Italy. The geographical, chronological and functional variation is reflected in a large number of texts which, in turn, gave rise to a vast body of secondary literature. These multifarious resources, though, even if by now partly available in digital form, remain still widely dispersed and do not easily lend themselves to integrated search.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">medialatinitas.eu</hi> (Nowak and Bon, 2015) is a web mashup which aims at meaningful integration of textual, lexicographic and encyclopaedic resources for Latin. Apart from improving access to the data, the main goal of the presented application is to challenge the separation of linguistic competence and real-world knowledge in vocabulary description, as both components should effectively cooperate in comprehension of the Medieval Latin text and culture. The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">medialatinitas.eu</hi> may also compensate for major deficiencies of the resources (separate electronic text collections, for instance, covering only small proportion of the texts preserved etc.), as well as of the poorly designed interfaces and query engines they are made available through.
            </p>
            <p>The heterogenous content (both academic and community-based dictionaries, thesauri, gazetteers; corpora and text collections; encyclopedias, document and image repositories, library catalogues etc.) has been interlinked only to the degree needed for its unified query. As a result, the data integration takes place mainly at the level of the web interface which thus constitutes presentational layer and a point of access to the services running in the background. When first visiting the page, users (be it lexicographers, linguists, historians etc.) come across a basic autocomplete search field: here, they can ulate the query phrase (as for now only lemma search has been implemented) which is next processed and despatched to both locally and distantly running services. The results are subsequently returned and displayed on the main page as a set of separate widgets, each of which may contain a concordance, a table, or another of data visualisation (timelines, charts, maps, lists etc.). As a whole, the widgets contribute to extensive description of linguistic and cultural properties of the lexical units.</p>
            <p>The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">medialatinitas.eu</hi> attempts to address the drawbacks of popular dictionary aggregators in which the very fact of juxtaposing multiple resources seems often to suffice as their raison d’être. Destined for scholarly users, the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">medialatinitas.eu</hi> will make a heavy use of graphical hints and narrative devices such as interpretative notes and explicative commentaries which will accompany visual data representations in particular. On click, every widget will provide an interested user with fuller description of selected semantic or distributional properties of the word and constitute an entry point to an instance of CQPWeb (corpora), eXist-db (dictionaries), or R dashboard.
            </p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""364/1000000000000562000002737D5809E654232EE2.png""/>
                </figure>Barplot representing computed co-occurrences of the lemma AQUA “water” in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Patrologia Latina</hi> corpus (data fetched from an R session exposed as an OpenCPU API; the chart generated with the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">d3.js</hi> library).
            </p>
            <p>The external resources are exploited through their public APIs. This is also the case of the locally hosted services. Yet, their role is by no means limited to only exposing data, since they also serve to enrich, compute on and prepare data for subsequent display. For instance, an R session is exposed to the web application through the OpenCPU API (Ooms, 2014) and permits computation on corpusand lexicography resources: the rcqp package (Desgraupes and Loiseau, 2012) is used to connect to the CQP engine (Hardie, 2012), A. Guerreau’s scripts for lexical statistics allow to find co-occurrences of the lemma in the corpus, and the wordspace package (Evert, 2014) is employed to calculate word similarities based on word's distributional properties.</p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""364/1000000000000665000002F1D85CE33D31E5E8AC.png""/>
                </figure>Image search (the lemma AQUA “water”) in the Europeana repository.
            </p>
            <p>In spite of the relative variety of technologies and formats used, the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">medialatinitas.eu is</hi> planned to be developed in a modular way, so the users could contribute their widgets as R or JavaScript code snippets responsible for self-contained functionalities.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Desgraupes, B. and Loiseau, S.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">rcqp: Interface to the Corpus Query Protocol</hi>. 
                        <ptr target=""http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=rcqp""/> (accessed 2 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Evert, S.</hi> (2014). Distributional Semantics in R with the wordspace Package. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of COLING 2014, the 25th International Conference on Computational Linguistics: System Demonstrations</hi>. Dublin: Dublin City University/Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 110–14.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hardie, A.</hi> (2012). CQPweb — combining power, flexibility and usability in a corpus analysis tool. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Corpus Linguistics</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(3): 380–409.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nowak, K. and Bon, B.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">medialatinitas.eu</hi>. Towards Shallow Integration of Lexical, Textual and Encyclopaedic Resources for Latin. In I. Kosem et al. (Eds.). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Electronic lexicography in the 21st century: linking lexical data in the digital age. Proceedings of the eLex 2015 conference</hi>. Ljubljana/Brighton: Trojina, Institute for Applied Slovene Studies/Lexical Computing Ltd., pp. 152–69.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ooms, J.</hi> (2014). The OpenCPU System: Towards a Universal Interface for Scientific Computing through Separation of Concerns. ArXiv e-prints. 
                        <ptr target=""http://arxiv.org/pdf/1406.4806v1.pdf""/> (accessed 1 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2743","17","Minimal Editions in the Classroom: a pedagogical proposal","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Mastering a complete workflow for creating editions when the editor works alone, or has no access to technologists, has proven challenging, leading to the creation and adoption of tools that make the final product conform to pre-determined models (Burnard et al., 2006; Pierazzo, 2015). Although having access to such tools can be very salutary in many cases, the need remains for independent scholars to be able to create their own editions based on unique visions, without recourse to grants or large teams. One of the main challenges we face to achieve these goals is our limited ability to train humanities students in the span of a semester the full stack of skills they would need in order to create digital editions according to standards (MLA, 2011). We believe that by adopting a minimal computing (
                    <ptr target=""http://go-dh.github.io/mincomp""/>/) approach, we can achieve such a goal.
                </p>
                <p>This paper reports on a classroom experiment done during a course entitled <hi rend=""italic""> Creating a Minimal Edition: From the Manuscript to the Web</hi>, that tries to address these issues in context. The main goal of the course is to introduce students to textual scholarship in general, and to digital scholarly editing in particular (Fraistat & Flanders, 2013). Our core goal is to build a TEI-to-Jekyll workflow and a simple customizable web template to be used for small digital editions, and release it openly to scholars. Underneath our prototype, we adopt the principles of minimal computing. By minimal we understand computing done under a set of significant constraints, where we reduce the stack to the minimum needed technology to accomplish a scholarly need: in this case to produce a critical digital edition that meets standards and teach the necessary skills to students within the course of one semester. </p>
                <p>We use our created template to publish a small-scale digital scholarly edition online of one of the most remarkable Spanish literary works, the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Lazarillo de Tormes</hi> (16th century). The course is conceived as a combination between collaborative research and digital humanities design. At all steps of the process, instructors and students work together toward the completion of the digital edition. The course is divided into lectures and recitation sessions. The first is an opportunity for students to become familiar with central ideas in textual scholarship, while focusing on the textual situation of the Lazarillo; the second allow us to put those ideas into practice in the creation of the digital edition.
                </p>
                <p>Underneath our proposal, there are three main theoretical axes of different nature: ethical, technological, and scholarly. </p>
                <p>First, we would like to underscore some issues related to execution and interfaces. Well funded research projects may afford IT services or the creation of standalone systems or ""workstations"" to build and publish their edition, but this is the best case scenario which sometimes is made publicly available; but not always these interfaces are flexible enough and not usable by people with few IT knowledge. Digital scholarly edition, and specially workflow and interfaces, need to be more diffused, more used, easier to build and less expensive, inspired in what has been called the ""bricks approach"" (Pierazzo, 2015: 116-117). Hence, the need to offer a simple framework that begins on an XML-TEI dataset and ends in a minimal interface, customizable by the user. </p>
                <p>Second, and tightly connected with the ethical component, is the relevance of technological choices, which deals with two main issues: the use of available standards and the open source ethos. We believe that digital scholarly edition, and DH in general, must rely on free and standards web services and technologies. Furthermore, we align our project on what it has been called “open source critical edition” (Bodard and Garcés, 2009) underscoring the need to make available all the datasets and scripts involved in the project. </p>
                <p>Third, we are aware that for our show-case scenario the term “scholarly edition” is somewhat simplified. For our goal we understand “scholarly” in a large sense where the scholarly paradigm and a critical approach to primary sources are applied. Our work consists on the critical representation of one historical document, taking into consideration the full textual tradition (4 printed editions from the 16th century) of the literary work. The scholarly paradigm is obviously rethought from the digital perspective, giving special attention to execution and workflow, that is to say, giving room to understand concepts such as modeling and presentation. Furthermore, we wish to insist in two other main issues connected with DH discussions. On one hand, the fact that scholars need to take full control of their digital tools, as well as understand digital methods from their hermeneutical point of view. On the other one, we explore complex issues such as collaboration and authorship, in our case, wagering for a GitHub proposal. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Description of the Course</head>
                <p>The course is divided into six main units and is conceived as a collaborative project, where each student is in charge of a main chapter of the literary work. </p>
                <p>First, we offer a general introduction to textual scholarship and text editing, paying attention to scholarly editing trends from the 19th century to the present, through a selection of core readings in the field. We also offer a theoretical framework for digital editions, specifically to help students understand how digital editions differ from their traditional counterparts. Afterwards, students are introduced to Github and acquire the methodology needed to work collaboratively. The goal of these two sessions is to create a collaborative and robust work environment, and to ensure that all students gather the basic skills to become fully involved. In Unit 2, we present the primary source: the historical context, the argument, the literary relevance and the text of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Life of Lazarillo de Tormes and of His Fortunes and Adversities</hi>. This work, published in 1554, is one of the first novellas in Iberian literature and a classic in the picaresque Spanish tradition. We then start planning the digital scholarly edition and its workflow. Students gather the basic approaches to the data modeling and conceptualize the text as a document object, starting from the analysis of the primary source. The next Unit is devoted to the eXtensible Markup Language and the Guidelines of the Text Encoding Initiative. Students gather the basic principles of the Extensible Markup Language, following the Guidelines of the Text Encoding Initiative. We also offer a general overview of the concepts of schemas (RelaxNG) and ODD documents. Each student is in charge of pursuing a textual encoding, marking up the main features: structural parts, typographic features, dates, place, and person names. They also become aware of the process of quality assurance of the text encoding of their peers.
                </p>
                <p>The next steps of the process consists, on the one hand, in introducing students to the basics of Markdown, HTML and CSS, giving students the opportunity to think about data transformation, and to participate in the design and the final presentation format of the edition. On the other, we focus on inputs and outputs and textual migrations. The central node is the eXtensible Stylesheet Language Transformation, and the conversions from text encoding (XML-TEI) to the web (Markdown/HTML). </p>
                <p>The last part of the course is devoted to web infrastructure and web publication. Students learn how to build a static website with Jekyll, dealing with the different technologies needed (HTML, CSS, Liquid, Markdown), and how to transfer their work from GitHub to GitHub Pages. We conclude with a minimal introduction to JavaScript, meant to introduce students to simple document interface: in this case the manipulation of the dates, places and person names marked up in the TEI. </p>
                <p>As learning goals, we want our students to be able to participate in an authentic research and editing project, engaging in all steps of the process; to become aware of the challenges and opportunities of the digital medium for scholarly research and editing. We aim to teach how to apply different methods and technologies, to grasp the value of standards, and to understand data modeling and transformation from a theoretical as well as a practical perspective (Rehbein & Fritze, 2012). As a “technical” outcome, we seek to offer the basic skills to work independently in several languages (XML – TEI, HTML and CSS, XSLT, Markdown, Liquid, JavaScript), and a basic understanding of infrastructure (Jekyll, GitHub, Github Pages). Because this course is meant for students of Spanish as well, our program allows students to improve their Spanish language skills while engaging in public-facing, task-driven scholarship.</p>
                <p>Our presentation will give us the opportunity to present the online version of the course, the results of the collaborative edition created along the 27 lectures of the semester, and, finally, to release the first prototype for minimal editions as a Jekyll template, in the hope that can be useful to other DH courses and projects. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Bodard, G., Garcés, J.</hi> (2009). Open Source Critical Editions: A Rationale.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text Editing, Print and the Digital World</hi>. Aldershot: Ashgate, pp. 83-98.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Burnard, L., O’Brien O’Keeffe, K. and Unsworth, J.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Electronic Textual Editing</hi>. New York: Modern Language Association of America.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Fraistat, N., Flanders, J.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Cambridge Companion to Textual Scholarship</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Modern Language Association</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Guidelines for Editors of Scholarly Editions.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pierazzo, E.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarly Editing. Theories, Models and Methods</hi>, Aldershot: Ashgate.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rehbein, M. and Fritze, Ch.</hi> (2012). Hands-on Teaching Digital Humanities: A Didactic Analysis of a Summer School Course on Digital Editing. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy. Practices, Principles and Politics.</hi> Open Book Publishers, pp. 47-78.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2744","17","Mnemosyne: A Smartlibrary for Rare and Forgotten Texts","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In recent decades European libraries have taken a giant step towards the mass digitization of their historical collections and the opening of their contents for the use of the global digital society. However, researchers and teachers experience great difficulties using, enriching or sharing that content. Our project aims to explore the new needs of the users of European digital libraries, databases and repositories in order to evolve the “traditional digital model” towards the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">SmartLibrary</hi> model, which proposes the compilation, integration and downloading of contents according to the needs of users and in order to enrich the European uses of the history.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mnemosyne,</hi> for the ancient Greeks, was the personification of Memory. In our project the concept of memory comprises two uses:
            </p>
            <p>1) 
                <hi rend=""bold"">The recovery of historical memory</hi> through European texts we consider rare and forgotten. We will analyse these concepts as conceptual categories in cultural studies (Alonso, 2008; Romero Lopez, 2014). This new paradigm will cover the analysis of a large and complex network of literary manifestations. We aim to record the history of the losers, looking for it in popular and mass culture texts that have been marginalized until now (Labanyi, 2003). This recovery requires making those digitized texts accessible and bringing together their interpretations so that the axes that have governed their oblivion within European cultures can be underlined.
            </p>
            <p>2) 
                <hi rend=""bold"">The rewriting of historical memory</hi>. Once we have compared texts digitized in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Scriptorium</hi>, researchers and teachers will begin an enrichment of these texts through their collaborative annotation. This reinterpretation will allow historical memory to be restored by setting new categories of knowledge for the understanding of European cultures under common tendencies.
            </p>
            <p>The prefix 
                <hi rend=""bold"">SMART</hi>- has been used as synonymous to agility, safety, ecology and sharing (Doran, 1981). It is a prefix that has been applied to phones, cars, houses and cities. So far, it has not been applied to libraries. The creation of a European 
                <hi rend=""italic"">SmartLibrary</hi> implies:
            </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">S</hi>imple access to integrated European databases on contemporary and alternative European literatures
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">M</hi>otivational search based on specific research content or didactic objects
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">A</hi>ppropriate results based on the semantic Web search
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">R</hi>esults discharged in a personal 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Scriptorium</hi> to be enriched with the specific tools
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">T</hi>ransference of new digital objects to be shared with the global community
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>As a “smart digital model”, exportable to other areas of the digital humanities, we have been developing 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mnemosyne: A SmartLibrary for Rare and Forgotten Texts</hi>, based on the research that the LEETHI, LOEP and ILSA (see below) research groups in the Faculties of Philology and Information Technology of the Complutense University of Madrid (Spain) are jointly developing. Thanks to the collaboration of specialists in different European literatures and computer experts in the course of several national research projects, we have designed a new model of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Scriptorium</hi> which allows for the integration of metadata and the enrichment of digital objects with new tools such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Clavy</hi> –an import/export tool for metadata- and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">@Note</hi> – a collaborative annotation tool.
            </p>
            <p>About 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mnemosyne. Digital Library of the Other Silver Age</hi> (Beta version):
            </p>
            <p>1.- 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mnemosyne. Digital Library of the Other Age of Silver</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">is already accessible </hi>on the Internet (http://repositorios.fdi.ucm.es/mnemosine/). As you can see 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mnemosyne</hi> contains authors’ data, access to digitized works and research collections. The field of study is rare and forgotten Spanish literary texts (1868-1939). The work is still in progress. Our current project ends by 06/31/2016. 
            </p>
            <p>2.- 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mnemosyne records </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic bold"">show the metadata imported</hi>
                <hi rend=""italic""> by our tool </hi>
                <ref target=""http://clavy.fdi.ucm.es/Clavy/"">
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Clavy</hi>
                </ref>
                <hi rend=""italic"">from </hi>
                <ref target=""http://www.bne.es/es/Catalogos/BibliotecaDigitalHispanica/Inicio/index.html"">
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Biblioteca Digital Hispánica</hi>
                </ref>
                <hi rend=""italic""> and from </hi>
                <ref target=""http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/mb?a=listis;c=576801556"">
                    <hi rend=""italic"">HathiTrust</hi>
                </ref>
                <hi rend=""italic""> with the support of the</hi>
                <ref target=""http://biblioteca.ucm.es/hathitrust"">
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Complutense Library</hi>
                </ref>.
            </p>
            <p>3.- The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mnemosyne</hi> database works as 
                <hi rend=""bold"">a laboratory</hi> in which we experiment with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Clavy</hi> the importation/exportation of metadata, and the tool 
                <ref target=""https://www.ucm.es/leethi/note"">
                    <hi rend=""italic"">@Note</hi>
                </ref>
                <hi rend=""italic""> </hi>and practise collaborative annotation. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">@Note</hi> promotes the collaborative creation of free-text and semantic annotation schemas on literary works by communities of researchers, teachers and students and the use of these schemas in a very flexible and adaptive model for the definition of annotation activities.
            </p>
            <p>4.- As 
                <hi rend=""italic"">SmartLibrary, Mnemosyne</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">will integrate </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic bold"">@Note</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold""> and other digital</hi> tools (forthcoming). Of course we are very much interested in DARIAH tools and its research infrastructure and we would like to collaborate with this European consortium. Besides, our 
                <hi rend=""italic"">SmartLibrary</hi> could be an extraordinary field of study in which to experience the development and integration of new digital tools. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mnemosyne</hi>, as a 
                <hi rend=""italic"">SmartLibrary</hi>, could become a field of international experimentation for the practice of tools with semantic interoperable networks.
            </p>
            <p>5.- The Spanish 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mnemosyne</hi> is the first example of what we would like to build. We would like to regrow our 
                <hi rend=""italic"">smart</hi> model in the international environment with the support of other European projects, interested, like the authors, in rare and forgotten texts and the uses of the past. 
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mnemosyne: SmartLibrary for Rare and Forgotten Texts</hi>
                <hi rend=""bold"">needs transnational collaboration</hi>. This project involves the integration of specialists in different European literatures and researchers in computer science to develop new research and resources for the common use of European citizens.
            </p>
            <p>The research developed in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mnemosyne</hi> is being financed by: 1) Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad. Research Project: “Escritorios Electrónicos para las Literaturas-2”. Reference FFI2012-34666 (2012-2016). Directora: Dolores Romero López, Facultad de Filología, Complutese University of Madrid . 2) I Convocatoria de Ayudas a Proyectos de Investigación de la Fundación BBVA: “Modelo unificado de Gestión de Colecciones Digitales con Estructuras Reconfigurables: Aplicación a la Creación de Bibliotecas Digitales Especializadas para Investigación y Docencia”. Reference: HUM14_251(2015-2016).  Director: José Luis Sierra Rodríguez, Facultad de Informática, Complutense University of Madrid
            </p>
            <p>RESEARCH GROUPS: 
                <ref target=""https://www.ucm.es/leethi"">LEETHI Research Group</ref>,
                <ref target=""http://ilsa.fdi.ucm.es/ilsa/ilsa.php""> ILSA Research Group</ref>, 
                <ref target=""https://www.ucm.es/loep"">LOEP Research Group</ref>.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Alonso, C.</hi> (2008). Sobre la categoría canónica de 'raros y olvidados'. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Anales de Literatura Española</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">20</hi>: 11-38.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Doran, G. T.</hi> (1981). There's a S.M.A.R.T. way to write management's goals and objectives. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Management Review</hi> (AMA FORUM), <hi rend=""bold"">70</hi>(11): 35–36.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Labanyi</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">J.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""medium-bold"">
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Constructing Identity in Contemporary Spain</hi>.
                        </hi> Oxford: Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Romero López, D. ed.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Los márgenes de la modernidad. Temas y creadores raros y olvidados en la Edad de Plata</hi>. Sevilla: Punto Rojo Libros. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Romero López, D.</hi> (2014). Hacia la SmartLibrary: Mnemosyne, una biblioteca digital de textos literarios raros y olvidados de la Edad de Plata (1868-1936). Fase I, en 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanidades Digitales: desafíos, logros y perspectivas de futuro</hi>, Sagrario López Poza y Nieves Pena Sueiro (editoras), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Janus</hi>, Anexo <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>: 411-22.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Romero López, D.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Bibliotecas digitales inteligentes para la docencia y la investigación</hi>. Eprints.ucm.es/31422/1/MySmartLibrary_Escorial_DRomero_2015.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2745","17","Mobile Makerspaces: Te(a)chnology, Design and Digital Humanities","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This project explores the development of a mobile makerspace for graduate and undergraduate DH scholars at the University of Iowa and Grinnell College. Blending the approaches of makerspaces like the DHMakerBus <<ref target=""http://dhmakerbus.com"">http://dhmakerbus.com</ref>> and University of Victoria’s Maker Lab <<ref target=""http://maker.uvic.ca/"">http://maker.uvic.ca/</ref>>, this DH makerspace will investigate the use of a suite of tools designed to support the development digital literacy and technological proficiency for students across the DH curriculum. By combining the mobility of the DHMakerBus with the experimental computing of the University of Victoria’s Maker Lab, we will produce a new method of digital humanities pedagogy that welcomes the participation of primary and secondary students and educators, local citizens, and digital humanities practitioners.</p>
            <p>Designed to support experiential learning - learning through making - in undergraduate and graduate classrooms, across campus, and across Iowa, the makerspace focuses on the computer processes that go into making rather than the products produced by them. As such, it emphasizes the process of making itself, whether successful, failed, or flawed.</p>
            <p>In <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi> Alexander Reid suggest that most graduate students have had little exposure to digital technology during their undergraduate education, “enter[ing] his or her graduate education as a novice in regards to the digital"" (357). It is likely, therefore, that his assessment applies to our broader community of Eastern Iowa. To address the our users’ lack technological expertise, we are scaffolding projects for learners—starting with littlebits, moving to RaspberryPi, and ending with Aruduino. These tools were selected for the pilot study for their mobility, accessibility, and affordability. Each of these factors makes it easy to implement and replicate the makerspace in unconventional venues—secondary schools, adult education classes, and community events. Additionally, these tools gradually increase participants’ comfort and literacy with digital tools.</p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Te(a)chnology</head>
                <p>This mobile DH makerspace utilizes three “gateway” technologies selected for their robust design, sophisticated abilities, and ease of use, and portability:</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">littleBits</hi> - a digital building kit based on the logic of Lego that allow students and makers to build digital tools and explore the internal logic of computers <http://littlebits.cc>
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Raspberry Pi</hi> - a small, but powerful computer, about the size of a credit card with a GUI interface and Python encoding that integrates touchscreens and digital cameras  <https://www.raspberrypi.org>
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Arduino Kit for littleBits</hi> - build on the capabilities of the littleBits library by adding the Arduino computer, teaching students how to expand their coding skills by working with Java-based programming <http://littlebits.cc/kits/arduino-coding-kit>
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>Together these three technologies scaffold to develop users’ confidence in coding, building, project management, and digital literacy. This particular suite of tools is easily transportable to classrooms and campuses, or may be shipped to students participating in online sections of workshops and seminars. Furthermore, the mobility of the makerspace allows for collaborations with non-traditional and non-academic communities including secondary students, adult education seminars, community partners, and interested citizens. Participants will come away from workshops utilizing this mobile makerspace with increased knowledge of computer processes, an awareness of design thinking, and the confidence to collaborate on a variety of projects with diverse teams.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methodology</head>
                <p>This poster will report on the results of a pilot study of the mobile DH makerspace. Participants in the pilot study included undergraduate and graduate students and faculty completing design challenges and product tests. Working with a convenience sample of graduate and undergraduate students, the makerspace was tested in two modes: (1) students working together in the same space and (2) students working across a distance, collaborating virtually through videoconferencing and other digital collaboration tools.</p>
                <p>We assessed the increased digital literacy and confidence of participants through a series of surveys, visualization exercises, focus group interviews, and participant observation. The results of this pilot study will inform the development of individual course units and workshops for courses within the DH Curriculum at the University of Iowa and Grinnell College, in addition to workshops for faculty and staff across both campuses and outreach efforts to reach the off-campus community.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusions</head>
                <p>This mobile makerspace affords opportunities for makers to build confidence creating and experimenting with digital tools while allowing students to build digital literacy skills and address other key aspects of DH education, including: working in interdisciplinary teams, applying digital practices, managing projects, and explaining technology (Rockwell and Sinclair 182-183). Ultimately, we argue that this model can be emulated in other educational settings as a new model for DH pedagogy that is more accessible and more collaborative than traditional makerspaces.</p>
                <p>A special thanks to Miriam Posner for generously agreeing to review this abstract and provide feedback and suggestions.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reid, A. </hi>(2012). Graduate Education and the Ethics of the Digital Humanities. In Gold, M. K. (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 350-67.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rockwell, G. and Sinclair, S. </hi>(2012). Acculturation and the Digital Humanities Community. In Hirsch, B. D. (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles, and Politics</hi>. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, pp. 177-211.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2746","17","Morphology beyond inflection. Building a wordformation based dictionary for Latin.","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This short paper describes the initial phases of a Marie Curie Research Project, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Word Formation Latin</hi> (WFL), developed at the Centro Interdisciplinare di Ricerche per la Computerizzazione dei Segni dell’Espressione (CIRCSE), at the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy. The project consists in the compilation of a derivational morphological dictionary of the Latin language, which connects lexical elements on the basis of wordformation rules, through the use of computational linguistic methods. 
            </p>
            <p>In the past two decades there has been a considerable increase in the creation of computational language resources for the investigation of classical languages, which have updated the state of the art almost to the same level as that of the resources currently available for modern languages. </p>
            <p>However, among the existing language resources, we currently lack, for Latin, a morphological derivational dictionary that connects lexical elements on the basis of Word Formation Rules
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> Word formation is the creation of a new word from either the combination of two other words (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">dish-washer</hi>, compounding) or of adding one of more affixes to an existing word (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">wash-er</hi>, derivation), or from a part of speech change (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">clean</hi>, verb vs. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">clean</hi>, adjective). 
                    </p>
                </note> (WFRs).
            </p>
            <p>A first attempt at constructing a lexicon based on wordformation for Latin was made by Marco Passarotti and Francesco Mambrini in 2012 (Passarotti & Mambrini, 2012). The WFL project has been awarded funding to expand on these efforts.</p>
            <p>The project has three main aims: </p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>the enrichment of an existing morphological analyser for the Latin language, LEMLAT (Passarotti, 2004), with wordformation information, and the integration of data within a interface similar to Word Manager (Domenig & ten Hacken, 1992), which has been already applied to other modern languages (English, German, Italian);</item>
                <item>the integration of the information extracted from the resulting derivational morphological dictionary into the morphological layer of annotation the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Index Thomisticus </hi>Treebank (IT-TB); 
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> The 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Index Thomisticus</hi> (IT) is considered a pathfinder in digital humanities; started by Padre Roberto Busa in 1949. It is a database retaining the 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">opera omnia</hi> by Thomas Aquinas (118 texts), plus works by other 61 authors related to Thomas (61 texts). The size of the corpus is around 11 million tokens (150.000 types; 20.000 lemmas). The corpus is fully lemmatised and morphologically tagged. The IT-TB, based at CIRCSE, is the syntactically annotated portion of the IT, and it contains around 300.000 tokens for 15.000 syntactically parsed sentences.
                        </p>
                    </note>
                </item>
                <item>offering the results of the project work via a user-friendly project website which will display the derivational morphological dictionary through a web based search interface. This will allow the lexicon to be accessed: 
                    <list type=""ordered"">
                        <item>by single lexical entry, which will show both the ancestors and their derived words;</item>
                        <item>by morphological family; 
                            <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                                <p rend=""footnote text""> By “morphological family” we mean the set of lemmas morphologically derived from one common ancestor-lemma</p>
                            </note>
                        </item>
                        <item>by WFR.</item>
                    </list>
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>The project relies on the automatic realisation of the linguistic resource both at the level of WFRs creation and to their application on the lexical items included in the morphological analyser LEMLAT. The LEMLAT lexical basis contains around 40.000 lemmas from three major Latin dictionaries ( Georges, 1913-1918; Gradenwitz, 1904; Glare, 1982). We conceived WFRs according to the so-called Item-and-Arrangement model (IA), which follows a morpheme-based approach to morphology. In IA, word forms are analysed as arrangement of morphemes according to the following three axioms:</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>Roots and affixes have the same status of morphemes (Baudoin’s single morpheme hypothesis);</item>
                <item>They are dualistic, as they have both a form and a meaning (Bloomfield’s sign base morpheme hypothesis);</item>
                <item>They are stored in the lexicon (Bloomfield’s lexical morpheme hypothesis).</item>
            </list>
            <p>The aim is to assign a WFR to each morphologically complex lemma (i.e. one morphologically derived from another lemma) and to link each complex lemma to its ancestor. The data are organised and presented according to a system similar to that for morphological dictionaries devised by Word Manager, in which relations between the members of the same morphological family are represented in a tree-graph. </p>
            <p>WFRs are grouped in two classes: 1. compounding; 2. derivational. Derivational rules are divided in two categories: a. affixal (in its turn split into prefixal and suffixal), and b. conversive, a derivation process that does not imply any affix; these are manually defined.</p>
            <p>This happens in two steps:</p>
            <p>1. Phase A: Semi-automatic data-driven finding of WFRs: </p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>lemmas are divided into two classes, according to their part of speech and inflectional category; </item>
                <item>two lists are produced: an 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">incipitarium</hi> and an 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">explicitarium</hi>, where lemmas are ordered according to a traditional alphabetical order, or to a right-to-left alphabetical order respectively; 
                </item>
                <item>prefixal and suffixal rules are created from the two lists respectively, part of speech and inflectional category of the lemma(s) are manually assigned to each candidate rule.</item>
            </list>
            <p>2. Phase B: Application (and evaluation) of the WFRs resulting from Phase A, and creation of the “morphological families”. New rules are added in this phase by confrontation with data. Phase B is divided into two subtasks:</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>each complex lemma is assigned a WFR. This task is performed by assigning in semi-automatic fashion to each (possibly) complex lemma its most likely WFR according to the PoS of the lemma and the string of its initial (prefixal rules) and final (suffixal rules) characters;</item>
                <item>morphological families are built.</item>
            </list>
            <p>All those (morphologically simple, or complex
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> WFRs do not take in input morphologically simple lemmas only, but also complex ones. For example, the noun 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">excubatio</hi> derives by suffixation from the verb 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">excubo</hi>, which is morphologically complex, as it is derived (by prefixation) from the verb 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">cubo</hi>.
                    </p>
                </note>) lemmas that share the same invariable part are automatically assigned to the same morphological family.
            </p>
            <p>Finally, the members of each family are automatically linked to each other according to their PoS, inflectional category and affixes by means of the WFR assignment (2.a). The morphologically simple (i.e. not derived) lemma member is assigned the role of ancestor of the family.</p>
            <p>Phase A finds the WFR, Phase B applies the WFR to data, obtaining input and output lemmas for each WFR. </p>
            <p>Phase A is not to be considered exhaustive, but exploratory: the recall of WFR identified in Phase A is not 100%. The aim in the first phase of the project is to refine the data by tagging the highest number of lexemes using data driven WFRs, which will be increasingly complex, covering most well known wordformation issues.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> i.e. stem change featuring internal vowel alternation (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">fac.io</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">per-fic-io</hi>), assimilation of prefix (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">fer-o</hi> > 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">*ob-fer-o</hi> > 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">of-fer-o</hi>), unclear segmentation (
                        <hi rend=""italic"">cre-a-tor</hi> or 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">cre-at-or</hi>?), etc.
                    </p>
                </note> Given the high number of homographs in Latin, this automatic procedure is regarded as non-ultimate for building the morphological families. However, it is helpful as it provides filtered data that must be checked manually.
            </p>
            <p>This is why we need Phase B during which, by comparison with the evidence given by data, we can identify the rules that were missed in phase A. Manual hard-coding will be necessary for those lemmas produced by poorly productive WFRs, or morphotactically obscure wordformation processes. Evaluation of the language resource is performed by manual checking data organised into homogeneous groups based on WFRs (coverage of rules) and stemming (coverage of morphological families). Precision and recall are used as evaluation metrics in order to calculate the rate of positive and negative cases.</p>
            <p>To date, 118 WFRs have been found automatically. Around 50 of these rules, those showing a certain degree of morphological transparency, hence easier to obtain through the automatic finding in the input-output relation (e.g. derivational, verb-to-verb, prefixal, etc.), have been added to a SQL database, and resulted in the tagging of some 9000 morphologically complex lexemes.</p>
            <p>The final resource will be both a standalone dictionary accessible through its own website, and interconnected with the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Index Thomisticus</hi>. 
            </p>
            <p>The integration with the IT-TB will be operated through the embedding of the dictionary data within the morphological layer of annotation of the treebank, using TEI (Text Encoding Initiative) P5 conformant XML encoding to favour data exchange and linking to other lexical resources. The data resulting from the dictionary, once encoded in XML, will be applied to the IT-TB data.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Busa, R.</hi> (1988). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Totius latinitatis lemmata</hi>. Milano: Istituto Lombardo - Accademia di Scienze e Lettere.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Domenig, M. & ten Hacken, P.</hi> (1992). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Word Manager: A system for morphological dictionaries</hi>. Hildesheim: Olms.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Forcellini, A.</hi> (1771). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Totius Latinitatis lexicon, consilio et cura Jacobi Facciolati opera et studio Aegidii Forcellini, lucubratum</hi>. Patavii: typis Seminarii, 4 voll.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Georges, K. E.</hi> (1913-1918). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ausführliches Lateinisch-Deutsches Handwörterbuch</hi>. Hannover: Hahn.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Glare, P. G. W.</hi> (1982). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Oxford Latin Dictionary</hi>. Oxford.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gradenwitz, O.</hi> (1904).  
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Laterculi Vocum Latinarum</hi>. Leipzig.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Index Thomisticus Treebank</hi>. http://itreebank.marginalia.it/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">LEMLAT</hi>. http://www.ilc.cnr.it/lemlat/lemlat/index.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lewis, C. T. and Short, C.</hi> (1969). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Latin Dictionary</hi>. Oxford: At the Clarendon press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McGillivray, B. and Passarotti, M.</hi> (2009). ""The Development of the Index Thomisticus Treebank Valency Lexicon"". In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of LaTeCH-SHELT&R Workshop 2009</hi>. Athens, March 30.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Passarotti, M.</hi> (2004). ""Development and perspectives of the Latin morphological analyser LEMLAT"". In A. Bozzi, L. Cignoni and J. L. Lebrave (Eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Technology and Philological Disciplines. Linguistica Computazionale</hi>, XX-XXI, pp. 397-414.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Passarotti, M. and Mambrini, F.</hi> (2012). ""First Steps towards the Semi-automatic Development of a wordformation-based Lexicon of Latin"", In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of LREC 2012</hi>. Istanbul, Turkey, pp. 852-59.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">TEI Consortium, (eds). </hi> 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange</hi>. 2.9.1. 2015-10-15. TEI Consortium. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.tei-c.org/Vault/P5/current/"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(0000FF)"">http://www.tei-c.org/Vault/P5/current/</hi>
                        </ref> (accessed 22 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2747","17","Museum Digitization Practices Across Russia: Survey and Web Site Exploration Results","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>An appeal to strengthen DH research using audiovisual collections has been repeatedly articulated in the DH community. Some of these collections are digitized museum collections of heritage objects. Many of these serve as repositories (sometimes for internal inventory purposes), some of the collections follow the rules of building digital scholarly editions and provide tools of analysis/summarizing and, sometimes, sources for critical interpretation. </p>
                <p>Little is known, however about digitization practices within Museums in Russia, with no prior research into the number of Russian museum web sites, the amount of their collections digitized or put online or their digitization procedures. International research on digitization in museums has a comparatively long tradition and there is a significant literature on statistical data about digitization, digital preservation and online access to cultural heritage across Europe (ENUMERATE, 2015) and Northern America. Reports on digitization success stories in these geographical areas have been published (see among others ENUMERATE, 2015; Clough, 2013; Olsen, 2015) but there is no prior research regarding digitization uptake and practices in Russia.</p>
                <p>This paper explores Russian museum digitization practices employing the standard method of surveying museums employed by the ENUMERATE project, allowing us to compare results to ENUMERATE. We also chose to augment our findings with the results from exploring the content of museum web sites to understand what parts of museum analogue collections are posted online. The paper seeks to answer a critical question about the size of digital collections as measured by the ratio of digital copies of unique museum objects to the number of unique objects from a museum collection (or the number of digital copies posted on the museum web site). We understand it very well that this can only serve as an imperfect proxy for digitization practices in Russian museums. However, in a situation when this is the only data that could be obtained, we judged it would be reasonable to start the discussion of digitization in Russian museums from this point. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methods</head>
                <p>In the early stages of our project we adapted the ENUMERATE questionnaire to our goals of obtaining answers from museum staff. We posted a survey with twelve questions online in October 2014 and we sent letters to 440 museums with a link to the survey. The email addresses were obtained from Museums of Russia web portal.<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">Museums of Russia web portal (<ref target=""http://www.museum.ru"">http://www.museum.ru</ref>) includes detailed information on 3063 Russian museums, ranks their web sites, posts news, discussion threads and announcements for curators. Online since 1996, it was initiated by the State Darwin Museum and supported by the RF Ministry of Culture (see also Mikhailovskaya and Nasedkin 2002).</note> The database lists 3063 Russian museums including data on the number of visitors per year, the year when a museum was established and the number of curators among its employees. Our sampling method was to choose 130 museums located in Moscow and Saint Petersburg and 310 museums located in provincial cities and smaller settlements. Each of the 80 administrative districts in the Russian Federation was represented by 3-6 museums with one or two of them belonging to the group with the number of visitors per year more than 50,000 people. The other two groups included small museums (the number of visitors per year was fewer than 15,000 people) and medium museums with the number of visitors between 15,000 and 50,000 per year. This gave us an appropriate sample of museums to begin to understand different museum digitization practices across Russia. 
                </p>
                <p>Our next step was to study the web sites of large provincial museums and medium-sized provincial museums for 58 administrative districts (116 provincial museums as a total). Nineteen web sites for large museums and 23 web sites for medium-sized museums in Moscow and Saint Petersburg were also studied. The number of digital images on museum web sites was compared with the number of unique objects in their collections as reported in the Museums of Russia database (Museums of Russia, 2015). </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results and discussion</head>
                <p>The response rate for the survey was a disappointing 6% (30 memory institutions completed the questionnaire and answered the most important question about the size of their digital collection). Such a response rate was very low compared to 30% response rate for the survey of library digitization projects in the USA in 2004 (Boock and Vondracek, 2006) and 51% for European cultural institutions in May 2007 and May 2009 (Poll, 2010). This result though is consistent with the finding that other Russian surveys tend to demonstrate low response rates with some studies reporting low level of trust to surveys among respondents (Kalinin, 2012), which has important methodological implications for those carrying out research within Russia. </p>
                <p>In Table 1 we summarize the results for the survey of museum digital collections. Absolute average of the proportion of an analogue collection that was reported digitized for the 30 museums in the sample was 18,3%, in line with the results from ENUMERATE survey for 2012 (ENUMERATE, 2014). </p>
                <p>Table 1. Distribution of parts of collection digitized (as reported by museums in our survey)</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>ratio of digital images to unique objects (%)</cell>
                        <cell>number of museums in a sample</cell>
                        <cell>as % of a number of museums in a sample</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>0</cell>
                        <cell>8</cell>
                        <cell>26.3</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>10</cell>
                        <cell>8</cell>
                        <cell>26.3</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>20</cell>
                        <cell>8</cell>
                        <cell>26.3</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>30</cell>
                        <cell>3</cell>
                        <cell>10</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>50</cell>
                        <cell>1</cell>
                        <cell>3.3</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>80</cell>
                        <cell>1</cell>
                        <cell>3.3</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>90</cell>
                        <cell>1</cell>
                        <cell>3.3</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5 show the results for exploring the web sites of 158 Russian museums in the provinces and major cities to find out what parts of their analogue collections are posted online. </p>
                <p>Table 2. Parts of museum analogue collections published online. Large provincial museums. </p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>% of digital images representing museum collections online</cell>
                        <cell>number of museums</cell>
                        <cell>as % of large provincial museums in the sample</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>0</cell>
                        <cell>8</cell>
                        <cell>14</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>from 0 to 0,1</cell>
                        <cell>27</cell>
                        <cell>47</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>from 0,1 to 0,98</cell>
                        <cell>14</cell>
                        <cell>25</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>from 1 to 10</cell>
                        <cell>6</cell>
                        <cell>10</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>more than 10</cell>
                        <cell>2</cell>
                        <cell>3</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Table 3 Parts of museum analogue collections published online. Medium-sized provincial museums.</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>% of digital images representing museum collections online</cell>
                        <cell>number of museums</cell>
                        <cell>as % of medium-sized provincial museums in the sample</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>0</cell>
                        <cell>13</cell>
                        <cell>22</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>from 0 to 0,1</cell>
                        <cell>11</cell>
                        <cell>19</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>from 0,1 to 0,98</cell>
                        <cell>21</cell>
                        <cell>36</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>from 1 to 10</cell>
                        <cell>9</cell>
                        <cell>15</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>more than 10</cell>
                        <cell>4</cell>
                        <cell>7</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell/>
                        <cell/>
                        <cell/>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Table 4 Parts of museum analogue collections published online. Museums in Moscow and Saint Petersburg</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>% of digital images representing museum collections online</cell>
                        <cell>number of museums</cell>
                        <cell>as % of museums in the sample</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>0</cell>
                        <cell>6</cell>
                        <cell>14</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>from 0 to 0,1</cell>
                        <cell>10</cell>
                        <cell>23</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>from 0,1 to 0,98</cell>
                        <cell>15</cell>
                        <cell>35</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>from 1 to 10</cell>
                        <cell>11</cell>
                        <cell>26</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>more than 10</cell>
                        <cell>1</cell>
                        <cell>2</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell/>
                        <cell/>
                        <cell/>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>Table 5 Parts of museum analogue collections published online. Overall results for 158 museums in the sample.</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell>% of digital images representing museum collections online</cell>
                        <cell>number of museums</cell>
                        <cell>as % of museums in the sample</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>0</cell>
                        <cell>27</cell>
                        <cell>17</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>from 0 to 0,1</cell>
                        <cell>48</cell>
                        <cell>30</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>from 0,1 to 0,98</cell>
                        <cell>50</cell>
                        <cell>31</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>from 1 to 10</cell>
                        <cell>26</cell>
                        <cell>16</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>more than 10</cell>
                        <cell>7</cell>
                        <cell>4</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell/>
                        <cell/>
                        <cell/>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>As shown in Table 5, a third of Russian museums in our sample publish less than 0,1% of their images online while another third of museums post digital images for a bigger part of their collection (but still less than 1%). </p>
                <p>Large provincial museums are not enthusiastic about publishing their images online, with half of studied web sites demonstrating results which were lower than 0,1% of their analogue collections. Medium-sized museums show slightly better results, with a third of them displaying between 0,1 to 1% of their analogue collections online. They, however, have fewer objects to digitize and annotate. Museums in the two major cities seem more inclined to post their images online, with a quarter of museums publishing between 1% and 10% of their analogue collections on the Web. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Limitations</head>
                <p>Unfortunately, the survey was designed so that respondents only had an opportunity to choose between 0% and 10% options when describing the parts of their analogue collections being digitized. This may have left many respondents with collections in between these figures indecisive on what option to choose, deteriorated the quality and accuracy of the results and may have influenced the response rate. The low response rate is also problematic, but, when combined with our survey of practice still gives us interesting insights to a hitherto undocumented area. Future work will be needed to work with museum bodies on gathering further data. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>This work includes the survey results of thirty Russian museum digital collections to find out what part of their analogue collections is digitized. We also studied 158 museum web sites to count the number of digital images representing museum objects and to compare this number to the number of objects in the analogue collections. The average ratio of Russian museum digital collections in the sample of 30 museums compared to their analogue collections was 18,3% which is in line with the results from the ENUMERATE project (ENUMERATE, 2014), and aligns the work of Russian museums to the rate of digitization across Europe. </p>
                <p>We have shown that half of large provincial museums in Russia publish an insignificant number of their images on the Web, and further work will allow us to establish why this is the case. Also (at a time when European Museums are being encouraged to adopt the Open Licensing Agenda), further work will pursue the opportunities of sharing digitized collections within Russian legislation.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Boock, M. and R. Vondracek.</hi> (2006).
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Organizing for Digitization: A Survey, portal: Libraries and the Academy</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(2): 197-217.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Clough, G. W.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Best of Both Worlds: Museums, Libraries, and Archives in a Digital Age. </hi>Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.si.edu/content/gwc/BestofBothWorldsSmithsonian.pdf"">http://www.si.edu/content/gwc/BestofBothWorldsSmithsonian.pdf</ref> (аccessed 20 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">ENUMERATE. </hi>(2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ICT Policy Support Programme of the European Commission.</hi>
                        <ref target=""http://www.enumerate.eu"">http://www.enumerate.eu</ref> (accessed 20 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">ENUMERATE STATISTICS.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ICT Policy Support Programme of the European Commission.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""http://www.enumerate.eu/en/statistics/"">http://www.enumerate.eu/en/statistics/</ref> (accessed 20 October 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Kalinin, K.</hi> (2012). Open opinion: a new hope, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sociological Journal</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>: 167-71. In Russian. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""http://jour.isras.ru/index.php/socjour/article/viewFile/459/433"">http://jour.isras.ru/index.php/socjour/article/viewFile/459/433</ref> (accessed 20 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Mikhailovskaya, A. and K. Nasedkin.</hi> (2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Museums of Russia Web Portal. Museum International</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">54</hi>(4): 52-56. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Museums of Russia. </hi>(2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Russian Network of Cultural Heritage</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.museum.ru"">http://www.museum.ru</ref> (accessed 20 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Olsen, E.</hi> (2015). Museum Specimens Find New Life Online. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The New York Times</hi>, October 19.  
                        <ref target=""http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/20/science/putting-museums-samples-of-life-on-the-internet.html?emc=eta1&_r=0"">http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/20/science/putting-museums-samples-of-life-on-the-internet.html?emc=eta1&_r=0</ref> (accessed 20 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Poll, R.</hi> (2010). NUMERIC: statistics for the digitization of European cultural heritage, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Electronic Library and Information Systems</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">44</hi>(2): 122-31. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2748","17","Music notation addressability","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>How can one virtually ‘circle’ some music notation as one would on a printed score? How can a machine interpret this ‘circling’ to select and retrieve the relevant music notation in digital format? This paper will introduce the concept of addressability for music notation, on the basis of a comparison with textual addressability as defined by Michael Witmore (2010). Additionally, the paper will report on the work of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Enhancing Music notation Addressability</hi> (EMA), a NEH-funded one-year project that has developed methods for addressing arbitrary portions of encoded music notation on the web.
                </p>
                <p>Many Digital Humanities projects are concerned with the digitization of cultural objects for varied purposes of study and dissemination. Theorists such as Willard McCarty (2005) and Julia Flanders (2009) have highlighted the fact that digitization involves the creation of a data model of a cultural object, whereby scholarly interpretation and analysis is inevitably included in the model. Editorial projects in literary studies, for example, often model sources by encoding transcription and editorial intervention with the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) format. The ability to identify and name textual structures is a fundamental operation in the creation of such models. Michael Witmore has called text a “massively addressable object” (2010); that is, given certain abstractions and conventions, it is possible to identify areas of a text such as characters, words, as well as chapters or proper names. Reading practices influence and contribute to the development of such conventions and abstractions, but, Witmore argues, addressability is a textual condition regardless of technology. With digital texts, modes of address become more abstract, so that arbitrary taxonomies can be identified as well as more established ones. To exemplify a more abstract mode of address, Witmore suggests items “identified as a ‘History’ by Heminges and Condell in the First Folio”. This enhanced addressability available in a digital context is the engine for textual analysis and scholarly discourse about digital text.</p>
                <p>This idea of addressability is arguably applicable to many more kinds of “text”, including music notation; indeed, addressing units of music notation (such as measures, notes, and phrases) has long been a powerful instrument in musicology for both analysis and historical narrative.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1""> When talking about music in general, it is important to say that addressing written music notation is not the only instrument of the musicologist. Music exists on several domains besides the written or ""graphemic"" one, each addressable in its own way (see Babbitt 1965). For the purpose of this paper, we focus on written Western music notation, because it shares features with written language and for its prominent role in musicological discourse.</note> Music notation, however, is more complicated to represent digitally than text. Human-computer interaction has since its early days been built around the concept of character and line, which makes dealing with “plain” text a fairly straightforward matter for many basic operations; counting the number of characters in a given plain text document is trivial in any digital environment.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2""> Modern computing systems are able to support complex ancient and modern writing systems, including those requiring right-to-left strings and compound symbols. The Unicode Consortium has been at the forefront of the internationalization of computing systems. Nonetheless, computationally speaking, a “string” of text remains a sequence of characters even in more complex representations. Indeed, many compound Unicode characters still retain sequentiality, i.e. one component comes after the other and the compound symbol only makes sense if they are in the correct order. Music notation is not a string of text; therefore this is not possible.</note> Music notation, on the other hand, requires substantial computational modelling even for the simplest musical text before any further operation is possible. This is particularly evident when music notation is represented with markup, which implies a system based on characters and lines. There are many different ways of representing a single note; some aspects are common to all representation systems, such as information about pitch and duration, but some systems will prioritize certain aspects over others. To give a simple example, one system may represent beams (ligatures between flagged notes, usually shorter in duration), while others may ignore them altogether.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3""> By grouping notes together, beams provide important—but somewhat secondary to pitch and duration—information to the reader of a music score, such as a performer, a musicologist, or an algorithm.</note>
                </p>
                <p>Nonetheless, there are simple units that are typically represented by all music notation systems for common western music notation, such as measure, staff (or instrument), and beat. The EMA project, therefore, developed a URI scheme and an Application Programming Interface (API) to make it possible to target music notation resources on the web regardless of their format. Such a scheme may facilitate (and in some cases enable) a number of activities around music notation documents published on the web. The following table gives a few basic examples of how an implementation of the URI scheme could be useful to musicological research:</p>
                <table rend=""frame"" xml:id=""Table1"">
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""bold"">Scholarly</cell>
                        <cell rend=""bold"">Visual</cell>
                        <cell rend=""bold"">Procedural</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Analysis</hi>: being able to address components of music notation for analytical purposes. Example: precisely identify start and end of a pedal tone in Bach’s 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Prelude no. 6 in D Minor</hi>, BWV 851.
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Rendering</hi>: rendering music notation in an interactive environment such as a browser or a tablet requires the ability to cut up a large music document. For example to show only the number of measures that fit in a given space.
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Processing</hi>: extracted portions of music notation can be passed on to another process. For example, given the MEI encoding of the Overture to Mozart’s 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Don </hi>
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Giovanni</hi>, extract the string instrument parts and send them to another program that will return an harmonic analysis.
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Citation</hi>: quote a passage from an encoded music notation file. For example the timpani in the opening bars of the Overture to Mozart’s Don Giovanni.
                        </cell>
                        <cell>
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Highlighting</hi>: address a segment of music notation to highlight it in a visual context (e.g. with color).
                        </cell>
                        <cell/>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <p>The EMA project has particularly focused on facilitating citation and attribution of credit, as is discussed in the “Evaluation” section below.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>A brief overview of the specification</head>
                <p>The specification was created to provide a web-friendly mechanism for addressing specific portions of music notation in digital format. This is not unlike the APIs often provided by image servers for retrieving specific portions of an image. Such servers typically operate on a given large image ﬁle and are able to return different zoom levels and coordinate spaces. The International Image Interoperability Framework (IIIF) has recently created an API to generalize interaction with image providers, so that it can be implemented across multiple servers and digital libraries. IIIF was used as a model for the Music Addressability API created for EMA and briefly described here.</p>
                <p>Consider the following example,
                    <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""4""> Taken from 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Du Chemin:</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Lost Voices</hi> project, at 
                        <ref target=""http://digitalduchemin.org/"">http://digitalduchemin.org</ref>.
                    </note> and the notation highlighted in the boxes:
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""376/10000000000004E30000024A46E9FC9C.png""/>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>The highlighted notation occurs between measure 38 and 39, on the first and third staves (labelled 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Superius</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Tenor</hi> — this is a renaissance choral piece). Measure 38, however, is not considered in full, but only starting from the third beat. This selection can be expressed according to a URI syntax:
                </p>
                <p>/{identifier}/{measures}/{staves}/{beats}/</p>
                <p>/dc0519.mei/38-39/1,3/@3-3</p>
                <p>The measure is expressed as a range (38-39), staves can be selected through a range or separately with a comma (1,3), and the beats are always relative to their measure, so @3-3 means the third beat of the starting measure to the third beat of the ending measure.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn5"" place=""foot"" n=""5"">A complete description of the URI scheme and the API is available at: <ptr target=""https://github.com/umd-mith/ema/blob/master/docs/api.md""/>.</note> In this specification the beat is the primary driver of the selection: it allows for precise addressability of contiguous as well as non-contiguous areas.
                </p>
                <p>Music notation, however, occasionally breaks rules in favor of flexibility. Cadenzas, for example, are ornamental passages of an improvisational nature that can be written out with notation that disregards a measure’s beat, making it impossible to address subsets of the cadenza wit the syntax discussed above. While EMA’s URI scheme offers the granularity sufficient to address the vast majority of western music notation, a necessary future improvement on the API is, indeed, an extension that would make it possible to address music notation with more flexible beat.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Evaluation</head>
                <p>In order to evaluate the specification, EMA has created an implementation of the API as a web service. While the URI specification can be absolute from a specific representation, the implementation must know how to operate on specific formats. The web service that we coded operates on the The Music Encoding Initiative format and is called Open MEI Addressability Service (Omas).
                    <note xml:id=""ftn6"" place=""foot"" n=""6""> A demo is available at 
                        <ptr target=""http://mith.us/ema/omas/""/>.
                    </note> Omas interprets a conformant URI, retrieves the specified MEI resource, applies the selection, and returns it. An additional parameter on the URI can be used to determine how “complete” the retrieved selection should be (whether it should, for example, include time and key signatures, etc.).
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""376/100000000000049D000000F2163CE9F5.png""/>
                    </figure>Similarly to an image server, Omas assumes that the information specified by the URL can be retrieved in the target MEI file. If requested, the web service can return metadata information about an MEI file, such as number of measures, staves, beats and their changes throughout the document. This can be used to facilitate the creation of URL requests able to return the selection required.
                </p>
                <p>Finally, EMA partnered with the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Du Chemin: </hi>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Lost Voices</hi> project to model a number of micro-analyses addressing music notation from their existing collection of MEI documents. In a second phase of the project, the analyses have been re-modeled as Linked Open Data according to the Nanopublication guidelines.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn7"" place=""foot"" n=""7""> Nanopublication is an ontology for publishing scientific data: 
                        <ref target=""http://nanopub.org/"">http://nanopub.org</ref>. The Nanopublication server for 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Du Chemin: Lost Voices</hi> is available at: 
                        <ptr target=""http://digitalduchemin.org/np/""/>.
                    </note> Each EMA nanopublication addresses an arbitrary portion of music notation using the URL specification described here. Omas operates as a web service to connect the nanopublications with the collection of MEI files in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Du Chemin</hi>.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Babbit, M.</hi> (1965). The use of computers in musicological research. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Perspectives of New Music</hi>, 3(2): pp. 74–83.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Flanders, J.</hi> (2009). Data and Wisdom: Electronic Editing and the Quantiﬁcation of Knowledge. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 24(1): pp. 53–62.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McCarty, W.</hi> (2005). Chapter 1 - Modelling. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities Computing</hi>, London: Palgrave Macmillan.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Witmore, M.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text: A Massively Addressable Object</hi>. 
                        <ptr target=""http://winedarksea.org/?p=926""/>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2749","17","New DH Publishing Models and Geopolitical Diversity","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The aim of this paper is to discuss how the new scholarly publishing models proposed by the Digital Humanities, if properly executed, may also serve to increase geopolitical diversity in the field. If not, they may well replicate vicissitudes of the traditional scholarly system and perpetuate the current deficiencies. The scholarly communication and publishing system currently in place is a highly complex and international structure that has over the past few decades come under increasing criticism as scholars debate its effectiveness, in particular in relation to new possibilities enabled by digital technologies. At the centre of these debates is the fact that scholarly publishing is both a communicative and collaborative practice that is vital for knowledge construction, as well as being an integral part of the academic reward system and therefore a essential part of both power and prestige within academia. It is directly linked to activities such as hiring, tenure, assignment of grant money, to name a few. </p>
            <p>Researchers from periphery countries are sorely underrepresented in the global scholarly publishing system. They have relatively little participation in “international journals” where we find a dominance of publications from researchers in developed nations. Scientific production is measured in a number of ‘core journals’ that are determined by indexing services that tend to favour publications from certain regions of the world and published in English. This leads to the invisibility of research produced in periphery countries as “structural obstacles and subtle prejudices that prevent researchers in poor nations from sharing their discoveries with the industrial world and with each other” (Gibbs, 1995). The work being done in periphery countries does not participate on the global stage. Fiormonte (2015) analyzed Digital Humanities literature and found a strong predominance of citations to publications in English and articles about English speaking institutions and projects. In terms of knowledge construction it is important to note: “how the values of the Western intellect traditions are reflected in the conventions and practices of academic communities and their communications; how mainstream journals and their publishing practices are congenial to the interests of center knowledge while proving recalcitrant to periphery discourses; and how academic writing/publishing functions are an important means of legitimating and reproducing center knowledge” (Canagarajah 2002). As such we find that there is a marginalization of peripheries in the production of knowledge and the impact of the research. </p>
            <p>The predominance of knowledge production from a handful of countries has important consequences, in particular the Humanities that require multilingual, multicultural heterogeneous environments if they are to fully represent the wide spectrum of human diversity. The Digital Humanities is a community that not only represents itself as collaborative and open (Spiro, 2012) but also sees itself as potentially transformative of the Humanities: “The tension between the digital humanities and the academic establishment is multifaceted and involves institutional hurdles to doing interdisciplinary and collaborative work, need for space and technological infrastructure, tenure systems not adapted to digital production and publications, and the need for non-faculty experts and corresponding career paths (Svensson, 2012). In this sense Digital Humanities in on the periphery of academia, seeking validation of the types of digital scholarship it is developing against established power structures and recognized and suitable forms of what is deemed ‘valid scholarship’. </p>
            <p>DH scholarship is produced in a variety of formats that are not necessarily monographs or journal articles that make up the traditional scholarly publishing system. Datasets, web pages, digital scholarly edition, textual markup and visualizations, to name a few, are part of DH production and the community has focused on how to certify them as valid outputs and forms of communicating knowledge. New forms of publishing, peer review and career paths are part of DH literature as it challenges the traditional ways of producing, disseminating, validating and certifying knowledge through the types of scholarly output it is producing. </p>
            <p>For the Digital Humanities the possibility of new modes of communication and publishing have been fundamental in its construction. Initial work concentrated on digitizing and publishing texts online, what Davidson (2012) refers to as Humanities 1.0. The first attraction of online publishing is making available material that is of difficult access and/or dispersed geographically (Priani, 2015). For others an important feature, with the relative low cost compared to publication on paper, was the possibility of making lesser-known materials available, such as non-canonical texts (Earhart 2012). From the periphery the possibility of electronic publishing offered a way of getting information published and noticed. Many Open Access projects, which focus on journal publishing, have worked towards this (Alperin, Fischman and Willinsky, 2008).</p>
            <p>Since then however, it has become clear that the Internet provides the opportunity to change the way we think about publishing and what types of outputs can be considered valid forms of communicating knowledge. This in turn has led to discussion on how we can validate and certify this production. In order to change the system however, it requires “substantative rethinking (…) of the ways those faculty do their work, how they communicate that work, and how that work is read both inside and outside the academy” (Fitzpatrick, 2011). If we consider that the traditional scholarly publishing system has systematically excluded research from periphery countries, there is an opportunity, as we work towards new types of publishing and communication systems, to find ways of being deliberately inclusive. Although not referring specifically to periphery research Davidson (2012) idea of Humanities 2.0 which is “distinguished from monumental, first generation data-based projects not just by interactivity but also by an openness about participation grounded in a different set of theoretical premises, which decenter authority and knowledge”, can be applied.</p>
            <p>Many (Fiormonte, 2012; Liu, 2012; Rodríguez, 2012; Clavert, 2013; Dacos, 2013; Risam, 2015) have argued that DH must reflect more on the nature of the digital medium and the technologies that are being employed as well as addressing issues related to geo-linguistic diversity in the community. At the same time Digital Humanities is also a community about building and creating (Ramsay, 2011). If DH is indeed a transformative motor of academia, then reflecting from a critical perspective on the new types of digital scholarship that we are proposing is indispensable. We could propose new models that adequately incorporate digital scholarly output from countries on the periphery that are left out of the global publishing system within the traditional scholarly publishing model. If DH is proposing and fighting for new types of scholarly publishing, then should we not seek to build a model that takes this into consideration? </p>
            <p>It is not possible of course to resolve this in a single conference presentation. The aim of this paper is to bring this subject to the table and to initiate a discussion in the different ways that this can be addressed. It is important to invest more in understanding the effects of the new types of publishing that we are advocating for as well as the digital infrastructures, primarily publishing platforms that we are developing and/or using. Discussing the implications of what we are building, the methods and structures we are using for communicating and publishing as well as the languages and materials we are prioritizing as part of the necessary self-reflection on what we are and what we do. As we advocate for new types of scholarship and we discuss new forms of peer review, certification, validation, publication and dissemination of these new types of publications we must make sure we do not incorporate tacit assumptions about the role and validity of periphery scholarship if not we shall inevitably continue to replication long-held prejudices and marginalization. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Alperin, J. P., Fischman, G. E. and Willinsky, J.</hi> (2008). Open access and scholarly publishing in Latin America: ten flavours and a few reflections.
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Liinc em Revista</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>(2): 172-85.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Canagarajah, S. A.</hi> (2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Geopolitics of Academic Writing.</hi> USA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clavert, F.</hi> (2013). The DH Multicultural Revolution Did Not Happen Yet. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">L'histoire contemporaine à l'ère numérique. </hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dacos, M.</hi> (2013). La estrategia de la sauna finlandesa. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Blog de la RedHD</hi>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Davidson, C.</hi> (2012). Humanities 2.0 - Promise, Perils, Predictions. In Gold, M. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities.</hi> University of Minnesota Press. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Earhart, A. E.</hi> (2012). Can Information Be Unfettered? In Gold, M. K. (ed.). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities.</hi> University of Minnesota Press, pp. 309-18. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fiormonte, D.</hi> (2012). Towards a Cultural Critique of the Digital Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Historical Social Research</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>: 59-76. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gibbs, W.</hi> (1995). Lost Science in the Third World. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scientific American,</hi> pp. 92-99. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fitzpatrick, K.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Planned Obsolescence: Publishing, Technology, and the Future of the Academy.</hi> New York: New York University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fiormonte, D. </hi>(2015). Towards monocultural (digital) Humanities?, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">InforLet.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Liu, A. </hi>(2012). Where Is Cultural Criticism in the Digital Humanities? In Gold, M. K. (ed.). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. University of Minnesota Press, pp. 495-98. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Priani, E.</hi> (2015). La Biblioteca Digital del Pensamiento Novohispano. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DHCommons</hi>, 1. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S.</hi> (2011). On Building, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Stephan Ramsay Blog.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Risam, R.</hi> (2015). Across Two (Imperial) Cultures, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Roopika Risam.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rodríguez Ortega, N.</hi> (2012). Prólogo: Humanidades Digitales y pensamiento crítico. In Romero Frías, E. e Sánchez González, M. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades Digitales</hi>. CAC (Cuadernos Artesanos de Comunicación), pp.13-17. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Spiro, L.</hi> (2012). This is Why We Fight: Defining the Values of the Digital Humanities. In Gold, M. K. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities.</hi> University of Minnesota Press, pp. 16-35. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Svensson, P.</hi>(2012). Envisioning the Digital Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DHQ</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(1). 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2750","17","New Facets Of The Multimedia Annotation Tool ELAN","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>ELAN is a multimedia annotation tool that is being developed by “The Language Archive” (https://tla.mpi.nl), a department of the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics. It is applied in a variety of research areas within the humanities and beyond; it can be useful in any type of research that includes audio and/or video recordings and analyzes these qualitatively or quantitatively (or both). A general comparison of characteristics of this and other, similar tools can be found in the report of a workshop organized at a gesture conference in Lyon (Rohlfing et al., 2006). This poster with demo is intended as a general introduction to its main functionalities, with an emphasis on the latest developments. Most of these new developments have been executed within CLARIN (Common Language Resources and Technology Infrastructure, http://clarin.eu) projects in the Netherlands and in Germany. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Adding and sharing comments</head>
                <p>One of the new developments concerns a commentary framework that improves collaboration of annotators working in a team setting. Comments are pieces of text linked to a segment of the media and possibly to a tier (a tier is an annotation layer). They can be used to store notes, remarks or questions concerning a fragment for later use or for discussion with a colleague. Much alike the way comments in word processors are used. The comments can be shared via email, a file sharing (cloud) service (such as Dropbox) and/or via the back-end of the DASISH Web Annotator (DWAN, http://dasish.eu), a web service for storing annotations (comments) to online content (e.g. web pages). Comments can sometimes be annotations on annotations, but their content and purpose are usually not obvious parts of a (final version of a) transcription. </p>
                <p>Another recent development is the possibility to associate parts of a transcription to a language identifier (e.g. ISO 639-1/3 code, http://www.iso.org/iso/home/standards/language_codes.htm) in an explicit way. Among these parts are tiers, entries in a controlled vocabulary and individual annotations. The language attribute of tiers can be used for selecting or sorting tiers in the user interface, when exporting or searching.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Connecting to web services</head>
                <p>A preliminary implementation of interaction with WebLicht web services (Hinrichs et al., 2010) was presented at the Digital Humanities conference in 2013. Since then this implementation has been modified and updated in several ways. The address of the services called by ELAN are no longer hard wired but instead the user can select a service (representing a parser or tagger etc.) from a list that is obtained from the WebLicht framework itself. The features mentioned above more tightly embed ELAN in the CLARIN world. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Interrater agreement</head>
                <p>Other important changes are the new functions for assessing interrater reliability. For many annotation tasks it is important to have an idea of how well annotators are instructed, to what extent annotators agree in their observations and how consistent these are. A simple comparison method solely based on extent and overlap of co-occurring annotations on tiers of two annotators is now complemented by two third party algorithms that take chance agreement into account. One calculates a Cohen’s kappa value by first applying a matching algorithm to the segmentations created by two raters (Holle and Rein, 2015). The other calculates a degree of organization by applying Monte Carlo Simulations to segmentations produced by multiple raters (Lücking et al., 2011). It is now possible to perform agreement calculations for an entire corpus, where the user can specify which tiers (i.e. which types of events) need to be assessed.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Automatic segmentation and labelling</head>
                <p>ELAN allows to create annotations manually, which means that the user can inspect the media stream, identify relevant segments and create annotations using the mouse and/or the keyboard. We have been involved in several projects that aim at integration of tools for semi-automatic segmentation and labelling of the media. A first version was presented in 2013; within the AUVIS (https://tla.mpi.nl/projects_info/auvis/) project the algorithms have been improved and the user interface further streamlined. Information technology experts specialized in analyses of digital video streams closely collaborated with gesture researchers to improve the algorithms for automatic gesture detection and categorization (Schreer et al., 2014) while specialist in speech recognition cooperated with language documentation scientists on better algorithms for speech segmentation and speaker diarization (Rieber and Bardeli, 2013). Although the automatically created segmentation is often not accurate enough to completely replace manually created annotations, these technologies can already be applied in a scenario in which the automatic approach creates the segmentation which is then manually corrected.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""599/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>A screenshot of the Comments tab and indications of comments in the timeline.</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hinrichs, M., Zastrow, T. and Hinrichs, E.</hi> (2010). WebLicht: Web-based LRT Services in a Distributed eScience Infrastructure. In <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, LREC 2010</hi>. Valletta, Malta, pp. 489-93.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Holle, H. and Rein, R.</hi> (2014). EasyDIAg: A tool for easy determination of interrater agreement. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Behavior Research Methods</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">47</hi>(3): 837-47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lücking, A., Ptock, S. and Bergmann, K.</hi> (2011). Staccato: Segmentation Agreement Calculator. In <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 9th International Gesture Workshop, May 25-27, 2011</hi>. Athens, Greece, pp. 50-53.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rieber, J. and Bardeli, R.</hi> (2013). Speech Recognition as a Retrieval Problem. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lecture Notes in Informatics</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">220</hi>: 2958-71.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rohlfing, K., Loehr, D., Duncan, S., Brown, A., Franklin, A., Kimbara, I., Milde, J.-T., Parrill, F., Rose, T., Schmidt, T., Sloetjes, H., Thies, A. and Wellinghof, S.</hi> (2006). Comparison of multimodal annotation tools - workshop report. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Gesprächforschung - Online-Zeitschrift zur Verbalen Interaktion</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>: 99-123.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schreer, O., Masneri, S., Lausberg, H. and Skomroch, H.</hi> (2014). Coding Hand Movement Behavior and Gesture with NEUROGES Supported by Automatic Video Analysis. In <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Measuring Behavior 2014</hi>, August 27-19, Wageningen, The Netherlands. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2751","17","Notoriously Toxic: The Language and Cost of Hate in the Chat Systems of Online Games","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>'Notoriously Toxic' presents a preliminary study of the language and impact of hate speech in the chat systems of online games.  Developed by a group of researchers in game studies, computational linguistics, sociolinguistics, and law and guided by an overall tripartite feedback model broadly corresponding to shielding potential victims from harm, educating those who casually engage in hate speech, and censuring those who persist in abusing their fellow players, the hope is that research-driven technical and social interventions might slowly shift online discourse norms away from casual, vicious, and potentially dangerous speech.  Identification at scale of textual expressions of toxic behavior in online environments is a necessary, empirical preliminary aspect of this work to understand the prevalence and cost of online hate, as is qualitative cultural studies of the games and their player populations. A recent example of qualitative framing work in this area was the 'Mapping Study on Projects Against Hate Speech Online' released in 2012 by the British Institute of Human Rights for the Council of Europe project, <hi rend=""italic"">Young People Combating Hate Speech in Cyberspace</hi> (The British Institute of Human Rights Council, 2012). That report provides terminology and an environmental scan of processes aimed to limit hate speech online and offers suggestions as to new procedures.  It, along with an examination of the reporting systems implemented across a host of online games, computational modeling of the language prevalent in these chat systems, and a study of work in the political sphere to defuse hate speech prior to its catalyzation of violence, serve as the foundation for this research.</p>
            <p>Recent inquiries into the toxic elements of gaming cultures have primarily focused on communication outside of a game environment. For example, critical discourse analyses of player posts to online gaming forums found that heteronormative undertones of the World of Warcraft player community creates a culture of hostility toward LGBTQ communities (Pulos, 2013) and the same forum's  adamant disavowal of feminism have made community conversations about gender roles and/or equality all but non-existent (Braithwaite, 2013). Similarly, Gray's (2012a; 2012b; 2012c) ethnography of Xbox Live demonstrates the constant barrage of gender and racially motivated harassment faced by women of color who opt to communicate with teammates via voice chat.  Finally, community leaders' adamant position of gender based harassment being a 'non-issue' is summarized by Salter and Blodgett (2012), whose case study of Penny Arcade's (a popular webcomic and organizers of PAX, a successful annual gaming convention) dismissal of its responsibility in perpetuating rape culture and SXSW Interactive's recent declaration that conversations about harassment in the games space can by definition not be civil (Sinders, 2015) is indicative of an industry that is highly resistant to change unless external pressure is applied.  Taken together, this scholarship is evidence that toxicity exists across gaming culture writ large, and is not isolated to a particular game or specific player community.</p>
            <p>Studying this phenomena at webscale and in the ephemeral environments of multilingual online chat systems is complex and requires a multidisciplinary approach bridging core strengths in the humanities, such as cultural criticism, with strengths in social psychology, the data sciences, and linguistics.  Studying the socially destructive behavior as manifested in online gaming platforms encourages innovative approaches to this problem.  One corpus examined as part of this research is comprised of the chat logs produced by the player base in Riot Games' League of Legends (League).  As of January 2014, League had ~27 million unique players every day each playing no less than 20 minutes and a peak concurrency of 7.5 million people who collectively have logged billions of hours of total play time for the game since 2009 (Sherr, 2014). Given that the game is a global phenomenon, the chat logs contain harassment in virtually every language.</p>
            <p>Based on the UN framework provided in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1976), Susan Benesch generally defines hate speech as '. . . an expression that denigrates or stigmatizes a person or people based on their membership of a group that is usually but not always immutable, such as an ethnic or religious group. . . . Speech may express or foment hatred on the basis of any defining feature of a minority or indigenous people, such as ethnicity or religion – and can also denigrate people for another “failing“, such as their gender or even their location, as in the case of migrants' (Benesch, 2014, pp. 20). This broad but inclusive definition is further elaborated upon by Nazila Ghanea in reference to the <hi rend=""italic"">International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination </hi>(ICERD) in the establishment of a spectrum from least to greatest: discriminatory speech, hate speech, incitement to hatred, incitement to terrorism, and incitement to genocide (Ghanea, 2013, pp. 940-1). The characteristics of these definitions reflect the significant impact that hate speech acts have on the establishment and enforcement of personal and communal identity and the need to identify such acts in order to preserve those identities. In his discussion on Carey's ritual model of communication as applied to cases of hate speech, Clay Calvert explains how hate speech initializes and perpetuates the subordination of one group over another (Calvert, 1997). Calvert notes that hate speech acts, specifically focusing on the repeated utilization of racial epithets, construct reality in the speaker, audience, and target members of the discourse through the creation and maintenance of mental schemata similar to the functions of other speech acts: 'In particular, racist speech helps to define who minorities are and how others think about minorities, facilitating their unequal treatment' (Calvert, 1997, pp. 12). This construction is harmful in its immediacy to the target as well as in the long-term situation as it perpetuates unequal power structures based on criteria of identity (Calvert, 1997, pp. 15-16). The construction of reality based on hate speech acts is also relevant to a discussion of online environments as the textual communication serves as a large social aspect of both on- and offline environments.</p>
            <p>Toxicity consists of verbal expressions and behaviors that serve to destabilize groups.  It is unclear whether toxic behavior is directed to elicit particular responses, and hence systemic, or reactionary, emotional, and hence, situational.  Frequently, the term 'troll,' or 'trolling,' is used synonymously with toxicity.  Regardless, these behaviors are necessary to address because they are a key factor in the outright hostility of online gaming environments to those perceived as other.  This destabilization maps on to offline models of gender, race, class, ethnic, national, linguistic, and abelist-based hate speech. A fertile ground for this analysis is in the virtual worlds of online gaming. For example, Kou and Nardi (2013), in their research on League of Legends, found that antisocial behavior destabilizes online communities but is addressable by social code and regulatory systems.</p>
            <p>The targeted examples in online gaming environments show a concentrated sample of toxic behavior that is pervasive in every online environment.  Studies have documented antisocial behavior and toxic speech in most digital platforms (O'Sullivan & Flanagin, 2003).  Whether considering flaming on 1980s and 90s USENET forums, social media fueled outrage on contemporary politics, or in-game, text-based conversation in multiplayer games, toxicity can be motivated by emotional, intellectual, political, or other causes and as such correlates strongly with the modes and consequences of offline hate speech.  Understanding online toxic behavior in ways that allow for moderation of its causes and effects first requires an understanding of how to study the concrete manifestation of this behavior—the text produced by users of a system.  The challenges faced by this research are many: the writing styles are heavily infused with jargon, the orthography is non-standard, the chat stream only represents one channel of communication, and the communities are fluid. </p>
            <p>In response to these challenges, an approach grounded in machine learning and NLP was tested.  Using a small subset of the available data, a classifier based upon developed to separate players toxic from non-toxic players yielded a precision of 0.77, a recall of 0.79 and an F-score of 0.78.  These results are encouraging, and along with training on a larger data set, secondary factors such as player avatar gender, length of match, and others were also preliminarily tested and found to have small influencing effects.  These results suggest that there are concrete, detectable semantic and syntactic patterns in the harassment levied at players in these games.  Connecting these findings to mechanisms for shielding, reforming, and censuring players, and to frameworks for understanding the social and psychological costs of being effectively locked in a room with one or more individuals determined to verbally abuse a peer is the more complex task of the cultural and ethnographic studies of digital communities.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Benesch, S.</hi> (2014). Defining and diminishing hate speech, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">State of the World's Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2014</hi>, pp. 14-25.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Braithwaite, A.</hi> (2013). 'Seriously, get out': Feminists on the forums and the War(craft) on women. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Media & Society</hi> 0(0): 1-16. First published online June 12, 2013: 10.1177/1461444813489503.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">The British Institute of Human Rights Council.</hi> (2012). Mapping Study on Projects against Hate Speech Online. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Young People Combating Hate Speech Online</hi>. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/youth/Source/Training/Training_courses/2012_Mapping_projects_against_Hate_Speech.pdf (accessed 29 August 2014).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Calvert, C.</hi> (1997). Hate Speech and Its Harms: A Communication Theory Perspective. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Communication</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">47</hi>(1): 4-19. First published online February 7, 2006: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1997.tb02690.x.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Ghanea, N.</hi> (2013). Intersectionality and the Spectrum of Racist Hate Speech: Proposals to the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Human Rights Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">35</hi>(4): 935-54. First published November 2013: 10.1353/hrq.2013.0053.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gray, K.</hi> (2012a). Deviant Bodies, Stigmatized Identities, and Racist Acts: Examining the Experiences of African-American Gamers in Xbox Live. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 18</hi>(4): 261-76. First published online: December 3, 2012: 10.1080/13614568.2012.746740. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gray, K. </hi>(2012b). Intersecting Oppressions and Online Communities: Examining the experiences of women of color in Xbox Live. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Information, Communication & Society</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 15</hi>(3): 411-28. First published online: December 19, 2011. 10.1080/1369118X.2011.642401.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gray, K.</hi> (2012c). Collective Organizing, Individual Resistance, or Asshole Griefers? An Ethnographic Analysis of Women of Color in Xbox Live. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ada: A Journal of Gender, New Media, and Technology</hi> 2. First published online: June 2013. 10.7264/N3KK98PS.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Kou, Y. and Nardi, B. </hi>(2013). Regulating anti-social behavior on the Internet: The example of League of Legends. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">iConference 2013 Proceedings</hi>, Fort Worth, TX: February 12-15, 2013, pp. 616-22. 10.9776/13289.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">O'Sullivan, P. B. and Flanagin, A. J.</hi> (2003). Reconceptualizing 'flaming' and other problematic messages. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">New Media & Society</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>(1): 69–94. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Pulos, A. </hi>(2013). Confronting Heteronormativity in Online Games: A Critical Discourse Analysis of LGBTQ Sexuality in World of Warcraft. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Games and Culture</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 8</hi>(2): 77-97.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Salter, A. and Blodgett, B. </hi>(2012). Hypermasculinity & Dickwolves: The Contentious Role of Women in the New Gaming Public. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">56</hi>(3): 401-16.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sherr, I. </hi>(2014). Player Tally for 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">League of Legends</hi> surges. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Wall Street Journal</hi>. First published January 27, 2014. http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2014/01/27/player-tally-for-league-of-legends-surges/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sinders, C.</hi> (2015). I Was On One Of Those Canceled SXSW Panels. Here Is What Went Down. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Slate</hi>. First published October 29, 2015. http://www.slate.com/articles/double_x/doublex/2015/10/sxsw_canceled_panels_here_is_what_happened.html.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>United Nations General Assembly. International Covenant on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">United Nations</hi>. http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CERD.aspx (accessed 4 August 2014).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2752","17","OVAL: A Virtual Ecosystem for Immersive Scholarship and Teaching","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction </head>
                <p>3D modeling is transforming scholarship and teaching. In 2004, when Taliban militia destroyed the Buddhas of Bamiyan (one, the tallest Buddha in the world), a team of researchers from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology responded by generating 3D models of these lost Buddhas (Grün et al., 2004). Indeed, 3D and virtual reality (VR) have sparked scholarly interest because VR projects, such as the Buddhas and Rome Reborn (an international effort to generate a virtual surrogate of the ancient city), allow for the modeling of inaccessible or lost historic spaces and objects and the interactive testing of scholarly hypotheses (Dylla et al., 2010). </p>
                <p>Now, with advances in digital imaging and replication, 3D models have proliferated. They can be easily downloaded from sites such as SketchFab, Smithsonian X3D, and NASA 3D Resources. Moreover, scholars can publish them in a new journal: 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage</hi>. However, this proliferation raises questions about best practices for viewing, archiving, and interacting with these complex digital assets. The primary interface for 3D remains the flat, relatively small, computer screen—miniscule when compared to a 53-meter Buddha. 
                </p>
                <p>One solution is to provide an immersive experience through VR, enabling viewers to share space with 3D artifacts. Such an interface, however, presents further problems. VR systems tend to follow one of two models: 1. The model of Rome Reborn, in which a virtual system houses one surrogate of a physical space, or 2. A laboratory, such as Stanford University’s CAVE system, in which sophisticated and costly VR equipment is employed for research. Can a virtual ecosystem be developed that not only makes uploading, hosting, and viewing VR assets easy but also is cost efficient and yet provides a robust, flexible, and accessible environment to meet divergent needs across a university and beyond?</p>
                <p>In this presentation, we will discuss our answers to these questions derived from building a VR ecosystem housed in the library of the University of Oklahoma: the Oklahoma Virtual Academic Laboratory (OVAL). OVAL is a fully functioning VR environment. It is designed to deliver ease in uploading and engaging 3D assets, especially for non-technical users. Through digital immersion, multiple scholars and students simultaneously encounter VR assets, moving through and around and rotating and resizing them. Such engagement represents a paradigmatic shift in the computer interface: scholars and students are no longer limited by a flat monitor and instead share the virtual space with their objects of study. </p>
                <p>Furthermore, OVAL encourages enhanced experiential learning (Hermon and Kalisperis, 2011; 60-61). It gives students and scholars opportunities to engage digital materials beyond their normal reach (such as interacting with atomic structures or cultural heritage artifacts). And, when partnered with museums, medical centers and other stakeholders, OVAL makes VR accessible to a wide scope of people, institutions, and industries. Thereby, OVAL offers a new model of accessible VR. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Challenges</head>
                <p>Building a VR ecosystem for a whole university poses daunting challenges. For OVAL, the overriding hurdle was cost. To accommodate scholars and students across the disciplines, building multiple, multi-million dollar VR labs was not feasible. Therefore, cost constantly reigned-in decisions but rarely reigned-in performance. </p>
                <p>There were also challenges for choosing compatible hardware and software. To keep costs reasonable and minimize spatial requirements, we opted to have users seated while immersed in OVAL, with head, upper body, and hands tracked and imported into the VR environment. This reduces major challenges to selecting a software platform to develop the VR environment, graphics processing unit (GPU), head mounted display (and its software), hand-gesture sensor (and its software), computer, and chair assembly. When full-body sensing hardware and software become available at a reasonable price, we will explore incorporating them into OVAL. </p>
                <p>For building the VR environment, perhaps the most important choice is selecting the software platform. Currently, game engines (software platforms for generating 2D and immersive 3D environments) are the best option. To select an appropriate game engine, we established five criteria:</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Minimally priced or free during development of VR environment</item>
                    <item>Compatible with multiple platforms, including desktop, mobile, and Web</item>
                    <item>Compatible with multiple headsets, such as Oculus Rift, HTC Vive, Google Cardboard, Gear VR, and Microsoft HoloLens</item>
                    <item>Active and robust developer community</item>
                    <item>Extensive online documentation</item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Our solution</head>
                <p>Our criteria limited our choices to two main video game engines: Unity3D and Unreal. Although, since our initial choice, a number of major companies (Google, Amazon, etc.) have developed game engines, we still champion Unity3D because of its low cost and robust developer community, which attests to its capability and compatibility. Part of Unity3D’s appeal is one of our main criteria: strong cross-platform compatible. Currently, it is compatible with 21 different operating systems, including Apple, Windows, Linux, and a variety of mobile devices. Furthermore, Unity3D provides strong online documentation, including tutorials. </p>
                <p>For software sub-systems, choices had their complexities, and we will discuss them more fully in the presentation. They included Photon Unity Networking for networking the headsets; Oculus runtime software to support a camera with two “eyes”; and the LeapMotion SDK for hand-tracked interactions. These choices allow OVAL to preserve embodied interaction with hand and upper body tracking (leaning in produces a closer look at an object, and hand movements control features such as scaling and rotating objects) (Shapiro, 2014).</p>
                <p>Selecting hardware was less complicated. Available headsets are surprisingly limited. Our only real choice was Oculus Rift. Another headset, the HTC Vive, is set for release soon. Most headsets are developed and sold as part of a complete VR system. </p>
                <p>For the chair-assembly, a unique on-campus resource simplified our choice. The University of Oklahoma houses a high-powered physics fabrication lab. We worked with them to develop a custom railed-chair assembly (ergonomically designed for a 360° range of motion). This railed-chair allows the computer to reside under the chair and out of the way. For a robust virtual environment, the computer contains a GeForce GTX 980 graphics card. It delivers a 75-frames/second refresh-rate (the human eye generally resolves 25 frames/second), insuring an instantaneous visual experience when manipulating 3D objects or when turning one’s head. </p>
                <p>Finally, by integrating networking software into OVAL, a shared VR experience can occur across a range of clients. All changes made on a master workstation—including scale, rotation, lighting, and background imagery—are immediately transmitted to all co-participants, regardless of their physical location. In a classroom environment, for example, this means that students automatically see what the teacher sees. But this also allows OVAL to become a worldwide network. To facilitate such a network, all 3D models are uploaded via a public Dropbox, which immediately syncs with all OVAL clients. This means that all uploaded 3D asset are available to all OVAL clients. For a shared VR experience, each client only needs a short set of instructions concerning file names and how to manipulate them during a session. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Research and teaching</head>
                <p>In our presentation, we will also discuss ongoing uses of OVAL at the University of Oklahoma and explore their implications. Despite its recent completion, OVAL has already had extensive use. Undergraduate biology students have analyzed the atomic structure of hemoglobin and oxyhemoglobin. Architecture faculty has analyzed student projects for unseen flaws pertaining to safety and accessibility of interior spaces. The Sam Noble Museum of Natural History has uploaded their recently discovered 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Aquilops Americanus </hi>skull into the OVAL system for curators and researchers. Art History faculty has begun analyzing sculpturally significant 3D scans for preserving what was once ephemeral art. A budding partnership with the Medical Imaging Facility has demonstrated how CT-to-OVAL workflows facilitate mammographic research. Finally, Bill Endres has begun to develop guided, immersive tours of the St Chad Gospels, an 8
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi>-century illuminated manuscript. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion </head>
                <p>The rapid production of 3D models makes having VR systems available for their viewing a pressing concern. 3D models of massive structures, such as the large Buddhas of Bamiyan, highlight the limitations of interacting through a computer screen. OVAL provides one cost-efficient solution. In our next phase, we plan to add collaborators and make OVAL available. We are also interested in hosting 3D assets in an archive-quality database. However, the most effective and efficient means of doing these has yet to be determined. We are looking forward to presenting at DH 2016 and conversing about possibilities for OVAL and the wide-ranging opportunities for research and teaching through VR.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dylla, K., et al.</hi> (2010). Rome Reborn 2.0: A Case Study of Virtual City Reconstruction Using Procedural Modeling Techniques. Frischer, B., Crawford, J. and Koller, D. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Making History Interactive: 37</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic superscript"">th</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Proceedings of the CAA Conference</hi>, Williamsburg, VA, March 2009. Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 62-66.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grün, A., Remondino, F. and Zhang, L.</hi> (2004). Photogrametric Reconsctruction of the Great Buddha of Bamiyan, Afghanistan. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Photogrammetric Record,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">19</hi>(107): 177-99.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hermon, S. and Kalisperis, L.</hi> (2011). Between the Real and the Virtual: 3D Visualization in the Cultural Heritage Domain – Expectations and Prospects. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Virtual Archaeology Review,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(4): 59-63.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shapiro, L. </hi>(ed) (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Routledge Handbook of Embodied Cognition</hi>. New York: Routledge. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2753","17","Performance, the document, and the digital: the case of Lynn Hershman Leeson's 'Robertas'","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Performance at Tate, an Arts and Humanities Research Council funded project which run between 2014-6, set out to trace the history of performance at Tate from the 1960s to today by investigating practices of collection, display, documentation and exhibition in the museum. At the heart of the project was the desire to conduct a wider re-evaluation not only of the place of performance in the museum, but also of the specific role played by documentation, including digital documentation, as well as the documentation of digital works, within collections, archives and displays. Here, I explore what the introduction of the digital has meant in this particular field by conducting a close examination of Lynn Hershman Leeson’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Roberta Breitmore</hi> (1972-8), in which the artist created a fictional persona and interpreted its role for a period of six years using surveillance technology to capture various moments in her life. I will also discuss her subsequent works 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CyberRoberta</hi> (1995-8) and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Life to the Second Power</hi> (2007) in which the character of Roberta was re-invented across different media. Focussing on the different types of documentations that these works generated, including photos, drawings, a cartoon, a film, a second-life re-enactment, postcards, among others, I then establish a best practice framework towards their curation and preservation that will be applicable more broadly for digital art practice.
            </p>
            <p>To establish the role played by documentation in this context, Performance at Tate aimed to move beyond existing debates on the ontology of the relationship between performance and documentation. These debates may be traced back to the 1970s when, writing on performance-based work, the art historian Douglas Crimp asserted that ‘you had to be there’, implying that performance needed the presence of the spectator to be activated and often required ‘that registration of presence as a means toward establishing meaning’ (1979: 77). This approach underpins the performance studies scholar Peggy Phelan’s well known assertion that ‘performance’s only life is in the present’ and that performance ‘cannot be saved, recorded, documented, or otherwise participate in the circulation of representations 
                <hi rend=""italic"">of</hi> representations: once it does so it becomes something other than performance’ (1993: 146).
                <hi rend=""endnote_reference""> </hi> A different position was adopted by media studies scholar Philip Auslander who in his identification of different types of performance (and documentation) counter-pointed that ‘documentation does not simply generate image/statements that describe an autonomous performance’ and states that it can produce ‘an event as a performance’ (2006: 5). 
            </p>
            <p>Instead, Performance at Tate aimed to build on approaches initiated by Amelia Jones (1997) and, subsequently, Barbara Clausen, who challenged the positioning of the document as secondary to performance, as well as the positioning of the document as equivalent to performance suggesting that performance should not be seen as beginning with or ending with the ‘authentic experience’, or live moment, but rather that it should be seen as ‘an ongoing process of an interdependent relationship between event, medialization, and reception’ (2005: 7). In other words, performance, in the course of its transcriptions, is subject to significant shifts caused by the constantly altering reception of its documents over time. Performance documents should therefore be considered, utilising Suzanne Briet’s term from 1951, as an ecology of inter-documents, comprising primary documents, created at the time of an event, secondary documents, created from the initial documents, and auxiliary documents, created by a juxtaposition of documents. Rather than delivering remains of an isolated event, the document, for Briet, forms part of a matrix or network of signs. So, she noted, ‘through the juxtaposition, selection, and the comparison of documents, and the production of auxiliary documents’, the content of documentation becomes ‘inter-documentary’. </p>
            <p>Performance and documentation have always been somewhat inter-dependent. So, for example, art historian and critic Barbara Rose pointed out the significance of Hans Namuth’s famous photographs of Jackson Pollock’s work as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">documents</hi> of his practice that radically affected any subsequent perception of his paintings (1979: 12). Likewise, it was performance studies scholar Philip Auslander who noted that Harry Shunk’s photographs of Yves Klein’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Leap into the Void</hi> (1960), a photomontage, in fact constitute the work itself (2006). And it was Paul Schimmel who noted how Chris Buren’s actions, such as in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Shoot</hi> (1071), in which the performer asked his assistant to shoot him in his left arm, were ‘distinguished by their ability to be captured by a single photographic image and described in a brief paragraph’ (1998:97) almost as if to imply that the performance was designed so as to work for the photo. Most of these works nowadays exist primarily as documents. One such work is Hershman Leeson’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Roberta Breitmore</hi> (1972-8) which comprises of a series of documents charting Roberta’s internal (i.e. a list of cosmetics for her make-up) and external transformations (i.e. a movement chart), testifying also to her social existence (i.e., she placed an advert, and underwent a psychiatric evaluation) and financial existence (i.e. she owned a checkbook). Nearly twenty years after Hershman Leeson exorcised the character of Roberta at the Palazzo dei Diamanti in Ferrara in 1978, Roberta was re-invented as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CyberRoberta</hi> (1995-8), a tele-robotic doll who was dressed identically to Roberta, and whose fictional persona was, as in Hershman Leeson’s words, ‘designed as an updated Roberta’ who navigate the internet, and was described as a ‘cyberbeing’ (1996: 336). Roberta also appeared as a bot in the Second Life remake of an early work by Hershman Leeson, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Dante Hotel,</hi> called 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Life to the Second Power</hi> (2007-)
                <hi rend=""italic"">,</hi> which turned parts of the Hershman Leeson archive at Stanford Libraries into a dynamic mixed reality experience where visitors could explore digital reproductions of fragments of the original archive of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Dante Hotel </hi>under Roberta’s guidance in Second Life (Roberta had started her existence when she arrived in San Francisco on board of a Greyhound bus and checked herself in at the Hotel Dante). 
            </p>
            <p>The first work, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Roberta Breitmore, </hi>consists of documents which are now preserved as the artwork in public and private collections (MOMA, SFMOMA, Tate, Walker Art Center, as well as the Hess collection, to name a few). Each museum also has a documentation of the work, which usually consists of gallery, curatorial, and preservation records. These may disclose significant information about how the artist wishes the work to be installed, for example, or about the work’s preservation strategy. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CyberRoberta</hi>, which is in the Hess collection, does not consist of documents, though, unlike in the case of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Roberta Breitmore</hi>, some documents were produced by users and are available on social media. These documents are not works, though it is only by seeing them that, if we have not experienced the work ourselves, we can understand how the work operated. No museum, to my knowledge, has been preserving these user-generated documents. Finally, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Life to the Second Power</hi> is available on Second Life and a set of photographic documents were collected by Exeter and Stanford Universities at the time the work was shown. Again, a number of visitors generated photographs (both in first and second life) but these were not collected. The work was shown as The Montreal Museum of Fine Arts and at SFMOMA, so it is likely that these museums have kept a documentation of the work, though most museums only do so when the work entered the collection. In short, in the case of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Roberta Breitmore,</hi> the artist created the documents that are now known as the work. In the cases of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CyberRoberta </hi>and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Life to the Second Power,</hi> most documents showing the work in use were produced by users or viewers, and none of them are systematically preserved. In the case of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Life to the Second Power,</hi> the work is hosted by a commercial platform and may cease to exist once the platform becomes obsolete or is terminated by its owners. 
            </p>
            <p>I conclude by suggesting that Museums should draw from performance studies and digital humanities and create records documenting the experiences of these works, noting also how these have changed over the years. I also look into the challenges paused by their preservation, particularly in terms of born digital works. Finally, I show that by capturing this knowledge, Museums will not only preserve important historical information about the exhibition and reception of these works, but also create, to use Briet’s term, an inter-documentary ecology comprising ‘live’ performance (whether by the artist or the user), documents (created by the artist, the museum or the user) and the digital (showing the web and social media life of a work in different formats).</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Auslander, P.</hi> (2006). The Performativity of Performance Documentation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PAJ: A Journal of Performance and Art</hi> 84, <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>(3): 1-10.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Briet, S.</hi> (2006). [1951]. <hi rend=""italic"">What is Documentation?</hi> Tr. E. Day, L. Martinet, H. G.B. Anghelescu. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Clausen, B.</hi> (2005). The (Re)presentation of Performance Art. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">After the Act</hi>, Museum Moderner Kunst Stiftung Ludwig Wien, pp. 7-20. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Crimp, D.</hi> (1979). Pictures. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">October,</hi> Spring 1979, pp. 75-88.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Hershman Leeson, L.</hi> (1996). ed., 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Clicking In: Hot Links to a Digital Culture.</hi> Seattle WA: Bay Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Jones, A. </hi> (1997). ‘Presence’ in Absentia: Experiencing Performance as Documentation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Art Journal, </hi><hi rend=""bold""> 56</hi>(4): 11-8.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Phelan, P.</hi> (1993). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Unmarked: The Politics of Performance</hi>. New York and London: Routledge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rose, B. </hi>(1979). Hans Namuth’s Photograph and the Jackson Pollock Myth: Part One: Media Impact and the Failure of Criticism, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Arts Magazine, </hi><hi rend=""bold"">53</hi>(7).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Schimmel, P.</hi> (1998). (Ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Out of Actions: between performance and the object 1949-1979</hi>, London: Thames and Hudson.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2754","17","Picture to Score: Driving Vector Animations with Music in the XML Ecosystem","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Audio can be united with video using a number of different techniques. Among the most common are “score to picture” and procedural generation.</p>
            <p>“Score to picture” is a feature of most modern DAWs (Digital Audio Workstations), such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Pro Tools, Logic, Cubase,</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">REAPER.</hi> A composer plays forward the video—usually in the very advanced stages of post production—and sets cues within the software around which a musical soundtrack can be structured. Thus a composer might set a cue to indicate suspense leading up to a particular moment, or the beginning and end of a romantic scene that should be accompanied with incidental music.
            </p>
            <p>Procedural generation goes the other way. Here, a composer creates music—often in a sophisticated audio synthesis environment like 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Max/MSP, Pd, Impromptu,</hi> or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">SuperCollider</hi>—and uses properties of the audio signal or of the overall program flow to cue events in a video presentation. Since these are full-fledged (if visual) programming languages, driving video with them often means combining the complexity of software engineering with the complexity of handling audio and video signals.
            </p>
            <p>In this short presentation, we describe our experiments with a method of uniting audio and video that lies somewhere between these two approaches. Unlike the practice associated with contemporary filmmaking, our method begins with a musical score and uses events indicated within it as the set of cues for an animation. Rather than use procedural programming or digital signal processing to inform the creation of cues, we use the ordinary conventions of Western musical notation.</p>
            <p>To accomplish this, we first represent the score in MusicXML. This might seem an odd choice, given that the MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) standard was designed precisely to indicate performance events over time. MusicXML, by contrast, was primarily conceived as a way of providing interoperability among software for rendering musical scores as printable objects. Yet MusicXML contains, as one explanation of the standard puts it, a “MIDI-compatible part” concerned with how the music should sound (as opposed to how it should look) (MakeMusic, 2016). </p>
            <p>Our system exploits these MIDI-compatible elements—along with several other features of the markup—in order to indicate where a change might occur in an animation. In this way, we are able to use such things as rehearsal marks (sectional markings intended to make it easier for conductors to refer to particular passages), tempo markings, indications of changes in volume (amplitude), emphases, articulations, orchestration, and other aspects of musical notation as cues. And since everything about the duration of a piece and the relationship of the cues within the piece are discernable from the MusicXML file alone, we are able to produce SVG animations that are perfectly in sync with the music from which they are “generated”. In the simplest case, this might involve simple changes in color or the movement of shapes, but the system is fully capable of quite advanced 2D animation.</p>
            <p>From an artistic standpoint, our way of doing things hearkens back to the earliest days of animation when popular short films were synced to the music of Wagner, Rossini, and Dukas. In this sense, ours is perhaps a new way of doing an old-fashioned thing. But unlike earlier eras, artists today have access to very sophisticated tools for producing digital art. Digital artists regularly use vector graphics programs (like Adobe 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Illustrator</hi> and the free 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Inkscape)</hi> that can generate SVG, and scoring programs (like 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Finale, Sibelius,</hi> and the free 
                <hi rend=""italic"">MuseScore)</hi> that can generate MusicXML. What is missing, we think, is a robust way to bridge these two technologies.
            </p>
            <p>Our system provides a very sophisticated bridge in the form of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Indigo</hi>—an SVG animation system developed at CDRH that we have recently re-engineered along the lines we illustrate above. In this presentation, we briefly explain how Indigo works and demonstrate how it can facilitate interoperability between SVG and MusicXML (perhaps with the world premier of an original animated score in honor of this year's conference theme).
            </p>
            <p>Our presentation requires only the most rudimentary knowledge of musical notation and SVG.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">MakeMusic </hi>(2016). <hi rend=""italic"">MusicXML: Tutorial</hi>. http://www.musicxml.com/tutorial/the-midi-compatible-part/ (accessed 27 Oct 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2755","17","Playable Books at Electronic Literature's Interface","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>For DH2016 with its theme of “Digital Identities: The Past and The Future” we propose a four-person panel in which we present the history of playable books (Garfinkel), the theory of playable books (Bazarnik), the artistic practice of playable books (Fajfer) and bookish aspects of digital literary games (Inman Berens).  Together, we aim to demonstrate the procedural affinities between analog and digital modes of reading a literary interface.  </p>
            <p>This panel approaches the notion of play from the vantage of the physicality of books and what Johanna Drucker calls “performative materiality” (2013).   When Espen Aarseth said in his 2015 keynote at the Electronic Literature Organization’s conference that “games are the most important form of digital literature,” it ruffled a few feathers.  Here, we take Aarseth’s provocation as a starting point from which we examine the past and future of what we call playable books. We will perform examples of digital and analog playable books, offering critical reflection toward developing a common language for methodological approaches across national languages and traditions, across analog and digital reading practices. The Digital Humanities 2016 conference is a unique opportunity to put global perspectives of ergodicity dynamically in dialog with each other.  We expect, in other words, that our various types of expertise will co-mingle emergently as we “play” the works, isolate attributes, and foster conversation among the panelists and audience in this international venue. Liveness and co-presence are required to advance this form of cross-cultural communication.</p>
            <p>All reading is situated and embodied. Throughout the history of the book, whether manuscript or mechanically reproduced, we see an ongoing tension in the moment of a reader’s encounter with written work: between the abstract ideal of a text that stands on its own 
                <hi rend=""italic"">sans</hi> manifestations, and the actual instantiations of texts as books without whose affordance of interface the encounter would not be possible. Building on Aarseth (1997), Kirschenbaum (2008a; 2008b), Wardrip-Fruin (2010) and others, we note that the procedurality of playable books becomes newly and uniquely visible through the lens of computational materiality, that is, the turn to the digital.  Books have always been random access portable storage devices.  When Kirschenbaum argues that “new media cannot be studied apart from individual instances of inscription, object, and code as they propagate on, across, and through specific storage devices, operating systems, software environments and network protocols” (2008b: 23), we understand that such approaches prompt attention to the physicality of books.  Jessica Pressman coined the term “bookishness” to describe “novels [that] exploit the power of the print page in ways that draw attention to the book as a multimedia format, one informed by and connected to digital technologies” (2009: 456).  Zenon Fajfer (1999) describes “liberature” as literature which, in response to the digital media, foregrounds the shape and structure of the physical book as its semantically charged constituents. Hayles (2008) and Florian Cramer (2016) have separately written about the “post-digital” book, that is, printed books that manifest the aesthetic of Web and networked technologies, such as Mark Z. Danielewski’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">House of Leaves </hi>(2000). 
            </p>
            <p>As part of the first electronic literature showcase at the U.S. Library of Congress in 2013, Kathi Inman Berens and Susan Garfinkel selected sixty-nine books to contextualize the exhibit’s twenty-seven featured works of electronic literature. This wide-ranging curatorial reach culled books that revealed various states of playfulness with the book’s material form.  While well-known examples such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Choose Your Own Adventure</hi> books and shaped poems (“concrete” poetry) emphasize unique aspects of playfulness and materiality, it was only through curating a set of books spanning hundreds of years and genres--and juxtaposing such books alongside the expressive interfaces of electronic literature--that a logic of playable books and electronic literature emerged.  Not only did the books contextualize electronic literature, but the obverse happened as well: electronic literature’s human/computer interface defamiliarized the book.
            </p>
            <p>In the last years of the twentieth century, the printed book began to manifest attributes of digital art.  In 1999 in the wake of “Booksday,” an exhibition of unconventional books curated in Krakow by Polish writers and poets Zenon Fajfer, Katarzyna Bazarnik and Radoslaw Nowakowski,  Fajfer suggested that books defying editorial conventions, whose linguistic content is inextricably bound with their material (printed) embodiments deliberately shaped by their authors, could be called “liberature.”  Initially juxtaposed with artists’ books, liberature stresses the literary attributes of book-bound works, exploiting their semantically charged materiality. Although it began as a theory describing the codex form, liberature has strong links with electronic literature, through, for example, Fajfer’s playable poems that are hybrid works combining the printed and digital interfaces, and Nowakowski’s hypertextual, multimedia online narratives.</p>
            <p>Also in 1999, N. Katherine Hayles published 
                <hi rend=""italic"">How We Became Posthuman: Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature and Informatics</hi>, a book that built the case for an interactive dynamic between seemingly disembodied information and the material substrates that convey them. These twin moves toward embodied experiences of reading suggest a parallel track between Polish and North American conceptions of reading abetted by experimentation in digital and networked environments. This is in tune with Jerome McGann’s observation that “[t]he ‘composition’ of poetry is not completed--indeed, it has scarcely begun--when the writer scripts words on the page; and even at this initial moment of the imagination’s work the scene is a social one. What kind of instrument is the writer using, what kind of paper?,” which could be expanded to reflections about platforms, softwares, and mobile devices. These questions are central to understanding and interpretation of any work of verbal art, he continues, as they “are entangled with every textual network of meaning” (1993: 112). Each of the panelists will bring a specific focus to the history and future of playable books in theory and practice.
            </p>
            <p>Susan Garfinkel will discuss examples from book history that display the mutability of the book as a version of Bakhtin’s dialogic “world in the making” (1981). Laurence Sterne’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman</hi>, for example, as early as 1759 made use of visual pastiche and typographic play along with its unusual plot, digressive presentation style, and literary borrowings. In 1804 and again in 1820, Thomas Jefferson famously cut apart and pasted up the Christian bible (Edwards, 2012). Working at the intersections of literary studies, media studies, and the digital humanities, Lisa Gitelman (2008) and Kirschenbaum (2008b), among others, have prompted media scholars to revisit the history of book materiality. Lori Emerson suggests that “by revisiting older media, we can make our current media visible once again” (2014: 130), while Kirschenbaum and Sarah Werner describe the digital within book history as “a frankly messy complex of extensions and extrusions of prior media and technologies” (2014: 408). Such awareness is enhanced by new scholarly attention to materiality, to the vibrancy of matter and the role of interpretation as mediation in the physical world (Trettien, 2013; Bennett, 2010; Appadurai, 2015). Looking back across decades and expressive genres for the precursors of electronic literature, we soon recognize an awareness of the dialogic mutability of the book itself, of its playable affordances that significantly predate the computer.
            </p>
            <p>Katarzyna Bazarnik and Zenon Fajfer will focus on liberatic works and theory by exploring and expanding architecture of the codex, for example, in Oulipian 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Cent Mille Milliards de Poèmes</hi> by Raymond Queneau (1961), and their own
                <hi rend=""strikethrough"">,</hi> triple dos-à-dos of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Oka-leczenie</hi> (2000, 2009), the book instrumental in defining the concept of “literature in the form of the book” in the central European context. However, liberature has also responded to digital technologies in various, subversive ways. In Fajfer’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ten letters</hi> (2010), the poetic volume combining print and digital animation, it is paradoxically the material book that invites the reader to engage with the poems’ visuality, to handle and manipulate the pages in a way reminiscent of Mallarméan ‘espacement of reading,’ ‘
                <hi rend=""italic"">un espacement de la lecture</hi>’ (1998: 253). Its digital part, “Primum Mobile,” accessible through the CD interface, is a piece blocked from the readers’ intervention--they are only allowed to contemplate texts that infold and unfold in front of their eyes as an animated movie. In the spirit of playfulness its final section, “Spogladajac przez ozonowa dziure” (“Detect Ozone Whole Nearby”) announces its further remediation as a “poem-in-the-bottle,” with its text printed on a transparent plastic sheet placed in a glass container. Thereby, Fajfer’s bottle-book seems to look back to the beginnings of book history, by taking on the form of the scroll.  Lastly, his 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Powieki</hi> (Eyelids) (2013) is another bi-medial work that seemingly, it returns to the traditional codex, yet textually is a densely linked hypertext that can be accessed via the printed or the electronic interfaces, offering readers radically different experiences of exploring the same cycle of poems.
            </p>
            <p> Kathi Inman Berens will investigate the literary/ludic continuum in theories of ergodicity by Aarseth (1997), Ryan (2006), Laurel (2013) and Ensslin (2013) and examine how touch in electronic literature and playable books prompts new dimensions of liberatic engagement.  Saleen and Zimmerman’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals</hi> (2003) and the team of Robin Hunicke, Marc LeBlanc, Robert Zubek’s MDA approach [Mechanics, Dynamics and Aesthetics] developed theoretical frameworks and critical language to unify conditions of play from board games to sports to computer and video games. Literary games don’t figure in these discussions because they were developed before serious games initiated the hybrid literary game form. Jesper Juul’s work on failure in games (2013) adds new analytic dimension to discussion of narrative, catharsis, pain, and reward systems pioneered in the work of Janet Murray (1999; 2012).  Can one “lose” when playing a work of literature?  Serge Bouchardon’s “Loss of Grasp” (2010), winner of the 2011 New Media Writing Prize, has elicited scholarly studies among Polish literary critics applying liberatic theory and English-speaking literary critics examining literary games.  A comparison of these methods could frame cross-cultural ways to analyze new works such as Inkle Studio’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">80 Days </hi>(2014), a tablet game based on Jules Verne’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Around the World in Eighty Days</hi>, and Steve Tomasula’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">TOC</hi> (2009, 2013).  
                <hi rend=""italic"">80 Days</hi> was 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Time Magazine</hi>’s 2014 Game of the Year and also, tellingly, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Guardian</hi>’s 2014 Novel of the Year. This generic slippage between book and game is likely to become more common as book publishers venture into gameful environments, such as Doubleday’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Bats of the Republic</hi> (2015), a playable novel featuring haptic elements.  Berens analyzes the material book’s ludic dialog with tablet-based digital stories.
            </p>
            <p>Following a presentation of these varied approaches to the questions of playability and interface in books past and present, we plan a dialogue between ourselves and the audience. We conceive our conversation around the concept of playable books as a fertile starting point for thinking toward an expansively multiple understanding of agency and affordance in reading-playing, centered in acts of encounter for both the author-designer-creator and the reader-user-player. The ludic, performative materiality of all books, analog or digital, opens up inquiry across a broad range of hybrid instantiations: from children’s digital literature including the Sony Wonderbook works, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Sailor’s Dream</hi> (Simogo, 2015), and the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Mrs. Wobbles</hi> series (Marino Family, 2013-present); to hybrid mass market haptic books like 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Tree of Codes</hi> (Foer, 2010), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Nox </hi>(Carson, 2010) and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">S.</hi> (Abrams and Dorst, 2013); to app-based artists’ books such as 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Between Page and Screen</hi> (Borsuk and Bouse, 2012), 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Abra </hi>(Borsuk, Durbin and Hatcher, 2014) and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Pry</hi> (Tender Claws, 2013).  
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>Primary sources</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Abrams, J. and Dorst, D.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">S.</hi> London: Mulholland Books. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bazarnik, K. and Fajfer, Z.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">(O)patrzenie</hi>. Liberatura series, vol. 1. Kraków: Krakowska Alternatywa (renamed Korporacja Ha!art). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Borsuk, A. and Bouse, B.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Between Page and Screen</hi>. Los Angeles; New York: Siglio.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Borsuk, A., Durbin, K. and Hatcher, I. </hi>(2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Abra. </hi>http://www.a-b-r-a.com/ .
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bouchardon, S.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Loss of Grasp</hi>.
                        <ref target=""http://lossofgrasp.com/"">http://lossofgrasp.com/</ref> (accessed 5 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Carson, A.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Nox</hi>. New York: New Directions.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Danielewski, M. Z.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mark Z. Danielewski’s House of Leaves</hi>. New York: Pantheon Books.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dodson, Z. T.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bats of the Republic</hi>. New York: Doubleday/Knopf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Foer, J.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Tree of Codes</hi>. London: Visual Editions.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fajfer, Z. and Bazarnik, K.</hi> (2000, 2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Oka-leczenie</hi>. Liberatura series, vol. 8. Kraków: Korporacja Ha!art. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fajfer, Z.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Powieki </hi>(Eyelids). [Print, CD and online] Szczecin: Forma. 
                        <ref target=""http://techsty.art.pl/powieki/"">http://techsty.art.pl/powieki/</ref> (Accessed 5 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fajfer, Z.</hi> (2004, 2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Spoglądając przez ozonową dziurę </hi>[Detect Ozone Whole Nearby]. 2d ed. Liberatura series, vol. 2. Kraków: Korporacja Ha!art. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fajfer, Z. </hi>(2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ten letters</hi>. Ed. and trans. by K. Bazarnik. Liberatura series, vol. 11. [Print and DVD.] Kraków: Korporacja Ha!art. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fisher, C</hi>. (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">200 Castles</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""https://projeqt.com/caitlin/200-castles"">https://projeqt.com/caitlin/200-castles</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fisher, C.</hi> (2012). 
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    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2756","17","Player-Driven Content: Analysing Textual Communications in Online Roleplay","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>The purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which online roleplayers
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p> Roleplay in videogames refers to users remaining “in-character” while playing the game. While roleplaying, users use performative communication, interacting in a manner suited to their character’s personalities, and remaining constrained within the established limits of the game’s backstory.</p>
                    </note> make use of language in the construction of narrative. Using computational approaches to text analysis, we compare in-game chatlogs of roleplayers with those of non-roleplayers. In doing so, we identify the particularities of the language of roleplay. Our findings are significant in that they macro-analytically demonstrate the differences between the narrative language of roleplayers and the objective-driven language of traditional players. While these differences have already been analyzed by other researchers, this study is the first to offer a thorough account of them using quantitative methods.
                </p>
                <p>Roleplay is both a historic and present practice, dating as far back as ancient Greece (Corsini, Shaw and Blake, 1961). Throughout the 1970s and 80s, face-to-face roleplay surged in popularity with the advent of renaissance fairs and tabletop games such as 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Dungeons and Dragons </hi>(Barton, 2008). Today, MMORPGs (Massive Multiplayer Online Roleplaying Games)
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p> A Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game, or MMORPG, is a roleplaying videogame that takes place in a persistent Web-based world. This world is shared by a large player base interacting within a common environment for the purposes of socialising and playing the game in both an individual and collective manner.</p>
                    </note> are believed to enjoy over 47 million collective subscriptions. Research on the communication habits of online roleplayers provides insight into the contemporary refiguring of this long-running narrative and representational practice. The existing research on roleplay in video games relies on qualitative methods and focuses on games that have since waned in popularity. Our game of choice is 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">World of Warcraft</hi>, commercially one of the world’s most popular MMORPGs (Bainbridge, 2015), and thus a rich and legitimate source of data. We approach the analysis of this dataset using a range of computer-assisted methods.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methodology and Results</head>
                <p>For the purposes of this study, we gathered two sets of data:</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Chatlogs volunteered by 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">World of Warcraft </hi>roleplayers
                        <list type=""ordered"">
                            <item>Guild A donated strictly-roleplay chatlogs and non-roleplay chatlogs</item>
                            <item>Guild B donated strictly-roleplay chatlogs</item>
                        </list>
                    </item>
                    <item> Chatlogs volunteered by 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">World of Warcraft</hi> non-roleplayers
                        <list type=""ordered"">
                            <item>Guild C donated non-roleplay chatlogs from a server without background roleplay</item>
                            <item>Non-RP RP server consisted of the study authors’ chatlogs, from a server with background roleplay mixed with non-roleplay (task-oriented gameplay and casual chat)
                                <list type=""ordered"">
                                    <item>this sample provided a middle ground between strictly-roleplay and strictly non-roleplay samples</item>
                                </list>
                            </item>
                        </list>
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>We applied a variety of Digital Humanities methodologies to our dataset in an effort to extrapolate the differences in language of interest to this study. Our experiments included:</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Most frequent (uncommon) word analyses to determine if any dominant themes differ across roleplayers and non-roleplayers.</item>
                </list>
                <p>As can be seen (see Fig. 1), the majority of words in the non-roleplay sets are related to objective-based gameplay, whereas in the roleplay sets, there is a dominance of emotive and descriptive words relating to interactions between characters.</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Delta analysis to determine if chatlogs clustered by style depending on whether they were taken from roleplay or standard play.</item>
                </list>
                <p>We were able to obtain both roleplay and non-roleplay chatlogs from the same group of players (Guild A), allowing us to perform a valid stylometric analysis (see Fig. 2) to determine if there is a stylistic separation between the language used in roleplay and non-roleplay. We conduct the Delta analysis using R, which shows that the linguistic styles of these player groups are distinct.</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Zeta analysis to establish words that were distinctive to each player group.</item>
                </list>
                <p>Our Zeta analysis reveals those words which are distinct to each group. Words particular to the non-roleplayers include objective-based terms such as “dps” (damage per second), and slang terms such as “nerf” (overkill). Meanwhile, the roleplayers tend to use descriptors of body language (e.g. “looks”, “nods”,“stares”, “glares” and “grins”) and otherwise emotive terms (e.g. “cheers”, “breath”, “growls”).</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Topic modelling to determine any discursive trends across roleplayers and non-roleplayers.</item>
                </list>
                <p>Using non-negative matrix factorization, we ran topic models for a non-roleplay guild and two roleplay guilds (see Table 1). The topic models reinforce the previous findings, demonstrating that the focus of roleplayers is largely on narrative content, whereas non-roleplayers are predominantly concerned with game objectives.</p>
                <list type=""ordered"">
                    <item>Sentiment analysis to determine the extent to which roleplayers and non-roleplayers make use of emotive language.</item>
                </list>
                <p>Sentiment analyses of the non-roleplay chatlogs reveals that the language of non-roleplayers, as would be expected, remains, from the perspective of sentimentality, consistent throughout. The results of the analysis of the roleplayers (see Fig. 3) are interesting in that the sentiment oscillates to a significant degree, demonstrating a high degree of verbosity in the language that they use.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Significance</head>
                <p>While a difference between the play styles of roleplayers and non-roleplayers has often been assumed by researchers based on players’ self-identification, our study confirms a real distinction between roleplay and non-roleplay in terms of language. We have shown quantitatively that the language of roleplay is more emotive, narrative, and verbose than that of non-roleplay. MMORPGs can provide a platform not only for interactive play, but also for interactive storytelling or group narrative construction.</p>
                <p>Of particular significance is our finding that roleplayers frequently describe their avatars’ body language. Through use of descriptors such as “looks”, “nods”, “stares”, “glares”, “grins”, etc., roleplayers adapt to limitations in the control of their avatars by verbally recreating non-verbal cues. Analyzing the complex interplay of roleplayers' chat descriptions and the actual movements of their avatars can help us to better understand the challenges and potential of virtual forms of embodiment. It can also assist game designers in better accommodating the needs of a dedicated subpopulation of players.</p>
                <p>Methodologically, our choice to seek chatlogs from roleplay and non-roleplay guilds, rather than rely solely on our own in-game chatlogs, is a strategy that can be of use to other researchers. Guilds in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">World of Warcraft</hi> frequently store—and, in the case of roleplay, even clean—their own chatlogs, which can provide a focused dataset.
                </p>
                <p>Overall, this research demonstrates the potential for increased intersection between games studies and critical DH methods. Our study provides the statistical evidence necessary to further extrapolate how roleplayers use language to create their own storylines, invent character personalities, and develop meaning in the context of a game’s fictional world. In this paper, we will further detail the outcomes of our analyses, and offer a number of interpretations founded upon our results. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""667/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""667/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""667/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Table 1:</p>
                <p>Top NMF topics in non-roleplay</p>
                <p>Topic 0: kill mcs interrupt dps weapon switch power lol world corruption</p>
                <p>Topic 1: power world horde whirling corruption lol true yes dps flows</p>
                <p>Topic 2: rested feel longer learned blueprint watch frenzy goes thats just</p>
                <p>Topic 3: pst lf guild wod just heroic looking soo man raid</p>
                <p>Topic 4: loot corruption need help raid 100 tower arrogance free come</p>
                <p>Topic 5: honor kill warchief fallen blood garrosh iron drown crush hold</p>
                <p>Topic 6: lol like im yeah just ok think don good ll</p>
                <p>Topic 7: noodles river fish harmonious think fresh hour caught curse island</p>
                <p>Topic 8: roll weapons unfinished assembly begin line hey come gonna automated</p>
                <p>Topic 9: group role lol queued just ok members raid selected initiated</p>
                <p>Top NMF topics in roleplay (Guild A)</p>
                <p>Topic 0: looks look nods eyes smiles blinks head just grins right</p>
                <p>Topic 1: conversation 11 donnelly looks nods Sanctuary don</p>
                <p>Topic 2: says nods da looks ah nod liene Sanctuary ta horde</p>
                <p>Topic 3: ya like looks just know ta don oh drink good</p>
                <p>Topic 4: Sanctuary ze nods peace justice looks nod mercy oh</p>
                <p>Topic 5: looks smiles nods oh look ze good chuckles ve know</p>
                <p>Topic 6: looks hand eyes just don look like know head doesn</p>
                <p>Topic 7: looks look know just don nods like ve ll</p>
                <p>Topic 8: rhenold te looks look oh smiles like smile don tat</p>
                <p>Topic 9: nods Sanctuary looks like nod smiles look good don</p>
                <p>Top NMF topics in roleplay (Guild B)</p>
                <p>Topic 0: don right okay like ll think wolf oh um just</p>
                <p>Topic 1: alliance yay vote nay yes terms rose nods just debt</p>
                <p>Topic 2: portal makes gi strange gestures mog ha il team looks</p>
                <p>Topic 3: nods mallory accused looks rann tribunal crimes silvergear questions little</p>
                <p>Topic 4: nods ll need aye just guildB good time don know</p>
                <p>Topic 5: morgan hand smiles bowl ashford firestar child light looks nods</p>
                <p>Topic 6: horde iron time did looks nods know draenei speak foundry</p>
                <p>Topic 7: looks nods draconic form head asea blinks eyes moment takes</p>
                <p>Topic 8: alliance nods war GuildB looks king table aye order</p>
                <p>Topic 9: girl glitter oh okay like grins time took kneels maybe</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bainbridge, W. S.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The International Encyclopedia of Digital Communication and Society.</hi> In R. Mansell, P. Hwa Ang, C. Steinfield, P. Ballon, S. Van der Graaf, A. Kerr, D. Kleine, (Eds.), John Wiley and Sons.
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                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Barton, M.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dungeons and desktops: The history of computer role-playing games.</hi> Wellesley, MA: A K Peters, Ltd.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Corsini, R., Shaw, M. and Blake, R.</hi> (1961). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Role playing in business and industry.</hi> New York: Free Press of Glencoe.
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            </div>
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    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2757","17","Playing With Cultural Heritage Through Digital Gaming: The New Narrative of the ARK4 Project","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In this poster we illustrate the impact of digital technology applications in the field of the contemporary museum and cultural heritage practice using data from workshops held at the 3D laboratory in Trondheim, Norway as well as in the Digital Curation Unit, ATHENA R.C. in Athens, Greece. </p>
            <p>Significant transformations have taken place in the field of digital heritage due to the large extent of digitization of cultural heritage collections, the development of gaming and the application of more interactive use of cultural information on the Web. Going digital in the cultural heritage sector has created another space of interaction for users who seem to be increasingly involved in this digital landscape. Apart from that, digital applications have wore different disguises employed in different kinds of devices used effectively in the GLAM sector. Whether this wide adoption of technology suggests the wider engagement of the public with cultural heritage awaits interpretations. </p>
            <p>Does a digital visit realize itself differently in an immersive cultural landscape where the person visiting a site or an exhibition is active in seeking knowledge? Does this innovation really transforms the relation between user and cultural object? These are some of the main questions the project ARK4 has been dealing with since 2014. Experimenting with content, appearance and user design, our aim was to create a new virtual space of dialogue between the person asking the question and the organisation holding the answer and to explore different methods of technology in disseminating knowledge from the past to a young audience. To this purpose, we have experimented with different kinds of content from botany to archaeology and with different types of technology applications, from digital games on touch screens to online questionnaires. By following user centric methods, this varied interplay of content, digital applications and audience has presented interesting findings in terms of user satisfaction, evaluation of the content and the digital means. </p>
            <p>As the project enters its second phase, it also aims to create engagement and educational activities in the immediate community in order to engage school-children, university students and local enterprises in the seek of knowledge of the past. Each individual can be allowed in the frame of our project to deliver their own experiential perception on the story/game he/she chooses to interact with according to their own individualized level of pre-understanding and motivation. That is the visitor`s background, nationality and identity may influence and vary the outcome of the experience to be expected. Thus the visit becomes a complex process of interpretation and our inquiry might add a new dimension to the debate of creating a dialogue between European shared memory institutions and the individual visitor which can then manifest itself in experiencing diversity. Using the interaction between the participants and the objects as an observation field one allows the outcome to be varied and justified by the visitors’ personal intention. Our poster will present findings of three workshops organized in collaboration with museums and schools in Norway and Greece between 2014 and 2015. In our study we analyze data on how school children interact, work and learn in the context of educational workshops, through observation, discussions, and direct surveys, interviews of the students, system log-files and performance tests. Focusing on archaeological context, the project ARK4 in its new phase will further explore user interactivity with digital technologies and gaming. The broader impact of the study contributes to the discussions on issues pertaining to educational activities from the users’ perspective.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2758","17","Preserving Ireland's Digital Cultural Identity towards 2116","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>1 Introduction</p>
            <p>The Digital Repository of Ireland (DRI) is a national Trusted Digital Repository for Ireland's social and cultural data, accredited by the Data Seal of Approval. The repository links together and preserves historical and contemporary data held by Irish institutions, providing a central internet access point and interactive multimedia tools. In June 2015, the Digital Repository of Ireland was publicly launched at the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Preservation for the Arts, Social Sciences and Humanities </hi>(DPASSH) conference. At this conference, three organisations were presented with the DRI ‘Decade of Centenaries Digital Preservation Award’, the culmination of a six month project aiming to provide support and training to owners of digital collections relating to the Irish decade of centenaries commemorations. This paper will discuss the implementation of this Irish Research Council-funded project which allowed staff from the DRI to engage with collection owners and provide digital preservation and digitisation services and training. In this paper we outline the aims of the project, the methods by which we engaged with relevant collection owners, and how our findings have helped to determine the status of digital preservation in Irish heritage organisations.
            </p>
            <p>2 Background</p>
            <p>In June 2015, the first DPASSH conference was hosted in Dublin by the DRI, to highlight the technical, cultural, and social problems, challenges, and opportunities of long-term digital preservation in the arts, social sciences and humanities. The conference theme, ‘Shaping our Legacy: Safeguarding the Social and Cultural Record’, was developed to reflect concerns within the community that digital cultural heritage is at risk of destruction. The conference’s call described the destruction of the Irish Public Records Office (IPRO) in 1922 during the Battle of Dublin. As the Irish Civil War broke out, a priceless archive containing a thousand years of Irish history was destroyed. </p>
            <p>The destruction of the IPRO was used as an analogy to highlight the vulnerability and fragility our digital cultural heritage in the long-term. The challenge, however, is that “long-term”, in this context, comes nowhere near the thousand years of history housed in the purpose-built store of the IPRO; as Jeff Rothenberg (1999) states, ‘digital information lasts forever—or five years, whichever comes first.’[1] </p>
            <p>It is within this context that we sought expressions of interest from custodians of heritage material relating to the Decade of Centenaries (DC) who wished to digitally preserve their holdings. Funded by the Irish Research Council's New Foundations Award, we aimed to assess the scale of vulnerable digitised collections related to the DC in Ireland, to provide support in digitally preserving those collections, and to create a centralised access point to encourage their wide dissemination. Importantly, we wanted to raise awareness of the issues related to digital preservation and provide resources, best practice advice and guidance to all applicants. We also planned to have an impact on the community beyond the span of the funded project, providing equipment and training to continue to support the digital preservation of Irish cultural heritage.</p>
            <p>3 Methodology</p>
            <p>Our call for expressions of interest was announced in December 2014 and was circulated by the DRI community. The call sought collections that were partially or fully digitised and described, and which contributed to the national narrative on the period 1912-22. The winners were offered resources to ensure the digital preservation of their collections, including staff time from professional archivists and librarians, digitisation services, metadata creation, and the ingestion of content into the DRI for long term preservation.</p>
            <p>Interested collection owners were invited to submit a detailed application form, providing information on the types of digital assets in their collection, the volume, current storage provisions, and its connection to the DC. </p>
            <p>Eight proposals were received, and through the collection assessment and selection phase, three were chosen: the Irish Capuchin Provincial Archives (The Capuchins and the Irish Revolution),
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p> http://dx.doi.org/
                        <hi rend=""color(333333)"">10.7486/DRI.95944s31k</hi>
                    </p>
                </note> the Dublin City Archives (Dublin City Electoral Lists, 1915),
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p> http://dx.doi.org/
                        <hi rend=""color(333333)"">10.7486/DRI.9593zg12h</hi>
                    </p>
                </note> and the National Irish Visual Arts Library (Michael Healy Collection).
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                    <p> http://dx.doi.org/
                        <hi rend=""color(333333)"">10.7486/DRI.95944s32v</hi>
                    </p>
                </note>
            </p>
            <p>Our assessment procedure enhanced our understanding of the types of relevant digital assets held nationally, and gave us insight into the challenges faced by collection owners in ensuring that their content is digitally preserved.</p>
            <p>The second phase of implementation included a scoping exercise and requirements analysis for each collection, the creation of a project plan and allocation of resources. Requirements gathering was conducted through interviews with collection owners, undertaken by the DRI’s Requirements Manager and a Digital Archivist or Librarian in all cases. Work plans were created with tasks including digitisation, metadata creation and standardisation, ingest preparation and collection creation, review and publication. We worked closely with each collection owner to ensure that the processes and workflows we created could be repeated, and that these were reflected in our existing guidelines. </p>
            <p>Following the completion of the work plans, a digital preservation workshop was held at the Royal Irish Academy to ensure that collection owners were trained in the procedures required to prepare their content for ingestion into the DRI Repository - all applicants to the original call were invited. </p>
            <p>4 Findings</p>
            <p>From the initial submissions to the call for expressions of interest, it was clear that there is a need in the community, not only for preservation services, support and advice, but also for digitisation support. Digitisation services were requested by nearly all of the applicants, and in some cases digital preservation was not included in the application. It appears that Irish archives lack resources (i.e. staff time and equipment) for digitising their collections. While perhaps not surprising, the technical infrastructure required to provide robust digital preservation was also not available to any of the participants. This confirms the need for shared infrastructures, or indeed shared strategies on preservation, on a national level. </p>
            <p>Regarding the three selected collections, it was found that while metadata standards had been applied, they were in some cases customised according to the needs of the collection owner. Furthermore, although ISAD(G) compliant descriptions had been used by two collection owners, these could not be exported from the cataloguing software as EAD-XML, and needed to be manually marked up using an XML editor. These limitations create a barrier to metadata exchange and indicate that some archives are not planning for interoperability with other collections and/or repositories. While this was indicated in our 2012 report, Digital Archiving in Ireland, this project highlighted the practical difficulties involved in overcoming these barriers to interoperability. [2]</p>
            <p>The DRI guidelines and workflows were tested by the process of preparing content for preservation in the Repository and found to be comprehensive and robust. However, the underlying knowledge in the community regarding standardised metadata creation and the principles of digital preservation was not well developed. The preservation workshop held at the RIA was booked to capacity with a waiting list, and training in basic digital preservation and metadata preparation was identified as a requirement for our stakeholder community.</p>
            <p>5 Conclusion</p>
            <p>The award has allowed the DRI to engage with a number of new stakeholder organisations who had not previously undertaken any digital preservation processes for their collections. Through the award, and the subsequent preservation workshop, the team worked with seven organisations who had not previously deposited content with the Repository. As well as providing training to allow participants to deposit with DRI, advice was also provided on smaller scale, in-house preservation practice which participants could bring back to their organisations. </p>
            <p>The DRI believe that digital heritage is at risk of destruction and loss if action is not taken. Digital decay is the gradual decay of digital content. The solution is digital preservation – active ongoing data management. Long-term digital preservation is concerned with providing sustained access to digital objects and content and requires that institutions are cognisant of the processes and procedures required to ensure the form, as well as functionality, of digital objects. </p>
            <p>DRI actively engaged with our designated community and have sought participation throughout our phases of development - from our requirements analysis phase, through to user acceptance testing and content population. Therefore, while the DC call provided an opportunity to preserve and publish content it also provided a platform from which to engage with an important national programme of events, communicate with a wider audience and test our user guidelines and documentation. Crucially, it also emphasised the fact that long-term preservation is a socio-technical problem - the solution requires not just digital infrastructures but advocacy, industry and societal engagement, and cooperation with content owners. </p>
            <p>In addition to the practical aspect of this work we wanted to highlight the need for the national programme of commemorations to be cognisant that digital collections or projects created now, should be considered as historical artefacts for future historians. That is, our current digital commemorations should be preserved for future use and analysis. Commemorative events (both online and offline) are performative acts of nationalism and are an integral part of how we understand both our current and future selves. Current national projects should consider how they are preserving Ireland’s digital cultural identity for 2116.</p>
            <p>Acknowledgements</p>
            <p>We acknowledge the support of the Irish Research Council's New Foundations Programme.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>Rothenberg, Jeff: Ensuring the longevity of Digital Information (1999). 
                        <ref target=""http://www.clir.org/pubs/archives/ensuring.pdf"">
                            <hi rend=""color(1155CC)"">http://www.clir.org/pubs/archives/ensuring.pdf</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>O’Carroll, Aileen and Webb, Sharon : Digital Archiving in Ireland: National Survey of the Humanities and Social Sciences. Maynooth University (2012) DOI: 10.3318/DRI.2012.1</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2759","17","Project COLEM for CREATE (University of Amsterdam): Adapting NPL-Tools for Creating an Orthographic Layer for Early Modern Dutch Texts","2","<text>
        <body>
            <p>The seventeenth century Dutch language did not know a standardized spelling. Because of this, many different spelling variants of the same word (i.e. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ik</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ick</hi>, both meaning 
                <hi rend=""italic"">I</hi>) coexist. This may largely be the result of an author’s own preferences, background or the book printer he used.
                <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                    <note place=""end"">
                        <p rend=""endnote text""> It is not known who exactly was responsible for the spelling as it was printed. But due to there being examples of texts printed by the same printer that use radically different spelling forms it is plausible that the author of the text was responsible for the spelling.</p>
                    </note>
                </hi> Software to standardize, analyze or process texts is mostly developed for modern Dutch, so processing historical texts with natural language processing (NPL) tools or analysing such texts on stylometric aspects is problematic. Due to the orthographic variation of historical texts, software will not always recognize words that have the same meaning, but different spelling.
            </p>
            <p> For project COLEM we want to normalize spelling differences by having digital re-speller tools form a standardized spelling variant, that could help software better understand the texts. We investigate the possibilities to provide the original text with an orthographic layer containing the normalized words. In this way, the original texts and its morfo-syntactic information are still accessible and it will be possible to search both the original text and the layer. This, for instance, will ease research to language evolution. </p>
            <p>The Java software VARD2 (Baron 2011; Baron and Rayson, 2008) seems to be a useful tool for this purpose.
                <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                    <note place=""end"">
                        <p rend=""endnote text""> VARD is an acronym for Variant Detector.</p>
                    </note>
                </hi> This tool was originally created to normalize old English texts, but can be adjusted to other languages. VARD2 will compare the words in the input text with an incorporated, but easily adaptable wordlist (a .txt-file). We replaced the default wordlist with a Dutch lexicon and we trained VARD2 on texts of two different seventeenth century Dutch authors: Simon de Vries and Gotfried van Broekhuizen. Texts of these authors are characterized by a significant different orthography and this could therefore help us to train normalizers and test them on different spelling forms existing within the Early Modern Dutch language. 
            </p>
            <p>We trained VARD2 by replacing the variants in the historical texts with a normalization. VARD2 will present suggestions for normalization by using four methods of which just one is language dependent (a modified version of the Soundex phonetic matching algorithm that is based on English phonemes). Two other methods, that of letter rules and that of known variants, we adapted by replacing the default .txt-files ‘letter rules’ and ‘known variants’. The last method, a normalized Levenshtein Distance, does not need to be adapted, since it is language independent. </p>
            <p> In this presentation we will show the performances of our trained VARD2 tool. We will focus on a specific amount of problems the tools run into, like uncommon words, clitics and combined words. We will also investigate the possibilities of the Norma
                <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                    <note place=""end"">
                        <p rend=""endnote text""> Norma is written in C++11, though bindings for Python are provided as well. </p>
                    </note>
                </hi> tool (Bollman, 2012) and TICCLops
                <hi rend=""endnote_reference"">
                    <note place=""end"">
                        <p> TICCLops v.0.2(Text Induced Corpus Clean-up online processing system) is a web application (offered in a JavaScript interface) that is intended to detect and correct typographical errors and OCR (optical character recognition) errors in text. It is usable for every language, since it bases its replacements on the input corpus by making Most Frequent Words-list. However, TICCLops is probably less usable for providing a text with an annotation layer, because the replacements take place in the texts itself, without preserving an original version of the text. 
                            <lb/>
                        </p>
                    </note>
                </hi> (Reynaert, 2014). By comparing the results that various tools offer, we will decide what tool(s) is/are most successful in dealing with these problems. This could give us ideas for follow-up research or the development of tools for normalizing Early Modern Dutch, but probably also for normalizing other languages with unstable orthographies.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baron, A.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dealing with spelling variation in Early Modern English texts.</hi> Ph.D. thesis, University of Lancaster. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baron, A. and Rayson, P.</hi> (2008). VARD2: A tool for dealing with spelling variation in historical corpora. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Postgraduate Conference in Corpus Linguistics</hi>. Birmingham: Aston University, May 2008.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bollmann, M.</hi> (2012). (Semi-)automatic normalization of historical texts using distance measures and the Norma tool. In Mambrini, F., Passarotti M. and Sporleder C. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Annotation of Corpora for Research in the Humanities (ARCH-2)</hi>. Lisbon, Portugal, pp. 3-14.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reynaert, M.W.C.</hi> (2014). Synergy of Nederlab and PhilosTEI: diachronic and multilingual Text-Induced Corpus Clean-up. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Sixth International Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'14)</hi>. Reykjavik, Iceland, 2014. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2760","17","Public and Private Views of Texts in Digital Editions - The Case of the Kanseki Repository","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction </head>
                <p>The established pattern for a scholarly digital edition today is the website, which in many cases has a unique and well thought out user interface. It concentrates all information pertaining to the topic, but allows little interaction of the reader with the texts beyond what has been designed into the user interface by the developers of the site. </p>
                <p>Although there are also many efforts to go beyond this and experiment with new forms of reading in the digital age, for example protocols for sharing annotations or reading communities, they have not yet reached a stage where they would be available to mainstream researchers. </p>
                <p>In contrast to the polished and well advertised flagship editions of digital projects at prestigious institutions, there is also a continuing trend of making the source texts that feed into digital editions available in a way that not only allows, but actively encourages tinkering with the texts. The distribution for this latter type of texts is frequently on the site github.com, which is the world largest repository for software development 
                    <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">The site claims: ""GitHub is where people build software. More than 11 million people use GitHub to discover, fork, and contribute to over 28 million projects."" (
                        <ref target=""http://www.github.com/"">http://www.github.com</ref>, accessed 2016-03-02).
                    </note>, but as a free site for data sharing with collaborative editing it is becoming more popular for other purposes as well.
                </p>
                <p>Some of the large scale text projects using Github in this way include the 
                    <emph>Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association</emph> (CBETA) 
                    <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2"">
                        <ptr target=""https://github.com/cbeta-org/xml-p5""/> (accessed 2016-03-02), more than 4000 Chinese Buddhist texts in TEI P5 markup.
                    </note>, 
                    <emph>gitenberg</emph>
                    <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3"">
                        <ptr target=""https://github.com/GITenberg""/> (accessed 2016-03-02); a project that uploaded more than 40000 electronic texts from the Gutenberg.org project to make it possible to improve the texts that are otherwise distributed without the possibility for the readers to provide corrections.
                    </note> and 
                    <emph>EEBO-TCP</emph>
                    <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""4"">
                        <ptr target=""https://github.com/textcreationpartnership""/> (accessed 2016-03-02), which contains 25000 texts released to the public on Jan. 1, 2015.
                    </note> to name just a few.
                </p>
                <p>The presentation proposed here reports on the 
                    <emph>Kanseki Repository</emph>, a project that tries to establish a link between these two different types of text dissemination and through this combination to achieve the best of the two worlds: The texts can still be presented through a sophisticated web interface, which uses Github as a backend storage and reads the texts from there for presentation to the user. These texts can be forked (that is, cloned and copied to the user's account) which makes it possible for the user to revise or annotate them. The system is set up in a way that it will show this private copy of the text if configured so by the user.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methodological considerations </head>
                <p>The goal here is not simply to upload as many texts at possible to public archives, but rather to develop a platform that allows the basic tenets of scholarly editing to co-exist and thrieve with the possibilities and affordances of the digital medium. It is therefore of paramount importance, to consider the requirements as voiced from practioners of scholarly editing and implement them as transparently as possible. </p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Record and interpretation </head>
                    <p>In a seminal article, the Swiss scholar Hans Zeller (1995) emphasised the fact that all scholarly editing should make a clear distinction between the record of what is transmitted and the scholarly interpretation thereof. While this distinction is blurry at times, it has informed the design of the 
                        <emph>Kanseki Repository</emph>, which arranges the editions of a text it represents into those that strive to faithfully reproduce a text according to some textual witness ('record') and those that critically consider the content and make alteration to the text by adding punctuation, normalizing characters, collating from other evidence etc. ('interpretation').
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Additional requirements </head>
                    <p>Peter Shillingsburg (2015) outlines the following requirements of a digital edition (slightly edited for clarity): </p>
                    <p>a. Digitize images of all the documents. That will make it possible, from anywhere in the world, to see any document side-by-side with any other document without traveling from Tokyo to Marburg and New York. </p>
                    <p>b. Prepare a table of variants to show how all the documentary texts differ from one another. </p>
                    <p>c. Write a textual history that explains the relationships among the variant documents and explains why we should care–why it is important to know. </p>
                    <p>d. Transcribe at least one of the documents so that the variants list can be more easily used. Or transcribe all the documents so that readers can select and read any one. Transcribing all the documents will also make machine collation possible. </p>
                    <p>e. Edit one of the transcriptions to correct obvious errors. This will preserve the text as a historical documentary text but will help readers avoid the distractions caused by scribal or compositorial errors. </p>
                    <p>The architecture developed in this project strives to implement as much of this as seems feasible within the limits of the current funding and other constraints. The components will be further described below. </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Main components of the project architecture</head>
                <p>The architecture of the project consists conceptually of two parts: (1) the text repository and (2) clients accessing this repository. Of these clients there are currently two, both developed within the project. </p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Backend: Repository of texts: github.com/kanripo </head>
                    <p>Since every text has its own unique history and witnesses, every text is allocated to its own repository (in the technical sense). These repositories, currently more than 9000, are are organized according to the traditional Chinese cataloging principles and kept under the Github account @kanripo. Since the texts are publicly accessible, they can be freely downloaded and cloned even without ever touching the client interfaces. Due to the large number of texts and the Github interface, which seems foreign and intimidating to most readers of classical Chinese texts, special clients cover most needs in interfacing with the texts. </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Client interfaces </head>
                    <div type=""div3"" rend=""DH-Heading3"">
                        <head>Web interface at www.kanripo.org </head>
                        <p>This website provides access to the texts, including full-text search, display of transcribed text and facsimile(s) of different editions. Users can log in using their Github credentials and get access to more advanced functions such as selecting lists of text of special interest, advanced sorting functions by text category or date as well as cloning of texts to the Github user account and editing on site. The site went into testing mode in October 2015 and a first public release has taken place in March 2016.</p>
                    </div>
                    <div type=""div3"" rend=""DH-Heading3"">
                        <head>Mandoku, a stand alone tool for further immersive reading and study </head>
                        <p>In addition to the website, an Emacs module called Mandoku (see Wittern, 2012, 2013, 2014a, 2014b) has been developed (as an extension to Orgmode, see Domnik et al., 2015), that uses the API of the website to provide the same search functions, but clones the texts of interest to the user to her local machine, thus providing advanced editing possibilities and offline access.</p>
                    </div>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Towards a platform for text-based Chinese studies </head>
                <p>All modes of interaction described above are based on the distributed version control system git, using the Github site as a 'cloud storage'. However, in addition to providing storage, Github also provides a feedback mechanism through ""pull-requests"", where users can flag corrections to a text for the @kanripo editors to consider for inclusion in the canonical version, thus making it available to all users.</p>
                <p>The model outlined here is extensible and allows other developers of websites related to Chinese studies to access the same texts, and provide specialized services to the user, for example by enhancing the text through NLP processing. These enhanced versions can be saved (""committed"" in git language) in the same way to the users account and are then also visible to the client programs described here.</p>
                <p>This will open the door to a open platform of texts for Chinese studies, where the texts of interest to the users form the center of a digital archive, with different services and analytical tools interacting and enhancing it. The user, who makes a considerable investment in time and effort when close reading, researching, translating and annotating the text, never loses control of the text and does not need to worry about losing access to it when one of the websites goes offline.</p>
                <p>By providing versioned access to the texts in question, it is also possible to make any analytical results reported in research publications reproducible (Rawal, 2015) by indicating the additional tools and processes needed, ideally also in a Github repository in the same ecosystem. </p>
                <p>The aim is not just to provide a static, completed, definitive edition of a text, but as fertile a ground as possible for the interaction between the text and its readers, hopefully improving both through this process. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>Domnik, C. et al. (2015). Org mode for Emacs — Your Life in Plain Text, at <ref target=""http://orgmode.org/"">http://orgmode.org</ref> (accessed 2016-03-02).</bibl>
                    <bibl>Rawal, V. (2015). Reproducible Research Papers using Org-mode and R: A Guide, at <ptr target=""https://github.com/vikasrawal/orgpaper""/> (accessed 2016-03-02).</bibl>
                    <bibl>Shillingsburg, P. (2015). Global Textual Scholarship: An American View, paper delivered at a symposium on textual studies in Japan available online at <ptr target=""http://sunrisetc.blogspot.jp/2015_04_01_archive.html""/> (accessed 2016-03-02).</bibl>
                    <bibl>Wittern, C. (2012). Text Representation and Interchange in the Digital Age, paper delivered at Annual conference of the Japanese Association for Digital Humanities 2012 at University of Tokyo, Sep. 15-17, 2012. </bibl>
                    <bibl>Wittern, C. (2013). Beyond TEI: Returning the Text to the Reader. <emph>Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative</emph> [Online], 2013, 4. (<ptr target=""http://jtei.revues.org/691""/>) (accessed 2016-03-02).</bibl>
                    <bibl>Wittern, C. (2014a). Kanripo and Mandoku: Tools for git-based distributed repositories for premodern Chinese texts. In <emph>Digital Humanities 2014 Book of Abstracts</emph>, pp. 408-409.</bibl>
                    <bibl>Wittern, C. (2014b). Conventions for a repository of premodern Chinese texts. In: 東洋学へのコンピュータ利用第２５回セミナー, ２０１４年３月１５日, p. 73-88. </bibl>
                    <bibl>Zeller, H. (1995). Befund und Deutung - Interpretation und Dokumentation als Ziel und Methode der Edition. In: Martens, G. and Zeller, H. (ed.), <emph>Texte und Varianten : Probleme ihrer Edition und Interpretation</emph>. München, pp. 45-89, translated as Record and Interpretation: Analysis and Documentation as Goal and Method of Editing. In: Gabler, H., Bornstein, G. and Pierce, G. B. (ed.), <emph>Contemporary German Editorial Theory</emph>, Ann Arbor, pp. 17-58.</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2761","17","Pundit. Semantic Annotation for Digital Humanities","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Students and researchers are used to study on books and printed articles, underlining and taking notes on the text itself in the meantime.</p>
            <p>Pundit (http://thepund.it/) allows to perform the same actions on any web page, being it an online magazine, a blog or a digital library. In fact, Pundit (Morbidoni et al., 2015) is an open source suite of applications that allows users to build semantic annotations with different levels of expressivity on web pages, collaborating in the meantime with others. The knowledge base created by annotations can be reused inside the Pundit applications or by external third party projects.</p>
            <p>Pundit implements a client-server architecture and is made up of several components which interact with each other, but, if needed, are able to work independently:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Pundit Annotator</hi>: a simple and lightweight annotator tool that allows to highlight and comment text in web pages with ease. This tool is intended for general users, students and journalists.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Pundit Annotator Pro</hi>: an advanced tool for web annotation that allows to create semantic annotations (built by one or more triples) using text fragments, web pages, Cultural Heritage Objects or Linked Data entities. This tool is intended for scholars and researchers.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Pundit Annotations Manager</hi>: the Annotation Manager is a web application that allows users to review and manage their annotations as well as to export them in different formats.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Pundit Server</hi>: it is where all annotations are stored in a graph format. The data model of annotations is an extension of the Web Annotation Data Model standard (http://www.w3.org/TR/2014/WD-annotation-model-20141211/), defined by the Web Annotation Working Group of W3C. 
                </item>
            </list>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""323/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>Pundit Annotator Pro used in the project The European correspondence to Jacob Burckhardt</p>
            <p>By using Pundit, users contribute to create a new knowledge layer on top of web pages, thus enriching the web of data.</p>
            <p>Thanks to the possibility of sharing public annotations, adding comments to or evaluating existing annotations, Pundit can be portrayed as a collaborative platform, allowing the users to cooperate and share their results with workgroups, thus enabling revisions and a form of peer reviewing. Saved annotations are collected in notebooks that can be made public or private.</p>
            <p>Users are able to visualize and manage their annotations in the so-called ‘Annotations Manager’. Besides browsing their notebooks and performing advanced research, there users can export their collected data in various standard formats. In this way, is possible to save copies of collected data, to be potentially exported in different systems, compliant with the Web Annotation standard.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""323/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>The Pundit Annotations Manager is the application where users can manage their annotations</p>
            <p>The Annotation Server implements a set of REST APIs, which allow to expose public resources through content negotiation. The knowledge base can be integrated in third party projects such as Digital Libraries
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> In particular, we integrated Pundit with Muruca, the open source Digital Library Framework developed by Net7 (http://muruca.org/en/).</p>
                </note> and be used to build advanced research systems or advanced semantic data visualizations.
            </p>
            <p>In these last years the software underwent continuous refactoring with the objective to make it more and more modular and adaptable in several contexts. Besides the graphical interface flexibility, with its pro and light modes, the client allows the use of custom vocabularies and ontologies.</p>
            <p>Pundit can be customized for tailor made projects where requirements lie outside its standard features. Starting from open source code new features not present in the original version are developed.</p>
            <p>The first version of Pundit was developed from 2010 within the EU Semlib project (http://cordis.europa.eu/result/rcn/57391_en.html). Then in 2012 the development continued in the context of the EU DM2E project (http://dm2e.eu/). In 2014 the StoM project (http://www.stom-project.eu) started with the aim of bringing Pundit in the market as a software-as-a-service platform. Specific features of Pundit are also under development within EU Europeana Sounds (http://www.europeanasounds.eu/) project.</p>
            <p>Pundit is used for semantic annotations in research projects such as the ERC AdG LOOKINGATWORDS (http://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/102545_en.html) and ERC AdG EUROCORR (http://www.burckhardtsource.org) funded projects. In both applications it is used by teams of researchers to semantically enrich the corpus of text of their digital library.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Morbidoni, C. and Piccioli, A.</hi> (2015). Pundit 2.0. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Semantic Web journal</hi>, First published January 31, 2015: http://www.semantic-web-journal.net/system/files/swj1003.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2762","17","Quality Matters: Diversity and the Digital Humanities in 2016","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Digital humanities has been positioned as an amorphous and fluid concept (Kirschenbaum, 2014), particularized in various disciplines, national contexts and even local environments (Galina Russell, 2014; Fiormonte, 2015; Earhart, 2015; Risam, 2017). Yet intact structures that include the annual digital humanities conference, the various global organizations that form ADHO, and journals published by the various societies represent the field as a coherent body of practice. Ruptures at recent conferences reveal the deceptive constructedness of a coherent digital humanities. What we find, instead, is that digital humanities is deeply divisive and fragmented. Such ruptures were apparent at the 2013 Nebraska conference where the 2014 conference organizers announced an all male keynote lineup;
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p> Sukanta Chauduri was invited to keynote the conference, the first keynote speaker from the Indian subcontinent, and an important addition to what would have been all Global North male keynotes. At the same time, the lack of a woman keynote speaker suggests the difficulty in balancing a broad set of diversity issues.</p>
                </note> the 2013 conference where the awards committee admitted publicly that they made an error in the graduate student awards selection and had not considered gender, resulting in a skewed awards field;
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p> The 2013 awards committee publicly admitted their mistake and corrected the error, a highly</p>
                    <p>commendable action. However, the structural issue remains. We must consider how to develop policies and procedures to avoid replicating such oversights.</p>
                </note> the 2015 conference where the conference program featured an announcement of the all male board of the Frontiers in Digital Humanities journal; or the 2015 conference where the opening set of seven speakers were all male.
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                    <p> The twitter stream of past dh conferences document these incidents and the digital humanities community’s reactions. See, for example, Katina Rogers on LLC publication statistics (https://twitter.com/katinalynn/status/358226900616876033), Mia Ridge on the Fortier Prize team’s (https://twitter.com/mia_out/status/358340856706646016), Vika Zafrin on the keynote (https://twitter.com/mia_out/status/358340856706646016), Tully Barnett, Deb Verhoeven, and Diane Jakacki on women and Dh 2015 (https://twitter.com/melissaterras/status/621307138070155264).</p>
                </note> In light of this recurring theme, our panel examines how digital humanities, as represented by the yearly international conference, is a digital humanities that elides the borders of practice, that masks areas of dissension, and normalizes the field to a particular homogeneous form without contour.
            </p>
            <p>This idea is supported by the conference programs themselves. Scott Weingart’s analysis of DH2015 makes clear that “The DH conference systematically underrepresents women and people from parts of the world that are not Europe or North America” (2015). Gender representation in the digital humanities conference is a galling problem. As Weingart’s analysis shows, 46% of attendees to DH 2015 were women, but only 34.6% of authors were women (2015). Weingart further notes the data collection challenges of applying quantitative analysis to race, ethnicity, or other categories of identity. Ultimately, though, whether gender, topic, language, nationality or a combination of both, the DH conference has a problem in that the public structure of digital humanities does not represent the depth of work occurring within the field nor its practitioners. The problem is compounded by the treatment of such ruptures as aberrations, temporary mistakes by individuals rather than structural to the makeup of the conference. Furthermore, the organization siloes “diversity” as a committee matter or special interest (GO::DH, MLMC, diversity committee within PC, etc.), rather than a central concern or the universal interest of an organization with global ambitions, an organization whose goals “are to promote and support digital research and teaching across arts and humanities disciplines, drawing together humanists engaged in digital and computer-assisted research, teaching, creation, dissemination, and beyond, in all areas reflected by its diverse membership” (ADHO, 2015). In part this is caused by our insistence on understanding digital humanities as a big tent or a monolithic entity or field, ignoring the ways that digital humanities is practiced in its localized and cultural environment. Whether it is the way that gender, race and ethnicity, and nation are addressed (or not), how funding works in varying countries, the permanence or impermanence of jobs, and other such structural differences, participation in the international DH conference suggests that digital humanities is, in many ways, a living term, ever evolving, ever shifting in response to particular pressures of scholarship, the academy, national and political contexts, and the individual.</p>
            <p>A great deal of social science and psychological research has revealed that such struggles are increasingly a problem for organizational groups such as scholarly societies, and that there are productive strategies for engaging diversity questions (Fredette 2015, Plaut 2010). Further, research suggests that a “colorblind” or gender blind response to organizational structures place great strain on the organization and that ignoring issues of difference negative impacts both group dynamics and quality (Apfelbaum, 2012; Dezso and Ross, 2012; Ely, 2001; Nishii, 2013). We will be discussing such findings in relationship to positive, process oriented approaches within the digital humanities conference structure.</p>
            <p>Our panel consists of an international group of digital humanities scholars who are</p>
            <p>invested in a broad understanding of difference and digital humanities. The panel will discuss</p>
            <p>current tensions within the field and strategies for negotiating the structural challenges to the DH conference and ADHO itself. Of particular concern will be an examination of how the digital humanities conference understands its relationship to the quality of an international scholarship that is inclusive of a broad range of research topics. Panelists will consider topics that include the challenges of negotiating a wide linguistic field, the affordances and limits of quantitative approaches to diversification, practical positive actions that can be taken as part of the work of the program committee, and other pertinent topics. In doing so, they propose an asset - not deficit- model for developing diverse programs that more accurately represent the heterogeneity of digital humanities.</p>
            <p>Organization:</p>
            <p>The panel will open with a 5 minute statement by Amy Earhart, the chair, situating our</p>
            <p>comments within the above stated context.</p>
            <p>Each speaker will provide a ten minute statement that will address:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Barbara Bordalejo, intersectional feminism, the challenges of the majority language and the cultural norm;</item>
                <item>Isabel Galina, peer review, language and perceived quality;</item>
                <item>Alex Gil, translation/multilingualism in the service of trans-cultural equity;</item>
                <item>Lorna Hughes, ‘the extra academic professions’: the shifting communities of practice in digital humanities, and understanding and recognizing collaboration;</item>
                <item>Roopika Risam, the challenges of quantifying diversity; and</item>
                <item>Melissa Terras, the challenges of managing gender issues in the work of the Program Committee.</item>
            </list>
            <p>After the opening statements, the panel will engage in a discussion with those in attendance. We imagine that our community has much to say about such issues and would like the panel to be a place in which to begin this discussion.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">ADHO.</hi> (2015). About. 
                        <ref target=""http://adho.org/about"">http://adho.org/about</ref> 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Apfelbaum, E., Norton, M. and Sommers, S.</hi> (2012).Racial Color Blindness: Emergence, Practice, and Implications. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Current Directions in Psychological Science,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(3): 205-09.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dezso, C. and Ross, D.</hi> (2012). Does Female Representation in Top Management Improve Firm Performance? A Panel Data Investigation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Strategic Management Journal</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">33</hi>(9): 1072-89.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Earhart, A.E.</hi> (2015). Digital Humanities Futures: Conflict, Power, and Public Knowledge. Canadian Society for Digital Humanities (CSDH/SCHN) and the Association for Computing and the Humanities (ACH) Conference, Congress 2015. Ottawa, Canada.</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ely, R. J. and Thomas, D. A.</hi> (2001). Cultural Diversity at Work: The Effects of Diversity Perspectives on Work Group Processes and Outcomes. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Administrative Science Quarterly, </hi><hi rend=""bold""> 46</hi>(2): 229–73.</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fiormonte, D</hi>. (2015). Towards Monocultural (Digital) Humanities? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">InfoLet,</hi> http://infolet.it/2015/07/12/monocultural-humanities/</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fredette, C., Bradshaw, P., and Krause, H.</hi> (2015). From Diversity to Inclusion: A Multimethod Study of Governing Groups. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly</hi>, pp. 1–24.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Galina Russell, I.</hi> (2014). Geographical and Linguistic Diversity in the Digital Humanities.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(4): 307-17.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kirschenbaum, M.</hi> (2014). What Is ‘Digital Humanities,’ and Why are They Saying Such Terrible Things About It? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(1): 46-63.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nishii, L.</hi> (2013). The Benefits of Climate for Inclusion for Gender-Diverse Groups. <hi rend=""italic""> The Academy of Management Journal,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">56</hi>(6): 1754-74.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Plaut, V. C.</hi> (2010). Diversity Science: Why and How Difference Makes a difference<hi rend=""italic"">Psychological Inquiry, </hi> <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>: 
                        77–99.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Risam, R. </hi>(2017). Other Worlds, Other DHs. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DSH: Digital Scholarship in the Humanities, </hi>(forthcoming).</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Weingart, S.</hi> (2015). Acceptances to Digital Humanities 2015. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scott Weingart</hi>, 
                        <ref target=""http://www.scottbot.net/HIAL/?p=41041"">http://www.scottbot.net/HIAL/?p=41041</ref>. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2763","17","Quantitative Analyses of Chinese Poetry of Tang and Song Dynasties: Using Changing Colors and Innovative Terms as Examples","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">This research was supported in part by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan, under the grant 104-2221-E-004-005-MY3.</note></head>
                <p>Tang (618-907 AD) and Song (960-1279) dynasties are two very important periods in the development of Chinese literary. The majority forms of the poetry in Tang and Song were Shi (詩) and Ci (詞), respectively. Tang Shi and Song Ci established crucial foundations of the Chinese literature, and their influences in both literary works and daily lives of the Chinese communities last until today.</p>
                <p>Recognizing the importance of Tang Shi, a Chinese emperor of the Qing dynasty (1644-1912), Kangxi, ordered to compile a collection of Tang poems, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Quan-Tang-Shi</hi> (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi>, 全唐詩). 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi> contains nearly 50 thousand works of about 2200 poets. A similar effort for compiling a collection of Song Ci from the private sector began in the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), and achieved a collection called 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Quan-Song-Ci</hi> (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QSC</hi>, 全宋詞) in the early Republican period of China (ca. 1937). 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QSC</hi> contains around 20 thousand works of about 1330 poets. The exact statistics about 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QSC</hi> may vary slightly depending on the sources. 
                </p>
                <p>In the past more than a thousand years, literary and linguistic researchers have had done a myriad of research about the poetry of the Tang and Song dynasties. Hence, it is beyond our capacity and not our objective to review the literature in this abstract. Traditional researchers studied and compared poetic works that were produced by different authors and in different time periods to produce insightful and invaluable analyses and commentaries (Tao, 1999). Most of the time, the researchers focused on the poems of selected poets. Even when computing supports become available, studying poems of specific poets (Jiang, 2003) is still an important and popular type of research in poetry.</p>
                <p>Software tools facilitate the analysis of poetry from a panoramic perspective, and may lead to applications that would be very challenging in the past. For instance, Zhou and his colleagues (2009) analyzed the contents of collected couplets and Tang poems for creating couplets. Yan and his colleagues (2013) considered topic modeling in automatic composition of Chinese poetry. Lee (2012) concentrated on the linguistic analysis and teaching of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi>.
                </p>
                <p>In this presentation, we will discuss some interesting findings in some quantitative analyses of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QSC</hi>. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Colors and Imageries</head>
                <p>Colors are an important ingredient in everyday lives, and actually carried important meanings in religion and social statuses in pre-modern Chinese societies. Wong (2011), a specialist in colors, discussed hidden meanings of colors in China in his book on “The colors of China”. </p>
                <p>The beauty and imageries conveyed in the poetry originate from the collocations of the written words in the poems. Lo (2008) and Huang (2004) attempted to classify terms in the poetry by their semantic categories. The results can then serve as a foundation for analyzing the imageries hidden in the poems. Liu and his colleagues (2015) emphasized that colors play a crucial role in painting the imaginaries of poems: “colors in poems are like audios in movies”, and they analyzed the words related to colors in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi>. 
                </p>
                <p>Using methods for text analysis, one may analyze occurrences and collocations of colors in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QCS</hi>. The main contribution of our work will be illustrating meaningful applications of text analysis for linguistics and literary. The collocations of color words that appeared frequently in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi> are certainly interesting (Liu, 2015). Yet, the analysis can be extended in at least two directions. First, did a poet have specific preferences on some collocations? Second, how were the collocations used by different authors? 
                </p>
                <p>Bai Juyi
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Bai Juyi: 白居易; Liu Changqin: 劉長卿</p>
                    </note> has the largest number of works in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi>. He used “白髮”
                    <anchor xml:id=""Ref444902003""/>
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> 白髮: bai2 fa3; 青衫: qing1 shan1; 青雲: qing1 yun1; 丹砂: dan1 sha1; 青山: qing1 shan1; 白首: bai2 shou3; 紅塵: hong2 chen2; 滄洲: cang1 zhou1 ; 青春:qing1 chun1</p>
                    </note> with “青衫”
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi>, “青雲”
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi>, “丹砂”
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi>, and “青山”
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi>, and “白首”
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> with “青山” and “紅塵”
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> relatively often. Liu Changqin
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> , another important poet in the mid Tang period, used “白髮” with “滄洲”
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi>, and “白首” with “青山”, “滄洲”, and “青春”
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">3</hi> relatively often. These different words and collocations convey the imagery of “aging”, and the variations in the word choices shed light on the subtle differences between the poets about how they expressed emotions about aging.
                </p>
                <p>“白雲”
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> 白雲: bai yun, white cloud</p>
                    </note> is a very frequent word in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi>. Collocating with different words would create different imageries in the poems, e.g., “黃葉”
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Collocations of “白雲” and “黃葉” (huang2 ye4, yellow leaves) appeared in poems of 劉長卿(4 times), 盧綸(1), 常袞(1), and 賈島(1).</p>
                    </note>, “滄海”
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Collocations of “白雲” and “滄海” (cang1 hai3, broad ocean) appeared in poems of 劉長卿(4), 姚合(1), 崔峒(1), and 賈島(1).</p>
                    </note>, “清露”
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Collocations of “白雲” and “清露” (qing1 lou4, light dew) appeared in poems of權德輿(1) and 賈島(1).</p>
                    </note>, and “流水”
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn8"" n=""8"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Collocations of “白雲” and “流水” (liu2 shui3, running water) appeared in poems of劉禹錫(1), 姚合(1), 皇甫冉(1), 皇甫曾(1), 賈島(1), and錢起(1).</p>
                    </note>. Each of these collocations may brew a different scene in readers’ minds, and some of these collocations are more popular than others. It should be interesting for researchers to extract the source poems
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn9"" n=""9"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> Two examples by 劉長卿: “白雲留永日，黃葉減餘年” and “近北始知黃葉落，向南空見白雲多”.
                        </p>
                    </note> from the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi> to thoroughly study them.
                </p>
                <p>Liu et al. (2015) reported that white (“白”) is the most frequent color in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi>. We may check and find that red (“紅”) is the most frequent color in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QCS</hi>. It is interesting to investigate the changes (and their causes) of the popular colors from 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi> to 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QCS</hi>. Again, using text analysis methods, we can find a good approximation of the trend, though obtaining the precise frequencies of the colors requires the techniques of word sense disambiguation (WSD). For instance, “金”
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn10"" n=""10"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> 金: jin1, gold</p>
                    </note> could represent a material or a color, so WSD is necessary to achieve precise statistics.
                </p>
                <p>In 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QSC</hi>, the most frequent six colors are in the order of “紅”, “青”, “黃”, “綠”, “白”, and “碧”
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn11"" n=""11"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> 白: bai1, white; 青: qing1, blue; 紅: hong2, red; 黃: huang1, yellow; 碧: bi4, green; 綠: lu4, green</p>
                    </note>, while, in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi>, the most frequent six colors are “白”, “青”, “紅”, “黃”, “碧”, and “綠”. “紅塵”, “殘紅”, “紅妝”, “紅葉”, “紅袖”, “紅日”, and “紅樓”
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn12"" n=""12"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> 紅塵: hong2 chen2; 殘紅: can2 hong2; 紅妝: hong2 zhuang1; 紅葉: hong2 ye4; 紅袖: hong2 xui4; 紅日: hong2 ri4; 紅樓: hong2 lou2</p>
                    </note> are some of the most frequent red words in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QSC</hi>. The changes in the dominant colors from 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi> to 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QSC</hi> may be a result of the selection process and may be a result of the cultural shift, and is an academically interesting issue to purse further.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Word Inventions and Influences</head>
                <p>Liu and Wang (2012) proposed a method to measure and compare the influences of the poems of a poet. Their methods considered whether or not the poems were selected to be included in famous collections. </p>
                <p>While our goal is not to challenge Liu and Wang’s viewpoint, we would propose to consider also whether poets created new words that were used by later Chinese generations. Isn’t it practically meaningful and academically significant to create new words that future generations continue to use? At the time of Tang and Song, poets were at an excellent stage of the Chinese history to achieve such a cultural impact.</p>
                <p>We conduct an analysis of frequent bigrams in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QSC</hi>, and compare the differences. Words that appeared only in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QSC</hi> are candidates of new words which were invented in Song dynasty. Words that appeared only in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi> are candidates of words that failed to survive in Chinese language. Although this process does not really guarantee a water-proof theoretical foundation for word invention, the findings should still serve as a persuasive factor in linguistic, literary, and historical research.
                </p>
                <p>Here are some of such findings. “紅塵”
                    <anchor xml:id=""Ref444901871""/>
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn13"" n=""13"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> 紅塵: hong2 chen2; 惺忪: xing1 song1; 空門: kong1 men2; 武皇: wu3 huang2　</p>
                    </note> appeared in both 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QSC</hi>. “惺忪”
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">13</hi> is a word that appeared in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QSC</hi>
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn14"" n=""14"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> For instance, in〈浣沙溪〉of周邦彦 we read “
                            <hi rend=""bold"">薄薄纱厨望似空。簟纹如水浸芙蓉。起来娇眼未</hi>
                            <hi rend=""bold color(0000FF)"">惺忪</hi>”.
                        </p>
                    </note> but not in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi>, and is still being used in modern Chinese. “空門”
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">13</hi> is a word that appeared in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi> but not in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QSC</hi>, and is being used in Chinese. “武皇”
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">13</hi> is a word that appeared in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi> but not in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QSC</hi>, and is not normally used in Chinese. “酴醾”
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn15"" n=""15"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> 酴醾: tu2 mi2; also written as “酴醿” in 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi>
                        </p>
                    </note> represents another type of instance. This word appeared much often in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QSC</hi> than in 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi>.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Discussions</head>
                <p>A major challenge in analyzing the words in Chinese poetry is word segmentation. Traditional experience indicates that most words in poetry consist of one or two characters (2005). Relying on this heuristic, we can algorithmically analyze the corpora containing about 4.9 million characters at least approximately. To really understand and appreciate the poetry, one should not read them verbatim. Metaphor recognition can be essential for revealing the real intentions of the poets.</p>
                <p>Observations resulting from quantitative analysis of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QSC</hi> open windows to promising research opportunities about 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QTS</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">QSC</hi>, and their transition. In addition to colors, terms about astronomical objects, floral entities, meteorological phenomena, and geographical sights, are important participants in poetry. Innovative collocations of them paint impressive imageries in readers’ minds. Good computational tools can help researchers explore poets’ worlds more efficiently.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Responses to the Reviews</head>
                <p>We are thankful for the precious critiques and comments of the DH2016 reviewers. Our responses, which could not exceed 300 words, for the comments cannot fit into this final version because of length constraints, so we place our complete responses in a separate file online at <
                    <ref target=""http://www.cs.nccu.edu.tw/~chaolin/papers/dh2016liu.responses.pdf"">http://www.cs.nccu.edu.tw/~chaolin/papers/dh2016liu.responses.pdf</ref>>.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""footnote text""><hi rend=""bold"">Huang, Ch.-R. (黃居仁)</hi>. (2004). Text-based construction and comparison of domain ontology: A study based on classical poetry, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proc. of the 18th Pacific Asia Conf. on Language, </hi>Information and Computation, pp. 17–20.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""footnote text""><hi rend=""bold"">Jiang, S.-Y. (蔣紹愚)</hi>. (2003). ‘Moon’ and ‘Wind’ in Li Bai’s and Du Fu’s poems – Using computers for studying classical poems, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proc. of the 1st Int’l Conf. on Literature and Information Technologies</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""footnote text""><hi rend=""bold"">Lee, J. (李思源). </hi>(2012). A classical Chinese corpus with nested part-of-speech tags,
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Proc. of the 6th EACL Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage,</hi> Social Sciences, and Humanities, pp. 75–84.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""footnote text""><hi rend=""bold"">Liu, Ch.-L. (劉昭麟).</hi> (2015). Hongsu Wang, Chu-Ting Hsu, Wen-Huei Cheng, and Wei-Yun Chiu. Color aesthetics and social networks in complete Tang poems: Explorations and discoveries, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proc. of the 29th Pacific Asia Conference on Language,</hi> Information and Computation, pp. 132–41.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""footnote text""><hi rend=""bold"">Liu, Z. (劉尊明) and Zhaopeng, W. </hi>(2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Quantitative Analysis of Ci in Tang and Song Dynasties</hi>. Beijing: Peking University Press. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""footnote text""><hi rend=""bold"">Lo, F. (羅鳳珠). </hi>(2005). Design and applications of systems for word segmentation and sense classification for Chinese poems, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proc. of the 4th Conference on Technologies for Digital Archives</hi>. (in Chinese).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""footnote text""><hi rend=""bold"">Lo, F. (羅鳳珠).</hi> (2008). The research of building a semantic category system based on the language characteristic of Chinese poetry, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proc. of the 9th Cross-Strait Symposium on Library Information Science</hi>. (in Chinese).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""footnote text""><hi rend=""bold"">Tao, W.-P. (陶文鵬).</hi> (1999). Research on Tang poems in the first half of the twentieth century, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Hubei University</hi> (Philosophy and Social Science), v. 5. (in Chinese). 
                        <ref target=""http://www.guoxue.com/master/wangpijiang/wpj02.htm"">http://www.guoxue.com/master/wangpijiang/wpj02.htm</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""footnote text""><hi rend=""bold"">Wong, Y. T. (黃仁達).</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Colors of China</hi>. Taipei: Linking Publishing.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""footnote text""><hi rend=""bold"">Yan, R. (嚴睿). </hi>(2013). Han Jiang, Mirella Lapata, Shou-De Lin, Xueqiang Lv, and Xiaoming Li, poet: Automatic Chinese poetry composition through a generative summarization framework under constrained optimization, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proc. of the 23rd Int’l Joint Conf. on Artificial Intelligence</hi>, pp. 2197–2203.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""footnote text""><hi rend=""bold"">Zhou, M. (周明). </hi>(2009). Long Jiang, and Jing He, Generating Chinese couplets and quatrain using a statistical approach,
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Proc. of the 23rd Pacific Asia Conf. on Language, </hi>Information and Computation, pp. 43–52.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2764","17","Read, Play, Build: Teaching Sherlock Holmes through Digital Humanities","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The nineteenth century provides a perfect setting for a digital humanities class as a result of the similarities between the industrial and digital revolutions and between the proliferation of print and periodicals and the rise of blogs and Twitter. Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes stories are likewise the perfect subject matter: most of Holmes’s cases revolve around the technology of the day, from cabinet photographs in “A Scandal in Bohemia” to the typewriter in “A Case of Identity.” These connections enable students to learn about an earlier time period and literature while also historicizing their own technological moment. The resurgence in popularity of Holmes adaptations in recent years—<hi rend=""italic"">Sherlock</hi> (BBC), <hi rend=""italic"">Elementary</hi>, and <hi rend=""italic"">Mr. Holmes</hi>, to name just a few—emphasizes these connections and also brings students into the classroom. </p>
            <p>“Digital Tools for the 21st Century: Sherlock Holmes’s London” (taught from the Fall of 2014 through the Fall of 2015) is an introductory digital humanities class that uses Holmes stories as a corpus on which to practice a wide variety of basic digital humanities methodologies and tools, including visualizations, digital archives and editions, mapping, and distant reading. “Digital Tools” unites theory and practice with a tripartite structure for each unit, which I have dubbed “Read, Play, Build.” First, students read articles from books and blog posts about the pros and cons of each methodological approach. They then examine current projects to discuss the ways that each enhances scholarly fields and poses new research questions. Each unit concludes with an in-class lab component, in which they build a small project using a well-known tool. For example, in the archives and editions unit, students examine Jerome McGann’s “Radiant Textuality,” discuss the importance of preservation, access, and challenging the canon, examine <hi rend=""italic"">The Rossetti Archive</hi> (and many others), and use the tool <hi rend=""italic"">Juxta Editions</hi> to create their own, fully transcribed digital edition of a Sherlock Holmes story of their choice, using page images of the original printing in The Strand Magazine to learn about XML, basic bibliography, and best editorial practices. Likewise, in the unit on distant reading and topic modeling, they read Franco Moretti’s “The Slaughterhouse of Literature” and Ted Underwood’s blog posts on topic modeling, examine <hi rend=""italic"">Mining the Dispatch</hi> to see that methodology in action, and topic model all 56 Sherlock Holmes short stories and analyze the trends in a blog post. </p>
            <p>Although this class uses Holmes stories as base texts, it also situates these stories in their historical and cultural context by examining Victorian digital humanities projects from fields other than English. Students explore the <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the Old Bailey</hi>, a searchable archive of all court records in the Old Bailey from 1674-1913, to learn about crime, class, and the legal system. They also examine the <hi rend=""italic"">David Livingstone 1871 Field Diary</hi> to learn about empire and Charles Booth’s poverty maps from 1898-1899 from the <hi rend=""italic"">Charles Booth Online Archive</hi> to learn about socioeconomic conditions in London and to compare Conan Doyle’s fictional London to the actual city. </p>
            <p>This paper will present the class in greater depth and will provide examples of the digital projects students collaboratively created—from contributing to the marginalia project <hi rend=""italic"">Book Traces</hi> to making digital narrative maps of Holmes stories with Mapbox—in order to provide new models for student scholarship and their role in the future of the English departments and the humanities. It will also discuss the importance of the Holmes stories as the corpus for the class, as the character of Holmes himself provides a useful model for a digital humanist, especially when students may be unused to thinking about data in a humanities context, as he combines data science with humanities skills of close reading, archiving, and a love of literature and music.</p>
            <p>Teaching Holmes with digital tools lets students build on the traditional humanities skills of close reading, understanding patterns, and using archives, and augments that scholarly toolkit by guiding students to a better understanding of rhetorical patterns and spatial significance, while also teaching them about collaboration, interdisciplinarity, and public humanities. In accordance with its public humanities focus, the course’s materials, including the syllabus and assignments, are publicly available on the class’s website (<ref target=""https://hawksites.newpaltz.edu/dhm293/"">https://hawksites.newpaltz.edu/dhm293/</ref>). By melding research with project-based learning, this course enables students to engage with research and Victorian history more actively than is common at the introductory level.</p>
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    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2765","17","Recovering Shared Heritage via Spectral Imaging: Problems, Solutions, Interpretations","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>This session is planned as a complement to a proposed DH2016 tutorial that will demonstrate multispectral imaging, also organized by the Lazarus Project. The Lazarus Project, based at the University of Mississippi, makes multispectral imaging available to cultural institutions at low cost.</p>
                <p>From time to time multispectral imaging garners attention in the press for its success in recovering text and images from damaged manuscripts, maps, and printed books. Yet even among digital humanities professionals, aspects of the process of making multispectral images, from the selection of candidate objects for imaging, to practicalities of setting up for multispectral imaging, the collection of the data, the methods to combine the images to recover the feature(s) of interest, and their interpretation and display, remain obscure. The planned demonstration of multispectral imaging will allow conference attendees to become familiar with the practical aspects of the process, particularly the equipment used, its configuration, and its functioning. The talks in this session will provide a view from a higher vantage point of the practices and results of multispectral imaging. Topics to be addressed include political situations that generate an urgent need for spectral imaging projects, challenges and solutions in the organization of large imaging projects, the different purposes for which spectral images can be used, best practices in image collection, the development of new image processing algorithms to recover text from spectral images, and the use and interpretation of spectral images by scholars. </p>
                <p>The talks will be unified by an emphasis on solutions to specific problems in spectral imaging, and it is hoped that this emphasis will facilitate projects by other spectral imaging teams, and will also help scholars in identifying manuscripts and maps that are good candidates for textual recovery through spectral imaging. </p>
                <p>The ninety-minute session will consist of six brief papers, as follows:</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>From Chartres to Timbuktu: Spectral Imaging in a Time of Crisis</head>
                <p>Gregory Heyworth</p>
                <p>The past hundred years has witnessed greater devastation to the world’s collections of ancient manuscripts than any other period since the eleventh century and the First Crusade. Between continued war and climate change, the threat is only increasing. This talk will consider the role of spectral imaging as a response to the political and environmental upheaval. Specifically it will treat various techniques of recovery from spectral and volumetric imaging to x-ray fluorescence on important war-damaged collections in Europe, as well as the logistical challenges of recovery projects on collections in politically unstable areas of the world.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The Sinai Palimpsests Project: The Recovery of Erased Texts in the World’s Oldest Library</head>
                <p>Michael B. Phelps</p>
                <p>St. Catherine’s Monastery of the Sinai, Egypt, was built to approximately its form in the mid-6th century and today maintains the world’s oldest continually operating library. It holds 4,549 manuscript codices, among which are 160 known palimpsest manuscripts. The palimpsests preserve erased texts in 10 languages that date from the late 4th century to the 12th century. Only three of these 160 palimpsests have ever been the subjects of sustained scholarly study and published. Hence, the palimpsests of Sinai represent a largely unexplored source not only for new texts from antiquity but also for evidence for reconstructing the literary history of the Eastern Mediterranean. </p>
                <p>A collaborative project of St. Catherine’s Monastery and the Early Manuscripts Electronic Library (EMEL) seeks to recover the erased layers of Sinai palimpsests and make them globally accessible to researchers. Participating scientists are using state-of-the-art spectral imaging and image processing to render the erased texts legible; 23 participating scholars, scattered from Portland to Beirut, are identifying and describing the erased texts based on the image data; and EMEL and the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) are preparing to host the images and scholarly descriptions online in service to St. Catherine’s Monastery. The project represents arguably the most extensive application to date of spectral imaging to cultural heritage. </p>
                <p>This talk will survey the methods, innovations, and discoveries of the project. The survey will explore two recurring themes of the project, one technical and the other historical. First, challenges in the implementation of large-scale spectral imaging projects in the cultural heritage arena; and second, the significance of palimpsestation in the transmission history of late antique literature and languages. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The Evolution of Spectral Imaging in the Study of Manuscripts</head>
                <p>Adrian S. Wisnicki</p>
                <p>The Livingstone Spectral Imaging Project (2010-) is now in its second phase. The project applies spectral imaging to study some of the most damaged surviving manuscripts of David Livingstone (1813-1873), the celebrated Victorian traveler, abolitionist, geographer, and missionary. The first phase of the project (2010-2013) targeted Livingstone's 1871 Field Diary, and sought to use spectral imaging to recover now faded and illegible text that Livingstone had written crosswise over the pages of a single newspaper. The current second phase (2013-2016) centers on Livingstone's 1870 Field Diary, which is of a much more fragmentary nature that the diary previously studied by the project and, in fact, is quite legible under natural light. As a result, in this second phase, the use of spectral imaging has shifted from recovering lost or invisible text to using the imaging technology to explore material aspects of the manuscript, such as after-the-fact-additions (sometimes in other hands) and elements of page topography that can reveal details of the manuscript's passage through time.</p>
                <p>Broadly speaking, therefore, the Livingstone Spectral Imaging Project offers a window onto the evolving nature of using spectral imaging technology to study manuscripts during the last five-odd years. The work of the project itself has, in turn, galvanized the development of a larger, but related project, Livingstone Online. Through the collaborative, interdisciplinary nature of its methodologies, the Livingstone Spectral Imaging Project has also established a loosely affiliated network of specialists who have contributed to the development of the two project phases. This paper will reflect on the evolution of this project and give attention to the implications of this evolution, particularly in establishing a collaborative methodology that is empowered by its distributed, at times informal, international character.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Reducing a Challenging Multi-Spectral Imaging Task to Practice</head>
                <p>Kenneth Boydston</p>
                <p>The multispectral image data set of a cultural heritage object can have a number of uses by disparate parties, and can be in and of itself historically significant. When the object is large, largely degraded, and of significant historical value such as is the late fifteenth-century world map by Henricus Martellus at Yale, acquiring the images that will satisfy known and anticipated demands can be particularly challenging. Time constraints, budget constraints, technological limitations, logistics, handling considerations, risk assessment, personnel, and facilities are among the parameters that can affect the outcome and which should be included in project planning.</p>
                <p>Of particular interest are the technological capabilities and limitations. The technology can impact other parameters, and other parameters can impact the technology. While technology will certainly impact the outcome of a multispectral imaging project, it is often the case that technological limitations drive the project—though this should not be the case. In this paper we will suggest that multispectral imaging projects should be driven primarily by the needs of the scholars and conservators who will use the data, and that by focusing on these needs, technological innovations can be created and appropriate technology deployed that will make the difference between mediocrity and success. Examples from the imaging of the Martellus Map demonstrate a few such innovations.</p>
                <p>One innovation required by the combination of budget, image spatial resolution, value, size and weight of the object was a large, yet easily portable easel capable of supporting the map and precisely moving both up and down and left and right over a grid of locations. Spatial resolution required that the images be captured in an 11 x 5 grid of tiles and stitched together. Software and hardware protocols were developed to facilitate manual movements of the map. Lasers were integrated to track and maintain focus and camera alignment.</p>
                <p>Innovative use of software (MegaVision’s PhotoShoot Multispectral Imaging Capture Software) enabled a capture configuration customized for the particular needs of the map. This configuration was planned in advance, and then modified on site as the nature and needs of the map were revealed in preliminary captured samples. The magnitude of the image data set, together with the complexity of processing software (such as PCA), required innovative methods for preparing the imagery for visual appreciation.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Image Processing Techniques for Spectral Images of Historical Objects</head>
                <p>Roger L. Easton, Jr., Ph.D.</p>
                <p>The history of image processing of manuscripts to enhance or recover erased or damaged text goes back more than 100 years. The first work likely was that of the German physicists Ernst Pringsheim and Otto Gradenwitz in Breslau, who reported in 1895 on the development of an analog method for enhancing the visibility of the undertext of palimpsests by combining pairs of photographic transparencies that were collected under different conditions and processed differently. Their technique was improved by Fr. Raphael Kögel in the 1910s; he used ultraviolet illumination to further enhance the visibility of the undertext in one of the two images, which improved the results. These analog methods were difficult to implement, requiring careful photographic processing and accurate optical alignment to obtain good results. The first use of digital imaging algorithms to recover text from manuscripts may have been by Dr. John F. Benton at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in the 1970s, who used contrast enhancement and image sharpening tools in the NASA image processing toolkit. </p>
                <p>Over the last 30+ years, the capabilities for collecting and processing digital spectral images have improved to the point where it is now possible to have a complete spectral collection and processing system in a single suitcase that may be checked on an airline. The collected images may be processed using a variety of image processing tools, many of which had been developed for use in environmental remote sensing applications and are therefore not available in “general-purpose” image manipulation tools, such as Adobe Photoshop® and the GNU Image Manipulation Program (“GIMP”). Some are available as plugins in ImageJ, but we mostly use the special-purpose package ENVI that is written for remote sensing applications. This talk considers the image processing algorithms that were applied or developed for use to recover text from a wide variety of historical objects.</p>
                <p>The algorithms may be loosely divided into two classes: deterministic methods for rendering the image data in pseudocolor, and custom methods that are based on the spectral statistics of the specific leaf. Among the methods in the latter category are principal component analysis (PCA), independent component analysis (ICA), and the minimum noise fraction transform (MNF). In all cases, preprocessing and postprocessing tools are useful. The preprocessing is applied before the deterministic and custom methods and is often necessary to calibrate the images or compensate the image data for differential fading or other problems. The postprocessing tools are used to combine processed images to improve the rendering for scholarly reading.</p>
                <p>Examples will be shown of successful processing applied by the author and/or by collaborating team members to a wide variety of manuscripts and other objects in institutions all over the world. Among these are the Archimedes Palimpsest, the Syriac-Galen Palimpsest, the palimpsests in the “New Finds” at St. Catherine's Monastery, the Gruskovà palimpsest in Vienna, and the world map by Henricus Martellus (c. 1491) at Yale. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>New Light on Henricus Martellus’s World Map at Yale (c. 1491): Multispectral Imaging and Early Renaissance Cartography</head>
                <p>Chet Van Duzer</p>
                <p>One of the outstanding problems in the history of cartography in the last half century has been that presented by a large world map made by Henricus Martellus in about 1491, which surfaced in the late 1950s and soon came to reside in the Beinecke Library at Yale. The map has long been thought to be one of the most important of the fifteenth century; in particular, there was good evidence that it influenced the thinking of Columbus with regard to his proposed voyage west to reach Asia; it was thought to have influenced Martin Behaim’s globe of 1492 and Martin Waldseemüller’s famous world map of 1507. But the vast majority of the texts on the map were illegible due to fading and damage, and thus its exact place in Renaissance cartography was impossible to determine. </p>
                <p>In this talk I will look at the results of a recent NEH-funded project to make multispectral images of Martellus’s map at Yale—at the scholarly use that can be made of the images. These images have rendered almost all of the previously illegible texts on the map legible, and thus have enabled a detailed comparison with Martin Waldseemüller’s world map of 1507. This comparison shows that Martellus’s map was the source of most of the long descriptive texts on Waldseemüller’s map. At the same time, it turns out that the later cartographer chose not to follow Martellus for many of the other details of his map, and thus the comparison generates insights into the workshop practices of an early sixteenth-century cartographer, a subject about which we have very little documentation. In effect the multispectral images enable us to watch Waldseemüller at work, choosing different sources for different categories of information on his map as part of the process of creating a new image of the world.</p>
            </div>
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    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2766","17","Regional Digital Humanities Consortia: An Emerging Formalization of Informal Network Ties?","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The infrastructure supporting digital humanities work has evolved in a sometimes convoluted pattern of highly resourced large scale initiatives and small scale informal initiatives that lead to durable models that then scale up. Prime examples of informal structures becoming increasingly formalized until they become important features of the digital humanities infrastructure include CenterNet and THATCamp. Understanding such emerging informal initiatives and charting their development to scale is important for determining the essential ingredients of digital humanities infrastructure.</p>
            <p>This poster presentation will identify and explore a new informal infrastructure for digital humanities work that has emerged in the last five years: Regional consortia of digital humanities practitioners. These regional consortia bring together people from a range of institutions within a defined geographical area. They can be distinguished from, on the one hand, state and national digital humanities groups that organize conferences and edit journals and require paid membership, as well as digital humanities centers located in a single institution or formally constituted groups with explicit criteria for admission, and, on the other hand, not visibly organized interactions in active digital humanities regions, even if those interactions are frequent in practice. Paris and London might serve as prominent examples of the latter, as neither has developed an informal network despite being highly active digital humanities practitioners. In fact, a central question about the presence of regional consortia is what need is being met by taking on an organized form at all, as opposed to just “getting together”? It has been frequently noted that digital humanities infrastructure is highly unevenly distributed. Will successful examples of regional consortia in some regions inspire or provide a framework for a widening support network in underserved regions? Or will it lead to consolidation of already established digital humanities communities?</p>
            <p>I identify eleven regional consortia that have organized themselves with enough visibility to enable study (ten in the United States and one in Europe): DH SoCal, PhillyDH, NYCDH, Boston DH, Virginia DHC, TexasDH, Florida DH, SFBay DH, Detroit DH, Keystone DH, and DigHum Berlin. The framework is heavily tilted towards organizations in the US, and it is possible that there are comparable organizations in other countries that I have failed to uncover. As far as I can determine, each of these groups emerged more or less spontaneously from local initiatives, rather than being directly modeled on one another. I am not including DHBenelux or DH Nordic in my analysis though they share some of the same markers of spontaneous creation “from below,” because both have formally become affiliates of EADH and thus have taken on characteristics of national organizations. Many of them (though not all) share a close association with THATCamp. Either they came into being as part of the process of organizing a THATCamp or they were result of a THATCamp session. At a minimum, they exist virtually, as either a website, a twitter feed, or a listserv, or often all three. Usually, they also have face to face meetings of some kind. While most regional consortia have emerged in regions with at least one significant digital humanities center located at a major university, one of their most conspicuous features is that they are all expressly not housed at a single institution and are open to anyone interested in digital work in the region. Indeed, most appear to encourage outreach to under-resourced local cultural heritage institutions as part of their activities. Costs are kept very low, though some regional consortia have explicit institutional support from universities in the region, while others rely strictly on members’ support, drawing on institutional resources that individuals control.</p>
            <p>The earliest regional consortium to establish an online presence, DH SoCal, first posted in March, 2010. Because such regional consortia are so new, they are still in the process of defining their missions and organizational structures. In almost all instances, an important reason for reaching out across institutional lines in a region is a perception that the range of skills/technical expertise required for digital projects is too great for any one institution to have them all. Regional consortia become a forum for sharing expertise. At the same time, as noted above, regional consortia act as evangelizers for digital projects, to encourage local cultural heritage organizations to embrace digital work. So the other primary function of consortia is to publicize local digital projects to a wider public. Membership in these consortia vary greatly in terms of the distribution between students, faculty, librarians, and representatives of cultural heritage organizations. This poster will compare and contrast the membership, statements of purpose, and activities of these various consortia to see if there are core features that may help future groups organize.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2767","17","Remediations of Polish Literary Bibliography: Towards a Lossless and Sustainable Retro-Conversion Model for Bibliographical Data","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Remediation 1.0.: “Printed database”</head>
                <p>Polish Literary Bibliography (PBL) is a specialized bibliography which aims to map the totality of literary and cultural life in postwar Poland. It references primarily literary works and literary scholarship, however its entries also cover the related literary critique, adaptations, theatre performances, cinematography, radio and television broadcasts, as well associated events such as conferences or awards. At the heart of PBL lies its subject classification which orders the entries to reflect the domains, hierarchies and entities of Polish literary world, i.e. its ontology in the classical sense. PBL has been developed since 1954 and today covers the period 1944-2001. For most of its history it has existed in print, however since 2000 the data has been collected in the 
                    <ref target=""http://pbl.ibl.poznan.pl/"">existing digital database</ref> which currently covers the period 1988-2001 what gives app. 600 000 records.
                </p>
                <p>The vicissitudes of PBL remediations could be accurately captured through an urban planning metaphor. What definitely strikes every visitor to a large Moroccan city is a great contrast between 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">medina</hi>, the traditional old town with centuries-long history, and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Ville Nouvelle</hi>, new district built under the French Protectorate in the first half of the 20th century. The former reminds a maze with endless narrow streets, and buildings which are stuck densely next to each other with no visible order, whereas the latter is the essence of modern architecture with wide boulevards, large buildings and streets laid out in a grid pattern. 
                </p>
                <p>The current online database is quite exemplary for early bibliographical and cataloguing projects (in Poland as elsewhere) in that it is geared towards remediating the print form of the PBL instead of taking advantage of the new medium (cf. Antelman, Lynema and Pace 2006, 128). It is a tailor-made relational database developed in Oracle whose data model is built on a plethora of dataspaces for different types of records, accompanied by various catalogues of creators, contributors, associated institutions and subject headings. The former set reflects PBL’s main entities: literary works in monographs and journals, adaptations in cinematography, radio and television and associated events. The latter represents an early digital take on the index card catalog, the traditional tool of the bibliographer. Furthermore each record has a special markup in order to assure that its display at the frontend follows the structure of the paper edition. </p>
                <p>The result of this remediation is a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">medina</hi>-like database, very rich and complicated but not fit for modern uses. It makes perfect sense for people who built it, yet at the same time it is difficult to navigate by those lacking the local knowledge - be it a human or the machine. As it often happens with relational databases,
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p> For a useful comparison of different approaches to data modelling, see van Hooland and Verborgh 2014: 11-70.</p>
                    </note> it does not comply with any of the common standards in terms of record structure or data formats, what eventually leads to serious problems with both preservation and interoperability of collected data. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Towards remediation 2.0.</head>
                <p>The aim of the research project we are currently pursuing (
                    <ref target=""http://chc.ibl.waw.pl/en/projects/pbl-lab/"">
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Polish Literary Bibliography – a knowledge lab on contemporary Polish culture</hi>
                    </ref>) is to reestablish the PBL database project on Linked Open Data principles for its better reuse within and beyond the bibliographic domain (see e.g. Roszkowski 2013; Coyle 2010). However, we want to do better than the French colonizers of Morocco. The modernisation of PBL will be reflexive insofar as it will reconcile the OWL and the PBL’s unique ontology of the literary world expressed through the structure of its entries and metadata. The main task of the current phase of the project is development and application of the new data model. This task involves (1) the choice of vocabularies and ontologies and (2) rendering of the subject classification structure.
                </p>
                <p>(1) Vocabularies and ontologies (in the narrow sense used in information science) are needed to disambiguate the RDF triples (subject-predicate-object expressions). Here we need to balance two criteria. First the vocabularies and ontologies must enable widest possible sharing in the data cloud. Second they must be granular and complex enough in order to reflect the PBL data model, since adding too many heterogeneous elements would be counterproductive. The above applies to both metadata elements and their values. </p>
                <p>Whereas the choice of value vocabularies was rather straightforward, using the 
                    <ref target=""http://www.geonames.org/"">geonames</ref> and 
                    <ref target=""https://viaf.org/"">Virtual International Authority File (VIAF)</ref> for disambiguating geographical, personal and corporate names, the choice of the meta-ontology,
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                        <p> Our understanding of “meta-ontologies” (as opposed to value vocabularies) is analogous to what the W3C Library Linked Data Incubator Group calls “
                            <ref target=""http://www.w3.org/2005/Incubator/lld/wiki/Vocabulary_and_Dataset"">Metadata Element Sets”</ref>. An additional feature of a meta-ontology is that it “
                            <hi rend=""background(white)"">combines and organizes other ontologies to describe objects in a complex way.</hi>” See: Stahmer 2015. 
                        </p>
                    </note> or the vocabulary describing the metadata elements of the current PBL data model was much more difficult. It would be only natural to opt for one of the ontologies dedicated for describing bibliographic records, such as 
                    <ref target=""http://archive.ifla.org/VII/s13/frbr/frbr_current3.htm"">Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR)</ref> and its 
                    <ref target=""http://www.rdaregistry.info/"">Resource Description and Access (RDA)</ref> and 
                    <ref target=""http://bibframe.org/"">Bibliographic Framework Initiative (BIBFRAME)</ref> vocabulary variants (cf. Coyle 2016). Indeed, both contain a crucial distinction between “works” (a certain intellectual creation as such, regardless its edition, format or medium) and “instances” (expressions and manifestations of this intellectual creation) which in PBL is paramount for referencing editions, adaptations and critiques of a literary oeuvre of a particular author. For example, a review of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Don Quijote</hi> refer to either Cervantes’ literary achievement in general or to the newest translation of the Spanish original into Polish. 
                </p>
                <p>However, the FRBR-based ontologies are either not well equipped to handle theatre, cinematographic, radio and television instances of literary works, or (as in the case of FRBRoo) too complex to be easily handled by metadata producers in their everyday practice (Coyle 2016, 153).
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> In case FRBRoo is in fact widely adopted by the community of practice, we will be definitely interested in mapping it to our data model. </p>
                    </note> Therefore, we opted for a solution that is more generic but robust enough - the schema.org ontology. However contestable due to its rather restricted vocabulary when it comes to describing books, this solution is not unprecedented in the bibliographic domain.
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                        <p> For list of library-specific extensions proposed by the Schema Bib Extend W3C Community Group, see bib.schema.org. WorldCat.org uses a subset of schema.org terms for Linked Data (
                            <ref target=""https://www.oclc.org/developer/develop/linked-data/worldcat-vocabulary.en.html"">
                                <hi rend=""underline color(1155CC)"">https://www.oclc.org/developer/develop/linked-data/worldcat-vocabulary.en.html</hi>
                            </ref>). Updates on schema.org developments are frequently announced on Richard Wallis’ blog dataliberate.com
                        </p>
                    </note>
                </p>
                <p>This process of mapping is by no means mechanical. In many cases the PBL original methodology and the solutions of the first remediation entailed conceptual challenges, which will be addressed in more detail in our presentation. For instance, one needs to solve the tension between a minute bibliographic description on one hand, and the standard vocabulary on the other. Expressions entailing similar yet slightly different properties of the book such as “woodcut engravings”; “illustrations”; “drawings”; “reproductions”; “pictures”; “prints” need to be fit into the elements of the formal vocabulary of schema.org, properties such as “illustrator” and “artform.” </p>
                <p>(2) The second challenge of the new data-model involves the PBL subject classification structure. Here the option of using one of the existing and well-established subject headings/authority files published as Linked Data, such as the Library of Congress or German National Library Subject Headings was rather out of question, given the methodological uniqueness of PBL. Instead we will strive to create our own Linked-Data ready classification scheme while at the same time providing a partial mapping to existing resources.</p>
                <p>To realize the scope of this challenge one needs to bear in mind that PBL has been an ongoing project for the last sixty years. During this time, not only literary life and its study have evolved (cf. the emergence of the online literary life, Maryl 2015), but also certain state entities disappeared (e.g. Yugoslavia or the Soviet Union). Given that the future database will be populated through retroconversion of the paper records in addition to the existing database records, we cannot take the current classification for granted, but also accommodate its historical evolution. A non-intrusive way to account for the historicity of PBL would be to add timestamps to subject headings. Whether a synthetic data-reconciliation layer is possible requires further analysis.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusions</head>
                <p>In the concluding remarks we will concentrate on the expected benefits of translating PBL into LOD. </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>PBL datasets can be enriched through integrating other Linked Data collections (e.g. geographical data on places relevant to literary life).</item>
                    <item>Data exchange protocols can be established between PBL and other bibliographies published as Linked Data.</item>
                    <item>PBL data can be used for data-driven research in the humanities on such fields as reception history or transfer studies. </item>
                    <item>The methodology and the production pipeline developed in this project can be reused for retroconversion of other disciplinary bibliographies.</item>
                </list>
                <p>Acknowledgment</p>
                <p>This work was supported by Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education through the National Programme for the Development of the Humanities (grant number: NR 0061/NPRH3/H11/82/2014).</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Antelman, E., Lynema, A. and Pace, K.</hi> (2006). Toward a Twenty-First Century Library Catalog 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Information Technology & Libraries</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 25</hi>(3): 128–39.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Coyle, K.</hi> (2010). Understanding the Semantic Web: Bibliographic Data and Metadata, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Library Technology Reports</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>: 5-31. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Coyle, K.</hi> (2016). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">FRBR Before and After</hi>. Chicago: ALA Editions. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">van Hooland, S. and Verborgh, R.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Linked Data for Libraries, Archives and Museums: How to clean, link and publish your metadata</hi>. London: Facet Publishing.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Maryl, M. </hi>(2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Życie literackie w sieci: pisarze, instytucje i odbiorcy wobec przemian technologicznych</hi>, (Literary life online: writers, institutions and readers facing technological changes). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo IBL.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Roszkowski, M. </hi>(2013). Od MARC 21 do Semantic Web: reprezentacja metadanych bibliograficznych w środowisku sieciowym (From MARC21 to Semantic Web: bibliographic metadata representation in network environment). In Franke, J. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bibliografi@: źródła, standardy, zasoby</hi>. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo SPB, pp. 13-37. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Stahmer, C.</hi> (2015). Approaches to Digital Bibliography and Book History: Ontology Reference, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Carl Stahmer blog</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.carlstahmer.com/2015/06/approaches-to-digital-bibliography-and-book-history-ontology-reference/"">http://www.carlstahmer.com/2015/06/approaches-to-digital-bibliography-and-book-history-ontology-reference/</ref> (accessed 29 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2768","17","Representing Justice in Digital Archiving Practice","3","","","2","",""
"2769","17","Research Data in the Humanities: Present, preserve, and share","2","","","2","",""
"2770","17","Schrifttanz: Written Dance/Movement Poems","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>One of the most frustrating challenges facing practitioners of Dance is the need to use spoken/written language to reference non-verbal movement. The non-verbal to verbal, and vice versa, is not a challenge isolated to practitioners of dance, but is a frustration shared amongst researchers working to represent movement through technological means. Perhaps it is enough to allow the movement, non-verbal as it is, to speak for itself. Then again, it is often through verbal language that we can make meaning from movement. The intersection of language and movement is the point at which meaning-making enforces the mind-body connection, and it is often how embodied experience is transmitted. Two HCI research projects that have studied this connection between words and movement as a means to the classification and automatic recognition of movement, ARTeFACT and POEME, are now collaborating in a new project: Schrifttanz. </p>
            <p>ARTeFACT seeks to enable automatic recognition, identification, annotation, and retrieval of movement-based data from streaming video. A lofty goal that has been approached through the generation and analysis of both codified and abstract movement using motion capture data collected at 120 Hz with a Vicon 8-camera motion capture system and a modified Plug-In Gait full body marker set with 38 infrared reflecting markers placed on performers. Early research included instances of iterative choreography created from accelerometer data and descriptions of movement through verbal language by observers (Coartney and Wiesner, 2009). The second phase of the project involved the capture of over 200 codified dance ‘steps’ in various genres, the development of an ontology, and the creation of IDMove, a tool through which we were able to automatically identify and name dance movement from single dancers (Wiesner et al., 2011, 2014). The third phase ventured into the realm of identifying abstract movement that represents the conceptual metaphor CONFLICT, as introduced by Lakoff and Johnson (2003).</p>
            <p>This data, derived from 7 dances about conflict and 19 CONFLICT terms, 396 different sections of movement, each lasting from 2-120 seconds, were captured and categorised. Critical reviews (written) about the dance works were also collected. Through statistical analysis of written and danced texts about CONFLICT, we distinguished body parts frequently used, structural preferences (e.g. stage spacing), and choreographic time spent on the different CONFLICT terms in total and per dance (Wiesner et al., 2015). The findings were validated by a small ‘crowd-sourced’ experiment, and movement ‘rules’ were developed per term in order to enable identification of a concept through movement (terms include victim, attack, surrender, struggle, conquer, hero, victory, survive, etc.) (Wiesner and Stalnaker, 2015). Concordances and collocation studies aided in the investigation of the intersections of words and movement, through the phenomenological approach of dancers’ descriptions and perceptions of viewers in the form of the reviews written by dance critics. A final step has been to align the non-verbal and verbal output with concepts used in Laban Movement Analysis (Body, Effort, Shape, and Space). ARTeFACT has collected a wealth of data from captured movement, from written descriptions and articles based on the dances, and from a broad LMA perspective. In the future, various modes of comparison (e.g. the metaphor PEACE, general language studies, etc.) will further test the system.</p>
            <p>Other researchers have incorporated LMA into their study as a means to identify movement (including studies on rats’ play) (Foroud and Pellis, 2003), yet their focus is on deconstruction. POEME and ARTeFACT coincide in that rather than provide a deconstruction of the movement they both seek to characterise the essence of that movement, an approach inspired by LMA. In the case of ARTeFACT, this is accomplished by describing the relations between parts of a movement that accompany the portrayal of abstract concepts in dance. For POEME, it means finding computational means to summarize a movement experience so that it can be studied as a whole.</p>
            <p>Where ARTeFACT has taken a more actively analytical approach - which resulted in a set of rules that describe stereotyped motion consistent with conceptual metaphors - POEME has taken a more abstract approach, letting data collection from a large number of human responses gradually expose relationships between verse and movement. POEME (Portrayal of Ephemeral Movement Experiences) is a mobile website (<ref target=""http://poeme.iat.sfu.ca"">http://poeme.iat.sfu.ca</ref>) that interprets movement data, captured through a MARG sensor array commonly found in smartphones, into insightful, witty and whimsical poetry. The goals of POEME are twofold: 1) to create a playful game that can inspire movement exploration and 2) to explore new methods of classifying the nuances of bodily experiences through poetry and in turn understand how bodily knowledge can more easily be transmitted and articulated through words.</p>
            <p>POEME, inspired by the Japanese form of poetry known as <hi rend=""italic"">haika no renga</hi> (comic, collaborative poetry), involves the social creation of poems through turn taking (Basho, 1998). Creating these linked poems requires participants to respond to previous stanzas with original verse creating a ‘movement poem’, an interleaved work of verses of words and phrases of movement. We believe, as Herbelot notes, that poetry can be “analysed along the usual dimensions of prosody, syntax, semantics, etc.” (2015). In POEME, each verse follows a rigid template that follows the form of a Parts of Speech Poem (PoSP). This PoSP template allows for very simple production of verses. Each poem begins with a noun, followed by two adjectives, two verbs, and an adverb. POEME composes verses from a large dictionary of English language words, based on measurements taken from prior movement responses. In an initial study, the system was trained by collecting movement responses to human- and machine-composed verses. In a later study, training was focused on two wordlists that depict different themes of movement: the ‘stillness wordlist’ (75 words that relate to little or no dynamic change in movement, e.g. frozen, still, serene); and a ‘motion wordlist’ (250 words related to the mechanics or physics of motion, e.g. buoyant, centripetal, accelerated). Using a Naive Bayes algorithm, POEME can differentiate between stillness and motion with 97% accuracy (Cuykendall et al., 2016).</p>
            <p>Schrifttanz is a unique project that combines the scale of data collection, which POEME offers, with the nuanced language model of ARTeFACT. In Schrifttanz we explore if POEME can recognise conceptual differences in movement, specifically concepts related to CONFLICT, which have been studied in detail during the creation of the ARTeFACT system. Three dancers train the POEME agent by recording movement based on the rules defined in ARTeFACT. These recorded movement sessions are used to model conceptual relations to movement in POEME. This allows us to generalise previous findings from ARTeFACT into a new sensor modality. Also, a Laban/Bartenieff Movement Analysis using the rules-based movements establishes a secondary set of language elements and validates distinctions between movement rules. A computational agent in POEME learns to classify these movements according to the metaphor terms and their associated movements generated by the rules. We then compare POEME’s ability to classify these movement metaphors with existing capabilities in ARTeFACT to validate and generalise previous findings and establish the reliability of the POEME system.</p>
            <p>Concurrently, POEME composes verses comprised of natural language words gathered through the written articles and reviews based on dances representing the conceptual metaphors identified in ARTeFACT. Free form responses to these verses are collected using POEME’s normal training procedure. A machine learning-process associates features of movement with the words. This allows POEME to generate relevant responses to movement. We explore methods of supplementing POEME’s verse generation by including the conceptual metaphor model.</p>
            <p>Words, like movements, have layers of meaning and can be recombined to create a multitude of sentences or sequences that all vary in their underlying meaning. As philosopher Mark Johnson states, “It is true that when we read, we read words. But words have meanings, and meanings go far beyond words” (2008). In Schrifttanz, the same could be said for bodily movement. POEME’s use of current mobile technology and the powerful interactive engine the POEME project has developed enables us to draw from a broader population in order to study and validate the findings of ARTeFACT. Synergistically, ARTeFACT offers to POEME the ability to advance its training mechanisms while it supports the representational nature of the data generated. The two projects are pieces of a puzzle that seeks to establish a better understanding of the relationship between movement and language through the particular and the universal. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Basho, M.</hi> (1998).
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Basho’s Narrow Road: Spring and Autumn Passages. </hi>Southbridge, MA: Stone Bridge Press, Inc. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coartney, J. and Wiesner, S.</hi> (2009). Performance as Digital Text: capturing signals and secret messages in the media rich experience. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing,</hi> 24(2).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cuykendall, S., Soutar-Rau, E. and Schiphorst, T.</hi> (February, 2016). POEME: A Poetry Engine Powered by Your Movement. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the TEI'16: Tenth International Conference on Tangible, Embedded, and Embodied Interaction</hi>, pp. 635-64. ACM.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Foroud, A. and Pellis, S.M.</hi> (2003). The Development of “Roughness” in the Play Fighting of Rats: A Laban Movement Analysis Perspective. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dev Psychobiol,</hi> 42.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Herbelot, A.</hi> (2015). The semantics of poetry: A distributional reading. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities,</hi> 30(4).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Johnson, M.</hi> (2008).
                        <hi rend=""italic""> The meaning of the body: Aesthetics of human understanding</hi>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M.</hi> (2003 (2<hi rend=""superscript"">nd</hi> ed.)).
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Metaphors We Live By</hi>. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Simpson, T., Wiesner, S., and Bennett, B.</hi> (2014). Dance Recognition System Using Lower Body Movement. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Applied Biomechanics,</hi> 30(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wiesner, S., Bennett, B., and Stalnaker, R.</hi> (2011). ARTeFACT Movement Thesaurus. White Paper, NEH Office of Digital Humanities.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wiesner, S. and Stalnaker, R.</hi> (2015). Representing Conflict through Dance: using quantitative methods to study choreographic time, stage space, and the body in motion. Dwyer, S., R. Franks and R. Green (Eds) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">With(out) Trace: inter-disciplinary investigations into time, space and the body,</hi> Oxford: Inter-Disciplinary Press (in press).  
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wiesner, S., Stalnaker, R. and Austin, A.</hi> (2015). Training the Machine: Movement, Mo-cap, and Metaphor. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Visual Aspects of Performance,</hi> Oxford: Inter-Disciplinary Press (in press).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2771","17","Sequentiality in Genetic Digital Scholarly Editions. Models for Encoding the Dynamics of the Writing Process.","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>When TEI P5 version 2.0 was published in 2011, scholarly editors who are interested in the writing process of literary works gained an important instrument for encoding their genetic Digital Scholarly Editions in TEI-conformant XML. After a long process of deliberation, this version of the TEI’s encoding schema incorporated a large number of modifications proposed by the TEI MS SIG’s Workgroup on Genetic Editions that aimed to re-evaluate the existing TEI tagset in order to facilitate the encoding of genetic phenomena (TEI Consortium, 2011). The Workgroup’s ‘Encoding Model for Genetic Editions’ (2010) reveals two major points of interest in this proposal: (1) the need for the ability to encode features of the document rather than those of the text; and (2) the need for the ability to encode time, sequentiality and writing stages in those documents’ transcriptions. </p>
            <p>The main answer to the first point of interest was the introduction of the <sourceDoc> element (as well as its <surface> children), that was allowed to exist on the same hierarchical level as the <teiHeader>, <facsimile>, and <text> elements. Since the Text Encoding Initiative has (as its name implies) historically favoured ‘text’ over ‘document’, this can be regarded as a powerful statement to the TEI community that documents are as valuable as texts in textual scholarship, and that it should be possible to transcribe them as such. As a result, this encoding model has been gratefully adopted by editors who are taking a more document-oriented approach to the transcription of their materials – like those of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Shelley Godwin Archive</hi> (<hi rend=""italic"">S-GA</hi>) for instance (Shelley, 2013). The question remains, however, whether the use of this vocabulary is enough to classify a Digital Scholarly Edition as a ‘genetic’ edition. While the document will take up a central position in any genetic edition, the use of the ‘Genetic Editions’ document-oriented transcription model is not a distinctive feature of the genetic edition in itself. 
            </p>
            <p>The Workgroup’s second point of interest (the encoding of ‘time’) is much more central to genetic criticism. In ‘The Open Space of the Draft Page’, Daniel Ferrer makes a compelling argument that ‘the draft is not a text […], it is a protocol for making a text’, comparing it to a musical score that, though by itself inherently mute, can be interpreted as a set of instructions for a future performance (1998, 261). Likewise, a draft document leaves the writer with a set of instructions that help her transport the unfinished text from one writing stage to the next. The interpretation of these instructions, and of the distinction between different versions and writing stages, is one of the most important tasks of genetic criticism. This is what makes sequentiality such a key aspect of genetic editing: only by interpreting the draft materials as an interconnected sequence of writing acts can we expose the dynamics of the author’s writing process. </p>
            <p>There are many ways of encoding this sequentiality in the transcriptions of draft materials, across varying levels of granularity. The Workgroup’s suggestion to use the <change> element to highlight distinct revision campaigns, for instance, effectively differentiates between individual versions of the same text when they are found within a single document. As Pierazzo and André’s ‘Proust Prototype’ demonstrates, this method can even be employed to sequence individual stages within a single version (2012). Going even further, projects like the CD-ROM edition of Willem Elsschot’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Achter de Schermen</hi> (2007) and the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Melville Electronic Library’s</hi> TextLab software (2009-) analyze what John Bryant has called the internal ‘revision sequences’ of individual sentences (Bryant, 2008). The danger of analyzing the writing process on this small a level, however, is that the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">mechanics</hi> of the writing process may start to interfere with the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dynamics </hi>of that writing process. From a genetic perspective, it is more important to expose the dynamic relation between the textual elements involved in a modification (e.g. ‘this is a substitution’) than the mechanical order in which that modification was made (e.g. ‘first this word was deleted, then this other word was added’). Since the exact writing sequence of such a modification is often impossible to reconstruct with any degree of certainty, consistently analyzing and sequencing all the work’s revision sites may introduce a number of hypotheses in the edition that the editor is not necessarily comfortable with committing to. 
            </p>
            <p>On the other side of the spectrum, analyzing larger macrogenetic processes across documents, the ‘Encoding Model for Genetic Editions’ refers to the TEI’s ‘Graphs, Networks, and Trees’ module, suggesting to encode the relations between documents as the <arc>s between <node>s in a <graph> element. Depending on the complexity of the writing process, this <graph> may result in an intricate data structure that can be used to visualize the chronology of the writing process on a highly abstract level. For writing processes that are less complex on the macrogenetic level, however, this model may be too much pain for too little gain, as a manually designed timetable could also do the trick.</p>
            <p>The Beckett Digital Manuscript Project’s approach to encoding sequentiality into its genetic Digital Scholarly Edition of Samuel Beckett’s works tries to seek a middle ground between these two extremes: rather than analyzing the way in which individual sentences were written, the BDMP’s encoding model allows the user to discover how those sentences were changed from version to version, across different documents. By linking related semantic clusters on the sentence level across versions, this model allows for the on the fly generation of a chronological overview of all the different versions of each sentence in the corpus. As such, this model combines the ability of comparing different versions of the same work of more macrogenetically oriented approaches with the higher granularity of more microgenetically oriented approaches. </p>
            <p>After illustrating the challenges and opportunities of these different models of encoding sequentiality in genetic editions, this paper will demonstrate how the BDMP transcribes its genetic materials in view of visualizing their sequentiality in the edition’s ‘Synoptic Sentence View’ (see ‘Figure 1’). The paper will conclude by presenting an example of how this encoding model may also be used to interpret the macrogenetic writing sequence of individual documents by means of an animated visualization of the writing process of the first draft of Beckett’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">L’Innommable</hi>.
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""655/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1: BDMP Synoptic Sentence View</head>
            </figure>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Beckett, S.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Stirrings Still / Soubresauts and Comment Dire / what is the word: a digial genetic edition (Series ‘The Beckett Digital Manuscript Project’ module 1)</hi>, edited by Dirk Van Hulle and Vincent Neyt. Brussels and London, University Press Antwerp (ASP/UPA) and Bloomsbury Academic. http://www.beckettarchive.org (accessed on 12 November 2013). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Beckett S.</hi>(2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">L’Innommable / The Unnamable: a digital genetic edition (Series ‘The Beckett Digital Manuscript Project’, module 2). </hi>Edited by Dirk Van Hulle, Shane Weller and Vincent Neyt. London and Brussels and London, Bloomsbury and University Press Antwerp (ASP/UPA) and Bloomsbury Academic. http://www.beckettarchive.org (accessed on 9 January 2014).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Beckett S.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Krapp’s Last Tape / La Dernière Bande: a digital genetic edition (Series ‘The Beckett Digital Manuscript Project’ module 3)</hi>, edited by Dirk Van Hulle and Vincent Neyt. Brussels and London, University Press Antwerp (ASP/UPA) and Bloomsbury Academic. http://www.beckettarchive.org (accessed on 22 October 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bryant, J.</hi>(2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Melville Unfolding. Sexuality, Politics, and the Versions of Typee: a Fluid-text Analysis, with an edition of the Typee manuscript</hi>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Elsschot, W.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Achter de Schermen: elektronische editie</hi> . Edited by Dirk Van Hulle, Vincent Neyt, and Peter de Bruijn. Kalmthout: Willem Elsschot Genootschap. CD-ROM. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>   <hi rend=""bold"">Ferrer, D.</hi> (1998). The open space of the draft page: James Joyce and modern manuscripts. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Iconic Page in Manuscript, Print, and Digital Culture</hi>, edited by George Bornstein and Theresa Tinkle. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp: 249–67. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>   <hi rend=""bold"">Melville, H.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Moby-Dick, </hi>Edited by John Bryant and Haskell Springer, New York: Pearson / Longman. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>   <hi rend=""bold"">Proust, M.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Autour d’une séquence et des notes du Cahier 46: enjeu du codage dans les brouillons de Proust–Around a Sequence and some Notes of Notebook 46: Encoding Issues about Proust’s Drafts</hi>. Edited by Elena Pierazzo and Julie André, with technical support from Raffaele Viglianti. London: King’s College London. http://research.cch.kcl.ac.uk/proust_prototype/ (accessed 9 December 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>   <hi rend=""bold"">Shelley, M.</hi> (2013). Frankenstein. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Shelley-Godwin Archive</hi>, directed by Elizabeth C. Denliger and Neil Fraistat. http://www.shelleygodwinarchive.org/ contents/frankenstein (accessed on 25 April 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>   <hi rend=""bold"">Workgroup on Genetic Editions.</hi> (2010). An Encoding Model for Genetic Editions. http://www.tei-c.org/Activities/Council/Working/tcw19.html (accessed on 30 October 2015).</bibl>
                    <bibl>   <hi rend=""bold"">TEI Consortium.</hi> (2011). P5 version 2.0 release notes. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">TEI-C. </hi>http://www.tei- c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/readme-2.0.html (accessed on 13 November 2015). 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2772","17","Silva portentosissima - Computer-assisted reflections on bifurcativity in stemmas","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>In 1928, the philologue Joseph Bédier explored contemporary stemmas and found them to contain a suspiciously large amount of bifurcations. He gave two potential reasons, one being that the editors constructing a stemma with a bifurcation below the root node, could freely choose the variants for their base text. The second reason termed 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">force dichotomique</hi> postulates that constructing a stemma, because editors are always comparing manuscript pairs, they tend to overseparate. This is illustrated in Figure 1. The philologue would postulate a common ancestor for the closer pair and attach the third sibling together with this ancestor to the parent node producing two bifurcations, where there was a multifurcation originally.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""110/10000201000005E8000002B8162AEE15.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 1. Force dichotomique, example. Left: true stemma. Right: probable philological reconstruction</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>(Maas, 1937) acknowledges a large amount of bifurcations in stemmas for recensions of Greek texts, but points out that this is rather unsurprising taking into account the number of possible stemmas and the proportion of bifurcations therein. (Felsenstein, 1978) computes the amounts of entirely bifurcating trees for 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi> labelled leafs, which is certainly correlated with the number of predominantly bifurcating trees (and of root-bifurcating trees). As one can see, the proportion of bifurcating trees steadily declines, weakening Maas’ argument.
                </p>
                <p>(Haugen, 2015) analysed collections of stemmas and found that Bédiers reason number two seems to hold independent of provenience. (Trovato, 2014) found that a realistic estimate of the percentage of lost manuscripts for medieval and earlier traditions ranges realistically above 73%. Related discussions and recent developments are reflected in projects such as 
                    <ref target=""http://stemmaweb.net/"">Stemmaweb</ref> and the 
                    <ref target=""https://wiki.hiit.fi/display/stemmatology/Parvum+lexicon+stemmatologicum"">Parvum lexicon Stemmatologicum</ref>.
                </p>
                <p>In this paper, the argument is introduced and investigated that, with a large amount of lost manuscripts, the amount of bifurcations in the true stemmas could naturally be high because of the transformations stemmas undergo when manuscript loss prunes away whole branches and leafs at a rate higher than 73%.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Distributions of outdegrees of manuscripts</head>
                <p>Two basic distributions are most obviously historically interpretable, a normal distribution and an exponential distribution. In considering the outdegrees to be normally distributed, we assume, that there is one certain number of copies which is most probable, peaking the others; the more the outdegree diverges negatively or positively, the fewer manuscripts with this outdegree will be found. This could translate into a hypothetical historical projection, where many manuscripts of a tradition were copied and wore off at similar rates. Assuming an exponential distribution, things become more hierarchical. For instance, a powerful organization declares some of the manuscripts authoritative which would lead to certain manuscripts being copied many times more than others.</p>
                <p>(Haugen, 2015) lists a table with the numbers of furcations (though not leafs) in two collections of stemmas for editions of Old Norse texts. Transforming these furcations into vectors, we conduct the Shapiro-Wilk normality test, (Shapiro and Wilk, 1965), and the exponentiality test by Kolmogorov-Smirnov (which are both robust even for smaller sample sizes) using the software 
                    <ref target=""https://www.r-project.org/"">R</ref>.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1""> Packages 
                        <ref target=""https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/exptest/exptest.pdf"">exptest</ref> and 
                        <ref target=""https://stat.ethz.ch/R-manual/R-devel/library/MASS/html/fitdistr.html"">fitdistr</ref> have been used.
                    </note> This results in an estimate on which distribution these stemmas entail for manuscript copying. However, stemmas with only identical values or only 2 furcations are skipped due to not being testable with the above chosen tests. Table 1 reveals a tendency towards exponentiality. Applying other tests for additional distributions, the weibull and log-normal distributions fitted the data best in terms of likelihood, suggesting a similar scenario.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2""> The average mean of the furcation distributions was 1.95 and the average standard deviation 0.78.</note>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""110/1000020100000A3A00000232D59B9636.png""/>
                        <head>Table 1: Tests of distributions of furcations in the collections investigated by (Haugen, 2015). Tests at significance level 0.05</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Experiment</head>
                <p>In order to assess the above mentioned hypothesis, we need large numbers of underlying stemmas from which loss can be simulated and an appropriate model of manuscript loss. Then, we can simulate a large number of stemmas and manuscript loss, whereafter we count the number of bifurcations. Using simulations especially in large scale scenarios is sometimes the only possibility of assessing historical data, especially considering limits imposed onto empirical studies through data sparsity and other hindances.</p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Manuscript loss</head>
                    <p>Historical loss does not affect all manuscipts evenly. (Canfora, 2002) found private exemplars to be less affected whereas since libraries tend to be burnt in wars, public exemplars suffer loss more easily. Many other factors (climate, authoritativity, etc.) excert influence on manuscript loss most of which have never been made subject to generalizable quantifications and it is questionable if this can ever be done. Herein, we elaborate a simple model of loss using only two basic assumptions. We simulate loss of 73-100% where each node gets a probability related to its age (the older the more probably lost) and its outdegree (the more copied, the more probably kept in good conditions, the less probably lost). Since aging is considered to be stronger than preservational effort, we square the age dependent parameter. The probability of loss for each node is thus determined by </p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""110/10000201000001A20000007C36134C8E.png""/>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                    <p>where l is the height of the current node i incremented by 1 and slow(i) is the outdegree slowdown function: </p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""110/10000201000003EE00000114FC6D481A.png""/>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                    <p>where o(i) is the outdegree of node i. Note, that there is no distinction for nodes with an outdegree of one and leafs. This model of loss produced rather desirable loss probability distributions as is exemplified in the Appendix. However, we also use pure randomization of loss with equal probabilities among all nodes and randomization for probabilities as described but without squaring.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Simulation</head>
                    <p>For the simulation, we use R and 
                        <ref target=""https://java.com/en/"">Java</ref>.
                        <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3""> We used 
                            <ref target=""http://jgrapht.org/"">JgraphT</ref> and RCaller, (Satman, 2014).
                        </note> First, for simulating normally distributed copying, we generate distributions randmonly drawn from a normal distribution using the R function 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">rnorm</hi>. Since 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">rnorm</hi> produces real numbers and negative numbers, we round all values and leave negative values and zeros aside. Since this may lead to a distortion of the so-sampled distribution deviating from a normal distribution, we test for the desired shape and only keep distributions which have a p-value above 0.05. This distribution is now our distribution of outdegrees in the to be simulated stemma, each value represents one outdegree. Starting with root, we randomly choose an outdegree (or make the node (not root) a leaf with a probability of 0.2) and add as many children to the actual node as this outdegree. For each of the so-generated children, we draw another outdegree and add as many children, recording them in the next generation. We iterate the process until all outdegrees are applied exactly once.This results in a differing number of leafs and a differing size of the tradition for each simulation. Since medieval traditions were probably not equal in size, the effect of this sampling is not controlled for further.
                        <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""4""> One could compare the proportion of surviving to lost nodes in the TRS and stemmas from the literature.</note>
                    </p>
                    <p>With each tradition, loss is simulated in the three above described ways. We keep all nodes, which are on the path from root to any survivor but delete all other lost nodes. What remains is the true reconstructible stemma (TRS). Since philologues do not have sufficient information (and probably time) for the reconstruction of entirely lost branches, which would be too spurious an endeavour anyway, the stemma we simulated is the maximally faithful reconstruction given our simulated ground truth.</p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""110/10000201000006E4000003265062D84B.png""/>
                            <head>Table 2: Percentages of bifurcations and root-bifurcations given the parametricized simulations</head>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                    <p>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""110/100002010000095800000350B724A0E3.png""/>
                            <head>Table3: Furcations (1-6) before and after loss, Loss A</head>
                        </figure>
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Results and discussion</head>
                <p>Results can be seen in Tables 2 and 3. The simulated traditions ranged in size from 4 to more than 60 and after loss from 1 to around 20 manuscripts. Percentages of bifurations (even excluding leafs, as in Haugen (2015)) are below the observed values for the collections examined in the previous literature. Under more keeping nodes, which are on the path to root for any survivor as reconstructibles results in a much larger incidence of unifurcations, not bifurcations in the stemmas after loss has applied. Therefore, some model of contraction shall be applied in subsequent research. With a mean of 2 producing large numbers of bifurcations, after loss, their number is reduced sharply in contrast with unifurcations and leafs. Thus,
                    <hi rend=""italic""> loss at high rates generally affects furcations of higher orders much more, leading to a naturally higher incidence of bi- and unifurcations and most of all obscuring an underlying distribution of original copies.</hi> Aditionally, probably there are too few reconstructions of nodes with indegree and outdegree 1. In other words, philologues could tend to view a copy rather as sloppy than as a copies copy, which would contribute to making bifurcations more common in actual stemmas.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>Although the simulation is an approximation, the values suggest, that indeed the proportion of bifurcations is suspiciously large in the collections in the literature. On the other hand, Maas was probably right in expecting a larger amount of lower order furcations. However, not their proportion among all possible stemmas, but the effect of massive loss of manuscripts leads to a large probable proportion of those in a pruned TRS.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bédier, J.</hi> (1928). La tradition manuscrite du 'Lai de l'Ombre': Réflexions sur l'Art d' Éditer les Anciens Textes. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Romania</hi>, 394: 161-96, 321-56.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Canfora, L. </hi>(2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Il copista come autore</hi>. Palermo: Sellerio.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Felsenstein, J. </hi>(1978). The number of evolutionary trees. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Systematic Zoology</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">27</hi>(1): 27–33.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Haugen, O. E.</hi> (2015). The silva portentosa of stemmatology bifurcation in the recension of old norse manuscripts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>(2).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Maas, P.</hi> (1937). Leitfehler und Stemmatische Typen. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Byzantinische Zeitschrift</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>(2): 289–94.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Satman, M. H.</hi> (2014). Rcaller: A software library for calling r from java. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">British Journal of Mathematics & Computer Science</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>(15): 2188–96.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shapiro, S. S. and Wilk, M. B.</hi> (1965). An analysis of variance test for normality (complete samples). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Biometrika</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">52</hi>: 591–611.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Trovato, P.</hi> (2014).<hi rend=""italic""> Everything You Always Wanted to Know about Lachmann’s Method, A Non-Standard Handbook of Genealogical Textual Criticism in the Age of Post-Structuralism, Cladistics, and Copy-Text</hi>. libreriauniversitaria.it.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <figure>
                            <graphic url=""110/1000020100000AA30000111A2449EE2B.png""/>
                        </figure>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2773","17","Some Problems in the Non-Traditional Authorship Attribution Studies of the Dramatic Canon of William Shakespeare: Are they Insurmountable","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>William Shakespeare is arguably the greatest dramatist of all time. Yet, the man and his works are shrouded in mystery and uncertainty. This paper posits that a man named Shakespeare wrote the First Folio. It is this First Folio that provides the “most certain” body of Shakespeare’s plays.</p>
            <p>The makeup of the Shakespeare dramatic canon has prompted more attribution studies (traditional and non-traditional) and caused more controversies than any other canon – by far. This paper looks at the several hundred non-traditional studies (and concomitant “flame wars”) and points out some of the more serious problems. There is no doubt that it is a canon in disarray. Most of the scholars involved in the controversies are the “heavyweights” of Shakespearean studies – e.g.:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Rasmussen (1977) vs. Hope (1994)</item>
                <item>Vickers (2011) vs. Craig and Kinney (2009)</item>
                <item>Taylor (2015) vs. Stern (2004)</item>
                <item>Craig vs. Vickers and Jackson (Hirsch and Craig, 2014)</item>
            </list>
            <p>But the most famous controversies involve (1) Donald Foster vs. Ward Elliott and (2) Robert Valenza and Donald Foster vs. the world.</p>
            <p>In a recent article (Rudman, 2016) I pointed out many caveats to scholars working on authorship attribution on the canon of William Shakespeare. Among these are:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Reproducibility</item>
                <item>Input Texts</item>
                <item>Genre</item>
                <item>Editing</item>
                <item>Controls</item>
                <item>Isolation of Variables</item>
                <item>Choice of Style Markers</item>
                <item>Statistical Tests</item>
                <item>Sample Selection and Size</item>
                <item>Treatment of Errors</item>
                <item>Collaboration</item>
            </list>
            <p>In this paper, I expand on one of these caveats (Genre), look at and cite examples from many of the non-traditional studies of the Shakespeare canon in order to highlight these problems, and suggest solutions.</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Each genre is governed by different linguistic rules and rhetorical purpose – a practitioner should not mix genre.</item>
                <item>Drama – Comedy, History, Tragedy, Romance – how far down should these be catagorized</item>
                <item>Verse within the drama – rhymed verse within the verse – how far down should this be broken</item>
                <item>Music</item>
                <item>Dialogue vs Dramatic Monologue</item>
            </list>
            <p>Also in this paper, I address the conundrum of using what I deem as seriously flawed studies to show problems with other studies – e.g. if a practitioner mixes genres (history and tragedy) but shows that Shakespeare's style changes over time, I cite this change as evidence that chronological constraints must be employed.</p>
            <p>No matter how flawed I consider a study, there are parts of that study that are correct – there is no non-traditional study (of the hundreds conducted) that is completely without merit. By invoking the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">etiam si non est verum</hi> paradigm, I show how almost all of the necessary steps in a valid study exist in the literature. We can look at all of the links in he chain (even the broken ones) and try to piece together what we should do to move the field forward. The evidence in this paper reinforces my conclusion from the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">JEMS</hi> article that any attribution results are problematic at best.
            </p>
            <p>The Conclusion reached (and I believe supported by very strong evidence) is that all of the non-traditional studies are seriously flawed and that as of today we do not have a valid Shakespeare text to conduct non-traditional attribution studies.</p>
            <p>The following bibliography is only representative. There are more than 200 non-traditional studies on the Shakespeare canon. My working bibliography for this study is well over 1,000 entries.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bullough, G.</hi> (1957). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare</hi>, Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(8), London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (2012). A Second Opinion on Shakespeare and Authorship Studies in the Twenty-First Century. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare Quarterly</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">63</hi>(3): 355–92.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Busse, U.</hi> (2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Linguistic Variation in the Shakespeare Corpus: Morpho-syntactic Variability of Second Person Pronouns</hi>. Amsterdam–Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hirsch, B. D. and Craig, H.</hi> (2014). Mingled Yarn: The State of Computing in Shakespeare 2.0. In Bishop, T. and Huang, A., Hirsch, B. D. and Craig, H. (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Shakespearean International Yearbook</hi>. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, preprint edition courtesy of publisher, <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>: 3-35.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hope, J., and Whitmore, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">M.</hi> (2014). Quantifiaction and the Language of Later Shakespeare. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Actes des Congrès de la Société Française Shakespeare</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">31</hi>: 123–49.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Horton, T. B.</hi> (1987). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Effectiveness of the Stylometry of Function Words in Discriminating Between Shakespeare and Fletcher</hi>. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1987.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lancashire, I.</hi> (2002). The State of Computing in Shakespeare. In Elton, W. R. and Mucciolo, J. M. (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Shakespearean </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">I</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">nternational Yearbook</hi>.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Where are We Now in Shakespearean Studies?</hi>. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>: 89–110.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mowat, B. A.</hi> (2003). Whats in a Name? Tragicomedy, Romance, or Late Comedy. In Dutton, R. and Howard, J. E. (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Shakespeare’s Works</hi>.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">P</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">oems, Problem Com</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">edies, Late Plays</hi>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>: 129–49.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rudman, J.</hi> (2016). Non-Traditional Authorship Attribution Studies of William Shakespeare’s Canon: Some Caveats. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Early Modern Studies</hi>, forthcoming.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">V</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">ickers, B.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespe</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">are and Authorship Studies in the Twenty-First Century</hi>.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Review Essay</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare Quarterly</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">62</hi>(1): 106–42.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Witmore, M. </hi>(2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Genre Map of Shakespeare’s Plays from the </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">F</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">irst Folio</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Wine Dark Sea</hi>, http.//www.winedarksea.org/?p=40, (Accessed May 6, 2015).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2774","17","SpotiBot: Turing testing Spotify","10","<text>
        <body>
            <p>Producing and coding bot ‘listeners’ has today become almost as easy as automated music production has been for years. Machines can thus both ‘create’—and ‘listen’ to ‘music’ (whatever we mean by these categories). In fact, such notions are capricious within the contemporary streaming music landscape. The project, “Streaming Heritage: Following Files in Digital Music Distribution” (financed by the Swedish Research Council) studies emerging streaming media cultures in general, and the music service Spotify in particular, with a bearing on the digital challenges posed by direct access to musical heritage. Rediscovering older music is key for Spotify, and the project is hence on the one hand geared towards investigating the institutional challenges of streaming musical heritage, and on the other hand—and foremost—to develop new digital research methods. Situated at HUMlab (Umeå university) part of the project is essentially about Turing testing Spotify. Building on the tradition of ‘breaching experiments’ in ethnomethodology, my research group seeks to break into the hidden infrastructures of digital music distribution in order to study its underlying norms and structures. The key idea is to follow files’ (rather than the people making or using them) on their distributive journey through the streaming ecosystem. The setting include the distribution and aggregation of self-produced music/sounds through Spotify; the set-up of our own record label (for research purposes); the programming of bots to inform, explore, mimic, and ultimately subvert notions of usage and listening; the tracing of Spotify’s history through constantly changing interfaces (web archiving and documenting these). Research questions range from various way how streaming music is commodified? What sounds are perceived as music (or not) according to Spotify and adjacent aggregating services? How is metadata generated, ordered, and valued—and what kind of metadata is actually available? What normative world views are promoted and materialized by streaming architectures? What kind of infrastructures proliferate behind the surfaces of on-demand services?</p>
            <p>My presentation departs from the fact that one-fifth of Spotify’s catalogue of 30 million songs haven’t once been listened to at all. Under the computational hood of streaming services all streams are equal, and every stream thus means (potentially) increased revenue from advertisers. Spotify is hence likely to include—rather than reject—various forms of (semi-)automated music, sounds and (audio)bots. At HUMlab we therefore set up an experiment—SpotiBot—with the purpose to determine if it was possible to provoke, or even to some extent undermine, the Spotify business model (based on the 30 second royalty rule). Royalties from Spotify are only disbursed once a song is registered as a play, which happens after 30 seconds. The SpotiBot engine was be used to play a single track repeatedly (both self-produced music and Abba’s ”Dancing Queen”), during less and more than 30 seconds, and with a fixed repetition scheme running from 10 to <hi rend=""italic"">n</hi> times, simultaneously with different Spotify account. Based on a set of tools provided by Selenium the SpotiBot engine automated the Spotify web client by simulating user interaction within the web interface. From a computational perspective the Spotify web client appeared as black box; the logics that the Spotify application was governed by was, for example, not known in advance, and the web page structure (in HTML) and client side scripting complex. It was not doable within the short experiment to gain a fuller understanding of the dialogue between the client and the server. As a consequence, the development of the SpotiBot-experiment was (to some extent) based on ‘trial and error’ how the client behaved, and what kind of data was sent from the server for different user actions. Using a single virtual machine—hidden behind only one proxy IP—the results nevertheless indicate that it is possible to automatically play tracks for thousands of repetitions that exceeds the royalty rule. Even if we encountered a number of problems and deviations that interrupted the client execution, the Spotify business model can be tampered with. In other words, one might ask what happens when—not if—streaming bots approximate human listener behavior in such a way that it becomes impossible to distinguish between a human and a machine? Streaming fraud, as it has been labeled, then runs the risk of undermining the economic revenue models of streaming services as Spotify. </p>
        </body>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2775","17","Standardized Digital workflow for Archiving Local Knowledge","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""173/100000000000070B0000042600BC1CEA09A72C5E.jpg""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: The workflow using MILC for digital archiving</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""173/10000000000003EC000002F122B5A987DB8BC99A.jpg""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: Directory structure for acquired data</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""173/100000000000074700000570C9FC16649132F0E4.jpg""/>
                    <head>Figure 3: Application Schema for Local Knowledge (ver.2015-10-11)</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""173/10000000000002A3000001FB2095DD8627E70D4D.jpg""/>
                    <head>Figure 4: Digital Archiving of photographic dry plates</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""173/100000000000028200000195BB145127F0AB2B78.jpg""/>
                    <head>Figure 5: Brightness distribution of iPad Air</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""173/10000000000002A00000017A5FAB0E9DBE4DDD1B.jpg""/>
                    <graphic url=""173/10000000000002A00000017AB00D1E2071F767FD.jpg""/>
                    <head>Figure 6: The resulting digital archive system</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""173/10000000000002A0000001C28B1097480C970590.jpg""/>
                    <head>Figure 7: Handmade photo studio for Danjiri elements</head>
                </figure>
            </p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Preface</head>
                <p>The declining birth rate and resulting increase in the proportion of the elderly are serious issues for contemporary Japan. The National Institute of Population and Social Security Research reported that the 2010 Japanese population of about 128,057,000 is expected to decline to about 86,737,000 in 2060 with depopulation accelerating most acutely in local regions (The National Institute of Population and Social Security Research, 2014). Currently, in 7,878 villages in Japan, over half of the population is over the age of 65. From this figure, it is predicted that 2,500 villages will vanish in the next 10 to 30 years (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, 2014; Masuda, 2014). Given this situation, the preservation of local knowledge is essential and standardized digital archiving methods are required.</p>
                <p>In contrast to national treasures, digital archiving for local cultural properties is limited in various respects. Digitizing devices should be versatile because the kind of materials buried is unknown at the onset of the survey. Budgets are therefore limited because most people in possession of such items do not have sufficient financial background. Therefore, the methods for archiving local items and knowledge should be as low-cost as possible. In addition to these problems, a standardized digital archiving workflow and information management rules are required to perform distributed autonomous digital archiving activities. Formulating digital archiving rules that are both open and standardized is also essential in terms of the Long Term Preservation issue (Lorie, R.A., 2001). </p>
                <p>Responding to these issues, this paper will propose a low-cost digitizing workflow using an Mirror-less Interchangeable Lens Camera (MILC) and the information standard for local memories and knowledge with the concept of a Work-Oriented Approach (WOA) (Fujimoto 2011). The proposed methods have already been used in two different types of experimental projects and the results will also be summarized in this paper.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"">
                <head>The digital archiving workflow</head>
                <p>The digital camera is excellent in terms of saving space, versatility, speed of digitizing and later correction, and is therefore the ideal device for basic digital archiving. In particular, the Mirror-less Interchangeable Lens Camera (MILC) has a rich choice of lenses, and is lighter and therefore preferable to than the general Digital Single Lens Reflex camera (DSLR).</p>
                <p>Figure 1 shows the workflow of constructing a digital archive using the MILC. In this figure, the workflows are denoted with UML activity diagrams, with automated activities in red, and yellow designating those activities conducted manually. Each automated activity is described by BASH scripts to ensure the clarity of specific procedures, and some call python scripts utilizing open source libraries. In practice, Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) should be provided for ordinal users. </p>
                <p>This activity diagram is separated into two lanes, with the left lane showing the digital archiving workflow and the right lane representing the post-production and publishing workflow. In the digital archiving workflow, taking photographs, writing investigative reports, and transferring acquired images to the work station are manually conducted, whereas other activities are done automatically.</p>
                <p>To perform these automatic activities, a working directory should be defined as shown in Figure 2. The raw images acquired are automatically copied to the “<hi rend=""italic"">raw</hi>” directory and JPEG format images are initially copied to “<hi rend=""italic"">main</hi>”, and then the raw images are developed and saved in the “<hi rend=""italic"">developed</hi>” directory. Thumbnails are saved in “<hi rend=""italic"">thumbs</hi>”. Finally, unused images are moved to “<hi rend=""italic"">sub</hi>” directories. By defining the directory structure, all projects are generalized, and creating an automatic workflow becomes much easier. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The application schema</head>
                <p>Promoting such shared and mutual use is essential and will help preserve local memories and knowledge for future generations. To do so, it is important to conform to conventional international standards (Fujimoto, 2009). The ISO 191XX series is a versatile information standard for database construction. This international standard is based on the idea of object-oriented GIS, and it defines a meta-model of geographic features and spatio-time objects. The ISO 191XX series is generally adopted for public geographic information suchas census or infrastructure data. However, it has many other possible applications. Additionally, this standard provides encoding rules by XML, and metadata, geometric information, raster format datasets and tabular form attributes can be denoted as XML elements. Therefore, this standard is also effective in terms of Long Term Preservation issues.</p>
                <p>The Figure 3 is the application schema proposed in this paper, which enables the storage of unknown tangible as well as intangible cultural properties in compliance with the standard. This application schema is based on the proposed working flow, and weighs heavily in extendibility. The fundamental classes including the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Consolidation</hi> class, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Material</hi> class, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Surface</hi> class and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">DenotedSubject</hi> class are 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Abstract</hi> classes, which are actually implemented in specific ways. The grey-colored classes are examples applicable to photographic dry plates and “
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Danjiri</hi>” elements. The attributes for these classes are minimum essential attributes, and attributes relevant to each specific item can be defined using the Attribute class. This class specializes three classes: ThematicAttribute, SpatialAttribute and TemporalAttribute classes. Any kind of attribute can be defined using this classification. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Case studies</head>
                <p>The proposed standardized workflow and the database schema have been used in two case studies. One is the digital archiving project of dry photographic plates taken between the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Meiji</hi> period and mid-<hi rend=""italic"">Showa</hi> period, while the other is a “<hi rend=""italic"">Danjiri</hi>”, a traditional large wooden cart used for traditional Japanese festivals, which was completely destroyed by a flood.
                </p>
                <p>In the first case a tablet device, iPad Air, was used as a substitution for a light box, and SONY A6000 was used as a digitizing device (Figure 4 and Figure 5) (Fujimoto, 2015). By using a set of these ordinary devices with three workers, more than three hundred old dry plates were duplicated in about 13 hours in total. In this project, all of the operations were composed almost entirely of open-source software, and performed in batches. Although this project was successfully completed, some improvements were later found for making linkages between the acquired images and investigative reports and application schema. </p>
                <p>In the latter study, the digital archiving workflow and the application schema, originally designed for photographic dry plates, were modified for versatility, to make them applicable to the Danjiri elements. In this project, more than three hundred fragments of Danjiri elements were archived in one week by four workers with one day required for setting up the photographic studio, four days for taking photos, and two days for developing the digital archive system (Figure 6). In contrast to the former project, the digital archiving subjects were three-dimensional and lighting instruments were required. To achieve better results within a limited budget, a lighting studio was built using wooden blocks and domestic fluorescent lamps, which were procured on the site (Figure 7). </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusions</head>
                <p>In digital archiving projects focusing on important cultural properties, intended objects are well known and professional and/or specialized equipment are used to achieve with the best possible results. However, to construct digital archives of locally-kept cultural properties, versatile and inexpensive methods are required. Additionally, a standardized workflow and database schema covering various kinds of materials should be considered.</p>
                <p>In this paper, using the concept of WOA, a reasonable MILC is used as a digitizing device, and a standardized workflow enabling automation and database schema compliant with ISO 191XX are proposed. Because the proposed workflow, information schema and libraries utilize the existing international standard and open-source technologies, outcomes including metadata and source codes can be opened. This method is therefore effective in terms of the Long Term Preservation issues. These standardized methods have been tried in two different types of experimental case studies. Although both projects were successfully completed, some continual refinement is necessary to perform a fully automated workflow, especially post-production.</p>
                <p>Finally, the methods proposed in this paper can be also applicable in disaster restoration. It is important to preserve memorial items of ordinary people such as family photo albums in order to incite the energy vital for the restoration process. Unfortunately, in fact, after the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011, a large number of mementoes and keepsakes of the local people were discarded. In such cases low-cost, swift and standardized digital archiving methods are essential.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fujimoto, Y.</hi> (2009). Information Standards for Cultural Heritage with The ISO 191XX Series, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 22nd CIPA Symposium</hi>, Kyoto, Japan.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fujimoto, Y. and Horiuchi, Y.</hi> (2011). Using Standards as a Bridge Between Traditional Research and Technologies in Protecting Cultural Assets, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 23rd CIPA Symposium</hi>, Prague, Czech Republic.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fujimoto, Y.</hi> (2015). Digitizing Dry Plates of the Kitamura Collection in Nara University Library, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Memoirs of Nara University</hi>, No. 43, pp. 91-102. (Japanese)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lorie, R., A.</hi> (2001). Long Term Preservation of Digital Information. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the first AM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries</hi>, Roanoke, Virginia, New York: ACM-Press, pp. 346-52.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Assessment of Situation with Settlements to Institute National Spatial Planning</hi>. (Japanese)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Masuda, H.</hi> (2014). The Death of Regional Cities: A horrendous simulation Regional Cities Will Disappear by 2040 A polarized Society will Emerge, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Discuss Japan – Japan Foreign Policy Forum</hi>, 18.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">The National Institute of Population and Social Security Research</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Estimation of the Japanese Future Population</hi> (Japanese).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2776","17","Stefan George Digital: Exploring Typography In A Digital Scholarly Edition","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>The digital scholarly edition 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Stefan George Digital</hi> (StGD) is, as its name implies, dedicated to the oeuvre of the German author Stefan George (1868-1933).
                    <note xml:id=""ftn0"" place=""foot"" n=""1"">The digital edition Stefan George Digital is developed in the context of a DiXiT (Digital Scholarly Editions Initial Training Network) fellowship, funded under Marie Curie Actions within the European Commission’s 7th Framework Program.</note> As part of my PhD thesis, StGD is concerned with the role and application of typography within the printed collections of George’s poetry and the formal canon, and development of the so-called 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Stefan-George-typeface (St-G-typeface</hi>). To capture typographical information within the digital edition, I have tested two approaches that this short paper will discuss: the application of a TEI-based model and the development and the integration of an ontology.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Subject matter </head>
                <p>More than any other poet in modern German literature, Stefan George (1868-1933) engaged with writing – particularly typography
                    <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""2"">Although the term typography includes both the micro- and macro-design of a print (and both are equally important when engaging with George’s work), this paper will focus solely on the level of micro-typography, by which I mean the level of the choice, design, and arrangement of types. </note> – in exceptional ways. From 1897 on, he almost completely abandoned his cursive handwriting, using instead highly stylized block letters. From 1904 on, this individual book hand was transferred into metal:
                    <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""3"">It is still unclear who designed the St-G typeface, though it is presumed that both the book designer Melchior Lechter and the printer Otto von Holten were involved.</note> the third edition of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Das Jahr der Seele</hi> (<hi rend=""italic"">The Year of the Soul</hi>) was the first volume printed in the so called 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">St-G-typeface</hi>, a Sans-Serif typeface which emerged when the German dispute between Serif and Black Letter typefaces was in full swing. Accordingly, St-G forms a third, alternative typeface, strongly inspired by modern Sans-Serif typefaces such as the Akzidenz-Grotesk of the Berthold foundry. Furthermore, St-G includes letter shapes of Roman and Carolingian scripts as well as of the Greek alphabet (Kurz, 2007). Between its inception and 1927, the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">St-G typeface</hi> was changed several times, so that it now exists in various versions.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Problem statement and project goals</head>
                <p>George linked his poetry and his understanding of aesthetics to the design of his books by introducing an individualized typeface. He broke with typographical conventions at the time by applying a Sans-Serif typeface, by basing the design on his own handwriting, and by referencing historical script models in its formal features. The extraordinary design of St-G and the fact that the author himself was involved in its creation calls for special attention in a scholarly edition. However, previous editions neither include a detailed recording of the printed publications nor their typographical analysis. StGD aims to close this gap by providing a digital scholarly edition that allows for exploring typography in George’s poetical work.</p>
                <p>In the first phase of research, I will create a digital edition of printed poetry collections by George. I will develop a model to identify and describe typographical forms as well as to allow for citing them. In a second phase of research I will enhance the corpus of StGD with handwritten drafts, thereby allowing further investigations of the relationship between George’s book hand and the typeface.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""4"">The second research phase is planned in the context of a five-months visiting fellowship within the <hi rend=""italic"">DigiPal</hi> project at King's College London in Spring 2016. Presumably the initial results of this collaboration will also be presented shortly in this paper.</note>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The digital edition</head>
                <p>The corpus of StGD consists of 29 printed editions of Stefan George’s poetical works published between 1890 and 1933. Individual works are represented in the corpus variable numbers of times according to their textual and typographical variation.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""5""> i.e. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Tapestry of Life (Der Teppich des Lebens) </hi>is represented four times (1900, 1901, 1904, 1932), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Star of the Convenant (Der Stern des Bundes) </hi>two times (1914, 1928).
                    </note> Currently all volumes are encoded according to a customized XML/TEI schema and enriched by bibliographical metadata through FRBR (Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records) and METS (Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standards). The full texts will be enhanced by corresponding facsimiles, provided via a IIIF (International Image Interoperability Framework) compliant image server using the OpenSeadragon viewer. At the end of the project (April 2017), all contents of the digital edition will be openly available through a Creative Commons (CC-BY-NC-SA) License via the FEDORA-based asset management system GAMS (Geisteswissenschaftliches Asset Management System)
                    <note xml:id=""ftn5"" place=""foot"" n=""6""><
                        <ptr target=""http://gams.uni-graz.at/""/>> [all quoted URLs accessed 6.3.2016]
                    </note>.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Focus of the paper</head>
                <p>Due to the significant role of typography in George’s work, the creation of a digital scholarly edition calls for special attention to graphical features within the documents. This means that typography needs to be classified (i.e. typeface family, font) and its features need to be modelled. The latter includes the description of typographical forms, the identification of stylistic models, and the definition of the semantic function of types in the text. Such typographical enrichment is particularly challenging since neither a commonly shared vocabulary to describe typographical features nor a widely accepted type classification system exists. With regard to this lack of a common standard, StGD has mainly tested out two methods of typographical enrichment which will be discussed in this paper: the application of a TEI based model and the development of an ontology to describe typography.</p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Typography and the TEI </head>
                    <p>A distinction can be drawn between two different purposes of encoding features of writing: representation and information enrichment. The first purpose is covered to a great extent by the TEI gaiji module
                        <note xml:id=""ftn6"" place=""foot"" n=""7""><
                            <ptr target=""http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/de/html/WD.html#D25-20""/>>
                        </note> and the application of Unicode. Recent editing projects like 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Hugo von Montfort: the poetical work</hi>
                        <note xml:id=""ftn7"" place=""foot"" n=""8""> Website of the digital edition 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Hugo von Montfort: the poetical work</hi>: <
                            <ptr target=""http://gams.uni-graz.at/collection:me""/>>; example of a XML/TEI encoding: <
                            <ptr target=""http://gams.uni-graz.at/archive/objects/o:me.1r/datastreams/TEI_SOURCE/content""/>>.
                        </note> demonstrate the potentials of these methods, even if they also show that performing them throughout a complete edition is work-intensive and impractical. Concerning the capture of information about writing, especially about typography, the possibilities offered by the TEI are more restricted. Although the element <typeDesc>
                        <note xml:id=""ftn8"" place=""foot"" n=""9""><
                            <ptr target=""http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-doc/en/html/ref-typeDesc.html""/>>
                        </note> as part of <msDesc> allows for a description of types in prose, there is no TEI vocabulary to describe types and their features in a formalized way. The paper will report on the benefits and drawbacks of the already implemented elements and attributes and demonstrate their application to material at hand.
                    </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Typography and Ontologies</head>
                    <p>There are barely any digital projects dedicated to the modelling of typography. Those that exist include the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Type Repository of Incunabula</hi>
                        <note xml:id=""ftn9"" place=""foot"" n=""10""> Website of the 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Type Repository of Incunabula</hi>: <
                            <ptr target=""http://tw.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/""/>>; example of XML encoding: <
                            <ptr target=""http://tw.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/materials/ma04679.xml?_xsl=no""/>>
                        </note> at the Berlin State Library, a database which identifies and catalogues incunabula types. It applies a relatively flat project-customized XML schema that describes types in prose. However, the digital modelling of handwriting has made significant progress over the last decade, since Arianna Ciula coined the term “Digital Palaeography” (Ciula, 2005), and the modelling of typography can benefit from this research. Recent research projects like 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DigiPal</hi>
                        <note xml:id=""ftn10"" place=""foot"" n=""11""> <
                            <ptr target=""http://www.digipal.eu/""/>>
                        </note> and 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ORIFLAMMS</hi>
                        <note xml:id=""ftn11"" place=""foot"" n=""12""> <
                            <ptr target=""http://www.agence-nationale-recherche.fr/?Project=ANR-12-CORP-0010""/>>
                        </note>, though not created in the context of digital scholarly editions, emphasize the strong tendency towards the application of semantic web technologies for the modelling of handwriting (Stokes, 2011 and 2012; Stutzmann, 2013). This paper will discuss their advantages for the identification, formal description and citation of typographical forms. Moreover it will give an overview of the technology or modelling language (i.e. RDFs, UML, SKOS) that might be the most suitable for the purpose of StGD. In this context, the paper will strongly take into account aspects of practicability and re-usability of the model.
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Research questions</head>
                <p>By modelling and analysing typographical information, the digital edition opens up Stefan George’s poetical work for the following research questions: (a) Which formal features does the St-G-typeface contain and what are they referring to?; (b) How has the formal canon of the typeface developed between 1904 and 1927?; (c) Is the development of the book design across George’s work linear or is it marked by any significant breaks?; and (d) How are text and typography interrelated in George’s work, and how is typography applied as a stylistic device? </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Context in Digital Humanities</head>
                <p>StGD is contributing to the field of digital scholarly editing, the focus of which is shifting increasingly to the materiality of the edited documents. This tendency has been encouraged by movements such as New Philology as well as by textual concepts such as the “material text: (Shillingsburg 1997) and the idea of text as interaction of “bibliographical” and “linguistic code” (McGann 1991). In this context writing – as the interface between the text’s message and its documentary carrier – plays a significant role and is particularly difficult to capture (Schubert, 2010). The goal of StGD is to aid in the development and promotion of a future best practice method for the modelling of typography in digital scholarly editions. Furthermore, the project’s thematic focus contributes to the field of digital book history. By putting typography in its focus, StGD represents a first step towards the burgeoning and as-yet-unexplored field of Digital Studies of Typography.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ciula, A. </hi>(2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital palaeography: using the digital representation of medieval script to support palaeographic analysis.</hi> Digital Medievalist 1, ed. by D. P. O’Donnell et al. <http://www.digitalmedievalist.org/journal/1.1/ciula/>. (all URLs accessed 6 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kurz, S. </hi>(2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Der Teppich der Schrift. </hi>Frankfurt/M.: Stroemfeld.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McGann, J. J.</hi> (1991).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The textual condition</hi>. Princeton University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pierazzo, E.</hi> (2015).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarly Editions. Theories, Models and Methods.</hi> Aldershot: Ashgate.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shillingsburg, P. </hi>(1997). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Resisting Texts. Authority and Submission in Constructions of Meaning</hi>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schubert, M.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Einleitung, in Materialität in der Editionswissenschaft</hi>, ed. by M. Schubert. Berlin, New York: De Gruyter, pp. 1-13.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stokes, P.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Describing Handwriting</hi>, Part I [and following]. London. <http://www.digipal.eu/blogs/tag/describing-handwriting/>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stokes, P.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Modeling Medieval Handwriting: A New Approach to Digital Palaeography. </hi>DH2012 Book of Abstracts, ed. by Jan Christoph Meister et al. Hamburg, pp. 382–85. <http://www.dh2012.uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/modeling-medieval-handwriting-a-new-approach-to-digital-palaeography>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stutzmann, D.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ontologie des formes et encodage des textes manuscrits médiévaux. Le projet ORIFLAMMS.</hi> Document numérique, <hi rend=""bold"">16</hi>, (Ed). by Christine Bénévent, et al. Paris: Lavoisier (Hermes), pp. 81-96.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wehde, S.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Typographische Kultur: Eine zeichentheoretische und kulturgeschichtliche Studie zur Typographie und ihrer Entwicklung. </hi>Berlin, New York: De Gruyter.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2777","17","Stylochronometry and the Periodization of Samuel Beckett's Prose","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Probably best known as the author of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">En attendant Godot</hi> / 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Waiting for Godot</hi>, Samuel Beckett was not only a bilingual playwright, but also a poet, translator, essayist and novelist. Notably his prose fiction is the focus of this contribution, in which we use quantitative methods to delineate a periodization of Beckett’s œuvre. In art studies in general, there is a tradition of distinguishing an ‘early’ and ‘late’ period in an artist’s work, sometimes with a distinct ‘middle’ period in between. The late Beethoven sonatas are a good example, or the early Rembrandt’s ‘smooth’ style versus the rough paint surfaces of the late Rembrandt. Nevertheless, it is often difficult to determine exactly when an author’s work moves from, say, the ‘early’ to the ‘middle’ stage.
                </p>
                <p>In Beckett studies, we find a similar pattern of periodization, ending with the ‘late style’ (Gontarski, 1997). Peter Boxall (2015: 34) problematizes the idea of periodizing Beckett’s œuvre, but admits that it is hard not to parcel it into a beginning, a middle and an end: an early period up to and including the novel 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Watt</hi>, written during WOII; a rich middle period up to and including 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Unnamable</hi>; and the later, ‘halting’ prose after the latter text. Numerous critics have proposed alternative periodizations, resulting in almost as many different periodizations as the number of critics that devised them. We therefore investigated what a non-human ‘interpreter’ would come up with as a periodization by means of stylometry.
                </p>
                <p> In this paper, we apply methods from stylometry to the problem of periodizing Samuel Beckett’s prose. A novelty is that we restrict it to function word frequencies, which are a common object of research in stylometry, but which have hardly been considered in Beckett studies. An exception is Banfield, who suggested a four-phase evolution in Beckett’s oeuvre, partially on the basis of linguistic arguments. Our approach is related to ‘stylochronometry’ (Stamou, 2008), in which a text’s writing style is studied as a function of its date of composition, in accordance with recent research into the stylistic development of individual authors, such as Henry James (Hoover, 2014), W. B. Yeats (Forsyth, 1999) or Jack London (Juola, 2007).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Preprocessing</head>
                <p>Here, we analyze Beckett’s prose fiction, in both French and English. We removed all non-authorial paratexts and only considered lower-case, alphabetical character strings. In the software repository accompanying this contribution (
                    <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">https://github.com/mikekestemont/beckett</hi>), we present a tabular overview of the materials we collected, including the publication dates of the editions we used, the text’s length, etc. (Note that this repository also holds high-resolution versions of our plots, which will be much more readable on screen.) In terms of chronology, we focus on the moment when Beckett started working on a text in either language (Van Hulle et al., 2015).
                </p>
                <p>We defined a relevant list of function words by extracting an initial list of the 300 most frequent words (MFW) from each corpus. From this list, we have manually removed non-grammatical words, which might correlate too strongly with the topic of particular texts. We refrained from removing common auxiliary verbs or personal pronouns, because they are interestingly tied to a text’s narrative perspective, as will become clear below. After this procedure, we were left with 162 function words for the English corpus and 169 for the French, the frequencies of which were scaled using 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">z</hi>-scores.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Preliminary Analyses</head>
                <p>We carried out an exploratory analysis of the material, using principal components analysis (PCA, first two dimensions plotted in Figs. 1-2 for 3,761-word slices). This unsupervised procedure does not yet integrate any chronological information in the analyses, which will help establish whether Beckett’s œuvre might have a ‘natural’ chronological structure with respect to writing style. In Figs. 1-2, the horizontal spread is dominated by a threefold clustering, with some of Beckett’s earlier works clustering in the far left. The loadings reveal that these works are characterized by a high frequency of words related to a third-person narrative perspective (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">he</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">she</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">his</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">has</hi>, etc.). To the far right, we find a tight sample cloud corresponding to some of Beckett’s post-war works, such as 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Unnamable</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Texts for Nothing</hi>. These texts can be characterized by the use of first-person pronouns (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">I</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">me</hi>) in combination with impersonal pronouns such as 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">it</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">there</hi>, which suggests that these texts focus on the relation between an ‘I’ and his non-personal surroundings.
                </p>
                <p>Texts from the in-between period (such as 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Molloy</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Watt</hi>) also hold the middle in the horizontal distribution of samples. In both languages, samples from later works jump out with respect to the vertical dimension – e.g. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Worstward Ho</hi> in English, which is characterized by a rich mix of fairly abstract words, with an indeterminate semantics. Both scatterplots horizontally create an opposition between earlier and later writings in Beckett’s oeuvre, focusing on an opposition between a first-person and a third-person perspective. In the vertical dimension, both analyses reveal on a vocabulary shift, in Beckett’s late writings, towards a more abstract and indeterminate vocabulary.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""297/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: English corpus PCA</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""297/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: French corpus PCA</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Chronological Analyses</head>
                <p>The previous analyses were ignorant of the diachronic structure of the data: samples from Beckett’s early works could just as easily cluster with later writings. This prevented us so far from identifying clear turning points in Beckett’s career. Variability-based Nearest Neighbour Clustering or VNC (Gries et al., 2012) is a method for the diachronic analysis of corpus linguistic data. VNC aims to identify distinct temporal stages, by pinpointing the main turning points. In traditional cluster analyses, each node can be freely combined with any other node in the tree, thus potentially scrambling the original chronological order of the data. VNC adds the constraint that only consecutive nodes, immediately adjacent in time, can form new clusters. This restriction enables analyses in which the chronological structure of the data is reflected in the top branches of trees, representing the main diachronic stages in the data.</p>
                <p>We have run VNC on our data (Figures 3-4, Euclidean distances, Ward’s linkage), which resulted in clearer insight into the chronological structure of Beckett’s œuvre. The English prose, displays a clear initial cluster of Beckett’s earliest two novels, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">More Pricks than Kicks</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Dream of Fair to Middling Women</hi>, which lack a French translation. Otherwise, the structures of Figs. 3-4 run remarkably parallel. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Murphy </hi>and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Watt</hi> constitute the second chronological cluster of works, together with the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Nouvelles</hi>. Only at a higher level is the former group paired with the cluster consisting of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Mercier and Camier</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Molloy </hi>and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Malone Dies</hi>. Interestingly, the original French versions of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Nouvelles</hi> are joined with the next cluster, whereas the English versions are joined with the previous cluster, which indicates a different status of this collection in both languages. The last major branch for both languages holds the tight clade representing 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Unnamable</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Texts for Nothing</hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">How It Is</hi> and the series of shorter late works. In the English tree, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Worstward Ho </hi>occupies a fairly pronounced position, emphasizing its special status.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""297/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3: English corpus VNC</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""297/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 4: French corpus VNC</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The VNC analysis (supplemented by a more complex, bootstrapped analysis, which we do not describe in this abstract) generally supports the periodization of Beckett’s oeuvre into an early, middle and late ‘cluster’. In English these periods would cover, firstly, Beckett’s early works, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">More Pricks than Kicks</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Dream of Fair to Middling Women</hi>; secondly the mid-career works, ranging from 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Murphy</hi> to 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Malone dies</hi>; and thirdly, a series of later works starting with 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Unnamable</hi>. From the French prose, a similar periodization arises – although it clearly reflects the absence of any translated counterparts for 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">More Pricks than Kicks</hi> and 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Dream of Fair to Middling Women</hi>.
                </p>
                <p>Interestingly, our analyses invariably point to the beginning, rather than the end, of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">L’Innommable</hi> / 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Unnamable </hi>as a major stylistic turning point, thus breaking up the unity of the so-called post-war ‘trilogy’. Additionally, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">From an Abandoned Work / D’un ouvrage abandonné</hi> – notwithstanding its short length – also often emerged as a major watershed. The question, however, is whether this result is to be interpreted as a turning point leading the way for Beckett’s later, experimental works, or as a sort of ‘re-turning point’, marking a temporary relapse into the idiom of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Nouvelles</hi> after 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">L’Innommable</hi>. This might be a valuable pointer for further research, since this particular text does not seem to have played a significant role in the periodization debate so far. Additionally, it turns out to be more difficult in English than in French to model the transition from a young to a middle Beckett (also in the bootstrapped experiments). This result possibly reflects the fact that the original, English version of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Watt </hi>was written relatively early (during the war), whereas its translation was made much later. In any case, this particular result offers grounds for a re-examination of the difference in evolution between Beckett’s French and English prose production, and in particular the role of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Watt</hi> as a transitional novel.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Banfield, A.</hi> (2003). Beckett’s Tattered Syntax, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Representations</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 84</hi>: 6-29.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boxall, P.</hi> (2015). Still Stirrings: Beckett’s Prose from Texts for Nothing to Stirrings Still. In Van Hulle, D. (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The New Cambridge Companion to Samuel Beckett</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 33-47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gontarski, S. E.</hi> (1997). Staging Himself, or Beckett’s Late Style in the Theatre. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Samuel Beckett Today / Aujourd’hui</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>: 87-97.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Forsyth, R. S.</hi> (1999). Stylochronometry with substrings, or: a poet yound and old. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 14</hi>: 467-78.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gries, S. T. and Hilpert, M.</hi> (2012). Variability-based neighbor clustering: A bottom-up approach to periodization in historical linguistics. In Nevalainen, T. and Traugott, E. C. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Oxford Handbook of the History of English</hi>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 134-44.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. L.</hi> (2014). A Conversation Among Himselves. Change and the Styles of Henry James. In Hoover, D. L., Culpeper, J. and O’Halloran, K. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Literary Studies: Corpus Approaches to Poetry, Prose, and Drama</hi>. New York: Routledge, pp. 90-119.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Juola, P.</hi> (2007). Becoming Jack London. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Quantitative Linguistics, </hi><hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>: 145-47.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stamou, C.</hi> (2008). Stylochronometry: stylistic development, sequence of composition, and relative dating. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 23</hi>: 181-99.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Hulle, D. and Verhulst, P.</hi> (2015). Introduction: A Beckett Continuum and a Chronology of Beckett’s Writings. In Van Hulle, D. (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The New Cambridge Companion to Samuel Beckett</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. XVII-XXXII.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Hulle, D. and Kestemont, M.</hi> (2016). Periodizing Samuel Beckett's works: a Stylochronometric Approach. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Style</hi> 50: forthcoming.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2778","17","Stylometry on the Silver Screen: Authorial and Translatorial Signals in Film Dialogue","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Stylometry based on quantitative analysis of linguistic features such as most frequent words, lemmata, or parts of speech, is a time- and research-proven tool in authorship attribution and plagiarism detection, and is now also used in more general literary studies as part of the distant reading revolution. It has been particularly successful in grouping long texts by their authors in both supervised and unsupervised machine learning tests – and the appeal of this material to stylometrists is understandable in that novels are easily available and easily definable chunks of linguistic (and literary) material, and, despite rumors on the death of the author, most readily associated by the general reader with a single creative figure. And when they are not, discovering the fingerprints of more than one hand in collaborative works is another favorite pastime of stylometrists.</p>
            <p>While perhaps equally avidly studied, the authorship signal in drama is often more problematic. This is probably why the most famous question, that of Shakespearean authorship, is so complex and so hotly contested – as evident, for instance, in a fairly recent debate (Craig and Kinney, 2009; Vickers, 2011; Hoover, 2012). Other difficulties in this genre include the “codification of … literary discourse” in certain literary periods and the fact that the same authors might write drama both in prose and in verse (Schöch, 2013, 2014); also, it may be supposed that, as dramatists create their characters through dialogue, there is a more or less conscious effort on their part to differentiate their style. This last phenomenon has also been researched in novels (Burrows, 1987) and translations of novels and drama, and the results could be equally problematic (Rybicki, 2006, 2007, 2008).</p>
            <p>Even more distortion may be expected in a somewhat similar genre, that of film and TV dialogue – and its textual reflection in intralingual subtitles and interlingual translations. The final shape of filmic speech ascribed to a given screenwriter can be influenced by other agents, such as directors or actors. It can be further transformed in the process of intralingual subtitling, especially that performed by “fansubbers”, who do not necessarily reflect the exact dialogue spoken onscreen. This becomes even more of a problem in the case of interlingual translations, which by nature condense (subtitles, voice-over) or rework (dubbing) the original message, being at times anonymous versions of questionable quality (“fansubs”).</p>
            <p>Quantitative methods have already found their way into audiovisual translation research (Pérez-González 2014; Baños 
                <hi rend=""italic"">et al</hi>., 2013), as exemplified by such projects as Pavia Corpus of Film Dialogue, used to examine sociolinguistic and pragmatic features of dubbed Italian (Freddi and Pavesi, 2009), or Forlixt1, a multimodal corpus which helps to investigate the interplay of verbal and non-verbal semiotics of the film (Valentini, 2006, 2008).
            </p>
            <p>In comparison with the above attempts, our research was done on a specialized corpus of historical films and TV (mini)series. This choice was based on the assumption that the subgenre has unique characteristics which find reflection in film dialogue: namely, it authenticates the represented reality and it also adheres to the codes of realism existing in particular countries. This, in turn, made us look for the same phenomena in (English) originals and (Italian and Polish) translations, since translated dialogue, too, is shaped by stylistic necessities of the genre, culture-specific images of the past dominant in the target context, but also by norms and conventions of audiovisual translation in a given language/culture/country. The exact composition of the corpus is given in the table below:</p>
            <table rend=""rules"">
                <row>
                    <cell>Original</cell>
                    <cell>Polish<lb/> voice-over</cell>
                    <cell>Polish “official”<lb/> subtitles</cell>
                    <cell>Polish fansubs</cell>
                    <cell>Italian dubbing</cell>
                    <cell>Italian “official”<lb/>subtitles</cell>
                    <cell>Italian fansubs</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Tudors </hi>Season 1 (2005)
                    </cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Tudors</hi> Season 2 (2007)
                    </cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Elizabeth I </hi>(2005) (miniseries)
                    </cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Elizabeth (1998)</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Elizabeth. Golden Age (2007)</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Other Boleyn Girl </hi>(2008)
                    </cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex </hi>(1939)
                    </cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>Anne of a Thousand Days</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                </row>
                <row>
                    <cell>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Wolf Hall </hi>(2015)
                    </cell>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell/>
                    <cell>+</cell>
                </row>
            </table>
            <p>From the point of view of film and audiovisual translation studies, our research project explores the concept of film/television genre and its distinctive features, focusing on the functions of film dialogue and linguistic/stylistic strategies used by screenwriters to fulfil them (Kozloff, 2000; Jaeckle, 2013). The first stage of our investigation consisted in a contrastive stylometric analysis of the extended Anglophone corpus, composed of both historical and non-historical film scripts, in order to verify our preliminary hypothesis about the genre-related specificity of film dialogue. We proceeded, then, to the analysis of parallel corpora of scripts in all available translations into Polish (voice-over, official and amateur subtitles) and Italian (dubbing, official and amateur subtitles). All this was done with several quantitative methods previously developed and used on other textual material, i.e. literary texts. In particular, frequencies of words from various frequency strata were compared between texts in each of the languages studied using the Delta procedure (Burrows, 2002). The analyses were performed with 
                <hi rend=""italic"">stylo</hi> (Eder et al., 2013), a package for R, the statistical programming environment (R Core Team, 2014), later also postprocessed with Gephi network analysis software (Bastian et al., 2009).
            </p>
            <p>On the basis of these tests several observations could be made. As concerns the screenwriters, they tend to adapt the dialogues to the requirements of historical genre and the presented epoch. This is visible in Fig. 1, where the authorial signal seems to disappear whenever a given writer worked on two films and/or series set in different eras or belonging to a different, i.e. non-historical genre.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""302/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1. Network analysis diagram of historical and non-historical scripts.</head>
            </figure>
            <p>As concerns audiovisual translations, we arrived at rather unexpected conclusions. We compared versions of individual episodes of TV series and films in Italian (dubbing, subtitles) and Polish (voice-over, subtitles) by analyzing frequencies of single words and part-of-speech 5-grams; the latter measure was a rough approximation of syntax (Górski et al., 2014). As far as Italy is concerned, we noticed an astounding uniformity of style regardless of technique, be it subtitles or dubbing: translations of individual episodes of TV series and films clustered together in analyses of both word and part-of-speech frequencies. By contrast, Polish subtitles and voice-over scripts of the same episodes clustered together for single-word frequencies, while the latter formed their own clusters in part-of-speech 5-gram analysis. This is shown in Fig. 2 and 3.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""302/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2. Bootstrap consensus tree for most frequent words in Polish subtitle and voice-over translations in a corpus of Elizabethan-era films and TV series.</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""302/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3. Bootstrap consensus tree for most frequent part-of-speech 5-grams in Polish subtitle and voice-over translations in a corpus of Elizabethan-era films and TV series.</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Obviously, the similarities between dubbing and subtitles in Italian may stem from the fact that the latter are based on the former. However, the fact that even amateur subtitles, which usually are published before the release of the dubbed version, show a considerable affinity to dubbing, demonstrates high normalization of the formal language used in Italian historical films and television series. </p>
            <p>All these results confirm our preliminary hypothesis that film genre influences the strategies of creating film dialogues and their translations. Although we believe that stylometric and computational analysis should not be the end in itself, it seems invaluable in audiovisual translation studies, encouraging closer qualitative analysis of the original and translated scripts. It invites further investigation of such issues as:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>the importance of cultural norms and conventions in film translation;</item>
                <item>significant intercultural differences in translation strategies used by subtitlers;</item>
                <item>complex relations between dubbing and subtitles, official and amateur subtitles, voice-over and subtitles</item>
                <item>cultural development of written / spoken language in a given country and the salient stylistic trends in audiovisual translation.</item>
            </list>
            <p>Acknowledgements</p>
            <p>This research is part of project 2013/11/B/HS2/02890, supported by Poland’s National Science Center.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baños, R., Bruti, S. and Zanotti, S. (eds).</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Perspectives: Studies in Translatology</hi>. Special Issue: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus Linguistics and Audiovisual Translation: In Search of an Integrated Approach</hi>. <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(4).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bastian M., Heymann S. and Jacomy M. </hi>(2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Gephi: an Open Source Software for Exploring and</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Manipulating Networks</hi>. International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (1987). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computation into Criticism: A Study of Jane Austen’s Novels and an Experiment in Method</hi>. Oxford: Oxford U. Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (2002). Delta: A measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>: 267-87.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Craig, H., and Kinney, A.</hi> eds. (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare, Computers, and the Mystery of Authorship</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge U. Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M.</hi> (2015). Visualization in Stylometry: Cluster Analysis Using Networks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>, first published online 3 December 2015, doi: 10.1093/llc/fqv061.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2013). Stylometry with R: a Suite of Tools, in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference abstracts</hi>, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, pp. 487-89.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Górski, R., Eder, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2014). Stylistic fingerprints, POS tags and inflected languages: a case study in Polish, in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Qualico 2014: Book of Abstracts</hi>. Olomouc: Palacky University, pp. 51–53.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Freddi M, and Pavesi, M. </hi>(2009). The Pavia Corpus of Film Dialogue: Methodology and Research Rationale; in Freddi, M. and Pavesi M. (eds). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Analyzing Audiovisual Dialogue: Linguistic and Translational Insights</hi>, Bologna: Clueb, pp. 95-100. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. </hi>(2012). The Rarer They Are, the More There Are, the Less They Matter. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2012: Conference abstracts</hi>, University of Hamburg. Hamburg U. Press, pp. 218-221. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jacomy, M., Venturini, T., Heymann, S. and Bastian, M. </hi>(2014). ForceAtlas2, a Continuous Graph Layout Algorithm for Handy Network Visualization Designed for the Gephi Software. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PLoS ONE</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(6): e98679. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0098679.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jaeckle, J. (ed.).</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Film Dialogue</hi>. London & New York: Wallflower Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M. </hi>(2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Macroanalysis. Digital Methods and Literary History</hi>. Champaign: U. of Illinois Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kozloff, S. </hi>(2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Overhearing Film Dialogue</hi>. Berkley: University of California Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pérez-González, L. </hi>(2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Audiovisual Translation Theories, Methods and Issues. </hi>London and New York: Routledge. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">R Core Team</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing</hi>. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Wien, 
                        <ref target=""http://www.R-project.org/"">http://www.R-project.org/</ref>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rybicki, J. </hi>(2006). Burrowing into Translation: Character Idiolects in Henryk Sienkiewicz's 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Trilogy</hi> and its Two English Translations. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(1), 91-103.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rybicki, J. </hi>(2007). Twelve Hamlets: A Stylometric Analysis of Major Characters' Idiolects in Three English Versions and Nine Translations, in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2007: Conference Abstracts</hi>, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, p. 191.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rybicki, J. </hi>(2008). Does Size Matter? A Re-examination of a Time-proven Method, in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2008: Conference abstracts</hi>, University of Oulu, p. 184.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schöch, C.</hi> (2013). Fine-Tuning our Stylometric Tools: Investigating Authorship and Genre in French Classical Drama, in 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Conference 2013</hi>, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schöch, C. </hi>(2014). Corneille, Molière et les autres. Stilometrische Analysen zu Autorschaft und Gattungszugehörigkeit im französischen Theater der Klassik, in Schöch, C. and Schneider, L. (eds). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literaturwissenschaft im digitalen Medienwandel</hi>, Mainz/Berlin: Philologie im Netz, pp. 130-57. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Valentini, C. </hi>(2006). A Multimedia Database for the Training of Audiovisual Translators. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">JoSTrans: The Journal of Specialised Translation </hi>6. http://www.jostrans.org/issue06/art_valentini.php.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Valentini, C. </hi>(2008). Forlixt1: The Forli Corpus of Screen Translation: Exploring Macrostructures; in Chiaro, D. Heiss, Ch. And Bucaria, Ch. (eds). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Between Text and Image. Updating Research in Screen Translation</hi>. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins, pp. 37-51. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vickers, B.</hi> (2011). Shakespeare and Authorship Studies in the Twenty-First Century. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare Quarterly</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">62</hi>: 106-42.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2779","17","Sussex Humanities Lab - Emotion, Automation and Sonic Socialities","2","<text>
        <body>
            <p>At the Sussex Humanities Lab we are building collaborations and networks to support and develop new forms of digital humanities. Our vision is to ensure that information scientists, literary theorists, media scholars, designers, practitioners, technologists, philosophers, social scientists and historians collaborate to serve the fundamental roles of humanities research. Sussex Humanities Lab builds on a long standing interdisciplinary culture at Sussex and is developing a programme that considers our digital past and digital futures. This is reflected in our four guiding research strands:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Digital History and Digital Archives</item>
                <item>Digital Media and Computational Culture</item>
                <item>Digital Lives, Memory and Experience</item>
                <item>Digital Technologies and Digital Performance.</item>
            </list>
            <p>Comprising a team of lecturers, research fellows, PhD students, technicians, and senior faculty, we are interested in developing new research areas across our multi-disciplinary team. Each strand reflects the seed initiatives of the Lab and are a starting point for our research journey. We are dedicated to developing and expanding research into how digital technologies are shaping our culture and society, as well as the way we go about our research. To this end we are developing a number of research projects, grants and network bids. Examples of our current research include:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Playing Tag: Identifying Emotion in Oral History Collections: </hi>Although large collections of video and audio files recording oral history testimony have been collected, archived, and aggregated in digital formats, the way we use these files remains largely analogue: We sit and listen and watch them. Research methods from other fields have great potential for the automatic analyses of emotions from postural movements and vocal inflections. By bringing together scholars from the field of oral history and the histories of emotion, social scientists using interview methodologies, sonic and video studies, corpus linguistics, and linguistic anthropology, this research lays the foundations for a new approach to the analyses of oral history collections.
                </item>
            </list>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Automation Anxiety:</hi> This research explores methods by which the humanities might evaluate contemporary cultural anxiety about automation. From self-driving cars, through high-frequency trading to military drones and organised swarms of shelf-stacking robots, our era is marked by a fascination with a fresh wave of automation technology. This new “rise of the machines” is characterised by the replacement of human decision making with reliance on algorithms, machine learning and other computational techniques whose fitness for purpose cannot be clearly understood by those whose lives they affect (Carr, 2014). The focus of this research is on the cultural anxiety associated with these new technologies and we seek to develop methods, approaches and tools that might be used to analyse and understand it. The question of method is particularly pertinent given that the humanities are themselves being automated. Indeed the debates around digital humanities reproduce much of the anxiety around automation itself. This research addresses the way in which, to paraphrase Ruppert, Law and Savage (2013), automation is increasingly both the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">material</hi> of culture and the apparatus for 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">knowing</hi> that culture. 
                </item>
            </list>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Sonic Ecologies and Socialities: </hi> This research brings together new understandings of how we sensorially engage with sound across digitally mediated bodies and computational environments. Our research is inspired by an eclectic range of perspectives, from performance studies and musicology (Coyne, 2010) to neuroscience, philosophy, sensory ethnography and digital aesthetics (Back 2007; Bidelman and Krishnan, 2009; Fazi and Fuller forthcoming). Common concerns amongst these perspectives are: (1) new modes of sensory perception, the sonic mediation of experience, and the possibility of algorithmically addressing such modes and mediations, (2) the augmentation of bodies and sensory methods for tracing and capturing soundscapes, and (3) new performative and compositional methods for creating and curating soundscapes that incite alternative politics of sensing.  
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>Other activities of the Lab include: visiting fellows scheme, workshops and seminar series.  </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Back, L.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Art of Listening</hi>. London and New York: Bloomsbury. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bidelman, G. and Krishnan, A.</hi> (2009). Neural Correlates of Consonance, Dissonance, and the Hierarchy of Musical Pitch in the Brainstem. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Journal of Neuroscience</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(42): 13165-71. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Carr, Nicholas G.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Glass Cage: Automation and Us</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coyne, R.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Tuning of Place: Sociable Spaces and Pervasive Digital Media</hi>. Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fazi, B. and Fuller, M.</hi> (forthcoming), Computational Aesthetics in Paul, C. (Ed) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Companion to Digital Art</hi>. Wiley and Sons.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ruppert, E., Law, J. and Savage, M.</hi> (2013). Reassembling Social Science Methods: The Challenge of Digital Devices. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Theory, Culture and Society</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>(4): 22–46.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2780","17","Sustainable publishing - Standardization possibilities for Digital Scholarly Edition technology","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>After decades of building digital resources for humanities research, such as Digital Scholarly Editions (DSE), and making them available to researchers and the broader public, we are at the point where many of these resources can be connected to one another and are more and more accepted by the scholarly community. However, we also experience the challenge to maintain all the various Digital Scholarly Editions which were built on a diverse base of different technologies. This is especially complex as Digital Scholarly Editions are “living” objects. On the one hand that means that the content can be extended and refined continuously. Hence they are never finished. On the other hand the technological basis must be kept accessible, secure and running. Those two processes can be summarized under the term “data curation”.</p>
            <p>If we assume that a Digital Scholarly Edition not only consists of the marked up texts, mostly XML documents, but also of another layer on top of the XML documents, the functionality layer – all the interactive parts, the visualizations and the different views on the texts, indexes or other research material, such as images or audio documents – it is obvious that data curation can become an unlimited complex task. This functionality layer provides an enormous additional benefit to the texts. A Digital Scholarly Edition can be seen as a tool which is used to analyze the XML documents, thus as part in the research process which must be preserved to reproduce research results which often cannot be achieved without the functionality layer.</p>
            <p>A Digital Humanities resource usually undergoes a typical life cycle and is built by a team of team members with a variety of competences that are needed for each task:</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>Analysis of the sources to be edited (humanities scholars)</item>
                <item>Requirement Engineering (the whole project team)</item>
                <item>Design of the data or document model, choosing what standards to use (scholars, database-, markup-, metadata-specialists)</item>
                <item>Choosing, adopting, and/or developing software tools for transcription, editing and publishing (software developers, scholars)</item>
                <item>Installing and maintaining development servers and web servers (system administrators)</item>
                <item>Conceptual design and implementation of the web publication of the Digital Scholarly Edition (web designer, web developer, scholars)</item>
                <item>Preparation for long term access and archiving (documentation- and metadata-specialists)</item>
                <item>Service support and maintenance after project finished (data curators)</item>
            </list>
            <p>At each step of this life cycle decisions are made which have impact on the subsequent steps. The first two steps of the list constitute the foundation on which the whole Digital Scholarly Edition is built on, from the data model over the choice of software tools until the publication as well as data curation.</p>
            <p>Digital Scholarly Editions are sufficiently described from a methodically point of view regarding the document and text modeling (Pierazzo 2015, Sahle 2013). An analytical description from the technological point of view still is a desideratum. To make a comprehensive data curation possible a technological publishing concept which uses standardized components is needed. Such a concept can consist of standards for a formal project documentation, a description of the used technologies, the provided interfaces and APIs, a design paradigm for typical user interaction tasks, and many more. Standards on the data- and metadata-layer are broadly accepted and in use – one example are the Guidelines of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI – 
                <ref target=""http://www.tei-c.org/"">http://www.tei-c.org</ref>) – but they are still missing for the functionality layer.
            </p>
            <p>A high standard critical Digital Scholarly Edition can only be built in a sustainable way and be maintained when it follows technological standards which still have to be developed. The paper will present a first tiny step of a proposal for a minimal standard from the technological point of view of a Digital Scholarly Edition. It focuses on experiences made during the last ten years working on XML-based Digital Scholarly Editions built with certain tools, such as eXistdb (
                <ref target=""http://exist-db.org/"">http://exist-db.org</ref>). Hence the proposed solution cannot be valid for all the different kinds of Digital Humanities scholarly resources.
            </p>
            <p>A possible next step towards such a formal description could be to package those XML-documents together with the source code of the functionality layer in a standardized self-descriptive format. An option for this task could be the EXPath Packaging System (
                <ref target=""http://expath.org/modules/pkg/"">http://expath.org/modules/pkg/</ref>), which works well for XML-based Digital Scholarly Editions and is widely used by Digital Scholarly Editions which are published using eXistdb. The main purpose of such a packaging system is not connectivity or interoperability rather than maintenance and data curation. The packaging system can be extended gradually to a technological publishing format which incorporates the aforementioned aspects such as a project description format.
            </p>
            <p>A possible formal project description format for the documentation will consist of the following information:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>The name of the project and all involved institutions and persons.</item>
                <item>The status of the project: planned, work in progress, published, or finished.</item>
                <item>The applied technologies and standards.</item>
                <item>The licenses, which are used for research data, source code and other components such as fonts, audio or video documents.</item>
                <item>Information about where to find the source code, if the source code is available under an open source license.</item>
                <item>Information about provided APIs and other interfaces to retrieve the research data and metadata in various formats (XML, JSON etc.) or get structured information about persons or places to be processed further in other contexts (In case of a correspondence edition metadata about the letters should be prepared in the Correspondence Metadata Interchange Format (CMIF) to be reused by 
                    <ref target=""http://correspsearch.bbaw.de/"">http://correspsearch.bbaw.de</ref>).
                </item>
                <item>Contextual details about the data producers, how data are collected etc. (More at Faniel 2015)</item>
                <item>Canonical citation rules and instructions for persistent referencing of current parts and older versions of the research data.</item>
                <item>A standardized change log, which can be evaluated by other services.</item>
            </list>
            <p>Of course this list can be just a first suggestion and does not provide all the information that can be given about a project. The project description must be accessible under a standardized URL (e.g. 
                <ref target=""http://home.of.project/api/projectdescription"">http://home.of.project/api/projectdescription</ref>) and can be serialized in different formats, such as XML or JSON, for further processing. That would allow a Digital Scholarly Edition to be registered at a central directory where all information and updates of various Digital Scholarly Editions which follow the same publishing model are collected automatically. Such a central directory does not exist yet. Currently existing directories collect information manually and describe projects externally, so changes and updates are harder to track.
            </p>
            <p>The success of such a publishing model depends on pragmatic usage possibilities and a critical mass of Digital Humanities scholars and projects who publish their Digital Scholarly Edition using this publishing model. It is difficult to find a standardized, generic approach in the world of Digital Scholarly Editions as every project encounters a different set of problems and a different set of uses. Thus it is important as developers to not make too many assumptions about the nature of a project and further the development of a technological publishing standard in continuous exchange with the scholarly community and in very small steps which take into account the diversity across the Humanities.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Faniel, I. </hi>(2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Data Management and Curation in 21st Century Archives</hi>, 
                        <ref target=""http://hangingtogether.org/?p=5375"">http://hangingtogether.org/?p=5375</ref>> (accessed 6th March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pierazzo, E.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarly Editing, Theories, Models and Methods.</hi> Ashgate.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sahle, P.</hi> (2013). <hi rend=""italic"">Digitale Editionsformen, Zum Umgang mit der Überlieferung unter den Bedingungen des Medienwandels</hi>, Bände, Norderstedt: Books on Demand 2013, <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2781","17","Taalportaal: A New Tool For Linguistic Research","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>1 Introducing the Taalportaal</head>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">The Taalportaal project aims at the development of a comprehensive and authoritative digital scientific grammar for Dutch and Frisian, the two official (oral) languages of the Netherlands, in the form of a virtual language institute. The Taalportaal is built around an interactive knowledge base of the current grammatical knowledge of Dutch and Frisian. The Taalportaal’s prime intended audience is the international scientific community, which is why the language used to describe the language facts is English.</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">The Taalportaal provides an (almost) exhaustive collection of the currently known data relevant for grammatical research, as well as an overview of the established insights about these data. This is an important step forward compared to presenting the same material in the traditional form of (paper) handbooks. For example, the three sub-disciplines syntax, morphology and phonology are often studied in isolation, but by presenting the results of these sub-disciplines on a single digital platform and internally linking these results, the Language Portal contributes to the integration of the results reached within these disciplines.</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing""> Technically, the Taalportaal is an XML-database, organized as DITA-topics (cf. 
                <ref target=""https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin_Information_Typing_Architecture"">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin_Information_Typing_Architecture</ref>), that is accessible via the Internet using any standard internet browser. Organization and structure of the linguistic information are reminiscent of, and to a certain extend inspired by, Wikipedia and comparable online information
            </p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Sources (but without the anarchy of Wikipedia). The project is a collaboration of the Meertens Institute, the Fryske Akademy, the Institute of Dutch Lexicology and Leiden University, funded, to a large extent, by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) (Landsbergen et al. 2014).</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Besides the grammar modules, the portal contains an ontology of linguistic terms (recast recently in the CLARIN Concept Registry (Schuurman (2015), cf. 
                <ref target=""https://www.clarin.eu/ccr"">https://www.clarin.eu/ccr</ref>) and an extensive bibliography. As of January 2016, the first release of the Taalportaal is online via 
                <ref target=""http://www.taalportaal.org"">http://www.taalportaal.org</ref>. 
            </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>2 Enriching the Taalportaal with links to linguistic resources</head>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">The Taalportaal database has been enriched with links to on-line linguistic resources. Links between a descriptive grammar and a linguistically annotated corpus are valuable for various reasons. Illustrating a given construction with corpus examples may help to get a better understanding of the variation of the construction and the frequency of these variants, as well as give insight into the lexical items that occur most often in the pertinent construction. Corpus data may also convince a reader that a given variant really occurs in (well-formed) text. Finally, corpus data may also yield occurrences of constructions judged ungrammatical by the authors of the descriptive grammar for reasons such as prescriptivism or theoretical bias. The possibility of enriching a grammar with links to on-line linguistic resources is thus a unique selling point of digital grammars vis-a-vis old school paper grammars (van der Wouden et al. 2015).</p>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Luckily, there is no lack of linguistic resources for Dutch that are useful for this purpose (Frisian is a slightly different matter), e.g. the (syntactically annotated part of the) Corpus of Spoken Dutch (manually verified syntactic annotation for 1M words of speech) (van der Wouden et al. 2002b; Schuurman et al. 2003), the Lassy Small treebank (manually verified syntactic annotation for 1M words of text from various genres) and the Lassy Large treebank (700M words of text, automatic syntactic annotation by means of the Alpino parser (van Noord 2006, van Noord et al. 2013) are all suitable corpora for our project. The first two resources provide high-quality data for a limited amount of text, while the last resource provides wide-coverage, but noisy, data. All treebanks follow (with minor modifications) the same annotation standard (van der Wouden et al. 2002a).</p>
              <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                  <head>2.1 Automatic links</head>
                  <p rend=""No Spacing"">We have investigated the feasibility of generating links to linguistic resources automatically (van der Wouden et al. 2015). As the Taalportaal texts are in XML format, linguistic examples, linguistic terms, etcetera are marked as such and can be “harvested” as such. Example sentences have been selected and translated into queries for corpus tools such as GrETEL (Augustinus et al. 2013), linguistic terms and lexical items that were highlighted, ended up being automatically linked to resources such as an etymological database such as the etymologiebank (van der Sijs 2010) the large (historical) dictionary WNT (De Vries & te Winkel et al. 1864–1998) or to a section in an on-line version of the Dutch reference grammar ANS (Haeseryn et al. 1997).</p>
              </div>
              <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                  <head>2.2 Intelligent links</head>
                  <p rend=""No Spacing"">Next to these automatic links, the linguistic data is also enriched with tailor-made links to corpus data (van der Wouden et al. 2015). For this, student assistants with a considerable linguistic schooling have read the linguistic texts, interpreted them and translated their content into queries that address the corpora that seems most fit to them, documenting their choices and considerations.</p>
                  <p rend=""No Spacing""> The web-based corpus query tool PaQu (Odijk 2015, 
                    <ref target=""http://zardoz.service.rug.nl:8067/xpath"">http://zardoz.service.rug.nl:8067/xpath</ref>) is our first tool of choice for executing treebank queries. The PaQu interface helps the user to formulate XPATH-queries; it returns matching sentences in the selected corpus, with the option to display the matching nodes in the syntactic dependency graph. It also displays the query being executed along with a brief description. Queries are dynamic, i.e. the user can switch between treebank corpora, or substitute a given lexical item by an alternative. Furthermore, users can select up to three attributes (i.e. lemma, part of speech, dependency relation, etc.) of matching nodes to obtain a frequency distribution of the attribute values. Advanced users can also modify the XPATH query as they see fit. Integration of queries into the electronic version of the SoD will be done by adding links (in the form of an icon) to paragraphs and examples for which queries are available. (GrETEL (Augustinus et al. 2013, 
                    <ref target=""http://nederbooms.ccl.kuleuven.be/eng/gretel"">http://nederbooms.ccl.kuleuven.be/eng/gretel</ref>) is another a corpus query tool that supports the same XPATH query language as PaQu, but that also provides support for example based query construction, a feature that might be particularly useful to non-expert users.)
                   </p>
              </div>
              <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                  <head>2.3 First results</head>
                  <p rend=""No Spacing"">After completion of approx. 1.000 queries that cover the syntactic parts on complementation and modification of adjectives and adpositions, we have learned that creating suitable queries for a given fragment from the SoD requires creativity and careful experimentation, tuning, and documentation (cf. van Engeland & Meertens 2016). Construction of queries is far from deterministic, that is, different annotators have different opinions concerning the most suitable query for a given example or phenomenon. In a surprisingly high number of cases, there are mismatches (in constituent structure, in part-of-speech) between the presentation in the grammar and the treebank annotation. While this makes the development of queries harder, it also underlines the value of the current project: by systematically exploring the way various linguistic examples are annotated in the treebank, we provide a starting point for further corpus exploration for users that have a general linguistic interest but who are not necessarily experts on Dutch treebank annotation.</p>
                  <p rend=""No Spacing""> The manually verified treebanks almost always provide sufficient examples of basic word order patterns for queries that are not restricted to a specific adjective or preposition. For queries that search for a specific lexical head or for less frequent word order patterns, the Lassy Large treebank usually has to be used. In that case, users must be prepared to see also a certain number of false hits. However, there are also examples in the Taalportaal descriptions that cannot be found even in a 700M word corpus. The conclusion that such word orders are not found in the language would be too strong, but it might be a starting point for further research (e.g. does this construction occur only in certain registers or discourse settings?) or for an alternative analysis (e.g. do these cases really involve adjectives?).</p>
              </div>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>3 Extending the Taalportaal: Afrikaans</head>
            <p rend=""No Spacing"">Only recently, South Afrika has started building a virtual language institute Viva! (
                <ref target=""http://viva-afrikaans.org/"">http://viva-afrikaans.org/</ref>) that aims at developing a digital infrastructure for Afrikaans. Among its goals are study and description of the Afrikaans language and development of comprehensive tools and resources for written and spoken Afrikaans, including digital dictionaries and corpora; language advice is also supplied. Part of the Viva portal is a comprehensive grammar of Afrikaans, which is based on the Taalportaal architecture, and will be part of the Taalportaal infrastructure.
            </p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Augustinus, Liesbeth, Vincent Vandeghinste, Inene Schuurman, and Frank van Eynde</hi>. 2013. Example-based treebank querying with GrETEL — now also for Spoken Dutch. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 19th Nordic Conference of Computational Linguistics (Nodalida 2013)</hi>, 423–428, Oslo, Norway. NEALT Proceedings Series 16.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Haeseryn, Walter, Kirsten Romijn, Guido Geerts, Jaap de Rooij, and Maarten C. van den Toorn</hi> (eds.). 1997. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Algemene Nederlandse Spraakkunst.</hi> Groningen and Deurne: Martinus Nijhoff and Wolters Plantijn. 2nd ed. 
                        <ref target=""http://ans.ruhosting.nl/e-ans/index.html"">http://ans.ruhosting.nl/e-ans/index.html</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Landsbergen, Frank, Carole Tiberius, and Roderik Dernison</hi>. 2014. Taalportaal: an online grammar of Dutch and Frisian. In
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC’14)</hi>, ed. by Nicoletta Calzolari (Conference Chair), Khalid Choukri, Thierry Declerck, Hrafn Loftsson, Bente Maegaard, Joseph Mariani, Asuncion Moreno, Jan Odijk, & Stelios Piperidis, Reykjavik, Iceland. European Language Resources Association (ELRA).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Noord, Gertjan</hi>. 2006. At Last Parsing Is Now Operational. In
                        <hi rend=""italic""> TALN06. Verbum Ex Machina. Actes de la 13e conference sur le traitement automatique des langues naturelles</hi>, ed. by Piet Mertens, Cedrick Fairon, Anne Dister, & Patrick Watrin, 20–42.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Noord, Gertjan, Gosse Bouma, Frank van Eynde, Daniel de Kok, Jelmer van der Linde, Ineke Schuurman, Erik Tjong Kim Sang, and Vincent Vandeghinste</hi>. 2013. Large scale syntactic annotation of written Dutch: Lassy. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Essential Speech and Language Technology for Dutch: the STEVIN Programme</hi>, ed. by Peter Spyns & Jan Odijk, 147–164. Springer.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Odijk, Jan</hi>. 2015. Linguistic Research with PaQU. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Computational Linguistics in The Netherlands journal</hi> 5, 3–14. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schuurman, Ineke</hi>. 2015. Concept revival: from ISOcat to CLARIN Concept Registry. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CLARIN News</hi> 7 January 2015.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schuurman, Ineke, Machteld Schouppe, Heleen Hoekstra, and Ton van der Wouden</hi>. 2003. CGN, an annotated corpus of spoken Dutch. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of 4th International Workshop on Linguistically Interpreted Corpora (LINC-03)</hi>, ed. by Anne Abeillé, Silvia Hansen-Schirra, & Hans Uszkoreit, 101–108. Budapest.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van der Sijs, Nicoline</hi>, 2010. Etymologiebank. 
                        <ref target=""http://etymologiebank.nl/"">http://etymologiebank.nl/</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Vries, Matthias, Lammert A. Te Winkel et al.</hi>. (eds.). 1864–1998. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal</hi>. ’s-Gravenhage [etc.]: Martinus Nijhoff [etc.]. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.inl.nl/"">http://www.inl.nl/</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van der Wouden, Ton, Gosse Bouma, Matje van de Kamp, Marjo van Koppen, Frank Landsbergen, and Jan Odijk</hi>. 2015. Enriching a grammatical database with intelligent links to linguistic resources. Paper delivered at CLARIN 2015, 15–17 October 2015, Wrocław, Poland, accepted for publication in the 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Selected Papers of the CLARIN 2015 Conference</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van der Wouden, Ton, Heleen Hoekstra, Michael Moortgat, Bram Renmans, and Ineke Schuurman</hi>. 2002a. Syntactic Analysis in the Spoken Dutch Corpus (CGN). In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the third International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation</hi>, ed. by Manuel González Rodríguez & Carmen Paz Suárez Araujo, 768–773. Paris: ELRA.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van der Wouden, Ton, Heleen Hoekstra, Michael Moortgat, Ineke Schuurman, and Bram Renmans</hi>. 2002b. Syntactische annotatie voor het Corpus Gesproken Nederlands (CGN). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Nederlandse Taalkunde</hi> 7, 335–352.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""No Spacing"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Engeland, Jorik, and Erlinde Meertens</hi>. 2016. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Evaluation report pilot links on taalportaal to corpus search interfaces (tpc)</hi>. Technical report, Utrecht University, CLARIN, and University of Groningen.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
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    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2782","17","Tackling Terms In Furetiere's 'Dictionnaire Universel'","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>First published posthumously in 1690, Furetière’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Dictionnaire Universel</hi> had aroused controversy well before its publication. Nevertheless, it was quickly followed by an enlarged and corrected version edited by the protestant scholar Henri Basnage de Beauval. It is this extended version of 1701, with its broad coverage of terminological language that is our subject.
            </p>
            <p>The Furetière project seeks to render the entire 1701 dictionary available as an open access digital resource in an XML-TEI compliant format. Given the size of the task, and the current total lack of finding with little hope in the short term, the first stage will be an attempt to map and describe terminological coverage by reference to a small number of themes, namely architectural, legal and maritime terminology. This paper will demonstrate the mapping procedure being carried out using the Atlas Ti Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) and the building of a model for the TEI encoding.</p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Historical background</head>
                <p>Furetière was both a member of the French Academy and participant in the dictionary building team, hence the uproar at his publishing what was seen as a rival dictionary. This explains why a Catholic priest should end up being published by the protestant publisher in the Netherlands, Arnaud Leers. The dictionary was a success, but still needed much revising. This was carried out by the French émigré and scholar, Henri Basnage de Beauval. Despite being the most complete edition, only one attempt at digitising was ever made (Wionet and Tutin, 2001). Our aim is to encode the Basnage dictionary but with cross references to the edition of 1690 and the publication of Corneille (1694) so as to see how the terminological entries evolved and to what extent complementary information can be found in the Corneille dictionary (Williams, Forthcoming).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Using CAQDAS</head>
                <p>One important task for the Digital Humanities community will be to bring or adapt existing tools to disciplines that are often less digitally aware. Thus, in using a CAQDAS tool to explore the three dictionaries, we aim not only to use a very powerful tool to allow pre-digitising analysis and mapping of data, but also to bring this technology into the sphere of literary analysis.</p>
                <p>CAQDAS were essentially created to meet the needs of sociologists carrying out rigorous qualitative analyses on data from multiple supports. Literary specialists also carry out qualitative analyses, but often tend to use highlighters to work on printouts of PDFs. By using a CAQDAS to work through a document as big and as complex as the Furetière’s dictionary, we aim to show how an electronic highlighter that allows coding and network analyses can be used in humanities research, and particularly in our own.</p>
                <p>There are a number of commercial CAQDAS on the market, and only one open-source tool. Although open-source tools are important to the community, we have adopted Atlas Ti as being a very powerful tool that is evolving rapidly with new functions. </p>
                <p>The 1701 Basnage edition is over 4000 pages of very tight text. Text quality is poor which precludes use of OCR. Whilst it is structured, we are in a period of great experimentation in dictionary compilation leading to a complex meta and microstructure. The only way forward is to read the text. Using Atlas Ti, we skim the pages so as to locate and code entries designated as terms, to find the different introductory formulae, as well as spotting potential search formulae for unmarked terms, and to list the domains and crafts to which they belong. The coding system allows us to carry out a bottom-up conceptualisation of the dictionary with the quotations allowing us to create a headword list that links directly to the entries in the PDF file. Knowing the terminological domains covered by the dictionary is interesting in itself, but it also gives further keys for reaching unmarked terms. Networks allow us to reorganise domains and crafts into groups, such as legal terminology – represented by several domain names- and maritime terminology, which is often closely linked to language of fortification, architecture and law. Atlas Ti allow to output data in a machine-readable format so that the headword list could be transformed as an organised lexicon for use in the XML encoding process.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>XML TEI</head>
                <p>Use of Atlas Ti as an electronic highlighter with all its coding and management functions does permit a full qualitative analysis of the data. However, it is still not possible to share the data itself. Digitising the entire dictionary is a mammoth task that is only feasible using crowd sourcing over a long period of time. Marking up only thematically designated terminological domains allows us to create and test a model for the data as well as making available machine readable data rapidly. The dictionary is unique in having definitions accompanied by lengthy examples and citations thus providing both technical and phraseological information that will only be retrievable using in-depth mark-up. Whereas Wionet and Tutin (op.cit) marked up one letter, our plan is to attempt to follow the terminology through the entire dictionary.</p>
                <p>The first stage consists of marking up terms from a small number of highly productive thematic fields isolated using the CAQDAS analysis. The first field to be explored in depth is related to maritime activities as designated by ‘terme de marine’ (maritime term) so as to open a collaboration with French historians so as to compare an élite vision of naval terminology as compared by the situation in a major naval port, that of Lorient which founded in 1666 by the Compagnie des Indes, and then became a major naval base from 1703. </p>
                <p>Our aim is to illustrate the decisions taken and how these affect output through visualisation, but also analysis using linguistic analysis tools as TXM and a database system as BaseX. Once more advanced, the data will be put online using a query interface. At the moment, we are sharing code on GitHub under the name Basnage.</p>
                <p>Mark-up is being carried out using Oxygen so as to mark-up using the TEI guidelines and use XQuery to ensure consistency. Entries can be extremely complex, as will be illustrated by reference to the verb 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Abatre</hi>. This means that the TEI guidelines do not always adapt easily to what is found in the text. However, we are endeavouring not to customise the guidelines so as to retain full compatibility with other dictionaries and allow easier linking with source texts. 
                </p>
                <p>The dictionary tends to group words orthographically so that there is a main headword in large capitals, which also carried the grammatical information, but then a series of subentries that generally have the headword in small capitals. These subentries may include the specialised terminological usage. To complicate affairs, polysemy is illustrated within an entry with short comments and examples. To handle this, we are using <superEntry> to group the whole, and then <entry> for what might be considered as subentries. <Sense> is used to cover polysemy within a given entry. The main entry for ABATRE has three main senses illustrated by a series of synonyms, with each sense accompanied by numerous examples, and occasionally a citation with bibliographic reference. The examples frequently contain collocations that activate a particular synonym, it would be useful to mark-up and illustrate this. Similarly, citations generally only give a link to a person, often via an abbreviated name, as in MEN for Ménage or ABL for M. d’Ablancourt. These are generally listed at the beginning of the dictionary, but it is not always the case and sometimes the abbreviations are inconsistent. Sometimes, even if a text is not named, it is possible to link to a source document. Given that Basnage was a prolific letter writer at the centre of network of European scholars, and the author of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Histoire des Ouvrages des Savants</hi>, and important task will be to cross link to this valuable source of information.
                </p>
                <p>Collocation mark-up means that we can link dictionary analysis to words in a wider context as fund in Frantext or, when a text has already been digitising by using a language analytical tool as TXM. Mark-up also aims to make an onomosiological analysis possible using BaseX rather than simply presenting the data in a linear semasiological format. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>This is a mammoth mark-up task which we believe is rendered easier by mixing tools so as to permit on-going analysis whilst gradually digitising the whole into XML compliant TEI. This strategy means that other scholars can use data without having to wait for the entire digitalisation process to be completed. In so doing, we seek to explore data whilst collaborating in the dissemination and improvement of digital tools and also a contribution to the art of digital mark-up of early dictionaries.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Williams, G.</hi> (Forthcoming). Le temps des termes: les termes et la phraséologie dans les dictionnaires du 17 siècle. In De Giovanni, C. (Ed.), <hi rend=""italic"">Fraseologia E Paremilogia: Passato, Presente E Futuro</hi>. FrancoAngeli: Milan.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Wionet, C., Tutin, A.</hi> (2001). <hi rend=""italic"">Pour informatiser le Dictionnaire universel de Basnage (1702) et de Trévoux (1704): Approche théorique et pratique</hi>. Honoré Champion: Paris.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2783","17","Teaching Digital Humanities Through a Community-Engaged, Team-Based Pedagogy","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Based in five years of experience teaching digital humanities (DH) students at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL), our paper tells the story of an evolving approach to teaching ""practical"" skills. We argue that the most important skills DH students need to learn are not particular programming languages or specific research methodologies, but team-based problem-solving. Furthermore, an effective way to achieve this learning is for students to work together to design and build a digital project that addresses a real challenge, draws upon their commitment to the humanities, and serves the mission of a local organization.</p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Background</head>
                <p>When UNL formed its Graduate Certificate Program in Digital Humanities, the organizing committee knew it wanted students to have a substantial engagement with the intellectual theory undergirding digital humanities as well as with DH praxis. To accomplish this, UNL created two courses to form the heart of the Certificate: the Interdisciplinary Reading Seminar in Digital Humanities and the Internship in Digital Humanities.<note> Full details of the UNL Graduate Certificate Program are available at http://www.unl.edu/dhcert/</note></p>
                <p>The Internship in Digital Humanities, originally available only to graduate students, embedded students within faculty DH projects at UNL. Students worked on these projects for seven hours per week and spent one hour in class learning some ""basic skills"" for digital humanists. After running the course this way for two years, we determined we were not fulfilling the goals of the curriculum or the needs of the students. In the best cases, students were fully integrated into project teams and were challenged with new experiences. Other students, however, performed menial and repetitive work throughout the semester. We also underestimated the challenge of making students collaborators in this limited time, especially when  project staff faced deadlines and needed to focus on production rather than instruction. The weekly class sessions, too, were mere introductions; students could not truly learn new skills because their projects did not provide opportunities to work with the introduced technologies and strategies.</p>
                <p>The mediocrity of this approach and the inclusion of the course in a new Undergraduate Minor in Digital Humanities forced us to think more deeply about what it means to teach DH project development. We wanted a higher level of student investment in the work and for students to be involved from conception to implementation. And opening the course to undergraduate students made us even more aware of the need to present students with varied projects, not just those emerging from faculty members at a research-intensive university.<note> Our approach acknowledges Jakacki and Faull's perspective that undergraduate digital humanities education often focuses on specific tools or techniques rather than ""habits of mind"" (2014). Our course and pedagogy also take up the ""three major questions in digital humanities pedagogy"" raised by Smith: is there a ""common core of learning objectives"" around which DH programs should be structured? How vocational should DH curricula be? Should DH curricula focus on skills, method, ""or critical perspectives on technology and its application""? (2014).</note></p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Immersive, Community-Based Approach to Digital Humanities Teaching and Learning</head>
                <p>For the revised version of the course, known as the Digital Humanities Practicum and launched in 2014, we adopted a service learning--or community-based learning--model. Both undergraduate and graduate students enroll in the course, and it is cross-listed among several departments including Anthropology, English, History, and Modern Languages & Literatures. (We are faculty members in the UNL Libraries, and the Libraries also play an important role in the course.) Under the new design, we partner with local organizations who have identified challenges suited to technological, humanities-engaged solutions. Over the course of the semester, students respond to those challenges, first conceptualizing a solution, iteratively building their solution (and sharing iterations with classmates), and then presenting their solution to a public audience at the end of the semester.<note> The skills we teach with this class are consistent with those outlined by Rockwell and Sinclair (2012): working in interdisciplinary teams, managing projects, applying digital practices, and explaining technologies.</note> The practicum engages and implements key values of community-based learning, including a ""recursive style; direct, high-impact method; and emphasis on abstraction embedded in practice"" (Grobman and Rosenberg, 2015). In addition, the course now advances a team-based experience that focuses not only on academia but looks outward to the humanities' roles in society more broadly.</p>
                <p>A fundamental difference between the Digital Humanities Practicum and the earlier internship course is that the Practicum focuses on team-based problem-solving rather than specific technical skills. For example, Humanities Nebraska, a state-wide humanities advocacy organization, challenged the students to improve communication about their annual Chautauqua event while engaging new audiences. In response, a team of undergraduate students proposed a mobile application that would serve as an information platform and provide opportunities for social media engagement. Entering the course, the students had limited experience with web technologies and no experience with mobile application development. While they researched what might be involved in creating a mobile application, we reached out to others on the UNL campus who could work with students to help them learn specific skills and made sure they would have access to necessary hardware (such as a variety of mobile devices for testing) and software. By semester's end, the application was available in the Google Play store, and shortly after was published to the Apple App Store. During this experience, the students learned much more than new technology proficiencies. They performed research about Chautauqua and the Chautauqua theme (""Free Land""), considered how best to communicate this information to the audiences they sought to reach, and interacted effectively with their client and mentors about their ideas--including accepting and responding to criticism of approaches that were not working. </p>
                <p>This model requires significant flexibility on the part of the instructors and students. The syllabus is largely unfixed, as it must respond to the students and their needs, based on their background and experiences and also on the solutions they seek to pursue. Therefore, most of the fifteen-week semester cannot be planned more than a week or two in advance. Students, however, use an agile development approach so that they and we learn early where they will confront difficulties in implementing their solutions and what resources--whether people, hardware, software, or strategies--we need to connect them with in order for them to develop their projects. </p>
                <p>Successful implementation of this model also requires that faculty and students are frank about knowledge limitations. As the instructors, we confess at the beginning of the course that we don't ourselves know everything the students will need to learn to be successful. But what we offer the students--and model for them--is the ability to figure out the necessary skills and seek appropriate resources. As we routinely tell the students, the requirements to solve these problems are not technical skills, but courage and perseverance. Our students have learned to weather discomfort not only because we implore them to do so, but because the iterative development model insists upon it. By having the students produce and demonstrate results early and often, we get them accustomed to a new kind of relationship with their coursework and to problem solving. </p>
                <p>Based on our observations and student evaluations, it is this iterative process that imparts the learning. Furthermore, student investment in the projects is encouraged by the ""realness"" of the challenges. Unlike many classroom assignments, the problems in the Digital Humanities Practicum are authentic challenges brought in by external organizations with real missions, and their work can have application beyond the classroom. Students have assisted the Nebraska Commission on Indian Affairs, for example, in their effort to secure federal legislation designating an historic trail. For the next iteration of the course, offered in Spring 2016, we plan to work with organizations that are not principally humanities organizations. These include a children's museum, a community supported agriculture and food education organization, and a social justice organization. Our goal is to broaden understanding of where humanities work can happen as well as demonstrate possibilities for solving problems by joining diverse areas of expertise. While we do not yet know the outcomes of the 2016 Practicum, the course will conclude before DH2016, and we will share both the student projects as well as an evaluation of the approach. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>Enter your references here:</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grobman, L. and Rosenberg, R.</hi> (2015). Introduction: Literary Studies, Service Learning and the Public Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Service Learning and Literary Studies in English</hi>, ed. Laurie Grobman and Roberta Rosenberg (New York: MLA), pp. 1-39.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jakacki, D. and Faull, K.</hi> (2014). Digital Learning in an Undergraduate Context: Promoting Long Term Student-Faculty (and Community) Collaboration in the Susquehanna Valley, PA. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014</hi>. Lausanne, Switzerland, July 2014.  http://dharchive.org/paper/DH2014/Paper-492.xml (accessed 2 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rockwell, G. and Sinclair, S.</hi> (2012). Acculturation and the Digital Humanities Community. In Hirsch, B. (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles, and Politics</hi>. UK: Open Book Publishers. http://www.openbookpublishers.com/htmlreader/DHP/chap07.html#ch07 (accessed 2 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Smith, D.</hi> (2014). Advocating for a Digital Humanities Curriculum: Design and Implementation. In: 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2014</hi>, Lausanne, Switzerland, July 2014. http://dharchive.org/paper/DH2014/Paper-665.xml (accessed 2 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2784","17","Testing Delta on Chinese texts","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Delta (Burrows, 2002) is a measure, which has already been proven as a reliable method to resolve authorship attribution problems in different languages such as English and German. However, there has been no report about the accuracy of Delta on Chinese texts so far. As such, I set an experiment to test it. The tests cover both modern and classical Chinese because of the grammatical and lexical differences between them.</p>
            <p>First I determined whether Delta works on modern Chinese. After that I did tests on classical Chinese. At last, I tested the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Dream of the Red Chamber</hi> (DRC, 红楼梦)
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> I focussed on the Classic Delta in my work. Other variations of Delta like Eder’s Delta, Argamon’s Linear Delta and so on will not be tested.</p>
                </note>
                <hi rend=""italic"">.</hi> The number of authors of DRC is a classic question of Chinese literary studies. The tool I used in the experiments is “stylo”, an R package introduced in the context of stylometry in 2013 (Eder, 2013). Using “stylo” I have done cluster analysis. All texts of one author should stay in one group. Misplaced texts are considered as mistakes. The more mistakes Delta makes, the less Delta is appropriate for Chinese. 
            </p>
            <p>Working on Chinese language processing is different compared to languages like English. The greatest challenge lies that we are unable to recognize the boundary of words because there are no spaces between words. There are two possibilities to address this problem: (i) by using a segmenter to split a text into words and select words as the textual feature, or (ii) by selecting character N-grams as the feature. Both solutions were tested here and the results are presented as a comparison. </p>
            <p>For my first experiment I gathered 45 modern Chinese texts from 6 authors. I used the Stanford segmenter to split the texts and select both words and characters as features. The results showed that Delta is reliable (Fig. 1). With the 100 most frequent words bigrams Delta correctly identifies 38 of 45 texts. The best results, 43 of 45 texts, occur with the 200 to 700 most frequent character bigrams or most frequent words unigram.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""129/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 1 Delta test results for four sets of features in 45 modern Chinese texts</head>
            </figure>
            <p>After the tests on modern Chinese, I proceeded with my second experiment on classical Chinese. I took 4 chapters each randomly from 10 novels from the Ming and Qing Dynasties (16th to 19th century) and built a corpus of 40 documents. One problem was that the Stanford segmenter did not work anymore, because the segmentation standards are not suitable for classical Chinese. Hence the only option was to take characters as feature. The results showed that Delta also works (Fig. 2). While many mistakes occurred with characters trigrams, taking characters bigrams for the tests achieved a high level of accuracy. With 600 most frequent characters 39 of 40 documents were correctly identified.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""129/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 2 Delta test results for three sets of features in 40 classical Chinese documents</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The first two experiments confirmed Delta as a valid measure for both modern and classical Chinese. In the third experiment Delta was applied to 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Dream of Red Chamber</hi> (DRC)
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> According to Tu’s paper (2013) the DRC under 
                        <ref target=""http://cls.hs.yzu.edu.tw/hlm/read/TEXT/TEXT.ASP"">http://cls.hs.yzu.edu.tw/hlm/read/TEXT/TEXT.ASP</ref> is „the closest to the earliest editions“, which was taken for my study.
                    </p>
                </note>. As one of the most famous Chinese classic novels, DRC was written by Cao Xueqin (曹雪芹) during the 18th century. The first version had 80 chapters. However in 1791 Gao E (高鹗) and Cheng Weiyuan (程伟元) published another edition with 120 chapters. They claimed that theirs was the complete version. Since there, there has been a constant debate about the number of authors of DRC. Some scholars think that Cao penned all 120 chapters. Some beg to differ. According to a study by Hu Shih (胡适) (Hu, 1998), the first 80 chapters of DRC are the original work of Cao and the last 40 chapters are written by Gao. Hu’s research is now widely accepted in China. Some modern research approaches also suggest that the first 80 chapters and the last 40 chapters of DRC are written by two different authors. They also find evidence that Chapters 64 and 67 may not be written by Cao (Hu, 2014; Tu, 2013).
            </p>
            <p>My experiment suggested the same conclusion as the other scholars that DRC is written by two different authors (Fig. 3). The texts were divided into two groups. Red texts represent the first 80 and green texts are the rest 40 chapters. Delta also suggests that Chapter 67 is written by the second author.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""129/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 3 Delta test results of DRC, (600 MFC, 2-grams)</head>
            </figure>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burrows, J.</hi> (2002). ‘Delta’: A measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>(3): 267-87.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J.</hi> (2013). Stylometry with R: a suite of tools, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts</hi> pp. 487-89.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hu Shhi</hi> (1988). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">胡适红楼梦研究论述全编 [Hu Shihs Analysis of Dream of Red Chamber]</hi>, Shanghai Guji Chubanshe (Shanghai Classics Publishing House).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hu, X., Wang, Y. and Wu, Q.</hi> (2014). Multiple Authors Detection: A Quantitative Analysis of Dream of the Red Chamber, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Advances in Adaptive Data Analysis</hi>, 1450012.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tu, H. C. and Hsiang, J.</hi> (2013). A Text-Mining Approach to the Authorship Attribution Problem of Dream of the Red Chamber, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts</hi>, pp. 441-43.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2785","17","The DEFC-App: A Web-based Archaeological Data Management System for 'Digitizing Early Farming Cultures'","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Starting Point</head>
                <p>The project objective of 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">D</hi>igitizing 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">E</hi>arly 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">F</hi>arming 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">C</hi>ultures (DEFC) is the standardization and integration of research data from sites and finds from the Neolithic and Copper Age (7000–3000 BC) located in Greece and Western Anatolia. These datasets are based on digital and analog resources of research projects of the research group Anatolian Aegean Prehistoric Phenomena (AAPP) at the Institute for Oriental and European Archaeology (OREA) of the Austrian Academy of Sciences.
                </p>
                <p>Greece and Western Anatolia are two neighbouring and archaeologically closely related regions. They are, however, usually studied in isolation from each other and have therefore developed different terminologies and chronologies. Direct results of this de facto separation are not only huge amounts of fragmented research data but also several different models and standards for ordering and describing more or less the same kind of data. To pose and answer archaeological research questions concerning the whole territory, the information must be harmonized.</p>
                <p>The aim of the DEFC project is now to harmonize the existing data, to digitize analog resources and make metadata available to facilitate access and reuse this data. To achieve those goals an archaeological data management system is needed.</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.shnm2sxe8iag"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Data model and Application</head>
                <p>The particular requirements to the data model are to reflect the high granularity of the archaeological data structure which correlates on different levels to the excavation process workflow, geographical location, chronological periodization and at the same time to keep the complex relationships between the data objects. After an evaluation of already existing solutions for managing (archaeological) data (e.g. Microsoft Access, Arches Project) it turned out that those were not comprehensive enough for modeling and capturing the very heterogeneous datasets the DEFC project is confronted with. Therefore the development of a more customizable application to collect, standardize, analyze and visualize archaeological data was necessary.</p>
                <p>To meet the needs of researchers a clear conceptual data model based on archaeological objects relationships has been defined with the following main model classes:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Site (location where research took place/observations were made)</item>
                    <item>Research Event (project and type of archaeological research that was carried out)</item>
                    <item>Area (particular part of the site, defined by its geolocation, period, as well as its type)</item>
                    <item>Finds (artefacts, animal and plant remains found)</item>
                    <item>Interpretation (archaeologist's interpretation of areas/finds etc.)</item>
                </list>
                <p>Each of those classes is defined through several properties, most of them linked to a carefully curated set of controlled vocabulary.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""333/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                  <head>Figure 1. Simplified data model</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The DEFC-App is based on the Python web framework Django. As one of the application's design principles is to keep things as simple as possible, the application tries to leverage Django´s built-in generic functionality as far as possible. The application's web interface is based on Bootstrap. Client-side scripting, which is needed for a better user guidance and enabling a more responsive data querying and presentation, is implemented with JavaScript, jQuery, Tablesorter and Leaflet.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""333/image2.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                  <head>Figure 2. Site details page</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""333/image3.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                  <head>Figure 3. Create new Research Event page</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""333/image4.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                  <head>Figure 4. Referencing Geonames</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.yro35bbr7sos"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Development and Upcoming tasks</head>
                <p>The project aims to integrate open access resources by using Web APIs and Linked Data practices. At the time being Geonames referencing is implemented for the archaeological locations and provided via a user interface. Hence the fetched Geonames IDs are stored within the database to later be linked to the Pelagios project.</p>
                <p>The bibliographic data formerly stored in proprietary formats MS-Access and AskSam was imported to a Zotero library and linked to the DEFC-Database so that every reference record in DEFC redirects to a Zotero library record, where the entire bibliography can also be explored.</p>
                <p>To make the published data available ‘open access’ for further reuse in research, a REST-API (Django REST framework) was implemented along with the web user interface for querying and exporting data.</p>
                <p>The outlook of the project is to turn the data into Linked Open Data and make it available via a SPARQL endpoint. Moreover, the thesaurus consisting of hierarchically structured archaeological data units (respectively the aforementioned controlled vocabulary) has been partially mapped to the CIDOC CRM ontology and will later be mapped to the SKOS schema. This will, overall, enhance the quality of the RDF data in the future.</p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.eaq23b23vh2t"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>The development of the DEFC-App and its underlying data model could be understood as a very common use case in the broad field of digital humanities as it involves a tight cooperation between archaeologists, data analysts and developers. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Arches project.</hi> [Online] Available from: 
                        <ref target=""http://archesproject.org/"">http://archesproject.org/</ref> [Accessed 4 March 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Christian Bach. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Tablesorter</hi>. [Online] Available from: 
                        <ref target=""http://tablesorter.com/docs/"">http://tablesorter.com/docs/</ref> [Accessed 4 March 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DEFC-App</hi>. [Online] Available from: 
                        <ref target=""http://defc.digital-humanities.at/"">http://defc.digital-humanities.at/</ref> [Accessed 4 March 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Django Software Foundation and individual contributors. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Django</hi>. [Online] Available from: 
                        <ref target=""https://www.djangoproject.com/"">https://www.djangoproject.com/</ref> [Accessed 4 March 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Django REST framework</hi>. [Online] Available from: 
                        <ref target=""http://www.django-rest-framework.org/"">http://www.django-rest-framework.org/</ref> [Accessed 4 March 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Geonames</hi>. [Online] Available from: 
                        <ref target=""http://www.geonames.org/"">http://www.geonames.org/</ref> [Accessed 4 March 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pelagios: Enable Linked Ancient Geodata In Open Systems</hi>. [Online] Available from: 
                        <ref target=""http://pelagios-project.blogspot.co.at/p/about-pelagios.html"">http://pelagios-project.blogspot.co.at/p/about-pelagios.html</ref> [Accessed 4 March 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Vladimir Agafonkin. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Leaflet</hi>. [Online] Available from: 
                        <ref target=""http://leafletjs.com/"">http://leafletjs.com/</ref> [Accessed 4 March 2016].
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Zotero</hi>. [Online] Available from: 
                        <ref target=""https://www.zotero.org/"">https://www.zotero.org/</ref> [Accessed 4 March 2016].
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2786","17","The Dialogic Turn and the Performance of Gender: the English Canon 1782-2011","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Understanding how the spoken language is represented in novels over time, and how this relates to gender and other characteristics of the represented speaker and the author is a key question in the Digital Humanities. Previous work has explored such questions lexically, focusing for example on differences in word choice between male and female authors. Yet while such lexical stylistic approaches have been computationally sound (Argamon 2003, Olsen 2005, Yu 2014, Rybicki 2015), a purely lexical approach is known to have serious methodological dangers. Individual lexical items are highly conflated with topic, genre, author idiosyncrasies, and era, making it difficult to draw general conclusions, particularly over long time periods. An even greater problem is that this approach essentializes gender a priori (Bing & Bergvall 1996), neglecting how the complex interplay between an author and the characters they portray creates the performance of linguistically gendered writing.</p>
            <p>We propose to draw from methods in social psychology (Newman 2008), network analysis (Schwartz 2013), and corpus linguistics (Biber 1991) to offer two innovations in the analysis of novels. The first is a new metric for characterizing dialogue, called 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dialogism</hi>, that references Bakhtin’s theories of novels and dialogue (1935). This measurement uses abstract grammatical features in the text to characterize the extent to which it is dialogic. By using categories like parts of speech, our method avoids the genre-specific and era-specific problems of individual words. Our second innovation is a computational analysis of the performance of gender within dialogue. We explore the relationship between the gender of the characters portrayed in novels and their language, which illuminates the performative aspects of gender.
            </p>
            <p>Although we do not entirely escape the entrapments of gender as a defining authorship trait in our analysis, we do use it to develop deeper understanding of dialogue as a whole rather than simply a tool of reifying stereotypes. From our innovations, we propose to answer three important questions: 1) what is the composition of the dialogic landscape in fiction? 2) what characterizes dialogue linguistically? and 3) how is author gender and the gender performed by characters reflected in the language of dialogue?</p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Data and Dialogue Extraction</head>
                <p>Using three corpora of novels from the beginning of the romantic period to the present day, we construct a corpus that contains 1,106 novels from 1782 until 2011. This corpus is largely composed of the standard English canon, with the pre-1900 portion drawn from Chadwyck-Healey, and therefore exhibits the bias present in canonical authorship, containing 851 male-authored novels and 255 female-authored novels.</p>
                <p>We introduce and use a new dialogue extraction system to locate quoted text based on a series of rules and regular expressions.Then, using a number of high-precision patterns such as <QUOTE>-<PRONOUN>-<VERB>, we assign speaker gender to quotes associated with gender-disambiguating pronouns (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">he, she,</hi> etc.) or proper names that can be reliably distinguished from gendered namelists. We evaluate our system on texts hand-labeled for quotes and speaker identity (Austen’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Pride and Prejudice</hi> (He 2013), Cooper’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Spy</hi>, and Fitzgerald’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Great Gatsby</hi>), resulting in average quote extraction of 94.5% of quotes at 95.4% precision and gender attribution of an average of 44.4% of the extracted quotes at 93.1% precision.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The Dialogic Landscape</head>
                <p>We first statistically evaluate the distributions of extracted dialogue to see whether novels have become more dialogue driven over time. Controlling for novel length (Figure 1), we measure mean quotes per thousand words per decade, finding a steady increase over time regardless of author gender (Figure 2). Overall, male authors add roughly 1 quote per 20 years (r<hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> =.80); female authors 1 quote every 30 years (r<hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> = .64).
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""558/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: Average novel length over time</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""558/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: Quotes per thousand words by author gender over time</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Next, we examine the relative attention that authors pay to characters and gender, using dialogue as our lens. From the extracted speaker-assigned quotes we calculate the proportion of male- to female-spoken dialogue per novel. This allows us to understand the gender of the characters portrayed in our texts and how this composition has changed over time. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""558/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3: Mean normalized ratio of male- and female-spoken quotes by novel over time by author gender, bucketed by 50 year intervals</head>
                </figure>
                <p>We compute the mean of a normalized ratio of words spoken by male versus female characters per novel, bucketed by 50 year intervals (Figure 3). This ratio is normalized such that it forms a continuous spectrum centered at 0, with +1 signifying that male characters spoke twice as often; -1 that female characters did.</p>
                <p>Here, we see that male authors tend to write male-spoken dialogue and female authors female-spoken dialogue, but that overall, female-authored dialogue tends to be close to balanced (mean = -.04) while male-authored dialogue is far from it (mean = 2.5). An interesting leap towards balanced portrayal happens among male authors at the beginning of the 20th century, influenced largely by authors such as Henry James, E.M. Forster, and Booth Tarkington.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Linguistic Characterization of Dialogue</head>
                <p>To discover the underlying linguistic differences between narration and dialogue, we perform Multi-Dimensional Analysis (MDA) on the dialogue in our corpus, using a slightly modified set of Penn Treebank part-of-speech tags as distinguishing features. While it is not a classification algorithm, MDA isolates factors such that data with similar features are grouped together. These factors contain features that are positively or negatively correlated with one another. Effectively, even though no class labels are used, these factors reveal strong feature relationships for dialogic text. </p>
                <p>Based on this analysis we propose a new dialogue metric, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">dialogism</hi>, that is robust to lexical choice and transportable across corpora. The new metric is constructed from the ten factors (out of 16) with r<hi rend=""superscript"">2</hi> > 0.5 when used to separate narration from dialogue and considers both positive indicators and negative indicators of dialogue, shown in Table 1. Figure 4 shows the high overall separation between narration and dialogue that our metric achieves (Kolmogorov-Smirnov value = 0.89). 
                </p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <head>Table 1: Positive and negative contributors to dialogism score</head>
                    <row>
                        <cell>+</cell>
                        <cell>-</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell>Present tense verbs, bare verbs, modals, 1<hi rend=""superscript"">st</hi>/2<hi rend=""superscript"">nd</hi>/”it” pronouns, Wh-pronouns, interjections, existential there, adverbs
                        </cell>
                        <cell>past tense verbs, 3<hi rend=""superscript"">rd</hi> person pronouns, gerunds, particles, nominalizations, determiners, Wh-determiners, prepositions and subordinating conjunctions, adjectives
                        </cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""558/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head> Figure 4: dialogism scores for narration and dialogue </head>
                </figure>
                <p>Examing dialogism over time, we find that the distance between narration and dialogue has increased since the 18th century, and that, as a whole, novels are becoming more dialogic. At the same time, visualizing the outlying data quantifies the effects that shifts in literary style, for instance, modernism in the early 20th century, had in terms of dialogism. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""558/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 5: Difference in dialogism scores for dialogue and narration over time for texts within 1 (73.1%), 2 (93.5%), and 3 (99.5%) standard deviations of the mean difference.</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Gender in Dialogue: Performance and Authorship</head>
                <p>We finally turn to the performative aspects of gender: how do authors perform gender through the speech of their gendered characters? Which authors most significantly differentiate their male and female characters through dialogue? </p>
                <p>Using the same corpus, but subsampling to balance for speaker gender, we isolate author gender effects and use these results combined with the original data to isolate speaker gender effects. This analysis reveals that the differences between male- and female-authored dialogue cannot be accounted for solely based on either author gender or on the genders of the speakers they portray. Author gender accounts for 64% of the variation between male- and female-authored dialogue while other speaker gender effects account for 36%. However, because the standard deviation of this ratio is so high (23%), this is an indication that some authors are more heavily influenced by their own genders and some more by the characters they portray. </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""558/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 6: Authors whose male and female characters are significantly differentiated by dialogism score at p < .0005</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Digging deeper into the question of which authors are better than others at differentiating male and female characters through dialogue, we perform t-tests on the male- versus female-spoken quotes for each author. Shown in Figure 6 are the authors who differentiate their male and female characters through dialogue at p < .0005. Notably, while most authors portray female characters as more dialogic in speech, a small minority do the opposite (above, Maria Cummins), a trend that also holds at higher p thresholds.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>The development of the novel is marked by an increased use of dialogue over time. This suggests that the deepening of characters was accompanied by, or may be an effect of, a shift of attention towards performative modes of characterization. Moreover, this transformation to a more dialogue­driven structure bears a gendered dimension, suggesting that the depiction of sociality by female novelists favored a more realistic gender balance than the predominately male social models favored in male­authored texts. Our work suggests that the presence of any gendered language in the text may be contingent upon the mode of performance adopted by the author, regardless of gender, an observation supported by the variation in both dialogue cast composition and dialogism at the beginning of the 20th century, when a shift in literary style occurred. Further, the strict delineation of mid­nineteenth century sociality into the gendered public and private spheres, as represented by the novel, is itself a deeply gendered understanding of socio­cultural codes more true of male­authored texts than female­authored ones. The substantial effects that speaker gender has on dialogue indicates that perhaps not only are novels intrinsically dialogic, but that dialogue itself is intrinsically performative. Thus, the performative nature of a novel is itself deepened by the degree to which its’ author differentiates the characters through a gendered performance of dialogue.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Acknowledgements</head>
                <p>This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program under Grant No. DGE-114747. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. The authors thank their anonymous reviewers, the Stanford LitLab, and the Stanford NLP group for their helpful feedback.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Argamon, S., et al.</hi> (2003). Gender, genre, and writing style in formal written texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">TEXT-THE HAGUE THEN AMSTERDAM THEN BERLIN</hi>, <hi rend=""bold""> 23</hi>(3): 321-46.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bakhtin, M. M.</hi> (1935). Discourse in the novel. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Novel: An Anthology of Criticism And Theory 1900–2000</hi>, pp. 481-510.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Biber, D.</hi> (1991). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Variation across speech and writing</hi>. Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bing, J. M. and Bergvall, V. L.</hi> (1996). The question of questions: Beyond binary thinking. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Rethinking language and gender research: Theory and practice</hi>, <hi rend=""bold""> 1</hi>: 30.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">He, H., Barbosa, D. and Kondrak, G.</hi>. (2013). Identification of Speakers in Novels. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ACL</hi>, (1).
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Newman, M. L. et al.</hi> (2008). Gender differences in language use: An analysis of 14,000 text samples. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Discourse Processes</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">45</hi>(3): 211-36.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Olsen, M.</hi> (2005). Écriture féminine: searching for an Indefinable practice?. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and linguistic computing</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rybicki, J.</hi> (2015). Vive la différence: Tracing the (Authorial) Gender Signal by Multivariate Analysis of Word Frequencies. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>. fqv023.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schwartz, H. A., et al</hi>. (2013). ""Personality, gender, and age in the language of social media: The open-vocabulary approach."" 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PloS One</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(9): e73791.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Yu, B</hi>. (2014). Language and gender in Congressional speech. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(1): 118-32.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2787","17","The Digital Émigré: Russian Periodical Studies and DH in the Slavic Fields","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Digital Humanities has seen slow adoption in the Slavic language and literature fields in North American academia. This issue frames our project, the Digital Émigré, a digital resource for exploring Russian émigré periodical literature. Our project has a threefold aim. As periodical studies scholars, we want to enable access to Russian émigré journals for new audiences. As digital humanists, we believe that DH tools and methodologies can facilitate new forms of knowledge about twentieth-century Russian, and more broadly diaspora, literary and cultural history. Finally, as Slavists, we hope our project will be a hub for discussion about the applicability of DH theory and practice for scholars working with Russian-language material.</p>
            <p>At this pilot stage, Digital Émigré is a web-based searchable database of article-level metadata of Russian-language journals published outside of Russia in the twentieth century. Our pilot contains four titles (approximately 100 issues and 1,500 articles): 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Novoselye</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Novyi zhurnal</hi> were published in the 1940s in New York, and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Sintaksis</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Kontinent</hi>, in the late 1970s and 1980s in Paris. Our pilot site provides insight into literary culture at both the beginning and end of the Cold War, bookending the twentieth-century Russian diaspora experience. Digital Émigré is intended to scale, and will eventually contain additional titles and new functionality. 
            </p>
            <p>We will highlight the main scholarly avenues that DH methods allow us investigate, such as mapping networks of co-publication, tracking evolving political, social and cultural concerns of émigrés over the course of the Cold War, demonstrating the increased opportunities for émigré women as editors and contributors, and highlighting the proportion of original vs. re-printed work in émigré publications. This way, our project encourages experimentation that will enrich the study of Slavic periodical culture: accessing journals through their data can challenge narratives that are often framed by retroactive canonization, close reading and focus on individual authors. Digital Émigré thereby bridges philological approaches and sociological questions about intellectual networks and communities of artistic production. </p>
            <p>The poster address the project’s core technical design: our strategy for data modeling and management and database design.  We will also present our plans for next steps, which is to provide full-text access and to federate our titles with other digital periodical collections. For this, we are designing a TEI schema modeled on major periodical studies digital collections -  specifically the Blue Mountain Project at Princeton University (
                <ref target=""http://bluemountain.princeton.edu"">http://bluemountain.princeton.edu</ref> and the Yellow 90’s Online at Ryerson University (
                <ref target=""http://www.1890s.ca"">http://www.1890s.ca</ref>)  
            </p>
            <p>We will also discuss the specific challenges of working with Russian language material and Cyrillic script, such as character encoding, transliteration, translation, and  tokenizing and stemming. These issues can be barriers to success when working with popular DH tools that are developed primarily for Western scripts and languages, and we will show our solutions for using some well-known tools for: data normalization (OpenRefine), text analysis (Voyant), network analysis (Gephi), visualization (Raw, Palladio), and topic modeling (MALLET).</p>
            <p>Digital Émigré is committed not only to the exploration of the intellectual experience of diaspora cultural life. As a digital humanities project, it is itself invested in building intellectual communities around the engagement with this material and its afterlife. It aims to foster contact between scholars working with Russian and other Slavic languages internationally, especially through the discussion of issues of interoperability and creating multilingual digital research environments.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2788","17","The Digital Scholarship Training Programme at British Library: Concluding Report & Future Developments","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div>
          <head>Digital Scholarship Training Programme 2012-2015</head>
            <p>Research libraries and cultural heritage institutions must be able to adapt to a changing research landscape and invest in the development of staff skills and core competencies to match if they are to continue to effectively support and engage with modern scholars (Adams, 2013). The Digital Research team at British Library, which includes the BL Labs project and the Digital Curator team, engages with those operating at the intersection of academic research, cultural heritage and technology to enable innovative use of our digital collections, and creates opportunities for library staff to develop skills necessary to support emerging areas of modern scholarship, particularly the Digital Humanities (DH).</p>
            <p>This paper presents the final report on the pilot Digital Scholarship Training Programme delivered to staff at British Library between 2012-2015. It provides an evaluation of the skill-building initiative, incorporating preliminary findings from research into the current trends and international developments in the field of DH that will inform the next phase of staff training.</p>
            <p>In 2012, the Digital Curator team embarked on a plan to design and deliver a bespoke training programme for staff (McGregor et. al, 2013). Four objectives were set to guide and ultimately measure the success of the programme:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Staff across all collection areas are familiar and conversant with the foundational concepts, methods and tools of digital scholarship.</item>
                <item>Staff are empowered to innovate.</item>
                <item>Collaborative digital initiatives flourish across subject areas within the Library as well as externally.</item>
                <item>Our internal capacity for training and skill-sharing in digital scholarship are a shared responsibility across the Library.</item>
            </list>
            <p>In consultation with experts from within the Library and institutions on the leading edge of digital scholarship we designed and delivered in-house a catalogue of 19 one day courses suited to building the digital skills of information professionals in the research library and cultural heritage sector. Though much of the programme was rooted in and inspired by the field of digital humanities, the wider umbrella of Digital Scholarship was retained to future-proof the programme and to envelope developments in related fields like social and computer sciences. The following titles represent a cross-section of courses created:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Behind the Screen: The Basics of the Web</item>
                <item>Crowdsourcing in Cultural Heritage (Ridge, 2015)</item>
                <item>Georeferencing and Digital Mapping</item>
                <item>Social Media: An Introduction to Blogging and Twitter</item>
                <item>Working with Digital Objects: From Images to A/V</item>
                <item>Information Integration: Mash-ups, APIs and the Semantic Web (Stephens, 2014a)</item>
                <item>Cleaning up Data (Stephens, 2014b)</item>
            </list>
            <p>The four-member Digital Curator team oversaw the running of 88 hands-on courses (or roughly 30 a year) between November 2012 and September 2015. Courses were delivered by a mix of internal and external trainers. Over 400 individual staff members came through the programme, on average attending two or more courses each.</p>
            <p>Throughout the pilot we collected feedback formally via post-course evaluation forms, and informally through avenues such as a weekly Digital Research Clinic, and personal conversations that arose in the course of our daily work. Colleagues were asked to provide comments to help us improve the course, including what they enjoyed most out of the day, what they anticipated using in their work, and what was not clearly articulated. </p>
            <p>Hands-on practical exercises were cited most often as the most enjoyable element, though not to the exclusion of the lecture and discussion time which participants felt provided necessary context. While many attendees cited specific technologies such as Open Refine as something they anticipated using in their work, they also tended to comment that having the technology underpinning innovative digital research projects demystified was helpful inspiration for future projects. Topics which could have been more clearly articulated centred on a lack of clarity on practical steps for turning aspiration into application. </p>
            <p>Looking specifically at the objectives set, there is ample evidence to support the continuation of the training programme, such as the incorporation of the programme in staff induction for established Library projects such as Qatar Digital Library. As staff across all collection areas have become more familiar and conversant with the foundational concepts, methods and tools of digital scholarship, we have witnessed its profile increase across the Library. For instance three new PhD placements were offered this year specifically within the digital research domain (Sheperd, 2016) for the first time.</p>
            <p>Staff have felt empowered to innovate, and collaborative digital initiatives have flourished. A particularly cogent example is that of curator Dr. Sandra Tuppen, who attended one of our courses on cleaning up data and went on to secure a £79,000 grant towards a research project which enriched and cleaned British Library catalogue data so that it could be successfully aligned with other printed music datasets in support of a big data approach to the history of music (Tuppen, 2014). </p>
            <p>Our internal capacity for training and skill-sharing in digital scholarship has become a shared responsibility across the Library, with internal course instructors now outnumbering external instructors. With the increasing number of Library staff being involved in projects and other programmes that include digital research activities and methodologies, we have been able to integrate more in-house expertise to the courses offered. Additionally the Digital Curator team has prioritised our own upskilling through a monthly informal “Hack & Yack” where we work through online tutorials with a view towards incorporating them into training, as well as more formal courses such as Train the Trainer aimed at enhancing our teaching strategies, combining theory and practical methodologies in the planning and delivery of the courses. </p>
          </div>
          <div>
          <head>Looking to the future </head>
            <p>We will continue the Digital Scholarship Training Programme and for 2016/2017 will maintain 7 of the 19 courses in their current form:</p>
            <p>1. 101 This is Digital Scholarship</p>
            <p>2. 103 Digitisation at the British Library</p>
            <p>3. 105 Crowdsourcing in Libraries, Museums and Cultural Heritage Institutions </p>
            <p>4. 108 Geo-referencing and Digital Mapping</p>
            <p>5. 109 Information Integration: Mash-ups, API’s and Linked Data</p>
            <p>6. 116 Metadata for Electronic Resources</p>
            <p>7. 118 Cleaning up Data</p>
            <p>Focusing on delivering this smaller core of courses will free up resource to improve upon how we:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Reach staff who are keen and could most make use of the information but have not yet engaged</item>
                <item>Providing guidance and support to staff who are looking to implement what they have learned</item>
                <item>Addressing more explicitly the challenges and opportunities for working with complex collection materials, such as with non-Western materials </item>
            </list>
            <p>We aim to provide a more diverse training offering to ensure that there are sufficient opportunities for staff in a variety of roles at the Library to engage with digital research. Often colleagues have said they would like to attend a course, but either their workload is such that they feel they cannot spare a full day for it or they work a rota, as is the case with our colleagues who staff reading rooms. Finding creative ways to articulate more clearly and succinctly the practical value of time spent on a course, for example through shorter more frequent taster sessions explaining how a digital tool or method might help solve a specific problem, may help to reach those who have yet to engage. We are also working in partnership with reading room staff on rota to develop new approaches for conveying the training (perhaps through short informational videos).</p>
            <p>On the opposite end of the spectrum is the need to support increasing numbers of library staff who have engaged with the programme and are now looking to implement what they have learned. In an ideal world we could offer 'just in time' training to colleagues at the point of their immediate need. However, as Miriam Posner (2012) and others have discussed, each question a colleague asks may bring with it a hidden overhead of time taken to respond well. In some cases we may seek to hire existing trainers to support specific project needs but more practically, we will look to better promote and leverage our weekly Digital Research Clinic, a drop-in service for staff to get guidance on any aspect of digital research. A collection of practical 'Getting Started' guides will be further developed and shared via an internal wiki. Additionally, Digital Curators sit on key infrastructure development projects so as to directly inform the development of these in support of digital research. </p>
            <p>Finally, digital scholarship is a complex and global affair, as evidenced by the rapid expansion of DH centres around the world. Our courses to date have tended to deal with relatively simple forms of digitised material such as digitised printed English language books. However for colleagues working with non-Western texts for instance, knowledge of cutting edge developments in transcription and Optical Character Recognition would be highly beneficial in helping ensure these materials can be leveraged by digital scholars. Our collections are as global and diverse as the DH communities interests worldwide, and future staff training provision must more accurately address the complexities and opportunities of working with our vast non-Western materials.</p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">McGregor, N. and Farquhar, A.</hi> (2013). The Digital Scholarship Training Programme at British Library, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Abstracts | Digital Humanities 2013</hi>. http://dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-264.html (accessed 16 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Posner, M. </hi>(2012). What are some challenges to doing DH in the library? 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Miriam Posner’s Blog</hi>. http://miriamposner.com/blog/what-are-some-challenges-to-doing-dh-in-the-library/ (accessed 29 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ridge, M. </hi>(2015). Resources for “Crowdsourcing in Libraries, Museums and Cultural Heritage Institutions”, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mia Ridge’s Blog</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.miaridge.com/resources-for-crowdsourcing-in-libraries-museums-and-cultural-heritage-institutions/"">http://www.miaridge.com/resources-for-crowdsourcing-in-libraries-museums-and-cultural-heritage-institutions/</ref> (accessed 16 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Shepard, J.</hi> (2016). PhD placements in Digital Scholarship British Library, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship</hi>. http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/digital-scholarship/2016/02/phd-placements-in-digital-scholarship.html (accessed 16 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stephens, O.</hi> (2014). Information Integration: Mash-ups, APIs and the Semantic Web | Overdue Ideas, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Information Integration: Mash-Ups, APIs and the Semantic Web</hi>. http://www.meanboyfriend.com/overdue_ideas/2014/10/information-integration-mash-ups-apis-and-the-semantic-web/ (accessed 16 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stephens, O.</hi> (2014). Working with Data using OpenRefine | Overdue Ideas, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Working with Data Using OpenRefine</hi>. http://www.meanboyfriend.com/overdue_ideas/2014/11/working-with-data-using-openrefine/ (accessed 16 February 2016). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tuppen, S.</hi> (2014). A Big Data History of Music, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">British Library Music Blog</hi>. http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/music/2014/04/a-big-data-history-of-music.html (accessed 3 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2789","17","The Encoded Medieval Antiphoner: an Open Access Digital Source for Music and Liturgical Pedagogy and Scholarship","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This poster will provide an overview of the development of an open-access digital musicology project, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Encoded Medieval Antiphoner: an Open Access Digital Source for Music and Liturgical Scholarship</hi> at Boston College. This is a collaborative project between the Digital Scholarship Group and library staff at the Boston College University Libraries, musicologist Dr. Michael Noone, research assistants, and several external partners, including CANTUS database staff. In the summer of 2015 we began encoding a 
                <ref target=""http://hdl.handle.net/2345/2231)"">14
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century Franciscan Antiphoner
                </ref> using the Music Encoding Initiative (<ref target=""http://music-encoding.org/"">MEI</ref>), as well as developing an open-access site to present the manuscript as an interactive object for research and scholarly use. The original Antiphoner is in manuscript form bound between leather-covered boards containing 119 parchment folios with text and notation for antiphons and responsories for the entire annual calendar of saints’ days (sanctorale). The main goals of this project will be presented in this poster. These include: 
            </p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>Making the Antiphoner interactive by building an open access and responsive website with a dynamic presentation layer that will include searchable content (metadata, notation, XML/MEI) and multimedia; </item>
                <item>Using and developing open source technology to encourage and support further development in the open source community, as well as, sharing of documentation and data;</item>
                <item>Contributing our data to the scholarly community through a collaboration with 
                    <ref target=""http://cantus.uwaterloo.ca/"">CANTUS</ref>, a database for Latin Ecclesiastical Chant; and 
                </item>
                <item>Developing software, workflows, and documentation that can inform future projects using similar technology </item>
            </list>
            <p>This poster will explain our process and workflows, which have involved transcribing and encoding over 1500 musical incipits, texts, and metadata, contributing the data to the 
                <ref target=""file://localhost/ttp/::cantus.uwaterloo.ca:"">CANTUS database</ref>, a highly-respected digital archive and index of chants, as well as, implementing open-source software for a presentation layer and search/retrieval of the content. The digitized object will be presented using 
                <ref target=""https://ddmal.github.io/diva.js/"">Diva.js</ref> an open-source software that connects with the API of the CANTUS database to pull in metadata, transcribed music notation, and bibliographic data that we have contributed to this database. We will also present a variety of functionality options that will make this Antiphoner interactive. Basic functionality, which is enabled in Diva.js, includes the ability to: 
            </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>view the manuscript side-by-side with metadata from the CANTUS database;</item>
                <item>run search queries on both the text and notation in the manuscript;</item>
                <item>select viewing options: pages (book), individual page, thumbnail/gallery view;</item>
                <item>zoom in/out; full-page view </item>
                <item>access a permanent link/URL for each manuscript page</item>
            </list>
            <p>Beyond the basic functionality listed above, we may explore additional features, such as the ability to display manuscript pages in non-chronological order side by side for comparison and analysis, or allow users to annotate, add metadata, and manipulate content within the manuscript through a framework like the Shared Canvas Data Model. </p>
            <p>Additionally, this poster will highlight the collaborative aspect of this project and several positive outcomes, such as an interest to investigate rendering neume notation using 
                <ref target=""http://www.verovio.org/index.xhtml"">Verovio</ref> rather than 
                <ref target=""http://www.uni-regensburg.de/Fakultaeten/phil_Fak_I/Musikwissenschaft/cantus/volpiano.html"">Volpiano</ref> font. Verovio is a software that renders MEI directly in a modern browser as SVG (scalable vector graphics: XML-based vector image format), however at this time it can only render MEI files that use Common Western Music Notation (CMN) elements and attributes, not those associated with the Neume module. Our combined interest and needs will allow us to explore this option that can benefit not only our project, but could enable scholars to contribute MEI files with their data into CANTUS and have their notation rendered using Verovio. This could potentially expand the mission of CANTUS Database to also provide access to MEI/XML data.  
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold""> John J. </hi><hi rend=""italic""> Franciscan Antiphoner (sanctorale)</hi>. Burns Library, Boston College, University Libraries. 
                        <ref target=""http://hdl.handle.net/2345/2231"">http://hdl.handle.net/2345/2231</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2790","17","The Garden: A 3D Adventure Puzzle Game Exploring Bosch's Garden of Earthly Delights","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The design of serious, humanities-rich games is a challenging process full of difficult problems. Of particular interest to us is the development of humanities games that might appeal to the general public and compete with commercial games. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Garden</hi>, is a high level prototype that allows players to explore the world of Hieronymus Bosch and his painting, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Garden of Earthly Delights</hi>. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Garden</hi> prototype focuses on concept, level design and game mechanics and was submitted for review in competitions such as IndieCade. Although the level of polish of the prototype was not high enough for inclusion in mainstream festivals, the concept and game elements were enthusiastically received by the jurors. Our development focus has now shifted to review of the educational content and the development of narrative and characters before the final phase of art asset creation and polish. We are looking for input and feedback from the digital humanities community to improve the educational content and gameplay. Visitors to the demonstration will be able to play the prototype, complete surveys and join in the discussion to help make this a better game for humanities outreach.
            </p>
            <p>To play the game, players take on the role of Godefroy, a tormented denizen of Musician’s Hell who is confined by fiery borders within a small patch of the underworld. As Godefroy, the player tries to escape hell by figuring out the secret of each NPC in order to possess them. This is the only way for the player to interact with different areas of hell and win the game. </p>
            <p>Mechanics are used to connect the game play to the educational goals of the project. One example is that of engaging the player with history and material culture through the manipulation of identity. As the game location is Musician’s Hell, each of the NPCs is drawn from a diverse cast of historic troubadour or trobairitz. General audiences have preconceptions about the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance that are limited, and sometimes incorrect, that they have learned from popular culture. The possession mechanic was developed specifically to engage players with these characters in order to deepen understanding of the culture: musicians could be females or Jews, for example, with rich histories and personal lives. Not only do the players engage in dialogue, but they also must possess each of the characters and take on their identity in order to progress the game. This gives an opportunity to see the world from that NPC’s perspective. </p>
            <p>The game environment is filled with themes derived from the painting itself. The player is immersed in a world where everything is watched and counted. The object in this interpretation was not to recreate the painting but to interpret it in a way that would resonate with the contemporary players. Players encounter an underworld different from those commonly depicted so that they may connect with Bosch’s themes: For example, the importance of being able to see past the superficial, material surface to the spiritual truth of worldly choices and actions. In 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Garden</hi> this is expressed by the environment. Here, Hell is beautiful and invites exploration but poisonous secrets are buried beneath the façade. The player must search for a way out by jumping from soul to soul while avoiding the relentless demon horde run by the bureaucrats of Hell. Along the way, to face the awful overlord Mallebisse, they uncover a story of lust, jealousy and betrayal. Overall, the game puts them in the position of questioning who they really are and what the ultimate objective is in a way, we hope, that parallels Bosch’s understanding of choice and salvation. 
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""447/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2791","17","The Kuzushiji Project: Developing a Mobile Learning Application for Reading Early Modern Japanese Books","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>It frequently happens in the modern history that a certain cultural skill that used to be shared in a community or society is lost in the process of modernization. Over the last century, Japanese people have lost the basic skills to read <hi rend=""italic"">kuzushiji</hi>, classical calligraphic renderings of Japanese characters (see Fig. 1). Since Japanese society ceased to use <hi rend=""italic"">kuzushiji</hi> for publication after the Meiji Period (1868-), most Japanese today except trained experts are unable to read books printed with <hi rend=""italic"">kuzushiji</hi> only 150 years ago.</p>
                <p>However, from 2008 a group of scholars of Japanese literature have started calling attention to the need for providing younger generation with the tools to access their own past (Nakano, 2011 and Moretti, 2014). The <hi rend=""italic"">kuzushiji</hi> project, which started in 2015, is an attempt to build a mobile learning application that provides resources and trainings for reading <hi rend=""italic"">kuzushiji</hi><note place=""end""><p>Our project blog: https://plus.google.com/104467959383842469455/posts.</p></note>. We call the app the KuLA (<hi rend=""italic"">kuzushiji</hi> learning application). It is a public humanities project, as well as an interdisciplinary project of Japanese Literature and Digital Humanities scholars. In this paper, we will briefly describe the features, workflows, and implementation of the KuLA.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""254/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. A comparison of a <hi rend=""italic"">kuzushiji</hi> and modern Japanese type font. Both represents the same character 前, ""front"" in English</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Features of KuLA</head>
                <p>Learning <hi rend=""italic"">kuzushiji</hi> is essentially similar with learning a foreign language. What you need for learning it are as followings: 1) the basic knowledge about <hi rend=""italic"">kuzushiji</hi>, especially of character shapes, 2) decent amount of exercises of reading actual texts, and 3) good mentors and fellows who will teach and motivate you.</p>
                <p>For the reasons above the KuLA consists of the following three modules:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Characters module</hi>, where the user will learn the basic knowledge about 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">kuzushiji</hi>, especially about character shapes. The user can browse the list of 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">kuzushiji</hi> characters and jump to the detail page of each character (see Fig. 2).
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reading module</hi>, where the user will read actual texts written with 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">kuzushiji</hi> for exercises. The user can also check their transcribed texts (see Fig. 3). 
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Communication module, </hi>where the user will communicate with others via the network. This module will, for instance, enable the user to ask others how to read a specific 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">kuzushiji</hi> characters by sharing photos taken by the user (See Fig. 4).
                    </item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""254/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. The character module</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""254/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. The reading module</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""254/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Fig. The community module</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Workflow and Implementation</head>
                <p>In order to create the teaching materials bundled with the KuLA we needed a lot of actual images of kuzushiji. For collecting them efficiently we developed a Chrome extension which enables to capture arbitrary image regions from the digital collection of pre-modern books provided by the National Institute of Japanese Literature<note place=""end""><p rend=""endnote text""> https://www.nijl.ac.jp/</p></note>. The images captured by the extension will be automatically uploaded to an web app built with Ruby on Rails. In this way we have gathered so far about 3,000 images of kuzushiji characters<note place=""end""><p rend=""endnote text""> You can see the list of kuzushiji images we have collected in the following link: https://youreicollector.herokuapp.com/characters/</p></note>.</p>
                <p>The mobile app was built with Ionic<note place=""end""><p rend=""endnote text""> http://ionicframework.com/</p></note>, a HTML5 mobile framework based on Apache Cordova and AngularJS frameworks. The use of HTML5 technology makes it possible to generate the distributions both for iOS and Android from a single source code. As the backend of the mobile clients we used parse.com, which provides basic server-side features such as user authentication and data storage.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Conclusion and Future Directions</head>
                <p>KuLA was released both on Google Play and on App Store for free on 18 Feburary 2016. It has been downloaded more than 5,000 times in two weeks after the launch. The average review scores are 4.5/5.0 in AppStore (total 15 reviews), and 4.9/5.0 in Google Play (total 29 reviews). From these numbers we may say that our design strategy for building KuLA was successful.</p>
                <p>We believe that it is a duty of humanities scholars to build the tools to access the past knowledge for further generations. And what makes Digital Humanities special in this regard among other humanities discipline is that it can directly provide those tools with the public with the help of digital media such as mobile devices. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nakano, M.</hi> (2011). <hi rend=""italic"">Wahon No Susume</hi>. Iwanami Shoten.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, L.</hi> (2014). <hi rend=""italic"">Reading hentaigana and kuzushiji Manual</hi>. http://wakanedo.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Edo-no-kakikotoba-2014-hentaigana-kuzushiji-Manual-1.pdf
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2792","17","The Latin Batrachomyomachia Collection","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The topic of our project follows closely the theme of this conference: the digital humanities have been a bridge between the past and the future in the field of classical philology, and the identity of the classical scholar has imperceptibly but steadily been merging with a digital humanist identity. As humanist translations from Greek to Latin receive more and more attention, it would be useful to have translations of specific texts collected, organized and made machine-searchable to enable further scholarly study, instead of having them scattered as scanned manuscripts in different repositories. Usually text collections offer a corpus of national literature (e.g. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CroALa</hi>) or specific periods (e.g. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Biblioteca Digital del Pensamiento Novohispano</hi>). This project focuses on a single text: the aim of this project is to produce an online collection of Latin translations of the Greek mock-epic 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Batrachomyomachia</hi>, consisting of 300 lines. The 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Batrachomyomachia </hi>had long been attributed to Homer and attracted much attention as such; it was even considered Homer’s best work by some. The revival of Greek studies in the West in the Renaissance lead to a lively production of translations from ancient Greek into Latin, even of what is now considered minor works and authors. The interest did not disappear after the Renaissance and the production of humanist translations of different works continued. The last Latin translation of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Batrachomyomachia </hi>was to appear in the 18th century, penned by a renowned Mexican humanist, Francisco Javier Alegre. Unfortunately, humanist translations are seldom included into existing online text collections. The database of Italian Renaissance Latin poetry, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Poeti d’Italia</hi>, does not include a Latin 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Batrachomyomachia </hi>under the name of Renaissance humanist Carlo Marsuppini, nor is there the Latin 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Batrachomyomachia </hi>by Joachim Münsinger von Frundeck at the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">CAMENA</hi> database of neo-Latin poetry. The interest of modern day digital humanists for this mini-epic does not reciprocate the interest of the earlier humanists who used Latin as their medium of choice, but as translations from Greek to Latin have been coming into classicists’ focus in recent years, this kind of collection will certainly prove itself useful. 
            </p>
            <p>The aim of our project is to collect as many Latin translations of the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Batrachomyomachia </hi>as possible (many are already in the public domain as they have been digitised by various institutions; they will be transcribed by researchers in this project) and make them machine searchable and available online for further scholarly study. Our application will be used for uploading  .docx documents and their conversion into xml files while erasing unnecessary tags. Every word will be saved in a lexicon and a table with information on the word’s position in the lexicon and in the text. The search will be conducted through a MySql query with word and context as a result. The project will also include Greek to Latin text alignments ( micropublications done in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Perseids</hi>) and educational material: quizzes developed especially for teaching Greek while enhancing the learner’s Latin skills with material taken from the Greek and Latin 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Batrachomyomachias</hi>. The material collected in this project will be useful to teachers, students and researchers.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl> Heidelberg University 2013. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CAMENA</hi>. Available at: 
                        <ref target=""http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenahtdocs/camena_e.html.%20Accessed%206.%203.%202016"">http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenahtdocs/camena_e.html. Accessed 6. 3. 2016</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Tufts University 2007. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Perseus Digital Library: Perseids</hi>. Available at 
                        <ref target=""http://perseids.org/"">http://perseids.org/</ref>. Accessed 6. 3. 2016.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>UNAM 2016. Biblioteca Digital del Pensamiento Novohispano. Available at: 
                        <ref target=""http://www.bdpn.unam.mx/"">http://www.bdpn.unam.mx/</ref>. Accessed 6. 3. 2016.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>University of Zagreb 2014. CroALa. Available at: http://croala.ffzg.unizg.hr/. Accessed 5. 3. 2016.</bibl>
                    <bibl>University Ca' Foscari 2016. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Poeti d’Italia</hi>. Available at: 
                        <ref target=""http://www.poetiditalia.it/public/"">http://www.poetiditalia.it/public/</ref>. Accessed 5. 3. 2016.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2793","17","The Project Zeri Photo Archive: Towards a Model for Defining Authoritative Authorship Attributions","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Introduction</head>
            <p>The global project of data conversion of the notable Italian ‘Zeri Photo Archive’ into a Linked and Open Dataset
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> The project is supported by the Zeri Foundation with the University of Bologna and started in 2014</p>
                </note> primarily regarded the analysis of the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">description model of the available records</hi>, so as to define a collection of suitable ontologies to describe such a complex domain.
            </p>
            <p>Indeed, the uniqueness of the Zeri collection
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> Fondazione Zeri, Photo Archive Catalog, 
                        <ref target=""http://catalogo.fondazionezeri.unibo.it"">http://catalogo.fondazionezeri.unibo.it</ref>
                    </p>
                </note>, which includes about 290,000 photographs of works of art and monuments, lies in the rich documentation of the described artefacts, mostly related to provenance, attributions, restoration events and their connections to the collection of 46,000 books and 37,000 auction catalogues (Mambelli, 2014). 
            </p>
            <p>The full project entails, together with the ontological modeling, the production of the RDF dataset, the creation of proper links to the LOD cloud, and the definition of the user interface for browsing the dataset.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>F Entry Ontology</head>
            <p>The first activity of the project had been the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">formalization of the </hi>
                <hi rend=""italic bold"">Scheda F</hi> (‘Fotografia’) (Mibact, 1999)
                <hi rend=""italic"">,</hi> – the metadata standard of the Italian Istituto Centrale per il Catalogo e la Documentazione (ICCD) – by mapping the schema onto CIDOC-CRM model (Crofts et al., 2011). In the conversion we initially considered the specific flavor of the Scheda F used by the Zeri Foundation, i.e. its subset of 113 fields (based on the experimental 1.04 version of the ICCD standard) and an handful of custom extensions to it. A deep analysis of the schema of the Scheda F showed that it is organized in semantically independent sections (called “paragrafi”, or 
                <hi rend=""italic"">paragraphs</hi>), each one belonging to a specific FRBR concept (Work, Manifestation, Item); this allows the mapping to proceed by logical sections affecting only a limited number of entities and relating these entities to the data documented by the fields of the schema.
            </p>
            <p>Before accomplishing the mapping, we proceeded with the creation of a 
                <hi rend=""bold"">new ontology called FEO</hi> (<hi rend=""italic"">F Entry Ontology</hi>
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text"">
                        <ref target=""http://www.essepuntato.it/2014/03/fentry"">http://www.essepuntato.it/2014/03/fentry</ref>
                    </p>
                </note>). Since our final goal was to make available Scheda F data in a triple store, the target language we chose was OWL 2 DL. The current version of FEO introduces the classes and properties that characterize three specific concepts: the photograph, the work of art that is the subject of the photograph, and the Scheda F itself describing the photograph and its subject.
            </p>
            <p>So, through the use of well-known ontologies – i.e. CIDOC-CRM, but also PROV-O (Lebo et al., 2013), and FaBiO (Peroni and Shotton, 2012), as part of the SPAR Ontologies
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text"">
                        <ref target=""http://www.sparontologies.net"">http://www.sparontologies.net</ref>
                        <hi rend=""Hyperlink""> </hi>
                    </p>
                </note> (Peroni, 2014) – plus the FEO ontology developed 
                <hi rend=""italic"">ad hoc</hi>, most of the content expressed as descriptive entries in the Scheda F have been already formally represented (Gonano et al., 2014).
            </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>OA Entry Ontology</head>
            <p>In this presentation we propose an extension of our work on the Zeri Photo Archive by introducing a 
                <hi rend=""bold"">new ontology</hi> for representing works of art and their related information, namely, the 
                <hi rend=""italic bold"">OA Entry Ontology</hi>
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text"">
                        <ref target=""http://purl.org/emmedi/oaentry"">http://purl.org/emmedi/oaentry</ref>
                    </p>
                </note>. In particular, this ontology is based on the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Scheda OA </hi>(‘Opera d’Arte’) – another ICCD metadata standard
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> See the ICCD cataloging standards at: 
                        <ref target=""http://www.iccd.beniculturali.it/index.php?it/473/standard-catalografici"">http://www.iccd.beniculturali.it/index.php?it/473/standard-catalografici</ref>
                    </p>
                </note> – and proposes a mapping between the content standard and, again, the CIDOC-CRM, in order to create shareable descriptions of metadata
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                    <p> We are planning to publish both the F and the OA mapping to CIDOC-CRM in the next few months, according with the ICCD activities</p>
                </note>. In addition, other kinds of information that are not easily representable through the aforementioned standards, such as certain peculiar relations between works of art, are modelled by means of new classes and properties created in the OA Entry Ontology. This last allows to describe, in particular, the work of art and the related items, by focusing on some classes (e.g. copy, derivation, fake, drawing, model, replica, sinopia) and by using properties as necessary connection typization (e.g. conceived or former).
            </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>HICO and authorship attribution</head>
            <p>Moreover, in this paper we further investigate a way for providing a clear and shareable representation of questionable information, i.e., the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">authorship attribution of works of art</hi>. In the Zeri Photo Archive there are particular authorship attribution created by either the Zeri Foundation cataloguers and/or by Federico Zeri (collector of photographs) himself, and such attributions (that could be accepted or discarded at certain point) are accompanied with the criteria that corroborate the cataloguers’ choice. 
            </p>
            <p>In order to provide a precise characterisation of all these aspects, we discuss the adoption of 
                <hi rend=""bold"">HiCO</hi>, 
                <hi rend=""italic bold"">Historical Context Ontology</hi> (Daquino and Tomasi, 2015) as a way for enabling a definition of authoritative attributions based on Zeri cataloguers’ own criteria. HiCO
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn8"" n=""8"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text"">
                        <ref target=""http://purl.org/emmedi/hico"">http://purl.org/emmedi/hico</ref>
                    </p>
                </note> is an OWL 2 DL ontology we created for describing contents of data (e.g., an authorship attribution), in particular cultural heritage data, and data creation itself (e.g., RDF statements representing above mentioned authorship attribution) as part of an interpretative process. Cultural heritage object is a wide concept: it includes any sort of representation of culture heritage embodied in a tangible form like artifacts (books, documents, and, as in this case, works of art), but also any concept, assertion and interpretation somehow bounded to cultural objects.
            </p>
            <p>With the hico:InterpretationAct class it’s possible to 
                <hi rend=""bold"">describe the interpretation act as a process</hi>:
            </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>the conceptualization of the interpretation and its classification, for enabling further relations among different kind of interpretations; </item>
                <item>the embodiment of the interpretation as RDF statements, for representing information extracted from the content of the object of interest.</item>
            </list>
            <p>Two fundamental object properties complete the process: the hico:hasInterpretationType property and the hico:hasInterpretationCriterion property. The former states an arbitrary classification of the interpretation, which can be simply defined as philological, historical, semiotic, linguistic etc. The latter is a briefly explanation of the criterion used to state information extracted from a source, e.g. a literally transcription, a hypothesis, or the adoption of the literature about a specific argument.</p>
            <p>A crucial aspect of the project is the 
                <hi rend=""bold"">correct formalization of statements</hi> so as to allow the ontologically-consistent coexistence of data created by different actors that express contradictory statements about the same subject (e.g., authorship attribution data of a work of art), in order to guarantee the data integration with Pharos (Reist et al., 2015) project partners, of which the Zeri Foundation is a member. By the use of SWRL rules applied to relations between sources, criteria and context information used by an agent to explain his interpretation, 
                <hi rend=""bold"">we could formally infer when an interpretation can be considered authoritative</hi>.
            </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>An example of authoritative assertion</head>
            <p>We could give an 
                <hi rend=""bold"">example</hi>. We state aside the interpretation (i.e. the assertion “An artist X is author of a specific work of art Y in a specific time Z”) which sort of interpretation we are dealing with (i.e. authorship attribution), and which criteria have been used by the cataloguer to assert such proposition. A provenance statement ensures both author of assertion (i.e. interpretation) and author of data conversion are fully described, ensuring that no contradictory statements will affect data validity. 
            </p>
            <p>When necessary conditions for stating authorship are fulfilled, an attribution may be inferred as authoritative. In the example (Fig. 1), we have an attribution which respects minimal requirements for being considered an 
                <hi rend=""bold"">authoritative assertion</hi>:
            </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>it has been stated by a well-known author (i.e. the cataloguer of Zeri Foundation);</item>
                <item>it considers as criterium an authoritative source (i.e. the photo depicting the work of art);</item>
                <item>it agrees with another interpretation, i.e. Federico Zeri classification.</item>
            </list>
            <p>This obviously doesn’t entail that the attribution is surely correct, but it can be a useful tool for historians when searching for different attributions and related criteria adopted in interpretative process.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""69/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
            <head>Fig. 1 Sample of multiple interpretation of the same object and Zeri authoritativeness</head>
            </figure>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Conclusions</head>
            <p>To conclude, as said before it will be the natural completion of the Zeri Project the RDF triple store set up, the creation of links to other datasets, and the definition of the user interface for browsing the linked open dataset. All these activities are now object of our research group industry and the final publication of the project is expected for the middle of 2016. Data had already been transformed in a RDF/XML dataset, according to above mentioned ontologies. Next steps of the project involve thus data publication, ensuring access to them through a SPARQL endpoint. When published, data will be enriched with further RDF links to major datasets and authority files online (e.g. VIAF for people and works, Getty thesauri, GeoNames for places
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn9"" n=""9"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> A first check on 
                        <ref target=""https://datahub.io/dataset"">https://datahub.io/dataset</ref>
                    </p>
                </note>). This ensures our data will really be part of the LOD Cloud, avoiding creation of another data silo. So enriched data will then be exploited in a new smart application, which will enable users to search data about both photos and works of art. Through this modelization data and new relations will be easier discovered, enhancing user experience.
            </p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">MiBACT</hi> (1999).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Strutturazione dei dati delle schede di catalogo: beni artistici e storici: scheda F, prima parte</hi>. Roma: ICCD.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mambelli, F.</hi> (2014). Una risorsa online per la storia dell’arte: il database della fototeca Zeri. In: Ciotti, F. (Ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities: progetti italiani ed esperienze di convergenza multidisciplinare</hi>. Quaderni Digilab, Università di Roma La Sapienza.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Crofts, N., Doerr, M., Gill, T., Stead, S. and Stiff, M.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Definition of the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model</hi> (version 5.0.4). http://www.cidoc-crm.org/docs/cidoc_crm_version_5.0.4.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lebo, T., Sahoo, S. and McGuinnes, D.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PROV-O: the PROV Ontology</hi>. W3C Recommendation. http://www.w3.org/TR/prov-o/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Peroni, S. and Shotton, D.</hi> (2012). FaBiO and CiTO: ontologies for describing bibliographic resources and citations.  
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">17</hi>: 33-43. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Peroni, S.</hi> (2014). The Semantic Publishing and Referencing Ontologies. In: Peroni, S., 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Semantic Web Technologies and Legal Scholarly Publishing</hi>. Cham, Switzerland: Springer, pp. 121-93. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gonano, C.M., Mambelli, F., Peroni, S., Tomasi, F. and Vitali, F.</hi> (2014). Zeri e LODE. Extracting the Zeri photo archive to Linked Open Data: formalizing the conceptual model. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE/ACM Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (JCDL 2014)</hi>. IEEE, pp 289-98.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Daquino, M. and Tomasi, F.</hi> (2015). Historical Context (HiCo): a conceptual model for describing context information of cultural heritage objects. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communication in Computer and Information Science</hi>, Berlin: Springer Verlag, pp. 424-36.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reist, I., Farneth, D., Stein, R. and Weda, R.</hi> (2015). An Introduction to PHAROS: Aggregating Free Access to 31 Million Digitized Images and Counting. Speech at 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CIDOC 2015</hi>. New Dehli.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2794","17","The Scholarly Digital Edition: Best Practices, Guidelines, and Peer Evaluation","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>This panel is devoted to two main questions: “How are the function and qualities associated with a scholarly edition changed when it is digital?” and “Is excellence in scholarly editing promoted by guidelines, articulations of best practices, enhanced peer review, or seals of approval?” The panel is intended for members of the scholarly editing community, whom it wishes to engage in dialogue about these matters, along with a wider audience of prospective scholarly editors and members of the DH community who are engaged with questions of peer review and how to foster best practices.</p>
            <p>The immediate impetus behind the panel is “Considering the Scholarly Edition in the Digital Age: A White Paper of the Modern Language Association’s Committee on Scholarly Editions” published by the MLA in Fall 2015. The primary purpose of the white paper is to define the major elements of the “digital scholarly edition” and explore their significance for the ways editions are read, used, and evaluated. Publication of the white paper, however, raised a number of related questions that we hope to explore through this panel:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Are the following criteria fundamental to scholarly editing, regardless of school or approach: transparency, accuracy, appropriateness of method, clear and responsible documentation, and the exercise of critical judgment in representing a full account of the textual situation at stake?</item>
                <item>Can a community­sourced edition also be a scholarly edition?</item>
                <item>What is the point of scholarly editions, as we currently understand them, in an era of mass data?</item>
            </list>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Editions can be situated within and draw upon a much­larger­scale text archive. How are such editions related to the larger archive?</item>
                <item>How might different traditions of editing be “networked” or brought together by digital means in relation to the same text?</item>
                <item>How do editions relate to large­scale textual research? Must their representational precision and refined encoding be lost if aggregated through a mechanism like 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">HathiTrust</hi> or 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">TAPAS</hi>? How can their particular contribution­­the depths of their insights­­be maintained when incorporated within a broader cultural analysis?
                </item>
                <item>How far might the criteria for exemplary digital scholarly editions actually also apply to exemplary digital scholarship?</item>
                <item>To the extent that the standards for digital scholarly editing are formalized and programmatic could a large­scale digital scholarly corpus be produced largely algorithmically?</item>
            </list>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Peer Review</hi>
            </p>
            <p>The discussion will then turn to the role of seals or hyper­peer­reviews of digital scholarly editions in a range of scholarly communities and contexts as represented by the panelists.</p>
            <p>A seal such as that awarded by the MLA Committee provides either added weight to peer review for those publishing with a press, or a potential alternative to peer review for editions that are not published by conventional scholarly presses. One would expect that with the shift towards digital editions the number of applications to the Committee would have risen. This, however, has not been the case. Panelist and members of the community of digital editors in the audience will be asked to assess the need for such seals of approval and to consider the adequacy of general guidelines such as the MLAs for editorial work.</p>
            <p>Panelists will reflect on questions including the following:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>How do seals or peer review of digital editing projects operate in various contexts?</item>
            </list>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Can a seal to something that doesn’t reach closure in the usual way? How far along does it need to be?</item>
                <item>If the seal is awarded for one iteration of a project, how do we clarify what was award worthy and what later work is beyond the bounds of the award?</item>
                <item>Might best practices be better served by evaluating projects and their methodology at the beginning rather than the end of their life­cycles, so they have the opportunity to incorporate the results of the review to improve the project?</item>
                <item>If a lack of peer review has sometimes plagued digital scholarship, why have digital editors not done more to avail themselves of this kind of opportunity?</item>
                <item>Is the seal regarded as an additional burden­­one more hoop to jump through­­potentially delaying production and unlikely to lead to increased sales of books or increased usage of a digital edition?</item>
            </list>
            <p>Panelists</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Susan Brown</hi>’s work focuses on born­digital scholarly production and the spectrum from regular scholarly activity to editing, particularly in relation to her leadership of the Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory virtual research environment. She recently joined the MLA CSE.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Hans Walter Gabler</hi> will discuss networked editing. The native ground for the scholarly edition in our day, and for the future, is the digital medium. The scholarly edition as digital edition is to be conceived of as processual, relational, and interactive. To open it on and as a web platform is the public beginning of its life in the body of its texts and document images, their interrelation and diachronic stratification; and equally in its body of response texts (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">vulgo</hi>: commentary). Comprehensively, the digital scholarly edition should be a dynamic site for incremental enrichment through individual as well as communal research.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Fatiha Idmhand</hi> or 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Thomas Lebarbé,</hi> as coordinators of CAHIER (Corpus d’Auteurs pour les Humanités ­ Informatisation, Édition, Recherche), one of the consortia comprising TGIR­HumaNum (Très Grande Infrastructure de Recherche ­ Humanités 
                </item>
                <item>Numériques), will address the consortium’s support of digital editing projects through an</item>
                <item>initial application phase, followed by micro­grants, training, and workshops. They will also address the role of CAHIER in the improvement of visibility and impact of the editions grouped under its umbrella.</item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Elena Pierazzo</hi> will speak to the issue of standards in relation to her role as recent chair of the Text Encoding Initiative, and address the extent to which, in Europe, in general, where there are so many fragmented traditions and disciplines, the possibility of a single evaluating committee or set of guidelines is not feasible. Thus regular peer review and post­publication reviews are the norm. She will address the question of whether broad editing initiatives such as DiXiT 
                    <ref target=""http://dixit.uni/"">(http://dixit.uni</ref>­koeln.de) or the Nedimah research group on digital editions (which she co­chairs) and the recently announced DARIAH­EU initiative Living Sources might usefully contribute to formalizing certain standards.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Kenneth Price</hi> will discuss the emergence of the white paper in light of the history of the MLA committee on scholarly editions. In an earlier print­only era the committee endorsed a single model of editing, the ""critical edition."" Now, at a time of both print and digital editions, and in a changed theoretical environment, the committee (through the white paper) endorses a diversity of additional approaches, including genetic and documentary editing. He will also discuss the challenges of awarding a seal to digital project that may well be later amended.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Ray Siemens</hi>, as principal co­author with Julia Flanders, will discuss the history of, impetus for, and basic thrust of the white paper, situating it in relation to earlier, iterative interventions by members of the CSE and our community ­­ among them Peter Shillingsburg’s “General Principles of Electronic Scholarly Editions” (1993), Charles Faulhaber’s “Guidelines for Electronic Scholarly Editions” (1997), the CSE/TEI­C volume 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Electronic Textual Editing</hi> (2006), and its publication of guidelines and guiding questions for those preparing and evaluating editions in electronic form ­­ and more recent considerations, such as social editing.
                </item>
            </list>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""http://www.amazon.com/s/ref%3Ddp_byline_sr_book_3?ie=UTF8&amp;text=John%2BUnsworth&amp;search-alias=books&amp;field-author=John%2BUnsworth&amp;sort=relevancerank"">
                            <hi rend=""color(111111)"">Burnard, Lou, Katherine O’Brien O’Keeffe, and John Unsworth, eds.</hi>
                        </ref>
                        <hi rend=""color(111111)""> (2006) </hi>
                        <ref target=""http://www.amazon.com/s/ref%3Ddp_byline_sr_book_3?ie=UTF8&amp;text=John%2BUnsworth&amp;search-alias=books&amp;field-author=John%2BUnsworth&amp;sort=relevancerank"">
                            <hi rend=""italic color(111111)"">Electronic Textual</hi>
                        </ref>
                        <ref target=""http://www.amazon.com/s/ref%3Ddp_byline_sr_book_3?ie=UTF8&amp;text=John%2BUnsworth&amp;search-alias=books&amp;field-author=John%2BUnsworth&amp;sort=relevancerank"">
                            <hi rend=""italic color(111111)"">Editing.</hi>
                        </ref>
                        <ref target=""http://www.amazon.com/s/ref%3Ddp_byline_sr_book_3?ie=UTF8&amp;text=John%2BUnsworth&amp;search-alias=books&amp;field-author=John%2BUnsworth&amp;sort=relevancerank"">
                            <hi rend=""color(111111)"">New York: Modern Language Association P.</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""http://www.tei-c.org/About/Archive_new/ETE/"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1154CC)"">http://www.tei­c.org/About/Archive_new/ETE/</hi>
                        </ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory. 
                        <ref target=""http://cwrc.ca/"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1154CC)"">http://cwrc.ca</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>CAHIER « Corpus d’Auteurs pour les Humanités ­ Informatisation, Édition, Recherche »</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <ref target=""http://cahier.hypotheses.org/le-consortium"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1154CC)"">http://cahier.hypotheses.org/le­consortium</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Committee on Scholarly Editions. (2015) Considering the Scholarly Edition in the Digital Age: A White Paper of the Modern Language Association’s Committee on Scholarly Editions.</bibl>
                    <bibl>New York: MLA. Web. 
                        <ref target=""https://scholarlyeditions.commons.mla.org/2015/09/02/cse-white-paper/"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1154CC)"">https://scholarlyeditions.commons.mla.org/2015/09/02/cse­white­paper/</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>DARIAH­EU (Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and the Humanities): 
                        <ref target=""https://dariah.eu/"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1154CC)"">https://dariah.eu</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Faulhaber, Charles. (1997) “Guidelines for Electronic Scholarly Editions.” December 1997. 
                        <ref target=""http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/MLA/guidelines.html"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1154CC)"">http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/MLA/guidelines.html</hi>
                        </ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>ITN DiXiT (Digital Scholarly Editions Initial Training Network). 
                        <ref target=""http://dixit.uni-koeln.de/"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1154CC)"">http://dixit.uni­koeln.de</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>NeDiMAH (Network for Digital Methods in the Arts and Humanities). Scholarly Digital Editions Working Group. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.nedimah.eu/workgroups/scholarly-digital-editions"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1154CC)"">http://www.nedimah.eu/workgroups/scholarly­digital­editions</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Shillingsburg, Peter. (1993) “General Principles for Electronic Scholarly Editions.” December 1993. 
                        <ref target=""http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/MLA/principles.html"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1154CC)"">http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/MLA/principles.html</hi>
                        </ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Siemens, Ray, Meagan Timney, Cara Leitch, Corina Koolen, and Alex Garnett, with the ETCL, INKE, and PKP Research Groups. (2012) ""Toward Modeling the Social Edition: An Approach to Understanding the Electronic Scholarly Edition in the Context of New and Emerging Social Media."" 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi> 27.4: 445­461. 
                        <ref target=""http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/4/445.full"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1154CC)"">http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/4/445.full</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Text Encoding Initiative. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml"">
                            <hi rend=""underline color(1154CC)"">http://www.tei­c.org/index.xml</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2795","17","Thresholds: Valuing the Creative Process in Digital Publishing","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                <head>Introducing 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">thresholds</hi>
                </head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">handwritten sticky notes, highlighted document pages, and grainy photographs rub against one another, forming dense and shifting thickets. the blank spaces between once-distinct districts become cluttered and close. geographically distant realms ache to converge. the bookcase furiously semaphores toward the far corner of the room. thin lines of colored paper arrive to splay across sections. the wall bursts at every seam.</hi>
                </p>
                <p>Whether it be real or virtual, every project has its own “wall”: the irrepressibly interdisciplinary network that inspires and propels the work. Populating this capharnaum are the ideas, images, sentences, scenes, and characters that “stick to us,” to use Lara Farina’s evocative phrase (Farina, 2014). They are the “encounters” that Deleuze describes as the impetus toward work, the things that “strike” us, as Benjamin puts it, like a hammer to unknown inner chords (Deleuze, 1988; Benjamin, 1999). This affective principle of collection (what strikes you) means that the wall is an intensely personal artifact. Its unique architecture springs from a thinker’s nomadic wanderings through and amidst a cultural and aesthetic landscape, whose dimensions are stretched beyond traditional disciplinary boundaries to include anything that clings to us, whether it be Werner Heisenberg’s letters or an episode of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Breaking Bad</hi>.
                </p>
                <p>Although instrumental to every humanities project, the wall has a brutally short lifespan. The writer strives to reassert control over its borders and boundaries by whittling down its undisciplined excesses; indeed, training to be a scholar is in large part learning to compress and contain the wall’s licentious sprawl. We shorten our focus to a single period, place, or author; excise those fragments that fall outside the increasingly narrow range of our “expertise”; and briskly sever any loose ends that refuse to be tied. These regulatory measures help align our work with the temporal, geographic, and aesthetic boundaries of our disciplinary arbiters: the journals and university presses that publish our work, the departments that hire and tenure us. In an increasingly tight academic marketplace, where the qualified scholars, articles, and projects far outnumber the available positions, deviation from the standard model can seem like risky business indeed. </p>
                <p>Even as entrenched structures dictate compression and containment in scholarly writing, the open networks of the web have enabled a publication model based on public sharing and collaboration, spurring a turn to process across the humanities. It has become normal for scholars of all fields to share their incipient, in-progress research on blogs and wikis, and look to the comments sections for peer review. On a larger scale, these moves toward a collaborative process of knowledge-making are visible in the editing policies of Wikipedia; in Femtechnet’s Distributed Open Content Course (DOCC), an open repository for course materials; and in new open access imprints like the Dead Letter Office of Punctum Books, which publishes abandoned scholarly projects (to name just a few examples among many). This turn to process has put pressure on the gatekeeping mechanisms described above, as many scholars yearn for a less rigid publishing model that foments the networked creativity of the wall.</p>
                <p>Advocating for the transformative effect of a process-oriented model of digital publication, this short paper asks: how can digital humanities not only embrace process rhetorically, but in fact accrete tangible value to the more piecemeal, contingent aspects of knowledge creation? How can we make it the wall’s scholarly sprawl “count” within systems that still rely on the trimmed and trussed-up products of research? How can we not only laud conceptually but help to build materially critical practices that eschew disciplinary (and disciplining) boundaries in favor of openings and traversals? </p>
                <p>After a brief survey of existing digital journals and other publishing initiatives, including 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Hyperrhiz</hi>, Scalar, and Electric Press, we turn to our own incipient venture, titled 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">thresholds</hi>. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">thresholds</hi> is a web-based digital publishing platform for creative scholarship, stitched together from existing digital humanities tools. By sketching the primary design features of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">thresholds</hi> – both their theoretical motivations and technical solutions, described in brief below – this short paper argues for a capacious digital publishing model that negotiates, without dissolving, the shifting edges between reading and writing, process and product, the fragment and the collective.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                <head>Design Features</head>
                <p>The primary design feature of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">thresholds </hi>is the split screen. On the webpage’s virtual verso are short critical essays that exceed disciplinary boundaries, whether it be in content, style, or approach. We solicit work that a traditional academic journal may deem unfinished, unseemly, or otherwise unbound, but which discovers precisely in its unboundedness new and oblique critical perspectives. Along with her essay, the author submits the textual, visual, and audible fragments that provoked and surreptitiously steered her work. These are published on the right side of the screen and scroll in tandem with the corresponding essay. These scraps are not explicitly harnessed to the work’s main body, but instead lie beside it to create provocative juxtapositions; it is left to the reader to forge lines of connection between recto and verso.
                </p>
                <p>Reinforcing its commitment to process and material form, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">thresholds </hi>further provides a digital toolkit for readerly making. These tools assign names and haptic functions to those critical traversals that a reader makes through and against a text. As the author’s fragments scroll up the right-hand side of the screen, the reader can anchor a piece, holding it in place for future reference, or join one scrap to another to generate new patterns and co-movements. She can also import new material, either by copying text over from the essay on the verso or by composing additional fragments that leak new texts, artists, or ideas into the system. At the end of any given reading session, then, the reader will have generated her own “wall,” plucking, amassing, and recomposing the author’s fragments to create her own annotative assemblage.
                </p>
                <p>At any time, the reader can capture and conserve the “constellation” that she has produced—that is, the current arrangement of the fragments that she has chosen to lock and join together. Although every user has access to the same firmament of texts that cycle through 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">thresholds</hi>, each constellation will be singular; their unique spatial architecture will attest to the creative and critical value in visualizing the relations between fragments and texts, readers and authors, and readers and texts. Readers who choose to publically share their work will be able to see how their own creation fits into a galaxy of all other users’ constellations, mapping their own choices against that of a collective readership. By enabling the reader to place herself in relation to both the author’s text 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">and </hi>all other readers of the site, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">thresholds </hi>models criticism as an intimate yet communal activity that inheres in the delicate links we build in the spaces between each other, as much as between the texts themselves.
                </p>
                <p>To ensure that this intervention is not only conceptually provocative but also formally useful, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">thresholds</hi> endows each fragment with a flexible markup language. Readers can download their constellations, receiving a file listing all texts, objects, and art cited therein. This file can then be imported into citation software or shared with others. This underlying information architecture, not immediately present to visitors but baked into the structure of the site, plugs the swirl of scraps that make up any given constellation into the existing citational infrastructure of the humanities. In so doing, it allows 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">thresholds </hi>to negotiate the gap between that which is in-progress and incomplete within our reading practices—the stray underline, the forgotten marginal note—and more formalized and prescriptive methods for incorporating others’ work into our own. There is a place, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">thresholds </hi>implicitly argues, for the fragmentary in our collecting and collective practices; for the wall’s sprawl within the more regimented systems that order our work.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Benjamin, W. (1999).</hi> 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Arcades Project</hi>, trans. Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Deleuze, G. (1988).</hi> 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">L'abécédaire de Gilles Deleuze, an interview with Gilles Deleuze, directed by Claire Parnet.</hi>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Farina, L. (2014). Sticking Together. In Cohen, J. J., Joy, E. A., and Seaman, M. (eds), </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Burn After Reading/The Future We Want.</hi> Brooklyn: Punctum Books, pp. 31-38.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2796","17","Tool-based Identification of Melodic Patterns in MusicXML Documents","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction: Digital musicology</head>
                <p>Computer-based methods in musicology have been around at least since the 1980s
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                        <p> The popular series „Computing in Musicology“ started around 1985. For an overview of all volumes of the series cf. http://www.ccarh.org/publications/books/cm/; Note: All URLs mentioned in this text were last checked on March 3, 2016.</p>
                    </note>. Besides the creation of digital editions (cf. Kepper et al., 2014; Veit, 2015), scholars in this area of study have also been interested in quantitative approaches for musicological analyses (cf. Müllensiefen and Frieler, 2004; Vigilanti, 2007). Such quantitative analyses rely on music information retrieval (MIR) systems, which can be used to search collections of songs according to different musicological parameters. There are many examples for existing MIR systems, all with specific strengths and weaknesses. Among the main downsides of such systems are:
                </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Usability problems</hi>, i.e. tools are cumbersome to use, as they oftentimes only provide a command-line interface and also require some basic programming skills to utilize them; example: Humdrum
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.humdrum.org/</p>
                        </note>
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Restricted scope of querying</hi>, i.e. tools can only be used to search for musical incipits; examples: RISM
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> https://opac.rism.info/</p>
                        </note>, HymnQuest
                        <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                            <p rend=""footnote text""> http://hymnquest.com/</p>
                        </note>
                    </item>
                    <item>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Restricted song collection</hi>, i.e. tools can only be used for specific collections of music files; various examples of MIR tools for specific collections are described in Typke et al. (2005)
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>A particularly promising MIR tool can be found in Peachnote
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.peachnote.com/</p>
                    </note> (Viro, 2011), which uses optical music recognition (OMR) software to index more than one million sheets from the Petrucci Music Library
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://imslp.org/</p>
                    </note>, aiming to provide a search interface for musicology which can be seen as an analog of the Google Books Ngram Viewer
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> https://books.google.com/ngrams</p>
                    </note>. Despite many existing software solutions, we believe that accurate OMR is still a major challenge in digital musicology. At the same time, there are numerous databases
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn8"" n=""8"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.musicxml.com/music-in-musicxml/</p>
                    </note> at hand, that provide machine-readable music documents, fully annotated with MusicXML (Good, 2001) markup. 
                </p>
                <p>On this account, we designed MusicXML Analyzer, a generic MIR system that is trying to overcome the weaknesses of existing MIR tools, and that allows for the analysis of arbitrary documents encoded in MusicXML format. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>MusicXML Analyzer: Basic functionality and implementation details</head>
                <p>MusicXML Analyzer can be used to analyze songs in a quantitative manner, and to search for specific melodic patterns in a collection of songs. The results of the analyses are rendered as virtual scores and can be viewed in any recent web browser. In addition, the queries and the results can be played as a synthesized audio file; all analyses can also be exported as PDF or CSV files.</p>
                <p>The tool comprises three main components: (1) the upload function, (2) the analysis function, and (3) the search function. After one or more files in MusicXML format have been uploaded via an intuitive drag-and-drop dialog, the analysis component parses the data and calculates basic frequencies; the results are stored in an SQL database and can be displayed in a dashboard view (cf. Fig. 1). </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""458/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: Snippet from the dashboard view, showing basic frequencies for a corpus of MusicXML documents.</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The dashboard displays the following information, either for an individual song, or for a corpus of multiple songs:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Overall statistics for single notes, rests and measures </item>
                    <item>Types of instruments used in the song (if described in the MusicXML data)</item>
                    <item>Frequency distribution for single notes, intervals, keys, note durations and meters </item>
                </list>
                <p>Via a dedicated search function, a corpus of MusicXML documents can be queried for melodic patterns on different levels of information:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Search for a sound sequence; example: c’, c’, g’, g’</item>
                    <item>Search for a rhythmic pattern; example: eighth note, eighth note, quarter note, quarter note</item>
                    <item>Search for melodic patterns, i.e. a combination of sound sequence and rhythm; example: c’ / eighth note, c’ / eighth note, g’ / quarter note, g’ / quarter note</item>
                </list>
                <p>Search queries can be entered via a virtual staff that was realized with the VexFlow library
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn9"" n=""9"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.vexflow.com/</p>
                    </note> (cf. Fig. 2). Once a search pattern has been entered, it can also be played as a synthesized Midi sequence, which was realized with the Midi.js library
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn10"" n=""10"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://mudcu.be/midi-js</p>
                    </note>. 
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""458/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2: Interface for entering queries to identify tonal, rhythmic, or melodic patterns in a corpus of MusicXML documents.</head>
                </figure>
                <p>After a query has been submitted, all results – i.e. the songs that contain the search pattern – are displayed in a list view. The list contains the name of the song and also the number of total occurrences of the search pattern in that song. By clicking on one of the song items in the list, a virtual score is rendered for the whole song; the search pattern is highlighted whenever it occurs in that virtual score (cf. Fig. 3). The whole song can be played directly in the web browser, or downloaded for further analyses as a PDF (realized with the jsPDF library
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn11"" n=""11"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> https://parall.ax/products/jspdf</p>
                    </note>).
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""458/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3: Virtual score rendering of a document from the results list; the search pattern is highlighted in red color.</head>
                </figure>
                <p>MusicXML Analyzer was implemented by means of standard web technologies (HTML, CSS, JavaScript, PHP), in particular by utilizing the following libraries and frameworks: Laravel
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn12"" n=""12"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://laravel.com/</p>
                    </note>, jQuery
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn13"" n=""13"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> https://jquery.com/</p>
                    </note>, D3.js
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn14"" n=""14"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://d3js.org/</p>
                    </note>, Bootstrap
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn15"" n=""15"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://getbootstrap.com/</p>
                    </note>, Typed.js
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn16"" n=""16"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.mattboldt.com/demos/typed-js/</p>
                    </note>, Dropzone.js
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn17"" n=""17"">
                        <p rend=""footnote text""> http://www.dropzonejs.com/</p>
                    </note>. 
                </p>
                <p>A short demo video that showcases the main functionality of the tool is available at</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>
                        <ref target=""https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/4194636/MusicXML-Analyzer.mp4"">https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/4194636/MusicXML-Analyzer.mp4</ref>
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>A fully functional online demo
                    <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn18"" n=""18"">
                        <p> Due to some technical limitations of our server environment, the initial access to the online demo may take a few seconds to wake up the server from 
                            <hi rend=""italic"">idle mode</hi>.
                        </p>
                    </note> of MusicXML Analyzer is available at
                </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>
                        <ref target=""http://music-xml-analyzer.herokuapp.com/"">http://music-xml-analyzer.herokuapp.com/</ref>
                    </item>
                </list>
                <p>MusicXML Analyzer can also be downloaded and modified (according to the MIT open source license) from GitHub:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>
                        <ref target=""https://github.com/freakimkaefig/Music-XML-Analyzer"">
                            <hi rend=""Bullets"">https://github.com/freakimkaefig/Music-XML-Analyzer</hi>
                        </ref>
                    </item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Future directions</head>
                <p>In its current implementation, MusicXML Analyzer performs an exact match search, i.e. only documents which have the exact same value in their MusicXML markup will be found by the search function. We are planning to implement a more sophisticated melodic similarity algorithm (cf. Grachten et al., 2002; Miura and Shioya, 2003) that allows for the configuration of different similarity thresholds. </p>
                <p>At the same time, we are adapting MusicXML Analyzer for a recent project on a large corpus of German folksongs. Besides monophonic melodies, this collection of folksongs also contains machine-readable metadata (region, date, etc.) and lyrics. Accordingly, we are trying to enhance the search features of MusicXML Analyzer in a way it can not only search songs for melodic patterns, but also for metadata parameters and keywords from the lyrics. Such an enhanced MIR system could be used to analyze the following research questions:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Are there characteristic melodic and linguistic patterns for German folksongs, from a diachronic perspective as well as from a regional perspective?</item>
                    <item>Are there melodic-linguistic collocations, i.e. do certain melodic patterns co-occur with certain keywords or phrases?</item>
                </list>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Good, M.</hi> (2001). MusicXML for Notation and Analysis. In Hewlett, W. B. and Selfridge-Field, E. (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Virtual Score: Representation, Retrieval, Restoration</hi>. Cambridge (MA) and London (UK): MIT Press, pp. 113–24.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grachten, M. A., Josep, L. and Mántaras R. L.</hi> (2002). A comparison of different approaches to melodic similarity. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference in Music and Artificial Intelligence (ICMAI) 2002</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kepper, J., Schreiter, S. and Veit, J.</hi> (2014). ‚Freischütz‘ analog oder digital – Editionsformen im Spannungsfeld von Wissenschaft und Praxis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Editio</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">28</hi>: 127–50.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Miura, T. and Shioya, I.</hi> (2003). Similarity among melodies for music information retrieval. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management (CIKM) 2003</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Müllensiefen, D. and Frieler, K.</hi> (2004). Optimizing Measures Of Melodic Similarity For The Exploration Of A Large Folk Song Database. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Music Information Retrieval (ISMIR) 2004</hi>, pp. 274–80.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Typke, R., Wiering, F. and Veltkamp, R. C.</hi> (2005). A survey of music information retrieval systems. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Music Information Retrieval (ISMIR) 2005</hi>, pp. 153–60.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Veit, J.</hi> (2015). Music notation beyond paper. On developing digital humanities tools for music editing. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Forschungsforum Paderborn</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">18</hi>: 40-48. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Viglianti, R.</hi> (2007). MusicXML: An XML Based Approach to Musicological Analysis. <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2007: Conference Abstracts</hi>, pp. 235–37.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Viro, V.</hi> (2011). Peachnote: Music Score Search and Analysis Platform. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Music Information Retrieval (ISMIR) 2011</hi>, pp. 359-62. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2797","17","Toward A Use-Value Paradigm For The Sustainability Of Digital Research","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>What is Sustainability?</head>
                <p>Sustaining the results of digital humanities research projects remains an ongoing challenge within the wider DH ecosystem. This is particularly the case for research infrastructure developments, where the scale, complexity and indeed the overarching aim of the project to serve a potentially still emerging research community makes their continued accessibility even more important, and even more difficult.  </p>
                <p>Like any enduring challenge, sustainability of complex digital resources has been subjected to a certain amount of scholarly investigation (though less overall than one might expect). What a survey of this literature shows, however, is that the perspectives on how to face the challenge of sustainability are highly dependent on how a project or infrastructure views itself: for example, when viewed primarily as a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">form of organisation or institution</hi>, the sustainability model proposed will likely focus on the necessary ‘business model’ for maintaining the services created (Maron et al., 2009). The Archives Portal Europe (APE<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1""> http://www.apex-project.eu/index.php/en/</note>), for example, established itself as a Foundation after the end of the project, in order to maintain the vital functions of the infrastructure and to further connect with other projects and similar initiatives.</p>
                <p>Alternatively, when project outputs are viewed as a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">tool or technical platform</hi>, a sustainability proposal will primarily take into consideration issues and practices such as migration and curation of elements such as the repositories where the data are stored and continued maintenance of work environments and specific tools. The TextGrid project<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2""> https://textgrid.de/</note>, for example, has been hugely successful in rolling its activities forward over a long period, continuing to make its services available to users. At its best, this approach results in a broad focus on software durability, documentation of processes and the modularity of services (Buddenbohm et al., 2015).</p>
                <p>But to understand sustainability thoroughly we must also engage a second huge and unresolved issue in digital humanities, that is the reuse of project outputs and data. In particular, the “Log Analysis of Digital Resources in the Arts and Humanities, or the LAIRAH project (Warwick et al., 2008) has contributed significantly to our understanding of what factors enable digital projects and tools to be found and adopted by users. From the results of this project we can see another model for the sustainable project to emerge, in which the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">communication and branding</hi> of the project is a key element of its success.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The CENDARI Project and its Approach to Sustainability</head>
                <p>This presentation brings forward the hypothesis that a successful approach to sustainability for Research Infrastructures needs to be comprehensive; an approach that doesn’t just consider data or technology, community, communications or processes, but in fact all of them simultaneously.  In addition, it should focus not only on a project as a collection of tangible and intangible assets, but also on the potential user base for these assets, and what these users consider valuable about them.</p>
                <p>Discussion of this user-centred approach to sustainability will be based on the experiences of the Collaborative Digital Archival Research Infrastructure (CENDARI<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3""> http://www.cendari.eu/</note>) project’s year-long sustainability planning exercise, conducted from January 2014-January 2015.  This exercise, which built upon previous work in the project and a strong link to the Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities (DARIAH ERIC<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4""> https://www.dariah.eu</note>), resulted in a set of principles and processes for mapping and sustaining user value from the project for the medium and long terms.  Although both the generic process (which will be released as a sustainability toolkit at the end of the project) and the specific actions implemented by the project match on some level the specifics of the CENDARI development, they also reflect the reality, identified by Joris Van Zundert, of the “fluidity” of research infrastructure, caught up in both the digital information lifecycle and the creation of knowledge by end users, as well as the software components (Van Zundert, 2012).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The Sustainability Planning Cycle</head>
                <p>The CENDARI sustainability planning process was comprised of a series of 4 stages, from pre-planning to closure and post-project actions, each of which contributed to the overall, holistic sustainability strategy.  This cycle was intended to counteract a natural impetus within projects to view sustainability as a concern only for the final phase of the project, rather than one to be integrated into the project’s development and even its conception.  </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The CENDARI Assets and Multilevel Sustainability Action Plan</head>
                <p>As a key component of the second and third phases of the CENDARI project sustainability planning process, the project carried out a thorough audit (including a stakeholder validation meeting) to refine its understanding of what assets the project had generated and how they could be maintained, shared and indeed passed on to its key users for further development.  This process identified 7 categories of assets as most likely to find future usage, each of which posed unique challenges in how they could be captured, made visible and sustained.  It has been one of the greatest challenges of the CENDARI sustainability planning process to ensure that for each of these areas we could find a solution, as we would for our personal work data, to make them findable and reusable in a contextualised manner, and preserve them in ‘multiple formats and multiple locations.’  For each asset type, the audience for potential future use is different, and therefore the solution proposed is as well.</p>
                <p>The CENDARI 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">portal</hi> is the most visible of its assets, representing the final synthesis of the project’s activities and its main point of access.  For many projects, this would be where sustainability planning would not only begin, but end.  CENDARI approached this sustainability challenge via a three pronged strategy, guaranteeing 3 years of access through the German arm of DARIAH but also ensuring new communities and new approaches would be recruited to continue development.  
                </p>
                <p>But the portal is not only useful in its complete final form, but also as a collection of unique 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">services, tools and components </hi>optimised to support DH research.  This possible reuse of the project outcomes was foreseen from the beginning, and a very modular, service oriented architecture was adopted for the project.  The tools therefore require a sustainable pathway outside of the portal.  That said, however, connecting tools with potential user bases is a constant challenge.  The software community practice of using GitHub to share software was adopted, but further awareness raising was also required to ensure the maximal future use for the tools.
                </p>
                <p>CENDARI holds a lot of 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">data</hi> from different sources, some unique to the project, others well signposted elsewhere, and with different requirements and expectations for sustainability. This has been its legacy as a project seeking to reuse archival data for historical research, where the culture and ability to share data is unevenly developed. The CENDARI data portal gives access to this data, and the project’s data agreement and license have been developed with DARIAH as a co-signatory, so in many ways DARIAH had already agreed from an early point in the project to sustain this data.  But DARIAH is not well-known as a data provider or source, and this solution alone may not maximise visibility and reuse.  Therefore a redeposit protocol for unique data with an external trusted source has also been facilitated.
                </p>
                <p>The 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Archival Research Guides</hi> exist as a particular subset of the data unique to CENDARI, but their status as both primary and secondary research sources justifies their consideration as an asset class in themselves, in particular because of the manner in which they challenge existing norms of publication, communication and evaluation in the discipline of history.  As extended and enhanced publications, incorporating analysis, links to data sources, multimedia objects, and links to project ontologies, these guides need to be delivered within the project portal.  But to sustain these unique works of scholarship only in that format would again potentially limit their visibility.  They will therefore be offered in one or more export formats, as well as becoming the focus of both a review publication and a research paper to be submitted to a mainstream (not digital) historical journal.  In this way, their contributions to scholarship can be recognised as independent from the format in which they have been delivered.
                </p>
                <p>Given how particular many of the project experiences in building for the DH community had been, a specific audit of CENDARI’s 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">tacit knowledge</hi> was also undertaken, and several white papers and process oriented toolkits have emerged from the project on the foot of this (including, for example, a ‘White Book of Archives’ documenting the project’s experience of federating highly heterogenous data from traditional collection holding institutions).   As a related issue, some of the project’s 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">management assets</hi> may also have a future utility for others.
                </p>
                <p>Perhaps the least easily defined and sustained aspects of the CENDARI project will be the 
                    <hi rend=""bold"">communities </hi>- mixed and homogenous groups of historians and other humanistic scholars, collections experts and technologists - it has brought together and formed.  Interconnectivity between cognate projects will be a key resource for this, as some communities will have interests across these projects, and networks can and should be shared.  But some of the community aspects are very unique to CENDARI, and will have a specific role in guiding the future use of the portal and its components: for this reason, the project will use another DARIAH mechanism, the working group, to provide a structure for continued development of project concerns and assets.
                </p>
                <p>As can be seen from this description, CENDARI has made both its own sustainability and the potential future role of the DARIAH ERIC in the sustainability of medium- to large-scale digital projects in Europe into key areas of applied research and development.  The resulting tool-kit for sustainability will hopefully assist future projects in extending both their sustainability planning and strategies in the future.   </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Buddenbohm, S., Enke, H., Hofmann, M., Klar J., Neuroth H. and Schwiegelshohn, U.</hi> (2015). Success Criteria for the Development and Sustainable Operation of Virtual Research Environments, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">D-Lib Magazine</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 21</hi> 9/10. doi:10.1045/september2015-buddenbohm.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dempsey, L.</hi>. (2000). The Subject Gateway: Experiences and Issues Based on the Emergence of the Resource Discovery Network, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Online Information Review</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>(1): 8–23.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">European Science Foundation</hi>. (2011). Research Infrastructure in the Digital Humanities. http://www.esf.org/index.php?eID=tx_nawsecuredl&u=0&g=0&t=1456595004&hash=734ba001ffd70284abd6390009ca0842e16fab98&file=fileadmin/be_user/research_areas/HUM/Strategic_activities/RIs_in_the_Humanities/SPB42_44p-5oct_FINAL.pdf (accessed August 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Geyer-Schulz, A., Neumann A., Heitmann A. and Stroborn, K.</hi> (2006). Strategic Positioning Options for Scientific Libraries in Markets of Scientific and Technical Information - the Economic Impact of Digitization, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Digital Information</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 4</hi>: 2. https://journals.tdl.org/jodi/index.php/jodi/article/view/101 (accessed September 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Giarlo, M.</hi> (2013). Academic Libraries as Data Quality Hubs, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Librarianship and Scholarly Communication</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>: 3. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.7710/2162-3309.1059. (accessed September 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">JISC Digital Media</hi>. Sustainability of Digital Collections: A Practical Guide. http://www.jiscdigitalmedia.ac.uk/infokit/digitisation-funding-and-sustaina/sustainability-of-digital-collections-a-practical-guide (accessed October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Maron N. L., Smith K. K. and Loy, M.</hi> (2009). Sustaining Digital Resources: An On-the-Ground View of Projects Today. http://www.sr.ithaka.org/sites/default/files/reports/4.17.1.pdf (accessed September 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Maron N. L. and Picke S.</hi> (2014). Sustainability Implementation Toolkit. Developing an Institutional Strategy for Supporting Digital HumanitiesResources”. http://www.sr.ithaka.org/publications/sustainability-implementation-toolkit/ (accessed October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ullyot, M.</hi> (2013). Digital Humanities Projects, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Renaissance Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">66</hi>(3): 937–47. doi:10.1086/673587.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Villa, C.</hi> (2015). Project Sustainability in DH: Collaboration and Community. http://digitalhumanities.berkeley.edu/blog/15/05/01/project-sustainability-dh-collaboration-and-community. (accessed October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Zundert, J.</hi> (2012). If you build it, will we come? Large scale digital infrastructures as a dead end for digital humanities, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Historical Social Research Journal</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>(3).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Warwick, C., Terras, M., Huntington, P. and Pappa, N.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">If you build it will they come? The LAIRAH Study: Quantifying the Use of Online Resources in the Arts and Humanities through Statistical Analysis of User Log Data</hi>. Selected papers from Digital Humanities 2006, Paris-Sorbonne.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Webb, S.</hi> (2015). Requirements and National Digital Infratsructures: Digital Preservation in the Humanities. http://breac.nd.edu/articles/61504-requirements-and-national-digital-infrastructures-digital-preservation-in-the-humanities/ (accessed October 2015).
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zhang, Y.</hi> (2010). Developing a Holistic Model for Digital Library Evaluation, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">61</hi>(1): 88–110. doi:10.1002/asi.21220.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Zorinch, D. Z.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A Survey of Digital Cultural Heritage Initiative and Their Sustainability Concerns</hi>, Council on Library and Information Resources Washington, D. C. http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub118/pub118.pdf (accessed August 2015).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2798","17","Towards an XML Corpora Exposition as LOD with the Lightweight Xquery-Based Framework SynopsX","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Various approaches have been proposed to publish XML/TEI scholarly editions or XML/EAD finding aids on line, but no standard XML software with a ready to use web application has yet emerged. As a possible next step after the XML mark-up of an edition or of an inventory, online publications are still a difficult issue for many projects in Digital humanities. Among available frameworks (like eXist or baseX) there is no ready to use web application to easily expose XML scholarly corpora as Linked Open Data (LOD).</p>
            <p>Initiated by the Digital humanities network of ENS Lyon (Atelier des Humanités Numériques de l’ENS de Lyon), SynopsX is a lightweight framework which goal is to easily publish and expose XML scholarly corpora. It’s a full XQuery web application built with the native XML database BaseX. Involving different partners from various institutions the project is developed as a free and open source software under GNU, and is hosted on GitHub (<ref target=""https://github.com/synopsx"">https://github.com/synopsx</ref>). Three principles have guided the conception of the software: collaboration, mutualization and genericization. Thus, we decided to put together all the publication problems and needs we could encounter in our very various Digital Humanities corpora (disciplines, approaches, institutions) to specify the needs of a generic web application.</p>
            <p>SynopsX has been conceived as a scalable and easily customizable solution for XML publication of XML files (TEI, EAD, OAI, etc.). The software brings a templating system for various renderings of XML resources according to predefined or customized mappings from XML data to various output formats. SynopsX use the BaseX implementation of Adam Retter’s proposed specifications for RESTXQ. Because it allows full control on the URL scheme to build real REST applications, it could be used to expose XML corpora as Linked Open Data.</p>
            <p>This poster will present the needs of LOD for XML corpora publication. It will explain the different strategies that could be used and how we’re planning to use a RESTXQ controller with views and models to propose a tool that allows the contents exposition as LOD through a restful API.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2799","17","Tracing the genesis of Pessoa's envisioned work: a digital edition of his editorial projects and publications","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>A digital edition of Fernando Pessoa, considered one of the most significant Modernist poets and writers, is being established through a collaboration between scholars from the Institute of Literature and Tradition (IELT) of the New University of Lisbon and the Cologne Center for eHumanities (CCeH) of the University of Cologne. The edition focuses on the contrast between the potential character of Pessoa’s numerous lists of editorial projects and his few actual publications in lifetime.</p>
                <p>Though the digital platform is primarily designed to support the research aims of the project, the procedures can be reused by others (encoding, scripts). From a theoretical standpoint, the question of „work genesis“ (on a macro and micro level) is relevant to a wider audience. In the case of Pessoa, the publication of the editorial lists and plans together with the published works in lifetime contributes to the discussion on the genesis and status of each stage of a work.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>State of Research and Aims</head>
                <p>It has been much debated by literary scholars whether Fernando Pessoa’s work should be characterized as fragmentary or unitary (see Coelho, 1949; Gusmão, 2003; Martins, 2003; Sepúlveda, 2013). Due to the low number of publications in lifetime, the existence of a vast literary archive and the use of many fictional authors, named “heteronyms” by the author, the coherence of his work has been questioned. The present edition, in contrast, is based on the assumption that Fernando Pessoa constantly worked on the organization of his work, as witnessed by the many editorial lists, notes and plans which are part of his estate (Cunha, 1987; Sepúlveda, 2013).</p>
                <p>These papers are the subject of the digital edition at hand, together with the 60 publications of poems that Pessoa realized in journals and literary magazines. That way, the genesis and evolution of his work as planned by himself can be studied and the published texts be examined in the light of the editorial projects preceding, accompanying and following them during the author’s life. A significant part of the documents witnessing the editorial activity of the author have not been published before. For those which have been published, past editions in bookform define themselves by following either the first or the last version of a text, or by choosing from the existent variants from a hermeneutical standpoint (Duarte, 1988; Galhoz, 1993; Martins, 2011; Castro, 2013).</p>
                <p>As the textual variants and hesitations are critical to understand shifts in the conception of the work, e. g. when work titles are assigned to heteronyms or the composition of a planned publication is changed, the digital edition aims at offering several coexistent forms of transcription. To facilitate the understanding of the texts and the work they trace, editorial comments are to be added to the documents.</p>
                <p>In terms of editorial methodology, the digital edition targets at exploring the possibilities to combine different editorial procedures from a documentary, a diplomatic, a genetic and an enriched edition, overcoming previous oppositions between different editorial approaches to the poet’s work. Relations between the editorial projects and the published texts are formalized via the encoding of “work references”. By extending the concept of work to include projections which the author makes on a macro level, i.e. outlining his works in terms of titles, authorship, structure and publication organs, the present edition contributes to the debate about the status of the work and its place in the digital edition (Robinson, 2013; Sahle, 2013).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Methods and Results</head>
                <p>The realization of the digital edition relies primarily on procedures and technologies coming from the X universe. Transcriptions of the documents and metadata are encoded according to the standard of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI-P5). The TEI documents are stored in an XML database (eXist) hosted on a web server together with the digital facsimiles. While the work on the documents is going on, a GitHub repository reachable at <
                    <ptr target=""https://github.com/cceh/pessoa""/>> is used to hold successive versions of both the TEI documents and the application which is developed. Scripts written in XQuery and XSLT control the transformation of the documents’ underlying representation into the presentation layer. Some of the components shipped with eXist are used: Bootstrap, JQuery and eXist’s Templating Framework plus a SIMILE timeline and the OpenSeadragon image viewer.
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""449/100002010000065E00000360219C30E9.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 1: Technical setup and workflow</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>The TEI encoding is controlled with a RelaxNG schema based on an ODD file. The recorded metadata include bibliographic details, the date or period of the document’s genesis or publication and a genre classification (editorial notes, editorial lists, editorial plans, poetry).</p>
                <p>Among the encoded textual phenomena are additions, deletions, substitutions, omissions, variants and notes. First and last variants are especially marked to allow for the establishment of a first and last version of the text. Moreover, the following types of entities are labeled: persons, journals, texts and works. Special attention is paid to the four principal authorial figures of Pessoa: Alberto Caeiro, Álvaro de Campos, Fernando Pessoa and Ricardo Reis. Besides registering their mere occurrence, the role they have is determined (they can be mentioned as author, editor, translator or topic of a work). Occurring persons, journals and works are managed in a central knowledge base which serves as the basis for their identification in the documents and the creation of comprehensive indexes. The following figure illustrates how the relationship between an editorial list and a publication is established via the reference to works:</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""449/10000000000003C0000001C88909B007.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 2: Example of the encoding of work references in TEI</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>The document MN909 is an editorial list. One item of the list is a mention of the work “Cancioneiro” or “Itinerario”. In the central work list, those titles are assigned to the poems of Fernando Pessoa. One of the poems is “Abdicação” which in turn is represented by a publication carrying that title. Thus, the relationship between the editorial list and the publication is made explicit through the encoding and can be exploited e.g. in the edition’s presentation.</p>
                <p>Work on the digital edition has been going on since October 2014. It is planned to launch the edition within 2016. Until then, more documents will be uploaded and work on the presentation will be finalized. Results so far can be viewed at <
                    <ptr target=""http://projects.cceh.uni-koeln.de/pessoa""/>>.
                </p>
                <p>The presentation is multilingual (Portuguese and English). Access to the material is facilitated by different browsing options: by author, documents, publications, works, genre, and chronology. A simple and an advanced search enable the user to make specific and custom requests. As a first analytic approach to the question of the evolution of Pessoa’s work during lifetime, an interactive timeline visualising the chronology of editorial projects and publications has been created.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""449/100000000000049800000331A858D9CB.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 3: Timeline of Pessoa’s editorial projects and publications <<ptr target=""http://projects.cceh.uni-koeln.de/pessoa/pt/timeline.html""/>></head>
                    </figure>        
                </p>
                <p>The publications and documents are presented in a synoptic view, juxtaposing the transcription on the left and the facsimile on the right side. The presentation of the documents containing the editorial lists, notes and plans is enhanced by offering the possibility to switch between the diplomatic transcription, the critically established text in the first and last version and a so-called “customized version” where the user can combine transcription features (e. g. if original line breaks should be maintained or omitted). Additionally, the synoptic view can be changed to transcription-index mode, where occurring persons, texts and journals are shown alongside the transcription of the document and links to the central indexes are established. The following figures illustrate the above mentioned features:</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""449/10000000000004C10000036529C2F97A.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 4: Synopsis of editorial list and facsimile <<ptr target=""http://projects.cceh.uni-koeln.de/pessoa/BNP_E3_143-6r#facsimile""/>></head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""449/10000000000004D3000003931609D9E2.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 5: Synopsis of editorial list and index references <<ptr target=""http://projects.cceh.uni-koeln.de/pessoa/BNP_E3_143-6r#index""/>></head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>For each of the four principal authorial figures, the relationships between “works”, “publications” and “documents” are presented on an individual page (see figure 6). In the example, the works of Ricardo Reis are listed starting with attested alternative titles of the whole work (“Odes de Ricardo Reis”, “Odes”, “Livro de Odes”), followed by the titles of individual works. Links to the documents show where the works are mentioned in the editorial projects and links to publications indicate where a work has been published by Pessoa.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""449/1000000000000337000001F965D7F54E.png""/>
                        <head>Figure 6: Work list for Ricardo Reis <<ptr target=""http://projects.cceh.uni-koeln.de/pessoa/obras/O3""/>></head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>The digital edition of Fernando Pessoa shows that the author was continuously concerned with the organisation of his work and that he persistently planned its publication, even publishing little in lifetime. This supports the hypothesis that his work does have a certain unity, revealing a consistent development and not a fragmentary purpose, as suggested by a large number of critics.</p>
                <p>In the edition, this understanding is underpinned by the encoding of micro-genetic textual phenomena in a basic way to elucidate shifts in the conception of work titles, authorship and publication plans in single documents. Developments of the editorial projects on the macro level are traced by encoding mentioned entities in the documents and thereby establishing links between documents, publications and abstract works.</p>
                <p>Different editorial procedures are combined to explore the potential of a digital edition which proves fruitful to bring the understanding and editorial presentation of Pessoa’s work further than existing print editions, as well as contributing to clarify a major critical topic concerning the author’s envisioned unity of his work.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Belknap, R. E.</hi> (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The List. The Uses and Pleasures of Cataloguing.</hi> New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Castro, I.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Editar Pessoa.</hi> 2nd Edition. Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional – Casa da Moeda.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Coelho, Jacinto do Prado</hi> (1949). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Diversidade e Unidade em Fernando Pessoa.</hi> Lisbon: Ocidente.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Cunha, T. S.</hi> (1987). Planos e projectos editoriais de Fernando Pessoa: uma velha questão. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Revista da Biblioteca Nacional</hi>, Series 2, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi> (1): 93-107.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Duarte, L. F. </hi>(1988). Texto acabado e texto virtual ou a cauda do cometa. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Revista da Biblioteca Nacional</hi>, Series 2, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi> (3): 167-81.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Galhoz, M. A.</hi> (1993). A fortuna editorial pessoana e seus problemas. In Seabra, J. A. (Ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mensagem. Poemas esotéricos</hi>. Madrid, etc.: Coleção Arquivos, pp. 216-26.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gusmão, M.</hi> (2003). O Fausto – um teatro em ruínas. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Românica</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">12</hi>: 67-86.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Martins, F. C.</hi> (2003). Breves notas sobre a alta definição. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Românica</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">12</hi>: 157-164.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Martins, F. C.</hi> (2011). Fernando Pessoa e o Original Perdido. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Tágides. Revista de Literatura, Cultura e Arte Portuguesas</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>: 89-100.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Robinson, P.</hi> (2013). The Concept of the Work in the Digital Age. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ecdótica</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>: 13-41.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sahle, P.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digitale Editionsformen. Zum Umgang mit der Überlieferung unter den Bedingungen des Medienwandels.</hi>Teil 2: Befunde, Theorie und Methodik. Norderstedt: Books on Demand.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sepúlveda, P.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Os livros de Fernando Pessoa</hi>. Lisbon: Ática.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2800","17","Tracking Online User Behaviour With A Multimethod Research Design","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Understanding users’ online behaviour is of growing interest to academic researchers in a variety of fields. Traditionally, in the marketing domain commercial research companies map consumer behaviour to understand when and where customers decide to buy products. For this purpose, web metrics of individual websites serve as detailed source of information on when, how and at which section a user enters a website. Recently this type of data is also being used by cultural heritage institutes to understand the interest of their visitors (De Haan and Adolfsen, 2008), to track where their digital content is being reused (Navarrete Hernández, 2014) or to understand the query’s users perform in search systems by analysing the log files (Batista and Silva, 2002; Huurnink, 2010). In this type of research, the website is the central research object providing traces that Menchen-Trevino (2013) calls ‘Horizontal Data sets’. These contain data that are ‘organized around a specific type of trace, for example search terms, web browsing log files, tweets, hashtags, likes or friend and follower ties’ (Menchen-Trevino, 2013: 331). An advantage of using this type of data is that they are not obtrusive to the respondents since they are created automatically as users are surfing the web. However, this also leads to an ethical disadvantage since users are not aware that their online behaviour is being examined, nor could they give their consent to have their data being analysed. While Horizontal Data Sets are organized around one type of trace, Vertical Data Sets are organized around research participants that deliberately ‘give permission for researchers to collect their digital traces’ (Menchen-Trevino, 2013: 331). 
            </p>
            <p>Since mid-1990s, commercial research agencies have started to collect these types of vertical data by building tools and panels of respondents whose online behaviour is monitored 24/7 to provide data on usage across media and purchase behaviour (Coffey, 2001; Napoli, 2010; Taneja and Mamoria, 2012). Similar to television viewing rates, these lists are mainly created to gain more insight in the background of website visitors in order to provide potential advertisers with information on how to reach their online target audience in the best possible manner. Obviously these commercial research data contain very rich information, also for academics who are interested in collecting real-world Web use data. However, apart from lists of the most popular domains that are published as open data by companies such as Alexa and Similarweb
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text"">
                        <ref target=""http://www.alexa.com/topsites"">http://www.alexa.com/topsites</ref> , 
                        <ref target=""http://www.similarweb.com/global"">http://www.similarweb.com/global</ref>
                    </p>
                </note>, data containing information about visits to each individual page and information about the background of the panel is not available. Main arguments of commercial agencies to not collaborate with scholars is to ensure the confidentiality of their respondents’ identity and to prevent scholars to gain insight into the techniques applied by the companies. 
            </p>
            <p>Nevertheless, researchers in a variety of disciplines are interested in tracking online behaviour in a real-world situation. Especially in the communications science realm, scholars experimented with several techniques of tracking people’s online behaviour (Ebersole, 2000; Tewksbury, 2003; Findahl et al., 2013; Findahl, 2009; Munson et al., 2013; Damme et al., 2015; Menchen-Trevino and Karr, 2012). Striking about these pioneering monitoring studies is its multi-method approach. By default each does not only monitor web use but also compares its outcome with either survey, diary or interview data. By triangulating the results, these researchers try to overcome the critique on classic studies on media consumption that often deploy either surveys or diaries registering self-reported media behaviour (e.g. Van Cauwenberge, d’Haenens and Beentjes, 2010; Schrøder and Kobbernagel, 2010; Taneja et al., 2012; Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, 2015). These methods strongly rely on the memory of the participants while several scholars found respondents often overestimate their media use (Ebersole, 2000; Prior, 2009; Robinson, 1985). Furthermore, since filling in diaries and surveys on news consumption is very labour-intensive, its outcomes mainly focus on 
                <hi rend=""italic"">when</hi> media have been consumed or on 
                <hi rend=""italic"">which</hi> devices, while it remains unclear 
                <hi rend=""italic"">what</hi> has been consumed. One way to gain insight in the consumed news content is focus on metrics of individual news organisations (Batista and Silva, 2002; Boczkowski et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2012; Usher, 2013) or the most clicked items (e.g. Boczkowski et al., 2011; Karlsson and Clerwall, 2013; Lee et al., 2012; Nederlandse Nieuwsmonitor, 2013). However, given the focus of these studies on individual websites or most-clicked articles it remains unknown which genres of news websites constitute users’ 24/7 news menu. Do they e.g. visit news about sports mainly in the morning and news on politics mainly during the evening? Taneja at el. (2012) tried to overcome this problem by literally following 495 users throughout an entire day. However, even with this labour-intensive fieldwork it proved not to be possible to incorporate the genres of consumed news items. 
            </p>
            <p>Web monitoring tools such as the above mentioned examples, now offer a less labour-intensive and more precise way of registering digitally consumed news items. By deploying these techniques, we could overcome the knowledge gap of the 24/7 news consumption menu. Therefore, we created 
                <hi rend=""italic"">the Newstracker</hi>, a custom built system that collects web activities of specified and authenticated users, cleans the data by removing non-relevant data, extracts the associated content and stores this as a new dataset to be used for analysis. While most existing online tracking studies mainly report the visited websites, our set-up goes two steps further. We did not only monitor the website titles but also the actual visited URLs and crawled all textual and visual contents of the visited websites. Since one of the problems when monitoring a person’s online behaviour is the magnitude of the data that is being collected (Batista and Silva, 2002; Manovich, 2012; Vicente-Marino, 2013: 43), we deployed automated content analyses techniques (Atteveldt, 2008; et al., 2012) to detect the topics that are being discussed in the news items. This enabled us to calculate the topical online news consumption during the day.
            </p>
            <p>In this paper we will describe the set-up of ‘The Newstracker’ in a study on the online news consumption of a group of young Dutch news users and its applicability for other types of Digital Humanities research such as user studies focussing on formulating requirements based on existing user behaviour. We will demonstrate the workflow of the Newstracker and how we designed the data collection and pre-processing phase (see figure 1).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""389/image1.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 1. Workflow of the Newstracker application, illustrating the two main phases: Data Collection and Pre-processing. The latter consists of three stages: cleaning, content extraction and merging</head>
            </figure>
            <p>By reflecting on the technical, methodological and analytical challenges we encountered, we will illustrate the potential of online monitoring tools such as the Newstracker. We will end our paper with discussing its limitations by stressing the need for a multimethod study design when aiming not only to register but also to understand online user behaviour.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Batista, P. and Silva, M.</hi> (2002). Mining Web Access Logs of an On-line Newspape. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Adaptive Hypermedia and Adaptive Web Based Systems http://xldb.di.fc.ul.pt/xldb/publications/rpec02.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bhulai, S., Kampstra, P., Kooiman, L., Koole, G. and Kok, B.</hi> (2012). Trend visualization on Twitter: What’s hot and what’s not?. IARIA. (Data Analytics). Barcelona, pp. 43–48.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Boczkowski, P. J., Mitchelstein, E. and Walter, M.</hi> (2011). Convergence Across Divergence: Understanding the Gap in the Online News Choices of Journalists and Consumers in Western Europe and Latin America. Communication Research, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">38</hi>(3): 376–96 doi:10.1177/0093650210384989.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Coffey, S.</hi> (2001). Internet Audience Measurement: A Practicioner’s View. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(2): 10–17.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Damme, K. V., Courtois, C., Verbrugge, K. and Marez, L. D.</hi> (2015). What’s APPening to news? A mixed-method audience-centred study on mobile news consumption. Mobile Media & Communication, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(2): 196–213 doi:10.1177/2050157914557691.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Haan, J. and Adolfsen, A.</hi> (2008). De Virtuele Cultuurbezoeker. Den Haag: Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau http://www.scp.nl/dsresource?objectid=19697&.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ebersole, S.</hi> (2000). Uses and Gratifications of the Web among Students. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(1): 0–0 doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2000.tb00111.x.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Findahl, O.</hi> (2009). The Swedes and the Internet 2009. Gävle: World Internet Institute.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Findahl, O., Lagerstedt, C. and Aurelius, A.</hi> (2013). Triangulation as a way to validate and deepen the knowledge about user behavior. A comparison between questionnaires, diaries and traffic measurement. Audience Research Methodologies: Between Innovation and Consolidation. New York, pp. 54–69.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Huurnink, B.</hi> (2010). Search in Audiovisual Boradcast Archives Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam http://dare.uva.nl/document/2/83234.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Karlsson, M. and Clerwall, C.</hi> (2013). Negotiating Professional News Judgment and “Clicks”. Nordicom Review, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">34</hi>(2): 65–76 doi:10.2478/nor-2013-0054.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kleinneijenhuis, J. and Atteveldt, W. van</hi> (2006). Geautomatiseerde inhoudsanalyse, met de berichtgeving over het EU-referendum als voorbeeld. Inhoudsanalyse: Theorie En Praktijk. Kluwer, pp. 227–50.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lee, A. M., Lewis, S. C. and Powers, M.</hi> (2012). Audience Clicks and News Placement: A Study of Time-Lagged Influence in Online Journalism. Communication Research: 0093650212467031 doi:10.1177/0093650212467031.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Manovich, L.</hi> (2012). How to Follow Software Users? http://lab.softwarestudies.com/2012/04/new-article-lev-manovich-how-to-follow.html (accessed 28 January 2014).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Menchen-Trevino, E.</hi> (2013). Collecting vertical trace data: Big possibilities and big challenges for multi-method research. Policy & Internet, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>(3): 328–39 doi:10.1002/1944-2866.POI336.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Menchen-Trevino, E.</hi> Tracing our every move: Big data and multi-method research The Policy and Internet Blog http://blogs.oii.ox.ac.uk/policy/tracing-our-every-move-big-data-and-multi-method-research/ (accessed 30 April 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Menchen-Trevino, E. and Karr, C.</hi> (2012). Researching Real-World Web Use with Roxy: Collecting Observational Web Data with Informed Consent. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(3): 254–68 doi:10.1080/19331681.2012.664966.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Munson, S. A., Lee, S. Y. and Resnick, P.</hi> (2013). Encouraging Reading of Diverse Political Viewpoints with a Browser Widget. Seventh International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media http://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/ICWSM/ICWSM13/paper/view/6119 (accessed 25 September 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Napoli, P. M.</hi> (2010). Audience Evolution: New Technologies and the Transformation of Media Audiences. New York: Columbia University Press http://cup.columbia.edu/book/audience-evolution/9780231150347.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Navarrete Hernández, T.</hi> (2014). A history of digitization: Dutch museums Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam http://dare.uva.nl/record/1/433221 (accessed 25 September 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nederlandse Nieuwsmonitor</hi> (2013). Seksmoord Op Horrorvakantie: De Invloed van Bezoekersgedrag Op Krantenwebsites Op de Nieuwsselectie van Dagbladen En Hun Websites. Amsterdam: Nederlandse Nieuwsmonitor http://www.nieuwsmonitor.net/d/244/Seksmoord_op_Horrorvakantie_pdf.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Prior, M.</hi> (2009). The Immensely Inflated News Audience: Assessing Bias in Self-Reported News Exposure. Public Opinion Quarterly, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">73</hi>(1): 130–43 doi:10.1093/poq/nfp002.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism</hi> (2015). Digital News Report 2015. Oxford http://www.digitalnewsreport.org/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Robinson, J. P.</hi> (1985). The validity and reliability of diaries versus alternative time use measures. Time, Goods, and Well-Being.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schrøder, K. C. and Kobbernagel, C.</hi> (2010). Towards a typology of cross-media news consumption: a qualitative-quantitative synthesis. Northern Lights: Film and Media Studies Yearbook, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">8</hi>(1): 115–37 doi:10.1386/nl.8.115_1.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Taneja, H. and Mamoria, U.</hi> (2012). Measuring Media Use Across Platforms: Evolving Audience Information Systems. International Journal on Media Management, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>(2): 121–40 doi:10.1080/14241277.2011.648468.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Taneja, H., Webster, J. G., Malthouse, E. C. and Ksiazek, T. B.</hi> (2012). Media consumption across platforms: Identifying user-defined repertoires. New Media & Society, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>(6): 951–68 doi:10.1177/1461444811436146.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tewksbury, D.</hi> (2003). What Do Americans Really Want to Know? Tracking the Behavior of News Readers on the Internet. Journal of Communication, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">53</hi>(4): 694–710 doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2003.tb02918.x.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Usher, N.</hi> (2013). Al Jazeera English Online. Understanding Web metrics and news production when a quantified audience is not a commodified audience. Digital Journalism, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(3): 335–51 doi:10.1080/21670811.2013.801690.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Cauwenberge, A., Haenens, L. S. J. d’ and Beentjes, J. W. J.</hi> (2010). Emerging consumption patterns among young people of traditional and internet news platforms in the Low Countries. Observatorio, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>(3): 335–52.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vicente-Marino, M.</hi> (2013). Audience research methods. Facing the challenges of transforming audiences. Audience Research Methodologies: Between Innovation and Consolidation. New York, pp. 37–53.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2801","17","Translating Electronic Literature. Multicultural, Multilingual and Cross-Platform Encounters","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">Sea and Spar Between</hi> by Stephanie Strickland and Nick Montfort is a poetry generator that repurposes, combines and re-mixes words and phrases from Emily Dickinson’s poems with those taken from Herman Melville’s 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Moby Dick</hi> into an (almost) endless sea of stanzas (the program produces about 225 trillion stanzas arranged on a toroidal surface). In his keynote speech to the U.S. Library of Congress, Stuart Moulthrop defined 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Sea and Spar Between</hi> as both “an immensely long-form computational poem” and “a remarkably compact poem generator.” Transferring such a complex e-literary work into a different language and cultural context raises vital questions regarding the very nature of translation and adaptation in the digital age.
            </p>
            <p>The first Polish version of the program, presented by us in 2013 at Electronic Literature Organization Conference in Paris and published online in 2014 in Techsty (both as a program and as a glossed code with Montfort's and Strickland's comments), greatly multiplied the distributive authorship of the work as a whole, revealing new culturally and linguistically determined aspects of code, grammar and style, and adding a complex layer of interdependencies. </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""italic"">See and Spar Between</hi> poses a translational challenge which in some languages might seem impossible to accomplish. Polish, our target language, imposed some serious constraints: one-syllable words became disyllabic or multisyllabic; kennings taken from Melville’s work required a different morphological, lexical and grammatical arrangement; and most of the generative rhetoric of the original (like anaphors) had to take into consideration the grammatical gender of Polish words. As a result, the javascript code, instructions that accompany the javascript file, and arrays of words that the poetry generator draws from, needed to be expanded and rewritten. Moreover, at several crucial points of this rule-driven work, the nature of Polish language forced us to modify the code. 
            </p>
            <p>In 2015, we started work on porting the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Sea and Spar Between</hi> generator from its javascript+html5 web browser context into XBOX 360 Kinect motion-sensing environment, where the input is controlled by user gestures. This adaptation, which will be available both in English and Polish will be semantically oriented. We aim to use Kinect affordances to program various haptic gestures recognized by the sensor in a way that ensures coherence between interactive gestures and the content of the poem, between the user’s haptic activity and their cognitive processes. Moving from one platform to another, from the Web to Kinect, will involve translating mouse and keyboard gestures (point-and-click, numerical input) into a gesture vocabulary of sensor technology. As an adaptation, our work aims at incorporating the dominant themes of Strickland and Montfort’s work into user movements during the multidimensional navigation of the work. If the generated stanzas are compared to fish in the ocean, the screen to an infinite canvas and the reader’s navigation to a sea voyage, then Kinect port transforms these very metaphors from subject of “translation” into a finite set of gestures that are in sync with the work’s semantics and the authorial intentions behind the generator. For this reason alone, the port to Kinect cannot be a translation of a more radical type, in which Dickinson and Melville are replaced with any other poets from any other language.
            </p>
            <p>Once again, the question arises of what we translate/adapt/port when we translate a digital work of art for digitally enhanced venues and for an audience of “digital natives.” </p>
            <p>In the course of translation of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Sea and Spar Between</hi> and its adaptation for different platforms, the process of negotiation between the source language and the target language involves the factors unseen in traditional translation. Strickland and Montfort read Dickinson and Melville and parse their readings into a computer program, which as a translation, or port, from Python to javascript, is already a derivative. This collision of cultures, languages and tools is amplified when transposed into a different language. The transposition involves the original authors of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Sea and Spar Between</hi>, the original translators of Dickinson and Melville into Polish, and us, turning the process into a multilayered translational challenge, something we propose to call a distributed translation. The forthcoming port to Kinect makes these issues even more challenging and exciting. 
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Montfort, N., Strickland, S. </hi>(2013). Cut to fit the toolspoon course. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Montfort, N., Strickland, S. </hi>(2014). Spars of Language Find at Sea. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Formules</hi>, 18. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2802","17","Two Centuries of Russian Roads Diachronic Study of Polysemy in the Context of Cultural Change","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Preamble</head>
                <p>The goal of the study is to show links between lexical and social diachronic change. The study is conducted in the culturomics framework (Michel et al., 2011). In contrast to the Big data approach the study promotes the idea of medium data, i.e. amount of data which allows both to make quantitative and qualitative analysis (Bonch-Osmolovskaya, 2015). The main characteristics of the medium data are:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>The reliability of sources, which metadata can be filtered manually</item>
                    <item>The sufficiency of the data amount for reliable statistical measures</item>
                    <item>The possibility of additional semantic mark-up</item>
                </list>
                <p>The research is based on the data from Russian National Corpus (ruscorpora.ru) (see Plungian, Sitchinava, 2003). The study pursues changes of context frequencies for the lexeme road in the period from 1800 till 2000, and correlates the observations with social and economic progress as well as change in conceptual language space</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Choice of concept</head>
                <p>Russia is a big country, so transportation has been traditionally a critical problem. The choice of the word 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">road</hi> for culturomics study is based on our expectations of the concept’s centrality for the economy, society and culture in Russia of the 19
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi>–20
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> centuries. 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Road</hi> appears to be a productive sign in terms of semiotics of art (Tchepanskaya, 2003,), that’s why I expected to collect numerous relevant contexts both in fiction and nonfiction. At the same time 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">road</hi> in Russian has several meanings, the nature of its polysemy has been treated a lot in previous works (Arutiunova, 1999). We can distinguish three basic meanings which are contrasted by the position of Observer (Paducheva, 2006) – the one that percepts the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">road</hi>. The first meaning is 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">road</hi> as a physical object, a line on the ground the observer sees while standing on it. It can be characterized by the quality of its surface or surrounding landscapes (i.e. dirty road). The second meaning is 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">road</hi> as a vector, a line on a map, that connects two points (i.e central road). The observer operates in this case with the abstract idea of the road’s topology. The third meaning is metonymical and it stands for the travel-event the Observer experiences while moving along the road (i.e. tedious road). Finally due to semiotic abundance 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">road </hi>is frequently used in metaphorical sense (i.e. life path = “road of life”). At the same time, the first three meanings present the most important parameters that determine mobility of population: quality of roads, connectedness between localities and time and quality of journey. Therefore, it seems insufficient to track frequency change of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">road</hi> occurrences in the corpus in general, but it is important to distinguish how the frequency of different meanings has been changing. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Method</head>
                <p>Different meanings of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">road</hi> can be captured by attributive constructions as adjectives usually refer to only one sense. The corpus has been divided into 7 time periods from 1800 to 2000. To make the sub-corpora comparable the 19
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century has been divided into two periods of 50 years and the 20
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century into five periods of 20 years. The contexts, containing constructions of adjective plus 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">road</hi> has been extracted from every sub-corpus. The noisy entries has been removed, the data has been lemmatized and normalized as ipm. As a result, I obtained a database with 15000 constructions, containing more than 1500 unique adjectives.
                </p>
                <p>On the next step, all the adjectives have been categorized by 20 semantic domains. The domains correlate with four basic meanings of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">road</hi> defined below but render more specific characteristics of different 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">road</hi> parameters. The most frequent construction “zheleznaya doroga” (literary 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">metal road</hi>, meaning railroad) has been selected in a separate category. 
                </p>
                <p>Then I applied hierarchical clusterization to the data of 20 categories, see Figure 1</p>
                <figure>
                        <graphic url=""401/image1.png"" rend=""block""/>
                        <head>Figure 1: Clusterization of semantic categories for adjectives describing road</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The data of the categories in one cluster has been summarized and then plotted on the graph (see Figure 2) </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""401/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Analysis</head>
                <p>The data allows plenty of research scenarios, comparing different domains, such as, for example:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>sources of domain contents and diachronic change of the distribution of sources (for example, fiction or nonfiction) </item>
                    <item>widening or narrowing of the category through time (how many adjectives are in the category), as a well as persistence of the content to time and economical or social changes</item>
                    <item>substitution of one adjective to another (for example, all the changes connected with replacement of horses to cars) and its time frame</item>
                    <item>migration of an adjective from one adjective to another</item>
                </list>
                <p>In this abstract, I will focus on the most prominent changes of cluster graphs. As Fig 2 shows the railroad (RR) cluster and the direction and centrality(D and C) cluster are the most distinctive in their behavior. In the beginning of the 19
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century, the existence of big central roads from one town to another completely determined mobility opportunities of Russian population. We see that more than 50% of all the occurrences of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">road</hi> are associated with D and C attributes ( Warsaw road, big road – as a specific term of central road). In the 1851, the railroad between Moscow and St.Peterburg has been open and this fact nicely correlates with the crossing of the RR and D and C graph in the period of the 1850s. The intensive growth of the RR cluster in the second half of the 19
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century reflects not only the growth of railroad communications in Russia but also great conceptual influence of the railroad innovation, which can be also traced in numerous literary pieces of this period such as Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina or Dostoevsky’s Idiot. The intriguing fact about RR cluster is its consistent fall in the 20
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century that may of course correlate with developing automobile transportation. The sharp fall of RR cluster in the 1960s corresponds to the growth of civil airlines; see Figure 3 that demonstrates quite the opposite trend for air transportations starting from the 60s
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""401/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3: Graph of air transportation, line with triangles marking passenger traffic</head>
                </figure>
                <p>The most important generalization that arises from the observations above is that in the 20
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century the topological (vector) meaning of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">road </hi>is consistently fading while the reference to a road as a physical object on the contrary increases in frequency. In other words, while economic and industrial growth results in diversity of mobility means, 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">road</hi> as a concept in lexical space has changed the balance of its meanings reducing the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">connection</hi> idea. At the same time the metonymic usage of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">road</hi> as a journey has been increased in the 20
                    <hi rend=""superscript"">th</hi> century as a well as the metaphorical usage, the both categories are very similar in their data values so they have formed one common cluster. In 1960s, the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">connection</hi> idea is transferred from direct usages of D and C cluster to figurative usage of Journey and Metaphor cluster. This means that we can document the moment when the idea of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">connection</hi> is separated from the physical movement along the road. The tedious road now is sitting in the airport for many hours waiting for your flight. 
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Arutiunova, N. D.</hi> (1999). Put’ po doroge I bezdorozhju [The way on the road and off the road]. In Arutiunova N.D., Shatunovskii I.B. (eds.),
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Logicheskii analiz yazyka. Yazyki dinamicheskogo mira</hi> [Logical analysis of language. The Languages of the Dynamic World]. Dubna, pp. 3-17.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bonch-Osmolovskaya, A. A</hi>, (2015). Medium data method for cultural studies: the case of gender studies in Russian National Corpus, <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of Digital Humanities</hi>, Sydney.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Michel, J. B., Shen, Y. K., Aiden, A. P., Veres, A., Gray, M. K., Pickett, J. P., Aiden, E. L., et al.</hi> (2011). Quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Science</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">331</hi>(6014): 176-82.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Paducheva, E. V.</hi> (2006). Nabludatel’: tipologiya I vozmozhnye traktovki [The Observer: Typology and Possible Interpretations]. <hi rend=""italic"">Trudy mezhdynarodnoy konferentsii “Dialog-2006”</hi>. [Proceedings of International Conference “Dialog-2006”]. Moscow, RSUH, pp. 403-13.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Plungian, V. A., Sitchinava, D. V.</hi> (2004). Natsionalny korpus russkogo jazyka:oput sozdaniya korpusov tekstov sovremennogo russkogo jazyka [Russian national corpus: experience of creating corpora for contemporary Russian]. In Beliaeva et al. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The proceedings of the international conference “Corpus Linguistics-2004”</hi>, Saint-Petersburg, pp. 216-39.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tchepanskaya, T. B.</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Kultura dorogi v russkoi miforitual’noi traditsii XIX-XX vekov</hi> [Road culture in Russian mythic and ritual tradition of the 19th-20th centuries]. Moscow, Indrik Publ.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2803","17","Unlocking The Mayan Script With Unicode","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Problem</head>
            <p>At present, three hieroglyphic scripts are encoded in the Unicode Standard: Egyptian, Anatolian, and Meroitic. The historic Mayan hieroglyphic script is not yet in Unicode, in part because its complex clustering poses special encoding problems.</p>
            <p>Besides the difficulties inherent in the Mayan script, writing a Unicode proposal for Mayan involves additional challenges, requiring significant time commitment and travel. Early meetings between with Unicode experts are a desideratum in order to identify the best technical approaches to handle Mayan text issues. Then the proposal needs to be written – complete with all the required details for the entire character repertoire. When the proposal goes before the two standards committees, the authors need respond to any questions, and make revisions to the proposal as needed. In addition, proposers need to commit to seeing the process through to the end, which can take between two to five years, or longer. </p>
            <p>In short, the twin challenges of representing and displaying Mayan clusters on computers and writing a Unicode proposal (especially for anyone new to the process) present a huge hurdle.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Background on Mayan clustering</head>
            <p>Mayan signs appear in clustered glyph-blocks or ""collocations,” which could be modified by the masterful Mayan scribes with advanced “tools,” such as ligatures, conflation, infixation, superimposition, pars pro toto and full-figure variants (see Fig s. 1 and 2). The visual complexity of Mayan requires mechanisms that go beyond standard script encoding approaches.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""245/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 1 Infixation of the highlighted logogram K’AN (shown on left, infixed as a circle on the right)</head>
             </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""245/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 2 Conflation of the highlighted logogram MO’ (shown on the left, conflated on the right)</head>
            </figure>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Solution</head>
            <p>A recent multidisciplinary collaboration established between UC Berkeley's Script Encoding Initiative (SEI) and the MAAYA Project aims to employ new methods combining linguistics, Mayan epigraphy, digital palaeography and computer vision to overcome some of the major challenges preventing the encoding of Mayan hieroglyphs in the Unicode Standard. Some of the strategies envisioned rely on already existing MAAYA-Project resources. Such resources include datasets with annotated database records for all individual glyphs and possible sign-combinations attested in Mayan hieroglyphic books and an advanced concordance functionality, that cross-references Mayan signs across existing glyph-catalogues (Gatica-Perez et al., 2014 and Hu et al., 2015).</p>
            <p>In addition, SEI's experience in overseeing the encoding over 70 of the world script systems means Mayan experts will have a front-line guide to help the proposal through the entire encoding process – providing Unicode expertise, assisting on the authoring and review of a proposal, and presenting the proposal at standards meetings. Having direct involvement of Unicode specialists means the proposal can draw on Unicode experience to identify successful methods that can adapted and expanded to account for the extraordinary variability of Mayan signs clustered in glyph blocks.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Specific encoding issues: Egyptian format characters</head>
            <p>In Unicode 8.0, the default display for the three encoded hieroglyphic scripts (Egyptian, Anatolian and Meroitic Hieroglyphs) is a linear listing of the characters, as shown by the example in Fig. 3.</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""245/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 3 Current default display of Egyptian hieroglyphs in Unicode (Richmond, 2015)</head>
            </figure>
            <p>According to the Unicode Standard, display of the characters in a non-linear manner (i.e., in clusters) should be handled by a higher-level protocol (Unicode Consortium 2015: 430-31, 437), and is outside the scope of Unicode. However, clustering is more typical of the layout for most hieroglyphic scripts.</p>
            <p>Although Egyptian hieroglyphs were encoded in Unicode in 2009, Egyptologists are currently prevented from interchanging data easily, because they have had to rely on non-standard software to handle character grouping. According to Richmond 2015, hieroglyphs need to be capable of being grouped together in plain-text - without proprietary software - in order to be truly useful.</p>
            <p>In 2015, a new proposal was put forward for three format characters that allows basic clustering (Richmond, 2015, see Fig. 4). The characters indicate placement of a character, either above another character or alongside it, or, for the third character, identify it as forming a ligature with the following character. The three characters are based upon the conventions of the Manual de Codage, which uses ASCII characters to indicate the placement of the hieroglyphs. (Note: Since the mirroring of glyphs is handled by line direction, as specified by markup or bidirectional characters, no format characters are not proposed for that.)
            </p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""245/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 4 Example showing the same characters as in Fig. 3, but with expected clustering, made possible with the format characters (Richmond, 2015)</head>
            </figure>
            <p>The three Egyptian format characters were approved by one of the two standards committees in January 2016 (Unicode Consortium, 2016). The characters have been tested and shown to display as expected in the Universal Shaping Engine, a rendering engine in Windows 10 and recent versions of Android, Chrome, LibreOffice and Firefox.</p>
            <p>If the characters successfully complete the approval process, simple clustering in Egyptian hieroglyphs should be capable of plain-text representation in the future, meaning that scholars would not have to rely on an ad hoc, non-standard solution. At this point, Egyptian hieroglyphs appear to only require the three format control characters for clustering, and need no other mechanisms.</p>
            <p>Evidence from the MAAYA project suggests that Mayan will require three script-specific format characters that serve the same functions as Egyptian, and at least two additional characters: one for truncation and another for infixation (see Fig. 5).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""245/image5.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 5 Expected clustering of Mayan hieroglyphs (adapted from Richmond and Glass, 2016)</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Hence, it appears that Egyptian and Mayan can share a common model, using format characters for clustering (with at least two additional ones needed for Mayan). In addition, advances in text display of Egyptian hieroglyphs, which have been tested successfully on the Universal Shaping Engine, may well be applicable to Mayan.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Specific encoding issues: Ideographic Description Characters</head>
            <p>Unicode contains a mechanism to describe Chinese-Japanese-Korean (CJK) ideographs, called Ideographic Description Characters (IDCs). These characters are used to describe the layout of CJK characters, but is not used for rendering. The IDCs have been defined as capable of being extended to other scripts (Unicode Consortium 2015, pp. 679-80). (See Fig. 6.)</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""245/image6.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Fig. 6 Examples of Ideographic Description Characters (extended to Mayan hieroglyphs). Top row: Unicode Ideographic Description Characters (IDC); second row: Chinese IDCs (left) and Mayan descriptors (right); third row: Chinese examples; fourth row: Mayan script examples</head>
            </figure>
            <p>In April 2015, Unicode experts met with the co-author, Mayan expert Carlos Pallán Gayol, and recommended the MAAYA project identify the structural patterns of Mayan characters, and use Ideographic Description Characters (IDCs) to describe them. Such a mechanism will help in defining Mayan characters (in Unicode terms), and help “unlock” the script.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Next steps</head>
            <p>At a meeting in January 2016 with the co-author Pallán Gayol, unicode experts noted progress on the encoding model issues and suggested the MAAYA project continue to define the base set of characters, identify the structural patterns of IDCs, and verify the number of format characters needed.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Expected results</head>
            <p>Encoding the Mayan hieroglyphs in the Unicode format will allow creation of vast open-access Mayan hieroglyphic text repositories and libraries, upon which advanced search and query functionalities relying i.e. on Optical Character Recognition (OCR) and text-mining could be applied. (Once a script is in Unicode, an OCR engine can be trained to read the script, though the text needs to be consistent).</p>
            <p>Thus, we argue that the ability to render any Mayan hieroglyphic text in an encoded digital format could impact on the overall accessibility, reproduction, visualization and long-term preservation of the sum of ancient knowledge recorded by the Mayan scribes on thousands of texts and inscriptions produced between ca. 250 B.C. and 1520 AD in Central America. It could also act as a model for the encoding of other hieroglyphic scripts of the Americas, including Aztec.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Funding</head>
            <p>This work was supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities [PR-50205-15] and by the DFG (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, German Scientific Association).</p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gatica-Perez, D. C., Pallán Gayol, S., Marchand-Maillet, J.-M. et al.</hi> (2014). The MAAYA Project: Multimedia Analysis and Access for Documentation and Decipherment of Mayan Epigraphy. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proc. Digital Humanities Conference</hi> (No. EPFL-CONF-202571). http://publications.idiap.ch/downloads/papers/2014/Gatica-Perez_DH_2014.pdf (accessed 2 March 2014).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hu, R., Can, C., Pallán Gayol, G. et al. </hi>(2015). Multimedia Analysis and Access of Ancient Mayan Epigraphy. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Signal Processing Magazine, IEEE</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">32</hi>(4): 75-84. http://publications.idiap.ch/index.php/publications/show/3093 (accessed 2 March 2014).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Richmond, B.</hi> (2015). Proposal to encode three control characters for Egyptian Hieroglyphs. http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2015/15123r-egyptian.pdf (accessed 2 March 2014).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Richmond, B. and Glass A.</hi> (2016). Proposal to encode three control characters for Egyptian Hieroglyphs. http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2016/16018r-three-for-egyptian.pdf (Accessed 2 March 2014).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Unicode Consortium.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Unicode Standard, Version 8.0.0.</hi>. Mountain View, CA: The Unicode Consortium. http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode8.0.0/ (accessed 2 March 2014).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Unicode Consortium.</hi> (2016). Draft Minutes of UTC Meeting 146. San Jose, CA. http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2016/16004.htm (accessed 2 March 2014).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2804","17","UpCASE - A Web Application for Building and Maintaining Language Resources","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>UpCASE (Upload, Correct, Annotate, Search and Export) is an open source web application
                    <note xml:id=""ftn1"" place=""foot"" n=""1""> Code and license can be found at
                        <ptr target=""https://github.com/spinfo/upcase""/>. UpCASE is delivered as Maven-based Java-project, with an embedded servlet container and database. To install and run the tool, only Java and Maven are needed.
                    </note> that provides researchers and lay people a wide range of options for viewing, evaluating, editing and enriching text collections. It is conceived as a multifunction web application where users can upload text documents in different formats, including scanned texts whose characters are automatically recognized by Optical Character Recognition (OCR). While being able to search the uploaded text, users can correct, annotate and also export it into different formats.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Motivation and Background</head>
                <p>UpCASE is the result of years of work with Romansh texts and lexical resources. Romansh
                    <note xml:id=""ftn2"" place=""foot"" n=""2""> The official denomination for Romansh according to the federal constitution of Switzerland is Rhaeto-Romanic. In this paper, the term Romansh denotes Rhaeto-Romanic as spoken in the Canton of Grisons (Liver, 2010).</note> is the smallest of the four national languages in Switzerland with approximately 50.000 native speakers (Furer, 2005). Despite several actions by official organizations, e.g. the ratification of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages</hi>,
                    <note xml:id=""ftn3"" place=""foot"" n=""3"">
                        <ptr target=""http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/minlang/""/>
                    </note> Romansh is on a continuous retreat and is by now considered an endangered language. The main motivation of our work was to create a suite of tools to support the Romansh language community in building and maintaining language resources for Romansh. However, UpCASE is not restricted to be used within this particular context.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn4"" place=""foot"" n=""4""> For UpCASE is fully open source and can be used as API, it can be extended to be used with languages other than Romansh, e.g. by implementing extensions for language-specific issues (like different charsets, encodings, lexical resources, etc.).</note> Our interest here is to show the relevance of using tools like UpCASE for small languages in general, since in the European Union alone there are more than 100 languages, many of them having little or no support by official institutions.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn5"" place=""foot"" n=""5"">
                        <ref target=""http://www.eurominority.eu/"">http://www.eurominority.eu</ref>
                    </note>
                </p>
                <p>We present UpCASE together with a specific historical text collection, namely the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Romansh Chrestomathy</hi> (RC) compiled by Caspar Decurtins (Decurtins, 1888-1919). The RC comprises texts from four centuries reflecting the different idioms of Romansh
                    <note xml:id=""ftn6"" place=""foot"" n=""6""> Romansh is not just one single and consistent language. In fact, it can be subdivided into 5 main idioms, namely Sursilvan, Sutsilvan, Surmiran, Puter and Vallader, all of which have an independent orthography (Gross, 2004: 13). Alongside, in 2001 the Canton of Grisons introduced Rumantsch Grischun as official literary language meant to canopy the individual idioms.</note> and is recognized as the most important historical text collection of the Romansh language (cf. Egloff and Mathieu,
                    <hi rend=""smallcaps""> </hi>1986: 7). It contains approximately 7500 pages covering a wide range of different topics, text types and genres, and therefore is an excellent basis for the compilation of a text corpus. All in all, the RC can be seen as a monument for language, speakers, and culture of Romansh in Switzerland, and as such constitutes an exception for small linguistic and cultural communities (Rolshoven, 2012).
                </p>
                <p>The RC text corpus was created in two successive projects funded by the German Research Fund (DFG). In the first project, the RC was digitized and its characters recognized by OCR. The main objective was to correct the OCR output to provide a digital full text version of the RC. Due to the characteristics of the RC as a multilingual historical text collection of a small language, with varying orthographical standards and almost no digital lexical resources available, the correction of OCR errors could not be solved in a fully automatic manner (Rolshoven, 2012). Instead, we implemented a web-based editing tool allowing native speakers to participate in the task of OCR correction.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn7"" place=""foot"" n=""7"">
                        <ref target=""http://www.crestomazia.ch/"">http://www.crestomazia.ch</ref>. For comparable approaches at a larger scale see (Holley, 2009), among others.
                    </note> In a follow-up project the corrected texts were enriched with part-of-speech (POS) tags. As in the treatment of OCR errors, a fully automatic POS-tagging procedure could not be applied to the RC (Neuefeind,
                    <hi rend=""smallcaps""> </hi>2013). First we compiled a lexical resource by digitizing lexica and generating inflected word forms. On this basis, we approached the linguistic annotation with a semi-automatic procedure, combining lexical lookup (resulting in mostly ambiguous tags) with manual correction and supervision, thus adapting the collaborative methodology from the DRC-project (Mondaca and Atanassov, 2016).
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Features and Technical Aspects</head>
                <p>UpCASE brings together the experiences of both projects, combining the key features of collaborative corpus construction, enrichment and maintenance in a single web application. While existing tools mostly focus on a particular use case like collaborative correction (e.g. Wikisource
                    <note xml:id=""ftn8"" place=""foot"" n=""8"">
                        <ref target=""http://www.wikisource.org/"">http://www.wikisource.org</ref>
                    </note>) or collaborative annotation (e.g. WebAnno
                    <note xml:id=""ftn9"" place=""foot"" n=""9"">
                        <ref target=""https://webanno.github.io/"">https://webanno.github.io</ref>
                    </note>), we connect these functionalities in a full workflow from raw to enriched text. UpCASE is based on several state-of-the-art web technologies such as Spring WebMVC, Spring Data, JAXB, and JQuery. The data is persisted in a document-oriented NoSQL database (MongoDB), whose records are structurally similar to JSON objects. The use of JSON enables a straightforward communication with other resources. Using predefined REST (Representational State Transfer) interfaces, distributed language systems may be used for data enrichment, without the need of complex data conversion.
                    <note xml:id=""ftn10"" place=""foot"" n=""10""> To demonstrate the possibility to interact with a remote resource, we added a customized translation feature for the particular use case presented here. We make use of the Pledari Grond (PG), an online dictionary for Romansh that we have developed in collaboration with the Lia Rumantscha (
                        <ref target=""http://www.liarumantscha.ch/"">http://www.liarumantscha.ch</ref>). A web service delivers a list of translations for a selected token by directly querying the PG. When no results are returned, the user can optionally enable a notification supplying the PG editorial staff with a request for translational support.
                    </note>
                </p>
                <p>Using robust and scalable software on server side, and lightweight, clean and interactive components on client side, UpCASE offers different views in order to improve its usability. There are options to treat the collection as a whole, e.g. for searching, statistics and exporting, or to modify the data at hand, e.g. to edit, annotate or enrich. After importing text documents (or scanned images of texts which are OCR’ed), the text is indexed with Lucene and made accessible through an editable directory tree together with a full text search access. The stats view offers some basic statistical information about the text collection. In the export view, the user can choose different formats, e.g. plaintext or XML, to export the whole collection or parts of it. At the document level, each token is represented by a clickable widget, which opens a modal window containing different views – depending on user rights – associated with specific functions, e.g. editing, correction or annotation. The edit view allows the user to modify the text, e.g. to correct errors produced in the OCR process. The view contains both the editable word form and the relevant part of the scanned image with its highlighted position. The annotation view allows the user to create annotations like POS-tags on the fly, thus allowing complex searches on the search view.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Summary</head>
                <p>Our presentation gives an overview of UpCASE and its basic functions, focusing on features for corpus maintenance, extension and enrichment. While in the first place we present a Romansh language resource, the concepts and features of this use case can be transposed to other text collections and languages. Thus UpCASE can be seen as an approach to technologically and methodologically support the preservation of the cultural heritage of regional and minority languages.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Decurtins, C.</hi> (1888-1919). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Rätoromanische Chrestomathie</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">13</hi>, Erlangen: Junge. Reissued by Octopus-Verlag/Società Retorumantscha, Chur (1982-1986).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Egloff, P. and Mathieu, J.</hi> (1986). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Rätoromanische Chrestomathie: Register</hi>. Chur: Octopus-Verlag/Società Retorumantscha.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Furer, J.-J.</hi> (2005). Eidgenössische Volkszählung 2000: Die aktuelle Lage des Romanischen. Neuchatel: Bundesamt für Statistik. 
                        <ptr target=""http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/news/publikationen.Document.66870.pdf""/> (accessed 21 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gross, M.</hi> (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Romansh: Facts & Figures</hi>. Chur: Lia Rumantscha.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Holley, R.</hi> (2009). Many Hands Make Light Work: Public Collaborative OCR Text Correction in Australian Historic Newspapers. National Library of Australia. 
                        <ptr target=""http://www.nla.gov.au/ndp/project_details/documents/ANDP_ManyHands.pdf""/> (accessed 21 February 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Liver, R.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Rätoromanisch: Eine Einführung in das Bündnerromanische</hi>. Tübingen: Narr.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mondaca, F. and Atanassov, M.</hi> (2016). ARC: Annotierte Rätoromanische Chrestomathie.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Atti del VI Colloquium retoromanistich Cormons 2014.</hi> Udine: Società Filologica Friulana, pp. 13-28.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Neuefeind, C.</hi> (2013). The Digital Romansh Chrestomathy. Towards an Annotated Corpus of Romansh. In: Zampieri, M. and Diwersy, S. (Eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Special Volume on Non-Standard Data Sources in Corpus-Based Research</hi> (ZSM Studien 5). Aachen: Shaker pp. 41-58.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rolshoven, J.</hi> (2012). Die Digitale Rätoromanische Chrestomathie.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Ladinia</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">36</hi>: 119-51.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2805","17","Visual Forms of Information Presentation and Their Place in Formal Digital Scientific Communication","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The purpose of this paper is answering the question concerning the place of the visual transfer in the formal system of digital scientific communication. The question is important for scientists who publish or would like to publish their works in a visual way, because the question is connected with issue of the evaluation of the scientific achievements. The bibliometric impacts, like Impact Factor or Hirsch Index, respect only the publications that take part in the formal scientific communication. Attendance or absence of visual forms of information presentation in the formal scientific communication might influence the scientist’s decision about presenting scientific works in a visual way and thereby popularise the idea of digital humanities. </p>
            <p>The formal scientific communication is difficult to unambiguously define the cause of the fuzzy limit between formal and informal scientific communication. In general, before the publications become part of the formal scientific communication, they should be edited, reviewed, published and indexed in bibliography, bibliographic databases, scientific search engines (Nahotko, 2010; Pikas, 2006; Sapa, 2009). In this research the visual forms of information presentation were analysed using those four features of the formal scientific communication. Scientific papers, communication channels and bibliographies had to be digital and be accessible by Internet. </p>
            <p>The visual forms of information presentation include forms using static or dynamic pictures as information media (maps, diagrams, infographics, 3D animations and movies) and textual digital publications whose design and navigation were strongly visual like <hi rend=""italic"">The Roaring 'Twenties: an interactive exploration of the historical soundscape of New York City</hi> (Thompson and Mahoy, 2013). The visual forms of information presentation had to be about humanities topics.</p>
            <p> Forty-one English-speaking digital humanities projects were collected by the Polish scientific literature and DH Awards project (“Digital Humanities Awards”, n.d.). It is difficult to state what proportion of all digital humanities projects constitute the collected projects because of insufficient registration. Therefore, the generalisation of the research results is impossible. However, the analysis of the collected projects enables to notice problems in presenting information in a visual way with digital formal scientific communication and offer some solutions.</p>
            <p>It was found that maps, graphs, movies and animations were most frequently published on websites connected with some specific projects of digital humanities, institutions or initiatives devoted to digital humanities, carrying out many projects. Very occasionally, they were found on scientific blogs, academic social networks such as academia.edu and general portals like Flick, YouTube or Vimeo. The analysis of the visual forms of information presentation proved that the collected material had not been previously edited almost in all cases. It seemed that the reverse tendency would be shown in case of websites on which the projects were published. Still, only few websites contained information concerning their editors. No information on the review of the visual forms of information presentation were found. After considering the place where they were published it turned out that the information including its review were found only in the multimedia “Vectors Journal”.</p>
            <p>Since the leading interdisciplinary bibliographic databases (like Web of Science and Scopus), subject bibliographic databases (like MLA International Bibliography) and scientific search engines (like Google Scholar) register only texts – the journal articles, the books or the conference proceedings, searching for visual forms of information presentation in these databases seemed to be pointless.In conclusion, the lack of review, unsatisfactory registration in bibliographic databases and scientific search engines were observed as the main problems for visual forms of information presentation to become part of digital formal scientific communication. In this place it is worth asking what should be registered – the movie, the animation, the diagram etc. or the place, where they were published (like website or multimedia publication). Not all visual forms of information presentation could be recognized as individual publications.</p>
            <p>The author of this paper proposes some solutions how visual forms of information presentation might become part of digital formal scientific communication. Visual forms of information presentation or places where visual forms are published could provide ISBN, ISSN or DOI number and place the bibliographic data. Bibliographic databases and scientific search engines should change the current rules of registration. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bomba, R.</hi> (2013). Narzędzia cyfrowe jako wyznacznik nowego paradygmatu badań humanistycznych. In Radomski, A. and Bomba, R. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Zwrot Cyfrowy W Humanistyce</hi>. Lublin: E-naukowiec, pp. 57–71. http://depot.ceon.pl/handle/123456789/3128 (accessed 5 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>City Witness Project. http://www.medievalswansea.ac.uk/en/ (accessed 8 May 2015).</bibl>
                    <bibl>Digital Humanities Awards. http://dhawards.org/ (accessed 4 May 2015).</bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">DOI Foundation</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DOI Handbook</hi>. http://www.doi.org/doi_handbook/TOC.html.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Drucker, J.</hi> (2012). Humanistic theory and digital scholarship. In Gold, M. K. (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University Of Minnesota Press, pp. 85–95.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gmiterek, G.</hi> (2014). Książka w erze nowych technologii, integracji i interaktywności mediów. In Sobczak, A., Cichocka, M. and Frąckowiak, P. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Historia 2.0 : Panta Rhei Materiały Sympozjum XIX Powszechnego Zjazdu Historyków Polskich 17 Września 2014 W Szczecinie</hi>. Lublin: E-naukowiec, pp. 67–74. https://repozytorium.lectorium.pl/handle/item/898 (accessed 5 March 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">International ISBN Agency</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ISBN Users’ Manual</hi>. 6th ed. London: International ISBN Agency. https://www.isbn-international.org/sites/default/files/ISBN Manual 2012 -corr.pdf (accessed 5 March 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">International Standard Serial Number International Center</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">ISSN Manual: International Standard Serial Number</hi>. http://www.issn.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/ISSNManual_ENG2015_23-01-2015.pdf (accessed 5 March 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jessop, M.</hi> (2008). Digital visualization as a scholarly activity. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(3): 281–93.
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                    <bibl>Kindred Britain. http://kindred.stanford.edu/# (accessed 10 May 2015).</bibl>
                    <bibl>Mapping the Republic of Letters. http://republicofletters.stanford.edu/index.html (accessed 8 May 2015).</bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nahotko, M.</hi> (2010). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Komunikacja Naukowa W środowisku Cyfrowym : Globalna Biblioteka Cyfrowa W Informatycznej Infrastrukturze Nauki</hi>. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo SBP.
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                    <bibl>ORBIS: The Stanford Geospatial Network Model of the Roman World. http://orbis.stanford.edu/ (accessed 10 May 2015).</bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pikas, C. K.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Impact of Information and Communication Technologies on Informal Scholarly Scientific Communication: A Literature Review</hi>. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.92.9216&rep=rep1&type=pdf (accessed 5 March 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Radomski, A.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanistyka W świecie Informacjonalizmu</hi>. http://e-naukowiec.eu/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/A.Radomski.pdf (accessed 5 March 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sapa, R.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Metodologia Badań Obszaru Pośredniczenia W Komunikacji Naukowej Z Perspektywy Nauki O Informacji</hi>. Kraków: Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskego.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Słownik języka polskiego PWN. http://sjp.pwn.pl/sjp/wizualny;2579950.html (accessed 3 May 2015).</bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Terras, M.</hi> Infographic: Quantifying Digital Humanities. http://melissaterras.blogspot.co.uk/2012/01/infographic-quanitifying-digital.html (accessed 6 May 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>The Valley of the Shadow: Two Communities in the American Civil War. http://valley.lib.virginia.edu/ (accessed 5 March 2016).</bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Thompson, E. and Mahoy, S.</hi> (2013). The Roaring ’Twenties : an interactive exploration of the historical soundscape of New York City. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Vector: Journal of Culture and Technology in a Dynamic Vernacular</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">4</hi>(1). http://vectorsdev.usc.edu/NYCsound/777b.html (accessed 5 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>Vectors : Journal of Culture and Technology in a Dynamic Vernacular. http://vectors.usc.edu/journal/index.php?page=Introduction (accessed 5 May 2015).</bibl>
                    <bibl>Virtual Pauls Cross Website : a Digital re-creation of John Donne’s Gunpowder Day sermon. http://vpcp.chass.ncsu.edu/ (accessed 19 May 2015).</bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wieczorek-Tomaszewska, M.</hi> (2013). Cyfrowa humanistyka jako metaforyczna współczesna Republika Listów. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">23. Ogólnopolskie Sympozjum Naukowe „Człowiek - Media - Edukacja” 27-28 Września 2013</hi>. Kraków. http://ktime.up.krakow.pl/symp2013/referaty_2013_10/wieczorek.pdf (accessed 5 March 2016).
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Wilkowski, M.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Wprowadzenie Do Historii Cyfrowej</hi>. Gdańsk: Instytut Kultury Miejskiej. https://depot.ceon.pl/handle/123456789/2001 (accessed 5 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2806","17","Visual Patterns Discovery in Large Databases of Paintings","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The digitization of large databases of works of arts photographs opens new avenue for research in Art History. For instance, collecting and analyzing painting representations beyond the relatively small number of commonly accessible works was previously extremely challenging. In the coming years, researchers are likely to have an easier access not only to representations of paintings from museums archives but also from private collections, fine arts auction houses, art historian photo collections, etc. However, the access to large online databases is in itself not sufficient. There is a need for efficient search engines, capable of searching painting representations not only on the basis of textual metadata but also directly through visual queries. In this paper we explore how convolutional neural network descriptors can be used in combination with algebraic queries to express powerful search queries in the context of Art History research. </p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Context and Method</head>
                <p>This project is part of project called 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Replica</hi>, conducted in collaboration with the Cini Foundation in Venice. This project is based on two parallel developments, the digitization of the Cini Foundation’s photo library, a collection of about a million photographs of paintings, engravings, plastic arts and architecture (1300 - 1900) and the creation of a dedicated search engine allowing for searches for visual patterns in this database. As the digitization is currently ongoing, the results reported in this paper are performed on a subset of only 39 000 paintings. However, the progressive densification of the database, including a large set of so-called minor painters, should, in the coming months, unfold the full discovery potential of this search engine.
                </p>
                <p>The field of visual pattern recognition has been recently transformed by the surprising performances of so-called deep learning approaches using Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN). CNN are multi-layers architectures used for supervised learning, especially for object classification. Each layer is representing an operation on the previous layer: convolution layer, fully-connected layer, pooling layer, regularization layer, etc. These networks have many parameters (filter parameters, fully-connected weights) that can be learned via backpropagation in a supervised manner. Traditionally, the input (first) layer is a full raster image and the output (last) layer is a vector representing the score of the input image for each class. By showing the network some labeled images and comparing the network’s output to the desired label, one can update the parameters of the model.</p>
                <p>The theory of deep neural methods have been known for decades, and were already successfully applied with the first convolutional neural networks in the 90s to digit recognition (LeCun et al., 1989). However, their computational complexity and the necessity of important amount of training data have seen them being ignored for a long time. With very large datasets available like 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">ImageNet</hi>, and GPU computation being more accessible, there has been a sudden surge of interest in deep methods (Deng et al., 2009).
                </p>
                <p>In 2012, a convolutional neural network shattered the competition in a difficult 1000 class object recognition challenge, attaining the impressive result of a top–5 error of 15.3% compared to 26.3% for the runner-up (Krizhevsky et al., 2012). Ultimately, this work had an important impact on the machine vision community starting the so-called deep learning revolution. A clear manifestation of this trend was that just a year later at the next iteration of this object recognition challenge, almost every entry was based on CNNs as well.</p>
                <p>Despite being trained to recognize a precise set of classes. It has been observed that some of the learned parameters of the CNNs will most likely be similar across different datasets. For instance, the first convolutional layer usually learns various edge detectors and basic filters. Some researchers have evaluated the representative power of CNN trained for a specific task to other problems. Using a model that outperformed the others in 2012 on the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">ImageNet</hi> data, results seemed extremely promising, suggesting that task transfer is possible (Donahe et al., 2014).
                </p>
                <p>To calculate the descriptors of our search engine, we use a pre-trained Convolutional Neural Networks similar to the one described in (Donahe et al., 2014). Each painting of our database is associated with 1000 features, corresponding to the last convolutional layer of the pre-trained Convolutional Neural Network. These features are thought to represent high-level characteristics directly usable for the classification tasks. Through this process each painting is associated with a single point in a high dimensional space. When a single image query is sent to the search engine, the results are simply shown, ranked by their distance to the query. </p>
                <p>However, similarity between paintings could not be the results of single homogenous distance. To enable the users to specify the kind of similarity they want to explore, a more refined language has been introduced. Searches take the form of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">algebraic formulas</hi> in which the user can add or subtract examples. For performing such searches, we use a binary support vector machine (kernel Radial Basis Function). In the cases where no negative examples are provided, a one-class-support vector machine is used (in the case of a query with a single image, this corresponds to a simple nearest neighbor algorithm). The rest of the paper shows examples of such algebraic queries and the corresponding results. 
                </p>
            </div>
            <div xml:id=""h.8a7046jtfdlc"" type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Examples of queries and results</head>
                <p>The classic principles for classifying visual similarities in Art History include various dimensions like recurrence of particular pictorial patterns or common compositional structures. As a query illustration, the first criteria of classification chosen is the search for common ‘dominant and multiple pictorial motif’ in the composition. One classic example in this typology is the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Still life</hi>, featuring for instance only a large bouquet of flowers. The development of this subject has a long history, from the late sixteenth century, before arriving at its codification during the seventeenth-century. The results of a query with Juan de Arellano’s 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Still life of flowers</hi> (Fig. 1) include other famous interpreters of the genre, almost identical in composition and also close in terms of chronological and pictorial influences: de la Corte, Snyders, Casteels. However, there are also seventeenth-century painters, Gentileschi, Régnier, Bonito, Vouet, who, while not painting Still lifes, are characterized by the same tonality of 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">chiaroscuro</hi> typical of this precise moment in history of art. Without further information the similarities found by a single image query include various families of resemblances combining pictorial patterns and color tones. 
                </p>
                <p>To focus only on the pictorial motif of flowers excluding any paintings with figures, we subtract one of the paintings by Gentileschi to the initial query (Fig. 2). We obtain all the ‘key painters’ in this genre including for instance Daniel Seghers. He does not paint a real Still life but flowers around a sacred figure, the Virgin, one of the first subjects, probably invented by Jan Brueghel the Elder. It is probably from this initial subject that evolves the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Still Lifes with flowers</hi>. So, in this case, the algebraic query recovered the evolution of a specific pictorial motif with its significant variations during the Seventeenth century.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""584/image1.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1 : A query of a Still Life of Flowers by Juan de Arellano returns several paintings with flowers but also other subjects</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""584/image2.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 2 : By subtracting to the flower painting the Finding of Moses by Orazio Gentileschi, only painting featuring flower are returned</head>
                </figure>
                <p>Another criteria of classification in Art History are structural analogies between compositions (Gombrich, 1960). Structure of the composition is understood here in a geometrical sense, with the reoccurrence of similar geometrical patterns in various paintings. The formal analysis of paintings have classically focused on such kinds of structural similarity (Focillon 1964; Didi-Huberman 1996).</p>
                <p>The 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Gallery of Archduke Leopold</hi> painted by David Teniers the younger, in 1639, is also known to have four different variants. This painting is considered a reference of a long tradition of paintings subjects featuring cabinet of art lovers and collectors, a well studied genre (Findlen 1996; van der Veen 1993). A single query returns variations of the same painting (Staatsgalerie Schleissheim, Münich; Prado, Madrid; Kunsthistorisches Museum, Wien), but also painting featuring squares within squares (Fig. 3). For instance on 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">The Ambassadors depart by Vittore Carpaccio and Baptism of St Libertus by Colijn de Coter, </hi>squares are on the floor or on the wall. To refine further our search and find the “good neighborliness” (Warnke 2000; Freedberg 1989) of David Teniers structure, we can try to exclude these two examples by subtracting them to the initial query. Results of such a query exclude now interior scenes featuring geometrical squares but now include various scenes of the 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Passion of the Christ</hi> organized as sequences of “squares”, non featuring any elements in perspective (Fig. 4). In a third attempt, we can now exclude those by substracting them to the initial query and reinforce the focus on search by adding variant of the first painting by Teniers. Indeed, all the first results feature now paintings with galleries of collectors with examples of the most important authors of the genre, thus facilitating the study of their mutual influence (Fig. 5).
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""584/image3.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 3: A query with the The Gallery of Archduke Leopold by David Teniers the younger (1639) gives a first results four variants of the same painting by the same author. The following results include various kind of painting which same some similarities with the initial query but are not representing the same subject</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""584/image4.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 4: When The Gallery of Archduke Leopold is subtracted with The Ambassadors depart by Vittore Carpaccio and Baptism of St Libertus by Colijn de Coter a series of paintings only containing hierarchy of embedded squares are returned. The formula has isolated a specific characteristic in the feature space when the presence of a multiple squares is the most specific trait</head>
                </figure>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""584/image5.jpg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 5: In order to search specifically for the paintings containing paintings, the two painting representing the stories of the Passion of the Christ can be subtracted. Most results now feature paintings in which paintings are present</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Perspectives </head>
                <p>Pattern recognition methods have made extremely impressive progresses in the recent years, thanks to the advances of convolutional neural network and the advent of very large databases of images. As Art History deals with the study of the migration of patterns, this is surely a great opportunity for designing new tools to search through large databases of paintings photographs. This paper is a first examination of the typologies of search use cases that could be envisioned combining convolutional neural network features and simple algebraic formulas. This initial study illustrates that this new way of expressing queries allows for the incremental definition of various kinds of “similarities” between paintings. Convolutional neural networks features manage to capture many dimensions of similarity between paintings, including composition, colors and also common iconographic elements. Combined with a simple language for expressing the specificity of the traits that the user looks for, it could enable new powerful search tools that may in turn have important impact on history of art studies. </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Deng, J., Dong, W., Socher, R., Li, L.-J. Li, K. and Fei-Fei, L. </hi>(2009). ImageNet:<hi rend=""italic""> A large-scale hierarchical image database, IEEE Conf. Comput. Vis.</hi> Pattern Recognit.
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Didi-Huberman, G. </hi>(1996). Pour une antropologie des singularités formelles. Remarque sur l’invention warburgienne. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Genèses</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>: 145-63.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Donahue, J., Jia, Y., Vinyals, O., Hoffman, J., Zhang, N., Tzeng, E. and Darrell, T. </hi>(2014). DeCAF:<hi rend=""italic""> A Deep Convolutional Activation Feature for Generic Visual Recognition,</hi> Int. Conf. Mach. Learn, pp. 647–55.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Findlen, P. </hi>(1996). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Possessing Nature - Museums, Collecting & Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy</hi>. Reprint. Berkeley: University of California Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Focillon, H. </hi>(1964). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Vie des formes: suivie de l’""Eloge de la main"", </hi>PUF, Paris.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Freedberg, D. </hi>(1989). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Power of Images: Studies in the History and Theory of Response</hi>, Chicago-London.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gombrich, E. H. </hi>(1960). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology of Pictorial Representation</hi>, Pantheon Books, New York.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Krizhevsky, A. Sutskever, I. and Hinton, G. E. </hi>(2012). Imagenet classification with deep convolutional neural networks, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Adv. Neural Inf. Process. Syst.,</hi> pp. 1097–1105.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">LeCun, Y., Boser, B., Denker, J. S., Henderson, D., Howard, R. E., Hubbard, W. and Jackel, L. D. </hi>(1989). Backpropagation Applied to Handwritten Zip Code Recognition, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Neural Computation</hi>, pp. 541–51.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van der Veen, J. </hi>(1993). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Galerij en Kabinet, vorst en burger. Schilderijen Collectie in de Nederlanden, In </hi>Bergvelt, E., Meijers, D. J. and Rijnders, M. eds.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Verzamelen van Rariteitenkabinet tot Kunstmuseum,</hi> Heerlen, pp. 145-64.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Warnke, M. (2000)</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Aby Waburg - Der Bilderatlas. Mnemosyne</hi>, Akademie, Berlin.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2807","17","Visualising Cultural Spheres - Virtual Tours and Epigraphical Data","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Today, cultural heritage sites, museums and other places of historical or societal value can often be visited on the Internet. Panoramic images and virtual tours allow the user to access distant sites from home via handheld devices as well as conventional desktop devices. In this way, these applications strongly reduce the threshold for getting acquainted with various cultures, their respective artefacts and unique heritage.</p>
                <p>But can this popular and usually touristic way of presentation be used to introduce valid scientific information to a broad public? This question has been posed at the Academy of Sciences and Literature | Mainz regarding its project ""Die Deutschen Inschriften"".</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The research project “Die Deutschen Inschriften”</head>
                <p>The long term research project “Die Deutschen Inschriften” is a joint undertaking of six German Academies of Sciences and the Austrian Academy of Sciences. The research focuses on collecting, editing and interpreting medieval and early modern Latin and German inscriptions. They often occur in conjunction with figurative elements or spatial as well as architectural features. The inscriptions themselves are mostly in medieval Latin or in historical or regional varieties of the German language. The geographical area of research consists of Germany, Austria and South Tyrol. The inscription records range from approximately 500 AD to 1650 AD (Brandi, 1937; Kloos, 1973; Nikitsch, 2008). The project’s scholars carry out their research within a wide scope of interests ranging from art history, philology and linguistics to the history of ideas. The research results are published in 90 volumes. More than 43 of these volumes, including over 17.000 records, are currently accessible through the online database “Deutsche Inschriften Online” (German Inscriptions Online, www.inschriften.net).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Virtual cultural heritage</head>
                <p>Observing an item within a cultural heritage site in isolation frequently limits the understanding of it. This is due to its removal from the big picture of the entire ensemble in its historical, cultural and spatial context.</p>
                <p>Two different approaches of representing historical sources in their spatial context are being explored by the projects “Inschriften im Bezugssystem des Raumes” (Inscriptions in their Spatial Context, IBR) and the virtual tours through St. Stephan in Mainz and St. Michael in Hildesheim. Project IBR utilised methods of laser scanning and semantic web technologies, in this regard aiming at a more specialised target audience. The virtual tours of St. Stephan and St. Michael on the other hand were developed as a means to visualise the spatial cultural sphere for an audience with a lower degree of specialized knowledge. In doing so the applications were generally aiming at a broader audience (Lange/Unold 2015; www.spatialhumanities.de/ibr/startseite.html; www.inschriften.net/hildesheim/ rundgang.html)</p>
                <p>The virtual tour’s objective was to arrange the scientific edition’s epigraphical items in their spatial context and to put the scientific sources on display to a diverse audience in an easy accessible and comprehensible manner. In Hildesheim, the interrelation between the church and bishop at the time of construction, Bernward of Hildesheim, is shown and emphasised through the inscriptions and their placement. (Kruse, 2012). So, the visualisation of this connection and the importance of inscriptions as biographical evidence as well as general historic sources are a further aim.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Generic virtual tours</head>
                <p>Several software applications for creating virtual tours already exist that enable everyone to build virtual tours. The software offers the modelling of the views, their arrangement within a tour, the navigation, interactive elements as well as the display on a map. Images, short text and links can be added to describe selected objects. The lack of possibilities to import and embed detailed textual information and to load them from external repositories, limits the benefits in a scientific context. Thus, a software for generic virtual tours was developed to integrate and provide a generic approach for adding content from external repositories (databases, text documents, etc.).</p>
                <p>Taking the tour to St. Michael in Hildesheim as an example for the possibilities: the virtual tour enables the user to navigate within the church accessing several fixed viewpoints, to look around and to zoom in on interesting looking spots. Interactive elements indicate the possibility of switching to a different viewpoint, provide information about specific points of interest, most of them inscriptions on stone tablets or tomb slabs or other (art-)historic artefacts. Pop-up windows can contain general information about the inscriptions, a full transcription, as well as a translation of the inscribed texts. Furthermore, images of the inscription, historical sketches, or old photographs as well as audio information can be provided. All this information is displayed in the context of the tour, without exiting the panoramic visualisation. Links to the critical edition of the inscriptions in “Deutsche Inschriften Online” provide easy access to the full scholarly content including scientific apparatus and further bibliographic introductory material.</p>
                <p>The software allows for subdividing the information about the epigraphical and pictorial agenda utilized throughout the church into multiple sub-tours. Each tour is therefore enabled to concentrate on a specific topic and by this means to weave a unique narrative of the site and its cultural sphere. Furthermore, various preservation stages and relocations of objects and decorations can be pointed out. The conception of such thematic tours prevents the user from ""getting lost"" in the virtual environment and from overlooking the content's contextual conclusions and messages. Throughout the tour the viewer receives information in structured order, e.g. the events are sorted chronologically as is the rule in the context of historical information (Rizvic, 2014; Tan/Rahman, 2009).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Cultural coding = generic coding</head>
                <p>Creating digital code in the public sector is by necessity an open source process. In contrast to coding in the realm of the competitive private sector, in the cultural realm it is not—and must not be—imperative to shield digital products, project data and know how. Open source software enables people from outside the project to reuse and adapt the outcome as well as to contribute. A generic approach increases the reusability of the code and the application.</p>
                <p>Hence the virtual tour was designed as browser-based and implemented as a generic JavaScript application using HTML5, WebGL and the Three.js framework. (Neovesky/Peinelt, 2015). An encapsulated package was released that enables others to build their own virtual tour without programming knowledge. A simple JSON file is used for configuration and data exchange. Adaption of this core JSON file makes it possible to create a custom virtual tour. All the cultural institution has to add are suitable images, positions and texts which can for example be received via data interfaces and web APIs. The generic virtual tour and the user manual are available on GitHub (https://github.com/digicademy/virtualTour).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Conclusion</head>
                <p>The virtual tour to the inscriptions of St. Michael’s Church in Hildesheim was born from the idea of combining a popular visual representation with unrestricted access to scientific research and publications.</p>
                <p>By means of using a generic approach to the technical implementation, the software is not limited to any specific set of circumstances and does not represent a single-use scenario. Although the application was developed with a specific object in mind, it can easily be adapted to fit other projects within the fields of research, education and visualisation.</p>
                <p>Even though the application focuses upon a broad audience, the visualisation can also be of interest to researchers from diverse academic background and disciplines. In this manner scholars are able to receive an impression of a distant site’s or compound’s spatial context. They are as well enabled to present their research in an easy to use, appealing and low-threshold way. The distribution under a free license (GNU GPL V3) enables users to use, adapt and extend the software.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Brandi, K.</hi> (1937). Grundlegung einer deutschen Inschriftenkunde. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters Bd. 1</hi>. Münster/Köln: Böhlau-Verlag, pp. 11–43, URL: http://www.digizeitschriften.de/dms/img/?PID=PPN345858700_0001%7Clog10 (accessed 4th March 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kloos, R. M.</hi> (1973). Die Deutschen Inschriften. Ein Bericht über das deutsche Inschriftenunternehmen. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Studi medievali, 3a serie</hi>, Spoleto: Centro, Vol. <hi rend=""bold"">14</hi>, pp. 335–62.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kruse, K.</hi> (2012). Zur Bautätigkeit Bischof Bernhards in Hildesheim. In Lutz, G. and Weyer, A. (Eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">1000 Jahre St. Michael in Hildesheim</hi>. Petersberg: Imhof, pp. 41–65.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lange, F. and Unold, M.</hi> (2015). Semantisch angereicherte 3D-Messdaten von Kirchenräumen als Quellen für die geschichtswissenschaftliche Forschung. In Baum, C. and Stäcker, T. (Eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Grenzen und Möglichkeiten der Digital Humanities (= Sonderband der Zeitschrift für digitale Geisteswissenschaften, 1)</hi>. DOI: 10.17175/ sb001_015 (accessed 4th March 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Neovesky, A. and Peinelt, J.</hi> (2015). A Virtual Tour to the Inscriptions of the UNESCO World Heritage Site St. Michael in Hildesheim.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Electronic Visualisation and the Arts (EVA 2015) Conference Proceedings, London</hi>. DOI: 10.14236/ewic/eva2015.31 (accessed 4th March 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nikitsch, E. J.</hi> (2008). Fritz V. Arens als Mainzer Inschriftensammler und Epigraphiker. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mainzer Zeitschrift</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">103</hi>, pp. 231–43.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rizvic, S.</hi> (2014). Story Guided Virtual Cultural Heritage Applications. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Interactive Humanities, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(1),</hi> DOI: 10.14448/jih.02.0002 (accessed 4th March 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tan, B.-K. and Rahman, H. </hi>(2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Virtual heritage: reality and criticism. In CAADFutures 2009: Joining Languages, Cultures and Visions, Montreal</hi>, pp. 143–56.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2808","17","When DH Meets Law: Problems, Solutions, Perspectives","3","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Digital data is fuel for data-intensive science. Access, re-use and sharing of this data, however, while required by academic ethos and good practice, are often highly restricted by legal frameworks. In particular, the areas of law that can affect research data are: intellectual property (copyright and database rights) and personal data protection. These issues are particularly relevant in the field of Digital Humanities, which study various aspects of human activities in general, and their creative and social aspects in particular. In fact, most of the research data in digital humanities are within the scope of either intellectual property or data protection law, which means that they cannot be freely accessed, re-used and shared without a permission of the right holder or the data subject’s consent. </p>
            <p>Moreover, research funding agencies require more and more often that the results (and underlying data) of research projects that they fund be made available in Open Access. Open sharing of research data and outcomes is often perceived nowadays as an ethical obligation in contemporary science, but it cannot be done in a satisfactory way without addressing legal concerns (such as appropriate licensing and rights clearance). </p>
            <p>Legal issues are increasingly being taken into account in the preparation phases of many research projects. Scientists who do not consider legal issues in their research activities may be exposed to certain legal risks. Existing statutory exceptions for research rarely provide for enough relief (even though lobbying efforts are being made to extend their scope). In short, modern science in general, and Digital Humanities in particular, are more concerned with legal issues than ever before. </p>
            <p>The purpose of the multiple paper session we propose is to emphasize the problem, discuss various technological and organizational solutions, as well as future legal challenges that DH researches will have to face. </p>
            <p>Three papers by authors with both legal training and hands-on experience with D-SSH research data management will be presented. The first one compares organizational and technical solutions adopted in the field of DH and Social Sciences. The second discusses research data licensing, and presents existing tools that help researchers in the process. The third paper examines legal and ethical aspects of stylometry and authorship attribution research.</p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>“One Does Not Simply Share Data”. Organisational and Technical Remedies to Legal Constraints in Research Data Sharing -- building bridges between Digital Humanities and the Social Sciences. </head>
                <p>by Pawel Kamocki (IDS Mannheim/Paris Descartes/WWU Münster), Katharina Kinder-Kurlanda (GESIS) and Marc Kupietz (IDS Mannheim)</p>
                <p>Within the Social Sciences there exists a long tradition of data sharing, which is facilitated by infrastructure institutions such as the GESIS Data Archive that has been providing survey data to researchers since the 1960s. More recently various technical solutions aiming to grant secure and user-friendly access to data requiring special protection have been emerging in the field. </p>
                <p>The DH also have a well-established tradition of research data sharing. In linguistics, for example, digital text collections have also been published since the 60s (e.g. the Brown Corpus or the Mannheimer Korpus). First software solutions to share the data and to make it accessible to other researchers emerged in the late 1980s and started to boom with the appearance of the WWW in the early 1990s. </p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Legal barriers to data sharing </head>
                    <p>Legal issues have long been identified as barriers to research data sharing. They can be divided into two categories: those related to intellectual property rights and those related to privacy laws. </p>
                    <p>Intellectual property rights — such as copyright and the database right — grant the rights holders certain exclusive rights (monopolies), i.e., rights to exclude others from the use of their property. For example, in order to copy and distribute a copyright-protected work or a database, one normally has to obtain permission from the rights holder, usually in an agreement known as a license. This highly affects DH — disciplines fueled by digital data issued from human creative activities, which normally qualify for copyright protection. </p>
                    <p>It is essential to understand that intellectual property is similar to “traditional” (i.e. corporeal) property. Therefore, it can be said that most research data in DH in fact belong to a third party (author or publisher). The right to property is a fundamental freedom, which overrides freedom of research. As a consequence, statutory research exceptions are rarely enough to allow use of copyright-protected data in research projects. </p>
                    <p>Researchers in DH therefore need to obtain licenses for the use of data, which is not an easy task. The negotiations may be time-consuming, and the result is not always satisfactory. In practice, licenses signed with e.g. publishers are often very restrictive and non-transferable. </p>
                    <p>Another legal framework that affects researchers in areas such as medicine or the social sciences, but also in the DH, is personal data protection. In principle, personal data (i.e. any information related to an identifiable person) can only be processed if the data subject has validly consented to the processing. While it is true that anonymised data can be freely processed, anonymisation may strip a dataset from most (if not all) of its informational and scientific value. The obligation to obtain consent is particularly burdensome when it comes to older data that has been collected without consent, or that has been collected for a different purpose (re-purposing normally necessitates a new consent). Also, in practice, consent rarely covers transfer and sharing of data with other researchers.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Social Science approach </head>
                    <p>In the Social Sciences quantitative survey data is particularly interesting for sharing. The highly controlled and well-documented ways of gathering data in large-scale survey programmes make the data highly reusable in a methodologically sound way. The GESIS Data Archive for the Social Sciences in Germany provides survey data for secondary use and thus allows researchers to share collected data in a user-friendly, searchable and standardised manner. Due to data protection legislation participants of survey data provided by the archive must not be re-identifiable, or only with a disproportionate amount of time, expense and labour. Anonymization challenges usually occur once detailed geographical as well as demographical information has been collected. </p>
                    <p>To improve data sharing several solutions have been found for the Social Sciences. For example, most data at the GESIS archive is anonymised and thus can be provided for download via the online data catalogue. Some datasets containing more detailed information are provided employing secure data access solutions. A combination of contractual, organizational and technical safeguards is employed to ensure that individuals’ rights to anonymity are protected. For example, for particularly disclosive data, researchers must visit a safe room where a completely encapsulated virtual research environment is provided via a thin client. They cannot download any data or access the internet. They are also not allowed to bring mobile phones or other electronic devices. Any analysis output they produce is intellectually assessed for its level of disclosiveness and only handed to researchers once the output criteria are fulfilled. Only users whose signed usage agreements (detailing the research topic and the methods applied) have been approved can use the safe room. </p>
                    <p>Secure remote solutions either provide researchers with a secure connection to an encapsulated work environment as described above or allow the submission of code and syntax to be run on the data by the data provider. All remote solutions need to be secured from threats posed by using the internet. </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>DH approach </head>
                    <p>To cope with legal challenges, to make research data as openly accessible as possible, and to enable traceability and replicability without interfering with legitimate interests of rights holders, the disciplines that deal with language as their primary research data, particularly linguistics, have developed several strategies.</p>
                    <p>As already discussed above, usually the only way to acquire text for research purposes is to obtain licenses from copyright holders. The copyright holders can sometimes be convinced to provide scientific licenses for free or for comparatively low fees as long as they do not interfere with the company’s business model. Given that some institute is willing to conclude partially transferable license agreements with rights holders and license agreements with end-users, thus acting as an intermediary between both parties, and to provide software that enforces the license restrictions and provides all retrieval and analysis functions that researchers need, every group's interests can be satisfied. Indeed, this model has worked successfully at the Institute of German Language (IDS) since the beginning of the 90s and also for most other providers of national and reference corpora. </p>
                    <p>The problem with the intermediary model alone is that it requires the intermediary to provide all functions that are required for any researcher. While, for example, the requirements for more traditional linguists could be satisfied, this was not possible for researchers in the field of text mining and computational linguistics where the methods of analysis themselves are in the center of research and therefore subject to rapid change. </p>
                    <p>To meet the needs of such user groups, another idea, recently described for linguistics but traditionally used in data-intensive disciplines such as climate research, has to be put into action. Extending Gray’s (2003) famous claim “put the computation near the data” to situations where the data cannot be moved due to license restrictions, data providers also provide mechanisms that allow end-users to run their analysis software on the data located at the provider, making sure that the software does not violate any license restrictions.</p>
                    <p>Another remedy that is often applied in the context of corpora that are based solely on texts from the WWW, is not to share the research data itself, as this could be a copyright violation, but rather to share the software that retrieves the texts from the Web. Depending on the the application scenario and the local legislation, this technique can enable end-users to benefit from statutory exceptions. An unwanted side-effect of this approach is that the identity of the corpus data retrieved by different runs of the retrieval software cannot be guaranteed. However, there is some consensus in the research community that the sights with respect to demands on replicability and persistency of research data necessarily have to be lowered to a realistic standard that takes into account legal restrictions. This aspect has also recently entered the best-practice guidelines of the German Research Foundation. </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Conclusions </head>
                    <p>D-SSH are dealing with data surrounded by legal issues. Traditionally, Social Science researchers process more privacy-sensitive information, whereas DH researchers work with data protected by intellectual property rights, usually belonging to third parties; the division, however, is not clear-cut. Some disciplines in DH (such as linguistics) also have to deal with privacy-sensitive material, and the Social Sciences are concerned if not by copyright, then by other branches of intellectual property (such as database right). Increasingly commercial data owners such as social media companies are becoming important.</p>
                    <p>Institutes in both disciplines have developed idiosyncratic ways of coping with legal restrictions which provide satisfactory results. This shows us that some legal issues may be resolved by appropriate organisational, technical and infrastructural solutions; the comparison between DH and Social Sciences, however, demonstrates that both disciplines still have room for improvement and that there is a lot that they can learn from each other.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>« Trust me. I’m a License Selector ». Licensing for Digital Humanities </head>
                <p>by Paweł Kamocki (IDS Mannheim / Université Paris Descartes / WWU Münster) and Pavel Stranak (UFAL Prague)</p>
                <p>Lack of legal interoperability (i.e. a situation in which a dataset cannot be used due to incompatible licensing restrictions on its various parts) has been identified as one of the major obstacles for data access, sharing and re-use. This is particularly relevant in the field of Digital Humanities, where data are often protected by copyright (i.e., they are created by human authors). While it is true that some data (e.g. those obtained from press editors) are only available to researchers under very restrictive license agreements, in fact quite often legal interoperability problems can be solved by proper licensing of research outcomes. Indeed, despite the fact that openness and reproducibility of results have long been identified as cornerstones of the scientific community, in practice many digital datasets and tools are being shared under licenses that are unnecessarily restrictive or not fit for the purpose, or even without any licenses at all. This is probably due to the fact that the task of choosing an appropriate license may seem difficult for an average researcher with a limited access to legal advice. As a response to that problem, attempts have been made to build tools (referred to as License Choosers, License Selectors or even License Wizards) that would guide the users through the jungle of available public licenses and allow him to choose one that is the most suitable for his needs. </p>
                <p>Before these License Selectors can be presented and assessed, it is essential to define the notion of a public license. A public license is a license that grants certain rights not to an individual user, but to the general public (every potential user). Public licenses for software has been known since 1980s (when software licenses such as BSDL, MIT or GNU GPL emerged). However, public licenses for other categories of works (including datasets) only appeared in the 21st century, mostly due to the creation of the Creative Commons foundation. The latest version of the CC license suit (including six licenses, a waiver and a public domain mark), CC 4.0, is well adapted for datasets, as it covers not only copyright, but also the sui generis database right, but older versions are still in use. While choosing a license, one has to keep in mind that the licenses which are appropriate for software are not appropriate for data and vice versa. Moreover, not all public licenses are ‘open’, i.e. not all of them meet the requirements for Open Access/Open Data/Open Source label. In our paper, we would like to briefly demonstrate three online tools made specifically for licensing of research material.</p>
                <p>The Licentia tool (http://licentia.inria.fr/visualize) has been developed in 2014 by Cardellino for INRIA (French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation) is in fact a conglomerate of three tools: a License Search Engine (which allows to identify licenses that meet a set of requirements defined by the user), a License Compatibility Checker (which assesses whether two licenses are compatible, i.e. whether material licensed under those two licenses can be ‘mixed’) and a License Visualiser (an interesting extra feature which produces graph-based visualisations of licenses expressed in ODRL - Open Digital Rights Language Deontology). </p>
                <p>The ELRA (European Language Resources Association) License Wizard (http:// wizard.elda.org), released in April 2015, allows users to define a set of features and browse corresponding licenses. For now, the tool only includes CC, META-SHARE and ELRA licenses, so it is particularly useful for language resources.</p>
                <p>Finaly, the Public License Selector (http://ufal.github.io/public-license-selector/) developed by Kamocki, Stranak and Sedlak in 2014 as a cooperation between two CLARIN centres (IDS Mannheim and Charles University in Prague) uses an algorithm (a series of yes/ no questions) to assist the user in the licensing process. It allows to choose licenses for both data and software, and features a built-in License Interoperability Tool. Licenses that meet the ‘open’ requirement are clearly marked. Finally, unlike the two other tools, it is made available under Open Software/Open Data conditions. </p>
                <p>All of these tools have both advantages and disadvantages; their biggest disadvantage is that they use (to a different degree) a very specific language, which in fact requires basic knowledge of Intellectual Property Law from the user. They also necessarily involve a certain degree of over- or undergeneralization, especially when it comes to assessing license interoperability. Nevertheless, they remain very useful for the research community and may indeed help facilitate re-use and sharing of tools and data in Digital Humanities.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Legal and Ethical Aspects of Authorship Attribution Using Stylometry - EU and US Perspectives </head>
                <p>by Erik Ketzan (IDS Mannheim) and Paweł Kamocki (IDS Mannheim / Université Paris Descartes / WWU Münster) </p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Introduction</head>
                    <p>Authors have written anonymously since the invention of writing, and the growing digital humanities field known variously as stylometry / computational stylistics / authorship attribution often aims to discover the identify (or rule out the identity) of anonymous authors. </p>
                    <p>Depending on whether such authors are living, whether the works in question are protected by copyright, and what the aims of the digital humanities research is, vastly different legal frameworks govern such research in the European Union and United States. The strong data protection laws of the EU seem to prohibit certain types of authorship attribution research, while researchers in the US have vastly fewer restrictions regarding data protection regulations. In addition to data protection, the acts of copying and analyzing texts for the purposes of stylometry raise copyright concerns. In the US, these acts seem to be largely allowed by the fair use doctrine. In the EU, these fall into more questionable legal territory, although new laws regarding text and data mining offer improved guidance to researchers. </p>
                    <p>As laws concerning research in the digital age are being revisited in both the US and EU, it is important to see where stylometry falls under current legal frameworks, and how, and whether, researchers should advocate for changes to law. Finally, we argue that a parallel debate regarding the ethics of stylometric research should be begun. As stylometric research and technology continues to improve, with promises of improved reliability of authorship attribution, researchers should begin to debate which questions researchers should ethically tackle, not only which questions they can. </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Stylometry of anonymous authors under EU law </head>
                    <p>In the EU, where the memory of totalitarian governments is still present, Member States value privacy very highly. This is translated in the legislation, where the right to be and remain anonymous is not only protected by rules on the processing of personal data, but sometimes also to an extent guaranteed by copyright laws. </p>
                    <p>The Data Protection Directive is the primary source of laws governing the processing of personal data, and guides Member States in protecting ""the fundamental rights and freedoms of natural persons, and in particular their right to privacy with respect to the processing of personal data."" The Directive defines personal data as, ""any information relating to an identified or identifiable natural person ('data subject'); an identifiable person is one who can be identified, directly or indirectly, in particular by reference to an identification number or to one or more factors specific to his physical, physiological, mental, economic, cultural or social identity."" Processing of personal data is defined as, ""any operation or set of operations which is performed upon personal data, whether or not by automatic means, such as collection, recording, organization, storage, adaptation or alteration, retrieval, consultation, use,"" etc.</p>
                    <p>In general, processing of personal data can only be done if the data subject (i.e. the person that the data refer to) has unambiguously given his consent. Moreover, the Data Protection Working Party (a body composed of representatives of National Data Protection Authorities from each Member State and whose purpose is to give expert advice on the interpretation of the Data Protection Directive) clearly stated that information that does not relate to an identified person, but is collected for the purpose of identification, shall also be regarded as personal data. </p>
                    <p>European researchers engaging in stylometric research for the purpose of identifying a living author therefore engage in the processing of personal data, and are subject to the rules and restrictions of the Data Protection Directive and related Member State data protection laws. Alternatively, consent could be obtained to process the personal data, but this leads to the absurd suggestion that researchers obtain permission from an anonymous author so that they can guess at his/her identity. </p>
                    <p>While the current framework allows for alternative grounds for lawfulness of processing (other than consent), such as e.g. pursuit of legitimate interests, these provisions remain vague and do not guarantee the necessary legal security for researchers. Exceptions from the rules set up by the Directive exist, but only cover very special cases such as freedom of journalistic and artistic expression, public security or (to a limited extent) historical, statistical and scientific research. </p>
                    <p>An inevitable conclusion, however, is that Personal Data Protection law in the EU protects anonymous authors from being identified against their will, at least when they are still alive. </p>
                    <p>Anonymity of authors is also addressed by many national laws on copyright. Although anonymous works benefit from a significantly shorter term of protection (70 years after publication, and not 70 years after the death of the author), the anonymity of the author is nevertheless protected; his rights can be exercised by a proxy (usually an agent or publisher). Moreover, in some jurisdictions (i.e., in France), inaccurate attribution of authorship can be regarded as violation of moral rights (i.e., a form of copyright infringement) of both the real author and the falsely attributed one. </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Stylometry of anonymous authors under US law </head>
                    <p>The legal framework of the United States governing stylometry of anonymous authors is vastly different from the EU. The United States has no single general data protection law. The First Amendment of the United States Constitution guarantees the right to free speech, and a broad right to privacy has been inferred from the Constitution by the United States Supreme Court. A number of state constitutions, such as California, explicitly mention privacy as well.</p>
                    <p>Courts in the US have recognized certain rights to anonymity, most notably in McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission, 514 U.S. 334 (1995), where the Supreme Court held that the freedom to publish anonymously is protected by the First Amendment, and extends beyond the literary realm to the advocacy of political causes. Whether such a right extends to a researcher attempting to remove that anonymity is an open question. </p>
                    <p>Regarding copyright, there are strong arguments that the acts of copying and data mining text for research purposes are covered by the fair use doctrine, especially after the landmark Google Books case, which held that the scanning of books and making snippets available in search engines is a fair use. As a typical stylometric analysis involves the copying of texts and analysis on a single computer, without distribution of snippets (in other words, infringing less upon exclusive rights than the facts in Google Books), the acts seem to be covered by the fair use framework. </p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>De Facto</head>
                    <p>Regardless of the letter of the law, the fact remains that many writers write anonymously and academics are increasingly asked to identify them. </p>
                    <p>In courts of law, researchers with expertise in linguistics, computer science, and stylometry have acted as expert witnesses for decades now in criminal and civil disputes. </p>
                    <p>Outside of courts, academics have published or given pronouncements to journalists in most news-worthy instances involving high-profile anonymously written works, including Primary Colors (a 1996 novel satirizing the Clinton Presidential campaign), The Cuckoo's Calling (a 2013 novel revealed to be the work of J.K Rowling), the Wanda Tinasky letters (dozens of eccentric and creative letters mailed to local California newspapers from 1984-88, which academics proved were not the work of Thomas Pynchon), and many more. In all of these instances, journalists and academics have not discussed the moral or legal right to make such analysis; they have simply done it.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Ethics and stylometry </head>
                    <p>The purpose of the proposed paper is, through an analysis of different legal frameworks, to highlight the different norms and assumptions that surround the ""un-masking"" of anonymous authors. The radical difference in EU and US legal approaches proves that opinions can differ, and that serious debate needs to be begun among researchers. As the technology and approaches to stylometry yield increasingly accurate results, it is time for the digital humanities community to begin to discuss ethical standards.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2809","17","Writing Composition in the Close Reading Cycle: Developing The Annotation Studio Idea Space","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Building on the success of Annotation Studio—MIT’s collaborative, open source annotation tool—a new application called the Idea Space expands the functionality of the platform to cover the point in the cycle of close reading where annotation turns to writing composition. This new interface allows students to arrange annotations into an outline, which, when exported to a word processor, retains citations of the original text along with full metadata and links to their annotations. This paper discusses the basis for the Idea Space in assessment of student annotation and in conceptions of digitally aided student scholarship. It also describes the development of the Idea Space as a modular application, complementary to Annotation Studio but easily adaptable to other environments, and presents a working prototype of the Idea Space. </p>
            <p>The Annotation Studio online application has been used successfully over the past three years as a tool to support student textual annotation and collaborative reading, and its user base has expanded exponentially over the past two years in educational institutions around the world. In addition to facilitating textual annotation and reading-group formation, Annotation Studio has the potential to provide a writing space in which student annotations may be organized and used as the basis for the development of arguments by the individual or by collaborating groups. We are working, in effect, to develop a pedagogy and a tool that will support a seamless integration of the processes of close reading, annotation and writing. The aim of this new tool, the Idea Space, is to help students learn to collect sources, analyze content, form arguments, properly cite sources and confidently manage the writing process. </p>
            <p>Recent assessment has shown that deep engagement with texts through forms of close reading and annotation can have a significant impact on students’ ability to become better academic writers. A few studies have pointed specifically to the role of collaborative annotation in strengthening and expanding students’ annotation practices, their engagement with textual analysis, and their ability to incorporate and analyze sources in their written work. Yet, collaborative annotation, supported by an online social annotation tool, such as HyperStudio’s Annotation Studio, is a relatively new pedagogy, and initial adoption of Annotation Studio has focused on its efficacy as a tool to improve students’ critical reading. Preliminary experimentation has suggested that the tool can help students visualize verbal patterns in texts; deepen their in-class discussions; anchor their claims with more detailed textual evidence; dig deeper into contextual and cultural meaning; and provide more thoughtful peer review of each other’s texts in progress. Other parts of the writing process, such as organizing evidence, analysis, and claims into coherent argument structures, lie just outside the scope of the current implementation of Annotation Studio. </p>
            <p>The Annotation Studio team have therefore prototyped a new “Idea Space” extension of Annotation Studio, in which each student’s annotations are displayed and organized around key terms. In this space, the student’s or group’s annotations (including images and other media) may be sorted, arranged and structured to form arguments and provide the basis for developing supporting materials that compose the substance of academic writing. The Idea Space will help students organize citations, comments, and preliminary text to create an outline of an essay which in turn can be fed back into the annotation tool for further revision and for review by writing instructors. The Idea Space will provide both a workshop space for the development of writing and a window into the writing process itself, from which an instructor will be able to engage with the student. </p>
            <p>While the Idea Space presents a novel interface, its scholarly and pedagogical basis is as grounded in ancient practices as annotation itself. When Juliet Fleming takes on the question of how we can usefully define “what reading is,” she proposes the metaphor of “cutting.” Fleming’s suggestion—that reading has always been a process of pulling material from a text and adapting it to the reader’s purposes—resonates with the way in which many students currently use Annotation Studio: first flagging evidence in the text through the collaborative annotation process, then later drawing on these same pieces of evidence to compose written arguments. Just as digital interfaces help realize an ideal environment for annotation, they also offer myriad ways in which to support and enrich this process of cutting. The ease of sorting, filtering, duplicating and rearranging material in digital settings affords a fast and intuitive way to turn from annotative reading to composition. The capacity of these virtual materials to retain links to one another, keeping track of where and when annotations or edits have been made, can not only relieve reader-authors of some of the work of managing citations, but also give scholars a greatly augmented record of their own process. This record can, persist throughout the scholarly cycle when works exported from the Idea Space are themselves uploaded into Annotation Studio. </p>
            <p>While the Idea Space is conceived as adding to Annotation Studio’s support for student work, its modular design and implementation enable it to work in combination with other tools and sources of data. The application’s first data module retrieves annotations from the Annotation Studio database, whose format conforms to open annotation standards, meaning that the interface could easily extend other annotation environments. A simple design for adding new data modules gives instructors the ability to tailor the application for use with their own combinations of tools and archives. Far more than a visual organizer for annotations, the Idea Space is a tool through which users can combine, juxtapose and adapt any scholarly material in the composition of compelling and richly contextualized writing. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fleming, J</hi>. (2010). Afterword, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Huntington Library Quarterly</hi> 73 (3): 543–52. doi:10.1525/hlq.2010.73.3.543. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2810","17","You better monetize! Monetization strategies in publishing and disseminating digital scholarly editions","2","<text>
        <body>
            <p>The digital scholarly edition is an academic product that attempts to remediate the theory and practice of print-based textual scholarship with computational methodologies. Although a vast amount of scholarly exertion is directed towards the exploration of digital editing as a scholarly enterprise (concepts, standards, technologies), significant discussions of sustainable models for publishing and disseminating the digital edition are rather infrequent. Such a practice could be explained mainly because digital editions are often developed as multi-institutional projects based on short-period funding and often every development and financial planning stops by the end of the funding period. Furthermore, as publication and distribution were procedures originally carried out by publishing houses, scholars and editors now find themselves ill-equipped and unprepared in coordinating such strategies. On the other hand, Open Access rhetoric advocating for “freely used, modified, and shared” scholarly content, put constantly into question principles of revenue generation strategies and their application. </p>
            <p>In digital scholarship, there is obviously a cost for creating and maintaining a scholarly resource in the long-term. If these costs are not covered by a grant or by the institution, then the project must design and implement some sort of financial plan to cover it. This cost is not always treated as a price covered by the demand side (audience) or as a means to make profit - unlike in the world of commerce and publishing. It might, thus, be useful to re-think in what ways ‘price’ and ‘value’ could become interconnected in the web era. Such discussions around economic models were evident in the GLAM sector since the advent of the web, but have yet to become a major discussion in scholarly editing circles.</p>
            <p>We would like to situate our exploratory approach within a broader discussion that challenges our traditional ideas towards the completion, publication, dissemination and sustainability of digital editions. Specifically, we will focus on economic models or monetization strategies as integral parts of a sustainability plan while embracing a strong Open Access ethos. How can we enrich the still burgeoning field of digital editing by contemplating the commodification and sustainability of our published scholarly outputs, by exploring current practices used in web publishing and e-commerce?</p>
            <p>This research attempts to offer a state-of-the-art of current trends and business models strategies of distribution of digital content: subscription models and related price discrimination and audience segmentation principles, freemium and lite versions, referral discounts, value-added and tiered services, digital marketing, online advertising, derivatives, multimodal and customised formats for diverse purposes and audiences, etc. Our approach proposes a modular - in a “mix ‘n’ match” style - strategy for the monetisation of scholarly editions for their post-publication life, in which agents of digital editing projects could choose, combine and customize monetisation solutions for their digital scholarly editions in order to secure their sustainable future and impact in the long-term.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eve, M. P.</hi> (2014). <hi rend=""italic"">Open Access and the Humanities: Contexts Controversies and Futures.</hi> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Greetham, D. C.</hi> (1994). <hi rend=""italic"">Textual Scholarship: An Introduction.</hi> New York: Garland.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Greetham, D. C.</hi> (Ed.). (1995). <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarly Editing: A Guide to Research.</hi> New York: Modern Language Association of America.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hughes, L. M. </hi> (Ed.). (2012). The Value, Use and Impact of Digital Collections. Facet Publishing.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kuhn, V.</hi> Multimodal. <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Pedagogy in the Humanities: Concepts, Models, and Experiments</hi>. <ref target=""https://digitalpedagogy.commons.mla.org/keywords/multimodal/"">https://digitalpedagogy.commons.mla.org/keywords/multimodal/</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lavagnino, J.</hi> (2009). Access. Computing the edition. <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>(1): 63–76.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pierazzo, E. </hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarly Editing. Theories, Models and Methods</hi>. Ashgate.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tanner, S. and Deegan, M.</hi> (2003). Exploring Charging Models for Digital Cultural Heritage in Europe. <hi rend=""italic"">D-Lib Magazine</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(5). <ref target=""http://www.dlib.org/dlib/may03/tanner/05tanner.html"">http://www.dlib.org/dlib/may03/tanner/05tanner.html</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vanhoutte, E.</hi>(2012). Being Practical. Electronic editions of Flemish literary texts in an international perspective, International Workshop on Electronic Editing (9-11 February 2012), School of Cultural Texts and Records, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India. <ref target=""http://edwardvanhoutte.blogspot.be/2012/02/being-practical-electronic-editions-of.html"">http://edwardvanhoutte.blogspot.be/2012/02/being-practical-electronic-editions-of.html</ref>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2811","17","Automatisation Du Workflow Audiovisuel, Quel Impact Sur Le Spectateur ?","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction: automatisation dans l'audiovisuel</head>
                <p>Les besoins de rationalisation des coûts et des moyens de production en Europe et dans le monde amènent les services de médias audiovisuels à avoir de plus en plus recours à de l'automatisation au cours de leurs phases de production comme de post-production. La notion d’automatisation fait en elle-même débat dans la mesure où elle est très mal définie : la plupart des dictionnaires indiquent un laconique « Fait d’automatiser ». Il serait plus juste de la qualifier de « stratégie qui vise, par l'emploi de méthodes et de moyens normalisés et optimisés de technologies, à la réduction de l'intervention de l'Homme dans la réalisation d'une opération ou d'une série d'opérations ». Une tâche automatisée relève ainsi de l'ajout de systèmes informatique, robotique,... dans le but de se substituer à l'Homme – réaliser le montage d’un produit audiovisuel par un algorithme, ou remplacer 3 cadreurs par un seul qui pilote 3 caméras à distance est une tâche automatisée. En ce sens, l’automatisation est actuellement portée par les constructeurs de matériel audiovisuel professionnel à travers des systèmes plus ou moins complexes. La conception de ces outils d'automatisation du « workflow » demeur e partielle et aucun système global unifié n’est actuellement proposé. De ce fait, les chaines de télévision associent équipements traditionnels et automates. Le workflow désigne, dans le jargon de l'audiovisuel, l’intégralité de la chaîne de production de l’idée au produit final archivé au sens de (Leleu-Merviel, 1997).</p>
                <p>La production d'images et de sons s'est toujours accompagnée d'instruments plus ou moins élaborés (il est difficile de réaliser un film sans caméra). Cependant, le contrôle de cet outil, la prise de décision quant à son utilisation, change d’entité avec l’automatisation. Le matériel est le même, mais son utilisation est gérée, commandée par un automate. Selon (Arendt, 1958), l'action d'un agent humain est imprévisible, car elle est inextricable d'un réseau de relations humaines. Sans pour autant lui enlever son appellation d'artefact, il est nécessaire de s'interroger sur la nature d'un produit qui n'émerge plus uniquement des processus sociotechniques, mais sur des règles d'inférences d'une unité de calcul informatique. Aussi se pose la question de l'impact de cette diminution de l'intervention humaine dans la production audiovisuelle sur sa réception par le spectateur. Un produit audiovisuel est un artefact à but communicationnel, créé par des humains pour des humains. En effet, les choix des acteurs – au sens de (Latour, 2005) – de la création d’une l’œuvre audiovisuelle ont un impact (variable mais bien présent) sur ce dernier. Si le type de produit (fiction, publicité, émission de divertissement, journal télévisé,...) va influencer les modalités de réception de ce produit – ce que (Jauss, 1978) appelle l’Horizon d’attente – les paramètres de conception et de réalisation du produit doivent eux aussi rentrer en compte. Il est probable que l’automatisation des systèmes de production audiovisuelle, entraînant un formatage plus fort du produit à créer, impacte le sens construit par le spectateur. Toutefois demeure la question de l’importance de chaque maillon de la chaîne de production : quelle est la signifiance apportée par l’humain vis-à-vis d’un automate dans la production de l’œuvre ?</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Méthodologie: analyse des processus sociotechniques et étude statistiques</head>
                <p>L'analyse des processus sociotechniques en régie de production et des acteurs du programme sur le plateau, comparée aux nouvelles méthodes de travail d'un « workflow » automatisé</p>
                <p>Dans le cadre de cette étude, une captation multi-caméra et à plusieurs systèmes de captation a été mise en place. Le sujet filmé relevait de parenthèses musicales lors d'une remise de diplômes à l'Université de Valenciennes. Trois systèmes ont été utilisés en parallèle : </p>
                <p>- Un système “témoin”, mobilisant une régie professionnelle d'une vingtaine de personnes, étudiants de master audiovisuel de l'Université de Valenciennes ;</p>
                <p>- Un système “semi-automatisé”, utilisant une régie miniaturisée pour une personne (réalisateur professionnel) ainsi que des caméras robotisées pilotées à distance par un second opérateur ;</p>
                <p>- Un système “mono”, consistant en une caméra filmant le sujet en plan large fixe.</p>
                <p>Par la suite, les encadrants de l'équipe “standard” et les intervenants de l'équipe “semi-automatisée” ont été interrogés sur la préparation et le déroulement de la captation dans leurs régies respectives. Ces résultats ont été croisés avec une étude statistique de l'utilisation des différentes caméras et des réalisations sur les séquences filmées, reconstitués à partir de l’enregistrement des réalisations ainsi que de chaque caméra individuellement.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                        <graphic url=""597/10000201000005040000027328137E1F16506BC6.png""/>
                        <head>Illustration 1: Éléments statistiques issus de l'analyse des réalisations</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
                <p>Les premiers résultats ont souligné une préparation plus forte de la réalisation et un formatage des angles de caméras pour la régie semi-automatisée par rapport à la régie standard. Du fait que les cadres soient mémorisés par le système de contrôle des caméras robotisées, ces derniers sont peu appelés à évoluer au fil du temps, simplifiant les échanges entre réalisateur et opérateur des caméras. À l’inverse, les valeurs de plans du système témoin sont plus fluctuantes. Malgré cette différence, les valeurs employées par les deux systèmes sont globalement identiques quant au découpage de l’espace pour le réalisateur.</p>
                <p>
                    <figure>
                            <graphic url=""597/100000000000078800000438F29DADC242527A63.png""/>
                            <head>Illustration 2: Capture d'écran de la reconstitution des réalisations sur un logiciel de montage</head>
                    </figure>
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Suites prévues: tests d'impact et nouvelles captations</head>
                <p>Dans la continuité, un test d'impact des séquences filmées sur le public sera effectué selon une adaptation de la méthode Média-Repères (Labour, 2011), qui a pour objectif de diagnostiquer l'impact d'un extrait vidéo sur le public par l'identification des construits de sens chez la personne. La méthode permettra de distinguer des registres de sens construit chez le spectateur afin de discriminer les apports de chaque système de captation en fonction de leur impact sur le public. En particulier, une partie du protocole se fondra sur l'analyse des émotions du spectateur lors du visionnage via le procédé SYM (Yvart et al., 2016). Les résultats issus de cette expérimentation prochaine seront présentés lors du congrès.</p>
                <p>Des améliorations sont prévues pour la prochaine étude des systèmes de captations, où la récolte de traces se verra renforcée afin de d'améliorer la qualité de la réminiscence des acteurs ainsi que de d'identifier des nouveaux paramètres quant à l'impact de l'automatisation chez le spectateur. De plus, il sera possible de tester les différents systèmes de captation successivement (ce qui évite les contraintes de placements des multi captations) et pourra se faire sur les mêmes équipements, mais utilisés soit par des humains, soit pilotés par des machines.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Arendt, H.</hi> (1958). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Human Condition</hi>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jauss, H. R.</hi> (1978). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pour Une Esthétique de La Réception</hi>. TEL. Paris: Gallimard.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Labour, M.</hi> (2011). MEDIA-REPERES. Une méthode pour l’explicitation des construits de sens au visionnage Université de Valenciennes et du Hainaut-Cambrésis. Lille Nord de France Habilitation à diriger des recherches.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Latour, B.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reassembling the Social, An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory</hi>. Oxford University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Leleu-Merviel, S.</hi> (1997). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">La Conception En Communication, Méthodologie Qualité</hi>. Paris: Editions Hermès.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Yvart, W., Delestage, C.-A. and Leleu-Merviel, S.</hi> (2016). SYM: Toward a new tool in user’s mood determination. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings Emovis 2016</hi>. Sonoma, CA. A venir.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2812","17","Close Reading / distant Reading : Documenting, Preserving and Analysing Digital Performances","9","","","2","",""
"2813","17","Déchiffrer Le Mythe De l'Amour","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Les sites de rencontres ont acquis depuis plusieurs années une place centrale dans nos pratiques sociales. L’idée de pouvoir utiliser des dispositifs algorithmiques pour rencontrer des personnes n’est plus une nouveauté et n’est pas née avec Internet. Il suffit de penser qu’en France, plusieurs plateformes de rencontres étaient déjà disponibles sur Minitel dans les années 1980. Mais la rapide diffusion des connexions Internet et la naissance du web dans les années 1990 ont rendu possible un développement impressionnant de ce type de service. Match.com a été fondé en 1995 et est probablement aujourd’hui le plus utilisé au monde ; d’autres plateformes comme eHarmony ou OkCupid ou Plenty of Fish sont apparues dans les années suivantes, proposant chacune sa vision de la rencontre amoureuse.</p>
            <p>Comment analyser ce phénomène? Comment le comprendre? Plusieurs approches sont possibles et beaucoup a été écrit sur le sujet. La question que nombre de sociologues et psychologues se sont posé est: est-ce possible de trouver l’amour sur Internet? Dans l’introduction du numéro spécial 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Sociologies et Société</hi>, Chiara Piazzesi note ""la tension entre d’une part l’omniprésence discursive et sémantique de l’amour et d’autre part notre incapacité à savoir de quoi exactement il s’agit"" (Piazzesi, 2014).
            </p>
            <p>La question qu’il faut se poser par rapport aux sites de rencontre n’est donc pas tellement s’ils donnent lieu à des  ""vraies"" rencontres, mais plutôt sur quel type de valeurs ils se basent et quelles valeurs ils produisent. En d’autres mots, il faut essayer de comprendre quelle idée de rencontre est proposée par ces services. Nous vivons de plus en plus dans une culture numérique: notre idée d’amitié est forcement conditionnée par la façon de concevoir l’amitié de Facebook, notre idée de pertinence est façonnée par Google, notre rapport à l’espace et au temps structuré par les dispositifs de vidéoconférence, les GPS, etc. Il est certain que notre idée d’amour est ou sera elle-aussi influencée par nos pratiques numériques.</p>
            <p>Or les plateforme existantes proposent des types de rencontres très différentes : certaines promettent de trouver rapidement des relations sexuelles (comme AdultFriendFinder, par exemple), d’autres promettent de trouver la personne avec qui se marier (eHarmony). Nous nous concentrons sur les sites qui sont explicitement axés sur l’idée d’amour : ce que ces plateformes visent est de rendre possible une rencontre de laquelle pourra naître une relation amoureuse. Deux exemples pertinents sont Match.com et OkCupid. Concrètement ces sites permettent la création d’un profil et mettent en place un algorithme qui relie les profils entre eux : comme tous les autres algorithmes de recommandation, l’algorithme des sites de rencontre est un ensemble de règles formelles qui permettent l’analyse des données d’un profil pour le mettre en relation avec un autre profil.</p>
            <p>La question qu’il semble fondamental de poser est donc quelle conception de l’amour se cache derrière ces règles? Qu’est-ce que l’amour pour une plateforme comme OkCupid? Quelle est l’idée d’amour à partir de laquelle sont pensées les règles formelles qui constituent l’algorithme? Cette question s’accompagne forcement de la question opposée; car si d’une part les algorithmes se basent sur une idée de ce qu’est l’amour, en même temps, dans la pratique, ils ont un effet normatif: en d’autres termes ils produisent eux-mêmes une idée d’amour.</p>
            <p>Commençons par une note méthodologique: il est nécessaire de préciser que nous n’avons bien évidemment pas accès au code source de ces algorithmes. L’ensemble du code est propriétaire et il n’est donc pas possible de l’analyser d’un point de vue mathématique ou informatique. On est dans la même situation quand on essaye de comprendre le fonctionnement de PageRank. Nous n’avons accès qu’aux textes avec lesquels les entreprises communiquent sur leur algorithme. Si cette limitation empêche une évaluation objective du fonctionnement des algorithmes, elle ne limite pas tellement le type de questionnement que nous proposons ici : il ne s’agit pas, en effet, de comprendre le réel fonctionnement des algorithmes mais d’analyser leurs bases culturelles, leurs valeurs. La communication publicitaire sur leur fonctionnement est donc déjà un excellent point de départ.</p>
            <p>Les algorithmes peuvent facilement donner une réponse à la première: la plateforme va chercher dans les profils de millions de personnes et avec sa capacité de calcul l’algorithme sera capable de trouver la bonne personne, la seule bonne personne, au milieu d’un nombre immense de profils. La rencontre est donc nécessaire : les deux personnes qui se rencontrent ont été sélectionnées dans la totalité – ou presque – des personnes possibles. La puissance de calcul assume en quelque sorte le rôle du destin: grâce à la capacité de regarder dans une énorme masse de données, on sera capable d’aller au delà des aléas qui pourraient empêcher une rencontre. Or dans les faits cette idée n’est pas du tout respectée par la pratique de ces plateforme, car les rencontres proposées sont très ciblées et, par exemple, très axées sur la proximité géographique. Mais la promesse est d’aller chercher dans l’ensemble des profils. Cette promesse permet de ne pas assimiler la nature du service offert à une pure démarche commerciale. Il ne s’agit pas de « vendre » le bon profil, mais d’identifier la bonne personne, la seule avec qui une relation amoureuse sera ensuite possible. Ce type de rhétorique caractérise la quasi-totalité de ces plateformes. Une analyse attentive de ce discours nous fait comprendre que ce que les sites de rencontres essayent de proposer – du moins dans leur discours – est vraiment une relation amoureuse, une 
                <hi rend=""italic"">romance</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>Mais la puissance de calcul pourrait être un obstacle à la deuxième idée que nous venons d’évoquer: comment retrouver, dans le cadre d’une rencontre ""calculée"" par une machine la magie qui devrait caractériser l’amour? Comment ces plateformes peuvent-elles rendre possible le coup de foudre qui caractérise, dans notre imaginaire la relation amoureuse? Deux réponses sont possibles. D’une part on peut constater que plusieurs sites de rencontres essayent de réintroduire un élément de hasard ou de non calculé dans leurs propositions. C’est notamment l’exemple d’OkCupid qui proposa durant une période des ""blind dates"". L’algorithme met en relation deux personnes de façon aléatoire et propose un rendez-vous sans dévoiler le profil de la personne qu’on va rencontrer.</p>
            <p>Mais il y a un autre facteur qui peut relier l’amour calculé à l’amour magique: la complexité du dispositif technologique est très souvent perçue comme magique. Le fait qu’on ne connait pas les algorithmes et que leur fonctionnement est mystérieux pour la plupart des usagers implique une sorte de rapport magique à l’objet technologique. Le fait qu’il y ait un calcul n’enlève donc rien à la possibilité de retrouver un côté de hasard et de magie.</p>
            <p>De cette manière, les algorithmes essayent de ne pas mettre en danger l’aspect d’enchantement qui semble devoir caractériser une relation amoureuse. Cela pousse à penser qu’au lieu que transformer l’amour en une marchandise, ces plateformes essayent de récupérer un élément d’authenticité: en d’autres termes on pourrait affirmer que les sites de rencontres ont comme effet de promouvoir même auprès des sceptiques l’idée de la possibilité d’une rencontre amoureuse romantique. L’élément algorithmique se présente comme une sorte de garantie rationnelle de la possibilité de l’amour. Il nous semble que trois conceptions de l’amour influencent la notion qui se cache derrière les sites de rencontres : celle du Moyen-Âge, l’idée romantique et la conception du cinéma hollywoodien. Au Moyen- Âge on peut notamment retrouver le rapport étroit entre amour et vision qui semble être un des piliers de l’amour proposé par les sites de rencontres : on peut tomber amoureux car on peut tout voir. Dans l’amour romantique et surtout dans une réinterprétation 
                <hi rend=""italic"">mainstream</hi> hollywoodienne de l’amour romantique, on peut retrouver l’idée de la nécessité de la rencontre et celle de la magie. Une analyse de ces topoï littéraires accompagnée par une étude approfondie des textes qui présentent le fonctionnement des algorithmes pourrait nous aider à mieux cerner la façon qu’ont les sites de rencontres de concevoir l’amour. L’impact du numérique est culturel et les pratiques numériques façonnent nos visions du monde. Comprendre quelle est l’idée d’amour qui s’exprime à travers les algorithmes des sites de rencontres devient donc indispensable pour comprendre quelle est la conception de l’amour dans notre société.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Cancian, F. and S. Gordon.</hi> (1988). Changing Emotion Norms in Marriage: Love and Anger in U.S. Women’s Magazines since 1900. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Gender and Society</hi>,<hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(3): 308-42.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Cardon, D.</hi> (2013). Dans l’esprit du PageRank : Une enquête sur l’algorithme de Google, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Réseaux</hi> 1, pp. 63-95.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Evans, M.</hi> (2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Love, an Unromantic Discussion</hi>. Cambridge, Polity Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Giddens, A.</hi> (1992).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">La transformation de l’intimité. Sexualité, amour et érotisme dans les sociétés modernes</hi>. Rodex, Le Rouergue/Chambon.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Henchoz, C.</hi> (2014). La production quotidienne de l’amour en Suisse et au Québec : compatibilités intimes.
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Sociologies et sociétés</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">46</hi>(1): 17-36.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Piazzesi, Ch.</hi> (2014). Tout sauf l’amour ou porter un regard sociologique sur l’intimité amoureuse. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sociologies et sociétés,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">46</hi>(1): 5-14.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Slater, D.</hi> (2013).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Love in the Time of Algorithms: What Technology Does to Meeting and Mating</hi>. Penguin Group.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2814","17","Digitale Tools und Methoden für die geisteswissenschaftliche Forschung praxisnah erklärt: Ein neues Format im Test.","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Aufgrund der technischen Entwicklungen in den letzten Jahrzehnten sind GeisteswissenschaftlerInnen in ihrem Forschungsalltag vor neue Herausforderungen gestellt. Während es für den wissenschaftlichen Nachwuchs in Österreich eine Reihe von curricularen Angeboten sowie Summer Schools im Bereich der Digitalen Geisteswissenschaften gibt
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p>Vgl. Liste von DH-Studiengängen im deutschsprachigen Raum verfügbar unter 
                        <ref target=""HYPERLINK"">http://www.cceh.uni-koeln.de/Dokumente/BroschuereWeb.pdf</ref> [letzter Zugriff 29.10.2015]; Sahle, Patrick (2013): ""DH Studieren! Auf dem Weg zu einem Kern- und Referenzcurriculum der Digital Humanities"". DARIAH-DE Working Papers Nr. 1. Göttingen: DARIAH-DE. URN: urn:nbn:de:gbv:7-dariah-2013-1-5, Anhang BA- und MA-Studiengänge, 30-31 [letzter Zugriff 29.10.2015]; Dariah.eu Digital Humanities Course Registry
                        <ref target=""https://dh-registry.de.dariah.eu/""> </ref>
                        <ref target=""https://dh-registry.de.dariah.eu/"">https://dh-registry.de.dariah.eu/</ref> [letzter Zugriff 29.10.2015]; Tabellarischer Vergleich der Studiengänge. In: Thaller, Manfred (Eds.), (2015). Digital Humanities als Beruf. Fortschritte auf dem Weg zu einem Curriculum. Akten der Dhd Arbeitsgruppe „Referenzcurriculum Digital Humanities“ vorgelegt auf der Jahrestagung 2015, Graz 24.-27. Februar 2015, 123-125.
                    </p>
                </note>, sind erfahrene Forschende meist auf sich gestellt, wenn es darum geht, sich forschungsrelevante ICT-Kompetenzen für individuelle Fragestellungen anzueignen: Gemäß der von DARIAH
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p>Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities, 
                        <ref target=""http://dariah.eu/"">http://dariah.eu/</ref> [letzter Zugriff 29.10.2015]
                    </p>
                </note> initiierten Umfrage (Schneider / Scholger in Druck) im Jahr 2014/2015 gaben mehr als 50 Prozent der befragten Forschenden in Österreich an, dass Weiterbildungsangebote zum Thema DH-Methoden und Werkzeuge und wie diese ihre eigene Forschung verbessern könnten und tendenziell wichtig oder sehr wichtig für ihre Arbeit wären.
            </p>
            <p>Das Austrian Centre of Digital Humanities (ACDH) an der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften sieht es als eine seiner Aufgaben, DH-Inhalte und -kompetenzen zu vermitteln und die Forschenden dabei zu unterstützen, das Potenzial digitaler Methoden und Werkzeuge für ihre konkreten Forschungsprojekte zu nützen. Aus diesem Grund werden am ACDH unterschiedliche Formate der Wissensweitergabe erprobt und evaluiert. In unserem Kurzvortrag stellen wir eines dieser Formate, die ACDH Tool Gallery
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                    <p>
                        <ref target=""https://acdh.oeaw.ac.at/acdh/en/acdh-tool-gallery"">https://acdh.oeaw.ac.at/acdh/en/acdh-tool-gallery</ref> [letzter Zugriff 29.10.2015]
                    </p>
                </note>, als Fallstudie vor und berichten über deren Konzeption und Etablierung als außeruniversitäres Weiterbildungsangebot. 
            </p>
            <p>Anders als in herkömmlichen Vortragsreihen, in denen praktischen Aspekten weniger Bedeutung zugemessen wird, stellt die ACDH Tool Gallery das Experimentieren mit eigenen Daten in den Mittelpunkt. Das Konzept der ACDH Tool Gallery besteht darin, zwei Gruppen von Expertinnen und Experten zusammenzubringen: einerseits jene, die sich mit der Entwicklung von Tools beschäftigen und diese bereitstellen, und andererseits jene, die in ihrer geisteswissenschaftlichen Fachdisziplin ausgewiesen sind, und diese Tools in Zukunft verwenden möchten. Bei der Auswahl der Kurzreferate am Vormittag wird diesem Konzept insofern Rechnung getragen, als dass sowohl IT-ExpertInnen als auch GeisteswissenschaftlerInnen, die diese Tools bereits für ihre Forschung einsetzen, als Vortragende eingeladen werden. Die eintägigen Veranstaltungen sind jeweils einem Themenkomplex gewidmet: Die Tools, die am Vormittag in Einführungsvorträgen und Präsentationen vorgestellt werden, können nachmittags von den TeilnehmerInnen erprobt werden, indem diese Schritt für Schritt von der Installation bis zur Anwendung begleitet werden. Idealerweise hat jeder der TeilnehmerInnen ein eigenes, individuelles Set an Daten am Laptop vorbereitet, an dem die Tools getestet werden. Mit der Teilnahme an der Veranstaltung kann eine Kursbestätigung erworben werden. </p>
            <p>Die ACDH Tool Gallery versteht sich als Angebot für EinsteigerInnen im Bereich der Digital Humanities und vermittelt einen Überblick sowohl zu bewährten als auch zu neuesten Tools, die zur Verfügung gestellt werden. Im Vordergrund steht der Austausch zwischen AnbieterInnen und potentiellen AnwenderInnen: Gemeinsam kann eine Einschätzung darüber erfolgen, ob und inwieweit ein jeweiliges Tool zur Beantwortung individueller Forschungsanliegen geeignet ist. Ausreichend Zeit zur (spontanen) Diskussion ist die Voraussetzung zum Gelingen dieses innovativen Formats. </p>
            <p>Die Zielgruppe sind ForscherInnen aller geisteswissenschaftlichen Disziplinen sowie zum Teil MitarbeiterInnen von wissenschaftlichen Einrichtungen wie Bibliotheken und Archiven. Die ACDH Tool Gallery ist ein unentgeltliches Angebot, das sich nicht nur an ForscherInnen der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften richtet, sondern allen Interessierten offensteht. Damit dieses Format gelingt, braucht es intensive Vorbereitung auf allen Seiten: 1. liegt es an den TeilnehmerInnen zu überlegen, an welchen Daten sie das jeweilige Tool zu testen beabsichtigen; 2. leisten die Tool ExpertInnenen Vorarbeit, indem sie einen Zugang zu ihren Tools schaffen; und 3. gibt das ACDH die konzeptionellen und organisatorischen Rahmenbedingungen für dieses Format vor. Da es sich um ein neues Angebot handelt, wird die ACDH Tool Gallery intensiv über die ACDH-Website, die dha-Website, die ÖAW-Website, diverse Mailinglisten und Social Media (Facebook and Twitter) beworben. </p>
            <p>Die ACDH Tool Gallery wird dreimal im Jahr angeboten und hat bislang bereits zu den Themen “Automated Recognition and Transcription of Handwritten Documents”, “Basic Text Enrichment - TreeTagger for DH-Application” und “Semantic Web Tools” stattgefunden. In einem Bewertungsbogen wurden die TeilnehmerInnen jeweils nach der Veranstaltung befragt, wie sie dieses neue Format einschätzen, mit welchem Vorwissen sie daran teilgenommen haben, was sich verbessern ließe und welche weiteren Tools relevant für ihre Forschungen wären, um künftig im Rahmen der Tool Gallery vorgestellt zu werden. Im Fragebogen wurden außerdem anonyme personenbezogene Daten (z.B. Alter, Geschlecht, Beruf, Herkunftsinstitution) erfasst. </p>
            <p>Die Ergebnisse dieser Fallstudie werden im Kurzvortrag präsentiert. Vor dem Hintergrund dieser Erfahrungen möchten die Autorinnen diskutieren, was daraus abgeleitet werden kann und Empfehlungen geben, wie ein attraktives, außeruniversitäres Weiterbildungsangebot, das den disziplinären Anforderungen
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4"">
                    <p>Vgl. die Empfehlungen zur Implementierung eines österreichweiten Schulungsprogrammes zum Thema Forschungsdaten speziell im Bereich der Geisteswissenschaften bei Bauer, Bruno; Ferus, Andreas; Gorraiz, Juan; Gründhammer, Veronika; Gumpenberger, Christian; Maly, Nikolaus; Mühlegger, Johannes Michael; Preza, José Luis; Sánchez Solís, Barbara; Schmidt, Nora; Steineder, Christian (2015): Forschende und ihre Daten. Ergebnisse einer österreichweiten Befragung – Report 2015. Version 1.2, S. 70. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.32043. Online auch unter: http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/o:407513</p>
                </note> unterschiedlicher Forschenden gerecht wird, gestaltet werden könnte. 
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliographie</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bauer, B., Ferus, A., Gorraiz, J., Gründhammer, V., Gumpenberger, Ch., Maly, N., Mühlegger, Johannes M. Preza, J. L. Sánchez Solís, B., Schmidt, N., Steineder, Ch.</hi> (2015).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Forschende und ihre Daten. Ergebnisse einer österreichweiten Befragung – Report 2015</hi>. Version 1.2, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.32043. Online auch unter: http://phaidra.univie.ac.at/o:407513 (letzter Zugriff 29.10.2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sahle, P.</hi> (2013).<hi rend=""italic""> DH Studieren! Auf dem Weg zu einem Kern- und Referenzcurriculum der Digital Humanities</hi>. DARIAH-DE Working Papers Nr. 1. Göttingen: DARIAH-DE. URN: urn:nbn:de:gbv:7-dariah-2013-1-5, Anhang BA- und MA-Studiengänge, pp. 30-31 (letzter Zugriff 29.10.2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Schneider, G., Scholger, W.</hi> (2015). In: Dallas and N. Chatzidiakou (Eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DARIAH survey on scholarly practices and needs of European humanities researchers in the digital environment 2014-15</hi>, Technical report, Athens: Digital Curation Unit. Forthcoming, in Druck: Austria.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2815","17","Du Texte Antique À La Publication Scientifique : Outils D'Analyse Numériques Des Contenus Et Ponts Conceptuels.","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Relier deux outils d’indexation pour faire émerger des ponts conceptuels</head>
                <p>Ce travail s’applique aux sciences de l’Antiquité et à l’organisation des connaissances (Gnoli et al., 2006; Gnoli, 2012; Gnoli, 2014). Son objectif est de travailler sur la mise en lien entre les annotations appliquées à des sources primaires textuelles et des métadonnées employées pour décrire la littérature scientifique qui en découle. Plus spécifiquement, il s’agit d’étudier la façon dont sont organisés, par le biais de deux instruments terminologiques, des thèmes communs pour la description de contenus relatifs à l’Antiquité. L’un est destiné à l’analyse de textes antiques (<hi rend=""italic"">Index</hi> de <hi rend=""italic"">Memorata Poetis</hi>) et le second à l’indexation documentaire de publications scientifiques contemporaines (Thésaurus PACTOLS). L’objectif est de créer des relations conceptuelles entre les deux instruments, bien qu’ils ne servent pas à décrire le même type d’objets initialement, pour en améliorer l’utilisation par les usagers dans le cadre de la recherche scientifique, mais aussi d'une mise à disposition à un plus large public (Insertion de liens de références dans Wikipedia). Il fait suite au travail initié par Lamé et Caputo, 2015 sur les dispositifs épigraphiques et l'emploi de cet index thématique de <hi rend=""italic"">Memorata Poetis</hi> <ref target=""http://www.memoratapoetis.it/"">http://www.memoratapoetis.it</ref>.</p>
                <p>Pour cet exercice de mise en relation, nous avons choisi de privilégier une thématique familière aux spécialistes de l’Antiquité et au grand public : les dieux et héros de la mythologie grecque et latine.  Leurs noms sont fréquemment employés dans la description des objets archéologiques décorés, notamment la céramique ou la sculpture antique et dans l'analyse des textes anciens. Cette thématique est traitée dans les deux outils en question de façons différentes. Le sujet s’attache donc à comparer la façon dont les deux instruments présentent ces éléments de la mythologie antique, l’un à partir de textes primaires, l’autre à partir de l’analyse des publications scientifiques.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>L’<hi rend=""italic"">Index rerum notabilium</hi> de <hi rend=""italic"">Memorata Poetis</hi></head>
                <p>Le projet <hi rend=""italic"">Memorata Poetis</hi> (MP) est un projet de recherche intertextuelle (site Internet en cours de finalisation). Il consiste à mettre en lien de courts poèmes (épigrammes épigraphiques et littéraires) composés et transmis de l’Antiquité à nos jours selon des thèmes et des motifs, c’est-à-dire, des schémas récurrents (ex.: La mort, Hercule...). Le corpus contient, à la date de soumission, 15307 textes et s’appuie sur une édition de référence en langue originale (latin, grec, italien anglais et arabe). Il s’agit, au travers de rapprochements textuels et de mises en parallèle, d’identifier l’évolution de l’expression des thèmes et des phénomènes intertextuels qui ont accompagné la transmission, la traduction et la création de ce type de poèmes au travers du temps et des cultures. Ces caractéristiques confèrent au corpus de sources primaires constance et homogénéité, deux critères de sélection importants pour le travail de rapprochement lexicologique.</p>
                <p>Ces thèmes sont organisés au sein d’une liste contrôlée et hiérarchisée, l’<hi rend=""italic"">index rerum notabilium</hi>, lentement consolidée par plusieurs générations de philologues, selon une arborescence à trois niveaux et six thématiques classiques (Animalia, Arbores et Virentia, Dei et Heroes, Homines, Loca, Res). Il s’agit donc d’explorer une documentation dite primaire et éditée, en amont de la production d’articles scientifiques.</p>
                <p>Avec plus de 1300 termes qui le composent ont été traduits, de manière collaborative, une première fois en italien, anglais, allemand, français, grec moderne, avec comme langue de référence le latin en s’en tenant au cadre d’usages disciplinaires de la philologie La traduction entre dans la seconde phase qui consiste à valider ou non des synonymes et des variations linguistiques pour chaque terme.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Le thésaurus PACTOLS de la Fédération et ressources sur l’Antiquité</head>
                <p>En aval de ce processus d’élaboration de la connaissance, on retrouve des instruments pour analyser le contenu de la production scientifique. PACTOLS est un thésaurus multilingue (6 langues européennes et l’arabe) développé par la Fédération et Ressources sur l’Antiquité (FRANTIQ), groupement de services du CNRS (Centre national de la recherche scientifique français) 
                    <ref target=""http://www.frantiq.fr/"">http://www.frantiq.fr</ref>. Il constitue un outil d’indexation de publications scientifiques spécialisées en archéologie, depuis la Préhistoire jusqu’aux périodes contemporaines et en Sciences de l’Antiquité dans tous les domaines. Il est en particulier exploité dans le Catalogue Collectif Indexé de FRANTIQ (520.000 notices bibliographiques). Le thésaurus est organisé en sept branches (Peuples et Cultures, Anthroponymes, Chronologie, Toponymes, Oeuvres, Lieux, Sujets), elles-mêmes découpées en sous thèmes. Comme dans tout thésaurus, les descripteurs s’inscrivent dans un contexte terminologique précis, spécifié par des relations complexes : hiérarchiques, bien sûr, mais aussi d’équivalences, de synonymie,... Ils sont décrits à l’aide d’une définition et d‘une note d’application. Chacun est traduit dans six langues : le français est la langue de référence ; les traductions en allemand, anglais, arabe, espagnol, italien, néerlandais sont mises à jour au fur et à mesure des mises à jour du thésaurus. Certains descripteurs sont illustrés. Enfin, le thésaurus suit la norme ISO 25964 sur l’interopérabilité des thésaurus : chaque terme est identifié par une URI (Unique Resource Identifier) de type ARK (
                    <ref target=""https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archival_Resource_Key"">Archival Resource Key - https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archival_Resource_Key)</ref>. Cet identifiant lui confère une identité unique dans le web des données et le rend citable. Son format de données est conforme à SKOS (Simple Knowledge Organization Systems) du W3C. Par exemple
                    <ptr target=""http://ark.frantiq.fr/ark:/26678/pcrtGYtuX6F7A0""/> renvoie au concept Némésis et à son environnement sémantique ainsi qu’aux notices liées du Catalogue Collectif Indexé de FRANTIQ. 
                </p>
                <p>Ce thésaurus a été créé en 1987 et il est mis à jour en continu par des spécialistes des domaines traités. Il compte aujourd’hui 33.000 descripteurs. Il est utilisé par des bibliothécaires et des documentalistes dans le cadre de catalogues et de bases de données documentaires, comme dans l’enrichissement de bases de données de la recherche. Par exemple, les publications indexées sur la thématique que nous avons retenue dans le cadre de cette présentation sont soit des éditions de textes littéraires antiques, soit des ouvrages avec une riche iconographie : traités sur la sculpture, la mosaïque, les décors architecturaux ou les céramiques…</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Dieux et héros de l’Antiquité classique, une thématique commune</head>
                <p>On le voit, les deux outils présentés ont été conçus pour répondre à des exigences scientifiques complémentaires qui appartiennent à un même processus global d’élaboration des connaissances. L’organisation des termes comme leurs langues de référence et le multilinguisme des outils et des contenus sont le reflet de l’usage pour lequel ils ont été pensés.</p>
                <p>Cependant, des concepts communs se retrouvent, tout au moins sur certaines thématiques. Nous avons choisi de confronter les deux vocabulaires sur les thèmes Dieux et Héros de l’Antiquité classique : comment ces domaines sont-ils traités par l’un, dans le cadre d’analyse du texte antique comme document primaire et par l’autre dans le cadre des publications scientifiques, documents secondaires par excellence ? Comment l’archéologie, l’épigraphie et la littérature élaborent-elles des connaissances sur des sujets similaires ?</p>
                <p>Le domaine “Dieux et Héros” de l’<hi rend=""italic"">Index rerum notabilium</hi> de <hi rend=""italic"">Memorata Poetis</hi> est bien défini: Mythologie, Chrétienne, Musulmane, Religion et Supertitions. Il s’agit d’aligner ce sous-ensemble et ses traductions, avec les branches Anthroponymes/Divinités/Divinités grecques, Divinités romaines, Anthroponymes/Héros/Héros grecs, Héros romains, ainsi que le groupe de termes de Sujets/religion des thésaurus PACTOLS. En effet, les Dieux et Héros de l’Antiquité classique sont regroupés différemment et les termes relatifs à la religion plus généralement sont intégrés à la branche Sujets des PACTOLS, alors que l’ensemble est rassemblé en un seul dossier dans l’<hi rend=""italic"">Index</hi> de MP.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>La méthode</head>
                <p>Dans la mesure où seul le thésaurus PACTOLS est formaté en SKOS avec des identifiants pérennes, nous procéderons à un alignement manuel, terme par terme, avec discussion et ajustement de chacun des systèmes et de son lexique. Les rapprochements stricts ou relatifs des termes, mais aussi l’absence de tel autre dans l’un ou l’autre des outils sont des indicateurs majeurs de positionnement disciplinaires complémentaires qui concernent des moments et des cultures épistémologiques différents. Les théories, méthodes et instruments produits dans le cadre des humanités numériques  devraient permettre d’accueillir et de faire converger ces univers terminologiques sur le rapprochement desquels nous travaillons et ce d’autant plus facilement qu’ils en respecteront leurs caractéristiques et les amèneront à dialoguer : exploitation et traitement du réseau de relations entre les termes, confrontation des traductions des vocabulaires, prise en compte, si nécessaire, de l’élaboration d’un métaformalisme commun. Ciotti, 2013, illustre les limites ontologiques rencontrées par les seuls thèmes et motifs. Si ce travail méthodologique de comparaison et de rapprochement entre différents KOS (Knowledge Organization System) ne cherche pas, dans un premier temps à produire un outil numérique, il vise à en préparer l’élaboration.</p>
                <p>Par exemple, l’<hi rend=""italic"">Index rerum notabilium</hi> contient un seul terme pour identifier Apollon, alors que les PACTOLS comptent neuf façons différentes de qualifier le dieu. L’étude des termes met aussi en avant les écarts contextuels révélateurs des périodes pendant lesquelles ces instruments d’analyse ont été élaborés : par exemple, PACTOLS, bien que régulièrement révisé, gagnerait à être réorganisé pour en faciliter la consultation et mieux suivre l’évolution des connaissances et de la discipline, tout en conservant des descripteurs adaptés aux publications plus anciennes. L’Index s’est construit sur une très lente et longue sélection progressive dont les débuts remontent aux origines de la philologie. Il se caractérise par son unité et sa stabilité mais aussi comme étant un témoin évolutif de la transmission intertextuelle elle-même. Il est destiné à s’enrichir au travers de la mise en parallèle intertextuelle, ce type de recherche scientifique ayant pour but d’identifier des motifs culturels et leurs transformations à l'intérieur des textes.</p>
                <p>Bien que les deux instruments se situent sur deux niveaux d’analyse, nombre de concepts se rejoignent et il y a une utilité à pouvoir créer des liens d’un niveau d’analyse à l’autre afin de naviguer transversalement au travers des collections d’informations primaires (ex. textes, ici des épigrammes littéraires et épigraphiques)  et secondaires (la littérature scientifique qui en émane). La comparaison des deux instruments permettra aussi leur enrichissement réciproque : les PACTOLS ajouteront les termes latins à ses traductions, l’<hi rend=""italic"">Index</hi> bénéficiera d'une troisième phase d'enrichissement de ses traductions, d'une amélioration de sa navigation tout en conservant sa structure traditionnelle. Mais surtout, l’alignement des vocabulaires doit permettre de tirer des conclusions concrètes sur les évolutions que chacun des outils doivent suivre afin de permettre aussi bien au chercheur, mais aussi au grand public de naviguer avec fluidité dans le <hi rend=""italic"">mare magnum</hi> documentaire primaire et secondaire en entrant par une même porte conceptuelle.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading"">
                <head>Résultats attendus</head>
                <p>La mise en forme manuelle de ce matériel lexicologique devrait permettre de confronter dans un second temps deux hypothèses. La première est organisationnelle : un système à facettes peut-il permettre une meilleure utilisation de ces connaissances ? L’autre relève de la  normalisation : SKOS employé dans le système PACTOLS pourrait-il à terme constituer une évolution nécessaire de l’Index pour finaliser la communication entre les deux systèmes d’indexation ? Les passerelles entre les environnements faciliteront ainsi le passage de l’un à l’autre, au profit des usagers dans la mesure où l’utilisation de termes identiques pour un même concept crée des ponts et des ouvertures à la connaissance en favorisant le dialogue entre les disciplines (archéologie, épigraphie, philologie). La thématique choisie pour cet exercice est bien connue aussi du grand public et fait partie de l’héritage culturel des sociétés gréco-romaines antiques. Pour favoriser encore la circulation des connaissances, nous compléterons les articles Wikipédia avec les termes des vocabulaires pour favoriser l’accès aux ressources primaires (les textes anciens utilisé par <hi rend=""italic"">Memorata Poetis</hi>) ou secondaires (les publications scientifiques indexées avec PACTOLS). Il s’agit donc d’ajouter des liens d’autorité externes à la fin de ces articles de l’encyclopédie.</p>
                <p>Les résultats de cette analyse appliquée, via l’alignement, au sous-ensemble des dieux et héros de la Mythologie doit permettre d’étendre le travail à l’ensemble des deux vocabulaires, avec un reversement et un enrichissement réciproque des termes traduits dans plusieurs langues européennes et du pourtour du bassin méditerranéen.</p>
                <p><hi rend=""italic"">Le thésaurus PACTOLS</hi> (<ref target=""http://pactols.frantiq.fr/"">http://pactols.frantiq.fr</ref>) est utilisé par 40 bibliothèques de la Fédération et ressources sur l’Antiquité et par la Très Grande Infrastructure de Recherche française Huma-Num dans son moteur de recherche ISIDORE. Il est l’une des contributions françaises à l’infrastructure européenne DARIAH. Il est aussi impliqué dans des projets européens comme MULTITA, piloté par les Musées royaux de Belgique et dans ARIADNE, infrastructure européenne pour la recherche archéologique.</p>
                <p><hi rend=""italic"">Le projet Memorata Poetis</hi> (financement national PRIN 2010/11 - <ptr target=""http://www.memoratapoetis.it/public""/> en cours de finalisation) est dirigé par le Professeur Paolo Mastandrea et implique huit unités universitaires ainsi que de recherche: les Universités de Venise “Ca’ Coscari”, de Cagliari, de la Calabre, de Padoue, de Pérouse, de Rome ""La Sapienza"", de Rome ""Tor Vergata"", et l'Istituto di Linguistica Computazionale ""A. Zampolli” du Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR) à Pise.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Babik, W. and International Society for Knowledge Organization. Polish Chapter (eds).</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Knowledge Organization in the 21st Century : Between Historical Patterns and Future Prospects ; Proceedings of the Thirteenth International ISKO Conference 19 - 22 May 2014, Kraków, Poland</hi>. (Advances in Knowledge Organization 14). Würzburg: Ergon.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Borillo, M.</hi> (1984). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Informatique pour les sciences de l’homme: limites de la formalisation du raisonnement</hi>. (Philosophie et langage). Bruxelles: P. Mardaga.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burr, E. (ed).</hi> (1994). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Chiron Dictionary of Greek & Roman Mythology: Gods and Goddesses, Heroes, Places, and Events of Antiquity</hi>. Wilmette, Ill.: Chiron.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Caputo, M. and Lamé, M.</hi> (En cours). Humanités numériques, organisation de la connaissance et convergences disciplinaires : quelques études de cas en sciences de l’Antiquité. In International Society of Knowledge Organization (ISKO) (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Systèmes D’organisation Des Connaissances et Humanités Numériques, International Society of Knowledge Organization (ISKO) Conference, Strasbourg, 2015</hi>. Strasbourg.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cazanove, O. de, Scheid, J. and Collège de France (eds).</hi> (2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sanctuaires et sources dans l’antiquité: les sources documentaires et leurs limites dans la description des lieux de culte</hi>. (Collection du Centre Jean Bérard 22). Napoli, Italie: Centre Jean Bérard.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ciotti, F.</hi> (2014). Tematologia e metodi digitali: dal markup alle ontologie. In Alfonzetti, B., Baldassari, G. and Tomasi, F. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">I cantieri dell’italianistica. Ricerca, didattica e organizzazione agli inizi del XXI secolo. Atti del XVII congresso dell’ADI – Associazione degli Italianisti (Roma Sapienza, 18-21 settembre 2013)</hi>. Roma: Adi.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fondation pour le lexicon iconographicum mythologiae classicae (ed).</hi> (1981). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Lexicon iconographicum mythologiae classicae, LIMC</hi>. 16 vols. Zürich, Suisse: Artemis Verlag.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fondation pour le lexicon iconographicum mythologiae classicae and J. Paul Getty museum (eds).</hi> (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Thesaurus cultus et rituum antiquorum (ThesCRA)</hi>. 7 vols. Basel; Los Angeles: Fondation pour le Lexicon iconographicum mythologiae classicae ; J. Paul Getty museum.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gnoli, C.</hi> (2012). Metadata About What?. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Knowledge Organization</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">39</hi>(4): 268–75.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gnoli, C.</hi> (2014). Boundaries and overlaps of disciplines in Bloch’s methodology of historical knowledge. In Babik, W. (ed), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Knowledge Organization in the 21st Century: Between Historical Patterns and Future Prospects : Proceedings of the Thirteenth International ISKO Conference, 19-22 May 2014, Kraków, Poland</hi>. Würzburg: Ergon, pp. 129–35.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gnoli, C., Rosati, L. and Marino, V.</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Organizzare la conoscenza : dalle biblioteche all’architettura dell’informazione per il web</hi>. (Internet e..). Milano: Hops Tecniche nuove.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Institut Thesaurus Linguae Latinae</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Thesaurus Linguae Latinae (TLL) Online</hi>. De Gruyter.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ogden, D. (ed).</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A companion to Greek religion</hi>. (Blackwell companions to the ancient world). Malden; Oxford; Victoria: Blackwell.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Otlet, P., Peeters, B., Fayet-Scribe, S. and Wright, A.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Le livre sur le livre: traité de documentation</hi>. (Réflexions faites). Bruxelles: Les Impressions nouvelles.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Papadopoulou, T.</hi> (1999). Literary Theory and Terminology in the Greek Tragic Sholia: the Case of ΠΛAΣMA*. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">43</hi>(1): 203–10. doi:10.1111/j.2041-5370.1999.tb00489.x.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pierazzo, E.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital scholarly editing: theories, models and methods</hi>. Farnham; Burlington: Ashgate.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Talbert, C. H.</hi> (1975). The Concept of Immortals in Mediterranean Antiquity. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Biblical Literature</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">94</hi>(3): 419–36. doi:10.2307/3265162.
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                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2816","17","Éditions Critiques Électroniques Et Structuration Du Contenu Sur Les Plateformes De Consultation Numériques : Normes Et Pratiques.","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Introduction et cadre conceptuel</head>
            <p>L’édition critique électronique, part active des humanités numériques, est aujourd’hui en pleine expansion, comme en témoigne la multiplication de projets d’envergure dans le domaine
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> Un répertoire des éditions critiques électroniques est tenu par Patrick Sahle ; il compte plus de 360 projets qui varient aussi bien par le type de sources éditées que les langues et époques concernées (http://www.digitale-edition.de/).</p>
                </note>. Parallèlement à la création de ces projets, les éditeurs électroniques effectuent également un travail important de définition de ce champ disciplinaire. La réflexion épistémologique, développée par les théoriciens, est également nourrie par les praticiens. Multiforme, le travail de définition d’un champ disciplinaire en cours de structuration et d’évolution est primordial pour asseoir la discipline sur des bases conceptuelles solides. Ainsi, dans chacune des monographies récentes consacrées aux humanités numériques, la question de l’édition critique électronique est traitée et débattue
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2"">
                    <p> Citons par exemple 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital humanities</hi> (Burdick et al., 2012), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi> (Gold, Klein, 2012), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital humanities in practice</hi> (Warwick et al., 2012), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Defining digital humanities</hi> (Terras et al., 2013) qui consacrent tous des pages ou des chapitres à l’édition critique électronique. En outre, certaines publications récentes sont plus particulièrement dédiées à l’analyse des éditions critiques électroniques elles-mêmes : 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Critical editions</hi> (Apollon et al., 2014) et 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarly Editing</hi> (Pierazzo, 2015).
                    </p>
                </note>. 
            </p>
            <p>Pour définir l'édition critique électronique, les chercheurs disposent du terreau historiographique et conceptuel façonné par l'édition critique traditionnelle et la philologie. L'édition critique électronique se situe en effet au lieu de rencontre de la philologie et des techniques informatiques. L’évolution apportée par les nouvelles technologies dans ce domaine est significative. Les humanités numériques, auxquelles se rattache l’édition électronique, impliquent de nouveaux modes de recherche, transdisciplinaires et collaboratifs, dans lesquels les techniques informatiques ont toute leur part (Burdick et al., 2012). Les éditeurs électroniques, justement, considèrent que l’imprimé n’est plus le vecteur de transmission principal du savoir. Selon eux, le web peut contribuer à améliorer la diffusion des connaissances. Ainsi, ces éditeurs tirent parti des outils technologiques afin d'améliorer et d'approfondir l'accès au texte pour le lecteur. (Vanhoutte, 2010).
            </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Normes de structuration des éditions critiques traditionnelles et leurs évolutions numériques</head>
            <p>Les éditions critiques traditionnelles, imprimées sur papier et regroupées dans des collections spécialisées
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3"">
                    <p rend=""footnote text""> Prenons l’exemple de la maison Honoré Champion, qui propose les trois collections suivantes dédiées aux éditions critiques : 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Classiques français du Moyen âge</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Textes littéraires de la Renaissance</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Textes de littérature moderne et contemporaine</hi>.
                    </p>
                </note>, répondent à des codes stricts de structuration du contenu. C’est un jeu complexe de normes de lisibilité, élaborées au fil des siècles, qui a donné au texte imprimé son maximum d’efficacité et en a permis une lecture facile et rapide (Vandendorpe, 1999). Ces normes ont été mises en place au fil du temps, en fonction des pratiques de lecture et des règles établies par les éditeurs. Elles sont de divers ordres et portent sur différents aspects du texte : disposition et découpage du texte dans la page, orthographe, ponctuation ou encore syntaxe. L'homogénéité que l'on perçoit dans les éditions critiques est due à l'édiction de règles très précises qui permettent de guider le chercheur dans chacune des étapes de l'établissement du texte. L’apparat critique, cœur du travail du philologue, comporte lui aussi ses codes de structuration particuliers (Duval, 2006).
            </p>
            <p>Lorsque l’on passe au support numérique, ces conventions disparaissent en partie. A l'écran, il s'agit donc de reprendre les normes élaborées pour l’imprimé et de les faire évoluer afin qu'elles s'adaptent aux particularités du format numérique (Souchier, 2012). Les éditeurs qui s’occupent des livres et des artefacts scientifiques numériques, dont font partie les éditions critiques électroniques, doivent donc d’une part reprendre certains codes sémiotiques du livre imprimé pour les adapter au format numérique, et d’autre part inventer de nouveaux codes propres à l’environnement numérique. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Problématique</head>
            <p>Il existe un standard dévolu à l’encodage des documents textuels dont font partie les éditions critiques : il s’agit bien entendu du langage XML/TEI. Mais si la structuration des données est régie par les règles de la TEI, la présentation finale de l’information n’a pas fait, pour sa part, jusqu’à ce jour, l’objet d’une quelconque normalisation. Dans notre communication, nous nous attacherons précisément à cette question de structuration et de présentation du contenu sur les plateformes de consultation des éditions électroniques. Ce qui nous intéresse est de savoir quelles sont les règles empiriques de structuration, de disposition et de présentation de l’information qui peuvent être observées dans les éditions électroniques. Comment est-ce que les normes de présentation du texte édité, de l’apparat et des outils de recherche ont évolué de l’imprimé à l’écran ? Nous ferons une étude sémiotique de l’édition critique électronique. Ainsi, nous pourrons voir si l’édition critique électronique actuelle est, ou non, en voie d’inventer de nouveaux codes de structuration de l’information et de lecture du contenu. </p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Méthodologie et résultats attendus</head>
            <p>Pour étudier cette question, nous analysons un corpus d’éditions critiques électroniques sélectionnées par choix raisonné. Nous avons constitué un corpus de douze éditions qui illustrent la diversité des démarches éditoriales observées dans le champ des éditions électroniques : éditions critiques originellement publiées sur papier et transposées en format numérique, éditions critiques publiées simultanément de manière électronique et papier et enfin éditions critiques électroniques natives. Elles ont été développées par divers types d’institutions : universités (Ecole nationale des chartes ou Université de Virginie par exemple), instituts de recherche (à l’image de l’Institut Huygens) ou maisons d’édition (Sd-editions notamment). Enfin, certaines de ces éditions électroniques sont le fait d’initiatives personnelles de chercheurs, comme c’est le cas pour l’édition électronique des œuvres de Petrus Plaoul. Pour mener notre étude, nous nous fondons sur l’observation de ces éditions électroniques ainsi que sur les recherches déjà menées dans ce domaine, incluant les études les plus récentes.</p>
            <p>Les éditions critiques électroniques retenues pour notre corpus d'observation sont diverses : elles couvrent les traditions anglo-saxonnes et françaises et portent sur des documents d'archives ou des œuvres littéraires. La variété des types d’éditions critiques que nous avons retenues répond d’abord à un souhait d’examen le plus complet possible des points centraux de l’édition critique. Nous allons donc présenter un état des lieux des éditions critiques électroniques, au travers d’une analyse de la structuration du contenu. </p>
            <p>Pour mener notre étude, nous avons élaboré une grille d’observation. Cette dernière est concentrée sur trois pôles : l’apparat critique, le paratexte et les outils de navigation et recherche proposés aux lecteurs. C’est en fonction du positionnement initial de l’éditeur électronique que nous allons comparer les normes de structuration et de présentation de l’information des éditions critiques électroniques. En effet, le positionnement éditorial joue un rôle important dans la fonction assignée à l’édition électronique. Dès lors, des tendances normatives s’observent au sujet de la structuration du contenu dans chacune des catégories d’éditions électroniques (éditions natives ; éditions traditionnelles au départ et publiées ensuite de manière électronique ; éditions simultanément publiées de manière traditionnelle et électronique). Bien entendu, le public de l’édition critique participe aussi, à tout le moins par ses attentes, à l’élaboration des éditions électroniques. Ainsi, la place du public et le rôle qu’il tient sont abordés à chacun des points d’observation (apparat critique, paratexte, outils). </p>
            <p>Les observations que nous ferons nous permettront de dégager des tendances et caractéristiques des éditions critiques électroniques afin de comprendre comment ces éditions sont organisées et comment s’y créent des normes de structuration de l’information.</p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Apollon, D., Belisle, C. and Régnier, P.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Critical Editions</hi>. University of Illinois Press. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Burdick, A., et al.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital humanities</hi>. Cambridge: MIT Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Duval, F. (dir.)</hi> (2006). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pratiques philologiques en Europe: actes de la journée d’étude organisée à l’École des chartes le 23 septembre 2005</hi>. Paris: École nationale des chartes.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Gold, M (dir.)</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Pierazzo, E.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarly Editing </hi>. Ashgate.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sahle, P.</hi> (2015). Répertoire des éditions critiques électroniques.  http://www.digitale-edition.de/</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Souchier, E.</hi> (2012). La « lettrure » à l’écran. Lire et écrire au regard des médias informatisés, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Communication et langages</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">174</hi>: 85-108.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Terras, M., Nyhan, J. and Vanhoutte, E.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Defining Digital Humanities. A Reader.</hi> Farnham: Ashgate Publishing.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Vandendorpe, C.</hi> (1999). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Du papyrus à l’hypertexte. Essai sur les mutations du texte et de la lecture</hi>. Montréal: Boréal et Paris, La Découverte.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Vanhoutte, E.</hi> (2010). Defining electronic editions: a historical and functional perspective. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Text and Genre in Reconstruction. Effects of Digitalization on Ideas, Behaviours, Products and Institutions</hi>. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, pp. 119-44.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Warwick, C., Terras, M., Nyhan J.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital humanities in practice</hi>. London: Facet Publishing in association with UCL Centre for Digital Humanities.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2817","17","Ein Mehrebenen-Tagging-Modell für die Annotation altäthiopischer Texte","9","","","2","",""
"2818","17","El Uso de las Tecnologías Digitales para la Difusión del Patrimonio Cultural en México","2","<text>
        <body>
            <p rend=""normal"">Esta presentación describe el proceso de creación de la Red de Tecnologías Digitales para la Difusión del Patrimonio Cultural (RedTDPC), cuyo objetivo es generar conocimiento interdisciplinario y buenas prácticas en la aplicación de tecnologías digitales para la difusión del patrimonio cultural en México.</p>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Antecedentes</head>
            <p rend=""normal"">La digitalización del patrimonio cultural es fundamental para su difusión a nivel mundial<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1""><p rend=""normal""> Ver por ejemplo, Europeana (<ref target=""http://pro.europeana.eu/about-us/"">http://pro.europeana.eu/about-us/</ref>) o CHARISMA (Cultural Heritage Advanced Research Infrastructures <ref target=""http://www.charismaproject.eu/"">http://www.charismaproject.eu/</ref>) o DPLA (Digital Public Library of America <ref target=""http://dp.la/"">http://dp.la/</ref>) o la API del Rijkmuseum (https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/api).</p></note>. Para los países en desarrollo que tienen un importante patrimonio cultural, existen numerosos obstáculos en términos de infraestructura y gestión. En México, uno de estos obstáculos es la conceptualización de lo digital como un ámbito secundario dentro del sector cultural. Aunque existe una creciente mención de la importancia de trasladar los contenidos culturales a medios digitales, es muy poco lo que realmente se traduce a la práctica (Priani, 2012). Por otra parte, han existido proyectos aislados, pioneros en la digitalización del patrimonio<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn2"" n=""2""><p rend=""normal"">Ejemplo de ellos son, la Biblioteca Digital del Pensamiento Novohispano (<ref target=""http://www.bdpn.unam.mx"">www.bdpn.unam.mx</ref>), Gran Diccionario Nahuatl (<ref target=""http://www.gdn.unam.mx/"">http://www.gdn.unam.mx/</ref>), Hemeroteca Nacional Digital (www.hdnm.unam.mx), Primeros Libros (<ref target=""http://primeroslibros.org/"">http://primeroslibros.org/</ref>), Repositorios de Archivos y Fondo Antiguo (<ref target=""http://www.remeri.org.mx/archivos/"">http://www.remeri.org.mx/archivos/</ref>), o el Archivo Digital Flores Magón (<ref target=""http://archivomagon.net/"">http://archivomagon.net/</ref>), por mencionar algunos.</p></note> y organizaciones como la RedHD, que han servido como nodos para discutir estos temas. En el 2014 se llevó a cabo el 1er Congreso de Patrimonio Cultural y Nuevas Tecnologías organizado por el INAH donde se mostró que si bien México desarrolla aplicaciones de tecnología para la preservación e investigación del patrimonio hay poco trabajo en temas de difusión.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Creación de la RedTDPC</head>
            <p rend=""normal"">En este marco y atendiendo a una convocatoria del CONACYT,<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn3"" n=""3""><p rend=""normal""> Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología es el organismo nacional encargado de impulsar y fortalecer la investigación científica. Las redes temáticas tienen el objetivo de ampliar las redes de investigación entre talentos mexicanos como agentes de innovación, desarrollo económico y tecnológico en México</p></note> se creó la RedTDPC en abril de 2015, con un programa académico encaminado a identificar actores<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn4"" n=""4""><p rend=""normal""> Actualmente la red cuenta con 65 miembros activos de universidades, instituciones públicas y privadas, ONG’s y sociedad civil. </p></note> y encontrar sus temas en común. Los temas que se han identificado hasta el momento son:</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>La importancia de debatir políticas públicas, tipos de licencias y derechos de autor. </item>
                <item>Las relaciones no siempre equitativas entre las industrias creativas y las instituciones</item>
                <item>La pertinencia de hacer investigación de campo previa al desarrollo de proyectos, dada la diversidad de México en términos de accesibilidad.</item>
                <item>Políticas y buenas prácticas de digitalización, preservación y difusión de objetos culturales. </item>
            </list>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Discusión</head>
            <p rend=""normal"">Si bien la creación de la Red se entiende como un logro en términos de gestión institucional, es necesario resaltar las dificultades para su desarrollo: </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">1. Falta de coherencia entre requisitos institucionales y objetivos de la Red</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">El CONACYT hace hincapié en que las redes deben apoyar el ‘desarrollo económico y tecnológico’<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn5"" n=""5""><p rend=""normal""><ref target=""http://www.conacyt.mx/index.php/el-conacyt/convocatorias-y-resultados-conacyt/convocatorias-redes-tematicas-de-investigacion/convocatorias-cerradas-redes-tematicas-de-investigacion/redes-2015/8653-convocatoria-formacion-y-continuidad-redes-2015/file"">Bases de las Redes Temáticas del CONACYT.</ref></p></note>, sin embargo articular la importancia de la difusión del patrimonio cultural en estos términos es complicado. En muchos sentidos, la creación de esta Red ha permitido pensar en un espacio que equilibre en términos humanísticos esa exigencia. Al mismo tiempo, la Red se formó dentro de un programa que establece procesos burocráticos a los que es necesario apegarse, pero que no están definidos institucionalmente, lo que ha conducido a que la toma de decisiones sea lenta y se dedique mucho tiempo a temas operativos de la Red, restándole tiempo a la discusión de los temas sustantivos, algo que eventualmente podrá cambiar.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">2. Ausencia de definiciones conceptuales</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">La propia definición de “difusión” es problemática y ha merecido parte de la reflexión de la Red. La RAE<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn6"" n=""6""><p rend=""normal""> Real Academia Española</p></note> define esta palabra como: ‘propagar o divulgar conocimientos, noticias, actitudes’. Es la palabra divulgar, la que a veces se encuentra en oposición a difusión: la primera sólo dedicada a los pares académicos, y la divulgación al público en general (Gándara, S/F).<note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn7"" n=""7""><p rend=""normal""> En el ámbito de la ciencia en México hay una amplia discusión sobre la diferencia entre divulgar y difundir que, sin embargo, responde a objetivos distintos a los del patrimonio cultural</p></note></p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Otra problemática es la poca documentación que existe en México sobre cómo trabajar en la difusión del patrimonio con herramientas digitales. Son pocas las instituciones mexicanas que cuentan con áreas dedicadas a la experimentación y acumulación de conocimiento en torno a estas prácticas. Casi siempre, son empresas privadas las que realizan los proyectos. Esto no es negativo en sí porque permite que las industrias creativas encuentren una fuente de trabajo. Lo que sí es necesario es que estas empresas regresen esa reflexión y experiencia a las instituciones.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">3. Prospectivas</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Hasta ahora se ha trabajado en la organización de encuentros académicos, que son el tipo de actividades que pueden llevarse a cabo fácilmente dentro del modelo institucional en el que se creó la Red. La mayor dificultad para el futuro es fortalecer la reflexión en temas como: legislación, accesibilidad, públicos, documentación, sustentabilidad, crowdsourcing, y cuyo trabajo se traduzca en acciones concretas en esos ámbitos. Es decir, pasar de responder a las necesidades institucionales para iniciar un proceso de producción de conocimiento.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>Trabajo a futuro</head>
            <p rend=""normal"">El siguiente objetivo de la Red es lograr que estas reflexiones se traduzcan en proyectos específicos de difusión a través de nuevas tecnologías para poder ampliar el conocimiento a través de la experimentación. </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Dirección de la RedTDPC: http://redtdpc.inah.gob.mx/</p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gándara, M.</hi> (in press). De La Interpretación Temática a La Divulgación Significativa. In Gándara, M. and Jiménez, M.A. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Interpretación Del Patrimonio Cultural</hi>, ENCryM/INAH.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Priani, E.</hi> (2012). Finding support for disruption:developing a digital humanities project in Mexico.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Aslib Proceedings: New Information Perspectives</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold""> 64</hi>(1): 97-103.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2819","17","Erlebter Raum im Rom der späten Republik - eine digitale Forschungsumgebung","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div>
                <p>Thema dieses Beitrags ist der Aufbau und die Nutzung einer digitalen Forschungsumgebung zur Analyse und Visualisierung textueller, individueller und gruppenbasierter Raumwahrnehmung und Raumordnung der Stadt Rom im ersten vorchristlichen Jahrhundert. Neben einer grundlegenden kurzen Einführung in die historische bzw. raumwissenschaftliche Fragstellung sollen insbesondere der Umgang mit unscharfen bzw. unsicheren räumlichen Daten sowie der technischen Umsetzung einer digitalen Forschungsumgebung, in der unterschiedlichste Daten und Anwendungen miteinander kombiniert werden können und so ein genuin digitaler hermeneutischer Prozess ermöglicht und dokumentiert werden kann, im Fokus stehen.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Theoretische Grundlage</head>
                <p>In den letzten Jahren haben die sich neu etablierenden Raumwissenschaften besonders für die Neuzeit ein Modell entwickelt, welches den historischen Raum von einem vermessbaren „euklidischen“ oder auch einem positivistisch erfassten Natur- bzw. Kulturraum unterscheidet. Es konnte herausgestellt werden, dass Raum nicht die Summe und Relation der Objekte zueinander, sondern dass er erst im Aneignungsprozess durch die historischen Akteure generiert wird. Raum kann also nicht mehr von seinem Inhalt getrennt angesehen werden, sondern fungiert als dessen Ordnungsgefüge [PARNREITER 2013 S. 46] oder wie Ernst Cassirer es bereits 1930 programmatisch in seinem Vortrag „Mythischer, ästhetischer und theoretischer Raum“ auf den Punkt gebracht hat, die Substantialität ist durch die Funktion, das „Was“ durch ein „Wie“ ersetzt worden [CASSIRER 2009/1931 S. 95]. In Bezug auf das Verhältnis von Geschichte und Raum bedeutet diese Öffnung des Raums vom Absolutum zum Betrachtungsgegenstand, a) dass die Vorstellung von Geschichte im Raum, bzw. der Raum als Behälter von Geschichte in eine Raum-Geschichte umgewandelt werden muss, b) dass es nicht Eine Raum-Geschichte, sondern eine Pluralität von Raum-Geschichten gibt, welche vom Standpunkt bzw. der Lebenswelt des Betrachters abhängig sind und c) dass innerhalb dieser historischen Raum-Ordnungen Platz für Widersprüche, Leerstellen und Ungereimtheiten bestehen darf, ja muss. Denn in der Konstitution dieses „Wie“, dieser Raum-Ordnungen der Lebenswelt, spielt neben der sensorischen Wahrnehmung die individuelle Erfahrung des bzw. der Wahrnehmenden ebenso eine Rolle wie auch das kollektive Gedächtnis der jeweiligen Gesellschaft [LYNCH 1960/2001 S. 13]. Ziel einer historischen Raumwissenschaft muss es also sein, diese Pluralität von Raum-Ordnungen in ihrer vernetzten Struktur zu erfassen und auf ihre individuellen und gruppenspezifischen Anteile hin zu untersuchen. Konventionelle historische Karten können für die Analyse dieser Prozesse nur eine Grundlage bilden, auf welcher die mentalen Karten der historischen Akteure aufbauen, die wiederum die Basis für das Handeln Letzterer darstellen.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Historisches Szenario</head>
                <p>Aus diesen grundlegenden Überlegungen zum Raum ergibt sich für eine Untersuchung der antiken Raumordnungen von Städten im Allgemeinen und der Stadt Rom im Speziellem als erstes Ziel der Aufbau der vermittelten Räume, aus den auf uns überkommen Quellen – in diesem Fall besonders den Texten. Zu Beginn müssen also, in dem hier vorgestellten Projekt vom lateinischen Autor Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43v.Chr.) präsentierten Räume erfasst und dargestellt werden. Praktisch bedeutet dies zu fragen, welche räumlichen Objekte genannt werden, welcher Stellenwert ihnen zugemessen wird und wie sie zueinander in Verbindung gesetzt werden.</p>
                <p>In einem zweiten Schritt muss ferner die Frage gestellt werden, welche individuellen Aneignungen und welche kollektiven Vorstellungen der Räume durch diese vermittelten Räume zutage treten und welchen Charakter diese besitzen. Handelt es sich um staatlich bzw. durch zentrale Akteure geplante, um alltägliche oder auch um symbolische Räume? Können diese klar voneinander getrennt werden oder überlagern bzw. bedingen sie sich und, sollte letzteres der Fall sein, auf welche Weise? </p>
                <p>Die Quellenbasis für diese Analyse besteht in 1300 Nennungen von insg. 255 Raumobjekten der Stadt Rom in den Werken Ciceros, welche in einer relationalen Datenbank gesammelt und georeferenziert wurden. Ein zentrales Problem hierbei bestand in der Unschärfe der genannten Räume, da a) nicht alle Orte, die Cicero nennt, heute genau zu lokalisieren sind, b) die Nennungen, die der Autor macht, nicht immer exakt sind und c) manche Verortungen in der Zeit der Entstehung der Werke nicht mehr oder nur sehr vage bekannt waren (z.B. wenn sie sich auf die Zeit der Gründung Roms beziehen). Als Referenzdaten für eine räumliche Analyse wurden der archäologische Befund zur Stadt Rom in der späten Republik kartographisch aufgenommen sowie Nennungen bei für Cicero zeitgenössischen Autoren (Varro, Caesar, Sallust) und die historischen Daten zur Stadt Rom in der späten Republik.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Technische Umsetzung</head>
                <p>Zentral für die Umsetzung eines solchen Ansatzes ist es, ein dynamisches kartographisches System aufzubauen, indem unterschiedlichste archäologische, philologische und historische Daten zusammengeführt und unter Nutzung verschiedenster Analyse- und Visualisierungswerkzeuge (kartographisch, netzwerkanalytisch, word-Clouds …) dynamisch miteinander in Beziehung gesetzt werden können. Es bedarf hierfür einer digitalen Forschungsumgebung, in der unterschiedliche Medieninhalte miteinander über streng definierte Programmierschnittstellen kombiniert werden.</p>
                <p>Einen Schlüssel für die Verbindung unterschiedlicher digitaler Analyseverfahren bei freier Manipulierbarkeit der Daten bildet die Webble-Technologie [TANAKA 2003], eine Schnittstellentechnologie, mit der versucht wird, philosophische Konzepte der Wissensevolution in innovativen Werkzeugen des Wissensmanagements umzusetzen. Webbles erlauben Nutzern, vorhandene Wissensressourcen, welche als Medienobjekte gekapselt – „gewrapped“ – sind, weiterzuverarbeiten und zu distribuieren. Benutzer können einzelne Medienobjekte durch direkte Manipulation, wie „drag“, „drop“, „copy“, „paste“, miteinander zu neuen Objekten kombinieren, ohne Programmierkenntnisse zu besitzen. Aus technologischer Sicht handelt es sich bei der Webble-Technologie um eine Middleware, die insbesondere für Web-basierte Anwendungen geeignet ist und die intuitive Verbindung von nahezu beliebigen Funktionen und Dienstleistungen erlaubt. Dies gilt für die Verbindung von Methoden der qualifizierenden Datenanalyse mit denen der Bildverarbeitung gleichermaßen wie etwa der Verbindung von GIS-basierten Visualisierungssystemen mit digitalen Methoden der Netzwerkanalyse. Die Webble-Technologie erlaubt die intuitive Kombination von Medienobjekten, die im Ergebnisse neue Sichten oder gar Einsichten repräsentieren können.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliographie</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Parnreiter, C.</hi>(2013). <hi rend=""italic"">Stadtgeographie</hi>. In: Harald Mieg, Christoph Heyl: Stadt. Ein interdisziplinäres Handbuch. Stuttgart, Weimar: Verlag J.B. Metzler, pp. 46-63. </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Cassierer, E.</hi> (1931/2009).  <hi rend=""italic"">Mythischer, ästhetischer und theoretischer Raum</hi>. In: Wolfgang ORTH und Michael KROIS (Hg.): Ernst Cassierer. Symbol, Technik, Sprache. Aufsätze aus den Jahren 1927-1933. Hamburg: Felix Meiner Verlag (Philosophische Bibliothek 372), pp. 93-110.</bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Tanaka, Y.</hi> (2003). <hi rend=""italic""> Meme media and meme market architectures. Knowledge media for editing, distributing, and managing intellectual resources</hi>. Piscataway, NJ, Hoboken, NJ: IEEE Press; Wiley-Interscience.</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2820","17","Le Futur Du Livre Électronique En Accès Libre : L'exemple De La Collection ""Parcours Numériques""","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Cinq constats, déjà soulignés par plusieurs chercheurs (dont Steven Harnad et Jean Claude Guédon, par exemple) nous semblent démontrer l'urgence de développer des politiques institutionnelles pour promouvoir l'accès libre:</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>Cinq multinationales (Wiley, Elsevier, Springer, Taylor and Francis, Sage) gèrent la quasi-totalité de la presse scientifique. Elles prennent depuis des années en otage les contenus produits par les chercheurs;</item>
                <item>Les contenus publiés sont payés par l’Université (qui paye la recherche des chercheurs);</item>
                <item>Les bibliothèques sont obligées de payer une deuxième fois ces mêmes contenus;</item>
                <item>Cela réduit fortement la circulation des contenus scientifiques au seul profit d’entreprises qui ne jouent aucun rôle dans leur production et qui ne contribuent nullement à leur visibilité;</item>
                <item>Ce système est maintenu en place par le dispositif des évaluations académiques – pour des raisons de CV, le chercheur publie sur des revues ""accréditées"" quand il pourrait, sans frais ou presque, publier en accès libre.</item>
            </list>
            <p>Pour sortir de ce mécanisme pervers il faut d’abord essayer de faire résistance au modèle imposé par ces multinationales, d’où l’importance des efforts de remettre en question ces politiques d'abonnement, comme l'a fait la Bibliothèque de l'Université de Montréal qui s’est désabonnée de l'offre panier de Wiley en janvier 2014. Mais il faut aussi proposer de nouveaux modèles.</p>
            <p>Depuis longtemps, plusieurs initiatives essaient d’aller dans ce sens en faisant la promotion de l’accès libre, entre autres bien évidemment, pour le domaine francophone, érudit.org et revues.org (OpenEdition) tout comme des revues qui remettent en question les problèmes de modèle économique au nom de cette cause. Avec les Presses de l’Université de Montréal nous avons créé une collection en accès libre, ""Parcours numériques"", au printemps 2014, avec déjà cinq ouvrages parus. </p>
            <p>La collection est basée sur l’idée qu’il doit y avoir une complémentarité entre l’édition papier et l’édition numérique, car ces deux formes de publication présupposent des idées différentes de lecture et deux approches différentes à la réception des contenus.</p>
            <p>Le livre papier – et on entend ici également le numérique homothétique (epub ou pdf) qui reproduit à l’identique le livre papier sur un support numérique – permet une lecture linéaire. Une thèse peut y être présentée et argumentée de façon complexe. Le lecteur sera capable de suivre de manière linéaire le développement de l’argumentation, de faire un cheminement avec l’auteur en se laissant accompagner d’un bout à l’autre du discours. C’est pour cela que nous avons fait le choix de publier des livres assez courts (120/200 pages) : c’est la longueur adéquate pour présenter une thèse et la démontrer à l’aide d’une argumentation unique et cohérente. Sur un livre papier, on peut passer plusieurs heures pour suivre l’auteur dans tout son raisonnement. Mais il faut que le discours soit linéaire : tout ce qui entraîne une sortie par rapport au chemin principal doit être évacué. L’appareil critique, les références, les parenthèses, les exemples, les images, les statistiques, les détails… tous ces éléments viennent casser la linéarité de la lecture.</p>
            <p>L’édition numérique augmentée, en revanche, présuppose une lecture non linéaire, qui procède par approfondissement. On commence par lire un premier texte sur un sujet, on souhaite en approfondir un aspect, puis on glisse sur un contenu qui se trouve ailleurs et qui nous permet d’en savoir plus sur ce qui au départ ne semblait qu’un détail. On navigue, on flâne, le parcours emprunté n’existe pas avant la navigation, il n’a pas été prévu par un auteur ou un éditeur. Ces derniers ont suggéré des pistes, ouvert des portes… puis la navigation est laissée aux lecteurs, à leurs envies, à leur créativité. Dans ce sens, il n’est pas vrai, comme le voudrait Nicholas Carr, que le numérique détruit notre capacité d’attention : il s’agit d’une attention différente, disséminée, qui permet l’approfondissement mais empêche de suivre un discours plus long et unitaire.</p>
            <p>La collection ""Parcours numériques"" offre donc ces deux possibilités de lecture. L’édition en ligne augmentée offre le texte en intégralité, en libre accès, ainsi que toute une série de contenus additionnels qui seront autant de portes prêtes à être ouvertes pour nous emmener ailleurs, vers des approfondissements, des sujets connexes, d’autres formes de contenus, d’autres plateformes, d’autres parcours, qui n’ont pas été nécessairement prévus par l’auteur ou par l’éditeur du livre. C’est également pour cette raison que l’édition en ligne augmentée est gratuite : elle permet d’avoir accès à un univers connecté au livre, un univers qui n’a été créé ni par l’auteur, ni par l’éditeur. Si par la suite le lecteur souhaite se plonger pleinement et complètement dans la thèse de l’auteur afin d’en connaître et d’en comprendre les moindres aspects, il aura probablement davantage envie de le lire de façon linéaire et donc de l’acheter en papier, en epub ou en pdf.</p>
            <p>De cette manière, on permet une circulation libre des contenus, un cercle vertueux où est mis en avant le travail de l’auteur grâce aux liens qui sont créés vers d’autres contenus, produits par d’autres. On met simultanément en place un réseau de connaissances et un dialogue. Mais on permet aussi, grâce au papier et à son double numérique homothétique, au discours linéaire de l’auteur d’exister, clair, identifié, reconnaissable. Deux lectures qui ne sont pas en compétition donc, mais qui se complètent.</p>
            <p>Notre présentation révèlera les données sur les ventes au cours des deux premières années, les résultats du modèle économique choisi, ainsi que des données sur la plateforme en ligne.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cohen, D.</hi> (2010). Open Access Publishing and Scholarly Values.
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dan Cohen’s Digital Humanities Blog.</hi> <ref target=""http://www.dancohen.org/2010/05/27/open-access-publishing-and-scholarly%20values/"">http://www.dancohen.org/2010/05/27/open-access-publishing-and-scholarly values/</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Guédon, J. C.</hi> (2014). Le Libre Accès et la Grande Conversation scientifique. In Sinatra, M., E. and Vitali-Rosati, M. (Eds.),
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pratiques de l'édition numérique</hi>. Montreal: Presses de l’Université de Montréal.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Hall, G.</hi> (2008). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digitize This Book! The Politics of New Media, or Why We Need Open Access Now</hi>. >Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Harnad, S.</hi> (2007). The Green Road to Open Access: A Leveraged Transition. In Gacs, A. (Ed.),
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Culture of Periodicals from the Perspective of the Electronic Age</hi>. Paris: L’Harmattanpp, pp. 99–105.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sinatra, M. E. and Vitali-Rosatti, M.</hi> (Eds.) (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Pratique de l’édition numérique</hi>. Montreal: Presses de l’Université de Montréal.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sinatra, M. E.</hi> (2015). Promoting Open Access and Innovation: From Synergies to Le Centre de Recherche Interuniversitaire sur les Humanités Numériques. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scholarly and Research Communication</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(4). http://www.src-online.ca
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Willinsky, J. </hi> (2009).
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Access Principle: The Case for Open Access to Research and Scholarship</hi>. The MIT Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2821","17","Representación De Otras Literaturas Mexicanas En Medios Digitales","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
          <div>
            <head>Introducción</head>
            <p>Este trabajo tiene como objetivo mostrar las posibilidades que ofrecen las herramientas digitales para representar literaturas de México pertenecientes a los pueblos originarios. Estas formas literarias han sido sub-representadas y los acercamientos a ellas siempre han estado marcados por una visión parcial sobre los procesos intrínsecos que las caracterizan y que las distinguen de las literaturas oficiales de México. </p>
            <p>Las conclusiones se presentan en base a los resultados de dos proyectos: por un lado la edición digital 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Códice Mendoza</hi> y por otro un prototipo digital para la representación de poesía ritual. Ambos proyectos, como se verá, ilustran las ventajas de la representación digital sobre la que se ha venido haciendo por décadas en soportes impresos. 
            </p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Antecedentes</head>
            <p>México es un país con una profunda tradición intelectual que viene desde mucho tiempo atrás de la llegada de los españoles. Las culturas que habitaron lo que hoy se denomina Mesoamérica lograron un enorme desarrollo científico y cultural, que se ve reflejado en su organización política, en su esplendor arquitectónico, en la precisión de sus cálculos astronómicos y en sus expresiones artísticas y literarias. </p>
            <p>Es importante mencionar que hoy en día ese conocimiento sigue vivo a través de más de 60 culturas que cohabitan en el territorio mexicano. Esas culturas, en mayor o menor medida, son portadoras de ese conocimiento milenario, y siguen representando y actualizando ese saber a través de sus literaturas. </p>
            <p>El investigador británico Gordon Brotherston se ha referido a estas literaturas como los libros del “cuarto mundo”, expresiones literarias que no necesariamente responden a los estándares que hemos definido durante siglos en la tradición intelectual hegemónica como literatura. (Brotherston, 1997)</p>
            <p>Entre los ejemplos que podemos encontrar a lo largo del continente se encuentran los quipús andinos, y por supuesto los dos casos que nos ocupan: la poesía ritual y los manuscritos pictóricos mesoamericanos. Vale la pena recordar que muchas de estas culturas tenían una forma integral y holística de representar el cosmos, por lo que estas expresiones no se entienden de manera aislada de otros factores culturales como los rituales, la guerra, la caza o los fenómenos naturales. </p>
            <p>Estos ejemplos de formas literarias no canónigas, que se multiplican por todo el continente americano, deben ser reconocidos como textos en sí mismos. Pueden ser entendidos como una modalidad enmarcada de lenguaje y todos cuentan con coherencia interna (estructura, formato y orden); codificación que le permite resistir al paso del tiempo; todas son entidades en sí mismas y cuentan con una estructura y una función comunicativa. </p>
            <p>Es muy probable que los mecanismos de representación que hemos usado hasta ahora hayan sido poco sensibles a las necesidades formales que este tipo de expresiones exigen. Debemos reconocer que nuestros acercamientos están siempre enfocados a través de una visión binaria entre lo oral y lo escrito, irrelevante e insuficiente para las literaturas de la América Indígena. </p>
            <p>En ese sentido hemos sido indiferentes o insensibles al ignorar todas estas categorías de representación. Si bien las hemos estudiado, y gracias a una enorme tradición de estudiosos desde fray Bernardino de Sahagún, pasando por el Padre Ángel María Garibay hasta llegar a Miguel León Portilla y Alfredo López Austin, las pudimos conocer, no hemos resuelto aún como adecuarlas para que su representación formal responda a la complejidad de su esencia. </p>
            <p>Es necesario que entendamos que estos textos mesoaméricanos son mucho más complejos de lo que hoy leemos como medios escritos. Son indisociables de todos los elementos que lo integran: material, oral y ritual. Son diacrónicos y dialógicos y al mismo tiempo multimediáticos. </p>
            <p>Por último es necesario tener en cuenta que las dos formas expresivas de las que nos ocupamos, tienen origen en el México prehispánico, y en algunos casos han sobrevivido a los procesos de aculturación. También, estas dos expresiones resultan únicas por sus características y, hasta el momento en que estas líneas se escriben, el autor no ha podido conocer otros proyectos que aborden desde una perspectiva holística el problema de representación de estas literaturas o expresiones culturales mexicanas en otro tipo de medios. </p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Representación de códices mexicanos en medios digitales</head>
            <p>El primer proyecto que se abordará es la edición digital del 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Códice Mendoza</hi> esfuerzo histórico por ofrecer en plataformas digitales un nuevo acercamiento a estos manuscritos históricos. Estos documentos pictográficos son considerados objetos culturales complejos que representaban el conocimiento histórico, simbólico, calendárico, económico y ritual de los antiguos mexicanos. Fueron creados en diferentes tipos de soportes como el papel amate, el papel de maguey o el papel europeo, después de la llegada de los españoles.
            </p>
            <p>La escritura de los códices mexicanos no es fonética salvo en el caso de los códices mayas. En el caso de los códices zapotecos y mexicas la relación entre las imágenes es lo que determina el significado. Este tipo de escritura no alfabética ha sido definida como semasiográfica (Boone Hill, 1994, 20). Asimismo, integran en un todo holístico lo que nosotros podríamos considerar como elementos separados. En ese sentido, los podemos considerar como textos multimedia ya que echan mano de imágenes, oralidad, memoria, ritual e incluso elementos no directa o físicamente asociados como esculturas, sitios sagrados o algún corpus de inscripciones. De igual manera, la lectura de estos documentos era un acto performático y ritual, sólo ejecutado por quien Jerome Rothenberg llamaría un técnico de lo sagrado.</p>
            <p>En síntesis podemos decir que los códices son soportes abiertos, dinámicos, participativos, interactivos y ‘suceden’ en tiempo real. Por estas características resulta muy difícil imaginar que podamos representarlos en un soporte plano bidimensional como una edición en papel. </p>
            <p>El especialista Miguel León-Portilla ha considerado que es insuficiente traducir un códice a una edición en papel. Quizá lo mismo se puede decir de cualquier traducción y transliteración, aunque por las características descritas arriba, se acentúa la complejidad en el caso de los códices. León-Portilla también estableció una interesante analogía, muy adecuada para nuestro tema, donde compara a los CR-ROMs con los códices. Enfatiza que ambos tienen varias formas de lectura, los dos son multimedia al combinar imágenes, texto y sonido, al tiempo que ambos tiene un afán totalizados de diversas facetas del conocimiento. (León-Portilla, 2003)</p>
            <p>Hoy, el equivalente a un CD-ROM sería una aplicación web o una aplicación nativa para algún dispositivo móvil. </p>
            <p>En este sentido, la edición digital del 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Códice Mendoza</hi> demostró que la representación digital es óptima para los códices mexicanos. Su complejidad semántica y también su carácter multimedial se representan de manera más holística en medios digitales. En este sentido vale la pena recordar las palabras de Willard McCarty cuando señala que toda traducción de un medio textual a un medio digital, conlleva una importante pérdida de sentido (McCarty, 2008). Sin embargo, en este caso la pérdida es mucho menor ya que lo que estamos trasladando es un medio dinámico a otro medio dinámico. 
            </p>
            <p>Del mismo modo, consideramos que el resultado funciona de manera doble en varios sentidos: permite un acercamiento al público en general y también un acercamiento a los académicos especializados. Al mismo tiempo, permite una representación más completa pero también las herramientas tecnológicas nos permiten un estudio más profundo de estos documentos, principalmente por su accesibilidad. </p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Representación de poesía ritual en medios digitales</head>
            <p>Dentro del territorio mexicano existen más de sesenta lenguas indígenas, que con sus variaciones dialectales son más de trescientas. Como en todas las lenguas del mundo, son complejísimas las expresiones literarias verbales que residen dentro de estas lenguas y estas culturas. </p>
            <p>Estas expresiones son consideradas como patrimonio intangible, inmaterial o vivo y pese a que existe una buena cantidad de registros, son escasos los que recaen en su valor literario, y en muchas ocasiones se desdeña este tipo de acercamientos frente a los de las ciencias sociales. </p>
            <p>Al igual que los códices, estas expresiones son dinámicas, abiertas, multimodales, participativas e interactivas. Dentro de la enorme diversidad de expresiones, se encuentran los cantos chamánicos o rituales, que por sus características son aún más complejos. En ellos, también inciden aspectos rituales, estados de trance y otros elementos contextuales difíciles de representar como pintura facial, eructos o incluso convulsiones. </p>
            <p>Hasta hace poco tiempo estas expresiones se representaban y se estudiaban a través de ediciones impresas. En palabras del teórico John Miles Foley, esta forma de trabajar con las formas verbales aplana o diseca su expresividad. Asimismo, los acercamientos académicos han mostrado poco interés por las características poéticas de estas expresiones
                <note place=""foot"" xml:id=""ftn1"" n=""1""> Hay varios factores que inciden en la falta de preocupación por representar de manera más completa estas expresiones, principalmente hay poco interés de parte de los antropólogos por las características meramente poéticas de este tipo de literaturas En general, las consideran como un accesorio para conocer otros aspectos de la cultura a la cual pertenecen, una fuente más para el estudio del otro. (Rothenberg and Tedlock, 1970).</note>. Fue gracias a enfoques novedosos y propositivos como la etnopoética, que se logró un cambio de actitud hacia cómo trabajar estos materiales. (Miranda Trigueros, 2007)
            </p>
            <p>Al igual que en el caso de los códices, los medios digitales parecen mucho más adecuados para representar estas expresiones orales. Podemos ser más fieles en la representación, incluir un mayor número de canales de significado, mayor contexto y ser más transparentes con la enunciación original. </p>
            <p>En respuesta a estas necesidades el que escribe estas líneas creó el prototipo DARP (Digital Archive of Ritual Poetry) como tesis de maestría en 2013, para obtener el grado de maestro en humanidades digitales en el King’s College de Londres. . El prototipo está basado en un fragmento del canto chamánico de la reconocida sanadora mazateca María Sabina. </p>
            <p>El resultado que nos ofreció el prototipo es un medio digital que nos permite representar de una mejor manera este tipo de expresiones. A diferencia de esfuerzos anteriores, donde, por ejemplo, se representaban en papel acompañados de un CD de audio (Miranda Trigueros, 2007), la integración total de la representación aural con el texto lo hace que funcione mucho mejor. El uso de una aplicación simple basada en Javascript y JQuery permitió sincronizar el audio al texto en una lectura interactiva. Asimismo se integraron otros elementos hipermediales que amplían la comprensión del texto y su significado. </p>
            <p>Por otro lado, la creación del prototipo permitió comprobar que la codificación del texto permite un acercamiento totalmente novedoso al contenido, obligando al investigador a hacerse preguntas hasta ese momento inéditas (Sperberg-McQueen, 2009, 35). La codificación con TEI y XLST permitió la creación de índices automatizados que estructuran el contenido textual y ofrecen herramientas al investigador para hacer un análisis mucho más ágil y certero que si lo pensáramos en términos manuales. </p>
            <p>El prototipo busca convertirse en un recurso más sólido para lo cual se plantean dar los siguientes pasos: </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>definir una ontología básica de los elementos que pueden encontrarse dentro de este tipo de expresiones.</item>
                <item>Integrar un corpus de diferentes expresiones que se encuentren a lo largo del territorio nacional </item>
                <item>Creación de una base de datos consultable para poder encontrar elementos comunes y desde allí establecer una poética de los cantos rituales mexicanos. </item>
            </list>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Conclusiones</head>
            <p>Las herramientas digitales nos permiten representar de mejor manera los llamados libros del cuarto mundo. Podemos crear ediciones más holísticas, precisas, fieles y con un mayor grado de contexto que permite una mejor comprensión del objeto representado. </p>
            <p>Se puede decir también que después de haber trabajado en dos casos disímiles en su formato, pero análogos en su origen y en su complejidad, la representación de un medio dinámico siempre debe de ser representada en un medio dinámico. </p>
            <p>Tanto en el caso de la poesía oral ritual como en el caso de los códices se hace patente que la complejidad de las expresiones culturales prehispánicas encuentra una representación más rica y transparente a través de las herramientas digitales. Sus características dinámicas, abiertas, procesuales, interactivas y multimediales obligan a pensar en los medios digitales como óptimos para la representación y estudio de este tipo de literaturas. Los recursos digitales son más fieles al original, abren más canales semánticos, ofrecen más contexto, y una forma más holística y transparente de presentación. </p>
            <p>Asimismo, en ambos casos encontramos enormes posibilidades para los interesados en el estudio de la cultura mexicana, para entender mejor este enorme patrimonio, esta literatura sumergida, donde creemos que es necesario profundizar en las ventajas y virtudes que nos ofrecen las herramientas digitales para un replanteamiento total en el estudio de ellas. </p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Brotherston, G. </hi>(1997). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">La América indígena en su literatura: los libros del cuarto mundo. </hi>México, FCE. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Boone Hill, E. and Mignolo, W. (eds).</hi> (1994). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Writing Without Words: Alternative Literacies Mesoamerica & the Andes</hi>. EUA, Duke University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Foley, J. M. </hi>(2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Oral Tradition and the internet. Pathways of the mind</hi>. EUA, University of Illinois Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">León-Portilla, M. </hi>(2003). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Códices, los antiguos libros del nuevo mundo.</hi> México, Aguilar. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Miranda Trigueros, E.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">La etonopoética y los cantos de María Sabina, una aproximación,</hi> (tesis de licenciatura). México, UNAM.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">McCarty, W. </hi>(2008). What's going on?. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(3): 253-61.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Rothebnberg, J. and Tedlock, D.</hi> (1970). Statement of Intention. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Alcheringa</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>: 5.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Sperberg-McQueen, C. M.</hi> (2009). How to teach your edition how to swim 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">24</hi>(1): 27-39.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2822","17","WordPress as a framework for automated data capture, filtering and structuring processes. The new order of the authors","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p> The Exhibitium Project<note><p>Generation of knowledge about temporary art exhibitions for a multivalent reuse was the topic of the proposal presented to the 2014 competition organized by the BBVA Foundation for projects in the field of Digital Humanities, resulting selected from over 250 submissions. The project website is available at: http://exhibitium.com. The Exhibitium Project began in January 2015 and will end in December 2016, so currently we are completing the first phase.</p></note>, awarded by the BBVA Foundation, is a data-driven project developed by an international consortium of research groups.<note><p>They are: iArtHis_Lab (http://www.iarthislab.es) and Khaos (http://khaos.uma.es) at the University of Málaga; Techne, ingeniería del conocimiento y del producto (<ref target=""http://www.ugr.es/~tep028/quienes_somos_es.php"">http://www.ugr.es/~tep028/quienes_somos_es.php</ref>) at the University of Granada; and CulturePlex at the University of Western Ontario (http://www.cultureplex.ca).</p></note> One of its main objectives is to build a prototype that will serve as a base to produce a platform for the recording and exploitation of data about art-exhibitions available on the Internet.<note><p>Specifically, the ultimate Exhibition’s purpose is to extract unprecedented and strategic knowledge about temporary art exhibitions through the use of a variety of data mining techniques.</p></note> Therefore, our proposal aims to expose the methods, procedures and decision-making processes that have governed the technological implementation of this prototype, especially with regard to the reuse of WordPress (WP) as a development framework.</p>
            <p>According to the project's purpose, it was necessary to create a device that, to the extent possible, could capture in automated way information on art exhibitions from any Internet source. Consequently, the inquiry into the possibilities of web mining strategies emerged as a priority from the early stages. Taking into account the high expressiveness and flexibility of linguistic structures usually used in the description of art exhibitions, our project opted for a mixed platform which combines the potential modeling system based on textual indicators, the heuristic means that characterize some methods -such as the Bayesian classification- and the human supervision provided by a well trained team of editors.</p>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>1. General overview. WordPress as a framework of the Expofinder system </head>
            <p>As Baumgartner et al. (2009: 1) established, the web data extraction task is usually divided into five different functions: (1) the web interaction, which mainly comprises the navigation through predetermined web pages containing the information sought; (2) the extraction of the searched data by means of a software that identifies, extracts and transforms them into a structured format; (3) the setting of a specific calendar that enable to perform automatically the extraction tasks in regular sequence; (4) the processing of the captured data, which includes filtering, transformation -if applicable-, refining and integration; and (5) the delivery of the resulting structured data to a variety of data analysis-based systems.</p>
            <p>Assuming this distribution as the most convenient for our purposes, we decided to include them in the Exhibitium’s architecture grouped into two large blocks.</p>
            <p>A. A block consisting of an automated capture system of information robust enough to ensure the reliability of the collected data.</p>
            <p>B. A second block made up by the set of elements necessary to store the data, including functions for filtering, cleaning, management, structuring and description. This block also incorporates a system to export the collected data to those platforms that will process and analyze them during the second phase of the project.</p>
            <p>Block A was called Beagle, and block B became known as ExpoFinder. Both blocks work in a coordinated manner, so that what is extracted by Beagle is put at the disposal of ExpoFinder. The two blocks are part of an unified system configured by a cyclic algorithm: Beagle captures, ExpoFinder analyzes and approves the captured information, the team of editors validates or discards what ExpoFinder has previously approved, and Beagle recaptures again (see figure 1).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""392/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure1. Beagle + ExpoFinder. Operating plan (simplified)</head>
            </figure>
            <p>Regarding the software, after preliminary versions based on own developments, it was decided that the most interesting option between the free software and open source solutions currently available (as the openness philosophy is a sine qua non requirement of this project) would be to use WP as framework of the system.<note><p>Although, in reality, according to the Tom McFarlin’s statement in his popular page «tuts +» (http://tutsplus.com/), it is more a foundation that a framework. And maybe he is right: a framework consists of a set of conventions as well as libraries and tools that allow us to easily start working on an application. In short, it provides the means by which an application can be built from scratch, from the database schema to the front end. However, a foundation allows to «extend» an existing application. WP has its own well-defined internal mechanisms, and the foundation simply expands its operation or takes advantage of it for their own benefit.</p></note> The main benefits that the use of WP as framework offers for our project can be synthesized in the following items: a database with a flexible and very solid organizational structure; a layer of a core application with numerous hooks which allow to maximize its functionality; and a high easy management system to carry out tasks on the two sides (server and client), assuming both administrator and user roles.<note><p>The advantages that a robust mechanism as such provided by WP offers for the maintenance of a security system (essential in any development accessible through Internet), or the substantial savings in time and resources involved in a CRUD structure records management -which is both sufficiently malleable to suit any need and rigid enough to follow canonical deployment patterns (such as the «nonce» safeguards in the capture forms), are weighty arguments when opting for the use of one framework or another.</p></note> Thus, for the implementation of the Beagle-ExpoFinder system we took advantages of the predefined data base, the available APIs and the set of data visualization templates to build solutions using an application that is already fully functional.</p>
            <p>We used WP without adaptations, that is, as it can be downloaded from the Internet. All the functionality of our application lies, then, on the code itself that constitutes WP, so it is not supported on variant versions (forks) of the original program. Hence, any improvement provided by the computing community will be directly usable by our project without further adaptations. As part of the requirements of the development of the Beagle-ExpoFinder system (B + E), from the beginning it was considered that the programming work did not constitute a «tailored suit» for the Exhibitium project. On the contrary, we expect that this work can be useful in other projects with a small number of modifications or by using configuration files or other similar systems. For that reason, our choice was to implement B + E by means of a «WP theme», solution that easily allows us to readapt the software to different purposes.</p>
          </div>
          <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
          <head>2. Beagle and Expofinder development and technical features </head>
            <p>Beagle captures – as it has been said- by automated means web data concerning temporary art exhibitions from any source of information, and includes a filtering mechanism. The automated capture process uses the tools of WP API, particularly WPCron. Likewise, the frequency of the process is configured according with the options offered by ExpoFinder to the system administrator. Beagle employs two statistical complementary functions to «predict» the degree of the adequacy of the captured information to the ExpoFinder preconditions:<note><p>Even though this document is not largest enough to expose in detail the list of selected preconditions of significant terms used by Beagle in order to filter the captured information, we want to emphasize that this is a «weighted» relationship of lexemes in which each root term is assigned a total «weight» in the set (1 to 3). When the entire process is complete, the absolute amount of the sum corresponding to the found terms is weighted with the relative values (relating to the length of the text where they have been detected) to assign a positive or negative evaluation to the whole information.</p></note> 1. One of this is based on the intersection of a set of «positive» and «negative» keywords with a proportional weight assigned to each one, which is also based on the shortest path algorithm of Bellman-Ford;<note><p>The Bellman-Ford algorithm (or Bellman-Ford-Moore) calculates the shortest paths from a single source vertex to all other vertices in a weighted digraph. It is slower than Dijkstra's algorithm for the same problem, but more versatile, since it is suitable to deal with graphs using negative numbers for edge weights. ExpoFinder takes advantage of it in its weighting mechanism, useful for us because we work with lists of lexemes for words used as «positive» or «negative» markers.</p></note> 2. The other is defined by its heuristic nature; it employs a naive Bayesian classifier<note><p>In machine learning terminology, the «naive Bayesian» constitutes a family of simple probabilistic classifiers based on the application of Bayes’ theorem about the hypothesis of independence between variables. Widely studied since the 1950s, it began to be used since the beginning of the next decade as a taxonomy method capable of self-optimization in the recovery community text. We use the frequency of occurrence of a given lexeme as a trigger, so that ExpoFinder can contribute to the semi-automated selection of relevant information from the experience gained. It is not a pure discriminative mechanism, but an auxiliary tool that has proven to be useful for application operators.</p></note> to guide the «human» editor during the task of discriminating whether or not an information captured by Beagle is valid. The latter is able to improve their efficiency through continuous learning processes (each discarding or acceptance made by the «human» editor refines the system «perceptiveness» (see figures 2 and 3).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""392/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 2. Screenshot. Exhibitions list (fragment). See the Bayesian classifier indicator</head>
            </figure>
            <p>ExpoFinder also includes a control system (QC) that identifies the mistakes and failures, which are also associated with the human editor who made them, so that he/she can perform the appropriate corrections (see figures 3 and 4).</p>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""392/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                <head>Figure 3. Screenshot. Automated evaluation of efficiency</head>
            </figure>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""392/image4.png"" rend=""inline""/> 
                <head>Figure 4. Screenshot. Quality control (QC). Resume</head>
            </figure>
            <p>In its current state of development, the Beagle-ExpoFinder system captures and selects daily about 100 references from more than 12,000 web sources of information. Its error rate during the recording and validation processes is about 3.9%, below the 5% initially considered as permissible.</p>
          </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""footnote text"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Baumgartner, R. et al.</hi> (2009). Web Data Extraction System. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Encyclopedia of Database Systems</hi>. Springer-Verlag.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kokkoras, F. et al.</hi> (2013). DEiXTo: A Web Data Extraction Suite. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of 6th Balkan Conference in Informatics</hi> (BCI 2013), Nueva York: ACM, pp. 9-12. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pree, W.</hi> (1994). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Design Patterns for Object-Oriented Software Development</hi>. Reading, Massachussets, USA: Addison-Wesley, ACM Press Books. 
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                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Raposo, J. et al.</hi> (2002). The Wargo System: Semi-Automatic Wrapper Generation in Presence of Complex Data Access Modes. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Database and Expert Systems Applications</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings</hi>, 13th International Workshop, IEEE, pp. 313-17.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2823","17","« L'interopérabilité : un nouvel horizon pour le partage de données pour les Sciences Humaines et Sociales. L'apport de trois services numériques développés par Huma-Num »","2","<text>
        <body>
            <p>In the field of Humanities and Social Sciences, the production of digital or scanned data has increased considerably in recent years. These data, which are usually very expensive to produce, are often lost at the end of the project. They are therefore rarely reused, due to a lack of financial, human and technical resources of the communities that produced them.</p>
            <p>The TGIR Huma-Num, whose mission is to facilitate the digital turn in Humanities and Social Sciences research, offers services dedicated to the production and reuse of data. These services aim at avoiding loss and facilitating the re-use of scientific data. To do this, Huma-Num supports research teams throughout their digital projects to allow the sharing, reuse and preservation of data thanks to a chain of devices focused on interoperability.</p>
            <p>The aim is to foster the exchange and dissemination of metadata, but also of data itself via standardized tools and lasting, open formats. These tools developed by Huma-Num are all based on Semantic Web technologies, mainly for their auto-descriptive features and for the enrichment opportunities they enable. Other interoperability technologies complement them, such as the OAI-PMH. Interoperability is used internally to allow Huma-Num services to communicate with one another and externally to let users plug their tools into Huma-Num services. </p>
            <p>Another important point is to make the storage of data independent of the device used to disseminate the data.</p>
            <p>This poster will present three services designed and developed by Huma-Num to process, store and display research data while preparing them for re-use and long-term preservation. </p>
            <p>These services embrace the research data life cycle and are designed to meet the needs arising therefrom:</p>
            <p>- SHARE data and metadata, using interoperable technologies, with NAKALA. Another feature is the possibility to make DATA CITEABLE with PIDs;</p>
            <p>- SHOW and DISPLAY the data with NAKALONA, using the CMS Omeka allowing customised editorialization of data stored in Nakala (e.g. virtual exhibitions) benefiting from the features of this CMS such as its search engine and extended OAI-PMH feeds which facilitate interoperability;</p>
            <p>- TAG and PUSH data through ISIDORE, enriching and interconnecting them to ensure better visibility.</p>
            <p>These three complementary services thus constitute a coherent chain of research data tools. While they interact smoothly with each other, they are also open to external tools using the same technologies. In fact each tool, considered individually, is not ground-breaking, but we consider that the combination of these tools is the key to address needs and to prepare the long term preservation of scientific data. </p>
            <p>The scientific objective is to promote data sharing so that other researchers, communities, or disciplines, can reuse them, including from an interdisciplinary perspective and in different ways. A map, for example, may become a scientific object that reflects both the point of view of a geographer and that of a historian. More generally, the principles and methods of the Semantic Web (RDF, SPARQL, SKOS, OWL) on which these services rely enable data to be documented or re-documented for various uses without confining them to inaccessible silos.</p>
            <p>The second objective is to prevent the loss of data by preparing their long-term preservation. Documenting the use of appropriate formats, which are the basis of data interoperability, greatly facilitates the archiving process.</p>
            <p>Through these services, the TGIR Huma-Num is developing solutions based on digital technologies and, in particular, those of the Semantic Web, to meet the needs of researchers and scientific communities, and make new research in the field of Humanities and Social Sciences possible.</p>
        </body>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2824","17","Biographical Data Workshop: modeling, sharing and analyzing people's lives","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>There is an abundance of biographical information online that begs to be analyzed with computational methods. Resources like Wiki- and DBpedia, Biographical Dictionaries, Historical Databases, Newsfeeds, Facebook and Twitter all provide information on individual’s lives. ‘Biographical data’ is of particular interest to computer scientists, because it can be well structured and all people share common attributes such as place of birth, place of residence, parents, et cetera. </p>
            <p>The analysis of `biographical data' with new techniques is a topic that is finding strong interest in research groups all over the world, demonstrated most recently by the first conference on Biographical Data, organized in Amsterdam in 2015. This conference brought researchers from various domains together including historians, librarians, computer scientists, data scientists, and computational linguists.</p>
            <p>The purpose of this workshop is to take a next step in strengthening the community working with digital biographical data by exploring possibilities of turning shared interest into new international collaborations. A central theme in this next step will be connecting and linking data. </p>
            <p>A strong international community working on biographical data and aiming for shared data representations can directly support other domains in the digital humanities: easily accessible background information on people involved in historical or contemporary events, on artists, researchers or groups of people with common professions can provide background information and therefore be of interest to digital humanities researchers working with topics beyond research on biographical data.</p>
            <p>This workshop brings together researchers from various domains working on biographical data. In addition to sharing latest progress, it has the specific aim of initiating efforts to share (knowledge about) data and data models. The workshop directly contributes to the efforts of the DARIAH workgroup on biographical data and aims to involve new researchers in this collaboration.  A call for organization will go out for the Biographical Data in a Digital World Conference in 2017 (2015 conference: http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1399/).</p>
            <p>The workshop consist of two main components: 1) a poster session where researchers can share their latest work on biographical data and computational analysis and 2) dedicated sessions about data and data models.</p>
            <p>For our poster session, we explicitly invite researchers to the workshop who work with biographical data for historical research or data analysis (e.g. computational linguists, visualization experts) and are thus already very familiar with models for biographical data, but are not necessarily involved in designing them. This perspective is of great value during discussions on sharing and modeling data and can provide insights into what kind of data models are practical to work with or which links between various datasets are most valuable for research. These insights can in turn help to identify logical and practical first steps towards increasing international collaboration</p>
            <p>Descriptions on data models and data samples will be distributed to participants in advance and studied by a panel. The panel will present their findings and support the discussion on sharing data. Direct involvement in several projects and strong relations with other international partners guarantees an interesting set of data and data models.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2825","17","Big Data: Complex Systems and Text Analysis","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Half-day workshop (July 11, 9:30am-1pm)</p>
            <p>Participants should bring their own laptops</p>
            <p>A complex system (CS) is a system in which large networks of components with no central control and simple rules of operation give rise to complex collective behavior, sophisticated information processing, and adaptation via learning or evolution. The order that emerges in human language is simply the configuration of components, whether particular words, pronunciations, or constructions, that comes to occur in our communities and occasions for speech and writing. Nonlinear frequency profiles (A-curves) always emerge for linguistic features at every level of scale. Three recent books have embraced CS and developed ideas about it much more fully. Kretzschmar has demonstrated how complex systems do constitute speech in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">The Linguistics of Speech</hi> (2009), focusing on nonlinear distributions and scaling properties. Kretzschmar's 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Language and Complex Systems</hi> (2015) applies CS to a number of fields in linguistics, including a long chapter on sociolinguistics. Finally, Burkette 2016, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Language and Material Culture: Complex Systems in Human Behavior</hi>, applies CS to both the study of language and the anthropological study of materiality. In this workshop we wish to introduce some basic ideas about complex systems, including A-curves and scaling; talk about corpus creation with either a whole population or with random sampling; and talk about quantitative methods, why ""normal"" statistics don't work and how to use the assumption of A-curves to talk about document identification and comparison of language in whole-to-whole or part-to-whole situations like authors or text types. A knowledge of emergent patterns in the CS of a language can cut through the problem of ""noise"" currently faced in NLP experiments that restrict findings to probabilities little more than chance.
            </p>
            <p>We will start the workshop with a 60 minute (40 minute explanation and demonstration, 20 minute experiential learning) general introduction by Burkette to basic terms in CS such as ""states"" and ""emergence,"" and also apply those principles to language in the form of nonlinear frequency distributions and scale-free networks (as from Kretzschmar 2009). The introductory section will acquaint the audience with how the operation of a CS leaves characteristic patterns in language as people use it. One feature of the introduction will be the use of a computer simulation (Kretzschmar) so that the audience can see the process in action, not just observe its end products.</p>
            <p>We will then organize the workshop in two additional parts: 1) Hettel, CS and Corpus Creation; 2) Kretzschmar, CS and Quantitative Measurement. In each part, we will offer explanation and demonstrations for 40 minutes, and allow 20 minutes for experiential learning. Hettel will present a rationale for corpus creation using methods of random sampling. For work on language in texts, this means using either an entire population of texts (such as all the novels by one author) or, more usually, a rigorously sampled selection of texts from a population. Either an entire population of texts or a random sample is required in order to avoid undue influence from any subsection of texts, since CS distributions emerge in every subgroup of texts. Using the example of documents from the nuclear power industry, Hettel will illustrate how a random sample can be created using quotas for each variable to be investigated. Kretzschmar will discuss the problem that frequency patterns that emerge from a CS are always nonlinear, never ""normal"" in the sense required for use of typical Gaussian statistics. He will present a method to assess just how nonlinear a frequency profile is so that A-curves can be distinguished from normal distributions, and then will discuss how emergent frequency profiles from a CS can be usefully described and differentiated. The discussion will conclude with examples of whole-to-whole and part-to-whole comparisons that take advantage of emergent A-curve patterns. </p>
            <p>The organizers will provide data for participants to use on their own laptops. Participants should have a spreadsheet program (Excel, or something that reads Excel files) in order to process the data.'</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Burkette, A.</hi> (2016). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language and material culture: Complex systems in human behavior</hi>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Kretzschmar, William A., Jr.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Linguistics of speech</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Kretzschmar, William A., Jr. </hi>(2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Language and complex systems</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2826","17","HistoInformatics 2016","15","","","2","",""
"2827","17","Audiovisual Data And Digital Scholarship: Towards Multimodal Literacy","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In many online platforms and websites, audio-visual data is gradually playing an equal or greater role than text. Similarly, in multiple disciplines such as anthropology, ethnomusicology, folklore, media studies, film studies, history, and English, scholars are relying more and more on audio-visual data for richer analysis of their research and for accessing information not available through textual analysis. Developing aural and visual literacy has therefore become increasingly essential for 21st century digital scholarship. While audiovisual data allows for research to be disseminated and displayed linearly, within one modality (e.g., reading a book from first to last page), it also allows for non-linear discovery and analysis, within multiple modalities (e.g., reading a webpage, browsing to a link with a sound clip, from there to a clip with film). This workshop will address both the challenges of <hi rend=""italic"">analyzing</hi> audiovisual data in digital humanities scholarship, as well as the challenges of educating contemporary digital humanists on how to access, analyze, and disseminate an entire century of information generated with audiovisual media.</p>
            <p>Other challenges to be addressed at this workshop concern issues surrounding copyright and sustainability and their impact on the dissemination and long-term access of audiovisual resources.  One area of heated debate is whether certain copyright laws, which were originally instated to protect the development of new inventions, are in fact hampering the dissemination of new knowledge due to the restrictions they place on ways information may be displayed or disseminated.  Some scholars contend that copyright laws will become obsolete over the next decades, while others argue that these laws will progressively restrict how scholars use audiovisual media in digital humanities research. Because of the complicated ways these copyright restrictions relate to audiovisual media, they affect films, television and sound more profoundly than digitized books with text and still images. Given these particular challenges faced by digital humanists working with audiovisual materials, a number of questions arise regarding how we might navigate these complex issues concerning copyright, sustainability and long-term storage and access. Can infrastructures essential for shepherding these digital transitions be made available for individual audiovisual digital humanities projects? Can digital humanists look to the university library as the place to support and sustain the websites, datasets and tools created by audiovisual DH research? How can digital humanists secure the massive server space needed to sustain the large-scale storage needs inherent in audiovisual DH projects? Who should oversee the recurring process of inevitable file migration and quality assurance needed for film, photo and sound formats?  Are ‘business-models’ and their potential commercial benefit the way to go or are such arrangements overly optimistic? Are there encouraging examples of successfully sustained audiovisual DH projects that have effectively dealt with copyright issues? Will audiovisual DH scholars become increasingly dependent on philanthropic monopolistic corporations such as Google, Facebook, IBM and Microsoft to sustain their projects? What role should universities play as custodians and advocates of the knowledge produced by our audiovisual DH projects?</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Workshop Overview</hi>
            </p>
            <p>This full-day workshop will start with a keynote address on multimodal literacy by 
                <ref target=""https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claire_Clivaz"">Dr. Claire Clivaz</ref>, Head of Digital Enhanced Learning at the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics of Lausanne and active in 
                <ref target=""http://dariah.eu/teach/index.php/2015/05/21/welcome-to-dariahteach/"">#dariahTeach</ref> for which she is Head of dissemination and developer of the module Multimodal Literacies. This keynote will be followed by three sessions of paper presentations based around three themes:
            </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Models for training digital humanists in accessing and analyzing audiovisual collections</item>
                <item>Analysis and discovery models for audiovisual materials</item>
                <item>Copyright and sustainability</item>
            </list>
            <p>During the fourth session, workshop participants can give very short lightning talks/project pitches of max 5 minutes of ongoing work, projects or plans. Registration for this session will take place during the workshop so no submission is needed for part of the workshop. The workshop will be closed with a plenary & interactive session.</p>
            <p>All papers will be selected by members of the Programme Committee, following a Call for Abstract which was published at 
                <ref target=""https://avindhsig.wordpress.com/workshop-2016-krakowcfp/"">https://avindhsig.wordpress.com/workshop-2016-krakowcfp/</ref>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Programme Committee</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Prof. Franciska de Jong, Erasmus University Rotterdam / CLARIN ERIC (chair)</p>
            <p>Dr. Jakob Kreuzfeld – University of Copenhagen</p>
            <p>Prof. dr. Julia Noordegraaf – University of Amsterdam</p>
            <p>Dr. Cord Pagenstecher – Freie Universität Berlin</p>
            <p>Dr. Marianne Ping Huang – University of Aarhus</p>
            <p>Dr. Willemien Sanders – Universiteit Utrecht</p>
            <p>Dr. Khiet Truong – University of Twente</p>
            <p>Dr. Lars Wieneke – University of Luxembourg</p>
            <p>Organisers</p>
            <p>This workshop is organised by the following members of the 
                <ref target=""https://avindhsig.wordpress.com/"">ADHO Special Interest Group AudioVisual Material in Digital Humanities (AVinDH)</ref>:
            </p>
            <p>Dr. Clara Henderson, Indiana University, Bloomington, USA</p>
            <p>Dr. Martijn Kleppe, National Library of the Netherlands (KB)</p>
            <p>Dr. Stef Scagliola, Erasmus University Rotterdam</p>
            <p>Johan Oomen, Netherlands Institute for Sound and Vision</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2828","17","Beyond The Basics: What Next For Crowdsourcing?","15","","","2","",""
"2829","17","Mining Texts with the Extracted Features Dataset","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The HathiTrust Digital Library holds digitized copies of nearly 15 million scanned volumes from libraries around the world. These volumes are a significant resource for large-scale research: with their scale and breadth of material, a digital humanities scholar can make new inferences on history, language use, cultural trends, or even the structure of the printed word. However, access is complicated by the complexities of navigating copyright laws around the world, while use of the materials is impeded by the effort and technical demands of a researcher. To address both of these issues, the Extracted Features (EF) dataset from the HathiTrust Research Center (HTRC) provides volumes in a format that has already been cleaned, extracted, and tagged for computation use.</p>
            <p>In this hands-on tutorial, participants will learn to use the Extracted Features dataset for text analysis alongside the HTRC Feature Reader library, equipping them to perform research on millions of publicly-accessible volumes. Through the HTRC Feature Reader, participants will be make use of popular data science tools in Python for EF dataset analysis, and will be left with demonstrative materials to repurpose in their future work.</p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Data</head>
                <p>The Extracted Features (EF) dataset from the HathiTrust Research Center (Capitanu et al., 2015) provides an open and permissive download of page-level extracted information for every page of 4.8 million volumes from the HathiTrust Digital Library. A “feature” refers broadly to a quantitative measure of some property in a dataset; for example, the number of times a word appear on a page. The EF data features include part-of-speech-tagged term counts, line and sentence counts, counts of the characters occurring on the far left and far right side of a page, and inferred language probabilities. Most notably, this information is provided 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">for every page. </hi>Also, headers, body, and footer have been identified and features are provided separately for each part.
                </p>
                <p>In the tutorial, participants will learn the significance of each feature, such as using line counts and character information to identify the type of content on a page, or using part-of-speech tags for improving topic models based on content.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Skills</head>
                <p>This tutorial introduces participants to introductory text analysis in Python using the Extracted Features dataset with the HTRC Feature Reader. This includes accessing term counts and other raw information, slicing within that data, visualization trends within or across books, and leading into advanced techniques like topic modeling and sentiment tagging.</p>
                <p>The skills taught in this tutorial are underpinned by programming in Python using a popular set of data science libraries. All code examples are provided, though they are most useful if participants are comfortable in tinkering and have a familiarity with Python's basic conventions. Our intention is to make the code examples transparent enough so as to be easily modifiable by beginner users.</p>
                <p>A participant completing the workshop will understand:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>the structure and possibilities of the HTRC Extracted Features Dataset;</item>
                    <item>how to access the EF dataset files, both for individual and bulk use;</item>
                    <item>how to start a Jupyter notebook, an accessible browser-based approach to data science in Python;</item>
                    <item>the fundamentals of reading volume files, accessing metadata, and slicing and grouping token lists;</item>
                    <item>basic visualization of EF data; and</item>
                    <item>an advanced analytic technique modeled on recent digital humanities methods, discussed below.</item>
                </list>
                <p>The first part of the tutorial teaches the fundamental skills for working with the HTRC Feature Reader. For the final exercise of the tutorial, participants have a choice from prepared advanced exercises, which instructors will assist individually. This structure accommodates more intensive approaches in the time given, while also leaving participants with more examples for practicing their newly-acquired skills in the future.</p>
                <p>The advanced exercises to be provided are: classification of paratext, using features suggested by Underwood (2014); visualization of sentiment trends in books as a proxy for a plot arc as previously performed by Jockers (2015), and within-book topic modeling using the inference approach presented by Organisciak et al. (2015).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Summary</head>
                <p>The EF dataset offers a diverse and incredibly large collections of works for analysis in an easily accessible way. By providing these works as already extracted data, the EF dataset covers a large part of the text analysis workflow for researchers and is thus particularly suited for learners. This tutorial will use EF to teach text analysis through Python, using new software called the HTRC Feature Reader. By the end, students will be able to slice, group, and manipulate individual volumes for their needs, and will be familiar with techniques for modeling texts, identifying pertinent pages, and plotting trends across books.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Capitanu, B., Underwood, T., Organisciak, P., Bhattacharyya, S., Auvil, L., Fallaw, C., J. and Downie J. C.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Extracted Feature Dataset from 4.8 Million HathiTrust Digital Library Public Domain</hi> Vol. <hi rend=""bold""> 2</hi>,[Dataset]. HathiTrust Research Center, doi:10.13012/j8td9v7m.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M. L.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Revealing Sentiment and Plot Arcs with the Syuzhet Package</hi>. 
                        Matthew L. Jockers. Blog. http://www.matthewjockers.net/2015/02/02/syuzhet/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Organisciak, P., Auvil, L. and Downie J. S.</hi> (2015). <hi rend=""italic"">Remembering books: A within-book topic mapping technique</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2015</hi>. Sydney, Australia.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Underwood T.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Understanding Genre in a Collection of a Million Volumes</hi>. Interim Report. https://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.1281251.v1.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2830","17","eXistdb: more than a database. A basic Introduction to eXistdb and XQuery","15","","","2","",""
"2831","17","RDA/ADHO Workshop: Evaluating Research Data Infrastructure Components and Engaging in their Development","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Digital resources in the humanities – text, images, audio and video files – show large variation in terms of quality and provenance, while at the same time constantly increasing in number. As a consequence, requirements for digital (and collaborative) editing, annotating, and modelling of data are subject to constant change. Digital editions, for instance, no longer just offer the potential to annotate text and images through established standards (XML/TEI), but also to retrieve entities in an interoperable format (RDF) and to link them to other digital objects (LOD) in other editions, databases, and archives. The digital annotation of both text and/or image data can be published as a digital object itself. Thus, the relation between digital objects turns into a research object in itself, which can be explored, analysed, and searched by a given set of tools and technologies. </p>
            <p>A fundamental challenge, however, is that a vast – and still continuously growing – amount of digitised sources is not searchable via one interface or entry point. Search results of numerous different archives, libraries, or other databases cannot be compared automatically; and search requests – as they have to be performed in a de-centralised manner – cannot be (centrally) saved and re-used. Established generic models, together with the necessary expertise in dealing with individual project data as digital objects, are still lacking practice and broad usage in digital humanities and cultural studies. This applies for both data modelling as well as for long-term archiving and persistent publishing of primary digital data.</p>
            <p>The proposed poster will illustrate these core aspects of generating, modelling, archiving, exploring, and presenting humanistic research data from a structural and methodological perspective. The digital infrastructure DARIAH-DE is developing a repository for humanities’ research data (
                <ref target=""https://de.dariah.eu/repository"">https://de.dariah.eu/repository</ref>) to be archived and published in a sustainable and persistent way, allowing for re-use, citation, preservation, and further exploration:
            </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Persistent Identifiers, e.g. Digital Object Identifiers (DOI), enable scholarly users to identify research data distinctly. They serve as a crucial pre-condition for archiving, retrieving and citing primary digital data not only in science, but in the humanities as well. </item>
                <item>The modelling of digital objects with established standards (CIDOC, SKOS etc.) and formats (RDF) provides the basis for generating links, thus allowing for generating new knowledge on objects, collections, and/or corpora. Modelling data with the RDF standard allows for linking different objects and therefore accessing information, which can be encoded in variable formats and stored in different databases and archives. The poster will show some practical examples for generic search across TEI-encoded corpora. </item>
                <item>Digital data collections can serve as innovative sources for humanities’ research. As such, they can potentially generate new knowledge. Which are mandatory prerequisites for dealing adequately with information in image- and object- orientated research? Which standards for structuring research data apply, enabling a comprehensive search functionality also across heterogeneously structured data collections and archives? The poster will also present the DARIAH-DE Data Federation Architecture, a set of different tools and services creating innovative options of data management, e.g. accessing and linking heterogeneous data sources of various provenances, analysing existing distributed data collections as well as services to generate data and schema interoperability.</item>
                <item>The poster will show how repositories can help users of varying research disciplines to model, store, and publish their data in a standardised, interoperable way, allowing for re-use, sharing, and further exploration. </item>
            </list>
            <p>The poster will accompany a hands-on workshop adressing these questions in more detail, together with (potential) users. DARIAH-DE will present its repository, its features, the Data Federation Architecture and other tools and services related to dealing with and modelling of humantistic research data via demonstrations and hands-on sessions, enabling participants to actively explore the services also with their own data.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2832","17","View Source: Reading the Hidden Texts of the Web","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <figure>
                <graphic url=""37/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
            </figure>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">When discussing the web, the two layers of online experience we most often talk about are interactions and their underlying technology. We unpack the conversations and transactions happening online (anti-feminist rhetoric, how Twitter differs from Medium), and we discuss how algorithms shape those experiences (Facebook’s decisions about what is in your feed, A/B testing). But at an intermediary level, an entire corpus is being written in Javascript variables and </hi>HTML comments
                <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">, standardized but hidden files, and even the structure of websites themselves. This workshop will investigate these intermediary layers from a critical, exploratory point of view.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">This workshop will use a hackathon-like methodology of play and exploration to maximize breadth and depth – the goal is creative and critical investigation rather than technical. After some short, fairly low-tech tutorials to introduce tools and methodologies, participants will spend the remainder of the workshop digging across the web and presenting their findings. All levels of technical expertise will be encouraged, as will ad hoc collaboration. Those with prior experience using the tools introduced are encouraged to dig deeper.</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Workshop Leader</hi>
                    <lb/>Jeff Thompson an artist, teacher, hacker, and writer whose work investigates the poetics of technology, how its functionality can provide access points for meaningful exploration, the agency of increasingly self-aware systems, and the physicalization of otherwise invisible processes. He is currently Assistant Professor and Program Director of Visual Arts and Technology at Stevens Institute of Technology.
                </hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">Questions about this workshop: jeff.thompson@stevens.edu</hi>
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Tech </hi>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">requirements</hi>
                    <lb/>Participants should bring:
                </hi>
            </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">A laptop with WiFi access</hi>
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">An up-to-date version of Firefox installed (mozilla.org/firefox)</hi>
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">Sublime Text text editor (free version is fine, sublimetext.com)</hi>
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">If possible, please install wget (gnu.org/software/wget)</hi>
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""Hyperlink"">Other text-mining/web tools of your choice</hi>
                </item>
            </list>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2833","17","Tutorial: Getting Started with a CITE/CTS Digital Library","15","","","2","",""
"2834","17","Translation Hack-a-thon!: Applying the Translation Toolkit to a Global dh+lib","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Efforts to forge a global digital humanities community are continually hampered by linguistic divides. Fiormonte 
                <ref target=""http://www.ispf-lab.cnr.it/2014_203.pdf"">argues</ref> that non-Anglo American DH is largely ignored by the dominant Anglo-American hegemony in the field: “But from the point of view of the scientific results, research projects, and institutional presence, Informatica Umanistica, like most of the “other” DH practiced in the world, practically doesn’t exist“ (Fiormonte, 2012). Rockwell 
                <ref target=""http://theoreti.ca/?p=6010"">asserts</ref> that lack of access to this “other” DH diminishes DH as a whole: “...it is precisely when thinkers make strange what you thought you knew that you can think about it afresh. This would be thinking-through translation. This is the message Domenico Fiormonte returns us to when arguing for multiculturalism in the digital humanities” (Rockwell, 2016).
            </p>
            <p>Even when many aspects of global DH practices are not dependent on language, especially within a scholarly community that has adopted a 
                <hi rend=""italic"">lingua franca</hi>, multilingual translation is a productive avenue to explore the situatedness and locality of global DH work. It is also an indispensable basis to 
                <ref target=""https://elikaortega.net/2016/01/13/mla-dh-at-the-borders/"">interlink peripheral, border, global south DH practice with mainstream and canonical DH work</ref> (Ortega, 2016). Galina poses language as a potential mode of inclusiveness, given the dominance of a few countries/institutions and English language in DH, a dominance that is reflected from academia writ large. She 
                <ref target=""http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/content/29/3/307"">suggests</ref>: “… there are some indicators that there is an interest by the main DH organizations of proposing alternative models that can, if not solve, at least alleviate this phenomenon. There are two approaches: the first is making more information available in other languages and the second is making English, used as the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">lingua franca</hi>, more accessible to non-native speakers“ (Galina, 2014). 
            </p>
            <p>How can we move beyond a monolingual DH, and promote exchange of works among linguistic communities? And how can we ensure this exchange is ongoing and sustainable? This hack-a-thon brings together practitioners from two ADHO SIGs--
                <ref target=""http://www.globaloutlookdh.org/"">Global Outlook::Digital Humanities</ref> and the 
                <ref target=""https://twitter.com/libsdh"">Libraries and DH SIG</ref>s--and a primarily monolingual dh community project--
                <ref target=""http://acrl.ala.org/dh/"">
                    <hi rend=""italic"">dh+lib</hi>
                </ref>
                <hi rend=""italic"">-- </hi>in an attempt to hack a solution. The half-day hack-a-thon will work on a pilot that models a translation process for a particular publication, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dh+lib</hi>, that could be applicable to other scholarly communication vehicles and venues. The group will think through existing infrastructure, address questions around translation, labor, and design, and perform hands-on translation of works nominated by the DH and libraries community. Translation is, of course, more art than science, and any attempt to build a multilingual dh/libraries exchange must acknowledge the complexity of the undertaking. Thus the hack-a-thon builds upon previous translation exercises put into practice by both SIGs and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dh+lib</hi>, like 
                <ref target=""http://dh2015.org/abstracts/xml/ORTEGA_Elika_Psst__An_informal_approach_to_expand/ORTEGA_Elika_Psst__An_informal_approach_to_expanding_th.html"">DH Whisperers</ref> (Ortega et al., 2015) and 
                <ref target=""http://acrl.ala.org/dh/2015/02/02/redhd-and-latin-american-contexts-self-representation-and-geopolitics-in-dh/"">simultaneous</ref>
                <ref target=""http://humanidadesdigitales.net/blog/2015/02/02/la-redhd-y-contextos-latinoamericanos-auto-representacion-y-geopolitica-en-las-hd/"">bilingual</ref> publication of blog posts (Galina et al., 2015). 
            </p>
            <p>Despite the clear need for and benefit of broader translation in the DH community, translation is shied away from, perhaps due to a perceived inability to deal with the associated costs or develop the necessary skills. By applying the 
                <ref target=""http://go-dh.github.io/translation-toolkit/"">Translation Toolkit</ref> developed by GO::DH, the hack-a-thon will position translation as achievable. The Translation Toolkit gathers a catalogue of readily available tools and suggested practices to approach the sometimes daunting task of translating and preparing multilingual resources, whether at conferences, in editorial and authorial journal work, and website and resource developments. During the hack-a-thon, participants will be able to explore and put into practice the materials available in the toolkit in order to launch the translation exercises and the design of sustainable multilingual workflows at the center of the session. Further, the Translation Toolkit proposes translation and multilingual exchanges based on distributed community efforts like those put into practice by 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dh+lib</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>The focus on 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dh+lib</hi> as a pilot project is notable. A community publication project, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dh+lib</hi> was launched in 2012 by a group of librarians to enable exchange at the intersection of digital humanities and librarianship. 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dh+lib</hi> has enjoyed support from the 
                <ref target=""http://www.ala.org/acrl/aboutacrl/directoryofleadership/interestgroups/acr-igdh"">Association of College & Research Libraries</ref> and the ADHO Libraries and DH SIG. The project includes an 
                <ref target=""acrl.ala.org/dh"">active site</ref>, featuring 
                <ref target=""http://acrl.ala.org/dh/category/dhlib/features/"">original posts</ref>, a weekly 
                <ref target=""http://acrl.ala.org/dh/category/dhlib/dhlib-review/"">
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Review</hi>
                </ref> round up (using the 
                <ref target=""http://pressforward.org/"">PressForward</ref> curation tool and a multi-tiered process of editorial review), and 
                <ref target=""http://acrl.ala.org/dh/dh101/"">resource pages</ref>. More than 200 volunteers and 50 authors have contributed to the site; according to GoogleAnalytics, more than 38,000 users have accessed the site. Modeled on 
                <ref target=""http://digitalhumanitiesnow.org/"">
                    <hi rend=""italic"">DHNow</hi>
                </ref>, the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Review</hi> engages volunteer editors-at-large, who develop conversance with current scholarship in digital humanities while using their Library and Information Studies expertise to bring important work by libraries to a broader audience. Editors come from a variety of professions, disciplines, and institutions (both within and outside the United States), and form a distributed community of practice connected through the collaborative hub of this participatory project. This, then, provides an ideal use case to test out the mechanisms of collaborative translation: how would a multilingual 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dh+lib</hi> function? Could this editorial system of nomination and curatorial intervention be extended to operate as a translation hub? 
            </p>
            <p>Building in translation as a feature of aggregation and community-based distribution will benefit the global DH community by facilitating timely cross-linguistic exposure and dialogue. Since its approval as an ADHO SIG, GO::DH has 
                <ref target=""http://www.globaloutlookdh.org/"">sought</ref> to “leverage the complementary strengths, interests, abilities and experiences of participants through special projects and events, profile and publicity activity, and by encouraging collaboration among individual projects, institutions, and researchers” (Global Outlook::Digital Humanities, n.d.). The collaborative hack-a-thon seeks to take full advantage of both SIGs’ pre-existing communities, the multilingual and translations initiatives previously put into practice, and the content nomination practices of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dh+lib</hi>. The convergence of expertise will allow us to investigate approaches for sharing the labor of translation and making use of existing channels.
            </p>
            <p>This hack-a-thon will prepare attendees to engage in translation work and will continue conversations around translation practices and existing workflows. It will offer participants practical and adaptable approaches to developing comfort with and practices around translation in their own institutions and endeavors. Additionally, it will provide the workshop presenters with feedback from potential users, which will help guide development of both the Translation Toolkit and a more international 
                <hi rend=""italic"">dh+lib</hi>.
            </p>
            <p>We anticipate that this event, situated as it is at the beginning of DH2016, will stimulate conversations on translation and linguistic diversity that will permeate other conference events. We further expect that it will connect participants in both SIGs and serve as the basis for an ongoing collaboration throughout the year on translation workflows. We envision hosting follow-up sessions in Montreal in 2017 and Mexico City in 2018 to regroup, report progress, and continue to articulate strategies for increasing translated material among our communities, publications, and projects. </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fiormonte, D.</hi> (2012). Towards a Cultural Critique of the Digital Humanities. In Thaler, M. (Ed), Controversies around the Digital Humanities, <hi rend=""italic"">Historical Social Research / Historische Sozialforschung</hi>,<hi rend=""bold""> 37</hi>(1): 59-76,  Köln: Published jointly by QUANTUM [and] Zentrum für Historische Sozialforschung. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fiormonte, D.</hi> (2014). Digital Humanities from a Global Perspective. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Laboratorio dell’ISPF</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>: 10.12862/ispf14L203
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Galina, I.</hi> (2013). Is There Anybody Out There? Building a Global Digital Humanities Community. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanidades Digitales</hi>.
                        <ref target=""http://humanidadesdigitales.net/blog/2013/07/19/is-there-anybody-out-there-building-a-global-digital-humanities-community/"">http://humanidadesdigitales.net/blog/2013/07/19/is-there-anybody-out-there-building-a-global-digital-humanities-community/</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Galina Russell, I.</hi> (2014). Geographical and Linguistic Diversity in the Digital Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(3): 307-16.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Galina, I., Ortega, É., Priani, E. and Ricaurte, P.</hi> (2015). La RedHD y contextos latinoamericanos: auto-representación y geopolítica en las HD. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Humanidades Digitales</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://humanidadesdigitales.net/blog/2015/02/02/la-redhd-y-contextos-latinoamericanos-auto-representacion-y-geopolitica-en-las-hd/"">http://humanidadesdigitales.net/blog/2015/02/02/la-redhd-y-contextos-latinoamericanos-auto-representacion-y-geopolitica-en-las-hd/</ref>. Also published in translation as RedHD and Latin American Contexts: Self-Representation and Geopolitics in DH. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">dh+lib</hi>. Published February 2, 2015: 
                        <ref target=""http://acrl.ala.org/dh/2015/02/02/redhd-and-latin-american-contexts-self-representation-and-geopolitics-in-dh/"">http://acrl.ala.org/dh/2015/02/02/redhd-and-latin-american-contexts-self-representation-and-geopolitics-in-dh/</ref>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gil, A.</hi> (2014). The (Digital) Library of Babel. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">@elotroalex</hi>. Published June 7, 2014: 
                        <ref target=""http://elotroalex.webfactional.com/digital-library-babel/"">http://elotroalex.webfactional.com/digital-library-babel/</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gil, A. and Ortega, É.</hi> (forthcoming). Global Outlooks in Digital Humanities: Multilingual Practices and Minimal Computing. In Lane, R., Siemens, R. and Crompton, C. (Eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Doing Digital Humanities</hi>. London and New York: Routledge. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Global Outlook::Digital Humanities Special Interest Group</hi>. (n.d.). About. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Global Outlook::Digital Humanities</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.globaloutlookdh.org/"">http://www.globaloutlookdh.org/</ref> (accessed 19 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Global Outlook::Digital Humanities Special Interest Group</hi>. (2016). Intercultural Communication and ADHO: A GO::DH Response. Published February 12, 2016: 
                        <ref target=""https://docs.google.com/document/d/11b87VmblizmYeFoOUbHDOeR8A2EQ1F_Kg9jNQwUszZE/edit?usp=sharing&usp=embed_facebook"">https://docs.google.com/document/d/11b87VmblizmYeFoOUbHDOeR8A2EQ1F_Kg9jNQwUszZE/edit?usp=sharing&usp=embed_facebook</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">O’Donnell, D. P., Walter, K. L., Fraistat, N. and Gil, A.</hi> (2016). Only Connect: The Globalization of the Digital Humanities.” In Schreibman, S., Siemens, R.G. and Unsworth, J. (Eds.) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">A New Companion to Digital Humanities</hi>. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: John Wiley and Sons Inc., pp. 493–510.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ortega, É.</hi> (2014). Whispering/Translating during DH2014: Five Things We Learned | Readers of Fiction. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Readers of Fiction</hi>. Published July 21, 2014:
                        <ref target=""http://lectoresdeficcion.blogs.cultureplex.ca/2014/07/21/dhwhisperer/"">http://lectoresdeficcion.blogs.cultureplex.ca/2014/07/21/dhwhisperer/</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ortega, É.</hi> (2016). Crisscrossing Borders: GO::DH Regional Networks in Dialogue. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">élika ortega</hi>. Published January 13, 2016: 
                        <ref target=""https://elikaortega.net/2016/01/13/mla-dh-at-the-borders/"">https://elikaortega.net/2016/01/13/mla-dh-at-the-borders/</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ortega, É., Gil, A. and O'Donnell, D. P. </hi>(2015). Psst! An informal approach to expanding the linguistic range of the Digital Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities 2015: Conference Abstracts</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://dh2015.org/abstracts/xml/ORTEGA_Elika_Psst__An_informal_approach_to_expand/ORTEGA_Elika_Psst__An_informal_approach_to_expanding_th.html"">http://dh2015.org/abstracts/xml/ORTEGA_Elika_Psst__An_informal_approach_to_expand/ORTEGA_Elika_Psst__An_informal_approach_to_expanding_th.html
                        </ref> (accessed 16 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Priego, E. and Gil, A.</hi> (2013). Global Perspectives: Interview with Alex Gil. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">4Humanities</hi>. Published January 11, 2013: 
                        <ref target=""http://4humanities.org/2013/01/interview-with-alex-gil/"">http://4humanities.org/2013/01/interview-with-alex-gil/</ref>. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Priego, E. and O’Donnell, D. P.</hi> (2013). Bringing Diversity of Experience Together: An Interview with Daniel O’Donnell. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">4Humanities</hi>. Published May 7, 2013: 
                        <ref target=""http://4humanities.org/2013/05/interview-daniel-o-donnell/"">http://4humanities.org/2013/05/interview-daniel-o-donnell/</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Risam, R.</hi> (2015). Across Two (Imperial) Cultures. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Roopika Risam</hi>. Published May 31, 2015: 
                        <ref target=""http://roopikarisam.com/2015/05/31/across-two-imperial-cultures-2/"">http://roopikarisam.com/2015/05/31/across-two-imperial-cultures-2/.</ref>
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rockwell, G.</hi> (2016). Edoardo Ferrarini on the Digital Humanities in Italy. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.theoreti.ca/"">
                            <hi rend=""italic"">Theoreti.ca</hi></ref>. Published January 28, 2016:
                        <ref target=""http://theoreti.ca/?p=6010"">http://theoreti.ca/?p=6010</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Terras, M.</hi> (2012). Quantifying Digital Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Melissa Terras’ Blog</hi>. Published January 20, 2012: 
                        <ref target=""http://melissaterras.blogspot.ca/2012/01/infographic-quanitifying-digital.html"">http://melissaterras.blogspot.ca/2012/01/infographic-quanitifying-digital.html</ref>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2835","17","A Demonstration of Multispectral Imaging","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Multispectral imaging is a powerful tool to recover text from manuscripts affected by fading, palimpsesting, water, fire, or overpainting. Many scholars working in the digital humanities have some acquaintance with the technology, but practical experience will help them better understand the range of imaging modalities that comprise contemporary multispectral imaging and the potential of each to advance their research. Though this workshop, scholars will be equipped to identify good candidates for the technology, and thus contribute to the recovery and preservation of our cultural heritage.</p>
            <p>The Lazarus Project, headquartered at the University of Mississippi and directed by Gregory Heyworth, operates such a state-of-the-art multispectral imaging system that can be transported to institutions and researchers around the world so that the technology can be made available at no cost. This is part of the educational mission of the Lazarus Project – as a teaching tool for undergraduate and graduate students in the humanities and the imaging sciences – and is the reason why the capability may be offered at no cost. The system has been transported to institutions in the USA, England, Wales, France, Italy, Germany, and the Republic of Georgia to image a number of important historical objects, among which are the Vercelli Book, the Black Book of Carmarthen, and the c. 1491 world map by Henricus Martellus. This mission and capability of the Lazarus Project enables mid-sized institutions with a few manuscripts to benefit from the technology of multispectral imaging without making a sizeable investment in imaging equipment and personnel training. In addition, the cultural heritage objects are imaged at their home institution, without the difficulty of traveling to a stationary system that may be thousands of miles distant. The availability of this portable system that provides multispectral imaging free of charge makes it even more important that scholars who visit libraries and archives be able to identify good candidates for the technology.</p>
            <p>The Lazarus Project will offer a workshop for participants in DH2016 in which the portable multispectral imaging system and the subsequent spectral image processing will be demonstrated. These demonstrations will take place in the Jagiellonian Library, and manuscripts from the library will be imaged. Thus, participants in the workshop will have the opportunity to see how multispectral imaging works, from the imaging of the object to the processing of the images and results. Each session will include a description of the equipment and process (camera, lens, LED light system, PhotoShoot software, and processing software tools), a few cycles of imaging of leaves of a manuscript, and a look at what goes into processing the images—with time for questions.</p>
            <p>There will be four 90-minute workshops at the following times: </p>
            <p>Monday, 11 July 2016: 9:30am - 11:00am</p>
            <p>Monday, 11 July 2016: 2:30pm - 4:00pm</p>
            <p>Tuesday, 12 July 2016: 9:30am - 11:00am</p>
            <p>Tuesday, 12 July 2016: 2:30pm - 4:00pm</p>
            <p>A maximum of 17 participants will be permitted in each session due to space constraints in the room in the Jagiellonian Library. </p>
            <p>We look forward to seeing you at the demonstration.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2836","17","Music Information Retrieval Algorithms for Oral History Collections","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Digital humanities, as a largely text based domain, often treats audio files as texts, retrieving semantic information in order to categorise, sort, and discover audio. This workshop will treat audio as audio. Taking oral history collections from the University of Sussex Archive of Resistance Testimony as a test case, participants will be lead through the use of Music Information Retrieval (MIR) approaches to categorise, sort, and support their discovery of an audio collection. Participants will also be supported in planning the extension of these approaches to explore audio collections that they know or work with.</p>
            <p>All instructors for this workshop are from the new inter-disciplinary Sussex Humanities Lab at the University of Sussex. The workshop combines the diverse interests of the instructors to focus on the application of music technology to history and stems from this inherently collaborative environment.</p>
            <p>Oral history best practice publications and resources often focus on the application and use of digital methods and tools to create, store and manage audio, audio-visual, and subsequent text files. They recommend, for example, standards for file formats, metadata and text encoding, software for audio to text conversion, and database and content management systems. However, while a number of projects provide innovative and useful tools that challenge the privilege of the text (i.e. Oral History Metadata Synchroniser), the majority of projects rely on the ability to encode an oral history interview to carry out further analysis using digital tools and methods. The analysis, therefore, is based on the text surrogate rather than the original audio source, but as Alessandro Portellii states this focus denies the ‘orality of the oral source’.</p>
            <p>Text encodings or transcripts of oral history interviews have their obvious advantages - they are easier to anonymise, distribute and store, and we have established techniques for text analysis. However, there are indications within the community that the privilege of this text based approach should be questioned given the ever increasing possibility for computational analysis of audio. This is evident in the Oral History Society’s recent call for papers which remarks that the ‘auditory dimension of oral history was for decades notoriously underused’.</p>
            <p>In light of this loss of context and information this workshop will explore the original sources for the richer datasets which they afford. The field of MIR provides this opportunity. MIR draws from digital audio signal processing, pattern recognition, psychology of perception, software system design, and machine learning to develop algorithms that enable computers to ‘listen’ to and abstract high-level musical information from low-level audio data. Just as human listeners can recognize pitch, tempo, chords, genre, song structure etc, MIR algorithms are capable of recognizing and extracting this information, enabling systems to perform extensive sorting, searching, music recommendation, metadata generation, transcription on large data sets. Deployed initially in musicology research and more recently for automatic recommender systems, the research potential for MIR tools in non-musical audio data mining is being recognised (e.g. analysing bio-acoustic data for ecological purposes) but yet to be fully explored in the humanities.</p>
            <p>The aim of this workshop is to help the digital humanities community explore the possibilities of MIR in a practical and methodological fashion within context of oral history collections. Our participatory design approach enables development for a broader scope of problems and support participants to challenge current methodologies for oral history analysis. We seek to apply an objective analysis based on the content of the source material in its entirety and complement or challenge human and text based analysis with computational methods. By applying MIR algorithms to a field that traditionally privileges text we hope to add new understandings and interpretations to rich audio resources.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grele, R</hi>. (2007). Oral History as Evidence. In Thomas L. Carlton, T.L., Lois E. Myers, L.E., & Sharpless, R. (eds) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">History of Oral History: Foundations and Methodology</hi>. Plymouth:The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, p. 33-94
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2837","17","Introduction to Natural Language Processing","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Brief Description</p>
            <p>The application of computational tools to textual data is a growing area of inquiry in the humanities. From the culling of “Culturomics” via the 30 million document Google books collections, to the painstakingly detailed process of analyzing the text of Shakespeare’s plays to ascertain their ‘true’ creator, a wide range of techniques and methods have been employed and developed. Text analysis in the humanities has also garnered an impressive level of interest in the mainstream media. For example, a study analyzing the relationship of a professor’s gender to their teaching reviews and an overview of Franco Moretti’s ‘distant reading’ both recently appeared in the New York Times. The Atlantic featured an historical critique of the language used in the period drama ‘Mad Men’, where textual analysis of the script revealed departures from the standard American English spoken in the 1960s. The majority of this work, however, relies on techniques such as n-grams and bag-of-word models. Recent developments in computational linguists, which have attempted to mimic the complex process by which humans parse and interpret language, are finding increased use within the humanities. </p>
            <p>This workshop will introduce the basic components of modern natural language processing. Techniques include tokenization, lemmatization, part of speech tagging, and coreference detection. These will be introduced by way of examples on small snippets of text before being applied to a larger collection of short stories. Applications to stylometric analysis, document clustering, and topic detection will be briefly mentioned along the way. Our focus will be on a high-level, conceptual understanding of these techniques and the potential benefits of using them over models commonly employed for text analysis within humanities research. We will also introduce open-source software that is available for a wide range of programming languages (i.e., Java, R, Python, Ruby, Perl) and applicable for parsing an increasingly large number of natural languages (i.e., English, French, Spanish, Chinese, German, Turkish, Arabic). The workshop is based on a chapter from the instructor’s book Humanities Data in R: Exploring Networks, Geospatial Data, Images, and Text (Spring, 2015).</p>
            <p>Instructors</p>
            <p>Taylor Arnold, is currently a lecturer in the department of statistics at Yale and senior scientist at ATandT Labs. His research focuses on the analysis of large, complex datasets and the resulting computational challenges. A particular area of focus is the sparse representation of highly structured objects such as text corpora and digital images. He is the technical co-director of the NEH funded project Photogrammar. Together with Lauren Tilton, he is the co-author of the text <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities Data in R: Exploring Networks, Geospatial Data, Images, and Text</hi>.</p>
            <p>Lauren Tilton, is a doctoral candidate in American Studies at Yale University. She is the Co-Director of Photogrammar (photogrammar.yale.edu) and Participatory Media (http://participatorymediaproject.org/). Research interests include 20th century U.S. history and visual culture as well as digital and public humanities. She is the co-author with Taylor Arnold of <hi rend=""italic"">Humanities Data in R: Exploring Networks, Geospatial Data, Images, and Text</hi>. She will be joining the faculty at the University of Richmond as a Visiting Assistant Professor of Digital Humanities in Fall 2016.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Target Audience and Size</hi>
            </p>
            <p>This workshop is accessible to participants from all backgrounds.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Brief Outline of Workshop</hi>
            </p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>Introduction to NLP</item>
                <item>Tokenization and Sentence Splitting</item>
                <item>Lemmatization</item>
                <item>Part of Speech Tagging</item>
                <item>Dependencies</item>
                <item>Named Entity Recognition</item>
                <item>Coreference resolution</item>
                <item>Overview and comparison of current software
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>Stanford CoreNLP</item>
                        <item>Apache OpenNLP</item>
                        <item>spaCy.io</item>
                    </list>
                </item>
            </list>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2838","17","Visual network analysis with Gephi Workshop: Collective Interpretation of DH Communities Through Twitter Networks","15","<text>
        <body>
            <p>Gephi is a free and open source network analysis software used, among other things, in social network analysis. This workshop is intended for beginners as well as confirmed users. First, we offer an introduction to the basics of Gephi, then we explore through practice the question of visual network interpretation. We provide a dataset of both Twitter hashtags and Twitter followers graphs on various topics related to the DH community.</p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Why network interpretation matters</head>
                <p>Reading a network visualization can sometimes be harder than simply producing it. Once the graph has been produced, what are we supposed to look at? Nowadays, it is common to learn how to use social network analysis software such as Gephi via online tutorials, but it is often difficult to learn how to interpret the results. Based on the experience of members of the software development team and Gephi power users, we offer this workshop to help users interpret their results.</p>
                <p>Network visualizations are exploratory rather than explanatory. As a scholar, it is important to leverage network visualization in order to find interesting insights inside your data. Exploring a network requires mobilizing external knowledge on data’s context. Exploration is about generating, and not validating, hypotheses. Networks do not carry a single, clear message, and it is as fruitful for analysis as it is bad for communication. Dispelling this misunderstanding is very important if you want to fully benefit from a tool like Gephi.</p>
                <p>The idea that a tool can analyze things for you is another misunderstanding we can help tackle. Gephi allows you to explore multiple facets of your data, but the interpretation remains to be done by the user him/herself. Users have to spend time with their data, and a workshop is a good place to introduce this data-care principle.</p>
                <p>Once you know what to look for in a network, you will capable of finding insight but you still have to excavate some evidence. Network metrics are more capable of doing so than the visualization itself. In this workshop we will also learn to match visual features with metrics so that you can provide evidence for what you have seen. For instance, observed clusters are proven to be modularity clusters in the sense of Newman (Noack, 2009).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Workshop schedule</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Part 1: Visual network analysis in a nutshell</head>
                    <p>We start the workshop with a presentation about why and how we visualize networks (Jacomy et al., 2014) and how we interpret them (Venturini et al., 2015) through a Exploratory Data Analysis method (Tukey, 1977)</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Part 2: Gephi practice</head>
                    <p>
                            <figure>
                                <graphic url=""700/10000000000006400000030315152EC043D3ED7F.png""/>
                                <head>Figure 1: Participants will learn how to produce a readable Gephi map</head>
                            </figure>
                    </p>
                    <p>In this part we explain Gephi through examples. We manipulate Gephi on screen while participants execute the same operations on their computers, using the provided datasetsAckland, R. 2013. “Web social science: Concepts, data and tools for social scientists in the digital age.” SageAckland, R. 2013. “Web social science: Concepts, data and tools for social scientists in the digital age.” Sage (Grandjean, 2015). The complete chain of usage will be addressed by illustrating Gephi features from basics (software installation, layout, data table…) to advanced (computing statistics, filtering, exporting…).</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Part 3: Guided practice</head>
                    <p>Each group makes a visualization and wraps it up in a few slides using screenshots (Girard et al., 2015). The trainers provide practical help to participants.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Part 4: Collective discussion</head>
                    <p>Each group presents its findings, and we leverage these live examples to discuss the interpretation process through networks and notably its robustness compared to the visualisation choices.</p>
                    <p>This workshop is supported by <ref target=""http://dimeweb.dime-shs.sciences-po.fr/"">DIME-WEB</ref> part of <ref target=""http://www.sciencespo.fr/dime-shs/"">DIME-SHS</ref> research equipment financed by the EQUIPEX program (ANR-10-EQPX-19-01).</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Girard, P., Jacomy, M. and Plique, G.</hi> (2015). Manylines, a graph web publication platform with storytelling features Paper presented at the graph dev room, <hi rend=""italic"">FOSDEM</hi>, Bruxelles, Belgique. https://archive.fosdem.org/2015/schedule/event/graph_manylines/ (accessed 14 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grandjean, M.</hi> (2015). GEPHI – Introduction to Network Analysis and Visualization, 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Martin Grandjean</hi>. http://www.martingrandjean.ch/gephi-introduction/ (accessed 14 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jacomy, M., et al.</hi> (2014). ForceAtlas2, a Continuous Graph Layout Algorithm for Handy Network Visualization Designed for the Gephi Software. (Ed.) Muldoon, M. R., 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">PLoS ONE</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(6): e98679 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0098679.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Noack, A.</hi> (2009). Modularity clustering is force-directed layout. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Physical Review E</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">79</hi>(2): 026102 doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.79.026102.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tukey, J. W.</hi> (1977). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Exploratory Data Analysis</hi>. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Venturini, T., Jacomy, M. and Pereira, D.</hi> (2015). Visual Network Analysis: the Example of the Rio+20 Online Debate. Working paper. http://www.medialab.sciences-po.fr/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/VisualNetwork_Paper-10.pdf.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2839","17","Digital Archiving & Storytelling in the Classroom with Omeka & CurateScape","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Digital Archives and Exhibitions are one of the most accessible ways to bring historical and cultural materials into public circulation. This tutorial is an intensive introduction to archive development and storytelling within the Omeka content management and exhibition system (<ref target=""http://omeka.org/"">http://omeka.org/</ref>), which was developed by George Mason University’s Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media. This tool has been tested in a variety of academic and cultural heritage settings and was developed with extensive input and revision from the academic community. Omeka enables users to input various types of digital media content using standardized metadata structures, to organize them into Collections, and to present them in multimedia digital narratives known as Exhibitions. The platform is easy to use, and can be installed as a package in many web hosting environments. We will also demonstrate the use of the CurateScape plugin, which allows users to create location-based itineraries drawn from Omeka items optimized for mobile devices. CurateScape (<ref target=""http://curatescape.org/"">http://curatescape.org</ref>), developed by the Center for Public History and Digital Humanities at Cleveland State University, can be used in a wide variety of settings. They are freely available with the only cost to the scholar being web hosting. These advantages make both tools ideal for diverse classroom settings.</p>
            <p>Over the course of the tutorial we will introduce participants to the principles of digital archive collection development using exercises developed for the Duke University Wired! Lab for Digital Art History and Visual Culture tutorials. Content types may include digital images, audio files, 3D models, video, text facsimiles, and other source materials. These Items may be annotated with descriptive elements, locations, and other metadata relevant to search and presentation. We will explore data input formats and techniques as part of the hands-on exercises. Items in Omeka may also be organized into location-based Tours using the CurateScape Framework, a set of freely available themes and plug-ins. </p>
            <p>In addition to providing a technical, hands-on overview of the system, we will discuss data management and digital storytelling strategies for online archives and exhibitions that take advantage of these and other tools to support their successful use in a classroom setting. We will reflect on digital pedagogy by sharing examples of successful project-based seminars that have taken advantage of Omeka based systems to scaffold course assignments around topics including discovery and remediation of analog content into digital form; integration of secondary historical and critical sources into a dynamic archive; development of taxonomies and data structures; exploration of ways to collaborate on digital media project development; recontextualization of historical objects and locations; and presentation strategies for diverse audiences in academia and in the wider public. Participants in the session will come away with a solid understanding of the features of the Omeka system, the knowledge to create their own archives, strategies for teaching with these tools, and the ability to communicate their support needs to tech professionals in their local communities.</p>
            <p>Our plan for the session is to provide a basic Omeka installation for each participant on our shared server in the Wired! Lab, and to provide instructions to users who wish to set up their own sites on Reclaim Hosting or another hosting platform. The mobile component of the tutorial will require users be able to access wifi or local data. We will bring a few devices for users to test their projects on.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Tutorial Outline</hi>
            </p>
            <p>PART 1 (1:15)</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>Intro to the System and the Tools (including plug-ins)</item>
                <item>Organizing and Preparing Data </item>
                <item>Developing a Metadata Strategy</item>
                <item>Creating Omeka Items and Collections</item>
                <item>Adding in Additional Features
                    <list type=""ordered"">
                        <item>CSV Import</item>
                        <item>Geolocation</item>
                    </list>
                </item>
            </list>
            <p>BREAK (0:15)</p>
            <p>PART 2 (1:30 hours)</p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>CurateScape Setup and Focused </item>
                <item>Authoring Tours in CurateScape</item>
                <item>Setup with QR Codes and Testing on Mobile Devices</item>
                <item>Class Project Brainstorming and Pedagogy Discussion</item>
            </list>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Contact Info</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Victoria Szabo</p>
            <p>Associate Research Professor, Visual and Media Studies</p>
            <p>Duke University</p>
            <p><ref target=""mailto:ves4@duke.edu"">ves4@duke.edu</ref></p>
            <p>Szabo’s primary research focus is on media history and the critical and practical affordances of database-driven spatial media such as digital maps, games, virtual worlds, and mobile applications for teaching, research, and public outreach. She is especially interested in theories and practice of augmented reality experience design for digital heritage and creative expression, and has worked on location-based urban AR projects in Durham, NC and Venice, Italy, among other places. Her NC Jukebox digital audio archive project relies on the Omeka platform. She also develops art-games with the Psychasthenia Studio. She holds a PhD in English from the University of Rochester and is the Director of Duke’s Information Science + Information Studies Program and the Duke Digital Humanities Initiative. Before coming to Duke she worked as an Academic Technology Specialist and Manager at Stanford University.
            </p>
            <p>Hannah L. Jacobs</p>
            <p>Multimedia Analyst, Wired! Lab, Duke University</p>
            <p><ref target=""mailto:hj24@duke.edu"">hj24@duke.edu</ref></p>
            <p>Hannah holds a MA in Digital Humanities from King’s College London and a BA in English/Theatre from Warren Wilson College. As Multimedia Analyst for the Wired! Lab at Duke University, she teaching web technologies, mapping, and 3D modeling tools for art history courses, as well as concepts for digital storytelling, historic mapping, and reconstruction. She teaches Omeka in a variety of course and humanities research contexts. She also consults on student-led faculty research projects and collaborates with digital humanities specialists across the university to develop workshops and resources for digital research. Hannah’s research interests include digital narrative, visual storytelling, digital pedagogies, and public digital humanities.</p>
            <p>Edward Triplett</p>
            <p>CLIR Fellow, Duke University</p>
            <p><ref target=""mailto:edward.triplett@duke.edu"">edward.triplett@duke.edu</ref></p>
            <p>Ed recently received his PhD in the history of art and architecture from the University of Virginia. He also holds masters’ degrees in 3D Modeling and Animation and in Medieval History. He is experienced with photogrammetry, virtual reality, and various interactive online presentation systems, and has instructional experience as a Visualization Specialist at UVA. As a CLIR (Council of Library and Informational Resources) postdoctoral fellow at Duke University, Ed partners with the Duke Library and the Wired! Lab to form data curation and project management plans for born digital and digitized materials. His dissertation research combined 3D modeling and GIS techniques to reconsider the architectural history of military-religious orders in medieval Iberia. His research interests include computer vision, agent-based modeling, augmented reality and data visualization.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Description of Target Audience and Number of Participants</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Anyone looking for ways to implement digital storytelling and archiving tools with students. Participant limit is fifteen.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Tech Support Requirements</hi>
            </p>
            <p>Participants must bring their laptops. Everyone will need internet access. Access to Omeka and CurateScape will be provided by the instructors.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2840","17","Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) for Cultural Heritage Artefacts","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction: Description of the Method</head>
                <p>Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) is a non-invasive/non-contact method that has its roots in the principles of raking light (light from a low angle) that has been extensively used in museums and other heritage contexts since the 1930s. RTI only requires regular photographic equipment (DSLR camera, tripod, and a portable flashlight) and freely available software developed by Hewlett Packard Labs (Malzbender et al., 2001) and the non-profit organisation Cultural Heritage Imaging (<ref target=""http://culturalheritageimaging.org/"">http://culturalheritageimaging.org/</ref>). Also, it can be used both indoors and outdoors and there is no limitation regarding the size or the material of the subject-matter. Using a digital camera and a light source (flash or other point light) RTI can enhance objects’ subtle surface details and interactively relight them resulting in levels of information that would have been lost by using conventional photographic techniques. In addition, dynamic shading methods by a series of predefined computational algorithms can further enhance the perception of surface characteristics (Figure 1), therefore making the identification of minor details, such as flaking, scratches, and fingerprints, possible. 
                </p>
                <p>The method has been extensively used on a wide range of cultural objects, such as inscriptions, manuscripts, rock art, paintings, numismatics and any possible material including metal, stone, leather, paper, wax, bone, and clay (Earl et al., 2010; Kotoula and Kyranoudi, 2013; Newman, 2015; Díaz-Guardamino et al., 2015). Conservation practice has also benefitted from the capabilities of the method since it provides very high resolution and great level of detail that helps in the identification of conservation needs and the establishment of preventive conservation measures (Kotoula, 2014).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Relevance to the Digital Humanities</head>
                <p>Many disciplines within the Humanities have a long tradition in using imaging methods for recording and investigating cultural heritage artefacts. Computational Imaging methods, such as photogrammetry, multispectral photography, and RTI provide a whole new way of extracting information from digital photographs and producing new interactive visualisations that enhance traditional modes of working with the photographed subjects. RTI is a method that has already proven its capabilities in a wide range of contexts. The use of low-cost equipment, the ease of use, the speed of capturing and processing datasets, and most importantly the results obtained, offer users many opportunities to approach artefacts in different ways beyond conventional digitisation practices. However, RTI has not been widely used in Humanities datasets, not only because text is the main source but also due to the fact that bibliographic resources about applications and technical developments of the method are relatively scattered in areas that humanists are not very familiar with, such as archaeology and computer science. In addition, such new methods of working with cultural heritage datasets bring to the front new challenges, such as the creation of interactive online repositories, different ways of sharing processes and results, community engagement (Beale and Beale, 2015), and digital preservation.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""735/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figure 1: Reflectance Transformation Imaging on a steatite seal from Zominthos, Crete, Greece. Top: Conventional Digital Image. Bottom: Dynamic shading algorithms: A. Normal maps; B. CoefficientA5; C. Specular Enhancement; D. CoefficientA3</head>
                </figure>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Method of Delivery</head>
                <p>The tutorial will combine lecturing and hands-on practice. Participants will have the chance to learn and practice all the different stages involved in RTI - from capturing to processing and viewing as well as embedding results to webpages using the WebRTIViewer (<ref target=""http://vcg.isti.cnr.it/rti/webviewer.php"">http://vcg.isti.cnr.it/rti/webviewer.php</ref>). During the tutorial, they will capture new objects but they will also process and view pre-captured datasets. These datasets ensure that participants will work on material that has been properly captured and is of sufficient quality for all the different stages involved. Participants are also welcomed to bring artefacts that they would like to capture and process with the RTI method during the session.
                </p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Beale, G. and Beale, N.</hi> (2015). Community-Driven Approaches to Open Source Archaeological Imaging. In Wilson, A. T.  and Edwards, B. (Eds.) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Open Source Archaeology: Ethics and Practice</hi>. De Gruyter Open. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.degruyter.com/view/books/9783110440171/9783110440171-005/9783110440171-005.xml"">http://www.degruyter.com/view/books/9783110440171/9783110440171-005/9783110440171-005.xml</ref> (accessed 10 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Cultural Heritage Imaging.</hi> (2016). 
                        <ref target=""http://culturalheritageimaging.org/"">http://culturalheritageimaging.org/</ref> (accessed 10 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Díaz-Guardamino, M., García Sanjuán, L., Wheatley, D., Rodríguez Zamora, V.</hi> (2015). RTI and the study of engraved rock art: A re-examination of the Iberian south-western stelae of Setefilla and Almadén de la Plata 2 (Seville, Spain). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(2–3): 41-54. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212054815300011"">http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212054815300011</ref> (accessed 10 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Earl, G., et al.</hi> (2010). Archaeological applications of polynomial texture mapping: analysis, conservation and representation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Archaeological Science</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">37</hi>(8): 2040-50, <ref target=""http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/156253/"">http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/156253/</ref> (accessed 10 March 2016). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Kotoula, E.</hi> (2014). Application of RTI in Museum Conservation. Archaeology in the Digital Era, Earl, G. et al. (Eds.) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 40th CAA-International Conference</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>: 232-40, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. 
                        <ref target=""http://pure.ltu.se/portal/files/100886592/2014_CAA2012.pdf"">http://pure.ltu.se/portal/files/100886592/2014_CAA2012.pdf</ref> (accessed 10 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Kotoula, E. and Kyranoudi, M.</hi> (2013). Study of Ancient Greek and Roman Coins Using Reflectance Transformation Imaging. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">E-conservation Magazine</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>: 74-88. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.academia.edu/3515894/Study_of_Ancient_Greek_and_Roman_coins_using_Reflectance_Transformation_Imaging"">http://www.academia.edu/3515894/Study_of_Ancient_Greek_and_Roman_coins_using_Reflectance_Transformation_Imaging</ref> (accessed 10 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Malzbender, T., Gelb, D. and Wolters, H.</hi> (2001). Polynomial Texture Maps,
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH’01)</hi>, New York, NY, USA: ACM Press, pp. 519-28. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.hpl.hp.com/research/ptm/papers/ptm.pdf"">http://www.hpl.hp.com/research/ptm/papers/ptm.pdf</ref> (accessed 10 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Newman, S. E.</hi> (2015). Applications of Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) to the study of bone surface modifications. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Archaeological Science</hi>
                        <ref target=""http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03054403/53/supp/C""/>, <hi rend=""bold"">53</hi>: 536–49. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440314004269"">http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440314004269</ref> (accessed 10 March 2016).  
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">WebRTIViewer.</hi> (2016). 
                        <ref target=""http://vcg.isti.cnr.it/rti/webviewer.php"">http://vcg.isti.cnr.it/rti/webviewer.php</ref> (accessed 10 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2841","17","GAMS and Cirilo: research data preservation and presentation","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>Modern infrastructures for the management and dissemination of humanities data face various challenges. On the one hand, sustainability and availability for long-term preservation have to be guaranteed. On the other hand, flexibility and the possibility of individual data usage play a major role in this field. The FEDORA based Asset Management System GAMS (Geisteswissenschaftliches Asset Management System – Humanities’ Asset Management System) and the corresponding Cirilo client, developed by the Centre for Information Modelling - Austrian Centre for Digital Humanities (ZIM-ACDH), address both demands in combining long-term preservation with a presentation and management layer. This means that all of the mentioned challenges can be solved within one infrastructure. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>GAMS</head>
                <p>GAMS is an OAIS compliant infrastructure designed for the management, publication and long-term preservation of digital resources. It is based on the Open Source software FEDORA and focuses on the long-term availability and flexible use of digital content. Since 2014 it is a certified trusted digital repository in accordance with the guidelines of the Data Seal of Approval.</p>
                <p>FEDORA offers content models for the aggregation of the digital content, metadata and processing instructions. An example for such an aggregation could be a TEI-document with XSL transformations for various dissemination formats (HTML, PDF, different views for analysis purposes etc.), an RDF datastream that handles the description of the object’s semantic relations and images with their metadata (e.g. facsimiles of the data covered in the TEI). A functional view on FEDORA’s object model includes program-controlled processes based on web services e.g. XSL transformations for dynamic outputs or automatic extraction of semantic relations within a TEI document. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Cirilo</head>
                <p>Cirilo is a java application developed for content preservation and data curation in FEDORA-based repository systems. The client operates through FEDORA’s Management API (API-M) and consequently offers functionalities, which are especially suited to be used as tools for mass operations on FEDORA objects, complementing FEDORA's inbuilt administrator’s client. Cirilo exploits FEDORA’s object model by providing a collection of predefined content models optimized for specific primary sources like TEI, LIDO, METS/MODS, OAI-Records, HTML, PDF, BibTeX or external resources that can be accessed via a URL.</p>
                <p>Several possibilities to semantically enrich the digital objects during the ingest process through different customizable mapping methods are offered: Dublin Core for exposing the objects in harvesting environments (like Europeana), geographical information to present data in map applications (like the DARIAH-DE Geo-Browser), or RDF statements that are stored in triplestores. Furthermore, extraction of semantic information, automatic addition of picture references to the object or resolving text data in combination with underlying ontologies are possible. </p>
                <p>Since 2014, the Cirilo client has been available as an open-source tool including a comprehensive documentation, representing one of the Austrian contributions to DARIAH-EU. Thus, the entire infrastructure including repository and client is accessible as an archive-in-a-box solution for a broad user community. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Application</head>
                <p>In this context, the infrastructure was adopted by the Petőfi Literary Museum as a solution for their online editions. The project DigiPhil is an online knowledge base for publishing scholarly text editions, writers' bibliographies, aggregating philological metadata and semantic annotation of these sources. At the University of Graz, GAMS hosts numerous digital editions as well as image collections and source books from various disciplines: the literary analysis of the enlightened Spectator press of the 18th century, a postcard collection with topographical and historical views on Styria from 1900 to the present or the account books of Basel from 1535 to 1610.</p>
                <p>The workshop offers the opportunity to learn more on the underlying principles of the infrastructure and to try the mentioned functionalities of the Cirilo client in a hands-on session with a provided data sample.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Burghartz, S.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Jahrrechnungen der Stadt Basel 1535-1610 – digital</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://gams.uni-graz.at/srbas"">http://gams.uni-graz.at/srbas</ref> (accessed 16 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Cirilo Client. </hi>
                        <ref target=""https://github.com/acdh/cirilo"">https://github.com/acdh/cirilo</ref> (accessed 16 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems </hi>(2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reference Model for an Open Archival Information System (OAIS), Recommended Practice</hi>. CCSDS 650.0-M-2 (Magenta Book) Issue 2, June 2012
                        <ref target=""http://public.ccsds.org/publications/archive/650x0m2.pdf"">http://public.ccsds.org/publications/archive/650x0m2.pdf</ref> (accessed 16 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">DARIAH-DE. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">DARIAH-DE Geo-Browser</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://geobrowser.de.dariah.eu/"">http://geobrowser.de.dariah.eu/</ref> (accessed 16 March 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ertler, K., Fuchs, A., Fischer, M. and Hobisch, E.</hi> (2011-2016). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Spectators in the international context</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://gams.uni-graz.at/mws"">http://gams.uni-graz.at/mws</ref> (accessed 16 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Fedora Leadership Group</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">FEDORA Commons</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://www.fedora-commons.org/"">http://www.fedora-commons.org/</ref> (accessed 16 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lagoze, C., Payette, S., Shin, E. and Wilper, C.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Fedora. An Architecture for Complex Objects and their Relationships</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://arxiv.org/ftp/cs/papers/0501/0501012.pdf"">http://arxiv.org/ftp/cs/papers/0501/0501012.pdf</ref> (accessed 16 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Petőfi Literary Museum.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Tudományos szövegkiadások, bibliográfiák és kutatási adatbázisokonline tudástára</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://digiphil.hu/"">http://digiphil.hu/</ref> (accessed 16 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Steiner, E., Stigler, J. </hi>(2015) 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">GAMS and Cirilo Client. Policies, documentation and tutorial</hi>. 
                        <ref target="" http://gams.uni-graz.at/doku"">http://gams.uni-graz.at/doku</ref> (accessed 16 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stigler, J., Hofmeister, W.</hi> (2010). Edition als Interface. Möglichkeiten der Semantisierung und Kontextualisierung von domänenspezifischen Fachwissen in einem Digitalen Archiv am Beispiel der XML-basierten Augenfassung zur Hugo von Montfort-Edition. In Nutt-Kofoth, R., Plachta, B. and Woesler, W. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Editio. Internationales Jahrbuch für Editionswissenschaft</hi>, 24/2010, pp. 39-56.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2842","17","Ontology-Based Recording and Discovery of Research Patterns in the Humanities","15","","","2","",""
"2843","17","Introduction to Simulation: Complex social dynamics in a few lines of code","15","","","2","",""
"2844","17","Digital Literary Stylistics Workshop","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The study of textual style by computational means has a long tradition, but only quite recently have such approaches been able to leave the sphere of forensics to become an instrument of legitimate literary analysis of style.</p>
            <p>This new line of research has already yielded a considerable range of digital style studies of epochs, genres, and authors (e.g., Egbert, 2012, Hoover, 2007, Houston, 2013, Mahlberg, 2012). At the same time, questions of conceptualization (e.g., Herrmann et al., 2015) and method (e.g., Jockers, 2013, Moretti, 2013 and 2005) have quickly arisen, and it has become clear that the use of software and computational means does not necessarily imply the adherence to a strictly experimental methodological approach (cf. Ramsay, 2011).</p>
            <p>In this workshop, we shall explore novel empirical findings as well as methodological and epistemological questions connected with the computational study of style. In particular, we intend to address topics that fall within the following domains: </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">(A.) The technical domain.</hi> Tools/methods of analysis (computational stylistics, corpus stylistics, literary authorship attribution, NLP, digital hermeneutics); research infrastructures and corpus building;
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">(B.) The empirical domain.</hi> Style variation across factors such as genre, author, gender, epoch and period; narrative perspective and characterization; non-literary registers;
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">(C.) The conceptual domain. </hi>Notion(s) of style; style and aesthetics; typology of style indicators; style production and reception; research design (“close”, “scalable”, and “distant reading”); epistemological status of data; issues of representativeness.
            </p>
            <p>First, the workshop will feature a set of papers focused on the technical side of digital literary stylistics. 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Jean-Gabriel Ganascia</hi> will present a tool for establishing stylistic distinctiveness on the basis of syntax (“Towards a computational and syntax-based stylistics”) and 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Tomoji Tabata</hi> will evaluate a series of Eder's (2015) “Rolling Stylometry” techniques (“Experimental Stylistics: A Meta-analysis to Evaluate Rolling Stylometry”).
            </p>
            <p>Next, we turn our attention to empirical findings about style. Papers in this category include 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Christof Schöch</hi>’s computationally-informed revision of Spitzer’s take on Racine (“Spitzer on Racine, digitally revisited”); 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Natalie Houston</hi>’s discussion of period-specific styles in nineteenth-century British poetry (“Towards a Computational Poetics: Some Features of Nineteenth-Century Poetic Style”); 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Anne Bandry-Scubbi</hi>’s presentation of stylistic differences between male and female authors in a corpus of novels between 1750-1830 (“Women’s Novels 1750s-1830s and the Company They Keep: A Computational Stylistic Approach”); 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Jan Rybicki</hi>’s analysis of how most frequent word usage changes with time in the oeuvre of authors of various languages and literary periods (“Authorial chronology by most frequent words: do writers’ stylometric thumbprints evolve with age?”), and 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Christine Knoop</hi>’s analysis of the distribution of rhyme and cadence schemata in German lyrical poetry between 1700-1930 (“Rhyme and Cadence Distribution in Poetry”).
            </p>
            <p>Finally, the workshop will address ‘style’ conceptually within the framework of computational analysis, with papers including a discussion by 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Mike Kestemont</hi> of different ways of understanding artistic authenticity in various humanistic disciplines (“The Matter of Art: Authenticity Criticism in the Humanities”); a paper by 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Sarah Allison</hi> on what the humanistic adoption of the statistics concept of a ‘proxy’ means for stylistic research (“A Proxy for Style”); and 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Fotis Jannidis</hi> on whether the concept of “historical period” is a meaningful notion in stylometry (“Period Styles”). Expanding this conceptual discussion, 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Hugh Craig</hi> will present some possible remedies to critiques of descriptive quantitative stylistics  (“Beyond Authorship”), and 
                <hi rend=""bold"">Mark Algee-Hewitt</hi> will examine how two common assumptions in digital literary stylistics (that authors are individuals with identifiable mentalities, and, in the pragmatics of authorship attribution, that these individuals can be reduced to probabilities of word frequencies) affect our notion of the author (“The Author: Between Style and Substance”).
            </p>
            <p>Insights from the three domains will be drawn together in a discussion panel. Here, we will identify current topics and trends, define the horizons of “Digital Literary Stylistics” and map out the avenues of collaboration between its different branches. Our aim is to define a shared roadmap for a Special Interest Group (SIG) within the ADHO for the field of Digital Literary Stylistics. A special issue of a DH journal will comprise the papers as well as a report of this discussion.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Biber, D.</hi> (2011). Corpus linguistics and the study of literature: Back to the future?. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scientific Study of Literature</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(1): 15–23 doi:10.1075/ssol.1.1.02bib.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Craig, D. H. and Kinney, A. F.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shakespeare, Computers, and the Mystery of Authorship</hi>. Cambridge University Press 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dalen-Oskam, K. van</hi> (2014). Epistolary voices. The case of Elisabeth Wolff and Agatha Deken. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(3): 443–51 doi:10.1093/llc/fqu023.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Eder, M.</hi> (2015). Rolling stylometry. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>, first published online: 7 April 2015, doi: 10.1093/llc/gqv010.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Egbert, J.</hi> (2012). Style in nineteenth century fiction: A Multi-Dimensional analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Scientific Study of Literature</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>(2): 167–98 doi:10.1075/ssol.2.2.01egb.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Erlin, M.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Distant Readings: Topologies of German Culture in the Long Nineteenth Century</hi>. Boydell and Brewer.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Evert, S., et al.</hi> (2015). Towards a better understanding of Burrows’s Delta in literary authorship attribution. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Fourth Workshop on Computational Linguistics for Literature, at NAACL HLT 2015</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ganascia, J.G., Glaudes, P. and Lungo, A. D.</hi> (2014). Automatic detection of reuses and citations in literary texts. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(3): 412–21 doi:10.1093/llc/fqu020.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Herbelot, A.</hi> (2015). The semantics of poetry: A distributional reading. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>(4): 516–31.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Herrmann, J. B., Dalen-Oskam, K. van and Schöch, C.</hi> (2015). Revisiting Style, a Key Concept in Literary Studies. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Literary Theory</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(1): 25–52 doi:10.1515/jlt-2015-0003.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Holmes, D. I. </hi>(1988). The Analysis of Literary Style--A Review. In Thoiron, P., Labbé, D. and Serant, D. (eds), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Vocabulary Structure and Lexical Richness</hi>. Paris: Champion-Slatkine, pp. 67–76.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hoover, D. L.</hi> (2007). Corpus Stylistics, Stylometry, and the Styles of Henry James. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Style</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">47</hi>: 174–203.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Houston, N. M.</hi> (2014). Toward a Computational Analysis of Victorian Poetics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Victorian Studies</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">56</hi>(3): 498–510 doi:10.2979/victorianstudies.56.3.498.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jockers, M. L.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and Literary History</hi>. (Topics in the Digital Humanities). University of Illinois Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Kestemont, M., et al.</hi> (2012). Cross-Genre Authorship Verification Using Unmasking. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">English Studies</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">93</hi>(3): 340–56 doi:10.1080/0013838X.2012.668793.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Klaussner, C., Nerbonne, J. and Çöltekin, Ç.</hi> (2015). Finding characteristic features in stylometric analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Scholarship in the Humanities</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">30</hi>(suppl 1): 114–29.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Lynch, G. and Vogel, C.</hi> (2015). Chasing the Ghosts of Ibsen: A computational stylistic analysis of drama in translation. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">SciRate</hi> https://scirate.com/arxiv/1501.00841 (accessed 18 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mahlberg, M.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Corpus Stylistics and Dickens’s Fiction</hi>. 1st ed. (Routledge Advances in Corpus Linguistics). New York: Routledge http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415800143/.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Moretti, F.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History</hi>. London; New York: Verso.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S.</hi> (2008). Algorithmic Criticism. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Companion to Digital Literary Studies</hi>. (Blackwell Companions to Literature and Culture). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Professional http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companionDLS/ (accessed 24 February 2010).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rybicki, J. and Heydel, M.</hi> (2013). The stylistics and stylometry of collaborative translation: Woolf’s Night and Day in Polish. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi> doi:10.1093/llc/fqt027. http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2013/05/26/llc.fqt027 (accessed 12 June 2013).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rybicki, J., Hoover, D. and Kestemont, M.</hi> (2014). Collaborative authorship: Conrad, Ford and Rolling Delta. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, 
                        <hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(3): 422–31 doi:10.1093/llc/fqu016.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Stajner, S. and Zampieri, M.</hi> (2013). Stylistic Changes for Temporal Text Classification. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Text Speech and Dialogue (TSD2013), Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence (LNAI)</hi>. Pilsen, Czech Republic.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2845","17","TEI Processing Model Toolbox: Power To The Editor","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Crossing the divide between encoded XML sources and tangible, published digital edition has always been a weak spot for TEI community. Recent efforts of the TEI Simple project aimed to bridge that gap with TEI Processing Model idea. TEI Processing Model Toolbox, an eXist-db based application brings the promises of TEI Simple (Rahtz et al., 2015) to life with its implementation of the processing model enhanced with an app generator, allowing to create standalone digital editions out of the box.</p>
            <p>Publishing an edition from TEI sources so far involved tedious work on complex stylesheets and significant effort in building an application on top of it. Using the <ref target=""http://htmlpreview.github.io/?https://github.com/TEIC/TEI-Simple/blob/master/tei-pm.html"">TEI Processing Model</ref>, customising the appearance of the text is all done in TEI ODD by mapping each TEI element to a limited set of well-defined behaviour functions, e.g. “paragraph” or “heading”. The TEI Processing Model specification includes a standard mapping, which can be tweaked by overwriting selected elements. Rendition styles are transparently translated into different output media types like HTML, XSL-FO, LaTeX, or ePUB. This approach easily saves thousands of lines of code for media specific stylesheets. The power of the eXist-db database and the application framework on the other hand take care of all the other core features like browsing, search and navigation.</p>
            <p>The proposed workshop intends to introduce the concepts of the TEI Processing Model and provide a tutorial on how to use TEI Processing Model Toolbox (Meier et al, 2016) app to experiment and try out various ODDs containing processing model instructions, upload users’ own files and create a custom ODD, and, finally, generate their own, standalone edition using the App Generator. As an inspiration it will also present examples of real apps built with App Generator and other systems employing TEI Processing Model.</p>
            <p>It is hoped that exposure to the concepts and technologies presented during the workshop will give its participants a point of exit in the task of publishing their own research data. The subject of the workshop is also strongly tied to a short paper on practical lessons from applying the TEI Processing Model that will be presented later at the DH2016, giving interested participants the opportunity to be introduced to the concept in a much more detailed manner than is possible during brief conference talk.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Meier, W. and Turska, M.</hi> (2016). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">TEI Processing Model Toolbox Documentation</hi>,
                        <ptr target=""http://showcases.exist-db.org/exist/apps/tei-simple/doc/documentation.xml?odd=documentation.odd""/> (accessed 5 March 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Rahtz, S., Mueller, M., Pytlik-Zillig, B., Turska, M. and Cummings, J.</hi> (2015). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">TEI Simple Processing Model Specification</hi>,
                        <ptr target=""http://htmlpreview.github.io/?https://github.com/TEIC/TEI-Simple/blob/master/tei-pm.html""/> (accessed 5 March 2015).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2846","17","From Digitization to Knowledge: Resources and Methods for Semantic Processing of Digital Works/Texts","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <quote>Internet is a revolution that will not stop “until everything is digitized”,
                <lb/>Louis Gerstner, former Chairman of IBM, quoted in 
                <hi rend=""italic"">the Economist</hi>, June 4th 1998
            </quote>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Description</head>
                <p>The goal of this workshop is twofold: First, to provide a venue for researchers to describe and discuss practical methods and tools used in the construction of semantically annotated text collections, the raw material necessary to build knowledge-rich applications. We expect such tools to include lexical and semantic resources with a focus on the interlinking of concepts and entities and their integration into corpora.</p>
                <p>A second goal is to report on the on-going development of new tools for providing access to the rich information contained in large text collections. Semantic tools and resources, notably, are reaching a quality that makes them fit for building practical applications. They include ontologies, framenets, syntactic parsers, semantic parsers, entity linkers, etc. We are interested in examples of cases that make use of such advanced tools and their evaluation in the field of digital humanities, with a specific interest on multilingual and cross-lingual aspects of semantic processing of text.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Topics of interest</head>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Construction and use of ontologies for text collections</item>
                    <item>Entity nomenclatures and bridging</item>
                    <item>Integration of lexical knowledge in text collections</item>
                    <item>Visualization, user interfaces</item>
                    <item>Semantic repositories: Entities and propositions</item>
                    <item>Interlinking of concepts and entities in multilingual text</item>
                    <item>Representing inter-textual relations</item>
                    <item>Semantic search and information retrieval</item>
                    <item>Tools for semantic annotation</item>
                    <item>Timeline-based approaches such as ""culturomics""</item>
                    <item>Technical infrastructures and standards</item>
                    <item>Quality evaluation</item>
                    <item>Applications in digital humanities</item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Invited speakers</head>
                <p>The workshop will include one, possibly two, invited speakers of international reputation.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Motivation</head>
                <p>One of the consequences of the digital revolution is the gradual, but inexorable availability of all kinds of text in a machine-readable format. Libraries around the world scan their collections. Newspapers offer their articles on the web. Governments put their archives and laws online. A large part of what the human mind has produced: Literature, essays, encyclopedias, biographies, etc., is, or will be, accessible in a computerized form in a wide variety of languages. Within a few years, we can predict that (nearly) all text ever produced by humanity will be available in digital form: Either born digital or digitized from books, newspapers, archives, etc.</p>
                <p>While digitization is well underway, turning the information contained in these texts into exploitable knowledge in the information society has become a major challenge as well as a major opportunity. IBM Watson and Google's knowledge graph are recent and spectacular achievements that show the significance of knowledge extraction from text. IBM Watson is a system that can answer questions in the US Jeopardy quiz show better than any human being. One of its core components is the PRISMATIC knowledge base consisting of one billion semantic propositions extracted from the English version of Wikipedia and the New York Times, while Google’s knowledge graph is based on a systematic extraction of millions of entities from a variety of sources. Such technologies are defining the information age, and they have the potential to bring a much higher degree of sophistication to ""distant-reading"" methodology in digital humanities, enabling large-scale access to text content.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Audience</head>
                <p>The target audience is a mix of users that would like to apply semantic processing techniques to text and researchers in this area. Users, for instance, could be interested in the extraction of entities and their association with encyclopedic text or the extraction of relations from text: date and place of birth/death, profession, etc. Researchers would describe practical techniques and algorithms that could fit the needs of the users.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Organizers</head>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Lars Borin, University of Gothenburg</item>
                    <item>Nathalie Fargier, Persée (Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, CNRS)</item>
                    <item>Richard Johansson, University of Gothenburg</item>
                    <item>Pierre Nugues, Lund University</item>
                    <item>Nils Reiter, Universität Stuttgart</item>
                    <item>Sara Tonelli, Fondazione Bruno Kessler</item>
                </list>
            </div>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2847","17","CWRC & Voyant Tools: Text Repository Meets Text Analysis","15","","","2","",""
"2848","17","DH 2016: Historical Text Reuse Tutorial","15","","","2","",""
"2849","17","TextGrid@DARIAH","15","","","2","",""
"2850","17","Topogram: a Web Toolkit for Spatio-Temporal Network Mapping","15","","","2","",""
"2851","17","Web Communities Mapping With Hyphe: How to use a curation-oriented web crawler to map communities?","15","<text>
        <body>
            <p>This workshop introduces a curation-oriented web crawler called Hyphe. This software, developed with and for Social Sciences and Humanities scholars, aims at providing a method and a tool to build a research corpus from web content (web pages and HTTP links). It provides a web mining tool wrapped with a User Interface and curation features (defining web pages aggregates, filtering contents, expansion method) required by Social Sciences and Humanities scholars.</p>
            <p>We will focus on using the web crawler and will not take the time to present web studies, digital sociology or digital methods in general. Participants should have basic knowledge of the web and already consider it as a legitimate field for scientific investigation (Ackland, 2013). Participants are encouraged to come with ideas regarding which websites would be interesting to study for their personal research agenda (a list of entry points).</p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Hyphe, a curation-oriented approach to web crawling for the social sciences </head>
                <p>The web is a field of investigation for social sciences, and platform-based studies have long proven their relevance. However the generic web is rarely studied in and of itself, though it contains crucial embodiments of social actors: personal blogs, institutional websites, hobby-specific media… We realized that some sociologists see existing web crawlers as “black boxes” unsuitable for research though they are willing to study the broad web. Hyphe is a crawler which was developed with and for social scientists, with an innovative “curation-oriented” approach meant to address two of the main social science problems when working with web mining: how to build a corpus and how to delineate an actor’s presence (Jacomy et al., 2016).</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Workshop schedule</head>
                <p>The workshop will first introduce Hyphe’s software and methodological principles through a guided case study. The participants will be guided through their first use of Hyphe to build their own web corpus.</p>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Part 1: Presentation of methodological approaches with a case study</head>
                    <p>We will start the workshop with a presentation of our software Hyphe and its methodological principles. It will be done through its application on a case study. We offer to map the Digital Humanities communities through the many websites used to present and organise associations, conferences, research projects, research labs… We will build such a corpus live during this first part to introduce the participants to the main concepts and practical steps one should meet when building a web corpus. The teachers will have prepared the corpus before the workshop with a series of most common use cases and issues. The subject of digital humanities is proposed first because these communities use web communication a lot, and secondly to better engage the participants with a subject they are familiar with.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Part 2: Hyphe practice</head>
                    <p>After this extensive presentation of Hyphe, participants will be invited to engage in practice themselves. Individually or as groups of two, they will be given access to their own corpus on an online version of Hyphe and will be invited to map web communities on their subject of research following Hyphe’s iterative curation process:</p>
                    <list type=""unordered"">
                        <item>define the first actors web “boundaries” and start crawling them</item>
                        <item>observe the resulting network of actors (websites)</item>
                        <item>prospect the web for other potentially interesting actors by exploring most linked actors, filtering out irrelevant ones such as Google or Youtube</item>
                        <item>crawl these actors’ websites as well</item>
                        <item>adjust the “boundaries” of the new actors found to better represent their social reality</item>
                        <item>iterate over and over until obtention of a reasonably complete corpus</item>
                        <item>visualize as a network map and take a quick look at its structural properties (clusters, density…)</item>
                    </list>
                    <p>We will conclude this part with a discussion on methodologies to wrap-up the workshop.</p>
                    <p>This workshop is supported by <ref target=""http://dimeweb.dime-shs.sciences-po.fr/"">DIME-WEB</ref> part of <ref target=""http://www.sciencespo.fr/dime-shs/"">DIME-SHS</ref> research equipment financed by the EQUIPEX program (ANR-10-EQPX-19-01).
                    </p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ackland, R.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Web Social Science: Concepts, Data and Tools for Social Scientists in the Digital Age</hi>. SAGE.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jacomy, M., et al.</hi> (2016).<hi rend=""italic""> Hyphe, a Curation-Oriented Approach to Web Crawling for the Social Sciences</hi>. Cologne, Allemagne: AAAI https://spire.sciencespo.fr/hdl:/2441/6obemb2hsj9pboj9bbvc7sftne.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2852","17","Working with WissKI - A Virtual Research Environment for Object Documentation and Object-Based Research","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In recent years semantic technologies have become increasingly popular to represent, manage and publish data in the humanities. Virtual research environments with semantic backends are used to build complex networks, data is exposed as triples using RDF, and important vocabularies and thesauri are available as linked data. Ontologies like the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (CRM) are the semantic backbone of this approach and provide interoperability and data exchange beyond pure linking.</p>
            <p>WissKI (wiss-ki.eu) is a ready-to-be-used web-based virtual research environment and publishing framework that in its core relies on Semantic Web technologies to represent the curated knowledge. The user experience for data acquisition and presentation, however, intentionally borrows from traditional modes, while the user profits from the possibilities of linked and semantically enriched data. Thus, the system enables digital humanists to produce high-quality linked data, without having to cope with technical issues of the Semantic Web and ontologies in general or the often-quoted pecularities of CIDOC CRM in particular. This is achieved by defining a mapping between traditional index card or tabular style on the one hand and graph-based linked data on the other hand. The mapping may be opaque to the users and only be managed by an (ontological) administrator. Also, mappings may be shared between systems and projects, so that best practice patterns may evolve; this actually already has happened and still happens.</p>
            <p>By default, data may be input and displayed either as free text or as structured data via forms. Free text may be input through a graphical editor and is semantically indexed in terms of named entity recognition results, calendar date specifications, mentioned events, and also technical terms as far as appropriate authority files are available (e.g. Getty's Art and Architecture Thesaurus). Form input provides mechanisms for error reduction like spelling variants, e.g. by showing autocompletion hints that are again backed by available authorities. From the textual annotations, RDF triples may be generated and be reused as structured data. Furthermore, the system allows the upload, derivation and display of images. Other, more application-specific ways of data acquisition like mass imports or 2D/3D annotation may be included through extensions.</p>
            <p>From the technical perspective, WissKI is based on Drupal (drupal.org). Drupal is a widely used Web Content Management System with a big and active user and developer community. It has a modular architecture and there exists a vast variety of third party extension. Being such an extension, WissKI profits from a stable core system (security updates!) and also from these community contributions, providing all sorts of functionality. </p>
            <p>As Drupal itself, WissKI is published as open source and can be downloaded from the project web site (wiss-ki.eu) or from github.</p>
            <p>Although WissKI in its core is domain-agnostic, it is designed to best fit the needs of object centered documentation and research as it is typical for many memory institutions, but also for research projects from art history, biodiversity, architecture, epigraphy, etc. As such it naturally goes together with the CIDOC CRM, an ontology designed for the documentation of cultural heritage. It is used by several academic and memory institutions in Germany in national and international research projects; it is used for such diverse purposes as research environment, curated collection management, virtual exhibition, or in courses and seminars.</p>
            <p>The tutorial aims at all researchers, archivists and curators who are interested in object documentation, in particular its semantic disclosure integrating data from (database and content management systems) form-based input and plain text fields. Furthermore it addresses people interested in applications of the CIDOC CRM.</p>
            <p>This half-day tutorial</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>gives a short introduction to the (technical) approach of WissKI,</item>
                <item>presents current use cases and modes of use,</item>
                <item>shows how to install, configure, and use WissKI, and</item>
                <item>includes a hands-on for semantic modelling and data acquisition with WissKI and CIDOC CRM.</item>
            </list>
        </body>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"2853","17","A place for Places: Current Trends and Challenges in the Development and Use of Geo-Historical Gazetteers","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The implementation of geo-historical gazetteers increasingly depends upon the development of Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Corpus Linguistics as well as geographical analysis in disciplines such as History, Archaeology and Literary Studies. The application of these methods usually relies on the appropriate modelling of databases for performing the semantic enrichment of documents including geoparsing tasks. At the same time, even when performing a manual enrichment and referencing of place mentions in texts or in library or museum catalogues (e.g. when applying the CIDOC CRM model and its spatio-temporal extension), an adequate source of external information is crucial.</p>
            <p>Today, geo-historical data are more and more often published following the Linked Data (LD) principles: i.e. using URIs and data format standards (RDF) and linking to other data sets to enable information discovery. Moreover, an implicit driving principle of LD, widespread in the Semantic Web community, is the reuse of vocabularies and ontologies already defined by others to avoid duplication. Keeping track of provenance is crucial. Pleiades is one of the best examples these days, but other generalistic sources such as DBpedia, Wikidata or GeoNames also provide interesting - albeit partial – geo-historical information and have proved to be useful in Digital Humanities (DH) projects. Linking texts to external sources using URIs enables the retrieval of additional information about the referenced places. Once this has been achieved, the information in the sources can be easily used to produce different views and aggregated analysis of corpora: i.e. visualizations (Jessop, 2008); this in turn is meant to help scholars to capture place perceptions and to analyse spatio-temporal phenomena described in corpora.</p>
            <p>The choice of geo-historical datasets which are used as gazetteers depends on the domain of the texts under consideration. Pleiades is specifically suited to places in Mediterranean Ancient History texts. However, tasks such as referencing places from historical periods other than Antiquity, or identifying geographically vague or imaginary places in literary texts, if ever possible, might need the development of a different methodological approach, which would include the construction of conceptual mapping models and the creation of a completely different kind of gazetteer. In any case, the choice will have an important influence on the results of such visualizations as well as on the pertinence of the interpretation. Existing gazetteers vary widely in how they abstract the world. Important aspects – such as scale, the representation of time (and change over time), complex geometries, uncertainty and vagueness as to location and/or date, multiple points-of-view, representation of hierarchies of political-administrative units, their boundaries and their change over time, alternative names (rejected and standard forms, vernacular and multilingual), representation of fantastic places – are modelled in different ways, or are missing altogether. This limits their applicability in the Humanities. Moreover, interlinking between corresponding entities in different gazetteers is often lacking, although progress has been made in this regard, through community initiatives or by using GeoNames, or Wikidata as backbones (Simon et al., 2015). Finally, the ontologies used to link toponyms in texts to spatial references need to be further developed, especially when it comes to deal with fuzziness and uncertainty in mentions (Reuschel and Hurni, 2011).</p>
            <p>Clearly, new models should conform to LD principles, and they should privilege the reuse of existing and consolidated ontologies, vocabularies and datasets whenever possible. Long term preservation and maintenance are also crucial problems in this sense because texts enriched with references to sources that have become obsolete or unavailable may have results that are unusable for the task for which they were tagged (Janowicz et al., 2012). In this sense, specialisation of efforts on the one hand (for pooling efforts) and coordination on the other, are crucial for such projects. Finally, geo-historical projects should also promote harmonization of their data with standards and practices of the broader DH community, and of the current research trends, in particular for what concerns the interoperability of resources within the framework of larger research infrastructures such as CLARIN or DARIAH.</p>
            <p>In the proposed full-day workshop, we will focus on geo-historical gazetteers, and we will discuss their limits in supporting the needs of the Spatial Humanities (SH) community. The proposed workshop will be composed of nine presentations (abstracts are listed below), each of which concerns the production of geo-historical gazetteers as LD as well as the annotation, the recognition and the geoparsing of place names referenced in texts, library and museum catalogs, digitized maps, etc.</p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Christopher Donaldson</hi> (University of Birmingham), Extracting and visualizing the geographies in historical travel writing: This presentation will introduce a procedure for the automated extraction and resolution of geographical information from a corpus of historical writings about the English Lake District. The research on which the presentation is based is using the spatial analysis of geo-historical LD sets to achieve a more comprehensive and refined understanding of how the landscape of the Lake District was perceived, represented, and experienced in the past.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Karl Grossner</hi> (Stanford University), Joining Place and Period in Historical Gazetteers: Places referred to in historical documents and gazetteers have temporal as well as spatial extents. Likewise, historical periods have spatial extents. However existing data models and format standards and the mapping and timeline software that use them do not reflect this. I will discuss recent work on Topotime, an extension to the GeoJSON format adding temporal expressions, and allowing for some types of uncertainty encountered in historical data.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Katherine Hart Weimer</hi> (Rice University): A wealth of geographic information is included in library catalogs, with existing structures for name disambiguation, cross-referencing and inclusion of geographic coordinates. Recently, efforts are underway in libraries to convert this data into LD allowing for cross platform applications. The presentation describes an experiment in this sense.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Maurizio Lana</hi> (Università del Piemonte Orientale): Annotation of place mentions in Latin Literature. The annotation pipeline uses parsing+NER but later mentions are manually checked and referenced to external gazetteers such as Pleiades. The novelty of the project is the GeoLat GO! ontology that allows for a more complex annotation.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Bruno Martins</hi> (University of Lisbon): NLP and IR methods for handling geospatial information in textual documents. In my talk, I will present a brief survey of techniques for handling geospatial information within textual documents, including work at our team in the University of Lisbon, and other methods proposed within the Computational Linguistics and IR communities. I will discuss methods to address the problems of (i) document geocoding, (ii) toponym resolution, and (iii) selecting geographically relevant key-phrases. Applications within the broad field of DH, and SH in particular, will also be outlined.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Patricia Murrieta-Flores</hi> (University of Chester): So far, research in the SH has been mainly concerned with geographically precise information or what could be considered as ‘real’ places in historical and literary sources. Nevertheless, non-locational places play an important role in narratives of all sorts of sources from the fantastic, to geographically vague travel accounts. This is an important limitation in the analysis of place in the DH. Using Medieval Romances as an example, this presentation will discuss the challenges posed by literary narratives of place in terms not only of disambiguation, but also reference to fantastic and non-locational places.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Michael Page</hi> (Emory University): Atlanta Explorer: Historical Geocoding & the City: Atlanta Explorer focuses on building datasets and geospatial tools to explore the history of the city. Completed is a geodatabase and geocoder for circa 1930 and the pilot 3D virtual environment. The next phase includes producing geocoders for the remaining years (1868–1930) and therefore strategies and methods for developing historical geocoding datasets and tools for place discovery will be discussed. Our goal is to also share the underlying data with the community CityGML as how we would likely share and archive the model.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Rainer Simon</hi> (Austrian Institute of Technology), Pelagios project: an international community initiative concerned with the development of Linked Open Data methods, tools and services to better interconnect geo-historical datasets. In its most recent project phase (“Pelagios 3 - Early Geospatial Documents”), Pelagios has developed Recogito, a semi-automatic geo-annotation tool; Peripleo, a geotemporal search engine. Furthermore, Pelagios has annotated more than 300 historical sources from different cartographic traditions, collecting more than 120,000 place references in literary texts and early maps.
            </p>
            <p>
                <hi rend=""bold"">Humphrey Southall</hi> (University of Portsmouth): Engaging the wider public with historical gazetteers. Gazetteers are a powerful tool for humanities researchers, but are also of great fascination and utility for the general public. That interest enables academic projects to achieve wider “impact”, enables popular web sites to be sustained by advertising income, and enables expansion through crowd-sourcing. This presentation covers three experiences: the established Vision of Britain site; PastPlace, our new LD gazetteer which uses Wikidata as a spine to which we are adding historical toponyms; and GB1900, a crowd-sourced gazetteer building project developed in collaboration with National Libraries in Great Britain.
            </p>
            <p>The proposed workshop targets an audience of scholars, data designers, and software developers, and will also comprise a speed presenting session for participants, topic-based breakout discussions between experts and attendees, a panel to highlight research priorities and summarize the main contributions of the workshop and research directions.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Berman, M., Mostern, R.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> and Southall, H.</hi> (2016). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Placing Names: Enriching and Integrating Gazetteers</hi>. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elliott, T. and Gillies, S.</hi> (2009). Digital Geography and Classics. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Quarterly</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(1).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Evans, C. and Jasnow, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">B.</hi> (2014). Mapping Homer’s Catalogue of Ships. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing, </hi><hi rend=""bold"">29</hi>(3): 317–25. doi:10.1093/llc/fqu031.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Gregory, I., Donaldson, C., Murrieta-Flores, P. and Rayson P.</hi> (2015). Geoparsing, GIS and textual analysis: Current developments in Spatial Humanities research. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>: 1–14. See: DOI: 10.3366/ijhac.2015.0135
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grossner, K.,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Janowicz, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">K. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and Keßler, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">C.</hi> (2014). Place, Period, and Setting for Linked Data Gazetteers. In Berman, M., Mostern, R. and Southall, H. (Eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Placing Names: Enriching and Integrating Gazetteers</hi>. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. 
                        <ptr target=""http://geog.ucsb.edu/~jano/GrossnerJanowiczKessler_submitted_draft.pdf""/> (accessed 1 March 2016). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Janowicz, K.,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Scheider, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">S., </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pehle, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">T. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and Hart </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">G.</hi> (2012). Geospatial Semantics and Linked Spatiotemporal Data-Past, Present, and Future. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Semantic Web</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">3</hi>(4): 321–32.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Jessop, M.</hi> (2008). Digital Visualization as a Scholarly Activity. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">23</hi>(3): 281–93. doi:10.1093/llc/fqn016.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Murrieta–Flores, P. and Gregory, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">I.</hi> (2015). Further Frontiers in GIS: Extending Spatial Analysis to Textual Sources in Archaeology. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Open Archaeology</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>(1). 
                        <ref target=""http://www.degruyter.com/"">http://www.degruyter.com/view/j/opar.2014.1.issue-1/opar-2015-0010/opar-2015-0010.xml</ref> (accessed 1 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reuschel, A-K. and Hurni, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">L.</hi> (2011). Mapping Literature: Visualisation of Spatial Uncertainty in Fiction. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Cartographic Journal</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">48</hi>(4): 293–308.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Simon, R.,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Isaksen, L., Barker, E. and de Soto Cañamares, P.</hi> (2015). The Pleiades Gazetteer and the Pelagios Project. In Berman, M., Mostern, R. and Southall, H. (Eds.),
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Placing Names: Enriching and Integrating Gazetteers</hi>, Indiana University Press .
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Southall, H.,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">von Lunen, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">A. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and Aucott, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">P.</hi> (2009). On the organization of geographical knowledge: Data models for gazetteers and historical GIS. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">E-Science Workshops</hi>, 2009 5th IEEE International Conference on (Oxford: IEEE), pp. 162–66.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Southall, H.,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Mostern </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">R.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> and Berman, M.</hi> (2011). On historical gazetteers. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">5</hi>(2): 127–45
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tomasi, F.,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ciotti, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">F., </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Daquino, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">M. </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">and Lana, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">M.</hi> (2015). Using Ontologies as a Faceted Browsing for Heterogeneous Cultural Heritage Collections. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">1st Workshop on Intelligent Techniques At LIbraries and Archives</hi> (IT@LIA 2015). 
                        <ptr target=""http://italia2015.dei.unipd.it/""/>
                        <ref target=""http://italia2015.dei.unipd.it/papers/ITALIA_2015_submission_5.pdf"">papers/ITALIA_2015_submission_5.pdf</ref>(accessed 1 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Van Hooland, S.,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">De Wilde, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">M., </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Verborgh, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">R.,</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> Steiner, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">T.</hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold""> and Van de Walle, </hi>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">R.</hi> (2013). Exploring Entity Recognition and Disambiguation for Cultural Heritage Collections. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Literary and Linguistic Computing</hi>. 
                        <ref target=""http://freeyourmetadata.org/"">http://freeyourmetadata.org/publications/named-entity-recognition.pdf</ref>(accessed 1 March 2016).
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2854","17","Building Capacity with Care: Graduate Students and DH work in the Library","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Does your library or digital humanities center employ graduate students? Are you considering employing graduate students in digital scholarship work at your university? This full-day workshop will bring together institutions that do to discuss the variety of institutional arrangements for employing graduate students in digital scholarship labor. If graduate students can help build capacity for digital work on your campus, what are some best practices for structuring their employment? What are some current models in place, and what are the benefits and challenges of fellowships vs. part time employment or RAships? This workshop will present helpful practical advice on this topic, but also serve as a starting point for a broader discussion about the place of student labor in DH work. 
            </p>
            <p>Graduate students represent valuable members of digital humanities teams in a variety of institutional and library settings. They collaborate with scholars in labs, as members of project teams, as fellows, interns, instructors, research assistants, principal investigators, and everything in between. In her 2015 Office of Digital Humanities keynote presentation entitled “on capacity and care,” Nowviskie argued that, as we continue to build individual, institutional, and even national capacity for digital scholarship in higher education, we should make an “ethic of care” the foundation upon which we work. This workshop will address how libraries and digital humanities organizations can make an ethic of care the foundation upon which their varied graduate student labor arrangements are built as they look to expand capacity within their institutions and beyond. Workshop participants will discuss the benefits, challenges, and best practices for the wide variety of institutional arrangements that result in graduate students doing DH work in libraries and DH organizations today.
            </p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Nowviskie, B. </hi>(2015). <hi rend=""italic"">On Capacity and Care</hi>. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Bethany Nowviskie</hi>. http://nowviskie.org/2015/on-capacity-and-care.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"2855","17","Data mining digital libraries","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>The central theme for this workshop is data mining and the connection between metadata and data in the context of digital libraries. Digital resources and search engines raise several questions about the relationship between metadata and the data they describe. For example, what is the relationship between metadata keywords and classification categories (e.g. Dewey)? How should topics found by topic modeling algorithms be labelled? With readily available search engine technology, using document relevance based on content words, is there a need for library classification systems at all, like Dewey or UDC?</p>
            <p>While there may be overlap between metadata and the texts described contentwise, metadata typically contain information not found within the text, such as author, geolocation and time data. In addition, subject or topic words typically consist of carefully constructed language models in the form of thesauri dedicated specifically towards specialized literary collections within different fields. The question is then how search engines may benefit from such metadata with a language model, and for what kind of library user?</p>
            <p>In this workshop, we invite colleagues to discuss the application of various methods related to digital library resources, including the structure of the metadata itself, as well as digital book collections. Many resources are available to libraries in digital form, like journals and new book titles, while some libraries also have launched digitization programs to create digital libraries, using scanners and OCR technology.</p>
            <p>Both the text data and the metadata of digital libraries can be scrutinized with data mining techniques, opening up the material for large-scale, quantitative analysis. This makes such collections highly relevant for Digital Humanities studies.</p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Background</head>
                <p>The ongoing trend towards increased digitization in society in general poses numerous challenges at many levels, but also opens up for vast opportunities within many fields, including the library sector.</p>
                <p>At the National Library of Norway, a mass digitization project was initiated in 2006, with the goal of digitizing the entire collection of books, newspapers, movies, radio- and television-broadcasts, music etc., in sum everything published in the public domain in Norway of all media types, i.e. the entire cultural heritage of Norway. For books, the goal is to have the entire stock digitized by 2017. Thus far, some 435.000 of 450.000-500.000 books have been digitized. When all books and newspapers have been digitized, we estimate that our Norwegian text corpus will consist of some 80 - 100 billion tokens, which is big for a rather small language like Norwegian with approximately 5 million speakers. In comparison, the Google Books corpus contains approximately 500 billion tokens for English.</p>
                <p>The National Library cooperates with scholars of literary studies and linguistics in developing and applying methods of data mining to the digital collection. We develop services that make the content available for quantitative research, without challenging intellectual property rights. One such service is NB N-gram for Norwegian (see 
                    <ref target=""http://www.nb.no/sp_tjenester/beta/ngram_1/"">http://www.nb.no/sp_tjenester/beta/ngram_1/</ref>), comparable to Google Ngram Viewer for English and other languages.
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Workshop leaders</head>
                <p>Lars G. Johnsen: Research librarian at the Nation Library of Norway, PhD in linguistics. Fields of interest: semantics, grammar, philosophy of language, probability theory and applications. Email: 
                    <ref target=""mailto:Lars.Johnsen@nb.no"">Lars.Johnsen@nb.no</ref>, Phone: +47 23 27 61 84
                </p>
                <p>Arne Martinus Lindstad: Research librarian at the National Library of Norway, PhD in linguistics. Fields of interest: corpus linguistics, language change, comparative syntax, negation. Email: 
                    <ref target=""mailto:arne.lindstad@nb.no"">arne.lindstad@nb.no</ref>, Phone: +47 23 27 62 11
                </p>
                <p>Magnus Breder Birkenes: Research librarian at the National Library of Norway, PhD in linguistics. Fields of interest: corpus linguistics, history and dialectology of the Germanic languages. Email: 
                    <ref target=""mailto:magnus.birkenes@nb.no"">magnus.birkenes@nb.no</ref>, Phone: +47 23 27 60 54
                </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Target audience</head>
                <p>Librarians, research librarians, scholars of literary studies, corpus and computational linguists</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Length and Format</head>
                <p>Half day:</p>
                <table rend=""rules"">
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">09.00 - 09.30</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Introduction and opening discussion</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">09.30 - 10.30</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Slot 1: Structure of metadata, Data mining and library classification systems</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">10.30 - 11.00</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Coffee break</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">11.00 - 12.00</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Slot 2: Metadata and modeling</cell>
                    </row>
                    <row>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">12.00 - 12.30</cell>
                        <cell rend=""DH-Default"">Wrap-up and final discussion</cell>
                    </row>
                </table>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Budget</head>
                <p>Coffee and snacks for the coffee break (max. 50€)</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Technical requirements</head>
                <p>A projector for presentations. Internet connection. We will bring our own computers.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Call for papers (cfp)</head>
                <p>Are you interested in automatic classification of documents and what implications this has for libraries? How may search engines (like 
                    <ref target=""HYPERLINK"">ElasticSearch</ref>) benefit from library metadata? Do you have any experience with developing public/academic web services on top of large amounts of library data? If these questions appeal to you, this workshop may be of interest. The central theme for this workshop is data mining and the connection between metadata and data in the context of digital libraries.
                </p>
                <p>We invite papers on topics such as:</p>
                <p>The structure of subject headings and descriptors, used in book classification (e.g. in building thesauri)</p>
                <p>The relationship between topic words and library classification systems</p>
                <p>The relationship between content words and topic words (of existing metadata, or as output from topic modeling algorithms)</p>
                <p>Automatic classification of digital documents</p>
                <p>Authorship attribution</p>
                <p>Development of computational services for research and the general public</p>
                <p>Legal issues arising with different data mining practices</p>
                <p>Please send us an abstract of max. 500 words that is situated within the above context.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Program Committee</head>
                <p>Oddrun Ohren (National Library of Norway)</p>
                <p>Koenraad De Smedt (University of Bergen)</p>
                <p>Anders Nøklestad (University of Oslo)</p>
                <p>Elise Conradi (National Library of Norway)</p>
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"3747","14","A New Ecological Model for Learning","9","<?oxygen
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This paper introduces a new ecology of learning and innovative connections between ecological and a humanities curriculum. Drawing on points of intersection between experiential liberal arts education, digital humanities, biomimicry, and ecopsychology, this session will engage instructors and administrators in course development strategies and in helping students plan their own learning by using a DH-supported systems approach to curriculum design. The presentation will explore questions including (1) how can ecological thinking provide a model for a more intentional and dynamic liberal arts pedagogy? (2) can digital technologies help us develop more ecologically-focused learning environments and curricula? and (3) how can teachers integrate ecological thinking into new and existing courses, units, and overall curriculum design?
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<p>
This paper introduces a new ecology of learning and innovative connections between ecological and a humanities curriculum. Drawing on points of intersection between experiential liberal arts education, digital humanities, biomimicry, and ecopsychology, this session will engage instructors and administrators in course development strategies and in helping students plan their own learning by using a DH-supported systems approach to curriculum design.
</p>
<p>
The presentation will take as its case study Sterling College in Craftsbury Common, Vermont, the smallest four-year residential liberal arts college in the United States, and a community-centered, ecologically focused institution built upon a foundation of experiential education.
</p>
<p>
The College empowers the development learning community in which students and faculty engage in meaningful experiences each day as part of an integrative environmental liberal arts curriculum. The experiential scholarship that undergirds the College's curriculum enables countless moments of engagement between student, faculty, and place, but it is only with effective reflection that these moments coalesce and find their way into the larger dialogues and stories that make up the fabric of our community.
</p>
<p>The presentation will explore the following areas:</p>
</div>
<div>
<head>
<hi rend=""bold"">Community</hi>
</head>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Concept</hi>
</head>
<p>From individual experience to community narrative.</p>
</div>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Application</hi>
</head>
<p>
Community learning, broadly, is enabled by tools that (1) create collaborative spaces and empower collaboration and (2) track 'wear' by layering metadata for administrators and faculty to shape and innovate teaching strategies, which further supports migration from instructor-based to co-creative learning.
</p>
</div>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Discussion</hi>
</head>
<p>
We are currently beginning to explore how technology can help to facilitate reflection on experience to both create a community timeline of layered narratives and help to support learning experiences campus-wide by sharing these boundary objects — or boundary events — and extending discourse across the College to support our integrative curricular model. The resultant archival wear can contribute to metadata that, itself, becomes the community story and creates a feedback loop to help faculty implement more effective classroom experiences.
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<head>
<hi rend=""bold"">Work</hi>
</head>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Concept</hi>
</head>
<p>
Learners are more active and engaged when participating in meaningful and consequential work as both an individual and shared experience.
</p>
</div>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Application</hi>
</head>
<p>
Work — whether remote or local — can be supported by mobile, accessible text and image sharing to serve as both individual archive and group collaboration can bridge between work experience and 'traditional' classroom scholarship.
</p>
</div>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Discussion</hi>
</head>
<quote>
“Can there be any greater reproach than an idle learning?
<lb/>
<p>Learn to split wood, at least. </p>
<p>
If one has worked hard from morning till night, though he may have grieved that he could not be watching the train of his thoughts during that time, yet the few hasty lines which at evening record his day’s experience will be more musical and true than his freest but idle fancy could have furnished.... The scholar may be sure that he writes the tougher truth for the calluses on his palms. They give firmness to the sentence.
</p>
<p>
Indeed, the mind never makes a great and successful effort, without a corresponding energy of the body.”
</p>
<p>
— Henry David Thoreau, A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (1849)
</p>
</quote>
<p>
Work, whether daily practice of chores or performance of an extraordinary task, always represents the engagement of an individual with the materiality of the world. In a learning environment, the enrichment of that work by empowering space for dialogue among practitioners develops community. The geographer Yi Fu Tuan distinguishes between space — as a region empty of human memory or associations — and place — spaces re-created through individual or community stories, which suggests that inhabitation and work in a locale provides it with meaning.
</p>
<p>
If threads of narrative are similarly built through interactions between the individual and the world, the ensuing story would consist of an archive of field notes and observations layered with reflections that give meaning to experience and underscore field or classroom experience as learning.
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<head>
<hi rend=""bold"">Hyperreflection and Storytelling</hi>
</head>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Concept</hi>
</head>
<p>Reflecting from within the heart of experience.</p>
</div>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Application</hi>
</head>
<p>
Non-text-based, 'good-enough' video, audio, image, and soundscape capture. Geotagging media can foreground the relationship between place and story as well as place and community.
</p>
</div>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Discussion</hi>
</head>
<quote>
“Reflection from the midst.” — Maurice Merleau-Ponty
</quote>
<p>
Tools can complement real experience. Reflection is a critical aspect of experience as learning; however, technology can aid in the creation of boundary events during experience to empower later reflection. If we grant that reflection is itself a form of experience, then the reflective exercise becomes a graduated event, mirroring a process writing curriculum, from field observation and description to narrative and synthesis. Hyperreflection can help generate individual narratives of experience that can coalesce and create a larger community story.
</p>
<p>
“The real Logos,” asserts philosopher and environmentalist David Abram “is EcoLogos."" Abram explores Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s ideas, expressed in The Phenomenology of Perception and elsewhere, about the dialogic nature of the body and the world: “language is everything, since it is the voice of no one, since it is the voice of the things, the waves, the forests.”
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<head>
<hi rend=""bold"">Capturing Reality</hi>
</head>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Concept</hi>
</head>
<p>
Is language an obstacle to reflection on experience?
</p>
</div>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Application</hi>
</head>
<p>
Mapping indelible, dynamic trajectories across space regardless of media.
</p>
</div>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Discussion</hi>
</head>
<quote>
“What is crucial for us here is the place from which this real erupts: the very borderline separating the outside from the inside, materialized in this case by the windowpane” — Slavoj Žižek, Looking Awry, 1995
</quote>
<p>
Michel de Certeau's suggestion in that individuals' ""trajectories form unforeseeable sentences, partly unreadable paths across a space"" — although he is writing particularly about consumer culture — resonates with David Abram's premise that language can be far more sensuous and experiential than our cultural scaffolding of mere graphemes enables us to be. Both de Certeau and Abram point both to the physicality of the Real and the challenges of representation.
</p>
<p>
If language can, in essence become an obstacle to effective reflection on individual or community experiences, what are the possible solutions? what tools can support reflection in media res?
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<head>
<hi rend=""bold"">Participation</hi>
</head>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Concept</hi>
</head>
<p>
Effective learning environments are systems that elicit and empower user contribution and collaboration.
</p>
</div>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Application</hi>
</head>
<p>
Students can shape their engagement of physical learning environments by scaffolding their experience with collaborative environments where they define their place and expectations of experience.
</p>
</div>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Discussion</hi>
</head>
<p>
If the work/learning community depends upon learning opportunities, facilitation, experience, and effective reflective practices, it can be aligned with Tim O'Reilly's definition of what he calls a Participatory Architecture, which points to ""systems that are designed for user contribution."" Whether explicitly or not, working communities both create and are created by the architectures within which they function. Thus, the spaces working communities inhabit simultaneously define and are defined by the place and the work itself. As Tim Cresswell writes, place is ""something producing and produced by ideology"" and ""meanings of place are produced through practice.""
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""bold"">Pedagogy and Reflection</hi>
</head>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Concept</hi>
</head>
<p>Experience without reflection is merely activity.</p>
</div>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Application</hi>
</head>
<p>
Pools of data streams should be aggregated and filtered by students.
</p>
</div>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Discussion</hi>
</head>
<p>
The engagement, collaboration, and experience that current and emerging technologies purport to provide are only metaphors for the learning/teaching in which many of us are already engaged. Getting one’s hands dirty in the performance of literal, actual, meaningful work can be the scaffold for community, collaboration, and engagement that technology can potentially help facilitate. It is this very interface of ‘high touch’ engagement with students in experiential learning and the ‘high tech’ of collaborative technologies that has been challenging my thinking about technology lately — how to be sure that effective technology supports rather than replaces the meaning of experience.
</p>
<p>
In the high-touch environment of an experiential work/learning curriculum, experience becomes part of the learning experience only through reflection. High tech tools that support such reflection can enhance reflective practice by creating a pace layered archive of experience from field notes, photos, and video streams that pool in collaborative archives and workspaces, which can then be tapped for continued co-creative learning through more refined and reflective applications such as weblogs, wikis, and pooled again by feed aggregation tools for summary and synthesis.
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""bold"">Environment</hi>
</head>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Concept</hi>
</head>
<p>
To engage in the environmental crisis through education, we must make space in learning for engagement with the environment.
</p>
</div>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Application</hi>
</head>
<p>
Global shared forms. Networked blogs to effect real social and political change. Data mining of weblogs.
</p>
</div>
<div>
<head type=""sub"">
<hi rend=""italic"">Discussion</hi>
</head>
<p>
The ecosystem has become as much a metaphor for collaborative technologies as it presents a framework within which to contemplate its development; however, as much as ecology may be an apt metaphor for digital community — in its dynamic development and organic integration of ideas in (often serendipitous) boundary objects, there continues to be a tension between the ubiquity of software and the reality of experience, a tension which is ignored by many.
</p>
<p>
Self, society, and environment always inhabit the same space — thus creating a layered topography of individuals and their context.
</p>
<p>
If knowing is defined as being ""constructed through the engagement between bodies and machines within the world...this knowledge can be arrived at through a range of methodologies and voices"" (Susan Kozel), how do we engage the palpable existence of the world we are trying to ""save"" without knowing it?
</p>
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The Day of Digital Humanities has become part of the Digital Humanities landscape: Inspired by the project, the Day of Archaeology (DoA) was established by a group of professional digital archaeologists and PhD students in 2011. With over 500 participants, the web project aims to collate archaeological experiences and connect archaeologists across the world, using a variety of digital technologies. The participants record and share their Day on the Wordpress-based DoA website:
<ref type=""url"" target=""www.dayofarchaeology.com"">www.dayofarchaeology.com</ref>
, alongside photo-sharing sites, Facebook, YouTube and Twitter. This paper will explore how the Day of Digital Humanities model has translated into a more defined discipline; what the DoA has learned from Day of Digital Humanities; the difficulties and benefits of the web-based model when applied to archaeology; how social media has been used; and what impact the DoA has had, and will have as it develops, for participants, the archaeology community and the wider public.
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The Day of Digital Humanities has become part of the Digital Humanities landscape: Inspired by the success of the Day of Digital Humanities project, the Day of Archaeology (DoA) was established as a voluntary project by a group of professional digital archaeologists and PhD students in 2011. The project is organised and run for free, and server space and staff time is donated and voluntary. The aim of the DoA was to utilise digital and participatory technologies, using a simple Wordpress-based platform, that would enable even the least digitally-minded archaeologist to share their work within the archaeology community and with the wider public. The web project aims to collate archaeological experiences and connect archaeologists across the world, using a variety of digital technologies. The participants record and share their Day on the Wordpress-based DoA website:
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://www.dayofarchaeology.com"">www.dayofarchaeology.com</ref>
, alongside photo-sharing sites, Facebook, YouTube and Twitter.
</p>
<p>
The Day of Archaeology
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://www.dayofarchaeology.com"">www.dayofarchaeology.com</ref>
has subsequently developed into an annual Public Archaeology event, which offers a unique insight into the working day of archaeologists worldwide. Participant-archaeologists have come from Asia, North and South America, Europe, Australia and Africa. They have written about their day from excavations, offices, museums, community projects, the tourist industry, local government and voluntary groups. The project participants aim to answer a simple question in their contribution; “what do archaeologists do?”. Participants have contributed blog posts, films, photos, Tweets, Facebook pages, archive 'bingo' and 'ask an archaeologist'. The first event was held on the July 29th 2011, where some 500 people working, studying or volunteering in archaeology projects around the world contributed blog posts describing their day. The published posts and text are not scripted by the organisers, and only minimally edited to avoid defamation or incorrect information being shared.
</p>
<p>
The resulting website presents a behind-the-scenes view of archaeology that incorporates not only the exciting discoveries often showcased in Public Archaeology, but also everyday details of archaeological work in the real world. This project aims to move the public understanding of archaeology away from the 'Indiana Jones' model of excitement and object-oriented discovery, to one that can appreciate the painstaking and vital work undertaken by professionals and volunteers to protect, preserve and interpret our shared pasts.
</p>
<p>
This paper will explore how the Day of Digital Humanities model has translated into a more defined discipline; what the DoA has learned from Day of Digital Humanities; it will presents details of the project, how it was organised and who participated; the difficulties and benefits of the web-based model when applied to archaeology; how social media has been used; critical reflections on how the project has engaged with different audiences and what impact the DoA has had, and will have as it develops, for participants, the archaeology community and the wider public.
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Knitic — The Revolution of Soft Digital Fabrication
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The paper points out the rapid development of digital fabrication, the influences and importance of open source in this field, and overlooked manufacturing method that is textile fabrication. By introducing our practical work and research we demonstrate the potential of craft in the era of digital fabrication. Also the works by other artists and designers involved in improving and applying obsolete electronic knitting machines are covered.
</p>
<p>
We have started our research on knitting machines in the beginning of 2012 through our art project SPAMpoetry (Guljajeva 2012) (see Fig. 1.). We have purchased an old Brother knitting machine (Fig. 2.) in order to hack the uploading system and knit poems from SPAM. The research on reverse engineering of knitting machine made us realize that the electronic knitting machine was the first digital manufacturing tool at home that has been totally overlooked in the age of digital fabrication. Hence we got an idea and motivation for developing Knitic — an open hardware and integrate it to the field of digital fabrication (Canet and Guljajeva 2012).
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<figure>
<graphic url=""ab-173.001""/>
<head>Fig. 1</head>
<p>
<hi rend=""bold"">SPAMpoetry</hi>
</p>
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<graphic url=""ab-173.002""/>
<head>Fig. 2</head>
<p>
making a workshop on application of a modified Brother KH930 knitting machine.
</p>
</figure>
<p>
What is Knitic? It is an open hardware (see Fig. 3.), which controls an obsolete Brother knitting machine from 1980s via Arduino (open source micro controller). Knitic does not use a floppy emulation or knitting machine’s keypad simulation, like previous hacks. Instead, the open hardware is the new ‘brain’ of a knitting machine that allows real-time control over the needles (see Fig. 4.). It means, one can knit as long patterns as desired and modify the pattern on the fly. Knitic has one more important advantage: it is compatible with all Brother electronic machines. Maybe also with punch-card ones, this needs to be tested though. How come? Because we do not use any Brother electronics but just sensors’ output and solenoids’ input of a knitting machine.
</p>
<figure>
<graphic url=""ab-173.003""/>
<head>Fig. 3</head>
<p>PCB of Knitic</p>
</figure>
<figure>
<graphic url=""ab-173.004""/>
<head>Fig. 4</head>
<p>
Testing Knitic. Knitting machine's new brain is able to control needles according to the pattern.
</p>
</figure>
<p>
Why are we developing open hardware for knitting? Digital fabrication is gaining importance. The numbers of Fab Labs, persons possessing digital fabrication tools, and open hardware are increasing. Furthermore, the number of start-ups and small-scale companies applying digital fabrication devices as their core business idea is increasing. Makers, designers and artists, who have invested in buying a 3D printer and/or laser cutter, in addition to their work are manufacturing for others, too. Now makers also replicate machines and sell, which all in all pays back the investments sooner.
</p>
<p>
Hence, society is shifting towards personal and custom manufacturing that is strongly supported by the information age. In the words of Neil Gershenfeld the founder of Fab Labs' model: 'the real impact of digital communications and computation came in giving ordinary people control over the information in their lives; digital fabrication will likewise give individuals control over their physical world by allowing them to personally program its construction.' (Gershenfeld 2007, 241).
</p>
<p>
However, all this innovation is around certain tools, mainly laser cutters, 3D printers, and CNC machines. At the same time textile fabrication has been overlooked. In the end, it is a shame to forget early fabrication methods, which can be adjusted for digital age needs. Also, re-application of obsolete media and integration of craft are interesting and novel approaches in the field of digital fabrication.
</p>
<p>
We believe that all these results could be augmented if textile fabrication is added as an option for open manufacturing. Individuals, who are experimenting with and making their living from digital fabrication practices could have more possibilities for creation as well as business. And what is more important, more people could be involved, especially the ones who are skilled in handcrafts like knitting and sewing. Hence, introducing this overlooked manufacturing field will certainly bring innovation, as well as novel business and collaboration models.
</p>
<p>
To tell more, there is a growing community of artists and designers working with and improving hacked obsolete electronic knitting machines. For example, Becky Stern from MAKE Magazine introduced the first tutorial how to modify a knitting machine (Stern, 2010). Andrew Salamone an artist from New Year has knit a body of work on those machines. The practice of Fabienne Serriere is a good example of one-person manufacturing. She has modified a knitting machine and now produces knitted items by applying parametric design approach while making her own patterns (Serriere 2011).
</p>
<p>
In addition to that, the machine that was produced for home-use in late 1980s, actually allows to knit big-scale and custom-made items. For instance, we have knit a car Kombi on Brother KH930 machine with Knitic (see Fig. 5,) and a number of SPAMpoetry pieces. Concerning innovation, knitting has a big potential in the field of smart textiles. At the moment the most of work in this field is done on fabrics. Hence, knitting is completely unexplored field from this point of view. For example, thermo chromic and UV pigments could be applied on yarn. Also conductive yarn is a thing to try out. Hence, we see lots of room for creativity and innovation in the field of knitting.
</p>
<figure>
<graphic url=""ab-173.005""/>
<head>Fig. 5</head>
<p>
Knitted Kombi on the streets of Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
</p>
</figure>
<p>
Why does open source matters? In our point of view, open code, hardware, and design are the reasons for the success of digital fabrication field. For instance, Lipson and Kurman write about the phenomena of a factory at home and one-person industries, which is not a vision or future prediction but already a reality. There are a number of proofs for such a claim, but the most vital ones are open source hardware and software, and an active community around the rising paradigm. For example, 3D printers that were for industrial use and not affordable for individuals, can now, in 2012, be purchased for 1000 euros. Obviously, an industrial machine has better specifications from an open source one, but still a self-assembled RepRap can be applied for prototyping, a small-scale and customised production, and finally for self-replication. Moreover, the price of the machine is dropping and features improving because the machine is an open hardware! There are lots of 3D printers that are open source and through the innovation and contribution of the whole community the development curve is extremely rapid.
</p>
<p>
Concerning further reasons for the advent of digital fabrication, open design as well as software play an extremely important role. Thanks to the database of designs that are available online, like Thingiverse.com, one can find a huge number of 3D models as well as share their own designs freely. Hence, even non-experts are able to start experimenting and producing desired items. In addition to that, open code is also crucial for understanding and improving the performance of digital fabrication machines.
</p>
<p>
Coming back to Knitic, we have opened all our research in order to achieve similar effect in the community of makers as described above. Our ultimate goal is to contribute with completely open source knitting machine that can be produced by laser-cutting and 3D printing its parts. Hence, an open source knitting machine will not depend on availability of discontinued Brother electronic knitting machines.
</p>
<p>
We believe that textile fabrication has a huge potential in the age of digital fabrication and customisation. Moreover, knitting is a skill that humanity has been using for ages. Hence, there are lots of experts, knowledge, learning and production material, tools, etc. On the contrary, the ability to 3D print or laser-cut is the competence of very few people. It means, introducing craft in general to the desktop manufacturing communities and Fab Labs will bring more people and gender balance to these networks. Furthermore, the encounter of different skills and disciplines will most likely constitute innovation and creativity.
</p>
<p>
In the end, it is curious how an electronic knitting machine, the first digital manufacturing tool at home has been forgotten by digital fabrication labs and open hardware developers. Therefore, we are confident in the importance of our research project and contribution to the field of personal manufacturing. Moreover, our research and development of open source knitting machine is a perfect example of artists developing their own tools for their work. And that is what is happening in the world of open source hardware and software that affects greatly art, design, and manufacturing fields.
</p>
<p>
And finally, in our point of view it is impossible to talk about the shift of production paradigm by observing and describing the phenomenon of Fab Labs and novel open source machines that are able to produce hard-surface items, while excluding all other areas of manufacturing.
</p>
<p>
To sum up, since knitting is a well-known craft and there are lots of experts, it is a shame to run after new technology and forget good old skills. On the contrary, innovation should take advantage of existing knowledge.
</p>
</div>
</body>
<back>
<div type=""References"">
<listBibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Canet, M., and V. Guljajeva</hi>
(2012). Knitic.
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://www.knitic.com/"">http://www.knitic.com/</ref>
(accessed 14 March 2013).
</bibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">The Economist.</hi>
(2011). 3D printing. The printed world.
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://www.economist.com/node/18114221"">http://www.economist.com/node/18114221</ref>
(accessed 1 September 2012).
</bibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Fab Lab International.</hi>
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://fablabinternational.org/"">http://fablabinternational.org/</ref>
(accessed 20 February 2013).
</bibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Gershenfeld, N.</hi>
(2007).
<hi rend=""italic"">
Fab: The Coming Revolution on Your Desktop — from Personal Computers to Personal Fabrication
</hi>
. Basic Books.
</bibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Goodspeed, T.</hi>
(2010). Hacking a Knitting Machine's Keypad.
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://travisgoodspeed.blogspot.com.br/2010/12/hacking-knitting-machines-keypad.html"">
http://travisgoodspeed.blogspot.com.br/2010/12/hacking-knitting-machines-keypad.html
</ref>
(accessed 14 January 2013).
</bibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Guljajeva, V.</hi>
(2012). SPAMpoetry.
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://www.varvarag.info/spampoetry/"">http://www.varvarag.info/spampoetry/</ref>
(accessed 14 March 2013).
</bibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Igoe, T., and C. Mota</hi>
(2011). Astrategist's Guide to Digital Fabrication.
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://m.strategy-business.com/article/11307?gko=63624"">m.strategy-business.com/article/11307?gko=63624</ref>
(accessed 1 September 2012).
</bibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Kurman, M., and H. Lipson</hi>
(2010). Factory @ Home: Emerging Economy of Personal Fabrication.
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://web.mae.cornell.edu/lipson/FactoryAtHome.pdf"">
http://web.mae.cornell.edu/lipson/FactoryAtHome.pdf
</ref>
(accessed 1 March 2013).
</bibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Sierrere, F.</hi>
(2011). Mate cosies: warm hands, cold mate.
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://fabienne.us/"">http://fabienne.us/</ref>
(accessed 2 February 2013).
</bibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Solon, O.</hi>
(2013). Digital Fabrication is so much more than 3D printing. In
<hi rend=""italic"">Wired Magazine</hi>
, published 13 March 2013.
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-03/13/digital-fabrication"">
http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-03/13/digital-fabrication
</ref>
(accessed 14 March 2013).
</bibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Stern, B.</hi>
(2010). How-To: Hack Your Knitting Machine.
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://blog.makezine.com/craft/hack_your_knitting_machine/"">
http://blog.makezine.com/craft/hack_your_knitting_machine/
</ref>
</bibl>
</listBibl>
</div>
</back>
</text>
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Ontology and collaborative knowledge environment in Digital Humanities: the Cardano Case
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<surname>Luzzi</surname>
,
<forename>Damiana</forename>
</name>
<affiliation>Fondazione Rinascimento Digitale, Italy</affiliation>
<email>luzzi@rinascimento-digitale.it</email>
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<author>
<name>
<surname>Baldi</surname>
,
<forename>Marialuisa</forename>
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<affiliation>Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy</affiliation>
<email>marialuisa.baldi@unimi.it</email>
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The
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Girolamo Cardano Project: the Knowledge and the Arts of the Renaissance
</hi>
is devoted to a major author in Renaissance philosophy and science, although not yet fully studied. We focus on our experiment on one of his work in medicine, the
<hi rend=""italic"">Contradicentia medica,</hi>
according to the methodological approach of the semantic web ontology. The multidisciplinary nature of the text, its encyclopedic references and citations, its many sources, ancient and modern, explicit and implicit, make the
<hi rend=""italic"">Contradicentia</hi>
a significant case study for the methodology adopted. Our aims are:
<list type=""unordered"">
<item>
making available online the digital edition of the Contradicentia and its transcription together with other texts related to it
</item>
<item>
providing a collaborative environment for editing, reading, studying, researching, and posting annotations and comments.
</item>
</list>
An ontology has been designed to tackle the complexity of the
<hi rend=""italic"">Contradicentia</hi>
, reconstructing Cardano’s ideas in medicine and philosophy of nature, and capturing knowledge about significant contextual information.
</note>
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<term>ontology</term>
<term>semantic web</term>
<term>annotation</term>
<term>knowledge representation</term>
<term>collaborative environment</term>
</keywords>
<keywords scheme=""original"" n=""topic"">
<term>ontologies</term>
<term>software design and development</term>
<term>renaissance studies</term>
<term>semantic web</term>
<term>linking and annotation</term>
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<term>withdrawn</term>
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<body>
<div>
<head>1. Introduction</head>
<p>
The
<hi rend=""italic"">
Girolamo Cardano Project: the Knowledge and the Arts of the Renaissance
</hi>
<ref type=""note"" target=""n01"">1</ref>
is devoted to a major author in Renaissance philosophy and science, although not yet fully studied. Girolamo Cardano(1501-1576) was a polymath, philosopher, mathematician, physician, astrologer, encyclopedist and autobiographer
<ref type=""note"" target=""n02"">2</ref>
. In this paper we focus on our experiment on one of his most important works in medicine, the
<hi rend=""italic"">
Contradicentia medica
<ref type=""note"" target=""n03"">3</ref>
,
</hi>
according to the methodological approach of the semantic web ontology(Kotis, et al. 2010; Domingue, et al. 2011). The multidisciplinary nature of the text, its encyclopedic references and citations, its many sources, ancient and modern, explicit and implicit, make the
<hi rend=""italic"">Contradicentia</hi>
a significant case study for the methodology adopted. Our aims are:
<list type=""unordered"">
<item>
making available online the digital edition of the
<hi rend=""italic"">Contradicentia</hi>
and its transcription, together with other texts related to it
</item>
<item>
providing a collaborative environment for editing, reading, studying, researching, and posting annotations and comments.
</item>
</list>
</p>
<p>
A semantic web ontology has been designed to tackle the complexity of the
<hi rend=""italic"">Contradicentia,</hi>
reconstructing Cardano’s ideas in medicine and in the philosophy of nature, and capturing knowledge about significant contextual information. Its application to the text of Cardano is an absolute novelty in Renaissance studies. The semantic web ontology is an excellent choice for representing Cardano’s encyclopedic knowledge. The main characteristics of an ontology are:
<list type=""unordered"">
<item>flexibility</item>
<item>extensibility</item>
<item>portability</item>
</list>
it is shared and persistent over time, too.
</p>
<p>
The ontology and the semantic approach allow us to express the concepts drawn from the text and create links between them favoring the development, sharing, reuse, and updating of knowledge. The semantic web ontology can be published in the form of Linked Data (Eero, 2012; Heath et al., 2011) to facilitate sharing, interoperability and reuse of information.
</p>
<p>
Cardano himself, were he alive today, would be very interested in ICT and semantic web technologies, as he thought knowledge was a network
<ref type=""note"" target=""n04"">4</ref>
and that philosophers had to find hidden relationships between things and concepts.
</p>
</div>
<div>
<head>2. Cardano's ontology</head>
<p>
According to the OWL 2 (Motik, et al. 2009):
<list type=""unordered"">
<item>the core classes represent Cardano’s thought</item>
<item>
the “general” classes represent the knowledge base designed to express the information about the temporal and spatial aspects, the persons and groups, the cataloging of the texts and bibliography references. To manage this information we have implemented classes and predicates, taking into account the standards
<ref type=""note"" target=""n05"">5</ref>
, in order to make an open and flexible system available in which information, with a different granularity, can be integrated and continuously updated by the users themselves, once enabled.
</item>
</list>
</p>
<p>
As an example (Fig. 1), we represent a significant portion of the ontological model which describes the evolution of Cardano’s thought over time, as it is expressed in some portions of the text.
</p>
<figure>
<graphic url=""ab-263.001""/>
<head>Fig. 1:</head>
<p>
Basic description in UML (Unified Modeling Language); in brackets the Latin term used by Cardano.
</p>
</figure>
<p>
Cardano’s concepts (e.g. “Elementum”) are contained in the superclass
<hi rend=""italic"">CardanoThought.</hi>
The “lifespan” of any concept is defined by the class
<hi rend=""italic"">TemporalEntity</hi>
linked by the property
<hi rend=""italic"">hasTemporalReference.</hi>
The class
<hi rend=""italic"">TemporalEntity</hi>
can be aligned by equivalence relation to the class with the same name within Time ontology
<ref type=""note"" target=""n06"">6</ref>
. To express the evolution of Cardano’s concepts in time, related to a specific part of the text, the class
<hi rend=""italic"">CardanoThought</hi>
is linked by the property
<hi rend=""italic"">changes</hi>
with the class
<hi rend=""italic"">Change,</hi>
and the property
<hi rend=""italic"">hasTextualReference</hi>
with the class
<hi rend=""italic"">Text.</hi>
In addition, to define when, where and which concept has changed, the class
<hi rend=""italic"">Change</hi>
has been defined and linked by property:
<list type=""unordered"">
<item>
<hi rend=""italic"">when</hi>
to the class
<hi rend=""italic"">TemporalEntity</hi>
</item>
<item>
<hi rend=""italic"">where</hi>
to the class
<hi rend=""italic"">Text</hi>
</item>
<item>
<hi rend=""italic"">which</hi>
to the class
<hi rend=""italic"">CardanoThought.</hi>
</item>
</list>
The class
<hi rend=""italic"">Work</hi>
can be aligned by equivalence relation to the class with the same name within FRBR-oo standard
<ref type=""note"" target=""n07"">7</ref>
.
</p>
</div>
<div>
<head>3. Web Application</head>
<p>
Reperio
<ref type=""note"" target=""n08"">8</ref>
, a collaborative knowledge environment for Digital Humanities and Science, indicates a technological solution to meet the needs of specific scholarly projects. It takes advantage of experience gained during the experimental project Pinakes
<ref type=""note"" target=""n09"">9</ref>
, of which it is an evolution; Reperio is used in some national and international projects
<ref type=""note"" target=""n10"">10</ref>
. Its vision and mission is to help eliminate isolation within different research communities by facilitating collaborative ways of working and sharing content and resources, while respecting the intellectual property of the individual scholar. Reperio is a multi-user, modular, collaborative, flexible and customizable web work environment consisting of two modules:
<list type=""unordered"">
<item>
Ontology Editor to edit classes and properties, and to insert instance in the ontology
</item>
<item>
Text to edit and manage texts and images, which provides specialized tools:
<list type=""unordered"">
<item>text editor</item>
<item>digital image manager</item>
<item>automatic importer of texts/images</item>
<item>metadata, full-text and semantic search</item>
<item>annotation editor</item>
<item>comparison and collation manager</item>
<item>textual and linguistic analysis</item>
</list>
</item>
</list>
The Ontology Editor and Text modules communicate in a dynamic way: any changes made to the ontology schema (such as the addition, modification, cancellation of a class or a predicate) is “instantly” visualized in Text. The text is thus connected to the ontological schema that it uses for the different types of annotations.
</p>
<p>
The markup is stored and can be displayed as XHTML, XML, RDF. The data is stored in a Sesame Triple Store. A user-friendly interface allows the user to perform SPARQL queries. The URI
<ref type=""note"" target=""n11"">11</ref>
identifies digital resources, too. Reperio’s source code will be open-source.
</p>
</div>
<div>
<head>4. Annotation</head>
<p>
The Annotation Tool, developed on the basis of the standard Open Annotation Collaboration
<ref type=""note"" target=""n12"">12</ref>
, enables making various types of annotations on the text (and/or image): comments, links or cross-references to other resources, ontological annotations, etc. Users are allowed to select portions of the text and associate the tags proposed by the system or that they themselves enter.
</p>
<p>
In this context we present the collaborative Ontological Annotation Tool of Reperio, because it is the most widely used tool for the studies of
<hi rend=""italic"">Contradicentia</hi>
and annotating is a core practice to scholars, too (Corcho, 2006). The expressive power hidden in the texts can be further maximized by combining ontology and annotation: annotation expresses, in a formal manner, the meaning of a text using the “terminology” provided by the ontology. Thanks to this type of annotation, users can study and analyze the text in different ways, philological, syntactic, morphological, grammatical. They can even comment on physical materials, inks, colors, etc.
</p>
<p>
Particularly, the semantic annotation (Agosti et al., 2007) helps to bridge the ambiguity of natural language in expressing notions and their computational representation in a formal language. The annotation operation can be performed:
<list type=""ordered"">
<item>
1. through concepts associating classes to the selected term/s. If the class relating to the concept on the text is not in the ontology, it can be easily inserted (by user with appropriate permission) opening the ontology editor.
</item>
<item>
2. through instances:
<list>
<item>
a. the instances are already in the ontology: selecting (Fig. 2)
<hi rend=""italic"">“Philosophus”</hi>
and connecting it to the instance
<hi rend=""italic"">“Aristotle”</hi>
of the class Person and its subclass Philosopher(i.e. search for
<hi rend=""italic"">“Aristotle”</hi>
shows the results where Aristotle is appointed
<hi rend=""italic"">“Philosophus”</hi>
too, and a search for person or philosopher shows Aristotle in the result). Another example: Cardano writes ""calor animalium secundum Philosophum est calor non igneus, sed coelestis""
<ref type=""note"" target=""n13"">13</ref>
: by semantically linking Cardano’s citation with the instance
<hi rend=""italic"">De longitudine et brevitate vitae</hi>
of the Title class of the ontology, you get the reference to Aristotle's text and its bibliographic information. Therefore a portion of the ontological schema is based on FRBR-oo standard. In addition, if Aristotle’s book is present in a digital edition in Reperio or in another digital library, through a URI connection, you could read the page to which Cardano refers.
</item>
<item>
b. directly populating the ontology: selecting
<hi rend=""italic"">""aquae""</hi>
and inserting it as instance of the class Elementum.
</item>
</list>
</item>
</list>
</p>
<p>
Annotation operations and/or the ontology population may be performed manually or in a semi-automatic manner by text parsing performed on the basis of the classes and/or instances.
</p>
<figure>
<graphic url=""ab-263.002""/>
<head>Fig. 2:</head>
<p>Reperio: Semantic Annotation</p>
</figure>
<p>
The semantization of knowledge significantly improves accuracy and relevance of search results. The annotation ontological tool also allows you to write additional information on the annotation, and then to perform a search on them, too.
</p>
</div>
<div>
<head>5. Conclusion</head>
<p>
Ontology and an environment system like Reperio can be considered an evolving open ecosystem, that offers scholars the freedom to search and explore. On the experience of the project, the process of designing the ontology has been very useful, because it offers different views and perspectives on texts and the concepts they have, and will open new ways for further study and analysis. Such an “enhanced” search allows you to infer and deduce new knowledge based on what is available.
</p>
</div>
</body>
<back>
<div type=""References"">
<listBibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Agosti, M., G. Bonfiglio-Dosio, and N. Ferro</hi>
(2007). A historical and contemporary study on annotations to derive key features for systems design.
<hi rend=""italic"">International Journal on Digital Libraries,</hi>
8(1): 1-19.
</bibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Corcho, O.</hi>
(2006). Ontology based document annotation: trends and open research problems.
<hi rend=""italic"">
International of Journal Metadata, Semantics and Ontologies.
</hi>
1: 47-57.
</bibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Domingue, J., D. Fensel, and J.A. Hendler (eds.)</hi>
(2011).
<hi rend=""italic"">Handbook of Semantic Web Technologies.</hi>
Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
</bibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Eero, H.</hi>
(2012).
<hi rend=""italic"">
Publishing and Using Cultural Heritage Linked Data on the Semantic Web,
</hi>
Palo Alto, CA: Morgan & Claypool.
</bibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Heath, H., and C. Bizer.</hi>
(2011).
<hi rend=""italic"">
Linked Data: Evolving the Web into a Global Data Space.
</hi>
Palo Alto, CA: Morgan & Claypool.
</bibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Kotis, K., and G. Vouros</hi>
(2010). Ontological Tools: Requirements, Design Issues and Perspectives. In Poli, R., M. Healy, and A. Kameas (eds.)
<hi rend=""italic"">Theory and Applications of Ontology,</hi>
Netherlands: Springer, 155 -173.
</bibl>
<bibl>
<hi rend=""bold"">Motik, B., P.F. Patel-Schneider, and B. Parsia</hi>
(2009). OWL 2 Web Ontology Language Structural Specification and Functional-Style Syntax. In
<hi rend=""italic"">W3C Recommendation,</hi>
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://www.w3.org/TR/owl2-syntax/"">http://www.w3.org/TR/owl2-syntax/</ref>
(accessed 5 March, 2013).
</bibl>
</listBibl>
</div>
<div>
<head>Notes</head>
<note xml:id=""n01"" n=""1"">
The project is coordinated by the University of Milan-Department of Philosophy
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://dipartimento.filosofia.unimi.it/"">http://dipartimento.filosofia.unimi.it/</ref>
(accessed 5 March, 2013) in collaboration with the Digital Renaissance Foundation (FRD,
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://www.rinascimento-digitale.it"">http://www.rinascimento-digitale.it</ref>
(accessed 5 March, 2013).
</note>
<note xml:id=""n02"" n=""2"">
Cardano G. (1663).
<hi rend=""italic"">Opera Omnia: tam hactenus excusa, </hi>
cura Caroli Sponi, 10 vols, Huguetan J. A., Ravaud M. A., Lyon, henceforth OO. The volume is available at:
<hi rend=""italic"">
Girolamo Cardano. Strumenti per la storia del Rinascimento in Italia settentrionale,
</hi>
Baldi M., Canziani G. (edited by):
<hi rend=""italic"">Opera Omnia,</hi>
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://www.cardano.unimi.it/testi/opera.html"">http://www.cardano.unimi.it/testi/opera.html.</ref>
</note>
<note xml:id=""n03"" n=""3"">
Cardano G. (1565).
<hi rend=""italic"">
Contradicentium Medicorum. Libri duo, quorum primus centum & octo, alte vero totidem disputationes continet,
</hi>
Macaeus I., Parisiis.
</note>
<note xml:id=""n04"" n=""4"">
Cardano G.:
<hi rend=""italic"">De vita propria liber, </hi>
XLI, OO, I.
</note>
<note xml:id=""n05"" n=""5"">
<hi rend=""italic"">
The conceptual models used are: Time ontology in OWL to express the information about the temporal aspects
</hi>
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://www.w3.org/TR/owl-time/""> http://www.w3.org/TR/owl-time/</ref>
(accessed 5 March, 2013); Friend of a Friend (FOAF) to express information about persons and groups),
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://www.foaf-project.org/"">http://www.foaf-project.org/</ref>
(accessed 5 March, 2013); Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records-object oriented (FRBR-oo) to catalogue texts and bibliography references,
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://www.ifla.org/publications/functional-requirements-for-bibliographic-records"">
http://www.ifla.org/publications/functional-requirements-for-bibliographic-records
</ref>
(accessed 5 March, 2013).
</note>
<note xml:id=""n06"" n=""6"">Cfr. note 5.</note>
<note xml:id=""n07"" n=""7"">Cfr. note 5.</note>
<note xml:id=""n08"" n=""8"">
Developed by the FRD in collaboration with the Institute of Computational Linguistics “Antonio Zampolli” (ILC-CNR),
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://www.reperio.it"">http://www.reperio.it</ref>
(accessed 5 March 2013).
</note>
<note xml:id=""n09"" n=""9"">
It was developed from 2004 to 2011 by the FRD and the ILC-CNR, in collaboration with the MiBAC and the Galileo Museum.
</note>
<note xml:id=""n10"" n=""10"">
See, for example:
<hi rend=""italic"">
Cataloging and Management of Digital Documents (Transcript of Texts and Images, Manuscripts, Books, Lectures, etc.)
</hi>
of the Pontifical Gregorian University Archives in Rome;
<hi rend=""italic"">
DiTMAO: Information System for Old Occitan Medical Terminology; Bulletin (1893 - 1923) of the Società Dantesca Italiana.
</hi>
</note>
<note xml:id=""n11"" n=""11"">
Uniform Resource Identifier, the same identifier at the basis of Linked Data.
</note>
<note xml:id=""n12"" n=""12"">
OAC,
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://www.openannotation.org"">http://www.openannotation.org </ref>
(accessed 5 March, 2013) and Open Annotation Data Model (W3C draft,
<ref type=""url"" target=""http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core/"">http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core/</ref>
(accessed 5 March, 2013).
</note>
<note xml:id=""n13"" n=""13"">
G. Cardano,
<hi rend=""italic""> Contradicentium medicorum libri,</hi>
cit., I, I, XI.
</note>
</div>
</back>
</text>
</TEI>","xml","2","http://dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-263.html",""
"3754","14","Robots Watching Television: Algorithmic Approaches to Multimedia Analysis in the Humanities","9","","","2","",""
"3755","17","An Experiment in Translating and Publishing Highly Computational Literature. Introducing a Story Generator into the Polish Literary Field *","2","","","2","",""
"3756","17","Bridging the Gap: the Digital Innovation Group","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p rend=""normal"">The success of the digital humanities as a field of research has led to two pressing needs at the interface of computer science and the humanities. First, sustainable software development projects are needed that are focused on humanities research problems. Second, graduate and undergraduate training models are required that address the interdisciplinary nature of digital and computational humanities research (Ramsay, 2012; Reid, 2012). From the application and development of new algorithms to mine texts (e.g. Murdock et al., 2015) to the development of multi-institutional software systems (e.g. Neuroth et al., 2011), many digital humanities projects can only be implemented with the help of computer scientists and software engineers. </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">We believe that the future success of applying digital and computational approaches to research questions in the humanities depends on forging links between computer science and the humanities. However, the digital humanities need to involve more than adding a computer scientist to a humanities project. Many digital humanities programs include computer science courses in their degree and certificate programs, but this is not yet the norm. Specifically in the history and philosophy of science, many programs do not impart the skills necessary to take advantage of the new modes of research. Likewise, computer scientists typically receive little training in the humanities, making it difficult to foster meaningful and productive collaborations with humanities scholars.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Our poster describes the Digital Innovation Group (DigInG) in the Center for Biology and Society at Arizona State University (ASU). DigInG’s primary objective is the development of computational solutions for questions in the digital humanities with a focus on digital history and philosophy of science. Our group trains students from the computer science department together with students from the humanities. We develop user-oriented innovative tools, methods, and infrastructures, and foster an understanding for each other’s fields by teaching a skill set that enables students to communicate more effectively. </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">As part of DigInG, we developed a course that puts computer science students in a room with humanities students to work together on digital humanities projects. In addition, we offer the opportunity to work on the software development projects in our lab as student workers. We emphasize software engineering best practices and cross-disciplinary interaction. For example, in the beginning of the semester the class develops a course website, which requires them to learn how to use Git and GitHub. Students from the humanities learn the basics of programming. Computer science students acquire a mindset that better prepares them for working on digital humanities projects and learn how to better communicate with those outside their field. We discuss topics such as the importance of authority control, metadata, or resource discovery. In our experience, the students gain a lot from participating in our class as for many of them it is the first time that they work with students from a very different field of study. For instance, one humanities student noted that “learning to formulate questions in ways that computer scientists and software developers can understand” was one of the most valuable outcomes for them.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">Not only does DigInG play an important role in developing software for humanities research, it also creates an environment for hands-on training for graduate and undergraduate students in computer science and the humanities. We hope that our poster will contribute to broadening the discussion about how digital and computational humanities programs are organized. We believe that software development and training in the digital humanities do not need to be separate endeavors.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Murdock J., Allen C., DeDeo S.</hi> (2015). Exploration and Exploitation of Victorian Science in Darwin's Reading Notebooks. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">CoRR</hi>. http://arxiv.org/abs/1509.07175
                        (accessed 31 October 2015).
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Neuroth H., Lohmeier F., Smith, K.</hi> (2011). TextGrid – Virtual Research Environment for the Humanities. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">International Journal of Digital Curation</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(2). 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ramsay, S.</hi> (2012). Programming with Humanists: Reflections on Raising an Army of Hacker-Scholars in the Digital Humanities. In Hirsch B. D. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Digital Humanities Pedagogy: Practices, Principles and Politics</hi>. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers, pp. 227-39.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl rend=""normal"">
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Reid, A.</hi> (2012). Graduate Education and the Ethics of the Digital Humanities. In Gold, M. K. (ed.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Debates in the Digital Humanities</hi>. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 350-67.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"3757","17","Cantus Network - A Semantically Enriched Digital Edition Of Libri Ordinarii Of The Salzburg Metropolitan Province *","2","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Introduction</head>
                <p>For many centuries, the metropolitan province of Salzburg played a key role in the cultural history of Austria. The digital availability of the many surviving liturgical musical sources which form an important part of this cultural heritage is therefore of great importance. This research project aims at investigating the records that survived as manuscripts and describe the practice of liturgical and musical acts of worship. Liturgical ordinals, called libri ordinarii (LOi), are key sources for this transmission, as they include a short form of the entire rite of a diocese or a monastery. Prayers, readings and chants are given as abbreviations (incipits). </p>
                <p>This poster examines the technical background to the project and specifically the transformation process into TEI as well as the creation of semantic web knowledge representations of the liturgical occasions/functions and the chants based on existing relational databases.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The object: Liturgy and music in the medieval metropolitan province of Salzburg</head>
                <p>A liber ordinarius usually includes all the information required by an individual institution (church, monastery) or a group (diocese, group of monasteries) for their services. This includes the incipits of chants, readings and prayers for the liturgy of the hours, mass and processions as well as rubrics that provide instructions on how and when particular liturgical acts should be carried out. </p>
                <p>The rubrics often contain indications of how the chant is to be performed and are thus able to provide important information on chant performance practice. However, this information cannot be utilized without in-depth examination of the LOi: thus, scholarly studies have to include a critical transcription of the Latin texts, followed by an in-depth analysis of the origins of the liturgy and the commentaries.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The aim: Reconstruct the development of the liturgy in the Salzburg metropolitan province by Semantic Enrichment</head>
                <p>The research project’s aim is to reconstruct and produce a synoptic study of the emergence and development of the liturgy in the Salzburg metropolitan province, based on the surviving LOi in the region. A primary task was the transformation of the ordinarii from docx into TEI. A Java algorithm parses the docx on word-level in order to create the desired TEI-Output. The encoding in TEI consequently allows a detailed transcription of textual phenomena and the reference between texts. This is the basis for an in-depth analysis of the different traditions and variants of the LOi. </p>
                <p>The LOi as a textual genre need enriched editions, which cannot be fully provided in printed forms. The project will provide the multi-layered texts digitally working with a controlled vocabulary. This resource will be of particular interest for the international efforts on cataloguing the manuscript heritage and research on the history of liturgy, which will be able to refer to the controlled vocabulary via Semantic Web technologies and Linked Open Data. The data from the existing relational databases cantusplanus.at and cantusdatabase.org will be converted into semantic web knowledge representations (SKOS, OWL). With the usage of these standards, we can secure the long-term use of the data created. </p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The long term perspective: The technical infrastructure</head>
                <p>The digitized and enriched objects will be managed, published and long-time archived in GAMS (Geisteswissenschaftliches Asset Management System). GAMS is an OAIS-compliant Asset Management System based on the Open Source software FEDORA and further developed by the Austrian Centre for Digital Humanities at the University of Graz. </p>
                <p>GAMS focuses on the long-term availability and flexible use of digital content. The repository builds upon a webservice-based (SOAP, REST), platform-independent and distributed system architecture, a largely XML based content strategy, the support of XML based import and export standards (METS, DIDL, etc.) and the use of standardized data and metadata formats. All data objects in the system receive a persistent identifier (PID) and can thus be explicitly cited. </p>
                <p>During the ingest process of the objects into the repository, the TEI documents can be semantically enriched through content-specific controlled vocabularies. Information will be extracted from the content document, for instance Dublin Core metadata or user-generated RDF triples for subsequent processing like complex search requests, the generation of indices and data visualization. For the storage and retrieval of RDF triples, an openRDF Sesame repository is accessed through a web service. </p>
                <p>The manuscripts in the project will be presented with an interface, which allows navigating the data in the ways mentioned above, including elaborate multi-criteria search support by drill down methods. GAMS includes an efficient Imageserver (IIPImage) which allows seamless navigation and zoom in high resolution images.</p>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Klugseder, R.</hi> (2014). Mittelalterliche musik-liturgische Quellen aus dem Augustinerchorherrenstift St. Florian. In 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Musicologica Austriaca</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">31</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Praßl, F. K.</hi> (1998). Der älteste Salzburger Liber Ordinarius (Codex M II 6 der Universitätsbibliothek Salzburg). Zu seinen Inhalten und seiner Wirkungsgeschichte. In Engels, S. and Walterkirchen, G. (eds.), 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Musica sacra mediaevalis. Geistliche Musik Salzburgs im Mittelalter</hi>. St. Ottilien: pp. 31-47 (= Studien und Mitteilungen zur Geschichte des Benediktinerordens und seiner Zweige 40, Ergänzungsband)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">CANTUS.</hi> (2016). A database for latin ecclesiastical chant. 
                        <ref target=""http://cantusdatabase.org/"">http://cantusdatabase.org/</ref> (accessed 22 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">GAMS.</hi> (2016). 
                        <ref target=""http://gams.uni-graz.at/doku"">http://gams.uni-graz.at/doku</ref> (accessed 22 February 2016)
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"3758","17","Commens Digital Companion to Charles S. Peirce","2","<text>
        <body>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Background</head>
                <p>The Commens Digital Companion (http://www.commens.org) was born in 2012-13, when the Helsinki-based Commens site, designed by Mats Bergman and Sami Paavola, merged with the Brazilian Digital Encyclopedia of Charles S. Peirce, founded by João Queiroz. The new international Companion brought together two established on-line resources of Peirce research – the Commens Dictionary and the Digital Encyclopedia – and added new tools, such as the news service and the bibliography.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>The Original Commens</head>
                <p>Commens was originally developed as a Finnish Peirce studies website by Mats Bergman and Sami Paavola. It functioned as the virtual home for the Helsinki Metaphysical Club, and offered resources for students and researchers in both Finnish and English. The original Commens was opened in February, 2001. In 2003, Bergman and Paavola introduced the Commens Dictionary of Peirce’s Terms, a dictionary of Peircean terminology built from original Peirce quotes. The Dictionary proved to be the most successful part of Commens; together with the Digital Encyclopedia, the Dictionary forms the backbone of the new Digital Companion. More than 700 quotes were transferred from the old Dictionary to the new platform.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Why “Commens”? Why a “Digital Companion”?</head>
                <p>Peirce introduced the concept of the “commens” or ”commind” in his correspondence with Victoria Lady Welby in 1906. Although a rare and partly obscure neologism, the term has proven to be both suggestive and useful. When Bergman and Paavola created the original Commens, their goal was a web site that would serve as an enabler of scholarly communication as well as a free resource for researchers and students - and hence “Commens”, a term that suggests community and sharing of knowledge. The new version of Commens has also been developed in this spirit; it moves us several steps closer to the original aim by providing new possibilities for user input and collaboration.</p>
                <p>In addition to evoking the original Digital Encyclopedia created by João Queiroz, the term “Digital Companion” refers to the emphasis on the new forms of publication that Commens provides. Unlike traditional, printed companion volumes, Commens grows and evolves through user input.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Primary Contents</head>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>News</head>
                    <p>Commens collects news pertaining to Peirce studies and closely related fields. The news are divided into categories, such as “academic meetings”, “calls for papers”, and “publications”. An archive of all news items is provided on the news page. In addition, news with a set date, such as meetings and deadlines, are listed in the “Upcoming Events and Deadlines” sidebar block on the news page and the front page as well as the Commens calendar. All registered members may add news to Commens, as long as the entries relate to Peirce studies in some manner. All news items are supervised by the site editors, who have the right to remove any inappropriate entries.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Dictionary</head>
                    <p>The Commens Dictionary consists of original quotations, in which Peirce defines or characterises his technical terms. This collection of quotes does not lay claim to completeness; the dictionary aims to offer representative samples of Peirce’s terminological definitions. It is intended to serve as an aid for researchers and students. All quotes are associated with sources (such as manuscripts or journal articles) added to the bibliography. Only editors and contributors may add and edit the contents; but all registered users may add comments (such as suggestions for new quotes and corrections). The comments are monitored by the site editors, who have the right to remove any inappropriate comments.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Encyclopedia</head>
                    <p>The Commens Encyclopedia contains original research articles related to different aspects of the philosophy and life of Peirce. The articles are peer reviewd according to academic standards.</p>
                </div>
                <div type=""div2"" rend=""DH-Heading2"">
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <p>The Commens Bibliography is an open-ended biographical database that contains both primary and secondary Peirce research sources. The bibliography provides the source references for the Commens Dictionary. All registered users can add records to the bibliography as long as the entries relate to Peirce studies in some manner. The bibliography is supervised by the site editors, who have the right to remove any inappropriate entries.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl><hi rend=""bold"">Bergman, M., Paavola, S. and Queiroz, J.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Commens Digital Companion of C. S. Peirce. </hi>Available at 
                        <ptr target=""http://www.commens.org/""/>
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"3759","17","Countering Counter Mapping Methods: Constructing A Humanities GIS Methodology In the Age of Electracy","9","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Most government and business sponsored geographic information systems (GIS) are employed to manage, track, and exploit labor and production. GIS has primarily been used to regulate political economies, “the concern for life is to administer it (life) through controls and regulations so that resources might be rightly apportioned” (Crampton, 2011). Therefore, governments and businesses use GIS is to produce abstract intelligence and knowledge about people and terrains, which they use to make decisions for distributing goods. These goods can include hospitals, parks, roads, military air strikes, etc. By understanding GIS as an engine for political decision making, we can begin to understand that maps are inherently political. However, GIS, because of its ubiquitous, malleable, and slippery nature, can be used for more than simply calculating statistics to influence the distribution of goods. Instead, GIS can be used to distribute ideas, concepts, emotions, and narratives (the qualitative data of our human actions) in order to act as a counter-map.</p>
            <p>Nancy Lee Peluso (1995) first defined counter-mapping as an effort to “appropriate the state’s techniques and manner of representation to bolster the legitimacy of “customary” claims to resources” (384). In this definition of counter-mapping, counter-maps contest governmental decisions on political economies by representing location specific knowledge that challenges the abstract statistical knowledge sanctioned by the state. Researchers usually create these counter maps by using participatory GIS (PGIS) methods. PGIS is a cartographic research method that asks members of a population of a mapped geographic area to become active producers in their own mapping. It asks the population members to map their own problems, wants, and needs. For example, Sarah Elwood (2006) has used PGIS with community members from low income neighborhoods in Chicago to help community members advocate for neighborhood improvements (197-208). Though this use of counter-mapping may be helpful to advocate for the redistribution of goods, I argue, it doesn’t do enough to contest the primary political functionality of GIS. GIS in these projects often simply replicates the dominant ideology of GIS - that its sole function is to be used to make decisions for the distributions of goods within political economies. This definition of counter-mapping has constrained our imaginations and the ability to play with the functions of GIS and to miss out on potential GIS poetics. The central question in consternation is: how can maps function in the age of electracy unconstrained by the ideologies of the paper map?</p>
            <p>Instead of focusing on the political and economic functionality of GIS, which I argue is a print centric way of thinking about GIS, what would it mean to create an electronic poetic discourse of GIS? How can GIS be used to map human emotion, desire, and truth? This type of reasoning resists the temptation to define GIS as a tool for deliberate decision making and to understand GIS as a medium for invention. Invention is the counter logic of GIS hermeneutics -- GIS heuretics. Gregory Ulmer (2002) states, “The purpose of the course is to approach electracy by trying to invent it (what I call “heuretics” --the use of theory to invent forms and practices, as distinct from “hermeneutics,” which uses theory to interpret existing works)” (4). How can we invent geography for the electronic apparatus? This question can be answered following the models provided by Ulmer. Ulmer invents a method for applying humanities discourse which relies “not on positivism but quantum relativity; not realism but surrealism.” Surrealism, then can act as theory that counters traditional positivistic and “rational” decision making. In the Surrealist Manifesto, Andre Breton (1924) writes:</p>
            <p>“(I)n this day and age logical methods are applicable only to solving problems of secondary interest. The absolute rationalism that is still in vogue allows us to consider only facts relating directly to our experience. Logical ends, on the contrary, escape us. It is pointless to add that experience itself has found itself increasingly circumscribed. It paces back and forth in a cage from which it is more and more difficult to make it emerge. It too leans for support on what is most immediately expedient, and it is protected by the sentinels of common sense. Under the pretense of civilization and progress, we have managed to banish from the mind everything that may rightly or wrongly be termed superstition, or fancy; forbidden is any kind of search for truth which is not in conformance with accepted practices” (2).</p>
            <p>We can see that, just as I’m searching for a theory and method that resists hermeneutic rationalizations of GIS, so were the surrealists resisting positivist rationalism, because these rationalisms limited creativity and human experience. Therefore, surrealism allows humanities researchers to infuse creativity back into the research milieu.</p>
            <p>Furthermore, one humanities method that may be applied to electronic map making, GIS, is psychogeography, an avant-garde method developed by the Situationists who were heavily influenced by surrealism. Guy Debord (1959) defines psychogeography as derive, meaning “to drift.” He defines derive as ""the study of the precise laws and specific effects of the geographical environment, consciously organized or not, on the emotions and behavior of individuals” (3). By implementing psychogeography, the researcher ignores the boundaries and zones of a city, disturbs the modern distance between researcher and space, and allows the researcher to gain the feeling of a place. By performing psychogeography, the researcher is allowed an intimacy with space and place which may change the conclusions he or she may make about a particular space had he or she relied solely on traditional GIS hermeneutics. Here, emotion has been injected into the research paradigm.</p>
            <p>This paper then, describes a method of using GIS tracking services to record a pscyhogeography performed in Bradenton, FL. Currently, there is a heroin epidemic happening in Bradenton, FL, particularly in the South Bradenton neighborhood, and there have been several maps issued by the government and local media agencies that track heroin overdoses in Bradenton, FL. To counter map these official and popular maps, I used Debord's drifting methodology which he outlines in “Theory of the Derive,” to perform three different drifts. My goal was to record the feeling of South Bradenton. These drifts were tracked using the GIS interface My Tracks mobile phone application by Google, Inc. During the drifts, My Tracks recorded my path as I drifted through South Bradenton, FL. Additionally, I used my cell phone to take images and videos of the neighborhood and I recorded notes, thoughts, and feelings into a notebook with time stamps. Once the drifts were completed, the My Tracks paths were exported to Google My Maps and the photos and notes were imported into the My Map and added to their corresponding places on the My Tracks path. This presentation will showcase these maps and contrast them to the government maps created about the heroin epidemic. My presentation then focuses on my analysis of the results, the usefulness of psychogeography for geographic research in the digital age, and further research needed for the development of a theory for electronic geographic research and methodologies.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Breton, A.</hi> (1924). First Manifesto of Surrealism 1924. In Harrison, C. and Wood P. (eds.) <hi rend=""italic"">Art In Theory, 1900-2000 an Anthology of Changing Ideas</hi>. New York: Blackwell Publishing.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Crampton, J. W. (2011).</hi>
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mapping: A Critical Introduction to Cartography and GIS</hi>. John Wiley and Sons. vol. <hi rend=""bold"">11</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Debord, G.</hi> (1959). Theory of the Derive. In Knabb, K. (ed.) <hi rend=""italic"">Situationist international anthology</hi>. Berkeley, CA: Bureau of Public Secrets, pp. 49.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Elwood, S.</hi> (2006). Negotiating Knowledge Production: The Everyday Inclusions, Exclusions, and Contradictions of Participatory GIS Research∗. <hi rend=""italic"">The Professional Geographer</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">58</hi>(2): 197-208.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Peluso, N. L.</hi>, (1995). Whose Woods Are These? Counter‐mapping Forest Territories in Kalimantan, Indonesia. <hi rend=""italic"">Antipode</hi>,
                        <hi rend=""bold"">27</hi>(4): 383-406.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                    <hi rend=""bold"">Ulmer, G. L.</hi> (2002). <hi rend=""italic"">Internet Invention From Literacy to Electracy</hi>.</bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"3760","17","The Mutual Relationship of Linguistic and Non-linguistic Elements in Breaking Down the Hierarchy of Language in Digital Narrative","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>Although there have been a handful of transmedial explorations by some novelists in the past, narrative in novels has mainly used linguistic elements in conventional print fiction. When the first generation of hypertext novelists remediated print novels in their works they only used language too. However, images, sound, movies and other non-linguistic elements in works of the second generation digital novels—called web-fiction here—have mainly challenged the hierarchy of language and have posed serious threats to the autonomy of words in novels. This challenge has worked both ways, on one hand, works of web-fiction have tried to distance themselves from works which have been merely linguistic (for instance 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Afternoon</hi> (1990)), on the other hand experimental print novelists have become media-conscious and created novels which have incorporated images, colors, innovative page design and music in their physical body (for instance 
                <hi rend=""italic"">House of Leaves</hi> (200)). Consequently these media-conscious novels, especially in digital media, have posed serious questions for novel. Some of these questions are: How much narrative in novels is dependent upon words and in what ways can it take advantage of the narrative potentials of the non-linguistic elements? In other words how can non-linguistic elements contribute to the narrative of novels in the media in which they are rendered and in what ways does this new synthesis of words and non-linguistic elements can change our understanding of the narrative in novels? Finally how these novels should be analyzed? In order to find the answers of these questions, two works of web-fiction, 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Reconstructing Mayakovsky</hi> (2011) by Illya Szilak and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Dreamaphage</hi> (2006) by Jason Nelson, and one work of media-conscious print 
                <hi rend=""italic"">S</hi> (2013) by Doug Dorst and J.J. Abrams have been chosen and the mutual relationship between their linguistic and non-linguistic elements have been explored. All of these works have tried to break down the hierarchy of language in the narrative of the novel and in doing that have highlighted the role of non-linguistic features and have highlighted the ways these features can contribute to narrative in a novel especially in a digital medium. 
            </p>
            <p>Analyzing these works will help us to find the answer to a bigger question. How do these mixtures of several media justify their existences as novels? This is where pushing Bakhtin's ideas a little bit further to include works of digital fiction can become extremely useful. Bakhtin’s ideas have been used as the theoretical base of my discussion because out of the three other theories of novel presented in the 
                <hi rend=""italic"">Routledge Encyclopaedia of Narrative</hi> (2005)
                <hi rend=""italic"">,</hi> it is the only one which takes the materialities of the production of the text into consideration and according to Howard Mancing “seems most justified by an informed understanding of literary history and theory” (ibid, 399). According to Bakhtin “There is no specific form, technique, theme, or approach to character that makes a text a novel; rather, the distinguishing characteristics of the novel are its heteroglossia and its dialogism” (ibid, 400). Since Bakhtin does not limit dialogism to literature only and believes all language (and all thought) is dialogical, in this paper it has been tried to extend these two concepts into “modes” in both digital and media-conscious print novels. In these novels multiplicity of modes can result in novels in which the words’ hold over the narrative is not as strong as it has been in conventional novels. Such novels can potentially provide a dialogical engagement between linguistic and non-linguistic elements which can eventually lead to a different understanding of what novel is (or it can be). In this way, the current proposal aims at providing a theoretical background and justification for these kinds of narratives which claim to be novels and offers a practical method to read and analyze these novels.
            </p>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
                <head>Historical Background</head>
            <p>The introduction of digital media to the literary scene encouraged a number of experimental novelists—some of whom like Joyce had published novels in print—to try their hand at this medium to create works which were both written on the computer and necessarily had to be read on the screen as well. These writers who were later known as hypertext novelists experimented with the materiality of this new medium, and made its materiality an explicit part of the conception of their novels. Although some conventions of the print medium were discernible in the works of these writers, the arrival of the Internet and the developments in digital media provided a significant opportunity for these writers and the new generation of writers to experiment with new conventions for novel writing in digital media. Moreover, these experimentations with the materiality of the medium encouraged the experimental print novelists of the digital era to experiment more extensively with print as a medium.</p>
            <p>N. Katherine Hayles is a prominent scholar who has consistently written on the “materiality of the medium” and this paper has heavily borrowed from her theoretical discussions and coinages. Hayles advocates a method of reading called Media-Specific Analysis (MSA) which involves paying particular attention to the materiality of the medium in which the work of fiction is presented. The importance of Hayles’ analytical method is that it provides a practical method for thinking about text as a linguistic object, and provides a new perspective to think and write about texts. Another advantage of Hayles’ approach is that it brings the medium to the foreground from the very beginning and can be applied for the analysis of both print and digital novels.</p>
            <p>Since the novel as a specific genre and media form developed its defining characteristics and conventions in association with the evolution of print technology, the question of how narrative in novels is transformed through works of hypertext or web-fiction is a significant one. H. Porter Abbott has a useful definition of narrative and his definition will be used as a guide in the controversial subject of narrative and how it should be thought of in the works of hypertext and web-fiction. In Abbott’s definition, “narrative is the representation of events, consisting of 
                <hi rend=""italic"">story</hi> and 
                <hi rend=""italic"">narrative discourse.</hi>” Story “is an event or sequence of events (the action), and narrative discourse is those events as represented” (16). The main reason that Abbott’s definition has been chosen here is that it can be applied to the study of narrative in an almost any medium.
            </p>
            <p>The non-linguistic elements which have been used in media-conscious novels are referred to as modes here, therefore a novel which has used several modes in its narrative is a multimodal novel. This usage of the term mode is more in line with the way Alison Gibbons has defined this term as “a system of choices used to communicate meaning.” Looking at novel from the modality perspective, provides us a better understanding of how each work is created out of the different combinations of modalities of three different but related categories. A fictional text uses a specific modality of the text which is the narrative genre. It uses the modality of the medium either print or digital. The last modality which comes into play here is the modality of verbal/visual which is part of the modalities of representation. These modalities can work in different combinations, but segregating them in this way, makes them more visible and shows how each writer can create texts, by manipulating either of these so that the reading process would be affected by the way either of these modalities is brought into play.</p>
            <p>Thus, in order to study the he fictional works discussed here, three different but interrelated dimensions of the fictional text have been identified. (1) Physical Organization and Design, (2) Narrative Strategy, and (3) Reading Process. This tripartite model can be used by other scholars for analyzing novels which incorporate linguistic and non-linguistic elements in their narrative(s). In the first dimension, Physical Organization and Design a text is analyzed from the perspective of the use of its physical resources its authorship, and design. Narrative Strategy, the second dimension, is the angle through which a text from the perspective of the use of its physical resources and signifying strategies to create a narrative is analyzed. In the third dimension, the Reading Process, the way a text shapes the experience of the reader is explored. </p>
            <p> Novels have always been media forms which lead the reader through them to a world which is the real world or like the real world in its spatial/visual form. These worlds exist beyond the page and the language and materiality of the novel are expected to be effaced during this process. However, the digital novels and media-conscious print novels show resistance toward this self-effacement and by mixing different modes in their narrative and bringing their own materiality into the foreground. The narrative and how it is created through the interplay of different modes in a single work is analyzed in these three novels: </p>
            <list type=""ordered"">
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Reconstructing Mayakovsky</hi> by Illya Szilak. This novel which claims to be the “novel of future” has been published in electronic format in the second volume of ELO in 2011. Later in 2012, a print version of the same novel was published by Revolution Nostalgia Disco Theater. Mayakovsky’s believed that poetry is a mode which can disrupt a fixed narrative and this is exactly what Szilak tries to accomplish in her novel. The narrative in this novel is broken into several modes—or “mechanisms,” as the writer calls them—including text, audio podcasts, video, a live Google image search, etc.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Dreamaphage</hi> by Jason Nelson. The interfaces of Dreamaphage have been described as “innovative, surprising, alternately whimsical and unnerving” by ELO website and these words can be used to describe the whole narrative of novel as well. Narrative in this novel is presented through different layers of 3D text with several links to the books which the reader has to simulate the act of turning the page (which means clicking the mouse on the bottom right side of the screen where the edge of the book is and move it to the top left, so that the next page appears on screen), and move through pages filled with squares and circle to read some files which their loose connection together forms a narrative.
                </item>
                <item>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">S</hi> by Doug Dorst and J.J. Abrams. This print novel comes in a slip cover which has a book named “Ship of Theseus” which is full of handwritten comments, as well as postcards, newspaper clippings, black and white photos, even a hand-drawn map written on a napkin from a coffee shop, which together create a mysterious narrative. These non-linguistic materials play such a crucial role in the narrative, that at times it becomes impossible to follow the narrative and solve the mystery of the novel without them. <hi rend=""italic"">S </hi>is described a “love letter to the written word,” on its slipcover, however it is through the interaction of the linguistic and non-linguistic elements that this love letter finds its true meaning. 
                </item>
            </list>            
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Abbott, H. Porter</hi> (2002). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Cambridge Introduction to Narrative</hi>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Bakhtin, M.</hi> (1981). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dialogic Imagination.</hi> Austin: University of Texas Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Danielewski, M. Z.</hi> (2000). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">House of Leaves</hi>. New York: Pantheon Books.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dorst, D. and Abrams, J. J. </hi>(2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">S</hi>. New York: Mulholland Books.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hayles, N. K.</hi> (2004). Print Is Flat, Code Is Deep: The Importance of Media-Specific Analysis. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Poetics Today</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">25</hi>(1): 67–90.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Herman, D., Manfred J., and Ryan, M.-L.</hi> (eds.) (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Routledge Encyclopedia of Narrative Theory</hi>. London; New York: Routledge.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Joyce, M.</hi> (1990). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Afternoon; a story</hi>. Watertown, MA: Eastgate Systems.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Nelson, J.</hi> (2006).
                        <hi rend=""italic""> Dreamaphage</hi>. Electronic Literature Collection Volume <hi rend=""bold"">1</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Szilak, I.</hi> (2011). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Reconstructing Mayakovsky</hi>. Electronic Literature Collection Volume <hi rend=""bold"">2</hi>.
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"3761","17","Urban Youth and Community Media: A Digital Place-Making Process in Vanuatu","10","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p>In this paper, we focus on media (and multimedia) production as a spatial practice of ni-Vanuatu youth. We explore the contexts and practices of youth media production in a contemporary postcolonial urban society and how organizational forces shape these practices. Articulation theory is used as a framework for thinking about the way that young urban ni-Vanuatu are negotiating community, institutional, and professional obligations as well as leveraging opportunities for producing media that demonstrate new modes of relating to place. The authors draw on long term coactivity and co-performance (Conquergood and Johnson, 93) via participant engagement with artists and producers from Vanuatu. Both authors have lived and worked in Vanuatu for over five years and much of our engagement with the young producers is through our roles with Further Arts – an NGO based in Port Vila. We employ a radical empiricism that blurs the boundaries between observer and observed – a form of dialogic performance that embraces and complicates diversity, difference, and pluralism (Conquergood and Johnson, 93). Madison describes it as living in “embodied engagement of radical empiricism, to honor the aural/oral sounds that incorporate rather than gaze over” (168, emphasis in original). A range of visual media productions is analyzed, principally video productions. We also draw on interviews conducted with members of Nesar Studio – a community access media production studio located at Further Arts – who constitute an emergent social category in Vanuatu, that is: young independent media producers or the ‘youth media crew’.</p>
            <p>The contemporary inflections of the precolonial ni-Vanuatu relationship to place reveal contingent openings for indigenous people to transform their world through ontologically liberating participation in media production (and consumption). From another perspective, multinational companies in the resource extraction (mining, forestry, fishing), agriculture, tourism, and creative industries, operate in ways that diminish Oceanic ontologies and subjectivities through processes that undermine local agency, knowledge, wisdom, value systems and biocultural diversity. But a dualistic framing such as this reinforces tired false binaries. It sets us a dangerous path to navigate through essentialism, exceptionalism and reductionism that, even if successfully negotiated ultimately leads to intellectual dead ends. There needs to be another way of understanding the: dynamic trajectories of visiting and returning, assembling and reassembling; the pluralism of Oceanian actuality, beyond the static divisions of rural villages and urban towns. In this paper we extend Clifford’s reading of Hall’s articulation theory (Hall; in Grossberg ""On Postmodernism and Articulation: An Interview with Stuart Hall""), and demonstrate ways that “the partial entanglements of indigenous and local societies in global structures are not simply the world system’s unfinished business. They have their own roots and trajectories.” (Clifford, 475). We explore these roots and trajectories through – “a praxis of spatial articulation” (Tawa, 49). Dick has documented elsewhere forms of ni-Vanuatu cultural production and expression that reflect a chorographic engagement with place (Tawa; Olwig; Maxwell; Dick). </p>
            <p>In this paper, we extend these ideas exploring the performative inflections of media production in a praxis of youth participation and spatial articulation. We will make visible the roots and trajectories of ni-Vanuatu youth and “the forces (the articulations) that create and maintain identities that have real concrete effects” (Slack, 126). Recognizing the joining and the un-joining, the assembling and the reassembling, the creating and the recreating, the articulating and re-articulating, imbues this approach with its efficacy (Slack; Clifford) and interdisciplinary approaches can converge to refine the way that we understand the contemporary media world (Horst, Hjorth and Tacchi).</p>
            <p>The paper begins with a description of the major historical and cultural forces and tensions that influence the locative identities of people in urban Vanuatu, integrated with a contextualization – a re-articulation – of the Vanuatu mediascape from the perspective of young urban ni-Vanuatu producers. We explore the specific case study of the establishment of Nesar Studio and how this studio is facilitating the emergence of young independent (and interdependent) producers, or the ‘youth media crew’ (henceforth YMC), as differentiated from the category of media consumers. The dissolution of observer and observed in the project, that is, our embedded-ness in the data, creates an opportunity for a deeply integrative analysis of contemporary indigenous engagements with media and place and multilateral strategies of articulation and de-articulation. Working in this radically empiricist way, it is often difficult to balance the requirements of the academy and the expectations of the community; it is difficult to “shape the data”, as it were, when one is both in and part of the data (Grossberg We Gotta Get out of This Place: Popular Conservatism and Postmodern Culture 55-56). Thus we have integrated discussion and analysis into the presentation of data to which it directly relates. </p>
            <p>Despite major challenges, the young producers at Nesar Studio assert the importance, and indeed their ownership, of the structure and its organizational relationships – in particular with FA. This is evidenced in the extent to which they worked to maintain their momentum after massive damage from Cyclone Pam. ‘Nesar’ means ‘nasara’ in a local language – nasara is the Bislama term used throughout Vanuatu to talk about the ceremonial meeting place of a village for the intergenerational transmission of kastom knowledge and wisdom (through song, dance, art and other practices) is transmitted. Taking on this word and its connotations, Nesar Studio becomes a digital urban nasara in an age of increased use and access to telecommunications and media platforms as ways to transmit messages and knowledge. Providing the community with education on these tools is a powerful means to enact change through engaging people with their rights. </p>
            <p>Developing the capacity of young media professionals in Vanuatu is not a simple process. Stakeholders must navigate divergent interests and compete for resources within an environment where the digital media and creative industries are poorly understood by state mechanisms and supported in an ad-hoc fashion by development partners at both national and regional levels. The bodies that do exist to advocate for and stimulate this sector, including the Vanuatu Cultural Centre, Secretariat of the Pacific Community, and the Pacific Arts Association (amongst others) have not been overly influential or consistently effective. This means that the role of shaping and nurturing the capacity of young media professionals rests in the hands of civil society actors, either in cooperation with, or struggling alongside, the dominant media and communications companies.</p>
            <p>Functions, processes, and forces historically familiar to ni-Vanuatu communities are deployed in the articulation of youth (id)entities through media production practices in urban settings. Only a small number of the more talented and adept media crew members of Nesar Studio have been able to penetrate the industry in an independent and professional capacity, acquiring employment in other cultural and media agencies or as contractors for national and international organizations. While these opportunities are few and far between, they require a certain level of application and assertiveness on the part of the media producer, something that Nesar Studio aspires to for its members, but perhaps does not emphasise enough since its media work is based foremost on the principles of collaboration and teamwork. Achieving this requirement for astuteness is furthermore hindered by social and cultural factors in Vanuatu that implies doing things communally and for the common good rather than outshining others for personal benefit.</p>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Clifford, J.</hi> (2001). Indigenous Articulations. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Contemporary Pacific,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">13</hi>(2): 467-90. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Conquergood, D. and Johnson, E. P.</hi> (2013). <hi rend=""italic"">Cultural Struggles: Performance, Ethnography, Praxis</hi>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Dick, T.</hi> (2015). Chorographing the Vanuatu Aquapelago. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shima: The International Journal of Research into Island Cultures,</hi> <hi rend=""bold"">9</hi>(2): 1-22. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grossberg, L. </hi>(1986). On Postmodernism and Articulation: An Interview with Stuart Hall. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Journal of Communication Inquiry</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">10</hi>(2): 45-60. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Grossberg, L.</hi> (1992). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">We Gotta Get out of This Place: Popular Conservatism and Postmodern Culture</hi>. New York: Routledge. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hall, S.</hi> (1980). Race, Articulation, and Societies Structured in Dominance. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Sociological Theories: Race and Colonialism</hi>. Ed. UNESCO. Paris: UNESCO. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Horst, H., Hjorth, L. and Tacchi, T.</hi> (2012). Rethinking Ethnography: An Introduction. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Media International Australia</hi> 145 . 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Madison, D. S.</hi> (2005). Performance Ethnography. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Critical Ethnography: Method, Ethics and Performance</hi>. (Ed) Madison, D. Soyini. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc., pp: 149-81. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Maxwell, I.</hi> (2012). Seas as Places. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Shima: The International Journal of Research into Island Cultures</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">6</hi>(1): 27-29. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Olwig, K. R.</hi> (2008). Has 'Geography' Always Been Modern?: Choros, (Non)Representation, Performance, and the Landscape. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Environment and Planning</hi> A, <hi rend=""bold"">40</hi>(8): 1843-61. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Slack, J. D.</hi> (1996). The Theory and Method of Articulation in Cultural Studies. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Stuart Hall: Critical dialogues in cultural studies</hi>, pp. 112-27. 
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Tawa, M. </hi>(2002). Place, Country, Chorography: Towards a Kinesthetic and Narrative Practice of Place. 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Architectural Theory Review</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">7</hi>(2): 45-58. 
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"3762","17","SAMEBibl: Sistema Automático de Migración a Europeana para Bibliotecas","9","<text>
        <body>
            <div/>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Introducción</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Europeana</hi>, como biblioteca digital europea, se considera como el medio de referencia para compartir el extenso patrimonio europeo de distintas categorías y del que son depositarias instituciones de diversa índole, ya sean públicas o privadas. Desde la puesta en marcha de esta biblioteca han estado presentes instituciones relevante y entre ellas bibliotecas como la 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">British Library</hi>.
                </p>
                <p>Para las bibliotecas también es importante su integración en Europeana ya que las dota de una visibilidad imposible de imaginar en los ámbitos más restringidos en los que se encuentran localizadas las bibliotecas y les permite compartir su extenso patrimonio. </p>
                <p>El proceso de adaptación de la información, tradicionalmente estructurada en bases de datos relacionales, al modelo de datos abiertos de Europeana (
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Europeana Data Model</hi>, EDM) es excesivamente complejo, difícil de automatizar y requiere de la intervención de expertos. La complejidad estriba fundamentalmente en la brecha semántica que existe entre la forma en la que las bibliotecas almacenan y estructuran su información, en general, y la forma de representación que requiere 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Europeana</hi>. Este modelo de datos es una especificación conceptual basada en etiquetas semánticas que se integran en los datos de forma que datos y metadatos forman un todo.
                </p>
                <p>Las mayoría de las bibliotecas cuentan en la actualidad con una base de datos relacional, un modelo de datos de representación en el que ya se muestran detalles que trascienden los conceptos del mundo modelado, especificando características más relacionadas con la implementación de conceptos y relaciones. </p>
                <p>Es necesario, pues, extraer la semántica conceptual del modelo relacional y trasladarla al modelo que Europeana define y exige para poder integrar en ella la biblioteca y dar visibilidad a su patrimonio.</p>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head><hi rend=""italic"">SAMEBibl</hi>, automatización del proceso de migración a Europeana</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">SAMEBibl</hi> , nace con el objetivo de cubrir el proceso completo de migración de una biblioteca para su integración en la Europeana. Este proceso, que se muestra en Figura 1, parte del modelo origen de representación de la información y lo transforma en el modelo destino. 
                </p>
                <p>La semántica de los dos modelos, origen y destino, es cualitativamente distinta y por tanto, el proceso requiere que se conciban modelos conceptuales intermedios que evolucionan progresivamente hasta obtener el modelo necesario para la integración de los datos en Europeana.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""587/image1.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">SAMEBibl</hi> automatiza casi todo el proceso de migración, aunque se requiere la intervención del experto de la biblioteca con el objeto de establecer las correspondencias mas convenientes entre los componentes del modelo original y el modelo de 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Europeana</hi>, permitiendo asimismo la elección de la información que se considera más oportuno migrar. La interacción del experto con el sistema se realizará de forma amigable, presentando la información que se quiere migrar de forma independiente a su representación interna en el modelo que se ha definido, es decir, no es necesario que cuente con conocimientos técnicos en lo que a repositorios y datos abiertos se refiere.
                </p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""587/image2.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figura 2. Pantalla interfaz Samebibl</head>
                </figure>
                <p>La aplicación desarrollada consta de tres componentes principales:</p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>Un traductor dirigido por la sintaxis que extrae la semántica del modelo relacional a partir de las estructuras sintácticas que se identifican en el esquema de la base de datos, y que dan lugar a un modelo conceptual intermedio.</item>
                    <item>Un módulo que permite establecer las correspondencias, es decir, definir el “mapeado”, entre cada uno de los conceptos y relaciones del modelo conceptual extraído por el traductor y el modelo de Europeana. Para ello se requiere la intervención del experto de la biblioteca. </item>
                    <item>Un traductor que, a partir de la información obtenida de los registros de la base de datos, la información facilitada en el mapeado por el experto y los elementos del modelo conceptual, genera los metadatos basados en 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">EDM </hi>en un formato XML/RDF necesario para poblar el repositorio que será recolectado por 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Europeana</hi>.
                    </item>
                </list>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""587/image3.png"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figura 3. Casos de uso Samebibl</head>
                </figure>
                <p>El proceso de migración no sólo presenta complejidad interna. La cantidad de información manejada y transformada puede ser de tamaño considerable y por tanto, requerir de tiempo para su realización. Además, la información puede ser cambiante o se puede añadir información nueva. Es importante, por tanto que SAMEBibl dote de persistencia a la información que se ha generado de la persistencia necesaria para permitir su modificación y actualización. Debido a esto, la información relativa a los modelos y sus correspondencias, es almacenada para permitir tanto su actualización y mejora, con la revisión o incorporación de nuevas reglas de mapeado tras la incorporación de nuevos elementos semánticos.</p>
                <p>Esta característica facilita el mantenimiento automático del repositorio que incorporará los cambios surgidos en el entorno operacional de la base de datos relacional.</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">SAMEBibl </hi>, por tanto, es una herramienta que cubre una necesidad detectada en muchas bibliotecas,. Esta necesidad es mayor en aquellas bibliotecas que no tienen recursos suficientes como para contar con expertos técnicos que realicen el proceso de transformación del modelo de su base de datos relacional a 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Europeana</hi>., y esta es la situación en la que se encuentran la mayoría de las bibliotecas europeas que son de menor envergadura pero que son depositarias de un gran patrimonio. Sus tres características más relevantes son:
                </p>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>la automatización completa de las funciones de extracción de la semántica conceptual y generación de metadatos. Estas dos funciones abarcan los elementos técnicamente más complejos del proceso de migración. Su total automatización aísla al usuario de esta complejidad. </item>
                    <item>la simplicidad y naturalidad en la operación de la funcionalidad de mapeado, al contar con una interfaz sencilla que permite al usuario de la biblioteca establecer las correspondencias semánticas entre los modelos de acuerdo a sus criterios de forma intuitiva y amigable. </item>
                    <item>la flexibilidad del modelo adoptado en la representación del conocimiento relativo a los modelos y sus correspondencias. Esto permite proporcionar ante una herramienta de propósito general que puede ser empleada por cualquier biblioteca basada en un modelo relacional. Asimismo hará muy sencilla la adaptación de la herramienta en el futuro para soportar la migración a nuevos modelos de metadatos semánticos distintos de 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">EDM</hi>.
                    </item>
                </list>
            </div>
            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Aplicación de <hi rend=""italic"">SAMEBibl</hi> a la Biblioteca Digotal Ovidiana</head>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""italic"">SAMEBIbl</hi> ya ha sido aplicada en la 
                    <hi rend=""italic"">Biblioteca Digital Ovidiana (desde ahora BDO)</hi> (<ref target=""http://www.oviduspictus.es""><hi rend=""italic"">www.oviduspictus.es</hi></ref>) dedicada a la obra ilustrada de Ovidio y que alberga los datos y las imágenes de todos los ejemplares de las ediciones impresas entre los siglos XV al XIX que se encuentran en las bibliotecas españolas. Es un proyecto que se esta llevando a cabo en varias fases.
                </p>
                <p>Con el objeto de poder compartir la información de la BDO en Europeana, se ha utilizado SAMEBibl para llevar a cabo la migración .</p>
                <p>El modelo lógico relacional de la base de datos de BDO que se muestra en Figura 3 es un modelo complejo ya que refleja la rica semántica y estructuración de la información almacenada en la misma</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""587/image4.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                </figure>
                <p>Tras el proceso de migración se obtienen los objetos semánticos correspondientes a los diferentes conceptos identificados a partir de la semántica extraída del modelo lógico relacional como se muestra en la Figura 5.</p>
                <figure>
                    <graphic url=""587/image5.jpeg"" rend=""inline""/>
                    <head>Figura 5. Objetos generados para los conceptos Ejemplar y Biblioteca</head>
                </figure>
                <p>A partir del modelo de objetos generado se generan los metadatos y el archivo RDF/XML que permite la integración de la información en el repositorio., tal y como se muestra en Código 1</p>
                <p>
                    <hi rend=""color(8B26C9)""><?xml version=""1.0"" encoding=""UTF-8""?></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><rdf:RDF</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> xsi:schemaLocation</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#http://www.europeana.eu/schemas/edm/EDM.xsd""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><edm:Place</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdf:about</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.ovidiuspictus.es/biblioteca/27""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdf:resource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://bibliotecas.usal.es/?q=biblioteca/general-historica""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><skos:prefLabel></hi>
                    <lb/> Biblioteca General Histórica de la Universidad.
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></skos:prefLabel></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dcterms:isPartOf></hi>
                    <lb/> Ciudad: Salamanca
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dcterms:isPartOf></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dcterms:isPartOf></hi>
                    <lb/> Provincia: Salamanca
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dcterms:isPartOf></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dcterms:isPartOf></hi>
                    <lb/> Comunidad autónoma: Castilla León
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dcterms:isPartOf></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></edm:Place></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><edm:ProvidedCHO</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdf:about</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.ovidiuspictus.es/edicion/137""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:title></hi>
                    <lb/> PUBLII
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>OVIDII NASONIS
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>OPERA OMNIA
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>IV. VOLUMINIBUS COMPREHENSA;
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>CUM INTEGRIS
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>JACOBI MICYLLI, HERCULIS CIOFANI,
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>ET DANIELIS HEINSII
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>NOTIS,
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>ET
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>NICOLAI HEINSII
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>CURIS SECUNDIS,
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>ET 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>ALIORUM IN SINGULAS PARTES,
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>PARTIM INTEGRIS, PARTIM EXCERPTIS,
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>ADNOTATIONIBUS,
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>CURA ET STUDIO
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>PETRI BURMANNI,
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>QUI ET SUAS
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>IN OMNE OPUS NOTAS ADIECIT.
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /><br /></hi>(marca de impresor)
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /><br /><i></hi>AMSTELODAMI,
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></i></hi>APUD FRANCISCUM CHANGUION.
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>M.D.C.C.XXVII.
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:title></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:identifier></hi>OO.Changuion.Ams.1727.t1
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:identifier></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:identifier></hi>Obras Completas.Burmannus.Changuion.Ámsterdam.1727.t1
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:identifier></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:tableOfContents></hi>
                    <lb/> Anteportada;
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br/></hi>frontispicio;
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>portada de las obras completas; ENTRE PÁGINAS 322 Y 323 (COMENTARIO AL EJEMPLAR)
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>f. []4 dedicatoria al príncipe Eugenio de Saboya;
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>f. []4 v. poema dedicatorio;
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>f. *** Prefacio fechado en 1726;
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>p. 1 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi>Heroidas
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>; 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>p. 321 anteportada 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi>Amores
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>;
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>p. 323 epigrama de Ovidio sobre sus 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi>Amores
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>;
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>p. 325 comienza los 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi>Amores
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>; 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>p. 537 anteportada 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi>Arte de amar
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>; 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>p. 539 comienza el 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi>Arte de amar
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>;
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>p. 713 anteportada 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi>Remedios contra el amor
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>;
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>p. 715 comienza el libro de los 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi>Remedios contra el amor
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>;
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>p. 766 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi>Sobre la cosmética del rostro femenino
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>;
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>p. 777
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi> Haliéutica
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>;
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>p. 793 anteportada de 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi>Consolatio ad Liviam
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>, 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi>Nux y Heroidas 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>de Angelo Sabino;
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>p. 795 comienza la
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi> Consolatio ad Liviam
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>;
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>p. 829 comienza la
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi> Nux
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>; 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>p. 844 comienzan las 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi>Heroidas 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>de Angelo Sabino;
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:tableOfContents></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:description></hi>Comentario: Notas de Jacobus Micyllus, Hercules Ciofano y Nicolas Hensius.
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:description></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:description></hi>Estructura disposición: Texto latino de ancho de página con versos numerados y notas filológicas al pie, organizadas en dos columnas. 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:description></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:description></hi>Ilustraciones: La edición lleva un frontispicio calcográfico diferente en cada uno de los tres primeros tomos. En este primero se representa a Ovidio, coronado de laurel y con el pecho atravesado por una flecha que le ha lanzado Cupido, que vuela por encima de él. El poeta, que está sentado, escribiendo en una tablilla, está siendo coronado por una musa que además sostiene una rama y tiene una lira y una flauta a sus pies. Frente al poeta se encuentra la Fama, representada como una dama con túnica y manto, tocada con una diadema, que lleva una tuba en la mano derecha mientras con la izquierda con una especie de puntero le indica a Ovidio lo que debe escribir. La escena tiene lugar al borde de una corriente de agua surcada por una pareja de cisnes. En el árbol que hay detrás del grupo cuelga una cartela que reza 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi>P. OVIDII NASONIS OPERA OMNIA.
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i><br /></hi>El grabado va firmado por el diseñador y el grabador: Bernard Picart (
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi>B Picart inv.
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>) y Matthys Pool (
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi>M. Pool Sculp)
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>.
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>Esta misma edición vio la luz en Ámsterdam en el mismo año en casa de tres impresores distintos: Changuion, Westein 
                    <hi rend=""color(FF0000)"">&</hi> Smith y Janssonius Waesbergius. (Cf. ediciones en la 
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><i></hi>Biblioteca Digital Ovidiana
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></i></hi>).
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><br /></hi>Un ejemplar de esta edición se encuentra completamente digitalizado en la Biblioteca Nacional http://bdh.bne.es/bnesearch/detalle/bdh0000052654 
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:description></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dcterms:created></hi>1727
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dcterms:created></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><edm:realize</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdf:resource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.ovidiuspictus.es/ejemplar/214""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">/></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:contributor</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdf:resource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.ovidiuspictus.es/ilustrador/22""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">/></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:contributor</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdf:resource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.ovidiuspictus.es/ilustrador/40""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">/></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:subject</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdf:resource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://viaf.org/viaf/312263158/""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">></hi>Arte de amar
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:subject></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:subject</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdf:resource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://viaf.org/viaf/303708953/""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">></hi>Remedios contra el amor
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:subject></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:subject</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdf:resource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://viaf.org/viaf/184346141/>Amores</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:subject></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:subject></hi>Sobre la cosmética del rostro femenino
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:subject></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:subject></hi>Haliéutica
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:subject></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:subject></hi>Consolatio ad Liviam
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:subject></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:subject></hi>Nux
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:subject></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:contributor</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdf:resource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.ovidiuspictus.es/impresor/65""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">/></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dcterms:spatial</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdf:resource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.geonames.org/2759794/amsterdam.html""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">></hi>Ámsterdam (Amstelodami)
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dcterms:spatial></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></edm:ProvidedCHO></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><edm:WebResource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> dc:about</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.ovidiuspictus.es/visualizacionejemplar.php?clave=214%20&%20clave1=OO.BGH.Ams.1727a.t1""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:format></hi>IMAGE
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:format></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dcterms:created></hi>Biblioteca Digital Ovidiana
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dcterms:created></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dcterms:rights></hi>Biblioteca Digital Ovidiana
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dcterms:rights></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dcterms:hasPart</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdef:resource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""htt://wwww.ovidiuspictus/images/images/OO.BGH.Ams.1727a.t1/OO.BGH.Ams.1727a.t1.1""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">/></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></edm:WebResource></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><edm:ProvidedCHO</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> dc:about</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.ovidiuspictus.es/ejemplar/214""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:title></hi>OO.BGH.Ams.1727a.t1
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:title></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:type></hi>BOOK
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:type></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:identifier></hi>BG/ 35111
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:identifier></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:provenance</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdf:resource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.ovidiuspictus.es/biblioteca/27""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">/></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></edm:ProvidedCHO></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><ore:Aggregation</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> dc:about</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.ovidiuspictus.es/ejemplarAg/214""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><edm:isShownAt</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdf:resource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.ovidiuspictus.es/visualizacionejemplar.php?clave=214%20&%20clave1=OO.BGH.Ams.1727a.t1""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">/></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><edm:dataProvider></hi>Biblioteca Digital Ovidiana
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></edm:dataProvider></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><edm:AggregatedCHO</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdf:resource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.ovidiuspictus.es/ejemplar/214""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">/></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><edm:hasView</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdf:resource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.ovidiuspictus.es/ejemplar/214""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">/></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></ore:Aggregation></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><edm:WebResource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> dc:about</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://wwww.ovidiuspictus/images/images/OO.BGH.Ams.1727a.t1/OO.BGH.Ams.1727a.t1.1""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:format></hi>IMAGE
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:format></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dcterms:created></hi>Biblioteca Digital Ovidiana
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dcterms:created></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dcterms:rights></hi>Biblioteca Digital Ovidiana
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dcterms:rights></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><edm:aggregatedCHO</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdef:resource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.ovidiuspictus.es/visualizacionejemplar.php?clave=214%20&%20clave1=OO.BGH.Ams.1727a.t1""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">/></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></edm:WebResource></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><edm:ProvidedCHO</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> dc:about</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://www.ovidiuspictus.es/ilustracionejemplar/1696""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><edm:isShownAt</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(F5844C)""> rdf:resource</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(FF8040)"">=</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(993300)"">""http://wwww.ovidiuspictus/images/images/OO.BGH.Ams.1727a.t1/OO.BGH.Ams.1727a.t1.1""</hi>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)"">/></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:title></hi>Frontispicio
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""></dc:title></hi>
                    <lb/>
                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><dc:description></hi>Ovidio, herido de amor por Cupido, escribiendo poesía, asistido por una Musa que lo corona y la Fama que le indica qué escribir
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                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><rdaGr2:professionOrOccupation ></hi>Ilustrador
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                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><skos:prefLabel></hi>Bernard Picart
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                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><skos:prefLabel></hi>Changuion, François
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                    <hi rend=""color(000096)""><edm:hasMet</hi>
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            <div type=""div1"" rend=""DH-Heading1"">
            <head>Conclusiones</head>
                <list type=""unordered"">
                    <item>El proceso de migración de una biblioteca digital basada en un modelo de datos relacional a Europeana entraña una gran dificultad. Esto es debido en gran parte a la gran brecha existente entre ambos modelos, el primero de naturaleza más lógica y orientada a la representación de los datos y el segundo conceptual. Esta se constata, entre otras cosas, por el reducido número de bibliotecas que se han integrado en Europeana. </item>
                    <item>Faltan herramientas para las bibliotecas puesto que las existentes no cubren todo el proceso, son difíciles de emplear y, o bien no son específicas para Europeana , o son muy costosas.</item>
                    <item>El software SAMEBibl desarrollado, integra y automatiza, en la medida de lo posible, todos los procesos de la metodología. Esta herramienta lleva a cabo un proceso de traducción sintáctica y semántica del modelo origen con el establecimiento de las relaciones y reglas de transformación que da lugar a un archivo en un formato interpretable por un repositorio.</item>
                    <item>La metodología y la herramienta cumplen con los objetivos planteados como demuestra su validación mediante un caso real, la Biblioteca Digital Ovidiana (
                        <ref target=""http://www.ovidiuspictus.es"">http://www.ovidiuspictus.es</ref>). 
                    </item>
                </list>
            </div>
        </body>
        <back>
            <div type=""bibliogr"">
                <listBibl>
                    <head>Bibliography</head>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Aloia, N., Concordia, C., and Meghini, C.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The Europeana Linked Open Data Pilot Server.</hi> In M. Agosti, F. Esposito, S. Ferilli, and N. Ferro (Eds.), Digital Libraries and Archives, pp. 241–48. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-35834-0_24
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Angjeli, A., Bayerische, M., Chambers, S., Charles, V., Clayphan, R., Deliot, C., et al.</hi> (2012). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">D5. 1 Report on the alignment of library metadata with the European Data Model (EDM) Version 2.0. </hi>Report, Europeana Project.
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">An, Y., Borgida, A., and Mylopoulos, J.</hi> (2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Refining semantic mappings from relational tables to ontologies</hi>. In Semantic Web and Databases pp. 84–90. Springer. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-540-31839-2_7
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Barrasa Rodríguez, J.</hi> (2007). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Modelo para la definición automática de correspondencias semánticas entre ontologías y modelos relacionales (phd).</hi> Facultad de Informática (UPM). Retrieved from http://oa.upm.es/4147/
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Berners-Lee, T.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Relational databases on the semantic web</hi>. Retrieved from http://www.citeulike.org/group/17638/article/11988241
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Charles, V., Isaac, A., Tzouvaras, V., and Hennicke, S.</hi> (2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Mapping Cross-Domain Metadata to the Europeana Data Model (EDM).</hi> In T. Aalberg, C. Papatheodorou, M. Dobreva, G. Tsakonas, and C. J. Farrugia (Eds.), Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries, pp. 484–85. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-40501-3_68
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Concordia, C., Gradmann, S., and Siebinga, S. </hi>(2010). Not just another portal, not just another digital library: A portrait of Europeana as an application program interface. <hi rend=""italic"">IFLA Journal</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">36</hi>(1): 61–9, Retrieved from http://ifl.sagepub.com/content/36/1/61.short
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">CVC </hi>(2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">El español en el mundo. Anuario del Instituto Cervantes 2010-2011. Las bibliotecas digitales del siglo siglo XXI. Rafael C. Carrasco Jiménez</hi>. Retrieved September 18, 2015, from 
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Europeana.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Europeana Data Model Mapping Guidelines</hi>. Retrieved from http://pro.europeana.eu:9580/documents/900548/60777b88-35ed-4bae-8248-19c3696b81fb
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">European Commision. </hi>(2005). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">i2010: Digital libraries</hi>. Retrieved from http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/information_society/strategies/l24226i_en.htm
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Hernando-De-Larramendi, L., Domínguez-Muriel, J., Viedma-Peláez, A., Hernández-Carrascal, F. and Agenjo, X.</hi> (2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Datos y metadatos: la normalización dinámica de los elementos y de los procesos constituyentes de una Biblioteca Virtual</hi>. Retrieved from http://eprints.rclis.org/14342
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">López, F.-A. </hi>(2013). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Visibilidad e impacto de los repositorios digitales en acceso abierto. De Bibliotecas Y Bibliotecarios. Boletín Electrónico ABGRA, (5)</hi>. Retrieved from http://eprints.rclis.org/18940/
                    </bibl>
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Pan, Z. and Heflin, J.</hi> (2004). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Dldb: Extending relational databases to support semantic web queries. DTIC Document.</hi> http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA451847
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Remedios Melero, E. A. </hi>(2009). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">The situation of open access institutional repositories in Spain: 2009</hi>. Retrieved September 12, 2015, from http://www.informationr.net/ir/14-4/paper415.html
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                        <hi rend=""bold"">Ríos-Hilario, A., Martín-Campo, D. and Ferreras-Fernández, T</hi>. (2012). Linked data y linked open data: su implantación en una biblioteca digital. El caso de Europeana. <hi rend=""italic"">El Profesional de La Información</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">21</hi>(3): 292–97. Retrieved from http://elprofesionaldelainformacion.metapress.com/index/712822300Q7033W3.pdf
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Saorín, T., Peset, F. and Ferrer-Sapena, A.</hi> (2013). Retrieved July 1, 2014, from http://eprints.rclis.org/21005/
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Sequeda, J. F., Tirmizi, S. H., Corcho, O., and Miranker, D. P.</hi> (2011). Survey of directly mapping sql databases to the semantic web. <hi rend=""italic"">The Knowledge Engineering Review</hi>, <hi rend=""bold"">26</hi>(4): 445–86. Retrieved from http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0269888911000208
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vassallo, V. and Piccininno, M.</hi> (2012). Aggregating Content for Europeana: A Workflow to Support Content Providers. In P. Zaphiris, G. Buchanan, E. Rasmussen, and F. Loizides (Eds.), <hi rend=""italic"">Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries</hi>, pp. 445–54. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-33290-6_50
                    </bibl>
                    <bibl>
                        <hi rend=""bold"">Vega-Ramırez, A., Grangel-González, I., Sáez-Mosquera, I. and Garcıa-Castro, R.</hi> (2014). 
                        <hi rend=""italic"">Procedimiento para la obtención de un modelo ontológico para representar la información contenida en bases de datos.</hi> Retrieved from http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1219/paper5.pdf
                    </bibl>
                </listBibl>
            </div>
        </back>
    </text>","xml","2","",""
"3763","17","Minimal Computing: A Workshop","15","<text xmlns=""http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0"">
        <body>
            <p rend=""normal"">Scheduled for 12 July 2016, this Digital Humanities 2016 workshop will explore the practice and influence of minimal computing from both a practical and theoretical perspective. We use “minimal computing” to refer to computing done under some set of significant constraints, including constraints of hardware, software, education, network capacity, infrastructure, and power. Minimal computing is also used to capture the maintenance, refurbishing, and use of machines to do work out of necessity, along with the choice to use streamlined computing hardware, such as Raspberry Pi or Arduino. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">In essence, it calls for the reduction of the technical infrastructure required to produce, disseminate, and preserve digital scholarship. Put this way, it can reduce external dependencies (such as reliance on proprietary software, network infrastructure, or complex technology stacks), help communities to assert some control over their content, and facilitate sharing and preservation. This dichotomy of choice versus necessity underscores technology that is arguably not the high-performance computing of high-income economies. By operating within this tension between choice and necessity, minimal computing brings important concepts and practices within digital humanities to the fore. In this way it is also an intellectual concept, akin to environmentalism, asking for balance between gains and costs in areas including social justice, manufacturing, waste, and labor. </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">The workshop will engage questions such as (but not limited to):</p>
            <list type=""unordered"">
                <item>What are best practices for application construction in order to maximize access, decrease obsolescence, and reduce e-waste?</item>
                <item>How and in what ways does experience in mid- and low-income economies inform ongoing assumptions about how research and collaboration are conducted in high-income economies?</item>
                <item>In terms of computing and culture, what meaningful differences emerge across economical, infrastructural, and material conditions?</item>
                <item>In and beyond digital humanities, what is implied by minimalist design, and to what effects on practice? </item>
                <item>In digital humanities and other contexts, what research is being conducted with which physical computing technologies, how, and why?</item>
                <item>How do the different histories of minimalism in art, design, and industry form genealogies for minimalism in computers? Or what interesting work are people currently doing with minimal computing in areas such as art, design, and experimental media? </item>
            </list>
            <p rend=""normal"">Despite its fundamental concerns, minimal computing still lacks a cogent research agenda within digital humanities. As such, this workshop aims to bring like-minded researchers from a variety of disciplines to the same space to share work in progress and collectively articulate lines of future inquiry.</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">FORMAT</p>
            <p rend=""normal"">The workshop will blend delivery of short papers (or thought pieces) with seminar discussion, demonstrations, and prototype testing. </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">
                <hi rend=""bold"">9:30am-12:30pm</hi>: The first half of the workshop will consist of 8-10 presentations, together with focused discussion of the presenters’ minimal computing projects. Presentations and projects will be drawn from responses to a workshop CFP circulated in March 2016. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">
                <hi rend=""bold"">12:30pm-1:30pm</hi>: Lunch (on our own; not provided) 
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">
                <hi rend=""bold"">1:30pm-4:00pm</hi>: Participants will collectively develop a research agenda for minimal computing, with all participants collaborating to identify projects, build ideas, share and test prototypes, and articulate collective interests. Where applicable, participants will demonstrate workflows and projects involving physical computing platforms such as Raspberry Pi and Arduino. 
            </p>
            <p rend=""normal"">PARTICIPATION </p>
            <p>Participation in the workshop may range from presenting a paper or sharing a prototype to responding to presentations, testing prototypes, or simply observing to learn more about minimal computing practice and theory.</p>
        </body>
    </text>
","xml","2","",""
"3764","18","Untangling the Social Network of Musicians","10","Introduction
As opposed to the former idea of creative autonomy, in recent years, humanities research tends to investigate cultural contexts and circumstances, inspirational models, and the ways that knowledge, experience and expertise have been transferred over time. We address the question of ""creative transfer"" within the field of music. Due to the everlasting significance

of musical works, relationships between musicians -the entry point for such an investigation - are well documented in archives, libraries and museums. In print media, usually only a single relation between two musicians is narrated. Furthermore, it is common for the biography of only one of the two musicians to report on the relationship. Larger overviews of social networks between several musicians seldom exist. Although some digital resources exist, these are often reduced to the milieux of popular musicians like Mozart and Beethoven.

Since 2005, musicologists of the project Bavarian Musicians Encyclopedia Online (Bayerisches Musiker Lexikon Online, BMLO) have systematically collected biographical data (an example is given in Figure 1) and examined relationships between musicians from print media - a tedious work that results in a unique database of great value for musicology. The BMLO contains musicians from all kinds of musical professions (e.g., composers, singers, musicologists, instrument makers, ...), most of whom had an active lifetime period living in Bavaria or a considerable influence on Bavaria. Now providing information about around 28,000 musicians, the BMLO has achieved global scope, one that is underpinned by the many musicologists worldwide who use the BMLO for their daily work.



Schumann, Robert (Robert Alexander)

* 8. Juni 1810 Zwickau, t 29. Juli 1856 Bonn Geschlecht männlich

Konfess i o n evangel isch-lutherisch Beziehungen

Schumann, Clara (1819-1896), Pianistin

Wieck, Friedrich (1785-1873), Musikpädagoge Schüler

Nottebohm, Martin Gustav (1817-1882), Musikforscher Wasielewski, Wilhelm Joseph von (1822-1896), Musikforscher

Kollegen

Hauptmann, Moritz (1792-1868), Geiger Mendelssohn Bartholdy, Felix (1809-1847), Komponist

Panofka, Heinrich (1807-1887), Gesangslehrer Chopin, Frédéric (1810-1849), Komponist Joachim, Joseph (1831-1907), Geiger Brahms, Johannes (1833-1897), Komponist

Musikalische Berufe Pianist, Komponist Weitere Tätigkeiten Journalist, Jurist Träger/Sparte Medien

Wirkungsortc Bayreuth, Berlin, Bonn, Colditz, Dresden, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt/Main, Hamburg, Heidelberg, Karlsbad, Köln, Kreischa, Leipzig, Mailand, Maxen, Moskau, München, St. Petersburg, Wien, Zwickau

Figure 1: Biographical information about Robert Schumann

in the BMLO. Alongside information about a musician's lifetime, denomination, professions or places of activity, the database provides a number of relationships by type. Next to his partner Clara Schumann, further relations are listed to Robert Schumann's father in law, to his students, colleagues, and other acquainted musicians in his social network

In earlier works, we developed visual interfaces on the basis of the BMLO data for profiling musicians (Jä-nicke et al, 2016), and for the distant reading of musicians' biographies (Khulusi et al, 2016). However, the social network inherent in the BMLO has remained untouched so far. Using the BMLO, only the social network of single musicians can be observed, as is the case when using print media. In order to facilitate an extensive analysis of the entire social network concealed in the BMLO, we designed a visualization that brings together all of the relationships in the form of an interactive social network graph. In contrast to previous means of investigating the transfer of musical knowledge, we allow for the dynamic exploration of relationships among musicians over generations.

Graph Topology

Information regarding relationships to other musicians in the database is provided for 9,805 musicians of the BMLO. Only one relation exists for around 46,5% of these musicians, and just 261 musicians have ten or more relations. Adolf Wilhelm August Sandberger is the musician with most relations (97). The average number of relations for musicians is 2.6. The resultant graph structure of the social network consists of 1,420 connected components, the largest component connects 5,539 musicians, the second largest only 56 musicians - 1,385 connected components contain less than ten musicians.

Due to the above mentioned topological features of the graph, the typical, straightforward visualization using a force-directed layout approach, e.g., by using tools such as Gephi (Bastian, 2009), leads to a global overview of the social network (see Figure 2). However, local structures are hardly readable, which makes an interactive exploration nearly impossible. The objective of this work was to develop a graph design that makes the social network of musicians visually accessible for the first time, and, moreover, capable of being explored in accordance with the research questions of the collaborating musicologists. We focused on the largest connected component that causes the greatest challenges for this task.


Figure 2: The largest connected component with 5,539 musicians visualized using Gephi.


Graph & Interface Design to Analyze Teacher-Student Relationships

The preliminary step when generating the social network graph is filtering according to the underlying research question. At first, a filtering can be done by relationship type(s). Second, it is possible to focus exclusively on musicians with specific professions (e.g., instrumentalists). In the following discussion, we focus on the motivating example for this work: the analysis of teacher-student relationships to investigate how musical knowledge, experience and expertise have been transferred over time. The corresponding filter keeps 3,994 musicians, the largest connected component of this sub-network - the research object of the musicologists - contains 2,769 teachers and students. The Gephi output for this graph is given in Figure 3.


Figure 3: The largest connected component of the teacher-student network with 2,769 musicians visualized using Gephi.


Although the structures are slightly finer due to the reduced number of nodes and edges, the highly connected part in the interior of the graph remains cluttered. Here, we list our design decisions applied in order to generate a readable graph (see Figure 4) and a navigable interface.


Figure 4: The largest connected component of the teacher-student network with 2,769 musicians (608 nodes) visualized with our method.

• Temporally aligned graph: It was particularly important for the musicologists that the graph layout includes a temporal dimension, so that relations can be chronologically analyzed from left-to-right. Therefore, we applied a force-directed graph layout and used fixed x-values that represent a time-stamp,

which reflects the middle of a musician's creative lifetime (see Janicke 2016), on a horizontal time axis. As a result, the nodes only spread vertically and the chronological order remains intact.

•    Node grouping: Because the underlying research question investigates transfer paths of musical knowledge, we hide the nodes of musicians who never had the role of a teacher. Still, these musicians are grouped to their teachers, and can be accessed in the exploration process. This design decision reduces the number of nodes to be displayed from 2,769 to 608.

•    Node layout: To illustrate the significance and the influence of personalities, the sizes of nodes reflect the number of students of the corresponding teachers, which makes teachers with many students salient. Per default, node labels are hidden, but for navigation purposes, a user-defined number of node labels with the corresponding musicians names can be shown on demand. Either the most popular musicians or the teachers with most students can be highlighted.

•    Interactivity: Hovering over a node shows the corresponding musician and two lists of students (those who became teachers and those who did not) in a popup box. Clicking a node highlights all connections to a teacher's students who became themselves teachers. This way, transfer paths of musical knowledge can be assembled interactively.

•    Musical profession analysis: For the selected (via mouse click) musicians in the graph, the evolution of musical professions can be analyzed. Therefore, all musical professions of the teachers' students are listed by decreasing frequency. For each profession, a bar chart illustrates when they have been pursued.

Analysis of Teacher-Student Relationships
This section outlines a usage scenario of the teacher-student network taking the example of Adolf Wilhelm August Sandberger who established musicology as a subject of study in Munich.

First, we compare Sandberger to one of his teachers, Joseph Rheinberger, both being the teachers with the highest numbers of students (the BMLO lists 97 students for Sandberger and 87 students for Rheinberger). Of special interest was the comparative analysis of the musical professions of their students in order to assess the similarity of both teachers' studentries. Figure 5 shows the two selected teachers in the social network, and a view at the summarized musical professions of their students is given. While composition was the major musical profession of Rheinbergers students (70x), this number drops for Sandbergers

students (52x). On the other hand, the number of musicologists increase (10x    65x). Other significant

changes can be seen for the professions choirmaster (29x    9x), organist (19x    8x), music writer (12x

29x) and music editor (5x    26x). Thus, the visualiza

tion reflects a change of the musical profile of both studentries from composition to composition science- a hypothesis that could be verified with our system.

Second, we examined the change of teaching since Sandberger established musicology in Munich. Therefore, we observed the musical professions of the students of Sandberger and his successors in Munich, Rudolf von Ficker, Thrasybulos Georgios Georgiades and Theodor Göllner (see Fig. 6). While the musicologist is the most frequent taught musical profession, the composer gets less and less important. The last teacher Theodor Göllner even had no student with the composer as musical profession. Thus, the change from composition to composition science that already started with Sandberger compared to Rheinberger, steadily continued with Sandberger's successors.


Figure 5: Comparing the students of Joseph Rheinberger and Adolf Wilhelm August Sandberger.


Figure 6: Temporal change of teaching in Munich.

Conclusion

Through close collaboration with computer scientists and musicologists implementing a user-centered design approach, we developed a visualization that allows for the dynamic, interactive exploration of the social network of musicians, focusing primarily on teacher-student relationships. In contrast to out-of-the-box tools like Gephi, we took the research questions of the collaborating musicologists into account when designing the graph and the user interface. Although detailed information about individual relation periods between musicians as well as the taught musical professions are not included in the underlying database, the provided interface facilitates a novel view on the social network of musicians, which allows to draw conclusions on the question of the transfer of musical knowledge.

The value of our system for users of the BMLO is not only that social networks are visualized for the first time, but also that the graph may be filtered in accordance with the way that specific research questions can be investigated. Next to teacher-student relationships, familial or labor relationships also create valuable networks to be explored. Furthermore, it is possible to analyze sub-networks concerning musical professions, and to combine relationship types with musical professions. For example, when combining teacher-student relationships with the musical profession instrumentalist (see Fig. 7), Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart shows up at the beginning of the instrument playing knowledge transfer.


Figure 7: Teaching instrumentalists.

Bibliography
Bastian M., Heymann S., and Jacomy M. (2009). Gephi: an

open source software for exploring and manipulating

networks. International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media.

Jänicke, S., Focht, J., and Scheuermann, G. (2016). Interactive Visual Profiling of Musicians. IEEE Transactions on

Visualization and Computer Graphics (TVCG), 22(1):200— 209, Jan 2016.

Khulusi, R., and Jänicke, S. (2016). On the Distant Reading of Musicians' Biographies. In Digital Humanities 2016: Conference Abstracts. Jagiellonian University & Pedagogical University, Krakow, pp. 818-820.

Beaudouin, V., and Pehlivan, Z. (2016). The Great War on the Web: the Making of Citing and Referencing by Amateurs. In Digital Humanities 2016: Conference Abstracts. Jagiellonian University & Pedagogical University, Krakow, pp. 433-436","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/002/002.pdf",""
"3765","18","On the Impact of the Merseburg Incantations","2","While searching for medieval manuscripts suitable for the “Monumenta Germaniae Historica” (a collection of German historical sources) in 1841, Georg Waitz visited the library of the Merseburg Cathedral (Jankofsky, 2013). Rather coincidentally, he found a page with two magic spells in a theological composite manuscript: the Merseburg Incantations (see Fig. 1). Realizing the importance of his discovery, he asked Jacob Grimm to analyze and evaluate the text. The first Merseburg Incantation is a blessing of release telling about “Idisen” (female dieties) freeing either themselves or captured warriors from chains. The second Merseburg Incantation is a healing spell to cure a dislocated horse foot. The spells in Old High German were written down in the 10th century, but their origin is still unclear, maybe several hundred years earlier. The first time publicly presented at the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, Jacob Grimm denoted the value of the Merseburg Incantations by calling them a gem, and nothing from the most popular libraries would have a similar value (Grimm, 1842).

'    ‘    iÂMwî)er,uît

. Uvlun    uuiJt îhfpî

b<MiJun i m^r    .W’    ,

I ¿1 ruiirui OîUti uupî*uîi -1 tot ! âifnw haLlvrçfon finuiu>x L irr*3 k'i^l, -rkJmziîôttm.nnlir^m •

........-

i 1

;T ikl Gtui 1 ' <• fi \ ¿4 lH5t .UustK \

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'    nafoluf• j>n‘nJrfuJ,£vnuin n«,. W'

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& mfmfynJt'-J' '< -•<

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Figure 1: Merseburg Incantations manuscript

A number of works interpret content, meaning and origin of the Merseburg Incantations (e.g., Schumacher, 2000, Beck, 2003, and Schmitt, 2011). In contrast to these rather profound analyses and interpretations of the Merseburg Incantations, our project aims at examining their global impact. We therefore

design a platform that brings together various types

of sources—tagged with citation year, source type, reference purpose—citing the Merseburg Incantations. Some examples are listed below.

Sources citing the first Merseburg Incantation:

•    “Die Südharzreise”, Frank Fischer, 2010, travelog

•    “Mara und der Feuerbringer, Band 03: Götterdämmerung”, Tommy Krappweis,

2012, novel

•    “Angelina Jolie - The Lightning Star”, C. Duthel, 2012, biography

•    “Seelenriss: Depression und Leistungsdruck”, Ines Geipel, 2013, psychology

•    “Das siebte Buch: Objektorientierung mit C++”, Ernst-Erich Doberkat, 2013, programming

•    “Die Schwarzen Musketiere - Das Buch der Nacht”, Oliver Pötzsch, 2015, novel

•    “Charlemagne”, Johannes Fried and Peter Lewis, 2016, historiography

Sources citing the second Merseburg Incantation:

•    “The Key to Music's Genetics: Why Music is Part of Being Human”, Christian Lehmann, 2014, musicology (example for healing through singing)

•    “Ring of the Nibelungs”, German dubbing, 2004, TV Movie (entertainment)

•    “Die Leute vom Domplatz”, Episode 1, 1979, German TV Series (entertainment)

•    “To Ride a White Horse”, Pamela Ford, 2015, novel

•    “Healing Symbols in Psychotherapy: A Ritual Approach”, Erik D. Goodwyn, 2016, psychology

•    “Harzer Pferdezucht im Spiegel der Geschichte”, Bernd Sternal, 2015, horse breeding

•    “Metallische Implantate in der Knochenchirurgie”, Erich Frank and Herbert Zitter, 1971, medicine (bone surgery)

• “Norse Magical and Herbal Healing”, Ben Waggoner, 2011, medicine (medieval medical text collection)

Sources citing both Merseburg Incantations:

• “Handbuch der germanischen Philologie”, Friedrich Stroh, 1985, philology

• “Götter und Kulte der Germanen”, Rudolf Simek, 2004, mythology

• A number of music songs, e.g., performed by In

Extremo, Saltatio Mortis, Corvus Corax or Ti-

betrea, music (entertainment)

• Merseburg Incantations Geocache,

https://opencaching.de/OC07B5, since 2004, geocaching puzzle

Although this is only a tiny snapshot of sources referring to the Merseburg Incantations, some tendencies are already visible. Whereas both Merseburg Incantations are cited in a number of books on mythology and philology (only one of each category is listed above), there are also some differences dependent on the spell contents, e.g., historiography for the first spell, and medicine for the second. Next to these reasonable source types, there are also unexpected findings like programming for the first spell, and horse breeding for the second. Both Merseburg Incantations are also often used for entertainment purposes in the form of novels, in music songs, or in movies. Also an interesting finding is a Geocaching puzzle guiding to a Geocache that is hidden in Merseburg.

The project is designed as a two-stage student internship, where Masters students of the humanities and computer science collaboratively work together in order to gain experiences for future digital humanities projects. The first step is data acquisition, which is performed by humanities students. Although web search engines, e.g., platforms with digitized contents such as Google Books or Internet Archive for textual sources, are the entry points for data acquisition, data extraction and structuring is done manually to ensure high data quality and to capture the purpose of the reference as precisely as possible. For example, we extract detailed information about the context in which a spell is cited, e.g., in the biography about Angelina Jolie the first Merseburg Incantation is referenced in a movie description of Beowulf, in which Angelina Jolie partook as a supporting actress. The second step of our project is the development of an interactive visualization system to support the dynamic exploration of the data collection. Therefore, computer science students design several visual interfaces that summarize different metadata information (e.g., a timeline to visualize the temporal impact, or a tag cloud to illustrate source types). One of the major functions of the system is a comparative view on the different contexts in which the Merseburg Incantations are cited together and each of them individually. Although the data is collected in a time limited project, the system is designed as a web-based crowdsourcing platform, so that the database can be extended after the project. A specific feature of the system is genericity, which makes it applicable to other texts in question. For example, creating a collection of citations of the Trierer Zaubersprüche or the Hildebrandslied will be possible, also in the form of a comparative analysis.

An interpretive approach using our proposed system will be complicated due to the fact that the collection contains serious scholarly as well as artistical references, and it is not possible to draw a clear line between such groups. Also, we consider each citation as equally relevant, which might not evolve a convincing representation of impact. While it is furthermore not possible to collect “all” citations, supporting hypotheses generation after distant reading analyses is not the prior purpose of our system. Our aim is rather to establish a starting point for exploring the far-reaching significance of the Merseburg Incantations—one of the most important written samples of German language, even the oldest and only known preserved text about Germanic Paganism in Old High German. With our project, we want to fulfill the responsibility to sustainably highlight this uniqueness.

Bibliography

Beck, W. (2003). Die Merseburger Zaubersprüche (Vol. 16).

Reichert Verlag.

Grimm, J. (1842). Über zwei entdeckte Gedichte aus der Zeit

des deutschen Heidenthums. Abhandlungen der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. Aus dem Jahre 1842.

Jankofsky, J. (2013). Merseburg: 1200 Jahre in 62 Porträts

& Geschichten. Mitteldeutscher Verlag.

Schmitt, M. (2011). Althochdeutsche Zaubersprüche als

Textzeugen einer Zeit des Übergangs zwischen germanischem Heidentum und sich etablierendem Christentum - Form und Inhalt frühmittelalterlicher Magiepraxis.

Magisterarbeit.

Schumacher, M. (2000). Geschichtenerzählzauber. Die 'Merseburger Zaubersprüche' und die Funktion der ""his-toriola"" im magischen Ritual. In R. Zymner (Ed.), Erzählte Welt - Welt des Erzählens. Festschrift für Dietrich Weber (pp. 201-215). Köln: Chora.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/003/003.pdf",""
"3766","18","I Built An App To Revitalize A Language – Now What?","9","Summary

Indigenous communities are using technology to document languages and support language maintenance and revitalization activities. My research examined how technology has been incorporated into Upriver Halq’emeylem language programs. Participants identified that ICT is being used successfully as a supplementary tool in coordination with specific learning strategies and activities such as story-telling, games, and looking up a word or concept but that the ICT is not being used outside of those specific learning activities. The study indicates that ICT can be a valuable tool in the effort to revitalize a language; however, technology to revitalize languages needs to be carefully planned with post-implementation activities and oversight to ensure that the language continues to grow.

A Real-World Problem

Linguists estimate that 50-90 percent of the 6,000 to 7,000 known languages in the world will disappear in the 21st century (Grenoble, 2011) with Harrison (2007) estimating that loss is occurring at a rate of one language every ten days. Endangered languages are often spoken primarily, or only, by Elders and as fluent Elders are lost, so is the language. Indigenous languages in Canada are not exempt from language shift; indeed, only 50 of the more than 60 Indigenous languages known to have been spoken in Canada exist today and most of these languages are classified as either endangered or already extinct (Kirkness, 1998). Only three (Norris, 1998) or four (Kirkness, 1998) of these languages are expected to survive.

The loss of an Indigenous language is associated with the loss of Indigenous knowledge and culture. Such knowledge systems incorporate social and historical dimensions including social relationships, cosmology or world views, oral history, place names, spiritual relationships, ecological knowledge, oral literatures, and philosophies (Battiste, 2008; Berkes, 1993; Hinton, 2008a, 2008b; Kipp, 2009). These knowledge systems are embedded within the language and the loss of the language results in the loss of the knowledge systems. Language is important to the health of the community and language revitalization has been identified as playing “a vital role in community growth, healing, education, development, strong families and reconnection to the past” (First Peoples' Heritage, Language and Culture Council, 2010: 7). Language loss and revitalization is a global, real world problem.

Challenges

Challenges to language revitalization include lack of ideological clarification (Dauenhauer and Dauenhauer, 1998); disagreement as to recording or sharing language (Adley-SantaMaria, 1997); differences in personal beliefs (Kroskrity, 2009); economic impacts (Adegbija, 2008; Hornberger and King, 2008; Kroskrity, 2009); the perceived status of a language and the self-esteem of speakers; and feeling shame and embarrassment about the language and culture (Dauenhauer and Dauenhauer, 1998).

The digital divide is another potential barrier to language revitalization. The digital divide separates individuals and communities who have access to technology and those individuals and communities that do not. Exacerbating the issue of the digital divide is that language programs may inadvertently become technology projects which “often focus on providing hardware and software and pay insufficient attention to the human and social systems that must also change for technology to make a difference” (Warschauer, 2004: 6). Discussions around the digital divide must include the technical aspects such as access to technology and problems with infrastructure as well as the social aspects including education in the technology, gender, age, language, economics, and literacy (Warschauer, 2004).

Technology

Information and communication technology has been used with languages since the late 1800s, when audio recordings of Indigenous peoples were made on wax cylinders (Makagon and Neumann, 2008). These recordings allowed for unidirectional activity; that is, individuals could listen to the recording but could not interact with it. Today, the advances in ICT can provide an interactive, bi-directional experience in which users can interact either with the technology or other users. Language can also be captured in context with cultural activities allowing for a deeper understanding of the language. Multimedia applications are becoming increasingly easy to create and allow for the integration of video, audio, pictures, and text, as well as interaction with human beings. Access to databases and dictionaries provides teachers, administrators, and learners immediate access to language at the word, grammatical, and contextual levels. However, Tyler (2002) notes that:

“The Internet provides people with a technology that allows them to engage in activities that they have already had ways to engage in but provides them with some added efficiencies and opportunities to tailor their interactions to better meet their needs. However, there is nothing fundamentally different about the Internet that transforms basic psychological or social life. “ (204)

If we apply this statement to Indigenous language

programs, technology will be most successful where the language is already being used and where the language is not being used, technology will not increase the usage as is the case of the Upriver Halq’emeylem language community. An endangered language requires very different strategies than a thriving language, and these strategies should determine how digital technologies are used. For example, a community with a thriving language may use technology to encourage conversations between geographically dispersed individuals, to increase the use of language through written communication using email or chat functions, or to provide exposure to the language by posting information on social media sites or blogs. A community with an endangered language may choose to use technology for documentation and archiving so that the language is not lost forever.

My research attempted to understand the effectiveness of technology within an established language program with the goal of providing additional information to help communities that are either considering a language program or have one in flight that uses technology.

Findings

The Upriver Halq’emeylem language community began to use ICT in the mid-1900s to document their language. Over time, the community continued to incorporate ICT and today ICT is an integral tool in the teaching of the language. Table 1 identifies the ten technologies identified as being used with the Halq’emeylem language along the top row and the learning strategies used in the first column.


Understanding the how the learning strategies intersected with the technology used provided key information as to how the technology supports language learning. Participants identified that ICT is being used successfully as a supplementary tool in coordination with specific learning strategies and activities such as story-telling, games, and looking up a word or concept but that ICT is not being used to support Halq’emeylem learning activities outside of those specific learning activities. Additionally, participants indicated that ICT that enables human to human interaction has significant potential to contribute to developing fluency but only if the language is already being used.

Table 1 highlights that ICT is rarely used with the Halq’emeylem language outside of learning situations such as classrooms. This does not seem to be related to any digital divide issues as participants confirmed that they and other community members use ICT on a regular basis for non-language related activities. There may be multiple reasons why participants do not use ICT with the Halq’emeylem language; however, Burton suggested that the primary reason that Halq’emeylem specific ICT is not used by community members is because people do not use the language:

“But the thing about the technology, the thing about everything, classes, education, language planning, everything that we try to do, it's like we're trying to support something that's not happening. So, if people were talking to their aunt

and their grandmother or a couple that said

we're going to make Halq’emeylem a part of our

life and so on, then the technology and the classes could help them. But if all you have is the technology, then that's not going to solve the problem. The problem is a social problem, or a personal problem.” (personal communication, July 11, 2013)

Technology will be most successful where the language is already being used and, where the language is

not being used, technology will not increase the usage

as in the case of the Upriver Halq’emeylem language community. Technology to revitalize languages needs to be carefully planned with corresponding plans to introduce the technology and then post-implementation activities and oversight to ensure that the language continues to grow.

Bibliography
Adegbija, E. (2008). “Saving threatened languages in Africa: A case study of Oko.” In Fishman, J.A. (ed.), Can threatened languages be saved? Reversing language shift, revisited: A 21st century perspective. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters Ltd, pp. 284-308.

Adley-Santa Maria, B. (1997). “White Mountain Apache

language: Issues in language shift, textbook development, and native speaker-university collaboration.” In

Reyhner, J. (ed.), Teaching indigenous languages. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University.

Battiste, M. (2008). “Research ethics for protecting indigenous knowledge and heritage.” In Denzin, N.K., Lincoln,

Y. S., and Smith, L. T. (eds.), Handbook of critical and indigenous methodologies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 497-509.

Berkes, F. (1993). “Traditional ecological knowledge in perspective.” In Inglis, J. T. (ed.), Traditional ecological knowledge: concepts and cases. Ottawa, ON: IDRC/CRDI,

pp. 1-9.

Cazden, C. B. (2003). “Sustaining Indigenous languages in cyberspace.” In Reyhner, J., Trujillo, O., Carrasco, R. L., and

Lockard, L. (eds.), Nurturing native languages. Flagstaff,

AZ: Northern Arizona University, pp. 53-57.

Dauenhauer, N. M., and Dauenhauer, R. (1998). “Technical, emotional, and ideological issues in reversing language shift: Examples from Southeast Alaska.” In Grenoble, L. A. and Whaley, L. J. (eds.), Endangered languages:

Language loss and community response. Cambridge, MA:

Cambridge University Press, pp. 57-98.

Eisenlohr, P. (2004). “Language revitalization and new technologies: Cultures of electronic mediation and the refiguring of communities.” Annual Review of Anthropology, 33:21-45.

First Peoples' Heritage, Language and Culture Council.

(2010). Report on the status of B.C. First Nations languages    2010.    Retrieved    from

http://www.fpcc.ca/files/PDF/2010-report-on-the-sta-

tus-of-bc-first-nations-languages.pdf

Grenoble, L. A. (2011). “Language ecology and endangerment.” In Austin, P. K. and Sallabank, J., The Cambridge handbook of endangered languages. Cambridge, MA:

Cambridge University Press, pp. 27-44.

Harrison, K. D. (2007). When languages die: The extinction of the world's languages and the erosion of human knowledge. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hinton, L. (2008a). “Language revitalization: An overview.” In Hinton, L. and Hale, K. (eds.), The green book of language revitalization in practice. Bingley, UK: Emerald

Group Publishing Limited, pp. 3-18.

Hinton, L. (2008b). “Learning and Teaching Endangered Indigenous Languages.” In Van Deusen-Scholl, N. and Hornberger, N. H. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Language and Education. Springer Science+Business Media LLC, pp. 157-67.

Hornberger, N. H., and King, K. A. (2008). “Reversing

Quechua language shift in South America.” In Fishman,

J.A. (ed.), Can threatened languages be saved? Reversing

language shift, revisited: A 21st century perspective.

Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters Ltd, pp. 166-194.

Kipp, D. (2009). “Encouragement, guidance and lessons learned: 21 years in the trenches of Indigenous language revitalization.” In Reyhner, J. and Lockard, L. (eds.), Indigenous language revitalization: encouragement, guidance and lessons learned. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University, pp. 1-9.

Kirkness, V. J. (1998). “The critical state of aboriginal languages in Canada.” Canadian Journal of Native Education,

22(1):93-107.

Kroskrity, P. V. (2009). “Language renewal as sites of language ideological struggle: the need for ‘ideological clarification.'” In Reyhner, J. and L. Lockard (eds.), Indigenous language revitalization: encouragement, guidance and

lessons learned. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University, pp. 71-83.

Makagon, D., and Neumann, M. (2008). In Recording Culture: Audio Documentary and the Ethnographic Experience. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Norris, M. J. (1998). “Canada's aboriginal languages.” Canadian Social Trends, 51:8-16.

Tyler, T. R. (2002). “Is the Internet changing social life? It seems the more things change, the more they stay the same.” Journal of Social Issues, 58(1):195-205.

Warschauer, M. (2004). Technology and social inclusion: Rethinking the digital divide. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/004/004.pdf",""
"3767","18","Digital Hansard – Politics and the Uncivil","9","Summary

This short paper uses the recently-completed Hansard Corpus to show the patterning of attitudes expressed by the British Parliament about things considered to be ‘uncivilized' across the last two centuries. It starts from the lexical resource of the Historical Thesaurus of English to gain an overview of the lexicalisation of the concept ‘uncivilized' and uses this digital data demonstrates a substantial shift (from foreign to domestic) in who Parliament considers to be uncivil.

Introduction

The ways in which the British have discussed ‘uncivilized' peoples which travellers have encountered throughout the history of English gives a key insight into how people in the past have identified and classified the world around them. This paper uses data from the Hansard Corpus ,-./-1../ (Alexander and

Davies, MNOP-) alongside the Historical Thesaurus of

English (Kay et al, MNop-) to analyse the evolution of how the English-speaking people have thought of those who they think uncivil in five different sense-families — as animals, as ill-formed people, as strange-speaking outsiders, as savages, and finally as innocents awaiting enlightenment. Only these large digital data sources can show us the patterning of who and what the British Parliament have considered to be barbarous across time.

Data

This analysis became possible following the completion of the Historical Thesaurus of English (HT) in MNNU and the semantically-tagged Hansard Corpus ,-./-1..< in MNOP, both of which are currently directed by Alexander and were created by teams of scholars at the University of Glasgow.

The HT is a database of all the recorded words in the history of English arranged according to their meaning; one of the world's oldest digital humanities projects, and in progress for over PN years, the HT database (stored on media from punch cards to tape to diskettes to networked storage to the Web) allows us an unparalleled resource for analysing the history of English. The Hansard Corpus ,-./-1..<, completed in MNOP, is a digital corpus of speeches in the British Parliament between those dates, consisting of O.Ybn words across Z.Ym speeches. Its contents were semantically tagged in the MNO[-OP SAMUELS project (The SAMUELS Consortium, MNOP) with disambiguated meaning codes from the HT, making it possible to search for semantic categories rather than words, as we do below.

The Uncivil

The category of Civilization in the HT gives us an indication of a non-typical pattern in the number of words available to describe a given concept (in English, categories normally grow throughout time) in the words referring to uncivilized and a lack of civilization, as Figure O shows.


Figure (: The size of each subcategory of Civilization in the HT

While the size of the uncivilized adjective category rises in the latter MNth century, there is a substantial fall at the same time in the size of the lack of civilization noun category, which we argue is connected to the shift in who has been considered to be uncivil (see below). In addition, of the [M words in the uncivilized category in the HT (see Figure m), the vast majority follow a particular path of lexicalization which we describe below, with new terms reflecting the shifting conceptualization of the uncivil throughout the times at which they were coined.

03.01.03.02.01 (adj.) Uncivilized

bserbaere OE • elreord OE • elreordig OE • haepen OE • ungerad OE • wild<wilde OE; ol300- • wildem o1300 • fremd cl 374 • bestial cl 400-1816 • savage cl 420/30- • savagine C1430-1430/40 • rude 1483- • barbaric 1490-1513; □1837- • barbar 1535-01726 • barbarous 1538- • Scythical 1559-1602 • barbarious 1570-1762 • raw 1577; 1847;

1865 • incivil 1586 • barbarian 1591- • uncivilized 1607- • negerous 1609 • savaged 1611 • mountainous 1613-1703 • ruvid 1632(2) • ruvidous 1632 • incivilized 1647 • inhumane o1680 • tramontane 1739-1832 • semibarbarous 1798- • irreclaimed 1814 • semi-savage 1833- • semi-ferine 1854-1858 (rare) • warrigal 1855 (Austral.)-l 890 • sloven 1856 (US)-] 882/3 • semi-barbaric 1864 • wild and woolly 1884- • woolly 1891- • jungle 1908- • medieval 1917-(col/oq.) • jungli 1920-• pre-civilised 1953- 01 and unsubdued unatemed OE 02 without intelligible language ungereord OE 03 sped fically of persons uncivil 1553-1644 • savage 1588- 04 pertaining to uncivilized people savage 1614- 05 acting/speaking as uncivilized barbarizing 1662; 1855- 06 rendering uncivilized barbarized 1602; 1839 • barbarizing 1809- • decivilized 1831-1892 • barbarianized 1885 • decivilizing 1889 07 becoming uncivilized barbarianzing 1859 08 absence of accepted social standards/values anomic 1950-



Figure C: The proportion of uses of uncivil words to refer to foreign or domestic persons (thickness of bars reflects the changing amounts of text in Hansard in those decades); note that the status of Ireland and Northern Ireland is contested with regards to the foreign/domestic status, and so has been represented separately here


Figure 7: ‘Uncivilized' in the HT, taken from p.(7CD of the print edition.

Thus far this sort of analysis has been slow-paced

and difficult to undertake. However, with the tagging

in the Hansard Corpus i-o/-ioo< we can investigate this sort of semantic and conceptual change in a much more rapid fashion by honing in on uses of these meanings in context across time.

Parliament

There are five families of meaning into which the words above can be categorised, as outlined above. In a past article (Alexander and Struan, mno'), we assembled some evidence for this from the history of English in a non-systematic fashion. For this short paper, we instead account for all the evidence from the Hansard Corpus — over m,nnn uses of the semantic category — in order to trace across recorded Parliamentary history the shifts in the cultural, political and social attitudes towards the ‘uncivilized'. This shows a substantial change in the picture which differs from the simpler five-family view of the sense evolution of uncivil we described in that earlier article.

Our first change to discuss is the shift, shown below, from the uncivil primarily being foreigners in the OaNNs to being domestic persons in the OUNNs onwards.

This is reflected in the changing discourse surrounding barbaric and uncivil things, where a majority of MNth century uses refer to barbaric practices and actions rather than persons:

Foreign/Domestic & Category vs. Decade

Slate (condition)

Northern Ireland    Practice/action

People (specific group)

State (condition)

Practice/action, State (condition)

Practice/action Place

People (specific group)

People (public body)

People (General)

Nations

State (condition)

Practice/action, State (condition)

Practice/action Place

People (specific person)

People (specific group)

People (public body)

People (General)

Object/thing Nations

State (condition)

Practice/action, State (condition)

Practice/action Place

People (specific person)

People (specific group)



Count



People (public body) People (General) Object/thing

Nations


Figure N: A heatmap of the entities (people, states, practices) considered uncivil by Parliament in the data, separated by whether the entities are foreign or domestic

Through four other graphs, we further report on the distribution of uncivil references across the globe and between the two Houses of Parliament. We also show the changes in the five evolutionary sense-families we outline above, which is key to the for-eign/domestic shift we describe.

Some quotes from the corpus can briefly illustrate these changes, which here are aimed at a general body of persons, or a country:

Mr Charles Adderley, House of Commons MO February OaYP: ‘...to discharge what Lord Grey described as the singular office of dispensing rude laws among uncivilized tribes.'

Earl of Carnarvon, House of Lords OM May OaZ[, on India:

‘But a central government is not enough. In barbarous times and in uncivilized countries, roads are the first condition of improvement; and here it will be our first duty to open and secure the maintenance of roads and trade-paths.'

Mr Richard Cherry (Attorney-General for Ireland), House of Commons MN March OUNa: ‘I never said that the people of Ireland were West African savages.'

Lord Hylton, House of Lords Oa April OUUP: ‘We can now see that in dealing with Russia we are dealing with a semi-barbarous state and a society that only knew a measure of democracy for a few years before the First World War.'

Mr Andrew Robathan, House of Commons O November MNNO, on the pending invasion of Iraq: ‘We should not allow a barbaric, mediaeval [sic] regime to succeed or last. We certainly do not want to go back to civil war.'

As a result, we can show empirically the shift over two centuries in the ways which Members of Parliament described uncivil or barbaric entities, from foreign people or places to domestic practices. We conclude by arguing that this is the result of increased oppositionality being shown in the digital Parliamentary record, and so in this short paper we combine ‘big picture' graphs of large-scale data analysis with more focused examples from the corpus record.

Bibliography

Adamson, S., Allan, K., Andrade, S., Arac, J., Davis, J., Durant, A., Durkin, P., Heath, S., MacCabe, C., Mehl, S., Robertson, K., and Yanacek, H. (MNOY). The Keywords Project. University of Pittsburgh. (http://key-words.pitt.edu/index.html).

Alexander, M. and Davies, M. (mnop-) Hansard Corpus i-o/-ioo<. Available online at http://www.hansard-corpus.org.

Alexander, M. and Struan, A. mno'. ‘In countries so unciviliz'd as those?': The Language of Incivility and the British Experience of the World. In Martin Farr & Xavier Guegan (eds.) Experiencing Imperialism: The British Abroad since the Eighteenth Century, volume M. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Kay, C., Roberts, J., Samuels, M., Wotherspoon, I., and Alexander, M. (eds.). mnop-. The Historical Thesaurus of English, version [.M. Glasgow: University of Glasgow. http://www.glasgow.ac.uk/thesaurus.

The SAMUELS Consortium (MNOP). The SAMUELS Project. United Kingdom AHRC and ESRC. http://www.glas-gow.ac.uk/samuels.

Williams, R. (2014). Keywords: A vocabulary of culture and society. Oxford University Press.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/007/007.pdf",""
"3768","18","A Blind Legend : Accéder à Un Jeu D’Aventure à L’Aveugle à travers un Dispositif Audio­digital","2","","","","",""
"3769","18","Illustrations to Photographs: using computer vision to analyse news pictures in Dutch newspapers, 1860-1940","9","Most digital humanities projects are based on the analysis of text. However, in our increasingly visually orientated world, it has become clear that we should also devise ways to analyse visual material. In the last couple of years, the Royal Library of the Netherlands (KB) has made important steps in this emergent field. Delpher, the interface that provides access to the KB's

digital collections, gives users the opportunity to

search for images with captions in its database of digitized newspapers. The KBK-1M database, which holds all the images published in the KB's digitized newspapers, provides researchers with the opportunity to analyse the visual material of this collection in a viable way.

In my paper for DH2017 I will present the preliminary results of my researcher-in-residence project at the KB (six months starting May 2017). My project applies a new computer vision technique to sort the images of the KBK-1M database according to the way in which they were reproduced (engraving/half-tone), thus shedding a new light on an important transitional phase in the history of the visual culture of the news.

The visual representation of news events is generally connected to the technological progress of photography (Bardoel and Wijfjes, 2015). The so-called halftone revolution of the early 1880s, enabling the massive reproduction of photographs in print media, is seen as forming the basis for our current visual news culture. From a media archaeological perspective, several historians of nineteenth-century media have challenged this technocentric narrative (Gitelman and Pingree, 2003). Hill and Schwartz (2015: 3) propose a contingent history of “news pictures” as a separate “class of images,” which does not solely focus on photographic technologies, but on the discourse surrounding them. In relation to this theoretical development, several studies have demonstrated that photography was not the first medium used to visually represent the news. From the early 1840s, illustrated newspapers disseminated news pictures on a massive scale and developed a discourse of objectivity, based on eyewitness accounts, which would be adapted and used for photographs later in the century (Keller, 2013; Gervais, 2010; Barnhust and Nerone, 2000; Park, 1999).

If we accept that the perceived objective nature of news pictures is not based on the affordances of a certain technology but on the discourse(s) of objectivity surrounding a specific medium, it follows that the turning point between the use of illustrations and photographs as the preferred medium to visually represent the news is a critical moment in the history of modern visual news culture. Most commonly, Dutch researchers have presented this point as a watershed, located at the publication of the first photograph of a news event in a newspaper (Kester and Kleppe, 2015). However, case studies from a media archaeological perspective suggest a relatively long transitional period in which illustrations and photographs coexisted and competed as authentic, objective visual representations of the news (Keller, 2013; Steinsieck, 2006). It remains unclear precisely when photography achieved its pre-eminence and why this happened: why did newspapers stop using illustrations to represent the news when they had done so for many decades?

The early reliance on case studies to describe the transitional phase is understandable, as in pre-digital times, a distant reading of the large number of images published in newspapers was all but impossible. My project will shed more light on this important debate by analysing news pictures in Dutch newspapers on a large scale. Using the power of the Dutch supercomputer Cartesius, I will apply the technique of a recent project of Fyfe & Ge (2016) to the images in the KBK-1M database. Fyfe set out to study how computer vision and image processing techniques could be adapted for large-scale interpretation of British Victorian illustrated newspapers (Fyfe, 2016). Using MATLAB, Ge devised a method to analyse two so-called low-level features of images: the pixel ratio, the number of low-intensity pixels divided by the total number of pixels, and the entropy level: the amount of information contained in the image. By juxtaposing these two features, they were able to sort the images of the illustrated newspapers according to the technique used for their reproduction. Half-tones, used to reproduce photographs, exhibit both a high pixel ratio and a high entropy level, while engravings, used to reproduce illustrations, display lower pixel ratios and entropy levels (Ge, 2016). Fyfe has shown that this technique can also be used to identify other categories of images. Maps, for example, exhibit lower pixel ratios and entropy levels than detailed illustrations (Fyfe, 2016).

At DH2017 I will present the first results of my project. By analysing the low-level features of images in the KBK-1M database, I will be able to show when Dutch newspapers started to printed both illustrations and photographs on a large scale. In addition, the period when they competed as objective visual representations of the news can be identified. In doing so, my project introduces a digital humanities approach to the relatively theoretical field of nineteenth-century visual culture studies.

the Crimean War. London: Routledge.

Kester, B., and Kleppe, M. (2015). “Persfotografie in Nederland. Acceptatie, professionalisering en innovatie.” In J. Bardoel and H. Wijfjes (eds.), Journalistieke Cultuur in Nederland. Amsterdam: AUP, pp. 53-76.

Park, D. (1999). “Picturing the War: Visual Genres in Civil War News.” The Communication Review, 3(4): 287-321. doi:10.1080/10714429909368588

Steinsieck, A. (2006). “Ein imperialistischer Medienkrieg. Kriegsbenchterstattung im Sudafrikanischen Krieg

(1899-1902).” In U. Daniel (ed.), Augenzeugen. Kriegsberichterstattung vom 18. zum 21. Jahrhundert. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, pp. 87-112.

Bibliography

Bardoel, J., and Wijfjes, H. (2015). “Journalistieke

cultuur in Nederland. Een professie tussen traditie en

toekomst.” In J. Bardoel and H. Wijfjes (eds.), Journal-istieke Cultuur in Nederland. Amsterdam: AUP, pp. 11-29.

Barnhurst, K. and Nerone, J. (2000). “Civic Picturing vs. Realist Photojournalism. The Regime of Illustrated News, 1856-1901.” Design Issues, 16(1): 59-79.

Fyfe, P. (2016). Illustrated Image Analytics. How Computers

See Illustrated Victorian Periodicals [Powerpoint slide].

Retrieved from https://ncsu-las.org/wp-content/up-loads/2016/05/wrm-presentation-slides-4-27-16-

paul-fyfe.pdf

Ge, Q. (2016) Computer Vision Techniques for Analysis of

Illustrations in 19th Century British Newspapers [Powerpoint slide]. Retrieved from https://ncsu-las.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/wrm-presentation-slides-4-

27-16-qian-ge.pdf

Gervais, T. (2010). “Witness to War: The Uses of Photography in the Illustrated Press, 1855-1904.” Journal of Visual    Culture,    9(3):    370-384.

doi:10.1177/1470412910380343

Gitelman, L., and Pingree, G. B. (2003). New media, 17401915. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Hill, J., and Schwartz, V. (2015). “General Introduction.” In J. Hill and V. Schwartz (eds.), Getting the Picture: The Visual Culture of the News. London: Bloomsburry Academic, pp. 1-11.

Keller, U. (2013). The Ultimate Spectacle: A Visual History of","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/010/010.pdf",""
"3770","18","Tropy: A Tool for Research Photo Management","2","Tropy is a freely licensed and open-source software tool currently under development by the Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media that will allow researchers to collect and organize the digital photographs they take in their research, associate metadata with those images, and export both photographs and metadata to other platforms.

Tropy is filling a critical need in the workflow of researchers who visit archives. This need for photo management has largely arisen since the widespread adoption of photographing sources in the archives instead of reading and analyzing them on-site. Postponing analysis to a later moment in the research cycle proves more difficult than most scholars anticipate: according to the ITHAKA S+R report “Supporting the Changing Research Practices of Historians” (2012), researchers now typically photograph everything they can, and then, faced with “the lack of tools or software to facilitate the process of capturing and using digital photographs for scholars,” struggle to “organize and access photographs in a constructive way after a trip.” Researchers typically depart from the archives with photographs that might include limited EXIF metadata about the image but never contain any metadata describing the imaged artifact itself. At present it is difficult if not impossible for researchers to attach such metadata to images, particularly regarding their provenance, and to organize them so that scholars can identify and find what is important to their research projects.

With Tropy, you will be able to:
Import. You will be able to drag and drop one or more JPG images into Tropy. Importing will add the image files to Tropy’s internal data store, generate thumbnails for each of the new images, and add preliminary metadata based on a template.

Edit. Tropy provides the core functions needed to ensure that images are adequate for your purposes; it is not intended to be a full-featured image editing software. You will be able to rotate, crop, zoom, and adjust contrast. Each image’s metadata will also be individually editable. Available fields will be supplied by customizable templates: Tropy will include generalized archive templates, based on Dublin Core and EADS; and researchers and archivists will be able to create their own templates, customized to reflect specific collections and archives. A batch-editing mode will allow users to manipulate metadata across multiple images. Tropy will also include an interface for note-taking and transcription.

Organize. Images will be organized via collections and/or tags, with items able to appear in multiple collections and under multiple tags. You will have many ways of finding your archival images: browsing image collections and tags via list and thumbnail modes; sorting these views using all available metadata, such as date, source archive, and title; and searching across all available metadata, including notes.

Share. All items stored in Tropy will be available for export both locally and to external, web-based services. Exporting a selection of items or a collection from Tropy will generate an archive file that includes image files along with their metadata in machine-readable format. You will also be able to transmit your images and metadata to external services via Tropy plugins. We will create at least three plugins spanning a range of services - Flickr, Omeka and an open-source digital asset management software (DAMS) - as well as documentation that allows users to develop their own plugins.

We anticipate a beta release of Tropy in April 2017, and a 1.0 release in September 2017.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/013/013.pdf",""
"3771","18","Tempi Verbali e Strutture Narrative: l’Analisi Computazionale dei Morfemi Temporali nei Testi Narrativi Italiani tra Realismo e Modernismo","10","Il problema: la transizione al modernismo nella letteratura Italiana

La transizione dal Realismo al Modernismo, che

caratterizzo tutte le grandi letteratura nazionali oc-cidentali nei decenni a cavallo tra l’800 e il 900, e uno dei periodi storico letterari che piu hanno attirato l'attenzione della storiografia e della critica let-teraria. Si tratta di un fenomeno di portata globale nelle culture occidentali che ha tuttavia avuto speci-ficita stilistiche, scansioni temporali, espressioni di poetica e di produzione testuale diverse in ciascuna tradizione nazionale.

Nella storiografia letteraria italiana la categoria del “Modernismo” ha avuto una fortuna assai scarsa e solo nell'ultimo ventennio essa e entrata nel dibat-tito teorico, soprattutto per iniziativa di studiosi con prevalente orientamento comparatista (Luperini, 2014; Somigli e Moroni, 2004; Pellini 2004; Gug-lielmi, 2001). Per lungo tempo infatti si sono prefer-ite nozioni storico letterario come quella di Decadentismo, soprattutto sulla scorta dell'influente la-voro di Salinari (Salinari, 1960) - e in generale di tutta la critica di impianto marxista storicista - secondo cui nel corso dell'ultimo decennio dell'Otto-cento comincia a profilarsi, negli ambienti intel-lettuali italiani, quella “coscienza della crisi”, che caratterizzera la civilta europea a cavallo tra i due secoli. Una crisi epocale dell'universo ideologico, culturale ed epistemico che aveva dominato nella seconda meta del secolo precedente, e che aveva dato vita alla stagione del Realismo sul piano letter-ario e del Positivismo su quello filosofico.

Questa periodizzazione e categorizzazione ha ov-viamente determinato per lungo tempo notevoli dif-ficolta nel collocare le opere degli autori principali della letteratura italiana tra i due secoli: in primis Pirandello e Svevo, ma anche Tozzi e, in parte almeno,

D'Annunzio (Castellana, 2010). Ma l'impianto analit-ico storicista alla base di tale inquadramento storio-grafico, concentrato sulla analisi delle poetiche e dei fattori socioculturali e strutturali di contesto della produzione letteraria, ha avuto anche una ulteriore conseguenza: fatta eccezione per alcuni grandi pro-tagonisti, le cui opere sono state analizzate con grande attenzione, di rado si è cercato di verificare quali fossero i tratti testuali della produzione let-teraria che permettessero di giustificare le proposte interpretative. La nostra ricerca si è posta dunque come obiettivo la ricerca di quei caratteri testuali in-trinseci che fossero in grado di supportare o meno la tradizione interpretativa e storiografica.

Il paradigma metodologico: distant reading “critico”

Uno dei temi che hanno ravvivato il dibattito

metodologico dell'ultimo decennio in ambito teorico

e storico letterario è il paradigma del distant reading proposto da Franco Moretti (2013b). La proposta di Moretti, si noti, nella sua formulazione originale non voleva tanto promuovere l'uso di specifici metodi quantitativi computazionali nell’analisi dei testi (ció che è poi divenuto preponderante nella “vulgata morettiana”), quanto piuttosto richiamare sulla ne-cessità di affrontare una classe di problemi letterari che l'analisi tradizionale non riesce a descrivere cor-rettamente.

Abbiamo più volte espresso le nostre riserve te-oriche e metodologiche su alcuni aspetti e applica-zioni di questo approccio, riconoscendone tuttavia la validità qualora esso sia applicato su domini e aspetti testuali di adeguato livello descrittivo (per intenderci, fenomeni che comportano l'analisi di corpora testuali vasti per individuare macro-fenomeni sincronici e diacronici), e la sua applicazione sia gui-data da un adeguato inquadramento teorico e da specifiche ipotesi interpretative (Ciotti, 2014; 2016).

Crediamo che il problema che ci siamo posti e la sua dimensione cronotopica (la tradizione letteraria Italiana nel periodo che va dalla metà del 1800 al 1920) sia un candidato ottimale per una indagine ba-sata sul distant reading e sui connessi metodi com-putazionali. Nel nostro studio abbiamo circoscritto il dominio dell'analisi alla produzione narrativa (sia nella forma romanzo sia nelle forme brevi) che, per vari rispetti, rappresenta in modo prioritario le problematiche individuate in apertura.

Per quanto riguarda l'inquadramento teorico, si-amo convinti che un metodo di analisi computa-zionale riveste interesse in ambito critico letterario nella misura in cui fornisce dati osservativi che possano essere correlati a termini o nozioni teoriche adottate in una ipotesi interpretativa. Moretti nel suo lavoro più eminentemente metodologico, adotta la nozione di “operazionalizzazione” derivandola dalla epistemologia di P.W. Bridigman (Moretti, 2013a). Non concordiamo con il riduzionismo quan-titativo presupposto nella accezione dell'opera-zionalismo di Moretti. Preferiamo concepire l'analisi computazionale non esclusivamente come un metodo quantitativo/numerico, ma come l'elabora-zione di un modello formale funzionalmente iso-morfo al dominio, cui si possono applicare processi computazionali. Da punto di vista critico si tratta di una versione computazionale della nozione di inter-pretazione critico/semiotica proposta da Umberto Eco (1990).

Il metodo: i tempi verbali nel testo e le tesi di Weinrich

Muovendo da queste considerazione metodo-logiche, il nostro lavoro ha richiesto in prima istanza

l'individuazione del quadro teorico di riferimento.

Da questo punto di vista ci e sembrato che lo studio del sistema dei tempi verbali secondo le indicazioni a suo tempo fornite da Harald Weinrich (1978) potesse fornire importanti indicazioni per l'analisi narratologica (Cazalé, 1989; Segre, 1985).

Per Weinrich i tempi verbali, nella loro dimen-sione testuale, non possono essere considerati esclu-sivamente dei veicoli lessicali atti ad esprimere il “passato”, il “presente” e il “futuro” in quanto attrib-uti del tempo reale. A tale visione “referenzialista” lo studioso tedesco oppone una teoria funzionalista dei tempi verbali, i quali, in quanto morfemi ostinati (presenti in gran copia, dunque, in ogni tipo di testo), fanno parte dei segni istruzionali a disposizione dell'emittente per orientare la ricezione del messag-gio da lui emesso. I tempi verbali, dunque, apparten-gono alla classe dei deittici, poiché modellizzano la relazione tra il processo di comunicazione e il testo stesso: essi hanno la funzione di istituire e orientare il processo comunicativo, come istruzioni che il let-tore deve seguire per recepire la catena sintagmatica correttamente (Weinrich, 1988).

Questo processo di mediazione avviene at-traverso tre funzioni fondamentali che caratter-izzano il sistema dei tempi verbali. Weinrich le individua in via empirica, basandosi su spogli e analisi di testi narrativi in lingue romanze, in tedesco e in inglese: opposizione tra tempi commentativi e tempi narrativi; divisione dei tempi tra funzione retrospet-tiva e funzione anticipativa; divisione dei tempi nar-rativi tra tempi del primo piano e tempi dello sfondo.

La distribuzione paradigmatica e sintagmatica dei tempi verbali nel testo, e le loro reciproche transizioni, dunque, costituiscono la manifestazione sul livello discorsivo del testo del rapporto comuni-cativo autore-mondo narrativo-lettore, e contribu-iscono a manifestare alcuni importanti aspetti strut-turali del testo narrativo:

1)    rapporto tra autore/narratore e materia della narrazione (eventi e stati narrati);

2)    realizzazione discorsiva dei rapporti tra in-treccio e fabula;

3)    articolazione sintagmatica delle sequenze narrative e descrittive.

Individuare come e in che misura questi aspetti del testo si articolino nel corpus sia a livello dia-cronico sia a livello sincronico ci permette di indagare il problema della transizione al modernismo nella letteratura italiana partendo da dati tes-tuali, come ci eravamo prefissati.

Naturalmente la fenomenologia di questi ele-menti della semiotica narrativa non viene esaurita dalla distribuzione di tempi verbali, e a essa con-tribuiscono in misura notevole gli aspetti semantici della lingua. Si puo dire che il sistema temporale dei verbi costituisce un quadro strutturale di fondo che consente al lettore di orientarsi nella ricezione del testo, uno schema rispetto al quale ogni autore cos-truisce le sue deviazioni idiolettali.

L'analisi

La configurazione quantitativa e sintagmatica dei tempi verbali nei testi e una proprieta testuale lineare che puo essere soggetta a scrutinio computa-zionale con una relativa facilita - sebbene non siano pochi i problemi pratici da affrontare, soprattutto in ragione delle difficolta che emergono nell'applica-zione di sistemi di part of speech tagging al rile-vamento dei morfemi temporali composti, e in generale a un linguaggio letterario che differisce notevolmente da quello dei corpora cui sono abit-ualmente applicati. Data la natura statistica dell'ana-lisi tuttavia, una dose di errore statistico nel ricono-scimento dei morfemi temporali e comunque accet-tabile.

Il corpus testuale di riferimento (composta da circa 400 testi unici) e stato estratto in gran parte dalla collezione del progetto Bibit. Alcune ulteriori edizioni digitali sono state estratte da corpora mi-nori, tra cui le collezioni testuali prodotte dall'autore nel corso della sua pregressa attivita didattica e di ri-cerca.

I risultati ottenuti finora sembrano indicare che esiste una mutazione nella configurazione dei morfemi temporali coincidente con la transizione di fase letteraria. Questa a sua volta e funzionale a una destrutturazione dell'impianto narrativo realista che avviene sia mediante una rimodulazione dei canoni tematici, sia mediante la trasformazione delle strutture formali e compositive dell'intreccio e del rapporto tra voce narrante/punto di vista e situa-zione narrativa. La transizione di paradigma culturale di fine secolo si riflette dunque all'interno dei sistemi modellizzanti secondari (Lotman, 1990), come quello letterario, nell'abbattimento dei confini tra i generi, nella commistione tra stili e registri es-pressivi e nella rifunzionalizzazione delle strutture narrative.

Somigli L. e M. Moroni, eds., (2004). Italian Modernism. Italian Culture between Decadentism and Avant-Garde. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Weinrich, H. (1978). Tempus. Le funzioni dei tempi nel testo. Bologna. Il Mulino.

Weinrich, H. (1988). Lingua e linguaggio ne i testi. Milano: Feltrinelli.

Bibliografia

Castellana, R. (2010). Realismo modernista. Un'idea del romanzo italiano (1915-1925). Italianistica, 1: 23-45

Cazalé, C. (1989). Tempo, Azione, Identita: costanti

narrative nella raccolta Scialle Nero. Rivista di studi pirandelliani, 2 (III s.): 81-101.

Ciotti, F. (2014). Digital Literary and Cultural Studies: State of the Art and Perspectives. Between, 4(8).

doi:10.13125/2039-6597/1392.

http://dx.doi.org/10.13125/2039-6597/1392.

Ciotti, F. (2016). What's in a Topic Model. I fondamenti del text mining negli studi letterari. In Digital Humanities 2016: Conference Abstracts. Jagiellonian

University & Pedagogical University, Krakow, pp. 149151.

Eco, U. (1990). I limiti dell'interpretazione. Milano: Bompiani.

Guglielmi, G. (2001). L'invenzione della letteratura. Fra

modernismo e avanguardia.

Napoli: Liguori.

Lotman J. (1990). La struttura del testo poetico. Milano: Mursia.

Luperini, R. (2014). Modernismo, avanguardie, antimodernismo. Laletteraturaenoi, http://www.laletteraturaenoi.it/index.php/interpreta zione-e-noi/271-modernismo,-avanguardie,-antimodernismo.html.

Moretti, F. (2013a). Operationalizing: Or, the Function of Measurement in Literary Theory. New Left Review, 84: 103-119.

Moretti, F. (2013b). Distant Reading. London: Verso.

Pellini, P. (2004). In una casa di vetro. Firenze: Le Monnier.

Salinari C. (1960). Miti e coscienza del decadentismo europeo, Milano: Feltrinelli.

Segre, C. (1985). Avviamento all'analisi del testo letterario. Torino: Einaudi.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/015/015.pdf",""
"3772","18","The Seven Words of the Virgin: Identifying change in the discourse context of the concept of virginity in Early Modern English","10","Introduction
The Linguistic DNA project (LDNA) is an AHRC-funded collaborative project (AHRC grant AH/M00614X/1) between the universities of Sheffield, Glasgow, and Sussex which is designing automatic processes to investigate the emergence and development of concepts in pre-1800 CE print. Employing Early English Books Online, manually-transcribed through the Text Creation Partnership (EEBO-TCP) as its primary dataset, supplemented by Eighteenth Century Collections Online (ECCO-TCP) and other high-quality 18th-century text collections, the project is developing and refining a processing pipeline which assembles groupings of words bound together by their contextual use in printed discourse. The project is charting development of these discourse-embedded word groups across time, investigating how they are shaped by historical and literary contexts, the boundaries and overlap between the groupings, and the interaction of ‘encyclopedic' groupings with more traditional ‘thesaurus'-style semantic fields.

This paper discusses results from a branch of the project which is investigating incidences of rapid change in the size of semantic categories as represented in The Historical Thesaurus of English (Kay et al., 2016). Development of concepts through size of Thesaurus categories has been investigated previously (cf. Alexander and Struan, 2013; Jurgen-Diller, 2014), although the extra dimension provided by the outputs of the LDNA processor allows a dramatic leap forward in such research by enabling identification of instances in which change in discourse-embedded word groupings acts as catalyst for corresponding rapid change in the semantic fields of English.

The present case study investigates words relating to the concept of ‘virginity', utilising processed time-slice subsets of EEBO-TCP as snapshots of the discourse context for these words in Early Modern English print. By building sample word-groupings (the term ‘cluster' is here avoided to avoid confusion with cluster or network analysis word clusters) for each of the subsets, it establishes the discourse context of ‘virginity' words at different points in the timespan covered by EEBO-TCP. Comparison of these groupings suggests change in focus of language users, through which a largely religious context of use opens out to a secular and then a poetic literary context, suggesting that society's consciousness of this concept and the scale on which it was discussed enlarged dramatically in the period covered by the sub-corpora.

Methodology

In order to select a Historical Thesaurus category for analysis, an average pattern of change over time was established. The Thesaurus arranges the words of the English language into a semantic hierarchy that is seven category levels deep with the potential for up to four further sub-category levels within any given category. Owing to the incredibly fine-grained nature of the sense categorisation in the Thesaurus, it was necessary to ‘cut' the hierarchy at human scale

using a thematic category set, developed during the

AHRC- and ESRC-funded SAMUELS project (Grant AH/L010062/1), which is intended to allow Thesaurus users to find information at a level that is salient to human beings - i.e. neither too general nor too detailed.


Figure 1: Sparkline showing growth of ‘Virginity' category from 1000 CE to 2000 CE in context of surrounding

thematic categories (which are themselves unusual as they are lexicalised only in later periods of English)

The number of lexemes within each category level was counted, and lexemes were filtered to include only those active within the approximate time range of the EEBO-TCP collection, i.e. 1475-1700 CE. This data was aggregated so that the change in the mean contents of a category could be viewed across time, and decade-to-decade percentage changes calculated. Individual categories were then compared to this average category change, and a deviation of more than 5% from the average change considered to be significant. Out of the categories which were marked as statistically unusual from this process, category ‘AI09g Virginity' was selected as promising because the items in its lexis had a relatively low number of homographs that could skew the results towards irrelevant information.

Testing of the LDNA processor outputs is being conducted on select subsets extracted to provide snapshots across the EEBO time-period. The subsets used for this paper cover the periods 1520-39, 155059, 1610-11, and 1649. They are designed to contain a similar number of tokens; the progressively contracting timespans reflect the concomitant growth of printed material throughout the 15th to 17th centuries. Each token in the text is regularised, lemma-tised, and tagged with a NUPOS part of speech tag via the MorphAdorner pipeline developed by Martin Müller and Philip Burns (Burns, 2013). Data is then gathered by the LDNA processor for the token's cooccurrences within 100- and 200-word bi-directional windows which are intended to simulate paragraph-like sections of the proximate discourse (cf.

Fitzmaurice et al. forthcoming). Pointwise Mutual Information (PMI) is used to provide a statistic for likelihood of word co-occurrences; a minimum PMI value of 0.5 was arrived at experimentally for identifying node-collocate pairs to be considered interesting in initial stages of investigation.

Seven items - ‘maid,’ ‘maiden,’ ‘maidenhead,’ ‘undefiled,’ ‘vestal,’ ‘virgin,’ and ‘virginity’ - in the ‘Virginity’ category were found to be present consistently across the subsets (although an eighth - ‘virginal’ - was present in the 1520-39 and 1610-11 subsets). The co-occurrences were then processed to identify those which occurred with multiple items in this list. Words which co-occurred with four or more items were investigated further.

Results
Comparison of the co-occurrence results across the five text subsets shows a consistent shift in the patterns of word association with ‘Virginity’ category items. The words ‘woman’ and ‘widow’ remain strongly associated with the terms across all the subsets, demonstrating societal preoccupation with female rather than male virginity. The most evident change in the grouping is movement from a predominately religious discourse context into the secular world. In the 1520-39 subset, the Virgin Mary is intimately related to discussion of virginity. In the shared collocates listing, mother collocates with all seven of the ‘Virginity’ lexemes, ‘mary’ with six, ‘angel,’ ‘bless,’ ‘hymn,’ ‘nativity,’ and ‘nazareth’ with five each. Of these, only ‘mother’ maintains a strong association with ‘Virginity’ words throughout the EEBO period, appearing with four items in the 161011 text set and five in 1649.

The secularisation of the term is suggested by the prevalence in later subsets of words relating to marriage, reflecting what appears to be a growing focus on wedlock being preceded by virginity. ‘Marry’ gradually increases its association with the node items, collocating with four, then five, then seven from 1520 to 1649. ‘Marriage’ and ‘wife’ both enter the shared collocate group in 1550, and remain there through to 1649, whilst ‘matrimony’ is present in 1550, drops out in 1610, and returns in 1649.

The extensive list of shared collocates in the 1649 sub-corpus strongly reflects the greater prevalence of literary fiction and poetry in printers’ output and reinforces that virginity is a topic for which the discourse context is expanding; where it was easy to intuitively group ‘marry,’ ‘marriage,’ and ‘wife’ together, the 1649 collocates do not form easily identifiable groupings.

Discussion

The consistency of the core items found in the subsets is interesting in its disparity with the Thesaurus data, where the increase in the number of terms present in the ‘Virginity’ category suggests

that there should be an expanding number of items found throughout these subsets. The most likely explanation for this is loss of low frequency information through a combination of cut-off values intended to reduce noise for later clustering experiments, and difficulty in normalising/lemmatising low frequency items. A clear outcome of the analysis is the confirmation that the category of ‘Virginity' contains core vocabulary which remains almost unchanged in over a century (i.e. 1520-1649), primarily a consistent group of seven items which co-occur with ‘Virginity' category words.

This study demonstrates that understanding of semantic development can be enriched by such cross-analysis of discursive-concept word groups with Thesaurus semantic fields and the word groups which travel through time with multiple items of Thesaurus categories.

Bibliography

Alexander, M. and Struan, A. (2013). “‘In Countries so

Unciviliz'd as Those?': The language of incivility and

the British experience of the world.” In Farr, M. and

Guegan, X. (eds), Experiencing Imperialism: The British abroad since the Eighteenth Century, vol. 2. London:

Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 232-249.

Burns, P. R. (2013). MorphAdorner v2: A Java library for

the morphological adornment of English language texts.

Evanston, IL. Northwestern University. http://mor-phadorner.northwestern.edu/morphadorner/down-load/morphadorner.pdf. (last accessed on 31st March, 2017).

Diller, H-J. (2014). Words for Feelings. Anglistische Forschungen vol. 446. Heidelberg: Universitatsverlag Winter

Fitzmaurice, S., Robinson, J., Alexander, M., Hine, I., Mehl, S. and Dallachy, F. (forthcoming). “Linguistic DNA: Investigating conceptual change in early Modern English discourse.” Studia Neophilologica.

Kay, C., Roberts, J., Samuels, M., Wotherspoon, I. and Alexander, M. (eds) (2016). The Historical Thesaurus of English, version 4.2. Glasgow: University of Glasgow. http://historicalthesaurus.arts.gla.ac.uk/.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/016/016.pdf",""
"3773","18","Making Manuscripts Searchable: DEx: A Database of Dramatic Extracts, Digital Publication, and Boutique Projects","9","Too often, people lament that we have no evidence of what Shakespeare's readers thought. In reality, we have quite a bit of evidence, but it has been difficult to access because of the cost of travel and the barrier to access caused by early modern handwriting. This paper describes how DEx: A Database of Dramatic Extracts (beta version) contributes to the changing landscape of digital projects that help us better understand the early modern period. Rather than focusing on one person (too often, a canonical male literary figure), DEx instead makes a wide range of reader responses to early modern drama searchable, bringing together resources that are held in geographically distant archives, from Oxford's Bodleian Library to the Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington, D.C.

Dramatic extracts (those parts from plays that people copied into their notebooks) are important evidence because they tell what early modern audiences and readers took, literally and figuratively, from plays. Right now, this important evidence of reader response is difficult to access for multiple reasons: firstly, these extracts are often uncatalogued and therefore hard to locate. Secondly, they are dispersed across multiple archives and require travel funding to reach (see Ioppolo 2004). Finally, they are written in early handwriting, and so require paleographical training to read. This paper examines the ways in which DEx, a comparatively small project, links to existing resources and draws on community to ultimately provide people access to evidence of what Shakespeare's readers thought. (Spoiler: it turns out they thought about other playwrights more than Shakespeare in his lifetime!) DEx complements the Folger Union First Line Index and the Catalogue of English Literary Manuscripts by making the full text of dramatic extracts searchable and by not being constrained to selections written in verse (like the former) or by canonical authors (like the latter). DEx includes materials that are not catalogued in CELM or repository catalogues, and invites scholars to contribute relevant citations, transcriptions, or leads they have.

DEx's transcriptions are part of what makes it so valuable. Despite advances in OCR (Optical Character Recognition) technologies, there is no adequate program to automatically recognize handwritten text: particularly when it comes to historical documents written in scripts that we no longer use today, such as chancery hand or secretary hand. While digital paleography is an ongoing area of research, it tends to focus now on transcribing and describing texts by hand or on teaching paleography with digital tools (Stokes,

2014, 2015; Rehbein et al 2009, esp. 110-338; Fischer

et al 2010; Hassner et al, 2013). Many digital projects that focus on early modern English texts are hand-transcribed and encoded: consider, for instance, the Folger Shakespeare Library's Early Modern Manuscripts Online and Shakespeare's World, The Recipes Project or Bess of Hardwick's Letters. Transcriptions in DEx are undertaken by a small community of scholars: this paper explains how our community currently works and the future collaborations we hope to undertake, as well as the possible avenues for extending the project after its forthcoming full launch.

In 2010, Paul Conway argued that “We are at the end of ‘boutique' digital scanning projects for which the principal goal is ... extraordinary attention to the unique properties of each artifact” (76). This paper contends that with early modern manuscripts, “boutique” projects are one of the best ways forward. Compared to massive manuscript digitization projects like British Literary Manuscripts Online, DEx is a “boutique” project actually make texts searchable with transcription, which is always the result of paying attention to each manuscript as a “unique artifact.” This paper discusses the challenges that come with curating a boutique project and the ultimate benefits of having a small site that emerges from a specific set of research questions.

Although small digitization or transcription projects can open up a vast field of research, they need to be findable and peer-reviewed in order to do so. I examine the obstacles to having DEx published by a traditional publisher, while questioning how to define publication for digital projects and the costs associated with creating and maintaining an open access site. Furthermore, I discuss how digital publishing must address the peer review needs of emerging scholars and provide an imprimatur and guarantee of

quality for users. The final section of this paper discuss the role of Iter: Gateway to the Middle Ages and Renaissance and ReKN: Renaissance Knowledge Network in publication and peer review for DEx: A Database of Dramatic Extracts. This is an appropriate short paper for DH 2017 because it discusses a project that is in beta and active development, it engages the larger questions of how and why boutique digital projects can flourish and provide value to humanities scholarship, and it engages the theme of “Access/Accès” by focusing on collaboration, public-facing scholarship, and digital humanities publication. The paper focuses on a single case study: DEx: A Database of Dramatic Extracts and its community, which addresses a much-needed gap in scholarship by transcribing manuscripts that tell us what Shakespeare's audience and readers actually read.

Bibliography

Conway, P. (2010) “Preservation in the Age of Google: Digitization, Digital Preservation, and Dilemmas.” Library Quarterly. 61-79.

Fischer, F., Fritze, C., and Vogeler, G. (2010) Codicology and Paleography in the Digital Age 2 (Norderstedt: Books on Demand).

Hassner, T, Rehbein, M., Stokes, P.A., and Wolf, L. (2013) “Computation and Palaeography: Potentials and Limits.”

Dagstuhl Manifestos 2: 14-35. doi:10.4230/Dag-Man.2.1.14

Ioppolo, G. (2004) “Switching on the World of Dramatic Manuscripts.” Shakespeare Studies 32 (2004): 66-72.

Rehbein, M., Sahle, P., and Schassan, T. (2009) Codicology and Paleography in the Digital Age (Norderstedt: Books on Demand).

Stokes, P. (2014) “Describing Handwriting - again.” In Digital Palaeography: New Machines and Old Texts. Dagstuhl Reports 4: 127-128. doi:10.4230/DagRep.4.7.112

Stokes, P. (2015) “Digital Approaches to Paleography and Book History: Some Challenges, Present and Future.” Frontiers in Digital Humanities. 29 October 2015

http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fdigh.2015.00005","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/019/019.pdf",""
"3774","18","HumaReC project: digital New Testament and continuous data publishing","2","Introduction
HumaReC is a Vital-DH@Vital-IT project funded by the Swiss National Foundation that began on October 1 2016, and will run for two years. The research question of HumaReC is to investigate how Humanities research is reshaped and transformed by the digital rhythm of data production and publication. We use as test-case the edition and the study of a unique trilingual Greek, Latin and Arabic New Testament manuscript known as Marciana Gr. Z. 11 (379). This poster presents intermediate results of our research. For more project details, refer to our open research platform Humarec.org , where HumaReC’s research is published.

Change-of-Rhythm in Humanities Research
A two to three years’ research project in the humanities has traditionally been characterized by the writing, editing and publication of a printed book. This final step would often be postponed for a certain amount of time after the end of the project. The reasonably delayed publication of printed books has been perceived, in a certain way, as proof of authentic, well done research, certified by an established book series. Recently, however, the digital turn in the humanities is creating a completely new research paradigm by transforming the scheme and rhythm of research through digital writing material. Publishing formats

can be videos, draft papers, social media posts, short

syntheses of datasets in blogs - all before the research is even completed and peer-reviewed. Certified journals like the New Testament Studies now allow articles to reference blogs of individual scholars (Gather-cole, 2015). The peer-review process is becoming a continuous process, rather than a unique event, and is increasingly based on “community-based-filtering” (see Fitzpatrick, 2009) due to the spreading use of open repositories such as HAL for the SSH (Centre pour la Communication Scientifique Directe, 2016) or arXiv for the life sciences (Cornell University, 2016).

“Rhythm” is the key-concept through which we observe the changes happening in DH research. According to Henri Meschonnic's analysis, digital writing reminds one of the presence of orality embedded in any kind of written discourse. Meschonnic considered that writing is not opposite to orality but rather includes it, similarly as sense includes sound (Meschonnic, 1995). For him, orality remains inscribed in writing itself, and this relationship can be expressed by the word “rhythm”, since the subject who is speaking always remains related to a performance, to a social act. The speaking subject consists of a “body-social-language”, in writing as well as in speaking (Meschonnic, 1982). Thus, rhythm can be used as a key for the mapping of our analysis of the transformations happening in DH: the rhythms of data production, data mining, data editing and publishing; the rhythms of reading, peer-review, echoes and discussions about research.

Continuous publishing as new practice in
Humanities
Influenced by the Meschonnic approach, we chose rhythm as a central notion in building the structure of HumaReC: a temporality, based on 24 months, which integrates the diverse levels and parts of the project. A new life sciences journal, Sciencematters, is driving a revolution and was a major inspiration. Led by Lawrence Rajendran (Zürich, CH), Sciencematters argues that “stories can wait, science cannot” (2016). This outlook allows for the publication of many kinds of data, and fosters the fast publication of small datasets before they are integrated into the “full story” of an article. Following this approach, data relating to our project are published continuously on our open research platform. We want to test two levels of publication in our website, on a small scale:

1) Continuous publishing of small datasets that can be corrected and discussed. This includes short blog articles on current research activities and the publication of new folios of the manuscript (part of HumaReC is a manuscript viewer that displays images and transcription of the three languages). In addition to traditional interactive tools as a forum, we are currently implementing an annotation tool that allows users to comment directly on the manuscript transcriptions.

2) Releases of peer-reviewed fixed data. At four stages that have been preset since the launch of HumaRec, the material will be peer-reviewed by an international board and expanded in a written form best described as a “webbook”, as well as an eTalk, a multimedia form of publication that has been developed in Vital-IT.

In addition, we will test different rhythms for transcribing and encoding the manuscript by combining methodologies via automated handwritten text recognition (HTR) using the Transkribus tool (Transkribus, 2016).

Our poster will present the data process of the project and the different sections of the platform, listing

the research methodologies and the IT challenges of

each, as well as their links to Humarec.org.

Bibliography
Centre pour la Communication Scientifique Directe.

(2016) HAL. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr (Accessed:

20 September 2016)

Cornell University (2016) arXiv. https://arxiv.org (Accessed: 20 September 2016)

Gathercole, S. (2015), “The Gospel of Jesus' Wife: Constructing a Context.” New Testament Studies, 61(15): 292-313:

10.1017/S0028688515000107

Meschonnic, H. (1982). Critique du rythme. Anthropologie historique du langage. Lagrasse: Verdier.

Meschonnic, H. (1995). Politique du rythme, politique du sujet. Lagrasse: Verdier.

Sciencematters. (2016) “Stories can wait. Science can't.” https://sciencematters.io/why-matters (Accessed: 20

September 2016)

Transkribus Team at the University of Innbruck. (2016). Transkribus. https://transkribus.eu. (Accessed: 20 September 2016)

Vital-DH@Vital-IT (2016) The eTalks: a new digital multimedia editing plaform. https://etalk.vital-it.ch (Accessed: 20 September 2016)","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/020/020.pdf",""
"3775","18","Digital Religion – Digital Theology","3","Introduction
Scholarly discourse evaluating the digital turn in biblical and religious studies is at an early stage in its development, as attested to by the creation of two new

book series in 2016: Introduction to Digital Humanities: Religion (IDH, de Gruyter), and Digital Biblical Studies (DBS, Brill). Previously, Heidi Campbell published an overview of the topic (Campbell 2013), developed in further publications (Campbell-Althenho-fen 2015, Campbell-Garner 2016). In a recent overview, Carrie Schroeder develops two central questions on the topic: “what does it mean for Biblical Studies to be marginal to the Digital Humanities when DH is a field positioning itself as transformative for the humanities? How can our expertise in Biblical Studies influence and shape Digital Humanities for the better?” (Schroeder 2016). Using her field, Coptic studies, as an example she shows that the particular skills and needs of a marginal field within a marginal field can be a strong driver in DH.

Consequently, and for the first time at a DH meeting, this ninety-minute panel session asks what is the impact of the digital turn on religious studies and theology, and to what extent these somewhat marginal fields can bring something specific to the big DH tent. They particularly focus on textuality and on the symbolic impact of the “book” as attested to in the expression, “religions of the book,” coined in a programmatic lecture given in 1870 by F. Max Müller (2010). The symbolic, Western impact of books and writing was amplified by this notion, born at the time when the legal status of printed texts and authorship was completely secured in Western culture (Clivaz 2012).

For centuries, “books were perceived as a ‘wide angle' from which it was possible for everything to be observed, related to, and perhaps even decided” (Carrière-Eco 2009). The panel will consequently consider the hypothesis that the DH have been deeply influenced by this fascination with textuality and books during the first decades of their development; while keeping “the discourse of written texts” as a central pillar to the discussion according to the words of Roberto Busa, a foundational DH figure (Busa 2004). Busa's relationship to Biblical and religious materials has played a role in his approach to the computing field, as Jones point out (Jones 2016). The double impact of the book and the notion of “religions of the book”, successful in Western culture since the 19th century, provides an opening to understanding why DH in religious fields is still so focused on textuality. Indeed, when we collect examples of DH studies in diverse religious fields, we are unsurprisingly faced with very textual DH (Clivaz et al. 2016e). This observation

strengthens the necessity for religions in DH to consider the multimodal and multicultural turn provoked by digital culture.

With these different questions in mind, five panelists will participate in the presentations (sixty minutes in total) and a thirty-minute panel discussion that will be moderated by Claire Clivaz representing the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Vital-IT (Lausanne, CH). The following five speakers have agreed to participate and to discuss the general topic from the perspectives of their own research projects. In alphabetical order:

A Neophyte Proselytizes for Digital Humanities Pedagogy
Emily S. Clark
This presentation explores the ways in which Digital Humanities can enhance a Religious Studies classroom by focusing on two assignments that ask new questions of traditional course materials. The first is a project that was the culmination of a month's work collaboratively amongst a class of 25 students with a database platform (Omeka). This project entailed the digitization of archival photographs of a Native American community from 1916, along with the reading of Jesuit mission material (Clark et al. 2016). The second is an assignment that took two class periods and introduced students to data visualization (Voyant). This assignment introduced students to the differences between close reading and distant reading, along with

practicing both on excerpts from Jesuit mission documents (Mentrak - Bucko, 2016).

Topic Modeling the Bible
Paul Dilley
The talk will present the first full-scale topic model of the Bible and related literature in four different languages: Greek, Latin, Syriac and English. It will discuss both technical aspects of the process (e.g., the use or not of lemmatization; retention or removal of function words; optimal number of topics), as well as what we gain from comparing topic models of the same corpus translated into different languages. The presentation will focus on the interpretive gains and losses involved in topic modeling, one of the richest strategies of distant reading to the Bible which has been the subject of centuries of minute examination of the close reading tradition which Moretti has pointedly labeled a “theological exercise” (Moretti 2013).

Digital Lives: Reading Moravian Memoirs in the Age of the Internet
Katherine M. Faull
An international collaborative research project (USA, Sweden, Germany) is developing a digital platform for the investigation of the metadata and text of Moravian memoirs, composed since the mid-18th century by members of the Moravian Church to be read at their funeral (over 65,000 memoirs, housed in Germany and the US, Faull 1997). Less than 10% of the earliest manuscripts have been published. The developing digital interface (moravianlives.org) allows for geospatial and chronological visualization of author's birth and death place (Haskins 2007). This paper will investigate the intersection of the digital, the autobiographical, and the sacred in the age of the internet. How can the act of reading the lives of thousands of Moravians also be understood as an act of reconstituting the “invisible church” ? (van Dijk, 2007; Eakin 2014).

Material Religions in a Digital World
Rachel McBride-Lindsey
For much of the modern era, religion and theology have been intertwined in a decidedly material world. Over the last several decades, students of religion have begun to carve out intellectual headroom for an approach to material culture that recognizes objects and images as generative sources of theological inquiry and religious practice. Cultural institutions can be an effective tool for inviting researchers and the public into physical spaces and into contact with deeper dimensions of the material world. At the same time, these very contributions work against methodological gains in the study of material culture. Rachel McBride-Lindsay's presentation starts with this tension and draws from pedagogical attempts to incorporate digital platforms into projects anchored in the study of objects.

Exploring developmental patterns within Digital Theology Research within the Digital Humanities
Peter Phillips
Campbell and Altenhofen (2015) explore four waves in digital research development in theology and religion back into the late twentieth century. Their wave pattern picks up both historical and technological trends and patterns in research. However, a three wave theory dominates discussion within introductions to the Digital Humanities, discussed by David Berry (2011) and in the Digital Humanities Manifesto 2.0. It tends to reflect modes of research, or groups of methodologies used in research rather than time periods. Reflecting on CODEC's own experience of Digital Theology in association with a range of other scholars, this paper will assess whether too many waves are a problem in our methodological theorizing.

Bibliography
Berry, D (2011), “The computational turn: thinking about

the Digital Humanities”, Culture Machine 12, 1-22.

Busa, R. (2004), “Foreword: Perspectives on the Digital Humanities”, in S. Schreibman, R. Siemens, J. Unsworth (ed.), A Companion to Digital Humanities, Oxford: Blackwell, http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/ (Accessed 27 March 2017).

Campbell, H.A (2013) (ed.), Digital Religion. Understanding religious practice in new media worlds, London/ New

York : Routledge.

Campbell, H.A. and Altenhofen, B (2015), “Methodological Challenges, Innovations and Growing Pains in Digital Religion Research”, in Digital Methodologies in the Sociology of Religion, S. Cheruvallil-Contractor - S. Shakkour (eds.), Blumsburry Publishing, Kindle edition.

Campbell, H.A. and Garner, S. (2016), Networked theology.

Negotiating faith in digital culture, Grand Rapids, MA : Baker Academy.

Carrière, J-.C. and Eco, U. (2009), N'espérez pas vous débarrasser des livres, Paris, Seuil.

Clark, E.S. et al. (2016), Digital Jesuits and Ignatian Pedagogy, King Island Collection, Jesuit Oregon Province Archives, Gonzaga University,    http://as-dh.gon-

zaga.edu/omeka/ (Accessed 27 March 2017)

Clivaz, C. (2012a), “Homer and the New Testament as ‘Multitexts’ in the Digital Age ?”, SRC 3/3, 1-15 ; http://src-online.ca/index.php/src/article/view/97 (Accessed 27 March 2017).

Clivaz et al. (eds.) (2016), Digital Humanities in Jewish, Christian and Arabic traditions, special issue JRMDC 5 (2016/1),    https://www.jrmdc.com/journal/is-

sue/view/9 (Accessed 27 March 2017).

Von Dijk, J. (2007), Mediated Memories in the Digital Age. Stanford: Stanford UP.

Moretti, F. (2013), Distant Reading, Verso, London, New York.

Schroeder, C.T. (2016), “The Digital Humanities as Cultural Capital: Implications for Biblical and Religious Studies”, Journal of Religion, Media and Digital Culture 5(1), 21-49, <http://www.jrmdc.com/journal/issue/view/9>    (Ac

cessed 27 March 2017).

Eakin, P. J. (2014), “Autobiography as Cosmogram”, Story-worlds: A Journal of Narrative Studies 6/1: 21-43.

Faull, K. M. (1997), ed. and trans., Moravian Women's Memoirs: Their Related Lives, 1750-1820, Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.

Haskins, E. (2007), “Between Archive and Participation: Public Memory in a Digital Age”, Rhetoric Society Quarterly 37/4, 401-422.

Jones, S. (2016), Roberto Busa, S. J., and the Emergence of Humanities Computing: The Priest and the Punched Cards, Routledge Press, London.

Mentrak, T. and Bucko, R.A. (2016), Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents 1610 to 1791, http://mo-ses.creighton.edu/kripke/jesuitrelations/ (Accessed 27 March 2017).

Müller, F.M. (2010), “Second Lecture Delivered at the Royal Institution, February 26, 1870”, in F. M. Müller, Introduction to the science of religion. Four lectures delivered at the Royal Institution, Seneca Falls, NY: Wilson Press, 5282 (Original lectures February & May 1870).","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/021/021.pdf",""
"3776","18","Designing Tools for Macro-Scale Data Analysis in the History of Science","9","Our project involves developing a new kind of digital resource to capture the history of research at scientific facilities in the era of the “New Big Science.” The extent, scope, and diversity of research at such facilities makes keeping track of it difficult to compile using traditional historical methods and linear narratives; there are too many overlapping and bifurcating threads. In this talk, we will discuss existing methods of data collection and curation for a specific case project, the National Synchrotron Light Source Digital Archive. We are especially interested in the functional potential, in the context of this kind of tool development, of the humanistic concepts of narrative, metaphor, and performance.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/026/026.pdf",""
"3777","18","Toward Reproducibility in DH Experiments: A Case Study in Search of Edgar Allan Poe’s First Published Work","9","Summary
Reproducing experimental results is a hallmark of empirical investigation and serves both to verify and inspire. This paper is a call for more systematic documentation of computational stylistic experiments. Publishing only summaries of the methods and results of empirical work is an artifact of traditional print media. To facilitate experimental reproducibility and to help the growing community who wish to learn how to apply computational methods and subsequently teach the next generation of scholars, the publication of results must include (i) access to the digitized texts, (ii) a clear workflow and most essentially (iii) the source code that led to each and all of the experimental results. By way of example, we present the steps and process in a GitHub repository for computationally probing the unknown and contested authorship of an 1831 short story entitled “A Dream” as we seek evidence if this work is similar to other attributed works by Edgar Allan Poe. The entire framework is intended as a pedagogical jumpstart for others, especially those new to computational stylometry. If Poe did write the story, it would be his first published work.

Introduction
As the Digital Humanities gains access to a wide array of digitized corpora and matures to a discipline that creatively defines new methods for computationally close and distant readings, a growing gap has emerged between those who apply sophisticated programming, e.g., Stylo In R (Eder et al., 2016) and those who are new to the game and need an introduction to the field. Typical of the community spirit in DH, significant efforts are underway to bridge this gap, including web-based tools for entry-level exploration including

Voyant Tools (Sinclair and Rockwell, 2016) and Lexos (Kleinman et al., 2016) and domain-specific introductions to programming, including Jockers' text (2014) and the Programming Historian (Crymble et al., 2016). This paper attempts to narrow the gap by encouraging both sides to document their experimental methods more fully to embrace previous calls for the replication of experimental methods (Rudman, 2012 et al.) and thereby teach effective practices by “leaving a trail” of experimental methods that enable others to execute and extend.

A Good Mystery: Towards Reproducibility
A GitHub repository or “repo” offers a workflow

that explores whether an 1831 story published under

the attribution of only ‘P' might have been written by Edgar Allan Poe. If so, it would be Poe's first published work. In addition to sharing a set of analytical methods applied in this experiment, the broader methodological-pedagogical goals are two-fold: (i) the dissemination of data and code should be championed as a cornerstone of DH research, thereby facilitating the replication of results and (ii) to share a workflow so that others may apply similar analyses to their texts of interest.

The workflow is stored as a set of numbered folders containing the texts and scripts (code) needed to complete each step. The workflow includes: collecting texts, the preprocessing, tokenization, and culling decisions made, unsupervised cluster analyses (k-means, hierarchical-agglomerative, bootstrap consensus tree), and supervised classification methods using Stylo in R's Delta, SVM, and NSC models. Each step represents scaffolding for a “teachable moment” with materials provided so faculty can more easily use them with students.

Scrubbing, Tokenization, Cutting, and
Culling
Lexos, a web-based, open-source workflow of tools (Kleinman, et al., 2016) was used to upload texts and “scrub” them by applying the following options: (i) convert words to lowercase, (ii) all punctuation was removed, (iii) however, a single word-internal hyphen and word-internal apostrophes were kept, and (iv) all digits were removed. Each individual word is considered as its own token. Larger stories were segmented (“cut”) into pieces. We experimented with various culling options, e.g., keeping only the most frequent words that appear in each text at least once.

Cluster Analysis
As a set of initial probes, we compared the contested story “A Dream” to (i) other stories attributed to Poe and (ii) mixed in with stories by other contemporaries. In the repo, we share four variations using cluster analysis:

1. K-means clustering on only Poe's stories (using Lexos)

2. Hierarchical agglomerative clustering on only Poe's stories (uses a Python sklearn module and a script to convert the cluster to ETE and Newick formats)

3. K-means clustering when all stories by each author are concatenated together (Lexos)

4. Bootstrap Consensus Tree (using Stylo in R).

The result from the Bootstrap Consensus Tree is shown in Figure 1. Of interest is that each author's stories cluster consistently together (with the exception that Bird's initial section of “Sheppard Lee” and his “Calavar” are found in different clades, at six and eight o'clock). “A Dream” clusters with the smaller Poe texts. As you'll see, we couldn't resist tossing in the four stories sometimes attributed to Edgar's brother Henry (“Monte Video”, “A Fragment”, “The Pirate”, and “Recollections”). These four stories are found within the cluster of Poe's known works (c.f. Collins, 2013).

A series of cluster analyses often serves well as a preliminary exploration, especially for scholars who are new to this game. Some of the file sizes are very small (e.g., one-half of the Poe stories in this corpus have fewer than 2000 words) and when strict culling is enforced (top-N words that appear at least once in each segment), the available set of words is reduced to only 38 when dealing with “A Dream” and the other eighteen Poe stories. That noted, these exploratory investigations shed some light on why some scholars consider that Poe's “first published tale may have been ‘A Dream'” (Silverman, 1991, p87).


Figure 1. Using Stylo in R Bootstrap Consensus Tree (BCT) showing “A Dream” consistently clustering with other Poe stories. The BCT aggregates results over multiple cluster analyses and shows those texts that satisfy a consensus number of the individual trials. Using 12 different authors

and at least two texts by each author for a total of 46 stories, Stylo formed clusters of the texts for the following frequency bands when using the most-frequent words: 100 to 1000 MFW.

Classification
Three classification models differentiated authorial writing style as implemented in Stylo in R. We scripted in R alongside Stylo to test “A Dream” over N-trials (N=10, 100) using a random selection of files for training sets in each trial. At least one text from each author is also included in the test set for each trial. A followup Python script parses the collected results to build confusion matrices for each author to provide metrics on how well the models predict each author's works. The most-frequently occurring, top-40 words (MFW, 1-grams) that appear in all the texts at least once were used.

Confusion Matrix values for all Poe Stories

Model

Attributions of

“A Dream” to Poe

True+

True-

False+

False-

Delta

9

13

200

0

7

NSC

10

16

170

30

4

SVM

7

14

198

2

6

Table 1: Attributions of the contested story “A Dream” over ten (10) trials with “A Dream” and another randomly selected Poe story in the test set in every trial. Confusion matrix values for results of testing Poe texts over all trials provide overall measures of model effectiveness. In the three cases

where “A Dream” was attributed to a different author, Poe was ranked second.

Summary
We offer a start to an exploration to collect evidence

as to whether Poe may have written the 1831 story “A

Dream” (c.f., Schoberlein (2016) who used the most frequent character 3-grams and attributed the story to Poe using Delta, but not so when using NSC nor SVM models). Evidence and methods aside, a GitHub repo provides a framework to share experimental workflows in a spirit similar to Jupyter notebooks, as well as one that facilitates both reproducible results and opportunities for subsequent contributions.

Notes
Forming an appropriate corpus is hard: thanks to Sam Coale, Ryan Cordell, Cary Gouldin, David Hoover, Shirrel Rhoades, and Ted Underwood. Four undergraduates: Weiqi Feng, Alec Horwitz, Jingxian Liu, and Khaled Sharafaddin worked with us on this problem. Thanks to Maciej Eder for his help with Stylo in R.

Sinclair, S. and Rockwell, G., (2016). Voyant Tools. Web: http://voyant-tools.org/.

Bibliography
Crymble, A., Gibbs, F., Hegel, A., McDaniel, C., Milligan, I., Taparata, E., Visconti, A., and Wieringa, J.,

eds. (2016). The Programming Historian. 2nd ed.. Web: http://programminghistorian.org/.

Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J. (2016). Stylometry with R: A package for computational text analysis. R Journal, 16(1): 107-121.

GitHub repository:    A Good    Mystery.    .

https://github.com/WheatonCS/aGoodMystery

Jockers, M. (2014). Text Analysis with R for Students of Literature. Springer, New York.

Kleinman, S., LeBlanc, M.D., Drout, M., and Zhang, C.

(2016). Lexos v3.0. Web: http://lexos.wheatoncol-lege.edu.

Rudman, J. (2012). The State of Non-Traditional Authorship Attribution Studies -- 2012: Some Problems and Solutions. English Studies, v93(3), 259-274.

Schoberlein, S. (2016). Poe or Not Poe? A Stylometric Analysis of Edgar Allan Poe's Disputed Writings. Digital Scholarship in the Humanities, July 24, 2016.

Silverman, K. (1991). Edgar A. Poe: Mournful and Never-Ending Remembrance. HarperCollins, New York.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/027/027.pdf",""
"3778","18","Hapax: Probabilistic part-of-speech tagging in XQuery and XForms","10","Many programs perform part-of-speech (POS) tagging on texts [Leech et al. 1983, Booth 1985, Church 1988, DeRose 1988, Brill 1992, Leech et al. 1994, Schmidt 1994, 1995, Toutanova et al. 2003]; although they use a variety of algorithms, their interfaces tend to be similar:

•    They work in batch mode, not interactively.

•    They generally model text as a flat sequence of characters; for most, XML markup must be removed before data are submitted to the tagger, and afterwards merged back into the output.

•    They are consequently unable to exploit information in XML markup — for example, that “Brown” is here a proper noun and “Essex” there a place name.

•    They tag each word token in the input with their best guess at the correct POS; by default, they do not distinguish low- and high-probability guesses.

•    They cannot accept partially tagged input. In consequence, the human annotator cannot help them by providing hints on some words.

•    They operate on words, not smaller segments.

This paper describes an XQuery-based POS tagger designed to differ from existing taggers in all of these ways. It works interactively one sentence at a time directly on XML (by default, TEI-encoded) text, exploits relevant markup, provides not just the most probable tagging of the input but several ranked alternatives, accepts partially tagged input, and can work on user-specified segments (e.g. TEI w [word] or m [morph] elements) instead of only on space-delimited tokens. Because the tagger described here is designed to support semi-automatic (or ‘half-automatic') POS annotation for XML data, it has been given the name Hapax. Hapax has been designed and implemented as part of the project “Annotated Turki Manuscripts from the Jarring Collection Online” (ATMO), supported by the Henry R. Luce Foundation; the author thanks both the Luce Foundation for their support and his colleagues in the ATMO project for their collaboration.

Design considerations

Early POS taggers used morphological and other rules to assign POS tags to input; later experience showed that purely statistical methods like hidden Markov models (HMMs) could achieve better accuracy with less effort; for tutorial descriptions of HMMs see Rabiner 1989 and Charniak 1993.

For batch-mode POS tagging, accuracy and speed are obvious desiderata. Many modifications, refinements, and alternatives to HMMs have been proposed; these can improve accuracy by several percentage points. Larger training sets make a much larger difference. Schmid 1994 reports a comparison in which the least and most accurate taggers differ by two to four percentage points, while accuracy rates for small and large training sets (< 10,000 and > 1,000,000 words) differ by twelve to sixteen points.

For Hapax, intended to support human annotators working on under-resourced languages, raw speed is unimportant. For any tagger, the human annotator will need to correct many proposed taggings; the key to improving annotation speed is to make corrections faster.

Selecting the correct tag from a menu requires several interactions: the 80 tags in the Brown Corpus POS tag set do not fit into a single menu; many tag sets are larger. Accepting a proposed tagging for a word requires a single user-interface interaction (e.g. clicking “OK”).

So speed improves with accuracy: the fastest corrections are those not needed. But high accuracy requires large training sets, which under-resourced languages lack by definition. Some algorithms cope well with limited data. In the Brown Corpus, 92% of all tokens are tagged with the most frequent POS tag for their word type. A trivial 1-gram tagger, which just assigns the most frequent POS tag for each word form, will thus do almost as well on known words as more sophisticated algorithms. In reality, not all words are known, but a 1-gram tagger trained on as little as 2000 words from the Brown Corpus will tag 60 to 70% of input tokens correctly. Larger training sets (8000, 32000, 128000, 500000 words) again do better (6878%, 73-85%, 77-90%, 82-92%).

Also, we can make tagging errors less costly to fix. If the tagger provides one tag for each segment, every wrong guess costs a manual tag selection. If the tagger proposes several POS tags, then some errors will be as cheap as a correct tagging: one mouse-click. So the goal of Hapax's design is to minimize the need to select tags from menus, by proposing not one but several POS tags for each word.

If a 1-gram tagger for the Brown Corpus proposes not one but three POS tags, the correct tag will be among those proposed 71-80%, 79-86%, 84-93%, 8797%, or 90-98% of the time (for 2000-, 8000-, 32000, 128000, 500000-word training sets). If five tags are proposed, the correct tag will be proposed 79-88%,

87-92%, 91-95%, 92-97%, or 94-98% of the time.

If a single user interaction can accept a proposed tagging for the entire sentence, we will save one interaction for each word of the sentence. Hapax uses a standard bigram HMM to calculate the N most likely taggings for the entire sentence. The higher N is set, the greater the chances that only a single mouseclick will be required, but more time will be needed for reading and considering the proposals; it is likely that there is a point of diminishing returns.

XQuery implementation

Hapax is implemented as a library of XQuery functions. One set of functions reads the training material and produces XML word- or POS-frequency lists from them. These list word types or POS tags by frequency, subdivided by POS tags or word types (or, for bigrams, POS of following segment). Additional functions calculate probability distributions for use with unknown words, using the technique of Charniak et al. 1993.

The 1-gram tagger consults the word/POS frequency list and returns the N most likely POS tags for the given word form. The bigram tagger consults the bigram and POS/word lists and uses the standard Viterbi algorithm to calculate the most likely path through the trellis of possible taggings for a sentence. A simple modification of the algorithm allows Hapax to calculate not one path but the best N paths, with time linear in the number of tags in the trellis.

Testing routines generate random test and training sets from a corpus stored as an XQuery database; in a project setting, the training sets are not created on the fly but prepared in advance and stored in a data-base.The primary interface for consumers of the Hapax library is the function hapax:tag(), which accepts as arguments:

• An XML element representing a sentence

• An indication of what frequency data to use

• Optionally, a set of access functions The function calls the 1-gram and bigram taggers and returns an XML document describing possible POS taggings for the input. In the common case, the input sentence is a tei:s element, containing tei:w or tei:m elements to be tagged. Input elements may have type attributes; such a partial tagging of the sentence will affect the probabilities for the POS tags for other elements. The optional set of access functions allows Hapax to be used with non-TEI markup; the user-supplied functions are used to identify words in a sentence, detect POS tagging in the input, and add POS tags to the output.

The entire Hapax library is a few thousand lines of XQuery; the rich sets of data structures (including XML as a native type), higher-order functions, and grouping constructs in XQuery and XSLT make the implementation of POS-tagging algorithms remarkably straightforward.

XForms interface

In the ATMO project, Hapax supports a browser-based user interface specified with XForms. The form displays a document, providing an Annotate button for each sentence. When the button fires, the form sends the sentence to the Hapax back end and uses the response to build a form for accepting or changing the annotation. The most likely taggings for the sentence are shown, each with an Accept button. A “Tag word-by-word” button is also shown; in word-by-word annotation, each segment in the sentence is displayed with several proposed tags: first those in the full-sentence taggings, then other common tags for the word type, and a worst-case “Tag manually” button which exposes the POS menus. The user can tag one or more words and activate a “Re-annotate” button, which resubmits the sentence to the back end. This allows the user to explore the effect of one POS assignment on POS probabilities for nearby words.

Within the ATMO project, data must also be segmented and spelling-regularized; those topics and their interaction with POS tagging are not discussed here.

Further work

Hapax v1 uses standard 1- and 2-gram HMMs for POS tagging (Charniak et al. 1993). Future versions should implement Schmid's binary-decision-tree method (1994, 1995), which helps with sparse data. More challenging will be adapting the directed-graph model of Xuehelaiti et al. (2013) to probabilistic POS tagging. This two-level model would allow the probability of a given stem's POS tag to depend not only on the POS of the immediately preceding morpheme(s) but on the tag(s) of the preceding word stems, which may improve tagging accuracy for agglutinative languages.

Bibliography

Booth, B.M. (1985), “Revising CLAWS,” ICAME News 9: 2935.

Brill, E. (1992), “A simple rule-based part of speech tagger,” in Proceedings of the Third conference on applied natural language processing, Trento 31 March - 3 April 1992 ([n.p.]: Association for Computational Linguistics), pp. 152-155.

Charniak, E. (1993), Statistical language learning (Cambridge: MIT Press).

Charniak, E., Hendrickson, C., Jacobson, N., and Parko-witz, M. (1993), “Equations for Part-of-Speech Tagging,” in Proceedings of the 11th National conference on artificial intelligence, Washington DC July 11-15, 1993 ([n.p.]: The AAAI Press; Cambridge: MIT Press, 1993), pp. 784789. Web. http://www.aaai.org/Pa-pers/AAAI/1993AAAI93-117.pdf(Accessed: 1 October 2016)

Church, K. W. (1988), “A Stochastic Parts Program and Noun Phrase Parser for Unrestricted Text,” in Proceedings of the Second Conference on Applied Natural Language Processing, Austin 9-12 February 1988 ([n.p.]: Association for Computational Linguistics), pp. 136-143. Web. http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/A/A88/A88-

1019.pdf. (Accessed: 1 October 2016)

DeRose, S.J. (1988), “Grammatical category disambiguation by statistical optimization,” Computational Linguistics 14.1, pp. 31- 39.

Rabiner, L. R. (1989) “A Tutorial on Hidden Markov Models and Selected Applications in Speech Recogni-tion.”Markov Models and Selected Applications in Speech Recognition.” Proceedings of the IEEE 77.2: 257286.

Schmid, H. (1995), “Improvements in part-of-speech tagging with an application to German,"" In Proceedings of the ACL SIGDAT-Workshop. Dublin, Ireland. Revised version available on the Web at http://www.cis.uni-muenchen.de/~schmid/tools/TreeTagger/data/tree-tagger2.pdf (Accessed: 1 October 2016.)

Schmid, H. (1994), “Probabilistic part-of-speech tagging using decision trees,"" In Proceedings of International Conference on New Methods in Language Processing, ManChester,    UK.    Web.    http://www.cis.uni-

muenchen.de/~schmid/tools/TreeTagger/data/tree-

tagger1.pdf . (Accessed: 1 October 2016)

Toutanova, K., Klein, D., Christopher Manning,, C. and Singer, Y. (2003), “Feature-Rich Part-of-Speech Tagging with a Cyclic Dependency Network,"" In Proceedings of

HLT-NAACL 2003, pp. 252-259.

Xuehelaiti, M., Liu, K., Jiang, W., and Yibulayin, T.. (2013). “Graphic Language Model for Agglutinative Languages: Uyghur as Study Case."" Chinese computational linguistics and natural language processing based on naturally annotated big data: 12th China National Conference, CCL 2013 and First International Symposium, NLP-NABD 2013, Suzhou, China, October 10-12, 2013, Proceedings, ed. Maosong Sun. LNAI 8202. Berlin: Springer, pp. 268279.

Leech, G. Garside, R., and Bryant, M. (1994), “CLAWS4:

The tagging of the British National Corpus,” In Proceedings of the 15th International conference on computational linguistics (COLING 94) Kyoto, Japan, pp. 622-628. Web. http://ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/papers/coling.html . (Accessed: 1 October 2016)

Leech, G., Garside, R., and Atwell, E. (1983), “The automatic grammatical tagging of the LOB corpus,” ICAME News 7: 13-33.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/028/028.pdf",""
"3779","18","Collaborative Writing to Build Digital Humanities Praxis","9","Introduction

Emergent programs like those associated with the Praxis Network have redefined the possibilities for digital humanities training by offering models for project-based pedagogy. These efforts provide innovative institutional frameworks for building up and sharing digital skills, but they primarily focus on graduate education. The long-term commitments that they require can make them difficult to adapt for the professional development of other librarians, staff, and faculty collaborators. While members of these groups might share deep interests in undertaking such programs themselves, their institutional commitments often prevent them from committing the time to such professional development, particularly if the outcomes are not immediately legible for their own structures of reporting.

My talk argues that we can make such praxis programs viable for broader communities by expanding the range of their potential outcomes. This talk explores the potential for collaborative writing projects to develop individual skillsets and, by extension, the capacity of digital humanities programs. While the example here focuses on a coursebook written for an undergraduate audience, I believe the model and set of pedagogical issues can be extrapolated to other circumstances. By considering writing projects as potential opportunities for project-based development, I argue that we can produce professionally legible outcomes that both serve institutional priorities and prove useful beyond local contexts.

Case Study

The particular case study for this talk will be an open coursebook written for a course on digital text analysis (Walsh and Horowitz, 2016). In the fall of 2015, Professor Sarah Horowitz, a colleague in the history department at Washington and Lee University, approached the University Library with an interest in digital text analysis and a desire to incorporate these methods in her upcoming class. As the Mellon Digital Humanities Fellow working in the University Library, I was asked to support Professor Horowitz’s requests because of my own background working with and teaching text analysis. Professor Horowitz and I conceived of writing the coursebook as a means by which the Library could meet her needs while also building the capacity of the University’s digital humanities resources. Our model in this regard was as an initiative undertaken by the Digital Fellows at the CUNY Graduate Center, where their Graduate Fellows produce documentation and shared digital resources for the wider community. We aimed to expand upon their example, however, by making collaborative writing a centerpiece of our pedagogical experiment. Through her involvement in the the creation of the course materials, Professor Horowitz engaged with a variety of technologies: Markdown, Git, and GitHub. The process also required synthesis of both text analysis techniques and disciplinary material relevant to a course in nineteenth-century history. As a result of our initial collaboration in writing the materials and teaching the course, Professor Horowitz is prepared to offer the course herself in the future without the support of the library. In addition, we now possess course materials that could, after careful structuring and selection of platforms, be reusable in other courses at our own institution and beyond.

This type of writing collaboration can fit the professional needs of people in a variety of spaces in the university. Course preparation, for example, often takes place behind the scenes and away from the eyes of students and other scholars. With a little effort, the hidden labor of teaching can be transformed into openly available resources capable of being remixed into other contexts. As Shawn Graham (2016) has illustrated through his own resources for a class on Crafting Digital History, course materials can be effectively leveraged to serve a wider good in ways that still parse in a professional context. In our case, the collaboration produced public-facing web writing in the form of an open educational resource. The history department regarded the project as a success for its potential to bring new courses, skills, and students into the major as a result of Professor Horowitz’s training. The University Library valued the collaboration for its production of open access materials, development of faculty skills, and exploration of workflows and platforms for faculty collaboration. We documented and managed the writing process in a GitHub repository. This versioned workflow was key to our conception of the project, as we hoped to structure the project in such a way that others could copy down and spin up their own versions of the course materials for their own needs. We were careful to compartmentalize the lessons according to their focus on theory, application, or course exercises, and we provided documentation to walk readers through the technical process of adapting the book to reflect their own disciplinary content.

Implications for DH Praxis

My talk argues that writing projects like this one provide spaces for shared learning experiences that position student and teacher as equals. By writing in public and asking students and faculty collaborators to discuss, produce, and revise open educational resources, we can break down distinctions between writer and audience, teacher and student, programmer and non-programmer. In this spirit, work by Robin DeRosa (2016) with the Open Anthology of Earlier American Literature and Cathy Davidson with HASTAC has shown that students can make productive contributions to digital humanities research at the same time that they learn themselves. These contributions offer a more intimate form of pedagogy - a more caring and inviting form of building that can draw newcomers into the field by way of non-hierarchical peer mentoring. It is no secret that academia contains “severe power imbalances” that adversely affect teaching and the lives of instructors, students, and peers (McGill, 2016). I see collaborative writing as helping to create shared spaces of exploration that work against such structures of power. They can help to generate what Bethany Nowviskie (2016) has recently advocated as a turn away from the Kantian ideal of an isolated, reasoning self and towards, instead, a “feminist ethics of care” to “illuminate the relationships of small components, one to another, within great systems.” By writing together, teams engage in what Nowviskie (2011) calls the “perpetual peer review” of collaborative work. Through conversations about ethical collaboration and shared credit early in the process, we can privilege the voice of the learner as a valued contributor to a wider community of practitioners even before they might know the technical details of the tools or skills under discussion.

Collaborative writing projects can thus serve as training in digital humanities praxis: they can help introduce the skills, tools, and theories associated with the field, and projects like ours do so in public. Productive failure in this space has long been a hallmark of work in the digital humanities, so much so that “Failure” was listed as a keyword in the new anthology Digital Pedagogy in the Humanities (Croxall and Wernick,

2016). Writing in public carries many of the same rewards - and risks. While a certain comfort with frustration can help one learn digital methods (Ramsay, 2016) not everyone is comfortable with what Stephen Ramsay (2014) describes as a “hermeneutics of screwing around.” Many of those new to digital work, in particular, rightfully fear putting their work online before it is published. I argue that the clearest way in which we can invite people into the rewards of public digital work is by sharing the burdens and risks of such work. In her recent work on generous thinking, Kathleen Fitzpatrick (2016) advocates “rooting the humanities in generosity, and in particular in the practices of thinking with rather than reflexively against both the people and the materials with which we work”. By framing digital humanities praxis first and foremost as an activity whose successes and failures are shared, we can lower the stakes for newcomers. Centering this approach to digital humanities pedagogy in the practice of writing productively displaces the very digital tools and methodologies that it is meant to teach. Even if the ultimate goal is to develop a firm grounding in a particular digital topic, focusing on the writing invites students and collaborators into a space where anyone can contribute. By privileging soft rather than technical skills as the means of engagement and ultimate outcome, we can shape a more inviting and generous introduction to digital humanities praxis. Bibliography

Croxall, B. and Warnick, Q. (2016). “Failure.”

In Digital Pedagogy in the Humanities:

Concepts, Models, and Experiments. Modern Languages Association

DeRosa, R. (2016). “The Open Anthology of Earlier American Literature.” https://openamlit.pressbooks.com/.

Fitzpatrick, K. (2016). “Generous Thinking:

The University and the Public Good.” Planned Obsolescence. http://www.plannedobsolescence.net/generous-thinking-the-university-and-the-public-good/.

Graham, S. (2016). “Crafting Digital History.” http://workbook.craftingdigitalhistory.ca/.

McGill, B. (2016). “Serial Bullies: An Academic Failing and the Need for Crowd-Sourced Truthtelling.” Dynamic    Ecology.    https://dynamicecology.word-

press.com/2016/10/18/serial-bullies-an-academic-

failing-and-the-need-for-crowd-sourced-truthtelling/.

Nowviskie, B. (2016). “Capacity Through Care.” http://nowviskie.org/2016/capacity-through-care/.

Nowviskie, B. (2014). “The Hermeneutics of Screwing Around; or What You Do with a Million Books.” In Pastplay: Teaching and Learning History with Technology, edited by Kevin Kee. University of Michigan Press.

http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.12544152.0001.001.

Nowviskie, B. (2011). “Where Credit Is Due.” http://nowviskie.org/2011/where-credit-is-due/.

Ramsay, S. (2010). “Learning to Program.” http://stephenramsay.us/2012/06/10/learning-to-program/.

The Praxis Network (2017). University of Virginia Library's Scholars' Lab.

http://praxis-network.org/.

Walsh, B. and Horowitz, S. (2016). “Introduction to Text Analysis: A Coursebook.” http://www.walshbr.com/textanalysiscoursebook","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/033/033.pdf",""
"3780","18","Open, Shareable, Reproducible Workflows for the Digital Humanities: The Case of the 4Humanities.org “WhatEvery1Says” Project","3","Introduction
This panel reports on the open, shareable, and reproducible workflow methodology for digital humanities research developed by the 4Humanities.org ""WhatEvery1Says"" (WE1S) project. WE1S is topic modeling a large corpus of articles related to the humanities in newspapers, magazines, and other media sources in the U.S., U.K., and Canada from 1981 on. While the panel presents WE1S's conceptual goals and prototype experiments in using outcomes in humanities advocacy, its focus is on the technical and interpretive workflow developed by the project for humani-ties-oriented data work. WE1S's manifest system for data provenance and workflow management, its virtual workspace manager for integrated, containerized data manipulation and processing, and its interpretation protocol for how humans read topic models suggest a generalizable open approach based not on particular technologies and methods but on annotated methods. Moreover, there is a philosophical fit between such an approach and the public-facing goals of the WE1S project. WE1S is about opening public culture to view through analytics, while its DH methodology is about opening up scholarly expertise itself through shareable, transparent processes not locked into technically complex, pre-established, or largescale research frameworks.

Project Research and Advocacy Goals WE1S uses topic modeling to explore the idea of

""the humanities"" in public discourse. A complex concept of the kind that Peter de Bolla treated in his 2013 The Architecture of Concepts (his main example: ""human rights""), ""the humanities"" as they are perceived are both tightly bunched in academic disciplines and broadly dispersed in extra-academic domains. Discussion focused on ""the humanities crisis,"" ""the decline in humanities majors,"" etc. creates flash points in the discourse. Yet the overall heat map of articles about the humanities, WE1S discovers, also extends into vast stretches of warm or cool discussion about humanities subjects intricately interwoven into the background of other domains of social life. Even articles so seemingly unremarkable (yet fully remarkable when we think about it) as an obituary or wedding announcement can mention the humanities as part of their donnée. WE1S seeks to open to view this whole conceptual architecture of ""the humanities"" as it exists in robust, living relation with culture at large.

Project Methodological Goals

Due to the lack of widely shared technical conven

tions and appropriate scholarly and publishing practices, today it is very difficult for a DH scholar to answer with documentation such questions as: Where did you get those thousands of works in your corpus? Where did the metadata come from? What steps did you take to prepare and process the material? How many variations did you try? Where in the process was it critical for there to be ""humans in the loop""? The WE1S project addresses a growing need for ways to share and reproduce data-workflow in digital humanities research in order to make DH comparable to ""open science"" (see Bare, 2014). Indeed, data-inten-sive work in the sciences offers an especially good paradigm because of the degree to which it makes workflow and provenance management itself a

thoughtful research field (i.e., research about, and not just tools for, managing workflow and provenance) (e.g., see Gil et al., 2007; and Garijo et al., 2012). The WE1S project is developing a technical framework that explores how the digital humanities can evolve similar, but also necessarily different, humanities-

adapted standards of openness, shareability, and re

producibility. What amount of data and metadata, in

what detail, at which processing stages, with what accompanying scripts, and so on, should be shared to support rich and persuasive scholarly discourse

based on digital humanities research in the future?

How will the criteria of ""reproducibility, replication,

and generalizability"" (on the different shades of

meaning of these terms in the sciences, see Bollen et

al., 2015) join more traditional ideas of excellence in

the humanities (e.g., ""critical rigor"") in the various

contexts of collecting, curation, exhibition, editing,

analysis, interpretation, and other work?

Overview

Alan Liu

WE1S explores public thought about the humanities, especially as mediated in journalistic articles that stage a dialogic relation between leaders in government, business, universities, the arts, and others with citizens. The project's end goal is to use such research to guide humanities advocacy. But rather than create a one-off project, the WE1S group has developed a robust technical and interpretive methodology comparable (though customized for DH) to scientific data workflow management systems (e.g., Apache Taverna, Kepler, Wings), provenance tracking systems (e.g., ProvONE), and similar schemes (see Gil et al., 2007; and Bose and Frew, 2005).

Manifest System for Data Provenance and Workflow Management
Scott Kleinman

The WE1S manifest schema uses a JSON Schema-based model to produce ""manifests"" that document the provenance of articles studied by WE1S as well as later transformations of the data, tying together scripts, stop word lists, outputs, visualizations, etc.

used in project work. Manifests make the workflow transparent and facilitate on-the-fly reiterations or ad-justments--e.g., staging a subset of the WE1S corpus for topic modeling or defining variant numbers of topics. Manifests are human-readable JSON files that are highly interoperable with other systems; they can be used programmatically to drive scripts or to crosswalk information to other workflow tools or metadata frameworks. The WE1S workflow management system uses the manifest schema to generate web forms, enabling non-technical users to create and query manifests, which are stored using the same JSON-like format in its MongoDB database. The system is easy to deploy and can be adapted for other humanities research projects simply by modifying the manifest schema.


Fig. 1: Web interface for WE1S manifest system.

Virtual Workspace Manager for Integrated, Containerized Data Manipulation and Processing

Jeremy Douglass

To address a range of computing demands from geographically distributed participants, the WE1S Workspace Manager facilitates open, reproducible DH research through a defined computing platform, a shareable online environment, integrated customizable workflows, and on-demand publishing of results. Tools for topic modeling workflows are configured on a virtual machine (a Docker container). Open data science notebooks (iPython / Jupyter) are the interface. Project templates are collections of notebooks (Python, R) chained into flows. Each new data exploration flow customizes a template, imports manifest data (from the WE1S manifest system), builds a topic model (Mallet), generates a visual browser (Andrew Gold-stone's dfr-browser), publishes the browser to an interactive website, and packages a project for download and offline viewing. WE1S hosts a shared workspace online; it also runs on a laptop. Design and implementation of this virtualized, integrated workflow environment may be relevant to other DH projects, and is consonant with the philosophy of such other online or containerized integrated systems as Lexos or DH Box designed to make advanced DH research environments accessible.


Fig. 2 Architecture of WE1S virtual workspace manager for integrated topic-modeling and visualization as implemented in a Docker virtual machine.

Constructing a ""Random"" Comparison Corpus
Lindsay Thomas

In public discourse, there are no natural boundaries between what does and does not count as ""hu-manities-related"" discussion. The humanities, for example, can appear in both precise and general ways: as a focal topic, as part of arts and culture, in particular forms (such as literature), as part of social and ethical concerns, as part of the biographies or obituaries of individuals, etc. Indeed, it may be that one feature of the humanities is their capacity to forge multiple links between tightly focused and general themes. There is thus no pre-definable ""control corpus"" of public discussion on the humanities that can serve as ground truth for WE1S's topic modeling experiments. WE1S is thus using a sampled, ""random"" corpus as a snapshot of the larger, unclosed set of media articles to assist in exploring by contrast what articles can sensibly be defined as ""humanities-specific."" Doing so not only constitutes a novel approach to topic modeling in the digital humanities; it also reveals intriguing issues about the philosophy behind statistical randomization (see

Holland, 1986). This part of the panel discusses the

""random"" corpus WE1S created, its use within the

WE1S project workflow, and includes theoretical reflections on incorporating methodology borrowed from the sciences and social sciences in DH work.

""Interpretation Protocol"" for Topic Models.

Ashley Champagne

One of the needs in DH research is a for way to declare not just technical but interpretive workflows so that they can be shared, reproduced, and evolved by the research community. In the case of DH topic model studies, for instance, rarely are there transparent descriptions of the interpretive assumptions, steps, and iterations needed to decide how many topics to seek, what topics are interesting, how the topic model guides the human interpreter back to specific articles for examination (and vice versa), and how groups of researchers collaborate in using a topic model to generate hypotheses or come to conclusions. WE1S has created an initial declaration of its topic-model interpretation process that defines step-by-step interactions between machine learning and human interpre-tation/collaboration (e.g., when in the process humans convene to interpret a topic model; what outputs, visualizations, and secondary algorithmic products such as clusterings are used; how humans discuss a topic model; how topic models and interpretive acts are iterated; etc.). The goal is to make it possible for the larger DH community to improve or vary the topic-model interpretation process in open, shareable ways.

Prototyping How the WE1S Project Can Guide Humanities Advocacy

Jamal Russell

When WE1S has completed its topic models and interpretive studies, it will produce a public-facing site allowing others to explore the models and follow links to the original articles. But how can the project fulfill its ultimate ambition of guiding humanities advocacy? This final part of the panel reports on a unique early experiment in applying WE1S research. In 2016-17, a funded group of undergraduates studied sample articles from the WE1S corpus under the guidance of the project's topic models. They wrote a white paper on their findings with recommendations for humanities advocacy. And they created practical advocacy projects based on those recommendations. Using this concrete example as a springboard, the panel concludes by reflecting on the relationship between interpreting topic models and creating publicly accessible narratives about the humanities.

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1a4065e.pdf.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/034/034.pdf",""
"3781","18","Transforming Theater History through Crowdsourced Transcription","9","","","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/036/036.pdf",""
"3782","18","Neutralising the Authorial Signal in Delta by Penalization: Stylometric Clustering of Genre in Spanish Novels","10","Summary
We propose a way to work with the stylometric distance measure Delta to analyse the subgenre of texts written by different authors. For that, we neutralize the author signal by penalizing the texts from the same writer, allowing the texts to have their shortest distances to other authors' works. We test this method with several subcorpora of Spanish prose and a corpus of French theatre.

Stylometry and Delta beyond Authorship

Since John Burrows proposed it in 2002, Delta has been one of the most used and researched methods in stylometry and authorship attribution. Burrows explained it as “expression of difference, pure difference” (2002: 269) and is based on basic statistical concepts

like most frequent words, z-scores and the Manhattan

distance between each pair of texts.2 Burrows closes his paper with an unanswered question about why Delta works so well.

Other researchers such as Hoover (2004b: 454), Argamon (2008), Plasek (2014) or Evert et al (2015:

79) have confirmed that we are still far from being able to answer this question. This lack of understanding has not stopped the stylometric community of trying to improve Delta (Hoover 2004a; Argamon 2008; Eder 2013). Smith and Aldridge (2011) have proposed Cosine Delta which gives the best results in different languages (Jannidis et al. 2015).

Since Delta is sensitive to aspects or signals like genre or period (Burrows 2002), the corpora for authorship attribution tend to be homogenous in those aspects. Research has been conducted to try to separate signals (Schöch 2013 and 2014) or selecting the words that contribute to them using Recursive Feature Elimination (Büttner and Proisl 2016). Jannidis and Lauer (2014) and Hoover (2014) show how Delta can be used to distinguish genre and periods within the works of a single author. Other researchers have used other methods such as classification (Hettinger et al., 2016; Underwood 2014) or logistic regression (Jock-ers 2013; Riddell and Schöch 2014) to similar ends.

Neutralizing Author Signal in Delta

Our proposal is to neutralize the author signal directly on the Delta matrix. We use a testing corpus of texts from three Spanish authors and three subgenres.

Detailed information about the corpora, files, parameters and scripts is in our GitHubrepository.-We applied Cosine Delta (5000 MFW) with Stylo (Eder, Rybicki and Kestemont 2016) and visualized the resulting distance matrix with Python:

Hierarchical Clustering Dendrogram (Ward)


sample index

Figure 1: Dendrogram from Cosine Delta

As expected, the texts are clustered by author, with sub-clusters of subgenres. The underlying Delta Matrix contains distances between all texts:



Figure 2: Cosine Delta Matrix

We see a tendency of lower Delta values for documents of the same author (below 1.0) in comparison to documents of different authors (above 1.0). But what about the closest texts written by a different author? For the historical novel in column E, they are in the rows 14 and 15 and are historical novels, as well. This pattern is found for the majority of the texts. How could we cluster the texts preferring the closest text from other authors? And if we are able to neutralize the author signal, will we see noise or subgenre clusters?

Our proposal is to penalize the distances between the texts of the same author (cf. Lu and Leen 2007 for penalization in image clustering), making them closer to the average distance of texts of different authors, then cluster the neutralized distance matrix and measure the cluster homogeneity by author and subgenre.

We define the set of all documents by an author a as Aa, the collection containing all documents by all authors as C and total number of documents in the collection is defined as c:

Aa •—    ‘ * i

C = {Ai, • • • , An}

c:=|UC|

Note that each document is in exactly one author-document set Ai.

First, we calculate the average distance of texts of all pairwise different authors (in fig. 2, all the distances

in black). We call this value the mean of different authors or M(C) and for this collection its value is 1.16.

53 A(di,dj)
Aa , EC,a/6

EMI • (c-Ml)
A





For each author, we subtract his/her mean value from the mean of different authors M(C) - M(Aa) resulting in the difference of the author. This value represents how far the texts of a specific author are to the mean of different authors:4

author

mean

difference

Miro

0.607

0.552

Baroja

0.669

0.490

Valle    0.752

0.407

Figure 3: Means and differences of author Third, we add the difference of the author M(C) - M(Aa) to the Delta values of text of the same author. This gives a Neutralized Delta-function as follows:

ydi E Aa, dj E Ab

A^U^’^    f°ra/6

v 31    [A(</j,dj) + (Ai(C)-M(4o)) for a = 6

This converts the table from Figure 1 into a Neutralized Delta matrix:


Figure 4: Author-Neutralized Delta matrix

The values in grey are now in general above 1.0: the texts of the same author have been separated, showing relations between texts independently of authorship. Now the adventure and historical novels of Baroja in columns C and D have their closest text in works of different authors but belonging to the same subgenre.

Second, we calculate the mean of the texts of each author a M(Aa) (in fig. 2, the distances in grey).


Hierarchical Clustering Dendrogram (Ward)


sample index

Fig. 5: Author-neutralized Delta dendrogram

In comparison with Figure 1, this dendrogram allows us to see new text relations beyond authorship but within subgenre, showing clusters with different authors but the same subgenre: for example, the cluster of historical novels by Baroja and Valle or the two very close subclusters of erotic novels by Miró and Valle.

Tests and Evaluation

For the evaluation, the homogeneity of the clusters (Rosenberg and Hirschberg, 2007) was measured. This measure yields values between 0 and 1. As ground truth, the metadata about author and subgenre have been used. The results for the dummy corpus:


Figure 6: Homogeneity of Cosine and Neutralized Delta for author and subgenre

The homogeneity of the clusters of Cosine Delta (see fig. 1) are perfect for authors and much lower for subgenre, because the author clusters contain subgenre subclusters. The homogeneity of the clusters of Neutralized Delta (see fig. 5) is lower for authorship (as expected), but not for subgenre. In this case the neutralization of the author signal only deteriorates the homogeneity for authorship but improves the homogeneity for subgenre.

We have analysed different subgenres present in the whole corpus for test the method. We created subcorpora of historical, bildungsroman, erotic and adventure novels:5


Figure 7: Homogeneities for Spanish prose subcorpora

As expected, the neutralization consistently deteriorates the homogeneity for author (between -0.26 and -0.1) while the homogeneity for subgenre is not deteriorated (between -0.08 and 0.06). The homogeneity for subgenre of adventure compared to erotic and bildungsroman get the best results (over 0.9) and they even improved on results with Cosine. Adventure novels are also best recognized in classification tasks (Hettinger et al. 2016). Subgenres which are very difficult to differentiate like historical and adventure (Pedraza

Jiménez and Rodríguez Cáceres 1983: 672 and 1987: 459) get one of the worst results.

The results are similar when testing other corpora,

such as a corpus of French drama (Schoch et al. 2015) and a corpus of Spanish American novels:


Figure 8: Homogeneity values for French drama and Spanish American novels

Conclusion and future work

Our main goal was to present a method to neutralize the Delta distances of the same author using the difference between the mean of the author and the mean of different authors. Tested on eight subcorpora, this procedure, as we expected, deteriorates the homogeneity of authorship clusters but maintains the subgenre homogeneity, improving it for some cases. That discovers relations between texts (see fig. 5) that were hidden by authorship. This procedure brings a new way of working with Delta beyond authorship attribution.

Both Cosine and Neutralized Delta show very different results for the comparison of different subgenres, something which points to the different internal structure of the subgenres. The comparison of very different subgenres (like adventure against erotic or bildungsroman) gets higher subgenre cluster homogeneity. Neutralized Delta could be used for comparing different corpora of specific subgenres and test the significance of the results to better characterize these subgenres. In an ideal scenario, we would like to test on a perfect balanced corpus where a set of authors are represented in all subgenres of the same period.

For future work, we will analyse how different parameters like versions of Delta or number of MFW affect the results. We also plan to transfer the approach to an earlier step in the Delta procedure and penalize the word z-score vectors.

We look forward to the feedback of the international DH community about this new use of the very effective “expression of difference, pure difference” which is Delta.

Acknowledgements
To avoid confusion regarding intellectual property, we would like to make it clear that the main idea and implementation are the work of the first author. Other authors have brought important remarks, feedback, some of the corpora and have helped with the redaction and the formalisations.

Bibliography
Argamon, S. (2008). Interpreting Burrows’s Delta: Geometric and Probabilistic Foundations. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 23(2): 131-47.

Burrows, J. (2002). ‘Delta’: a Measure of Stylistic Difference and a Guide to Likely Authorship. Literary and Linguistic Computing,    17(3):    267-87 http://revistacarac-

teres.net/revista/vol5n1mayo2016/entendiendo-delta.

Büttner, A. and Proisl, T. (2016). Stilometrie interdisziplinär: Merkmalsselektion zur Differenzierung zwischen Übersetzer- und Fachvokabular. DHd 2016: Modellierung, Vernetzung, Visualisierung. Leipzig: Universität Leipzig, pp. 66-69 http://www.dhd2016.de/ab-stracts/sektionen-002.html.

Calvo Tello, J. (2016). Entendiendo Delta desde las Humanidades. Caracteres. Estudios culturales y críticos de la esfera digital, 5(1): 140-76.

Eder, M. (2013). Bootstrapping Delta: a safety-net in openset authorship attribution. DH2013. Lincoln: UNL https://sites.google.com/site/computationalstylis-tics/preprints/m-eder_bootstrapping_delta.pdf?attredi-rects=0.

Eder, M., Kestemont, M. and Rybicki, J. (2016). Stylometry with R: A package for computational text analysis. The R Journal, 16(1): 1-15 https://journal.r-project.org/ar-chive/accepted/eder-rybicki-kestemont.pdf.

Evert, S., Proisl, T., Jannidis, F., Pielström, S., Schöch, C. and Vitt, T. (2015). Towards a better understanding of Burrows’s Delta in literary authorship attribution. Proceedings of the Fourth Workshop on Computational Linguistics for Literature. Denver CO: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 79-88 .

Hettinger, L., Reger, I., Jannidis, F. and Hotho, A. (2016). Classification of Literary Subgenres. DHd 2016. Leipzig: Universität    Leipzig,    pp.    154-58

http://dhd2016.de/boa.pdf.

Hoover, D. L. (2004a). Testing Burrows’s Delta. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 19(4): 453-75.

Hoover, D. L. (2004b). Delta Prime?. Literary and Linguistic

Computing, 19(4): 477-95.

Hoover, D. L. (2014). A Conversation Among Himselves: Change and the Styles of Henry James. In Hoover, D. L., Culpeper, J. and O'Halloran, K. (eds), Digital Literary Studies. New York & London: Routledge, pp. 90-119.

Jannidis, F. and Lauer, G. (2014). Burrows's Delta and Its Use in German Literary History. In Erlin, M. and Tatlock, L. (eds), Distant Readings. Topologies of German Culture in the Long Nineteenth Century. Rochester: Camden House, pp. 29-54 gerhardlauer.de/index.php/down-load_file/view/335/1/.

Jannidis, F., Pielstrom, S., Schoch, C. and Vitt, T. (2015).

Improving Burrows' Delta - An empirical evaluation of text distance measures. DH 2015. Sydney: ADHO http://dh2015.org/abstracts/xml/JANNIDIS_Fotis_Im-

proving_Burrows__Delta___An_empi/JANNIDIS_Fo-tis_Improving_Burrows__Delta___An_empirical_.html.

Jockers, M. L. (2013). Macroanalysis - Digital Methods and Literary History. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Schöch, C. (2014). Corneille, Molière et les autres. Stilometrische Analysen zu Autorschaft und Gattungszugehörigkeit im französischen Theater der Klassik. In

Schöch, C. and Schneider, L. (eds), Literaturwissenschaft

im digitalen Medienwandel. pp. 130-57 http://web.fu-

berlin.de/phin/beiheft7/b7t08.pdf.

Schöch, C., Henny, U., Calvo Tello, J. and Popp, S. (2015). The CLiGS Textbox. Würzburg: University of Würzburg

https://github.com/cligs/textbox.

Smith, P. W. H. and Aldridge, W. (2011). Improving Authorship Attribution: Optimizing Burrows' Delta

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terim_Report/1281251

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(1983). Manual de literatura española. 7: Época del realismo. Pamplona: Cénlit.

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(1987). Manual de Literatura Española. 9: Generación de

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http://dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-270.html.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/037/037.pdf",""
"3783","18","A “Wind of Change” – Shaping Public Opinion of the “Arab Spring” Using Metaphors","9","Motivation
How does mass media affect the way we think about controversial topics such as the “Arab Spring”? What persuasive role do metaphors play especially in opinion pieces?

During the events of the years 2010-2011 in the Middle East & North Africa region a new discourse was established in the German media; immediately these events were assessed as a “wave” of democratization and liberation, and have been metaphorically labeled “Arab Spring”. Metaphors were frequently used to categorize and understand these events (Möller, 2014; Nunez, 2014).

Given the premise that mass media organizes (Couldry, 2010) and shapes social reality (Luhmann, 1996), we analyze how the Arab Spring is categorized and assessed using metaphorical constructions in newspaper opinion pieces. We show ways in which particularly the use of metaphors reveals how the media tried to achieve acceptance for the events based on our cultural models (Quinn and Holland, 1987), which are grounded on our western knowledge.

According to the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980) metaphors are ubiquitous and exhibit a binary source-target domain structure. The knowledge that we choose to function as a source domain illustrates which conventionalized, overt or tacit knowledge we require to understand new or abstract domains (target domains) in terms of our cultural imprints. Metaphors are instantiated on the text surface and give us clues toward our knowledge basis. Thus, the required knowledge can be described in terms of ubiquitous metaphorical patterns that function as semantic “anchors” in texts, and in terms of conceptual knowledge clusters that function as an intertextual semantic knowledge structure.

As such, we constructed a pipeline that automatically detects metaphors appearing within certain grammatical constructions, before clustering them by presumed source and target domains. The results give us insights into how the Arab Spring is metaphorically structured by semantic clusters in opinion pieces.

Corpus and annotation

Our corpus consists of 300 opinion pieces (Ramge and Schuster, 2001) from five German newspapers, Frankfurter Rundschau, Die Zeit, Der Spiegel, taz, and Die Welt, which have been written between December 2010 and November 2011 and cover the Arab Spring.

In nine of these opinion pieces, two of this abstract's authors annotated following grammatical constructions whether they constitute metaphors: adjective-noun (AN) pairs (e.g. “Tunisian spark”), and genitive constructions (GEN) (e.g. “torch of freedom”). Due to their interrelated components they provide a good

insight into the structural systematicity of metaphorical mappings (source domain target domain). The difficulty of the task is reflected in a low inter-annotator agreement (0.45 Krippendorff’s a).

Common sources of annotation disagreement included heavily conventionalized metaphors such as “social network”, personifications like “self-consciousness of a generation”, and metaphors that need a larger context to function. As gold standard for further

training and evaluation we only use the agreed upon

annotations (“annotated”, Table 1).

Sentences AN constructions AN metaphors GEN constructions GEN metaphors

annotated

538

968

116 (12%)

102

29 (28%)

complete

11402

19573

2758

Table 1: Constructions and metaphors in the corpus.

Technical realization
To examine our questions quantitatively, we contrast two approaches to automatically detect metaphors, namely random forests and multilayer-percep-tron. The extracted metaphors are subsequently clustered (Figure 1). To extract AN and GEN constructions we first perform automatic preprocessing, including part-of-speech tagging and dependency parsing.

The random forests approach of Tsvetkov (2014) firmly roots in conceptual metaphor theory, mainly employing features extracted from manually crafted resources such as an abstractness wordlist and supersenses, to classify adjective-noun and subject-verb-object constructions. For use on other languages than English, a bilingual dictionary is required. We manually expand an existing dictionary to cover our corpus, and extend their system to classify GEN metaphors.

The described feature-rich approach will be compared - with regards to what (kind of) metaphors can be found - to the shallow neural network approach by Do Dinh and Gurevych (2016), which does not presuppose any specific metaphor theory. It thus does not make use of external features, but rather learns exclusively from given annotations and their context. Preliminary experiments show that more training data is needed for this bottom-up approach.

To gain further insight into usage of metaphor in our corpus, we cluster the automatically found metaphors - resp. their components - into coarse-grained semantic fields. While there are works using a theory-supported top-down approach, e.g. using source domain lists (Gordon et al., 2015), we employ a rather unsupervised approach, without preselecting the number of clusters or manually fixing cluster centers (similar to Shutova et al. (2010), who use spectral clustering for metaphor detection). To that end, we employ Affinity Propagation (Frey and Dueck, 2007), which we supply with cosine similarities between pretrained word embeddings (Reimers et al., 2014) of the metaphor components.


Figure 1: Few newspaper opinion pieces are annotated (1) and the obtained metaphors are used to leam different models A and B (2) (Tsvetkov, 2014; Do Dinh & Gurevych, 2016). These models are then applied to more articles to extract metaphors (3), which are subsequently clustered (4).

Experiments and discussion
We use cross-validation for the intrinsic evaluation of the metaphor detection part. For GEN metaphors, the tested system achieves 0.63 precision, 0.25 recall, and 0.35 F1-score, with similar performance for AN metaphors. While these results seem low, the actual output of the system when trained on all annotated instances looks promising, and the precision is improved by filtering based on named entities.

Kopf: Schwertern des Islams, Köpfen des verhassten Regimes, Handlanger des Regimes, Schlägern des Regimes, Arm des alten Regimes, Zähne eines Kamms, Kugeln des Regimes, Brust des Leblosen, Gesicht des Exzesses, Gesicht der EZB, Gesicht des Arabischen Frühlings, Gesicht arabischer Demokratien, Gesichter der Demonstranten, Gesichter der Jasmin-Revolution, Gesicht der Revolution, Gesicht der Muslimbruderschaft, Gesicht der ägyptischen Revolution, Gesicht des Landes, Gesicht der tunesischen Revolution, Gesicht der USA, Gesicht ihres Sohnes, Gesichter der Vermissten, Fortsatz des alten Regimes, Wand der Angst, Loch der Diktatur, Schweine des Regimes, Augen vieler Araber, Hände des israelfeindlichen Regimes, Hand der Sozialisten, Hände des Obersten Kommandorates, Händen der Börse

Figure 2: GEN metaphors clustered by first noun, with center “Kopf, hinting at conceptual metaphor POLITICAL SYSTEMS ARE BODIES

The clustering creates an impression of which knowledge (source domain) is required for abstract concepts (target domains), and how abstract concepts are “perspectivized” in the corpus, while also giving an overview of occurring intertextual metaphors. Although the cluster assignment and the metaphor detection leave room for improvement (e.g. Figure 2: “face of her son”), the clusters already reveal the systema-ticity and constraints of metaphorical mappings. Thus, they point to strategies of newspapers that come along with the choice of the (conceptual) source domain.

In Figure 2, bodily parts such as face, head, hand are used as source domains and mapped to political systems or processes (e.g. regime, democracy, revolution). This mapping draws on a long tradition in political and

philosophical history (Musolff, 2004): head and face

play a central role in our culture - comparing political processes with faces or heads conceptualize them as human beings. In this cluster the construction face of indicates that the events are important, thus construed as worthy to support.

Those prototypical examples for ontological metaphors also support the premise of embodied cognition (Johnson, 1987; Rohrer, 2010).

Sturm: Schlussphase des alten Regimes, Sturm des arabischen Umbruchs, Sturm der Moleküle, Sturm der Entrüstung, Inseln der Diktatur, Insel der Stabilität, Wind der Freiheit, Wind der Demokratie, Wind der Revolution, Wind des Wandels

Figure 3: GEN metaphors clustered by first noun, with center “Sturm”, hinting at conceptual metaphor POLITICAL SYSTEMS/PROCESSESAZALUES ARE NATURAL ELEMENTS

The positive properties and the movement character of natural elements such as wind and storm are mapped to the abstract (political) nouns freedom, revolution, or change. They receive a deontic (Hermanns, 1994) character, whereas dictatorship is conceptualized in terms of island which stands for inertia and stability (Figure 3). These examples already show how the chosen metaphors shape dualistic tendencies by categorizing the events on one hand as a dynamic movement (wind, storm) that has to be supported by western democracies, or on the other hand pleading for stability (island), thus implicitly supporting dictatorship.

The analyzed clusters and metaphorical conceptualizations indicate a network of source domains that function as key concepts which structure the discourse of the Arab Spring, an assumption we will focus on in future work.

Conclusion and future work

Our study indicates that metaphorical constructions are important in media because of their ubiquitous use in opinion pieces. The generic extracted source domains already suggest that a specific network of knowledge is used in media to highlight certain political aspects of the Arab Spring. Furthermore, they illustrate how contents are emotionalized and ideologized during these events by metaphors and their framing effects. Usage of natural elements or body parts reduces complexity and conceptualizes the events as an organic development, in short: the Arab states become western democratic states. Thus contributing to the extension of western ideology, metaphors impart implicit cultural values. Combining our cognitive and discourse analytical questions we can summarize that the used “bottom-up” clustering is very helpful to get an explorative impression of the “intertextual consistencies” (Verschuren, 2012: 179) of chosen metaphors. They are good textual “anchors” and starting points to investigate the widespread metaphorical use, and thus knowledge domains, in corpora.

With regard to the state of the art, corpus-based methodologies within the Digital Humanities community will benefit from our research by gaining the possibility to automatically compare thematic corpora by using the relationship of their metaphors to the common main cluster as a metric, therefore obtaining a new way to analyze the conceptual network being used. Our approach can help to facilitate corpus studies, e.g. by analyzing other discourse segments which deal with the implicit construction of identity and alterity within opinion pieces by using metaphors.

In our presentation we will highlight the results and give a structured impression of the mappings and the implications of the used metaphors in our corpus and present in short our methodological basis.

In future studies we will compare the conceptualization strategies of the Arab Spring and “Refugee Crisis” in German media, since we assume that the same metaphors and the same (metaphorical) interpretation patterns occur. Further, we plan to investigate another theory of metaphor which is based on Black (1954, 1977) and Gehring (2010). The latter model is strongly interweaved with current discussions about “Begriff” (Müller-Meiningen and Schmieder, 2016; Gehring, 2005, 2010) and discusses its ideological im-plication(s). Furthermore, the emphasis is placed on the function of metaphors as an epistemological tool by investigating, amongst others, the evolution of ideas and cultural values, e.g. in the historical text collection “Natur&Staat” (1903-11).

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Gehring, P. (2009). Das Bild vom Sprachbild. Die Metapher und das Visuelle. In Danneberg, L., Spoerhase, C., and Werle, D. (eds), Begriffe, Metaphern und Imaginationen in Philosophie und Wissenschaftsgeschichte. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp. 81-101.

Gehring, P. (2010). Erkenntnis durch Metapher? Methodologische Bemerkungen zur Metaphernforschung. In Junge, M. (ed), Metaphern in Wissenskulturen. Wiesbaden: Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, pp. 203-220.

Gehring, P., and Gurevych, I. (2014). Suchen als Methode? Zu einigen Problemen digitaler Metapherndetektion. Journal Phänomenologie, 41: 99-110.

Gordon, J., Hobbs, J. R., May, J., Mohler, M., Morbini, F., Rink, B., Tomlinson, M., Wertheim, S. (2015). A Corpus

of Rich Metaphor Annotation. In Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Metaphor in NLP. Denver, CO, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 56-66.

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Möller, N. (2014). Cognitive Metaphor and the “Arab spring.” In Polzenhagen, F., Kleinke, S., Kövecses, Z., and Vogelbacher, S. (eds), Cognitive Explorations into Metaphor and Metonymy. Frankfurt (Main): Peter Lang, pp. 133-148.

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Gurevych, I. (2014). GermEval-2014: Nested Named Entity Recognition with Neural Networks. In Workshop Proceedings of the 12th Edition of the KONVENS Conference. Hildesheim, Germany: Universitätsverlag Hildesheim, pp. 117-120.

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Tsvetkov, Y., Boytsov, L., Gershman, A., Nyberg, E., and

Dyer, C. (2014). Metaphor Detection with Cross-Lingual Model Transfer. In Proceedings of the 52nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics. Stroudsburg, PA, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 248-258.

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Ziegler, H.E., Conrad, J., Haeckel, E. (eds) (1903-1911). Natur und Staat, Beiträge zur naturwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaftslehre. Jena: Gustav Fischer Verlag.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/041/041.pdf",""
"3784","18","Reverse Engineering the First Humanities Computing Center","9","How can digital methods be used to conceptualize historical research projects, including their teams, approaches, methods, and outputs? What methodologies can be used to synthesize and analyze archival records, workshop plans, photographic evidence, and oral histories? This co-authored paper describes an ongoing effort by a collaborative group* to understand and recover the work of Father Roberto Busa, commonly thought to be the “founding father” of Digital Humanities. Starting in 1949, Roberto Busa, S.J., began a landmark collaboration with IBM to build a lemmatized concordance to the works of St. Thomas Aquinas. In 1956 Busa founded the world's first humanities computing center in Gallarate, Italy, located after 1961 in a former textile factory stocked with rows of IBM punched-card machines. This was CAAL, the Centro per L'Automazione deWAnalisi Letteraria—the Center for the Automation of Literary Analysis. There Busa and his mostly female student operators processed the monumental Index Thomisticus, a selection of the Dead Sea Scrolls, and other texts, from 1961-1967 (Terras and Nyhan, 2016; Jones 2016). However, there is much that is still unknown about Busa's research approach and methods. We aim to recover what Busa and his operators did. By repurposing punched-card office machinery for literary data processing, Busa created an important pre-computing technology platform for humanities research, one which has become obscured over time. We aim to reverse engineer and reconstruct not just a particular technology (punched-card machines) but that first humanities computing center as a whole. By doing so, we will explore methods that can be useful for other historians as they look back upon site-specific projects and groups, using digital tools and methods to effectively interleave and investigate historical data sources.

Jeffrey Schnapp of Harvard's metaLAB has remarked that “every cultural object is a network” (Schnapp, 2015). Reverse engineering involves taking apart a device or system not to replicate it but in order to better understand its design and purpose, its networked relations. The goal in this case is to break down and experimentally reconstruct the networked cultural objects--including specific machines, architecture, infrastructure, and human operators--that amount to the components of that Italian humanities computing center, and in that way to model a more capacious idea of “digitization” itself. We make use of a cluster of convergent practices:

1. The digitization of archives--paper-based documents with Dublin Core derived metadata, but also 3D digitizations of physical artifacts such as punched cards, relay switches, etc.

2. A cultural-heritage virtual model of the architectural space, a 3D immersive environments of the center itself, created through basic photogrammetry and using Maya + the Unity engine, based on multiple archival images, as well as new scans of the building, still standing outside Milan (though much altered).

3. Emulations of forgotten or obsolete technologies, punched-card data processing systems as well as other “adjacent” technologies in the 1950s and 1960s.

4. Oral histories and audio-files of interviews with surviving punched-card operators, Busa's secretaries, and others

The overall objective is to model this important early research center and its activities through a series of purpose-driven and interlinked emulations, 3D spaces, oral histories, and digitized documents and artifacts. We employ metadata to map archival materials and emulations onto the models in order to understand the material history of what is usually taken to be the first humanities computing center. In the process, we complicate the key terms themselves, including first and computing.)

Most of what has been known to date about Busa's

early literary data processing was derived from a handful

of his own publications- first by Winter (1999); later,

Jones (2016) drew on the Busa Archive to contextualize and extend his narrative account. Rockwell and Sinclair (2014) and Terras and Nyhan (2016), have continued to clarify the story in different ways. Actually modeling the machinery and workflow allows us to address specific questions about this important moment in the birth of linguistic data processing and humanities computing, such as:

• What were the precise roles played by human operators between the automated stages, sorting card decks, lemmatizing word lists, programming machines via plugboards, etc.? (How were these roles stratified and gendered?)

• What source texts were used for input and how were they prepared and marked up so that the operators could use them as the basis for what they punched on the cards?

• At what stage did IBM agree to print customized punched cards with what amounted to data fields unique to Busa's projects? What was the nature of the data ontology behind these customizations?

• What is the evidence that the work of Busa's center contributed to larger technology developments at IBM, such as Peter Luhn's development of the influential KWIC (keyword in context) protocol for information retrieval?

Additional questions will surely arise during the ongoing process of modeling and cross-checking archival materials and oral histories.

Although Busa's humanities computing center is our focus, we believe this methodological approach would be useful in other instances, as a way to conceive of digitization as a process of modeling artifacts and documents in relation to technology and infrastructure. We draw on theoretical approaches and methods associated with media archaeology (Parikka, 2012; Emerson, 2014; Rockwell and Sinclair, 2014; Sinclair, 2016), creative historical prototyping (U Victoria Maker Lab; Sayers et al, 2016), the archaeology of science (Haigh, 2016; Schiffer, 2001), and on the methods and expertise of digital archaeology in the field of cultural heritage, including its attention to issues of access and preservation (Koller, 2009; London Charter, 2009).

The presentation at DH 2017 will include slides containing selections from the 800 historical photographs of Busa's center, as well as other images, audio files, and demonstrations, including a prototype 3D virtual model of the center. The paper will explain the project's practical aims and theoretical significance: for example, we address current debates in digital humanities about the influence of text-based analysis on today's definitions and practices; or debates about possible alternative genealogies for DH (Klein, 2012). It will also spotlight the role of gendered labor in early humanities computing, and the entanglements of early humanities technology research with corporate and government funding. Our broader methodological purpose is to take up in practice what Jeffrey Schnapp has called the “defining design challenge of our epoch”—“to weave together information and space in a meaningful fashion” (Schnapp, 2015), and the methods will be of interest and use to others who are approaching multimodal archives and interpolating the information therein.

Acknowledgements

In addition to the coauthors of this paper, contributors to

the overall project include Marco Passarotti and Paolo

Senna (Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan).

Bibliography

Emerson, L. (2014). Reading Writing Interfaces:

From the Digital to the Bookbound. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Haigh, T., Priestley, M., and Rope, C. (2016). Eniac In Action: Making & Remaking the Modern Computer. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Jones, S.E. (2016). Roberto Busa, S.J., and the Emergence of Humanities Computing: The Priest and the Punched Cards. New York: Routledge.

Klein, L. (2012). “Digital Origin Stories.” http://lklein.com/2012/11/digital-origin-stories/.

Koller, D., Frischer, B., and Humphreys, G. (2009). “Research challenges for digital archives of 3D cultural heritage models.” ACM Journal (December 2009): DOI: 10.1145/1658346.1658347

http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1658346.1658347.

London Charter for the computer-based visualization of cultural heritage, 2.1 (February 2009): http://www.londoncharter.org.

Parikka, J. (2012). What is Media Archaeology? Cambridge,

UK: Polity.

Rockwell, G., and Sinclair, S. (2014). “Past Analytical: Towards an Archaeology of Text Analysis Tools.” Digital Humanities 2014: Conference Abstracts. Lausanne: EPFL and UNIL, pp. 359-60. http://www.researchgate.net/publica-tion/273449857_Towards_an_ Archaeology_of_Text_Anal-

ysis_Tools.

Sayers, J., Elliott, D., Kraus, K., Nowviskie, B., and Turkel, W. J. (2016). ""Between Bits and Atoms: Physical Computing and Desktop Fabrication in the Humanities.” In

Schreibman, S., Siemens, R., and Unsworth, J., Eds. A New Companion to Digital Humanities, 3-21. Wiley Blackwell.

Schiffer, M. B., Ed. (2001). Anthropological Perspectives on Technology. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.

Schnapp, J. (2015). “Aphorisms on the 21st Century Museum.”

http://jeffreyschnapp.com/2015/01/26/aphorisms-on-

the-21st-century-museum/.

Sinclair, S. (2016) “Experiments with Punch Cards.”

http://stefansinclair.name/punchcard/.

Terras, M. and Nyhan, J. (2016). “Father Busa's Female Punched-Card Operators.” In Gold, Matthew K., and Klein,

L. Eds. Debates in Digital Humanities 2016. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. http://dhde-bates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/57.

University of Victoria Maker Lab. http://maker.uvic.ca.

Winter, T. N. (1999). “Roberto Busa, S.J., and the Invention of the Machine-Generated Concordance.” The Classical Bulletin, 75,1: 3-20.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/042/042.pdf",""
"3785","18","Semantic Domains in Picasso’s Poetry","9","The question of why Pablo Picasso dedicated a considerable amount of his time to writing around 1935 is open to speculation. Many have cited the Spanish artist's emotional crisis, the political turmoil in Europe in the period between the two wars, and the menace of a fratricidal confrontation in Spain as possible causes. All of these views are predicated on an assumed irreducible conflict between visual composition and verbal expression. However, it should be considered that Picasso's interest in alternative methods of expression might have stemmed from his fascination with linguistic structure as a whole during his cubist period. To quote Marie-Laure Bernadac: “I am in complete agreement with [the] linguistics of cubism as a structural language. Picasso is very conscious of the ambivalence of language, the ambivalence of words ... Picasso always played with the ambivalence of words ... The papiers collés [may be thought of] as ‘proverbs'; that is, as things that take the place of the verb ‘to paint' ... The battle between word and image, between art and reality, between different systems of signs ... but one must never forget that Picasso's cubism is two things at once; it's painting and it's language ... His whole life he was obsessed with the relationship between painting and writing ... the battle between word and image, between art and reality” (Rubin et al., 1992). Many other authors have pointed out the parallel development of structural linguistics as delineated by Ferdinand de Saussure and the explorations of the different phases of cubism by Picasso, Braque and Gris.

The connection between his writings and his plastic works has been explored by Cowling (2002), who refers to both his poems and his artworks as executed in a “spider's web” style: “A glance at the manuscripts reveals that he was attentive to the look and lay-out of the pages, relishing the dramatic impact of such things as variations in the size and style of the script, changes in the flow of ink or the thickness of the nib (and the color when he used crayons), contrasts between letters, numbers, dividing lines and the special punctuation marks he favored, different systems for crossing-out and large blots of ink. The calligraphy varies a good deal and is sometimes ornate and the effect handsome and arresting”. For a similar position, we may turn to Baldassari (Picasso and Baldas-sari, 2005), who poses a clear link between Picasso's visual works and his poetry: “In the decade between 1925 and 1935 ... Picasso continued to pursue cursive linearity in canvases where poetic shapes and ideograms represented bathers and acrobats. The scrolling lines, bursting constellations, curving grids, and broad strokes that cross the surface of his pictorial work then found a new dimension in his poetic writing. Breton fully sensed its importance ... ‘This poetry is unfailingly visual in the same way that the painting is poetic'”. Earlier, Daix (Daix and Emmet, 1993) had

pointed out that “Picasso did not believe in spontaneous poetry - or painting. His attitude was that of a professional: someone who had put written fragments into his paintings and could certainly paint poems as well. The graphism of his letters and the way they were placed on a page were also a deliberate, visual creation”. Despite the close correlation between Picasso's poems and his artworks, one cannot deny that Picasso's poetry is essentially verbal, and not conditioned by plastic principles. This is precisely what makes Picasso's poetry so interesting: it provides a window into Picasso's mind that is separate from his own artistic creations.

Our research has taken us through different approaches in order to analyze Picasso's artistic legacy (Meneses et al., 2008a, Meneses et al., 2011) and his poetry. In our study of Picasso's writings, we first created a concordance of all of his poems and plays, separating the poems by language (Spanish and French) (Meneses et al., 2008b). We then designed a dictionary based on this bilingual concordance of poems that was dynamically generated, identifying the stanzas and lines of each poem. A third step led us to provide an English translation to every French and Spanish term, which allowed us to reduce the number of concepts that Picasso works with. This reduction improved clarity for two reasons: First, we eliminated the language distinction (Spanish vs. French); and second, because we merged morphological variation into single units, so that tense/mood alterations for verbs, and gender/number differences for the noun, for instance, were bypassed. As a result, we ended up with three lexical lists: one for Spanish terms, one for French terms, and one with English translations that links the first two lists. The third lexical list may be considered a semantic dictionary specifying concrete concepts in Picasso's writings.

However, we felt that some aspects of Picasso's poetry needed further exploration. In this paper we propose to explore the possibility that Picasso's transition into poetry is simply one more manifestation of his pursuit of alternative approaches to language as a means of representation. In this sense, one thing that remained to be determined was how concrete concepts in both languages cluster into representative semantic categories; and how these categories interact with each other in semantic networks. For this purpose, we have expanded upon our previous efforts by using statistical models and algorithms. More specifically, we have used Latent Dirchlet Allocation: a hierarchical probabilistic generative model that can be used to represent a collection of documents by topics (Blei et al., 2003) to analyze Picasso's poetry. Our analysis demonstrates that topic modeling can highlight patterns and trends in Picasso's poetry that escape other forms of traditional analysis.

We will elaborate on the details of our current analysis using three points. First, it is safe to assume that all poets limit themselves to a number of representational topics as they compose their poems. We know that the European conflict, the crisis in Picasso's own personal relations and the immediate objects in his surroundings constituted the backdrop of many of his compositions. In this respect, topic modeling has allowed us to more precisely delimit the lexical manifestation of these themes, enabling us to see interrelations between words within particular topics.

Secondly, topic modeling has allowed us to see correlations between concrete themes as identified by certain lexical terms and different languages. These correlations are particularly interesting in the case

of a bilingual poet like Picasso. For example, psychological concepts-madness, for example- are often handled in French; while more physical references to his immediate surroundings are circumscribed to Spanish terms. However, in cases where both languages are used to communicate a similar concept, Picasso chooses Spanish when he intends to apply a more folkloric tone. Using the English lexical list of terms, we were able to highlight and identify the interconnections between his poems in different languages.

Finally, we have determined that, in Picasso's poems, certain semantic domains are predominant in each of the two languages he used - Spanish and French. For instance, Picasso is more inclined to refer to food items and everyday objects in his Spanish poems, which thus provides a clear reflection of his physical environment and of the harsh economic situation of this time. On the other hand, his French poems concentrate on more abstract concepts involving politics, religion and sexuality, which may be attributed to the influence of French Surrealist writers.

To summarize, in this paper we propose to analyze the ways in which concepts in Picasso's poems and plays cluster into semantic categories; and in turn, how these categories interact with other concepts within a complex semantic network. Furthermore, through the use of statistical models we have been able to identify and pinpoint representative themes and correlations across different languages. Although topic modeling can point us to patterns and interconnections within Picasso's writings, accurately characterizing the nature of these relationships remains a challenge.

Bibliography

Blei, D. M., Ng, A. Y. & Jordan, M. I. (2003).

Latent dirichlet allocation. the Journal of machine Learning research, 3, 993-1022.

Daix, P. & Emmet, O. (1993). Picasso: Life and art, Thames and Hudson.

Cowling, Elizabeth (2002). Picasso: style and meaning. London/New York, Phaidon.

Meneses, L., Furuta, R. & Mallen, E. (2008a).

Exploring the Biography and Artworks of Picasso with

Interactive Calendars and Timelines. Digital Humanities

2008, Oulu, Finland. 160 - 162.

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E. (2011). Computational Approaches to a

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R. (2008b). Picasso's Poetry: The Case of a Bilingual

Concordance. Digital Humanities 2008. Oulu, Finland.

Picasso, P. & Baldassari, A. (2005). The

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(1992). Picasso and Braque: A Symposium,

Museum of Modern Art.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/043/043.pdf",""
"3786","18","Mechanizing the Humanities? King’s Digital Lab as Critical Experiment","10","Introduction

The digital humanities (DH) are perhaps unique amongst humanities endeavours. They force us to confront the conceptual and ethical implications that attend the union of the humanities with engineering and organizational thinking. They demand attention to tools, methods, ethics, and pedagogy, but also organizational bureaucracy, human resource management, economics, and systems maintenance. Rather than merely prompting a bland mechanization of the humanities, as critics suggest, this offers a fascinating epistemological challenge. It challenges us to rethink how human meaning and knowledge are constructed, and how they will be remade as the twenty-first century progresses. This requires a step-change in our epistemic, ethical, and collective assumptions as much as our methods.

These issues are distilled in laboratory settings. Sociologist of science Karin Knorr-Cetina (1999) notes that labs function as blended communities, uniting researchers with technicians and administrators. Access to equipment, chemicals, data, and funding, impact the production of knowledge as much as pure research questions. Issues of finance and organizational power compete with creativity and the need for diversity. Scientists have been gaining insight into this since the nineteenth century, fostering traditions (and injustices) that are well understood . (Adas, 1999). Digital humanities labs challenge us to create parallel traditions, appropriate to the humanities and GLAM communities. King's Digital Lab, launched in November 2016, embraces this challenge, positioning itself as an experiment in infrastructural as well as conceptual terms.

Postphenomenological perspectives current in the philosophy of technology and Science and Technology Studies (STS) help explain our approach. Writers like Donald Ihde (2009b) and Peter Kroes (Verbeek, 2010) embrace the entanglement of humans with technological tools, systems, and processes, and meditate on the material reality that informs our experience of the world. They reject the Heideggerean critique of technology, based on the modernist division of subject and object, in favour of acceptance that entanglement with culture, technology, and ideology is not only unavoidable but provides a window into the nature of human experience (Ihde 2009a). Rather than mechanizing the soul of the humanities, digital humanities laboratories force us to confront our entanglement with technology, along with its enabling infrastructures and ideologies.

King's Digital Lab

King’s Digital Lab (KDL) builds on a 30-year legacy in digital humanities at King’s College London. The lab represents one half of a new digital humanities model, in conjunction with the Department of Digital Humanities (DDH). KDL provides software development and infrastructure to departments in the faculties of Arts & Humanities and Social Science and Public Policy, focusing on software engineering and implementing the systems and processes needed to produce high quality digital scholarly outputs. The department focuses on delivering quality teaching to its postgraduate students and growing cohort of undergraduates, and producing research outputs in line with its status as an academic department. In combination KDL and DDH include close to 40 staff, host 160 projects, served 130 million webpage views in 2014, and teach over 200 students.

KDL’s business, operational, and human resource plans define its research values alongside its business and technological model. It has been established with 12 permanent full-time staff: director; project manager; analysts, software engineer, developers, designers; and systems manager. Contract and temporary staff are used as infrequently as possible, ideally to offer student experience in a software development environment. The HR model is explicitly designed to foster sustainable #alt-ac Research Software Engineering (RSE) career paths. All KDL team members, permanent or contract, are encouraged to use 10% of their time on personal projects (either on their own or in collaboration with colleagues), leading to work with Raspberry PIs, virtual reality, and an interest in maker culture.

The KDL model is based on deeply felt humanistic values, but reflects a level of organization required to manage entanglement with technological systems. The lab manages over 90 projects, including up to 20 that are active in some form, and ~5 million digital objects. The team manage over 180 virtual machines, on an infrastructure that uses 400 GB of RAM and 27TB of data. New infrastructure platforms are being trialed that include access to cloud and high performance computing options, in a nod towards a future working with big data, visualization, and simulation. The goal is to facilitate a transition from twentieth to twenty-first century modes of computationally intensive humanities and social science research, but to do so in consciously humanistic terms.

In a rejection of a simplistically ‘mechanized’ future, development tools are proactively managed and the lab has a ‘design first’ philosophy (Verbeek, 2006). This is partly a way to manage the considerable complexities that come with advanced DH research and the delivery and management of multiple projects, but it also recognizes that digital tools and methods are, at their best, beautiful. Aesthetic and quality values can extend from front-end design to technological platforms, code, tools, and methods. Data, similarly, can and should be beautiful, not only in adherence to appropriate technical standards but in its conformance to scholarly best practice and deep domain knowledge. Infrastructure and systems, likewise, are always compromised by their material design and ideology (Russell,

2014)    , but decisions to choose open source components and emphasize access and sustainability enhances control and agency (Friedman et al,

2015)    .

To reduce complexity and improve sustainability, the lab uses the Python programming language, and Django web framework in preference to other options. The full technology stack is consciously oriented towards open source components, and a balance between functionality and sustainability.


Figure 1

This level of organization helps us manage technology, but also promotes critical awareness: the current technological state of the lab is far from perfect, but it is under control and guided by known critical values. The concept of the ‘laboratory’ is important in this context. Rather than mechanization, it implies experimentation and risk, but also a certain intellectual seriousness. Scientists learned what a laboratory means to them over a century ago; the humanities and social sciences are only just starting to explore the implications. They are profound, not only in terms of the epistemological implications of putting tools between the researcher and the object of study (with inevitable technical constraints), but in terms of the ideological implications of using industry approaches to software development and financial management. Consciousness of this ensures the lab is sustainable, and can continue to support scholarship as well as the careers of our team members.

The technological inheritance of the lab is considerable. It includes over 90 live web-based projects, built using heterogeneous tools and programming languages by the (historic) Centre for Computing in the Humanities, (historic) Centre for eResearch in the Humanities, and the Department of Digital Humanities. Funding agencies paid for them to be built, but not to sustain them. Some Primary Investigators (PIs) have retired, or are no longer in contact with King's. Support for these projects is currently borne by the lab, generously supported by the Faculty of Arts & Humanities, but is being managed by an evolving archiving and sustainability plan that will assess each of the projects, determine their intellectual merit, and work with their owners to find the best way to maintain or archive them. The archiving and sustainability model used for this task will be published, as well as being included in the lab's Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC), to ensure sustainability will be considered on day one of every new project.

The organizational chart of King's Digital Lab is flat rather than hierarchical, reflecting an aspiration to be role-based and collaborative: a shared intellectual and scholarly space that exists to experiment with new approaches as well as deliver projects on time and budget. The scale is such that the lab design has needed to be outsourced to multiple authors: director and project manager working with line management to define the business plan and financial model, analysts and developers developing the software life-cycle, UI developer leading the design vision, systems manager ensuring the infrastructure and networking model is appropriate. Together, it amounts to something complex and technologically dependent, but redeemed through a philosophy of shared ownership and conscious experimentation.

Bibliography
Adas, M. (1989). Machines as the Measure of Men:

Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western

Dominance. Cornell Studies in Comparative History. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

Friedman, B., Kahn, P.H., and Borning, A. (2015).

“Value Sensitive Design and Information Systems.” In Human-Computer Interaction and Management Information Systems: Foundations. New York: Routledge.

Ihde, D. (2009) ‘Foreword', in Jan Kyrre Berg Olsen et al, New Waves in Philosophy of Technology. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p.xii.

Ihde, D. (2009). Postphenomenology and Technoscience: The Peking University Lectures. SUNY Series in the Philosophy of the Social Sciences. Albany: SUNY Press.

Knorr-Cetina, K. (1999). Epistemic Cultures: How the Sciences Make Knowledge. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.

Russell, A.L. (2014). Open Standards and the Digital Age: History, Ideology, and Networks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Verbeek, P. (2006). “Materializing Morality

Design Ethics and Technological Mediation.” Science, Technology & Human Values 31 (3): 361-80.

Verbeek, P. (2010). What Things Do: Philosophical Reflections on Technology, Agency, and Design.

Penn State Press.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/044/044.pdf",""
"3787","18","Re(a)d Wedding: A Comparative Discourse Analysis of Fan Responses to Game of Thrones","2","It is no exaggeration to say that HBO's Game of Thrones is more than just a television series or a successful brand: it is a transmedia system in the sense first used by Marsha Kinder (1991) and popularized by Henry Jenkins (2006), in which media-hopping networks of intertextualities extend the “storyworld” of an original production. Now spanning six seasons and 60 episodes, with an average global viewership (from its most recent season) of 25.1 million viewers per episode (Shepherd, 2016), it has spawned five video games, a graphic novel adaptation, several companion books, two rap albums, a 28-city orchestral tour, a wide variety of tabletop games, toys, merchandise and mobile apps, and countless podcasts, fanfics and other fan-based creations. Given the volume of content this represents, it is easy to forget that the television series itself is an adaptation of a book series with a pre-existing fandom. As such, the Game of Thrones storyworld represents a remarkably rich and challenging environment for fans old and new, who must negotiate an increasingly complex network of paratexts and intertexts in order to fully engage with its narratives.

In this sense, fans of the series represent an emerging model for cultural consumption that should be carefully explored. Transmedia systems, like that exemplified by Game of Thrones, are becoming increasingly prevalent (e.g., Star Wars, Harry Potter, The Walking Dead, the Marvel Cinematic Universe, etc); these systems demonstrate, in microcosm, the global challenge of managing the fire-hose flow of information in contemporary postdigital society. The study of how people, as fans, access and manage information within a transmedia system provides valuable insight that contributes not only to practitioners and scholars of the media industry, but to the wider context of cultural studies, by offering findings on this new model of the fan as consumer and information-user. For us, as digital humanists, defining the “transmedia fan” is of particular relevance as we seek to understand contemporary social and cultural transformations engendered by digital technologies.

Methodology
As a first step in defining the “transmedia fan”, the current project undertakes a comparative discourse analysis of online conversations of Game of Thrones fans. One of the most dramatic plot developments in the source material (Martin, 2000) was adapted to the screen in the penultimate episode of the third season,

“The Rains of Castamere” (Benioff & Weiss, 2013). Readers of the book series had long anticipated and dreaded the events of the “Red Wedding”, while fans of the show unfamiliar with Martin's narrative were

largely taken unawares by the pivotal episode.

Since the television series’ inception, writers at The AV Club have written two critical reviews for each episode: one for viewers familiar with the books (i.e., “Experts”) and one for viewers unfamiliar with the books and averse to “spoilers” (i.e., “Newbies”). What results are two completely separate reviews of “The Rains of Castamere” which in turn document the fans’ reactions to the episode in the form of user comment threads: one comment thread where fans were expected to be shocked by the outcome of the episode and one comment thread where fans had hotly anticipated it.

As a pilot project, the current work takes the content of both comment threads—a corpus of approximately 5,600 comments—and analyzes each thread separately using a qualitative coding method aligned with constructivist grounded theory (Charmaz, 2006). Through this analysis, a categorization of themes emerges illustrating tactics for negotiating intertexts and paratexts unique to each group of fans. These themes fall under two broad categories: sentimental negotiation (i.e., emotional responses) and tactical negotiation (i.e., cognitive, or reasoned responses). A comparison of categories and sub-categories between both groups provides preliminary findings to support an emergent model, or models, of the “transmedia fan”.

Conclusion
The present research represents a first step in exploring the impact of transmedia systems, as exemplified by Game of Thrones, through the study of fans. The question posed by this research is, fundamentally, an examination of how the problem of “access” is framed

in postdigital society from the perspective of the consumer. Future research should explore the negotiation tactics observed in transmedia fans using the principles of De Certeau's (1984) everyday life practice, in order to extend its application to the broader context of modern-day consumers. The current study will contribute to the development of further qualitative and quantitative research that will more clearly define the information behaviors of the transmedia fan. This project is of relevance to researchers in media studies, fan studies, information studies and digital humanities

Bibliography
Benioff, D. and Weiss, D.B (2013). “The Rains of Casta-mere”, Dir. David Nutter, aired June 2, 2013. In Game of Thrones [Television Series], Prod. David Benioff and D. B. Weiss. HBO.

Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide Through Qualitative Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

de Certeau, M. (1984). The Practice of Everyday Life. Trans. Steven Randall. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide. New York: New York University Press.

Kinder, M. (1991). Playing with Power in Movies, Television, and Video Games: From Muppet Babies to Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Martin, G. R. R. (2000). A Storm of Swords. New York: Voyager Books.

Shepherd, J. (2016). Game of Thrones season 6 ratings: Show brought in 25.1 million viewers on average per episode. July 19, 2016. The Independent. Retrieved from

http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertain-

ment/tv/news/game-of-thrones-season-6-ratings-show-

brought-in-251-million-viewers-on-average-per-episode-

a7144261.html","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/046/046.pdf",""
"3788","18","Corpora and Complex Networks as Cultural Critique: Investigating Race and Gender Bias in Graphic Narratives","10","Introduction

This paper reports on efforts to integrate cultural critique into a DH project that analyzes a corpus of book-length comics, or graphic narratives. We argue that the analysis of issues such as gender, race, and class should be central to digital scholarship that aims to become accessible to the public and appear relevant to the humanities at large. Therefore, cultural criticism needs to be integrated into digital projects from the very beginning. Our research takes up calls to “design for difference” and to develop visualizations that “enact [the] humanistic properties” of complexity and contradiction (McPherson and Drucker, 242). Part I looks at the construction of a corpus of graphic novels, memoirs, and non-fiction. Basing our corpus on academic databases, international comics awards, literary histories, and online booksellers provides insight into institutional gender and racial biases, as well as the opportunity to address them. Part II takes up Drucker's criticism of network analysis as reductive and static. We present networks of a pilot corpus that pay attention to social inequality and replace reductive edges with distinct forms of communication. Part II exemplifies our intention to make DH scholarship relevant to a wider public. The broad appeal of comics presents an ideal point of entry for people who might not otherwise be interested in digital research. We apply the popular Bechdel Test (proposed by Alison Bechdel in a comic strip but used mainly to study film and TV), to highlight the male bias of graphic narratives.

Corpus Analysis of Institutional Gender and Racial Bias

The traditional canon of literary studies has long been criticized for its exclusion of female, non-

Western, and minority authors. As a much younger field, comics studies lacks the extensive canons and bibliographies produced by literary historians. This does not mean that similar biases are absent, however. As part of a larger project, we have built a monitor corpus of book-length comics by drawing on sources that include academic databases (JSTOR, MLA), international comics awards, literary and cultural histories of comics, news media coverage, and Amazon.com (Dunst et al.). Of 220 titles included in the corpus by fall 2016, 84 per cent were written by male authors and 73 per cent were identified as white. Biases are unevenly distributed:

Gender per Source


Figure 1: Gender of issue's author grouped by book's source


Figure 2: Ethnicity of issue's author grouped by book's source

The absence of reliable bibliographies means that the size, gender and racial make-up of the population remains uncertain. Yet given the considerable differences between sources, institutional biases appear likely. To address these existing biases, two steps were undertaken. A survey sent to comics scholars (five female, five male) asked them to suggest between five and ten graphic narratives written by women that should be included in the corpus. Of a total of 53 suggestions by nine respondents, nine volumes were listed by more than one scholar and 12 had already been included in the corpus, while 14 fell outside of the sampling frame. 16 new works were added, bringing the ratio of female author to slightly less than 22 per cent. The second step includes a comparison of the monitor corpus and collections held at the Library of Congress and the Billy Ireland Cartoon Library at

Ohio State University. By checking authors in these

collections against a list of names that were assigned genders by the US Social Security Administration, we compare their gender make-ups and will potentially add to our corpus.

Gender and Interaction Types in SemiAutomatic Networks

Network analysis has steadily grown as an area of research since Franco Moretti's visualization of Shakespeare's Hamlet (Moretti). Scholars have focused on automatic extraction and statistical analysis of data from novels, plays, and intellectual networks (Elson, Dames & McKeown; van de Camp & van den Bosch). Recent efforts include computing main characters and operationalizing dynamic networks (Jannidis et al; Karsdorp & van den Bosch; Xanthos et al). While these networks answer some of Drucker's criticism, the approaches remain reductive. Limiting interactions to undifferentiated edges appears particularly unsatisfying for visual media, in which communication takes visibly different forms: characters may look at and touch each other, or appear together in a panel. Despite recent advances, computer vision has trouble recognizing non-perspectival drawings and applying OCR to handwritten comics fonts remains fraught with difficulty (Dunst et al; Rigaud 2013 & 2015). As the automatic extraction of network data is some way off for comics, we focus on networks that are semantically enriched via manual annotation to engage with the central questions posed by cultural studies. The following network (Figure 3) of Karasik and Mazzuchelli's City of Glass combines different types of interaction with gender assignations:


Figure 3: Interactions and gender assignations in City of Glass

These networks and the SSA name database allow us to study the relation between authors' gender and its fictional representation. Male characters are consistently more central to works by male authors. Notably, female characters show higher betweenness centrality in narratives written by women, as Figure 4 shows.

Semi-Automated Bechdel-Test for GNML-Annotated Graphic Narratives

Efforts to automate the Bechdel Test have been limited to plays and film scripts and led to poor results (Lawrence; Agarwal et al). Three conditions need to be met to pass the test: 1. At least two female characters appear in the story. 2. There is at least one conversation between women. 3. The conversation is not about a man. Our XML-annotation language GNML, an extension of John Walsh's CBML, allows for automatically checking if graphic narratives fail



factorjvariable)

female

Figure 4: Centralities of character's genders by author's gender

criteria 1 and 2, and aids evaluation of whether the remaining narratives pass criteria 3. We decided not to rely on error-prone full automation but to use semi-automatic processes that aid human annotators/analyzers in retrieving quality results. GNML annotations contain information on all character occurrences, the gender of a character, and their interactions. As discussed by Agarwal, even sophisticated machine learning approaches lead to unreliable results in deciding whether a conversation centers on a man. Therefore, for criteria 3, we simplify decision-making by providing the annotator with a ranked list of dialogues, based on the number of male names or male personal pronouns per conversation. Significantly, even if a conversation's focus on a male character could be identified automatically, the test would still be error-prone. Conversations may span several panels or pages and automatic separation of these conversations remains difficult.

Conclusions and Future Research

We present corpus metadata and semantically-enriched networks of a widely popular but understudied medium that is only beginning to attract attention by DH researchers. These methods are used to analyze gender and racial biases and suggest ways in which DH can appeal to scholars in cultural studies and the wider public. Future work includes expanding pilot studies to cover our entire corpus by integrating advances in OCR and computer vision and thus working towards fully-automatic extraction and analysis. In the meantime, our networks may function as conceptual models exploring how humanistic forms of complexity can be introduced into network analysis. Analyzing and addressing racial biases against minority authors presents hurdles of a different sort. A repeat of our survey for minority authors appears unproblematic but assigning racial identity to names or authors could be viewed as unethical and, given the international nature of our corpus, would have to consider the complex relationship of racial, national, and regional identities.

Bibliography

Agarwal, A., Zheng, J., Kamath, S., Balasubramanian, S., and Ann Dey, S. “Key Female Characters in Film Have More to Talk About Besides Men: Automating the Bechdel Test”. Human Language Technologies: The 2015 Annual Conference of the North American Chapter of the ACL. 830-40.

Bechdel,    A.    (2014) “The Rule”.

http://dykestowatchoutfor.com/wp-

content/uploads/2014/05/The-Rule-cleaned-up.jpg, accessed: 25. 10. 2016.

Drucker, J. (2016) “Graphical Approaches to the Digital Humanities”. A New Companion to Digital Humanities. Ed. S. Schreibman, R. Siemens, & J. Unsworth. Oxford: Wiley. 238-50.

Dunst, A., Hartel, R., Hohenstein, S., and Laubrock, J.

(2016) “Corpus Analyses of Multimodal Narrative: The Example of Graphic Narrative”. Conference Abstracts DH 2016. 178-9.

Elson, D.; Dames, N. and McKeown, K.R. (2010). “Extracting Social Networks from Literary Fiction”. Proceedings of the 48th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics. 138-47.

Karsdorp, F. and van den Bosch, A. (2016). “The Structure and Evolution of Story Networks”. Royal Society Open Science 3: 1-15.

Jannidis, F., Reger, I., Krug, M., Weimer, L., Macharowsky, L., Puppe, F. (2016) “Comparison of Methods for the Identification of Main Characters in German Novels”. Conference Abstracts DH 2016. 57882.

Lawrence, F. (2011) “SPARQLing Conversation:

Automating the Bechdel-Wallace Test”. Available at

http://nht.ecs.soton.ac.uk/2011/papers/12-

flawrence.pdf. (Accessed: 25 October 2016).

Moretti, F. (2011) “Network Theory, Plot Analysis”. Stanford Literary Lab Pamphlets 2.

McPherson, T. (2014) “Designing for Difference.” Differences 25:177-188.

Rigaud, C., Karatzas, D., van der Weijer, J., Burie, J.C., and Ogier, J.M. (2013). “Automatic Text Localization in Scanned Comic Books”. International Conference on Computer Vision Theory and Applications 2013.

Rigaud, C., Guerin, C., Karatzas, D., Burie, J.C., and Ogier, J.M. (2015). “Knowledge-Driven Understanding

of Images in Comics Books”. International Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition 18: 199-221.

Van de Camp, M. & van den Bosch, A. “The Socialist Network”. Decision Support Systems 53 (2012). 761-69.

Walsh, J. (2012) “Comic Book Markup Language: An

Introduction and Rationale”. Digital Humanities Quarterly 6.

Xanthos, A., Pante, I., Rochat, Y., Grandjean, M. (2016). “Visualizing the Dynamics of Character Networks”.

Conference Abstracts DH 2016. 417-19.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/047/047.pdf",""
"3789","18","A Framework For Historical Russian Flu Epidemic Exploration From German Newspapers","9","Introduction
The Russian flu 1889-1893 epidemic reached Europe from the East in November and December of 1889 and spread over the whole globe in the space of a few months. It was one of the first epidemics of influenza that occurred during the period of the rapid development of bacteriology. In addition, it was the first ever epidemic that was publicly and intensively narrated in the developing daily press, especially those

published in German located in Germany and Austria

(Miroslawska et al., 2013). However, as stated in (Valtat et al., 2011), very limited information about the epidemiology of this influenza has been found, which was based on materials published in English. While a large amount of news about the flu was published in German, it is hard to find a study on the epidemic based on German documents. These motivate our goal in this work, which is to build a framework from German materials to support research community getting more insights into the disease. Our framework consists of different components including data collection and cleaning, corpus creation, and associated tools for analysis. The framework is pictorially shown in Figure 1.


Figure 1. Russian flu exploration framework

Related work
There is limited information about the epidemiology of the Russian flu epidemic 1889-1893. In (Miroslawska et al., 2013), the authors conducted an analysis to examine the impact of the epidemic in 14 cities in Europe. Their results showed that the epidemic spread quickly from Saint Petersburg, Russia to other parts of Europe with a speed of around 400 km/week and reached the American continent only 70 days after the original peak in Saint Petersburg. In addition, some detailed information about case fatality ratio and the median basic reproduction was given also. However, their work was based on reports of only two local daily newspapers in Poznan, which implies some uncertainty due to the lack of data coverage. Val-leron et al., 2010 presented a case study on the trans-missibility and geographic spread of the Russian flu. A similar approach was followed by Valtat et al., 2011 to examine the age distribution of the affected people and the mortality rate of this flu event. In a recent study, Ewing et al., 2016 collected contemporary reports and explored a digital humanities approach to interpret information dissemination regarding this particular epidemic. The limitations common to all of these studies are the heterogeneity and lack of coverage of data used.

Table 1: Keywords used to collect high recall collection of newspaper issues containing stories about influenza epidemic


Data preparation

ID

Keyword

Variation

1

Influenza

Influenza Jnsolvenza

2

Epidemie

3

Influenza-Epidemie

Influenzaepidemie

4

Grippe

5

erkrankt

ertrankt

6

Pathologie

Data collection

Data used in this work was collected from the Austrian Newspapers Online (ANNO) repository. ANNO contains almost all issues from many newspapers in Austria and Germany during the time the Russian flu epidemic took place. The data are accessible in both scanned PDF and OCR formats. These are appropriate for our goal in terms of extracting Russian flu related stories from noisy OCR text and checking against the scanned PDF content for validity. To establish the data collection, the keywords listed in Table 1 (along with some misspelt variations of keywords, which were included due to OCR misrecognition) were used to search the ANNO repository The search query was constrained by the time interval from 1889 to 1893. After preprocessing the search results we obtained 4,806 issues, which become the candidates to extract stories about the Russian flu.

Noise reduction

Due to the low quality of the scanned images of newspaper issues, a lot of noise is present in the corresponding OCR texts. The word error rate (WER) computed on sample texts is around 18.9%. Our goals here were to remove noise and correct misrecognized words as much as possible but at the same time manage keep the language as it was so that the derived corpus pertains its historical perspective. It is noted that modern German is rather different in writing and usage of many words due to the language's evolution. To cope with these issues, we adopted a snapshot of the Google-2-gram dataset for German from 1885 to 1895. The dataset was used to train our bigram-based model for word segmentation and spell checking. After running the model, the word error rate was reduced to 5.5%.

Text block classification

A difficult challenge for the task of extracting complete stories is that recognized OCR text blocks are very often not aligned in the same order as they were in the original image of an issue. Our approach was to automatically pre-classify OCR text blocks to identify the ones that are more likely part of some flu-related stories. Then we developed a tool to effectively help annotators extract complete Russian flu stories. For this, we adopted the KL-divergence based technique developed in (Schneider, 2004) to build a classifier. The model was trained with 245 OCR text paragraphs and obtained recall of 81.5% and precision of 68.6%. Basically, the output of the classifier can be used to help annotators start working on an issue by looking at suggested text blocks first, from which they can then select paragraphs that are part of the same story.

Extraction tool

After completing the high-recall automatic pre-extraction, we implemented a Web-based tool for annotators to help build our corpus collaboratively. The main GUI of our tool is shown in Figure 2. After having annotators work through the whole collection, we obtained a corpus of 639 news articles about Russian flu from 42 newspapers, identified with 85.7% agreement between annotators.


Figure 2. Main GUI of our tool for Russian flu story extraction

Geo and temporal information extraction

Given that location and time are helpful features for exploring the development of the epidemic, we extracted and normalized geographic names and temporal expressions occurring in the corpus. For geographic names, the Geodict tool created by Pete Warden (2011) was adapted to work with country and city names in German. HeidelTime (Strotgen and Gertz, 2013) was used for temporal information extraction and normalization.

Indexing and search engine

We created a search engine on the corpus to support research community in searching for information. The searching GUI is shown in Figure 3.


Searching results:

There are 77 stories found!

1    Extracted from newspaper issue: APR 10-12-1889 by annotator: admin

Telegramme der.presse"". Prag, 9. December. In Folge eines speciellenFalles, daß einGemeinde-Amt die Annahme einer in ungarischer Sprache abgefaßten Eingabeverweigerte,gabder Statthalter von Mähren einen Erlaß hinaus, wonach sämmt sämmtliche liehe sämmtliche autonomen Behörden die Eing...

2    Extracted from newspaper issue: APR 12-12-1889 by annotator: admin

Lieber Me Infiueiya. Wien, 11. December. Ein hiesiger Arzt, der an derjnfluenza"" erkranktwar, aber nach kaum viertägiger Krankheit vollkommen genesenist, beschreibt uns den Verlauf der Krankheit, den er an sich selbst beobachtet hat, wie folgt: Bevor die Krankheit zum Ausbruch gekommen war, ist ein...

Figure 3. Russian flu story searching module

Exploration tools and sample results
We provided associated tools along with the corpus. The corpus timeline provides statistics on the number of stories in the corpus across time and news outlet. In addition, it provides interactive visualization. As an example shown in Figure 4, during the peak time in late December 1889 and January 1890, extensive news about the influenza was published.


Figure 4. Press attention on the flu and topic changes over time

Newspapers were trying to narrate the outbreak as fast as possible. Words that appear significantly in the stories include influenza, epidemic, krankheit (disease) and erkrankt (sick). A short time after this peak period, fewer reports were published about the outbreak of the flu and communities started discussing the treatment more. Names of doctors appearing in the news (e.g., Leyden, Proust) together with words describing symptoms such as fieber (fever), kopfschmerzen (headache), appetitlosigkeit (anorexia). Furthermore, by exploring word collocations one can find even more interesting information. Figure 5 shows a frequent pattern of word collocation describing the influenza. The words heute (today) and gestern (yesterday) indicate that news about the flu is updated every day; and the word janner (January) implies that the flu outbreaks happened during winter.


Figure 5: A frequent pattern of word collocation extracted from our corpus

Figure 6 presents the co-occurrences of three words infuenza, erkrankt, and london over time. It shows a similar trending pattern of the words infuenza and erkrankt being used to note about the flu. In addition, one can observe that the peak time of the flu in London was from late December 1889 to early January 1890 as indicated in (Honigsbaum, 2010; Goff, 2011). This suggests that the temporal distribution of terms can give us more insights into the evolution of the epidemic.


Figure 6: Similar trending pattern of the two words influenza and erkrankt, and the peak time of the flu in London

The framework also supports studying the evolution of the flu over time and geographic regions. We employed the method introduced in (Abdelhaq et al., 2013) for localized event detection. Figure 7 shows three snapshots describing the development of the epidemic over cities in Europe during the peak time from late November 1889 to January 1890.

Summary


We have introduced a framework for research communities to explore the historical Russian flu 1889-


1893 from German newspapers. We developed a tool for collaborative annotators to help build our corpus. We further presented some interesting insights that we achieved from analyzing articles in the corpus. By making the corpus and associated tools available, we provide useful contributions to the community in support of conducting studies on influenza epidemics and evaluating temporal IR models.


Figure 7. Evolution of the Russian flu over geographic regions during its peak time

Acknowledgements
This research is supported by the German Research Foundation (DFG) for the project “Tracking the Russian Flu in U.S. and German Medical and Popular Reports, 1889-1893” on Grant No. NE 638/13-1. We also thank you the Austrian National Library for supporting us in collecting data.

Bibliography
Abdelhaq, H., Sengstock, C., Gertz, M..(2013). “EvenTweet:

Online Localized Event Detection from Twitter.” Proc.

VLDB Endowment Journal, 6(12):1326-4.

Aramaki, F., Maskawa, S., Morita, M..(2011). “Twitter

Catches the Flu: Detecting Influenza Epidemics Using

Twitter.” In proceedings of the Conference on Empirical

Methods in Natural Language Processing. pp. 1568-9.

Austrian National Library. (2011) Austrian Newspapers

Online. Repository online at http://anno.onb.ac.at

Ewing, E.T., Kimmerly, V. and Ewing-Nelson, S. (2016).

“Look Out for ‘La Grippe': Using Digital Humanities Tools to Interpret Information Dissemination during the Russian Flu, 1889—90.” Medical history,60(1):129-3.

Honigsbaum, M.(2010). “The Great Dread: Cultural and

Psychological Impacts and Responses to the Russian Influenza in the United Kingdom 1889-1893”.Social history of medicine,23: 299-21.

Kempinska-Mirostawska,    B., and WoYniak-Kosek,

A.(2013). “The influenza epidemic of 1889-90 in selected European cities - a picture based on the reports of two Poznan daily newspapers from the second half of the nineteenth century.” Med Science Monitor,19:1131-11.

Le Goff, J.M.(2011). “Diffusion of influenza during the winter of 1889-1890 in Switzerland.” Jenus, 67(2): 77-23.

Paul, M.J. and Dredze, M.. (2011). “You Are What You Tweet: Analyzing Twitter for Public Health.” In proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Weblogs and Social Media. pp. 265-8.

Schneider, K.-M.(2004). “A New Feature Selection Score for Multinomial Naive Bayes Text Classification Based on KL-divergence.” Proceedings of the ACL 2004 on Interactive Poster and Demonstration Sessions. pp. 186-4.

Strotgen, J. and Gertz, M..(2013). “Multilingual and crossdomain temporal tagging.” Language Resources and Evaluation, 47(2): 269-30.

Valleron, A.J., Cori, A., Valtat, S., Meurisse, S., Fabrice Carrat, F., and Boelle, P.Y.. (2010). “Transmissibility and geographic spread of the 1889 influenza pandemic.” In proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS). pp. 8778-4.

Valtat, S., Cori, A., Carrat, F., and Valleron, A.-J. (2011). “Age distribution of cases and deaths during the 1889 influenza pandemic.”Vaccine, 29(2): B6-B10.

Warden, P. (2010) GeoDict. Accessible via Github at https://github.com/petewarden/geodict","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/048/048.pdf",""
"3790","18","Bernard of Clairvaux and Nicholas of Montiéramey: Tracing the Secretarial Trail with Stylometry","9","","","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/049/049.pdf",""
"3791","18","Regrowing Egyptian Cults","10","Introduction
Historical sources provide us only a fragmentary testimony of historical processes. The survival of specific sources and the information they contain is very often determined by chance. Because of these circumstances, the reconstruction of many historical processes remains problematic or, in some cases, almost impossible. In addition to these problems, some long-term historical processes are very difficult to recognize from the perspective of “event history” due

to their gradual nature. The interdisciplinary project

GEHIR (Generative Historiography of Religion) at Ma-saryk University strives to, within the framework of the historically oriented study of religions, adopt innovative methods used in the study of the dynamics of complex systems, i.e. methods including mathematical and geographical modelling, agent-based simulations or network analysis. Within the study of historical processes these formalized methods are conceptualized as an innovative third way through which the limitations of the traditional inductive analysis of historical sources and deductive application of social-scientific and cognitive theories to social and historical phenomena can be overcome. In this paper we would like to introduce the results from a case study within the GEHIR which focused on uncovering the possible factors influencing the early spread of the cults of Isis and Sarapis in the ancient Mediterranean.

Methods
In this project, traditional methods of historical research such as critical analysis of the archeological and literary sources or categorization of the historical evidence in the form of relational database were supplemented by the following computational methods:

•    Network analysis is currently used in various areas of historical research, mainly to understand and analyse complex structures, e. g. trading cities in state, social groups. There are a number of historical research papers that have used network analysis; the work of Rivers et al (2012) should be mentioned.

•    Environmental/geographical modelling

is used to reconstruct the potential of locality within an examined phenomenon that is even partially spatially-dependent. It offers a unique opportunity for researchers to understand how spatial conditions are related to other events. The work of Turchin et al (2013) and others could be used as an illustration of such methods.

• Mathematical statistical analysis aims to find hidden logical patterns and existing correlations within multiple phenomena that may subsequently be interpreted in the context of the research questions. Various methods and approaches can be used, including clustering, multidimensional analyses, and exploratory data analysis.

Case study: Egyptian cults in the Aegean Sea region

Early in the Ptolemaic era, in the period between ca. 305 - 167 BCE, the Egyptian cults, particularly those of Isis and Sarapis, spread successfully to ports in the ancient Mediterranean. The reasons behind this process are, however, only partially understood. The original and still respected hypotheses in the academic discussion emphasize either the maritime trade (Fraser, 1960) or Ptolemaic political propaganda (Cumont, 1911:78-80) as key factors in the spread of these cults. Both of these claims are supported by historical evidence. Ptolemaic Egypt was one of the main exporters of grain, Isis was a patron goddess of sailors and many cities in the ancient Mediterranean had close diplomatic relations with the Ptolemies.

To specify our area of interest, this research is mainly focused on the early spread of the Egyptian cults in the area of the Aegean Sea, particularly the Aegean islands. There are several reasons for this selection:

• the main trading routes between Alexandria and continental Greece passed through that particular area with the Aegean islands as potential places of Egyptian interest.

• the first Ptolemies were politically invested in the Aegean using the islands as strategic locations for military bases and administered the Island league.

• islands are more isolated worlds and thus more suitable for modelling.

In order to clarify these hypotheses, we sequentially applied the described computational methods to the issues of maritime transport network reconstruction, approximation of the urgency of importing goods, evaluation of positional advantages of particular islands, and statistical correlation of different modelled factors.

The first task was to reconstruct the maritime transport network, as this was the backbone of ancient Mediterranean trade. For this purpose, Pascal Arnaud's collection of ancient maritime routes were scanned and geo-referenced in GIS software and all the routes within the area of interest were redrawn.

This network was then validated and modified by the

location of ancient ports, the AWMC map and geometries of islands. Afterwards, we were able to use network analysis to calculate centrality values in order to approximate attractiveness of harbours.

As strategic positioning is not the only determinant of trade intensity, we also decided to estimate the ratio of agricultural potential and the number of inhabitants on each island. This can then be used as an approximation of the urgency of goods import. Food production was measured based on the geographical environmental model we created. Various approaches to population estimates were put forward and discussed. We decided to use historical censuses from the 19th century, as they were taken before the demographic transition in the area and the population values should more or less correlate.

In order to validate the hypothesis emphasizing the Ptolemaic political actions as a key factor of the spread of the cults, we also needed to define the political factors. The Ptolemaic garrisons dispersed in the Aegean Sea are of great importance in our research because many of them were maintained for a long period of time and could thus increase the chance of spreading the cults via Ptolemaic soldiers. The second potential factor influencing the spread of the Egyptian cults is the existence of political leagues. In the context of the Aegean Sea, Ptolemies led the Island league from ca. 287 to 250s BCE. Again, this political factor is relevant because it is geographically delimited and lasted for a longer period of time.

The final and perhaps the most important dataset includes the locations of the Egyptian temples and artefacts from the above specified spatio-temporal frame (see Figure 1), collected from the RICIS catalogue (Bricault, 2005).


Figure 1: Map of the Aegean Sea region and locations of relevant temples (blue dots) and artefacts (red dots) of Egyptian cults, as well as Ptolemaic military garrison placements (stars).

Geographical analysis was used to calculate distances from each island to the closest army base and temple in order to evaluate spatial dispositions.

The final part of the research is the statistical analysis of data obtained in previous steps. At that point we had a table containing the list of islands with their attributes based on the data (e.g. if an island occupied a strategic position on the network, or if it had a Ptolemaic garrison) and the goal was to find a solid and interpretable mathematical model that would be able to find and explain relations between these values, mainly their dependency on the distance to the closest temple on the network.

Results and Conclusions

The mathematical model we selected using the statistical analysis of covariance uncovered a few patterns within our datasets. The results suggest that there is a strong correlation between the placement of the Ptolemaic garrisons and the dissemination of Egyptian temples and artefacts in the Aegean sea. The interpretation would, in this case, be that the Egyptian military forces potentially played a significant role in the spread of the cults. However, the analysis also showed that in areas far from these military ba-

ses the islands with higher trade attractiveness intensified the presence of the Egyptian cults.

The main task of this paper is to show how we can

“regrow” the Egyptian cults in space and time using innovative computational methods from multiple disciplines. This allows us to validate the selected hypotheses from the academic discussion constructed by using traditional historiographical methods. We see great potential for using these approaches in the other case studies of GEHIR, as well as in historiography in general.

Bibliography

Arnaud, P. (2005). Les routes de la navigation antique: itinéraires en Méditerranée. Editions Errance.

Bricault, L. (2005). Recueil des inscriptions concernant les cultes isiaques: RICIS. Paris: Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres.

Cumont, F. (1911). The Oriental religions in Roman paganism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Fraser, P. M. (1960). Two Studies on the Cult of Serapis in the Hellenistic World. CWK Gleerup.

Rivers, R., Knappett, C., and Evans, T. (2013). “What makes a site important? Centrality, gateways and gravity.” In Knappett, C. (ed), Network Analysis in Archaeology: New Approaches to Regional Interaction, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp.125-150.

Turchin, P., Currie T. E., Turner, E. A. L. and Gavrilets, S. (2013). War, space, and the evolution of Old World complex societies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(41), pp.1638416389.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/050/050.pdf",""
"3792","18","L’Extraction Automatique des Motifs Dramaturgiques dans les Séquences de Deux Scènes","9","La structuration intrinsèque du texte théâtral en une suite de scènes réunissant chacune un nombre défini de personnages offre des potentialités infinies pour l'analyse quantitative. Ce domaine a déjà fait l'objet de nombreuses études, notamment dans la lignée des travaux de S. Marcus, qui montre qu'une pièce de théâtre peut être modélisée sous la forme d'une matrice binaire où chaque personnage est codé comme une suite de 0 et 1 selon qu'il est absent ou présent dans les scènes successives qui divisent le texte (Marcus 1973).

Jusqu'à présent, l'analyse des matrices dramatiques s'est notamment concentrée sur le nombre de scènes où apparaît un personnage, son nombre d'entrées, les différentes relations de coprésence qu'il entretient avec d'autres personnages, etc. (Marcus 1972; Lafon 1990; Ilsemann 1997) Ces paramètres permettent de qualifier de manière globale les personnages et l'intrigue en appliquant à la dramaturgie des outils empruntés à l'analyse statistique ou à l'analyse des réseaux. Cependant, selon cette approche, l'enchaînement des scènes et l'ordre dans lequel elles sont disposées ne sont pas pris en compte. Ils le sont en revanche dans les travaux de M. Dinu sur la stratégie des personnages, qui cherchent à calculer la probabilité de la réalisation d'une configuration de personnages donnée en fonction de celles qui la précèdent (Dinu 1984).

Nous voudrions ici présenter une nouvelle approche qui, comme celle M. Dinu, prend en compte la progression du texte, mais adopte le point de vue surplombant qui est celui du dramaturge au moment où il dresse le plan de sa pièce et s'intéresse avant tout aux techniques d'écriture dramatique. Nous introduisons

pour cela la notion de motif dramaturgique, défini

comme une séquence d'entrées et de sorties de personnages, abstraction faite de l'identité de ces derniers. Deux suite de scènes ne faisant intervenir aucun personnage commun ou appartenant à des pièces différentes peuvent donc instancier le même motif.

Prenons comme exemple la matrice dramatique de

Mélite de Corneille

Actes    I    II    ni    iv    v

Scènes    1234512345678123456123456789    10    123456

TIRCIS    1110100010011011100000000000    0    000111

ERASTE    1110011101110000000000011011    0    110001

MÉLITE    0100001000011000000111100000    0    000111

CHLORIS 0001100010000000111011100000 1 001011 PHILANDRE 0001100000100110001000000110 0 001000 CLITON    0000000001100000000000101000    0    100000

LA NOURRICE 0000000000000000000100100000 0 110001 LISIS    0000000000000000000001100000    1    000000

Les scènes III, 1-3, III, 3-5 et IV, 7-9 instancient un même motif, représenté en gras, qui peut être exprimé sous la forme d'une sous-matrice

(1    1    0A

ou sous la forme plus lisible d'une séquence codifiée de caractères où A désigne le personnage qui apparaît en premier, et B celui qui apparaît en second, les scènes étant délimitées par “/” et les personnages, à l'intérieur d'une scène, par “-” :

A/A-B/B

La comparaison de ce motif avec un autre motif de trois scènes et deux personnages permet de comprendre l'intérêt de cette méthode. Ce motif, que l'on rencontre dans Mélite, II, 1-3, est le suivant :

(1 1 1\

V0    1    0S

soit

A/A-B/A

Notre hypothèse est qu'indépendamment de la longueur de chaque scène composant le motif et de la

répartition de la parole entre les personnages, chaque

motif présente toujours, dans la diversité de ses réalisations, des enjeux comparables. En l'occurrence, les

deux motifs que nous venons de citer illustrent deux techniques de composition bien distinctes. Soit un personnage reste en permanence sur le plateau, soit le dramaturge renouvelle entièrement le personnel dramatique, profitant de la scène centrale pour faire se croiser les personnages qui se relaient sous les yeux des spectateurs. Dans le premier cas, un personnage sert de pivot à l'action, et en rencontre successivement plusieurs autres. Ce faisant, il guide l'attention du public. Dans le second, le point de vue du spectateur dépasse celui de l'ensemble des personnages : il en sait et en voit plus que chacun d'eux individuellement.

L'étude des motifs dramaturgiques devient encore plus intéressante quand on regroupe ensemble les personnages qui, à l'intérieur d'un motif, ont une distance scénique nulle (Marcus, 1972), c'est-à-dire sont toujours présents et absents en même temps. Ainsi, Mélite, I, 1-3 repose sur le motif

Or malgré le fait qu'il y a deux personnages présents en permanence, et non un seul, ce motif n'est pas fondamentalement différent de

111 0 10

Dans les deux cas, une confrontation centrale est entourée par deux scènes présentant un caractère plus “privé”, qui permettent de comparer l'attitude d'un personnage ou groupe de personnages avant et après une rencontre avec un autre personnage ou groupe de personnages et de faire entendre le discours qu'ils tiennent en l'absence (et bien souvent au sujet) de ce dernier.

Méthodologiquement, cette approche est comparable à l'étude des motifs syntaxiques développée dans le cadre de la stylistique computationnelle (Boukhaled 2015), si ce n'est que chaque élément du motif se définit non par le choix unique d'une classe de mot, mais

par le choix multiple d'un ensemble de personnages.

Elle possède donc a priori les mêmes applications, notamment la qualification du style d'un auteur (entendu ici comme style de composition, et non comme style d'écriture, et dont l'unité de base n'est pas le mot, mais la scène).

Nous avons constitué une base de données comportant tous les motifs de moins de huit scènes extraits d'un corpus de plus de 200 pièces de théâtre françaises écrites entre 1630 et 1680. Le choix de cette période se justifie par son importance dans l'histoire du théâtre français, et par le renouvellement des techniques dramaturgiques qu'elle permet d'étudier (passage du théâtre “baroque” au théâtre “classique”). Pour interroger cette base, nous avons développé un moteur de recherche qui, pour un motif donné, renvoie sa fréquence d'apparition sur l'ensemble du corpus, son évolution, ainsi que sa répartition par genre et par auteur.

Il ne s’agira pas ici de présenter les détails techniques de ce travail, mais de livrer les premières conclusions auxquelles nous sommes parvenus. Une des pistes possibles pour exploiter cette base de données est d’étudier l’évolution et la répartition de l’ensemble des motifs possibles pour un nombre donné de personnages et un nombre donné de scènes. Pour cette première étude, nous nous intéresserons aux motifs composés de deux scènes. La combinatoire est facile à produire. Si l’on regroupe les personnages qui sont présents et absents en même temps, seuls trois personnages ou groupes de personnages peuvent intervenir (un quatrième personnage aurait nécessairement une distance scénique nulle avec un autre), et quatre motifs sont possibles:

A/A-B

A-B/A

A/B

A-B/A-C

On constate, dans notre corpus, la disparition progressive du motif A/B (aucun personnage commun entre deux scènes contiguës), qui s’explique par l’exigence croissante de continuité dramatique. Un autre phénomène est plus inattendu et n’a pas encore, à notre connaissance, été vraiment étudié : deux scènes sont plus souvent reliées par une entrée (A/A-B) que par une sortie (A-B/A). Autrement dit, les personnages ont tendance à entrer séparément, mais à sortir de manière groupée, ce que nous tenterons d’expliquer en convoquant la notion de “tension dramatique”. Enfin, on constate une légère augmentation puis une légère baisse des entrées et des sorties simultanées (A-B/A-C), dont nous essaierons de rendre compte en mettant ce phénomène en corrélation avec l’apparition d’une technique d’enchaînement plus complexe reposant sur un tuilage des entrées et des sorties à l’échelle de trois scènes successives : pour relier deux dialogues différents, les dramaturges préfèrent de plus en plus intercaler une scène de transition à trois personnages (A-B/A-B-C/A-C) plutôt que faire entrer et sortir deux personnages en même temps sans que ceux-ci ne se parlent (A-B/A-C).

Ces considérations générales nous mèneront à étudier le détail de la répartition des quatre motifs par genre et par auteur. Enfin, nous distinguerons les scènes qui appartiennent au même acte et celles qui se situent de part et d’autre d’un entracte. Les entractes sont en effet rarement pris en compte dans l’analyse des matrices dramatiques, alors qu’ils jouent un rôle essentiel. Une des règles de la dramaturgie classique

voudrait par exemple qu'un personnage présent à la fin d'un acte ne le soit pas au début du suivant (Aubignac 1657). Une étude statistique vérifie en partie cette règle, mais montre aussi qu'elle est très fréquemment enfreinte.

Toutes ces questions visent à définir une norme d'écriture (pour une époque, un genre, un auteur). Mais les outils numériques ne se limitent pas à l'analyse quantitative : ils enrichissent également l'analyse littéraire en permettant de découvrir à l'intérieur d'un vaste corpus des cas particuliers, qu'il serait quasiment impossible de repérer sans procéder à une extraction automatique. On se penchera ainsi sur les pièces où l'un des quatre motifs est sur- ou sous-représenté, en se demandant quels sont les enjeux de cette anomalie pour la conduite de l'action et l'effet produit sur le spectateur.

Bibliographie

Aubignac, abbé d' (1657). La Pratique du théâtre. Paris: Sommaville.

Boukhaled, A., Frontini, F. et Ganascia, J.-G. (2015). Une Mesure d'intérêt à base de surreprésentation pour l'extraction des motifs syntaxiques stylistiques. Actes de la 22e conférence sur le Traitement Automatique des Langues Naturelles.

Dinu, M. (1984). Entropy and Prediction in the Study of Theatre. Poetics 13, pp. 57-70.

Ilsemann, H. (1995). Computerized Drama Analysis. Literary and Linguistic Computing 10(1), pp. 11-21.

Lafon, D. (1990). Le Chiffre scénique dans la dramaturgie moliéresque. Ottawa/Paris: Presses de l'Université d'Ottawa/Klincksieck.

Marcus, S. (1973). Mathematische Poetik. Bucureçti/Frank-furt am Main: Editura Academiei/Athenaum Verlag.

Marcus, S. (1972). Stratégie des personnages dramatiques. Sémiologie de la représentation. Bruxelles: Complexe, pp. 73-95.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/052/052.pdf",""
"3793","18","Digital Humanities Pedagogy in the University of Washington Information School MLIS Program","2","Digital Humanities Librarianship is a 3-credit elective open to University of Washington Masters of Library and Information Science students and a core elective in the Graduate Certificate in Textual and Digital Studies program. The course focuses on creating full contributors in the DH realm: a plethora (in academic terms, at least) of job postings for DH or Digital Scholarship librarians shows rapid growth in this area and a need for well-prepared individuals. No matter the physical location of DH centers—from libraries to academic departments to research centers—DH librarians are ideally suited for navigating the intellectual and geographic spaces of ideas, resources, and tools.

In addition to its unique hybrid format (synchronous residential and online), the course is also notable for providing a balanced approach to the theory vs. application tension typical of MLIS programs. Most DH courses in LIS departments focus on technologies, without concomitant attention to a foundational understanding of the varied research methods and resource usage patterns of humanities scholars. The DH Librarianship course aims to provide students with an understanding of how humanities scholars work, both traditionally and digitally, as well as familiarity with resources and tools used in digital humanities scholarship. The course also covers political and practical issues: what roles do librarians play in DH research, and what roles are situationally appropriate—tech guru, data cleaner, resource purchaser, equal collaborator? During the quarter, the course tackles questions of sustainability, accessibility, ethics, and equity in representation. Guest speakers include DH librarians (both with and sans MLIS), new DH faculty in various disciplines, and seasoned humanities researchers.

Assignments include disciplinary exploration, which allows students to explore resources and DH projects in philosophy, religion, fine and performing arts, languages and literatures. Student groups examine DH tools that range from timelines and mapping to text mining, information visualization, data cleaning, and network analysis, and create presentations from a shared corpus. In the final “DH consultation” assignment, students locate a project—in-process, abandoned, or “complete”—and propose options for library-based support, based on a disciplinary needs assessment. They also provide suggestions for strengthening the content, usefulness, or reach of the project, as well as a tools/usability assessment, which may include creating a prototype of an improved project.

The pedagogy reflects the multi-faceted disciplinary grounding and technological approach of the course content. My experience as an academic humanities librarian is bolstered by the research of many, including Melissa Terras, who discusses the need to identify core values and “hidden histories” of disciplines (2006), and Marcia Bates, who defines distinctions between disciplines such as the humanities and meta-disciplines like LIS (1999). In LIS we analyze the processes and domains of disciplines—in this case those involved in DH—and how those are represented, accessed, and given meaning across the corpora of recorded information. Mike Caulfield's writing (2016) on multiple digital literacies also resonates with the pedagogies used, demonstrating the need for domain-grounded literacy to help students ascertain next steps and appropriate tools in their work with humanities scholars and projects.

The hybrid format of the class contributes to the collaborative pedagogy: local online and residential students attend the technology-enabled classroom in person, and others attend via the online Zoom classroom. Students can participate via audio or text, share screens, display presentations, or work in groups. Cameras in the classroom broadcast what is happening locally, and those attending online enable their webcams to be more fully present. In addition, several students each week attend via Kubi robots, which are iPads on movable stands that online users rotate to focus on different classroom activities. Guest speakers may attend in person, or they may present and engage with students via online options. These diverse modes of learning increase the students' comfort with multiple technologies, which they are then more likely to use in their own research and teaching.

Learning outcomes include familiarity with the structure of knowledge in the humanities disciplines as well as the wide array of resources that provide ref-

erence and bibliographic support for research. Students are able to connect issues and concepts in DH to ongoing projects and scholarship, and they are able to articulate the ways in which library support fits into a changing paradigm of research in the humanities disciplines. In addition, students understand issues concerning equity, representation, and emotional labor in conjunction with digital humanities librarianship.

This poster will highlight the multiple teaching and learning techniques used in the course and student projects. It will also showcase the physical and virtual teaching and learning spaces.

Bibliography

Bates, M. J. (1999). “The Invisible Substrate of

Information Science.” Journal of the American Society for

Information Science, 50(12): 1043-50.

Caulfield, M. (2016). “Yes, Digital Literacy. But Which

One?” Hapgood. December 19. Retrieved from

https://hapgood.us/2016/12/19/yes-digital-literacy-

but-which-one/

Terras, M. (2006). ""Disciplined: Using Educational

Studies to Analyse ‘Humanities Computing'."" Literary and Linguistic Computing, 21: 229-46.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/053/053.pdf",""
"3794","18","Lexos: An Integrated Lexomics Workflow","2","Lexos is a browser-based suite of tools that helps lower barriers of entry to computational text analysis for humanities scholars and students. Situated within a clean and simple interface, Lexos consolidates the common pre-processing operations needed for subsequent analysis, either with Lexos or with external tools. It is especially useful for scholars who wish to engage in research involving computational text analysis and/or wish to teach their students how to do so but lack the time for a manual preparation of texts, the skill sets needed to prepare their texts analysis, or the intellectual contexts for situating computational methods within their work. Lexos is also targeted at researchers studying early texts and texts in non-Western languages, which may involve specialized processing rules. It is thus designed to facilitate advanced research in these fields even for users more familiar with computational techniques. Lexos is developed by the Lexomics research group led by Michael Drout (Wheaton College), Mark LeBlanc (Wheaton College), and Scott Kleinman (California State University, Northridge). It is built on Python 2.7-Flask microframework, with jQuery-Bootstrap UI, and visualizations in d3.js. The Lexomics research group provides access to an public installation of Lexos which does not retain data after a session has expired. Users may also install Lexos locally by cloning the GitHub repository.

Lexos guides users through a workflow of steps that reflects effective practices when working with digitized texts. The workflow includes: (i) uploading Unicode-encoded texts in plain text, HTML, or XML formats; (ii) “scrubbing” functions for consolidating preprocessing decisions such as the handling of punctuation, white-space, and stop words, the use of lemmati-zation rules, and the handling of embedded markup tags and special character entities; (iii) “cutting” texts into segments based on the number of characters, tokens, or lines, or by embedded milestones such as chapter breaks; (iv) tokenization into a Document Term Matrix of raw or proportional counts using character or word n-grams; (v) visualizations such as comparative word clouds per segment (including the ability to visualize topic models generated by MALLET); Rolling Window Analysis that plots the frequency of string, phrase, or regular expression patterns or pattern-pair ratios over the course of a document or collection; and (vi) analysis tools including statistical summaries, hierarchical and k-means clustering, cosine similarity rankings, and Z-tests to identify the relative prominence of terms in documents, document classes, and the collection as whole. At each stage in the workflow the user may download data, visualizations, or the results of the analytical tools, along with metadata about their preprocessing decisions or the parameters selected for their experiments. Lexos thus enables the export of data for use with other tools and facilitates experimental reproducibility.

Lexos {scrubber} An Integrated Lexomics Workflow

Scrubbing Options

Q Remove All Punctuation

B Keep Hyphens ©

Q Make Lowercase

B Keep Word-Internal Apostrophes©

Q Remove Digits

■ Remove Whitespace 0

B Scrub Tags 0

Additional Options

Stop Words/Keep Words O >


Previews of Documents


A1.3_Dan_T00030.txt




Gefr&ae;gn ic Hebreos eadge lifgean in Hierusalem goldhord d&ae;lan cyningdom hab ban swa him gecynde w&ae;s si&d;&d;an &t;urh metodes m&ae;gen on Moyses hand w

ealra gesceafta drihten and waldend se him dom forgeaf unscyndne bl&ae;d eor&d;an rices and &t;u lignest nu &t;&ae;t sie lifgende se ofer deoflum duge&t;um wealde&d;. A3.3_Az_T00130.txt


orn dryhten herede wis in weorcum ond &t;as Word acw&ae;&d;: Meotud allwihta &t;u eart meahtum swi&d; ni&t;as to nerganne. Is &t;in noma m&ae;re wütig ond wul h




Special Characters 0 v


Lemmas 0 v


Consolidations 0 v


Figure 1: The Lexos Scrubber Tool

Lexos addresses three significant challenges for our intended users. The first challenge involves the adoption of computational text analysis methods. Many approaches require proficiency with command line scripting or the use of complex user interfaces that require time to master. Lexos addresses this problem through a simple, browser-based interface that manages workflow through the three major steps of text analysis: pre-processing, generation of statistical data, and visualization. In this, Lexos resembles Voyant Tools (Sinclair and Rockwell, 2016), although Lexos places more emphasis on and providing more tools for preprocessing and segmenting texts. Lexos also shares with tools like Stylometry with R (Eder, et al., 2013; Eder, 2013) and emphasis on cluster analysis, providing both hierarchical and K-Means clustering with silhouette scores as limited form of statistical validation. While Lexos is not a topic modeling tool, it provides a useful “topic cloud” feature for MALLET data that will be useful for beginners since there are few accessible ways to visualize MALLET output that work well out of the box.


Figure 2: The Lexos Multicloud tool showing Chinese ""topic clouds""

The second challenge is the opacity of the procedures required to move between computational and traditional forms of text analysis. In order to reduce the “black boxiness” of algorithmic methods, Lexos contains an embedded component called “In the Margins” which provides non-technical explanations of the statistical methods used and effective practices for

handling situations typical of humanities data. “In the

Margins” is a Scalar “book” which can be read separately; however, its individual pages are embedded in Lexos using Scalar's API, making them easily accessible for users of the tool. Lexos shares with tools like Voyant an engagement with the hermeneutics of text analysis and attempts to embed “In the Margins” discussion of these issues in the user interface close to the user's workflow. We hope “In the Margins” will host advice and commentary from contributors with the Digital Humanities community.

A third challenge is the tension between quantitative and computational approaches and the traditions of theoretical and cultural criticism that dominate the humanities in the academy. As Alan Liu (2013) has recently argued, the challenge is to give a better theoretical grounding to the hybrid quantitative-qualitative method of the Digital Humanities by exploring the ways in which we negotiate the difficulties imposed by “the aporia between tabula rasa quantitative interpretation and humanly meaningful qualitative interpretation” (414). The design of Lexos and the discussions in “In the Margins” are intended to open a space for discussion of issues related to the opacity of algorithmic approaches and the limitations and epistemological challenges of computational stylistic analysis and visual representation of humanities data.

This poster presentation provides demonstrations of Lexos using some literature from Old, Middle, and Modern English, as well Chinese, which are in our current test suite. We also discuss use cases and best practices, how to install Lexos locally, and how scholars may contribute to the still growing content of “In the Margins”.

Bibliography

Drout, M., Kleinman, S., and LeBlanc, M. 2016-. “In the Margins.” http://scalar.usc.edu/works/lexos./

Eder, M. (2013). “Mind Your Corpus: Systematic Errors in Authorship Attribution.” Literary and Linguistic Computing 28 (4): 603-14.

Eder, M., Kestemont, M., and Rybiki, J. 2013. “Stylometry with R: A Suite of Tools (Abstract of Poster Session)”. Presented at Digital Humanities 2013, Lincoln, Nebraska. http://dh2013.unl.edu/abstracts/ab-136.html, https://sites.google.com/site/computationalstylistics/

Kleinman, S., LeBlanc, M.D., Drout, M. and Zhang, C. 2016. Lexos v3.0. https://github.com/WheatonCS/Lexos/.

Liu, A. (2013). “The Meaning of the Digital Humanities.” PMLA 128 (2): 409-23.

McCallum, A.K. (2002). MALLET: A Machine Learning for

Language Toolkit. http://mallet.cs.umass.edu.

Sinclair, S., and Rockwell, G. (2016). Voyant Tools. Web.

http://voyant-tools.org/.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/054/054.pdf",""
"3795","18","eLexicon. Dictionary of Polish Medieval Latin: from TEI encoding to an eXist-db application","10","Introduction
From the Lexicon to the eLexicon
The first fascicle of the Lexicon mediae et infimae Latinitatis Polonorum (Dictionary of Polish Medieval Latin, henceforth LMILP) was published in 1953. The project aims at providing an exhaustive account of the Latin vocabulary used on Polish territory during the Middle Ages. Addressed to a scholarly public, the dictionary does not make many concessions to a less advanced user. Information is often conveyed only indirectly, by means of typographic devices or is left to be inferred by the reader. The project of retro-digitization of the LMILP started in the mid-2011 and was

completed by the mid-2014. The web application, although completed, is still subject to modifications and

refinements.

Dictionary Annotation
The XML encoding of the dictionary was by no means an ultimate goal of the project. Instead, the idea was to make the rich content of the LMILP fully searchable through a user-friendly interface. This objective, however, has deeply influenced the XML schema design. The TEI (TEI Consortium 2016) was chosen as an annotation standard because at the time the work started it had been already employed in major electronic lexicography projects (Lewis-Short by the Perseus Project; DuCange by the ENC). The popularity that the standard had gained among scholars contributed to emergence of lively community which produced documentation and use cases which supplemented the “Dictionaries” chapter of the TEI Guidelines. Also, the very fact that the TEI Guidelines offered a set of ready-to-use tags for the description of lexicographic content was not without significance. Finally, the TEI XML was supported by major software providers, an important factor for the project in which adaptation of existing rather than writing new software was planned.

Workflow
The paper dictionary was scanned and the output of the OCR program (Abbyy FineReader 11) was exported to ODT files; from each a content.xml file was extracted and then applied a series of XSL transformations. The main goal was to simplify styles that were automatically generated by the OCR software. Resulting XML files underwent second phase of XSL processing in which constitutive parts of the dictionary, such as entry, headword, sense definition etc., were encoded. The output XML files were again retranslated into ODT format: entries were encoded as paragraph styles, other tags were represented as character styles. In the next phase of the project the lexicographers started to proofread OCR text and correct errors of automatic annotation. This task was performed with the help of LibreOffice Writer exclusively without annotators being actually conscious of the underlying XML structure. From the practical point of view, annotation consisted in verifying whether automatic XSL processing produced correct styles; if this was not the case correct style had to be applied, as in standard text processing task.

B • 13 -

■□ass    s -

■es New Roman

ZU-«

DISPERSIO s. DISPARSIO, -onis.£ | Th. BI. |S. I . A. N. I.:>r„;,r \-'vrum: rozrzucenie, roz\ sianie; actus disper^ndi, dissipatio StPPP VIII |p. 229 (a. 1387): pro d-e frumenti. AKapSad II p. 94 (a. 1502): interrogatus super articulo de |d-e hostiarum consecratarum, quibu parochianos communicare. Cf. Th. V1, 1412, \42 sjpp N. conc£ foeni i. cpfyenum XIII p. 410 (a. 1463): ministerialis ... |post recepcionem feni vestigiis alias «koleg^ parsionem parwam feni recepti inse|cutus est... usque in bona tua. 2. Jwminum | a. rozproszenie; eiectio, dissipatio, |V cmetijonum: StPPP VIII p. 199 (a. 1386) : |tj

Fig. 1: “XML-unaware” annotation in the LibreOffice window



This approach allowed for reducing the learning curve to a minimum so that the team members could focus on the lexicographic content. However, it also has a serious drawback: annotation in the text editor cannot produce more complex hierarchies, since paragraph and character styles allow for representing at best two levels deep nesting.

TEI for the eLexicon
A guiding principle of the subsequent TEI annotation was to combine editorial and lexical view of the dictionary content by (1) preserving its original text and (2) storing normalized data in attributes and empty XML elements. Typographic properties of the

text, on the other hand, were not generally encoded, they are easily reconstructible though.

Automatic and manual annotation consisted in three major procedures:

a. translation: custom ODT styles (corresponding to elements of dictionary structure) were “translated” into respective TEI elements or attributes;

b. grouping: deeply nested XML structure was produced from flat annotation;

c. enrichment: implicit information was made explicit.

Translation

The paper justifies some of the annotation choices. Special attention is given to the peculiarities of encoding a scholarly lexicographic work.

1. <entryFree> element was chosen as a container for dictionary entries.

2. Essential features of the dictionary macro-and microstructure are encoded as:

<form>, <orth>;    <gramGrp>, <gen>,

<iType>, <pos>; <etym>, <lang>, <mentioned>;    <cit>,    <bibl>, <biblScope>,

<date>, <quote>; <sense>, <usg>, <def>, <gloss>; <xr>, <ref>; <lbl>; <re>, <certainty>, <oVar>, <note>.

3. Content and form peculiarities of the LMILP are reflected in respective attributes. So, for example, functional variation of the entries is represented in the @type attribute of the <entryFree> and can take one of the following values: main, xref, hom.

4. The TEI schema was only lightly customized: unused elements were deleted; a few content restrictions were overcome.

Grouping: adding depth

The flat entry structure had to undergo heavy XSL

processing, so deep nesting typical of scholarly dictionaries could eventually emerge. Relative ease of the XML-unaware manual annotation resulted in timeconsuming post-processing. The xsl:for-each-group

XSL function was employed in order to structure:

1. citation groups:

<cit>

<bibl>

<ref type=""siglum"" target=""fons:RachJag"">RachJag </ref> cbiblScope type=""pp"" n=ll215"">p. 215 </biblScope>

(<time when=""1395"">a. 1395</time>) </bibl>:

<quote>pro cmilestone unit ""lb"" xml:id=""2.1.3""/>VIII vlnis

<«gloss xml:lang=""pl-x-med"">pokoczin</gloss»> grisei ad c-um dni regis cmilestone unit=""lb"" xml:id=""2.1.4""/>sub athlas ponendum. cmilestone unit=""lb"" xml:id=""2.1.5""/>

c/quote>

c/cit>

2. etymological groups:

<etym>

(cmentioned xml:lang=""la-x-cla"">caput</mentioned> <certainty cert=""low"" locus=""value""/>?)

</etym>

3. PoS and grammar groups:


sense groups:

csense orig=""2."" n=""2"" xml :id=""caballinus.2""> clabel type=""numbering"">2.c/label>

cusg norm=""nat"" type=""dom"" target=""abbr:nat.dom"">nat.c/usg> cusg type=""colloc""> tricmilestone unit=""lb"" xml :id=""2.1.38""/>

cmilestone unit=""page"" n=""2"" xml:id=""2.2""/> cmilestone unit=""lb"" xml :id=""2.2.l""/>folium c/usg>

cdef xml :lang=""pl"">przetacznik bobowniczekc/def>; cdef xml :lang=""la""> Veronica Becca

cmilestone unit=""lb"" xml :id=""2.2.2""/>bunga Linn.c/def> ccit type=""inline"">

cbibl>

cref type=""siglum"" target ""tons :RFil#XXV""> RFil XXV c/ref> cbiblScope type=""pp"" n=""282"">p. 282 c/biblScope>

(ctime when=""1450"">a. 1450c/time>) c/bibl>

c/cit>

c/sense>

Enrichment: expanding the dictionary content

Considerable effort was put into enriching the original content of the dictionary, namely: (1) resolving references, (2) normalizing strings, (3) adding redundant and/or inferred information.

Resolving references

A typical reference to an exact location in the dictionary text was encoded as follows:



References to a specific entry or sense relied on the @xml:id attribute:

<xr>

<label>Cf.</label>

cref target=""#caballinus.2"">CABALLINUS 2</ref> </xr>

The encoding of most frequent type of references (pointing to a source of a language use example) is illustrated in the section II B 4 above.

String normalization

By string normalization, we mean a set of various procedures applied in order to generate a lexical view of the dictionary content. Standardized strings are usually stored in @norm attributes of such elements as language or usage labels, prepositional and inflec-

tional patterns etc. Their primary goal is to enable unified search that would be agnostic of the exact formulation of the paper dictionary. For example, when looking up philosophy-related terms one should be able to retrieve them no matter whether they have been marked with a phil. label or with more verbose formula in textibus philosophicis “in philosophical texts”, as both are annotated as @norm= ”phil”. The second major goal of the normalization was to render chronological information consistent and machine-readable. Its proper annotation should reflect the fact that many medieval texts cannot be dated but only approximately. Apart from some obvious cases (@when attribute stores a year date, for example <time when=""1450"">a. 1450</time>) the LMILP employs:

1. century dates

(<time    notBefore=""1401"" no-

tAfter=""1500"">saec. XV</time> )

2. imprecise dates in year (<time no-tAfter=""1120"">ante 1120</time>) or century format (<time notBefore=""1401"" no-tAfter=""1450"">saec. XV in.</time>).

Making information explicit

Finally, substantial effort has been devoted to making explicit what is not expressed directly in the paper dictionary, but left to be inferred by an expert user. In the LMILP, this is the case, for example, of a part of speech label which is provided for adverbs or conjunctions, but is normally omitted from verb or noun entries. Empty elements have therefore been created and their attributes filled with the inferred content. So, in a typical case, an element <pos norm=""subst""/> would be appended to a <gramGrp> group whenever the paper dictionary informs about a word's part-of-speech only indirectly, by means of a gender label (f. for Lat. femininum) or inflectional ending typical of nouns (-ae):

The Dictionary Web Application
The last part of the paper briefly presents the overall architecture of the dictionary web application, its user interface having been already described elsewhere (Nowak 2014). Written entirely in XQuery, the application is served directly from the eXist-db instance with HTML and JavaScript code being equally stored in a database or generated on the fly. The presentation focuses on those features available in the eXist-db which are of critical importance for dictionary application design:

1.    Various types of indexes available in the eX-ist-db allow for efficient retrieval of content from deeply nested dictionary files and dispersed textual data.

2.    A templating system allows for fine-grained web presentation of the XML content.

3.    A URL rewriting engine supports a logical system of dictionary content access.

4.    An out-of-the-box RESTful API exposes lexicographic content to external applications.

In the conclusion, I will also point to some difficulties that I have encountered and which have mainly to do with handling application's state, a crucial feature for multi-language tools which require storing user search results.

Bibliography
Nowak, K. (2014). ‘The eLexicon Mediae et Infimae Latini-tatis Polonorum. The Electronic Dictionary of Polish Medieval Latin'. In The User in Focus. Proceedings of the XVI EURALEX International Congress: 15 - 19 July 2014, Bol-zano/Bozen, edited by Andrea Abel, Chiara Vettori, and

Natascia Ralli, 793-806. Bolzano: EURAC Research.

TEI Consortium. (2016). TEI P5: Guidelines for Electronic

Text Encoding and Interchange. Version: 3.0.0.

http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p5-

doc/en/html/index.html.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/055/055.pdf",""
"3796","18","Voguer au Fil de la Transtextualité","9","","","1","",""
"3797","18","Modelling Interpretation in 3DH: New dimensions of visualization","10","Introduction
Visualization techniques developed in the sciences normally focus on the (re)presentation of empirical data. But how can we graphically express interpretations? This paper presents the intellectual framework

underpinning the 3DH project (Three-dimensional Visualizations for the Digital Humanities), a collaborative project conducted at the University of Hamburg from 2016 to 2019. The project foregrounds data interpretation and develops a visualization paradigm from the epistemological perspective of the humanities. The “third dimension” required in DH visualization techniques is therefore not merely that of an additional quantitative z-axis. Rather, it is an axis that can ‘unflatten' (Sousanis 2015) the objectivist notion of visualized data. In our presentation, we will do three things:

•    Digital and visual turn: Review existing visualization paradigms that emphasize the representational approach. We start with the epistemological issues raised by the digital and visual turn.

•    Visual modelling: Outline and discuss an interpretative modelling alternative through two case studies of existing tools, CATMA and Voyant, and Temporal Modelling, a platform for creating data through graphical means.

• “Hermeneuticizing” visualization: Discuss the design of a full visual framework. We will present possible conventions and prototypes that use them. These inform our case studies and the envisaged infrastructure.

Case studies in our presentation will be drawn from CATMA (a collaborative mark-up & text analysis environment), Voyant (a text analysis platform), and humanities research projects using base images (historical maps) and original models (for non-standard chronologies).

The digital and the visual turn: a hermeneutic ceterum censeo

For centuries, academic discourse in humanities disciplines has relied predominantly on text. In DH, however, visualizations increasingly claim the status of arguments and proofs that play a decisive role in the development and presentation of ideas, findings, and conclusions.

The visual and the digital turn have thus gone hand in hand - but the way in which this synergy manifests itself remains constrained in a symptomatic way. We can print a chart or render it on screen just as we can print or display a text in various media, but we normally cannot subject the chart to in-depth critique in the way we can question and respond to the text. Inadvertently, once generated and communicated as ‘output', visualizations seem to take on a quasi-dogmatic quality - they are hard to deconstruct, let alone reconfigure; they state their case but seem removed from critical reflection.

Most current DH visualizations are thus epistemological one-way avenues toward knowledge, from data via rendering algorithm to visual display. Charts, graphs, interactive maps, timelines, and similar representations are by and large imports from the natural and social sciences (Friendly 2008). Many of them emanate from domains of empirical research that conceptualize knowledge production as a function of empirical observation and objective measurement followed by analysis, inference, and conclusion. These approaches to visualization, however, hide two critical aspects, namely

(a) the underlying human modeling of the represented phenomena as data, which is already an interpretive and meaning-creating act that often oscillates repeatedly between observation and interpretation (Kitchin 2014), and

(b) the meaning-lessness of certain visual effects that are owed to contingent technological constraints (screen size, rendering, scaling, choice of color, etc.).

DH is in a unique position to investigate the domains of human experience and of its expression in symbolic practices and artefacts from two complementary methodological vantage points: the numeric, which models them as statistical phenomena, and the hermeneutic, which explores them as phenomena of meaning and thus by definition as a function of interpretation (Rockwell & Sinclair 2016). Where meaning comes into focus, our theories, object models, and practices

must therefore be conceptually aligned and ‘herme-

neuticized' - just as numeric approaches come with the pre-requisite of quantification. Against this backdrop, we propose to reintroduce the dimension of interpretation into visualization: Methodological principles of hermeneutic approaches, such as multi-per-spectivity, subjectivity, and context-boundedness present a challenge which representational visualization cannot and which interpretational visualization must meet.

Two questions arise: What are the defining principles of a genuinely humanistic and hermeneutically oriented approach to visualization? And how can we graphically express and support interpretation in DH visualizations - both as an activity and as a product of humanistic enquiry?

Visual modeling of interpretation vs. visualization of data

In the 3DH project, we address the former question by conceptual analysis and critique of existing approaches to visualization in DH, and then by systematically specifying and developing a visualization environment that can support higher level data interpretation rather than base-level data representation. In the presentation, we will share our survey of existing tools and their affordances but focus on two tools that we have developed, CATMA and Voyant.


Figure 1: Visualization of interpretive text annotation in CATMA

Our premise is that interpretation happens through the deliberate activity of an individual engaging with an image, text, display, or other artifact to create an argument about its meaning and a way it should be read.

For example, in CATMA (Figure 1) such an activity - in this instance the interpretive act of text annotation - is executed and represented by (a) highlighting a string on screen, (b) assigning it a tag, and (c) storing the annotation in a stand-off markup file. However, the annotation is at the same time (d) visually expressed as colored underlining. Moreover, via its visual representation on screen - the colored underlining - the markup data can also be (e) inspected, analyzed, manipulated directly, and even (f) enriched with meta-annotation. This is but one example of interpretative modeling.

Current representational ‘one-way' techniques like topic modeling (see Figure 2) are seen as a way to deal with scale, they process large amounts of data into summary abstractions called topics that can be displayed as lists or in other ways (Montague et. al 2015). In our second case study, we will therefore show how we are adapting scale tools to create a prototypical bidirectional 3DH visual modeling environment for big



Figure 2: Galaxy Viewer

data. We believe visual modeling can support not only interpretative close reading of primary data but also the reading of large collections like the collections of the Hathi Trust.

‘Hermeneuticizing' base-level visualization through activators: the 3DH framework of interpretive parameters and dimensions

A key goal of the 3DH project is to develop a set of generic graphic features that can be used to create interpretative attributes and/or inflections of visual representations of data, alter underlying data structures, and activate three-dimensional space in the service of interpretative activity. These features which aim to ‘hermeneuticize' visualizations are termed activators. In the presentation we will show the framework of the

activator set that was developed during a series of cha-

rettes (design workshops) in 2016.


Figure 3: Framework of Concept Modeling workspace: Shows features, activators, and dimensions from various pictorial conventions.

The visual activators in our feature set are not simply graphical marks or animations on a screen display: They perform data structuring functions and as such provide a conceptual framework for ‘hermeneu-ticizing' existing base-level data visualization techniques (see Fig.3). The individual features of this framework indicate and facilitate interpretative moves made by the user, such as a qualification of visualized data structures in terms of salience, irrelevance, uncertainty, degree of completeness, and other attributes or inflections. For example, uncertainty can be expressed by overlaying a standard graph with visual effects such as blur or shading, whereas the introduction of additional interpretative dimensions, such as point of view systems, parallax, relative scales, and other conventions from the visual arts, will support higher levels of interpretative critique and reflection, such as explicitly marking the historicity and context-dependency of underlying data.

Conclusion

As Pinker (1990) argues, the ease with which a particular graph can be understood is a function of the processing effort that goes into the exercise: The more we can rely on ‘hard-wired' encoding connections between the visual and the conceptual and the more we are guided by established graph and comprehension schemata (such as Gestalt phenomena), the less ‘intelligent' effort we have to put into reading a graph. Yet in a humanities perspective such conventionalized ‘ease of comprehension' is a double-edged sword: It may optimize the process of (re)cognition - but it also progressively obscures the constructedness of a visualization, turning it into an apparently self-evident object of perception. The 3DH project counters this anti-hermeneutic tendency toward reification by moving from a conceptualization of the principles of visualization as interpretative modeling to the development of a visual language framework, and finally the instantiation of the principles and language in two case studies. In terms of implementation, this approach is supported by drawing on Bertin's Semiology of Graphics and the high-level object-oriented Grammar of Graphics approach outlined by Wilkinson (2005), and features from game engines, three-dimensional modelling, and other pictorial conventions (Panofsky (1991) and Burgin (1991)).

To conclude, we will discuss next steps toward developing a 3DH environment that can act as a generic, project independent infrastructure for introducing user parameterized enunciative functionality into graphical displays. This infrastructure will make it possible to inscribe into visualizations the critical features of authorship, speaking/spoken subject, and an epistemological perspective grounded in situated and constructed approaches to knowledge. These interpretative principles are well mapped in, e.g., critical theory, narratology, visual studies, and cultural studies, but they have not been integrated into a graphical environment for hermeneutic practice yet: the methodological lacuna which the 3DH project tries to address.

Bibliography

Bertin, J. (1983). Semiology of Graphics: Diagrams, Networks, Maps. Madison, WI, University of Wisconsin Press.

Burgin, V. (1991). “Geometry and Abjection”. In: J. Donald

(ed.), Psychoanalysis and Cultural Theory: Thresholds.

London, Macmillan Education, pp. 11-26 .

Chandrasekaran, B. & Lele, O. (2010). “Mapping Descriptive Models of Graph Comprehension into Requirements for a Computational Architecture: Need for Supporting Imagery Operations”. In: A. K. Goel, M. Jamnik & N. H. Narayanan (eds.), Diagrammatic Representation and Inference. 6th International Conference, Diagrams 2010, Portland, OR, USA, August 9-11, 2010. Proceedings. Berlin & Heidelberg, Springer Verlag, pp. 235-242.

Drucker, J. (2011). “Humanities approaches to Graphical

Display”. In: DHQ, Digital Humanities Quarterly, 5 (1). http://digitalhumani-

ties.org/dhq/vol/5/1/000091/000091.html [March 17 2017].

(2014). Graphesis, Cambridge, Harvard University Press.

Friendly, M. (2008). “A Brief History of Data Visualization”. In: C.-H. Chen, W. K. Hardle & A. Unwin (eds.), Handbook of Data Visualization. Heidelberg, Springer-Verlag, pp. 134.

Kath, R., Schaal, G. S. & Dumm, S. (2016). „New Visual Hermeneutics“. In: Cybernetics and Human Knowing, 23 (2), pp. 51-75.

Kitchin, R. (2014). The Data Revolution: Big Data, Open Data, Data Infrastructures & Their Consequences. Los Angeles, SAGE.

Montague, J., Simpson, J., Brown, S., Rockwell, G. & Ruecker, S. (2015). “Exploring Large Datasets with Topic Model Visualization”. Conference paper at DH 2015, University of Western Sydney, Australia.

Panofsky, E. (1991). Perspective as Symbolic Form; C. Wood, trans.; New York, Zone Books.

Pinker, S. (1990). “A Theory of Graph Comprehension”. In: R. Feedle (ed.), Artificial Intelligence and the future of testing. Marwah, NJ, Erlbaum Hillsdale, pp. 73-126.

Rockwell, G. & Sinclair, S. (2016). Hermeneutica. Cambridge, MS & London, MIT Press.

Sousanis, N. (2015). Unflattening. Cambridge, MS & London, Harvard University Press.

Wilkinson, L. (2005). The Grammar of Graphics. 2nd ed.; New York, Springer.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/058/058.pdf",""
"3798","18","La Localisation du Jaune dans des Dessins de Dieux Réalisés par des Enfants","2","Dans le cadre de la recherche interdisciplinaire, “Drawings of gods” (financé par le Fonds National Suisse), ancrée en psychologie de la religion et visant à comprendre les stratégies cognitives mises en œuvre par les enfants pour dessiner “dieu” (Brandt et al., 2009, Dandarova, 2013, Brandt, 2016), une question s'est posée quant à l'utilisation du jaune : “Est-ce que le jaune est une couleur privilégiée dans la représentation de dieux parce que la lumière est souvent associée au divin et que le jaune est utilisé pour représenter la lumière ?”.

Afin de répondre à cette question, une première annotation manuelle des dessins collectés par les chercheurs dans différents pays a été effectuée dans une feuille de calcul, spécifiant dans quelle zone de l'image se trouve le jaune (au milieu, autour de la figure principale de dieu, en périphérie), s'il y avait présence d'un soleil jaune ou pas de jaune.

Ce projet comptant actuellement plus de 6'500 dessins, il est devenu nécessaire de faire appel à une annotation automatique. Aussi, il est intéressant, du point de vue de la psychologie, de comprendre quelles décisions humaines peuvent être reproduites par un ordinateur. Bien que les méthodes de traitement d'images et de vision par ordinateur, combinées aux algorithmes de classification supervisée, soient très développées et performantes pour le traitement d'images naturelles (Szeliski, 2010), elles le sont beaucoup moins pour le traitement de dessins (Stork, 2009). Par conséquent, ce travail consiste à explorer les techniques possibles et à trouver des caractéristiques (“features”) pertinentes pour une classification supervisée.

Pratiquement, après avoir défini ce qu'était la couleur jaune dans les dessins et extrait cette dernière, toutes les images ont été transformées en format carré, afin de permettre la comparaison des dessins au format paysage et au format portrait. Ensuite, différentes approches ont été testées pour reproduire l'annotation manuelle. La première consistait à extraire la gravité du jaune, définie comme la moyenne de l'intensité de cette couleur par ligne (respectivement par colonne), pour la hauteur (respectivement la largeur) de chaque dessin. Comme attendu, les courbes obtenues montrent des pics dans les zones contenant une forte concentration de jaune, clairement repérables à l'œil nu. Cependant, en raison de la variabilité de l'intensité du jaune entre les différents dessins et l'application non régulière des couleurs dans chaque dessin, il n'a pas pu être défini de critère permettant de repérer ces pics.

Dans un second temps, partant de la première approche, le centre de gravité du jaune dans chaque dessin a été extrait et deux cercles ayant pour origine ce centre ont été définis. Le but alors visé était de définir des surfaces correspondant aux zones annotées manuellement (milieu, autour ou périphérie), en se basant sur une hypothèse forte estimant que le centre de gravité du jaune correspond à celui de la figure principale. Cette méthode, qui a conduit à analyser les intensités de jaune dans les secteurs circulaires des cercles, a à nouveau été mise à mal par la variabilité dans l'ensemble des dessins.

Inspirée de l'idée de zones délimitant l'espace de la seconde approche, la dernière méthode a consisté à diviser l'image carrée en 25 cases, formant ainsi une grille de cinq par cinq. Ensuite, en fonction de l'intensité du jaune dans chacune de ces cases et en faisant l'hypothèse que la figure principale est au centre de l'image, comme souvent observé dans les dessins d'enfants (Golomb, 1987, Winner, 2006), une série de conditions ont été choisies afin de déterminer la zone dans laquelle se trouve le jaune. En raison des résultats prometteurs ainsi obtenus, une classification supervisée multi-étiquette a été effectuée, utilisant, pour chaque image, les 25 cases comme caractéristiques des données et les annotations manuelles (“ground trouth”) comme étiquettes. Les meilleurs résultats ont été obtenus avec

la méthode des “plus proches voisins”. À nouveau, la grande variété des techniques de dessins utilisées par les enfants, tout comme la non-constance de la position de la figure principale, conduisent à plusieurs erreurs.

Ce travail, en cours, explore actuellement de nouvelles pistes, telles que la prise en compte d'autres couleurs, la modification des paramètres de l'algorithme de classification supervisée, la définition d'une nouvelle grille permettant de prendre en compte la position de la figure principale, etc. Pour conclure, il est clair que les données sous forme de dessins, souvent utilisées en psychologie, méritent une exploration systématique des méthodes permettant de les exploiter numériquement, ceci afin de pouvoir les traiter efficacement en quantité.

Bibliographie

Brandt, P.-Y. (2016). “Représentations enfantines de dieux: comparaison interculturelle.” In Rainotte, G. (eds), Qui êtes-vous pour nous apprendre nos religions? Louvain-la-Neuve: Academia-L'Harmattan, pp. 39-59.

Brandt, P.-Y., Kagata Spitteler, Y. and Gillièron Paléologue, C. (2009). “La représentation de Dieu: Comment les enfants japonais dessinent Dieu.” Archives de Psychologie, 74 : 171-203.

Dandarova, Z. (2013). “Le dieu des enfants : Entre l'universel et le contextuel.” In Brandt, P.-Y. and Day, J. M. (eds), Psychologie du développement religieux: Questions classiques et perspectives contemporaines. Genève: Labor et Fides, pp. 159-187.

Golomb, C. (1987). “The development of compositional strategies in children's drawings.” Visual Arts Research, 13(2): 42-52.

Stork, D. G. (2009). “Computer vision and computer graphics analysis of paintings and drawings: An introduction to the literature.”    International

Conference on Computer Analysis of Images and Patterns. Springer, pp. 9-24.

Szeliski, R. (2010). Computer vision: algorithms and applications. London: Springer.

Winner, E. (2006). “Development in the arts: Drawing and music.” In Damon, W., Lerner, R., Kuhn, D. and Siegler, R. (eds), Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol 2: Cognition, Perception, and Language. Wiley, pp. 859904.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/061/061.pdf",""
"3799","18","SLaTE: A System for Labeling Topics with Entities","2","In recent years, the Latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) topic model (Blei, Ng, and Jordan, 2003) has become one of the most employed text mining techniques (Meeks and Weingart 2012) in the digital humanities (DH). Scholars have often noted its potential for text exploration and distant reading analyses, even when it is well known that its results are difficult to interpret (Chang et al, 2009) and to evaluate (Wallach et al, 2009).

At last year's edition of the Digital Humanities conference, we introduced a new corpus exploration method able to produce topics that are easier to interpret and evaluate than standard LDA topic models (Nanni and Ruiz, 2016). We did so by combining two existing techniques, namely Entity linking and Labeled LDA (L-LDA). At its heart, our method first identifies a collection of descriptive labels for the topics of arbitrary documents from a corpus, as provided from the vocabulary of entities found within wide-coverage knowledge resources (e.g., Wikipedia, DBpedia). Then it generates a specific topic for each label. Having a direct relation between topics and labels makes interpretation easier, and using a disambiguated knowledge resource as background knowledge limits label ambiguity. As our topics are described with a limited number of unambiguous labels, they promote in-terpretability, and this may sustain the use of the results as quantitative evidence in humanities research (Lauscher et al, 2016).

The contributions of this poster cover the release of: a) a complete implementation of the processing pipeline for our entity-based LDA approach; b) a three-step evaluation platform that enables its extensive quantitative analysis.

Entity-based Topic Modeling Pipeline
Figure 1 illustrates the computational pipeline of our system; python classes are represented in rectangles. First of all, a set of text files is imported into the system and several preprocessing steps are applied to

the textual content. Next, the data is sent to the entity

linking system TagMe (Ferragina and Scaiella, 2010), which disambiguates against Wikipedia. As a result of this step, for each document a set of related Wikipedia entities is retrieved. Now, the data is inserted into a MySQL database.


Figure 1. Architecture of the pipeline

Afterwards, the TF-IDF measure is computed over the entities, which we use to rank all the entities for each document in descending order. Then, the top k entities as well as their corresponding documents are exported into a comma-separated values file that is given as input to the L-LDA implementation of the Stanford Topic Modeling Toolbox. Finally, after running L-LDA and applying several post-processing steps, we obtain a document-topic distribution saved in the database in which each topic is described by an unambiguous label linked to Wikipedia.

The whole source code is available for public download on Github. Given a working Python, Java, and Scala runtime as well as a running MySQL installation our pipeline is ready directly out-of-the-box. The specific configuration according to the user's needs can be made via a simple text file.

Three-Step Evaluation Platform
Document Labels

In order to assess the quality of the detected entities as labels we developed a specific browser-based evaluation platform, which permits manual annotations. This platform presents a document on the right of the screen and a set of possible labels on the left (See Figure 2). Annotators are asked to pick labels that precisely describe the content of each document. In case the annotator does not select any label, this is also recorded by our evaluation system.

Entities and Topic Words

In order to establish if the selected entities were the right labels for the topics produced, we developed two additional evaluation steps. Inspired by the topic intrusion task (Chang et al, 2009), we designed a platform that permits to evaluate the relations between labels and topics using two evaluation modes: For one evaluation mode (that we called Label Mode - Figure 3), the annotator is asked to choose, when possible, the correct list of topic-words given a label. For the other, he/she was asked to pick the right label given a list of topic words (aee Figure 4). In both cases, the annotator is shown three options: one of them is the correct match, while the other two (be they words or labels) come from other topics related to the same document.


Figure 2. Entities as Labels evaluation interface.


Figure 3. Label-Mode Evaluation

Option 1: Agriculture

Option 2: Organization

Option 3: Business cycle

A HOME    «2 LABEL MODE

Figure 4. Term-Mode Evaluation

Bibliography
Blei, D. M., Ng, A.Y., and Jordan, M. (2003) ""Latent dirichlet allocation."" Journal of machine Learning research.

Chang, J., Boyd-Graber, J.L., Gerrish, S., Wang, C. and Blei,

D.M. (2009) ""Reading tea leaves: How humans interpret topic models."" Advances in neural information processing systems. 21. 288-296.

Ferragina, P., and Scaiella, U. (2010) “TAGME: On-the-Fly Annotation of Short Text Fragments (by Wikipedia Entities).” In Proceedings of the 19th ACM International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management.

Lauscher, A., Nanni, F., Ruiz Fabo, P., and Paolo Ponzetto,

S. (2016). ""Entities as topic labels: combining entity linking and labeled LDA to improve topic interpretability and evaluability."" IJCol-Italian journal of computational linguistics. 2(2): 67-88.

Meeks, E., and Weingart, S.B. (2012). ""The digital humanities contribution to topic modeling."" Journal of Digital Humanities 2.1.

Nanni, F., and Ruiz Fabo, P. (2016) ""Entities as topic labels: Improving topic interpretability and evaluability combining Entity Linking and Labeled LDA."" DH2016.

Wallach, H. M., Murray, I., Salakhutdinov, R. and Mimno,

D. (2009). ""Evaluation methods for topic models."" Proceedings of the 26th Annual International Conference on Machine Learning.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/063/063.pdf",""
"3800","18","Mapping Concepts and Authors from 20th Century Portuguese Magazines of Ideas and Culture","9","Magazines of ideas and culture constitute a very unique and exceptional set of sources, whose richness comes from an ample participation of intellectuals and artists, including some of the most influential individuals of their time. The fact that Fernando Pessoa first published most of his work in these periodicals clearly illustrates their importance (Andrade, 2003). These authors' prolonged participation, over issues published during long periods of time, allows us to capture and understand the movement of ideas and the diversity of their voices, in a continuous process of debate and update.

The periodical press played a very strong historical role in France (e.g., Charle, 2004; Pluet-Despatin

et al., 2002), Italy (Frigessi, 1979), the United States

(Tebbel and Zuckerman, 1991), and Brazil (Luca, 2011; Martins, 2012), to mention a few examples. The history of magazines in Brazil is particularly interesting to us, due to the very direct relationship between Brazilian and Portuguese intellectuals, who often wrote in the same publications (Guimaraes et al., 2013).

In Portugal, all prominent intellectual movements used the periodical press, and specifically magazines, as a place of reunion, where they shared, discussed, and made their ideas public. In the first half of the 20th century the diversity of published magazines was as ample as the diversity of artistic, cultural, intellectual, and political movements. Magazines were used not only to reach other intellectuals but also a wider audience, with a commitment to establish a strong and informed public opinion, in search of what many contemporary authors believed to be “a universal rationality present in every person” (Andrade, 1999: 31, translation ours). The press was, among other things, a territory of political struggle and intervention.

For almost two decades now, the research group Free Seminar of History of Ideas (Seminario Livre de Historia das Ideias, n.d.) has been working on building a comprehensive and extensive database of some of the most important 20th century Portuguese magazines of ideas and culture. The project Magazines of Ideas and Culture (Seminario Livre de Historia das Ideias, Revistas de Ideias e Cultura, n.d.) has taken a multidisciplinary approach from the very beginning, encompassing knowledge from fields such as history of ideas, library science, and information science. Its aim was to build a relational database containing exhaustive information on authorship, quoted authors and works, subjects, concepts, and geographical names, for all articles contained in these publications.

One of the main methodological aspects of the project was the segmentation of the traditional “keywords” field in two: subjects and concepts. The keyword was deemed a too insufficient and imprecise instrument for obtaining a comprehensive understanding of the underlining ideas and ideological frameworks contained in these magazines.

To avoid the use of divergent criteria in establishing what could be considered a concept, a conceptual thesaurus, for use by researchers, was discussed and developed by the team beforehand. The first step in this process was to reach a consensual definition of the two relevant operative fields; in very broad terms, a concept was considered abstract, whereas a subject was deemed the materialization of an idea (e.g., Koselleck, 2004; Skinner, 2005 and Castro, 1996: 11-21, for a somewhat different theoretical approach). For example, in an article containing the concept “war,” acceptable accompanying subjects -limited by actual article contents, of course - are any and all specific armed conflicts, as well as all the thoughts and ideas that can be produced on “war.” We seek to determine concepts from a comprehensive, rather than explanatory, perspective. This means that, in any given article, all structuring concepts mobilized by the author, in accordance with the conceptual economy underlying the discourse, are relevant and thus collected.

Utilizing a conceptual framework also makes it possible to record the use of a concept without a verbatim textual mention of the word (Lisboa, 2015: 133-145). The need for a critical understanding of the texts made the use of tools for text recognition (OCR) inadequate. As such, all the input information is collected and validated by researchers.

The definition of the conceptual thesaurus followed principles of parsimony, consistency, and clarity, avoiding redundancies and repetitions, while at the same time favouring common criteria and language comprehensibility for all users:

“While making no claim to absolute denotation or universality, and agreeing with the fundamentally subjective use of concepts, we believe that the use of a large number of concepts is in fact ubiquitous, in parallel with the difference between language and speech. However, notwithstanding the differences between language and the uses of language, we must be able to achieve some level of systematization, as found in most dictionaries and similar works of reference.”

The resulting conceptual network constitutes one of the strongest virtues of the project, allowing for a clear delimitation of the general and specific terms that structured thought as a representation of the world, a phenomenon which can be found in magazines of the same political, cultural, or artistic movement. The set of reciprocal concepts in the conceptual map for each movement will allow a clear understanding of the fundamental ideas and thoughts that motivated their authors.

It should be noted that our project does not aim to classify information, but rather to provide a comprehensive reading of the sources. Our output is meant to be the result of a critical analysis of the source and an interpretation of its contents, grounded in the fields of History of Ideas and Conceptual History, and not a mere blind or neutral collection of terms and names. The database is not intended to replace the source, but instead to aid navigation through its complexity, providing meaning and structure to the included corpus of discourses, and highlighting the underlying programmatic and doctrinarian aspect of these magazines.

Our presentation proposal focuses on the magazine A Águia, a monthly magazine of literature, art, science, philosophy, and social critique, as stated in

the subtitle, published between 1910 and 1932. This

was the main organ of the republican Renascenfa Portuguesa, one of the most noteworthy intellectual movements of 20th century Portuguese history. For its 205 issues, published over the five series that make up the magazine's complete collection, 1,903 articles were indexed, and the collected data includes 403 single authors, 4,299 quoted names, and 1,033 concepts, among other descriptors.

We will apply network analysis to our data (Wasserman and Faust, 1994; Scott, 2000; Carrington, Scott and Wasserman, 2005), and intend to focus on the most important authors, i.e., those that have written the most articles for A Águia. Connecting individual article authors with the authors quoted in their texts should provide a visual map of intellectual networks, highlighting influences between authors and their ideas, thoughts, and intellectual background. Using information on quoted names will bring to light the shared and individual references of these authors, providing a visual network of the most influential names featured in their participation in the magazine.

We also intend to trace conceptual networks for a few selected authors. By observing the interaction of concepts used by a given author during a long period of time, an illustration of the course and evolution of their thoughts and ideas will hopefully manifest. In addition, observing the connections between concepts used by different authors (which concepts are used simultaneously more often, for example) can highlight profound or subtle differences in their intellectual background. Finally, confronting the two stages of our analysis - quoted authors and concepts - will provide a clear and vivid image of each author's views and discourse.

We believe that quantitative analysis of qualitative information can be a very powerful instrument if there is a strong consistency in the information being analysed. It can bring to light new relationships between authors, conceptual frameworks, or even conceptual transitions within a single author. Shifting from a narrative of intellectual dialogue to a visual movement of thought and ideas can be a powerful tool for obtaining an original and comprehensive image of the structures of thought underlying the intellectual production of a given period, through a particularly significant medium, i.e., magazines.

The tool developed by our research group “is an invitation for the reader to remember that knowledge is, foremost, an exercise of imagination, since the universe of questionable content and the scope of viable answers are both meticulously expanded.” (Andrade, n.d.)

Bibliography

Andrade, L. C. de (2003). ""Introdufao: quatro notas breves.”

In Andrade, L. C. (ed), Revistas, Ideias e Doutrinas. Leituras

do Pensamento Contemporáneo. Lisbon: Livros Horizonte,

pp. 11-18.

Andrade, L. C. de (1999). ""O Substantivo «intelectuais».”

Cadernos de Cultura, 2: 23-41.

Andrade, L. C. de (n.d.). Revistas de Ideias e Cultura, http://ric.slhi.pt/A Aguia/um voo singular e longo (ac

cessed on 30th October 2016).

Carrington, P. J., Scott, J. and Wasserman, S. (eds) (2005).

Models and Methods in Social Network Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Castro, Z. O. de (1996). ""Da história das ideias a história das ideias políticas.” Cultura: Revista de História e Teoria das Ideias, VIII (2): 11-21.

Charle, C. (2004). Le Siècle de la Presse (1830-1939). Paris: Éditions du Seuil.

Frigessi, D. (ed) (1979). La Cultura Italiana del '900 Attraverso le Riviste. Turin: Giulio Einaudi.

Guimaraes, L., Andrade, L. C. de and Castro, Z. O. de

(2013). Atlântida. A invençâo da comunidade luso-

brasileira. Rio de Janeiro: Contracapa.

Koselleck, R. (2004). Futures Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time. New York: Columbia University Press.

Lisboa, P. (2015). ""Ediçâo electrónica de revistas históricas. O caso de A Águia.” In Rollo, M. F. and Amaro, A. R. (eds), República e Republicanismo. Coimbra: Caleidoscópio, pp. 133-145.

Luca, T. R. de (2011). Leituras, projetos e (re)vista(s) do Brasil (1916-1944). Sâo Paulo: UNESP.

Martins, A. L. (ed) (2012). História da Imprensa no Brasil. Sao Paulo: Contexto.

Pluet-Despatin, J., Leymarie, M. and Mollier, J.-Y. (eds)

(2002). La Belle Époque des Revues. Paris: IMEC.

Scott, J. (2000). Social Network Analysis: a handbook. London: Sage.

Seminário Livre de História das    Ideias,

http://www.slhi.pt/ (accessed on 30th October 2016).

Seminário Livre de História das Ideias, Revistas de Ideias

e Cultura, http://ric.slhi.pt/ (accessed on 30th October 2016).

Skinner, Q. (2005). Visoes da Política: sobre os métodos históricos. Algés: Difel.

Tebbel, J. and Zuckerman, M. E. (1991). The Magazine in America, 1741-1990. New York: Oxford University Press.

Wasserman, S. and Faust, K. (1994). Social Network Analysis:    methods and applications. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/065/065.pdf",""
"3801","18","Enhancing Domain-Specific Entity Linking in DH","2","For the purpose of information retrieval and text exploration, digital humanities (DH) scholars have examined the potential of methods such as keyphrase extraction (Hasan and Ng, 2014) and named entity recognition (Nadeau and Sekine, 2007). However, these solutions still face challenges in the presence of polysemy and synonymy (e.g. distinguish between “Paris” the capital of France or the city in Ontario or recognize that “POTUS” and “Barack Obama” might refer to the same person).

Entity Linking
In the last decade, advances in natural language processing (NLP) gave rise to word-sense disambiguation and entity linking techniques (Cornolti et al., 2013), which automatically disambiguate entities and concepts in context and link them to knowledge bases such as Wikipedia, DBpedia (Auer et al., 2007) or Babelnet (Navigli and Ponzetto, 2012). Among them, TagMe (Ferragina and Scaiella, 2010) has been often adopted in NLP, thanks to its decent performance on different datasets and to its easy-to-use API.

Current Limitations for DH research
TagMe also highlights a few common limitations of current standard entity linking systems that reduce their applicability within most scenarios found in the

•    Black Box and reproducibility. As Hasibi et al. (2016) recently remarked, the TagMe RESTful API remains a black box, as it is impossible to check whether it corresponds to the system described in the original paper. Not knowing the reliability of the system limits its use for distant reading analyses, i.e. quantitative studies that go beyond text exploration.

•    Language Versions. Currently, TagMe is only available in English, German and Italian but does not support other widespread languages such as Chinese, Arabic, Spanish, and French, which are essential for enhancing its use in the DH community.

•    Infrequent Updates. TagMe has been initially created on the English 2009 version of Wikipedia and it has been updated only twice (summer 2012, summer 2016). Imagine a setting where a scholar intends to analyze a collection of mainstream news on the Middle East: before the most recent update the system was not able to detect mentions of “Al-Nursa Front”, the former Syrian branch of al-Qaeda.

•    Wikipedia as Knowledge Base. TagMe, as well as other entity-linking solutions, relies on the assumption that the entries and structure of Wikipedia provide us with a comprehensive and accurate knowledge base. While this is mostly true for standard NLP and IR approaches, when it comes to humanities research this assumption shows all its limitations. As a matter of fact, linking to Wikipedia is not ideal for example when dealing with historical documents, simply because entities and concepts relevant in the corpus may be missing from such a general-purpose knowledge resource (as remarked in Lauscher et al., 2016).

Specific contribution
While we are currently working on the implementation and optimization of a domain-adaptable entity linking pipeline, at the conference we intend to present a solution for generating, in an automatic fashion, domain-specific knowledge bases from an user-created Wiki. As the creation of a complete Wiki is too time-consuming, these domain-specific wikis are used in combination with general world knowledge available on Wikipedia. In particular, we will describe how our system can make use of the following input:

The XML Dump of any language version of Wikipedia and rapidly create the indexes that compose the knowledge base. This permits to have a knowledge base for each language version of Wikipedia and to update it on the spot whenever needed.

Any MediaWiki website dump, such as Wikia (although it is important to consider the copyright license when downloading and using this data), to be merged into the same index. In the table we report a few examples from different Wikia sites. It is important

This solution gives the scholar the possibility of creating (or improving an already existent) domain specific Wikia (a practice common in DH education,

see Farabaugh, 2007 and Giglio & Venecek, 2009) on the topic she/he intends to study and identifying mentions of domain-specific and general-purpose concepts in large text collections.

Web 2.0."" Digital Humanities Quarterly 3.3.

Hasan, K. S., and Ng, V. (2014) ""Automatic Keyphrase Extraction: A Survey of the State of the Art."" ACL (1).

Hasibi, F., Balog, K, and Bratsberg, S. E. (2016) ""On the Reproducibility of the TAGME Entity Linking System."" European Conference on Information Retrieval. Springer International Publishing, 2016.

Lauscher, A., et al. (2016) ""Entities as topic labels: combining entity linking and labeled LDA to improve topic in-terpretability and evaluability."" IJCol-Italian journal of computational linguistics 2.2 (2016): 67-88.

Nadeau, D., and Satoshi S. (2007) ""A survey of named entity recognition and classification."" Lingvisticae Investi-gationes 30.1: 3-26.

Navigli, R., and Ponzetto, S. P. (2012) ""BabelNet: The automatic construction, evaluation and application of a wide-coverage multilingual semantic network."" Artificial Intelligence 193 (2012): 217-250.

Inlinks

(From Italian Wikipedia)

Entities and their mentions (From Star Trek Wikia)

Entities in Text (From Harry Potter Wikia)

Université di Bologna:

“Emilia Romagna”, “Umberto Eco”, “Ulisse Aldrovandi”, etc.

Romano Prodi: “Massimo d’Alema”, “Silvio

Berlusconi”, “Unione Europea”, etc.

Anniversario della

liberazione d'Italia:

“Seconda guerra mondiale”, “Resistenza italiana”, “Repubblica Italiana”, etc.

James T. Kirk: ""James

Kke/Jamaa Tiberius Kirk"", “James”, “Admiral Kirk”, etc.

Jean-Luc Picard:

Eissrd j stes,o,-Luc

Picard"", ""Jean-Luc”, ""Cgt. Picard"", “Captain Jean-Luc Picard”, etc.

William T. Riker: ""William Riker"", ""William T.

RiKaiLniiamas, Riker"", “William Thomas Riker”, etc.

“Sirius was sent to Azkaban, and after twelve years became the only known person to escape the prison unassisted”

“After leaving school,

Charlie went to Romania to study dragons.”

“Meanwhile, it was not long before Hermione realised that the Ministry of Magic had decided to interfere at Hogwarts.”

Bibliography
Auer, S., et al. (2007) ""Dbpedia: A nucleus for a web of open data."" The semantic web. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2007. 722-735.

Cornolti, M., Ferragina, P., and Ciaramita, M. (2013) ""A framework for benchmarking entity-annotation systems."" Proceedings of the 22nd international conference on World Wide Web. ACM.

Farabaugh, R. (2007) ""‘The isle is full of noises’: Using wiki software to establish a discourse community in a Shakespeare classroom."" Language Awareness 16.1: 41-56.

Ferragina, P., and Scaiella, U. (2010) ""Tagme: on-the-fly annotation of short text fragments (by wikipedia entities)."" Proceedings of the 19th ACM international conference on Information and knowledge management. ACM.

Giglio, K., and Venecek, J. (2009) ""The Radical Historicity of Everything: Exploring Shakespearean Identity with","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/068/068.pdf",""
"3802","18","“A Trace of this Journey”: Citations of Digitised Newspapers in UK History PhD Theses","9","“In two weeks, despite these notes, I shall no longer believe in what I am experiencing now. One must leave behind a trace of this journey which memory forgets” (Cocteau, 2013).

Academic citations are prostheses for the scholarly memory, providing traces of a text's origins. They are also, taken collectively, a powerful source of information on scholarly influence, links between authors, and academic publishing trends. This paper will present work in progress to discover the extent to which citation patterns by UK historians have been affected by digitisation of historical newspapers. Previous studies into digital resources have used citation analysis for impact analysis (Meyer et al., 2009), but faced problems gathering accurate data due to researchers' unwillingness to cite digital resources. Text mining mentions of titles within a digital resource offers a solution to this problem; indeed, Milligan (2013) has successfully used techniques from Natural Language Processing to track citations of major Canadian newspapers in Canadian PhD theses. However, there are local variations around academic practice, and cultural heritage digitisation, and to date there has been no largescale study of digital resource citations in the United Kingdom.

This paper will present my efforts to mine newspaper citation trends using over 6,000 history theses submitted at UK Higher Education institutions, from 1999 to 2015. It will also consider the implications of text mining using legal deposit library collections. Its significance is therefore twofold. It is the first study to use text mining to track citations in UK history theses, thereby providing insights into the effect of local digitised primary sources. Second, by collaborating with British Library Labs, it provides an important test case of the possibility of exploring the text mining exception in UK copyright law. This study therefore focuses on two key research questions:

• What does citation analysis of UK history theses tell us about the impact of historic newspaper

digitisation on early career historians in the United Kingdom?

• How far does the ability to text and data mine copyrighted materials provide for data driven approaches when applied to legal deposit library collections?

Research context

In the last fifteen years several studies have proposed models for evaluating the impact of digital resources (Warwick et al., 2006; Meyer et al., 2009; Tanner, 2012). Citation analysis is commonly used in impact evaluation, and is a well-established biblio-metric technique for impact analysis (MacRoberts and MacRoberts, 1989). As part of the wider field of bibliometrics, citation analysis has been used to judge the impact of academic publications and digital resources (Meyer et al., 2009). Citations are proxy measures of how frequently a document or resource is used, founded on the assumption that there is a strong positive correlation between the number of citations that a resource or article attracts, and the quality of that resource (Smith, 1980). The reality, though, is that citation practices are not always followed or understood by academics. Smith (1980) noted several reasons a scholar may choose not to cite a document: inability to obtain the document; inability to read a foreign language; lack of relevance to their work; or lack of awareness of existing work. There are further reasons for digital resources; not least a lack of awareness of how to cite them (Su-kovic, 2009), and disciplinary unwillingness to acknowledge their usage (Meyer, 2009). As a result, the traditional method of mining only citations provide an unreliable picture of citation levels of digital resources.

Furthermore, there is a need to account for the varied local and national context within which researchers operate. In Canada, for instance, there is a feeling among scholars that the “limited and fragmented” (Kheraj, 2014) newspaper digitisation programme lags behind nations such as the USA, Australia and United Kingdom. The prominence of The Toronto Star and The Globe and Mail mirrors the early years of newspaper digitisation in the United Kingdom, where the ubiquity of the Times Digital Archive encouraged some to overstate its repre

sentativeness (Bingham, 2010). Contemporary digitised newspaper resources in the UK by contrast, tend to aggregate dozens of newspaper titles into a single resource. This paper therefore explores the likelihood that this aggregation process may have caused different citation patterns among UK re

searchers, who are the largest group to access these resources (Gooding, 2014), providing a comparison

with the differing Canadian context presented by

Milligan.

Methodology

To achieve this, I will focus on newspaper titles

from two British Library resources: British Library Nineteenth Century Newspapers (BNCN) and The British Newspaper Archive (BNA). I intend to identify mentions of newspapers by title within the full text of UK history theses. The dataset comes from EThOS, a national service which makes UK doctoral theses available online for searching and reading. EThOS contains approximately 440,000 records relating to theses awarded by over 120 institutions. It provides a comprehensive, systematically collected dataset for comparison of citation trends over time. Around 160,000 records provide access to searchable full text, and I have worked with British Library Labs to identify a subset of history theses published from 1999 to 2015; in total, over 6,000 theses were identified using Dewey Decimal Classifiers, covering eight years before and after the launch of BNCN in 2007. These theses will be searched using Natural Language Processing techniques to identify the incidence of specific newspaper titles that are included in BNCN and BNA, allowing me to identify how many theses use a given source, and how frequently each source was used.

This project also acts as a test case for text mining of British Library collections. In 2014, the UK government introduced an exception to copyright law to ensure that researchers undertaking text and data-min-ing for non-commercial purposes would no longer infringe copyright (Intellectual Property Office, 2014), without requiring that publishers took steps to guarantee the availability of suitable datasets for text mining. In reality, this means that there are many potentially valuable data sources that could be legally studied, but no infrastructure to do so. Starting with the British Library's PhD thesis holdings, I intend to work with British Library Labs to explore the possibility of opening up further datasets for text mining.

Conclusion

This paper will explore the ways in which historical newspaper digitisation have impacted upon historiography among early career researchers in the United Kingdom, by tracking citations of digitised newspaper titles over time in the full text of over 6,000 PhD theses. This is the first study to apply text mining of digital resource citations to the UK context. It also provides an important case study of text and data mining in legal deposit library collections, in the light of current limitations to the UK copyright exception. In doing so, this project will not only illuminate the ways in which digital resources can affect local research practices, but will demonstrate the utility of text mining in addressing the methodological limitations of citation analysis for digital resources. We must adopt new computational methods to ensure that the traces of this use are not wiped away by citation practices which continue to de-em-phasise the role of digital resources in contemporary research.

References

Bingham, A. (2010). ‘The Digitization of Newspaper Archives: Opportunities and Challenges for Historians.'

Twentieth Century British History, 21(2): pp. 225-231.

doi: 10.1093/tcbh/hwq007.

Cocteau, J. (2013). Opium: The Diary of His Cure. 3rd Edition. London: Peter Owen Publishers.

Intellectual Property Office (2014). Exceptions to Copyright: Research, UK Government. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/sys-tem/uploads/attachment_data/file/375954/Re-search.pdf.

Kheraj, S. (2014). ‘Canada's Historical Newspaper Digitization Problem, Part 2.' History Matters. http://ac-tivehistory.ca/2014/02/historical-newspaper-digiti-zation-problem/comment-page-2/.

MacRoberts, M. H. and MacRoberts, B. R. (1989). ‘Problems of Citation Analysis: A Critical Review.' Journal of

the American Society for Information Science, 40(5): pp. 342-349.

Meyer, E. T. (2009). Software Tools for Bibliometrics, Toolkit for the Impact of Digitised Scholarly Resources

(TIDSR). Available at: http://micro-

sites.oii.ox.ac.uk/tidsr/kb/49/software-tools-biblio-

metrics.

Meyer, E. T., Eccles, K., Thelwall, M. and Madsen, C.

(2009). Usage and Impact Study of JISC-Funded Phase 1

Digitisation Projects & the Toolkit for the Impact of Digitised Scholarly Resources (TIDSR). Oxford: Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford. Available at: http://microsites.oii.ox.ac.uk/tidsr/sites/micro-sites.oii.ox.ac.uk.tidsr/files/TIDSR_FinalRe-port_20July2009.pdf.

Milligan, I. (2013). ‘Illusionary Order: Online Databases, Optical Character Recognition, and Canadian History,

1997-2010.' The Canadian Historical Review, 94(4): pp. 540-569.

Smith, L. (1980). ‘Citation Analysis.' Library Trends, 30:

pp. 83-106.

Sukovic, S. (2009). ‘References to e-texts in academic publications', Journal of Documentation, 65(6), pp. 9971015.

Tanner, S. (2012). Measuring the Impact of Digital Resources: The Balanced Value Impact Model. London: King's College London. Available at:

http://www.kdcs.kcl.ac.uk/fileadmin/docu-

ments/pubs/BalancedValueImpactModel_Simon-

Tanner_October2012.pdf.

Warwick, C., Terras, M., Pappa, N. and Galina, I. (2006). The LAIRAH project: log analysis of digital resources in the arts and humanities - Final report to the Arts and Humanities Research Council. School of Library, Archive and Information Studies, University College London. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/infostudies/claire-war-

wick/publications/LAIRAHreport.pdf.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/070/070.pdf",""
"3803","18","Network Dynamics, Plot Analysis: Approaching the Progressive Structuration of Literary Texts","9","Introduction and related works
In recent years, the application of network analysis methods to literary texts has evolved into an independent research field of digital literary studies. Methods for the automated extraction of network data (named entity recognition, co-reference resolution) and their evaluation are of particular importance (El-son et al. 2010; Park et al. 2013; Agrarwal et al. 2013; Fischer et al. 2015; Waumans et al. 2015; Jannidis et al. 2016). Based on the data obtained, several types of analyses were developed: an empirical, quantitative and hierarchical description of literary characters (Jannidis et al. 2016), corpus-based analyses exploring options for historical periodisation of literature (Trilcke et al. 2015) and types of aesthetic modelling of social formations in and by literary texts (Stiller et al. 2003; Stiller & Hudson 2005; Trilcke et al. 2016).

What has been neglected so far (although already suggested by Moretti 2011) is the application of network analysis as a tool for quantitative plot analysis. In fact, current approaches in the field of literary network analysis are not suited to gaining insights into the plot development of literary texts (Prado et al. 2016). The sequential dimension of literary texts, as a consequence of their temporality, usually remains in the dark: what is extracted, visualised and analysed

are static networks. Plot, however, is essentially a concept supposed to theoretically encompass the temporality of narrative (as well as dramatic) texts: ""the repeated attempts to redefine parameters of plot reflect both the centrality and the complexity of the temporal dimension of narrative"" (Dannenberg 2005: pp. 435). Plot can be understood as a concept for the description of the ""progressive structuration"" (Kukkonen 2013: §4) of literary texts.

Research objective: plot analysis
Attempts to further develop literary network analysis towards a quantitative plot analysis must consider the temporal dimension in the modelling of their research objects. The structure of a literary text is to be modelled as a changing sequence of network states. It is only through looking into these network dynamics that we can discuss network-analytic approaches for a quantitative plot analysis.

Following Prado et al. 2016, we are currently extending our research on literary networks (Trilcke 2013; Fischer et al. 2015ff.; Fischer et al. 2015; Trilcke et al. 2016) to the analysis of progressive structuration. Our goal is to examine whether (and with what kind of limitations) we can flesh out an operationalisation for the plot analysis of literary texts. By doing so, we are, of course, not trying to replace the semantically rich and versatile concept of 'plot' with a quantitative and thus reductionist concept. Rather, we will show that certain aspects of what is commonly discussed within the framework of plot analysis can be retraced by means of a computer-based analysis of network dynamics.

The visualisation of dynamic graphs, as is common in other domains (Pohl et al. 2008; Frederico et al. 2011), has recently been transferred to literary networks (Xanthos et al. 2016). While it may come in useful when close-reading a text and for didactic purposes, it is unsatisfactory when it comes to an actual corpus-based analysis. There are no canonical methods to help us compare network visualisations generated automatically by force-directed graph drawing algorithms. The reception of dynamic visualisations just does not offer practical analytical means. From a dedicated distant-reading kind of perspective, the calculation of dynamic network metrics and their statistical processing is much more promising as it offers options to describe general characteristics of networks from a larger corpus as well as to compare specific formal types of networks within the corpus.

Measuring dynamic literary networks
A number of basic global measures for the analysis of dynamic networks (i.e., size, density, homogeneity in the distribution of ties, rate of changes in nodes, rate

of changes in ties) has been discussed by Carley (2003:

pp. 135-36). In addition, Prado et al. 2016 recently suggested the application of actor-oriented measures, especially centrality indices, for the reconstruction of plot development. We are currently applying these measures to our own corpus, consisting of 465 German language plays. We also developed a set of other measures with recourse to traditional theoretical concepts for the description of specific phenomena of plot development, especially with regard to types of dramatic expositions (Pfister 1977: pp. 124-36), the ""classical"" act structure of tragedy and the composition principle of main and secondary plots (Pfister 1977: pp. 286-89). Calculation of these measures was implemented in our own network analysis tool drama-vis (Kittel/Fischer 2017).

Event-based measures
In general, two types of measures can be distinguished for describing dramatic texts as dynamic networks: event-based and progression-based measures. Event-based measures are used to identify or characterise a particular point in time within a drama. In this context we developed an all-in index, a value that identifies the point in time at which all characters have occurred at least once in a drama (see Figure 1).


Figure 1 : All-in index for 6 selected plays


The final-scene-size value characterises a specific point in time, in this case the last scene of a drama. It determines the percentage of all characters of a drama which appear on stage in the last scene. This value shows characteristic differences between dramatic subgenres, especially when comparing tragedies and comedies (see Figure 2).


Figure 2: Final-scene-size index (mean values of entire corpus and subgenres)

Progression-based measures
While event-based measures allow assumptions about a particular state/point in time of the dynamic network, progression-based measures allow a general characterisation of the transformation of a dramatic network. In this regard, we introduced a measure we call the drama-change rate. The basis of our calculation is a modified Levenshtein distance, which only takes into account insertions (""add character"") and deletions (""delete character""). In each case, we compare characters present in two consecutive scenes, eventually resulting in what we call the segment-change rate (Figure 3).

Scene 1    2    3    4    Scene 12    3


segment change rate    segment change rate

» 1/2 = 0.5    =2/3 = 0.66

Figure 3: Calculation of the segment-change rate (example)


BI


The sum of all segment-change rates of a drama divided by the number of all segment-change rates is what we call the drama-change rate. The development of this rate can be represented in a chart, which due to its shape we tentatively called the beat chart (Figure 4).


Figure 4: Beat chart for Goethe's play ""Iphigenie auf Tauris"" (1787)

Having calculated the drama-change-rate value for the entire corpus, we can start to compare a larger set of dramas with each other (Figure 5). It becomes evident that our corpus does not exhibit a clear trend along the timeline. Instead, we witness the emergence of characteristic types of dramas, which differ characteristically from the other texts in our corpus.


Figure 5: Historical distribution of drama-change rates in the DLINA corpus

On the one hand, we can identify dramas exhibiting a

high drama-change rate, i.e., highly dynamic dramas with a constant alternation of characters on stage (Figure 6). On the other hand, low-dynamic dramas can be


Figure 6: Two examples of highly dynamic dramas - left: Goethe's ""Egmont"" (1788); right: Lenz's ""Der Hofmeister"" (1774)


Figure 7: Two Examples for low-dynamic dramas - left: Goethe's ""Der Burgergeneral"" (1793), right: Rilke's ""Ohne Gegenwart"" (1898)

A further option for the comparative analysis of our oscillatory beat charts is the analysis of the standard deviation of all segment-change rates of a drama. We can again distinguish two particularly striking types: On the one hand, there are dramas with a high standard deviation, indicating that extensive changes of characters alternate with small changes; we can call them high-dynamic dramas (Figure 8). On the other hand, there are dramas showing a low standard deviation, so the change on stage takes place in the same rhythm, we call these texts low-dynamic dramas (Fig-


Figure 8: Two Examples for high-dynamic dramas - left: Benkowitz's ""Die Jubelfeier der Hölle"" (1801), right: Goethe's ""Faust I"" (1808)


Figure 9: Two Examples for low-dynamic dramas - left: Schnitzler's ""Anatol"" (1893), right: Schnitzler's ""Der Reigen"" (1902)

The preceding cases each describe characteristic deviations regarding the drama-change rate of groups of texts. In addition, a 'normal type' of drama can be identified, which corresponds to the mean value for the corpus both in terms of arithmetic mean and standard deviation (Figure 10).


Figure 10: Beat chart for Ganghofer's ""Der Herrgottschnitzer von Ammergau"" (1880)

It also appears that strong upward shifts, accompanied by a complete exchange of characters on stage, often coincide with act boundaries (vertical orange lines), which is in accordance with historical conventions of dramatic composition.

Summary and further research
Our research on dynamic networks provides basic components for a quantitative analysis of the progressive structuration of dramatic texts. Future research will have to develop and evaluate additional measures and it will be decisive to hold interpretations of these measures against the backdrop of historical drama poetics.

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"3804","18","PERsonalIzed COlour ProfilEs PERiSCOPE: A modern methodology for rendering colour in digital media displays","10","Colour and colour perception are of great relevance for many scientific fields and constitute important aspects of the aesthetic appearance of most artwork. In art history, visual arts, media sciences and photography, colour is an important attribute for assessing and reviewing most objects. Virtual Research Environments, for example, allow scholars to access, compare, and discuss digital renderings of paintings, photographs, video and motion pictures. The quality of colour rendering of these digital objects is crucial for most analytical work because colour is one of the most important features that is communicated. We propose to revolutionize the current colour rendering methodologies on state-of-the art displays and printers, for better “true” colour management of digital still images, video, or motion pictures.

Since the early years of colour science, the 1931 CIE Standard Observer has been a major reference for colour reproduction (Guild, 1925, 1932; Wright, 1929). The CIE Standard Observer defines how we can quantify colours that we see in the linear XYZ, or the perception-based Lab colour space. There are, however, several disadvantages to the system, arising mainly from the inherent assumptions made during the (very controlled) colour matching experiments used to derive the colour-matching functions (MacDonald, 2015). Most significantly, the original approach describes only the average of the experimental results, while those results are based on a small group of test individuals, in this case, 49 British men. Since the original experiment does not address the physiology of an individual observer, it has several qualitative limitations that result in colour reproduction with limited accuracy.

Since the original Standard Observer experiment, several studies have been performed aiming to improve the original colour matching functions (CMFs). Stiles and Burch, in 1959, repeated the experiment this time with an increased viewing field of 10 degrees, from the 2 degrees used for the 1931 results (Stiles & Burch, 1959). More recently, in the ‘90s, groups critically analyzed the 1939 and 1959 results to derive more precise CMFs. This is the case with Stockman et al in 1999 (Stockman, Sharpe, & Fach, 1999), who were able to propose new spectral sensitivity functions for the S-cones (the eye's short-wavelength light receptor), both with their own experimental methods and by analyzing the existing functions. Meanwhile, individual differences in CMFs were estimated by North and Fairchild in 1993, this time by performing a small number of colour matching measurements and using a computational model to derive the CMFs (North & Fairchild, 1993a, 1993b). Investigations of individual variabilities in detecting colour among colour-normal individuals were performed in 2015 by Asano et al. and showed higher than expected interobserver variability (Asano,

Fairchild, Blonde, & Morvan, 2015).

There are multiple studies that have been investigating the connection between colour perception and physiological (Abramov, Gordon, Feldman, & Chavar-ga, 2012a)(Abramov, Gordon, Feldman, & Chavarga, 2012b) and cultural (Collier, 1973; Merrifield, 1971)(Winawer et al., 2007)(Roberson, Davidoff, Davies, & Shapiro, 2006) differences, however the mechanisms that control the individual colour perception (i.e. the specific way that each person sees, understand and responds to colour) are not fully understood.

In this project, we plan to revisit the Standard Observer Experiment (SOE) and test its validity for different portions of the population. We will employ current technologies to develop and use a modern experimental setup based on LEDs and emphasize on these specific parameters of interest:

•    The target colour in the full range of wavelengths in the visible range

•    The geometry (size) of the colourfield

•    The background the colour is surrounded by (limited to a specific set of colours)

• The ambient light conditions

The group of probands shall comprise of a large pool of individuals representing different ages, genders, social background and cultures. Our experimental setup will help to simplify the measurements of individual tristimulus functions for a more generalized application.

The original SOE has already shown a large variety of individual results, even though the number of probands was very small. Especially for the red primary, the observers have shown large differences in the required colour-mix to get a perceived colour match between the target colour and the mixing colours. With the experimental results we will confirm these differences in the colour matching experiment and move further to quantify the deviation both in wavelength and intensity of the individual tristimulus functions. If the principal shape of the three functions is comparable and the frequency shift is small relative to the full visible range, the experimental setup needed to measure the individual colour-matching functions can be drastically simplified.

Additionally, we pursue the development of a simplified experimental setup that will have a more generalized use. Previous colour-matching experiments using LEDs provide invaluable insight into the technical regarding optics requirements and electronics design (Morvan, Sarkar, Stauder, Blonde, & Kervec, 2011). The setup will consist of a device that can illuminate a test area with a red, blue and green primary of adjustable intensity. With such a mobile colourmatching device, the SOE can be simplified. The simplification of the experiment allows for observers to characterize their individual colour perception in a fast and uncomplicated way. The long-term goal is to develop automated single-observer colour measuring, which can be used to create personalized colour profiles (PERsonalIzed COlour ProfilEs PERiSCOPE), with which we will be able to uniquely calibrate the user's viewing instruments, i.e. screens, printers etc. that are part of a conventional ICC colour management workflow. A simplified but straightforward experiment is the calculation and rendering of an image based on

the scaled integral of spectral image data, regarded as

spectral reflectance information for each pixel, S(A, px, py) multiplied by the spectral power distribution of the illuminant I(A) and e.g. the two extrema of the CIE's color matching functions Xmin(A), ymin(A), Zmin(A) as well as Xmax(A), ymax(A), Zmax(A). Such an experimental calculation results in two significantly different images, each representing a rendering based on different experimental data sets of individuals of the

SOE. Such different renderings might have a significant effect on the perception of image data and it is a step towards the separation and equalisation of the various effects in the human visual system.

The results and the consequences of the project will be assessed together with experts of art history, media sciences and psychology. We believe that the implications of using personalized color profiles for image renderings will have a strong impact on various fields within the (digital) humanities, which will pave the way for new findings and better understanding. How is e.g. the same rendering of a colour photograph seen by two observers with different physiology? What are the effects of the perception of colour if the colour is adjusted to the physiology and described by of the two observers? How is an observer reacting, if the two observer renderings are shown to the same observer, showing the differences clearly? What effect has such an adjusted colour rendering to the description of eg. colour aesthetics? What is the consequence of seeing an image which is rendered for colour according to the data other person, in other words, if we see an artwork through the eyes of another person, eg. the artist itself? Those questions will be discussed in an interdisciplinary framework with other disciplines, especially art history and media sciences.

In terms of research in cultural heritage and art in humanities universities, museums, and other art institutes, our studies can change the way research is performed and will affect the results of this research, as the tools will become available to introduce the aspect of personal perception. Art is to a great extent a personal experience and institutes have to invent ways to make it objective in order to be able to discuss it in more general terms and draw conclusions about its effect in populations, cultures and times that may be foreign to the researchers today. The PERiSCOPE will adapt an artefact's colour on a digital display according to the viewer's profile. Thus it will allow scientists to truly see the same colour image at the same time and will help reduce the subjectivity of judging an artefact’s appearance.

The DHLab also operates DaSCH (The National Data and Service Center for the Humanities), which includes a Virtual Research Environment in the humanities for sustainable collaborative work with digital sources. This web-based infrastructure can be ideally used for the discussion and collaborative evaluation of our colour results. It would make it possible for researchers to get a deeper understanding of each other’s comments and critique in terms of colour. It would also enable viewers to see a work of art in the way the artist - in case he or she is still living - perceives it. Finally, if we are able to also categorize colour profiles to fit different population groups, the PERiSCOPE will also enable colour specialists (researchers or even industry stakeholders) to use colour in a way that would make the greatest impact to a specific part of the population.

Our research can also greatly impact research in psychology, in terms of personal perception and emotion, by providing new, more accessible methods for measuring and assessing responses to colour stimuli. Much of the knowledge we have about colour perception today comes from the field of psychology. For every colour-related project, researchers have to recreate some form of the SOE. With the PERiSCOPE mobile setup, we will be able to offer a standardised, easy-to-use system that will provide an efficient, reliable and reproducible methodology for these studies.

Bibliography

Abramov, I., Gordon, J., Feldman, O., & Chavarga, A.

(2012a). Sex and vision II: color appearance of monochromatic lights. Biology of Sex Differences, 3(1), 21.

Abramov, I., Gordon, J., Feldman, O., & Chavarga, A.

(2012b). Sex & vision I: Spatio-temporal resolution. Biology of Sex Differences, 3(1), 20.

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(2015). Color matching experiment for highlighting interobserver variability. Color Research and Application,

41(5), 530-539.

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Their Universality and Evolution by Brent Berlin, Paul Kay. Linguistic Society of America, 49(1), 245-248.

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(2011). A handy calibrator for color vision of a human observer. In 2011 IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo.

https://doi.org/10.1109/icme.2011.6012090

North, A. D., & Fairchild, M. D. (1993a). Measuring colormatching functions. Part I. Color Research and Application, 18(3), 155-162.

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(2006). Colour categories and category acquisition in Himba and English. In Volume II. Psychological aspects

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Winawer, J., Witthoft, N., Frank, M. C., Wu, L., Wade, A. R.,

& Boroditsky, L. (2007). Russian blues reveal effects of language on color discrimination. Proceedings of the

National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(19), 7780-7785.

Wright, W. D. (1929). A re-determination of the trichromatic coefficients of the spectral colours. Transactions of the Optical Society, 30(4), 141-164.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/072/072.pdf",""
"3805","18","La Production de l’Espace dans l’Imprimé Français d’Ancien Régime : Le Cas de la Gazette","9","Quelle image mentale du monde un Français de l'époque moderne pouvait-il se tracer au contact des journaux et des livres? Comment caractériser le « message géographique » transmis par les ouvrages savants, les périodiques, les descriptions et les récits de voyage du XVIIIe siècle — et peut-être discerner leur influence sur les événements historiques ?

L'étude d'une telle problématique, qui constitue le cadre de ma thèse de doctorat, implique de faire appel à un corpus vaste et diversifié qui doit être examiné à la fois à l'aide de méthodes numériques de traitement de la langue naturelle et par une lecture intensive de documents ciblés. Mais comment appliquer la lexicométrie, la fouille de textes et l'apprentissage machine à des textes en français du XVIIIe siècle, pour lesquels il n'existe pas de modèle de langage approprié dans les logiciels d'analyse courants ? Et comment adapter des algorithmes conçus pour des sources numériques récentes et de très bonne qualité à des documents endommagés par les siècles, parfois océrisés à partir de microfilms alignés de façon imprécise, ou même handicapés dès leur création par une typographie irrégulière qui mystifie les outils d'océrisation ?

Cadre théorique

Depuis les années 1980, le tournant géographique inspiré par les travaux du philosophe Henri Lefebvre (Lefebvre, 2000) a démontré que l'espace est une construction sociale. Pour les Français du XVIIIe siècle, cette construction passait le plus souvent par la lecture, seule source de connaissance couramment disponible au sujet d'espaces lointains. Comment peut-on utiliser les concepts d'espace et de lieu (Tuan, 2006), de co-présence et de mobilité (Lévy, 1999; Lussault, 2007) pour reconstruire l'imaginaire spatial suscité au sein de communautés de lecteurs par l'accès simultané aux mêmes textes (Anderson, 2006), en particulier ceux des journaux et périodiques?

Corpus et méthodologie

Cette présentation examinera les résultats obtenus lors d'une analyse d'un corpus tiré de la Gazette (renommée Gazette de France en 1762), principal périodique de nouvelles sous l'Ancien Régime (Feyel, 2000). Une version numérisée de la Gazette est disponible sur Gallica, l'archive en ligne de la Bibliothèque nationale de France ; l'état de conservation des documents imprimés à partir desquels cette version a été constituée est cependant inégal, et par conséquent le taux de succès estimé à l'océrisation varie entre 99 % et 76 % ou même moins. Les fichiers .txt issus de l'océrisation ne peuvent donc pas être employés tels quels : non seulement les formes (chaînes de caractères représentant des mots) sont-elles fréquemment endommagées, mais des informations aussi importantes que les limites séparant deux articles et les lieux d'origine de ceux-ci sont également sujettes à un taux d'erreurs inacceptable. La retranscription manuelle du corpus, formé de dizaines de milliers de page en PDF, aurait quant à elle entraîné un coût d'acquisition déraisonnable. Quant aux méthodes usuelles de correction automatique des erreurs d'océrisation (Lopresti, 2009), elles se sont révélées peu efficaces dans ce contexte, ne permettant de réduire le taux d'erreur effectif que de moins de 0,1% — et le plus souvent dans des segments du corpus sans lien direct avec les questions de recherche étudiées.

Pour traiter ce corpus, il a donc fallu faire appel à une méthode itérative, où le choix de questions de recherche auxquelles répondre a déterminé les éléments du corpus qu'il fallait reconstruire et où les résultats de l'examen d'une version transitoire du corpus a guidé le choix des questions de recherche pour l'étape suivante. Cette méthode repose sur l'identification dans le corpus, à l'aide de l'algorithme de Levenshtein (Crump, 2014), de formes potentiellement produites par une reconnaissance incorrecte d'un certain nombre de mots-clés choisis en fonction d'une question de recherche; sur l'inspection visuelle de ces formes candidates pour éliminer de la liste celles qui correspondent manifestement à d'autres mots de la langue française que les mots-clés recherchés; et sur l'extraction semi-automatisée de métadonnées pertinentes compte tenu de la question de recherche étudiée, à partir du texte océrisé et d'une inspection visuelle du document PDF d'origine. En pratique, le taux de faux positifs obtenus en détectant toutes les formes dont la distance de Levenshtein par rapport aux mots-clés est de 3 ou moins dépasse les 95%, mais la sélection visuelle des candidates véritablement prometteuses permet d'augmenter le nombre d'occurrences utilisables pour une analyse ultérieure de 25% à 30%, et ainsi d'assurer une meilleure couverture des éléments pertinents du corpus que ce qui aurait été possible autrement. (Notons que ces occurrences récupérées incluent non seulement les résultats d'erreurs d'océrisation mais aussi des orthographes inusitées des mots-clés recherchés.)

La présentation tracera les grandes lignes de ce processus, des résultats obtenus avec la Gazette, des éléments de la méthode qui se sont montrés généralisables à d'autres corpus bruités, et des limites que la prudence impose à la fois aux questions de recherche auxquelles il convient d'appliquer une telle méthode et aux conclusions que l'on peut en tirer. Afin d'augmenter le niveau de confiance envers les résultats, une multiplicité de méthodes numériques ont été appliquées aux textes et aux métadonnées, l'utilisation d'un seul algorithme, toujours problématique (Schmidt, 2013) étant particulièrement suspecte dans un contexte où la fiabilité des données laisse à désirer. Ces multiples méthodes incluent le partitionnement (Chen et al., 2004), la cartographie numérique, divers décomptes et l'étude des cooccurrences lexicales — soigneusement contrôlée par une inspection visuelle afin d'éliminer les effets de bord causés par l'absence d'un modèle de langage approprié pour le français du XVIIIe siècle — avec le logiciel de textométrie TXM (Heiden et al., 2010). Seuls les résultats à la fois cohérents entre les différentes méthodes et trop flagrants pour être expliqués par un accident de répartition du bruit dans les textes d'origine ont été conservés pour communication.

Résultats

Les premiers résultats portent sur la représentation de l'Amérique et du monde colonial au cours de la période entre 1740 et la fin de la Guerre de Sept ans. Il a notamment été possible de démontrer que l'immense majorité des articles de presse mentionnant les colonies provenaient de Londres ou de la péninsule ibérique plutôt que de la France elle-même et qu'ils présentaient le phénomène colonial d'un point de vue étranger ; que les colonies britanniques et le Brésil occupaient une place beaucoup plus importante que les colonies françaises dans l'imaginaire spatial construit par la Gazette ; et que la sous-représentation du monde colonial français dans les textes, et en particulier celle de la Nouvelle France continentale, était exacerbée en temps de paix, où le Canada devenait pratiquement invisible. À la lecture de ces résultats, il est permis de se demander si, du point de vue d'un lecteur de la Gazette, le moment colonial français en Amérique n'aurait pas semblé chose du passé, bien avant la signature du traité de Paris qui a consacré la cession du Canada à la Couronne britannique. Des recherches sur la coprésence de différents toponymes au sein des mêmes articles, des thèmes associés à ces toponymes et à la distance imaginaire représentée par les fréquences de mentions de lieux dans la Gazette sont en cours et leurs résultats pourront être intégrés à la présentation.

Bibliographie

Anderson, B. (2006). Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, revised edition. London: Verso.

Chen, J., Ching, R. and Lin, Y. (2004). “An Extended Study of the K-Means Algorithm for Data Clustering and Its Applications.” The Journal of the Operational Research Society, 55(9): 976-987.

Crump, J. (2014). “Generating an Ordered Data Set from an

OCR Text File.” Programming Historian,

http://programminghistorian.org/lessons/generating-an-

ordered-data-set-from-an-OCR-text-file

Feyel, G. (2000). L'annonce et la nouvelle: la presse

d'information en France sous l'Ancien Régime, 1630-1788. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation.

Heiden, S., Magué, J-P. et Pincemin, B. (2010). “TXM : Une

plateforme logicielle open-source pour la textométrie -conception et développement.” Proceedings of 10th International Conference on the Statistical Analysis of Textual Data — JADT 2010. Rome: Edizioni Universitarie di Lettere Economia Diritto, vol. 2, pp. 1021-1032.

Lefebvre, H. (2000). La production de l'espace, 4e édition. Paris: Anthropos.

Lévy, J. (1999). Le tournant géographique: penser l'espace pour lire le monde. Paris: Belin.

Lopresti, D. (2009). “Optical Character Recognition Errors and Their Effects on Natural Language Processing.” International Journal on Document Analysis and Recognition, 12 (3): 141-51.

Lussault, M. (2007). L'homme spatial: la construction sociale de l'espace humain. Paris: Seuil.

Schmidt, B. (2013). “Words Alone: Dismantling Topic Models in the Humanities.” Journal of Digital Humanities, 2(1): 49-65.

Tuan, Y. (2006). Espace et lieu: la perspective de l'expérience, Gollion: Infolio.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/073/073.pdf",""
"3806","18","Scaling up Arts and Humanities – The DARIAH Approach to Data and Services","3","Introduction

The panel contributions will introduce and discuss several central aspects of DARIAH-EU aimed to

support emerging practices in the Digital Humanities, to disseminate consolidated practices and to provide tools for navigation through the rich and changing landscape of the productions of research communities, be they research data, tools, methods or other assets.

Our focus point is how to boost research on a number of different levels: ensuring the sustainability of the infrastructure, its “scaling up” to enable better access to research data, community-building, linking teaching activities and weaving the network of affiliated initiatives.

Panel Overview

Chad Gaffield (Moderator)

Panel participants as listed below will introduce their topic for 5 minutes each, followed by a general discussion.

It has been much debated in the Digital Humanities communities whether scaling up - in terms of shared resources, formation of team science, crossdomain research - is at all appropriate for the way knowledge is produced in the various humanistic disciplines. Instead of tackling again this general problem, this panel takes a much more practical approach. There can be no doubt that research practices in the humanities and social sciences are profoundly changing (Wouters et al., 2013). The turn to digital methods happens in a relationship of mutual dependency and co-evolution with the infrastructures traditionally feeding humanities research: collections, libraries and archives. This development is most visible in large-scale research infrastructures such as CLARIN and DARIAH, and it is acknowledged by their respective funding.

This panel presents the efforts made within the DARIAH (Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities) community in its mission to further develop the Arts and Humanities research infrastructure, now that the Digital Humanities have long left the incubation stage or the phase of early adopters. The field is still growing but also starting to differentiate and specialise. The “scaling up” of the humanities refers to the growth of the community -as a social, cognitive and technological network -, the increasing availability of Big Data, the ongoing penetration of standards and the use of consolidated tools. While the mission is quite clear, its implementation is a far more complex process.

We will focus on the relevance of the community and sustainability as driving factors in building the research infrastructure. The contributions report about lessons learned, examine achievements and open questions, and aim to engage with the audience about their expectations, experiences and visions of what a research infrastructure (RI) for the Arts and Humanities should look like.

These two aspects are not arbitrary. Communitybuilding responds to the motto of DARIAH: services developed for researchers by researchers and is relevant to formulate needs, to find appropriate technical solutions but also to encourage continuous (re)use by means of education and training. DARIAH itself is a pan-European infrastructure, driven by grass-rooted needs of researchers, and governed by national representatives, entailing processes of collaborative evaluation. In addition to communitybuilding within the RI, DARIAH has always aimed to expand and strengthen the external cooperations with a broader ecosystem involving both affiliated RI projects (EHRI, CENDARI, PARTHENOS) and sister initiatives like CLARIN, as well as with research infrastructures that specialize in providing basic services (eduGain, EGI or EUDAT). Research Infrastructures address both their users and producers with their immediate needs. At the same time they have to be stable, reliable and of good quality, which needs to be addressed continuously throughout its life. Another primary concern of DARIAH is the focus on reuse of research data and ensuring their longevity. This is where the sustainability of software and services comes into play, ensuring the continued availability of the outputs from shorter-lived projects in the long run.

Building a durable infrastructure

Nicolas Larrousse and Paulin Ribbe

During the last decades, digital made his way into the Arts and Humanities research world at every stage of research projects. As a consequence, the way researchers work today has considerably evolved. They can no longer work isolated and their work requires more and more sophisticated tools to deal with research material. There is a need to scale up and build infrastructures dedicated to Arts and Humanities. DARIAH is one possible answer to these new requirements.

DARIAH is organized as an European framework for research infrastructures based upon a consortium of states which agree to support the infrastructure in the long term. It was designed to establish sustainable digital services and develop common practices. Such objectives reflect a long-term vision which would not fit in a “classical” project funded for three years.

Within the consortium, ongoing efforts help to concretely build the infrastructure and to better answer those fundamental questions: what is an infrastructure for Arts and Humanities and how can we build it on the European level?

DARIAH contributions and the reference architecture they inhabit

Mike Priddy (Co-authors: Francesca Morseli, Lisa de Leeuw, Andrea Scharnhorst)

DARIAH constitutes itself as a pan-European infrastructure and relies on national contributions from its member states. 90% of these contributions are in-kind and represent the research outputs that each member country contributes to the infrastructure, showing the richness and diversity of the European research landscape. DARIAH is creating a way to collect, disseminate, review, assess and evaluate the contributions made to the infrastructure and community.

As researchers in the Arts and Humanities familiarise with the creation, management, storage and reuse of data, they need a technical infrastructure that can support such activities. On the other hand, a mere technical support seems insufficient to sustain their research activities, as research communities play a crucial role in the development of the infrastructure by developing processes and offering services and resources. An approach which supports the knowledge creation process as well as an agreement on standardised processes (e.g. data exchange) is therefore highly needed.

With a reference architecture we aim to create a common language among the European member countries per individual type of contribution to describe and communicate DARIAH contributions, as well as provide a reference for other projects and infrastructures in the Arts and Humanities.

Re-usability of tools and services

Carsten Thiel

The software tools and solutions powering the services provided by infrastructures are subject to their individual life cycles. While most projects realised through research grants focus on the initial

phases - from inception and initial design, through user testing and design revisions, to beta releases -, delivering a “final” product by the project's end remains the primary objective. But the software's life does not end there. As researchers use the tools, new needs and requirements can arise that need to be addressed and implemented. At the same time the IT world evolves and technologies change. This leads to an increased need for adopting existing services and their underlying software for continued usability. Finding resources to sustain the services and to ensure their availability and accessibility requires a change already to the initial objectives in the development phase (see Doorn, Aerts, Lusher 2016). Designing software from the get-go with re-usability in mind ensures the long-term benefit of enabling future contributions and adoptions needed by the community as a whole.

Teaching: where and how?

Au re lien Berra

DARIAH's “Research and Education” programme has contributed or planned several services which emphasize how data are central in building up a sense of community and deliberate, open, collaborative research strategies.

Three projects will be discussed. The Digital Humanities Course Registry is a collaborative database aiming to provide up-to-date information on European courses to students looking for a programme and to teachers and researchers interested in evaluating the state of the field at a national or international level. The initiatives comprised in the “Integration of Training Material” project offer a framework for sharing and preserving Digital Humanities teaching materials (through the user-centred design of #dari-ahTeach, an open platform for extensible and translatable contents, http://dariah.eu/teach) as well as a philological toolbox based on the principle of re-use and adaption (Biblissima's BaOBab, a catalogue of online tools, guidelines and tutorials focused on manuscripts traditions, http://outils.biblissima.fr). The Master Classes scheduled for 2017 in Maynooth (Public Humanities), Florence (Evaluating Digital Scholarship), Berlin and Paris (Data Reuse in the Humanities) are designed as experiments in developing a format which will engage advanced users and foster a collective reflection on “data fluidity” (see Ro-mary, Mertens & Baillot 2016).

DARIAH & affiliates (aka “DARIAH's outer network”)

Matej Durco

Despite the vast diversity of the individual research agendas, at a certain level all research infrastructures and initiatives need the same kind of basic facilities represented by the lower levels of the architectural stacks - stable hosting and storage of data, processing and computational capacity, secure authentication to build trust, stable referencing of resources, etc. DARIAH has always embraced the idea of cooperation between the different initiatives to harness the synergies emerging from this shared needs and has strong ties both “horizontally” to affiliated Rl-projects (EHRI, CENDARI, PARTHENOS) and to sibling infrastructures like CLARIN, as well as “vertically” to networks that specialize on the actual provision of these basic services like eduGain, EGI, or EUDA . This is in line with DARIAH’s self-image as a facilitator that speaks the language of the researchers, but also has the “global critical mass” and expertise to approach and negotiate with large technical infrastructures.

Doorn, P., Aerts, P., Lusher, S. (2016) Research Software at the Heart of Discovery. Technical Report, DANS,

NLeSC,    2016.    https: //www.esci-

encecenter.nl/pdf/Software Sustainabil

ity DANS NLeSC 2016.pdf

Fihn, J., Gnadt, T., Hoogerwerf, M., Jerlehag, B., Lenkie-wicz, P., Priddy, M., Shepherdson, J., DASISH - Reference Model for Social Science and Humanities Data Infrastructures.    European Commission, 2016.

https://sites.google.com/a/dans.knaw.nl/reference-

model-for-ssh-data-infrastructure/

Romary, L., Mertens, M. et Baillot, A. (2016) Data Fluidity in DARIAH - Pushing the Agenda Forward, Bibliothek Forschung und Praxis, 39, 3, 2016, p. 350-357, https://hal.inria.fr/hal-01285917.

Wouters, P., Beaulieu, A., Scharnhorst, A., & Wyatt, S.

(eds) (2013). Virtual knowledge: Experimenting in the humanities and the social sciences. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Bibliography

Borgman, C.L., Edwards, P.N., Jackson, S.J., Chalmers, M.K., Bowker, G.C., Ribes, D., Burton, M. (2013)

Knowledge Infrastructures: Intellectual Frameworks and Research Challenges. Report. http://pne.peo-ple.si.umich.edu/PDF/Ed-

wards etal 2013 Knowledge Infrastructures.pdf","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/075/075.pdf",""
"3807","18","Genealogies of VR in the archives","2","Using stereoscope cards and a stereoscope viewer from 1900, held in the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library and the University of Toronto Mississauga Library, this poster presents the history of early immersive viewing experiences by tracing the history of 3D ways of seeing from the stereoscope cards to Oculus Rift and Google cardboard. Secondly, we offer tools for teaching with archival photographic materials, examining the histories of seeing, and integrating digital tools in the curriculum to enrich students' access to these cards' histories while also introducing recent VR development tools such as Unity, and Cardboard. Lastly, by using 3D scanning and printing we replicate the viewer, further expanding possible student engagement with DH tools, methods, and theories. The resulting student projects can be archived in a virtual exhibit (using Omeka), and the meta-data and data from the cards and viewer added to the objects' records.

The goal of this pilot project is to develop an ‘out of the box' teaching resource for use in the classroom that offers analogue and digital engagement with rare materials, questions the histories of seeing stereoscopically, and contextualizes contemporary devises for seeing this way in a longer history of photography and immersive media that is often overlooked. Our project pushes students and researchers to consider the longer genealogy of virtual reality viewers and draws on previous work such as that of the Stereogranimator at the New York Public Library lab. In so doing, we seek to recover early histories of immersive media, photography, printing, and popular entertainment in the early 20th century.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/076/076.pdf",""
"3808","18","Script Identification in Medieval Latin Manuscripts Using Convolutional Neural Networks","10","Introduction
In paleography, scholars study the history of handwriting, a crucial aspect of book history and manuscript studies. Paleography has traditionally been dominated by expert-based approaches, driven by the opinions of a small group of highly trained individuals. These have acquired a set of expert skills through year-long training, e.g. the ability to date a handwriting or attribute it to specific individuals. This knowledge remains very hard to render explicit, in order to share it with others. Therefore, paleographers are increasingly interested in digital modelling techniques to enhance the creation and dissemination of paleographic knowledge (Stutzmann, 2015). An important task in paleography is the classification of script types, especially now that digital libraries (BVMM, Gallica, e-Codices, Manuscripta Mediaevalia, etc.) are amassing reproductions of medieval manuscripts, often with scarce metadata. Being able to recognize the script type of such historic artefacts is crucial to date, localize or (semi-)automatically transcribe them. This paper focuses on script identification for medieval Latin manuscripts (ca. 500 AD to 1600 AD) and demonstrates the feasibility of a fairly accurate, meaningful automated classification.

Medieval script classification was the focus of the recent CLaMM (Classification of Latin Medieval Manuscripts) competition. For this shared task, the organizers released a training data set of 2,000 photographic (greyscale, 300 dpi) reproductions of pages extracted from Latin manuscripts, which were classified into a 12 script type classes, including uncial, caroline, textu-alis and humanistic script, but also more difficult to delineate classes such as the cursiva or (semi)hybrida. The participating teams had to submit a standalone application which was able to classify unseen images and estimate the distance between them. The organizers would then apply the submissions to 1,000 resp. 2,000 test images (Stutzmann, 2016) and evaluate their performance using various evaluation schemes. Here, we discuss the DeepScript submission to the CLaMM competition. The competition's results have been officially been released on 26 Oct. 2016. Deep-Script was ranked first on task 2, i.e. the ‘crisp' classification of mixed script images (Cloppet et al., 2016). As the ground truth and results were released too recently, we limit this abstract to a general discussion of the approach; the final version and presentation of this paper will be supplemented with additional information and test results.

The DeepScript submission builds upon recent advances in Computer Vision, where the use of so-called ‘deep' neural networks has recently led to dramatic breakthroughs in the state of the art of image classification (LeCun et al., 2015). The kind of neural networks applied in Computer Vision are typically convolutional: they slide small ‘filters' (feature detectors) across images to make the network robust to small translations of objects. The networks make use of many ‘layers' of such feature detectors, where the output of one feature detector always feeds into the next one. The use of such a stack of layers is beneficial, because this ‘deep architecture' allows algorithms to model features of an increasing complexity (Bengio et al., 2013): in the first layers of the network, very raw and primitive shapes are detected (‘edges'); it is only at the higher layers in the networks that these primitive features are combined into more complex, abstract visual patterns (e.g. entire faces). These neural networks lie at the basis of e.g. modern face verification algorithms on social media websites such as Facebook.

Neural networks are composed of millions of parameters which have be optimized. For this, the available training data is split out in a set of training images and a smaller set of development images (respectively ca. 1,800 and 200 images): the former is used to optimize the parameters of the network during training, the latter is used to monitor the performance of the network. The use of development data is necessary to avoid ‘overfitting': it is possible for a network to start ‘memorizing' the training images, so that it produces perfect predictions for the training data, but is not able any more to generalize properly to new, unseen images. By using a development set, we can stop optimizing the network, if its predictions for the development data do not increase in quality anymore. Only at this stage, the algorithm is evaluated on the actual test images.

Modern neural networks are typically trained on hundred thousands of training images. In the field of Cultural Heritage data, a common challenge is that most data sets are much smaller, and CLaMM is no exception, so that the danger of overfitting is much larger. We therefore proceeded as follows: the generous resolution for each training image was downsized by one half. Next, we would select random square crops or patches from the image (150x150 pixels) and train the algorithms on batches of these crops. This approach is blunt, yet innovative, since we make no effort to extract more specific regions of interest from the images, such as individual lines, words or characters. To avoid overfitting, we also applied augmentation: each training crop would be 'distorted' through randomly varying the zoom level, rotation and translation. Introducing such noise in the input is a common strategy to combat overfitting. Below goes an example of such a set of augmented patches for a single manuscript page (Fig. 1).


Fig. 1: Example of augmented crops for a single manuscript page.

After each epoch, we evaluated the performance of the current state of the network through inspecting the classification accuracy on the development images: we randomly selected 30 crops from each image (without augmentation), and calculated the average probability for each output class. The full image was assigned to the class with the highest average probability. The best validation accuracy which we achieved was 91.17%, using a network architecture of 14 layers, inspired by the famous Oxford VGG net (Simonyan et al., 2015). The manual classification of CLaMM images was based on morphological differences and allographs, as defined in standard works on Latin scripts such as (Bischoff, 1986; Derolez, 2003). The confusion matrices in Fig. 2-4 for the actual and the predicted classes in the development and test data illustrate that the confusions generally make sense from a paleographic point of view (the normal textualis letter is for instance often mistaken for the Southern or semi-tex-tualis variant).


Fig. 2: Confusion matrix for the development data.


Fig. 3: Classifications for the test data as a confusion matrix (task 1). Horizontal lines: ground-truth; Vertical columns: predictions. Order: 1-Uncial; 2-Half-uncial; 3-Caroline; 4-

Humanistic; 5-Humanistic; Cursive; 6-Praegothica; 7-

Southern Textualis; 8-Semitextualis 9-Textualis; 10-Hybrida 11-Semihybrida 12-Cursiva.


Fig. 4: Membership Degree matrices for task 2, on the 999 test images where only one label is attributed to the image.

There exist interesting methods to visualize which patterns the trained network is sensitive to. Using the principle of gradient ascent, we start from a random noise image and feed it to one of the filters on the last convolutional layer: during 3,000 iterations we change the image so that it maximizes the activation of this particular filter. In Fig. 3, we show the 25 artificially generated images which yielded the strongest results; clearly, the network picks up relevant patterns. The third image from the left in the first line, for instance, clearly captures the presence of loops in the ascenders of individual characters (e.g. in the ‘b' or ‘h', which is crucial to differentiate between e.g. a textualis and a cursive letter). These visualizations directly tackle the issue of the computational ‘black box' in the Digital Humanities, and espsecially Digital Palaeography (Hassner et al., 2013; Stutzmann et al., 2014). In our paper, we will offer further interpretations and visualizations of our model and confront these with the results from other participants in the CLaMM competition to offer new perspectives on the graphic definition of script classes in traditional paleography.


Fig. 5: Artificially generated images that maximally activate filters in the final convolutional layer.

Bibliography
Bengio, Y., Courville, A. and Vincent, P. (2013). Representation Learning: A Review and New Perspectives.

TPAMI 35:8, 1798-1828.

Bischoff, B., Paläographie des römischen Altertums und des abendländischen Mittelalters, Berlin, 1986.

Cloppet, F., Eglin, V., Kieu, V. C., Stutzmann, D. and Vincent, N. (2016), ICFHR2016 Competition on the

Classification of Medieval Handwritings in Latin Script, Proceedings of the ICFHR 2016, 590-595.

Derolez, A., The Palaeography of Gothic Manuscript Books from the Twelfth to the Early Sixteenth Century, Cambridge, 2003.

Hassner, T., Rehbein, M., Stokes, P. and Wolf, L. 2013.

Computation and palaeography: Potentials and limits. Dagstuhl Manifestos 2: 14-35.

LeCun, Y., Bengio, Y. and Hinton, G. (2015). Deep learning. Nature 521(7553): 436-44.

Simonyan, K. and Zisserman, A. (2015). Very Deep

Convolutional Networks for Large-Scale Image Recognition. Proceedings of ICLR 2015.

https://arxiv.org/abs/1409.1556/.

Stutzmann, D. and Tarte, S. (2014). Digital palaeogra-

phy: New machines and old texts: Executive summary. Dagstuhl Reports 4.7: 112-34 (112-14, 132).

Stutzmann, D. (2015). Clustering of medieval scripts through computer image analysis: Towards an evaluation protocol. Digital Medievalist 10, http://digi-talmedievalist.org/journal/10/stutzmann/.

Stutzmann, D. (2016). ICFHR2016 Competition on the Classification of Medieval Handwritings in Latin Script. http://icfhr2016-clamm.irht.cnrs.fr/.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/078/078.pdf",""
"3809","18","Did a Poet with Donkey Ears Write the Oldest Anthem in the World? Ideological Implications of the Computational Attribution of the Dutch National Anthem to Petrus Dathenus","10","Introduction
The Wilhelmus has been the official national anthem of the Kingdom of the Netherlands since 1932. The song carries a wider relevance that extends well beyond the Low Countries. According to the authoritative Guinness Book of Records, the Wilhelmus is the national anthem with the oldest music in the world: we are able to date the tune and text to the years 15681572 during the Dutch Revolt, a key episode in the history of the Early Low Countries. Moreover, in the song's fifteen couplets, an anonymous poet has immortalized a dramatic internal monologue of William

the Silent, Prince of Orange (1533 - 1584), a well-

known figure who has played a decisive role in the political history of Europe (Van Stipriaan, 2007).

In the earliest sources, the Wilhelmus has invariably survived anonymously, in print collections of rebel songs (the so-called geuzenliederen or ‘beggar songs') that date back to the Spanish Occupation in the Low Countries (De Bruin, 1998). Only some of these songs are attributed to known authors; the majority, including the Wilhelmus, are not. Apart from the supposed date of composition (1568-1572), there are few historical facts that could help the attribution. Although the Wilhelmus does not explicitly choose sides in contemporary religious conflicts, circumstantial evidence strongly suggests that the text was written by an author of Flemish or Dutch descent, who was living in a German refugee community at the time, perhaps in the vicinity of Heidelberg, because of a number of striking intertextual connections to other songs that were composed in that area.

Ever since its creation in the late sixteenth century, the attribution of the song has not ceased to puzzle scholars as well as other inhabitants of the Low Countries. Only decades after the song's composition, there seems to have been considerable confusion already: in various sources, we find widely divergent attributions of the song to a number of famous authors, such as Marnix of Saint Aldegonde (the mayor of Antwerp, during the city's famous Fall in 1585) or the religious author and philosopher Dirck Coornhert. Many other candidate authors would be suggested in the next centuries, the credibility of which could vary strongly. In the public opinion, Marnix has long remained the most popular candidate, although scholars have never reached any definitive agreement on the issue. As late as 1996, for instance, an entire doctoral thesis was devoted to the authorship of the Wilhelmus. In this thesis, Maljaars predominantly argued that Marnix could not have been the author, relying on traditional evidence: the results of the close reading of the Wilhelmus, and comparison between the Wilhelmus and other texts by the presumed author(s).

In 2016 an interdisciplinary team of scholars has tackled this age-old issue from a new perspective: sty-lometry. For most of the candidate authors which have been suggested for the Wilhelmus, we have available relatively sizable oeuvres of lyrical poems or even highly similar songs. The comparison of the Wilhelmus to those reference oeuvres, using state of the art stylo-metric methodologies, should allow us to estimate the relative distance from the anthem to each candidate author (authorship attribution) and verify their authorship (authorship verification). Many issues, however, make this comparison far from trivial: the texts are short (the Wilhelmus only counts 500 words), we only know younger, potentially corrupted versions of the texts and rarely have autographs, the spelling of the material is highly unstable etc. We have tried to tackle the latter issue through part-of-speech tagging and lemmatizing the texts (Kestemont et al., 2016b): instead of performing measurements on the original surface forms, we would restrict our analyses to the most frequent tag-lemma pairs (MFTLPs), which normalize the spelling of tokens.

In this paper, we will report several authorship experiments, using both the attribution and the verification setup (Kestemont et al., 2016a), in which we have compared the Wilhelmus to a representative set of contemporary authors, among which the main candidate authors as well as some background authors that merely served as ‘distractors' or ‘imposters'. We include a small selection of these below. Surprisingly, these experiments without exception pointed towards an obscure, vilified author who has never even been mentioned as a candidate author: Petrus Dathenus (ca. 1531-1588). The first series of plots are rather naive Principal Components analyses (300 MFTLPs) which each confront textual samples by two candidate authors and the Wilhelmus (in white). In these binary comparisons, the Wilhelmus is attributed to Dathenus without exception. The same goes for the verification experiment (which runs entirely parallel to the experiments run on the Caesarian corpus in Kestemont, et al. 2016a): when compared to both target and imposter authors, the Wilhelmus is significantly closer to Dathenus's texts than to any other candidate author from this period for which we have texts available.


Fig. 1: Naive 2-dimensional PCA plots in which textual samples by two authors (Datheen vs Marnix; Datheen vs Heere) are confronted, including the Wilhelmus.



Fig. 2: Cluster map for the verification results obtained for the Wilhelmus and a number of highly relevant candidate

authors (Kestemont et al. 2016a).



Fig. 3: A late eighteenth century caricatural depiction of Petrus Dathenus with donkey ears, to symbolize his alleged poetical ignorance.


Dathenus is primarily known as the author of a complete Dutch adaptation of the Psalms, which became extremely influential in the second half of the sixteenth (and which is in fact still sung today in some reformed communities). His contemporaries considered him a great and dangerous orator because of his convincing way with words. Nowadays, Datheen has the reputation of being a very poor poet. To what does he owe this bad reputation? Our present-day image of the man goes back to the late eighteenth century when the pressure grew to have his Psalm adaptation replaced by a more modern one in churches. In order to increase the pressure on Dathenus's Psalms, people started mocking the poet through the dissemination of caricatures in which the man would even be depicted with donkey ears (see Fig. 3). It is striking how strongly our present-day view of Dathenus is still determined by the highly anachronistic eighteenth image of this author, instead of that of the respected and influential individual he was known to be in his own time.

In this paper, we will re-assess the sparse, historical evidence that is available for Petrus Dathenus and show that he is, in fact, an unusually strong authorial candidate for the Wilhelmus. Here, we limit our discussion to a single new fact that recently emerged. The Wilhelmus is a so-called contrafact: the song has been composed by writing a new set of lyrics for an already existing melody, a very common practice in early modern song culture. The original melody which was used

for the Wilhelmus was a French song: O la folle entreprise du Prince de Conde. Musicologist have been able to pinpoint when this song was created: it must have been composed (as a Protestant song) during the Siege of Chartres in 1568. The tune must have been introduced in the Low Countries via the Wilhelmus and was not known beforehand. Therefore, it has always puzzled scholars how the Wilhelmus author might have been exposed to this French tune. Intriguingly, it turns out that Dathenus must have been present at the Siege of Chartres as a field preacher on the protestant side. Thus, although he has never made it to the official candidate list, Dathenus is in fact the only candidate, who not only has the right stylistic profile, but of whom we also argue that he was directly exposed to the base tune of the Wilhelmus.

In our paper, we will not go as far as to claim that the neglect of Petrus Dathenus as a potential candidate author for the national anthem of the Netherlands has been an ideological ‘cover up operation'. We will discuss, however, the anachronistic biases and prejudices which so far have prevented the identification of Petrus Dathenus as a potential candidate author. From the point of Digital Humanities, it is important to stress that we base this research on a bold computational attribution to an author who, at first sight, seems a highly unlikely candidate; a human expert would never even have dared to think of this attribution. Nevertheless, exactly because machines do not carry the same set of preconceptions as humans, the application of stylometry is able to induce serendipity in humanities research and open up new perspectives.

Bibliography
De Bruin, M. (1998). 'Het Wilhelmus tijdens de Republiek'.

In: Volkskundig Bulletin 24, p. 16-22.

Maljaars, A. (1996). Het Wilhelmus: auteurschap, datering

en strekking: een kritische toetsing en nieuwe interpre-tatie. Kampen.

Kestemont, M., Stover, J., Koppel, M., Karsdorp, K. and

Daelemans, W. (2016a) ‘Authenticating the writings of

Julius Caesar'. In: Expert Systems with Applications 63: pp. 86-96.

Kestemont, M.; De Pauw, G.; Van Nie, R. and Daelemans, W. (2016b). Lemmatization for variation-rich languages using deep learning. In: Digital Scholarship in the Humanities,    advanced    access:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqw034.

Ruys, T. (1919). Petrus Datheen, Amsterdam.

Van Stipriaan, R. (2007). ‘Words at War. The Early Years of William of Orange's Propaganda.' In: Early Modern History 11, p. 331-349.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/079/079.pdf",""
"3810","18","Character Distributions of Classical Chinese Literary Texts: Zipf’s Law, Genres, and Epochs","9","Introduction and Main Findings

Chinese characters are the basic units for Chinese words, and a Chinese word can include one, two, or

more characters. Many characters can function as

words in Chinese. For instance, “AÍ” represents “humanities”, and “A” and “A” are characters that carry their own meanings. Words that contain two, three, and more characters can be referred as bigrams, trigrams and other appropriate names for n-grams. Chinese does not separate words with spaces like English, so a reader must “segment” a character string into words to understand Chinese statements.

Mandarin Chinese has evolved over the past thousands of years (Yong and Peng 2008). Documents written in current vernacular Chinese contain a large number of bigrams and trigrams, while texts of classical Chinese (sometimes referred to as “literary Chinese”) contain many more unigrams. In the Academica Sinica Balanced Corpus (ASBC), unigrams contribute only 2.1% of word types, but constitute a 44.8% share of word tokens (“types” refers to distinct words in linguistics, e.g., “today is today” has three tokens and two types). In contrast, bigrams and trigrams together constitute 82% and 53% of the word types and tokens, respectively.

Zipf discovered that the relative frequencies of words are inversely proportional to their ranks in

Chinese and English documents (Zipf, 1932) in his

endeavor to establish a theory of Principle of Least Effort (Zipf, 1949). Many researchers have attempted to find the parameters in the Zipf-Mandelbrot distributions (see also, Piantadosi, 2015) for English and for Chinese (see Ha et al, 2003) many have explored extensions and applications of the law (see Altmann et al, 2002).

Previous research works for Chinese have focused mainly on fitting the Zipfian distributions to Chinese corpora. Some considered a distributed sample of corpora (Altmann et al, 2002), and others confined their analysis to a specific corpus (Deng et al, 2014). Some researchers have pondered on explanations for why the statistics of languages obey the Zipfian distributions (Powers, 1998, and Piantadosi, 2015). We examined the Zipfian distributions of 14 collections of Chinese texts that were published from 1046BC (the year when the Zhou Dynasty    of

China began) to 2007AD, and we found that the genres and epochs of the collections influence the distributions. The majority of our collections are poetic works written in classical Chinese. We also included official documents of the Tang Dynasty, novels of the Ming and Qing dynasties, and news articles of modern days.

The character distributions for the corpora of poems of 618-1644AD (the period stretching from the Tang dynastry to the Ming dynasty) exhibit strikingly similar Zipfian distributions. In contrast, the character distributions of the three genres of corpora that were all written in the Tang dynasty are distinguishable, although the characters frequently which are used in these documents are very similar. The word distribution of the ASBC differs significantly from other character distributions, indicating the importance of differentiating character- and word-based models of Chinese.

Corpora and Comparisons

For ease of references, we assigned an acronym for each of the 14 corpora, and show their names in Chinese (Collection) and periods of publication (Time) in Table 1.

Acronym

Collection

Time

Acronym

Collection

Time

SJ

less

1046-476BC

CV

«»

475-221BC

HF

¡#«CJtS)

202BC-420AD

PT

Before 589AD

CTW

618-907AD

MZM

«SæîS

618-907AD

CTP

618-907AD

CSP

960-1279AD

CSL

960-1279AD

YSX

7ÜS$ÍS

1271-1368AD

LCSJ

hum*

1368-1644AD

JTTW

SiSâH

ca. 16th century

DRC

«i«s>

ca. 18,h century

ASBC

v«î5mit

1981-2007AD

Table 1. The corpora used in this study include texts published during 1046BC-2007AD.

The corpora consist of representative literature that has been published since 1046BC. In particular, we have at least one collection for each of the major dynasties that existed before 1644AD. The majority of our collections are of poetic works (we consider SJ, CV,

HF, PT, CTP, CSP, CSL, YSX, and LCSJ collections of poetic works) which fact lends itself to the study of the effects of genres on the character distributions. A collection of poetic works for the Qing Dynasty (which lasted from 1644 to 1912AD) is unavailable because an editorial committee is still working on its production (Zhu, 1994).

The corpora contain more than 42 million characters, excluding the punctuation marks that were added into the corpora by the data providers. When counting the characters, we also exclude characters that cannot be shown on ordinary computers. The frequencies of such rare and obsolete characters are not large, so ignoring them will not affect the statistical properties reported in this study.

Only the ASBC was segmented and the segmentation was verified by human experts. Hence, we can inspect its character and word distributions. The other corpora were written in classical Chinese and we do not have a reliable way for segmentation, so we will only analyze the character distributions.

We created charts that are based on the typical form of Zipf's law:

log(fw)) = k -alog(r(w))
where w, f(w), and r(w) denote a word, its frequency, and rank in a corpus, respectively. The rank of the most

frequent word in a corpus is 1. N is the size of the

corpus, and k and @ are constants.

Observations and Discussions: Influences of Genres and Epochs

The generalizability of the Zipf's law is the main

reason that it has attracted the attention of many researchers. It can be applied to various natural distributions including those of part-of-speech of words (Wang et al, 2012), city sizes (Anderson and Ge, 2005), and corporal revenues (Chen et al, 2008).

Figure 1 shows the Zipfian curves when we consider the character distributions of all of the 14 corpora. We intentionally plot the curves in one chart, although this makes the individual curves undistinguishable. Although the curves are not linear, which is common as reported in the literature, the curves show a consistent trend, suggesting a common regularity that is shared by Chinese texts that were produced over the period of 3000 years.


log(rank)

Figure 1. Zipfian curves of 14 corpora suggest a common trend. (Character distributions)

Instead of treating the 14 corpora as a single corpus to fit the resulting distribution for Zipf's law, we examined the curves to investigate possible factors

that influenced the positions of the curves. In Figure 2,

we show the curves of lyrics (""¡t^” /ci2/) and poems (""a^” /shil/. The left halves of the curves overlap almost perfectly, which strongly indicates that the poetic works share very close statistical characteristics.


Table 2 lists ten most frequent characters found in each of the corpora and for which the curves are plotted in Figure 2.


The lists are very similar, and, out of the 60 characters in Table 2, there are only 16 distinct characters (some of which are homonyms, for which only one pronunciation is provided). In fact, we can compare the most frequent characters of any two corpora, e.g., the CTP and the CSP, to further investigate their similarity (Chen et al, 2012), and we found that the most frequent 1700 characters in the CTP and the CSP are the same characters.

Not all of the corpora of poetic works have similar curves. We added the curves for the SJ, CV, and HF in Figure 3, and it is evident that these new curves do not overlap with those in Figure 2 very well. The poetic works in the SJ, CV, and HF were produced very much earlier than those listed in Figure 2.


Figure 3. Curves for ancient poetic works (SJ, CV, and HF) do not coincide with those of later poems.

While the time of the production of the corpora affects the Zipfian curves, the curves for corpora that were produced in the same dynasty may not be the same. The CTW, MZM, and CTP are three different types of works that were all produced in the Tang Dynasty. We compared the most frequent characters shared by the CTP and CTW, and found that the sets of their most frequent 2000 characters differ only in three characters. Despite such an extreme overlap, their curves in Figure 4 suggest that genre affects the character distributions.


Figure 4. Curves of corpora that belong to the same dynasty but of different genres deviate from each other.

Given the above observations, one may have expected that the curves for the novels that were published in the 16th and 18th centuries, i.e., the JTTW and DRC, will deviate from the curves for the earlier poems, as the curves in Figure 5 show.


Figure 5. Curves of corpora that contain novels of 16th and 18th century (JTTW & DRC, respectively) deviate from the curves in Figure 2.

Character vs. Word distributions

We considered the character distribution when we analyzed the contents of the ASBC in Figure 1, where we found that the character distributions of the vernacular and classical Chinese texts show a reasonable common trend. The ASBC contains documents that were written in vernacular Chinese, so we must also analyze its word distribution, and Figure 6 shows the curves for both the character and word distributions.

A chart like that of Figure 6 can mislead one to infer that Chinese texts do not conform to Zipf's law. It is well accepted that the number of Chinese characters is limited, although there is no consensus about the exact number of characters. In contrast, there is virtually no limit on the number of legal Chinese n-grams. As a result, the sharp downturn of the character distribution and the intersection of the two curves in Figure 6 are expected, and this can be observed in languages other than Chinese in some special settings (Montemurro, 2001). We should examine the Zipfian curves on the same basis, e.g., character or word, while considering cultural factors that may influence actual language usage.


Figure 6. Word and character distributions for the ASBC differ significantly.

Concluding Remarks

We have judged the similarity between the Ziphian curves based on the visual closeness, though we can quantify the degree of similarity when desired (Hu and Kuo, 2005). Researchers have noticed the deviations of Zipfian curves at the high- and low-frequency ends (Hu and Kuo, 2005, Rousseau and Zhang, 1992) and tried to find density functions that fit the data. The statistics at the high-frequency ends of the curves are evidently more reliable. We focused on the deviations at the high-frequency ends of the curves, and discussed how the deviations in these regions may relate to the genres and epochs of the corpora, employing the lists of most frequent characters of the corpora as extra supports.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported in part by the grant

104-2221-E-004-005-MY3 from the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan, the grant USA-HAR-105-V02 from the Top University Strategic Alliance of Taiwan, and the Senior Fulbright Research Grant 20162017.

Bibliography

Altmann, G., Best, K.-H., Hrebicek, L., Köhler, R., Kromer, V., Rottmann, O., Schulz, A., Wimmer, G., and Ziegler,

A. (Eds.) (2002) Glottometrics 5, RAM-Verlag.

Anderson, G. and Ge, Y. (2005). The size distribution of

Chinese cities, Regional Science and Urban Economics,

35:756-776.

Chen, Q., Guo, J. , and Liu, Y. (2012). A statistical study on Chinese word and character usage in literatures from the

Tang dynasty to the present, Journal of Quantitative

Linguistics, 19(3):232-248.

Chen, Q., Zhang, J, and Wang, Y. (2008). The Zipf's law in the revenue of top 500 Chinese companies, Proc. of the Fourth Int'l Conf. on Wireless Communications, Networking and Mobile Computing.

Deng, W., Allahverdyan, A.E., Li, B., and Wang, Q.A. (2014).

Rank-frequency relation for Chinese characters, The European Physical Journal B, 87, article 47.

Ha, L.Q., Sicilia-Garcia, E.I., Ming, J., and Smith, F.J. (2003).

Extension of Zipf's law to word and character n-grams for English and Chinese, Int'l J. of Computational

Linguistics and Chinese Language Processing, 8(1):77-102

Hu, C.-K. and Kuo, W.-C.. (2005). Universality and scaling in the statistical data of literary works, POLA Forever: Festschrift in Honor of Professor William S.-Y. Wang on His 70th Birthday, Dah-an Ho and Ovid J. L. Tzeng (Eds.), 115139.

Montemurro, M.A. (2001). Beyond the Zipf-Mandelbrot law in quantitative linguistics, Physica A, 300:567-578.

Piantadosi, S.T.. (2015). Zipf's word frequency law in

natural language: A critical review and future directions,

Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21(5):1112-1130.

Powers, D.M.W. (1998). Applications and Explanations of Zipf's Law. Proceedings of the Workshop on New Methods in Language Processing and Computational Natural

Language Learning, 151-160.

Rousseau, R. and Zhang, Q. (1992). Zipf's data on the frequency of Chinese words Revised, Scientometrics,

24(2):201-220.

Wang, D., Zhu, D., and Su, Z. (2012). Lotka phenomenon in

the words' syntactic distribution complexity,

Scientometrics, 90:483-498.

Yong, H. and Peng, J. (2008). Chinese Lexicography, Oxford University Press.

Zipf, G.K. (1932). Selected Studies of the Principle of Relative Frequency in Language, Harvard University Press.

Zipf, G.K. (1949). Human Behavior and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction of Human Ecology, Addison-Wesley Press

Zhu, Z. (^^fö). (1994). Establishing the editorial board for the Complete Qing Poems

Studies in Qing History    0(3):96. (in Chinese)","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/080/080.pdf",""
"3811","18","1947 Partition On The Margins: The Untold Testimonies Of Sikh, Bahawalpur And Marwari Communities","2","This poster offers a concise working plan of a digital project titled 1947 Partition on the Margins: The Untold Testimonies of Sikh, Bahawalpur and Marwari Communities. The project aims to collect undocumented narratives of many ‘Punjabi' and ‘Rajasthani' communities who migrated from villages in current Eastern Pakistan to villages in the current Western India during the 1947 partition. The primary objective of the project is to create an open access visual and narrative based digital archive of partition and post-partition testimonies developed through audio-video transcripts and photographs. The audio-visual transcripts will be collected through personal interviews of the partition witnesses, their families and subsequent generations. These interviews will take place on-site in their villages. This population mostly consists of Sikh, Bahawalpur and Marwari communities who travelled comparatively short distances during partition, settling in the nearby villages close to the border in Indian states of Rajasthan and Punjab. The geographical distance travelled by these communities towards Indian villages was only about 40 to 50 KM. However, the spatial definitions changed and any hope of revisiting the ancestral homeland was shattered with the newly constructed international border.

These are a few minority communities residing in small villages whose partition experiences are not traced in public memory or documented in any literature, primarily because their journey of migration was relatively hushed and non-violent. However, the geo-political movement from one place to another brought larger social, cultural, political and economic challenges in the post-independence

India for families in these many communities. They migrated from one small village to another leaving behind whatever geographical, economical and cultural assets that belonged to them. Even after almost 70 years of partition in 1947, families in these communities are struggling to own lands of their own. The generation that witnessed the partition of 1947 is disappearing and will not be there after next 4 to 5 years. Therefore, it becomes an obligatory task to document the narratives of a traumatic historical event that completely changed the flow of history.

The subsequent generations of these families who migrated to India continue to face economic and cultural challenges. The nostalgia of not being able to visit their ancestral homeland disturbs the process of connecting with their current homeland. Therefore, this project aims to contextualise these first-hand audio-video interviews and photographs into narratives that will provide an influential palimpsest of history and the contemporary cultural and political state.

There are several ongoing digital projects that contextualise historical events into narratives such as 1947 Partition Archive, 1984 Living History, Kashmir Oral History, Indian Memory Project and Holocaust Memorial Museum. The memory projects on the 1947 partition such as 1947 Partition Archive mostly record stories that are often (rightly so) narratives of violence and bloodshed. However, there is gap in existing literature and database that do not document less violent partition experiences of a large population that mostly live at the western Indian border. The aim of the current project is to document those unheard communities which escaped immediate violence but continue to suffer the residual pains of geo-cultural and economical traumas in post-partition India. The poster also offers a framework of methodology to be followed for developing the project. The methodology involves collection of data by visiting the villages, audio-video interviews with families, collecting photographs and letters, transcription and description of interviews and contextualising photographs and letters in narratives. The development of final testimonies achieved through these working stages will be developed into an open access website, hosted through KSHIP (Knowledge Sharing In Publication) which is a multilingual academic publishing project at IIT (Indian Institute of Technology) Indore, India.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/081/081.pdf",""
"3812","18","Developing Database For Scholarship In Indian Languages And Literatures","2","India is a multilingual country which has twenty-

two official languages and eleven written scripts, according to the 8th schedule to the Constitution of India. Each language has its own literature and scholarship. In the digital space, both the dissemination of and access to scholarly articles of Indian languages and literatures are difficult and rare. The main objective of this project is to offer scholarly publications and access to scholarly articles in languages other than English. There are some scholarly articles available in print, but most of them give citation of the works that is insufficient for research scholars. There are some databases available for scholarship in India such as Shodhganga: a reservoir of Indian Theses and National Digital Library. Shodhganga offers the scholarly communities to access ETD (Electronic Thesis and Dissertation) in English. National Digital Library is a digital repository which provides learning resources for various subjects with single-window search of which the interface is available in three languages English, Hindi and Bangla. Similarly, there are some databases for digitized literary manuscripts of Indian languages: for instance, Project Madurai for the Tamil language, etc. However, there is no comprehensive digital database for scholarship in Indian languages and literatures.

This database project envisages digital ecology as an integral part of knowledge production and dissemination. In India, Digital Humanities in literature, apart from notable exceptions like “Bichitra”, there is little in terms of digitization of scholarship from many language literatures. Our database will serve as a collaborative and comprehensive hub for Indian literature scholarship. We plan to make this database after its initial launch to be crowd sourced by enabling Indian literature departments across universities to use it as a platform for disseminating their scholarship.

The poster presents the initial stage of aggregating metadata of literature and scholarly articles in different languages. We have already collected data for Mal-ayalam, North-East, Sindhi and collecting data for Bengali, Hindi and Tamil is underway. This will be extended to other Indian languages.

The collection of data is:

•    Malayalam-25800

•    North-East-1494

•    Sindhi- 8813

We will use the MLA International Bibliography, Shodhganga and National Digital Library as models for our project to develop a database of literature and scholarly articles in Indian languages. One of the primary objectives of the project is to offer the works through an open-access platform which allows access to the researchers across the country. Hence, it will be made open-access through KSHIP (Knowledge Sharing In Publication) which is a multilingual academic publishing project at IIT (Indian Institute of Technology) Indore, India. The database will be developed in different Indian languages, which presents an opportunity to researchers to explore the database in their own respective languages. Collecting data for the database has already been initiated, and the next stage of the project is to host it. The poster presents an introduction to the project, the need for a multilingual scholarly database, the primary objective of the project, different Indian scripts, and our methodology, collected data, and model for access (open access).","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/082/082.pdf",""
"3813","18","The Intellectual Structure of Digital Humanities: An Author Co-Citation Analysis","9","Introduction

With many ongoing debates (Gold, 2012) and “unwritten” histories (Nyhan and Flinn, 2016), the research practice of the Digital Humanities (DH) has been around for 70 years. Many works have been trying to draw general conclusions of the disciplinary structure (McCarty, 2003; Gold, 2012; Terras et al., 2013; Schreibman et al., 2016; Nyhan and Flinn, 2016), and have pointed to the potential usefulness to analyse the discipline from statistical aspects. The usefulness focuses on describing the intellectual structure, scholarly interactions and disciplinary development of DH. Some studies have dedicated their attention to these matters (Grandjean, 2016; Nyhan and Duke-Williams, 2014; Quan-Haase et al., 2015; Wang and Inaba, 2009), or have focussed on one of these topics (Sugimoto et al., 2013), but few of them have engaged either with the bibliometric network method, or with the latest large-scale scholarly datasets to study the DH community as a whole.

Therefore, to fill this gap, based on a provisional dataset that has been compiled from core DH journals, this study performs an exclusive all-author co-citation analysis (ACA) with the 200 most cited scholars by fractional citation count to map and demonstrate the intellectual structure and to identify the most influential scholar groups and topics within DH.

To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to apply bibliometric methods to visualise DH knowledge structure and the scholar clusters. This research output will make a valuable contribution to the current discussions and debates about DH knowledge structure and wider scholarly networks.

Methodology

With ACA as the main methodology, the research contains four steps, and each with a different methodology: building a DH citation index according to the publications of these journals; selecting authors as the core objects for citation analysis; assigning scholars to different distance-based clusters by calculating the author co-citation matrix to similarity matrix (Waltman and van Eck, 2013); finally, visualising the DH citation network which aims to show the scholar clusters, and the knowledge structure and diffusion of DH.

The three DH core journals that our dataset has been constructed from are: “Computers and the Humanities” (CHum), “Digital Humanities Quarterly” (DHQ), “Literary and Linguistic Computing” (LLC) (now “Digital Scholarship in the Humanities”) (DSH). The bibliographies as well as the metadata of all their publications (including the reviews and editorials etc.) published until June 2016 have been collected. It should be noted that none of these journals spanned the whole period selected (19662016): CHum, the first DH journal started in 1996, and ceased publication in 2004; LLC/DSH began in 1986; DHQ began in 2007. Figure 1 shows the total publications each year from 1966 until June 2016 for these journals.


Figure 1. In total, 3,068 journal articles: CHum (1,195 articles with 26,033 citations), LLC/DSH (1,633 articles with 28,501 citations), and DHQ (240 articles with 4,289 citations)

Author co-citation analysis (ACA) can reveal the intellectual structure of a field from its academic publications by calculating the frequencies with which two authors are cited together. That is to say, if an article cites at least one article of author A, and at least one of author B that is different from the one of A, the co-citation count increases by 1. The more co-citations two authors receive, the more likely their publications and researches are related (Bellardo, 1980). Therefore, the clusters of related authors indicate the networks of research topics, or influential focuses within a discipline.

The initial findings with the top cited 200 authors displayed on the maps (see the provisional maps in

Figure 2 and Figure 3) have provisionally revealed

five sub-fields within DH.

,«owsky. d.


Figure 2. The provisional ACA network map in DH, data from journals CHum, LLC/DSH, and DHQ, 1966-2016, created using VOSviewer


Figure 3. The provisional ACA density map in DH, data from journals CHum, LLC/DSH, and DHQ, 1966-2016, created using VOSviewer

Both of the maps (Figure 2 and Figure 3) are

distance-based. Each node on the map represents an author, and the distance between two authors is their relations (the closer the distance, the stronger the connection). Authors are distributed quite unevenly, and this makes it easy to identify clusters of related nodes. The size of the node represents the citation count this author received, and the higher the citation count is, the bigger the node. On the density map, the density value depends on the size, number and distance of the nodes around it, so the higher the density value, the colour is more red than blue.

Both maps have revealed the general structure of the scholarly communication between DH scholars via publications. Horizontally across the centre of the map, there is a loosely connected circle of five DH scholar clusters: centre (focused on “Leech, G”), top (focused on “Miller, G”), bottom (focused on “Nerbonne, J”), left (focused on “Holmes, D.I”), and right (focused on “McCarty, W”). The clusters distribution on the density map reveals that there is a clear separation between top, centre, right clusters to left and bottom clusters. Especially the right cluster (focused on “McCarty, W”) and the left cluster (focused on “Holmes, D.I”) turn out to be denser than other clusters. This shows that these two clusters are more significant and have more citation influence. According to the provisional analysis, these five clusters appear to be associated with five different DH research topics: English study at the centre; general historical literacy and information science on the right; language modelling and natural language processing at the top; statistics and text analysis on the left; computational linguistics particularly on Dutch and German speaking at the bottom. These five clusters, however, are also grouped into two different bigger groups. The English study, language modelling, and general historical literacy seem to be in one group which is more related, while the statistics and Dutch-German linguistics are also very closely related to each other.

Limitations and Future study

This research is part of the first author's ongoing PhD study, funded by UCL ORS scholarship and based at the UCL Centre for Digital Humanities. The doctoral reseach maps DH intellectual, social and environmental structures using the Invisible College model (Zuccala, 2006).

There are some limitations that need to be noted, such as the citation lag time. In order to build up a citation record for co-citation, it takes around five to eight years (Hopcroft et al., 2004). This could explain that certain recognisable authors might not appear on the maps yet. Also, because the co-citation method studies the knowledge base as its subject, the map emphases more on authors published some time ago, which might not include the “new comers”.

In the future work, the ACA study will be extended to include more citation data. The ACA study will be divided into discreet periods to construct maps of different DH development stages. Given that different journals have different topical foci, the research will also analyse individual journal to discover its attribute.

Bibliography

Bellardo, T. (1980). “The use of co-citations to study

science.” Library Research, 2(3): 231-237.

Gold, M. K. (2012). Debates in the Digital Humanities. University of Minnesota Press.

Grandjean, M. (2016). “A social network analysis of Twitter: Mapping the digital humanities community.”

Cogent Arts and Humanities, 3(1): 1171458.

Hopcroft, J., Khan, O., Kulis, B., Selman, B., (2004). “Tracking evolving communities in large linked networks.” Proceedings of the National Academy of

Sciences, 101: 5249-5253.

McCarty, W. (2003). “Humanities Computing.” In

Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. New

York: Marcel Dekker.

Wang, X., and Inaba, M. (2009). “Analyzing Structures and Evolution of Digital Humanities Based on

Correspondence Analysis and Co-word Analysis.” Art

Research, 9: 123-134.

Zuccala, A., (2006). Modeling the Invisible College. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology. 57: 152-168.

Nyhan, J., and Flinn, A. (2016). Computation and the Humanities: Towards an Oral History of Digital Humanities. Cham: Springer International Publishing.

Nyhan, J., and Duke-Williams, O. (2014). “Joint and multi-authored publication patterns in the Digital

Humanities.” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 29 (3): 387-399.

Quan-Haase, A., Martin, K., and McCay-Peet, L. (2015). “Networks of Digital Humanities Scholars: The Informational and Social Uses and Gratifications of

Twitter.” Big Data and Society, 2(1).

Schreibman, S., Siemens, R. G., and Unsworth, J. (Eds.). (2016). A New Companion to Digital Humanities. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: John Wiley

and Sons Inc.

Sugimoto, C. R., Thelwall, M., Larivière, V., Ding, Y., and Milojevic, S. (2013). Mapping Digital Humanities. Retrieved from http://did.ils.indiana.edu/dh/

Terras, M., Nyhan, J., and Vanhoutte, E. (Eds.). (2013). Defining Digital Humanities: A Reader. Farnham, Surrey, England : Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Limited ; Ashgate Publishing Company.

Waltman, L., and van Eck, N. J. (2013). “A smart local moving algorithm for large-scale modularity-based community detection.” The European Physical Journal B, 86(11).","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/083/083.pdf",""
"3814","18","Verifying the Authorship of Saikaku Ihara’s Arashi ha Mujyō Monogatari in Early Modern Japanese Literature: A Quantitative Approach","9","Introduction
This study focuses on Arashi ha Mujyd Monogatari (“The Tale of Transient Popular Kabuki Actor Arashi's Life”; 1688), a novel from the early modern Japanese literature, written by Saikaku Ihara (1642-93). It is a first work of a Kabuki actor’s life in Japan (Kabuki is a traditional stage arts performed exclusively by male actors with the accompaniment of live music and songs). Then we will examine the “authorship problem” in Saikaku’s works using the tools of quantitative analysis.

Saikaku was a national author whose novels were published in 17th century. Saikaku’s works are known for their significance for developing Japanese contemporary novels. One recent hypothesis has stated that he wrote twenty-four novels, however, it remained unclear which works were really written by Saikaku except Kdshoku ichidai otoko (“The Life of an Amorous Man”; 1682), Shoen Okagami (“The Great Mirror of Female Beauty”; 1684), Koshoku ichidai onna (“The Life of an Amorous Woman”; 1686), Koshoku gonin onna (“Love Stories about Five Women ”; 1686). Although the study of his works has continued, these fundamental doubts about his authorship remain.

Meanwhile, the potential of quantitative analysis of textual data and the related field of the digital humanities have also dramatically advanced. However, quantitative analysis of Japanese classical works has been behind. It has been a problem due to complications regarding development of morphological analysis software and also delayed digitalization of Japanese classical works.

Previous Studies
Found by Noma in 1941

Noma found and introduced Arashi ha Mujyo Monogatari in 1941. He mentioned that the novel was actually written by Saikaku, for the following reasons (Noma, 1941 and 1964). (1) The handwriting of the novel belongs to Saikaku; and (2) He found a similar writing error in Arashi ha Mujyo Monogatari and Saikaku’s work.

Arguments for Saikaku's authorship

The handwriting is not crucial in deciding if they are Saikaku's novels. According to Emoto et al. (1996), among his twenty-four novels, the handwriting of nineteen works does not belong to Saikaku. Moreover, Saikaku made a fair copy of other writer’s draft such as Kindai Yasa Inja (“The story of a hermit”; 1686) by Kyosen Sairoken (? -?) and Shin Yoshiwara Tsurezure (“The book of commentary on the licensed quarters of a certain area”; 1689) by Sutewaka Isogai (? -?).Mori (1955) has argued that Saikaku’s novels are an apocryphal work mainly written by Dansui Hojo (16631711) except Koshoku ichidai otoko.

As he gained a national audience, Saikaku was pressured to write on demand and in great volume. At first he wrote only one or two novels a year, however in the two years from 1687 to 1688 he published twelve books, with a total of sixty-two volumes. Saikaku’s style and approach also changed at this point (Shirane, 2004).

It is possible that Saikaku had some assistance (Nakamura,1969). Arashi ha Mujyo Monogatari was published in this period. Moreover, Arashi ha Mujyo Monogatari does not have a preface, epilogue, signature, namely it is not specified that it was written by Saikaku. Despite the authorship problem of Arashi ha Mujyo Monogatari remains unanswered, little work has been done about it. For that reason, this study reexamines the authorship of Arashi ha Mujyo Monogat-ari using a quantitative approach.

Databases
Database of Saikaku's Works

First, we digitized all the text of 120 works of Saikaku (24 novels, 80 poem books, etc.) based on the first edition of each works (see Figure 1). Second, Since Japanese sentences are not separated by spaces, we built the rule with early modern Japanese researchers, who were editors of Shinpen Saikaku Zenshu (“The new complete works of Saikaku”). Finally, based on this rule, we added spaces between the words in all of the sentences. In addition, the grammatical categories’ information was added. According to our database, there are 710,355 words contained in his 120 works.


Database of Dansui's Works

We also made the database of Dansui’s novels Shi-kido Otuzumi (“The Great Drum of Love""; 1687), Chuya yojin ki (“The Night and Day of Precaution""; 1707) and Budo hariai Okagami (‘The Great Mirror of Martial Arts""; 1709), using same methods and rules of Saikaku’s database. According to our database, there are 53,838 words contained in these works. The next section considers the doubts about the authorship problem of Arashi ha Mujyo Monogatari.

Analysis and Results
In our previous studies, we have analyzed Saikaku and Dansui’s novels, and have clarified the following two points by extracting their writing style using principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (hierarchical clustering): (1) A comparison of the Saikaku and Dansui’s novels showed ten prominent features: the grammatical categories, words, nouns, particles, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, adnominal adjectives, grammatical categories bigrams and particle bigrams (Uesaka, 2015, 2016); and (2) Using these features, we analyzed Saikaku's four posthumous novels (many researchers have raised questions about the authorship, because these novels were edited and published by Dansui after Saikaku’s death). We found these four posthumous works indicated same features of Saikaku’s novel, therefore we concluded that these four posthumous novels belonged to Saikaku (Uesaka-Murakami,2015ab, Uesaka, 2016).

In this study, we compared Arashi ha Mujyo Monogatari to Saikaku and Dansui, as authenticated novels of them (see Table 1) by ten prominent features using PCA and cluster analysis to see the differences in each novels. The analysis revealed differences of writing style between Arashi ha Mujyo Monogatari, Saikaku and Dansui.

Saikaku’s

novels

Kôshoku ichidai otoko, Shôen Okagami, Kôshoku ichidai otnna and Kôshoku gonin onna

Dansui's novels

Shikidou otsuzumi, Chuyayoujin ki and Budou hariai okagami

Table 1: The authenticated novels of Saikaku and Dansui

We conducted PCA with correlation matrix and these

novels fall into three groups: Saikaku, Dansui and

Arashi ha Mujyd Monogatari (see Figure 2). Furthermore, we conducted a cluster analysis. There also appears to be a considerable difference among

Arashi ha Mujyd Monogatari, Saikaku and Dansui’s novels. When calculating distances between each novels, we normalized the frequency of each words, and used the Kullback-Leibler divergence and the algorithm from the Ward method. Furthermore, we obtained similar result of the other nine features: the grammatical categories, words, nouns, particles, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, adnominal adjectives and particle bigrams.

Kullback-Leibler distance


nb = 3

hclust (*, ""ward.D2"")

Figure 2: PCA results for grammatical categories bigrams

D:Chuyayoujinki

D:BudDou:ShharikiaiidokuOagtasumizumi

Arashihamujyoumonogatari

S:Kousyokugoninonna

S:Kousyokuichidaionna

S:Kousyokuichidaiotoko

S:Shoenokagami

-6 -4 -2 0 2 PC1( 47.256 % )

Figure 3: Cluster analysis results for grammatical categories bigrams

Discussion and Conclusion
When comparing ten prominent features using PCA

and cluster analysis, we found that Arashi ha Mujyd Monogatari was significantly different from Saikaku and Dansui's works. A number of features indicate that Arashi ha Mujyd Monogatari is not Saikaku and Dansui. In order to clarify Arashi ha Mujyd Monogatari's author, we need to conduct more detailed analysis. It is necessary to add the data of other writers with the possibility of the author of Arashi ha Mujyd Monogatari, for example, Kiseki Ejima(1666-1735) and Ichiroemon Nishimura(?-1969). We have been building the database of these author's 13 novels, and we will do comparisons in the future study.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Professor Masakatsu Murakami, Professor Hidekazu Banno and Professor Taka-yuki Mizutani for their help on our research. This work was mainly supported by the Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Grant-in-Aid for Research Activity Start-up(16H07328).

Bibliography
Emoto, Y. and Taniwaki, M. (1996). Saikaku Jiten (“A Saikaku Dictionary”). Tokyo:Ouhu Publishing.

Mori, S. (1955). Saikaku to Saikaku Bon (“Saikaku and Saikaku's Novel”). Tokyo:Motomotosha Publishing.

Nakamura, Y. (1969).Saikaku Nyumon(“The Introduction of Saikaku's Research”). In:Kokubungaku kaishaku to kansho(“ Japanese    literature-Explanation    and

Appreciation”) 34(11). pp.10-25. Tokyo: Shibundo Publishing.

Noma,K. (1941). Arashi ha Mujyö Monogatari (“The Tale of Transient Popular Kabuki Actor Arashi's Life-Explanation and Understaning”). In: Saikaku Shin Shinkö (“Saikaku New Article”;1981).    pp231-290.

Tokyo:Iwanami Publishing.

Noma,K. (1964). Sairon Arashi ha Mujyö Monogatari (“Reexplanation of the Tale of Transient Popular Kabuki Actor Arashi's Life”). In: Saikaku Shin Shinkö (“Saikaku New Article”;1981).    pp291-313.    Tokyo:Iwanami

Publishing.

Shirane, H. (2004). Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology 1600-1900. New York: Columbia University Press.

Uesaka, A. (2015). A Quantitative Comparative Analysis for Saikaku and Dansui's Works, Proceedings of Japan-China Symposium on Theory and Application of Data Science, pp.41~46, Kyoto:Doshisha University Faculty of Culture and Information Science.

Uesaka, A. & Murakami, M. (2015a). Verifying the Authorship of Saikaku Ihara's Work in Early Modern Japanese Literature: A Quantitative Approach. Digital Scholarship in the Humanities. 30(4). pp.599~607. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Uesaka, A.& Murakami, M. (2015b). A Quantitative Analysis for the Authorship of Saikaku's Posthumous Works Compared with Dansui's Works. Proceedings of the Digital Humanites2015.

Uesaka, A. (2016). Saikaku Iköshu no Chosha no kentö (“Verifying the Authorship of Saikaku's Posthumous Works”). pp187-263. In: The Computational Authorship Attribution. Tokyo: Bensei Publishing.","txt","1","",""
"3815","18","Exploring Word Formation Latin","2","Introduction
Word Formation Latin (WFL) is a derivational morphology resource for Classical Latin, where lemmas are analysed into their formative components, and relationships between them are established on the basis of Word Formation Rules (WFRs). For example amo (to love) and amator (lover) are connected with a relationship that describes a change from a verb to a noun through the addition of a suffix (-a-tor) that in itself bears semantic information (in this case it characterises agentive and instrumental nouns, i.e. someone or something performing an action).

WFL has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No 658332-WFL). The resource is still a work-in-progress - having so far covered 5,366 morphological families, 268 WFRs, 22,679 relations - and is due to be completed by October 2017. The lexical basis used for

the resource comprises the whole 69,682 lemmas featured in the morphological analyser for Latin LEMLAT 3.0.

The word formation lexicon is built in two steps:

1. Word formation rules (WFRs) are detected using a mixture of previous literature on Latin

derivational morphology (Jenks, 1911; Fruyt, 2011; Oniga, 1988) and semi-automatic procedures (Passarotti and Mambrini 2012).

2. WFRs are applied to lexical data: lemmas and WFRs are paired using a MySQL relational database, and a number of MySQL queries provide the candidate lemmas for each WFR. Input and output pairs are then checked manually, in order to clear out false friends and duplicate results due to homography.

This poster will describe the resource and illustrate the web application that is being developed to easily access the data.

The WFL dataset is both integral part of Lemlat and used in a standalone web application. The database will be made available for download, so that extensive queries can be run and the data can be used and reused at will. The web application is intuitive and user-friendly. It supports those scholars and students that are not familiar with database querying languages such as SQL, but also Classicists with specific scientific questions.

The lexicon can be browsed either by WFR, affix, input and output Part-of-Speech (PoS) or lemma. Dropdown menus provide the available options for each selection, such as the list of affixes and lemmas. Results are visualised as lists of lemmas and tree graphs, whose nodes are lemmas and edges are WFRs. Trees are interactive. Clicking on a node shows the full derivational tree (“word formation cluster”) for the lemma reported in that node. For example, figure 1 shows the word formation cluster for the lemma computo, ‘to calculate'. Clicking on an edge shows the lemmas built by the WFR described by that edge.    Methodologi

cal motivations will be given for each browsing option together with suggestions for potential uses of the web to investigate Latin derivational processes. Four browsing choices can help the scholar with an array of linguistic investigations.

1.    By WFR - opens research questions on a specific word formation behaviour; for example, it is possible to view and download a list of all verbs that derive from a noun with a conver-sive derivation process (e.g. radix ‘root' -> radicor ‘to grow roots').

2.    By Affix - acts similarly as above, but works more specifically on affixal behaviour: for example, it is possible to see all agentive nouns in -tor and verify how many correspond to a female equivalent in -trix.

3. By PoS - useful for studies on macro-categories, such as nominalisation or verbalisation.

4. By Lemma - useful when studying the productivity of one specific morphological family (like the one for bellum above) or a group of morphological families.

These explorations lead in many directions through investigations on derivational production and semantics (Can semantic identification of outputs help to show which WFRs are more morphotactically transparent? Which inputs produce a certain kind of outputs? Etc.).

The poster will illustrate a few applications of the resource and a demonstration of case studies. The poster will be accompanied by a live demonstration.

Bibliography

Forcellini, A. (1940) ""Lexicon totius latinitatis ab Aegidio

Forcellini seminarii Patavini alumno lucubratum, deinde a Iosepho Furlanetto eiusdem seminarii alumno emendatum et auctum, nunc vero curantibus Francisco Cor-radini et Iosepho Perin seminarii Patavini item alumnis emendatius et auctius melioremque in formam redac-tum."" Tom. I AG, Patavii, Typis Seminarii

Georges, K.E. (1880) Ausführliches lateinisch-deutsches und deutsch-lateinisches Handwörterbuch... Vol. 2. Hahn'sche Verlags-buchhandlung, 1880.

Glare, P.G.W. (1982) Oxford latin dictionary. Clarendon Press. Oxford University Press, 1982.

Gradenwitz, O. (1904) Laterculi vocum Latinarum: voces Latinas et a fronte et a tergo ordinandas. S. Hirzel.

Jenks, P. R. (1911) A manual of Latin word formation for secondary schools. DC Heath & Company, 1911.

Fruyt, M. (2011) ""Word-Formation in Classical Latin."" A Companion to the Latin Language. 157-175.

Oniga, R. (1988) I composti nominali latini: una morfologia generativa. Vol. 29. Pàtron.

Passarotti, M.C. (2004). ""Development and perspectives of the Latin morphological analyser LEMLAT."" Linguistica computazionale 20, no. A. 397-414.

Passarotti, M, and Mambrini, F. (2012) ""First Steps towards the Semi-automatic Development of a Wordformation-based Lexicon of Latin."" In Eighth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, (LREC 2012), pp. 852-859. European Language Resources Association (ELRA).","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/085/085.pdf",""
"3816","18","Projet Campus Archive Audiovisuelle de la Recherche","2","","","1","",""
"3817","18","How Access Determines The Whole Structuration Of A European Infrastructure: The Example Of DARIAH","9","DARIAH (Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities) is, as the name implies, an infrastructure dedicated to research in digital arts and humanities. Developed under the auspices of the European Commission, it aims to organize communities in those fields, to develop interdisciplinary projects, promoting in particular the digital dimension of humanities and arts research by disseminating good practices, and providing tools and services. In legal terms, it is what is called an ERIC, that is to say a European Research Infrastructure Consortium, which is composed of national members that have come together to promote common objectives and serve common communities. Several ERICs have been created since 2009 in Europe, mostly based on a disciplinary approach, membership by several European countries, and the pooling of services.

DARIAH had already a long existence as an unofficial structure since 2005, but it become fully established as an ERIC in 2014. It brings together 17 countries in Europe which makes it the biggest ERIC in terms of members, but it is also distinct because it serves a very wide community consisting of the whole of Arts and Humanities research. This breadth poses real questions regarding the notion of access. The role of all ERICs is to share tools. services, human resources, projects, software, etc. to enrich research. Doing so for a community as broad as DARIAH's creates particular challenges.

Through this presentation, we wish to give an account of the specificities of this infrastructure by presenting the issues related to the notion of access that contribute to the structuring of DARIAH. Many of our pre-existing understandings of how access impacts upon humanities and arts research date from the days of the library collection, and it is common to limit the notion of access to research data. But within the framework of a research infrastructure consortium, the notion of access is made more complex. We will evidence this different paradigm here with five examples, which we will develop in turn by explaining both the constraints and the solutions that are envisaged to solve the problems encountered.

According to the Cambridge Dictionary, “access” has two kinds of meanings: the first one concerns “the method or possibility of getting near a place or a person” and the second one “the right or opportunity to use or look at something”. Both meanings are interesting in terms of creating an expanded understanding of access in field of Digital Humanities. Even if we mostly think about the second one (open access, open data, and so on), the first one shows the necessity of being near our community and highlights the fact that thanks to digital tools we are nearer and nearer despite the distance and we are able to work together being in different places.

DARIAH positions itself to support an emerging research culture in ways that invoke both of these meanings, as the examples below illustrate.

Managing interdisciplinarity

When one addresses a community as broad as that encompassed by the expression ""Arts and Humanities"", itself vague regarding the disciplines that it covers, one implicitly raises the question of what access by these Communities to this hyper-infrastructure represented by DARIAH will mean.

This implies first and foremost the need to define, more or less precisely, what is meant by the expression ""Arts and Humanities"", and in particular the expression ""Humanities"", which varies across European languages and across places and times. For example, are the social sciences included or not? And on what grounds can you bring together researchers from communities as diverse as literature, history, philosophy, cinema studies and perhaps even geography and linguistics? To be useful, DARIAH needs to develop a common language with common services and tools which can be used by people in those different fields. In this case, access concerns the way DARIAH communicates with its communities and the projects it launches, to encourage interdisciplinarity without seeming intrusive. Indeed, this infrastructure has as one of its objectives to contribute to organizing a gigantic network of specialists in those fields. To do that, it is necessary to think about how to create such a network, to animate it and to make it last. Several initiatives are being developed, both thematic and national, which we will present as responses to this challenge.

Managing tensions between national and international perspectives

Access also has a political dimension. When the same tool is developed in parallel in two different countries, how can we know how to assign credit for the development? Which should be valued by DARIAH? There is thus a problem of selection, and therefore a possibility of bias, in the choice to favor promoting the access to one tool rather than another. To resolve this tension, the DARIAH community is coordinated around National Representatives who are engaged in complementary, rather than competitive, work. This work is based in particular on the dissemination of information about the activities of the national teams and the projects in which they are involved.

On the other hand, some teams may wish to retain the rights or control of their tools and may not wish to make them accessible to other communities without compensation. We will see how this constraint contributes in turn to the structuring of the DARIAH ERIC.

The question of access thus raises political and diplomatic problems that may interfere with more neutral criteria of quality of the tool, its durability, its usefulness.

Speaking to whom?

The role of DARIAH is also very broad insofar as this European consortium has an ancillary mission for the development of new communities. But this mandate is very vague. Do we mean fields of research? Specific countries? Or people inside? In this section, we would like to focus on people. Toward this end, DARIAH has specific functions in terms of teaching digital practices, not only within the current network but also beyond it, with the goal of opening and expanding it to encompass researchers (including under and postgraduate students) who may or may not have any competences in digital tools but who are interested in them. In this way DARIAH acts as a facilitator to help people to use digital tools and services.

One question that we must ask, however, is whether we can or should open our community to, for example, private companies, which would help in the development of tools and / or which would benefit, once again, from inclusion. The wider the access, the less control there is. And what would DARIAH mean and how would it act if the infrastructure became open to all without distinction of disciplines, places, people? Conversely, what would be its meaning, if by privileging shared access to knowledge and tools, it decided to close the door to some? Imperatives toward democratizing the benefits DARIAH can bring come at such junctures into conflict with the possibility that too much access could dilute the infrastructure's effectiveness, distort its scale or divert its mission. Again, this is an aspect related to the question of access to which the infrastructure must respond and on which we shall give a few quick lines of reflection.

Managing tools

This point is particularly well recognised within the DH community, since it questions the interoperability of tools. For DARIAH, questions regarding managing access to tools arises in terms of languages, content, formats and, of course, sustainability. Within DARIAH, the issue of interoperability is paramount, to leverage our large scale, but also to enable disciplinary practices usage models; given that the research questions posed at the origin of these uses will vary so considerably.

Specific attention is therefore paid to this aspect and in particular to data hosting. One of the first tasks that DARIAH has set itself is to work on long-term data hosting. To do this, it has, for example, relied on national hosts able to also integrate data from multiple countries. These include the CNR in Italy (via the PAR-THENOS project) and Huma-Num in France.

This perspective on access reflects as well the importance of the trust that must be established between the partner countries, in particular with regard to intellectual property, as suggested in the next and final point.

Building collaborative tools

DARIAH is an infrastructure that brings together 17 countries and a range of diverse disciplinary communities. In this sense, it involves collaborative work that relies mainly on the use of digital tools. But one problem remains: the too easy access to collaborative tools developed by companies that do not share the same conception of intellectual property and data security. Tools such as Google doc and Google drive, etc. are unavoidable in the context of collaboration between researchers, but the access in this case is so easy that their existence prevents the development of alternative tools that correspond more closely to the specificities of scientific exchanges. It is now important to de-

velop virtual working environments conducive to scientific exchanges and the needs of researchers, particularly in the communities concerned.

To enhance its ability to navigate the many requirements of access, DARIAH has recently launched a far-reaching 3-year program of actions, which will be presented as well as an example of how a holistic approach to access can be manifested in an institutional strategy. By explaining how the document has been formulated and how community support for it has been developed, the presentation will give a worked example of how access can be negotiated across countries and disciplines.

The notion of access lies at the heart of the issues dealt with by infrastructures such as DARIAH, as they seek to structure and facilitate coordination and exchange of tools, and the development of research. Questions of access, which are too often reduced to the management of the data, imply each time a positioning; And that even when the stated objective is to be open to all, it is nonetheless subject to a form of choice.

Bibliography

Tibor Kalman, T., Wandl-Vogt, E. (2014) DARIAH-ERIC

Towards a sustainable social and technical European

eResearch Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities.

e-IRG Workshop, Nov 2014, Rome, Italy.

<http://www.e-irg.eu/e-irg-events/workshop-10-11-

november.html>. <hal-01081479>

Oltersdorf, J., Matoni, M., Thiel, C. (2016) DARIAH Report on researchers' service needs. [Other] DARIAH. <hal-01351267>

Romary, L. (2011) Partnerships, relationships and associated initiatives — Towards a strategic plan for DARIAH. [Research Report] R EU 4.3.1, DARIAH. <hal-01150112>

Romary, L., Mertens, M., Baillot, A. (2016). Data fluidity in DARIAH - pushing the agenda forward. BIBLIOTHEK Forschung und Praxis, De Gruyter. 39 (3), pp.350-357. <hal-01285917v2>

Romary, L., Chambers, S. (2014) DARIAH: Advancing a digital revolution in the arts and humanities across Europe. e-data&research, Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS), 2014. <hal-00913691>","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/088/088.pdf",""
"3818","18","Death by Numbers: Bills of Mortality in Early Modern London","2","The foundation of Death by Numbers: Bills of Mortality in Early Modern London is the construction of a relational database containing plague mortality information from the London Bills of Mortality in all their varying levels of granularity. Plague first entered England in 1348, as part of a continent-wide epidemic that killed approximately one third of the population of Europe. Thereafter, England suffered continuous outbreaks of plague through 1679, and fear of plague lasted well into the eighteenth century. The most well-documented epidemics of the early modern era were in England's cities, particularly London, which suffered six major epidemics in the century between 1563 and 1665, and lost an estimated 225,000 people to plague. During the mid-sixteenth century, in response to these epidemics, some city officials began to compile numerical summaries of local deaths and circulated those mortality statistics in manuscript form. By the turn of the seventeenth century, there was enough popular interest in these numbers that officials in the city of London began publishing weekly mortality statistics in a series known as the Bills of Mortality. The weekly bills included a parish-byparish list of total deaths and plague deaths, along with running tallies of city-wide christenings, deaths broken down by a variety of causes, and parishes infected with plague. London's weekly bills were also supplemented annually with a general account of the preceding year, published on the Thursday before Christmas. Over the first half of the seventeenth century, more parishes were added to the bills, including the parishes in surrounding counties and in the neighboring city of Westminster, until the ""Bills of Mortality"" formed a recognized geographical unit that included all of London and its suburbs.

The Bills of Mortality are thus a vital source of information about the population of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century London. They have been analyzed by politicians, demographers, historians, and epidemiologists as early as the seventeenth century itself, but currently only the bills from a few select epidemic years are available online. Construction of the Bills of Mortality database is thus a vital step for both this project and for future digital humanists interested in the bills. After the construction of this database, this project will use network analysis to examine the transmission of plague between residents of London's parishes during both famous epidemic outbreaks and the periods of endemic plague that followed them. Subjects of particular interest in this analysis include the change in infection patterns over time, how the infrastructural and geographical features of the city act as barriers or ""highways"" to

infection, and the devastating impact of - and slow recovery from - the Great Fire of London while plague was still active in the city. The project will also include a mapping component to visualize mortality trends by parish over time, with particular interest in the full duration of epidemics as opposed to each epidemic's highest mortality (and highest profile) year. Eventually the Bills of Mortality database, as well as materials associated with the network analysis and visualizations, will be made freely available online in accessible, sustainable formats for reuse by other members of the scholarly community.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/089/089.pdf",""
"3819","18","Modelling a Prosopography for the Roman Republic","2","In this abstract we describe the development of a web application for a prosopography of the Roman Republic, focusing on the data modelling, data harvesting and user interface. The web application offers finegrained data about the elite of the Roman Republic, allowing the detailed study of its attested individuals, including familial composition, office-holding patterns, internal hierarchies, property and wealth.

The Digital Prosopography of the Roman Republic

(DPRR) is an AHRC (Arts and Humanities Research Council) funded project, running from 2013 to May 2017. It is a collaborative project being developed by King's Digital Lab, together with the Classics and the Digital Humanities Departments from King's College London.

The project was developed to allow users easy access to complex data to enable them to answer questions such as:

•    list the individuals who were praetors between 200-100 BCE with nomen Caecilius;

•    list proconsuls in Gallia between 100-80 BCE;

•    show all persons who were both consul and pontifex between 123 and 100 BCE (i.e. consuls who were also pontifices);

•    visualise the composition of the the senate in the year 100 BCE;

• persons with a birth date and a death date between 250-100 BCE;

• women that died of violent death.

To preserve the richness of the data, while allowing answering research questions as above, the DPRR data model was designed to store the prosopographical data using the principles of the Factoid Model (Bradley and Short, 2002; Pasin and Bradley, 2012). This builds upon previous experience acquired developing similar projects (Prosopography of the Byzantine Empire, Clergy of Anglo-Saxon England Database, Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England, Prosopography of the Byzantine World, People of Medieval Scotland, Making of Charlemagne's Europe).

The data model is organised around four main entities: Person, PostAssertion, StatusAssertion and RelationshipAssertion. The main entity, Person, stores information about each individual, such as names, gender, life dates, patrician indicator, etc. The PostAssertion entity stores data related to offices/posts held by individuals (such as praetor, consul, legate, etc), while the StatusAssertion stores senatorial and equestrian class information. The RelationshipAssertion represents personal relationships (brother of, son of, etc), connecting two different individuals within the database. All these entities are linked, as represented in Figure 1. All Assertion models are linked to a SecondarySource entity with details about the bibliographical references supporting the data.


Figure 1 - Simplified database model

The data for the project has been harvested from

multiple sources - mainly from Broughton's Magistrates of the Roman Republic (1951-86), Ruepke's Fasti Sacerdotum (2005) and Zmeskal's Adfinitas (2009). The data was automatically loaded using scripts developed for each source (Fig. 2). There's also a data editing interface, which was mostly used to make corrections to the automatically loaded data, as well as adding new information when needed.


Figure 2 - Data workflow

Besides loading and entering data directly into the database, the project also has rules to infer new information about personal relationships and senators. An example is, the application creates a Senator object for a person that held a specific post in a given year, such as consul, praetor, aedile, tribunus plebis, censor, princeps senatus.

The database, which stores all this information in

an easily searchable format, is fronted by a web application (see the public version of the website). This website allows the public to explore the data using a faceted search interface with different filters that can be applied. This guides the user to achieve answers to the research questions above. By selecting individual results, it is possible to see all the information about a person, including visualisations of their relationship networks (Fig. 3).

Visualisations of the senate composition on a yearly basis are also being created. We are currently working towards integrating the database with Linked Data technologies as part of the Standard for Networking Ancient Prosopographies (see the SNAP:DRGN project).

The project is built using open source tools and technologies, mainly the Django application framework with a PostgreSQL database. The search interface is implemented using the Solr search engine together with the django-haystack search package for Django. The visualisations are created with d3plus and linkurious. The project source code is also available as open source in a GitHub repository.

Our poster will illustrate the model that supports this digital resource, the methods used to retrieve the data and populate it, as well its usage for data exploration and visualisation.

Bibliography

Bradley, J., Short, H. (2002) Using formal structures to create complex relationships: the prosopography of the Byzantine Empire - a case study. Resourcing Sources Prosopographica et Geneologica 7

Pasin, M, and Bradley, J. (2013) Factoid-based prosopog-raphy and computer ontologies: towards an integrated approach Digital Scholarship in the Humanities 30.1 (2013): 86-97.


Figure 3 - Network visualisation for C. Iulius (131) C. f. C. n. Caesar","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/091/091.pdf",""
"3820","18","Schrifttanz Zwei","3","This proposed panel will use a phenomenological perspective as well as a production-oriented approach to the work/research on which we are collaborating (‘Schrifttanz zwei’). Although digital technologies support this multi-disciplinary project that combines archival research, dance choreography, music composition, animation creation, and video projection with a goal of performance production, this panel will present our collaborative process and how we access and move through the digital and analog spaces in which we each work. The hope is that through this discussion (and performance event) attendees (and we as collaborators) will come to better understand the place of the Arts (Humanities writ large) in the Digital world.

The idea for Schrifftanz zwei began at the DH2016 conference where long-time DHers Steve Ramsay and Brian Pytlik Zillig presented their work with music and animation: ‘Picture to Score: Driving Vector Animations with Music in the XML Ecosystem’. Well known for their work within the Digital Humanities arena, their presentation demonstrated that the two had crossed boundaries into the non-verbal world of the arts. Two attendees who listened to their talk quickly became interested in collaborating. But these two, Rommie Stalnaker and research colleague Susan Wiesner, hail from the other side of the fence: they are Performing Artists who choreograph, perform, and conduct DH research using Dance. Sharing their desire to work with Ramsay and Pytlik Zillig, the four became inspired by the possibilities and began what has become an exciting collaboration challenged by three time zones, 3000 miles, and four personal processes for re-imagining a dance score created in 1927 by Irmgard Bartenieff, founder of the Laban/Bartenieff Institute for Movement Studies.

The original document from which we re-imagine the dance was discovered during the processing of an archival collection at the University of Maryland Special Collections in the Performing Arts. Bartenieff, a dancer and student of Rudolf Laban, brought Laban’s theories about movement and his notation system to the USA in 1936 when she emigrated from Germany. Bartenieff began composing dances while studying with Laban in 1926-1929, yet she wasn’t yet an expert in Schrifttanz, Laban’s initial label for his notation system (Kinetography Laban, or Labanotation). Instead, she used her own hybrid system consisting of symbols, colour, and text to describe the dance movement and space. Better known for her work with Somatics, Laban’s Effort/Shape theories, Motif writing, and Labanotation, the discovery of 4 choreographic works within Bartenieff’s notebooks dated 1927-28 generated a desire to see them off the page (excerpt included here, Figure 1).


Figure 1: Excerpt from one of Bartenieff's notebooks

Because there are few particulars surrounding the work (who, what, when, where), we recognized that it is impossible to recreate it as it was without additional sources of information. Thus we decided to proceed with a re-imagining of the score to challenge our disciplinary approaches while giving voice to our individual creativity. For example, although the score is not written using Motif writing, nor Labanotation as we know them today, Bartenieff did call upon her knowledge of Laban Movement Analysis (LMA) by including a few elements in her textual descriptions. As the choreographers and dancers are all either CMAs or students of LMA we were able to understand those concepts integral to LMA. Also, we were able to support the movement choices made during the re-imagining by referring to Rudolf Laban's theory (from his 1926 Choreg-raphie), Bartenieff's personal movement style (referred to in archival papers as “Light”), and an analysis of the movement vocabularies used by German choreographers working in the 1920s.

Another factor in this project is the acknowledgement that researchers who attempt to use Laban theory and Notation in Computer Recognition and HCI continue to encounter what are often perceived as insurmountable issues. With the inclusion of LMA into Schrifttanz zwei (analyzing the performative product) we will not only use Bartenieff’s work to inspire, but also to move closer to solving some of the issues faced by researchers using movement-based data. Thus, previous work on the ARTeFACT project (Wiesner and Stalnaker), which has long strived toward the use of Motif writing and LMA to enable automated tagging and retrieval of movement-based data, supports Schrifttanz zwei as yet another piece of the puzzle toward these goals.

So, too, does Schrifttanz zwei enable all team members to acknowledge our creative practices within a research framework. We each must interpret the verbal instructions and visualizations on some level through sound, visuals, and physical movement, i.e. the choreographic process must find a mutuality with Ramsay’s musical composition and Brian’s SVG videos inspired by Bartenieff’s choreographic notes, graphics, and descriptions. Ramsay and Pytlik Zillig’s recent artistic work uses Indigo, a program developed by Brian L. Pytlik Zillig for performing command-line stop-motion animation using Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG). Indigo produces thirty SVG files for each second of film, rasterizes them into JPEG images, and assembles them into H.264 high-definition video. Indigo animations can be quite simple or very complex. They may include text, shapes, colors, paths, layers, masks, and patterns. Indigo may be used to construct elaborate jointed characters that walk, talk, dance, or fly. Animations are modeled in XSLT and SVG, and can be programmatically synchronized with pre-existing audio using Mu-sicXML metadata.

Schrifttanz zwei is admittedly an interdisciplinary artistic collaboration, but we would argue that the production of a work of art does not preclude the use of the digital; and indeed, Schrifttanz zwei includes borndigital elements (music and animation) intertwined with the born-human components and written/ar-chived texts. Also, this collaboration is possible because of the prior work of the collaborators as it reflects the early phases of ARTeFACT and Ramsay and Pytlik Zillig's work with animation produced from digitized musical scores (Indigo). The proposed panel will address our collective and individual experiences in our art forms, as well as experiences using text and movement-based approaches in our DH research. Further this project is intended to create a Whole, where all voices and art forms share equal value with the supporting technologies, without privileging any one element. To accomplish this, we must negotiate within Digital Humanities AND the Arts. In fact, through this collaboration we have been made even more aware of the conversations surrounding definitions of the Digital Humanities, a topic we keep returning to during our collaboration. To wit: what is the place of the Arts in the Digital Humanities and what is required of a project to be aligned with the Digital Humanities? As DH artists as well as producers and users of digital technologies (e.g. Indigo, ARTeFACT, IDMove, etc.), we hope this panel/performance will provoke discussion and perhaps inspire others to find ways to access other ‘outlier' disciplines through collaborative activities. Finally, as this collaboration constantly reminds us: “As technology and machines consume more and more of life, perhaps theater [read: dance] can help us remember what it means to act like a human.” (Moore, 2016)

As an added component -- although the non-verbal is not included as an official ADHO language -- we plan to consider it as a communication method by allowing attendees to access their embodied knowledge through a brief non-verbal experience during the panel, including a request that some questions be asked and answered non-verbally.

Bibliography
Coartney, J. and Wiesner, S. (2009), 'Performance as

Digital Text: capturing signals and secret messages in

the media rich experience' in Literary and Linguistic Computing Special Edition, 24:2, June 2009.

Irmgard Bartenieff Papers, Special Collections in the Performing Arts, University of Maryland Libraries.

Laban, R. (1926), Choregraphie Jena: Eugen Diederichs Verlag.

Moore, Tracey. (2016) “Why Theater Majors Are Vital

in the Digital Age”. The Chronicle of Higher Education. 3 April. Web. http://www.chronicle.com/arti-cle/Why-Theater-Majors-Are-Vi-

tal/235925?cid=cp79

Simpson, T., Wiesner, S., and Bennett, B. (2014).

‘Dance Recognition System Using Lower Body Movement' in Journal of Applied Biomechanics 30:1, February 2014.

Wiesner, S., Bennett, B., and Stalnaker, R. (2011). ‘ARTeFACT Movement Thesaurus', White Paper, NEH Office of Digital Humanities.

Wiesner, S. and Stalnaker, R. (2016). ‘Representing

Conflict through Dance: using quantitative methods to study choreographic time, stage space, and the body in motion,' in With(out) Trace: inter-disciplinary investigations into time, space and the body, Dwyer, S.,

R. Franks and R. Green (Eds). e-book, Inter-Disciplinary Press, Oxford: United Kingdom.

Wiesner, S., Stalnaker, R. and Austin, A. (2016).

‘Training the Machine: Movement and Metaphor' in

Embodied Performance: Design, Process and Narrative, Oxford: Inter-Disciplinary Press.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/092/092.pdf",""
"3821","18","Defactoring Pace of Change","10","Introduction

We start from the assertion that coding and code— as the source code of computer programs that is readable to humans and which drives the performative nature of software (Ford 2015, Hiller 2015)—can be inherent parts of scholarship or scholarship by and of themselves. That is: we assert that code can be scholarly, that coding can be scholarship, and that there is little difference between the authorship of code or text (Van Zundert 2016). The dichotomy that has been often sought between on the one hand a ‘pure’ intellectual realm associated with scholarly writing and academic print publication, and on the other hand the ‘material labour’ associated with for instance instrument making or programing, is artificial.

We argue the validity of this assertion along Burgess and Hamming (2011) and Clement (2016). These scholars refer to earlier work in which Bruno Latour (1993) casts the defining characteristic of modernity as a process of ‘purification’ which aims to contrast the human culture of modernity to nature. Burgess and Hamming observe a congruent process in academia: “Within the academy we see these processes of purification and mediation at work, producing and maintaining the distinction between intellectual labor and material labor, both of which are essential to multimedia production” (Burgess & Hamming 2011:^11). This process serves to distinguish between scholarly and non-scholarly activities: “The distinction between intellectual and material labor is pervasive throughout scholarly criticism and evaluation of media forms. [...] In addition, any discussion of scholarly activities in multimedia format are usually elided in favor of literary texts, which can be safely analyzed using traditional tools of critical analysis.” However, this distinction is based upon a technological fallacy already pointed out—as Burgess and Hamming note— by Richard Grusin in 1984. Grusin argued that Hypertext has not changed the nature of text essentially, as writing has always already been hypertextual through the use of indices, notes, annotations, and intertextual references. To assume that the technology of Hypertext has unvealed or revolutionary activated the associative nature of text, amounts to the fallacy of ascribing the associative agency of cognition to the technology, which however is of course a ‘mere’ expression of that agency.

Analogous to Burgess and Hamming, we argue that relegating the evaluation of scholarship to the reviewing of print publications is an equal fallacious ascribing of agency to the technology of written text. Such a narrow understanding of scholarship presupposes that something is scholarship because it is in writing, that writing makes it scholarship.

It is possible to evade all such possible technological fallacies by understanding scholarship as argument. We argue therefore that scholarship in essence is argument, and that technologies enable to shape and express that argument. This is not to say that technologies are mere inert and neutral epistemological tools, obviously different technologies shape and affect argument in different ways. Different technologies can therefore enrich scholarly argument. Scholarship is thus not bound to the use of text as an epistemological technology, but essentially is in the shaping of an argument. Text and writing may still be the most celebrated semiotic technologies to express an argument, but computer code understood as ‘just another’ literacy (cf. Knuth 1984, Kittler 1993, Vee 2013) can equally be the carrier of scholarly argument. However, the acceptance of code as another form of scholarly argument presents problems to the current scholarly process of evaluation because of a lack of well developed methods for reviewing and critiquing scholarly code. Digital humanities as a site of production of non conventional research outputs— digital editions, web based publications, new analytical method, and computational tools for instance—has spurred the debate on evaluative practices in the humanities considerably, exactly because practitioners of digital scholarship acknowledge that much of the relevant scholarship is not expressed in the form of traditional scholarly output. Yet the focus of review generally remains on “the fiction of ‘final outputs’ in digital scholarship” (Nowviskie 2011), on old form peer review (Antonijevic 2016), and on approximating equivalencies of digital content and traditional print publication (Presner 2012). Discussions around the evaluation of digital scholarship have thus “tended to focus primarily on establishing digital work as equivalent to print publications to make it count instead of considering how digital scholarship might transform knowledge practices” (Purdy & Walker 2010:178, Anderson & McPherson, 2011). As a reaction digital scholars have stressed how peer review of digital scholarship should foremost consider how digital scholarship is different from conventional scholarship. They argue that review should be focused on the process of developing, building, and knowledge creation (Nowviskie 2011), on the contrast and overlap between the representationality of conventional scholarship and the strong performative aspects of digital scholarship (Burgess & Hamming 2011), and on the medium specificity of digital scholarship (Rockwell 2011).

The debate on peer review in digital scholarship however, has been geared much to high-level evaluation, concentrating for instance on the issue how digital scholarship could be reviewed in the context of tenure track evaluations. Very little has been proposed as to concrete techniques and methods for more practical level applied peer review of program code. Existing practical guidance pertains to digital objects such as digital editions (Sahle & Vogler 2014) or to code as cultural artefact (Marino 2006), but no substantial work has been put forward on how to peer review scholarly code. We are left with the rather general statement that “traditional humanities standards need to be part of the mix, [but] the domain is too different for them to be applied without considerable adaptation” (Smithies 2012), and the often echoed contention that digital artefacts should be evaluated as such and not as to how they might have been documented in conventional articles. The latter argument probably most succinctly put by Geoffrey Rockwell (2011): “While such narratives are useful to evaluators [...] they should never be a substitute for review of the work in the form it was produced in.”

Yet, the problem is growing more urgent. Increasingly, code is created and used as a mechanism of analysis in textual scholarship and literary studies—cf. for instance Enderle 2016, Jockers 2013, Piper 2015, Rybicki et al. 2014, and Underwood 2014—which leads to the need to evaluate the technical, methodological and epistemological qualities of such code, as for instance the ‘Syuzhet case’ showed (Swafford 2016). The algorithms, code, and software that underpins the analyses in these examples of scholarship are not standardized ‘off the shelf’ software productions. These code bases are nothing like a software package or product such as AntConc that can be viewed as a generic and packaged distributable tool; a tool that might be subject to a scholarly type of tool criticism explaining and opening it for reuse by other scholars. Instead these codebases are bespoke code: they are one-off highly specific and complex analytical engines, tailored to solving one highly specific research question based on one specific set of data. Reuse, scalability, and ease-of-use are, justifiably (Baldrigde 2015), not specific aims of these code objects at all. Such might be the case with generic software, but these programs have been algorithmic instruments tailor made to serve the research case at hand. As such—and following what was argued above—we must regard these code bases as an inherent part of the scholarly argument they contribute to. And as such they deserve and require specific and rigorous peer review, like any argument in humanities research. How such peer review should be conducted is, however, a large unknown.

As a contribution to the challenges of code peer review we present an experimental technique we call defactoring. Drawing on Braithwaite (2013), we have re-configured the program code that underpins a recent article by Ted Underwood and Jordan Sellers (Underwood & Sellers 2016) into a computational narrative—echoing Knuth’s literate programming (1984)—to be critically analyzed and annotated. This method is intimately intertwined with the Jupyter Notebook platform, which allows for the composition of scholarly and scientific inscriptions that are simultaneously human and machine readable. The Notebook is both a document format and a platform for mixing code and prose into executable objects. We have extracted Underwood and Seller’s code and defactored it into a Jupyter Notebook, available at https://github.com/interedition/paceofchange. This means we have recombined code from disparate files, linearized the execution path, demodularized function calls, and annotated code blocks with our own expository comments. As an annotated Notebook we can now engage Underwood and Seller’s code directly as a scholarly inscription and more deeply interrogate the role of data, algorithms, and code in the production of knowledge.

In the case of scholarship that uses computation, large parts of the intellectual importance are embodied in the code rather than living exclusively in the print publication. As our case study also shows, usually the method description in the print publication presents the intellectual contribution of the code development in a very reduced, and rather imprecise high-level fashion. The code itself is a more precise inscription of the analysis the researchers conducted. The methodological approach we present is a way to engage the code, and thus allows a peer reviewer to understand and interpret the intellectual narrative of the code. This results in a fuller grasp and understanding of the methods applied, and thus to a more comprehensive review of the intellectual effort associated with the publication.

After demonstrating the work in the notebook, we will conclude our paper with a critical reflection of the reviewing work that was undertaken with it. We identify the applicability, feasibility, benefits, and drawbacks of this specific approach. We also outline some possible future directions of research that could further contribute to exploring review methods for code scholarship.

Bibliography

Anderson, S., McPherson, T., (2011). Engaging Digital

Scholarship: Thoughts on Evaluating Multimedia Scholarship. Profession 136-151.

Antonijevic, S., (201)5. Amongst Digital Humanists: An ethnographic study of digital knowledge production, Palgrave Macmillan.

Baldridge, J., (2015). It's okay for academic software to suck. Java Code Geeks. Available at: https://www.java-codegeeks.com/2015/05/its-okay-for-academic-soft-ware-to-suck.html [Accessed April 25, 2016].

Braithwaite, R., (2013). Defactoring. Reginald Braithwaite:

via raganwald.com. Available at: http://ragan-

wald.com/2013/10/08/defactoring.html [Accessed

March 15, 2016].

Burgess, H.J. & Hamming, J., (2011). New Media in Academy: Labor and the Production of Knowledge in Scholarly Multimedia. DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly, 5(3). Available at:    http://digitalhumani-

ties.org/dhq/vol/5/3/000102/000102.html [Accessed September 2, 2016].

Clement, T.E., (2016). Where Is Methodology in Digital Humanities? In Debates in the Digital Humanities 2016. University of Minnesota Press, pp. 153-175. Available at:

http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/65.

Enderle, J.S., (2016). A Plot of Brownian Noise. Jonathan Scott Enderle. Available at: https://github.com/send-

erle/svd-noise/blob/master/Noise.ipynb    [Accessed

September 24, 2016].

Ford, P., (2015). What is Code? Businessweek. Available at: http://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2015-paul-ford-

what-is-code/.

Grusin, R., (1994). What is an Electronic Author? Theory

and the Technological Fallacy. Configurations, 2(3), pp.469-483.

Hiller, M., (2015). Signs o' the Times: The Software of Philology and a Philology of Software. Digital Culture and Society, 1(1), pp.152-163.

Jockers, M.L., (2013). Macroanalysis: Digital Methods and

Literary History, Urabana, Chicago, Springfield: UI Press.

Kittler, F., (1993). Es gibt keine Software. In Draculas Ver-machtmis. Leipzig: Reclam Verlag, pp. 225-242.

Knuth, D.E., (1984). Literate Programming. The Computer

Journal, 27(1), pp.97-111.

Latour, B., (1993). We Have Never Been Modern, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

Marino, M.C., (2006). Critical Code Studies. Electronic Book Review. Available at: http://www.electronicbookre-view.com/thread/electropoetics/codology [Accessed January 16, 2015].

Nowviskie, B., (2011). Where Credit Is Due: Preconditions for the Evaluation of Collaborative Digital Scholarship. Profession, pp.169-181.

Piper, A., (2015). Novel Devotions: Conversional Reading, Computational Modeling, and the Modern Novel. New Literary History, 46(1), pp.63-98.

Presner, T., (2012). How to Evaluate Digital Scholarship. Journal of Digital Humanities, 1(4). Available at: http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/1-4/how-to-eval-uate-digital-scholarship-by-todd-presner/.

Purdy, J.P. & Walker, J.R.,(2010). Valuing Digital Scholarship: Exploring the Changing Realities of Intellectual Work. Profession, pp.177-195.

Rockwell, G.,(2011). On the Evaluation of Digital Media as

Scholarship. Profession, pp.152-168.

Rybicki, J., Hoover, D. & Kestemont, M., (2014). Collaborative authorship: Conrad, Ford and Rolling Delta. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 29(3), pp.422-431.

Sahle, P. & Vogeler, G., (2014). Criteria for Reviewing Scholarly Digital Editions (version 1.1). Institut fur Dokumen-tologie und Editorik. Available at: http://www.i-d-e.de/publikationen/weitereschriften/criteria-version-1-1/ [Accessed October 13, 2016].

Smithies, J., (2012). Evaluating Scholarly Digital Outputs: The Six Layers Approach. Journal of Digital Humanities, 1(4). Available at: http://journalofdigitalhumani-ties.org/1-4/evaluating-scholarly-digital-outputs-by-james-smithies/ [Accessed September 2, 2016].

Swafford, J. (2016) ‘Messy Data and Faulty Tools', in Gold, M. K. and Klein, L. F. (eds) Debates in the Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, p. 600. Available at:    http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/de-

bates/text/100.

Underwood, T.,(2014). Understanding Genre in a Collection of a Million Volumes, Interim Report. Figshare. Available at:    https://figshare.com/articles/Understand-

ing_Genre_in_a_Collection_of_a_Million_Volumes_In-terim_Report/1281251 [Accessed March 15, 2016].

Underwood, T. & Sellers, J.,( 2016). The Longue Duree of Literary Prestige. Modern Language Quarterly, 77(3), pp.321-344.

Vee, A., (2013). Understanding Computer Programming as a Literacy. LiCS, 1(2), pp.42-64.

Zundert, J.J. van, (2016.) Author, Editor, Engineer — Code & the Rewriting of Authorship in Scholarly Editing. Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 40(4), pp.349-375.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/093/093.pdf",""
"3822","18","Evaluating Research Practices In The Digital Humanities By Means Of User-Activity-Analysis","9","Approaches to the Evaluation of DH Research Processes

The documentation of digital research processes has been a heavily discussed topic for some years now. It is most often addressed by the term provenance. In most cases, provenance data is created to record the chain of production of digital research results, in order to increase transparency in research and make such results reproducible.

In more recent times, a slightly different version of this topic has appeared in the field of digital humanities. Accordingly, digital research processes are modeled and documented with the aim to identify methodologies and practices of digital research in the arts and humanities on a broader scale. Two models have been introduced in this respect. One is the Scholarly Domain Model (SDM) (Gradmann et al, 2015) the other is the NeDiMAH Method Ontology (NeMO) (Constantopoulos, Dallas, and Bernadou, 2016). Both models provide formal semantics for the description of research processes as well as for their methodological evaluation.

The project environment in which these models were defined was dominated by European infrastructure projects, specifically DARIAH in the case of NeMO and Europeana in the case of SDM. Accordingly, such models aim to identify user needs and the qualitative use of infrastructure services as a first priority. However, it is also easily possible to refer to them in a broader perspective of laboratory research and science studies. For the case of the digital humanities community such a perspective corresponds with this community's wish to develop a unique methodological selfawareness.

Upon closer observation, the two models take up a

different approach to accomplish their goals. In terms

of NeMo, applications of the model describe research processes after they have taken place. In contrast, SDM makes reference to the concept of ""modeling for"" by Clifford Geertz and describes research processes in advance.

Such difference calls for a more concise evaluation of the terminology that was used before. In the research literature three concepts are used to distinguish between three possible viewpoints from which research processes can be described (Hunter 2006). These concepts are: workflow, provenance and lineage. As it has been indicated in the evaluation of SDM and NeMO the difference of these viewpoints is marked by the place in time from which they look at a research process. As such, it is also possible to call these concepts “prescribing”, “inscribing”, and “describing”.

In accordance with this systematization SDM defines workflows while NeMO presents lineages. What is missing however, is real provenance data that is created and modeled in order to systematically evaluate digital humanities practices. More specifically, this means data which is recorded during the research process. The main goal of this presentation is to introduce an approach for how such provenance data can be created and modeled meaningfully to reach its goal by way of example. The example is the Wissensspeicher at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities. The Wissensspeicher connects all digital resources of the academy in a way that lets the user interact not just with metadata but with parts of the content itself. The work which will be presented is part of the evaluation phase of the DARIAH-DE project that started in March 2016.

When evaluating research practices provenance data has some advantages in comparison to workflow or lineage data. On the one hand, it is easier to obtain very detailed data. On the other hand, semantic implications which might predefine the results of the evaluation are less necessary. For instance, in the SDM primer the concept of annotating exists before it is applied to an activity in a specific situation. In consequence, research results about digital annotation practices are biased. They depend on personal decisions of someone who classifies activities as annotating, or on a normative concept of annotating. For the identification of new research practices in digital environments, both aspects are problematic. Provenance data does not have the same risk because it is mostly created before classification takes place. The only aspect which is predefined is the fact that recordable actions take place and that these actions form part of a broader research context.

Nevertheless, the implementation of technological solutions for the creation of provenance data in these circumstance is more complicated than in common situations where provenance data is created. It is not enough to record which software component modifies a digital resource at a certain point of time as it happens in e-science. The “resource” is the research process itself, the actions take place on multiple levels and such actions are carried out not only by software but also by humans.

User Activity Analysis and Digital Humani

ties Research Processes

In fact, there is one field of research which addresses a comparable situation and this field is user activity analysis. In user activity analysis, humancomputer-interaction is recorded in order to evaluate the user with respect to a specific research interest. The approach is used in areas like e-commerce and online social networks research in order to create services like recommendation systems (Plumbaum, Stelter, and Korth 2009) or to analyze social behavior (Dang et al. 2016). There are few examples of user activity analysis in academic digital environments. Suire et al. (2016) use this approach in the cultural heritage domain while Vozniuk et al. (2016) applies it to model learning processes in e-learning environments.

Having said that, no ready-made solution exists which can be easily used in the present context. Instead different approaches to user-activity analysis have to be evaluated in order to decide which ones can be adopted. Nevertheless, under the circumstances of evaluating digital research practices these decisions remain contingent. Digital research takes place in very different digital environments and under different conditions. Thus, in every situation in which digital research practice should be evaluated a different selection from the existing set of options might be the best. An overview of these options will be published in a DARIAH-DE report in the future.

The advantage of the Wissensspeicher use-case is

the fact that it is a web platform- most user activity analysis takes place on websites and in web environments. There are two major tasks which need to be distinguished. The first task is user activity tracking and concerns how the data is created. The second task is the actual analysis. It demands to evaluate in which sense the created data constitute meaningful events and how to make sense out of these events.

Use-Case: Wissensspeicher

The Wissensspeicher implements user activity tracking by combining three different strategies: http-request logging, browser-event parsing and user annotations. Http-requests are logged by virtue of the Django request object and the logger library in the Python Django app that creates the website. Thereby request information can be pre-processed when it is detected. When a page is loaded in the browser a JavaScript client registers event listeners for page elements and certain user actions. Each event that is triggered causes the client to parse relevant information in the DOM of the HTML including microdata which has been created in the Django app in advance. Additionally, the user is able to directly give feedback in some situations. The created data is stored in a MongoDB database.

User activity analysis is also realized by virtue of three steps. In a certain way these steps resemble the three angles of workflow, provenance and lineage. First, events are evaluated in a so called task model. This task model describes ideal sequences of actions and user goals as conceived by the project employees. Second, users are evaluated by applying the thinking aloud technique from the field of usability testing. Finally, existing data will be evaluated to identify common event sequences by computing its clusters. A systematization of the results from these evaluations will enables researchers to associate certain meanings with events in such a way that the data can be analyzed to permit insights into research practices within the use case.

A Dialogue of Approaches

This presentation will summarize activities to evaluate research practices and methods in the digital humanities. It will outline a unique and complementary approach and indicate how this approach can be used in conjunction with existing digital humanities research practices. Finally, the implementation and results will be described up to the point that such results are present after two-thirds of the project time has elapsed.

Bibliography

Constantopoulos, P., Dallas, C., and Bernadou, A.

(2016). “Digital Methods in the Humanities: Understanding and Describing Their Use Across the Disciplines.” In A New Companion to Digital Humanities, edited by Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens, and

John Unsworth, 1st ed. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons.

Dang, A., Moh'd, A., Milios, E., and Minghim, R. 2016. “What Is in a Rumour: Combined Visual Analysis of

Rumour Flow and User Activity.” In Proceedings of

the 33rd Computer Graphics International, 17-20.

ACM.

Gradmann, S., Hennicke, S., Tschumpel, G., Dill, K., Thoden, K., Pichler, A., and Morbidoni, C. (2015).

“Beyond Infrastructure! Modelling the Scholarly Domain.”

Hunter, J. (2006). “Scientific Models: A User-Oriented

Approach to the Integration of Scientific Data and Digital Libraries.” In VALA2006, 1-16.

Plumbaum, T., Stelter, T., and Korth, A. (2009). “Semantic Web Usage Mining: Using Semantics to Understand User Intentions.” In User Modeling, Adaptation, and Personalization, edited by Geert-Jan

Houben, Gord McCalla, Fabio Pianesi, and Massimo Zancanaro, 391-96. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 5535. Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

doi:10.1007/978-3-642-02247-0 42.

Suire, C., Jean-Caurant, A., Courboulay, V., Burie, J.-C., and Estraillier, P. (2016). “User Activity Characterization in a Cultural Heritage Digital Library

System.” In Proceedings of the 16th ACM/IEEE-CS on Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, 257-58. ACM.

Vozniuk, A., Rodriguez-Triana, M.J., Holzer, A, and Gillet, D. (2016). “Combining Content Analytics and Activity Tracking to Identify User Interests and Enable Knowledge Discovery.” In Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Personalization Approaches in Learning Environments (PALE 2016). 24th conference on User Modeling, Adaptation, and Personalization (UMAP 2016), CEUR workshop proceedings, this volume.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/094/094.pdf",""
"3823","18","Dead And Beautiful: The Analysis Of Colors By Means Of Contrasts In Neo-Zombie Movies","10","The analysis of color in movies is a topic of increasing interest in the still-young research field known as digital film analysis or cinemetrics. The thesis of Brodbeck (2011) is one of the early examples which have been discussed broadly. Brodbeck created a donut plot for each movie in which dominant colors of scenes are represented by colored slices within the plot. Similar approaches were taken by (Baker 2015) and (Burghardt, Kao, and Wolff 2016). Both approaches identify dominant colors of all frames in a movie and represent these colors as lines in a barcodelike visualization. In the first and the third project dominant colors are created by means of a clustering-

algorithm, more precisely k-means. This algorithm is

one of the most common approaches in color quantization and is also delivered for such tasks in well-known computer vision libraries like OpenCV.

However, there are several issues with using k-means for color quantization in digital film analysis which are rarely discussed within the community. One of the more obvious problems is that k-means (and other non-hierarchical cluster algorithms) require pre-definition of the number of clusters to be found. Thus, an automated analysis of around 180,000 frames in a movie does not respect the fact that there are frames which are more complex in color than others. A more sophisticated procedure exists in which the k-means algorithm is used in a loop with different numbers of cluster. In this approach the best fitting number of clusters is defined and evaluated by the silhouette coefficient which is applied to the result of each loop. However, Figure 1 demonstrates that the

best-fit in terms of clustering is definitely not the bestfit for the interpretation of colors in film analysis.


Figure 1: Cluster analysis of dominant colors in a frame image of The Walking Dead. According to the silhouette coefficient the number of two clusters produces the best clustering result.

Colors which seem to be important even before any interpretation has taken place disappear in the clustering process because they are 'eaten' by other clusters. Figure 2 offers a very impressive example for this phenomenon. The red girl from Schindler's List -the most exciting thing that happens in the movie in terms of color- is not represented within the clusters transparently. The reason is that k-means has a tendency towards equally sized clusters and that the color difference is not big enough to survive this tendency.


Figure 2: Cluster analysis of color in a scene from 'Schindler's List'

Another problem is that k-means produces slightly different results each time it runs. Hence, sometimes a color which would be perceived as different by humans is present in the result and sometimes it is not. The results differ most in between three and five clusters as predefined cluster values. However, this is exactly the span which is most often used for color quantization in digital film analysis. Finally, the k-means algorithm produces different results in correspondence with the color space in which a frame is represented. For instance, the HSV color space produces better results than the RGB color space.

All of these problems call for a theoretical evaluation of what dominance means for dominant colors in digital film analysis. Unfortunately, the previously mentioned projects have not presented such evaluations. Furthermore, these projects also did not systematically interpret the results they have produced. For this reason, it is not transparent which semantics can be found in the patterns.

All this being said, a different approach for the computational analysis of colors in movies seems necessary. This approach needs to introduce a starting point which is technologically less arguable and which offers concepts for the interpretation of results. The

approach that will be presented builds upon the

theory of seven color-contrasts developed by Johannes Itten (Itten 1961, 36-109). Itten claims that the effect of colors is not absolute but depends on the surrounding color environment. Colors interact with each other and there are seven contrasts in which this interaction can be analyzed. These contrasts are:

•    hue

•    saturation

•    light-dark

•    cold-warm

•    complementary

•    simultaneous

•    extension

Each contrast has certain capabilities to structure and create effects in the narrative and aesthetic design of a movie. They can be used: to guide the attention of viewers, to create spatial ambiance, to create orientation or confusion, to support the symbolic layer or to create associations as well as emotions. Although these effects are not generalizable the approach of color-contrasts has more to provide to interpret color in movies than the analysis of single colors. This holds true especially where the dynamics of multiple contrasts are related with each other and begin to form a language of color. For instance, a movie might have a stable opposition between cold and warm colors but more progressive color dynamics (Wulff 1988) between light and dark colors. The results of such an analysis can be related to narrative aspects, characters, leitmotifs or the Mise en Scène in a movie or a corpus of movies.

The technological implementation of this approach depends on the type of contrast that will be analyzed.

Data for the first three contrasts can be obtained by converting movie frames to the HSV or HSB color space. The conversion between the YUV color space (in which many movie files are represented) into HSV is lossless in most cases (Ford and Roberts 1998). Each channel in HSV represents one such contrast. Usage of the CIE L*a*b* color space can be considered to comply with certain issues of color awareness that are not tackled by HSV and others. Other contrasts require further processing. For instance, to obtain cold and warm color values, each value in the hue channel can be associated with a value that represents how warm or cold it is. In general, values of red and yellow are conceived as warm. However, this effect is very much influenced by cultural and psychological aspects (Küppers 2000). Therefore, the association of color values with values of warmth is a task that requires decision-making. In contrast, the presence of complementary and simultaneous colors is a mathematical relationship and can be computed within a certain color space consistently.

There are also several ways in which contrast data can be analyzed. Figures 3 and 4 visualize two of such strategies. In both cases a histogram of one contrast was computed for every second of the movie. In Figure 3 the leftmost and rightmost peaks in each histogram was calculated. These peaks constitute the min- and max-bound of the contrast span in each frame. The x-axis represents the time-axis of the movie while the y-axis shows the value of each min- and max-bound.


Figure 3: Slightly interpolated boundaries of light-dark contrast in '28 Days Later'

In Figure 4 the contrast of a spectrum was reduced to 16 bins and each contrast value that was produced by a critical number of pixels was plotted as a point. The size of the point represents the number of pixels in a frame for each bin.


Figure 4: The appearance of hue values above a certain threshold in '28 Days Later'

The movie which underlies both visualizations is 28 Days Later. Figure 3 represents the light-dark-contrast. It shows two sequences in which light and dark colors go up simultaneously for a certain amount

of time. One sequence is between the 200th and the 800th frame the other between the 6000th and the beginning of the credits. In the first sequence the protagonist Jim awakes from coma and realizes that the world fell apart. In the second sequence the main group of persons reach the final save place. Thus, a similar pattern in one contrast frames the actual storyline.    However,    the    color-itself-contrast

represented in Figure 4 is extremely different in these scenes. The first scene has a narrow spectrum while the spectrum of the second scene is broad. The narrow spectrum provokes disorientation because it tones down differences. The color segment is literally dazzling. In contrast, the spectrum and coverage of colors at the end mediate clarity, stability and order.

This presentation will outline the problems of k-means for color quantification in digital film analysis. It will describe the theory of seven color-contrasts and give examples how such theory can be adopted computationally. Each step will be illustrated by an analysis of a corpus of three neo-zombie-movies, more precisely 28 Days Later, '[REC]' and World War Z.

Bibliography
Baker, D. (2015). “Spectrum.” Dillon Baker.

http://dillonbaker.com/spectrum/.

Brodbeck, F. (2011). “CINEMETRICS Film Data

Visualization.” http://cinemetrics.fredericbrodbeck.de/.

Burghardt, M., Kao, M., and Wolff, C.. (2016). “Beyond

Shot Lengths and Color Information as Additional Parameters for Quantitative Movie Analysis.” In Conference Abstracts, 753-55. Krakow: Jagiellonian University & Pedagogical University.

Ford, A., and Roberts, A. (1998). “Colour Space

Conversions.”

Itten, J. (1961). Kunst Der Farbe. Ravensburg: Otto Maier Verlag.

Küppers, H. (2000). Harmonielehre Der Farben. Theoretische Grundlagen Der Farbgestaltung. 2nd ed. Köln: DuMont.

Wulff, H. J. (1988). “Die Signifikativen Funktionen Der

Farben Im Film.” Kodikas/Code 11 (3-4): 363-76.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/095/095.pdf",""
"3824","18","Modeling Student Authorship: The Rhetoric of Markup in the Writing Classroom","2","This poster reports on research that examines the use of XML markup for student authoring, a marked shift from the mimetic roots of XML and its primary use in digital humanities research, the TEI. Thus far, two courses have been taught with a total enrollment of 35 students (19 students in advanced writing for the technical professions, Summer 2016; 14 students in first-year writing, Fall 2016). The research questions are: How does markup function rhetorically when used for authorship? Does writing in XML and designing schemas for authoring contribute to students' understanding of their writing and reading processes? Do reading and writing practices in the markup classroom transfer to other contexts?

These research questions present unique methodological concerns for the study of markup. How can we make claims about the rhetorical and expressive capacities of authorial markup? How can we better understand the role of the schema, the markup, and the platform(s) in students' writing, reading, and thinking processes? In short, how do we study this? These questions will animate the presentation of preliminary results, the subject of the poster.

There has been considerable interest in the semantics of markup languages at recent TEI (Ciotti & Tomasi, 2014; Eide, 2013) and DH conferences (Sperberg-McQueen Marcoux, & Huit-feldt, 2010, 2014), most of which has centered around formal approaches to modeling semantics to explicate the meaning of markup (Sperberg-McQueen, Huitfeldt, & Renear, 2000). A related thread of markup research has examined the rhetorical and expressive capacities of markup (Flanders, 2004; Flanders & Fiormonte, 2007), growing out of an understanding of markup as not merely descriptive, but also interpretive and, indeed, performative (Renear, 2000). Though

Wernimont and Flanders (2007) have discussed the potentials of authorial markup to expand our shared notions of scholarly communication, markup in this authorial realm remains rarely used (one exception being the work of Desmet et al., 2005) and even more rarely studied in a systematic way. This poster will present preliminary results from just such an attempt—a sustained study of an experimental approach to XML as a technology for the production of texts.

The production of texts, in this case, was undertaken by two cohorts of undergraduate students. In addition to writing their assignments in XML (using Oxygen), these courses engaged students in a semester-long, collaborative writing project: the design and implementation of a custom XML schema that structurally and rhetorically models a range of genres of writing. Pedagogically, this approach aims to foster the close attention and metacognition often cited in classroom-oriented uses of XML/TEI (e.g., Singer, 2013; Conatser, 2013). Where this approach to markup differs from earlier uses, however, is in the thoroughly bottom-up, data driven approach to schema design (Piez, 2001). Students begin with a (basically) bare schema and—iteratively and deliberately over the course of an entire semester—design and revise the schema for a range of writing tasks using document analysis and modeling, qualitative writing research methods, and their own experiences of authorship.

To research these classes, I employed a teacher research methodology—a systematic approach to data collection that honors the inside perspectives of teachers and students—that adapted qualitative research methods culled from ethnography, education, and writing studies research. Data was gathered from direct participant observation, reflective journaling, qualitative interviews (three interviews each with nine case study students), survey, and the collection of student writing (normal prose and XML, including version control logs for all XML files). Teacher research foregrounds and honors the experiences and perspectives of students as they compose; thus, the particular methods deployed in this study concern writing as a process, rather than as a static product. This methodology aligns with research in rhetoric and writing studies, which, fundamentally, understands “writing (and broader rhetorical practice) as a verb rather than a noun” (McNely and Teston, 2015: 115).

Preliminary results from the study speak to 1) how students develop and operationalize genre knowledge; 2) the rhetorical constraints and af-fordances of schema design as collaborative writing; and 3) markup's reported intervention into students' thinking and writing processes.

This poster frames this research study as a case study, a demonstration of the kinds of insights that systematic, qualitative research into markup can foster. It aims to organize the audience around a series of questions, including: How are rhetorical theories pertinent to our examination of DH tools and methods, particularly those of data modeling and representation? How does the study of student writing/authorship necessitate a willingness to invent methods sensitive to, and emergent from, particular sites of research? What methodological (re)orientation does an expansion of our disciplinary objects of inquiry require? These questions are best explored interactively, through the dynamic presentation of data generated through this research, and an exploration of the opportunities and limitations of this qualitative approach to markup research. Bibliography

Ciotti, F., Lana, M., & Tomasi, F. (2014). ""TEI, ontologies, linked open data: Geolat and beyond.” Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative, (8).

Conatser, T. (2013). “Changing medium, transforming composition.” Journal of Digital Humanities, 2.

Desmet, C., Balthazor, R., Cummings, R., Hilton, N., Mitchell, A., & Hart, A. (2005). “<emma>: Reforming composition with XML.” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 20(Suppl): 25-46.

Eide, 0. (2014). “Ontologies, data modeling, and TEI.” Journal of the Text Encoding Initiative, (8).

Flanders, J. (2004). “The rhetoric of performative markup.” Critical Inquiry, 31 (1): 49-84.

Flanders, J., & Fiormonte, D. (2007). “Markup and the digital paratext.” Digital Humanities 2007: Conference Abstracts.

McNely , B., & Teston, C. (2015). “Tactical and strategic: Qualitative approaches to the digital humanities.” In Jim Ridolfo and William Hart-Davidson (eds.), Rhetoric and the Digital Humanities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 111-126.

Piez, W. (2001). “Beyond the 'descriptive vs. procedural’ distinction.” Markup Languages, 3(2): 141172.

Renear, A. (2000). “The descriptive/procedural distinction is flawed.” Markup Languages, 2(4): 411420.

Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., Huitfeldt, C., & Renear, A.

(2000). “Meaning and interpretation of markup.” Markup Languages, 2(3): 215-34.

Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., Marcoux, Y., & Huitfeldt,

C. (2014). “Transcriptional implicature: A contribution to markup semantics.” Digital Humanities 2014: Conference Abstracts.

Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., Marcoux, Y., & Huitfeldt,

C. (2010). “Two representations of the semantics of TEI Lite.” Digital Humanitis 2010: Conference Abstracts.

Wernimont, J., & Flanders, J. (2011). “Possible worlds: Authorial markup and digital scholarship.” Digital Humanties 2011: Conference Abstracts.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/097/097.pdf",""
"3825","18","Mining the Cultural Memory of Irish Industrial Schools Using Word Embedding and Text Classification","10","Introduction

The Industrial Memories project aims for new dis

tant (i.e., text analytic) and close readings (i.e., wit

nessing) of the 2009 Ryan Report, the report of the Irish Government's investigation into abuse at Irish Industrial Schools. The project has digitised the Report and used techniques such as word embedding and automated text classification using machine

learning to re-present the Report's key findings in

novel ways that better convey its contents. The

Ryan Report exposes the horrific details of systematic abuse of children in Irish industrial schools between 1920 and 1990. It contains 2,600 pages with over 500,000 words detailing evidence from the 9-year-long investigation. However, the Report's narrative form and its sheer length effectively make

many of it findings quite opaque. The Industrial

Memories project uses text analytics to examine the language of the Report, to identify recurring patterns and extract key findings. The project re

presents the Report via an exploratory web-based

interface that supports further analysis of the text.

The methodology outlined is scalable and suggests

new approaches to such voluminous state docu

ments.

Method

A web-based exploratory interface was designed to enable searching and analysis of the contents of the Report represented within a relational database. The relational structure detailed the categories of knowledge contained in the Report along with key information extracted from the text (Figure 1). The Ryan Report is composed of paragraphs containing

an average of 87 words. These paragraphs were represented as database instances and annotations detailing semantic content were linked through the relational structure. Named entities were automatically extracted using NLTK (Looper and Bird, 2002).


Figure 1: Knowledge Database Relational Structure

Classifying Paragraphs into Different

Knowledge Categories

The Ryan Report describes key elements of an enduring system of abuse that operated in Irish industrial schools. Its paragraphs tend to focus on particular topics, allowing them to be classified and annotated. For instance, some cover the extent and nature of abuse, others present witness testimony, report on institutional oversight or on how clergy were moved from one school to another in response to allegations. By classifying paragraphs in terms of these high-level knowledge categories it becomes easier to put a shape on many of the report's findings and to analyse it to provide new readings.

Some of these paragraph-categories were identified using automated text classification. Others were extracted using a rule-based search (e.g., excerpts on institutional oversight). In building classification models, a variety feature sets were examined using a random forest classifier along with manually selected test data. A bag-of-words approach to feature selection yielded results that were over-fitted due to the small samples of training data. However, feature selection based on context-specific semantic lexicons generated from a sample of seed-words using a word embedding algorithm was found to yield accurate results. Lexicons were generated using the word2vec algorithm developed by Mikolov (2013) following an approach identifying synonyms outlined by Chanen (2016).

Movements of Staff and Clergy (Transfer Paragraphs)
An important paragraph-category covers those dealing with the Catholic Church's response to allegations of abuse. The typical response to discovered

abuse was to transfer clergy from one institution to

another, only for the abuse to re-occur (e.g., “...Br

Adrien was removed from Artane and transferred to

another institution...” (CICA Vol. 1, Chapter 7, Paragraph 829)). Such transfers are described in many different ways in language that often obscures what was happening (e.g., transfers out of the Order, effectively sackings, are described as “dispensations to be released from vows”). We carried out a “byhand” analysis to find transfer-paragraphs using verb-searches and then expanded this set using machine-learning classifiers.

Initial readings of the Report suggested a set of verbs frequently used to describe the transfer of staff and clergy, including ‘transfer', ‘dismiss', and ‘sack'. The highest-ranking similar words reoccurring over five word2vec models were then identified. Features based on this lexicon, along with names of schools and clergy were extracted from 250 training examples (Table 1). A classification model then classified unseen text from the Report.

Text Category

Direct Speech

Movements of Staff and Clergy

Descriptions of Abusive Events


Features Extracted_

Reporting verbs, personal pronouns, punctuation (colons, quotation marks, commas, question marks, contractions), newlines

Transfer verbs, names of clergy, schools

Clergy and staff, parts of body, abusive action, emotions and implements associated with abuse

Table 1: Optimal Features Extracted from Report Identifying Witness Testimony

Witness Testimony (Witnessing Paragraphs)
Witness testimonies in the Ryan Report are indicated through reporting verbs and structural speech

markers (e.g., punctuation). Using these features,

Schlor et. al. (2016) gained accuracy of 84.1 percent in automatically classifying direct speech. Reporting verbs in the Ryan Report are often specific to its context such as apology, allegation or concession. To extract these from the text, highest-ranking similar words across multiple word embedding models were identified based on seed terms generated from WordNet, ‘said', ‘told' and ‘explained'. The resulting context-specific synonyms combined with WordNet synonyms formed a lexicon of reporting verbs tailored to the language of the Report (Table 2). A classification model was developed using these features along with punctuation information using 500 training examples.

Seed Words

said

told

explained


answered

learned

confirmed

described

say

tell

told

state

posit

posited

submit

submitted

express

expressed

narrate

narrated

recount

recite

recited


Context Specific Lexicon for

alleged    warned

recounted    claimed

surmised    denied

relieved    asserted

protested    witnessed

stating    called

describes    informed

agreed    said

admitted    explained

convinced    advised

presumed    assured

screams    tells

reported    requested

complained    heard

asking    says

commented    confessed

questioned    remarked

accepted    alleged

recollection    suggested

Reported Speech_

enounced    explained

verbalise    believed

verbalised    added

assure    replied

articulate    thought

apologise    knew

pardon    felt

pardoned    recalled

remember    saying

articulated    told

enounce    thinks

condoned remembered condone    conceded

saw    realised

explicate    stated

explicated    insisted

apology    guarantee

concluded    asked

mentioned


Table 2: Context Specific Synonyms Using Word Embedding

Descriptions of Abusive Events (Abuse Paragraphs)
To evaluate the scale of abuse throughout the industrial school system, excerpts from the Report detailing abusive events were extracted. The language describing abuse incorporates a broad range of linguistic features. A set of seed-words from which to base a semantic lexicon for feature extraction, was not immediately apparent on reading the Report. A support vector machine algorithm was therefore used to extract the most discriminative features based on a sample set of 200 paragraphs.

Analysis of the support vectors showed that terms distinguishing excerpts describing abuse formed five categories: abusive actions, body parts, emotions engendered in the victims, implements and names of staff and clergy. Sample words associated with each category were then used as seed-words to generate word embedding models to extract similar terms from the Report. Features based on these five lexicons, combined with names of clergy and staff were then used to generate a predictive model of abusive events.

Findings and Conclusions

This research demonstrates how word embedding can be used to compile context-specific semantic lexicons to extract features for text classification. These features allowed paragraphs for each knowledge category to be automatically classified based on manually selected training data.

No. Classified Excerpts
Classification


Clergy Movements    1,340

Direct Speech    1,920

Abusive Events    1,365

Table 3: Total Number of Classified Paragraphs

The performance of classifiers was evaluated using 10-fold cross-validation on the training data and showed high levels of accuracy in categorisations (Table 4).

Classification Precision Recall F-Score Accuracy

Clergy Movements

.91

.91

.91

91.2%

Direct Speech

.94

.93

.93

93.6%

Abusive Events

.93

.93

.93

93.3%

Table 4: Performance on Training Data: Random Forest Classifier. Weighted Average Results Using 10-fold CrossValidation


The classification models were applied to unseen data and performance evaluated by manually inspecting classifications of 600 randomly selected excerpts from the Report as shown in Table 5. Though overall accuracy levels remained high, precision of the classifications did fall somewhat, especially in relation to identifying speech and transfers.

Classification Precision Recall F-Score Accuracy

Clergy Movements

.58

1.0

.73

92%

Direct Speech

.84

.92

.88

94%

Abusive Events

.86

.88

.87

95%

Table 5: Performance on Unseen Text: Classification of Report Evaluated on Random Samples

Error analysis showed that incorrectly classified excerpts (false positives and negatives) were commonly those where the meaning of the language was subtle or vague. Paragraphs incorrectly classified as quoted speech for instance, were in fact quotations from letters and diary entries. Unidentified speech excerpts all consisted of short quoted phrases.

Transfers of clergy were reliably detected. However, there was a high rate of false positives due to the fact that the transfer of children throughout the

school system is described using similar language

(e.g. “The witness remembered ... when he was leaving Artane at nine years of age...” (CICA Vol. 1, Ch. 7, Paragraph 466)). Classifying excerpts describing abuse yielded few false positives but it also returned the highest levels of false negatives. In these instances, references to abuse was subtle or addressed emotional abuse. As such, it was necessary to manually filter results.

This paper has demonstrated that machine learning can be used to classify text based on a limited number of examples, when used in conjunction with word embedding to generate context-specific semantic lexicons. Re-presenting the Ryan Report in the form of a relational database with a web-based exploratory interface has facilitated comprehensive analysis of the Report, and has exposed new insights about the dynamics of the system of child abuse in Irish industrial schools. In reformulating how the Ryan Report can be presented, this research presents a scalable approach to digital analysis of state reports.

Acknowledgements

This research is part of the Industrial Memories project funded by the Irish Research Council under New Horizons 2015.

Loper, E. and Bird, S. (2002). NLTK: e Natural Language Toolkit. Proceedings of the ACL-02 Workshop on Effective Tools and Methodologies for Teaching Natural Language Processing and Computational Linguistics - Volume 1. (ETMTNLP '02). Stroudsburg, PA, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 63-70.

Mikolov, T., et al. (2013). Distributed representations of words and phrases and their compositionality. Advances

in Neural Information Processing Systems 26 (NIPS2013),

pp. 3111-119.

Schoch, C., Schlor, D., Popp, S., Brunner, A., Henny, U., & Tello, J. C. (2016). Straight Talk! Automatic Recognition of Direct Speech in Nineteenth-Century French Novels. In Digital Humanities 2016 (pp. 346-353).

Bibliography

Chanen, A. (2016). Deep learning for extracting word-level meaning from safety report narratives. In Integrated Communications Navigation and Surveillance (ICNS), 2016 (pp. 5D2-1). IEEE.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/098/098.pdf",""
"3826","18","Medieval Textual Transmission Modeling in Unity3D","9","How did texts and ideas circulate within and between societies in the Middle Ages? We know that there were many potential vectors of movement: pilgrimage, crusade, merchant caravans and ships, and itinerant performers, to name a few. However, particularly in societies where transmission was largely oral, scholars usually cannot identify specific moments and locations when stories moved from one location to the next. For the medieval period, this lack of data has historically been the cause of heated debates as scholars identify stories that share common elements, but due to historical or political reasons they are resistant to any notion that one nation's literary tradition is ""indebted"" to another. Nonetheless, societies are influenced by art and ideas from around the world, and denying the contributions of global societies to stories that are held dear leads to isolationism and a sense of cultural superiority. In 2016, US Congressman Steve King (R-Iowa) questioned what non-whites have contributed to civilization. I am presenting an early version of a project that aims to address a part of that question, giving an immersive digital experience of what some of those contributions might look like and just when and how they occurred.

My project uses the Unity game engine to create stories of textual transmission. In particular, I am modeling how elements of the Thousand and One Nights could have circulated between East and West via the Lusignan court at the crusader kingdom of Cyprus circa 1194. In collaboration with Professor Sahar Amer (Arabic Studies, University of Sydney), we have identified a story from the Arabic text, The Prince Qamar Al Zaman and Princess Boudour, that shares narrative patterns and tropes with Old French romances Floire et Blanchefleur, L'Escoufle, Huon de Bordeaux, and Miracles de la fille d'un roi. Of course, each story has unique elements, but some of the striking scenes (dramatic public unveiling of mistaken gender identity) and themes (a princess who cross dresses and becomes an itinerant knight search of her lover only to be such a valiant warrior that she winds up married to her lord's daughter) are repeated. What is the relationship between Princess Boudour and Blanchefleur? Circumventing the theories of Joseph Campbell and Vladimir Propp that stories have basic, shared, ""universal"" components, we look at cultural context and emphasize variants. Our digital story will research and test various proposed vectors of transmission that ultimately result in the morphing of one story into a different incarnation of the same tale. While we will never have all versions of a story with changes and variations as it moved from one culture to the next, we can find the smoking gun as it were— places, times, and persons that we know participated in the exchange of objects, texts, and people. By making these moments visible we can test theories and vectors of transmission.

For example, in the medieval period stories were often changed slightly to please the patrons who paid for them. Traveling minstrels would insert the names of local lords or knights into the story, likely to increase eventual payment at the end of the evening. Stories might also change to use more familiar geographical locations. More dramatic changes could find their way into via mistakes in translation or understanding of stories that passed from one court to the next. Some scribes and minstrels enjoyed changing tales drastically in order to leave their own mark. Within our 3D environment, users will experience the multicultural and multilingual Lusignan court and its environs. Users must make small decisions that will ultimately result in changes, sometimes dramatic, in the final tale.

By illustrating just a few of the factors that influence storytelling and cultural interaction, we conceptualize two audiences. The first is someone who may not have ever considered how much cultural interchange can happen in simple storytelling. As the user makes choices, he or she sees and experiences directly the storytelling environment, becoming agents in the creation process. Our second audience is the researcher who, while being abstractly aware of all of these factors, may not see the potential impact of textual manipulation on a story important to his or her research. By working through these connections in an immersive environment, researchers will consider the global nature of the movement of ideas and interchanges in other texts.

The project brings together two areas of academic interest: global medieval studies and spatial studies. Both areas have well-developed audiences.

1.    This project is part of the Global Middle Ages Project that aims to make apparent the global cultural interactions that took place in the medieval period, a time that is frequently studied in nationalistic isolation with an apparent assumption that before the modern period people did not travel and were not aware of the wider world around them. With its strategic location in the Mediterranean, Cyprus served as a crossroads between east and west in the Middle Ages. Despite their disparate backgrounds, the Cypriots lived together on this relatively small island for centuries. Scholars (Andrews, Carr, Grunbart, Nicolaou-Konnari, Rogge, Schabel, and others) have looked at this multicultural space, establishing moments of contact and exchange using artifacts of architecture and art history. We will extend their work using data gathered from literary works.

2.    As we create a space where users can experience the past, we must consider that the meaning and experience of that space was likely very different 1000 years ago. Robert Tally, following and modifying the work of Bertrand Westphal, Leonard Goldstein, and others, suggests that perceptions of time and space changed radically about the time that linear perspective arose in artistic works. In a medieval illumination, for instance, one might have snapshots of past, present, and future within one framed block. Foreground and background rest in the same plane. Starting with perspectival drawing, Goldstein suggests that space became experienced as 1) continuous, isotropic, and homogenous; 2) quantifiable; and (3) perceived from the point of view of a single, central observer. As a contrast, a medieval map such as the 1375 Catalan Atlas evinces a different notion of time and space, at least in terms of visual representation. The map simultaneously includes the Queen of Sheba, the three wise men, and the Great Khan from vastly disparate eras (Old Testament, New Testament, and thirteenth century). Distances and landmasses are not measured to a modern sense of scale, though meaning can be induced from the relative sizes given to different areas and cities. Furthermore, we cannot know from which end the viewer was meant to see the map, as the writing and images are oriented in all directions. Space could comprise multiple times and places, and the lack of orientation toward a particular viewer indicates that perhaps multiple perspectives were expected.

In this sense of space, medieval maps share many traits of video game maps, including the relationship between place and object, where time, distance, and proportion vacillate between being important and irrelevant. For Mario in Super Mario Bros., the distance on the map is not proportionate to the difficulty of the task of reaching the next point. On the Catalan Atlas, Sheba and the Three Wise Men are a part of the map because they share space and time since Creation, showing that time unites us (we are all postlapsarian and part of the map of Christian history) and separates us (we can never meet up since we do not exist at the same moment). A video game engine provides a superlative space for modeling these pre-modern notions of time and space that tell us much about how people, ideas, and texts circulated in the medieval Mediterranean.

Bibliography

Andrews, J. (2012)“Conveyance and Convergence: Visual

Culture in Medieval Cyprus.” Medieval Encounters 18:

413-446.

Champion, E. (2011). Playing with the Past. London:

Springer-Verlag

Ellis, R. (1994) “Textual Transmission and Translation in the Middle Ages.” Ed. Elizabeth Archibald et al. Translation and Literature 3 (1994): 121-130.

Ellwood, R. (1999) The Politics of Myth: A Study of C. G.

Jung, Mircea Eliade, and Joseph Campbell. Albany: SUNY Press, 1999.

Lefebvre, H.(1991) The Production of Space. Trans. D. Nicholson-Smith. Oxford: Blackwell, 1991.

Ramey, L., and Panter, R. (2015). “Collaborative Storytelling in Unity3D: Creating Scalable Long-Term Projects for Humanists.” Interactive Storytelling. Ed. H. Schoenau-Fog et al. Vol. 9445. Springer-Verlag, 357-60.

Rogge, S., and Grunbart, M. (2015). Medieval Cyprus: A

Place of Cultural Encounter. Waxmann Verlag,

Rowland, T. (2014) “We Will Travel by Map: Maps as Narrative Spaces in Video Games and Medieval Texts.” Digital Gaming Re-Imagines the Middle Ages. Routledge. New York, NY: Daniel T. Kline.189-201.

Tally, R. T. (2013) Spatiality. New York: Routledge, 2013.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/099/099.pdf",""
"3827","18","Throughlines: Exposing Activism and Social Justice Issues In Los Angeles Transportation History","9","Protesters' shouts of “no justice, no peace” ring out over the rows upon rows cars forced a standstill on the 405, one of Los Angeles' busiest highways, on a July night in 2016. This recent protest by Black Lives Matter is notable and representative of an emergent social movement strategy. More than more than half of the 1400 protests relating to Black Lives Matter movement in nearly 300 U.S. and international cities from August 2015 to November 2015 effectively shut down transportation infrastructure (Badger, 2016). This contemporary activist practice can be seen as a logical tactic that shares roots with the historical occupations of schools, restaurants and administrative offices that occurred during protests in the civil rights movement in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s, as an earlier generation of activists rallied against racial segregation. Our proposed project makes accessible for the first time the history of transportation in Los Angeles and demonstrates through interactive maps, archival documents and audiovisual materials, as well as recorded oral history interviews why Los Angeles highways have become a productive site of protest. Contemporary highways are historically situated sites of contestation in which previous generations of racial-ized communities have paid the high price for Los Angeles' development into a renowned center of both commerce and culture.

Historian Eric Avila's (2014) Folklore of the Freeway: Race and Revolt in the Modernist City focuses on the racist highway projects that targeted and sought to isolate minority communities. With origins in the Jim Crow South, he argues, “federally funded highways were instruments of white supremacy, wiping out black neighborhoods with clear but tacit intent” (p. 43). Post-War Los Angeles, like many American cities, saw a rise in the prosperity of white, middle-class Americans who racialized desires and fears led them to towards suburbia in Los Angeles county and beyond. Redlining, restrictive covenants, and other practices of racial discrimination kept the dream of suburban home ownership out of reach of racial minorities. The new American dream came hand in hand with another new phenomenon, traffic. Highways, according to urban planning historian Joseph DiMento (2009), were recommended by urban planners as “the greatest single element in the cure of city ills. The federal government had stepped in by 1956 to cover the construction costs for highways by up to 90 percent. Much of this federal funding was also used by cities to rebuild and “redeem” urban areas (Semuels, 2016). New highways were not only placed not only as to move residents easily into suburbs and to other cities in the region, but were strategically planned and right placed by cities to eradicate what were termed “slums” and “blight,” areas heavily populated by persons of color and the poor (Semuels). Thus highways came to break apart rich and long-standing communities of color in Los Angeles and throughout the United States.

From the Chicano artists' depictions of the highway in East Los Angeles to second-line jazz parade in New Orleans, Avila illustrates how performative activities pleasure and protest by inhabitants remediate the spaces near highways to promote and reflect their own diverse perspectives, practices, and lived realities. East Los Angeles serves an important example of a racialized working-class community threatened by the construction of freeways. In the 1960s, the 60, 10, 101, 710, and 5 Freeways were all extended to cut through the East Los Angeles neighborhood. This environment spawned what Raul Homero Villa has coined as East LA's “expressway generation,” from where some of East LA's finest muralists emerged. Throughout the 1970s, ASCO, one of the area's most important Chicano art collectives, used the walls of the freeways as a canvas to paint political slogans, like “Pinchi Placa Come Caca” (Fucking Pigs Eat Shit), “Gringo Laws = Dead Chicanos”, “Kill the Pigs”, and “Comida Para Todos” (Food For Everyone). ASCO turned these geographical sites of state power, the freeways, into forms of communication that expressed the relationship between spatial formation and racial tension.

The Black Lives Matter movement in Los Angeles has strategically returned to freeways. The press release for a December 23, 2015 protest that shut down a significant section of the 405 Freeway in the Westchester neighborhood explains the reasoning behind blocking freeway traffic. It states, ""On one of the busiest travel days of the year, Black Lives Matter is calling for a halt on Christmas as usual in memorial of all of the loved ones we have lost and continue to lose this year to law enforcement violence without justice or recourse"" (McReynolds, 2015). Pete White, an organizer with Black Lives Matter and the L.A. Community Action Network, told local news, ""In this Christmas season, we're saying there is no mistletoe in our neighborhood, and it's not going to be business as usual"" (McReynolds, 2015). Black Lives Matter actions

in 2013, 2014, 2015 and 2016 have all resulted in successful and strategic blockages to major thoroughfares, clogging the arteries of the city, and bringing major media and popular attention. The tactical retaking of freeways in a notoriously automobile-driven city is symbolically and materially significant.

We will develop an online interactive repository to provide new access to a descriptive and underrecognized history of political contestation including the urban renewal movements of the mid-20th century, the activism of the expressway generation, and today's Black Lives Matter protests. The necessity of creating and animating this history is most clearly highlighted by the fact that there exists no consolidated archive of the historical images, dates and events related to this phenomenon. Our goal with this project is to provide a resource that would first, document the intersections of freeways, racial justice, and urban social movements in an easily-accessible website and second, promote sustained research and activism relating to this topic. Users are able curate their own path through the repository, for example, by navigating through the map, or scrolling through archival records linked to particular subjects arising within an oral history. This history will be illuminated through the activation of archival documents, video footage, and oral history interviews with individuals who have been involved in the historical development and issues of access intertwined with Los Angeles highways.

(13 July, 2016).    https://www.washing-

tonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/07/13/why-highways-have- become-the-center-of-civil-rights-protest/

Dimento,J. F. (2009) “Stent (or Dagger?) in the Heart of

Town: Urban Freeways in Syracuse, 1944-1967,” Journal of Planning History, Vol. 8, No. 2: 133-161.

McReynolds, D. (2015) “Section of 405 Freeway Shut

Down by Black Lives Matter Activists.” LAist.com

(December 23, 2015). http://laist.com/2015/12/23/sec-tion of 405 freeway shut down by.php

Semuels, A. (2016)“The Role of Highways in American Poverty,” The Atlantic (March 18). http://www.theat-lantic.com/business/archive/2016/03/role-of-high-ways-in-american-poverty/474282/

Bibliography

Avila, E. (2014) Folklore of the Freeway: Race and Revolt in the Modernist City. University of Minnesota: Minneapolis.

Badger, E. (2016) “Why Highways Have Become The

Center of Civil Rights Protest” The Washington Post.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/100/100.pdf",""
"3828","18","Variation in academics' conceptions of e-assessment","10","Earlier research in academic development proposed that enhancing teaching often derives from changes in how teachers think about their own teaching (Dall’Alba, 1991). Accordingly, the current study postulates that academic teachers conceptualise e-assessment in a number of qualitatively different ways; some of them may replicate traditional pedagogical approaches and merely transfer them to blended or online assessment settings while others may endorse transformational notions of assessment, underpinning knowledge construction and student agency. The study aims to synthesize and extend the findings from two existing clusters of studies. The first cluster derives from qualitative, non-phenomenographic research exploring conceptions held by academics about assessment without taking into account the layer of complexity brought about by technological tools. Influential studies in teachers' conceptions of teaching and learning identified a continuum of conceptions ranging from teacher-focused and content-oriented conceptions on the one end to student-focused and learning-oriented on the other end (for a review see Kem-ber, 1997). Entwistle (2000) noted that limited evidence suggested that contrasting conceptions of teaching tend to hold corresponding views on assessment. Several studies also contended that teachers' conceptions of learning and teaching affect their approaches to teaching (e.g. Kember & Kwan, 2000). However, there have been no extensive, follow-up studies aimed at ascertaining whether contrasting conceptions of teaching are aligned to corresponding views on assessment or what the exact nature of such an alignment may be. Samuelowicz and Bain (2002) identified a continuum ranging from an emphasis on knowledge reproduction to an emphasis on knowledge construction and transformation and Postareff et al. (2012) described categories of conceptions, from reproductive conceptions to more transformational conceptions of assessment. The second cluster consists of phenomenographic studies in the area of conceptions of teaching and learning through technologies. These studies investigated university teachers' conceptions of, and approaches to e-learning (e.g. Ellis et al., 2009; González, 2010) and blended learning (Ellis et al., 2006). They did not, however, take into account assessment as a distinct element of the process of university teaching.

The adopted phenomenographic approach aimed to describe the phenomenon from the perspective of people involved with the phenomenon (Marton & Booth, 1997) i.e. teachers e-assessing within blended and online environments. Twenty participants have been invited to attend semi-structured interviews -preceded by two pilot interviews. The sample was drawn from teachers of a modern British university; a wide number of disciplinary backgrounds and academics with differing levels of experience was sought. The interviewers prompted academics to describe possible ways of utilizing e-assessment tools, their experiences of practicing e-assessment in general and details about a particular e-assessment practice they are engaged in. Participants were invited to explain what the purpose of the e-assessment was, how they understood their role in e-assessment and what they believed the role of the student was. Rounds of iterative analysis produced four qualitatively different, hi-erarchically-inclusive and logically-related categories of how academics conceive of e-assessment. E-assessment has been seen as a means: (i) managing and streamlining the assessment process (ii) communicating and engaging with students (iii) enhancing student learning and the quality of teaching (iv) community and (digital) identity building. The paper also reports on dimensions of variation, most importantly the role of the teacher/assessor, the role of the student, the level and quality of collaboration, the role of the technological medium and, finally, who benefits from the e-assessment processes. Conclusively, variation in the way academics conceive of e-assessment is discussed in light of previous studies in this area; implications for faculty development are approached under the lens of expanding awareness i.e. how can faculty development promote qualitatively more advanced conceptions of e-assessment and how can such interventions can improve student learning.

Bibliography

Dall' Alba, G. (1991). Foreshadowing conceptions of teaching. Research and Development in Higher Education, 13,

293-297.

Ellis, R. A., Hughes, J., Weyers, M., & Riding, P. (2009). University teacher approaches to design and teaching and concepts of learning technologies. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(1), 109-117.

Ellis, R., Steed, A., & Applebee, A. (2006). Teacher conceptions of blended learning, blended teaching and associations with approaches to design. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(3), 312-335.

Entwistle, N. (2000). Promoting deep learning through

teaching and assessment: conceptual frameworks and educational contexts. Presented at the TLRP Conference, Leicester. Retrieved from

http://www.etl.tla.ed.ac.Uk//docs/entwistle2000.pdf

González, C. (2010). What do university teachers think

eLearning is good for in their teaching? Studies in Higher

Education, 35(1), 61-78.

Kember, D. (1997). A reconceptualisation of the research into university academics' conceptions of teaching. Learning and Instruction, 7(3), 255-275.

Kember, D., & Kwan, K.-P. (2000). Lecturers' approaches to teaching and their relationship to conceptions of good teaching. Instructional Science, 28(5), 469-490.

Marton, F., & Booth, S. A. (1997). Learning and Awareness.

Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.

Postareff, L., Virtanen, V., Katajavuori, N., & Lindblom-

Ylanne, S. (2012). Academics’ conceptions of assessment and their assessment practices. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 38(3-4), 84-92.

Samuelowicz, K., & Bain, J. D. (2002). Identifying academics’ orientations to assessment practice. Higher Education, 43(2), 173-201.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/102/102.pdf",""
"3829","18","Studying Literary Characters and Character Networks","3","The study of character has long been one of the central concerns of literary theory. For the Russian formalists, embodied above all in work of Vladimir Propp (1968), character was primarily a “type,” one that served different narrative functions (“the hero is married and ascends the throne”). For poststructuralists that came in the wake of Propp, character was nothing more than a rhetorical “effect,” one more example of the referential phallacy of naïve readers (Barthes 1970; Culler 2002). Subsequent studies attempted to account for this dual nature of characters, the they are both rhetorical devices and also constrained by real-world references, the requirements of being human that constrain what characters can do and say (Phelan 1989; Jannidis 2004; Frow 2014). More recent research has begun to emphasize the affective or identi-ficatory role that characters play for readers (Lynch 1998; Brewer 2011). According to this view, characters are the media through which readers come to terms with new kinds of social experience. Drawing on the field of cognitive science, other work by Zunshine (2006) and Vermeule (2011) has argued in a less historical vein that characters are useful tools through which to model “theories of mind,” means for learning about and hypothetically experiencing human cognition.

It is within this context that our three papers situate themselves in order to understand the ways in which computation impacts the study of literature. Each is fundamentally concerned with how the increased volume of information surrounding characters impacts our understanding of the idea of character - whether it is examining several thousand plays in which characters appear, several thousand interactions between characters, or the millions of words surrounding characters' appearance on the page. Characters are fundamentally social in literature and these computational methods are designed to better understand that sociability.

Mark Algee-Hewitt's paper concerns itself with the study of social networks in 3,900 plays across four-centuries. It asks how the morphology of the social networks represented on stage represent (or resist) both the politics and aesthetics of a period and, more importantly, how those social networks evolve over time? In his paper, he will move beyond the network analysis of a single play by examining the network structure of a large corpus of English dramas written and performed between 1500 and 1920. By applying a series of summary statistics drawn from the field of social network analysis to the individual plays, he is able able to trace the history of dramatic representations of the social sphere and shed new light on the evolution of both the protagonist and the periphery in modern drama.

Khoustiv Sinha, Andrew Piper, Derek Ruth's paper takes a step back to ask the even more fundamental question: what is an interaction? Before we move to the extraction and mapping of social networks in fiction, we first need to study how readers understand the very idea of “interaction.” In this project, he examines reader annotations across a data set of over 1,000 social interactions drawn from popular contemporary fiction and non-fiction. In doing so, he addresses not only the level of agreement between readers, but also the types of interactions that produce more or less agreement among readers. What are the qualities of social relationships in literature that generate more ambiguity among readers and what does that have to tell us about the social investments of literary texts?

Finally, Andrew Piper and Hardik Vala's paper introduces a new tool that identifies 28 different features aligned with practices of characterization. These features range across a variety of different categories, from positionality (the character's agency), modality (behavior), descriptiveness, to social categories like proximity to other characters or the distribution of character counts in a text As they will show, this tool can allow us to derive novel insights about the history of character development in literary texts.

Distributed Character: Quantitative Models of the English Stage, 1500-1920
Mark Algee-Hewitt
The use of network graphs to represent social networks of characters within novels or plays has played an important role in quantitative textual analysis (see for example Agwar et al 2012, Bingenheimer et al 2011, Elson et al 2010). In this paper, I move beyond the network as a visual object, and instead, draw upon the quantitative metrics of the graph to explore the large-scale changes to the structure of English drama across four hundred years. What can the overall structure of the play can tell us both about the aesthetics of literary production of a given period, and what we can learn about the play by disaggregating the morphology from both the stagecraft and the language that, until now, have made up the two poles of dramatic criticism?

The power of networks lie in their precise, mathematic, description of a set of relationships that can be quantified, measured and aggregated in ways that are unavailable to the reader of a text. Yet, most work has been focused on the use of single networks to describe single plays. For example, in his work on character networks in Hamlet, Franco Moretti turns quickly from the quantitative network analysis to the qualitative approach to the plot: “I soon realized that the machinegathering of the data, essential to large-scale quantification, was not yet a realistic possibility [...] So, from its very first section, the essay drifted from quantification to the qualitative analysis of plot” (Moretti 2011). In this paper, I introduce an automated, rule-based, parsing of the 3439 English plays in the Chadwyck Healy drama corpus in order to perform the kind of large-scale quantitative analysis that Moretti gestures towards, but is unable to realize. The algorithm uses the existing XML markup in the corpus in order to extract speeches and assign them to characters as speakers and recipients, resolving co-references to character abbreviations (this is similar to the automated method employed by Trilcke et al. 2016, although the summary statistics that I extract are quite different).

Drawing on this tagged corpus, I create a social network for each drama and extract a series of summary features based on both the eigenvector and betweenness centralities of each play. The first summary statistic that I calculate is the Gini Coefficient of the eigenvector centrality. Originally designed to measure income inequality within an economic system, the Gini Coefficient is a single number between 0 and 1 that indicates how evenly a set of resources (wealth, income or, in this case, centrality) is distributed across a population (here, of characters. In the Gini coefficient measurement in the corpus at large (Figure 1), there is a clear historical pattern being played out. Over time, between 1550 and 1900, the Gini coefficients of the plays exhibits a clear downward trend, from plays with a small core and a large, non-central periphery in the early century, to plays with a relatively large core and a small periphery in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and a large discontinuity between 1650 and 1700. What this metric seems to indicate, then, is the disappearance of the periphery of the English drama over time. Rather than suggesting significant structural changes to the core of the play, the largest influence in the Gini coefficient is the presence of a large periphery, whose members rarely speak (and more importantly, rarely interact with the center of power) and who therefore bring down the Gini coefficient for the entire play. Over time, then, this periphery disappears as casts get smaller and actions take place among an increasingly more tightly knit set of characters. Servants, retainers, guards, acquaintances and messengers, so important during the early modern period, disappear with increasing regularity in the later periods, echoing the reduced function such figures had in society itself, as dramas move, following Haber-masian logic, from the throne room to the drawing room, becoming personal and intimate, rather than mythic, political and impersonal.


Figure 1. Gini Coefficients of Eigenvector Centrality over time. The corpus is divided into 50 year bins (with the plays in each bin arranged chronologically). Colors indicate selected canonical authors.

The second metric is the percentage of characters in the top quartile of the eigenvector centrality distribution. This measures the size of the core of the play and tells an equally striking and parallel story (Figure 2). Although the relative regularity of the measurement makes it less immediately apparent, there is a constant historical increase in the percentage of characters in the top quartile of eigenvector centrality scores. While the falling Gini Coefficients speak to the disappearance of the periphery, this metric reveals what happens to the remaining core. Rather than follow the same pattern of the early modern period (with few highly central characters), the disappearance of the periphery means that more centrality is allotted between the core characters. This speaks not just to the increasing size of the core, but, more importantly, to the tendency of having plays that feature multiple sub-networks, each with their own protagonist. In a play with a single network, it is easy for one character to dominate it, but in a play whose action is divided between competing communities, each community can have its own central figure. If we can tell the protagonist of an early modern drama by his or her high eigenvector centrality compared to the rest of the cast, then by the seventeenth century the single protagonist has been dispersed between multiple characters who all evidence a high eigenvector centrality, distributing the function of the protagonist (and/or the antagonist) among a growing number of central characters.


eigenvector centrality distribution in the play.

As opposed to the eigenvector centrality's relationship to the protagonist, betweenness centrality speaks to the mediatedness of the drama. That is, if a high betweenness centrality indicates a character that mediates other character's interactions (such that they have to pass through her), then the scaled maximum betweenness centrality of a dramatic network overall, which measures the relatively importance of bridging characters, indicates the extent to which this mediating function is important to the drama as a whole. At the level of the corpus, the normalized maximum betweenness centrality, the relative importance of the bridging character, decreases across the century, very quickly from 1590 to 1640, and then more slowly

across the remaining two and a half centuries: the average maximum betweenness centrality in a play drops by over 750 across just the sixteenth century. Again, the largest discontinuity lies between 1650 and 1700: there is a clearly a lasting effect on the structure of dramatic networks from the puritan shuttering of the theaters during the interregnum. The English drama that returns during the restoration is evidently not the same as the English stage before Cromwell. Understanding    Reader-Identified    Social

Interactions in Literature
Koustuv Sinha, Andrew Piper, Derek Ruths
Social network analysis begins with the primacy of character as its object of study. In this, it fits within an aready well-established area of inquiry within literary theory, one whose formal study extends back until at least the early twentieth century if not earlier (Propp 1968). Where social network analysis differs from this tradition is through the emphasis on dynamic interactions as a key to understanding the narrative function of character. Whether exploring the afterlife of fan fiction, theories of mind, affective identification, or the typologies of character, what all of the pre-computational work on character has in common is an emphasis on understanding character in the singular. Social network analysis argues instead that the meaning of any character is a function of his or her relationships with respect to all of the other characters introduced over the course of a story (Woloch 2009). Character networks offer a way to study not simply the types or themes or affective connections between readers and imaginary people. Rather, they afford us the ability to understand the social imaginings of writers, periods, and genres.

Several initial attempts to introduce social network analysis into the study of literature have already been made. Character networks have been studied within three major European epics to understand their relation to contemporary models of social networks (Mac-Caron/Kenna 2012); an abridged version of a single well-known literary work (Alice in Wonderland) to test differences between interactions and observations on character centrality (Agarwal 2012); nineteenth-century novels to understand the correlation between dialogue and setting (Elson 2010); as a form of narrative generation (Sack 2013); and the genre of classical drama to better understand the notion of tragic conflict (Moretti 2013; Karsdorp et al 2015).

Each of these works has added to our understanding of the relationship between character and literary form in important ways. And yet at the core of each of these studies lies a fundamental assumption about the self-evident nature of an “interaction.” Initial attempts to use machine learning to derive interactions on prose texts have shown very poor performance (Agarwal 2012 reports a maximum F1 score of 0.61). What this indicates at least in part is that interactions are highly complex verbal constructions which we cannot easily assume pre-exist our attempts at extracting them.

To counter this problem, we have designed a study to explore reader agreement across a variety of text passages (1,000) drawn from popular contemporary fiction and non-fiction. Rather than begin with a stable set of interaction types, however, our goal is to infer possible classes of interactions and then understand which of these classes generate more ambiguity among readers. We perform this in three phases. In the first phase, we ask coders to identify minimally defined interactions using a standardized web interface (where an interaction consists of two entities and an action linking them). Our goal here is not to pre-define types of interactions as in other studies (Agarwal), but to better understand how readers intuitively understand social interactions between characters. As we have shown in another study, readers indicate very high agreement in identifying character aliases (i.e. determining what is an entity (Vala et al.)). In the second phase, we use unsupervised clustering techniques to identify different interaction “types” based on syntactic and lexical features of the labeled interactions. Third, we then measure reader agreement across these different types. While we want to know overall how well readers agree on defining interactions, we also want to understand if different types of interactions across different types of writing (fiction/non-fic-tion) illustrate signigicantly higher levels of disagreement. This is a first step in understanding the unique ways literary texts generate social complexity, not simply through the quantity of interactions but also importantly through their qualities.

Emma: A Feature Space for Studying Character
Andrew Piper and Hardik Vala
This paper will argue that computation has an important role to play in understanding the nature of

characters and the process of what we might generally

term characterization - the writerly act of generating animate entities through language. With an estimated 86 characters per novel in the nineteenth century and a conservative estimate of 20,000 novels published during this period in the English language, there are over 1.7 million unique characters that appear in that one century and one language alone. Even if we condition on main characters, we are still looking at several thousand distinct entities. At the same time, there are not only a great number of characters in literature, but there is also a tremendous amount of information surrounding even one primary character. Like other highly frequent textual features such as conjunctions or punctuation, characters are abundant across the pages of individual novels. Personal pronouns alone account for roughly 12% of all tokens, and if one adds in proper names the number of character occurrences is closer to 16% - or one in every six words! Like the abundance of characters, such semiotic abundance surrounding characters poses problems for inherited critical methods. How can we be sure that our claims about “character” are capturing the broad and potentially diverse ways that characters are depicted in novels, this larger mass of fictional beings and what it means to be fictional?

In order to address this question, we have developed a computational tool designed for the study of character. Its aim is to identify 28 different features that relate to qualities that characters may possess. These range across categories like distinctiveness (how distinctive is the main character from other characters within the novel); positionality (how often is the character the agent or object of a sentence or a possessor of some object); centrality (how important is the protagonist relative to other characters in the novel); and modality (what kinds of behaviors and descriptions inform this character's identity, such as cogitation, perception, motion, embodiment and even clothing or dress).

Rather than start with known “types” of character, this tool allows us to implement a more multi-dimensional understanding of character and use that representation to think about the relationships between novels. Prior work on stylistic analysis has not differentiated between various aspects of texts when comparing them to each other. The novel is taken as a unified whole. Our character feature tool allows readers to begin to explore these different sub-domains of a novel, which in our case refers to the language used to construct character. In our presentation, we will discuss the mechanics that underlie the tool, which implements a modified version of BookNLP (Bamman 2014) and the Stanford dependency parser in order to identify words related to character. We will also discuss a case study in which we explore the identity of “introversion” in novels from the nineteenth century to the present. As we will show, the character feature

tool allows us to construct not only familiar narratives

about the history of the novel - wherein the representation of interiority is strongly gendered around female protagonists - but also novel and nuanced insights about that tradition when we follow these features across a broader swath of time. As we will show, interiority no longer remains the distinctive quality of feminine heroines but is transposed onto a very different generic and gender scene - the male hero of science fiction.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/103/103.pdf",""
"3830","18","Collecting Name of Historical Person from Historical Material Related to Japan","2","This proposal describes a method of collecting and managing the name of a person from historical materials related to Japanese history from the 8th century until the 19th century.

There are several tasks related to personal name such as collecting, identifying, representing. For historians and researchers, the recording and management of a personal name is an integral (and unavoidable) task. In Japan, historical materials are held by both a public institute and a private house in which they are found. Because there are no catalogs listing all of the material, the research staff at our institute (the Historiographical Institute of the University of Tokyo) spend several weeks each year investigating and examining historical records kept in Japan and abroad. The staff has over 100 years' combined experience conducting these examinations, and their journeys have taken them all over Japan as well as to many different parts of the globe. Ho (2015) and Bol et al (2015) introduced a method of personal name management in the context of Chinese historical materials (like a    (difang-

zhi)"") that used the China Biographical Database (CBCB) as a biographical dictionary. In Japanese history, there is no such exhaustive encyclopedia or dictionary for a name of a historical person.

A personal name appears in a variety of historical materials such as an old diary, an old document, a classical book, a family pedigree, a document related to appointment, and so on. The materials contain diverse name representations, such as a real name or an original name, a nickname, an epithet, a role name which indicates a person, and a Kao (which is a stylized signature or a mark), among others.

We constructed a repository which can store a collection containing both the names and the historical materials in which they appear. There are several different representations of a name in each material type. In order to represent and preserve these variations, the repository can store a variety of name data regardless of differences in data schema. In order to ensure efficient data-searching, we prepared common metadata that consist of an identifier, a personal name, a correspondence of the name, a related resource, a database where the name has been stored if such a database has already been constructed and the date on which the name appeared in the resource.

The name data can be expressed as RDF data and searched with SPARQL in the repository which provides an RDF store and a SPARQL endpoint. Furthermore, the repository can integrate the name data regardless of differences among personal name metadata schema, and provide the result of the integration. In addition, we will show an application for representing the outcomes of search results.

Bibliography

Ho, H. I. (2015). MARKUS - A Fundamental Semi-automatic

Markup Platform for Classical Chinese. Proceedings of

the 2015 International Conference on Digital Humanities.

Bol, P., Liu, Ch.-L., and Wang, H. (2015). Mining and Discovering Biographical Information in Difangzhi with a Language-Model-based Approach. Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Digital Humanities.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/105/105.pdf",""
"3831","18","Towards a New Approach in the Study of Ancient Greek Music: The Virtual Reconstruction of an Aulos “Early type” from Sicily","9","The ancient site of Selinunte (Sicily) is recognised today as one of the most important archaeological sites of the Greek period in Italy. From its foundation as a colony around the second half of the VII c. through to the middle of the III c. BCE, Selinunte enjoyed a prosperous existence as reflected in its notable sanctuaries, and temples. In 2006, the Institute of Fine Arts at New York University began a research project on the acropolis under the direction of Prof. C. Marconi and in collaboration with the Archaeological Park of Selinunte. The project consists of a new, systematic and interdisciplinary study of the archaeology and architecture of the main urban sanctuary, beginning with its southern sector. In the years between 2006 and 2012, the survey also consisted of the investigation of the ‘South Building'. This structure is notable for its prominent position within the sacred space. From the time of its discovery (1876), its scale has attracted scholarly attention, and the ‘South Building' has played a significant role in discussions about the spatial articulation and cults of the main urban sanctuary. The investigation included a systematic programme of documenting the buildings in the area and its digital reconstruction.

Several elements suggest the identification of the ‘South Building' as an impressive theatral viewing area with particular acoustic qualities (Marconi and Scahill, 2015). This building belong to a group of the-atral structures found in various regions of the Greek world. Many of these structures were not proper “theatres”, but rather primitive rows of seats (meaning non-canonical theatres, with linear and non-circular theatra and/or orchestra): they existed as “a place from where one could watch”, which is in fact the original meaning of the word theatron.

The quality of the stones was carefully selected in relation to their placement in the cultic theatres,

based on structural, aesthetic, and, acoustic considerations. The acoustics of the linear theatra in the Greek world have never been analysed (Blesser and Salter, 2011): no study has focused on the acoustics of these theatres in order to understand how and why these spaces were chosen for performance. It is a category of buildings brought to the attention of scholarship by Anti (1947), but first investigated in relation to religious contexts by Nielsen (2002) in her study on cultic theatres in the ancient world; by Marconi (2013) in his study on the theatral structure of Selinunte; and by Hollinshead (2015) in her study on the steps as components of monumental construction at Greek sites as early as the VI c. BCE.

At Selinunte, the cultic theatre was built to accommodate spectators of performances associated primarily with Temple R, probably a temple of Demeter. One of the main striking finds among the votive depositions was the discovery of two parts of a bone aulos, which can be dated to 570 BCE (Marconi, 2014). This discovery is very significant, particularly with regard to the performance associated with the activity of Temple R (Marconi, 2013). The discovery shows the importance of music in this context which already existed in the Early Archaic period, that is, since its foundation.

In 2013, the Marie Curie Actions programme

(IOF) funded the TELESTES project (622974): the main aim of this project was the reconstruction of musical development at Selinunte on the basis of material culture and written sources. It also included the study of the aulos from Temple R using a CT scan, an improved method for the visualisation and analysis of the instruments (Bellia, 2015). However, this survey still lacked an appropriate connection between the acoustics of the cultic theatre and musical activity related to the building. Thanks to the present project, auralisation techniques are used to explore the spatial dimension of sound in this cultic theatre, establishing a relationship between the spatial configuration of this structure and how this complements music. These data will help us to understand the aural perception of ancient peoples and the type of sound experiences they were exposed to.

This research is the first study on the virtual reconstruction of the acoustics of cultic theatres of the Greek world. Despite their relevance to the field of ancient music, no study has focused on the acoustics of these theatres in order to understand how and why these spaces were chosen for performance. Within this context, archaeoacoustics is being used as a new method for the analysis of historical heritage, enabling the evaluation of the sound quality of a space (Scarre and Graeme, 2006) by using auralisa-tion techniques which allow cognitive and physical elements to be reproduced and combined (Eneix, 2014).

This project offers an innovative research method in the study of ancient Greek music, not only in its contextualisation of archaeological evidence, but also by making connections between digital and acoustic techniques. It is also hoped that the results will provide some foundations from which to create interpretative reconstructions of what the cultic theatres might have sounded like, using digital and acoustic technology. Moreover, this study will contribute towards overcoming the traditional methods in measuring ancient instruments, opening up a new disciplinary framework for the interaction between 3D reconstruction of instruments, their respective sounds, and the spaces of musical performances.

In order to analyse the acoustic characteristics of the cultic theatre of Selinunte, an acoustic survey will be carried out using an impulsive sound source located in two positions on the steps, and in the “orchestra”. Measurements will be recorded using an impulsive sound source. This process will make it possible to obtain a virtual acoustic reconstruction of this space, including the incorporation of acoustic characteristics as another important aspect of its intangible heritage. The software used will be CATT-Acoustic, v. 9.0 c.

The digitisation process of the aulos is divided into two main tasks, namely the 3D scanning phase and the post-processing phase. The tools we plan to develop are divided into those involving the use of computational methods for processing the 3D models, and those involving the development of interactive tools aimed at engaging in the exploration of the instruments. The software used will be GEOMAGIC

DESIGN X, with AVIZO, v. 9.0. Following the digital model will translated into artificial copies, using polymer as a material. We aim to obtain and to assess the auralisation of the acoustical properties of these 3D models.

In addition, the work will address the study of written sources as well as visual and archaeological documentation related to music performed in the cultic theatres of the ancient Greek world from the Archaic through to the Classical periods. The study will be conducted in order to understand the reasons that led ancient cultures to create these spaces, as well as reconstruct how they experienced them.

Expected results

Firstly, this research will provide the first acoustic model for the study of acoustical properties of cultic theatres in the ancient Greek world. The study will assess and recover the acoustics of the Selinunte theatre.

Secondly, the research will develop specific tools suitable for processing the resulting 3D models. It is also hoped that the results will provide some foundations from which to create experimental interpretative 3D reconstructions integrating acoustic models. The results will establish a new framework, which future researchers can use to advance their knowledge of the application of 3D technology for the documentation of instruments.

Finally, this project will offer an innovative research method in the study of ancient Greek music. This research aims to create a field of comparative studies of archaeomusicological research.

In conclusion, this research will develop a new theoretical basis, which will contribute to the establishment of a methodology at the crossroads of ar-chaeomusicology, architecture, and acoustics and digital technologies. In addition, this study is part of a programme intended to valorise ancient cultural and musical heritage in the Mediterranean with cross-disciplinary approaches to human culture and technology, in order to unveil new meanings and create new research fields within the digital humanities and heritage science.

Bibliography

Anti, C. (1947). Teatri greci arcaici. Padova: Le Tre Vene-zie.

Bellia, A. (2015). “The Virtual Reconstruction of an Ancient

Musical Instrument.” In Guidi, G., Scopigno, R., Torres,

J.C., Graf, H. (eds), 2015 Digital Heritage, I, Proceedings

of the International Congress DigitalHeritage 2015

(Granada (Spain), 28 September - 2 October 2015).

IEEE, pp. 55-58.

Blesser, B.A., and Salter, L.-R. (2011). “Beyond Measurements: A Multi-disciplinary Framework for Aural Experience of Ancient Spaces.” In The Acoustics of Ancient Theatres,    Patras, September    18-21,    2011:

http://www.blesser.net/downloads/Blesser-

Salter%20Beyond%20Measurments.pdf;

Eneix, L.C. (2014) (ed.). Archaeoacustics. The Archaeology of Sound. Myakka (Fl): OTS Foundation.

Hollinshead, M.B. (2015). Shaping Ceremony. Madison: The University of Wisconsis Press.

Marconi, C. (2013). “Nuovi dati sui culti del settore meri-dionale del grande santuario urbano”, Sicilia Antiqua, 10: 263-271;

Marconi, C. (2014). “A New Bone Aulos from Selinus”. In Bellia A. (ed.), Musica, culti e riti dei Greci d'Occidente. Roma-Pisa: Fabrizio Serra, pp. 105-116.

Marconi, C., and Scahill, D. (2015). “The “South Building” in the Main Urban Sanctuary of Selinus: A Theatral Structure?.” In Frederiksen, R., Gebhard, E.R., and Sokolicek, A. (eds), The Architecture of the Ancient Greek Theatre. Aarhus: University Press, pp. 281-294.

Nielsen, I. (2002), Cultic Theatres and Ritual Drama. Aarhus: University Press.

Scarre, C., Graeme, L. (2006) (eds.), Archaeoacoustics. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.

Suarez, R., Alonso, A., and Sendra, J.J. (2016), “Archaeo-acoustics of Intangible Cultural Heritage”, Journal of

Cultural Heritage, 19: 567-572.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/106/106.pdf",""
"3832","18","Accessing Russian Culture Online: The scope of digitisation in museums across Russia","9","Although the rate and coverage of digitization throughout Europe is monitored and understood (Eu-ropeana, 2016; Minerva EC, 2016, Navarette 2015) there has been little work done on understanding the reach of digitization across Russia. In this paper, we build on previous work (Kizhner, Terras, Rumyantsev, 2016) by using Russian Ministry of Culture statistics to calculate the percentage of museum collections that have been digitized across Russia. We show regional variations and demonstrate that although many Russian museums have digitisation programs, this is not carried out to the same extent as across Europe. We suggest that studying non-European digitization practices can lead to further understanding of the digital canon upon which analysis of culture is based (Limb, 2007; Warwick et al, 2008; Price, 2009; Earhart, 2012).

Digital visual collections from national and regional museums can be a rich source of data for digital humanities but the first step in these studies might be to discover the existence of digital images on national levels. Do non-European digital collections exist? Do non-European museums provide the same amount of data as European museums? Is this amount equal for the centre of the country and for provinces? How many images are posted online?

This paper aims to find out the current scale of digitization in Russian museums. We discuss Russian digitization as an example of real life messy collection of data where the situation is hardly related to «postmodernist utopia» (Sartori 2016) or the wishful thinking of moving images across interfaces (Robinson, 2013; Kizhner, Stankevich, Terras, Rumyantsev 2016), all of them quite distant perspectives.

Starting from the 1970s, the rationale for museum digitisation practices in Russia was quite similar to that in many other countries. It was informed by a need for information and collection management so that museum objects would not be lost and were properly conserved (Navarette, 2014; Sher, 1983; Williams, 1987; Chenhall and Vance, 1987). Russian government policy related to that need from 2008 onwards was aimed at building The National Catalogue of Museum Objects posted online (Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation, 2016) and currently including images for 1,2 million museum objects, 1,5% of total number of Russian museum objects (slightly over 80 million), and 2% of the collection of unique objects (about 60 million).

The National Catalogue is an initial access point in finding out the scale of museum digitization in various parts of the country including its remote regions. Our previous paper (Kizhner, Terras, Rumyantsev, 2016) demonstrated preliminary results of a survey estimating the percentage of digital images for Russian museum collections. The study also included web site exploration results on the percentage of museum collections posted online. However, it only covered 1,2% museums in the country for the percentage of digitized images and 6% for the images posted online and its results gave initial estimates.

The present paper studies the percentage of digital images through the statistical reports submitted to the Ministry of Culture from 2,367 museums in 2015. The annual statistical reports are mandatory for all museums reporting to local municipalities, regional administrations and the RF Ministry of Culture, in fact for all non-private and non-corporate museums. We provide the average results for the country and and the average results for its 8 major geographical regions.

Methodology

The data of the RF museums' statistical reports for 2015 were received from the RF Ministry of Culture in summer 2016. Museums return these mandatory reports in January and provide statistical data for the preceding year. The data were related to 2,635 museums from every region of the Russian Federation.

The data were received as an Excel spreadsheet from which the parts were removed that were not related to the digitization of museum objects and the data on galleries that were for temporary display and did not store any objects. This left us with 2,367 museums. The data in the spreadsheet were sorted on the total number of objects for every museum, the number of unique objects, the number of database records with digital images, and the number of images posted online.

Russian museum collections tend to consist of two parts: the main collection of unique objects and a smaller ‘research collection' including duplicates and supporting documentation. While the total number of objects in Russian museum collections slightly exceed 80 million objects, the number of unique objects is 20 million fewer and equals 60 million objects. The results of statistical surveys obtained for the study reported the number of digitized objects as related to the total number of objects in a museum including their ‘research collections'. This did not create a methodological problem when comparing the results with those from the Enumerate project which is a study of the outage of digitisation across Europe, funded by the European Union which happened between 2011 and 2015 (Europeana, 2016) where the survey asked to provide the percentage of digital images for museums' analogue collections.

The percentage of digitized objects and the percentage of objects with images posted online was calculated for each geographical region of the Russian Federation and mapped to show the differences. The total percentage for the country was also assessed.

Results

The percentage of digital images as related to the total number of museum objects across Russia was 13,5%. The percentage related to the number of objects in the main collection (roughly corresponding to the number of unique objects) was 18%.

The percentage of images posted online as related to the total number of objects was 1,5%, this figure was somewhat larger if compared with the number of objects in the main collection (2%).

An interesting and unexpected result was the difference between the scale of digitization in two major cities, Moscow and Saint Petersburg (Table 1). The percentage of objects with digital images was much higher than the average across Russia in Saint Petersburg and somewhat lower than the average in Moscow. The scale of digitization across major geographical regions varied between the minimum of 6% in the Far East and the maximum of 25% in the regions adjacent to Saint Petersburg (Figure 1, Table 1).

Interestingly, the percentage of images posted online was slightly lower than the average across Russia for museums in Moscow and twice lower than the average across Russia in Saint Petersburg (Table 2).


Figure 1. The percentage of the analogue collections digitally reproduced across geographical regions



Table 1. The percentage of the analogue collections digitally reproduced in the museums of Saint Petersburg, Moscow, and across Russia


Table 2. The percentage of digital images posted online

Discussion

Our findings demonstrate that digital collections in Russian museums do exist across the country but we cannot say that their online display is representative enough to cover the culture, considering the variety in geography and ethnography.

We can roughly confirm our previous results on the percentage of digitized images (Kizhner, Terras, Rumyantsev, 2016) to be around 18% as our present data show the level of digitization to be in the range of 13,5 - 18%. However, our previous results might have a sampling bias as the museums answering the questions of the survey could be interested in digitization per se and work towards obtaining more financial and administrative support to keep it going. This might result in a higher percentage. Even so, the results of the present study can only demonstrate a range of digitization scale as the percentage of images related to the total number of objects may include a significant number of duplicates and supporting materials (e.g. library books).

This is not an obstacle to comparing our data with those from the Enumerate project ‘which aimed to survey the extent of digitization across Europe' (Euro-peana, 2016) where the survey questions were about the percentage of the analogue collection digitally reproduced, but given the range of 13,5 - 18% we can say that the results for 2015 are much lower than the results of the Enumerate project for 2015 when the percentage of digitized collections in European museums was 31%. However, the results for Saint Petersburg collections are higher than the European average

(Table 1).

The percentage of images available online across Russia as related to the analogue collection is 1,5 - 2% which is lower than the percentage reported by the Enumerate project (24% of digital collections and 7,5% of European analogue collections). However, the Enumerate results included digital collections and digitally born objects available online, which complicates the comparison (Europeana, 2016).

Recent criticism of digitization without proper contribution to building knowledge in the humanities (Hitchcock, 2013, Gregory et al., 2016) requires developing these studies further towards exploring how Russian museum web sites arrange images for searching and browsing and developing projects discussing the issues of open access and digital canon.

This paper opens up the space for studying Russian digital collections on a national scale. It also reports on the results of looking at the scale of digitization for major geographical regions within Russia, and it will discuss the results of calculating simple correlations of digitization percentage with population density, the level of education, funding, and the number of museum goers in the regions. By doing so we can challenge the concept of the digital canon, and ask difficult questions regarding which types of culture are being digitized and made available worldwide.

Bibliography

Chenhall, R., and Vance, D., (2010) ‘The World of (Almost) Unique Objects'. In Museums in a Digital Age, ed. Ross Parry, London, New York: Routledge, pp. 39-48.

Earhart, A., (2012). Can Information Be Unfettered? Race and the New Digital Humanities Canon. Debates in the Digital Humanities, pp.309-318.

Europeana (2016), Enumerate Observatory. http://pro.eu-ropeana.eu/enumerate/

Gregory, I., Atkinson, P., Hardie, A., Joulain-Jay, A., Kershaw, D., Porter, C., Rayson, P., Rupp, CJ. (2016). From Digital Resources to Historical Scholarship with the British Library 19th Century Newspaper Collection, Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities and Social Sciences, 9 (4), pp. 994-1006.

Hitchcock T. (2013) “Confronting the digital or how academic history writing lost the plot” Cultural and Social History. 10, pp. 9-23.

Kizhner, I., Stankevich, J., Terras, M., Rumyantsev, M.,

(2016). Licensing Images from Russian Museums for an Academic Project within Russian Legislation"". Special Interest Group AudioVisual Material in Digital Humanities Workshop , Digital Humanities 2016, Krakow. https://avindhsig.wordpress.com/workshop-2016-kra-kow/accepted-abstracts/

Kizhner, I., Terras, M., Rumyantsev, M. (2016). Museum Digitization Practices Across Russia: Survey and Web Site Exploration Results. In Digital Humanities 2016: Conference Abstracts. Jagiellonian University & Pedagogical

University, Krakow, pp. 600-602.

Limb, P., (2007). The politics of digital"" reform and revolution"": towards mainstreaming and African control of African digitisation. Innovation, 2007 (34).

Minerva    EC, (2016). http://www.miner-

vaeurope.org/home.htm

Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation (2016), The

National Catalogue of the RF Museum Collections, http://goskatalog.ru/portal/#/

Navarette, T., (2014). A History of Digitization: Dutch Museums. Ph.D. diss., University of Amsterdam. http://cata-

logus.boekman.nl/pub/P14-0752.pdf

Navarette, T., (2015). ‘Benefits of Collaborative Digitization

Projects in Europe', Les Cahiers Numerique, 2015/1, (Vol. 11). http://www.cairn.info/revue-les-cahiers-du-numerique-2015-1-page-41.html

Price, K.M., (2009). Digital Scholarship, Economics, and the American Literary Canon. Literature Compass, 6(2), pp.274-290.

Sartori, A. (2015). “Towards an Intellectual History of Digitisation: Myths,Dystopias, and Discursive Shifts in Museum Computing”. Digital Scholarship in the Humanities, March 2015.

Sher, Y., (1983). ‘Preface from the Editor of the Russian Edition'. In Chenhall, R. Museum Cataloging in the Computing Age, eds. Yury Aseev and Yakov Sher, Moscow: Mir, pp. 717. In Russian.

Warwick, C., Terras, M., Huntington, P., and Pappa, N.

(2008). ‘If you build it will they come? The LAIRAH study: Quantifying the use of online resources in the arts and humanities through statistical analysis of user log data."" Literary and Linguistic Computing 23, no. 1 (2008): 85-102.

Williams, D. (2010). ‘A Brief History of Museum Computerization'. In Museums in a Digital Age, ed. Ross Parry, London, New York: Routledge, pp. 15-22.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/109/109.pdf",""
"3833","18","Getting at Metaphor","10","This paper will discuss how our newly prototyped

POEMAGE visualization tool (see McCurdy et al, 2015), created to identify and visualize complex sonic relationships within individual poems, has provided poetry scholars with new ways to identify and conceptualize metaphor, which has previously been considered computationally intractable because of its semantic and syntactic complexities. It focuses not on the tool's technical details but on the ongoing retheorization of poetry it has engendered,

Close readers are trained to connect every element in a poem to every other in an ambiguous, shifting complex of meaning, which the reader, bringing her own complexities to the process, activates. This poetic dynamic makes computational analysis and visualization of any aspect of poetry a challenge. The goal of our research team has been to take a single poetic element—sound—and treat it computationally and visually at a level of complexity that will make POE-MAGE useful to poets and scholars performing sophisticated close readings of poetry, even as it makes poetry more accessible to students and casual readers. Though sound interacts with the other features operating within a poem, unlike most other features it can be looked at in its own terms and is subject to computer analysis through quantification.

As we began, poet Julie Gonnering Lein and I sought to preserve poetry's qualitative, aesthetic experience; computer scientists Miriah Meyer and Nina McCurdy sought to address open questions in their field. Both goals required moving beyond what the machine could already do. Off-the-shelf software can see exact rhyme quickly, as can a good reader—who will swiftly move on to look for sonic relationships that don't replicate themselves but enact disruptive changes that are hard to identify computationally. To capture the progression of sonic clusters as they repeat in different and evolving combinations not only within but across syllables presents a computational problem that required our technical team to develop RhymeDesign, which allows users to query a broad range of sonic patterns within a poem and to design custom templates to query patterns we haven't imagined. Built on top of RhymeDesign, the POEMAGE interface visualizes and allows users to explore interactions of the queried patterns.

In performing this work, we have looked for (and not yet found) computational breakthroughs that might bring metaphor within reach, a process that has required us to consider closely how metaphor works. The difficulty with metaphor inheres even in simple instances. Getting the machine to understand why “Hope is a bird” (or, more problematically, “‘Hope' is the thing with feathers”) is a metaphor but “Juliet is a Capulet” and “Karen is a Carpenter” may be either similar or different statements of fact is not straightforward.

Poets as different as Dickinson and Donne play complex metaphors out across entire poems in elaborate and shifting figural structures. To develop a tool that can reliably identify metaphoric relationships as POEMAGE identifies sonic relationships—in real time across the entire poetic field—would require the solution of multiple open problems in computer science.

However, recent readings of poems by Dickinson and others, undertaken using POEMAGE, suggest that it is possible to use the tool to access some metaphors not directly but indirectly, leveraging the fact that both rhyme and metaphor operate by substituting one word for another that is different-but-similar, and that inevitably sites of sonic difference-in-similarity point to semantic difference-in-similarity as well. In close reading, we have noted that places the machine marks as being sonically “interesting” are also sites of metaphorical action, and that this action often inheres in, rather than simply existing alongside, the sonic relationships being indicated by the tool. This inherence can emerge through various kinds of sonic relationships, including but not limited to homonyms like “knot” and “naught,” which POEMAGE shows in Bradstreet's “Prologue,” and eye-rhymes like “blood” and “mood,” which it picks up across Pelizzon's “Blood Memory,” about menstruation. In presenting these words as related, even conjoined, the machine opens a space for us to tease out figural connections between a loop in a rope and nothingness, or menstrual blood and emotional pain.

A more complex example of metaphor developing through sound occurs in Dickinson's #313:


Figure 1: The user selects from the sonic rhymes available in the left-hand panel. The middle panel shows by color which words are implicated in a particular rhyme and which share phenomes. The right-hand panel shows how various rhymes flow through the poem.

The visualization, which shows words that connect with “soul” through specific sonic relationships, makes clear at a glance that “soul” is sonically implicated with virtually every other word in the poem, though of course it is more strongly associated with some words than others. Its identification with “you” and “your” is notable, but I am more attentive to its strong links to “so” (a perfect rhyme and identical except for one dropped phoneme), “slow” (which deploys exactly the same three phonemes, with the second two reversed), and “still,” which begins and ends with the same phoneme. Here, then, the “soul,” identified with “you,” is also sonically and so (because words mean) semantically identified with, in this order, intensity, slowness, and stillness. Beyond this, the tool invites an unlikely leap: the connection of “soul” with the poem's last word, “paws”—a big enough stretch that I am not sure I would make it without the tool's suggestion. This sonnet, which ends with what should be a rhymed couplet, teases by failing to do so. However, the tool's connection of “paws” with “slow” and, through “slow,” to “soul” and finally “still,” may suggest to the attentive reader an absent but implied homonym, “pause.” Here, through an indirection of sound, the poem creates a semantic “rhyme” between “paws/pause” and “still.”

Another case arises from our group's interest in uncertainty analysis, rooted in our understanding of ambiguity as a fundamental function of language, which led us to include in POEMAGE a “show uncertainty” button. Even beyond vagaries of accent, numerous words—tear comes to mind immediately— can be pronounced in more than one way, and mean differently depending on pronunciation. Every such word requires the machine to make a “guess”—a statistical prediction—about how the word is pronounced within the poem. The “show uncertainty” button allows the user to see words with alternate pronunciations as well as how the machine has chosen to pronounce them.

In “Night” by Louise Bogan, the tool mishears

[short i] “wind” as [long i] “wind” (note that it rhymes with “tide”:


Figure 2

Given its instructions, and the overwhelming probability that any one-syllable word comprising a beginning consonant and “ind” will have a long and not a short vowel, the computer had little choice but to make the “judgment” it did, even though the proficient human native speaker would not make this delightful mistake. In this “mishearing” of the poem, an inlet winding becomes “restless,” and in this restlessness the central metaphor of the poem takes shape. Through such reading, we can see that tools designed to help forestall error in science may reveal disturbances that add to the richness of a poem by opening interpretive space and not only the possibility for but the actual presence of metaphor.

Of course, “getting at metaphor” in this oblique way, even if we give it a separate button in the tool, is not the same as creating a tool that will algorithmically identify and visualize metaphor through its syntactic or semantic construction. However, in some cases this method may still be useful, especially for users who believe, as we do, that the purpose of any visualization is not to replace human reading but to send us back to the poem. An unexpected by-product of our tool, it is already provoking rich readings, which show that shaping our queries about sound so that the machine can answer with metaphor helps us understand dynamics inherent to poetry, which invites readers to connect every feature to every other feature. Thus, POEMAGE furthers the larger goal of reliably identifying metaphor through computational methods. It also suggests ways forward in our overarching goal of identifying such complex features for visualisation in their own right.

These are just a few instances among many in which POEMAGE queries, by locating sonic difference in similarity, have identified places in poems that are not only sonically but metaphorically rich. Though we often believe the complexity of language may create an obstacle to the computational analysis of poetry, this argument represents a re-theorization of ways in which a tool originally meant to aid in one kind of analysis can give access to information and insight not originally predicted or even sought, not in spite of but because of poetry's linguistic complexity.

Bibliography

Abdul-Rahman, A.J, Walton, S., Bemis, K., Lein, J.G.,

Coles, K., Silver, D., and Chen, M. (2017). “Re-spatialization of time series plots.” Information Visualization, Sage Journal, forthcoming.

Abdul-Rahman, A., Lein, J.G., Coles, K., Maguire, E., M. Meyer, M., Wynne, M., Trefethen, A.E., Johnson, C., and Chen, M. (2013). Rule-Based Visual Mappings— With a Case Study on Poetry Visualization. Computer Graphics Forum 32, pp. 381-390.

Chaturvedi, M., Gannod, G., Mandell, L., Armstrong, H., and Hodgson, E. (2013). Myopia: A Visualization Tool in Support of Close Reading. Digital Humanities 2012. Hamburg, Germany. 18 July 2012 .

Coles, K. (2015) “Ghost (in the) Machine.” Keynote lecture. Australasian Association of Writers and Writing Programs Annual Conference. Melbourne. Dec. 1,.2015.

Coles, K. (2013). “I Don't Care About Data.” Panel presentation. Digging Into Data Challenge Round Three End-of-Project Conference. Glasgow, Jan. 27, 2016.

Coles, K. (2015). “In Motion in the Machine.” Invited lecture. Poetry on the Move/International Poetry Studies Institute. Canberra. Sept. 2015.

Coles, K. (2016) “Show Ambiguity: Collaboration, Anxiety, and the Pleasures of Unknowing.” #Vis4DH, InfoVis 2016. Baltimore, October 24, 2016. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 23, (forthcoming, 2017).

Coles, K. (2014). Slippage, spillage, pillage, bliss: Close reading, uncertainty, and machines. Western Humanities Review, pages 39-65.

Coles, K. and Lein, J. (2014). Turbulence and Temporality: (Re)visualizing Poetic Time. Things My Computer Taught Me About Poems. MLA2014. Chicago, IL.

Coles, K. and McCurdy, N. (2016) Developing and Sustaining Collaborative Research in the Humanities. Panel Discussion. MLA2016. Austin, TX. Jan. 2016.

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Archives, Amherst College Digital Collections, Am-herst.College Library. Open source.

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Lein, J.G. (2015). Computers in my Classes: A Pedagogy Round-Table on Workshopping (With) the Digital. Panel Discussion. AWP2015. Minneapolis, MN. April 2015.

Lein, J.G. (2015) “Digital Humanities and Dickinson's ‘Tell': Recounting Poetic Encounter.” New Work on Dickinson: Flash Talks. Modern Language Association. Vancouver, BC Jan. 2015.

Lein, J.G. (2012) “Seeing the Sonic: Aesthetics, Poetry, and Data Visualization.” Aesthetics Reloaded. Aarhus, Denmark. Dec. 2012.

Lein, J.G. (2014) Sounding the surfaces: Computers, context, and poetic consequence. Western Humanities Review, pages 84-109.

McCurdy, N., Dykes, J., and Meyer, M. (2016). ""Action Design Research and Visualization Design."" Proceedings of the Beyond Time and Errors on Novel Evaluation Methods for Visualization. ACM, 2016.

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22:1, pp. 439-448.

McCurdy, N., Srikumar, V., and Meyer, M. (2015). RhymeDesign: A Tool for Analyzing Sonic Devices in Poetry. In Proceedings of Computational Linguistics for Literature, pp. 12-22.

Ramsay, S. (2011). Reading Machines: Toward an Algorithmic Criticism. Topics in the Digital Humanities. Ed. Susan Schreibman and Raymond C. Siemens. Chicago: U of Illinois Press.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/110/110.pdf",""
"3834","18","ARL Digital Scholarship Institute","2","This poster will reflect on the Association of Research Libraries' (ARL) upcoming inaugural weeklong Digital Scholarship Institute for library professionals. Scheduled for June 2017 at Boston College, the Institute will introduce librarians and staff who are not currently involved in digital scholarship to the methodologies and considerations of such work. This poster will detail successes and lessons learned for future Institutes.

Following two large-scale workshops hosted by the Coalition for Networked Information (CNI) on planning and supporting digital scholarship centers in 2014 and 2016, staffing and training emerged as fundamental components to successful initiatives. In 2014, workshop participants agreed that:

“...it is more important to have the proper mix of abilities overall across personnel than it is to have any one particular type of staff member. The ability to learn new skills, adaptability, and agility are qualities in personnel that can be even more important than the expertise that they initially bring to the position.” (Lippincott and Goldenberg-Hart, 2014:7)

In 2016, CNI hosted a follow-up workshop in partnership with ARL with over 100 participants. The resulting report from that meeting made it clear that people are core to the success of digital scholarship initiatives. Several points of consensus emerged from the 2016 workshop, two of which ARL has adopted for the Digital Scholarship Institute:

• Staff need time including time for research, space, recognition, and funding for intensive professional development, and the freedom and ability to develop library digital projects

• Skill-building goes beyond workshops and collaborations, and is often rooted in culture change and support from administration (Goldenberg-Hart, 2016.)

In response to these discussions, the ARL Digital Scholarship Institute Advisory Group identified several core principles that underpin digital scholarship initiatives with an emphasis on cultural change: collaboration, critical thinking, and disciplinary contexts. Rather than starting with tools or technologies, the Institute emphasizes these concepts as building blocks of digital scholarship.

By providing a five day, face-to-face immersive environment, the Institute will cultivate collaboration and create cohorts of digital scholarship practitioners. These cohorts will learn together, share experiences, and work on future endeavors through followup online meetings that will ensure participants have opportunities to put core principles into practice. Participants will learn core principles related to metadata and data curation, copyright and fair use, and project management. They will also learn how to apply these concepts in the context of digital pedagogy and collaboration with researchers. These applications build on existing librarian skillsets related to instruction and to work with researchers needing to clarify and refine research ideas. The framework of the Digital Scholarship Institute thus bridges existing library capacities with new knowledge and skills that will transform their work as they increasingly partner with researchers on digital scholarship using diverse digital methods and tools.

The ARL Digital Scholarship Institute also builds on the University of Rochester's pilot Institute for Mid-Career Librarians in Digital Humanities funded by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. The program invited twenty librarians from across the US and Canada to take part in a three-day intensive residential institute followed by monthly online meet-ups from

July 2015-June 2016.

The pilot successfully built a strong cohort among the attendees, who were assigned to one of four curriculum tracks based on their interests: text encoding, analysis and visualization; digital pedagogy and digital media literacy; digital mapping and archeology; and metadata, data curation, and data modeling. A core curriculum included workshops on project management, data modeling, and copy-right/fair use. Objectives of the pilot institute included strengthening librarian practice to support digital humanities, creating a structure to support sustained skills development, and integrating with future ARL initiatives.

Attendees participated in assessment activities throughout the year-long pilot, providing data to inform the creation of sustainable programs. In October 2016 teams from five institutions, University of Rochester, Indiana University, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, San Diego State University, and Boston College, met to workshop the creation of a program that would be foundational to creating these new communities of practice. This multi-institutional initiative will provide an opportunity for broader transformation in the academic library ecosystem at the level necessary to create a strong community of practice around digital scholarship work.

Bibliography

Goldenberg-Hart, D. (2016). “Planning a Digital Scholarship Center 2016.” Coalition for Networked Information, https://www.cni.org/wp-content/up-

loads/2016/08/report-DSCW16.pdf.

Lipponcott, J. K. and Goldenberg-Hart, D. (2014) “Digital Scholarship Centers: Trends and Good Practices.” Coalition for Networked Information. Available online at https://www.cni.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/CNI-Digitial-Schol.-Centers-report-2014.web_.pdf.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/112/112.pdf",""
"3835","18","Voces. An R-based Dashboard for Lexical Semantics","9","Introduction
Voces (from Lat. vox 'voice', 'word') is an analysis

and visualisation dashboard for corpus-based research in lexical semantics. Currently developed as a Shiny application communicating with R session running in the background, Voces provides users with possibly exhaustive account of how selected Latin word is distributed across the corpus and what can be told about its meaning. The application is built around a corpus which currently consists of ca. 200M words from texts dating from the Classical era (1 BCE) to the Middle Ages (14th CE). Although Voces was originally conceived as a tool of historical semantics research, the application - due to its modular design - may be modified and the code basis can be re-used in new research contexts.

Lexical Semantics with R


Information computed on a basis of a CWB-indexed corpus is presented to a user through a single-page interface composed of separate widgets arranged in a clear grid layout. Each widget is responsible for displaying in textual or graphical form a clear-cut property of word's distribution or meaning. A heavy use of data visualisation techniques renders Voces a convenient tool for exploratory analysis of textual corpora, but the grid layout is also reflection of modular architecture of the application. Each widget is implemented as a separate function which can be extended and adopted by researchers with even limited R programming skills.

Use scenarios
A typical use scenario is triggered when the user specifies a lemma to be looked up. If the search fails, a list of lemmas to choose from is provided. In case of success, neatly separated sections of the dashboard are populated with widgets, each of which corresponds to one sense or distributional property of the word under scrutiny.


Fig. 2: Voces. User Interface: Frequency Spectrum Plot (Voces. User Interface (tempus 'time')

Word's frequency is summarised as a number of occurrences in the corpus (both raw and p.m.w. counts) and displayed as a highlighted point on a frequency spectrum plot (Baayen 2001). A barplot is provided for investigating change of frequency in subsequent corpus sections. Study of language variation is enabled through widgets presenting word's frequency as a function of such variables as author, work, genre, and - most importantly - time. Users are, therefore, provided with a list of authors who use the word most frequently or a word cloud summarising terms to be found in the titles of works with a particularly frequent use of the word under scrutiny. Genre variation is presented in form of a pie chart, while diachronic dimension - through a bar plot of frequency counts in partitions of the corpus. Diatopic variation study is still to be implemented.

A word's meaning potential can be investigated by means of a set of widgets presenting its contextual properties. The most frequent co-occurrences are enumerated on a simple count list which may be further analysed according to period and genre criteria. A Distributional Semantics Model (Baroni and Lenci 2010) is built from the corpus in order to enable simple meaning computation. Evert's (2014) wordspace package and a set of Alain Guerreau's scripts is employed in order to cluster co-occurrences. Similar terms of a looked up word are also computed and then presented in both textual and graphical form.

Users are supported in data and visualisation interpretation through hints which accompany every widget. Their role is to explain not only what the data can mean, but also how the figures were computed, how one can interpret the geometrical properties of a plot, and so on. This, along with the availability of data sets, code snippets, and reports generated on the fly, is what makes Voces a tool of reproductive research.

Architecture
Voces was built as a Shiny application (Chang et al. 2016). Its development was greatly facilitated by the availability of a decent documentation and community support (both particularly useful when dealing with framework's complex reactivity model). It turned out soon, however, that it may not be the best choice for web application which has to combine heterogeneous data and non-R code as well. Hence, other solutions are being tested at the moment, those in particular which would provide, for example, more flexible integration of external APIs. The most promising seems to be OpenCPU (Ooms 2014), an application which exposes R session through a RESTful API. This approach allows any application written in some of the less or more popular web development frameworks to easily communicate with an R server instance.

As for the architecture, Voces depends on a CQP server instance running in the background which requires corpora to be indexed with the CWB. Communication of the R server with the CWB is assured through the rcqp package (Desgraupes and Loiseau 2012) which offers a set of useful functions providing access to both positional (token-level) and structural (document-level) attributes. Unfortunately, development of this very helpful tool seems to be less active recently and thus Voces will soon accept also tabular data as input.

Previous research
Nowadays, corpus linguists may chose from a vast array of free, open source and stable corpus query systems (CQS) which not only allow for efficient indexing of large corpora, but also provide a user-friendly concordance interface and offer out-of-the-box a set of such essential functionalities as collocation lists, simple corpus statistics etc. Both web (CQPweb, NoSketchEngine etc.) and desktop applications (TXM etc.) are also usually equipped with a less or more intuitive corpus management interface. Voces, a dashboard for vocabulary research, is not yet another CQS and has no intention to supersede well-established tools which cannot be easily combated in terms of either robustness or speed. Quite the contrary, the application communicates with the CWB engine and adapts some of the design choices and features of the popular CQS, while hopefully does not inherit their drawbacks.

Unlike the case of the well-known CQS, more emphasis has been put on quick access to multifaceted information rather than on close analysis of occurrences. Voces does not attempt, then, to implement some of the features which are traditionally considered an important part of the corpus analytical toolbox, such as concordance sampling, sorting etc. Undoubtedly, the strength of popular CQS lies in their wide applicability: by default, they do not preclude any research scenario. Although agnostic of linguistic theory, Voces was originally built for more specific purposes and focuses on semantic properties of the word and its distribution.

What is believed to be one of the main advantages of the present application is that - thanks to its modular architecture - it can be easily extended or adopted by a researcher with even moderate programming skills. In that Voces attempts to fill the gap that exists between, on the one hand, fully-blown CQS, which are normally quite conservative when it comes to adding

new features, and, on the other hand, single-purpose

research workflows built ad hoc by researchers. What also distinguishes Voces from other CQS is its emphasis on helping users to interpret data. A system of visual and textual hints keeps a researcher informed about where does the data come from, how have they been computed etc.

The grid layout is well-known from analytical environment and is especially popular in finances or engineering (Few 2013); in humanities it was adopted, among others, in the Voyant Tools project. It offers a quick insight into otherwise dispersed data and a coherent account of word's properties.

Further research
Voces is currently in an early stage of development. The work focuses on adding new functionalities and plotting types which may sometimes affect application's efficiency. Future work will focus on: (1) optimising user experience; (2) implementing tools for (a)

comparative (ie. two-lemma) research and (b) tracking language change; (3) better processing user input (multi-word search).

Bibliography
Baayen, R. H. (2001). Word Frequency Distributions. Dordrecht: Kluwer.

Baroni, M., and Lenci, A. (2010). Distributional Memory: A

General Framework for Corpus-Based Semantics. Com-

putationalLinguistics 36 (4): 673-721.

Chang, W., Cheng, J., Allaire, J. J., Xie, Y., and McPherson,

J. (2016). Shiny: Web Application Framework for R.

https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=shiny.

Desgraupes, B., and Loiseau, S. (2012). Rcqp: Interface to the Corpus Query Protocol. http://CRAN.R-pro-ject.org/package=rcqp.

Evert, S. (2014). Distributional Semantics in R with the Wordspace Package. In Proceedings of COLING 2014, the

25th International Conference on Computational Linguistics: System Demonstrations, 110-114. Dublin, Ireland:

Dublin City University and Association for Computational Linguistics.

Few, S. (2013). Information Dashboard Design: Displaying Data for at-a-Glance Monitoring. Burlingame, CA: Analytics Press.

Nowak, K., and Bon, B. (2015). Medialatinitas.eu. Towards

Shallow Integration of Lexical, Textual and Encyclopaedic Resources for Latin. In Electronic Lexicography in the

21st Century: Linking Lexical Data in the Digital Age. Proceedings of the eLex 2015 Conference, edited by Iztok

Kosem, Milos Jakubi'cek, Jelena Kallas, and Simon Krek, 152-69. Ljubljana-Brighton: Trojina, Institute for Applied Slovene Studies - Lexical Computing Ltd.

Ooms, J. (2014). The OpenCPU System: Towards a Universal Interface for Scientific Computing through Separation of Concerns. ArXiv E-Prints, June.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/114/114.pdf",""
"3836","18","Alternate Histories of the Digital Humanities","3","Recent work in the digital humanities has moved away describing the digital humanities as a “big tent,” to quote William Pannapacker's famous 2011 post. Taking inspiration instead from the multiple histories and temporalities of media archaeology, such research emphasizes the local contexts where technological and institutional history take place. Matthew Kirschen-baum's identification of the digital humanities in 2014 as a “discursive construction” that ignores the “actually existing projects” of the field set the stage for scholars to rethink how the digital humanities conceptualizes its work and its history (“What Is” 48). More recently, in the introduction to Debates in the Digital Humanities 2016, Matthew Gold and Lauren Klein use the scholarship of Rosalind Krauss who, in 1979, described art history as emerging as “only one term on the periphery of a field in which there are other, differently structured possibilities.” Whereas Krauss saw this as a failure of art history, Gold and Klein celebrate the multiplicity of what Patrik Svensson calls a digital humanities that is less a tent and more a disaggregated “trading zone” of various interests and disciplines. Instead of a transcendent, disciplinary category, the digital humanities emerges as an imminent set of assemblages and rhizomatic localities — converging in some places, diverging in others.

This panel of short papers intervenes in the discussion of an imminent digital humanities by describing several actual alternate histories of the field. All of the thinkers for this proposed panel have sketched variations on digital humanities history in the past. Steven Jones begins his book on Roberto Busa, for example, with an extended discussion of the “multiple potential continuities” existing beside the mythological figure as providing a possibility for “better historical understanding” (16). While Amy Earhart's work historicizes digital literary studies in America through the work of the new historicism, Tara McPherson sees it in the screen cultures of media studies, Roger Whitson points to the publics outside academia invested in steampunk and other nineteenth-century sources, and Padmini Ray Murray explores the repurposing practice of jugaad in India. Such alternate histories point not to a denigration of the meaning of the digital humanities as a disciplinary field, but rather describe — as Lori Emerson says about media archaeology — each strand as “one possibility generated out of a heterogeneous past.” Each of the presenters will spend 10 minutes discussing how DH can be historicized using various disciplinary, national, and outer-institutional contexts.

Activism in Digital Humanities:

Complicating Community, Technology, and Open Access

Amy Earhart
Much of our history in digital humanities has focused on proving that our work has legitimacy within the academy. As I have argued in other publications, the digital humanities has been critiqued as a regresive field, particularly in terms of its approach to cultural studies, and, at the same time, as a challenge to traditional humanities (“Futures”). Key to this simplistic critique of digital humanities is a representation of the digital humanities as a monolithic structure. As part of a panel which reveals the multiple histories of digital humanities, this paper will chart the alternative history of activism and community/academic partnerships in the digital humanities.

Arguing that critiques of digital humanities are ahistorical, the paper will focus on the connection between activism and community in the early digital humanities. For example, the public/academic focus of early digital humanities work has direct ties to what we now call public digital history. Douglas Seefeldt and

William G. Thomas have argued that the future of digital history “invites students and the public into the digital process,” yet this is actually not a future goal. It is our past and connects to a long historical interest in digital humanities as activism and a means of creating community partnerships.

Of particular focus, in the paper, are projects that bring scholars inside the academy into partnerships with community groups, such as the early NativeWeb or eBlackStudies. While such early projects are often viewed as retrograde technologically and often dismissed from our dh genealogy, they offer an alternative history of the way that technologies are used in service of particular fields within the academy. At the same time, such projects are interested in bridging the divide between the academy and the community and serve particular activist agendas. While there are some forms of digital humanities that reject a focus on cultural studies, this branch of digital humanities centers political activism and critiques of race, class, sexuality, and gender within its approach.

The paper will also focus on the way that technology is imagined in the various lineages of digital humanities. In the line of activist projects that the paper examines, technologies are decentralized, often out of the box, and less interested in innovation than in, say, current large corpora data mining projects. Too often “simple” technological projects are dismissed as not digital humanities, even when the theoretical usages of technology in relationship to humanities questions are innovative and forward thinking. Instead of accepting techno progressivism, scholars in digital humanities need to apply the full spectrum of humanities critique to the treatment and use of technology. For example, scholars have a responsibility to address the ways that technological specifications might force western representations of knowledge onto materials of cultural expression that do not use such systems. Projects such as the Tibetan and Himalayan Library's (THL) use of TEI/XML provides one example of how we might proceed. The THL has considered how the understanding of time might be culturally constructed and, as such, has revised the TEI/XML coding to reflect time from the perspective of the Tibetan culture rather than imposing western understandings of time through technological standards.

The history of activist digital humanities projects reminds us to think about how the exploitation of data is related to historical exploitations of people(s), to reconnect the digital with embodied experience. Mark Turin notes, “archives become more complex when the ‘documents' in question are representations of human ‘subjects,' as was the case for the ethnographic archives in which we were interested, including photographs, films, sound recordings and field notes on people's lives, their cultures and their practices” (453). Documents are never devoid of embodiment, as we might never use the term exploitation of data without understanding that, eventually, exploitation of data has real impact on individuals and communities. A division of human subjects and documents leads to problematic interactions with those who we are working to digitize. We need to think about how our data embodies experience.

The paper will close by focusing on the way by which ideas of open access are culturally constructed. Activist projects complicate the adage “information wants to be free,” reminding digital humanities practitioners that the model of broad ‘access' that often motivates western digitization efforts does not apply universally.” The complexities of technology as represented by such practitioners are central to digital humanities.

Roberto Busa, S.J., and Humanities Computing: Complicating the Origin Story

Steven Jones
The Jesuit scholar, Roberto Busa, is often called the founder of humanities computing. In fact, starting as early as 1949, he collaborated with IBM to perform experiments using suites of punched-card machines. These punched-card data systems—with their plugboard setups, clacking machinery, and flurries of perforated rectangular cards—were developed for business accounting and tabulating, and adapted for government censuses, defense calculations, archival management, and information processing of all kinds.

These systems coexisted for many years with electromechanical calculators and electronic computers, helping to define, delimit, and shape the possibilities for research applications, including humanities research applications like Father Busa's. Because the card systems were eventually connected to electronic computers, they've become part of the story of humanities computing. But in many ways, the first decade of humanities computing can more accurately be described as an era of humanities data processing—in the historically specific and contextually rich sense of the term.

My historical work on Roberto Busa's data processing has drawn on a key premise of media archaeology: that technology doesn't “evolve,” or “descend,” in a linear way. As Michel Foucault asserted, genealogy (in the sense he used the term) cannot be figured by strictly logical trees of descent, as in the “evolution of a species.” It's a way of viewing events in their “proper dispersion,” including the “minute deviations . . . complete reversals—the errors, the false appraisals, and the faulty calculations . . . the exteriority of accidents” that constitute history. When it comes to Busa, so often treated as the “founding father” of humanities computing and digital humanities, one way to complicate the origin myth is to pay attention to the “exteriority of accidents” that shaped the received story, to tell the story slant, as it were, by looking at what Steven Johnson has called the “adjacent possibilities,” even the dead ends or paths not taken that nevertheless help us to understand what was done.

One example is the fascinating Microfilm Rapid Selector machine, which Busa briefly considered but from which he swerved away. Based on an experimental design by Vannevar Bush for the famous me-mex, the prototype was viewed by Busa in operation at the library of the Department of Agriculture in 1949. It offered a competing paradigm (both technically and institutionally) for information processing and retrieval. Or, the large-scale photo-mainframe IBM SSEC, which Busa saw working at IBM in 1949-1952 but was unable to use himself (since it was dedicated to scientific and industrial applications). It nonetheless inspired his thinking about the nature and scale of his linguistic data. Its existence as a kind of adjacent possibility is a useful reminder both of the institutionalization of the “two cultures” of science and the humanities at mid century, and, at the same time, of the artificiality of the categories. Or, take the Dead Sea Scrolls project, which Busa's “lab” undertook but could not complete (and the remnants of which remain in the Busa Archive in Milan), but which revealed some of the limits of the idealized “computerized philology” that Busa was pursuing at the time.

My work on Father Busa, IBM, punched-card machines, and large-scale calculators has been inspired by Geoffrey Rockwell and Stefan Sinclair, who have called for a media-archaeology approach to the technologies of the mainframe era. I've also drawn on a related approach, platform studies, which looks at individual platforms in their multilayered material particulars. Because media archaeology looks at forgotten or discounted technologies (presumed to be superseded by what has come to dominate the present), and replaces a triumphal narrative of technological progress with messier stories, it can usefully check and complement the laser focus of platform studies. Together, they allow for richer, more detailed views of the changing cultural and historical conditions within which technologies emerge and jostle for prominence.

Theory/Practice: Lessons Learned from Feminist Film Studies

Tara McPherson
This talk investigates possible relationships of theory to practice within digital humanities and media studies and also calls for a politically engaged approach to both fields. It seeks to move beyond the binary framing of the DH slogan, “less yack, more hack,” by arguing for a more integrative and dialectical melding of making and critique. In particular, I turn to feminist film studies of the late 1970s to examine an earlier moment in media studies that sought to integrate media production, distribution, theory, and pedagogy toward expressly political ends. In conversation with contemporary feminist scholarship in new materialisms and digital media studies, I argue that practices of making can and should enrich our theoretical and discursive    endeavors    within    feminism.

In a recent article taking up the phrase “less yack, more hack,” Claire Warwick helpfully suggests that increased focus might be paid to the qualifiers “less” and “more” rather than to a binary opposition between “yacking” and “hacking” (538). I agree. We can then see yacking and hacking as held within a productive and dialectical relation. To take this line of thinking further, we might not even focus on “less” or “more,” as if the relationship between theory and practice can be reduced to balancing a formula. Instead, we might understand the two terms to be tied together in a productive and iterative friction. The tensions between “yack” and “hack” are not, perhaps, all that unique to the digital humanities. They exist across the university in structures that make it hard to combine theory and practice in our curricula, evaluation and promotion structures, disciplinary methodologies, and privileged forms of scholarly output.

As digital humanities scholars have struggled with the right balance of yack and hack, broader debates have emerged about the relationship of theory to practice across the academy. If these tensions have simmered just below the surface of disciplines for much of the twentieth century, then the digital turn has reanimated such debates in new ways in the new millennium. Returning to earlier moments of practice within and beyond the academy can provide valuable lessons for DH today.

The wedding of theory and practice was crucial to the formation of feminist film studies as a field over forty years ago. We see this joining quite literally in the title of key essays such as Claire Johnston's “The Subject of Feminist Film Theory/Practice.” The “/” signals a hybrid practice beyond the “and.” Published in the journal Screen in 1980, the piece reports on the Feminism and Cinema Event held at the 1979 Edinburgh Film Festival. Johnston writes that, “throughout the week, emphasis was placed on the need to locate feminist politics within a conception of film as a social practice, on the dialectic of making and viewing and on film as a process rather than an object” (27). The early history of feminist film theory models a vibrant relationship of making to critique. Many feminist film scholars engaged in a form of inquiry that understood theory and practice to be constitutive of one another. These insights were often born of a deep exploration of the material forms of cinema—explorations enriched by practice. Such work is vitally important terrain for digital humanities, leading us to ask how our machines encode culture in very particular and often damaging ways while also perhaps signaling an enhanced role for artists and designers within DH endeavors.

Decolonising Design: Critical Making and Jugaad in India

Padmini Ray Murray
This talk will cover the establishment of the first Masters-level digital humanities programme in India,

as well as a digital humanities research agenda that

contextualizes and embeds such work in an Indian environment. Ray Murray will discuss the shift that this unique context generates, in terms of necessarily moving away from modeling such work on paradigms established in Anglo-American institutions, and her work towards the creation of a locally reflexive practice which responds more appropriately to its conditions. Drawing on the work of architectural historian Arindam Dutta, Ray Murray will historicise these arguments, demonstrating how design as a discipline is implicated in the work of colonialism, and how the praxis of critical making (as formulated by thinkers such as Matt Ratto and Garnet Hertz) can contribute both to decolonising design and more broadly, humanities scholarship in India, as well challenging traditional institutional frameworks that are the legacy of colonial education. Ray Murray will demonstrate how critical making is a particularly useful mode of inquiry in a context where digital humanities work is relatively nascent, in order to supplement and inform an emergent narrative of the history of what might be considered digital humanities in India.

Radically different technological and infrastructural conditions as well as historical mean that this narrative diverges from those which underpin established histories of Anglo-American digital humanities, and Ray Murray will explicate on how this difference necessitates alternative methodological approaches in order to reconstruct alternative histories. The work of Jentery Sayers and others at the Maker Lab at the University of Victoria on their cultural kits for history, while emphatically not exercises in replication and more in remediation, and in foregrounding “how the past is interpreted through present conditions, exhibiting history as a collection of refreshed traces, with both loss and gain” often relies on historical material culture such as patent documents, illustrations, artefacts in order to inform their creation, much of which is conserved and made available by Victorian values of empire-building and taxonomic collection. In contrast, the history of indigenous technologies in India is patchy and often obscured by more visible archival material which asserted colonial structures of oppression, complicating the use of a mode of inquiry such as Sayers et al's cultural kits for digital humanities work in India.

In addition, in a country like India, where literacy is still at a premium, design and making privileges the value of other forms of knowledge found in communities, such as crafts or indigenous traditions. Ray Murray will thus demonstrate to how conceiving of critical making in the tradition of practices such as jugaad, an indigenous combination of making-do, hacking, and frugal engineering makes for a contextually appropriate intervention in understandings of the digital humanities, and allows for a more politically nuanced view of tools, materials and the conditions of production that have laid the foundations for digital humanities scholarship going forward. In closing, Ray Murray will discuss how contemporary design education privileges “solution-ing”, which anticipates a model of consumption rather than co-creation, tracing a trajectory from colonial ambition to neoliberal inevitability— and how digital humanities thinking discourages this mode by with its legacy of interpretation that discourages a one-size-fits-all response. Ray Murray will conclude by asserting the uses of creating a useful methodology to turn the lens of scrutiny upon digital artefacts and activities as well as being observant of different materialities and modalities of knowledge production in order to both historicise and limit the over determined nature of the digital.

Alternate Histories: Steampunk Fandoms and Digital Humanities Publics

Roger Whitson

The digital humanities is often characterized as dedicated to making scholarship publicly accessible. Yet accessibility is only one way to pursue a public digital humanities agenda. Another method leverages the complicated history described by media archaeology to highlight how various publics outside of University settings are already constructing digital humanities projects of their own. Jussi Parikka begins What is Media Archaeology? with an extended consideration of steampunk as an exemplary media archaeological practice, arguing that it falls outside of mainstream digital methodologies and is what Deleuze and Guat-tari call a “nomadic, minor science”: a set of quirky hacker techniques whose innovations are appropriated by the more economic powers of the state (qtd. in Parikka 168). As with any manifestation of what Deleuze and Guattari call “royal science,” or a hegemonic system relying upon the appropriation of nomadic practices, steampunk creates a tension between such minor sciences and their corporate and academic use. For every fascinating gadget produced by steampunk fans, there are also corporate phenomena like Justin Bieber videos featuring joyless representations of steampunk automatons whose cogs are appropriated only to sell more albums.

This talk explores a set of steampunk projects from fans in order to show how their methodologies constitute an alternate history of the digital humanities rooted in the practice of public hobbyism. One example of this steampunk hobbyist practice is Tim Robinson's 2007 build of a Babbage's Difference Engine No. 1 from parts manufactured by the toy company Meccano. Robinson says that he was intrigued by the brand's claim to “do something real,” and the tactile quality of Meccano parts mediates this sense of reality: the cold metal, the round rivets, the clicking of metal rods as they are moved by other parts. The machine's design is based upon Babbage's first engine and calculates numbers up to four digits and three orders of difference. It is composed of several ratchet wheels, each with 20 teeth and which are covered by printed tape showing numbers from 0 to 9. While visiting Robinson's website, you can find descriptions of his nostalgia for the toy company, which he describes as helping him build “the machines of my youth” — including “astronomical clocks, orreries, looms and other textile machinery [...] and perhaps most enduring, the differential analyzer (and analog computer).”

Robinson's project exists within a wide variety of other steampunk gadgets that express both nostalgia for various parts and fascination with methods of building: from other models of the difference engine, like Andrew Caroll's version created with Lego parts and rubber bands; to the varied projects of The Steampunk Workshop's Jake von Slatt — who rescues available parts from junk yards and repurposes them into workable Steampunk RVs (Recreational Vechicles), Wimshurst Influence Engines, and even a Stroh violin with an amplifying horn and aluminum diaphragm. For me, such projects underscore Matthew Kirschen-baum's argument that hobbyist activities enable the digital humanities to value “the unapologetically small, the uncompromisingly local and particular” (“Ancient” 196). Yet, steampunk hobbyism also enables a different understanding of the role various publics who engage in such activity play in the digital humanities as a field.

Many digital humanities projects envision the public as a homogeneous entity who acts primarily as an audience or — in some cases — a collaborator for what ends up being essentially a scholarly act. The sheer diversity of steampunk fandom, on the other hand, resists such an easy or homogeneous definition. While some aspects of steampunk fandom act, as China Mie-ville has observed, as forms of nostalgic imperialism; or as Charles Stross claims, as romances with totalitarianism, other fans use steampunk to imagine histories where the Industrial Revolution happened in Africa or China rather than in Europe. Miriam Rocek dresses up as a time-traveling “Steampunk Emma Goldman” and participates in protests like Occupy Wall Street. Lisa Hager, meanwhile, uses her steampunk persona to advocate for gender neutral bathrooms. Such diversity underlines the need to understand how steampunk and the digital humanities communities exist as discrete assemblages, rooted in the politics of the communities practicing them. While this talk will cover mainly hobbyist projects within steampunk fandom, it will contextualize that work with a multiplicity of various local practices. All of these practices, I argue, extend to the digital humanities as a field — which is less a big tent and more a massive assemblage of becoming, branching, and multiplicity.

Bibliography

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Earhart, A. (2015). Traces of the Old, Uses of the New: the Emergence of Digital Literary Studies. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor..

Emerson, L. (2014). Reading Writing Interfaces: from the Digital to the Bookbound. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press.

Gold, M. K., and Klein, L.F. (2016) Debates in the Digital Humanities 2016. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press.

Hertz, G. (2012). “Introduction: Making Critical Making.” Critical Making, Telharmonium Press, Hollywood, 2012.

Johnson, S. (2014) How We Got to Now: Six Innovations That Made the Modern World. New York, Riverhead Books.

Johnston, C. (1980). “The Subject of Feminist Film The-ory/Practice.” Screen, vol. 21, no. 2,pp. 27-34.

Jones, S.E. (2016). Roberto Busa, S.J., and the Emergence of Humanities Computing. London, Routledge.

Kirschenbaum, M. (2016) “Ancient Evenings: Retrocompu-ting in the Digital Humanities.” A New Companion to Digital Humanities, Edited by Susan Schreibman et al., Wiley Blackwell, London, pp. 185-198.

Kirschenbaum, M. (2014)“What Is 'Digital Humanities,' and Why Are They Saying Such Terrible Things About It?” Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 46-63.

Robinson, T. (2008). “Robinson's Difference Engine No. 1.” Robinson's Meccano Building Site, 24 Feb.

Rockwell, G. and Sinclair, S (2014). “Past Analytical: Towards an Archaeology of Text Analysis Tools.” Digital Humanities 2014 Conference, 2014.

Sayers, J. (2015) “Kits for Cultural History.” Hypperhiz, no. 13.

Seefeldt, D., and Thomas, W.G. (2009) “What Is Digital History.” Perspectives on History: The Newsmagazine of the American Historical Association, 0ADAD.

Turin, M. (2011). “Born Archival: The Ebb and Flow of Digital Documents from the Field.” History and Anthropology, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 445-60.

Warwick, C. (2016) “Building Theories or Theories of Building? A Tension At the Heart of Digital Humanities.” A New Companion to Digital Humanities, Edited by Susan Schreibman, Ray Siemens and John Unsworth, Wiley Blackwell, London, UK , pp. 538-552.

Werner, S., and Kirschenbaum, M. (2014) “Digital Scholarship and Digital Studies: The State of the Discipline.” Book History, no. 17, pp. 406-48.

Whitson, R. (2017) Steampunk and Nineteenth-Century Digital Humanities: Literary Retrofuturisms, Media Archaeologies, Alternate Histories. London, Routledge.

Zielinski, S. (2006). Deep Time of the Media: toward an Archaeology of Hearing and Seeing by Technical Means. Cambridge, MIT Press.

McPherson, T. (2017). Feminist in a Software Lab: Difference Design. Harvard UP, Cambridge, 2017.

Pannapacker, W. (2011). “'Big Tent Digital Humanities': A View from the Edge.” The Chronicle of Higher Education , 31 July 2011.

Parikka, J. (2012) What Is Media Archaeology? Cambridge, Polity Press, 2012.

Patrik, L.E. (2007) “Encoding for Endangered Tibetan Texts.” Digital Humanities Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 1, 2007.

Ratto, M. (2011) “Critical Making.” Open Design Now: Why Design Cannot Remain Exclusive, Edited by Bas Van Abel et al., Bis Publishers, Amsterdam, 2011, pp. 202-213.

Ray Murray, P., and Hand, C. (2015) “Making Culture: Locating the Digital Humanities in India.” Visible Language, vol. 49, no. 3, 0ADAD, pp. 140-155.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/115/115.pdf",""
"3837","18","Regional Classification of Traditional Japanese Folk Songs from Southwest Regions","10","Introduction
The main purpose of this study is to grasp the pitch transition patterns from pieces of traditional Japanese folk songs among southern three regions of Honshu (the Main Island of Japan), and by making comparisons with Koizumi’s tetrachord theory in order to make the regional classification by the tendency in pitch information.

A tetrachord is a unit consisting of two stable outlining tones called kaku-on (nuclear tones), and one unstable intermediate tone located between the nuclear tone. Influenced by the methods of Western comparative musicology, the Japanese musicologist Fumio Koizumi conceived of a scale based not on the octave unit but rather on the interval of a perfect fourth, and has developed his tetrachord theory to account traditional Japanese music (Koizumi, 1958). Depending on the position of the intermediate tone, four different tetrachords can be formed (see Table 1 and Figure 1).

Japanese folk songs is the transition pattern, which is based on an interval of perfect fourth pitch that constructs Koizumi’s four basic tetrachords; (2) regionally adjacent areas tend to have similar musical characteristics; and (3) the differences in the musical characteristics almost match the East-West division in the geolinguistics or in the folkloristics from a broader perspective. However, to conduct more detailed analysis in order to empirically clarify the structures by which music has spread and changed in traditional settlements, it is necessary to expand the data and make comparisons based on the old Japanese provinces (ancient administrative units that were used under the ritsuryo system before the modern prefecture system was established).


minor major

third second Min'yo

tetrachord

minor major second third Miyako-bushiyo

tetrachord

m aj or minor second third

Ritsu

tetrachord

major minor third second

Ryukyu

tetrachord

Figure 1. Example of four different types of Koizumi's tetrachord when taking A-D as kaku-on (nuclear tones).

Overview of data
We extracted the musical notes for works included in the “Nihon Min’yo Taikan”, and digitized the entire scores from each province in the Kyushu district (geographically located in the southern part of Japan), Chugoku district (the westernmost region of Japan’s largest island of Honshu), and Shikoku district (literally meaning four provinces, located south of Honshu and east of Kyushu district). In total, there were 474,191 tones in the sample of 2,383 songs for the 25 provinces (see Figure 2).

Type

Name

Pitch intervals

[

Minor third (3) + major second (2)

II

Wxj&k&ittk

Minor second (1) + major third (4)

III

Major second (2J + minor third (3)

IV

Major third (4) + minor second (1)

Table 1. Koizumi's four basic tetrachords.


In the previous study, we have sampled and digitized the five largest song genres within the music corpora of the Nihon Min’yo Taikan (Anthology of Japanese Folk Songs, 1944-1993) from 45 Japanese prefectures, and have clarified the following three points by extracting and comparing their respective musical patterns (Kawase and Tokosumi 2011): (1) the most important characteristics in the melody of



Figure 2. Geographical divisions of the three districts under the old provinces

Procedure
The procedures are as follows: (1) we digitized all the songs from each district and generated sequences that contain interval information from the song melodies; (2) extracted four transition probabilities of tetrachords for every province separately, and create a 24-dimensional data with 25 samples (provinces); and (3) applied principal components analysis (PCA) to identify patterns in the data, and to highlight their similarities and differences.

In order to digitize the Japanese folk song pieces, we generate a sequence of notes by converting the music score into MusicXML file format. We devised a method of digitizing each note in terms of its relative pitch by subtracting the next pitch height for a given MusicXML. It is possible to generate a sequence T that carries information about the pitch to the next note: T = (t1, t2, ... , ti, ..., tn). An example of the corresponding pitch intervals for ti can be written as shown in Table 2. We treat sequence T as a categorical time series, and execute N-gram to capture transitions and their trends.

Using a bigram model representing pitch transitions, all four types of tetrachords from Table 1 can be expressed as follows in ascending order: min'yo (+3, +2), miyako bushi (+1, +4), ritsu (+2, +3), and ryukyu (+4, +1). Depending on the positions of the three initial pitches in a tetrachord, six transition patterns can be considered in perceiving a tetrachord in two steps (bigram). Therefore, the amount of tetrachords within two steps can be obtained by counting the pairs of 24 transition patterns in sequence T.

ti

Pitch Intervals

h

Pitch Intervals

0

perfect unison

7

perfect fifth

1

minor second

8

minor sixth

2

major second

9

major sixth

3

minor third

10

minor seventh

4

major third

11

major seventh

5

perfect fourth

12

perfect octave

6

aug.four th/dim.fifth

13

minor ninth

Table 2. Corresponding pitch intervals

Results and discussions
The relative frequency of the first transition (unigram), is maintained between “-5” and “+5”; the interval of a perfect fourth pitch (see Figure 3). As the graph forms a symmetric shape with respect to “0”, the pitch transitions occur almost equally in both descending and ascending order.

The implementation of the PCA is summarized as follows. As shown in Table 3, the component loadings for the first three principal components of each province explain more than 85.88% of the variability.

0 20 20

: JL ; JL- JL
-12 -9 -6 -3 0    *3 +6 *9 +12    -12 -9 -6 -3 0    *3 *6 *9 *12    -12 -9 -6 -3    0    +3 +6 +9 +11

(a) Kyushu    (b) Shikoku    (c) Chugoku

Figure 3. First transition frequencies for three regions

In the first column, the values of all 24 variables represent a positive quantity, and have almost the same weight. This result indicates that the profile of the first PCA axis is the persuasiveness of the tetrachord. Thus, as the value increases, the inclination of a pitch transition enhances its persuasiveness, and the value decreases, it loses its persuasiveness. In the second column, all variables for the min’yo and the ritsu represent a negative quantity, while 11 variables for the miyako-bushi and the ryukyu represent a positive quantity. According to ethnomusicological research, the min'yo and ritsu tetrachords appear frequently in Japanese folk songs. In contrast, the miyako-bushi and ryukyu tetrachords, steadily shifted from the ritsu and min-yo tetrachords respectively, and then increased in popularity as an emotional crutch (Koizumi, 1977). This result indicates that the profile of the second PCA axis is the

relative pitch intervals between the nuclear tone and its intermediate tone, or in other words, the differences in patterns of transition from the nuclear tone. Thus, as the value increases, the adjacent intermediate tone forming the tetrachord tends to form a minor second interval (sort of a minor key progression), and as the value decreases, it tends to form a major second interval (sort of a major key progression).

The corresponding scores for each sample are plotted in a two-dimensional space to complete the PCA (Figure 4). We see that there is a strong contrast between min'yo, ritsu, miyako-bushi, and ryukyu. It is possible to clarify the structural commonalities and differences between areas. Figure 5 is the result of applying the hierarchical cluster analysis (Euclid distance, Ward method) to the corresponding scores. In addition, if we look for a height where there are three vertical lines and trace the lines down to the individuals, the partition corresponding to three clusters. If we plot this result on a map, we see that provinces are clearly classified according to geographical factors and cultural backgrounds (Figure 6).



Table 3. Component loadings for 24 transition patterns for tetrachords


k07


£03

£05


‘ 108    k02


c09

clO


s04


k09

k06


c04

cll


s02


c05


-5

0

Dim 1 (64.37%)

Figure 4. Plot oC the fiest two component scores



Figure 5. Dendrogram based on Domponent scores using Wahcd m ettiod


Sea of Japan


Chugoku


Shikoku


Kansai


Pacific Ocean


Kyusyu




Figure 6. Clustering results plotted on a map


Conclusion
In this study, we digitized the melodies of endangered traditional Japanese folk songs from three regions, and quantitatively classified them according to the old province by executing principal components analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis in terms of pitch transitions based on a unit of Koizumi's tetrachord theory. As a result, compared to our previous studies on the small amount of data (e.g. Kawase 2016a,    2016b,    2016c), regions were

successively classified according to both geographical factors and cultural backgrounds in detail, and classified the melodies into two basic groups according to the behavior of the intermediate tone. We firmly assured that the melodic structures of tetrachords in each province are shared by land and sea routes based on actual music data analysis. Acknowledgments

This work was mainly supported by the Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (15K21601).

Bibliography
Kawase, A. and Tokosumi, A. (2011) Regional classification traditional Japanese folk songs, International Journal of Affective Engineering 10 (1): 1927.

Kawase, A. (2016a) Extracting the musical schemas of traditional Japanese folk songs from Kyushu district, Proceedings of the International Conference on Music and Perception 14.

Kawase, A. (2016b) Regional classification of traditional Japanese folk songs from Chugoku district, Proceedings of the Annual Conference of Association for Digital Humanities 2016.

Kawase, A. (2016c) Melodic structure analysis of traditional Japanese folk songs from Shikoku district, Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Conference of Japanese Association for Digital Humanities 2016.

Koizumi, F. (1958) Studies on Traditional Music of Japan 1, Ongaku no tomosha.

Koizumi, F. (1977) Sounds in Japan, Seido-sha.

Kyoaki, N. H. (1944-1993) Nihon Min'yo Taikan (Anthology of Japanese Folk Songs), NHK Publishing.

MusicXML (n.d.) http://www.musicxml.com/for-developers/ [accessed 29 October 2016].","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/116/116.pdf",""
"3838","18","Chatbot Based Content Discovery: Faulkner Bot in the Archive","9","Introduction

In March of 2016, the failure of Microsoft's prototype chatbot, Tay, was not just a technological failure. It was a disciplinary failure. It was a failure of an industry leader to adopt a critical perspective when building systems in a complex cultural and social environment. Tay, which stands for “thinking about you,” was the name given to an artificial intelligence chatbot for Twitter that was quickly corrupted by users and began spewing racist, sexist, and homophobic slurs. Pundits quickly leapt to conclusions about the political beliefs of internet users, but these same pundits failed to understand that this hacking of Tay was in fact a critique of chatbots in the real world. Users of Twitter were exposing a fundamental error made by the Microsoft development team. Because the system learned direct-ly from user input without editorial control or content awareness, Tay was quickly trained to repeat slurs by users eager to embarrass Microsoft.

This moment in technological development makes for an interesting anecdote, but it also represents the moment that chatbots entered the public consciousness and became nothing less than the future direction of a unified interface for the whole of the web. Of course, chatbots captured imaginations in the 90s as well. Systems like Cleverbot, Jabberwacky, and Splotchy were fascinating to play with, but they had no real application. Today, text based AI has been identified as the the successor to keyword search. No longer will we plug in keywords into Google, comb through lists of text, and depend on search engine optimization (SEO) to deliver the best content. Search will be around for a long time, but in the near future much more content will be delivered through text based messenger services and voice controlled systems. We've seen the early stages of this change in products like Amazon's Alexa, Apple's Siri, Google Now, and Microsoft's Cortana. There are now bots embedded within common platforms like Slack, Skype, and Facebook

Messager. We are now approaching a world that Apple envisioned in 1987 with a mockup system called the “Knowledge Navigator” that sought to give users an interactive and intelligent tool to access, synthesize, present, and share information seamlessly.

Humanities in the Loop

We are likely decades away from a true “knowledge navigator,” but the second generation of these chatbots are now in development. The company that developed Siri for Apple is now in the final stages of development on a system called Viv (Matney). Viv is the first viable company to produce a unified interface for text and speech based AI assistants. Facebook is testing project M within its messenger app to allow users to issue commands, access services, and make purchases through text input (Hempel). The remarka-ble thing about M is that Facebook has built a system with “humans in the loop.” This means that when a service is accessed, perhaps by purchasing movie tick-ets, a human will fine tune the AI generated results for each transaction. There is currently an understanding within the machine learning community that human assisted training of these systems produces more accurate results but will also train more robust systems going forward (Biewald, Bridgwater). The current need for human in the loop systems means that we are at a crucial moment for humanists to lend their experience and critical abilities to the development and training of AI systems. In the field of machine learning, training a system to answer humanities based problems will show how these systems succeed or fail, but they will also demonstrate the value of the humanities in a digital world. If the purpose of the humanities is to better understand what it is to be human, training AI to answer philosophical, historical, or cultural questions will help us understand our experiences as we become more accustomed to intelligent systems in our lives. Grappling with AI, whether it is in a mundane consumer exchange or in matters of grave ethical importance, is rapidly becoming a practical problem in our lives.

With humanists in the loop, we will better understand the social and cultural contexts in which these systems appear and avoid the regrettable failure of systems like Tay in the future. We are currently on the cusp of a revolution in the applicability of natural language understanding, artificial intelligence, and conversation based interfaces design. These technologies will have ranging consequences socially, culturally, and economically in the coming decade, but these technologies are also deeply connected to the social and cultural contexts in which they appear. My goal is to train machines to be humanists. It is the literary crit-ic's ability to close read complex philosophical, histori-cal, and artistic meaning that these systems lack. It is the ability of the historian to contextualize political and technological change within the breadth of human progress. It is the dramatists ability to understand performance and dialogue that will animate our conversations with computers. The digital humanities are well situated to make the most of NLP techniques and find culturally significant training sets.


Figure 1: Faulknerbot interface with basic query and response

Method: Conversational Data Retrieval

Biographical and archival material has been used to train a system to allow a conversation with the famed American author William Faulkner. I will pre-sent a system trained with nearly all the interviews that Faulkner has given. Author interviews are an ex-cellent training set because the questions asked by the interview anticipate user interests and model a con-versa-tional style of response. The interviews collected during Faulkner's visit to the University of Virginia were instrumental in building this tool. The applica-tions for such a system are numerous. A conversation with Faulkner might benefit a creative writing student in the midst of writer's block. A chatbot offers a more inviting interface for a general public. Most important-ly, Faulknerbot will represent a novel form of content discovery for student researchers. Once a user has developed a chat history worth exploring, Faulknerbot's responses link to original archival materials for research purposes.

Current systems have come a long way from the toy-like chatbots that populated the web in the late 90s. After a pre-processing stage using word2vec, which vectorizes the bag of words, this model uses Tensor Flow to generate two complementary neural networks that encodes and decodes inputs and responses. This model has only recently been made accessible to non-computer science researchers recently by Google open sourcing Tensor Flow. is not based on the retrieval based model using a rule based expressions, with a heuristic to determine intent and draw from a predefined response. This is not a simplistic tree model based on nested “if/then” statements. Instead this uses a generative model. This generative model uses sequence to sequence learning with neural networks (https://arxiv.org/abs/1409.3215). This model links words statistically to determine “flows” of meaning through a word vector. Geoff Hinton calls this a “thought vector.” In other words, this is an end-to-end model that remains open. Rather than a retrieval method, which limits the scope of the conversation, this system dynamically learns and allows for a retention of what has been said. The generative model allows for this context based discussion without resorting to an enormous conversation log. In Tensor Flow, this operates on a Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) network. As I've said, the sequence to sequence model is based on two neural nets. One is an encoder, which encodes input data from the user. The decoder model determines the reply by generating the output, which need not echo the size of the vector. This thought vector generalizes input and links to a target response. This is not a “feed forward” neural net. It is a recurrent neural net that continually retrains on the training data, which is often the marker of a true “deep learning” system. This model makes no assumption about purpose or predetermined output. It simply reinforces relationships between thought vectors over time. There is a deeply emotional resonance that is carried through conversation. The blurring of lines between social media, search, and messaging will result in a seamless and unified interface for digital technology. Driven by the mobile space's demand for streamlined UI design, we will become more reliant on assistive technologies that can anticipate, learn, and adapt to user input.

Conclusion

It is important for the humanities to anticipate this new cultural space. When the Google autocomplete system was introduced to search, there were many cultural commentators decrying the loss of independ-ent thought and the potential for entrenching damag-ing stereotypes (Postcolonial). The loss of critical awareness and even just the ability to spell. Technolo-gy that offends our sense of what it is to be essentially human is usually the next important media type. Chat-ting with machines tends to cross such lines. There are practical uses for remedial education and composition studies. A functioning Teaching Assistant Bot capable of answering questions about deadlines, assignments, and course policy would be welcome by most educators. Indeed, an AI TA has been developed recently, but it is unclear if this system can be trained on any course material or was custom built for this class (Maderer). Generalizing these systems is a difficult task, to be sure. The newly open sourced Tensor Flow machine learning library can answer questions derived from a training set of just over a million words. When we consider the limits of machine learning in intelligent assistants, scholarly communication through chat interfaces is certainly the next logical step. However these systems require humans in the loop. They require-thoughtful and critical reflection. They require an attention to depth and nuanced meaning. They require a humanist in the loop.

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"3839","18","Credit Allocation with the Social Knowledge Timeline","9","Introduction
Humanities scholarship is becoming increasingly collaborative, participatory, and public facing. As humanists take up digital tools to conduct and share research, larger teams are needed to complete ever more complex computational tasks. When blending these heterogeneous teams--which may include faculty, librarians, staff, undergraduates, graduate students, postdocs, and community contributors--humanists have an ethical responsibility to offer a fair and transparent accounting of research activities. Tracing the evolution of research contributions is necessary for a range of issues facing digital scholarship such as authorship allocation, promotion and tenure, and reports to funders. The allocation of credit and authorship is an increasingly thorny issue for teams with a range of possible roles and a variety of research outputs and media types. There is, however, a large amount of data being generated by these teams that is capable of describing and measuring the contributions made on a variety of platforms and by multiple team member and community partners.

Despite our inheritance of social and collaborative tools, many of these systems elide the nuance and process of humanities based research. Knowledge creation is not merely a function of how much code is produced. New knowledge is often the result of a key insight made by a team of students, staff, and faculty. These insights are generated in a complex and overlapping system of mentorship, service, teaching, learning, and authorship that are deeply dependent, social, and human. With a system that is possible of visualizing the history of a digital project over the course of years, which may see the ranks of team members change over time, primary investigators and project funders will be better able to address often thorny and ethically charged issues relating to student assessment, mentorship, authorship, promotion, and tenure. Credit, promotion, funding, and credentialing are more complex topics than ever, yet many individuals and institutions rely on simple, outdated structures to assess the value of insights made by networked teams.

Social Knowledge Creation
The Penn State Digital Humanities Lab (Penn State Behrend) in partnership with the Teaching and Learning with Technology group (Penn State University Park) has developed a prototype of an ongoing project entitled the Social Knowledge Timeline (sktimeline.net). By linking together popular collaboration tools, the SKTimeline stores, analyzes, and communicates user data in three distinct areas of social knowledge creation:

•    Collaboration Platforms: Many scholars are turning to collaboration platforms like Slack, Yammer, and Basecamp to organize teams and foster communication within teams. These systems use an interface similar to a social media feed to pool project member input into a single narrative and eliminate the need for email. These systems help share documents and support conversations that may lead to drafting manuscripts on Google Drive and other services. These platforms offer a rich, conversational natural language data set that describes how team members mentor and support each other over time.

•    Version Control Systems: Github and Bitbucket are two of the most common version control platforms. These tools help facilitate large programming and encoding projects by allowing multiple coders to work simultaneously. When a team member “commits” code, a commit message describes the nature of the contribution as well as the date and time. This message will offer a highly granular view of coding projects as they unfold. Similarly, by including a feed from Google Drive’s own version control system, document authorship may be traced with similar precision.

•    Social Media: Platforms like Twitter, LinkedIn, and Facebook have proven to be fast paced and engaging areas for social and cultural exchange. Twitter has long been a particularly important site for digital humanists. The SKTimeline draws together multiple hashtags and user handles to frame preserve and contextualize this often ephemeral site of both popular and scholarly debate. Hashtags associated with digital projects, conferences, publications, and even course work can be analyzed and set in real time with other platforms.

Credit allocation in large teams is dependent on our ability to describe, quantify, and visualize our activities. By analyzing the rich natural language conversations generated by teams, the SKTimeline solves these ethical and institutional problems. The appearance of “Collaborators’ Bill of Rights” for digital humanities projects in 2011 is symptom of a need for greater clarity in heterogeneous collaborative teams (Clement et al 2011). The Modern Language Association’s “Guidelines for Evaluating Work in Digital Humanities and Digital Media” are similarly responding to appropriate credit allocation for researchers. There is a need for a more formalized and automated system of data collection and analysis for collaborative researchers across the university.

Machine Learning Contributor Taxonomies
The Taxonomy of Digital Research Activities in the Humanities (TaDiRAH) is used to quantify and describe user contributions. Machine learning systems like Google’s Cloud Platform is used to conduct language analysis, and translation, image recognition, sentiment analysis, and keyword extraction. Custom machine learning systems has also been layered on to these services using the Tensor Flow library to learn the project specific phrasing for contributions. Additional text analysis will be conducted using standard tools like the Natural Language Toolkit (NLTK) to link to TaDiRAH’s defined contributions. This project will reshape authorship and credit allocation in the humanities and beyond, but it will also be a perfect test bed for an emerging set of artificial intelligence tools that are now finding common application throughout society. In this way, the SKTimeline is representative of a broader cultural trend toward AI systems in aiding research.


Figure 1. The Social Knowledge Timeline displaying Slack channels posts and Twitter hashtags chronologically. Images associated with posts are used for backgrounds on the timeline

Conclusion
Undergraduate course projects, ongoing faculty research with graduate researchers, digital humanities labs, and library based digital research projects are just some of the contexts this round of user testing will examine. The data collected on participating teams against interview and form based user surveys. This kind of socially oriented knowledge creation emerges from a community of practice that moves fluidly between curricular experiences and co-curricular research experiences often hosted in DH labs, libraries, and centers. The SKTimeline seeks to solve a critical problem within scholarly communication in a digital context. The SKTimeline offers a means to capture complex narratives that constitute the organic and nuanced unfolding of humanities research.

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"3840","18","Decolonizing Knowledge Structures in Open Access and Scholarly Publishing","9","One of the agenda questions for the Internet Researchers Conference (IRC) 2017 scheduled to be held at IIIT, Bengaluru India is: “What research tools and infrastructures are needed to study, document, annotate, analyze, archive, cite, and work with (in general) digital objects, especially those in Indic languages?” However, before we get to this core

question in the research arena we need to confront the

fundamental gap in the conversation- that there are as yet very few digital objects that are created, developed and preserved in Indian languages. Shodhganga, a digital repository for dissertations and theses from universities in India, is a national digitization project that has now grown substantially as a scholarly resource. Similarly, we have the National Digital Library, a project that plans to make curricular access electronic. However, both extraordinary projects are still limited to works that are primarily written in English. This is especially unfortunate in literature research. Literature departments across universities in India have a robust scholarship agenda and have some niche publications that focus on the works of literatures of the different languages as recognized in the 8th schedule of the constitution of India. What is missing is a bridge or a platform that enables a conversation between the scholarships in these languages. Certain university department structures-those lacking a department of Literature hospitable to comparatist conversations- have to take some responsibility for this lack of conversation. There are complicated economic and social factors beyond the scope of this discussion that are at play in this disproportionate representation of Indian literatures. It suffices to say, we need specific digital tools that recognize and fill this gap.

At the Open Access Scholarly Publishing project at IIT Indore, we have tried to identify and fulfil what we see as two scholarly imperatives: 1) a commitment to open access environment as crucial for research accessibility and 2) providing a platform for multilingual scholarly production with an emphasis on Indian languages. The Digital Humanities and Publishing Research Group at IIT Indore has a twopronged approach to what we see as a fundamental infrastructure problem: the absence of a polyphonic platform for a scholarly kitchen! The publishing project KSHIP was born from deliberation over these crucial issues challenging scholarship publishing in India.

KSHIP or Knowledge Sharing in Publishing recognizes this gap and advocates a philosophy of open access as crucial to a cooperative global knowledge production network. In its initial pilot/launch phase, KSHIP includes 1) a project of database development of scholarship and criticism in Indian languages. (we are starting with three languages, with the eventual goal of making KSHIP a crowd sourced platform with more languages to be added soon), and 2) we will be a consciously multilingual publishing house soliciting (and specifically targeting) scholarly monographs and translations in Indian languages, while also inviting scholars to host journals in multiple languages. In this session we would like to discuss some of the technological challenges of the project and possible solutions with an emphasis on collaborations across institutions and scholars in India.

The database development project addresses the first issue of dissemination and access to scholarship in regional language literatures in India. We have started a pilot with four languages with citation data from three different languages being uploaded. This will truly be a crowd sourced project in the future and we are in discussion with journals/publishers about uploading data to the platform. At least in the beginning, this platform will also be a part of KSHIP. We are looking for scholars from different languages to contribute to and be a part of this project. The project will be collaborative in the largest sense of the term.

The project also includes a prototype of a translation plug-in tool. This is a crowd-sourcing translation tool developed as part of an UG project and directed by myself and my colleague from Computer Science, Dr Abhishek Srivastava. We hope to finesse the initial prototype of the tool over the coming months (and may even have a final prototype ready by the conference in Montreal!). The translation tool is designed to slice a scholarly paper/article so that one paper can potentially be translated by more than one person, and then moderated and collated at the publisher's end. There are several challenges posed by such a crowd sourced model. These include, among

others, issues of author/translator attribution, for which we are currently discussing and thrashing out different options. The interface will also offer the option of solicited translation, especially in the case of literature scholarship. We will experiment with the crowd-sourced translation using scientific and engineering essays.

In this short paper I will discuss: 1) The infrastructure gap in scholarly publishing in India, 2) the need for this to be addressed with a focus on multilingual publishing, and 3) the technological challenges specific to an ambitious long-term project. These questions will inevitably lead to discussions on digital preservation and the transforming and transformative role of technology in that process.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/121/121.pdf",""
"3841","18","Novel Approaches to research and discover urban history","9","Abstract
The research group on four-dimensional research and communication of urban history (HistStadt4D) aims to investigate and develop methods and technologies to transfer extensive repositories of historical media and their contextual information into a threedimensional spatial model, with an additional temporal component. This will make content accessible to different target groups, researchers and the public, via a 4D browser. A location-dependent augmented-reality representation can be used as an information base, research tool, and to communicate historical knowledge. The data resources available for this research include extensive holdings of historical photographs of Dresden, which have documented the city over the decades, and digitized map collections on the Deutsche Fotothek (German photographic collection) platform. These will lay the foundation for a prototype model which will give users a virtual experience of historic parts of Dresden.

Introduction
Imagine you’re exploring the historic center of a city with its impressive town houses, churches and monuments. What if you could just use your mobile to find out about the historic buildings around you, with detailed visual information about how they were built and the story behind them, mak-ing history come alive before your eyes?

Photographs and plans are an essential source for historical research (Burke, 2003, Paul, 2006, Wohlfeil, 1986, Perez-Gomez and Pelletier, 1997) and key objects in eHumanities (Kwastek, 2014). Numerous digital image archives, containing vast numbers of photographs, have been set up in the context of digitization projects . These extensive repositories of image media are still difficult to search. It is not easy to identify sources relevant for re-search, analyze and contextualize them, or compare them with the historical original. The eHumanities research group HistStadt4D, funded by the German Fed-eral Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) until July 2020, is investigating and developing methods and technologies for this. The junior research group consists of 14 people - including 4 post-doctoral and 4 PhD researchers. Since a focal interest is to comprehensively investigate how to enhance accessibility of large scale image repositories, researchers and research approaches originate from the humanities, geo- and information technologies as well as from educational and information studies. In contrast to adjacent projects dealing primarily with large scale linked text data as the Venice Time Machine project (2017), sources addressed by the junior group are primarily historical photographs and plans. Historical media and their con-textual information are being transferred into a 4D - 3D spatial and temporal scaled - model to support research and education on urban history. Content will be made accessible in two ways; via a 4D browser and a location-dependent augmented-reality representation. The prototype database consists of about 200,000 digitized historical photographs and plans of Dresden from the Deutsche Fotothek (German photographic collection).

Key Aspects

Usage scenarios and research values

Digital image repositories meet a wide range of needs, from research in humanities and information technologies, through museum contexts and library studies to tourist applications (Munster, 2011). Architectural historians have developed various methods of analyzing both preserved and never-built or destroyed structures in chronology and context (Brassat and Kohle, 2003). Style analysis, iconographic approaches, and art sociological methods all address structural historical questions. The technological possibilities of digital image repositories allow architecture historians to draw on a much larger stock of material, and to process and evaluate this from new perspectives. In addition, innovative software tools can be used to locate sources temporally and spatially, or to support dating, stylistic criticism, authorizations or archaeological investigations (Verstegen, 2007). Depending on the user group, a number of contradictory requirements must be met. Historical researchers, for example, need to be able to compare and contextualize sources (Munster et al., 2015, Brandt, 2012, Wohlfeil, 1986), and to trace the relationship between source and representation (Favro, 2006, Niccolucci and Hermon, 2006). This includes identifying formal patterns, singularities, and discontinuities in architecture and cityscape. This raises a host of questions: How do buildings and cities change over time? In which contexts, such as political or formal developments, does a historical cityscape evolve? What similarities can be found between objects in terms of construction standards and requirements, building codes, regional, temporal or personal tastes and styles?

The research group will address these and many more questions in a specific project on the interdependence between urban development and urban photography.

Creating targeted tools for working with image repositories

An adjacent task will be to perform a systematic survey of the needs of users of image repositories, whose findings will be used to conceptualize technological support options. As historic images, objects and information are increasingly being digitized on a massive scale, more content becomes available for investigation; more cross-analyses are possible; more knowledge is collected, structured and shared (Schuller, 2009). The new scale of research and information retrieval creates many new challenges. Many scholars note that online searching for images and information is “counter-productive” due to the amount of irrelevant data retrieved or their limited technical abilities (Beaudoin and Brady, 2011). Access and efficient data retrieval is inhibited for a variety of reasons. The degree of search expertise is as important as the functionalities and usability of the platform (Kemman et al., 2014). A lot of the existing tools of research programs and applications stem from computer science and do not necessarily meet the needs of humanities scholars (Dudek et al., 2015). Users need efficient search and filter functions, an intuitive software interface and navigation system (Barreau et al., 2014). Appropriate documentation through metadata plays an important role in ensuring sustainability (Bentkowska-Kafel et al., 2012, Maina and Suleman, 2015). In contrast, users expect an intuitive and feasible introduction to the topic and data (Maina and Suleman, 2015) with options to find out more as required. The simplest way to link and contextualize visual information is to use highlighted keywords as hyperlinks in texts and captions. Data interaction and processing tools are also essential for research (Webb and O’Carroll, 2013, Hecht et al., 2015).

Photogrammetric methods of visual knowledge generation

A possible technological basis for creating access to large scale image repositories is the spatial and temporal aggregation of data, in this case historical photographs in a 4D model. The potential of photographic images ranges from pure documentation in archaeology and monument preservation, through image interpretation, for example for damage documentation, to the produc-tion of complex 3D models for archaeological investigations (Buhrer et al., 2001). Geometrical reconstruction from historical photographs is based on photogrammetry. Information from multiple 2D images is used to acquire 2D and 3D object geome-tries and have frequently been applied on historical and measurement images (cf. Wiedemann et al., 2000, Brauer-Burchardt and Voss, 2001, Henze et al., 2009, Siedler et al., 2011). Since some decades, traditional analytical photogrammetry has increasingly been complemented by digital image processing and analysis. The elaborate process of manual image analysis can be largely automated, resulting in large image collections from which geometric in-formation can be generated automatically (Pomaska, 2011). To date, automated photogrammetric methods are generally used primarily to evaluate current, mostly digital images. So far, this has rarely been done for historical images, as it involves specific challenges. Scanned analogue records usually have unknown camera metrics, missing or minimal object information and low radiometric and geometric resolution. Our aim is to develop application-oriented tools for photogrammetric analysis of his-torical photographs, to integrate them into the process of historical image analysis (Fig 1), and to create a spatial relationship to today’s situation.


Figure 1. 3D model based on current photographs and historical photographs (proof-of-concept)

Augmented reality

The prototype 4D model, and the 4D historical photographs, drawings, plans, and information within it, will be made accessible via a location or context related information access as augmented reality (Munster and Niebling, 2016). This technology has gained importance in the last few years and undergone extensive testing (Livingston et al., 2008, Zollner et al., 2010, Walczak et al., 2011, Chang et al., 2015, Chung et al.,    2015). Augmented reality describes the

enrichment of the real world through virtual data, which can include 3D models, texts, pictures, films or audio data.


Figure 2. Augmented-reality representation of a cit-yscape (mockup)

Enriching the reality or replacing parts of reality can help to bridge the cognitive gap between our daily life experience of a city-scape and its depiction in historical photographs (Niebling et al., 2008). In the historical context, the viewer is able to interactively capture visual and textual information about objects in their historical spatial reference system (Ridel et al., 2014). Our investigation will focus on the accessibility of historical data: How can interaction with virtual buildings be designed? Which metaphors can be used? How can augmented reality support educational and research settings?

4D browser


Figure 3. 4D-Browser (prototype)

As an alternative path, the 4D model will also be accessible via a 4D browser interface for spatially and temporally located searches in media repositories. An basing application prototype of a research platform for 3D reconstruction projects is in development was developed during a master thesis (Bruschke, 2015), employing approaches, such as semantic data linking and visualization of temporally and spatially arranged information (Gouveia et al., 2015). Since the prototype has focused on individual building complexes, the 4D browser application has to visualize an entire city model, which also changes constantly over time. Moreover, a visual interface is proposed to make additional information accessible, such as the current and original location of the depicted object. Further features intended to support scholarly users of the prospected platform are image rectification tools and overlays combining several pictures from different periods which can shed light on changes in a building. Statistical analyses of photographed objects over time may provide information on a building’s significance. Last but not least, the application should be intuitive to operate for a heterogeneous user group (Warwick, 2012).

Summary

As a result of huge and concerted digitization efforts, extensive digital repositories of historical photographs have been created in the past few decades. This volume of data presents a major challenge to support search, access and information enrich-ment for users. In August 2016, the HistStadt4D research group started exam-ining scientific methodological requirements and intuitive user interfaces for dealing with massive media repositories from a multi-disciplinary perspective.

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"3842","18","Une approche de conception collaborative et d’exploitation des modèles ontologiques des données, facilement extensibles et compatibles avec le Web des Données Ouvertes (LOD) pour les Humanités Numériques (DH)","9","Résumé

Le but du présent article est de présenter une approche dont l’objectif est de mettre en place une plateforme générique, permettant la conception collaborative et l’exploitation de modèles ontologiques des données particuliers. Ils ont la particularité d’être facilement extensibles et compatibles avec le Web des Données Ouvertes (Linked Open Data ou LOD), destinée à être utilisée dans le domaine des humanités numériques (Digital Humanities ou DH). La démarche a été appliquée dans un premier temps à un instrument particulier : conception ontologique d’un wiktionnaire sémantique multilingue, multiculturel et multidisciplinaire des sciences humaines et sociales (SHS) afin d’une part de vérifier sur un exemple concret les fonctionnalités de la plateforme, et d'autre part de l’améliorer afin d’en faciliter la déclinaison à d’autres outils particuliers. En somme, le projet veut concevoir une fabrique de données intelligentes pour les humanités numériques (Smart data factory for digital humanities); où la création des données suit un processus « cyclique », en deux étapes qui consistent (a) à créer directement dans la plateforme, par les experts du domaine, des données respectant toutes les normes exigées ; (b) à exploiter les données créées dans (a), en tant que données « expertes » validées, pour produire intelligemment et automatiquement, à partir de l'open data, de nouvelles données compatibles.

Introduction & motivation

L’objectif de ce travail vise la mise en place d’une plateforme centralisée d'aide à la conception collaborative de modèles ontologiques extensibles des données, facilitant la création et l’intégration des données interprétées et non ambiguës, dites données intelligentes (Smart data) au service des humanités numériques. Les contenus doivent être crées et générés sous forme de données structurées, sémantiquement annotées et liées, suivant des schémas de description bien adaptés. Dans notre cas, cela consiste à mettre en place un méta-modèle permettant de générer des modèles d’ontologies, des ontologies multilingues, multiculturelles et multidisciplinaires du domaine des SHS et une base de connaissances partagée et reconnue par des communautés de chercheurs.

Notre travail a été motivé par la fait que :

•    Il n’existe pas suffisamment de données intelligentes, automatiquement exploitables, en SHS, à l’échelle internationale reflétant l’état de la coopération scientifique et culturelle entre la France et d’autres pays dont les concepts et lexiques pourraient évoluer de manières indépendantes

•    Il y a un grand déséquilibre, d’un point de vue de la disponibilité des ressources numériques, entre le Français et les langues d’autres pays notamment celles des pays du sud

•    Les dictionnaires multilingues, peu nombreux, sont souvent les résultats d’élaborations unilatérales

•    Les traducteurs existants, également peu nombreux, ne prennent pas en compte tous les aspects liés aux contextes des définitions

•    Les corpus multilingues pouvant constituer des sources de données sont également rares

•    Les travaux sur les nouvelles technologies et la normalisation des données des langues de certains pays sont encore à leurs débuts

Dans cet article, la présentation de notre approche, se fera à partir de la description d’une contribution à la construction ontologique d’un Wiktionnaire sémantique multilingue, multiculturel et multidisciplinaire des SHS. Cette dernière est basée, entre autres, sur une adaptation et sur une extension de la plateforme collaborative « Mediawiki sémantique » existante afin qu’elle puisse prendre en compte nos modèles ontologiques des données. Sa construction devrait permettre aux chercheurs d’échanger et de partager des connaissances dans le domaine des SHS et cela quelques soient leurs spécialités, leurs langues et leurs lieux géographiques de travail et/ou de résidence. Sa réalisation a intégré en plus, des normes et des protocoles bien spécifiques, en vue de son intégration dans le Web de Données Ouvertes (LOD).

Notre approche

Modèles des données

La conception de la structure de l’ontologie et donc du Wiktionnaire repose sur des correspondances entre les éléments de départ dans leurs contextes pour une langue source et les éléments d’arrivée dans leurs contextes pour une/des langue(s) cible(s) selon un sous-ensemble du schéma de la norme ISO1951. Pour simplifier, on va considérer les langues par paires. Donc, pour définir le modèle, on doit prendre en compte le fait qu’une entrée Ak dans une langue source peut avoir plusieurs sens et donc plusieurs traductions Bi,

Bj,    dans une langue cible. Cette même entrée Ak

peut être définie avec plusieurs éléments A1, ., Ai, .An du schéma du dictionnaire (cf. FIG. 2) qui peuvent êtres à leurs tour des entrées dans la même langue source et par conséquent, peuvent avoir plusieurs sens dans cette même langue source et plusieurs traductions dans la langue cible (FIG. 1). Notons que selon le sens de la traduction une langue source peut devenir cible et réciproquement.


Figure 1. Extrait du schéma du dictionnaire des SHS


Ce schéma, récapitulant ce qui a été décrit précédemment, montre la complexité des renvois entre une langue source et une langue cible, ayant des spécificités différentes. Ce qui nécessite la définition d’un schéma spécifique dans chaque langue ainsi que la mise en place d’un système de gestion des correspondances d’une manière automatique. Nous pouvons procéder tout d’abord par une première simplification du problème de départ, qui consiste à associer à une entrée source (mot, locution, etc.) un ou plusieurs sens (définitions) qui renvoient à une ou plusieurs entrées cibles ; puis revenir du terme traduit, pris cette fois-ci comme entrée source. Ce procédé a été pris en charge par la mise en place d'un système de guidage d'aide à la génération et à la définition des correspondances entre les entrées, leurs définitions et leurs traductions dans les différentes langues. L'utilisateur peut modifier ou valider les suggestions du système pour compléter les fiches des entrées suivant les critères suivants (figure 2) :

• La définition d'une entrée se fait par la description d'une fiche suivant un format structuré déterminé par le schéma : contextes, définitions, relations sémantiques, traductions, indications grammaticales, parlers, etc.

• la signification attribuée à une entrée dépend d'un contexte de définition. Ce dernier est décrit par un ensemble fini et connu de paramètres contextuels des aspects : temporels, géographiques, disciplinaires, culturels, linguistiques, etc.

• Les relations entre les termes, se fait par le biais de relations sémantiques telles que : la

synonymie,    l'antonymie, l'hyperonymie,

l’hyponymie, l’isonymie, la conversion, etc.


Figure 2.- Modèle du schéma du Wiktionnaire Plateforme

L’architecture mise en place pour la réalisation repose sur une conception générique, capable de prendre en charge plusieurs modèles de données « schémas de données» et plusieurs langues ; et reste flexible et facilement extensible à d’autres schémas et généralisable à d’autres langues. L’implémentation a été réalisée, suivant 4 modules fondamentaux, assurant la gestion de la totalité du workflow. (figure 3).



Modules du processus de l’application Wiktionnaire sémantique des SHS

Figure 3. Processus général


Harris, K. (2012). “Explaining Digital Humanities in Promotion Documents.” Journal of Digital Humanities 1, no. 4

Grupo Tragsa. (2013) Smart Open Data.

http://www.smartopendata.eu/

Linked Data Group (2009). Linked Data: Connect Distributed Data Across the Web. http://linkeddata.org/

Le processus consiste en l'instanciation du méta-modèle des données et la génération des différents schémas d'utilisation. Cela se fait par des définitions XML (qu'on peut générer grâce à des assistants dédiés) permettant la génération des modèles des données, des assistants de saisies et d'annotations ainsi que des modèles d'affichage. Le processus intègre également des modules d'exploitation et d'intégration des données dans le LOD (im-port/export des triplets RDF), ainsi qu'module de consultation et de navigation (exposition d'un point de terminaison SPARQL).

Exploitation

Après les phases de tests et de validation des modèles implémentés, l'application est actuellement en production. Elle est alimentée par un réseau d'enseignants chercheurs répartis suivant les disciplines et les langues de leurs spécialités. Elle mobilise de plus en plus de chercheurs et comporte actuellement plusieurs entrées dans plusieurs langues et disciplines. Il est également important de noter que certains éléments du wiktionnaire ont été enrichis, grâce à des requêtes SPARQL bien paramétrées sur du LOD (comme DBpedia).

Conclusion

La plateforme permet, d'une part, de créer des contenus « Intelligents » directement dans la plateforme, d'autre part, d'utiliser les données créées pour les confronter avec des sources de données externes de l'Open Data et du Web de données (Linked open Data), pour générer de nouvelles données Intelligentes. La solution développée étant générique, son extension et son adaptation à d'autres domaines et à d'autres langues est une tâche facile. Une des perspectives de ce travail consiste à encourager la dynamique actuelle, afin que la plateforme puisse devenir une référence dans le domaine des ressources ontologiques et dictionnai-riques au service des Humanités Numériques.

Bibliographie

Berner-Lee, T. (2010). “Open, Linked Data for a Global

Community.” presented at the Gov 2.0 Expo 2010,

May 26.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/124/124.pdf",""
"3843","18","A Ten-Year Summary of a SOA-based Micro-services Infrastructure for Linguistic Services","10","Introduction
In the mid 1990s, the Natural Language

Processing Group at the University of Leipzig began

work on the Wortschatz project which aims to provide corpora in hundreds of languages and in different size-normalisations, be that 100K, 300K or 1M sentences. As the resources grew in size, so did the number of requests for the data. In the early stages of the project a specific dump was created, parts of which even came with a small user-interface. The database dump was shared with interested researchers and partners in the business sector.

After some time, however, the personnel costs of this kind of collaboration became unsustainable. For this reason, a new plan was put into motion in 2004, consisting of the development of a SOAP-based API -the Leipzig Linguistic Services (LLS) - that enabled any interested person to access the data of the Wortschatz databases in any provided language (Quasthoff et al. 2006, Eckart et al. 2012). Overall 20 services were provided, delivering specific information such as baseform, category classifications, and thesaurus data. The aim of the LLS was to establish a Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) for linguistic resources based on small and atomic micro-services that could be combined by users for particular needs. Users were then not only able to browse through the Wortschatz website, but also to integrate those services with their own existing digital ecosystems.

In 2005 these services were made publicly

available and by September 2006 all requests were systematically logged. In July 2014 the number of logged requests reached nearly one billion. While at the beginning the use was limited to academia, over time the services were increasingly used by the private and business sectors as well.


Figure 2. Four workflow modes with separation of concern: editing (yellow); managing, compiling and deploying (red); hosting and operating (blue); using the LLS infrastructure (green).

The Leipzig Linguistic Services

The intention of the overall LLS architecture was to be as simple and generic as possible. A generic architecture can be reused in different scenarios but tends to have too many parameters and options, while a simple architecture claims usability and guarantees a faster learning curve. In the following, we briefly describe the architecture of the LLS.

In order to create the server-side Java code for a specific webservice, a data-set needed to be added to the webservice management (yellow zone in figure 1). The necessary edits contain, besides others, information on the name and type of the webservice (see also table 1) or parameters. Apache Ant was used as the central tool for generating the back-end services and deploying them in a Tomcat server (see red zone in figure 1). The blue zone illustrates the operations of the Wortschatz databases. Using the generic description of the webservice in the WSDL-files a number of wrappers of generated source code were created and made publicly available by LLS users such as for C# as part of .NET, Perl, Python, Delphi, PHP, Ruby and JavaScript (see green zone in figure 1).

Independently from the underlying programming languages, over the past ten years we have observed different uses in research, business and in the private sector. In research, the LLS were used in the areas of text profiles and author classification (Borchardt 2005). The services were also used as data resources for sentiment analysis or for query expansion. Users from the business field were mainly interested in using Baseform or Synonym services for improving internal search indexes. The LLS data was also used for information retrieval tasks in portals for weighting words in a word cloud or to display enriching information. Private users accessed the LLS to complete crossword puzzles. A dedicated service was installed upon request just for this purpose (see also table 1), since it was possible to query a pattern of an incomplete word with a given word length limitation. From 2008 the SOA-based

cyberinfrastructure of LLS was re-used in Digital

Humanities projects such as eAQUA and eTRACES (Buchler et al. 2008).

Results

Table 1 provides an overview of the 20 services offered with a breakdown of the requests and the responses. Over half of the requests (64.6%) were made to the Baseform service. Similarly, services with high-quality and often manually-curated data, such as the Thesaurus and Synonyms services, were requested more often than the quantitatively-computed Similarity service, which provided similarly used words by assuming the distributional hypothesis (Harris 1954), and thus compared the cooccurrence vectors of two words. Even if the coverage for this service, 66.02%, is significantly higher than, for example, the Category (35.92%) or the Synonyms (4.47%) services, users appeared to prefer precision over recall for their end-user applications.

Service

Requests

Requests

(%)

Non-empty

responses

Coverage

(%)

Fields

Webservice

Type

Access level

Installation

Baseform

Category

Thesaurus

Synonyms

Sentences

Wordforms

Frequencies

LeftCollocationFinder

RightCollocationFinder

Cooccurrences

RightNeighbours

LeftNeighbours

Similarity

Cooccurrences All ExperimentalSynonyms Crossword puzzling MARSService

NGrams

NGramReferences Common co-occurrence

624,275,884

120,476,452

69,573,648

60,745,973

60,087,714

12,671,302

11,932,213

1,416,001

1,379,356

1,057,722

959,560

731,449

467,809

20,852

20,779

2,902

616

564

409

55

64.636%

12.473%

7.203%

6.289%

6.221%

1.311%

1.235%

0.146%

0.142%

0.109%

0.099%

0.075%

0.048%

0.002%

0.002%

< 0.001%

< 0.001%

< 0.001%

< 0.001%

< 0.001%

315,724,185

43,276,840

37,151,565

2,719,544

11,536,172

4,309,791

8,095,420

295,714

235,323

629,795

567,870

473,600

308,877

20,848

14,860

1,306

616

149

87

43

50.57%

35.92%

53.39%

4.47%

19.19%

34.01%

67.84%

20.88%

17.06%

59.54%

59.18%

64.74%

66.02%

99.98%

71.51%

45.00%

100.00%

26.41%

21.27%

78.18%

W

W

W, L

W, L

W, L

W, L

W

W, PoS, L

W, PoS, L

W, ST, L

W, L

W, L

W, L

W, ST, L

W, L

W, WL, L

W, L

P, L

P, L

Wl, W2, L

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

MARS

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

MySQLSelect

FREE

FREE

FREE

FREE

FREE

FREE

FREE

FREE

FREE

FREE

FREE

FREE

FREE

INTERN

FREE

FREE

INTERN

FREE

FREE

INTERN

04/2005

04/2005

04/2005

04/2005

04/2005

04/2005

04/2005

10/2005

10/2005

04/2005

04/2005

04/2005

10/2005

05/2009

12/2009

10/2005

10/2006

08/2011

08/2011

10/2005

TOTAL

965,821,260

425,362,605

Table 1. Overview of requests made to LLS between 2006-2014, in descending order. The Responses columns only list responses whose value was not empty. For space

constraints, the values in the Input Fields column are abbreviated: Word (W.), Limit (L.), Pa

Low coverage is also caused by requests to German language databases, especially by compound nouns that cannot all be included in a Baseform or Category service. Many multi-word units (MWU) were also requested. Out of all the requests, 84,760,875 (8.78%) were MWUs. With regard to the distribution of the webservice usage, only the two most frequently requested services, Baseform and Category, were queried more often than the total count of the MWU requests. This speaks to the impact of MWUs.

The less frequently used webservices in table 1 were primarily limited to internal uses, to newly installed services or, as was the case for the Crossword Puzzling service, to manual usage instead of automatic bulk requests.

The following questions are discussed in the paper:

1.    Geographical distribution and spread of requests

2.    Requested languages distribution

3.    Requests by cleanliness in terms of broken encodings or sending HTML code

4.    Temporal distribution including lessons learnt from incompatibility issues of used software and their new versions causing a decrease in service usage

5.    Identified service chains of the atomic LLS micro-services that users built on the client-side

6.    Experiences for load balancing of linguistic services

7.    Interoperability issues of programming languages and interpreting the WSDL-files differently

8.    Comparisons of SOAP- and REST-based webservices

Conclusion
“If you build it, they will come“ is an infrastructure mantra that we can answer given the atomic micro-services of the LLS (more critical view by van Zundert 2012). However, with regard to easy-to-integrate and atomic micro-services we found that users were generally very pragmatic as they requested everything that they had found in texts or on webpages, such as RGB colour-sets, URLs and other meta-information. Based on the log-files, we conclude that it is easier to request a token and look for a match in the LLS database of millions of words rather than to invest only little time in conventional pre-processing and pre-selection on the client-side. Similarly, users repeatedly requested function words, sometimes only a few minutes apart. This user behaviour entailed a significant server load and user control over the requests. This type of recurring request on unchanged data could only be considered as spam.

We found that providing an infrastructure like the LLS over the course of a decade challenges the compatibility of used software components.

Moreover, from a Natural Language Processing (NLP) standpoint, the results contribute to existing conversations about the difficulty of building balanced and representative corpora. In fact, user

interests detected in the LLS log-files can help to enrich corpora by adding further topics. The contribution also touches upon discussions about qualitative and manually-curated data versus automatically-computed    and    quantitatively-

available results of language technology algorithms. Notwithstanding the improvement of NLP algorithms, our results show that users prefer qualitative data and that they often request these services even if the domain and concept coverage is relatively low. The conclusion we draw from the user behaviour observed in almost one billion requests is

that research fields, including the Digital

Humanities, should share their data -no matter how small- through large infrastructure initiatives like DARIAH and CLARIN in order to increase the textual coverage of linguistic resources.

Bibliography
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Büchler, M., Heyer, G., Gründer, S. (2008) Bringing Modern Text Mining Approaches to Two Thousand Years Old Ancient Texts e-Humanities At: Workshop in the 4th IEEE International Conference on e-Science.

Eckart, T., Quasthoff, U., and Goldhahn, D. (2012) Language Statistics-Based Quality Assurance for Large Corpora, Proceedings of Asia Pacific Corpus Linguistics Conference.

Harris, Z. (1954) Distributional structure, Word, 10, 2-3, pp. 146162.

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Van Zundert, J. (2012) , If You Build It, Will We Come? Large Scale Digital Infrastructures as a Dead End for Digital Humanities, Historical Social Research / Historische Sozialforschung, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 165-86.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/128/128.pdf",""
"3844","18","The Third Way: Discovery Beyond Search and Browse in Letters of 1916","9","Letters of 1916 is Ireland’s first digital public humanities project. Launched in 2013, it has become one of the key corpora in providing new insights and understandings of the 1916 period. The project collects and transcribes through crowdsourcing epistolary documents from October 1915 to November 1916 with the goal of creating a window onto a year in the life of the nation. In the middle of the project’s collection period is the Easter Rising (24-29 April 1916), arguably one of the most important events in Irish history as it sets in motion Irish independence from Great Britain in 1921.

The year 1916 was chosen not only because of the centrality of the Easter Rising, but because of Irish participation in the Great War and the historical significance for this throughout the following century in the construction of Irish identity. The collection also reestablishes the role of women in their participation in the Great War as well as the Rising and its aftermath. In addition, epistolary documents were chosen as a record of the everyday and the quotidian, providing a window onto a social history that has too often been repressed or ignored.

With a collection of over 3,500 letters contributed by 54 families and 32 institutions (with new letters being added continually) the corpus is too large to read in its entirety. While search and browse functionality in the project’s ‘Explore’ Database allows users to restrict results to more manageable subsets, the complexity of the letter form, with its frequently meandering content, makes many letters difficult to categorise using a tightly restricted set of keywords. Full text searching also misses many possible letters of interest on a particular topic due to the broad register and idiosyncratic use of language utilised by a wide variety of correspondents (Altman, 88).

A solution to these issues has been to explore the use of alternative methods of analysis and discovery, including topic modelling, vector space modelling with t-SNE vector reduction, and semantic network analysis. These methods provide alternative ways to explore a corpus of this size: too large to be read in its entirety via close reading, yet not big enough to qualify as big data. Rather, this type of collection, not out of reach of many DH projects, might be typified as one of the middle distance in which visualisations can serve as a series of lenses through which areas of interest can be identified for further research.

Topic modelling, although computationally expensive and requiring pre-processing, provides a detailed overview of the corpus and its themes. It highlights the complexity and variety of the letters' content, as well as suggesting areas for further analysis. Combining the full text of the letters with the editorially-assigned keywords has proved a powerful combination in providing a bird's-eye view of the corpus by theme.


Figure 1. Murder at Portobello Barracks

Figures 1 and 2 show topics 14 and 16 from a model where only the standard stopwords were removed. Topic 14 relates to the murder of Sheehy Skeffington, while Topic 16 focuses on internment. The visualisation was created using ‘LDAvis', where

the most distinct terms in the topic can be viewed by

adjusting the relevance metric A to 0.5.


Figure 2. Topic 16 - Internment at Frongoch


Vector space modelling, using the R package ‘wordVectors’ (Schmidt and Li) which is based on the ‘word2vec’ algorithm (Mikolov et al.), is effective for a corpus where the researcher is familiar with the broad topics and wishes to zone in on specific aspects. Rather than asking ‘which topics are in this corpus?’, it allows the researcher to ask ‘what does the corpus tell us about this topic?’, revealing syntactic and semantic relationships. This type of analysis requires less pre-processing than topic modelling and does not exclude words with a low frequency.

The resulting vector space model can be interrogated, for example by extracting the words nearest to the word vector. For example, the vector for ‘rising’ (eg the Irish Rising) results in: ‘outbreak’, ‘scene’, ‘leaders’, ‘theatre’, and ‘hostility’. While we may expect the term ‘theatre’ to refer to a theatre of war, close reading of the six references to ‘theatre’ in the letters reveals that two refer to an operating theatre while the remaining four are regarding theatre as a place of entertainment. Vector rejection can be used to exclude particular word meanings in cases of polysemy, thus allowing the researcher to specify which meaning they wish to search for. In the above example a researcher interested in entertainment could exclude the alternative meanings by rejecting those words which are related to theatre in the sense of ‘hospital’ and ‘operation’. This would create a vector with the meaning ‘theatre as a place of entertainment’ enabling a more focused search.

The words nearest the desired search term can be visualised through vector space reduction to two dimensions. We use the Barnes-Hut implementation of t-SNE (t-distributed stochastic neighbour embedding). The visualisation of the 500 words nearest to

the vector for ‘rising’ includes a cluster of words: ‘portobello’, ‘murders’, ‘accused’, ‘colthurst’ and ‘dickson’. This refers to the murders of Sheehy Skeff-ington, Dickson and MacIntyre at Portobello Barracks on the orders of British officer Bowen-Col-thurst.


Figure 3. The 'Portobello' cluster



Figure 4. The 'herrings' cluster

A second cluster containing the words ‘herrings’, ‘condemned’ and ‘ration’ is less clear. A key word in context analysis demonstrates one of the strengths of the vector space model, the word ‘herrings’ only appears seven times in the corpus, but it sheds significant light onto the lives of those in internment. Figure 5 illustrates that the first five references to ‘‘herrings’ is in the context of the poor quality of rations provided to the Irish prisoners in Frongoch, a prisoner of war camp where some 3500 Irish men were sent after the British put down the Rising.


Figure 5. 'herrings' Key Word in Context

A third analysis builds upon the vector space model by creating a semantic network based on the cosine similarity of terms. The network is visualised using the ‘visNetwork’ R package (Almende and

Thieurmel) which can be viewed as an interactive HTML file. This analysis enables the exploration of multiple dimensions of the model. Here terms can be clustered and connected with other terms providing a more detailed representation of the semantic space. This network can suggest a broader and more nuanced range of themes. Each of the analyses, and associated visualisations, provide a transformation of the text, disrupting expectations and providing new avenues for exploration (Clement).

These visualisations are, however, but the first step down the path of the third way. In order to engage the parahippocampal area of the brain, which is responsible for drawing context and meaning, we seek to create a more immersive experience for the reader (Bouchard et al). Thus a layer of interactivity is being explored to enhance these visualisations. While the visualisations themselves provide interesting insights into the corpus, they are, much like a traditional search and browse, rather static implementations in that they are pre-selected and curated. The project is thus exploring how users can be provided with the ability to customise these visualisations through the “slicing” of additional metadata in order to draw comparisons that may not be readily apparent.

However, this type of interactivity is not without its drawbacks. Both topic modelling and vector space visualisations require significant processing power in order to generate the base visualisations and the demands on internal memory of the processing machine are high as a result. Thus, creating these types of visualisations in an “on demand” environment is not feasible without a hardware investment that is beyond the reach of most of DH projects. Thus other options—such as caching, indexing, NoSQL databases, or various other data-related optimisation techniques—must be used in order to develop technical solutions that allow for interactivity while supporting a relatively low cost hardware solution.

These visualisations have begun to offer tantalising new insights into the corpus, providing a third way beyond search and browse. This paper will explore both the visualisations themselves, their strengths and weaknesses within the context of a corpus of the middle distance, as well as the novel readings they enable. The paper will conclude by discussing how interactive visualisations such as these can augment traditional modalities of interaction through a rich toolset for research and exploration.

Bibliography

Almende, B. V., and Thieurmel, B. (2016) VisNet-work: Network Visualization Using ""vis.js""Library. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=visNet-

work. R package version 1.0.2.

Altman, J.G.. (1982) Epistolarity: Approaches to a Form. Columbus: Ohio State University Press. 1982.

Bouchard, S., et al. (2015) “The Meaning of Being There is Related to a Specific Activation in the Brain Located in the Parahypocampus.” 12th Annual International Workshop on Presence. November 2009. PDF. 11 July 2015.

Clement, T. (2013) “Text Analysis, Data Mining and Visualisations in Literary Scholarship.” MLA Commons I Literary Studies in the Digital Age, Oct. 2013,    https://dlsanthology.com-

mons.mla.org/text-analysis-data-mining-and-

visualizations-in-literary-scholarship/

Mikolov, Tomas et al. “Efficient Estimation of Word Representations in Vector Space.” Proceedings of the International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR 2013) (2013): 1-12.

Schmidt, B., and Li, J. (2015). WordVectors: Tools for Creating and Analyzing Vector-Space Models of Texts. R package version 1.3.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/132/132.pdf",""
"3845","18","In Defence of Sandcastles: Research Thinking Through Visualization In DH","10","Introduction
Although recent research acknowledges the potential of visualization methods in DH, the predominant terminology used to describe visualizations (prototypes, tools) narrowly focuses on their use as a means to an end and, more importantly, as an instrument in the service of humanities research. While acknowledging the broad range of possible approaches to visualization, we introduce the metaphor of the sandcastle to highlight visualization as a research process in its own

right. We argue that building visualization sandcas-

ties provides a holistic approach to interdisciplinary knowledge generation that embraces visualization as (1) a dynamic interdisciplinary process where speculation and re-interpretation advance knowledge in all disciplines involved, (2) a mediator of ideas and theories within and across disciplines and (3) an aesthetic provocation to elicit critical insights, interpretation, speculation and discussions within and beyond scholarly audiences. We illustrate our argument based on our own research of an exceptional literary collection.

Visualization tools vs. sandcastles
Pivotal Scene

A steering committee meeting for a large-scale DH project. The goal of this interdisciplinary project is a combined computational and literary analysis of a literary collection, which will include the development of visualizations to enable the open-ended exploration of this collection by literary scholars. As the discussion starts to focus on the intended project outcomes, questions around the visualizations and their practical and research contributions arise. What role do visualizations play as part of DH projects? What makes them a valid contribution? One committee member brings it to the point: “Are we building tools or just sandcastles?”

This question contrasts sandcastles—tailored, unique, often stunning yet also transient and unstable interactive visualizations—with more pragmatic, functional and transferable visualization tools. This framing is a provocation: these approaches are not necessarily diametrically opposed or mutually exclusive, but, rather, exist along a rich continuum. Even within one research project, the process can shift from a more transient ‘sandcastle' to a more targeted instrumental approach. And yet, the preference toward the latter is evident in recent DH discussions (Gibbs et al., 2012) and in a push by funding bodies toward research with concrete, high-impact outcomes. Notably, however, visualization ‘tools or prototypes' (terms typically used interchangeably) are not usually seen as research contributions in their own right (Schreibman et al., 2010) but, at best, as facilitators of research or as a way to communicate underlying research contributions. An overly pragmatic approach to visualization, and DH tool-building more generally, however, not only risks overlooking the value of the design process but also relegating computer science and design to service-based roles. What happens when we consider, as Bruno Latour has argued, that “far from fulfilling any purpose”, a new technology actually “ex-plor[es] heterogeneous universes that nothing, up to that point, could have foreseen and behind which trail new functions” (Latour, 2002: 250)? What happens when we attend to the design process—and its many detours—as a research process in and of itself?

As a relatively young research field, information visualization (InfoVis) has seen calls to carefully and critically (re-)evaluate sometimes dated assumptions (see Kosara, 2016). Similarly, despite the increasing application of visualization in diverse DH contexts (Ja-nicke et al., 2015), it remains a relatively new approach and a call for generalizable visualization tools—drawing on science-based use cases—may reproduce unexamined assumptions and overlook important nuances of humanistic data and inquiry that is typically of a qualitative and interpretative nature (Drucker, 2011). As Latour argues, the ways in which we represent our arguments changes the way in which we argue (Latour, 1986). Introducing visualization into literary studies, introduces new modes of knowledge production. As such, we need to engage in open-minded and open-ended explorations of visualization as a research (rather than engineering) process, paying close attention to the ways this process changes our perspectives on data and research questions. At a time when leading practitioner-theorists suggest design as central to DH (Burdick et al., 2012), we must develop a more nuanced, critical language to discuss and further engage with the wide range of design approaches, especially from fields such as InfoVis and human computer interaction (HCI) that already combine design practice and research.

The call for a broader perspective on technology design within DH is not new, but it is increasingly urgent as the pragmatic value of visualization tools risks overshadowing the profoundly fertile design process as an intellectual and cognitive practice or a “method of thinking-through-practice” (Burdick et al., 2012). Previous work has discussed “tools” in DH as “experiments” or “embodiments of ideas” (Sinclair et al., 2011), advocated for prototypes as arguments in their own right (Galey & Ruecker, 2010), and highlighted visualization as a starting point to humanities research rather than a means to an end (Hinrichs et al., 2015; Forlini et al., 2015b; Hinrichs et al., 2016). Furthermore, critical perspectives from within the DH (Drucker, 2011) and InfoVis communities (Dork et al., 2013; Hullman & Diakopoulos, 2011) call for further examinations of the rhetoric of visualizations. Expanding on these discussions, we reclaim the ‘sandcastle' as a lens through which to critically examine current DH discussions of technology design and to promote an open-ended, speculative and process-oriented approach to visualization design based on a robust model of interdisciplinary collaboration that advances knowledge in all research fields involved. Our argument is grounded in critical theory, design research, HCI and InfoVis, as well as in our own experience of combining research in literary studies and visualization to explore an untapped collection—the Gibson Anthologies of Speculative Fiction (Forlini et al., 2015b; Hinrichs et al., 2015).

Building sandcastles at the intersection of literary studies and InfoVis

Our project—the Stuff of Science Fiction—explores a vast untapped collection of 10,000+ science fiction stories single-handedly compiled into 888 handcrafted anthologies by the avid science fiction fan, artist and collector Bob Gibson (see Fig.1). This unusual collection raises a number of questions regarding the evolution of science fiction in the context of popular periodicals and the role of fan practices in sustaining and promoting this popular genre. Working with a subcollection of 1,500+ stories, we developed interactive visualizations that came together as the Speculative W@nderverse (see Fig. 2) to help us explore and analyze these stories through their metadata.

The W@nderverse can be considered a tool, or at least a prototype, and we have discussed it as such in our own humanities (Forlini et al., 2015a; Forlini et al., 2015b) and InfoVis publications (Hinrichs et al., 2016). In many ways it is a means to certain valuable ends: (1) it makes the Gibson anthologies explorable from different (visual) perspectives by multiple scholarly and public audiences, (2) it has generated insights about the collection, and (3) it showcases InfoVis design considerations specific to visualizing untapped literary collections (Hinrichs et al., 2016).


Figure 1. The Gibson Anthologies of Speculative Fiction


Figure 2. The Speculative W@nderverse visualization

However, if we reflect on our process with our initial research questions on one end and the visualization as a reflection of our research outcomes on the other, it becomes clear that the W@nderverse is not just a tool, at least not in the narrowly instrumental sense. It only appears to be a means to certain ends in retrospect when we overlook our many detours in order to narrate (for the sake of dissemination) a direct line from our questions to our contributions. However, our grant proposal and the copious notes through which we documented our research process (see Neu-

staedter & Sengers, 2012) remind us of our initial intentions and reveal the transformative nature of our

collaborative “prototyping” process, which profoundly altered our research questions and intentions as well as our perspectives on the collection and our respective disciplines—literary studies and InfoVis. The W@nderverse is therefore both the mediator and manifestation of our exploratory and interdisciplinary research process. Our many design detours (necessitated by ongoing archival discoveries and visualization experiments, see Fig. 3), show what is now largely invisible yet fundamental to the W@nderverse: our research thinking through visualization, an approach that has its parallel in HCI with “research through design” (Zimmerman, 2007).


Figure 3: Early visual speculations leading up to the W@nderverse

In order to investigate humanities questions from truly novel perspectives and to engage in profoundly interdisciplinary collaborations that combine humanities and visualization research (not engineering!) approaches, we advocate for research thinking through the creation of visualization sandcastles as:

• Aesthetic and in-flux manifestations of visualization as a speculative, provocative process that generates insights about: 1-the underlying collection; 2-(visualization) design considerations; 3-needs of the intended audience(s); 4-and new research questions which, in turn, drive the development of new (and different) sandcastles and grounded insights valuable to all involved disciplines,

• Dynamic mediators that by provoking and guiding discussions can bridge boundaries between disciplines (e.g., literary studies & InfoVis) and between academic and fan endeavors, and

• Aesthetic provocations that can promote
critical discussions of best practices for studying and making accessible cultural collections among scholarly and public audiences.

Bibliography
Burdick, A., Drucker, J., Lunenfeld, P., Presner, T., and Schnapp, J. (2012). Digital_Humanities. MIT Press.

Dörk, M., Feng, P., Collins, C., and Carpendale, S. (2013). “Critical InfoVis: exploring the politics of visualization.” CHI '13 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA '13). ACM

Drucker, J. (2011). “Humanities Approaches to Graphical

Display.” Digital Humanities Quarterly (DHQ), 5(1).

Dunne, A., Raby. F. (2001). Design Noir: The Secret Life of Electronic Objects. Basel: Birkhäuser.

Galey A. and Ruecker, S. (2010). “How a Prototype Argues.” Literary and Linguistic Computing, 25(4):405-424.

Gibbs, F. and Owens, T. (2012). “Building Better Digital Humanities Tools: Toward Broader Audiences and User-Centered Designs.” Digital Humanities Quarterly, 6(2).

Forlini, S., Hinrichs, U., and Moynihan, B. (2015a). “Data Visualization and the Gibson Anthologies.” Presentation at MLA, Vancouver, BC.

Forlini, S., Hinrichs, U., and Moynihan, B. (2015b). “The Stuff of Science Fiction: An Experiment in Literary History.” Digital Humanities Quarterly (DHQ); DHSI Colloquium 2014 Special Issue, 10(1).

Hinrichs, U., Alex, B., Clifford, J., Watson, A., Quigley, A., Klein, E., Coates, C.M. (2015). “Trading Consequences: A Case Study of Combining Text Mining & Visualisation to Facilitate Document Exploration.” Digital Scholarship in the Humanities (DSH); DH2014 Special Issue, 30(1): i50-i75.

Hinrichs, U., Forlini, S. and Moynihan, B. (2016). “Speculative Practices: Utilizing InfoVis to Explore Untapped Literary Collections.” IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics (Proceedings Visualization / Information Visualization, Oct. 2015), 22(1):429-438.

Hullman, J. and Diakopoulos, D. (2011). “Visualization Rhetoric: Framing Effects in Narrative Visualization.” IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, 17(12):2231-2240.

Jänicke, S., Franzini, G., Cheema, M.F. and Scheuermann, G. (2015). “On Close and Distant Reading in Digital Humanities: A Survey and Future Challenges.” In Proc. of the

Eurographics Conference on Visualization (EuroVis -State of the Art Report).

Kosara, R. (2016). “An Empire Built on Sand: Reexamining What We Think We Know About Visualization.” In Proceedings of Beyond time and errors: novel evaLuation methods for Information Visualization (BELIV).

Latour, B. (2002). “Morality and Technology: The End of the Means.” Trans. Couze Venn. Theories, Culture & Society, 19.5/6, 247-260.

Latour, B. (1986). “Visualization and Cognition: Thinking

with Eyes and Hands.” Knowledge and Society: Studies in

the Sociology of Culture Past and Present, 6, pp. 1 - 40.

Neustaedter, C. and Sengers, P. (2012). “Autobiographical

Design in HCI Research: Designing and Learning through

Use-It-Yourself.” In Proc. of the ACM conference on Designing Interactive Systems (DIS), pp. 514-523.

Ruecker, S., Radzikowska, M., Sinclair, S. (2011). Visual Interface Design for Digital Cultural Heritage - A Guide to Rich-Prospect Browsing. Ashgate.

Schreibman, J. and Hanlon A. (2010). “Determining Value

for Digital Humanities Tools: Report on a Survey of Tool

Developers.” Digital Humanities Quarterly, 4(2).

Zimmerman, J., Forlizzi, J., and Evenson, S. (2007). “Research through design as a method for interaction design research in HCI.” In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '07), 493502.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/133/133.pdf",""
"3846","18","Building Capacity for Digital Scholarship & Publishing: Three Approaches from Mellon’s 2014-2015 Scholarly Communications Initiative","3","The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation's 20142015 Scholarly Communications Initiative funded more than thirteen projects of various sizes and orientations as part of an effort to strengthen the scholarly monograph publishing ecosystem in a time of increasing disruption. While the projects are seemingly divergent in their approaches, a recent report from Simon Fraser University, “Reassembling Scholarly Communications: An Evaluation of the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation's Monograph Initiative” (May 2016) identifies points of thematic alignment and overlap. Many of the funded projects are explicitly based in university presses, with the goal of either enhancing existing monograph programs or developing digital capacity where little or none exists. But three projects, located at University of Illinois, Brown University, and University of Connecticut, are instead focused on exploring new forms for scholarly expression and developing models for faculty digital publication outside the traditional press framework.

The “Building Capacity for Digital Scholarship & Publishing” panel brings together representatives from each of these three projects to investigate unique and complementary dimensions of their work. Presenters include

Maria Bonn from the University of Illinois, Elli Mylonas from Brown University, and Sara Sikes from the University of Connecticut. The session will address the development of project outcomes and encourage participation in a discussion about large-scale shifts in structural and cultural approaches to faculty-led digital scholarship production and publication. Rather than building new publishing platforms, these three Mellon-funded projects are focused on exploring workflows and work cultures suited to the creation of multimodal scholarly communications. The University of Illinois will explore how current tools align with scholars' publishing requirements and address the gap between scholars' needs and the existing publishing systems for digital scholarship. At both Brown University and University of Connecticut, the scholarly publications initiatives are focused on developing an infrastructure to support digital scholarship projects, facilitating new workflows and work cultures, and revising criteria for tenure and promotion.

Publishing Without Walls

Maria Bonn
“Publishing Without Walls” is a Mellon-funded initiative at the University of Illinois, led by the University Library in partnership with the School of Information Sciences, the department of African American Studies, and the Illinois Program for Research in the Humanities. The objective is to develop a model for library-based publishing services that can be adopted broadly by other academic libraries to address scholars' emerging needs in a contemporary publishing environment. Both an embedded research effort and programmatic development are strategically designed to address known gaps within the current landscape: the gap between what and how scholars want to publish and what existing systems of print publishing can afford; the gap between the everyday practices of humanities scholars and the high-level tools that exist for digital scholarship; and the gap between digital scholarship and publishing at resource-rich institutions as opposed to at Historically Black Colleges and Universities.

Most experiments with new forms of and models for digital publishing focus on parts of the process rather than taking a holistic, scholarcentric view of publication: for example, tools are often developed with only an abstract sense of scholarly requirements, and new funding models are suggested without exploring whether and how existing systems meet scholars' needs. In order to guide the development of a more holistic and widely shareable service model, the University of Illinois is undertaking a significant qualitative study on how emerging services and tools align with scholars' publishing needs and using the findings to shape and inform the development of tools and services for Publishing Without Walls.

The Role of the University in Scholarly Communication

Eli Mylonas
The purpose of Brown University's Mellon-funded digital scholarship initiative is to establish an infrastructure to support the development and publication of digital scholarly monographs. Anchored in the University Library and the Office of the Dean of the Faculty, this digital publishing initiative extends the University's mission of supporting and promoting the scholarship of its faculty, while also playing a role in shaping the future of digital scholarship in the humanities more broadly.

Brown will first address questions about the evaluation of digital scholarship within the academic validation process. The initiative promotes the creation of language and criteria at the department level upon which digital scholarship will be evaluated for tenure and promotion purposes, and this process is, as of Spring 2017, substantially complete. With these guidelines established the initiative is now supporting two digital scholarly publications. Mellon grant funds have been used to augment the library's staff, adding new positions including the Digital Scholarship Editor, a Designer for Online Publications, and graduate- and undergraduate-level researchers. Funds from the grant are also designated to bring in speakers who are engaged in digital projects or other efforts to introduce digital scholarship and publication into the formal academic process in order to spark discussions around best practices and innovative approaches. By tackling first the issue of evaluation and then assisting with the creation of innovative, digital-first scholarship as well as innovative digital publication, the initiative will remove barriers in place at Brown and potentially serve as an example to other institutions that are engaging with emerging forms of writing, publication, and dissemination.

The Scholarly Communications Design

Studio

Sara Sikes
The Digital Media & Design Department at the University of Connecticut (UConn), in collaboration with the University Library and UConn Humanities Institute, is implementing Greenhouse Studios | Scholarly Communications Design at UConn. Greenhouse Studios will facilitate a design-based,    inquiry-driven,

collaboration-first workflow that addresses the divided processes and counter-productive labor arrangements that have complicated scholarly communications in the digital age. Even as the scholarly communications field pursues the opportunities presented by digital technology, its routine operations remain anchored in printcentric regimens. For those striving to evolve digital scholarship production and publication in the Internet age, particularly as it bears upon long-form scholarship, there is compelling need to productively disrupt and reconfigure the processes and work cultures that have naturalized around the production of printed products.

The proposed approach of Greenhouse Studios is undergirded by design-thinking methodologies that foster divergent creativity in generating and developing ideas directed toward solving complex problems while keeping end recipients of a project squarely in mind. Design thinking practices do not, in and of themselves, address cultural or workflow hierarchies, therefore a refined design process model has been established so that work begins with a prompt, an inquiry-in-common, that is set before a project team. In the design process model for the Mellon initiative undertaken at UConn, the potential audiences of a publication are explored at the very outset of a project, in specific rather than vague terms, as an essential element of the workflow. The team members hail from the areas once conceived of as the transactional links in the scholarly communications process, including librarians, web developers, editors, and designers, and they are assembled as a

collaborative unit at the very outset of each undertaking. The power of the values and ways of working to be instantiated through the Greenhouses Studios places continuous, equitable communication between all kinds of scholarly communications labor at the heart of its mission.

In its broadest sense, “scholarly communications” is conceived of as communication of scholarship to specific audiences in a manner designed to make the expression of knowledge informative, useful, and relevant to that particular community. By employing the    use of    multimodal

communications,    researchers    and their

scholarship are connected to broad peer or public constituencies, and a work may be expressed in multiple form, each tailored to a different type of audience. As we look beyond inward-focused text, the visual, aural, and interactive forms of expression open pathways into understanding complex material that print alone cannot.

Bibliography

Maxwell, J., Borodini, A. and Shamash, K. (May 2016) “Reassembling Scholarly Communications: An Evaluation of the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation's Monograph Initiative.” Report. Canadian Institute for Studies in Publishing. Vancouver, BC.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/135/135.pdf",""
"3847","18","Text Mining the History of Information Politics Through Thousands of Swedish Governmental Official Reports","9","","","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/137/137.pdf",""
"3848","18","Computer-Assisted Conceptual Analysis of Textual Data as Applied to Philosophical Corpuses","3","Overview
Jean Guy Meunier and Louis Chartrand
Many DH projects call upon computer tools for descriptive and analytic purposes: lexicon statistics, concordances, parsers, descriptive statistics, classifications, topic modeling, annotations, automatic summarization, visualization tools, etc. They have been mainly applied to literary, political, journalistic, or otherwise mediatic corpuses. However, less work has been done on philosophical corpuses, or corpuses that have been tailored for the ends of philosophical investigation.

Computational approaches specialized for highly theoretical and abstract texts have proved their efficiency in various domains, particularly in those pertaining to the encoding, curation and presentation of textual data (e.g. digitization, web publishing, authorship analyses, etc.). These successes open avenues for more complex tools and methods to study linguistic features which are not directly observable, such as narratives, themes and concepts.

Concepts, in particular, constitute a key issue, given, on one hand, the polysemy of the concept of concept, and, on the other hand, its widespread use in philosophy and other disciplines. A conceptual analysis is a process through which we decompose and thus elucidate the meaning of a concept. While it is traditionally practiced from the armchair, concepts' meanings are reflected in the texts where they are expressed. As such, the development of methods and approaches to computer-assisted conceptual analysis of texts (CACAT) has the potential to make conceptual analysis more precise, more reliable, more exhaustive and more inclusive.

These new challenges call for an appropriation of modern computational tools which have demonstrated their potential at discovering such entities for natural language processing. The last two decades have seen important developments in computational linguistics and in machine learning which have enabled researchers to detect and manipulate various complex features of textual data. Complex objects such as entities, events, topics, arguments, or syntactic and discourse relations can now be detected and studied. Progress in modelling and learning approaches from fields like probabilistic modeling and neural networks have made it possible to represent complex representations between various latent and explicit textual features, and to learn them in efficient ways. Because they capture different aspects of concepts, including those which appear to be latent or implicit, the innovations could open new and exciting horizons for conceptual analysis.

In order to exploit this potential, digital humanists must participate in the conception of the aforementioned innovations. The humanities have problems and conceptual tools of their own, which differ from those of computer scientists, and, as such, ought to be enunciated and translated into tasks for algorithms to fulfill. On the other hand, computational approaches to conceptual analysis pose specific problems, which must be addressed as new methods are developed: indeterminacy of the nature of a concept and of the method of analysis, complexity in the relation between and among concepts, diversity of interpretations, incertitude in the evaluation schemes, limited set of computation tools to explore conceptual structures, shallowness of visualization tools, etc. These difficulties call for work from social scientists and humanists.

Our aim in this session is to give an overview of the challenges, avenues and opportunities that are shaping CACAT's development. Each paper plays a specific role within this session, so that information in one paper may serve as context for another. Jean-Guy Meunier's paper reviews the challenges facing CACAT, serving as context for the papers that follow. Mathieu Valette's paper (which will be moved to second place) expands on this topic. Drawing on the study of concept formation in philosophy of science, he offers a criticism on the concept of concept, proposes an alternative and draws the implications for the relationship between concepts and their concrete expressions in texts. In working to bridge the gap between the philosophical conceptual analysis in texts and modern techniques of computational linguistics, these two papers work from the conceptual analysis pole. The following two papers, by Louis Chartrand and Jackie Cheung, work from the computational linguistic pole, presenting models and techniques which have the potential of

addressing the challenges of CACAT. The final paper, by

Marie-Noelle Bayle, is a recent application of CACAT that exemplifies its potential in discovering implicit dimensions to a concept.

Modelling Computer assisted conceptual analysis in text (CACAT)

Jean-Guy Meunier
Conceptual analysis paradigms

In many fields of scientific research, be they social sciences, natural sciences or even professional practices, abstract or highly theoretical concepts are explored to discover their content and deepen the knowledge they embed. However, there is no consensus on the nature of a concept or on the methodology to analyze them. For example, how would one proceed in analyzing the concept of Evolution in Darwin's writings? Three radically different paradigms parameterize the methodology: philosophical, linguistic and cognitive.

In the philosophical paradigm, concepts are identified to the meaning of predicative words. For some, their analysis aims at finding the conditions (necessary, sufficient, fuzzy, etc.) under which these words refer to objects, events or actions in a possible or actual world. For others, analysis consists mainly of identifying the sense or intention of these words as related to the epistemic or metaphysical conditions for their understanding. Finally, for some others, an analysis should consider the use and context (linguistic, social or other) of these words. Hence, in this philosophical paradigm, conceptual analysis becomes a sort of logico-pragmatic analysis of the meaning of words. In our Darwin example, this paradigm would therefore ask what are the meaning conditions of the word evolution when Darwin uses it.

In the linguistic paradigm, concepts are also related to the meaning of words. For the Saussurian structuralists a concept is the core meaning embedded in the structure of the signified (le signifie) of words. For the neo-structuralists, the generativists and the cognitiv-ists, a concept is also equated to the semantic content of predicative linguistic expression, and meaning is understood as a complex set of semantic properties (features, relations, frames, nets, etc.,) underlying isolated words or their position in sentences and discourse. Here, conceptual analysis becomes identified with classical semantic analysis of words. In Darwin's works, the analysis would explore the semantics properties of the English word evolution: for instance, it would study its lexical content, its synonyms, its topics, is semantic nets, etc.

In the cognitive paradigm, concepts are the results of cognitive or mental operations. For psychology, they are seen as a sort of cognitive categorization. For the analytical and hermeneutic traditions of philosophy of mind, they are mental states or world representations. Conceptual analysis consists then in exploring how semiotic or linguistic forms embed categories, intentions, conceptual spaces, beliefs, mental states, Weltanschauung, etc. Hence conceptual analysis bears resemblance to an exploration of cognitive operations or states: representing, categorizing, reasoning, argu-menting, entailing, etc. In our analysis of Darwin, this cognitive paradigm would focus the analysis on the mental operations underlying the meaning of evolution. How is this category of mental representation acquired, built reasoned on, argued, etc.?

Choosing a paradigmatic methodology for analyzing concept is difficult, then, because not one of them is canonical. Conceptual analysis becomes an even more acute problem when computations are introduced in the methodology. The level of complexity of the task is so high that is not obvious how a computer assisted conceptual analysis of text (CACAT) project can be realized. Should it be computer-tool-driven or model-driven?

Tool driven approaches

The first type of approach is tool-driven. Once a methodology inspired by one of the paradigms presented above is chosen, its practitioners use some computer programs already built and inserts them in appropriate moments of the analysis procedure. Many computer tools for this task actually exist.

A first set of tools focuses on the lexical expressions of a concept. The most classical ones are concordanc-ers, collocation and lexical analysers, taggers, etc. These tools explore the lexical properties and contexts of one or a few canonical predicates, expressing the specific concept to be analyzed. The limits of these types of tools lie in their underlying design hypothesis: a conceptual content is to be explored through specific canonical expressions. Such a hypothesis restricts the exploration of the conceptual content to one or a specific number of predicates. This is problematic, for as we know, concepts can be expressed in language in a myriad of ways. For example, it would be very problematic to restrict Darwin's concept of evolution to the analysis of the word evolution alone. Secondly, they may produce results that are larger than the original text. This is the case of the concordance of the concept of Esse in the Thomas Indexicus. Finally, sometimes, the opposite happens. These tools may deliver only a fraction of the overall textual segments or word collocations whose content is pertinent. For instance, in Darwin only uses a few dozen times the lexical form evolution. Hence concordance, collocation, etc. on such a small sample are not very fruitful for a conceptual analysis.

A second set of tools highly influenced by classical AI approaches focuses on natural language processing (NLP). These tools are sensitive to various meaning aspects of words, such as their semantic definition, their encyclopedic, pragmatic discursive content, etc. They promise to deliver finer results for a conceptual analysis. But these tools also have limits. Their underlying hypothesis is that these semantic, pragmatic and encyclopedic information added in the grammar and the lexicon will enhance the exploration of conceptual content. Unfortunately, the added information has often been collected from common and ordinary semantic knowledge of shared language usages. Such tools will then often tend to identify already known properties belonging to this common information about the lexical conceptual word under inquiry. And most of the time, it will ignore the properties that precisely are the one that are specific to the concepts analyzed mainly when they are original, and belong to a reflexive, creative literary or reflexive discursive process, etc. These semantic properties would not be part of the common doxastic conceptual content. For instance, a philosophy scholar using such types of tools would not be very satisfied in discovering that Darwin's concept of evolution is a name meaning an action of the type change and applied to the object: natural species.

Recently, a last set of tools that are more mathematically grounded, such as neural net and Bayesian classification, vector semantics, machine learning, deep learning, etc., have become appealing and are used in language processing, They can process large data and learn semantic information by themselves. But like the other set of tools they have their limits. First, they are nor readily usable. They are in fact very complex algorithms, and are not easily mastered by humanities scholars. Secondly, their lack of traceability becomes a major obstacle when applied to large and theoretical textual data where results become difficult to evaluate. Thirdly, they seem more successful for information retrieval applications than for digging into deep conceptual content. For the moment, we are not sure that how they can effectively assist conceptual analysis.

From these remarks, it does not seem to us that conceptual analysis can only be a serendipity tool-driven approach. The results produced by these tools have not yet convinced the scholarly community that practices expert conceptual analysis.

Model driven approaches

The second type of approach is model-driven. Recent philosophers of science such as Morgan and Morrison (1999), Giere, (1999), Leonelli (2007) for instance, see science as a building models process where models are heuristic means for describing, explaining and understanding reality. And Mc Carthy (1999), has seen this modelling approach as a means of better understanding digital humanities interpretative projects. For our part, we explore this hypothesis and see CACAT as type of scientific inquiry where various models are used as intermediaries for understanding the analysis of highly theoretical and abstract concepts. In this perspective, we distinguish four types of models: conceptual, formal, computational and experimental.

A conceptual model defines parameters for identifying, explaining and understanding the properties and structure of linguistic items expressing conceptual content. A formal model translates certain aspects of a conceptual model in some controlled formal language that describes or identifies properties and relations of these conceptual expressions. A computational model translates some formal expressions of the formal model into algorithms and programs. Finally, an experimental model designs implementation of these formal models in a concrete computer where the analysis can be simulated and ultimately evaluated in correspondence to the other models.

In a concrete procedure, all these models interact and can be modified and adjusted. This allows the inquiry to be controllable and repeatable. It has been our own experience that, if a computer assisted conceptual analysis project is to be successful it must construct at least these four models. A CACAT project cannot bypass these models and their interactions.

Designing these models, their interactions and their experimentation to see CACAT as a scientific endeavour and not just computer gadget exploration. But each model is not built easily. And nothing comes smoothly. They are part of the research process. And much work must be done to clarify the conceptual, formal, computational and experimental models pertinent for a successful and pertinent conceptual analysis.

Digital epistemology for concept analysis

Mathieu Valette
In the humanities, theory is most of the time outlined with texts: papers, books, conference presentations, lectures etc. we claim that the scientist is first a reader and a text producer. This textuality is so ordinary that it is almost invisible, and, as such, not considered as an object of science. Moreover, theories are read as synchronic systems, or even achronic systems, depending on their specific purposes (describing one fact, explaining one phenomenon...). Scientists appropriate models and concepts like tools; they have to know their function and how to manipulate them, but they do not care about knowing practical details of their enunciation. In fact, they ignore them, more or less. They find such details embarrassing, because they make concept borders fuzzy: lexicons, glossaries, and also handbooks, as they extract the concepts from their context, and standardise the definitions, creating an illusion of stability and tangibility. But concept tex-tuality necessarily has an incidence, not only on interpretation, but also on theorisation. If the scientist is a text producer, then theorisation is the construction of meaning. Theorisation is forced by enunciation, and scientific works, beyond their materiality, can be considered as text.

The textual aspect of scientific works had been noticed by those in Europe looking at epistemological culture. In this respect, French philosopher Michel Foucault's works, in the 1960s, must be acknowledged (see e.g. Foucault 1969). Foucault put in place a philological analysis of discourse centred on the combination and evolution on specific discursive structures. His purpose is, firstly, to recognize “discursive formations”, i.e. stabilized relations, regularities between objects, types of speech act, concepts and topics; and, secondly, to recognise breakpoints in idea system history. Foucault followed the example of some of his famous predecessors, such as Gaston Bachelard, Georges Canguilhem and Martial Gueroult. Bachelard's notion of Epistemological break, or Canguilhem's notion of concept shifts shows, for instance, that the history of a concept is not that of its increasing rationality and refinement, but that of the different fields in which they have been designed and validated. What we will call digital epistemology is a linguistic approach to this style of French epistemology.

Our topic is the study of scientific texts using, on the one hand, corpus linguistics tools which have been developed over the 40 last years and, on the other hand, a linguistic methodology (see Rastier 2009, Valette 2003). Thus, our purpose is to develop tools and methodology Foucault did not have, among other reasons because some textual phenomena—as, for example, lexicon evolution, which depends on the reader's subjectivity—are invisible to a classical philological analysis. Concept emergence, concepts' individual and inter-related evolutions, the appropriation of a specific thematic, palinode, etc. constitute further examples. We do not adopt the logician's position, considering that conceptualization is a linguistic phenomenon with its own construction rules linked to a particular function of language. Neither do we ignore the psychological, social and interactional reasons of the development of concepts. Firstly, we consider that textuality— i.e. the constraints of the textual layout, formulations, be they constraints of syntactic, semantic, lexical or related discursive traditions (including genres and speech)—plays a major role in concept formation. Secondly, we do not consider texts only as resources to mine and extract terminological and conceptual material, but as archives, or, in other word, as the objective tracks of the process of creating concepts.

In essence, we focus here on concept emergence considered as the result of a slow and gradual stabilisation of contextual semantic feature. Drawing on recent critical readings of Saussure's semiology (see Rastier 2015), we propose to consider a concept as a stabilized semantic form; that is, as a combination of semantic features (or semes) mainly inherited from various contexts in which it has occurred. Eventually, we link concept design with text production rather than identification of items in a general ontology (Valette 2010).

Topic models for conceptual analysis
Louis Chartrand
The last two decades have seen the rise of topic models in natural language processing (NLP). From the early successes of Latent Semantic Analysis, which decomposes datasets into “conceptual” dimensions, the introduction of probabilistic and generative models have enabled the discovery of underlying structures that condition the lexicon of a text. Those structures, in turn, are used to construct meaningful representations of corpuses and documents, and have proven fruitful in improving performances in many NLP tasks.

Those tools have interesting potential for the Digital Humanities, as they discover entities which are, on one hand, robust features of textual data, and, on the other hand, easily representable and interpretable by humans. For instance, topics may help in tasks such as categorizing documents or selecting a relevant subcorpus for analysis. However, once topics are represented using the words to which they are likely to be associated, they can also be used to make sense of what a set of textual segments are about, or to visualize the evolution of discourse in a corpus through time. As such, topics have interesting potential when it comes to representing textual data and improving our analyses of it.

In this presentation, some prominent topics mod-els—LSA, LDA and DTM—will be presented and contrasted, and their potential uses for Digital Humanities will be discussed.

Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA)

Introduced by Deerwester et al. (1990), LSA used tools from linear algebra, in particular singular vector decomposition, to transform the representation of text segments in the form of word counts to a representation in the form of participation to “concepts”, or semantic dimensions.

As words give us a good idea of what a text is about, it is common practice in text mining to represent text segments by counting its words. A document containing “apple”, “orange” and “pear” a high number of times each is likely to talk about fruits. And if multiple documents share the same words, they are likely to share common topics. However, this approach does not fare well with synonyms, which it does not recognize.

The LSA uses co-occurrence in word uses to synthesize the word-count representations into more compact semantic dimensions. As synonyms tend to have the same cooccurents, they also tend to participate to the same semantic dimensions. As a result, the new representation is closer to a semantic representation than was the word-count representation, hence the name “Latent Semantic Analysis”.

Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA)

While LSA still is part of every NLP reputable toolset, it falls short in at least two key aspects. Firstly, its semantic dimensions are hard to read for a human: from a list of its most prominent words, it is usually hard to give a satisfying interpretation of what a semantic dimension is about (Chang et al. 2009). Secondly, it has no clear hypothesis as to how text is structured. On one hand, this makes it harder to explain semantic dimensions in terms of linguistics, psychology or discourse analysis. On the other, it means that LSA gets only part of the picture, and better algorithms with additional assumptions might produce better semantic dimensions.

Latent Dirichlet Allocation (Blei et al. 2003) is a probabilistic models which attempts to address this latter issue, and ends up addressing the former as well. It supposes that in a corpus, there is a certain number of topics, which, when activated, make it more or less likely for specific words to be present. Thus, when someone writes a document, LDA assumes that she selects a certain restricted number of topics, which in term condition which words will be found in the document. Using this assumption and an arbitrary number of topics, the algorithm infers the most likely list of topics, and their most likely assignments to documents.

As such, it produces once again a representation of documents or text segments from word counts, but in terms of topics rather than more abstract conceptual dimensions. The words most likely to be present when a given topic is activated are often visibly related, either semantically or because they participate in a transparent narrative. As such, they are easily read by a human interpreter, and can be used to give a sense of what documents, sub-corpuses or textual segments are about.

Dynamic Topic Models (DTM)

Another boon of LDA is that its probabilistic model can be modified account for particularities of the corpus, or to model features that we want to study in particular. For example, if we have a corpus that spans across decades, we might expect topics to evolve with time, as society and culture change.

To model this, the algorithm devised by Blei & Lafferty (2006) uses a corpus split in time slices (say, per year) and topics are split accordingly, such that topic 1 at time 1 is different from topic 1 at time 2. Then, a Markov assumption is enacted on the time series: topic 1 at time 1 conditions topic 1 at time 2, which conditions topic 1 at time 3, etc. This gives topics the freedom to evolve, while enforcing a certain degree of conservatism.

Using this, one can not only track topics more efficiently, but also see the evolution of topics across time.

What is a topic?

What is it, however, that we are talking about when we speak of LSA's conceptual dimensions or LDA's topics? Can it be equated with the notion of TOPIC that we encounter in discourse analysis, for instance?

While there are a variety of definitions for words such as “topic” and “theme”, most agree that a topic is what a text is about (Rimmon-Kenan, 1995). On this score, LDA's topic does seem to agree with the common notion of TOPIC: a word list representing a LDA topic is read as a representation of what the textual data is about (Blei, 2013). Furthermore, the information the probabilistic model captures is the one that is redundant across a number of text segments. As such, it highlights words and concepts which keep coming back as they put in relation with various entities in sentences. In other words, textual discourse and narratives are being sewn around them.

On the other hand, humans tend to make slightly different representations of topics compared to machines (Chang 2010), more readily constructing topics around concepts and thus providing sparser (more compact) representations. As Chang suggests, this might be because humans build these representations using general domain knowledge, whereas topic models try to infer this knowledge from word distributions. This seems to tell us that we should understand LDA topics as indicators, or reconstructed traces, of the topics that underlie a text, but not as true representation of topics themselves.

Using topic models in conceptual analysis

As Chang's 2010 experiment suggest, topics entertain special relation with concepts, as a topic tends to be associated with a restricted number of concepts which are expressed very often in the text.

As such, topic models' potential in representing textual data can be exploited to discover associations that are likely to be useful to conceptual analysis and other philosophical analyses. For instance, it can help the analyst identify the most important parts of a corpus, and those that can be discarded. They can also be leveraged to build representations of the contexts in which the concept of interest appears, thus giving a sense of the topics with which it is associated. Using DTM, one can also get a sense of the evolution of a concept within a diachronic corpus. Beyond discovery of new informations concerning a concept's expression in a corpus, topic models can be useful to test some association, as the structures they uncover are relatively robust.

That said, as the DTM model shows, topic models can be used in a large variety of use cases, as their model can be expanded to take into account a corpus' metadata and thus open new and innovative avenues for conceptual analysis and the Digital Humanities in general.

Unsupervised natural language processing for conceptual analysis of events
Jackie Chi Kit Cheung
In unsupervised machine learning, an algorithm is trained to discover regularities in data without access to human-provided labels. Such techniques can be useful in conceptual analysis of text, in cases where we do not have or want to impose a schema on the text corpus under analysis. The basic intuition behind unsupervised natural language processing techniques is that objects that appear in similar contexts in the data should be assigned similar representations, such that they can be grouped into clusters.

Unsupervised models differ according to several characteristics, from the type of information that is made available to the learner, to how similarity is defined between the different objects that are modeled, to the expected form of the output cluster that is learned. For example, the Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topic model (Blei et al., 2003) is a probabilistic model which is given access to multiple documents for training. The crucial assumptions behind the LDA model are that each document can be described as a mixture of multiple topics, and each word in a document is generated by one of the topics in that mixture. As a result of training an LDA model, multiple topics are learned, which correspond to clusters of words that tend to co-occur in the same documents.

More recently, there have been a number of unsupervised models that have been used to discover the structure of a sequence of entities and events that appear according to some narrative in the natural language processing literature (Chambers and Jurafsky, 2008; Cheung and Penn, 2013). This is accomplished by explicitly modelling the sequential dependencies of events as they appear in a document. I will provide an overview of the assumptions of the event structure being learned by such models. For example, some methods produce discrete sequences of prototypical event and participant roles. In the work of Chambers and Ju-rafsky, (2008), narrative chains are learned corresponding to prototypical roles in a narrative. A chain such as _ accused X; X claimed _; X argued _; _ dismissed X might correspond to a defendant in a trial. Other work frame the problem as a task for probabilistic learning. Cheung and Penn (2013) define a probabilistic sequence model, in which the structure of an event and its participants are explicitly represented in the model as latent random variables. The nature of a learned cluster, then, would be how it influences the conditional probabilities of generating other cluster labels, as well as the word emission distributions from that latent topic (as in an LDA model).

I will discuss how such models can be used to discover templates of prototypical events, including how events and event participants are typically expressed in language. Such approaches can easily be applied to multiple domains, including texts in the legal or medical genres, because they make minimal assumptions about the structure of events, and do not require training data. I also discuss other applications of these models to information ordering, and automatic summarization, which may be of interest to researchers in conceptual analysis for the digital humanities.

A computer-assisted analysis of SYMPTOM in psychiatry

Marie-Noële Bayle
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) is a general classification and diagnostic tool used in the rich and diverse universe of mental health. Being widely distributed and available online, it allows everyone to have a direct access on how to make a psychiatric diagnosis. To facilitate its reading, laypeople and professionals alike may consult definitions for important notions in the glossary section. However, these few lines will often fail to capture the complexity of a term. For instance, at the core of the clinical assessment of a disorder lie its signs and symptoms. Therefore, a proper understanding of what a symptom means, and how this concept relates to the disorder, is essential to the diagnostic approach.

In the DSM-5 glossary, symptom is defined as “A subjective manifestation of a pathological condition.”

In the practice, it is often treated as a necessary and/or sufficient condition for to seek diagnosis, or as a constraint on possible diagnoses. As such, non-doctors and patients often think of a symptom as a singular event, and conceive of it purely in terms of content and a means to a diagnosis.

However, as experience of mental disorders is often messier, we may wonder if such a notion of SYMPTOM overlooks important features of the way this notion is actually reflected in the DSM-5. Our hypothesis is that both the glossary definition for this concept and the common understanding of this notion fail to account for such essential aspects. To provide evidence for this claim, we performed a computer-assisted conceptual analysis of text (CACAT) for the concept SYMPTOM in the DSM-5. We find evidence that SYMPTOM is strongly associated to a dimension of temporality, and that it is expressed in relation not only with the disorder, but also remission. As such, it is proposed an improved definition would not only better reflect the content of the DSM-5, but could also contribute in a better understanding of assessment and practice of diagnostic.

Method
The dataset consists in a small corpus composed with the most relevant chapters of DSM-5. Computational Text mining method and manual qualitative approach were used in a processing chain for the conceptual analysis of SYMPTOM. Firstly, extraction of the textual data from noisy sources and cleaning of the text were performed. Secondly, all sentences with the term “symptom” in it, plus one sentence before and after, were extracted, yielding a set of textual segments, on which stemming and lemmatisation were performed. Thirdly, the pretreated data was used to create a document-term matrix with the TF-IDF weighting scheme. Fourthly, from the matrix, textual segment clusters were produced with the k-means algorithm. Fifthly, the most salient words in each cluster and in the whole subcorpus were first represented using word clouds. Finally, relations of similarity between the most relevant words in each cluster and in the subcorpus were represented in a 3d space. All steps were performed using common R modules (tm, RWeka, qdap, cluster, knn, ggplot2, rgl). Each cluster was interpreted as a specific field in which a hypothetical conceptual property of SYMPTOM is expressed. Categorization was done by annotating manually the most typical textual segments in every cluster according to cosine distance to the centroid. Annotations consisted in the main conceptual property of SYMPTOM expressed in a segment.

Syntheses of these annotations were done for each cluster.

Experimentation

From the subcorpus, 2036 sentences containing the term “symptom” were extracted which contained 5761 different word types. The words most associated with symptom in this subset of the corpus are disord (disorder), criteria, presen (presence), sever (severity), medic (medical, medication). Using k-means, 30 clusters were extracted but 17 are deemed noisy, as they contain 10 textual segments or less. Most of the remaining clusters are located in the section II of the DSM (diagnostic criteria and codes), several having most of their segments in a specific disorder chapter. The converse, however, does not hold.

Discussion

Analysing those clusters reveals that SYMPTOM has a transdiagnostic property, and is not only defined by its specific content. For example, let us examine cluster #8, which contains 98 segments, 90% of which fall in the three chapters about psychotic and mood disorders. Symptom in this cluster is linked with the words depress, hypomania, mania, but also with episode, period, full, meet. Furthermore, annotation of joined documents shows that temporality is a conceptual property of SYMPTOM. It modifies the pathological dimension of its content. SYMPTOM is not in direct causal relation with DISORDER; it is a dynamic sign whose presence needs to be situated in an episode, regardless of whether its content is depressive or manic. Therefore, the mere presence of a symptom is not sufficient for a diagnosis. Conversely, SYMPTOM is also linked with the concept of (partial) remission. SYMPTOM and DISORDER have a complex relationship on a continuum between negative (remission) and positive (disease) poles.

In conclusion, a mixed method, combining computational and manual processing and using quantitative and qualitative approaches, was applied in our conceptual analysis of the concept SYMPTOM. SYMPTOM appears to be a more complex and dynamic concept than patients and other non-doctors usually understand it to be. As a result, a better understanding of this complexity would likely profit assessment, diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders.

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"3849","18","POSTagging and Semantic Dictionary Creation for Hittite Cuneiform","2","Presentation Topic and State Of The Art

On our poster we want to present ongoing work to create an automatic natural language processing tool for Hittite cuneiform. Hittite cuneiform texts are to this day manually transcribed by the respective experts and then published in a transliteration format (commonly ATF). Pictures of the original cuneiform tablet may be provided and more rarely cuneiform representations in Unicode are present. Due to recent advancements in the field (such as Cuneify) an automatic translation of many Hittite cuneiform transliterations to their respective cuneiform representation is possible.

Research Contributions

We build upon this work by creating tools that aim to automatically translate Hittite cuneiform texts to English from either a Unicode cuneiform representation or their transliteration representation.

POSTagger

We have created a morphological analyzer to detect nouns, verbs, several kinds of pronouns, their respective declinations and appendices as well as structural particles. On a sample set of annotated Hittite texts from different epochs in cuneiform and transliteration representation we have evaluated the morphological analyzer, its advantages, problems and possible solutions and intend to present the results as well as some POSTagging examples in section one of our poster.

Dictionary Creation

Dictionaries for Hittite cuneiform exist in often non-machine readable formats and without a connection to Semantic Web concepts. We intend to change this situation by parsing digitally available nonsemantic dictionaries and using matching algorithms to find concepts of the English translations of such dictionaries in the Semantic Web e.g. DBPedia or Wikidata. Dictionaries of this kind are stored using the Lexical Model for Ontologies (Lemon). In addition to freely available dictionaries we intend to use expert resources developed by the academy of sciences in Mainz/Germany to verify and extend our generated dictionaries. We intend to present the dictionary creation process, statistics about the content of generated dictionaries and their impact in section two of our poster.

Machine Translation

Using the newly created dictionaries as well as the POSTagging information we intend to test several automated machine translation approaches of which we will outline the process and possible approaches in poster section three.

Contributions for the Communities

With our approaches we intend to contribute to the archaeological community in Germany by analysing Hittite cuneiform tablets. Together with work from the University of Heidelberg on image recognition of cuneiform tablets, we want to focus on creating a natural language processing pipeline from scanning cuneiform tablets to an available translation in English.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/139/139.pdf",""
"3850","18","Beyond Validation: Using Programmed Diagnostics to Learn About, Monitor, and Successfully Complete Your DH Project","10","Schema-based validation of XML documents has long been a fundamental tool for quality control in digital edition projects, and the emergence of richer schema languages and adjuncts such as Schematron has greatly improved the constraints and controls available to XML authors and encoders (Jacinto et al. 2002). However, schema-based validation typically takes place at the document level, whereas “most programs that use XML require information that is not encoded in the XML instance or in the schema that governs it” (Vorthmann & Robie 2001). The modern digital edition project typically consists of multiple documents with large numbers of pointers between them:    links between named entities and

personographies, placeographies and bibliographies; pointers to external documents and fragments, images and other media; and similar complex interrelationships within the collection, and to external resources and authorities. These relationships need to be tested, checked, and validated too, but it is impractical to do this using document-level schemas. As Durand et al. (2009) point out, “such testing requirements are in fact closer to conventional system or software testing requirements than to document testing in a narrow sense.” Most large- and medium-scale projects develop their own methods, programmed and/or impromptu, for addressing these problems, and these have been quite well-described and documented for enterprise-level and corporate contexts (for instance, see the papers presented presented at the International Symposium on Quality

Assurance and Quality Control in XML, particularly Waldt 2012), but little has been published on project-level diagnostic testing for XML-based digital edition collections (see Rahtz, 2007)

In our work as part of Endings, an umbrella project that comprises four diverse digital edition projects from different fields, we have been developing a structured approach to implementing methods for checking and enforcing project correctness, consistency, and coherence, which we will describe in this paper. Influenced no doubt by Star Trek, we have long referred to these processes as “diagnostics”, and in our description we follow the franchise tradition detailed in Sternbach and Okuda (1991) in dividing diagnostics into levels; however, we depart from convention in ordering our levels from most granular/least comprehensive up to the most general. For each level, we provide real examples of processes run on one of our projects.

We stress that these diagnostics are built on top of a solid basis of RelaxNG and Schematron schemas. In the case of our projects, we use highly-customized versions of the TEI schema (all TEI-compliant) in addition to project-specific Schematron rules, which not only police tagging practices (e.g. enforcing the use of private URI schemes in pointing attributes, and checking the presence of appropriate custom dating attributes for pre-Gregorian dates), but also style guide rules such as prohibiting the use of straight apostrophes in document text nodes (excepting computer code samples). Our diagnostic processes normally take the form of ant scripts and XSLT transformations, and are run on a Jenkins Continuous Integration server; every time changes are committed to a project repository, the Jenkins server checks out the changes, validates all documents, and runs the entire set of diagnostics processes, providing the results in the form of a public web page such as this one:


Figure 1: A diagnostics output page from the Map of Early Modern London project.

In combination with this paper, which is intended to be a useful primer and guide, we have developed a Diagnostics project hosted on GitHub (http: / / github.com/proj ectEndings / diagnostics) that can be used by researchers whose digital edition projects have grown to the point where ad hoc manual checking has become impractical. This tool provides generic referential integrity checking that can be applied to any set of TEI XML files.

Level 1
Level 1 diagnostics provide project-level, as opposed to document-level, consistency checking to establish the internal coherence of the project, primarily through ensuring referential integrity. We borrow the phrase “referential integrity” from the MLA's “Guiding Questions for Vetters of Scholarly Editions” (2011), which advises peer-reviewers of digital editions that link to multiple databases to see if “referential integrity [is] enforced within the database(s).” This includes checking for non-existent pointers, duplicate @xml:ids across the project, and erroneously encoded references (e.g. tagging a place name as a bibliography reference). Ensuring referential integrity is particularly complex for projects that use “abbreviated pointers” to facilitate internal linking (see TEI Consortium (2016)), since it may not be obvious to the encoder which resource is being referenced by a pointer. Thus, the first level of diagnostics checks both whether or not an object pointed to actually exists and whether or not the markup correctly represents the relationship between the element and the target resource. For instance, to check all instances of the relationship shown in Fig. 2, a number of different tests are actually done:


Figure 2: a simple referential integrity check.

1.    Every <name type=”org”> points at an @xml:id which exists in the project.

2.    The element pointed at by <name type=”org”> is an <org> element in the ORGS1.xml document.

3.    Every <name> element which points at an <org> element in ORGS1.xml has @type=”org”.

For small-scale projects, this kind of referential integrity check could be accomplished with Schematron, since a Schematron rule using XPath 2.0 can read external documents, but for a project of any significant size, this is impractical. For example, Schematron checks to confirm the rules above may add around six seconds to document validation in the Oxygen XML Editor, causing frustration for editors, while simply checking that a linked location exists would require the processing of over a thousand files in this project, since each location is a distinct file. Level 2

While Level 1 diagnostics generally focus on coherence and consistency, Level 2 is more concerned with completeness. Level 2 diagnostics provide progress analysis, generate to-do lists, and identify situations that may indicate error, but require human judgement. These include cases in which:

•    Two bibliography or personography entries appear sufficiently similar that they may be duplicates.

•    Several <name> elements point to the same authority record, but the text of one of them is significantly different from the others, so it may point at the wrong target.

•    A document in the project is not linked from anywhere else, and therefore cannot be “reached”.

Such issues cannot be automatically rectified— they are not necessarily errors—but they must be examined. Figure 3 shows an example of the first check, which uses a similarity metric to identify potential duplicate bibliography entries.

Possible duplicate <bibl> entries (24) ▼

Explanation

These bibliography entries appear very similar, as measured by a similarity metric, so they are possibly duplicates.

•    Closer to l indicates higher similarity.

•    Closer to o indicates lower similarity.

•    <bibl> DEKK2 appears similar to SMALi (similarity score 0.925):

Dekker, Thomas. The Shoemaker's Holiday. Ed. R.L. Smallwood and

Stanley Wells. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1979. The Revels Plays.

Smallwood, R.L., and Stanley Wells, eds. The Shoemaker's Holiday. By

Thomas Dekker. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1979. The Revels Plays.

•    cbibl > DEKK13 appears similar to SMUTi (similarity score 0.90697676):

Dekker, Thomas, Stephen Harrison, Ben Jonson, and Thomas Middleton.

The Whole Royal and Magnificent Entertainment of King James through the City of London, 15 March 1604, with the Arches of Triumph. Ed. R. Malcolm Smuts. Thomas Middleton: The Collected Works. Gen. ed. Gary Taylor and John Lavagnino. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. 219-79.

Smuts, R. Malcolm, ed. The Whole Royal and Magnificent Entertainment of King James through the City of London, 15 March 1604, with the Arches of Triumph. Thomas Middleton: The Collected Works. Gen. ed.

Gary Taylor and John Lavagnino. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007.

Figure 3: Results of a Level 2 diagnostic check that attempts to identify duplicate bibliography entries.

At Level 2, we also generate to-do lists for specific sub-projects, providing a set of tasks for the project team to focus on in order to reach a milestone or publish a particular document. The definition of “done” for a specific document may transcend the document itself. For instance, before we deem a particular edition of a text publishable, we may require that all authority records (people, places, publications) linked from that document are themselves complete, so the to-do list for a given document may require work in a variety of other documents in the project

Level 3
Armed with a comprehensive set of Level 1 and Level 2 diagnostics, and assuming our data is managed using a version-control repository such as Subversion or Git, we can now generate diachronic views of the project's progress. A script can check out a sequence of incarnations of the project, weekly over a period of months, for instance, and run the entire current diagnostic suite against it; we can then combine these snapshots to get a clear sense of how our work is proceeding. This also means that every time we develop a new diagnostic procedure, we can apply it to the entire history of the project to see the trajectory of project work with respect to the datapoint in question. Two examples, this time from the Nxa?amxcin Dictionary project (an indigenous dictionary project described in detail in Czaykowska-Higgins, Holmes, and Kell (2014)) appear in Figs 4 and 5 below. Figure 4 shows the number of completed dictionary entries in orange, rising steadily over a period of 18 months, and the number of occurrences of a known problem: duplicate instances of the same gloss. These duplicates rise along with the number of entries until October 2016, when this issue was added to our diagnostics process, and the encoders were able to address it.


Figure 4: The number of instances of duplicate glosses, tracked against completed entries, in the Nxa?amxcin Dictionary project.

Fig. 5 shows cases of broken cross-references, which also tend to increase along with the number of completed entries, but we can see from the graph that the issue was aggressively addressed in two separate campaigns in fall 2015 and summer 2016. New instances continue to appear, however.


Figure 5: The number of broken cross-references, tracked against completed entries.

Fig. 6, from a different project, shows how this approach can be used to forecast completion dates for tasks in a project based on the progress rate so far.


Figure 6: Diachronic diagnostics used to project task completion dates.

Conclusion
As Matthew Kirschenbaum (2009) tells us, there “is no more satisfying sequence of characters” than “Done.” The overall purpose of a digital edition project is to finish and publish the edition, and this requires not only that the document-level encoding be valid, but also that the entire dataset be coherent, consistent, and complete. Programmed diagnostics enable projects to enforce coherence and consistency, manage the workflow effectively, and measure their progress towards completeness.

Bibliography
Czaykowska-Higgins, E., Holmes, M., and Kell, S. (2014).

“Using TEI for an Endangered Language Lexical

Resource:    The Nxa?amxcfn Database-Dictionary

Project.” Language Documentation & Conservation 8: 1

37.

Modern Language Association. (2016) “Guidelines for

Editors of Scholarly Editions.” Modern Language

Association. Accessed September 15.

https://www.mla.org/Resources/Research/Surveys-

Reports-and-Other-Documents/Publishing-and-

Scholarship/Reports-from-the-MLA-Committee-on-

Scholarly-Editions/Guidelines-for-Editors-of-Scholarly-

Editions.

Modern Language Association. (2011) “Guiding Questions for Vetters of Scholarly Editions.”. Modern Language Association.    Accessed    October    21.

https://www.mla.org/content/download/3201/81158 /cse_guidelines_2011.pdf.

Jacinto, M. H. , Librelotto, G. R., Ramalho, J. C., and Henriques, P. R. (2002). “Constraint specification languages: comparing XCSL, Schematron and XML-Schemas.”

http://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/handle/1822/61

9.

Kirschenbaum, M. (2009). “Done: Finishing Projects in the Digital Humanities.” DHQ 3    (2).

http://digitalhumanities.org:8081/dhq/vol/3/2/0000

37/000037.html.

International Symposium on Quality Assurance and Quality Control in XML (2012) “Proceedings of the International Symposium on Quality Assurance and Quality Control in XML.” August 6,    2012.

http://www.balisage.net/Proceedings/vol9/contents.h tml.

Rahtz, S. (2007). “Technology Overview and Discussion: Data Capture, Editing, and Schemas.” Oxford, February 13. http://tei.it.ox.ac.uk/Talks/2007-02-13-oucs/talk-editing.xml.

Sternbach, R., and Okuda, M. (1991). Star Trek, the next Generation: Technical Manual. New York: Pocket Books. http://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/24648 561.html.

Vorthmann, S., and Robie, J. 2001. “Beyond Schemas: Schema Adjuncts and the Outside World.” Markup Languages: Theory & Practice 2 (3): 281-94.

Waldt, D. 2012. “Quality Assurance in the XML World: Beyond Validation.” Accessed September 15. http://www.balisage.net/Proceedings/vol9/author-pkg/Waldt01/BalisageVol9-Waldt01.html.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/140/140.pdf",""
"3851","18","Prosodic Clustering via Cosine Similarity of Sound Sequence Inventories","10","Much of the discourse on music and rhythm before

the time of the Minnesänger (‘love singers', composers of German love poetry and songs around 1200) considers Lätin chänt. Alberic of Monte Cässino, äc-tive one century earlier than the Minnesänger, was the first to äddress rhythmic poetry in ä music theory context in his treatise De rithmis, but he crucially does not mention rhyme, preferring to distinguish differing treatments of syllable length (Davis, 1966; Fassler, 1987). Not until the 12th and 13th centuries do treatises emerge elevating rhyme as integral to rhythm (Mari, 1899). A clear trend emerges in the period directly preceding MHG’s Blütezeit (intense period of literary production)—theorists deemphasize syllable length in favor of a greater emphasis on syllable count and rhyme. After the Minnesanger, the Meistersinger (‘master singers') of the German early modern period believed they were continuing the famed tradition of the medieval Minnesanger by focusing their art on syllable count and placement (Marz, 2000). For the Meistersinger, this focus was less a reflection of the increasing emphasis on music in poetic texts beginning in the 14th century, and more a method to reproduce the work of the medieval poets as closely as possible.

Unfortunately, we know very little about rhythm and sound in vernacular German poetry between these Latin treatises and the songs of the Meistersinger. Yet as both surrounding periods point to the syllable as fundamental to the composition of rhythmic poetry, we suggest the syllable as a rich source of formal information, both aesthetic and stylistic, which can serve as a formal alternative to common lexical methods in quantitative analyses, and which can help disambiguate the tension between form and content when subsequently compared to lexical methods. Although the broader project encompasses several analyses of sound and rhythm, this paper focuses on one application in particular—contrasting and visualizing the different uses of prosodic sound in the medieval

German corpus (written in a stage of the language referred to as Middle High German (MHG)) through cosine similarity measurements of prosodic feature sequence tfidf (term frequency inverse document frequency) matrices.

Fortunately, although no unambiguous accounts of MHG rhythm survive, the manuscripts do provide phonologic evidence. We know the language of MHG had vowels of varying sonority, was structured in syllables, and was composed of words, regardless of the dialect or orthography (Paul et al., 2007). While we know that long vowels, and thus varying heavy syllables, did exist, we cannot be sure how the authors intended them in verse. Metrical systems have also been theorized, but orthographic variation in long vowels and theoretical disputes allow only limited, though productive, investigations (Estes and Hench, 2016).

To consider rhythm and sound broadly across the entire MHG corpus we turn to a relatively simple NLP technique in calculating the cosine similarity between tfidf inventories of texts. Yet our ‘terms' are not words, but rather syllable features. For guidance, we

turn to biology and new methods for clustering DNA

sequences (Volkovich et al. 2005; Tomovic et al. 2006; Maetschke et al. 2016). A technique employed in this scholarship takes n-gram samples of DNA strands. Similarly, we propose taking n-gram samples of prosodic features, primarily syllable features (closed ‘C', open ‘O', and word boundaries ‘-‘), and constructing something resembling a tfidf matrix. Because our syllabification methodology is a combination of the sonority sequencing principle (Jesperson, 1904) and onset maximization and legal initials (Venneman, 1995), our syllabification method does not bias a dialect or orthography, but is accurate for most variants of MHG (Estes and Hench, 2016). Our features are coded as below:

Ein ritter so geleret was, (Der Arme Heinrich, l. 1-2)

C-CC-O-OOC-C-X

daz er an den buochen las,

(“There was a knight so learned, that he read in the books”)

C-C-C-C-OC-C-1

Where ‘C' is a closed syllable (ends in a consonant), and ‘O' is an open syllable (ends in a vowel). Hyphens for word boundaries account for the stress-initial tendency of MHG. Numbers at the end of a line mark end-rhyme; the number is how many lines back the rhyme was seen and an ‘X' stands for the beginning of a rhyme pair (it was not seen in the past lines). All sequences for a text are then joined:

C-CC-O-OOC-C-X-C-C-C-C-OC-C-1 [...]

N-grams with an n of 10 are taken from this long

string, going between lines for coherency, resulting in a tfidf feature matrix with feature strings of length 10.

Most choices of n yield similar results; a lower n simply results in a higher degree of similarity between every text. With every increase of n, this similarity inevitably decreases. An n of 10 allows for sequences of around three to four words to be compared across texts.

A match between the MHG epics Parzival and Tristan illustrates these features:

1st zwlvel herzen nachgebur

(“If the heart lives with doubt”,) (Parzival l. 1)

C-OC-CC-COC-Xvon sinen schulden ungemach

([which had] suffered due to him) (Tristan l. 769)

C-OC-CC-COC-X

This match implies that the number of words and syllables per word are the same, the syllable quality patterning is the same, and importantly, the rhyme is the leading rhyme (in a pair). Because the sequence matches for 13 features including word boundaries, this will create three additional matches in the tfidf inventories when the 10-gram samples are taken. While these two lines also happen to share the same scansion in the Heusler tradition, we cannot assume that every match also bears the same scansion, as more than phonology dictates metrical value (Heu-sler, 1956). A visualization of these cosine similarity relationships between 595 verse texts from the Mittelhochdeutsche Begriffsdatenbank is available at http://mhg-sound.appspot.com (MHDBDB, 2016).’

One may object: what if this method does not abstract enough? What if the syllable sequences texts share are exact lexical matches? In order to determine to what degree this prosodic sequencing approach is lexically driven, we undertake two separate measures: 1) correlation and rank correlation between the suggested formal method and a traditional lexical method, and 2) on the basis of two sample texts, we remove every possible lexical match in the inventory of sound DNA matches via a Levenshtein distance threshold, and recalculate the cosine similarities.

To account for genre intertexualities or formulas affecting this measure we take a prototypical Arthurian romance Iwein and its 10 most similar texts. When considering texts between an oral and written culture it is important to recognize formulaic language as influential on genre, a field pioneered by Adam Parry and Milman Parry for Homeric verse (Parry and Parry, 1971); in the Germanic tradition Franz Bauml (Bauml, 1972; 1976). For each n-gram sequence match in Iwein to each of the 10 most similar texts, we evaluate the corresponding lexical strings of the matching prosodic sequences with the Levenshtein ratio (the Levenshtein ratio is defined by the Le-venshtein distance (edit distance) divided by the alignment length), if the ratio is > .85, the prosodic sequence is removed from Iwein, e.g., ‘wlp unde man h."" ~ ‘wip unde man ze’ has a Levenshtein ratio > .85, so all sequences of ‘-C-CO-C-XO’ are removed from Iwein. Removing sequences of close lexical matches in Iwein removes 40.65% of the prosodic sequence feature strings, yet correlation of text cosine similarities before and after removal remains high at .991, and top 10 and top 20 overlap are 60% and 70% respectively, implying that text similarities are not primarily lexically driven, though lexical similarities still account for many of the mutual sequences.

To investigate this further and disambiguate the relationship between form and content, the correlation (Pearson’s and Spearman’s) is calculated between the similarity ranks of the prosodic sequencing method and ranks of a traditional lexical method using lemmata unigrams (r .624 (rank .640)), bigrams (r .799 (rank .801)), and trigrams (r .834 (rank .839)). While these coefficients are high, the main concern are the nearest neighbors, a top 20 overlap of the two methods reveals a slightly different picture: unigrams (21.8%), bigrams (32.6%), and trigrams (36.2%). These results suggest that while form and content in MHG together contribute to what one may call ‘genre’, a large share of this grouping may be similarities in form derived from the prosodic sequencing features.

Which texts exhibit the most similar and most different rank similarities between the two methods? The top 20 overlap argues that the best-matched texts in form and content are Heinrich von Veldeke’s Ene-ide, Konrad von Wurzburg’s Herzmaere, and Gottfried von StraEburg’s Tristan. Interestingly, most texts in the top 10 for being best-matched are those most studied by scholars historically, and are broadly considered founders of the genre. In contrast, the most mismatched texts in form and content are Konrad’s Der Ritterspiegel, Die Klage der Kunst, and the anonymous Lohengrin (none of the top 20 most similar texts measured by form are the same as the top 20

texts measured by content). Severe mismatch is often an intentional aesthetic strategy, made famous by

Wolfram in Willehalm and Titurel, producing what

Christoph März calls a “Verfremdungseffekt”, or defamiliarization effect, per Shklovsky (Marz, 1999:

327).

Bibliography

Aue, H. von (2004). Der Arme Heinrich. Gregorius; Der Arme Heinrich; Iwein. 1. Aufl. (Bibliothek Des Mittelalters Bd. 6). Frankfurt am Main: Deutscher

Klassiker Verlag.

Bäuml, F. H. (1986). The Oral Tradition and Middle High German Literature. Oral Tradition, 1: 398-445.

Bäuml, F. H. and Bruno, A. M. (1972). Weiteres zur mUn-dlichen Uzberlieferung des Nibelungenliedes. Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift Für Literaturwissenschaft Und Geistesgeschichte, 46: 479-93.

Davis, H. H. (1966). The “De rithmis” of Alberic of Monte Cassino: A Critical Edition. Mediaeval Studies, 28: 198227.

Estes, A. and Hench, C. (2016). Supervised Machine Learning for Hybrid Meter. Proceedings of the Fifth Workshop on Computational Linguistics for Literature, NAACL-HLT

2016: 1.

Fassler, M. E. (1987). Accent, Meter, and Rhythm in Medieval Treatises ‘De rithmis'. The Journal of Musicology, 5(2): 164-90.

Gottfried (1843). Tristan und Isolt. (Dichtungen Des Deutschen Mittelalters Bd. 2). Leipzig: Göschen.

Heusler, A. (1956). Deutsche Versgeschichte: Mit Einschluss des Altenglischen und Altnordischen Stabreimverses. 2 unveränderte Aufl. Vol. 2. (Grundriss Der Germanischen Philologie 8). Berlin: W. De Gruyter.

Jespersen, O. (1904). Lehrbuch der Phonetik. Leipzig, Teubner.

Levenshtein, V. I. (1966). Binary Codes Capable of Correcting Deletions, Insertions and Reversals. Soviet Physics Doklady, 10: 707.

Maetschke, S. R., Kassahn, K. S., Dunn, J. A., Han, S.-P., Curley, E. Z., Stacey, K. J. and Ragan, M. A. (2010). A visual framework for sequence analysis using n-grams and spectral rearrangement. Bioinformatics, 26(6): 737-44.

Mari, G. (1899). I Trattati Medievali Di Ritmica Latina. . Vol. 11. U. Hoepli.

März, C. (1999). Metrik, eine Wissenschaft zwischen Zahlen und Schwarmen?. In Muller, J.-D. and Wenzel, H. (eds), Mittelalter: Neue Wege Durch Einen Alten Kontinent. Stuttgart: Hirzel.

März, C. (2000). Der Silben Zall, der Chunsten Grunt. Die gezahlte Silbe in Sangspruch und Meistergang. Zeitschrift Für Deutsche Philologie, 119(2000): 73-84.

Mittelhochdeutsche Begriffsdatenbank (MHDBDB). Univer-sitat Salzburg. Koordination: Margarete Springeth.

Technische Leitung: Nikolaus Morocutti/Daniel Schlager.    1992-2017.    URL:

http://www.mhdbdb.sbg.ac.at/ (2016).

Parry, M. and Milman, A. (1971). The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Paul, H., Klein, T., Solms, H.-J. and Wegera, K.-P. (2007). Mittelhochdeutsche Grammatik. Tubingen: Niemeyer.

Tomovic, A., Janicic, P. and Keselj, V. (2006). N-Gram-based classification and unsupervised hierarchical clustering of genome sequences. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 81(2): 137-153.

Vennemann, T. (1995). Der Zusammenbruch der Quantitat im Spatmittelalter und sein Einfluß auf die Metrik. Quantitätsproblematik und Metrik. (Amsterdamer Beiträge zur alteren Germanistik 42.1995). Amsterdam: Rodopi.

Volkovich, Z., Kirzhner, V., Bolshoy, A., Nevo, E. and Korol, A. (2005). The method of N-grams in large-scale clustering of DNA texts. Pattern Recognition, 38(11): 1902-12.

Wolfram, Lachmann, K., Nellmann, E. and Kuhn, D.

(1994). Parzival.    1 Aufl. (Bibliothek deutscher

Klassiker 110). Frankfurt am Main: Deutscher Klassiker Verlag.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/141/141.pdf",""
"3852","18","An Automated Approach to Model the Transformation Process of the Reuse of Bernard de Clairvaux: How Do Lexical Resources help?","9","Abstract
To fortify the research of automated, historical text reuse detection, it is necessary to investigate the way in which a text is reused (e.g., verbatim, paraphrased) in order to understand the broader context of a reuse. Our long-term goal is to build a formal theory behind reuse transformations. We have previously investigated two datasets of Bible reuse to analyze how reuse is modified and how linguistic resources support this. In this work, we investigate the ratio of non-literal text reuse, and we measure to which extent the Ancient Greek WordNet—which also contains Latin WordNet— and BabelNet can support identifying lexical relations in Latin reuse excerpts. In doing so, we also show the lack and need of resources for ancient data.

Introduction
The automated detection of historical text reuse is still in its early stages. To reinforce its research, it is necessary to investigate the way a text is reused in order to understand the broader context. Here is where the necessity of lexical resources supporting this task comes in, especially when a text is nonliterally reused, and words are substituted with semantic equivalents, such as synonyms or other semantically similar words. Our long-term goal is to formally model reuse transformations. The analysis of the amount and type of substitutions of words with lexically related words enables insights into how text is reused. Applying these insights into future development of detection methods helps to improve them. We have previously investigated two datasets of Bible reuse, trying to understand how reuse is modified (when operations are performed on word pairs) and how linguistic resources support this task. To achieve this, we need to study more and different cases of reuse. In this short paper, we propose and report on work that extends the number of reuse excerpts we investigated in previous work (Moritz et al., 2016), and take another linguistic resource, BabelNet into account. We aim at investigating the current state of lexical resources' support for a Latin reuse dataset. We compare the support we can get from an additional lexical resource to previous results. Specifically, we investigate BabelNet (BN) (Navigli and Ponzetto, 2012), a multiple resource network pulling from different sources, and we compare the reuse detection support (how many words are covered) between BN and Ancient Greek WordNet (AGWN) (Bizzoni et al., 2014), which also contains Latin WordNet (Minozzi, 2009). Both are recently developed resources and the most common for the Latin language. BabelNet is produced from a range of different, contemporary sources, such as Wikipedia and Wikidata. We are interested in the extent to which BabelNet is able to cover words and relations from an ancient reuse dataset. We are especially curious about what words are still supported by current resources. Our ultimate goal is to simulate a transformation process that also supports nonliteral reuse. This can help to model the changes that were applied to an ancient text during its reuse history.

Background

The field of automatically detecting historical text

reuse is still in its early stages. To date, Buchler (2013) combines state-of-the-art NLP techniques to address reuse detection scenarios for historical texts, ranging from near copies to text excerpts with a minimal overlap, using a method, which selects n-grams from an upfront pre-segmented corpus. While the approach can discover historical and modern text reuse language-independently, it requires a minimal text similarity. Recognizing modified reuse is difficult in general. Alzahrani et al. (2012) study plagiarism detection techniques, such as n-gram-, syntax-, and semantics-based approaches. However, as soon as reused text is modified (e.g., word substitution), most systems fail. Finally, lexical resources support the identification of relationships between words, but they are not free from issues (Jing, 1998) that can appear when they are used to adapt a general lexicon to a specific domain (Miller et al., 1990).

Data

Our dataset contains excerpts from twelve works—mainly sermons and treaties (Literature)— and two work collections—sermons and letters— from the Latin writer Bernard of Clairvaux (c.f.,

Moritz et al., 2016). All those texts come from the

Sources Chrétiennes collection (c.f., Mellerin, 2014) (changes in format and orthography may be inserted by the editor). The Biblindex project (Mellerin, 2014) extracted over thousand Bible reuse exerpts from these works, each of which points to a Bible verse. We use the Latin Bible from Biblindex, called Biblia sacra juxta vulgatam versionem (Weber R., 1969) to link the excerpts to the respective Bible verses. We come up with 1,128 unique reuse-to-bible-verse pairs. Table 1 shows one example.

Bible verse

Bernard reuse

Proverbs 18 3

impius cum in profundum venerit peccatorum contemnit sed sequitur eum ignominia et obprobrium

Impius , cum venerit in profundurr contemnit

i malorum .

English

The wicked man, when he has come into the depth of sin

s, The wicked man, when he has come into the

despises: but ignominy and reproach follow him.

depth of evils, despises

Table 1: Example of reuse

Methodology
We use AGWN, which is automatically constructed from Greek-English digitized lexicons, which again were provided by the Perseus Project (Crane, 1985) and also aligns to Minozzis Latin

WordNet (Minozzi, 2009). BabelNet (Navigli and Ponzetto, 2012) is a multilingual semantic network that integrates lexicographic and encyclopedic knowledge from WordNet (Fellbaum, 1998), Wikipedia, and others. We further use lemma lists from the Biblindex project, as well as the Latin lemma list from the Classical Language Toolkit (CLTK), which is available in the online GitHub repository of the CLTK (Johnson et al., 2014 2016), to increase the hit rate when querying both resources.

To model the transformation in-between two text excerpts, we define replacement operations (OPs) (see Table 2) that represent the transformation of a reuse to the Bible verse it refers to, as well as an algorithm that identifies those operations between word pairs of a reuse and a Bible verse in a prioritized order. Our algorithm first finds all possible operations for a reuse word, and then applies the most literal operation using the counterpart Bible verse word, which fulfills this operation. This means that if no perfectly or lemmatized matching word is found, relationships of semantic closeness (such as synonyms) for a given word are retrieved. We call the group of semantic operations non-literal operations (c.f., Table 3). We apply our algorithm (which identifies the operations) on Bernard's reuse, first using the relationships queried from AGWN and second, using BabelNet. Afterwards, we show which operations are identified, and calculate a support value for both processes.

operation


NOP(reuse-Word, orig-word) upperf reuse-word, orig-word) lower(reuse-word, orig-word) lem(reuse-word, orig-word) repLsyn(reuse-Word, orig-word) repLhyper(reuse-word, orig-word) repl-hypo(reuse-word, orig-word) repl-co-hypo(reuse-word, orig-word)


description

Original and reuse word are equal.

Word is lowercase in reuse and uppercase in original.

Word is uppercase in reuse and lowercase in original. Lemmatization leads to equality of reuse and original.

Reuse word replaced with a synonym to match original word. Word in bible verse is a hyperonym of the reused word.

Word in bible verse is a hyponym of the reused word.

Reused word and original have the same hyperonym.

lemnut-missingfreuse-word, orig-word) Lemma unknown for reuse or original word.

no^elfoundfreuse word, orig-word) Relation for reuse or original word not found in word net.

example

NOP(maledictus, maledictus) upper(filio, Filio) lowerfGloriam, gloriam) lem)pénétrât, pene trahit) repLsyn)magnificavit, glorificavit) hyperfcupit, Habens) hypo(dederit, toilet) repl-co-hypo(magnificavit, fecit)


lemma-missing(tentari, inlectus) no je I found) gloria, arguitur)


Table 2: List of operations and corresponding examples (cf. Moritz et al., 2016)

Results
Table 3 shows the identified operations. Using

AGWN, we encounter a high ratio of synonyms (repl_syn), a lot of co-hyponyms and a significant number of hyperonyms and hyponyms. With BabelNet these figures are about a tenth as high. Table 3 shows that the values for NOP, lower and lem (matching words, and words with same lemma) slightly differ in-between both word nets. This is caused by a design decision of our algorithm, which pragmatically permits to reassign a word when it already was used in an association with an earlier word.

literal

NOP upper lower lem |

non-literal

repl-syn repLhyper repLhypo repLco-hypo | r

unclassified

io rel-found lenunissing

total

AGWN 4521

1    396

770 1

397    125    124

316

2470

450

19570

BN    4524

1    397

771

25    21    36

112

3233

450

9570

Table 3: Absolute numbers of operations identified

Fig. 1 shows that AGWN outperforms BabelNet in identifying semantic relations, which represent nonliteral text reuse, because these ratios are much lower for BabelNet than for AGWN. We further encounter three significant descents: between 0% and 10%, 30% and 40%, and 50% and 60%. Looking into samples deeply, we find three patterns: i) the more semantic related words are replaced in a reuse, the more likely it is an allusion or analogy, and the less paraphrased or verbatim it is; ii) short allusions are better covered by the Latin synsets than paraphrases with a high ratio of semantic related words; iii) paraphrases with a high literal ratio are covered best. We summarize that both word nets cover paraphrased reuse to a certain extent of replaced words, and AGWN better identifies allusions.


ratio of non-literal operations in reuse in %

Figure 1: Ratio of non-literal (semantic) operations, aggregated in 10%-steps in relation to the whole reuse length. The reuse number is displayed logarithmically due to clarity reasons.

Lastly, we calculate a support value, which determines the ratio of non-literal operations (c.f., Table 3) compared to them including unsuccessful resource look-ups (no_rel_found) in both, AGWN and

BN. For AGWN this value is about 28%, for BabelNet about 6%. Both values are to be understood as lower bounds, because often there is no reasonable relationship in-between two words.

Even if BN coverage is poor, its results tell us, which words of a dataset of medieval, Biblical Latin and Latin of the church fathers are prevailed in a current resource. Some examples are words such as gloria (glory) (contained in 17 synsets), corona (crown) (contained in 10 synsets), or nemo (nobody) (contained in 4 synsets).

Conclusion

We identified the ratio of non-literal reuse in a Latin dataset and showed the support of two lexical resources. Our results show that language resources for Latin reuse are limited and that only a small part of the required coverage is supported. This result raises awareness for the lack of resources for ancient data, despite the growth of language resources for modern languages. Our future work includes refining our operation set, analyzing more languages, increasing the size of our datasets, and investigating probability measures for those data in lexical hierarchies. Since lexical resources will never completely cover the vocabulary at hand, we further consider the application of a form of word embedding.

Acknowledgements

We thank Laurence Mellerin for providing the dataset we used, and for advice on its content. Our work is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (grant 01UG1509).

Bibliography

Alzahrani, S. M., Salim, N., and Abraham, A. (2012).

Understanding plagiarism linguistic patterns, textual

features, and detection methods. Trans. Sys. Man

Cyber Part C, 42(2):133-149.

Bizzoni, Y., Boschetti, F., Diakoff, H., Del Gratta, R.,

Monachini, M., and Crane, G. (2014). The making of

Ancient Greek WordNet. In Proceedings of the Ninth

International Conference on Language Resources and

Evaluation (LREC'14), Reykjavik, Iceland. European

Language Resources Association (ELRA).

Büchler, M. (2013). Informationstechnische Aspekte des Historical Text Re-use (English: Computational Aspects of Historical Text Re-use. Ph.D. thesis, Leipzig University, Germany).

Crane,    G.    (1985).    Perseus digital library.

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/.

Fellbaum, C. (1998). WordNet: An electronic lexical database: Bradford book.

Jing, H. (1998). Usage of WordNet in natural language generation. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Usage of WordNet in Natural Language Processing Systems (COLING-ACL'98). Columbia University Academic Commons.

Johnson, K.P., Burns P.J., Hollis, L., Pozzi, M., Shilo, A.,

Margheim, S., Badger, G., and Bell, E. (2014-2016).

Cltk: The classical language toolkit. https://github.com/cltk/cltk.

Mellerin, L. (2014). New ways of searching with

Biblindex, the online index of biblical quotations in early Christian literature. In Claire Clivaz, Andrew

Gregory, and David Hamidovic, editors, Digital

Humanities in Biblical, Early Jewish and Early Christian Studies, chapter 11, pages 175-192. Brill, Leiden.

Miller, G.A., Beckwith, R., Fellbaum, C., Gross, D., and Miller, K.J. (1990). Introduction to WordNet: An online lexical database. International Journal of Lexicography (special issue), 3(4):235-312.

Minozzi, S.    (2009).    Innsbrucker Beitrge zur

Sprachwissenschaft, volume 137, chapter The Latin WordNet Project, pages 707-716. Institut für

Sprachen und Literaturen der Universität Innsbruck, Innsbruck.

Moritz, M., Wiederhold, A., Pavlek, B., Bizzoni, Y., and

Büchler, M. (2016). Non-literal text reuse in historical

texts: An approach to identify reuse transformations and its application to bible reuse. In Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP'16), Austin, TX, USA. Association for Computational Linguistics.

Navigli, R., and Ponzetto, S. P. (2012). Babelnet: The

automatic construction, evaluation and application of a wide-coverage multilingual semantic network. Artif. Intell. 193:217-250.

Weber, R., Gribomont, J., Fischer, B., Eds. (1969) 1969,

1994, 2007. Biblia Sacra Juxta Vulgata Versionen. Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/142/142.pdf",""
"3853","18","Citational Politics: Quantifying Impact in Digital Scholarship in the Humanities","10","","","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/144/144.pdf",""
"3854","18","“Tasso in Music Project: Digital Edition of the Settings of Torquato Tasso’s Poetry, ca. 1570-1640”","2","The Tasso in Music Project, currently funded by an NEH Scholarly Editions Grant (2016-2019), is an open-access and interactive digital platform that allows music historians, performers, and literary scholars to access and analyze late 16th- and early 17th-century settings of poetry by Torquato Tasso, arguably the most prominent literary figure of early modern Italy. The project has been realized by a team of scholars from North America and Europe, with the technical support of Stanford University's Center for Computer Assisted Research in the Humanities (CCARH) and UMass Amherst. Upon its completion, the Tasso in Music Project aims to provide upon critical editions of the about 650 extant musical settings of Tasso's poetry, the vast majority of which have never been edited before. These settings represent the work of over 100 composers from a variety of geographic areas and with different musical styles, and as such provide a snapshot of secular vocal music in an age in which it underwent profound transformations. In

addition, these settings shed light on Tasso's

extraordinary influence on the music of his time- an aspect of his reception that has received surprisingly little attention to date.

The editions, which constitute one of the largest digital repositories of Italian madrigals and related genres, are encoded with Humdrum software tailored specifically for the project by Stanford's CCARH. The editions are presented on the project's website in a variety of electronic formats, such as MEI, MuseData, MusicXML, MIDI, and PDF, among others. They can also be visualized online using Verovio, a recently developed SVG viewer for music encodings. The editions are accompanied by dynamic, in-score critical notes and by music and textual search tools developed by Stanford's CCARH that facilitate analysis of this repertoire. Some of these search tools- such as single pitch and melodic or rhythmic pattern- draw on CCARH's work for the Josquin Research Project, a platform for the analysis of Renaissance music that has received wide recognition in the early music community. Other tools are unique to the project, including those that allow users to run combined musical/textual and vertical sonority searches that are crucial for the study of this particular repertoire.

The platform also features a substantial textual component, with TEI transcriptions of the poetic texts as they appear in the musical settings and in contemporaneous literary sources, both manuscript and printed. The textual apparatus allows for a dynamic visualization of literary variants, thus facilitating the collation of different sources. Thanks to this feature, the project will become an indispensable resource for literary scholars interested in the tradition and transmission of Tasso's poetry, as well as for music historians interested in tracking the literary sources from which composers may have drawn the texts they set to music.

The Tasso in Music Project addresses an interdisciplinary audience, bringing together two institutions invested in the development of digital platforms for musical and humanistic research as well as a group of scholars from the North America and Europe who form the project's editorial and advisory boards. As such, the project may serve as a model for institutional cooperation, opening avenues for interdisciplinary approaches to the creation of digital databases of music and poetry from the late Renaissance and early Baroque periods.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/145/145.pdf",""
"3855","18","The Shape of History: Reimagining Nineteenth-Century Data Visualization","9","Introduction
In the mid-1850s, American educator and editor Elizabeth Peabody (1804-1894) set off from Boston to ride the rails. She traveled as far north as Rochester, NY; as far west as Louisville, KY; and as far south as Richmond, VA, in order to promote the textbook she had recently published, A Chronological History of the United States (1856). Along with her suitcase, Peabody traveled with a large fabric roll, which, when unrolled, displayed a grid-like array of colored squares that represented the major events in U.S. history. In the nineteenth-century version of a product demo, Peabody would arrange the “painted centuries,” as she called them, on the floor, and invite potential textbook adopters to sit around the charts and contemplate the colors and patterns that they perceived (9).

Although not described in terms of visualization--the term did not enter common parlance until the early twentieth century--Peabody’s ideas about the uses of her charts anticipate many of the benefits associated with visualization today: the ability to “offload” mental processing “from cognitive to perceptual systems,” to “enhance” pattern recognition through “abstraction and aggregation,” and, crucially, to interact with and potentially “manipulate” the visualization itself (Card et al. 1999, 16). For Peabody did not only imagine that her readers would interpret the “data” presented on her charts; she also intended for them to create charts of their own. To this end, Peabody also sold workbooks of blank charts, so that students could read each chapter of her textbook, and then convert the list of events that followed into color and position, according to her visual scheme.


Figure 1: Peabody's visualization of the significant events of the seventeenth century. In A Chronological History of the United States, arranged with plates on Bem’s principle (New

York: Sheldon, Blakeman, 1856).


Figure 2: A blank chart included in The Polish-American System of Chronology: Reproduced, with some modifications, from General Bem’s Franco-Polish method (New York: G.P. Putnam, 1850).

Project Overview

Drawing from recent digital humanities work relating to historical fabrication (e.g. Elliott et al. 2012, Sayers 2015), as well as from our own previous explorations of historical visualization techniques (e.g. Foster et al. 2016), we set out to recreate and enhance Peabody’s pioneering visual design. In particular, we focused on Peabody’s ideas about interaction and interpretation, since her ideas about the tripartite relation between data, text, and image-- and the role of the reader in translating between each-- speak directly to current debates in the digital humanities about the importance of acknowledging data as “capta” (Drucker 2011), and of recognizing the role of individual interpretation in both the design and reception of visualizations (Posner 2016). In our project, we focused first on reimagining Peabody’s original interaction for the web, employing current information visualization research to suggest techniques for emphasizing the interrelation between the data and their visual display. We then began a project to recreate the floor-sized version of Peabody’s chart using physical computing materials, so as to further explore the embodied aspects of Peabody’s visualization scheme. In the following sections, we describe the design choices involved in each recreation-- the digital and the physical-- with particular attention to how we sought to amplify Peabody’s ideas about interaction, interpretation, and embodiment through our reimagined interfaces.

The Shape of History: Reimagining

Interaction and Interpretation for the Web

The website located at shapeofhistory.net represents the culmination of a year-long iterative design process. From Peabody's original textbook, we distilled four conceptual modes of interaction: an “explore” mode, designed to explain to novice users how to interpret her charts, and how to translate between text and image; a “lesson” mode, designed to allow users to create their own charts, drawing upon Peabody's original data; a “compare” mode, designed to call attention to how choices in visual display affect the charts' ultimate interpretation; and a “play” mode, intended to facilitate the most open-ended form of interaction and expression. To implement the site, we employed a combination of HTML5, CSS, and JavaScript, including Bootstrap.js for site structure, jQuery for navigation and site-level interaction, and D3.js and two.js (along with custom JavaScript) for the visualization components.

At each juncture, we considered how to enhance Peabody's original designs and interactions. For instance, when recreating the grid that would serve as the primary typographical form, we remained faithful to the original design and color palette, while adding additional minor grid lines (in light gray) so that users would know where to click (White 2011). In order to emphasize the relation between text and image, an important feature of both the “explore” and “compare” modes, we added a simple interaction, known as “brushing,” so that hovering over a single event in either the text or the image would simultaneously highlight both elements, as well as the corresponding location on the chart's key (Stasko 2007). For the “lesson” mode, we augmented the features developed for the other two modes with a more guided experience, akin to the lesson that Peabody described in her textbook, through proceduralized interaction (Bogost 2007). In the lesson, users must read each event, one at a time, translate it into color, and then place the colored square in the appropriate location on the grid. Through enhanced user cues, such as converting the cursor to a pointer as it hovers over the grid, and highlighting empty squares as the user hovers over them, users are guided through a digital version of the interactive lesson that Peabody envisioned in print.


Figure 3: A screenshot of the “Explore” mode, with an event

from 1565 highlighted. Viewable at

http://www.shapeofhistory.net/.

Reimagining Peabody's historical visualization scheme for the web helps to underscore how she understood interpretation as a fundamental part of the process of perceiving visualizations. Her visual design bears very little relation to the immediately intuitive images that we associate with visualization today. And yet, for Peabody, the abstraction of the chart was part of its purpose; she intended her charts to be individually interpreted by each person who encountered them. More than that, she envisioned her charts as lessons in themselves--lessons that often took time and effort in order to complete. In this way, the interactions she envisioned, while made quicker and more intuitive through their digital recreation, lose some of their original intent, in that Peabody did not identify efficiency as a feature of her designs. Instead, she viewed the interpretive process--sometimes difficult

and often slow-- as the best source of historical

knowledge. The “lesson” of The Shape of History, as

distinct from Peabody's original scheme, is a reminder of how little interpretation is intended-- even if it is still required--when encountering visualizations of data today.

The Floor Chart: Reimagining Embodiment through Physical Computing

While the digital version of the project emphasizes Peabody's interest in facilitating interaction and interpretation, it does not convey the embodied aspects of the original interaction; looking at a screen is a far different experience than walking around a rug-sized chart on the floor. To reimagine this embodied mode of interaction, we designed a one-meter by one-meter floor chart, consisting of a matrix of thirty by thirty individually addressable light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Each LED corresponds to one subsection of

Peabody's original chart, so that the 900 possible events can be represented. (We cannot account for multiple simultaneous events, however). The LEDs can be pre-programmed via custom software, which makes use of Adafruit's NeoPixel library. We are also in the process of developing a flexible touch interface, using conductive copper tape and neoprene, so that the LEDs can be controlled through a soft button-like interaction. Both the LEDs and the touch interface are controlled by an Arduino Mega 2560 microcontroller.


Figure 4. The LED matrix.


Figure 5: The touch interface in progress.

We view this project as one of speculative design

(Dunne and Raby 2013). Since Peabody's original

floor charts were not preserved, we must speculate about everything from the size of the chart, to the colors employed, to the events depicted. While we have textual accounts, in Peabody's correspondence, of how nineteenth-century viewers would interact with the floor charts, the original charts were obviously not programmable. What the reimagined floor chart teach us, then, is about how we might incorporate embodied elements into current visualization design practices, as much as about how viewers interacted with large-scale visualizations in the past. It also reminds us about the labor involved in fabricating the original charts. (Peabody complained about the magnitude of the task in her correspondence). The work of data visualization, while not always expressed in physical form, is always the work of many hands.

Conclusions and Next Steps

In their foundational essay on historical fabrication, Devon Elliott et al. observe that “working with actual, physical stuff offers the historian new opportunities to explore the interactions of people and things” (2012). In this project, we have sought to extend these opportunities for exploration to include the interactions of people with data, as well as with their visual display. Our project underscores the foundational role of interpretation in designing and perceiving visualizations; and shows how interaction is crucial to the interpretive process. It also points to future modes of visualization, not yet imagined, that might better emphasize embodied ways of knowing. In terms of next steps, for the website, we plan to think through what a more scholarly version of the site, with room for more explanatory text, might look like. For the physicalization, we are continuing to implement the touch interface. From there, we will focus on the aesthetic aspects of the rug, exploring options for light-diffusing fabrics to frame the LEDs, and light-blocking materials to create the grid-lines. Bibliography

Bogost, I. (2007) Persuasive Games: The Expressive Power of Videogames. (2007). MIT Press, Cambridge.

Card, S.K., Mackinlay, J., and Shneiderman, B., eds.

(1999). Readings in Information Visualization: Using Vision to Think, 1st Edition, Morgan Kaufmann, New York.

Drucker, J. (2011). Humanities Approaches to Graphical

Display. Digital Humanities Quarterly 5(1). Web

Dunne, T and Raby, F. (2013). Speculative Everything: Design, Fiction, and Social Dreaming. MIT Press, Cambridge.

Elliott, D., MacDougall, R. and Turkel, W. J. (2012). New Old Things: Fabrication, physical computing, and experiment in historical practice, Canadian Journal of Communication, 37(1). Web.

Foster, C., Pramer, E., Klein, L. (2016). Repairing William Playfair: Digital Fabrication, Design Theory, and the Long History of Data Visualization. In Digital Humanities 2016: Conference Abstracts. Jagiellonian University & Pedagogical University, Kraków, pp. 513-516.

Peabody, E. (1856). Chronological history of the United States, arranged with plates on Bem's principle. Sheldon, Blakeman, New York.

Peabody, E. (1850). The Polish-American System of Chronology: Reproduced, with some modifications, from General Bem's Franco-Polish method. G.P. Putnam, New York.

Posner, M. (2016). What’s Next: The Radical, Unrealized Potential of Digital Humanities. In Debates in the Digital Humanities 2016, ed. Matthew K. Gold and Lauren F. Klein. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. Web.

Rhoda, B. (1999). Elizabeth Palmer Peabody: A Reformer on her Own Terms. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

Sayers, J. (2015). Why Fabricate?, Scholarly and Research Communication, 6(3), n.p.

White, A. (2011). The Elements of Graphic Design, 2nd ed. Allworth Press, New York.

Yi, J.S., Kang, Y., Stasko, J.T., and Jacko, J.A. (2007). Toward a deeper understanding of the role of interaction in information visualization. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 13 (6), pp. 1224-1231.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/146/146.pdf",""
"3856","18","Integrating historical scientific texts into the Bernoulli-Euler Online platform","9","Introduction

Bernoulli-Euler Online (BEOL) is an interdisciplinary research project funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation focusing on the mathematics influenced by the Bernoulli dynasty and Leonhard Euler. It is being carried out by the Bernoulli Euler Centre and the Digital Humanities Lab at the University of Basel. Its main goal is the integration of different edition projects relating to the Bernoullis and Leonhard Euler into one target platform, offering appropriate functionality for researchers interested in the history of science.

The methodological efforts will also be applicable to other editions since they are developed in a generic way. BEOL is based on Knora, a generic infrastructure for humanities data.

BEOL aims at integrating three edition projects, that are currently all technically different and thus incompatible with one another:

• Basler Edition der Bernoulli-Briefwechsel

(BEBB): BEBB is an online edition that is based on the MediaWiki software and hosted by the University Library of Basel. It is connected to the library's metadata catalogue for manuscripts (Basler Inventar der Ber-noulli-Briefwechsel)_ The letters are encoded in Wiki markup and are converted to HTML to represent them on the web. The mathematical formulae are encoded in LaTeX.

•    Leonhardi Euleri Opera Omnia (LEOO): LEOO is a printed edition of the works of Leonhard Euler that was begun in the early 20th century. In the context of BEOL, the volume containing Euler's correspondence with Christian Goldbach (Euler 2015) will be integrated as a proof of concept. This volume has been prepared using LaTeX (as well as the volume with Euler's correspondence with Daniel Bernoulli that has been published recently). We expect to be able to integrate all the other recent volumes set in LaTeX in a similar manner. For the older volumes, the printed books would have to be scanned (including OCR) and marked up.

•    Jacob (I) Bernoulli's scientific notebook Med-itationes: The manuscript is held in the university library of Basel (shelfmark L Ia 3, 367 pages) and has already been digitized. The manuscript consisting of 287 entries is being transcribed at the Bernoulli Euler Centre using XML (The XML format is specified closely to the TEI specifications P5, so it can be transformed quite easily to TEI/XML) for the text and LaTeX for the mathematical notation that is embedded in the XML.

The three edition projects do not only overlap thematically, but also in terms of the persons involved (authors, mentioned persons) and bibliographical items (literature referred to in the texts, references in-between the editions' texts). Letters exchanged between members of the Bernoulli dynasty, Leonhard Euler and contemporary mathematicians and scientists are an important part of these edition projects and thus it is desirable to identify and match the persons in all editions in order to display their relations.

The technical basis for BEOL is Knora, an infrastructure for humanities data (Rosenthaler and others 2015) consisting of an RDF-triplestore, an OWL base ontology, and a RESTful API that allows for querying and adding to the data. The base ontology (see prefix ‘Knora' in Figure 1) defines common value types (such as a calendar independent format to represent dates using the Julian Day Number) used among humanities projects and can be further extended in project specific ontologies. BEOL will provide such an ontology (see prefix ‘BEOL' in Figure 1), defining its own resource classes and properties needed to represent the edition projects' texts and entities. Wherever possible, existing ontologies will be reused by making subclasses and subproperties. BEOL is part of the NIE-INE project, which aims to create a general-purpose infrastructure for digital editions, using Knora as its technical foundation. A focus of this project will be abstracting out concepts shared by different projects and formalising them as ontologies.


Figure 1: BEOL network and its components

Figure 1 represents all relations between persons (We refer to the Integrated Authority File (GND), and in order to represent locations, we will also refer to GeoNames), letters, and manuscripts (we also link to the catalogue of the Basel university library that keeps many of the original copies of the letters and manuscripts of BEOL), as well as their properties as directed graphs. For reasons of clarity, we use a simplified model here. The coloured rectangles indicate that

these have been imported from different edition projects which - considered in isolation - do not allow for this kind of overview. Moreover, indices and bibliographies have to be unified on the BEOL platform (e.g., Christian Goldbach occurs both in BEBB and LEOO). The BEOL platform will be connected to Early Modern Letters Online, so it will be interoperable with other edition projects.

Importing editions to the same target environment

In order to represent all three editions in the same target environment, they have to be homogenised first. We decided to do so using an XML-based approach. This has the additional advantage that we can make both the texts of BEBB and LEOO available as TEI/XML to the outside world quite easily by applying XSL transformations. We can also use the same routine to import the editions into BEOL. Knora converts XML-encoded texts to RDF in order to store them in the triplestore. From RDF, an XML document can be recreated that is equivalent to the one originally imported. A mapping defines the relations between XML elements and attributes and the entities defined in the ontology.

•    BEBB Wiki markup can be transformed to XML using a MediaWiki parse . Wiki tags and structures are mapped to XML tags, and references to other letters, bibliographical items, and images (facsimiles of the letters) can be handled. Once the letters are available on the BEOL platform, the old URLs will have to be forwarded.

•    The Goldbach-volume of LEOO is set in LaTeX and can be converted to XML using La-TeXML. Additional mappings to the available standard functionality and customisations can be provided using Perl scripts. LaTeXML provides a MathML conversion for mathematical formulae.

•    The Meditationes are transcribed in an XML-based format (see LaTeXML). Derived texts of these files can be generated using XSL-transformations. In this way, several layers (diplomatic, normalized) of the text can be produced. Our approach addresses segments defined on the facsimile (see Figure 2) and turns them into a reading text step by step. The figures (see segment ‘M151-03-F' in Figure 2Figure ) will be extracted by applying a combination of various image processing techniques and redrawn as vector graphics.


Figure 2. Part of Meditatio 151


Bibliography

Euler, L. (2015): Leonhardi Euleri Opera Omnia. Vols. IVA/4:

Correspondence of Leonhard Euler with Christian Goldbach, ed. by Martin Mattmüller and Franz Lemmermeyer. Basel 2015.

Rosenthaler, L., et al (2015) Final Report for the Pilot Project “Data and Service Center for the Humanities”. Swiss Academy of Hümanities and Social Sciences. http://www.sagw.ch/dms/sagw/laüfende_pro-jekte/DaSCH/FinalReport-DaSCH_print

One of the main challenges in the BEOL project is the faithful representation of mathematical notation and its relation to the surrounding text (see Figure 2)

using web technologies. At the moment, we are using

MathJax (which accepts both LaTeX and MathML as input formats)_to render the mathematical formulae in the web browser. We also consider MathML as an option, although not all web browsers fully support MathML.

We are aiming at developing a browser based user interface that will be based on the Angular 2 framework (although in the meantime, we are already using Knora's current interface, SALSAH) that not only makes it possible to present the texts on the web and to offer search functionality, but also to add to the data (sufficient permissions provided). The users may create their own annotations on the BEOL platform. Basically, the user interface interacts with the Knora API in order to create new resources, manipulate properties etc. Since BEOL is based on Knora, all of its generic functionality can be used for this purpose.

Conclusion

BEOL integrates three different edition projects into one platform and allows researchers to query previously separated contents and add to them. The specific problems posed by the combination of text and mathematical notation can be addressed in a generic manner. All the functionality to be developed will be part of Knora and can be reused by other projects dealing with scientific texts from mathematics and physics.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/147/147.pdf",""
"3857","18","A Common Conceptual Model For The Study of Poetry In The Digital Humanities","10","Many of the DH approaches to poetry have focused on its metrical aspect (Birnbaum & Thorsen, 2015a, 2015b; Pue, Teal & Brown, 2015; González-Blanco, Martínez Cantón & Rio Riande,

2015). Following Chatman & Levin (1967, p. 142) we could say that meter is a “systematic literary convention whereby certain aspects of the phonology are organized for aesthetic purposes.” In this sense, versification is an abstraction of linguistic phenomena in which words (in their formal and semantical aspect) relate to rhythm and rhyme for artistic purposes. Although many theories about versification and metrics have been developed for different languages and traditions, our work is interested in a structural and formal approach that looks at poetry into discrete units, categories, and their relationships. Thus, we are involved in analysing how metrical repertoires in digital form model those structures.

A digital repertoire of poetry metrics is a catalogue that gives account of the metrical and rhythmical schemes of either a poetical tradition, a period or school, gathering a corpus of poems that are defined and classified by their main characteristics. This kind of repertoires may sometimes contain the text of the poem and information related to authors, manuscripts, editions, music, and other features, all of them related to the poems. In the beginning, repertoires were printed books in which we could find information listed in a way similar to an address book. The digital era has changed the way in which information is displayed allowing the user to perform complex and multiple searches. In all these cases there is an ontological leap when the data is put in digital format.

There are a vast number of European digital

metrical repertoires available online in open access

- e.g. French lyrical collections (Nouveau Naetebus), Italian (BedT), Hungarian (RPHA), Medieval Latin (Corpus Rhythmorum Musicum, Annalecta Hymnica Digitalia), Classical Latin (Pedecerto), Galician-portuguese (Oxford Cantigas de Santa María, MedDB2), Castilian (ReMetCa), Dutch (Dutch Song Database), Occitan (BedT, Poèsie Neotroubadouresque, The last song of the Troubadours), Catalan (Repertori d'obres en vers), Skaldic (Skaldic Project), or German (Lyrik des Minnesänger), among many others. Each one of these metrical repertoires was developed in a specific technology and stores data in its own database. This data is locked in the information silos of each repertoire, not available freely to be compared and used by intelligent machines that could infer over the data. The lack of interoperability between the different digital repertoires dealing with poetry across different languages, literatures and traditions is a problem that needs to be addressed (González-Blanco & Seláf, 2014; González-Blanco, Rio Riande, Martínez Cantón & Martos Pérez, 2014; González-Blanco, E. G., Rio Riande, G.del & Martínez Cantón, C., 2016a). There is an interoperability problem since the technological solutions used for building the database of each digital repertoire employ a different data model.

POSTDATA is a project funded by a Starting Grant of the European Research Council whose main goal is to study European poetry in a comparative and wide context. Its starting point is the analysis of digital metrical repertoires as digital objects that have been developed to expose European poetry on the Web of Documents in open access. POSTDATA is an idea that resulted from previous work developed by a network of partners that own digital metrical repertoires and that have been working together for some years.

The POSTDATA project focuses mainly on the possibilities of Linked Open Data (LOD) technologies in order to publish the data available on information silos in the Web of Data as LOD. A side effect of this project is that not only this network will be able to publish its own data in LOD but also any other entity that owns data related to poetic metrics. Once the data is structured the same way and published in the Web of Data, anyone will be able to deploy new software that uses this data. It will be possible to compare, extrapolate and create new views of the data, opening doors to new knowledge in i) literary research communities since POSTDATA results will enable comparisons of poetic traditions and the creation of new repertoires, and ii) literature learning environments for e.g. the development of editorial projects following the common conceptual model.

LOD technologies are very powerful since one can implement intelligent agents to infer over the data (W3C, 2010). Another advantage of LOD over other paradigms is the infinite possibilities of linking data, allowing agents to rely also on other sources of information to build knowledge.

The first step of POSTDATA is the development of a Metadata Application Profile (MAP) for the community of practice of Digital Humanities that deal with poetry. An MAP is a semantic model, a construct that enhances interoperability (Nilsson, Baker, & Johnston, 2008).

The development of an MAP is a crucial task for

any community of practice. This development

should be structured, and has to integrate -since the early phases of development- elements of representative members of the community. Commonly the organizations of a community of practice differ in organization-type, location, culture and in the language they speak. In poetry studies, all these are key factors, since metrics and their features are based largely on the nature of the languages. In addition, in the case of the Digital Humanities Poetry metrics community, the way metrics has been conceptualised in the different traditions is however diverse, as there are multiple ways of encoding and understanding metrical systems. Finding a common ground of understanding in such an environment becomes a huge challenge. These digital metrical repertoires are the key to build an inclusive MAP for poetry, since they reflect different approaches of conceptualising poetry and their formal features. POSTDATA is using Me4MAP, a method for the development of metadata application profiles (see Curado Malta & Baptista 2013a, 2013b), to develop the referred MAP. According to Me4MAP, the first activities in such a development are “S1 -Developing the Functional Requirements” and “S2 -Developing the Domain Model,” these two activities result, respectively, in the Functional Requirements deliverable and in the Domain Model deliverable. S1 activity feeds S2 activity.

A Domain Model is a conceptual model that is used to explicit the concepts that exist in a certain universe of discourse. The concepts have properties to show how they are defined and related.

As described in Curado Malta, Centenera & Gonzalez-Blanco (2017), the work-team is developing the Domain Model at the same time S1 activities occur, slightly changing the order of S1 and S2. This change is possible since Me4MAP is also under evaluation and testing in a Design Science Research methodological approach -for more information about this process see Curado Malta (2014). This Me4MAP testing is leaded by one of the authors.

The goal of this paper is to present a preliminary version of the Domain Model of the MAP for Poetry - Domain Model V0.1. The following paragraphs give details on how this version of the Domain Model was developed.

The Domain model V0.1 was developed based on the analysis of eleven data models of databases of metrical repertoires (see Table 1) using a reverse engineering technique -for more details about this technique see Curado Malta et al. (2017).

Project

URL

Base de Datos da Lírica profana galego-portuguesa (MedDB)

https://www.cirp.gal/meddb

Cantigas de Santa María

http://csm.mml.ox.ac.uk/

Corpus of Spanish Golden-Age Sonnets

https://github.com/bncolorado/CorpusSonetosSigloDeOro

Corpus Rhythmorum Musicum

http://www.corimu.unisi.it

Kalevala

http://dbgw.finlit.fi/skvr/

Lyrik des hohen Mittelalters

http://www.lhm-online.de

Métrique en Ligne

http://www.crisco.unicaen.fr/verlaine/

Repertorio Métrico Digital de la Poesía Medieval Castellana (ReMetCa)

http://www.remetca.uned.es

Répertoire métrique de la poésie lyrique occitane des troubadours à leurs héritiers (xiiie-xve siècles)

Local Database

Reperrtoire de la Poésie Hangroise Ancienne (RPHA)

http://rpha.elte.hu/

Versologie

http://metro.ucl.cas.cz/kveta

Table 1. Repertoires which databases were used as basis for Domain Model V0.1

These repertoires have different technologies and paradigms: ten are in the Web of Documents and one is deployed locally. The technologies in which the databases are implemented are: 1) MySQL databases, 2) XML databases and files, 3) Perl scripts and, 4) Worksheet files.

The Domain Model of the MAP is represented as an Unified Modeling Language (UML) class diagram that expresses POSTDATA proposal for a common conceptual model for the European Poetry. The Domain Model V0.1 is available at the permanent link https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.437827. The technique used to represent the domain model is UML since it is a standard technique (ISO/IEC 19505-1 and 19505-2) to model businesses and processes very well known in the software engineering community -see Rumbaugh, Jacobson and Booch (2004).

This first version will be tested in a Workshop held in March where partners of the project will follow a hands-on session to test the Domain Model V0.1 using a resource of its own database. POSTDATA will give to each partner a template testing sheet and information about the mapping between the database in question and the Domain Model. The conclusions of the testing and of other workshop discussions will feed the process of development of the Domain Model. The work-team programs to deliver a version 0.2 out of this worshop conclusions. This process of development is highly iterative; it will be fed by the following activities:

• development of S1 activities (as already referred before);

•    Analysis of the results of a survey to final users: POSTDATA wants to know the needs of final users of repertoires in order to understand their problems and how they can be solved. Part of the survey is created based on the existent models. The survey also has open questions for users to fill in freely.

•    Analysis of other poetic repertoires: there are still at least eleven databases' data models to be analysed. POSTDATA is still looking for more poetic repertoires in order to have a wider representation of other languages and traditions (plewease see the geographical view of the repertoires) Analysis of the information of two case studies: two researchers are building a digital repertoire at the same time the MAP is being developed; they will inform the work-team about their needs.

Once a stable version of the Domain Model is available, POSTDATA will follow the activities described by Me4MAP. One important activity is the mapping of the Domain Model to a semantic model, where every property of the Domain Model will be matched by a RDF vocabulary term, other constraints such as cardinality, domain and range must also be defined. In order to enhance interoperability, this matching has to be done taing care that the most popular vocabularies of the LOD ecosystem are used. A study of the most used vocabularies will be performed so as to find the best options for each term. Examples of RDF vocabularies that might be used are Dublin Core Metadata Terms, Digitised Manuscripts to Europeana (DM2E), Friend of a Friend (FOAF) vocabularies, among others. This semantic model will be tested in an iterative process of development, using resources from metrical repertoires that were not used as cases in the metadata application profile process development.

Bibliography

Birnbaum, D. J., & Thorsen, E. (2015a). Markup and meter: Using XML tools to teach a computer to think about versification. In Balisage: The Markup Conference.

Birnbaum, D. J. & Thorsen, E. (2015b). Enabling the automated identification and analysis of meter and rhyme in Russian verse. In DH 2015: Global Digital Humanities, Sydney.

Bosch, Mela & Rio Riande, Gimena del (2016). Las Humanidades Digitales o el ornitorrinco"". In Las Humanidades Digitales en Argentina: discursos y

tecnologías en    cruce.    Retrieved from:

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Chatman, S. & Levin, S. R. (1967). Essays on the language of literature. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Curado Malta, M., & Baptista, A. A. (2013a). A method for the development of Dublin Core Application Profiles (Me4DCAP V0.2): detailed description. In M. Foulonneau & K. Eckert (Eds.), Proc. Int'l Conf. on Dublin Core and Metadata Applications 2013 (pp. 90103). Lisbon: Dublin Core Metadata Initiative. Retrieved    from

http://dcevents.dublincore.org/IntConf/dc-2013/paper/view/178/81 - accessed 23 March, 2017.

Curado Malta, M., & Baptista, A. A. (2013b). Me4DCAP V0. 1: A method for the development of Dublin Core Application Profiles. In Information Services and Use (Vol. 33, pp. 161-171). Dublin Core Metadata Initiative.    Retrieved    from

http://doi.org/10.3233/ISU-130706 - accessed 23 March, 2017.

Curado Malta, M., & Baptista, A. A. (2013c). State of the Art on Methodologies for the Development of Dublin Core Application Profiles. International Journal of Metadata, Semantics and Ontologies, 8(4), 332-341. Retrieved    from

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Curado Malta, M. (2014). Contributo metodológico para o desenvolvimento de perfis de aplicagao no contexto da Web semántica. Universidade do Minho, Escola de Engenharia. Programa Doutoral em Tecnologias e Sistemas de    Informado.    Retrieved from

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Curado Malta, M., Centenera, P. & Gonzalez-Blanco, E.

(2017). Using Reverse Engineering to define a Domain Model: The case of Development of a Metadata Application Profile for the European Poetry.

In Curado Malta, M., Baptista, A. A. and Walk, P. (Eds.), Developing Metadata Application Profiles (pp. 146180). Hershey PA: IGI Global. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2221-8.ch007.

González-Blanco García E. & Seláf, L. (2014). Megarep: A comprehensive research tool in medieval and renaissance poetic and metrical repertoires”. In L. Soriano, M. Coderch, H. Rovira, G. Sabaté & X. Espluga (Eds.), Humanitats a la xarxa: món medieval / Humanities on the web: the medieval world (pp.321-322). Oxford, Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, Frankfurt am Main, New York, Wien: Peter Lang.

González-Blanco García, E., Rio Riande, G. del, Martínez Cantón, C. & Martos Pérez, M. D. (2014). “La codificación informática del sistema poético medieval castellano, problemas y propuestas en la elaboración de un repertorio métrico digital: ReMetCa”. In A. Baraibar (Ed.), Visibilidad y divulgación de la investigación desde las humanidades digitales. Experiencias y proyectos (pp.185-203). Pamplona, Servicio    de Publicaciones de la

Universidad de Navarra. Colección BIADIG (Biblioteca Áurea Digital), 22 / Publicaciones Digitales del GRISO. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10171/35718 - accessed 23 March , 2017.

González-Blanco, E. G.,Martínez Cantón, C. & Rio Riande, G. del (2015). Making visible the invisible: metrical patterns, contrafacture and compilation in a Medieval Castilian Songbook. DH 2015: Global Digital Humanities, Sydney. Retrieved from http://dh2015.org/abstracts/ - accessed 23 March, 2017.

González-Blanco, E. G., Rio Riande, G. del & Martínez Cantón, C. (2016a). Linked open data to represent multilingual poetry collections. A proposal to solve interoperability issues between poetic repertoires. In John P. McCrae, Christian Chiarcos et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of the LREC 2016 Workshop, LDL 2016 -5th Workshop on Linked Data in Linguistics: Managing, Building and Using Linked Language Resources. Retrieved from    http://www.lrec-

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Pue, S. A.; Teal,T. K. & Brown, C. T. (2015). Using Bioinformatic Algorithms to Analyze the Politics of

Form in Modernist Urdu Poetry. DH 2015: Global

Digital Humanities, Sydney.

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Nilsson, M., Baker, T., & Johnston, P. (2008). The

Singapore Framework for Dublin Core Application Profiles. Retrieved from http://dublincore.org/documents/singapore-","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/148/148.pdf",""
"3858","18","Enhanced Reflectance: Transformation Imaging for Arts and Humanities","10","ntroduction
The Digital Humanities Lab (DHLab) is a research group within the faculty of Humanities of the University of Basel. The research profile of the DHLab integrates computer science, digital imaging, computational photography and the accessibility of digital objects in humanities research. The project “Digital Materiality”, an interdisciplinary project in collaboration with the Seminar of Art History, examines how new digital methods and techniques can be used to describe the reflection of light on surfaces of artworks. Of main interest are mosaics and early prints; both categories have a strong interaction with light and standard photographic approaches are not able to capture the dynamic component of the light-surface interdependence that is specific for this kind of objects.

For art historians who study and work with mosaics or any other object of complex surface composition, it is difficult to capture and visualize the important surface features in such a way that research can be done with the reproduction. The major problem is the static nature of photographic reproductions, which does not allow interaction. Static, two-dimensional photographs cannot visualize appropriately the sparkling effect caused by the surface properties of the countless light reflecting tesserae of a mosaic, for example. Similar considerations apply for early prints, books and parchments. The visual impression that these objects convey is hardly delivered by a photograph. Metallic inclusions give the artwork a dynamic appearance caused by the change of reflectance behavior of glossy compared to matte material. Furthermore, the scholar may want to integrate information coming from other types of scientific photographs, such as infrared or ultraviolet illuminated or induced fluorescence images, to increase the visual impression of renderings of artwork. In particular, the combination of such scientific photographs with other imaging techniques like Reflectance Transformation Imaging is advantageous because multiple visual impressions can be combined in a way that would not be possible in reality.

Reflection Transformation Imaging

RTI (Reflectance Transformation Imaging) (Mudge et al, 2007; Malzbender et al, 2001) is a promising approach to go beyond the limitations of conventional photographic methods. However, RTI, as it is used today, has some drawbacks that are critical in the context of the reproduction of mosaics, metallic inclusions or most other artwork.

RTI makes it possible to interactively display the light reflection as a function of the light incident angle and the structure of the surface captured. RTI needs a series of digital images from a fixed camera position, in which the light source is illuminating the object in each capture from a different position. In order to produce RTI renderings of objects of different size, several lighting systems have been developed that consist of a number of light sources that are mounted on the inside of a hemispherical dome. Those light sources can be switched on and synchronized sequentially with a digital camera. The fixed design ensures a fixed and equal distance between the numerous light sources and the object. Thus, with such an automated setup the image capture process is drastically accelerated and, in addition, ensures a high reproducibility. In the Digital Humanities Lab such a dome has been developed as well; In this specific case it is an alloy design, which is equipped with 50 LEDs and an electronic control system, which enables the automatic sequential triggering of the light sources and the synchronization with the camera. The image sequence, recorded in this way, serves in a second step as data basis for a subsequent pixel-based modeling. For this purpose, a mathematical model - normally a function of second order - is fitted for each pixel position, which represents the set of all image points from the different directions of illumination, i.e., it is parameterized so that the square mean error of all data points relative to the function curve becomes minimal.

The reflection model so far used in the original RTI method described by Hewlett Packard (Mudge et al, 2006) corresponds to the mentioned simple second-order function. Thus it has only a relatively low mathematical complexity and therefore a limited precision to represent the actual surface reflection. This specific function, however, describes matt surfaces, a Lambertian radiator, very precisely. However, this method is not suitable for glossy materials, since this simple model does not correspond to the physical laws of gloss reflection. A further disadvantage is that the method, as it is usually used today, needs a specially designed viewer application.

In the Digital Humanities Lab, the method has been enhanced in order to be able to present more complex surfaces that are made from different materials. In our approach the complexity of the mathematical model is increased so that we can handle diffuse and gloss surface components at the same RTI image. In other words, this improvement makes it possible to model and display materials with different gloss levels using the same mathematical model.

A suite for humanities scholars ‘needs

For humanities research another important aspect is the compatibility to web-based Virtual Research Environments (VRE). In principle, a functional graphical ""front-end"" with a connection to a database can be called a VRE. The aim of such a digital infrastructure for research is to allow scholars to work with methods and tools in the digital domain as they would do it in a conventional “analogue” process. This should be done in such a form that the scientists can intuitively recognize and use the well-known concepts and working methods that are offered by the VRE. This requires some basic functions:

• In any case, a browser-based client-server solution is preferable to a stand-alone application. In such a way collaborative work can be more easily achieved.

• In many humanities disciplines intensive work is being done with image material and objects, in which specific areas (region of interest, RoI) are often to be emphasized. Therefore corresponding graphic elements (lines, polygons) are necessary, with which such areas can be marked. These graphical elements can, for example, be polygonal line sections or rectangles, which allow the marking of object parts.

• The method of evaluating image material, which is common in the human sciences, is of a more qualitative nature. This kind of work requires extensive and powerful tools to capture descriptive and contextual metadata (annotations, transcriptions, comments). These meta-objects have to be linked with the actual primary object and need also to be stored in this way.

The visualization in a VRE must be multi-media. Besides text, image, sound and video, it is also of advantage to be able to display objects in a virtual 3D space.

To be able to integrate an RTI solutions into a webenvironment to support real-time collaborative work needs specific web-technologies (Palma et al, 2010;

MacDonald and Robson, 2010). The presented RTI viewer is fully web-compatible and it can be integrated in most browsers to support high-quality client-side visualization; the key technology that allows this integration is WebGL. This OpenGL-based programming interface, which has been optimized for ""embedded systems"", is nowadays integrated into any modern Web browsers. WebGL is a license-free standard developed to work seamless in conjunction with the programming language JavaScript. For the application in a browser this means that 3D functionalities are provided without the need to load any additional plug-ins. The performance and range of functions of WebGL are impressive. WebGL is also supported on most mobile devices, such as smartphones and tablets, which further increases the range of applications. The improved performance of WebGL, in contrast to many other graphics libraries, also allows for fluid interactive work. Long rendering times are left out and the visual latency is minimal. WebGL offers a variety of functionalities, ranging from simple grid models to complex animated, textured and illuminated surfaces. The fact that the use of graphic elements for marking RoIs is easily possible with this large range of functions is, of course, self-evident.


A Reflectance Transformation Imaging recording that is represented in a browser using WebGL. Around the left eye of the sacred head is a branding to be recognized, as well as a corresponding commentary, left in the picture window. The parameters of the viewing situation are shown on the right side, which are also stored in the data model. (Source: DHLab, University of Basel)

The integration of all those technologies and new developments allows us to present an improved solution to reproduce and render surfaces of different materials (matt and glossy) in a fully web-based environment implemented in JavaScript and WebGL, running on standard computers and mobile devices. In addition to RTI image processing, photographs in the UV and IR domain can be captured, displayed and superimposed with the same system to allow the user to compare the same region under different light condition. For flexibility, performance and data permanence aspects our RTI image server will follow

the International Image Interoperability Framework

(IIIF). IIIF defines a standardized URL syntax to serve digital images online in the field of cultural heritage and research. The region of interest, resolution, rotation and the file format of a requested image can be indicated on the URL. SIPI, the Simple Image Presentation Interface, developed by DHLab, provides an IIIF compliant image server which is ideally suited for our scope. Due to the fact, that the front-end is compatible with any standard web-browser, it can be integrated in a virtual research environment using Knora. Knora is a software framework, developed by DHLab, for storing, sharing, and working with primary sources and data in the humanities. Knora builds the fundament for the Swiss National Data Center for Research Data in Humanities that is operated by the DHLab. The source code is publicly available on Github at the address in reference.

This integrated environment allows researchers to interactively control the viewing and light conditions of e g. a digital mosaic rendering. Regions of interest can be chosen, annotated, saved, and shared with other scholars. The full set of contextual and technical metadata is stored and time stamped to be fully reloadable and citable back to any point of its history of changes.

Conclusions

The combination of the Enhanced-RTI and the Scientific Image Viewer (SIV) enables us to convey the impressions of these highly dynamic light-surface interactions and the information provided by IR and UV imaging e.g. to researchers who cannot visit the actual artwork in situ. The visual impression can be enriched by meta information that can shared with other scholars. The presented RTI based solution is also helpful to document the current condition of objects more accurately, e.g. before and after a restoration. Sustainability and simplicity of RTI image data is drastically improved by the use of a IIIF server. The presented infrastructure allows the strict separation of image data and meta information. As a result, any RTI image rendering is fully reproducible and therefore perfectly suited for digital archiving, following the requirements of performance, permanence and reliability.

Bibliography

Mudge, M., Ashley, M., and Schroer, C. (2007) A digital future for cultural heritage. Available at:

http://culturalheritageimaging.org/What\ We\ Do/Pu

blications/cipa2007/CIPA\ 2007.Pdf

Malzbender, T., Gelb, D., and Wolters, H. (2001)

Polynomial texture maps. Proceedings of the 28th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques (pp. 519-528).

Mudge, M., Malzbender, T., Schroer, C., and Lum, M.

(2006). New Reflection Transformation Imaging

Methods for Rock Art and Multiple-Viewpoint Display. In The 7th International Symposium on Virtual Reality,

Archaeology and Cultural Heritage (VAST2006) (pp.

195-200).

Palma, G., Corsini, M., Cignoni, P., Scopigno, R., and Mudge, M. (2010) Dynamic Shading Enhancement for Reflection Trasformation Imaging. ACM Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, (pp. 6:1-6:20). (September 2010)

MacDonald, L., and Robson, S. (2010) Polynomial Texture Mapping and 3D Representations. International Archives of Photogrammetry, XXXVIII(8), (pp. 422427).","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/151/151.pdf",""
"3859","18","Ecriture Et Visualisations Numériques","9","Depuis les années 80, plusieurs méthodes pour analyser le processus d'écriture ont été utilisées (Miller & Sullivan, 2006). L'outil principal pour analyser le processus d'écriture est le fichier d'enregistrement, appelé log, qui contient de façon exhaustive et détaillée l'ensemble des opérations effectuées par le scripteur lors de la rédaction d'un texte (Sullivan & Lindgren, 2014). Les données qui y sont emmagasinées sont considérables, et lorsqu'elles ne sont pas préalablement traitées, elles sont hostiles à l'analyse humaine (Caporossi & Leblay, 2014). Ce traitement préalable nous semble donc déterminant dans l'accès aux données scripturales enregistrées. Autrement dit, il est impossible d'exploiter les programmes d'enregistrement de l'écriture (dits aussi de temps réel), sans procéder, au préalable, à un redéploiement visuel des données obtenues. Les structures sous-jacentes des données ainsi représentées sont généralement plus propices à l'analyse que les données brutes inexploitables. Plusieurs étapes sont

alors nécessaires avant même de pouvoir utiliser les

techniques d'analyse a proprement parler. Le processus simplifie par lequel les données sont acquises, traitées et analysees se resume ainsi : a) enregistrement, b) partage, c) tri, d) recherche, e) représentation visuelle des données et f) analyse (Manyika, etal., 2011). Plusieurs de ces actions ont deja ete etu-diees de maniere individuelle et ont ete l'objet de creation de logiciels visant a enregistrer le processus d'ecriture et a le représenter dans l'une ou l'autre de ses dimensions (Caporossi & Leblay, 2011). Ces logiciels sont tous differents et generalement destines a un projet de recherche particulier (Sullivan & Lindgren, 2014). Certains sont conçus pour traiter l'information et la retransmettent ensuite à l'utilisateur de façon simplifiée, sous la forme d'une représentation visuelle. L'utilisation de représentations graphiques de données, appelées de façon plus générale visualisations, consiste à explorer et essayer de comprendre les grands ensembles de données (Yau, 2011) Elles permettent notamment d'identifier des tendances, structures, irrégularites et relations entre les données sur une certaine période temporelle (Minelli, et al., 2013, p. 110). Le format compact de la visualisation agrège les données et utilise les capacités cognitives de l'humain (Blanchard, 2005) Le but principal de l'utilisation de ces images représentant le processus scriptural est de laisser l'œil trouver des structures sous-jacentes parmi les données (Tory & Moller ,2004).

Il existe deux grands modèles de représentations qui prétraitent les données de manière à pouvoir appliquer des techniques d'analyse linguistique de données. Le tout premier, attaché aux travaux réalisés par une linguistique cognitive, est celui qui a été développé dans le cadre des Systèmes d'Information Géographique, ou SIG ; ont utilisé ce mode de représentation principalement les études suivantes : LS Graph (Lindgren & Sullivan, 2002 ; Leijten, et al., 2006), Genèse du texte (Doquet-Lacoste, 2003), GIS Graph (Lindgren, et al., 2007), Timeline (Wengelin, 2009) et Inputlog (Leijten, et al., 2013). Le second, celui que nous proposons, en réaction au premier, a été développé en associant, de manière interdisciplinaire, la linguistique génétique et la théorie mathématique des graphes.

La représentation par les graphes (des nœuds reliés entre eux par des liens, ou arcs) permet de mettre davantage en relief l'aspect dynamique de l'écriture (cf. figure 1). Celle-ci est orientée sur la chronologie du processus d'écriture (Leblay, 2011). Un nœud (nommée cellule dans notre travail) représente la production d'une suite ininterrompue de frappes au clavier (caractères et espaces).


Figure 1. Visualisation globale par graphe : l'écriture experte (nuance de gris : en sombre = une suppression ; en clair = un ajout)

Ainsi, si l'écriture consistait en une suite ininterrompue de frappes de caractères d'un début jusqu'à une fin, un texte serait visuellement représenté par une seule et unique cellule dont la taille dépendrait uniquement du nombre de caractères et d'espaces produits. Or, il existe des retours et des pauses dans ce qui est déjà écrit. Les retours dans le texte sont ainsi marqués: la cellule se divise dès l'instant que la continuité topographique est rompue, bien qu'un lien perdure pour matérialiser le lien temporel (cou-leurs/nuance de gris et épaisseur du trait). Deux cellules se lient donc quand un lien topographique est créé, le tout au gré des écritures et réécritures.

L’une des particularités de ce travail de visualisation est de bien gerer la transformation et les mouvements du texte grâce aux nœuds représentant des parties de texte (ajoutes, supprimes) relies ensemble par des liens (ou arcs) definissant leur relation, soit chronologique ou spatiale(Southavilay, Yacef, Reimann, & Calvo, 2013) est possible de voir le contenu de ces nœuds. Telle que mentionnee par Caporossi et Leblay (2011), cette representation en couleurs, ou en nuances de gris, montre l’aspect temporel de la redaction, soit le moment exact ou le scripteur a effectué chacune des opérations représentées, en lien avec celles qui la précédent comme avec celles qui la suivent. Les possibilités d’analyse de ces structures ont déjà été étudiées dans le contexte du processus de l’écriture (Leblay & Caporossi, 2014 ; Caporossi & Leblay, 2015).


Figure 2. Sous-graphe. Le remplacement

La mise en évidence de sous-graphes particuliers (cf. figure 2) représentant les patterns des opérations les plus fréquentes (ajout vs. insertion, suppressions immédiate et différée, remplacement), a déjà été réalisée. L’identification de sous-graphes est utile dans l’analyse globale du graphe représentant le temps de l’écriture (Caporossi & Leblay, 2014)

C’est dans ce cadre que nous proposons 1) un programme dédié, GenographiX, pour mettre en évidence tout le travail génétique de réécriture, et 2) un corpus numérique de 10h 20 minutes d’enregistrement ; ce corpus est composé de deux tâches successives, la première de nature narrative (« depuis cette aventure... »), la seconde de nature argumentative (« Qu’est-ce qui est important pour vivre ensemble ? »). Il a été fait le choix de consignes à même de fonctionner auprès de publics très variés (âge, langue maternelle, niveau d’expertise). Précisons que la première reprend un protocole qui a déjà fait l’objet de recueil de corpus de textes auprès d’enfants et de futurs enseignants en formation (Garcia-Debanc et Bonnemaison, 2014), protocole proposé au départ par Charolles (1988) dans le cadre d’études de la cohérence textuelle. L’analyse des processus d’écriture enregistrée trouvera ainsi un point d’appui dans ces études consacrées aux produits.

Trois grands axes de recherche émergent alors :

(1) le rôle des opérations génétiques d'écriture-réécriture qui sous-tendent toute activité scripturale sur papier comme sur écran (Fenoglio, 2012 ; Grésil-lon, 1994), (2) les différentes chronologies exhaustives qui caractérisent les écritures experte (vs. novice) et universitaire (vs. scolaire), (Bécotte et al.,2016 ; Leblay et al., 2015), et (3) l'impact de la visualisation de cette chronologie sur la description et la reproduction de ces écritures dans le cadre de l’enseignement de l’écriture (Doquet & Leblay, 2014 ; Plane et al., 2010). Les résultats que nous proposons, dans cette présentation, concernent particulièrement le phénomène de cohésion textuelle, tel qu’il apparaît, non pas seulement dans un texte produit, mais bien dans son déroulement chronologique. Apparaissent alors des retours ponctuels (qualifiés habituellement d’erreurs, d'écarts, de dysfonctionnements, tout simplement de variantes) pris sur le vif, en fonction de différents degrés d’expertise scripturale. Il s’agit de traces génétiques, rendues visibles, de phénomènes de retours dans la construction du sens (cohérence/cohésion) qui n’ont été jusqu’à présent observés et décrits uniquement dans des études basées sur des textes produits.

Ces trois axes nous permettent de souligner la place des visualisations numériques proposées par la génétique textuelle contemporaine dans des dispositifs conçus pour la formation à l’écriture : ces visualisations participent pleinement au travail de réflexivité, à celui de l’articulation entre savoirs théoriques et expérimentations de terrain, et enfin, à celui de la formation de praticiens-chercheurs (Brunel & Rinck, 2017).

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Caporossi, G. & Leblay, C. (2015). “A graph theory approach to online writing data visualization.” In Cislaru, G. (ed.) Writing(s) at the Crossroads: The Process-Product Interface. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 171181.

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(2015). “Ecriture & réécriture en situation de travail. Visualisation de pratiques expertes.” In Beaudet, C. &

Rey, R. (éds.), Actes du Colloque International L'écriture experte : enjeux sociaux et scientifiques, Sherbrooke, 13-14.06.2013. Aix-en-Provence: Presses universitaires de Provence, pp. 115-130.

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Miller, K. (2007). “GIS for Writing: Applying Geographical Information Systems Techniques to Data Mine Writings' Cognitive Processes.” In Rijlaarsdam, G., Galbraith, D., Torrance, M. & Van Waes, L. (eds.), Writing and Cognition. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Pp. 83-96

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Roxburgh, C., & Hung Byers, A. (2011). Big data: the next frontier for innovation, competition, and productivity. McKinsey Global Institute.

Miller, K. S., & Sullivan, K. P. (2006). “Keystroke Logging: An introduction.” In Sullivan, K. P. & Lindgren, E. (eds.), Computer keystroke logging and writing. Oxford: Elsevier. Pp. 1-10.

Minelli, M., Chambers, M., & Dhiraj, A. (2013). Big data, big analytics : Emerging business intelligence and analytic trends for today's businesses. Indianapolis: Wiley Publishing.

Plane, S., Alamargot, D. & Lebrave, J.-L. (2010). “Temporalité de l'écriture et rôle du texte produit dans l'activité rédactionnelle.” Langages 177, pp. 7-28.

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(2013). “Analysis of Collaborative Writing Processes Using Revision Maps and Probabilistic Topic Models.”

Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge, pp. 38-47.

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Galbraith, D., Johansson, V., & Johansson, R. (2009). “Combined eyetracking and keystroke-logging methods for studying cognitive processes in text production.” Behavior Research Methods, 41(2), pp. 337-351.

Yau, N. (2011). Visualize this: the flowing data guide to design, visualization and statistics. Indianapolis: Wiley Publishing.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/152/152.pdf",""
"3860","18","Compering Critical Electronic Editions of Cinematógrafo (1936) by Spanish author Andrés Carranque de Ríos: Research vs. commercial tools","2","","","1","",""
"3861","18","De La Chaîne Éditoriale À La Plateforme De Recherche : Structurer, Enrichir Et Diffuser De Vastes Collections Numérisées De Publications Scientifiques","10","Brief Summary
Persée développe une plateforme de numérisation, d'enrichissement, de diffusion et d'archivage de publications francophones en SHS, de la 1ère parution à la période la plus récente (revues scientifiques, actes, livres). Résultat d'un travail collégial entre chercheurs, éditeurs, bibliothécaires et ingénieurs, cette plateforme diffuse près de 650 000 documents scientifiques en open access. Elle constitue une expérience originale et concrète pour explorer les enjeux croisés de la numérisation patrimoniale, de l'édition électronique et de l'analyse sémantique. La communication vise à décrire le passage de documents imprimés (représentation arborescente) à une publication numérique puis à un ensemble de données structurées (représentation réticulaire sous forme de graphe) et, à analyser la recontextualisation opérée et les transformations à l'œuvre. La bibliothèque numérique, l'entrepôt OAI et le triplestore Persée sont des points d'accès complémentaires et offrent des potentialités radicalement nouvelles de fouille de texte et de données, d'analyse, de mise en relation et de réutilisation.

Full abstract
Persée est une plateforme de production, d’enrichissement, de diffusion et d'archivage de collections de publications francophones en sciences humaines et sociales, de la 1ère parution à la période la plus récente (revues scientifiques en 1er lieu mais aussi actes de colloques et livres). Résultat d’un travail collégial entre chercheurs, éditeurs, bibliothécaires et ingénieurs, cette plateforme diffuse actuellement plus de 650 000 documents scientifiques en texte intégral et en open

access et, elle poursuit son enrichissement.

Une décennie après l'ouverture de persee.fr, alors que la numérisation du patrimoine documentaire est massive et que de nouveaux modes de publication ont émergé, cette plateforme constitue une expérience originale et concrète permettant d'explorer les enjeux des collections numériques dans un monde connecté et les interactions entre numérisation patrimoniale et édition électronique. Dans le cadre de cette présentation, il est proposé de décrire les conditions du passage du monde de l'imprimé à celui du numérique, de volumes papier à un ensemble de documents structurés et reliés entre eux et, d'analyser la « recontextualisation » qui a été ainsi opérée et les transformations structurelles qui sont à l'oeuvre.

Méthode de fragmentation et chaîne opérationnelle de traitement
Confrontés à des objets qui disposent d'une matérialité évidente (la revue comme un ensemble de documents papier) et d'une pertinence intellectuelle (la revue en tant qu'objet éditorial), nous avons assuré une modélisation des données pour mettre en évidence les structures des documents et leurs dépendances. Ces structures sont représentées dans un modèle qui contrôle la validité des documents. La chaîne éditoriale Persée réunit un ensemble de méthodes et d'outils permettant de constituer des corpus numériques en XML, de manière intégrée et largement automatisée, en vue de leur indexation fine, leur diffusion et leur archivage. Les métadonnées sont encodées selon les schémas Dublin Core, MarcXML et MODS. Le

texte intégral issu de la ROC (reconnaissance optique de caractères ) est disponible selon le schéma TEI et enfin, l’ensemble des données est décrit et organisé au sein d’un container XML au format METS. La publication des documents s'opère par des algorithmes de transformation qui s'appuient sur le modèle pour publier des documents dans des formats standards.

De l'arborescence au réseau : l'évolution de la représentation logique des documents
Les publications scientifiques imprimées sont organisées selon une logique arborescente avec, pour les revues, par exemple, un agencement de type : titre/an-née/tome/volume/numéro/article. Cette représentation abstraite fait l’objet d’une retranscription numérique jusqu’à un niveau plus précis qui est celui du plan des articles, de la liste des illustrations, des résumés et, des annexes, etc. Considéré isolément et intrinsèquement, l'article devient le nœud d'un nouveau maillage en se fondant sur l'exploitation des citations, des noms d'auteurs et des informations en son sein même. Nous mettons en œuvre un référencement

croisé (cite / cited by) et un alignement sur des référentiels d’autorités Auteurs et des sources comme DBpedia. Une analyse plus fine des articles permet d’identifier des entités nommées et d’établir des liens avec des thesaurus disciplinaires. Loin de tout traitement massif, la méthodologie retenue combine des algorithmes de recherche ciblée soumis à validation humaine afin de garantir pertinence et qualité. Les objets numériques ainsi créés se distinguent fondamentalement du matériau papier de base et ils offrent des potentialités majeures en termes de recherche, de Text and Data Mining, d’analyse et de mise en relation. Ainsi, le numérique permet-il de référencer parallèlement la collection appréhendée comme un objet intellectuel à part entière, des segments constitutifs (ar-ticle/communication/chapitre) et des données, de multiplier les points d’accès à un ensemble structuré, contextualisé et historicisé.

Ouverture de l'accès, ouverture du code source et ouverture des données
Dès l’origine, la voie de l’Open Access a été retenue pour la diffusion sans aucune restriction des métadon-nées et des documents en texte intégral, l’ouverture et le partage étant considérés comme des instruments essentiels de visibilité et de circulation de la production scientifique dans un environnement où la langue française n’est plus en situation d’hégémonie. Selon une suite logique, les développements informatiques ont été opérés dans un esprit Open Source et les données Persée sont intégrées au web de données sous la forme de triplet RDF. L’objectif poursuivi est double : favoriser la réutilisation des contenus dans d’autres contextes que ceux qui ont vu leur création et l’accès de tous au patrimoine scientifique au-delà des cercles académiques.

Pédauque, R. T. (2006) Le document à la lumière du numérique. Forme, texte, medium : comprendre le rôle du document numérique dans l'émergence d'une nouvelle modernité. Caen : C&F Editions. 218p

Salaün J M. (2007) « La redocumentarisation, un défi pour les sciences de l'information ». Études de communication, Num. 30, p13-23.

Vitali Rosati, M. (2016). What is editorialization? Sens public.    Mars 2016 http://www.sens-public.org/ar-

ticle1059.html

Bibliography
Babeu, A. (2011). « Rome Wasn't Digitized in a Day »: Building a Cyberinfrastructure for Digital Classicists. London : CLIR Publication. 307p

Bachimont, B. (2007). L'indexation multimédia : description et recherche automatique. Paris : Hermès. Nouvelles

tendances applicatives : de l'indexation à l'éditorialisa-tion. P15-29","txt","1","",""
"3862","18","Mnemosine, Biblioteca Digital de La otra Edad de Plata (1868-1936) - Mnemosyne, Digital Library for Rare and Forgotten Texts (1868-1936): Collections and Digital Editions","2","The objective of Mnemosyne, Digital Library for Rare and Forgotten Literary Texts (1868-1936) is to select, categorize, and make visible (in a digital format) literary texts that belong to a forgotten repertoire in order to allow the historiografical review of the period. Mnemosyne has a repertoire of texts and authors who have remained in the shadow of the great literary figures of the first third of the 20th century. This digital library intends to be a field of international experimentation for the creation of interoperable semantic networks through which a large group of scholars could generate innovative research and theoretical reading models for literary texts.

Mnemosyne aims to be an open-access digital library allowing data modelling for specific collections (such as intellectual women, Madrid in the Silver Age literature, children kiosk literature, science fiction, photonovels, etc.) in support of research and teaching on Silver Age Spain. Through Mnemosyne it can be accessed digital edition of texts. The digitization of these works has been carried out by public and private institutions. The first version of the library is stored on the server of the Universidad Complutense de Madrid Library, itself linked to the collections of the digital library Ha-thiTrust.40 In a search conducted in HathiTrust in 2012, the names, surnames, and pseudonyms of selected authors were used to locate a total of 2,873

digitized texts corresponding to “odd and forgotten”

writers. The Biblioteca Digital Hispánica, which serves as the access portal for the digital collections of the Biblioteca Nacional de España, provided 2,448 works by male authors and 1,017 works by female writers. Now we are working on the interactive editions of some short stories with the support of the Spanish Biblioteca Nacional.

Behind the scenes of Mnemosyne's public presence online, the project is developing with the aid of the tool Clavy. Clavy is an RIA (Rich Internet Application) that is able to import, preserve, and edit information from collections of digital objects so as to build bridges between digital repositories and create collections of enriched digital content. Clavy also provides a basic system of data visualization, edition, and navigation. There are plans to integrate @Note, a collaborative annotation application, into Clavy. These two computational tools were developed by the ILSA at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid.44 Clavy facilitates the import, export, and edition of records in multiple formats such as MARC2145, as well as their integration into Mne-mosine's predesigned model with a view to their export into other compatible formats like XLS (Excel Binary File Format) or XML (Extensible Markup Language), or into other systems like OdA.46 Using Clavy, metadata for more than four thousand digitized objects from HathiTrust and the Biblioteca Digital Hispánica have already been imported into the Mnemosyne database. Logically, the data from these sources was described in MARC21, following the rules for library catalogs. The outcome was forseeable: in some cases, Mnemosyne's data model did not require the degree of detail furnished by MARC21, while in other cases it was necessary to incorporate new information absent from that format.

Acknowledgements

Mnemosyne, Digital Library for Rare and Forgotten Literary Texts (1868-1936) is the work of two research teams (LEETHI and LOEP) affiliated with the Universidad Complutense de Madrid and funded by the publicly subsidized national research project “Escritorios Electrónicos para las Literaturas” (Referencia FFI2012-34666, 2012-2015), by

the private BBVA Foundation which subsidized the Project “Modelo Unificado de Gestión de Colecciones Digitales con Estructuras Reconfigurables: Aplicación a la Creación de Bibliotecas Digitales Especializadas para Investigación y Docencia” (2015-2017) and by eLITE-CM project “Edición Literaria Electrónica (Ref. S2015/HUM-3426, 20162018)”.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/156/156.pdf",""
"3863","18","Journaux Intimes Francophones en Russie au XIXe siècle : une Approche Textométrique de l’Interaction des Langues et des Cultures","2","La rédaction de journaux intimes en français était un phénomène assez répandu parmi les élites russes

e

au XIX siécle. Les aristocrates de l’époque apprenaient souvent le français dés le plus jeune age et continuaient a pratiquer cette langue tout au long de leur vie. Le français n’était cependant pas leur langue maternelle, et leurs écrits offrent des données précieuses sur l’interaction entre les deux langues et cultures. Par ailleurs, certains journaux présentent de grandes qualités littéraires et artistiques (grâce aux dessins d’auteur qui les accompagnent) et méritent d’étre plus largement connus par la communauté académique et le grand public.

Le projet présenté dans ce poster est porté par une équipe franco-russe de l’Université d’état de Novossibirsk et de l'École normale supérieure de Lyon. Il vise a analyser et a publier numériquement plusieurs corpus, dont les journaux d’Alexandre Tchitchérine et d’Olga Orlova-Davydova.

A. Tchitchérine, lieutenant au régiment Semi-onovski de l’armée russe, a tenu son journal de septembre 1812 a aout 1813, son manuscrit contient 83 illustrations, dont la plupart en couleurs. Son texte a été traduit en russe et publié (Chicherin 1966), mais cette traduction dont les qualités littéraires sont indéniables, est parfois inexacte et présente des lacunes. L’original français de ce journal est inédit.

Les journaux d’O. Orlova-Davydova (1814-1876) sont le fruit d’un vaste projet autobiographique que l’auteure a mené tout au long de sa vie. Ces journaux n’ont jamais fait l’objet d’une recherche scientifique. Dans le cadre du présent projet les passages francophones de ses journaux (1830-1847) servent de corpus pour étudier le bilinguisme de l’auteure et pour déceler les voies de formation de personnalités bi- ou

e

plurilingues dans la Russie du XIX siécle (Debrenne 2016a et 2016b). Le noyau du corpus est constitué par une copie des journaux d’Orlova-Davydova réalisée vraisemblablement à sa demande et corrigée par sa propre main. Ce document est conservé a Novossibirsk, a la Bibliothéque scientifique et technique de la Branche Sibérienne de l’Académie des sciences russe (BST). Il fait partie du fonds patrimonial Tikhomirov ( http://www.spsl.nsc.ru/rbook/ogl_tix.html ).

Les journaux du corpus sont transcrits et « encodés par stylage » dans un logiciel de traitement de texte (Microsoft Word) de façon a permettre une conversion quasi-automatique dans un format XML-TÉI enrichi d’un certain nombre d’annotations. Il s’agit de repérer et de classer les différents types d’erreurs par rapport au français standard de l’époque (orthographiques, grammaticales ou lexicales), de recenser les différents types d’entités nommées présents (index hiérarchique), ainsi que les différents passages rédigés en russe. La conversion se fait en deux étapes : d’abord a l’aide de l’outil de conversion en ligne Odette (Glorieux 2015), puis avec une feuille de transformation XSLT spécifique au projet. Aprés validation formelle, la forme finale des sources est importée dans la plateforme TXM (Heiden et al. 2010). TXM permet d’analyser et de publier des corpus complexes encodés en XML-TÉI en combinant des outils de traitement automatique de la langue (TAL :tokenisation paramétrable, étiquetage morphosyntaxique avec TreeTagger), de philologie numérique (éditions présentant de façon synoptique le fac-simile de la source et plusieurs niveaux de transcription), et d'analyse qualitative (recherche de motifs lexicaux avec le moteur plein texte

CQP) et quantitative (analyse de spécificités, analyse factorielle de correspondances, etc.). Le projet utilisera les outils de TXM pour lire de façon integree l’edi-tion du texte avec les illustrations correspondantes. Il permettra également de synthétiser le vocabulaire utilisé juste devant les passages en russe et étudier les emprunts français propres à chaque auteur par rapport à la langue russe. Les illustrations ci-dessous présentent un exemple d’encodage XML-TEI dans les sources d’un dessin situé au début d’une page du journal de Tchitchérine (Fig. 1) suivi de la copie d’écran d’une visualisation synoptique correspondante dans TXM de la transcription comprenant le dessin et le fac-similé du manuscrit (Fig. 2).

de la BST (bibliothèque numérique du fonds Tikhomi

rov). Des exemples de réalisations similaires peuvent

être consultés sur le portail de démonstration.

<P>- [...]!

■    -<pb-n=""20,,/>«-1

■    ^figure^-1

■    ■ ■ -<graphic-url=""img/tchitch.erine/Tchitch.erin_p20_dessinl. jpg""/>»-J

■    -</figure>J—

instants■me■semblent■précieux.■Peut■être■maccusera-ton■d'inconstance■mon■j ournal est-moins - rempli - que -1' autre-moins - détaillé. - ,..</p>ï

Fig. 1. Encodage XML-TEI d'une illustration insérée dans le corps du texte



Fig. 2. Affichage synoptique d'une transcription et d'un fac-similé d'un texte doté d'une illustration sous TXM en mode « retour au texte » depuis une concordance (de l'expression « mon journal » dont l'occurrence est mise en évidence dans la transcription)

Remerciements

Ce travail a bénéficié du soutien la Fondation scientifique de Russie pour les sciences humaines (RGNF) [16-24-08001] et de la Fondation Maisons des Sciences de l'Homme (FMSH).

Note

Tous les corpus édités dans le cadre du projet seront publiés en ligne via un portail TXM et sur le site","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/157/157.pdf",""
"3864","18","EGOlink: Supporting Editors of Online Historical Sources through Automatic Link Discovery","2","Introduction

EGO (European History Online) is a transcultural history of Europe on the Internet published by the Leibniz Institute of European History. The success and the consequential growth of EGO is, however, a challenge for the editorial office. The interlinking of EGO articles with each other and with external resources is an important aspect of EGO's conceptual design, so each new article has to be integrated into the existing link structure. This means not only that the new article has to be linked to relevant existing articles or online sources, but the copy editors must also check whether links to the new article need to be added to existing articles.

Doing the linking manually is a tedious task. Therefore, we aim in the EGOlink project at developing methods for (semi-)automatically linking EGO articles in order to reduce the manual effort for the editorial office and to improve the navigation for readers.

As a first step, we present a tool for visualizing and analyzing the current link structure in EGO document collection. Besides detecting problems such as under-linked articles, the analysis tool provides information that is needed by a (semi-) automatic linking system. In the next step, the automatic generation of links is addressed; the two main research questions here are: (1) the automatic identification and ranking of potential link anchors in EGO articles, and (2) the discovery of suitable link targets in other EGO articles or external resources.

Background

EGO Document Collection

EGO provides a platform for publishing refereed academic articles about the history of Europe with a special focus on modern Europe from the end of the Middle Ages up to contemporary history. EGO is bilingual, i.e., it contains articles in English and German. Most articles written in one language are translated into the other language and published in both languages. Currently, EGO contains 670 articles: 436 in German and 234 in English.

Linking articles to each other as well as to external resources is a major focus of EGO. Once a new article is submitted the editorial staff put a special effort on linking the articles to already existing EGO articles as well as to other resources or multi-media contents, such as images, interactive maps, video and audio clips.

Entity Linking

As already mentioned, linking articles is at the heart of EGO. So far, this task has been done manually. We aim to optimize this process by developing a (semi-)automatic linking tool based on state-of-the-art approaches while taking the peculiarities of EGO into account.

The problem of (semi-)automatically linking EGO articles to each other or to external resources can be modeled as link discovery, or entity linking (Larson, 2010). In general, entity linking consists of two main steps (Erbs et al, 2011): 1) anchor discovery, which identifies text mentions that can function as link anchors, and 2) target discovery which identifies the best matching references for each anchor from a set

of candidates. While anchor discovery can be handled

independently of the document collection at hand -e.g. using NER (Named Entity Recognition) (Nadeau et al, 2007) or keyphrase extraction methods (Turney, 2000), discovering and ranking the targets are much affected by the nature of the document collection.

Currently, several state-of-the-art algorithms for entity linking have been made available (Hoffart et al, 2011) (Ceccarelli et al, 2013). However, applying such algorithms directly to perform entity linking based on EGO is challenging. In general, current algorithms rely on extracting statistics about candidate entities, e.g., popularity-based priors; form a huge corpus like Wikipedia. The priors are then used during the process of the target discovery and ranking. However, such an approach is not applicable in our case due to the tiny size of EGO compared to other similar resources like Wikipedia. Another challenge is posed by the German part of EGO. Current approaches focus on English and a special effort should be made to address entity linking for German.

Erbs et al (2011) demonstrated that approaches for target ranking that leverage the linking structure available in the document collection perform best compared to other methods that only leverage the titles of the documents or the associated texts. In light of this result, we propose a tool for analyzing the linking structure in EGO's document collection. The proposed tool helps us to understand the current status of EGO's links and to gain insight regarding the decisions that should be taken to develop the actual entity linking system. Besides identifying links among the articles, the proposed tool also extracts information from an additional resource, namely the literature referenced by the articles. Our hypothesis is that articles sharing the same reference should be linked to each other. As a result, this kind of analysis can help the (semi-) automatic linking system to identify further anchors, thus the interlinking density of the document collection can be increased.

EGO Analyzer

EGO Analyzer is a web-based analysis tool for EGO document collection. The tool can handle the English as well as the German parts of EGO jointly or separately. Since EGO's articles exist in XML format, the tool was built to work on XML data directly and efficiently using the high-performance and scalable XML Database engine BaseX. Besides providing different kinds of metadata about EGO's articles, the tool allows analyzing EGO from different perspectives: the corpus, the article and the reference perspectives (Figure 1).


Figure 1. Screenshot: EGO Analyzer


For instance, given the article titled “Kulturtransfer” from the German collection, the tool extracts links to other articles in both directions, i.e., outgoing as well as incoming links (Figure 2). Furthermore, we can view the set of articles that reference the same bibliographical entries as the source article (Table 1).




Ankunft des Kolumbus in Amerika 1492


Das

'niederländische

Jahrhundert*









Figure 2. Source article: “Kulturtransfer”. Top: articles referred to by the source article (outgoing links). Bottom: articles referring to the source article (incoming links)

Article    Common Bibliography

Cultural Transfer    5

Eine transkulturelle Geschichte Europas -

migrationsgeschichtliche Perspektiven    2

fim&BäiaimmgsR_2

Table 1. Articles sharing bibliographical entries with the source article “Kulturtransfer”

Results of the Analysis

Using EGO Analyzer we collected statistics about the linking structure in EGO. We divided the links into two categories: internal and external. Internal links point from one EGO article to another, while external links refer to external targets. For each article, we also distinguish between two types of links: incoming and outgoing links. Figure 3 shows the average number of internal/external as well as incoming/outgoing links per article.

The results show that dominance of the external links (3 times as much as internal links). This can be explained due to the relatively small size of the document collection. Accordingly, it is hard for the editors to find corresponding internal links for entities in a newly added article. Moreover, this also explains the higher number of outgoing links per article. Indeed, most of these links go to external resources which are not necessarily linked back to EGO articles. This observation demonstrates the urgent need for an automatic linking system that enables the editors to increase the interconnectivity of EGO.

Furthermore, the linking tool can also run as a background process that updates the linking structure of EGO every time a new article is added.

Regarding the shared bibliography, we identified 13,309 unique references, 737 of them are referenced by at least two articles. We will use this kind of information as auxiliary input for the linking algorithm to identify additional linking candidates.


Figure 3: Average number of links per article and category


Conclusion

In this abstract, we presented work in progress for assisting editors of EGO to (semi-)automatically link the articles. We focused on the first step towards such a system, namely, analyzing the link structure in the target document collection. We presented a web-based tool that is able to perform such analysis. Currently, we are working on the actual linking system as well as a user-friendly interface for the editorial office. By the time of the conference, we will also provide a demonstration of the actual linking tool.

Bibliography

Ceccarelli, D., et al. (2013). Dexter: an open source framework for entity linking. Proceedings of the sixth international workshop on Exploiting semantic annotations in information retrieval. 2013, pp. 17--20.

Erbs, N., Zesch, T., and Gurevych, I. (2011). Link discovery: A comprehensive analysis. Semantic Computing (ICSC), 2011 Fifth IEEE International Conference on. 2011, pp. 83--86

Hoffart, J, et al. (2011). Robust disambiguation of named entities in text. Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing. 2011, pp. 782--792.

Larson, R. R. (2010). Information retrieval: Searching in the 21st century; human information retrieval. s.l. : Wiley Online Library.

Nadeau, D., and Sekine, S. (2007). A survey of named entity recognition and classification. 2007, Vol. 30, 1, pp. 3--26.

Turney, P. D. (2000). Learning algorithms for keyphrase extraction. 2000, Vol. 2, pp. 303--336.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/163/163.pdf",""
"3865","18","A Survey on Research Data at the Faculty of Arts and Humanities of the University of Cologne","10","Executive summary

In the course of the digitization of information, research data management has become one of the most important new areas of research. Universities have to prepare themselves to provide their academics and researchers with the necessary infrastructures and services. To identify the current demands regarding the handling of research data at the Faculty of Arts and Humanities of the University of Cologne, the Data Center for the Humanities conducted an online survey in 2016 in cooperation with the Office of the Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities as well as the University and Library of Cologne. The enquiry aimed to characterize the present situation and to obtain information on the demands in the sectors research data management and consultation services. Our talk will show ongoing developments at the international and national level in research data management, present the results of the survey and discuss potential conclusions.

Relevance

One of the most important fields of action in research which is developing along with the digitalization of information is research data management (RDM). The universities face the challenge of offering their researchers adequate structures and services. The managing board of the German universities organized in the German Rector's Conference (HRK) has identified this as a key task (HRK 2014 and 2015). Moreover, in the recently published position paper called ""Performance by diversity"" the German Council for Scientific Information Infrastructures (RfII) makes a series of recommendations concerning how research data should be managed in the future (RfII 2016). The RfII was tasked by Germany's

Joint Science Conference (GWK) with formulating broad-based recommendations for the science system in Germany as a whole. In addition, according to estimates by the German Research Foundation (DFG), up to 90% of the digital generated research data and results are still getting lost (Winkler-Nees 2011, p. 5) or ""disappear in the drawer"" (Kramer 2014) shortly after completion of research projects and are therefore not available for further use and reuse.

Method

As a structured way to gain information, we decided to follow the six stages process recommended

for survey research (Muller et al. 2014). In addition, the survey is based on the relevant articles published in the handbook ""Methods of Library and Information Science"" by Umlauf, Fuhles-Ubach & Seadle (Umlauf et al. 2013). The six steps are briefly explained below.

The Internet survey, the online questionnaire as well as the detailed report are published on the DCH-Website (http://dch.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/umfrage-2016.html; see also Kronenwett 2017).

Research goals and constructs

The goal of the survey is to contribute to the conceptual development of the Data Center for the Humanities (DCH), which was founded as a central infrastructure service institution by the faculty dealing with humanities research data in 2013. In practice, the enquiry aims to characterize the present situation and to obtain information on the demands in the sectors RDM and consultation services offered by the DCH in cooperation with the University and City Library of Cologne (USB), one of the local partners of the DCH. Another goal was the comparability with other surveys conducted in the field.

Population and sampling

Because RDM should be handled in a way specific to each discipline (Sahle et al. 2013), the survey targeted only researchers at the Faculty of Arts and Humanities of the University of Cologne - one of the largest humanities faculties in Europe. The survey's population is limited to the academic staff of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities of the University of Cologne. In particular, the survey focused on researchers who are responsible for data-driven research projects.

Questionnaire design and biases

Firstly, with regards to content, conceptual and methodical design of the survey, Internet surveys and online questionnaires on research data at national and international scientific institutions and research institutes were analyzed so far available (the website ""forschungsdaten.org"" offers an overview regarding national and international surveys on research data). Secondly, the questionnaire design was tailored and adapted to suit the unique circumstances which can be found at the Faculty of Arts

and Humanities (DCH 2016, CCeH 2016). Finally, the results of a series of expert interviews carried out by the DCH with researchers at the Faculty were taken into account (Blumtritt 2016, p. 16). The questionnaire addresses five issues, namely (1) research data, (2) use of data archives, (3) support for research data, (4) discipline and position, (5) interest.

Review and survey pretesting

After a review of the questionnaire with stakeholders, such as the dean's office, the library and the data protection officer, a test link was sent to 20 potential subjects. This included representatives of all subject groups of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities (Faculty of Arts and Humanities 2016) as well as external experts (mostly sociologists and colleagues with RDM-background). After several feedback loops, the questionnaire was further modified and optimized.

Implementation and launch

The questionnaire was compiled using Kronenwett & Adolphs online survey tool (Kronenwett & Adolphs 2017). It was put online from 2016-05-30 to 2016-06-12 (2 weeks). Depending on individual answers the questionnaire contained up to 24 questions.

Data analysis and reporting

The questionnaire was completely answered by 136 participants (out of 191 persons who started the survey) which is 71.20% completion rate. The following selection of data analysis and reporting takes into account only these participants (n=136).

Results

Our objective in the compilation of the questionnaire was to answer the following questions:

1) What research data are available?

2) What is the need for research data?

3) What support do the members of the Faculty of

Arts and Humanities want from the DCH?

Regarding the first question, sustainability and data volume were important to us. As far as sustainability is concerned, the majority of respondents are storing their research data on their local computers: 70% work computer, 70% private computer, multiple responses were possible (see fig. 1). Only 14% are storing their data in a data archive, a number that is also reflected in other questions like how many participants can imagine their data being stored in a data archive.

Where do you usually store your research data (no backup copies)?


Figure 1. Storage places (n=136)

Regarding sustainability standards the given answers are fatal results since structured access and retrievability of research data are only ensured in professional data archives. Cloud solutions are also quite popular (35% use by commercial vendors and 14% of scientific vendors) because they ensure overall data access and data share. But regarding aspects like data plausibility, traceability or even long-term preservation they are totally unsuitable.

This result could be explained by the fact that the participants do not reflect their approach to sustainability and traceability. The vast majority of the respondent's self-assessment regarding their own skills in RDM is rated to be average or even less (71%) (see figure 2).


Figure 2. Self-assessment RDM-skills (n=136)

Sustainability is seen as a problem. 66% of the participants state that data could be lost when there is no one to be responsible for the website. 60% fear problems with data conversion. There is some sensibility towards the issues of finding the data (45%) and documentation of the data (41%). Figure 3 shows all answers concerning problems the participants see with preserving research data. Interesting is that both privacy and data theft are the concerns voiced the least frequent (11% each), despite the fact that we encounter these concerns frequently in our consulting practice. But this could be an anomaly due to us asking from the user perspective rather than the data giving perspective which is more typical to our consulting.

Did you get in touch with any of these problems or do you think you will might get in touch with any of these problems in the future?

other ■(5 88%)


Figure 3. Past and future problems (n=136)


Figure 4. Support and services needed (n=136)

In an effort to improve our services towards the faculty, we also asked which services should be provided by the DCH. Here legal and technical issues featured prominently (74% and 73% respectively; also cf. Fig. 4). Requests for storage (72%) and consultation (66%) on general issues are also in high demand.

Conclusion and outlook

As a result of the survey, we propose the following recommendations for action for the University of Cologne on the one hand and for the DCH on the other hand. Together with the local library (USB), the DCH now offers legal counseling on the subject of research data with a specialized lawyer. We are currently planning a project for improving the sustainability of living software systems, since the survey showed that this is an eminent problem in our faculty. Based on the projected storage space from the survey, we have negotiated with the computing center to provide that space centrally for all the members of our faculty.

In our talk, we will give more details on the study and its results and will also compare it to other surveys conducted internationally. We feel that surveys of this nature are an important tool to shape strategic decisions made in institutions concerned with research data.

CCeH

English

Cologne Center for eHumanities

German

DCH

Data Center for the Humanities

Kölner Datenzentrum für die Geisteswissenschaften

DFG

German Research Foundation

Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft

DIPF

German Institute for International Educational Research

Deutsches Institut für Internationale Pädagogische Forschung

GWK

Joint Science Conference of Germany

Gemeinsame Wissenschaftskonferenz

HRK

German Rectors' Conference

Hochschulrektorenkonferenz

LAC

Language Archive Cologne

-

Rfll

German Council for Scientific Information Infrastructures

RRZK

Regional Computing Center of the University of Cologne

Regionales Rechenzentrum der Universität zu Köln

Figure 5. List of abbreviations used.

Bibliography

Kronenwett & Adolphs (n.d.), http://www.kronenwett-adolphs.com/en (accessed on 2017-03-26)

Averkamp, S., Gu, X., Rogers, B. (2014). Data management at the University of Iowa: A university libraries report on campus research data needs. University of Iowa, http://ir.uiowa.edu/lib_pubs/153/ (accessed on 2016-10-31)

Bauer, B., Ferus, A., Gorraiz, J., Gumpenberger, C., Gründhammer, V., Maly, N., Mühlegger, J. M., Preza, J. L., Sánchez Solís, B., Schmidt, N., Steineder, C.

(2015). Researchers and their data. Results of an Austrian survey - report 2015. e-infrastructures austria, Vienna, http://e-infrastructures.at/das-projekt/deliv-erables (accessed on 2017-03-12)

Blumtritt, J. (2016). Consulting Workflow for Humanities Research Data, Talk at Humanities Research Data Conference (FORGE 2016): Beyond Data - Sustainability for Research Application and Software, 2016-09-15, University of Hamburg, https://www.gwiss.uni-ham-burg.de/gwin/ueber-uns/forge2016/praesenta-

tionen/f1606-blumtritt-mathiak.pdf (accessed on 2017-03-12)

Cologne Center for eHumanities (Ed.) (2016). Digital Humanities. Structures - Teaching- Research, Cologne, http://cceh.uni-koeln.de/broschure-digital-human-

ties-2016/ (accessed on 2016-10-12)

Data Center for the Humanities (n.d.) http://dch.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de (accessed on 2017-03-26)

Data Center for the Humanities (2016). Research Data Survey 2016, http://dch.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/um-frage-2016.html (accessed on 2017-03-26)

Faculty of Arts and Humanities (Ed.) (2016). Research 2016/17, Cologne

Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Cologne

(n.d.) Subject Groups Overview, http://phil-fak.uni-ko-eln.de/9785.html (accessed on 2017-03-26)

Forschungsdaten.org, (n.d.) Overview of Surveys on Research Data at Scientific Institutions, http://www.for-schungsdaten.org/index.php/Umfragen_zum_Um-gang_mit_Forschungsdaten_an_wissenschaftlichen_In-stitutionen (accessed on 2017-03-26)

Hochschulrektorenkonferenz (2014). Management von Forschungsdaten als strategische Aufgabe der Hochschulleitungen. Empfehlung der 16. HRK-Mitglieder-versammlung am 13. Mai 2014 in Frankfurt am Main, https://www.hrk.de/uploads/tx_szconvention/ HRK_Empfehlung_Forschungsda-

ten_13052014_01.pdf (accessed on 2017-03-12)

Hochschulrektorenkonferenz (2015). Wie Hochschulleitungen die Entwicklung des Forschungsdatenmanagements steuern können. Orientierungspfade, Handlungsoptionen, Szenarien. Empfehlung der 19. Mitgliederversammlung der HRK am 10. Növember 2015 in Kiel, https://www.hrk.de/uplöads/tx_szcönven-tiön/Empfehlung_

Förschungsdatenmanagement__fi-nal_Stand_11.11.2015.pdf (accessed ön 2016-08-12)

Kramer, B. (2014). Datenflut an Unis. Forscher müssen teilen lernen, in: Spiegel Online, 26.02.2014, http://www.spiegel.de/unispiegel/jöbundberuf/um-gang-mit-daten-der-glaeserne-förscher-a-954958.html (accessed ön 2016-10-31)

Kronenwett, S. (2017). Förschungsdaten an der Philösö-phischen Fakultät der Universität zu Köln (Kölner Arbeitspapiere zur Bibliötheks- und Införmatiönswis-senschaft, Bd. 78) Köln

Kuipers, T., van der Hoeven, J. (2009). Insight intö digital preservatiön öf research öutput in Euröpe. Survey re-pört. PARSE insight, Euröpean Cömmissiön, Brussels, http://parse-insight.eu/döwnlöads/PARSE-In-sight_D3-4_SurveyRepört_final_hq.pdf (accessed ön 2017-03-12)

Müller, H., Sedley, A., Ferrall-Nunge, E. (2014). Survey research in HCI, in: J. S. Olsön, W. A. Kellögg (Ed.): Ways öf Knöwing in HCI, New Yörk, p. 229-266

Rat für Informationsinfrastrukturen (2016). Leistung aus Vielfalt [Perförmance by diversity]. Empfehlungen

zu Strukturen, Prozessen und Finanzierung des Forschungsdatenmanagements in Deutschland, Gottingen, http://www.rfii.de/?wpdmdl=1998 (accessed on

2017-03-12)

Ray, J. M. (Ed.) (2014). Research Data Management: Practical Strategies for Information Professionals, West

Lafayette/USA

Sahle, P., Kronenwett, S. (2013). Jenseits der Daten: Überlegungen zu Datenzentren für die Geisteswissenschaften am Beispiel des Kölner 'Data Center for the Humanities', in: LIBREAS. Library Ideas, 23, p. 76-96, http://edoc.hu-berlin.de/libreas/23/sahle-patrick-1/PDF/sahle.pdf (accessed on 2017-03-12)

Schöpfel, J. Prost, H. (2016). Research data management in social sciences and humanities: A survey at the University of Lille (France), in: LIBREAS. Library Ideas, 29, p.    98-112,    http://nbn-resolv-

ing.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:11-100238193 (accessed on 2017-03-12)

Winkler-Nees, S. (2011). Vorwort, in: S. Büttner, H.-C. Ho-bohm, L. Muller (Ed.): Handbuch Forschungsdatenmanagement, Bad Honnef, p. 5-6, http://www.for-schungsdatenmanagement.de (accessed on 2016-0830)","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/164/164.pdf",""
"3866","18","The new literacy practice of young Taiwanese writers, illustrators, social innovators, and makers","2","New literacy is not to be taken as merely a change in how we understand and present information because of newly-developed technologies, but as a way of transforming how we interact with texts and with the world as a whole. This study aims to report an empirical study on how four types of digital natives, all born in the 1980s, access information and create content. Data was collected through one-on-one semi-structured interviews with 28 writers, illustrators, social innovators, and makers in total, seven in each category. The data were then processed as follows: First, we employed qualitative analysis and interpretation through close readings and meaning-making. Second, we quantitatively deconstructed the text by atomizing the discourse with Chinese Knowledge and Information Processing (CKIP) and filtering out units that are irrelevant to the analysis. Finally, we generated comparisons among the four contemporary groups and their new literacy practices.

Writers

In contrast to their counterparts from the older generation who were devoted to a single identity such as being a novelist, columnist, or essayist, young creative writers who have won literature awards and published top-ranking books grew up within a social environment of PTT, blogs, and Facebook. They are accustomed to managing their primary literate role while at the same time enjoying multi-tasking by being active across new media platforms and acting as popular commentators for social issues related to their academic training such as education, sociology, gender study, and philosophy. They obtain a vast quantity of high quality information from their social media stratosphere and they share opinions and ideas through social media services with their followers as a form of self-presentation, or “performance” in Goffman's term.

Illustrators

Internet and social media has brought changes to people's reading habits in many ways; for example, “Picture Reading” and illustrated creative blogs have become very popular in Taiwan over the last decade. Therefore, illustrators who devote effort to character creation and social media fan page management are increasing in number. They obtain inspiration from daily life and can transform their observations into creative content. These illustrators integrate their interests and capacities to share their artwork on the Internet, and they attempt to develop a business model that involves a multivariate form of production.

Social innovators

Social innovators attempt to employ strategies and actions to solve community or city problems through teamwork with the goal of making the world a better place. They use technology as a means of connecting resources in the process. Their goal is to penetrate social problems and issues, identify the needs of communities they target, develop innovative solutions, and take action. One of their primary strategies for achieving this goal is to collaborate with local people to create stories for the public, who thus can understand the value and meaning behind these stories. Their storytelling is multimodal in nature to accommodate the needs of the general public.

Makers

The “maker movement” has emerged in Taiwan over the last several years, and under the social environment of learning by doing, makers create a small amount of delicate products and are very open regarding sharing their ideas and creative processes. They suggest that traditional education in Taiwan neglects the significance of DIY and are enthusiastic about the

culture of makers, who emphasize learning, doing, and sharing. They are very persistent about their own interests, and empower themselves with knowledge and skills through self-directed learning, pursuing an ideal living style and working arrangement.

Insight from word clouds and the co-occurrence of key words

The word clouds of writers illuminate a central focus is on words, articles and literature. The literacy practice of these writers is to express feelings and provide arguments about issues. By contrast, illustrators are interest-driven; they enjoy sharing life stories and ideas with their friends, and are followed by social media fans who adore the characters they have created. The central focus of social innovators is on society, community, and local issues and needs; and their resources and contributions include teamwork, space, activities, cultural artifacts, and communication between people and the government. Finally, makers are interest-driven and they enjoy sharing life experiences through their creations and products like illustrators. Much like social innovators, makers access information and create content in both the cyber world and in the physical world.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/166/166.pdf",""
"3867","18","The Durability of Style and the Career of Stephen King","9","","","1","",""
"3868","18","Machine Vision Algorithms On Cadaster Plans","10","Introduction

Cadaster plans are cornerstones for reconstructing dense representations of the history of the city (di Lenardo and Kaplan, 2015). They provide information about the city urban shape, enabling to reconstruct footprints of most important urban components (buildings, streets, canals, bridges) as well as information about the urban population and city functions (census information, property, rent prices, etc.) (Noizet et al, 2013). Cadaster plans are usually the results of coordinated campaigns with standardized methods of measurement and representation. This means that large sets of documents follow the same representation conventions. This regularity opens the possibly of efficient automated process for analyzing them and possibly transforming the information they contain in geo-referenced databases that can be used as part of historical geographical information systems (Gregory et al, 2001).

However, as some of these handwritten documents are more than 200 years old, the establishment of a processing pipeline for interpreting them remains extremely challenging. This may explain why, to our knowledge, no such system exists in the literature. This article reports our effort in this domain, presenting the first implementation of a fully automated process capable of segmenting and interpreting Napoleonic Cadaster Maps of the Veneto Region dating from the beginning of the 19th century. Our system extracts the geometry of each of the drawn parcels, and classifies, reads and interprets the handwritten labels. We believe the general principle of technologies used in the process could be adapted to other cadastral funds, although this has not been tested in the present study.

Methodology

Literature on map processing includes works on many different types of maps, from roads to topographic maps, including hydrographic and cadastral maps. Most studies focus on particular problems and features and thus develop techniques that are highly map specific (Chiang et al, 2014).

Our work addresses the particular case of the Napoleonic cadaster of Venice dated 1808, but aims at developing a method highly adaptable to other cadasters with little extra effort.

We propose a system that segments the cadastral map, identifies and extract segmented objects such as parcels and identifiers and recognizes the extracted hand-written digits. A demo code with examples of the results can be found at https://github.com/dhlab-epfl/cadasters.

The method is summarized in Fig. 1.


Figure 1: Overview of the system

Preprocessing

Usually, the processed images are ancient documents that have been digitized. To deal with the natural ageing of paper and eventual spots on the map without losing details, we use a non-local means de-noising method (Buades et al, 2005) to smooth the image.

Segmentation

We address the task of extracting the desired information from the document as a segmentation problem, which is a recurrent problem in image processing. A graph-based segmentation approach is adopted, which models the image as a weighted undirected graph. This allows to process the pixels or regions in the spatial domain of the image but also to use higher level information such as connections, similarities and dependencies between the elements.

Because a group of pixels sharing some similarities are more perceptually meaningful than a simple pixel, we use SLIC method (Achanta et al, 2012) to create superpixels. Superpixels are clusters of pixels that share similarities and spatial proximity and have the advantage of reducing the complexity of image processing tasks.

A graph is a mathematical structure composed of vertices and edges, representing a system of connections or interrelations among a set of objects. It is widely used to model relations, to study information systems or to organize data. In our case, the graph representing the image is initialized with superpixels as vertices. Its edges connect neighboring vertices (superpixels) and each edge has a weight which is a measure of the dissimilarity between neighboring elements. The distance (or dissimilarity) metric is based on color and edge/ridge features.

The oversegmentation of the image resulting from superpixel generation is then reduced by grouping superpixels into homogeneous regions and merging the corresponding graph vertices. Our approach uses global homogeneity, meaning that the method minimizes intragroup dissimilarity and maximizes intergroup dissimilarity. The ‘dispersion' of edge weights (i.e standard deviation within a region) allows to spot high-weighted edges within a group and thus disconnect dissimilar vertices (i.e remove their edge) to end up with independent homogeneous regions.

Region Classification

The merged regions are classified into 3 classes: text, contour/delimitations and background (smooth textures such as parcels or streets) using a SVM classifier. The training data is composed of manually annotated samples of maps coming from the Napoleonic cadaster of Venice.

Parcel Extraction

The classification results allow the determination possible parcels candidates. A flood fill algorithm is applied, using a ridge detector to indicate boundaries. The chosen ridge detector was originally developed as a vessel enhancement filter (Frangi et al, 1998) and looks for multiscale second order local structures of the image that can be considered tubular. The obtained measure indicates how similar the structure is to a tube, and so it is able to detect ridges. Starting from one point in the regions labeled as background (seed point), the flood fill algorithm floods each zone, i.e parcels, streets, etc. and stops at the boundaries (output of the ridge detector).

Each parcel of the image is extracted as a polygonal shape and the polygon's corner points are stored in GeoJSON format. If the image file is geo-referenced and contains geographical information (a GTIFF file for instance), polygons are exported according to the spatial reference system provided. This allows a fast and easy integration of the shapes into a geographic information system (GIS) and geographic information on the parcels can easily be collected.

Digit Extraction

The parcel identifier is usually contained within the parcel. This observation and the extracted polygons' information can be used to correct misclassified text regions and improve identifier extraction. Elements labeled as text regions are localized, delimited by bounding boxes and grouped so that neighboring characters are extracted together. Again, information from polygons is used to determine whether neighboring digits belong to the same identifier or not (i.e whether neighboring digits are located in the same parcel/polygon). Boxes that do not correspond to identifiers or digits are removed according to specific criteria. Finally, the boxes containing the parcels' identifiers are extracted.

Since the digit recognition step requires horizontally oriented digits to output accurate prediction, the identifiers' boxes are rotated. A principal analysis component is applied to the binary image of the extracted numbers to determine the angle of the rotation.

Digit Recognition

The horizontally oriented numbers are separated into digits that are processed individually. A good digit segmentation is primordial since connected or overlapping digits lead to incorrect recognition. A Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) with two convolutional layers, two fully connected layers and a final softmax layer for multiclass classification is used to predict the identifiers. The CNN is trained on a mixed dataset composed of MNIST dataset (LeCun et al, 1998) and digit samples from Sommarioni register and has a performance of 99.1%. When predicting the numbers, the network outputs the inferred number with a confidence level indicating the reliability of the result.

Results

The proposed approach shows promising results in parcel extraction and identifier recognition. We performed the first ‘proof-of-concept' evaluations on manually labeled data taken from different cadaster samples. The total number of annotated objects are shown in Table 1.

Most parcels and identifiers were correctly extracted (Table 2 & 3), which assured us of the feasibility of their automatic extraction. The precision can still be increased for example by using feedback from digit recognition results, i.e, the prediction and its confidence level permit the discarding regions where no reliable identifier has been recognized.


i7bi

mb

277/

-J

Figure 2: Sample of results: (a) original image, (b) polygon approximation of parcels, (c) extracted parcels and (d) identifier localization

Parcels with labels

810

All parcels (with and without lab els)

1185

Parcels' numbers

736

Table 1: Count of ground-truth objects

Labelled parcels

All parcels

IßJi

> 0.6

> 0.7

> 0.8

> 0.6

> 0.7

> 0.8

Recall

0.77

0.76

0.72

0.72

0.69

0.60

Precision

0.55

0.54

0.51

0.75

0.71

0.62

Ground-truth

810

1185

Total extracted

1144

Table 2: Results of parcel extraction with different Intersection over Union (IoU) thresholds

Concerning the digit recognition, only 10% of the identifiers had their digits correctly recognized. Since the models used have shown good performance on nicely detached digits, this is not the fault of the recognition algorithm itself but rather of the digit segmentation procedure. The current segmentation is the main hindrance to an efficient digit recognition, thus, further work should focus on a better number processing algorithm. Another alternative is to avoid the segmentation problem and use a recurrent neural network such as LTSM to process the number as a sequence.

Perspectives

Our work shows promising results for easing and accelerating cadaster processing, especially given our method's efficient parcel segmentation and digit identification. Moreover, the export of a parcel's geometry into GeoJSON format opens up further perspectives to efficiently geo-reference ancient maps. The system can be extended and integrated into a user interface to take better advantage from the results, for example by allowing the user to correct or add information about parcels and identifiers.

Inter

> 0.5

> 0.7

> 0.9

Recall

0.90

0.87

0.81

Precision

0.58

0.55

0.51

Ground-truth

736

Total localized

1152

Table 3: Results of parcels' number localization with different Intersection (overlapping percentage) thresholds.

Correct number

Partial number

4 digits

3 digits

2 digits

1 digit

MNIST

58 (.09)

17 (.03)

105 (.16)

94 (.14)

165 (0.25)

MNIST-Sommarioni

66 (.10)

20 (.03)

90 (.14)

103 (.16)

163 (.26)

Total localized

637

Table 4: Results of parcels' number recognition

The proposed method creates a bridge between previously seperate two data types: the raster object and the vector object. Currently, web-mapping tools consider vector objects as separate layers on the raster maps, and each object needs to be manually redesigned. The automatic vectorization process enables us to perform the visualization and annotation processes directly on the cartographic source without the prerequisite of complex skills. It should greatly facilitate large scale exploitation of such kinds of documents.

features,” in Document Analysis and Recognition, 1993., Proceedings of the Second Interna- tional Conference on, pp. 577-580, IEEE.

Chen, Y.-K. and Wang, J.-F. (2000). “Segmentation of

single-or multiple-touching handwritten numeral string using background and foreground analysis,”

Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, IEEE

Transactions on, vol. 22, no. 11, pp. 1304-1317.

Bibliography

di Lenardo, I. and Kaplan, F. (2015) “Venice time machine: Recreating the density of the past,” in Digital Humanities 2015, no. EPFL-CONF-214895.

Noizet, H., Bove, B., and Costa, L. (2013) “Paris de parcelles en pixels.”

Gregory, I. N., Kemp, K. K., and Mostern, R. (2001). “Geographical information and historical research:

Current progress and future directions,” History and

Computing, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 7-23.

Chiang, Y.-Y., Leyk, S., and Knoblock, C. A. (2014). “A survey of digital map processing techniques,” ACM

Computing Surveys (CSUR), vol. 47, no. 1, p. 1, 2014.

Buades, A., Coll, B., and Morel, J.-M. (2005). “A non-local

algorithm for image denoising,” in Computer Vision

and Pattern Recognition, 2005. CVPR 2005. IEEE

Computer Society Conference on, vol. 2, pp. 60-65,

IEEE.

Achanta, R., Shaji, A., Smith, K., Lucchi, A., Fua, P., and Susstrunk, S. (2012). “Slic superpixels com- pared to state-of-the-art superpixel methods,” Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 34, no. 11, pp. 2274-2282.

Frangi, A. F., Niessen, W. J., Vincken, K. L., and Viergever, M. A.    (1998).    “Multiscale vessel

enhancement filtering,” in Medical Image Computing

and Computer-Assisted Interventa- tion—MICCAI'98,

pp. 130-137, Springer.

LeCun, Y., Cortes, C., and Burges, C. J. (1998). “The mnist database of handwritten digits”.

Strathy, N.W., C. Y. Suen, C.Y., and Krzyzak. A. (1993).

“Segmentation of handwritten digits using contour","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/169/169.pdf",""
"3869","18","MemoryGraph: Digital Critique of Old Photographs Using a Mobile App that Enhances the Interpretation of Landscape","2","Introduction

MemoryGraph is a medium to record memories as the augmentation of a photograph, which is a medium to record photons. MemoryGraph is a new photographic technique that creates a layer of “memories” (or more precisely, time-series photographs) which are taken by the same composition at different times. Photographs of the same composition can be taken by traditional cameras, but this requires substantial effort, because matching a printed photograph with the current landscape requires mental rotation (Shepard et al., 1971), a psychologically demanding task. MemoryGraph simplifies this task through direct overlay of a photograph and the current landscape on a camera viewfinder with adjustable transparency. We demonstrate that this simple idea opens up new possibilities for the critical interpretation of photographs in the context of digital critique.

Related Methods

MemoryGraph focuses on the spatio-temporal relationship between photographs and the real world. This field of interest has given rise to many methods similar to MemoryGraph. For this reason, we begin with a comparison between MemoryGraph and these related methods in order to characterize MemoryGraph's unique properties.

First, it is necessary to compare MemoryGraph with time-lapse animation, which is also a time-series image of the same composition. The fundamental difference between time-lapse animation and MemoryGraph is in time scale and device dependence. Time lapse animation deals with high frequency observations of seconds to minutes using the same location-fized camera, while MemoryGraph deals with low frequency observations over a period of days to years. These observations may potentially use different cameras that are not fixed at the location. In short, MemoryGraph is a tool to realize fixed point observation at any place for any time interval.

Secondly, we contrast MemoryGraph with augmented reality (AR), which focuses on the alignment of the real space and the virtual space so that a photograph can be seen as an overlay on the real space through a camera viewfinder. On the contrary, MemoryGraph focuses on the overlay of a photograph on a camera viewfinder as a graphic reference to illustrate the composition of a further action (namely, taking a photograph). This key contrast suggests fundamentally different roles between augmented reality and MemoryGraph. Augmented reality is a tool for exhibition, in the sense that alignment is controlled by a tool, while the user is allowed to be a passive visitor who experiences an environment prepared by someone else. Quite the opposite, MemoryGraph is a tool for participation: the “visitor” controls the alignment, and the user should be an active explorer who searches for the best match between photograph and real-life landscape. In short, MemoryGraph is a tool for actions, such as participatory annotation.

Our final comparison discusses photo-sharing services dedicated to old photographs. For example, Historypin (Shift, 2010) is designed to share photographs of the past using a map interface, while an advanced system might use a street-view interface to place photographs in 3D. Both tools aim to link photographs to the real world, however, their methods of achieving this goal do not rely on ventures into the “real world” to “place” the photographs. Photo sharing services depend on “arm-chair” annotators, but MemoryGraph depends on “field” annotators who visit a real place to take another photograph. In short, MemoryGraph is a tool to motivate people to move in the real world.

Proposed Method

MemoryGraph is designed as a mobile app for two reasons. First, the idea of “graphic reference” overlay on a camera viewfinder cannot be implemented on traditional cameras that do not expose API (application programming interface). By re-purposing the viewfinder of a smart phone, MemoryGraph can extend the grid-based reference of a traditional camera viewfinder to a graphic reference such as an old photograph. Secondly, in order employ MemoryGraph as a field work tool, the use of a mobile phone is the best choice for mobility and also for real-time information sharing with the server.

The task of the user is to find the best match between a graphic reference and the real world using an opaque viewfinder with adjustable transparency. Direct comparison between two scenes not only reduces the burden of mental rotation for the user, but also makes the search enjoyable: the movement of the user gives real-time visual feedback that suggests how “good” the move is. This gamification effect motivates users to search for better matching, and promotes photographic crowd-sourcing for participatory annotation.

The outcome of this task is two types of data. One is a photograph that records the current landscape, and another is the metadata of the photograph such as latitude, longitude, and direction observed by sensors in a mobile phone. Metadata may be enhanced later to add a title, and description (among other things), and users can upload metadata and photographs to the server for sharing. The uploaded data can then be used for scholarly research, because the GPS coordinates and the temporally different views of the landscape are valuable resources for understanding the landscape changes.

Results

The MemoryGraph (CODH, 2016) app is available for free on Google Play, but an iOS version has not yet been released. The predecessor app, MemoryHunt (Kitamoto, 2015), has been used for both the study of cultural landscapes and the monitoring of disaster recovery (DSR, 2014).

To study cultural landscapes, we held several workshops with both scholars and laypersons who tried the app in the field. An example is shown in Figure 1, where the reference image was a photograph of Imperial Palace Moat in Tokyo. The photograph was easy to interpret, but the actual place was difficult to find. Figure 2 shows how participants walked along the moat

to find the best match. At each place, participants took the photograph that they believed to be the best match, but the best solution of Figure 1 was found after many trials of all the participants.


Figure 1. Comparison of two photographs of the same composition. “A view from Miyakezaka to the ministry of justice” taken around 1911 and the current landscape. Courtesy of National Diet Library.


Figure 2. Participants walked along the moat to find the best match, and their trials are marked by icons. The final solution of Figure 1 was obtained at the north end of the moat.

For the second purpose, we held workshops at Kobe in Japan, which was severely damaged by the earthquake in 1995, and Aceh in Indonesia, which was severely damaged by the tsunami in 2004, to understand how the city recovered from the disaster. The app was enjoyed by local people in two countries, and some children were involved more actively than adults due to the gamification effect.

MemoryGraph can be generalized in several ways. First, it can be generalized from landscape to object: for example, time-series photographs of the same person at different places. Second, it can be generalized to cross-media reference: for example, taking the same composition at a “sacred place” of pop-culture work inspired by the real landscape.

Discussion on Digital Critique

Digital critique, or what has been referred to in other words as digital criticism (Kitamoto, 2016) or data criticism (Kitamoto, 2014), was proposed by the author as a framework for digital scholarship in the humanities. It has been applied to the criticism of non-textural sources such as maps and photographs with the intent of using them as evidence for historical studies. Although the digital humanities are often considered quantitative or metric humanities, digital critique focuses on the digital creation and management of humanities knowledge. Several types of digital tools have been designed for the critical interpretation of textual and non-textural sources, including success stories such as the identification of Silk Road ruins, or the characterization of mistakes in the renovation of old Beijing maps (Kitamoto et al., 2014) (Kitamoto et al., 2016). We claim that MemoryGraph is another digital critique tool that asks the following research questions in order to use a photographic source as historical evidence.

The first research question asks what the variance and invariance is in the target landscape over time. Invariance is often found as artificial features such as roads and monuments, or natural features such as a mountain ridge, but in other cases, the identification of invariance requires training of the user in terms of interpretive performance on the historical landscape.

Secondly, we ask how historical evidences can be best integrated across different sources, such as old maps, old photographs and historical databases. Invariance found through the app is a hint to links different sources over time, and this contributes to expanding our understanding by integrating knowledge from different sources.

Our final research question asks why the photograph was taken in this setting. This is because the best match is theoretically achieved by the same physical posture between the original photographer and the user (Kitamoto, 2015). This means that as a user tries to find the best match using the app, a user can re-experience the original photographer who took the photograph in the same posture. The physical overlay of the user and the photographer may lead to research questions investigating the emotion or the way of thinking of the original photographer at the time. This has potential to give birth to new interpretation of photographs from the physical or emotional perspective.

Acknowledgments

The project was partially supported by JSPS

Kakenhi Center Grant Number 16H02920 and by Center for Integrated Area Studies (CIAS), Kyoto University. The core contributor to the app is Mr. Tomohiro Ikezaki.

Bibliography

Center for Open Data in the Humanities (CODH)

(2016). “MemoryGraph.” https://mp.ex.nii.ac.jp/mg/, (accessed on April 6, 2017).

Digital Silk Road Project (DSR) (2014). “MemoryHunt.”    http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/memory-

hunting/, (accessed on April 6, 2017).

Kitamoto, A., and Nishimura, Y. (2016). ""Digital criticism platform for evidence-based digital humanities with applications to historical studies of Silk Road."" Digital Humanities 2016:Conference Abstracts.

Kitamoto, A., and Nishimura, Y. (2014). ""Data criticism: general framework for the quantitative interpretation of non-textual sources."" Digital Humanities 2014:Conference Abstracts.

Kitamoto, A. (2015). ""MemoryHunt: a mobile app with an active viewfinder for crowdsourced annotation through the re-experience of the photographer"", Fifth Annual Conference of the Japanese Association for Digital Humanities: Conference Abstracts.

Shepard, R.N., Metzler, J. (1971). ""Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects."" Science, 171(3972): 701-703.

Shift (2010). “Historypin.” http://www.history-pin.org/, (accessed on April 6, 2017).","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/170/170.pdf",""
"3870","18","Authorship of Dream of the Red Chamber: A Topic Modeling Approach","2","Dream of the Red Chamber (DRC, ^^^) is one of the most famous Chinese classic novels, written by Cao Xueqin (WW^) during the 18th century. The original version of DRC had 80 chapters. But in 1791, Gao E (^ W) and Cheng Weiyuan (®)^x) claimed that they had found more manuscripts of Cao and published another edition with 120 chapters. Since then, there has been a lot of discussions regarding the number of authors of DRC. Many scholars see the last 40 chapters as a later addition. Currently Hu Shih’s (^^) (Hu, 1988) research is most widely accepted, where he argued these last 40 chapters were written by Gao E. According to some modern research approaches, the first 80 and the last 40 chapters are written by two authors. Evidence also suggest that Chapters 64 and 67 may not be written by Cao (Hu, Wang, & Wu, 2014; Tu, & Hsiang, 2013).

Using Delta (Burrows, 2002), a measure of difference between two texts, the same conclusion has been obtained (Du, 2016). The 120 chapters are written by two authors. Red texts are the first 80 chapters and green texts are the last 40 chapters. Delta also suggest that chapter 6, 10, 11 and 67 might be written by the second author (see Fig. 1, 2, 3).

Although most the results obtained are within expectations, the presence of the four chapters in the second group certainly deserves further investigation. Three hypotheses are proposed in this paper as the cause for this situation:

•    This test result from the Delta method is not 100% accurate.

•    These four chapters shares many names or plot related terms with the last 40 chapters.

•    Stylistic difference. Compared to the other chapters, the use of some less plot related terms indicates that the second author wrote Chapter 6, 10, 11 and 67.

Topic Modeling was used to test DRC on this regard. I used the version of the DRC that Tu (2013) deemed “the closest to the earliest editions” for this study. Topic Modeling can automatically discover the contents of a large collection of documents, and is often used as an alternative method to explore the documents. A topic is a probabilistic distribution over words appearing in the corpus. The model finds groups of related words, and words that occur frequently together will be clustered in the same group. If some words tend to co-occur in the last 40 chapters of DRC, Topic Modeling would be effective in highlighting their presence. LDA (Latent Dirichlet Allocation) (Blei et al., 2003) was used to model my corpus and do my test, and MAchine Learning for LanguagE Toolkit (MALLET) was used as the topicmodeling tool.

At the preprocessing step, tokenizing and chunking were performed. Tokenizing is required to process texts written in the Chinese Language to spilt texts into words, as there are no spaces to mark word boundaries. Tools like Stanford Chinese Word Segmenter can only be used on modern Chinese texts, as the segmentation standards are not suitable for classic Chinese. Character bigrams were hence selected as the “word”. Breaking the texts up allows the relationship among words to be explored more thoroughly, hence the chapters were split, where each document for the test contains 500 bigrams. Stopwords present another issue. A test run was first performed with MALLET to acquire some topics. The results of the test run show the bigram words assigned to the topics. In these topics the correct bigram words and person names were observed. Besides, a significant amount of meaningless bigrams in the topics were also found, for example:    (writings,

one), (and so on, do), (cloud, smile). Thereby a stopword list with the following was compiled: a collection of meaningless bigrams and person names and function words like    (a),    (this), A#

(have to) and so on.

MALLET was run after the preprocessing stage to generate 50 topics. The topic-document distribution output was aggregated as the chapters were split into chunks at the preprocessing step. The average of the topic shares associated with each chapter were then computed and the shares were transformed into a document-topic matrix. Then the visualization of the topic proportions associated with the chapters was created (see Fig. 4). The x-axis are the topics and the y-axis are the documents. The red line divides the figure

into two parts, the first 80 chapters (above the line) and the last 40 chapters (under the line). Topic #26 became the main focus from this result: the last 40 chapters are all strongly associated with it, while the first 80 chapters (except Chapter 11 and 67) are associated to this topic with much lower probability. The topic-word assignments were then computed. The top 20 words and their unnormalized weights of the topic #26 are:

357.0: AA (lady), 246.0: 0A (back), 233.0: A

T (coming), 218.0: TW (slave girl), 190.0:

A (come over), 184.0:    (answer), 146.0: X

M (seen), 125.0: XX (go), 122.0:

(moment), 114.0: XA (call someone), 108.0: X

A (come out), 101.0:    (speech), 100.0:

(tell), 98.0: 40 (today), 98.0: XX (talk), 95.0:

(see), 92.0: 0^ (answer), 91.0:    (over

there), 91.0: Wt (promptly), 85.0:    (think

of)

All the words are not person names or plot-related. The result obtained from the Topic Modelling shows that Topic #26 is a “style”-Topic. Most of them can be presented in a scene: an interaction (or a conversation) between the lady and the slave girl. DRC is an observation of the Chinese society in 18th-century. The story is about the life of two large, wealthy family compounds in the capital of China. Such scenes or plot are hence very common in the whole novel.

In conclusion, Topic Modeling was used in this paper to find the specific topic, which represents the difference between the first 80 and the last 40 chapters of DRC. The test results indicate that both hypotheses, a) the Delta test result is not 100% accurate, b) The four chapters share many names or plot related terms with the last 40 chapters, are not true. The first 80 chapters (except Chapter 11 and 67) are stylistically different from the last 40 chapters. According to the results of Delta and Topic Modeling, both Chapter 11 and 67 are definitely not written by the first author. They might be written. or at least edited by the second author of DRC.



Figure 1. Delta test results of DRC, (300 MFC, 2-grams)



Figure 2, Delta test results of DRC, (400 MFC, 2-grams)



Figure 3. Delta test results of DRC, (500 MFC, 2-grams)



Figure 4. Topic-chapter distribution of DRC (50 topics, 120 documents)


Bibliography
Blei, D. M., Ng, A. Y., & Jordan, M. I. (2003). Latent dirichlet allocation. Journal of machine Learning research, 9931022.

Burrows, J. (2002). 'Delta': A measure of stylistic difference and a guide to likely authorship. In: Literary and Linguistic Computing, 17(3), (pp. 267-287).

Du, K. (2016). Testing Delta on Chinese Texts. In Digital Humanities 2016: Conference Abstracts. Jagiellonian University & Pedagogical University, Krakow, pp. 781783.

Hu Shhi (1988).    [Hu Shihs

Analysis of Dream of Red Chamber], Shanghai Guji Chubanshe (Shanghai Classics Publishing House)

Hu, X., Wang, Y., & Wu, Q. (2014). Multiple Authors Detection: A Quantitative Analysis of Dream of the Red Chamber. Advances in Adaptive Data Analysis, 1450012.

Tu, H. C., & Hsiang, J. (2013). A Text-Mining Approach to the Authorship Attribution Problem of Dream of the Red

Chamber. In: Digital Humanities 2013: Conference Abstracts (pp. 441-443)","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/171/171.pdf",""
"3871","18","Understanding Narrative: Computational Approaches to Detecting Narrative Frames","2","Understanding narrative structure at a large scale remains a challenging problem within the field of cultural analytics and computational linguistics. Our aim with this project is to develop novel methods to study the pacing of narrative scene changes and the overall distribution of different plotlines within novels. Being able to analyze such narrative features at large scale can give us insights into the way different genres, time periods, or cultures favor different modes of storytelling. In this project we formalize definitions of narrative scenes and implement new methods of detection and clustering using computational methods.

The project involves three steps: creating an operational concept of a narrative frame; the algorithmic segmentation of narratives by frames; and the predictive clustering of frames into larger-scale “plotlines.”

We define a “frame” as a significant shift of three variables in a given text window: entities, actions, and objects, which we represent using POS tagging as proper names, verbs, and nouns. We measure significant lexical shift of our three primary variables in a sliding textual window of 1000 words with increments of 100-word shifts. We test window-size and variable selection relative to human annotation to determine the best performing model. We resolve frames into “plotlines” using hierarchical clustering, also demonstrated in our poster. “Frames” serve as inferred textual units and “plotlines” as aggregated clusters of frames.

We have tested the performance of different combination of variable selection on nine 12,000-word passages from novels of different genres from a range of time periods (from 1818 to 2011). To date, our algorithm outperforms the current state-of-the-art in Hearst's Texttiling algorithm (1994; 1997) when it comes to placing breaks in the narrative event progression. The performance of our system relative to human performance on the same task (F1 82%, Precision 81%, Recall 86%), shows an F1 score of 69% with 71% precision and 67% recall, where % annotators agreement is considered to be a true frame boundary. Hearst's method applied to the same problem performs at a significantly lower rate (F1 18%, Precision 18%, Recall 19%). While the overall problem remains challenging we show significant improvement over state of the art systems at detecting narrative segments. Nevertheless, the imperfect accuracy suggests that scene changes have a number of subtle variables that are not exclusively tied to vocabulary or character shifts, which indicate further avenues for future research.

Our poster will present our formalization of narrative events, the results and approach of the segmentation task and the clustering models used. We see this project as a crucial contribution to the larger study of narrative form across different literary genres and time periods.

Bibliography

Hearst, M. (1994). “Multi-Paragraph Segmentation of

Expository Text.” Proceedings of the 32nd Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics,

Los Cruces, NM.

Hearst, M. (1997). “TextTiling: Segmenting Text into

Multi-Paragraph Subtopic Passages.” Computational Linguistics , 23 (1), pp. 33-64.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/172/172.pdf",""
"3872","18","Challenges for New Infrastructures and Paradigms in DH Curricular Program Development","3","Introduction

Many leading universities in the United States have recognized the profoundly transformative effect that DH has had on research and teaching and have established lab-based research programs or institutional centers for interdisciplinary collaboration on digital projects in the humanities. The University of Virginia led with the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, which now supports more than forty DH research projects. The Stanford Humanities Laboratory, established in 2001, is a collaborative research environment for crossdisciplinary and multi-institutional, technologically transformative projects. Duke, a founding member of HASTAC (Humanities, Arts, Science, and Technology Advanced Collaboratory), adopted a similar model within its John Hope Franklin Humanities Institute. Other universities such as Harvard, Brown, Dartmouth, Berkeley, Princeton, and the University of Michigan have begun aggressively to hire in the field and to design multidisciplinary DH programs. Moreover, University of Pennsylvania and Yale have attracted large donations from alumnae for DH institutes, while state institutions like Maryland, Nebraska, and UCLA have garnered millions of dollars in external funds to support their field-leading digital scholarship centers.

Digital Humanities scholarship is, by necessity, collaborative and interdisciplinary. DH approaches to the creation and dissemination of scholarship investigate the information life cycle from digitization to preservation including multimediality, design elements, and computational reasoning and implementation through perspectives developed in the context of deep understandings of the key issues at stake in the humanities. DH approaches to teaching typically involve an emphasis on experiential learning and research by creatively expanding modes of access and networks of participation through the methods that students employ. This multidisciplinary work in research and teaching is not limited to conventional humanities departments, but, rather, emerges in every humanistic field, in arts and architecture, information studies, film and media studies, archaeology, geography, ethnic studies, and the social sciences. Because of this essentially multidisciplinary nature of DH work, some of the universities listed above have begun to move away from more traditional models of DH where DH is housed in the library or where DH is primarily an endeavor of the English or History Department. Northeastern University's center for Digital Humanities and Computational Social Science (NULab) and King's College DH Department, for example, bridge the humanities and computational, qualitative social sciences while Bard College's Experimental Humanities Concentration and Initiative is focused primarily on the arts.

Even with all this funding and enthusiasm, however, it remains surprisingly challenging to design curricula in DH on the undergraduate and graduate level. These challenges are a direct result of the fact that attempts to develop new paradigms and models for ""training"" students break (or stretch) molds for learning and teaching that have calcified over decades into departmental silos and administrative policies concerning credits and teaching loads. These challenges include the difficulty of organizing teaching arrangements that include faculty from multiple disciplines, supporting cluster hires versus supporting ""reskilling"" faculty to teach new methods from different perspectives, and designing single courses with heavy loads of material including perspectives on the world (such as cultural critique) alongside advanced topics in, for example, statistical models, computational approaches, and data visualization.

This panel will include representatives from five programs who bring perspectives from both private and public, large research universities and small liberal arts colleges in the United States. The panelists have worked within the context of long-standing digital humanities centers as well as within initiatives just now developing without these historical, infrastructural legacies. Each panelist will speak for twelve to fifteen minutes on the below topics, leaving time for questions from and conversations with the audience.

Tanya Clement

For many years, Digital Humanities at the University of Texas at Austin has happened on a project-level basis, without the support of a DH center, in American Studies, Anthropology, Classics, English, French and Italian, History, Information Studies, and in Portuguese and Spanish, among other departments (some projects can be viewed at the UT DH page)

At UT, we are experiencing a scenario that is familiar at universities and colleges that are supported by instantiated DH centers and initiatives. The existing, funded projects at UT do not offer enough project-based, training opportunities for a wide range of students. Project-based work with digital information technologies is often heralded as the site of work that defines DH (Burdick, et. al, 2012; Drucker,

2012; Hayles, 2012; Svensson, 2009, 2012). It is also the site of experiential learning and project-based research in DH on the undergraduate and graduate level, a trend that is noticeable in many of the lessons and curricula collected in the recent Modern Language Association publication, Digital Pedagogy in the Humanities: Concepts, Models, and Experiments. Even with this fabulous array of DH classroom-based assignments, the students who are best trained in DH -- those who on the graduate level are best prepared for the job market in private and public industry as well as the academy -- remain those students who participate in the kinds of long-term, interdisciplinary-team-led projects that have become the mainstay of DH. These kinds of projects, however, usually only have the funding to train a handful of lucky students. At UT, we are working to consider a different paradigm for teaching and training students that is not dependent, primarily, on the soft-money world that remains the status quo for most underfunded DH projects.

To better understand our proposed methods of training, it is important to describe the UT landscape.

The University of Texas at Austin is a large research university with over 3,000 teaching faculty and over 50,000 students. It is rich in multicultural, multimedia, obscure and popular special collections of interest to

humanities scholars. Some examples include the

Gloria Anzaldua archives, the Guatemalan National Police Historical Archive (AHPN), and the Radio Venceremos collection of digital audio recordings of guerrilla radio from the civil war in El Salvador housed in the Benson Latin American Collection. The papers of Carson McCullers, David Foster Wallace, and Gabriel Garcia Marquez as well as many collections of medieval and early modern manuscripts including one of five copies of the Gutenberg Bible in the United States are at the Harry Ransom Center, which also holds a robust collection of film (including the archive of Robert Dinero), photographs (such as the Magnum Photos' New York bureau collection, dating from 1929 to 2004), and authors' recordings including tapes of Anne Sexton's therapy sessions and Spalding Gray's performances alongside the center's other robust collections of twentieth century writers and performing artists. At the Briscoe Center for American History there is the Texas Poster Art Collection which documents the visuals behind the pivotal early music careers (1960s to 1970s) of iconic music legends such as Willie Nelson and Townes Van Zandt as well as over 2000 reels of tape that include the field recordings of folklorists John A. Lomax, William A. Owens, Americo Paredes, and John Henry Faulk.

The list of amazing collections at UT goes on, but in terms of DH, it doesn't matter. Most of these materials, like most of the materials (no matter if they are paper, reels, tape, or photographs) in special collections at many institutions are almost completely inaccessible to DH methods of presentation and inquiry - even when they are digitized. These materials are either under copyright; in non-text formats such as an image, audio, or video file; undescribed (and therefore, in many cases, undiscoverable); or unstructured; all of which make them unsuitable for most DH tools. Instead, UT scholars and teachers, like scholars and teachers everywhere, typically use the same collections that others use: what is freely available online - a trend that systematically limits the kinds of questions we can ask in DH scholarship and teaching.

At UT, we are trying to address these issues in our plans to create an undergraduate and graduate curriculum in DH by considering three primary questions that plague DH curriculum development everywhere:

1. How do we train a wide range of students on the undergraduate and graduate levels across a wide range of DH issues including, but not limited to, the creation of digital collections and archives; the analysis of digital materials; and the use of digital technologies to write, publish, and consume scholarship when our faculty are siloed from each other not only by administrative departments but by their, sometimes, many decades of differing experiences and training?

2. How do we teach students to consider multimedia and multiculturalism when using DH methods when the primary materials to which we have “data ready” access are text-based, in English, and unstructured?

3. How do we create an interdisciplinary framework that is productive and innovative as well as sustainable?

Building on the amazing work done by DH scholars in praxis-based training programs in libraries such as the Scholars Lab at the University of Virginia, Columbia's Developing Librarian Project, and Indiana University's Research Now: Cross Training for Digital Scholarship initiative, the DH@UT initiative is imagining a sustainable model for training students that is experiential, collaborative, and interdisciplinary. Collections are at the heart of humanities research. The work to make such collections “data ready” for DH scholarship coincides with deep expertise in the humanities as it relates to the organization, preservation, curation, analysis, visualization, and communication of digital works in the humanities. Pairing students with projects for making the collections at UT more accessible offers a unique opportunity to train students to generate a more diverse range of data-ready collections and to immerse them in questions surrounding critical information infrastructure studies (Clement, 2015; Liu 2016; Verhoeven 2016) that has engaged staff, undergraduates, graduates, and faculty at the heart of DH research.

Questions remain, however, about how such a program could be implemented. Faculty from a variety of disciplines will have to commit to using UT collections that perhaps do not fit exactly into their research objectives. The time commitments of library and archives staff, who are already often overwhelmed and under resourced, will need to be committed to the goals of the program; and, policies concerning how and when archival materials can cross the transom of the brick-and-mortar collection building (both physically and virtually due to copyright and privacy restrictions) will have to be reconsidered. There is reason to believe that faculty, used to “stretching” their area of expertise to teach classes, would be willing to commit their considerable effort in teaching classes in these new directions. There is equal reason to believe that staff members, committed to the goals of the institution to make their collections more accessible will also be in favor of such a program. Yet, in order to make this program sustainable, both faculty and staff will need support from upper administration. Commitment at the university level for innovative teaching and research remains imperative for changing the praxis of pedagogy. This talk will discuss our progress in these endeavors.

Alison Booth

Technological literacy is a stated educational goal for all students at the University of Virginia, and various existing groups in the Library and schools such as Arts and Sciences support teaching with technology and short assignments in courses (maps; e-portfolios, etc.; Learning Design Technology). But many would agree that digital humanities is something distinct from teaching with technology; there is more to be gained from student participation in open-ended projects (exceeding the timeframe of a single assignment) that reflect upon their tools and methods as well as on the specific data of a discipline. Considerable international discussion of DH pedagogy has advanced the field (Digital Pedagogy), and several textbooks serve courses that introduce students to DH (e.g. Gold and Klein). Certificates in DH (e.g. at Northeastern University and University of Maryland) provide models, as do departments of Digital Humanities (as at King's College, London). CenterNet presents a directory of DH centers on every continent, some like UCLA's Center for Digital Humanities offering a program with an undergraduate minor and graduate certificate.

What are the best models? How should we build an infrastructure for DH education at the University of Virginia, based on what we already have? The University of Virginia has longstanding centers practicing DH: the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, SHANTI, Scholars' Lab. Advanced research projects and courses or workshops in methods and tools are supported as well in Research Data Services, Data Sciences Institute, Makerspaces in arts, architecture, and engineering, among others. And yet the curricular offerings in DH have remained dispersed among a few academic departments and the Scholars' Lab's Praxis Program and fellowships, along with some digital fellowships for undergraduates working in art and archeology. I suggest a model: the Pedagogical Pyramid, which can be multiplied within one or many institutions in communities of interaction.

Is a Pedagogical Pyramid a menacing structure, an image of hierarchy and exploitative labor? Instead, it is intended as a metaphor and visualization (equilateral triangle in multiple dimensions) of a graduated structure of collaborations, potentially across institutions as well as UVA schools, on advanced research in the humanities, arts, and social sciences: more undergraduates, fewer graduate students, and fewer faculty. The numbers, limited only by practicable scales of collaboration, are flexible, but based on likely proportion of an institution's personnel in these ranks. The paid internships, fellowships, and mentorships proposed in this structure would be available in smaller numbers for team members who are at later career stages, but there will be no idle supervisory roles for those figuratively at the top. Participants would develop a charter in keeping with the Collaborators' Bill of Rights. With sufficient resources for faculty as well as students (stipends, wages, facilitators and spaces), we would run concurrent Pyramids.

We have developed parts of such a vision. IATH supports two residential fellows per year for two years each, with some course release and research funds. The Scholars' Lab under Bethany Nowviskie created a custom-built, annual cohort of six doctoral fellows who collaborate on a project. Praxis flourished under Purdom Lindblad and current members of Scholars' Lab, and has generated a Praxis Network connecting various institutions. Each year in addition there are 23 dissertation fellows in the Scholars' Lab, and we have had graduate fellows jointly in Data Sciences and Scholars' Lab. Undergraduates and graduates are employed in the Scholars' Lab Makerspace, and any students or faculty may work on any projects in that innovative research laboratory. We collaborate with a liberal arts college in Virginia, Washington & Lee, that adopted the Praxis model in its library-centered DH Studio; UVA and W&L hold exchanges among both institutions' Library staff, UVA's Praxis and DH fellows, and W&L's undergraduate students. Scholars' Lab has also led two summer programs for 4-6 Leadership Alliance Mellon Initiative (LAMI) undergraduate students from HCBUs and Puerto Rico, introducing DH and other research methods in preparation for graduate school applications. Collective Biographies of Women, an IATH and Scholars' Lab project, each year trains small groups of graduate research assistants (primarily MA) and a few paid undergraduates; LAMI students each summer have added research on African American and Latino cohorts.

Which brings us to planning the future of a DH community at UVA. Recent developments have focused on coordinating the community in a DH@UVA website and the DH@UVA 2016 conference, at which the open discussion came to a consensus on a certificate or program in DH. We do not want to build a DH department, as that may be less adaptable for future technological and curricular change.

Desirables: early introduction to digital research methods in interdisciplinary courses, workshops, and bootcamps suitable for undergraduates, graduate students, or both; engagement of undergraduates (for credit or pay) in faculty or graduate-student research projects in humanities, arts, and social sciences, beyond the classroom assignment; opportunities for graduate students to mentor and teach these undergraduates; paid graduate interns and project managers mentored by Library-affiliated faculty and staff who can work with faculty projects from many departments; different models of support for faculty digital scholarship beyond the IATH fellowships; expansion beyond the six Praxis students and 2-3 DH dissertation fellows per year that we currently support in Scholars' Lab.

Challenges for building such alliterative pyramids: persuading more faculty to participate and encourage their students in these opportunities; luring the CS faculty and students, the Data Sciences Institute, and the Library's Research Data Services group to collaborate with humanistic computational research, increasing broad interdisciplinarity; coordinating with the Graduate School and other schools to fund graduate fellowships, encourage dissertation advisors' participation, and monitor time-to-degree; securing additional resources for wages and faculty stipends as well as graduate fellowships and teaching release; negotiation with Directors of Undergraduate Studies and Graduate Studies as well as the Graduate School regarding requirements, credit courses and a certificate or program, which would have to be maneuvered through the channels of educational policy at university and state levels. Curriculum would have to be designed that allows discipline-specific units to be added to shared units on generally applicable tools, methods, and issues. The structures would have to ensure that all contributors are compensated and acknowledged, including in presentations and publications. UVA already has ample evidence of the enhancement of research and the advantages in students' learning and placement that come from the existing activities in DH groups. We look forward to giving these aims more substance and structure.

Ryan Cordell

During MLA 2013, Natalia Cecire wryly observed on Twitter, “1. DHers usually don't see dh as panacea. 2. Admins often do. 3. DHers often need for admins to have this erroneous belief.” Our experiences building a graduate DH curriculum at Northeastern in many ways illustrate this rhetorical tension. We benefit from substantial administrative support for curricular ingenuity while struggling to reconcile that support with increasing disquiet in the departments that must underwrite any substantive changes we seek to make.

We are enormously fortunate at Northeastern and the NULab. Our administration has funded several years of cluster hires, which have allowed us to bring DH faculty into the English; History; and Cultures, Societies and Global Studies departments, as well as DH faculty and staff in the library. Over the course of four years we have founded a new center, integrated introductory and advanced DH courses into our curriculum, launched a DH graduate certificate program, and trained many students through work on locally- and grant-funded projects. This in turn has led to an increased number of students applying to our graduate programs seeking DH training.

This rapid, whole-cloth invention of a DH program, however, has been attended by pressures, fissures, and tensions with existing programs. For example, NULab faculty are proud of the robust coursework required for the DH certificate program: the equivalent of 3 courses out of the 10 required in our English MA program or 14 required in our English Ph.D., plus the development of a small scale DH project. Our students take not only an introductory DH course, but also advanced methods courses (data modeling, text analysis, etc.) that prepare them to integrate DH methods into their theses and compete for DH positions after graduation. Within English, however, completing this requirement requires students to decide their path almost immediately upon admission, and the decision to pursue the certificate dictates very particular paths through the larger Ph.D. program. While our DH faculty are a larger group than at most institutions, even so we cannot practically mount more than two courses per year: an introductory course each fall and an advanced course each spring. These advanced courses rotate among NULab faculty and thus have very distinct foci. Thus students' options for completing coursework remain relatively constrained over two years of full time coursework in ways that sometimes mitigate against the particular training individual's need. A student primarily interested in digital archive creation, for instance, might by necessity take their advanced course in Humanities Data Analysis rather than Data Modeling; while the latter would be more appropriate to their interests it can only be offered every three years or so, when a particular faculty member is on rotation for the advanced seminar.

These pressures are compounded for MA students in English or Public History; in the latter case we find there is really only one viable set of courses that can result in both a DH certificate and Public History credential within the timeline of the program. Due to these challenges, NULab faculty are currently reevaluating how to align our high expectations for DH training with the practical realities of a certificate program, which must exists alongside and in harmony with the primary curricular structures of humanities departments.

In addition to pressures on students, the popularity of the DH certificate among its first two cohorts of students has led to growing worry among departmental faculty that DH is driving down enrollments outside certificate program courses. We might be tempted toward market explanations (“we cannot dictate which courses students are interested in” or, less generously, “if our colleagues made their courses more enticing”) but these are neither sufficient nor reflective. The NULab has created a certification that students perceive as necessary in a competitive job market, despite ambiguity about the role of DH in securing jobs (Risam 2013). Thus we have institutionalized a hierarchy of graduate course offerings that does privilege DH courses over others in the curriculum, in ways that partially reflect students' interests but partly reflect their anxieties. Moreover, the administration's vision for graduate education in the future clearly emphasizes digital humanities in ways that worry even NULab faculty. We cannot, in other words, entirely dismiss our colleagues' worries about how digital humanities, which belongs to no department in particular, has shifted the character and priorities of graduate programs in the particular departments of English and History.

In my presentation, then, I will think through what constitutes a successful DH graduate curriculum in an institutional culture of abundant top-down support and atrophying bottom-up enthusiasm. Can we structure robust DH training in ways that integrates with rather than competing with departmental training? Can a DH program be partner rather than usurper?

Miriam Posner

UCLA's Digital Humanities graduate certificate, founded in 2011, now enrolls 24 Ph.D. and master's degree students from across the university. Initially, the certificate was conceived as a means of providing an imprimatur for work that was already taking place at the graduate level. UCLA's humanities graduate students were already apprenticing on a wide range of faculty-led digital humanities projects, such as HyperCities and RomeLab, and developed a great deal of discipline-specific expertise through these experiences. The university, moreover, has a strong community of faculty DH practitioners and an established tradition of integrating graduate students into projects as collaborators. But as formal DH curricula grew at other institutions, UCLA graduate students and faculty began to feel that a formal credential might be useful to graduates as they entered the job market.

Even as students clamored for it, the introduction of an official graduate certificate has also had the effect of surfacing some challenges and dilemmas for graduate education in the digital humanities: how much of the graduate curriculum should be formal, and how much should come in the form of project work; how to provide the time- and resource-intensive instruction graduate students require; how to help students balance traditional dissertation work with digital work; how to accommodate the very distinct needs of Ph.D. students and professional master's degree students; and how to prepare graduate students for an unpredictable job market. Alexander

Reid identified many of these dilemmas in a 2012

essay for Debates in the Digital Humanities, observing

an uptick in digital humanities activity and arguing

that we would soon witness a widespread shift in the education of scholars, toward an understanding of digital literacy as fundamental to graduate training

(Reid 2012).

From the vantage of 2016, the picture seems less clear. Digital humanities continues to thrive as a field, but we have yet to see the searching, widespread reevaluation of graduate education that some observers expected. While a number of standout programs, such as the City University of New York's

Graduate Center, the University of Virginia's Scholars' Lab, and the University of Victoria's Electronic Textual Cultures Laboratory, have seemed to forecast change on a larger scale, most humanities graduate programs still deal only gingerly, if at all, with digital technology.

The example of UCLA might help to illuminate some reasons for this very piecemeal rate of change. UCLA's graduate students, like most graduate students, are under enormous pressure and feel pulled in multiple directions by an erratic and whimsical job market. Assailed by advice to publish in top journals on the one hand, and to develop digital skills on the other, they often come to the DH program ready to perform a cost-benefit calculation about how this training will position them on the job market -- not exactly the spirit of embracing failure and creative experimentation that many DH experts advise (Ramsay 2010, Drucker 2009, Sample 2012). Devising a curriculum that makes sense for them in this climate, then, is constantly demanding and resource-intensive. Among the questions UCLA faculty has faced:

•    Should a digital humanities program for graduate students emphasize collaborative scholarship, as many practitioners advise, or

should students' DH work advance the

individual dissertation?

•    What is the program's responsibility toward preserving and archiving student digital work, and particularly digital dissertations?

•    If a graduate DH program remains interdisciplinary, how can it assemble and retain the necessary core faculty to staff the program?

•    How can an interdisciplinary program retain a “center of gravity” sufficient to enable graduate students to feel as though they are part of a community?

•    How can a graduate DH program communicate its value to students' advisers, many of whom do not engage in digital work themselves?

•    Given the highly individualized nature of dissertation-level work, how can graduate DH programs provide sufficient resources (staff time and technical assets) to help students advance their research meaningfully?

•    How should a graduate program in DH balance the distinct needs of professional master's degree students (in UCLA's case,

MLIS students) with Ph.D. students?

In this presentation, I will discuss the ways in which we at UCLA have attempted to develop a graduate curriculum that makes sense for a program that faces challenges familiar to most universities: lack of resources, little centralized support, and overtaxed faculty. I will also raise some questions about the sustainability of a digital humanities graduate curriculum without answering some searching and difficult questions about what a graduate program should be and do. Finally, I will propose some infrastructural and institutional solutions to help address some of the most pressing needs of graduate DH programs.

Maria Sachiko Cecire

At Bard College, we don't have a formal Digital Humanities center. Instead, we have an interdisciplinary curricular initiative and hub for faculty collaboration that we call Experimental Humanities (EH). DH scholarship at its most visible typically creates and employs digital tools to pursue project-based humanities research. While EH does some of this, our program was designed to align with the mission of our undergraduate-focused institution, and to be flexible enough to bring together faculty from diverse intellectual and personal backgrounds. We say that Experimental Humanities is Bard's liberal arts-driven answer to the Digital Humanities: it uses a network of courses and faculty-identified research clusters to variously interrogate how technology mediates what it means to be human. EH engages with media and technology forms from across historical periods, including our own, and combines experimental research methods with critical thinking about way media and technology function as a part of cultural, social, and political inquiry. We encourage the reconsideration of older media in light of today's technologies, and look ahead to the developments on the horizon.

The decision to name our program Experimental Humanities instead of Digital Humanities was grounded in the unique character and history of Bard College, which has developed an international reputation for its commitment to the arts, humanities, and the notion that access to a liberal arts education should be a fundamental human right. Although our primary campus in the Hudson Valley of New York serves just over 2000 students, Bard has a much wider reach that includes degree-granting programs in state prisons, early college programs at high schools that serve low-income youth in cities around the U.S., and in international university partnerships that bring liberal arts curricula to countries such as Kyrgyzstan, Palestine, and Russia. In this context of passionate liberal arts advocacy, we wanted a title that would leave room for DH but not exclude non-digital forms of artistic and scholarly production. As Wendy Chun has suggested, terminology that draws hard lines between “old” and “new” technologies runs the risk of excluding (or at least seeming to exclude) the lessons, theories, and knowledge of the past from the practice and study of “new” media. The notion of the “experimental” embraces both digitality and previous moments of technological change, invokes the practices of both the sciences and the arts, and has the kind of hands-on and countercultural associations that align with the Bard ethos.

We saw the rise of DH as an exciting opportunity to establish a program dedicated to reconsidering the methods and subjects of humanistic study in the light of changing material conditions. This is an ongoing project, and one that also allows us to continuously reevaluate our pedagogical approaches: rethinking which tools and methods we use in the classroom and encouraging in-class reflection with our students about the relationships between who we are, what we study, and how we study it. For instance, when faced with N. Katherine Hayles's work on hyper and deep attention, students may put forward arguments for practicing deep attention in their coursework or advocate for a pedagogy that introduces more multimediated and hands-on content, thereby creating the opportunity for jointly designed assignments. Finally, in keeping with the concerns raised by #transformdh (see, for instance, Moya Z. Bailey's essay “All the Digital Humanists Are White, All the Nerds Are Men, but Some of Us Are Brave”) we wanted to keep cultural critique and questions of inclusion central to what we do as humanities scholars.

With these ideals in mind, we set out to design a program that would be critical, inclusive, undergraduate-focused, and also able to participate in wider DH networks. In their essay about whether or how small liberal arts colleges might “do” DH, Bryan Alexander and Rebecca Frost Davis outline several challenges to establishing DH programs and centers at institutions like Bard. They note a lack of infrastructure to support major research projects, the difficulty of pulling together the human resources to do work that requires a wide range of skills, our limited access to graduate students that can sustain long-term research, and the pedagogical focus at SLACs. However, they argue that models that include curricular elements and partner with existing campus resources like library and IT can still be successful, developing proficiency in select project areas and sending students on to DH graduate programs.

Experimental Humanities does work closely with Library/IT and encourage faculty projects through training opportunities, the guidance of a Digital Projects Coordinator with a PhD in the humanities, and the support of a student Media Corps. But while several successful DH programs at other small liberal arts colleges have grown out of the library, like Occidental's Center for Digital Liberal Arts, or out of faculty research, as with Hamilton's Digital Humanities Initiative, EH was from its first imaginings a primarily curricular initiative, built on the three pillars of history, theory, and practice. All EH students take the core courses “A History of Experimentation” and “Introduction to Media,” which EH faculty rotate teaching, and at least one practice-based course beyond the college arts requirement (this may include Computer Science or one of the visual, written, or performing arts). Students also take at least two more courses from the wide offering of EH-listed courses designed by faculty according to their research interests, and which are available each semester in fields from Music and Anthropology to Medieval Studies and Theater. These classes present the hands-on projects and research that they do at collective Share Events each semester.

At an administrative level, EH is a concentration (like a minor; Bard loves to have its own terminology for everything), which means that our students pair their coursework with a foundation in a major program of study, and that EH faculty also belong to a home program. All Bard students do yearlong senior projects, which allow our students to bring what they have learned in the concentration into conversation with their major discipline in a capstone project. We have seen senior projects that use topic modeling to analyze slave narratives, develop gaming apps with the potential to treat psychopathy, push the boundaries of traditional interview-based ethnography to consider the social implications of conversing via text message, delve into the history of the book and other media forms, and lead to immersive art installations in both digital and analog formats. Our students do not necessarily go into DH programs (though some do), but rather become curators, teachers, librarians, programmers, artists, and work for non-profits.

This kind of breadth makes Experimental Humanities sustainable even on a small campus, providing a hub for a range of interests and methods.

Meanwhile, our regular course and event offerings give the program continuity and create opportunities for faculty and students to meet during the semester as a self-identifying community. We have also worked to bolster faculty research in recent years, beginning with the launch of our faculty-led, topic-based clusters in 2014. The clusters have been very successful in bringing faculty together to share and further their own research across disciplinary boundaries, and have yielded a number of new courses and given rise to a form of experimental symposia that bring together scholars, artists, practitioners, students, and community members around cluster topics such as “Sound” and “Surveillance.” The clusters have become a model in the college for how to foster interdisciplinary collaboration that encourages both new research and student engagement. Other research models in EH include faculty-led humanities labs around individual projects, intensive student sessions with historical societies to create digital repositories and interfaces for the public to access its local history, and courses with embedded digital projects that allow faculty to work with undergraduates to build up layers of data each time that they teach the course.

EH is now in its fifth year, and coming to the end of a three-year grant from the Mellon Foundation. In my presentation I will discuss several of the challenges that we face at this crucial stage of transition. These include the ongoing struggle to define what we do and why it's useful to students, parents, and future employers, given our capacious title and mission; how to practically negotiate the need for disciplinary foundations in our students' and faculty's home programs and the invitation to experiment in EH courses and projects; how to move off of a major grant to become sustainable within the existing college structure (and thereby resist the kind of dependence on external grants that is contributing to the neoliberalization of the humanities, as outlined in the widely circulated “Dark Side of the Digital Humanities” papers); and how to better integrate the wider Bard network of underserved high school and undergraduate students both in the US and around the world into the work that we do.

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Gold, M. and Klein, L., eds. (2016). Debates in Digital Humanities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Hayles, N. K. (2012) How We Think: Digital Media and Contemporary    Technogenesis.    Chicago; London:

University Of Chicago Press.

Hayles, N.K. (2007). “Hyper and Deep Attention: The Generational Divide in Cognitive Modes,” MLA Profession

(2007): 187-199.

Liu, A. (2016) “Drafts for Against the Cultural Singularity” Alan Liu. 2 May 2016.

Modern Language Association. (n.d.) “Digital Pedagogy in the Humanities: Concepts, Models, and Experiments”.

MLA    Commons,.    Web.

https://digitalpedagogy.commons.mla.org/

Off the Tracks (2011). Collaborators' Bill of Rights. Media Commons Press. Web.    http: //mcpress.media-

commons.org/

Ramsay, S. (2010). “The Hermeneutics of Screwing Around; or What You Do with a Million Books.” (2010). Unpublished presentation delivered at Brown University, Providence, RI 17 (2010): n. Pag. Web. 17 Oct.

2012.

Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia. (2017).

DH@UVA. Web. http://dh.virginia.edu

Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia. (2008)

“Sciences, Humanities and Arts Networked Technology Initiatives,” SHANTI at the University of Virginia. . Web. http://shanti.virginia.edu/

Reid, A. (2012).“Graduate Education and the Ethics of the Digital Humanities.” Debates in the Digital Humanities. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Print.

Risam, R. (2013) “Where Have All the DH Jobs Gone?” Roopika Risam 15 Sept. 2013. Web. 1 Nov. 2016.

Sample, M. (2012) . “Notes towards a Deformed Humanities.” samplereality. N.p., 2 May 2012. Web. 29 Oct. 2016.

Svensson, P. (2012) “Envisioning the Digital Humanities” Digital Humanities Quarterly, vol. 6, no. 1.

Svensson, P. (2009) “Humanities Computing as Digital Humanities” Digital Humanities Quarterly, vol. 3, no. 3.

The Leadership Alliance (2016). “Mellon Initiative” . The Leadership    Alliance.    Web.

http://www.theleadershipalliance.org/programs/sum

mer-research/mellon-initiative

UCLA Center for Digital Humanities. (n.d.) “UCLA Digital Humanities”. Univeristy of Claifornia Los Angeles. Web. http://www.cdh.ucla.edu/

University of Virginia. (n.d.) Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities. Web. http://iath.virginia.edu/

University of Virginia College and Graduate School of Arts and Sciences (n.d.) “Learning Design Technology, Arts and Sciences”. University of Virginia.. Web.

http://learningdesign.as.virginia.edu/

University of Virginia Library. (n.d.) Scholars' Lab,. Web.

http://scholarslab.org/

Verhoeven, D. (2016) “‘As Luck Would Have It.” Feminist Media Histories, vol. 2., no. 1. pp. 7-28.

Washington and Lee Digital Humanities Action Team

(n.d.). “DH @ W&L”. Washington and Lee University. Web. http://digitalhumanities.wlu.edu/","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/176/176.pdf",""
"3873","18","Sustaining and Scaling the Digital Liberal Arts","3","For these reasons, we are pondering the differences between large university DH and small college DH: a diffuse, decentralized approach to DH versus a more systematic and integrated one. Our varied papers share several connecting themes: collaboration across disciplines, roles and institutions; and the central place of pedagogy. The idea of pedagogy is critical to the mission of liberal arts colleges, and thus will feature prominently in this discussion. We place pedagogy at the center of all our work. There is much that larger institutions can learn from this discussion, including ways to make DH more student-centered and pedagogically oriented. Without romanticizing student-centered projects (we will also address some of the challenges for public scholarship with such a variety of skills at the table) we want to explore how involving students in the co-production of knowledge -digitally mediated and publicly presented - shapes and reshapes what is possible under “DH.”

Bibliography

Pannapacker, W. (2013). “Stop Calling It ‘Digital Humanities’”. The Chronicle of Higher Education. 18 February.

Web. http://www.chronicle.com/article/Stop-Calling-It-Digital/137325/.jobs__topjobs-slider

When we invoke the Digital Liberal Arts, we are not so much proposing a field that is by definition distinct from Digital Humanities—after all, both terms are notoriously subject to endless re-definition and contestation. Instead, we mean to strategically (and politically) call attention to the kinds of digital scholarship and pedagogy that are being conducted outside of traditional Research 1 institutions with well-funded DH centers. What conjoins our papers, then, is not so much that they present a series of new case studies in teaching with the digital: many people, we agree, could do that. Rather, we intend to prompt discussion and reflection about the kinds of infrastructures that are necessary (and perhaps not necessary) to produce sustainable and meaningful digital scholarship. Early on, Pannapacker proposed that small liberal arts institutions and programs might be uniquely positioned for rapid, more cost-effective innovation, because we have “shallower administrative hierarchies and less institutional inertia.” (Pannapacker 2013) All of us hail from programs that “share a culture of faculty-student collaborative research, which translates perfectly into the project-building methods of the digital humanities” (Pannapacker 2013).","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/177/177.pdf",""
"3874","18","Laccès au Passé à lÈre Numérique : une Nouvelle Forme de Mémoire Possible ?","9","","","1","",""
"3875","18","Construction of the “Corpus of Historical Japanese: Meiji-Taisho Series I – Magazines”","2","In this talk, we wish to discuss the construction

of the corpus “Meiji-Taisho Series I - Magazines,” (hereinafter called CHJ-Magazines) which was released as a part of the Corpus of Historical Japanese (CHJ). This corpus contains magazines published in Japan in the Meiji and Taisho periods (1868-1911) representative of Modern Japanese language, with the total number of words used in the text reaching a size of some 14,000,000 items. This corpus is the first large-scale corpus with morphological information of Modern Japanese and will contribute to research into that period of the Japanese language.

At the National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics, a joint research project entitled “Construction of a Diachronic Corpus and New Developments in Research of the Japanese Language” was begun in 2016. CHJ Magazines is one part of this project, using a number of representative magazines for each of several periods, with the selected published material spread out over set time intervals. The result is a large-scale corpus that makes it possible to examine the state of the written Japanese language in the Meiji and Taisho periods, as well as to examine how the language underwent changes in those periods

1870's

1880's

1890's

1900's

1910’s

1920’s

Total

""MstoteiZassbi""

180

180

""Kflfeiraja no Jarofi""

1,000

1,000

""Taiyo""

2,280

4,300

2,050

2,300

10,930

""fcgstaZaW’

680

1,890

""teæü&kSsW

590

""BùtaSiratoi""

620

Total

180

1,000

2,960

4,890

2,050

2,920

14,000

Table 1. Corpus Size for Each Year of Publication (Units:

Thousand Words)

One characteristic of this corpus is that morphological (word) information is annotated to each text. In order to annotate highly accurate morphological information to the corpus, it was necessary to develop and utilize a dictionary that could enable automatic morphological analysis for the colloquial and literary styles that was mixed in the

written Japanese of the aforementioned periods. We

customized UniDic, a dictionary for morphological analysis of Japanese, which can lemmatize variations of orthography and word forms. We also used MeCab, a state-of-the-art Japanese morphological analyzer with this customized UniDic.

While the accuracy of automatic analysis is high at approximately 93%, it is extremely difficult to append morphological information uniformly without any mistakes in such a large amount of text. To address this difficulty, it was necessary to establish a “core” data set, for which we could guarantee the attachment of highly accurate morphological information (with accuracy higher than 99%) through the utilization of automatic computer analysis together with manual (human) correction. For core data, 500,000 words were selected, taking into consideration the balance of publication year, style and genre of each of the articles sampled. Core data is suitable for Japanese research which requires highly accurate morphological information. This data was also used as training data for the dictionary for morphological analysis described above. The automatic analysis results of the “non-core” data set, meanwhile, received a certain degree of manual correction which, while not being exhaustive, strikes a balance between quality and volume.

This corpus is made publicly accessible by way of an online search application called ""Chünagon.” With ""Chünagon,” it is possible to carry out searches that specify complex combinations of different morphological information (lemma, part-of-speech,

conjugation type, lexical strata, etc.). The search results also display information on the source (magazine title, article title, year of publishing), author (name, sex, year of birth), data type (core, non-core), text type (conversation, quotation, other), text style (literary, colloquial, mixture, verse), etc. The author information includes a link to catalogues in the National Diet Library. By making use of this convenient service, it is possible to check how to read the name of the author of the article in question, to check when he or she was born and died, and, at the

same time, to see if he or she made use of multiple

other names. The “Chunagon” search results also provide links that allow the viewing of images of corresponding pages in the original magazines.

Bibliography

Center, National Institute for Japanese Language and

Linguistics (2014 - 2016) Corpus of Historical Japanese. http://pj.ninjal.ac.jp/corpus center/chj/overview-

en.html

Ogiso, T. (2014), “Dictionary and Morphological Analysis in

the Historical Corpus.” Nihongogaku, 432, pp. 83-95. Meiji Shoin. (In Japanese)

Mabuchi, Y., and Asuko, K. (2016), “Explanatory notes of symbols in the text, Display categories for Chunagon: Corpus of Historical Japanese, Meiji - Taisho Series I -Magazines (Short Unit Ver. 0.9)”.

http://pj.ninjal.ac.jp/corpus center/chj/doc/abstract-

meiji-taisho-2016.pdf (In Japanese)","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/181/181.pdf",""
"3876","18","Mapping the Enlightenment: Intellectual Networks and the Making of Knowledge in the European Periphery","9","The project Mapping the Enlightenment: Intellectual Networks and the Making of Knowledge in

the European Periphery is funded by the Research Centre for Humanities (RCH) for the academic year 2016-2017. The project uses interactive mapping tools for visualising, exploring, and analysing the intellectual and geographical networks developed by Greek-speaking scholars of the Ottoman Empire during the 17th and 18th centuries. Based on the convergence of the latest achievements in digital mapping and historiographical discussions about the representation of the Enlightenment, the project develops user-friendly interactive and dynamic web maps of the itineraries of traveling scholars, and visually represent the building of networks between scientific centers and peripheries. Additionally, this dynamic system provides multi-layered maps that enables users to query and visualize data and flows through a modern and robust environment. This interactive interface offers a simple and effective way of showing how the intellectual networks developed within the European periphery in the 17th and the 18th centuries contributed to the shaping of knowledge during the Enlightenment. The project is a collaboration between the Department of History and Philosophy of Science of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens and the Centre for Digital Humanities of University College, London.

The theoretical background of the project resides in the history of science. Following the general idea that the knowledge systems that gradually dominated European modernity have come into being through a dynamic and multi-layered process, the project is based on the notion of ‘moving localities' introduced by historians involved with the Science and Technology in European Periphery (STEP) network. The concept of ‘moving localities' enables historians to perceive circulation as a knowledge production process. Locality, in this sense, indicates a complex set of connections, allegiances and commitments which travel with people and thus extend beyond conventional boundaries, creating interconnected intellectual spaces over wide geographical areas. The sense of locality enables actors to perform distinct cultural identities in the course of their travels that are informed, but not confined by those assigned by their places of origin. Thus, locality can be said to be a local culture made active and open to transformation thanks to encounters fostered by travel conditions.

The project takes advantage of the theories of the STEP network on the one hand and the latest achievements in digital mapping on the other, in order to create a visual representation of the above-mentioned concept of ‘moving localities'. The creation of a research tool will contribute to enhancing users' understanding of the emergence of modern science and technology as the expression of a dynamical geography. Addressing the spatiality of knowledge, the project focuses on associating particular cultural traits with specific points on a map, and work on tracking down the various paths and encounters through which such cultural traits and the respective knowledge practices evolved. In this context, centres and peripheries are not regarded as tokens of a steady, hierarchical geography, but rather as mutually dependent and co-constructed entities whose status can change with time.

The development of the user-friendly interactive interface initially focuses on the intellectual and geographical travels of the 18th-century Greek-speaking scholars, who developed an extended network connecting the most important European educational centers with the most important power centers of the Ottoman world. Adopting such an approach allows more historical actors to enter the scene, such as the Portuguese estrangeirados and Spanish pensionados. The visualisation of the paths followed by the Greek-speaking scholars, the estrangeirados and the pensionados enriches this historical and digital representation of the Enlightenment in the periphery.

The technical plan aims to use and supports open source software. The project ambitiously strives to make every possible bit of information queryable and visualised. On the server side, Apache, Post-greSQL, PHP and GeoServer with PostGIS library are

the principal technologies that are used for the processing and serving of the data. On the client side, the latest versions of the web standards model HTML5, CSS3 and JavaScript provides a modern and user-friendly user interface. Initially, the scholars flow data are processed, normalized and ingested into the geo-enabled    PostgreSQL database. The

visualisations of the data are materialised using the Leaflet library and other JavaScript libraries such as D3.js, Chart.js etc. The combination of the above technologies gives life to our historical data by combining powerful visualisation components and a data-driven approach to DOM manipulation.

This project does not aim to create visuals and maps per se; instead, it perceives these techniques as the medium to assess and display the findings of historical research that critically challenges the received narrative concerning early modern intellectual European networks. The creation of a visual image of the dynamic, multi-layer process of knowledge-shaping in the European periphery challenges current digital projects which mainly reflect the mainstream positivist histories of the Enlightenment. The intellectual networks developed within and across the periphery are mainly absent from the mainstream histories of the Enlightenment and if they are recognized, they are typically treated as the paths of intellectually parochial scholars who were unable to fully embrace the ideal of modernisation through reason and science. Bringing such figures to the forefront, and confirming their role in the production of scientific and technical knowledge, may help historians tell more nuanced stories about the complex cultural encounters, which molded the European intellectual space and the multifarious knowledge exchanges that shaped the notion of European science and technology. By using modern digital techniques, we aim to enhance the picture of the European periphery as a historiographical standpoint in order to transcend the established spatial hierarchies and bring to the fore the continuous re-inventions, conceptual shifts and cultural adjustments, which are responsible for the shaping of modern scientific and technical knowledge. The proposed project presents an innovative narrative of the making of knowledge during the Enlightenment. At the same time, it constitutes a unique combination of the latest web and mapping technologies, and provides innovative means of storing, transferring, visualising, and querying historical data.

We believe that this project is a perfect example of how Digital Humanities, through its interdisciplinary nature of binding together research in humanities with digital technologies, can generate new critical knowledge through the re-interpretation of data that might otherwise be obscured. In addition, with the use of the latest open-source technology in spatial visualisation, the project adds value to the field by providing a showcase of the evolution of relevant technologies and, more importantly, the ways that Digital Humanities can innovatively use them for research. Finally, the project has the potential to offer a basis for a more ambitious project on a larger scale following the successful completion of its first stage. The ultimate aim is to allow other researchers to submit their data to the open-architected and forward-compatible queryable mapping tool and provide a historically more accurate overview of the intellectual movements during the Enlightenment.

Bibliography

Bodenhamer, D.J., Corrigan, J. and Harris, T.M. (eds). (2010). ‘The Spatial Humanities: GIS and the Future of Humanities Scholarship'. Bloomington: Indiana Uni

versity Press

Burdick, A., Drucker, J., Lunenfeld, P., Presner, T. and Schnapp, J. (2012). ‘Digital Humanities‘. MIT Press

Duncan, A.S. (2016). ‘Online interactive thematic mapping: Applications and techniques for socio-economic research'. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems. vol. 57, pp. 106-117

Gavroglu, K., Patiniotis, M., Papanelopoulou, F.,

Simoes, A., Carneiro, A., Diogo, M.P., Bertomeu-Sanchez, J.R., García, Belmar A. and Nieto-Galan, A.

(2008). ‘Science and Technology in the European Periphery: Some historiographical reflections'. History of Science, vol. xlvi, pp. 153-175

Presner, T. and Shepard, D. (2015). ‘Mapping the Geospatial Turn'. In: Schreibman S., Siemens R. and Un-sworth J. (eds). A New Companion to Digital Humanities. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, pp. 199-212

Raposo, P.M.P., Simoes. A., Patiniotis, M., Bertomeu-Sanchez, J.R. (2014). ‘Moving Localities and Creative

Circulation: Travels as Knowledge Production in 18th-Century Europe'. Centaurus, vol. 56, no. 3, pp. 167-188

Simoes, A., Carneiro, A., Diogo, M.P. (eds). (2003). ‘Travels of Learning. A Geography of Science in Europe'. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/182/182.pdf",""
"3877","18","Limiter L’Impact Des Erreurs OCR Sur Les Représentations Distribuées De Mots","2","Les chercheurs en Humanites numeriques intéresses par l'analyse de grands corpus textuels utilisent de nombreuses méthodes et outils issus de domaines informatiques comme le traitement du langage naturel (Piotrowski, 2012) ou l'analyse de réseaux (Lemercier, 2005). Des methodes récentes fondées sur les réseaux de neurones présentent egalement un interêt majeur. Word2Vec est une méthode qui a grandement facilité l'utilisation de tels modules (Mikolov, 2013). Les différentes optimisations apportees permettent, très simplement, d'entraîner un module sur de grandes quantités de donnees en utilisant un simple ordinateur de bureau. Le code source a ete largement diffuse et a rendu cette methode très populaire, notamment parmi les chercheurs en Humanites numériques. Hamilton a par exemple montré l'interêt de ces modules pour analyser l'évolution de certains mots du langage au cours du temps (Hamilton, 2016). Ces méthodes peuvent également être utilisées à d'autres fins. En effet, de nombreux corpus utiles aux Humanités numériques sont issus de processus de reconnaissance de carac-téres (OCR). Malheureusement, ces processus gé-nérent trés souvent des erreurs, en particulier quand les documents analysés sont de mauvaise qualité (documents anciens ou mal numérisés par exemple). Ces erreurs touchent notamment les entités nommées comme les noms de lieux ou de personnes, particuliérement intéressants pour les chercheurs (Gefen, 2015). Ces erreurs ont un impact majeur sur l'accés a l'information car elles peuvent empécher d'accéder a toutes les occurrences d'un mot d'intérêt.

Dans ce poster, nous présentons la méthode que nous avons développée pour étendre l'usage de Word2Vec a l'identification des erreurs OCR dérivées d'entités nommées. Aprés avoir entraîné un modéle sur un corpus donné, chaque mot est associé a un vecteur représentatif. Il devient alors possible de comparer les vecteurs pour extraire des relations morphologiques ou sémantiques entre les mots. On peut par exemple calculer la distance cosinus qui sépare deux mots dans l'espace vectoriel du modéle. Si, au sein du corpus, ces mots apparaissent dans des contextes similaires, la distance qui les sépare sera faible. Or, une entité nommée, bien que mal reconnue par le processus OCR, apparaît souvent dans le méme contexte que l'entité originale. En combinant cette distance, qui agit sur les vecteurs, avec une distance d'édition sur les mots, nous pouvons identifier des mots proches sémantiquement et qui possèdent beaucoup de caractères en commun. Cette analyse produit ainsi une liste de termes qui ont toutes les chances d'étre des entités mal reconnues par le processus de reconnaissance de caractères.


Figure 1: Expérience menée par Bjerva et. al., qui présente les similarités entre différents personnages et quelques grands concepts. Plus une cellule est rouge, plus la similarité est importante.

Une fois les erreurs identifiées, il est possible de s'intéresser a une entité nommée particulière. Sur la base des résultats précédents, nous proposons la construction d'un nouveau vecteur associant le vecteur de l'entité originale et les vecteurs représentatifs des erreurs. Ce nouveau vecteur est le résultat de la combinaison linéaire des vecteurs du mot original et des erreurs OCR. Pour modérer l'importance des vecteurs dans la combinaison, ces derniers sont pondères selon le nombre d'occurrences du terme correspondant dans le corpus.


gothness greekness

liberty

antiquity romanness

Figure 2: Reproduction de l'expérience menée par Bjerva et. al., avec notre modèle modifié.


Figure 3: Comparaison des similarités Personne/Concept entre le modèle de Bjerva et. al. et notre modèle modifié. Chaque cellule représente la valeur absolue de la différence de similarité entre les deux modèles. Les cellules rouges présentent le plus de différences.

Nous avons expérimenté notre méthode en reproduisant l'expérience men^e par Bjerva et. al. (Bjerva, 2015). Ces derniers se sont interesses aux relations qu'entretiennent différentes personnalités du VIème siecle avec de grands concepts (Modernite, Liberte, Gothique, ...). Ils ont utilisé Word2Vec pour entraîner un modele sur environ 11 000 textes latins, pour ensuite comparer les distances qui separent les personnes des concepts dans l'espace vectoriel du modele (voir figure 1). Nous avons utilise notre méthode pour calculer, pour chaque personne d'intérét, un nouveau vecteur représentatif prenant en compte les différentes erreurs OCR identifiées. Les distances entre personnes et concepts au sein de notre modéle modifié sont présentées dans la figure 2. Pour plus de clarté, les deux modéles sont comparés dans la figure 3. On peut par exemple observer qu'Odovacer, la personne pour qui les différences sont les plus grandes, est assez peu citée dans le corpus. Notre méthode a cependant identifié de nombreuses erreurs OCR qui ont révélé des informations inconnues au seul vecteur de l'entité originale.

La méthode présentée ici permet d'identifier de potentielles erreurs OCR sur les entités nommées au sein d'un corpus. La prise en compte de ces erreurs peut avoir un impact non négligeable sur le modèle et donc sur les analyses qui en decoulent. Cela semble en particulier vrai pour les entites nommées peu présentes dans un corpus.

Bibliographie
Bjerva, J. and Praet, R. (2015). ""Word Embeddings Pointing the Way for Late Antiquity."" LaTeCH 2015: 53.

Gefen, A. (2015). Les enjeux épistémologiques des humanités numériques. Socio. La nouvelle revue des sciences sociales, 4: 61-74.

Hamilton, W. (2016). ‘‘Diachronic Word Embeddings Reveal Statistical Laws of Semantic Change.'' Proceedings of the 54th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 1.

Lemercier, C. (2005). Analyse de reseaux et histoire. Revue D'histoire Moderne et Contemporaine(2): 88-112.

Mikolov, T., Sutskever, I., Chen, K., Corrado, G. S. and Dean, J. (2013). ‘‘Distributed representations of words and phrases and their compositionality.'' Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems. pp. 3111-3119

Piotrowski, M. (2012). Natural Language Processing for Historical Texts. (Synthesis Lectures on Human Language Technologies 17). San Rafael, CA: Morgan & Claypool.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/183/183.pdf",""
"3878","18","A Collaborative Approach between Art History and Literature via IIIF","2","Introduction
This paper describes a collaborative approach of information exchange between art history and literature via IIIF as conducted by two projects: the SAT

Daizokyo Text Database Committee (SAT) and a project to leverage an open dataset of the National Institute of Japanese Literature. This approach is technically similar to that used by previous projects such as TILE and TEI. However, as it has not been easy for them to fully treat the binding of images of a book between Web services, this approach adopts the IIIF (International Image Interoperability Framework) so that both can connect easily and efficiently. After explaining the distinctive aspects of both projects, we will introduce a collaborative solution.

In May 2016, SAT released the SAT Taishozo Image DB (SATiDB), which includes digital facsimiles of a series of Buddhist images and their interpretations in the Taisho Tripitaka consisting of 12 volumes originally published in 1933. SATiDB provides annotations for about 5,200 Buddhist icons (busson) and symbols (sanmayagyd and mandala) in the books and several search functions of the annotations with a simple translator from English to technical terms in CJK characters via the Digital Dictionary of Buddhism. As the annotations use a vocabulary of attributes of Buddhist icons, such as hair style, sitting style, type of chair, possessions, etc., which was defined by this project due to the absence of such a vocabulary in the source data, users can also search the objects by clicking a checkbox of one or more term in a list form of the vocabulary (Figure 1).


Figure 1. A search result of “burning hair”

As the system is compliant with IIIF, the images and annotations can be leveraged in various ways, even from other web sites. SATiDB has a function to expose several objects in parallel by clicking checkboxes of cropped images by coordination of each object in the search results on the IIIF viewer, Mirador (Figure 2).


Figure 2. Checked images are displayed in parallel.

The annotations were embedded by forty-three researchers in the field of Japanese art history on a web collaboration system in 2015. We developed the system utilizing RedHat Linux, Apache, PostgreSQL, PHP,

jQuery, and Annotorious, which enabled the easy annotation of images. The annotations were stored in PostgreSQL including attributes such as date and responsibility. After input, the data were converted into IIIF Presentation API and distributed with hi-resolu-tion images converted from 60M-pixel images delivered with IIIF Image API. This system provides researchers of Japanese art history with a brand new function to see and compare Buddhist icons and symbols. Many positive comments have been received from the researchers of Japanese art history and the number of visitors of the site was over 12,000 in the first month, but no papers have yet been produced explicitly using this system.

The other project also developed a Web collaboration system to embed transcription of Japanese texts (the issues of such transcription have been described by Nagasaki et al, 2016) line-by-line in the style of IIIF annotation which enables to search images as-they-are via Smart-GS. (Hashimoto et al, 2014) It adopts OpenSeaDragon and its plugins to annotate images with zooming and has a function to convert them into the format of IIIF Presentation API. So far, two premodern woodcut printing books written in cursive Japanese script were completely done by two researchers and available via customized Mirador for right-to-left viewing-direction and vertical texts (Figure 3).


Figure 3. Customized Mirador for right-to-left viewing-direction and vertical texts

Finally, we explain the approach of linking both projects. As one of the two transcribed woodcut printing books includes names of Buddhist saints, we added tags on the names to trigger an event to search the name and prepare a function to request queries to the SATiDB. On the other hand, in the SATiDB, a function to distribute only a list of search results including images cropped by IIIF Image API was implemented to pull search results from other Web sites by use of a form of URL such as:

http://dzkimgs.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/SATi/key:_keyword_


Figure 4. Search result of SATiDB by clicking a red-colored part of transcribed text

As a result, readers- primarily researchers, but laypersons as well- can see images of related Buddhist icons on SATiDB while reading the book. See Figure 4 to understand background of it. This is a typical solution of IIIF and easily applicable for any environment in the digital humanities.

Acknowledgment

This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant

Numbers JP15H05725, JP16H03422.

Bibliography

Hashimoto, Y., Aihara, K., Hayashi, S., Kukita, M.,

Ohura, M., (2014)The SMART-GS Project: An Approach to Image-based Digital Humanities, Digital Humanities

Conference 2014, http://dharchive.org/pa-per/DH2014/Poster-48.xml.

Nagasaki, K., Tomabechi, T., Muller, A. C., Shimoda,

M.(2016) “Digital Humanities in Cultural Areas Using

Texts That Lack Word Spacing”, Digital Humanities 2016, http://dh2016.adho.org/abstracts/416","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/185/185.pdf",""
"3879","18","Access to DH Pedagogy as the Norm: Introducing Students to DH Methods Across the Curriculum and at a Distance","2","This poster presents research into integration and assessment of digital humanities pedagogy in a distance course on the History of Children's Literature, and provokes conversation about pedagogical approaches that expand student access to DH methods, tools, and dispositions. Much of the existing literature on DH pedagogy addresses methods courses or multimodal writing courses rather than integration of DH practices in particular topical contexts, or advanced topics courses that explore a narrow slice of disciplinary content through extended engagements with digital projects (Ball 2012; Mostern & Gainor 2013; Fyfe 2016; Nyhan, Mahony, and Terras 2016). This literature provides valuable lessons but raises questions about the feasibility of engaging with DH across the curriculum in small-to-medium scale engagements with new methods and technologies. Amy E. Earhart and Toniesha L. Taylor (2016), for example, respond to this situation by rejecting the idea that DH should be limited to advanced courses and propose broader integration of “embedded [DH] skills development” that students can take out of the environment of a specific institution. Similarly, we suggest that allowing for repeated and diverse engagement by students across methods-intensive and topic-intensive courses (as is now common for writing) is necessary for teaching deeper DH dispositions like collaboration, openness to failure, and creativity with technology.

Simultaneously, the existing literature has focused on residential instruction with access to physical artifacts. This limit is problematic when at least one discipline with a heavy investment in DH, library and information science, is well past transition to a majority distance learning population. LIS programs have developed experience and expertise in teaching technology at a distance, and lessons from these programs may be useful to the DH community. While some teaching goals may only be met in person, others might be achieved through well-structured online learning.

To ground this discussion, the authors, the course instructor, and a subject librarian will present their development, assessment, and rethinking of a multimodal publication assignment using the Scalar platform in a synchronous online course on the History of Children's Literature. Students worked in groups to create a multi-media web resource on “diverse history.” The class discussed what is included or omitted from historical narratives, whether they be children's historical fiction or history textbooks, before contemplating this selection process in children's literature itself. The librarian introduced students to the context of DH publishing and Scalar, and to issues related to responsible use of multimedia. Then each group chose an issue related to “diverse history” and built one section of the website. The long-term goal is for successive classes to edit, revise, and expand this project

This collaborative project replaced an assignment from previous years, when students built individual websites about a children's book of their choice. This project maximized scaffolding, with detailed guidance on information students should locate about their books and the final website shape. This iteration of the class took place during a time when distance students came to campus one weekend each semester, and this time was used for in-depth introduction to the array of specialized library resources needed to complete the questions about their book's production and reception. The new assignment sought to re-imagine learning outcomes that would allow students to engage with a particular DH publishing technology, Scalar, and grapple with issues of collaboration and multimodal authoring in a context where the final product was less predetermined. Nonetheless, the elimination of the in person component, which occurred at the same time, removed an obvious “lab” opportunity for learning related technical issues. The pedagogical design involved making the best balance between asynchronous and synchronous activities to compensate for the absence of in person activities. Our evaluation of the success of the assignment relied on assessment

of Scalar sample sites and final projects created by the students, as well as on reflective essays written by the students and observations made in the course of student consultations. This evaluation led to ideas for how to revise the course for future semesters to improve learning of collaborative behaviors, openness to failure, and creativity with technology. This includes, most notably, a re-envisioning of how synchronous class time is used in the future.

By sharing our experiences in developing, teaching, assessing, and revising this course in successive iterations, we hope to explore with attendees the ways in which DH methods, tools, and dispositions can proliferate across the curriculum. We will promote discussion of what DH methods, tools, and dispositions can be taught well in different settings, whether that means varying scales of integration in DH classrooms, or exploring what can be taught virtually versus in person.

Bibliography

Ball, C. E. (2012). “Assessing Scholarly Multimedia: A Rhetorical Genre Studies Approach.” Technical Communication Quarterly 21: 61-77.

Earhart, A. E., and Taylor, T L. (2016) “Pedagogies of Race: Digital Humanities in the Age of Ferguson.” Debates in the Digital Humanities 2016. Ed. Matthew K. Gold and Lauren F. Klein. U of Minnesota P, Minneapolis. 251-64.

Fyfe, P. (2016). “Mid-Sized Digital Pedagogy.” Debates in the Digital Humanities 2016. Ed. Lauren F. Klein and Matthew K. Gold. University of Minnesota Press. 104-117.

Mostern, R., and Gainor, E.. (2013). “Traveling the Silk

Road on a Virtual Globe: Pedagogy, Technology and Evaluation for Spatial History.” Digital Humanities Quarterly

7.

Nyhan, J., Mahony, S., and Terras, M. (2015)“Digital Humanities and Integrative Learning.” Integrative Learning. Ed. Daniel Blackshields, James Cronin, Bettie Higgs, Shane Kilcommins, Marian McCarthy, and Anthony Ryan. London: Routledge. 235-47.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/186/186.pdf",""
"3880","18","Humanités Numériques et Web Sémantique : du langage naturel à une représentation computationnelle structurée et sémantique des données","10","","","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/187/187.pdf",""
"3881","18","Photogrammar and the Federal Writer’s Project: A Model for Teaching Data and Mapping Rhetoric","2","In a poster session “Photogrammar and the Federal Writer's Project: A Model for Teaching Data and Mapping Rhetoric,” we outline the use of some of the educational opportunities we have discovered in using

large Digital Humanities projects to create

collaborative partnership pedagogies to teach students digital rhetoric. In this approach, students become

project managers serving the needs of a real world research client - Yale University, the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill and the University of Richmond's collaborative Photogrammar team.

Bringing together pedagogical theories in Composition and Rhetoric that stress the importance of understanding the role of rhetoric in the construction of digital texts (Sayers, Sample, Galloway) and strategies for equitable collaborative practices in Digital Humanities (Posner and AlgeeHewitt), we teach students to “critically make data” by becoming project leaders tasked with textual mark-up and metadata creation using digitized archival documents. As team leaders, students must think through key rhetorical issues involving naming practices, organizational practices, and user interface and access with a mind toward both historical authenticity and greater inclusion. In this way, they participate robustly in contemporary real world debates about civility, discourse, history and accountability in naming persons, events and things. Therefore, this pedagogical approach opens access into the center of current pedagogical and historical concerns.

The Photogrammar project brings together photographs by the Farm Security Administration taken during the Great Depression and World War II with life histories created through Federal Writers' Project. The new tools currently in development will offer users the opportunity to search and map both the visual and textual histories of the Great Depression in relation to each other. These life histories hold great historical significance as they mark an important precursor to the development of oral history methodology by collecting the histories of people who were previously excluded from the historical record, including women, the working class, and African Americans (Couch, Hirsch, Penkower). Since they will function in some sense as extended captions to the FSA/OWI photographs, adding the life histories also touches upon important issues in the history and criticism of visual culture. Additionally, they hold linguistic keys to racial, gender, class, sexuality and location classification patterns of the time that the photographs alone may not expose. Ethical as well as methodological issues in bringing buried histories to light vividly arise.

Applying collaborative partnership pedagogies in an undergraduate course in Composition, Rhetoric and Digital Literacy at the University of North Carolina that had no prerequisites, students were tasked to create a metadata schema for the life histories to be added to Photogrammar, using TEI to create rules for encoding the text. Because most students entered the class with little technological or collaborative skills, the course places students in small working groups and used Trello (project management software) to organize work flows for lower stake exercises designed to address larger theoretical issues in digital rhetoric (Eyman, Hart-Davidson, Ridolfo). These small stakes activities helped students develop the skills necessary to tackle the larger project that required them to work through critical issues of power stemming from the task of making archival material from the 1930's useful in a digital setting today. For instance, some of the language used to classify racial groups in the FSA and the Federal Workers Project is off-putting, or even offensive today. Students had to come to consensus on such difficult issues because the project required that they present (via skype) their rationale for the metadata schema to a Photogrammar Co-Director. The Co-Director then gave feedback, which students used to write their schema rationale within the TEI of the archival documents. Their decisions did an excellent job of balancing the need to maintain the historical authenticity of the documents while using technology in the service of great inclusion and social justice are now used as the template for the

entire life histories collection. Therefore, they not only learned crucial transferable digital skills, but also were given the ability to contribute materially to how the historical record is produced.

Based on the students' work, it will be possible to map the movement of interviewers, trace the prevalence of important issues of the time such as sharecropping, women's labor, WPA work, and mill work, and generate comparative analyzes of rhetoric used via specific interviewer practices. This project highlights the new kinds of classroom as well as scholarly opportunities that arise when rhetorical questions and insights begin to allow students to direct and inflect the further development and buildout process of an established DH site.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/188/188.pdf",""
"3882","18","Digital Humanities as Critical University Studies","10","In her 2011 article, “All the Digital Humanists are White, All the Nerds are Men, but Some of Us Are

Brave,” Moya Z. Bailey unearths a radical, unrealized potential in the Digital Humanities that few have made explicit since its articulation: a practice of the digital humanities that is also a practice of critical university studies. I cite Bailey here in full:

In blog posts, Miriam Posner and Bethany

Nowviskie have both addressed the structures that impede women from connecting to digital humanities. The increase of women in higher level positions within universities have led to changes in the infrastructure, with child care and nursing nests cropping up on campuses across the country. Similarly, people of color have been engaging in critical university studies long before the 1990s when the field is said to have emerged. By demanding space as students and faculty, in addition to advocating for rights as the laborers that built and maintain these institutions, people of color have organized through concerted effort to bring about changes in institutional culture and structure.

The question of diversity and inclusion that informs this intervention is intimately linked to institutional austerity and the precaritization of intellectual labor. Post-2008, the economic pillaging of the university is undeniable. It is also undeniable that the digital humanities emerged as a contemporary force for disciplinary transformation during this precise economic shift. Matthew K. Gold states this matter of factly in his introduction to the 2012 Debates in the Digital Humanities anthology, “The Digital Humanities Moment”: “At a time when many academic institutions are facing austerity budgets, department closings, and staffing shortages, the digital humanities experienced a banner year that saw cluster hires at multiple universities, the establishment of new digital humanities centers and initiatives across the globe, and multimillion-dollar grants distributed by federal agencies and charitable foundations.”

The university's loss coextensive with DH's boon requires further interrogation. This paper builds on Bailey and Gold's work by directly linking concerns in DH for diversity and inclusion to economic disparities in the university via critical university studies. I do so not to condemn DH for its rise, but to continue to unearth its radical potential. While the literature in critical university studies is broad, I connect DH to two critical university approaches in particular: decolonial feminism and Autonomist Marxism. Both approaches augment current debates in DH as they forefront questions of inclusion, diversity, and economic variance, but also provide more pointedly political approaches to pedagogy and tool-use.

In her 2003 book, Feminism Without Borders, Chandra Talapade Mohanty claims that “the moment we tie university-based research to economic development-and describe this research as fundamentally drive by market forces-it becomes possible to locate the university as an important player in capitalist rule” (173). This claim is couched in a decolonial method committed to developing “the urgent political necessity of forming strategic coalitions across class, race, and national boundaries,” but it is also motivated by a commitment to feminist struggle (9). The university is a site of decolonial feminist struggle in particular because it is a “contradictory place where knowledges are colonized but also contested [...] It is one of the few remaining spaces in a rapidly privatized world that offers some semblance of a public arena for dialogue, engagement, and visioning of democracy and justice”

(170)    . What follows is therefore a simple claim, but one that is difficult to reconcile in a contemporary context, especially as it might apply to DH: “Feminist literacy necessitates learning to see (and theorize) differ-ently-to identify and challenge the politics of knowledge that naturalizes global capitalism and busi-ness-as-usual in North American higher education”

(171)    .

It does not take a careful reader to detect a radical undercurrent to Mohanty's interest in feminist literacy, nor should it be a surprise that those disproportionately affected by institutional inequity might rely on a radical political logic with which to situate their intellectual labor. Perhaps the strongest emergent DH interest in which Mohanty's work carries the most methodological weight, however, is found in Roopika

Risam’s essay, “Navigating the Global Digital Humanities: Insights from Black Feminism.” There, Risam argues that

As the field of digital humanities has grown in size and scope, the question of how to navigate a scholarly community that is diverse in geography, language, and participant demographics has become pressing. An increasing number of initiatives have sought to address these concerns, both in scholarship-as in work on postcolonial digital humanities or #trans-formDH-and through new organizational structures like the ALliance of Digital Humanities Organizations (ADHO) Multi-Lingualism and Multi-Culturalism Committee and Global Out-look::Digital Humanities (GO::DH), a special interest group of ADHO.

We see similar issues at work in #transformDH and feministDH more broadly. However, Alan Liu’s recent claim to a critical infrastructure studies augments these concerns. Liu summarizes his interest in critical infrastructure studies as a “call for digital humanities research and development informed by, and able to influence, the way scholarship, teaching, administration, support services, labor practices, and even development and investment strategies in higher education intersect with society.” The rhetorical shift from “critical university” to “critical infrastructure” is interesting here. Where Liu goes so far to say that most, if not the whole of our lives, are organized through institutional mechanisms formative of a “social-cum-technological milieu,” “the word ‘infrastructure’ give[s] us the same kind of general purchase on social complexity that Stuart Hall, Raymond Williams, and others sought when they reached for their all-purpose word, ‘culture.’” Paired with Risam’s work above, Liu draws us to closer to a critique that would mirror Mohanty’s.

At the same time, Mohanty’s decolonial approach dialogues with Autonomist Marxist approaches to the same problem. Writing of their work with CAFA (Committee for Academic Freedom in Africa), George Caffentzis and Silvia Federici comment on institutional formations like those that Mohanty invokes, but also those that are already operative in DH: global initiatives organized around a common goal. Where Caffentzis and Federici depart from the question of DH infrastructure is certainly a question of technological focus, but also it is also a political one. “As was the factory,” Caffentzis and Federici write, “so now is the university” (125). The import of this claim comments on our institutional alliances, as well as our collective understanding of what educational institutions are for. Thinkers of critical university studies define the university this way because it maximizes the forms of solidarity that are available to us in the face of sovereign institutional control.

For both DH and the Autonomist approach, solidarity is most prominently featured in tool-use and production. Following Caffentzis and Federici, Gigi Roggero mobilizes critical university studies toward a reinvention of the tool. In his article, “Notes on Framing and Reinventing Co-research,” he argues that “tools of inquiry have to be reinvented at the level of the general intellect’s networks, going beyond the division between the virtual and the real,” in order to maximize living labor’s break with capital, opening up a space for co-research to form a “material base for revolution” (520-521). DH’s reinvention of the library, the archive, and the application of technology to humanistic inquiry more generally have never been more apt. At the same time, a strong dialogue with Liu and Risam’s work, stemming from Bailey’s claim to DH as critical university studies, is brought to the fore in Roggero’s work.

This paper concludes by theorizing what forms of alliance/solidarity might be drawn between DH’s transformative work at the level of infrastructure with critical university studies’ political work at the level of the institution. I argue that the university is not a freestanding institution; it is embedded within processes of real subsumption that span the whole of contemporary life. Concerns for diversity and inclusion are contoured by this fact, and the transformative power of tool-use extant in DH praxis resist it.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/190/190.pdf",""
"3883","18","A Shared Task for a Shared Goal: Systematic Annotation of Literary Texts","9","Introduction

In this talk, we would like to outline a proposal for a shared task (ST) in and for the digital humanities. In general, shared tasks are highly productive frameworks for bringing together different research-ers/research groups and, if done in a sensible way, foster interdisciplinary collaboration. They have a tradition in natural language processing (NLP) where organizers define research tasks and settings. In order to cope for the specialties of DH research, we propose a ST that works in two phases, with two distinct target audiences and possible participants.

Generally, this setup allows both “sides” of the DH community to bring in what they do best: Humanities scholars focus on conceptual issues, their description and definition. Computer science researchers focus

on technical issues and work towards automatisation

(cf. Kuhn & Reiter, 2015). The ideal scenario- that both “sides” of DH contribute to the work in both areas- is challenging to achieve in practice. The shared-task scenario takes this into account and encourages Humanities scholars without access to programming “resources” to contribute to the conceptual phase (Phase 1), while software engineers without interest in literature per se can contribute to the automatisation phase (Phase 2). We believe that this setup can actually lower the entry bar for DH research. Decoupling, however, does not imply strict, un-crossable boundaries: There needs to be interaction between the two phases, which is supported by our mixed organisation team. In particular, this setup allows mixed teams to participate in both phases (and it will be interesting to see how they fare).

In Phase 1 of a shared task, participants with a strong understanding of a specific literary phenomenon (literary studies scholars) work on the creation of annotation guidelines. This allows them to bring in their expertise without worrying about the feasibility of automatisation endeavours or struggling with technical issues. We will compare the different annotation guidelines both qualitatively: by having an indepth discussion during a workshop, and quantitatively: by measuring inter-annotator agreement. This will result in a community guided selection of annotation guidelines for a set of phenomena. The involvement of the research community in this process guarantees that heterogeneous points of view are taken into account.

The guidelines will then enter Phase 2 to actually make annotations on a semi-large scale. These annotations then enter a “classical” shared task as it is established in the NLP community: Various teams competitively contribute systems whose performances will be evaluated in a quantitative manner.

Given the complexity of many phenomena in literature, we expect the automatisation of such annotations to be an interesting challenge from an engineering perspective. On the other hand, it is an excellent opportunity to initiate the development of tools tailored to the detection of specific phenomena that are relevant for computational literary studies.

This talk has two purposes:

•    To discuss these ideas and collect feedback and propositions. This is also an explicit invitation to contribute in the setup of this initiative. We are also welcoming a discussion about the phenomena that should be included.

•    To advertise the idea of a shared task and to invite possible participants.

The success of STs relies on a certain number of participants. Given that this has never been organized in the DH community before, we want to spread this idea throughout the community to

gather estimates of potential participants.

The Importance of Annotations

In computational literary studies, many phenomena cannot directly be detected from the text surface. To find and categorize such phenomena as, for example, the ""narrated time"" in a novel, it is first necessary to have an in-depth understanding of the text, knowledge about its author or literary conventions, or knowledge of the text's historical context. Therefore, instances of such phenomena need to be annotated either by human experts or software that is tailored to this task.

Unfortunately, many theories describing interesting phenomena are very difficult to apply to real texts. It has been shown numerous times (e.g., Reiter, 2015, Musi et al., 2016) that annotating theories or concepts directly can lead to very poor inter-annotator agreement (IAA): Different annotators have different interpretions of not only the text, but also descriptions of the theoretical concepts. Although subjective annotations have their merit, studying annotations on large scale depends on their consistency, i.e., a high IAA. In addition, many theories are underspecified and provide examples for illustrations only. Creators of annotation guidelines often have to interpret what is meant by a certain statement and extend definitions to cover examples found in real texts.

Annotation guidelines serve as a mediator between the annotators and a theory (that may use specialised vocabulary). Additionally, such guidelines often contain re-appearing instance patterns and their modes of annotation and/or exceptions, as well as many examples from real texts (see below).

We see the creation of annotation guidelines as one of the cornerstones of large scale text analysis in computational literary studies. Additionally, the creation of annotiation guidelines supports systematic disciplinary discussions about concepts and thus may lead to additional findings relevant for the theoretical discourse (e.g., Meister, 1995; Gius and Jacke, forthcoming). Experts from the field literary studies are well-suited to work with annotation guidelines, as annotation of literary phenomena in literary texts can be seen as a special form of close reading.

Phase One: Annotation Guidelines

The Shared Task

In theory, any phenomenon can be addressed in this fashion, as long as it can be defined inter-subjectively, is reasonably frequent, and is of interest in computational literary studies. As a starting point, we propose to address the issue of narrative levels (Pier, 2014). Narrative levels are a core concept in narrative theory (Genette, 1980; Bal, 1997) which in

turn has shown to be a promising foundation for automatisation in literary theory (Bogel et al. 2015). The first reason for choosing to examine narrative levels is their ubiquity: every narrative text necessarily consists at least one, most texts contain many narrative levels; each element of a text can be assigned to a specific level. The second reason is our intuition that a definition of ""level"" in guidelines is as achievable as the automated detection of levels by computers.

Concretely, participating teams are asked to create guidelines for the detection and annotation of a) narrative levels and b) the relation of the narrator(s) to the narrated world (i.e., is the narrator part of the narrated world or not?). Participants are not bound to adhere to a specific narratological theory. The result of this phase, however, will be a fixation on a set of guidelines (that instantiate a theory).

We will select a number of literary narrative texts and provide copyright-free digitized corpora. All “official” texts (development and test sets) will be English literary texts. Naturally, the second step will be to extend this framework to other languages and/or phenomena.

Evaluation

In NLP shared tasks, the predictions of the systems are compared against a fixed test set- the “gold standard”. Since there is no gold standard in Phase 1, we will evaluate the guidelines using an unseen data set. Each participating team annotates this set using their own guidelines before the guidelines are submitted. Submitted guidelines will be anonymized and re-distributed among the participants. Each participant is asked to annotate the evaluation data set using two other annotation guidelines. In addition, we will be collecting annotations from students.

The evaluation data set will thus be annotated according to each participant's guidelines four times (1x self, 1x student, 2x other participants).

This setup allows direct calculation of inter-annotator agreement. However, IAA should be only one aspect in evaluating the guidelines, but not the only one. Therefore, we will submit a workshop at DH 2018 to discuss the submissions and select final ones. This setup also allows the merging of different annotation guidelines as well as adaptation according to the discussion during the workshop. Soon after the workshop, Phase 2 will commence.

Phase Two: Automatic Prediction

In Phase 2 of this endeavour, the selected guidelines of Phase 1 will be annotated on a large scale by student assistants. Since we do not yet know how long, complex and involved the guidelines will be, there should be close communication between the organizers and the team responsible for the selected guidelines.

As soon as the texts have been annotated, they will be made accessible to participants. For the deadline in Phase 2, participants will be asked to process

a new data set - one that has not been released before - and return the predicted annotations to the organizers, who will then make evaluations using standard measures (e.g., accuracy). Finally, there will be a workshop in which each participating team presents its system. This workshop is projected to be coordinated with the LaTeCH workshop series, which has taken place at ACL conferences in the past years (one of the authors of this paper has been a workshop organiser in past years).

There will be no fixation on computational approaches, statistical models, programming languages or environments to tackle this problem. The main benefit of shared tasks towards automatisation is that different approaches can be compared directly. Restricting this possibility space would directly harm the goal.

Technical Details and Timeline

This proposal is innovative in a number of ways: Shared tasks are a new kind of framework in the DH/H community, as such, focalisation have not been investigated in this way before. Last but not least, a shared task with the goal of creating annotation guidelines has not been organized before (to our knowledge). We believe it is more important to do this right than to do this fast, hence we are looking at a rather lengthy timeline.

Date

Event

August 2017

Announcement talks at DH and LaTeCH 2017

November 2017

Finalisation of Phase 1 details, submission for DH 2018, Call for participation (Phase 1)

April 2018

Submission deadline for guidelines

June 2018

Phase 1 workshop (DH)

August 2018

Announcement talk for Phase 2 (LaTeCH 2018)

October 2018

Finalisation of Phase 2 details, submission for ACL 2019, Call for participation (Phase 2)

May 2019

Submission deadline for systems for Phase 2

August 2019

Phase 2 workshop (ACL/LaTeCH)

Attracting enough participants is the main challenge from the organiser's perspective. The main incentives we envision for contributors are excellent publication opportunities: All submitted and generated materials will be published online (open access) under the umbrella of the shared task. Each individual work will be citable. This includes the submitted annotation guidelines, the produced consensus guidelines, and explanation and commentary documents.

In addition to the publication incentive, we believe that our approach is an important contribution towards systematic text analysis in the DH realm. We count on the playfulness and curiosity (in the best sense!) of the DH community to take part in this experiment.

Bibliography

Bal, M. (1997). Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of

Narrative. University of Toronto Press, 2nd edition.

Bogel, T, Gertz M., Gius, E., Jacke, J., Meister, J. C., Petris,

M., and Strotgen, J. (2015). Collaborative Text Annotation Meets Machine Learning: heureCLEnA, a Digital Heuristic of Narrative. In DHCommons Journal, 2015. URL http://dhcommons.org/journal/issue-1/collabo-rative-text-annotation-meets-machine-learning-heu-recl%C3%A9-digital-heuristic.

Carlson, L., and Marcu, D (2001). Discourse tagging reference manual. Annotation Manual, University of Southern California, 2001. URL https://www.isi.edu/ marcu/discourse/tagging-ref-manual.pdf.

Ferro, L., Gerber, L, Mani, I., , Sundheim, B, and Wilson,

G. (2005). TIDES 2005 Standard for the Annotation of Temporal Expressions. Technical report, The MITRE Corporation.


Genette, G. (1980). Narrative Discourse. An Essay in Method. Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press.

Gius, E., and Janina Jacke, J. (2016). Zur Annotation nar-ratologischer Kategorien der zeit. Annotation Manual 2.0, Hamburg University, November 2016. URL http://heureclea.de/guidelines

Gius, E., and Jacke, J. (n.d.)The Hermeneutic Profit of Annotation. On preventing and fostering disagreement in literary text analysis. International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing, forthcoming.

Hovy, E., and Lavid. J. (2010) Towards a ‘science' of corpus annotation: A new methodological challenge for corpus linguistics. International Journal of Translation Studies, 22(1).

Kuhn, J., and Reiter, N. (2015) A Plea for a Method-Driven Agenda in the Digital Humanities. In Proceedings of Digital Humanities 2015, Sydney, Australia, June 2015.

Meister, J. C. (1995). Consensus ex Machina? Consensus

qua Machina! Literary and Linguistic Computing,

10(4), pages 263-270.

Musi, E., Ghosh, D., and Muresan, S. (2016) Towards feasible guidelines for the annotation of argument schemes. In Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Argument Mining (ArgMining2016), pages 82-93, Berlin,

Germany, August 2016. Association for Computational Linguistics. URL http://www.aclweb.org/anthol-

ogy/W16-2810.

Pier, J. (2014). Narrative Levels (revised version; uploaded 23 April 2014). In Peter Huhn et al., editors, the living handbook of narratology. Hamburg: Hamburg University. URL http://www.lhn.uni-hamburg.de/arti-cle/narrative-levels-revised-version-uploaded-23-april-2014

Reiter, N. (2015). Towards annotating narrative segments. In Kalliopi Zervanou, Marieke van Erp, and Beatrice Alex, editors, Proceedings of the 9th SIGHUM Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, and Humanities (LaTeCH), pages 3438, Beijing,China, July 2015. Association for Computational Linguistics, Association for Computational Linguistics. URL http://www.aclweb.org/anthol-ogy/W15-3705.

Santorini, B. (1992) Penn treebank: Part-of-speech tagging. Annotation Manual 3, University of Pennsylvania, 1992. URL ftp://ftp.cis.upenn.edu/pub/tree-bank/doc/tagguide.ps.gz.

Sauri, R., Littman, J., Knippen, B., Gaizauskas, R., Setzer, A., and Pustejovsky, J. (n.d.) TimeML Annotation

Guidelines, Version 1.2.1. http://timeml.org/publica-tions/timeMLdocs/annguide_1.2.1.pdf

Styler, W., Savova, G., Palmer, M., Pustejovsky, J., O'Gorman, T., and de Groen, P. C. (2014) THYME Annotation Guidelines. Technical report. http://clear.colo-rado.edu/compsem/documents/THYME_guide-

lines.pdf","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/192/192.pdf",""
"3884","18","Layout Analysis on Newspaper Archives","9","Bitmap Factorial Analysis

In order to analyze layout evolution, we propose to build a static layout representation for every year in the corpus. Thus, when studying each newspaper's first page, we define the pixel t of the static representation Pym of month m of year y as

*+,

The study of newspaper layout evolution through historical corpora has been addressed by diverse qualitative and quantitative methods in the past few years (Antonacopoulos et al, 2013; Gonzalez et al, 2001; Liu et al, 2001; Mitchell and Hong, 2004; Singh and Bhupendra, 2014). The recent availability of large corpora of newspapers is now making the quantitative analysis of layout evolution ever more popular. This research investigates a method for the automatic detection of layout evolution on scanned images with a factorial analysis approach. The notion of eigenpag-es is defined by analogy with eigenfaces used in face recognition processes. The corpus of scanned newspapers that was used contains 4 million press articles, covering about 200 years of archives. This method can automatically detect layout changes of a given newspaper over time, rebuilding a part of its past publishing strategy and retracing major changes in its history in terms of layout. Besides these advantages, it also makes it possible to compare several newspapers at the same time and therefore to compare the layout changes of multiple newspapers based only on scans of their issues.

Introduction to the Corpus

The corpus consists of digitized facsimiles of two

Swiss newspapers, “Journal de Geneve” (JDG) from years 1826 to 1997 and “Gazette de Lausanne” (GDL) from years 1804 to 1997. Scanned daily issues of each journal were transcribed using an optical character recognition (OCR) system (Rochat et al, 2016). The

Where Nym is the number of issues in month m of year y and Py,m,) is the first page of day d of month m of year y. The pixel t of the static representation i"" of year y is then defined as

*+    *+    *+,

p""    N    p"",$    N N    py,$,'

"" "" ""$

$-. $-. )-.

Were Ny is the number of month representations Py,$

in year y.



A diagram of the process is shown in figure 2.





de Lausanne



Figure 1. Different layouts of GDL in years 1825, 1850 and 1875 (top, left to right), 1925, 1950 and 1975 (bottom, left to right).



Figure 2. Process diagram creating a yearly representation of first page layouts.

These representations give a vision of the mean layout over the course of a given year. Each yearly representation can be projected in a two-dimensional space by performing a principal component analysis (PCA) which maximizes the covariance on every pixel. This method is analogous to the eigenfaces method used for face recognition (Turk and Pentland, 1991a, 1991b) We compute the eigenvectors, that we named eigenpages, as well as the eigenvalues of the covariance matrix of the pixels. The yearly representations are then projected in the two-dimensional space of the two eigenvectors which have the highest eigenvalues. The resulting projections of yearly mean images of JDG and GDL from years 1900 to 1998 are portrayed in Figure 3. In these figures, each point is a yearly image and consecutive years are linked in order to highlight the change over time. The further apart the points are, the bigger the layout's changes occurring between two years. Visual inspection reveals several clusters of years with a similar layout. Furthermore, homogeneous sequences of years may be clustered automatically based on the (unprojected) distance between them (e.g. by computing the distance between year y and y+1 and “cutting” the sequence of years at positions where their distance exceeds an arbitrary threshold.


Figure 3: PCA projected results of the yearly representations of first pages of JDG (top, blue) and GDL (bottom, red) from years 1900 to 1998 with clusters obtained by visual inspection.


Discussion

The PCA technique allows us to quantify layout changes by covariance analysis of the pixels of yearly representations. The proportion of covariance information shown by the PCA is 73% for JDG and 76% for GDL. Visual interpretation reveals different chronological clusters which are displayed in Tables 1 and 2 along with their mean positions in the twodimensional space of eigenpages as well as mean images representing these periods (computed in the same way as yearly images, cf. Figure 2). These mean images reveal the major layout transitions in each journal which may be summarized as follows:

Journal de Geneve (JDG):

•    1900-1915: 6 columns, title above columns 2 to 5, little space between columns.

•    1916-1931: 4 columns, title above columns

1    to 4, more space between columns.

•    1932-1964: 4 columns, change of the layout around the title and the first title position.

•    1965-1968: 4 columns, change of the layout around the title, boxes with black borders begin to appear.

•    1969-1991: 4 columns, total change of the title, title above columns 2 to 4, logo appears, more space between columns and

boxes, article titles are bigger.

•    1992-1995: 5 columns, fusion of JDG and GDL, big change of layout, boxes inside boxes begin to appear, more stable structure.

•    1996-1998: 6 columns, big change in title

font, previous column layout replaced by a more classic one, article titles are placed at

the top of the first page.

Gazette de Lausanne (GDL):

•    1900-1945: 6 columns, title above columns

2    to 5, little space between columns.

•    1946-1966: 7 columns, title above columns

2 to 6, more space between columns yielding particularly small column sizes.

•    1967-1970: 5 columns, title above columns 2 to 5, first column begins before the title which is on the right, advertisements placed below the page.

•    1971-1973: 6 columns, more classic layout with article titles at the top.

•    1974-1991: 4 columns, lots of space between columns and articles, bigger article

titles.

•    1992-1995: 5 columns, fusion of JDG and GDL, big change of layout, boxes inside boxes begin to appear, more stable structure.

•    1996-1998: 6 columns, big change in title

font, column layout replaced by a more classic one, the article titles are placed at the

top of the first page.

The automatic clustering method described in previous chapter has been applied on unprojected distances and produce similar clustering results (depending on the threshold parameter). Qualitative analysis confirms that the resulting clusters are all separated by important layout transition phases.


eigenpages (JDG). PCAPCgenpag(JDG)obtained by PCA

for JDG.


This analysis is also useful to compare several newspaper publishing strategies. We projected the two newspapers in the same two-dimensional space representation (presented in Figure 3) using the same method with yearly representations of both journals in order to compare their chronological trajectories. The covariance information shown by the PCA is 67%. Visual inspection reveals three main clusters for each journal. Each of these clusters turns out to correspond to groups of clusters that has been detected in the previous projections. We observe that the layout of both journals has evolved in a similar way but with different timescales. GDL is more dispersed than JDG and has explored different strategies during the period 1900-1966. However, GDL has adopted a style more similar to JDG style between 1967 and 1973 just before it entered a major layout transition in 1974 (5 years later than JDG).


Figure 4. PCA projected results of the yearly representations of first pages of JDG (blue) and GDL (red) from years 1900 to 1998 in the same two-dimensional space representation with clusters obtained by visual inspection.

Conclusion

These first results demonstrate a promising method of detecting layout evolution automatically. The method is applicable to a large variety of longitudinal image corpora without any prerequisites, since it only requires images in bitmap format. It make it possible to compare several corpora and determine periods of layout transitions in a common two-dimensional space for visual interpretation. In addition, unprojected distances can be used to determine layout changes in an entirely automatic fashion, by analyzing the representation space through clustering algorithms. Future work on this method should include the integration of an alignment method in the bitmap preprocessing step, because alignment errors may impact the pixel covariance analysis and eigenpages creation.

Bibliography

Antonacopoulos, A., Clausner, C., Papadopoulos, C., and

Pletschacher, S. (2013) ICDAR2013 Competition on

Historical Newspaper Layout Analysis - HNLA2013.

12th International Conference on Document Analysis and

Recognition.

Buntinx, V., Bornet, C., and Kaplan, F. (2016) Studying

Linguistic Changes on 200 Years of Newspapers. 2016.

DH2016, Krakow, Poland, July 11-16.

Ehrmann, M., Colavizza, G., Rochat, Y., and Kaplan, F.

(2016). Diachronic Evaluation of NER Systems on Old

Newspapers. 13th Conference on Natural Language Pro-

cessing (KONVENS 2016), Bochum, Germany, September 19-21.

González, J., Rojas, I., Pomares, H., Salmerón, M., Prieto, A., and Merelo, J.J. (2001) Optimization of web newspaper layout in real time. Computer Networks, Volume

36, Issues 2-3, July, Pages 311-321, ISSN 1389-1286,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1389-1286(01)00158-X.

Liu, F., Luo, Y., Yoshikawaf, M., and Dongcheng, H.

(2001). A New Component based Algorithm for Newspaper Layout Analysis. 2001. 6th International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition.

Mitchell, P. E., and Hong, Y. (2004) Newspaper layout analysis incorporating connected component separation. Image and Vision Computing, Volume 22, Issue 4, 1 April, Pages    307-317,    ISSN    0262-8856,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.imavis.2003.11.001.

Rochat, Y., Ehrmann, M., Buntinx, V., Bornet, C., and Kaplan, F. (2016). Navigating through 200 years of historical newspapers. 2016. iPRES, Bern, October 3-6.

Singh, V., and Bhupendra, K. (2014). Document layout analysis for Indian newspapers using contour based symbiotic approach. 2014. International Conference on

Computer Communication and Informatics (ICCCI-2014), Jan. 03 - 05, Coimbatore, INDIA

Turk. M., and Pentland, A. (1991a) Face recognition using eigenfaces. 1991. Proc. IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition. pp. 586-591.

Turk. M., and Pentland, A. (1991b) Eigenfaces for recognition. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 3 (1): 71-86. doi:10.1162/jocn.1991.3.1.71. PMID 23964806.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/193/193.pdf",""
"3885","18","Athar : Numérisation, Indexation Et Mise En Ligne Enrichie Des Bulletins Du Comité De Conservation Des Monuments De L’Art Arabe (1882-1953)","2","The Athar project (from Arabic traces or footprints,

and by extension monuments or antiques) makes available, in open access, all of the work of the Committee for the Conservation of Art Monuments

Arab (1882-1953), body created in Cairo to inventory, describe and restore the Islamic then Coptic monuments of Egypt. Based on the  reports of the Historic Monuments Commission in France , this annual publication, written in French, now extinct and free of rights, consists of 41 volumes published in Cairo between 1882 and 1953, totaling 8,000 pages and nearly 800 boards. This corpus sometimes brings together the only documentation still remaining on disappeared, very degraded or radically transformed monuments. Through his illustrations, he finds himself in relation to the rich backgrounds of commercial photography present in Cairo from 1860, disseminated increasingly on Gallica and Europeana. The partners

This project is the result of a fruitful collaboration between three structures from the French scientific and university world: the InVisu laboratory  , the French Institute of Oriental Archeology and

Persee . Complementary expertise from each of these partners was essential to successfully complete this project. The InVisu laboratory, thanks to its documentary know-how, took charge of the fine structuring of the corpus and the indexing of toponyms using the Cairo Gazetteer .This multilingual repository (French, Arabic, English) makes it possible to identify, describe and finely locate the 600 buildings classified as Cairo as historic monuments by proposing the orthographic variants of these toponyms. The IFAO allowed the completion of the collection by lending the missing volumes and brought its skills on Egyptian toponymy and cartography. Persee, thanks to its expertise of more than 10 years in the field of digitization, oceration and dissemination of scientific heritage, has put its technical platform at the service of the project (JGAlith: integrated and complete application, developed by Persee, which allows ''

Technologies and formats, use of Linked Open Data

The technologies and formats used are based on the norms and standards in force in the context of open access and interoperability. The metadata generated by the structuring of the corpus are encoded in XML format according to the Dublin Core, MarcXML and MODS schemas . The full text from the uncorrected OCR is available according to the TEI scheme and all of the data is described and organized in an XML container in METS format  . The content of the Cairo Gazetteer, deployed thanks to Ginco(terminology repository management tool), is made available to the digital humanities community through the SKOS format. It offers an innovative solution to solve the difficulties linked to the transliteration of Arabic toponyms.


Figure 2. Cairo Gazetteer data encoded in RDF


Illustration 1. A sheet of the Cairo Gazetteer



Illustration 4. In JGalith, selection of the monument to link to the corresponding label in the Cairo Gazetteer


Links to two repositories available at international level have been inserted in the data for structuring the corpus: IdRef for the authors and the Cairo Gazetteer for the buildings. These links make it possible to deduce alignments to complementary external resources such as data.bnf.fr, DBpedia, Subject Headings of the Library of Congress and GeoNames. The development and implementation by the IT team of Persee of a specific module in the JGALITH platform was necessary to carry out this step.


Illustration 3. In JGalith, inclusion of a <name> tag in the title of the article pointing to the corresponding named entity in the Cairo Gazetteer

Dissemination of the corpus

The dissemination of this corpus is currently

performed on the Persée portal.


By 2017-2019, a corpus site will be developed by Persee, thereby evolving its service offer. All the data produced and aggregated as part of the Athar project will be integrated into a larger ecosystem to provide richer, more complete and centralized information for the user of the dedicated site. Composite pages constructed from the data produced by the Persee chain and those recovered through alignment with the selected external repositories will also be developed. They will complement the range of navigation and exploration functionalities (author index, table of contents, cross-references, table of illustrations) already implemented in the Persee portal. In addition to webcasting, data exposure through Bibliography

Perrin, E. (2015). “Cairo Gazetteer: a thesaurus to identify the monuments of Cairo”. 6th days of the Medici network. Multilingualism: brake or catalyst for scientific dissemination in Europe and the Mediterranean? Marseille: Medici network. Available at:  https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01213678  [Viewing March 31, 2017].

Perrin, E. (2014). “Tools, methods, corpus: the

modeling of data in SHS. In Day of web study of data and human and social sciences. Paris. Available at:

https://www.inha.fr/fr/agenda/parcourt-par-annee/en-2014/novembre-2014/outils-methodes-corpus.html [Consulted March 31, 2017].

Perrin, E. & Mounier, P. (2015). “Structure, link and disseminate data with semantic web technologies”. INHA digital Mondays. Paris. Available at:

https://www.inha.fr/fr/agenda/parcourt-par-annee/en-2015/mai-2015/structurer-relier-et-diffuser-des-donnees-avec-les-technologies-du-web- semantic.html [ Accessed March 31, 2017].","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/194/194.pdf",""
"3886","18","“My Name is Lizzie Bennet:” Reading, Participation, and Jane Austen Across Media Platforms","2","The Lizzie Bennet Diaries is a digital update of Jane Austen's novel, Pride and Prejudice, in which Austen's narrative is reimagined for the twenty-first century through its distribution across multiple media platforms. The Lizzie Bennet Diaries (hereafter referred to as LBD) is centred on a series of YouTube video diaries by Lizzie Bennet and includes four complementary YouTube channels, thirteen interconnected Twitter feeds, Tumblr posts, Facebook profiles, and numerous social media interactions and ‘conversations' between the narrative's characters and its readers.

This poster expands upon existing research conducted as part of a larger, ongoing PhD research project. It will present a visual overview of LBD and the specific modes of participation available to readers during the narrative's initial release in 2012 and 2013 (an important distinction, since the narrative was originally released as a serial story). Drawing from a sample of LBD reader comments on YouTube and Twitter (using MaxQDA to qualitatively code the comments), the poster will explore how readers participated in the LBD narrative and how their participation may have influenced or affected their reading habits. In addition, Aarseth's cybertext theory and McGann's radial reading theory will provide a foundation for discussing LBD's participatory elements in a theoretical context, with an emphasis on discussing how digital media have invited us to revisit and rework those theories.

According to Aarseth, cybertexts such as LBD invite and encourage readers to make deliberate and intentional choices as they navigate through the text, its multiple entry points, and its various narrative paths (1997). As a result, readers actively participate in shaping their individual reading experience. Thus, LBD reader must decide which elements of the narrative to consume, and in which order: does she choose to follow Lizzie on Twitter, but not Darcy? Does she watch Lydia's YouTube videos, or reblog Jane's fashion posts on Tumblr? Each choice leads the reader in a slightly different direction in the narrative, and provides additional information that offers context and meaning to the core series of YouTube videos. The choices made by readers are also indicative of McGann's theory of radial reading, where readers seek out additional information not immediately available in the core text (McGann 1991). The various modes of participation available to LBD readers, as well as the degree of interactivity implied by cybertext theory and radial reading, gives readers an avenue for active engagement with the narrative and helps reinforce the belief that their contributions to the narrative matter. This belief, what Professor Stephen Coleman calls “the feeling of being counted, or the affective character of an experience that renders it fulfilling for individuals” (2013), serves to strengthen a reader's engagement with the text.

Using Aarseth and McGann's theories as a foundation, the poster will consider how LBD's modes of participation might strengthen a reader's engagement with and immersion in the text, and whether immersive digital narratives like LBD can encourage engagement with traditional close reading techniques by prompting individuals to read (or re-read) Austen's original Pride and Prejudice novel. As Frank Rose, Henry Jenkins and others have pointed out, the Internet has changed readers' expectations from stories and narratives, to the point that many readers of digital narratives now expect some level of participation or interactivity. This poster (and the larger research project) is focused on exploring those participatory elements and their connection to overall digital reading practices.

Bibliography

Aarseth, E. (1997). Cybertext. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Coleman, S. (2013). How voters feel. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Dowling, D. (2014). “Escaping the Shallows: Deep

Reading's Revival in the Digital Age.” Digital Humanities Quarterly, [online] 8(2). Available at:

http://www.digitAlhumanities.org/dhQ/volZ8Z2/

OOO18O/QOO180htmi [Accessed: 27 Oct. 2016].

Jenkins, H. (1992). Textual Poachers. New York:

Routiedge.

McGann, J. (1991). “How To ReaD a BooK” in The Textual Condition. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Pemberley Digital. (2016). The Lizzie Bennet Diaries. [online]    Available    aT:

Http://www.pEMBERLEYDiGiTAL.coM/THE-LizziE-

BenneT-Diaries/ [AccesseD: 27 OcT. 2016].","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/195/195.pdf",""
"3887","18","Micro DH: Digital Humanities at the Small Scale","10","Digital humanities practices are often understood in terms of significant scale: big data, large data sets, digital humanities centers (Terras et al. 2016; Kowalczyk et al. 2014; Borgman 2009; Kretzschmar 2009). This emphasis leads to the perception that projects cannot be completed without substantial access to financial resources, data, and labor (Prescott 2016; Hockey 2016; Evans and Rees 2012). While this can be the case, such presumptions serve as a deterrent to the development of an inclusive digital humanities community with representation across academic hierarchies (student, librarian, faculty), types of institutions (public, private, regional), and geographies (Global North, Global South). In response, how can digital humanities scholars find value in work undertaken at a small scale? This question is at the heart of this paper theorizing the practices of micro digital humanities by reporting on initiatives at Salem State University. These practices include the embrace of minimal computing, small data sets, local archives, and freely available platforms for creating small-scale digital humanities projects while working with undergraduate students.

The work of the Minimal Computing Working Group has articulated a vision for minimal forms of digital humanities praxis (Minimal Computing Working Group 2015). Jentery Sayers (2016) has identified key components of minimal computing, including minimal design, maximum justice, and minimal technical language. These principles privilege access and openness for stakeholders across economic and technical barriers. More importantly, they are precepts that envision how digital humanities practices might be available to those who work outside of macro structures that have historically shaped digital humanities. This has been important at Salem State, a regional, public university undergoing an unprecedented budget crisis due to funding cuts from the state legislature. However, we have faculty and librarians who are committed to using digital humanities to cultivate digital and 21st century literacies in our students. As a result, we have conceptualized a micro digital humanities approach inspired by minimal computing. Micro DH validates scholarly output that does not require digital humanities centers, big data, large data sets, and access to high-performance computing. As an intervention in local digital humanities, it places high value on working with available resources, however small.

At Salem State, we have embraced micro digital humanities through our work with undergraduates. This talk explores these practices in depth, as a model for claiming the legitimacy of small-scale digital humanities. It considers how we have drawn on minimal university resources and existing institutional structures to build a digital humanities community.

First, the focus of our work is our university’s archives and special collections, a diverse and free but untapped source of material. This choice emphasizes the primacy of local resources in micro digital humanities. Although Salem is known for its history of the Salem Witch Trials and literature of Nathaniel Hawthorne, our archives focus on the common person’s experience in Salem from the mid-19th century to present. This includes a rich history of immigration and activism. It exemplifies the power of micro digital humanities for the diversifying the historical record by giving voice to the ordinary and everyday. Through our work, we shed light on the hidden histories that shape Salem today.

We undertake this work in service of our undergraduate students. Micro digital humanities is an approach that cuts across hierarchies in academic labor, bringing faculty, librarians, and students together to create small projects. Salem State is the most diverse state university in Massachusetts (35% students of color, 40% first-generation college students) and draws a primarily regional, working-class student population. Both the students and the university have few resources, but we work with what we have. To serve this population, we developed the Digital Scholars Program, piloted through a small grant from the university. We designed the program to answer the call of the university’s strategic plan to foster student success through research opportunities. Students apply to become Digital Scholars, and those who are selected are mentored through the process of creating a small-scale digital humanities project over the course of a semester.

Because they receive course credit rather than payment, we do not believe that we can, ethically, ask students to work on projects for us. Instead, the program is student-centered and student-led through a scaled down approach emphasizing the creation of micro projects. We select collections for the students to explore related to the history of Salem State then lead them through the experience of creating a digital humanities project from start to stopping point. The process includes making discoveries in the archives, identifying research questions that suit their interests, curating materials, envisioning project design, selecting platforms, and creating a final product - and all the iterative dimensions this process entails. Students also have access to professional development workshops and opportunities to engage with guest speakers who are themselves digital humanities practitioners. Projects our students have undertaken include recovering the history of LGBTQ activism at the university, revealing the colonialist gaze of Salem residents who traveled to India in the 1920s, creating historical models of the university’s oldest campus building, and connecting contemporary student activism around Black Lives Matter to the history of antiracist activism at the university in the 1970s. These projects have helped students engage in a range of practices: digitizing texts, TEI, Omeka, 3D modeling, quantitative textual analysis, data visualization, and oral history. In the spirit of micro digital humanities, we only use freely available resources or open source software we can host ourselves. This is a response to our lack of financial resources but is also a result of our focus on students; we do not want to force them to use proprietary technologies they may not be able to afford to access outside of a university or on their own.

We situate this work as a practice of micro digital humanities, cutting across hierarchies to shift students from the position of consumer of digital media and technologies to the role of producer. This requires setting aside our preferences for what projects based on the collections should look like and recognizing that students will be working at a small scale. However, we view these small projects as pieces of a bigger puzzle that illuminates life in Salem. To bring these projects together, we developed an umbrella digital humanities project called Digital Salem, a portal that aggregates student projects by collection. Users visiting Digital Salem are offered multiple ports of entry into the history, culture, and literature of Salem. There, the small student projects add up as they contribute to a rich, varied resource on Salem. This experience has suggested how a micro digital humanities can be designed with emphasis connecting small projects as modular pieces that work together to form a bigger picture.

These micro digital humanities practices have been the foundation of the digital humanities community at the university. They have brought together faculty, librarians, and students to facilitate student research at a teaching-intensive university. Further, they offer a model for developing digital humanities at scales appropriate to institutional contexts and strategic planning. Perhaps more importantly, they offer a vision of digital humanities with learning curves and barriers to entry that do not require affiliation with centers, access to expensive technologies, or substantial resources. This, we argue, is essential to the development of an inclusive digital humanities community.

Bibliography

Borgman, C. (2009). The Digital Future is Now: A Call to

Action for the Humanities. Digital Humanities Quarterly

3.4.

http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/4/00007

7/000077.html. Accessed October 29, 2016.

Evans, L. and Rees, S. (2012). An Interpretation of Digital

Humanities. In D. Berry (Ed.), Understanding Digital

Humanities (pp. 21-41). London: Springer.

Hockey, S. (2016). Digital Humanities in the Age of the Internet: Reaching Out to Other Communities. In W. McCarty & M. Deegan (Eds.), Collaborative Research in Digital Humanities (pp. 81-92). London: Routledge.

Kowalczyk, S. T., Sun, Y., Peng, Z., Plale, B., Todd, A., Au-vil, L., Willis, C., Zeng, J., Pathirage, M., Liyanage, S., Ruan, G., & Downie, J. S. (2014). Big Data at Scale for Digital Humanities: An Architecture for the HathiTrust Research Center. In W. Hu & N. Kaabouch (Eds.), Big Data Management, Technologies, and Applications (pp. 270294). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-4699-5.ch011

Kretzschmar, W.A. (2009). Large-Scale Humanities Computing Projects: Snakes Eating Tails, or Every End is a New Beginning? Digital Humanities Quarterly 3.2. http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/3/2/000038/00 0038.html. Accessed October 29, 2016.

Minimal Computing Working Group. (2015). About. Minimal    Computing.    http://go-

dh.github.io/mincomp/about/. Accessed October 29, 2016.

Prescott, A. (2016). Beyond the Digital Humanities Center: The Administrative Landscapes of Digital Humanities. In S. Schreibman, R. Siemens & J. Unsworth (Eds.) A New Companion to Digital Humanities (pp. 461-475). Malden, MA: Wiley.

Sayers, J. (2016). Minimal Definitions. Minimal Computing. http://go-

dh.github.io/mincomp/thoughts/2016/10/02/minimal -definitions/. Accessed October 29, 2016.

Terras, M., Baker, J., Hetherington, J., Beavan, D., Welsh, A., O'Neill, H., Finley, W., Duke-Williams, O., Far-quhar, A. (2016). Enabling Complex Analysis of LargeScale Digital Collections: Humanities Research, High Performance Computing, and transforming access to British Library Digital Collections. In Digital Humanities 2016: Conference Abstracts (pp. 376-379). Jagiellonian University & Pedagogical University, Krakow.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/196/196.pdf",""
"3888","18","Facilitating Fine-Grained Open Annotations of Scholarly Sources","10","Introduction
In the scholarly domain, annotation is a fundamental activity (Unsworth, 2000). Current web-based annotation facilities enable a specific way of annotation (via note-taking, highlighting or commenting) which are useful when scholars are exploring or gathering an initial set of resources, but more sophisticated support is needed for detailed analysis, close reading, and data enrichment. At this point, it is important to take into account the structural relations between documents and their parts. For example, when annotating a letter, annotation tools should be aware that a targeted text fragment is the name of the sender, or that the annotation of a film targets the intellectual work instead of the specific version or copy on which the annotation is made.

In addition, many standalone tools use annotation models with idiosyncratic solutions to enable the relations between different media objects and their parts, which limits the possibilities to exchange those annotations . In general, there is a lack of necessary details for durable access to and interpretation of annotations. For this, detailed information is needed about the annotated object, the annotator and the annotation itself (Melgar et al. 2016, Walkowski &

Barker, 2010). In this paper we focus on the requirements for the annotated object, in a web-based environment, and propose a method for making necessary details of objects openly available for any annotation tool.

Requirements of scholarly annotation
In line with (W3C 2017b) we refer to the object that is annotated as the annotation target, the content of the annotation as the annotation body and who or what creates the annotation as the annotation creator. All three are complex entities with aspects that have consequences for interpreting an annotation (Melgar et al., 2016).

Annotation Creator: With respect to the creator it is important to know the intention/motivation for making the annotation (Walkowski & Barker, 2010) and when sharing and reusing annotations, their level of expertise, both in terms of the scholarly domain and in the nature of the annotation task (e.g. the amount of experience/expertise of the annotator in classifying objects according to a controlled vocabulary).

Annotation target: of the target it is important to know which part of the object is targeted. This is not merely about addressing media fragments. Media (e.g., html, mp3, jpg) are carriers of abstract information objects (scenes in movies, chapters in books, objects in pictures) with different conceptual levels (e.g. work, expression or manifestation , see Figure 1) and it is essential to be able to address those abstract objects and the relationships between them.

Annotation body: Of the content of the annotation it is important to know its nature (a natural language comment, structural or subject metadata, a link to another resource), in what form it is made (e.g. closed representation or natural language representation), at what level of control (from mostly uncontrolled to strictly controlled and structured) and for what scholarly purpose, e.g. gathering or exploring sources or thematic or stylistic analysis (Melgar et al., 2017).

State of the Art
There are various models for capturing digital annotations to make them accessible and interpretable. The Web Annotation Data Model (W3C 2017a, 2017b) is a generic model that covers aspects of the annotation body, target and creator. This model focuses on annotations in the context of online social interaction (e.g., commenting, sharing), not necessarily on scholarly annotations done during analysis or data enrichment .

An extended model specifically for scholarly research was proposed by Hunter et al. (2011), which includes context aspects for both the annotation body and target. The Annotating All Knowledge Coalition is also directed at scholarly annotation and lists several issues, including:

1.    The lack of support for discovery, sharing and reuse of annotations.

2.    Underutilization of collections.

3.    The closed and non-standardized nature of current annotation tools.

Current annotation support is either part of a suite of functionalities in monolithic applications with their own models for annotation (e.g. TextGrid , Textual Communities , eLaborate , CATMA for text,Elan and Anvil for multimedia materials, and QDA software packages for mixed media qualitative data analysis), or they lack specificity in describing the annotation target, e.g. Hypothes.is (Perkel, 2015) and Pundit (Grassi et al., 2012) and site-specific annotation tools, e.g. in The Diary of Samuel Pepys).


Figure 1. Conceptual model of annotated object (details of other parts of the model are left out for clarity)

Building on earlier work (Melgar et al., 2016), in this paper we argue the need for application support for more specificity of the annotation target (see Figure 1). We identify two additional issues with the current state-of-the-art:

4.    The W3C annotation protocol lacks support for a potential annotation target identifying and describing itself to the annotation tool.

5.    The model also lacks a schema, which would allow scholars or website maintainers to define constraints for a specific class of annotations that is applicable in the context of a specific group of scholarly objects.

Use case: annotation in scholarly digital editions
These issues are illustrated by a scenario of a digital scholarly edition where scholars have a need for annotation support (Boot, 2009, Robinson, 2004, Siemens et al., 2012). Consider an edition that wants to incorporate an external annotation tool into its pages (Figure 2): an edition server shows an edition to a client in a browser. The annotation client runs within that same browser window, but doesn’t know about the edition’s structure and it talks with its own server. To communicate intelligently with the user, the annotation client needs information about the structure of the edition, which has to be provided by the edition.

The annotation tool should know about the edition’s structure for a number of reasons:

•    The edition often contains multiple representations of the same text fragment. There might be a diplomatic and a critical transcription, one or more translations, audio versions, and who knows what other versions, and annotations made in one of these should be available in others;

•    Other sites may have other editions of this particular text. It should be possible to exchange annotations between them;

•    The edition has an internal structure, e.g. a book divided in chapters, or the fragments appearing in modern authors’ drafts, or the elaborate structure with multiple apparatuses of some editions of medieval texts. An annotation that refers to a specific component of an edition should be able to address that component and know what sort of component it is.

• The edition should be able to propose suitable annotation types for its components. For personal names, it might suggest an annotation type that links the person to an authority file. For transcriptions, there might be special annotation types for proposed corrections to the transcription. Edition collaboratories could use the annotation functionality to solicit multiple sorts of specialised information from its collaborators.

This proposal requires that: (i) the edition describes itself and its structure to the annotation tool, and provides suitable labels for the annotatable objects; (ii) the edition can suggest annotation types for the annotatable objects; (iii) the effort to integrate annotation functionality in existing editions is minimal; (iv) the annotation tool is generic, but able to handle the created annotations with awareness of the structure that they apply to (it can e.g. return aggregated annotations); (v) the annotation targets are durable and not formulated in terms of HTML structure; and (vi) URI's should be treated as opaque (i.e., we shouldn't try to guess the relations between the annotated components based on their URIs); and lastly (vii) URIs should be canonical.

Proposed Solution
We propose a solution similar to Schema.org (an initiative for adding structural semantics to information on the web) whereby descriptive information about annotatable resources is made accessible to the client by embedding it in the HTML presentation layer through RDFa attributes (Figure 3), using an extensible resource descriptive ontology. Figure 4 shows a basic ontology for text objects (left half of Figure 4) with an edition-specific extension for the example edition (right half of Figure 4). This ontology shares concepts with the FRBRoo ontology (Bekiari et al., 2015) but starts from specific annotation-related concepts. In future work we will investigate extending the ontology with FRBRoo concepts.

Although this approach is focused on annotation of resources on the web, the same principle could be applied in offline annotation, if the offline resources are described in a similar way and annotation clients are developed to make use of this. Also, descriptive information for textual sources can be embedded as markup, but for audiovisual documents, this has to be done via a separate representation, for instance using SMIL (Bulterman et al., 2008).

<body vocab-'http://huygens.knaw.nl/ns/annotate#CvsabflUX-'um:vangogh :let633""

<span property-'b&sXwe,"" content=""Letter/>

<h4 resource^'y^j^&eakS&tC&SJiS^^    P rope rty^'jsEaaQf >

<span property-'basZXRe."" content-'Correspondence''>Van Gogh. The Letters</span>

</h4>

<p resource=""ujBJiaBiWaMet633:par.1""    property=""Uas5iUt"">

<span property=""J3&§Jyg£"" content=""Paragraph""/>Mon sijgjBemard -

</p>

<p resource-'ujjKyaJW>ab,:let633:note.1'' type&t-'Enrichment"" property-'baa£nofituufiut;'> <span property-'Jj&gJypg"" content=""Note""/>

<p resource=""ujBJiaB&J3aMet633:page.1"" iyRe&t-'X&xtBeaxe/ property=""jaGawieitQo."">

<span property-'basZXRe."" content=""Page""/>

Figure 3. HTML fragments of a letter of Vincent van Gogh (http://vangoghletters.org/orig/let633) described by embedded RDFa. The letter is identified by a URN (urn:vangogh:let633) and defined as a CreativeWork. It is part of a larger CreativeWork, Van Go


Figure 4. Basic ontology for text objects (left of dashed line) and extended ontology for Van Gogh Letters Collection (right of dashed line). The basic ontology recognizes three types of annotatable things: the creative work being edited and its parts (also creative works), the text bearers (e.g. manuscript pages), and editorial enrichment of any sort. Projects can create an extended ontology to suit their needs. The extended ontology shown here creates specialized classes for the needs of the Van Gogh letter edition (http://vangoghletters.org/).

Methodological impact
In our proposal annotatable resources describe their own semantic structure, thereby facilitating finegrained annotations. With the RDFa attributes, annotation clients can identify the annotation target in terms of the resource structure (issue 4), which makes annotations less dependent on specific views on the underlying object. Furthermore, this allows development of lightweight open source annotation clients that web services can easily embed to bring annotation to collections of scholarly interest (issue 3).

This makes it easier for scholars to use and reuse annotations to support the argument made in a scholarly article (issue 1). It allows distinguishing different groups of annotations, so researchers can choose to display certain groups of annotations, thereby avoiding being drowned by irrelevant annotations (issue 5). It facilitates employing annotation functionality to ask for targeted comments on resource parts (what do you think of this translation? What clarification of this material are you missing?). Scholars can also more meaningfully combine and compare them across collections and media types, e.g. analyse the correspondence between book and film versions of an intellectual work (issue 2).

If the annotations are consistently stored using open protocols, it becomes possible to reference them in scholarly publications. Collateral benefit of floating this form of ‘deep web’ semantics to the surface is that other external services such as search engines can also use the exposed semantic information to reason about available resources.

Bibliography
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Boot, P., (2009). Mesotext: digitised emblems, modelled annotations and humanities scholarship. Amsterdam University Press, 2009.

Bulterman, D., Hansen, J., Cesar, P. et al. (2008). Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language. W3C Recommendation 01 December 2008. https://www.w3.org/TR/2008/REC-SMIL3-20081201/

Grassi, M., Morbidoni, C., Nucci, M., Fonda, S., Ledda, G.

(2012). ""Pundit: Semantically Structured Annotations for Web Contents and Digital Libraries."" SDA. 2012.

Hunter, J., Cole, T., Sanderson, R., van de Sompel, H.

(2010). The Open Annotation Collaboration: A Data Model to Support Sharing and Interoperability of Scholarly Annotations. Presented at the Digital Humanities    2010.    Retrieved    from

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programme/abstracts/papers/pdf/ab-860.pdf

Melgar, L., Blom, J., Baaren, E., Koolen, M., Ordelman, R.

(2016). A conceptual model for the annotation of audiovisual heritage in a media studies context. Presented at the Audiovisual Material in Digital Humanities 2016 workshop, Krakow, Poland. Retrieved from    https://avindhsig.wordpress.com/workshop-

2016-krakow/accepted-abstracts/liliana-melgar-jaap-blom-eva-baaren-marijn-koolen-roeland-ordelman/

Melgar, L., Koolen, M., Huurdeman, H.C., Blom, J. (2017). A Process model of Scholarly Media Annotation. In Proceedings of the 2017 ACM Conference on Human

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Perkel, J. M. (2015) ""Annotating the scholarly web."" Nature 528.7580 (2015): 153-154.

Rizkallah, E., (2016). QDA software compatibility: Towards an exchange format with developers for their users. Presented at the Reflecting on the future of QDA software, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.

Robinson, P., (2004). ""Where we are with electronic scholarly editions, and where we want to be."" Jahrbuch für Computerphilologie Online 4 (2004): 123-143.

Schmidt, T., Duncan, S., Ehmer, O., Hoyt, J., Kipp, M., Loehr, D., Magnusson, M., Rose, T., Sloetjes, H. (2008). An Exchange Format for Multimodal Annotations. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2008), Marrakech.

Siemens, Ray, Timney, M., Leitch, C, Koolen, C., Garnett,

A. (2012). ""Toward modeling the social edition: An approach to understanding the electronic scholarly edition in the context of new and emerging social media."" Literary and Linguistic Computing 27.4 (2012): 445-461.

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https://www.w3.org/TR/annotation-vocab/

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296.xml","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/198/198.pdf",""
"3889","18","Complex Network Visualisation for the History of Interdisciplinarity: Mapping 40 years of Science Funding in Switzerland","2","Introduction

In Switzerland, the panorama of scientific research is deemed to be deeply affected by language barriers and strong local academic identities. Is this impression confirmed by data on research projects? What are the factors that best explain the structure of scientific collaborations over the last forty years? Do linguistic regions (Switzerland is divided into three principals) or local academic logics really have an impact onto the mapping of research collaborations and to what extend are they embedded in disciplinary, historical and generational logics?

We focus on the very large database of the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), the principal research funding agency in Switzerland, which lists all the 62,000 projects funded between 1975 and 2015. While scientometric studies generally focus on measuring work - and financial - performance, we aim to raise awareness on pursuing a socio-history analyse of Swiss academic circles by crossing the SNSF data with a prosopographic database of all Swiss university professors in the twentieth century provided by the Swiss Elite Observatory (OBELIS). Beyond the interest for the history of science and universities, we explore the noteworthy technical challenge of a network analysis of nearly 88,000 researchers and more than a million of collaborations.

By combining those two databases, we measure the temporality and spatiality of academic collaborations, i.e. to define a way to deal with the volume of information in order to provide not only a global vision but also to enable a fine processing of personal trajectories.

Sources

The SNSF database has been placed under an Open Data licence in spring 2016. Called “P3” for “Projects, People, Publications”, it contains detailed information on all the projects funded since 1975 (around 500 per year in the beginning, almost 3,000 per year today, see Fig.1), as well as the whole list of people involved in the projects. The database can sometimes be incomplete about the discipline and institutional affiliation of individuals, since it depends directly on the project submission interface where some fields may be left empty. Thus, this gap is partly offset by the junction with the Swiss professors database that provides systematic data on Swiss professors. Thus, the projects are classified according to a standard tree of scientific disciplines.


Figure 1. Evolution of the number of projects funded by SNF annually from 1975 to 2015.


Methodology

We are interested in the 2006-2015 period, ten years during which 25,000 projects involving 45,000 people produce a graph of more than 350,000 edges. On the one hand, this short periodization allows us to confront our assumptions to our data before analysing the full corpus. On the other hand, it helps to test the effectiveness of our tools and the interoperability of the two databases to prepare a complete and longitudinal modelling.

We therefore extracted a 2-mode network of people and projects from the database and then projected it into a 1-mode network of people only (the nature of the link being to be affiliated as collaborators to the same research project). If usually a relatively simple task, the transformation of a 2-mode graph into a 1-mode graph is here greatly complicated by the mass of information to process: when the graph matrix contains billions of positions, most softwares are reaching their limits. We will then divide the dataset into smaller units (here, transforming the network year after year helps make it bearable to a standard processor).

Analysis and Visualisation

The topography of the network obtained for 20062015 (Fig.2) is quite remarkable. The center of the network is not, as it is often, the densest region, which would have meant that a single discipline or field of study was likely to play a role of interface between others. Instead, we observe an almost circular distribution of individuals, recalling other “science maps” based on the organization of institutions of bibliometric analysis (Rafols et al. 2010). Data visualization, and in particular the representation of complex networks, is not an end in itself but a tool for questioning the structure of the dataset (Grandjean 2015). But while a further research will focus on more detailed indicators to qualify individual positions (in particular, centrality measures, as detailed by Koschutzki et al. 2005 or Newman 2010), this first overview still shows that some groups of disciplines form very obvious clusters. This is the case of physics (right), medical sciences (bottom left) or earth sciences (top right). Others are sparsely connected or dispersed within other communities, as is particularly the case for disciplines like economics/business studies or chemistry, which seem to be more engaged in interdisciplinary collaborations or projects that include a limited number of employees (large experimental science projects partly explain the density of these groups). We also assume the structure of the network to differ among disciplinary specificities and temporality (Bourdieu, 2004; Gingras, 2012; Heilbron & Gingras, 2015). Are most connected disciplines also the most prestigious ones?


Figure 2. The core of the Swiss network of SNF scientific collaborations 2006-2016 (Grandjean 2016).

Perspectives

With the information contained in the list of projects, we see that it is also possible to assign individuals a disciplinary category extracted from the projects involving them. As it happens that a researcher is participating to projects labelled in different disciplines, this approach will lead to a reflexion on the measurement of interdisciplinarity within a comparative study between a selection of « open » and « closed » disciplines.

We will also see that it is possible to develop a multi-level analysis to compare the graph clustering to the many Swiss institutional and disciplinary « geographies », in order to historicize their development.","txt","1","https://dh2017.adho.org/abstracts/201/201.pdf",""
"3890","18","Multimode and Multilevel: Vertical Dimension in Historical and Literary Networks","9","Introduction
In the field of global history, especially when it comes to « histoire croisée », the use of metaphors describing the vertical organization of a society, its structuration into layers or into overlapping systems, is common. The temptation to use a second metaphor, calling everything a “network”, is also very important in this domain, whose objects of study are often transnational organizations with multiple branches, intertwined within umbrella organizations, sharing board members and including several levels of secretariats and subcommittees (Grandjean 2017). However, the use of these images is not limited to historical studies, since we use the same vocabulary in other disciplines to describe social situations or textual structures.

When we go beyond the metaphor to develop a formal analysis, we often produce multigraphs who, because they simultaneously express horizontal and vertical relationships, are generally unsuitable for the analysis (and visualisation, except in very simple cases). If the “exploratory” dimension of social network analysis - and especially the fact that its display is relatively subjective - is often a subject of criticism, we propose here to play with the visual representation to show precisely how an original modelling can improve the reading of complex graphs, and helping to restore a “morphological” (Moretti 1999, 68) information where disorder seems to prevail.

Based on two examples from archives mapping and theatre character networks, this paper proposes a reflection on the different ways to take account of verticality in graphs. In particular, we are developing a way to impose a macro-structure to a network, allowing a two-dimensions view that reflects the hierarchical affiliations of its components. We will see that this method, by constructing a stable visual representation in time and space, helps to compare different types of relationships and/or different time states of the graph.

Network levels
What is evident in an affiliation network is not always explicit in other situations, but a multimode graph is always the expression of a form of multilevel network (Lazega and Snijders 2016). For instance, there is an implicit hierarchy among the committees level and the level of individuals within them. It is thus easy to imagine such networks as superimposed layers, linked by the vertical affiliation links. And this analysis is obviously interesting because these vertical links are not the only ones to influence the model structure: committees in the upper stratum may themselves be organized into their own horizontal structure, as well as individuals, in the lower stratum, can weave relationship regardless of the structure of the committees to which they belong. This kind of macro/micro-structure comparison is not new in sociology: through sociometric approaches of urban social structures, for example, some address the organization of metropolitan communities together with that of interpersonal relationships (Laumann 1973). This raises the issue of representing these networks within a two-dimensional plane, e.g. by changes in the colour and shape of the markers (Wang et al. 2016), or by an artificial transfer of the upper-level in a region of the graph that enables them to be read (Zappa and Lomi 2015). When the low complexity of networks allows, some may also use three-dimensional representations, clearly indicating the superimposed planes (Brailly and Lazega 2012).


Figure 1. Multilevel system of networks where individuals having personal relationships (C) and exchanging documents (D) are affiliated to institutions (B) themselves hierarchically organized (A). E, F and G visualize in 2D the vertical relationships expressed in 3D left.

The model: projecting structure on relations
Fig. 1 visually explains a relatively simple multilevel graph, with four levels of actors (documents D, exchanged by individuals C belonging to subinstitutions B themselves grouped by top-institutions A) and five different types of relationships, including three vertical. This example depicts an institution, but it can be exported in a wide variety of domains : it may well be a medieval family network (C) in villages (B) under the authority of lordships (A), and sharing agricultural properties (D). Or theatre characters having friendship relations (C), organized in groups (B) and appearing together in scenes (D). In these examples, we see very concretely how the 2-mode graph express vertical relationships.

Secondly, we proceed to a flattening of the hierarchical structure of the two upper levels as sets containing the elements to be studied (here, individuals), as in Fig. 2 (I). Now it is no longer the horizontal relationships between individuals (C) that affect the display of the graph but these sets, fixed once and for all.

Creating a